,illu/ration3 ,a tornado ne> ,elmwood1 ,nebraska4 ,a pa9t+ made f :at is probably "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable photographs ev] tak5 ( a tornado4 ,! orig9al photograph 0 made 9 two p>ts1 z ! photograph] 0 too close to get ! :ole funnel cl\d into ! field ( 8 cam]a4 7,photograph by ,g4 ,b4 ,pickwell7 ,,popul> ,,sci5ce ,,libr>y ,,editor-,,9-,,*ief ,,g>rett ,p4 ,,s]viss ,,au?ors ,,william ,j4 ,,mill] ,,hippolyte ,,gru5] ,a4 ,,russell ,,bond ,d4 ,w4 ,,h]+ ,,loomis ,,havemey] ,,erne/ ,g4 ,,m>t9 ,,ar?ur ,,selwyn-,,br[n ,,rob]t ,,*5ault ,,givl] ,,erne/ ,,+]soll ,,wilfr$ ,,mason ,,b>ton ,,william ,b4 ,,scott ,,erne/ ,j4 ,,/reubel ,,norman ,,taylor ,,david ,,todd ,,*>les ,,fitzhugh ,,talman ,,rob9 ,,bea* ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,sixte5 ,,volumes ,,) ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sci5ce1 ,,gloss>ies ,,& ,a ,,g5]al ,,index ,,illu/rat$ ,illu/ration ,,volume ,,"o ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,new ,,york ,copyright #aibb ,,by ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,manufactur$ ,,9 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,meteorology ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,by ,,*>les ,,fitzhugh ,,talman ,,*airman1 ,,committee ,,( ,,public ,,in=mation1 ,,am]ican ,,meteorological ,,society ,illu/ration ,p4 ,f4 ,,colli] ,,son ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,preface ,meteorology is ! sci5ce ( ! atmosph]e & its ph5om5a1 includ+ wea!r4 ,n[adays1 :5 we speak ( a 8meteor10 we g5]ally mean a %oot+ />2 b =m]ly ?is t]m 0 appli$ 7& x /ill (t5 is 9 te*nical lit]ature7 to a great v>iety ( ph5om5a & appe>ances 9 ! atmosph]e1 includ+ cl\ds1 ra91 sn[1 ra9b[s1 & s =?4 ,t is h[ ! sci5ce ( ! atmosph]e came to h its pres5t "n4 ,meteorology is n a bran* ( a/ronomy4 ,^! two sci5ces are z diff]5t f ea* o!r z zology is f botany4 ,!y are bo? f\nd$ on physics1 & !y 8ov]lap0 ea* o!r to "s ext5t1 j z e sci5ce does c]ta9 o!rs2 b if y want in=mation ab\t ! atmosph]e1 wea!r & climate1 an a/ronomical obs]vatory is n ! place to seek x2 :ile if y wi% to make inquiries ab\t comets1 sun spots1 eclipses1 /&>d "t1 or ! date on :i* ,ea/] fell 9 ! ye> #afff1 d n apply to ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,9 ! city ( ,wa%+ton ! ,gov]nm5t ma9ta9s an a/ronomical & timekeep+ in/itution kn[n z ! ,naval ,obs]vatory1 & x ma9ta9s 9 ! same city ! c5tral (fice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,! two e/abli%m5ts are a mile ap>t 9 space & ne>ly a :ole libr>y ap>t 9 ! subjects ) :i* !y are conc]n$4 ,! fact t _! functions are p]si/5tly conf\nd$ by ! public indicates ! necessity ( writ+ ?is preface to a popul> book on meteorology4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e #i ,,ii4 ,,! ,,res\rces ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e #bd ,,iii4 ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,z ,a ,,highway #ci ,,iv4 ,,du/ ,,& ,,smoke ,,9 ,,! ,,atmosph]e #eb ,v4 ,,wea!r ,,& ,,wea!r ,,in/rum5ts #ff ,,vi4 ,,cl\dl& #ij ,,vii4 ,,precipitation #ajf ,,viii4 ,,w9ds ,,& ,,/orms #abc ,,ix4 ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity #ada ,x4 ,,atmosph]ic ,,optics #afd ,,xi4 ,,atmosph]ic ,,ac\/ics #ahf ,,xii4 ,,climate ,,& ,,climates #aig ,,xiii4 ,,organiz$ ,,meteorology #bab ,,xiv4 ,,wea!r ,,maps ,,& ,,=eca/s #bbd ,,xv4 ,,agricultural ,,meteorology #bde ,,xvi4 ,,comm]cial ,,meteorology #bfa ,,xvii4 ,,m>9e ,,meteorology #bga ,,xviii4 ,,a]onautical ,,meteorology #bhd ,,xix4 ,,milit>y ,,meteorology #cjf ,,xx4 ,,m$ical ,,& ,,physiological ,,meteorology #caf ,,xxi4 ,,wea!r-,,mak+ #ccb ,,xxii4 ,,atmosph]ic ,,byways #cdf ,,gloss>y #cfe ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,funnel-,,%ap$ ,,cl\d ,,( ,a ,,tornado ,frontispiece ,pa9t$ f an unusual ,photograph ,,fac+ ,,page ,,explor+ ,,! ,,upp] ,,air--,,beg9n+ ,,( ,a ,,pilot ,,balloon ,,flight #cb ,,explor+ ,,! ,,upp] ,,air--,,s5d+ ,,up ,a ,,s\nd+ ,,balloon #cb ,,meteorograph ,,= ,,use ,,) ,a ,,s\nd+ ,,balloon #cc ,,kite ,,meteorograph ,,to ,,be ,,s5t ,,al(t ,,atta*$ ,,to ,a ,,kite #cc ,,alto-,,cumulus--,,fleecy ,,masses ,,%[+ ,,blue ,,sky ,,betwe5 #if ,,cumulus1 ,,or ,,wool-,,pack ,,cl\d #if ,,mammato-,,cumulus1 ,,or 8,,ra9 ,,balls0 #ig ,,cumulo-,,nimbus--,,! ,,?und]cl\d #ig ,,cl\d ,,bann] ,,ov] ,,m\nt ,,ass9ibo9e1 ,,canadian ,,rockies #ajj ,,cirrus1 ,,) ,,l[] ,,cl\ds ,,9 ,,! ,,=egr\nd #ajj ,,l5ticul> ,,cl\d ,,ov] ,,m\nt ,,ra9i] #aja ,,ice ,,/orm ,,at ,,philadelphia--,,trees ,,cov]$ ,,) ,,glaze #aaf ,,nieve ,,p5it5te ,,9 ,,! ,,arg5t9e ,,&es #aag ,,cl\ds ,,or ,,fog ,,cascad+ ,,?r\gh ,,la/ ,,=k ,,ca,,on ,,into ,,santa ,,anita ,,ca,,on #acf ,,cl\dbur/ ,,9 ,,s\!rn ,,utah #acg ,,photographic ,,analysis ,,( ,,lightn+--,,s+le ,,& ,,d\ble ,,dis*>ges #afj ,,photograph ,,( ,,lightn+1 ,,%[+ 8,,black0 ,,fla%es #afa ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity ,,in/rum5ts #afa ,,glass ,,wea!r ,,map ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau #bbd ,,! ,,sun ,,draw+ ,,wat] #bbe ,,or*>d ,,heat]s ,,9 ,,op]ation ,,z ,,protection ,,aga9/ ,,expect$ ,,fro/ #bef ,,sn[ ,,surveyor ,,at ,,"w1 ,,us+ ,a ,,cyl9drical ,,sn[ ,,sampl] #beg ,,sn[ ,,roll]s1 ,,or ,,w9d-,,bl[n ,,sn[balls #beg ,,b$ ,,( ,,! ,,potomac ,,riv] ,,photograph$ ,,f ,,! ,,air #bhh ,,drill+ ,,) ,,compress$ ,,air ,,9 ,a ,,copp] ,,m9e #bhi ,,laun*+ ,a ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,kite ,,to ,,explore ,,! ,,air ,,ov] ,,! ,,ocean #bhi ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,kiosk1 ,,union ,,squ>e1 ,,san ,,francisco #cbj ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,/ation ,,at ,,peoria1 ,,ill9ois #cbj ,,c5tral ,,(fice ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,at ,,wa%+ton #cba ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,two q diff]5t conceptions ( ! sub/ance call$ 8air0 are curr5t 9 ! _w4 ,"o has prevail$ f "t immemorial4 ,! o!r is :olly mod]n4 ,"o is ! popul> view1 ! o!r ! sci5tific4 ,anci5t philosoph]s reg>d$ air z "o ( ! f\r 8elem5ts0 ( :i* all ?+s 7 suppos$ to be made4 ,av]age humanity1 ?\gh x did n conc]n itself ) philosophy1 mu/ h begun1 almo/ z soon z x realiz$ ! exi/5ce ( air at all1 to ?9k ( x z some?+ t1 h[ev] x *ang$ its /ate f hot to cold1 dry to moi/1 pure to impure1 0 fundam5tally uni=m--a s+le entity4 ,c]ta9ly ?is idea is 9 full vigor today4 ,! air t we brea!1 supply to our fires1 /ir ) fans1 pump into bicycle tires1 fly 9--! air t ass]ts its indep5d5ce ( our w 9 ! w9d & ! wea!r--gives u ! impression ( individuality4 ,we in/9ctively rank x ) wat] among ! simple1 def9ite ?+s 9 ! rep]tory ( nature4 ,ev5 ! man ( sci5ce (t5 f9ds x conv5i5t to discuss & deal ) air z if x 7 a s+le sub/ance1 b he is well aw>e t x is no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,he kn[s t x is1 9 fact1 a jumble ( gases hav+ v diff]5t prop]ties4 ,"s are heavy1 o!rs light4 ,"s are *emically v active1 o!rs extremely inactive4 ,"s are abundant1 o!rs v r>e4 ,^! gases con/itute ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,o!r planets h atmosph]es t are q diff]5t 9 composition f ours4 ,! sun itself has a v complex atmosph]e4 ,! e>?'s atmosph]e is1 !n1 a collection ( gases1 :i* are mix$ b n *emically comb9$4 ,"s ( !m are !mselves *emical comp\nds4 ,ea* ( ^! gases behaves v mu* ! same z if ! o!rs 7 n pres5t1 & ea* ( !m has its sep>ate bus9ess to p]=m 9 ! economy ( nature4 ,= example1 a tree draws ^u ! /ore ( c>bon dioxide gas 9 ! atmosph]e to build up its tissues4 ,pres5tly ! tree is cut d[n & its wood is burn$ = fuel4 ,9 ?is process a diff]5t atmosph]ic gas is br\ght into play4 ,we (t5 say t ! 8air0 supports combu/ion--t we supply 8air0 ) a bell[s to make a fire burn m brightly--b x is n ! air z a :ole t enables ?+s to burn4 ,f\r-fif?s ( ! atmosph]ic sub/ance takes no "p 9 ! process4 ,we burn ) oxyg5 alone4 ,s x is ) brea?+4 ,oxyg5 & n air con/itutes ! brea? ( life4 ,ne> ! surface ( ! e>? ! proportions ( ! m abundant gases mix$ toge!r 9 ! air are rem>kably con/ant4 ,ignor+ a v>iable admixture ( wat] vapor1 oxyg5 is always ab\t #ba p] c5t1 by volume1 & nitrog5 ab\t #gh p] c5t4 ,! rema9+ #a p] c5t is ma9ly argon4 ,at great altitudes1 h[ev]1 ^! p]c5tages no long] obta94 ,! atmosph]ic gases diff] greatly among !mselves 9 weight1 & 9 ! high atmosph]e1 :]e !y are n mix$ by ! w9ds1 z !y are bel[1 ! heavi] t5d to settle to ! bottom & ! light] to float on top1 z oil floats on wat]4 ,x is calculat$ t at a height ( ?irty miles above sea level ! p]c5tage ( nitrog5 is ab\t #hf & ( oxyg5 only #aj1 :ile at ! same altitude ! gas hydrog51 :i* at l[ levels con/itutes less ?an "o-hundr$? ( #a p] c5t ( ! atmosph]e am\nts to m ?an #b p] c5t4 ,go+ high]1 ! p]c5tage ( hydrog5 is suppos$ to increase rapidly1 until1 at an altitude ( =ty-eight miles1 ! atmosph]e is m ?an half hydrog51 & at eighty miles above ! e>? ?is gas =ms #ii p] c5t ( ! :ole4 ,^! figures are n necess>ily f9al2 = "s au?orities believe t ! atmosph]e conta9s an unkn[n gas light] ?an hydrog51 :ile o!rs ?9k t ! hydrog5 f\nd 9 ! l[] air ent]s into *emical comb9ations be=e x c rea* ! high] levels2 b x is beyond d\bt t ! composition ( ! upp] atmosph]e is q diff]5t f t ( ! l[]4 ,( c\rse almo/ any gas may be f\nd locally & occasionally 9 ! atmosph]e1 b !re are sev]al t are always f\nd :]ev] a ref9$ analysis ( ! air is made1 & o!rs t are g5]ally pres5t4 ,! foll[+ is a fairly complete li/3 ,nitrog51 oxyg51 wat] vapor1 argon1 c>bon dioxide1 hydrog51 helium1 neon1 krypton1 x5on1 niton 7radium emanation71 ozone1 hydrog5 dioxide1 ammonia & o!r comp\nds ( nitrog54 ,a numb] ( ^! sub/ances h only become kn[n to sci5ce )9 ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,argon1 ?\gh x con/itutes ne>ly #a p] c5t ( ! atmosph]e1 escap$ detection until ! ye> #ahid4 ,! inve/igation ( argon l$ to ! discov]y ( "s ( ! o!rs4 ,9 #ahie x 0 f\nd t ! air1 z well z c]ta9 m9]als1 conta9s helium4 ,?is sub/ance 0 n new to sci5ce1 b x _h nev] be=e be5 f\nd on e>?4 ,x 0 discov]$ 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun1 by means ( ! spectroscope1 z e>ly z #ahfh4 ,t]re/rial helium1 neon1 krypton1 & x5on 7 all discov]$ by ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 :o also %>$ ) ,"l ,rayleigh ! di/9ction ( discov]+ argon4 ,ramsay has publi%$ ! foll[+ figures = ! proportions 9 :i* "s ( ! r>e gases exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e3 ,helium #a "p 9 #bde1cbj by volume ,neon #a 8 #hj1hjj 8 8 ,krypton #a 8 #b1jjj1jjj 8 8 ,x5on #a 8 #ag1jjj1jjj 8 8 ,niton1 or radium emanation1 is "o ( ! products ( ! dis9tegration ( radium4 ,niton itself dis9tegrates v rapidly1 "o-half ( any giv5 quantity disappe>+ 9 ab\t f\r days1 & "o ( its products is helium4 ,! am\nt ( niton 9 ! atmosph]e is nev] m ?an an inf9itesimal trace4 ,?us we are told t ! total quantity ( ?is sub/ance pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! :ole e>? up to an altitude ( "o kilomet] 7#j4f mile7 weighs less ?an n9e ounces1 & t ea* cubic c5timet] ( air conta9s among its ?irty million million million molecules only betwe5 "o & two molecules ( niton1 on an av]age4 ,turn+1 n[1 to ! m abundant con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 we f9d t oxyg5 & nitrog5 diff] /rik+ly f ea* o!r 9 ! fact t1 :ile ! =m] has a /rong *emical aff9ity = ne>ly all o!r elem5ts1 ! latt] is *emically in]t1 hav+ little t5d5cy to unite directly ) o!r elem5ts1 ?\gh by indirect processes1 & *iefly ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( plants & animals1 a l>ge numb] ( nitrog5 comp\nds are produc$4 ,oxides ( nitrog5 are =m$ directly f ! atmosph]ic gases by lightn+ dis*>ges1 & ^! unite ) ! moi/ure ( ! air to =m nitric & nitr\s acids4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( ammonia 7a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & hydrog57 may also be =m$ by lightn+ f nitrog5 & atmosph]ic wat]1 b mo/ ( ! ammonia 9 ! air is d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( plant & animal matt]s4 ,! comp\nds ( nitrog5 t occur 9 ! air are wa%$ d[n by ra9 9 consid]able quantities4 ,analyses ( ra9 wat] made 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w %[ f "o to n9e p\nds ( su* sub/ances p] acre p] annum4 ,c>bon dioxide 7m famili>ly kn[n z c>bonic acid gas7 occurs 9 ! atmosph]e 9 ! almo/ con/ant proportion ( ?ree p>ts 9 #aj1jjj by volume4 ,x is a little m abundant 9 ! air ( t[ns ?an 9 ! op5 c\ntry or ov] ! ocean1 & x und]goes slight p]iodic v>iations1 b ! fact t x is n mu* m v>iable is r surpris+1 consid]+ t x is cont9ually be+ add$ to & ab/ract$ f ! air by num]\s ag5cies t h no dep5d5ce ^u "o ano!r4 ,x is suppli$ to ! air by volcanoes1 m9]al spr+s1 ! combu/ion ( fuel1 ! respiration ( animals & plants1 & ! decay ( organic matt]4 ,! am\nt suppli$ annually by ! burn+ ( coal alone is e/imat$ to be equival5t to m ?an "o-?\s&? ( ! total volume ( ! gas pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e at any "o "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all gre5 plants1 9 ! pres5ce ( sunlight1 )draw c>bon dioxide f ! air1 ab/ract ! c>bon f x = ! use ( ! plant1 & return ! oxyg5 to ! atmosph]e4 ,?us x is e/imat$ t an acre ( bee* =e/ takes a ton ( c>bon out ( ! air annually4 ,a va/ am\nt ( atmosph]ic c>bon dioxide ent]s into *emical comb9ation ) c]ta9 rocks at ! e>?'s surface4 ,la/ly1 a l>ge quota ( ?is atmosph]ic gas is absorb$ by sea wat]1 & c]ta9 au?orities h se5 9 ?is process a regulator ( ! total am\nt 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! hypo!sis be+ t ! ocean gives back "s ( ! c>bon dioxide :5ev] ?is sub/ance becomes defici5t 9 ! air4 ,wat] vapor--i4 e41 wat] 9 an invisible gase\s =m--is always pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 b its am\nt is subject to wide fluctuations4 ,an important fact 9 ?is connection is t1 at any giv5 temp]ature1 ! air c hold only a def9ite am\nt ( ?is vapor4 ,?is maximum am\nt increases rapidly ) temp]ature4 ,:5 ! air is fully *>g$ ) wat] vapor x is said to be 8saturat$40 ,prop]ly speak+1 ! temp]ature limits ! am\nt ( ! vapor t c occur 9 a giv5 space1 reg>dless ( ! pres5ce ( ! o!r con/itu5ts ( air1 & 9 sci5tific language x is ! vapor itself t is said to be saturat$1 & n ! air2 b 9 a popul> book ab\t ! atmosph]e1 :]e mu* has to be said ab\t atmosph]ic wat] vapor1 adh]5ce to sci5tific usage 9 ?is matt] inv>iably leads to awkw>d complications4 ,speak+1 !n1 9 famili> t]ms--:5 ! air is saturat$ ) wat] vapor1 a fall 9 temp]ature causes "s ( ! vapor to cond5se 9 visible =m1 z cl\d1 fog1 ra91 dew1 sn[1 hail1 etc4 ,z ! sole s\rce ( ^! v>i\s =ms ( moi/ure1 & on acc\nt ( ! important "p x plays 9 _m atmosph]ic processes1 wat] vapor is1 f a meteorological po9t ( view1 ! mo/ int]e/+ con/itu5t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,"o m atmosph]ic gas requires notice "h1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! great popul> int]e/ atta*+ to x1 & because ( rec5t sci5tific discov]ies conc]n+ x--viz41 ozone4 ,?is sub/ance may be describ$1 9 nonte*nical language1 z a conc5trat$ =m ( oxyg54 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful oxidiz+ ag5cies kn[n1 & has f\nd useful applications 9 m$ic9e & v>i\s indu/ries4 ,its popul> r5[n1 h[ev]1 is due to ! fact t = _m ye>s x 0 reg>d$ z a great natural purifi] ( ! atmosph]e4 8,life-giv+ ozone0 0 reput$ to be abundant 9 ! air ( =e/s1 m\nta9s1 & ! sea%ore4 ,sy/ematic obs]vations 7 made ( ! preval5ce ( ozone at diff]5t places ?r\gh\t ! _w1 g5]ally by not+ ! *ange ( color ( te/-pap]s expos$ to ! air4 ,^! 8ozonometric0 obs]vations are n[ a clos$ *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( meteorology1 = x has be5 f\nd t ! reactions ( s-call$ ozone pap]s are due *iefly or entirely to atmosph]ic sub/ances o!r ?an ozone4 ,moreov]1 direct exam9ation ( ! air by m accurate me?ods--includ+ samples collect$ ) ! aid ( kites & balloons up to a height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above ! e>?--%[s t ! am\nt ( ozone 9 ! :ole ( ! l[] atmosph]e is exce$+ly small--mu* too small to be ( hygi5ic significance4 ,:atev] ozone is produc$ f oxyg5 at su* levels by lightn+ dis*>ges or o!r possible ag5cies probably ent]s promptly into *emical union ) oxidizable sub/ances & !re=e has only a brief exi/5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! spectroscope has br\ght u evid5ce t f> al(t 9 ! atmosph]e1 _m miles above ! e>?1 ozone is q abundant4 ,"h x is suppos$ to be g5]at$ by two ag5cies--! electrical dis*>ges ( ! aurora & ultra-violet radiations f ! sun4 ,! ultra-violet rays t help to produce x are prev5t$ f rea*+ ! e>?1 & a/ronom]s are ?us depriv$ ( mu* int]e/+ in=mation !y might o!rwise obta9 conc]n+ ! spectra ( ! sun & />s4 ,h[ev]1 z ! pres5t ,"l ,rayleigh has po9t$ out1 we c console ourselves = ?is fact by reflect+ t if ! ozone did n %ut (f mu* ( ! ultra-violet light f ! sun1 ?is light w\ld probably ru9 our eyesight2 or1 r1 we %\ld be put to ! inconv5i5ce ( con/antly we>+ "s sort ( protective spectacles 9 ! daytime4 ,! high-level ozone is fur!r int]e/+ because ( ex]cis+ a c]ta9 control ov] ! temp]ature ( ! l[] air4 ,x is m transp>5t = incom+ sol> radiation ?an = outgo+ e>? radiation4 ,h5ce1 :5 x is unusually abundant1 x %\ld raise ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?4 ,?is presumably happ5s :5 ! condition ( ! sun is su* t an unusual am\nt ( ultra-violet radiation rea*es ! upp] atmosph]e1 a fact t mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 any attempt to e/abli% a relation betwe5 climatic fluctuations & ! sun-spot p]iod4 ,! l[e/ "p ( our atmosph]e is ! d5se/ because x is compress$ by ! weight ( ! air above x4 ,?us x happ5s t1 al?\gh ! atmosph]e is at lea/ sev]al hundr$ miles 9 height1 "o-half ( its mass--i4 e41 "o-half ( ! quantity ( matt] 9 x1 z express$ 9 t]ms ( weight--lies bel[ an altitude ( ab\t #c miles above sea level1 :ile ab\t sev5-eigh?s lies bel[ ! t5-mile level4 ,above ab\t five miles ! atmosph]e is too r>e to support life4 ,! highe/ cl\ds seldom occur high] ?an t5 miles4 ,/orms h>dly ev] rea* t height4 ,9 %ort1 ! ph5om5a ( life & ! ph5om5a ( wea!r are conf9$ to a lay] ( air s %all[1 9 proportion to ! dim5sions ( our globe1 t on ! surface ( an orange x w\ld be repres5t$ by a %eet ( ?9 pap]4 ,! actual height ( ! atmosph]e is n ev5 approximately kn[n4 ,!re are !oretical reasons = believ+ t ev5 at a height ( ?\s&s ( miles above ! e>? !re are molecules ( atmosph]ic gases /ill "u ! control ( ! e>?'s gravity1 :ile at su* levels yet o!r atmosph]ic molecules are con/antly escap+ into out] space4 ,at an altitude ( fifty miles ! atmosph]e is less ?an #a_/ge1jjj z d5se z at sea level--i4 e41 m ?an sev5ty-five times z att5uat$ z ! be/ 8vacuum0 obta9able ) an ord9>y me*anical air pump4 ,at #cjj miles x is comput$ to be ab\t "o two-million? z d5se z at sea level4 ,! l(tie/ atmosph]ic ph5om5on t we c obs]ve directly is ! aurora1 :i* has be5 photograph$ up to heights ( m ?an #cjj miles4 ,! altitude ( ! aurora is det]m9$ by simultane\s obs]vations made at two or m po9ts1 & ! same is true ( %oot+ />s & _! trails1 :i* seem to be especially num]\s betwe5 ! levels ( sixty & n9ety miles4 ,! s-call$ 8noctiluc5t cl\ds10 :i* %one by reflect$ sunlight ?r\gh\t ! night = "s ye>s aft] ! great eruption ( ,krakatoa & 7 suppos$ to consi/ ( f9e du/ f t volcano1 7 probably ab\t fifty miles above ! e>?4 ,f ! duration ( twilight we inf] t above ab\t =ty-five miles ! air is s t5u\s t x _c reflect sunlight to ! e>?4 ,cl\ds furni% in=mation conc]n+ ! movem5ts ( ! air at v>i\s levels up to t5 miles or m4 ,obs]vations on m\nta9s contribute fur!r to our k ( ! atmosph]e above ! ord9>y levels ( habitation4 ,( all me?ods ( explor+ ! atmosph]e 9 a v]tical direction1 ! mo/ fruitful is ! use ( kites & balloons4 ,9 rec5t ye>s inve/igations ( ?is "* h become s ext5sive & s highly specializ$ t !y are reg>d$ z =m+ a sep>ate dep>tm5t ( meteorology1 kn[n z ,a]ology4 ,x is by virtue ( developm5ts 9 ?is field t meteorology has become 8a sci5ce ( ?ree dim5sions40 ,=m]ly meteorologi/s c\ld d b little m ?an /udy ! bottom ( ! wea!r1 s to speak2 b n[ !y obs]ve x & *>t x at all levels4 ,! wea!r =eca/] has daily reports ( conditions al(t to aid 8 pr$ictions bo? = dwell]s on t]ra firma & = ! a]onaut2 :ile ! accumulat$ data ( upp]-air obs]vations are ?r[+ new light on _m difficult atmosph]ic problems4 ,sci5tific balloon asc5ts are no novelty4 ,"s 7 made 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & _m fam\s ones 9 ! n9ete5?1 includ+ ^? ( ,biot1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,glai%]1 ,tiss&i]1 & o!r d>+ savants4 ,! 8record0 height = su* p]sonal asc5ts 0 atta9$ 9 #aija1 :5 ,b]son & ,sr+ rose to #ce1djj feet above ,b]l94 ,kites 7 s5t up = meteorological purposes ev5 be=e ,b5jam9 ,frankl9's immortal exp]im5t 9 #ageb4 ,mod]n a]ological me?ods h1 h[ev]1 little 9 common ) ^! pione] und]tak+s4 ,exi/+ types ( box kites1 pilot balloons1 s\nd+ balloons1 & self-regi/]+ meteorological app>atus = upp]-air rese>* 7 develop$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 b _! use did n beg9 to bulk l>ge 9 meteorology until ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,! epo*-mak+ ev5t 9 ^! und]tak+s 0 ! discov]y ( ! iso!rmal lay]4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t ! air is f\nd to be cold] ! high] "o asc5ds 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,?us1 ev5 9 equatorial regions1 ! tops ( high m\nta9s are mantl$ 9 p]petual sn[4 ,! rate ( ?is temp]ature decrease av]ages ab\t #a degree ,fahr5heit p] #cjj feet4 ,previ\s to ! ye> #aijb meteorologi/s suppos$ t ! atmosph]e cont9u$ to gr[ /eadily cold] 9 an upw>d direction indef9itely2 b 9 t ye> a ,fr5*man1 ,m4 ,teiss]5c de ,bort1 :o _h s5t al(t hundr$s ( small unmann$ balloons c>ry+ self-record+ !rmomet]s1 ann\nc$ t above a height ( ab\t six & "o-half miles ! temp]ature ceas$ to fall4 ,9 fact1 he f\nd t at ab\t t level !re 0 (t5 a slight increase ( temp]ature ) increas+ altitude = a c]ta9 di/ance upw>d1 & !n a ne>ly uni=m temp]ature z high z ! balloons asc5d$4 ,?is ann\ncem5t 0 at fir/ receiv$ ) consid]able skepticism1 b v soon simil> obs]vations 7 report$ f o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,a new 8%ell0 ( ! atmosph]e _h be5 reveal$--:i*1 z subsequ5t inve/igations prov$1 diff]s f ! l[] air 9 o!r respects besides temp]ature--& x 0 at fir/ nam$ by its discov]] ! iso!rmal lay]4 ,he aft]w>d sub/itut$ ! "n /ratosph]e1 n[ g5]ally employ$4 ,9 di/9ction f ! /ratosph]e1 ! "p ( ! atmosph]e ly+ bel[ x is call$ ! troposph]e4 ,! /ratosph]e has be5 explor$ 9 widely scatt]$ p>ts ( ! e>?1 & in=mation conc]n+ x is daily accumulat+4 ,al?\gh x ext5ds ov] ! :ole _w1 ! altitude at :i* x beg9s is by no means uni=m4 ,! altitude is great] 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]2 x v>ies ) ! b>ometric pressure at ! e>?'s surface2 & x is decid$ly great] ov] ! equator ?an ov] ! poles4 ,! la/ fact leads to an int]e/+ p>adox4 ,s9ce ov] ! equatorial regions ! temp]ature keeps on fall+ ) asc5t to a great] height ?an 9 o!r latitudes1 x is "h t ! l[e/ temp]atures 9 ! atmosph]e are f\nd4 ,a s\nd+ balloon s5t up f ,batavia1 ,java1 9 ,novemb]1 #aiac1 record$ #aac bel[ z]o ,fahr41 ! l[e/ air temp]ature ev] obs]v$4 ,9 middle latitudes ! temp]ature ( ! /ratosph]e av]ages some?+ l #fh bel[ z]o ,fahr4 ,! temp]ature ( ?is int]e/+ upp] atmosph]e v>ies a good deal1 bo? v]tically & horizontally1 b nev] %[s ! /eady v]tical v>iation t *>act]izes ! l[] air4 ,! /ratosph]e conta9s no cl\ds 7except occasional du/ cl\ds71 & has a circulation q di/9ct f t ( ! troposph]e1 ! exact nature ( :i*1 h[ev]1 has n yet be5 det]m9$4 ,! s\nd+ balloon1 already m5tion$1 is "o ( ! f\r pr9cipal types ( a]ial vehicle us$ 9 ! /udy ( ! atmosph]e1 ! o!rs be+ ! pilot balloon1 ! captive balloon1 & ! kite4 ,! s\nd+ balloon1 or ballon-sonde1 is a small free balloon t c>ries no human a]onaut1 b in/ead a set ( sup]human meteorological in/rum5ts1 :i* regi/] ! temp]ature1 ! b>ometric pressure1 & sometimes ! humidity cont9u\sly & automatically ?r\gh ! :ole c\rse ( _! j\rney4 ,! record is trac$ on a revolv+ drum or disk1 usually coat$ ) lampblack4 ,9 its commone/ =m ! balloon is made ( india-rubb]1 & :5 laun*$ is inflat$ to less ?an its full capacity ) hydrog54 ,z x rises to regions ( dim9i%$ air pressure x gradually exp&s1 & x f9ally bur/s at an elevation det]m9$ approximately 9 advance4 ,a sort ( p>a*ute1 or sometimes an auxili>y balloon1 insures a g5tle fall to ! gr\nd4 ,atta*$ to ! app>atus !re is g5]ally a ticket (f]+ ! f9d] a rew>d = its return1 & giv+ in/ructions z to pack+ & %ipp+4 ,soon] or lat] x g5]ally comes back4 ,9 fact1 ! l>ge p]c5tage ( records recov]$1 ev5 9 sp>sely settl$ c\ntries1 is n ! lea/ rem>kable feature ( ?is novel me?od ( rese>*4 ,?us1 ( sev5ty-two balloons s5t up by a ,franco-,sw$i% exp$ition 9 ,lapl&1 =ty-"o 7 ev5tually recov]$ ) _! in/rum5ts4 ,"o ( ^! fell into a lake & 0 f\nd aft] ?ree ye>s4 ,no in/rum5ts are c>ri$ by ! pilot balloon1 :i* m]ely s]ves to %[1 by its obs]v$ drift1 ! spe$ & direction ( ! air curr5ts at diff]5t levels4 ,! pilot balloon is sight$1 :ile 9 flight1 ?r\gh a special =m ( !odolite1 or1 pref]ably1 two !odolites "s di/ance ap>t4 ,sev]al +5i\s me?ods h be5 devis$ = comput+ & plott+ its actual c\rse ?r\gh ! air4 ,su* balloons1 ap>t f _! use 9 sci5tific rese>*1 h become "o ( ! pr9cipal adjuncts ( a]onautical und]tak+s all ov] ! _w1 & are also us$ by artill]i/s to enable !m to make prop] all[ance = ! deflective effect ( ! w9d on ! flight ( projectiles4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( pilot balloons 7 s5t al(t = milit>y purposes dur+ ! _w w>4 ,meteorological in/rum5ts are s5t up atta*$ to kites or captive balloons :5ev]--z 9 connection ) wea!r =eca/+--! obs]vations mu/ be obta9$ m promptly ?an w\ld be possible ) ! aid ( s\nd+ balloons1 b su* devices c atta9 only mod]ate altitudes4 ,kites h be5 rais$ to ab\t f\r & "o-half miles above sea level1 z comp>$ ) ne>ly tw5ty-two miles rea*$ by a s\nd+ balloon & tw5ty-f\r miles by a pilot balloon4 ,! av]age height ( s\nd+-balloon asc5ts is ab\t t5 miles4 ,z already /at$1 ballooni/s h ris5 to #f4g miles4 ,?is is a little high] ?an ! be/ a]oplane record4 ,! use ( ! a]oplane = mak+ meteorological obs]vations is /ill q limit$1 b w inevitably increase4 ,"o o!r device gives promise ( yield+ valuable a]ological in=mation1 on acc\nt ( its ability to rise to extraord9>y altitudes4 ,?is is a special =m ( rocket1 rec5tly inv5t$ by ,pr(4 ,r4 ,h4 ,godd>d1 :i* is propell$ by sev]al successive dis*>ges ( an explosive 9 ! c\rse ( its upw>d flight1 & ) :i* ! inv5tor ?9ks x w be possible to explore ! :ole v]tical ext5t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,meteorological app>atus = use ) ! ,godd>d rocket has be5 plann$ by ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,f]gusson ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,! atmosph]e presses d[n ^u ! e>? ) a weight t1 at sea level1 am\nts to ab\t #ad4g p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 on an av]age4 ,?is pressure is1 at any po9t1 ex]t$ equally 9 all directions2 x acts1 = example1 on ! :ole surface ( ! human body1 & ?is means t a man ( av]age size lives "u a burd5 ( "s sev5te5 tons ( air4 ,he is n incommod$ because ! pressure f )\t is balanc$ by t ( ! air t p]meates 8 body4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e decreases upw>d at ne>ly ! same rate z its d5sity4 ,?us on m\nta9s & plateaus x is consid]ably less ?an 9 l[l&s4 ,at no place is ! pressure inv>iable1 nor is !re a con/ant relation betwe5 pressure & altitude1 b1 kn[+ approximately ! av]age atmosph]ic pressure ov] ! e>?'s surface1 & kn[+ also ! area ( ! latt]1 we c compute 9 r\nd numb]s ! total weight ( ! atmosph]e--ab\t #e1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,?is is ab\t #a_/a1bjj1jjj ( ! entire weight ( ! e>?4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,res\rces ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,9 ! economic /ress ( our times mu* is he>d ab\t 8natural res\rces40 ,?is phrase sugge/s to mo/ p's m9ds ! /ore ( m9]als1 fuels1 & oil lock$ up 9 ! gr\nd2 ! wat]s available = dr9k+1 wa%+1 irrigation1 p[] production1 & navigation2 ! =e/s & o!r natural gr[?s ( useful vegetation2 & ! soil 9 :i* we raise our crops4 ,a mom5t's reflection1 h[ev]1 w %[ t ?is is a "o-sid$ enum]ation4 ,! res\rces ( ! atmosph]e are z ess5tial to humanity z ^? ( ! l& & ! wat]s1 if n m s4 ,! coal t is dug out ( ! e>? consi/s ma9ly ( c>bon1 :i*1 9 bygone ages1 0 extract$ by plants f ! air4 ,moreov]1 x w\ld be ( no use to u if we did n h ! oxyg5 ( ! air 9 :i* to burn x4 ,nei!r c\ld we smelt metallic ores )\t oxyg54 ,all our =e/s & all our crops draw f> m ( _! solid sub/ance f ! air ?an f ! soil4 ,fuel & wat] are valuable s\rces ( p[]1 b s is ! mov+ air t drives sail+ %ips & w9dmills1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure t helps to op]ate suction pumps4 ,x is ! moi/ure ( ! air t fe$s our /reams &1 directly or indirectly1 wat]s all plants t gr[ ^u ! l&4 ,la/ly1 x is ! atmosph]ic oxyg5 t we brea! t keeps u f v spe$ily becom+ incapable ( us+ any ( ! o!r res\rces ( ,nature4 ,air & wat] toge!r conta91 9 _! oxyg51 nitrog51 hydrog51 & c>bon1 all ! major con/itu5ts ( our foods 9 unlimit$ abundance4 ,x is tantaliz+ to ?9k ( ! sl[ & r\ndab\t way 9 :i* ^! ?+s are wr\ght into edible %ape--& ! prices we h to pay = !m4 ,no less tantaliz+1 :5 coal is sc>ce & co/ly1 is ! ?\ght t e vagrant breeze is lad5 ) ! c>bon dioxide f :i* ! *emi/ry ( liv+ plants s readily extracts ! *ief elem5t ( fuels4 ,! total c>bon dioxide ( ! atmosph]e am\nts to some?+ l #b1bjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons1 equival5t to #fjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons ( c>bon4 ,we h spok5 ( ! utility ( ! air z a s\rce ( p[]4 ,x is1 p]haps1 ev5 m useful z provid+ an easy means ( /or+ & transmitt+ p[]4 ,! eng9e] /ores up en]gy 9 a mass ( air by compress+ x4 ,:5 ! air subsequ5tly exp&s x gives up its en]gy1 &1 9 s do+1 may be made to p]=m a v>iety ( useful tasks4 ,by a some:at analog\s process en]gy is appli$ to creat+ a vacuum1 9 ord] t ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e may be made available = do+ a p>ticul> piece ( "w4 ,! suction pump1 ! siphon1 & ! vacuum clean] furni% examples ( ?is process2 & s d su* famili> op]ations z suck+ bev]ages ?r\gh a /raw & fill+ a m$ic9e dropp]4 ,f crude types ( bell[s1 ) :i*1 f remote antiquity1 air 0 compress$ = ! purpose ( bl[+ fires1 h be5 develop$ a ho/ ( wond]-work+ appliances ( ! pres5t day1 su* z ! air brake1 ! pneumatic tube1 ! compress$-air locomotive1 div+ app>atus1 ! caisson1 c]ta9 k9ds ( refrig]at+ ma*9]y1 & a long li/ ( pneumatic tools4 ,to cap ! climax ( +5uity 9 ?is field1 me?ods involv+ bo? ! compression & ! expansion ( air h be5 discov]$ :]eby ?is invisible1 elusive sub/ance may be *ang$ to a visible liquid & a visible solid2 a process hav+ extremely valuable applications1 z we %all pres5tly see4 ,compress$ air1 z a means ( transmitt+ p[]1 rivals su* me*anical devices z ge>+1 belt+1 & rope drives1 :5 x is appli$ ne> ! compressor2 or x may be conduct$ = _m miles 9 pipes1 ?us compet+ ) ! electric curr5t2 or1 f9ally1 x may be transport$ 9 tanks to ! place :]e x is to be us$1 a process analog\s to ! use ( ! electric /orage batt]y4 ,compress$ air has1 moreov]1 c]ta9 advantages ov] o!r me?ods ( transmitt+ p[] = a numb] ( special purposes4 ,?us = use 9 coal m9es x is saf] ?an electricity because x is free f ! dang] ( sp>ks4 ,!re are a great _m cases 9 :i* ! air itself is us$ 9 ! process to :i* ! p[] is appli$1 z 9 diff]5t k9ds ( air bla/1 f ! simple bell[s to ! bl[]s ( bla/ furnaces2 also 9 a]at+ app>atus1 oil & fuel burn]s1 spray+1 cleans+1 etc4 ,a famili> =m ( air compressor is ! h& pump us$ = inflat+ bicycle tires4 ,?is simple device illu/rates two important facts2 fir/1 t a consid]able am\nt ( en]gy mu/ be us$ to ov]come ! expansive =ce ( ! air1 &1 second1 t "p ( ! en]gy appli$ to ! pump produces heat4 ,t ! heat ?us produc$ & dissipat$ 9 ! surr\nd+ air repres5ts a loss ( en]gy is app>5t2 b en]gy is wa/$ 9 ano!r way t is1 p]haps1 n s evid5t4 ,:5 a gas is heat$ its expansive =ce is increas$4 ,h5ce1 on acc\nt ( ! heat+ ( ! air 9 ! tire1 ! pump has to d m "w to accompli% a giv5 am\nt ( compression ?an x w\ld ne$ to d if ! air rema9$ cool4 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is loss1 ! air compressors us$ = indu/rial purposes are provid$ ) "s sort ( device = keep+ ! air cool dur+ compression4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a spray ( wat] inside ! compressor cyl9d]1 or1 m commonly1 by inclos+ ! cyl9d] 9 a wat] jacket4 ,9 produc+ high pressures1 ! air is compress$ by degrees 9 two or m cyl9d]s1 & cool$ betwe5 ! successive /ages4 ,la/ly1 be=e compress$ air is appli$ to driv+ tools or ma*9]y1 x is (t5 reheat$ to increase its pressure4 ,= mo/ indu/rial purposes ! pressure ( compress$ air does n exce$ #ge p\nds to ! squ>e in* 7#e 8atmosph]es074 ,= *>g+ ! tanks ( compress$-air locomotives1 = liquefy+ gases1 & a few o!r purposes1 mu* high] pressures are us$4 ,9 laboratory exp]im5ts air has be5 compress$ to ! enorm\s pressure ( #fj1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 or #d1jjj atmosph]es4 ,at a pressure ( #ad1jjj p\nds to ! squ>e in* compress$ air has be5 successfully us$ = bla/+ 9 m9es 9 place ( ord9>y explosives4 ,! use ( pneumatic tools began 9 ! sixties ( ! la/ c5tury1 :5 pneumatic drills 7 employ$ ) conspicu\s success 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ,mont ,c5is & ,hoosac tunnels4 ,su* tools are n[ indisp5sable adjuncts n only ( tunnel+ & m9+1 b also ( ne>ly e dep>tm5t ( metal-work+ & wood-work+1 & h contribut$ incalculably to ! welf>e ( mank9d4 ,imag9e a workman ) an ord9>y hamm] driv+ su* a tool z a *isel1 pun*1 or calk+ iron1 & e/imate ! am\nt ( "w accompli%$ 9 ! c\rse ( a day sp5t 9 ?is we>isome labor4 ,!n consid] h[ su* op]ations are p]=m$ ) ! help ( t v]satile sub/ance1 air4 ,! pneumatic hamm] consi/s ( a pi/on work+ 9 a cyl9d]1 to :i* compress$ air is convey$ f a compressor by means ( a flexible hose4 ,! hamm] is s design$ t ! air causes ! pi/on to "w back & =? ) great rapidity4 ,a *isel1 ramm]1 or o!r p]cussion tool is loosely fitt$ 9 ! nose ( ! hamm]1 s t ! pi/on w /rike x a bl[ at ea* =w>d motion4 ,! workman has no?+ to d b hold ! tools 9 place4 ,) a common hamm] or mallet a workman w /rike f tw5ty to a hundr$ bl[s a m9ute1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! "w4 ,! spe$ ( ! pneumatic hamm] ranges f #a1jjj to #bj1jjj bl[s p] m9ute1 s t its s\nd is a cont9u\s buzz4 ,su* hamm]s are us$ = calk+1 *ipp+1 rivet+1 & a great numb] ( o!r purposes4 ,9 ano!r l>ge class ( pneumatic tools "w is done by rotation in/ead ( p]cussion4 ,! pi/on is replac$ by a motor1 :i* turns an aug]1 drill1 or o!r tool = su* op]ations z bor+1 screw+1 ream+1 etc4 ,! use ( pneumatic tubes = transport+ lett]s1 p>cels1 & ! l1 al?\gh sugge/$ z e>ly z #affg1 has be5 9 practical op]ation only s9ce #ahed1 :5 a tube #bbj y>ds long 0 built 9 ,london to convey telegraphic dispat*es4 ,! articles to be transport$ are plac$ 9 a c>ri] fitt+ closely inside ! tube & propell$ ei!r by introduc+ air "u pressure beh9d x or by exhau/+ ! air 9 front ( x4 ,scores ( miles ( su* tubes laid und]gr\nd are n[ 9 op]ation 9 ,london1 ,p>is1 ,b]l91 ,new ,york1 & o!r l>ge cities = c>ry+ mail matt]4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! pneumatic ca% c>ri]1 us$ 9 /ores1 is ! commone/ application ( 8pneumatic dispat*10 z ?is sy/em ( transportation is call$4 ,! use ( compress$ air in/ead ( a bru% = apply+ pa9t1 v>ni%1 & :itewa% is a fur!r illu/ration ( ! v]satile possibilities ( air z a means ( transmitt+ p[]4 ,:5 an inclos$ body ( air or o!r gas is subject$ to pressure1 its volume is dim9i%$ & its d5sity is increas$4 ,x is natural to inquire :at w happ5 if ! ext]nal pressure be increas$ indef9itely4 ,w ! inclos$ sub/ance ev5tually cease to be gase\s & become a solid or a liquid8 ,! answ] to ?is "q1 furni%$ ab\t half a c5tury ago ?r\gh ! rese>*es ( ,?omas ,&rews1 is t no am\nt ( pressure w liquefy a gas unless its temp]ature is bel[ a c]ta9 po9t4 ,?is po9t1 kn[n z ! critical temp]ature1 is widely diff]5t = diff]5t sub/ances4 ,= mo/ ( ! atmosph]ic gases x is exce$+ly l[4 ,?us oxyg5 mu/ be cool$ to #aah bel[ z]o ,c5tigrade 7#ahj bel[ z]o ,fahr5heit7 be=e x w liquefy "u any pressure1 & ! critical temp]ature ( nitrog5 is /ill l[]4 ,ef=ts to liquefy ! gases ( ! atmosph]e 7 unsuccessful = a long "t on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ( atta9+ su* l[ temp]atures4 ,n[adays ! problem is s completely solv$ t ! manufacture ( liquid air is a commonplace comm]cial ent]prise1 & millions ( gallons are produc$ e ye>4 ,liquid air is ! pr9cipal comm]cial s\rce ( pure oxyg51 nitrog51 & o!r gases f\nd 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x is also us$ z a refrig]at+ sub/ance 9 v>i\s indu/rial & sci5tific processes1 & new uses are be+ f\nd = x f ye> to ye>4 ,l _m o!r latt]-day miracles1 comp>$ ) :i* ! alleg$ feats ( necromancy seem tame & pu]ile1 ! liquefaction ( air is f\nd$ on q simple pr9ciples4 ,! e>lie/ comm]cial process 0 inv5t$1 9 its ma9 features1 by ,l9de 9 #ahie1 & ! new] processes are m]ely modifications ( ?is "o4 ,exp]im5ts ( ! ,engli% physici/s ,j\le & ,?omson %[$ t :5 a gas "u pressure is =c$ ?r\gh a small orifice1 beyond :i* x exp&s1 x und]goes a c]ta9 am\nt ( cool+4 ,?is fall 9 temp]ature1 kn[n z ! 8,j\le-,?omson effect10 is g5]ally q small1 b ,l9de devis$ a means ( multiply+ x 9 8 8reg5]ative cool+ process40 ,! air to be liquefi$ is fir/ compress$ to1 say1 #ajj atmosph]es1 cool$ z mu* z possible by wat]1 & pass$ ?r\gh a long spiral tube4 ,at ! end ( ! spiral x escapes ?r\gh a small nozzle1 & is ?us some:at fur!r cool$ by ! effect above m5tion$4 ,?is cool$ air !n passes back ar\nd ! spiral tube1 & causes /ill m cool+ ( ! air 9 ! latt]4 ,! escap+ air is aga9 compress$ & goes ?r\gh ! same process z be=e4 ,?us its temp]ature gr[s con/antly l[]1 until f9ally ! /ream issu+ f ! nozzle is a liquid in/ead ( a gas4 ,! liquid collects 9 a res]voir1 f :i* x c be drawn (f :5 desir$4 ,! liquid air ?us obta9$ has a temp]ature ( ab\t #cae bel[ z]o ,fahr5heit4 ,x is g5]ally drawn into a vessel call$1 f ! "n ( ! inv5tor1 ! ,dew> flask1 :i* is op5 at ! top1 b o!rwise insulat$ f ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air by hav+ a d\ble wall1 ) a vacuum betwe5 ! walls4 ,! famili> !rmos bottle is con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple4 ,9 su* a vessel liquid air c be kept = h\rs & ev5 days1 & x is ?us available = use 9 _m int]e/+ laboratory exp]im5ts4 ,liquid air looks mu* l wat]1 except = its slight blui% color4 ,x boils--i4 e41 *anges back to ord9>y air--at a temp]ature only slightly above t at :i* x is produc$1 & ?is boil+1 ( c\rse1 goes on rapidly at ! surface ( ! liquid1 ow+ to absorption ( heat f ! air above4 ,liquid air is light] ?an wat]1 ^u :i* x consequ5tly w float4 ,a cubic foot ( liquid air is ! equival5t ( ab\t #hjj cubic feet ( ord9>y air at #fj ,fahr5heit & atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! curi\s effects ( liquid air1 only a few ( :i* c be m5tion$ "h1 are n irrelevant to ! subject ( atmosph]ic res\rces1 s9ce !y aid 9 v>i\s ways 9 c>ry+ out important sci5tific rese>*es4 ,almo/ all liquids are solidifi$ & almo/ all solids are h>d5$ & /iff5$ by imm]sion 9 liquid air4 ,alcohol is promptly froz5 9 x1 & at ! same "t gives out s mu* heat t ! liquid air boils viol5tly & ! congeal+ alcohol ov]fl[s ! vessel 9 a little avalan*e ( sn[4 ,india rubb] becomes z brittle z glass4 ,meats become s h>d t :5 /ruck by a hamm] !y r+ l /eel4 ,*emical action is enorm\sly r$uc$ by exposure to ! l[ temp]ature ( liquid air1 & s is ! electric resi/ance ( metals4 ,"o might suppose t su* a temp]ature w\ld be fatal to all =ms ( life1 b ?is is n ! case4 ,a goldfi%1 froz5 solid 9 liquid air1 revives & swims vigor\sly a few seconds aft] be+ replac$ 9 wat]4 ,bact]ia survive h\rs ( exposure to ! temp]ature ( liquid air1 :ile ! se$s ( high] plants1 ev5 aft] sev]al days ( simil> treatm5t1 spr\t ! same z o!r se$s4 ,mo/ ( ! atmosph]ic gases h n only be5 liquefi$1 b also froz5 solid4 ,an important exception is helium1 :i* has be5 liquefi$ only at a temp]ature ( #deb bel[ z]o ,fahr5heit4 ,! rem>kable feat ( liquefy+ helium 0 accompli%$ 9 #aijh by ! ,dut* physici/ ,kam]l+h ,onnes1 :o subsequ5tly1 9 8 attempts to solidify ?is sub/ance1 atta9$ ! unprec$5t$ temp]ature ( less ?an #b 7,c5tigrade7 degrees above 8absolute z]o10 or #def bel[ z]o ,fahr5heit1 by ! rapid evaporation ( ! liquid "u greatly r$uc$ pressure4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,explor+ ,,! ,,upp] ,,air4 ,left3 ,beg9n+ ( a pilot-balloon flight4 ,"r3 ,s5d+ up a s\nd+-balloon4 ,note ! p>a*ute1 :i* wafts ! basket ( in/rum5ts g5tly to ! gr\nd aft] ! balloon bur/s4 7,photographs f ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,al?\gh1 :5 air is liquefi$1 ! oxyg5 & nitrog5 are cond5s$ simultane\sly1 ! latt] has a l[] boil+ po9t ?an ! =m] & !re=e passes (f m rapidly :5 ! liquid is all[$ to evaporate4 ,?is fact makes x possible to sep>ate ! two sub/ances1 by ! process kn[n z 8fractional di/illation10 & h5ce liquid air plants h be5 e/abli%$ = ! special purpose ( manufactur+ oxyg5 & nitrog51 = bo? ( :i* !re is a l>ge & gr[+ comm]cial dem&4 ,scores ( millions ( cubic feet ( oxyg5 are us$ e ye> 9 ! wond]fully effici5t process ( weld+ metals ) ! oxyacetyl5e bl[pipe1 ! flame ( :i* has a temp]ature ( ab\t #f1jjj ,fahr5heit4 ,mo/ ( ! supply n[ comes f liquid air4 ,an equally l>ge am\nt is us$ 9 a rec5tly introduc$ me?od ( cutt+ metal4 ,! object to be cut is fir/ heat$ to inc&esc5ce1 aft] :i* a jet ( oxyg5 is play$ ^u x4 ,! metal actually burns away 9 ! /ream1 & a clean cut is made l t ( a saw4 ,x is int]e/+ to reflect1 :5 we fill our lungs ) oxyg5 9 ord] to keep our bodily ma*9]y 9 op]ation1 t ! same atmosph]ic gas is appli$ to ! build+ ( motor c>s1 bicycles1 safes1 boil]s1 & battle%ips4 ,c>tridges made ( lampblack1 dipp$ = a few mom5ts 9 liquid oxyg5 & !n prim$ ) a fulm9ate cap1 con/itute an explosive z p[]ful z dynamite & mu* *eap] to produce4 ,a small p]c5tage ( oxyg5 add$ to ! air suppli$ to bla/ furnaces has be5 f\nd to effect a great sav+ ( fuel us$ 9 ! furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,meteorograph ,,= ,,use ,,) ,,s\nd+ ,,balloon4 7,f]gusson patt]n4 ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau1 #aiai47 ,! alum9um case1 surr\nd$ by hoops ( rattan to protect ! app>atus :5 x falls to ! gr\nd at ! end ( ! flight1 conta9s a set ( v light self-regi/]+ meteorological in/rum5ts4 7,photograph f ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,illu/ration3 ,,kite ,,meteorograph4 7,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau ,patt]n47 ,! f\r p5s record ! b>ometric pressure1 temp]ature1 humidity1 & w9d-=ce on a %eet ( pap] w\nd ar\nd ! l>ge cyl9d]1 :i* is turn$ by clockwork4 ,note ! fan :eel inside ! tube1 = measur+ ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,! app>atus is made *iefly ( alum9um & is inclos$ 9 an out] case ( alum9um :5 s5t al(t atta*$ to ! kite4 7,photograph f ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,! mo/ important indu/rial dem& = nitrog5 is = use 9 8fixation0 processes--i4 e41 = mak+ nitrog5 comp\nds to be us$ z f]tiliz]s1 explosives1 etc4 ,be=e describ+ ^! processes1 x may be ( int]e/ to m5tion t "s ( ! 8r>e0 gases ( ! atmosph]e are n[ obta9$ on a comm]cial scale z by-products ( ! manufacture ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 f liquid air4 ,?us neon1 on acc\nt ( its exce$+ly small resi/ance to ! passage ( electric dis*>ges1 is a promis+ sub/ance = fill+ gl[ lamps2 especially z means h be5 f\nd ( correct+ ! gl>+ r$ color ( ! light :i* *>act]iz$ ! orig9al neon lamps4 ,argon is likewise us$ = fill+ electric lamps4 ,! idea ( us+ ! unlimit$ /ore ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 = ! b5efit ( agriculture & ! manufactur+ indu/ries has be5 v prom95tly be=e ! public 9 rec5t ye>s1 & ga9$ special notoriety dur+ ! late w>1 :5 great ef=ts 7 be+ made to increase ! supply ( nitrog5\s mat]ials suitable = use 9 explosives4 ,nitrog5\s matt]s 9 ! soil are indisp5sable to ! gr[? ( plants1 & z long ago z #ahih ,sir ,william ,crookes1 9 an address be=e ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 al>m$ ! _w by po9t+ out ! possibility ( a g5]al fam9e ow+ to ! prospective exhau/ion ( ,*ilean nitrates & o!r s\rces ( nitrog5\s f]tiliz]s4 ,nitrog5 also ent]s on an imm5se scale into ! composition ( _m indu/rial products besides explosives4 ,no wond] popul> writ]s h dwelt ^u ! fact t ! atmosph]e conta9s f> m nitrog5 ?an mank9d ne$s = e possible purpose--actually some?+ l #bj1jjj1jjj tons ov] e squ>e mile ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,a widespread misund]/&+1 h[ev]1 prevails z to ! problem involv$ 9 utiliz+ ?is supply ( nitrog54 ,free 7i4 e41 uncomb9$7 nitrog5 is ( no use z a f]tiliz]1 & x _c be readily us$ 9 ! arts4 ,! process ( extract+ x f ! atmosph]e is an easy "o1 ?anks to ! liquid air indu/ry4 ,! real difficulty is to make ?is in]t gas ent] into *emical comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances1 =m+ useful comp\nds su* z ammonia & nitrates2 9 o!r words1 to 8fix0 x4 ,z we h /at$ on ano!r page1 lightn+ dis*>ges cause nitrog5 & oxyg5 to comb9e 9 ! atmosph]e1 & p]haps also comb9e nitrog5 & hydrog5 to =m ammonia4 ,!re is "o o!r natural process by :i* atmosph]ic nitrog5 is fix$4 ,c]ta9 species ( bact]ia are able to extract ?is gas f ! atmosph]e & comb9e x ) o!r mat]ials4 ,"s ( ^! bact]ia are indep5d5t organisms1 :ile o!rs =m colonies ( p>asites gr[+ on ! roots ( high] plants1 *iefly memb]s ( ! pea family4 ,9 ! latt] case ! bact]ia use ! nitrog5 ( ! air & c>bohydrates drawn f ! roots on :i* !y gr[ to =m nitrog5\s comp\nds1 :i* are1 9 "p1 transmitt$ to ! ho/ plant4 ,un=tunately ^! natural processes d n suffice to ma9ta9 agricultural soils 9 a high /ate ( f]tility4 ,m9]al deposits ( comb9$ nitrog5 are practically limit$ to ! nitrate fields ( ,*ile1 f :i* m ?an two million tons ( nitrate ( soda are export$ annually2 b ?is supply _c la/ m ?an a few decades4 ,comb9$ nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ammonia is suppli$ on a l>ge & rapidly gr[+ scale f by-product coke ov5s1 & ano!r p]5nial s\rce ( nitrog5\s matt] is f\nd 9 animal & vegetable refuse ( all k9ds1 includ+ fi% scrap & slaught]-h\se refuse1 g>bage1 sewage1 manure1 etc4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! dem&s ( agriculture & ! manufactur+ indu/ries greatly exce$ ! total am\nt ( comb9$ nitrog5 obta9able f all ^! s\rces1 ! +5uity ( inv5tors has be5 spurr$ to ! task ( fix+ atmosph]ic nitrog5 by artificial me?ods1 & sev]al su* me?ods h n[ be5 put 9 op]ation comm]cially4 ,_! comb9$ product at pres5t con/itutes ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! total nitrog5 supply ( ! _w4 ,x is n propos$ "h to describe ^! me?ods 9 detail1 b x may be m5tion$ t "o ( !m1 kn[n z ! 8arc process10 imitates ! action ( lightn+ 9 comb9+ ! nitrog5 & oxyg5 t occur naturally 9 ! air1 :ile ! o!rs utilize nitrog5 t has be5 previ\sly sep>at$ f ! air by ! liquid air process4 ,! arc process requires1 = comm]cial success1 a l>ge supply ( *eap electrical p[]1 & x is at pres5t almo/ conf9$ to ,norway & ,sw$51 :]e electricity is obta9$ f wat]falls4 ,9 ?is process air is bl[n ?r\gh a huge electric flame1 spread out by a p[]ful electromagnet4 ,! air yields nitric oxide1 :i* is comb9$ ) wat] to =m nitric & nitr\s acids1 & ^! sub/ances are comb9$ ) o!rs to =m m>ketable products4 ,! mo/ widely us$ fixation process1 & ! "o :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t propos$ to employ 9 ! l>ge plants t 7 9 c\rse ( con/ruction 9 ?is c\ntry at ! close ( ! w>1 is kn[n z ! 8cyanamide process40 ,?is process requires1 z a "p ( its raw mat]ials1 l>ge supplies ( lime/one & coke1 f :i* calcium c>bide is made 9 an electrical furnace4 ,! calcium c>bide1 at r$ heat1 absorbs nitrog51 =m+ an int]m$iate product f :i*1 by fur!r processes1 are made ammonia & nitric acid4 ,a ?ird me?od ( fix+ atmosph]ic nitrog51 :i* has be5 appli$ on a va/ scale 9 ,g]many & is n[ com+ into use 9 o!r c\ntries1 is commonly call$ ! 8,hab] process40 ,9 ?is process nitrog5 is comb9$ ) hydrog51 obta9$ f wat]1 to =m ammonia1 ! comb9ation be+ facilitat$ by ! pres5ce ( :at *emi/s call a 8catalyz]10 i4 e41 a sub/ance t enables o!r sub/ances to comb9e )\t itself und]go+ any *ange4 ,sev]al diff]5t catalyz]s h be5 us$ 9 ! ,hab] process4 ,two or ?ree o!r me?ods ( nitrog5 fixation are beg9n+ to assume comm]cial importance4 ,:ile ! p[] ( ! w9d holds an important place among ! res\rces ( ! atmosph]e1 x _c be said t ! utilization ( ?is res\rce has und]gone developm5ts 9 mod]n times at all comp>able ) ! /rik+ inv5tions & discov]ies we h j be5 record+1 if we except ! use ( ! w9d 9 a]onautics4 ,atmosph]ic res\rces us$ by a]onauts w be discuss$ 9 subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,! *ief use made ( ! w9d to-day1 z 9 ages pa/1 is to propel sail+ %ips1 & its use = ?is purpose is1 ( c\rse1 ( less importance1 9 a relative s5se1 ?an x 0 be=e ! introduction ( /eam4 ,! importance ( w9dmills has also greatly decl9$4 ,?is fact 0 /rik+ly br\ght out "s ye>s ago :5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics collect$1 ?r\gh ,am]ican consuls abroad1 detail$ in=mation conc]n+ ! use ( ! w9dmills 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,9 mo/ p>ts ( ,europe w9dmills are rapidly disappe>+4 ,9 ,holl&1 = example1 ! traditional home ( ! w9dmill1 ! p]petual task ( dra9+ ! pold]s is n[ p]=m$ by /eam pumps1 & ! total numb] ( w9dmills is e/imat$ to be only ab\t "o-t5? :at x 0 c5turies ago4 ,our own c\ntry is probably ! only "o 9 :i* ! use ( w9dmills is increas+4 ,! mod]n ,am]ican w9dmill1 ) its disklike assemblage ( num]\s light sails1 & +5i\s contrivances = ve]+1 reef+1 etc41 is a mu* m effici5t contrivance ?an ! old-fa%ion$ w9dmill2 b its utility1 l t ( o!r w9dmills1 is limit$ by ! irregul> =ce ( ! w9ds4 ,= ye>s ! hope has be5 ent]ta9$ t ! w9dmill w\ld ev5tually become a common means ( g5]at+ electricity1 b ?is hope has n yet be5 realiz$1 ?\gh isolat$ in/allations ( ?is "* are 9 successful use4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,z ,a ,,highway ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s ! atmosph]e has assum$ a new & trem5d\s importance 9 human affairs z a m$ium t af=ds facilities = travel & transportation f> sup]ior1 9 _m respects1 to ^? (f]$ by ! l& or ! wat]4 ,! a]ial highways are n[ op5 = bus9ess & pleasure4 ,?is is a fact t ! majority ( p f9d x difficult to realize4 ,! navigation ( ! air on a g5]al scale has s long be5 look$ ^u z a dream ( ! future t we _c readily adju/ our m9ds to ! reality4 ,! /ory ( ! sl[ /eps by :i* ?is mom5t\s fact has be5 br\ght to pass is f> too long to be told "h4 ,:at we purpose to d 9 ! pres5t *apt] is to sket* ! multif>i\s uses to :i* man is n[ apply+ ! a]onautical k & skill t he has acquir$4 ,at ! same "t we %all anticipate1 to "s ext5t1 ! developm5ts ( ! ne> future2 = ! l9es ( progress are s cle>ly m>k$ out t x is possible to d ?is )\t giv+ too mu* re9 to ! imag9ation4 ,9 a subsequ5t *apt]1 deal+ ) ,a]onautical ,meteorology1 we %all t\* briefly ^u ! me*anical pr9ciples t und]lie a]ial navigation1 by way ( preface to a m detail$ description ( ! conditions ( w9d & wea!r enc\nt]$ by aircraft1 & ( ! s]vices t ! meteorologi/ is r5d]+ to ! a]onaut4 ,! hi/ory ( a]onautics may be divid$ into two p]iods1 ) ! ye> #aiad z ! divid+ l9e betwe5 !m4 ,be=e ! great w> ! _m brilliant m9ds t 7 try+ to solve ! problems ( a]ial navigation receiv$ comp>atively little help or enc\ragem5t f humanity at l>ge4 ,! air%ip & ! a]oplane 7 bo? accompli%$ facts1 b mo/ p look$ ^u !m z tickli% contrivances ( v little practical value4 ,f ! ye> #aiji onw>d aviation occupi$ an imm5se %>e ( public att5tion2 lib]al prizes = a]ial feats 7 (f]$2 new records = spe$1 altitude1 & endurance 7 made f day to day2 b to ! public1 & p]haps to mo/ ( ! aviators !mselves1 all ?is meant m]ely t a new & ?rill+ sport _h be5 creat$1 r ?an a new art ( b\ndless utility4 ,v few bus9ess m5 felt incl9$ to inve/ money 9 ! developm5t ( aircraft1 & ! gov]nm5ts ( ! lead+ nations1 ) a s+le exception1 7 incr$ibly bl9d to ! importance ( build+ air fleets = use 9 w>4 ,! exception 0 ,g]many1 :i* n only gave /rong support to ,c\nt ,zeppel9 9 ! build+ ( 8 dirigibles1 b develop$ milit>y aviation to su* an ext5t t %e ent]$ ! w> ) ab\t #hjj a]oplanes & a ?\s& tra9$ pilots4 ,) ! outbreak ( ! w> ! budd+ art bur/ into vigor\s bloom4 ,unlimit$ funds 7 n[ available = exp]im5t+ & build+4 ,?\s&s ( fly]s invad$ ! air1 & ! battle zone 0 a te/+ gr\nd on a va/ scale1 :]e "o improvem5t 0 h>dly introduc$ be=e x 0 replac$ by ano!r4 ,"s ( ! be/ eng9e]+ tal5t ( ! _w 0 div]t$ f _m & v>i\s fields to ! "o task ( supply+ ! dem&s ( ! milit>y a]onauts = m spe$1 m p[]1 m reliable motors1 bett] mat]ials & appliances4 ,?us ! w> n only p]fect$ a]onautics--especially aviation--z an art1 b practically creat$ x z an indu/ry4 ,at ! close ( ho/ilities ! _w f\nd itself 9 possession ( a va/ fleet ( aircraft1 a multitude ( aircraft factories1 & a great army ( tra9$ a]onauts4 ,= a "t p ask$--& p]haps "s /ill ask--8,:at %all we d ) !m80 ,!re are _m answ]s to ?is "q1 & new ones are com+ to light e day4 ,9 ! aggregate !y mean t a new era has dawn$ 9 human affairs--! era 9 :i* ! sky has be5 annex$ to ! _w 9 :i* man lives4 ,h5ce=? we %all h m elb[ room4 ,we %all no long] be imprison$ 9 ,flatl&1 b set free 9 ,spacel&4 ,x is impossible to =esee all ! implications ( ?is fact1 b ^? t are already app>5t suffice to fill u ) en?usiasm4 ,"s ( ! mo/ vex$ problems ( ! pres5t day w soon be solv$ by a]ial navigation4 ,take t ( our ov]cr[d$ cities4 ,ev]ybody kn[s h[ fir/ ! trolley c> & !n ! automobile help$ to relieve ! conge/ion ( t[ns by mak+ x feasible = p to live _m miles f ! sc5es ( _! daily "w1 b at ! same "t s]i\sly swell$ ! traffic ( ! /reets 9 bus9ess qu>t]s4 ,aircraft w br+ f> great] improvem5ts 9 ?is respect1 )\t correspond+ disadvantages4 ,9 a few ye>s x w probably be no inconv5i5ce to live fifty or a hundr$ miles f "o's place ( bus9ess4 ,a]oplanes1 built = c>ry+ sev]al pass5g]s 9 p]fect com=t1 already fly at spe$s ( f #abj to #aej miles an h\r1 & are almo/ indep5d5t ( wea!r4 ,mu* great] spe$s w d\btless be common 9 ! future4 ,automobiles1 all runn+ on ! same level1 h almo/ rea*$ ! limit ( space available 9 our busie/ /reets1 &1 "u su* conditions1 !y h ne>ly lo/ ! advantage ( spe$ !y once possess$ ov] ! obsolete horse-drawn vehicle4 ,!re c nev] be su* cr[d+ 9 ! air4 ,:5 a great volume ( a]ial traffic is conc5trat$ t[>d ! c5t]s ( t[ns1 p w fly _! vehicles at v>i\s prescrib$ levels1 & probably 8p>k0 !m on _m-/ori$ l&+ /ages4 ,new me?ods ( l&+ w und\bt$ly be inv5t$4 ,! device kn[n z ! 8helicopt]10 :i* has made progress t[>d ! practical /age dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 po9ts out ! possibilities 9 ?is direction4 ,9 ! helicopt] ! propell] blades revolve ar\nd a v]tical %aft1 ?us p]mitt+ ! vehicle to rise or desc5d v]tically4 ,a prize ( #ajj1jjj has rec5tly be5 (f]$ by ,m4 ,mi*el91 ! well-kn[n ,fr5* patron ( aviation1 = ! p]fection ( ?is device1 :i* may soon revolutionize ! design ( fly+ ma*9es4 ,mr4 ,holt ,?omas1 ! ,engli%man ^: =esight & en?usiasm h done s mu* to ha/5 ! arrival ( practical comm]cial a]onautics1 believes t 9 ! ne> future ! ma9 airways ( ! _w w be s]v$ by air%ips r ?an by a]oplanes4 ,= long j\rneys ! air%ip has ! advantage t x c c>ry an ample supply ( fuel )\t encroa*+ too mu* ^u ! space available = pass5g]s & c>go4 ,x is1 !re=e1 especially suitable = transoceanic j\rneys4 ,hi!rto air%ips1 :5 n 9 flight1 h be5 h\s$ 9 enorm\s hang>s1 involv+ heavy co/ ( in/allation & _! l&+ has requir$ ! s]vices ( hundr$s ( m5--an op]ation t w probably seem laughable 9 its crudity to ! next g5]ation4 ,! air%ip ( ! future w probably nev] g into a hang> at all except = occasional ov]haul+1 z an ord9>y %ip goes into drydock4 ,h5ce only a few ( ^! co/ly /ructures w be ne$$4 ,:ile 9 s]vice ! air%ip w1 on rea*+ an air port1 moor h]self at ! b[ to a great /eel t[]1 & sw+ ) ! w9d z a m>9e vessel sw+s at h] an*or4 ,at ! top ( ! t[] !re w be a l&+ /age = pass5g]s & freight1 connect$ by lifts ) ! gr\nd bel[4 ,f ! ma9 air ports1 ?us equipp$1 w radiate m9or air r\tes1 s]v$ by a]oplanes1 &1 9 "s cases1 by fly+ boats4 ,su* l&+ places = air%ips 7 pr$ict$ by ,kipl+ 9 8 8,) ! ,night ,mail0--b ! au?or's vi/a 0 ( ! ye> #bjjj6 ,we are n travel+ s sl[ly z t4 ,consid] :at x means t ! _w he>d ) bat$ brea? ( ,blriot's flight ov] ! ,engli% ,*annel 9 #aiji2 & j t5 ye>s lat] m5 _h fl[n ov] ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,we h be5 writ+ ( ! future2 b we ne$ n look ahead = illu/rations ( ! practical value ( a]ial navigation4 ,useful feats already accompli%$ are s a/oni%+ 9 _! v>iety t !y make "o cauti\s ab\t assign+ a limit to ! possible applications ( ! new art4 ,x has happ5$1 = example1 t a man :o _h book$ passage on a trans-,pacific /eam] miss$ 8 boat at ,seattle2 :]eupon he hir$ an a]oplane1 at a co/ ( #ge1 & ov]took ! /eam] on h] way d[n ,puget ,s\nd1 ?us sav+ "s weeks ( delay 9 wait+ = ! next "o4 ,ano!r man1 :o produces honey on a l>ge scale1 f\nd t spray-poison$ or*>ds 7 play+ havoc ) 8 bees4 ,he travel$ 9 an a]oplane ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 select+ /&s = 8 hives at safe di/ances f su* or*>ds1 & he e/imates t ?is precaution sav$ him #aj1jjj 9 a s+le ye>4 ,9 ,augu/1 #aiai1 a fly+ boat deposit$ a bag ( mail on ! ,:ite ,/> l9] ,adriatic two h\rs aft] ! %ip _h left ,new ,york4 ,sev]al a]ial mail r\tes are n[ 9 op]ation on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! fir/ regul> s]vice ( ?is "* 9 ,am]ica 0 begun ,may #ae1 #aiah1 betwe5 ,new ,york & ,wa%+ton1 & dur+ ! fir/ ye> c>ri$ #g1gbj1hdj lett]s1 ) few accid5ts & no fatalities4 ,! fir/ ye> ( s]vice co/ ! ,gov]nm5t #acg1ijj1 & ! sale ( a]oplane mail /amps dur+ ! same p]iod yield$ a rev5ue ( #aei1gjj4 ,out ( #a1bfa possible trips on ?is r\te1 #a1bjf 7 und]tak51 & only fifty-five 7 ab&on$ on acc\nt ( unfavorable wea!r4 ,dur+ #aiai ! ,po/ ,(fice ,dep>tm5t n only e/abli%$ o!r a]ial r\tes1 b relegat$ ! a]ial mail s]vice to ! ranks ( ! commonplace by r$uc+ ! po/age on lett]s c>ri$ by a]oplane to ! ord9>y fir/-class rate ( two c5ts an ounce4 ,9 ,europe l9es ( fa/ a]oplanes c>ry+ mails1 pass5g]s1 & freight daily ov] regul> r\tes are becom+ "p ( ! e/abli%$ ord] ( ?+s4 ,! op]ators ( a l9e betwe5 ,london & ,p>is1 :i* 0 inaugurat$ 9 ,novemb]1 #aiai1 are n[ plann+ to e/abli% an h\rly s]vice4 ,"s ( ^! l9es h be5 equipp$ ) wireless telephony1 s t ! pilots c keep 9 con/ant communication ) num]\s /ations ( ! company along ! r\te1 & also ) "o ano!r4 ,!y are ?us able to obta91 among o!r ?+s1 curr5t in=mation ab\t ! preval5ce ( fog or o!r atmosph]ic conditions at po9ts ahead ( !m4 ,presumably ! pass5g]s :o patronize ! a]oplane express w also1 ev5tually1 enjoy ! use ( ! wireless telephone en r\te4 ,9 connection ) ! new air r\tes suitable l&+ gr\nds1 = regul> or em]g5cy use1 are be+ laid out at %ort int]vals2 ! ideal aim$ at1 = ! pres5t1 be+ ! s-call$ 8t5-mile *a902 i4 e41 a s]ies ( em]g5cy l&+ gr\nds ab\t t5 miles ap>t4 ,f ord9>y fly+ levels a pilot on su* a r\te c always glide to "o ( ^! gr\nds 9 case 8 motor fails4 ,! l&+ gr\nds w be utiliz$1 "u c]ta9 re/rictions1 = graz+ cattle & = agricultural purposes1 to help cov] ! co/ ( r5tal & ma9t5ance4 ,dur+ #aiai ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t e/abli%$ a *a9 ( l&+ gr\nds 9 ,africa1 all ! way f ,cairo to ! ,cape4 ,"o ( ! developm5ts ( ! w> 0 ! use ( a]oplanes = photographic mapp+4 ,! a]oplane flies ov] a long tract ( gr\nd1 & ! cam]a1 expos$ v]tically1 takes pictures automatically at fix$ int]vals4 ,! pictures ?us tak5 are c>efully jo9$ toge!r 9 a s+le /rip4 ,a second tract1 p>allel ) ! fir/1 is photograph$ 9 ! same mann]1 & s on1 until ! :ole area has be5 cov]$4 ,ev5tually all ! pictures are assembl$ to =m a s-call$ 8mosaic40 ,?is process is highly successful = mapp+ a flat c\ntry1 b pres5ts difficulties :5 !re are hills & m\nta9s4 ,"s sort ( /]eoscopic process w probably be p]fect$ = depict+ accurately diff]5ces 9 level & produc+ a 8cont\r$0 map4 ,al?\gh a]onautical mapp+ does n yet replace old-fa%ion$ me?ods1 x already has sev]al obvi\s uses4 ,x is especially suitable = ! revision ( exi/+ maps4 ,?us ! plan ( a city c be quickly br\ght up to date by ?is process4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,geological ,survey has be5 engag$ = _m ye>s 9 produc+ l>ge-scale topographic maps ( all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,?is "w proce$s sl[ly1 & "s ( ! maps are t5 or fifte5 ye>s old4 ,! cont\rs & o!r natural features on su* a map are /ill correct1 b *anges 9 ! region due to ! "w ( man are (t5 ext5sive4 ,revision ( ^! features c easily be made by ! me?od above describ$4 ,= ! prelim9>y mapp+ ( a new c\ntry1 by photography or by h&1 ! a]oplane (f]s ! means ( sav+ an imm5se am\nt ( "t & ef=t4 ,! surveyor no long] ne$s to cut tracks ?r\gh ! jungle or scale m\nta9s4 ,no region is v difficult ( access to ! aviator4 ,! summit ( ,m\nt ,ev]e/1 ! highe/ m\nta9 9 ! _w1 is actually a mile l[] ?an ! greate/ altitude atta9$ by an a]oplane4 ,aviation has become an important feature ( explor+ exp$itions4 ,capta9 ,amunds51 ! pol> explor]1 qualifi$ z an air pilot be=e he emb>k$ on 8 drift across ! ,nor? ,pol> bas91 & took a]oplanes ) him on t j\rney4 ,9 ,india ! ,survey ,dep>tm5t has organiz$ a regul> a]ial photographic & reconnoissance s]vice1 & has lately photograph$ ! high wat]s ( ! ,riv] ,sutlej 9 ord] to obta9 data = a big electrification project4 ,photographs ( ! ,nile c\ntry h also be5 made = hydrological purposes4 ,briti% aviators 9 ,mesopotamia h mapp$ ! flood b\nd>ies ( ! ,tigris & provid$ data = e/imat+ crop areas4 ,9 ! ,philipp9es an eng9e] rec5tly made a long a]oplane flight to det]m9e :i* ( ?ree g5]al r\tes 0 mo/ suitable = a new railway4 ,_m mon?s ( "t & ?\s&s ( doll>s 7 ?us sav$1 z x 0 only necess>y to s5d out "o p>ty ( locat+ eng9e]s in/ead ( ?ree aft] ! selection _h be5 made4 ,rec5tly ! a]ial surveyor has become ! rival ( ! hydrograph] 9 mapp+ %oals1 *annels1 subm]g$ rocks1 & o!r features b5ea? ! wat]4 ,if ! wat] is cle> & suitable atmosph]ic conditions prevail1 objects subm]g$ to a consid]able dep? may be di/9ctly se5 f an a]oplane fly+ f> above ! surface4 ,x 0 on acc\nt ( ?is fact t ,alli$ aviators 7 able to spot subm]g$ ,g]man subm>9es dur+ ! ,_w ,w>4 ,! cam]a1 equipp$ ) prop] plates & ray filt]s1 c pi]ce ! wat] ev5 bett] ?an ! eye4 ,?us objects h be5 photograph$ at a dep? ( m ?an #ej feet4 ,briti% aviators *>t$ ! h>bor ( ,rahbeg1 on ! coa/ ( ,arabia1 by ! process 9 #aiag4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! lead+ expon5t ( und]wat] photography is ,dr4 ,willis ,t4 ,lee1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 :o has tak5 scores ( photographs %[+ subm]g$ features ( ! wat]s adjac5t to ,*esapeake ,bay4 ,x is likely t riv]s l ! ,mississippi1 ) ev] %ift+ s& b>s1 w soon be made safe by mon?ly or weekly mapp+ f ! air4 ,9 e>?quake regions1 su* z s\!rn ,italy & ,japan1 ! *ang+ coa/ l9es1 %all[s & h>bors c easily be photograph$ aft] ea* new quake1 ?us keep+ navigation op5 & protect+ ! lives ( m>9]s4 ,ano!r application ( ?is process ( sight+ subm]g$ objects f ! air is ! a]ial fi% patrol4 ,! plan ( us+ aircraft to locate s*ools ( fi% appe>s to h be5 fir/ sugge/$ by ,pr(essor ,j\b91 ( ! ,oceanographic ,in/itute ( ,monaco1 & x has be5 c>ri$ out ) mu* success 9 bo? ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,its promot]s hope t x w ev5tually revolutionize ! fi%+ indu/ry & add greatly to ! _w's food supply4 ,9 ! ye> #aiai seaplanes f ! ,nor? ,isl& ,air ,/ation at ,san ,diego1 ,cali=nia1 made regul> flights at an altitude ( ab\t #ejj feet ov] ! adjac5t wat]s z an adjunct to ! important fi%]ies 9 t vic9ity4 ,:5 a s*ool ( fi% 0 detect$1 ! aviator dropp$ l[ en\gh to asc]ta9 ! species1 & if x prov$ to be ( a comm]cial k9d1 su* z ! s>d9e1 ! news 0 fla%$ by wireless to ! fi%+ fleet4 ,! ocean 9 ! neighborhood ( ,san ,diego 0 divid$ into numb]$ squ>es1 %[n on *>ts1 & locations 7 report$ by numb]4 ,9 #aibj a daily patrol 0 ma9ta9$ by ,navy seaplanes ov] ! wat]s ( ,*esapeake ,bay 9 behalf ( ! m5had5 fi%]y4 ,accord+ to an (ficial report1 8! exp]im5ts fully demon/rat$ ! comm]cial value ( planes 9 ?is fi%]y40 ,x is believ$ t aircraft might be us$ ) equal success 9 connection ) ! :al+ indu/ry4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice has made consid]able use ( ,army a]oplanes & aviators 9 patroll+ ! great =e/s ( ! ,we/1 :]e a con/ant look\t = fires mu/ be kept ?r\gh\t ! summ]4 ,!re are ab\t #bh1jjj =e/ fires 9 ?is c\ntry e ye>1 & ! av]age area burn$ ov] am\nts to m ?an #h1jjj1jjj acres1 entail+ an av]age annual loss ( #aj1jjj1jjj wor? ( timb]4 ,obs]vations are ma9ta9$ on m\nta9 peaks & t[]s1 b ! a]ial wat*man comm&s a mu* great] range ( vision & c readily detect fires 9 places su* z deep canyons :]e !y are1 9 _m cases1 hidd5 f ! exi/+ look\t po9ts4 ,:5 a big fire is 9 progress1 ! aviator c quickly asc]ta9 its ext5t & report ! in=mation by wireless to ! fire-fight+ =ces4 ,9 case ! fire is difficult ( access on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce ( roads1 ! fire fight]s c be transport$ to ! spot 9 a]oplanes4 ,x has ev5 be5 propos$ to fight =e/ fires by dropp+ bombs fill$ ) fire-ext+ui%+ *emicals4 ,at "o "t x 0 ?\ght t a]oplanes might l>gely replace fix$ look\t /ations1 b exp]i5ce %[s t bo? sy/ems ( obs]vation are desirable4 ,_m =e/]s favor ! use ( small dirigible air%ips 9 place ( a]oplanes1 ow+ to _! ability to fly v l[1 :5 desir$1 l& 9 any small cle>+1 dis*>ge pass5g]s by rope-ladd] :ile hov]+ ov] a select$ spot1 & transport relatively l>ge loads ( m5 & supplies4 ,su* are a few ( ! valuable peace-"t uses t h already be5 f\nd = ! a]ial vehicles t ow$ _! production *iefly to ! late w> & = ! ho/ ( pilots tra9$ dur+ ! same conflict4 ,und\bt$ly ! imm$iate future holds f> m int]e/+ developm5ts 9 /ore4 ,"o important practical aspect ( a]onautics rema9s to be m5tion$1 & t is ! "q ( safety4 ,9 _! e>ly days ! /eamboat & ! /eam railway 7 bo? risky contrivances4 ,x is record$ t at "o "t /eamboats 7 b>r$ f ! ,?ames on acc\nt ( _! dang]s4 ,und\bt$ly ! tradition ( frequ5t boil] explosions l+]$ 9 p's m9ds long aft] x _h ceas$ to be a sub/antial fact4 ,a]ial navigation--& p>ticul>ly aviation--has n[ pass$ beyond ! pione] /age1 b x /ill be>s ! dubi\s reputation t x acquir$ :5 x 0 9 its infancy4 ,a]ial travel1 "u /&>diz$ conditions1 is no long] unsafe4 ,!re are good reasons = reg>d+ x already z saf] ?an automobil+4 ,accord+ to a report ( ! ,briti% ,dep>tm5t ( ,civil ,aviation1 !re 7 #ba1jjj comm]cial flights 9 ,great ,brita9 dur+ ! six mon?s f ,may #a to ,octob] #ca1 #aiai1 & #eb1jjj pass5g]s 7 c>ri$4 ,! total mileage cov]$ 0 #cjc1jjj4 ,n a s+le pass5g] 0 kill$ dur+ ?is p]iod1 & only t5 7 injur$4 ,!re 7 two fatalities among pilots & six pilots 7 injur$4 ,comm&] ,read1 :o made ! fir/ transatlantic flight1 writes on ?is subject3 8,!re are "s pilots ) :om ,i w\ld refuse to risk my life4 ,b1 giv5 a mod]n ma*9e ) ! prop] att5tion paid x1 & a skillful b cons]vative fly]1 x is z safe a means ( rapid transit z an automobile travel+ at less ?an half ! spe$4 ,n[adays !re is sc>cely ev] an accid5t 9 an a]oplane ( /&>d type due to ! fault ( mat]ial2 !y are all due to ! inexp]i5ce or to ! d>e-devil /unt+ proclivities ( ! pilot--! pilot :o #8takes *ances4'0 ,a]onautics is n[ m ?an an art4 ,x is a rapidly exp&+ bran* ( appli$ sci5ce4 ,a]onautical eng9e]+ has become "o ( ! recogniz$ pr(essions4 ,"s ( ! lead+ gov]nm5t laboratories ( ! _w1 includ+ ! ,national ,physical ,laboratory 9 ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 are devot+ _! att5tion to a]onautical rese>*4 ,!re are also _m un(ficial 8a]odynamical0 laboratories = /udy+1 ) ! aid ( w9d tunnels & o!r app>atus1 ! _m problems p]ta9+ to ! physics ( flight & ! pr9ciples ( a]oplane design+4 ,a]onautical que/ions h begun to figure conspicu\sly 9 jurisprud5ce4 ,legislators1 z somebody has said1 are busy mak+ v]tical laws to supplem5t ! old-fa%ion$ horizontal ones4 ,9 int]national law1 especially1 a]ial navigation has giv5 rise to ?orny problems & x is already ! subject ( elaborate int]national agreem5ts4 ,! physiological effects ( flight & altitude h add$ a new *apt] to ! sci5ce ( m$ic9e4 ,seasickness has be5 ! crux ( ! %ip's doctor2 w 8air sickness0 prove equally baffl+8 ,:at are ! !rapeutic possibilities ( fly+8 ,w physicians advise _! pati5ts to seek a 8*ange ( air0 v]tically in/ead ( horizontally8 ,! atmosph]e1 once monopoliz$ by ! birds1 has become ! abode ( man4 ,t is "o excell5t reason :y ev]ybody %\ld acquire a k ( meteorology--! sci5ce ( ! air4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,du/ ,,& ,,smoke ,,9 ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,:5 ! morali/ rem9ds u t we are *ildr5 ( ! du/ & pr$e/9$ to a du/y end1 !re is a gra9 ( com=t 9 ! discov]y t mod]n sci5ce reg>ds du/ z "o ( ! mo/ important ?+s 9 ! :ole economy ( nature4 ,no long] does du/ seem an appropriate symbol ( insignificance & humility :5 "o surveys ! bulk ( s]i\s lit]ature t has be5 writt5 ab\t x1 consid]s ! calib] ( ! m5 :o h devot$ ! bett] "p ( _! lives to ! /udy ( x1 or inspects ! great array ( +5i\s app>atus t has be5 devis$ = its inve/igation4 ,! du/ ( :i* we h to speak 9 ! pres5t *apt] embraces all small p>ticles ( solid matt] f\nd any:]e1 or at any "t1 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,p>ticul> k9ds ( du/ h1 ( c\rse1 _! special names4 ,soot1 ! visible "p ( smoke1 is a =m ( du/ t has play$ a v conspicu\s "p 9 human affairs2 h5ce ! sep>ate m5tion ( smoke 9 ! head+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,:ile !re are _m ag5cies t help to *>ge ! atmosph]e ) du/1 ! mo/ important ( !m all is ! w9d4 ,let u see :at happ5s :5 ! w9d bl[s ov] ! surface ( a du/y road1 = example4 ,if ! air fl[$ 9 a smoo? horizontal /ream ov] su* a surface1 its friction w\ld drag ! du/ along on ! gr\nd1 b w\ld n lift x4 ,su* surface drift+1 due to ! horizontal compon5t ( ! w9d's motion1 does1 ( c\rse1 occur1 & its effects are /rik+ly visible 9 ! %ift+ dunes t (t5 =m ov] a broad surface ( s& or sn[4 ,all w9ds ne> ! e>?'s surface are1 h[ev]1 full ( waves & eddies1 & 9 _m cases1 z ov] a /ret* ( /rongly heat$ soil1 !re are /rong updrafts1 sometimes ext5d+ to a great height 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,all k9ds ( du/ are heavi] ?an air1 &1 contr>y to popul> belief1 nev] truly 8float0 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,du/ may ent] ! atmosph]e at high levels1 ?r\gh ! dis9tegration ( meteors1 or x may be sp\t$ up by volcanoes1 b du/ bl[n up f ! e>?'s surface rises only because ! air is ris+ ) x2 &1 9 /ill air1 all du/ s9ks m or less rapidly t[>d ! gr\nd4 ,! rate ( its fall dep5ds ^u its specific gravity1 & ^u ! size & %ape ( ! du/ p>ticles4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! f9e/ p>ticles fall mo/ sl[ly4 ,exce$+ly f9e du/1 ev5 )\t upw>d air movem5ts to support x1 requires mon?s or ev5 ye>s to fall to ! gr\nd f ! high] levels ( ! atmosph]e4 ,upw>d movem5ts 9 ! air suffice to c>ry millions ( tons ( du/ al(t e ye>1 & horizontal air curr5ts c>ry ! same du/ f> & wide ov] ! e>?4 ,! transportation ( soil by ! w9d leads to "s results ( rem>kable int]e/1 practical z well z sci5tific4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 f>-rea*+ *anges 9 topography are br\ght ab\t by ?is process4 ,?us 9 ,*9a va/ areas are cov]$ to a dep? ( hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( feet ) a f9e yell[i% e>?1 call$ 8loess10 :i* is believ$ to h be5 bl[n ?i!r by ! w9ds f ! des]ts ( ,c5tral ,asia4 ,less ext5sive deposits ( ?is w9d-borne mat]ial are f\nd 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 includ+ ! ,mississippi ,valley4 ,ano!r effect ( w9d transportation is ! mix+ ( soils4 ,!re is a con/ant int]*ange ( soil mat]ial betwe5 diff]5t regions1 s t ! composition ( ! soil on a p>ticul> f>m1 = in/ance1 is n ! same n[ t x 0 a few ye>s ago or t x w be a few ye>s h5ce4 ,la/ly1 ! pres5ce ( du/ 9 ! atmosph]e1 :e!r d]iv$ f ! soil or o!rwise1 has v>i\s int]e/+ & important effects ^u ! heat & light we receive f ! sun & modifies1 9 num]\s ways1 ! conditions ( human life ^u our planet4 ,sev]al cases 9 :i* enorm\s quantities ( solid matt] h be5 c>ri$ to great di/ances by ! w9d h =m$ ! subject ( elaborate inve/igations on ! "p ( meteorologi/s4 ,?us1 dur+ ! ?ree days1 ,m>* #h-aj1 #aija1 heavy du/ /orms occurr$ 9 ! des]ts ( s\!rn ,alg]ia1 & ! sequel ( ^! /orms 0 c>efully /udi$ by ,hellmann & ,me9>dus4 ,a widespread cyclonic /orm1 c5tral ov] ,tunis at ! "t1 suck$ up ! du/1 :i* 0 c>ri$ nor?w>d by ! w9ds at high altitudes4 ,deposits f ?is du/ cl\d occurr$ ov] an area ext5d+ z f> z #b1ejj miles f ! place ( orig94 ,reports collect$ f hundr$s ( obs]v]s indicat$ t #a1hjj1jjj tons ( du/ fell ov] ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & "o-?ird ( ?is fell nor? ( ! ,alps4 ,z mu* m is believ$ to h fall5 ov] ! ,m$it]ranean1 :ile on ! ,african coa/ itself ! deposit is suppos$ to h am\nt$ to #aej1jjj1jjj tons4 ,9 ,m>*1 #aiah1 a %[] ( du/ discolor$ fall+ sn[ at v>i\s places 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ov] an area ( at lea/ #ajj1jjj squ>e miles1 ext5d+ 9 an ea/-we/ direction f ,dubuque1 ,i[a1 to ,*elsea1 ,vt4 ,reports ( ?is %[] 7 collect$ by ,messrs4 ,e4 ,r4 ,mill] & ,a4 ,n4 ,w9*ell1 :o e/imate t ! am\nt ( du/ c\ld n h be5 less ?an a million tons1 & may h be5 sev]al hundr$ million4 ,! du/ is believ$ to h be5 bl[n up f ! arid regions ( ! f> s\?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & to h be5 transport$ a ?\s& miles or m4 ,(f ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1 betwe5 ! ,can>ies & ! ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s1 haze due to du/ bl[n up f ! ,sah>a ,des]t is frequ5tly enc\nt]$ by vessels1 especially dur+ ! fir/ f\r mon?s ( ! ye>4 ,?is haze probably gave rise to ! anci5t leg5d ( a ,sea ( ,d>kness--! ,m>e ,t5ebrosum--"o ( ! my/]i\s t]rors ( ! ocean report$ by ! navigators :o fir/ sail$ t[>d ! ,new ,_w4 ,ext5sive deposits ( atmosph]ic du/ h attract$ att5tion f ! e>lie/ times4 ,ehr5b]g1 9 #ahdi1 collect$ records ( #cdi su* cases1 & publi%$ a map %[+ _! di/ribution1 :i* embraces ! great] "p ( ! _w4 ,atmosph]ic du/ is always br\ght d[n 9 great] or less quantities by ra94 ,:5 x consi/s ( f9e p[d]y s&1 ! ra9 sometimes acquires a br[ni% or r$di% t+e1 /a9+ objects on :i* x falls & con/itut+ ! 8%[]s ( blood0 t h be5 reg>d$ z prodigies f remote antiquity4 ,hom] describes su* a %[]1 & _m simil> occurr5ces are record$ by ! ,roman hi/orians4 ,italy1 ow+ to its proximity to ! ,african coa/1 is (t5 visit$ by ^! %[]s1 :i* /ill /rike sup]/iti\s t]ror into ! he>ts ( ! peasantry4 ,! millions ( meteors t ent] ! e>?'s atmosph]e e day contribute _! quota ( du/1 ?\gh ! total am\nt is small comp>$ ) t ( ! mat]ial lift$ f ! e>?4 ,f9e f]rug9\s p>ticles are (t5 se5 on ! sn[y summits ( high m\nta9s & ! pol> ice fields1 & bo? _! appe>ance & _! composition indicate t !y are d]iv$ f meteors4 ,=e/ fires1 burn+ peat b$s1 & o!r conflagrations on a l>ge scale dis*>ge quantities ( du/ into ! atmosph]e4 ,c9d]s f ! great ,*icago fire spread ov] a l>ge "p ( ! globe4 ,!y are said to h rea*$ ! ,azores "s =ty days aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! cata/rophe4 ,9 ,europe1 ! once common practice ( burn+ ! moors to prep>e !m = cultivation gave rise to huge volumes ( smoke1 :i* 0 c>ri$ by ! w9d hundr$s & ev5 ?\s&s ( miles4 ,! /ronghold ( ?is old cu/om--:i* /ill survives to "s ext5t--0 ,ea/ ,friesl&1 9 nor?we/]n ,g]many1 & ! *>act]i/ic haze to :i* x gave rise1 kn[n z 8moor smoke0 7,g]man1 ,moorrau*71 0 sometimes obs]v$ z f> away z ,spa91 ,italy1 & ,greece4 ,! fam\s 8d>k days0 t figure 9 bo? anci5t & mod]n hi/ory1 ?\gh 9 a few cases probably due to eclipses ( ! sun1 h g5]ally be5 ! result ( an abnormal accumulation ( smoke or du/ 9 ! air2 sometimes aris+ f volcanic eruptions1 b m (t5 f burn+ =e/s1 moors1 or prairies4 ,=e/ fires are ! pr9cipal cause ( d>k days 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,probably ! mo/ celebrat$ ( su* days 0 ,may #ai1 #aghj1 :51 9 consequ5ce ( great =e/ fires along ,lake ,*ampla9 & d[n to ! vic9ity ( ,ticond]oga1 d>kness l t ( night prevail$ 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,all b ! mo/ necess>y bus9ess 0 susp5d$1 ! s*ools 7 dismiss$1 & ! great] "p ( ! population flock$ to *ur* to prep>e = ! end ( ! _w1 :i* 0 believ$ to be at h&4 ,! great ,idaho fire ( ,augu/1 #aiaj1 0 responsible = d>k days ov] a l>g] area ?an 9 any o!r case on record 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,artificial light 0 requir$ 9 ! daytime ov] a broad belt1 ext5d+ f ,idaho to nor!rn ,v]mont1 b smoke 0 obs]v$ f> beyond ?is area4 ,! ,briti% %ip ,dunf]ml9e report$ t on ! ,pacific ,ocean1 #ejj miles we/ ( ,san ,francisco1 ! smell ( smoke 0 notic$ & haze prevail$ = t5 days4 ,:5 smoke 9 ! air =ms a r ?9 lay]1 ?r\gh :i* ! sunlight p5etrates feebly1 we sometimes get an effect simil> to ! gold5 gl[ ( sunset1 a yell[ or copp]y t+e be+ ca/ ov] ! l&scape4 ,su* 0 ! cause ( ! 8yell[ day0 /ill rememb]$ 9 ,new ,engl&--,septemb] #f1 #ahha--;attribut$ to ! burn+ ( ! imm5se peat bogs ( ! ,labrador b>r5s4 ,ano!r occasional cause ( atmosph]ic du/9ess is ! eruption ( volcanoes1 especially ^? ( an explosive "*1 :i* c>ry f9e du/ to heights at :i* x _c be wa%$ out ( ! atmosph]e by ra94 ,! rem>kable dry fog ( #aghc--! mo/ fam\s 9 hi/ory--:i* cov]$ ! great] "p ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica = ?ree or f\r mon?s--0 und\bt$ly due to ! viol5t eruptions ( t ye> 9 ,icel& & ,japan4 ,its connection ) ! ,icel& eruption 0 sugge/$ ev5 by contempor>y writ]s4 ,! outbreak ( ,krakatoa1 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies1 9 #ahhc1 spread a veil ( du/ ov] ! great] "p ( ! globe4 ,= two or ?ree ye>s its pres5ce 9 ! air 0 ! cause ( /rik+ optical ph5om5a1 includ+ gorge\s sunset gl[s4 ,! /ory is told ( an ,am]ican fire brigade :i*1 deceiv$ by "o ( ^! brilliant sunsets1 set out to ext+ui% :at 0 mi/ak5 = a great fire 9 a neighbor+ village4 ,a l>ge species ( corona ar\nd ! sun1 kn[n z 8,bi%op's r+10 because x 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ! ,rev4 ,s]5o ,bi%op ( ,honolulu1 appe>$ %ortly aft] ! eruption & rea*$ its maximum int5sity ! foll[+ ye>4 ,?is 0 due to ! diffraction ( light by ! exce$+ly f9e du/ f ! volcano1 & ! same ph5om5on has be5 se5 aft] o!r great explosive eruptions2 e4 g41 t ( ,mont ,pele1 9 #aijb4 ,"s au?orities believe t ! f9e/ p>ticles ( du/ f ! ,krakatoa eruption 7 c>ri$ to an altitude ( ov] fifty miles above ! e>?1 & rema9$ susp5d$ at v high levels = sev]al ye>s1 con/itut+ ! /range 8noctiluc5t cl\ds10 se5 on summ] nights f #ahhe onw>d4 ,^! cl\ds gl[$ ) a silv]y lu/]1 attribut$ to reflect$ sunlight4 ,a p]si/5t veil ( volcanic du/ 9 ! upp] air is ?\ght to ex]cise m>k$ effects ^u t]re/rial temp]atures1 & prolong$ p]iods ( int5se vulcanism h be5 reg>d$ z ! cause1 or "o ( ! causes1 ( ! recurr5t ice ages ( :i* geology furni%es ! record4 ,?is explanation ( ice ages 0 advanc$ by ,p4 & ,f4 ,s>as91 9 #aija1 & 0 fir/ put ^u a sci5tific basis by ,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,humphreys 9 #aiac2 b ! idea t volcanic du/ might be ! cause ( cold seasons 0 sugge/$ by ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 z e>ly z #aghd4 ,frankl9's speculations on ?is subject 7 prompt$ by ! cold w9t] ( #aghc-aghd1 :i* foll[$ ! extraord9>y fog ( #aghc1 already m5tion$4 ,humphreys has publi%$ a li/ ( all ! great volcanic outbreaks record$ s9ce #agej1 & has %[n t ea* ( !m regi/]$ itself 9 ! temp]atures ( ! e>? & also1 s9ce accurate measurem5ts began to be made ( sol> radiation1 9 ^! in/rum5tal records4 ,?us1 ! int5sely cold w9t]s ( #aghc-aghe foll[$ ! trem5d\s eruptions ( ,asama1 ,japan1 & ,skapt> ,jkull1 ,icel&1 9 #aghc2 ! fam\s 8ye> )\t a summ]0 7#ahaf7 0 ! sequel ( ! gigantic outbreak ( ,tomboro1 9 ! ,sunda ,isl&s1 9 #ahae1 :i* is said to h hurl$ ?irty-six cubic miles ( solid matt] into ! atmosph]e2 & def9ite p]iods ( l[ temp]atures & r$uc$ sun%9e 7 obs]v$ aft] ! eruptions ( ,mont ,pele1 9 #aijb1 & ,m\nt ,katmai1 ,alaska1 9 #aiab4 ,! effect ( a volcanic du/ veil 9 l[]+ temp]atures on e>? is attribut$ *iefly to ! fact t1 :ile ! f9e gra9s ( du/ are able to reflect back into space ! %ort waves ( radiation com+ f ! sun1 !y d n b> ! passage ( ! long heat waves radiat$ outw>d f ! e>?4 ,accord+ to ,humphreys's calculations1 su* a veil is ab\t ?irtyfold m effective 9 %utt+ sol> radiation out ?an 9 keep+ t]re/rial radiation 94 ,?is process is j ! rev]se ( ! famili> effect ( ! gre5h\se2 :]e ! glass lets 9 ! %ort waves ( sol> radiation b does n readily let out ! long waves ( e>? radiation4 ,a small cont+5t ( atmosph]ic du/ consi/s ( common salt 7sodium *loride7 due to ! evaporation ( spray f ! ocean4 ,?is sub/ance is frequ5tly f\nd 9 ra91 z well z 9 samples ( air1 n only ne> ! sea%ore1 b ev5 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts & on high m\nta9s4 ,accord+ to ,du ,bois ! am\nt ( sodium *loride annually deposit$ on ! dunes ( ,holl& is at lea/ #f1jjj1jjj kilograms 7m ?an #f1fjj tons74 ,"o ( ! /rik+ ph5om5a ( arid regions is ! du/ :irlw9d2 exemplifi$ 9 ! 8devils0 ( ,india & ,s\? ,africa1 ! 8twi/]s0 ( ,texas1 etc4 ,e4 ,e4 ,free1 9 8 treatise on 8,! ,movem5t ( ,soil ,mat]ial by ! ,w9d0 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,bullet9 #fh71 says ( ^! :irls3 8,!y may be se5 ne>ly e hot day1 sometimes runn+ rapidly ov] ! surface2 sometimes rema9+ ne>ly1 if n q1 /ation>y1 b nev] los+ _! rapid rotation4 ,!y usually la/ only a few m9utes1 b occasionally p]si/ mu* long]4 ,"o obs]v$ by ,pictet la/$ = ov] five h\rs4 ,!y are l>ge/ & la/ longe/ on ! flat1 b>e pla9s ( ! des]t1 & are usually se5 9 a calm or :5 only a light breeze is bl[+1 al?\gh _! occurr5ce 9 w9dy wea!r is n unkn[n4 ,^! :irls h be5 notic$ by _m travel]s 9 des]t & /eppe regions & h be5 c>efully obs]v$ by ,baddeley 9 ,india1 & by ,pictet 9 ,egypt4 ,!y are frequ5t 9 ,*9a & on ! pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & occasionally occur dur+ ! dry season ev5 9 ! humid regions4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ph5om5a 9 connection ) ! du/ :irls is ! occurr5ce ( sy/ems ( sev]al :irls1 ea* revolv+ rapidly ab\t its own c5t] & also mov+ ab\t a common c5t] 9 a m or less p]fect circle a few rods 9 diamet]40 ,! little :irls (t5 se5 on du/y roads are a m9iature v>iety ( ! same ph5om5on4 ,"o v important class ( du/ p>ticles 9 ! atmosph]e consi/s ( organic matt]1 liv+ or dead1 includ+ ! poll5 ( plants & ! c\ntless myriads ( microorganisms1 z well z a v>iety ( o!r products ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,an abundance ( poll5 9 ! air acc\nts = ! occasional fall ( yell[ ra91 describ$ z 8sulphur ra910 8gold5 %[]s10 etc4 ,! promptness ) :i* a piece ( /ale bread becomes moldy 9 a damp atmosph]e is "o ( _m pro(s ( ! omnipres5ce 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! microscopic spores ( fungi1 ready to propagate _! species ) amaz+ rapidity z soon z !y light ^u a suitable nutri5t m$ium4 ,la/1 b n lea/1 bact]ia1 ! mo/ m9ute ( all kn[n organisms--s small t ?\s&s or millions ( !m clu/]$ toge!r w\ld make a mass n l>g] ?an ! head ( a p9--sw>m 9 ! air1 z !y d 9 wat]1 ! soil1 & ! bodies ( animals4 ,=tunately1 :ile c]ta9 species ( bact]ia c>ry disease & dea? ) !m1 ! great majority are h>mless to mank9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,aitk5',s ,,du/ ,,c\nt] ,a great _m diff]5t me?ods are 9 use = det]m9+ ! total am\nt ( solid matt] pres5t 9 a giv5 volume ( air1 c\nt+ ! numb] ( p>ticles1 or ga!r+ samples = microscopic exam9ation4 ,?us a kn[n volume ( air may be drawn ?r\gh a filt] ( cotton wool or bubbl$ ?r\gh di/ill$ wat]1 & ! du/ deta9$ by ! cotton or deposit$ 9 ! wat] may be weigh$4 ,9 c]ta9 types ( app>atus ! air is drawn or =c$ aga9/ a plate or tube coat$ ) glyc]91 oil1 v>ni%1 gelat91 or o!r adhesive surface1 to :i* ! du/ rema9s atta*$4 ,sev]al devices dep5d = _! op]ation ^u ! fact t :5 a volume ( conf9$ air is cool$ by expansion a po9t is ev5tually rea*$ at :i* ! wat] vapor pres5t cond5ses to =m a fog1 ea* droplet ( :i* is suppos$ to h a s+le p>ticle ( du/ z its 8nucleus40 ,?is is ! pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! well-kn[n ,aitk5 du/ c\nt]1 :i* has be5 s ext5sively us$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 & has furni%$ mo/ ( ! impressive /ati/ics ( air du/9ess f\nd 9 textbooks & ref]5ce books4 ,?us1 f indications suppli$ by ?is in/rum5t1 x is /at$ t a cubic in* ( t[n air conta9s #ej1jjj1jjj p>ticles ( du/2 t a room1 ne> ! ceil+1 0 f\nd to conta9 #hh1jjj1jjj p>ticles p] cubic in*2 & t a cig>ette smok] s5ds #d1jjj1jjj1jjj p>ticles into ! air at e puff4 ,rec5t au?orities are incl9$ to look ^u ^! figures z mislead+1 = ! reason t ! nuclei c\nt$ ) ,aitk5's in/rum5t are probably s inf9itesimal 9 size t !y h>dly des]ve to be call$ du/2 inde$ !re is good reason to believe t an indef9itely l>ge proportion ( !m may actually be molecules ( gases4 ,! effects ( du/1 bo? inorganic & organic1 ^u ! heal? ( humanity w be consid]$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,c]ta9 k9ds ( du/ are ( economic importance on acc\nt ( _! inflammable & explosive "* :5 mix$ ) ! "r proportions ( air4 ,?us ! c]eal du/s made 9 ! h&l+ & work+ up ( gra9 into food products occasionally give rise to s]i\s accid5ts4 ,^! occur 9 c]eal1 fl\r1 & fe$ mills1 gra9 elevators1 />* & glucose factories1 & on f>ms 9 connection ) ! use ( ?re%+ ma*9es4 ,dur+ a p]iod ( t5 ye>s1 #aijf-aiaf1 c]eal du/ explosions result$ 9 ! loss ( eighty lives & ! de/ruction ( prop]ty to a value ( #b1jjj1jjj 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a /udy ( ?is subject has be5 made by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 & v>i\s recomm5dations h be5 publi%$ ) a view to prev5t+ ! occurr5ce ( sp>ks 9 ! neighborhood ( ^! dang]\s du/s4 ,coal du/ 9 m9es likewise causes num]\s explosions4 ,prev5tive measures include wett+ ! du/1 moi/5+ ! air1 & p[d]+ ! walls1 ro( & floor ( ! m9e ) a nonexplosive rock du/1 :i* has ! effect ( /ifl+ an incipi5t fire or explosion4 ,! la/ species ( du/ t we h to consid] 9 ?is *apt] is "o t con/itutes a lit]al blot on civilization1 s9ce ! noble/ cities & monum5ts ( mank9d are defac$ ) x4 ,nei!r are ! evils ( ?is k9d ( du/ :olly /hetic1 = x is extremely injuri\s to heal? & enorm\sly exp5sive4 ,aft] endur+ coal smoke z a necess>y evil = g5]ations1 civilis$ humanity has n[ emb>k$ ^u a vigor\s campaign = its elim9ation1 & v enc\rag+ results h already be5 a*iev$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! w> aga9/ smoke is c>ri$ on by num]\s societies 9 ,europe & ,am]ica2 a multitude ( laws & ord9ances 7n all ( !m effective7 h be5 enact$ on ! subject2 x has be5 ! occasion ( int]national conf]5ces & expositions2 & its lit]ature has gr[n s copi\s t a p>tial bibliography ( ! subject1 publi%$ a few ye>s ago by ! ,mellon ,in/itute1 ( ,pittsburgh1 fills #afd pages4 ,! smok+ ( *imneys is co/ly1 9 ! fir/ place1 because x is due to imp]fect combu/ion & ! wa/e ( "p ( ! heat+ value ( ! fuel1 &1 9 ! second place1 on acc\nt ( ! damage wr\ght by ! deposit ( ! soot4 ,?us a smoky atmosph]e entails big laundry & dry-clean+ bills1 frequ5t repa9t+ ( h\ses1 injury to metal "w1 damage to goods 9 %ops1 & excessive artificial light+ 9 ! daytime4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is said t smoke causes an annual wa/e & damage am\nt+ to five hundr$ million doll>s4 ,9 ,pittsburgh alone--be=e ! re=m produc$ by vigor\s legislative & sci5tific measures1 foll[+ an exhau/ive inve/igation by ! ,mellon ,in/itute ( ,indu/rial ,rese>*--! co/ ( ! smoke nuisance 0 e/imat$ at ne>ly t5 million doll>s a ye>4 ,means ( mitigat+ ?is evil include ! introduction ( improv$ appliances = burn+ s(t coal1 & ! use ( o!r k9ds ( fuel4 ,! electrification ( ! railway l9es ent]+ cities is an important measure ( relief4 ,x is e/imat$ t m ?an "o-?ird ( ! smoke f\nd 9 c]ta9 ,am]ican cities comes f locomotives4 ,sy/ematic measurem5ts ( ! am\nt ( solid matt] contribut$ to ! atmosph]e by smoke h be5 made at v>i\s places 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad1 & yield />tl+ figures4 ,measures ( ! 8sootfall0 9 ,pittsburgh1 be=e ! evil !re 0 mitigat$1 %[$ an annual av]age deposit am\nt+ to #a1jca tons p] squ>e mile4 ,london's av]age is #bdh tons p] squ>e mile = ! :ole city & #dbf tons 9 ! c5tral di/ricts4 ,9 ! he>t ( ,glasg[ ! annual sootfall is #hbj tons p] squ>e mile4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 measurem5ts & analyses ( soot & ! /udy ( its effects h be5 c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale = a numb] ( ye>s by ! ,advisory ,committee on ,atmosph]ic ,pollution1 atta*$ to ! ,meteorological ,(fice4 ,! ,committee has in/all$ 8pollution gauges10 ( uni=m type1 at ab\t tw5ty-five places 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,! soot t falls into ^! gauges is collect$ once a mon?1 weigh$ & analyz$4 ,?is organization also makes direct measurem5ts ( ! purity ( ! air1 & has acquir$ a unique body ( obs]vations t c be us$ to te/ ! success ( ef=ts made to abate ! smoke nuisance1 besides provid+ int]e/+ comp>isons betwe5 ! incid5ce ( respiratory diseases & ! am\nt ( solid matt] 9 ! air4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,wea!r ,,& ,,wea!r ,,in/rum5ts ,! fact t a va/ proportion ( ! conv]sations 9 :i* human be+s engage beg9 ) rem>ks ab\t ! wea!r has (t5 be5 not$1 b p]haps nev] fully expla9$4 ,meteorologi/s sometimes adduce ?is fact z evid5ce t wea!r is a subject ( ov]%ad[+ importance4 ,?is bit ( reason+ w n1 h[ev]1 be> critical analysis4 ,x c>ries ) x ! implication t p talk ab\t wea!r because wea!r is upp]mo/ 9 _! ?\ghts4 ,h[ (t5 is su* ! case8 ,br[n1 meet+ ,jones1 rem>ks t x is a f9e day4 ,are we to inf] t ,br[n 0 m$itat+ ^u ! agreeable /ate ( ! atmosph]e be=e he v\*saf$ ?is n altoge!r novel obs]vation8 ,h>dly4 ,!re is ab\t "o *ance 9 a ?\s& t wea!r 0 9 8 m9d at all4 ,x is a plausible !sis t p talk s mu* ab\t wea!r because1 at an e>li] p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( mank9d1 ?is subject 0 ( supreme importance4 ,p]haps x is a cu/om h&$ d[n f our remote ance/ors1 ^: occupations 7 ne>ly all c>ri$ on out-(-doors & :o enjoy$ b a prec>i\s %elt] f ! elem5ts 9 _! rude habitations4 ,9 ,india1 z ! p]iod ( ! monsoon ra9s approa*es1 anxiety ab\t ! timely arrival & ! abundance ( ^! %[]s eclipses all o!r ?\ghts 9 ! m9d ( ! peasant1 because a sev]e dr\ght at ?is season means a fam9e4 ,:5 our =efa!rs liv$ by hunt+1 fi%+1 & crude sy/ems ( graz+ & agriculture1 !y 71 no d\bt1 equally solicit\s ab\t atmosph]ic conditions t directly affect$ _! food supply4 ,9 ^? days comm5ts on ! wea!r 7 by no means empty =mulas4 ,m5 rejoic$ toge!r t ! day 0 f9e1 because x 0 a circum/ance ^u :i* _! d9n] dep5d$2 & ! prehi/oric equival5t ( 8,:at bea/ly wea!r60 0 probably accompani$ by a significant tight5+ ( ! belt4 ,c]ta9 x is t 9 v e>ly times p gave a great deal ( att5tion to ! wea!r & acquir$ a fund ( wisdom on ! subject :i*1 along ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( sup]/iti\s unwisdom1 has come d[n to u 9 ! %ape ( wea!r prov]bs4 ,_m ( ^! prov]bs und\bt$ly orig9at$ be=e ! dawn ( hi/ory1 = !y are f\nd 9 sub/antially ! same =m among widely scatt]$ races ( mank9d4 ,v>i\s popul> wea!r progno/ics famili> at ! pres5t day are m5tion$ 9 su* anci5t docum5ts z ! ,v$as1 ! ,bible1 & ! cunei=m tablets f ! libr>y ( ,assurbanipal4 ,speculations ab\t ! wea!r occupy mu* space 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 & a =mal treatise on meteorology1 writt5 by ,ari/otle 7f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c471 rema9$ ! /&>d "w on ?is subject = two ?\s& ye>s4 ,m or less sy/ematic wea!r records 7 kept by ! ,greeks long be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & !y produc$ a numb] ( almanacs1 9 ! %ape ( m>ble tablets1 %[+ ! av]age w9ds & wea!r = p>ticul> dates ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,a copi\s collection ( ! wea!r indications f\nd 9 bo? ,greek & ,roman almanacs1 dat+ back to ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 has be5 made by ,dr4 ,gu/av ,hellmann4 ,"s ( ! meteorological in/rum5ts us$ today h a v respectable antiquity4 ,anci5t /ati/ics ( ! ra9fall ( ,india1 rec5tly br\ght to light1 %[ t "s sort ( ra9 gauge mu/ h be5 9 use 9 t c\ntry 9 ! f\r? c5tury be=e our era4 ,measurem5ts ( ra9fall 7 made 9 ,pale/9e 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,! only o!r meteorological in/rum5t dat+ back to classical antiquity1 s f> z kn[n1 is ! wea!r vane4 ,! ,t[] ( ! ,w9ds1 at ,a!ns1 built ab\t a c5tury be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 orig9ally bore at its summit a vane 9 ! %ape ( a bronze ,triton1 hold+ 9 8 h& a w&1 :i* 0 design$ to po9t at "o or ano!r ( ! eight symbolical figures ( ! pr9cipal w9ds surr\nd+ ! octagonal t[]1 ?us %[+ :i* way ! w9d 0 bl[+ at ! "t4 ,! ,roman writ] ,v>ro has left u a description ( a vane t c\ld be read indoors by means ( a dial on ! ceil+4 ,in/rum5tal wea!r obs]vations did n become ! rule1 h[ev]1 until ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :5 ! use ( !rmomet]s1 hygromet]s1 b>omet]s1 & ra9 gauges began 9 ,italy & spread rapidly to o!r c\ntries4 ,! orig9 ( ea* ( ^! in/rum5ts is commonly ascrib$ to a p>ticul> inv5tor--! !rmomet] to ,galileo1 ! b>omet] to ,torricelli1 etc4--b ! tru? is t ! idea ( ! in/rum5t 01 9 ea* case1 a sl[ gr[?1 to :i* _m m9ds contribut$4 ,?us a =m ( !rmoscope--a device = %[+ b n = measur+ ! expansion & contraction ( air ) *anges ( temp]ature--0 describ$ by ,philo ( ,byzantium 9 ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,galileo suppli$ su* an in/rum5t ) a scale1 b )\t fix$ po9ts1 ?us conv]t+ x into a crude !rmomet]1 b x 0 n until half a c5tury lat] t ! ,gr& ,duke ,f]d9& ,,ii ( ,tuscany introduc$ ! idea ( fill+ ! !rmomet] ) alcohol1 9 place ( air1 & seal+ x s t x 0 n affect$ by *anges 9 b>ometric pressure4 ,! !rmometric scale n[ us$ 9 ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries1 :i* be>s ! "n ( ,fahr5heit1 appe>s to h be5 devis$ by ! ,dani% a/ronom] ,ole ,rm]1 f :om ,fahr5heit borr[$ x4 ,9 %ort1 any brief acc\nt ( ! inv5tion ( ! pr9cipal meteorological in/rum5ts necess>ily ignores ! j claims ( _m inv5tors2 to say no?+ ( ! fact t :at is writt5 on ! subject to-day is likely to be refut$ to-morr[ by ! discov]y ( "s =gott5 book or manuscript4 ,we are on saf] gr\nd 9 say+ t ! plan ( measur+ ! wea!r1 in/ead ( m]ely obs]v+ x1 became g5]al e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury2 & t ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! fur!r improvem5t 0 introduc$ ( mak+ meteorological in/rum5ts trace _! own records1 s t ! human obs]v] 01 to a great ext5t1 disp5s$ )4 ,self-regi/]+ in/rum5ts are n[ ! rule at important meteorological obs]vatories & /ations1 ?\gh !y d n1 ev5 yet1 record all ! elem5ts ( wea!r1 & at a ho/ ( m9or /ations none ( !m h yet replac$ ! eye ( ! obs]v]4 ,n[ let u see :at ?+s g to make up ! wea!r1 & h[ ^! ?+s are obs]v$ by ! mod]n meteorologi/4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 if n exactly a "p ( ! wea!r1 is s intimately associat$ ) x t we _c exclude x f our li/ ( wea!r ph5om5a4 ,atmosph]ic pressure is measur$ ) ! b>omet]1 & ! importance ( ?is in/rum5t z a key to wea!r *anges is fully recogniz$--& inde$ ov]rat$--by ! layman1 :o sometimes calls x ! 8wea!r glass40 ,illu/ration3 ,,m]curial ,,b>omet] 7,=t9 type7 ,until rec5tly all ,briti% & ,am]ican b>omet]s 7 read 9 in*es & all o!rs 9 millimet]s4 ,s9ce atmosph]ic pressure is a =ce1 ! practice ( measur+ x 9 units ( l5g? is r l measur+ "t 9 bu%els or potatoes 9 h\rs4 ,! inconsi/5cy is s]i\s f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 because x divorces b>ometric measurem5ts f o!r physical measurem5ts1 9 :i* pressures are measur$ 9 units t h no?+ to d ) l5g?2 viz41 dynes p] squ>e c5timet]4 ,accord+ly1 "s ( ! lead+ meteorological s]vices ( ! _w h lately adopt$ a new unit ( b>ometric pressure1 kn[n z ! b>1 :i* is equival5t to #a1jjj1jjj dynes p] squ>e c5timet]4 ,x is subdivid$ accord+ to ! ord9>y metric notation1 & its mo/ commonly us$ subdivision is ! millib>1 equival5t to #j4jc in* on ! old-fa%ion$ b>omet] scale1 "u /&>d conditions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an]oid ,,b>omet]1 ,,graduat$ ,,9 ,,millib>s ,,& ,,in*es ,= ! b5efit ( sailors a curve is %[n indicat+ ! mean annual pressure 9 diff]5t latitudes along ! m]idian ( #cj ,w4 7,c\rtesy ( ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice47 ,! m]curial b>omet] is s delicate & cumb]some t = _m practical purposes x is replac$ by ! m conv5i5t ?\gh less accurate an]oid b>omet]4 ,a self-record+ b>omet] 7usually an an]oid7 is call$ a b>ograph4 ,9 its ord9>y =m1 ?is in/rum5t c>ries a p51 :i* traces a cont9u\s record ( ! b>ometric pressure on a /rip ( pap] w\nd ar\nd a cyl9d] turn$ by clockwork4 ,g5]ally ! in/rum5t runs = a week be=e ! pap] has to be *ang$4 ,! b>ograph is a v in/ructive in/rum5t1 because x %[s1 n only ! pressure1 b also ! *anges ( pressure--i4 e41 j h[ fa/ ! b>omet] is ris+ or fall+1 or1 z meteorologi/s say1 ! 8b>ometric t5d5cy40 ,! way 9 :i* b>ometric *anges are relat$ to wea!r w appe> 9 a lat] "p ( ?is book4 ,! m]curial b>omet] consi/s ( a glass tube1 seal$ at its upp] end & hav+ at its l[] end a 8ci/]n10 :i* is op5 to ! air4 ,! tube is fill$ ) m]cury at its op5 end1 & !n inv]t$ ov] ! ci/]n1 & ! m]cury desc5ds until ! weight ( ! portion /&+ above ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n j balances ! pressure ( ! air on an area equal to ! cross section ( ! tube4 ,! height ( ! m]curial column is read f a graduat$ scale atta*$ to ! tube4 ,c]ta9 corrections are appli$ to ! read+1 9 ord] to elim9ate v>iations due to temp]ature1 etc41 &1 if to be ent]$ on a wea!r map1 ! read+ is r$uc$ to sea-level value4 ,9 ! an]oid b>omet]1 a ?9-wall$ metal box1 exhau/$ ( air1 und]goes *anges ( %ape 9 response to *anges 9 atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! movem5ts ( ! box are communicat$ by lev]s to a po9t] mov+ ar\nd a dial 7or to ! record+ p51 9 ! b>ograph74 ,s9ce ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e dim9i%es ) increas+ altitude at a fairly def9ite rate1 ! b>omet] is us$ = measur+ heights4 ,sometimes x is graduat$ directly1 = ?is purpose1 9 feet or met]s1 & x is !n call$ an altimet]4 ,among ! meteorological elem5ts t unmi/akably p]ta9 to wea!r ! mo/ important is ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,! !rmomet]1 ) :i* temp]ature is measur$1 is1 9 its common =m & 9 its ess5tial features1 too famili> to require description "h2 b we may rem>k t1 z 9 ! case ( ! b>omet]1 sev]al me?ods ( graduat+ ?is in/rum5t h be5 us$4 ,besides num]\s obsolete sy/ems1 !re are ?ree diff]5t !rmometric scales--! ,fahr5heit1 ! ,c5tigrade1 & ! ,absolute4 ,! fir/ is /ill ! prevail+ "o 9 ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries1 & ! second prevails 9 all o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,absolute scale1 long famili> to physici/s1 has rec5tly come into some:at limit$ use 9 meteorology4 ,x />ts at ! 8absolute z]o0--! temp]ature ( a body totally devoid ( heat4 ,?is temp]ature has be5 ne>ly atta9$ 9 laboratory exp]im5ts ) liquid helium4 ,"o advantage t ! ,absolute scale possesses ov] ! o!rs is t x has no bel[-z]o read+s4 ,su* read+s are a s\rce ( occasional errors :5 temp]ature is record$ on ! ,fahr5heit or ! ,c5tigrade scale4 ,! freez+ po9t ( wat] is #cb ,fahr5heit #j ,c5tigrade #bgc ,absolute4 ,! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 at sea level1 is #bab ,fahr5heit #ajj ,c5tigrade #cgc ,absolute4 ,:ile ! layman is well acqua9t$ ) ! !rmomet]1 he sometimes fails to und]/& c]ta9 diff]5ces betwe5 ! sci5tific & unsci5tific me?ods ( us+ ?is in/rum5t = wea!r-measur+ purposes4 ,on a hot summ] day he is1 p]haps1 incl9$ to feel aggriev$ because ! (ficial record ( temp]ature does n adequately express ! /ate ( 8 feel+s1 to say no?+ ( be+ at odds ) ! impressive in/rum5t display$ at ! corn] drug /ore4 ,h5ce ! foll[+ explanation is 9 ord]3 ,x is ! function ( ! (ficial !rmomet] to indicate ! true temp]ature ( ! air4 ,a !rmomet] expos$ to direct sun%9e records its own temp]ature--i4 e41 ! temp]ature ( ! glass & m]cury--& no?+ else4 ,a !rmomet] 89 ! %ade0--"u a tree1 = example--comes ne>] to %[+ ! true air temp]ature2 b x is expos$ to radiation f surr\nd+ objects & its read+s w v>y ) ! nature & location ( ^! objects4 ,! meteorological !rmomet] is ne>ly always in/all$ 9 a k9d ( lattic$ scre51 or %elt]4 ,x is ?us l>gely protect$ f radiation1 :ile ! air circulates freely ar\nd x4 ,only :5 !rmomet]s are expos$ "u su* /&>d conditions is x possible to obta9 comp>able read+s ( ! temp]ature at diff]5t places1 s t1 = in/ance1 maps may be drawn %[+ ! di/ribution ( ?is elem5t ov] a c\ntry4 ,! be/ location = ! !rmomet] scre5 is a few feet above sod4 ,_m !rmomet]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau are in/all$ on ! ro(s ( tall build+s2 n because ?is is an ideal location1 b because no bett] is available 9 ! he>t ( a l>ge city1 :]e1 = practical reasons1 ! (fice has to be plac$4 ,9 _m small t[ns ! site ( ! /ation is su* t ! !rmomet] scre5 7or 8in/rum5t %elt]10 z x is call$ 9 ! ,wea!r ,bureau7 c be plac$ close to ! gr\nd1 & at ! same "t get ample v5tilation & be free f ! radiation ( build+s4 ,9 c]ta9 l>ge cities ! ,bureau ma9ta9s a bran* /ation 9 a p>k or 9 ! suburbs1 :]e a satisfactory exposure = all in/rum5ts c be secur$4 ,! artificial temp]ature ( a city /reet is too local & indef9ite a ?+ to be inscrib$ on wea!r maps1 utiliz$ by ! =eca/]1 or embodi$ 9 climatic /ati/ics4 ,z a concession1 h[ev]1 to ! dem& ( ! 8man 9 ! /reet0 = a record ( conditions prevail+ 9 8 own sph]e1 ! ,wea!r ,bureau has in/all$ 9 sev]al cities little pavilions 9 :i* work+ meteorological in/rum5ts are display$ = ! b5efit ( ! public4 ,! !rmomet]s 9 ^! s-call$ 8kiosks0--:i* are model$1 ) improvem5ts1 aft] ! wea!r pavilions f\nd at ,european heal? resorts--always read sev]al degrees high] 9 hot wea!r ?an ! !rmomet] at ! regul> ,wea!r ,bureau /ation 9 ! same vic9ity4 ,su* records are erratic1 at be/1 & pres5t indications are t ! kiosks w ev5tually be aboli%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,maximum ,,& ,,m9imum ,,!rmomet]s ,besides ! ord9>y !rmomet]1 !re are in/rum5ts t answ] ! que/ions 8,h[ hot 0 x to-day80 & 8,h[ cold 0 x la/ night80 ,^! are kn[n1 respectively1 z ! maximum & ! m9imum !rmomet]4 ,!y hang almo/ horizontally 9 ! scre54 ,! =m] has a con/riction j above ! bulb1 :i* prev5ts ! m]cury f retreat+ aft] x has rea*$ ! highe/ read+ = ! day4 ,x c be reset by :irl+ x on a pivot4 ,! m9imum !rmomet] is fill$ ) _s in/ead ( m]cury4 ,a little index inside ! column is c>ri$ t[>d ! bulb by ! surface ( ! alcohol z ! temp]ature falls4 ,:5 ! temp]ature rises ! index rema9s beh9d1 m>k+ ! l[e/ po9t rea*$4 ,! highe/ & l[e/ temp]ature ( ! day1 z well z ! temp]ature at any mom5t ( ! day1 c be read f ! !rmograph1 or self-regi/]+ !rmomet]4 ,9 ! commone/ type ( !rmograph *anges ( temp]ature alt] ! curvature ( a flexible metal tube fill$ ) _s1 & ! movem5ts ( ! free end ( ! tube are communicat$ by lev]s to a record+ p54 ,on an av]age day1 9 our climates1 ! air is colde/ ab\t sunrise4 ,! appe>ance ( ! sun *ecks ! atmosph]ic cool+ due to ! loss ( heat f ! e>? t has be5 go+ on ?r\gh ! night1 & ! air beg9s to w>m up4 ,z long z ! am\nt ( incom+ heat f ! sun is great] ?an ! am\nt ( outgo+ heat f ! e>?1 ! temp]ature w cont9ue to rise4 ,aft] noon1 :5 ! sun is highe/1 ! supply ( sol> heat dim9i%es1 b x is /ill great]1 = a "t1 ?an ! heat loss f ! e>?1 & = ?is reason ! temp]ature1 z a rule1 keeps on ris+ until "s "t t[>d ! middle ( ! aft]noon1 :5 ! maximum temp]ature ( ! day occurs4 ,humidity is an elem5t ( wea!r t is m (t5 talk$ ab\t ?an und]/ood4 ,atmosph]ic humidity is ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e ) respect to ! am\nt ( moi/ure x conta9s 9 a gase\s =m1 n 9 ! =m ( a liquid4 ,?is gase\s moi/ure is call$ wat] vapor1 & x is n directly p]ceptible to ! s5ses1 z liquid wat] is4 ,z we h expla9$ else:]e1 ! capacity ( ! air = wat] vapor increases ) ! temp]ature4 ,! actual am\nt pres5t at any "t1 p] unit volume1 is call$ ! absolute humidity1 & ! ratio ( ?is am\nt to ! maximum am\nt ! air c hold at ! same temp]ature is call$ ! relative humidity4 ,! latt] is g5]ally express$ 9 p]c5tage4 ,:5 ! air is *>g$ to its full capacity ) aque\s vapor its relative humidity is #ajj p] c5t4 ,! relative humidity usually v>ies greatly ?r\gh ! day1 be+ g5]ally l[e/ :5 ! temp]ature is highe/1 & vice v]sa4 ,x is an elem5t ( mu* practical int]e/1 because x is "o ( ! ma9 factors 9 det]m9+ ! dry+ p[] ( ! air1 ! o!r important "o be+ w9d4 ,! air feels dry :5 evaporation proce$s rapidly f our sk91 ei!r on acc\nt ( l[ relative humidity1 brisk air movem5t1 or bo?4 ,p are h>dly consci\s ( high relative humidity except :51 9 hot wea!r1 x ret>ds ! evaporation ( p]spiration1 & ! latt] collects 9 liquid =m on ! sk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,!rmograph ,relative humidity does n owe its importance 9 human affairs solely to its physiological effects1 = x plays a prom95t "p 9 num]\s indu/ries--textile1 metallurgical1 *emical1 lea!r1 food1 & all ^? employ+ dry+ processes4 ,9 ! sp9n+ ( cotton & wool1 = example1 ! humidity ( ! workroom greatly affects ! weight ( ! mat]ial1 ! size ( ! y>n1 & ! l5g? & flexibility ( ! fib]s4 ,humidity mu/ likewise be tak5 into acc\nt 9 su* div]se indu/ries z manufactur+ c&y1 bread1 high explosives & photographic films1 dry+ mac>oni & tobacco1 & op]at+ bla/ furnaces4 ,!re are eng9e]s :o specialize 9 ! bus9ess ( in/all+ 8humidify+0 & 8dehumidify+0 sy/ems 9 work%ops1 & also1 = hygi5ic purposes1 9 s*oolh\ses & o!r public build+s4 ,! absolute humidity1 ! relative humidity & ! dew po9t 7! temp]ature to :i* ! air mu/ be br\ght to />t cond5sation ( its moi/ure7 are all det]m9$ by means ( in/rum5ts call$ hygromet]s4 ,! hair hygromet] dep5ds = its action ^u ! fact t a hair1 fre$ f oil1 n only absorbs moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 b elongates :5 damp & contracts :5 dry4 ,! in/rum5t1 :i* includes a s+le human hair or a bundle ( su* hairs1 is s design$ t ^! *anges move an index ov] a graduat$ scale4 ,?is & o!r types ( hygromet] c be arrang$ to record _! own read+s cont9u\sly1 con/itut+ a hygrograph4 ,! =m ( hygromet] mo/ commonly met ) at meteorological /ations is call$ a psy*romet]4 ,?is usually consi/s ( a pair ( m]curial !rmomet]s1 "o ( :i*1 kn[n z ! 8wet-bulb !rmomet]10 has its bulb wrapp$ 9 ?9 musl94 ,! o!r1 call$ ! 8dry-bulb10 is an ord9>y !rmomet]4 ,! musl9 is moi/5$1 ei!r j be=e mak+ a read+1 or cont9u\sly ) a wick4 ,9 ! =m] case ! !rmomet] is g5]ally :irl$ sev]al times be=e ! read+ is tak54 ,unless ! air is saturat$1 ! wet bulb is cool$ by evaporation1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! read+s ( ! two in/rum5ts enables ! obs]v]1 ) ! aid ( suitable tables1 to obta9 ! absolute & relative humidity & ! dew po9t4 ,! mo/ accurate results are obta9$ f ! aspiration psy*romet]1 ( ,assmann1 9 :i* air is drawn pa/ ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] by a small fan1 driv5 by clockwork4 ,deposits ( liquid & froz5 wat] f ! atmosph]e1 9 _! v>i\s =ms1 are kn[n collectively z 8precipitation10 & 9 ! aggregate !y con/itute a feature ( ! wea!r h>dly less important ?an temp]ature4 ,inde$ an av]age ra9/orm or sn[/orm is a m obtrusive ev5t ?an any o!r equally common manife/ation ( ! wea!r2 :ile an excess ( precipitation or a prolong$ lack ( x1 con/itut+ a dr\ght1 may be z s]i\s 9 its consequ5ces z a 8hot wave0 or a 8freeze40 ,precipitation--famili>ly call$ 8ra9fall0--is mu* m ext5sively measur$ ?an any o!r meteorological elem5t1 = !re are1 ?r\gh\t ! _w1 a va/ numb] ( places at :i* ?is is ! only feature ( ! wea!r t is regul>ly obs]v$4 ,9 ,europe alone !re are ab\t #ai1jjj 8ra9fall /ations40 ,ra9fall is measur$ 9 dep?2 viz41 9 in*es or millimet]s4 ,a mod]ate %[] ( sev]al h\rs' duration w yield an in* or two ( ra91 :ile 9 extreme cases sev]al in*es may fall 9 an h\r4 ,sn[ is sometimes measur$ z su*--i4 e41 ! actual dep? t falls1 or1 m commonly1 ! am\nt ly+ on ! gr\nd f day to day--b 9 ord] t records ( sn[fall may be comb9$ ) ^? ( ra9fall = ! purpose ( det]m9+ ! total precipitation1 ! sn[fall mu/ be r$uc$ to its 8wat] equival5t10 ei!r by melt+ ! sn[ be=e measurem5t or by e/imat+ ?is equival5t or by weigh+ ! sn[ caught 9 a receiv] ( kn[n area & comput+ ! correspond+ dep? ( wat]4 ,!re are _m k9ds ( ra9 gauge4 ,z a rule ! gauge has a funnel-%ap$ receiv] ) a small op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! wat] fl[s into ! l[] "p ( ! gauge2 loss ( ! accumulat$ wat] by evaporation is ?us *eck$4 ,!re is usually "s device = magnify+ ! dep? ( ra9fall 9 ord] to facilitate measurem5t4 ,9 ,am]ican gauges ! ra9 fl[s into an inn] tube hav+ "o-t5? ! horizontal area ( ! receiv]1 & its dep? is ?us magnifi$ t5 times4 ,a measurem5t is made by ?ru/+ a graduat$ wood5 /ick to ! bottom ( ! tube & not+ ! height to :i* ! /ick is wett$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tipp+-,,bucket ,,ra9 ,,gauge ,( devices = obta9+ an automatic record ( ra9fall1 ! tipp+ bucket 7or1 z ! ,briti% call x1 ! 8tilt+ bucket07 is probably ! mo/ s]viceable1 & x is ! "o mo/ widely us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,?is in/rum5t is z simple z x is +5i\s4 ,! 8bucket0 is a little metal tr\gh1 pivot$ 9 ! middle1 s t x c tilt back & =?1 seesaw-fa%ion4 ,x is divid$ into two comp>tm5ts by a c5tral p>tition4 ,ra9 fall+ into ! funnel-%ap$ receiv] at ! top ( ! gauge fl[s into :i*ev] comp>tm5t ( ! bucket is upp]mo/1 until ! weight ( ! wat] causes ! bucket to tip1 ?us empty+ "o comp>tm5t & pres5t+ ! o!r to ! incom+ /ream4 ,:5 ! second comp>tm5t is fill$1 ! bucket tips 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! p>ts ( ! gauge are ( su* dim5sions t ea* tip ( ! bucket corresponds to #j4ja in* ( ra9fall4 ,! gauge is connect$ electrically ) regi/]+ app>atus indoors1 s t e tip ( ! bucket is record$4 ,! regi/ration %eet %[s ! "t ( occurr5ce z well z ! am\nt ( ra9fall4 ,! two mo/ important ?+s ab\t ! w9d t are obs]v$ & record$ by meteorologi/s are its direction & its =ce4 ,x is ! univ]sal cu/om to reg>d z 8! direction ( ! w9d0 ! direction f :i*1 r ?an t[>d :i*1 x bl[s4 ,moreov]1 x is only ! horizontal direction ( ! w9d t is ord9>ily obs]v$1 ?\gh _m w9ds h a consid]able upw>d or d[nw>d slant1 &1 locally1 a w9d may ev5 bl[ /raight up or /raight d[n4 ,! direction ( ! w9d may be obs]v$ 9 sev]al make%ift ways1 su* z by wat*+ ! drift ( smoke f *imneys1 or1 z sailors d1 hold+ up a wet f+] to ! breeze4 ,in/rum5tally & sci5tifically x is obs]v$ ) a special type ( vane1 mu* m accurate 9 its indications ?an ! wea!r vanes & wea!r cocks ( ornam5tal & symbolical ar*itecture4 ,! nonsci5tific vane1 once set 9 motion1 is likely to be c>ri$ too f> by its own mom5tum1 & may ev5 sp9 completely ar\nd "u a sudd5 impulse4 ,9 ! sci5tific vane ?is t5d5cy is re/ra9$ by means ( a spread tail2 ! pressure ( ! w9d on ! div]g+ blades s]v+ to hold ! vane 9 ! correct position4 ,! vane1 l mo/ o!r meteorological in/rum5ts1 is self-record+ at all important meteorological /ations4 ,! type us$ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau regi/]s ! direction ( ! w9d e m9ute4 ,! =ce ( ! w9d is obta9$ f an anemomet]4 ,mo/ anemomet]s d n1 h[ev]1 %[ ?is directly1 b are design$ to measure ! spe$ or s-call$ 8velocity0 ( ! w9d1 f :i* its =ce may be comput$4 ,! spe$ is obs]v$ 9 miles p] h\r or met]s p] second4 ,9 consid]+ "s ( ! possible effects ( w9d x is well to be> 9 m9d t its =ce increases z ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,?is means1 = example1 t a w9d ( #bj miles an h\r is f\r times z /rong1 & "o ( #cj miles an h\r n9e times z /rong z a w9d ( #aj miles an h\r4 ,"o ( ! ext]nal features ( a wea!r /ation t inv>iably attracts ! att5tion ( ! pass]-by is an in/rum5t consi/+ ( f\r hemisph]ical cups revolv+ horizontally 9 ! w9d4 ,?is sci5tific :irligig is ! ,rob9son cup anemomet]1 :i*1 9 spite ( its %ortcom+s1 is ! mo/ widely us$ in/rum5t ( its class ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,z g5]ally con/ruct$1 ! cups are suppos$ to turn #ejj times = a mile ( w9d movem5t4 ,actually ! relation betwe5 ! spe$ ( ! cups & ! spe$ ( ! w9d is some:at v>iable1 & at high velocities ! indications ( ! in/rum5t are s]i\sly errone\s4 ,! ,rob9son anemomet] has a dial f :i* direct read+s c be made1 b at l>ge /ations x is connect$ electrically ) a regi/]+ device 9 ! obs]v]'s (fice1 :i* makes a m>k = ea* mile ( w9d & %[s h[ ! spe$ ( ! w9d v>ies ?r\gh ! day4 ,!re are _m o!r types ( anemomet]1 & "s ( !m tell a mu* m detail$ /ory ( ! w9d's v>iations ?an does ! ,rob9son in/rum5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?\s&s ( wea!r obs]v]s disp5se ) anemomet]s altoge!r & m]ely e/imate ! /r5g? ( ! w9d f its effects4 ,?is applies to ne>ly all obs]v]s at sea1 &1 9 ,europe1 to ! va/ majority ( obs]v]s on l&4 ,su* e/imates are record$ on a scale rang+ f z]o1 = a calm1 g5]ally up to t5 or twelve = ! /ronge/ w9ds ev] exp]i5c$4 ,sev]al diff]5t scales are 9 use4 ,! be/ kn[n is ! ,beau=t ,scale1 devis$ by ,admiral ,sir ,f4 ,beau=t1 9 #ahje4 ,! foll[+ table ( ! ,beau=t ,scale1 z adapt$ = use on l&1 is f ! 8,obs]v]'s ,h&book0 ( ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,beau=t ,explanatory ,specification ( ,beau=t ,scale ,equival5t numb] titles = use on l& bas$ on spe$ 9 obs]vations made at l& miles p] /ations h\r at #cc feet ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #j ,calm ,calm2 smoke rises v]tically #j #a ,light air ,direction ( w9d %[n by smoke drift1 b n by w9d vanes #b #b ,slight breeze ,w9d felt on face2 leaves ru/le2 ord9>y vane mov$ by w9d #e #c ,g5tle breeze ,leaves & small twigs 9 con/ant motion w9d ext5ds light flag #aj #d ,mod]ate ,raises du/ & loose pap]2 breeze small bran*es are mov$ #ae #e ,fre% breeze ,small trees 9 leaf beg9 to sway2 cre/$ wavelets =m on inl& wat]s #ba #f ,/rong breeze ,l>ge bran*es 9 motion2 :i/l+ he>d 9 telegraph wires2 umbrellas us$ ) difficulty #bg #g ,high w9d ,:ole trees 9 motion2 inconv5i5ce felt :5 walk+ aga9/ w9d #ce #h ,gale ,breaks twigs (f trees2 g5]ally imp$es progress #db #i ,/rong gale ,slight /ructural damage occurs 7*imney pots & slates remov$7 #ej #aj ,:ole gale ,seldom exp]i5c$ inl&2 trees uproot$2 consid]able /ructural damage occurs #ei #aa ,/orm ,v r>ely exp]i5c$2 accompani$ by widespread damage #fh #ab ,hurricane ,above #ge ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! cl\ds receive m att5tion at "s wea!r /ations ?an at o!rs4 ,a r\t9e obs]vation consi/s ( not+ ! k9ds ( cl\ds visible1 ! direction or directions f :i* !y are mov+1 & ! degree ( cl\d9ess--i4 e41 ! ext5t to :i* ! sky is cl\d$1 /at$ 9 t5?s1 f ,o cl\dless1 to #aj completely ov]ca/4 ,at _m ( ! m important /ations ! movem5ts ( cl\ds are obs]v$ ) a nephoscope4 ,! reflect+ nephoscope1 us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 consi/s ( a black mirror 9 :i* ! image ( ! mov+ cl\d is wat*$1 ! direction ( its motion be+ read (f f ! graduat$ circul> frame ( ! mirror4 ,!re is also a device = measur+ ! app>5t spe$ ( ! cl\d4 ,f ?is ! actual spe$ c be calculat$ if ! height ( ! cl\d is kn[n4 ,!re are o!r nephoscopes1 su* z ,besson's 9 :i* ! cl\d's movem5ts are wat*$ directly1 & n by reflection4 ,illu/ration3 ,,besson',s ,,comb ,,nephoscope ,! importance ( sun%9e among ! elem5ts ( wea!r & climate is evid5c$ by ! fact t at lea/ two ,/ates ( ! ,union1 ,s\? ,dakota & ,cali=nia1 cont5d = ! title ( 8! ,sun%9e ,/ate0--:i* does n prop]ly belong to ei!r ( !m4 ,arizona is ! sunnie/ ,/ate ( all1 & ! :ole ,s\?we/ is sunni] ?an ,s\? ,dakota4 ,devices = regi/]+ ! duration ( sun%9e are call$ sun%9e record]s4 ,"o type 7! ,campbell-,/okes7 works on ! burn+-glass pr9ciple2 9 o!rs ! sun's rays trace a record on photographic pap]4 ,! in/rum5t us$ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau consi/s ( an air !rmomet] hav+ a bulb at ea* end1 "o bulb be+ coat$ ) lampblack4 ,!re is a small column ( m]cury betwe5 ! two inclos$ masses ( air4 ,! !rmomet] is inclos$ 9 a %ea? ( glass1 f :i* ! air is exhau/$4 ,:5 ! sun %9es on ?is in/rum5t1 ! air 9 ! black bulb w>ms & exp&s1 & ! m]cury is =c$ t[>d ! o!r bulb until x comes 9 contact ) a pair ( electrodes1 ?us clos+ an electrical circuit4 ,:ile ! circuit is clos$1 ! regi/]+ app>atus connect$ ) ! in/rum5t makes a /ep-%ap$ m>k once e m9ute4 ,:5 ! sun /ops %9+1 ! m]cury drops back1 ! circuit is brok51 & ! record+ p5 m]ely traces a /raight l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,electrical ,,sun%9e ,,record] ,at ! l>g] /ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau ! direction & spe$ ( ! w9d1 ! ra9fall & ! duration ( sun%9e are all record$ on a s+le %eet ( pap]1 w\nd ar\nd a l>ge cyl9d]1 :i* is turn$ by clockwork4 ,! pap] is rul$ ) l9es to d5ote ! h\rs & m9utes ( ! day1 & a fre% %eet is put on ! cyl9d] e day at noon4 ,?is complex regi/]+ device1 sometimes call$ 9 book language a meteorograph1 b colloquially ref]r$ to by wea!r m5 z ! 8triple regi/]10 is entitl$ to high rank among labor-sav+ ma*9es2 =1 ) h>dly any att5tion1 except = a few m9utes at noon1 x does ! "w ( a /aff ( tra9$ meteorologi/s on duty day & night4 ,illu/ration3 ,,briti% ,,type ,,( ,,sun%9e ,,record] 7,campbell-,/okes ,patt]n7 ,we h n[ enum]at$ ! elem5ts ( wea!r mo/ commonly obs]v$ at meteorological /ations1 & ! pr9cipal types ( meteorological in/rum5ts1 ) special ref]5ce to ^? us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ne>ly e civiliz$ c\ntry !re are c]ta9 /ations at :i* regul> obs]vations are ma9ta9$ ( a numb] ( ph5om5a n m5tion$ 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs1 su* z ! int5sity ( sol> radiation 7measur$ ) ! pyrheliomet]71 evaporation 7measur$ ) atmomet]s or evaporimet]s71 & ! temp]ature ( ! soil2 & ! numb] ( /ations is rapidly gr[+ at :i* ! w9ds & wea!r f> al(t 9 ! atmosph]e are obs]v$ by means ( kites & balloons4 ,meteorologi/s ( ! ,old ,_w use a great _m types ( app>atus t are r>ely se5 9 ?is c\ntry1 & "s ( our in/rum5ts are b little kn[n abroad4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,cl\dl& ,"o ( ! ?+s a tea kettle is good = is to provide1 by means ( ! little cl\d se5 at its nozzle & errone\sly call$ 8/eam10 an example ( :at happ5s :5 ! invisible gas t is truly /eam1 or wat] vapor1 is cool$ bel[ its dew po9t 9 ! free air4 ,?is cl\d has1 h[ev]1 be5 ! />t+ po9t ( a va/ numb] ( halfway explanations4 ,a g5]ation or s ago physici/s 7 cont5t to say t aque\s vapor turns to drops ( wat] 9 ! air m]ely on acc\nt ( be+ cool$4 ,! "q ( h[ ! drops get _! />t1 or :y ! moi/ure =ms drops at all1 does n seem to h tr\bl$ !m4 ,"o way 9 :i* air or any o!r gas is cool$ is by exp&+ aga9/ pressure4 ,"s ( ! en]gy 9 ! gas1 orig9ally manife/+ itself z heat1 is appli$ to ! "w ( expansion1 & ?us ceases to be heat4 ,h5ce ! temp]ature ( ! gas falls4 ,conv]sely1 if a mass ( gas is compress$1 ! m]e process ( compression raises its temp]ature4 ,! heat produc$ 9 pump+ up a bicycle tire is ! classic example ( ! latt] fact4 ,heat+ by compression & cool+ by expansion are call$1 respectively1 8dynamic heat+0 & 8dynamic cool+40 ,! processes ?us describ$ are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 meteorology4 ,if air ( av]age humidity is admitt$ to ! receiv] ( an air pump 9 ! usual way & sudd5ly exp&$ by p>tial exhau/ion1 a cl\d ( moi/ure is se5 to =m 9 ! receiv]4 ,?is moi/ure is cond5s$ & made visible by ! dynamic cool+ ( ! air4 ,if1 h[ev]1 aft] ! receiv] is exhau/$ air ( ! same humidity z be=e is admitt$ ?r\gh a filt] ( cotton wool1 & is !n simil>ly cool$ by expansion1 no cl\d w =m4 ,evid5tly ! filt] has remov$ f ! air some?+ t is ess5tial to ! process ( cond5sation4 ,p]haps x w occur to ! read] t1 9 "s obscure way1 ! filt] has prev5t$ wat] vapor itself f ent]+ ! receiv]4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods by :i* we c asc]ta9 :e!r su* is ! case4 ,"o ( ! simple/ is to admit a little smoke to ! receiv] be=e exp&+ ! filt]$ air4 ,9 ?is case ! cl\d does =m1 %[+ t moi/ure is pres5t1 & also %[+ t smoke1 ?\gh a p]fectly dry sub/ance1 aids ! =mation ( ! wat] drops4 ,su* exp]im5ts h l$ to ! conclusion1 n[ univ]sally admitt$1 t :5 wat] drops =m 9 ! atmosph]e !y always =m ar\nd 8nuclei0 ( some?+ t is n wat]4 ,^! nuclei are (t5 ref]r$ to z 8du/ p>ticles10 b x is recogniz$ t a va/ proportion ( !m are v mu* m m9ute ?an ! du/ t worries h\sewives4 ,!y are l>gely beyond ! p[] ( ! microscope1 & "s ( !m1 inde$1 appe> to be ( molecul> size1 consi/+ ( molecules ( hygroscopic gases1 su* z ! oxides ( sulphur & ( nitrog54 ,ano!r important fact ab\t wat] drops 9 ! atmosph]e has come to light )9 ! la/ half c5tury4 ,s9ce wat] is mu* heavi] ?an air1 meteorologi/s ( an e>li] g5]ation 7 puzzl$ by ! fact t ! drops 9 cl\ds app>5tly float1 in/ead ( fall+ to ! gr\nd4 ,9 ! attempt to acc\nt = ?is suppos$ float+1 bygone au?orities assum$ t ! drops 7 holl[ 8vesicles10 l little bubbles4 ,?is assumption 0 ev5tually disprov$ by ! optical ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! drops1 z well z on o!r physical gr\nds4 ,moreov]1 x is n[ kn[n t a cl\d nev] really floats1 ?\gh ! rate at :i* its con/itu5t p>ticles fall ) respect to ! air is g5]ally v small1 on acc\nt ( ! resi/ance !y enc\nt]4 ,?us a v slight upw>d curr5t usually suffices to ma9ta9 ! altitude ( a cl\d1 or ev5 to increase x4 ,! spe$ ) :i* a drop falls increases ) its size4 ,h5ce l>ge drops may fall rapidly f great heights all ! way to ! gr\nd1 con/itut+ ra92 b 9 a great _m cases su* drops evaporate on fall+ into w>m] air bel[ ! cl\d level1 & ?us ! l[] surface ( ! visible cl\d rema9s at ab\t a con/ant height4 ,! drops 9 cl\ds & fog h (t5 be5 measur$1 ei!r by not+ _! optical effects or by microscopic exam9ation4 ,_m are f\nd to be f #j4jjjf to #j4jjjh in* 9 diamet]4 ,! spe$ ) :i* su* drops fall ?r\gh /ill air c be calculat$4 ,a drop #j4jjjh in* 9 diamet] falls at ! rate ( ab\t half an in* a second1 or #aej feet an h\r4 ,ev5 if a cl\d consi/+ ( su* drops pres]v$ its integrity = an h\r or m :ile s9k+1 its desc5t at ?is sl[ rate w\ld h>dly be p]ceptible f ! gr\nd4 ,"s cl\ds consi/ ( ice ne$les or t9y sn[flakes4 ,app>5tly ^! icy p>ticles are produc$ directly 9 solid =m1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! liquid /age4 ,x is suppos$ t1 l drops1 !y require nuclei on :i* to cond5se1 b ?is matt] has n be5 fully inve/igat$4 ,ano!r po9t t awaits elucidation is ! fact t ! cl\ds t =m 9 air mu* bel[ ! freez+ po9t sometimes consi/ ( wat] & sometimes ( ice4 ,! common fleecy cl\ds ( our w9t] skies are compos$ ( wat] drops1 & su* cl\ds also occur 9 ! pol> regions4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,c4 ,simpson1 :5 s]v+ z meteorologi/ ( ,scott's ant>ctic exp$ition1 obs]v$ fog consi/+ ( liquid wat] at a temp]ature ( #bi bel[ z]o1 ,fahr5heit4 ,:y su* greatly 8und]cool$0 drops %\ld sometimes occur 9 ! atmosph]e :5 at o!r times1 ) high] temp]atures1 atmosph]ic moi/ure takes ! =m ( ice is n at all cle>4 ,!re are sev]al ways 9 :i* ! free air may be cool$ to ! po9t at :i* cond5sation occurs4 ,! commone/ is dynamic cool+1 due to ! rise ( a mass ( moi/ air & its expansion "u ! r$uc$ pressure t prevails at ! high] levels4 ,?is process is beautifully illu/rat$ 9 ! =mation ( ! r\ndi% masses ( fleecy cl\d kn[n z cumulus1 on a w>m summ] day4 ,ea* ( ^! cl\ds m>ks ! summit ( a column ( air t is ris+ aft] hav+ be5 heat$ at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,:5 ! process goes on v actively1 ! cl\d may t[] up to enorm\s heights1 =m+ a ?und]cl\d4 ,"s cl\ds are =m$ by ! mix+ ( air ( diff]5t temp]atures4 ,fog1 :i* is m]ely cl\d at ! surface ( ! e>?1 is (t5 =m$ by ! cool+ ( ! air 9 contact ) cold l& or wat]4 ,! p]si/5t fogs ( ! ,newf\ndl& ,banks are due to ! passage ( w>m moi/ air f ! ,gulf ,/ream region ov] ! cold ,labrador ,curr5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a cold w9d bl[+ ov] w>m wat] w also (t5 produce a fog by l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! moi/ air ov]ly+ ! wat]4 ,a common cause ( l& fog is ! cool+ ( ! air adjac5t to ! gr\nd 9 consequ5ce ( nocturnal radiation4 ,! moi/] ! air1 ! m readily fog =ms1 & h5ce ! frequ5t =mation ( fog by night along riv]s & ov] m>%es & damp valleys4 ,t[n fogs1 su* z ! fam\s 8,london p>ticul>0 & ! fogs ( ,lyons1 usually consi/ p>tly ( smoke4 ,d5se fogs ( ?is sort occur :5 ! conditions ( ! atmosph]e are su* z to cause ! smoke to hang l[ ov] ! city1 in/ead ( be+ disp]s$4 ,^! fogs con/itute a s]i\s economic problem4 ,?us x is e/imat$ t !y co/ ! p ( ,london upw>ds ( half a million doll>s a ye>1 due to extra light+1 damage to vehicles1 loss ( bus9ess1 etc4 ,s9ce m>9e fog is also a s\rce ( enorm\s loss1 ?r\gh caus+ delays & accid5ts1 & s9ce fog along air r\tes is ! greate/ ( all ob/acles to successful a]ial navigation1 x is no wond] t mu* +5uity has be5 devot$ to ! attempt to disp]se fog artificially4 ,electric dis*>ges h be5 successfully us$ = ?is purpose on a small scale4 ,! dep? ( a fog may be any?+ f in*es to miles4 ,measurem5ts made by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ ,gu>d dur+ ! int]national ice patrol ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic %[ t ! fogs on ! ,newf\ndl& ,banks are v commonly s %all[ t ! ma/heads ( vessels rise above !m1 ?\gh 9 "s cases !y 7 f\nd1 f obs]vations ) kites1 to be f #b1ejj to #c1jjj feet ?ick4 ,obs]vations on ! m\nta9s ( ! ,cali=nia coa/ %[ t ! upp] level ( fog 9 t region r>ely exce$s #d1jjj feet4 ,on ! o!r h&1 aviators fly+ betwe5 ,london & ,p>is h enc\nt]$ fog m ?an #aj1jjj feet deep4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau classifies a fog z 8d5se0 if x hides objects at a di/ance ( #a1jjj feet2 o!rwise x is describ$ z 8light40 ,briti% meteorologi/s record fogs on a scale ( five degrees4 ,dur+ ! ice patrol ( ! ,s5eca 9 #aiae samples ( foggy air 7 exam9$ = ! purpose ( calculat+ ! am\nt ( wat] & ! numb] ( drops !y conta9$ p] unit volume1 z well z ! size ( ! drops4 ,a block ( d5se fog #c feet wide1 #f feet high1 & #ajj feet long 0 f\nd to conta9 less ?an "o-sev5? ( a glassful ( wat]1 di/ribut$ 9 #fj1jjj1jjj1jjj drops4 ,dur+ ! d5se/ fog ( ! voyage ! diamet] ( ! fog p>ticles av]ag$ #j4jjjd in*2 j ab\t ! limit ( visibility ) ! nak$ eye4 ,9 spite ( ! extremely att5uat$ /ate ( ! wat] 9 fogs1 z indicat$ by ^! figures1 ! moi/ure !y deposit on t]re/rial objects is great en\gh to be ( consid]able agricultural importance 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,?us along ! coa/ ( ,p]u1 :]e ! ra9fall is negligible 7?\gh n1 z (t5 /at$1 nonexi/5t71 a wet fog kn[n z ! 8g>a0 suffices to ma9ta9 a luxuriant vegetation dur+ sev]al mon?s ( ea* ye>4 ,!re are froz5 fogs z well z froz5 cl\ds4 ,! 8fro/ smoke0 t rises ov] ! ,norwegian fjords & ov] ice-free spots 9 ! pol> seas is g5]ally compos$ ( icy p>ticles or sn[flakes4 ,an ice fog t sometimes =ms 9 m\nta9 valleys 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates is kn[n z ! 8pogonip0--a "n d]iv$ f ! ,%o%onean language4 ,?is fog (t5 appe>s v sudd5ly1 ev5 9 ! brighte/ wea!r4 ,! m9ute ne$les ( ice ( :i* x consi/s are said to be extremely injuri\s to ! lungs4 ,!re are tales ( a :ole tribe ( ,indians p]i%+ f its effects4 ,:atev] tru? !re may be 9 su* /ories1 x is greatly dread$ by bo? ! ,indians & ! :ites4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,nevada appe> to be ! favorite home ( ! pogonip4 ,:at meteorologi/s call 8dry fog0 is a haze ( du/ or smoke1 sometimes v d5se4 ,we h already describ$ ! preval5ce ( ?is turbid /ate ( ! atmosph]e foll[+ volcanic eruptions1 ! burn+ ( =e/s & moors1 & des]t du/ /orms4 ,"u ! head ( dry fog _m writ]s include a sort ( heat haze1 :i* does n necess>ily involve ! susp5sion ( ei!r solid or liquid matt] 9 ! air1 b is due to ! mix+ ( local air curr5ts ( diff]5t d5sities1 especially :5 evaporation is proce$+ rapidly f moi/ gr\nd "u /rong sun%9e4 ,! call9a ( ,spa9 & ! qob> ( ! upp] ,nile region are probably due p>tly to ?is cause1 & p>tly to du/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,alto-,,cumulus ,,cl\ds4 ,^! cl\ds always occur 9 r\ndi% fleecy masses or 9 elongat$ fleecy rolls1 ) blue sky betwe54 ,a score ( diff]5t types h be5 di/+ui%$ & nam$ by c]ta9 cl\d speciali/s4 7,photograph$ by ,a4 ,j4 ,we$47 ,illu/ration3 ,,cumulus4 ,cl\d photography has become a special bran* ( photographic art1 entail+ n only ! use ( appropriate l5ses & plates1 b also ( ray filt]s1 or o!r special devices = %>p5+ ! contra/ betwe5 ! cl\d & ! blue sky4 ,mr4 ,ell]man's pictures1 made on ,mt4 ,wilson & else:]e 9 ,cali=nia1 /& 9 ! front rank4 7,photograph$ by ,f4 ,ell]man47 ,"o m species ( fog requires m5tion "h1 viz41 ! dirty1 f\l-smell+ 8pa9t]0 ( ! ,p]uvian coa/1 :i* deposits on vessels ly+ 9 ! h>bor ( ,callao & else:]e a slimy br[n sub/ance kn[n z 8,p]uvian pa9t40 ,?is sub/ance comes f ! ocean & is probably due to ! decomposition ( m>9e organisms4 ,! 8pa9t]0 prevails dur+ ! mon?s ,decemb] to ,april4 ,accord+ to a plausible hypo!sis a *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at t season1 result+ f a p]iodical %ift ( ocean curr5ts1 kills va/ quantities ( plankton1 ! decay ( :i* w\ld give rise to ! ph5om5a obs]v$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mammato-,,cumulus4 ,a r r>e cl\d =m1 associat$ ) ?und]/orms & tornadoes4 ,x is kn[n 9 ,scotl& z ! 8pocky0 7i4 e4 baggy7 cl\d & 9 p>ts ( ,engl& z 8ra9 balls40 7,photograph$ by ,l4 ,c4 ,twy=d47 ,illu/ration3 ,,cumulo-,,nimbus4 ,?is is ! ?und]cl\d4 7,c\rtesy ( ! ,naval ,air ,s]vice47 ,cl\ds1 ?\gh !y are no?+ m ?an masses ( fog situat$ at "s di/ance f ! e>?1 are susceptible ( a classification1 accord+ to %ape & texture1 t is n applicable to fog4 ,among ! billions ( human be+s :o1 9 all ages1 h amus$ !mselves by discov]+ pictures 9 ! cl\ds x w\ld be rem>kable if a good _m _h n1 f "t to "t1 conceiv$ ! idea ( r$uc+ ^! pictures to a few g5]al types4 ,accord+ to a note publi%$ a few ye>s ago 9 ! 8,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal0 ( ! ,royal ,meteorological ,society1 !re is "s reason to believe t an elaborate classification ( ! cl\ds 0 9 use among ! anci5t ,h9dus4 ,a passage quot$ f an ,indian "w ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 says3 8,?ree are ! cl\ds t cont9u\sly ra9 = sev5 days2 eighty are !y t p\r m9ute drops2 & sixty are !y t appe> ) ! sun%9e40 ,9 ! occid5tal _w1 h[ev]1 we h no record ( any attempt to classify ! cl\ds prior to ! ye> #ahja1 :5 ! foll[+ classification 0 propos$ by ! ,fr5* naturali/ ,lam>ck3 ,nuages en balayures 7cl\d sweep+s71 ,nuages en b>res 7cl\ds 9 b>s71 ,nuages pommels 7dappl$ cl\ds71 ,nuages gr\ps 7gr\p$ or pil$ cl\ds71 ,nuages en voile 7veil cl\ds71 ,nuages attr\ps ou m\tonns 7cl\ds 9 flocks74 ,9 #ahjc ! ,engli% meteorologi/ ,luke ,h[>d publi%$ ! sy/em ( classification t1 ) "s additions & modifications1 is n[ 9 g5]al use4 ,?is sy/em is bas$ ^u ?ree fundam5tal =ms2 viz41 fibr\s or fea!ry cl\ds 7cirrus71 cl\ds ) r\nd$ tops 7cumulus71 & cl\ds arrang$ 9 horizontal %eets or lay]s 7/ratus74 ,int]m$iate =ms are describ$ by comp\nd+ ! names ( ! prim>y types2 e4 g41 cirro-cumulus1 cirro-/ratus1 etc4 ,! ra9 cl\d is call$ nimbus4 ,h[>d's classification 0 quickly adopt$ 9 all c\ntries4 ,8 def9itions 7 translat$ into ,g]man by no less a p]sonage ?an ,goe!1 :o1 9 8 en?usiasm ov] ,h[>d's a*ievem5t1 wrote a poem ab\t x1 & also a sep>ate poem ab\t ea* ( ! pr9cipal types ( cl\d6 ,! ,lat9 names t ,h[>d gave to ! cl\ds made 8 sy/em imm$iately available = int]national use2 & 9 ne>ly all ( ! _m sy/ems ( cl\d nom5clature t h s9ce be5 propos$ ! excell5t plan ( us+ ,lat9 names has be5 pres]v$4 ,v soon1 h[ev]1 aft] ,h[>d's classification appe>$1 a li/ ( propos$ ,engli% equival5ts ( 8 names 0 publi%$ 9 ! 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0--:i*1 nev]!less1 did n *ange its "n to 8,briti% ,encyclopdia0--= ! b5efit ( ! unlett]$ majority1 suppos$ to be incapable ( us+ a few ,lat9 t]ms t 71 9 fact1 %ort] & no m difficult to pron\nce ?an _! sugge/$ ,engli% sub/itutes6 ,a piquant sequel to ?is episode is t ^! sup]flu\s ,engli% cl\d names1 8curl cl\d10 8/ack5cl\d10 8fall cl\d10 8sond]cl\d10 8wane cl\d10 & 8twa9 cl\d10 /ill survive 9 ! diction>ies--& n[h]e else4 ,!y are practically unkn[n to meteorologi/s1 & 7 nev] adopt$ g5]ally by ! laity4 ,( c\rse "s ,engli% names1 :i* h be5 evolv$ & n delib]ately inv5t$1 are appli$ to c]ta9 types ( cl\d 9 ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries2 b ! ,lat9 names1 compris$ 9 ! ,int]national ,cl\d ,classification1 %\ld be le>n$ by ev]ybody4 ,?is classification1 :i* has be5 adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,meteorological ,committee & is us$ by all (ficial wea!r s]vices1 is a little m detail$ ?an ,h[>d's1 ^u :i* x is bas$2 & !re is a t5d5cy to add new t]ms to x f "t to "t4 ,!re are t5 pr9cipal types ( cl\d 9 ! ,int]national ,classification1 & ! "n ( ea* type has an (ficial abbreviation 7a great conv5i5ce = ^? :o record ! cl\ds f day to day74 ,! foll[+ def9itions1 translat$ f ! ,fr5* text ( ! 8,int]national ,cl\d ,atlas10 h be5 publi%$ by ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice3 #a4 ,,cirrus 7,,ci47--,deta*$ cl\ds ( delicate appe>ance1 fibr\s 7?readlike7 /ructure & fea!rlike =m1 g5]ally :ite 9 color4 ,cirrus cl\ds take ! mo/ v>i$ %apes1 su* z isolat$ tufts ( hair--i4 e41 ?9 filam5ts on a blue sky--bran*$ filam5ts 9 fea!ry =m1 /raight or curv$ filam5ts end+ 9 tufts 7call$ cirrus unc9us71 & o!rs4 ,occasionally cirrus cl\ds are arrang$ 9 b&s1 :i* trav]se "p ( ! sky z arcs ( great circles1 & z an effect ( p]spective appe> to conv]ge at a po9t on ! horizon1 & at ! opposite po9t also1 if !y are suffici5tly ext5d$4 ,cirro-/ratus & cirro-cumulus also are sometimes simil>ly arrang$ 9 long b&s4 ,c]ta9 =ms ( cirrus are call$ 8m>es' tails40 ,! long b&s cross+ ! sky1 z j describ$1 are kn[n z 8pol> b&s0 or 8,noah's ark40 #b4 ,,cirro-,,/ratus 7,,ci4-,,/47--,a ?9 %eet ( :iti% cl\d2 sometimes cov]+ ! sky completely & m]ely giv+ x a milky appe>ance2 x is !n call$ cirro-nebula1 or cirrus haze2 at o!r times pres5t+ m or less di/9ctly a fibr\s /ructure1 l a tangl$ web4 ,?is %eet (t5 produces halos ar\nd ! sun or moon4 #c4 ,,cirro-,,cumulus 7,,ci-,,cu47 7,mack]el sky7--,small r\nd$ masses or :ite flakes )\t %ad[s1 or %[+ v slight %ad[2 arrang$ 9 gr\ps & (t5 9 l9es4 #d4 ,,alto-,,/ratus 7,a4-,,/47--,a d5se %eet ( a gray or blui% color1 sometimes =m+ a compact mass ( dull gray color & fibr\s /ructure4 ,at o!r times ! %eet is ?91 l ! d5s] =ms ( cirro-/ratus1 & ?r\gh x ! sun & moon may be se5 dimly gleam+ z ?r\gh gr\nd glass4 ,?is =m exhibits all /ages ( transition betwe5 alto-/ratus & cirro-/ratus1 b1 accord+ to measurem5ts1 its normal altitude is ab\t "o-half t ( cirro-/ratus4 #e4 ,,alto-,,cumulus 7,a4-,,cu47--,l>g] r\nd$ masses1 :ite or grayi%1 p>tially %ad$1 arrang$ 9 gr\ps or l9es1 & (t5 s cr[d$ toge!r 9 ! middle region t ! cl\dlets jo94 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,cl\d ,,bann] ,,ov] ,,mt4 ,,ass9ibo9e1 ,,canadian ,,rockies4 7,photograph$ by ,dr4 ,c4 ,d4 ,walcott47 ,illu/ration3 ,,cirrus 7) a few pat*es ( l[] cl\ds 9 ! =egr\nd74 ,?is is cirrus1 b n ( ! 8m>e's tail0 v>iety4 ,!re are _m di/9ct types ( cirrus1 :i* h sometimes be5 giv5 sep>ate names4 7,photograph$ at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,trappes1 ,france47 ,! sep>ate masses are g5]ally l>g] & m compact 7resembl+ /rato-cumulus7 9 ! middle region ( ! gr\p1 b ! d5s5ess ( ! lay] v>ies & sometimes is s att5uat$ t ! individual masses assume ! appe>ance ( %eets or ?9 flakes ( consid]able ext5t ) h>dly any %ad+4 ,at ! m>g9 ( ! gr\p !y =m small] cl\dlets resembl+ ^? ( cirro-cumulus4 ,! cl\dlets (t5 gr\p !mselves 9 p>allel l9es1 arrang$ 9 "o or m directions4 #f4 ,,/rato-,,cumulus 7,,/4-,,cu47--,l>ge lumpy masses or rolls ( dull gray cl\d1 frequ5tly cov]+ ! :ole sky1 especially 9 w9t]4 ,g5]ally /rato-cumulus pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a gray lay] brok5 up into irregul> masses & hav+ on ! m>g9 small] masses gr\p$ 9 flocks1 l alto-cumulus4 ,sometimes ?is cl\d =m has ! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( great rolls ( cl\d arrang$ 9 p>allel l9es close toge!r 78roll cumulus074 ,! rolls !mselves are d5se & d>k1 b 9 ! int]v5+ spaces ! cl\d is mu* light] & blue sky may sometimes be se5 ?r\gh !m4 ,/rato-cumulus may be di/+ui%$ f nimbus by its lumpy or roll+ appe>ance1 & by ! fact t x does n t5d to br+ ra94 ,illu/ration3 ,copyright ,o4 ,p4 ,&]son ,a ,,l5ticul> ,,cl\d ,,ov] ,,mt4 ,,ra9i] #g4 ,,nimbus 7,,nb47--,a d5se lay] ( d>k1 %apeless cl\d ) ragg$ edges f :i* /eady ra9 or sn[ usually falls4 ,if !re are op5+s 9 ! cl\d an upp] lay] ( cirro-/ratus may almo/ inv>iably be se5 ?r\gh !m4 ,if a lay] ( nimbus sep>ates 9 /rong w9d into ragg$ cl\d1 or if small deta*$ cl\ds are se5 drift+ und]nea? a l>ge nimbus 7! 8scud0 ( sailors71 ei!r may be specifi$ z fracto-nimbus 7,,fr4-,,nb474 #h4 ,,cumulus 7,,cu47 7,wool-pack cl\d7--,?ick cl\d ( :i* ! upp] surface is dome-%ap$ & exhibits protub]ances1 :ile ! base is g5]ally horizontal4 ,^! cl\ds appe> to be =m$ by asc5sional movem5t ( air 9 ! daytime1 :i* is almo/ always obs]vable4 ,:5 ! cl\d & ! sun are on opposite sides ( ! obs]v]1 ! surfaces fac+ ! obs]v] are m brilliant ?an ! m>g9s ( ! protub]ances4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 x is on ! same side ( ! obs]v] z ! sun1 x appe>s d>k ) bright edges4 ,:5 ! light falls sideways1 z is usually ! case1 cumulus cl\ds %[ deep %ad[s4 ,true cumulus has well-def9$ upp] & l[] m>g9s2 b "o may sometimes see ragg$ cl\ds1 l cumulus torn by /rong w9d1 ( :i* ! deta*$ portions are cont9ually *ang+2 to ?is =m ( cl\d ! "n fracto-cumulus may be giv54 #i4 ,,cumulo-,,nimbus 7,,cu4-,,nb477,! ?und]cl\d7--,great masses ( cl\d ris+ 9 ! =m ( m\nta9s or t[]s or anvils1 g5]ally hav+ a veil or scre5 ( fibr\s texture 78false cirrus07 at ! top1 & at its base a cl\d mass simil> to nimbus4 ,f ! base local %[]s ( ra9 or sn[1 occasionally ( hail or graupel1 usually fall4 ,sometimes ! upp] m>g9s h ! compact %ape ( cumulus1 or =m massive heaps r\nd :i* floats delicate 8false cirrus40 ,at o!r times ! m>g9s !mselves are fr+$ ) filam5ts simil> to cirrus cl\ds4 ,?is la/ =m is p>ticul>ly common ) spr+ %[]s4 ,! front ( a ?und]/orm ( wide ext5t is frequ5tly 9 ! =m ( a l>ge l[ ar* above a region ( uni=mly light] sky4 #aj4 ,,/ratus 7,,/47--,a uni=m lay] ( cl\d1 l fog1 b n ly+ on ! gr\nd4 ,! cl\d lay] ( /ratus is always v l[4 ,if x is divid$ into ragg$ masses 9 a w9d or by m\nta9 tops1 x may be call$ fracto-/ratus4 ,! complete abs5ce ( detail ( /ructure diff]5tiates /ratus f o!r aggregat$ =ms ( cl\d4 ,we h giv5 ! =ego+ (ficial def9itions & descriptions 9 full 9 ord] to aid ! read] z mu* z possible1 s f> z v]bal in=mation goes1 9 le>n+ to call ! common cl\ds by _! names4 ,good pictures are1 ( c\rse1 an ess5tial "p ( ?is process1 & ap>t f ^? t illu/rate ! pres5t text1 _m collections ( su* pictures are easy ( access4 ,"s may be obta9$ free or at nom9al co/ f ! ,wea!r ,bureau 9 ,wa%+ton & f ! ,meteorological ,(fice 9 ,london4 ,! 8,int]national ,cl\d ,atlas0 7second edition1 ,p>is1 #aiaj7 is n[ out ( pr9t1 b may be consult$ 9 libr>ies4 ,( ! cl\ds above enum]at$1 cirrus1 cirro-cumulus1 & cirro-/ratus are ! highe/1 & are always ice cl\ds4 ,!y consi/ 9 "s cases ( sep>ate1 m9ute cry/als--a f9e du/ ( ice--produc+1 accord+ to ! =ms ( ! cry/als1 "o or ano!r ( ! v>i\s =ms ( halo ar\nd ! sun & moon2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! cry/als are aggregat$ 9 small sn[flakes1 s t ! cl\d is a real sn[/orm 9 midair4 ,! altitude ( ^! cl\ds g5]ally ranges f #d to #h miles4 ,9 ! equatorial region _! height is (t5 #aj miles or m4 ,! o!r ma9 types ( cl\d are compos$ :olly or *iefly ( wat]4 ,alto-cumulus & alto-/ratus are cl\ds ( m$ium altitude2 /rato-cumulus & nimbus are l[ cl\ds 7g5]ally n m ?an a mile high72 :ile /ratus1 ! l[e/ cl\d ( all1 grades into fog1 :i* commonly re/s on ! e>?4 ,s9ce cumulus & cumulo-nimbus are produc$ by ! cond5sation ( moi/ure f ris+ air curr5ts1 ! height ( _! bases v>ies widely ) ! temp]ature & humidity ( ! l[] air2 ! av]age height is r less ?an a mile4 ,_! v]tical ext5t1 h[ev]1 is mu* great] ?an t ( ! o!r cl\d types4 ,cumulo-nimbus sometimes t[]s to a height ( #d or #e miles above its base1 & x is !n commonly cr[n$ ) ice cl\ds1 includ+ a filmy 8sc>f cl\d0 drap+ ! summit1 & spread+ wisps ( s-call$ 8false cirrus10 drawn out horizontally by ! upp] w9ds4 ,besides ! t5 ma9 classes ( cl\ds1 a few di/9ct m9or v>ieties are recogniz$ by all meteorologi/s4 ,among ^! is ! 8l5ticul> cl\d02 an isolat$ small cl\d1 :i* frequ5tly %[s iridesc5ce1 & ! %ape ( :i* has be5 comp>$ to t ( a l5s or an almond4 ,?is cl\d may rema9 /ation>y1 or ne>ly s1 b x really m>ks ! position ( a bill[ 9 a /ream ( air1 ! moi/ure cond5s+ at "o edge ( ! cl\d & dissolv+ at ! o!r4 ,ano!r di/9ctive & r r>e =m ( cl\d1 se5 *iefly 9 connection ) ?und]/orms1 is mammato-cumulus1 likewise kn[n z 8pocky cl\d10 8fe/oon cl\d10 8ra9 balls10 etc4 ,x consi/s ( num]\s sacklike or udd]like protub]ances1 convex d[nw>d4 ,:5 a /ream ( moi/ air is =c$ to asc5d 9 pass+ ov] a m\nta9 its moi/ure is (t5 cond5s$ by ! process ( dynamic cool+1 already expla9$1 & a 8cl\d cap0 is se5 ov] ! summit4 ,9 local wea!r lore su* caps are g5]ally reg>d$ z a sign ( ra94 ,^! cl\ds atta*$ to m\nta9s 7 call$ 8p>asitic cl\ds10 by writ]s ( a c5tury ago1 :o propos$ "s nave explanations ( !m4 ,occasionally a 8cl\d bann]0 /reams f> to ! leew>d ( ! m\nta94 ,"o ( ! mo/ fam\s & /rik+ ( cl\d caps is ! 8tableclo?0 t spreads ov] ,table ,m\nta91 ne> ,cape ,t[n1 :5 a moi/ w9d bl[s 9 f ! sea4 ,sometimes ! local topography causes ! w9d t has swept up ov] a m\nta9 to =m a second 8/&+0 wave to ! leew>d ( ! summit1 & ?is may also be m>k$ by a cl\d1 :i*1 l ! cl\d cap1 pres5ts a delusive appe>ance ( p]man5ce1 :ile x is1 9 reality1 9 con/ant process ( =mation on ! w9dw>d side & dissipation on ! leew>d4 ,! two cl\ds ?us =m$1 "o ov] ! summit & ! o!r to ! leew>d1 are (t5 se5 at ,table ,m\nta91 & are fur!r exemplifi$ 9 ! celebrat$ 8helm & b>0 ( ,crossfell1 9 ! ,engli% ,lake ,di/rict4 ,9 ! case ( a w9d bl[+ a?w>t a ridge or m\nta9 range1 a bank ( cl\d may ext5d along ! :ole cre/1 z 9 ! 8foehn wall0 t appe>s along ,alp9e heights :5 ! foehn w9d is bl[+4 ,"s day meteorology w be taught 9 art s*ools1 = ! same reason t anatomy n[ is4 ,:5 t blissful day arrives pa9t]s w probably %[ u skies less at odds ) nature ?an ^? t deface ! "w ( arti/s ( all degrees ( celebrity1 includ+ ! 8old ma/]s40 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,precipitation ,meteorologi/s h be5 9 mu* p]plexity ov] ! nam+ & classification ( ! v>i\s deposits ( atmosph]ic moi/ure kn[n collectively z 8precipitation40 ,! subject is "o to :i* a good deal ( att5tion has be5 paid 9 rec5t ye>s1 b x mu/ be admitt$ t1 ev5 at ! pres5t "t1 ! t]m9ology ( ?is gr\p ( atmosph]ic ph5om5a is n yet satisfactorily settl$1 ei!r 9 ,engli% or 9 any o!r language4 ,:51 = example1 a record ( wea!r occurr5ces /ates t hail has fall51 ?is /atem5t1 unequivocal z x may seem to ! layman1 (t5 raises a "q 9 ! m9d ( ! meteorologi/4 ,= c5turies p talk$ & wrote ab\t hail be=e x occurr$ to m5 ( sci5ce to inquire :e!r "o & ! same ?+ 0 always describ$ "u ?is "n4 ,! pursuit ( ?is inquiry l$ to disconc]t+ results1 "o ( !m be+ ! discov]y t we d n n[ "k1 9 _m cases1 :at bygone wea!r obs]v]s meant :5 !y made ! entry 8hail0 9 _! records4 ,!re are at lea/ ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( icy lumps & pellets t fall f ! sky1 & !y h all be5 call$ hail4 ,:at sci5ce n[ reg>ds z true hail occurs only 9 connection ) ?und]/orms1 & !re=e *iefly 9 w>m wea!r4 ,x consi/s ( balls or irregul> lumps1 ea* ( :i*1 on exam9ation1 is f\nd to h an opaque sn[like c5t]1 surr\nd$ by ice1 :i* is (t5 9 alt]nately cle> & opaque lay]s4 ,! second class ( icy p>ticles takes ! =m ( m9iature sn[balls1 ab\t ! size ( l>ge %ot or small peas4 ,x falls 9 cold wea!r1 (t5 9 conjunction ) ord9>y sn[4 ,because x readily crumbles1 ,engli%-speak+ meteorologi/s h call$ x 8s(t hail02 b ?is "n is inappropriate = ! two cog5t reasons t1 ?\gh friable1 x is n s(t1 & t x is n hail2 h5ce ?is t]m is n[ giv+ way to ! ,g]man "n 8graupel0 79 :i* au ow 9 8gr[l074 ,la/ly1 little pellets or angul> p>ticles ( cle> ice sometimes fall 9 cold wea!r4 ,^! froz5 drops1 ?\gh fairly common1 h1 until rec5tly1 enjoy$ ! di/9ction ( be+ anonym\s1 s f> z ! sci5tific _w 0 conc]n$1 :ile ! g5]al public call$ !m v>i\s ?+s1 includ+ 8hail40 ,a few ,briti% au?orities h t5tatively /yl$ ?is =m ( precipitation 8ice ra910 a "n :i* has1 h[ev]1 be5 o!rwise appli$4 ,f9ally1 9 ! ye> #aiaf1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau took ! bull by ! horns & decre$ t su* ice p>ticles %\ld be call$ 8sleet40 ,al?\gh ?is decision ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau 0 arriv$ at only aft] an exhau/ive ov]haul+ ( lit]ature & mu* correspond5ce ) philologi/s1 sci5tific m51 eng9e]s1 & o!rs1 x rema9s to be se5 :e!r x w ev5tually prevail ?r\gh\t ! ,engli%-speak+ _w4 ,9 ,engl& 8sleet0 ne>ly always means a mixture ( sn[ & ra94 ,on ! o!r h&1 a great _m ,am]icans h be5 9 ! habit ( apply+ ?is t]m to ! coat+ ( smoo? ice1 due to ra9 9 cold wea!r1 :i* (t5 breaks d[n ! bran*es ( trees1 lays l[ miles ( wires1 & incid5tally produces "o ( ! mo/ beautiful spectacles ( ,am]ican w9t]s4 ,?is leads u to ano!r difficulty4 ,! icy coat+ j m5tion$ has1 = "s ye>s1 be5 call$ 8glaz$ fro/0 by ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau n[ calls x 8glaze40 ,x has likewise be5 call$1 ev5 9 sci5tific books1 8silv] ?aw02 & an in/ance ( its occurr5ce on a l>ge scale is t]m$1 bo? popul>ly & sci5tifically1 an 8ice /orm40 ,to pursue ?is lam5table record ( cross-purposes j a little fur!r1 x may be add$ t ! expression 8silv] ?aw10 besides be+ "o ( ! aliases ( glaze1 or glaz$ fro/1 has be5 appli$ 9 v>i\s (ficial ,briti% publications1 until rec5tly1 to a v diff]5t r\gh or fea!ry deposit ( ice f fog1 n[ call$ by bo? ! ,meteorological ,(fice & ! ,wea!r ,bureau 8rime40 ,ne$less to say1 :5 ! sci5tific au?orities are unable to agree ab\t ^! t]ms1 our diction>ies are sadly at sea 9 reg>d to !m2 s1 altoge!r1 ! task ( writ+ a *apt] on precipitation is beset ) v]bal difficulties t w\ld n be enc\nt]$ 9 writ+ on _m f> m recondite subjects4 ,=tunately ! "n ( ! mo/ important k9d ( precipitation--ra9--is reasonably free f ambiguity4 ,to be sure1 op9ions may diff] z to :e!r a 8,scot* mi/0 is a ra9 or a wet fog--& if "o happ5$ to h insur$ a lawn fte aga9/ ra9 at ,lloyds' ! unc]ta9ty on ?is po9t might lead to litigation--b1 g5]ally speak+1 8x ra9s or x does n ra910 z we are told 9 ! books on logic4 8,ra910 says ,dr4 ,hellmann1 8is ! mo/ widespread1 mo/ frequ5t1 & mo/ copi\s =m 9 :i* ! aque\s vapor ( ! atmosph]e cond5ses4 ,! area ( its di/ribution embraces ! :ole surface ( ! e>?1 ) ! exception ( ! int]ior ( ,ant>ctica & probably ( nor!rn ,gre5l&4 ,! ,engli% & ! ,norwegian exp$itions f\nd no ra9 ev5 at ! edge ( ,ant>ctica4 ,z ! l& rises inl& to an altitude ( ab\t #b1hjj met]s ab\t ! ,s\? ,pole1 x may safely be assum$ t only sn[ & no ra9 falls 9 ! he>t ( ,ant>ctica4 ,at ! ,nor? ,pole1 :i* lies 9 ! mid/ ( ! sea1 x probably ra9s at times2 :ile on ! high plateau ( nor!rn ,gre5l& probably sn[ alone falls4 ,z to its frequ5cy1 !re are arid regions 9 :i* ! av]age annual numb] ( days ) ra9 is less ?an "o1 :ile ?is numb] probably rises to #bhj 9 "s tropical di/ricts4 ,) ! exceptions ( ! pol> regions already m5tion$1 !re are probably no regions :]e x nev] ra9s40 ,9 its int5sity ra9 v>ies all ! way f ! f9e/ drizzle or ! spr9kle ( occasional drops up to ! torr5tial d[np\rs (t5 kn[n z 8cl\d-bur/s40 ,be=e cit+ in/ances ( heavy ra9s1 x may be well to rem9d ! read] t an in* ( ra9fall is equival5t to #aja tons ( wat] p] acre1 or #fd1fdj tons p] squ>e mile4 ,9 ! c\nty ( ,norfolk1 ,engl&1 9 ,augu/1 #aiab1 a s+le day's ra9fall br\ght d[n #fgj1gbj1jjj tons ( wat]--m ?an twice ! volume ( wat] conta9$ 9 ,engl&'s l>ge/ lake1 ,w9d]m]e4 ,d\btless ?is record1 = %[]s ( simil> ext5t & duration1 has (t5 be5 surpass$ 9 o!r c\ntries1 includ+ our own1 & a =tiori )9 ! tropics4 ,! mo/ rem>kable example ( a heavy brief %[] 0 record$ at ,porto ,bello1 on ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 ,may #a1 #aijh1 :5 a fall ( #b4dg in*es 9 ?ree m9utes 0 regi/]$ by a self-record+ ra9 gauge4 ,an av]age heavy ra9/orm 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates yields ab\t ?is am\nt 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,at ,baguio1 9 ! ,philipp9es1 =ty-six in*es ( ra9 fell f noon ( ,july #ad1 #aiaa1 to noon ( ! foll[+ day--probably a 8_w record0 = tw5ty-f\r-h\r ra9fall4 ,! correspond+ record = ! ,unit$ ,/ates is #bb4bb in*es at ,altapass1 ,n4 ,c41 ,july #ae-af1 #aiaf4 ,/ati/ics ( :at ! meteorologi/ calls 8excessive ra9fall0--i4 e41 abnormally heavy ra9 dur+ brief p]iods--h be5 collect$ ov] ! great] "p ( ! _w = mu* m weighty reasons ?an to satisfy curiosity z to :i* %[]s 7 8record break]s40 ,su* data are indisp5sable to eng9e]s 9 connection ) ! build+ ( sew]s1 res]voirs1 & dams1 & 9 flood-protection "w4 ,sew]s mu/ be made l>ge en\gh to c>ry (f ! 8/orm wat]0 f ! heavie/ %[]s t ev] occur 9 ! locality2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! abs5ce ( ra9fall /ati/ics1 mu* money might be wa/$ 9 mak+ !m l>g] ?an necess>y4 ,a great flood raises que/ions z to ! int5sity ( ! ra9fall t caus$ x1 & ! frequ5cy ) :i* simil> ra9s may be expect$ to occur 9 ! dra9age area conc]n$4 ,! unprec$5t$ floods 9 ! ,ohio ,valley & adjac5t regions 9 ,m>*1 #aiac1 :i* caus$ losses am\nt+ to #bjj1jjj1jjj1 l$ to an exhau/ive /udy ( ! records ( /orm ra9fall 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 c>ri$ out by ! eng9e]s ( ! ,miami ,cons]vancy ,di/rict4 ,_! report on ?is subject 7publi%$ at ,dayton1 ,ohio1 9 #aiag7 is probably ! mo/ elaborate discussion ( ! k9d hi!rto prep>$ = any "p ( ! _w4 ,( ! #b1fda /orms inve/igat$1 sev5ty-eight1 :i* cov]$ areas ( #ejj squ>e miles or m1 7 f\nd to h _h a ra9fall am\nt+ to at lea/ #bj p] c5t ( ! normal ra9fall = a ye>4 ,! di/ribution ( ra9fall ov] ! e>? 7us+ ! ^w 8ra9fall0 9 ! broad s5se to include sn[ r$uc$ to its wat] equival5t7 is mo/ conv5i5tly describ$ 9 t]ms ( mean annual values4 ,?is elem5t is v unev5ly divid$ betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe & betwe5 ! diff]5t regions ( e l>ge c\ntry4 ,! ra99ess or dryness ( a climate is det]m9$ especially by ! prevail+ movem5t ( moi/ure-be>+ w9ds & ! relief ( ! l&1 :ile a second important control is ! location ( a region ) respect to /orm tracks4 ,! ra9ie/ regions are f\nd on ! w9dw>d slopes ( m\nta9 ranges n f> f ! ocean1 :]e ! moi/ w9ds1 =c$ by ! m\nta9s to asc5d rapidly1 cool dynamically & %$ _! moi/ure4 ,?us ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ea/]n ,himalaya receive an enorm\s ra9fall f ! s\?we/ monsoon1 bl[+ f ! ,indian ,ocean1 & an abundant ra9fall also prevails on ! s\? slopes ( ! high m\nta9s ( ea/]n ,tibet1 :ile nor!rn ,tibet1 9 ! lee ( ! m\nta9s1 is a des]t4 ,= m ?an half a c5tury ! little hill /ation ( ,*]rapunji1 9 ,assam1 at an altitude ( #d1ajj feet1 has be5 cr$it$ ) hav+ ! heavie/ ra9fall 9 ! _w4 ,accord+ to ! late/ (ficial record1 its av]age annual precipitation is #dbf in*es4 ,rec5tly x has come to light t ,*]rapunji has a s]i\s rival 9 ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s4 ,a fragm5t>y record total+ #ij mon?s1 betwe5 #aiaa & #aiba1 kept on ,m\nt ,waialeale 7altitude #e1jge feet71 9 ! isl& ( ,kauai1 %[$ an av]age ( #dee in*es p] annum1 & !re is reason to believe t a long] record w give an ev5 high] av]age = ?is place4 ,! spot 9 "q1 :i* has be5 describ$ z 8,uncle ,sam's dampe/ corn]10 is s difficult ( access t x c be rea*$ only aft] a ?ree-day trip on foot ov] m\nta9 trails4 ,h5ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey has in/all$ "h a huge ra9 gauge--said to be ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w--capable ( hold+ an entire ye>'s ra9fall1 s t measurem5ts ne$ be made only once a ye>4 ,! heavie/ av]age annual ra9fall 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7n includ+ ,alaska7 is ab\t #acj in*es 9 ,tillamook ,c\nty1 ,ore4 ,ov] mo/ ( our ,atlantic seabo>d ,/ates ! ra9fall ranges f =ty to fifty in*es4 ,ext5sive tracts 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia & we/]n ,nevada h a ra9fall ( five in*es or less4 ,any region ) an annual ra9fall ( less ?an t5 in*es is normally a des]t1 ?\gh irrigation or 8dry f>m+0 me?ods may enable its inhabitants to practice agriculture4 ,! process ( ra9 =mation is n well und]/ood4 ,z we h se51 ! exi/5ce ( nuclei 9 ! air s]ves to expla9 :y1 :5 ! conditions ( temp]ature & humidity are "r1 moi/ure cond5ses 9 ! t9y droplets t con/itute cl\ds4 ,! difficulty is to expla9 h[1 at c]ta9 times1 quantities ( drops are =m$ ( a size l>ge en\gh to c>ry !m rapidly to ! e>?4 ,! numb] ( nuclei is s great t1 z ,humphreys has po9t$ out1 ev5 if all ! wat] vapor 9 a volume ( humid air 0 cond5s$ ^u !m1 ! size ( ea* drop w\ld rema9 v small4 ,he has sugge/$ t1 9 a column ( ris+ air1 ! small drops =m$ at ! base ( a cl\d filt] out mo/ ( ! nuclei1 s t at great] heights !re are relatively few ( ! latt]1 :i* c1 !re=e1 ga!r suffici5t wat] ab\t !m to =m drops ( 8fall+0 size4 ,! spe$ ) :i* drops fall ?r\gh ! air1 :i* is only a fraction ( an in* p] second = ! av]age cl\d droplet1 increases rapidly ) ! size ( ! drop up to a c]ta9 po9t1 b = ! drops t rea* ! e>? z ra9 ! spe$ ( fall t5ds to become approximately uni=m4 ,sev]al inve/igators h measur$ ! size ( ra9drops4 ,"o me?od ( do+ ?is is to all[ ! drops to fall into a %all[ lay] ( f9e1 uncompact$ fl\r4 ,ea* drop =ms a little pellet ( d\gh1 :i* is f\nd1 by exp]im5ts ) previ\sly measur$ drops 7produc$ = ! purpose & dropp$ f v>i\s heights71 to correspond v closely ) ! size ( ! drop4 ,^! pellets dry & h>d51 & c !n be c>efully measur$1 photograph$1 etc4 ,hundr$s ( samples ( ra9drops 7 ?us measur$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,b5tley ( ,j]i*o1 ,vt41 & ! measurem5ts 7 tabulat$ ) ref]5ce to ! k9ds ( cl\ds f :i* !y fell1 ! di/ribution ( l>ge & small drops 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( a /orm1 & o!r circum/ances att5d+ _! fall4 ,drops ( v diff]5t dim5sions are f\nd to fall at "o "t4 ,! commone/ sizes record$ by ,b5tley 7 f "o-?irtie? to "o-eigh? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 b _m drops too m9ute to =m ca/s 7 e/imat$ to be less ?an a hundr$? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 :ile ! l>ge/ drops obs]v$ _h a diamet] ( a qu>t] & ev5 a ?ird ( an in*4 ,?is range ( size corresponds to a range 9 ! rate ( fall f ab\t five feet a second = ! smalle/ drops up to ab\t tw5ty-five feet a second = ! l>ge/4 ,! maximum size ( ra9drops is limit$ by ! fact t v l>ge drops are brok5 up 9 _! fall ?r\gh ! air4 ,!oretically1 ! limit+ size is some:at less ?an ! l>ge/ sizes f\nd by ,b5tley4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ca/s ,,( ,,ra9drops ,,f ,a ,,?und]%[] ,collect$ & ,photograph$ by ,w4 ,a4 ,b5tley ,:ile ra9 is (t5 ! f9al product ( sn[ t melts be=e x rea*es ! gr\nd1 sn[ is probably nev] =m$ f ra9drops1 b always cond5s$ directly f wat] vapor4 ,! f9e/ sn[ consi/s ( sep>ate ice cry/als1 :ile sn[flakes ( l>g] sizes are always made up ( sev]al cry/als p>tly melt$ toge!r4 ,! flakes on r>e occasions atta9 a diamet] ( ?ree or f\r in*es1 & l>g] sizes h be5 report$4 ,= ages mank9d has admir$ ! div]sity ( beautiful =ms exhibit$ by sn[ cry/als4 ,draw+s ( su* cry/als1 & also ( ! fro/ trac]y on w9d[-panes1 7 made z e>ly z ! sixte5? c5tury1 by ! le>n$ ,sw$i% hi/orian ,olaus ,magnus1 & _m collections ( simil> draw+s h be5 publi%$ s9ce 8 "t2 b n[adays ! comb9ation ( ! cam]a & ! microscope gives u a f> great] weal? ( in=mation conc]n+ ^! int]e/+ objects4 ,b5tley1 ^: /udy ( ra9drops we h j m5tion$1 has made & publi%$ photomicrographs ( hundr$s ( diff]5t =ms ( sn[ & ice cry/als1 & sev]al collections h be5 publi%$ 9 ,europe4 ,"o ( ! facts reveal$ by ! cam]a is t ! p]fectly regul> =ms ( ^! cry/als se5 9 draw+s are comp>atively uncommon 9 sn[ z x rea*es ! gr\nd4 ,a sn[ cry/al is s fragile t x is easily mutilat$ by ! w9d & by contact ) o!r cry/als4 ,9 v calm wea!r & at ! beg9n+ ( a sn[/orm _m s+le & p]fect cry/als are waft$ g5tly to ! gr\nd1 & _! beauty is reveal$ :5 !y fall on d>k objects1 especially if !y are exam9$ ) a magnify+ glass4 ,9 spite ( _! imm5se v>iety 9 detail1 all p]fect sn[ cry/als & o!r ice cry/als h six sides or pr9cipal rays4 ,:5 second>y rays =m !y are p>allel ) ! adjac5t prim>y rays4 ,!re are two pr9cipal =ms ( ice cry/al--! tabul> & ! column>4 ,sometimes ! two =ms are comb9$2 a column or rod ( hexagonal section w h at "o or bo? ends a hexagonal plate4 ,bo? ! size & ! %ape ( sn[ cry/als dep5d to "s ext5t ^u ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,! smalle/ cry/als =m 9 ! colde/ wea!r4 ,/>-%ap$ cry/als are mo/ abundant :5 ! temp]ature is n f> bel[ freez+1 :ile at l[] temp]atures !re is a prepond]ance ( hexagonal plates4 ,! cohesive "* ( moi/ sn[1 :i* is utiliz$ by ! y\ng] g5]ation 9 ! mak+ ( sn[balls & sn[ m51 enables ?is sub/ance to assume naturally a v>iety ( /rik+ =ms4 ,?us a /rip ( sn[ ly+ along a w9d[ l$ge or ! bran* ( a tree1 w sometimes slip d[n 9 ! middle & hang 9 fe/oon-%ape1 support$ only at ! ends1 con/itut+ a 8sn[ g>l&40 ,ov] a level or g5tly slop+ surface ( sn[ ! w9d occasionally rolls muff-%ap$ sn[balls1 :i* are kn[n z 8sn[ roll]s40 ,?\s&s ( !m are sometimes =m$ at once1 & ! l>ge/ may gr[ to ! size ( b>rels4 ,huge ov]hang+ caps ( sn[ =m$ on tree /umps1 po/s1 & ! l h be5 aptly nam$ 8sn[ mu%rooms0 by ,mr4 ,vaughan ,corni%1 :o has describ$ ^? t occur 9 great numb]s 9 ! ,selkirk ,m\nta9s ( we/]n ,canada4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,ice ,,/orm ,,at ,,philadelphia1 ,,decemb]1 #aiad4 ,! bran*es are brok5 by heavy deposits ( glaze4 ,! photograph 9 ! upp] left corn]1 by ,dr4 ,david ,fair*ild1 %[s a glaze-incas$ twig4 7,photographs f ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,p]haps ! /range/ ( all ! %apes assum$ by sn[ is se5 9 ! greate/ p]fection 9 ! high ,&es ( tropical ,arg5t9a & ,*ile4 ,"h are f\nd innum]able p9nacles ( sn[ or glaci] ice1 av]ag+ f f\r to sev5 feet 9 height1 ?\gh sometimes mu* high]4 ,view$ f a di/ance1 !y be> an uncanny resemblance to ?rongs ( :ite-rob$ human be+s1 & !y h ?us acquir$ ! ,spani% "n ( nieve de los p5it5tes 78sn[ ( ! p5it5ts074 ,9 ! abridg$ =m nieve p5it5te ?is "n is n[ appli$ to m or less simil> =mations 9 o!r m\nta9\s regions4 ,f9e examples are f\nd 9 ! ,himalaya1 & "o ( ! ,himalayan peaks has be5 nam$ ,m\nt ,nieves ,p5it5tes4 ,! orig9 ( ^! p9nacles has be5 ! subject ( mu* discussion4 ,sun%9e & w9d bo? appe> to take "p 9 _! =mation4 ,"s rem>kable 8sn[ honeycombs10 approa*+ ! =m ( nieve p5it5te1 are produc$ 9 hot1 dry summ] wea!r among ! glaci] fields ( ,m\nt ,ra9i]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,nieve ,,p5it5te ,,9 ,,! ,,arg5t9e ,,&es 7,photograph by ,dr4 ,juan ,keidel47 ,sn[ has its economic aspects1 comp>able 9 importance to ^? ( ra94 ,! problem ( sn[-removal crops up e w9t] 9 our ,am]ican cities1 & is n always solv$ ) brilliant success4 ,9 ! l>g] cities ( ,europe sn[ is remov$ by spread+ salt on ! /reets to r$uce ! sn[ to slu%1 :i* is !n wa%$ into ! sew]s ) wat]1 b ?is me?od does n seem to be g5]ally applicable to ! heavi] sn[fall ( ?is c\ntry4 ,! sn[-removal conf]5ce held by a numb] ( municipal eng9e]s 9 ,philadelphia 9 #aiad br\ght ?is difficult phase ( /reet clean+ prom95tly be=e ! eng9e]+ _w1 & x has be5 actively discuss$ 9 rec5t ye>s 9 ! te*nical j\rnals4 ,sn[ pres5ts a =midable problem 9 ! op]ation ( _m railway l9es1 ! solution ( :i* takes ! =m ( sn[ sl$s1 f5ces1 pl[s ( v>i\s types1 flang]s1 gasol9e tor*es = melt+ sn[ 9 swit*es1 etc4 ,economically1 sn[ is p]haps mo/ important 9 its effects on wat] supply1 & ?is is true especially ( m\nta9 sn[fields1 ! melt+ ( :i* fe$s adjac5t /reams4 ,!re are great areas 9 our ,we/]n ,/ates :]e ! wat] requir$ = irrigation is obta9$ almo/ entirely f melt+ sn[4 ,! m\nta9 slopes con/itute natural res]voirs1 f :i* ! moi/ure t falls 9 ! w9t] z sn[ is gradually f$ ?r\gh ! spr+ & summ] to ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,9 ^! regions ext5sive 8sn[ surveys0 are sometimes made 9 ! e>ly spr+1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! total am\nt ( wat] available4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,e4 ,*ur*1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,nevada1 0 "o ( ! pione]s ( ?is idea1 & bo? he & ! exp]ts ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau h develop$ +5i\s app>atus & me?ods = mak+ rapid e/imates ( ! sn[fall & its equival5t volume ( wat] ly+ ov] a giv5 area4 ,! sn[ surveyor travels ov] ! wat]%$1 (t5 on skis or sn[%oes1 cutt+ sections ( sn[ ) a cyl9drical 8sn[ sampl]0 & weigh+ !m ) a small spr+ balance4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau also ma9ta9s 9 ! ,we/]n m\nta9s a numb] ( special /ations at :i* daily measurem5ts ( sn[fall are made = ! b5efit ( irrigation projects4 ,! use ( 8sn[ b9s0 & o!r =ms ( gauge = hold+ an entire w9t]'s sn[fall--?us obviat+ ! necessity ( frequ5t measurem5t--has n prov$ v satisfactory 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,an analog\s device1 kn[n 9 ,fr5* z a totalisateur1 is1 h[ev]1 v ext5sively us$ 9 ! ,swiss & ,italian ,alps4 ,! heavie/ sn[fall 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates occurs 9 ! high ,si]ra ,nevada ( ,cali=nia & 9 ! ,cascade ,range ( ,wa%+ton & ,oregon4 ,at places 9 bo? ( ^! regions m ?an sixty-five feet ( sn[ has fall5 9 a s+le w9t]4 ,! sn[ sometimes lies tw5ty-five feet deep on ! gr\nd1 bury+ "o-/ory h\ses to ! eaves4 ,a fall ( sn[ "u a cl\dless sky is fairly common 9 ! pol> regions & is sometimes obs]v$ 9 calm & v cold wea!r 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,ra9 f a cl\dless sky is a m d\btful ph5om5on1 ( :i* only a few obs]vations are record$1 mo/ ( !m ( e>ly date4 ,if su* ra9 occurs1 x may come f cl\ds t h pass$ beyond ! horizon be=e ! ra9drops rea* ! e>?4 ,probably ! old] reports ( ?is ph5om5on really relate to dew1 :i* 0 once believ$ to fall f ! sky4 ,( ! ?ree haillike =ms ( precipitation t we h m5tion$ above1 true hail is mu* ! mo/ important1 on acc\nt ( ! l>ge size sometimes atta9$ by hail/ones & ! damage t !y are consequ5tly able to cause4 ,! maximum possible size ( a hail/one _c be positively /at$1 b /ones l>g] ?an a man's fi/ & weigh+ ov] a p\nd h sev]al times be5 report$ on good au?ority4 ,dur+ a hail/orm 9 ,natal1 on ,april #ag1 #ahgd1 /ones fell t weigh$ a p\nd & a half & pass$ ?r\gh a corrugat$ iron ro( z if x _h be5 made ( pap]4 ,hail/ones f\rte5 in*es 9 circumf]5ce fell 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales 9 ,febru>y1 #ahdg4 ,at ,cazorla1 ,spa91 on ,june #ae1 #ahbi1 h\ses 7 cru%$ "u blocks ( ice1 "s ( :i* are said to h weigh$ f\r & "o-half p\nds4 ,9 ,octob]1 #ahdd1 a hail/orm at ,cette1 ,france1 wreck$ h\ses & sank vessels4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,bih>1 ,india1 ,octob] #e1 #ahic1 hail cov]$ ! gr\nd to a dep? ( f\r to six feet2 six p]sons 7 buri$ b5ea? x & p]i%$1 & hundr$s ( cattle 7 kill$4 ,9 ! ,moradabad di/rict ( ,india1 ,may #a1 #ahhh1 ab\t #bej p 7 kill$ by hail4 ,! velocity atta9able by fall+ hail/ones is p]haps mo/ /rik+ly %[n by ! fact t1 ev5 :5 fall+ obliquely1 !y h be5 kn[n to pi]ce a pane ( glass ) a cle> r\nd hole1 l a bullet hole1 leav+ ! re/ ( ! pane intact4 ,hail appe>s to be =m$ 9 ! viol5t updraft ( air at ! front ( a ?und]/orm4 ,9 ?is turbul5t region ! hail/one1 fir/ froz5 at a high level1 probably makes sev]al j\rneys alt]nately up & d[n1 z x enc\nt]s /rong] or weak] ris+ curr5ts2 at "o "t ga!r+ a coat+ ( sn[ al(t1 & at ano!r a coat ( ice f ! ra9 bel[1 until f9ally1 on acc\nt ( its l>ge size or on acc\nt ( a weak5+ ( ! upw>d bla/1 x falls to ! gr\nd4 ,a record ( ^! ups & d[ns 9 ! life ( a hail/one is se5 9 ! conc5tric lay]s ( cle> & sn[like ice ( :i* x is compos$4 ,al?\gh1 f immemorial usage1 we /ill speak conv5tionally ( ! 8fall+ ( ! dew10 x has n[ be5 kn[n = m ?an a c5tury--especially s9ce ! publication ( ,wells's 8,essay ( ,dew0 9 #ahad--t dew does n fall4 ,! cool+ ( air bel[ ! dew po9t ( its wat] vapor by contact ) any cold object results 9 a deposit ( visible moi/ure1 :i* is liquid or froz51 accord+ to :e!r ! temp]ature is above or bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 respectively4 ,?is process is n exclusively nocturnal4 ,x is obs]v$ by day 9 ! famili> 8sweat+0 ( ice pit*]s & also 9 ! appe>ance ( moi/ure on pavem5ts1 /one walls1 & ! l1 9 places %ad$ f ! sun4 ,at night ! rapid cool+ ( ! e>? by radiation1 especially 7b n1 z (t5 /at$1 exclusively7 "u a cle> sky & 9 /ill wea!r1 favors ?is cond5sation ( moi/ure1 9 ! liquid =m1 z dew1 or 9 ! froz5 =m1 z ho>fro/4 ,! deposit occurs mo/ copi\sly on objects t lose heat rapidly by radiation & ga9 x b sl[ly by conduction4 ,wat] vapor exhal$ f ! tissues ( plants & f ! soil und\bt$ly contributes its quota to ! moi/ure available = cond5sation1 b ?is h>dly seems to be a reason = ass]t+1 z "s writ]s h done1 t dew comes ma9ly f ! e>? r ?an ! air4 ,ho>fro/ is (t5 describ$ z 8froz5 dew40 ,?is expression is mislead+1 =1 al?\gh dew-drops are sometimes froz5 into little globules ( ice1 ho>fro/ is m (t5 cond5s$ directly f atmosph]ic wat] vapor 9 ! %ape ( ice cry/als4 8,glaze0 & 8rime0--to use ! late/ (ficial designations ( ! two k9ds ( ice coat+ =m$ f wat] 9 ! atmosph]e--diff] greatly 9 appe>ance1 z a rule1 ?\gh transition =ms are sometimes f\nd4 ,glaze is produc$ by ! fall+ ( ra9 on surfaces ^: temp]ature is bel[ freez+1 & is typically smoo? & transp>5t4 ,rime is a r\gh deposit =m$ f fog1 ! drops ( :i* are 8und]cool$0--i4 e41 are bel[ ! freez+ po9t--& turn to ice on com+ 9 contact ) solid objects4 ,! mo/ rem>kable examples ( rime are se5 on m\nta9s & 9 ! pol> regions4 ,x occurs on ! bran*es & leaves ( trees1 & on ! corn]s & edges ( upright objects1 r ?an on horizontal surfaces4 ,9 drift+ fog x gr[s mo/ rapidly if n entirely on ! w9dw>d side ( objects--i4 e41 x builds up aga9/ ! w9d4 ,on ,b5 ,nevis x has be5 obs]v$ to gr[ at a rate ( m ?an an in* an h\r4 ,trees1 po/s1 telegraph poles1 & ! l are ?us ev5tually *ang$ to %apeless masses ( r\gh or fea!ry ice4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,w9ds ,,& ,,/orms ,! /udy ( ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e con/itutes a r =midable bran* ( sci5ce kn[n z dynamic meteorology4 ,?is subject has engag$ ! att5tion ( a numb] ( able physici/s--?\gh f> too few--& has begun to assume ! "* ( an exact sci5ce1 b is /ill fruitful ( unv]ifi$ hypo!ses4 ,we %all h only a little to say "h ab\t ! !ories & hypo!ses relat+ to atmosph]ic circulation4 ,!y are at pres5t1 to a notable degree1 9 process ( revision4 ,important modifications 9 !m h result$ f ! revelations ( upp]-air rese>*1 z well z f progress 9 o!r fields ( inquiry4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a few fundam5tal matt]s t we mu/ n ignore4 ,we %all />t ) ! sol> heat t keeps ! atmosph]ic ma*9]y 9 motion4 ,( ! heat t comes to u f ! sun1 x is e/imat$ t m ?an "o-?ird is reflect$ by cl\ds & ! e>?1 or scatt]$ by du/ & air molecules1 & ?us passes back into space )\t hav+ _h any effect 9 heat+ ! atmosph]e4 ,"p ( ! rema9d] heats ! atmosph]e directly1 & ! re/ indirectly1 aft] fir/ heat+ ! und]ly+ l& & wat]4 ,9 bo? cases1 c]ta9 atmosph]ic gases--notably wat] vapor--absorb a great deal m heat ?an o!rs4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! production ( a w9d is a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 two p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface1 & h5ce ( ! ov]ly+ air4 ,su* contra/s ( temp]ature always exi/1 bo? locally & on a l>ge scale4 ,! high sun ( ! equatorial regions heats ! e>? mu* m /rongly ?an ! l[ sun ( high latitudes2 a wat] surface has a m equable temp]ature ?an an adjac5t l& surface2 a /ret* ( b>e e>? is w>m] by day & cold] by night ?an a neighbor+ tract cov]$ ) vegetation2 & s on4 ,diff]5ces 9 atmosph]ic temp]ature produce diff]5ces 9 pressure1 :i* gravity t5ds to adju/ by sett+ up a circulation4 ,! exact mann] 9 :i* ?is circulation is begun & ma9ta9$ is n yet p]fectly cle>1 & curr5t ideas on ! subject are difficult to put into brief language4 ,meteorological writ]s n[ lay less /ress ?an =m]ly ^u ! lat]al spread+1 at high levels1 ( air t has be5 heat$ & exp&$ at ! e>?'s surface1 & ! inw>d fl[+ ( ! l[] air t[>d ! heat$ area4 ,!re is1 we "k1 an initial impulse t t5ds to drive air f a region ( high pressure t[>d a region ( l[ pressure2 b ! actual movem5t ( ! air is ano!r matt]4 ,! 8life hi/ory0 ( an air curr5t is f\nd to be a v devi\s affair4 ,! important fact1 = practical purposes1 is t air does n fl[ 9 a /raight l9e f ! place :]e ! pressure is high to t :]e x is l[4 ,z soon z x beg9s to fl[ x curves f ! /raight pa?1 9 accordance ) ,f]rel's ,law1 :i* is ?us /at$3 8,9 :atev] direction a body moves on ! surface ( ! e>?1 !re is a =ce aris+ f ! e>?'s rotation t deflects x to ! "r 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & to ! left 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e40 ,?is law applies to all bodies mov+ freely ov] ! e>?1 & n m]ely to ! w9ds4 ,at ! e>?'s surface1 if ! atmosph]ic pressure is measur$ simultane\sly at v>i\s places by means ( b>omet]s1 we c get a cle> picture ( ! horizontal di/ribution ( pressure by draw+ on a map l9es1 call$ isob>s1 ?r\gh places at :i* ! pressure is id5tical4 ,! isob>s reveal ! pres5ce ( ext5sive areas ov] :i* ! pressure is above ! av]age & ( o!rs ov] :i* x is bel[ ! av]age4 ,if1 at ! same "t1 we *>t ! fl[ ( air by indicat+ ! direction ( ! w9ds at v>i\s po9ts1 we %all notice t ! air %[s a /rong t5d5cy to travel ar\nd ^! areas2 & if we c\ld obs]ve its c\rse a ?\s& feet or s above ! e>? we %\ld f9d ! t5d5cy ev5 m pron\nc$ at t level4 ,ano!r important law1 spr++ 9 "p f ,f]rel's ,law & describ+ ! movem5ts ( ! air ar\nd areas ( high & l[ pressure1 is call$ ,buys ,ballot's ,law4 ,"o way ( /at+ ?is law is z foll[s3 8,if y /& ) y\r back to ! w9d1 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! b>omet] w be l[] on y\r left ?an on y\r "r4 ,! rev]se is true 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e40 ,! read]1 :e!r he lives 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates or any o!r civiliz$ c\ntry1 w h no difficulty 9 secur+ docum5t>y evid5ce ( ! correctness ( ,buys ,ballot's ,law 9 ! %ape ( ! daily wea!r maps issu$ by ! v>i\s meteorological s]vices4 ,on a wea!r map %[+ conditions any:]e 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e x w be f\nd t ! w9ds 7:i* are indicat$ by little arr[s71 ?\gh subject to a good _m local v>iations1 h a g5]al t5d5cy to bl[ 9 ! direction foll[$ by ! h&s ( a clock 78clockwise07 ar\nd an area ( high pressure1 & 9 ! opposite direction 78c\nt]clockwise07 ar\nd an area ( l[ pressure4 ,x w likewise be notic$ t1 9 g5]al1 ! w9ds1 in/ead ( bl[+ along ! isob>s1 are /rongly incl9$ inw>d 9 ! case ( a l[-pressure area & outw>d 9 ! case ( a high-pressure area4 ,la/ly1 if ! map indicates ! =ce ( ! w9ds at diff]5t places1 x w be se5 t w9ds are /ronge/ :]e ! isob>s are close toge!r & weake/ :]e !y are f> ap>t4 ,x is a matt] ( mu* int]e/ to a]onauts t ! =ce ( ! w9d g5]ally increases ) altitude1 & t1 9 ! l[] fly+ levels1 ! w9ds are little1 if any1 incl9$ to ! isob>s4 ,! spac+ ( ! isob>s is call$ ! b>ometric gradi5t4 ,"o ( ! conv5tional ways ( express+ a gradi5t num]ically is to /ate ! horizontal diff]5ce ( pressure1 9 hundr$?s ( an in*1 = an int]val ( fifte5 nautical miles2 b meteorologi/s z a rule m]ely describe gradi5ts z 8/eep10 8g5tle10 8mod]ate10 etc41 )\t indicat+ _! num]ical values4 ,if ! great diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> regions 7 ! only factor 9 ! control ( atmosph]ic circulation1 !re w\ld be a /rong b>ometric gradi5t betwe5 ^! regions & !re w\ld result a simple circulation ( w9ds1 bl[+ polew>d f ! equator al(t & equatorw>d f ! poles at ! e>?'s surface4 ,! =m] t5d5cy ( writ]s on meteorology & physical geography 0 to reg>d su* a circulation z a sub/antial fact1 ?\gh modifi$ by ! effects ( ! e>?'s rotation & v>i\s local causes4 ,?us ! idea has prevail$ ( a :olesale1 direct ex*ange ( air betwe5 ! poles & ! equator4 ,n[adays we c h>dly ma9ta9 ?is idea1 because we see t1 on acc\nt ( ! great deflections !y und]go1 ! ma9 drifts ( air are approximately along p>allels ( latitude & n along m]idians ( longitude4 ,)9 ! tropics ! g5]al drift ( ! l[] air is f ! ea/ 7& ne> ! equator ?is drift prevails up to a great height72 9 middle latitudes x is f ! we/2 & 9 ! circumpol> regions x is aga9 f ! ea/4 ,air f ! equator presumably does f9d its way to high latitudes1 & vice v]sa1 b nei!r rapidly nor directly4 ,p]haps ! dom9ant feature ( ! :ole circulation is ! bank+ up ( ! air 9 s-call$ high-pressure belts at ab\t latitude #cj ,nor? & ,s\?4 ,f ^! 8belts0--:i* are really brok5 up into sep>ate areas ( high pressure1 & :i* %ift nor? & s\? to a c]ta9 ext5t ) ! seasons--bl[ ! nor!a/ & s\!a/ trade w9ds1 9 ! full developm5t ( :i*1 f\nd only ov] ! ,atlantic & ! ea/]n ,pacific1 we h ! mo/ rem>kable 8p]man5t w9ds0 ( ! globe4 ,betwe5 ! trade w9d belts lies ! equatorial region ( l[ pressure1 kn[n z ! 8doldrums40 ,?is is1 9 g5]al1 a region ( light & v>iable w9ds1 heavy ra9s1 & ?und]/orms4 ,9 ! temp]ate zones ( bo? hemisph]es1 on ! polew>d side ( ! high-pressure belts above m5tion$1 ! g5]al drift ( ! atmosph]e ne> ! e>?'s surface is f we/ to ea/4 ,9 ! s\? temp]ate zone !re is a v /rong prepond]ance ( we/ w9ds1 especially ov] ! va/ oceanic tract ( ! 8ro>+ =ties10 :]e bl[ ! boi/]\s 8brave we/ w9ds10 well kn[n to sailors4 ,! correspond+ belt ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :i* includes all b ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is describ$ z a region ( 8prevail+ we/]ly w9ds10 b x is also a region ( /orm tracks1 & h5ce1 z local episodes 9 ! g5]al movem5t ( ! atmosph]e f we/ to ea/1 !re are con/ant %ifts ( ! w9d to all po9ts ( ! compass1 = reasons t w pres5tly be expla9$4 ,on ! polew>d bord]s ( ! two belts ( 8prevail+ we/]lies10 a little outside ! ,arctic & ,ant>ctic ,circles1 !re are zones ( l[ pressure4 ,t ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e is a cont9u\s girdle ar\nd ! e>?1 & has ! l[e/ pressures f\nd any:]e 9 ! _w4 ,! correspond+ sub>ctic zone1 :ile fairly cont9u\s 9 summ]1 is brok5 up 9 w9t] by ! =mation ( high-pressure areas ov] ,sib]ia & nor!rn ,canada4 ,! p]man5t ice %eets ( ,gre5l& & ,ant>ctica are regions ( high pressure1 ) calm air 9 ! int]ior & /rong outbl[+ w9ds at ! bord]s4 ,furi\s blizz>ds prevail at ! m>g9 ( ,ant>ctica4 ,! table on ! opposite page w s]ve z a recapitulation ( ! facts above /at$4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,nor? ,,pole ,calms & high pressure ov] ! int]ior ( ,gre5l&4 ,out-bl[+ w9ds at ! bord]4 ,m or less brok5 sub>ctic belt ( l[ pressure4 ,prevail+ we/]lies 7mu* int]rupt$ by mov+ cyclones & anticyclones74 ,belt ( high pressure at ab\t lat4 #cj ,n4 8,horse latitudes10 or 8calms ( ,canc]40 ,nor!a/ trade w9ds4 ,equatorial belt ( l[ pressure1 calms1 & v>iable w9ds4 ,! 8doldrums40 ,s\!a/ trade w9ds4 ,belt ( high pressure at ab\t lat4 #cj ,s4 8,calms ( ,capricorn40 ,prevail+ we/]lies1 m con/ant ?an 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 8,brave we/ w9ds40 ,subant>ctic belt ( v l[ pressure4 ,calms & high pressure ov] ! int]ior ( ,ant>ctica4 ,viol5t outbl[+ w9ds at its bord]4 ,,s\? ,,pole ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,w9d ,,& ,,pressure ,,belts ,,( ,,! ,,globe4 ,! great w9d & pressure belts ( ! globe are mu* m con/ant & %>ply def9$ ov] ! oceans ?an ov] ! l&1 & x 0 ^u ! high seas t mank9d fir/ di/+ui%$ !m & gave !m _! names4 ,! nor!a/ trade w9ds ( ! ,atlantic waft$ ,columbus to ! ,new ,_w & ar\s$ ! misgiv+s ( 8 sailors1 :o wond]$ h[ !y %\ld ev] sail homew>d aga9/ !m4 ,! high-pressure belt nor? ( ^! trade w9ds is a region ( calms1 :i* ,maury call$ ! 8calms ( ,canc]40 ,?is region1 or a "p ( x1 is likewise kn[n z ! 8horse latitudes10 ! /ory be+ t1 9 ! old sail+ days1 vessels lad5 ) horses 7 (t5 becalm$ "h s long t ! c>goes _h to be ?r[n ov]bo>d4 ,z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! prosaic mod]n etymologi/ decl9es to accept ?is orig9 ( ! "n & has propos$ o!rs less picturesque4 ,! s-call$ equatorial calms1 :i* lie mo/ly a little nor? ( ! equator1 are (t5 nicknam$ ! 8doldrums10 or sometimes ! 8equatorial doldrums10 to di/+ui% !m f o!r regions ( dolor\s1 baffl+ calms4 ,! doldrums v>y a great deal 9 wid? & ! ma/]s ( sail+ %ips try to cross !m :]e !y are n>r[e/4 ,! "n ( ! trade w9ds implies t1 accord+ to ! old nautical phrase1 !y 8bl[ trade10 or con/antly 9 "o direction4 ,/rictly speak+1 !y v>y consid]ably 9 direction1 at any "o spot1 ?\gh !y are ne>ly always f an ea/]ly quadrant1 & !y are ev5 m v>iable 9 =ce4 ,! av]age spe$ ( ! ,atlantic trades is ab\t elev5 miles an h\r4 ,9 view ( ! prospective requirem5ts ( a]onauts1 x is a fact ( mu* int]e/ t ! trades are r %all[ w9ds4 ,_! v]tical ?ickness has be5 f\nd1 by obs]vations ) pilot balloons & o!rwise1 to range f less ?an a mile to two or ?ree miles4 ,"s di/ance above ! trades !re are w9ds bl[+ m or less 9 ! opposite direction1 kn[n z ! c\nt]-trades4 ,aircraft w probably use ! trade w9ds 9 fly+ f s\!rn ,europe to ! ,c>ibbean1 & ! c\nt]trades on ! return voyage to ,europe4 ,9 contra/ to ! p]man5t or quasi-p]man5t w9ds j describ$1 !re are c]ta9 important w9ds ( ! 8p]iodic0 type1 :i* rev]se _! directions 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> or f day to night4 ,"s ( ^!1 also1 fir/ became g5]ally kn[n ?r\gh ! reports ( m>9]s4 ,! anci5t ,greek navigators utiliz$ ! monsoons 9 trad+ ) ,india2 :ile we owe to ! voyages ( ,william ,dampi]1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 "o ( ! e>lie/ & be/ descriptions ( l& & sea breezes4 ,a monsoon is a w9d t bl[s f a cont95t t[>d ! sea 9 w9t]1 :5 ! l& is cold] ?an ! wat]1 & 9 ! opposite direction 9 summ]1 :5 ! rev]se conditions ( temp]ature prevail4 ,! pressure gradi5t is rev]s$ ) ! seasons1 & ! w9d v>ies accord+ly4 ,! mo/ /rik+ example ( monsoon w9ds is f\nd 9 s\!rn ,asia--:]e ^! w9ds are ( special economic importance because !y control ! ra9fall ( ,india--b well-develop$ monsoons also occur 9 ,au/ralia & ,we/ ,africa1 ov] ! ,caspian ,sea1 on ! coa/ ( ,texas1 & else:]e4 ,an analog\s rev]sal ( gradi5ts1 due to ! *ange ( temp]ature ov] ! l& f day to night1 is ( common occurr5ce on ! %ores ( l>ge bodies ( wat]1 result+ 9 l& & sea breezes 7or l& & lake breezes74 ,! breeze bl[s f ! l& to ! wat] by night & 9 ! opposite direction by day4 ,^! breezes are g5]ally be/ develop$ & mo/ regul> )9 ! tropics1 & p>ticul>ly on %ores adjac5t to m\nta9s4 ,ea/ ,indian fi%]m5 put out to sea ) ! l& breeze 9 ! e>ly morn+ & come home ) ! sea breeze 9 ! aft]noon4 ,! refre%+ & heal?-giv+ "* ( ! sea breeze ( tropical climates has e>n$ x ! sobriquet ( 8! doctor40 ,m\nta9 & valley breezes furni% ano!r example ( diurnally rev]s$ w9ds4 ,relatively cold & heavy air dra9s d[n f ! upp] slopes by night1 con/itut+ ! m\nta9 breeze4 ,by day ! air 9 ! valley is w>m$ & exp&$1 & z x is conf9$ lat]ally by ! sides ( ! valley x fl[s up ! slopes1 con/itut+ ! valley breeze4 ,long be=e meteorologi/s und]took to classify ! w9ds ( ! globe1 ^! m\nta9 air curr5ts attract$ att5tion & acquir$ local names4 ,among ! ,alps1 alone1 we f9d scores ( su* names4 ,9 _m cases1 too1 ! breezes h acquir$ a leg5dry ( _! own4 ,?us ! pontias1 a cold1 nocturnal w9d t bl[s out ( a n>r[ valley op5+ ^u ! pla9s ( ! ,rhne ne> ! t[n ( ,nyons1 is said to h be5 br\ght ?i!r 9 a glove by ,/4 ,cs>ius1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,aries1 = ! purpose ( improv+ ! f]tility ( ! valley6 ,!re is a qua9t little book ab\t ! pontias1 publi%$ by ,gabriel ,b\le 9 #afdg1 9 :i* ! au?or sets =? at l5g? ! argum5ts = & aga9/ ! miracul\s orig9 ( ?is w9d4 ,! ,italian lakes are especially ri* 9 locally nam$ m\nta9 & valley breezes4 ,p>5!tically x may be rem>k$ t w9d nom5clature 9 g5]al is a va/ subject1 ow+ to ! habit t prevail$ 9 presci5tific times1 & /ill prevails to "s ext5t among nonsci5tific p1 ( giv+ individual names to ! w9ds *>act]i/ic ( diff]5t localities4 ,z a matt] ( curi\s int]e/1 we set d[n "h "s ( ^! names 7a small fraction ( ! total numb]73 ,khams91 leve*e1 le/e1 levant]1 pamp]o1 zonda1 papagayo1 buran1 purga1 brickfield]1 s\!rly bur/]1 williwaw1 willy-willy1 pontias1 vs9e1 solore1 joran1 morget1 rebat1 vaudaire1 breva1 tivano1 ora1 ,wisp]w9d1 ,erl]w9d1 ,rot5turmw9d1 v5t du ,mont ,blanc1 v5t d'al\p1 autan1 tramontana1 gregale1 imbat1 kite & junk w9ds1 bad-i-sad-o-bi/ roz 7! furi\s 8w9d ( #abj days0 ( ,p]sia & ,afghani/an74 ,! pres5t writ] has collect$ sev]al hundr$ local w9d names--& is con/antly add+ to ! li/4 ,!re are sev]al o!r types ( w9d peculi> to m\nta9s besides ! alt]nat+ m\nta9 & valley breezes4 ,mo/ ( ^! are desc5d+ w9ds1 or 8fall w9ds10 :i* may bl[ by day z well z by night4 ,?us a /rong daytime w9d sometimes bl[s d[n f l(ty sn[fields & glaci]s4 ,a foehn 7pron\nc$ l 8f]n10 b )\t ! r7 is a w9d t has be5 robb$ ( mo/ ( its moi/ure ?r\gh precipitation on ! w9dw>d slope ( m\nta9s & :i* is fur!r dri$1 & also /rongly heat$ by compression1 9 desc5d+ ! leew>d slope4 ,w9ds ( ?is type are common 9 ! ,alps1 :]e !y 7 fir/ describ$ & nam$1 & _! heat & aridity l$ to ! belief t !y came by way ( ! upp] atmosph]e f ! di/ant des]ts ( ,africa4 ,n[ t _! orig9 is bett] und]/ood1 we f9d t foehns prevail 9 _m o!r m\nta9\s c\ntries ?r\gh\t ! _w1 includ+ ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e !y are call$ *9ooks4 ,:5 ! foehn bl[s 9 w9t]1 x causes sn[ to disappe> ) amaz+ rapidity--n only melt+ x1 b spe$ily dry+ ! gr\nd--:5ce x has e>n$ ! "n ( 8sn[ eat]0 9 ,am]ica1 & 8,s*neefress]10 :i* means ! same ?+ & a little m1 9 ,switz]l&4 ,! bora ( ! ,adriatic & ! mi/ral ( s\!rn ,france are w9ds t bl[ f a cold1 m\nta9\s int]ior d[n to a w>m coa/al region1 :]e !y arrive z relatively cold w9ds1 9 spite ( ! dynamic heat+ !y h und]gone 9 _! desc5t4 ,! bora is sometimes mod]ate 7bor9a7 & at o!r times a trem5d\s gale 7boraccia71 :ile ! mi/ral has be5 kn[n to bl[ a railway tra9 f ! track 9 ! valley ( ! ,rhne4 ,! blizz>d is a w9d ( :i* ,am]icans once ?\ght !y _h almo/ a monopoly until ,sir ,d\glas ,mawson locat$ ! 8home ( ! blizz>d0 on ! %ores ( ! ,ant>ctic cont95t4 ,! true blizz>d1 :e!r ,am]ican or ,ant>ctic1 is a viol5t1 int5sely cold w9d1 heavily *>g$ ) sn[4 ,su* w9ds are a *>act]i/ic feature ( ! w9t] climate ( our ,middle ,we/]n ,/ates4 ,al?\gh ! "n ( ?is w9d fir/ became curr5t z rec5tly z ! sev5ties ( ! la/ c5tury1 nobody kn[s its orig94 ,n[adays ! "n is (t5 loosely appli$ to big sn[/orms t are n really blizz>dlike4 ,! dry 8hot w9ds0 t sometimes )] ! crops ( our we/]n pla9s are ! ,am]ican anti!sis ( ! blizz>d4 ,^! w9ds belong to ! great sirocco family--! "n 8sirocco0 hav+ become1 9 rec5t sci5tific usage1 a g5]ic designation = ext5sive hot w9ds1 :e!r dry or moi/1 z di/+ui%$ f local hot w9ds1 su* z ! foehn4 ,! h>mattan ( ,we/ ,africa is a dry1 du/y w9d f ! ,sah>a1 & "o t feels relatively cool2 p]haps on acc\nt ( caus+ rapid evaporation f ! sk94 ,! simoom 7) a f9al m71 especially ! v>iety bl[+ 9 s\!rn ,asia1 is p]haps ! hotte/ & mo/ p>*+ ( all w9ds--judg+ f its effects on animal life4 ,! great majority ( ! w9ds above enum]at$ are m]ely m9or features ( :at are call$ cyclonic & anticyclonic w9d sy/ems4 ,rev]t+ to :at has be5 said ab\t wea!r maps & ,buys ,ballot's ,law--if ! read] w exam9e a s]ies ( maps = successive days1 he w notice t ! areas ( high pressure & l[ pressure are n /ation>y1 b %[ a m or less rapid displacem5t1 ! g5]al direction ( :i*1 9 our latitudes1 is f we/ to ea/4 ,! fact t !re are great travel+ vortices or swirls 9 ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 9 :atev] regions !y occur1 p>take ( ! g5]al drift ( ! air ar\nd ! globe1 has be5 kn[n = ab\t a c5tury1 & con/itutes ! corn] /one ( practical meteorology4 ,9 ! temp]ate zone1 :]e ^! swirls are sometimes ( mod]ate =ce & sometimes v /ormy1 !y are ! *ief factor 9 controll+ *anges ( wea!r f day to day1 & _! obs]vation is ! basis ( wea!r =eca/+4 ,)9 ! tropics1 :]e !y are mu* less frequ5t & are conf9$ to a few re/rict$ regions1 !y are always viol5t /orms4 ,an area ( high pressure1 ) its att5dant sy/em ( w9ds1 is call$ an anticyclone or high4 ,an area ( l[ pressure1 ) its w9ds1 is call$ a cyclone--sometimes4 ,! ^w 8cyclone0 0 inv5t$ by ,h5ry ,pidd+ton 9 ! ye> #ahdh4 ,ne>ly all ! e>ly /udies ( cyclones 7 made *iefly = ! b5efit ( m>9]s1 & relat$ to ! sev]e revolv+ /orms enc\nt]$ at sea4 ,h5ce ! ^w 8cyclone0 pass$ into ! g5]al vocabul>y ) a connotation ( viol5ce1 :i*1 9 ev]yday spee*1 x /ill reta9s4 ,p]haps ! e>ly 8cyclonologi/s0 !mselves h>dly realiz$ t a 8g5tle cyclone0 0 n a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,meteorologi/s are /ill s mu* "u ! influ5ce ( ! popul> idea ( a 8cyclone0 t !y hesitate to apply ?is t]m to a di/urbance ( mod]ate =ce1 except 9 a few special phrases 7su* z 8extra-tropical cyclone071 ?\gh ! adjective 8cyclonic0 is us$ freely )\t ref]5ce to ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,briti% meteorologi/s speak mo/ly ( 8depressions10 :ile ,am]ican meteorologi/s speak ( 8l[s40 ,! /atus ( ! latt] t]m1 z well z t ( ! t]m 8high10 is1 h[ev]1 p>adoxical4 ,?\gh bo? words h be5 us$ = ye>s1 !y are ne>ly always pr9t$ ) quotation m>ks ar\nd !m1 z if !y _h n yet be5 assimilat$ 9 ! vocabul>y4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau has lately tak5 to pr9t+ ^! words 9 capital lett]s4 ,nei!r ( ^! practices w be foll[$ 9 ! pres5t book4 ,illu/ration3 ,,photo ,,by ,,pr(4 ,,ell]man ,,%[+ ,,cl\ds ,,or ,,fog ,,cascad+ ,,?r\gh ,,la/ ,,=k ,,ca,,on ,,& ,,into ,,! ,,santa ,,anita ,,ca,,on4 7,lett] f ,f4 ,a4 ,c>p5t]1 ,may #bi1 #aiai47 ,tropical cyclones are call$ 8hurricanes0 9 ! ,we/ ,indies & ! ,s\? ,pacific1 8typhoons0 (f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,asia1 8baguios0 9 ! ,philipp9es1 & 8cyclones0 9 ! ,indian seas4 ,!y =m 9 ! doldrums1 & g5]ally take a long1 sweep+ c\rse1 curv+ we/w>d & polew>d1 & sometimes pass+ into ! temp]ate zones1 :]e !y ei!r die out or increase 9 size1 dim9i% 9 viol5ce1 & become simil> to ! /orms orig9at+ 9 ! high] latitudes4 ,"o ( ! curi\s features !y (t5 exhibit )9 ! tropics is ! calm c5t] at ! 8eye ( ! /orm10 to :i* ,t5nyson alludes :5 he writes ( ! bla/ 7unkn[n to meteorologi/s7 t drove a %ip ,across ! :irlw9d's he>t ( peace1 ,& to & ?ro' ! c\nt]-gale4 ,^! cyclones are ! wor/ ( all /orms f\nd at sea1 & also ex]cise _! de/ructive effects ov] isl&s & along cont95tal coa/s4 ,! greate/ disa/]s att5d+ !m h be5 due to ! inundation ( l[-ly+ %ores by ! huge waves !y g5]ate1 z 9 ! ,galve/on hurricanes ( #aijj & #aiae & 9 ! f> worse cata/rophes t h occasionally visit$ ! coa/ ( ,india4 ,hurricanes ( ! ,we/ ,indies occur *iefly f ,augu/ to ,octob]1 inclusive4 ,! numb] v>ies f none to a doz5 a ye> 7) f\r z an av]age74 ,illu/ration3 ,copyright1 ,ew+ ,gall[ay ,a ,,cl\dbur/ ,,ne> ,,c$> ,,brakes1 ,,utah ,a snap%ot tak5 f ! edge ( ! caon4 ,ov] ! l>ge l& areas ( ! nor? temp]ate zone highs & l[s %[ a t5d5cy to travel ov] typical tracks1 ! locations ( :i* v>y a good deal ) ! season4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable facts ab\t ! l[s ( ,nor? ,am]ica is t1 :]ev] !y come f1 :e!r f ! ,canadian nor?we/1 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 or ! ,we/ ,indies1 !y ne>ly always leave ! cont95t by way ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce or ! nor!a/]n corn] ( ?is c\ntry4 ,our ,nor? ,am]ican l[s travel at an av]age spe$ ( #fjj miles a day4 ,highs travel some:at m sl[ly2 ab\t #edj miles a day is ! av]age 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,a tornado is a small vortex 9 ! atmosph]e1 occurr+ g5]ally 9 ! s\!a/]n "p ( a cyclonic area1 :]e1 9 "s cases1 sev]al sep>ate tornadoes develop at ! same "t4 ,! tornado1 = "s reason t is n altoge!r cle>1 is f> m common 9 ! int]ior ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ?an any:]e else 9 ! _w1 ?\gh true tornadoes d occur 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,we/ ,african /orms be>+ ?is "n are m]ely ?und]squalls1 q diff]5t f ! ,am]ican tornado4 ,! *ief visible feature ( a tornado is ! s-call$ funnel-%ap$ cl\d 7sometimes balloon-%ap$ or1 aga91 l a great coil+ s]p5t71 :i* is always 9 contact ) ! gr\nd :5 de/ruction is 9 progress4 ,! passage ( ! /orm is att5d$ by a l\d ro>+ or rumbl+4 ,! pa? ( a tornado v>ies 9 wid? f a few rods to half a mile or 7r>ely7 m4 ,)9 its bord]s build+s are bl[n to pieces1 trees are uproot$ & human be+s only f9d safety und]gr\nd2 :ile ev5 at a di/ance ( a few y>ds outside ! pa? no damage is done4 ,! tornado travels at an av]age spe$ ( ab\t tw5ty-five miles an h\r4 ,its spe$ ( rotation has be5 e/imat$1 f ! effects produc$1 to am\nt to #ejj miles an h\r 9 "s cases2 a w9d =ce f> exce$+ t ( any o!r type ( /orm4 ,wat]sp\ts1 :i* occur on ! ocean & o!r l>ge bodies ( wat]1 are simil> 9 "* to tornadoes1 ?\gh mu* less viol5t4 ,!y range 9 height f #ajj to #a1jjj y>ds1 or m4 ,"o measur$ rec5tly f ! ,briti% /eam] ,w> ,h]mit1 ne> ,cape ,comor91 0 #d1fjj feet high to ! base ( ! ov]ly+ cl\d4 ,! column tap]$ f #ejj feet wide at ! junction ) ! cl\d to #aej feet wide at ! sea4 ,spray 0 ?r[n up to a height ( m ?an #hjj feet ov] a region #bej feet 9 diamet]4 ,?und]/orms occur *iefly 9 w>m climates & dur+ ! w>m season 9 temp]ate climates1 b !y are by no means unkn[n 9 ! pol> regions4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by rapidly ris+ air curr5ts1 :i* may be ei!r incid5tal to ! circulation ( a l[1 or due to local ov]heat+ ( ! l[] atmosph]e4 ,9 ! =m] case !y are call$ 8cyclonic ?und]/orms10 & 9 ! latt] 8heat ?und]/orms40 ,?is is only a r\gh classification1 h[ev]4 ,"s ?und]/orms p>take ( ! features ( bo? ^! types1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 additional classes are di/+ui%$ by _m au?orities4 ,x is a common occurr5ce = ?und]/orm conditions1 />t+ 9 "s small area1 to travel across c\ntry at a spe$ ( p]haps ?irty or =ty miles an h\r1 at ! same "t spread+ out fanwise until ! front ( ! /orm is hundr$s ( miles 9 l5g?4 ,?is front con/itutes a 8l9e squall0 7s call$ f ! long l9e or app>5t ar* ( d>k cl\d t m>ks its location71 & is att5d$ by m or less ?und] & lightn+1 b is n necess>ily a cont9u\s ?und]/orm4 ,! *>act]i/ic w9d ( a ?und]/orm is ! squall t ru%es out 9 front ( ! /orm :5 close at h&4 ,?is bla/ ( w9d1 lightn+1 hail & torr5tial ra9 are all ag5cies ( de/ruction 9 sev]e ?und]/orms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ideal ,,cross ,,section ,,( ,a ,,typical ,,?und]/orm ,a1 asc5d+ air2 ,d1 desc5d+ air2 ,c1 /orm coll>2 ,d'1 w9d gu/2 ,h1 hail2 ,t1 ?und]heads2 ,r1 prim>y ra92 ,r'1 second>y ra94 7,w4 ,j4 ,humphreys47 ,conc]n+ ! w9ds ( ! globe 9 g5]al & ! rem>kable atmosph]ic int]*anges t !y involve1 ,sir ,napi] ,%aw writes3 8,( ! millions ( tons ( air :i* =m ! atmosph]e ne>ly ! :ole is mov+4 ,! regions ( calm at ! surface at any "o "t1 tak5 all toge!r1 d n =m a l>ge "p ( ! e>?'s surface1 & above ! surface calm regions are /ill r>]4 ,let u rememb] t ! motion ( ! air is always #8circulation'2 air _c move =w>d or backw>d or upw>d or d[nw>d )\t displac+ o!r air 9 front ( x & be+ replac$ by o!r air beh9d x1 ?\gh ! circulation may be q local & limit$ 9 ext5t1 z is frequ5tly ! case :5 w>m air rises or cold air s9ks4 ,9 ! c\rse ( inve/igations into ! life hi/ory ( surface air curr5ts 9 ! ,meteorological ,(fice we h trac$ air ov] long /ret*es ( ! surface ( ! ,atlantic4 ,we h f\nd1 on "o occasion1 ! %ores ( ,gre5l& to be f$ ) air t left ! middle ( ! ,atlantic f\r days previ\sly1 :ile 9 ! c\rse ( six days air travel$ f ,spitsb]g5 to jo9 ! nor!a/ trade w9d (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa4 ,on ano!r occasion ! air t =m$ ! w9d (f ! s\? ( ,irel& 0 trac$ back to ! nor? ( ,africa1 b t :i* blew at ! op5+ ( ! ,*annel two days lat] came f ,hudson ,bay1 via ! ,azores40 ,su* are ! ev]-%ift+ curr5ts ( ! ocean ( air4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity ,e s*oolboy has read h[ ,b5jam9 ,frankl91 by means ( 8 fam\s kite exp]im5t1 demon/rat$ ! electrical nature ( lightn+1 & h[ ! same v]satile g5ius inv5t$ ! lightn+ rod4 ,x is n propos$ to repeat famili> hi/ory "h4 ,nei!r %all we discuss ! dubi\s /atem5ts frequ5tly put =? t lightn+ rods 7 kn[n be=e ,frankl9's "t1 nor consid] h[ mu* cr$it is due ! _m philosoph]s :o1 at e>li] p]iods1 suspect$ lightn+ to be a manife/ation ( electricity4 ,! facts & ideas conc]n+ atmosph]ic electricity t we h to pres5t 9 ?is *apt] 71 = ! mo/ "p1 q unkn[n to ,frankl9 & to _m g5]ations ( savants aft] him1 & "s ( !m are j n[ f9d+ _! way into ! textbooks4 ,sci5ce /ill recognizes ! exi/5ce ( two k9ds ( electricity--positive & negative--:i*1 by comb9+1 neutralize ea* o!r's effects4 ,accord+ to curr5t ideas1 h[ev]1 ! m active ag5t 9 electrical ph5om5a is negative electricity1 :i* is believ$ to consi/ ( 7or to provide electrical *>ges =7 exce$+ly m9ute p>ticles call$ electrons4 ,only a few ye>s ago ! smalle/ ?+ t sci5ce _h to deal ) 0 ! atom1 & ! lighte/ ( atoms is t ( hydrog54 ,! discov]y ( electrons m>ks a new /ep t[>d ! inf9itely little4 ,! mass ( ! electron--or1 9 m popul> & less exact t]ms1 its weight--is ab\t #a_/ahjj t ( a hydrog5 atom4 ,z to its size3 ,imag9e a billi>d ball magnifi$ to ! size ( ! e>?4 ,its con/itu5t atoms w\ld be ! actual size ( billi>d balls1 b ! electrons ( :i* ea* atom is compos$ w\ld /ill be too small to be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,n[ imag9e ea* ( ^! billi>d-ball atoms fur!r magnifi$ to ! size ( a l>ge *ur*4 ,! electrons w\ld !n be ab\t z big z "o ( ! p]iods on ?is page4 ,:5 we say t a body has an electrical *>ge we mean t x has an excess ( positive or negative electricity4 ,an ord9>y molecule ( an atmosph]ic gas conta9s 7or p]haps actually consi/s (7 equal am\nts ( ! two k9ds ( electricity1 & is !re=e n *>g$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 v>i\s ways 9 :i* an electron may be deta*$ f su* a molecule1 leav+ x positively *>g$2 & aga9 x may receive an extra electron1 & ?us acquire a negative *>ge4 ,"u ! =m] circum/ances x becomes a positive ion1 & "u ! latt] a negative ion4 ,ions play a v important role z c>ri]s ( electricity1 because !y are impell$ to move t[>d oppositely *>g$ bodies or p>ticles & comb9e ) !m4 ,a gas conta9+ ions is said to be ioniz$2 & x is ! ionization ( ! atmosph]e t makes x a conductor ( electricity4 ,! numb] ( ions 9 a giv5 volume ( air has be5 ! subject ( a great _m measurem5ts1 bo? at obs]vatories on l& & 9 ! c\rse ( sci5tific exp$itions at sea4 ,!re are +5i\s in/rum5ts call$ 8ion c\nt]s10 9 :i* air is drawn at a measur$ rate ?r\gh ! app>atus & its electrical effects are not$4 ,! numb] ( positive ions f\nd 9 a cubic c5timet] ( ! l[] atmosph]e v>ies f a few hundr$ to a ?\s& or m1 :ile ! numb] ( negative ions 9 ! same space is g5]ally "o or two hundr$ small]4 ,! ionization is ab\t ! same ov] ! ocean z ov] ! l&4 ,!re are sev]al ways 9 :i* ! air may become ioniz$4 ,! diff]5t rays giv5 (f by radioactive sub/ances 7,alpha1 ,beta1 & ,gamma rays7 all h ! p[] ( driv+ (f electrons f ! molecules ( gases2 i4 e41 ioniz+ !m4 ,air is und\bt$ly ioniz$ by radioactive matt]s 9 ! soil 7radium & ?orium7 & especially by ! gase\s 8emanations0 ( ^! sub/ances 9 ! atmosph]e1 :i* are also radioactive4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 a problem to acc\nt = ionization ov] ! ocean2 because ! am\nt ( radioactive matt] 9 sea wat] is immeasurably small1 :ile ! am\nt ( radioactive emanation 9 sea air is1 accord+ to ! late/ obs]vations1 only ab\t #b4e p] c5t ( t occurr+ ov] ! l&4 ,! clue to ?is my/]y seems to be f\nd 9 a special k9d ( ,gamma rays com+ f "s region f> above ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,^! rays are call$ ! 8p5etrat+ radiation10 because !y n only are able1 l ! ,gamma rays due to radioactive sub/ances on e>?1 to pass ?r\gh ! walls ( h]metically seal$ metal vessels & ionize ! air inside1 b !y also h ! p[] ( pass+ ?r\gh a great ext5t ( atmosph]e )\t be+ absorb$4 ,!y are e/imat$ to be ab\t t5 times z 8p5etrat+0 z ! ,gamma rays com+ f kn[n t]re/rial sub/ances4 ,! be/ pro( t a radiation ( ?is sort comes f above is t :5 clos$ metal vessels are c>ri$ up 9 balloons1 !re is1 above an altitude ( ab\t half a mile1 a rapid increase 9 ! rate at :i* ions are produc$ )9 !m4 ,z to ! s\rce ( ?is radiation1 "o sugge/ion has be5 t x comes f /rongly radioactive cosmic du/ 9 ! upp] atmosph]e4 ,a hypo!sis t seems m plausible at pres5t attributes x to ! bomb>dm5t ( ! atmosph]e by electrons %ot (f f ! sun4 ,! k ( ions 9 ! atmosph]e is "o ( ! rec5t acquisitions ( sci5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 kn[n = "s g5]ations t ! e>? has normally a negative *>ge z comp>$ ) ! air1 or ! air a positive *>ge z comp>$ ) ! e>?4 ,?us betwe5 ! e>? & any po9t 9 ! air 7except1 z we n[ "k1 at great altitudes7 !re is a diff]5ce ( :at is call$ 8pot5tial10 ( su* a "* t negative electricity w foll[ any conductor provid$ = x away f ! e>?4 ,v>iations ( pot5tial ) altitude h long be5 measur$ by means ( in/rum5ts call$ 8collectors10 :i* ga!r1 s to speak1 a sample ( ! electrical *>ge ( ! air at any po9t & enable x to be comp>$ ) t ( ! e>?4 ,! diff]5ce ( pot5tial is measur$ 9 volts p] met] ( v]tical di/ance4 ,?us we get ! 8pot5tial gradi5t10 :i* av]ages ab\t #aej volts p] met] 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! atmosph]e4 ,x is subject to great irregul> v>iations--especially dur+ ?und]/orms--& also to some:at regul> rises & falls dur+ ea* day1 & to an annual fluctuation1 be+ mu* great] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,x has also be5 kn[n = a good _m ye>s t ! air is a conductor ( electricity--?\gh a poor "o--&1 !re=e1 does n insulate ! e>?4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,g4 ,swann has express$ ! extremely small conductive capacity ( ! air = electricity 9 ! /atem5t t a column ( x "o in* long (f]s z mu* resi/ance to ! passage ( an electrical curr5t z a copp] cable1 ( ! same cross section1 ?irty ?\s& million million miles long6 ,a fact m rec5tly le>n$1 f obs]vations 9 balloons1 is t ! pot5tial gradi5t falls (f rapidly at high levels1 & becomes practically z]o at an altitude ( ab\t six miles4 ,f ?is fact x is conclud$ t ! l[] six miles ( ! atmosph]e conta9s a *>ge ( positive electricity j equal to ! negative *>ge at ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 o!r words1 ! l[] atmosph]e is n only positive ) respect to ! e>?1 b 9 an absolute s5se x conta9s an excess ( positive electricity4 ,?us we h a negatively *>g$ e>? surr\nd$ by a lay] ( positively *>g$ air4 ,s9ce air is a conductor1 x is n easy to see :y ! opposite *>ges ( ! e>? & ! atmosph]e d n comb9e & neutralize ea* o!r4 ,an int]*ange is1 9 fact1 always go+ on betwe5 !m2 negative ions fl[ upw>d f ! e>? & positive ions fl[ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?is 8e>?-air curr5t0 is1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly small4 ,moreov]1 ! opposite *>ges ( ! e>? & air rema9 f ye> to ye> 9 spite ( x4 ,h[ does ! e>? reta9 its negative *>ge & ! air its positive *>ge8 ,no o!r "q relat+ to atmosph]ic electricity has1 9 rec5t ye>s1 be5 s mu* debat$ z ?is4 ,discussion c5t]s1 z a rule1 ^u ! negative *>ge ( ! e>?2 = !re are c]ta9 reasons = assum+ t1 :5 once ?is is expla9$1 ! positive *>ge ( ! atmosph]e w require no special explanation4 ,"o hypo!sis is t ! e>? is bomb>d$ by positive & negative corpuscles f ! sun1 & t ! negative corpuscles h su* p5etrat+ p[] t !y are able to rea* ! e>?1 :ile ! positive corpuscles are caught by ! atmosph]e4 ,ano!r hypo!sis 7,swann's7 is t ! same 8p5etrat+ radiation0 t1 z we h se51 helps to ionize ! l[] atmosph]e has ! effect ( driv+ d[nw>d a /ream ( electrons deta*$ f ! air molecules1 ?us ma9ta9+ a con/ant supply ( negative electricity to ! e>?4 ,! "q is n yet settl$4 ,x is n[ "t to turn f ^! some:at ab/ruse matt]s to a subject ( univ]sal int]e/2 viz41 lightn+4 ,z rec5tly z a few decades ago1 ?\gh !re 0 already a copi\s lit]ature on ! subject ( lightn+1 v little 0 really kn[n ab\t x4 ,ev5 its sup]ficial features 7 /rik+ly misund]/ood until ! adv5t ( photographic me?ods ( inve/igation4 ,?us until ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury %>ply zigzag lightn+ fla%es 7 repres5t$ 9 sci5tific books z !y /ill are 9 conv5tional art4 ,t s-call$ zigzag lightn+ is really s9u\s 0 fir/ ass]t$ by ,james ,nasmy?1 9 #ahef1 & 8 cont5tion 0 soon aft]w>d confirm$ by photography4 ,! cam]a has reveal$ a l>ge numb] ( o!r int]e/+ ?+s ab\t lightn+4 ,ev]ybody has notic$ an appe>ance ( flick]+ 9 lightn+ fla%es t are ( s5sible duration4 ,sev]al e>ly inve/igators1 su* z ,arago1 ,dove1 & ,o4 ,n4 ,rood1 _h rea*$ ! conclusion t su* fla%es are multiple1 consi/+ ( sev]al successive dis*>ges along an id5tical pa?4 ,r\gh measurem5ts ( ! int]vals ( "t betwe5 ^! dis*>ges 7 made ) v>i\s =ms ( rotat+ disk4 ,f> m accurate in=mation is n[ obta9$ on ?is subject by ! use ( a cam]a m\nt$ on a v]tical axis & swung 9 a wide arc1 at a fix$ rate1 by clockwork4 ,! p]fection ( ?is device is due1 9 "p1 to ,a4 ,l>s51 9 ,am]ica1 b especially to ,dr4 ,b4 ,walt]1 ( ,hamburg1 ^: a*ievem5ts 9 ! photography ( lightn+ f> surpass ^? ( any o!r inve/igator4 ,x is obvi\s t if a dis*>ge ( lightn+ is n in/antane\s1 b has a s5sible duration1 ! rot>y movem5t ( ! cam]a1 arrang$ z j m5tion$1 w spread out ! image ( ! fla%1 on ! photographic plate1 into a m or less broad b& or ribbon4 ,mo/ photographs ( ribbonlike /reaks ( lightn+ made ) ord9>y cam]as are1 9 fact1 due to accid5tal movem5ts ( ! app>atus dur+ exposure--su* z an involunt>y />t ( ! op]ator1 9 case ! cam]a is held 9 ! h&s--?\gh a c]ta9 am\nt ( spread+ ( ! image is sometimes caus$ by :at photograph]s call 8halation40 ,pictures tak5 ) ! revolv+ cam]a %[ t "s fla%es are practically in/antane\s :ile o!rs may la/ z long z half a second or m4 ,^? ( ! latt] class ne>ly always %[ sev]al p>allel /reams ( light1 m or less di/9ctly sep>at$ by d>k] spaces4 ,ea* ( ^! bright /reams repres5ts a sep>ate dis*>ge along ! common pa?4 ,z ! spe$ ) :i* ! cam]a turns is kn[n1 x is possible to det]m9e ! int]vals ( "t betwe5 ! dis*>ges ( a multiple fla%4 ,^! int]vals may v>y f a few ?\s&?s to "o or two-t5?s ( a second1 :ile ! duration ( ea* ( ! consecutive dis*>ges is probably n m ?an two or ?ree hundr$-?\s&?s ( a second 9 mo/ cases4 ,sometimes ! pa? ( ! lightn+ fla% is %ift$ by ! w9d :ile ! picture is be+ tak54 ,9 "o case ?is %ift 0 e/imat$ at #cf feet4 ,photography is also appli$ to det]m9+ ! di/ance ( a lightn+ fla% & h5ce ! dim5sions ( any ( its features4 ,= ?is purpose a /]eoscopic me?od is us$1 two cam]as be+ m\nt$ side by side & expos$ at ! same "t4 ,sometimes "o ( ! cam]as is made to revolve1 :ile ! o!r rema9s /ation>y4 ,! /ation>y cam]a w !n %[ ! relative positions ( ! fla%es occurr+ dur+ exposure1 :ile ! mov+ cam]a w indicate ! times at :i* !y occurr$4 ,/reaks ( 8black lightn+0 & black bord]s ( ! :ite fla%es1 bo? (t5 se5 9 photographs1 are a trick ( ! cam]a & are due to :at is call$ ! 8,clayd5 effect40 ,"s k9ds ( plates are mu* m susceptible to ?is effect ?an o!rs4 ,:5 a fla% ( lightn+ has regi/]$ its impression on su* a plate1 &1 be=e ! %utt] is clos$1 ano!r fla% occurs1 ! g5]al illum9ation ( ! field by light reflect$ f cl\ds1 etc41 (t5 8rev]ses0 ! orig9al image1 & consequ5tly x pr9ts black4 8,%eet lightn+0 pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a diffuse gl[ ov] ! sky4 ,:5 lightn+ ( ?is "* is se5 play+ ab\t ! horizon on summ] ev5+s1 9 ! abs5ce ( an audible ?und]/orm1 x is (t5 call$ 8heat lightn+40 ,mo/ %eet lightn+ is probably a m]e reflection ( ord9>y /reak lightn+ bel[ ! horizon or hidd5 by cl\ds4 ,"s au?orities believe1 h[ev]1 t diffuse1 sil5t dis*>ges actually occur 9 ! cl\ds4 ,ballooni/s claim to h enc\nt]$ su* dis*>ges ne> at h&4 ,an analog\s ph5om5on is ! gl[+ ( s-call$ 8inc&esc5t0 or self-lum9\s cl\ds1 to :i* sev]al obs]v]s h call$ att5tion4 ,a rem>kable ph5om5on ( some:at simil> "* has be5 report$ by ,dr4 ,kno*e1 late director ( ! ,*ilean meteorological s]vice1 :o /ates t x occurs on a va/ scale along ! cre/ ( ! ,&es dur+ ! w>m season4 ,! m\nta9s seem to act z gigantic lightn+ rods1 giv+ rise to m or less cont9u\s diffuse dis*>ges betwe5 !mselves & ! cl\ds1 ) occasional outbur/s simulat+ ! beams ( a great se>*light4 ,^! displays are visible hundr$s ( miles out at sea4 ,some?+ ak9 to ?is s-call$ 8,&es lightn+0 has occasionally be5 report$ f o!r m\nta9\s regions1 includ+ ! m\nta9s ( ,virg9ia & ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 8,bead$0 lightn+ & 8rocket0 lightn+ are z r>e z !y are int]e/+4 ,! =m] resembles a /r+ ( gl[+ beads1 :ile ! latt] is a =m ( /reak lightn+ t %oots up into ! air at ab\t ! app>5t spe$ ( a skyrocket4 8,ball lightn+0 takes ! =m ( a fi]y mass 7n always globul>71 :i* g5]ally moves q delib]ately ?r\gh ! air or along ! gr\nd1 & 9 _m cases disappe>s ) a viol5t detonation4 ,x occurs inside ( build+s1 z well z out ( doors4 ,9 ord] t a dis*>ge ( electricity may break ?r\gh ! resi/ance ( ! air along pa?s z long z ^? commonly obs]v$1 enorm\s diff]5ces ( pot5tial mu/ exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e dur+ ?und]/orms4 ,h[ su* conditions arise has be5 ! subject ( an imm5se am\nt ( speculation4 ,! explanation n[ g5]ally accept$ 0 propos$ 9 ! ye> #aiji by ! ,engli% physici/ & meteorologi/1 ,dr4 ,george ,simpson4 ,?is hypo!sis is bas$ ^u ! fact1 well atte/$ by laboratory exp]im5ts1 t ! break+ up ( drops ( wat] involves a sep>ation ( positive f negative electricity2 9 o!r words1 ! production ( bo? positive & negative ions4 ,9 ?is process ! drops become positively *>g$2 i4 e41 !y reta9 a great] numb] ( positive ?an ( negative ions1 ! latt] be+ set free 9 ! air4 ,ab\t ?ree times z _m negative z positive ions are ?us releas$4 ,n[ a ?und]/orm is accompani$ by /rong upw>d movem5ts ( ! air2 s /rong t small drops _c fall to ! gr\nd1 :ile l>ge drops1 :i* w\ld be heavy en\gh to fall ?r\gh su* ris+ curr5ts if !y c\ld reta9 _! integrity1 are brok5 up by ! bla/ ( air & c>ri$ al(t1 :]e !y t5d to accumulate1 recomb9e1 & fall aga94 ,?is process may be repeat$ _m times1 s t ! positive *>ge ( ! drops is cont9ually increas+1 & at ! same "t negative ions are be+ set free & c>ri$ by ! asc5d+ air to ! upp] "p ( ! cl\ds4 ,"h !y unite ) ! cl\d p>ticles & give !m a /rong negative *>ge4 ,?us ev5tually !re is =m$ a heavily *>g$ positive lay] ( cl\d betwe5 a heavily *>g$ negative lay] above & ! negatively *>g$ e>? b5ea?4 ,:5 ! diff]5ces ( pot5tial ?us br\ght ab\t become great en\gh1 disruptive dis*>ges ( electricity w occur1 & ^! may be ei!r betwe5 ! upp] & l[] lay]s ( cl\d or betwe5 ! cl\ds & ! e>?1 or1 sometimes1 betwe5 two diff]5t cl\ds4 ,probably mu* ! mo/ frequ5t lightn+ fla%es are ^? t occur )9 a s+le ?und]cl\d & d n rea* ! e>?4 ,h[ev]1 x w (t5 happ5 t ! negatively *>g$ upp] lay] ( cl\d is ei!r c>ri$ v high or drift$ away by ! w9d1 & !n ! dis*>ges t occur w be *iefly betwe5 cl\d & e>?4 ,su* conditions are likely to prevail 9 ! case ( cyclonic ?und]/orms1 9 :i* !re is (t5 great diff]5ce 9 ! direction & =ce ( ! w9ds at diff]5t levels4 ,on ! o!r h&1 heat ?und]/orms usually occur :5 ! g5]al w9ds are light at all levels1 & x is probable t su* /orms are relatively free f cl\d-to-e>? dis*>ges4 ,we seem to h "h an explanation ( ! p>adox t tropical ?und]/orms1 :i* are ne>ly always ( ! noncyclonic type1 ?\gh notori\sly viol5t1 are g5]ally h>mless4 ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ f :at has be5 said above t ! my/]y ( ! lightn+ fla% is n[ fully resolv$4 ,?is is f> f be+ ! case4 ,x is n at all cle> h[ an electrical dis*>ge c break d[n ! resi/ance ( ! air along a pa? a mile or m 9 l5g?1 z commonly happ5s 9 ! ?und]/orm4 ,x 0 =m]ly /at$1 on good au?ority1 t ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial requir$ to produce su* a fla% w\ld am\nt to upw>d ( #e1jjj1jjj1jjj volts4 ,c]ta9 facts h lately be5 adduc$ to %[ t su* great diff]5ces ( pot5tial ne$ n be assum$4 ,mov+-cam]a photographs ( ! sp>ks produc$ by electric ma*9es %[ t su* sp>ks beg9 ) small bru% dis*>ges :i* gradually ionize ! air & ?us build up a conductive pa? = ! complete dis*>ge4 ,some?+ ( ?is k9d may occur 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,/reaks ( air already /rongly ioniz$ & m or less cont9u\s %eets ( ra9 w\ld also help to provide conductors = a dis*>ge4 ,if lightn+ does build up its pa? some:at gradually1 ! process might1 9 c]ta9 cases1 be s sl[ z to acc\nt = ! delib]ate movem5t ( rocket lightn+1 & also1 p]haps1 furni% a clue to ! hi!rto unsolv$ my/]y ( ball lightn+4 ,humphreys has t5tatively sugge/$ t all g5u9e cases ( ball lightn+ are 8/all$ ?und]bolts02 i4 e41 lightn+ dis*>ges t h come to a halt1 or ne>ly s1 9 _! progress ?r\gh ! air4 ,z to ! visibility ( lightn+ ,humphreys says1 9 8 8,physics ( ! ,air03 8,j h[ a lightn+ dis*>ge r5d]s ! atmosph]e ?r\gh :i* x passes lum9\s is n def9itely kn[n4 ,x mu/ & does make ! air pa? v hot1 b no "o has yet succe$$1 by any am\nt ( ord9>y heat+1 9 r5d]+ ei!r oxyg5 or nitrog5 lum9\s4 ,h5ce x seems well-nigh c]ta9 t ! light ( lightn+ fla%es owes its orig9 to some?+ o!r ?an high temp]ature1 probably to int]nal atomic di/urbances induc$ by ! swiftly mov+ electrons ( ! dis*>ge1 & to ionic recomb9ation40 ,a few attempts h be5 made to measure ! /r5g? ( curr5t 9 a lightn+ dis*>ge4 ,_m sub/ances become magnetiz$ :5 an electric dis*>ge occurs 9 _! vic9ity1 & x has be5 po9t$ out by ,f4 ,pockels t :5 basalt rock is magnetiz$ 9 ?is way ! am\nt ( magnetism is an indication ( ! greate/ /r5g? ( curr5t to :i* x has be5 expos$4 ,pockels exam9$ specim5s ( basalt f ! top ( ,m\nt ,cimone1 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 :]e lightn+ /rokes are common1 & f\nd _m ( !m m or less magnetiz$4 ,he also expos$ blocks ( basalt close to a bran* ( a lightn+ rod 9 ! same region4 ,he ?us obta9$ values = ! /r5g? ( curr5t 9 lightn+ dis*>ges rang+ f #aa1jjj to #bj1jjj amp]es4 ,humphreys1 f ! cru%+ effect ( a lightn+ /roke ^u a holl[ lightn+ rod1 has comput$ ! /r5g? ( curr5t 9 ! case exam9$ to be ab\t #ij1jjj amp]es4 ,! effects ( lightn+ are s v>i\s t x w\ld take a book to describe !m all4 ,its audible effects are discuss$ 9 our *apt] on atmosph]ic ac\/ics4 ,its *emical effects consi/ *iefly 9 ! production ( oxides ( nitrog51 ozone1 & probably ammonia f ! con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e along ! pa? ( ! dis*>ge1 & ^! sub/ances1 ei!r directly or aft] fur!r comb9ations 9 ! atmosph]e1 contribute to ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,lightn+ sometimes bores holes sev]al feet deep 9 s&y gr\nd & fuses ! mat]ial along its pa?1 =m+ ! glassy tubes kn[n z fulgurites4 ,simil> holes are bor$ 9 solid rock4 ,! de/ructive effects ( lightn+ are due *iefly to ! heat g5]at$ by ! passage ( an electric curr5t ?r\gh a poor conductor4 ,:5 moi/ure is pres5t 9 ! object /ruck1 its sudd5 conv]sion into /eam produces ! explosive effects se5 9 ! %att]+ ( trees1 ! ripp+ ( clo!s f ! human body1 etc4 ,!re is almo/ no end to ! curi\s pranks play$ by lightn+--"s disa/r\s1 "s comical1 & "s b5evol5t1 z :5 p]sons crippl$ ) rheumatism1 aft] hav+ be5 knock$ d[n & tempor>ily /unn$ by a /roke ( lightn+1 h f\nd !mselves completely cur$ ( _! malady6 ,a well-kn[n book by ,camille ,flamm>ion1 translat$ into ,engli% "u ! title 8,?und] & ,lightn+10 is almo/ :olly devot$ to ^! ecc5tricities ( ! lightn+ /roke4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,lightn+ ,,pr9t ,,on ,,! ,,arm ,,( ,a ,,boy ,,/ruck ,,by ,,lightn+ ,,ne> ,,duns1 ,,scotl&1 ,,9 #ahhc ,drawn f a photograph tak5 a few h\rs aft] ! accid5t4 ,f ! ,lancet4 ,!re is a v common belief t lightn+ sometimes impresses a photographic image ( trees or o!r objects ( ! l&scape ^u ! human body4 ,! ramify+ p9k m>ks1 kn[n z 8lightn+ pr9ts10 (t5 f\nd on ! sk9 ( p]sons :o h be5 /ruck by lightn+1 are1 h[ev]1 9 no s5se photographic1 b are m]ely ! lesions due to ! passage ?r\gh ! tissues ( a bran*+ electric dis*>ge4 ,a few practical sugge/ions 9 reg>d to dang] f lightn+ are (f]$ by ,humphreys1 z foll[s3 8,g5]ally x is saf] to be indoors ?an out dur+ a ?und]/orm1 & greatly s if ! h\se has a well-gr\nd$ metallic ro( or prop]ly in/all$ sy/em ( lightn+ rods4 ,if outdoors x is f> bett] to be 9 a valley ?an on ! ridge ( a hill1 & x is always dang]\s to take %elt] "u an isolat$ tree--! tall] ! tree1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! great] ! dang]4 ,an exceptionally tall tree is dang]\s ev5 9 a =e/4 ,"s v>ieties ( trees appe> to be m frequ5tly /ruck1 9 proportion to _! numb]s & exposure1 ?an o!rs1 b no tree is immune4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! trees mo/ likely to be /ruck are ^? t h ei!r an ext5sive root sy/em1 l ! locu/1 or deep tap roots1 l ! p9e1 = ! v obvi\s reason t !y are ! be/ gr\nd$ & !re=e (f]1 on ! :ole1 ! lea/ electrical resi/ance4 8,if "o has to be outdoors & expos$ to a viol5t ?und]/orm1 x is advisable1 s f> z dang] f lightn+ is conc]n$1 to get soak+ wet1 because wet clo!s are mu* bett] conductors1 & dry ones poor]1 ?an ! human body4 ,9 extreme cases x might ev5 be advisable to lie flat on ! wet gr\nd4 ,9 case ( sev]e %ock1 resuscitation %\ld be attempt$ ?r\gh p]si/5t artificial respiration & prev5tion f *ill4 8,! cont\r ( ! l& is an important factor 9 det]m9+ ! relative dang] f lightn+ because ! *ance ( a dis*>ge betwe5 cl\d & e>?1 ! only k9d t is dang]\s1 v>ies some:at inv]sely z ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,h5ce ?und]/orms are m dang]\s 9 m\nta9\s regions1 at lea/ 9 ! high] portions1 ?an ov] a level c\ntry4 ,cle>ly1 too1 = any giv5 region ! l[] ! cl\d ! great] ! dang]4 ,h5ce a high degree ( humidity is favorable to a dang]\s /orm1 p>tly because ! cl\ds w =m at a l[] level & p>tly because ! precipitation1 & probably !re=e ! electricity g5]at$1 w be abundant4 ,h5ce1 too1 a w9t] ?und]/orm1 because ( its g5]ally l[] cl\ds1 is likely to be m dang]\s ?an an equally heavy summ] "o40 ,x is e/imat$ t ! total prop]ty loss due to lightn+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ab\t #h1jjj1jjj a ye>1 & ! numb] ( p]sons /ruck ab\t #a1ejj1 ( :om "o-?ird are kill$4 ,n9e-t5?s ( ^! accid5ts occur 9 rural localities4 ,lightn+ rods nei!r prev5t lightn+ /roke nor d !y1 z is sometimes alleg$1 attract lightn+ to build+s4 ,!y m]ely provide good conductors along :i* a /roke ( lightn+ may rea* ! e>? )\t do+ damage1 &1 )9 v mod]ate limits1 det]m9e ! pa? ( dis*>ge4 ,:ile !re are _m unsettl$ po9ts reg>d+ ! !ory ( lightn+ rods & details ( con/ruction1 _! g5]al utility is /rik+ly indicat$ by /ati/ics %[+ ! comp>ative am\nt ( damage done by lightn+ to rodd$ & unrodd$ build+s4 ,accord+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 in=mation ga!r$ 9 ?is c\ntry %[s t 8tak+ rods z !y come 9 ! g5]al run ( in/allations1 !y r$uce ! fire haz>d f lightn+ by #hj to #ij p] c5t 9 ! case ( h\ses1 & by z mu* z #ii p] c5t 9 ! case ( b>ns40 ,! same bureau1 9 its valuable publication1 8,protection ( ,life & ,prop]ty ,aga9/ ,lightn+0 7,wa%+ton1 #aiae71 supplies ! answ]s to a multitude ( que/ions t are con/antly ask$ ab\t lightn+ rods4 ,build+s ) metal ro(s & frames connect$ ) ! gr\nd are g5]ally well protect$ f lightn+ 7except z to nonmetallic *imneys7 )\t rods4 ,dur+ actual ?und]/orms1 & also at o!r times :5 !re are high pot5tial gradi5ts 9 ! atmosph]e1 lum9\s electric dis*>ges ( a m or less cont9u\s "* are sometimes obs]v$ to occur 9 ! %ape ( small jets & flames1 *iefly f po9t$ objects1 includ+ lightn+ rods1 ! ma/s & sp>s ( vessels1 ! angles ( ro(s1 etc4 ,^! are id5tical 9 "* ) ! 8bru%0 dis*>ges1 or incomplete sp>ks1 produc$ by electric ma*9es4 ,!y are accompani$ by a hiss+ or crackl+ s\nd4 ,_! lum9osity is comp>atively feeble1 & = ?is reason !y are mu* m (t5 obs]v$ by night ?an by day4 ,!y are especially common dur+ sn[/orms4 ,?is ph5om5on is kn[n z ,/4 ,elmo's fire or corposants 7n to m5tion a score ( o!r names1 anci5t & mod]n74 ,z se5 at sea1 corposants sometimes take ! =m ( "o or two />like objects at ! trucks ( ! ma/s or ! ends ( y>d arms1 b occasionally ! sp>s1 rigg+ & o!r p>ts ( ! %ip are light$ up ) a great numb] ( /ation>y or mov+ flames1 produc+ a weird spectacle4 ,! f9e/ examples ( corposants are1 h[ev]1 obs]v$ on high m\nta9s1 & ! ph5om5on has be5 c>efully /udi$ at c]ta9 m\nta9 obs]vatories1 su* z ^? on ,b5 ,nevis & ! ,sonnblick4 ,( its occurr5ce on ,b5 ,nevis1 ,angus ,rank9 writes3 8,! mo/ frequ5t mann] 9 :i* x makes its appe>ance is z caps ( light on ! tips ( ! lightn+ rod1 b occasionally x appe>s z jets ( flame project+ f all objects on ! top ( ! t[] & f ! c[l ( ! kit*5 *imney1 :i* rises f ! ro( at "s di/ance f ! t[]4 ,^! jets are at times f #d to #f in*es 9 l5g?1 & make a peculi> hiss+ s\nd4 ,dur+ a v brilliant display1 ! obs]v]'s hair1 hat1 p5cil1 etc41 are agl[ ) ! #8fire1' b1 except = a slight t+l+ s5sation 9 ! head & h&s1 he suff]s no inconv5i5ce f x4 ,on su* occasions1 if a /ick be rais$ above ! head1 jets ( electric light w be se5 at its upp] end4 ,! only drawback to obs]v+ x ) advantage is ! unpleasant "* ( ! wea!r 9 :i* x appe>s1 namely bl9d+ %[]s ( sn[ & hail1 & squally w9ds1 caus+ a good deal ( sn[drift40 ,rank9 records t x 0 sometimes he>d 9 ! daytime1 :5 its light 0 invisible4 ,on ! ,sonnblick a display ( ,/4 ,elmo's fire has be5 obs]v$ to la/ z long z eight h\rs4 ,no lum9\s electrical ph5om5on is m beautiful or1 at fir/ sight1 m my/]i\s ?an ! aurora1 popul>ly kn[n1 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 z ! 8nor!rn lights40 ,?is ph5om5on is due to ! passage ( electrical dis*>ges ?r\gh ! r>efi$ gases ( ! upp] atmosph]e1 & x n[ appe>s to be settl$ beyond controv]sy t ! dis*>ges are caus$ by corpuscles or radiations ( "s k9d emitt$ f ! sun4 ,mo/ acc\nts ( ! aurora describe ! typical appe>ances t x assumes z se5 f a s+le place on ! surface ( ! e>?1 b say little1 if any?+1 ab\t ! =m ( ! ph5om5on z a :ole or ab\t its position 9 space4 ,we %all foll[ a diff]5t plan "h1 & ask ! read]1 fir/ ( all1 to imag9e himself view+ ! aurora f a po9t "s ?\s&s ( miles away f our planet4 ,! sol> emission above m5tion$1 :5 suffici5tly int5se1 produces 9 ! upp] atmosph]e a gl[ l t se5 9 a vacuum tube :5 an electrical dis*>ge passes ?r\gh x4 ,f our vantage po9t 9 out] space we %all notice t ?is gl[ is n spread ov] ! :ole globe1 b =ms two r+s1 :i* encircle ! pol> regions ( bo? hemisph]es1 ?\gh nei!r ! geographic nor ! magnetic poles lie at _! c5t]s4 ,! r+s d n ext5d d[n into ! l[] atmosph]e1 b hang ab\t #fj miles above ! e>?'s surface4 ,! reason = ?is segregation ( ! aurora 9 high latitudes is t ! e>? is a great magnet1 & magnets h ! p[] ( deflect+ an electrical dis*>ge 9 _! vic9ity4 ,an appe>ance mu* resembl+ ! two auroral zones ( ! e>? 0 produc$1 on a small scale1 by ! late ,pr(essor ,kr4 ,birkel& ( ,*ri/iania1 :o magnetiz$ a metal globe & all[$ an electrical dis*>ge to play ^u x 9 a vacuum4 ,! surface ( ! globe 0 coat$ ) a phosphoresc5t sub/ance1 :i* gl[$ "u ! dis*>ge 9 two r+s1 correspond+ r\ghly to ^? ( ! aurora4 ,9 bo? cases ! dis*>ge foll[s :at are call$ ! magnetic 8l9es ( =ce40 ,our e>?1 l o!r magnets1 is envelop$ & p5etrat$ by su* l9es4 ,at any po9t on ! e>? ! direction ( ! neighbor+ l9es ( =ce is %[n by ! dipp+ ne$le1 :i* assumes a position p>allel to !m4 ,at a magnetic pole ! ne$le po9ts /raight up & d[n1 & ev]y:]e 9 high latitudes x has a position n v mu* incl9$ to ! v]tical1 :ile 9 l[ latitudes x is m or less horizontal4 ,if1 n[1 = ! sake ( simplicity we conf9e our att5tion to ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & imag9e ourselves ma9ta9+ our wat* = mon?s & ye>s toge!r1 we %all discov] t mu* ( ! "t !re is no r+ to be se52 at o!r times !re may be a small or p>tial r+2 & occasionally !re is a v broad1 conspicu\s r+1 spread+ s f> s\? t x ov]lies ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & mo/ ( ,europe4 ,evid5tly ! emission f ! sun t causes ! auroral dis*>ge v>ies greatly 9 /r5g?1 & ?is is 9 accordance ) :at we "k ab\t sol> activities 9 g5]al4 ,next let u take a clos] look at ! r+1 :e!r f out] space or f ! e>?'s surface4 ,we %all f9d t x is made up1 at lea/ 9 "p1 ( a multitude ( lum9\s beams direct$ out into space & und]go+ rapid *anges 9 position & =m4 ,^! beams1 :i* really m>k out ! /reams ( ! dis*>ge 9 ! upp] air1 foll[ ! l9es ( =ce4 ,9 high latitudes !y are ne>ly v]tical ) respect to ! und]ly+ surface ( ! e>?4 ,ev5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7:5 ! aurora ext5ds s f> s\?7 !y are mu* m ne>ly v]tical ?an horizontal4 ,a dipp+ ne$le w %[1 at any place1 j h[ !y %\ld /&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,photographic ,,analysis ,,( ,,lightn+4 ,?is d\ble photograph 0 made by ,dr4 ,b4 ,walt] ( ,hamburg1 ! lead+ exp]t 9 ! field ( lightn+ photography4 ,! picture at ! left 0 tak5 ) a /ation>y cam]a4 ,! photograph at ! "r1 tak5 at ! same "t ) a revolv+ cam]a1 %[s t "o ( ! ma9 fla%es 7! "o to ! "r7 0 a s+le dis*>ge1 & ! o!r a multiple dis*>ge4 ,f any di/ant po9t on ! e>?'s surface ei!r nor? or s\? ( x1 ! visible portion ( ! auroral r+ pres5ts ! appe>ance ( an ar* across ! horizon4 ,arctic explor]s1 f> )9 ! ,arctic ,circle1 see ?is ar* to ! s\? ( !m4 ,9 our latitudes x spans ! nor!rn horizon4 ,sep>ate beams or /ream]s may be di/+ui%able or n1 accord+ to ! brightness ( ! dis*>ge or its di/ance f ! po9t ( obs]vation4 ,comb9ations ( beams con/itute s-call$ 8drap]ies40 ,illu/ration3 ,,photograph ,,( ,,lightn+1 ,,%[+ 8,,black0 ,,fla%es4 7graph by ,f4 ,ell]man47 ,illu/ration3 ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity ,,in/rum5ts ,,on ,,bo>d ,,! 8,,c>negie40 ,left3 ,p5etrat+ radiation app>atus4 ,"r3 active-cont5t app>atus4 ,bel[3 ,arrangem5t = supply+ pot5tials to electroscopes & ionization *amb]s1 7,c>negie ,in/itution47 ,occasionally1 at times ( great sol> activity1 "p ( ! r+ actually ov]lies our ,nor!rn ,/ates1 & ! aurora !n becomes a magnific5t spectacle 9 ?is "p ( ! _w4 ,! :ole sky may be fill$ ) ! %ift+ /ream]s1 along :i* travel rapid pulsations ( light1 s t ! ph5om5on !n sugge/s /rongly :at x really is--a va/ electrical dis*>ge pass+ d[n ?r\gh ! atmosph]e f out] space4 ,:5 ! obs]v] is ?us surr\nd$ by ! beams1 !y seem1 on acc\nt ( p]spective1 to conv]ge t[>d a po9t s\? ( ! z5i?1 :]e !y =m a beautiful corona or cr[n4 ,! position ( ?is cr[n dep5ds ^u ! slant ( ! beams1 :i*1 z already expla9$1 foll[ ! l9es ( =ce4 ,a brilliant aurora is always accompani$ by di/urbances ( ! magnetic ne$le1 :i* moves ab\t erratically1 s t compasses c no long] be dep5d$ ^u4 ,at ! same "t !re are /rong 8e>? curr5ts10 :i* int]f]e ) ! op]ation ( telegraph l9es4 ,obs]vations ) ! spectroscope seem to %[ t ! light ( ! aurora is *iefly due to gl[+ nitrog51 ?\gh ! mo/ prom95t l9e 9 ! auroral spectrum has sometimes be5 ref]r$ to an unkn[n atmosph]ic gas4 ,! v>i\s colors se5 9 bright auroras1 includ+ r$s1 gre5s1 & yell[s1 are believ$ by "s au?orities to dep5d ^u ! v>y+ spe$ ( ! electrical dis*>ge4 ,exp]im5ts ) vacuum tubes %[ t nitrog51 especially1 gives great *anges ( color ) *anges 9 ! velocity ( ! dis*>ge4 ,ano!r int]e/+ revelation ( ! spectroscope is t !re is app>5tly1 a fa9t auroral illum9ation 9 ! sky at all times & 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 ! s-call$ 8p]man5t aurora40 ,photography has be5 us$ ) great success 9 /udy+ ! aurora1 especially by ! ,norwegian physici/s ,/rm]1 ,veg>d1 & ,krogness4 ,simultane\s photographs ( a s+le detail are tak5 f two po9ts sev]al miles ap>t aga9/ a backgr\nd ( />s4 ,! app>5t position ( ! auroral detail among ! />s w diff] 9 ! two pictures1 & a comp>ison ( !m makes x possible to det]m9e ! actual position ( ! aurora 9 space4 ,a sl[-mov+ c9ematograph has also be5 us$ to obta9 s]ies ( pictures4 ,! measurem5ts ( ^! obs]v]s %[ t ! base ( ! aurora is1 g5]ally betwe5 #fj & #gj miles above ! e>? ) a /rong t5d5cy to assume a def9ite location at an altitude ( ab\t #fa or #fg miles4 ,its upp] limits are n well def9$1 b x has be5 photograph$ up to an altitude ( m ?an #cjj miles4 ,e>li] obs]v]s report$ see+ ! aurora at altitudes ( only a few miles1 & ev5 d[n to ! e>?'s surface1 b rec5t au?orities are incl9$ to discr$it ^! obs]vations4 ,"o m ph5om5on ( atmosph]ic electricity requires brief m5tion1 viz41 ! electric waves t produce ! erratic di/urbances kn[n to wireless telegraph op]ators z 8/rays0 or 8/atic40 ,z he>d 9 ! receiv] ( a wireless outfit ! noise ( /rays has be5 describ$ z 8l hail/ones beat+ aga9/ a %eet ( t910 or 8%ort hisses f a /eam pipe10 or 8p]iodic dis*>ges ( coal d[n a *ute40 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic s\nd is a %>p 8click40 ,! /udy ( /rays has be5 c>ri$ out on a _w-wide scale by a committee ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 b _! nature is n yet fully und]/ood4 ,"s /rays are und\bt$ly due to ne> or di/ant dis*>ges ( lightn+1 & special =ms ( wireless app>atus1 kn[n z 8?und]/orm record]s0 or 8c]aunographs10 h be5 us$ to give notice ( ! approa* ( ?und]/orms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 /rays seem frequ5tly to h no connection ) ?und]/orms1 & _! pr9cipal orig9 is n[ s\ght 9 electrical di/urbances 9 ! upp] atmosph]e1 p]haps simil> to ^? :i* cause ! aurora1 &1 z 9 ! case ( ! aurora1 hav+ _! ultimate s\rce 9 ! sun4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,atmosph]ic ,,optics ,:5 we look up into ! sky on a cl\dless day we behold a cont9u\s canopy1 ! prevail+ color ( :i* is blue4 ,?is canopy is a veil t hides ! />ry ho/s beyond1 & its pres5ce seems1 at fir/ sight1 incompatible ) ! fact t ! air is a transp>5t m$ium4 ,we see ! />s by night ?r\gh ! same int]v5+ atmosph]e4 ,:y are !y cut (f f our sight by day8 ,! answ] to ?is "q c1 p]haps1 be/ be made pla9 by a simple exp]im5t4 ,place a light$ c&le beh9d a %eet hung across a room n o!rwise illum9at$4 ,! flame ( ! c&le w be di/9ctly visible ?r\gh ! %eet4 ,next1 let ! room be brightly light$1 say ) electric light or daylight4 ,! c&le c n[ no long] be se5 ?r\gh ! %eet1 ow+ to ! bright illum9ation ( ! latt] z comp>$ ) ! feeble light ( ! c&le4 ,9 ! atmosph]e ! c\nt]p>t ( our %eet is a lay]1 sev]al miles 9 dep?1 ( m9ute p>ticles1 :i* by day are light$ up by ! sun4 ,"s ( ! p>ticles are t9y du/ motes1 o!rs are f9e droplets ( wat] or bits ( ice1 & ! re/ are ! molecules ( ! atmosph]ic gases !mselves4 ,x is ! light t comes to u f ^! p>ticles t makes our eyes ins5sitive to ! fa9t] light ( ! />s1 & makes ! sky itself a visible lum9\s vault4 ,next1 :y is ! cle> sky g5]ally blue1 r ?an "s o!r color8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 we mu/ recall ! fact t sunlight is made up ( e!r waves ( _m diff]5t sizes4 ,9 comb9ation1 ^! waves produce ^u our eyes ! s5sation ( :ite light4 ,:5 !y are sep>at$1 z by pass+ ?r\gh a prism1 ! smalle/ waves--or1 9 m te*nical language1 ! vibrations ( %orte/ wave l5g?--regi/] ! s5sation ( violet1 & ! l>ge/ or longe/ waves t ( r$4 ,! :ole sequ5ce ( colors runs 9 ! ord] violet1 indigo1 blue1 gre51 yell[1 orange & r$ 7easily fix$ 9 ! memory by means ( ! ^w ,,vibgyor1 =m$ f ! initial lett]s ( ^! words74 ,n[ ! passage ( sunlight ?r\gh ! atmosph]e is ob/ruct$ to a c]ta9 ext5t1 n only by susp5d$ du/ p>ticles1 b also by ! molecules ( ! air4 ,let u consid]1 fir/1 ! effect ( air molecules & ( ! f9e/ du/ p>ticles1 n mu* above molecul> size4 ,^! t9y objects h diff]5t effects on light waves ( diff]5t l5g?s4 ,! longe/ waves are little di/urb$ by !m1 j z ord9>y waves 9 wat] are little affect$ by a float+ cork1 = in/ance4 ,! %orte/ waves are s small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! ob/acles t !y are diffus$ or scatt]$ by !m1 z a t9y ripple 9 wat] might be brok5 up by a float+ cork4 ,x is ?is diffuse light1 ( %ort wave l5g?1 t gives ! sky its color4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! violet & indigo light is lo/ by fur!r scatt]+ be=e x rea*es ! e>?1 leav+ a prepond]ance ( blue 9 ! sky z we see x4 ,:5 ! air conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( susp5d$ p>ticles l>g] ?an ^? above consid]$--:e!r 9 ! =m ( solid du/ or cry/als ( ice or t9y droplets ( wat]--light ( all wave l5g?s is reflect$ by !m1 & ! sky looks :ite or grayi%4 ,on acc\nt ( ! action ( atmosph]ic p>ticles 9 filt]+ out ! %ort] light waves1 z j describ$1 sunlight becomes relatively ri* 9 r$ & orange 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! air4 ,:5 ! sun is high1 ! pa? ( ! sunbeams to ! e>? is %ort1 & ! color ( _! light is b little affect$4 ,ne> ! "t ( sunrise & sunset1 h[ev]1 sunlight comes to u ?r\gh a mu* great] ext5t ( air1 & ! filt]+ process is mu* m effective4 ,h5ce ! sun%9e is bo? enfeebl$ & r$d5$ :5 ! sun is ne> ! horizon4 ,! diffuse light ( ! sky ar\nd ! sun is filt]$ 9 ! same mann]1 & !re=e is commonly r$ :5 ! sun is l[4 ,a gray sunset sky aft] a cle> day is due to ! pres5ce ( wat] drops 9 ! air1 & indicates conditions favorable = ra91 s9ce1 unless ! air 7 saturat$ to a consid]able altitude1 ! comp>atively w>m sun%9e ( ! aft]noon w\ld favor evaporation r ?an cond5sation ( moi/ure4 ,a gray sunrise sky has1 z a g5]al rule1 j ! opposite mean+4 ,x (t5 indicates ! pres5ce 9 ! air ( wat] drops =m$ on du/ p>ticles dur+ ! night1 aft] ! mann] ( dew1 because ! upp] air has be5 dry en\gh to p]mit rapid radiation f ! du/4 ,^! drops w be spe$ily evaporat$ by ! ris+ sun1 & ! g5]al dryness ( ! atmosph]e w n favor fur!r cond5sation4 ,sev]al famili> wea!r prov]bs are ?us ju/ifi$1 e4 g43 ,ev5+ r$ & morn+ gray ,help ! travel] on 8 way2 ,ev5+ gray & morn+ r$ ,br+ d[n ra9 ^u 8 head4 ,!re are _m o!r int]e/+ optical ph5om5a connect$ ) sunrise & sunset1 includ+1 fir/ ( all1 ! morn+ & ev5+ twilight4 ,:5 ! sun1 or any o!r heav5ly body1 is only a little bel[ a cle> horizon1 x is /ill visible1 on acc\nt ( ! b5d+ ( its rays by ! atmosph]e4 ,?is lift+ effect1 kn[n z a/ronomical refraction1 am\nts to ab\t half a degree 7at ! horizon71 :i* is ab\t equival5t to ! app>5t diamet] ( ! sun or moon4 ,z ! sun s9ks f>!r bel[ ! horizon1 9 ! ev5+1 ! only daylight t comes to u is t reflect$ f ! upp] levels ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* are /ill illum9at$4 ,?is is call$ twilight1 & x la/s until ! sun is ab\t #ah degrees bel[ ! horizon1 :5 total d>kness sets 94 ,! p]iod z a :ole is sometimes call$ a/ronomical twilight1 9 di/9ction f ! brief] p]iod kn[n z civil twilight1 dur+ :i* !re is light en\gh = outdoor occupations2 ! latt] la/s f sunset until ! sun is ab\t #f degrees bel[ ! horizon4 ,morn+ twilight is m commonly call$ 8dawn40 ,an int]e/+ succession ( light & color effects is obs]v$ be=e & aft] sunset &1 9 inv]se position & ord]1 ab\t sunrise4 ,consid]+ sunset only3 ,aft] ! sun has sunk out ( sight1 a broad b& ( gold5 light1 call$ ! bright segm5t1 is se5 along ! we/]n horizon4 ,above ?is1 9 ! we/]n sky1 appe>s a m or less circul> expanse ( rosy gl[1 kn[n z ! purple light4 ,9 ! ea/]n heav5s1 aft] sunset1 !re rises /eadily f ! horizon ! s-call$ d>k segm5t1 :i* is ! blue or a%y %ad[ ( ! e>? on ! sky4 ,?is is bord]$ above by ! p9k or purpli% antitwilight ar*4 ,z "t goes on1 ! purple light 9 ! we/1 aft] increas+ 9 brightness = a :ile1 f9ally s9ks beh9d ! bright segm5t2 :ile 9 ! ea/ ! ris+ d>k segm5t encroa*es ^u & f9ally oblit]ates ! antitwilight ar*4 ,sometimes1 9 cle> wea!r1 !re is a fa9t] repetition ( ^! lights & colors 7second purple light1 etc474 ,among ! ,alps & o!r sn[-capp$ m\nta9s1 ^! sunset & sunrise ph5om5a assume a p>ticul>ly beautiful =m1 kn[n z ! ,alp5gl[4 ,9 f9e wea!r1 j be=e sunset1 ! peaks to ! ea/w>d beg9 to %[ a r$di% or gold5 hue4 ,?is fades gradually1 b 9 a few m9utes1 :5 ! sun is a little bel[ ! horizon ( ! obs]v]1 b ! peaks !mselves are /ill ba!d 9 direct sunlight1 an int5se r$ gl[1 beg9n+ d[n ! slopes1 moves upw>d to ! summits4 ,?is is id5tical ) ! antitwilight ar* describ$ above4 ,pres5tly ?is gl[ is succe$$ by an a%y t9t1 z ! peaks are imm]s$ 9 ! ris+ %ad[ ( ! e>? 7! d>k segm5t74 ,_! rocks & sn[s assume a livid appe>ance1 aptly describ$ by ! inhabitants ( ,*amonix1 :5ce ! ph5om5a 9 "q are well se5 on ! summit ( ,mont ,blanc1 z ! te9te cadavreuse4 ,9 ord9>y wea!r d>kness succe$s )\t any fur!r notable ph5om5a1 b occasionally !re occurs a rem>kable r5ewal ( rosy light ^u ! peaks1 kn[n z ! recoloration or aft]gl[4 ,at ,*amonix ?is is t]m$ ! 8resurrection ( ,mont ,blanc40 ,! aft]gl[ has be5 v>i\sly expla9$1 b x is probably due1 ma9ly at lea/1 to ! reflection ( ! purple light 9 ! we/]n sky4 ,sometimes x la/s until an h\r aft] sunset1 & x passes away f bel[ upw>d4 ,on v r>e occasions !re is a second aft]gl[1 presumably ! reflection ( ! second purple light m5tion$ above4 ,simil> ph5om5a are (t5 se5 9 rev]se ord] at sunrise4 ,a pretty ph5om5on obs]v$ *iefly 9 ! late aft]noon & e>ly morn+ consi/s ( beams ( light radiat+ f ! sun1 kn[n te*nically z crepuscul> rays4 ,! beams are made visible by ! pres5ce ( abundant du/ or wat] droplets 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ! int]v5+ d>k spaces are ! %ad[s ( cl\ds4 ,:5 ! sun is above ! horizon & ! beams are direct$ d[nw>d1 ! ph5om5on is popul>ly describ$ z 8! sun draw+ wat]0 & is reg>d$ z a sign ( ra94 ,sailors call ^! beams ! 8back/ays ( ! sun10 & !y h sev]al o!r names bas$ ^u ! leg5dry associat$ ) !m 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,aft] sunset or be=e sunrise a fanlike %eaf ( ! beams (t5 ext5ds upw>d f ! we/]n or ea/]n horizon1 respectively4 ,! ,hom]ic expression 8rosy-f+]$ dawn0 probably ref]s to ?is ph5om5on4 ,9 all cases ! app>5t div]g5ce ( ^! beams is an effect ( p]spective1 z !y are really p>allel4 ,a r>] ph5om5on is t ( anticrepuscul> rays1 :i* appe> to conv]ge to a po9t opposite ! sun4 ,9 ?is case ! beams & %ad[s are project$ entirely across ! sky1 b _! pa?s c v seldom be trac$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! heav5s because 9 ?is direction ! obs]v]'s l9e ( sight passes ?r\gh a comp>atively %all[ ext5t ( du/y atmosph]e4 ,an analog\s ph5om5on is se5 9 ! %ad[s :i* ne>-by isolat$ m\nta9 peaks frequ5tly ca/ ^u ! sky opposite ! sun at sunrise & sunset4 ,travel]s h describ$ su* %ad[s ca/ by ,adam's ,peak 9 ,ceylon1 ,pike's ,peak 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 & ,fujiyama 9 ,japan4 ,! ph5om5on is said to be especially /rik+ 9 ! pol> regions1 :]e ! air is (t5 heavily *>g$ ) p>ticles ( ice4 ,"o m optical ph5om5on ( sunrise & sunset t requires m5tion "h seems to be comp>atively little kn[n to ! nonsci5tific public1 not)/&+ ! fact t x has suppli$ ! subject & title ( a div]t+ novel by ,jules ,v]ne4 ,! conditions requir$ = its appe>ance are a cle> & /eady atmosph]e & a %>ply def9$ horizon1 su* z t ( ! ocean4 ,at ! in/ant ! sun is appe>+ or disappe>+1 & :5 only a v small segm5t ( its disk is visible above ! horizon1 ?is portion appe>s to be color$ a bright em]ald gre51 sometimes bl5d+ into blue4 ,?is transi5t ph5om5on is kn[n z ! gre5 fla%4 ,x is be/ expla9$ z due to ! diff]5t degrees ( refraction und]gone by rays ( diff]5t wave l5g?s com+ to u f ! sun4 ,! effect ( refraction 9 elevat+ ! sol> image z a :ole :5 ne> ! horizon has already be5 m5tion$4 ,?is effect is a little great] = ! gre5 & blue rays ?an = ! orange & r$4 ,x is /ill m pron\nc$ = ! violet & indigo rays1 b ^! are mo/ly sift$ out ( ! sol> beams 9 _! long passage ?r\gh ! atmosph]e :5 ! sun is l[4 ,h5ce at ! upp] edge ( ! sol> image !re is a n>r[ gre5 or blue fr+e1 :i* is n1 h[ev]1 p]ceptible except :5 a scre5 is int]pos$ betwe5 ! eye & ! bright image ( ! sun4 ,a %>p horizon furni%es su* a scre54 ,?r\gh a telescope x is possible1 9 suitable wea!r1 to see ! gre5 fla%--& also a correspond+ 8r$ fla%0 at ! l[] edge ( ! sun--by plac+ an opaque diaphragm 9 ! focal plane ( ! object glass4 ,ano!r explanation ( ! gre5 fla%--:i* c\ld1 h[ev]1 acc\nt only = its appe>ance at sunset & n at sunrise--is t x is a physiological effect2 ! eye1 fatigu$ by ! r$s & yell[s t pr$om9ate 9 ! light ( ! sett+ sun1 sees an 8aft] image0 ( complem5t>y hue ! in/ant aft] ! real image has disappe>$4 ,we n[ turn to a gr\p ( ph5om5a1 also due to atmosph]ic refraction1 :i* includes "s ( ! mo/ biz>re ( optical illusions4 ,! simple/ ( ^! ph5om5a consi/s ( a slight app>5t elevation ( all objects 9 ! surr\nd+ l&scape ?r\gh t]re/rial refraction1 :i* is id5tical 9 pr9ciple ) a/ronomical refraction & dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity1 & h5ce ( refractive p[]1 ( ! air at diff]5t levels above ! e>?4 ,normally ! air decreases 9 d5sity at a ne>ly regul> rate ) increas+ altitude4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ?is *ange 9 d5sity is greatly modifi$ by local effects ( temp]ature4 ,ov] a cold surface ( l& or wat] ! adjac5t air may be abnormally d5se1 result+ 9 an unusually rapid decrease ( d5sity ) altitude4 ,ov] a hot surface1 z 9 ! case ( a des]t "u /rong sun%9e1 ! adjac5t air may become s mu* r>efi$ t1 = a c]ta9 di/ance upw>d1 !re is actually an increase ( d5sity ) asc5t1 in/ead ( ! rev]se4 ,! rays ( light com+ to u f di/ant objects are b5t 9 diff]5t directions & to v>i\s degrees by virtue ( ^! abnormalities 9 ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! app>5t positions ( su* objects dep5d ^u ! angle at :i* ! light rays1 com+ f !m1 /rike ! eye ( ! obs]v]4 ,sometimes ! objects appe> to be lift$ f> above _! true positions 7a ph5om5on kn[n z loom+7 & sometimes depress$ f> bel[ !m2 & occasionally local irregul>ities 9 air d5sity produce curi\sly di/ort$ images ( ^! objects4 ,mo/ ( ^! /range effects are kn[n collectively z mirage4 ,!re are _m v>ieties4 ,!re is ! 8des]t mirage10 fir/ made fam\s ?r\gh ! exp]i5ce ( ,napoleon's soldi]s 9 ,egypt4 ,!re are mirages t susp5d ! images ( remote objects 9 ! sky2 sometimes inv]t$1 sometimes "r side up4 ,!re is ! lat]al mirage1 occasionally se5 :5 "o looks along ! face ( a heat$ wall or cliff4 ,la/ly1 !re are ! complex displacem5ts & di/ortions ( objects kn[n z ! ,fata ,morgana--a "n orig9ally appli$ to a ph5om5on ( ?is k9d visible1 on r>e occasions1 at ! ,/raits ( ,mess9a1 b n[ us$ g5]ically = simil> appe>ances 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ examples ( ,fata ,morgana are witness$ 9 ! pol> regions4 ,9 ! des]t mirage an image ( ! l[] "p ( ! sky is br\ght d[n to e>? & simulates ! appe>ance ( wat]1 :ile ! images ( t]re/rial objects1 also depress$ & inv]t$ by ! mirage1 look l ! reflections ( ! same objects ^u ! liquid surface4 ,humphreys says3 8,?is type ( mirage is v common on ! we/ coa/ ( ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,inde$1 on approa*+ ?is lake f ! we/ "o c (t5 see ! railway ov] :i* he has j pass$ app>5tly disappe>+ b5ea? a %imm]+ surface4 ,x is also common ov] smoo?-pav$ /reets1 provid$ "o's eyes are j above ! /reet level40 ,! confus+ & obscur+ effects ( ! des]t mirage 7 illu/rat$ dur+ ! fight+ betwe5 ! ,briti% & ,turks 9 ,mesopotamia1 9 ,april1 #aiag1 :51 accord+ to ! report ( ,g5]al ,maude1 a battle _h to be susp5d$ on acc\nt ( "o ( ^! optical di/urbances4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fata ,,morgana ,,on ,,! ,,coa/ ,,( ,,gre5l& 7,f draw+ by ,scoresby7 ,! /rong v]tical contra/s 9 air temp]ature t occur 9 ! pol> regions produce _m rem>kable examples ( mirage4 ,! pictures & descriptions ( ^? obs]v$ a c5tury ago along ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& by ,capta9 ,william ,scoresby1 ,jr41 h become classical4 ,a rec5t episode connect$ ) mirage 0 ! exp$ition s5t nor? 9 #aiac to explore 8,crock] ,l&10 :i* ,pe>y believ$ he _h sight$ f an elevat$ po9t 9 ,grant ,l& 9 #aijf1 & :i* = a "t figur$ on all maps ( ! ,arctic4 ,! lat] explor]s f\nd no l& at ! place indicat$1 b !y obs]v$ ! same mirage t ,pe>y _h mi/ak5 = di/ant hills & m\nta9s4 ,curr5ts ( air ( diff]5t d5sities produce1 ?r\gh _! v>y+ effects on atmosph]ic refraction1 ! tw9kl+ or sc9tillation ( ! />s1 z well z ( di/ant t]re/rial lights4 ,tw9kl+ is mu* m viol5t ne> ! horizon ?an ne> ! z5i?1 & m pron\nc$ on "s nights ?an o!rs4 ,! %imm]+ ( ! air ov] heat$ surfaces faces & ! 8boil+0 ( cele/ial objects z se5 9 ! telescope are analog\s ph5om5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,inf]ior ,,mirage 7,f ,am]ican ,museum ,j\rnal4 ,draw+ by ,*e/] ,a4 ,re$s47 ,out-(-doors :5 a lay] ( w>m r>efi$ air arises f contact ) heat$ gr\nd or w>m wat]1 occupy+ a position bel[ ! cold]1 m d5se normal air1 two images ( a di/ant object may be se5--"o inv]t$ b5ea? ! o!r4 ,?is is 8inf]ior mirage0 & is explanatory ( ! appe>ance ( trees & _! reflections1 :i* haunts ! des]t travel] ) ! hope ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sup]ior ,,mirage 7,f ,am]ican ,museum ,j\rnal4 ,draw+ by ,*e/] ,a4 ,re$s47 ,:5 a zone ( w>m r>efi$ air is s&wi*$ betwe5 normal air above & cold] air bel[1 a 8sup]ior mirage0 ( di/ant objects may be se54 ,?ree images are produc$1 "o above ! o!r1 ! middle "o inv]t$4 ,9 ! refraction ph5om5a t we h ?us f> consid]$ ! air is ! m$ium 9 :i* ! light rays are b5t & di/ort$4 ,9 ! production ( ! ra9b[1 light und]goes refraction1 disp]sion 7sep>ation ( ! spectral colors7 & reflection by pass+ ?r\gh drops ( wat] 9 ! atmosph]e2 especially fall+ ra9drops4 ,! ra9b[1 p]haps because x is su* a common sight1 is seldom obs]v$ ) c>eful att5tion4 ,h5ce few p realize t !re are _m v>ieties ( ?is beautiful meteor1 & v>i\s errone\s ideas ab\t x are preval5t4 ,! ra9b[ is always se5 9 ! "p ( ! sky opposite ! sun--or ! moon1 9 ! case ( ! lun> ra9b[--& is high 9 ! heav5s :5 ! lum9>y is l[1 & l[ :5 ! lum9>y is high4 ,g5]ally less ?an a semicircle ( ! b[ is visible1 & nev] m1 except f an em95ce4 7,a]onauts occasionally see a complete circle47 ,! out] bord] ( ! b[ is r$ & ! inn] blue or violet4 ,contr>y to popul> belief & to /atem5ts sometimes f\nd 9 ref]5ce books1 x is almo/ nev] possible to di/+ui% all sev5 ( ! spectral colors 9 a ra9b[2 f\r or five is ! usual limit4 ,! ord9>y or prim>y ra9b[ has a radius ( ab\t #db degrees at its out] edge4 ,v commonly a second>y ra9b[ is se51 conc5tric ) ! prim>y b[1 & hav+ a radius ( ab\t #ej degrees4 ,! second>y is fa9t] ?an ! prim>y1 & its colors are 9 opposite ord]--r$ inside & violet outside4 ,additional b&s ( color1 *iefly r$ & gre51 may (t5 be detect$ adjac5t to ! inn] edge ( ! prim>y b[ &1 less frequ5tly1 along ! out] edge ( ! second>y b[4 ,^! are kn[n z sup]num]>y b[s4 ,! space betwe5 ! prim>y & second>y b[s is some:at d>k] ?an ! re/ ( ! sky4 ,! common ra9b[s diff] mu* among !mselves 9 ! numb] & purity ( _! colors1 ! wid? ( ! b[s1 etc41 ^! diff]5ces dep5d+ especially on ! size ( ! ra9drops4 ,! m9ute drops ( a fog sometimes give rise to a b[ t is almo/ devoid ( color--! 8:ite ra9b[10 or 8fog b[40 ,! ra9b[s produc$ by ! moon commonly %[ little color1 on acc\nt ( ! relative fa9tness ( ! light1 b ! bright] lun> ra9b[s are (t5 v di/9ctly color$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,int]sect+ ,,ra9b[s 7,aft] a sket* by ,t4 ,hodge4 ,c\rtesy ( ,sci5tific ,am]ican47 ,reflect$ ra9b[s are sometimes se5 ^u a %eet ( wat]2 & aga9 ! image ( ! sun1 z reflect$ by su* a surface1 may give rise to bo? prim>y & second>y ra9b[s 9 ! sky1 :i* appe> to int]sect ^? produc$ by ! sun directly4 ,a horizontal lay] ( wat] drops bel[ ! level ( ! obs]v]'s eye occasionally produces ! s-call$ horizontal ra9b[4 ,?is may be =m$ ov] a b$ew$ field or o!r surface 7! 8dew b[072 or ! drops may be ^? ( a l[-ly+ %eet ( fog1 or ( wat] deposit$ on a float+ film ( oil1 or1 f9ally1 actual ra9drops1 se5 f an elevation1 su* z ! summit ( a m\nta94 ,horizontal ra9b[s =m$ by ra9 h be5 se5 f ! ,eiffel ,t[]4 ,! common say+1 ,a ra9b[ 9 ! morn+ ,is ! %eph]d's w>n+2 ,a ra9b[ at night ,is ! %eph]d's delight1 is1 on ! :ole1 well ju/ifi$ = ! foll[+ reasons3 ,we see ! ra9b[ :]e ra9 is fall+1 :ile ! sun is %9+ 9 ! opposite "p ( ! sky4 ,our ra9/orms usually come f ! we/ & pass away to ! ea/4 ,a morn+ ra9b[ c only be se5 9 ! we/1 & indicates t ra9 is approa*+ u4 ,an ev5+ ra9b[ 7ignor+ lun> b[s7 is se5 only 9 ! ea/1 & %[s t ! ra9 area is rec$+ f u1 giv+ place to cle> skies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,circumz5i?al ,,arc 7,f a draw+ by ,l4 ,besson 9 ,la ,nature47 ,p>ts ( ! halos ( #bb & #df1 upp] tang5t arc ( ! #bb halo1 & two p>helia are also %[n4 ,! circumz5i?al arc is always brightly color$4 ,ice cry/als 9 ! atmosph]e1 su* z ^? compos+ ! high] cl\ds1 produce a great v>iety ( optical ph5om5a1 kn[n z halos4 ,"s ph5om5a ( ?is class are common1 o!rs exce$+ly r>e4 ,moreov]1 !re are sev]al !oretically possible =ms ( halo ( :i* obs]vations h nev] yet be5 report$1 s t halo obs]v+ c be recomm5d$ to ! amateur meteorologi/ z (f]+ opportunities = mak+ int]e/+ discov]ies4 ,halos take ! =m ( n>r[ r+s ( def9ite angul> size ar\nd ! sun or moon 7n to be confus$ ) ! coronas1 ( v>iable dim5sions1 describ$ bel[71 r+s pass+ ?r\gh ! lum9>y1 arcs 9 v>i\s o!r positions1 & r\ndi% spots ( color$ or :ite light4 ,!y may be se5 sep>ately or 9 comb9ation4 ,9 r>e cases1 a doz5 or m diff]5t =ms ( halo are visible at ! same "t1 produc+ a mo/ spectacul> display4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable displays ( ?is k9d 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce 0 se51 9 diff]5t degrees ( developm5t1 ov] ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates on ,novemb] #a & #b1 #aiac2 an ev5t :i* greatly /imulat$ int]e/ 9 ! /udy ( halos 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,complex halos are q common 9 ! pol> regions2 :]e !y are se5 n only 9 ! sky1 b also 9 ! air1 *>g$ ) ice p>ticles1 close to ! e>?4 ,:5ev] a ?9 veil ( cirrus or cirro-/ratus cl\ds ov]spreads ! sky !re is a likelihood t halos w be visible4 ,^? =m$ ne> ! sun1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly pass unnotic$1 on acc\nt ( ! dazzl+ brightness ( t lum9>y4 ,smok$ or t9t$ glasses greatly facilitate _! obs]vation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,diagrams ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,=ms ,,( ,,halo 7,aft] ,besson1 ,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review1 ,july1 #aiad47 #a4 7,upp]74 ,p]spective view ( ! sky1 %[+ ! sun 7,s72 ord9>y halo ( #bb 7a72 great halo ( #df 7b72 upp] tang5t arc ( ! halo ( #bb 7c72 l[] tang5t arc ( ! halo ( #bb 7d72 ord9>y p>helia ( #bb 7e1 e'72 ,l[itz arcs 7f1 f72 p>helia ( #df 7g1 g72 circumz5i?al arc 7h72 infralat]al tang5t arcs ( ! halo ( #df 7i72 ! p>helic circle 7m72 a p>an!lion ( #ij 7q72 light pill>1 7u1 u72 ! obs]v] 7,o74 #b4 7,l[]74 ,p]spective view ( ! sky1 %[+ ! obs]v] 7,o72 ! p>helic circle 7m73 ord9>y p>an!lia ( #abj 7p72 ! p>an!lion ( #ij 7q'72 ! oblique arcs ( ! an!lion 7r1 r72 & ! an!lion 7n74 ,! commone/ halo is a circle ( #bb degrees radius 7! #bb-;degree halo7 ab\t ! sun or moon4 ,:5 =m$ by ! sun x g5]ally %[s a di/9ct r$di% inn] bord] & traces ( o!r spectral colors4 ,! lun> #bb-;degree halo usually appe>s colorless4 ,?is halo is visible1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 to ! att5tive obs]v] ab\t once 9 ?ree days1 on an av]age4 ,less common1 b by no means r>e1 are ! p>helia or 8sun dogs0 ( #bb degrees 7call$ p>asel5 or 8moon dogs0 :5 =m$ by ! moon71 ! beautiful circumz5i?al arc1 & a few o!r memb]s ( ! halo family4 ,mo/ =ms ( halo are s uncommon t _! appe>ance is an ev5t ( "s sci5tific importance4 ,! accompany+ diagrams1 by ,dr4 ,l\is ,besson ( ! ,obs]vatoire de ,monts\ris1 %[ ! positions1 ) respect to ! sun 7or moon71 ( ! majority ( kn[n halo ph5om5a4 ,! upp] diagram %[s ! halos t occur on ! same side ( ! sky z ! sun 7or moon71 & ! l[] ^? t appe> on ! opposite side4 ,mo/ ( ^! halos1 :5 bright1 %[ ! spectral colors4 ,! circumz5i?al arc1 h 7commonly describ$1 by ! un9itiat$1 z a 8ra9b[071 & ! p>helia ( #bb degrees1 e1 e1 are especially brilliant 9 _! coloration4 ,! p>helic circle1 m1 :i* sometimes ext5ds entirely ar\nd ! sky1 is :ite1 & s are a few ( ! r>] =ms ( halo4 ,! upp] & l[] tang5t arcs ( ! halo ( #bb degrees1 c & d1 und]go /rik+ alt]ations1 ) *anges 9 ! altitude ( ! sun4 ,:5 ! lum9>y is m ?an ab\t #dj degrees above ! horizon1 ^! two arcs become jo9$ at _! tips to =m ! circumscrib$ halo1 & at /ill great] sol> altitudes ?is halo contracts f an elliptical to a circul> =m1 ?us bl5d+ into ! #bb-;degree halo z %[n on ! next page1 :]e ! sol> altitudes correspond+ to ! diff]5t =ms ( ! halo are indicat$4 ,! positions ( ! p>helia ( #bb degrees1 e1 e1 also dep5d ^u sol> altitude4 ,:5 ! sun is on ! horizon ^! 8sun dogs0 are #bb degrees f ! lum9>y1 & !re=e lie 9 ! #bb-;degree halo2 at great] sol> altitudes !y lie outside ?is halo4 ,! read] :o wi%es to acqua9t himself fur!r ) ! diff]5t =ms ( halo & ! me?ods ( obs]v+ !m w f9d a compreh5sive article on ! subject 7devoid ( ma!matical discussions7 9 ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review0 7,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c47 = ,july1 #aiad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,successive ,,/ages ,,( ,,! ,,upp] ,,& ,,l[] ,,tang5t ,,arcs ,,( ,,! #bb ,,halo ,:5 ! sun is high !y unite to =m ! 8circumscrib$ halo40 7,altitude ( sun %[n 9 ! c5t] ( ea* figure47 ,! ice cry/als t produce halos consi/ ( hexagonal plates or columns1 occasionally includ+ complications ( /ructure1 su* z pyramidal bases1 comb9ations ( plates & columns1 etc4 ,^! h ! well-kn[n effect ( prisms 9 refract+ & disp]s+ light t passes ?r\gh !m4 ,x is evid5t t !re are _m possible pa?s = ! light rays ?r\gh ! sides & bases ( su* cry/als1 result+ 9 diff]5t deflections & correspond+ diff]5ces 9 ! =ms & positions ( ! halos produc$4 ,! attitudes assum$ by ! cry/als z !y sl[ly s9k ?r\gh ! air1 & ! oscillations !y und]go1 are fur!r po9ts to be consid]$ 9 work+ out ! !ory ( ea* =m ( halo by ! application ( ! laws ( optics4 ,ne>ly all ! kn[n =ms h be5 fully expla9$4 ,a few species ( halo--notably ! p>helic circle 7call$ p>asel5ic circle :5 =m$ by ! moon7--are due to simple reflection f ! faces ( ! ice cry/als1 & n to refraction4 ,! la/ gr\p ( optical ph5om5a t we %all consid] consi/s ( ^? due to ! process call$ diffraction1 :i* occurs :5 light is b5t ar\nd objects 9 its pa?1 in/ead ( pass+ ?r\gh !m1 z 9 refraction4 ,! process involves sep>ation ( ! prismatic colors4 ,! diffraction ph5om5a ( ! atmosph]e are produc$ by ! wat] drops ( cl\ds & fog1 or sometimes by f9e du/4 ,ev]ybody is famili> ) ! nocturnal spectacle :i* ,t5nyson describes z 444 ! t5d] amb] r\nd ,:i* ! moon ab\t h] spreade?1 ,mov+ ?ro' a fleecy night4 ,?is diffuse r$di% or ra9b[-t9t$ circle is call$ a corona4 ,x occurs ab\t ! sun z well z ! moon 7?\gh n easy to see on acc\nt ( ! gl>+ brightness ( ! lum9>y71 & also ab\t /reet lamps & o!r t]re/rial lights :5 view$ ?r\gh a mi/y atmosph]e4 ,unlike ! halos1 x has no def9ite angul> size4 ,x is usually only a few degrees 9 radius4 ,small coronas are produc$ by l>ge wat] drops & l>ge coronas by small drops1 :ile ! l>ge/ ( all coronas1 kn[n z ,bi%op's r+1 is due to exce$+ly f9e du/ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & has be5 se5 aft] great volcanic eruptions4 ,9 its commone/ =m ! corona consi/s ( a br[ni%-r$ r+1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! blui%-:ite inn] field betwe5 ! r+ & ! lum9>y1 =ms ! s-call$ aureole4 ,if o!r colors are di/+ui%able1 !y foll[ ! br[ni% r$ ( ! aureole 79 ! direction away f ! lum9>y7 9 ! ord] f violet to r$2 ! rev]se ( ! ord] se5 9 halos4 ,sometimes ! sequ5ce ( colors is repeat$ ?ree or f\r times4 ,pat*es & fr+es ( iridesc5ce are sometimes se5 9 ! cl\ds at a great] di/ance f ! lum9>y ?an t ( ! ord9>y corona4 ,probably !y are fragm5ts ( coronas ( unusual size produc$ by exce$+ly f9e cl\d p>ticles4 ,simil> 9 appe>ance to ! corona is ! glory2 a s]ies ( conc5tric color$ r+s se5 ar\nd ! %ad[ ( ! obs]v]1 or ( 8 head only1 ca/ ^u a cl\d or fog bank4 ,su* a %ad[1 ) or )\t ! glory1 con/itutes ! spect] ( ! ,brock51 (t5 se5 f m\nta9 tops & f aircraft4 ,! color$ circles are sometimes call$ ,ulloa's r+s1 f ! "n ( a ,spani% savant :o obs]v$ ! ph5om5on among ! m\nta9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica 9 ! eighte5? c5tury & has left u a vivid description ( x4 ,! ,brock5 spect]1 ?\gh x owes its "n to leg5ds associat$ ) ! fam\s ,g]man m\nta9 :]e wit*es 7 once believ$ to assemble on ,walpurgis ,night1 is actually less frequ5tly witness$ !re ?an 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,:5ev] ! sun is l[ on "o side ( a m\nta9 & a wall ( mi/ arises f a ne>-by valley on ! o!r1 ! m\nta9e] is likely to see 8 %ad[ ^u ! mi/4 ,if ! latt] consi/s ( f9e droplets ( approximately uni=m size1 ! color$ r+s w probably appe>1 & occasionally !re is also a :ite fogb[ outside ( ! glory4 ,z all %ad[s ca/ by ! sun tap] rapidly 7on acc\nt ( ! angul> bread? ( ! sol> disk71 a well-def9$ ,brock5 spect] c nev] be m ?an a few y>ds away f ! obs]v]4 ,its di/ance is1 h[ev]1 commonly ov]e/imat$--"s obs]v]s h suppos$ x to be miles away6--& h5ce ! errone\s idea prevails t ! spect]s are ( enorm\s size4 ,r>ely f a favorable po9t ( vantage on a m\nta91 & v frequ5tly f aircraft1 ! spect]1 in/ead ( be+ se5 on a v]tical wall ( mi/ :5 ! sun is l[1 appe>s on a horizontal %eet ( cl\d bel[ ! obs]v] :5 ! sun is high4 ,! a]onaut may ?us obs]ve ! complete outl9e ( 8 balloon or a]oplane1 encircl$ ) ! ra9b[ t9ts ( ! glory4 ,dur+ ! ,_w ,w> ! appe>ance ( ! lum9\s r+s 0 lik5$ to ! emblem pa9t$ on ! w+s ( ! ,alli$ a]oplanes & 0 reg>d$ by sup]/iti\s aviators z an om5 favorable to _! cause4 ,! glory is due to ! light t is reflect$ back to ! obs]v] aft] p5etrat+ ! cl\d or fog a little way & is diffract$ by ! sup]ficial lay] ( drops 9 em]g+4 ,! ,brock5 spect] & ! glory h occasionally be5 photograph$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,atmosph]ic ,,ac\/ics ,?\gh air is b "o ( an unlimit$ numb] ( ela/ic sub/ances t transmit s\nd1 x is ! "o ?r\gh :i* s\nds ord9>ily rea* our e>s4 ,h5ce ! ac\/ic prop]ties ( ! atmosph]e are ( great int]e/ to mank9d4 ,sci5ce deals ) sev]al k9ds ( 8waves10 & ^? ( ! atmosph]e t produce ! s5sation ( s\nd are q diff]5t f ! waves ( ! sea4 ,9 quiet unconf9$ air s\nd travels 9 conc5tric sph]ical waves1 consi/+ ( successive cond5sations & r>efactions ( ! m$ium4 ,s\nd is n transmitt$ ?r\gh a vacuum4 ,a famili> laboratory exp]im5t is to in/all an electric bell inside ! receiv] ( an air pump & notice ! dy+ away ( ! s\nd z ! air is exhau/$4 ,! colossal eruptions t a/ronom]s witness on ! surface ( ! sun w\ld probably be audible on e>? if int]planet>y space 7 fill$ ) air4 ,9 ! r>efi$ air ( high m\nta9s ! int5sity ( s\nds is mu* r$uc$4 ,?us we are told t on ! top ( ,mont ,blanc ! report ( a pi/ol s\nds no l\d] ?an t ( a firecrack] at sea level4 ,! spe$ ) :i* s\nd travels ?r\gh air dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature4 ,at #cb ,f4 7! freez+ po9t7 x is #a1jhg feet p] second1 & at #fh ,f4 x is #a1abf feet p] second4 ,! increase ( spe$ ) increase ( air temp]ature is v close to #b feet p] degree ,c5tigrade1 or a little m ?an #a foot p] degree ,fahr5heit4 ,! s\nds ( viol5t explosions travel consid]ably fa/] ?an ord9>y s\nds ne> ! place ( explosion1 b sl[ d[n to ! normal spe$ at great] di/ances4 ,?is is true ( heavy claps ( ?und]4 ,! effect is n important en\gh1 h[ev]1 to invalidate ! well-kn[n rule t1 if y c\nt seconds betwe5 ! fla% & ! detonation & divide ! result by #e1 y get approximately ! di/ance ( ! s\rce ( s\nd 9 miles4 ,s9ce ! spe$ ( s\nd v>ies ) ! temp]ature ( ! air1 diff]5ces 9 ! latt] cause deviations ( ! pa?s ( s\nd waves simil> to ! deviations :i* rays ( light und]go on acc\nt ( diff]5ces 9 ! d5sity ( ! air4 ,s\nd is also reflect$ by ob/acles1 9 ! same mann] z light4 ,moreov]1 :]eas light travels too swiftly to be affect$ by ! w9d1 ?is is n true ( s\nd4 ,! latt] travels fa/] ) ! w9d ?an aga9/ x1 & s\nd waves are m or less brok5 up by ! gu/s & irregul>ities t are a feature ( mo/ w9ds ne> ! e>?'s surface4 ,= all ^! reasons ! ac\/ic qualities ( ! air are subject to m>k$ v>iations1 z ev]ybody has obs]v$4 ,unusual audibility ( di/ant s\nds is a popul> progno/ic ( ra94 ,! fact und]ly+ ?is belief is t :5 ! air is full ( moi/ure x is likely to be ( uni=m temp]ature1 & !re=e favorable = transmitt+ s\nd4 ,x is impossible to assign any limit to ! di/ance at :i* l\d s\nds may occasionally be he>d4 ,no fact ( nature has yet1 s f> z we "k1 mat*$ ,em]son's metaphor ( ! 8%ot he>d r\nd ! _w10 b x is lit]ally true t ! s\nds ( eruption ( ,krakatoa1 9 ,augu/1 #ahhc1 7 he>d1 l ! ro> ( di/ant heavy guns1 9 ! isl& ( ,rodriguez1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 #c1jjj miles f ! volcano4 ,moreov]1 ! atmosph]ic waves set up by ?is outbur/ actually made ! circuit ( ! globe1 n only once1 b at lea/ ?ree times1 & ! successive j\rneys 7 regi/]$ by b>omet]s1 if n detect$ by human e>s4 ,dur+ ! ,_w ,w> gun fir+ 9 ,fl&]s 0 v commonly he>d at places 9 ,engl& #adj to #aej miles di/ant4 ,sev]al obs]v]s also report$ t pheasants appe>$1 f _! di/urb$ behavior1 to he> cannonad+ ov] ! ,nor? ,sea t 0 beyond ! range ( ! human e>4 ,writ]s h (t5 comm5t$ on ! fact t ?und] _c be he>d s f> z ! s\nds ( artill]y4 ,x has be5 affirm$ t #aj miles or !reab\ts is its maximum range ( audibility4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ?und] has occasionally be5 he>d at mu* great] di/ances1 up to #bj or #cj miles2 b x rema9s true t ! di/ance is always mu* less ?an t at :i* l\d t]re/rial s\nds are audible4 ,! reasons :y ?is %\ld be s are n f> to seek4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! int5sity ( a s\nd dep5ds ^u ! d5sity ( ! air 9 :i* x is g5]at$1 & n ^u t ( ! air 9 :i* x is he>d4 ,! air1 z we "k1 dim9i%es 9 d5sity upw>d4 ,ballooni/s ?\s&s ( feet above ! e>? he> ) rem>kable cle>ness s\nds f ! gr\nd bel[1 b p on ! gr\nd _c he> simil> s\nds f ! balloon4 ,z ?und] is ma9ly produc$ at ! level ( ! cl\ds1 x is subject to ?is peculi>ity4 ,aga91 cannonad+ is he>d at great di/ances only :5 ! air is comp>atively calm1 & p]haps only :5 x is arrang$ 9 well-def9$ horizontal lay]s ( su* a "* z to keep ! s\nd f spread+ f> al(t4 ,v diff]5t conditions prevail dur+ a ?und]/orm2 9 fact ! conditions are !n j su* z w\ld scatt] & dissipate ! s\nd waves4 ,la/ly1 ! noise ( a cannon or ! l comes f a s+le place & ! en]gy ( ! di/urbance is conc5trat$ to produce a s+le sy/em ( s\nd waves2 :ile ! di/urbance due to lightn+ is spread ov] ! long pa? ( ! dis*>ge4 ,! audibility ( s\nds at abnormally great di/ances is n usually a matt] ( practical importance1 b ! conv]se ph5om5on--! failure ( s\nds to c>ry to normal di/ances--has be5 responsible = a great numb] ( m>9e disa/]s on su* fog-ridd5 coa/s z ^? ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ea/]n ,canada & ,cali=nia4 ,h5ce "s ( ! able/ physici/s ( bo? ! ,old ,_w & ! ,new h tri$ to asc]ta9 ! conditions "u :i* ?is ph5om5on occurs4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( fog signals1 dat+ especially f ,tyndall's well-kn[n inve/igations at ! ,s\? ,=el&1 9 ,engl&1 9 #ahgc1 & ^? ( ,g5]al ,duane & ,pr(essor ,joseph ,h5ry 9 ,am]ica1 begun some:at e>li] b cont9u$ contemporane\sly ) ,tyndall's1 has probably rais$ m que/ions ?an x has answ]$4 ,! caprices ( ^! signals take ! %ape ( v>iations 9 ! range ( audibility--a signal may at "o "t c>ry #aj miles & at ano!r only #b--;& ! =mation ( 8zones ( sil5ce10 comp>atively ne> ! signal1 )9 :i* ! s\nd is n he>d ?\gh audible at mu* great] di/ances4 ,! sil5t zones are sometimes m or less p]man5t & are !n g5]ally due to peculi>ities ( topography2 b 9 _m cases !y are transi5t & op9ions diff] z to _! cause or causes4 ,s9ce x is only :5 fog prevails t fog signals are s\nd$ 7except = exp]im5tal purposes71 & t vessels meet ) accid5ts on acc\nt ( ! failure to he> su* signals1 ! idea has become root$ 9 ! public m9d t ^! ac\/ic ecc5tricities are entirely due to fog4 ,:51 h[ev]1 exp]im5ts are made 9 cle> wea!r1 simil> ph5om5a are obs]v$4 ,9 foggy wea!r audibility is (t5 bett] ?an ! av]age1 because fog prevails *iefly :5 ! air is /ill & ( uni=m temp]ature1 & su* conditions favor ! transmission ( s\nd4 ,tyndall /rongly d5i$ t ei!r fog or fall+ ra91 sn[1 & hail h1 z has be5 commonly believ$1 a muffl+ effect on s\nd1 & he attribut$ ! peculi> behavior ( fog signals to ! pres5ce 9 ! atmosph]e ( invisible 8ac\/ic cl\ds10 consi/+ ( pat*es ( air conta9+ irregul>ities ( temp]ature & humidity4 ,to ! same cause he ascrib$ ! occurr5ce ( my/]i\s 8a]ial e*oes10 n due to any visible object4 ,sev]al rec5t inve/igators h disput$ ^! conclusions4 ,?us x is ass]t$ t :5 ! fog signal is 9 fog & ! obs]v] 9 a cle> atmosph]e1 or vice v]sa1 or :5 ! signal & ! obs]v] are 9 diff]5t fog banks1 ! fog reflects ! s\nd v /rongly4 ,ap>t f ! possible effects ( fog itself1 ! v ext5sive inve/igations made by ,pr(4 ,l4 ,v4 ,k+1 ( ,mc,gill ,univ]sity1 at ,fa!r ,po9t1 ,quebec1 l$ him to conclude t ! effects are *iefly due to eddies 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,pr(4 ,k+ us$ 9 8 obs]vations ! late/ devices = obta9+ exact measurem5ts ( s\nd & su* up-to-date meteorological app>atus z pilot balloons = measur+ ! w9d at v>i\s levels4 ,he discov]$1 among o!r ?+s1 t exi/+ types ( fog-signal ma*9]y are v wa/eful ( en]gy1 & he has po9t$ out h[ _! 8ac\/ic effici5cy0 may be mu* improv$4 ,be=e we dismiss ?is subject x %\ld be not$ t subm>9e bells & ! radio compass h made m>9]s mu* less dep5d5t ?an !y =m]ly 7 ^u ! types ( signals t are affect$ by meteorological conditions4 8,zones ( sil5ce0 on a mu* m ext5sive scale ?an ^? t di/urb ! op]ation ( fog signals h be5 frequ5tly obs]v$1 9 rec5t ye>s1 9 connection ) great explosions1 cannonad+1 & volcanic eruptions4 ,! fir/ case ( ?is k9d to attract sci5tific notice 0 t ( a dynamite explosion at ,frde1 ,we/phalia1 on ,decemb] #ad1 #aijc1 ! ac\/ic ph5om5a ( :i* 7 inve/igat$ by ,dr4 ,g4 von dem ,borne2 & among ! _m cases t h s9ce be5 /udi$ 0 t ( ! bomb>dm5t ( ,antw]p 9 ,octob]1 #aiad4 ,)\t describ+ ^! v>i\s cases sep>ately1 we may /ate t :5 reports 7 collect$ f ! surr\nd+ c\ntry to det]m9e ! places at :i* ! s\nds 7 audible & ^! reports 7 ent]$ on a map1 x 0 f\nd t !re 0 a l>ge & usually v irregul> area ( audibility surr\nd+ ! s\rce ( s\nd1 beyond :i* lay a broad1 m or less circul> zone ( inaudibility1 & f9ally1 beg9n+ ab\t #ajj miles f ! s\rce1 !re 0 a second l>ge region ( audibility1 ext5d+ p]haps #aej miles f ! s\rce4 ,9 "s cases a s+le s\nd at ! s\rce gave multiple reports 7d\ble1 triple1 or quadruple71 *iefly 9 ! out] zone ( audibility4 ,9 8 attempt to expla9 ^! curi\s sil5t zones1 ,von dem ,borne po9t$ out t ! atmosph]e at v high levels is suppos$ to consi/ ma9ly ( hydrog51 9 :i* s\nd travels ne>ly f\r times z fa/ z 9 ! common gases ( ! l[] air1 & t s\nd waves asc5d+ to su* heights along a slant+ c\rse w\ld be b5t /rongly t[>d ! e>?4 ,ano!r /ud5t ( ?is ph5om5on1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,weg5]1 :o is ! *ampion ( ! idea t ! atmosph]e conta9s an unkn[n gas light] ?an hydrog5 7call$ 8geocoronium0 or 8zodiacon071 sees 9 ! preval5ce ( ?is gas at high levels ! cause ( a simil> quasi-reflection ( s\nd waves4 ,probably ! majority ( inve/igators1 h[ev]1 believe t ! effect is due *iefly or entirely to ! refraction ( s\nd by w9d4 ,( ac\/ic ph5om5a t belong especially to ! doma9 ( meteorology1 probably ?und] is ! "o t excites mo/ g5]al int]e/4 ,! sudd5 expansion ( ! air along ! pa? ( a lightn+ dis*>ge1 due p>tly b probably n entirely to ! heat g5]at$1 appe>s to be an adequate explanation ( ! explosive s\nd ( ?und]1 ?\gh some:at diff]5t explanations h be5 sugge/$4 ,if ! dis*>ge is ne> at h&1 we g5]ally he> a s+le l\d cra%4 ,m di/ant lightn+ is usually att5d$ by rumbl+4 ,! common & obvi\s explanation ( rumbl+ is t x is due to ! arrival ( ! s\nd progressively f diff]5t po9ts along ! pa? ( dis*>ge1 :i* may be a mile or m 9 l5g?4 ,a crook$ pa? w\ld acc\nt = re5=cem5ts & dim9utions ( ! s\nd4 ,ano!r cause ( irregul>ities 9 ! s\nd is probably 8int]f]5ce0 7comb9ations ( waves t t5d ei!r to /r5g!n or to neutralize ea* o!r71 especially 9 ! case ( multiple lightn+ dis*>ges1 su* z we h describ$ else:]e4 ,la/ly1 ?und] is fur!r complicat$ by e*oes f ! gr\nd & probably also f ! air 7n exclusively f cl\ds71 ?\gh mu* unc]ta9ty prevails conc]n+ ^! a]ial e*oes4 ,! s\nds ( ?und] h be5 ! subject ( "s int]e/+ inve/igations on ! "p ( an ,au/rian meteorologi/1 ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,s*midt1 :o has devis$ app>atus = mak+ an automatic regi/ration ( ! s\nd waves t con/itute a ?und]clap4 ,he f9ds t !re is a great prepond]ance ( waves ( v long p]iod1 includ+ _m ( too l[ a pit* to be audible1 ?\gh p]ceptible ?r\gh ! rattl+ ( w9d[panes1 etc4 ,9 fact1 ! great] "p ( ! en]gy involv$ is repres5t$ by ^! long1 inaudible waves1 s t "o really he>s only a small "p ( a clap ( ?und]4 ,! /atem5t has (t5 be5 made1 on ! au?ority ( ,humboldt1 t ?und] is nev] he>d at sea1 at any po9t f> f l&4 ,?is matt] 0 inve/igat$ by ! magnetic survey ya*t ,c>negie dur+ a long cruise 9 ! ,pacific 9 #aiae4 ,( tw5ty-two displays ( lightn+1 six 7 accompani$ by ?und]4 ,! late w> gave prom95ce to c]ta9 ac\/ic ph5om5a :i*1 ?\gh h>dly my/]i\s1 7 novel to ! _w at l>ge4 ,"o ( ^? 0 ! d\ble report 7triple 9 ! case ( an explod+ %ell7 he>d ne> ! l9e ( fire ( l>ge guns4 ,?is effect is due to ! fact t mod]n projectiles travel mu* fa/] ?an s\nd4 ,! mov+ projectile sets up its own waves 9 ! air1 l ^? at ! b[ ( a /eam]1 :i* may rea* ! e> ( ! obs]v] & produce ! s5sation ( a %>p s\nd be=e he he>s ! s\nd com+ f ! m\? ( ! gun4 ,ano!r ph5om5on frequ5tly obs]v$ :5 heavy fir+ 0 9 progress 0 ! appe>ance 9 ! sky ( rapidly mov+ p>allel arcs ( light & %ade4 ,^! 7 g5]ally se5 aga9/ cl\ds1 b sometimes !y swept across blue sky4 ,!y probably occurr$ only 9 calm wea!r4 ,^! arcs 7 ! result ( ! successive cond5sations & r>efactions ( ! air con/itut+ waves ( s\nd--visible s\nd waves4 ,_! visibility 0 due to contra/s 9 ! refraction ( light pass+ ?r\gh air ( diff]5t d5sities2 ! same sort ( refraction contra/s t cause ! tremul\s appe>ance ( ! air ov] a hot /ove1 = example4 ,! same 8fla%+ arcs0 ( light h be5 describ$ by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,a4 ,p]ret z att5d+ explosive volcanic outbur/s at ! crat]s ( ,vesuvius & tna4 ,! humm+ ( telegraph wires has be5 ! subject ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( discussion 9 meteorological circles1 b )\t altoge!r satisfactory results4 ,?is s\nd is n1 ( c\rse1 caus$ or affect$ by ! electric curr5ts pass+ along ! wire1 & x is almo/ c]ta9ly due solely to ! w9d1 ?\gh ! sugge/ion has be5 made t x might be caus$ by ! microseisms1 or small & rapid e>?quake tremors1 t are s commonly regi/]$ by seismographs :ile imp]ceptible to ! human s5ses4 ,! humm+ is be/ he>d :5 "o's e> is plac$ aga9/ a telegraph pole4 ,sev]al p]sons h made sy/ematic obs]vations ( ^! s\nds f day to day1 & x has (t5 be5 alleg$ t !y v>y ) ! temp]ature1 ! movem5ts ( /orms1 etc41 & ev5 con/itute a safe basis = wea!r pr$ictions4 ,!y are sometimes he>d :5 ! air appe>s to be p]fectly calm1 b 9 su* cases !re might be "s movem5t ( ! air at ! level ( ! wires1 ?\gh !re 0 none at ! l[] level ( ! obs]v]4 ,f :at is kn[n ab\t 8olian tones0 7su* z ^? ( ! olian h>p71 x w\ld seem t ! humm+ requires a w9d m or less at "r angles to ! wire1 & t ! pit* ( ! s\nd dep5ds ^u ! =ce ( ! w9d & ! diamet] 7b n ! l5g? or t5sion7 ( ! wire4 ,= a giv5 wire1 ! /rong] ! w9d ! high] ! pit* ( its s\nd4 ,( all ! s\nds t haunt ! air1 probably ! mo/ my/]i\s are ^? :i* are be/ call$ by ! g5]ic "n 8brontides0 7co9$1 9 ! ,italian =m brontidi1 by ,pr(4 ,tito ,alippi f two ,greek words mean+ 8l ?und]071 ?\gh !y rejoice 9 scores ( o!r names 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,brontides take ! =m ( muffl$ detonations1 resembl+ ! s\nd ( di/ant cannon or peals ( ?und]1 & are he>d *iefly 9 w>m1 cle> wea!r4 ,! fir/ sy/ematic inve/igations ( ^! ph5om5a 7 made 9 ,india4 ,! fact t !y 7 frequ5tly report$ f ! neighborhood ( ,b>isal1 a t[n 9 ! ,ganges delta1 l$ to _! be+ call$ 8,b>isal guns10 "u :i* "n !y 7 fir/ made kn[n to ,european sci5ce 9 #ahij4 ,a few ye>s lat] !y 7 discuss$ 9 an ext5sive memoir by ,e4 van d5 ,broeck1 :o _h collect$ num]\s reports ( _! occurr5ce 9 ,belgium1 especially on ! seacoa/1 :]e !y are kn[n z 8mi/poeff]s0 7i4 e41 8fog bel*+s0 or 8fog hiccups074 ,! majority ( descriptions1 h[ev]1 h come f ,italy1 :]e ! s\nds appe> to be extremely common1 ?\gh peculi> to c]ta9 localities1 & :]e !y be> a great v>iety ( names4 ,9 ,au/ralia ! noises are call$ 8des]t s\nds10 9 ,haiti1 8g\ffre10 etc4 ,!y h be5 report$ f p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 includ+ ,cali=nia &1 above all1 f ! vic9ity ( ,moodus1 ,conn41 :i* owes its orig9al ,indian "n1 ,morehemoodus 78place ( noises071 to ! brontides :i* appe> to h =m]ly be5 mu* m common !re ?an !y are to-day4 ,!re is a ref]5ce 9 "o ( ,"l ,bacon's works to 8an extraord9>y noise 9 ! sky :5 !re is no ?und]02 app>5tly a description ( brontides4 ,! s\rce ( ^! s\nds is und\bt$ly subt]ranean 9 a great _m cases1 ?\gh p]haps n 9 all4 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hobbs1 :o has made a pa9/ak+ /udy ( ! seismic geology ( ,italy1 concludes t ! brontides ( t c\ntry are due to ! sl[ settl+ ( ! blocks ( ! e>?'s cru/2 a process :i*1 9 its m abrupt & viol5t phases1 causes def9ite e>?quakes4 ,alippi believes t 9 ord] t ! s\nds may be he>d !y mu/ be re5=c$ by a peculi> configuration ( ! gr\nd1 above or bel[ ! surface1 & he atta*es special importance to ! effects ( cav]ns1 :i* he sugge/s act z resonance boxes 9 ! production ( audible brontides4 ,occasionally an app>5t brontide may be due to ! explosion ( an unse5 meteor4 ,la/ly1 a c]ta9 proportion ( ^! ?und]like s\nds1 if n m]ely di/ant ?und]1 may be su* noises z cannonad+1 bla/+1 or ! l1 made audible at unusual di/ances by ! refraction ( s\nd waves4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,climate ,,& ,,climates ,"s day ! meteorologi/s ( ! _w w jo9 =ces to produce a great encyclopdia ( climate4 ,no "w ( sci5ce is m sorely ne$$1 b ! magnitude t x w\ld1 ideally1 assume is simply /agg]+4 ,few p realize ! multiplicity & complexity ( climates4 ,x is a common occurr5ce = a prospective travel] or a bus9ess man to write to a meteorological e/abli%m5t reque/+1 = example1 a description ( ! climate ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,( c\rse1 no su* ?+ exi/s4 ,a cont95t does n h a climate1 b a multitude ( climates4 ,ev5 to set =?1 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! m important types ( climate t prevail betwe5 ,cape ,horn & ,panama is no small und]tak+4 ,moreov]1 g5]al descriptions (t5 fail to supply ! ne$s ( ^? :o make inquiries ab\t climate4 ,suppose1 in/ead ( ! :olesale ord] above m5tion$1 ! meteorologi/ receives ! relatively mode/ reque/ to describe ! climate ( ,bu5os ,aires or ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,is x easy to comply ) su* a reque/8 ,t dep5ds4 ,if ! in=mation is s\ght by a t\ri/ :o wi%es *iefly to "k :e!r he w ne$ light or heavy clo?+ at a specifi$ season1 or :e!r 8 excursions are likely to be hamp]$ by frequ5t ra9s1 we c enlight5 him 9 a few brief p>agraphs4 ,if ! inquiry comes f a manufactur] :o aspires to invade ! ,s\? ,am]ican m>kets1 we mu/ "k1 be=e reply+1 :at k9d ( goods he purposes to export1 & j h[ !y are affect$ by climatic conditions4 ,are !y liable to injury by high or l[ temp]atures1 dryness or humidity8 ,does ! dem& = !m dep5d1 z 9 ! case ( rubb] coats1 ^u ! preval5ce ( ra91 or1 z 9 ! case ( electric fans1 ^u ! occurr5ce ( hot wea!r dur+ at lea/ a "p ( ! ye>8 ,= ea* bran* ( ! export trade c]ta9 elem5ts ( climate are important1 & ! m detail$ & explicit ! in=mation t c be obta9$ ab\t !m ! bett]4 ,suppose1 aga91 climatic data are desir$ by a horticulturi/ :o has to solve ! problem ( introduc+ a ,s\? ,am]ican plant into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ord] to f9d ! be/ environm5t = x 9 ?is c\ntry1 he %\ld "k some?+ ab\t ! climate ( its orig9al home4 ,! data he requires are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t f ^? s\ght by ! t\ri/ or ! manufactur]4 ,is ! plant's habitat a region :]e fro/s occur8 ,h[ long is ! gr[+ season8 ,is ! ra9fall r ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! ye>1 or are !re def9ite dry & ra9y seasons8 ,su* are "s ( ! que/ions he w ask4 ,= ! purposes ( m$ical climatology a diff]5t set ( data w be s\ght4 ,! a/ronom]1 select+ a site = a new obs]vatory1 w ask ab\t fre$om f cl\ds1 & also ab\t ! pur5ess & /ead9ess ( ! air t insure good 8see+40 ,! aviator w want in=mation ab\t w9ds & fog4 ,& s on4 ,?us x appe>s t climate means v diff]5t ?+s to diff]5t p4 ,climate has be5 v>i\sly def9$ z ! sum total ( wea!r1 av]age wea!r1 typical wea!r1 etc41 b ! conception is /ill some:at indef9ite4 ,we "k t1 :ile ! wea!r ( any place is subject to incessant *anges1 its climate p]si/s2 b we ne$ n assume t x p]si/s indef9itely4 ,! geological record proves1 on ! contr>y1 t va/ *anges ( climate h occurr$ 9 ! c\rse ( long ages4 ,9 ,ant>ctica & 9 ,spitzb]g5 are f\nd deposits ( coal1 con/itut+ ! dbris ( anci5t =e/s su* z c\ld n exi/ 9 ! climates n[ prevail+ 9 ^? regions4 ,!re are pl5ty ( o!r pro(s t great climatic *anges h tak5 place f "o geological p]iod to ano!r2 b :at ( *anges 9 %ort] int]vals ( "t8 ,an imm5se am\nt ( zeal & en]gy has be5 devot$ to ! /udy ( suppos$ *anges ( climate4 ,evid5ce ( su* *anges is s\ght1 on ! "o h&1 9 a pa9/ak+ exam9ation ( wea!r records 7a process (t5 involv+ ! tabulation ( hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( figures71 &1 on ! o!r1 9 ! collection ( geographical & hi/orical data be>+ on ! "q4 ,!re h be5 num]\s reports ( ! gradual dry+ up ( ,african & ,asiatic lakes1 ( ! discov]y ( anci5t ru9s indicat+ t prosp]\s agricultural communities once fl\ri%$ 9 regions t are n[ des]ts1 & ( v>i\s o!r tok5s t m>k$ vicissitudes ( climate h occurr$ )9 hi/oric times4 ,a rec5t +5i\s me?od ( /udy+ climatic v>iations is to measure ! successive annual r+s se5 9 cross sections ( old trees4 ,?ick r+s are suppos$ to h be5 =m$ dur+ p]iods ( abundant ra9fall1 & ?9 r+s :5 ! ra9fall 0 defici5t4 ,?is me?od has be5 appli$ to ! giant ,sequoias ( ,cali=nia1 "s ( :i* are m ?an #c1jjj ye>s old4 ,! net result ( a wide range ( inve/igations appe>s to be t1 on ! :ole1 climate has ev]y:]e be5 rem>kably con/ant s9ce ! dawn ( human hi/ory4 ,!re is mu* evid5ce t1 9 c]ta9 regions1 !re h be5 alt]nate increases & decreases--recurr5t oscillations--( temp]ature1 ra9fall1 etc41 b !re is little evid5ce ( progressive *anges 9 "o direction4 ,9 contra/ to ! unc]ta9ty t /ill prevails 9 ! sci5tific _w on ! subject ( climatic *anges is ! confid5ce ) :i* ! av]age layman may be he>d to ass]t t su* *anges h tak5 place )9 8 own recollection4 ,! popul> idea t climate has *ang$ p]ceptibly )9 a s+le human lifetime is a _w-wide delusion1 & "o t has1 app>5tly1 always fl\ri%$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates we he> ( ! 8old-fa%ion$ w9t]10 ) its unlimit$ sleigh+1 & also ( a m>k$ increase or fall+ (f 9 ! ra9fall 9 c]ta9 di/ricts4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t a c5tury & m ago ,am]icans 7 indulg+ 9 ! same sort ( retrospections4 ,9 ! ye> #aggj1 :5 ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 0 presid5t ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society ( ,philadelphia1 a pap] 0 read be=e t society entitl$3 8,an ,attempt to acc\nt = ! ,*ange ( ,climate :i* has be5 ,obs]v$ 9 ! ,middle ,colonies ( ,nor? ,am]ica40 ,x is publi%$ 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! society's ,transactions4 ,b>r+ ! long s's & ! use ( ! ^w 8colonies10 ! great] "p ( x might h be5 address$ to ! own]s ( automobiles & ,lib]ty bonds4 ,we are told ( a 8v obs]vable *ange ( climate10 rem>k$ by ev]ybody :o has resid$ long 9 ,p5nsylvania & ! neighbor+ colonies4 8,our w9t]s10 says ! au?or1 8are n s int5sely cold1 nor are our summ]s s disagreeably w>m z !y h be540 ,^! *anges he ascribes to ! cle>+ & cultivation ( ! c\ntry4 ,ano!r firm believ] 9 old-fa%ion$ w9t]s & old-fa%ion$ summ]s 0 ,?omas ,jeff]son4 ,9 8 8,notes on ,virg9ia10 writt5 9 #agha1 he says3 8,a *ange 9 our climate is tak+ place v s5sibly4 ,bo? heats & colds are become mu* m mod]ate1 )9 ! memory ev5 ( ! middle-ag$4 ,sn[s are less frequ5t & less deep4 ,!y d n (t5 lie1 bel[ ! m\nta9s1 m ?an "o1 two or ?ree days1 & v r>ely a week4 ,!y are rememb]$ to h be5 =m]ly frequ5t1 deep1 & ( long cont9uance4 ,! eld]ly in=m me1 ! e>? us$ to be cov]$ ) sn[ ab\t ?ree mon?s 9 e w9t]40 ,samuel ,williams1 :o publi%$ a 8,hi/ory ( ,v]mont0 9 #agid1 uses almo/ id5tical language 9 ref]5ce to ! climate ( t ,/ate4 8,sn[s10 he says1 8are nei!r s frequ5t1 deep1 or ( s long cont9uance z !y 7 =m]ly2 & !y are yet decl9+ v fa/ 9 _! numb]1 quantity1 & duration40 ,t ^! *anges1 he adds1 8are mu* connect$ ) & greatly accel]at$ by ! cultivation ( ! c\ntry _c be d\bt$40 ,:at are ! facts8 ,:5 ! /atem5ts above quot$ 7 writt5 few regul> records ( ! wea!r _h be5 ma9ta9$ = any l5g? ( "t 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! e>lie/ in/rum5tal record 0 begun at ,*>le/on1 ,s4 ,c41 9 #agcj4 ,mu* in=mation 01 h[ev]1 available conc]n+ ! dates ( h>ve/1 ( ! =mation & break+ up ( ice 9 riv]s & h>bors1 & o!r ev5ts dep5d5t ^u ! wea!r1 :i*1 if anybody _h tak5 ! tr\ble to collect & analyze x1 w\ld h dispell$ ! univ]sal belief t m>k$ *anges ( climate _h rec5tly tak5 place4 ,n[adays x is mu* easi] to refute ! common ass]tion t ! climate has *ang$ )9 ! memory ( liv+ m54 ,! meteorological hi/ory ( our c\ntry = m ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury has be5 record$ f day to day by a ho/ ( c>eful obs]v]s 9 e ,/ate ( ! ,union4 ,! records %[ t1 :ile ! wea!r ( "o ye> has (t5 diff]$ /rik+ly f t ( ! next1 !re has be5 no real *ange 9 climate4 8,old-fa%ion$0 w9t]s1 = example1 7 nei!r m nor less common half a c5tury ago ?an !y are to-day4 ,our memories ( pa/ wea!r mislead u1 *iefly because we rememb] ! exceptional wea!r & =get t :i* commonly prevail$4 ,o!r circum/ances may contribute to ! illusion4 ,?us _m p :o n[ live 9 cities1 :]e mod]n appliances make !m m or less indep5d5t ( ! wea!r1 pass$ _! *ildhood "u ! m primitive conditions ( ! c\ntry4 ,if climates 7 n fairly con/ant = long p]iods ( ye>s1 x w\ld be a wa/e ( "t to compile ! climatic /ati/ics t1 z we h se51 are want$ by s _m diff]5t k9ds ( p = s _m diff]5t purposes4 ,su* /ati/ics are bas$ ^u pa/ ev5ts1 b _! practical value dep5ds ^u ! fact t1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 !y are a safe guide to ! future4 ,! climatic data = any place are a sort ( dige/ ( ! meteorological obs]vations t h be5 made !re1 special emphasis be+ giv5 to ^? features ( ! meteorological record t be> important relations to ! life & activities ( mank9d4 ,temp]ature & ra9fall are ! lead+ elem5ts ( climate2 o!rs are w9d1 humidity1 evaporation1 cl\d9ess1 etc4 ,we h n space to enum]ate "h all ! k9ds ( data f\nd 9 elaborate climatic tables2 b 9 ord] to illu/rate h[ ! records ( a meteorological /ation are utiliz$ 9 compil+ climatic /ati/ics & to %[ :at complications may arise 9 ?is process1 we %all consid] ! "q ( temp]ature alone4 ,! in/rum5ts us$ 9 measur+ temp]ature h be5 describ$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,f ^! in/rum5ts are obta9$ ! curr5t temp]ature ( ! air1 ! wet bulb temp]ature 7us$ to compute ! humidity71 & ! maximum & m9imum temp]atures ( ! day4 ,read+s are made at fix$ h\rs1 kn[n z 8t]m h\rs40 ,at regul> /ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau ! t]m h\rs = ! obs]vation ( all ! meteorological elem5ts are #h a4 m4 & #h p4 m41 ,ea/]n ,"t1 & an obs]vation ( temp]ature1 humidity1 & cl\ds is made at noon4 ,9 mo/ o!r c\ntries tri-daily read+s h be5 ! rule1 ?\gh 9 ,europe f\r or m obs]vations a day are n[ tak5 at _m /ations 9 ord] to supply ! frequ5t wea!r bullet9s requir$ by a]onauts4 ,important /ations are g5]ally equipp$ ) !rmographs1 :i* make a cont9u\s record ( temp]ature4 ,!oretically1 ! mean temp]ature ( any day is ! av]age ( #bd h\rly obs]vations1 f midnight to midnight4 ,9 practice1 ! mean is g5]ally comput$ f ! obs]vations at ! t]m h\rs1 or f ! maximum & m9imum4 ,hav+ obta9$ ! mean daily temp]ature = ea* day ( a mon?1 ! av]age ( ^! values gives u ! mean mon?ly temp]ature4 ,! av]age ( ! mean temp]atures = ! twelve mon?s ( ! ye> is ! mean annual temp]ature4 ,^! data = ea* day & mon?1 & = ! ye>--sometimes also = o!r int]vals1 su* z five-day p]iods1 or 8p5tads10--are comput$ ye> aft] ye>1 & ev5tually ! values = all ! ye>s ( ! record are av]ag$ to =m :at are call$ 8normals40 ,we ?us obta91 = example1 = a giv5 /ation1 ! normal temp]ature = ,janu>y #ba1 ! normal temp]ature = ! mon? ( ,m>*1 ! normal annual temp]ature1 etc4 ,all ?is is a m]e beg9n+ t[>d ! complete discussion ( a body ( temp]ature obs]vations = ! purposes ( climatology4 ,we h /ill to obta9 f ! read+s ( ! maximum & m9imum !rmomet]s ! normal maximum & m9imum temp]atures & range ( temp]ature = ea* day1 ea* mon?1 & ! ye>2 also ! 8absolute0 maxima1 m9ima1 & ranges 7i4 e41 ! extreme values t h occurr$ dur+ ! entire record7 = correspond+ int]vals ( "t4 ,^! data furni% answ]s to su* que/ions z3 ,:at 0 ! l[e/ temp]ature ev] record$ on ,janu>y #ba8 ,:at is ! l[e/ on an av]age ,janu>y #ba8 ,:at is ! av]age range ( temp]ature 9 ,m>*8 ,:at 0 ! highe/ temp]ature ev] record$1 on any day1 at ! /ation8 ,hav+ ?us dispos$ ( ! extremes & ranges1 we may compute :at is call$ ! 8v>iability0 ( temp]ature1 i4 e41 ! av]age diff]5ce betwe5 ! means ( two successive days 9 a giv5 mon?1 & ! correspond+ av]age = ! entire ye>4 ,^! data are ( consid]able importance 9 m$ical climatology4 ,we may also compute ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( v>i\s values among ! temp]ature data above enum]at$4 ,! mo/ frequ5t value is (t5 q diff]5t f ! av]age value4 ,_m climatologi/s compute ! numb] ( days1 9 an av]age ye>1 on :i* ! temp]ature rises to #gg degrees 7,fahr47 or above 78summ]-days071 & ! numb] ( days on :i* ! temp]ature does n rise above ! freez+ po9t 78w9t]-days074 ,especially valuable 9 agricultural regions are data ( ! av]age & extreme dates ( ! la/ fro/ 9 spr+ & ( ! fir/ fro/ 9 autumn4 ,^! def9e ! l5g? ( ! 8gr[+ season40 ,/ati/ics ( ! temp]ature ( ! gr\nd at ! surface & at v>i\s dep?s bel[ ! surface are also ( agricultural int]e/4 ,f ! =ego+ outl9e x w be se5 t a bewild]+ v>iety ( climatic /ati/ics may be comput$ m]ely f obs]vations ( temp]ature1 & ! same is true ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,moreov]1 ! li/ set =? above is by no means exhau/ive ev5 = temp]ature4 ,9 fact1 !re is almo/ no limit to ! numb] ( ways 9 :i* ! raw mat]ial ( climatic data--i4 e41 ! orig9al records ( obs]vation--may be gr\p$1 av]ag$1 or o!rwise treat$ 9 ord] to br+ out c]ta9 features ( ! climate t may conceivably s]ve "s useful purpose4 ,! read] w n[ be able to und]/& :y a treatise on ! climate ( a s+le locality (t5 fills a sub/antial volume4 ,! num]ical data conta9$ 9 su* a "w are g5]ally supplem5t$ by text descriptions & by v>i\s graphic devices1 su* z curves %[+ ! normal fluctuation or 8m>*0 ( a wea!r elem5t dur+ a day1 ye>1 or o!r int]val4 ,works :i* deal ) ! climates ( l>g] areas1 su* z :ole c\ntries1 are usually accompani$ by climatic *>ts4 ,^! *>ts furni% a quick & easy way ( gett+ a g5]al idea ( ! climate ( a region4 ,among ! m important climatic *>ts are ! foll[+3 #a4 ,temp]ature 7iso!rmal7 *>ts4 ,^! include *>ts %[+ ! di/ribution ( normal temp]atures = mon?s1 seasons1 & ! ye>2 normal range ( temp]ature = simil> p]iods2 highe/ & l[e/ temp]atures ev] record$ at ! diff]5t /ations2 etc4 ,l9es kn[n z iso!rms are s drawn z to pass ?r\gh places hav+ id5tical values ( ! elem5t 9 "q 7mean temp]ature1 highe/ temp]ature1 etc474 #b4 ,ra9fall 7isohyetal7 *>ts4 ,^! %[ ! di/ribution ( ra9fall 7includ+ sn[fall1 express$ 9 equival5t dep? ( wat]72 especially = ea* mon? & = ! ye>4 ,o!r *>ts may %[ ! av]age numb] ( ra9y days2 av]age sn[fall 7actual dep?1 n wat] equival5t72 seasonal di/ribution ( ra9fall2 etc4 #c4 ,w9d *>ts4 ,^! are drawn 9 v>i\s =ms1 to %[ ! prevail+ w9d directions1 ! frequ5cy ( w9ds f diff]5t directions1 ! av]age =ce ( ! w9ds1 etc4 ,*>ts ( ! w9ds at diff]5t levels above ! e>?'s surface w ev5tually be drawn = ! use ( a]onauts1 b su* *>ts are /ill 9 a t5tative /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,mod]n ,,iso!rmal ,,*>t ,,( ,,! ,,globe4 7,hann1 #aija7 ,! iso!rms %[ ! mean annual temp]ature 9 c5tigrade degrees4 ,z 9 ! case ( tabulat$ climatic data1 ! numb] ( *>ts t might be drawn to br+ out diff]5t features ( climate is practically unlimit$4 ,sun%9e1 cl\d9ess1 humidity1 b>ometric pressure1 & ! frequ5cy ( v>i\s special ph5om5a1 su* z ?und]/orms1 hail1 tornadoes1 dr\ghts1 etc41 are all *>t$ 9 "s ( ! m ext5sive works on climate4 ,l>ge atlases h be5 publi%$ to portray ! climates ( c]ta9 c\ntries4 ,! /udy ( ! actual di/ribution ( climates ov] ! e>?1 z di/+ui%$ f t ( climate 9 g5]al1 is sometimes call$ climatography4 ,climates are v>i\sly classifi$1 usually on ! basis ( "o or m ( ! climatic elem5ts1 b sometimes ) ref]5ce to _! effects4 ,! mo/ famili> classifications ref] to temp]ature4 ,we speak ( tropical1 temp]ate1 & pol> climates2 b 9 us+ ^! t]ms x %\ld n be =gott5 t o!r ?+s besides latitude control ! di/ribution ( temp]ature4 ,location ) respect to ! ocean or o!r l>ge bodies ( wat] is almo/ equally important4 ,a l& surface gr[s w>m by day & 9 summ]1 & gr[s cold by night & 9 w9t]1 mu* m rapidly ?an a wat] surface1 & ! adjac5t air v>ies 9 temp]ature accord+ly4 ,h5ce we h a classification ( climates z m>9e & cont95tal4 ,! =m]1 "u ! influ5ce ( oceanic w9ds1 h a mod]ate range ( temp]ature1 :ile ! latt] are subject to extremes ( heat & cold4 ,) increase ( altitude temp]ature is dim9i%$1 b ra9fall is g5]ally increas$4 ,! di/ribution ( ra9fall is also det]m9$ to a great ext5t by ! pa?s ( cyclonic /orms4 ,su* are a few ( ! _m ?+s t control ! complex di/ribution ( climates4 ,p :o nev] travel f> f _! own homes usually *]i% q errone\s ideas reg>d+ ! climates ( di/ant l&s4 ,x is h>d = mo/ ,am]icans to realize1 = example1 t ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 9 ! he>t ( ! tropics1 nev] exp]i5ces temp]atures ne>ly s high z ^? :i* occur e summ] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a citiz5 ( ,s\? ,dakota1 :]e ! m]cury1 9 ! %ade1 frequ5tly rises above #ajj ,fahr41 & has be5 kn[n to rea* #aae1 w be incl9$ to revise 8 def9ition ( ! t]m 8tropical0 :5 he le>ns t at ,colon1 ! ,atlantic t]m9us ( ! ,canal1 a temp]ature z high z #ij is decid$ly exceptional1 & t ! maximum read+ dur+ a p]iod ( six ye>s 0 only #ib4 ,9 ?irte5 ye>s ,canal ,zone vital /ati/ics %[$ only two dea?s f sun/roke & tw5ty-"o non-fatal cases ( heat pro/ration among a population ( #abj1jjj4 ,x w also surprise mo/ ,am]icans to le>n t ! highe/ natural air temp]atures t h be5 record$ any:]e on e>? 7 n obs]v$ ne> ! equator1 b 9 a ,cali=nia des]t4 ,at a place on ! edge ( ,dea? ,valley1 rejoic+ 9 ! ironical "n ( ,gre5l& ,ran*1 a temp]ature ( #acd ,fahr4 0 regi/]$ 9 ,july1 #aiac4 ,! !rmomet] :i* furni%$ ?is rem>kable read+ 0 a te/$ in/rum5t1 in/all$ 9 a /&>d scre5 ov] an alfalfa sod1 & n expos$ to ! reflect$ heat ( ! des]t4 ,at ! same place ! temp]ature rea*$ #ajj or m on #edh days 9 f\r ye>s4 ,outside ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! highe/ temp]ature ev] record$ at a meteorological /ation 0 #abg ,fahr4 at ,w>gla 7,ou>gla71 ,alg]ia4 ,! l[e/ temp]atures enc\nt]$ by pol> explor]s are consid]ably high] ?an ^? exp]i5c$ ea* w9t] by ! inhabitants ( nor!rn ,sib]ia4 ,! 8record10 s f> z in/rum5tal obs]vations g1 is held by ! t[n ( ,v]khoyansk1 at :i* ! temp]ature fell to #ij bel[ z]o 7,fahr5heit7 9 ,febru>y1 #ahib4 ,/range to say1 ?is 8w9t] cold pole0 ( ! e>? has w>m summ]s4 ,at ,v]khoyansk ! temp]ature sometimes rises to #hj above z]o1 or high]4 ,at ,yakutsk1 ,sib]ia1 ! !rmomet] has be5 kn[n to fall to #hd bel[ z]o 9 w9t] & to rise #ajb above z]o 9 summ]2 a range ( temp]ature exce$+ ! int]val betwe5 ! freez+ po9t & ! boil+ po9t ( wat]6 ,ano!r climatic p>adox is t exp]i5c$ by m\nta9e]s :o1 9 scal+ peaks mantl$ 9 et]nal sn[1 (t5 suff] ) ! heat1 on acc\nt ( ! int5sity ( sol> radiation 9 ! pure1 dry air ( high altitudes4 ,at ! heal? resort ( ,davos1 9 ! high ,alps 7altitude #e1bej feet71 invalids sit out-(-doors )\t wraps 9 midw9t]1 &1 inde$1 are sometimes driv5 into ! %ade to escape ! too ard5t rays ( ! sun4 ,at ! same "t ! temp]ature ( ! air itself may be f> bel[ freez+1 & ! gr\nd cov]$ ) sn[4 ,c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w are (t5 loosely describ$ z 8ra9less10 b1 z we h /at$ else:]e1 !re is actually no spot on e>? at :i* ra9 7or sn[1 9 ! pol> regions7 has nev] be5 kn[n to fall4 ,9 ! drie/ "p ( ! ,sah>a--! ,libyan ,des]t1 betwe5 ,dakhel & ,kufra--! explor] ,rohlfs exp]i5c$ a dr5*+ ra9/orm ( ?ree days' duration 9 #ahgd4 ,nei!r is ! ,sah>a1 9 spite ( its prov]bial heat1 exempt f t\*es ( real w9t]4 ,sn[ is a common occurr5ce 9 _m p>ts ( ?is des]t1 ev5 at mod]ate altitudes4 ,on ! high] ,sah>an peaks sn[ lies on ! gr\nd all w9t]1 & is sometimes f\nd1 9 %elt]$ spots1 9 summ]4 ,occasional falls ( sn[ occur 9 all p>ts ( ,alg]ia1 & sev]al falls h be5 record$ 9 ,l[] ,egypt4 ,:5 all is said & done1 ! :ole fabric ( :at n[ con/itutes ! sci5ce ( climatology leaves mu* to be desir$4 ,climate is ( practical int]e/1 fir/ ( all1 on acc\nt ( its effects on human life & heal?1 & secondly because ( its influ5ce ^u ! crops t are ! ma9/ay ( man's mat]ial prosp]ity4 ,"u bo? ^! heads climatic data1 z n[ commonly pres5t$1 ignore c]ta9 atmosph]ic activities ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,= biological purposes no description ( a climate c be reg>d$ z ev5 approximately complete t does n furni%1 = ! region "u discussion1 a detail$ acc\nt ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( radiation receiv$ f ! sun1 _! int5sities & fluctuations2 & !re are few places 9 ! _w at :i* ev5 a beg9n+ has be5 made 9 ! collection ( su* data4 ,aga91 ! ph5om5a ( atmosph]ic electricity1 includ+ radioactivity1 are probably ( real climatic significance1 b we are /ill 9 ! /age ( speculation ) reg>d to ?is subject4 ,possibly !re are /ill o!r elem5ts ( climate1 n[ :olly neglect$1 t w figure prom95tly 9 ! climatology ( ! future4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,organiz$ ,,meteorology ,no o!r bran* ( sci5ce is s dep5d5t ^u ! con/ant sy/ematic coop]ation ( a multitude ( work]s z meteorology4 ,!re are1 to be sure1 "s k9ds ( atmosph]ic ph5om5a t c be /udi$ advantage\sly by ! individual meteorologi/1 ) no fur!r aid f 8 sci5tific confrres ?an ! same sort ( int]*ange ( ideas t prevails 9 all dep>tm5ts ( k2 b ! widespread processes t con/itute wea!r & climate require = _! obs]vation--:e!r ! purpose 9 view be wea!r =eca/+1 or ! collection ( climatic /ati/ics1 or ! assembl+ ( data f :i* to d$uce ! laws ( atmosph]ic movem5ts--a v]itable army ( colabor]s1 equipp$ ) /&>diz$ in/rum5ts & keep+ _! records accord+ to a uni=m plan4 ,probably few p1 9 look+ at ! *>ts portray+ ! climates ( ! _w t are f\nd 9 ref]5ce books1 realize h[ _m obs]v]s h contribut$ to ! prep>ation ( su* *>ts or ! numb] ( sep>ate in/rum5tal obs]vations ^u :i* !y are bas$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates alone !re are some?+ l #f1jjj meteorological /ations1 at :i* upw>d ( two & a qu>t] million obs]vations are made e ye>--& a climatic *>t is1 ( c\rse1 ! fruit ( _m ye>s ( obs]vations4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury x 0 e/imat$ t !re 7 #ca1jjj meteorological /ations 9 op]ation ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! pres5t numb] is d\btless mu* great]4 ,at "s ( ^! /ations obs]vations h be5 made regul>ly1 once1 twice or ?ree times a day1 = #ajj or #aej ye>s4 ,9 r\nd numb]s "o may say t1 dur+ ! la/ few decades1 meteorological obs]vations h be5 made1 ! _w ov]1 at ! rate ( t5 million a ye>1 & ! total numb]1 s9ce ! keep+ ( regul> wea!r records began1 runs f> up 9 ! hundr$ millions4 ,organiz$ meteorological obs]vations 7 n unkn[n to antiquity--we h m5tion$ else:]e ! e>ly ra9fall measurem5ts 9 ,india & ,pale/9e--b ! pres5t era ( su* und]tak+s dates back only to ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,9 ! ye> #afed ! ,gr& ,duke ,f]d9& ,,ii ( ,tuscany1 ?r\gh 8 *apla9 & secret>y1 ,luigi ,ant9ori1 secur$ ! coop]ation ( sev]al obs]v]s 9 ,italy & ! adjac5t c\ntries1 to :om 7 di/ribut$ in/rum5ts & =ms = ma9ta9+ daily records ( ! pr9cipal meteorological elem5ts4 ,ant9ori & mo/ ( ! obs]v]s belong$ to ! ,jesuits1 an ord] :i* has display$ extraord9>y zeal 9 ! fur!rance ( meteorology d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,! obs]vations ?us inaugurat$ appe> to h be5 kept up until ab\t #affg1 b un=tunately few ( ! records h be5 pres]v$4 ,sev]al und]tak+s ( simil> "* 7 laun*$ dur+ ! next hundr$ ye>s 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ,g]many4 ,! mo/ notable ( su* ent]prises1 h[ev]1 ant$at+ ! f\ndation ( ! pres5t (ficial wea!r s]vices1 0 ! int]national sy/em ( obs]vations ma9ta9$ by ! ,meteorological ,society ( ! ,palat9ate1 f\nd$ at ,mannheim 9 #aghj "u ! auspices ( ! ,elector ,k>l ,!odor4 ,! *ief cr$it = ! epo*-mak+ "w ( ?is society is due to its secret>y1 ,j4 ,j4 ,hemm]4 ,! society di/ribut$ /&>d in/rum5ts to its obs]v]s1 :o 7 widely scatt]$ ov] ! _w2 viz41 f\rte5 9 ,g]many1 two 9 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 two 9 ,switz]l&1 f\r 9 ,italy1 ?ree 9 ,france1 f\r 9 ,belgium & ,holl&1 ?ree 9 ,russia1 f\r 9 ,sc&9avia1 "o 9 ,gre5l&1 & two 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 7at ,brad=d & ,cambridge1 ,mass474 ,! v detail$ obs]vations ( ?is network ( /ations d[n to ! ye> #agib 7 publi%$ 9 twelve l>ge volumes4 ,al?\gh ! activities ( ! ,mannheim society came to an end 9 ! tr\bl\s days ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 ! records t x _h collect$ s]v$ z ! gr\ndwork = fruitful /udies dur+ ! next g5]ation4 ,!re are two di/9ct uses t c be made ( /ati/ics ( ?is sort4 ,fir/1 !y c be dige/$ 9 su* a way z to br+ out ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! climate at ea* ( ! localities includ$ 9 ! collection1 & likewise to illu/rate ! di/ribution ( climates ov] ! globe4 ,second1 ! data = individual days f ! v>i\s /ations c be *>t$ sep>ately1 s z to illu/rate ! in/antane\s di/ribution ( b>ometric pressure1 w9d & wea!r1 &1 by a comp>ison ( ! *>ts = successive days1 to provide a sort ( mov+ picture ( ! atmosph]ic ma*9]y 9 op]ation4 ,*>ts bas$ on approximately simultane\s obs]vations %[+ ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e at a p>ticul> mom5t ( "t ov] an ext5sive area ( ! e>? are call$ syn*ron\s *>ts1 or sometimes synoptic *>ts1 ?\gh ! latt] t]m is also applicable to *>ts %[+ av]age values = a p>ticul> mon?1 ye>1 etc4 ,syn*ron\s *>ts1 z us$ n[adays = ! purpose ( mak+ =eca/s1 are prep>$ f data collect$ by telegraph2 b ! same k9d ( *>ts c be prep>$ 9 a m leisurely mann] f ! /ati/ics ga!r$ at any previ\s "t1 & su* *>ts 7 frequ5tly made = ! purpose ( /udy be=e ! days ( telegraphy4 ,! pione] 9 su* und]tak+s 0 ! ,g]man physici/1 ,h4 ,w4 ,br&es1 :o1 ab\t #ahbj1 utiliz$ ! obs]vations collect$ by ! ,meteorological ,society ( ! ,palat9ate1 toge!r ) "s o!rs1 9 compil+ a s]ies ( daily syn*ron\s *>ts ( ,europe = ! ye> #aghc4 ,v simil> /udies 7 c>ri$ out 9 ,am]ica1 a few ye>s lat]1 by ,j4 ,p4 ,espy1 ,w4 ,c4 ,r$field & ,elias ,loomis4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury a copi\s fund ( meteorological obs]vations _h already accumulat$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! fir/ und]tak+ 9 ! nature ( a meteorological organization1 =e%ad[+ ! pres5t ,wea!r ,bureau1 0 due to ,josiah ,meigs1 ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice1 :o 9 #ahag e/abli%$ a sy/em ( tri-daily obs]vations at ! v>i\s l& (fices4 ,at an almo/ equally e>ly p]iod ! ,surgeon ,g5]al ( ! ,army inaugurat$ regul> wea!r obs]vations at ! milit>y po/s ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,local sy/ems ( obs]vations 7 e/abli%$ by ! au?orities ( ,new ,york ,/ate 9 #ahbe & ,p5nsylvania 9 #ahcg1 & sy/ems ( broad] scope by ! ,pat5t ,(fice 9 #ahda & ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution 9 #ahdg4 ,exp]im5ts 9 collect+ wea!r reports by telegraph = ! purpose ( =eca/+ /orms 7 und]tak5 by ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution z e>ly z #ahdi4 ,at ab\t ! same p]iod ,lieut4 ,m4 ,f4 ,maury1 ( ! navy1 0 ga!r+ meteorological reports f m>9]s & lay+ ! f\ndations ( m>9e meteorology4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahgj1 ,congress 0 induc$ to e/abli% a full-fl$g$ telegraphic wea!r s]vice1 simil> to ^? t 7 already 9 successful op]ation 9 ,europe4 ,"o ( ! great promot]s ( ?is ent]prise 0 ,dr4 ,i4 ,a4 ,lapham ( ,wiscons92 x _h be5 repeat$ly advocat$ by ,maury2 & a conv9c+ object lesson 9 its behalf 0 furni%$ by ! local s]vice ( reports & =eca/s conduct$ by ,pr(4 ,clevel& ,abbe1 at ! ,c9c9nati ,obs]vatory1 ) ! aid ( ! ,we/]n ,union ,telegraph ,company1 9 #ahfi & #ahgj4 ,dur+ ! fir/ tw5ty ye>s ( its exi/5ce1 f #ahgj to #ahij1 ! ,f$]al wea!r s]vice 0 "u ! ,signal ,corps ( ! army4 ,s9ce #ahij x has be5 a bran* ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 z ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau1 ?\gh ! "n 8,signal ,s]vice0 /uck to x1 9 popul> spee*1 long aft] x ceas$ to belong to ! army4 ,9 ?is c\ntry wea!r =eca/s are--or once 7--said to emanate f 8,old ,probabilities10 or 8,old ,probs40 ,our fir/ 8,old ,probs0 appe>s to h be5 ,pr(essor ,abbe1 :o has expla9$ ! orig9 ( ?is "n 9 an acc\nt ( 8 pione] =eca/+ exp]im5ts at ,c9c9nati4 ,he says ( ! initial ,c9c9nati ,wea!r ,bullet91 issu$ ,septemb] #a1 #ahfi3 8,x conta9$ only a few obs]vations telegraph$ f di/ant obs]v]s & ann\nc$ #8probabilities' = ! next day4 ,?is bullet91 9 my own h&-writ+1 0 po/$ prom95tly 9 ! hall ( ! ,*amb] ( ,comm]ce1 b un=tunately ,i _h misspell$ #8,tuesday1' & ,i soon f\nd bel[ my ,probabilities ! foll[+ humor\s l9e by ,mr4 ,davis1 ! well-kn[n pack]3 #8,a bad spell ( wea!r = 8,old ,probs40' ,?is e/abli%$ my future v popul> "n ( #8,old ,probs4'0 ,! "n has1 h[ev]1 be5 m p>ticul>ly associat$ ) ,g54 ,alb]t ,j4 ,my]1 :o1 z ,*ief ,signal ,(fic]1 0 ! fir/ head ( ! ,f$]al meteorological s]vice4 ,desultory exp]im5ts 9 ! collection ( curr5t wea!r reports & _! use 9 con/ruct+ wea!r maps 7 fir/ c>ri$ out 9 ,europe at ab\t ! same "t z ! e>ly und]tak+s ( ?is "* 9 ,am]ica4 ,su* reports 7 ga!r$ & publi%$ by ,james ,glai%]1 ) ! coop]ation ( ! ,briti% railways1 9 #ahdi4 ,! exi/+ national wea!r s]vices ( ! ,old ,_w owe _! orig9 to an episode ( ! ,crimean ,w>4 ,9 ,novemb]1 #ahed1 a viol5t /orm wr\ght havoc among ! ,fr5* & ,briti% w>%ips 9 ! ,black ,sea & sank _m vessels conta9+ invaluable /ores int5d$ = ! ,alli$ armies 9 ! ,crimea4 ,! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,le ,v]ri]1 director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is1 collect$ in=mation %[+ ! progress ( ?is /orm across ,europe1 & ! results ( ?is inquiry 7 s significant t he submitt$ to ! ,emp]or ,napoleon ,,iii ! plan ( organiz+ an int]national sy/em ( telegraphic reports1 by means ( :i* timely w>n+ c\ld be obta9$ ( simil> atmosph]ic di/urbances4 ,! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t1 ) ! aid ( o!r ,european c\ntries1 e/abli%$ su* a sy/em 9 #ahee4 ,)9 ! next two decades mo/ ( ^! c\ntries organiz$ _! own s]vices1 & at ! same "t ma9ta9$ an int]national ex*ange ( obs]vations by telegraph4 ,be=e ! close ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ne>ly all ! civiliz$ c\ntries ( ! _w1 includ+ _m colonial possessions1 su* z ,canada1 ,au/ralia1 ,alg]ia & ! ,philipp9es1 _h e/abli%$ meteorological s]vices1 entail+ m or less ext5sive arrangem5ts = collect+ daily reports by telegraph & issu+ /orm w>n+s & wea!r =eca/s4 ,! *ief exceptions 7 sev]al ( ! ,lat9-,am]ican republics & ! ,ottoman ,empire1 9 :i* su* organizations are /ill lack+4 ,meteorology is ess5tially an int]national sci5ce4 ,! atmosph]e kn[s no political b\nd>ies1 & ! m x is /udi$ ! m /rongly meteorologi/s are impress$ ) ! fact t intimate relations exi/ betwe5 ! atmosph]ic ev5ts ( widely sep>at$ regions ( ! _w4 ,?us1 ! great anticyclone t is built up e ye> ov] ! cold int]ior ( ,sib]ia ex]cises an influ5ce ^u ! wea!r ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ! behavior ( ! ,indian monsoons has be5 f\nd to h "s connection ) b>ometric conditions 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & fluctuations 9 ! =ce ( ! trade w9ds are app>5tly ( _w-wide significance--:5ce ^! w9ds h be5 describ$ z ! 8pulse0 ( ! g5]al atmosph]ic circulation4 ,! ,fr5* meteorologi/ ,l4 ,teiss]5c de ,bort call$ att5tion _m ye>s ago to ! exi/5ce ( :at he call$ 8c5t]s ( action02 viz41 l>ge p]man5t or semi-p]man5t areas ( high & l[ b>ometric pressure1 ! v>iations ( :i* correspond /rik+ly ) ! vicissitudes ( w9d & wea!r 9 c\ntries ?\s&s ( miles di/ant4 ,la/ b n lea/1 p]si/5t attempts h be5 made to int]pret all ! wea!r happ5+s on our globe 9 t]ms ( a fluctuat+ supply ( radiant en]gy receiv$ f ! sun4 ,=tunately meteorology has possess$ an int]national organization = a great _m ye>s4 ,! ,int]national ,meteorological ,organization 0 f\nd$ at a conf]5ce held at ,leipzig 9 #ahgb1 & 0 p]fect$ at a =mal congress ( meteorologi/s convok$ at ,vi5na 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! ,int]national ,meteorological ,committee1 :i* is ! p]man5t work+ body ( ! organization1 0 e/abli%$ at ! ,vi5na ,congress4 ,f9ally1 ! organization 0 recon/itut$ at a conf]5ce held at ,p>is1 by invitation ( ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t1 9 #aiai4 ,! ,int]national ,committee consi/s ( n m ?an tw5ty memb]s1 all ( :om are directors ( (ficial meteorological s]vices4 ,x is suppos$ to meet at lea/ once 9 ?ree ye>s4 ,at less frequ5t int]vals are held 8conf]5ces10 to :i* are invit$ repres5tatives ( all ! meteorological s]vices & ! pr9cipal indep5d5t meteorological obs]vatories ( ! _w4 ,atta*$ to ! organization are sev]al int]national 8commissions10 :i* sup]vise & coord9ate ! "w ( meteorologi/s 9 v>i\s special fields4 ,at ! close ( ! ye> #aiba !re 7 commissions on ! foll[+ subjects3 ,agricultural ,meteorology1 ,wea!r ,telegraphy1 ,m>9e ,meteorology1 ,sol> ,radiation1 ,application ( ,meteorology to ,a]ial ,navigation1 ,rseau ,mondial1 & ,pol> ,meteorology1 ,inve/igation ( ! ,upp] ,air1 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism & ,atmosph]ic ,electricity1 ,/udy ( ,cl\ds4 ,ea* commission includes 9 its memb]%ip at lea/ "o memb] ( ! ,int]national ,committee1 besides a numb] ( exp]ts1 f diff]5t c\ntries1 9 ! p>ticul> subject ) :i* ! commission is conc]n$4 ,! resolutions adopt$ at ! v>i\s int]national meet+s ( meteorologi/s h be5 collect$ 9 ! 8,int]national ,meteorological ,codex10 ! *ief object ( :i* is to secure uni=mity 9 me?ods ( obs]vation1 =ms ( publication1 etc4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable int]national und]tak+s 9 ! hi/ory ( meteorology 0 ! plan ( simultane\s obs]vations1 at ,gre5wi* noon1 bo? at l& /ations & on bo>d %ips1 adopt$ by ! ,vi5na ,congress at ! sugge/ion ( ,g5]al ,my]1 & c>ri$ out "u ! auspices & ma9ly at ! exp5se ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,signal ,s]vice4 ,! results ( ^! daily obs]vations1 f #ahge to #ahhg1 7 publi%$ 9 detail1 ) *>ts1 by ! ,signal ,s]vice4 ,! _m bulky volumes ( ?is s]ies1 illu/rat+ ! meteorology ( ! globe 7or ma9ly ! nor!rn hemisph]e7 day by day = a p]iod ( m ?an a decade1 are ! mod]n analogue ( ! 8,ephem]ides0 issu$ a c5tury e>li] by ! ,meteorological ,society ( ! ,palat9ate--:i* cov] v ne>ly ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! ef=ts ( meteorologi/s h be5 b5t t[>d e/abli%+ a s-call$ 8rseau mondial10 or _w-wide network ( /ations1 :i* w n only provide telegraphic reports = ! use ( =eca/]s1 b w also s5d _! detail$ records to an int]national commission to be compil$ & publi%$4 ,! telegraphic feature ( ?is project n[ bids fair to be realiz$ 9 a mann] t 0 n contemplat$ :5 ! plan 0 orig9ally propos$2 viz41 by ! broadca/+ ( wea!r reports f high-p[]$ radio /ations all ov] ! _w4 ,an effective 8_w wea!r bureau10 ) p]man5t headqu>t]s & /aff1 is at pres5t ! mo/ urg5t desid]atum ( practical meteorology4 ,su* a bureau w\ld n only tie toge!r ! national wea!r s]vices ( ! _w & greatly facilitate _! op]ations1 b w\ld also dige/ ! great mass ( exi/+ climatic /ati/ics & provide = ext5d+ ! climatological survey ( ! globe to regions :]e meteorological /ations are sc>ce or lack+4 ,a typical national meteorological s]vice comprises a c5tral /ation or in/itute1 usually1 b n always1 situat$ at ! national capital1 & a network or 8rseau0 ( subord9ate /ations1 :i* are sometimes classifi$1 accord+ to ! ext5t ( _! obs]vations1 z /ations ( ! fir/1 second1 & ?ird ord]4 ,!y may also be classifi$1 f ano!r po9t ( view1 z telegraphic & nontelegraphic /ations4 ,! =m] provide telegraphic reports ( _! obs]vations1 :i* s]ve z ! f\ndation = =eca/s1 :ile ! latt] are ma9ta9$ *iefly = ! purposes ( climatology4 ,9 "s c\ntries--notably 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--!re are additional classes ( /ations engag$ 9 p>ticul> l9es ( "w2 ^! include /orm-w>n+ /ations1 riv] /ations 7:i* report riv] /ages & ra9fall 9 ! riv] bas9s71 /ations = agricultural meteorology1 etc4 ,sev]al ( ! great m>itime nations collect reports f vessels on ! high seas1 includ+ a small p]c5tage ( wireless reports4 ,a numb] ( ! national meteorological s]vices c>ry on "w 9 o!r bran*es ( geophysics1 su* z seismology & t]re/rial magnetism4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau is an exception to ! rule t1 ap>t f ! c5tral (fices & a few special /ations & l>ge obs]vatories1 meteorological /ations are n g5]ally mann$ by pr(essional meteorologi/s1 nor are ! obs]v]s paid specifically = _! meteorological "w1 ?\gh 9 a great _m cases !y are public function>ies :o are expect$ to take meteorological obs]vations 9 addition to _! o!r duties4 ,9 ?is c\ntry !re are ab\t #bjj /ations at :i* ! obs]v]s1 ( :om !re are f "o to a doz5 or m at ea* /ation1 devote all _! "t to ! "w ( ! /ations & are sal>i$ employees ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau1 & !re are sev]al hundr$ m9or /ations mann$ by "p-"t paid employees4 ,b ev5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! great majority ( ! meteorological /ations are op]at$ by unpaid obs]v]s4 ,!re are ab\t #d1ejj ( ^! s-call$ 8coop]ative /ations10 :i* provide ! bulk ( ! climatic /ati/ics ( ! c\ntry4 ,"s ( ! lead+ meteorological s]vices ( ! _w1 & ! places at :i* _! c5tral (fices are locat$1 are z foll[s3 ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau 7,wa%+ton71 ,meteorological ,s]vice ( ,canada 7,toronto71 ,meteorological ,(fice 7,london71 ,(fice ,national ,mtorologique 7,p>is71 ,reale ,ufficio ,c5trale di ,meteorologia e ,geod9amica 7,rome71 ,z5tralan/alt fr ,meteorologie und ,geodynamik 7,vi5na71 ,indian ,meteorological ,dep>tm5t 7,simla71 ,c5tral ,meteorological ,obs]vatory 7,tokyo71 ,commonweal? ,bureau ( ,meteorology 7,melb\rne71 ,(ic9a ,meteorolgica ,arg5t9a 7,bu5os ,aires74 ,9 ,g]many !re are sev]al mutually indep5d5t meteorological e/abli%m5ts1 ( :i* ! ,prussian ,meteorological ,in/itute1 ) headqu>t]s 9 ,b]l91 is ! mo/ important ) respect to climatology & rese>*1 :ile ! ,deuts*e ,seew>te1 at ,hamburg1 is ! *ief c5t] = telegraphic wea!r reports & issues ! pr9cipal wea!r map4 ,russia1 be=e h] debacle1 _h "o ( ! mo/ spl5didly organiz$ meteorological s]vices 9 ! _w1 ) headqu>t]s at ! ,c5tral ,physical ,obs]vatory 9 ,petrograd1 & a sep>ate s]vice = agricultural meteorology1 :i* 0 ! model in/itution ( its k9d4 ,! ,philipp9e ,isl&s h a ,wea!r ,bureau :i* is entirely di/9ct f t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is ,bureau1 ) headqu>t]s at ! ,manila ,obs]vatory1 0 f\nd$ by ! ,jesuits1 :o also ma9ta9 a quasi-(ficial meteorological s]vice 9 ,*9a1 ) headqu>t]s at ! ,zikawei ,obs]vatory1 ne> ,%anghai4 ,_m meteorological societies h done mu* = ! progress ( ! sci5ce1 & 9 "s cases h %>$ ! duties ( ! (ficial meteorological s]vices1 especially 9 ma9ta9+ /ations = climatology4 ,^! include ! ,royal ,meteorological ,society & ! =m] ,scotti% ,meteorological ,society1 9 ,great ,brita91 ! ,fr5*1 ,italian1 ,g]man1 ,au/rian1 & ,japanese meteorological societies1 & ! ,am]ican ,meteorological ,society1 :i* 0 f\nd$ 9 ,decemb]1 #aiai4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,wea!r ,,maps ,,& ,,=eca/s 8,=eca/0--) ! /ress on ! fir/ syllable :5 x is a n\n1 b (t5 on ! second :5 x is a v]b--is a ^w t meteorology has made peculi>ly its own4 ,?is fact is n ! result ( accid5t1 b ( design4 ,! f\nd] ( sci5tific wea!r pr$iction 9 ,great ,brita9 0 ,admiral ,rob]t ,fitz,roy--! same tal5t$ (fic] :o explor$ ! coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica 9 ! ,beagle & _h ,d>w9 = a fell[-voyag]--& 8 fir/ pr$ictions 7 issu$ 9 #ahfa f ! ,meteorological ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 :i* 0 "u 8 *>ge4 ,! boldness ( ?is pione] und]tak+ is n easily realiz$ by ! pres5t g5]ation1 :i* is accu/om$ to see ! (ficial wea!r =eca/ at ! head ( e daily newspap]4 ,wea!r progno/ication _h previ\sly be5 ! undisput$ prov9ce ( *>latans & quacks4 ,= a civiliz$ gov]nm5t to emb>k ^u su* an ent]prise mu/ h seem$1 to ! educat$ public1 v mu* l *>g+ ! ,a/ronom] ,royal ) ! duty ( ca/+ horoscopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,glass ,,wea!r ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau 7,c\rtesy ( ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,!re is mu* virtue 9 a "n4 ,a few ye>s ago ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,fi%]ies p]suad$ ! ,am]ican public to eat dogfi% by *ang+ its "n to 8grayfi%40 ,simil>ly1 ,fitz,roy induc$ ! ,briti% public to take 8 wea!r pr$ictions s]i\sly by call+ !m 8=eca/s40 ,! "n has /uck2 & n[adays1 ?r\gh\t ! ,engli%-speak+ _w1 ! expression 8wea!r =eca/0--except z appli$ compreh5sively to pr$ictions ( ! 8long-range0 v>iety--means some?+ decid$ly less *im]ical ?an ! av]age wea!r prophecy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,sun ,,draw+ ,,wat] 7,photograph by ,p4 ,k4 ,budlong47 ,x is /ill necess>y1 h[ev]1 to emphasize ! di/9ction4 ,!re are probably _m p among u1 well above ! illit]ate level1 :o h no cle> idea z to :at con/itutes a sci5tific wea!r =eca/4 ,! di/+ui%+ feature ( su* a pr$iction1 ap>t f ! fact t x is made by a tra9$ meteorologi/1 is t x is1 9 all cases1 bas$ ^u a wea!r map4 ,! =eca/+ ma*9e is a big "o1 ) its human ge> spread ov] a wide t]ritory4 ,ev5tually x w be spread ov] ! entire globe1 & !n we %all h bett] =eca/s4 ,a little manual entitl$ 8,! ,wea!r ,map10 publi%$ by ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice1 says3 8,! mak+ ( a s+le =eca/ 9 any "o ( ! meteorological (fices ( ,europe1 ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 or ! ,f> ,ea/ requires ! organiz$ coop]ation ( "s hundr$s ( p]sons2 ab\t a hundr$ obs]v]s :o note ! necess>y obs]vations simultane\sly at z _m sep>ate places & h& 9 _! reports to ! telegraphi/s :o transmit !m to "o c5t]1 :]e ! meteorological exp]t *>ts !m on a map & draws !refrom ! conclusions on :i* ! =eca/s are bas$4 ,! prep>ation ( ! map is an ess5tial "p ( ! process4 ,no meteorologi/ 9 ! mod]n s5se attempts to =eca/ ! wea!r )\t ref]5ce to a map prep>$ ei!r by himself or by "s "o ) :om he is 9 direct communication1 f obs]vations transmitt$ by telegraph = ! purpose4 ,no am\nt ( wea!r wisdom or wea!r lore or exp]i5ce is a sub/itute = ! map4 ,! m exp]t & accompli%$ ! meteorologi/1 ! m c]ta9 he is t all he c d )\t ! mat]ials = con/ruct+ a map1 ?\gh he may h a b>omet] & o!r in/rum5ts at h&1 is to make a guess at :at ! map is l & ?9k out f t :at ! wea!r *anges are likely to be4 ,x is a common exp]i5ce ( pr(essional meteorologi/s away f _! base to f9d !mselves appeal$ to = an op9ion ab\t ! wea!r1 judg+ f ! signs ( ! sky alone1 because !y are le>n$ 9 su* ?+s4 ,t is exactly :at !y are n4 ,accu/om$ to ref] ev]y?+ to a map1 )\t "o !y feel !mselves to be r worse (f ?an ^? :o are unaccu/om$ to its use4 ,a mod]n meteorologi/ ?9ks 9 maps2 8 language & modes ( expression are =m$ !reby40 ,:ile ! wea!r map is prep>$1 fir/ ( all1 = ! use ( ! =eca/]1 :o makes 8 pr$ictions f ! map be=e x has pass$ beyond ! manuscript /age1 x has o!r important uses1 :i* ju/ify its publication & widespread di/ribution4 ,! wea!r map is a wea!r newspap]4 ,l o!r newspap]s1 x is f\nd$ on a sy/em ( telegraphic dispat*es & is design$ to keep u 9 t\* ) :at is go+ on 9 ! _w4 ,wea!r news is ( g5]al int]e/ because wea!r plays a "p 9 mo/ ( ! do+s ( humanity4 ,sometimes ! news we read on ! face ( ! map m]ely satisfies our curiosity2 at o!r times x r5d]s u m sub/antial s]vice4 ,by way ( illu/rat+ ! manifold purposes s]v$ by wea!r maps1 let u set d[n two cases t are1 p]haps1 at opposite ends ( ! scale ( utility4 ,our fir/ case is t ( ! travel] :o scans ! map to see :e!r ! atmosph]ic conditions at 8 di/ant home are propiti\s1 t day1 = "s outdoor pleasure ev5t on ! family program4 ,?is we may describe z a s5tim5tal use ( ! map4 ,! second case is t ( an aviator emb>k+ on a flight "s "t 9 ! =e "p ( ! day1 soon aft] ! morn+ map has made its appe>ance4 ,"h is a case 9 :i* ! map is ( vital utility1 purely z a record ( curr5t conditions4 ,! aviator is n conc]n$ ) ! =eca/ ( ! morr['s wea!r1 unless he is mak+ an unusually long flight1 b he is imm5sely conc]n$ ) ! w9ds & wea!r prevail+ along 8 r\te at ! "t he flies1 & ^! w n1 z a rule1 diff] radically f ! conditions %[n on ! map ( ! same morn+4 ,s9ce wea!r affects bus9ess 9 a v>iety ( ways1 p :o h bus9ess int]e/s away f _! places ( resid5ce frequ5tly h occasion to consult ! wea!r map4 ,! influ5ce ( ! wea!r on crops expla9s :y ! map is wat*$ ) ke5 int]e/ by deal]s 9 agricultural products4 ,own]s ( vessels navigat+ ! ocean or ! ,great ,lakes take a practical int]e/ 9 ! pres5t z well z ! future location ( /orms4 ,& s on4 ,x is n necess>y to prolong ?is li/ ( ^? :o use ! wea!r map1 because ! popul> dem& = x speaks = itself4 ,x is wor? :ile to record ! fact t ! dem& f> exce$s ! supply4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! ,wea!r ,bureau has be5 con/antly h>ass$ ) urg5t reque/s = ! publication ( maps at places :]e1 9 consequ5ce ( limit$ appropriations1 x has n be5 possible to issue !m4 ,! wea!r maps publi%$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w exhibit mu* div]sity 9 detail1 ?\gh !y h1 ( c\rse1 _m features 9 common4 ,z a rule a wea!r map cov]s a wid] area ?an t ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* x is publi%$4 ,! aim has always be5 to make ^! publications int]national1 z f> z practicable4 ,! longe/ cont9u\s file ( pr9t$ daily wea!r maps 9 exi/5ce1 viz41 t e/abli%$ 9 ,france by ,le ,v]ri] 9 #ahfc & /ill publi%$1 has be5 call$ f its beg9n+ ! 8,bullet9 ,int]national40 ,x embraces ne>ly ! :ole ( ,europe1 a little ( ,africa1 ,icel&1 & ! ,azores4 ,! o!r ,european maps n[ cov] ! same area or a consid]able "p ( x4 ,be=e ! w> ! ,russian meteorological s]vice 0 issu+ a map t includ$1 9 addition to ,europe1 a wide zone ( ,asia ext5d+ all ! way to ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates map1 z publi%$ 9 its mo/ ext5sive =m at ,wa%+ton1 comprises ! :ole ( ?is c\ntry & s\!rn ,canada1 besides pres5t+ tabulat$ /ati/ics = m di/ant p>ts ( ! _w4 ,manuscript maps prep>$ daily at ,wa%+ton h a /ill broad] outlook2 !y are drawn on a base map t cov]s ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & ! pr9t+ ( a map ( ?is sort1 includ+ a *a9 ( /ations ext5d+ ar\nd ! globe1 0 und]tak5 9 #aiad1 b 0 int]rupt$ by ! w>4 ,! map publi%$ by ! ,arg5t9e ,meteorological ,(fice1 at ,bu5os ,aires1 cov]s m ?an half ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,mo/ national meteorological s]vices issue wea!r maps1 b !re are a few t d n4 ,no su* maps are publi%$ 9 ,s\? ,africa or any ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican c\ntries except ,arg5t9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,l& ,,areas ,,embrac$ ,,9 ,,daily ,,wea!r ,,maps ,,z ,,publi%$ ,,9 #aiba ,?us !re is /ill mu* room = ! horizontal ext5sion ( ! wea!r map1 & !re is ev5 m room = its v]tical ext5sion4 ,daily wea!r maps = a]onauts 7*iefly w9d maps7 are n[ m or less on ! programme ( all ! lead+ meteorological s]vices1 & 9 a few cases _! publication has already begun4 ,probably ! fir/ maps ( ?is "*1 %[+ ! w9ds at v>i\s levels ov] a :ole c\ntry1 7 ^? t began to appe> 9 ,italy 9 #aiac4 ,! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice n[ publi%es su* maps1 %[+ w9ds & cl\ds at diff]5t levels ov] ! ,briti% ,isles at ?ree h\rs ( ! day4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates maps ( ! 8w9d al(t0 are prep>$ daily1 at ,wa%+ton1 f ! reports ( kite & balloon /ations1 b !y are n yet publi%$4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau has1 moreov]1 inv5t$ an +5i\s me?od ( depict+ ! w9ds at sev]al levels on a s+le map2 9 o!r words1 con/ruct+ a map 9 ?ree dim5sions4 ,?is consi/s ( atta*+ arr[s to little metal po/s erect$ on an ord9>y wea!r map at po9ts correspond+ to ! location ( ! upp]-air /ations4 ,ea* po/ be>s a s]ies ( arr[s--"o arr[ = ea* level *>t$--& ! arr[s are set 9 positions %[+ ! direction ( ! w9d at ea* level4 ,numb]s on ! arr[heads indicate ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,:5 ! map is f9i%$ x is photograph$ f two diff]5t angles s z to make a pair ( pictures suitable = view+ ?r\gh a /]eoscope4 ,^! /]eoscopic pictures 7 =m]ly made e day & a file ( !m is available = ref]5ce & /udy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/]eoscopic ,,map ,,( ,,! 8,,w9ds ,,al(t0 ,!re are a few conspicu\s po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! wea!r maps issu$ 9 =eign c\ntries & ^? issu$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,?us a majority ( ! =eign wea!r s]vices publi% two or m *>ts on ! same %eet2 ei!r = ! sake ( %[+ diff]5t meteorological elem5ts sep>ately or1 9 mo/ cases1 to repres5t ! conditions prevail+ n only at ! h\r ( ! curr5t morn+ obs]vation1 b also at c]ta9 h\rs ( ! previ\s day4 ,"o ( ! ?ree editions ( ! ,briti% map includes f\r *>ts1 correspond+ to obs]vations at f\r diff]5t h\rs4 ,by means ( su* s]ies ( *>ts "o c obs]ve ! rec5t *anges ( wea!r z well z ! curr5t conditions4 ,wea!r maps publi%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates %[ prim>ily ! conditions at #h a4 m41 ,ea/]n ,/&>d ,"t1 ( ! morn+ ( issue2 ?\gh c]ta9 features ( pa/ wea!r are also indicat$1 includ+ *anges ( temp]atures1 movem5ts ( /orm c5t]s1 etc4 ,ev5+ maps are drawn at ,wa%+ton & at _m o!r places1 b are n publi%$4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! publication ( wea!r maps has be5 c>ri$ out on a mu* m lib]al scale ?an else:]e4 ,in/ead ( issu+ maps at only "o or a few places1 z is ! cu/om 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 x has be5 ! policy ( ! ,am]ican s]vice to publi% !m at popul\s c5t]s all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,9 "s cases !y are pr9t$ or manifold$ at ! local ,wea!r ,bureau /ation1 & di/ribut$ by mail & mess5g]2 9 o!r cases !y are publi%$ 9 ! newspap]s4 ,! daily circulation ( ! maps has ?us1 at times1 run up into ! millions4 ,?is compreh5sive duplication ( ! *>t is made possible by special arrangem5ts ) ! telegraph companies4 ,! reports ( obs]vations are1 to a l>ge ext5t1 s5t ov] circuits1 along :i* ! telegraph (fices1 besides =w>d+ ! local report1 copy ! reports f o!r /ations z !y pass ov] ! wires4 ,c]ta9 /ations1 =m+ connect+ l9ks betwe5 ! circuits1 effect ! transf] ( collect$ reports f "o circuit to ano!r2 s t1 9 a v %ort "t1 upw>d ( #aej /ations receive ! reports f a l>ge numb] ( o!r /ations4 ,! maps issu$ at /ations or publi%$ 9 newspap]s are g5]ally r crude1 ?\gh !y answ] _! purpose2 b ! l>ge li?ograph$ map issu$ e day at ! ,c5tral ,(fice1 9 ,wa%+ton1 is mu* ! mo/ arti/ic production ( its k9d publi%$ any:]e 9 ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,enl>g$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,/]eoscopic ,,w9d ,,map ,l>ge wea!r maps1 drawn ) color$ *alk on a gr\nd-glass base1 may be se5 at c]ta9 produce ex*anges & railway /ations1 on ! 8bo>dwalk0 at ,atlantic ,city1 & 9 ! ,capitol at ,wa%+ton4 ,motion-picture wea!r maps1 made f s]ies ( maps %[+ conditions at successive int]vals ( "t1 h be5 prep>$ exp]im5tally 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad4 ,! reports us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( wea!r maps are telegraph$ f ! /ations 9 ciph]1 9 ord] to save exp5se4 ,9 ,europe gr\ps ( figures are us$ = ?is purpose1 b ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau makes use ( a ^w code1 :i* (f]s ! advantage ov] a figure code t1 z a rule1 mi/akes 9 ! telegrams c easily be detect$ by anybody famili> ) ! code4 ,! ,am]ican wea!r code is some?+ ( a lit]>y curiosity4 ,9 ea* ( ! _m ?\s& words x conta9s !re are c]ta9 significant lett]s1 & ^! mu/ fall 9 c]ta9 sequ5ces 9 ord] to convey ! in=mation requir$4 ,! ,engli% language has be5 ransack$--& some:at /ret*$--to secure ! necess>y words4 ,obs]v]s consult ! code book 9 enciph]+ _! reports1 b translat+ is easily done )\t ! book by ^? :o h ma/]$ ! relatively simple pr9ciples on :i* ! code is con/ruct$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,simplifi$ ,,wea!r ,,map ,,= ,,jan4 #be1 #aije1 #h ,a4 ,m41 ,,ea/]n ,,/&>d ,,"t ,! language ( l9es1 %ad+s & symbols us$ 9 wea!r maps c be le>n$ 9 a few m9utes1 & x is1 z a rule1 fully expla9$ on ! face ( ! map4 ,?is is true ( =eign maps z well z ,am]ican4 ,a full-fl$g$ wea!r map is h>dly susceptible ( reproduction 9 a book ( ord9>y dim5sions4 ,! simplifi$ map t we %[ "h1 tak5 f a ,wea!r ,bureau bullet91 w1 h[ev]1 s]ve to illu/rate "s ( ! features ( su* publications4 ,! read] %\ld fir/ fix 9 8 m9d ! explanations pr9t$ at ! l[] left-h& corn] ( ! map & !n /udy ! map 9 ! light ( :at has be5 said 9 ,*apt] ,,viii ab\t ! circulation & movem5ts ( highs & l[s4 ,on ?is map we h an exceptionally well-develop$ high ov] ! middle ( ! c\ntry & a pron\nc$ l[ on ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,! =m]1 ) cle> skies & v cold wea!r1 con/itutes a cold wave4 ,! latt] is att5d$ by a widespread sn[ /orm &1 z may be inf]r$ f ! cr[d$ isob>s1 by /ormy w9ds4 ,n[ be> 9 m9d ! fact t *>ts id5tical ) ?is "o1 except t !y conta9$ mu* m detail$ in=mation1 7 issu$ 9 all ! m important cities & t[ns ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates on ! morn+ ( ,janu>y #be1 #aije1 ab\t a c\ple h\rs aft] ! tak+ ( ! morn+ obs]vations1 at #h a4 m41 ,ea/]n "t4 ,! same morn+1 wea!r =eca/s1 cold-wave w>n+s & /orm w>n+s1 d$uc$ f ?is map1 7 issu$ to "s hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( addresses by telegraph1 telephone1 mail1 & mess5g]4 ,! map itself conveys in=mation comp>able 9 int]e/ to ! news ( public ev5ts publi%$ on ! fir/ page ( ! newspap]s ! same day4 ,! =eca/s & especially ! w>n+s are1 9 su* a case1 wor? millions ( doll>s to ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! cold wave appe>s 9 ! ,annual ,report ( ! ,*ief ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau = #aije3 8,a sev]e cold wave appe>$ ov] ! ,dakotas1 ,m9nesota1 ,nebraska1 & ,i[a on ,janu>y #bd1 #aije1 & on ! #be? cov]$ ! c5tral & upp] ,mississippi valleys & ext5d$ ov] ! nor!rn portions ( ! ea/ ,gulf ,/ates1 ! l9e ( z]o temp]ature rea*+ into nor!rn ,t5nessee4 ,on ! #bf? ! cold wave cov]$ ,florida1 & temp]atures bel[ freez+ 7 report$ z f> s\? z ,tampa & ,jupit]4 ,at ! latt] place1 ! m9imum temp]ature1 #bd degrees1 equal$ ! l[e/ ev] record$ s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau /ation at t po9t4 ,consid]able damage 0 done to orange trees :]e groves c\ld n be fir$ or protect$4 ,ample w>n+s _h be5 giv5 ( ! expect$ l[ temp]atures40 ,! subject ( mak+ =eca/s f a wea!r map is "o conc]n+ :i* "s big books h be5 writt51 & x _c be dealt ) v satisfactorily 9 ! brief space at our disposal4 ,!re are two c>d9al rules--viz41 7#a7 ! wea!r has a *>act]i/ic di/ribution 9 relation to ! di/ribution ( b>ometric pressure1 & 7#b7 pressure sy/ems1 ) _! att5dant w9ds & wea!r1 move1 9 a g5]al way1 f we/ to ea/--b ^! rules require v>i\s qualifications & are subject to v>i\s exceptions4 ,?us highs & l[s g5]ally take r circuit\s r\tes 9 gett+1 ev5tually1 to ! ea/w>d1 & sometimes !y break up or fade out4 ,! high %[n on ! annex$ map actually mov$ mu* m s\? ?an ea/ dur+ ! foll[+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 :ile ! l[ mov$ up ! coa/2 i4 e41 m nor? ?an ea/4 ,^! 71 h[ev]1 ! movem5ts expect$ by ! exp]i5c$ =eca/]4 ,well-develop$ highs are ne>ly always regions ( cle> wea!r &1 9 w9t]1 ( cold wea!r4 ,l[s are att5d$ by cl\ds & precipitation2 ris+ temp]ature usually prec$es !m & fall+ temp]ature foll[s !m4 ,! pr(essional =eca/] recognizes sev]al types ( pressure di/ribution o!r ?an ord9>y highs & l[s1 & !y1 also1 h _! *>act]i/ic w9ds & wea!r4 ,! sev5 typical =ms ( isob>s1 z classifi$ _m ye>s ago by ,r4 ,ab]cromby1 are3 ,cyclone2 anticyclone2 second>y2 ,v-%ap$ depression1 or tr\gh2 w$ge ( high pressure2 col1 or saddle1 betwe5 two anticyclones2 & /raight isob>s4 ,^! may be comb9$ 9 a v>iety ( ways on ! wea!r map4 ,! =eca/] le>ns to classify ^! comb9ations consci\sly or subconsci\sly1 & gr[s famili> ) _! habits & mann]isms4 ,=eca/]s sp5d a good deal ( "t 9 /udy+ ! files ( wea!r maps = pa/ ye>s2 b ! results ( su* /udies are n easy to r$uce to def9ite /atem5ts4 ,sci5tific =eca/+ is1 9 its pres5t /age1 almo/ :olly empirical4 ,! dep5d5ce ( wea!r *anges ^u ! ph5om5a ( atmosph]ic circulation is g5]ally easy to make out1 b ! vag>ies ( w9ds & pressure are /ill 9 ! ma9 my/]i\s2 not)/&+ su* int]e/+ developm5ts z 7#a7 ! mu*-discuss$ rules ( ,m4 ,gabriel ,guilb]t = pr$ict+ ! movem5ts ( b>ometric depressions f abnormalities 9 ! =ce & direction ( ! w9ds2 7#b7 ! sy/ematic *>t+ ( 8isallob>s10 or l9es ( equal pressure *ange1 associat$ especially ) ! "n ( ,dr4 ,nils ,ekholm2 & f9ally 7#c7 ! hypo!sis ( a %>p l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 masses ( equatorial & pol> air along ! s-call$ 8pol> front10 =m+ ! basis ( a sy/em ( =eca/+ t orig9at$ at ! ,geophysical ,in/itute ( ,b]g51 ,norway1 & has _h a m>k$ influ5ce ^u ! me?ods ( =eca/]s 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,z to ! practical results ( ?is empirical art1 "o po9t ( ! utmo/ importance is commonly ov]look$ by ! public :5 x compla9s ab\t ! mi/akes ( ! =eca/]4 ,he is requir$ to make =eca/s ( wea!r day aft] day1 reg>dless ( ! k9d ( map t is laid be=e him4 ,sometimes ! map is s featureless 7or1 z ! =eca/]s say1 8flat07 t !re is little 9 x on :i* to build a =eca/4 ,at o!r times !re is an abundance ( features1 b !y are 9 process ( rapid & disconc]t+ *ange4 ,9 ei!r case ! ord9>y day-to-day wea!r =eca/ is likely to g a/ray4 ,! bright] side ( ?is picture is t ! atmosph]ic ph5om5a t c\nt heavily 9 t]ms ( doll>s & imp]il$ human lives are n f\nd on 8flat0 maps1 &1 :5 !y appe> on ! map1 g5]ally behave 9 a simple1 /raight=w>d way4 ,9 o!r words1 su* ev5ts z great /orms & cold waves are f> easi] to =eca/ ?an ev]yday wea!r1 & x is ! successful pr$iction ( ^! ev5ts t furni%es ! pr9cipal raison d'tre ( an exp5sive telegraphic =eca/+ s]vice4 ,s9ce wea!r pr$ictions s]ve a v>iety ( purposes1 _m diff]5t k9ds ( =eca/s & w>n+s h be5 develop$ by meteorological s]vices4 ,9 ?is c\ntry !re are1 fir/ ( all1 di/rict =eca/s & local =eca/s2 ! =m]1 cov]+ :ole ,/ates & gr\ps ( ,/ates1 be+ issu$ at a few ma9 =eca/+ c5t]s1 :ile ! latt]1 apply+ to a s+le t[n & its vic9ity1 are issu$ at a l>ge numb] ( ! ord9>y ,wea!r ,bureau /ations4 ,!re is a long li/ ( =eca/s & w>n+s int5d$ = special classes ( ! community2 inde$ ! specialization ( =eca/s is c>ri$ s f> t an individual citiz5 or a s+le bus9ess firm c g5]ally obta91 by ask+ = x1 a =eca/ ( any specifi$ pr$ictable feature ( ! wea!r = a p>ticul> place4 ,! e/abli%$ types ( special pr$iction issu$ regul>ly1 or :5 conditions w>rant1 include w9d & wea!r =eca/s & /orm w>n+s = m>9]s2 %ipp]s' =eca/s1 relat+ to temp]atures injuri\s to p]i%able goods2 aviation =eca/s2 8fire-wea!r0 w>n+s1 issu$ :5 ! wea!r is conducive to fires 9 ! we/]n =e/s2 avalan*e w>n+s2 & sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( advices = ! b5efit ( agriculture & horticulture4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau1 al?\gh x is n ! only bran* ( ! ,gov]nm5t t c>ries on "w 9 hydrology1 is ! "o *>g$ ) ! duty ( issu+ riv]-/age pr$ictions & flood w>n+s4 ,an elaborate organization is ma9ta9$ = ?is purpose1 & ! results are extremely successful4 ,! p]iod ( "t cov]$ by an (ficial wea!r =eca/ is g5]ally f "o to two days4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! morn+ =eca/ is ord9>ily = #cf h\rs f #h a4 m41 & ! ev5+ =eca/ = #dh h\rs f #h p4 m41 b occasionally ! p]iod is ext5d$ = an additional day4 ,= "s ye>s ! ,wea!r ,bureau has issu$ e ,saturday a =eca/ 9 q g5]al t]ms relat+ to ! :ole ( ! foll[+ week4 ,^! long-range =eca/s are made = ext5sive areas ( ! c\ntry1 su* z ! ,nor? & ,middle ,atlantic ,/ates1 ! ,ohio ,valley & ,t5nessee1 & ! ,great ,lakes region4 8,f ! weekly =eca/10 says an (ficial publication1 8a f>m] may "k :e!r x is safe to cut 8 hay at ! beg9n+ ( ! week or :e!r x w\ld be bett] to wait till ! la/ ( ! week2 & a produce deal] may "k :e!r x is safe1 at a p>ticul> "t 9 ! e>ly spr+1 to />t a c>load ( /rawb]ries to a nor!rn m>ket40 ,! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice foll[s a m cauti\s plan4 ,its regul> =eca/s are = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 b occasionally1 :5 conditions are fairly settl$1 ann\ncem5ts are made ( :at is t]m$ ! 8fur!r outlook40 ,! same (fice s5ds notices to ! agricultural di/ricts :5 a spell ( f9e wea!r1 favorable = hay+ or ! l1 appe>s to be on ! programme4 ,!re are a few (ficial meteorological e/abli%m5ts t h emb>k$ on mu* m ambiti\s und]tak+s 9 long-range =eca/+4 ,! classic example is furni%$ by ! ,indian ,meteorological ,dep>tm5t1 :i* has issu$ seasonal =eca/s ( ra9fall ev] s9ce #ahhb4 ,^! 7 orig9ally bas$ ^u reports ( ! sn[fall 9 ! ,himalaya1 abnormalities ( :i*1 z not$ 9 ! spr+1 appe> to be relat$ to ! int5sity ( ! subsequ5t monsoon ra9fall4 ,ev5tually ! ,indian meteorologi/s began to seek 9 m remote regions = clues to ! "* ( ! ,indian seasons1 & !y believe !y h f\nd !m2 ! b>ometric pressure 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & at ,mauritius1 ! ra9fall at ,zanzib> & ,sey*elles1 ! ,nile flood1 & summ] ra9s 9 ,au/ralia all seems to be> "s relation to meteorological conditions 9 ,india4 ,! /udy ( _w-wide int]relations ( wea!r1 al?\gh x has n g5]ally1 z 9 ! case j m5tion$1 furni%$ ! basis ( (ficial =eca/s1 has engag$ ! att5tion ( a great _m able meteorologi/s4 ,we h spok5 on ano!r page ( ! 8c5t]s ( action0 t seem to be su* important indexes to *anges 9 ! circulation ( ! atmosph]e1 ) concomitant fluctuations 9 wea!r4 ,telegraphic reports f "s ( ^! c5t]s1 includ+ ! ,icel& & ,aleutian l[s & ! ,sib]ian & ,azores highs1 h help$ to guide ! ,wea!r ,bureau 9 mak+ its weekly =eca/s4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to pr$ict ! wea!r mon?s 9 advance f v>iations 9 ! temp]atures ( ! wat] 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ocean or f ! di/ribution ( sea ice 9 high latitudes4 ,ano!r l9e ( attack ^u ! problem ( long-range =eca/+ is ?r\gh obs]vations ( sol> activities1 z indicat$ by fluctuations 9 sol> radiation1 ! preval5ce ( sun spots1 etc4 ,la/ly1 an imm5se am\nt ( en]gy has be5 exp5d$ 9 ef=ts to detect def9ite cycles or p]iodicities 9 ! wea!r itself1 )\t reg>d to _! causes4 ,! ?irty-five ye> p]iod ( ra9fall & temp]ature v>iations1 ann\nc$ 9 #ahij by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,brckn]1 has f\nd a place 9 all ! curr5t textbooks on meteorology1 & sev]al o!r alleg$ wea!r p]iods h be5 ! subject ( s]i\s discussion4 ,f all ( :i* x appe>s t ! pr(essional meteorologi/ is n at all incl9$ to disc\nt5ance attempts at long-range wea!r pr$iction1 provid$ !y are made bo? hone/ly & intellig5tly4 ,un=tunately ! va/ majority ( p :o1 9 all ages1 h indulg$ 9 ?is sort ( vatic9ation--& _! "n is legion--h be5 ei!r di%one/ or ignorant1 or bo?4 ,! _w is /ill well suppli$ ) !m1 & !y are1 und5iably1 a ?orn 9 ! fle% ( ! sci5tific =eca/]1 :o sometimes sees 8 pr$ictions conf\nd$ ) !irs by ! public1 & :o commonly incurs ! *>ge ( jeal\sy & n>r[-m9d$ness because he decl9es to ackn[l$ge bro!rhood ) ! cranks & impo/ors :o hang ab\t ! outskirts ( 8 pr(ession4 ,quack wea!r pr$ictions are ne>ly always made = long p]iods 9 advance1 & _! popul>ity dep5ds ^u ! fact t !y give ! public some?+--h[ev] fallaci\s x may be--t sci5ce does n attempt to give4 ,! mak+ ( su* pr$ictions appe>s to be a p>ticul>ly easy way ( acquir+ bo? fame & =tune4 ,9 ?is c\ntry !re has h>dly ev] be5 a "t :5 "s expon5t ( ?is indu/ry did n enjoy a nation-wide reputation4 ,x is a satisfaction to record1 h[ev]1 t =eign c\ntries produce ! same sort ( celebrities4 ,dr4 ,gu/av ,hellmann1 writ+ 9 ,g]many1 has rec5tly publi%$ an extremely int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! fam\s 8wea!r prophets0 ( ! #ai? & #bj? c5turies4 ,_! geographical di/ribution is giv5 z foll[s3 ,belgium1 #b2 ,g]many1 #cf2 ,engl&1 #be2 ,france1 #ad2 ,italy1 #b2 ,au/ria-,hung>y1 #h2 ,russia1 #a2 ,sw$51 #a2 ,switz]l&1 #e2 ,spa91 #b2 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #i4 ,! li/ = ! ,unit$ ,/ates is1 to be sure1 conspicu\sly incomplete1 b we ne$ n grieve ov] ! fact t ! fame ( ! ,am]ican prophets omitt$ f ! li/ has n spread to ! ,old ,_w4 ,! almanac is1 z x has always be51 ! *ief /ronghold ( long-range wea!r pr$ict+4 ,nobody kn[s to :at ext5t ! almanac progno/ications are tak5 s]i\sly by ! public1 or are meant to be by ! publi%]s4 ,x is to be fe>$ t ! p]c5tage ( ! population t 8swe>s by !m0 is n inconsid]able4 ,almanac publi%]s w\ld und\bt$ly p]=m a public s]vice1 & p]haps save !mselves "s pangs ( consci5ce1 if !y w\ld app5d to _! wea!r pr$ictions ! /atem5t t1 l ! portrait ( ! g5tleman :o displays 8 anatomy to ! signs ( ! zodiac at ! front ( ! book1 !y are publi%$ m]ely = ! sake ( keep+ up an old cu/om1 & if !y w\ld conclude e almanac ) ! foll[+ c&id av[al1 :i* we f9d 9 ,gabriel ,fr5de's 8,almanack & ,progno/ication0 = #aehi3 ,?\ ha/ my guess at daily wea!r ,"h pres5t 9 ?y view4 ,my cr$it %all n lie !reon ,t e ^w is true3 ,yet "s to please ,i ?\ght x be/ ,to %ew my mynde among ! re/e4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,agricultural ,,meteorology ,two f>m]s are grumbl+ ab\t ! wea!r4 ,! sc5e is ,ohio1 ! "t ,july1 & ! preval5t crop corn 7i4 e41 maize74 ,f>m]s h grumbl$ ab\t ! wea!r f "t immemorial4 ,! po9t ( int]e/ 9 ?is p>ticul> case is t ! two grumbl]s d n agree ab\t :at is wrong4 ,f>m] ,a ?9ks ! corn ne$s ra94 ,f>m] ,b decl>es t at ?is /age ra9 w\ld d m h>m ?an good4 ,pl5ty ( w>m sun%9e is1 he ?9ks1 ! "r prescription to insure a 8bump]0 crop4 ,( c\rse ,provid5ce w d z x pleases1 & :atev] wea!r comes1 s9ce x _c be cur$1 mu/ be endur$2 b x is a matt] ( practical z well z academic int]e/ to get "s inkl+ betimes z to h[ y\r crop is go+ to turn out1 & ! wea!r is likely to be ! decisive factor4 ,moreov]1 x is a v significant fact t our two f>m]s are n ( ! same m9d ab\t :i* atmosph]ic bless+ is 9 default4 ,x is pa9ful to reflect t an enorm\s am\nt ( grumbl+ ab\t ! wea!r on ! "p ( ! ru/ic community mu/1 at "o "t or ano!r1 h be5 misappli$4 ,x is a plausible assumption t f>m]s h sometimes worri$ !mselves to dea? ov] meteorological ev5ts t 7 ei!r h>mless or actually b5eficial to _! crops4 ,h[ c we arrive at ! facts8 ,admitt+1 z ev]ybody does1 t ! wea!r has a preem95t influ5ce ^u plant life1 is ?is influ5ce susceptible ( analysis8 ,is !re any?+ def9ite ab\t x8 ,are n ! effects ( v>i\s atmosph]ic conditions s entangl$ ) "o ano!r1 & ) ! effects ( soil & me?ods ( cultivation--to say no?+ ( insects & plant diseases--z to baffle all attempts to gauge !m sep>ately8 ,!re is a new bran* ( appli$ sci5ce t tea*es f>m]s h[ to grumble "r ab\t ! wea!r4 ,x is call$ ,agricultural ,meteorology4 ,z a coh]5t bran* ( k1 ?is subject is s new t ! fir/ =mal textbook ab\t x 9 ! ,engli% language 0 publi%$ 9 ! ye> #aibj4 ,x happ5s t ! au?or ( ?is book1 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,w>r5 ,smi?1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau1 began 8 inve/igations 9 ! new field by mak+ a c>eful /udy ( ! relation ( wea!r to ! yield ( corn 9 ,ohio4 ,let u see :at light 8 /udies %$ ^u ! "q at issue betwe5 our fri5ds ,a & ,b4 ,day aft] day1 & ye> aft] ye>1 ! pr9cipal atmosph]ic conditions are obs]v$ & measur$ at a great numb] ( po9ts scatt]$ ov] ! ,/ate ( ,ohio1 z !y are else:]e ?r\gh\t ! ,union1 & ! records ?us obta9$ are c>efully compil$1 summ$ up1 av]ag$ & o!rwise discuss$ by (ficials ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,?us a great fund ( detail$ /ati/ical in=mation ab\t ! wea!r is available = comp>ison ) ! /ati/ics ga!r$ by o!r ag5cies conc]n+ ! yield ( crops & _! condition at diff]5t /ages ( gr[?4 ,pr(essor ,smi?'s analysis ( ! ,ohio records reveal$ a fact ( s mu* practical importance t ?is discov]y alone suffices to place agricultural meteorology among ! mo/ fruitful bran*es ( k cultivat$ by mank9d4 ,he discov]$ t ! success ( ! ,ohio corn crop dep5ds *iefly ^u ! am\nt ( ra9 t falls dur+ ! mon? ( ,july4 ,! normal ra9fall ( t mon? = ! ,/ate is #d in*es1 :ile ! av]age yield ( corn dur+ ! pa/ sixty ye>s has be5 #cd4e bu%els p] acre4 ,comp>+ ! values = individual ye>s1 x is f\nd t ! yield is /rik+ly s5sitive to v>iations f ! normal ,july ra9fall1 & especially s :5 ! ra9fall is a little m or less ?an #c in*es4 ,ne> ?is critical ra9fall po9t1 a v>iation ( "o-f\r? in* ( ra9 9 ,july means a v>iation 9 ! value ( ! corn crop ( ,ohio ( ne>ly #c1jjj1jjj1 & a v>iation ( "o-half in* makes an av]age v>iation 9 ! value ( ! crop ( m ?an #g1ejj1jjj4 ,:5 ! ra9fall = ,july av]ages ov] #e in*es ! probable yield ( corn w be m ?an #bg1jjj1jjj bu%els great] ?an x w be if ! ra9fall av]ages less ?an #c in*es4 ,9 o!r words1 ?is diff]5ce ( #b in*es 9 ! ra9fall = ! mon? ( ,july adds #ac1fej1jjj to ! income d]iv$ by ,ohio f>m]s f corn alone4 ,v>iations ( ! temp]ature 9 ,july1 9 ,ohio1 h be5 comp>$ ) v>iations 9 ! yield ( corn1 ) ! result t ! temp]ature ( ! mon? appe>s to h little effect ^u ! crop4 ,?us we f9d ,f>m] ,a to h be5 "r & ,f>m] ,b wrong2 b bo? 7 m]ely express+ p]sonal op9ions bas$ ^u an insignificant sum-total ( exp]i5ce4 ,sci5ce re/s ^u a sur] f\ndation4 ,al?\gh ! case ( ! ,ohio corn crop is probably simpl] ?an mo/ ( ^? t agricultural meteorology has to deal )1 = ! reason t a s+le meteorological elem5t is1 9 ?is case1 ( decisive importance1 x illu/rates a rule ( q g5]al application t has rec5tly come to light2 viz41 t 9 ! gr[? ( any p>ticul> crop !re is usually a r brief 8critical p]iod10 :5 x is mo/ s5sitive to ! influ5ce ( wea!r4 ,= corn1 9 a consid]able area ( ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?is p]iod is ,july1 or m specifically1 9 ,ohio1 ! int]val f ,july #aa to ,augu/ #aj4 ,! ra9fall & temp]ature ( o!r mon?s h1 h[ev]1 def9ite ?\gh m9or influ5ces1 :i* c be evaluat$ = ! same regions4 ,) respect to ! ,am]ican 8corn belt0 9 g5]al1 x is n c]ta9 h[ f> ! rules d$uc$ = ,ohio are applicable4 ,pr(essor ,smi? has be5 incl9$ to look ^u ,july ra9fall z ! dom9at+ factor = ! :ole ( t region2 s t1 = example1 a diff]5ce ( #a in* 9 ! ra9fall 7viz41 a total = ,july ( #d4d in*es or m1 z comp>$ ) #c4d in*es or less7 has be5 held responsible = an increase ( #ejj1jjj1jjj bu%els ( corn 9 ! eight pr9cipal corn-gr[+ ,/ates4 ,x has also be5 /at$ t 9 ! f\r ,/ates ( ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,i[a & ,miss\ri an increase ( half an in* ( ra9 9 ,july meant an increase ( #aej1jjj1jjj 9 ! value ( ! crop4 ,^! figures h1 h[ev]1 be5 *all5g$1 & ! subject is /ill "u discussion4 ,! /udy ( ! critical p]iods ( diff]5t crops1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nts ( heat & moi/ure mo/ favorable to ! success ( ! crop at su* p]iods1 may be reg>d$ z ! lead+ task ( ! agricultural meteorologi/4 ,! mo/ elaborate rese>*es ( ?is "* h be5 made 9 ,russia by ,pr(essor ,p4 ,br\nov1 :o f\nd$ 9 #ahif a meteorological bureau1 atta*$ to ! ,m9i/ry ( ,agriculture1 ) an ext5sive network ( /ations scatt]$ ov] ! ,russian ,empire4 ,?is bureau 0 q di/9ct f ! ord9>y meteorological s]vice1 "u ! direction ( ! ,c5tral ,physical ,obs]vatory 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,j be=e ! w> ,pr(essor ,br\nov _h #aej /ations 9 op]ation2 mo/ ( !m = obs]v+ ! effects ( wea!r on ! lead+ c]eal crops1 ?\gh "s /udi$ ! correspond+ relations ( horticulture or ! animal indu/ries4 ,ea* agricultural /ation compris$ a small plot ( l&1 on :i* a c]ta9 sequ5ce ( crops 0 gr[n ye> aft] ye> "u conditions ( cultivation z ne>ly uni=m z possible1 ! only v>iable factor be+ ! wea!r4 ,meteorological in/rum5ts 7 in/all$ 9 ! imm$iate proximity ( ! plants "u inve/igation4 ,prior to #aiad ,br\nov _h det]m9$ ! critical p]iods ( mo/ ( ! crops gr[n 9 ,russia1 & _h publi%$ a great deal ( in=mation on ?is subject t c\ld be turn$ to practical acc\nt by ,russian f>m]s4 ,x w p]haps n be imm$iately app>5t to ! read] j h[ su* in=mation c be utiliz$4 ,its practical applications v>y1 9 fact1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,fir/ ( all1 a k ( critical p]iods & ( ! wea!r requirem5ts ( crops at ^! p]iods enables ! f>m] to select 8 crops & "t 8 f>m+ op]ations on ! basis ( climatic /ati/ics4 ,br\nov publi%$ a s]ies ( *>ts %[+ ! probability ( dry wea!r1 z d$uc$ f _m ye>s ( obs]vations1 = ea* t5-day p]iod ?r\gh\t ! agricultural ye> = e "p ( ,european ,russia4 ,) su* *>ts at our disposal1 & kn[+ h[ long aft] plant+ ea* crop arrives at its critical p]iod ) respect to moi/ure1 we c readily e/imate ! probable success ( a giv5 crop plant$ at a giv5 "t & place2 at lea/1 s f> z ?is is det]m9$ by ra9fall4 ,if temp]ature or o!r meteorological conditions are ( special importance at ! critical p]iods1 we %all ne$ additional climatic *>ts4 ,( c\rse1 ! wea!r 9 any p>ticul> ye> may diff] widely f ! climatic av]ages2 b 9 ! long run crops w prosp] 9 proportion z _! critical p]iods co9cide ) ! occurr5ce ( favorable wea!r z %[n by ! climatic record4 ,x w be se5 t ?is is q a diff]5t idea f ! traditional "o t a c]ta9 crop ne$s a 8moi/ climate10 ano!r a 8hot climate10 etc4 ,! agriculturi/ n[ asks ! man ( sci5ce to tell him :51 betwe5 plant+ & h>ve/+1 heat or moi/ure is ( vital importance to ! crop1 & h[ mu* ( ea* w produce ! bigge/ yield4 ,9 regions :]e irrigation is practic$ x is obvi\sly advantage\s to ! f>m] to "k at :at /age ( its gr[? a crop becomes s5sitive to ! am\nt ( moi/ure receiv$4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( its life ! plant may be q indiff]5t to moi/ure1 & at su* times irrigation w\ld be wa/eful4 ,! f>m] ne$s to "k n only :5 ! critical p]iod has arriv$1 b also :at ! wat] requirem5ts are at t p]iod4 ,too mu* wat] may be z bad z too little4 ,ev5 :5 agricultural practice ignores ! rules laid d[n by ! agricultural meteorologi/1 a k ( ^! rules may be appli$ ) great advantage to ! pr$iction ( crop yields4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to tell any f>m] or bus9ess man t accurate crop =eca/s are an economic desid]atum ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t ma9ta9s an army ( m ?an #bjj1jjj volunte] crop report]s1 sup]vis$ by a /aff ( exp]ts1 = ! purpose ( det]m9+ mon? by mon? ! condition ( e agricultural crop & its prospective yield4 ,) reg>d to ! mon?ly ann\ncem5ts ( ! ,bureau ( ,crop ,e/imates1 ,pr(essor ,h4 ,l4 ,moore1 ( ,columbia ,univ]sity1 says3 8,! commodity m>kets are 9 a /ate ( n]v\s expectancy z ! "t approa*es = ! (ficial =eca/s1 because great values are at /ake4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t 9 ! case ( ! cotton crop alone an error 9 ! =eca/s :i* %\ld lead to a depression ( "o c5t a p\nd 9 ! price ( cotton-l9t w\ld--assum+ a crop equal to t ( #aiad--;entail a loss ( eighty million doll>s to ! f>m]s4 ,! va/ values at /ake & ! dang]s :5 no (ficial e/imate is available ( ! manipulation ( ! m>kets 9 ! int]e/ ( speculators are held to ju/ify ! l>ge recurr5t annual co/ ( ! employm5t ( ! num]\s correspond5ts1 cl]ks1 & exp]ts40 ,pr(essor ,moore is "o ( ^? :o h po9t$ out t ! =eca/s bas$ ^u ! actual condition ( ! gr[+ crops c be va/ly improv$ by a ma!matical analysis ( ! wea!r reports f ! v>i\s regions 9 :i* ! crops are gr[n4 ,9 fact1 he goes s f> z to ass]t t mu* bett] =eca/s c be made f ! wea!r reports alone ?an f reports on ! condition ( ! crops4 ,:e!r or n ?is view is unduly optimi/ic1 x goes )\t say+ t ! precise data :i* agricultural meteorology is n[ acquir+ _c fail to enhance greatly ! accuracy ( crop =eca/s4 ,( c\rse1 ! wea!r has always be5 wat*$ ) ke5 int]e/ by ev]ybody conc]n$ ) ! pur*ase or sale ( agricultural products & has be5 "o ( ! *ief factors det]m9+ ! rise & fall ( prices4 ,at produce ex*anges ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates daily wea!r bullet9s are receiv$ f ! agricultural di/ricts1 & at _m ( !m a l>ge wea!r map is drawn e morn+ by an employee ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau detail$ = ?is purpose4 ,! ,bureau has made v>i\s o!r arrangem5ts = supply+ ! in=mation t is s eag]ly desir$ conc]n+ ! wea!r z x affects crops1 z well z ! animal indu/ries4 ,dur+ ! 8gr[+ season0 9 ! cotton1 corn1 :eat1 sug>1 rice1 broom-corn & cattle-produc+ areas1 designat$ c5t]s receive telegraphic reports ( ra9fall & ! daily extremes ( temp]ature f sub/ations 9 ! regions conc]n$1 & ^! are di/ribut$ 9 bullet9 =m4 ,ea* local c5t]1 besides publi%+ detail$ reports f its own area1 issues cond5s$ reports f all ! o!rs4 ,! ,bureau also issues e week dur+ ! agricultural season a 8,national ,wea!r & ,crop ,bullet910 ) text & *>ts sett+ =? ! curr5t conditions ( moi/ure1 temp]ature1 etc41 & ! /ate ( ! crops 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,! use :i* deal]s & f>m]s make ( ^! wea!r reports is1 h[ev]1 v f> f hav+ be5 r$uc$ to sci5ce4 ,"s ( ^! p]sons1 x is true1 are frequ5tly able1 by a purely in/9ctive process ( d$uction1 to make successful =eca/s ( crop yields f a close /udy ( ! wea!r1 & o!rs h work$ out crude rules ( _! own = ! same purpose2 b ! agricultural meteorologi/ approa*es ! problem 9 a diff]5t way4 ,imm5se progress has be5 made 9 ! pa/ decade 9 apply+ ! ma!matical !ory ( correlation to ?is problem4 ,?is bran* ( ma!matics1 orig9ally develop$ *iefly = /ati/ical /udies 9 biology by ,galton1 ,pe>son1 & o!rs1 is n[ ext5sively us$ by meteorologi/s n only = /udy+ ! effects ( wea!r on crops1 b also = f9d+ out :at correspond5ces or relation%ips exi/ betwe5 v>iations ( wea!r 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 z well z betwe5 wea!r & sun spots1 wea!r & vital /ati/ics1 etc4 ,sometimes1 :5 ! f>m]s d n disagree on ! subject ( favorable & unfavorable wea!r = ! crops1 !y hold op9ions 9 common t agricultural meteorology is unable to sub/antiate4 ,an illu/ration is f\nd 9 ! idea t a good cov]+ ( sn[ dur+ ! w9t] is favorable to ! yield ( w9t] :eat4 ,app>5tly ?is is "o ( ! ho/ ( popul> ideas t are bas$ m]ely on ! delusive f\ndation ( 8ev]ybody says s40 ,smi? has inve/igat$ ! /ati/ics ( :eat = ,ohio & ,c4 ,j4 ,root ^? = ,ill9ois4 ,9 bo? cases _! results negative ! prevail+ op9ion4 ,pr(essor ,smi? f9ds 8"s evid5ce to indicate t :eat has a bett] prospect if x is n cov]$ by sn[ dur+ ! mon? ( ,janu>y10 :ile ,mr4 ,root /ates t1 9 g5]al1 8! w9t]s ( light sn[fall are foll[$ by good :eat yields & ! w9t]s ( heavy sn[fall by light yields40 ,! /udy ( ! relations betwe5 wea!r & crops is really a bran* ( a sci5ce ( broad] scope1 kn[n z ph5ology4 ,?is sci5ce is devot$ to ! inve/igation ( all p]iodic ph5om5a ( plant & animal life t are controll$ by ! wea!r4 ,!re are1 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w1 l>ge corps ( ph5ological obs]v]s1 :o ma9ta9 records ye> aft] ye> ( ! leaf+1 fl[]+1 & fruit+ ( bo? wild & cultivat$ plants1 ! migrations & fir/ songs ( birds1 & v>i\s o!r ev5ts ( a biological "* t recur ) ! seasons4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t x becomes possible to compute f su* records ! normal dates ( ^! ev5ts2 & !n1 9 any p>ticul> ye>1 a comp>ison betwe5 ! actual dates & ! normal %[s :e!r ! season is e>ly or late1 & by h[ _m days4 ,ph5ological obs]vations on plants also make x possible to draw *>ts %[+ ! normal m>* ( ! seasons ov] a c\ntry1 express$ 9 t]ms ( plant life1 & su* *>ts are (t5 m valuable to ! agriculturi/ or horticulturi/ z a guide 9 select+ v>ieties = cultivation & 9 tim+ 8 op]ations1 ?an any *>ts t c be compil$ f ord9>y climatic data4 ,"s admirable *>ts ( ?is k9d h be5 drawn = p>ts ( ,europe4 ,!re are _m practical applications ( ph5ology to agriculture1 & !re w\ld be m if ph5ological obs]vations _h be5 made m ext5sively ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,good ph5ological *>ts ( diff]5t regions w\ld1 = example1 greatly facilitate ! "w ( =eign plant introduction c>ri$ on by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ph5ological obs]vations 7 made sy/ematically betwe5 #ahej & #ahfc1 b only desultory "w has be5 done 9 ?is l9e subsequ5tly4 ,! mo/ compreh5sive individual record is t ma9ta9$ by ,?omas ,mikesell f #ahgc to #aiab1 at ,wauseon1 ,ohio1 & publi%$ 9 full by ! ,wea!r ,bureau 9 #aiae4 ,! old rule ( ,am]ican f>m]s1 inh]it$ f ! ,indians1 t ! "t to plant corn is :5 ! leaf ( ! :ite oak is 8! size ( a m\se's e>10 illu/rates ! use t c be made ( s-call$ 8index plants0 ( ! native flora z guides = f>m+ op]ations4 ,pr(essor ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s writes on ?is subject3 8,if su* guide plants d n occur on ! f>m1 !y c be f\nd among ! ornam5tal trees & %rubs & h>dy fl[]+ plants ( o!r localities or c\ntries & transplant$4 ,! p]iodical ev5t ( ! fall+ ( ! fl[] catk9s ( ! ,c>ol9a popl> has be5 f\nd to be "o ( ! be/ guides to ! g5]al e>ly or late "* ( "o season z comp>$ ) ! av]age1 :ile ! op5+ ( ! leaf buds & unfold+ ( ! leaves s]ve z reliable guides to ! progress ( spr+4 ,! v>i\s magnolias 9 _! succession ( fl[]+ ev5ts s]ve z excell5t guides to ! rate ( progress ( spr+ & ! "t to d v>i\s k9ds ( "w4 ,! ornam5tal ,spirz1 ,deutzias1 ,di]villas1 climb+ roses1 & ,clematis among ! ornam5tals1 & ! dogwood1 s]vice tree1 r$bud1 & oaks among ! native trees ( ! middle & ea/]n regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are m or less con/ant 9 _! response to prevail+ local influ5ces :i* are indicative ( ! "t to plant c]ta9 field & g>d5 crops4 ,! op5+ ( ! leaf & fl[] buds & ! fl[]+ ( ! common fruit trees & %rubs ( almo/ e f>m s]ve z m or less reliable guides to ! "t to spray = c]ta9 insect & plant diseases40 ,dr4 ,hopk9s has work$ out an int]e/+ rule kn[n z ! 8bioclimatic law10 accord+ to :i* ! p]iodical ev5ts ( plant & animal life advance ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! rate ( #a degree ( latitude1 #e degrees ( longitude1 & #djj feet ( altitude e f\r days--nor?w>d1 ea/w>d1 & upw>d 9 spr+1 & s\?w>d1 we/w>d1 & d[nw>d 9 autumn4 ,?us1 :5 ! date ( any ph5ological occurr5ce is kn[n = "o locality1 x may be approximately det]m9$ = any o!r4 ,?is law has enabl$ ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture to publi% rules ( g5]al application conc]n+ ! be/ "t to plant w9t] :eat 9 ord] to escape ! ravages ( ! ,hessian fly1 ?us sav+ _m millions ( doll>s to ,am]ican f>m]s4 ,! same law is susceptible ( v>i\s o!r pr(itable uses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,or*>d ,,heat]s ,,9 ,,op]ation4 ,! economical use ( ?is me?od ( fro/ protection dep5ds ^u accurate =eca/s ( ! "r "t to 8fire0 ! or*>d4 7,c\rtesy ( ,hamilton ,or*>d ,heat] ,co47 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau has be5 a bran* ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture s9ce #ahij1 & a v l>ge %>e ( its r\t9e "w is devot$ to ! agricultural int]e/s ( ! c\ntry4 ,! climatological /ati/ics t x has assembl$ are indisp5sable 9 _m dep>tm5ts ( agricultural rese>*1 besides furni%+ v>i$ in=mation ( practical value to f>m]s4 ,! ,bureau has develop$ a numb] ( special types ( =eca/s = ! rural indu/ries2 su* z pr$ictions1 ?ree or f\r days 9 advance1 ( favorable wea!r = cutt+ alfalfa2 =eca/s ( wea!r unfavorable = %eep-%e>+2 notices to fruit gr[]s ( dry-wea!r p]iods 9 :i* fruit trees %\ld be spray$2 & w>n+s ( ! occasional summ] %[]s t w\ld d s mu* damage to ! great rais9-dry+ indu/ry ( ,cali=nia b = ! vigilance ( ! =eca/]s & ! effici5t arrangem5ts made by ! indu/ry itself = dissem9at+ & act+ ^u ! w>n+s4 ,( c\rse1 ! ord9>y daily wea!r =eca/s1 /orm w>n+s1 & cold-wave w>n+s are valuable 9 _m ways to agriculturi/s1 & ! ,bureau has made great ef=ts to give su* in=mation prompt & g5]al di/ribution 9 ! rural di/ricts4 ,! =eca/s are g5]ally display$ 9 po/ (fices1 & 9 _m cases ! rural telephone ex*anges are press$ into s]vice to di/ribute wea!r in=mation regul>ly to all _! subscrib]s4 ,"s ex*anges s\nd a signal e morn+ :5 ! =eca/ is ready = di/ribution4 ,la/ly1 ! wireless telegraph & ! wireless telephone1 :i*1 9 ! imm$iate future1 w =m "p ( ! equipm5t ( e up-to-date f>m1 af=d ideal *annels = ! dissem9ation ( wea!r news & are already ext5sively us$ = ?is purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,sn[ ,,surveyor ,,at ,,"w4 ,note ! cyl9drical sn[ sampl]1 ) its s]rat$ cutt+ edge1 & spr+ balance = weigh+ ! sample ( sn[ 7,photograph$ by ,j4 ,c4 ,all]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,sn[ ,,roll]s1 ,,or ,,w9d-,,bl[n ,,sn[balls ,,on ,a ,,lawn ,,at ,,potsdam1 ,n4 ,y4 7,photograph$ by ,t4 ,j4 ,moon47 ,!re rema9 to be m5tion$ ! v>i\s /eps ! ,wea!r ,bureau has tak5 to protect ! rural indu/ries f ! night fro/s ( spr+ & autumn1 9 ! %ape ( special =eca/+ arrangem5ts1 ! publication ( fro/ *>ts1 & a wide range ( sci5tific inve/igations4 ,! ,bureau's und]tak+s 9 ?is l9e are m]ely a "p1 ?\gh a lead+ "o1 ( a great campaign ( fro/ protection t is be+ c>ri$ on by sci5tific & (ficial ag5cies 9 ?is c\ntry on a l>g] scale ?an any:]e else 9 ! _w4 ,fro/s1 classifi$ accord+ to _! sev]ity z 8light10 8heavy10 & 8kill+10 are mo/ likely to occur 9 spr+ & autumn1 :5 an ext5sive area ( high b>ometric pressure br+s its usual accompanim5t ( cle> skies & calm nights4 ,!y are pr$ict$ on a g5]al scale f ! wea!r map1 & locally f indications ( temp]ature & humidity & a k ( important topographic influ5ces1 su* z ^? due to hills & valleys & neighbor+ bodies ( wat]4 ,9 agricultural usage ! t]m 8fro/0 is appli$ to ! occurr5ce ( a temp]ature l[ en\gh to kill or injure t5d] vegetation1 su* z gr[+ vegetables or ! buds1 blossoms1 & fruit ( fruit trees4 ,! occurr5ce ( a fro/1 9 ?is s5se1 is n necess>ily id5tical ) ! deposit ( ice cry/als kn[n z 8ho>fro/40 ,diff]5t species & v>ieties ( plants are1 ( c\rse1 susceptible 9 v diff]5t degrees to ! effects ( l[ temp]ature2 i4 e41 !y diff] greatly 9 8h>d9ess40 ,9 ! case ( fruits & vegetables ! dang] po9t g5]ally lies a little bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat] 7#cb degrees ,f474 ,! occurr5ce ( fro/ is favor$ by ! rapid cool+1 by radiation1 ( ! e>? & its plant cov]+1 :i* goes on at night "u a cle> sky & 9 /ill air4 ,"u ^! conditions a lay] ( /agnant1 cold air =ms close to ! gr\nd1 ) w>m] air ly+ above x4 ,! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature at diff]5t levels is (t5 s pron\nc$ t fruit on ! l[] bran*es ( a tree is kill$ :ile t gr[+ on ! high] bran*es rema9s un9jur$4 ,simil>ly1 fro/ w occur 9 ! bottom ( an inclos$ valley b n on ! surr\nd+ slopes4 ,9 ! case ( a valley ! lay] ( cold air t =ms at ! bottom is commonly deep5$ by additional cold air dra9+ d[n f ! hills4 ,_m l>ge or*>ds h _! 8w>m spots0 & _! 8cold isl&s0 or 8nor? poles10 well kn[n to ! or*>di/2 due 9 "s cases to ! nature ( ! soil r ?an to topography4 ,c]ta9 m\nta9 regions 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a are fam\s = _! 8!rmal belts0 or 8v]dant zones02 i4 e41 areas "p way up ! slopes t escape ! fro/s occurr+ bo? above & bel[ !m4 ,^! fro/less belts1 :i* h be5 ! subject ( num]\s inve/igations = ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury1 seem to m>k ! upp] level ( ! pool ( cold air t collects 9 ! valley by dra9age f ! m\nta9sides4 ,a detail$ temp]ature survey ( ! !rmal belt region ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a 0 made dur+ ! ye>s #aiab-aiaf by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau & ! ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,agriculture4 ,9 "s places ! m9imum temp]ature at night 0 f\nd to be #ae or #bj degrees high] 9 ! !rmal belt ?an at ! bottom ( ! valley1 a few hundr$ feet bel[4 ,cl\ds1 by *eck+ radiation f ! e>?1 & w9d1 by mix+ ! cold] & w>m] lay]s ( air toge!r1 bo? prev5t fro/s t w\ld o!rwise occur4 ,artificial me?ods ( protection include cov]+ plants ) scre5s ( wood1 pap]1 or clo?1 build+ smudge fires to provide a blanket ( smoke 7a me?od ( d\btful value71 &1 above all1 heat+ by means ( wood fires or v>i\s types ( 8or*>d heat]10 burn+ ei!r oil or coal4 ,an elaborate te*nique ( or*>d heat+ has be5 develop$1 hav+ 9 view especially ! mo/ economical use ( fuel & labor consi/5t ) ! object to be atta9$4 ,9 _m cases or*>ds are provid$ ) al>m !rmomet]s1 :i* r+ a bell :5 ! temp]ature approa*es ! dang] po9t 9 ! or*>d4 ,! local pr$iction ( fro/ f ! read+s ( meteorological in/rum5ts is a problem t has n be5 fully solv$4 ,! idea =m]ly prevail$ t ! temp]ature ( ! dew po9t1 z det]m9$ f read+s ( ! dry-bulb & wet-bulb !rmomet]s 9 ! e>ly ev5+1 0 a safe guide to ! fall ( temp]ature to be expect$ dur+ ! night1 b ?is belief has n /ood ! te/ ( accurate obs]vations4 ,at ! pres5t writ+ c]ta9 =mulas involv+ data ( bo? temp]ature & humidity are be+ us$ exp]im5tally by ,wea!r ,bureau speciali/s = pr$ict+ ! l[e/ temp]ature ( ! night :5 ! g5]al conditions indicate t fro/ is possible4 ,a compreh5sive discussion ( ?is subject has be5 publi%$ by ! ,bureau z ,supplem5t ,no4 #af ( ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review40 7,wa%+ton1 #aibj47 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,comm]cial ,,meteorology ,x is a significant fact t ! ,am]ican ,meteorological ,society1 :i* 0 organiz$ 9 #aiai1 has a ,committee on ,comm]cial ,meteorology4 ,! appo9tm5t ( ?is committee 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ tok5s ( ! fact t ! applications ( meteorology to bus9ess1 always recogniz$ to be important & f>-rea*+1 _h at la/ be5 segregat$ z a di/9ct field ( inquiry4 ,! "t is ne> at h& :5 ?is field w h its corps ( speciali/s & its textbooks4 ,c\rses 9 comm]cial meteorology w be giv5 9 bus9ess colleges1 & meteorologi/s w be atta*$ to ! /affs ( l>ge bus9ess ent]prises4 ,! *amb] ( comm]ce ( a wide-awake we/]n city already ma9ta9s a ,dep>tm5t ( ,meteorology1 ) a =m] ,wea!r ,bureau (ficial at its head1 & 8consult+ meteorologi/s10 n[ practic+ _! novel pr(ession 9 o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 f9d _! pr9cipal cli5tele among bus9ess conc]ns4 ,wea!r n only influ5ces mo/ k9ds ( bus9ess1 b is ! f\ndation ( _m ( !m4 ,pl5ty ( illu/rations ( ! latt] fact w be f\nd 9 e l>ge dep>tm5t /ore4 ,umbrellas1 rubb]s1 & mack9to%es are made & sold because ( ra92 _! be/ m>ket is 9 c\ntries ) ra9y climates1 & _! sale f day to day fluctuates ) ! /ate ( ! sky4 ,electric & palm-leaf fans are a drug on ! m>ket or ! rev]se1 accord+ to ! read+s ( ! !rmomet]4 ,sl$s & ice skates are sold :]e & :5 ! wea!r is cold4 ,?is li/ may be prolong$ ad lib4 ,if we leave ! dep>tm5t /ore & walk along any bus9ess ?or\ghf>e1 we %all discov] o!r /rik+ examples ( comm]cial und]tak+s t owe _! exi/5ce *iefly or entirely to ! wea!r4 ,aboli% cold wea!r & y aboli% ! deal] 9 furnaces & heat+ /oves1 besides r$uc+ ! rank ( ! coal-deal] consid]ably bel[ ! 8b>onial0 level4 ,elim9ate hot wea!r f ! meteorological program & ! ice deal] w likewise tumble f 8 high e/ate4 ,all ?is is s obvi\s t x seems h>dly wor? :ile sett+ d[n2 & yet ! p>adox mu/ someh[ be expla9$ t bus9ess m5 h n1 9 g5]al1 paid mu* att5tion to meteorology1 & t !y h made only fragm5t>y use ( ! (ficial meteorological e/abli%m5ts t 7 creat$1 9 "p1 = _! b5efit4 ,probably ?is p>adoxical situation is m]ely a case ( m5tal in]tia4 ,dur+ ! long ages ( traffic be=e !re 7 any wea!r maps1 sci5tific wea!r =eca/s1 or climatic /ati/ics1 ! wea!r 0 necess>ily an unkn[n quantity 9 ! ma!matics ( buy+ & sell+4 ,t x is n s to-day is a fact to :i* ! bus9ess m9d has be5 v sl[ 9 adju/+ itself4 ,we h m5tion$ "s ( ! obvi\s relations ( wea!r to comm]ce1 b !re are o!rs t are n s obvi\s4 ,_m ( ^! are indirect4 ,?us ! effects ( ! wea!r on agriculture are ne>ly always reflect$ 9 ! comm]cial _w4 ,x is n ! f>m] alone :o suff]s f a prolong$ dr\ght1 = example4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t e sev]e f9ancial panic 9 our hi/ory has be5 closely associat$ ) a protract$ p]iod ( defici5t ra9fall1 & t !re has be5 no p]iod ( protract$ dr\ght )\t a sev]e f9ancial panic except "o t occurr$ dur+ ! ,civil ,w>4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,clayton1 :o publi%$ ?is ass]tion 9 #aija1 has cit$ ! case ( ! :eat crop z illu/rat+ ! magnitude ( ! effect t ra9fall ex]cises on economic conditions 9 g5]al ?r\gh its effects on agriculture4 8,if10 he says1 8! am\nt ( :eat rais$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 r$uc$ "o-half or ev5 "o-?ird by a ye> ( defici5t ra9fall1 x is easy to imag9e an enorm\s /ra9 on ! bus9ess ( ! c\ntry1 & ) a succession ( su* ye>s ! effect might mean disa/]4 ,su* a defici5cy 9 ! :eat supply1 ) :eat at #hj c5ts a bu%el1 w\ld mean = a s+le ye> a direct loss 9 weal? ( m ?an #ajj1jjj1jjj2 x w\ld mean t ne>ly all ! :eat :i* is usually %ipp$ abroad w\ld be ne$$ at home2 x w\ld mean t ?\s&s ( railroad c>s & %ips :i* ord9>ily transport ?is gra9 w\ld lie idle1 t ?\s&s ( m5 :o usually h&le ?is gra9 9 transport w\ld be out ( employm5t1 t f>m]s 9 l>ge numb]s w\ld be unable to meet _! obligations1 & consequ5tly t banks & bus9ess ( all k9ds w\ld suff]40 ,rec5t prices ( :eat give add$ =ce to ^! /atem5ts4 ,9 contra/ to su* broad relations ( ! wea!r to bus9ess1 x may be int]e/+ to po9t out c]ta9 relations :i* are ( s special a "* t1 al?\gh famili> to ho/s ( bus9ess m51 !y h g5]ally escap$ ! att5tion ( writ]s on economics4 ,on ?is subject ,mr4 ,john ,all5 ,murphy says3 8,retail sales are influ5c$ trem5d\sly by ! wea!r4 ,?is is "o factor t makes x impossible = a retail] to equalize ! peaks & valleys 9 8 sales *>t4 ,favorable wea!r w br+ him a ru% ( bus9ess4 ,a bad day w keep patrons f 8 /ore4 ,!re is no?+ he c d to prev5t x4 ,_m m]*ants h tri$ ! plan ( (f]+ #8/ormy day specials1' b at be/ su* a s*eme is only a make%ift t seldom works4 ,! wea!r also affects ! buy+ moods ( p4 ,a d>k1 dre>y day 9 summ] seems to influ5ce humans to take on ! same ca/ z ! atmosph]e4 ,!y are gr\*y & h>d to please4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a cold day 9 w9t] has ! opposite effect4 ,! w>m? & *e] ( ! /ore is su* a pleasant contra/ to ! out-(-doors t %opp]s l to l+] ov] ! w>es & indulge !mselves m readily 9 ! luxury ( buy+4 8,a /ormy day or a s]ies ( !m always helps ! mail-ord] bus9ess4 ,9 su* wea!r p are incl9$ to /ay at home4 ,9 pass+ ! "t1 !y are likely to ?umb ! pages ( su* catalogues z !y h & ?us see 9 !m articles t !y want4 ,on ! f>m1 especially 9 ! bleak days ( w9t]1 x is (t5 ! cu/om to ord] g>d5 se$s1 incubators1 tools1 & _m o!r ?+s t w be ne$$ z soon z spr+ op5s up4 ,on a bad day travel+ salesm5 f9d x easi] to get ! e> ( a m]*ant4 ,n be+ busy ) cu/om]s1 he is prone to be m l5i5t t[>d ! #8boys ) ! grips4'0 ,ano!r writ] on ?is subject1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,kelly1 says3 8,9 a l>ge city1 ! bus9ess ( a dep>tm5t /ore is s]i\sly hurt by ra9 9 ! =5oon1 b ra9 9 ! e>ly aft]noon is usually a big help4 ,mo/ cu/om]s ( a big-city dep>tm5t /ore are wom51 & ne>ly all ( !m live "s di/ance f ! /ore--at ! edge ( ! city or 9 ! suburbs4 ,if x ra9s along ab\t eight or n9e o'clock 9 ! morn+1 ! woman :o _h plann$ to g %opp+ t day is q likely to *ange h] m9d1 ev5 ?\gh %e did n int5d to g until aft]noon4 ,! ra9 n only sugge/s discom=t 9 gett+ ab\t1 b dim9i%es h] desire or imm$iate ne$ = c]ta9 articles1 & drives ! %opp+ idea out ( h] head4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x is bright & cle> 9 ! morn+1 b cl\ds up ab\t noon = a heavy d[np\r :i* la/s mo/ ( ! aft]noon1 x is ! be/ ?+ t c\ld happ5 = ! dep>tm5t /ore1 because %opp]s get 9 & _c com=tably get out4 ,!y %op all ov] ! /ore1 buy lun*eon !re1 & %op "s m4 ,:ile ! ra9 is ?us help+ ! dep>tm5t /ores1 x may hurt ! small] %ops1 because _m cu/om]s :o w\ld o!rwise look ar\nd are oblig$ to d _! buy+ all "u "o ro(40 ,no aspect ( bus9ess m fai?fully reflects ! wea!r1 or1 9 a some:at less degree1 ! wea!r =eca/s1 ?an adv]tis+4 ,s important is x1 9 _m l9es ( bus9ess1 to make adv]tis+ fit ! wea!r t "o might expect m]*ants to be1 z a class1 z wea!r-wise z sailors & f>m]s4 ,a page ( adv]tis+ 9 a great metropolitan newspap] is a co/ly inve/m5t4 ,if1 = example1 x invites ! public to pay a ,sunday visit ( inspection to "s hav5 = homeseek]s 9 ! suburbs & ,sunday turns out to be ! k9d ( day t conv]ts build+-lots into bogs1 ! adv]tis] w p]haps be l$ to inquire :e!r !re is n "s means ( avoid+ ano!r su* fiasco2 & he may ?us make ! surpris+ discov]y t meteorology is n entirely a !oretical sci5ce4 ,! conjunction ( a conspicu\sly adv]tis$ sale ( rubb]s & a soppy week-day morn+ may be ei!r a lucky accid5t or ! result ( /udy+ ! wea!r map4 ,9 ! =m] case1 suppos+ ! bus9ess to be conduct$ 9 ! nor!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e dry wea!r is ab\t twice z common z wet1 ! odds w\ld be two to "o aga9/ ! occurr5ce ev5 ( light %[]s on ! day ! adv]tisem5t appe>$1 & ?ree or f\r to "o aga9/ ! occurr5ce ( su* wea!r z w\ld make ! adv]tisem5t decid$ly propos4 ,^! rem>ks ab\t newspap] adv]tis+ are1 to a great ext5t1 applicable also to ! dress+ ( w9d[s & ! display ( goods inside ! %op4 ,9 bo? cases a mod]ate am\nt ( =esight 9 ! matt] ( wea!r w result 9 plac+ be=e ! cu/om] ! "r goods at ! "r "t4 ,"o ( ! m9or ways 9 :i* ! m]*ant c turn ! sci5ce ( meteorology to advantage consi/s ( us+ meteorological in/rum5ts & ! (ficial wea!r =eca/s & bullet9s = ! purpose ( attract+ att5tion to 8 w9d[s or to 8 /ock-9-trade4 ,! drug-/ore !rmomet] is ! illu/ration ( ?is process t comes fir/ to "o's m9d4 ,!re is no reason :y1 ) ! progress ( civilization1 ?is celebrat$ in/rum5t %\ld n be made a tru/wor?y index ( temp]ature z well z an effective adv]tisem5t4 ,9 cont95tal ,europe wea!r in/rum5ts are display$ along ) miscellane\s adv]tis+ matt] 9 _m ( ! /reet 8wea!r columns0 7,wett]sul571 :i* furni%$ ! idea ( ! meteorological kiosks in/all$ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau 9 ,am]ican cities4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important bran*es ( comm]cial meteorology relates to ! effects ( wea!r ^u transportation4 ,?is is a _m-sid$ subject4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! railway & /eam%ip companies1 & o!r conc]ns engag$ 9 ! transport ( goods & pass5g]s h _! manifold wea!r problems1 among :i* "o may m5tion1 at r&om1 t ( deal+ ) ! sn[ blockades ( railways1 precautions aga9/ ! skidd+ ( taxicabs 9 wet wea!r1 ! avoidance ( iceb]g-infe/$ r\tes at sea1 & ! selection ( climatically favorable sites = a]odromes4 ,! %ipp] has a some:at diff]5t1 b ov]lapp+ set ( wea!r problems4 8,9 ! build+ ( railroads10 says ,mr4 ,e4 ,l4 ,wells1 8_m phases ( climate are to be consid]$1 includ+ ! probability ( floods1 deep sn[s1 high w9ds1 s& /orms1 etc4 ,x is n long s9ce a consid]able l5g? ( railroad l9e 9 "o ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates 0 f\nd to be practically wor?less because ( hav+ be5 built too ne> ! b$ ( a /ream & !re=e be+ too mu* subject to damage f floods1 s x 0 replac$ by a l9e built high] up4 ,! writ] rememb]s two railroads ent]+ ! same t[n 9 "o ( ! nor!rn pla9s ,/ates1 "o ( :i* is seldom blockad$1 :ile ! o!r is sometimes clos$ by sn[ = mon?s at a "t4 ,9 ! =m] case ! cuts are p>allel to ! w9d1 :ile 9 ! latt] ! w9d bl[s directly across ! cuts4 ,9 op]at+ railroads a k ( ! climate is ess5tial4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true 9 ! %ipm5t ( p]i%able products1 :i* may require ic+ or v5tilation z a protection aga9/ high temp]ature1 or insulation aga9/ cold4 ,n only is a k ( climatic conditions ess5tial 9 tak+ precaution aga9/ loss 9 transportation1 b wea!r records are play+ an increas+ly l>ge "p 9 ! settlem5t ( claims = products & prop]ty damag$ 9 transit4 ,! claim ag5ts ( ! lead+ transportation companies & ! traffic manag]s ( ! commission h\ses & produc]s' associations keep complete files ( climatological data1 & a l>ge p]c5tage ( claims = damag$ goods1 :e!r !y be = a tra9load ( *ill$ bananas or = a travel+ man's samples ru9$ by ra91 are n[ settl$ out ( c\rt on ! basis ( ! wea!r records4 ,claims = c> demurrage are (t5 settl$ on ! basis ( ! wea!r reports40 ,detail$ in=mation conc]n+ ! effects ( temp]ature on all sorts ( food products1 bo? 9 transportation & 9 /orage1 0 collect$ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau "s ye>s ago & publi%$ z ! ,bureau's ,bullet9 ,no4 #ac4 ,:ile ! dome/ic %ipp] c easily obta9 f ! ,wea!r ,bureau detail$ climatic /ati/ics = all p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z well z ! curr5t wea!r reports = ?is c\ntry1 & c pr(it greatly by regulat+ 8 op]ations 9 accordance !re)1 x is n q s easy = ! %ipp] to =eign m>kets to obta9 ! correspond+ data ( =eign c\ntries4 ,) ! expansion ( our =eign trade1 ! dem& = su* data has gr[n to l>ge proportions4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau1 :i* has an unrival$ meteorological & climatological libr>y 9 ,wa%+ton1 is naturally ! place :]e su* data are mo/ frequ5tly s\ght1 b ! labor entail$ 9 extract+ & dige/+ ! in=mation 9 response to individual reque/s is (t5 too great to be und]tak5 by a ,gov]nm5t (fice1 :]e ! "t ( ! employees is absorb$ 9 r\t9e duties4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a promis+ field "h = ! private comm]cial meteorologi/4 ,un(ficial "w 9 ?is l9e is already c>ri$ on to "s ext5t4 ,?us a great /eel company 9 ,new ,york has a sal>i$ 8consult+ geograph]0 on its /aff1 :o advises on meteorological que/ions4 ,"o ( ! problems he has be5 call$ ^u to solve 0 to det]m9e ! prop] dates = %ipp+ /eel f ,atlantic & ,pacific ports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to v>i\s places 9 ,india1 s t x w\ld nev] arrive dur+ ! monsoon ra9s4 ,records ( curr5t & v rec5t wea!r 9 di/ant c\ntries are1 9 a great majority ( cases1 unobta9able any:]e 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! int]*ange ( detail$ wea!r reports betwe5 ! diff]5t meteorological s]vices ( ! _w involves 9 ! fir/ place1 ) few exceptions1 a pa9fully sl[ process ( publication1 & !n di/ribution by mail2 s t1 = example1 records ( obs]vations at "s places 9 ,s\? ,africa or ,au/ralia1 or ev5 _m p>ts ( ,europe1 d n rea* ! ,wea!r ,bureau ,libr>y1 9 ,wa%+ton1 until two or ?ree ye>s aft] ! obs]vations are made4 ,und\bt$ly ! "t w come--& probably 9 ! ne> future--:5 !re w be a _w-wide ex*ange ( wea!r news by wireless telegraphy4 ,"o k9d ( bus9ess :olly dep5d5t ^u ! wea!r1 :i* we h n yet m5tion$1 is wea!r insurance4 ,!re are sev]al k9ds1 b hail insurance & tornado insurance are ^? ext5sively practic$2 ! =m] mu* m widely & sy/ematically 9 ! ,old ,_w ?an 9 ! ,new1 :ile ! latt] is conf9$ to ,am]ica4 ,insurance aga9/ fro/ is said to h be5 practic$ 9 ,g]many1 & !re appe>s to be an excell5t field = x 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! insurance ( outdoor ev5ts1 su* z games1 %[s1 & al fresco p>ties1 aga9/ ra9 has be5 c>ri$ on = a good _m ye>s by speculative und]writ]s at ,lloyd's1 9 ,engl&1 & has m rec5tly be5 und]tak5 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,( c\rse ! wea!r elem5t ent]s to a consid]able degree into o!r k9ds ( insurance4 ,ord9>y m>9e insurance is1 to a l>ge ext5t1 insurance aga9/ /orms2 fire insurance is p>tly insurance aga9/ lightn+2 w9d[ & plate glass insurance involves ! risk ( breakage by w9d & hail2 & ev5 life insurance is greatly conc]n$ ) ! effects ( wea!r & climate4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,m>9e ,,meteorology ,t x behooves a sailor to be wea!r-wise has always be5 admitt$1 b !re 0 a "t1 almo/ )9 ! memory ( m5 n[ liv+1 :5 nei!r seam5 nor l&sm5 _h ! remote/ conception ( ! b5efits t a sy/ematic /udy ( ! meteorology ( ! sea 0 capable ( conf]r+ ^u ! m>itime _w4 ,! man :o fir/ grasp$ ! importance ( su* a /udy & translat$ 8 ideas into facts 0 ! ,am]ican naval (fic]1 ,lieut5ant ,mat!w ,fonta9e ,maury4 ,dur+ 8 brief c>e] at sea ,maury became impress$ ) ! meag]ness ( ! in=mation !n available conc]n+ ! w9ds & curr5ts t aid or h9d] ! voyages ( sail+ %ips4 ,:51 9 consequ5ce ( an accid5t t incapacitat$ him = %ipbo>d duties1 he 0 assign$ to s]vice 9 ,wa%+ton1 he began to explore ! old logs ( naval vessels1 fil$ 9 ! ,navy ,dep>tm5t1 = notes on meteorological conditions1 & ev5tually develop$ a plan ( secur+ regul> obs]vations f bo? ! ,navy & ! m]*ant m>9e4 ,! result ( ?is und]tak+ 0 ! publication ( ! fam\s ,w9d & ,curr5t ,*>ts1 :i* revolutioniz$ navigation ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! practical value ( ^! *>ts1 ( :i* #bjj1jjj copies 7 di/ribut$ to ! ma/]s ( m]*ant vessels ( all nationalities1 0 promptly recogniz$4 ,by tak+ advantage ( ! favorable w9ds & curr5ts %[n on ! *>ts1 & avoid+ ^? t 7 unfavorable1 m>9]s 7 able to r$uce ! av]age "t ( a sail+ voyage betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ,pacific ports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by =ty days4 ,! money value ( ! *>ts to vessels sail+ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,f> ,ea/ 0 e/imat$ at #b1bej1jjj p] annum4 ,briti% %ipp+ on all seas is said to h b5efit$ to ! ext5t ( #aj1jjj1jjj p] annum4 ,nei!r 0 ! utility ( ! *>ts limit$ to ! sav+ ( money4 ,! foll[+ episode is cit$ 9 ,maury's biography3 8,:5 ! ,san ,francisco1 ) hundr$s ( ,unit$ ,/ates troops on bo>d1 f\nd]$ 9 an ,atlantic hurricane1 & ! rumor rea*$ port t %e 0 9 ne$ ( help1 ev]yone look$ to ,maury z ! only man 9 ! c\ntry :o c\ld tell :]e to f9d ! drift+ wreck4 ,to him ! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy s5t = in=mation4 ,he at once set to "w & %[$ h[ ! w9d & curr5ts act+ ^u a helpless wreck w\ld comb9e to drift h] #8j "h'1 po9t+ to a spot on ! *>t1 & mak+ a cross m>k ) ! blue p5cil he _h 9 8 h&4 ,j !re ! relief 0 s5t1 & j !re ! survivors ( ! wreck 7 pick$ up4 ,?is 0 an incid5tal result ( 8 /udy ( w9ds & curr5ts40 ,a fur!r outcome ( ,maury's ent]prise 0 ! hold+1 at 8 sugge/ion1 & by invitation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 ( an ,int]national ,m>itime ,conf]5ce1 :i* met 9 ,brussels 9 #ahec1 & work$ out a _w-wide plan = meteorological obs]vations at sea4 ,! "w ?us begun has s9ce be5 c>ri$ on by ! lead+ m>itime nations ( ! _w4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! duty ( ga!r+ wea!r reports on a uni=m plan f vessel ma/]s has be5 intru/$1 at diff]5t times1 to ! ,hydrographic ,(fice1 ! ,signal ,s]vice1 & ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,x is n[ p]=m$ by ! la/-nam$ in/itution1 ?r\gh its ,m>9e ,division1 b ! ,pilot ,*>ts & books ( sail+ directions 78,pilots07 9 :i* ! compil$ in=mation is publi%$1 are issu$ by ! ,hydrographic ,(fice ( ! ,navy4 ,! mod]n successors ( ,maury's ,w9d & ,curr5t ,*>ts are1 especially1 ! ,pilot ,*>ts = ! diff]5t oceans issu$ mon?ly 9 ,wa%+ton1 & ! mon?ly *>ts ( simil> "* publi%$ by ! ,briti% & ,g]man gov]nm5ts4 ,ap>t f ^! p]iodical publications1 valuable collections ( meteorological *>ts = oceans or small] m>9e areas h be5 publi%$ by ! ,briti%1 ,g]man1 ,dut*1 ,indian1 ,japanese & o!r au?orities4 ,! value ( su* publications has n be5 less5$ by ! gradual sub/itution ( /eam = sails on ocean-go+ vessels4 ,:ile w9d is no long] all-important1 x is a factor 9 det]m9+ ! spe$1 & h5ce ! e>n+ capacity1 ( all classes ( ocean %ipp+1 & ! same is true ( m>9e curr5ts4 ,fog & drift+ ice are1 9 g5]al1 m s]i\s ob/acles to /eam]s ?an to sail+ %ips4 ,a glance at "o ( ! ,hydrographic ,(fice ,pilot ,*>ts w suffice to %[ t ^! publications are indisp5sable to ! m>9]4 ,on ^! *>ts we f9d1 fir/ ( all1 9 ! c5t] ( ea* five-degree squ>e ( latitude & longitude a 8w9d rose0 %[+ ! frequ5cy ( ! w9ds t h be5 obs]v$ 9 t region f ea* ( ! c>d9al po9ts1 & _! av]age =ce f ea* direction4 ,on ! *>ts w also be f\nd ! r\tes recomm5d$ = full-p[] & l[-p[] /eam]s & sail+ vessels1 l9es ( magnetic v>iation1 tracks ( /orms 9 pa/ ye>s = ! mon? 9 "q1 location & =ce ( curr5ts1 av]age limits & preval5ce ( fog = ! mon?1 rec5t in=mation ab\t drift+ ice & d]elicts1 descriptions ( /orm signals1 & an abundance ( o!r in=mation ( vital importance to ! seaman4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ocean ,,wea!r ,,map ,,prep>$ ,,f ,,vessel ,,reports ,,jan4 #aa1 #aiac1 ,,gre5wi* ,,mean ,,noon ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau ,solid black l9es are isob>s4 ,arr[s fly ) ! w9d1 ! c5t] ( ! arr[head m>k+ ! position ( ! vessel1 & ! numb] ( fea!rs d5ot+ ! =ce ( ! w9d on ! ,beau=t scale4 ,%ad+ ( ! head %[s degree ( cl\d9ess4 ,mo/ ( ! mat]ial us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! *>ts above describ$ is obta9$ f a great corps ( volunte] m>9e obs]v]s1 :o ent] _! obs]vations at /at$ h\rs 9 =ms provid$ = ! purpose & s5d ^! records to ! e/abli%m5t 9 *>ge ( ! "w at ! end ( ea* voyage4 ,! =ms furni%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau prescribe only "o regul> obs]vation a day1 to be tak5 at ,gre5wi* mean noon4 ,ea* obs]vation %[s ! position ( ! %ip1 ! direction ( ! w9d1 ! =ce ( ! w9d on ! ,beau=t scale1 ! height ( ! b>omet]1 ! read+s ( ! dry-bulb & wet-bulb !rmomet]s1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at ! surface1 ! /ate ( ! wea!r1 & ! k9d1 am\nt1 & movem5t ( cl\ds4 ,9 ord] to *eck ! accuracy ( ! b>ometric read+s1 ! obs]v] is in/ruct$ to read 8 b>omet] at prescrib$ h\rs on ?ree successive days :5 9 port & s5d ! read+s to ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,on receipt ( ^! read+s ! ,bureau comp>es !m ) ^? ( ! ne>e/ meteorological /ation1 & !n mails ! obs]v] a 8b>omet] tag10 %[+ ! results ( ! comp>ison & ! error ( 8 in/rum5t4 ,besides keep+ up ^! r\t9e obs]vations1 ! obs]v] keeps a record ( fog enc\nt]$ at any h\r ( ! day & makes detail$ reports on /orms4 ,_m m>9e obs]v]s also report obs]vations at /at$ h\rs by wireless telegraphy4 ,! enorm\s fund ( in=mation ?us collect$ ov] ! ocean is appli$ to sev]al purposes besides ! con/ruction ( ,pilot ,*>ts4 ,our ,wea!r ,bureau & c]ta9 =eign meteorological in/itutions prep>e daily *>ts1 %[+ approximately ! in/antane\s conditions ov] great oceanic areas1 especially ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,^! maps are analog\s to ! daily wea!r maps publi%$ = l& areas1 b ! draw+ ( ea* map is1 necess>ily1 delay$ = sev]al mon?s aft] ! date to :i* x ref]s1 9 ord] to all[ "t = ! receipt ( z _m reports z possible f %ips at sea4 ,z a rule su* *>ts are prep>$ 9 manuscript only1 b1 ?\gh !y _c be di/ribut$ aft] ! mann] ( ord9>y wea!r maps1 !y are valuable = /udies 9 ! in/itution itself on ! movem5ts ( /orms & o!r atmosph]ic processes4 ,!y also enable ! meteorological (ficials to answ] inquiries conc]n+ ! w9ds & wea!r t h prevail$ ov] a p>ticul> "p ( ! ocean on any specifi$ date4 ,su* inquiries come f vessel own]s1 und]writ]s1 & o!rs1 & ! replies are frequ5tly us$ z evid5ce 9 admiralty suits4 ,9 ! case ( "o s]ies ( su* maps--viz41 ! daily synoptic *>ts ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 begun by ,niels ,h(fmey]1 ( ,cop5hag51 & n[ prep>$ jo9tly by ! ,dani% ,meteorological ,in/itute & ! ,deuts*e ,seew>te1 9 ,hamburg--! *>ts h actually be5 publi%$ & sold1 ?\gh !y are s co/ly t ! numb] ( sets 9 libr>ies ?r\gh\t ! _w is probably small4 ,^! rem>kable *>ts pres5t daily pictures ( ! w9ds & b>ometric pressure ov] ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean & ! adjac5t cont95ts f #ahgc to #ahgf1 & f #ahhj d[n to a rec5t date4 ,f :at we h already said x w be se5 t ! m>9e obs]v]s coop]at+ ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau & k9dr$ in/itutions abroad are all contribut+ t[>d ! great task ( record+ ! hi/ory ( ! wea!r ov] ! oceans f day to day & assembl+ data t c be dige/$ 9 ! =m ( m>9e climatic /ati/ics & us$ z ! basis = _m sci5tific inve/igations4 ,?is conc]t$ und]tak+ does n1 h[ev]1 con/itute ! :ole scope ( m>9e meteorology4 ,e intellig5t m>9] f9ds x necess>y to acqua9t himself ) ! laws ( ! w9ds1 indications ( com+ /orms1 means ( det]m9+ ! proximity ( iceb]gs1 ! sy/ems ( /orm signals us$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 ! me?od ( con/ruct+ wea!r maps f wireless bullet9s1 etc4 ,he ought1 9 %ort1 to become an accompli%$ meteorologi/4 ,"o ( ! classic problems ( ! navigator is t ( h&l+ 8 %ip 9 a viol5t cyclonic /orm1 especially a tropical hurricane4 ,! read] w recall t a cyclone1 besides travel+ z a :ole at a rate ( sev]al hundr$ miles a day1 consi/s ( a sy/em ( w9ds rotat+ ar\nd ! c5t]4 ,! result ( ?is d\ble motion is t ! w9ds on "o side ( ! c5t] are n only m viol5t ?an ^? on ! o!r1 b !y are also s direct$ z to drive a vessel runn+ be=e ! w9d1 across ! /orm track ahead ( ! advanc+ c5t]1 :ile ^? on ! o!r side t5d to drive a vessel to ! re> ( ! /orm4 ,! two halves ( ! /orm area are accord+ly kn[n z ! 8dang]\s0 & 8navigable0 semicircles1 respectively4 ,:ile ?is simple /atem5t sets =? ! fundam5tal facts involv$1 ! actual problem is complicat$ by _m features1 su* z ! fact t ! w9ds d n bl[ 9 circles1 b m or less spirally1 t ! area ( ! /orm _c be readily det]m9$1 t two /orms may occur 9 close proximity to ea* o!r1 etc4 ,! accompany+ diagram1 publi%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,hydrographic ,(fice1 repres5ts a cyclonic /orm 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! circles be+ isob>s1 or l9es pass+ ?r\gh places at :i* ! same b>ometric pressure prevails 7indicat$ 9 in*es71 & ! arr[s indicat+ ! direction ( ! w9ds4 ,! diagram is ?us expla9$3 8,= simplicity ! area ( l[ b>omet] is made p]fectly circul> & ! c5t] is assum$ to be t5 po9ts to ! "r ( ! direction ( ! w9d at all po9ts )9 ! di/urb$ area4 ,let u assume t ! c5t] is advanc+ ab\t nor?-nor!a/1 9 ! direction ( ! long arr[1 %[n 9 ! heavy full l9e4 ,! %ip a has ! w9d at ea/-nor!a/2 %e is to ! left ( ! /orm track1 or te*nically 9 ! navigable semicircle4 ,! %ip b has ! w9d at ea/-s\!a/ & is 9 ! dang]\s semicircle4999999,a vessel hove to at ! position m>k$ b1 & be+ pass$ by ! /orm c5t]1 w occupy successive positions 9 reg>d to ! c5t] f b to b#d1 & w exp]i5ce %ifts ( ! w9d1 z %[n by ! arr[s1 f ea/ ?r\gh s\? to s\?we/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! /orm c5t] be /ation>y or mov+ sl[ly & a vessel be ov]tak+ x along ! l9e f b#d to b1 ! w9d w back f s\?we/ to ea/1 & is likely to convey an entirely wrong impression z to ! location & movem5t ( ! c5t]4 ,h5ce x is recomm5d$ t a vessel suspect+ ! approa* ( proximity ( a cyclonic /orm %\ld /op = a :ile until ! pa? ( ! c5t] is locat$ by obs]v+ ! %ifts ( ! w9d & ! behavior ( ! b>omet]40 ,! movem5t ( ! w9ds ar\nd ! /orm c5t] %[n 9 ?is diagram is t ( cyclones ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 i4 e41 contr>y to ! direction ( ! clock h&s4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e !y bl[ 9 ! opposite direction ar\nd ! c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,navigation ,,( ,a ,,%ip ,,9 ,a ,,cyclonic ,,/orm 7,u4 ,s4 ,hydrographic ,(fice47 ,by obs]v+ ! rise or fall ( ! b>omet]1 ! %ift ( ! w9ds1 & ! /ate ( ! sea & sky1 ! exp]i5c$ navigator is g5]ally able to lay d[n on a *>t ! approximate position ( ! /orm c5t] & /e] 8 vessel s z to avoid dang]4 ,v>i\s devices1 kn[n z 8/orm c>ds10 8cyclonoscopes10 etc41 h be5 us$ to aid 9 ! process ( locat+ a /orm f %ipbo>d obs]vations4 ,9 ! ,f> ,ea/ m>9]s use = locat+ typhoons an +5i\s comb9ation ( ! /orm c>d & ! an]oid b>omet]1 call$ ! 8b>ocyclonomet]10 an inv5tion ( ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,algu1 director ( ! ,philipp9e ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,! mo/ important developm5t 9 m>9e meteorology 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 ! rapidly increas+ use ( radiotelegraphy1 bo? by m>9e obs]v]s 9 transmitt+ reports ( obs]vations to %ore & to o!r %ips1 & by meteorological in/itutions 9 issu+ wea!r bullet9s & /orm w>n+s to vessels at sea4 ,! fir/ regul> und]tak+ 9 ?is l9e 0 c>ri$ out "u ! auspices ( ! ,london ,daily ,telegraph 9 ! ye> #aijd4 ,?is newspap] arrang$ ) "s ( ! lead+ transatlantic /eam%ip l9es to furni% wea!r reports by wireless f _! vessels1 & ^! reports 7 publi%$ 9 its columns = sev]al mon?s4 ,! foll[+ ye> ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau began1 9 a t5tative way1 ! collection ( wireless wea!r reports f (f-%ore vessels1 & simil> und]tak+s 7 soon aft]w>d laun*$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 b = "s ye>s su* reports 7 ( little practical value1 ow+ to ! limit$ range ( wireless communication4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,%ipbo>d ,,wea!r ,,map ,vessels (f ! ,am]ican coa/ c make _! own wea!r maps e night1 us+ data suppli$ at fix$ h\rs by high-p[] radio /ations 7%[n by />s on ! map71 toge!r ) radio reports f o!r vessels4 ,lett]s ne> /ations are ! code lett]s us$ 9 wireless bullet9s to describe ! /ations4 ,vessel reports are indicat$ by names4 ,arr[s %[ direction ( w9d & ! =ce on ! ,beau=t scale 7%[n by ! numb] ( fea!rs74 ,besides data = con/ruct+ maps1 ! radio /ations issue =eca/s & /orm reports = ea* ( ! numb]$ zones %[n (f ! ,atlantic coa/ & ov] ! ,gulf4 ,at ! pres5t "t wireless reports f %ips on ! ,atlantic enable ! =eca/]s on bo? sides ( t ocean to ext5d ! areas ( ! wea!r maps on :i* _! pr$ictions are bas$1 & reports f %ips are also receiv$ to a limit$ ext5t by =eca/]s on our ,pacific coa/ z well z 9 ! ,f> ,ea/1 ,india1 & else:]e4 ,9 ?is c\ntry su* reports h be5 especially valuable 9 indicat+ ! movem5ts ( ,we/ ,india hurricanes1 & ?us h help$ to solve ! problem ( protect+ ! va/ tonnage t has be5 attract$ to ,c>ibbean wat]s by ! op5+ ( ! ,panama ,canal4 ,! reciprocal process ( transmitt+ wea!r intellig5ce to vessels by wireless bullet9s1 broadca/$ at c]ta9 h\rs e day by high-p[]$ radio /ations1 has made mu* m progress4 ,su* bullet9s include in=mation conc]n+ ! curr5t & prospective wea!r1 w9ds & /orms ov] specifi$ ocean areas1 z well z reports ( obs]vations made at a numb] ( l& /ations1 f :i* x is possible = vessels at sea to con/ruct _! own wea!r maps4 ,!y are ?us enabl$ to take advantage ( favorable w9ds & to avoid unfavorable w9ds & /orms4 ,wireless wea!r reports f o!r vessels help to piece out ^! %ipbo>d maps4 ,! meteorological s]vices ( all civiliz$ c\ntries adjac5t to ! sea display signals along _! coa/s to ann\nce ! com+ ( /orms dang]\s to navigation4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ devices us$ = ?is purpose 0 ! 8a]ocl9oscope10 a =m ( semaphore =m]ly employ$ by ! meteorological s]vice ( ,holl&4 ,! position ( ! arm ( ! semaphore indicat$ ! region 9 :i* ! b>omet] 0 l[2 i4 e41 ! /orm c5t]4 ,9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 ,admiral ,fitz,roy introduc$ ! use ( canvas cones & 8drums0 7i4 e41 cyl9d]s71 :i*1 se5 f any direction1 h ! appe>ance ( solid triangles & squ>es aga9/ ! backgr\nd ( ! sky4 ,! ,briti% lat] ab&on$ ! drum & us$ ! cone only1 po9t+ up or d[n = nor!rly or s\!rly gales1 respectively4 ,! ,am]ican /orm flag--r$ ) a squ>e1 black c5t]--0 adopt$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,signal ,s]vice 7! pr$ecessor ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau7 9 #ahga4 ,?is signal 0 subsequ5tly amplifi$ by ! addition ( r$ & :ite p5nants to %[ ! expect$ direction ( ! w9d at ! beg9n+ ( ! approa*+ /orm4 ,mo/ c\ntries use lant]ns = night /orm signals4 ,9 ! ye> #aiji a uni=m sy/em ( signals1 consi/+ ( cones by day & lant]ns by night1 0 recomm5d$ = use 9 all c\ntries by an int]national commission :i* met 9 ,london4 ,9 spite ( ?is recomm5dation "s ?irty or =ty diff]5t sy/ems ( daytime /orm signals are n[ 9 use 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,on ! ,*9a coa/ an elaborate sy/em ( signals1 consi/+ ( cones1 balls1 diamonds1 & squ>es display$ on a ma/ & y>d>ms1 indicates ! exi/5ce ( a typhoon any:]e 9 ! neighbor+ seas1 toge!r ) its location & movem5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,a]onautical ,,meteorology ,dur+ ! great w> ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t decid$1 9 its wisdom1 to e/abli% a fly+ field 9 ,scotl&1 at :i* aviators 7 to be tra9$ 9 dropp+ bombs4 ,! commission hav+ ?is matt] 9 h& *ose a site on ! %ores ( ,lo* ,doon4 ,9 lay+ out ! field a bog _h to be dra9$2 !n a railway 0 con/ruct$1 hang>s 7 erect$1 & o!r op]ations 7 c>ri$ out1 entail+ altoge!r an exp5diture ( half a million p\nds4 ,at a c]ta9 late /age 9 ! proce$+s ! disconc]t+ discov]y 0 made t ! field c\ld nev] be successfully us$ = ! purpose int5d$1 on acc\nt ( ! gu/s & eddies produc$ by ! surr\nd+ hills4 ,! und]tak+ 0 !re=e ab&on$4 ,! au?orities _h presumably enli/$ ! skill ( eng9e]s f ! outset ( ! "w--b !y _h fail$ to consult a meteorologi/6 ,a few su* object lessons seem to be necess>y to demon/rate ! fact--:i* ought to be obvi\s--t meteorology is an indisp5sable & vital adjunct ( a]onautics4 ,?is fact is n[ pretty well und]/ood4 ,ne>ly all ! activities ( mank9d are m or less influ5c$ by wea!r1 b few1 if any1 to su* an ext5t z a]onautical ent]prises4 ,h5ce a def9ite bran* ( appli$ sci5ce--,a]onautical ,meteorology--is rapidly tak+ %ape4 ,already x ent]s into ! curriculum ( a]onauts2 x has pr(\ndly modifi$ ! me?ods ( ! ord9>y meteorological s]vices ( ! _w2 & x is rais+ a crop ( speciali/s1 "s ( :om are n[ employ$ by ! bus9ess firms t manufacture or op]ate aircraft4 ,! /atem5t has con/antly be5 made s9ce ! w> t a]onauts are becom+ 8indep5d5t0 ( ! wea!r4 ,?is /atem5t has a gra9 ( tru? 9 x1 b no m4 ,x is a fact t1 "u w> conditions1 aviators flew 9 e sort ( wea!r1 & (t5 ) impunity4 ,ev5 s9ce ! w> comm]cial aircraft h negotiat$ adv]se atmosph]ic conditions ) rem>kable success4 ,a spectacul> feat ( ?is sort 0 a*iev$ on ,augu/ #bh1 #aiai1 :5 a pass5g]-c>ry+ a]oplane on ! ,p>is-,london r\te1 pilot$ by ,lieut5ant ,%aw1 flew ov] ?is r\te ?r\gh a hurricane bl[+ 9 gu/s ( f #dj to ov] #ajj miles an h\r1 accompani$ by a torr5tial ra9/orm & su* poor visibility t ! pilot 0 frequ5tly oblig$ to fly v l[ 9 ord] to pick up 8 l&m>ks & make sure t he 0 on 8 c\rse4 ,! flight 0 accompli%$ 9 #a h\r & #ej m9utes--ab\t half an h\r less ?an s*$ule "t4 ,x is said t 8! two pass5g]s 9 ! cab9 ( ! ma*9e em]g$ )\t any appe>ance at all ( /ra90--su* z !y c]ta9ly w\ld h exp]i5c$ if !y _h made ! cross+ by ! ,*annel /eam] on t boi/]\s day4 ,9 fact ! l& & sea r\te 0 s]i\sly disorganiz$ by ! /orm1 & ! ,cont95tal tra9s 7 arriv+ 9 ,london h\rs late4 ,le/ ha/y conclusions %\ld be drawn f ?is episode x %\ld be /at$ at once t ! company op]at+ ! air r\te 9 "q1 f> f consid]+ itself indep5d5t ( wea!r1 is n cont5t ) ! detail$ bullet9s furni%$ to a]onauts by ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice 7:i* specializes 9 a]onautical meteorology m ext5sively ?an any o!r (ficial wea!r s]vice 9 ! _w71 b ma9ta9s an elaborate wea!r s]vice ( its own1 ) an able meteorologi/ at ! head ( x4 ,an accurate /atem5t ( ! situation w\ld be t w9d & wea!r are no long] ! grave dang]s t !y once 7 to ! a]onaut2 b !y are /ill1 & w probably always be1 factors ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! successful & pr(itable op]ation ( aircraft4 ,9 ord] to make ?is matt] pla9 x w be necess>y = u1 fir/ ( all1 to devote a few words to "s ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples involv$ 9 a]ial navigation4 ,! layman :o sees no?+ my/]i\s 9 ! asc5t ( a balloon is1 9 g5]al1 some:at puzzl$ by ! ph5om5on ( a heavi]-?an-air ma*9e ris+ f ! gr\nd4 ,yet1 9 bo? cases1 ! asc5t ( ! vehicle dep5ds ^u ! fact t air is n j empty space1 b a mat]ial sub/ance1 possess+ d5sity1 weight1 & o!r prop]ties _m ( :i* p]ta9 also to solids4 ,a balloon rises n because x is light1 b because ! air ab\t x is heavy4 ,9 o!r words1 gravity pu%es ! air "u ! balloon m =cibly ?an x pulls ! balloon d[nw>d4 ,! ability ( an a]oplane to leave ! gr\nd dep5ds ^u ! fact t air (f]s resi/ance to bodies mov+ ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,b _/ _/ _/ ------------- -------_/------ _/ _/ _/ ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,air ,,resi/ance ,,on ,,an ,,a]oplane ,suppose a v]tical plane 7,a7--su*1 = example1 z ! w9d %ield ( an automobile--is mov+ horizontally ?r\gh /ill air4 ,! resi/ance ( ! air imp$es its motion1 & a "p ( ! motive p[] is employ$ 9 ov]com+ ?is resi/ance4 ,n[1 suppose ! plane 7,b7 is ne>ly1 b n q1 horizontal1 & is propell$ by a =ce t5d+ to make x move 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! arr[4 ,?is is approximately ! case ( an a]oplane driv5 by a motor2 ! plane repres5t+ ! w+s ( ! ma*9e4 ,only a "p ( ! air's resi/ance is n[ effective 9 imp$+ ! =w>d motion ( ! plane4 ,! re/ ( x pu%es ! plane upw>d4 ,if y hold y\r h& at su* an angle & move x ?r\gh wat] y w feel an analog\s upw>d pu%4 ,moreov]1 y w notice t ! fa/] y move y\r h& ! great] is ! pu%4 ,n only does ?is upw>d pressure ( a fluid ^u an incl9$ plane mov+ ?r\gh x v>y ) ! spe$ ( ! latt] 7to be exact1 z ! squ>e ( ! spe$71 b x also v>ies ) ! angle :i* ! plane pres5ts to ! fluid 9 its pa?4 ,if ! w+ ( an a]oplane1 = example1 cuts ! air ne>ly edgewise1 ! upw>d pressure w be slight4 ,z x dep>ts f an edgewise position1 7) ! front edge high] ?an ! re>71 ! upw>d pressure increases1 b n indef9itely2 beyond a c]ta9 r small angle x beg9s to dim9i%4 ,9 an a]oplane ! upw>d pressure1 or 8lift10 is increas$ by giv+ ! w+s a slightly ar*$ %ape1 or 8camb]40 ,! air fl[s ov] ! ar*$ w+s 9 su* a way z to produce a suction above !m :i* helps ! pu% f bel[4 ,! actual am\nt ( lift = a giv5 spe$ has be5 det]m9$ by exp]im5ts = w+s ( v>i\s %apes & sizes & set at v>i\s angles to ! l9e ( motion4 ,if1 :5 ! ma*9e is 9 ! air1 ! lift is j suffici5t to c\nt]balance ! weight ( ! a]oplane1 ! latt] flies horizontally4 ,an increase 9 lift causes ! ma*9e to rise2 a decrease 9 lift p]mits gravity to pull x d[n4 ,n[ suppose ! aviator is fly+ horizontally & wi%es to climb4 ,at ! re> ( ! ma*9e & =m+ "p ( its tail is a h+$ horizontal flap call$ ! 8elevator10 "u ! control ( ! pilot4 ,by giv+ ?is flap an upw>d tilt he causes ! air to ex]t a d[nw>d pressure on ! tail ( ! ma*9e1 & h5ce ! nose ( ! ma*9e is c>ri$ upw>d4 ,:ile ! in]tia ( ! a]oplane t5ds to c>ry x along ! orig9al pa?1 its w+s n[ pres5t a great] angle to ! air1 ! lift is increas$1 & ! ma*9e rises4 ,! rev]se ( ?is op]ation w cause ! ma*9e to desc5d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,b$ ,,( ,,potomac ,,riv]1 ,,at ,,wa%+ton4 ,f an altitude ( a few hundr$ or a few ?\s& feet1 subm>9e features are cle>ly reveal$ to great dep?s4 ,objects h ?us be5 photograph$ #de feet "u wat]4 ,! %oals are subm]g$ to a dep? ( f #b to #e feet4 ,9 favorable wea!r1 a]ial photographs are valuable 9 mak+ hydrographic surveys4 7,photograph$ f ! air by ,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,lee1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey47 ,a v]tically h+$ flap 9 ! tail1 act+ on exactly ! same pr9ciple z ! rudd] ( a %ip1 enables ! pilot to turn horizontally4 ,two or m small horizontal flaps1 kn[n z 8ail]ons10 atta*$ to ! w+s1 are us$ to pres]ve ! lat]al balance ( ! ma*9e1 & to give x ! prop] 8bank10 or incl9ation1 :5 mak+ a turn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,drill+ ,,) ,,compress$ ,,air ,,9 ,a ,,copp] ,,m9e4 ,! drill also =ces a /ream ( wat] into ! hole to lay ! dang]\s sulphur-be>+ du/4 7,c\rtesy ,sullivan ,ma*9]y ,co47 ,illu/ration3 ,,laun*+ ,a ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,kite ,,f ,,! 8,,s5eca0 ,,dur+ ,,! ,,int]national ,,ice ,,patrol1 ,,to ,,explore ,,! ,,air ,,ov] ,,! ,,ocean4 7,photograph1 ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,) ^! few details 9 m9d1 we %all be prep>$ to consid]1 9 a g5]al way1 h[ ! behavior ( an a]oplane is affect$ by ! w9d & o!r atmosph]ic ph5om5a4 ,) respect to w9d !re is an important diff]5ce betwe5 aircraft & m>9e craft4 ,m]e /r5g? ( w9d is n dang]\s to an a]oplane1 except :5 />t+ or l&+4 ,an aviator fly+ above ! cl\ds1 ) no l&m>ks 9 sight by :i* to gauge 8 movem5ts1 is no m consci\s ( ! actual w9d at t level1 provid$ x is /eady1 ?an he is ( ! rotation ( ! e>? on its axis4 ,he feels ! w9d produc$ by ! motion ( 8 ma*9e ?r\gh ! air--! s-call$ 8relative w9d0--b no o!r4 ,! true w9d may be a m]e zephyr1 or a hurricane bl[+ #aej miles an h\r2 ! effect is ! same on 8 ma*9e1 s f> z he is able to obs]ve4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a /rong w9d has a v diff]5t effect f a light "o ^u ! c\rse ( ! a]oplane's flight ) respect to ! gr\nd b5ea?4 ,if a pilot1 ) no l&m>ks to guide him1 /e]s by compass = a c]ta9 po9t1 & if !re is a /rong cross-w9d ( :i* he is unaw>e1 he w be c>ri$ f> out ( 8 c\rse2 a w9d dead ahead or a/]n w m]ely affect ! spe$ ( 8 flight1 s t he w arrive lat] or soon] at 8 de/9ation ?an he expect$4 ,"o ( ! important problems ( a]onautics1 especially f ! comm]cial po9t ( view1 is to prev5t aircraft f be+ driv5 (f _! c\rse by ! w9d :5 fly+ ) no visible l&m>ks2 i4 e41 ov] cl\ds1 fog1 ! ocean1 or an unmapp$ c\ntry4 ,:5 ?is problem is solv$1 pilots w fly above ! cl\ds mu* m commonly ?an !y d n[4 ,! w9ds at high levels are g5]ally bo? /eadi] & /rong] ?an at l[4 ,! /rong] w9d is an advantage or a disadvantage1 accord+ to :e!r x is bl[+ 9 ! direction ( flight or ! rev]se2 b z ! w9ds at diff]5t levels g5]ally bl[ 9 diff]5t directions1 a pilot :o is indep5d5t ( l&m>ks c *oose :atev] level af=ds ! w9ds mo/ favorable = 8 int5d$ j\rney4 ,ov] e/abli%$ air r\tes q elaborate measures are n[ adopt$ to keep pilots in=m$ ( ! direction & spe$ ( ! w9d at diff]5t levels1 s t !y c make due all[ance = ?is factor 9 %ap+ _! c\rse4 ,9 cle> wea!r ?is in=mation is easily obta9$ by sight+ ! drift ( a pilot balloon ) a !odolite1 or by obs]v+ 9 a specially design$ graduat$ mirror or pair ( mirrors ! drift ( ! smoke cl\d f a %ell fir$ by an anti-aircraft gun & tim$ to bur/ at any desir$ altitude4 ,9 cl\dy wea!r ! smoke trails c (t5 be successfully obs]v$ ?r\gh small breaks 9 ! cl\ds4 ,:5 ! sky is completely ov]ca/1 a succession ( %ells is fir$ at def9ite %ort int]vals ( "t & ! di/ances ap>t ( ! puffs ( smoke & ! direction ( ! l9e 9 :i* !y lie are det]m9$ f an a]oplane fly+ above ! spot4 ,ano!r me?od1 :i* 0 devis$ by ! ,fr5* milit>y meteorological s]vice dur+ ! w>1 is to s5d up small balloons load$ ) bombs :i* bur/ aft] a c]ta9 "t1 ! position ( ea* bur/ be+ det]m9$ by s\nd-rang+ f ! gr\nd4 ,^! me?ods ( provid+ in=mation conc]n+ ! w9ds at fly+ levels h1 h[ev]1 _! s]i\s limitations1 & a]onauts n[ look hopefully to ! p]fection ( ! exi/+ sy/ems ( 8directional wireless10 :]eby ! pilot w receive :5ev] desir$1 or at regul> int]vals1 a wireless signal f ! t]m9us ( 8 r\te or "s o!r kn[n po9t1 ! direction f :i* ! signal comes be+ indicat$ by suitable app>atus on ! a]oplane4 ,?us aid$1 he %\ld nev] deviate f> f 8 c\rse1 unless he *ooses to4 ,= long j\rneys1 su* z ! cross+ ( ! ,atlantic1 ! air pilot w naturally make use ( all available in=mation conc]n+ ! great p]man5t or semip]man5t w9d sy/ems ( ! e>?1 su* z ! trade w9ds ( ! l[] atmosph]e1 ! antitrades above !m1 & ! fairly con/ant ea/w>d drift ( ! atmosph]e at high levels 9 middle latitudes4 ,! divid5d-e>n+ capacity ( comm]cial aircraft necess>ily dep5ds ^u tak+ advantage ( favorable w9ds1 :ile adv]se w9ds may mean n only a loss ( money b ! dang] ( prolong+ a j\rney until ! fuel supply is exhau/$--a s]i\s pr$icam5t ov] ! ocean & also ov] l&s remote f civilization4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a common error on ! "p ( curr5t writ]s to ov]rate ! con/ancy & reliability ( ! w9ds 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 & to lay too mu* /ress on ! value ( p]man5t w9d *>ts4 ,:at ! a]onaut ne$s especially to "k is ! typical behavior ( ! w9ds ) respect to ! di/ribution ( b>ometric pressure1 z %[n by a wea!r map1 includ+ _! v>iations ) altitude4 ,! "t w come :5 ! in=mation necess>y = plott+ ! w9ds at v>i\s levels w be fla%$ at frequ5t int]vals by high-p[]$ radio /ations to a]ial navigators 9 all p>ts ( ! _w--a sy/em t is already 9 its initial /ages1 especially 9 ,europe4 ,a pilot mak+ a long j\rney w ?us be able to lay 8 c\rse s z to utilize ! w9ds t w spe$ him on 8 way4 ,ev5 viol5t /orms1 su* z ! m>9] seeks to avoid1 w be turn$ to advantage by ! airman4 ,we h n[ to consid] ano!r aspect ( w9d t is ( mu* m int]e/ to ! airman ?an to ! seaman1 & t is ! "q ( 8w9d /ructure40 ,! layman usually ?9ks ( a w9d z a ne>ly /eady horizontal fl[ ( air4 ,su* w9ds exi/1 b !y are exceptional1 especially 9 ! l[] levels ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a w9d is g5]ally full ( gu/s & eddies1 upcurr5ts & d[ncurr5ts1 & x is ^! ecc5tricities t gradually develop 9 ! aviator a sort ( six? s5se--a 8feel0 = atmosph]ic fluctuations1 t enables him to adju/ 8 ma*9e in/9ctively to ! =ces t5d+ to di/urb its equilibrium4 ,he also le>ns by exp]i5ce ! conditions "u :i* irregul>ities ( a pron\nc$ "* may be expect$4 ,he becomes well acqua9t$ ) ! great m\nd ( air t drives 8 ma*9e upw>d :5 pass+ ov] a hill or m\nta92 ) ! eddy t lurks 9 ! lee ( su* an ob/acle2 ) ! d[nw>d t5d5cy ( ! air ov] lakes1 riv]s1 swamps & =e/s4 8,! air is s s5sitive10 writes ! late well-kn[n ,briti% fly]1 ,gu/av ,hamel1 8t x is affect$ ev5 by ! color ( l>ge pat*es ( vegetation4 ,:e!r ?is be entirely due to ! diff]5t heat-radiat+ p[] ( diff]5t colors x is impossible to say1 b inv>iably an a]oplane on pass+ f grass l& to a field cov]$ ) yell[ fl[]s exp]i5ces a c]ta9 am\nt ( air di/urbances only less noticeable ?an ! inevitable bump exp]i5c$ 9 pass+ f gre5 fields to pl\gh$ l&1 or f pl\gh$ l& to mead[40 ,:5 ! w9d is bl[+1 ! air = at lea/ a few hundr$ feet above ! gr\nd is ne>ly always 9 a /ate ( turmoil4 ,?is is p>tly due to ! friction ( ! mov+ fluid aga9/ ! irregul> surface ( ! e>?1 & p>tly to ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts caus$ by diff]5ces 9 temp]ature4 ,! latt] effect is illu/rat$ 9 ! rapid rise ( air ov] a b>e sunlit pla9 & its fall ov] an adjac5t =e/ or body ( wat]4 ,asc5d+ curr5ts are (t5 made visible by ! =mation ( deta*$ cumulus cl\ds1 ea* ( :i* m>ks ! summit ( a ris+ column ( moi/ air1 :ile 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! cl\ds ! air is g5]ally s9k+4 ,measurem5ts ) balloons h %[n t v]tical curr5ts (t5 atta9 spe$s ( #fjj feet a m9ute or m1 :ile ! process ( hail =mation appe>s to indicate t 9 ?und]/orm cl\ds !re are viol5t upru%es am\nt+ to #b1jjj or #b1ejj feet a m9ute1 & possibly mu* m4 ,! desc5d+ air curr5t betwe5 cl\ds is sometimes s /rong t an a]oplane _c =ce its way up ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fl[ ,,( ,,air ,,ov] ,,two ,,ridges 7,aft] ,dr4 ,franz ,l9ke47 ,notice ! eddy 9 ! valley to ! leew>d ( ! fir/ ridge ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,%elt]$ ,,l&+ ,,place ,,may ,,be ,,dang]\s 7,aft] ,dr4 ,franz ,l9ke47 ,a l&+ place surr\nd$ by trees is dang]\s 9 w9dy wea!r on acc\nt ( ! air waves =m$ betwe5 ! mov+ air above & ! calm air bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,air ,,waves ,,ne> ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,surface ,! waves are made visible by smoke ,! turbul5ce ( ! l[] air--a ph5om5on t adds s mu* to ! difficulties ( />t+ & l&+--ext5ds to v>i\s heights1 dep5d+ especially ^u ! /r5g? ( ! w9d4 ,a r\gh rule1 evolv$ by ! ,zeppel9 pilots be=e ! w>1 0 to expect turbul5t conditions up to an altitude equal to f t5 to tw5ty times ! =ce ( ! w9d 9 met]s p] second4 ,?us1 = a w9d ( #aj met]s p] second1 ! turbul5t lay] w\ld be f #ajj to #bjj met]s ?ick4 ,a good picture ( ! atmosph]ic ups & d[ns enc\nt]$ by ! airman :5 fly+ l[ is furni%$ by ! behavior ( ! smoke f a factory *imney ) a mod]ate w9d bl[+1 =m+ smoke waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,w9d',s ,,autograph ,,on ,a ,,gu/y ,,day1 ,,record$ ,,) ,a ,,pressure-,,tube ,,anemomet] ,! v]tical l9es are h\r l9es & ! horizontal l9es %[ ! =ce ( ! w9d 9 miles an h\r & also 9 p\nds a squ>e foot4 ,^! di/urbances give rise to ! v m>k$ fluctuations 9 ! =ce ( ! w9d kn[n z gu/s4 ,!re are c]ta9 =ms ( anemomet] especially design$ to record ! gu/9ess ( ! w9d4 ,a record ( ! w9d's =ce is trac$ by a p5 on a mov+ /rip ( pap]1 & ! 8anemogram0 ?us obta9$ %[s a cont9u\s s]ies ( irregul>ities1 ! ext5t ( :i* increases ) ! /r5g? ( ! w9d4 ,! puffs & lulls (t5 alt]nate at int]vals ( a few seconds or less1 & ! actual =ce ( ! w9d at a giv5 in/ant may be _m times great] ?an its av]age =ce =1 say1 five m9utes4 ,an ord9>y anemomet] does n indicate ^! rapid fluctuations1 b m]ely %[s ! "t requir$ = a mile ( w9d to fl[ pa/ ! in/rum5t4 ,?us :5 su* an in/rum5t tells u t ! w9d is bl[+ at ! rate ( #dj miles an h\r1 x may actually be v>y+ betwe5 #bj & #fj miles an h\r1 or betwe5 ev5 wid] limits4 ,s9ce ! matt] became ( practical importance on acc\nt ( ! ne$s ( aviation1 _m int]e/+ /udies h be5 made ( ! effects ( diff]5t k9ds ( topography ^u ! ov]ly+ air curr5ts4 ,a /rik+ example ( ! ecc5tric w9ds t sometimes prevail 9 m\nta9 valleys has be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,b4 ,m4 ,v>ney1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia1 9 ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review40 ,f ! summit ( a /eep cliff ab\t #a1ajj feet above ! floor ( ,yosemite ,valley ! writ] laun*$ broad %eets ( tissue pap]1 &1 ) ! aid ( p[]ful b9ocul>s1 foll[$ _! flight z !y 7 c>ri$ 9 huge spirals1 ?\s&s ( feet 9 diamet]1 f9ally disappe>+ beyond ! m\nta9s on ! opposite side ( ! valley4 ,! accompany+ sket* %[s ! pa? ( "o ( ^! pap]s4 ,f its />t+ po9t at ,a until x pass$ beh9d ! summit ( ,lib]ty ,cap 7,b71 m ?an a mile di/ant1 ! pap] 0 wat*$ = #g m9utes4 ,! top ( ,lib]ty ,cap is "s #a1fjj feet above ! po9t at :i* ! flight began4 ,?is sket* visualizes "o ( ! tickli% problems t w "s day confront ! pilot ( a sight-see+ or mail-c>ry+ a]oplane 9 ! ,yosemite ,national ,p>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,,air ,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,yosemite ,,valley 7,sket*$ by ,b4 ,m4 ,v>ney47 ,! flight ( a %eet ( pap] across ! valley4 ,al?\gh1 on an av]age1 ! air is mu* /eadi] at high levels ?an ne> ! gr\nd1 v un/eady curr5ts are sometimes f\nd at all altitudes atta9able by aircraft4 ,?und]cl\ds1 ?\s&s ( feet above ! e>?1 are always ! seat ( viol5t turmoil1 b su* cl\ds c1 z a rule1 be avoid$ by ! airman4 ,:5 a /ratum ( air glides ov] ano!r diff]+ %>ply f x 9 d5sity--& di/9ct /rata ( ?is sort are n uncommon 9 ! atmosph]e--friction betwe5 ! /rata sets up waves l ^? produc$ 9 wat] by w9d bl[+ ov] x4 ,if ! two /reams are mov+ 9 ! same direction1 b at diff]5t spe$s1 ! waves are long & regul>2 :5 !y are m or less cross$1 ! waves are %ort & *oppy4 ,! moi/ure at ! cre/s ( ^! waves may be cool$ to su* an ext5t z to cond5se into visible cl\ds1 arrang$ 9 long cont9u\s rolls or r[s ( deta*$ pat*es2 =ms frequ5tly assum$ by cirro-cumulus & alto-cumulus4 ,m (t51 h[ev]1 ! waves ( air rema9 invisible1 because ! conditions ( moi/ure & temp]ature are n "r = ! production ( cl\d4 ,recall+1 n[1 :at has be5 said above ab\t ! way 9 :i* ! lift ( an a]oplane v>ies ) ! angle at :i* ! w+s meet ! air & also ) ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e relative to ! air1 x w be easy to und]/& "s ( ! difficulties exp]i5c$ 9 ma9ta9+ "o's equilibrium :5 fly+ 9 a turbul5t atmosph]e4 ,waves1 eddies1 v]tical curr5ts & o!r features ( w9d /ructure cause abrupt *anges 9 ! attitude & ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e ) respect to ! air /ream4 ,! sudd5 increases & decreases ( lift ?us produc$ h mu* ! same effect ^u ! ma*9e z if x 7 runn+ ov] a solid ob/acle on ! "o h& or plung+ into a vacu\s space 9 ! atmosph]e on ! o!r1 & h5ce are aptly describ$ by aviators z 8bumps0 & 8holes 9 ! air10 respectively4 ,! latt] t]m1 :i* seems to h become firmly root$ 9 all languages 7,fr5*1 tr\ d'air2 ,g]man1 ,luftlo*2 etc471 has _h ! un=tunate effect ( keep+ alive 9 ! public m9d ! idea t ! aviator occasionally runs into a vacuum or semivacuum1 su* z c\ld n exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 7,! ne>e/ approa* to su* a ?+ is ! r>efaction 9 ! core ( a tornado or wat]sp\t1 due to ! enorm\s c5trifugal =ce ( ! vortex2 some?+ t no aviator has yet enc\nt]$47 ,to make matt]s worse1 diff]5t p>ts ( ! su/a9+ surface ( ! ma*9e may receive diff]5t impulses4 ,"o w+1 = example1 may graze a viol5t upru% ( air n enc\nt]$ by ! o!r1 giv+ ! a]oplane a tilt to "o side1 or ! tail ( ! ma*9e may be driv5 9 "o direction & ! nose 9 ! o!r4 ,aga91 ! :ole ma*9e may sudd5ly ent] an air curr5t ( q diff]5t spe$ & direction f ! "o 9 :i* x has be5 fly+4 ,to take an extreme case1 x may run into a /ream ( air fl[+ j z fa/1 & 9 ! same direction1 z ! ma*9e itself1 ) ! result t ! relative w9d becomes z]o1 & ! ma*9e1 depriv$ ( all lift1 drops l a /one until x acquires a velocity ) respect to its new environm5t4 ,:5 su* conditions prevail1 ! pilot is kept busy ) 8 8controls02 n[ mov+ 8 elevator to adju/ 8 =e-&-aft balance1 & n[ 8 ail]ons to set him on an ev5 keel lat]ally1 & occasionally turn+ 8 rudd] to (fset ! effects ( horizontal gu/s4 ,! elevator & ! ail]ons are work$ ) a s+le lev]1 colloquially call$ ! 8joy-/ick10 & ! rudd] ) a b> :i* ! pilot op]ates ) 8 feet4 ,ord9>y adju/m5ts ( ?is k9d are p]=m$ automatically by ! tra9$ aviator1 b viol5t di/urbances call = ! ex]cise ( skill & judgm5t4 ,g5]ally speak+1 no am\nt ( atmosph]ic turbul5ce causes any s]i\s tr\ble to ! tra9$ pilot1 except :5 he is fly+ close to ! gr\nd1 z 9 />t+ & l&+4 ,be=e we leave ! subject ( w9d x w be well to emphasize once m ! fact1 :i* ! av]age layman has difficulty 9 grasp+1 t ! only movem5ts ( ! air t affect ! safety & com=t ( flight are ! movem5ts relative to ! ma*9e1 & n ^? relative to ! gr\nd4 ,to ! aviator1 :5 he is once cle> ( ! gr\nd1 a /eady w9d ( any spe$ is m]ely a mass ( calm air4 ,h5ce an aviator w sometimes h p]fectly smoo? fly+ :5 ! w9d1 z measur$ on ! e>?1 is bl[+ #dj or #ej miles an h\r2 & aga9 he w describe ! air z r\gh & bumpy :5 flags are hang+ limp f _! /affs & dwell]s on t]ra firma decl>e t n a brea? ( air is /irr+4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( fly+ aviators !mselves 7 afraid ( a /rong w9d4 ,?us ,wilbur ,wright1 dur+ 8 pione] exhibition flights 9 ,france1 w\ld nev] g up unless ! smoke f 8 cig>ette rose 9 a /raight l9e1 & until ab\t ! end ( #aiji no aviator attempt$ to fly 9 a w9d ( #bj miles an h\r4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! only atmosph]ic condition t s]i\sly hamp]s fly+ is fog or l[ cl\d4 ,an aviator fly+ 9 a fog or cl\d is n only liable to w&] f> f 8 c\rse1 on acc\nt ( ! unkn[n leeway ( 8 ma*9e1 b he is (t5 9 great d\bt z to 8 proximity to ! gr\nd4 ,"o ( ! curi\s effects ( su* a situation is t ! airman loses 8 s5se ( ! v]tical4 ,on l& our s5se ( up & d[n is det]m9$ by ! =ce ( gravity1 pull+ u t[>d ! e>?4 ,:5 rid+ 9 a t]re/rial vehicle1 we are consci\s ( o!r pu%es & pulls2 su*1 = example1 z ! jolt t pit*es u =w>d :5 a tra9 /ops sudd5ly1 or ! outw>d ?ru/ t we feel :5 sw++ ar\nd a curve4 ,aga91 9 desc5d+ 9 a lift we seem to lose weight1 z if gravity _h sudd5ly gr[n weak]4 ,on e>? all su* impressions are correct$ by ! sight ( objects ar\nd u2 b ! aviator envelop$ 9 mi/ has no su* guides1 & he (t5 becomes q confus$ ab\t ! direction ( ! gr\nd4 ,a turn1 :i* involves bank+1 increases 8 confusion4 ,ev5tually he may be fly+ almo/ upside d[n )\t be+ aw>e ( ! fact4 ,pr(essor ,melville ,jones1 :o has be5 ?r\gh su* exp]i5ces1 says ( ! pilot's confusion3 8,8 fir/ indication t some?+ is wrong is1 z a rule1 ei!r an increase or a decrease ( spe$ t is n c\nt]act$ by ! accu/om$ movem5ts ( ! controls4 ,a p]iod ( wild susp5se & utt] bewild]m5t n[ foll[s1 dur+ :i* ! pilot makes viol5t ef=ts to recov] control1 b )\t success4 ,! next ?+ t he realizes1 if he realizes any?+ at all1 is t he is ei!r on 8 back or sp9n+1 & ! next ?+ he kn[s is t he is out ( ! cl\ds ) ! e>? /&+ up at a ridicul\s angle & sp9n+ r\nd l a drunk5 d9n] plate4 ,happy is he t has pl5ty ( air room "u ^! circum/ances40 ,_s-levels & simil> in/rum5ts are affect$ by ! same di/urbances t mislead ! pilot 9 8 e/imation ( ! v]tical2 b =tunately !re are c]ta9 o!r devices1 due to ! exig5cies ( ! w>1 dur+ :i* cl\d fly+ 0 a "p ( ! tactics ( ! milit>y aviator1 :i* h virtually solv$ ?is problem1 ?\gh _! use has n yet become g5]al4 ,! out/&+ difficulty ( a fog is ! problem ( l&+4 ,9 ! case ( a =c$ l&+1 at a di/ance f a regul> l&+-gr\nd1 ! pilot mu/ simply tru/ to luck4 ,he may desc5d 9 ! wat] or ! treetops1 or on r\gh gr\nd t w wreck 8 ma*9e1 b he has no *oice4 ,! only solution ( ?is difficulty is ! in/allation ( a res]ve eng9e1 or "s o!r exp$i5t t w obviate ! necessity ( =c$ l&+s4 ,! task ( f9d+ a l&+ gr\nd 9 a fog & desc5d+ to x 9 safety w1 9 ! ne> future1 be comp>atively simple4 ,mo/ fogs1 ?\gh by no means all1 are s %all[ t x is possible to te!r a kite-balloon s t x w float above ! fog & indicate ! position ( ! a]ial h>bor4 ,sev]al su* balloons1 fly+ t&em1 w\ld af=d suffici5t lift to support a s]ies ( electric lant]ns along ! cable1 = use at night4 ,se>*lights & 8/> %ells0 h be5 employ$ = ! same purpose4 ,directional wireless & ! wireless telephone seem likely1 h[ev]1 to be ! *ief dep5d5ce ( ! future a]onaut seek+ port 9 a fog4 ,^! devices w also be ! means ( av]t+ collisions 9 a fog or cl\d along cr[d$ airways1 & especially 9 ! conge/ion t w prevail 9 ! vic9ity ( important air ports4 ,la/ b n lea/1 ! artificial disp]sion ( fog by means ( electrical dis*>ges1 al?\gh /ill 9 ! exp]im5tal /age1 holds out possibilities ( be+ ! ultimate solution ( ! fog problem1 n only = ! a]onaut1 b also = ! m>9]1 ! railway manag]1 & ev]ybody else :o is incommod$ by a mi/y atmosph]e4 ,ev5 :5 he is n fly+ 9 cl\ds or fog ! aviator by no means always enjoys a cle> view ( di/ant objects4 ,a slight haze impairs visibility1 :ile a heavy ra9/orm or sn[/orm may ob/ruct ! a]onaut's view z badly z a fog4 ,( ! meteorological elem5ts t affect a]onautics1 o!r ?an ^? we h m5tion$1 ! mo/ important is ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e--g5]ally express$ 9 t]ms ( b>ometric pressure4 ,! air dim9i%es 9 d5sity upw>d1 & ! r>efi$ atmosph]e ( high levels has sev]al effects on aircraft4 ,its decreas$ buoyancy imposes a limit ^u ! asc5t ( balloons2 its decreas$ resi/ance makes x necess>y = an a]oplane to fly at great] spe$ 9 ord] to get ! same lift2 x dim9i%es ! p[] ( gasol9e eng9es1 on acc\nt ( ! r$uc$ supply ( air2 & x has v>i\s unpleasant & ev5 dang]\s effects on ! a]onaut1 simil> to 8m\nta9 sickness40 ,! level t a giv5 a]oplane _c exce$ ow+ to ! comb9$ effect ( r$uc$ lift & r$uc$ eng9e p[] is kn[n z its 8ceil+40 ,diff]5t types ( a]oplane h v diff]5t ceil+s4 ,at great altitudes ! air is always v cold1 summ] & w9t]4 ,! l[ temp]ature may int]f]e ) ! effici5t work+ ( ! eng9e1 & x is1 ( c\rse1 a s\rce ( discom=t to ! pilot4 ,! =mation ( ice & heavy deposits ( sn[ lead to inconv5i5ces 9 bo? a]oplanes & air%ips4 ,! pelt+ ( hail is sometimes a pa9ful exp]i5ce = a]onauts4 ,la/ly1 lightn+ has hi!rto left aviators unsca!d1 b has caus$ num]\s disa/]s among ballooni/s4 ,! rec5t rapid developm5t ( a]onautics has laid a heavy burd5 ( additional labor ^u ! meteorological s]vices ( ! _w1 & is produc+ some?+ l a revolution 9 _! me?ods4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! *anges is int]e/+4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury until a few ye>s be=e ! ,_w ,w> meteorologi/s 7 engag$ 9 a great campaign ( upp]-air rese>*1 utiliz+ kites1 captive balloons1 pilot balloons1 & s\nd+ balloons to measure ! w9ds1 temp]ature1 humidity & pressure at v>i\s levels 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,9 o!r words1 a]onautical me?ods 7 employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( meteorology1 b ! inve/igators h>dly ent]ta9$ ! idea ( rev]s+ ! relation & mak+ meteorology ! h&maid5 ( a]onautics4 ,! po9t ( view prevail+ 9 ^? days is well indicat$ by ! fact t ! organization t _h *>ge ( ! upp]-air explorations ?r\gh\t ! _w 0 kn[n z ! 8,int]national ,commission = ,sci5tific ,a]onautics10 a "n t x bore until ! ye> #aiai4 ,! plan = provid+ regul> wea!r reports = ! b5efit ( a]onauts began ) "s small-scale ent]prises 9 ,g]many ab\t #aiji4 ,9 ! summ] ( t ye> ,dr4 ,franz ,l9ke organiz$ a /orm-w>n+ s]vice 9 connection ) ! ,int]national ,a]onautical ,exposition at ,frank=t1 & at ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #aiaa an a]onautical wea!r bureau = ! :ole ( ,g]many 0 e/abli%$1 ) headqu>t]s at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,l9d5b]g4 ,%ortly be=e ! w> a simil> und]tak+ 0 laun*$ 9 ,italy1 "u ,dr4 ,matteucci1 ^: s]vice 0 ! fir/ "o 9 ! _w to publi% daily *>ts1 bas$ on telegraphic reports1 ( ! w9ds at v>i\s levels ov] an entire c\ntry4 ,dur+ ! w> ! regul> meteorological s]vices ( ! bellig]5t c\ntries & ! meteorological units atta*$ to ! armies & navies ma9ta9$ an almo/ cont9u\s s]vice ( wea!r in=mation = ! great fleets ( fight+ aircraft4 ,bullet9s1 di/ribut$ *iefly by wireless telegraphy1 suppli$ p>ticul>s ( ! curr5t & prospective w9ds at ! fly+ levels1 ! preval5ce ( fog1 ! degree ( visibility1 etc4 ,new telegraphic wea!r codes1 f> m elaborate ?an ^? 9 use be=e ! w>1 7 devis$ = transmitt+ su* in=mation1 & ! :ole bus9ess ( obs]v+ & report+ wea!r became imm5sely m ardu\s ?an x _h be5 9 ! days :5 ! only int]e/s s]v$ by practical meteorology 7 ^? ( ! l& & ! wat]4 ,s9ce ! close ( ho/ilities great ef=ts h be5 made to ma9ta9 ^! new op]ations ( ! meteorological e/abli%m5ts at some?+ l ! level atta9$ dur+ ! w>4 ,! task is1 h[ev]1 beset ) difficulties1 on acc\nt ( ! great exp5se involv$4 ,x is be+ accompli%$ ) diff]5t degrees ( success 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,milit>y ,,meteorology ,"o ( ! mo/ a/oni%+ p>adoxes connect$ ) ! misapplication ( human bra9s & en]gy glorifi$ ) ! "n ( ! 8art ( w>0 is ?is--t1 :ile wea!r has always play$ an important "p1 & (t5 a decisive "o1 9 milit>y op]ations1 no attempt 0 ev] made until a few ye>s ago to include meteorology 9 ! purview ( milit>y sci5ce or to utilize ! s]vices ( meteorologi/s at ! battle front4 ,! mo/ casual survey ( ! hi/ory ( w>f>e reveals ! fact t atmosph]ic conditions rank high among ! 8controls0 ( fight+4 ,f a milit>y po9t ( view1 wea!r & climate be> a c]ta9 analogy to topography4 ,!y are a "p ( ! physical environm5t ) :i* a comm&] has to reckon4 ,wea!r1 h[ev]1 diff]s f topography 9 ! fact t x is subject to rapid *anges1 & is !re=e d\bly wor?y ( att5tion on ! "p ( an army1 :i* mu/ n only take acc\nt ( ! wea!r z obs]v$ & 9 progress1 b mu/ also1 z f> z possible1 anticipate t :i* is to foll[4 ,ev]ybody w recall ! ru9 t ov]took ! ,fr5* army 9 ,russia 9 #ahab on acc\nt ( unt[>d wea!r conditions1 b x is less well kn[n t ,napoleon1 ) 8 usual sagacity1 obta9$ f 8 sci5tific advis]s a report on ! ,russian climate be=e he plann$ 8 campaign2 t ! w9t] set 9 mu* e>li] ?an usual 9 t fatal ye>2 &1 mo/ int]e/+ ( all1 t x 0 actually a brief p]iod ( ?aw+ wea!r1 r ?an ! int5se cold t prec$$ & foll[$ x1 :i*1 by turn+ ! roads into bogs & break+ up ! ice 9 ! ,b]es9a1 br\ght ab\t ! culm9at+ disa/]4 ,ano!r fateful spell ( wea!r u%]$ 9 ! battle ( ,wat]loo4 ,x is describ$ 9 a well-kn[n passage ( 8,les ,misrables10 :i* conta9s en\gh tru? m+l$ ) hyp]bole to be wor? quot+3 8,s'il n'avait pas plu dans la nuit du #ag au #ah janvi]1 #ahae1 l'av5ir de l',europe tait *ang4 ,quelques g\ttes de plus ou de mo9s out fait p5*] ,napolon4 ,p\r que ,wat]loo ft la f9 d',au/]litz1 la ,provid5ce n'a eu beso9 que d'un peu de pluie1 et un nuage trav]sant le ciel contre-s5s de la saison a suffi p\r l'cr\lem5t d'un monde40 ,! ra9s & floods t l$ to ! annihilation ( ! ,roman legions "u ,v>us 9 ,a4 ,d4 #i & ! great tempe/s t help$ ,engli% seam5 defeat ! ,spani% ,armada furni% additional well-kn[n examples ( ! imm5se importance ( wea!r z a factor 9 w>f>e4 ,we ne$ n1 h[ev]1 look f>!r back ?an to ! rec5t _w conflict to f9d simil> examples 9 pr(usion4 ,leav+ out ( consid]ation ! indirect effects ( ! wea!r ^u ! progress ( ! w> z ex]cis$ ?r\gh its control ( crops1 transportation1 & o!r features 9 ! economic life ( ! bellig]5t & neutral nations1 we ne$ only exam9e w>-"t newspap]s to see h[ ! armies !mselves 7 help$ or h>ass$ by meteorological conditions at e turn4 ,! w> 0 a great popul> tea*] ( climatography1 j z x 0 ( geography4 ,! dr5*+ mis]y ( ,flemi% w9t]s1 z =midable to ! soldi]s 9 ! tr5*es z ! bullets ( ! enemy1 became z famili> to ! pres5t g5]ation ( ,am]icans z did some:at simil> conditions 9 ,virg9ia to ,am]icans ( ! ,civil ,w> p]iod4 ,! ,briti% campaigns 9 ,mesopotamia 7 z mu* a conflict ) climate z ) human foes4 ,m>*es 7 made :5 ! temp]ature /ood at #aaj degrees ,fahr5heit & ov]4 ,! temp]ature 9 ! hospital t5ts is said to h rea*$ #acj degrees4 ,! disa/] at ,kut-el-,am>a 0 due to ! ra9s & floods t prev5t$ re5=cem5ts f rea*+ ! beleagu]$ g>rison4 ,! failure ( ! ,d>danelles exp$ition 0 p>tly due to ! fact t ! extreme dryness ( ! c\ntry 0 n realiz$--z x w\ld h be5 if ! ,w> ,(fice _h call$ climatologi/s into c\ncil--& totally inadequate provision 0 made = ! wat] supply4 ,! new eng9es ( w> br\ght =? by ! rec5t /ruggle 7 peculi>ly susceptible to ! effects ( wea!r4 ,! l>g] guns & heavy motor trucks 7 difficult to move ov] muddy roads4 ,! aircraft1 ?\gh !y manag$ to fly 9 all k9ds ( wea!r1 suff]$ innum]able disa/]s = :i* atmosph]ic conditions--*iefly /orms & fog--7 responsible1 & _! op]ations 7 conspicu\sly affect$ by favorable & unfavorable w9ds4 ,%ells 7 fir$ to unprec$5t$ heights1 & _! trajectories 7 modifi$ by unkn[n conditions 9 ! upp] air4 ,la/ b n lea/1 ! use ( poison\s gases1 especially 9 ! p]iod be=e gas cl\ds 7 l>gely replac$ by gas %ells1 0 dep5d5t ^u ! occurr5ce ( appropriate w9ds2 & a slight miscalculation 9 ?is respect sometimes br\ght disa/] to ! troops us+ ! gas4 ,x is n surpris+ t pr(essional meteorologi/s play$ a "p 9 ! ,_w ,w>1 b x is difficult to und]/& :y meteorological units 7 n atta*$ to all armies1 at lea/ :5 on active s]vice1 sev]al decades be=e ! ye> #aiad4 ,meteorologi/s did1 inde$1 take a h& 9 "o e>li] conflict1 b n z enroll$ soldi]s4 ,dur+ ! ,spani%-,am]ican ,w> a special s]vice 0 organiz$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau to protect ! ,am]ican fleet 9 s\!rn wat]s f unpleasant surprises 9 ! %ape ( ,we/ ,india hurricanes4 ,9 ! summ] ( #ahih a *a9 ( obs]vation /ations 0 e/abli%$ by ! ,bureau ar\nd ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,! s]vice !n inaugurat$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! exig5cies ( w> prov$ s valuable to %ipp+ 9 "t ( peace t x has cont9u$ to op]ate1 ) "s int]missions1 d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,:5 ! ,_w ,w> broke out1 ! only c\ntry t imm$iately put meteorologi/s1 z su*1 into ! field 0 ,g]many4 ,! ,g]mans 7 =tunate 9 hav+ a f> great] numb] ( tra9$ meteorologi/s at _! disposal ?an _h _! enemies4 ,!re 7 *airs ( meteorology 9 sev]al ,g]man univ]sities & high s*ools1 & ! num]\s meteorological obs]vatories & in/itutes ( ! ,empire _h provid$ occupation = a l>ge am\nt ( pr(essional tal5t 9 ?is l9e4 ,"o ( ! fir/ acts ( ! army t invad$ ,belgium 0 to e/abli% an a]ological s]vice 9 t c\ntry4 ,! ,ent5te c\ntries 7 sl[ 9 add+ meteorological units to _! armies1 b _! civilian meteorological s]vices 7 utiliz$ to ! utmo/ = milit>y purposes f ! beg9n+ ( ! w>4 ,!y at fir/ work$ "u difficulties aris+ f ! cessation ( ! cu/om>y wea!r reports f c5tral ,europe1 b1 to (fset ?is disadvantage1 ! wea!r map 0 exp&$ 9 o!r directions1 ! numb] ( daily h\rs ( obs]vation 0 increas$1 & ev5tually ! =eca/]s 9 ,london & ,p>is acquir$ mu* bett] facilities = mak+ _! pr$ictions ?an !y _h enjoy$ 9 "t ( peace4 ,! supply ( wea!r in=mation to ! public 0 susp5d$1 & great precautions 7 tak5 to prev5t ! reports ( ! ,alli$ s]vices f be+ utiliz$ by ! enemy4 ,! ,g]man meteorologi/s 7 s]i\sly hamp]$ by ! lack ( reports f ! we/w>d4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t su* reports 7 sometimes obta9$ by radio f subm>9es /ation$ (f ! coa/ ( ,irel&1 b su* a s]vice1 if x exi/$1 mu/ h be5 fragm5t>y & unsatisfactory4 ,t ! ,g]mans made _m mi/akes 9 _! attempts to inf] ! atmosph]ic conditions ov] ! ,briti% ,isles f ! limit$ wea!r map at _! disposal is prov$ by ! fact t _! air%ips frequ5tly cross$ ! ,*annel :51 ) an ampl] k ( imp5d+ wea!r1 !y w\ld c]ta9ly h rema9$ at home4 ,sev]al ,zeppel9s came to grief 9 ! c\rse ( ^! ill-tim$ raids4 ,"o ( ! int]e/+ r\t9e duties ( ! ,briti% ,meteorological ,(fice dur+ ! w> 0 to draw ! wea!r map = a giv5 mom5t z ! ,g]mans w\ld probably draw x1 ) _! curtail$ set ( telegraphic reports1 & !n pr$ict ! ,g]man pr$iction6 ,9 ! spr+ ( #aiae a small meteorological section 0 organis$ 9 ! ,briti% ,army1 & atta*$ to ! ,royal ,eng9e]s4 ,?is =ce 0 aft]w>d enl>g$1 & provid$ units = s]vice on sev]al battle fronts4 ,! ,briti% also develop$ a naval meteorological s]vice1 :i* _h exi/$ 9 embryo be=e ! w>1 &1 ev5tually1 a special meteorological s]vice = ! ,royal ,air ,=ce4 ,analog\s s]vices 7 organiz$ by ! ,fr5* & ! ,italians4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy bo? e/abli%$ meteorological s]vices n long aft] ?is c\ntry ent]$ ! w>4 ,! =m] 0 atta*$ to ! ,signal ,corps1 & 0 p>tly (fic]$ & recruit$ f ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,a tra9+ s*ool = army meteorologi/s 0 op5$ at ,college ,/ation1 ,texas4 ,upw>d ( #cjj m5 7 giv5 in/ruction 9 ?is s*ool1 & mo/ ( !m 7 s5t ov]seas4 ,! naval meteorological s]vice 0 head$ by ! director ( ,blue ,hill ,obs]vatory1 & ! junior (fic]s receiv$ special tra9+ at t in/itution4 ,! v>i$ activities c>ri$ on by ^! w>-"t units 7 s diff]5t f ! traditional duties ( meteorologi/s t !y may be said to m>k ! adv5t ( a new bran* ( appli$ sci5ce--,milit>y ,meteorology4 ,!y 71 moreov]1 z we %all see1 extremely fruitful ( effects ^u ! sci5ce ( meteorology 9 g5]al4 ,9 ! pr9cipal battle zones ! milit>y wea!r m5 ma9ta9$ a d5se network ( obs]vation /ations1 ! reports f :i*1 comb9$ ) ^? receiv$ f ! regul> peace-"t wea!r /ations ( ! ,alli$ & neutral c\ntries1 enabl$ ! =eca/]s at headqu>t]s to keep closely 9 t\* ) atmosph]ic *anges4 ,obs]vations ( bo? surface & upp]-air conditions 7 made at frequ5t int]vals1 & radiotelegraphy 0 l>gely us$ to insure prompt transmission ( ! reports4 ,9 g5]al1 wea!r maps 7 drawn f\r times a day4 ,in=mation 0 di/ribut$ locally to ! fight+ units by telephone & o!rwise4 ,! va/ fleet ( aircraft call$ into be+ by ! w> w\ld1 ( itself1 h impos$ ^u ! milit>y meteorologi/s ! necessity ( pay+ a great am\nt ( att5tion to ! upp] air4 ,pilot balloons 7 s5t up s frequ5tly & at s _m po9ts t ! aviators g5]ally knew j :at w9ds !y w\ld enc\nt] al(t4 ,special arrangem5ts 7 made to foll[ ! progress across ! c\ntry ( ! ?und]squalls :i* con/itut$ a s]i\s dang] to ! 8sausages10 or obs]vation balloons1 z well z to a]oplanes on ! gr\nd1 & to hang>s4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 ano!r urg5t reason = keep+ a close wat* ( ! w9ds & o!r atmosph]ic conditions at v>i\s levels above ! e>?'s surface4 ,exp]i5ce acquir$ e>ly 9 ! w> prov$ t old-fa%ion$ me?ods ( correct+ ! aim ( artill]y = meteorological di/urbances 7 extremely inadequate = mod]n guns1 ! projectiles ( :i* rise to altitudes ( f #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj feet & enc\nt] conditions q diff]5t f ^? prevail+ at ! surface4 ,! flight ( a projectile is affect$ by ! =ce & direction ( ! w9d1 & ! d5sity ( ! air ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,"s mod]n projectiles rema9 9 ! air z long z #gj seconds1 & a mod]ate w9d bl[+ across ! pa? ( su* a projectile may easily cause x to fall half a mile away f ! po9t at :i* x w\ld /rike if fir$ 9 /ill air4 ,"o ( ! r\t9e duties ( ! army wea!r s]vice 0 to obs]ve ! w9ds & compute ! air-d5sities at diff]5t heights :]ev] su* in=mation 0 requir$ by ! artill]y4 ,9 ord] to facilitate ! application ( su* data by ! gunn]s +5i\s me?ods 7 develop$ = comput+ :at is kn[n z ! 8balli/ic w9d40 ,?is is a fictiti\s w9d :i*1 if affect+ ! projectile ?r\gh\t its flight1 w\ld produce ! same total deflective effect & effect on range z ! v>i\s w9ds t ! projectile actually enc\nt]s4 ,meteorological obs]vations 7 also ( great importance 9 connection ) ! new process ( locat+ di/ant guns kn[n z 8s\nd-rang+40 ,?is process consi/s1 briefly1 9 det]m9+ ! exact in/ant ( arrival at sev]al po9ts ( ! s\nd waves propagat$ ?r\gh ! air f ! gun t is be+ locat$4 ,if s\nd travel$ at a uni=m spe$1 ^! obs]vations w\ld %[ ! exact di/ance ( ea* ( ! obs]v+ po9ts f ! gun1 & a simple geometrical con/ruction w\ld indicate ! position ( ! latt]4 ,! spe$ ( s\nd waves 9 ! air is1 h[ev]1 affect$ by bo? w9d & temp]ature4 ,accord+ly1 all[ance _h to be made = ^! v>y+ factors1 & ! necess>y data 7 suppli$ by ! meteorological units4 ,! obs]vation & pr$iction ( w9ds favor+ ! use ( poison\s gases by fri5d or foe 0 "o ( ! mo/ delicate tasks allott$ to ! army meteorologi/s4 ,! fl[ ( su* gases is det]m9$ by ! w9ds close to ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ^! are greatly affect$ by topography4 ,local air curr5ts controll$ by ! slope ( ! gr\nd 7 especially utiliz$ = gas attacks4 ,/rong w9ds 7 unfavorable1 because !y quickly dissipat$ ! gas cl\d4 ,! meteorologi/s n only advis$ _! own troops :5 to use gas1 b also gave w>n+ :5 ! atmosph]ic conditions 7 su* t gas 0 likely to be us$ by ! enemy4 ,! use ( gas %ells 0 less dep5d5t = its success ^u ! w9d ?an ! lib]ation ( gas cl\ds1 b ev5 :5 %ells 7 us$ ! w9d & wea!r at ! objective po9t 7 factors ( importance4 ,! exig5cies ( w>f>e develop$ sev]al new features ( meteorological practice1 ! utility ( :i* did n cease ) ! w>4 ,?us x became cu/om>y to measure ! degree ( 8visibility0 ( di/ant objects1 = ! b5efit ( aviators & gunn]s1 & ?is elem5t 0 includ$ 9 ! r\t9e wea!r reports4 ,scales ( visibility1 rang+ f 8v bad0 to 8excell5t10 etc41 7 adopt$1 & ev5tually c]ta9 =ms ( app>atus 78visibility met]s07 7 devis$ = gett+ fairly precise measurem5ts ( ?is wea!r factor4 ,ano!r novel practice t des]ves to be p]petuat$ 0 ! plan adopt$ by ! milit>y =eca/]s ( add+ to _! pr$ictions a /atem5t z to _! probable accuracy2 ?is 0 express$ on a num]ical scale ( 8odds10 in/ead ( by use ( ! vague t]ms 8probably0 & 8possibly10 :i* h g5]ally s]v$ ! purpose ( ! dubi\s =eca/]4 ,! w> br\ght ab\t _m improvem5ts 9 ! in/rum5ts & me?ods us$ 9 s\nd+ ! upp] air2 & ! int5sive campaign ( pilot-balloon obs]vations c>ri$ out at ! milit>y /ations provid$ a body ( data = /udy q unp>allel$ 9 ! hi/ory ( meteorology4 ,la/ly1 ! w> revolutioniz$ wea!r telegraphy 9 ,europe4 ,be=e ! w> ! ,european =eca/]s 7 hamp]$ by exasp]at+ delays 9 ! collection ( reports ov] ! telegraph l9es1 especially 9 ! int]national ex*ange ( obs]vations4 ,wireless telegraphy _h be5 ext5sively us$ = ga!r+ reports f vessels & supply+ vessels ) =eca/s1 b n = ! int]*ange ( meteorological in=mation on l&4 ,! w> *ang$ all ?is4 ,radiotelegraphic wea!r messages became ! rule1 & ! advantages ( ! new sy/em 7 s obvi\s t ! t5d5cy has be5 to reta9 x z f> z possible s9ce ! w>4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,m$ical ,,& ,,physiological ,,meteorology ,! />t+ po9t 9 any /udy ( ! physiological effects ( wea!r & climate ^u humanity is ! rem>kable fact t1 on ! hotte/ days ( summ] & ! colde/ ( w9t]1 9 tropical des]ts & amid pol> sn[s1 ! temp]ature )9 ! body ( a heal?y man rema9s con/ant to a fraction ( a degree4 ,!re are slight temp]ature diff]5ces betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body2 !re is a p]iodic daily v>iation ( ab\t half a degree2 & !re are o!r slight *anges1 due to eat+ & ex]cise2 b an int]nal temp]ature ( ab\t #ih4f degrees ,f4 is ma9ta9$ ) little or no reg>d to fluctuations 9 ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,! body has (t5 be5 comp>$ to a build+ 9 :i* ! temp]ature is regulat$ by a !rmo/at1 b ! comp>ison is n exact4 ,! !rmo/at controls ! temp]ature m]ely by regulat+ ! combu/ion ( fuel2 & ) ! adv5t ( mild wea!r we let ! fires g out altoge!r4 ,9 ! body ! fires are always burn+1 ! briskness ) :i* !y burn--or1 to drop ! metaphor1 ! rate at :i* bodily heat is g5]at$--dep5d+1 above all1 ^u muscul> activity1 b also ^u o!r causes4 ,x is true t we possess a n]v\s me*anism1 analog\s to ! !rmo/at1 :i* t5ds to adju/ ! production ( animal heat 9 su* a mann] z to (fset ! cool+ effect ( our environm5t2 b ?is me*anism appe>s to be less important 9 ma9ta9+ our con/ant temp]ature ?an ano!r1 :i* regulates ! loss ( heat f ! body4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,j4 ,ros5au3 8,heat is lo/ f ! body *iefly 9 two ways2 7#a7 by heat transf]1 or loss by radiation1 conduction1 & convection2 7#b7 by evaporation1 *iefly by ! evaporation ( ! wat] ( p]spiration4 ,pett5k(] & ,voit e/imat$ ! loss ( wat] by ! lungs at #bhf grams1 & f ! sk9 at f #ejj to #a1gjj grams daily4 ,?is w give "s idea ( ! effects "h conc]n$4 ,! loss by heat transf] dim9i%es z ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air rises4 ,! temp]ature ( ! body w\ld rise :5 ! atmosph]ic temp]ature goes above #gj degrees ,f4 7 n p]spiration !n secret$4 ,s long z ! p]spiration c evaporate freely ! heat production & heat loss are balanc$4 ,) a high humidity evaporation is less5$ & ! balance is ma9ta9$ by ru%+ blood to ! sk91 :i* causes an elevation ( ! temp]ature ( ! surface1 & ?us ! loss ( heat by radiation1 conduction1 & convection is facilitat$40 ,human s5sations ( temp]ature are p>adoxical4 ,we talk ( be+ 8hot0 & 8cold10 z if we belong$ to ! class ( cold-blood$ animals--! fi%es & ! reptiles--t actually und]go great v>iations ( temp]ature1 ) v>iations 9 ! temp]ature ( _! environm5t4 ,we he> p say1 = example1 t !y are mo/ com=table at a temp]ature ( #fe2 yet we "k t _! temp]ature is always #ih1 except j at ! surface ( ! body4 ,! human body is1 9 fact1 a poor !rmomet]4 ,our s5sations d n regi/] ! temp]ature ( ! air1 b !y d1 9 a way1 regi/] ! cool+ p[] ( ! air1 :i* dep5ds ^u temp]ature1 humidity1 & air movem5t1 & !y regi/]1 especially1 *anges 9 ?is cool+ p[]1 = )9 c]ta9 limits ! body soon adapts itself to a con/ant rate ( cool+1 s z to lose any impression ( heat or cold4 ,:5 a /eady outfl[ ( heat f ! body has be5 set up & ! ext]nal cool+ p[] is sudd5ly increas$1 we become consci\s ( a diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature at ! surface ( ! body & ! 8blood temp]ature0 b5ea?4 ,! action ( ! n]ves at ! surface & ! n]ves und]nea?1 "u ^! circum/ances1 has be5 comp>$ to t ( a !rmo-junction1 9 :i* an electric curr5t is produc$ by diff]5ces ( temp]ature4 ,! rate ( evaporation f ! sk91 also1 has a m>k$ effect ^u our s5sations ( com=t & discom=t4 ,! common !rmomet] 0 long ago discr$it$ z a means ( measur+ atmosph]ic com=t4 ,!n1 = a "t1 ! wet-bulb !rmomet] _h its day1 & its indications 7 once publi%$ on a l>ge scale 9 ?is c\ntry z repres5t+ ! 8s5sible temp]ature10 or temp]ature t we actually feel4 ,! wet-bulb !rmomet] is cool$ by evaporation bel[ ! air temp]ature1 except :5 ! air is saturat$ ) moi/ure1 & may !re=e give a r\gh indication ( ! temp]ature acquir$ by ! sk9 :5 moi/5$ ) p]spiration4 ,! temp]ature ( ! sk9 is n1 h[ev]1 an accurate indication ( our feel+s ( heat or cold1 nor is x a satisfactory guide to ! physiological effects ( atmosph]ic conditions4 ,sev]al in/rum5ts h be5 devis$ = ! purpose ( measur+ ! cool+ p[] ( ! air1 to :i* ! bodily me*anism mu/ respond 9 ord] to ma9ta9 a uni=m temp]ature )94 ,"o ( ^! 0 inv5t$ ne>ly half a c5tury ago by ,j4 ,w4 ,osborne4 ,a por\s cyl9d] 0 fill$ ) w>m wat]1 & an agitator1 driv5 by clockwork1 kept ! wat] 9 ! cyl9d] at uni=m temp]ature at any giv5 mom5t4 ,! rate at :i* heat 0 lo/ f ! wet surface ( ! cyl9d] 0 det]m9$ by a !rmomet]1 hav+ its bulb imm]s$ 9 ! wat]1 & a /op wat*4 ,a diff]5t plan 0 adopt$ by ,a4 ,pi*e1 9 an in/rum5t :i* he call$ ! dep]ditomet]1 & :i* 0 suppos$ to imitate m closely ! behavior ( ! body4 ,a por\s vessel is fill$ ) wat]1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is kept con/antly at 8blood heat0 7#ih4f degrees ,f47 by a gas jet provid$ ) an automatic regulator4 ,! am\nt ( gas burn$ 9 a giv5 "t is !n suppos$ to measure ! cool+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e z x affects humanity4 ,j4 ,r4 ,milne's psu*ra9omet] is con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple1 b heat is suppli$ & measur$ electrically4 ,among _m o!r in/rum5ts ( ?is class1 "o t n[ enjoys special favor is ! kata!rmomet]1 devis$ by ,pr(4 ,leon>d ,hill1 9 ,engl&4 ,?is consi/s ( a pair ( l>ge-bulb$ _s !rmomet]s1 "o ( :i* has its bulb cov]$ ) f9e cotton me%4 ,to use ! in/rum5t1 ! bulbs are imm]s$ 9 wat] at ab\t #aej degrees ,f4 until ! _s rises to ! top ( ! !rmomet] tubes4 ,! excess ( wat] is !n j]k$ (f ! wet bulb1 & ! o!r bulb is dri$4 ,! in/rum5ts are f9ally susp5d$ 9 ! air1 & ! rate ( cool+ f #aaj to #ajj degrees1 or f #ajj to #ij degrees1 is tak5 ) a /op wat*4 ,! dry-bulb measurem5ts are suppos$ to %[ h[ fa/ ! human body loses heat at its surface by radiation & convection1 :ile ! wet-bulb measurem5ts also take acc\nt ( evaporation4 ,9 ord] to connect ! read+s ( ?is device ) human s5sations1 ,hill & 8 collaborators h us$ ! in/rum5t "u a great v>iety ( atmosph]ic conditions1 bo? indoors & out1 & comp>$ ! read+s ) indep5d5t e/imates ( com=t & discom=t4 ,on an ideal summ] day ! 8wet kata0 fell f #aaj to #ajj 9 #be seconds1 & ! 8dry kata0 9 #he seconds4 ,indoors at ! seaside 9 summ]1 "u com=table conditions1 ! read+s 7 #ej seconds & #adj seconds1 respectively4 ,a l>ge numb] ( o!r read+s1 tak5 "u diff]5t conditions 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ^w1 h be5 publi%$4 ,! kata!rmomet] is n[ us$ 9 bo? ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! /udy ( v5tilation problems1 & has acquir$ a r ext5sive lit]ature4 ,accord+ to its inv5tor1 8! heat+ & v5tilation ( rooms %\ld be arrang$ s t ! wet-bulb falls f #ajj to #ij degrees 9 ab\t "o m9ute1 & ! dry-bulb 9 ab\t ?ree m9utes40 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,kiosk1 ,,9 ,,union ,,squ>e1 ,,san ,,francisco4 7,photograph1 ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,/ation1 ,,obs]vatory ,,type1 ,,at ,,peoria1 ,,ill9ois4 7,photograph1 ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau47 ,reg>dless ( ! m]its ( ^! p>ticul> in/rum5ts1 x is c]ta9 t ! cool+ p[] ( ! air--:i* is q a diff]5t ?+ f ! temp]ature ( ! air--is a v important factor 9 det]m9+ our com=t & our heal?4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits ! body c easily adju/ itself to *anges 9 ! cool+ p[] ( ! air2 )9 wid] limits ! adju/m5t is effect$ ) difficulty1 & we exp]i5ce discom=t & possibly suff] 9 heal?2 & f9ally !re are extreme conditions1 9 ei!r direction1 to :i* adju/m5t is n possible2 ! int]nal temp]ature is !n ei!r l[]$ or rais$1 z ! case may be1 & a comp>atively small *ange ( ?is sort is fatal2 i4 e41 dea? results by *ill+ or by heat /roke4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau ,,! ,,c5tral ,,(fice ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,wea!r ,,bureau ,,9 ,,wa%+ton ,"o int]e/+ result ( rec5t inquiries on ?is subject is ! discov]y t ! bad effects ( cr[d$1 8/uffy0 rooms are n g5]ally due to impurities 9 ! air1 b to heat1 humidity1 & especially lack ( air movem5t4 ,x seems to be n[ demon/rat$ t !re is no su* ?+ z 8cr[d-poison+10 & t ! bad smells ( conf9$ places are no indication t ! air is delet]i\s4 ,pr(essor ,hill1 :o has done m ?an anybody else to upset traditional ideas ) reg>d to v5tilation1 tells u t 8! dea?s 9 ! ,black ,hole ( ,calcutta1 ! depression1 heada*e1 etc41 exp]i5c$ 9 close rooms are alike due to heat /agnation2 ! victims ( ! ,black ,hole di$ ( heat /roke40 ,mo/ rec5t writ]s on physiology also discr$it ! "t-honor$ me?ods ( te/+ ! purity ( ! air by measur+ ! p]c5tage ( c>bon dioxide x conta9s4 ,! am\nt ( ?is gas normally pres5t 9 ! free air is ab\t ?ree-hundr$?s ( "o p] c5t1 b exp]im5ts h %[n t ?irty times ?is am\nt--a p]c5tage high] ?an is f\nd 9 ! wor/ v5tilat$ rooms--may be brea!d = h\rs toge!r )\t detrim5tal effects4 ,a fur!r dep>ture f old-fa%ion$ views is se5 9 ! ass]tion ( rec5t au?orities t a defici5cy ( oxyg51 unless f> m pron\nc$ ?an ev] actually occurs 9 build+s1 m9es1 etc41 :]e ! supply ( ?is gas has be5 ! subject ( s mu* solicitude1 has no physiological significance :atev]4 ,9 support ( ?is ass]tion x is po9t$ out t at m\nta9 heal? resorts ! conc5tration ( oxyg5 out-(-doors is mu* less ?an t f\nd 9 ! wor/ v5tilat$ rooms at sea-level4 ,9 m9es an ample supply ( oxyg5 may be positively dang]\s1 z favor+ ! occurr5ce ( explosions4 ,^! 7 r>e be=e ! enactm5t ( laws requir+ a high p]c5tage ( oxyg5 9 m9e air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hill',s ,,kata!rmomet] ,excessive dryness ( ! sk91 :i* is a common cause ( discom=t1 is n v closely relat$ to ! humidity ( ! air4 8,9 w9t]10 says ,hill1 8if !re be a w9d ! rate ( evaporation is s accel]at$ t ! sk9 feels dry1 because 9 ord] to *eck ! loss ( body heat ! sweat gl&s are inactive & ! blood vessels ( ! *ill$ sk9 are con/rict$40 ,!re has be5 a great deal ( discussion ab\t ! dry air ( ,am]ican build+s 9 w9t]1 & />tl+ figures h be5 adduc$ to %[ t ! air ( su* build+s is dry] ?an t ( des]ts4 ,s f> z measurem5ts ( relative humidity g1 ?is is p]fectly true2 b1 z ,dr4 ,g4 ,t4 ,palm]1 ( ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,commission on ,v5tilation1 has po9t$ out1 !re is an important diff]5ce betwe5 dryness & 8dry+ness40 ,! latt] dep5ds ^u ! movem5t ( ! air1 z well z ! relative humidity4 ,! circulation ( ! air 9 a des]t is g5]ally mu* m active ?an t ( ! air 9 a build+ ) ! w9d[s %ut1 & !re=e mu* m conducive to rapid evaporation4 ,!re are sy/ems ( v5tilation 9 :i* ! air is kept 9 /eady & rapid motion1 & x is probably only 9 su* cases t ! air ( our heat$ h\ses c be comp>$ to t ( a des]t4 ,f ! ,european po9t ( view ,am]ican build+s are notori\sly ov]heat$1 b ?is is probably due to ! fact t our hot summ]s--mu* hott] ?an ^? ( ,europe--h adapt$ u to a tropical climate4 ,x is natural to inquire :e!r ! atmosph]ic conditions t affect ! com=t ( man d n also ex]cise a m>k$ influ5ce ^u 8 muscul> effici5cy & 8 m5tal p[]s4 ,?is "q has be5 answ]$ 9 ! affirmative by a numb] ( +5i\s writ]s1 :o h s\ght to e/abli% def9ite quantitative relations betwe5 c]ta9 /ates ( ! atmosph]e & ! output ( "w 9 factories1 ! grades atta9$ by s*ool *ildr51 etc4 ,?us1 ,dr4 ,ellswor? ,hunt+ton1 a well-kn[n work] 9 ?is field1 decl>es t ! mo/ favorable daily mean temp]ature = m5tal activity 7! temp]ature be+ measur$ out-(-doors7 is ab\t #dj degrees ,f41 & = physical activity ab\t #fj degrees ,f4 ,contr>y to ! common op9ion1 he holds t our g5]al effici5cy is at l[ ebb 9 midw9t] & fairly high 9 summ]4 ,v>iability 9 temp]ature1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 he f9ds to be /imulat+2 equable temp]ature ! rev]se4 ,he has drawn *>ts %[+ ! di/ribution ( :at he calls 8climatic en]gy0--i4 e41 ! comb9ation ( c]ta9 wea!r factors suppos$ to control human effici5cy--?r\gh\t ! _w1 & o!r *>ts %[+ a m or less simil> di/ribution ( 8civilization40 ,he has also made an ambiti\s attempt to int]pret ! hi/ory ( mank9d 9 t]ms ( wea!r & climate4 ,ano!r fruitful work] along simil> l9es is ,dr4 ,griffi? ,taylor1 ( ,au/ralia1 :o has made int]e/+ /udies ( ! control ( settlem5t 9 8 own c\ntry & else:]e by temp]ature & humidity1 & has introduc$ "s novel graphic me?ods 78climographs07 = comp>+ climates ) respect to _! effects on humanity4 ,!re has1 9 %ort1 aris5 a new s*ool ( climatologi/s ^: aim is to develop exact ma!matical =mul :]eby we %all be able to adju/ ! economic arrangem5ts ( mank9d on an intellig5t basis z reg>ds climate4 ,! success ( _! ef=ts is a "q = ! future to decide1 b !re is no d\bt t _! "w is pr(\ndly sugge/ive4 ,^! und]tak+s1 x may be not$1 be> a /rik+ analogy to ^? ( ! pres5t g5]ation ( agricultural meteorologi/s1 :o are apply+ climatic /ati/ics to ! problem ( select+ crops & to ! improvem5t ( agricultural me?ods4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( speciali/s are engag$ 9 /udy+ ! physiological effects ( sunlight & o!r special k9ds ( sol> radiation1 ! di/ribution ( :i* v>ies greatly f place to place & f "t to "t1 especially on acc\nt ( diff]5ces 9 ! selective absorption ( su* rays by ! atmosph]e4 ,! *emical action ( sun%9e t causes sunburn--ev5 at v l[ temp]atures1 z1 = example1 on high m\nta9s--may h f>-rea*+ effects on ! human organism 7z x c]ta9ly has on plants71 & !re is great ne$ ( collect+ m data ( 8photo*emical climate0 ?an we n[ possess1 9 ord] t ?is subject may be ?or\ghly inve/igat$4 ,"o ( ! few in/itutions 9 ! _w at :i* a l>ge am\nt ( "w has be5 done 9 ?is l9e is ! private obs]vatory ( ,dr4 ,c4 ,dorno1 at ,davos1 ! well-kn[n heal? resort 9 ! ,alps4 ,dorno's /udies ?r[ a good deal ( light ^u ! !rapeutic effects ( sun%9e 9 a m\nta9 climate4 ,_m =ms ( du/ 9 ! atmosph]e are capable ( produc+ pron\nc$ physiological & pa?ological effects4 ,!re is a long li/ ( 8du/y trades0 9 :i* ! production ( excessive du/ has notori\sly evil effects ^u ! heal? ( workm51 lead+ especially to pulmon>y diseases2 sometimes to v>i\s k9ds ( poison+4 ,^! h>mful du/s are by no means conf9$ to factories1 m9es1 qu>ries1 & ! l4 ,! air ( ! av]age city /reet ab\nds 9 !m4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,ogd5 /ates t #fa p] c5t ( ! du/ f\nd 9 ! air ( ! ,new ,york subways consi/s ( jagg$ spl9t]s ( /eel1 result+ f ! we>+ away ( brake %oes1 :eels1 & rails4 ,! am\nt ( dang] to human heal? incurr$ ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( disease g]ms 9 ! atmosph]e has be5 ! subject ( mu* controv]sy4 ,! pres5t t5d5cy is to reg>d ?is dang] z v slight1 "u ord9>y conditions4 ,?us1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,lee writes3 8,evid5ce t disease g]ms pass ?r\gh ! air f room to room ( a h\se or f a hospital to its imm$iate surr\nd+s always breaks d[n :5 exam9$ critically4 ,x is inde$ n r>e n[ to treat cases ( diff]5t infecti\s diseases 9 ! same hospital w>d4 ,! "o place ( possible dang] is 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( a p]son suff]+ f a disease affect+ ! air passages1 ! m\?1 ?roat1 or lungs1 su* z a #8cold' or tub]culosis4 ,su* a p]son may give out ! *>act]i/ic microbe = a di/ance ( a few feet f 8 body1 n 9 quiet expiration1 = simple expir$ air is /]ile1 b atta*$ to droplets t may be expell$ 9 c\gh+1 sneez+1 or =cible speak+4 ,9 ?is mann] infection may1 & probably does1 occur1 ! evid5ce be+ p]haps /ronge/ 9 ! case ( tub]culosis4 ,b ap>t f ?is s\rce !re appe>s to be little dang] ( contract+ an infecti\s disease f g]ms t float 9 ! air40 ,9 reg>d to sew] gas1 :i* /ill inspires s mu* dread 9 ! popul> m9d1 ,dr4 ,lee says3 8,workm5 9 sew]s are notori\sly /rong1 vigor\s1 heal?y m51 ) a l[ dea? rate among !m4 ,! spect] ( an invisible mon/] ent]+ our homes surreptiti\sly f our plumb+ pipes & sapp+ our lives & ! lives ( our *ildr5 mu/ be laid aside2 we ne$ no long] leave sauc]s ( s-call$ #8*lorides' /&+ ab\t our floors to neutralize 9 an impossible mann] my/]i\s effluvia t d n exi/2 & :5 we return to our t[n h\ses 9 ! autumn we may ent] !m ) no fe>s t we are risk+ our lives by com+ into a toxic1 g]m-infect$1 sew] gas-lad51 deadly atmosph]e40 ,pres5t-day k on ! subject ( infecti\s diseases discr$its _m ideas t once prevail$ ) reg>d to ! effects ( tropical climates on heal?4 ,! rem>kable results accompli%$ by vigor\s sanit>y measures 9 su* places z ,havana1 ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama & ,guayaquil h ar\s$ hopes--p]haps too sangu9e--t ev5tually all p>ts ( ! tropics w be made heal?ful = ! :ite race4 ,9 ! ,canal ,zone ! dea? rate ( ! l>ge population ( ,am]ican m51 wom51 & *ildr5 is n high] ?an prevails 9 _m cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 :]eas1 a g5]ation ago1 :5 ! ,fr5* 7 at "w on ! canal1 ! 8climate0 ( ?is region 0 reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ unheal?ful 9 ! _w4 ,"s au?orities g s f> z to ass]t t ! det]ioration 9 ! g5]al heal? & effici5cy ( :ite p 9 ! tropics1 s f> z x actually occurs1 is due entirely to prev5table diseases4 ,x w\ld seem m rational1 h[ev]1 to assume t !re are climates bo? 9 & out ( ! tropics :i*1 on acc\nt ( _! heat1 humidity1 & o!r purely physical factors1 are n s suitable = habitation = any race ( humanity z o!rs4 ,h[ f> acclimatization c g t[>d (fsett+ ! effects ( ^! atmosph]ic conditions is problematical4 ,! *anges 9 ! b>omet] t occur f day to day 9 regions :]e ^! *anges are mo/ pron\nc$ are1 on an av]age1 n great] ?an ^? enc\nt]$ 9 go+ f ! bottom to ! top ( a good-siz$ hill1 & are probably n directly ( physiological importance4 ,c]ta9 ,european inve/igators1 h[ev]1 ascribe pa?ological effects to ! m9ute & rapid b>ometric fluctuations--too small to be detect$ ) an ord9>y b>omet]--t occur1 = example1 :5 ! foehn w9d is bl[+4 ,:e!r ?is is ! cause1 or a contributory cause1 ( 8foehn-sickness10 ( :i* "o he>s 9 ,switz]l&1 is /ill unc]ta94 ,! physiological effects ( a r>efi$ atmosph]e1 z exp]i5c$ 9 m\nta9 climb+1 balloon+1 & aviation1 are n yet well und]/ood1 despite ! l>ge am\nt ( /udy t has be5 devot$ to ?is subject4 ,rec5t views are ?us summ>iz$ by ,ros5au3 8,! symptoms produc$ by a m>k$ dim9ution 9 atmosph]ic pressure v>y ) circum/ances4 ,! effects are increas$ by cold1 active muscul> ex]tion1 or improp] clo?+4 ,! noticeable symptoms are increas$ rapidity ( respiration & accel]ation ( ! circulation1 noises 9 ! head & dizz9ess1 impairm5t ( ! s5ses ( sight1 he>+1 & t\*1 dullness ( ! intellectual faculties1 & a /rong desire to sleep4 ,sudd5 *anges to a r>efi$ atmosph]e cause syncope1 weakness1 dyspna1 dizz9ess1 & nausea4 ,^! ?reat5+ symptoms g by ! "n ( #8m\nta9 sickness1' ,b]t & ,j\rnet believe ?is condition is due to lack ( oxyg51 & ! symptoms may1 9 fact1 be reliev$ by add+ oxyg5 to ! air inspir$4 ,kroneck] concludes t m\nta9 sickness is caus$ by a conge/ion ( ! lungs1 imp$+ ! fl[ ( blood ?r\gh !m4 ,mosso & 8 foll[]s attribute ! physical di/urbances ( a r$uc$ atmosph]ic pressure to ! fact t ! blood loses c>bon dioxide m quickly ?an x loses oxyg51 & !y ascribe m\nta9 sickness to ?is decrease ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! blood4 ,cohnheim believes !re is a conc5tration ( ! blood at high altitudes2 9 fact1 insignificant increases h be5 f\nd by compet5t obs]v]s40 ,div]s & work]s 9 caissons are subject$ to high b>ometric pressure1 am\nt+1 at ! maximum1 to ab\t #d atmosph]es4 ,accord+ to ,ros5au3 8,! physiological effects ( an increas$ atmosph]ic pressure are ma9ly due to an increase 9 ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic gases 7especially nitrog57 :i* are tak5 up by ! blood1 & also to an increase 9 ! *emical absorption ( oxyg5 by ! blood4 ,! s]i\s consequ5ces usually result f too rapid decompression4 ,z ! pressure is releas$ gas bubbles =m4 ,gradual decompression gives a *ance = ! gas to escape f ! lungs & be expell$ )\t ! production ( bubbles40 ,! heal? & com=t ( _m p seem to be affect$1 9 a r /rik+ way1 by ! passage ( ! b>ometric depressions & areas ( high pressure t alt]nate at int]vals ( a few days 9 ! temp]ate zones4 ,^! effects %\ld n be ascrib$ to *anges ( pressure1 b r to ! accompany+ *anges 9 ! o!r meteorological conditions4 ,! late ,dr4 ,weir ,mit*ell1 :o 0 a pione] /ud5t ( su* ph5om5a1 wrote ( 8a neuralgic belt1 )9 :i*1 z x sweeps along 9 advance ( ! /orm1 prevail 9 ! hurt & maim$ limbs ( m51 9 ! t5d] n]ves & rheumatic jo9ts1 r5ew$ torm5ts call$ into exi/5ce by ! /ir & p]turbation ( ! elem5ts40 ,victims ( neuralgia & rheumatism are probably q ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ !mselves z human b>omet]s1 capable ( pr$ict+ ) consid]able accuracy ! adv5t ( /ormy & ra9y wea!r4 ,! fluctuations ( temp]ature1 humidity1 & w9d t att5d ! passage ( b>ometric highs & l[s w\ld seem1 9 virtue ( _! effects on ! heat-regulat+ me*anism ( ! body & consequ5t reactions ^u ! n]v\s sy/em 9 g5]al1 to supply an ample explanation ( ! unpleasant symptoms above not$ 9 ! case ( s5sitive p2 conditions to :i* ! collective "n ( 8cyclonopa?y0 has be5 giv5 by ,european inve/igators1 & :i* are ext5sively discuss$ 9 ! works ( ,hellpa*1 ,frank5hus]1 & ,b]l9]4 ,"s au?orities h1 h[ev]1 invok$ 9 ?is connection ! possible effects ( atmosph]ic electricity1 & po9t$ to ! extreme s5sitiv5ess ( _m p]sons to ! approa* ( ?und]/orms2 a condition :i* ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,be>d nam$ 8a/raphobia40 ,x is /at$ t ! passage ( a l[-pressure area favors ! emission ( radioactive emanations f ! gr\nd1 t ! ionization ( ! atmosph]e1 & h5ce its electrical conductivity1 is ?us increas$1 & t ! electric *>ge ( ! body is c>ri$ away m rapidly ?an usual4 ,"h we ent] ^u a debatable subject1 b "o t ?or\ghly m]its inve/igation4 ,! human organism is ! seat ( v>i\s electrical ph5om5a1 & ^! c]ta9ly _c be indep5d5t ( *anges 9 ! electrical /ate ( ! atmosph]e4 ,ap>t f possible direct effects ( atmosph]ic electricity ^u ! human sy/em1 x has be5 sugge/$ t electrical *anges 9 ! atmosph]e affect ! rate ( reproduction ( bact]ia1 & may !re=e h "s influ5ce on ! spread ( infecti\s diseases4 ,! wea!r has _m subtle influ5ces ^u ! human m9d1 produc+ moods ( *e]fulness & depression1 & manife/+ !mselves 9 ! records ( ! behavior ( s*ool *ildr51 9 /ati/ics ( crime1 insanity1 suicide1 drunk5ness1 etc4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ^! manife/ations is giv5 by ,dr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,dext] 9 8 book 8,wea!r ,influ5ces0 7,new ,york1 #aijd74 ,f9ally1 ! aspect ( meteorology t has ?us f> acquir$ ! mo/ def9ite %ape 9 m$ical circles & giv5 rise to ! mo/ coh]5t body ( lit]ature is ,m$ical ,climatology1 :i* is design$ to be appli$ 9 ! climatic treatm5t ( disease 7climato!rapy74 ,?us _m compilations h be5 made ( ! climatic /ati/ics ( heal? resorts1 & ^! resorts h be5 classifi$ ) respect to _! suppos$ climatic effects ^u v>i\s diseases4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! physical climatologi/1 ! /ati/ics f\nd 9 su* books seem1 9 g5]al1 bo? meag] & ill adapt$ to br+ out important features ( ! climates discuss$2 to say no?+ ( ! fact t ! :ole subject ( climato!rapy is fraught ) controv]sy--:]e( ! hi/ory ( ! treatm5t ( tub]culosis furni%es a %9+ example6 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,wea!r-,,mak+ ,meteorologi/s1 9 _! c&id mom5ts1 h be5 he>d to express disappo9tm5t ov] ! am\nt ( progress made 9 ! art ( wea!r =eca/+ dur+ ! pa/ half-c5tury4 8,%all we ev]10 !y ask1 8be able to pr$ict ! wea!r ) ma!matical c]ta9ty1 z ! a/ronom] pr$icts an eclipse ( ! sun or moon80 ,p]haps ev5 )9 ! meteorological fold !re are unor?odox optimi/s :o w\ld answ] su* a "q ?us3 8,yes1 because "s day we %all control ! wea!r4 ,x is inconceivable t man1 :o is e day a*iev+ new miracles 9 ! conque/ ( nature1 %\ld n ev5tually f9d a way ( regulat+ ! ra9fall & sun%9e t are ( su* vital importance to 8 crops1 ! w9ds t mu/ be reckon$ ) 9 8 voyages by sea & air1 & ! v>i\s o!r elem5ts ( wea!r t h s mu* to d ) 8 happ9ess & welf>e4 ,! atta9m5t ( ?is object is s trem5d\sly desirable t x _c =ev] baffle human +5uity40 ,9 support ( su* a bold ass]tion x might be po9t$ out t we already control ! wea!r to a c]ta9 limit$ ext5t4 ,:5 ! horticulturi/ burns or*>d heat]s to protect 8 fruit f fro/ he c]ta9ly alt]s ! wea!r = a few h\rs ov] a small area ( ! e>?4 ,if !re 7 any practical ju/ification ( ! process1 ! temp]ature ( ! air ov] an entire ,/ate1 = example1 c\ld be rais$ ?r\gh\t ! w9t]1 ) appreciable effects on agriculture4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 heat+ a s+le or*>d = a night & heat+ a ,/ate = a season is "o ( degree1 & n ( pr9ciple4 ,! climate ( a city is1 ?r\gh causes dep5d5t ^u man1 mat]ially diff]5t f ! natural climate ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,e dwell+ provid$ ) heat+ arrangem5ts enjoys an artificial summ] amid ! bla/s ( w9t]4 ,local control ( ! w9ds is exemplifi$ 9 ! plant+ ( ?\s&s ( miles ( trees z w9dbreaks 9 ! prairie regions ( our ,middle ,we/4 ,by mod]at+ ! w9ds ?is process has a m>k$ effect on temp]ature & evaporation & is s b5eficial to crops t 9 ! aggregate x furni%es a /rik+ example ( successful 8wea!r-mak+0 by mank9d4 ,analog\s me?ods1 p]fectly feasible ) means already at our disposal1 w\ld *ange ! :ole climatic aspect ( l>ge areas ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! "q 8,c we make x ra980 may be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative by ^? :o are nei!r impo/ors nor victims ( self-delusion4 ,! deposit ( spray f ! sp\t ( a teakettle might1 )\t mu* /ret*+ ( t]ms1 be describ$ z a m9iature artificial ra9/orm2 b mu* bigg] %[]s1 9 n[ise diff]5t f ^? occurr+ 9 nature1 c also be produc$ artificially4 ,huge cl\ds h (t5 be5 obs]v$ to =m ov] =e/ fires & o!r great conflagrations4 ,^! cl\ds1 compos$ ( wat] drops1 t[] f> above ! smoke cl\d1 & are id5tical 9 "* & mode ( orig9 ) ! cumulus & cumulo-nimbus cl\ds =m$ by curr5ts ( moi/ air ris+ f ! heat$ gr\nd on a summ] day4 ,!re are sev]al well-au!nticat$ cases 9 :i* ra9 has be5 se5 to fall f su* cl\ds1 & ^! %[]s h sometimes be5 s heavy z to ext+ui% ! fires t g5]at$ !m4 ,h5ce1 giv5 favorable conditions ( humidity1 temp]ature & w9d1 mank9d c c]ta9ly produce a ra9/orm 7& p]haps a ?und]/orm into ! b>ga97 by ! relatively simple process ( build+ a big fire4 ,un=tunately ! va/ majority ( me?ods :]eby man has attempt$ to regulate ! wea!r h no su* rational f\ndation z ^? we h j m5tion$4 ,"s are :olly sup]/iti\s1 o!rs are purely empirical1 & yet o!rs are bas$ ^u ideas t _! promot]s suppose or pret5d to be sci5tific1 b t are actually fallaci\s4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( sup]/iti\s practices wea!r-mak+ plays a prom95t "p4 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,fraz]1 9 t great /oreh\se ( my? & folklore1 8,! ,gold5 ,b\gh10 says3 8,( ! ?+s :i* ! public magician sets himself to d = ! good ( ! tribe1 "o ( ! *ief is to control ! wea!r & especially to insure an adequate fall ( ra94 ,9 savage communities ! ra9-mak] is a v important p]sonage2 & (t5 a special class ( magicians exi/s = ! purpose ( regulat+ ! heav5ly wat] supply40 ,fraz] devotes n9ety pages ( 8 "w to a rapid survey ( ! sup]/iti\s me?ods ( controll+ ! wea!r t h f\nd cr$5ce among ! v>i\s races ( mank9d4 ,^! range all ! way f ! mo/ complicat$ c]emonies to ! summ>y exp$i5t ( ?r[+ a pass+ /rang] into a riv] to br+ ra94 ,! sailor :o :i/les or scrat*es ! ma/ to raise a w9d is m]ely keep+ up a qua9t cu/om1 9 ! efficacy ( :i* he may or may n put "s l+]+ fai?1 b :i* ! _w at l>ge long s9ce ceas$ to take s]i\sly4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a vessel ma/] attempts to disp]se a wat]sp\t by fir+ a cannon at x1 he is do+ :at n9e educat$ p]sons out ( t5 w\ld probably d "u ! circum/ances4 ,yet "o process is no m futile ?an ! o!r1 & bo? are bas$ on sup]/ition4 ,ages ago sailors s\ght to fright5 wat]sp\ts away by po9t+ knives at !m1 or by %\ts & ! cla%+ ( swords1 & ! use ( cannon orig9ally embodi$ ! same idea ( t]rify+ ! wat]y mon/]4 ,x is our purpose 9 ! pres5t *apt] to describe especially sev]al processes ( wea!r-mak+ :i*1 :ile n obvi\sly *im]ical f ! po9t ( view ( ! layman1 h be5 m or less positively discr$it$ ?r\gh ! scrut9y ( m5 ( sci5ce4 ,! ef=ts ( mod]n wea!r-mak]s h be5 direct$ especially to two objects2 viz41 ! production ( ra9 & ! prev5tion ( hail/orms4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a c]ta9 am\nt ( +5uity has also be5 devot$ to ! task ( dispell+ tornadoes4 ,"s ye>s ago a device = ! latt] purpose 0 pat5t$1 consi/+ ( a box1 conta9+ explosives1 m\nt$ on a pole & erect$ a mile or s to ! s\?we/w>d ( ! village to be protect$ f ^! unwelcome visitors4 ,! =ce ( ! w9d 0 expect$ to detonate ! explosives by driv+ a movable bo>d aga9/ p]cussion caps4 ,! inv5tor believ$ t a viol5t explosion w\ld disp]se ! pass+ tornado funnel4 ,ap>t f ! fact t a s+le in/allation ( ?is "*1 or ev5 sev]al ( !m1 w\ld seldom happ5 to be at exactly ! "r spot to explode close to ! relatively small vortex ( a tornado1 ! effect ( ! explosion1 ev5 9 ! v he>t ( ! /orm1 w\ld c]ta9ly be negligible4 ,! en]gy t keeps ! tornado 9 action is suppli$ cont9u\sly f a level f> above ! e>?1 :ile ! di/urbance due to ! explosion w\ld be only mom5t>y4 ,above all1 ! en]gy develop$ 9 any dis*>ge ( explosives t ! community c\ld af=d to pay = w\ld be q insignificant comp>$ ) t :i* prodigal nature supplies to ! tornado4 ,! same disproportion betwe5 ! giant =ces at "w 9 ! atmosph]e & ! pygmy =ces at ! disposal ( mank9d is a po9t t is ov]look$ 9 mo/ attempts at wea!r-mak+4 ,! widespread belief t ra9 c be produc$ by explosions rises s f> above ! level ( ord9>y popul> delusions t x has sometimes l$ to l>ge exp5ditures ( money on ! "p ( dr\ght-ridd5 communities & ev5 ( national gov]nm5ts4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable example ( (ficial confid5ce 9 ! efficacy ( ?is process 0 t furni%$ "s ye>s ago by ! ,volksraad1 or legislative assembly1 ( ! ,transvaal1 :i* pass$ a law =bidd+ ! bomb>dm5t ( ! cl\ds to produce ra91 on ! gr\nd t ! ra9-mak]s 7 ?w>t+ ! w ( ! ,almighty6 ,"o manife/ation ( ! belief 9 "q is f\nd 9 ! common ass]tion t ra9 is ! usual sequel ( battles4 ,?is idea orig9at$1 h[ev]1 long be=e ! inv5tion ( gunp[d]4 ,x is m5tion$ by ,plut>* & o!r writ]s ( antiquity4 ,:atev] sup]/ition or crude process ( reason+ may h fir/ giv5 support to ?is notion 9 ! popul> m9d1 ! explanation n[ commonly advanc$ is t ! cond5sation ( moi/ure is promot$ by ! concussion due to cannonad+1 or t ! drops already cond5s$ & con/itut+ ! cl\ds are jo/l$ toge!r by ! same di/urbance1 ) ! result t !y coalesce & fall z ra94 ,!re is no gr\nd = su* assumptions4 ,z 0 once po9t$ out by ! late ,pr(essor ,simon ,newcomb1 ! effect ( a viol5t explosion ^u a body ( moi/ air a qu>t] ( a mile di/ant is ab\t ! same z t :i* ! clapp+ ( "o's h&s w\ld produce ^u ! moi/ air ( ! room 9 :i* ! exp]im5t is p]=m$4 ,aga91 if we /& 9 ! /eam escap+ f a teakettle & clap our h&s we %all n produce a %[]1 ?\gh we jo/le ! wat] drops mu* m ?an ! explosion does at a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ano!r explanation has be5 (f]$ = ! alleg$ production ( ra9 by explosions2 viz41 t ! smoke & gases aris+ f an explosion increase cond5sation by increas+ ! numb] ( 8nuclei0 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,z we h se51 h[ev]1 9 consid]+ ! natural =mation ( ra91 ! numb] ( cond5sation nuclei normally pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e is s great t x mu/ be dim9i%$1 r ?an increas$1 be=e drops z l>ge z ra9drops c be =m$4 ,moreov]1 ! nuclei requir$ = ! cond5sation ( wat] vapor1 includ+ molecules ( highly hygroscopic gases1 are giv5 =? 9 abundance by great manufactur+ c5t]s1 yet ^! places d n h a heavi] ra9fall ?an ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,pittsburgh1 = example1 is actually "o ( ! drie/ places 9 ,p5nsylvania4 ,"o obvi\s reason :y ra9 (t5 foll[s a battle is t battles are frequ5tly f\ght 9 regions :]e ra9 normally occurs e two or ?ree days1 on an av]age1 :e!r 9 peace or w>4 ,9 nor!rn ,france1 = example1 :]e ! battles ( ! ,_w ,w> 7 pl5te\sly int]sp]s$ ) %[]s1 meteorological records %[ t ! av]age numb] ( ra9y days p] annum is upw>d ( #aej4 ,! dr5*+ ra9s t made 8,virg9ia mud0 a byword dur+ ! ,am]ican ,civil ,w> gave great curr5cy to ! belief 9 8ra9 aft] battles10 ,"h1 aga91 we h accurate wea!r records to help u dispel a fallacy4 ,?us at ,ri*mond ra9 falls on #abb days 9 an av]age ye>1 at ,lyn*burg on #abd days1 & at ,pet]sburg on #aje days4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a p>ticul> reason :y ra9 is r m likely to occur soon aft] a battle ?an %ortly be=e "o2 viz41 ! fact t int]vals ( fair wea!r1 ) consequ5t dry roads1 are us$ by comm&]s 9 c>ry+ out ! movem5t ( troops t prec$e an engagem5t4 ,by ! "t su* arrangem5ts1 (t5 occupy+ sev]al days1 are complet$1 ! 8spell0 ( f9e wea!r is likely to be ov]1 & a ra9/orm is due 9 accordance ) ! normal program ( nature4 ,! mo/ fam\s und]tak+ 9 ! hi/ory ( ra9-mak+--& "o :i* has _h an incalculable effect 9 fo/]+ ! cr$ulity ( ! public ) respect to simil> ent]prises--0 t c>ri$ out by ,g5]al ,rob]t ,dyr5=? on behalf ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t 9 #ahia4 ,congress vot$ appropriations am\nt+ to #i1jjj = ^! exp]im5ts1 & ,dyr5=? 0 appo9t$ a 8special ag5t0 ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture to direct !m4 ,aft] "s prelim9>y trials 9 ! suburbs ( ,wa%+ton1 ! exp]im5t]s proce$$ to a ran* ne> ,midl&1 ,texas4 ,"h a few balloons fill$ ) a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 z well z sev]al /icks ( dynamite c>ri$ up by kites1 7 explod$ 9 ! air1 b ! only explosions ( consid]able magnitude 7 set (f on ! gr\nd4 ,! exp]im5ts cont9u$ ov] a p]iod ( ?ree weeks & 9 "s cases %[]s fell )9 a few h\rs aft] an explosion1 b1 9 spite ( ! some:at favorable tone ( ! (ficial report1 ! cons5sus ( sci5tific op9ion 0 t ! und]tak+ 0 a failure1 :ile ! views ( ! public at l>ge 7 divid$4 ,! attitude ( ! ,gov]nm5t is suffici5tly indicat$ by ! fact t x has nev] s9ce und]tak5 exp]im5ts 9 ?is l9e4 ,! "o tangible outcome ( ?is affair 0 t a crop ( private ra9-mak]s sprang up all ov] ! c\ntry1 & to ?is day ! example set by ! (ficial exp]im5t]s is cit$ 9 support ( e sort ( h>ebra9$ s*eme = juggl+ ) ! wea!r4 ,9 #aiaa & #aiab ! late ,c4 ,w4 ,po/1 ( breakfa/-food fame1 exp5d$ _m ?\s& p\nds ( dynamite 9 ef=ts to produce ra9 9 ,texas & ,mi*igan4 ,%[]s und\bt$ly occurr$ 9 conjunction ) ,po/'s exp]im5ts1 b conditions favor+ _! occurr5ce 7 pla9ly indicat$ on ! curr5t daily wea!r maps1 & !y _h be5 duly =eca/ by ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,! pr(essional ra9-mak] does n g5]ally resort to ! exp5sive process ( bomb>d+ ! cl\ds4 ,8 me?ods mo/ frequ5tly involve ! use ( *emicals1 & ! details are %r\d$ 9 my/]y4 ,= example1 ab\t a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago "o ,frank ,melb\rne1 kn[n z 8! ,au/ralian ra9-mak]10 enjoy$ great celebrity & co9$ money by 8 exploits 9 ?is field4 ,8 plan 0 to %ut himself up 9 a b>n1 freight c>1 or o!r /ructure1 & manipulate 8 *emicals & electric batt]ies = h\rs or days4 ,naturally ra9 sometimes came aft] ^! op]ations1 b z (t5 x did n4 ,sev]al ( ! me?ods t h be5 sugge/$ f "t to "t = produc+ ra9 are suffici5tly discr$it$ by ! fact t ! exp5se ( putt+ !m into execution w\ld m ?an (fset any b5efits d]iv$ f ! ra91 if ! exp]im5ts prov$ successful4 ,?us "o g5ius1 obs]v+ ! deposit ( wat] on ! outside ( an ice pit*] 9 a w>m room1 propos$ to set up a b>ri] pack$ ) ice 9 ! pa? ( moi/ure-be>+ w9ds4 ,ano!r plan occasionally sugge/$ is to spr9kle ! atmosph]e al(t ) liquid air or liquid c>bon dioxide1 9 ord] to l[] ! temp]ature1 by ! rapid evaporation ( ^! sub/ances1 bel[ ! po9t ( cond5sation4 ,a ?ird proposal is to create a local updraft ( air by means ( p[]ful fans or bl[]s1 ?us imitat+ ! convectional process by :i* cl\ds & ra9 are =m$ 9 nature4 ,la/ly1 v>i\s plans h be5 sugge/$ = alt]+ ! electrical condition ( ! upp] atmosph]e--= example1 by electrical dis*>ges f balloons--on ! assumption t ra9fall might ?us be promot$4 ,?is assumption1 h[ev]1 is n consi/5t ) kn[n facts z to ! relation betwe5 atmosph]ic electricity & ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic wat] vapor4 ,:ile 9 ,am]ica a va/ am\nt ( money has be5 wa/$ on futile exp]im5ts 9 ra9-mak+1 f> m has be5 sp5t 9 ,europe on s*emes = av]t+ hail/orms4 ,me?ods ( accompli%+ ?is purpose h v>i$ f age to age4 ,9 antiquity x 0 ! cu/om to %oot arr[s or hurl javel9s t[>d ! ga!r+ cl\ds 9 ! hope ( fright5+ !m away4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages ecclesia/ical or occult ag5cies 7 invok$2 8hail crosses0 7su* z are /ill se5 9 ! ,tyrol7 7 erect$2 & ! r++ ( *ur* bells 0 consid]$ efficaci\s aga9/ bo? hail & lightn+1 z is %[n by ! inscriptions f\nd on _m old bells4 ,! cu/om ( fir+ cannon at ! cl\ds to av]t hail began c5turies ago 9 ,/yria & nor!rn ,italy1 & x 0 well e/abli%$ 9 ,france be=e ! ,revolution4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ano!r me?od ( hail protection 0 introduc$ 9 ,france1 :5ce x spread ov] ! re/ ( ,europe4 ,?is consi/$ 9 sett+ up tall1 metal-tipp$ poles1 imitat$ f lightn+ rods4 ,x 0 suppos$ t ^! poles1 :i* 7 kn[n z p>agrles1 w\ld draw ! electric *>ge f ! cl\ds & !reby 7?\gh nobody c\ld say :y7 w\ld prev5t ! =mation ( hail/ones4 ,?is device1 ?\gh report$ on unfavorably by ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ga9$ great popul>ity4 ,"o ( its advocates1 writ+ 9 #ahbg1 /ates t m ?an a million p>agrles 7 at t "t 9 use 9 ,france1 ,switz]l&1 ,italy1 ,au/ria1 ,bav>ia1 & ! ,rh9e c\ntry4 ,! vogue enjoy$ by ^! contrivances is said to h come to a sudd5 end :5 a trem5d\s hail/orm n only deva/at$ ! fields & v9ey>ds !y 7 suppos$ to protect1 b also knock$ d[n a great numb] ( ! rods !mselves4 ,9 rec5t times bo? ! hail cannon & ! p>agrle h be5 reviv$4 ,! new era ( 8hail-%oot+10 z ! process ( cannonad+ ! hail cl\ds is call$1 dates f ! ye> #ahif1 :5 a numb] ( cannon ( a new type 7 in/all$ 9 ! v9e-gr[+ di/rict ( ,w9dis*-,fei/ritz1 9 ,/yria4 ,! success claim$ = !m 9 ?is region l$ to _! introduction on a va/ scale ov] ! great] "p ( s\!rn & c5tral ,europe4 ,! cannon employ$ 7 small mort>s1 to ! muzzles ( :i* 7 atta*$ %eet-iron funnels4 ,no projectile 0 us$1 b ! explosion ( ! *>ge s5t al(t a curi\s :irl+ r+ ( smoke & gas1 p[]ful en\gh to spl9t] /icks & kill small birds sev]al hundr$ feet f ! cannon4 ,by ! ye> #aijj at lea/ #aj1jjj hail cannon 7 9 use 9 ,italy alone4 ,sev]al modifications ( ! device 7 introduc$1 su* z ! use ( acetyl5e 9 place ( gunp[d]2 & ev5tually c]ta9 =ms ( rocket & bomb 7 adopt$1 = conc5trat+ ! effects ( ! explosion at z high a level z possible4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahii a new =m ( hail rod 0 introduc$ 9 ,france1 & ?is has become ! favorite means ( protection aga9/ hail 9 t c\ntry4 ,x is ess5tially a v l>ge lightn+ rod ( pure copp]1 gr\nd$ by means ( a broad copp] conductor4 ,su* rods h be5 in/all$1 9 "s cases1 on *ur* /eeples & o!r tall edifices1 includ+ ! ,eiffel ,t[]1 9 ,p>is1 & 9 o!r cases on tall /eel t[]s erect$ = ?is purpose4 ,?is device is call$ fanta/ically an 8electric ,niag>a10 because1 accord+ to ! claims ( its promot]s1 x draws d[n 8torr5ts0 ( electricity f ! cl\ds4 ,hundr$s ( ^! 8,niag>as0 h be5 con/ruct$ 9 ,france4 ,"s ( !m are set up 9 r[s1 or s-call$ b>rages1 across ! habitual pa?s ( hail/orms4 ,! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t 0 induc$ to appo9t a 8,comit de ,df5se contre la ,grle0 7,hail-protection ,committee71 :i* be=e ! w> _h made elaborate plans = 8protect+0 n only ! :ole ( ,france1 b also ,alg]ia & ,tunis1 ) ^! devices4 ,simil> rods h be5 erect$ 9 ,arg5t9a1 & plans = introduc+ !m 9 ,s\? ,africa 7 ne> consummation at ! "t ! ,_w ,w> broke out4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! extraord9>y hold t ! v>i\s hail-protect+ devices h tak5 ^u ! m9ds ( ,european cultivators x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! int5sive cultivation ( ! soil is ! rule ov] ! great] "p ( ,europe1 s t a hail/orm ( relatively small ext5t (t5 does enorm\s damage4 ,v9ey>ds are especially subject to injury f ?is cause1 & _m ( ! ri*e/ v9e-gr[+ di/ricts ( ! ,old ,_w are notori\sly afflict$ ) hail/orms4 ,sci5tific commissions appo9t$ by ! ,au/rian & ,italian gov]nm5ts conduct$ long s]ies ( te/s ( ! me?ods ( bomb>d+ ! cl\ds ) mort>s1 bombs1 & rockets1 & decl>$ !m to be ( no value4 ,! erection ( hail rods1 ?\gh x has receiv$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( (ficial enc\ragem5t 9 ,france1 is also /rongly disc\nt5anc$ by ! majority ( sci5tific m51 z well z by a l>ge proportion ( intellig5t agriculturi/s4 ,reports on ! actual op]ation ( ! rods support conflict+ op9ions--z might be expect$ f ! fact t ! hail/orm is a decid$ly erratic ph5om5on4 ,?us1 "s obs]v]s claim t ! /orm cl\ds *ange conspicu\sly 9 appe>ance z !y approa* a 8,niag>a10 & if !y %$ hail ^u ! spot x is 9 a s(t & h>mless =m4 ,o!rs d5y ! accuracy ( ^! obs]vations1 & po9t to ! /ubborn fact t ord9>y hail has fall5 on sev]al ( ! rods !mselves1 includ+ ! "o on ! ,eiffel ,t[]4 ,9 ! suburbs ( ,cl]mont-,f]r& a 8,niag>a0 is in/all$ on an iron t[]1 #ajj feet high4 ,?is rod 0 pelt$ ) hail twice 9 #aiab & f\r times 9 #aiac1 & 9 "o case ! hail/ones atta9$ ! size ( h5's eggs6 ,nobody has ev] (f]$ any plausible sci5tific hypo!sis to expla9 :y ^! rods %\ld h an effect ^u hail1 ev5 if !y are able1 z seems unlikely1 to r$uce ! electrical *>ge ( ! cl\ds2 s9ce ! =mation ( hail is due to movem5ts ( ! air1 :i*1 9 turn1 are ! cause & n ! result ( ! *>ge 9 "q4 ,=tunately = ! f>m] & ! horticulturi/--especially 9 ,europe--a me?od ( av]t+ ! losses due to hail/orms is available 9 ! %ape ( insurance1 & its co/ is decid$ly less ?an t entail$ 9 sy/ematic hail-%oot+ or 9 ! g5]al erection ( hail rods4 ,hail/orm insurance has be5 ext5sively practic$ 9 ! ,old ,_w s9ce ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 "s c\ntries x has be5 conduct$ or subsidiz$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,g5]ally ea* c\ntry is divid$ into a numb] ( zones1 accord+ to ! record$ frequ5cy ( hail/orms1 & ! premiums v>y proportionately4 ,premiums also v>y = diff]5t crops1 s9ce "s are bett] able to )/& ! effects ( hail ?an o!rs4 ,! am\nt ( insurance ( ?is k9d c>ri$ 9 ,g]many1 alone1 %ortly be=e ! ,_w ,w>1 0 m ?an #hjj1jjj1jjj4 ,hail/orm insurance is fairly common 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 especially 9 ! ,middle ,we/1 b /ill lacks an adequate /ati/ical basis 9 ! %ape ( detail$ records ( hail frequ5cy4 ,9 #aiai gr[+ crops 9 ?is c\ntry 7 insur$ aga9/ hail to ! ext5t ( #eei1acd1jjj4 ,mu* in=mation on ?is subject w be f\nd 9 ,v4 ,n4 ,valgr5's 8,hail ,insurance on ,f>m ,crops 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates0 7,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture1 ,bullet9 #iab71 publi%$ 9 #aibj4 ,besides ! wea!r-mak+ s*emes already not$1 m5tion %\ld be made ( c]ta9 m ambiti\s projects ( ?is "* t h be5 bruit$ f "t to "t1 & t h f\nd pl5ty ( cr$ul\s support]s4 ,9 ! ye> #ahde an ,am]ican meteorologi/ ( und\bt$ ability1 b mu* incl9$ to ! rid+ ( hobbies--viz41 ,james ,p4 ,espy--propos$ ! build+ ( great fires 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ord] to regulate ! w9ds & ra9fall to ! ea/w>d4 ,! fires 7 to ext5d 9 a l9e ( six or sev5 hundr$ miles f nor? to s\?1 & 7 to be set (f once a week ?r\gh\t ! summ]4 ,ano!r g5ius1 ( less celebrity1 propos$ to de/roy blizz>ds by means ( a l9e ( coal /oves along ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( ! c\ntry4 ,a favorite idea ( ^? :o aspire to produce :olesale *anges ( climate is to alt] ! c\rse ( ocean curr5ts = ?is purpose4 ,"o e>ly plan contemplat$ ! damm+ ( ! ,/rait ( ,belle ,isle 9 ord] to improve ! climate ( ,new ,engl& & ! ,canadian prov9ces2 :ile1 a few ye>s s9ce1 a proposal to build an imm5se jetty ea/w>d f ,newf\ndl& = ! purpose ( 8protect+ ! w>m nor?-fl[+ ,gulf ,/ream f ! onslaughts ( ! ice-cold1 s\?-fl[+ ,labrador ,curr5t0 actually receiv$1 s]i\s att5tion f ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,atmosph]ic ,,byways #a4 ,,ignis ,,fatuus1 ,,or ,,w-,o'-,,!-,,wisp ,w-o'-!-wisp is prov]bially elusive4 ,x has ?us f> escap$ ! fate ( ! ra9b[1 deplor$ by ,keats4 ,we d n "k its wo( & texture1 & x is n giv5 9 ! dull catalogue ( common ?+s4 ,a /rong argum5t 9 favor ( ! reality ( ?is ph5om5on is f\nd 9 ! great numb] ( names t h be5 appli$ to x4 ,!re are =ty or fifty 9 ! ,briti% dialects alone4 ,a my? g5]ally c>ries its nom5clature ) x1 z x spreads f "o community to ano!r1 :ile a fact ( nature may give rise to a v>iety ( local names4 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t a great _m diff]5t ph5om5a h be5 describ$ z w-o'-!-wisp4 ,"s ( ^! are3 7#a7 ,! phosphoresc5ce ( decay+ wood 78fox fire07 & o!r vegetable matt]4 ,?is is due to lum9\s fungi4 ,accord+ to ,h4 ,molis* !re are "s =ty-five species ( fungi1 includ+ tw5ty species ( bact]ia1 t h ! prop]ty ( lum9osity4 ,sometimes ! gr\nd "u a =e/ is illum9at$ on all sides ) a s(t1 :ite light f decay+ leaves4 7#b7 ,fireflies1 includ+ gl[worms 7! w+less females ( ! firefly & ! l>v74 7#c7 ,lum9\s birds & animals4 ,_! lum9osity is suppos$ to be due to p>asitic fungi4 ,c]ta9 species ( skunk h be5 describ$ z giv+ (f 9 ! d>kness a cont9u\s flame1 ! head be+ fi]y r$1 :i* bl5ds into a bright blue at ! tail4 7#d7 ,ball lightn+4 7#e7 ,/4 ,elmo's fire4 7#f7 ,mov+ lant]ns1 di/ant lights ( h\ses1 & o!r lights due to human ag5cy4 7#g7 ,burn+ gas asc5d+ f m>%es1 /agnant pools1 & ! l4 ,m>% gas & o!r inflammable gases commonly rise f su* places1 & are (t5 ignit$ by man1 or by lightn+1 etc4 ,su* fires are sometimes se5 by day z well z by night4 7#h7 ,burn+ naph?a spr+s4 ,exclud+ ! num]\s report$ cases ( w-o'-!-wisp 9 :i* ! ph5om5on may be plausibly id5tifi$ ) "o ( ^? m5tion$ above1 !re rema9 sev]al cases1 "s ( !m report$ by v c>eful obs]v]s1 :i* appe> to belong to a diff]5t category4 ,! reports 9 "q diff] some:at 9 details1 b yield ! foll[+ composite description3 ,small lum9\s bodies1 8ab\t z l>ge z y\r fi/10 or 8! size ( a c&le flame10 are se5 hov]+ a few feet above ! gr\nd2 n only ov] m>%es & pools1 b also ov] dry l&4 ,sometimes !y are /ation>y2 at o!r times !y appe> to drift ) ! w9d1 or ev5 to move indep5d5tly4 ,!y appe> & disappe>1 aft] ! mann] ( fireflies4 ,!y d n set fire to objects ) :i* !y come 9 contact1 & are believ$ to be )\t s5sible heat4 ,_! color is mo/ (t5 describ$ z blui%1 b may be yell[1 purple1 gre51 etc42 r>ely pure :ite4 ,!y are )\t odor & )\t smoke4 ,traditionally !y are associat$ ) gravey>ds1 b 9 v few ( ! cases h]et(ore record$ 7 !y actually se5 9 su* places4 ,! popul> idea t !y flee f ! travel] :o tries to approa* !m & foll[ him :5 he seeks to avoid !m is also unsupport$ by ! evid5ce ?us f> adduc$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ circum/antial acc\nts ( ^! objects is t publi%$ 9 ! ,belgian j\rnal 8,ciel et ,t]re0 = ,july-,augu/1 #aibj1 by a retir$ army surgeon1 ,jules ,rossignol1 :o obs]v$ !m repeat$ly 9 ! autumn ( #aijh 9 & ab\t "s m>%y woods ne> ,grupont4 ,!y 7 g5]ally se5 to rise f ! gr\nd1 at fir/ 9 ! %ape ( little :ite cl\ds1 :i* *ang$ to lum9\s globes on atta9+ an altitude ( a doz5 y>ds1 & return$ by a circul> pa? t[>d ! gr\nd4 ,!y la/$ f "o to sev]al m9utes be=e disappe>+ 9 ! air4 ,x is a/oni%+ t ! ph5om5on ( ignis fatuus1 ?\gh report$ f s _m p>ts ( ! _w1 has n yet be5 made ! subject ( direct sci5tific exam9ation4 ,nobody has ev] /udi$ its light ) ! spectroscope1 = example4 ,*emi/s h1 inde$1 attempt$ to reproduce ! ph5om5on1 yet ! *emical explanations ( x t h appe>$ 9 ref]5ce books d[n to a rec5t date are q unt5able4 ,x has sometimes be5 attribut$ to m>% gas 7me?ane1 ,,*#d71 & sometimes to phosphuret$ hydrog5 7phosph9e1 ,,ph#c74 ,b m>% gas1 besides n be+ spontane\sly combu/ible1 diffuses too rapidly 9 ! air to produce ! effects describ$1 :ile phosphuret$ hydrog51 ?\gh x takes fire spontane\sly 9 ! air1 produces ?ick wrea?s ( smoke :5 burn+ & has a p[]ful odor--features nev] report$ 9 connection ) w-o'-!-wisp4 ,at lea/ two m plausible explanations ( ignis fatuus h be5 (f]$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,san=d 78,sci5tific ,mon?ly10 ,oct41 #aiai7 believes t x is due to 8sw>ms ( lum9\s bact]ia :i* are c>ri$ up f ! bottom ( ! m>% by ris+ bubbles ( gas40 ,a ,belgian *emi/1 ,m4 ,lon ,dumas 78,la ,nature10 ,dec4 #aa1 #aiji71 claims to h produc$ little lum9\s cl\ds1 correspond+ to ! traditional descriptions ( w-o'-!-wisp1 by comb9+ ! two gases sulphuret$ hydrog5 & phosph9e4 ,bo? ^! sub/ances are produc$ 9 ! decay ( animal matt]1 especially ( ! bra9 & sp9al cord4 ,! body ( an animal1 buri$ 9 "s wet place1 w\ld accumulate ! two gases "u pressure 9 ! skull & sp9al canal1 & _! escape1 simultane\sly1 w\ld fulfill ! conditions ( ,m4 ,dumas' exp]im5ts4 7,at ! reque/ ( ! pres5t writ]1 ^! exp]im5ts 7 repeat$ at ! ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 9 ,wa%+ton1 ) only p>tial success4 ,fur!r trials ) ^! & o!r gases due to putrefaction are desirable47 #b4 ,,! ,,ra9 ,,tree ,f "t to "t ! newspap]s publi% acc\nts ( a wond]ful tree1 said to gr[ wild 9 ,p]u or else:]e1 f ! leaves ( :i* falls a cont9u\s %[] ( ra91 ev5 9 ! drie/ wea!r4 ,! writ]s g5]ally urge ! introduction ( ?is tree 9 regions :]e ! ra9fall is defici5t1 & a s-call$ 8ra9 tree0 has actually be5 sold = ?is purpose by nurs]ym54 ,! /ory ( ?is tree is v old4 ,e>ly voyag]s report$ f9d+ x 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies1 ,gu9ea1 ,brazil1 & especially ! isl& ( ,f]ro1 9 ! ,can>ies4 ,n[adays ! "n 8ra9 tree0 is appli$ especially to a magnific5t tree ( tropical ,am]ica g5]ally kn[n to botani/s z ,pi!colobium 7or ,ent]olobium7 saman4 ,"o ( its common names is 8guango40 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,ra9 ,,tree ,f 8,voyageurs anci5s et mod]nes0 7,by ,e4 ,t4 ,*>ton7 ,a leg5d>y sc5e 9 ! isl& ( ,f]ro ,t _m plants spontane\sly exude moi/ure "u suitable conditions is well kn[n4 ,! ph5om5on is call$ 8guttation40 ,! moi/ure drawn up f ! roots is usually transpir$ f ! leaves 9 ! =m ( invisible wat] vapor2 i4 e41 x is evaporat$ on pass+ into ! air4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! humidity ( ! surr\nd+ air is suffici5tly high1 or its temp]ature suffici5tly l[1 to *eck evaporation1 ! wat] w collect on ! surface ( ! plant 9 liquid =m1 & may ultimately trickle to ! gr\nd 9 consid]able quantities4 ,guttation occurs *iefly at night1 or 9 cl\dy or foggy wea!r4 ,9 a v dry climate x does n occur at all2 & = ?is reason1 ev5 if ! s-call$ ra9 tree c\ld be successfully introduc$ 9 su* a climate1 x w\ld n help solve ! problem ( irrigation4 ,! dripp+ ( moi/ure deposit$ on plants by drift+ fog is ano!r common process t may h contribut$ to ! leg5d ( ! ra9 tree4 ,a classic example ( ?is process--te*nically call$ 8fog drip0--is t describ$ by ,dr4 ,r4 ,m>lo?1 :o has made actual measurem5ts ( ! abundant moi/ure captur$ by ! vegetation ( ,table ,m\nta91 ,s\? ,africa1 f ! driv+ cl\ds ( ! s\!a/ trade w9ds dur+ ! ne>ly ra9less summ] mon?s4 ,mr4 ,madison ,grant1 writ+ ( a simil> ph5om5on witness$ 9 ! r$wood =e/s ( ,cali=nia1 tells u t 8^! =e/s are sometimes s wet t ! dripp+ f ! high cr[ns is l a ?9 ra91 & 9 summ] x is (t5times h>d to tell :e!r x is ra9+ or n1 s saturat$ ) moi/ure are ! foliage & ! trunks :5 ! fog d>k5s ! =e/40 ,a copi\s production ( 8honeydew0 by plant lice1 scale insects1 etc41 may be at ! bottom ( "s ( ! ra9-tree /ories4 ,f4 ,e4 ,lutz1 9 8 8,field ,book ( ,insects10 writes ( 8weep+ trees10 :i* drip fluid ( insect orig91 & he says ( ! honeydew secret$ by ! pe> psylla 7,psylla pyricola73 8,:5 ! psyllas are num]\s ! leaves & fruit become coat$ ) ?is /icky sub/ance & x ev5 drops f !m l ra9 & runs d[n ! trunk40 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! ,p]uvian ra9 tree1 quot$ f ! travel] ,spruce1 0 publi%$ 9 8,nature0 ( ,feb4 #bh1 #ahgh1 by ,pr(4 ,?iselton ,dy]3 8,! ,tamia-caspi1 or ra9 tree ( ! ea/]n ,p]uvian ,&es1 is n a my?1 b a fact1 al?\gh n exactly 9 ! way popul> rumor has pres5t$ x4 ,i fir/ witness$ ! ph5om5on 9 ,septemb]1 #ahee1 :5 resid+ at ,t>apoto4 ,i _h gone "o morn+ at daybreak1 ) two assi/ants1 into ! adjac5t wood$ hills to botanize4 ,a little aft] sev5 o'clock we came "u a l[i% spread+ tree1 f :i* ) a p]fectly cle> sky ov]-head a sm>t ra9 0 fall+4 ,a glance upw>d %[$ a multitude ( cicadas1 suck+ ! juices ( ! t5d] "y bran*es & leaves & squirt+ =? sl5d] /reams ( limpid fluid40 #c4 ,,dew ,,ponds ,! ,d[n c\ntry ( s\!rn ,engl& is "o ( ! few places 9 ! _w :]e ! p g to ! hilltops to seek wat] 9 dry wea!r4 ,on ! summits ( ! ,d[ns are f\nd _m artificial %all[ ponds1 mo/ ( !m v old4 ,"s1 inde$1 date back to prehi/oric times4 ,! bottom ( ^! ponds consi/s ( a lay] ( puddl$ *alk or clay & is imp]vi\s to wat]1 s t !re is no loss by seepage4 ,z ! ponds are n f$ by spr+s or surface dra9age1 & z lack ( ra9 does n cause !m to dry up1 x is popul>ly believ$ t _! ma9t5ance dep5ds ^u dew4 ,h5ce !y are call$ 8dew ponds40 ,kipl+ m5tions !m 9 8 poetical description ( ,sussex3 ,we h no wat]s to delight ,our broad & brookless vales-- ,only ! dew pond on ! height ,unf$1 t nev] fails4 ,! lead+ au?ority on dew ponds is ,mr4 ,edw>d ,a4 ,m>t91 :o has writt5 a book ab\t !m4 ,mr4 ,m>t9's exp]im5ts h demon/rat$ t dew c make no important contribution to ! wat] supply ( ^! ponds4 ,! ra9fall on ! hilltops is some:at high] ?an 9 ! valleys1 & ! great] "p ( ! wat] 9 ! ponds is und\bt$ly d]iv$ f ?is s\rce4 ,! real key to ! my/]y1 h[ev]1 is f\nd 9 ! wet fogs t drift 9 f ! sea4 ,! process ( 8fog drip10 :i* we h m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! ra9 tree1 supplies ! defici5cies ( ! ra9fall1 & ! "n 8mi/ ponds10 occasionally appli$ to ^! bodies ( wat]1 is m appropriate ?an 8dew ponds40 ,x rema9s1 h[ev]1 an int]e/+ p>adox t1 9 "t ( dr\ght1 ! f>m]s ( ! ,d[ns drive _! cattle to ! hilltops to be wat]$ & s5d _! c>ts uphill to procure wat] = h\sehold use 9 ! valleys bel[4 ,0 x1 p]haps1 9 ?is topsy-turvy region--:]e upl&s are call$ 8d[ns0--t ,jack & ,jill w5t 8up ! hill0 on _! ill-/>r$ wat] que/8 #d4 ,,bl[+ ,,wells ,wells t pr$ict wea!r *anges are local curiosities 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,su* wells are n uncommon 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if ! well is op5 at ! top1 its manife/ations consi/ ( occasional di/urbance ( ! wat] & ! dis*>ge ( num]\s bubbles4 ,if x is cov]$1 a /rong curr5t ( air is1 at times1 emitt$ f any small orifice 9 ! cov]4 ,?is may be /rong en\gh to lift & bl[ away light objects plac$ ov] ! ap]ture4 ,its emission is frequ5tly accompani$ by a l\d :i/l+ or ro>+ s\nd4 ,su* occurr5ces are suppos$ to betok5 an approa*+ /orm4 ,^! wells are call$ 8bl[+ wells02 sometimes 8wea!r wells0 or 8b>omet] wells40 ,9 c]ta9 cases an indraft ( air is sometimes obs]v$2 i4 e41 ! well alt]nately 8sucks0 & 8bl[s40 ,z a rule ^! ph5om5a correspond to fluctuations 9 b>ometric pressure1 & !re=e are1 9 a r\gh way1 indicative ( *anges 9 wea!r4 ,x is obvi\s t a body ( air inclos$ 9 ! e>? & communicat+ by "o or a few small op5+s ) ! air above w set up outdrafts & indrafts 9 adju/+ its t5sion to t ( ! latt]4 ,! am\nt ( air conta9$ 9 ! well itself w\ld n suffice to produce ! viol5t effects obs]v$ & x is !re=e assum$ t ! typical bl[+ well taps a subt]ranean res]voir ( air1 probably fill+ ! int]/ices ( s& & gravel b$s4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! ext]nal air is dim9i%$1 "s ( ! imprison$ air escapes4 ,= a giv5 body ( inclos$ air1 ! small] ! *annel or *annels by :i* x em]ges1 ! /rong] ! outdraft4 ,:5 ! b>ometric pressure outside increases1 ! curr5t ( air fl[s 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,9 w9t] ! indraft ( cold air 9 su* a well sometimes causes ! wat] to freeze1 ev5 at a dep? ( #ajj feet or m bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & is !re=e a s\rce ( inconv5i5ce to ! own]4 ,v>i\s o!r circum/ances may give rise to ! bubbl+ & bl[+ ( wells4 ,c>bon dioxide & o!r gases dissolv$ 9 ! well wat] acc\nt = ! bubbl+ ( _m wells1 & ?is process is m active at times ( l[ b>ometric pressure1 because at a giv5 temp]ature1 ! am\nt ( gas t ! wat] c hold 9 solution v>ies ) ! pressure4 ,ano!r cause ( ! bl[+ ( a well is1 9 "s cases1 a sudd5 rise 9 ! wat] level 78wat] table07 9 ! surr\nd+ gr\nd1 z aft] a heavy ra9/orm4 ,if ! gr\nd is ov]la9 by an imp]vi\s /ratum1 ! air imprison$ betwe5 ?is /ratum & ! surface ( ! gr\nd wat] ov] an ext5sive area w escape ) viol5ce ?r\gh any available *annel1 su* z t suppli$ by ! well4 ,la/ly1 cases h be5 describ$ 9 :i* subt]ranean air curr5ts arise f ! friction ( rapidly fl[+ und]gr\nd /reams1 sett+ up p]man5t indrafts or outdrafts ?r\gh wells communicat+ ) su* /reams4 #e4 ,,curi\s ,,%[]s4 ,%[]s ( blood1 sulphur1 manna1 frogs1 fi%es1 & :at n figure 9 all ! old *ronicles1 & are /ill frequ5tly report$4 ,_m occurr5ces ( ?is k9d are record$ 9 ,camille ,flamm>ion's book 8,! ,atmosph]e10 ,dr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,free's 8,movem5t ( ,soil ,mat]ial by ! ,w9d0 7,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,bullet9 #fh71 & ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,mc,atee's article 8,%[]s ( ,organic ,matt]0 9 ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review0 = ,may1 #aiag4 ,! p[] ( ! w9d to :irl objects al(t is a matt] ( famili> obs]vation4 ,mc,atee tells ( see+ a silk hat lift$ f its own]'s head & bl[n ov] a t5-/ory build+ 9 ! city ( ,wa%+ton4 ,! vortex ( a tornado or a wat]sp\t furni%es ! mo/ favorable skyw>d r\te = ?+s t belong on t]ra firma4 ,objects weigh+ scores or ev5 hundr$s ( p\nds are lift$ by ^! :irls4 ,)9 a mile or s ( a tornado a %[] ( c>t :eels or cook /oves w\ld n necess>ily con/itute a 8prodigy40 ,a *ick5 coop weigh+ #ge p\nds has be5 c>ri$ f\r miles & a *ur* spire sev5te5 miles4 ,o]/$ tells ( a wat]sp\t at ,*ri/ians1 on ! ,baltic1 t empti$ ! h>bor to su* an ext5t t ! great] "p ( ! bottom 0 uncov]$1 :ile ,mc,atee says t 8wat]sp\ts h be5 obs]v$ to accompli% ! comp>atively insignificant feat ( empty+ fi% ponds & scatt]+ _! occupants40 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no my/]y ab\t ! way 9 :i* t]re/rial objects ( _m sorts get into ! air2 nor1 consid]+ ! =ce ( ! w9ds & _! occasional /rong v]tical compon5ts1 is x /range t su* objects sometimes travel a long way f home be=e !y return to e>?4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a great _m cases ( report$ %[]s 9 :i* ! objects did n really fall1 z suppos$4 ,mc,atee gives ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ^! spuri\s %[]s 9 ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review03 8,insect l>v4--,! ra9s ( insect l>v t h be5 inve/igat$ h prov$ to be m]ely ! appe>ance 9 l>ge numb]s on ! surface ( ! gr\nd or ^u sn[ ( ! l>v ( soldi] beetles 7,telephorus71 or sometimes cat]pill>s1 :i* h be5 driv5 f _! hib]nat+ qu>t]s by ! saturation ( ! soil by heavy ra9s or melt+ sn[4 8,ants4--,acc\nts ( %[]s ( ants h usually be5 f\nd$ on incursions ( l>ge numb]s ( w+$ ants1 :i* ( c\rse ne$s no assi/ance f ! elem5ts to foll[ out _! habit ( sw>m+ =? p]iodically 9 imm5se numb]s4 8,honey2 sug>4--,%[]s ( honey & ( sug> are popul> names = :at sci5ti/s "k are exudations ( c]ta9 plants1 or ( plant lice :i* fe$ on a great v>iety ( plants & ^: product is (t5 kn[n also z honeydew4 8,gra9s4--,%[]s ( gra91 usually consid]$ miracul\s1 h 9 mo/ cases be5 det]m9$ to be m]ely ! accumulation by wa%+ dur+ heavy ra9s ( ei!r ! se$s or root tub]cles ( plants ( ! imm$iate neighborhood4 8,manna4--,an acc\nt ( manna #8ra9s' c]ta9ly p]ta9s to ! discussion ( %[]s ( vegetable matt]1 = ! sub/ance manna consi/s ( li*5s ( ! g5us ,lecanora b 9 none ( ! num]\s record$ in/ances ( manna #8ra9s' is !re any direct evid5ce t ! sub/ance really fell f ! sky4 ,^! li*5s =m small1 r\nd bodies t are easily bl[n ov] ! surface ( ! gr\nd & accumulate 9 depressions2 !y are v buoyant also & h5ce easily drift$ into masses dur+ ! run-(f ( ra9 wat]4 ,manna #8ra9s' h n occurr$ except 9 c\ntries :]e ^! li*5s are common1 & z = /atem5ts ( _! fall+ d[n ^u ro(s or ^u p1 or = any o!r pro(s t !y really ra9$ d[n1 ,i h se5 none4 8,blood ra9s4--,! mo/ frequ5tly report$ %[]s t are spuri\s1 at lea/ 9 "n1 are ! s-call$ blood ra9s4 ,9 all times ! ph5om5a go+ "u ?is "n h fright5$ ! p & h be5 tak5 z port5ts ( t]rific calamities4 ,"o ( ! fam\s plagues ( ,egypt 0 a bloody ra9 :i* prevail$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole l&1 cont9u+ ?ree days & ?ree nights4 ,hom] & ,virgil bo? allude to blood ra9s1 &1 9 fact1 ! g5]al subject ( pret]natural ra9s 0 a favorite ) ! old] writ]s4 8,b sci5tific inve/igation has done away ) ! elem5t ( my/]y 9 ^! ph5om5a & has expla9$1 ) ! o!rs1 ! ra9s ( blood4 ,"s blood ra9s h be5 f\nd to be ! meconial fluid eject$ by l>ge numb]s ( c]ta9 lepidopt]a simultane\sly em]g+ f _! *rysalides2 o!r r$ ra9s are due to ! rapid multiplication 9 ra9 pools ( alg & ( rotif]s conta9+ r$ color+ matt]2 8r$ sn[0 results f ! pres5ce ( simil> organisms4 ,b 9 no case h !y ra9$ d[n1 except 9 ! s5se t _! spores or eggs h at "s "t be5 transport$1 probably by ! w9d4 ,! precipitation ( moi/ure furni%es favorable conditions = _! rapid developm5t & multiplication40 ,mo/ ( ! report$ %[]s ( blood1 h[ev]1 h probably be5 ra9/orms 9 :i* ! ra9 0 color$ ) r$di% du/4 ,! occurr5ce ( su* du/ 9 ! atmosph]e is v common 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w1 z we h /at$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t ra9 :i* fell at ,oppido ,mam]t9a1 ,italy1 ,may #ae1 #ahij1 actually conta9$ blood1 believ$ to be f birds4 ,%[]s ( suppos$ 8sulphur0 are due to poll51 *iefly f p9e trees4 ,! air 9 ! vic9ity ( p9e =e/s is sometimes fill$ ) cl\ds ( ?is mat]ial & ! w9d c>ries x = _m miles4 ,x is report$ t a poll5 %[] at ,pict\1 ,nova ,scotia1 9 ,june1 #ahda1 0 s heavy t bucketfuls 7 swept up on a %ip4 ,9 ! case ( alleg$ %[]s ( 8pap]0 ! mat]ial has be5 f\nd to be ! cru/s ( dri$ alg1 :i* =m on ! surface ( ! gr\nd expos$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] ( %all[ ponds4 #f4 ,,! ,,ye> ,,)\t ,a ,,summ] ,! ,wea!r ,bureau is a bureau ( in=mation1 & "o ( ! ways 9 :i* x /rives to give a good acc\nt ( itself is by answ]+ endless que/ions ab\t 8! ye> )\t a summ]40 ,?is title has be5 giv5 to ! ye> #ahaf4 ,blodget1 9 8 8,climatology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates10 tells u t all ! summ]s f #ahaa to #ahag 7 cold 9 ?is c\ntry1 & t 9 e mon? ( ! summ]s ( bo? #ahab & #ahaf sn[s & fro/s occurr$ 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates4 ,x is ! latt] summ]1 h[ev]1 t has liv$ 9 popul> tradition4 ,! ye> #ahaf is kn[n fur!r z 8pov]ty ye>10 or 8eighte5 hundr$ & froze to dea?40 ,x acquir$ ! "n ( 8mack]el ye>0 9 ,new ,hamp%ire1 :]e p ate mack]el z a sub/itute = pork1 little ( :i* 0 fatt5$ on acc\nt ( ! extreme sc>city ( corn4 ,we/]n ,europe1 also1 _h a cold summ] 9 #ahaf1 & ! ye> z a :ole seems to h be5 a cold "o ov] a great "p ( ! _w4 ,s\rces ( in=mation ab\t ! cold summ] 9 ?is c\ntry1 besides ,blodget's book above m5tion$1 include ,p]ley's 8,hi/oric ,/orms ( ,new ,engl&10 :i* devotes a :ole *apt] to ! subject1 & ,*>les ,peirce's 8,wea!r 9 ,philadelphia40 ,peirce tells u t at ,philadelphia 8!re 0 ice dur+ e mon? ( ! ye>1 n except+ ,june1 ,july1 & ,augu/1 ,!re 0 sc>cely a vegetable came to p]fection nor? & ea/ ( ! ,potomac40 ,accord+ to ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review10 cit+ ! recollections ( ,james ,w9*e/]1 ( ,v]mont3 8,x is said t 9 ,june ( t ye> sn[ fell to ! dep? ( ?ree in*es 9 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,new ,j]sey on ! #ag?2 five in*es 9 all ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 except ?ree in*es 9 ,v]mont4 ,!re 0 sn[ & ice 9 e mon? ( ?is ye>4 ,! /orm ( ,june #ag 0 z sev]e z any t ev] occurr$ 9 ! dep? ( w9t]2 x began ab\t noon1 increas+ 9 fury until night1 by :i* "t ! roads 7 impassable by reason ( sn[drifts2 _m 7 bewild]$ 9 ! bl9d+ /orm & froz5 to dea?4444 ,!re 0 a heavy sn[/orm ,augu/ #cj?4444 ,! ye> #ahaf _h nei!r spr+1 summ]1 nor autumn4 ,! only crop ( corn rais$ 9 t "p ( ,v]mont t summ] 0 sav$ by keep+ bonfires burn+ ar\nd ! cornfield night & day40 ,at ! "t ( its occurr5ce ! frigid wea!r ( ! summ] ( #ahaf 0 popul>ly attribut$ to sun spots1 :i* 7 big en\gh to be se5 ) ! nak$ eye 9 ,may & ,june4 ,a pres5t-day hypo!sis on ! subject has be5 m5tion$ 9 our *apt] on atmosph]ic du/4 ,! du/ cl\d f ! eruption ( ,tomboro1 9 #ahae1 0 s va/ t = ?ree days !re 0 d>kness at a di/ance ( #cjj miles f ! volcano4 ,a proximate cause ( ! cold summ] is p]haps to be s\ght 9 an unusual int5sity & ext5t ( ! area ( l[ b>ometric pressure :i* is m or less p]man5tly locat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,icel& &1 z "o ( ! pr9cipal atmosph]ic 8c5t]s ( action10 has a great deal to say ab\t ! wea!r ( ! c\ntries adjac5t to ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,brooks has call$ att5tion to ! fact t ! ,arctic navigator1 ,scoresby1 f\nd unusually mild & op5 wea!r t summ] 9 ! seas ea/ ( ,gre5l&4 ,?is w\ld be expla9$ by /rong s\!rly w9ds1 =m+ "p ( ! 8c\nt]-clockwise0 circulation ar\nd ! ,icel& l[2 & if ! same pressure sy/em ext5d$ its influ5ce to our %ores1 p]si/5t cold nor?we/ w9ds might be expect$ to result ov] ! nor!a/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 #g4 ,,indian ,,summ] ,,& ,,! ,,ice ,,sa9ts ,indian summ] wea!r is an und5iable fact4 ,e inhabitant ( ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates & s\!rn ,canada is famili> ) ! mild1 calm1 hazy /ate ( ! atmosph]e t frequ5tly occurs 9 ! autumn1 sometimes foll[+ a brief p]iod ( unseasonable cold kn[n z 8squaw w9t]40 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "o ?+ to recognize ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 type ( wea!r z *>act]i/ic ( our autumns1 & q ano!r to admit t "o def9ite spell ( su* wea!r occurs m or less regul>ly f ye> to ye>4 ,"o true summ]1 & only "o1 comes to pass ea* ye>1 & occupies an approximately fix$ place 9 ! cal5d>4 ,ev5 ! s-call$ 8ye> )\t a summ]10 :i* we h j describ$1 0 m]ely a ye> 9 :i* ! regul> annual rise ( ! temp]ature curve 0 less m>k$ ?an usual4 ,indian summ]1 on ! contr>y1 has nev] be5 ti$ d[n to a p>ticul> "p ( a p>ticul> mon?4 ,9 8 notes on ! meteorological conditions at ,concord1 ,massa*usetts1 dur+ ! t5 ye>s1 #ahea-ahfj1 ,?oreau records ! occurr5ce ( ,indian summ] wea!r on dates all ! way f ,septemb] #bg to ,decemb] #ac2 a range ( #gg days4 ,! belief 9 ! def9ite occurr5ce1 ye> aft] ye>1 ( :at has sometimes be5 call$ ! 8aft]-summ]0 is n peculi> to ,am]ica4 ,x prevails also 9 ,europe1 :]e ?is suppos$ p]iod ( r5ew$ w>m? has be5 assign$ to c]ta9 dates1 ow+ 9 "p to its association ) ! names ( p>ticul> sa9ts 9 ! cal5d>4 ,^! dates v>y widely1 h[ev]1 f "o region to ano!r1 rang+ f ,augu/ #ae 7,julian cal5d>71 ! beg9n+ ( ! 8"y wom5's summ]0 ( ,russia1 to ,novemb] #ae1 ,/4 ,m>t9's day1 a date popul>ly associat$ ) aft]-summ] 9 ,g]many1 ,holl&1 ,france1 ,italy1 & sometimes ,engl&4 ,! suppos$ t5d5cy ( p>ticul> types ( wea!r to occur at ab\t ! same p]iod e ye>1 indep5d5tly ( & (t5 9 %>p contra/ to ! regul> m>* ( ! seasons1 has be5 describ$ by ,r4 ,ab]cromby "u ! "n ( 8recurr5ce10 & !re is a l>ge lit]ature on ! subject2 especially 9 connection ) p]iods ( unseasonable temp]ature4 ,:ile ,indian summ] is ! mo/ discuss$ example ( recurr5ce 9 ! ,am]ican wea!r cal5d>1 9 ! ,old ,_w m att5tion1 bo? popul> & sci5tific1 has be5 devot$ to a fro/y p]iod suppos$ to recur 9 ,may4 ,) ! elaboration ( ! ecclesia/ical cal5d>1 ! fro/s 9 "q became def9itely associat$ ) ! days d$icat$ to ,sa9ts ,mam]tus1 ,pancras1 & ,s]vatius 7,may #aa1 #ab1 #ac71 or1 9 s\?-c5tral ,europe1 ,sa9ts ,pancras1 ,s]vatius1 & ,boniface 7,may #ab1 #ac1 #ad71 h5ce kn[n z ! ,ice ,sa9ts4 ,^! sa9ts & _! days are call$ 9 ,fr5* sa9ts de glace1 & 9 ,g]man ,ei%eilig51 ,eismnn]1 or ge/r5ge ,h]r54 ,yet o!r examples ( ! elusive ph5om5on ( recurr5ce are ! 8,janu>y ?aw0 ( ,new ,engl&1 ! ,april 8black?orn w9t]0 ( ,engl&1 & ! ,june 8%eep-cold0 7,s*afklte7 ( ,g]many1 dang]\s to newly %orn %eep4 ,9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury ! cold wea!r ( ! ,ice ,sa9ts 0 v>i\sly ascrib$ to ! melt+ ( ! ice & sn[ ( high latitudes1 ! passage ( p]iodic meteor %[]s betwe5 ! e>? & ! sun1 & o!r f>-rea*+ t]re/rial or cosmical causes4 ,fitz,roy believ$ t ! lib]ation ( lat5t heat 9 autumn dur+ ! =mation ( ice 9 ! circumpol> regions 0 acc\ntable = ,indian summ]4 ,a review ( ! :ole body ( lit]ature conc]n+ suppos$ recurr5t irregul>ities 9 ! annual m>* ( temp]ature w be f\nd 9 ! 8,mon?ly ,wea!r ,review0 7,wa%+ton7 = ,augu/1 #aiai4 ,:e!r recurr5ce1 9 ,ab]cromby's s5se ( ! t]m1 is a real ph5om5on is /ill an unsettl$ "q4 ,_m p]iods ( unseasonable wea!r occur 9 ! c\rse ( ea* ye>1 & x is easy = ! uncritical obs]v] to id5tify "o ( !m ) ! ,ice ,sa9ts1 ano!r ) ,indian summ]1 & s on4 ,ab\t ! be/ t meteorologi/s c d at pres5t is to expla9 ea* p>ticul> in/ance ( su* wea!r by ref]5ce to b>ometric & o!r conditions %[n on ! daily wea!r map4 ,,gloss>y ,! va/ vocabul>y ( meteorology is v inadequately repres5t$ 9 ord9>y diction>ies1 & has nev] be5 made ! subject ( a compreh5sive special gloss>y4 ,! writ] ( ?is book has be5 ga!r+ mat]ial t[>d su* a gloss>y = "s ye>s1 & f ! mat]ial n[ 9 h& x appe>s t an approximately complete ,engli% meteorological diction>y1 embrac+ bo? sci5tific & nonsci5tific t]ms relat+ to ! atmosph]e & its ph5om5a1 w\ld conta9 upw>d ( fifte5 ?\s& def9itions4 ,f ?is /atem5t x w be evid5t t ! brief gloss>y h]e) app5d$ is ( ! mo/ fragm5t>y "*4 ,x includes only a selection ( ! meteorological t]ms f\nd 9 ! pres5t book4 ,x does n1 9 g5]al1 include t]ms p]ta9+ prim>ily to physics1 *emi/ry1 a/ronomy1 physiology1 etc41 ev5 ?\gh !y figure to "s ext5t 9 meteorology1 z all su* t]ms us$ 9 ! book are m or less satisfactorily def9$ 9 ! late/ editions ( ! l>ge ,am]ican diction>ies4 ,absolute ,extremes4--,! highe/ & l[e/ values ( a meteorological elem5t 7especially temp]ature7 t h ev] be5 record$ at a /ation2 kn[n1 respectively1 z ! absolute maximum & ! absolute m9imum4 7,! t]m is sometimes improp]ly appli$ to ! highe/ & l[e/ values = a specifi$ ye>47 ,a]ocl9oscope4--,a semaphore =m]ly us$ 9 ,holl& = display+ wea!r signals4 ,a]ology4--,! bran* ( meteorology deal+ ) ! 8free0 atmosph]e2 i4 e41 all p>ts ( ! atmosph]e n ne> ! e>?'s surface4 ,a]ological inve/igations are made ) kites & balloons1 & also include obs]vations ( cl\ds1 meteor trails1 ! aurora1 etc4 ,aft]gl[4--#a4 ,! gl[ 9 ! we/]n sky aft] sunset4 #b4 ,a r5ewal ( rosy light on m\nta9 peaks aft] ! fir/ sunset illum9ation has fad$2 also call$ recoloration4 ,?is is "o /age ( ! ,alp5gl[4 ,aft]-summ]4--,a r5ewal ( mild wea!r 9 ! autumn2 call$ ,indian summ] 9 ,am]ica1 ,/4 ,m>t9's summ]1 etc41 9 ,europe4 ,alp5gl[4--,successive appe>ances & disappe>ances ( rosy light sometimes se5 on m\nta9 peaks 9 cle> wea!r aft] sunset or be=e sunrise4 ,altimet]4--,a b>omet] us$ = measur+ altitude4 ,alto-cumulus2 ,alto-/ratus4--,=ms ( cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,anemogram4--,! record trac$ by a self-regi/]+ anemomet]4 ,anemomet]4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ ! =ce or spe$ ( ! w9d4 ,an]oid ,b>omet]4--,a b>omet] consi/+ ( a ?9-wall$ metal vacuum-box1 :i* *anges its %ape ) *anges ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! movem5ts ( ! box are communicat$1 by lev]s1 to an index or 79 ! b>ograph7 to a record+ p54 ,an!lion4--,a r>e species ( halo1 consi/+ ( a brilliant1 usually :ite image ( ! sun opposite ! latt] 9 azimu?4 7,?is t]m has also be5 appli$ to ! glory1 q4 v47 ,anticrepuscul> ,rays4--,! cont9uation ( ! crepuscul> rays conv]g+ t[>d a po9t 9 ! sky opposite to ! sun4 ,anticyclone4--,an area ( high b>ometric pressure & its att5dant sy/em ( w9ds4 7,cf4 cyclone47 ,antitrades4--,t]m =m]ly appli$ to ! prevail+ we/]ly w9ds ( middle latitudes1 b n[ m frequ5tly appli$ to ! we/]ly return-curr5ts ly+ ov] ! trade w9ds4 ,"s writ]s pref] to call ! =m] ! antitrades & ! latt] ! c\nt]trades4 ,antitwilight ,ar*4--,! p9k or purpli% zone ( illum9ation bord]+ ! %ad[ ( ! e>? 7d>k segm5t7 9 ! "p ( ! sky opposite ! sun aft] sunset & be=e sunrise4 ,arcs ( ,l[itz4--,a pair ( r>e halo ph5om5a4 ,^! arcs are direct$ obliquely d[nw>d f ! p>helia ( #bb degrees on ei!r side ( ! sun t[>d ! halo ( #bb degrees4 ,a/raphobia4--,a pa?ological condition exp]i5c$ by c]ta9 p]sons be=e & dur+ ?und]/orms4 ,atmomet]4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ evaporation2 also call$ atmidomet]1 evaporimet]1 etc4 ,aureole4--7,see corona4 #a74 ,aurora4--,a lum9\s ph5om5on due to electrical dis*>ges 9 ! atmosph]e2 probably conf9$ to ! t5u\s air ( high altitudes4 ,x is mo/ commonly se5 9 sub-,arctic & sub-,ant>ctic latitudes4 ,call$ aurora borealis or aurora au/ralis1 accord+ to ! hemisph]e 9 :i* x occurs4 ,obs]vations ) ! spectroscope seem to indicate t a fa9t 8p]man5t aurora0 is a normal feature ( ! sky 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 8,back/ays ( ! ,sun40--,a sailor's "n = crepuscul> rays ext5d+ d[nw>d f ! sun4 ,baguio4--,! "n curr5t 9 ! ,philipp9es = a tropical cyclone4 ,balli/ic ,w9d4--,a milit>y t]m appli$ to a fictiti\s w9d :i*1 if affect+ a projectile ?r\gh\t its flight1 w\ld produce ! same total effect 9 deflect+ x f its c\rse & alt]+ its range z d ! v>i\s w9ds t x actually enc\nt]s4 ,ballon-sonde4--,a s\nd+-balloon4 ,b>4--,a unit ( pressure equal to #a1jjj1jjj dynes p] squ>e c5timet]4 ,a b> #ajj c5tib>s #a1jjj millib>s4 ,a b>ometric pressure ( "o b> is sometimes call$ a 8,c4 ,g4 ,s4 atmosph]e10 & is equival5t to a pressure ( #bi4eca in*es ( m]cury at #cb degree ,f4 & 9 latitude #de degrees4 ,b>isal ,gun4--,same z brontide4 ,b>ocyclonomet]4--,"o ( sev]al in/rum5ts t h be5 devis$ = locat+ tropical hurricanes )\t ! aid ( a wea!r map4 ,b>ograph4--,a self-regi/]+ b>omet]4 ,b>omet]4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! two pr9cipal types are ! m]curial & ! an]oid4 ,! microb>omet] is us$ to %[ m9ute *anges ( pressure4 ,c]ta9 =ms ( hygroscope are popul>ly miscall$ 8b>omet]s40 ,b>omet] ,well4--,same z bl[+ well4 ,b>ometric ,t5d5cy4--,! *ange ( b>ometric pressure )9 a specifi$ "t 7usually ?ree h\rs7 be=e "o ( ! regul> obs]vations4 ,beau=t ,scale4--,a scale ( w9d =ce1 orig9ally devis$ = use at sea1 b n[ us$ also on l&4 ,! scale runs f #j calm to hurricane4 ,_m o!r scales are simil>ly employ$ 9 ! non9/rum5tal obs]vation ( w9d =ce4 ,bioclimatic ,law4--,a ph5ological law1 ann\nc$ by ,dr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 accord+ to :i* p]iodical ev5ts ( plant & animal life advance ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! rate ( #a degree ( latitude1 #e degrees ( longitude1 & #djj feet ( altitude e f\r days--nor?w>d1 ea/w>d1 & up-w>d 9 spr+1 & s\?w>d1 we/w>d1 & d[nw>d 9 autumn4 ,bi%op's ,r+4--,a l>ge corona due to f9e du/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x has be5 se5 aft] c]ta9 great volcanic eruptions1 especially t ( ,krakatoa1 9 #ahhc4 ,blizz>d4--,a viol5t1 int5sely cold w9d1 lad5 ) sn[4 ,bl[+ ,well4--,a well :i* emits a /rong curr5t ( air f any small op5+ 9 its cov] dur+ a fall ( b>ometric pressure4 ,dur+ a rise ( b>ometric pressure su* wells are sometimes obs]v$ to 8suck40 ,wells t are ?us responsive to b>ometric *anges are sometimes call$ 8b>omet] wells0 or 8wea!r wells40 ,bora4--,a cold w9d ( ! nor!rn ,adriatic1 bl[+ d[n f ! high plateaus to ! nor?w>d4 ,also1 a simil> w9d on ! nor!a/]n coa/ ( ! ,black ,sea4 ,brave ,we/ ,w9ds4--,! boi/]\s we/]ly w9ds bl[+ ov] ! ocean betwe5 latitudes #dj & #ej degrees ,s4 ,?is region is kn[n z ! 8ro>+ =ties40 ,bright ,segm5t4--,! broad b& ( gold5 light t1 9 cle> wea!r1 bord]s ! we/]n horizon j aft] sunset & ! ea/]n j be=e sunrise4 ,brontide4--,a s\nd resembl+ a di/ant muffl$ detonation1 usually indef9ite z to direction4 ,brontides are r common 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w4 ,!y are call$ mi/poeff]s on ! ,belgian coa/1 ,b>isal guns 9 ! ,ganges delta1 bulldag1 des]t s\nds1 or ,hanley's guns 9 p>ts ( ,au/ralia1 g\ffre 9 ,haiti1 ,moodus noises at ,moodus1 ,connecticut1 ,nebelz]teil]1 ,se$onn]1 ,sees*iess51 etc41 9 ,g]many1 baturlio1 boniti1 bombiti1 etc41 9 ,italy4 ,^! s\nds are probably ( subt]ranean orig9 9 mo/ cases4 ,bump4--,an upw>d jolt exp]i5c$ by an aviator1 z if runn+ ov] an ob/ruction4 ,a bump may be caus$ by any condition t sudd5ly increases ! lift ( ! ma*9e1 b is p]haps mo/ frequ5tly due to ris+ air curr5ts4 ,air 9 :i* bumps are exp]i5c$ is said to be 8bumpy40 7,cf4 hole 9 ! air47 ,call9a4--,a ,spani% "n = dry fog4 ,calms ( ,canc]2 ,calms ( ,capricorn4--,! belts ( high pressure ly+ nor? ( ! nor!a/ trade w9ds & s\? ( ! s\!a/ trade w9ds1 respectively4 ,c5t] ( ,action4--,any "o ( sev]al l>ge areas ( high & l[ b>ometric pressure1 *ang+ little 9 location1 & p]si/+ ?r\gh a season or ?r\gh ! :ole ye>2 e4 g41 ! ,icel& l[1 ! ,sib]ian w9t] high1 etc4 ,*anges 9 ! int5sity & positions ( ^! pressure sy/ems are associat$ ) widespread wea!r *anges4 ,c]aunograph4--,a self-regi/]+ ?und]/orm record]4 ,*9ook1 or ,*9ook ,w9d4--,a foehn bl[+ d[n ! ea/]n slopes ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s ov] ! adjac5t pla9s1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,9 w9t]1 ?is w>m1 dry w9d causes sn[ to disappe> ) rem>kable rapidity1 & h5ce x has be5 nicknam$ ! 8sn[-eat]40 7,cf4 foehn47 ,! 8wet *9ook0 is a w9d ( a diff]5t "*1 bl[+ f ! ,pacific ,ocean ov] ! nor?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,circumscrib$ ,halo4--,a halo =m$ by ! junction ( ! upp] & l[] tang5t arcs ( ! halo ( #bb degrees1 :5 ! lum9>y is ab\t #dj degrees or m above ! horizon4 ,z ! altitude ( ! lum9>y increases1 ! circumscrib$ halo gradually assumes an elliptical =m & f9ally m]ges into ! halo ( #bb degrees4 ,circumz5i?al ,arc4--,a ra9b[-t9t$ halo1 (t5 v bright1 convex to ! lum9>y & #df degrees or a little m above x4 ,x is sometimes call$ ! upp] quasi-tang5t arc ( ! halo ( #df degrees1 b ! circumz5i?al arc & ! halo ( #df degrees are r>ely se5 at ! same "t4 ,cirro-cumulus2 ,cirro-/ratus2 ,cirrus4--,=ms ( cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,ci/]n4--,! cup1 conta9+ m]cury1 at ! base ( a m]curial b>omet]4 ,climatography4--#a4 ,descriptive & /ati/ical climatology4 #b4 ,an acc\nt ( ! climate ( a p>ticul> place or region4 ,climatology4--#a4 ,! sci5ce ( climate4 #b4 ,a body ( k conc]n+ ! climate ( any place or region2 z1 8! climatology ( ,panama40 ,climograph4--,a diagram introduc$ by ,dr4 ,griffi? ,taylor1 ( ,au/ralia1 = %[+ ! mean mon?ly values ( wet-bulb temp]ature & relative humidity at any place1 & = comp>+ su* data z record$ at diff]5t places ?r\gh\t ! _w2 especially ) ref]5ce to ! effects ( climate on mank9d4 ,o!r pairs ( elem5ts c be us$ 9 con/ruct+ climographs3 e4 g41 ! dry-bulb temp]ature & ! relative humidity4 ,cl\d-bann]4--,a bann]like cl\d /ream+ (f f a m\nta9 peak4 ,cl\d-bur/4--,a sudd5 & extremely heavy d[np\r ( ra92 especially "o 9 :i* ! wat] falls 9 a cont9u\s /ream r ?an 9 drops4 ,! t]m has be5 mo/ commonly appli$ to d[np\rs 9 m\nta9\s regions4 ,cl\d-cap4--,a caplike cl\d cr[n+ 7#a7 a m\nta9 summit1 or 7#b7 ano!r cl\d1 especially a mass ( cumulo-nimbus4 ,col4--,! neck ( l[ pressure betwe5 two anticyclones2 also call$ a saddle4 ,cold ,wave4--,a rapid & m>k$ fall ( temp]ature dur+ ! cold season ( ! ye>4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,wea!r ,bureau applies ?is t]m to a fall ( temp]ature 9 #bd h\rs equal+ or exce$+ a specifi$ numb] ( degrees & rea*+ a specifi$ temp]ature or l[]2 ! specifications v>y+ = diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry & = diff]5t p]iods ( ! ye>4 ,collector4--,a device us$ 9 measurem5ts ( atmosph]ic electricity = det]m9+ ! pot5tial gradi5t4 ,cont95tal ,climate4--,! type ( climate *>act]i/ic ( ! int]ior ( a cont95t4 ,z comp>$ ) a m>9e climate1 a cont95tal climate has a l>ge annual & daily range ( temp]ature4 ,corona4--#a4 ,a color$ lum9\s circul> area =m$1 by diffraction2 ar\nd ! sun1 moon1 or o!r s\rce ( light se5 ?r\gh cl\ds or du/ haze4 ,coronas inv>iably %[ a br[ni%-r$ inn] r+1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! blui%-:ite inn] field betwe5 ! r+ & ! lum9>y1 =ms ! s-call$ aureole4 ,mo/ frequ5tly ! aureole alone is visible4 ,well develop$ coronas %[ "o or m s]ies ( spectral colors outside ! aureole4 #b4 ,a lum9\s circle =m$ by ! app>5t conv]g5ce ( auroral beams ab\t ! place 9 ! sky t[>d :i* ! dipp+-ne$le po9ts4 ,corposant4--7,see ,/4 ,elmo's fire47 ,c\nt]trades4--7,see antitrades47 ,crepuscul> ,rays4--,beams ( light radiat+ f ! sun1 se5 bo? be=e & aft] sunrise & sunset4 ,! beams are made visible by ! pres5ce ( wat]-drops or du/ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ! int]v5+ d>k spaces are ! %ad[s ( cl\ds4 ,! beams are actually p>allel2 _! app>5t div]g5ce is ! result ( p]spective4 ,critical ,p]iod4--,a p]iod 9 ! gr[? ( a plant :5 x is especially susceptible to ! effects ( atmosph]ic conditions4 ,cumulo-nimbus2 ,cumulus4--,=ms ( cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,cyclone4--,an area ( l[ b>ometric pressure ) its att5dant sy/em ( w9ds4 ,! cyclones ( ! region )9 ! tropics 7tropical cyclones7 are viol5t /orms2 ^? ( high] latitudes 7extra-tropical cyclones7 may be /ormy or o!rwise4 ,tropical cyclones are also call$ hurricanes1 typhoons or baguios4 ,extra-tropical cyclones are commonly kn[n z l[s or b>ometric depressions4 ,cyclonopa?y4--,! abnormal s5sitiv5ess ( c]ta9 p]sons to ! wea!r *anges att5d+ ! passage ( b>ometric depressions4 ,cyclonoscope4--,a pa/ebo>d dial =m]ly us$ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies = locat+ cyclones4 ,d>k ,segm5t4--,! %ad[ ( ! e>? :i*1 9 cle> wea!r1 rises f ! ea/]n horizon at sunset & s9ks bel[ ! we/]n horizon at sunrise4 ,dep]ditomet]4--,an in/rum5t devis$ by ,a4 ,pi*e = measur+ ! cool+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e1 ) ref]5ce to its physiological effects4 ,depression4--,a cyclonic area1 or l[4 ,des]t ,s\nds4--7,see brontide47 ,devil4--,! "n appli$ to a du/ :irlw9d 9 ,india4 ,! t]m is also curr5t 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,dew4--,atmosph]ic moi/ure cond5s$1 9 liquid =m1 ^u objects cool] ?an ! air1 especially at night4 ,dew-po9t4--,! temp]ature at :i*1 "u ord9>y conditions1 cond5sation ( wat] vapor beg9s 9 a cool+ mass ( air4 ,x v>ies ) ! absolute humidity4 ,dew ,pond4--,! "n appli$ 9 s\!rn ,engl& to c]ta9 artificial ponds on ! upl&s4 ,!y conta9 wat] 9 ! drie/ wea!r1 & are popul>ly suppos$ to be f$ by dew4 8,doctor40--,a colloquial "n = ! sea breeze 9 tropical climates4 ,! "n is sometimes appli$ to o!r cool1 invigorat+ breezes4 ,doldrums4--,! equatorial belt ( calms or light1 v>iable w9ds1 ly+ betwe5 ! two trade-w9d belts4 ,dr\ght4--,a protract$ p]iod ( dry wea!r4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a dr\ght has be5 def9$ z a p]iod ( ?irty or m consecutive days dur+ :i* precipitation to ! am\nt ( #j4be in* does n occur 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,o!r quantitative def9itions h be5 us$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,dry ,fog4--,a haze due to ! pres5ce ( du/ or smoke 9 ! air4 ,du/-c\nt]4--,an in/rum5t = det]m9+ approximately ! numb] ( du/ p>ticles or cond5sation nuclei p] unit volume 9 a sample ( air4 ,dynamic ,meteorology4--,! bran* ( meteorology t treats ( ! motions ( ! atmosph]e & _! relations to o!r meteorological ph5om5a4 ,e>?-air ,curr5t4--,! electrical curr5t t passes betwe5 ! e>? & ! air on acc\nt ( _! diff]5ce ( pot5tial4 ,eddy4--,a m or less fully develop$ vortex 9 ! atmosph]e1 con/itut+ a local irregul>ity 9 a w9d4 ,all w9ds ne> ! e>?'s surface conta9 eddies1 :i* at any giv5 place1 produce 8gu/s0 & 8lulls40 ,air conta9+ num]\s eddies is said to be 8turbul5t40 ,electric ,niag>a4--7,see hail rod47 ,evaporimet]4--7,see atmomet]47 ,eye ( ! ,/orm4--,a calm region at ! c5t] ( a tropical cyclone1 or a break 9 ! cl\ds m>k+ its location4 ,fall ,w9d4--,a w9d bl[+ d[n a m\nta9-side2 or any w9d hav+ a /rong d[nw>d compon5t4 ,fall ,w9ds include ! foehn1 mi/ral1 bora1 etc4 ,false ,cirrus4--,cirruslike cl\ds at ! summit ( a ?und]cl\d2 probably id5tical 9 /ructure ) true cirrus1 or cirro-/ratus4 ,sometimes m appropriately call$ 8?und]/orm cirrus40 ,fata ,morgana4--,a complex =m ( mirage1 *>act]iz$ by m>k$ di/ortion ( images4 ,fe/oon ,cl\d4--,mammato-cumulus4 ,fla%+ ,arcs4--,visible atmosph]ic s\nd waves1 or explosion waves4 ,flat4--,featureless2 said ( wea!r maps4 ,foehn4--,a dry fall w9d w>m = ! season1 *>act]i/ic ( _m m\nta9\s regions4 ,! air is cool$ dynamically 9 asc5d+ ! m\nta9s1 b ?is leads to cond5sation1 :i* *ecks ! fall 9 temp]ature ?r\gh ! lib]ation ( lat5t heat4 ,! w9d deposits its moi/ure z ra9 or sn[4 ,9 desc5d+ ! opposite slope x is /rongly heat$ dynamically & arrives 9 ! valleys beyond z a w>m & v dry w9d4 ,"s writ]s apply ?is t]m to any w9d t is dynamically heat$ by desc5t2 e4 g41 ! s9k+ air ( an anticyclone4 ,foehn-sickness4--,heada*e1 lassitude1 depression1 etc41 attribut$1 9 ! ,alp9e valleys1 to ! bl[+ ( ! foehn4 ,foehn-wall 7,g]man3 ,fhnmau]74--,a wall ( cl\d t =ms along ! cre/ ( a m\nta9 ridge ov] :i* ! foehn is bl[+4 ,fog4--,a cl\d at or ne> ! e>?'s surface4 ,a fog & a cl\d are id5tical 9 /ructure1 ?\gh ! =m] is due to !rmal conditions ( ! e>?'s surface1 :ile ! latt] is mo/ frequ5tly clue to ! dynamic cool+ ( asc5d+ air4 ,9 ord9>y spee*1 ! t]m 8fog0 g5]ally implies an obscurity ( ! atmosph]e suffici5tly great to int]f]e ) navigation or locomotion4 7,cf4 dry fog47 ,fogb[4--,a ra9b[1 colorless or ne>ly s1 =m$ 9 a fog4 ,fog-drip4--,moi/ure t is deposit$ on t]re/rial objects by fog1 & drips f !m to ! gr\nd4 ,fracto-cumulus2 ,fracto-nimbus2 ,fracto-/ratus4--,=ms ( cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,freeze4--#a4 ,freez+ ( plants )\t deposit ( ho>fro/4 #b4 ,freez+ temp]atures prevail+ g5]ally ov] a region2 n exclusively nocturnal & n conf9$ to ! air close to ! e>?'s surface4 7,cf4 fro/47 ,fro/4--#a4 ,! act or /ate ( freez+4 ,9 ,am]ica1 a 8fro/0 g5]ally means ! occurr5ce1 ne> ! beg9n+ or end ( ! gr[+ season1 ( nocturnal temp]atures l[ en\gh to be injuri\s to vegetation2 di/+ui%$ f a 8freeze10 :i* is m g5]al & sev]e4 ,! ,wea!r ,bureau classifies fro/s1 accord+ to _! effects1 z 8light10 8heavy10 & 8kill+40 #b4 ,atmosph]ic moi/ure cond5s$ ^u t]re/rial objects 9 ! =m ( ice2 sometimes froz5 dew4 ,also call$ ho>fro/4 ,fro/-smoke4--,froz5 fog ris+ f ! wat]4 ,fulgurite4--,a glassy tube =m$ 9 s&y soil or 9 rock by ! passage ( lightn+4 ,g>a4--,a wet fog ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,geocoronium4--,! "n appli$ by ,dr4 ,a4 ,weg5] to a hypo!tical atmosph]ic gas1 suppos$ to be mu* light] ?an any gas n[ kn[n to *emi/s4 ,glaze4--,t]m appli$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau to a smoo? coat+ ( ice on t]re/rial objects due to ! freez+ ( ra92 (t5 popul>ly call$ 8sleet40 ,9 ,great ,brita9 su* a deposit is call$ glaz$ fro/4 ,a deposit ( glaze on an ext5sive scale con/itutes an 8ice /orm40 ,glory4--,a s]ies ( conc5tric color$ r+s se5 ar\nd ! %ad[ ( ! obs]v]1 or ( 8 head only1 ca/ ^u a cl\d or fog bank4 ,x is due to ! diffraction ( reflect$ light4 ,g\ffre4--7,see brontide47 ,gradi5t4--,*ange ( value ( a meteorological elem5t p] unit ( di/ance4 ,! gradi5ts commonly discuss$ 9 meteorology are ! horizontal gradi5t ( b>ometric pressure1 ! v]tical gradi5t ( temp]ature1 & ! v]tical gradi5t ( electric pot5tial4 ,briti% meteorologi/s n[ pref] ! t]m lapse-rate to v]tical gradi5t4 ,graupel4--,a k9d ( granul> sn[1 sometimes call$ s(t hail4 ,gre5 ,fla%4--,a bright gre5 coloration ( ! upp] edge ( ! sun's disk1 sometimes se5 :5 ! re/ ( ! disk is bel[ ! horizon1 at sunrise or sunset4 ,gr[+ ,season4--,9 agricultural meteorology1 ! int]val betwe5 ! la/ kill+ fro/ 9 spr+ & ! fir/ kill+ fro/ 9 autumn4 ,gu/4--,a sudd5 brief increase 9 ! =ce ( ! w9d4 ,mo/ w9ds ne> ! e>?'s surface are made up ( alt]nate gu/s & lulls1 ! majority ( :i* are too brief to be regi/]$ by an ord9>y anemomet]4 ,hail4--,balls or irregul> lumps ( ice1 (t5 ( consid]able size1 hav+ a complex /ructure2 l>ge hail/ones g5]ally h a sn[like c5t]1 surr\nd$ by lay]s ( ice1 :i* may be alt]nately cle> & cl\dy4 ,hail falls al-mo/ exclusively 9 connection ) ?und]/orms4 ,= s-call$ 8s(t hail0 see graupel4 7,cf4 sleet47 ,hail ,rod4--,a device analog\s to a lightn+ rod1 suppos$ to h ! prop]ty ( av]t+ ! fall ( hail4 ,hail rods h be5 especially popul> 9 ,france1 :]e !y are call$ p>agrles4 ,l>ge hail rods ( rec5t con/ruction are kn[n z 8electric ,niag>as40 ,hail-%oot+4--,bomb>d+ ! cl\ds to prev5t ! fall ( hail4 ,halo4--,a g5]ic "n = a l>ge gr\p ( optical ph5om5a caus$ by ice cry/als 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! commone/ ( ^! ph5om5a is ! halo ( #bb degrees 7i4 e41 ( #bb degrees radius7 surr\nd+ ! sun or moon4 ,! halo ( #df degrees & ! r>e halo ( #ij degrees1 or halo ( ,hevelius1 also surr\nd ! lum9>y4 ,o!r =ms ( halo are ! tang5t arcs1 p>helia 7or p>asel571 p>helic 7or p>asel5ic7 circle1 an!lion1 etc4 ,h>mattan4--,a dry1 du/y w9d ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1 bl[+ f ! des]ts4 ,haze4--,a lack ( transp>5cy 9 ! atmosph]e2 sometimes due to irregul>ities 9 ! d5sity ( ! air 7optical haze71 sometimes to du/ 7du/ haze1 :i* :5 d5se con/itutes dry fog71 sometimes to f9e p>ticles ( wat] or ice 7grad+ into true fog74 ,helm & ,b>4--,a pair ( cl\ds se5 :5 ! 8helm w9d0 is bl[+ ov] ,crossfell1 an ,engli% m\nta92 ! 8helm0 capp+ ! m\nta9 & ! 8b>0 ly+ to leew>d ( x4 ,high4--,an area ( high b>ometric pressure2 an anticyclone4 ,ho>fro/4--7,see fro/47 ,hole 9 ! ,air4--,a colloquial "n = any condition 9 ! atmosph]e t sudd5ly decreases ! lift ( an a]oplane4 7,cf4 bump47 ,horse ,latitudes4--,! regions ( calms & v>iable w9ds co9cid+ ) ! subtropical high-pressure belts ly+ on ! polew>d sides ( ! trade w9ds4 7,! t]m has g5]ally be5 appli$ only to ! nor!rn ( ^! two regions1 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean1 or to ! portion ( x ne> ,b]muda47 ,hot ,wave4--,a p]iod ( abnormally high temp]atures4 ,x has sometimes be5 def9$1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z a p]iod ( ?ree or m consecutive days dur+ ea* ( :i* ! maximum temp]ature is #ij degrees ,f4 or ov]4 ,hot ,w9d4--,a hot1 p>*+ w9d *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 cont95tal int]iors2 especially ,au/ralia1 nor!rn ,india & ! prairie region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,humidity4--,! degree to :i* ! air is *>g$ ) wat] vapor2 viz41 ! actual am\nt ( wat] vapor pres5t 7absolute humidity1 :i* may be express$ 9 t]ms ( weight p] unit volume or z vapor pressure71 or ! ratio :i* ?is am\nt be>s to ! maximum am\nt ! air c conta9 at ! prevail+ temp]ature 7relative humidity1 express$ 9 p]c5tage74 ,hurricane4--,a tropical cyclone2 especially "o ( ! ,we/ ,indies region4 7,a cyclone orig9at+ 9 ?is region & pass+ nor?w>d into ! temp]ate zone is /ill call$ a 8,we/ ,india hurricane10 ev5 aft] x has assum$ ! "* ( an extratropical cyclone1 &1 if suffici5tly sev]e1 ju/ifies ! display ( 8hurricane w>n+s0 at ports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 8,hurricane0 is also ! designation ( ! highe/ w9d =ce on ! ,beau=t scale1 & is ?us appli$ to any w9d exce$+ ab\t sev5ty-five miles an h\r47 ,hygrograph4--,a self-regi/]+ hygromet]4 ,hygromet]4--,any in/rum5t = measur+ ! humidity ( ! air4 ,hygroscope4--,a device t gives a r\gh indication ( ! relative humidity ( ! air4 ,mo/ hygroscopes are m]e toys4 ,ice ,ra94--#a4 ,a ra9 t causes a deposit ( glaze4 #b4 ,fall+ pellets ( cle> ice 7call$ sleet by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau74 ,ice ,sa9ts4--,a p]iod ( cold wea!r popul>ly reput$ 9 ,europe to occur ye>ly ab\t ,may #aa-ac 7or1 9 s\?-c5tral ,europe1 ,may #ab-ad72 also1 ! sa9ts ^: days 9 ! ecclesia/ical cal5d> fall on ^! dates4 ,ice ,/orm4--7,see glaze47 ,ignis ,fatuus4--,w-o'-!-wisp4 7,see ,*apt] ,,xxii47 ,indian ,summ]4--,a p]iod ( mild1 calm1 hazy wea!r occurr+ 9 autumn or e>ly w9t]1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada2 popul>ly reg>d$ z a def9ite ev5t 9 ! cal5d>1 b wea!r ( ?is type is really ( irregul> & int]mitt5t occurr5ce4 7,cf4 ,/4 ,m>t9's ,summ]47 ,in/rum5t-%elt]4--,! ,am]ican "n ( ! cage or scre5 9 :i* !rmomet]s are expos$ at meteorological /ations4 ,call$ !rmomet]-scre5 9 ,great ,brita94 ,inv]sion4--,m fully temp]ature inv]sion2 an increase ( air temp]ature ) increase ( altitude1 in/ead ( ! normal decrease4 ,ion-c\nt]4--,an in/rum5t = det]m9+ ! numb] ( ions pres5t1 p] unit volume1 9 a sample ( air4 ,isob>4--,a l9e ( equal b>ometric pressure4 7,isob>s are g5]ally drawn on maps to %[ ! horizontal di/ribution ( pressure r$uc$ to sea level1 or ! pressure at "s specifi$ altitude2 b 9 a broad] s5se any l9e on a *>t or diagram drawn ?r\gh places ( equal pressure is an isob>47 ,isohyet4--,a l9e ( equal ra9fall4 ,iso!rm4--,a l9e ( equal temp]ature4 ,iso!rmal ,lay]4--7,see /ratosph]e47 ,janu>y ,?aw4--,a p]iod ( mild wea!r popul>ly suppos$ to recur ea* ,janu>y1 especially 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,kata!rmomet]4--,a device consi/+ ( a dry-bulb & a wet-bulb !rmomet]1 design$ = measur+ ! cool+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e1 ) ref]5ce to its physiological effects4 ,x 0 inv5t$ by ,leon>d ,hill4 ,kiosk4--,! "n giv5 by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau to a small /reet pavilion 9 :i* are display$ meteorological in/rum5ts1 maps1 tables1 etc4 ,l& & ,sea ,breezes4 ,l& & ,lake ,breezes4--,! breezes t1 on c]ta9 coa/s & "u c]ta9 conditions1 bl[ f ! l& by night & f ! wat] by day4 ,l5ticul> ,cl\d4--,a cl\d hav+ approximately ! =m ( a d\ble-convex l5s1 m>k+ ! position ( a /&+ wave 9 ! atmosph]e4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,lightn+4--,a disruptive electrical dis*>ge 9 ! atmosph]e1 or1 g5]ally1 ! lum9\s ph5om5a att5d+ su* a dis*>ge4 ,! v>i\s =ms ( lightn+ are nam$ & describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,lightn+ ,pr9t4--,a collection ( m>ks1 (t5 treelike 9 =m1 sometimes f\nd on ! body ( a p]son or animal t has be5 /ruck by lightn+4 ,lightn+ ,rod4--,a metallic rod1 connect$ ) a suitable 8gr\nd10 9 e>? or wat]1 set up = ! purpose ( protect+ "s /ructure f lightn+4 ,light-pill>4--,a =m ( halo1 consi/+ ( a column ( light1 v]tical or ne>ly s1 ext5d+ f or ?r\gh ! sun or moon4 ,call$ a sun-pill>1 or a moon-pill>1 z ! case may be4 ,l9e-squall4--,a m or less cont9u\s l9e ( squalls & ?und]/orms travel+ broadside ov] ! c\ntry4 ,loom+4--,an app>5t elevation ( di/ant objects by mirage4 ,l[4--,an area ( l[ b>ometric pressure1 ) its att5dant sy/em ( w9ds4 ,also call$ a b>ometric depression or cyclone4 ,mack]el ,sky4--,an area ( sky cov]$ ) cirro-cumulus cl\ds2 especially :5 ! cl\ds resemble ! patt]ns se5 on ! backs ( mack]el4 ,mammato-cumulus4--,a =m ( cl\d %[+ p5dul\s sacklike protub]ances4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,m>*4--,! v>iation ( a meteorological elem5t 9 ! c\rse ( a day1 ye>1 or o!r int]val ( "t2 e4 g41 ! diurnal m>* ( temp]ature2 ! annual m>* ( b>ometric pressure4 ,m>es'-tails4--,cirrus 9 long sl5d] /reaks4 ,m>9e ,climate4--,a type ( climate *>act]i/ic ( ! ocean & oceanic isl&s4 ,its mo/ prom95t feature is equability ( temp]ature4 ,meteorograph4--,autographic app>atus = record+ simultane\sly two or m meteorological elem5ts4 ,c]ta9 types ( meteorograph are connect$1 electrically or o!rwise1 ) "s ( ! in/rum5ts at meteorological /ations2 o!rs are s5t al(t atta*$ to kites & balloons4 ,meteorology4--,! sci5ce ( ! atmosph]e4 ,millib>4--7,see b>47 ,mirage4--,an app>5t displacem5t or di/ortion ( di/ant objects by abnormal atmosph]ic refraction4 ,sometimes ! images ( objects are inv]t$1 multipli$1 etc4 ,mi/4--,g5]ally1 a wet fog or a v f9e drizzle ( ra92 h5ce ! expression1 8x is mi/+40 ,! 8,scot* mi/0 ( m\nta9\s or hilly regions is a comb9ation ( ?ick fog & heavy drizzle2 x has be5 sugge/$ t ?is occurs :5 ! ra9 cl\ds actually re/ on ! e>?4 ,mi/poeff]4--7,see brontide47 ,mi/ral4--,along ! ,m$it]ranean coa/1 f ! m\? ( ! ,ebro to ! ,gulf ( ,g5oa1 a /ormy1 cold nor!rly w9d1 bl[+ d[n f ! m\nta9s ( ! int]ior4 7,! "n is sometimes appli$ to nor!rly w9ds on ! ,adriatic1 9 ,greece1 & 9 ,alg]ia47 ,monsoon4--,a w9d t rev]ses its direction ) ! season1 bl[+ m or less /eadily f ! int]ior ( a cont95t t[>d ! sea 9 w9t]1 & 9 ! opposite direction 9 ! summ]4 ,moon ,dog4--,a p>asel5e4 ,m\nta9 & ,valley ,breezes4--,! breezes t1 9 m\nta9\s regions1 normally bl[ up ! slopes by day 7valley breeze7 & d[n ! slopes by night 7m\nta9 breeze74 ,nephoscope4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ ! movem5ts ( cl\ds4 ,nieve ,p5it5te4--,fields ( p9nacl$ sn[ f\nd on c]ta9 high m\nta9s 9 tropical or subtropical regions4 ,nimbus4--,! ra9 cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,noctiluc5t ,cl\ds4--,lum9\s1 cirruslike cl\ds sometimes visible ?r\gh\t ! %ort nights ( summ]2 suppos$ to be cl\ds ( du/ at great altitudes %9+ ) reflect$ sunlight4 ,su* cl\ds 7 obs]v$ dur+ sev]al summ]s aft] ! eruption ( ,krakatoa 7#ahhc7 & are /ill occasionally report$4 ,normal4--,! av]age value :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s1 any meteorological elem5t is f\nd to h on a specifi$ date or dur+ a specifi$ mon? or o!r portion ( ! ye>1 or dur+ ! ye> z a :ole4 ,also us$ z an adjective 9 su* expressions z 8normal temp]ature10 etc4 ,?us1 = any /ation at :i* records h be5 ma9ta9$ = _m ye>s1 we may compute ! normal temp]ature ( ,janu>y #a1 ! normal pressure ( ,febru>y1 ! normal ra9fall ( ! ye>1 etc4 ,! normal s]ves z a /&>d ) :i* values occurr+ 9 a p>ticul> ye> may be comp>$ 9 ord] to det]m9e ! dep>ture f ! normal4 ,nucleus4--,a p>ticle ^u :i* cond5sation ( wat] vapor occurs 9 ! free atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( a wat] drop or an ice cry/al4 ,oblique ,arcs ( ! ,an!lion4--,a r>e =m ( halo1 consi/+ ( int]sect+ arcs1 usually :ite1 pass+ ?r\gh ! an!lion or ! place :]e ! an!lion w\ld occur if visible4 ,ozone4--,an allotropic =m ( oxyg51 :i* occurs transi5tly 9 small quantities 9 ! l[] atmosph]e1 & is suppos$ to be p]man5tly pres5t & relatively abundant at high atmosph]ic levels4 ,pa9t]4--,a dirty fog frequ5tly exp]i5c$ on ! coa/ ( ,p]u4 ,! br[ni% deposit f x is sometimes call$ 8,p]uvian pa9t40 ,p>agrle4--,a hail rod4 ,p>an!lion4--,a halo ph5om5on simil> to a p>helion1 b occurr+ at a di/ance ( #ij degrees or m 9 azimu? f ! sun4 ,! sol> di/ance ( ! ord9>y p>an!lia is #abj degrees4 7,analog\s ph5om5a produc$ by ! moon z s\rce ( light are call$ p>antisel547 ,p>asel5e4--7,plu4 p>asel547 7,see p>helion47 ,p>asel5ic ,circle4--7,see p>helic circle47 ,p>asitic ,cl\ds4--,! "n =m]ly giv5 to cl\ds capp+ ! summits ( m\nta9s4 ,p>helic ,circle4--,a halo consi/+ ( a :ite circle pass+ ?r\gh ! sun & p>allel to ! horizon4 ,a simil> ph5om5on 9 connection ) ! moon is call$ a p>asel5ic circle4 ,p>helion4--,a mock sun1 or sun dog2 a =m ( halo consi/+ ( a m or less di/9ctly color$ image ( ! sun at ! same altitude z ! latt] above ! horizon1 & h5ce ly+ on ! p>helic circle1 if pres5t4 ,! ord9>y p>helia are #bb degrees f ! sun 9 azimu?1 or a little m1 accord+ to ! altitude ( ! lum9>y4 ,p>helia h occasionally be5 se5 ab\t #df degrees f ! sun4 ,analog\s ph5om5a se5 9 connection ) ! moon are call$ p>asel51 mock moons1 or moon dogs4 ,p5etrat+ ,radiation4--,a =m ( radiation t has ! prop]ty ( pass+ ?r\gh a great ext5t ( air )\t be+ absorb$ & ( ioniz+ ! air inside h]metically seal$ metal vessels4 ,x is suppos$ to consi/ ( a special k9d ( ,gamma rays & to come f ! high] levels ( ! atmosph]e4 ,ph5ology4--,! /udy ( ! p]iodic ph5om5a ( animal & plant life & _! relations to wea!r & climate4 ,photo*emical ,climate4--,! *emical activity ( sunlight *>act]i/ic ( any place or region4 ,! v>iations ( ?is feature ( sol> radiation are m or less /rik+ly diff]5t f ^? ( sol> heat & ! brightness ( sol> light4 ,c]ta9 types ( 8*emical act9omet]0 are us$ 9 its measurem5t4 ,pilot ,balloon4--,a small free balloon ! drift ( :i*1 z obs]v$ f ! gr\nd1 indicates ! movem5ts ( ! air al(t4 ,pocky ,cl\d4--,mammato-cumulus4 ,pogonip4--,a fog1 compos$ ( f9e ne$les ( ice1 :i* occurs 9 m\nta9\s regions ( ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates & is reput$ to be v injuri\s to ! lungs4 ,pollution ,gauge4--,a gauge = measur+ soot & o!r impurities f\nd 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,pontias4--,a w9d t bl[s by night f a n>r[ valley at ,nyons1 ,france4 ,pot5tial ,gradi5t4--7,see gradi5t47 ,precipitation4--,! collective "n = deposits ( atmosph]ic moi/ure 9 liquid & solid =m1 includ+ ra91 sn[1 hail1 dew1 ho>fro/1 etc4 ,pressure4--,an elliptical expression1 curr5t 9 meteorological lit]ature1 = atmosph]ic pressure1 or b>ometric pressure4 ,prevail+ ,we/]lies4--,! belts ( w9ds ly+ on ! polew>d sides ( ! subtropical high-pressure belts4 ,psu*ra9omet]4--,an in/rum5t devis$ by ,j4 ,r4 ,milne = measur+ ! cool+ p[] ( ! atmosph]e ) ref]5ce to physiological effects4 ,psy*romet]4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ atmosph]ic humidity1 consi/+ usually ( a dry-bulb !rmomet] & a wet-bulb !rmomet]4 ,! =m] is an ord9>y m]curial !rmomet]4 ,! latt] has its bulb cov]$ ) musl9 or o!r fabric1 :i* is ei!r p]man5tly wet or is wett$ be=e use4 ,9 "s psy*romet]s !re is only "o !rmomet]1 read+s be+ tak5 bo? be=e & aft] moi/5+ ! bulb4 ,purple ,light4--,! purple or rosy gl[ obs]v$ ov] a l>ge area ( ! we/]n sky aft] sunset & ! ea/]n sky be=e sunrise2 x lies above ! bright segm5t t bord]s ! horizon4 ,pyrheliomet]4--,an in/rum5t t measures sol> radiation by its heat+ effects4 ,qob>4--,a dry fog or heat haze ( ! upp] ,nile region4 7,also spell$ kob> & gob> & occasionally appli$ to a hazy condition ( ! atmosph]e 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w47 ,ra9 ,balls4--,mammato-cumulus4 ,ra9b[4--,a lum9\s arc =m$ by ! refraction & reflection ( light 9 drops ( wat]4 7,see ,*apt] ,x47 ,ra9fall4--,a t]m sometimes synonym\s ) ra91 b mo/ frequ5tly us$ 9 ref]5ce to am\nts ( precipitation 7includ+ sn[1 hail1 etc474 ,ra9 ,gauge4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ ra9fall4 ,ra9 ,tree4--,a my?ical tree :i* is alleg$ to exude copi\s %[]s ( wat] ev5 9 ! drie/ wea!r4 78,ra9 tree0 is also ! common "n ( an ornam5tal tree v>i\sly kn[n to botani/s z ,albizzia saman1 ,pi!colobium saman1 ,ent]olobium saman1 & ,samanea saman47 ,recoloration4--7,see aft]gl[47 ,recurr5ce4--,! alleg$ t5d5cy ( any p>ticul> type ( wea!r to occur at ab\t ! same p]iod e ye>1 indep5d5tly ( & g5]ally 9 contra/ to ! regul> m>* ( ! seasons4 ,refraction4--,a/ronomical refraction4 ,*ange 9 ! app>5t position ( a heav5ly body1 due to atmosph]ic refraction4 ,t]re/rial refraction4 ,*ange 9 ! app>5t position ( di/ant t]re/rial objects1 due to ! same cause4 ,relative ,w9d4--,9 a]onautics1 ! motion ( ! air ) ref]5ce to an a]oplane or air%ip mov+ ?r\gh x4 ,rseau4--,a collection ( meteorological /ations op]at+ "u a common direction1 or 9 ! same t]ritory4 ,an int]national rseau is a gr\p ( /ations 9 diff]5t c\ntries coop]at+ = any purpose4 ,! ,rseau mondial is a _w-wide sy/em ( select$ /ations1 ! obs]vations ( :i* may be utiliz$ 9 /udies ( ! meteorology ( ! globe4 ,rime4--#a4 ,ho>fro/4 #b4 ,a r\gh or fea!ry coat+ ( ice deposit$ on t]re/rial objects by fog4 7,! second mean+ is ! "o n[ us$ 9 te*nical lit]ature47 ,ro>+ ,=ties4--7,see brave we/ w9ds47 ,saddle4--7,see col47 ,sa9t ,elmo's ,fire4--,a lum9\s bru% dis*>ge ( electricity f elevat$ objects1 su* z ! ma/s & y>d>ms ( %ips1 lightn+ rods1 /eeples1 etc41 occurr+ 9 /ormy wea!r4 ,also call$ corposant4 ,/4 ,m>t9's ,summ]4--,"o ( sev]al names giv5 9 ,europe to a mild p]iod 9 autumn1 correspond+ approximately to ! ,indian summ] ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,sc>f ,cl\d4--,a ?9 cirruslike cl\d :i* (t5 drapes ! summits ( tall cumulo-nimbus cl\ds4 ,scot* ,mi/4--7,see mi/47 ,scud4--,%r$s or small deta*$ masses ( cl\d mov+ rapidly bel[ a ra9 cl\d or o!r heavy cl\ds4 ,sea ,breeze4--7,see l& & sea breezes47 ,second>y4--,a small cyclone develop$1 or t5d+ to develop1 on ! bord] ( a l>ge "o4 ,s5sible ,temp]ature4--,! temp]ature felt at ! surface ( ! human body2 =m]ly id5tifi$1 by "s au?orities1 ) ! temp]ature indicat$ by ! wet-bulb !rmomet]4 ,sil5ce1 ,areas1 ,zones1 or ,regions (4--,regions )9 :i* a s\nd is n he>d1 ?\gh he>d 9 regions m di/ant f ! s\rce4 ,silv] ,?aw4--,a t]m v>i\sly appli$ to rime1 glaze1 & a ?9 coat+ ( ice deposit$ on cold objects by a damp w9d4 ,simoom4--,an int5sely hot & dry w9d ( ,asian & ,african des]ts2 (t5 describ$ z a s& /orm or du/ /orm1 b c]ta9 au?orities /ate t ! typical simoom is free f s& or du/4 ,sirocco4--,a "n appli$ to v>i\s types ( w>m w9d 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,"s ( ^! siroccos are foehns4 ,! t]m is also us$ z ! g5]ic "n = w9ds bl[+ f a w>m region t[>d an area ( l[ pressure 9 a normally cold] region4 ,sleet4--#a4 ,froz5 or p>tly froz5 ra92 froz5 ra9drops 9 ! =m ( p>ticles ( cle> ice4 #b4 ,sn[ & ra9 fall+ toge!r4 7,o!r def9itions h be5 propos$ & ! prop] te*nical application ( ?is t]m is /ill a subject ( controv]sy4 ,9 popul> & eng9e]+ use ! ^w is (t5 appli$ to a coat+ ( glaze on trees1 wires1 rails1 etc47 ,sn[ ,b94--,a l>ge receptacle = collect+ ! sn[fall ( an entire w9t]1 or o!r long p]iod1 = measurem5t at "o "t4 ,sn[ ,g>l&4--,an elongat$ mass ( sn[ susp5d$ at ! ends & sagg+ 9 ! middle4 ,sn[ ,mu%room4--,an ov]hang+ cap ( sn[ re/+ on a tree /ump1 po/1 or ! l4 ,sn[ ,roll]4--,a mass ( sn[ roll$ by ! w9d2 g5]ally muff-%ap$4 ,sn[ ,sampl]4--,a device = collect+ a sample ( sn[1 cut v]tically ?r\gh a sn[field1 = ! purpose ( det]m9+ ! dep? & d5sity ( ! sn[4 ,sn[ ,survey4--,a measurem5t ( ! total am\nt ( sn[ ly+ ov] a p>ticul> area1 especially ) a view to det]m9+ ! total am\nt ( wat] x w yield1 :5 melt$1 = purposes ( irrigation1 etc4 ,s(t ,hail4--,graupel4 ,s\nd+ ,balloon4--,a free1 unmann$ balloon c>ry+ a set ( self-regi/]+ meteorological in/rum5ts4 ,spect] ( ! ,brock54--,! %ad[ ( an obs]v] & ( objects 9 8 imm$iate vic9ity ca/ ^u a cl\d or fog bank2 sometimes att5d$ by a s]ies ( color$ r+s1 call$ ! glory or ,brock5-b[4 ,squall4--#a4 ,a sudd5 /orm ( brief duration2 closely ak9 to a ?und]/orm b n necess>ily att5d$ by ?und] & lightn+4 #b4 ,a sudd5 brief bla/ ( w9d1 ( long] duration ?an a gu/4 ,squaw ,w9t]4--,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 a brief cold spell popul>ly reput$ to prec$e ,indian summ]4 ,/atic4--7,see /ray47 ,/orm ,c>d4--,a device int5d$ = use on %ipbo>d 9 det]m9+ ! direction ( a /orm c5t] f ! %ip4 ,/orm ,wat]4--,! wat] result+ f a heavy & rapid fall ( ra92 especially ! portion t occurs z run-(f4 7,! t]m has be5 us$ ma9ly 9 connection ) ! subject ( sew]s47 ,/rato-cumulus4--,a =m ( cl\d4 7,see ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,/ratosph]e4--,! upp] region ( ! atmosph]e1 =m]ly call$ ! iso!rmal lay]1 9 :i* !re is no m>k$ or sy/ematic decrease ( temp]ature ) altitude4 ,! /ratosph]e is free f cl\ds 7except occasional du/ cl\ds7 & f /rong v]tical air curr5ts1 & its circulation appe>s to be m or less indep5d5t ( t ( ! l[] atmosph]e4 ,! height ( its base1 :i* v>ies ) latitude & o!rwise1 av]ages betwe5 #f & #g miles4 7,cf4 troposph]e47 ,/ray4--,a natural electromagnetic wave 9 ! e!r4 ,! t]m is us$ 9 ref]5ce to ! effects ( su* waves 9 produc+ erratic signals 9 radiotelegraphic receiv]s4 ,/rays are kn[n collectively z /atic4 ,summ] ,day4--,a day 9 :i* ! temp]ature rea*es or exce$s #gg degrees ,f4 ,sun ,dog4--,a mock sun or p>helion4 8,sun ,draw+ ,wat]40--,! sun popul>ly said to be 8draw+ wat]0 :5 crepuscul> rays ext5d d[n f x t[>d ! horizon4 ,sun%9e ,record]4--,an in/rum5t = record+ ! duration ( sun%9e2 c]ta9 types also record ! int5sity ( sun%9e4 ,syn*ron\s ,*>t4--,a =m ( synoptic *>t1 su* z ! ord9>y wea!r map1 :i* %[s ! meteorological conditions prevail+ ov] any area at a giv5 mom5t ( "t4 ,synoptic ,*>t4--,a *>t %[+ ! di/ribution ( meteorological conditions ov] an area at a giv5 mom5t or ! av]age conditions dur+ a giv5 p]iod ( "t1 su* z a mon? or a ye>4 ,table-clo?4--,a %eet ( cl\d t sometimes spreads ov] ! flat top ( ,table ,m\nta91 ne> ,cape ,t[n4 ,tang5t ,arc4--,any halo t occurs z an arc tang5t to "o ( ! helioc5tric halos4 ,t]m ,h\rs4--,prescrib$ h\rs = tak+ meteorological obs]vations4 ,!rmal ,belt4--,a well-def9$ zone1 f\nd on "s m\nta9-sides1 9 :i* vegetation is p>ticul>ly exempt f fro/s 9 spr+ & autumn4 ,also call$ v]dant zone4 ,!rmograph4--,a self-regi/]+ !rmomet]4 ,!rmomet]4--,an in/rum5t = measur+ temp]ature2 9 meteorology1 g5]ally ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,maximum & m9imum !rmomet]s indicate1 respectively1 ! highe/ & l[e/ temp]atures occurr+ betwe5 ! times ( sett+ ! in/rum5ts4 ,a wet-bulb !rmomet] is us$ 9 measur+ humidity4 7,see psy*romet]47 ,!rmomet] ,scre54--,a cage1 or sometimes m]ely a ro(1 = protect+ !rmomet]s f direct sun%9e & o!r radiation t w\ld cause ! read+s to indicate a temp]ature diff]5t f t ( ! air4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates g5]ally call$ an in/rum5t %elt]4 ,?und]4--,! s\nd produc$ by a lightn+ dis*>ge4 ,?und]/orm4--,a /orm att5d$ by ?und] & lightn+4 ,?und]/orms are local di/urbances1 (t5 occurr+ z episodes ( cyclones1 &1 9 common ) squalls1 are m>k$ by abrupt v>iations 9 pressure1 temp]ature1 & w9d4 ,?und]/orm ,record]4--,any device t furni%es a record ( ?und]/orms1 ei!r ne> or di/ant4 ,mo/ ?und]/orm record]s regi/]1 by radiotelegraphy1 ! /rays set up by lightn+ dis*>ges4 ,tornado4--#a4 ,a viol5t vortex 9 ! atmosph]e1 usually att5d$ by a p5dul\s1 m or less funnel-%ap$ cl\d4 #b4 ,9 ,we/ ,africa3 ,a viol5t ?und]squall4 ,totaliz]4--,a =m ( sn[ gauge us$ *iefly 9 ! ,alps1 design$ to be read only once a ye>4 7,fr5*1 totalisateur47 ,trade ,w9ds4--,two belts ( w9ds1 "o on ei!r side ( ! equatorial doldrums1 9 :i* ! w9ds bl[ almo/ con/antly f ea/]ly quadrants4 ,troposph]e4--,! "p ( ! atmosph]e ly+ bel[ ! /ratosph]e4 ,tr\gh4--#a4 ,a l9e drawn at "r angles to ! pa? ( a cyclonic area ?r\gh all po9ts at :i* ! pressure has rea*$ a m9imum & is ab\t to rise4 #b4 ,an elongat$ area ( l[ b>ometric pressure4 ,twilight4--,a/ronomical twilight is ! int]val betwe5 sunrise or sunset & ! total d>kness ( night4 ,civil twilight is ! p]iod ( "t be=e sunrise & aft] sunset dur+ :i* !re is en\gh daylight = ord9>y outdoor occupations4 8,twi/]40--,a tornado2 also1 a small :irl+ du/ /orm4 ,typhoon4--,! "n appli$ 9 ! ,f> ,ea/ to a tropical cyclone4 ,ulloa's ,r+4--#a4 ,a glory4 #b4 ,a halo 7also call$ ,b\gu]'s halo7 surr\nd+ a po9t 9 ! sky diametrically opposite ! sun2 sometimes describ$ z a 8:ite ra9b[40 ,vane4--,a device t %[s :i* way ! w9d bl[s2 also call$ wea!r vane or w9d vane4 ,v>iability4--,int]diurnal v>iability is ! mean diff]5ce betwe5 successive daily means ( a meteorological elem5t4 ,v]dant ,zone4--7,see !rmal belt47 ,visibility4--,! transp>5cy & illum9ation ( ! atmosph]e z affect+ ! di/ance at :i* objects c be se54 ,x is (t5 express$ on a num]ical scale4 7,?is t]m 0 =m]ly appli$ by ,briti% meteorologi/s to a /ate ( unusual cle>ness ( ! atmosph]e1 reg>d$ z a wea!r progno/ic47 ,v-%ap$ ,depression4--,a tr\gh ( l[ b>ometric pressure b\nd$ on ! wea!r map by ,v-%ap$ isob>s4 ,wat]sp\t4--,a tornadolike vortex & cl\d occurr+ ov] a body ( wat]4 ,wea!r ,well4--7,see bl[+ well47 ,w$ge4--,a w$ge-%ap$ area ( high b>ometric pressure4 ,wet-bulb !rmomet]4--7,see psy*romet]47 ,w9d4--,mov+ air2 especially a mass ( air hav+ a common direction ( motion4 ,! t]m is g5]ally limit$ to air mov+ horizontally1 or ne>ly s2 v]tical /reams ( air are usually call$ 8curr5ts40 ,w9d ,al(t4--,! w9d bl[+ at high levels z di/+ui%$ f t ne> ! e>?'s surface4 ,w9d ,rose4--#a4 ,a diagram %[+ ! relative frequ5cy & sometimes also ! av]age /r5g? ( ! w9ds bl[+ f diff]5t directions 9 a specifi$ region4 #b4 ,a diagram %[+ ! av]age relation betwe5 w9ds f diff]5t directions & ! occurr5ce ( o!r meteorological ph5om5a4 ,w9t] ,day4--,a day on :i* ! temp]ature does n at any "t rise above ! freez+ po9t4 ,wool-pack ,cl\d4--,cumulus4 ,transcrib]s' ,notes ,punctuation1 hyph5ation1 & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4 ,simple typographical errors 7 correct$2 occasional unbalanc$ quotation m>ks reta9$4 ,ambigu\s hyph5s at ! ends ( l9es 7 reta9$4 ,9 v]sions ( ?is book t d n support acc5t$ lett]s1 8,canon0 7) a tilde ov] ! middle 8n07 is spell$ 8,canyon04 ,page #ajc3 ,= consi/5cy ) ! prec$+ enum]at$ def9itions1 ! ,transcrib] add$ extra spac+ aft] ! la/ ( !m1 j be=e 8,we h giv504 ,page #cdh3 ,9 "s v]sions ( ?is e,book1 ! *emical symbols = me?ane & phosph9e are repres5t$ z ,,*#d & ,,ph#c4 ,page #cfg3 8,! scale runs f #j calm to hurricane0 is miss+ ! value = hurricane1 :i* is 8#ab04