,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,copper ,,and ,,brass ,,books ,,for ,,collectors ,with ,frontispieces and many ,illustrations4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,china4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,furniture4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,prints4 7,how to collect and value ,old ,engravings47 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,costume4 ,by ,g4 ,woolliscroft ,rhead4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,lace ,,and ,,needlework4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,lowes4 ,,chats ,,on ,,oriental ,,china4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,blacker4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,miniatures4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,foster1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,chats ,,on ,,english ,,earthenware4 7,companion volume to ,chats on ,english ,china47 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,autographs4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,broadley4 ,,chats ,,on ,,pewter4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,i4 ,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,chats ,,on ,,postage ,,stamps4 ,by ,fred4 ,j4 ,melville4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,jewellery ,,and ,,trinkets4 ,by ,mac,iver ,percival4 ,,chats ,,on ,,cottage ,,and ,,farmhouse ,,furniture4 7,companion volume to ,chats on ,old ,furniture47 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,coins4 ,by ,fred4 ,w4 ,burgess4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,copper ,,and ,,brass4 ,by ,fred4 ,w4 ,burgess4 ,,chats ,,on ,,household ,,curios4 ,by ,fred4 ,w4 ,burgess4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,silver4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,japanese ,,prints4 ,by ,arthur ,davison ,ficke4 ,,chats ,,on ,,military ,,curios4 ,by ,stanley ,c4 ,johnson4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,clocks ,,and ,,watches4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,royal ,,copenhagen ,,porcelain4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,sheffield ,,plate4 7,companion volume to ,chats on ,old ,silver47 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,english ,,drawings4 ,by ,randall ,davies4 ,,chats ,,on ,,wedgwood ,,ware4 ,by ,harry ,barnard4 ,,bye ,,paths ,,of ,,curio ,,collecting4 ,by ,arthur ,hayden4 ,with ,frontispiece and #gb ,full page ,illustrations4 ,,london3 ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin1 ,,ltd4 ,,new ,,york3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,fine ,,copper ,,ewer4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington47 ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,copper ,,and ,,brass ,,by ,,fred4 ,w4 ,,burgess ,,author ,,of ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,coins1 ,,etc4 ,,with ,,frontispiece ,,and ,,illustrations ,,from ,,photographs ,,and ,,wash ,,drawings ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin ,,ltd ,,london3 ,,adelphi ,,terrace ,first ,published #aiad ,second ,impression #aibe 7,all rights reserved7 ,,preface ,the collection of old metal may at first sight appear a somewhat unattractive hobby2 a moment's reflection1 however1 brings to mind the wonderful art treasures of metal in our museums1 gathered together from many parts of the world2 not necessarily of the precious metals1 for many of the most cunningly contrived objects of antiquarian research are of copper in one or more of its numerous forms of alloy4 ,copper is the basis of so many alloys of which metallic curios are formed1 that in its combination with other metals it gives the collector an almost inexhaustible field of research4 ,it was the metal of the ancients1 which in combination with tin gave them that useful metal with which to fashion weapons of offence and defence1 and later1 as the ,bronze ,age advanced1 utilitarian objects of household economy4 ,collectors find the ,age of ,metals unfolding as they arrange their collections with orderly sequence1 and thereby trace the progress of artificers throughout the periods which have intervened since the first bronze celt was moulded to the present day4 ,although this is the ,age of ,iron and the numerous materials which metallurgical research and scientific skill have produced1 copper1 and brass in its varied forms1 are still prominent1 and the almost inexhaustible supply of copper with which ,nature has provided us is still being drawn from4 ,in this work the curios and artistic objects of use and ornament which have come down to us1 contributed by craftsmen of many ages and of many countries1 are passed in review4 ,the object of so doing has been to awaken still greater interest--if that is possible--in the collection of copper and brass1 and to preserve to futurity metal objects from which the utilitarian purpose of their manufacture is fast waning--if not already gone4 ,although the rarest and most costly objects are to be found in museums and the galleries of the wealthy1 there are many still in the homes of the people1 and there are many who seek and obtain pleasure and delight from the collection of the curious and the beautiful who cannot afford the unique specimens which are so costly4 ,to such this book should appeal1 for the descriptions and the illustrations have been drawn from many sources1 and their selection has by no means been confined to the rarer types4 ,the illustrations are reproductions of photographs which have been willingly furnished by owners of collections and museum authorities4 ,a large number1 too1 have been specially drawn for this work by my daughter1 ,miss ,ethel ,burgess4 ,i gratefully acknowledge the kindness of those who have allowed me to make use of objects in their collections4 ,i would especially bear testimony to the courtesy of the ,directors of the ,british ,museum who have authorized their printers1 ,the ,university ,press1 ,oxford1 to furnish blocks of some of the most interesting metal objects in the ,galleries4 ,the ,director of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum has granted facilities for the reproduction of some of the beautiful metal-work at ,south ,kensington4 ,my thanks are especially due to ,mr4 ,guy ,laking1 ,m4,v4,o41 ,f4,s4,a41 who1 although in the midst of the removal of the ,london ,museum from ,kensington ,palace to its new home at ,stafford ,house1 has kindly supplied several photographs of scarce metal objects4 ,special drawings have been made of several representative objects in the ,guildhall ,museum1 through the courtesy of the ,curator4 ,permission has been granted to reproduce photographs and illustrations of objects in several of the more important provincial ,museums1 and in several instances some very interesting information has been given by the ,curators4 ,among others ,i should like to give the names of ,mr4 ,f4 ,r4 ,rowley1 ,curator of the ,royal ,albert ,memorial ,museum at ,exeter2 ,mr4 ,t4 ,sheppard1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,s4,a4,scot41 ,curator of the ,municipal ,museum1 ,hull2 ,dr4 ,hoyle1 ,director of the ,national ,museum of ,wales1 ,cardiff2 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,charlton ,deas1 ,f4,r4,hist4,s41 ,director of the ,museum and ,art ,gallery1 ,sunderland2 ,mr4 ,thos4 ,midgley1 ,f4,r4,met4,s41 ,chadwick ,museum1 ,bolton2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,rathbun1 ,assistant ,secretary of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 ,washington2 and the ,town ,clerk of ,winchester4 ,i am further indebted to ,messrs4 ,glendining ,co41 ,ltd41 who have given me permission to reproduce some beautiful ,oriental metal-work which has recently passed under the hammer in their ,london ,galleries2 also to ,messrs4 ,herbert ,benham ,co41 for a drawing of the copper ball and cross of ,st4 ,paul's2 and to ,mr4 ,amor1 of ,st4 ,james's1 ,s4,w41 ,the ,edward ,gallery1 of ,king ,street1 ,s4,w41 and ,mr4 ,chas4 ,wayte1 of ,edenbridge1 who have given me photographs of rare pieces of art metal-work4 ,i have endeavoured to refrain from technicalities or dry descriptions2 but some of the chapters have necessarily a touch of the workshop and the foundry about them4 ,i can assure my readers1 however1 that the metallic ring is inseparable from copper and brass1 and that the pleasures of possession will be added to by the better understanding it will impart to those who collect and admire similar objects to those referred to in this work4 ,,fred4 ,w4 ,,burgess4 ,,london1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface #g ,,glossary #bc ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,metal ,,and ,,its ,,alloys #ce ,ancient bronze--,the bronzes of ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,eastern nations--,copper for enamels--,the brass of commerce--,bell metal--,the sources of copper--,the making of brass--,copper as an alloy--,the characteristics of metal4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,hunting ,,ground #ea ,in buried cities--,turned up by the plough--,among ,saxon and ,norman remains--,in hidden chambers--,in local museums--,dealers' shops--,the engraver's art4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,prehistoric ,,bronzes4 #fc ,the dawn of progress--,london relics--,the beauty of ancient art--,the useful bronzes1 the prototypes of later brasses--,the forger at work4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,curios #gg ,grecian bronzes--,relics of ,roman occupation--,interesting toilet requisites--,artificial lighting--,statues and monuments--,romano-,british art--,a well-staged exhibit4 ,,chapter ,v ,,medi,,val ,,antiquities #ic ,domestic brasswork--,metal signs and badges--,ornamental trinkets--,arms and armour4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,later ,,metal-,,work #aaa ,the influence of the ,guilds--,architectural metal-work--,the door knocker--,interior metal-work4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,church ,,brasswork #acc ,candlesticks--,altar brasses--,metal architectural ornament--,memorial brasses4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,domestic ,,utensils #aec ,the kitchen--,the houseplace--,chimney and other ornaments--,classified arrangement4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,candlesticks ,,and ,,lamps #aic ,fire-making apparatus--,candles and candlesticks--,oil lamps and lanterns4 ,,chapter ,x ,,bells ,,and ,,bell-,,metal ,,castings #bae ,the founders' secrets--,great bells of historic fame--,the uses of bells--,old mortars4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,civic ,,emblems ,,and ,,weights ,,and ,,measures #bbi ,the ancient horn--,the badge of office--,weighing instruments--,measures in ,exeter ,museum--,our standards4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,bronzes ,,and ,,their ,,replicas #bdg ,early figure modelling--,statues in public places--,replicas in miniature4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,oriental ,,bronzes ,,and ,,brasses #bfa ,countries of origin--,how some ,oriental curios are derived--,a wealth of metal on view--,various ,indian wares--,chinese and ,japanese art4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,idols ,,and ,,temple ,,relics #bhi ,varied shrines and many idols--,indian idols--,temple vases and ornaments4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,native ,,metal-,,work #cjc ,outside influences--,benin bronzes--,other ,african curios4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,continental ,,copper ,,and ,,brass #cac ,italian bronzes--,french art--,dutch brasswork--,german metal-work4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,sundials1 ,,clocks1 ,,and ,,brass ,,instruments #cbg ,the mystery of dialling--,some old dials--,antique clocks--,old watches--,the weather--,scientific instruments4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,enamels ,,on ,,copper #cdg ,processes of enamelling--,chinese and ,japanese enamels--,british enamels4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,miscellaneous ,,metal ,,curios #cfa ,tobacco-boxes and pipe-stoppers--,snuff-boxes--,handles and handle-plates--,horse-trappings--,war relics--,tiny curios--,replicas4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,wrinkles ,,for ,,collectors #che ,cleaning copper and brass--,lacquering metal--,polishing brass--,restoring antique finishes--,using the burnisher--,brass rubbings4 ,,index #cie ,,illustrations ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fine ,,copper ,,ewer ,frontispiece ,,page #b4 7#a7 ,,bronze ,,buckler ,,from ,,the ,,thames ,,valley #ci #c4 7#b7 ,,another ,,buckler ,,from ,,aberystwyth #ci #d4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,hoard ,,of ,,implements ,,of ,,the ,,late ,,bronze ,,age1 ,,found ,,in ,,king',s ,,co41 ,,ireland #ee #e4 7#a7 ,,bronze ,,caldron #fg #f4 7#b7 ,,urn ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,bronze ,,age #fg #g4 ,,bronze ,,saucepan ,,with ,,foliated ,,handle #he #h4 ,,ewer ,,of ,,hammered ,,copper #he #i4 ,,lamp ,,of ,,cast ,,bronze #he #aj4 ,,lamp ,,of ,,brass ,,inlaid ,,with ,,copper #he #aa4 ,,brass ,,aquamanile 7,,seventeenth ,,century7 #ii #ab4 ,,brass ,,couvre ,,de ,,feu1 ,a ,,rare ,,early ,,piece #aac #ac4 ,,copper ,,vane ,,on ,,billingsgate ,,fish ,,market #aai #ad4 ,,the ,,city ,,dragon ,,as ,a ,,weather-,,vane #aai #ae4 ,,copper ,,cock ,,vane1 ,,one ,,of ,,four ,,on ,,smithfield ,,market #aai #af4 ,,bronze ,,knocker ,,of ,,the ,,armorial ,,type #abi #ag4 ,,brass ,,drop ,,knocker ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,a ,,dolphin #abi #ah4 ,,brass ,,well ,,bucket #abi #ai4 ,,curious ,,double ,,candlestick #ace #bj4 ,,venetian ,,candelabrum 7,,one ,,of ,a ,,pair7 #ada #ba4 ,,bronze ,,incense ,,burner ,,and ,,incense ,,boat #ade #bb4 ,,the ,,copper-,,gilt ,,cross ,,on ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral #adi #bc4 ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,room ,,in ,,the ,,london ,,museum #aeg #bd4 ,,bronze ,,caldron ,,in ,,trinity ,,hospital1 ,,leicester #afa #be4 ,,seventeenth-,,century ,,brass ,,pan #afe #bf4 ,,brass ,,tripod ,,pot #afe #bg4 ,,caldron ,,of ,,cast ,,brass #afe #bh4 ,,brass ,,cooking ,,vessel ,,with ,,curved ,,handle #afe #bi4 ,,skillet 7,,brass71 ,,the ,,handle ,,of ,,which ,,is ,,engraved ,,with ,,the ,,motto ,,pitty ,,the ,,pore #afi #cj ,,and #ca4 ,,bronze ,,cooking ,,vessels1 ,,attributed ,,to ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #afi #cb ,,and #cc4 ,,copper ,,water ,,jug ,,and ,,water ,,pot #agc #cd4 ,,copper ,,water ,,jug ,,and ,,cover #agc #ce4 ,,brass ,,two-,,handled ,,water ,,vessel #agc #cf4 ,a ,,finely-,,pierced ,,brass ,,trivet1 ,,dated #affh #agg #cg4 ,,brass-,,topped ,,trivet1 ,,with ,,additional ,,leg ,,stay #agg #ch4 ,,brass-,,topped ,,trivet1 ,,with ,,turned ,,wood ,,handle #agg #ci4 ,,copper ,,helmet-,,shaped ,,coal-,,box #aha #dj4 ,,brass ,,foot-,,warmer ,,with ,,bail ,,handle #ahe #da ,,and #db4 ,,early ,,brass ,,or ,,bronze ,,hand-,,warmer1 ,,shown ,,open ,,and ,,closed #ahe #dc ,,and #dd4 ,,brass ,,chimney ,,ornaments 7,,one ,,each ,,of ,,pairs7 #ahi #de4 ,,brass ,,horse1 ,a ,,chimney ,,or ,,hob-,,grate ,,ornament #ahi #df4 ,a ,,two-,,tube ,,candle ,,mould #aig #dg4 ,,two ,,types ,,of ,,early ,,pricket ,,candlesticks #aig #dh4 ,,pair ,,of ,,candelabrum ,,of ,,early ,,type 7,,central ,,figure7 ,,and ,,two ,,old ,,oil ,,lamps #bja #di4 ,,group ,,of ,,rare ,,candlesticks1 ,,alms-,,dish1 ,,and ,,ewers #bje #ej4 ,,early ,,bronze ,,lamp #bji #ea4 ,,old ,,brass ,,lantern #bac #eb4 ,,bell ,,cast ,,by ,,john ,,pennington ,,at ,,exeter ,,in #afgj #bbc #ec4 ,,group ,,of ,,bell-,,metal ,,mortars #bbc #ed4 ,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,flagstaff ,,head ,,of ,,brass1 ,,originally ,,gilt #bcc #ee4 ,,the ,,winchester ,,moot ,,horn #bcc #ef4 ,,the ,,winchester ,,bushel 7,,standard ,,measure7 #bcg #eg4 ,,old ,,measures ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,winchester ,,standard #bcg #eh4 ,a ,,pint ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,elizabeth #bdc #ei4 ,a ,,winchester ,,pint ,,of ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,queen ,,anne #bdc #fj4 ,,old ,,french ,,weights #bdc #fa4 ,,bronze ,,tiger1 ,,by ,,antoine ,,louis ,,barye #bea #fb4 ,,bronze ,,lion1 ,,by ,,barye #bee #fc4 ,,bronze ,,stag1 ,,by ,,barye #bei #fd4 ,,coffee-,,pot ,,of ,,hammered ,,copper ,,from ,,syria #bfe #fe4 ,,saracenic ,,decorated ,,brass ,,basin #bfi #ff4 ,,japanese ,,kettle 7,,yuwakashi7 #bge #fg4 ,,pair ,,of ,,vases ,,of ,,red-,,brown ,,copper1 ,,relieved ,,with ,,black ,,lac1 ,,from ,,moradabad #bge #fh4 ,,bronze ,,figure 7,,one ,,of ,a ,,pair7 ,,inlaid ,,with ,,silver ,,and ,,gold #bhe #fi4 ,,amida 7,,indian ,,idol7 #bia #gj4 ,a ,,blue ,,tara 7,,indian ,,idol7 #bia #ga4 ,,amitayus 7,,indian ,,idol7 #bia #gb4 ,,vajra ,,dharma 7,,indian ,,idol7 #bia #gc4 ,,amitayus 7,,indian ,,idol7 #bia #gd4 ,,japanese ,,pricket ,,candlestick ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,crane ,,and ,,tortoise #bie #ge4 ,,japanese ,,ritual ,,vase #bii #gf4 ,,small ,,two-,,handled ,,ritual ,,vase #bii #gg4 ,,circular ,,vase ,,on ,,stand #bii #gh4 ,,bronze ,,oviform ,,ewer #cae #gi4 ,,brass ,,ewer ,,with ,,artistic ,,handle #cae #hj4 ,,dutch ,,ornamental ,,brass ,,cistern #cbc #ha4 ,,french ,,ewer ,,or ,,tankard ,,with ,,fancy ,,handle #cbc #hb4 ,,french ,,ewer ,,with ,,grotesque ,,mouth 7,,sixteenth ,,century7 #cbc #hc4 ,,early ,,dials--,,on ,,the ,,left ,,an ,,armillary ,,dial2 ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,pillar ,,dial2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,right ,a ,,ring ,,dial #cca #hd4 ,,curious ,,old ,,microscope1 ,,made ,,in #aghj #cca #he4 ,,engraved ,,pocket ,,clock #ccg #hf4 ,a ,,handsome ,,bronze ,,barometer #cdc #hg4 ,,bowl ,,of ,,the ,,ming ,,period #cec #hh4 ,,box ,,of ,,pekin ,,enamel #cec #hi4 ,,ming ,,bowl #cec #ij4 ,,fine ,,altar ,,set ,,of ,,cloisonn ,,enamels 7,,ch',,ien ,,lung ,,period7 #cei #ia4 ,,collection ,,of ,,brass ,,amulets 7,,harness ,,brasses7 #cga ,,glossary ,,glossary ,astrolabe4--,the astrolabe is an instrument which was largely used in taking the altitude of the sun or stars at sea4 ,it was well known to the ,greeks1 and takes its names from two ,greek words1 meaning a star and to take4 ,perfected by the ,arabs1 the instrument was introduced into ,europe about the tenth century4 ,it is said that the most famous examples are to be seen in the museums at ,madrid and ,florence4 ,there is one in the ,british ,museum1 which was made for ,henry1 ,prince of ,wales1 in #aegd4 ,barrow4--,mounds in which bronze celts1 knives1 spear-heads1 and food receptacles are found along with the remains of chieftains and others of the prehistoric peoples once inhabiting this country4 ,the term barrow originally denoted a little hill4 ,round barrows are the most common form1 although some are oval and some of the long barrow type4 ,the methods of burial differed1 but in most instances implements of stone or bronze as well as vessels of pottery and some trinkets belonging to the dead were usually placed near to the body4 ,betel-,nut ,boxes4--,the beautifully ornate boxes1 chiefly found in ,india1 made for holding the betel-nut and the shell lime used by the natives who chew the leaves and nut of the areca palm4 ,bidri ,metal4--,the metal objects known as bidri are made of an alloy of copper-zinc and lead1 damascened with silver1 showing a peculiarly striking contrast in black and white4 ,the villages round ,lucknow are famous for this curious and effective inlaid metal work4 ,brass4--,an alloy of copper and zinc4 ,early brass was copper mixed with calamine melted in a crucible4 ,the ancient form of alloyed metal employed by the ,romans was copper and tin1 which1 although frequently termed brass is more correctly defined as bronze 7see ,bronze74 ,the greater the proportion of zinc the lighter the colour2 but the addition of an extra quantity of zinc reduced the tenacity and ductility of the metal4 ,brasses4--,the term brasses is applied 7in antiquarian and curio metallurgy7 to the monumental brasses which as early as the first half of the thirteenth century replaced the older effigies1 such as those of the ,crusaders1 which may be seen in the ,temple ,church1 in ,london4 ,the brasses1 of which many rubbings have been taken1 include the large brasses1 covering nearly the whole of their tomb flag1 and the small brasses on which were engraved emblems1 escutcheons1 and inscriptions1 inset into large slabs of marble or stone1 ornamenting rather than constituting the covering of tombs4 ,brazier4--,primarily a pan for holding burning coals4 ,the brazier was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a domestic appliance for keeping hot dishes for the table1 some very interesting examples of an ornamental character1 doubtless used for that purpose1 being referred to in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the brazier1 so called to-day1 is a tripod open fire chiefly used out of doors in some open space4 ,bronze4--,the bronze of the ancients consisted chiefly of pure copper and an alloy of tin4 ,in those very early days the compounding and mixing of the metals must have been done largely by experience and rule of thumb4 ,it was before the days of metallurgical research and before the chemistry of metals was understood4 ,as yet there was no formula4 ,curiously enough the proper nomenclature of metals has never been formulated1 and bronze is the term still applied in a very haphazard way to various alloys4 ,quite recently a very able lecture was delivered by ,dr4 ,rosenhain1 of the ,national ,physical ,laboratory1 on the ,nomenclature of ,alloys at a meeting of the ,birmingham ,section of the ,institute of ,metals4 ,every one1 he told us1 described metals at his own sweet will1 and for the most part by misleading terms4 ,he suggested in reference to copper-bronze alloys that copper-zinc might denote an alloy with more copper than zinc in it1 and zinc-copper when the former metal was present in a greater degree4 ,he thought tin-copper would serve as a fairly wide definition of modern bronze4 ,in such bronzes aluminium is now generally added4 ,other scientists have suggested the definition of bronze by chemical numerals1 thereby indicating their contents with more exactitude4 ,at present1 however1 the term bronze is very elastic4 ,buckler4--,the old ,english name bocler denoted a shield with a boss4 ,it was worn on the left arm2 used in the ,middle ,ages to parry blows rather than intended to act as a cover for the body like the larger and more cumbrous shields4 ,chattie or ,chatty4--,a porous earthenware vessel used in ,india for cooling water and other purposes4 ,chaufferette4--,a spherical metal vessel in the interior of which was a small chain1 from which was suspended a cup in which could be placed a piece of red-hot metal or charcoal4 ,it was usually a hand-warmer2 some chaufferettes1 however1 were larger1 almost like small stoves4 ,the name is derived from a table stove or small furnace1 literally a cylindrical box of sheet-iron1 the word coming from the ,french chauffer1 to heat4 ,circe-,perdu ,process4--,the ,japanese have been wonderfully clever in their manipulation of metals1 especially considering the very primitive appliances they used in the early days4 ,some of their most remarkably intricate bronzes were fashioned and modelled in wax1 delicately tooled1 hardened a little1 and then covered over with layers of fine clay until the mould became strong enough4 ,the clay mould when dried was heated until the wax ran out1 leaving a smooth and beautifully finished mould in which the bronze metal could be poured1 the clay being broken away when it was cold4 ,great skill and at the same time much patience were needed to produce such charming effects4 ,the bronzes of old ,japan were frequently inlaid with fine and delicate tracery in silver and gold4 ,up to comparatively recent times beautifully modelled ornaments were fashioned by such laborious processes1 and even now by more modern methods much labour is expended on their production4 ,counters4--,counters have been used in card games from quite early times4 ,they were frequently of engraved metal4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i41 we are told by ,horace ,walpole1 one ,nicholas ,hilliard was licensed for twelve years to engrave card counters on which was the ,royal portrait4 ,in later reigns similar counters were so engraved4 ,those of the time of ,queen ,anne bore a great resemblance to the obverse of the then current coins4 ,sets of counters were frequently supplied in metal boxes1 the exteriors of which were often decorated by engravings4 ,it should be clearly understood that metal card-counters--old and modern--are quite distinct from commercial counters or jettons4 ,couvre de ,feu4--,the ,french term1 literally1 cover of the fire1 became the name of the metal shield or cover with which the fire was shut down in the days of the ,norman kings4 ,from the same root term the ,english curfew is derived4 ,it was the curfew bell that sounded the signal for the couvre de feu to be brought out and lights and fires to be extinguished4 ,these metal plates1 so frequently engraved all over1 are among the rarities of domestic curios 7see p4 #aac74 ,damascene4--,the process of inlaying steel or other metal work with silver or gold beaten into the incised metal4 ,to damascene 7also spelled damasken7 was a process first emanating from ,damascus--hence its name4 ,dialling4--,a dial plate is made by fixing to a flat surface a stile or gnomon1 which forms with the horizon an angle equal to the latitude of the place in which it is to be used4 ,when the gnomon is in position a line is drawn upon the surface of the plate so that the shadow of the stile falls exactly upon it at noonday1 the plane through the stile and the sun coinciding with the meridian4 ,it cannot be too clearly understood by users of old sundials that dial plates used in any other latitude than that for which they were constructed must necessarily be inaccurate4 ,ember ,tongs4--,these little tongs were formerly used to take up the hot embers from among the ashes of a dying fire4 ,they were constantly in use in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 many being decorative1 the handles often being fashioned to serve the purpose of a pipe stopper4 ,enamels4--,the enamels applied to copper or brass are glass coloured with oxides of metals1 producing blue1 green1 violet1 red1 and other shades4 ,these when fused adhere to the metal surface and are very lasting4 ,various processes have been adopted1 especially in the fine arts4 ,the principal older processes are champlev1 cloisonn1 and ,limoges4 ,in the first named the spaces to be filled in with enamels are cut into the metal foundation2 then1 when the enamels have been fired1 they are rubbed down and polished4 ,the cloisonn process1 chiefly practised in the ,east1 consists of small cells or cloisons formed of wire filled with the requisite colours4 ,limoges enamels1 the finest period of which is placed in the sixteenth century1 were formed by a ground of enamel painted over1 chiefly with classical subjects4 ,opaque enamels on1 usually1 a convex copper disc or plate1 were the work of later craftsmen4 ,at ,battersea and ,bilston in ,england1 towards the close of the eighteenth century1 many small boxes and trinkets 7see p4 #cef7 were produced4 ,the enamels of recent date applied to utilitarian objects and cooking vessels are seldom fixed upon a ground-work of copper--iron or steel being the usual base4 ,in jewelry and small trinkets enamelling on copper is still practised1 many such objects being of ,oriental origin4 ,fibula4--,a small brooch or buckle4 ,many of the beautifully fashioned fibul have been found among the remains of ,roman ,london1 a large number being on view in the ,guildhall ,museum4 ,gipciere4--,a kind of pouch formerly worn at the girdle1 an early type of purse4 ,the name is sometimes spelled gipser4 ,hookah4--,the name given to the bottle through which tobacco smoke is passed4 ,in smoking with a hookah the smoke is cooled by being made to pass through water4 ,latten4--,the name is primarily derived from the nature of the material--thin sheets4 ,the brass or latten brass was formerly used chiefly for making church utensils4 ,black latten consists of milled sheets of brass1 composed of copper and zinc2 roll latten1 of metal polished on both sides2 and white latten of brass and tin4 ,meander4--,a term applied to the decorations on ,japanese and other bronzes4 ,to wind1 to twist1 meandering like the winding river ,maeander1 in ,phrygia1 from which the proverbial term is derived4 ,mirrors of ,bronze4--,the bronze mirrors of the ,romans were given their reflective power by using an alloy of antimony and lead1 a combined metal which took a highly reflective polish2 the backs1 handles1 and frames were of bronze4 ,mortars4--,mortars such as those referred to on p4 #bbf with accompanying pestles1 were commonly in domestic use from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries4 ,in later years they were employed chiefly in the preparation of drugs1 but more recently they have been superseded by the modern way of preparing spices and other compounds by machinery4 ,the form of the vessel may be described as an inverted bell1 the substances therein being pounded or rubbed with the pestle4 ,patina4--,a term expressive of the colour or encrustation which is imparted to works of art by age4 ,it is used chiefly in reference to the beautiful green formation which covers ancient bronzes1 shading from light green to deep brown4 ,this crustation consists of basic copper carbonate1 the result of exposure to the air4 ,it is chiefly found on bronzes1 the alloy of which is mostly of tin and very little zinc4 ,the patina or patine is also the name given by the ,romans to a shallow basin used for domestic purposes4 ,pilgrims' ,signs4--,the symbols or signs worn by pilgrims when visiting one or other of the famous shrines in this country in medival days were distinct from the crests or badges of wealthy patrons which were at one time worn pretty generally as indicating on whose service the journey they were making was being performed4 ,pilgrims' signs were worn on the outward journey chiefly as protective amulets2 on the return journey mostly as proof of the pilgrimage1 such signs being purchased at or near the shrines to which homage had been paid4 ,the chief shrines in this country were those of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket at ,canterbury1 and ,walsingham ,priory in ,norfolk1 where ,our ,lady of ,walsingham was held in high repute4 ,weather-,vane4--,the vane denotes any flat surface attached to an axis and moved by the wind1 usually applied to some elevated object for the purpose of telling which way the wind blows4 ,a strip of metal cut to some fanciful form and placed upon a perpendicular axis around which it moves easily4 ,i ,,the ,,metal ,,and ,,its ,,alloys ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,metal ,,and ,,its ,,alloys ,ancient bronze--,the bronzes of ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,eastern nations--,copper for enamels--,the brass of commerce--,bell metal--,the sources of copper--,the making of brass--,copper as an alloy--,the characteristics of metals4 ,the coppersmith has taken a prominent place among the craftsmen of all nations1 and at all periods1 and in not a few instances he has been acknowledged as an artist of no mean order4 ,the material upon which he has worked has been copper and its alloys and compounds4 ,from this metal have been produced many valuable antiques1 and among the work of the coppersmith of more recent days there are objects of intense interest and of great beauty4 ,in this work many collectable objects have been classified1 and in the different groups of metal-work referred to attention is drawn to these beautiful and sometimes quaint reminders of past generations1 and also to some of the most notable non-collectable metal-work which may be seen and admired in museums and art galleries1 and to a few of the copper monuments1 memorials1 and historic relics which are gazed at by the curious1 oftentimes without thought of the materials of which they are composed4 ,ancient ,bronze4 ,the raw material1 copper1 smelted and beaten or poured from a crucible into moulds1 was in more ancient times used in its unalloyed purity--and it is still used in that state4 ,it was1 however1 soon discovered that copper might be improved for many purposes by mixing with it other metals possessing different properties4 ,the prehistoric peoples who lived in ,britain1 and in other countries within reach1 soon added tin1 which was found in ,cornwall quite near to the surface1 and was from early times sold to ,phoenician traders1 thereby producing bronze4 ,it is of this metal that most of the much valued curios of the so-called ,bronze ,age are made4 ,those who fashioned them were clever manipulators of the alloyed metal1 and by processes now little understood were able to temper tools and weapons and to give them keen-cutting edges4 ,our museums are full of spear-heads1 celts1 axes1 and palstaves of bronze1 which were cast in moulds of stone cut to the required shapes by those primitive workers in metal1 who used simple crucibles in which it was melted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b 7#a74--;,,bronze ,,buckler ,,from ,,the ,,thames ,,valley4 ,,fig4 #c 7#b74--;,,another ,,buckler ,,from ,,aberystwyth4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,the prehistoric bronzes1 some examples of which are referred to in another chapter1 are the earliest collectable curios formed of metal4 ,they include implements of war and of the chase and some domestic utensils and cooking vessels4 ,to these useful objects must be added ornaments and trinkets of bronze1 so many of which have been found in the barrows and burying-places of prehistoric races4 ,the knowledge of bronze appears to have been widespread4 ,it was understood by those who dwelt in this country1 by the inhabitants of ,european countries1 by ,eastern nations1 and by the ,egyptians1 who left such wonderful monuments behind them1 giving evidence that they knew how to impart a knife-like edge to their tools of bronze4 ,bronzes of ,greece and ,rome and ,eastern ,nations4 ,the ancient bronze of prehistoric days must not be confused with the metals or compounds of copper and its alloys which enabled the ,greeks to produce such wonderful statues4 ,they learned to impart hardness to copper1 and wrought much delicate handiwork1 much of which has perished2 but enough has been spared to confirm classic history and to enable us to realize something of their conceptions of the old gods and personified hopes and aspirations4 ,in like manner the wonderful bronzes of ,china and ,old ,japan were wrought2 the metal-worker's art in those countries goes back many centuries4 ,some of the more delicately chiselled figures and groups were first modelled in wax upon an iron core1 the mould being then formed of soft clay4 ,when the clay was baked the wax melted1 and running away through prepared outlets1 left a smooth cavity into which the bronze was afterwards poured4 ,when the metal was cold the clay would easily be broken away1 and the object1 at the moulding of which we often marvel1 made perfect4 ,in course of time such bronzes have been coated over with a beautiful patina of green1 that natural finish which age can alone impart4 ,it is in that state so many of the bronzes of ,grecian sculptors are found1 and it is covered with patina of many delightful shades that we buy the metallic curios from ,china and ,japan4 ,copper for ,enamels4 ,in the days when so many beautiful ecclesiastical ornaments were fashioned1 copper was the foundation used by medival artists as the base of their exquisite enamels4 ,these beautiful objects are especially referred to in ,chapter ,,xviii1 where reference is also made to the enamels of ,eastern countries1 in the making of which brass was frequently used as the foundation4 ,copper has been found suitable as the groundwork upon which super-finishes have given that superiority and attractiveness associated with many of the fine arts4 ,it was suitable for gilding over and for decorating with precious stones4 ,copper was also frequently used by painters1 its smooth surface being regarded as an excellent material on which to work4 ,as an example1 some of the religious pictures1 especially miniatures1 were painted on copper1 instead of on wood panels4 ,the ,brass of ,commerce4 ,many speak of brass as a metal apart from copper1 yet the brass of commerce1 worked up in many forms1 is only a composite metal of which copper is the basis4 ,the popularity of pure copper as the material from which household utensils and many constructional objects of use and ornament were made in the past continued unabated until metallurgical chemists discovered how1 by using an alloy of zinc1 the metal we call brass could be cast1 rolled1 and otherwise manipulated4 ,among the advantages claimed for brass is that it has a harder surface and is more resisting than copper4 ,from the days of ,queen ,elizabeth onward it was much favoured for domestic vessels1 and even at the present time it is used to some extent2 there has1 however1 always been a concurrent use of copper4 ,bell ,metal and ,other ,alloys4 ,there is yet another important alloy1 which from its chief use takes the name of bell-metal2 its companion alloy is gun-metal4 ,in the mixing of these metals special alloys are aimed at according to the object in view1 that is to say1 the ingredients vary1 but1 broadly defined1 the copper and its alloy tin used in bell-metal are in the proportion of three to one4 ,the metal was in the past used for those much employed articles of commercial and domestic use1 mortars1 in addition to the founding of bells4 ,bell-metal was also the material of which weights and measures 7especially the standards kept in many of the old cities7 were chiefly made 7see illustrations and references thereto in ,chapters ,x and ,,xi74 ,the ,sources from which ,copper is ,derived4 ,copper seems to have been very widely distributed all over the world1 a fact that has contributed to its general use4 ,at one time a local metal employed in a pure state and in conjunction with alloys1 chiefly where it was mined1 it is now brought to the metal-founder from other parts of the world4 ,although vast quantities of copper are now imported into ,england1 it was from ,british mines that the supply was drawn in days gone by4 ,the ,britons understood its use1 no doubt finding it out by accident1 just as the natives of many other countries have done4 ,copper1 as evidenced by the marvellous ,benin bronzes1 was known in ,central ,africa long ago4 ,the mines at ,mansfield1 in ,germany1 are the oldest in ,europe1 and there workers have been digging up copper for seven centuries4 ,the collector of old metal objects naturally takes the greater interest in well authenticated specimens known to have been fashioned in districts once famous for their copper mines4 ,unfortunately1 the ,cornish mines produce little ore now4 ,when the ,romans worked them they obtained copper quite near to the surface2 but such easily mined ores have long been cleared4 ,copper smelting was carried on in ,cumberland and ,northumberland in days gone by4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries copper was smelted in ,yorkshire and ,lancashire4 ,then we read of the reopening of old ,cornish mines and of furnaces being erected in ,bristol4 ,the mines of ,anglesea are less known1 although they were once very active4 ,south ,wales has for many years past been closely identified with copper smelting1 and rolling mills were established in ,swansea as early as #agbj2 and although the better knowledge of metallic chemistry enables manufacturers to produce copper more economically than in days gone by1 the old principle of crushing1 calcining1 roasting1 and washing the ore1 although improved by modern machinery1 is still adhered to4 ,as with many other industries1 the invention of the steam-engine was a boon to the owners of copper mines in ,cornwall1 many being flooded towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,with the steam-engine to work them1 pumps were put in operation1 mines were cleared1 and for a time at any rate ore was procured and renewed activity was visible in many ,british centres4 ,in those days many of the things we now regard as curios were being made4 ,as with many other raw materials the value of copper steadily advanced1 for as trade and commerce grew1 immense quantities were used up for sheathing ships' bottoms1 roofing buildings1 for engravers' plates1 and for the rolls used in the printing of calicoes4 ,other sources of supply have been found1 for the chain extending from ,land's ,end to ,dartmoor no longer serves4 ,the famous ,parys ,mines are no more1 and it is from foreign countries the supply comes4 ,some of our ,colonies have proved rich in ores1 such1 for instance1 as ,south ,australia1 where it is said an early settler examining the burrow of a wombat found the green mineral1 that incident leading to the opening of mines yielding vast quantities of copper ore4 ,the ,making of ,brass4 ,the brass of commerce1 rolled in sheets1 drawn in rods and wire1 and cast in ingots ready for the founder1 is1 as it has been stated1 a composite metal1 very well suited to many purposes4 ,during the sixteenth century much progress was made in metal-founding4 ,the ,worshipful ,company of ,founders was busy4 ,many battery works were set up in ,england1 and there brass was hammered or battered into shape4 ,thus brass-workers were engaged in making useful pots and pans1 now in their much worn state eagerly sought after by the collector4 ,some worked with the ladle and crucible1 others with the hammer and anvil or wood block4 ,the earlier brass was composed of copper mixed with calamine melted in a crucible1 a process which continued until the more modern form of melting metallic zinc with copper was understood4 ,champion's process1 by which this newer method was carried out1 was kept secret for some time1 but about the middle of the eighteenth century it was generally understood and the process of stamping brass became a common one in the ,birmingham district4 ,copper as an ,alloy4 ,copper1 the base of so many alloys1 has itself been found a useful alloy of most workable metals1 not only in modern times but in years gone by4 ,it is one of the best hardening agents in aluminium1 the newer metal which is to some extent displacing copper and brass cooking pots and much ornamental metal-work4 ,according to an expert1 aluminium is tasteless1 and possesses all the advantages of copper without its drawbacks4 ,that being so1 perhaps even vessels of brass1 such as may still be seen in kitchens1 may soon become obsolete and pass shortly into the rle of the museum curio4 ,incidentally it may be mentioned that aluminium is not altogether a new metal1 neither is its use confined to civilized countries1 where metallurgists have proved its advantages2 for the natives of the ,philippines1 ,borneo1 and other islands in the ,pacific have long used it as an independent metal1 and also for the purposes of ornamenting other materials4 ,many of the copper and brass curios brought into this country1 the products of native smiths1 working far from civilized lands1 are partly made of aluminium1 alloyed chiefly with native copper4 ,the natives of ,borneo melt it in fireclay crucibles over a coke fire1 and are very clever at producing some remarkably fine pieces of metal-work1 using different metals for the same object2 thus some of their daggers have brass hilts and aluminium blades4 ,the metal-worker has frequently introduced aluminium in the decoration of copper and brass gongs1 some of the older examples from ,japan being extremely decorative4 ,the ,characteristics of the ,metals4 ,some collectors very wisely follow up their researches after new treasures by investigating the methods of their production1 and they even visit modern works where similar methods1 although more advanced1 are going on4 ,very interesting indeed is it to watch the molten metal as it is mixed and poured into moulds and made into pigs4 ,to see the great rolling mills through which the bars are passed1 and to watch the hammering and drawing by the steam-hammer and powerful machinery1 is an education which enhances the interest there is in the possession of finished goods--old and new4 ,it is said the brassfounder's requirements to-day are much the same as they have always been1 although perhaps there are more iron moulds used and greater care is taken in their preparation4 ,the mould must have a good surface and be composed of the right kind of iron4 ,the best metal for the purpose appears to be one high in silica and low in combined carbon1 thus securing a soft iron which will not crack when the molten metal strikes it4 ,the science of metals is constantly being added to1 and the research of chemists of recent years has done much towards improving the skill of present-day artists1 most of whom1 however1 readily give praise to the almost intuitive skill of the artists of olden time4 ,the fashioning of copper and brass follows the preparation of the metal2 there are many reasons why copper and its compounds and alloys have been so generally employed1 one of the principal being that the ductility of copper has made it welcome wherever the hammer has been brought into play4 ,the possibility of hammering out brass and copper1 and especially the latter1 is seen in the extreme fineness to which copper wire can be drawn4 ,hood uses the similitude when speaking of how travel improves the mind1 and tells of the gradual narrowing of copper and brass as they become finer and finer1 likening those who have not travelled to the narrowed metal4 ,collectors of curios show characteristic traits1 twofold in application4 ,there are some who get more broad-minded the farther they travel1 the more museums they inspect1 and the wider their knowledge of the antiquities they admire4 ,others1 specialists for the most part1 get into very narrow grooves1 confining their hobbies to some one class of goods1 not always the most interesting in public estimation2 then they wonder how it is that their hobbies are not appreciated by their friends6 ,surely the greatest delight is in a representative collection1 such as the hobby under review1 which shows all the possibilities of copper and brass in their varied treatment4 ,in the examples which have come down to us from the ,ancients1 in those schemes of decoration which mark clearly the work of the artists of some one country or period1 and in those general collectable objects which have been brought together from everywhere1 there is a liberal education3 ,some minds improve by travel2 others1 rather1 ,resemble copper wire1 or brass1 ,which gets the narrower by going farther4 ,,ii ,,the ,,hunting ,,ground ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,hunting ,,ground ,in buried cities--,turned up by the plough--,among ,saxon and ,norman remains--,in hidden chambers--,in local museums--,dealers' shops--,the engraver's art4 ,the multiplicity of collectable objects needed to supply collectors makes the uninitiated wonder where all these antiques come from4 ,countless numbers of beautiful objects have found their way into the melting-pot in the past1 and what once was old has in some new form become once more a useful article1 in its turn to be discarded and perhaps melted up and recast4 ,in ,buried ,cities4 ,the curios which have been preserved for centuries beneath the soil are often of priceless value1 telling of the habits of peoples of whom history has told us little4 ,celts1 knives1 spear-heads1 and food receptacles are discovered on the sites of prehistoric camping-grounds4 ,the delicately tooled bronzes from buried cities like ,pompeii and ,herculaneum come to us with almost a living force in this twentieth century4 ,as we gaze at the wonderful beauty of their forms and the charming patina of green with which they are covered1 we can almost imagine what they looked like in the hands of patrons of art in the far-off times when they were first fashioned4 ,our own country is full of ruins of ancient cities far below the present roadways4 ,when the ,romans built ,bath it was in a hollow much deeper than the level of the modern city1 and it is in these lower levels that relics of ,roman ,bath are found4 ,there is a ring of sadness in the desolation of such ancient cities as ,verulamium1 ,cirencester1 ,kenchester1 and similarly deserted locations where modern excavations have been going on recently4 ,it seems curious how the very sites of such once famous places have been lost1 but not strange when we remember that more recently occupied towns are but grass mounds--to-day explorers are cutting into the turf-covered mounds of ,old ,sarum to ascertain where its chief buildings stood4 ,the finds on these ancient sites are varied2 many of them are metallic1 and although of trifling intrinsic value are prized as being authentic curios4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,part ,,of ,,the ,,hoard ,,of ,,implements ,,of ,,the ,,late ,,bronze ,,age1 ,,found ,,in ,,king',s ,,co41 ,,ireland4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,turned up by the ,plough4 ,the plough has played an important part in history1 and collectors owe much to that useful implement4 ,it has been the means of bringing to light many vessels which have been buried for centuries1 for although land has been ploughed many seasons1 a deeper ploughshare or more frequent ploughing on the same spot has brought nearer to the surface a copper vessel or an earthen jar1 full of antiquarian interest4 ,the field and the forest1 and even the deserted mines1 have brought to collectors of old metal many interesting relics4 ,until quite recently there was an old bronze caldron on view in the window of a dealer in antiques in ,chester4 ,it was the prototype of many similar vessels that have been made in later days in different parts of the country1 the model on which the more modern pots or camp-kettles of the gipsies and the three-legged pots commonly suspended over the cottage hearth1 until comparatively modern times1 have been fashioned4 ,it is worthy of note that the principle adopted by those early metal-workers is still observed in the more scientific construction of cooking vessels to-day4 ,the form of the caldron was such that by applying heat under the centre the flames spread and leapt up the sides1 curling as they travelled1 following the lines fashioned by the coppersmiths1 and heating the contents of the vessel equally4 ,such ancient caldrons1 sometimes much worn and at others in fairly good condition1 have been preserved by ,mother ,earth until discovered in modern times4 ,among ,saxon and ,norman ,remains4 ,the ,saxons and ,normans used metal1 and the brawny arms of the smiths1 and later the founders1 fashioned the cooking-pots made in their day4 ,many metal curios1 much battered by fallen masonry1 have been found among the ruins of ,norman castles and in some cases of the still earlier ,saxon dwellings4 ,the discoveries of curios of those periods are by no means frequent1 and it would appear as if we must now be content with storing carefully those relics already discovered4 ,modern restorations and excavations have brought many valuable antiquities to light1 and authorities have been very careful to preserve them in county or local museums4 ,in ,hidden ,chambers4 ,the splendour of medival days when feasting in the great hall of the baron or overlord has been revealed by many noted finds4 ,the great kitchens of those mansions were full of copper and brass1 and it is from such supplies that many of the best authenticated specimens have come4 ,some are historical2 even bronze caldrons and more modest-looking saucepans have been made to the order of some medival chieftain or baron4 ,the life of the common people of this country varied little between the days of the ,norman ,conquest and those of the ,tudor sovereigns who held court in the houses of the nobility4 ,the dress1 costume1 and rough splendour of the ,elizabethan age had its effect1 however1 on the homes of courtiers and eventually of the common people4 ,when the stormy times of the ,civil ,war came there was a rude breaking up of the old order of things1 and in ,cromwellian days some preparation for the new which was to come4 ,after the battlefield came the destruction of stronghold and mansion by order of the ,parliament4 ,some escaped1 and within the last century not a few domestic curios have been found during the restoration and rebuilding of old houses dating from the time of the ,commonwealth4 ,priests' cells and secret chambers1 sliding panels and concealed cupboards1 and other hidden places were the rule rather than the exception at the time of the ,civil ,war4 ,in some of these long-forgotten places of concealment some very interesting domestic objects in copper and brass have been found during rebuilding and restoration4 ,in ,local ,museums4 ,it is a moot point whether the frequent change in the ownership of curios which goes on every day1 as evidenced by the auction sales1 stirs up the curiosity of the collector and awakens his interest in his hobby to a greater extent than when such curios are placed on view in local museums4 ,the fact remains that1 notwithstanding the constant circulation of curios1 many find a permanent home in museums4 ,not only do the national collections in the ,british ,museum1 and the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington grow rapidly1 but in almost every town of note there are local and great district museums4 ,this latter class is instanced in the ,welsh ,national ,museum at ,cardiff4 ,there are two typical local museums in ,london--the ,guildhall ,museum and the ,london ,museum1 which has just found a new home at ,stafford ,house4 ,these museums stimulate local collectors1 but they do not contribute to their collections4 ,as places of reference they are invaluable1 for the wider spread knowledge of antiques secured by the objects shown prevents amateurs from falling into traps and consequently becoming disheartened4 ,dealers' ,shops4 ,the shops of dealers supplement the auction-rooms4 ,they are partly fed from them and partly by the persistent search ever going on for objects in which their owners have little interest and are willing to part with for a consideration--not always the top price4 ,the greater popularity of curio-hunting has caused a vigorous search of attic and cellar at the instance of dealers as well as collectors4 ,even the palaces of kings and queens and the houses of the nobility have been ransacked1 and treasures from an artistic point of view1 as well as from a utilitarian1 have been brought to light and the dust of many years wiped away4 ,many delightful examples of the coppersmith's art were until recently condemned by the travelling tinker as being no longer repairable1 with the natural consequence that1 their value as antiques being unknown1 they were eventually sold for an old song4 ,those pioneers of collecting who had time on their hands and foresaw an accruing value of even old metal went about from town to town examining the marine stores and visiting villages and farmhouses in search of anything old and curious4 ,to-day there are few genuine antiques without some one to value them4 ,nearly every collection belongs to an appreciative owner1 and when curios change hands it is generally at a premium instead of at a bargain price4 ,hitherto reference has been made chiefly to metal curios of ,british make1 and to those objects with which ,englishmen have become familiar4 ,the collector1 however1 is cosmopolitan in his aims1 and cheerfully searches the world over for objects of interest4 ,his curios come from the ,far ,east1 from ,central ,africa1 and from all parts of ,europe1 and to some extent from the ,american continents4 ,there have been many methods of producing metal-work1 yet native workers in all countries have had but two processes upon which they have based their plans1 and it is from the smiths who hammered copper and brass into shape1 and in later days stamped it1 and the founder who cast the metal in moulds1 that all our curios come4 ,the ,engraver's ,art4 ,this outline of the hunting-ground of the collector would be incomplete without some mention of the products of the graver's tool which has produced so many works of art4 ,the much prized mezzotints1 stipples1 and line engravings are pictures for the most part printed from copper plates4 ,the metal rolled in sheets and planished becomes a work of art in itself when covered with those beautiful pictures so cleverly wrought upon the metal by the light touch of the graver4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting uses to which copper has been put is that of executing beautiful miniatures--tiny pictures1 portraits1 and emblematic designs such as were used by traders on their stationery in years gone by4 ,the copper-plate engraver has left his mark1 too1 in the beautifully quaint and very valued early issues of postage-stamps1 some of which were printed from copper plates4 ,just as copper plays an important part in the production of postage-stamps and pictures1 so copper in conjunction with its alloys is the common metal of currency4 ,some of the most valuable metallic curios are the ancient coins which have been dug up from where they have been buried for centuries1 or discovered in some hidden chamber4 ,such little objects of copper or bronze have an antiquarian value far beyond either their artistic beauty or their age warrants being associated with them4 ,collectors of metals know the value of some of the historic commemorative medallions in bronze1 and heroes and warriors show their appreciation of one of the commoner metals in the value they set upon the simple ,maltese cross inscribed ,for ,valour1 for the ,victoria ,cross is more coveted than any naval or military award the ,sovereign of these realms can bestow4 ,its owners regard it as a precious relic1 and the reluctance of those left behind to part with it is seen in the large sum which has to be paid for one of these simple bronze crosses when it comes in the market4 ,,iii ,,prehistoric ,,bronzes ,,chapter ,,iii ,,prehistoric ,,bronzes ,the dawn of progress--,london relics--,the beauty of ancient art--,the useful bronzes1 the prototypes of later brasses--,the forger at work4 ,as it has already been intimated1 our older metal curios come to us from the ,bronze ,age4 ,in the relics of that period1 in which the ,british ,museum is so rich1 we are able to mark the great difference that must have existed between the people who lived the simple life in the ,stone ,age1 and those who understood how to make and how to use implements of bronze4 ,metal must have revolutionized the habits of the people1 fostered development1 and marked progress as the ,age advanced2 for with metal appliances there were greater possibilities1 and from the fact that while some used bronze others were content with flint1 it would appear that then1 perhaps1 more than at any other time1 the more advanced were sharply separated from those who1 possessing lesser intelligence and possibly fewer opportunities1 stayed behind4 ,the ,dawn of ,progress4 ,the more advanced ,britons and the men of the later ,bronze ,age in other countries improved the patterns of their tools1 the basis of which was found in flint implements1 which in the later ,neolithic period had become more varied4 ,even then they had hammer1 saw1 chisel1 borer1 spear or javelin1 and arrow-point4 ,they had also a variety of knives2 some of curious sickle-like forms4 ,there are weapons of war and weapons of defence1 and some obviously used for the more peaceful arts and domestic purposes4 ,as the collector secures specimens of the rarer types of bronze and metal objects coming to us from those far-off days1 we read the story of the evolution of the race1 and can picture in our minds the onward march4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e 7#a74--;,,bronze ,,caldron2 ,,and ,,fig4 #f 7#b74--,,urn ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,bronze ,,age4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,the ,romans did not find the ancient ,britons quite savages1 and we sigh with regret when we think of the numberless relics of priceless value--of bronze and of even more precious metals--which existed then1 but which have perished long ago4 ,the melting-pot has been a terribly fierce enemy to the collector of copper and brass1 and it is really wonderful how many rare objects of the ,bronze ,age remain--prehistoric only in that we have no authentic records of the happenings of that period4 ,we have1 however1 abundant evidence of the importance of that ,age in the bronzes preserved to us for so long by ,mother ,earth1 and now carefully tended by museum curators and private collectors4 ,among the fine examples we possess in our national collections are the ornamental bucklers of which some have been found in ,wales and other places4 ,that represented in ,fig4 #b 7#a7 came from the ,thames ,valley1 and ,fig4 #c 7#b7 from the peat bogs near ,aberystwyth2 both may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,some exceptional hoards have been found in ,ireland1 notably the bronzes which were discovered in #ahbe in a part of ,whigsborough1 called ,derreens1 in ,king's ,co4 ,it is surmised that although the land is now boggy the soil was at one time under cultivation1 and from indications it would appear as if the bronzefounder had worked on the spot4 ,in ,fig4 #d several representative implements found in that hoard are pictured2 their descriptions are as follows3 ,fig4 #d 7#a and #c71 palstaves2 7#e1 #f1 and #g71 daggers2 7#b7 a pear-shaped bell2 7#d and #h7 curved trumpets1 all specimens of the latter part of the ,bronze ,age or of the beginning of the ,iron ,age4 ,many fine bronze vessels1 chiefly without feet1 have been found in ,ireland4 ,the two examples shown in ,figs4 #e and #f represent the way in which they were made1 especially ,fig4 #e 7#a71 in which the riveting of the plates will be observed4 ,fig4 #f 7#b7 has been designated an urn4 ,both of these late bronzes are in the ,british ,museum1 along with other ,irish finds4 ,in the same collection there is a trumpet of horn with rings or bands of studs1 the mouthpiece being at the side4 ,it is a curious relic of an ,irish musician1 found some years ago at ,drimoleague1 ,co4 ,cork4 ,london ,relics4 ,london has been the site of an important camp1 town1 or city ever since man lived in the marshes and upon the banks of ,old ,father ,thames1 and among the finds in the neighbourhood have been relics of every period of ,british civilization2 and as a natural consequence ,london possesses representative collections of the ,bronze ,age1 as well as of later periods4 ,collectors have many opportunities of buying1 as well as of inspecting prehistoric bronzes in museums and in less important private collections4 ,some of these antiquities are of good form and possess a beauty of their own4 ,the vivid green1 relieved with deeper shades1 with which age has painted these ancient relics gives them a peculiar charm1 and it would be vandalism indeed to attempt to clean the celts and knives which antiquaries handle with such veneration and care4 ,the ,beauty of ,ancient ,art4 ,during the last few years more attention has been given to the beauty of the workmanship of the early objects of brass and copper relics of prehistoric peoples1 especially of the people who inhabited this country in pre-,roman days4 ,the ,london museums contain very representative examples4 ,to many the ,guildhall ,museum is of special interest1 in that every object there has been found within the confines of the ,city of ,london4 ,there are implements of the chase and of war and peace4 ,for instance1 in the cases containing weapons which may have been used for defence against wild animals1 as well as for aggressive campaigns1 there are bronze celts1 some socketed with loops1 side by side with a very fine tool and two small lumps of copper1 which were discovered near the celt4 ,these latter represent the unfinished material ready for the crucible and for the alloy which was to turn them into a bronze of special hardness4 ,in the same case there are leaf-shaped swords and daggers of rapier form4 ,there are also spear-heads of slender shapes with sockets extending near to the point of the weapon2 and spear shaft-sockets of bronze1 some of which were found in ,fetter ,lane4 ,of the late ,celtic period there are examples of personal objects1 and it may be noted that duplicates of similar antiquities to those deposited in the ,museum are on sale in a great number of shops in ,london1 and now and then quite important parcels of these interesting metallic mementoes of peoples unknown come under the hammer4 ,such trinkets include bronze fibul1 some enamelled1 others of plain metal4 ,a very beautiful specimen terminating with a roughly formed snake's head was found on the ,thames bank near ,hammersmith1 on the site of reputed pile dwellings1 some little time ago4 ,in the same locality a bronze bowl and a mount were found soon afterwards4 ,from the river near ,battersea came a bronze shield1 specially interesting in that it was decorated with enamelled ornaments4 ,horse-bits with enamelled rosettes have also been found in ,london4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting relics of that early age was a ,british helmet of copper1 also decorated with enamels1 found near ,waterloo ,bridge4 ,in the ,guildhall ,museum there is a brooch made with a bow and pin in one piece1 and quite a number of other styles of bronze fibul4 ,there are bronze hairpins1 too1 some of the heads being decorated4 ,there are ,celtic tweezers1 armlets of bronze1 and many rings4 ,to the inquisitive who like to inquire into the processes of making things and to their sources1 the remains of ancient workshops represented by lumps of copper1 strips of bronze1 and objects partly formed1 are of special interest4 ,there are bows1 showing another advance in civilization4 ,there are spoons1 too1 of circular form1 hammered into shape4 ,it has been said that bowls and spoons are the earliest signs of domesticity and civilization4 ,our ancestors1 who lived on the seashore1 made use of large shells1 which gave them the cue to the fashioning of a shallow dish1 which eventually became a bowl4 ,the wings of the valves of the oyster and the pecten may have given the suggestion of a handle to a primitive spoon4 ,ethnologists have said that the broken cocoanut in the ,south ,seas was the bowl of the primitive tribes1 and from it vessels in clay were moulded4 ,the ,useful ,bronzes1 the ,prototypes of ,later ,brasses4 ,the beautiful bronzes of the later part of the ,bronze ,age include objects showing the gradual development and progress of the race4 ,not only are the weapons those likely to be used in defence against attacks from wild animals rather than for aggressive purposes1 and the domestic bronzes of more civilized forms1 but there are in addition implements of husbandry4 ,in ,ireland some very pronounced sickles and reaping-hooks have been found4 ,there are also musical instruments and sounding horns1 among them curved trumpets of bronze4 ,many interesting although isolated finds have been made1 such as a curious bronze or brass bucket with corrugated flutes1 which was found at ,weybridge1 in ,surrey1 experts placing it among the relics of the early ,iron ,age4 ,from ,faversham1 in ,kent1 many bronze mirrors have been secured1 some of them being very ornamental1 the backs being engraved all over4 ,in the ,north of ,england several interesting finds have been made1 too4 ,some of especial value were discovered in ,heathery ,burn ,cave1 ,co4 ,durham2 they consisted of domestic utensils which were probably used at the extreme end of the ,bronze ,age4 ,among frequent finds is the patera or drinking-bowl1 which must1 of course1 be distinguished from the patine1 which was a flat dish with a raised rim1 used for serving up meat or fish4 ,indeed1 it would appear that some of the peoples who dwelt in those far-off ages of which we have no written history were more advanced in civilization and in the arts and crafts than we usually realize4 ,modern research has revealed much that was hitherto unknown1 and scientists1 explorers1 and antiquaries now hold the ancients in much greater respect than formerly--they no longer regard them as savages1 although they may class them with the barbarians of more modern ,europe4 ,professor ,petrie1 the famous ,egyptologist1 when speaking on his wonderful researches some little time ago1 said mankind had had a long past4 ,that past leads to the present1 and without a knowledge of the present and to some extent of the intermediate ages we cannot fully understand the past4 ,it is the curios of antiquity which help us1 and lead up by slow degrees to the present2 this is understood by the curio-hunter1 and realized more and more as he goes further into the past of nations4 ,the curios of the ,bronze ,age are not limited in locality4 ,they are found in continents far removed from ,western civilization1 for in the remains of ancient ,peruvians there are tools of bronze belonging to their far-off past4 ,the ,incas were not only adepts at working the precious metals with tools of bronze1 but they were clever workers of other raw materials4 ,they possessed beautiful textiles of cotton and wool and were noted agriculturists1 having implements of tillage made of bronze4 ,the ,forger at ,work4 ,a warning note is often sounded by those who have paid dearly for their experience4 ,it is needed1 for there are many pitfalls for the unwary1 especially in his researches among the relics of the ,bronze ,age and periods which have been much copied by the makers of modern antiques4 ,it is worthy of note that in the middle of the nineteenth century several ,birmingham firms in making bronzed inkstands1 bracket lights1 candelabra1 and figures supporting lamps1 copied the antique very closely1 one noted firm announcing on their trade circulars that their designs were according to ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,gothic ornaments4 ,examples of such comparatively modern work1 when discovered tarnished and neglected1 may sometimes have a close resemblance to real antiques1 and even the curios of still greater antiquity--especially ,egyptian curiosities--have been much forged4 ,the forger--or1 as he would prefer to be called1 the maker of replicas--is still at work4 ,,iv ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,curios ,,chapter ,,iv ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,curios ,grecian bronzes--,relics of ,roman occupation--,interesting toilet requisites--,artificial lighting--,statues and monuments--,romano-,british art--,a well staged exhibit4 ,it is from the curios in metal and the antiquities in stone which have been discovered1 chiefly in comparatively recent years1 that we are able to read with understanding the allusions made by classic writers to domestic life as it was in ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,the records of the art of ,greece become more real when we have gazed upon the beautiful and graceful statues and the furniture of the palace and domain for which the artists and metal-workers of those days were so justly celebrated4 ,even the public school boy takes a greater interest in his studies when he recognizes in the furnishings of his home antiquities from ,greece or those lands in which that once powerful nation founded colonies4 ,grecian ,bronzes4 ,in the modern replicas of antiques1 and in the fashioning of the common household bronzes of the present day1 the craftsman1 perhaps unconsciously1 gains inspiration from the older race of artists in metals4 ,indeed1 the nearer the workman adheres to the form of the statues and domestic decorative metal-work of the ancients1 the more likely he is to succeed in imparting refinement to the modern home4 ,ancient ,greece was the nursery of art and the training ground of the athlete and of the model who served as the type of the goddesses whose perfect forms and attributes were regarded as worthy of the divinities her sons and daughters worshipped4 ,most of the metal objects coming to us from classic days are of bronze1 toned and patinated4 ,images of the gods and goddesses worshipped by the ancient ,greeks were to be found in every house4 ,wealthy patrons employed the artist in metal to produce idols and appointments for the numerous temples they built4 ,it was the worship of many pagan deities that found work for many craftsmen4 ,the very multiplicity of the gods served the purposes of trade1 hence the supporters of pagan practices and worship found in the metal-workers and artists who wrought such things powerful allies4 ,we read in ,biblical accounts of that day that the introduction of ,christianity caused no small stir amongst them1 and incited ,demetrius1 the silversmith1 and others to rise up against the new religion1 which gave no immediate promises of employment of metal-workers to compensate them for the loss of trade in idols4 ,it was thus that so much that is beautiful when regarded as merely artistic bronze figures was made4 ,among the favourite deities whose emblematic bronzes have been preserved to us are ,diana1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and ,hercules4 ,they rank with the gods of brass of the heathen1 and according to their classic beauty are admired with the idols of metal from ,india and ,africa 7see ,chapter ,,xiv74 ,in all these treasures from the old world1 little known or understood now1 there is a blend of the decorative and artistic and the more utilitarian objects of the household4 ,the slaves of the old families often lived luxurious lives1 although the goodwill of their patrons and owners might be fickle4 ,they had their duties1 and the metal objects they handled and often skilfully manipulated are still preserved in our museums4 ,these were often fashioned with the same grace as the statues which adorned porticoes and halls4 ,the ornamental objects of ,greek workmanship include useful braziers or bronze tripods which gave heat and also served as purifiers2 for into their round brass dishes were thrown perfumes to correct the smell of the coals and charcoal1 which were then held to be injurious4 ,such braziers were also used by the ,romans1 and even in the ,middle ,ages were not uncommon1 pepper and cloves being then burned for fragrance4 ,relics of ,roman ,occupation4 ,although many beautiful objects have been imported into this country by collectors and dealers bought in ,rome itself1 and in ,italian and other continental cities where ,roman remains have been found1 it is the relics of the ,roman occupation in ,britain which take first place in our estimation among the valued curios of that great nation4 ,these have been found in many places1 often quite unexpectedly4 ,modern ,london1 like modern ,rome1 stands in part on ruins of an older city4 ,hence it is that when foundations are being dug and excavations to some #ae to #bj feet are made1 relics of ,roman ,london and of ,saxon and early ,norman buildings which were built in subsequent ages upon the older ruins come to light4 ,it is amidst these ruins and the debris of old architecture that metal curiosities are often found4 ,copper and brass have not perished to the same extent as iron and more corrosive metals4 ,in ,london1 ,bath1 ,chester1 and cities which were famous many centuries ago1 the earliest metal curiosities are unearthed4 ,but many of the most valued have been found where least expected1 for it must be remembered that even the sites of many old cities have been lost1 and green fields now cover the old foundations4 ,it is a little disappointing at first1 when a collection of ,roman antiquities is under examination1 to find that they bear a striking resemblance to modern appliances--especially is that so in the cooking utensils4 ,most of these early vessels are of bronze2 some1 however1 are of pure copper1 mostly covered over with green patina4 ,the useful seems to have predominated over the ornamental2 possibly it is that the more substantial cooking-pots and pans have remained1 although lighter and more ornamental objects have perished4 ,the pots and saucepans are indeed remarkably like those which are now used for similar purposes4 ,this has been remarked by many who have had to do with the uncovering of long buried ruins4 ,a writer describing a ,roman kitchen attached to the villa of a patrician family of note in the ,republican era before ,augustus assumed the purple1 which had been uncovered in ,rome1 said1 ,the culinary utensils found there are much like our own1 made of brass1 some of them dipped or plated over with silver4 ,they consisted of kettles with feet1 with a dome-shaped opening under them1 a hollow cylinder which entered into the kettle base so that the fire could penetrate it4 ,many of these utensils1 whilst possessing great strength and lasting qualities1 were not altogether plain1 for they were covered with foliated ornament like the saucepan illustrated in ,fig4 #g4 ,the saucepans without handles were something like a caldron on feet2 many1 however1 were fitted with bail handles1 by which they could be hung over the fire by the aid of a tripod4 ,the metal of which these early vessels were made varied1 for although some were of bronze1 some were made of a yellowish brass1 like one found in ,london near ,ludgate4 ,the ,guildhall ,museum is the best place to find a thoroughly representative collection of ,roman metal-work4 ,in the cases there are curious saucer-like bowls with and without handles1 many spoons of bronze1 and a variety of ladles1 some of which have long and narrow bowls2 and there are some culinary strainers1 not unlike the modern colander4 ,there are many ewers and some bowls or basins of bronze4 ,in ,fig4 #h is shown a ewer of hammered copper1 the handle having at the time it was made1 or at some later period1 been strengthened with brass wire1 which is in part flattened and stamped with medallions giving the vessel an exceedingly ornamental appearance4 ,this curious piece is to be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,among the more important kitchen accessories which have been discovered on the sites of ,roman towns are bronze scales not unlike miniatures of the steelyards once common in ,england1 and still used by butchers4 ,then there are brass gridirons1 dripping-pans1 and cups of bronze4 ,there are also copper pails for cooling wine1 and in a few instances bronze stands for the wine amphor4 ,it is almost impossible to point out the sites which are likely to yield the explorer the best results1 neither is it possible to locate the town where metal-work has been found to the greatest extent1 for all old camping-grounds and towns once occupied by ,roman troops or residential cities during ,roman occupation contain what has been thrown away as useless or has been buried accidentally4 ,the collector is delighted with the many little objects which can be bought1 trifling matters when seen separately1 but very interesting when collectively displayed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,bronze ,,saucepan ,,with ,,foliated ,,handle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,ewer ,,of ,,hammered ,,copper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,lamp ,,of ,,cast ,,bronze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,lamp ,,of ,,brass ,,inlaid ,,with ,,copper4 ,interesting ,toilet ,requisites4 ,during excavations on the site of the ,national ,safe ,deposit ,company's premises in ,walbrook quite a number of beautifully formed small objects were found4 ,indeed1 such curios 7by no means uncommonly met with on sale in curio shops7 are very numerous1 and include toilet implements1 armlets of twisted copper wire1 finger rings of bronze1 dress fasteners1 pins1 fibul1 tweezers1 key rings1 bodkins1 and needles4 ,the looking-glass is of course a modern invention1 but ,greek and ,roman maidens learned the art of finishing their toilet in the reflective glass of the shining pool1 and later by the aid of mirrors of highly polished metal made by the craftsmen of ,rome2 some of which have been preserved4 ,the surface to which this reflective polish was given was of copper alloyed with antimony and lead4 ,such mirrors were sometimes hung to the girdle1 a custom not unknown to ,shakespeare1 who frequently makes mention of it4 ,artificial ,lighting4 ,artificial light has been a necessity to man ever since primeval days4 ,the whole story of the discovery of fire-making and the light it gave is an enchanting romance4 ,the contrivances for procuring and lighting a fire and for the betterment of artificial light have been many1 and throughout the ages they have received perhaps greater attention by the inventor than any other requirement of the race4 ,of all the curios of the period under review none have been more prolific than those associated with artificial light4 ,the lamps of ancient ,rome1 of beautiful bronze and brass1 contrasted with the clay or terra-cotta lamps of cruder forms which have been found in such quantities4 ,their chased patterns were often modelled on the earlier ,greek vases1 so many of which are to be seen in the ,british ,museum among the rarities of the metal collector4 ,no collection of copper and brass would be complete without examples of the arts and crafts of ,rome1 so beautifully exemplified in the charming lamps to be carried in the hand1 to stand on pedestals1 and for suspension from the ceiling4 ,there was something in their ornamentation which carried them beyond the works of the utilitarian maker4 ,a celebrated historian1 referring to the lights of ancient ,rome1 speaks of their matchless grace and simplicity1 and says1 ,they afford traces of decoration showing an elevation in the ornamentation of common articles of every-day use4 ,the ,roman lamp of bronze was carried everywhere the conquering armies went1 and in ,roman settlements in ,france1 ,italy1 and in ,northern ,africa1 as well as in ,britain1 the native artificers in copper and bronze saw in them designs to be imitated2 and after the ,empire of ,rome had fallen1 the models which emanated from the ,imperial city served as the designs for lamps in many countries centuries afterwards4 ,the illustrations shown in ,figs4 #i and #aj represent bronze lamps--the former1 ,fig4 #i1 is cast1 and is an early example2 ,fig4 #aj1 however1 is of a later period1 and it is made of brass inlaid with copper4 ,the examples found in this and other countries may be divided into two groups1 those distinctly ,roman and of early date and those of the days when the ,christian religion was recognized by the ,emperors and the ,state4 ,these latter are known by the decorations upon them4 ,statues and ,monuments4 ,reference has already been made to the beautiful statuettes of ,greece4 ,there are others1 to many grand in their conceptions1 the work of ,roman modellers1 many representing ,apollo1 ,hercules1 ,mars1 and ,mercury having been found4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are some wonderfully striking heads of several of the ,emperors1 and other men whose portraits have been handed on to us in monuments of stone1 and upon coins and medallions1 the die-sinkers of which so faithfully portrayed the men they pictured4 ,the names of many of the most famous artists are known1 and collectors rejoice over fresh examples of their handiwork4 ,it is1 however1 the general characteristics of the ,roman worker in metal as a whole that connoisseurs recognize and appreciate1 and the true connoisseur is always searching for some greater artist's work than he has hitherto been familiar with4 ,he is on the look-out for the very best among art treasures4 ,an amusing story has been told of a modern manufacturer who was very fond of inserting in his advertisements paragraphs calling attention to his modern works of art1 which he said were acknowledged by connoisseurs to be the best4 ,father1 said his little boy one day1 what do you mean by a connoisseur8 ,a connoisseur1 my boy1 answered the manufacturer of copper goods1 is an eminent authority--an authority1 in short1 who admits that our goods are the best4 ,we are apt to look upon the beautiful brass grilles and copper lock-plates of medival days as the earliest examples of these metals in lock-making1 the earliest locks found on old doors and muniment chests being chiefly of iron4 ,but when we go back to still earlier times and examine the relics of ,roman ,london1 we find key-rings and keys of bronze1 some very ornamental1 too4 ,one beautiful little key found near ,all ,hallows ,church has a bow terminating in a small spur4 ,another bronze key found near ,st4 ,swithin's1 in ,cannon ,street1 has a ridged annular bow1 with a short square stem4 ,other keys are equally decorative2 the locks1 too1 are in many instances ornamental1 although in design and workmanship they fall short of the pinnacle of fame reached by the lockmakers in later ,gothic times4 ,romano-,british ,art4 ,many readers in searching for curios of the ,romano-,british period in this country will recall the fact that the ancient ,britons possessed bronze2 and doubtless we should be doing an injustice to the more enlightened dwellers in ,britain before ,roman occupation1 and contemporary with it1 if we did not admit that possibly some of the relics of that period now dubbed ,roman belonged to those more entitled to our regard1 for ,albion was their native land4 ,on the ,thames ,embankment1 facing the ,houses of ,parliament1 there is that famous bronze group perpetuating the memory of the ,british ,queen ,boadicea in her war chariot4 ,the ,romans made their famous paved roads as they pushed their outposts and line of camps farther north and west4 ,the wheels of many ,british war chariots were made of1 or hooped with1 brass1 and possibly the brass or bronze wheels1 such as are represented in that group on the ,embankment once covered by the flowing river1 may have rattled over the roads made by the conquerors2 such chariots1 with their appointments of bronze and ornamental horse trappings1 showed much skill in their fashioning4 ,a poet gives voice to their use in the following lines3 ,on the bright axle turns the bidden wheel ,of sounding brass1 the polish'd axle steel4 ,a ,well ,staged ,exhibit4 ,it is scarcely necessary to remind readers that there is a peculiar attraction in a well staged exhibit--public or private4 ,a case of ,roman and still earlier bronzes may be made attractive by an arrangement giving a gradation of subject and inclusive of the plainer types with the more delicately formed ornamental trinkets4 ,a very fine example of how to arrange such a collection is seen in one of the rooms in ,stafford ,house1 the new home of the ,london ,museum4 ,the entire collection1 representative of various periods of the ,roman occupation of ,britain1 so carefully mounted1 is worthy of close inspection4 ,it includes many rare pieces1 one being an early ,roman lamp1 which was found in ,greenwich and is said to be unique among ,london curios4 ,indeed1 it is probable that none so fine1 nor of exactly the same design1 has been found in ,england4 ,this we are able to reproduce 7see ,fig4 #ej74 ,the newly arranged ,london ,museum is likely to be a rendezvous of ,londoners and their friends from the country1 for not only are there early antiquities in copper and brass1 but many fascinating curios arranged in historical sequence1 showing the development in metal-work as it was fashioned by ,london smiths and founders1 and the progress made by other craftsmen as kings and queens came and went and the ,london as we know it to-day was being evolved4 ,v ,,medi,,val ,,antiquities ,,chapter ,v ,,medi,,val ,,antiquities ,domestic brasswork--,metal signs and badges--,ornamental trinkets--,arms and armour4 ,as the collector of copper and brass assembles his treasures and arranges them according to the different periods in which they were made1 it is always the household utensils which predominate4 ,as time goes on their number increases and the ornamental blends with the useful2 but the increase in the variety is only in proportion to the gradual extension of the number of other household curios of contemporary dates4 ,the period under review1 for convenience termed medival1 extends in actual fact from the rougher days of the ,norman sovereigns to those when bluff ,king ,hal held court and ,elizabeth made so many grand tours among the country seats of her people4 ,at the beginning of this period the furniture of even the nobility and wealthy ecclesiastics was very scanty1 and when the proud barons moved from one castle to another they carried with them all their household furnishings1 even their more treasured culinary utensils of copper and brass4 ,they stowed them away along with their jewels and their other belongings in oak coffers1 which in the earliest days were made so that they could be carried on poles by retainers4 ,in oaken coffers ,i have stuffed my crowns1 ,in cypress chests my arras counterpoints1 ,pewter and brass1 and all things that belong ,to house or housekeeping4 ,the ,taming of the ,shrew4 ,domestic ,brasswork4 ,in medival days the metal-work was home made1 that is to say1 it was the work of retainers and those who were employed upon an estate4 ,the old smiths not only worked in iron but wrought copper and brass1 and the founders were building up a reputation2 and their chief men were laying down rules for the guidance of the craftsmen4 ,the influence exerted upon the metal-work of this country by the trade guilds of ,london is referred to in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,in their prosperity no doubt the kitchens of the once powerful guilds were filled with cooking vessels indicative of the feasts held by the freemen of the different crafts4 ,some may say there are still evidences of such feasts2 but most of the cooking vessels of early days perished in the ,great ,fire1 although doubtless there are relics of a later period to be found in the kitchens and cellars of the ,guildhall and some of the lesser halls4 ,some of the companies1 if they have lost their treasures1 still possess records which are helpful to the antiquary1 and we naturally turn to the parchments and books of the ,worshipful ,company of ,founders1 and there1 appropriately enough1 it is written that at one time they had jurisdiction over the manufacture of candlesticks1 buckles1 spurs1 stirrups1 straps1 lavers1 pots1 ewers1 and basins of brass and latten4 ,the mark of the mystery was early made a ewer1 a ewer and two candlesticks being given to the ,founders in #aeij1 when they obtained a grant of arms2 the motto they adopted was3 ,god is the only ,founder4 ,the foundries of the craftsmen1 workers1 and casters of brass1 latten1 and kindred alloys in ,london were chiefly in and near ,lothbury1 among their most noted products being candlesticks and spice mortars--two staples which have become nearly obsolete1 although none would say that the founding of metal is as yet an obsolete craft4 ,thus it is change and development are seen everywhere in production4 ,the chief privileges of the ,founders have gone1 although they still take some little part in the stamping of weights and measures2 but that1 too1 has become a ,government duty4 ,the ,founders have some interesting pieces of plate1 but not much copper4 ,their best example of their own craft is the ancient poor-box of copper which was presented to the ,company by ,mr4 ,stephen ,pilchard in #afec1 the year in which he was ,upper ,warden4 ,the feeding of man has always been the first duty of those who took charge of domestic arrangements1 and we can readily understand that the caldron or cooking-pot was the earliest vessel4 ,its use may be regarded as universal1 for it is found to have existed everywhere 7see ,chapter ,,viii74 ,in medival ,england the feasting of the poor and the feeding of scores of retainers in the baronial halls and in the great ecclesiastical buildings1 where hospitality and charity were rife1 necessitated immense boiling-pots4 ,some of those referred to under ,domestic ,utensils 7,chapter ,,viii7 seem to some too large for practical purposes4 ,it may1 however1 be pointed out that there are many large cooking-pots in use even at the present time2 and copper caldrons of large size are used in hospitals and infirmaries4 ,quite recently there appeared in the public ,press photographs of a well-known ,countess making an ,irish stew at ,liberty ,hall1 ,dublin1 stirring round the contents with a wooden stirrer and lading out bowlfuls of soup with a metal scoop2 it was food for the sufferers through the strike at that time going on in ,dublin4 ,it is thus that the poor of all ages have been fed4 ,as kitchen operations were confined to lesser areas and smaller vessels were needed by individual families when patriarchal systems were broken up1 they were but replicas in miniature of the larger caldrons and vessels which had become too large4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,brass ,,aquamanile 7,,seventeenth ,,century74 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,it is wisely said1 ,fingers were made before spoons1 a fact true enough1 but as time went on and the habits and customs of men and women became less rough1 although as yet hardly refined1 a need sprang up for utensils for personal use4 ,hitherto cooking forks and spoons were used in the kitchen1 but the hunting-knife mostly served at table4 ,it is true spoons were in use in very early times and even by the common people4 ,at first of iron or wood1 afterwards made of brass and latten1 they are found wherever there are remains of medival dwellings4 ,a ,scotchman is said to have declared that the discovery of hot broth was an epoch in the evolution of man1 and that as the ladle is to the pot so is the spoon to the bowl4 ,such brass ewers and basins1 known as aquamaniles1 mostly of bronze 7one of ,continental make is illustrated in ,fig4 #aa7 were used for the purpose of washing the hands1 over which the water was poured4 ,they were used in connection with bowls4 ,another type of laving ewer is that of the gemellions1 made in pairs1 one portion being held under a person's hands while water was poured out of the spouted bowl4 ,gemellions seem to have been the somewhat clumsy prototypes of the more convenient jug and bowl of later days4 ,the use of ewers and basin was very necessary both before and after meals when knives and spoons were little used and it was no uncommon thing for two persons to eat out of one dish4 ,in medival days even domestic articles were frequently decorated1 for ,english and ,european metal-workers had caught the figure work of the ,oriental school4 ,their ornament took the form of hunting and battle scenes4 ,sometimes patrons were eulogized1 and flattering inscriptions covered the objects wrought for them by their servile dependents4 ,in ,fig4 #ah there is shown a bucket or bath vessel now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 rather an unusual piece of early metal-work and an interesting medival curio4 ,not long ago a similar bucket was dug up in the neighbourhood of ,weybridge4 ,we are apt to regard with disdain what we term the grandmotherly legislation which tampers with the liberty of the subject4 ,the present day1 however1 is not alone remarkable for regulations by which the home life of the nation is controlled4 ,the ,norman law which ordered lights out when curfew rang cut short the overtime of the worker of that day4 ,so stringent was the enforcement of that law that not a glimmer of light must be seen after the appointed time4 ,to darken or extinguish the dying fire on the hearth the couvre de feu became a feature4 ,such covers of well authenticated antiquity are rare2 the one illustrated in ,fig4 #ab is a well-preserved example now in the ,bolton ,museum4 ,metal ,signs and ,badges4 ,in the early days when serfdom had not long ceased and the retainers of the nobles had not won their full freedom or independence1 signs and symbols of their allegiance to some chief or overlord were plentiful4 ,the ,crusaders brought back with them signs1 amulets1 and various objects which they wore with more or less superstitious belief4 ,the pilgrims to the most noted shrines in this country followed suit1 and all these various purposes and medival customs have furnished the curio-hunter with many delightful reminders of the good old days when superstition and almost idolatry were rife4 ,old ,father ,thames has preserved many of them for centuries1 and twentieth-century collectors are richer thereby4 ,in the ,guildhall ,museum in ,london there is a very complete and representative collection of pilgrims' signs4 ,although many of them are made of a soft metal1 there are others of good copper and brass4 ,at one time they must have been very plentiful1 for very prolific have the finds been in the neighbourhood of ,london ,bridge and in and around ,southwark4 ,these signs or badges were secured and worn by the pilgrims who set out to the chief shrines1 notably that of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket at ,canterbury4 ,chaucer in his ,canterbury ,tales has told that there were many traders in pilgrim signs in ,canterbury city1 so that all were enabled to possess themselves of such symbols1 many of which they threw upon the shrine1 and others retained them as talismans against danger on the return journey4 ,the pilgrims wore a variety of emblems--the more devout1 it is said1 preferred the cross2 others carried with them on their journey little metal figures of ,st4 ,george1 ,st4 ,katherine1 ,st4 ,christopher1 or other saint with his or her symbol4 ,st4 ,agnes was represented by a lamb1 ,st4 ,john by an eagle1 and ,st4 ,dorothy by a basket of fruit4 ,perhaps the most favoured sign purchased in ,canterbury was an equestrian figure of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket4 ,some of the emblems were worn as protectors against evil1 and such signs were almost invariably on horse trappings2 indeed1 such amulets have been perpetuated almost up to the present day4 ,there are several circular discs in the museum referred to1 said to date from the twelfth century1 upon these are embossed two horned animals2 another badge of a little later date1 in copper1 has upon it a shield of arms surrounded by three mythical dragons2 it was found in ,ludgate ,hill4 ,yet another on which is a shield charged with seven stars1 said to be of fourteenth-century workmanship1 was found some time ago on the site of the old ,general ,post ,office in ,st ,martin's-le-,grand4 ,the retainers of noblemen wore private badges by which they were known2 these were mostly of brass or bronze1 and sometimes they were gilded4 ,they were frequently worn when on a journey as a passport4 ,such badges in the form of circles and lozenges were usually furnished with a loop for suspension1 and became well known4 ,they served a similar purpose to the distinctive livery of later days4 ,ornamental ,trinkets4 ,the household ornaments1 trinkets1 and little articles of personal adornment which have been preserved tell not only of female vanity but of masculine love of ornament4 ,it would appear that the use of bronze lingered on for centuries after it had nominally been displaced by brass2 especially was that the case in decorative objects and metal ornament4 ,the metals known as bronze1 copper1 and brass are1 however1 much intermixed in their use4 ,the objects which can be collected include brooches1 rings1 pins1 needles1 bodkins1 and thimbles of brass4 ,buckles are very numerous1 and varied in form2 some are heart-shaped1 others have ends cut out to form a trefoil and are decorated with a pierced fleur-de-lis4 ,the story of the pin1 the smallest and yet the most used metal object preserved1 is very interesting4 ,at one time it was made by hand from brass wire1 the head being twisted round and round until it had the appearance of a solid knob4 ,the ,pinners were in years gone by an important guild1 and in #acgf returned two men to the ,common ,council of ,london4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,vii an ,act of ,parliament was passed compelling the ,pinners to solder fast to the shank the head of the pin1 and directing that the pin itself should be smooth1 rounded1 filed1 and sharpened4 ,very laborious indeed must have been the making of pins in those days4 ,there were pins1 however1 of an earlier date1 for it is recorded that on one occasion when the men of ,athens had gone out to battle only one returned4 ,he was met by an infuriated mob of women1 who were so enraged at the loss of their husbands that ,herodotus tells us they pulled the pins out from their garments and stabbed him to death4 ,there were bronze pins in ,rome1 too1 and we are told that even the safety-pin of to-day is by no means new1 for among the collectable objects in brass are prehistoric safety-pins4 ,half a century ago1 when little girls went to school they carried with them the inevitable pin poppet1 some of which receptacles for pins and other similar sundries were of wood1 but many were brass2 some met with among old metal curios are quite handsomely decorated4 ,another indispensable object is the button1 so many of which are of metal1 many decorative1 some inscribed1 and others ornamented with portraits4 ,there are little brass sleeve-links1 worn in ,tudor days1 to be met with1 and some curious brass studs which were worn by men in the shirt fronts of the early ,georgian period4 ,there are clasps of purses and books and casket mounts of brass1 some of which date back to the fifteenth century4 ,the older mounts of purses1 so-called1 would be more correctly described as the mounts of gipcieres2 the gipciere was a kind of pouch formerly worn at the girdle2 the name is also spelled gipser3 ,a gipser all of silk ,hung at his girdle white as morn silk4 ,chaucer4 ,sometimes the mounts were inscribed with mottoes2 one found in ,brooks' ,wharf1 ,london1 believed to be of fourteenth-century workmanship1 is inscribed ,,creatorem ,,celi ,,et ,,terre ,,et ,,in ,,iesvm4 ,other objects in brass are girdle ends1 some of which are shaped like acorns and others are of ivy-leaf design4 ,among ornamental bronzes which can be worn1 and in larger sizes hung upon the wall1 there are plaques1 many of the earliest being copied from antique gems4 ,plaquettes in bronze were common in the sixteenth century4 ,arms and ,armour4 ,a volume might well be taken up with describing medival arms and armour4 ,it is true iron and steel are the chief metals in the making of weapons1 but brass and bronze are closely allied with some of the armaments of war4 ,many of the small medival cannon were of brass1 and not a few of the guns1 or hand cannon1 were of that metal4 ,in the days of ,elizabeth the musketeer carried1 in addition to an unwieldy weapon1 his flask of powder1 touch-box1 and burning match4 ,the match-box was a tube of copper pierced with small holes1 and in it the lighted match could be conveyed safely4 ,the powder-horn was at first of real horn1 but in time it became a copper flask4 ,many of the old flasks were exceedingly ornate1 and were often ornamented with hunting scenes worked up in repouss on the copper sides4 ,the spur-makers were important craftsmen in early days1 and under the name of the ,guild of ,loriners ranked with the ,city companies4 ,it is true that the spur rowels of six1 eight1 or even twelve points were generally of iron1 but the collector of metal finds many interesting specimens made entirely of brass4 ,one pair of spurs in the reign of ,henry ,,viii consist of fourteen brass points1 the neck of the rowel being shaped like a peacock and embossed with brass rosettes4 ,our finest collection of armour and of ceremonial metal-work--that splendid collection which dates from quite early times1 finding its greatest strength and massive grandeur in late medival days and its artistic ornament in the richly damascened armour of lesser weight of the ,stuarts--is rightly housed in that greatest of ,english strongholds1 the ,tower of ,london4 ,it is there that the antiquary and the archologist love to wander1 and in the vast recesses of those dungeons and prison-like towers read history4 ,there is an abundance of metal everywhere4 ,guns and cannon and mortars of historic fame lie about in the open4 ,the ,bloody ,tower1 nearly opposite the ,traitors' ,gate1 the ,middle ,tower1 the ,byward ,tower1 and many others of equal interest may be seen4 ,to some the ,regalia with its crowns1 swords1 and sceptres of state1 ampulla1 spoon1 salt-cellars1 maces1 and orders of merit1 are the greatest attraction4 ,the curio collector1 however1 finds his way to the museum and admires and perhaps envies the quaint and curious guns1 powder-horns1 and trophies of war4 ,he is in the midst of the ,england of the ,middle ,ages1 with its jousts and tournaments1 shut out by the thick walls of the ,white ,tower from the hurry and bustle of the traffic and commerce of the twentieth century4 ,the magnificent armour in ,hertford ,house--the ,wallace collection--is a delight to those who love to see in arms and armour the perfection of beauty of ornament and decoration4 ,there are splendid suits which look as bright as the day when they were new4 ,the half-suit of armour of ,italian workmanship made for ,alfonso ,,ii1 ,duke of ,ferrara1 inlaid and damascened with gold and silver1 is said to be the finest in ,europe4 ,the staging of this splendid collection was carried out by ,mr4 ,guy ,laking1 the ,keeper of the ,king's ,armour and ,custodian of the ,london ,museum4 ,a fitting conclusion to this chapter is1 surely1 a tribute to the armourers and founders and smiths of the ,middle ,ages1 who worked so conscientiously and made their work lasting4 ,it has retained its beauty and much of its ancient finish1 notwithstanding atmospheric influences2 indeed1 some of it gained added beauty by oxidation4 ,,vi ,,later ,,metal-,,work ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,brass ,,couvre ,,de ,,feu1 ,a ,,rare ,,early ,,piece4 7,in the ,chadwick ,museum1 ,bolton47 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,later ,,metal-,,work ,the influence of the ,guilds--,architectural metal-work--,the door knocker--,interior metal-work4 ,in all branches of art there seems to be a break between the earlier medival and the later art which was the outcome to some extent of the great ,renaissance or revival which swept over the ,continent of ,europe and brought with it such a change in everything appertaining to the beautiful4 ,whilst medival metal-workers produced grand examples full of design and ornament1 influenced by the touch with ,eastern nations which the ,crusaders gave them1 the later smiths and founders gradually evolved styles of their own1 more ,english to our ideas4 ,the ,renaissance with its wealth of ornament did not so much apply to copper and brass as it did to the metal-work of the smith who forged that which was beautiful and ornate in iron on his anvil4 ,yet some of those florid designs were reproduced by the brassfounder4 ,after the ,restoration the art treasures which had been destroyed during the ,commonwealth were replaced1 as evidenced by the ,regalia in the ,tower1 where there is so much silver-gilt and gold plate which represents the more decorative art of that period4 ,in that famous collection of national ,regalia1 symbols of office1 and vessels used on rare occasions1 there is the alms-dish used for the distribution of the ,king's doles on ,maundy ,thursday4 ,it bears the ,royal cipher of ,william and ,mary1 and contrasts with the other plate in that it is remarkably plain1 typical in its decoration with the earlier metal-work of the days of ,queen ,anne and those years which immediately followed her reign4 ,when we walk through some of the once select1 although now not much used1 thoroughfares in ,london and admire the stately old houses which may be seen still in some of the ,metropolitan squares1 especially in the open thoroughfare known as ,queen ,anne's ,gate1 we are inclined to wonder whether after all ,queen ,anne is dead4 ,that hackneyed expression used in a humorous sense at times is certainly not true in so far as the remarkable developments in building operations and the characteristic decorations of ,queen ,anne's day live still not only in the old houses which are still undisturbed1 but in the designs and characteristic patterns which were then adopted by metal-workers and others1 their beauty and grace being recognized to such an extent that they are to-day among the much copied antiques4 ,the ,influence of the ,guilds4 ,it may be convenient here to refer to the influence of the old ,city guilds1 which for so long a time acted beneficially1 keeping the craftsmen of their day up to the mark1 maintaining the purity of metal and other materials used1 and encouraging and fostering the attainment of the highest skill in artistic workmanship4 ,the ,city ,companies have long ceased to exercise active control over individual craftsmen2 some would say that trade unions have taken their place1 and others would point to the altered conditions of manufacture and of trade which exist now4 ,none can deny1 however1 that the influence of those early pioneers is still felt1 and the basis which they laid down as the art of the later period of ,english craftsmanship1 amongst which we find the greater number of our collectable curios1 remains to-day the foundation on which modern developments are built up4 ,the ,braziers' ,company was once an important guild in connection with metal4 ,many years ago the ,braziers joined the ,armourers1 claiming1 however1 a monopoly of all copper and brasswork4 ,by an ,authority received from ,james ,,ii the members of the ,braziers' ,company were granted the right to search and prove all copper and brasswork wrought with a hammer within the ,city of ,london4 ,it is said that their ,charter is still in force1 although their rights and privileges are now sinecures4 ,few members of the old ,city companies have now any direct connection with the crafts with which their names are associated4 ,they exist1 however1 and use some of the funds at their disposal for the encouragement and development of the modern crafts which have evolved from the older foundations with which they were associated4 ,now and then important exhibitions are held at which examples of the old and the new are shown1 not always redounding to the credit of the antique4 ,some few years ago a very interesting competitive exhibition was held at ,ironmongers' ,hall at the instigation of the ,worshipful ,company of ,founders1 by whom prizes were given for artistic metal-work made by living craftsmen who had studied antique metal-work and had caught somewhat of the spirit of the old artists in copper and brass4 ,the competition was keen and many of the exhibits very beautiful4 ,the winner of the first prize had modelled a goat from life4 ,the second prize went to the modeller of a calf which was cast in bronze2 the third prize being awarded for a splendidly modelled lioness4 ,in another division prizes were given for bells2 the first prize was awarded to the founder of a church bell cast in loam1 and the second prize to the designer and founder of a bell on which were exceedingly well-modelled representations of the ,resurrection4 ,in all these examples the influence of the antique was very conspicuous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,copper ,,vane ,,on ,,billingsgate ,,fish ,,market4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,the ,,city ,,dragon ,,as ,a ,,weather-,,vane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,copper ,,cock ,,vane1 ,,one ,,of ,,four ,,on ,,smithfield ,,market4 ,the impetus which has been given to modern copper smithing by the ,arts and ,crafts ,society through its exhibitions has given quite a different conception of the art from that which was formerly held4 ,instead of being a common craft1 working in copper and brass has become one of the fine arts1 a hobby much practised1 and the results appreciated4 ,the late ,william ,morris1 at one time ,president of the ,society1 and ,walter ,crane1 artists of no mean order1 exerted a great influence on the work of exhibitors4 ,they have raised the tone of the work done by amateurs and have been the means of guiding modern workers in these metals in their efforts to reproduce the antique4 ,curios and antiques have served a double purpose associated with crafts such as those under review1 as they give the present-day artist the foundations upon which to work4 ,they give them evidence of styles and designs which have prevailed in the past and models upon which to build the art of the future4 ,briefly1 among the best works of to-day fashioned on the arts and crafts of the coppersmiths of old are the beautiful metal dogs and fire-hearth appointments4 ,there are the copper grilles1 exquisite in design and useful for many purposes2 copper lanterns and brass lamps of great variety2 copper candlesticks1 as well as the beaten metal candelabra and electroliers1 also overmantel panels and beaten copper roundels1 all worthy objects for the craftsmen of the present day to follow4 ,perhaps the most elaborate productions based on the antique are the ecclesiastical brasses of which there is ample choice in the old brasswork in so many cathedrals and parish churches4 ,architectural ,metal-,work4 ,many years ago architects not only designed the main fabric and supervised the building of houses1 such as those incidentally referred to being erected in the days of ,queen ,anne1 but they were deeply interested in the metal-work which acted as exterior ornamentation1 and to a large extent contributed to the beauty of their architectural designs4 ,after the ,great ,fire of ,london swept away so much of the ancient residential portion of the old city1 and took with it the ,gothic and early medival churches1 there was a great revival in building operations4 ,sir ,christopher ,wren and his fellow-workers put up more than sixty new churches within the ,city1 and although to some extent the contour of the old streets was observed1 the newer buildings must have presented an astonishing transformation scene1 for from the few old relics left of ,london before the ,fire we can form some slight idea of what the ,city must have looked like then4 ,the collector of copper and brass takes an interest in metal-work other than that which he can collect1 and admires works of art with which the architects of olden times enriched their chief buildings4 ,it is true a considerable portion of the exterior metal-work attached to the freehold1 and of the gates and palasades surrounding the more important erections1 are of iron4 ,there are enough examples of copper-work1 however1 to show us the skill of the old craftsmen who worked on years after the ,charter granted by ,james ,,ii to the ,braziers' ,company had become a dead letter4 ,one of the most conspicuous and at the same time decorative examples of copper-work on the loftier buildings is found in the weather-vanes1 which were sometimes gilt1 at others painted4 ,in the earlier days the emblems selected had some bearing on the ownership of the building or the purposes for which it was to be used4 ,there were well-known rules1 too1 governing the type of weather-vane4 ,these are recognizable in the older examples4 ,they have been neglected1 however1 in later years1 and the nondescript designs chosen by builders and modelled according to the whim of the designer at the present day show little regard for the principles laid down by those early builders and metal-workers4 ,the etiquette of the weather-vane was simple enough to observe4 ,on towers1 castles1 and secular buildings a banner was the correct device1 whereas on ecclesiastical edifices it was the barn-door fowl4 ,it is said by an old authority that the cock was the emblem of clerical vigilance1 not unassociated with the ,biblical story of ,st4 ,peter2 others more sceptical as to the origin tell us that the large tail of the barn-door fowl was well suited to turn truly to the wind4 ,from these simple principles evolved established rules which ordered that the coat-of-arms or crest of the owner of a building should be incorporated in the design of the weather-vane1 and on ecclesiastical buildings the symbol of the patron saint was to take the place of the weather-cock4 ,as typical examples to be seen in ,london streets the weather-vanes on the four turrets of the ,white ,tower of the ,tower fly the ,royal ,arms in the form of miniature ,royal ,standards4 ,in ,tudor days the emblem was usually represented sitting on a slender pedestal1 carrying an upright rod on which the flag or decorated plate of metal which acted as the weather-vane was attached4 ,in the accompanying illustrations three types of symbolical weather-vanes are shown4 ,fig4 #ac represents one of the copper vanes on ,billingsgate ,fish ,market1 symbolical of the occupation of those who frequent that famous mart4 ,in ,fig4 #ad is seen the fabled dragon of the ,city of ,london1 and in ,fig4 #ae the copper cock vane1 one of the four fixed over ,smithfield ,market4 ,there are many ecclesiastical emblems visible during a morning stroll through the streets of ,london4 ,among those readily seen are the key vane on ,st4 ,peter's1 ,cornhill1 and the emblematic gridiron on ,st4 ,lawrence's ,church4 ,on ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,queenhithe1 there is a copper ship1 the hull of which holds just one bushel of grain4 ,this vane is interesting in that the emblem has reference to ,queenhithe1 once a famous wharf1 rather than to the patron saint4 ,the ,hithe is interesting in its old associations1 in that the tolls of that wharf were given to ,queen ,eleanor by ,henry ,,ii as pin money1 subsequent queens of ,england collecting the revenue for their personal use4 ,the grasshopper on the ,royal ,exchange is the same vane that surmounted the more ancient building which preceded the one now standing4 ,the grasshopper was the crest of ,sir ,thomas ,gresham1 by whom the first ,exchange was built in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,this vane1 also of copper1 is fully #aa ft4 in length1 and in miniature was reproduced as the sign of the banking house in ,lombard ,street kept by ,sir ,thomas ,gresham4 ,the ,door ,knocker4 ,the common door knocker1 essentially a piece of metal associated to-day with utilitarian purposes1 is not without romantic associations4 ,it has been a much collected object2 easily detached1 too1 for it is said that many of the old knockers1 or rappers as they were formerly called1 which a few years ago could be bought quite cheaply from the marine store dealers1 had been surreptitiously purloined by thieves1 who for the sake of a few coppers had taken some risk even on a dark night4 ,some old houses are still rich in antiquarian door knockers1 before the days of front door bells and electric pushes more a necessity than they are now4 ,their use was by no means confined to private houses1 on which they figured in a variety of forms1 but among the earlier examples are ponderous knockers of copper and brass1 once regarded as an essential feature on the great oaken doors of cathedrals and churches and other important buildings4 ,in the days when the precincts of certain ecclesiastical edifices were sanctuary1 the knocker was the goal sought by the criminal offender who rushed to obtain the protection of sanctuary4 ,one of the most famous historical knockers which has been copied by modern founders1 and is seen in collections of so-called antiques and in use as a modern replica on room doors in twentieth-century houses1 is the famous knocker which did service for so many years on the ,sanctuary door of ,durham ,cathedral4 ,it is a relic of great antiquity1 having been placed on the door prior to the reign of ,king ,stephen4 ,detailing its use as sanctuary a contemporary monk wrote3 ,hereupon their leader violently and repeatedly struck the brass rings which hang outside the door4 ,according to the rights of ,durham all the churchyard and all the circuit thereof was sanctuary for all manner of men whatever their offences had been4 ,it will be remembered that in olden time1 still perpetuated by its name1 there was sanctuary just outside the ,abbey of ,westminster1 the right being retained even after the dissolution of the monasteries in #aedj4 ,there were similar places of refuge for criminals at the ,minories1 ,whitefriars1 and the old ,mint in ,southwark4 ,the ,durham knocker1 around which some interest centres1 was in the form of an animal's head1 in which are now two empty eye-sockets1 behind which it is said lights were placed1 although it is probable that they may have been filled with crystal balls4 ,the brass lion knocker of ,brazenose ,college1 ,oxford1 has won some notoriety1 and has been much copied4 ,the legends regarding its ancient association with the ,college1 and the migration of the students to ,stamford in #accd1 and the subsequent return of the knocker to ,oxford after it had been in other hands for many years1 vary1 and are not altogether borne out by proven facts4 ,the brass-nosed knocker does not appear to have given the name to the ,college1 notwithstanding the very generally accepted belief4 ,indeed1 according to several authorities the name originated in the words bracinum1 malt1 and house1 a brew-house having been incorporated in the older buildings4 ,the old knocker1 however1 is still regarded as historic4 ,few collectors of old copper and brass can hope to possess such historical relics1 nor yet are they likely to secure any of the massive knockers1 some of which are to be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,they can1 however1 readily obtain brass knockers dating from the reign of ,queen ,anne1 and especially the ornate knockers of ,georgian times1 many of them bearing traces of the ,adams' style and of ,chippendale influence4 ,some knockers are peculiar in that the design is not always apparent4 ,in ,fig4 #af is shown a fine knocker of the much favoured armorial style1 and in ,fig4 #ag is given a drop knocker in the form of a dolphin4 ,some of the knockers1 repeated in great numbers in certain districts1 are essentially local1 such as a hook and worm pattern1 which took its origin in a ,sussex village4 ,it was the invention of a local smith1 an admirer of ,izaac ,walton1 who it is said frequently passed his smithy door on his way to a fishing stream4 ,technically described by a fisherman1 this knocker is said to be a lobworm of buxom proportions dangling from a hook4 ,there are others1 equally interesting examples1 to be met with in out-of-the-way places4 ,one of the advantages of collecting these common objects in brass and other metals is that they can still be made to serve a useful purpose on room doors1 although the rat-tat of the larger specimens is sometimes startling4 ,shut1 shut the door1 good ,john6 fatigued1 ,i said2 ,tie up the knocker2 say ,i'm sick1 ,i'm dead4 ,pope4 ,interior ,metal-,work4 ,the collectable brasses 7other than domestic kitchen brass and copper-work which is dealt with in ,chapter ,,viii7 belonging to the later period of art1 and chiefly associated with the builder's furnishing and cabinetmaker's craft1 include quite a variety of interesting objects4 ,in the days before ,victorian times1 when art almost died out1 the coppersmith and the brazier produced some beautiful objects for the ornamentation and furnishing of the home1 many of which have been handed down to us1 and form valuable additions to a collection of metal4 ,this period1 as it has been already intimated1 has been very much copied1 especially just before the artists of the later ,edwardian days struck out new lines and founded a school which has been called that of the nouvre art4 ,now and then there have been attempts to blend the old with the new1 and the collector of the genuine antique desiring purity of style in his specimens should not neglect any opportunities he may have of examining and comparing the various styles4 ,the arrangements for lighting and heating houses were until quite recently inefficient4 ,there was1 however1 still greater neglect in providing for the comfort of the attenders at churches1 which were frequently cold and chilly4 ,attempts were made by individuals to remedy this1 and among the curios associated with heating purposes are hand-warmers and foot-warmers4 ,the earlier types of hand-warmers1 or chaufferettes1 were spherical metal boxes or balls1 in the interior of which1 by an arrangement of chains or rings1 a cup containing a red-hot ball of metal or a piece of charcoal could be retained in an upright position4 ,these portable warming stoves were also used in many houses and on many occasions4 ,reference is made to such warmers in ,chapter ,,xv1 where a ,dutch foot-warmer is illustrated4 ,it is said that it was a common practice years ago for a servant man or maid to follow a lady when attending church1 carrying a charcoal burner and placing it upon the floor at the lady's feet1 then gracefully retiring into some less conspicuous part of the building until the service was over4 ,in the days when streets were badly lighted lanterns were commonly hung outside houses and in entrance halls1 some reference to the more portable types being given in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,bronze ,,knocker ,,of ,,the ,,armorial ,,type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,brass ,,drop ,,knocker ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,a ,,dolphin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,brass ,,well ,,bucket4 ,the metal-work of the interior1 such as lock plates1 hinges1 and door knobs1 was frequently of brass1 and very ornate some of these quaint old fittings are4 ,perhaps the most interesting are those which were much used on the more portable sideboards1 corner cupboards1 and chests4 ,it would appear that the extravagance in design reached its height when ,chippendale's influence extended to the metal ornaments on the furniture1 as well as to the scrollwork and carving of the woodwork4 ,some of this metal-work gives evidence of ,chinese influence1 or as it was then called1 ,chinese taste1 shown in the introduction of the mandarin and the fakir1 ,oriental landscapes1 palanquins1 and ,chinese trees and flowers1 even in ,english metal-work4 ,the collector of such things finds a wealth of brass in even escutcheons and handle plates 7see ,chapter ,,xix74 ,there is some very rich brasswork in the frames of the old banner screens1 made of beautiful needlework panels1 over which so much time must have been spent4 ,a remarkably fine banner holder in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum is typical of many others4 ,we have only to look round the house and imagine how it looked a century ago to discover that the collectable objects of copper and brass1 even when domestic utensils and curios have been removed1 included many other objects besides those referred to which may be secured by careful and persistent search among the old shops and builders' odds and ends4 ,,vii ,,church ,,brasswork ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,curious ,,double ,,candlestick4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,church ,,brasswork ,candlesticks--,altar brasses--,metal architectural ornament--,memorial brasses4 ,the admirer of metal-work finds examples of the early brassworker's art in ecclesiastical edifices4 ,although in years gone by there has been spoiliation in many churches1 and some of the most valued objects in sacred buildings have been taken for secular uses1 there are still many treasured relics which are almost unique specimens of the metal-worker's art4 ,it is a wonder so much has been preserved1 for too enthusiastic authorities have often displaced the old and substituted newer objects of no antiquarian value4 ,in the past in restoration work much that would have now been venerated as antique has been destroyed4 ,the collector cannot be advised to bring pressure to bear on the ecclesiastical authorities in order that he may obtain such curios for his museum4 ,oftentimes the brasses in themselves would present no special interest4 ,it is rather in their associations that the antiquary sees much to admire1 and to strip brasses from the wall or memorial tablets from tombs is vandalism and sacrilege which cannot be encouraged4 ,there is1 however1 a peculiar beauty in the metal-work which may be seen and admired in old churches1 and the massive grandeur of grilles1 railings1 and gallery fronts add to the beauty of such buildings as a whole4 ,in addition to these architectural brasses there are many portable antiques1 ornate and historical4 ,ecclesiastical brasses may be divided into two groups4 ,first1 there are those which have been consecrated to religious purposes1 including the sacred vessels of the altar and the metal symbols used in ,divine worship1 and then there are the metal objects which serve the purpose of ornament and to some extent utility4 ,among the more decorative pieces of the first group are processional crosses1 many of which are very beautiful1 in some cases being ornamented with precious stones and enamels4 ,then there are the crosses on the altar1 if anything still more decorative1 for in fashioning them1 especially for use in connection with the old ,gothic cathedrals and churches in this country and on the ,continent in medival days1 the artists concentrated their best endeavours to produce metal-work worthy of the sacred purpose for which it was to be used4 ,some of the bishops' and archbishops' crooks in the earlier days were made of ivory2 then metal-work1 richly chased and jewelled1 came into vogue1 and latterly some of the crooks are fine examples of the metal-workers' art4 ,candlesticks4 ,the ornaments of the altar in ,christian churches are for the most part simple in design4 ,there are1 however1 many varieties of candlesticks1 varying in size and degree from the larger ones which hold the ,communion candles to the decorative seven-branched candelabra of light and tasteful design4 ,the more important specimens are the massive candlesticks which are used in the chancel and in some of the larger cathedrals in other parts of the building4 ,such ecclesiastical bronzes are seldom obtainable1 although there are some fine examples in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum in this country1 and in the chief ,continental museums4 ,the donors of such objects spared no expense1 and the modellers and founders treated such work very elaborately4 ,flemish and ,spanish churches are especially rich in large candlesticks1 and many of the ,continental cathedrals possess wonderful examples4 ,the prominence which has been given to candlesticks in public worship dates back to a period long before the foundation of the ,christian ,church1 for the seven-branched candlestick was an important feature in the ,jewish ceremonial4 ,when the ,roman conquerors took possession of ,jerusalem1 among the treasures taken from the ,temple on the sack of the city1 they carried away the golden candlesticks from the altar4 ,so important was this sacred trophy that it was represented on the triumphal arch of ,titus1 preserving to the artists of the future its general characteristics of design4 ,the great bronze candlesticks in ,st ,paul's ,cathedral and in other ,english churches are to be admired but not collected2 nevertheless there are some fine candlesticks in bronze and of polished brass offered for sale in the curio shops1 and from time to time brought under the hammer in the ,london auction rooms4 ,the illustration given in ,fig4 #ai is a remarkable example which may be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,a fine ,venetian bronze candelabrum 7one of a pair71 now in a private collection1 is shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,altar ,brasses4 ,most of the church plate so-called was of pewter and silver in early times2 in more modern days of silver1 and sometimes of metal plated with silver4 ,there are1 however1 examples of metal chalices of bronze1 some of which have been found in ,ireland4 ,the altar brasses in pre-,reformation days included brass censers and incense vessels1 very interesting examples of which are now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 being illustrated in ,fig4 #ba4 ,of vases and other decorative altar brasses there are many4 ,some1 probably1 took their origin in older customs and were symbolical2 the vases nowadays are for the most part used as receptacles for flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,venetian ,,candelabrum 7,,one ,,of ,a ,,pair74 ,bordering on the secular vessels1 yet associated with the altar1 there are the alms-dishes1 of which there are a great number in private collections of metal4 ,they are mostly of brass1 some quite plain1 others engraved and highly ornamental4 ,some little time ago there was a special display of alms-dishes1 two-score or more in number1 exhibited at the ,kelvingrove ,exhibition at ,glasgow4 ,some were covered over with scriptural pictorial designs1 among the favourite being those illustrating the old story of ,adam and ,eve in the ,garden of ,eden2 the episode of ,samson and the lion2 and the visit of the two spies to the ,promised ,land1 returning carrying a large bunch of grapes4 ,such alms-dishes vary in size1 seldom less than #ab in4 in diameter1 but ranging up to #bj in4 ,sometimes the collector is puzzled to find what he may regard as inappropriate mottoes on church vessels4 ,on the other hand1 it is not an uncommon thing to meet with religious devices or pious mottoes on platters and bowls which were obviously used as domestic vessels4 ,this fact is explained in that at one time there was but little difference between secular and ecclesiastical plate1 and the vessels were often used indiscriminately for church purposes and for the use of the household4 ,metal ,architectural ,ornament4 ,the lectern is frequently of bronze or brass4 ,the eagle with spread wings or other designs adopted by the metal-workers gave the artist plenty of scope4 ,the altar rail and in a few instances the metal screen and grille are composed of elaborately chased brass or copper-work1 sometimes cast1 at others hammered4 ,perhaps one of the greatest achievements of the coppersmith in connection with church metal-work is the ball and cross of ,st4 ,paul's1 surmounting the great dome4 ,it was made in the year #ahba by ,benham and ,froud1 an old firm of coppersmiths4 ,an illustration of this gigantic piece of work is given in ,fig4 #bb4 ,when viewed from beneath few would imagine that the cross1 although so high up1 is #cj ft4 in height1 and that its weight is upwards of one and a half tons4 ,the occasional gilding of this triumph of the coppersmith's art is in itself a costly procedure4 ,memorial ,brasses4 ,the visitor to the country church1 as well as the larger cathedral1 finds much antiquarian interest in the tombs and monuments1 and in the memorial tablets of the illustrious dead the history of their lives may often be read4 ,in the older tombs the work of the sculptors in marble is frequently enriched by the addition of appropriate tablets of brass1 sometimes inlaid with enamels4 ,one of the most noted tombs is that in the centre of the chapel of ,henry ,,vii4 in ,westminster ,abbey1 the tomb itself being closely guarded by the massive railings1 which are of brass4 ,the visitor to that chapel notes with interest the brass stall plates so rich in enamels1 on which are the arms and crests of the knights who in times past occupied those stalls and hung their banners over them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,bronze ,,incense ,,burner ,,and ,,incense ,,boat4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,it may be contended that tombs and monuments cannot be collected1 but those who visit such places may fill their notebooks with interesting data1 and they may carry away with them accurate records and rubbings of the monumental tablets and the brasses on the tombs 7for instructions how to take rubbings1 see ,wrinkles1 p4 #cic74 ,such rubbings of old brasses can be kept in a portfolio or mounted and hung upon walls4 ,they form a record1 too1 of the engraver's art1 which was modified and altered to suit the change which went on in architectural design and to some extent in social and religious customs4 ,the variety of brasses is seen when a good collection of rubbings is classified and arranged according to style1 period1 or locality4 ,some districts yield prolific returns4 ,throughout the counties of ,gloucester1 ,somerset1 and ,norfolk many may be obtained1 the more interesting specimens being secured from tombs dating from the thirteenth to the seventeenth century4 ,from such a series armorial representation as it became less real and of smaller importance can be traced4 ,the costumes of the period1 too1 are very clearly shown1 for in such a collection of brasses the value of armour in war is seen to change4 ,in the earlier examples there is the chain mail of the cross-legged knights as seen on the early brasses of the ,crusaders1 the medival armour of the ,middle ,ages when it had reached its strength1 and the brasses of the ,stuart days when the ornamental armour of that period had to a large extent lost its utility4 ,the ecclesiastical brasses on the tombs of bishops and other church dignitaries show the change which took place very gradually in the vestments worn1 and indicate the alteration in ecclesiastical ritual in the cathedrals and churches at the time of the ,reformation4 ,the dissolution of the monasteries and the sacrilege which took place in the dismantled churches and religious houses caused valuable relics to be sold for old metal1 and it was then that many old monuments and tombs lost their brasses4 ,the influence of book knowledge and the change which came about in the style of script after the introduction of the printing-press is seen in the evolution of the lettering on church brasses4 ,indeed1 in some of the older ones the form of the letters is the only indication left of the date of their engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,copper-,,gilt ,,cross ,,on ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral4 ,the engraver's art progressed with the art of the period in which he lived1 and in a collection of rubbings may be seen the gradual training of the eye and hand until from meaningless pictures without background or perspective the artist was able to engrave on metal a beautifully realistic picture of the subject he had chosen4 ,as a guide to a few indications of the period to which brasses belong1 it may be mentioned that the decorative canopies on monumental brasses belong chiefly to the ornate period of art4 ,the embattled canopies and the change to the decorative ,gothic tell of the progress in ecclesiastical architecture until it reached its height between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 later brasses telling of its gradual decadence4 ,of the variety of subject it would be impossible to refer1 for at all ages there have been many who would fit into niches between the extremes of the early fighting men amidst the nobles and knights who fell in battle1 and those who apparently lived all their lives in the peaceful rural surroundings of some quiet ,english village1 dying within sight of the old church where they had worshipped1 and where they were eventually buried4 ,when some proud son of man returns to earth1 ,unknown to glory1 but upheld by birth1 ,the sculptor's art exhausts the pomp of woe1 ,and storied urns record who rests below2 ,when all is done1 upon the tomb is seen1 ,not what he was1 but what he should have been4 ,byron4 ,,viii ,,domestic ,,utensils ,,chapter ,,viii ,,domestic ,,utensils ,the kitchen--,the houseplace--,chimney and other ornaments--,classified arrangement4 ,a collection of metal-work representative of domestic utensils as they were fashioned in very early times1 and as they were made in days so far forgotten as to render the common objects of daily use curios1 is regarded1 probably1 as the most important branch of copper and brass1 from a collector's standpoint4 ,the collector may be content with gathering together a few examples of old domestic metal-work and using them as ornamental reminders of olden time1 decorating his entrance hall or rooms furnished after the antique with the objects he gathers together1 or he may arrange them as in a museum gallery4 ,the display of curios is at all times a matter of taste1 but it is one of some importance1 especially in a branch of collecting so conspicuous as copper and brass4 ,we can scarcely conceive of any real pleasure being derived from such a hobby1 or of such specimens being appreciated by one's friends1 when specimens so obviously out of place are shown in a modern dining-room or drawing-room furnished in nouvre art4 ,the ,keeper of the ,london ,museum1 now transferred to ,stafford ,house from ,kensington ,palace1 has very appropriately arranged the antiquities of ,london in their proper historical and chronological sequence1 and has grouped them so that the reference they bear to contemporary surroundings can be understood by those who see them for the first time4 ,the photograph which we reproduce in ,fig4 #bc represents a corner in a well made up seventeenth-century room1 in which has been gathered together some beautiful old oak furniture of that period4 ,it is panelled with oak which has been procured from old ,london houses of contemporary date2 the doorway is a genuine antique from ,bromley-by-,bow1 adding to the appearance of the room1 for its hinges and lock furniture are splendid examples of the brasswork of that period4 ,some pieces of ,cromwellian armour1 prominent among which are variously ornamented helmets and breastplates1 are arranged round the upper portion of the room4 ,over an old oak chest is a beautiful brass skimmer1 and on the wall a seventeenth-century brass bed-warmer1 with engraved cover4 ,on the sideboard is a huge key and a brass mortar4 ,the lock furniture and the drop handle on the sideboard1 which are of brass1 are worthy of note4 ,on the other side of the room there is a fine brass trivet standing in front of the hearth1 on which are andirons1 and logs ready for the firing2 close by is a quaint old candlestick4 ,undoubtedly curios displayed in such a way interest and instruct those who see them1 and a room so furnished enthuses collectors with the desire to secure other objects of an appropriate character2 this in itself is an advantage in that a representative collection is of more general interest than one containing many objects of a similar character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,seventeenth-,,century ,,room ,,in ,,the ,,london ,,museum4 ,the ,kitchen4 ,kitchen utensils and domestic appliances which the housewife of olden time deemed necessary are of peculiar interest in that they help us to recall the habits and customs of former generations4 ,it is not always easy to arrange a model kitchen in that there are many old utensils of copper and brass which must have been used side by side as periods overlapped1 although some have a much older origin than others4 ,it is said that the kitchens of well-stocked old family mansions still yield some curios when thoroughly examined1 and that it is not at all an uncommon thing to find there utensils the object of which has almost been forgotten4 ,they are relics of an older day1 and utensils which a modern cook would not deign to use4 ,such discoveries1 however1 are few and far between1 for the melting-pot and the cupidity of those anxious to clear unnecessary encumbrances and perhaps make a little towards refurnishing1 has left but few objects of interest in the kitchen4 ,it is1 however1 there and in the old houseplace that we may look for something of interest4 ,some will go on using old vessels long after newer utensils have taken their place in the more advanced households1 and there are some cooks who use successfully saucepans and kettles of almost antique pattern which the student of the cook's art in the modern schools of cookery would find difficult to manipulate4 ,they have been taught how to make tasty dishes with aluminium vessels and enamelled pans1 whereas heavy and clumsy brass and copper utensils served their grandparents4 ,the cook's art is appreciated to-day as it was in the past1 and at all periods the domestic workshop has been surrounded with a halo of romance4 ,shakespeare has rendered the caldron of olden time memorable in ,macbeth4 ,of the caldron boiling in the dark cave he makes the witches cry3 ,double1 double toil and trouble1 ,fire1 burn2 and caldron bubble4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,bronze ,,caldron4 7,in ,trinity ,hospital1 ,leicester47 ,the cooking-pot is the sustainer of life1 in that it gives strength to the weary and to the starving4 ,to the poor dumb creatures1 however1 it is the end of life1 and in savagery human life has been sacrificed to the gluttony of fellow-men4 ,wonderful stories are at times told of great feasts and of the magnificence of the kitchens of olden time1 where the vessels and the cooking-pots were of extravagant size1 making up1 perhaps1 for the fewer culinary utensils1 for in early days the furnishings of the kitchen were few in number although massive and strong4 ,many of the baronial halls of the ,middle ,ages1 and the homes of wealthy landowners in more recent days1 have been the scene of great feasts4 ,merrie ,england rejoiced on such occasions when the roasting-jack and the spit contributed to the success of the feast1 and the caldron or cooking-pot boiled upon the open hearth4 ,in some old kitchens there are preserved ponderous bronze and copper pots1 some so large that we can scarcely imagine that they were made for actual use4 ,in the hall of ,trinity ,hospital at ,leicester there is preserved a large caldron of bell metal1 holding upwards of sixty gallons1 which has been used as the cooking-pot of the institution from its foundation until quite recent times4 ,this quaint old relic1 now venerated as a curio1 is locally called the ,duke of ,lancaster's porridge-pot1 for it is said that it was made to the order of ,henry1 ,duke of ,lancaster1 in #acca 7see ,fig4 #bd74 ,not far removed from the corner where the old metal pot is shown to visitors there is a massive nutmeg-grater1 a kitchen relic of olden time1 which on the occasion of one of her visits to ,leicester ,queen ,elizabeth presented to the hospital4 ,many old castles have relics of the feast to show visitors1 and others no doubt could produce equally interesting examples of the coppersmiths' or the founders' art were they to search the vaults and cellars where disused metal-work was in years gone by stowed away4 ,visitors to ,warwick ,castle are familiar with ,guy's punchbowl1 the remarkable metal caldron which is nearly twice the size of that attributed to the ,duke of ,lancaster1 for it weighs1 along with a fork said to have been used to handle the meat1 #hjg lb4 ,most of these old vessels were cast1 but some copper-work was hammered by hand1 and those which have been preserved to us testify to the brawny arm of the smith and the strength of his blow when by hammer and hand he wrought them4 ,such copper caldrons were often made in two or more parts1 and having been shaped on the block1 were afterwards riveted together4 ,it is puzzling at times to understand local and trade terms in that they frequently differ from the commonly accepted names of cooking vessels4 ,thus1 these wrought caldrons or pots were frequently designated tripod kettles4 ,a very fine example of such a wrought copper kettle was recovered a short time ago from ,whittlesey ,mere and is now in the ,peterborough ,museum4 ,a century or more ago the ,mere was famous in ,huntingdonshire and many water parties were held there4 ,the kettle recently found is thought to have been a relic of those events1 and to have been used on the margin of the lake4 ,the fine caldron of cast brass illustrated in ,fig4 #bg was found during excavations in ,water ,lane1 in ,london4 ,it is peculiar in that it has two-eared handles and projecting feet4 ,it is very substantial1 and may be regarded as typical of the early metal caldrons1 several of which have been found in ,london4 ,another cooking vessel1 smaller in size1 having a curved handle and being in good preservation1 a domestic relic of the seventeenth century1 which was dug up in ,milton ,street1 ,cripplegate1 is illustrated in ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,seventeenth-,,century ,,brass ,,pan4 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,brass ,,tripod ,,pot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,caldron ,,of ,,cast ,,brass4 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,brass ,,cooking ,,vessel ,,with ,,curved ,,handle4 ,reference has been made to the baronial halls1 and to the numerous relics which have been lost to futurity4 ,there are1 however1 some well-known castles where1 although the kitchens have been replenished from time to time1 the older forms of cooking vessels have been perpetuated4 ,until recent days the kitchen arrangements at ,windsor ,castle remained much as they had been for many years previous1 and even now copper and brass retain a favoured position and are very much in evidence4 ,windsor has been the scene of much feasting1 and many great ,state events have put a strain even upon the domestic resources of that famous ,royal residence4 ,the great kitchen of the castle is supplemented by a vegetable kitchen1 a green kitchen1 and a scullery1 and around these rooms there is a bright array of copper pans and cooking utensils1 mostly bearing the monogram of ,george ,,iv1 for it was in his reign that many new culinary appointments were added4 ,these vessels1 large and small1 were in constant use during the reign of ,queen ,victoria4 ,her late ,majesty was averse to change4 ,in her days oak out of ,windsor ,forest was burned in the grate1 and the spits and roasting-jacks and other kitchen accessories were in keeping with the copper and brass pans and kettles4 ,great changes have been made since the accession of ,george ,v1 for ,queen ,mary supervises the management of the ,royal kitchens1 and many modern cooking vessels have been substituted for older ones4 ,the collector of copper and brass culinary utensils has seldom an opportunity of adding the large bronze caldrons and relics of ,royal kitchens to his collection4 ,he has to be content with exploring lesser domains1 and securing wherever possible the smaller cooking vessels of days gone by4 ,these are frequently quite as interesting as those of larger size1 and there is a wealth of copper still lying dormant in antique shops1 and in some instances in the scrap-heaps of the old metal dealer4 ,without going any further back the saucepans of the seventeenth century well reward the discoverer of such relics4 ,that century was a time when pious mottoes were carved upon the lintel beam and when old coffers and other pieces of massive oak were decorated with such sentiments4 ,the brassfounders followed suit and ornamented pots and pans1 and enriched them with mottoes just as they cast such inscriptions on bells and mortars4 ,two very interesting seventeenth-century vessels are illustrated on p4 #afe4 ,one of these1 ,fig4 #be1 was discovered some years ago in ,fetter ,lane1 and is now in the ,guildhall ,museum4 ,the other1 ,fig4 #bf1 is a tripod pot1 the handle of which has a loop near the bowl4 ,it is probably of early seventeenth or late sixteenth-century workmanship4 ,the brass skillet of seventeenth-century make1 illustrated in ,fig4 #bi1 may be seen by the curious in the ,british ,museum4 ,there is no uncertainty about its date1 for it is marked #afhd1 and along the handle is the quaint motto ,pitty the ,pore4 ,collectors may be reminded that inscriptions are sometimes stamped2 at others engraved1 and they are frequently met with on quite unimportant vessels4 ,the metal used for such utensils was chiefly of brass1 but often of latten1 an alloy in which there was an admixture of zinc1 or of tin in what was known as white latten4 ,as it has been stated already1 brass came into vogue late in the sixteenth century1 and soon became popular for kitchen utensils2 latten1 however1 was a favourite alloy for spoons and the smaller objects1 especially for porringers for mulling wine4 ,concurrent with the use of copper and its modern alloys bronze appears to have been used in this country even as late as the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the cooking vessels illustrated in ,figs4 #cj and #ca being bronze of this late type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,skillet 7,,brass71 ,,the ,,handle ,,of ,,which ,,is ,,engraved ,,with ,,the ,,motto ,,pitty ,,the ,,pore4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #cj ,,and #ca4--;,,bronze ,,cooking ,,vessels1 ,,attributed ,,to ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,the skillet1 which continued a favourite vessel1 commonly called a saucepan1 originally had three short-curved feet1 and the handle was curved1 too4 ,it was a development of a still earlier cooking vessel2 its prototype of the sixteenth century having a globular body with short-curved feet1 and frequently two handles4 ,the twentieth-century collector1 accustomed as he is to machine-and factory-made goods of uniform finish and of regular shapes1 is apt to be a little bit disappointed with the copper curios roughly made and badly formed4 ,it would appear as if most of the collectable copper goods were made after the days when the old guilds so carefully controlled the making of copper and latten in ,lothbury4 ,when their power of control waned1 craftsmen who had been employed by guild members worked for themselves1 and there was but little supervision over the metal wares made by the coppersmith1 who was often a retailer of his own wares4 ,when the hardware dealer or copper man became an established trader in the eighteenth century he would employ a journeyman coppersmith in his little workshop1 who would fashion the utensils with a hammer on a wooden block1 and afterwards planish them by hand as he thought fit4 ,in the making of such goods there was great irregularity1 and the dealer and his customer1 too1 were dependent upon the whim of the craftsman4 ,that was before the days of machine-made goods4 ,instead of the brass or copper being pressed and stamped by machinery and carefully finished the utensils were made in a rough and ready way on the wooden block1 and simply hammered in the rounded cavities which had been made in it4 ,saucepans1 stewpans1 and jelly moulds were beaten into shape1 and then hollowed and dished4 ,it is said it was a healthful trade1 for many of the old coppersmiths had passed their threescore years and ten shaping kettles and deftly fashioning from a sheet of brass even quite ornamental domestic articles of utility2 they would decorate by hand a brass chestnut roaster with no other tools but a small hammer and a punch1 and with the same simple instruments they would work a fancy pattern on the lid of a warming-pan4 ,some coppersmiths won fame in the fashioning of furnace-pans1 better known as washing coppers1 and others would undertake the roofing of houses and churches4 ,one notable firm in ,london1 whose copper saucepans and cooking-pots had been sold for a hundred years or more1 achieved the zenith of their fame when they produced that enormous piece of copper-work1 the ball and cross of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 which is referred to and illustrated in another chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #cb ,,and #cc4--;,,copper ,,water ,,jug ,,and ,,water ,,pot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,copper ,,water ,,jug ,,and ,,cover4 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,brass ,,two-,,handled ,,water ,,vessel4 ,there is yet another reason given why so many of the old copper pots and pans are irregular in shape and are often fitted with apparently unsuitable handles4 ,it is that most of these old vessels at one time or another have undergone repairs1 and were frequently treated by unskilled workmen4 ,among the street cries of ,london one of the oldest was3 ,any pots or pans to mend8 ,the travelling tinker was a repairing coppersmith1 too1 and much of his time was occupied in mending the copper and brass cooking utensils used at the farmhouses and in the villages through which he passed4 ,his methods of dealing with the vessels entrusted to him for repairs were not always the best1 as museum relics testify4 ,drinking cups1 tankards1 and flagons constitute another very important section of collectable curios4 ,they were1 however1 chiefly made of pewter in the days before glass and earthenware became general4 ,some were undoubtedly of copper4 ,this metal1 however1 was chiefly used for large jugs in which water and other liquids were carried4 ,water vessels vary in shape1 although certain characteristics are frequently noticeable4 ,the typical ,english-made jug and water vessel1 such as those shown in ,figs4 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 and #ce1 are very graceful in shape1 the handles being light and very suitable4 ,they make remarkably welcome additions to a collection of metal1 and are appropriate ornaments on an old oak sideboard4 ,the ,houseplace4 ,it is not a far remove from the kitchen to the houseplace1 and it is there that some of the more decorative brasswork of eighteenth-century workmanship is chiefly to be found4 ,just as copper and brass formed a prominent feature in the equipment of the kitchen1 so in the old houseplace they were considered the best for ornamental purposes4 ,the polishing of the metal-work throughout the house in the good old days must have been a considerable item in the duties of domestic servants1 but no doubt it well repaid the labour1 for from the old ornaments and usable curios of the houseplace which have come into the hands of collectors1 especially when housed in a reconstructed eighteenth-century room1 the effect is excellent4 ,the metal-work of the best parlour was not so extensive1 although there were many beautifully polished coal-vases and fender frets4 ,indeed1 in both rooms mentioned the chief attraction would appear to have centred on the fireplace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,a ,,finely-,,pierced ,,brass ,,trivet1 ,,dated #affh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,brass-,,topped ,,trivet1 ,,with ,,additional ,,leg ,,stay4 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,brass-,,topped ,,trivet1 ,,with ,,turned ,,wood ,,handle4 ,the story of the evolution of the grate and the hearth and its appointments is of extreme interest4 ,the grate itself was at times ornate with polished brass beads and canopies4 ,the older type of fireplace was mostly fitted with iron appointments1 but even when andirons were upon the hearth and logs of timber crackled as they blazed up the wide old chimney1 the dogs or chief ornaments of the hearth were often of brass or bronze4 ,when hob-grates and registers came in fashion1 ormolu and brass ornament contrasted with polished steel4 ,a typical parlour hob-grate of the eighteenth century would be ornate with brasses on the hobs1 a pierced brass fender on the stone slab1 and a polished brass ashes pan in front of the bars to hide the cinders4 ,the trivet or revolving stool1 small or large1 was in the fender or on the hearth1 and massive fire brasses 7not irons7 filled the empty spaces4 ,the brass trivet1 revived in modern times1 was originally a three-legged stool made of metal1 on which a kettle or similar vessel could be placed near to the fire4 ,the convenience of being able to put the trivet stool quite close up to the bars suggested to the maker of such things the addition of hooks by which the trivet could be hung upon the bar1 thereby bringing it nearer to the heat4 ,in later years the trivet developed a handle for the convenience of moving it about1 and especially of hanging it upon the bars1 and in the latest completed form with turned wood handle1 iron legs1 and brass fretted top1 the trivet was regarded as an essential accompaniment to the fire-grate4 ,from the three-legged stool with hooks or handle there came a minor development in the form of a light portable trivet without legs1 which could only be used when hung on the bars4 ,these varieties presented the worker in brass with an excellent opportunity of showing his decorative skill1 and brass trivet tops soon became very ornamental4 ,fig4 #cf represents a finely-pierced brass trivet1 with tall legs and pointed feet and a turned wood handle4 ,on the top of a baluster-shaped device1 supported by dolphins1 ,atlas is represented bearing on his shoulders the globe4 ,the date of the trivet is #affh1 and on the top is also engraved the owner's monogram4 ,another very interesting example comes from ,derbyshire1 and is shown in ,fig4 #ch4 ,yet another example is given in ,fig4 #cg1 this being a more elaborate design4 ,in the centre of the plate an eagle is represented with outstretched wings4 ,the construction of this trivet is somewhat unusual in that it is strengthened with a cross-bar2 the feet are of spear-head shape4 ,all three examples are to be seen at ,south ,kensington4 ,there have been many modern replicas of the beautiful old brass helmet-shaped coal-boxes so common half a century ago4 ,the earlier types varied somewhat in shape1 but always preserved their helmet-like form1 as illustrated in the example shown in ,fig4 #ci4 ,in the days when these coal-boxes were fashionable1 miniature pipkins were sold for drawing-room use1 and a little later oblong and oval boxes of polished brass and copper were in common use2 in some places the brass log boxes taking their place1 especially where wood was plentiful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,copper ,,helmet-,,shaped ,,coal-,,box4 ,it is probable no domestic utensil or appliance has gained greater notoriety than the copper and brass warming-pan1 which so long held an honoured place in the chimney corner4 ,it was used nightly in winter for warming beds in the often large and chilly rooms1 both in the homes of the wealthy and of the middle classes4 ,one of these pans is represented in ,fig4 #bc on the wall of the seventeenth-century room already mentioned as being on view in the ,london ,museum4 ,another very handsome warming-pan1 which is in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 is very exceptional in style4 ,many of the earlier examples are dated1 and sometimes engraved or embossed with pious or loyal sentiments1 as was the custom of the times4 ,the ,royal ,albert ,memorial ,museum at ,exeter contains several interesting warming-pans2 one1 which is dated on the lid #afbb1 is engraved3 ,i4,r4 ,,god ,,save ,,king ,,james2 another1 with an iron handle1 is of still earlier date1 being stamped #afaf on the lid4 ,brass foot-warmers were at one time in regular use2 a very fine example1 shown in ,fig4 #dj1 is of octagonal shape1 covered with repouss decoration1 and fitted with a folding bail handle1 facilitating its removal from place to place4 ,there have been many copper foot-warmers1 carriage warmers1 and the like used in days before modern heating arrangements were known4 ,some years ago little copper muff-warmers were sold in the shops2 but they were of no great novelty1 for as far back as the seventeenth century what were known as warming boxes were made for keeping the hands warm on journeys when travelling by the very cold and draughty stage coaches4 ,these curious little boxes of brass or copper were heated with a removable mass of iron1 which could be lifted out of the box1 which hinged in the centre1 by means of an iron hook2 just in the same way the old box irons were operated4 ,in ,figs4 #da and #db one of these early boxes1 which may be seen in the ,guildhall ,museum1 is illustrated4 ,thus in olden time the comfort of travellers was attained4 ,the old inns were welcome retreats after a stormy journey by road1 and the older inns of the coaching days often contain many interesting relics of the days when the copper and brass objects we now call curious and old were new4 ,those objects referred to in the previous paragraphs by no means exhaust the list of houseplace curios in metal1 but they may serve to point out the great interest which attaches to even common objects of everyday use when a few years have passed by and changes have been brought about in everyday usages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,brass ,,foot-,,warmer ,,with ,,bail ,,handle4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #da ,,and #db4--;,,early ,,brass ,,or ,,bronze ,,hand-,,warmer1 ,,shown ,,open ,,and ,,closed4 7,in the ,guildhall ,museum47 ,chimney and other ,ornaments4 ,as it has been intimated already1 the fireplace was a centre of attraction in all old houses4 ,it was customary on a winter's night to draw up close to the fire1 and in so doing it was only natural that the chimney piece and those objects which rested thereon would be constantly looked at4 ,this probably gave makers the cue when designing ornamental brasswork which could be used as household decoration4 ,the ornaments of those days were substantial1 and the chimney ornaments solid and lasting4 ,it was a common thing to see a row of brass figures or pairs of brass ornaments on the chimney-piece4 ,such designs as those shown in ,figs4 #dc and #dd were popular4 ,our illustrations represent one only of each fashion2 the pairs1 however1 were usually designed opposite hands1 looking to right and left4 ,such ornaments were seen on the kitchen mantelpieces of the well-to-do and on the hob-grates of the houseplaces of the middle classes4 ,this was the prevailing custom from fifty to seventy years ago1 and still earlier similar ornaments1 cruder in design1 evidently modelled after the style of the ,bow pottery figures1 were in use4 ,in ,lancashire and in the manufacturing districts of the ,black ,country brass ornaments of similar and more modern types have always been favoured1 and they are still sold as ornaments to well-to-do artisans and mechanics4 ,the modern castings are rougher and not so decorative or beautifully designed as the tooled castings of earlier days4 ,the peacock was a favourite bird and shared with the pheasant popularity4 ,these designs are easily recognizable among the genuine antiques4 ,there were larger animals1 too1 such as the horse1 an example of which is given in ,fig4 #de4 ,this favourite beast of burden was oftentimes represented as a dray horse2 in more sporting circles as a hack or a hunter4 ,in agricultural districts the wagoner1 the huntsman1 and dogs and hounds were chiefly favoured4 ,they were generally set on a base or plinth1 an exceptionally good country brass of the earlier type representing a shepherd with his typical crook4 ,little statuettes represented politicians and historical and even allegorical figures4 ,among the portrait brasses ,napoleon was a favourite subject in the days when his name was familiar in every household4 ,izaac ,walton1 the exponent of the gentle art1 was often modelled in brass1 and even ,robinson ,crusoe and his man ,friday formed the subject of a rare group4 ,the ,continents of ,america1 ,africa1 and ,asia are rare and interesting allegorical groups4 ,other brasses show traces of ,chippendale influence1 especially those in miniature which represent familiar household objects1 among which are wonderful little models of circular tables and of the oval loo tables1 like those then seen in the best parlour4 ,there are also miniature brass trivets and stools and models of grandfather chairs4 ,brass ornaments such as those described are not altogether confined to chimney ornaments1 for on a larger scale they were frequently used on the old hob-grates1 the polished brass or copper contrasting with the shining blacklead put on with plenty of elbow grease4 ,they were used1 too1 as door porters and also as sideboard ornaments4 ,the ornaments of the early nineteenth century in metal were1 however1 almost entirely associated with utilitarian purposes1 the artist decorating the commoner objects1 giving special attention to the repouss work and engraving on those portions which would be in view when the dustpan1 warming-pan1 hearth brush1 or other object was hung up4 ,classified ,arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #dc ,,and #dd4--;,,brass ,,chimney ,,ornaments 7,,one ,,each ,,of ,,pairs74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,brass ,,horse1 ,a ,,chimney ,,or ,,hob-,,grate ,,ornament4 ,in addition to those articles mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs there are many domestic utensils highly decorative1 such as candlesticks and lighting apparatus1 referred to in other chapters in this volume4 ,these all come under the special notice of the collector of copper and brasswork who turns his attention to domestic antiques4 ,such collectable objects as already suggested should be arranged in a room furnished in similar style to that prevailing at a time when these metal curios were in daily use4 ,if such a room is not available an alternative method is to arrange the domestic curios so that by comparison the progress made by makers as each succeeding generation came and went can be seen and appreciated4 ,incidentally that method is very interesting in that it reveals the periods at which art was uppermost1 and indicates those times when the utility of domestic copper and brass was in the ascendant rather than their ornate appearance4 ,popular taste was followed by the maker at all times1 and the more progressive manufacturers were ever on the look-out for some slight improvement either in design or decoration--seldom1 however1 making any radical change--so that the progress in metal-work was one of development slowly unfolded4 ,,ix ,,candlesticks ,,and ,,lamps ,,chapter ,,ix ,,candlesticks ,,and ,,lamps ,fire-making apparatus--,candles and candlesticks--,oil lamps and lanterns4 ,artificial light and heat were among the first scientific discoveries of primeval man4 ,to harness the forces of ,nature was undoubtedly a great achievement1 and at first would be viewed with alarm4 ,the fire which had been kindled from natural causes would be looked upon with awe by the cave men or the dwellers in the forest4 ,when they saw it dying down they would very naturally make some effort to keep the fire burning by adding fresh fuel4 ,the time would come1 however1 when lighting a fire by artificial means would be resorted to2 and the methods adopted in those far-off days involved the use of primitive contrivances1 some of which are described on the next page4 ,the fire burning under the camp kettle would in course of time suggest a flaming torch1 which could be carried about at will2 and from the torch1 which burned all too quickly1 came the discovery of oil lamps and the candle4 ,at first this was only a rushlight1 used side by side with the cresset torch2 and then in later days came lamps and lanterns4 ,fire-making ,apparatus4 ,the collector of copper and brass looks with regret on the early fire-making apparatus in that iron was the chief metal employed4 ,nevertheless there are some objects associated with fire-making manufactured in brass4 ,there are some well-known collectors who have specialized on fire-making appliances and early lamps4 ,among fire-making appliances are those of the percussion type1 commencing with iron pyrites1 flint1 steel1 and tinder4 ,some of the earlier tinder boxes were made of brass1 although the majority were of wood and tin2 many of the pistol-action tinder boxes which immediately followed the earlier form were furnished with stands and candle-sockets1 being used for the purpose of lighting an early candle4 ,some of the brass candle-stands and candle-sockets are beautifully engraved1 and many of the contrivances which were fired by the priming of gunpowder1 the flash igniting the tinder1 are highly ornamental4 ,that method1 of course1 marked an advance4 ,there are pistol-action tinder boxes from ,japan1 highly ornamental1 the cases being pierced and in some instances decorated with raised silver and copper relief4 ,from ,china and ,central ,asia come tinder pouches1 many of them having decorative brass mounts1 some being gilt on copper4 ,tinder was often carried about in tubes of brass and copper1 some of the best examples being very elaborately engraved4 ,in some small compartments are found2 these were intended for the flint and steel4 ,a later type of mechanical fire-making appliance1 introduced by ,richard ,lorentz1 in #ahjg1 took the form of a patented compression tube or fire syringe1 the piston of which was of brass4 ,chemical methods of lighting fires and striking lights have been tried with more or less success1 and among the collectable curios are relics of these early attempts to produce fire and light by scientific methods4 ,the collector1 while welcoming every curious object1 has generally to rely upon the objects which were in common use and made in larger quantities4 ,of these commonly used appliances1 however1 there are many varieties1 and of the more perfected forms of lighting requisites there is an abundant choice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a ,,two-,,tube ,,candle ,,mould4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,two ,,types ,,of ,,early ,,pricket ,,candlesticks4 ,candles and ,candlesticks4 ,many are the legends and stories of the days when the flickering light of a candle threw shadows across the ceiling and partly lighted and partly obscured the table and floor4 ,ghostly1 too1 they seemed as the embers of the fire died on the hearth4 ,the provision of artificial light for use during the long winter evenings has always been one of the domestic cares1 and the women of the household were in early days mindful of the coming winter during the summer and autumn months4 ,among their domestic duties was that of gathering and drying rushes and dipping them in fat4 ,the primitive rushlights gave an uncertain glimmer1 and the moulding of candles with cotton wicks would be welcomed as an advance4 ,candles were home-made until comparatively modern times1 and the candle mould was an essential in every household4 ,it was frequently of brass1 and varied in size and in the number of moulds1 the one shown in ,fig4 #df having only two tubes4 ,while the custom of making candles at home continued long in country districts1 in towns candle-making became a trade1 and1 as was the custom in those days1 the moulders of candles assembled together in certain well-known thoroughfares4 ,in ,london1 ,candlewick ,street1 the name of which has since been corrupted into ,cannon ,street1 was their rendezvous4 ,the store of candles for immediate use was kept close at hand in the candle box1 placed against the wall in some convenient position4 ,the boxes were of wood and japanned tin2 others were of brass1 some being very ornamental and covered over with engravings4 ,such candle boxes are to be found in the curio shops2 several fine examples may frequently be seen near ,st4 ,james's ,park ,station in ,london1 where there are several curio dealers who specialize on old copper and brass1 the neighbourhood being quite a happy hunting ground for the collector of metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,candelabrum ,,of ,,early ,,type 7,,central ,,figure71 ,,and ,,two ,,oil ,,lamps4 7,in ,washington ,museum47 ,the evolution of the candlestick was slow at first4 ,the old rushlight-holders were made by the country smith1 and very clumsy they were on their heavy wooden stands4 ,the first idea seems to have been to stick the candle on a spike1 oftentimes such spikes being placed conveniently on the wall4 ,then came the sticks on stands which could be moved about the room1 in some cases with a sliding holder1 the height of which could be regulated4 ,gradually1 however1 the candlestick for table use and the candlestick with the dished base1 which became common as the type of the chamber candlestick1 came into being4 ,with the progress made and the general acceptance of the two types1 the pillar candlestick and the chamber candlestick1 the artist in metal began to turn his attention to perfecting their forms and decorating them4 ,many remarkable candlesticks in bronze are met with among ecclesiastical brasses1 some of which are referred to in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,of the domestic candlesticks there are many early examples1 some with beautifully twisted columns and later fluted examples4 ,the pricket candlestick--that is1 a candlestick with a spike on which a candle was firmly placed--eventually gave way to the more convenient socket1 and a flange at the top of the column held any candle grease which might run down the sides of the candle4 ,the pricket candlesticks of early twelfth-century make illustrated in ,fig4 #dg may be referred to as examples of the pricket form1 their chief attractions being found in the richly enamelled decoration4 ,in ,fig4 #dh we are able to illustrate a very interesting candelabrum now in the ,national ,museum at ,washington ,city4 ,it is made up literally of two candlesticks attached to a very simple pillar bracket on which they slide up and down1 the addition of a metal reflector suggesting later developments in candlesticks and lamps4 ,in the later days both brass and silver candlesticks1 especially the tall lights used on mantelpiece or on sideboard1 were ornamented in keeping with the plate of the period1 and were eventually classed among the more decorative appointments of the home4 ,when candles were made of tallow the wicks burned black and charred and a constant snuffing was necessary4 ,this brought about the use of snuffers of polished steel and of brass1 and a little later of snuffer trays1 the snuffers and their accompanying trays forming a most interesting addition to the collection of metal4 ,candlesticks are still used1 but the candles are of superior quality and burn steady and bright4 ,some are very decorative1 too1 especially the painted candlesticks which with their ornamental shades are attached to pianos1 and are used as wall lights or as additional lights upon the table4 ,the days of brass candlesticks1 snuffers1 and trays have1 however1 long been numbered1 and most of these relics of old-world lights have passed into the region of curios4 ,here and there they may be seen in their once accustomed place1 but more as ornament than for actual use4 ,in a well-known hotel1 at one time an old coaching house famous for its copper and brass wares1 the candlesticks in those early days a necessity are now placed in pairs on the bedroom mantelpieces as mementoes of the past4 ,they are not intended for use1 for the electric switch is at hand1 and the newer light has taken the place of the wax candle 7see ,fig4 #di74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,group ,,of ,,rare ,,candlesticks1 ,,alms-,,dish1 ,,and ,,ewers4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,the lines which some years ago were printed in connection with a concert given in aid of the ,glasgow ,candlemakers and ,tallow workers are appropriate3 ,the light of other days is faded1 ,the reign of tallow's past2 ,magnesium and the limelight ,have vanquished 'dips' at last4 ,and the old lamplighter1 too1 ,must shortly disappear1 ,making way for electric light1 ,with its garish flash so 'queer4' ,oil ,lamps and ,lanterns4 ,much might be written of oil lamps and lanterns1 of which there are many interesting curios4 ,they are varied1 too1 for they cover a large field reaching from almost prehistoric times to the present day4 ,many lamps of metal and bronze have survived and are found in our museums side by side with the still earlier examples of terra-cotta and crude pottery4 ,there is a very interesting collection of early lamps in the ,guildhall ,museum1 one of the most attractive examples being a ,roman lamp of bronze1 a portion of the central oil space being covered4 ,the bronze lamp illustrated in ,fig4 #ej which may be seen in the ,london ,museum1 is claimed by the authorities to be unique in ,london finds1 and is probably the finest example of a ,roman lamp discovered in ,england4 ,the collector finds his most interesting examples in lamps which have been made in this country the outcome of the candle and of the candle lamp which was gradually evolved4 ,many of these early candle lamps were adaptations of old candlesticks2 it would appear that the idea of enclosing a candle in a horn lantern and thereby securing greater steadiness on account of its being protected from the wind and draughts1 which had already been adopted1 suggested a glass cup or protection to the candle on the table4 ,it is quite likely that the first experiments were made with a broken cup of porcelain with the bottom knocked out1 for the earliest examples seem to have taken that form1 the cup-like vessels being gradually confined more and more at the top and the bottom4 ,the idea of a candle-clock occurred to seventeenth-century candlestick makers1 who marked the edges of the lamp on the framework so that as the candles burned low they marked the hours4 ,the burning would be more or less irregular1 but the marks on the candle-clocks would be some guide1 and served their purpose in days when the time of day was of less moment than it is now4 ,oil1 which had early been the chief lighting medium1 was once more in the ascendant when in the eighteenth century oil lamps gradually took the place of candles4 ,fig4 #dh represents a handsome pair of old oil lamps1 their beautifully shaped vase containers being reminiscent of the urns and vases at that time ornamenting the mahogany sideboard4 ,it is said that many such lamps were made in ,england and sent over to ,america before the ,war of ,independence1 and that in the homesteads of the old plantations such relics have been treasured4 ,the examples shown in the accompanying illustrations are now in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum at ,washington4 ,in the days when the watchman called the time of the night street-lighting was unknown4 ,lanterns were carried in the hand and the links-boys were in attendance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,,early ,,bronze ,,lamp4 7,the ,london ,museum1 ,stafford ,house47 ,in ,fig #ea is shown a brass lantern 7open and closed7 which is now the property of the ,sunderland ,public ,libraries and ,art ,gallery ,committee1 a very interesting specimen of an eighteenth-century collapsible lantern of brass and horn4 ,it measures #f-a_/d in4 high and is #c-c_/h in4 square4 ,such lanterns were very common in the eighteenth century1 and indeed in still more recent times in country places where they were very necessary before country roads were improved and rural thoroughfares lighted4 ,we must1 however1 fain pass over street-lighting for the lanterns which have been copied so many times in more recent days4 ,apropos of lanterns of copper carried by the wary traveller and of the copper lightning conductor on the church steeple1 an indispensable feature still1 the following lines are quoted3 ,in the olden time1 along the street1 ,a glimmering lantern led the feet ,when on a midnight stroll2 ,but now we catch1 when night is night1 ,a piece of lightning from the sky ,and stick it on a pole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,old ,,brass ,,lantern4 7,in the ,sunderland ,museum47 ,x ,,bells ,,and ,,bell-,,metal ,,castings ,,chapter ,x ,,bells ,,and ,,bell-,,metal ,,castings ,the founders' secrets--,great bells of historic fame--,the uses of bells--,old mortars4 ,the metal of which bells are made differs only from that used for other copper wares in its alloy4 ,the ancients1 however1 made many mysteries about the constituents of the metal by which they were able to produce such beautiful notes and musical sounds4 ,the modern bellfounder uses about #ge parts of copper and #be parts of tin1 varying it sometimes by a mixture of zinc and lead1 and in that he differs little from the bellfounder of old1 except that the older craftsman made a secret of his alloy and sometimes added a small quantity of other metals4 ,the theory is that a large percentage of copper gives a deep tone1 whereas the greater addition of zinc and tin gives a sharper ring4 ,the ,founders' ,secrets4 ,a knowledge of metals and of their qualities is a desirable accomplishment which all metal-workers and founders should possess1 and it was doubtless because some of the early bellfounders intuitively1 or as the result of accidental experiment1 discovered the true properties of the alloys they used that they were able to excel in the craft4 ,there are secrets associated with the mixing of the metal1 too1 especially that of heating the molten metal to the correct temperature at the most critical moment of running it into the mould4 ,much depends also upon tuning the bells by turning and reducing their thicknesses at the right place in the bell's cone4 ,the accuracy of such details is essential1 otherwise those mellow sounds for which many of the old bells are noted would be absent4 ,it is true that the rich mellowness and musical notes so noticeable in some peals are due to some extent to age1 the exact influence of which is not fully understood4 ,the bellfounder has always regarded his work from a lofty standard1 and has recorded the accomplishment of any great work by the inscriptions he has caused to be cast upon the surface of the bell4 ,such data is often accompanied by the name and trademark of the founder1 the ,bellfounders' arms being frequently added4 ,sometimes such inscriptions are dated2 at others the lettering is sufficient to denote the date of the work4 ,the making of great bells was always regarded as an event of some importance4 ,most of those which have obtained historic fame have either been associated with some public use or have been cast for ecclesiastical purposes4 ,such events were often attended by kings and queens and great ecclesiastics1 who threw into the melting-pot contributions of silver and gold1 inscriptions upon the bells themselves often recording the special object of their manufacture4 ,the difficulties in the way of casting bells a distance away from the tower where they were to be hung often induced the founders to cast them on the spot2 indeed1 as late as #agfb the clock bell of ,canterbury was recast in the ,cathedral yard4 ,great ,bells of ,historic ,fame4 ,there are many great bells of historic fame1 and others which have gained notoriety from their great size4 ,the claim to the possession of the largest bell was formerly made by the ,chinese1 but the palm is usually accorded to the ,great ,bell of ,moscow1 which measures #ai ft4 in height and #fd ft4 in circumference4 ,in our own country there are the ,great ,bell of ,st4 ,paul's1 weighing five tons2 ,great ,tom of ,lincoln1 of similar weight2 ,peter of ,york1 weighing ten tons2 and ,big ,ben of ,westminster1 scaling fourteen tons4 ,some old churches and cathedrals are noted more for their beautiful chimes than for the size and weight of their larger bells4 ,at ,mechlin there are forty-four bells in the carillon1 and in ,antwerp ,cathedral the chimes are played on sixty-five bells1 the oldest in the set1 named ,horrida1 being dated #acaf1 but the bell which is said to be the best loved of all by the ringers is stamped ,carolas1 having been given by ,charles ,v4 ,there are bells of lesser size which have gained popularity1 some from their former associations2 others perhaps1 more so because of their present location or ownership4 ,sometimes bells have been removed from old churches and after having changed hands several times have found a resting-place in the possession of laymen2 often in museums1 it is true1 but not always so3 as an instance there is the fine old bell in the possession of the ,grocers' ,company1 cast in #adfc for the ,church of ,all ,hallows1 ,staining1 where it hung for many years4 ,the bell illustrated in ,fig4 #eb1 now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 is of more recent date1 having been cast in ,exeter in #afgj by ,john ,pennington4 ,bells have frequently been brought to this country as trophies of war4 ,at the ,tower there are several fine examples of ,eastern workmanship1 and there are others now in the ,united ,service ,museum at ,whitehall4 ,the ,uses of ,bells4 ,the older bells have seen varied service2 they have been hung in church towers and in public places2 they have sounded the note of alarm1 and given the signal for historic assemblies2 they have rung the death-knell of illustrious persons1 and in rural ,england have summoned many generations of worshippers to ,divine ,service4 ,the bells1 the loud clanging of which can be heard afar1 are1 however1 the outcome of a gradual process of development4 ,the evolution from the handbell to the turret bell was doubtless slow4 ,the simple handbell in its early stages was only a slight advance beyond the bells hung round the necks of the leaders of the flock1 which were made by the village smith4 ,such primitive1 and not always musical1 bells were used from the earliest times to summon servants and workers in the field and tenderers of the flock4 ,the practice dates from ,biblical days1 for it was an early ,eastern custom for sheiks and patriarchs from their tent doors to summon their followers1 or give the danger signal1 by means of a bell4 ,bible records tell of bells of gold suspended from the robes of priests1 and of their use in temple worship4 ,from that time onward they have been associated with religious ceremonials4 ,in later times the early ,christians employed bells of copper and brass and consecrated them to their use4 ,thus musical peals1 rung collectively or individually1 have sounded for all kinds of sacred rites4 ,the bell--a mere handbell--was soon fixed over a doorway1 or in some convenient place where it could with greater ease be rung by a cord4 ,then came the suggestion of larger bells1 afterwards covered over1 and finally hung in steeple or tower1 like the campanile 7a tower separated from the church7 so often met with in ,italy4 ,the church bell is said to have been introduced here by ,paulinus1 the ,bishop of ,mona1 in ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,the next record of importance is the historical account of the ,venerable ,bede1 who describes bells hung in towers--that was in ,a4,d4 #fgj4 ,some two hundred years after ,bede's days a peal was rung for the first time in ,england1 in the ,abbey of ,crowland4 ,the pioneers of bell-ringing upon bells tuned in harmony were the ringers who produced such charming results with the bells of ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,the bells of churches were rung for ecclesiastical and for national and parochial purposes4 ,there was the vesper bell for evensong1 and there was the curfew bell which rang in obedience to the lights out enactments of ,norman days 7see ,couvre de feu1 p4 #aac74 ,of the minor uses of bells there are many4 ,in ,tudor days small bells were familiar objects in hunting4 ,they formed part of the equipment of the hawk or falcon4 ,of these we read in ,shakespeare's works--of the 'larum bell and of sweet bells jangled out of tune4 ,in ,othello there is a record of the snorting citizen with his bell4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,bell ,,cast ,,by ,,john ,,pennington ,,at ,,exeter ,,in #afgj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,group ,,of ,,bell-,,metal ,,mortars4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,bellmen were the heralds of news in country towns1 and the importance of their office was made clear by the ,oyez6 ,oyez6 by which they prefixed their tale4 ,the ancient watchman clanged his bell and the light in the lantern slung at his waist flickered as he sounded the call4 ,this is mentioned in an old ballad1 the first verse of which reads3 ,time1 master1 calls your bellman to his task1 ,to see your doors and windows are all fast4 ,numerous examples of curious bells are to be seen in our museums4 ,in the ,welsh ,museum at ,cardiff there is an old ,celtic bell from ,llangwynodl1 shown side by side with an electrotype of the famous bell of ,st4 ,patrick4 ,there is rather a sad note in the story of the fate of the old division bell of the ,irish ,house of ,commons1 which1 when the ,parliament was abolished1 was sold for use in a ,dublin theatre as a call bell1 eventually to be resold as old metal4 ,that curio would at this juncture have been regarded as an historical relic of some value4 ,the restoration of bells sometimes leads to mistakes when it is found that the inscriptions upon them appear to indicate an older date than would be judged to be correct from their appearance4 ,of such restoration work an instance may be given of the peal of twelve bells recently placed in the tower of ,st4 ,mary's ,church1 which has become the cathedral of the new diocese of ,chelmsford4 ,the bells were dedicated in the presence of ringers from a large number of towns and villages in ,essex1 a county noted for its bell-towers and bells4 ,the peal of ten replaces one cast in #aggg1 and the old inscriptions have been placed on the new bells4 ,one reads3 ,tho' much against us may be said1 ,to speak for ourselves we are not afraid4 ,perhaps one of the most pleasing thoughts associated with bells is that their earliest use has been perpetuated throughout the ages4 ,the sheep bell hung round the neck of the bellwether in ,eastern lands sounding so sweetly in the days of the ,psalmist of old1 finds its replica on the downlands of the ,southern counties and on ,salisbury ,plain to-day1 for there and in many other parts of rural ,england the tinkling jingle of the sheep bells may be heard4 ,bells are not without their rivals1 for gongs have been used in ,eastern countries for years1 and now they are popular elsewhere4 ,they were originally a disc of beaten metal with upturned rim1 although in some countries they took the place of drums in warfare1 as well as playing a part in religious services4 ,the circular gong is associated with ,china1 ,japan1 and ,java4 ,the ,burmese gong is of triangular form1 and by way of contrast is made of polished metal1 whereas those of the first-mentioned countries usually show hammer marks4 ,many of the old gongs were exceedingly musical1 and when struck with a leather-covered wooden mallet were capable of producing a variety of sounds4 ,gongs old and new vary in size and1 consequently1 in depth of tone and volume of sound4 ,among the ,eastern curios there are some highly decorative examples1 especially among the smaller table gongs1 the stands of which were often enriched by decorative ornament with inlays and enamels4 ,old ,mortars4 ,on account of being made of the same kind of alloy1 bronze mortars are referred to in this chapter4 ,they were usually cast by the bellfounders from the metal they used for bells1 and many of them when struck give forth sonorous and deep-toned sounds4 ,these mortars were moulded and often decorated with fanciful designs1 frequently with the arms or initials of the prospective owners1 others being dated4 ,those shown in ,fig4 #ec are representative types4 ,many of the early mortars appear to have been imported into this country4 ,the ,dutch founders made many in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 some being especially handsome and of large size4 ,others still more ornate were of ,italian1 ,portuguese1 and ,spanish origin4 ,in course of time the use of bell-metal was discarded1 and brass mortars1 cast and afterwards turned in a lathe1 came into vogue4 ,these gradually became little used1 and when pestles and mortars were needed in the domestic kitchen1 more modern types of marble and composition were introduced4 ,to-day1 these once necessary domestic appliances are relegated to the chimney-piece as honoured ornaments in the kitchen2 the older and more valuable bell-metal mortars being given more prominent positions upon sideboard or cabinet4 ,such is the story of the bellfounders1 whose art remains among modern crafts4 ,,xi ,,civic ,,emblems ,,and ,,weights ,,and ,,measures ,,chapter ,,xi ,,civic ,,emblems ,,and ,,weights ,,and ,,measures ,the ancient horn--,the badge of office--,weighing instruments--,measures in ,exeter ,museum--,our standards4 ,the sounding of brass and the tinkling of cymbals have heralded in many ,state pageants4 ,civic pomp and splendour have been enriched by brilliant uniforms1 and the sunlight has flashed on many a thrilling event in national history4 ,in the relics of former glories we find emblems of the doings of the past1 and amidst ruined buildings or those halls now shorn of much of their former grandeur--their original purpose forgotten1 or1 perchance1 misunderstood--the collector seeks symbols of office and hoards them when found as mere curios4 ,in this chapter such civic emblems and prosaic weights and measures are grouped4 ,a curious combination some may think4 ,very appropriate1 however1 when we note the close connection which once existed between those old corporations and guilds who rejoiced in emblems of office and enjoyed the custody of standards of weights and measures1 fulfilling the duties which had been thrust upon them by powers and authorities only too willing to depute to private bodies necessary work for which they had no equipment and no organization4 ,the ,ancient ,horn4 ,civil authority and even ,state control could1 in days gone by1 only be sustained by plenty of pomp and show4 ,the populace were awed by giant insignia and much parade of power to enforce the authority held4 ,in days before there were newspapers to make announcements1 and no printing presses to print posters and proclamations1 the calling of a public meeting at which declarations could be made or decisions arrived at1 was a matter of no small importance4 ,the sounding horn had been used from primitive times to call together the people1 and the gatherings of the folk mote were heralded in and assembled by a loud blast on the moot horn4 ,the moot or meeting of the people of a village or hamlet began in ,anglo-,saxon times1 when such assemblies were held in the open air4 ,later came the moot hall1 which preceded the guildhall of days when traders and merchants were incorporated into fraternal guilds4 ,the horn was the signal for calling such assemblies commonly in use in old towns1 and such relics of the past are now preserved with care--emblems of altered times to those who are familiar with them4 ,in ,fig4 #ee is shown the moot horn of ,winchester1 a beautiful example of ancient metal-work4 ,there is a similar horn at ,dover1 which is sounded still according to custom at the election of the mayor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,an ,,eighteenth-,,century ,,flagstaff ,,head ,,of ,,brass1 ,,originally ,,gilt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,the ,,winchester ,,moot ,,horn4 7,in the ,guildhall ,museum1 ,winchester47 ,the moot horn is not quite lost in modern procedure1 for the heralds march in ,royal processions and precede the proclamation of regal and civic state as of yore1 on those rare occasions calling a halt from everyday occupations by the trumpet's blast4 ,the ,badge of ,office4 ,the mace is with us to-day as the chief emblem of office4 ,without it no civil gathering of importance in ,london would be complete1 and when robbed of its presence no law can be enacted at ,westminster4 ,the bauble ,cromwell caused to be removed was a symbol of historic and ancient fame1 deep-rooted in the minds of even stern ,puritans4 ,it had to be banished ere the ,parliament was dissolved6 ,the mace is truly the lineal and direct sign of power and authority1 for it was the ancient battle-axe which could deal the deadly blow that was first held up before the sovereign1 and in brass or gilt the tawdry symbol took its place and has ever since retained its significance4 ,in lesser degree the staff or stave of office has remained an ensign of authority4 ,the heads of such staves are often decorative and surmounted by some appropriate emblem or well-known sign of office4 ,the flagstaff head shown in ,fig4 #ed is of eighteenth-century date2 its very beautiful openwork ornament was probably of gilt4 ,it is an excellent example of ,english workmanship of that period4 ,weighing ,instruments4 ,the ,founders' ,company exercised an oversight over weighing instruments and weights and had difficulties to contend with1 for there were many irregularities and not a few differences in the standards used in various localities4 ,the scales of traders of olden time were far from accurate1 and there was abundant need of standard weights and measures such as were kept in some of the old country towns4 ,winchester and ,exeter are two places where care has been taken of the old standards1 and in both of these towns ancient standards may be seen4 ,similar standards formerly kept in other towns have been scattered1 and not infrequently old specimens--obviously standards from the inscriptions upon them--are met with in private collections4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,the ,,winchester ,,bushel 7,,standard ,,measure74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,old ,,measures ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,winchester ,,standard4 7,sketched by permission of the ,corporation of the ,city of ,winchester47 ,those now in the ,winchester ,museum extend over a considerable period1 ranging in antiquity from the reign of ,henry ,,iii to ,elizabeth4 ,the original bushel which became the standard on which other measures were based is still preserved in ,winchester4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,vii1 one ,william ,nele was commissioned to make further copies1 on which the sum of fifty pounds was expended4 ,the transaction was recorded in the ,state papers of #adhf as follows3 ,to ,william ,nele1 gunn founder and brasier of ,london1 upon makyng of diverse measures and weights accordinge to the olde ,standarde of ,englande1 to be sent into several shires and cities of ,englande1 accordinge to the ,king's commandment1 and by the advice of the ,counsaal at diverse tymes4 ,the ancient bronze bushel of great historic interest is illustrated in ,fig4 #ef4 ,among the other standards kept with the bushel in the ,winchester ,museum are those shown in ,fig4 #eg--;all measures based on similar standards4 ,tudor examples are also still in the possession of the local authorities at ,norwich1 ,salisbury1 ,northampton1 ,southampton1 and ,exeter4 ,fig4 #eh is another example of a pint measure1 dated #afja1 the crowned initials ,e4,r4 upon it1 of course1 indicating ,,elizabeth ,,regina4 ,a later ,winchester pint1 dated #agjd1 is shown in ,fig4 #ei4 ,measures in ,exeter ,museum4 ,when it was enacted in the reign of ,henry ,,vii that certain towns should hold copies of the ancient standards1 ,exeter was the city chosen wherein were deposited the standards for the ,shire of ,devon4 ,they are now on view in the ,royal ,albert ,memorial ,museum in ,exeter1 supplemented by other standards legalized by ,queen ,elizabeth1 and by more recent copies of authorized standards4 ,there are five standards1 dated #agii1 consisting of the ,winchester bushel1 peck1 and half-peck1 and standard coal measure of peck and half-peck4 ,a bronze standard of the time of ,william and ,mary is engraved ,,for ,,the ,,citty ,,and ,,covnty ,,of ,,exon #afhi2 and a standard gallon1 embossed with crown and monogram1 is engraved ,e4,r4 ,,elizabeth ,,regina1 #afja24 ,there are also standard wine measures2 one engraved on one side ,,city ,,of ,,exeter #agig and on the reverse ,,half ,,pint4 ,,wine1 and another on the reverse1 ,,gill4 ,,wine4 ,an exceptionally interesting piece is a standard ale gallon of the time of the ,commonwealth1 engraved ,,an ,,ale ,,gallon ,,sized ,,and ,,sealed ,,in ,,the ,,tower ,,of ,,london ,,by ,,me ,,john ,,reynolds ,,of ,,the ,,mynt4 ,,ano4 #afec4 ,among the standard weights included in this interesting exhibit is a #ad lb4 bronze weight of the time of ,henry ,,vii1 embossed with portcullis and rose1 and engraved ,,henric ,,septim4 ,it was found some years ago among old metal at a store in ,exeter1 the manner of its discovery indicating the possibility of further finds of a similar nature in other towns4 ,the little ,troy weights are exceptionally well preserved2 the weights according to their engraving are #cb oz41 #fd oz41 #abh oz41 and #bef oz4 ,on the largest specimen the legend runs3 ,,ano4 ,,do4 ,,el4 ,,reg4 ,,xxx4 #aehh4 and on the upper edge1 ,,cclvi41 the smaller weights being similarly indicated4 ,these were all used as the standards at ,exeter until the year #ahbd4 ,another interesting specimen is the standard yard and ell bed used in ,exeter for testing the rods used as cloth measures1 the groove on the standard on the engraved side being one yard1 that on the reverse one ell 7#de inches74 ,the inscription on the standard yard reads3 ,,civitas ,,exon ,,christopher ,,coke ,,esq4 ,,mayor4 ,,william ,,bolitho ,,receiver #afic4 ,in the same museum there are also six brass stamping blocks formerly in use at the ,exeter ,custom ,house in connection with old ,exeter trades4 ,medival ,london yields the collector many choice pieces4 ,beautiful little scale beams of bronze and brass have been found in or near ,london ,wall4 ,scales of antiquity1 too1 have sometimes been in the possession of old families for centuries almost without their knowing or appreciating their value4 ,not long ago some beautiful little scales made of brass1 which must have been made more than two hundred years ago1 were picked up on an old barrow where the man who bought odd things had it for sale and thought it to be one of the almost valueless curios in the remains of sundries he had bought from the caretaker of an empty house4 ,in the ,guildhall ,museum there are scales and weights of types usual in the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries4 ,one of these is decorated with a band of stars1 another of triangular shape is stamped with a merchant's mark--that also was found on the site of ,london ,wall4 ,another remarkably interesting curio is an octagonal weight evidently answering the purpose of a baker's weight1 and perhaps as an advertisement1 too1 for it is engraved1 ,,weight ,,of ,a ,,quartern ,,loaf1 ,,sold ,,by ,,james ,,bull1 #abd1 ,,leadenhall ,,street4 ,our ,standards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a ,,pint ,,measure ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,elizabeth4 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,a ,,winchester ,,pint ,,of ,,the ,,days ,,of ,,queen ,,anne4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #fj4--,,old ,,french ,,weights4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,in this connection it may be pointed out that a very pleasing collection can inexpensively be made out of old money changers' weights1 both ,english and foreign4 ,they were chiefly used with the pocket scales at one time carried about by traders as a precaution against the numerous clipped and light-weight coins in circulation4 ,among these little weights are those which were used for testing what are now obsolete gold coins1 such as angel1 guinea1 half-guinea1 and seven-shilling piece4 ,some of the old ,roman bell weights are interesting2 they took their shape from more ancient weights in the form of a pagan deity1 probably ,mercury1 who was looked upon as a god of scales and weights4 ,in some collections larger ,continental weights are met with2 those illustrated in ,fig4 #fj representing three ,french weights preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,when examining old weights and measures we often wonder at the origin of such curious tables of weight formulated on somewhat perplexing standards1 ridiculed as long obsolete by supporters of the metric systems4 ,they would sweep them away2 but to do so would snap one more link with the historic past1 and perhaps cause us to forget the very simple origin of so many of our so-called complicated systems1 the outcome of a slowly developing commerce--very different now to the days when our standards were formulated4 ,the baseline of our weights and measures is to be found in a single grain of corn1 such as would seem to be ,nature's gift--the staff of life6 ,it was a natural standard for agriculturists1 who would be the first to use it1 to adopt4 ,not only was the grain of corn the standard of measurement and weight1 but a given number gave the weight value to the penny sterling4 ,the grain retained its prominent position in our calculations long after standards had been fixed1 for in the reign of ,henry ,,vii it was enacted that the bushel measure should contain eight gallons of wheat1 and that the gallon should weigh eight pounds1 the pound to be of twelve ounces ,troy1 each ounce equal to twenty silver pennies1 every one of which should be of weight equivalent to thirty-two grains of dry wheat4 ,it will be remembered that a still earlier standard--that of the ,roman ,empire--was based on barleycorns1 of which there were twenty-four to the ounce1 a measurement adopted at ,troyes1 in ,france1 having been brought from ,cairo during the ,crusades4 ,thus in this simple story we see the origin of ,troy weight which in after years was used concurrently with the later avoirdupois 7goods by weight71 the standard adopted for heavy wares4 ,,xii ,,bronzes ,,and ,,their ,,replicas ,,chapter ,,xii ,,bronzes ,,and ,,their ,,replicas ,early figure modelling--,statues in public places--,replicas in miniature4 ,the art of sculpture was practised by the ancients1 and long before the beautiful bronzes for which the artists of ,greece and ,rome were famous carvers of wood1 and sculptors of stone and marble1 had cut inscribed1 and fashioned human figures1 animals1 and fabulous creatures according to their whims and fancies4 ,in moulds cut in stone the early casters in metal produced the objects which we roughly class as bronze1 and they are preserved to-day as reminders of those who lived before history was written4 ,when the early ,bronze ,age had passed away and the use of iron was understood1 the art of sculpture in stone was practised by the ,egyptians and by other ,eastern nations4 ,then came the beautiful metal-work of ,ancient ,greece2 the statues1 trophies1 and groups1 produced in those days when ,greece excelled in the fine arts1 have acquired a fame which has never been exceeded by sculptors or workers in metals in modern days4 ,the ,italians of a later period showed their religious emotions in the metallic works of art they produced in early medival days2 and still later ,french modellers have excelled in human expression4 ,many of the great works of the old masters in bronze are unique1 and they are retained as great treasures in the national museums where they have found lasting homes4 ,for the benefit of connoisseurs of art many of the great works have been copied1 and in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington and in other places there are replicas in metal and in other materials1 faithful copies of the original bronzes which are so rare4 ,the educational value of a gallery of ancient art1 whether expressed in marble1 bronze1 stone1 or other materials1 is considerable2 it not only tends to the appreciation of modern art as represented by the statues and monuments in our parks and gardens1 and in those smaller works which adorn public buildings and private mansions1 but it leads to the appreciation of the lesser replicas of great works1 such as artistic groups1 figures1 and bronzes which have been copied in miniature4 ,many of the most important works of the modeller and caster of bronze groups and figures are familiar to students of art and collectors of curios1 in that so many of these important studies have been reproduced or copied2 sometimes the copies are equally as beautiful as the original1 although on a smaller scale1 and many of them have quite an antique appearance1 for they are by no means modern1 such works of art having been reproduced very many years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,bronze ,,tiger1 ,,by ,,antoine ,,louis ,,barye4 ,early ,figure ,modelling4 ,the human figure in its most perfectly known form was early made the model from which artists sculptured stone and moulded figures4 ,even some of the crude attempts of native races have evidently been intended to represent human beings with whom they associated or races they held in fear1 but they were not always successful4 ,bronze statues cast in moulds were known in ,egypt1 and throughout later periods most of the civilized races have employed methods by which they have been able with more or less accuracy to reproduce in other substances of a more lasting character the perishable flesh and blood of the human race4 ,in a similar way the personified deities have been perpetuated in bronze and many of them are simply idolized humanity4 ,sometimes these statues have been very large1 far beyond what is generally known as life-size4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that many of these colossal statues when raised to a great height are by no means out of proportion to the buildings on which they were placed1 and assumed a normal size when viewed from below4 ,it is said that one of the most striking colossal figures was that of ,minerva1 crowning the summit of the ,acropolis4 ,the largest statue seems to be that of ,nero1 which rose #aej ft4 ,in more modern times statues have been brought down to normal size4 ,visitors to ,rome1 however1 recognise what a wonderful achievement it must have been to place that immense statue of ,st4 ,peter in position4 ,the artists of old were indeed clever1 and not only have they justly been accorded fame for the size and beautiful proportions of their statues1 but many of the ancient bronzes have gained their greatest notoriety from the great beauty with which the sculptors must have idealized their models4 ,many of the antiques are almost perfect in form1 and we are forced to wonder what kind of men and women their models were4 ,classic ,models4 ,the classic bronzes were almost invariably conceptions drawn from imagination1 but the beautiful forms of the athletes and ,greek maidens helped the artist in his estimate of the deities he personified4 ,in those bronzes we see the magic touch of the master hand1 and perhaps of the belief in the mystic attributes so cleverly designed4 ,thus we have figures of ,hercules1 ,mars1 ,venus1 and many others1 which can be copied1 and now and then by some stroke of good luck a genuine antique is added to the collector's museum4 ,statues in ,public ,places4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,bronze ,,lion1 ,,by ,,barye4 ,during the last half-century simple statues erected to the memories of noted politicians and military men in public parks1 streets1 and open places1 have been added to by more realistic groups4 ,it would be beyond the scope of this work to attempt categorical descriptions of such bronzes to be seen in the public places of our great cities1 and it would be still more difficult to rightly classify them either in their order of merit or of the appropriateness of their selection4 ,it seems justly fit that those who have been associated with the metallic art should be commemorated in copper and brass4 ,to ,pittsburg belongs the honour of having remembered the father of the art of hammering into shape the metals4 ,in that city1 on a massive pedestal1 stands a colossal bronze figure of ,tubal ,cain1 who1 in his brief life's history given in ,genesis1 is spoken of as an artificer in brass4 ,he fittingly heads the list of metallurgists and scientists1 to many of whom monuments have been erected4 ,the use of bronze in monuments is not confined to figures of great men1 for bronze and brass ornament often adds to the magnificence of a national memorial4 ,as examples of the use of bronze for that purpose mention may be made of the bronze lions1 after ,landseer1 at the four corners of ,nelson's ,column in ,trafalgar ,square4 ,the use of bronze1 as adding to the adornment or appearance of an antiquity in stone1 is exemplified in the two bronze sphinxes at the base of ,cleopatra's ,needle on the ,thames ,embankment4 ,the bronzes of comparatively modern days are mostly the work of the founder1 cast after the sculptor has done his work4 ,some of the early examples of ,etruscan and ,egyptian art consisted of bronze or brass hammered into form by hand1 or made of plates riveted together4 ,others appear to have been beaten or embossed into high relief in a mould4 ,some of the cleverest castings of bronze1 however1 are found in the work of ,eastern nations1 the best examples being idols and temple ornaments 7see ,chapter ,,xiv74 ,replicas in ,miniature4 ,the so-called miniatures range from important reproductions for household and gallery ornament to the quite miniature bronzes which adorn the mantelpiece or cabinet4 ,many of the statues and groups of ancient and modern forms have been copied4 ,there is1 however1 another school of art which to many is very attractive4 ,just as pictures of animal life are appreciated by many1 so the sculptures and bronzes of well-known animal artists have been justly appreciated4 ,in ,france there are the works of ,antoine ,louis ,barye1 who was born in ,paris in #agie4 ,it is said that ,barye discovered his real bent from watching the wild beasts in the ,jardin des ,plantes4 ,some of his great works were exhibited early in the nineteenth century1 and his beautiful models have been much copied4 ,three of the most popular are shown in ,figs4 #fa1 #fb1 and #fc4 ,there is the tiger which he exhibited in #ahcj1 and the lion and the beautifully formed stag4 ,such works of art are worthy of a place in any collection of metal1 for they represent an important ,french school4 ,of men who have made names for themselves there are many whose statues are found in private collections4 ,a very favourite one is that of ,robert ,burns1 whose colossal statue was erected at ,ayr on the occasion of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the poet's birth4 ,burns is reported to have said on his deathbed3 ,they'll think mair o' me a hundred years after ,i am dead1 a truism none will deny4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,,bronze ,,stag1 ,,by ,,barye4 ,,xiii ,,oriental ,,bronzes ,,and ,,brasses ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,oriental ,,bronzes ,,and ,,brasses ,countries of origin--,how some ,oriental curios are derived--,a wealth of metal on view--,various ,indian wares--,chinese and ,japanese art4 ,under the somewhat generic term ,oriental we class those numerous bronzes and other art treasures which come to us from the ,east and the ,far ,east4 ,early in the medival days ,eastern influence dominated the craftsmen of ,europe1 and many of those who took part in the ,crusades1 and later in adventurous journeys into the northern part of ,africa1 bordering upon the ,great ,sea1 brought back to their ,western homes curios which were undoubtedly ,oriental in their design4 ,countries of ,origin4 ,a collection of copper and brass to be at all representative must be varied and cosmopolitan in selection4 ,such a collection should include vessels of utility and ornamental objects which show the aims of the artist who designed them4 ,incidentally1 too1 such objects exhibit the sameness of purpose existing in many lands2 although the methods of domestic procedure and the ways of living vary until their common origin is scarcely recognizable4 ,in such a collection of domestic curios the influence of ,saracenic art is seen in the ewers and basins and similar vessels which come from the lands where the wild ,arab tribes lived for centuries in an almost barbarous state on the edge of the ,syrian desert4 ,many of these quaint hammered copper vessels are of barbaric beauty1 such as1 for instance1 the coffee-pot shown in ,fig4 #fd and the basin in ,fig4 #fe4 ,there are some pleasing customs savouring of patriarchal days still practised by ,arab races4 ,such1 for instance1 when the sheik has finished his morning meal he throws a stone into his brass or copper coffee-pot as a sign to his followers to strike camp4 ,awake1 for morning1 in the bowl of night1 ,has flung the stone which puts the stars to flight1 ,and1 ho6 the hunter of the ,east has caught the ,sultan's turritt in a noose of light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,coffee-,,pot ,,of ,,hammered ,,copper ,,from ,,syria4 ,the ,arab metal-work is generally covered over with characteristic designs and distinctive styles4 ,equally characteristic is the finely engraved ornament on many small brass objects made by ,arab craftsmen4 ,this is exemplified in the small and beautifully engraved brass writing boxes which were once a feature among the educated scribes of ,arab fame4 ,one such case is to be seen in the ,british ,museum1 the work of ,mahmud1 son of ,souker1 of ,bagdad1 made in #abha4 ,the style is said by experts to combine the art motives of ,mesapotamia and ,egypt1 which in the thirteenth century very naturally met in ,syria4 ,another distinctive style is noticeable in the art of the metal-workers of the ,mameluke dynasty of ,egypt2 their arabesques showed more realistic foliage than the ,arab decorations of an earlier date4 ,antiquaries always turn quite naturally to ,egypt1 that land with such a great past1 when seeking for inspiration from the great monuments which are masterpieces of art--in bronze and stone4 ,these they find there it is true1 but the more important pieces of metal-work of that early period are found in ,assyria1 from whence came ponderous gates of brass1 covered with the remains of delicate tracery and inscriptions4 ,such works of ancient art are rightly given places of prominence in our museums2 the private collector1 however1 is generally content with the lesser bronze antiquities of ,egypt which he can collect4 ,these include mirrors and many small articles for the toilet and some delightful domestic bronzes4 ,among them are charming little ewers with long projecting spouts and curiously wrought curved handles ornamented with masks and shells4 ,the curios which reach us from ,cairo are mostly in strict accordance with ,egyptian characteristics4 ,the earlier examples are representative of the art of ,northern ,egypt as it was expressed by the metal-workers between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries1 throughout which there does not appear to have been any great divergence of style1 although when objects known to have been made during the earlier part of that period1 and others fashioned during the later1 the progress and development1 although it had been slow1 is very noticeable4 ,there are also some traces of outside influences4 ,in ,fig4 #aj there is an early lamp of brass in the form of a bird1 inlaid with copper1 an example placed in the thirteenth century4 ,quite different is the late example 7eighteenth century7 given in ,fig4 #fd1 which is a coffee-pot with a bucket handle and another small handle at the back2 the spout is roughly worked with corrugations and quatrefoils1 on the five bosses being the marks adopted by the owner of the shop in ,cairo where it was used4 ,reference has already been made to the influence of ,saracenic art upon metal-workers in places where the ,saracens came in contact with the craftsmen4 ,as indicative of this feature the fine large brass basin illustrated in ,fig4 #fe is shown4 ,some portions of the bowl have evidently been filled in with silver4 ,there are other objects such as bowls1 dishes1 and ewers showing similar decorations1 many of which may be seen along with this example in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the ,saracens seem to have had some influence upon what are usually regarded as ,european articles2 thus in a collection of old bronze mortars there are sometimes examples from countries in the ,south of ,europe which show in their designs these characteristics4 ,the mortar had1 of course1 a very general use1 and was needed everywhere in days when so many compounds were prepared by hand labour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,saracenic ,,decorated ,,brass ,,basin4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,persian art is peculiarly specialistic in its treatment4 ,the designs used by the metal-workers in that country from quite early days were emblematic and of an all-over conventional type1 often interwoven with scenes4 ,even many of the common vessels1 like bowls and covers and saucers of brass1 are cleverly chased with hunting scenes and floral attributes1 many of the cups being covered with arabesque ornament4 ,some of the brass egg-shaped hooker bases are chased in relief2 the mounts of the rose-water ewers--which are often of china1 with metal linings for holding ice--are frequently decorative4 ,in many instances the vessels are ornamented with coloured inlays1 giving them peculiar colour effects4 ,damascus--always an important seat of metal-work--has supplied collectors from many countries with the beautifully incised ornament produced by filling in the cut spaces with fine gold or silver wire beaten into the brass and then polished4 ,so important has this mode of giving relief become that damascened metal stands alone as an art1 seen at its best in the wonderful armour of the later period1 when the utility of plate armour was giving way to the ornament which embellished the ,state armour--the dress suits of the regimentals of the ,stuart days4 ,how some ,oriental ,curios are ,derived4 ,it is useful at times to consider how the curios we collect have gradually accumulated1 and thus to ascertain how they have been secured in the past2 and from that we are enabled to form some estimate of further supplies1 for the law of supply and demand regulates to some extent the market value of curios2 it has something to do with the direction taken by curio-hunters4 ,many curios have come into this country as the result of war and loot4 ,wars in the ,far ,east have served the collector1 and many choice bits of metal-work have changed hands at nominal sums after the return of troops employed in minor wars and punitive expeditions4 ,our vast ,indian ,empire1 however1 supplies many beautiful objects in metal1 both ancient and of comparatively recent days1 but even those are so quaint and so unlike the common objects of ,british make with which we are familiar that they are welcomed and find a fitting place among antique copper and brass4 ,to understand the curios which may be bought in ,eastern bazaars1 and more conveniently in the numerous stores and shops where ,indian curios are sold1 it is well to become acquainted with a really good representative collection1 such as that which may be examined in the ,indian ,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,in several galleries1 arranged in cases according to the districts from which the specimens have been gathered1 are to be found metal-work ranging from the sixteenth century to the present day4 ,although some of these are exceptional pieces1 by far the larger number are helpful to the collector of even modest means in that they represent ,indian curios which may be collected at trifling cost4 ,such objects1 however1 are unfortunately too often intermixed with modern castings and copies offered unblushingly by the dealer to the unwary4 ,among such curios from ,indian bazaars1 purchased by travellers to the less frequented districts1 are very many cooking utensils4 ,some of these1 although not very old1 are quaint and unlike modern ,european vessels1 for the native cooks have been slow to accept any change in their methods of cooking and do not take kindly to the use of ,western types of culinary appliances4 ,the ,indian cook clings tenaciously to copper vessels1 and notwithstanding attempts to introduce vessels of tin1 aluminium1 and enamelled ware1 the old chattie is again and again brought out in preference4 ,most of the vessels are of primitive types1 but they serve the purpose and the material is good and lasting4 ,the native workers understand the requirements of ,indian men and women1 and can shape and hammer together just what they have for generations regarded as the best4 ,clever indeed have been the native braziers in the past--and they still are--for they possess in addition to knowledge of coppersmithing an excellent knowledge of the composition and working qualities of the materials they employ4 ,they understand something of the chemistry of metals1 and are careful when melting copper in the furnace or over the fire not to overheat it1 or to allow the metal to perish in processes of manufacture4 ,a ,wealth of ,metal on ,view4 ,the collection of ,asiatic metal-work where specimens from different countries1 made at various periods1 can be compared is1 par excellence1 that in the ,indian ,museum 7the best examples of richly wrought damascened armour and arms are found in the ,wallace ,collection and at the ,tower74 ,the visitor on entering is at once absorbed in admiring ,indian curiosities1 especially the products of native craftsmen4 ,in the vestibule are many remarkable exhibits1 the work of ,nepal metal-workers4 ,most of them were gifts to ,king ,george and ,queen ,mary when they visited ,india on the occasion of the great ,coronation ,durbar at ,delhi4 ,some of the larger pieces were the gift of the ,maharajah and ,prime ,minister of ,nepal4 ,very wonderful is their workmanship1 especially that of the brass groups so true to life4 ,one of these represents a hunting elephant1 fully equipped1 with attendants2 others1 too1 are associated with sports and hunting scenes4 ,there are emblems of demons and the evil spirits which are so fully believed in by native dwellers on the borders of the forest4 ,temple vessels are abundant1 and among them are monsters and other fabulous creatures1 and numbers of masks1 notably those representing the fierce ,dragpo fiend ,tamdin 7see ,chapter ,,xiv74 ,there are some fine temple sets1 and two magnificent conventional lions 7temple guardians74 ,there is also a very interesting brass group of natives occupied in various ways1 one1 for instance1 carrying a package on his shoulder illustrating the method of relieving the weight of the bundle by a forehead strap1 by which means natives are enabled to sustain the strain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,japanese ,,kettle 7,,yuwakashi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,pair ,,of ,,vases ,,of ,,red-,,brown ,,copper1 ,,relieved ,,with ,,black ,,lac1 ,,from ,,moradabad4 7,in the author's collection47 ,so intricate are many of these cleverly modelled groups that it is not always easy to understand how they have been cast4 ,especially remarkable is the founding of the figure groups produced by the natives of the ,patan district of ,nepal4 ,in most cases they accomplished their task by the circe perdu process 7see ,glossary71 which enables them to cast even the most delicate groups4 ,some very interesting wares in metal are obtained from ,moradabad2 they are smooth and beautifully finished1 made of brass1 and partly tinned4 ,the more decorative pieces are of the early nineteenth century1 and include such objects as plates1 water-jars1 tumblers1 and sugar-pots and covers4 ,from ,lucknow some fine trays are secured2 and many beautiful brass ewers1 bowls1 and basins have been obtained from ,haidarabad1 where not only comparatively modern but early eighteenth-century brasswork is to be found4 ,some of these have a pleasing effect when polished1 the design or pattern upon them being inlaid with copper on a brass foundation and then polished4 ,various ,indian ,wares4 ,there is an ,indian ware known as bidri1 beautifully damascened in gold on a brass and copper base1 chiefly made in the villages round ,lucknow and ,deccan from the seventeenth century onwards4 ,the peculiarity of these objects is that they are distinctly black and white1 the metal consisting of an alloy of zinc1 copper1 and lead afterwards damascened with silver which is finally blackened by pickling4 ,a favourite curio is a ,betel-nut box and cover2 there are also spice boxes and objects intended for the base of a water-pipe4 ,many of the choice curios from ,kashmir in ,northern ,india are mostly of a dark red-brown copper1 and are frequently incised and inlaid with lac4 ,among them are domestic vessels1 the most commonly met with being the coffee-pot 7,kafijosh74 ,in one famous collection there is a curious boat-shaped alms-bowl of copper1 chased with a running ornament1 a design frequently employed in the eighteenth century4 ,there are some interesting ,mogul brasses1 among which are washhand basins4 ,in these1 too1 the decorations are frequently filled in with black lac4 ,very different are the brass and copper objects from the ,punjab4 ,some of pure copper are inlaid with black lac1 others are of copper-gilt1 looking in the sunlight like burnished gold4 ,some are of brass2 among the older objects of special interest being charcoal burners of fine brass with dome-shaped covers4 ,from the ,punjab come copper toilet boxes1 which are usually fitted with locks terminating in the form of a conventional lotus4 ,one of the most curious treasures in the ,indian ,museum secured from that district is a black cup1 made of a metal composed of quicksilver and copper1 a metallic compound supposed to give a digestive virtue to any liquid drank out of it4 ,the variety of metal objects from ,nepal is considerable4 ,there are articles of home decoration and usefulness1 including charming toilet sundries4 ,among the lamps are many weird forms1 a favourite being a lamp designed like a peacock's tail supported by a lion4 ,there are inkpots of symbolical forms with figures of ,ganasa1 the ,hindoo god of wisdom4 ,there are also many decorative water-bottles and vases and beautifully formed tazzas2 as well as charming toilet boxes with raised diaper ornament and conventional patterns4 ,from ,madras come bowls and water-bottles and many delightful trinket boxes1 some shaped like fishes1 others of bird-like forms4 ,some of these were intended for use as receptacles for antimony salve1 which is so much used in ,india for the eyes4 ,among the more modern curios made during the latter half of the nineteenth century are spun and turned brasswork1 especially vases and bowls4 ,travancore is also famous for its artists in metal1 and especially for their beautiful decorative brass pots with curious spouts and drinking cups4 ,the little bullock bells are characteristic of many parts of ,india1 some being prettily ornamented and of sweet tinkling sounds4 ,from ,southern ,india there are ,betel-nut cutters of unusual forms1 and quite a variety of metal bowls1 some being shaped like a pumpkin4 ,from the same district come highly decorative copper plaques and brass salvers as well as water vessels4 ,the lamps from ,india are of equal interest to those met with among the antiquities of similar types from other countries4 ,those of more recent date1 the work of baptized natives1 have for the chief ornament emblems of the ,christian religion instead of those associated with idol worship2 although in some instances the cross is flanked on either side with the sun and moon1 reminding us of the more ancient pagan religions4 ,many parts of ,india are noted for beautiful inlaid lac1 much of which is extremely decorative2 the vases illustrated in ,fig4 #fg came from ,moradabad2 they are of red-brown copper relieved with black lac4 ,haidarabad is also noted for such wares1 in some instances red as well as black lac being used in the decorations1 which are chiefly of conventional form4 ,the brasswork of ,benares is well known1 and it is still one of the most important features in present-day ,oriental bazaars and shops4 ,the modern work1 however1 rarely comes up to the old1 for in olden time great care was taken in producing varied forms and correct ornament in decoration1 the chief features of the ,benares brasswork being the series of ten incarnations of ,vishnu1 represented so often on trays1 bowls1 and smaller vessels1 such1 for instance1 as spice boxes and perfume holders1 and receptacles for pulverized sandal-wood4 ,the native princes of ,india have always been accustomed to ,state ceremonial1 and among the curious objects from that country are symbols of office1 some of the maces being beautifully damascened with gold4 ,the ceremonial and ,state swords formerly carried by the princes are museum curios of value1 especially those around which the memories of historical events cluster1 such as the gauntlet-sword of brass1 the hilt in the form of a tiger's head1 which formerly belonged to ,ruggoneth ,sookul1 who saved ,captain ,gordon's life during the ,indian ,mutiny in #aheg4 ,as it has been suggested wars with ,oriental potentates and the annexation of lands which had previously been under ,british protection have from time to time enriched national as well as private collections4 ,many of the trophies of war are unique and do not exist in duplicate4 ,in the ,indian ,museum there are many such objects1 notably the one-time regalia of the ,kings of ,burma2 at ,south ,kensington1 too1 there is a massive bowl of brass on which is engraved in picture characters the story of the history of ,china as related by ,confucius1 and transcribed by his pupil ,tso1 five hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,lamaistic temple curios are referred to in another chapter4 ,these1 however1 do not exhaust the metal-work from ,thibet4 ,indeed1 many of the minor objects1 especially those of a domestic character1 are very pleasing4 ,the vessels used in making tea in ,thibet differ from those in ,china--the home of tea-drinking--in that the process of preparing the cup that cheers but not inebriates is different4 ,the ladies of ,thibet take the tea-leaves and grind them dry until they are of the consistency of a fine powder1 using a brass mortar for the purpose4 ,they then put the powdered tea into a kettle1 and allow it to boil for about five minutes4 ,the liquid is afterwards poured through a strainer into a tea-urn1 and a little butter and barley flour are added4 ,this compound1 after being vigorously churned up1 is poured from the urn of wrought copper into teapots1 where it is allowed to settle before it is served up in small brass bowls4 ,ladles are used for the purpose of taking the tea from the urn1 for it has no tap1 being simply a two-handled jar with a cover4 ,some interesting curios are derived from ,ceylon1 especially those utensils made by the ,sinhalese1 who1 it will be remembered1 emigrated there from ,bengal in the sixth century4 ,the chief copper-workers in the island are the ,veddahs1 an aboriginal tribe of the interior closely allied to the ,sinhalese4 ,their work includes copper and brass on which is very beautiful repouss decoration4 ,buddhist influence has always been strong in ,ceylon1 and it is conspicuous in much of the decoration of the more important metal-work4 ,ceylon casters have turned out some fine bells and many heavy bronze lamps4 ,the lesser objects1 which are varied1 include brass boxes in which the lime for ,betel chewing was kept4 ,some of these are circular1 and others are pear-shaped1 many being incised and inlaid with the more precious metals4 ,betel-nut cutters1 similar to those from other parts of ,india1 are among the collectable curios1 those from ,ceylon being especially interesting1 for they frequently take the form of animals or of winged flying females4 ,the objects enumerated do not by any means exhaust the metal curios from ,india and ,ceylon1 but they are among the chief features observable in a large collection1 in the gathering together of which many small trinkets and perhaps unique sundries will be secured4 ,chinese and ,japanese ,art4 ,to many the curios from ,china and ,japan are more familiar than those from ,india and ,british ,asiatic possessions4 ,the pottery and porcelain of ,china have long been used in this country1 and during recent years other objects of a curious and antiquarian nature have been imported in large quantities from both these ancient countries4 ,in shops and bazaars the metallic wares of ,china and ,japan have been much popularized too4 ,that ,china has a great past and possessed a civilization hundreds of years before similar conditions appertained in ,europe is well known4 ,collectors of the antique go back in their search after specimens of bronze and other metals to those produced by the artists of ,china in the ,han ,dynasty1 which dates from ,b4,c4 #baf4 ,in records of that period1 concurrent with accounts of pottery1 there are well authenticated details of the metal cooking vessels then in common use4 ,there were utilitarian bronzes and many beautiful vases1 some of almost the same designs as the concurrent pottery4 ,there were cooking utensils not at all unlike the medival bronze pots of modern ,europe2 their handles1 however1 were more decorative1 often taking the form of a dragon's head4 ,the feet of these ancient cooking-pots were often like lions' claws or eagles' talons4 ,among other relics of that period are quadrangular wine jars1 some of the rarer types being decorated with fishes1 in the drawing of which the ,chinese artists of the ,han ,dynasty were very clever4 ,they used such decorations appropriately1 too for this was the ornament they chose on fish kettles4 ,a peculiarity of the metal-work of the ,han period was the dark red copper which seems to have been used concurrently with bronze4 ,when we note that some of the pottery was beautifully formed we can quite understand that the bronzes were equally well shaped1 for the metal-workers would not be behind the potters in their craftmanship4 ,some of the rarer bronze tazzas are also well shaped and have been carefully moulded4 ,the chief curios coming into the hands of collectors are of a somewhat later date than the ,han ,dynasty2 but ,china moves on slowly1 and there does not appear to have been much advance or change for many centuries4 ,the metal-work made during what we term medival days in ,europe was often copied from familiar objects made of other materials4 ,there is a bronze vase made in the ,sung ,dynasty1 fashioned in imitation of an old jar tied up with rope1 the ring handles being technically described as conventional heads applique2 this vessel measures #ad-a_/d in4 diameter at the shoulder and stands #i-a_/b in4 high4 ,it is difficult to trace where such pieces come from2 it is1 however1 well known that many have been looted from the temples2 others1 probably imitating older examples1 are mainly of nineteenth-century workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,bronze ,,figure 7,,one ,,of ,a ,,pair7 ,,inlaid ,,with ,,silver ,,and ,,gold4 7,in the author's collection47 ,the metal-work which comes from ,japan has reached us in great variety4 ,there has been no need for the traveller or collector to search the island for curios to bring over to this country1 for the commercial instincts of a new race of ,japanese merchants have poured out a wealth of antiques1 collected from the native villages2 with these and modern imitations they have gladly supplied the demand of the ,western world4 ,in this way attention has been called to the products of that country where craftsmen have gone on hammering copper and brass1 and inlaying the metal in highly decorated patterns in silver and gold for so many years4 ,reference has already been made to the rare temple pieces and sets which have been looted or purchased from ,asiatic countries1 so many of which are of rare cloissonn enamels4 ,some of these of ,japanese origin are mentioned in ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,of the minor bronzes1 replicas of temple relics1 there are many beautiful koros or incense burners4 ,other bronzes serve the purpose of ornament in the ,western countries to which they have found their way4 ,in ,fig4 #fh is shown a beautiful bronze4 ,the sacred carp is inlaid with gold and silver and is exceptionally well finished4 ,the pair1 of which it is one1 came from ,japan about thirty years ago1 and are of much finer workmanship than many of the more modern replicas4 ,household requisites as well as ornamental treasures have been made with care by hammer and engraving tool into things of beauty as well as usefulness4 ,the household requirements of the ,japanese are limited in number1 but in the entertainment of her friends the ,japanese lady is able to cause envy among her ,western sisters because of the beauty of her kettles and brazier4 ,the kettle shown in ,fig4 #ff is one of a toilet set of hammered brass1 engraved with badges and foliage4 ,it was probably produced early in the nineteenth century1 before ,western commercial ideas began to invade the workshops of ,old ,japan4 ,in conjunction with such kettles 7the ,japanese name of a kettle is yuwakashi7 metal bowls were used1 the water being poured over the hands of the fair ,japanese and her guests by attendants1 who also held the bowl to catch the dropping water4 ,in ,old ,japan there was much patience as well as skill1 and the methods adopted by the artists of those days would be too tedious and expensive now when the merchants buy and sell and compete in ,western markets4 ,the processes by which the beautiful bronze objects were moulded took time1 and the incising and inlays could never be paid for in proper proportion to the labour expended on them4 ,the metals of which ,japanese bronzes were made consisted of curious alloys1 the composition of which was long kept a secret4 ,one of their finest brasses is known as sinchu1 consisting of ten parts of copper and five of zinc4 ,another very beautiful copper is called shadko1 in which splendid hues are imparted by the treatment of acids2 in this alloy there is one part of gold to ten of copper1 to which is attributable the splendid colouring of the so-called bronze4 ,older methods1 however1 are gradually giving way to more economic production on ,western plans and formul1 so that in time perhaps the ,eastern and ,oriental influence and characteristics of ,asiatic bronzes1 so charming and so much appreciated by collectors1 may diminish if not disappear altogether4 ,,xiv ,,idols ,,and ,,temple ,,relics ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,idols4 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,amida4 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,a ,,blue ,,tara4 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,amitayus4 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,vajra ,,dharma4 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,amitayus4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,idols ,,and ,,temple ,,relics ,varied shrines and many idols--,indian idols--,temple vases and ornaments4 ,there are some who hold it to be a wicked thing to loot the temple of a heathen deity1 and regard it as sacrilege to ruthlessly tear down the idol from its shrine4 ,others glory in an opportunity of proving the powerlessness of the man-created idol to save the temple from ruin and desecration4 ,yet there are many who recognize in these idols of wood1 stone1 and metal1 emblems and symbols of ancient faiths in which there may be a greater reality1 and1 for all we can tell1 potency1 to those who look beyond the mere shrine1 than appears at first sight4 ,notwithstanding all that1 the multiplicity of gods and the number of so-called deities make many sceptical about the worship of their devotees1 and there are few who feel much compunction when adding such objects as metal idols to their curios--when they are able to secure them honestly4 ,varied ,shrines and ,many ,idols4 ,needless to say the faiths of those who worship unknown gods1 from whatever source they may have come1 differ4 ,the very uncertainty of the religions1 which admit of varied deities1 has fostered the increase of ceremonies and the change in rites1 which1 added to local folk-lore and myths which have gained in the telling1 have caused new idols to be set up4 ,it was so in pagan ,greece and ,rome1 and it is the same in some parts of the world to-day4 ,to these causes we may attribute the number of idols of different types1 or the same idols represented with other attributes1 which the collector of metal meets with4 ,there is a strange fascination about the stories of pagan and heathen deities and their influence over men1 and to obtain the full interest and delight from such a specialized collection the collector must become a student of ,eastern and other religions and priestcraft4 ,the temples in which religious rites have been1 and in some instances are still1 observed1 vary in importance just as the associations around the cathedrals and ruined abbeys in our own land differ from those almost absent in the more recently erected churches4 ,the wealthy ,indian1 not unnaturally1 employed artificers in brass to make models of the great shrines1 and some of these rare works of metallic art are to be seen in the ,indian ,museum4 ,several are of eighteenth-century workmanship1 among them beautifully modelled temples of ,krishna4 ,incidentally it may be mentioned that secular buildings have been reproduced too2 notably there is a very fine model of the ,palace of the ,winds at ,jaypore1 ,rajputana1 which was presented by the ,maharajah of ,jaypore4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,japanese ,,pricket ,,candlestick ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,crane ,,and ,,tortoise4 7,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,some may regard the collection of idols as a curious hobby2 others possibly see in them only art treasures to be valued for their intrinsic worth1 for many idols are enriched with precious stones and jewels and are overlaid with gold and silver4 ,such objects occupy a different place from the cruder idols of wood and stone1 cut and carved by savage races4 ,we can well understand that the refined worker in metals spared no pains to make his idol or fetish beautiful and something to be admired4 ,indian ,idols4 ,of ,indian idols there are many3 ,buddha is so widely held in esteem that it is no wonder that so many representations1 varying in size1 have been produced4 ,the favourite position1 known as the ,witness attitude1 is that with which collectors are most familiar4 ,indian idols are of many forms1 among the commoner varieties being those of ,vishnu1 ,lakshmi the wife of ,vishnu1 and ,siva4 ,many images of copper1 afterwards gilt1 come from ,thibet and ,nepal4 ,the curiosities associated with the ,lamaist worship have become familiar of late years4 ,one of the representations of ,amida1 holding in her hand the teppattsu1 is shown in ,fig4 #fi4 ,a blue ,tara is illustrated in ,fig4 #gj2 ,amitayus is shown in ,fig4 #ga2 and ,fig4 #gb represents ,vajra ,dharma holding the dorge4 ,in ,fig4 #gc ,amitayus is again shown holding the reliquary and wearing a jewelled collar4 ,an interesting ,lamaist altar ornament is a copper skull bowl1 used as a receptacle for the sacred beer or wine of life4 ,there are also ,thibetian holy water jugs1 beautifully inlaid with silver4 ,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum may be seen a colossal ,buddha 7,daibutsu7 of sixteenth-century workmanship1 which came from a ,japanese temple4 ,appropriately placed close to it is a massive pair of lanterns of bronze1 which were originally a gift to the temple of ,miyoshino-tenjin by the feudal lord of the district4 ,most of these temple relics--idols and ornaments--were made of a special alloy known in ,japan as ,kara kane1 which means ,chinese metal1 from which it may be inferred that this alloy was known and employed in ,china before it came into general use in ,japan4 ,temple ,vases and ,ornaments4 ,the mystical beliefs of ,china are chiefly ,buddhism1 ,confucianism1 and ,taoism1 to which should be added ancestor worship1 and in connection with all of them there are special objects of veneration1 which we group together under the somewhat generic term of temple relics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,japanese ,,ritual ,,vase4 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,small ,,two-,,handled ,,ritual ,,vase4 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,circular ,,vase ,,on ,,stand4 ,from ,japan as well as ,china we get many fine temple sets4 ,whence come they8 some may ask4 ,perhaps they have been discarded because they have been replaced with newer or more elaborate ornaments1 although they may have been obtained through the cupidity of some of the temple attendants4 ,from whatever sources they came there are numerous examples in the ,london curio-shops and in our museums4 ,the crane and tortoise have long been held in veneration in ,japan4 ,the tortoise especially is frequently found on old ,chinese pottery and metal-work1 as well as being fashioned in ,corea and ,japan4 ,in ,fig4 #gd there is a ,japanese pricket candlestick1 in the form of a crane and tortoise1 of eighteenth-century workmanship1 and it evidently formed one of a set of five altar pieces4 ,some of the altar sets gave special prominence to two flower vases as part of the set1 of somewhat later style of decoration to ,fig4 #ij2 it was probably made early in the nineteenth century4 ,this vase was formerly used in a set in which a figure of ,buddha occupied the centre4 ,it was a common practice to hang over the ,buddhist altars lamps1 many of which are to be seen in our museums4 ,in ,fig4 #ge is shown a ,japanese ritual vase1 intended for wine 7hu72 it is of square shape1 with cover of ,kwei and dragon pattern1 animal feet and bosses on the shoulders1 and bird-shaped arris on the lid1 the inside of which is inscribed with twelve characters2 the patina of this vessel ranges from deep brown to bright malachite-green4 ,fig4 #gf is a smaller ritual vessel1 with two handles at the shoulder and one meander band and knob4 ,the vase shown in ,fig4 #gg1 with dragon handles1 a beautifully patinated specimen1 shading from brown to red with green accretions1 is a ritual tsui or vase for offering corn4 ,these remarkable relics formed part of a large collection dispersed recently at a well-known ,london salesroom4 ,now and then less important pieces come under the hammer1 and it is by no means difficult to secure for a small outlay an excellent representative collection of these deeply interesting objects associated with idol worship4 ,,xv ,,native ,,metal-,,work ,,chapter ,,xv ,,native ,,metal-,,work ,outside influences--,benin bronzes--,other ,african curios4 ,there are few collections of copper and brass without a fair sprinkling of curiously formed and often crude objects which we class under the generic term native curios4 ,there is much that is of extreme interest in the work of the smiths and founders of races possessing but little apparent touch with civilized nations2 for such metal objects are true guides to the state of the advancement of the peoples of the countries from which such curios come4 ,we delight in the art of early ,eastern nations1 and find much to admire in the almost barbaric ornament of ,asiatic metal-workers of medival and even later days1 as counted by the progress made by ,european artists at contemporary dates4 ,the marvellous skill with which the natives of ,india and other ,asiatic countries incised and inlaid their metal wares has already been pointed out4 ,there is1 however1 an especial charm about the metal-work of nations we are apt to class as savage1 or at least untutored1 if not uncivilized4 ,and we would not have it otherwise1 for it is from these curios--metal and of other materials--that we are enabled to trace the influences of other countries with whom those races or tribes have had dealings in the past4 ,we are to some extent able from these antiquities to connect the links in the chain of nations1 and from the characteristics of their art 787 to settle their origin and affinity to other races4 ,outside ,influences4 ,the ,ethnological ,gallery of the ,british ,museum is one of the finest instructors4 ,the silent exhibits tell the observant man or woman1 boy or girl1 much that cannot be learned from book knowledge4 ,in the cases in that gallery are many objects fashioned by peoples who until recently were in their ,stone ,age1 and had no knowledge of the outer world4 ,there are some who from the curios--old and new--have apparently1 until taught their use by travellers and traders from the far-off ,west1 never discovered the value of metals4 ,some of the native races--not a few of them fellow-subjects of the ,empire--as yet prefer wood1 stone1 and crude pottery vessels and utensils to metal1 judging from the very limited use of the few brass or copper objects they possess1 those few1 probably1 being imported4 ,the ethnology of the race is traced in these relics1 especially in the really old ones4 ,in a few instances by way of contrast1 metal objects1 although so limited1 are conspicuous4 ,they are chiefly confined to the native countries brought under the influence of more advanced peoples2 as instanced by the work of the ,sinhalese1 the natives of ,ceylon1 who early came into touch with the metal-workers of ,india4 ,another native race by their wealth of rare metallic curios1 the art of producing which they have lost1 are shown to be a people with a past2 thus it is with the tribes of ,southern ,nigeria in and around ,benin ,city4 ,on the occasion of its capture by the ,british in #ahig1 it was found to possess a remarkable store of wonderful bronzes1 evidently of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries4 ,in these and other native curios the collector revels1 and in their study finds history1 geography1 and even the folk-lore of nations revealed2 for in such curios there are stories in brass of social life1 religious functions1 ceremonies1 and sacrifices4 ,the ,benin ,bronzes4 ,a few years ago very many bronzes 7nearly pure copper7 were sold under the hammer4 ,they were looted from ,benin ,city during the war which ended in the country in and around the city being taken by the ,british troops1 and eventually incorporated in ,southern ,nigeria4 ,these wonderful bronzes throw a light upon the history of that country1 and tell of a powerful nation far advanced in the art of modelling and casting metals long before they had come into close touch with ,western influence4 ,this remarkable people who possessed so much wealth in copper and in ivory have long gone2 their descendants or the tribes occupying their city have no knowledge of the craft1 and apparently retained these relics of barbaric splendour with silent awe4 ,the entire series of bronze panels from which the figures so cleverly stand out in bold relief1 must have presented a wonderful sight to the ,british soldiers as they entered ,benin4 ,the collection in the ,british ,museum was sent home to this country by ,sir ,ralph ,moor1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,h4,m4 ,commissioner and ,consul-,general for the ,niger ,coast ,protectorate4 ,it is impossible to describe their beauty or the details of the elaborate modelling of the dress1 arms1 and costumes of the ,benin king and his chiefs and officers as they existed in the sixteenth century4 ,there is a model of the king's house1 his attendant guards1 high officials1 a sword-bearer1 and another bearing a ceremonial axe4 ,some of the bronzes represent musicians playing various instruments1 and others performing all kinds of functions4 ,the bronze panels of fishes and animals are very lifelike1 especially bulls1 crocodiles1 and the heads of oxen1 even the twisted cords with which the animals were tethered being correctly modelled4 ,the bronzes representing ,europeans are exceptionally valuable in that from the costumes portrayed the date of those bronzes has been fixed1 approximately4 ,the matchlocks and flint-guns are reproduced with the greatest exactitude1 as also the ,egyptian figures1 copied presumably from the remains of ,ancient ,egypt1 with which these metal-workers were evidently familiar4 ,in addition to the panels of copper1 which show marks of how they were attached to the walls1 were bronze masks or warriors' heads which served as stands for the splendidly carved tusks of ivory also discovered when the expedition visited that country4 ,there are many minor objects in bronze which show that this remarkable civilization1 now lost1 was far advanced in the arts4 ,as it has been suggested ,benin relics are not entirely confined to museum specimens1 and collectors are not without opportunities of securing pieces4 ,many of the early tribes of ,africa had knowledge of metal-working1 although some have lost or neglected to practice it4 ,other ,african ,curios4 ,some metal curios were included in the trophies brought to this country at the time of the ,ashanti ,expedition1 among the rare regal metal-work being an old brass vase1 with repouss decorations and a copper dragon handle4 ,it was discovered behind the house of ,king ,prempeh's aunt1 who had been acting as ,regent4 ,another curio discovered in the same district was a brass box containing gold dust4 ,bells1 too1 have been brought from ,ashanti2 one in the ,british ,museum is the executioner's bell1 which was rang prior to an execution4 ,there are many bronzes from ,southern ,nigeria1 especially some curious ornaments worn by the women4 ,some of these are veritable antiques and were found buried2 many are finely patinated and heavy4 ,some of the bangles are beautifully formed and highly decorated with inlaid enamels4 ,some very interesting brass castings come from ,lagos1 not at all unlike the ,benin modelling1 except that they are in brass instead of pure copper4 ,they include figures of natives1 some on horseback1 others in the act of shooting with guns4 ,there are brass staves of office carried as symbols of authority by the messengers of the ,oshogbo1 a native secret society2 and there are spoons1 knives and other domestic sundries1 as well as armlets and anklets of copper and brass4 ,from north-east ,central ,africa we get a little metal-work1 some of the head-dress ornaments being enriched with circular brass plates1 on which are repouss decorations4 ,among the curios from this district in the ,british ,museum are several exceptional pieces1 one being a head-dress or helmet of brass with circular brass ornaments4 ,the knives used in ceremonials are often very handsome4 ,there is a fine executioner's knife from north-east ,central ,africa1 with brass studs all over the wood handle4 ,another chief's knife1 which came from near the ,stanley ,falls1 is decorated with strips of copper and brass4 ,the metal castings from ,central ,sudan1 representing ostriches1 giraffes1 and camels1 are cleverly done1 and with bangles and anklets make up an interesting group4 ,it is curious how valuable finds are sometimes made many miles from the locality where the object was made4 ,it is the same in our own country1 for we dig and find a bronze from ancient ,rome1 brought over by the conquering armies of the ,romans when ,britain was brought under the ,imperial sway4 ,our armies have probably left relics behind them in the past as in the present1 for it is no uncommon thing for reminders of the ,crusaders and others to be found even in ,africa4 ,one of the most remarkable finds was a large bronze jug and cover now in the ,british ,museum2 on it are the arms of ,richard ,,ii of ,england1 and two mottoes in ,lombardic letters3 ,,he ,,that ,,will ,,not ,,spare ,,when ,,he ,,may1 ,,he ,,shall ,,not ,,spend ,,when ,,he ,,would is one2 the other reads3 ,,deem ,,the ,,best ,,in ,,every ,,doubt ,,till ,,the ,,truth ,,be ,,tried ,,out4 ,this splendid jug was found in ,ashanti2 the date of its manufacture was about ,a4,d4 #adjj4 ,the ,south ,african curios in brass are very limited2 they consist chiefly of collars and armlets worn by the women of ,basutoland and ,bechuanaland1 and by the ,kaffir women who have also girdles of brass cleverly formed4 ,although by no means numerous and of limited variety1 a few objects of native workmanship are worth securing if only to compare the way in which natural ingenuity has at different times helped the craftsman and enabled him to work even metals without any instructions from nations more advanced in their use4 ,,xvi ,,continental ,,copper ,,and ,,brass ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,bronze ,,oviform ,,ewer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,brass ,,ewer ,,with ,,artistic ,,handle4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,continental ,,copper ,,and ,,brass ,italian bronzes--,french art--,dutch brasswork--,german metal-work4 ,the ,italian renaissance in art exercised such a wide influence upon manufactured goods in this and other countries that the collector of antiques naturally turns to the achievements of the artists in metal who worked in ,florence and ,rome for the highest ideals he can seek4 ,in this he is not disappointed1 for just as the connoisseur of ancient art finds his delight in the bronzes of ,greece and ,rome1 the collector of more modern art sees grace and beauty combined with skilful grouping in ,italian craftsmanship4 ,european influence has been brought to bear upon the metal-work of the world at different times1 but it has not always come from the same country4 ,at different periods the metal-workers of certain localities appear to have made their peculiar characteristics take precedence of others4 ,in most of the ,european countries quite distinct styles and even unique treatment of metals have been noticeable2 so much so that our museums to-day contain groups of metal-work having little or no affinity to one another1 although coming1 perhaps1 from towns not far removed in point of geographical position4 ,the collector recognizes as distinct the bronzes of ,italy2 the screens1 candlesticks1 and ecclesiastical metal-work of ,spain2 the beaten bronze1 champlev enamels1 and the decorative brass of the ,empire period of ,france2 the eighteenth-century ,dutch brasswork2 the metal forged and cast in ,germany1 and the decorative copper and brass of ,turkey showing such distinctly ,oriental influence in ,saracenic touch4 ,to study all these rival styles at their best the collector1 however large his private collection1 must perforce visit either one of the more important ,continental museums or the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 where so many cases are filled with ,continental works of art in gold1 silver1 and the baser metals4 ,local museums rarely possess a selection large enough for comparative purposes4 ,the loan exhibits from the national collection1 carefully selected as representative specimens1 are very helpful1 and many such loan cases strengthen local exhibits and add interest to them4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america public museums are well arranged with the view of showing the metal-work of different countries at varied periods1 and many of them are peculiarly rich in exhibits of domestic metal-work which was taken over in the early days from ,europe4 ,as a guide to curators and others wishful to secure the right kind of exhibits it may be useful to mention the contents of a case on view at a ,south coast town public library recently4 ,there were some beautiful ,italian bronzes of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 a damascened candlestick from ,venice1 a ,florentine statuette1 a handsome cabinet handle chased with foliated ornament1 a bronze mask of ,pan1 a table lamp stand with winged lions at the base1 and a handsome ewer1 the body of which was ornamented with foliage1 around it figures representing the triumph of ,bacchus1 a typical seventeenth-century specimen4 ,among the minor objects in that case were vases from many countries1 door knockers1 and a few examples of ,dutch metal-work1 decorative and artistic4 ,italian ,bronzes4 ,the metal-workers from the sixth to the tenth centuries1 when so many decorative bronzes were being made for ,st4 ,peter's and ,italian churches1 derived their inspirations from ,byzantium1 hence those early works were often inlaid with silver and gold1 and were quite different from those of later date4 ,art developed1 and gradually a more distinctive character was given to the bronze gates and candelabra which were made with such consummate skill4 ,one of the greatest triumphs of that period was the great candelabrum in ,milan ,cathedral1 wrought in the thirteenth century4 ,its height is #ad ft41 and it has seven branches for candles1 the stem being supported by four winged dragons4 ,it is one mass of marvellous scrollwork1 relieved by the introduction of figures1 each one of which is perfect in itself--a study of expression and character4 ,casts of these remarkable pieces of metal-work may be seen at ,south ,kensington4 ,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the ,florentine artists worked4 ,it was then that statues in bronze were sculptured by ,verrocchio1 ,donatello1 and others4 ,a century later the wonderful candlesticks in the ,certosa1 near ,pavia1 and in the cathedral at ,padua1 were made4 ,it was about that time that ,venetian metal-workers were fashioning so much that was beautiful in domestic utensils and the minor church ornaments4 ,from that time onward collectable brasses were made1 and after long years of use they passed into the category of antiques1 rendered beautiful by their artistic merits1 and possibly by the touch of age4 ,even then there was an ,oriental look about many of the designs1 but it seldom intrudes1 and does not spoil the effect of the forms and style so clearly ,venetian4 ,such vessels were chiefly made for the then wealthy merchants of the city1 and often their arms were incorporated into the design4 ,fig4 #gh is a bronze oviform ewer made in ,venice about #aecj4 ,another beautiful vase is shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,other objects much favoured were candlesticks1 hand-warmers1 and perfume sprinklers1 to which must be added the more strictly utilitarian4 ,the ,spanish metal-workers do not appear to have developed a very well-defined school of metallic art of their own4 ,they were especially noted for their highly ornamental jewellery2 in the common metals they were influenced by ,italy1 and to some extent ,germany4 ,it is said that the finest piece of work accomplished in the country was the great sixteenth-century candelabrum or tenebrarium in ,seville ,cathedral1 the work of ,bart4 ,morel in #aefb4 ,french ,art4 ,connoisseurs of the fine arts naturally regard enamels of ,limoges as the greatest achievements of the country 7see ,chapter ,,xviii74 ,there is1 however1 much to admire in the early unadorned metal-work1 especially that made in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries--effigies in beaten copper1 some portions of which were usually adorned by coloured champlev enamel4 ,they were afterwards desired by ,englishmen1 and some good examples of imported effigies are to be seen1 a notable example being one on the tomb of ,william de ,valence in ,westminster ,abbey1 erected about #abif4 ,of domestic metal-work there are not many early pieces4 ,in ,fig4 #hb is shown a cup or ewer of brass with artistic handle and spout ornamented with a grotesque mouth2 the date assigned to it is #aegj4 ,it may be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 where also is deposited a fine seventeenth-century ewer or tankard with plain cylindrical body and a deep and long spout with fancy handle 7see ,fig4 #ha74 ,there is also a trumpet of brass1 dated #agch1 in the same gallery2 it has upon it the owner's monogram1 ,s4,m4,a41 ensigned with a count's coronet and crest4 ,dutch ,brasswork4 ,the brasswork from ,holland1 largely imported into this country at the commencement of the eighteenth century1 although decorative1 cannot be claimed as artistic4 ,most of the objects are strictly utilitarian1 and the ornament stiff and formal2 they were hammered by hand1 an effective finish being made by small punches1 repouss work being occasionally added4 ,fig4 #hj1 which represents one of the larger pieces1 illustrates a highly ornamental cistern with cover and tap4 ,its shape is semicircular1 a dome-shaped back acting as a hanger2 that as well as the perforated grille under the cistern being ornamented4 ,the chief ornament consists of star devices1 the points of which are united together by curved lines composed of small straight indentations4 ,in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum there is a ,dutch foot-warmer1 the sides of which are ornamented with repouss panels of flowers and circular bosses2 in the centre of the top1 which is slightly curved1 is a medallion engraved ,i4,w4,h4,m4 #agcc1 surrounded by open-work decoration and floral scrolls arranged in geometrical patterns1 on either side of which are birds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,dutch ,,ornamental ,,brass ,,cistern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,french ,,ewer ,,or ,,tankard ,,with ,,fancy ,,handle4 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,french ,,ewer ,,with ,,grotesque ,,mouth 7,,sixteenth ,,century74 ,the brass milkcans used by modern milk sellers1 and the beautifully ornamented churns and milk perambulators seen in some neighbourhoods1 are not altogether new or the outcome of modern advertisement4 ,in ,holland brass ornament has been used on tinware for many years1 and some very quaint old milkcans and dairy utensils in shining polished brass are met with by collectors who visit ,holland4 ,the milkcans of that country1 or perhaps more correctly large bowls1 in which milk and cream are served have double handles1 and make extremely handsome flower-bowls or fern-pots on the table1 although perhaps collectors would consider such a desecration an improper use for a genuine antique4 ,many of the chestnut roasters1 skimmers1 and brass chimney ornaments used in ,england in the eighteenth century came from ,holland4 ,the artists of that country were famous for the characteristic ,dutch scenes engraved on their metal-work1 just as they were for their tiles with quaint windmills and pictures of peasants in native costume on them4 ,so famous has the collection of these brasses become that much modern metal-work1 copies of genuine antiques1 has been sent over for sale in ,london curio-shops4 ,some of these reproductions are excellent copies2 others are too new and would scarcely deceive the amateur4 ,caution should be observed1 especially when buying old time fire-brasses1 knockers and trivets4 ,german ,metal-,work4 ,curios1 as well as modern antiques made in ,germany1 are not always labelled as such2 there is1 however1 a distinctly ,german look about old metal-work from that country4 ,elaborate and massive with its wealth of floral embellishment1 some of the ,german metal-work of early days stands out conspicuously4 ,some elaborate cast bronze gates and door furniture enriched the churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,augsburg and ,nuremberg have always been famous centres for artistic metal work1 and in those towns many objects large and small have been made4 ,among minor works are the very handsome lock plates and cases4 ,the shapes of domestic utensils1 especially of ewers1 were very quaint4 ,there is a ,german aquamanile or ewer in the form of an animal1 embodying a lion and stag1 along with several others equally as curious1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,nuremberg contributes to our national collection a variety of hand wash-basins in brass2 the earlier examples being richly ornamented with engravings typifying different virtues and vices2 ,st4 ,george1 the patron saint of ,england1 also figures on some pieces4 ,turkish metal-work includes copper ewers1 chased and decorated with enamels1 mostly with handles and spouts1 some of the sets or pairs consisting of ewer 7ibrik7 and basin 7tisht74 ,these copper vessels are sometimes embossed with scale ornaments4 ,there are braziers and some vessels of bulbous form1 mostly of bronze1 and now and then ,turkish collapsible lanterns of brass with pierced decorations are met with4 ,,xvii ,,sundials1 ,,clocks1 ,,and ,,brass ,,instruments ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,sundials1 ,,clocks1 ,,and ,,brass ,,instruments ,the mystery of dialling--,some old dials--,antique clocks--,old watches--,the weather--,scientific instruments4 ,the modern man can scarcely realize what it must have been in this ,england of ours when clouds obscured the sun1 and thick mists drew a veil over the shadow cast by the gnomon1 before clocks were known4 ,the time of day was of less importance when the sundial on the church tower1 or on a pillar erected at some convenient place1 had to be consulted1 when the sun shone it is true1 but even then many must have inwardly fretted and rebelled against the uncertainty4 ,reader1 have you ever spent a day away from public clocks in the country when the sky was overcast without a watch in your pocket8 ,if not1 do it now1 and the result will be startling4 ,it will create a sympathetic touch with the past1 and bring vividly to mind the trials of patience which had to be endured when under such conditions inscriptions on dials were read1 but no clear line marked the onward march of ,sol4 ,the ,mystery of ,dialling4 ,dialling is a science which few except experts understand now2 the antiquary takes little note of it as he gazes upon the old dial plate and makes out the inscription upon it4 ,the collector gladly buys the brass dial with its quaint lettering and division marks without even knowing where it came from1 or what kind of stone column or pillar it originally capped4 ,yet there is far more interest in an old sundial installed in a modern garden amidst reconstructed old-world surroundings when the origin of the relic is known4 ,we have no record of the type of sundial referred to in ,isaiah xxxviii1 #h3 ,behold1 ,i will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down on the sun-dial of ,ahaz1 ten degrees backward4 ,there are1 however1 records of the sundial of the ,chaldean astronomer ,perosus1 who lived about #cdj ,b4,c4 ,it consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim horizontal1 having a head or globule fixed so that as long as the sun shone above the horizon the shadow of the head fell on the inside of the hemisphere4 ,in more recent days the making and fixing of the dial with its gnomon was carried out on fixed principles1 and there is now no difficulty about such an installation provided that the same astronomical conditions are observed4 7,for rules governing dialling1 see ,glossary47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,early ,,dials--,,on ,,the ,,left ,,an ,,armillary ,,dial2 ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,pillar ,,dial2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,right ,a ,,ring ,,dial4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,curious ,,old ,,microscope1 ,,made ,,in #aghj4 7,in the ,municipal ,museum1 ,hull47 ,some ,old ,dials4 ,the pattern known as the garden dial is that commonly met with 7for the large dials once fixed on church towers and in public places rarely come into the market72 and the old dial plates seen in curio-shops have come from such pillars4 ,charles ,dickens had a fine old sundial in his garden at ,gad's ,hill ,place1 and it has often been copied4 ,the globe dial1 set on suitable pillars1 has been made frequently for modern antique gardens4 ,an enterprising maker of dials purchased the beautiful balustrades of old ,kew ,bridge when it was removed a few years ago1 and capping them with replicas of old dials--in some cases with genuine antiques--produced excellent examples of the old type of garden sundial4 ,similar dials1 more imposing in size1 are met with in curious and yet very suitable places by motorists1 cyclists1 and others when touring in the country4 ,a charming ,elizabethan relic is the stone bridge across the ,river ,wye in the village of ,wilton1 near ,ross4 ,on the north wall of the parapet is a stone pillar surmounted by a sundial having four faces--an interesting landmark and often admired2 and when the sun shines on it the traveller invariably pulls out his watch and compares it with the shadow of the gnomon4 ,there were once many famous dials in situ in ,london2 most of them are gone2 there are some1 however1 readily seen1 like the noted pillar dial in the ,temple and that on the front of one of the old buildings in ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,of other forms of dials1 the eccentricities of the horologists they might be called1 there are the goblet dials in the form of a cup1 the hour-lines being engraved on the interior2 pillar dials which are cylinders with movable gnomons2 the quadrant1 in the use of which the altitude of the sun is taken through pierced sights1 the time being shown on curved hour-lines by means of a plumb-line hanging from the angle2 and the ring dials1 which were very popular in ,england down to the year #ahjj4 ,in ,fig4 #hc are shown earlier dials of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,on the left there is an armillary dial by ,f4 ,culpeper1 of ,london4 ,in the middle there is a pillar dial dated #aefg1 and on the right of the figure a ring dial made by ,humphrey ,cole in #aege1 all three important types4 ,perhaps one of the chief delights of the study of sundial plates is to read and make out the different mottoes and legends on them--most of them relating to the flight of time1 some alluding to man's duties which1 when neglected1 can never be made up1 for ,time and tide wait for no man4 ,another type of dial is the portable one1 in which form dials or pocket clocks1 as they were sometimes called1 can be collected--and they are generally of brass1 some being very decorative4 ,antique ,clocks4 ,there is no intermediate stage between the general use of clocks and watches and sundials1 for their use overlaps4 ,we have but to look at many an old church tower on which is to be seen the dial still operative--for sun and gnomon fail not--and the clock which has told the time for many years4 ,both were probably working before pocket clocks or watches became general and timepieces were to be found on the mantelpiece or sideboard4 ,brass was used from the commencement of clockmaking for wheels and dials2 and wonderfully1 too1 the early clockmakers cut and carved the metal into the required form and gauged the works with accuracy4 ,some may be familiar with that wonderful astronomical clock in ,wimborne ,minster1 made in #abbj by ,peter ,lightfoot1 a monk of ,glastonbury1 who also constructed a clock for ,wells ,cathedral4 ,in it1 according to the early belief that the sun1 moon1 and stars revolved round the earth1 the sun travels its appointed circuit every twenty-four hours1 and by its position marks the time4 ,in the evolution of the clock there have been many marked stages4 ,the clock when first devised was a great stride from the sundial1 the beautiful plates of which have already been described4 ,progress followed1 and in a century or two clocks with wheels and complicated mechanism1 which when once set going and wound up periodically told the time with exactitude1 enabled the populace to know the time of day even when the sun was not shining4 ,that was the age of decorative art1 and many of the brass plates and dials were magnificent in their engravings1 glorious in their beautiful old fretwork1 and rich in brass cherubims and emblems of ,old ,father ,time4 ,moving figures were in the early days regarded as ideal attractions in clocks4 ,the two old figures which strike the hour and go through some quaint evolutions over the clock which for many years has been a great attraction in ,cheapside1 are typical of the figures which in miniature might have been seen playing on brass gongs and chiming bells in many towns in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,they were in abundance in ,norwich and towns in the eastern counties1 seeming to reflect the old ,flemish cities on the ,continent1 where they are even now fairly common4 ,collectors are very enthusiastic in their search for genuine ,cromwell or lantern clocks4 ,a few years ago they might have been found discarded on the old metal rubbish-heaps of the clockmaker4 ,to-day these clocks1 all brass in their construction1 are polished bright1 set going once more1 and treated with care2 good specimens changing hands for sums varying from eight to fifteen pounds4 ,originally they were usually placed on a bracket1 over which was often a wooden hood to protect the clock4 ,then came a hinged glass door1 and in that we have the origin of the grandfather with enlarged dial and rich oak or mahogany case reaching down to the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,engraved ,,pocket ,,clock4 ,those who wish to study the beautiful dials and engraved faces of clocks and watches in order that they may realize the difference in the products of makers during the last few centuries1 should visit the splendid collection in the ,guildhall ,museum1 loaned by the ,clockmakers' ,company4 ,the work of the old clockmakers was that of the very best4 ,it was made to last1 and the metal they chose for their operations appears to have been very suitable for the purpose4 ,in evidence of the lasting quality of old brass works1 a well-known writer has put forward the interesting story of a chamber clock presented by ,henry ,,viii to ,anne ,boleyn on their wedding day4 ,it found its way into the ,strawberry ,hill collection of ,horace ,walpole1 and at the famous sale of those interesting curios and souvenirs of great persons that noted minister had gathered together1 it was purchased for #ajj by the late ,queen ,victoria4 ,harrison ,ainsworth says3 ,this token of endless affection remains the same after three centuries2 but four years after it was given1 the object of ,henry's eternal love was sacrificed on the scaffold4 ,the clock still goes1 but surely it should have been stopped for ever when ,anne ,boleyn died6 ,the advent of table clocks came with the discovery of the use of a mainspring by the ,nuremberg clockmakers in the sixteenth century4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a clock in the form of a ship made for the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii in #aeha4 ,there are many other fine examples of curiously designed clocks1 including a water clock by ,finchet1 of ,cheapside1 and a ,french astronomical clock with astrolabe1 and others with automatic figures on view there1 as well as very remarkable types in the collection of clock dials and watches given to the ,museum by the late ,mr4 ,octavius ,morgan4 ,the early clocks1 the dials of which were of brass1 had only one finger1 for the minute-hand was not known until #afgj1 and the second finger a much later invention4 ,in ,fig4 #he is a typical example of a brass engraved watch clock face and dial1 which has a perforated hinged cover and is exceptionally well engraved4 ,old ,watches4 ,watches were costly in the days when so much time was expended on their manufacture4 ,those were the days of good workmanship in which watchmakers excelled4 ,they put much labour into the ornamentation of the works1 watch-clocks1 and dial plates1 so many of which were beautifully engraved1 tooled with great skill1 and cleverly perforated4 ,the dials were in early days unprotected1 hence the need of a case1 often of brass1 and when made of some other material were frequently ornamented with brass inlay4 ,it was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that glass or crystal covers were invented2 that was about the time1 too1 when the enamelling of dials came into vogue4 ,the pocket watch brought with it fobs1 chains1 and watch-keys or winders1 mostly of brass1 which should not be overlooked4 ,in a representative collection there are crank keys similar to large clock winders1 but1 of course1 made in miniature4 ,then after various developments brass and ,pinchbeck fob keys came into vogue1 and later still ornamental keys with and without the addition of stones1 the majority being made in brass4 ,a number of these little objects can still be collected quite cheaply1 and nicely mounted make a very interesting addition to the more ornamental side of brass metal-work4 ,forecasting the ,weather4 ,the weather has found men a subject for discussion and given them opportunities of speaking a pleasant word of comradeship when meeting in the country or in town4 ,to comment upon its fickleness has become as common a mode of salutation as passing the time of day4 ,the topic is an ancient one and the interest in it has been sustained1 for to gauge the coming changes has taken the attention of men from the earliest times4 ,to study the fleeting cloud1 to note the coming storm by the direction of the wind1 or to notice the damp in the air as the mist rises and is wafted over the fields1 has always been a favourite occupation4 ,it was so before the day of barometers and scientific instruments1 and it is equally so by those who prefer the pronouncement of the weather prophet rather than the barometer gauge4 ,galileo is said to have invented the thermometer1 but it was his pupil ,torricelli1 who discovered the barometer4 ,his townsmen in ,faenza1 in the north of ,italy1 some years ago erected a monument to his memory1 putting up the biggest barometer known4 ,in common with other scientific instruments the barometer has afforded opportunities to the worker in metal and to the art designer1 for like the clock case it has been made a thing of beauty as well as one of use4 ,the very remarkable barometer illustrated in ,fig4 #hf is an elaborate work of the brassfounder and exceedingly ornate4 ,it is a very exceptional piece1 but there are other barometers of considerable beauty in the hands of collectors of old bronze and metal-work4 ,some of the old scientific instruments are very clumsy looking when compared with modern workmanship4 ,about them it is true there is a quaint beauty and a silent tribute to the skill and ingenuity of early inventors1 those who were but groping1 perhaps blindly1 in the initial stages of an undeveloped science4 ,scientists always take a delight in the instruments which their predecessors have used1 and when they realize by comparison the difficulties the early pioneers had to contend with on account of the inefficient instruments in their possession they wonder at the advance that particular science made in their day4 ,in ,fig4 #hd we illustrate a curious old microscope and case1 made about the year #aghj4 ,it is on a mahogany stand1 in which is a drawer containing four magnifying powers4 ,it formerly belonged to a ,mr4 ,charles ,sherborne and is now in the ,hull ,museum1 where1 as the connecting link between the older type and the modern1 there is another interesting microscope made some fifty or sixty years ago4 ,the engineer1 mechanic1 and scientist find much pleasure in the curios which were associated with their professions in former days1 and delight in the possession of old brass which seems to bring them nearer to the great men who years ago laid the foundations on which present-day advance has been built4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,a ,,handsome ,,bronze ,,barometer4 ,engineers have been very skilful in creating models of engines and machinery with which they have been familiar1 and in reproducing in miniature replicas of noted engines which have been used for practical purposes4 ,these little models1 some of which were made more than a hundred years ago1 in days when steam power was but in its infancy1 have been very valuable to engineers to-day1 in that they provide them with actual models of old-time engines1 the details of construction of which might otherwise have been lost4 ,in one of the museums at ,south ,kensington there are many of these scientific and mechanical models in brass1 some of them working on the penny-in-the-slot principle1 so that visitors can by the expenditure of a few coppers set in motion any machine they are interested in1 and so judge of the actual effects of old-time inventions as illustrated by models which have been made to scale4 ,in addition to working models of large objects there are some remarkably small models which are stored and treasured by collectors4 ,some are so small and minute1 although perfect in every detail1 that it is difficult to understand how the worker in brass even if he had been a jeweller and accustomed to fashion the settings of small stones could so accurately have produced such tiny machines4 ,it is said that the smallest engine in the world1 a beautiful piece of metal-work1 owned by an ,american collector1 stands on a ten-cent piece6 ,yet remarkable as it may seem1 when connected with an electric power cable of very small calibre the engine starts off as if it were a full-size horizontal engine4 ,the chief materials used in the construction are copper and brass1 although the band of the fly-wheel is of solid gold4 ,so small is this little engine that its measurements are all taken in sixty-fourths of an inch4 ,thus the diameter of the fly-wheel1 practically the largest piece of mechanism in the construction of the engine1 is #bh_/fd in41 and the fly-wheel band only #g_/fd in4 ,the valve rod is only #a_/fd in41 and the outside diameter of the cylinder #ab_/fd in42 completed1 standing on the small coin referred to1 the engine weighs #c dwt41 a truly remarkable work of metallic art4 ,,xviii ,,enamels ,,on ,,copper ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,enamels ,,on ,,copper ,processes of enamelling--,chinese and ,japanese enamels--,british enamels4 ,copper has been used frequently as the most suitable metal to coat over with enamels1 to be afterwards fired or fixed4 ,even the ancients discovered the art of colouring the metal-work they had wrought by the aid of different enamels more or less translucent4 ,such substances were used in varied forms1 often as paste1 filling up incised designs1 the workmen in some cases rubbing them down smooth when fixed1 in others firing them by heat or simply heating until they ran smoothly over the surface of the metal to which they adhered4 ,the enamels which are to be obtained vary in substance1 the beauty of their workmanship1 and in their rarity and curio values4 ,they cover the entire period of known art and although such enamels are widely distributed1 the art of enamelling having been practised in almost all countries where art has flourished1 some have won greater fame than others1 many of these rare types being easily distinguished by characteristic forms1 colours1 or designs4 ,among the earlier exponents of enamelling were the ,egyptians1 the early ,greeks1 and to some extent the ,romans4 ,it would appear that enamelling was understood1 too1 in ,england1 and was early practised as a ,british art1 but it soon died out1 to be restored again in this country under more favourable circumstances in the greater renaissance of medival art4 ,the enamels which have attained such great fame1 and which are so keenly appreciated by connoisseurs1 are those made at ,limoges in ,southern ,france1 and again to a lesser extent in ,italy and the ,rhenish ,provinces4 ,two beautiful examples of twelfth-century pricket candlesticks1 now in the ,british ,museum1 are of that early form which1 except for ecclesiastical purposes1 soon gave way to the socket candlestick1 a more convenient form for domestic use4 ,processes of ,enamelling4 ,the basis of most of the enamels on copper is a fusible silicate1 or colourless glass mixed with metallic oxides1 reduced to a fine powder1 which is applied according to the skill of the artist4 ,the metal1 with the enamel powder upon it1 is then fired until it is melted and adheres to the metal4 ,the different treatments help the expert to distinguish the period when a specimen under investigation was made1 and to some extent the place of its manufacture4 ,there is the translucent enamel1 which shows up the design through the vitreous matter1 a method originally adopted in ,italy4 ,another process was that of applying different colours over an incised pattern1 the figures or pictures being usually engraved in low relief4 ,coarser lines of engraving were used on the copper basis of the early enamels made at ,limoges4 ,those of somewhat later date may be distinguished by the surface-painted enamels adopted in the later style1 which flourished until about #afcj4 ,in this process dark enamel for the shadows was placed over the metal plate1 the picture being painted in white with some portions in colour2 a thin enamel surface was then given and the whole fired4 ,the later surface-painted enamels were for the most part copies of well-known paintings or engravings1 the colour or enamel being afterwards fixed by firing4 ,in the process of enamelling known as champlev the design was cut into the metal1 the pattern or incisions made filled with colours1 the enamels being then fused2 the basis was nearly always of copper4 ,the cloisonn enamel was generally on a brass basis1 and as in the more recent examples from ,china and ,japan1 the cloisons or tiny cells of metal were filled with the right and appropriate colours2 afterwards subjected to heat4 ,in some cases the metal foundation is in the centre and cloisons or cells formed on either side of it4 ,there is something about the old enamels of this type besides the wear and tear of centuries which distinguishes them from the more modern1 which1 generally speaking1 are more brilliant in colouring1 cruder and sharper in design1 and without that beautiful tone which is so pleasing in the antique4 ,chinese and ,japanese ,enamels4 ,the rarer examples of ,chinese art date back to the beginning of the ,ming period in #acfh1 continuing until its close in #afdc4 ,the charm of these early examples is at once recognizable when they are compared with others of a later date4 ,fig4 #hg represents a large ,ming bowl florally decorated in rich red1 yellow1 and white on a background of cobalt blue outside and turquoise blue within4 ,quite a different style of decoration is shown in ,fig4 #hh2 the design of butterflies and gourd-vine tracery being carried out in ,pekin enamels in five colours4 ,this remarkably fine box1 so charmingly formed1 contains a set of nine sweetmeat dishes1 each one bordered with bats of cobalt blue on a lighter blue ground1 on the cover of the outer box being the ,shu monogram4 ,another splendid piece1 represented in ,fig4 #hi1 is typical of a different style of decoration4 ,this fine bowl1 also of the ,ming period1 is florally enamelled1 the inside showing the pattern outlined by wire cloisons upon a white ground1 the flowers being worked in five colours4 ,this bowl1 which is four inches high1 is represented in the illustration as standing on a beautifully carved stand of about equal height4 ,these choice pieces are illustrated by the courtesy of ,messrs4 ,glendining ,co41 ,ltd41 at whose well-known ,london auction rooms they recently changed hands4 ,the second great period of ,chinese art is that of the ,ching ,dynasty1 which commenced in #afdd and extended until more recent times4 ,while to some extent the art and the decorative effect of that period was inferior to that of to-day1 when judged from the present-day standard of modern art1 there was a rare beauty about the old designs4 ,the enamels of the ,ching ,dynasty were carefully prepared and placed1 and the colouring soft and yet rich4 ,the preparation of coloured matter by experts of that period when the best ceramics of ,china were made1 has always been a subject of admiration and wonder to the potters and enamellers of more recent years4 ,examples of these charming wares are not exceptionally rare1 among the collectable pieces being cups and bowls1 exquisitely designed kettles1 tiers of boxes1 water vessels1 round and oblong dishes1 and incense burners4 ,some of the bowls with covers are of quaint forms1 a favourite one being that of a peach4 ,vases of which the base is enamel are often further enriched by ornaments of copper-gilt4 ,among the rarer little curios seen in a representative collection may be mentioned small water droppers1 mostly made in the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,,bowl ,,of ,,the ,,ming ,,period4 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,ming ,,bowl4 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,box ,,of ,,pekin ,,enamel4 ,the ,ch'ien ,lung period which followed extended from #agcf to #agif1 and included many candlesticks and altar pieces as well as braziers1 some of the copper vessels being practically encrusted with enamels1 some of the finer ornamentation being attached to the ground-work as additional or supplementary decorative effects4 ,as in the earlier periods much labour was expended on the production of the many fine temple sets which were presented to such uses4 ,the exceptionally fine altar set wrought in cloisonn enamels1 illustrated in ,fig4 #ij1 is of the ,ch'ien ,lung period1 and consists of a beautifully designed koro1 supported on legs in the form of tigers' heads1 two candlesticks #ah in4 high1 and a pair of vases4 ,the style of decoration is very rich1 being turquoise blue ground on which are floral designs in red1 green1 dark blue1 yellow1 and other bright colours4 ,the pieces stand on brass-gilt foundations1 which rest on carved wooden stands1 the set forming an extremely interesting group1 typical of the highest art of the ,ch'ien ,lung period4 ,there are many richly ornamented and extremely valuable specimens of more recent date admired by connoisseurs of art in the galleries and curio-shops2 but however beautiful they are the collector of the older curios appraises their values from a modern commercial standpoint1 and does not view them as he would antiques4 ,british ,enamels4 ,it was not until the art of enamelling had been perfected at ,lill and other places on the ,continent of ,europe1 that an attempt was made to produce similar trinkets and a few more important pieces1 such as candlesticks and inkstands1 in this country4 ,the works established at ,battersea by ,mr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,janssen about the middle of the eighteenth century soon gained notoriety1 and it was not long before the enamels made there were eagerly sought after4 ,in addition to those articles mentioned1 they consisted chiefly of tea-canisters1 snuff-boxes1 spirit labels1 and patchboxes1 the copper being coated over with an opaque white enamel1 which was coloured over and then decorated with floral and other designs4 ,rose tint afterwards became one of the favourite ground colours at ,battersea4 ,among the rarer examples may be classed inkstands and writing-table appointments4 ,the inkstands usually include an ink-container1 a pen-box1 and a sand or pounce pot1 for ,battersea enamel inkstands were made before blotting-paper was invented1 and the wet ink1 chiefly applied with a quill pen1 was dusted over with pounce to prevent blotting1 and when dry the surplus was dusted off4 ,the collector finds much to interest in the little patchboxes of enamel1 of which there were many varieties4 ,they remained useful when the fashion of wearing patches declined1 for then they came in handy for cosmetics1 salves1 and pomades4 ,these curious little boxes were frequently given by admirers and friends1 as may be imagined from the mottoes and sentimental inscriptions upon them4 ,among the commoner varieties seen in a collection are little oval boxes on which are pictured two love-birds1 sometimes accompanied by a bird's nest4 ,others will have imitations of needlework pictures1 such as the fair ones worked in those days4 ,sometimes a little church is seen in the distance1 and in the foreground a boy and girl exchanging love-tokens4 ,this gift is small1 but love is all1 is a favourite motto4 ,virtue fair1 manners sweet1 ,together in my fair one meet1 are two oft-quoted lines1 and another favourite verse is3 ,if you1 my dear1 ,accept of this1 ,reward the giver ,with a kiss4 ,some boxes1 however1 have evidently been the gifts of those who could only claim friendship or acquaintance with the recipient1 for they bear such sentiments as ,a token of my respect1 ,accept this as a token of my esteem1 and ,esteem the giver4 ,some appear to have been made for sale as place souvenirs1 for they are inscribed ,a trifle from ,bath1 or other town where they had been procured4 ,battersea portrait placques were made between #agej and #agfj1 among the favourite subjects being the then ,prince of ,wales 7afterwards ,george ,,iv71 the ,duke of ,cumberland1 and statesmen1 among whom ,horace ,walpole was evidently one of the most popular4 ,english enamellers in other places1 such as ,bilston1 attained some fame1 but the ,battersea works held their own1 and not only produced the trinket boxes and other toilet-table appointments referred to1 but many useful sundries1 such as spirit and wine labels1 little trays1 and the like4 ,none of these1 although beautiful indeed1 equalled the ,french enamels in the delicate miniature paintings and scenes such as those produced by the celebrated ,french painter1 ,petitot1 who gave much attention to the decoration of exquisite toilet boxes and trinket trays4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,fine ,,altar ,,set ,,of ,,cloisonn ,,enamels 7,,ch',,ien ,,lung ,,period74 ,,xix ,,miscellaneous ,,metal ,,curios ,,chapter ,,xix ,,miscellaneous ,,metal ,,curios ,tobacco-boxes and pipe-stoppers--,snuff-boxes--,handles and ,handle-plates--,horse trappings--,war relics--,tiny curios--,replicas4 ,the collectable curios in metal include many which cannot be classified4 ,they are isolated specimens of copper and brasswork representing some special household utensil or workshop appliance which1 in the course of time1 has become obsolete or has been superseded by more modern contrivances of other materials4 ,copper was almost exclusively used in works where acids and other chemicals prevented the use of iron until enamelled wares1 aluminium1 and zinc were available2 but such workshop appliances are not usually very attractive1 and seldom come within the scope of the collector except as museum specimens4 ,among the various sundry objects of interest1 those mentioned in the following paragraphs are worthy of notice1 especially as many of them are quite inexpensive1 and can readily be obtained from curio-shops and occasionally picked up cheaply from cottages and farmhouses in out-of-the-way places4 ,tobacco-boxes and ,pipe-stoppers4 ,smokers' sundries include many objects in brass1 especially boxes for storing tobacco4 ,most of the larger receptacles for the storage of tobacco were in olden time of lead or pewter1 or1 in more recent times1 of japanned tin1 followed in the present day by pottery and wood4 ,the small boxes in the days before rubber pouches were known were nearly always of brass or other metal1 such boxes being often elaborately ornamented4 ,dutch metal-workers produced some very decorative boxes in the seventeenth century4 ,in some instances the sides are made of copper and the covers or lids of brass1 the two metals in contrast presenting a very pleasing appearance4 ,several of these boxes are to be seen in the ,guildhall ,museum2 on one there is the representation of a bear-pit1 on another scriptural subjects1 a third being more appropriately covered with tavern scenes4 ,needless to say1 ,dutch artists were then--as they have been in after years--famous for their scenic views4 ,the engravers appear to have divided their favours between religious pictures and rural scenes4 ,battles1 too1 came in for a share of the engraver's skill1 and such pictures are noticeable on many of the larger boxes1 some of which possibly were not used as tobacco-boxes4 ,the picture scenes were continued until the close of the eighteenth century1 and in some instances a few years in the next4 ,then there came a time of undecorated metal-work1 and the engraving1 if any1 was stiff and formal4 ,ornamental borders came into vogue1 and the more elaborate boxes were engraved with the crests or monograms of their owners4 ,some show portraits1 such as an eighteenth-century box on which is a portrait of ,frederick the ,great4 ,the metal-work so freely imported into this country in the reign of ,william and ,mary1 and on into the times of ,george ,,iii1 of course included many tobacco-boxes1 but there are other pieces of those periods1 the uses of which are uncertain2 some of the long1 narrow boxes were probably made for spectacle-cases1 and others as cases or boxes for the money-changers' and traders' scales 7see ,chapter ,,xi74 ,ash-trays of copper and brass1 among the fanciful smokers' requisites of the present day1 are by no means novel1 for among the antiques in metal are found curious copper bowls with inverted feet and wooden handles which were used by smokers in the days when churchwarden pipes were mostly smoked2 they were known as smokers' ashes pans4 ,tobacco-stoppers of metal are of early date1 and seem to have been regarded by metal-workers as peculiarly suitable objects on which to display skill in modelling and even engraving4 ,an authentic record of their use in ,restoration days is met with in a will referring to a bequest of ,boscobel relics3 ,the owner of an old oak box1 dated #affj1 mentioned it as the 'one in which was a brass tobacco-stopper4' ,of these curious and interesting stoppers there are many varieties4 ,under ,dutch influence some striking characters were portrayed as the ornamental heads of these pieces4 ,in the days of ,william and ,mary they were chiefly cast1 and afterwards tooled and even engraved4 ,james ,,ii was chosen as the model of many2 and stoppers with his bust as the handle were1 it is said1 treasured by ,jacobean admirers4 ,the human hand in which is seen a churchwarden pipe is a favourite type2 pugilists1 too1 figured1 and others typified familiar objects of local fame1 even animals1 birds1 and domestic utensils serving the purpose of the designer4 ,in recent days ,punch has appeared1 and among the modern replicas of early types 7sic7 to be seen in the shops are sets of ,dickens's characters as tobacco-stoppers4 ,snuff-boxes4 ,there are some of the so-called tobacco-boxes which no doubt were in reality used only for snuff in the days when snuff was taken in larger quantities than it is to-day4 ,a collection of snuff-boxes includes many varieties1 among which are some of metal4 ,some of the boxes made of wood and of shagreen are decorated with tiny brass studs1 producing a very pleasing effect4 ,the snuff-boxes were shaped according to popular fancy1 and some of the more eccentric patterns were local in their use4 ,in ,scotland the curled-shaped mull was a favourite4 ,in connection with snuff-taking it must be remembered that in the earlier days snuff as prepared now was little known4 ,those addicted to the habit had to prepare their own snuff4 ,for that purpose there came into vogue snuff-rasps of iron enclosed in cases1 which1 although they were in some instances of boxwood or carved pearwood1 were now and then of metal4 ,incidentally this early home preparation of the snuff produced from a small plug or twist of tobacco gave rise to the popular trader's sign of the ,crown and ,rasp over a tobacco shop4 ,as intimated in another chapter1 many of the tobacco and snuff-boxes served a dual purpose1 and not infrequently formed part of the tinder box1 an essential in early days4 ,handles and ,handle-plates4 ,the condition of the metal-work upon old furniture and other curios is a factor in its beauty and in its value too4 ,the handles and handle-plates should be of the same period as the antique1 and hinges1 lock-plates1 handles and their plates1 ball feet and castors should be en suite4 ,indeed1 it is better to substantiate a well-made reproduction rather than to admit the use of a later style4 ,the want of harmony in the brass furniture of antiques1 although all portions appear old1 is somewhat puzzling at times4 ,it is explainable in that in early ,victorian days when much that was then old was repaired the village shopkeeper and even the cabinet-maker had little regard for the preservation of the old style4 ,to restore meant to them to repair1 and where necessary to introduce the then prevailing materials notwithstanding their obvious inappropriateness4 ,fortunately1 dealers in antiques and restorers have acquired nowadays a genuine love of their work1 and have learned how best to please their clients2 many of them having quite a store of odd handles and fittings for the curio-hunter and would-be amateur restorer to choose from4 ,to be quite certain about getting a suitable style for the restoration or repairs of old furniture it is desirable to know something of the appropriate styles4 ,the drop handle is a foreign importation1 for it is said to have come from ,japan1 being first seen in this country in the ,oriental lacquer cabinets brought here in the seventeenth century4 ,such handles were at first pear-shaped1 but they soon became larger and of a type more adapted for drawers and the heavier furniture then in use4 ,much hand labour was expended upon their manufacture2 even in the latter part of the eighteenth century they were filed up by hand4 ,the earliest form of brass handle-plate was the smooth and shiny willow brass1 the edges of which were filed and shaped by hand4 ,later they were distinguished from the newer styles as ,queen ,ann brasses4 ,the handles were fastened to the plates with brass-headed screw bolts 7in the commoner types the plates were dispensed with74 ,chippendale and his followers used an adaptation of the willow brass1 placing over the plain plate a fretwork grille or ornamental plate of thin brass4 ,then came the bail handle and the oval plate with beaded ornamentation1 adopted by ,hepplewhite and ,adams4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the drop and the bail were made in a fancy design in keeping with ,chippendale shells and ornament4 ,the rosette and ring handle of the year #ahjj and onwards is a feature to be noticed1 the round plate being pierced in the centre instead of at the sides as in the bail handle4 ,the ring which formed the handle hung from the central screw4 ,this got over the difficulty of the necessary groove in which the old bail handle had fallen1 and allowed for a deeper projection and more ornamental stamping4 ,such handles were in vogue in the ,empire period4 ,there were heavier handles1 too1 which often took the form of a lion's head instead of an ornamental pattern1 the ring hanging from the mouth of the lion1 these being often miniature replicas of the brass door knocker4 ,these beautiful handles and the delightful brass knockers which were used on furniture and doors concurrently gave way to the ugly handles of the ,victorian age1 when wood and glass knobs reigned supreme4 ,it was a sad picture of the decadence of popular taste1 for there can be no question as to the more artistic and ornamental decorativeness of the brassfounder's art over that of the wood-turner as exemplified by the products of the nineteenth century4 ,at the time when the different styles in furniture decoration influenced brasswork1 including handles1 knobs1 lock-plates1 and hinges1 a gradual change was going on in the castors used on furniture4 ,the square legs required a square-socketed castor2 then came the cabrioles or brass collars to the castors1 very ornamental and suitable to the style of the shaped legs of mahogany furniture ornamented by carving and curiously turned4 ,the runners of the castors were chiefly of brass and generally very substantial4 ,the brass wheels held sway until the invention of the vitrified bowl1 which seemed to harmonize better with ,victorian mahogany4 ,in restoration work the collector should see to it that the castors used are in keeping with the furniture1 for if no genuine antiques are available there are modern replicas of all the styles4 ,horse ,trappings4 ,horse harness is heavily loaded with brass bands1 buckles1 chains1 and trappings1 many of the latter appearing to be quite superfluous and unnecessary4 ,it would seem that the fanciful frets of perforated brass were introduced from purely artistic motives4 ,that1 however1 is not quite correct1 for even the brass ornaments of to-day are chiefly replicas of more ancient trappings1 and although their forms may have deviated somewhat1 the ancient idea is quite recognizable1 and agriculturists and stablemen still demand their retention4 ,such brasses1 which now make up so entertaining a collection1 have meanings2 indeed1 in the earlier examples the designs are true to well-understood symbols which may or may not in their use have a beneficial influence4 ,to the superstitious they are not merely trappings2 they are charms of real purpose 7see ,fig4 #ia74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,collection ,,of ,,brass ,,amulets 7,,harness ,,brasses74 7,in the possession of ,mr4 ,chas4 ,wayte1 of ,edenbridge47 ,in all parts of the country there is a lingering superstition which aids and abets the continuance of the use of amulets4 ,indeed1 the very general belief in the protective value of symbols1 the true history and origin of which may have been forgotten1 is truly astonishing4 ,one of the most remarkable indications that old fables and beliefs1 antedating in their origin the introduction of the ,christian religion in this country1 have a hold still on rural districts1 is seen in the brass harness trappings used by all classes alike4 ,years ago the makers of harness fashioned their brasses with care1 and the artists who engraved them and cut them out of solid plates of metal laboured long and tediously in producing exact replicas of similar ornaments which had been used from time immemorial4 ,they rarely deviated from the emblems they copied to any material extent1 although new designs were at times added1 based possibly on some specific local emblem which was then gaining notoriety4 ,then came the less expensive processes of reproduction by casting and stamping1 which multiplied the designs and very often made them grotesque in the eyes of experts and those who had been accustomed to realize and understand a true meaning in the designs they had been familiar with4 ,the ornamental brasses which hung in rows round horses' necks1 and conspicuously on the foreheads or chests of the animals1 deemed inseparable from a set of harness in olden times1 were regarded as charms1 protective against danger1 accident1 and1 in wilder times1 perils unknown to-day4 ,these very pleasing objects in brass1 which look so handsome when polished and arranged on a cloth-covered shield in the harness-room1 or1 perchance1 framed as a trophy for the hall or gun-room1 are so varied1 and yet for the most part quite distinct1 that it is said nearly two hundred designs are collectable4 ,a complete set of brasses1 as worn by one horse properly harnessed1 includes the face brass already mentioned as the chief ornament on the forehead1 ear-brasses hanging behind the ears1 three brasses on each side of the shoulders1 and ten martingale 7a strap passing from the horse's girth between his forelegs7 brasses for the breast4 ,to trace their purport and hence their forms it may be pointed out that they are associated with the folk-lore of the districts where they were originally used1 and were chiefly intended to keep off the ,evil ,eye or calamity4 ,they go back a long way into the past1 and are nearly all attributable to symbols understood by the ,saxons1 early ,british1 and still older races4 ,their modern exponents are the gypsies1 and strange as it may seem1 most of them are either ,buddhist1 ,egyptian1 or ,moorish4 ,the genuine antiques include such well-known emblems as the crescent1 the symbol brought back1 it is said1 by the ,crusaders from ,eastern lands4 ,the crescent moon1 like the horseshoe brass1 is valued4 ,there are others showing the radiated sun's rays indicating the sun worship of our ancestors4 ,conspicuous among the floral emblems may be noticed the iris2 the lotus of ,egypt is a common emblem1 often enclosed in a crescent-like form1 occasionally met with in a shield-like frame4 ,there are the bull's head with horns and the horse of the ,saxon banner1 both essentially ,english types4 ,then there are clubs and diamonds1 hearts and spades1 and many heathen symbols4 ,in a few instances brasses in the shape of crosses are met with1 but these are rare2 possibly they were introduced in the days of the ,canterbury pilgrims4 ,in this connection may be related a pretty story of the good luck associated with the horseshoe1 which comes from ,russia1 where peasants used to paint a picture of the ,virgin ,mary with a golden halo round her head outside their doors to protect them from harm4 ,the snows and the rains washed off the paint1 but left the more lasting gilding in the shape of the horseshoe4 ,hence it is said the superstitious legend of the protective power or good luck of the symbolical horseshoe1 or the crescent moon1 is spread all the world over4 ,another legend tells us how the ,greeks and ,romans gave the world the crescent moon as an emblem of good luck1 so many thousands of replicas of which have been fashioned in brass and used as horse trappings by horsemen of all races4 ,the crescent moon was to those nations the symbol of their loyalty to the huntress ,diana1 the goddess they worshipped as a protector under many varied conditions4 ,an exceptionally fine early brass of crescent form is seen in ,south ,kensington1 where there are other early specimens pointing to the ancient and very general acceptance of the belief in the potency of symbolical horse trappings as talismans against evil and dangers of the road1 happily unknown now4 ,almost as common is the brass fashioned like the sun god1 whose face was so often looked upon with awe by the ancients4 ,side by side with these pagan symbols the emblems adapted by pilgrims in days when ,christianity had been made the religion of the race can be seen to-day1 still adorning the breast of the horse4 ,the amulet or charm is not altogether banished at the present day4 ,it has been worn at the watch chain1 round the neck1 on a bangle1 and suspended from the chatelaine or the girdle4 ,the greater use of the road by motorist and cyclist has once more brought into prominence the amulet or mascot1 carried in front of the rider4 ,the river-girl places a mascot on the prow of her boat1 and the aviator screws his mascot into position for luck4 ,why this should be done we cannot tell2 the general belief is in some mysterious advantage from the presence of the mascot--an accepted theory by the sceptical man who shakes his head and secretly marvels at the folly of the belief4 ,strange to say many of the present-day mascots in brass--and that is the favourite metal--are modelled upon amulets such as we have referred to as finding their origin in pagan faiths4 ,there are others used by motorists1 such as ,csar1 the late ,king ,edward's dog1 the ,chantecler1 and the stag's head1 which have no mystic meanings2 on the other hand1 the most favoured are such brasses as the star and cresent and the rising sun of pagan worship of our ancestors1 and ,mercury the ,greek god4 ,the brass mascot used in every form1 large and small1 by motorists and worn by many others so extensively is the ,swastika of ,buddhist fame1 traceable in its varied form to ,egyptian and other early nations4 ,these mascots in brass1 made in thousands to-day1 are brass curios in the making2 possibly in a century or so they may be classed with the oldest brass amulets described in this chapter1 and so add to the metal relics to be collected by future curio-hunters6 ,copper ,sheathing and ,nails4 ,copper sheathing has been used by boat-builders and made to serve a useful purpose1 protecting the ship's bottom and resisting the action of salt water4 ,oftentimes this valuable material--costly when new--has been used over again when vessels have been broken up1 and not infrequently it is put to curious uses in old seaport towns4 ,visitors to an old-world village built on the side of a hill near the sea in ,north ,cornwall1 have looked with admiration upon two remarkable gateposts in front of a cottage house1 and admired their quaint carvings4 ,these relics in oak were once the ends of seats in a neighbouring parish church2 but either to preserve them from injury from the village children or to give them a longer life as they would be exposed to the weather1 the upper portions have been sheathed with copper from the bottom of some broken-up wreck1 and large copper nails keep the casing in place4 ,copper and brass nails have been used for ornament as well as to resist acids and other metal-destroying chemicals4 ,old furniture is evidence of this2 for at one time the leather covers to the chairs were almost invariably fixed by round-headed brass studs1 which from that use became known in the trade as chair nails4 ,such nails were used to ornament brass bellows and other domestic utensils4 ,they were also used to decorate the skin-covered trunks which our ancestors took with them on their rare journeys of pleasure or business1 when they travelled by the mail-coach or less expensive stage wagon4 ,nails of brass have been used and are still sometimes used for sadder purposes1 for they are a feature in the ornament of cloth-covered coffins4 ,that of ,king ,edward ,,vi was decorated 7sic7 with upwards of two thousand brass nails with gilt heads4 ,war ,relics4 ,what wonderful antiquities are sometimes found among scraps6 ,years of neglect cause indifference to the contents of a scrapheap1 and we read occasionally of the dispersal of relics among which1 unknown to either sellers or buyers1 there may be antiquities of more than passing interest if their original ownership could only be traced1 for in the personal relics of great warriors in our national museums there clings a halo of hero-worship1 and what to many would be considered fictitious values are attached to such curios4 ,a few years ago the relics from the battlefield of ,waterloo1 which had for some time past been accumulated in a modest looking building at the foot of the ,lion ,mound1 were dispersed4 ,there were upwards of three thousand pieces1 including helmets of brass1 plates of shining metal1 innumerable buttons and ornaments belonging to different ,french regiments1 including officers' regimentals1 and some relics of the ,british and ,prussian armies4 ,in old curio-shops many metal relics of battlefields are offered for sale1 but they have little or no interest to the buyer1 simply because their identity with their original owners has been lost4 ,it is of the greatest importance to future generations of collectors that all records relating to known curios should be chronicled1 and that even private collectors should hand on to their successors adequate descriptions which may have been verbally given them1 so that private as well as national relics may be identified and the monetary value in such curios increased4 ,even a brass plate on an old gun1 bearing the name of a great man1 makes it a relic worth securing1 whereas had the identity of ownership been missing the weapon would be of little or no value4 ,a visit to the ,united ,service ,museum at ,westminster is full of interest4 ,there is an abundance of personal relics there--not many of brass1 it is true--many of which are of special interest4 ,perhaps the one of greatest historical fame is the much battered copper bugle on which it is said the signal was given for the fatal charge of the ,light ,brigade at ,balaclava1 resulting so disastrously to that famous regiment4 ,there are some curious trophies of brass1 too1 which have been brought home by our troops2 one known as ,jingling ,johnny is of special interest4 ,tiny ,curios4 ,at one time there was quite a rage for miniatures in metal-work4 ,artists in copper and brass vied with one another in working microscopically4 ,they were very fond of making use of some recognized piece of metal1 the size1 weight1 and substance of which was well understood by the public2 hence the difficulties of manipulating the works of art they produced would be realized4 ,thus1 out of a copper farthing1 a worker in metal would with very tiny hammers and a still smaller soldering-iron and miniature blow-pipe1 fashion a complete copper teakettle with a tiny spout out of which liquid could be poured1 a loose lid1 a correctly formed knob1 and a beautifully shaped handle4 ,another would make a similar kettle out of a similar piece of metal1 and leave some portion of the farthing1 perhaps the date1 uninjured as the central ornament on the side of the kettle1 or on the top of the handle2 others would add a stand1 like the then fashionable toddy-kettles and stands4 ,in a similar way other little domestic utensils were made by the worker in copper1 who used watchmakers' hammers and tools such as jewellers employed in the setting of precious stones4 ,a collector at one time had in his possession a beautifully shaped coffee boiler of the type used on the open fire when coffee was boiled and afterwards allowed to stand on the hob for some time before it was deemed sufficiently brewed4 ,another charming miniature novelty was a brass stool1 perforated1 and made to revolve just as the larger toasting stool once common in every fireplace4 ,fenders and fire-brasses were favourite objects for miniature metal ornaments1 and the way in which the skilled worker manipulated the copper sheets hammered out by hand from small coins showed mastery of the craft and great patience4 ,such little objects were frequently displayed on the parlour table under a glass shade1 the woodworker being sometimes requisitioned to make a stand1 possibly a canopied top1 on which to show off to the best advantage these tiny ornaments4 ,in the same way the engraver of brass and copper worked under a strong lens1 and sought to produce whole texts of ,scripture and quite long inscriptions on an almost impossibly small surface4 ,these little pieces of metal were worn as charms1 and similar objects were displayed as trophies4 ,many of our readers have seen no doubt the whole of the ,lord's ,prayer or the ,ten ,commandments engraved on a threepenny-piece or a copper farthing4 ,it is said such microscopic engraving took its rise in the reign of ,charles ,,ii when ,thomas ,simon1 a noted engraver of the ,mint1 engraved in double lines on his famous ,petition ,crown a petition to the king4 ,specimens of the crown are very rare1 and are regarded as the scarcest treasures in a numismatic cabinet4 ,replicas4 ,in conclusion1 it may be pointed out that there is no branch of curio collecting which has such a close and intimate touch with modern art as that of copper and brass4 ,the tools with which the ancient coppersmiths wrought and fashioned their most beautiful works are still used by the coppersmiths of to-day1 for although in the eyes of some the traces of machine-stamped or pressed ornament in the so-called reproductions of the antiques are noticeable blemishes1 there are few distinguishing marks between the old and the new4 ,those modern artists who specialize in providing those who furnish their houses in antique style with replicas of the domestic copper-work of a century or two ago1 are very careful to produce their modern antique by the use of tools which produce precisely similar effects to the hammered-by-hand copper-work of days gone by4 ,in the production of such work the repouss enrichments are wrought by hand1 the anvil still holding sway in the modern coppersmith's shop4 ,rarely is soldering used1 the parts being riveted together4 ,in many cases although jardinieres and other vessels have the appearance of being cast in a mould they are really hollowed up under the rim by hammer and block1 and are without seam or joining4 ,they are fashioned exactly the same way as the beaten work of old4 ,collectors may be warned against these modern reproductions in that they should be careful to pay a modern price for a modern antique4 ,the styles reproduced are chiefly those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 particularly those of the ,elizabethan and ,cromwellian periods4 ,thus electroliers are made to match antique furniture1 the difference being that instead of holding electric bulbs the antique would have been fashioned for candles or oil lamps4 ,many of the modern reproductions of copper panels used for letting into mantelpieces are designs1 carefully copied1 taken from old baronial halls4 ,the very grates of ormolu and brass and the canopies of hammered copper and brass are being made to-day by the same firms who manufactured the metal-work designed by the ,adam ,brothers1 and who in the eighteenth century had already become famous as makers of coal stoves and hob-grates4 ,then1 again1 in the utilitarian reproductions of to-day there are the copper and brass fender kerbs1 reproducing the eighteenth-century fenders without their bottom plates1 and for use with them the modern manufacturer makes fire-dogs and fire-brasses of antique styles4 ,even the builder's brasswork for ornamenting the interiors of houses1 such as finger-plates and door handles1 are exact copies of the old door-plates and lock-plates found on doors and cupboards in existing houses built in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 and in their designs and processes of manufacture it is difficult to distinguish the genuine antique from the modern replica4 ,again1 the buyer of such things is warned against the unscrupulous dealer who fills his windows with brass and copper-work1 almost hot from the ,birmingham foundry1 and labels it ,antique4 ,not long ago some of the shop windows were filled with chestnut roasters in brass1 with beautifully designed trivets1 with door knockers innumerable1 and with even pipe-stoppers and tobacco-boxes1 all quite recently made in the ,black ,country4 ,yet all these objects1 sold as modern by the honest dealer1 have been and are still not infrequently palmed off as antique1 for they have the finish which age in former years was wont to impart1 and in design and style they are correct reproductions of the genuine antique4 ,the collection of metal has a peculiar charm1 for the objects are so numerous and the different alloys produce such a pleasing variety of colour and appearance4 ,the value of such curios is now more fully recognized than formerly1 for greater prominence is being given to them in museums1 where in those which have been re-arranged recently such objects may be seen with labels on which their uses are fully described and explained4 ,,xx ,,wrinkles ,,for ,,collectors ,,chapter ,,xx ,,wrinkles ,,for ,,collectors ,cleaning copper and brass--,lacquering metal--,polishing brass--,restoring antique finishes--,using the burnisher--,brass rubbings4 ,the collector has frequently to decide whether he will entrust the repair of some much battered curio to a local workman or undertake the rle of an amateur worker and repairer of copper or brass4 ,there are many who prefer the latter course2 unless the antique needs expert skill1 and then1 if a valuable specimen1 it should be sent to one whose professional knowledge will enable him to carry out its restoration without injury4 ,there are1 however1 many minor matters which1 with a few simple tools1 and recipes which can be prepared quite easily1 the collector can very satisfactorily accomplish4 ,before attempting to clean or repair old copper and brass curios or those objects which are made all or in part of either of them or of any of their alloys1 it is well to know something of the constituents of the metals usually met with4 ,first on the list comes ancient bronzes composed mainly of copper and tin on no accepted formula1 but generally in the proportion of about three to one4 ,modern statuary bronze is made in several proportions2 one compound is given by an authority as copper1 #hc parts2 tin1 #e parts2 zinc1 #aj parts2 and lead1 #b parts2 and by another as copper1 #ia parts2 tin1 #i parts4 ,bronze ornaments are mostly copper1 #hj parts2 tin1 #c parts2 zinc1 #ae parts2 and lead1 #b parts4 ,gongs are of copper1 #hj parts2 and tin1 #bj parts--some ,oriental alloys have a little silver added4 ,the ormolu of the brassfounder1 used extensively by ,french metal-workers1 has more copper and less zinc than brass4 ,red brass consists of copper1 #be parts2 zinc1 #e parts2 and bismuth1 #a part4 ,yellow brass is made of copper1 #ce parts2 and zinc1 #ae parts4 ,pinchbeck metal1 of which watchcases and jewellery have been made1 consists of copper1 #aj parts2 and of zinc1 #b parts4 ,antimony imparts a rich red to copper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the following paragraphs some very useful wrinkles are given3 ,cleaning ,copper and ,brass4 ,it is scarcely necessary to warn the collector against over cleaning1 for to rub light bronzes which age has toned or encrusted with a beautiful patina would be vandalism indeed4 ,yet there are many objects which require attention when they arrive from the auction mart or curio-shop4 ,ancient bronzes should be washed in soap and water with soft brush or flannel--not scrubbed--and then dried in hot sawdust4 ,if any polishing is necessary1 a chamois leather or an old silk handkerchief will be sufficient4 ,the green patina or verdigris of antique metals should not be removed nor its colouring spoiled with cleaning4 ,copper vessels1 however1 do very frequently require cleaning4 ,when they have turned a bluish green--not the much admired patina--they may be cleaned by making a paste of well powdered chalk and methylated spirit4 ,this preparation should be rubbed on and then left until the spirit has evaporated and the chalk is quite dry1 at which stage it can be removed and the copper polished with crocus powder or fine chalk4 ,owing to long neglect there are some metal curios which cannot be thoroughly cleansed without a powerful solvent4 ,a weak solution of oxalic acid may be safely applied with a piece of woollen material2 it will remove the tarnish1 and then1 after well washing1 the metal can be polished with fine chalk or whiting4 ,when the brass is spotted with damp but not too deeply marked1 chalk and spirits of turpentine will generally effect the purpose just as well4 ,another recipe formerly much favoured by housewives in the days when copper vessels were much in evidence1 is to rub them over with half a lemon dipped in salt2 then after washing polish with a soft cloth4 ,this is a useful recipe in that it does not injure an antique appearance or patina1 but it will remove stains4 ,a somewhat more powerful preparation for metal-work is a cleaning paste made as follows3 oxalic acid1 #a oz42 rotten stone1 #f oz2 gum arabic1 #a_/b oz42 sweet oil1 #a oz42 and then add as much water as necessary4 ,the following recipe is given for the benefit of advanced collectors who wish to avail themselves of modern methods4 ,such will no doubt delight in experimenting on the cleansing of newly acquired curios with a cleaning preparation operated by an electric current4 ,caustic soda1 #a_/b lb42 sal soda1 #a_/b lb42 resin1 #a_/d oz42 and water1 #a gallon2 #d to #h volts and a current density of #ab amps4 ,the greater the density of the current the quicker the cleaning is performed4 ,a temperature of #abj ,fahr4 is recommended4 ,lacquering ,metal4 ,when it is desired to lacquer or coat over metal to prevent any future oxidation 7not commonly desired by collectors of antiques7 the copper or brass article should be pickled for several hours in aqua fortis diluted with water4 ,the acid will rot away a certain portion of the tarnished surface and leave the metal bright4 ,the article should then be put into bran and well shaken until quite dry4 ,it is then ready to be cleaned1 and1 if desired1 polished bright4 ,old brasswork may be relacquered by the amateur with a little experience1 practice1 and care4 ,first of all it must be cleaned4 ,the liquid which is best suited to the purpose may be made of a strong lye of wood ashes boiled and strengthened with soap lees4 ,this will fetch the old lacquer off4 ,the article should then be dipped in aqua fortis and water to take off the dirt1 and immediately removed and cleansed with clean water1 and then when dried it is ready to be lacquered4 ,there are two processes in simple lacquering1 which may be defined as cold and hot4 ,the cold lacquer is the application of a preparation of brass lacquer1 which can be purchased from any oil-shop1 chemist1 or metal dealer1 put on with a camelhair-brush like varnish1 and immediately placed in an oven or a hot stove1 and exposed to the heat for a few minutes until the lacquer is quite firm and set4 ,a gas-oven such as those in common use in so many kitchens nowadays answers the purpose very well4 ,the second method is the application of lacquer after the article has been heated4 ,the heating may be done in a gas-oven1 or by the application of a flat-iron such as is used by laundresses4 ,then lacquer should be applied hot1 and if the object lacquered has cooled in the process heat should again be applied as in the first process4 ,it should be clearly understood that cleaning and relacquering old brass and copper-work should be done with very great care and with a full appreciation of the curio value of old finish1 and of the marks and evidences of age which are so dear to the collector4 ,the pickling of brasswork in acid and subsequent lacquering should only be resorted to when it is absolutely necessary to effect such restoration1 and to make the objects sufficiently presentable so that they may be included in a cabinet or exhibited in the collection of metal curios2 for the possession of old copper and brass is nothing without the opportunity of showing it4 ,there are some specialists who devote their attention to the restoration and bronzing of medival and early ecclesiastical work4 ,it may on occasion be necessary to consult such a firm before attempting anything which would savour of vandalism and rob the present-day possessor and curio-hunter of the future of what might eventually become a rare antiquity4 ,polishing ,brass4 ,it may at times be necessary to polish parts of curios which have been subjected to rough wear and are1 therefore1 badly scratched4 ,a very fine file will remove scratches2 fine emery will then make the surface quite smooth1 after which it can be polished with rotten stone and oil1 some adding a little turpentine4 ,restoring ,antique ,finishes4 ,there are many beautiful antiques which have been subjected to rough usage or through some accident have had the oxidation rubbed off in parts4 ,to clean such an antique so as to secure uniformity of appearance would be a mistake4 ,it is better to restore the finish and imitate that which age has imparted4 ,the solution required is #fj gr4 nitrate of silver and #b-a_/b oz4 water1 mixed with a solution of #fj gr4 nitrate of copper and #b-a_/b oz4 water4 ,after the solution has been applied to the parts the object should be heated in a gas-oven until it is sufficiently dark coloured4 ,some time ago an expert in ,indian antiques1 bronzes1 and metal-work published in ,the ,times of ,india an account of how ,oriental bronze and brass which had been soiled and scratched by time and climatic conditions might be restored4 ,the writer went on to describe how the great secret of restoring the dull half-green and half-brown shades had been revealed to him4 ,the remedy he propounded was simple in the extreme4 ,it was that the statue should be washed in beer1 which should not be rubbed off but allowed to dry on4 ,using the ,burnisher4 ,the amateur restorer may frequently with advantage acquire a knowledge of the burnisher1 and thereby add much to the beauty of the metal4 ,those who have watched an old coppersmith planishing copper-work1 and have noticed the very primitive materials used1 will have learnt to realize the value of elbow grease4 ,crocus powder with oil and soft rags works wonders1 and will often bring up the original finish just as the coppersmith converts the rough dull polish of the metal sheets he has fashioned into domestic copper ware and shining pots and pans4 ,brass ,rubbings4 ,rubbings of church and memorial brasses referred to in ,chapter ,,vii may be taken with heel-ball1 which is a compound of beeswax1 and plain white paper4 ,when the brass has been evenly rubbed all over the picture is complete and ready for mounting4 ,it should then be cut out and pasted on a prepared surface of fine canvas or calico1 thus giving the rubbing an appearance like tapestry4 ,it can be touched up in colours1 if there is any heraldic enamelled work on the original4 ,it can then be sized and stretched on a frame ready for hanging on a wall4 ,,index ,,index ,african curios1 #cji-caa ,alms-dishes1 #adj-adc ,altar brasses1 #adb-adc ,amulets1 #cc1 #cgc-cge ,ancient art1 #gj-gb ,ancient bronze1 #ch-da ,aquamaniles1 #aja1 #cbf ,arab influence1 #bfg ,architectural metal-work1 #aba-abd ,arms and armour1 #ajf-aji ,art influence1 #abh ,ashanti curios1 #cji ,ash-trays1 #cfe ,astrolabes1 #be ,badges of metal1 #ajb ,ball and cross of ,st4 ,paul's1 #adc-add ,barometer of bronze1 #cda ,barrows1 ancient1 #be ,bath1 #ef ,battersea enamels1 #ca1 #ceg ,bell founding1 #dc ,bell-metal1 #dc1 #bag-bai ,bells1 #bag-bbf1 #bhb1 #cji ,benares brasswork1 #bhj ,benin bronzes1 #cjg-cji ,betel-nut boxes1 #bf1 #bgh1 #bhb ,betel-nut cutters1 #bgi ,bidri ware1 #bf1 #bgg ,bilston enamels1 #ca ,boadicea1 ,queen1 #ia ,boiling-pots1 #ih-aja ,bowls1 #hd ,brass 7of commerce71 #db-dc ,brass instruments1 #cdj-cde ,brass making1 #de-df ,brass rubbings1 #cic ,brasses1 #bf ,brazier1 #bf ,braziers' ,company1 #aag ,british ,museum exhibits1 #ei1 #fe1 #afh1 #cji1 #cbf1 #cej1 #cef1 #ceg ,bronze1 #bg ,bronze ,age1 #ch1 #ff ,bronze alloys1 #bg ,bronze celts1 #be ,bronze implements1 #fi ,bronze knives1 #be ,bronze reaping-hooks1 #gb ,bronze saucepans1 #bhc ,bronzes and their replicas1 #bdi-beh ,bronzes1 ,greek1 #gi-ha ,bucklers1 bronze1 #bh1 #fi ,buckles1 #aje ,bullock bells1 #bgi ,burnishing metal1 #bic ,caldrons1 #hc1 #afj1 #afd ,candle clock1 #bjh ,candles1 #aii-bjd ,candlesticks1 #aci1 #adj1 #aie-baa1 #cja1 #cej ,card counters1 #bi ,central ,africa1 curios from1 #caj1 #caa ,champlev enamel1 #cj ,chaufferette1 #bh1 #abh ,chatties1 #bh ,chimney ornaments1 #ahd-ahh ,chinese bronzes1 #da1 #db1 #bhc-bhh ,chinese enamels1 #ceb-cee ,chinese influence on art1 #aca ,church brasswork1 #acg-aea ,circe-perdu process1 #bh1 #bgg ,cirencester curios1 #ed ,cisterns and taps1 #cbb ,city guilds1 #aaf-aba ,civic emblems1 #bca-bce ,classic bronzes1 #bed ,classified arrangement1 #ahh-aia ,cleaning copper and brass1 #chh-cij ,clockmakers' ,company's collection1 #ccf ,clocks1 #cbi1 #ccd-cci ,cloisonn enamels1 #cj ,coffee-pots1 #bfd1 #bfh ,continental copper and brass1 #cag-cbf ,cooking-pots1 #afj ,copper as alloy1 #dd-dg ,copper mining1 #dd1 #de ,copper pans1 #afg ,copper sheathing1 #cgg ,coppersmith1 the1 #cg ,counters of brass1 #bi ,couvre de feu1 #bi1 #ajb ,cromwell clocks1 #ccf ,crusaders' effigies1 #bf ,crusaders' relics1 #caa ,cups1 #bga ,curfew1 #bi ,daggers1 bronze1 #fi ,damascened metals1 #bi1 #bgg ,dialling1 #cj ,domestic brasswork1 #if-ajb ,domestic utensils1 #aee-aia ,door knockers1 #abd-abg ,drinking cups1 #age ,dutch brasswork1 #cba ,dutch influence1 #bfd ,egyptian bronzes1 #bfg ,ember tongs1 #cj ,enamels1 #cj1 #db ,enamels on copper1 #cdi-ceh ,engraving on copper1 #fa ,exeter ,museum exhibits1 #ahc1 #bci ,ewers1 #bgg ,fibul1 #ca1 #ga ,fire-making apparatus1 #hg1 #aif-aii ,flagons1 #age ,flagstaff head1 #bce ,foot-warmers1 #ahc1 #cbb ,forgeries1 #gd ,founders1 #bag-bai ,founders1 ,worshipful ,company of1 #df1 #ig1 #aah1 #bcf ,french art1 #cba ,gemellions1 #aja ,german metal-work1 #cbe1 #cbf ,gipcieres1 #ca1 #ajf ,greek bronzes1 #da1 #db1 #bdi ,greek curios1 #gi-ib ,guildhall ,museum exhibits1 #hc1 #if1 #ajc1 #afh1 #ahc1 #bda1 #cfd ,guild of ,loriners1 #ajg ,hand basins1 #cbf ,handles and handle-plates1 #cfg ,hand-warmers1 #bh1 #abh ,historic bells1 #bai1 #bbj ,hob-grates1 #agh ,hooker bases1 #ca1 #bga ,horns1 #bcb ,horse trappings1 #cgj-cga ,houseplace1 the contents of1 #age-ahd ,hull ,museum exhibits1 #cdb ,idols1 #hj1 #bic-bih ,indian bronzes1 #bgb ,indian ,museum exhibits1 #bgd-bhj1 #bid ,indian vessels1 #bh ,inkstands1 #ceg ,italian bronzes1 #cai ,japanese bronzes1 #da1 #db ,japanese enamels1 #ceb-cef ,japanese metals1 #bh ,kaffir bangles and girdles1 #caa ,kashmir curios1 #bgh ,kettles1 #hc-hg1 #chj ,kitchen utensils1 #aei-age ,knockers1 #cfh ,lacquering metal1 #cij-cib ,lagos brasses1 #cji ,lamaistic temple relics1 #bha1 #big ,lamps1 #hh1 #ib1 #aie-baa1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhb ,lanterns1 #bjg-baa ,later metal-work1 #aae-acb ,latten1 #ca ,limoges enamels1 #cj1 #cba1 #cej ,local museums1 #ei ,lock plates1 #aca ,log boxes1 #ahj ,london ,museum exhibits1 #ei1 #gj1 #ga1 #ia1 #ahj1 #bjg ,london relics1 #fi1 #gj ,lucknow curios1 #bf1 #bgg ,mace1 #bce ,mansfield mines1 #dd ,maundy alms-dish1 #aaf ,medival antiquities1 #ie-aji ,memorial brasses1 #add-aea ,metal and its alloys1 #cg-di ,microscopes1 #cdb ,microscopic engravings1 #cha ,milk cans1 #cbb ,miniature bronzes and models1 #beg1 #beh1 #cde ,miscellaneous metal curios1 #cfc1 #chd ,mirrors1 #cb1 #gc1 #hg1 #bfg ,monumental brasses1 #bf ,moradabad brasswork1 #bhj ,mortars1 #cb1 #bbf1 #bfh ,muff-warmers1 #ahc ,national ,museum1 ,washington1 #bjc ,native metal-work1 #cje-caa ,nepal metal-work1 #bgd1 #bgh ,nomenclature of metals1 #bg ,norman remains1 #eg ,nuremberg clocks1 #cci ,nutmeg graters1 #afc ,oil lamps1 #bjg-baa ,opaque enamels1 #ca ,oriental bronzes1 #bfe-bhh ,patchboxes1 #cej ,patera1 #gc ,patina1 #cb ,patine1 #cb ,persian metal-work1 #bga ,pilgrims' signs1 #cb1 #ajc ,pins1 #aje ,pipe-stoppers1 #cj1 #cfd ,pipkins1 #ahj ,pocket clocks1 #ccd ,polishing brass1 #cib ,porridge-pots1 #afc ,portrait placques1 #ceh ,pots and pans1 #afh ,prehistoric bronzes1 #fe-ge ,pricket candlesticks1 #bjc ,processes of enamelling1 #cej-cea ,replicas1 #cha-chc ,restoring antiques1 #cib ,ritual vases1 #cja ,roasting-jacks1 #afj1 #afg ,roman bronzes1 #da1 #bdi ,roman curios1 #gi-ib ,romano-,british art1 #ij-ia ,rushlight holders1 #bjj ,saracenic influence1 #bfd ,saucepans1 #hc1 #agb ,saxon remains1 #eg ,scales1 #bda ,sinhalese metal-work1 #bhb ,skillets1 #agj ,snuff-boxes1 #cej1 #cff ,snuffers1 #bjd ,snuff-rasps1 #cff ,sources of metals1 #dc1 #dd ,south ,african curios1 #caa ,spanish metal-work1 #cai ,spectacle cases1 #cfe ,spice-boxes1 #bgh ,spirit labels1 #cef ,spits1 #afj ,spurs1 #ajg ,stafford ,house exhibits1 #ei ,standard measures1 #bcf1 #bci ,standard weights1 #bdj ,statues1 #hi ,statuettes1 #ahg ,sundials1 #cj1 #cbi-ccd ,tankards1 #age ,temple vases1 #bih-cja ,thibet tea-urns1 #bha ,tinder-boxes1 #aif ,tobacco-boxes1 #cfd ,toilet requisites1 #hf ,tower of ,london exhibits1 #ajg ,trinkets1 #ajd-ajf ,trivets1 #agi ,trumpets1 #fi1 #cba ,turkish metal-work1 #bbf ,united ,service ,museum exhibits1 #bbj1 #cgi ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 #baj ,verulamium curios1 #ed ,victoria ,albert ,museum exhibits1 #ei1 #hd1 #aja1 #abf1 #aca1 #aci1 #ahj1 #ahc1 #bbj1 #bej1 #bfh1 #bih1 #cah1 #cba1 #cdb1 #cge ,wallace collection exhibits1 #aji ,warming-pans1 #ahj1 #ahc ,watches1 #cci ,watchmen's lanterns1 #bjh1 #baa ,water jars1 #bbg ,weather-vanes1 #cc1 #abc ,weighing instruments1 #bcf-bci ,weights and measures1 #bdb-bde ,welsh ,national ,museum exhibits1 #ei ,winchester bushel1 #bcf ,winchester moot horn1 #bcb ,winchester ,museum exhibits1 #bcf ,wrinkles for collectors1 #chg-cic ,writing boxes1 #bfd ,,unwin ,,brothers1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,woking ,transcriber's ,notes ,minor punctuation errors have been corrected4 ,there are a few inconsistent hyphens1 and these have been left as printed4 ,in the list of the books in series ,,chats ,,on ,,old ,,miniatures4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,foster1 ,f4,s ,a has been changed to ,f4,s4,a4 p#hc4 like one round changed to found4 ,the illustration and it's companion blank page 7p#bdc and #bdd7 appear between p#bda and #bdb in the ,internet ,archive scan from which this text has been derived4 ,it has been moved to the correct place4 p#bhg4 ,a single occurrence of cloisson has been changed to cloissonn1 the spelling found in the rest of the text4 p#cig4 7,index7 ,boadicea1 ,queen1 #ii-ia changed to ,boadicea1 ,queen1 #ia4