,,the ,,mystery ,,and ,,romance ,,of ,,alchemy ,,and ,,pharmacy ,,the ,,scientific ,,press1 ,,ltd4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,and ,,romance ,,of ,,alchemy ,,and ,,pharmacy ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,thompson ,,author ,,of 8,,poison ,,romance ,,and ,,poison ,,mysteries10 8,,the ,,chemist',s ,,compendium10 8,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,beauty10 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,london ,,the ,,scientific ,,press1 ,,limited #bh #bi ,,southampton ,,street1 ,,strand1 ,w4,c4 #ahig ,,preface4 ,it has been my endeavour in the following pages to sketch1 however imperfectly1 some phases of the romance and mystery that have surrounded the arts of medicine1 alchemy1 and pharmacy from the earliest period of which we have record down to the close of the eighteenth century4 ,the influence of the past on the present is greater than we commonly suppose4 ,in this age of rapid scientific progress and brilliant research1 we are apt to overlook and lose sight of the patient labours of the early pioneers of science1 many of whom laid the foundations of discoveries that have since proved of inestimable value to mankind4 ,hence the history of the past1 whether in science or in art1 is always worthy of study and attention4 ,my thanks are due to the ,editor of the ,pharmaceutical ,journal for permission to reproduce several illustrations which appeared in its pages together with a portion of this work4 ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,t ,,liverpool1 #ahig4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,healing4 ,the foundation of the art of healing--,the most ancient record of medicine and pharmacy--,the ,ebers ,papyrus--,origin of the term pharmacist--,drugs used in ancient ,egypt--,early ,jewish medicines--,the antiquity of medicine and alchemy in ,china--,the ,chinese and the ,philosopher's ,stone--,ancient ,chinese materia medica--,the medical art in ancient ,greece--,the ,grecian temples of medicine--,methods of treatment--,the oath of ,hippocrates pages #a-ac ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,wizards ,,of ,,early ,,greece4 ,tiresias--,abaris--,pythagoras--,epimen ides--,empedocles--,aristras-- ,hermotimus pages #ad-bc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,wizards ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,a ,roman sorceress--,virgil's sorceress--,canidia--,a witches' incantation pages #bd-bi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,medicine4 sculapius--,hippocrates--,diocles--,prax agoras--,chrysippus-- ,hierphilus--,erasistratus--,serapion--, asclepiades--,galen--,his system of treatment--,medical practice in the fifth century--,alexander of ,tralles--,the fees of ,roman practitioners--,votive offerings for health--,roman donaria--,roman temples of healing pages #cj-ch ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,early ,,age ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,pharmacy4 ,celsus--,roman pharmacy--,methods of administration--,antidotes--,grecian remedy for hydrophobia--,chemical bodies and drugs employed by the ,greeks and ,romans--,dioscorides--,his work on materia medica--,ancient method of collecting opium--,preparation of wool fat--,drugs used in ,pompeii and ,herculaneum pages #ci-df ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,alchemy--,,the ,,alchemists4 ,origin of the term chemistry--,practice of the hermetic science by the ,egyptians--,al-,chindus--,geber--,rhaze s--,merlin--,st4 ,dunstan--,albertus ,magnus--,vincent de ,beauvais--,raymond ,lulli--,arnauld de ,villeneuve--,roger ,bacon--,antonio ,quainer--,discoveries made by the early alchemists--,eck--,john ,baptist ,porta--,cornelius ,agrippa--,dr4 ,dee--,symbols of the alchemists pages #dg-fc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,philosopher',s ,,stone4 ,alchemical research--,its objects--,supposed composition of the ,philosopher's ,stone--,claimants to the discovery--,the theories of ,rhazes1 ,merlin and ,bacon--,bacon's definition of alchemy--,ripley's process--,the ,elixir of ,life--,the theories of ,paracelsus--,his secret elixirs--,elixir ,vit pages #fd-ga ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,black ,,art ,,and ,,occult ,,sciences4 ,the antiquity of magic--,early magicians and wise men--,variety of forms practised--,oneiromancy--,theurgy and ,goetry--,historic dreams--,necromancy--,methods of evocation--,chiromancy--,origin of the practice--,astrology--,its antiquity--,famous astrologers pages #gb-gh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,foretelling4 ,influence of the planets and signs of the ,zodiac--,casting horoscopes--,methods of divination--,crystal gazing--,dactylomancy--,pyromancy pages #gi-hb ,,chapter ,x4 ,,black ,,magic4 ,practice of magic by the early alchemists--,demonology--,initiation of novices--,taking the oath--,the ceremonial--,perfumes employed--,composition of the incense used--,black magic by burning--,witchcraft--,methods of practice--,trial of the ,duchess of ,gloucester--,the 8evil eye0--,apparitions in the sky--,a witches' ,sabbath--,appearance of the devil--,origin of the word 8witch0--,their initiation and pact pages #hc-hi ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,superstition ,,and ,,its ,,influence ,,on ,,medicine4 ,origin of incantations and charms--,the cure of disease by poetry and music--,ancient theory of the cause of disease--,precious stones as remedial agents--,influence of the planets on herbs--,survival of old superstitious customs--,the 8coral and bells0--,sympathetic powders--,curing by touch--,empirical nostrums--,the doctrine of ,signatories--,ancient superstitious practices pages #ij-ig ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,love ,,philtres4 ,composition of philtres--,roman love philtres--,law against their use--,greek ,love philtres--,ingredients employed--,botanomancy--8,water of ,magnanimity0 pages #ih-aja ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,pioneers ,,of ,,pharmacy ,,and ,,botany--,,physic ,,gardens4 ,drugs used by the ,arabs--,avicenna--,basil ,valentine--,paracelsus--,his life and teaching--,van ,helmont--,monastic ,gardens--,mesu--,ebor-,taitor--,the medical treatment of the monks--,hildegarde--,gilbert and ,hernicus ,arviell--,simon de ,cordo--,peter de ,crescenzi--,bartholomew ,glanvil--,advent of printing--,george ,agricola--,conrad ,gesner--,jacques ,gohory--,the ,jardin des ,plantes--,william ,davisson--,matthias of ,lille--,andrew ,cesalpin--,the first pharmacopia--,the ,london ,pharmacopia--,the ,dublin ,pharmacopia--,the ,british ,pharmacopia--,the ,chelsea ,physic ,garden--,its origin--,thomas ,dover--,the 8quicksilver doctor0--,his exploits pages #ajb-aag ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,amulets1 ,,talismans ,,and ,,charms4 ,their antiquity--,definition--,object of their use--,egyptian amulets--,grecian amulets--,roman amulets--,chinese amulets--,knightly talismans--,precious stones as talismans--,metallic amulets--,written amulets--,amulet rings--,curious articles used as amulets--,charms--,the 8,lee ,penny0--,the 8,holy ,hand0--,medical ,charms--,early ,british charm--,toadstones--,medicinal virtues of the toad--,roman charm for prolonging life pages #aah-acg ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,monk ,,physicians--,,itinerant ,,doctors--,,surgery ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,monk physicians and their methods of treatment--,early hospitals--,their originators--,the first school of nurses--,medical faculties of the thirteenth century--,examinations for title of master physician and surgeon--,barber surgeons--,itinerant barbers in ,france--,credulity of the public--,medical art in the fifteenth century--,surgery in the time of the ,crusades--,early tests for water--,methods of disinfection pages #ach-adf ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,plant ,,lore--,,drug ,,charms--,,folk ,,medicine4 ,the mystery of dragon's blood--,charms and superstitious practises connected with dragon's blood--,use of dragon's blood by the ancients--,modern practitioners of magic--,magic properties attributed to the walnut--,sage--,rue--,henbane--,moon ,wort--,solomon's ,seal--,anemone--,trefoil--,st4 ,john's ,wort--,dill--,thistle--,house-leek--,pi mpernell--,vervain--,magic wreathes--,hawkweed--,mountain ,ash--,squill--,mandrake--,method of gathering the mandrake--,abrunes--,the willow as a symbol of sorrow--,almonds--,the bachelor's button--,the bean and nut--,white hawthorn--,ferns and fern seeds--,leaves of peculiar shape--,black hellebore--,ceremonial rites observed when collecting the root--,peony--,forget-me-not--,elder pages #adg-afe ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,mummies ,,and ,,their ,,use ,,in ,,medicine--,,the ,,unicorn4 ,the art of embalming and its antiquity--,various processes employed--,the cost of embalming--,the practitioners of the art--,the drugs and substances employed--,process used for the poorer people--,the veneration of mummies by the ,egyptians--,trade in mummies for use in medicine--,fictitious mummies--,how to tell genuine mummy--,the dose and medicinal properties--,the price in #afhe--,varieties of mummies used in medicine--,process for preparing artificial mummy--,methods of administration--,human fat and its medicinal properties--,human skulls and their value--,human bones and other animal substances as remedial agents--,the ,unicorn--,its appearance described--,properties attributed to the horn--,where the horn was obtained--,the value of the horn--,a horn presented to ,king ,charles ,i4--,virtues attributed to it pages #aff-agd ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,apothecaries--,,apothecaries ,,and ,,their ,,practice--,,apothecaries ,,and ,,their ,,bills--,,curious ,,remedies--,a ,,drug ,,price ,,list ,,of #afhe4 ,earliest record of an apothecary in ,england--,powers granted to the ,college of ,physicians--,foundation of the ,society of ,apothecaries--,nicholas ,culpepper--,history of the ,society--,charter granted--,the first hall and council house--,examinations found necessary--,the apothecaries and the druggists--,the glass tax--,rules for the guidance of apothecaries--,the sale of drugs and poisons restricted in ,glasgow--,a cavalier's experience of apothecaries and their treatment--,his doctor's bill and his opinion on it--,apothecaries' bills--,favourite methods of administration--,animal materia medica--,broth of viper--,curious remedies employed--,drugs used by the physician to ,king ,edward ,i4--,physicking an ambassador--,an apothecary's advertisement--,physicians' fees--,midwife's fee in the seventeenth century--,ancient pharmaceutical preparations and their origin--,medival method of improving the complexion--,human blood as a remedial agent--,celtic recipes--,a remedy for drunkenness--,oil of red dog and its preparation--,strange recipes--,the 8everlasting pill0--,cleopatra and the asp--,ancient method of changing the colour of the hair--,the aloe of ,scripture--,pharmacy #bjj years ago--,the cupidity of the apothecaries--,denouncing the apothecaries--,herb-women of ,london--,the price of bottles in #afef--,popular preparations--,a drug price-list of #afhe pages #age-baa ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,queen ,,elizabeth4 ,an apothecary's shop in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth--,description of the interior--,the customers--,apothecaries' prescriptions--,apothecaries' guilds and their injunctions as to prayer--,the itinerant dentist--,medicaments used in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth pages #bab-bbj ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,famous ,,empirics ,,and ,,their ,,nostrums4 ,early methods of introducing a nostrum--,the origin of quack medicines--,the ,elixir of ,life--,the ,collyrium of ,danares--,sympathetic ,powder--,hoffman's ,water of ,magnanimity--,dutch ,drops--,eau ,mdicinale de ,husson--,dr4 ,james' fever powder--,count ,st4 ,germain's tea--,cagliostro's ,balm of ,life--,how the ,count was confounded--,count ,thn of ,leipzig--,dr4 ,brodum and his 8,nervous ,cordial0--,dr4 ,solomon and his 8,balm of ,gilead0--,how 8the doctor0 was punished--,perkin's ,tractors--,an old ballad pages #bba-bbh ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mortar4 ,the origin of the mortar--,derivation of the name--,primitive mortars--,grain crushers--,egyptian mortars--,antiquity of the mortar in ,africa--,a ,cingalese mortar--,roman mortaria--,manufactories of mortaria in ,britain--,stone mortars--,wooden querns--,origin of the pestle and mortar as a trade sign--,iron mortars--,bell-metal mortars--,brass mortars--,copper mortars--,marble mortars--,modern mortars pages #bbi-bcg ,,part ,,ii4 ,,alchemy ,,and ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,literature4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,pages ,chaucer #bci-beb ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,shakespeare #bec-bgg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,spenser #bgh-bhb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,goethe #bhc-bia ,,chapter ,v4 ,le ,sage #bib-bii ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,ben4 ,jonson #cjj-cjb ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,sir ,walter ,scott #cjc-cje ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,dumas #cjf-caa ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,reade #cab-cba ,,chapter ,x4 ,dickens1 ,thackeray #cbb-cbh ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,marryat #cbi-cce ,,alchemy ,,and ,,pharmacy3 ,,their ,,mystery ,,and ,,romance4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,healing4 ,the birth of the art of healing goes back to a period of great antiquity4 ,the instinct that first led man to utilise the fruits of the earth for his bodily sustenance1 may perchance have suggested the herbs which grew around him as a means of alleviating the ills of his flesh4 ,it is a matter of doubt whether medicine as an art was first practised in ,egypt or ,china2 from recent research probably the former1 as at the time of the writing of the ,ebers ,papyrus1 ,b4,c4 #aeej1 the ,egyptians had a considerable knowledge of the use of herbs and other bodies for medicinal purposes4 ,the art of medicine had two foundations--empiricism and superstition--which have influenced it from its birth down to the present time4 ,the most ancient record of medicine and pharmacy known was discovered at ,kahun in #ahhi1 near the pyramid of ,illahun in the ruins of an ancient town1 which had apparently been inhabited by the builders of the pyramid4 ,it dates from the twelfth dynasty1 ,b4,c4 #bgjj to #bejj1 more than a thousand years before the ,exodus4 ,besides containing instructions for midwives1 it includes numerous formul for the treatment of various complaints1 composed of such very homely articles as beer1 cow's milk1 honey1 oil1 onions1 herbs1 dates1 and other fruits4 ,the ,ebers ,papyrus1 which was found reposing between the legs of a mummy1 throws a light on ancient ,egyptian pharmacy1 and was written in the reign of ,king ,amenhotep ,i41 of the eighteenth dynasty4 ,it commences as follows3 8,beginning of the chapter of applying medicaments to every part of the patient4 8,i have come forth from ,heliopolis with the mighty ones of the ,temple of the ,sun1 the wielders of protection1 the princes of eternity4 8,rescuing 787 ,i have come forth from ,sais with the ,mothers of the ,gods1 who have given me their protection4 8,i have magic formul made by the ,universal ,lord to drive out the stroke of god and goddess1 the ,male ,death and ,female ,death1 et cetera1#a that is in this my head1 in this my neck1 in this my shoulder1 in this my flesh1 in these my limbs1 to punish the above-named enchanters 787 who introduce disturbance into this my flesh40 #a ,etc4 is probably a direction ad lib4 for the doctor speaking the formul4 ,such formul1 evidently for recitation during the treatment1 continue for a page and a half4 ,the book has thus no general title1 but plunges at once into the mysteries of the profession4 8,beginning of the mystery of the physician who knows the motion of the heart4 ,there are vessels in it to every limb4 ,when any physician1 doctor1 or amulet-maker puts his fingers upon the top of the head1 upon the occiput1 upon the hands1 upon the chest1 upon the arms1 upon the legs1 he communicates 787 with the heart1 for its vessels extend to every limb1 wherefore it is called the starting-point of every limb40 ,the following may be taken as an example of the recipes given in the manuscript3-- 8,a remedy for the belly that is painful3 ,cummin #afd hin1 goose-grease #ah hin1 milk #aaf hekt2 cool1 strain1 and drink04 ,the hin is about #bi cubic inches1 and the #aaf hekt #ah cubic inches2 the prescription is thus roundly #ab cubic inch of cummin1 and #d of goose fat1 in half a pint of milk4 ,this papyrus contains #aaj pages1 each page consisting of about twenty-two lines of bold ,hieratic writing4 ,it may be described as an encyclopdia of medicine as known and practised by the ,egyptians of the eighteenth dynasty1 and it contains prescriptions of all kinds of diseases--some borrowed from ,syrian medical lore1 and some of such great antiquity that they are ascribed to the mythological ages1 when the gods yet reigned personally on earth4 ,among others is given the recipe for an application whereby ,osiris cured ,ra of a headache4 ,in this papyrus is an example of an old ,egyptian diagnosis and therapeutics1 as follows3 8,when thou findest any one with a hardness in his re-hit 7pit of the stomach71 and when1 after eating1 he feels a pressure on his intestines1 his hit is swollen and he feels bad in walking like one who suffers from heat in his back1 then observe him when he lies stretched out1 and if thou findest his intestines hot and a hardness in his re-hit1 say unto thyself1 ,this is a disease of the liver4 ,then prepare for thyself according to the secrets of the science from the plant pa-che-test and dates1 mix them1 and give in water40 ,it also contains numerous recipes for the treatment of diseases1 for internal and external use4 ,most of the drugs mentioned are derived from indigenous plants1 and such chemical bodies as alum1 salt1 nitre1 and sulphate of copper are included in some of the prescriptions4 ,it seems probable that most of the medicines used in these early times were first tried as foods2 and those which when taken in large quantities or in special conditions influenced the functions of the body1 these and others found to be too strong for dietetic use were relegated to the books of medicine4 ,as an instance of this1 the leaves and seeds of the castor oil plant and the astringent sycamore fig are included in many recipes1 but ,maspero states that there is little doubt that castor oil was taken regularly in food in the time of the ,pharaohs1 and at the present time it is a favourite adjunct to the salads of the ,egyptian fellaheen4 ,the same writer thinks the ,egyptians began by eating every kind of food which the country produced1 and so became acquainted with their therapeutic properties4 ,in another papyrus said to have been written about the time of ,king ,chata of the first dynasty1 who reigned ,b4,c4 #djjj1 the following prescription for promoting the growth of the hair is given3-- ,pad of a dog's foot #a ,fruit of date palm #a ,ass's hoof #a ,boil together in oil4 ,dr4 v4 ,oefele states of pharmacy before the time of ,hippocrates1 that although the practice of medicine was not separated from pharmacy among the ,greeks and ,romans1 there was such a separation among the ancient ,egyptians1 from whom the distinction was handed down to the ,copts1 and by them to the ,arabians2 and1 in fact1 that the term pharmacist is probably of ,egyptian origin1 being derived from ,ph-ar-maki1 which signifies the preparation of medicine from drugs4 ,the ,egyptian pharmaki who were engaged in that occupation belonged to the higher social ranks of writers or academically-educated persons1 comprising also the priests1 physicians1 statesmen1 and military commanders4 ,the ,jews were indebted to ,egypt for their primary ideas of medicine1 but they cast away the ideas of demonology and magic which clouded what was good in the practice of ,egypt4 ,the ,talmud recommends onions for worms1 and wine1 pepper1 and asaftida for flatulency4 ,the ,talmudists are responsible for calling the earth1 air1 fire1 and water elementary bodies4 ,in the middle ages the ,jews rendered service to the healing art1 and had a large share in the scientific work connected with the ,arab domination of ,spain4 ,in ,china the use of drugs goes back to a very remote age1 and alchemy was practised by the ,chinese long previous to its being known in ,europe4 ,for two centuries prior to the ,christian era1 and for four or more subsequent1 the transmutation of the base metals into gold1 and the composition of the elixir of immortality1 were questions ardently studied by the ,chinese4 ,it is1 moreover1 a matter of history that intercourse between ,china and ,persia was frequent both before and after the ,mahomedan conquest of the latter country2 that embassies from ,persia as well as from the ,arabs1 and even from the ,greeks in ,constantinople1 visited the court of the ,chinese emperor in ,shansi2 that ,arab traders settled in ,china1 and that there was frequent intercourse by sea between ,china and the ,persian ,gulf2 and lastly1 that ,china had an extensive alchemical literature anterior to the period when alchemy was studied in the ,west4 ,all these facts go to prove that the ancient science known as alchemy was originated by the ,chinese1 and not by the disciples of ,mahomed1 who only acquired the knowledge at second hand4#b #b ,hanbury's ,notes on ,chinese ,materia ,medica4 ,it is somewhat curious that while the alchemists of the ,west were always in doubt as to what constituted the true ,philosopher's ,stone1 the ,chinese seemingly had no doubt as to its identity4 ,cinnabar was regarded by the early alchemists and philosophers of that nation as the wonderful body which was supposed to have the mysterious power of converting other metals into gold1 and when used as a medicine would prolong life for an indefinite period4 ,ko-hung1 author of the ,pau-p'uh-tsi p'ian1 a work of the fourth century1 and undoubtedly genuine1 gives various mineral and vegetable productions possessing in different degrees the properties of an elixir vit4 ,in one paragraph of this work he states3 8,when vegetable matter is burnt it is destroyed1 but when the ,ian-sha 7,cinnabar7 is subjected to heat it produces mercury4 ,after passing through other changes it returns to its original form4 ,it differs widely1 therefore1 from vegetable substances1 and hence it has the power of making men live for ever and raising them to the rank of the genii4 ,he who knows the doctrine1 is he not far above common men1 etc480 ,in materia medica the knowledge of the ,chinese was much in advance of the nations of the ,west1 and their great herbal1 entitled ,pun-,isaun-,kang-,mh1 written by ,le-she-chin in the middle of the sixteenth century1 shows the discernment possessed by these curious people4 ,this work consists of forty thin octavo volumes1 the first three of which contain woodcuts of many of the minerals1 plants1 and animals referred to in the text4 ,the woodcuts alone number #aajj1 and the work itself is divided into fifty-two divisions4 ,the antiquity of the practice of medicine among the ,chinese may be gathered from the fact that there exists a work entitled ,a ,treatise from the ,heart on the ,small-pox1 which was written during the dynasty of ,icheon1 ,b4,c4 #aabb4 ,in this work the eruption is described1 and some kind of inoculation is also referred to as a remedy4 ,but it is to ,greece that we have to look for the birth of medical art in the ,west1 its practice by the priests being of great antiquity4 ,the earliest record of a temple of medicine is of one erected in the ,peloponnesus in the year ,b4,c4 #aacj1 or about fifty years after the fall of ,troy4 ,other temples or centres of the healing art gradually sprang up1 and round each of those clustered a little school of students4 ,there were the temple of ,health at ,pergamus1 the temple of ,hygeia at ,cytea1 and the temples of sculapius at ,cos and ,epidamus1 where the famous statue of sculapius stood4 ,the father of ancient medicine1 ,hippocrates1 graduated as a student of ,cos1 and ,galen is said to have been at ,epidamus4 ,it was in the temple of sculapius at ,greece that any record of medicine was first kept1 the names of diseases and their cures being registered on tablets of marble4 ,the priests and priestesses1 who were the guardians of the temple1 prepared the remedies and directed their application1 and thus commenced the practice of physic as a regular profession4 ,these official persons were ambitious to pass as the legitimate descendants of sculapius1 and therefore assumed the title of the ,asclepiades4 ,the writings of ,pausanius1 ,plutarch1 and others abound with accounts of the artifices of these early practitioners4 ,aristophanes mentions the dexterity and promptitude with which they collected and put into their bags the offerings on the altar4 ,the patients were wont to repose on the skins of sacrificed rams in order to procure celestial visions4 ,as soon as they were supposed to be asleep1 a priest1 clothed in the dress of sculapius1 imitating his manner1 and accompanied by the daughters of the god 7that is1 by young actresses well up in their parts71 entered and solemnly delivered a medical opinion4 ,the student sat at the feet of the philosopher of his choice1 and after a certain period and course of probation1 was granted the rights of priest and physician to practise as a teacher and healer4 ,they had their code and ethics of a standard almost equal to those of to-day1 and their knowledge of surgery1 and the use of the herbs and plants which grew around them1 was not a little4 ,entering on their novitiate at their chosen temple or school1 they were required to make a protestation or oath1 of which the following is the one made by ,hippocrates3-- 8,i1 ,hippocrates1 do now promise and protest to the great god ,apollo and his two daughters ,hygeia and ,panadie1 and also to all the gods and goddesses1 to observe the contents of this oath or tables wherein the oath is carved1 written1 or engraved1 so far as ,i can possibly1 and so far as my wit or understanding shall be able to direct me1 viz41 ,i yield myself tributary and debtor to the master and doctor1 who hath instructed me and showed me this science and doctrine1 even as much or rather more than to my father who hath begotten me1 and that ,i shall live and communicate with him1 and follow him in all necessities which ,i shall know him to have1 so far as my power shall permit and my goods extend4 ,also that ,i shall love and cherish his children as my brother's1 and his progeny as my own4 ,further1 that ,i shall teach1 show and demonstrate the said science without reward or covenant1 and that ,i shall give all the canons1 rules and precepts freely1 truly and faithfully to my master1 his children as to my own1 without hiding or unacting anything1 and to all other scholars who shall make the same oath or protestation1 and to no others4 ,also that in practising and using my science towards the sick1 ,i shall use only things necessary1 so far as ,i am able1 and as my spirit and good understanding shall give unto me1 and that ,i shall cure the sick as speedily as ,i may without dilating or prolonging the malady1 and that ,i shall not do anything against equity for hatred1 anger1 envy or malice to any person whatsoever4 ,moreover1 that ,i shall minister no poison1 neither counsel nor teach poison1 nor the composing thereof to any4 ,also that ,i shall not give nor cause to be given1 nor contend that anything be applied to a woman breeding1 to destroy and make her void her fruit4 ,but ,i shall protest to keep my life and science purely1 sincerely and inviolably1 without deceit1 fraud or guile4 ,and that ,i shall not cut or incise any person having the stone1 but shall leave the same to those who are expert in it4 ,and1 furthermore1 that ,i shall not enter into the patient's house lest with purpose to heal him1 and that ,i shall patiently sustain the injuries1 reproaches1 and loathsomeness of sick men and other base railings1 and that ,i shall eschew1 as far as ,i may1 all venereous lasciviousness4 ,moreover1 ,i protest1 be it man1 woman1 or servant who is my patient1 to cure them of all things1 that ,i may see or hear either in mind or manner1 and ,i shall not betray that which should be concealed or hidden1 but keep inviolable with silence2 neither reveal any creature under pain of death4 ,and therefore ,i beseech our gods that observing this protestation1 promise1 and vow entirely and inviolably1 all things in my life1 in my art1 and science1 may succeed securely1 healthfully1 and prosperously to me1 and in the end eternal glory4 8,and to him that shall violate1 transgress1 or become perjured1 that the contrary may happen unto him1 viz41 misery1 calamities1 and continual maladies40 ,we have here principles laid down which would do honour to any medical body1 and which show the highly civilised condition and the excellent moral teaching of the early ,greek philosophers and priests4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,wizards ,,of ,,early ,,greece4 ,one of the earliest magicians or soothsayers of which we have record out of the era of mythology was ,tiresias4 ,he lived in the times of dipus and the war of the seven chiefs against ,thebes4 ,for having offended the gods he was visited with blindness1 but being repentant1 tradition states they recompensed him for this affliction by endowing him with the gift of prophecy and the act of divination4 ,he is also said to have been able to hold communion with the feathered world1 and to have power over the spirits of the dead1 whom he could compel to appear and reply to his inquiries4 ,his incantations and spells were supposed to be irresistible1 and he could foretell future events by signs from fire1 smoke1 and other methods of divining4 ,abaris1 a native of ,scythia1 was another magician of renown4 ,there is no exact record of the time in which he lived1 but he is represented by some as having constructed the ,palladium which protected ,troy from its enemies for a long time4 ,other authors declare he was a friend of ,pythagoras1 who flourished some #fjj years later4 ,according to ,herodotus1 he travelled over the world with an arrow1 eating nothing during his journey4 ,by others it is said the arrow was presented to him by ,apollo1 and that upon it he rode through the air1 and travelled over lands1 seas1 mountains1 and other inaccessible places4 ,but from all accounts his repute as a magician and seer is confirmed4 ,he is said to have foretold earthquakes1 allayed storms and pestilence1 cured disease by charms and incantations1 and was generally revered for his power and command over the dwellers in the unseen world4 ,pythagoras1 one of the most notable magicians in early history1 was born about the year ,b4,c4 #ehf1 and lived during the time of ,cyrus and ,darius ,hystaspes1 of ,crsus1 of ,pisistratus1 of ,polycrates1 and ,amasis ,king of ,egypt4 ,he was renowned not only as a philosopher but as a leader and politician1 and was learned in all branches of science then known4 ,the early part of his life was spent in ,egypt1 but he also travelled in order to gather experience and knowledge until he reached the age of forty years4 ,afterwards he founded a school1 where he lectured and instructed a large number of followers who were attracted by his wisdom and learning4 ,he divided his pupils into two classes3 the neophytes1 to whom were explained the elementary and general principles of his philosophy1 while the advanced were admitted into his entire confidence and formed a brotherhood1 who threw their property into a common stock and lived together4 ,during the latter part of his life he is said to have lived in ,magna ,grcia1 where he carried on his studies and made some of his great discoveries4 ,he was a profound geometrician1 and two great theorems1 one still known as the ,pythagorean1 are ascribed to him4 ,he propounded the doctrine that the earth is a planet of spherical form1 and the sun the centre of the planetary system4 ,his philosophy prescribed and taught a total abstinence from everything which had animal life1 and temperance in all things1 together with the subjection of the appetites of the body4 ,by this strict discipline1 he seems to have obtained almost complete control over the wills and minds of his followers1 from whom he demanded the utmost docility4 ,preparatory to entering on his novitiate1 the pupil was strictly examined by the master as to his principles1 habits1 and intentions4 ,the tone of his voice1 his manner of speaking1 his walk1 gestures1 and the lines of his face and the expression of his eyes1 were all carefully observed1 and only if all these features were satisfactory was he admitted as a probationer4 ,after this interview the master withdrew from the sight of the pupil1 who could then enter on his novitiate of three and five1 in all eight years1 during which time he was not permitted to look on the master1 but only hear him speak from behind a curtain1 and he was enjoined to preserve the strictest silence4 ,to add to his mystery and authority1 ,pythagoras is said to have hid himself during the day from his pupils1 and was only visible to them after the night had come on4 ,he is described as having a most imposing and majestic appearance1 with a grave and awe-inspiring countenance4 ,when he came forth he appeared in a long garment of the purest white1 with his long beard flowing1 and a garland upon his head4 ,he allowed his followers to believe he was one of the gods1 and he is said to have told ,abaris that he resumed human form so that he might win the confidence of man4 ,doubtless1 owing to his great attainments and his superiority to the men of his time1 he considered himself more divine than human1 and he claimed to have miraculous endowments4 ,those who were not of his followers ascribed the stories related of him to magic1 which probably1 like other philosophers1 he studied4 ,among other stories which tradition has handed down concerning ,pythagoras are the following3 ,he professed to have appeared in different ages in various human forms--first as thalides1 the son of ,mercury1 and then as ,euphorbu1 who slew ,patroclus at the siege of ,troy1 and as other individuals also4 ,he is said to have tamed a bear by whispering in its ear1 and prevailed on it to feed on vegetables alone4 ,he called also an eagle down from its flight1 causing it to sit on his hand as if quite tame4 ,when ,abaris addressed him as one of the heavenly host1 he convinced him that he was indeed a celestial being by showing him his thigh of gold1 which also he exhibited to sceptical pupils4 ,at another period he absented himself from his associates in ,italy for a year3 when he re-appeared he stated he had been sojourning in the infernal regions1 and gave them wonderful descriptions of the strange things he had seen there4 ,these and many other fabulous stories are related of this singular man1 which prove him to have been as wily as he was wise4 ,one curious rule by which he bound his pupils is worth mentioning4 ,at the end of their novitiate1 if it was discovered that their intellectual faculties were too weak to grapple with the intricacies of his theories and problems1 they were expelled the community2 the double of the property they had contributed to the common stock was refunded to them2 a monument inscribed with their names was placed in the meeting-place of the community1 and they were considered as dead by the brotherhood4 ,it is easy to imagine with what feelings these measures would be regarded by some who were called to submit to them1 and so they eventually proved the cause of the break-up of the ,pythagorean school4 ,cylon1 a man of great wealth of ,crotona1 conceived a great partiality for ,pythagoras1 and became a novice with ,perialus1 and submitted to all the severities of the school4 ,they passed through the three years of probation and five years of silence1 and were received into the familiarity of the master4 ,but after they had delivered their wealth into the common stock1 ,pythagoras pronounced them to be deficient in intellectual power1 or for some other reason most probably they were expelled4 ,a tablet inscribed with their names was set up1 and they were pronounced dead to the school4 ,cylon1 who was a man of excitable and violent temperament1 became highly incensed at this treatment1 and resolved on vengeance4 ,collecting a band of followers1 which probably included a large number of rejected students1 they surrounded the school of the master and set it on fire4 ,forty people are said to have perished in the flames1 but ,pythagoras with two of his pupils escaped to ,metapontum1 where he took refuge in the ,temple of the ,muses4 ,the strife fomented by ,cylon broke out afresh1 and he was closely besieged in the temple by his enemies4 ,the rioting continued1 and as no provisions could be conveyed to him1 he finally perished with hunger1 according to ,laertius1 after forty days' abstinence4 ,thus ended ,pythagoras1 a man of undoubted genius1 and in knowledge much in advance of his time4 ,although his teachings were mixed up with considerable artifice and deception1 he ranks1 as one of the greatest of the ,greek philosophers4 ,epimenides was a native of ,crete1 and probably lived before the time of ,pythagoras4 ,he was credited with marvellous performances from a very early age1 and is said when quite a lad to have retired to a cave and slept for fifty-seven years4 ,he then returned to his father's house1 which he found in the possession of a new tenant1 and the family disappeared4 ,at length he came across his brother1 who had grown into an old man1 who after some time acknowledged him4 ,on this story becoming known1 he was accounted a favourite of the gods1 and he professed to be endowed with supernatural gifts4 ,he made it known that he was supplied with food by the nymphs1 and that he was exempt from the usual necessities imposed on the body by ,nature4 ,he boasted that he could separate his soul from his body and recall it as he thought fit4 ,he professed to have dealings with the unseen world1 and would exorcise evil spirits or work spells4 ,he had great renown as a seer1 and his prophecies were regarded as direct messages from the gods4 ,but the great act of his life was his delivery of ,athens from a great pestilence after the rebellion of ,cylon4 ,the plague1 which had almost decimated the city1 could not be stopped1 and the ,athenian ,senate1 after much deliberation1 resolved to send for ,epimenides1 who was at that time in ,crete4 ,a special vessel was placed under the command of one of the first citizens of the ,state1 who was commissioned to bring the wise magician4 ,on his arrival at ,athens he at once set to work with solemn rites and ceremonials4 ,he commanded that a number of black and white sheep should be led to the ,areopagus1 then be let loose and allowed to wander whither they wished4 ,certain persons were instructed to follow them and mark the spot where they lay down1 on which place the animal was sacrificed to the local deity4 ,in this manner1 it is recorded1 the plague was stayed4 ,according to some writers he also sacrificed human victims4 ,although pressed by the ,athenian ,senate to take a recompense for his services1 ,epimenides is said to have refused all gifts1 stipulating only that there should be perpetual peace between the ,athenians and the people of ,gnossus1 his native city4 ,he died shortly afterwards1 at the reputed age of #aeg years4 ,empedocles was a distinguished magician1 orator1 and poet1 and was born in ,agrigentum1 ,sicily4 ,he was a follower of ,pythagoras1 and probably received instruction from his successors4 ,he was credited with miraculous powers1 and to have been able to restore the dead to life4 ,he was skilled in medicine and the use of herbs1 and was indeed a general benefactor to the citizens of his native place1 where he was almost worshipped as a god4 ,like other philosophers of his time1 he was inordinately vain1 but was undoubtedly a man of great intelligence1 and conferred immense benefits on his fellow-creatures4 ,his belief in the power of magic is shown in the following words he was wont to address to his students3 8,by my instructions you shall learn medicines that are powerful to cure disease and reanimate old age2 you shall be able to calm the savage winds which lay waste the labours of all the husbandmen1 and1 when you will1 shall send forth the tempest again2 you shall cause the skies to be fair and serene2 or1 once more1 shall draw down refreshing showers1 reanimating the fruits of the earth2 nay1 you shall recall the strength of the dead man when he has already become the victim of ,pluto04 ,of himself he said3 8,i mix with you a god1 no longer a mortal1 and am everywhere honoured by you1 as is just2 crowned with fillets and fragrant garlands1 adorned with which1 when ,i visit populous cities1 ,i am revered by both men and women1 who follow me by ten thousands1 inquiring the road to boundless wealth1 seeking the gift of prophecy and who would learn the marvellous skill to cure all kinds of diseases04 ,of other wizards of early ,greece1 ,herodotus mentions ,aristras1 a poet of ,proconnesus1 who is said to have mysteriously disappeared from the earth for #cdj years1 and then appeared again at ,metapontum and commanded the citizens to erect a statue to him4 ,also ,hermotimus1 who was reputed to have the power of separating his soul from his body at will4 ,but little is known beyond the merest tradition of these worthies4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,wizards ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,the ,roman philosophers1 like the ,greeks1 claimed to possess occult powers1 and the practitioners of magic and sorcery were numerous during the time of the ,empire4 ,we have a graphic description of the incantations of a ,roman sorceress in the story of ,dido4 ,deserted by neas1 she resolves on self-destruction4 ,to delude her sister as to her secret purpose she sends for a priestess from the gardens of the ,hesperides1 pretending that her object is to effect the return of her lover by means of certain magical incantations4 ,the priestess1 who is invested with magical powers1 can call up the spirits of the dead1 cause the solid earth to rock and quake1 and the trees of the forest to descend from the mountains4 ,on the arrival of the sorceress1 she commands that a funeral pyre shall be erected in the interior court of the palace1 and that the arms of neas1 what remains of his attire1 and the marriage bed in which ,dido had received him1 shall be placed upon it4 ,the pyre is to be hung round with garlands and branches of cypress1 and the whole crowned with a picture of neas and his sword4 ,altars were placed around1 and the priestess1 with dishevelled hair1 cried aloud with terrible charms upon her three hundred gods1 upon ,erebus1 ,chaos1 and the three-faced ,hecate4 ,the waters of ,avernus were then sprinkled about1 and certain magical herbs that had been cut by moonlight with a sickle of brass4 ,the priestess had with her the excrescence which is found upon the forehead of a new-cast foal1 of the size of a dried fig1 a talisman of great power4 ,dido is then called upon to approach1 and1 with her robe drawn up exposing one bare foot1 she makes the circle of the altars1 embracing them successively1 and breaks over each a consecrated cake4 ,the pyre is lit1 and the charm is supposed to be complete4 ,but all the power and the elaborate ritual prescribed by the sorceress were of no avail4 neas returns not1 and the broken-hearted ,dido finally stabs herself and dies4 ,many prodigies are interspersed throughout the early history of ,rome1 and most of the acts of these people were surrounded with a halo of superstition natural at the time1 and doubtless largely exaggerated4 ,virgil1 ,horace1 ,ovid1 and ,lucan all allude to the belief in and the practice of sorcery and magic by the ,romans4 ,in the eighth eclogue of ,virgil we have a detailed description of a ,roman sorceress4 ,she is introduced by the poet as giving directions to her assistant as to the working of certain charms4 ,her object 7a common one apparently at that time7 is to recall ,daphnis1 whom she calls her husband1 to return once more to her arms4 ,the assistant is directed to burn vervain and frankincense1 and the highest efficacy is ascribed to a solemn chant1 which is capable of calling down the moon from its sphere or making the cold-blooded snake burst in the field1 and was the means by which ,circe turned the companions of ,ulysses into beasts4 ,the image of ,daphnis is then ordered to be thrice bound round with fillets of three colours1 the assistant at the same time repeating the words1 8,thus ,i bind the fillets of ,venus10 and then paraded about a prepared altar4 ,an image of clay and one of wax are placed before the same fire2 and as the image of clay hardens1 so does the heart of ,daphnis harden towards his new mistress2 and as the figure of wax softens1 so is the heart of the ex-lover made tender towards the sorceress4 ,a sacred cake is then broken over the image1 and crackling laurels burnt before it4 ,she prays that as the wanton heifer pursues the steer through woods and glens till at length1 worn out with fatigue1 she lies down on the oozy reeds by the banks of the stream1 and the night dew will not even drive her away1 so ,daphnis may be led on after her for ever with inextinguishable love4 ,the relics of his belongings are then buried beneath the threshold4 ,she bruises poisonous herbs of resistless virtue1 which had been gathered in the kingdom of ,pontus1 herbs which enabled him who gave them to turn himself into a hungry wolf prowling amidst the forests1 to call up ghosts from the grave1 and to translate the ripened harvest from the field where it grew to the lands of another4 ,the ashes of these herbs are cast over her head into the running stream1 while she must not look behind her4 ,at length the sorceress begins to despair and cries1 8,daphnis heeds not my incantations1 heeds not the gods04 ,she looks again1 and perceives the ashes on the altar are glowing and emitting sparks of fire4 ,her faithful house dog barks before the door4 8,can these things be10 she exclaims1 8or do lovers dream what they desire8 ,it is not so6 ,the real ,daphnis comes2 ,i hear his steps2 he has left the deluding town2 he hastens to my longing arms60 ,in the works of ,horace an interesting description of a witches' incantation is also given1 the details of which it is instructive to compare with those given by other writers4 ,four sorceresses are assembled in conclave1 the chief being ,canidia1 with three assistants1 in order to work a charm by means of which a youth named ,varus1 for whom ,canidia had conceived a passion1 may be compelled to reciprocate her affections4 ,canidia1 with the locks of her dishevelled hair twined round with venomous and deadly serpents1 orders the wild fig tree and the funeral cypress to be rooted up from the sepulchres on which they grew1 and these1 together with the egg of a toad smeared with blood1 the plumage of the screech owl1 various herbs brought from ,thessaly and ,georgia1 and bones torn from the jaws of a famished dog1 to be burnt in flames fed with perfumes from ,colchis4 ,one assistant1 whose hair stands stiff and erect like the quills of the sea-hedgehog or the bristles of a hunted boar1 sprinkles the ground with drops from the ,avernus1 while another1 who is reputed to have had the faculty of conjuring the stars and moon down from heaven1 assists in other ways4 ,the fourth witch is busy digging a hole with a spade1 in which is to be plunged up to his chin the beardless youth stripped of his purple robe--the emblem of his noble descent--and naked1 that from his marrow1 already dry1 and his liver 7when at length his eyeballs1 long fixed on the still renovated food which is withheld from his famished jaws1 have no longer the power to discern71 may be concreted the love potion from which the witches promise themselves the most wonderful results4 ,canidia1 unmoved by his sufferings1 works herself into a great rage1 and calls upon the night and the morn to help in her infamous incantation4 ,but her victim manages to evade destruction by means of some magical antidote4 ,she then resolves to prepare a still more powerful charm1 exclaiming1 8,sooner shall the sky be swallowed up in the sea and the earth be stretched a covering over both1 than thou1 my enemy1 shalt not be wrapped in the flames of love as subtle and tenacious as those of burning pitch04 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,medicine4 ,though sculapius is said to have lived so near to the time of the ,trojan war1 yet the ,greeks knew very little about him4 ,the superstition of the time gave him a position among the gods1 and as he was adored under the character of the genius of physic1 it came at last to be doubted whether he was ever a mortal2 consequently his priests were obliged for their own sakes to make themselves masters of all the physic that the master could teach1 that they might be qualified to give advice to those who applied to them2 their prescriptions passed for the suggestions of the gods1 the cures for the miraculous4 ,but both diseases and remedies were carefully recorded4 ,strabo tells us that from these registers in the temple of sculapius at ,cos1 ,hippocrates formed his plan for a proper diet4 ,hippocrates1 the wise physician and father of medicine1 was according to ,soranus the son of ,heraclides and ,phnaretes1 descended from ,hercules and sculapius4 ,he was a ,coan by birth1 and was first instructed by his father1 and then by ,herodicus1 and ,democritus of ,abdua1 the philosopher4 ,he flourished at the time of the ,peloponnesian war1 and after being instructed in physic and the arts1 left his own country for ,thessaly1 where his fame soon became known1 even as far as ,persia4 ,he was sent for by ,perdiccs1 ,king of ,macedonia1 who was then thought to be consumptive1 but ,hippocrates diagnosed it to be a disease of the mind1 and soon cured the king4 ,he is also said to have delivered his own country from a war with the ,athenians by prevailing upon the ,thessalians to come to their assistance1 for which he received great honours from the ,coans4 ,he taught his art with great candour and liberality to those who were desirous to learn1 and at length died full of honours1 it is said1 in his ninetieth year1 and was buried between ,gyrton and ,larissa4 ,a quaint old tradition states that at his tomb a swarm of bees settled and made their honey for a long time1 with which children troubled with aphthas1 anointed by their nurses at the grave1 were easily cured4 ,he was by no means covetous of money1 but grave in his behaviour and a lover of ,greece1 as appears from his curing those of that nation with the utmost diligence1 and freeing many of their cities from the plague1 for which he acquired great honours4 ,at first the art of healing was accounted a branch of philosophy1 so that the cure of diseases and the study of nature owed their rise to the same persons4 ,among the many philosophers skilled in the art the most celebrated were ,pythagoras1 ,empedocles1 ,democritus1 and ,hippocrates of ,cos4 ,after them came ,diodes the ,carystian1 ,praxagoras1 and ,chrysippus1 with ,hierphilus and ,erasistratus1 many of whom practised their art in entirely different ways4 ,at this period physic was divided into three schools2 the first cured by diet1 the second by medicines1 the third by manual operations4 ,those who treated by dietetic methods endeavoured to extend their views farther with the assistance of natural philosophy4 ,then came ,serapion1 the apostle of practice and experience1 and afterwards ,asclepiades1 who worked a revolution in medical science as then practised4 ,the knowledge of both surgery and medicine even in the time of ,celsus is very remarkable1 and many of the forms of administration of medicine are employed at the present day4 ,the enema was largely used by the ancients1 a common one being hydromel1 described by ,dioscorides as being made by mixing two parts of water to one of honey2 sea-water was also employed for the same purpose1 and ,celsus recommends the copious drinking of hot water as a laxative remedy4 ,asclepiades was the originator of massage and friction1 and in his book of general remedies describes his treatment1 which is similar to that performed to-day4 ,poultices of meal of various descriptions were commonly employed1 linseed or fenugreek being the favourite media4 ,asclepiades studied in ,alexandria1 and after practising in ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 finally settled in ,rome in the early part of the first century ,b4,c4 ,here he soon met with success1 and established a reputation for great skill4 ,he was the physician and friend of ,cicero1 and probably also the instructor of ,lucretius in the ,epicurean philosophy1 of which he was an enthusiastic advocate4 ,he believed the body to be composed of atoms or particles1 with spaces between1 through which1 like a sieve1 various atoms of other shapes were continually passing in and out of the body4 ,in practice he believed in curing his patients with as little discomfort as possible1 which doubtless helped to make him popular4 ,he was averse to the employment of violent remedies and the excessive use of emetics and purgatives so much favoured by his fellow-practitioners4 ,he advocated the use of music as a soothing agent1 and was strongly in favour of bathing frequently and of massage4 ,he strongly believed in wine as a remedial agent1 which it has been said may have accounted for his popularity with the ,roman ladies1 with whom as a physician he was in great demand4 ,he lived to a very advanced age1 and died it is stated from the effects of a fall4 ,galen1 born at ,pergamus in the year ,a4,d4 #aca1 studied in the school of ,alexandria1 which then had a considerable reputation1 and there he formulated his system of treatment founded on his knowledge of anatomy and on observation4 ,his fame having spread abroad1 he travelled to ,rome and became physician to the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,according to ,galen1 the health of the body depended on an equal and uniform mixture of solids and liquids1 and its sickness arose from their inequality2 consequently1 the physician should foresee illness4 ,he was a profound student of anatomy in his early career1 and afterwards turned his attention to physiology4 ,his views as to inflammation1 intermittent fevers1 and his system of antipathies and sympathies1 place him very much above his predecessors4 8,in the beginning of the fifth century10 says ,lacroix1 8the practice of medicine1 like that of surgery1 which was not yet a distinct branch1 continued to be free without any authorisation being required4 ,there were even women who1 like the ,druidesses of the ,gauls1 treated the sick40 ,charmers1 unconscious1 no doubt1 of the occult forces which they set to work1 attempted to cure neuralgic pains1 country bone-setters to mend fractured limbs1 while oculists and impostors of the worst kind travelled the country4 ,it was not until the close of the eighth century that a regular course of medical instruction was founded1 the first of the kind being organised at ,salerno1 in the kingdom of ,naples4 ,alexander of ,tralles1 a noted physician1 flourished in the middle of the sixth century4 ,no ,greek doctor equalled him since the days of ,hippocrates in regard to his knowledge of his art in those primitive days4 ,he is said to have possessed to a high degree the art of diagnosis1 and he laid down as a principle1 that no decision should be arrived at as to the treatment of a case until the specific causes of disease had been carefully considered4 ,his depreciation of violent aperients1 his views on melancholia and gout1 and his generally common-sense treatment1 stamped him as a man of superior attainments and ability4 ,he was the first to resort to bleeding from the jugular vein1 and to use iron in certain diseases affecting the blood4 ,it must not be imagined that the ,roman practitioners of medicine were ill-paid1 for it is recorded that ,stertimus made some #fejj a year1 and ,canie1 a surgeon1 is said to have received #bjjj for one operation1 which contrasts well with fees of modern times4 ,votive offerings for health to the ,roman deities were frequent1 and sometimes consisted of land1 animals1 coin1 jewellery1 and other articles4 ,other bribes which have been discovered near ancient shrines are terra-cotta figures of deities1 human beings1 animals1 and also portions of human anatomy1 such as the liver or stomach4 ,this superstition still exists1 and is practised in many parts of ,italy1 the peasants making votive offerings similar to those of two thousand years ago4 ,the object of offering models of various portions of the body to special deities1 was doubtless to propitiate the god to heal that special part in which the patient believed his complaint originated4 ,this custom of making offerings to the gods1 called donaria by the ,romans1 originated at a very early period4 ,they often took the form of land1 buildings1 cattle1 tools of trade1 jewellery1 and cast-off clothes4 ,thus the temple of ,artemis ,brauronia was filled with women's clothing4 ,in the temples of the healing gods1 instruments of surgery1 pharmaceutical appliances1 painted tablets representing miraculous healings1 and great numbers of models of various parts of the human frame1 composed of metal1 stone1 and terra-cotta1 were deposited4 ,many of these ancient temples of healing were magnificent buildings with richly-decorated interiors1 while others were simply shrines or grottos at the source of some hot spring or mineral water1 where hundreds of those afflicted with various ailments flocked to bathe or drink the water4 ,the priests in charge regulated the use of the waters and prescribed for the patients4 ,after completing the course it was customary for the patient to throw an offering into the water1 in the form of a silver cup1 a coin1 or some terra-cotta model of a limb1 and then drag himself off1 muttering a prayer4 ,others would hang their gifts on the walls1 or deposit them at the feet of the statues of the gods placed around4 ,magnificent offerings1 such as goblets of valuable metal with votive inscriptions1 have been occasionally found1 and other ornaments of gold and silver4 ,it is said1 however1 that donaria of precious metals were after a time melted down and disposed of by the priests4 ,grateful patients or surgeons sometimes offered surgical instruments as a thanksgiving for a successful surgical operation2 thus it is stated ,erostratus offered to ,apollo in the ,temple of ,delphus a forceps of lead1 to show how little he approved of the fingers as a medium for extracting teeth4 ,drs4 ,sambon1 ,allaire1 and others1 who have discovered a large number of donaria of the ,etruscan and ,roman period1 found among the pottery1 invalid feeding-cups and feeding-bottles for infants4 ,many of the latter were modelled in the form of the female breast1 and others in the shapes of animals4 ,these articles were often placed in the tombs of young children who had died in babyhood1 instead of the dishes of various foods which were deposited in the tombs of adults4 ,among other donaria discovered1 are models of the limbs and viscera of the human body in clay1 showing upon them the marks of the various diseases from which the votaries had suffered4 ,thus the ancient temples must have presented a curious appearance1 festooned on walls and ceilings with these numerous models1 all of which told a tale of human suffering4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,early ,,age ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,pharmacy4 ,rome at an early period gave birth to several philosophers and practitioners in the art of healing4 ,cornelius ,celsus1 who is thought to have been a ,roman1 was a much esteemed writer of the time1 and his works on medicine show the advanced state of surgery and medicine during the ,roman ,empire4 ,his work on medicine gives a considerable insight into the pharmacy of the ,romans in his day4 ,with reference to their weights1 he says3 8,i would have it understood that in an ounce is contained the weight of seven denarii2 next1 that ,i divide each denarius into six parts1 that is1 sextantes1 so that ,i have the same quantity in the sextans of a denarius that the ,greeks have in their obolus04 ,of the methods of administration employed in early ,roman pharmacy1 the malagma was commonly used4 ,it was a kind of soft mass composed of herbs and grass beaten up to the consistency of a thick paste1 and applied to the skin4 ,numerous formul for malagmas are given1 in which pellitory1 myrrh1 resin1 cardamoms1 ammoniacum1 galbanum1 etc41 are included4 ,their malagmas corresponded with our ointments4 ,they also used plasters1 of which the basilicon1 of galbanum1 pitch1 resin1 and oil1 in an improved form1 has survived two thousand years4 ,troches1 for healing wounds1 were composed of dry medicines held in suspension by some liquid such as wine or oil4 ,pessaries 7vaginal7 were originated by the ,greeks1 who called them pessi4 ,the ingredients were placed in a piece of wool1 and thus used4 ,powders and snuffs were also common methods of administration4 ,antidotes for bruises1 bites1 and poisons were regarded as extremely important4 ,one was called ambrosia1 which ,zopyrus is said to have compounded for the ,king ,ptolemy2 another was the celebrated antidote of ,king ,mithridates4 ,the ,greeks called their embrocations or ointments euchrista4 ,the catapotia was the method used for internal administration in liquid form1 for which many recipes are given by ,celsus4 ,the following will serve as an example3-- ,athenio's ,catapotia for a ,cough4 ,myrrh1 pepper1 each p4 i4 ,castor1 poppy tears1 each p4 i4 which are bruised separately and afterwards mixed4 ,for venomous bites1 the treatment of the ancients1 if the wound was severe1 was first cupping1 or1 if slight1 the plaster of ,diogenes was applied1 or a salt fish bound over the wound4 ,a curious remedy practised by the ,greeks for hydrophobia was to throw the patient suddenly into a pond1 and 8if he could not swim let him sink several times1 and thus drink2 if he can swim1 keep him down at times until he may be satiated with water1 for thus at once10 writes ,celsus1 8is both the thirst and the dread of water removed04 ,their antidote for nearly all poisons was warm oil1 given in order to induce vomiting4 ,the word collyrium1 now applied to a lotion for the eyes1 was also used by the ancients2 but they gave it a greater latitude1 and also employed it to describe a composition of powders wrought to a pasty consistence with a liquid1 and formed into something like a tent for insertion into cavities4 ,of the chemical bodies and drugs known both to the ,greeks and the ,romans1 the number is not a few4 ,cinnabar1 which seems to have been known from a very remote period1 was the name applied to the red sulphide of mercury1 and also to dragon's blood4 ,it is doubtless of the latter ,pliny says 8he believed to be the gore of a dragon crushed by the weight of a dying elephant1 with a mixture of the blood of these animals04 ,copperas1 lead1 alum1 copper1 and iron were used as styptics4 ,myrrh1 frankincense1 cardamoms1 linseed1 isinglass1 and cobwebs were used as astringents4 ,galbanum1 storax1 bitumen1 are recommended for promoting suppuration1 while pennyroyal1 sulphur1 pellitory1 stavesacre1 ox-gall1 scammony1 rue1 and opium were all included in their medical recipes4 ,dioscorides was the first to attempt to record in anything like a methodical manner the many drugs and chemical substances used by the early ,greeks4 ,pedacion ,dioscorides1 born in ,anazaba in ,cilicia1 was a ,greek physician1 who lived in or about the second century4 ,he gathered a great portion of his information on materia medica during his travels with the ,roman army1 which he accompanied on several expeditions in the capacity of physician4 ,afterwards he wrote his great work ,peri ,hules ,iatrikes 7about materia medica71 which for fifteen centuries or more remained one of the chief authorities on that science4 ,it treats of all the medicines then in use1 with their preparations and action as then known4 ,the work of this early physician first appeared in a ,latin translation in #adgh2 the first ,greek edition being published in #adii4 ,the work was afterwards translated into ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,arabic4 ,illustration3 ,,pedacion ,,dioscorides4 ,from a drawing1 #aeih4 ,in describing the ,papaver sativum and its virtues in this work1 he says3 8,it is not improper to subjoin the method in which the opus or juice of it is collected4 ,some1 then1 cutting the poppy heads with the leaves1 squeeze them through a press1 and rubbing them in a mortar1 form them into troches4 ,this is called meconium1 and is weaker than the opus4 ,but whoever desires to gather the juice must proceed thus3 ,after the heads are moistened with dew1 let him cut round the 99 7asterisk7 with a knife1 but not penetrate through them1 and from the sides cut straight lines in the surface1 and draw off the tear that flows with his finger into a shell4 ,and come again1 not long after1 for it will be found standing upon it2 and the day following it will be found in the same manner40 ,hence the old name poppy tears4 ,dioscorides was also learned in the preparation of wool fat1 which he calls sypum1 known to modern pharmacists as lanoline4 ,he says3 8sypum is the oily part collected from sordid wool1 thus3 ,the wool was washed in warm water and all its sordes expressed2 the fat floated with a froth1 and upon throwing in some sea-water it subsided2 and when all the sypum was obtained from it in this manner1 it was purified by repeated affusions of water4 ,when pure it had no sharp taste1 and was in some degree astringent and appeared white1 and was emollient and filled up ulcers40 ,recent excavations made at ,pompeii and ,herculaneum have thrown some further light on various articles of materia medica as it existed in the days just preceding the destruction of those cities4 ,aloe seems to have been held in high esteem by the practitioners of the time1 and was employed1 we learn from the historian1 in twenty-nine diseases4 ,it was prescribed in doses from #a to #aaa drachmas 7about #fh grains71 and mixed with wine was employed to stimulate the growth of the hair4 ,aconite1 we find1 was used in four diseases2 and was supposed to be an antidote to any poison which might exist in the system4 ,other remedies mentioned include gum acacia1 colocynth1 elaterium1 gold1 silver1 copper1 and elecampane4 ,it is further recorded of the latter drug1 that ,julia ,augusta1 daughter of ,augustus ,csar1 used to eat the root daily4 ,of the vegetable remedies about #aej are enumerated1 and of these the cabbage seems to have held a prominent place4 ,other favourite medicines were rye1 garlic1 anise1 mallow1 rose1 and lily4 ,in the animal kingdom1 the remedies contributed were numerous1 being mainly the various parts of man and beast4 ,among some of the least disgusting1 hair1 blood1 and saliva may be mentioned4 ,scrapings from the bodies of athletes1 mixed with the oil with which they anointed themselves1 were used as a tonic4 ,the hair of a man torn from the cross was used as a remedy for quartan fever4 ,the hyna was employed as a medicinal agent in seventy-nine diseases2 and the crocodile1 chameleon1 lion1 elephant1 camel1 and the hippopotamus all contributed certain curative agents4 ,wool fat was held in great esteem4 ,of minerals1 iron1 lead1 nitrum1 salt1 gold1 tin1 silver1 realgar1 copper1 and misy 7a combination of the sulphates of copper and iron7 are enumerated4 ,most of these articles are mentioned by the second ,pliny1 who was killed during the eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius which buried ,pompeii4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,alchemy--,,the ,,alchemists4 ,the word chemistry was used for the first time by ,suidas1 a lexicographer of the tenth century1 and at that time meant an alloy of gold and silver4 ,it is alluded to in connection with the ,emperor ,diocletian1 of whom it is said1 that irritated by a revolt of the ,egyptians against the laws of the empire1 he had all their books of chemistry committed to the flames1 so as to punish them for their rebellion by preventing them from carrying on the lucrative business arising out of the melting and working of precious metals4 ,there is little doubt the ,egyptians and ,greeks were acquainted with certain chemical operations1 or what was termed the hermetic science1 which was afterwards called alchemy in the first century of the ,christian era4 ,the first two great lights that appeared were ,al-,chindus1 and ,geber who discovered the red oxide and bichloride of mercury1 nitric acid1 hydrochloric acid1 and nitrate of silver4 ,geber's ,summa ,perfectionis and ,liber ,philisophorum embody his researches on the purification and malleability of metals4 ,in the ninth century1 the ,arab alchemist ,rhazes flourished4 ,in his great work entitled ,el ,hharvi1 he alludes to realgar1 orpiment1 borax1 mixtures of sulphur and iron with copper1 and of mercury with acids1 and arsenic4 ,he further recommends physicians to use alcoholic preparations and animal oils1 etc4 ,he states3 8,the secret art of chemistry is nearer possible than impossible2 the mysteries do not reveal themselves except by force of labour and perseverance4 ,but what a triumph it is when man can raise a corner of the veil which conceals the works of ,god60 ,the knowledge displayed of chemistry and its application to the arts at that early period is wonderful1 but books were few4 ,the chief evidence of this knowledge is exhibited in the many specimens and art monuments in the museums of ,spain1 showing the skill of the ,saracens and of the ,moors4 ,a little later ,mesu states1 8certain principles had been recognised as to the analytical classification of the bodies which compose organic matter04 ,of the ancient necromancers who have figured in history and romance1 ,merlin was perhaps the most extraordinary4 ,the earliest mention of his name is in records of the eleventh century1 although he appears to have flourished about the time of the ,saxon invasion of ,britain1 in the latter part of the fifth century4 ,he is first mentioned in connection with the fortune of ,vortigern1 who is represented by ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 as at that time ,king of ,england4 ,vortigern having lost all his strongholds in his struggle with the ,saxons1 at length consulted his magicians as to how he was to defend himself from his troublesome foe4 ,they advised him to build an impregnable tower1 and chose a suitable site for its erection4 ,the builders set to work with might and main1 but were astonished to find1 that as fast as they built in one day1 the next morning the earth had swallowed it up1 and not a vestige remained4 ,so the king called the wise men together again1 when they arrived at the conclusion that the only way to remedy the matter was to cement the walls of the tower with the blood of a human being who was born of no human father4 ,vortigern at once sent forth emissaries to scour the country in search of this rara avis1 and at length by good fortune they came across ,merlin1 near the town of ,caermarthen in ,wales1 who claimed that his mother was the daughter of a king but his father was an angelic being4 ,the king's emissaries evidently took his word for it1 as they speedily carried him before ,vortigern4 ,a great meeting of the magicians was called1 at which the king presided1 and ,merlin1 instead of being condemned as the victim1 confounded the wise men1 and told the king the ground they had chosen for his tower had a lake beneath it1 at the bottom of which1 on being drained1 they would find two dragons of inextinguishable hostility4 ,under the form of dragons he appears to have figured the ,britons and ,saxons in his speech1 8all of which10 the historian tells us1 8proved to be true04 ,but the greatest exploit with which ,merlin is credited1 according to tradition1 is the erection of ,stonehenge as a lasting monument to the #cjj ,british nobles massacred by the ,saxons4 ,it is supposed that these mighty stones had been originally set up in ,africa1 and from thence were transported to ,ireland4 ,merlin commanded that they should be carried over the sea1 and erected on ,salisbury ,plain2 but no workman could be found to move them4 ,he therefore brought his magical power to bear on the huge stones1 and by this means they were caused to take the form in which they now stand4 ,of the other wonderful stories which romance has woven round the career of this strange individual1 we can only say they are interesting1 if not exactly true4 ,as #fjj years elapsed between the time of ,merlin and the earliest known records of his achievements1 it is impossible to pronounce on their veracity4 ,among the more famous of the early alchemists was ,st4 ,dunstan1 who flourished in the tenth century2 but1 if tradition speaks truly1 he was anything but a saint in character4 ,he is said to have been a man of distinguished birth1 who in his young days lived a life of great self-indulgence1 even for that period of peculiar morality4 ,at length1 he was seized with a dangerous illness which threatened to terminate his career2 but at the last extremity an angel appeared1 bringing a medicine which speedily restored him to health4 ,hastening to the nearest church to return thanks1 he was stopped by the devil with a pack of black dogs1 whom however he speedily put to flight4 ,in order to expiate his former irregularities1 he now secluded himself in the abbey of ,glastonbury1 where he occupied a cell in which he could neither stand upright nor stretch his limbs in repose1 and mortified his flesh exceedingly4 ,here he studied alchemy and magic1 in which arts he soon became well versed4 ,while in this cell1 he is said to have had the most extraordinary visitations1 and among others the devil was constantly thrusting his head in at the window and taunting the saint1 while immersed in his studies4 ,at length1 one day1 wearied out1 ,dunstan lost all patience1 and seizing his red-hot tongs from the little furnace in which he conducted his chemical operations1 caught the devil by the nose1 and held him firmly1 8while the bellowings of ,satan10 says the historian1 8filled the whole neighbourhood for many miles round04 ,this incident is frequently represented in ancient carvings4 ,dunstan was a ,benedictine monk1 and next came forth and took a prominent part in political and religious matters4 ,he seems to have been the king-maker of his time1 and took a prominent part in the ruling of the kingdom during the reigns of ,edwy and ,edgar4 ,in the accompanying illustration the alchemist1 with uplifted torch1 is repeating the specified incantation over the still1 under which he has just kindled a fire1 having commenced the preparation of the 8,elixir of ,life04 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,alchemist4 ,from an engraving dated #aegf4 ,in the year ,a4,d4 #abfj1 ,albertus ,magnus1 formerly a ,dominican monk1 was made master of the sacred palace at the court of ,rome1 and afterwards ,bishop of ,ratisbon4 ,this great philosophical student was learned in all the then known arts of chemistry1 and his manuscripts and works were copied by the thousand4 ,all kinds of extraordinary powers were attributed to him1 and it was commonly stated that he could make gold1 and that he was a magician4 ,accused of 8having dealings0 with the evil one1 he resigned his high position and returned to his cloistered cell to carry on his favourite researches and end his days4 ,next we come to ,vincent de ,beauvais1 often called the ,pliny of the middle ages4 ,he1 too1 was accused of sorcery1 and it is said that 8at midnight people would creep along the quays of the ,seine towards his laboratory in ,st4 ,chapelle yard1 to see if they could get a glimpse reflected in the river of the magic furnaces in which ,de ,beauvais was supposed to evoke his familiar spirit04 ,about the same time ,raymond ,lulli became known to fame4 ,he also was a monk1 and born in the island of ,majorca1 but having a roving disposition he wandered over ,europe4 ,he wrote several works on alchemy1 among others ,libilli ,aliquot ,chemici1 etc4 ,fabulous stories are related of his adventures2 and he was cruelly stoned to death by the populace in ,tunis1 in #acae4 ,he left behind him a following of believers1 who called themselves ,lullists and spread all over ,europe4 ,the genius of the ,west at this time was ,arnauld de ,villeneuve1 who made several important discoveries in chemistry4 ,his researches were particularly directed to the relation of chemistry to medicine4 ,he is credited with having discovered sulphuric and other acids1 and is said to have been the first to distil alcohol or spirit of wine4 ,contemporary with these men of learning was our own ,roger ,bacon1 whose love for his art nearly cost him his life1 besides many years in prison4 ,the discoverer of gunpowder and the telescope spent most of his life in experimental researches1 with the result that he revolutionised the art of war1 and gave to astronomers the power of exploring the heavens4 ,he was a man of great ability1 never justly appreciated by his contemporaries1 and has been rightly named the father of experimental physics4 ,he described most of the laws which regulate matter1 and the regular motion of the planets4 ,although a man of undoubted knowledge and great power of conception1 he was bitten with the mania of endeavouring to discover the philosopher's stone1 his views respecting which he set forth in his work entitled ,radix ,mundi4 ,following ,bacon came ,antonio ,quainer1 of ,pavia1 who was the first to manufacture artificial mineral waters4 ,it has been said by some that the discoveries made by the alchemists were mainly the result of chance1 and they were mostly ignorant charlatans2 but although they had little method in their research1 and a great deal of their knowledge was wrapped up in absurd and superstitious theories1 when we look at the result of their discoveries up to the fifteenth century1 the most prejudiced must admit that their labours were not spent entirely in vain4 ,they demonstrated the existence of bismuth1 liver of sulphur1 and regulus of antimony1 the distillation of alcohol1 volatilisation of mercury1 and preparation of aqua regia1 sulphuric and other mineral acids1 and the purification of alkalies4 ,they had the scarlet dye for cloth1 the secret of which has now been lost and cannot be equalled1 and their processes of glass-staining cannot be approached by those employed at the present day4 ,it is said that ,eck1 a ,german alchemist of ,sultzbach1 ascertained the existence of oxygen #cjj years before it was demonstrated by ,priestly4 ,for these and other discoveries we have to thank the early alchemists4 ,during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alchemy began to shake itself free from the wild theories and absurd practices which had impeded its progress4 ,henry ,,vii4 issued a severe edict against alchemical practices1 which put a stop to the impositions of a number of charlatans4 ,about this period ,john ,baptist ,porta discovered the means of reducing the metallic oxides and of colouring silver1 and ,isaac and ,jean ,hollandus made great improvements in enamelling1 and demonstrated the manufacture of artificial gems4 ,from the time of ,paracelsus and the introduction of printing1 the science received a fresh impetus1 and a new order of chemists came into being1 whose conflict with the old order for many years is a matter of history4 ,the old theories of the alchemists were gradually exploded and superseded1 and many were driven to the most flagrant quackery to earn a living4 ,cornelius ,agrippa1 who was one of the leaders of the new order1 says3 8,it would take too much time to recount all the follies1 the idle secrets1 and the enigmas of this trade1 of the green lion1 the fugitive stag1 the flying eagle1 the inflated toad1 the crow's head of the black blacker than the black1 of the seal of ,mercury1 of the mud of wisdom1 and other countless absurdities of the time4 ,many of them travelled from fair to fair in order to make a little money by the sale of white lead1 vermilion1 antimony1 and other drugs used by women for painting the face1 and drugs which the ,scripture calls ointments of lust40 ,meanwhile the efforts of the practical workers were encouraged by administrators and princes1 with the result that the application of chemistry and the technical arts became predominant1 and metallurgy the leading spirit of the science4 ,a notable character in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth was ,dr4 ,dee1 alchemist and astrologer4 ,the career of this man1 who was more a charlatan than aught else1 was one of extraordinary vicissitude4 ,a ,welshman by birth1 he was educated at ,oxford1 and then travelled throughout ,europe1 claiming that he had discovered the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone4 ,he was a man of overweening ambition1 and delighted to hear himself called 8,most ,excellent04 ,in company with a man named ,kelly1 it is said he discovered a quantity of the elixir in the ruins of ,glastonbury ,abbey2 this they at once annexed and carried off to ,poland1 accompanied by a nobleman of that country4 ,after travelling from one ,court to another1 where he is said to have performed wonderful feats with his elixir1 he returned to ,england and settled at ,mortlake1 where ,elizabeth often visited him to consult him on astrology1 and he even ventured to predict her death4#c ,he was a great favourite at ,court in #aeie1 and the ,queen made him ,chancellor of ,paul's and ,warden of ,manchester1 but he died in great poverty4 #c ,lilly's ,autobiography1 #aggd4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,alchemist4 ,from an engraving dated #aegf4 ,the illustration represents an alchemist of the sixteenth century in an ante-room of his laboratory1 engaged in fixing a portion of his apparatus4 ,on the table is his luting box and knife4 ,through one window a view of the laboratory with stills of varied size is obtained1 while through the other the sun looks with becoming gravity on the operation4 ,,the ,,symbols ,,of ,,the ,,alchemists4 ,as in modern science chemists write their formul and work out their processes by means of symbols1 so the alchemists used signs and hieroglyphics to represent the then known elements1 metals1 and other articles in common use4 ,the so-called elements--fire1 air1 water1 earth--were represented by special symbols1 here represented4 ,the metals were supposed to be influenced by the planets to a certain degree1 and were represented by their corresponding signs4 ,various other articles also had their symbols1 which served as a means of shorthand at a period when caligraphy was little known or employed4 ,illustration3 ,symbols for3 ,fire4 ,air4 ,water4 ,earth4 ,lead4 ,tin4 ,iron4 ,gold4 ,copper4 ,mercury4 ,silver4 ,antimony4 ,arsenic4 ,aqua ,vit4 ,borax4 ,to ,purify4 ,cinnabar4 ,caput ,mortuum4 ,an ,oil4 ,saltpetre4 ,a ,magnet4 ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,sulphur4 ,tartar4 ,a ,covered ,pot4 ,to ,sublime4 ,to ,precipitate4 ,illustration3 ,symbols for3 ,spirit of ,wine4 ,roman ,symbol for ,denarius4 ,to ,digest4 ,to ,distil4 ,aqua ,fortis4 ,aqua ,regalis4 ,a ,brick4 ,to ,calcine4 ,camphire4 ,ashes4 ,cerusse4 ,lime4 ,quicklime4 ,cinnabar4 ,wax4 ,hartshorn4 ,a ,crucible4 ,crystal4 ,a ,gum4 ,oil4 ,steel ,filings4 ,litharge4 ,illustration3 ,symbols for3 ,to ,lute4 ,sublimated ,mercury4 ,precipitated ,mercury4 ,nitre4 ,realgar4 ,sand4 ,soap4 ,sal ,alkali4 ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,salt4 ,talc4 ,vinegar4 ,verdigris4 ,vitriol4 ,urine4 ,day4 ,night4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,philosopher',s ,,stone4 ,the dominating ambition of the early alchemists was to discover the unknown4 ,in the same spirit the modern worker in science gropes onward1 and dreams of discovering some contribution towards solving the elixir of life1 in the form1 it may be1 of conquering at least one fell disease4 ,the ancient workers in alchemy confined their researches almost exclusively to metals2 they believed that all natural things were composed of four elements1 which they termed ,fire1 ,air1 ,earth1 and ,water4 8,when these four elements are conjoined10 says ,roger ,bacon1 in his ,radix ,mundi1 8they become another thing1 whereas it is evident that all things in ,nature are composed of the said elements being altered and changed40 ,but the patient researches of the alchemists were not so much due to a love for scientific investigation as to the overwhelming desire to gain wealth4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,still ,,for ,,dystilling ,,the ,,water ,,of ,,lyfe4 #aegf4 ,the majority had two fixed objects in view as the goals of their ambition1 one being the discovery of some body that would be capable of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver2 and the other1 the discovery of an elixir which would prolong the span of human life to an indefinite period4 ,both these objects seem to have been sought for by man from prehistoric times1 and their origin is lost in antiquity4 ,berthelot remarks that the term 8,philosopher's ,stone0 does not occur in writings earlier than the seventh century1 although the central idea is much more ancient4 ,the philosopher's stone was sought for by the ,chinese philosophers at a very remote period1 afterwards by the ,greeks1 ,arabs1 and others down to the seventeenth century4 ,men of undoubted ability and genius wasted both their lives and their fortunes over the search for this illusive chimera1 and others condescended to fraud and trickery of the meanest description in its pursuit4 ,apparently no alchemist of any repute thought it right to die until he had at least claimed to have solved one of these great problems4 ,thus claimants to the discovery were numerous4 ,the descriptions given of the various processes in ancient manuscripts and works for producing the philosopher's stone are usually of a very elaborate description1 and couched in the most fantastic language4 ,failure to produce the desired result was invariably accounted for by the omission to carry out some minute detail4 ,some who professed to have discovered the secret demanded large sums of money to reveal it1 and several visited the various courts of ,europe to demonstrate it by means of trickery and conjuring4 ,the notorious ,dr4 ,dee1 who flourished in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 was one of the last claimants to the discovery1 and is said to have received immense sums of money from dupes for imparting the coveted secret1 which he demonstrated by means of an ingenious trick4 ,realgar1 mercury1 sulphur1 and many other substances were credited with the magical property of transmutation4 ,in the illustration 7p4 #fe71 which is taken from an authentic engraving of the sixteenth century1 we have a figure of the apparatus used for distilling the 8,water of ,life10 the process for which is described by ,gesnerus in the ,newe ,jewell of ,health1 printed in #aegf4 ,the alchemist1 arrayed in his imposing robes1 is depicted giving instructions to his assistant as to certain precautions to be taken in conducting the process4 ,bacon states that sulphur and mercury are the mineral roots and natural principles upon which ,nature herself acts and works in the mines and caverns of the earth2 the latter metal he believed to be the true elixir of the philosopher's stone2 others1 including ,rhazes and ,merlin1 believed it to be an amalgam of gold and mercury1 fantastically called the ,red man and his ,white wife4 ,concerning the vessels for producing this 8,citrine body10 as ,bacon calls it1 the most exact precautions were taken4 ,special apparatus was used1 and a special heat1 which was not to exceed the heat of the body4 ,for this purpose horse-dung was employed4 ,senier1 the philosopher1 says3 8,dig a sepulchre and bury the woman 7mercury7 with her man 7gold7 in horse-dung1 the fire of the philosopher1 until such time as they be conjoined04 ,bacon's definition of alchemy was3 8,alchymie is the art or science teaching how to make or generate a certain kind of medicine which is called the elixir4 ,it teaches how to transmute all kinds of metals1 one with another2 and this by a proper medicine40 ,george ,ripley1 a monk1 in #adgf1 thought that he had discovered the much-coveted stone in pure sulphur4 ,he says3 8,let the two sulphurs1 viz41 the white and the red1 be mingled with the oil of the white elixir that they may work the more strongly1 and you shall have the highest medicine in the world to heal and cure human bodies1 and to transmute the bodies of metals into the most pure fine gold and silver04 ,berthelot1 who has made an exhaustive study of the subject1 comes to the conclusion that the doctrines of alchemy concerning the transmutation of metals1 did not originate in the philosophical views of the constitution of matter as generally supposed1 but in the practical experiments of goldsmiths occupied in making fraudulent substitutes for the precious metals4 ,one cannot but think with pity of the immense labour expended and lost in the attempt made by many of these pioneers of science in their pursuit after this chemical chimera4 ,paracelsus1 as well as his predecessors1 laboured studiously to discover some method for prolonging life4 ,like ,bacon and ,verulam1 he maintained that the human body could be rejuvenated to a certain extent by a fresh supply of vitality1 and it was his aim to find means by which such a supply could be obtained4 ,in one of his works he gives the following reasons for this belief3 8,metals may be preserved from rust and wood may be protected against rot4 ,blood may be preserved a long time if the air is excluded4 ,egyptian mummies have kept their form for centuries without undergoing putrefaction4 ,animals awaken from their winter sleep1 and flies having become torpid from cold become nimble again when they are warmed4 ,therefore1 if inanimate objects can be kept from destruction1 why should there be no possibility to preserve the life-essence of animate forms80 ,for this purpose he prepared a remedy he called ,primum ,ens ,meliss1 which was made by dissolving pure carbonate of potass1 and macerating in the liquid the fresh leaves of the melissa plant4 ,on this absolute alcohol was poured several times in successive portions to absorb the colouring matter1 after which it was collected1 distilled1 and evaporated to the thickness of a syrup4 ,the second great secret elixir of ,paracelsus was his ,primum ,ens ,sanguinis4 ,this was prepared by mixing blood from the medium vein of a healthy young person1 and digesting it in a warm place with twice its quantity of alcahest1 after which the red fluid was to be separated from the sediment1 filtered1 and preserved4 ,the alcahest was his celebrated universal medicine1 and was considered the greatest mystery of all4 ,it was made with freshly prepared caustic lime and absolute alcohol4 ,these were distilled together ten times4 ,the residue left in the retort was mixed with pure carbonate of potass and dried4 ,this was again distilled with alcohol4 ,it was then placed in a dish and set on fire1 and the residue that remained was the alcahest4 ,the following lines were found inscribed on the fly-leaf of an old work on alchemy1 printed in #aeej1 and signed 8,,philo ,,veritas03-- ,,elixir ,,vit4 ,when fire and water1 earth and air ,in love's true bond united are1 ,for all diseases then be sure ,you have a safe and certain cure4 ,i will affirm it's here alone ,exists the ,philosophic ,stone4 ,this is fair nature's virgin root1 ,thrice blest are they who reap the fruit3 ,but oh6 where one true adept's found1 ,ten thousand thousand cheats abound4 ,in an ancient work in the library of ,york ,minster1 the writer came across the following in manuscript1 signed 8,,raymund ,,lulli03-- ,remember man that is the most noble creature in composition that ever ,god wrought2 ,in whom be four elements proportioned by nature1 ,a neutral mercuriallyte which costeth right naught1 ,out of his monie by manie it is bought2 ,and our monie be not all but our oxtalle towe1 ,of the sun and the moon2 which ,raymund ,said ,so4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,black ,,art ,,and ,,occult ,,sciences4 ,to make a thorough analysis of this interesting subject1 and trace the origin of magic1 would take much more space than we have at our command2 and we can only mention a few of the many forms which may be grouped under the head of the occult sciences1 and those especially which had any connection with the alchemists4 ,there is little doubt that most of the alchemists were students1 if not practitioners1 of magic or some of its branches4 ,the antiquity of magic is very great2 and we have record of magicians and wise men in early ,jewish times1 as well as the magic formul of the ,vedas in ,india1 as handed down to us in the religion of the ,hindoos4 ,moreover1 magic was practised by the ,chaldeans1 of whom a certain tribe devoted their energies to studying the occult sciences4 ,pliny tells us of the dealings in the supernatural in the time of ,homer1 and other writers record that magic was also known to the ,etruscans and ,assyrians at a very early period4 ,as time rolled on1 the different forms of magic practised became specialised1 according to their several natures4 ,for instance1 there were ,astrology and ,oneiromancy1 which comprised the various forms of divination2 ,theurgy and ,goetry1 the art of evoking good or evil spirits2 ,necromancy1 by means of which communication was held with the dead2 and ,sorcery1 which exercised its power by the influence of dreams4 ,the longings after the supernatural and unknown felt by the great ignorant masses brought forth individuals in plenty to take advantage of their credulity4 ,during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the occult sciences were openly taught in the universities and schools1 and #bjj years later reached the zenith of their influence2 and practitioners of astrology and the black arts abounded and flourished throughout ,europe4 ,the professors of ,oneiromancy were those who divined or interpreted dreams1 and founded their traditions in the art from its being in accordance with the ,scriptures4 ,the explanation of dreams also did not go counter to the doctrines of the ,church1 and so the cult found many believers among all classes of society4 ,it was denounced by ,pope ,gregory ,,ii4 as a detestable practice2 but this did not prevent it being largely employed in forecasting the future4 ,arnauld de ,villeneuve1 who wrote a work on the subject in the thirteenth century1 gives a certain code by which those who practised it worked4 ,whoever dreamt that his hair was thick and carefully curled would soon become wealthy4 ,if anything was wrong with the hair1 evil was betokened4 ,it also foreshadowed harm if a wreath was worn composed of flowers that were not in season4 ,other codes signified that to dream of the eyes1 related to children2 the head1 to a father2 the arms1 to brothers2 the feet1 to servants2 the right hand1 to the mother1 to sons1 and to friends2 and the left hand1 to the wife and daughter4 ,another method was founded on the theory that whatever was dreamt of1 the antithesis or opposite would follow in life4 ,from this we have probably the saying common to-day1 8dream of a wedding and it is a sign of a funeral04 ,according to many old writers there was scarcely any important event in the middle ages which was not announced by a dream4 ,the day before ,henry ,,ii4 was struck by the blow of a lance during a tournament1 ,catherine de ,medicis1 his wife1 dreamt that she saw him lose one of his eyes4 ,three days before he fell by the knife of ,jacques ,clment1 ,henry ,,iii4 dreamt he saw the royal insignia stained with blood and trodden under foot by monks and people of the lower orders4 ,henry ,,iv4 also1 before he was murdered by ,raveillac1 it is said1 heard during the night his wife ,marie de ,medicis say to herself as she woke1 8,dreams are but falsehoods60 and when he asked her what she had dreamt1 she replied1 8,that you were stabbed upon the steps of the little ,louvre60 8,thank ,god it is but a dream10 rejoined the king4 ,the necromancers1 who were supposed to be able to conjure up spirits and raise the dead1 were accounted on a somewhat higher plane than the interpreters of dreams4 ,they also based their authority on the ,old ,testament4 ,the nature of the art was gruesome and awe-inspiring1 and there is little doubt many dark deeds were perpetrated by those who practised it4 ,one method of evocation was to kill a child and place its head upon a dish surrounded by lighted candles2 the desired spirit was supposed to enter this ghastly object and speak through its mouth4 ,sometimes the spirit simply consisted of some muttered words from behind a curtain in a dark cellar2 another method was to cause the appearance of a sepulchral figure out of smoke or vapour1 which would indicate by gesture and reply to questions asked4 ,to evoke a dead man's spirit1 it was necessary to go to the grave at midnight with a companion who bore a candle in the left hand and a crystal stone in the right1 the conjurer holding a hazel wand with the name of ,god written on it1 and repeating the words3-- 8,tetragrammaton ,adonai ,agla ,craton 0 ,then striking three times on the ground1 with a prayer he commanded the spirit into the stone1 when it appeared in the shape of a child4 ,the conjurer often wore a girdle of lion's skin with the name of ,god written on it1 and the ,solomon's circle he described with a bright knife1 on the blade of which were written certain mystic words4 ,necromancy gradually merged into sorcery1 which has occasionally come to the surface in comparatively recent years4 ,chiromancy1 the art of divining or foretelling future events from marks on the palm of the hand1 was also practised in antiquity1 but in medival times it was strongly opposed by the ,church4 ,the practice is supposed to have been brought into ,europe from the ,east by the ,bohemians in the early part of the fifteenth century4 ,this art eventually merged into astrology1 which exerted the greatest influence of all the occult sciences4 ,the antiquity of astrology is very great1 it having been originated by the ,chaldeans1 and was thought by some of the ,jews to have been a method by which the ,creator could communicate with ,his people4 ,the art itself was based on astronomy1 and1 like alchemy1 was the beginning of the study of real natural science4 ,the teller of the stars was not only supposed to foretell forthcoming misfortunes to individuals1 but also to forecast the destinies of kings and empires4 ,the belief in its power was so great that it became the fashion among royal personages of the sixteenth century to keep their own special astrologers1 who were lodged easy of access and loaded with honours and wealth4 ,these men were mostly astute ,jews well versed in the science of their time1 and by means of their supposed powers they often played a very important part in the political affairs of the nation4 ,thus in the fifteenth century ,rovigo1 an astrologer of eminence1 who is said to have perfected the astrolabe1 was attached to the ,court of ,king ,john ,,ii4 of ,portugal2 and ,simon ,phars figured at the ,court of ,france in the time of ,charles ,,viii4 ,we must not forget to mention ,cosmo ,ruggieri1 the ,florentine astrologer and the confidant of ,catherine de ,medicis2 also the celebrated ,nostradamus1 astrologer and trusted adviser of ,charles ,,ix4 ,this extraordinary man played a prominent part in the history of his time1 and was supposed to practise magic and alchemy as well as the healing art4 ,he was consulted by the king in all positions of difficulty1 and it is said became immensely wealthy4 ,he died in #aeff at ,salon1 after having written several notable works4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,foretelling4 ,the early theory of the art of foretelling by means of the stars1 and casting horoscopes1 was as follows3 ,the seven planets then known1 including the ,sun1 with the twelve figures of the ,zodiac1 comprised the astrological system4 ,each unit or body or nation was supposed to be governed or influenced by a certain star or constellation1 and this power extended to all things connected with the person or nation4 ,thus1 ,saturn was supposed to influence life1 sciences1 and buildings2 ,jupiter--honour1 wishes1 and wealth2 ,mars--wars1 persons1 marriages1 and quarrels2 the ,sun--hope1 gain1 and happiness2 ,venus--love and friendship2 ,mercury--fear1 disease1 debts1 and commerce2 the ,moon--robberies1 wounds1 and dreams4 ,the intrinsic quality was denoted by the planet4 ,the ,sun was regarded as favourable2 ,saturn1 cold2 ,jupiter1 temperate2 ,mars1 ardent2 ,venus1 fruitful2 ,mercury1 inconstant2 the ,moon1 melancholy4 ,the days1 colours1 and metals also came under the same influences4 ,in casting a horoscope1 the astronomer had first to observe if the time was propitious1 and what planet was dominant in the heavens4 ,then1 by means of calculations and diagrams1 he would deduce the consequences from the position and bearing of the stars4 ,the day was divided into four equal parts--the ascendant of the sun1 the middle of the sky1 the descending of the sun1 and the lower part of the sky4 ,these four parts of the day were subdivided into twelve distinct parts1 which were called the twelve houses of the sun4 ,it was of the greatest importance in drawing a horoscope to tell exactly in which 8house0 the star appeared4 ,one can easily trace the connection of the influence attributed to the planets with the old ,egyptian and ,greek mythologies1 and it can hardly be wondered at that the same system should have been brought to bear on medicine4 ,a favourite method of divination1 especially with the sorcerers1 was that of gazing into a beryl or crystal4 ,for the proper performance of this ceremony a pure virgin or equally pure youth should be the gazer4 ,the sorcerer1 having repeated the necessary charms and adjurations1 with the invocation suitable to the spirits he wished to consult1 looked into a large beryl or crystal1 wherein he saw the answer represented either by types or by figures1 and sometimes it is said he might hear the spirit speak to him4 ,vallancey states that in the ,highlands of ,scotland large crystals of somewhat oval shape were kept by the priests to work charms with1 and that water poured on them was given to cattle as a preventive of disease4 ,dr4 ,dee was a famous conjurer with the crystal in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,lilly describes these crystals as being the size of an orange1 set in silver1 surmounted with a cross1 and engraved all round with the names of the angels--,raphael1 ,gabriel1 and ,uriel4 ,among other charms practised was ,dactylomancy1 which was performed by means of a ring suspended by a thread in the centre of an earthenware or metal pitcher4 ,the ring1 which was supposed to have been made under the influence of a certain constellation1 was swung from side to side of the vessel1 and the sounds it made on touching were taken as predictions and oracles4 ,the art of divination by fire was called ,pyromancy1 and was performed by allowing a certain body to burn1 the smoke from which1 by its density and colour1 forecast the future4 ,a favourite medium for consulting this oracle was a donkey's head roasted on hot coals4 ,popular belief in medival times attributed anything unusual or beyond its understanding1 to magic2 so most of the early alchemists were believed to be magicians4 ,both ,albertus ,magnus and ,roger ,bacon were accused of dealing in the black arts1 one having to resign his bishopric of ,cologne and retire to a monastery1 and the other to the ,franciscan cells in ,paris1 to free themselves from the charges of their accusers4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,black ,,magic4 ,geber1 an alchemist of great repute in ,arabia1 was believed to possess the power of creating gold by magic4 ,he was a man of undoubted learning and a skilful practitioner of his time1 yet he was dubbed a sorcerer4 ,he was said to possess all kinds of extraordinary implements2 among others1 a book of black magic which gave him full power over demons1 and a brass idol which spoke oracles4 ,on the day of his death1 in #ajjc1 the ,evil ,one is supposed to have carried him off4 ,james ,iodoc1 an ,englishman1 achieved considerable notoriety by claiming that he had succeeded in setting the demon in a magic ring4 ,these men should not be confounded with the host of impostors and charlatans who simply preyed on the credulity of the people1 but in those days all were judged alike4 ,most of the great medival alchemists dabbled in magic1 and all agreed that to obtain the intervention of ,satan in human affairs it was necessary to enter into a pact with him4 ,those who went to this length and became exponents of demonology1 or the black art1 were initiated with much solemnity4 ,,taking ,,the ,,oath4 ,the oath to the demon had to be pronounced in the centre of a circle traced upon the ground1 accompanied by the offer of some pledge1 such as a garment of the noviciate4 ,the edge of the circle was supposed to establish a mark which the demon could not cross4 ,heavy perfumes such as vervain1 with burning incense and lighted tapers1 always formed part of the ceremonial4 ,the smoking brazier1 which entered largely into the ritual1 was believed to act upon the demons1 and was constantly fed with all kinds of mysterious vegetable and animal substances1 those that would produce most smoke being preferred4 ,it is said that belladonna and opium were always used as ingredients in the incense1 in order to produce a state of semi-stupor and influence the imagination4 ,the perfumes employed by the professors of the art had each a special significance1 and were offered to some planet to form a link with the earth4 ,a mixture of saffron1 amber1 musk1 cloves and incense1 together with the brain of an eagle and the blood of a cock1 was offered to the ,sun4 ,the white poppy and camphor burnt in the head of a frog1 with the eyes of a bull and the blood of a goose1 were dedicated to the ,moon2 while to ,mars1 sulphur was mixed with hellebore and euphorbium1 together with the blood of a black cat and the brain of a crow1 and then burnt4 ,one can imagine the horrible odour that would be caused by burning such articles as these2 and1 as the columns of smoke ascended1 the half-stupefied and scared spectator fancied he saw the forms of writhing demons in the air4 ,very curious properties were attributed to certain articles when thrown on live coals4 ,thus1 if thunder and rain were required1 the liver of a chameleon was said to produce it2 while the gall of a cuttle-fish burnt with roses and aloes-wood was all that was necessary to induce an earthquake4 ,by burning coriander1 parsley1 hemlock1 liquor of black poppy1 giant fennel1 red sandal-wood and henbane1 almost any number of demons could be raised4 ,sorcerers of this class were called tempest-raisers4 ,with the witchcraft practised largely by women in medival times1 we have not much to do2 although belief in its influence was widespread during the middle ages4 ,to bewitch an individual was to cause him gradually to die a mysterious death4 ,the process commenced at first with great secrecy1 by modelling a figure of the intended victim in wax or clay4 ,this having been done1 a swallow was killed1 and the heart placed under the right arm of the figure and the liver under the left4 ,the effigy was next pricked all over with new needles1 each prick being accompanied by the most terrible imprecations against the victim4 ,another method was to make the figure of earth taken from a graveyard and mixed with dead bones4 ,certain mystic signs were then inscribed on it1 which were said eventually to cause the death of the victim4 ,so general did the practice of witchcraft become that no class of society was safe from accusation and suspicion1 thousands perishing by the faggot and torture4 ,from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century1 supernatural beliefs exerted a great influence on the people4 ,one of the most celebrated trials of the time was that of the ,duchess of ,gloucester1 who was accused of bewitching ,henry ,,vi4 ,it transpired at the trial that she had instructed a priest1 named ,bolingbroke who practised necromancy1 to bewitch the king2 a sorceress named ,marie ,gardimain being also implicated4 ,an effigy of the king in wax was discovered half-melted in front of a fire of dry plants1 which had been gathered by moonlight in a graveyard4 ,bolingbroke the necromancer was hanged1 ,gardimain burnt1 and the ,duchess of ,gloucester condemned to imprisonment for life4 ,the 8evil eye0 was another form of witchcraft1 mostly practised by women4 ,visions or apparitions in the sky1 foretelling some war or disaster1 were firmly believed in by the ,church1 and caused great consternation4 ,fiery dragons appearing in the heavens were said to predict civil war2 and we also read of pigs bearing royal crowns1 and gory stars1 all of which were doubtless caused by ordinary phenomena not understood at that time4 ,the appearance of the devil presiding at a sabbath or meeting of sorcerers is thus described by ,de ,lancre3 8,he is seated in a black chair with a crown of black horns1 two horns in his neck1 and one on the forehead1 which sheds light on the assembly2 the hair bristling1 the face pale and exhibiting signs of uneasiness1 the eyes round1 large1 and fully opened1 inflamed and hideous1 with a goat's beard4 ,the neck and the rest of the body deformed1 and in the shape of a man and a goat2 the hands and the feet of a human being40 ,the word witch is thought by some authorities to be derived from chausaph1 which means a user of pharmaceutic enchantments1 or an applier of drugs to magical purposes4 ,witches sent storms and barrenness1 drowned children1 brought on ague1 could kill with evil eye1 slay with lightning1 pass through key-holes1 ride through the air on broom-sticks1 and perform many other weird and wondrous things4 8,they were generally old1 blear-eyed1 wrinkled dames10 says ,scott1 8ugly and crippled1 frequently papists1 and sometimes atheists2 of cross-grained tempers and cynical dispositions40 ,they were often poisoners1 and generally monomaniacs4 ,epilepsy and all diseases not understood by the physicians were set down to the influence of witches4 ,they were said to make two covenants with the devil1 one public and one private4 ,then the novices were presented to the devil in person1 and instructed to renounce the ,christian faith1 tread on the ,cross1 break the fasts1 joining hands with ,satan1 paying him homage1 and yielding him body and soul4 ,some witches sold themselves for a term of years1 and some for ever2 then they kissed the devil1 and signed their bond with blood1 and a banquet ended the meeting2 their dances being accompanied with shouts of 8,ha1 ha6 devil1 devil6 ,dance here1 dance here6 ,play here1 play here6 ,sabbath1 sabbath60 ,before they departed the devil was said to give them philtres and amulets4 ,these women were usually hypochondriacs1 often driven by despair and misfortune to confess any charge made against them4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,superstition ,,and ,,its ,,influence ,,on ,,medicine4 ,superstition is a belief in what is wholly opposite to the laws of the physical and moral world1 and yet supposed to be attainable by supernatural agency4 ,the words incantation and charm seem to have been derived from the ancient practice of curing diseases by poetry and music4 ,democritus says that many diseases are capable of being cured by the sound of a flute when properly played4 ,marianus ,capellus assures us also that fevers may be cured by suitable songs4 ,galen believed the sound of the flute efficacious in gout and epilepsy4 ,asclepiades actually employed the trumpet for the relief of sciatica1 and tells us it is to be continued until the fibres of the part begin to palpitate1 when the pain will vanish4 ,what terrible visions might be conjured up if such remedies were used to-day4 ,the influence of superstition on medicine may be accounted for by the fact1 that from the very first1 ideas with regard to the action of drugs must have been combined with those concerning supernatural agencies1 for the phenomena of nature in very early times were attributed to spirits4 ,diseases were supposed to be due to an evil spirit1 therefore to cast the disease out was equivalent to curing it1 and the methods used for this purpose were by no means always ineffective in curing disease4 ,incantations and spells were generally used in addition to a real remedial agent1 but the incantations usually got the credit for effecting the cure4 ,in early times superstition played an important part in the cure of disease1 and it prevails to a certain extent to-day4 8,in the opinion of the ignorant multitude10 says ,lord ,bacon1 8witches and impostors have always held a competition with physicians40 ,there has ever been a peculiar propensity in the human mind to foster a belief in the supernatural1 and perhaps more especially in respect to medicine on account of the obscurity and ignorance with which it was once surrounded4 ,in early times almost every disease was attributed to punishment for evil-doing1 the working of some demon1 or the influence of the stars2 hence the use of any article that was strange or rare as a remedy4 8,the employment of precious stones for medicinal purposes10 writes ,de ,boot1 8arises from an ,arab superstition which supposed them to be the residence of spirits40 ,they were first used as amulets1 and then gradually came to be administered inwardly for various ailments4 8,mystery is the very soul of empiricism10 says ,paris2 8withdraw the veil1 and the confidence of the patient instantly languishes40 ,a propensity to attribute every ordinary and natural effect to extraordinary and unnatural causes1 is one of the striking characteristics of medical superstition4 ,the properties that herbs possessed were attributed by the old physicians to the planets which were supposed to influence them1 and our medical men to this day head their prescriptions with a sign that originally meant an invocation to ,jupiter1 which is a surviving relic of this old superstitious practice4 ,another very curious fact with respect to medical superstition is1 that many of the greatest philosophers were firm believers in it4 ,lord ,bacon is said to have believed in the existence of a panacea that would prolong life beyond its natural term4 ,he considered that the principal cause of death was the action of the external air in drying and exhausting the body1 which he thought might be prevented by nitre2 but although he took three grains of his favourite salt every morning for the last thirty years of his life1 he died at the age of sixty-six4 ,we have many customs at the present day which are a survival of the days of superstition1 and few have any idea of their origin4 ,the mother1 when she hangs round the neck of her child the plaything known as a coral and bells1 little imagines she is perpetuating an ancient superstitious practice4 ,the soothsayers attributed many mystic properties to coral1 and it was believed to ward off the evil eye1 and drive away devils and evil spirits4 ,for this purpose it was suspended from a child's neck as an amulet4 ,pliny and ,dioscorides greatly esteemed the medicinal properties of coral1 and ,paracelsus recommends that it should be worn around the necks of infants to keep away fits1 sorcery1 charms1 and to serve as an antidote to poisons4 ,the bells usually suspended to it were originally intended to frighten away evil spirits1 and not to amuse the child alone4 ,paris mentions a curious circumstance1 viz41 that the same superstitious belief should exist among the negroes of the ,west ,indies1 who affirm that the colour of coral is always affected by the state of health of the wearer1 it becoming paler in disease4 ,but all the remedies that originated in superstition were not entirely useless4 ,some1 whether by accident or not1 had a natural power of efficacy1 and led to discoveries of importance4 ,in the time of ,james ,i41 a powder known as the sympathetic powder of ,sir ,kenelm ,digby had a great reputation for healing wounds4 ,whenever a wound had been inflicted1 this powder was applied to the weapon which had caused it1 which was also smeared with ointment and dressed two or three times a day4 ,the wound itself was directed to be brought together and carefully bound up with clean linen rags1 but above all to be let alone for seven days1 at the end of which time it was generally found to be healed4 ,this was1 of course1 said to be due to the wonderful properties of the sympathetic powder1 instead of the fact of excluding the air from the part and not interfering with nature's own healing powers4 ,the mysterious sympathetic healing powder was afterwards said to be simply calcined green vitriol4 ,the rust of the spear of ,telephus1 alluded to by ,homer as a cure for the wounds which that weapon inflicted1 was probably verdigris1 and led to the discovery of its use as a surgical dressing4 ,the cures supposed to be performed by royal touch show the power of faith over desire1 or mind over matter4 ,the royal surgeons who introduced the patients to be touched for scrofula1 doubtless took care to choose those who had a tendency to recover1 and who1 if left to nature1 would probably have gradually recovered4 ,boswell says that ,dr4 ,johnson1 when thirty months old1 was taken by his mother to ,london to be touched by ,queen ,anne1 on the advice of ,sir ,john ,floyer1 a physician of ,lichfield4 ,from time immemorial the ignorant have had the most unbounded confidence in nauseous remedies1 and it would seem as if the nastier and more disgusting the medicines were1 the greater faith they had in them4 ,the larger the price asked1 the more implicit the faith seemed to be4 ,the ,collyrium of ,danares1 a famous quack eye lotion1 was sold at ,constantinople for #i a bottle1 and the elixirs sold by ,paracelsus and ,van ,helmont brought extortionate prices4 ,the doctrine of ,signatories1 as it was called1 is of very great antiquity4 ,it implied that every natural substance which possesses any medicinal virtues1 indicates1 by an obvious and well-marked external character1 the disease for which it is a remedy4 ,thus the bloodstone was used to stop bleeding1 on account of its marks resembling drops of blood4 ,the root of the mandrake1 on account of its resemblance to the human form1 was used as a remedy for sterility4 ,turmeric was administered for jaundice1 and poppies for diseases of the head4 ,another belief of the ancients was that all poisonous bodies possessed a powerful attraction for one another1 and that 8like would cure like04 ,the hair of a mad dog was worn as a charm to prevent hydrophobia1 and the foot of the ape was used as a remedy for its bite4 ,on the same principle we are solemnly assured that three scruples of the ashes of a witch1 after she has been well and carefully burnt at the stake1 is a sure protection against the evil effects of witchcraft4 ,many ancient superstitions are so deeply rooted that they find believers among the educated at the present day4 ,take1 for instance1 the belief that many people have in the efficacy of red flannel4 ,for sore throat1 rheumatism1 or swelling1 they believe it will cure when flannel of no other colour will4 ,this belief may be traced to the colour of the cloth often used in incantations1 which was always red4 ,in some parts of the country a wedding-ring is still believed to be a universal cure for sore eyes4 ,a curious superstition is still practised in some parts of ,wales for the cure of the complaint called shingles4 ,the term for shingles in ,welsh means 8,the ,eagle40 ,it was supposed in ancient times that if a person ate of the flesh of the eagle he would never suffer from shingles1 and his direct descendants down to the ninth generation could not contract it1 and furthermore had the power transmitted to them of curing others so afflicted by blowing on them4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,love ,,philtres4 ,love ,philtres were administered for the purpose of inspiring affection or hatred4 ,in very early times they were frequently used1 concocted1 and sold by the magicians or sorcerers1 who often obtained large sums of money in exchange1 from amorously-inclined gallants and maidens4 ,they were composed of various extraordinary ingredients used in medicine at the time1 and were either in the form of a powder1 which was to be surreptitiously slipped into an article of food to be swallowed1 or in a liquid for anointing the clothes or hands1 and by things to be held in the mouth4 ,it is recorded that some sorcerers even used the ,host1 upon which they traced letters of blood4 ,the following were also used in the preparation of philtres3 the entrails of animals1 feathers of birds1 scales of fishes1 parings of nails1 powdered loadstones1 and human blood4 ,it is little wonder they excited hatred4 ,the poculum amatorium or love philtre of the ,romans1 and the philtron of the ,greeks1 were venerated with superstitious awe in early times4 ,they became used to such an extent by the former nation under the first emperors1 that a decree was promulgated under the ,roman criminal law whereby love philtres were deemed as poison1 and the punishment inflicted on those using them was very severe4 ,hairs from a wolf's tail1 the bones of the left side of a toad which had been eaten by ants 7those of the right side were used to cause hatred71 the blood of pigeons1 skeletons of snakes1 the entrails of animals1 and other equally disgusting things1 were included as ingredients in ,roman love philtres4 ,pliny states1 that there were also philtres for quenching love4 ,thus1 8if a nest of young swallows is placed in a box and buried1 on being dug up after a few days it will be found that some of the birds have died with their beaks closed1 while others die as if gasping for breath04 ,the latter were used for exciting love1 and the former for producing the opposite effect4 ,horace recommends a bone torn from a hungry and voracious dog1 and ,virgil describes a complete apparatus wherewith a maiden seeks to recover the affections of a faithless lover4 ,the early ,greek and ,roman magicians used 8hippomanes10 which was the lump of flesh found in the head of a colt newly foaled1 as an ingredient in their philtres4 ,about the sixteenth century philtres came to be compounded and sold by the apothecaries1 who doubtless derived from them a lucrative profit4 ,favourite ingredients with these later practitioners were mandragora1 cantharides1 and vervain1 which were supposed to have ,satanic properties4 ,they were mixed with other herbs said to have an aphrodisiac effect2 also man's gall1 the eyes of a black cat1 and the blood of a lapwing1 bat1 or goat4 ,in ,gay's ,shepherds' ,week reference is thus made to love philtres3-- 8,strait to the 'pothecary's shop ,i went1 ,and in love powder all my money spent2 ,behap what will next ,sunday after prayers ,when to the alehouse ,lubberkin repairs1 ,these flies into his mug ,i'll throw1 ,and soon the swain with fervent love shall glow04 8,botanomancy10 ,ferrand states1 8which is done by the noise or crackling that kneeholme1 box1 or bay leaves make when they are crushed betwixt one's hands or cast into the fire1 was of old in use among the pagans1 who were wont to bruise poppy flowers betwixt their hands1 and by this means thinking to know their loves40 ,a ,,charme ,,or ,,an ,,allay ,,for ,,love4 8,if so be a toad be laid ,in a sheepskin newly flaid1 ,and that ty'd to man 'twill sever ,him and his affections ever40--,herrick's ,hesperides4 ,the winged ant was another favourite ingredient in love philtres1 and was first used by ,rhazes1 who prepared the winged ant in the form of tincture by maceration in alcohol4 ,this tincture1 dropped in the homopathic manner into wine or mixed with food1 was supposed to have a wonderful action in producing symptoms of the tender passion in the coldest hearts4 ,the winged ants alone were used in this preparation1 which enjoyed a long reputation1 and was subsequently known as 8,hoffmann's ,water of ,magnanimity10 and largely used in the seventeenth century as an aphrodisiac4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,pioneers ,,of ,,pharmacy ,,and ,,botany--,,physic ,,gardens4 ,the operation of distillation was unknown to the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 although ,dioscorides and ,pliny describe a process which may be considered that of distillation in its infancy4 ,the process was not known in ,england until the time of ,henry ,,ii4 ,to the ,arabs we are indebted for the discovery of manna1 cassia1 senna1 and rhubarb1 also aromatics1 such as musk1 nutmeg1 mace1 and cloves4 ,blisters were known and used by the ,arabs1 who are the first also on record to mention sugar extracted from the cane1 and sugar-candy1 which they called honey of cane4 ,rhazes and ,avicenna were the first physicians to introduce improvements in pharmaceutical preparations4 ,the latter was the first to mention the three mineral acids1 and distinguish between vegetable and mineral alkalies4 ,in the year #abbf1 ,roger ,bacon1 a native of ,ilchester1 in ,somersetshire1 and a ,franciscan monk1 may be said to have laid the foundation of chemical science in ,europe4 ,he was excommunicated by ,pope ,nicholas1 and imprisoned for ten years for supposed dealings with the devil4 ,he professed to have discovered an elixir of life1 which he affirmed prevented corruption of any constitution and the infirmities of age for many years4 ,following ,bacon1 at the end of the thirteenth century1 came ,arnoldas de ,villa ,nova1 or ,villeneuve1 who was the first to recommend the distilled spirit of wine impregnated with certain herbs1 from which we date our use of tinctures in medicine4 ,basil ,valentine followed as a pioneer in the administration of metallic medicines2 he made volatile alkali from sal-ammoniac1 and noticed the production of ether from alcohol4 ,in the year #adic1 ,phillipus ,theophrastus1 ,bombast of ,hohenheim1 afterwards known as ,paracelsus1 was born near ,zurich in ,switzerland1 a man of extraordinary conceit and boldness1 but who wrought a greater change and influence in materia medica than any physician since the time of ,galen4 ,he travelled all over ,europe1 and so obtained an extensive knowledge of chemistry and medicine4 ,this genius of science and quackery1 for such ,paracelsus must be termed1 who scoffed at all the doctrines believed in since the time of ,hippocrates1 professed to have received his knowledge from the ,divine ,being ,himself4 ,his sheer impudence carried the sympathies of the public with him1 and they kissed the skirts of his gown as he passed through the streets1 whilst he had among his followers many princes and nobles4 ,he denounced the apothecaries1 who1 he said1 8could only compose insipid syrups and repulsive concoctions1 when they have ready to hand at the bottom of their stills1 extracts and dyes derived from the best vegetables and minerals04 ,he disagreed with the doctors also1 whose prescriptions he stigmatised as barbarous1 and was much against the use of correctives being added to pharmaceutical recipes when they had no natural relation to the preparation itself4 ,he believed in the existence of an active principle in plants1 which he termed the 8,ether of ,aristotle10 that could be isolated and used to avert the various disorders of the human body--an idea which is now the leading spirit in pharmaceutical research4 ,his labours did much to stimulate the practical side of chemistry1 though his language was mysterious1 as1 like other alchemists1 he wrapped up all his wisdom and his ignorance in the garb of allegory4 ,he was reported to carry about a familiar spirit in the pommel of a long sword that always hung at his side4 ,paracelsus is said to have been the first to use mercury internally2 he also employed opium1 antimony1 and lead largely in his treatment2 and devised a process for the preparation of red oxide of mercury4 ,he was sent for to many of the ,european ,courts1 and by the interest of ,erasmus was made ,professor of ,chemistry at ,bale1 the first chair that was established in ,europe4 ,it was here while seated in his chair1 that with arrogant impudence he burnt with great solemnity the writings of ,galen and ,avicenna1 saying that 8if ,god would not impart the secrets of physic1 it was not only allowable1 but was justifiable1 to consult the devil04 ,he had the greatest contempt for his fellow physicians1 and said he had more knowledge in the very down on his bald pate than was in all their writings1 and in the buckles of his shoes there was more learning than in ,galen and ,avicenna1 and in his beard more experience than all their universities4 ,the man was a mass of conceit and egotism1 yet feared and liked by the people for his boldness4 ,latterly he took to drinking heavily1 seldom taking off his clothes for many nights together4 ,at length he broke down1 and the end came at the age of forty-eight1 when this singular man died after a few hours' illness at ,saltzburg1 in ,austria1 a bottle of his boasted panacea for all ills being found in his pocket4 ,he believed the human body to be composed of salt1 sulphur1 and mercury1 and that in these 8three fast substances0 health and disease consist4 ,to give ,paracelsus his due1 although empiricism and quackery were the chief elements in his career1 he exerted an undoubted influence on the medical practice of his time1 and with all his egotism did his best to advance the science and art of medicine4 ,the next pioneer was ,van ,helmont1 who flourished some hundred years later4 ,he was the first to notice the existence of gases1 also to use alum in uterine hmorrhage1 through which he acquired a great reputation4 ,little was known of materia medica by the nations of the ,west from the eighth to the tenth century4 ,the chief cultivation of medicinal herbs took place in the monasteries1 each having its own botanical garden1 which contributed much to the progress of medicine4 ,at this time the knowledge of the medicinal value of herbs and roots was much more advanced in the ,east1 and we find that during the reign of ,almansour1 in the eighth century1 a large school was founded at ,bagdad1 which became a refuge for scientists when exiled from ,athens and ,alexandria4 ,the works of ,aristotle and ,galen were translated into ,syriac1 and the greatest generosity and encouragement were shown to savants who settled there4 ,before this the ,arabs had considerable knowledge of the use of plants in medicine1 and had made some valuable discoveries4 ,their physicians recommended the use of senna1 tamarinds1 and cassia in place of the violent purgatives used by the ,greek physicians1 and a number of new plants were introduced by ,rhazes from ,india1 ,persia1 and ,syria4 ,mesu wrote his treatise on medicine 7,de ,remedica71 which1 on being translated into ,latin1 was used as a manual in all the schools up to the ,renaissance4 ,constantine was the first to introduce the most noted ,arabic works into ,europe1 himself a writer of no little repute4 ,then several ,arab travellers added to the store of knowledge2 among these1 ,ebor-,taitor1 a native of ,malaga1 travelled in ,asia to study plants1 and eventually became minister of the ,caliph at ,cairo4 ,otho1 of ,cremona1 in a poem of #aejj lines1 contributed his knowledge of plants1 and ,john of ,milan1 in his ,code of the ,school of ,salerno1 compiled the discoveries of a century in medical botany4 ,coming to the twelfth century1 scientific progress was not so rapid1 yet all the investigation that was made originated in the study of medicine4 ,most of the monasteries and convents besides their botanical gardens1 had collections of minerals and animals1 which were carefully watched and tended1 and the monks and nuns would not only administer to the sick of their own orders1 but also to the suffering who claimed their charity4 ,once lodged there1 the treatment was good and wholesome1 and consisted mostly of decoctions of simples1 backed up by good kitchen medicine1 quietness1 and rest4 ,one or two monks who had a special knowledge of herbs were usually allotted to this department4 ,it can then hardly be wondered at1 that during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries most of the records we have of medicine are from works by the brethren of the monasteries4 ,an excellent collection of recipes1 comprising also a summary of plants1 animals1 and minerals was compiled by ,hildegarde1 ,abbess of ,bingen1 and called the ,jardin de ,sant4 ,this good lady1 like many other abbesses of her time1 was much interested in the art of healing4 ,she cultivated her own medicinal plants1 and carefully noted down their properties for the use of others1 and thus left a valuable record4 ,in the thirteenth century an advance was made in materia medica by ,gilbert and ,hernicus ,arviell1 two ,englishmen who travelled through ,asia to study plants and their uses4 ,simon de ,cordo1 called ,simon of ,genoa1 also took a botanising exploration into ,sicily and the islands of the ,archipelago1 and afterwards wrote a botanic dictionary4 ,another eminent botanist of this period was ,peter de ,crescenzi1 a man of good birth and fortune1 who was born at ,bologna in #accj1 and who greatly interested himself in botany and horticulture4 ,his great work1 which was translated into several languages1 was called ,opus ,rubarium ,commodorum4 ,contemporary with ,peter were three names we must not omit1 viz41 ,vincent de ,beauvais1 ,albertus ,magnus1 and ,arnaud de ,villeneuve1 who professed a knowledge of alchemy1 astrology1 and physic4 ,vincent de ,beauvais was a ,dominican monk1 and his great work1 the ,speculum ,naturale1 is saturated with the superstition of the time4 ,in this book he states1 8the mandragora is of the same shape as the human body2 the winged dragon is capable of carrying off an ox1 and devouring the same whilst flying04 ,he also describes the scythion lamb1 a sort of animal plant which had roots and grew in the ground1 and other fearsome creatures1 and declared that 8in ,scotland the fruits of certain trees1 when they fall into the water1 produce the birds called black divers04 ,villeneuve wrote many treatises on plants and animals1 and eventually became teacher of medicine and botany at the ,university of ,paris4 ,he was undoubtedly a man in advance of his time1 and boldly declared 8that the most solemn mysteries of the ,catholic faith could be explained by the teachings of natural history and experimental physics04 ,he was therefore accused by the magistrates of sorcery and magic1 but escaped through the special protection of ,charles of ,anjou into ,italy1 where he settled for a long time4 ,the fourteenth century saw little advance in the medical art1 but it was enriched by one or two great works4 ,one of these1 written in ,latin by ,bartholomew ,glanvil1 an ,english monk1 was a kind of encyclopdia of immense size1 and was called ,liber de ,proprietatibus ,rerum1 and had a great reputation for centuries afterwards4 ,the advent of printing about the middle of the fifteenth century rapidly spread the knowledge of more recent discoveries throughout ,europe1 and many large works on botany and herbalism1 illustrated with woodcuts1 were published at ,mayence and ,louvain4 ,at ,venice many of the works of the old ,arab physicians1 ,avicenna1 ,mesu1 and others1 were printed and eagerly purchased4 ,the discovery of ,america in #adib heralded the introduction of numerous fresh additions to materia medica1 which were brought to this country by explorers and naturalists4 ,in the sixteenth century1 by the labours and researches of ,george ,agricola1 a ,german1 and ,conrad ,gesner1 a ,swiss1 a considerable advance was made in the knowledge of what was called chemical medicine and botany4 ,agricola1 who was the greatest mineralogist the world had then seen1 explored and spent much time in the mines of ,bohemia and ,saxony1 and thus obtained a practical knowledge of the then known methods of the working of metals4 ,his contemporary1 ,conrad ,gesner1 born at ,zurich in #aeaf1 has been called the originator of scientific botany1 as he was the first to discover a method of recognising each genus and kind by examining the organs of fructification1 and in this way discovered #ahjj new varieties4 ,a famous physic garden was planted in ,paris in the early part of the seventeenth century by ,jacques ,gohory1 an enthusiastic pharmacist1 and this garden eventually became part of the ,jardin des ,plantes4 ,in connection with this garden a school of medicine was founded1 the first occupant of the chair of chemistry being ,william ,davisson1 a ,scotchman1 and predecessor to ,lefebvre1 who afterwards became a chemist at ,st4 ,james's4 ,the practice of the teachers of this time was to dictate to their students1 and in order to save themselves the trouble of dictating and the students the trouble of writing1 which was a very laborious matter in those days1 the lecturer would write a book4 ,thus ,jean ,beguin wrote a chemical text-book in #afab1 which passed through no fewer than fifty-three editions4 ,we must not omit to mention two other pioneers of this period1 who made important discoveries in botany2 they were ,matthias of ,lille1 who eventually settled in ,england1 and ,andrew ,cesalpin1 professor of botany at ,pisa4 ,the former first formulated the true principles of classification of plants and arrangement into families1 such as the orchids1 palms1 and mosses2 and to the latter belongs the honour of having devised the first system of botany4 ,having compared the process of generation in animals to the seeds of plants1 he distinguished male plants by their stamens1 and those which yielded seed as female4 ,the next era is marked by the publication of the first pharmacopia at ,nuremberg in #aedb4 8,for this act10 says ,paris1 8we are indebted to ,valerius ,cordus1 a young student1 who1 during a transient visit at that place1 accidentally produced a collection of medical receipts which he had selected from the works of the past esteemed writers1 and with which the physicians of ,nuremberg were so highly pleased that they urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries1 and obtained the sanction of the ,senate to the undertaking40 ,to this slight circumstance we owe the institution of pharmacopias4 ,the first ,london ,pharmacopia was1 however1 not published until the reign of ,james ,i41 in #afah1 of which there were twelve subsequent editions1 the last being in #ahda4 ,the ,dublin ,pharmacopia first appeared in #ahjg1 the last edition being published in #ahej4 ,until the ,medical ,act passed in #aheh1 the right of publishing the ,pharmacopia for ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland was vested in the ,college of ,physicians of ,london1 ,edinburgh1 and ,ireland respectively2 and as these books contained several preparations similar in name and different in strength1 such obvious danger arose for travellers that the ,british ,pharmacopia1 published in #ahfd1 became1 by ,act of ,parliament1 the standard for ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the ,chelsea ,physic ,garden is the oldest public botanical garden in ,great ,britain1 but there were private ones of older date1 such as that of ,gerard1 the author of ,the ,herbal1 which was situated in ,holborn1 and that of ,tradescant1 the famous ,dutch traveller1 gardener to ,james ,i41 who had an extensive garden of exotic plants in ,lambeth4 ,the founders of the ,chelsea ,garden were the members of the ,society of ,apothecaries1 who have maintained it for over two centuries entirely for scientific purposes1 as was stipulated in the deed of gift1 executed by ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 in which the growing or cultivation of plants for purely pharmaceutical purposes1 or for trade1 was strictly forbidden4 ,the origin of this so-called ,physic ,garden was somewhat amusing1 and anything but scientific4 ,the ground was first fixed upon as an eligible spot for building a boathouse for the state barge of the ,apothecaries' ,company4 ,this ground was walled in about #afgd1 and planted with trees in #afgh1 and herbs were grown in it for use in the company's laboratories1 some of these plants being from time to time exchanged for others from the ,university of ,leyden4 ,sir ,hans 7then ,dr47 ,sloane bought the estate in #agab2 and1 as might have been expected of a man of his parts1 a pupil of the chemist ,stahl and of the botanist ,tournefort1 and a friend of the great ,ray1 a new era of usefulness was begun in the ,chelsea ,garden4 ,in #agbb he handed over the land to the ,apothecaries' ,society1 at a yearly rental of #e1 and an undertaking that fifty specimens of fifty species of distinct plants1 well dried and mounted as herbarium specimens and properly named1 should be handed over to the ,royal ,society each year until #bjjj had been duly delivered4 ,in a catalogue issued in #agcj1 written by ,miller1 the head gardener1 are enumerated #dii plants1 mostly medicinal1 so one may judge of the extent of the gardens at that time4 ,exotics were cultivated in hothouses in #agcb1 and in #agcf ,linnus paid a visit to the garden4 ,thomas ,dover1 the originator of ,dover's powder1 was born in ,england in the year #affj4 ,he settled and practised medicine for a time in ,bristol2 left there for a period1 and returned again4 ,he lived with1 and was contemporaneous with ,sydenham4 ,he gained much professional reputation on the occasion of a severe epidemic of fever4 ,this may have suggested to him the use of ipecacuanha and opium in a compound4 ,in ,dover's day and time1 the apothecaries were in the ascendancy1 being the medical practitioners1 whilst the physicians were chiefly called in to attend in childbirth and protracted illness4 ,indeed1 it is navely stated that the apothecary surgeons rode in their chaises1 while the doctors walked1 and that the former were generally first consulted when the choice of a family physician was to be made4 ,mercury had at this time an unrestrained use--perhaps abuse would be a better word1--and much severe public stricture was made upon the fact4 ,crude quicksilver was administered1 and ,dover was a warm advocate of its use--in fact1 he was called the quicksilver doctor4 ,one ,captain ,henry ,coit1 a patient of ,dover's1 took an ounce and a quarter of crude mercury daily1 until he had used more than two pounds weight6 ,dover professed to believe that mercury freed the patient from all vermicular diseases1 opened all obstructions1 and made a pure balsam of the blood4 ,the doctors and apothecaries were at loggerheads4 ,dover said the best way to affront the latter was to order too little physic--each patient being deemed to be worth a certain sum to the dispenser4 ,in #agjh ,dover joined the company of a group of ,bristol merchants in a scheme to fit out two vessels for privateering in the ,south ,seas4 ,dover1 it seems1 went as captain1 and the voyage was eminently successful in booty4 ,they took in various reprisals from the ,spaniards--the hoards of treasure and gold which they in turn had obtained from the native ,indians--the principle of might applied to right4 ,the expedition returned to ,britain enriched with spoil1 the treasure amounting to #agj1jjj sterling4 ,it was during this memorable voyage that ,dover1 landing with some of his crew on the island of ,juan ,fernandez1 discovered the existence of ,alexander ,selkirk--,robinson ,crusoe--in his dreary solitude on this desert shore4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,amulets1 ,,talismans ,,and ,,charms4 ,from very remote times a somewhat curious link has existed between the art of healing and religion1 and those who proposed the cure of the body or the soul have ever sought to work upon that uncanny chord we call superstition1 which pervades more or less all classes of mankind4 ,the influence of superstition manifested itself in many ways1 and among others the belief in amulets1 talismans and charms survives even to-day4 ,two thousand years ago they were dispensed by the priests1 and afterwards by those who practised medicine1 alchemy1 and astrology1 during the middle ages1 when medical practice was mainly composed of a mixture of white magic1 witchcraft1 and religion4 ,an amulet consisted of an object in wood1 stone1 or metal1 carved or painted2 also certain words or signs1 written or spoken1 which were supposed to possess some mysterious virtue or hidden property1 and avert disease and death from the wearer4 ,the word means something that is suspended from the neck1 or bound round a part of the body1 to strengthen it2 to drive off disease or poison1 bringing about certain results of a peculiar character1 and invested with supernatural virtues4 ,portions of animals and herbs were also used for this purpose4 ,talismans were objects1 usually of metal or one of the precious stones1 worn about the person to ward off danger1 ill-luck1 or the evil eye1 as well as for their supposed medicinal virtues4 ,by their means it was thought possible to hold commune with the world of spirits4 ,their origin is lost in antiquity1 but they were used by the ,assyrians1 ,egyptians1 ,persians1 and ,jews hundreds of years before the ,christian era1 and afterwards by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,it is probable the ,jews learned the use of amulets from the ,egyptians at the time of the captivity1 by whom they were very generally worn4 ,egyptian amulets were mostly composed of stone or porcelain objects1 fashioned in various forms4 ,some were emblematic of deities1 such as the nilometer1 which was a symbol of ,osiris1 while others represented human heads or the figures of animals4 ,many were engraved with zodiacal symbols which had special significance4 ,the crab was worn to ward off fevers1 the bull to guard against the evil-doing of others1 fishes kept away gout and kindred diseases1 and the scorpion rendered the wearer invulnerable to the bites or stings of venomous reptiles4 ,it was customary with the ,egyptians to attach certain amulets to the bodies of the dead to protect them from evil spirits1 and they are frequently found suspended from the necks of mummies4 ,amulets are worn in ,egypt to-day1 and also in most ,mohammedan countries4 ,they usually take the form of a small strip of parchment1 on which is written some cabalistic sign or a few lines from the ,koran1 the whole being enclosed in a small leather or tin case1 and hung around the neck4 ,amulets were also known and much used by the early ,greeks4 ,pliny mentions their virtue1 while ,galen1 ,dioscorides1 ,cardamus1 and other ancient writers on medicine1 speak of their value in warding off disease4 ,galen tells us that the ,egyptian king1 ,nechepsus1 who lived #fcj years ,b4,c41 wore a green jasper cut into the form of a dragon1 surrounded with rays1 which1 applied externally to the region of the digestive organs1 was said to wonderfully strengthen that part4 ,the ,romans were also great believers in the power of the amulet1 and in the declining era of the great empire the custom of wearing them became so general that the ,emperor ,caracalla made a public edict1 that no man should wear an amulet about his person1 under heavy penalties4 ,amulets have been known to that curious nation the ,chinese from the earliest period of their history1 and are still worn by them4 ,they are sold by the priests in the form of small pieces of metal1 chains1 or characters written on a piece of skin or parchment1 and worn as a charm against accident1 sickness1 etc4 ,to enumerate all the extraordinary objects used as amulets in early times1 and the wonderful virtues attached to them1 would fill a volume1 so we must be content to mention a few of the most curious4 ,the amulets and talismans probably held in the highest esteem were those in the form of precious stones4 ,they were supposed to be influenced in some mysterious way by the planets1 and to be the abode of spirits4 ,five or six hundred years ago a lady would present her knight with a talisman on his departure on some adventurous or warlike expedition2 this often took the form of a jewel set in the hilt of his sword4 ,the diamond was thus supposed to endow the wearer with courage1 and make him more fearless than careful4 ,a jacinth had the reputation of being able to strengthen the heart1 and was often worn close to the region of that organ1 fashioned into the form of some animal or saint4 ,the sapphire was supposed to possess a ,divine gift of sharpening the intellect1 and was also worn as a preventive against the bites of venomous animals4 ,a wearer of this stone was also said to have the power of resisting 8necromantick apparitions04 ,the emerald was worn in a ring to prevent giddiness and strengthen the memory4 ,garcious quaintly states3 8,it takes away vain and foolish fears as of devils and hobgoblins1 folly and anger1 and causeth good conditions2 if it do so being worn about one1 reason will tell him1 that being beaten into powder and taken inwardly it will do much more04 ,great faith was placed in the ruby as an amulet to ward off plagues and pestilences4 ,cardamus says3 8,it has the power of making the wearer cheerful1 and banishing idle and foolish thoughts04 ,the amethyst was supposed to promote temperance and sobriety1 and cause the wearer to abstain from strong drinks and from taking too much sleep4 ,by other writers it is also said to quicken the wit and repel vapours from the head--altogether a very useful kind of amulet to have about4 ,the chrysolite was said to ward off fevers2 while the onyx1 worn round the neck1 was supposed to prevent an attack of epilepsy4 ,the opal was believed to cure weak eyes1 and the topaz to cure inflammation and keep the wearer from sleep-walking4 ,lapis-lazuli1 worn as a jewel1 was said to make the wearer fortunate and rich1 while amulets of jasper resisted fevers and dropsy4 ,ancient warriors often carried an amulet composed of bloodstone1 which was supposed to stop bleeding when applied to a wound4 ,the old ,egyptian amulets were mostly carved in stone1 porcelain1 carnelian1 or lapis-lazuli1 etc4 ,they were fashioned in many forms1 the most common being the heart1 the symbolic eye1 two fingers1 disc and horns1 snakes1 the tat1 and the papyrus sceptre4 ,illustration3 ,the ,tat4 ,the ,heart4 ,the ,pillow4 ,the ,eye4 ,two ,fingers4 ,papyrus ,sceptre4 ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,amulets ,,of ,,gold ,,and ,,clay ,,found ,,in ,,mummy ,,cases4 ,coming to those fashioned in metal1 amulets of gold were also highly esteemed4 ,the precious metal was supposed to strengthen the heart1 drive away melancholy1 fever1 and other infirmities4 ,silver was attributed with the possession of similar properties1 but in a lesser degree4 ,zoroaster and ,paracelsus advocated the use of metallic amulets4 ,special value was attached to those made from a peculiar metal called electron1 which was composed of seven metals fused together in fixed proportions4 ,amulet rings were always worn on the third finger1 which was called the medicine-finger by alchemists1 through which they believed the heart was most susceptible to influence4 ,written amulets usually consisted of some cabalistic character1 or a few words written on a small piece of skin or parchment4 ,this was either enclosed in a tiny case and suspended from the neck1 or bound against the body4 ,it was not uncommon for the physician of the fifteenth century to write his prescription in mysterious characters1 and hang it round the neck of the patient1 or bind it over the part nearest the seat of the complaint4 ,of written amulets perhaps the most famous formula was ,abracadabra1 which1 when written on a piece of parchment in the following manner1 was said to protect the wearer from most diseases3-- ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,d ,a ,b ,r ,a ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,d ,a ,b ,r ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,d ,a ,b ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,d ,a ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,d ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,a ,b ,r ,a ,c ,a ,b ,r ,a ,a ,b ,r ,a ,b ,a ,another common formula was the sign ,a ,,ii1 which1 inscribed on parchment1 was worn round the neck to prevent sore eyes4 ,others were composed of astrological signs and certain numbers4 ,a favourite inscription was ,a ,b ,r ,a ,x ,a ,s1 supposed to ward off fever and pestilence4 ,the ,jews used the fifth and sixth verses of the sixteenth ,psalm as an amulet to discover hidden thieves1 it being supposed that on repeating these words they would be compelled to come forth from their hiding-places4 ,the modern burglar requires an amulet of a somewhat stronger nature in these prosaic days4 ,a curious charm for warts1 used some #djj years ago1 was to write on seven little wafers the following words3 ,maximanus1 ,walchus1 ,johannes1 ,martinianus1 ,dionysius1 ,constantius1 ,serapion1 and sing a prescribed incantation first into one ear1 then into the other1 and then above the patient's poll1 after which a virgin was to hang the incantation around the patient's neck1 when the warts would disappear4 ,another amulet to charm away warts was an iron ring made from the chain of a gibbet4 ,the following incantation was supposed to stop bleeding from the nose3 ,make the sign of the ,cross thrice1 repeat the ,lord's ,prayer thrice2 then say the ,ave ,maria1 and repeat the words ,max1 ,hackx1 ,lyacx1 ,iseus1 ,christus4 ,among the many strange and curious articles worn as amulets the old philosophers seem to have had the greatest veneration for certain mysterious stones1 such as bezoar1 the origin of which in most cases is exceedingly doubtful4 ,dark and weird are the legends relating to the power of the toadstone1 that amulet so highly prized by witches and astrologers4 ,among other properties it was supposed to protect its owner from the bites of venomous animals4 ,lemnius tells us of 8a stone of the bigness of a bean1 to be found in the gizzard of an old cock1 which makes him that wears it beloved1 constant1 bold1 and valiant in fighting and sports04 ,such amulets brought big prices1 and were eagerly sought after4 ,the toadstone was much esteemed as a charm against the bites of snakes and reptiles2 it also had a reputation for curing weak eyes and headache4 ,orpheus believed that when this amulet was worn by a public speaker he could always compel and hold the attention of his audience4 ,a charm against the evil eye consisted of a quill filled with mercury1 sealed at each end1 and worn bound to the body4 ,a small portion of the plant called ,st4 ,john's ,wort was carried about the person as a preventive from harm by witches or devils4 ,a toad1 well dried in the sun1 put into a bag and hung round the neck1 low enough to touch the region of the heart1 was used to allay hmorrhage2 and a very well salted herring split open and applied to the soles of the feet was a noted remedy for ague4 ,an emerald suspended from the neck was worn as an amulet to ward off the same complaint4 ,aqua divina1 a famous remedy1 supposed to possess 8magnetick power10 was prepared by macerating a human body in water and distilling it twice or thrice4 ,human bones1 various parts of a mummy1 and other equally gruesome objects1 were supposed to be endowed with some mysterious power to ward off accident1 disease1 and death4 ,in some parts of the country1 especially in ,cornwall1 eel skins were and are still used1 tied round the legs to prevent cramp2 and two sticks laid crosswise on the bedroom floor were supposed to charm away the same painful complaint4 ,it is still a common custom in other country districts to pass a weakly child through the split branch of a tree in order to make it grow stronger2 and a certain class have the strongest belief in a charm of a romantic nature that is worked with the gum called dragon's blood4 ,a famous amulet1 the remarkable history of which inspired ,sir ,walter ,scott to write ,the ,talisman1 was 8,the ,lee ,penny10 which we believe is still in existence1 and held in veneration in some parts of ,scotland4 ,the singular history attached to this coin was as follows3 ,sir ,simon ,lockhart1 of ,lee and ,cartland1 was a well-known knight in the time of ,robert the ,bruce and his son ,david4 ,he was one of the chief ,scottish knights who accompanied ,lord ,douglas on his expedition to the ,holy ,land with the heart of ,king ,robert ,bruce1 and was there engaged in the war with the ,saracens4 ,tradition goes on to state that he captured in battle an emir of great rank and wealth1 and fixed a price at which he should be ransomed4 ,the aged mother of the prisoner came to the ,christian camp to redeem her son1 and on pulling out a large purse which contained the ransom1 a peculiar pebble inserted in a coin fell to the ground4 ,the old woman1 it is said1 showed such haste and anxiety to recover it1 that it gave the ,scottish knight a high idea of its value--on which he refused to set the emir at liberty till the amulet was added to the ransom4 ,this the woman consented to do1 and also explained to ,sir ,simon the use of the talisman1 which was of great repute4 ,when dipped in water the liquid assumed the properties of a styptic and a febrifuge1 etc4 ,sir ,simon ,lockhart1 after much experience of its value1 brought it home1 and left it to his heirs1 and it is known as the 8,lee penny0 from the name of his native place4 ,the coin is said to be of the early ,byzantine period4 ,the most remarkable part of its history1 as stated in the introduction to ,the ,talisman1 was1 that it escaped condemnation in an extraordinary manner when the ,church of ,scotland impeached many other cures of the kind which savoured of the miraculous1 as occasioned by sorcery1 and censured the appeal to them2 8excepting only that to the amulet called the #8,lee penny1' to which it had pleased ,god to annex certain healing virtues which the ,church did not presume to condemn04 ,it still exists1 and its powers are sometimes yet resorted to4 ,for epilepsy1 a curious custom was to take the sick man by the hand and whisper softly in his ear1 8,i conjure thee by the sun and moon1 and by the ,gospel of the day delivered by ,god to ,hubert1 ,giles1 ,cornelius1 and ,john1 that thou rise and fall no more04 ,when picking simples for burns the following charm was repeated3-- 8,hail to the holy herb1 ,growing on the ground1 ,all in the ,mount ,calvary1 ,first wert thou found4 ,thou art good for many a sore1 ,and heal'st many a wound2 ,in the name of ,sweet ,jesus1 ,i take thee from the ground40 ,to produce sleep1 the following is recommended to be repeated3-- 8,in nomine ,patris up and down1 ,et filii et spiritus sancte upon my crown1 ,dear ,christ upon my breast1 ,sweet ,lady1 send me eternal rest04 ,the following was supposed to stop the flux3-- 8,in the blood of ,adam death was taken1 ,in the blood of ,christ it was all to slaken1 ,and by the same blood ,i do thee charge ,that thou do run no longer at large04 ,singular virtues were supposed to be attached to a 8dead man's hand04 ,in a ,roman ,catholic chapel in ,ashton-in-,mackerfield1 there is preserved with great care in a white silk bag1 a hand1 which is still held in veneration1 and wonderful cures are said to have been wrought by this ghastly relic4 ,the hand is said to have been that of one ,father ,edmund ,arrowsmith1 who was executed at ,lancaster in #afbh1 for apparently no greater offence than that of being true to his faith4 ,after his execution one of his friends cut off his right hand1 which was preserved for many years at ,bryn ,hall1 in ,lancashire1 and afterwards removed to ,ashton4 ,this 8,holy hand0 was formerly held in great esteem in ,lancashire1 and pilgrims came from all parts of the country to receive its touch1 which was reputed to cure various diseases4 ,it was believed to remove tumours when rubbed over the part1 and restore health to the paralysed4 ,there is a curious superstition still prevalent in some parts of ,lancashire1 that when cat's hair gets into the stomach it causes sickness1 which may be cured by eating a piece of egg-shell once a day4 ,consumption was believed by the ignorant to be produced by drinking water which had been boiled too long4 ,the cure was to dig a hole in the earth1 lie in it face downwards1 and breathe into the soil4 ,this extraordinary remedy was also largely used for coughs1 asthma1 and those suffering from hysteria4 ,a curious charm is still practised in ,devonshire as a cure for the complaint called a white swelling or white leg4 ,bandages are used to tie round the afflicted limb1 over which the following charm is repeated nine times1 and each time followed by the ,lord's ,prayer3-- 8,as ,christ was walking1 ,he saw the ,virgin ,mary sitting on a cold marble stone4 ,he said unto her1 #8,if it is a white ill thing1 or a red ill thing1 or a black ill thing1 or a sticking1 crackling1 pricking1 stabbing1 bone ill thing1 or a sore ill thing1 or a swelling ill thing1 or a rotten ill thing1 or a cold creeping ill thing1 or a smarting ill thing1 let it fall from thee to the earth in ,my name1 and the name of the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost4 ,amen4'0 ,this comprehensive charm would seem to cover a multitude of ills indeed4 ,the following charms are taken from a ,,ms4 of the year #adge3-- ,a ,charme to ,staunch ,blood4 8,jesus1 that was in ,bethlehem born1 and baptyzed was in the flumen ,jordane1 as stente the water at hys comyng1 so stente the blood of thys man ,n1 thy serwaunt1 throw the virtu of thy holy name ,jesu and of thy ,cosyn swete ,sent ,jon4 ,and sey thys ,charme fyve tymes with fyve ,pater nostirs1 in the worshep of the fyve woundys40 ,for ,fever4 8,wryt thys wordys on a lorell lef ,ysmael ,ysmael adjuro vos per angelum ut soporetetur iste ,homo ,n4 and ley thys lef under hys head that he wote not thereof1 and let hym ete ,letuse oft and drynk ,ip'e seed small grounden in a morter1 and temper yt with ale40 ,it is said that the inhabitants of ,colonsay had an ancient custom of fanning the face of the sick with the leaves of the ,bible4 ,many and varied are the charms for curing warts4 8,for warts10 says ,sir ,thomas ,brown1 8we rub our hands before the moon and commit any maculated part to the touch of the dead40 ,grose tells us to 8steal a piece of beef from a butcher's shop and rub your warts with it2 then throw it down the #8necessary house1' or bury it2 and as the beef rots your warts will decay04 ,the leaf of the castor-oil plant worn round the neck was believed to ward away devils1 because the leaf is like an open hand4 ,in ,bale's ,interlude the following charms are given3-- 8,for the coughe take ,judas ,eare ,with the parynge of a ,peare1 ,and drynke them without feare ,if ye will have remedy3 ,thre syppes are for the hyckocke1 ,and six more for the chyckocke2 ,thus my pretty pyckocke ,recover by and by4 ,if ye cannot slepe but slumber1 ,geve ,otes unto ,saynt ,uncumber1 ,and ,beanes in a certen number ,unto ,saynt ,blase and ,saynt ,blythe4 ,give ,onyons to ,saynt ,cutlake ,and ,garlycke to ,saynt ,cyoyake1 ,if ye wyll spurne the heade ake4 ,ye shall have them at ,quene hyth40 ,amulet rings were made from various metals1 and worn to ward off disease and misfortune4 ,in ,berkshire there is a popular superstition that a ring made from a piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure for convulsions and fits4 ,rings were also made from coffin-nails dug out of a grave1 and coffin-hinges1 and used to cure cramp4 ,boorde1 in his ,introduction to ,knowledge 7#aedb71 says3 8,the kynges of ,englande doth halowe every yere ,crampe ,rynges1 ye which ,rynges worne on one's ,fynger doth helpe them whych hath the crampe04 ,one of the favourite charms of the early ,britons was the anguineum1 or snake's egg1 which was supposed to be produced from the saliva of serpents1 and besides its healing properties it got the credit of being able to float against the current4 ,many of the ancient writers believed that all charms were impotent without the repetition of certain words4 ,thus the following words are recommended by ,barrett to be repeated as a charm against flux of blood3-- 8,in the blood of ,adam arose death1 ,in the blood of ,christ death is extinguished4 ,in the name of ,christ ,i command thee1 ,o blood1 ,that thou stop fluxing40 ,a piece of clean new vellum bearing the letters was considered a powerful amulet against ague4 ,pliny makes several allusions to the poison of toads1 and ,juvenal tells us of the lady 8,who squeezed a toad into her husband's wine04 ,the life of ,james ,,vi4 of ,scotland was once attempted by a woman named ,agnes ,sampson1 who confessed on her trial1 that in order to compass the king's death1 she had hung up a black toad for nine days and collected the juice that fell from it4 ,the toadstone was greatly valued as an amulet against a great variety of diseases4 ,it was often set in valuable rings1 which were handed down from generation to generation4 ,some are said to have borne a figure resembling a toad on their surface4 ,they varied in colour1 some being dark-grey1 and others of a brownish fawn colour4 ,these stones were supposed to grow only in very old toads1 and to be extracted when they were dying4 ,in reality1 they were manufactured of fused borax and many other materials4 ,the toadstone was supposed to be specially powerful against witchcraft and poison4 ,when placed in proximity to the latter1 or applied to one bewitched1 the stone was believed to sweat or change colour4 ,it was sometimes given internally as a remedy for fever or the bites of reptiles4 ,the toad itself was also credited with medicinal virtues1 and was given in plague and small-pox4 ,aubrey gives a process for preparing the toad for internal use1 in which 8twenty great fatt toads are directed to be stewed slowly1 while alive1 in a pipkin on the fire4 ,the calcined remains are again heated1 and then finely powdered40 ,sir ,kenhelm ,digby speaks of their virtues1 and recommends toads for quinsy1 bleeding at the nose1 and1 above all1 a most valuable remedy in king's evil and scrofula4 ,within the last fifty years 8toad doctors0 visited most country fairs1 often selling bags containing the legs torn from the body of a living toad for six or seven shillings each4 ,among other curious charms used by the ,romans to prolong life1 especially among the aged1 was the singular practice of being breathed upon by young girls4 ,this custom is frequently mentioned by ancient writers1 and was believed to be efficacious also in prolonging life in certain diseases4 ,a reference to this singular charm is recorded by ,kohansen in an inscription which was discovered at ,rome1 cut in a marble tablet1 and which ran as follows3-- 8,,to ,,sculapius ,,and ,,health1 this is erected by ,l4 ,,clodius ,,hermippus1 who by the breath of young girls lived #aae years and #e days at which physicians were no little surprised4 ------ ,successive generations lead such a life40 ------ ,in later times amulets in civilised countries merged into the wearing of images of saints1 or consecrated objects1 and the use of scapularies by ,roman ,catholics at the present time4 ,there is little doubt that the custom of wearing precious stones in rings1 and the charms worn as pendants to watch chains1 originated in the amulet and talisman4 ,who can say that the belief in such charms has even yet died out8 ,how many people are there at the present day who do not carry about them some coin1 token1 or object1 to which they would probably be ashamed to confess1 they attach some mysterious virtue8 ,the belief in keeping a crooked sixpence or a broken ring is evidence of that peculiar vein of superstition that runs through most of us1 which1 strange though it may seem1 the advance of science and education has not altogether dispelled4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,monk ,,physicians--,,itinerant ,,doctors--,,surgery ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the treatment prescribed by the monks1 who were ready to cure the body as well as the soul1 consisted mainly of holy water1 prayer1 the touching of relics1 and a number of decoctions of herbs1 the properties of which they were acquainted with4 ,many of these physician monks wandered about the country devoting themselves to the wants of the sick4 ,during the eleventh century hospitals began to spring up in various parts of the country and over ,europe4 ,they seem to have originated at the time of the crusades4 ,lacroix says3 8,the ,johannists1 and the brotherhoods of ,st4 ,mary and ,st4 ,lazarus devoted themselves to missions of charity in the ,east2 in ,france1 there were the brothers of ,st4 ,antony and of the ,holy ,ghost2 and throughout the world the heroic chevaliers of ,st4 ,john of ,jerusalem or of the ,templars1 whose countless establishments combined the triple character of conventual church1 almshouse1 and fortress1 and who1 attired in a dress both military and monastic1 wore a mantle similar to that seen in the statues of sculapius1 as a sign of the double mission--beneficent and warlike--which they had sworn to fulfil04 ,each of these orders had a special form of treatment1 and took charge of specific diseases4 ,thus1 the ,templars paid special attention to those pilgrim soldiers and travellers particularly troubled with ophthalmia1 scurvy1 or those suffering from wounds4 ,the ,johannists professed the cure of epidemical disease and pestilence4 ,the order of ,st4 ,antony looked after those stricken with dysenteries and those complaints known as ,st4 ,anthony's fire1 while the ,lazarists treated leprosy1 small-pox1 and pustular fevers4 ,the first school of nurses of which we have record1 is one organised by ,hildegarde1 ,abbess of ,rupertsberg1 who died #aahj4 ,these nuns gave great assistance in the hospitals4 ,thus the monks about the twelfth century tended the bodies as well as the souls1 and even accompanied armies on military expeditions in that capacity4 ,in the thirteenth century faculties were established at ,montpellier1 ,salerno1 and ,paris1 by the order of papal bulls1 to grant degrees in medicine4 ,in order to obtain the title of master physician1 the candidate had first to become a clerk1 then pass an examination before masters or doctors selected from the staff of the college by the ,bishop of ,maguelonne4 ,the barbers at this time came to occupy an important position in medicine1 and were promoted to the rank of subordinate surgeons1 chiefly for blood-letting and minor accidents4 ,in the fourteenth century medicine had rapidly progressed in ,europe1 and the celebrated physician and surgeon ,lanfranc founded the ,st4 ,cosmo ,college at ,paris1 the examinations of which all surgeons were obliged to pass4 ,a decree was also passed by the ,king of ,france in #aceb prohibiting any one who was not an apothecary1 student1 or mendicant monk from practising medicine4 ,the king1 we find1 also exempted the master barbers from doing duty as watchmen1 as 8the barbers being nearly all of them in the habit of practising surgery1 great inconvenience might arise if they were absent from their houses when sent for during the night04 ,in ,france1 the little barbers1 as they were called1 travelled about on foot from village to village with a bag containing their drugs and remedies1 while the great barbers1 or sworn surgeons1 astride their hacks with tinkling bells to announce their approach1 wore long robes trimmed with fur1 and other rich apparel4 ,they were usually accompanied by an assistant and several servants1 who carried their cases of instruments1 which always included scissors1 nippers1 a probe or prouvette1 razors1 lances1 and needles4 ,he also carried five kinds of ointments1 viz41 basilicon1 apostles' ointment1 the white ointment1 yellow ointment1 and the dialta ointment for subduing local pain4 ,guy de ,chauliac1 who was physician to three successive popes1 stated 8he never went out on his visits without taking several clysters and plain remedies1 besides gathering herbs in the field1 so as to treat diseases in a proper manner04 ,even at that early time the credulity of the public became imposed upon by quacks1 and ,lacroix tells us of an ,english surgeon1 one ,goddesden1 who had two sorts of prescriptions1 one for the rich and another for the poor2 he sold at a high price to the barbers a so-called panacea1 which the latter sold at a large profit1 and this was simply a mixture of frogs pounded in a mortar4 ,in one of his books there is a short chapter on disagreeable diseases1 as he terms them1 8which work their own cure1 and bring no grist to the doctor's mill04 ,in the fifteenth century the practice of medicine became more and more influenced and dominated by the occult sciences1 and especially astrology4 ,all mankind was ruled by the stars1 and the cause of various diseases was attributed to the conjunction of certain planets4 8,they believed the blood rose during the daytime towards the sun1 and descended into the lower extremities at night2 that at the third hour the bile subsided1 so that its acid properties might not be mixed with the course of the blood2 and that at the second hour the atrabilis1 and in the evening the phlegm1 subsided40 ,such illusions and erroneous beliefs stopped the progress of science1 and threatened to turn a noble art into mere charlatanry4 ,in this country the surgeons mostly practised as apothecaries2 and we are told that when ,henry ,v4 invaded ,france in #adae1 the only surgeon he had in his camp was one ,thomas ,morstede1 who was with difficulty induced to accompany the army1 bringing with him twelve assistants4 ,the sixteenth century saw an effort to throw off some of these errors which had grown round the art4 ,the invention of printing helped largely in disseminating knowledge throughout ,europe1 and the followers of medicine assumed a higher position4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,apothecary',s ,,shop4 ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century ,tachenius wrote3 8,there is no new thing under the sun whatsoever1 therefore the followers of ,hippocrates have handed out1 and as it were midwifed into the world1 the same was from the beginning though our eyes were not so clear-sighted as to discern it04 ,to which ,stephen ,pasquier replied in the following rhyme3-- 8,some ,paracelse of novelty implead1 ,for which1 judged crime1 he erst was banished1 ,so ,hippocrates1 ,chrysippus1 and at ,rome ,asclepiade1 too1 were new4 ,they'd all one doom4 ,they who condemn new things condemn the old1 ,or else do both misjudge and are o'er bold40 ,during the crusades the surgeons naturally acquired a very large experience in the treatment of wounds--incised1 lacerated1 and contused4 ,baldwin was severely wounded before ,jerusalem1 having received a spear-thrust 8through the thigh and the loins04 ,he fell fainting from his horse1 but the most skilful leeches were summoned1 8by whose art and skill the king and valiant athlete was enabled to recover from this deadly wound04 ,baldwin was also wounded in the foot before ,antioch1 and the surgical talent available was baffled by the injury to such a degree that it was proposed to kill a ,saracen after wounding him in the same part1 so as to learn the proper course to pursue4 ,baldwin1 however1 refused to allow this crude attempt at experimental surgery to be made4 ,there seem to be no medical records of the second crusade4 ,in the third1 the ,french king1 ,philippe ,auguste1 and our own ,cur de ,lion suffered grievously from a disease1 the symptomatology of which included extensive exfoliation of the skin1 shedding of the nails1 and loss of the hair4 ,the disease is called ,arnoldia by the chroniclers1 and is variously conjectured to have been leprosy or syphilis4 ,it could hardly have been leprosy1 for both the royal sufferers recovered1 ,cur de ,lion being killed eight years later at the siege of ,chalus1 and ,philippe ,auguste dying of quartan ague twenty-four years after ,richard4 ,of the fourth crusade we have no medical details4 ,in the fifth1 ,st4 ,louis of ,france was accompanied by his private physician ,dudon and other leeches2 among them was a lady doctor or phisicienne named ,hernandis1 who probably attended the queen in her confinement1 which took place at ,damietta4 ,the expedition suffered terribly from scurvy1 typhus1 and other pestilences4 ,the part played by water in the diffusion of disease would seem to have been recognised1 though the methods of water examination would hardly satisfy a modern chemist4 ,a piece of white linen was dipped in the water to be tested1 and then dried2 if there were any stains on the linen the water was condemned1 but if not it was pronounced pure4 ,the addition of four crushed almonds or beans was believed to make the water of the ,nile safe for drinking4 ,the method of disinfection adopted for the king's tent was to fumigate it with a mixture of amber1 chick peas1 or lupine1 which were macerated in wine1 and then placed on live charcoal4 ,in the sixth crusade1 which took place twenty-two years later1 vast numbers1 including ,st4 ,louis himself1 fell victims to ignorance of the elements of sanitation4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,plant ,,lore1 ,,drug ,,charms1 ,,and ,,folk ,,medicine4 ,a curious survival of the age of superstition and romance attaches to the red resin known as dragon's blood1 and is still largely practised by a certain class of uneducated women in many parts of the country4 ,the resin is the product of the ,pterocarpus ,indicus growing in the ,east ,indies1 and now chiefly used as a colouring agent in varnishes and stains1 etc4 ,it was formerly employed in medicine for its astringent properties1 but has now entirely gone out of use for that purpose4#d #d ,the ,egyptian magical texts show that hair1 feathers1 the serpent's skin1 and 8the blood of the mystic eye10 were used as charms of protecting or destroying power4 ,this very probably denotes what is known as the charm of dragon's blood1 which is still employed as a potent love charm or philtre1 the blood being now typified by the red resin of this name4 ,the secret of its use as a charm is shrouded in some mystery1 and those who use it are very reticent in giving particulars2 but it has been gathered1 that several charms of a romantic nature are worked with this otherwise very commonplace article of commerce4 ,the most common of these seems to be practised by young girls who are jealous of their lovers and seek to win back their affection4 ,a small quantity of dragon's blood is procured1 wrapped in paper1 and thrown on the fire whilst the following couplet or incantation is repeated3-- 8,may he no pleasure or profit see1 ,till he comes back again to me04 ,another method much believed in by women of a certain class1 and used by them to attract the opposite sex1 is to mix dragon's blood1 quicksilver1 saltpetre1 and sulphur1 and throw them on the fire1 repeating a similar incantation4 ,a chemist in the north of ,england1 giving his experience on the sale of dragon's blood1 says3 8,i have had great difficulty in finding out for what purpose it was used4 ,it was not for medicine1 but for a kind of witchcraft4 ,the women burn it upon a bright fire1 while wishing for their affection to be returned by some one of the opposite sex2 also those who have quarrelled with their husbands and desire to be friends again2 girls who have fallen out with their young men1 and want to win them back2 as well as young women wanting sweethearts4 ,a working man recently came to me for a small quantity1 and ,i inquired for what purpose it was required4 ,he was very reluctant to mention anything about it1 but at length said1 a man had made him lose three sovereigns1 and he wished1 as he had been swindled out of the money1 to have his revenge1 and make him suffer for it4 ,he was going to turn the dragon's blood on a clear fire1 and he believed that the ill wishes of the person thus burning it would have a dire effect on the individual thought of40 ,another charm said to be worked with this drug1 in which an inverted teacup plays a prominent part1 has reference to the sex of expected offspring4 ,altogether1 considerable romantic properties seem to be associated with this resin1 but there seems to be no authentic record of the same1 the only probable explanation being1 that it was used and sold1 like other innocent articles1 by those who were supposed to have dealings in the black art1 for working charms1 which have thus been handed down from medival times4 ,coles states3 8,the early ,greeks called dragon's blood ,cinnabaris1 not knowing whether it was of vegetable or mineral origin2 and that ,pliny1 ,solinus1 and ,monardus have set it down for truth that it was the blood of a dragon or serpent1 crushed to death by the weight of the dying elephant falling upon him2 but he thinks it was certainly so called from the bloody colour that it is of1 being nothing else but a mere gum04 ,it was used medicinally as an emmenagogue1 and in the arts #cjj years ago by goldsmiths and painters in glass1 by the former as a base for enamel to set a foil under precious stones to give them greater lustre1 and the latter by fire1 to strike a crimson colour into glass for stained windows4 ,that a belief in charms and witchcraft is still fostered by ignorant people in some parts of the country1 is manifest from cases reported in the newspapers from time to time4 ,two practitioners of the occult sciences were haled before the magistrates but recently4 ,one1 an old crone1 who confessed to using dragon's blood in working her love charms1 was rewarded with seven days with hard labour4 ,the other1 which came to light in ,cornwall1 was a middle-aged individual who practised as a wizard4 ,his treatment consisted of writing an amulet to be worn near the body4 ,money was then required to remove the spell from the bewitched patient to some one else4 ,to this victim was to be lent neither 8cock1 pin1 or pan10 and by the aid of the planets the patient would be cured4 ,but these are hard times truly for the wizard and magician1 and this professor was rewarded with seven months' incarceration in one of her ,majesty's gaols4 ,singular superstitious properties are attributed to certain plants4 ,the walnut was formerly employed in medicine as an application to wounds and an antidote to poisons2 and the following old riddle1 says ,william ,coles in #afeg1 8almost every one knows03-- 8,as high as a house1 ,as little as a mouse1 ,as round as a ball1 ,as bitter as gall1 ,as white as milk1 ,as soft as silk04 ,there is an old tradition that the more the branches are beaten1 the more prolific the fruit will be4 ,there is a fable in sop of a woman who asked the walnut tree growing by the wayside1 which was pelted at with stones and sticks by them that passed by1 why it was so foolish as to bring forth fruit seeing that it was so beaten for its pains1 to which the tree rehearsed these two proverbial verses3-- 8,nux1 ,asinus1 ,mulier1 ,simili suret lege legati1 ,haes tria nil recte faciunt si verbera cessent04 8,the ,english whereof10 the chronicler quaintly continues1 8,i could tell you1 but that ,i fear the women of this preposterous age would be angry40 ,true it is that this tree1 the more it is beaten the more nuts it bears4 ,the walnut was one of the chief ingredients in the celebrated antidote against poison which was attributed to the wise king ,mithridates4 ,the formula ran as follows3 8,two 7wall7 nuttes and two figges and twenty rewe beans1 stamped together with a little suet and eaten fasting1 doth defende a man from poison and pestilence that day04#e #e ,bullen's ,governmente of ,health4 #aeeh4 ,sage was much esteemed by the housewife for simple ailments1 and its properties are embodied in the following lines1 which are of great antiquity3-- 8,sage helpes the nerves1 and by its powerfull might ,palsies and ,feavers1 sharp it puts to flight04#f ,an old writer says1 8,be sure you wash your sage for fear the ,toades1 who as ,i conceive come to it to discharge their poyson1 should leave some of their venom upon the ,leaves04 #f ,william ,coles1 ,adam in ,eden4 #afeg4 ,of rue1 which was largely used as a carminative1 the following couplet has been handed down3-- 8,rue maketh chast1 and eke preserveth sight1 ,infuseth wit1 and ,fleas doth put to flight04 ,tradition says that a weasel1 going to fight with a serpent1 eateth rue1 and rubbeth herself therewith to avoid his poison4 ,crollius states3 8,the sign of the cross upon the seed of the rue1 drives away all phantoms and evil spirits by signature04 ,henbane1 the ,latins called ,apollinaris1 either from ,apollo1 the inventor of physic1 or because it makes men mad like unto ,apollo's creatures when they deliver his oracles4 8,it was called in ,english henbane1 because the seeds are hurtful to hens10 says ,william ,coles4 8,the fumes of the dryed herb when burnt1 will make ,hens fall from their roosting place as though they were dead40 ,of the moonwort1 a simple used to allay bleeding and applied to fractures1 an old tradition says that it can be used to open locks1 fetters1 and shoes from those horses feet that go on the places where it groweth1 and of this opinion was ,culpepper1 who1 though he railed against superstition in others1 tells a story of a troop of horse of the ,earl of ,essex1 which being drawn up in a body1 many of them lost their shoes upon ,white ,downe in ,devonshire1 near ,tiverton1 because moonwort grows upon the heaths4 ,the root of the ,polygonatum angulosum1 commonly called ,solomon's ,seal1 has a popular reputation for removing the congealed blood from a bruise after a blow or fall1 for which property it appears to have been used #hjj years ago4 ,coles states3 8,the bruised roots soddereth and gleweth together broken bones very speedily and strangely1 the roots being stamped and outwardly applied as a pultis4 ,the same also is available for outward bruises1 falls1 or blowes1 both to dispel the congealed blood and to take away the paines1 and the black and blew markes that abide after the hurt40 ,the origin of the name ,solomon's ,seal is doubtless due to the dark marks seen on cutting the root transversely1 which somewhat resemble an ancient seal engraved with characters4 ,of ,solomon's ,seal1 ,dioscorides says that 8the root pounded and laid on fresh wounds heals and seals them up02 and it is on this account that ,gerard considers its name to have originated4 ,an old author quaintly remarks with respect to its properties3 8,the roots of ,solomon's ,seale stamped while it is fresh and greene and applied1 taketh away in one night1 or two at the most1 any bruse1 blacke or blew spots gotten by fals1 or woman's wilfulness in stumbling upon their hastie husband's fists or such like04 ,the anemone was regarded by the ancients as an emblem of sickness1 and ,pliny tells us that the physicians and wise men ordered every person to gather the first anemone he saw in the year1 repeating at the same time1 8,i gather thee for a remedy against disease04 ,it was then devoutly placed in scarlet cloth and kept undisturbed unless the gatherer became unwell1 when it was tied either around the neck or the arm of the patient4 ,the trefoil1 vervain1 ,st4 ,john's wort1 and dill were supposed to possess the power of protecting the wearer from the evil eye or witchcraft1 hence the old rhyme called ,saint ,colme's charm3-- 8,trefoil1 vervain1 ,john's wort1 dill1 ,hinders witches of their will2 ,well is them1 that well may ,fast upon ,st4 ,andrew's ,day4 ,saint ,bride and her brat1 ,saint ,colme and his cat1 ,saint ,michael and his spear1 ,keep the home frae reif and wear40 ,there is an old tradition that the white veins of the variety of thistle known as the ,carduus ,marianus was caused originally by a drop of the milk of the ,virgin ,mary having fallen thereon1 and for this cause the plant was in early times much revered4 ,the house leek1 with its pretty rose-coloured flowers1 often seen growing along the tops of walls and on the roofs of cottages in country places1 was formerly known by the imposing name of the thunder plant1 from the power it was supposed to possess of averting lightning from the house or building on which it was planted4 ,hence the custom of planting it on the roof4 ,st4 ,john's wort was a noted herb in magical arts1 and was also esteemed as a repellant of spectres and to drive away demons1 and was called ,fuga ,dmonum by the old botanists4 ,french and ,german peasants still gather the plant with great ceremony on ,st4 ,john's ,day4 ,that charming little wild flower the scarlet pimpernell1 which grows in our fields and hedges1 ranked among the simples of ancient times4 ,it was used as a remedy against the plague1 and an antidote against the bites and stings of venomous insects1 and to stop bleeding4 ,this latter attribute was doubtless more mythical than correct1 being founded on what the ancients called having the signature1 which meant that if a substance was of blood colour it signified it would stop bleeding because of the same4 ,hung over the door or porch of a house1 it was believed to defend the inmates from witchcraft4 ,josephus states in his ,history of the ,jews#g that ,solomon discovered a plant efficacious in the cure of epilepsy1 and that he employed the aid of a charm or spell for the purpose of assisting its virtues4 ,the root of the herb was concealed in a ring1 which was applied to the nostrils of the demoniac2 and ,josephus himself declares that he saw a ,jewish priest practice the art of ,solomon1 with complete success1 in the presence of ,vespasian1 his sons1 and the tribune of the ,roman army4 #g ,lib4 viii41 c4 ii41 #e4 ,from this art1 exhibited through the medium of a ring or seal1 we have the ,eastern stories which celebrate the seal of ,solomon and record its wonderful sway over the various orders of genii1 who were supposed to be the invisible tormentors or benefactors of the human race4 8,vervain10 says ,coles1 8was reported to be effectual against all poisons and the venom of dangerous beasts and serpents1 and also against bewitched drinks and the like1 so that it is not only used in1 but against witchcraft4 ,that this herb is used by witches may appear from the story of ,anne ,bodenham1 the witch of ,salisbury1 who sent her ruffian-like spirits to gather vervain and dill1 which was to be given to one whom she desired to bewitch40 ,the magi of the ancient ,elamites or ,persians made use of vervain in their worship or adoration of the sun1 always carrying branches of it in their hands when they approached the altar4 ,they also believed that by smearing the body over with the juice of this plant1 the individual could have whatever he wished1 be able to reconcile his most inveterate enemies1 cure diseases1 and perform other magical operations4 ,they always gathered the plant when neither sun nor moon was visible1 and poured honey and honeycomb on the earth as an atonement for robbing it of this precious herb4 ,the ,greeks called it the ,sacred ,herb1 and used it to cleanse the festival table of ,jupiter before any great ceremony took place4 ,the ,romans also employed it in the performance of their religious rites1 for cleansing their altars1 and sprinkling holy water4 ,it was hung in their dwellings to ward off evil spirits4 ,vervain was also one of the sacred plants of the ,druids1 both in ,gaul and ,britain4 ,they cut it with much ceremony in the spring of the year1 and made offerings to the earth for so doing4 ,they also used it to anoint the body to cure disease4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans dedicated it to the god of war1 and in ,scandinavia it was deemed sacred to ,thor4 ,the eye anointed with an ointment of vervain was supposed to possess second sight4 ,its influence over ,venus has doubtless to do with its use as a love token4 ,it is said that the custom is still practised in ,germany of presenting a bride with a wreath of vervain4 ,other magic wreaths worn by lovers when they wished to see their fate1 were composed of rue1 crane's bill1 and willow4 ,the hawkweed commonly seen in our fields was regarded by the ,greeks as the emblem of quick-sightedness1 believing that the hawk1 a bird renowned for its bright eye and quick sight1 sharpened its visual organs with the juice of this plant4 ,thus it became famed in early medical practice as a remedy for dimness of sight1 and was employed to feed the hawks used in the old art of falconry4 ,in ,scotland1 a twig of the rowan tree or mountain ash is often sewed up in the cow's tail1 to protect the animal from witches and warlocks4 ,the squill was used by the ,egyptians for dropsy1 under the mystic name of the 8,eye of ,typhon04 ,an old name for the fruit of the mandrake was 8love apples04 ,they were frequently used in ancient times in philtres and love potions4 ,this plant belongs to the natural order ,solanace1 which also includes the potato and the tobacco plant4 ,its leaves spring directly from the root similarly to those of the lettuce1 before it shoots into flower1 and its purple-coloured blossoms are succeeded by a yellow berry or 8apple10 which still ripens in ,palestine at the time of the wheat harvest4 ,an overdose of the fruit is said to produce a sort of temporary insanity4 ,from the earliest times it has been credited with magical virtues1 and supposed to confer superhuman powers on its possessor4 ,the most valued specimens were those which grew under a gibbet where a malefactor hung in chains4 ,it was believed that on being torn from the earth the mandrake uttered a groan1 and that whosoever heard it1 dropped dead on the spot4 ,the approved method of gathering it was to fasten the plant to a dog's tail1 and beat the animal till his struggles pulled the root up4 ,the dog heard the groan and died1 but those who directed the proceedings escaped by having their ears stopped with pitch or wax4 ,it was customary in ,germany in medival times to form or carve small figures out of the mandrake root1 which were called abrunes4 8,these images10 says ,phillips1 8they dressed regularly every day1 consulted as oracles1 and their repute was such that they were manufactured in great numbers and sold in cases40 ,they appear to have been brought over to ,england in the time of ,henry ,,viii41 and met with ready purchasers1 it being pretended that they would1 with the assistance of certain mystic words1 be able to increase whatever money was placed near them4 ,these roots were said to have been taken from plants which had grown underneath gibbets1 and had been influenced by the flesh of the criminals hung thereon4 ,it is singular how the willow has ever been associated with sorrow and sadness1 even from the time the daughters of ,israel hung their harps on its branches4 ,among heathen nations the tree was regarded as an evil omen1 and was used as torches at funerals4 8,the early poets10 says ,johns1 8made the willow of despairing woe10 and ,shakespeare frequently alludes to it as being used to weave garlands for jilted and sorrow-stricken lovers4 ,benedick says3-- 8,i offered him my company to a willow tree1 either to make him a garland1 as being forsaken1 or to bind him up a rod as being worthy to be whipped04 ,and ,bona1 in ,henry ,,vi41 remarks3-- 8,tell him1 in hope he'll prove a widower shortly1 ,i'll wear the willow garland for his sake04 ,it seems to have been customary to wear it twined round the head as a symbol of sorrow and mourning1 but the origin of the custom is unknown4 ,a peculiar virtue was supposed to be attached to the eating of almonds1 which is still believed in some parts of the country1 viz41 that it protects the eater from drunkenness4 ,gerard says1 8,five or six being taken fasting keepe a man from being drunke04 ,the pretty flower called the bachelor's button1 which is common in our hedgerows1 is said to possess the following peculiar property of divination4 8,when carried in the pocket by men1 and under the apron by women1 it will retain or lose its freshness according to the good or bad success of the wearer's amatory prospects40 ,a considerable amount of romantic lore lingers about the bean and nut4 ,the bean was regarded with veneration by both the ,greeks and ,romans1 and on account of its sacred associations became the instrument for voting by ballot in early times4 ,nuts of various kinds have long been associated with certain love charms1 and some of these old customs1 such as the cracking of nuts1 still survive and are practised on ,all ,hallow ,eve4 ,an old charm for nut-testing runs as follows3-- 8,two hazel nuts ,i threw into the flame1 ,and to each nut ,i gave a sweetheart's name2 ,this with the loudest bounce me sore amazed1 ,that in a flame of brightest colour blazed2 ,as blazed the nut1 so may thy passion glow1 ,for 'twas thy nut that did so brightly glow04 ,there is an old tradition that the white hawthorn was used to plait the sacred crown of thorns1 and that from that time the tree was endowed with special virtues4 ,an old writer says3 8,he that beareth a branch on hym thereof1 no thundre1 ne1 no maner of tempest may dere hym2 ne1 in the howse that it is ynne may none evil ghost enter04 ,a great amount of superstition was associated with various ferns in medival times1 and fern seed was supposed to possess the wonderful property of rendering those who swallowed it invisible4 ,according to the doctrine of ,signatures1 various shaped leaves were used for special diseases4 ,a liver-shaped leaf was used to cure complaints of that organ1 and a heart-shaped leaf was used for diseases of the heart1 and so on4 ,the black hellebore was employed by the ancients to purify their dwellings1 and they believed that its presence in their rooms drove away evil spirits4 ,it was also customary to bless the cattle with hellebore to keep them free from spells wrought by the wicked4 ,when dug up for these purposes1 certain religious ceremonies were observed4 ,first a circle was drawn round the plant with a sword1 and then1 turning to the east1 a humble prayer was made by the devotee to ,apollo and sculapius1 for permission to dig up the root4 ,if an eagle approached the spot during the performance of the rites1 it was supposed to predict the certain death of the person who took up the plant in the course of the year4 ,it is related by ,dioscorides that ,carneades1 the ,cyrenaic philosopher who undertook to answer the books of ,zeno1 sharpened his wit and quickened his spirit by purging his head with powdered hellebore4 ,the peony owes its name to ,pon1 a famous physician of ancient ,greece1 who is said to have cured1 by the aid of this plant1 the wounds which the ,greeks received during the ,trojan war4 ,it was largely used as an amulet1 and demons were supposed to fly from the spot where it was planted4 ,a small piece was worn round the neck to protect the wearer from enchantment4 ,there is a curious tradition connected with that charming little flower the forget-me-not4 ,it is1 that the juice1 or decoction of the plant1 has the peculiar property of hardening steel1 and that if edged tools of that metal be made red hot and then quenched in the juice or decoction1 and this be repeated several times1 the steel will become so hard as to cut iron without turning the edge4 ,the elder had a great reputation as an amulet4 ,an old writer states1 8if one ride with two little sticks of elder in his pockets he shall not fret nor pant let the horse go never so hard04 ,according to the ,anatomie of the ,elder 7#afee71 8,the common people keep as a great secret in curing wounds the leaves of the elder1 which they have gathered the last day of ,april1 which1 to disappoint the charms of witches1 they had applied to their doors and windows04 ,a piece cut out between two knots was worn as an amulet against erysipelas4 ,lupton says3 8,make powder of the flowers of elder gathered on ,midsummer ,day1 being before well dryed1 and use a spoonful thereof in a good draught of ,borage water1 morning and evening1 first and last1 for the space of a month1 and it will make you seem young a great while04 ,the elder is still believed in the south of ,germany to drive away evil spirits1 and in ,denmark and ,norway it is held in the same veneration4 ,it is customary in the ,tyrol to plant an elder bush in the form of a cross on a new grave1 and if it blossoms1 the soul of the body interred beneath is supposed to be in ,paradise4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,mummies ,,and ,,their ,,use ,,in ,,medicine--,,the ,,unicorn4 ,who first introduced mummies as medicinal agents is not known1 but there is something particularly weird and gruesome in the idea of the ancient physician dosing a sick patient1 with the remains of a predeceased fellowman1 in order to restore him to health4 ,the art of embalming was practised thousands of years before the ,christian era1 and was regarded as the greatest token of esteem that could be paid by the living to the dead4 ,pomet says there were two kinds of embalming practised by the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the first and most costly was used to none but persons of the highest class1 and was valued at a talent of silver1 or about #ejj4 ,three people were employed in the operation2 one was a kind of designer or overseer1 who marked out such parts of the body as were to be opened4 ,the next was a dissector1 who with a knife of ,ethiopian stone cut the flesh as much as necessary1 and as the law would permit1 and immediately afterwards fled away with all the expedition possible1 because it was the custom of the relatives and domestics to pursue the dissector with stones and do him all the injuries they could1 treating him as an impious wretch and the worst of men4 ,after this operation the embalmers1 who were accounted holy men1 entered to perform their offices1 which consisted in removing the internal organs1 cleansing with palm wine and other aromatical liquor1 and during the space of thirty days they filled the cavity with powdered myrrh1 aloes1 ,indian spikenard1 bitumen1 and other aromatics4 ,in the process of embalming used by the middle class1 which cost about #bej1 the body was syringed with a decoction of herbs and oil of cedar1 then put into salt for seventy days1 after which it was enveloped in bandages of fine linen1 which had been dipped in myrrh and asphaltum1 and the designer1 who was called the scribe1 covered the wrapping with a painted cloth1 on which were represented the rites of their religion in hieroglyphics1 and the animals which the dead loved most4 ,there was a third process of embalming used by the poorer people1 in which a mixture of pitch and bitumen was used4 ,the bodies were first dried with lime1 and then coated with a mixture of nitre1 salt1 honey1 and wax to protect them from the air4 ,mummies of deceased persons were held in the greatest reverence by their relatives4 ,the faces were sometimes gilded and painted and adorned with head-cloths1 they were then placed in elaborate cases according to the position and rank of the person1 and deposited in the highest part of their houses4 ,an old writer states3 8,they reckoned their deceased as such a valuable token and pledge of their faith1 that if any of them happened to want money he could not give a better security than the embalmed body of his relation2 and that which made it esteemed so was1 that they would spare no pains to pay the money again2 for if by mischance the debtor could not redeem this pledge1 he was reckoned unworthy of civil society1 which engaged him indispensably to find out ways to recover his kinsman in the time limited1 otherwise he was blamed by all the world04 ,some #cjj years ago a large trade was carried on1 mostly by ,jews1 who imported mummies for medicinal purposes1 as they were much used by the ancient physicians2 but there is little doubt that a great deal of fraud was practised by the mummy merchants1 and that many were specially manufactured for the purpose4 ,pomet1 alluding to this in his ,history of ,druggs1 writes3 8,we may daily see the ,jews carrying on their rogueries as to these mummies1 and after them the ,christians2 for the mummies that were brought from ,alexandria1 ,egypt1 ,venice1 and ,lyons are nothing else but the bodies of people that die several ways4 ,those from ,africa called white mummies1 are nothing else but bodies that have been drowned at sea1 which1 being cast upon the ,african coast1 are buried and dried in the sands1 which are very hot40 ,when the ancient physician prescribed mummy for a bad headache1 he rarely got what he imagined4 8,for10 the writer continues3 8,i am not able to stop the abuses committed by those who use this commodity4 ,i shall only advise such as buy to choose what is of a fine shining black1 not full of bones and dirt1 of a good smell1 and which being burnt does not stink of pitch4 ,such is reckoned proper for contusions1 and to hinder blood from coagulating in the body4 ,it is also given in epilepsies1 vertigoes1 and palsies4 ,the dose is two drachms in powder1 or the same made into a bolus4 ,it also stops mortifications1 heals wounds1 and is an ingredient in many compositions40 ,in a price list1 dated #afhe1 mummy is quoted at #es4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,of the mummies used in medicine five kinds were known4 ,factitious4--,those in which bitumen and pitch were largely used in the process of embalming4 ,those bodies dried by the sun in the country of the ,hammonians between ,cyrene and ,alexandria1 being mostly the bodies of passengers buried in the quicksands4 ,true ,egyptian4 ,the ,arabian1 being those bodies embalmed with myrrh1 aloes1 and other aromatic gums4 ,artificial mummies4 ,crollius in his ,royal ,chemist gives the following process for preparing artificial mummy3-- 8,take the carcass of a young man 7some say red haired71 not dying of a disease but killed1 let it lie twenty-four hours in clear water in the air1 cut the flesh in pieces1 to which add powder of myrrh and a little aloes1 imbibe it twenty-four hours in spirit of wine and turpentine1 take it out and hang it up for twelve hours1 then imbibe it again1 twenty-four hours in fresh spirit1 then hang up the pieces in a dry air and a shady place40 ,a rather cheerful operation for the apothecary4 ,it would possibly account for many a mysterious disappearance in those days4 ,mummy entered into a large number of preparations which we come across in the old dispensatories4 ,there was the balsam1 which is described by an old writer as 8having such a piercing quality that it pierceth all parts and restores wasted limbs1 consumption1 and cures all ulcers and corruptions04 ,beside mummies1 the apothecaries stocked human fat1 respecting which gruesome material ,pomet says3 8,everybody knows in ,paris the public executioner sells it1 the druggists and apothecaries a little2 nevertheless1 they vend a sort of it prepared with aromatic herbs1 and which is without comparison much better than that which comes from the hands of the hangman04 ,human fat was much esteemed for rubbing1 in cases of rheumatism and kindred complaints4 ,another part of the body used in ancient medicine was the human skull2 also a growth called the moss from the human skull1 probably of fungoid origin1 that appeared on the bone on keeping4 ,an old writer in the seventeenth century says3 8,you may see in the druggist shops of ,london some skulls entirely covered with moss1 and some that only have the moss growing on some parts4 ,they send these skulls especially to ,germany1 to put into the composition of the sympathetic ointment which ,crollius describes in his ,royal ,chemist1 and which is used for the falling sickness40 ,special virtue was attributed to skulls taken from gibbets4 ,referring to these1 ,pomet states3 8,the ,english druggists1 especially those of ,london1 sell skulls of the dead upon which there is a little greenish moss called usnea1 because of its near resemblance to the moss which grows on the oak4 ,these skulls mostly come from ,ireland1 where they frequently let the bodies of criminals hang on the gibbet till they fall to pieces40 ,the human skulls were sold at #hs41 #is41 #ajs41 and #aas4 each4 ,they were given in the form of powder1 or one of the preparations1 such as the oil or tincture4 ,besides the skull1 other human bones1 calcined and powdered were used4 ,an oil and a tincture of skulls1 an extract of the gall and the heart of man made with rectified spirit1 was dropped into the ear as a remedy for deafness1 and also given internally for epilepsy4 ,human hair was used for jaundice1 finger-nails as an emetic 7which one can hardly wonder at71 and blood drawn from a healthy man1 drunk hot1 was used to prevent fits coming on4 ,the brains of various birds and animals were highly esteemed4 ,the latter were roasted and rubbed on children's gums when teething4 ,the livers of ducks and frogs1 and a dead mouse dried and beaten into powder1 were given to relieve kidney disease4 ,another extraordinary article used in medicine was the horn of that fabulous animal the unicorn4 ,concerning its origin we have recourse again to ,pomet1 who states1 8the unicorn is an animal which our naturalists describe under the figure of a horse1 having in the middle of his head a spiral horn of two or three feet long1 but we know not the real truth of this matter to this day04 ,this horn was formerly held in high esteem because of the great virtues attributed to it by the ancients1 especially against poisons1 8which is the reason that so many great persons are fond of it1 so that it has been valued at its weight in gold04 ,ambrose ,paraens1 in a treatise which he wrote on the unicorn1 says that in the deserts of ,arabia he found wild asses carrying a horn in the front1 which they used to fight against the bulls4 ,that there was an animal with one horn1 most of the old writers agree1 but whether it was a goat1 or an ox1 or a hart1 or an ass1 no one could say4 ,the horn was probably collected from any of these animals1 and as long as the horn was there it doubtless answered the purpose4 ,the true unicorn1 if you dare believe ,ludovicus ,vertomanus1 who says he saw two of them in ,mecca which were kept within the precincts of ,mahomet's sepulchre1 is of a weasel colour1 8with the head like that of a hart1 the neck not long1 and the mane growing all on one side1 the legs slender and lean like the legs of a hind1 hoofs cloven like a goat's feet1 and the hinder legs all hairy and shaggy on the outside4 ,his horn was wreathed in spires of an ivory colour40 ,there is little doubt that most of the horn used medicinally1 was that obtained from the narwhal or sea unicorn4 ,in the year #aeec a great unicorn's horn was brought to the ,king of ,france1 and valued at #bj1jjj sterling4 ,that which was presented to ,charles ,i4 of ,england is supposed to have been one of the largest ever seen in the world4 8,it was seven feet long1 weighed thirteen pounds1 and was in the shape of a wax candle1 but wreathed within itself in spires1 hollow about a foot from its root1 growing taper little by little towards the point of polished smoothness1 and the colour not perfectly white40 ,ancient authors ascribe wonderful properties to the horn of the unicorn4 ,it was supposed to resist all kinds of poisons1 cure the plague1 all manner of fevers1 the biting of serpents1 mad dogs1 etc41 and was chiefly used as a cordial1 for which purpose a jelly was made of it4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,apothecaries--,,apothecaries ,,and ,,their ,,practice--,,apothecaries ,,and ,,their ,,bills--,,curious ,,remedies--,a ,,drug ,,price ,,list ,,of #afhe4 ,the earliest record of the apothecary in ,england seems to be of one ,richard ,fitznigel1 who acted in that capacity to ,henry ,,ii4 ,this individual subsequently rose in degree at ,court1 and exchanging the pestle for the crozier1 eventually became ,bishop of ,london4 ,in #acde we hear of one ,coursus de ,gangland receiving for his services as apothecary to ,edward ,,iii41 and for taking care of and attending his ,majesty during his illness in ,scotland1 a pension of sixpence a day4 ,those who practised medicine1 surgery1 and pharmacy were called physicians1 while their assistants were known as apothecaries4 ,many of the latter1 as they began to learn the secrets and habits of their employers1 began business on their own account1 also dealing in drugs and other commodities1 until they became a powerful body4 ,when the ,college of ,physicians was established in #aeah1 they were soon empowered 8to search1 view1 and see the apothecaries' wares1 drugs and stuffs1 and destroy such as they found unfit for use04 ,in the latter part of the century a distinct separation took place1 and we find that in #afjj there were physicians1 surgeons1 apothecaries1 barber surgeons1 druggists or distillers and sellers of waters and oils1 and preparers of chemical medicines4 ,it was not until the year #afag that the ,apothecaries' ,society had a separate existence1 when it was enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop1 and that no surgeon should sell medicines4 ,in #afbc the ,society of ,apothecaries established a dispensary1 for the purpose of making some of the most important medicines then used in a uniform manner1 and in ,may1 #afah1 the first ,pharmacopia was published by the ,college of ,physicians4 ,we are told that it was so imperfect that they brought out an improved edition in ,december of the same year4 ,this was published in ,latin1 and it was through making and publishing his translation of this work that ,nicholas ,culpepper 7who was a man of common-sense in his time7 got into disgrace with the ,college of ,physicians1 who in consequence refused him a licence to practise4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,physician4 ,from a drawing1 dated #adij4 ,the history of the ,society of ,apothecaries of ,london is an interesting one4 ,it is a mystery or guild which has retained its original function of a trading corporation4 ,it arose as an offshoot of the ,grocers' ,company1 which descended from the pepperers and the spicers1 who amalgamated in #acde under the name of the ,fraternity of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,the ,grocers' ,company is one of the most powerful and wealthy of the twelve great ,livery ,companies of ,london which have survived from medival times4 ,king ,james ,i4 appears to have interested himself in the separation of the two bodies about the year #afad1 and in spite of vigorous opposition by the grocers1 a charter was granted on #fth ,december1 #afag1 making the apothecaries a distinct mystery1 under the title of the ,society of ,apothecaries4 ,this charter restrained the grocers and all other persons from keeping an apothecary's shop in or near ,london1 and it gave the ,society a right which had been inherent in the ,grocers' ,company1 of paying domiciliary visits to the apothecaries' shops to search for1 to seize1 and destroy bad drugs and medicines1 a power at first limited to ,london and seven miles round1 but afterwards extended throughout ,england and ,wales4 ,this was discontinued shortly after #ahcc4 ,the first hall or council-house of the society consisted of a house and grounds known as ,cobham ,house1 in ,water ,lane1 ,blackfriars1 immediately behind what is now the ,ludgate ,hill ,station4 ,it was purchased in #afcc1 mainly through the instrumentality of ,gideon ,delaune1 chief apothecary to ,anne of ,denmark1 who was one of the retinue sent to attend her from ,norway when she became the wife of ,james ,i4 ,this hall was destroyed by the great fire of ,london in #afff1 and its site lay vacant for ten years before it was rebuilt4 ,the second hall was enlarged and improved in #aghf1 and it still stands4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,anne1 ,prince ,george of ,denmark1 who was then ,lord ,high ,admiral1 applied to the society to know if they would undertake to supply the navy with drugs1 as it was very badly served at that time4 ,this the society agreed to do1 and for so doing was drawn into a long series of quarrels with the ,college of ,physicians1 whose members thought it was the duty of an apothecary 8to remember his office is only to be the physician's cooke04 ,a knowledge of herbs and simples was soon found necessary to these early compounders of medicine1 and as a means of instruction1 botanical excursions or herborisings1 as they were called in those days1 soon formed a prominent feature of the society4 ,this led eventually to the decision to rent a physic garden1 for which purpose the gardens available near the hall were unsuitable1 and in #afgc the ,botanic ,garden at ,chelsea was leased to the apothecaries for a term of sixty-one years1 by ,charles ,cheyne1 ,esq41 lord of the manor4 ,the custom of examination grew up within the society very gradually1 the first examinations being found necessary to ascertain whether the apprentices could decipher the very illegible handwriting in which the physicians wrote their prescriptions or bills1 an accomplishment for which apparently they have been ever famous4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,an ,,apothecary',s ,,shop4 ,from a drawing by ,drapentier1 #afgj4 ,then came the division of the apothecaries from the druggists1 the former in the process of time becoming a subordinate class of practitioners who attended an individual afflicted with some internal disease not requiring external or manual aid1 and who prescribed for the cure of such complaint and supplied the medicine2 while the latter were supposed to confine themselves to the dealing in and preparation of drugs for the apothecary4 ,the apothecary was paid for the medicine which he supplied1 which was not by any means in small quantities1 and so was supposed not to encroach ostensibly upon the province of the physician1 who received his remuneration for advice only1 and did not provide medicine4 ,in #ahab a tax was put upon glass which increased the price of bottles greatly1 much to the chagrin of the apothecaries1 who were paid according to the number of draughts and potions which they could induce their patients to swallow4 ,it was customary to place each dose of medicine in a separate bottle1 and charge it at the rate of one or two shillings a dose1 so the apothecary naturally felt aggrieved at the glass tax1 which1 however1 was soon afterwards repealed4 ,the following excellent rules and regulations were laid down by ,william ,bulleyn for the guidance of apothecaries of his time3-- ,,the ,,apoticarye4 #a4 ,must first serve ,god1 foresee the end1 be cleanly1 pity the poor4 #b4 ,must not be suborned for money to hurt mankind4 #c4 ,his place of dwelling and shop to be cleanly1 to please the senses withal4 #d4 ,his garden must be at hand1 with plenty of herbs1 seeds1 and roots4 #e4 ,to sow1 set1 plant1 gather1 preserve1 and keep them in due time4 #f4 ,to read ,dioscorides2 to know the nature of plants and herbs4 #g4 ,to invent medicines2 to choose by colour1 taste1 odour1 figure1 etc4 #h4 ,to have his mortars1 stills1 pots1 filters1 glasses1 and boxes clean and sweet4 #i4 ,to have charcoals at hand to make decoctions1 syrups1 etc4 #aj4 ,to keep his clean ware close1 and cast away the baggage4 #aa4 ,to have two places in his shop--one most clean for the physic1 and a baser place for the chirurgic stuff4 #ab4 ,that he neither increase nor diminish the physician's bill 7i4e41 prescription71 and keep it for his own discharge4 #ac4 ,that he neither buy nor sell rotten drugs4 #ad4 ,that he peruse often his wares that they corrupt not4 #ae4 ,that he put not in quid pro quo without advisement4 #af4 ,that he may open well a vein for to help pleurisy4 #ag4 ,that he meddle only in his vocation4 #ah4 ,that he delight to read ,nicolaus1 ,myrepsus1 ,valerius1 ,cordus1 ,johannes ,placaton1 the ,lubri1 etc4 #ai4 ,that he do remember his office is only to be the physician's cook4 #bj4 ,that he use true measure and weight4 #ba4 ,to remember his end and the judgment of ,god2 and thus do ,i commend him to ,god1 if he be not covetous or crafty1 seeking his own lucre before other men's help1 succour and comfort4 ,in ,glasgow the sale of drugs and poisons was carefully restricted and regulated as far back as #aeii4 ,under the terms of a charter granted to the ,faculty by ,king ,james ,,vi41 and dated ,november1 #aeii1 visitors were appointed1 and they were given 8,full power to call1 sumonnd1 and convene before thame1 within the said burgh of ,glasgow1 or onie otheris of ouir said burrowis1 or publict places of the foirsaids boundis1 all personis professing or using the said airt of ,chirurgie1 to examine thame upon thair literature1 knawledge and practize2 gif they be fund wordie1 to admit1 allow1 and approve thame1 give them testimonial according to the airt and knawledge that they sal be fund wordie to exercise thareftir1 resave thair aithis1 and authorize thame as accordis1 and to discharge thame to use onie farder nor they have knawledge passing their capacity1 laist our subjectis be abusit04 ,it was further provided by 8,james1 be the ,grace of ,god1 ,king of ,scottis10 in his fatherly solicitude for his subjects1 that 8,the saidis visitouris sall visit everie hurt1 murtherit1 poisonit1 or onie other persoun tane awa extraordinarily1 and to report to the ,magistrate of the fact as it is04 ,the visitors were also empowered1 with the advice of their brethren1 to make regulations for the common weal anent the art of surgery1 and to inflict punishment upon those infringing them4 ,with regard to the sale of drugs1 it was provided that-- 8,na manir of personis sell onie droggis within the ,citie of ,glasgow1 except the sam be sichtit be the saidis visitouris1 and be ,william ,spang1 apothecar1 under the pane of confiscatioune of the droggis04 ,the responsibility of the seller is clearly defined in a clause which further stipulates that-- 8,nane sell retoun poison1 asenick1 or sublemate1 under the pane of ane hundred merkis1 excep onlie the apothecaries quha sall be bund to take cautioun of the byaris1 for coist1 skaith1 and damage04 ,these powers were confirmed by ,charles1 8,king of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,ireland04 ,the ancient apothecary believed in the administration of physic in quantities which1 in these advanced days of infinitesimal doses and concentrated preparations1 would be considered something alarming4 ,the following interesting extract is from the diary of ,william ,blundell1 a celebrated cavalier of ,lancashire1 who took an active part in many of the conflicts in ,cromwell's time4 ,on being taken ill1 we are told1 he sent for his medical man1 one ,dr4 ,worthington1 of ,wigan4 ,the doctor's bill1 together with some quaint remarks thereon1 are entered in the cavalier's diary by his man1 ,master ,thelwall1 as follows3-- #afha4 8,after my master had been long ill of a violent cold1 ,dr4 ,worthington came first unto him on #hth ,january4 ,he staid two nights1 and received for his pains #a #ajs4 ,he brought along with him1 a lohoch1 ten pills1 with a bottle of spirits somewhat bigger than one's thumb1 and a paper of lozenges1 with ,french barley and several ingredients for making the water thereof4 ,on the eleventh day he sent a glister1 with a large pint bottle of a cordial julep1 and a small bottle of syrups1 to be sucked up with a liquorice stick1 also some small quantity of sal prunella4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,physician4 ,from a drawing by ,amman1 ,sixteenth ,century4 8,the doctor was with my master the second time1 on #agth ,january1 and received for his pains #aes40 ,then comes the copy of ,dr4 ,worthington's bill1 dated #bdth ,october1 #afha3-- s4 d4 ,spirits #j #d #f ,an ointment #j #a #d ,january #h4 ,spirits #j #d #f ,ten pills #j #b #j ,a lohoch #j #b #j ,lozenges #j #d #j ,jujubes and sibertines #j #j #h ,french barley #j #a #j ,ingredients #j #a #f ,syrups #j #c #j ,a cordial julep #j #aj #f ,a glister #j #b #f ,january #aa4 ,syrups #j #c #j ,white powder #j #j #d ,five pills #j #a #c ,the oiled sugar #j #g #j ,syrups #j #e #f ,oil of sweet almonds #j #a #h ,spirits of ptisanne #j #g #f ,for a messenger #j #a #f ---------- #c #e #c ,master ,thelwall then goes on to say3 8,my master's opinion of these several things in particular1 is here to be inserted for further use1 viz41 that the spirits first named1 of which twenty-six drops were put into one small cup of barley water and beer1 had no apparent effect1 although he doth not much doubt but the secret effect might be good4 ,that the like might be said of the pills1 mentioned in two places1 although it seemed that they did somewhat assuage his cough1 which was extremely violent4 ,the lohoch1 a liquor like syrup1 did apparently bring up phlegm1 and was well liked4 ,the lozenges were pleasant1 and did sometimes stop the cough4 ,barley water with the ingredients was cooling and pleasant4 ,syrups twice mentioned1 although of much different prices1 seemed to be the same4 8,the cordial julep1 of which there was a large pint bottle1 was pleasant1 but the effect not apparent4 ,the glister extraordinary effective and good4 ,white powder1 supposed to be sal prunella1 assuaged the thirst4 ,the oiled sugar1 with the spirits ptisanne1 besides the extreme dearness1 was almost wholly useless1 in regard that the patient being much in the mending hand when they were sent unto him4 ,he sent back to the doctor about seven-eighths of the oiled sugar1 and yet he paid for the whole4 ,the oil of sweet almonds1 of which seven or eight drops were taken in a bolus of white sugar-candy1 frequently helped the breast made very sore by coughing40 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,apothecary4 ,from a drawing1 #afda4 ,we subsequently learn that the good old cavalier was at length cured of his ailments1 which he certainly ought to have been from the multiplicity of the remedies employed4 ,many of the forms in which medicine was administered in those days have entirely gone out of use1 and others we have still with us4 ,another example of the apothecary's bill appears in the appendix to the ,eleventh ,report of the ,historical ,manuscripts' ,commission1 among the transcripts of the manuscripts of the ,marquess ,townshend4 ,there is one1 dated #bdth ,june1 #afai1 of a paper endorsed 8,the ,apothycarie's bill10 ,sir ,roger ,townshend's account1 which contains the following items3-- s4 d4 8,grene ginger0 #g #j ,tabacco #b #j ,grene ginger #h #j ,a masse of pills #e #j ,an electuarye #c #f ,under the name of ,mr4 ,stanhope ,townshend1 #abth ,september1 #afah1 are3-- s4 d4 8,a clyster0 #c #d ,a julep #c #j ,a cordiall with behoardston #c #j ,the cordiall julep #c #j ,hearbs for brothe #j #d ,rose water #j #f ,a suppositorye #j #f ,another suppositorye #j #f ,an unguent #j #c ,a purge #c #j ,purgeing pills #b #f ,the lohoch1 the base of which consisted of honey or thick syrup1 was a very favourite form of medicine for a cough1 such as the lohoch demulcent1 lohoch of fox's lungs1 and lohoch expectorant4 ,the julep was another ancient form of administration much in vogue4 ,balsams1 of divers compositions1 had great repute as expectorants4 ,william ,blundell in his diary 7#afha7 mentions3 8,the ,elder ,lady ,bradshaw sent a bottle containing1 as we guess1 about one ounce of balsam1 which in her letter she calls #8,balsam of ,sulphur'4 ,that it must be taken morning and night1 three or four drops1 naked and alone in a spoon2 that it must be warmed before it will drop at all1 by reason its thick and clammy40 ,the sugared oils were simply made by triturating various essential oils with white sugar1 and usually given for their carminative action4 ,another favourite vehicle was broth1 generally composed of many and strange ingredients4 ,we have come across the broth of calves' lungs1 broth of the bones of lizards1 and broths made from snails1 tortoises1 woodlice1 crabs1 and vipers4 ,the recipe for the broth of viper we have taken from an old black-letter book1 and is rather curious3-- 8 ,living viper j4 ,remove his head1 tail and viscera1 excepting his heart and liver1 cut it into little pieces and mix it with the blood1 and add-- ,well water #ab ounces in a close vessel1 boil for two hours and strain1 and the broth will be made40 ,the materia medica of the old apothecary was largely drawn from the animal kingdom1 the greater part of it being1 no doubt1 handed down from a very early period1 when witchcraft and superstition exerted a powerful influence on the minds of the people4 ,among the many curious things used1 we find that the liver of a mad dog1 or a wolf1 washed in wine and dried in a stove1 was employed as a remedy for hydrophobia4 ,the nimble lizard had a reputation as a sudorific and antisyphilitic4 ,dried toads and the cast-off skins of snakes and adders1 were administered in dropsy as a diuretic4 ,the horn of rhinoceros was used in epilepsy1 and goat's blood and eel's liver as a cure for dysentery4 ,the oil of frog's spawn was celebrated as an application for chilblains4 ,the jawbone of a pike and the spine of a lamprey in powder1 were prescribed for leucorrha4 ,pepys mentions in his diary1 that he wore a hare's foot as a sovereign remedy against the plague1 in which charm he seemed to place more faith than in the various plague waters that were recommended to him as unfailing antidotes for that terrible disease4 ,in the time of ,edward ,i4 there was a list of drugs recorded by the king's physician1 one ,nicholas de ,tyngewyke1 in #acjg1 which throws an interesting light on the pharmacy of that period4 ,the list includes distilled oil of turpentine1 aromatic flowers for baths1 carminative electuaries1 plasters and ointments of various kinds1 the oils of wheat1 ash1 and bay1 water of the roses of ,damascus1 wine of pomegranates1 remedies prepared from pearls1 jacinths1 and coral1 and many other drugs4 ,the king was taken ill at ,carlisle1 and the cost of conveying these remedies from ,london to that city amounted to #aei #aas4 #aj;d41 the apothecary's bill for the medicines being #acd #afs4 #d;d4 ,in #aeif ,sir ,henry ,winton1 who was sent as ambassador by ,elizabeth to ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 met with an accident while on his mission4 ,according to the records 8he was physicked with confectio alcarmas1 which was composed of musk1 amber1 gold1 pearl1 and unicorn's horn1 and with pigeons applied to his side1 and all other means that art could devise sufficient to expel the strongest poison1 and he be not bewitcht withall04 ,the apothecaries of the seventeenth century were not overburdened with the estimable virtue of modesty1 as instanced in the following quaint announcement3-- 8,cornelius ,tilbury1 sworn chirurgeon-in-ordinary to ,k4 ,charles ,,ii41 to his late ,sovereign ,k4 ,william1 as also to her present ,majesty ,queen ,anne--address at the ,blue ,flower ,pot1 in ,great ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 at ,holbourn ,row 7where you see at night a light over the door72 and for the convenience of those that desire privacy1 they may come through the ,red ,lyon ,inn in ,holbourn1 between the two turnstiles1 which is directly against my back door1 where you will see the sign of the ,blue ,ball hung over the door4 8,i dispose of my famous ,orvietan1 either liquid or in powder1 what quantity or price you please4 ,this is that ,orvietan that expelled that vast quantity of poison ,i took before ,k4 ,charles ,,ii41 for which his ,majesty presented me with a gold medal and a chain40 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,apothecary4 ,from an engraving1 #aeag4 ,the physician's fees were by no means small in the time of the ,commonwealth1 as may be judged from the following extract from the ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family3-- 8,sir ,theodore ,mayerne is buryed10 writes ,dr4 ,denton1 8and died worth #adj1jjj40 ,sir ,ralph thought #cj too small a fee to pay ,dr4 ,denton for his attendance on his wife during her confinement1 but for his pressing poverty he would have sent him #ej1 equal to about #bjj of our present money4 ,dr4 ,radcliffe's regular fees were estimated to bring him in an income of at least #djjj a year2 ,dr4 ,mead's were valued at between #ejjj and #fjjj4 ,sir ,george ,wheler's sickness1 after a ,christmas dinner at ,dr4 ,denton's1 cost him 8the best part of #ajj04 ,he had caught a chill after dancing1 which turned to 8a spotted feavour02 ,sir ,george ,ent was called in3 he had all sorts of 8,applications of ,blisters and ,loudanums04 8,my ,apothecary's 444 bill came to #bh4 ,he was a good man1 and told me if ,i fell into a feavour again1 ,sage ,possit would do me as much good as all the ,physitians ,prescriptions40 ,in ,sir ,daniel ,fleming's account books we have record of the amount paid to medical practitioners in #afei1 as follows3-- ,to ,doctor ,dykes for comeing and laying plasters unto ,will #j #aj #j ,for his plaisters and paines contributed towards the cure of ,will1 the sum of #e #j #j ,a further entry also shows the value of the midwife's services at the same period4 ,under date ,july #cjth1 #afei4 ,given unto ,daniel ,harrison's wife for being my wife's midwife1 #e_/-4 ,in the household books of ,lord ,william ,howard we learn that on #beth ,september1 #afab1 he paid one ,mr4 ,adamson1 an apothecary of ,keswick1 8for xxii dayes and his physick1 xiii4 vi1s4 viii1d04 ,some of the early preparations used in pharmacy were as elaborate as they were mysterious4 ,the ,treacle of ,andromachus the elder1 a recipe of great antiquity1 contained sixty-three ingredients2 and the celebrated ,mithridate of ,damocratis contained forty-eight4 ,the origin of the formula for 8,mithridates0 is ascribed to ,mithridates1 ,king of ,pontus1 whose recipe ,pompey brought to ,rome1 where ,damocratis sang its praises and proclaimed its virtues4 ,it was considered by the ancients a panacea for every ill4 ,of the historic preparation known as the ,treacle of ,andromachus1 its invention is attributed to that worthy4 ,pliny says that the formula of a similar composition was inscribed in verse #cjj years before the ,christian era upon the temple of sculapius1 and that ,andromachus merely imitated1 by order of ,nero1 the composition of the ,mithridate1 which had then been known for a considerable time4 ,of the forms of administration there were a great variety in the sixteenth century1 and many1 such as the ,rob which consisted of the juice of fruits boiled down to two-thirds1 the lohoch1 and the treacle1 have quite gone out of use4 ,but notwithstanding modern research and scientific advance1 some of the ancient formul still survive and are employed to-day4 ,it may not be generally known that the preparation known as hiera picra was originated by ,galen1 on the properties of which he placed high value on account of its excessively bitter taste4 ,charas states that the great physician gave it the name of hiera picra or holy bitter4 ,in the pil4 aloes4 et myrrh4 of the ,british ,pharmacopia1 commonly known by the old name of ,pil4 ,ruffi41 we have a formula handed down intact for over a thousand years4 ,in medival times ladies were not above using preparations to beautify their complexions1 and among others for this purpose1 we find the formula of a cerate composed of white wax1 spermaceti1 oil of cole seed1 bismuth1 borax1 and alum1 which was spread on a cloth to cover the face at night1 and worn as a mask4 ,among the parts of the body used as medicine was human blood1 on which some early physicians set great value for the cure of epilepsy and diseases of the brain4 ,charas1 in his ,royal ,pharmacopia1 says3 8,in the month of ,may take a considerable quantity of healthy young men's blood1 let blood in that season who are not red haired4 ,this blood is to be distilled twice1 or spread on plates and dried in the sun or an oven4 ,all writers extol the volatile salt of man's blood1 for the cure of epilepsy1 it being also very proper to suppress vapours that arise from the stomach and spleen40 ,in a ,celtic leech-book preserved in the ,university of ,leyden1 which is said to have been written in the ninth century1 there are the following curious recipes3-- 8#a4 ,to prevent wrinkles4 ,smear the face with a mixture of water and the pounded root of wild cucumber4 ,wash with cold water4 #8,hc s triduo facere uolueris mirabilem effectum uidebis4' 8#b4 ,to remove freckles4 ,rub a bull's gall on the face4 8#c4 ,to cure headaches4 ,gather plantain-root before sunrise1 and tie it on the head4 ,use also the juice of the seed of the elder-tree1 a cow's brain1 goat's dung dissolved in vinegar2 swallows' nests mixed with water1 and applied to the forehead2 water out of which an ass or an ox has drunk4 8#d4 ,to purge the head4 ,pour the juice of cabbage 7brassica7 into the nostrils4 8#e4 ,for dimness of the eyes4 ,pound fennel-roots1 mix with honey1 and boil over a slow fire2 add cistern-water or woman's milk4 ,smear the eyes with the fat of a fox 7adipe volpis74 8#f4 ,another remedy4 ,mix a child's urine 7lotium infantis7 with the best honey2 add a decoction of fennel-roots 7#8omnem caliginem mirabiliter discutiet'74 8#g4 ,the beginning of this paragraph has been cut off4 ,the remedies prescribed are butter and cram occifth 7garlic444871 mixed with ram's fat 7#8per aruinam aritis'74 8#ad4 ,to cure the bite of a dog4 ,apply two or three onions calcined and boiled with lard and honey4 8#ae4 ,to extract a straw from the eye4 ,chant the psalm ,qui habitat 7,ps4 #ij7 thrice over water1 with which then douche the eye1 et sanus rit40 ,among the various remedies fish play a prominent part4 ,for gravel it is recommended that the head of a pike be boiled in a newly-glazed earthen pot1 then reduced to powder and drunk in a glass of white wine4 ,a sure means of curing gout is to wear continually three or four moles' feet tied to one's garters4 ,for nose-bleeding1 the sufferer is advised to blow up the nose the powder of a stone found in the head of a carp1 or to plug up the nostrils with hare's fur4 ,a certain remedy for curing a drunkard of his evil way is to give him as many eggs of the screech owl1 boiled hard1 as he can possibly eat1 when we are assured he will ever after be a total abstainer4 ,in the first book of the ,secretes of the reverent ,maister ,alexis of ,piemont1 #aefb1 which is a kind of general receipt-book for the apothecaries of the time1 there occur some curious formul1 which may be taken as a fair example of the pharmacy of those days4 ,the process of making the oil of red dog is given with elaborate detail4 8,to make an oile of a redde dogge10 says the chronicler1 8by the meane whereof 7beside other infinit vertues that it hathe7 ,i have healed a ,fryer of ,saint ,onostres1 who had by the space of twelve years a lame and drye withered arme1 lyke ,i styche so that nature gave it no more nouryshement-- 8,take a yonge dogge of redde heare and keep him three days without meate1 and then strangle him with a corde1 and let him lie dead a quarter of an houre1 and in the meane time boyle a kettell of ayle up by the fire1 and putte the dogge in whole1 or in pieces1 it maketh no matter howe1 so that he be all there with the skynne and heare2 make him seethe so untyl he be almost sodden to pieces1 keepying always the kettell close covered3 ,in the meane tyme take scorpions to the number of four score or a hundred1 and put them in a basyn on the fyre untyll they be thoroughly bruised4 ,then putte them in the sayde kettell with the ayle and the dogge1 puttinge to it a good dishful of great grounde wormes1 well washed1 a good handful of ,saint ,john's ,worte1 a handful of wylde marshe mallowes1 and a handful of wallworte1 with an once of saffron4 ,seethe all these things well to-gether1 and then let it ware colde40 ,the liquid being strained off and certain aromatic gums added1 the preparation was complete4 ,the belief that carrying a piece of camphor will ward off infectious diseases1 is a relic of the old days of amulets and charms4 ,in #aedg ,alexis recommended compounds to carry against the plague and fever1 and we find that aromatics were used to perfume clothes in the time of the early ,jews1 long before the birth of ,christ4 ,among other secrets of ,alexis1 there is a curious recipe to 8cause mervelous dreames04 8,take the bloode of a lampwink or black plover1 and rubbe your temples with it and so goe to bedde1 and you shall see mervelous thinges in your sleepe2 or else if you eate at nighte a little of the herbe ,solani or ,visicaria1 or some ,mandragora1 or elles of the herbe called in ,greek ,hyoscymus1 in ,latin hath these names1 ,altercum1 ,appolinaris1 and ,symphonia1 and in the ,english some call it ,henbane1 and you shall see in the nighte goodly things in your dreame40 ,the apothecary apparently omits to mention that a heavy meal of very ordinary cheese1 combined with the succulent fruit of the cucumber1 before you go to bed1 will also make you see marvellous and weird things in your sleep4 ,the gifts and wisdom of the apothecaries were according to their writings very wonderful1 but none perhaps is more remarkable than the following recipe on a matter which would baffle the scientists of the present day4 ,the chronicler writes3 8,to make a woman that beareth alwaies daughters to beare also sonnes1 it is a thing very easy1 and hath good succes1 and hathe been divers times proved4 ,let her eate an herbe in ,english called mercurie1 which hath only two seedes2 also the skrapings of an elephant's tooth40 ,the name of the originator of the 8everlasting pill0 has not been handed down to posterity1 but whoever he was1 he was certainly an economist1 and could not be charged with inventing it for his own gain4 ,it consisted of a small globule of metallic antimony1 which was believed to have the property of purging as often as it was swallowed4 ,a single pill of this kind would serve a whole family during their lives1 and was doubtless1 transmitted as an heirloom to posterity4 ,paris says1 8we have heard of a lady who1 having swallowed one of these pills1 became seriously alarmed at its not passing through04 8,madam10 said her physician1 8fear not2 it has already passed through a hundred patients without any difficulty40 ,it is said to have been the constant custom of ,cardinal ,wolsey to carry in his hand an orange deprived of its contents and filled with a sponge soaked in vinegar1 impregnated with various spices1 in order to protect him from infection when passing through the crowds of people which his splendour of office attracted4 ,an old writer1 one ,james ,penrose of the middle ages1 questions if ,cleopatra applied the asp to her breast as is commonly supposed1 because1 as he remarks1 8the veines are so very slender04 8,petrus ,victorius blames the painters who depict the ,egyptian queen applying the asp to her breast1 seeing it is manifest out of ,plutarch in the life of ,antonius1 and out of ,plinie likewise1 that she applied it to her arme40 8,zonares relates1 that there appeared no signe of death upon her1 save two blew spots on her arme40 8,csar also in her statue1 which he carryed in tryumph1 applyed the asp to her arme2 for in the armes there are great veines and arteries which doe quickly and in a straight way convey the venom to the heart1 whereas in the papps the vessels are slender40 ,gesnerus gives a method used by the apothecaries for changing the colour of the hair which is somewhat singular4 ,it is by means of one of the many waters of the philosophers1 and is made as follows1 in the language of the text3 8,take a moule which serveth unto the dying or coloring of heares whyte1 eyther of man or beast2 let the moule be artely brought to powder with ,brimstone1 adde to it the juice of celandine which orderly be myxed1 let to stande for certaine dayes1 after dystill the whole according to taste4 ,the virtue of this water is in such wise1 that if a beast wholy blacke of heare shall be washed all over with this water1 the heare shall in that time became so whyte as snowe40 ,the aloe mentioned in the ,bible1 usually in connection with myrrh and frankincense1 is not the same drug as that used in medicine to-day1 and is even without its bitterness4 ,it is the product of the ,aquilaria ,agallocha1 a tree of large size growing in the ,laos country and ,assam4 ,the wood is light in colour and inodorous1 but under certain conditions a change takes place in it1 and it becomes charged with a dark aromatic juice4 ,it was formerly used as a spice in embalming1 and is employed in ,china and the ,east as incense in the temples4 ,a curious little work1 entitled ,the ,house ,apothecary written by ,dr4 ,gideon ,harvey1 physician-in-ordinary to his ,majesty1 and printed in #afgj1 affords a further interesting glimpse at pharmacy #bjj years ago4 ,it would appear that the apothecaries then1 like some of their descendants of the present day1 excited a considerable amount of jealousy among the physicians by prescribing in certain cases1 and meddling generally 8in matters which they did not understand04 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,apothecary4 ,from an engraving1 #aeag4 ,the worthy doctor begins by recommending people to prepare their medicine at their own homes1 it being a far safer and easier way than sending it to the apothecary to be made1 and as a further inducement states3 8,and you shall also save nineteen shillings in twenty shillings1 according to the extravagant rates charged by many apothecaries1 in so doing4 ,i must tell you1 ,i have oft seen bills of apothecaries rise to twenty1 and sometimes thirty pounds in the time of a fortnight2 and what is more1 ,i have known an apothecary's bill so extravagant that the sum at the bottom of his account amounted to fifty pounds in the space of thirty days1 when the ingredients of the whole course could not be computed to stand him in forty shillings40 ,a severe indictment indeed4 ,the doctor then goes on to inform us that 8in preparing medicines at home you may be certain the ingredients are sound and fresh1 and you can have your medicines without attending the apothecary's leisure or having the trouble of sending three or four times to his shop for them2 and1 most important of all1 you may be assured in so doing you shall save nine pounds in ten1 and sometimes forty-eight pounds in fifty04 ,another treatise written to denounce the excessive charges of the apothecaries was ,the ,accomplished ,physician1 the ,honest ,apothecary1 and the ,skilful ,surgeon1 published and sold at the 8,angel0 in ,duck ,lane1 in #afef4 ,it attacked the unfortunate apothecary on all sides4 ,it states that 8if the apothecary finds you costive he sends you a clyster1 at the price of half a crown1 which by consulting ,the ,accomplished ,physician1 etc41 you may learn how to make yourself for three half-pence4 ,if he apprehends your stomach to be oppressed1 he orders his man to boil a little cardamoms in water1 strain it1 and put to it three or four spoonsful of rank oil of sweet almonds1 to cause you to vomit and carry off a little phlegm1 and for this he charges you half a crown1 which you can make yourself for two-pence40 ,the author finally confides to the public 8that it is fortunate that the little apothecaries and prescribing surgeons have not much knowledge of the great medicines1 such as mercury and antimony1 as they would at most times do great mischief with them1 using them at unseemly times1 as if you laid hold of a club to knock down a louse2 such great medicines should only be used by the physicians1 who should reserve them in secret04 ,most of the herbs and roots in common use were brought to the town markets and vended by the physical herb-women1 who would bring them in baskets to ,newgate ,market1 ,gutter ,lane1 or ,covent ,garden1 and there sell them by the handful1 a dozen for a groat4 ,the measures in use were of a very primitive description1 chiefly the fascicle and the pugil4 ,in #afef a quart white glass bottle cost #as4 #f;d41 and a green glass retort #h;d4 ,plague water at certain times was in great demand1 and was usually sold at the apothecaries for #cs4 #f;d4 a pint4 ,the price of most conserves was #b;d4 an ounce1 and ointments retailed at #h;d4 an ounce4 ,an ointment that was much in vogue and very popular among the people was ,unguentum gyptiacum1 similar to the ointment of the great ,felix ,wurtz4 ,its composition is somewhat interesting and quaint4 8,take of verdigriese #ab drachms ground very fine in a brass mortar1 observing while you are powdering to hold your head back from the mortar and keep your mouth and nose stopped1 to prevent those venomous steams from getting up into your brain4 ,then take #c ounces of honey and #ab drachms of sharpest vinegar1 place them in a broad brass pipkin1 put in the verdigriese1 stir and boil them on a gentle fire unto the thickness of an oyntment of a purple colour40 ,of the waters in common use the ,accomplished ,physician gives directions for the preparation of several4 ,the ,london treacle water1 aqua mirabilis and aqua raphani composita1 were noted for scurvy4 ,the ,london snail water was recommended as an invaluable remedy in consumption1 which1 8owing to the cool1 clammy1 and glutinous substance of the snail1 facilitated the expectoration and repaired the parts consumed04 ,gascon's powder1 or pulvis chelis cancrorum1 was regarded as a valuable medicament1 and much esteemed and ordered by the great physicians4 ,it was an expensive mixture1 and contained equal parts1 in powder1 of crab's eyes1 the oriental pearl1 red coral1 white amber1 oriental bezoar1 and the black tops of crab's claws4 ,it was sometimes ordered and taken in the form of pills mixed with hartshorn jelly4 ,the apothecary's price for this powder was #djs4 an ounce1 or one penny per grain4 ,we are told that if made at home the cost would only be #acs4 #a;d4 ,another preparation exceedingly popular in the seventeenth century was the emplastrum opodeldock of ,feliz ,wurtz1 8so much cried up among surgeons beyond the sea04 ,it was a red plaster1 composed of wax1 ,venice turpentine1 juice of celandine1 oak leaves1 ammoniacum1 galbanum1 and vinegar4 ,then some powdered magnets1 and such mysterious compounds as ,crocus ,martis1 ,crocus ,veneris1 and prepared tutria1 were thrown in1 and all boiled together4 ,the following is extracted from an old price list of the seventeenth century1 which gives a good idea of some of the extraordinary articles kept in the old apothecaries' shops1 and the prices charged4 ,it is headed 8,rates and prices currant of ,druggs and other commodities1 belonging to physick1 as they are commonly sold at the ,apothecaries and ,druggists in ,london1 #afhe03-- ,mother of ,pearl #f;d4 per oz4 ,crab's eyes #es4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,crab's claws #as4 #f;d4 0 ,fox's lungs #bs4 0 ,a mummy #es4 #d;d4 0 ,bone of stag's heart #as4 #f;d4 0 ,borax #ds4 0 ,saltpetre #aj;d4 0 ,jalap #cs4 #d;d4 0 ,rhubarb #ads4 0 ,liquorice #as4 0 ,a boar's tooth #as4 each4 ,a dead man's skull 7cranium humanum7 according to size #hs4 to #aas4 each4 ,musk #es4 per drachm4 ,bloodstone #bs4 #h;d4 per lb4 ,opium #abs4 0 ,elaterium #cfs4 per oz4 ,lac ,sulphur #cs4 0 ,red coral #ds4 per lb4 ,oleum ,copaib #bs4 per oz4 ,gum acacia #ajs4 per lb4 ,turmerick #h;d4 per lb4 ,elicampane #as4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,galingal #ds4 0 ,gentian #h;d4 0 ,spanish ,liquorice #f;d4 0 ,hellebore1 white #as4 0 ,hellebore1 black #as4 per lb4 ,pyrethrum #as4 0 ,sarsaparil1 according to its goodness1 from #ds4 to #es4 per lb4 ,squills #f;d4 0 ,winter's ,bark #bs4 0 ,lig4 ,aloes4 #i;d4 per oz4 0 ,guaici #b;d4 per lb4 ,senna ,alex41 the best #ds4 ,cubebs #bs4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,nucis ,vomic #as4 #d;d4 0 ,cardamom #ds4 0 ,aloes ,succot1 according to its goodness #ds4 to #fs4 per lb4 ,scammony #abs4 0 ,cantharides #ds4 0 ,civet #es4 #f;d4 per dram4 ,ising-glass #es4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,sea-horse tooth #d;d4 per oz4 ,sea-horse pizzle #d;d4 0 ,skink1 a piece #as4 #d;d4 ,spermaceti #cs4 per ounce4 ,stag's pizzle #f;d4 0 ,elk's claw #bs4 a piece4 ,white wax #bs4 per lb4 ,yellow wax #as4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,cinnabar #cs4 per oz4 ,mercury ,sublimate #es4 #h;d41 or #fs4 per lb4 ,seed ,pearls #ds4 to #hs4 per oz4 ,mother of ,pearl #f;d4 per oz4 ,mithridate #fs4 per lb4 ,aqua ,fortis #es4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,ol4 ,cinnamon #a #abs4 per oz4 ,ol4 ,vitrioli #es4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,besides the above1 precious stones in powder1 and diamond powder1 which was regarded as a powerful poison1 commanded very high prices4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,queen ,,elizabeth4 ,to obtain a clear conception of the great advance that has been made in medicine and pharmacy1 it is necessary to look back through the vista of centuries at the ,elizabethan apothecary4 ,in doing so1 we should note how the influence of superstition and charlatanry1 with which the art of healing was surrounded and intermixed1 has been gradually dispersed under the searching light of science4 ,one can picture the apothecary's shop in the days of 8good ,queen ,bess04 ,up a narrow winding street1 paved with round cobble stones1 and no pathway to protect you from the jostling and nudges of the passing chair-bearers1 ,french pages1 and watermen who throng the thoroughfares1 his abode may be denoted perhaps by the gilded crocodile which hangs over the doorway1 accompanied by a pole from which depends a pair of brightly-burnished metal pans1 denoting the practice of the chirurgical art4 ,the overhanging gables of the half-timbered houses darken the low-roofed shop1 through whose small windows filled with little panes of bottle glass1 a very dim light penetrates4 ,a mysterious odour permeates the interior and strange things are seen hanging from the rafters1--flying fish1 tortoises1 and a long alligator float mid-air4 ,strings of poppy-heads1 bunches of chamomile and centuary1 also glass jars containing adders and worms adorn the counter4 ,on one shelf an array of bright brass mortars1 and round about on others1 a great collection of quaint bottles and earthen pots1 containing electuaries1 unguents1 and lohochs2 syrup bottles with long curved spouts1 and bladders full of seeds and wax4 ,in the corner stands the great iron mortar1 whose heavy pestle is suspended from a spring beam1 and another is filled with little drawers to hold the gums and spices4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,apothecary4 ,from an engraving1 #aeag4 ,away at the back a red glow appears from the furnace1 and alembics1 big and little1 lie about4 ,at night the shop is crowded with poor women buying worm-seed for their children or treacle to drive out the measles1 and with country people who have come for drugs and drenches for their sick cattle4 8,there are serving-men waiting for their masters' purgatives and electuaries1 or the fops' facewashes of oil of tartar1 lac virginis1 and camphor dissolved in verjuice4 ,smart maids are buying conserves and sackets for their mistresses1 or perfumes for my lady's chamber4 ,here desperadoes and rakish gallants could purchase poisons1 and blushing maidens would buy their love charms and philtres1 or antidotes to counteract the same4 ,some apothecaries kept a little room for taking tobacco1 furnished with silver trays1 and a maple block for cutting it1 where the gallants met and gossiped1 or learned tricks in smoking from fashionable professors1 for nearly all the apothecaries sold tobacco--real ,timidado--nicotine cane1 and pudding1 as it was called40 ,the old apothecary's prescriptions were composed of strange ingredients1 sometimes crab's eyes and boar's teeth1 or powdered pearls1 and viper broth4 ,he would recommend you a toad1 well dried in the sun1 put in a bag1 and hung round the neck by a string low enough to touch the region of the heart1 to allay hmorrhage4 ,a preparation of garlic and honey smeared on the person was a certain charm against the bites of vicious dogs and reptiles1 or the stings of venomous insects4 ,toothache could be charmed away by a few leaves of the 8shepherd's purse0 placed in the sole of the shoe4 ,an excellent recipe for sore eyes was the expressed juice of the calyx of the red honeysuckle1 provided always that the flowers were gathered kneeling and repeating nine ,pater nosters in honour of the ,trinity1 nine more 8to greet our ,ladye10 and a creed4 ,my ,ladye ,falkenbrydge's recipe for eye-water was much esteemed1 and ran thus3 8,corne-flowers gathered with their cuppes and bruyse them2 macerate them in snowe or snowe water for twentye-foure houres1 then dystyl in a moderate sandebath and applye it night and morning04 ,this was prescribed in #aeec4 ,a favourite cure for rickety children was to pass them through the split stem of a tree4 ,for ague1 a very well salted herring1 split open1 was applied hot to the soles of the feet2 or an emerald worn round the neck formed a potent charm against the same complaint4 ,the learned ,boorde1 in his ,breviary of ,health1 says3 8,the medical treatment of the day was a mixture of religious theories1 superstition1 and white magic04 ,he recommends for a bad rheum the application of oil of scorpions and fox fat2 for a bruised skin1 washing it with white wine and plastering with an oak leaf2 and he quaintly states 8the best remedy for itching is long nails and scratching10 which1 at any rate1 is common-sense4 ,to preserve the health and a good complexion1 he recommends young maids to wipe their faces daily with a scarlet cloth1 and only wash them once a week4 ,another peculiar phase of pharmacy in those early days was the instructions of the various apothecaries' guilds to their members as to prayer4 ,the compounder of prescriptions was directed to go down on his knees and supplicate before he commenced his labours4 ,many old herbals and works on pharmacy1 especially in ,germany1 contain curious wood-cut illustrations of the apothecary at his devotional exercises4 ,cyriacus ,schnaus1 an apothecary of ,nuremberg1 published a book in #aefe1 wherein he1 in person1 is represented as kneeling on a large mortar before a sacred picture4 ,this custom may have been originated by the monks1 many of whom followed the art of healing4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,physician ,,forecasting ,,from ,,the ,,urine4 ,from an engraving1 #aeag4 ,a writer of the time states that the itinerant dentist was also a well-known figure at the street corner4 ,for #ajj marks he would put out both your eyes1 and quite cure your inflammation with one drop of his aqua mirabilis1 at twelve-pence a drop4 ,he offered you an antidote from stab or bullet for five marks1 and by his side waved a banner stuck all over with horses' teeth1 to show his skill4 ,he cured your toothache by charms1 sometimes writing mysterious words on a paper1 and burning it under your nose2 or he would sear your teeth with hot wires1 most effectively2 or make you inhale the hot vapour of henbane seeds1 and then show you the worms that he had conjured out1 which are certes now wriggling in the water4 ,he wore a chain of molar teeth around his neck1 and shook them from time to time as he held up a bottle of liquid and called out3 8,these are the spirits that pass with the blood into the rheum1 to vex the teeth of men04 ,his descendants may still be seen at the present day working wondrous cures1 decked out in similar fantastic garb1 or extracting teeth gratis1 and by sheer bold impudence reaping a golden harvest4 ,having thus shown how the now almost forgotten pioneers of science laid the foundation of the arts of medicine and pharmacy1 and how much we owe to their patience and diligence1 a brief reference may be made to the class of medicaments in use in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth1 immediately prior to the differentiation in ,england of the first pharmacists--the apothecaries--and the beginnings of pharmacy as a separate art4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,itinerant ,,drug ,,seller4 ,from a fifteenth century drawing4 8,a few simples10 says ,burton1 8well prepared and understood1 are better than such a heap of nonsense1 confused compounds1 which are in apothecaries' shops ordinarily sold40 ,for madness and melancholy1 wormwood was used4 ,another remedy was clarified whey1 with borage1 bugloss1 endive1 succory1 etc41 a good draught of which was taken in the morning1 fasting4 ,for the spleen and liver1 syrups were prescribed composed of borage1 thyme1 epithyme1 hops1 scolopendra1 fumitory1 maiden-hair1 and bizantine4 ,these syrups were mixed with distilled water by the apothecaries1 or stirred into juleps4 ,of conserves there were innumerable varieties1 and ointments of oil and wax1 as well as liniments and plasters of herbs and flowers1 well boiled with oil or spirits4 ,cataplasms and salves were frequently made of green herbs sodden1 pounded1 and applied externally4 ,gradually1 as the years have rolled on1 and as the science of chemistry has unlocked the marvellous resources and products of nature1 most of these old relics of the days of superstition and witchcraft have been left behind and forgotten1 and it remains only for some old black-lettered tome to tell the story and for us to fill in the background to the picture4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,famous ,,empirics ,,and ,,their ,,nostrums4 ,in the early part of the eighteenth century1 the enterprising empiric seems to have hit on a new method of lining his pockets at the expense of the public1 and we have the advent of the so-called proprietary or quack nostrum1 which has developed into such gigantic proportions in later years4 ,to bring some special drug into notoriety in those days it was first necessary to spread some tale abroad as to its extraordinary virtues1 then by means of a pamphlet 7for there were few other advertising media7 recount the marvellous cures it had performed1 and back them up by mentioning a few great names4 ,in this way the quack medicines originated4 ,in a similar manner1 some drugs that have since proved of great use to humanity were brought into note4 ,peruvian bark was first imported into ,spain by the ,jesuits1 where it remained seven years before a trial was given to it4 ,it was first administered to a ,spanish priest in #afci1 and but for the supreme power of the ,church of ,rome it would in all probability have sunk into oblivion4 ,pope ,innocent ,x41 however1 at the intercession of ,cardinal de ,lugo1 ordered the bark to be duly examined by the best experts of the time1 and on a favourable report being presented1 it at once rose high in favour4 ,the 8,elixirs of ,life0 made by the early alchemists may be said to have been the forerunners of quack medicines1 and for these concoctions fabulous prices were demanded4 ,those made by ,paracelsus and ,van ,helmont were known throughout ,europe1 and must have brought considerable grist to the mill of their proprietors4 ,the ,collyrium of ,danares1 which enjoyed a wide reputation in the seventeenth century1 was sold at #i per bottle4 ,then there was the ,sympathetic ,powder of ,sir ,kenelm ,digby1 noted for healing wounds1 and ,hoffman's ,water of ,magnanimity4 ,another famous nostrum made by ,paracelsus was called ,prcipitatus ,diaphoreticus ,paracelsi1 and warranted to cure a fever in four days4 8,dutch drops10 which were originally sold for half a guinea a bottle1 are said to have brought the proprietors #bjjj in one year4 ,the ,eau ,mdicinale de ,husson1 another well-known quack nostrum1 was introduced by an officer of that name in the service of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,it is said to have been simply a decoction of meadow saffron4 ,dr4 ,james' celebrated fever powder1 which enjoyed a great reputation in this country1 is stated to have been the invention of an ,italian named ,lisle1 and a recipe for its preparation was published in ,colborne's ,english ,dispensary in #agef4 ,oliver ,goldsmith believed this to be a remedy for all ills and took it regularly up to his death4 ,the ,count ,st4 ,germain1 a ,frenchman1 realised large sums by vending an artificial tea1 which he affirmed would prolong life4 ,it is said to have been composed chiefly of senna and fennel leaves4 ,the ,chevalier d',ailhoud was another adventurer who introduced a powder which met with such a sale that he soon saved enough to buy a whole county4 ,that prince of empirics the ,count ,cagliostro sold his ,balm of ,life1 or stomach elixir1 at an exorbitant price4 ,he asserted that he had lived #bjj years by its use1 and was rendered invulnerable against poison of every description4 ,during his residence in ,strasburg1 while boasting and expounding the virtues of his nostrum and antidote to a large assembly of the townsfolk1 a physician who was present1 and who had not taken part in the conversation1 quitting the room quietly1 went to an apothecary's shop and ordered two pills to be made of equal size4 ,taking them with him1 he made his way back to the room1 and walking up to the loquacious quack he said1 8,here1 my worthy ,count1 are two pills4 ,the one contains a deadly poison1 and the other is perfectly innocent4 ,choose one and swallow it1 and ,i will take the one you leave40 ,the ,count took alarm1 and after making all kinds of apologies and excuses1 at last refused to swallow the pill4 ,the physician1 smiling1 then took his place on the platform1 and in view of the company swallowed both1 and then1 to the discomfort of ,cagliostro1 announced that both pills were simply composed of bread4 ,the ,count beat a speedy retreat4 ,in #agid considerable sensation was excited by the account of some wonderful cures made by a ,count ,thn of ,leipzig1 who professed to cure gout1 hypochondria1 and hysteria by laying his hands on the head of the patient4 ,the early part of the present century saw a great increase in the number of these nostrums1 the usual method adopted by their proprietors being to set up in great style in a fashionable part of the town1 and by lavish display and various eccentricities1 to attract general attention4 ,among the foremost in ,london was a ,german ,jew who called himself ,doctor ,brodum4 ,this individual1 who1 it is said1 started life as a footman1 took a large house in a fashionable square in the west-end1 and drove a pair of horses in a gorgeous chariot4 ,he called his nostrum 8,nervous ,cordial10 its properties being set forth in a pamphlet entitled ,a ,guide to ,old ,age4 ,he is said to have amassed a fortune in a very short time4 ,another notorious quack was ,doctor ,solomon1 who eventually settled in ,liverpool4 ,he originally sold blacking in ,newcastle1 but finding it did not pay1 came to ,liverpool1 where he tried to establish a newspaper4 ,this effort also proved a failure1 and ,solomon at length turned his attention to quack doctoring1 and brought out a nostrum called 8,the ,balm of ,gilead04 ,this proved successful1 and he soon made enough money to build himself a substantial house in ,kensington1 which was at that time a fashionable suburban district4 ,to advertise his preparation he wrote a pamphlet called ,the ,guide to ,health1 extolling the virtues of the 8,balm of ,gilead and ,anti-,impetigines04 ,this treatise1 the cover of which was adorned with an engraving of his mansion at ,kensington1 stated 8the most learned physicians have been unable to discover in the cordial ,balm of ,gilead the least particle of mercury1 antimony1 or any other mineral except pure virgin gold and the balm of ,mecca04 ,the ,doctor was a well-known character in the streets of ,liverpool in the early part of this century1 and in his daily promenade always carried an elaborate gold-headed cane4 ,the celebrated 8balm0 is said to have been simply brandy flavoured with some aromatic oil1 and although sold at a guinea a bottle1 was in great demand4 ,a story is told of a prominent tradesman of the time1 who discovered that his wife was consuming considerable quantities of the invigorating balm4 ,being further informed that this had become a common habit with many of her friends1 he took counsel with the husbands of these ladies1 with the result that they determined to punish the doctor by carrying out the following plot4 ,on a certain dark night1 a messenger was despatched to the doctor's house1 asking him to come at once and see a patient a little way out in the country1 and to be sure and bring with him several bottles of his ,balm of ,gilead4 ,the unsuspecting victim soon set out on foot along the country lanes1 and on getting to a very lonely part1 was pounced upon by four men disguised in cowskins1 who1 with long horns and tails1 looked like fiends incarnate4 ,the poor doctor thought his last hour had come1 and went down on his knees and invoked all the prophets he could think of2 but his tormentors dragged him off to a field close by1 where they made him swallow bottle after bottle of his own nostrum1 then ducked him in a pond and tossed him in a blanket4 ,solomon was so incensed at this outrage he determined to leave ,liverpool and settle in ,birmingham1 but in a short time returned to the former city1 where he died1 and was buried1 according to his directions1 in his own garden4 ,the following verse1 referring to these empirics1 is extracted from an old ballad3-- 8,brodum or ,solomon with physic1 ,like death1 despatch the wretch that's sick1 ,pursue a sure and thriving trade2 ,though patients die1 the doctor's paid6 ,licensed to kill1 he gains a palace ,for what another mounts a gallows60 ,the electropathic girdles of our own time had their anti-type in ,perkin's far-famed tractors for preserving health1 for which the proprietor demanded the sum of five guineas a set4 ,the wonderful properties attributed to them were set forth in a small book1 entitled ,the ,influence of the ,metallic ,tractors on the ,body4 ,among the nostrums that enjoyed popularity in the early part of this century were ,de ,velno's ,vegetable ,syrup1 ,dr4 ,senate's ,lozenges of ,steel to prolong life1 ,leake's ,patent ,pills1 ,dr4 ,burton's ,vital ,wine1 ,beddoe's ,volatile ,cordial ,oxygen ,gas for preserving life1 ,dr4 ,squirrel's ,tonic ,drops and ,powders1 ,godbold's ,vegetable ,balsam1 and many others4 ,the foibles of many of the most prominent empirics of the period are well hit off in the following old ballad3-- 8,we can boast of a ,beddoe's whose oxygen gas ,can render immortal the ape and the ass2 ,while ,swainson the botanist1 son of ,apollo1 ,swears we ne'er shall be sick if his syrup we swallow4 ,derry down4 8,while ,solomon flies on the wings of the wind1 ,his magical ,balm of ,mount ,gilead to find1 ,little ,brodum stands stewing his herbs in a copper1 ,and to vend his decoction for gold he thinks proper4 ,derry down4 8,dull ,gardner1 destroyer of worms and of men1 ,like ,leake1 sells his pills to rouse death from his den2 ,and ,perkins stands brandishing two-pointed tractors1 ,to heal the contusions of girls1 beaux1 and actors4 ,derry down4 8,there's the lotion of ,gowland that flays ladies' faces1 ,distorting the features of our modern ,graces2 ,there1 ,lignum's dire pills--but of quackery enough6 ,let ,john ,bull take his pipe and contentedly puff4 ,derry down40 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mortar4 ,the mortar is the most ancient of pharmaceutical implements1 its earliest use carrying us back to prehistoric times1 when the early ,briton bruised his grain in the hollow of a granite boulder4 ,there is little doubt indeed that mortars were employed for the purpose of bruising and reducing hard bodies to powder1 centuries before medicine as an art was thought of or known4 ,the name is derived from the ,latin word mortarium1 which is probably from the root mordeo1 to bite1 akin to the ,sanscrit mrid1 to grind or to pound2 the literal meaning of the word being a vessel in which substances may be pounded with a pestle4 ,the origin of the mortar appears to have been identical with that of the mill or quern as it was called in ancient times4 ,the primitive implement used by prehistoric nations for the purpose of crushing their grain1 was simply made by hollowing out a cup-shaped hole in a block of stone or granite1 and pounding the grain placed in this receptacle with a smaller stone of suitable form4 ,these grain-crushers1 together with stone rollers and pounders1 have been found in the circular huts of the ,britons in several parts of ,north ,wales4 ,this method was also used by the early ,jews before the ,christian era for crushing their spices and gums1 the knowledge of which they doubtless gathered from the ,egyptians during the captivity4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,mortar4 ,in many of the ancient ,egyptian papyri we find directions given to bruise certain herbs and roots1 but no mention is made of the implement used for that purpose2 carvings in stone1 however1 are extant which show the mortars used by the ,egyptians were similar in form to those employed several centuries later4 ,it is interesting to note that the mortar has also been known to several ,oriental and savage races from time immemorial2 and in the mortar employed by the pharmacist to-day we have an implement that links us not only with prehistoric man1 but also with the savage races of the world4 ,in ,africa1 mortars and pestles of wood have been used from a period of unknown antiquity for the purpose of crushing grain4 ,the one illustrated in ,fig4 #a is composed of wood1 and was brought from ,central ,africa4 ,in ,india1 stone mortars with wooden pestles have for centuries been used for shelling and pounding rice4 ,fig4 #b represents a ,cingalese mortar of stone1 from two to three feet in height1 taken from a drawing of the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,coming to the time of the ,roman ,empire1 we have the first real evidence of the use of the mortar for pharmaceutical purposes4 ,medicine and pharmacy allied1 in the time of ,celsus1 had become practical arts2 and we know from the preparations described by that author that practical appliances were necessary4 ,thus the malagma used as an application to the skin was a kind of soft mass directed to be beaten up to the consistency of a thick paste2 and the ingredients of the catapotia were often ordered to be bruised before being mixed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,roman mortaria composed of earthenware are very commonly found1 and many examples may be seen in most of our museums among other ,roman remains4 ,they were chiefly made for domestic use1 and although they vary very little in pattern1 the sizes are numerous4 ,the larger ones are1 as a rule1 very strongly made1 and all have a thick divided rim with a rounded moulding4 ,the inside was roughened with splinters of flint or hard stone1 or hard-burnt earthenware1 which was fixed on with a kind of 8slip0 or liquid clay with which the ,romans finished their ware4 ,a wooden pestle was used with these mortaria1 which were no doubt chiefly employed for triturating and mixing various condiments for domestic use4 ,the ,roman mortarium shown in ,fig4 #c is twenty-eight inches in breadth1 and bears the stamp of the maker's name1 showing it to be the work of one ,publius ,raso4 ,some of the smaller mortaria found are composed of a very white clay of a vitreous character burnt hard like porcelain1 and are nonabsorbent4 ,these were probably used for mixing more delicate condiments4 ,there were large manufactories for mortaria in ,britain1 situated chiefly in the south of ,england1 at the mouth of the ,thames1 and in ,essex and ,staffordshire4 ,from these factories there was a considerable export trade to ,rome and ,gaul4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,roman mortars of stone are much rarer1 and the one depicted in ,fig4 #d is a unique specimen1 and was with little doubt at one time used for pharmaceutical purposes4 ,composed of stone1 with a solid square base1 it stands about twelve inches high1 and is about eight inches broad4 ,the notches at the corners are evidently intended for fixing it down on a wooden table or slab1 to keep it steady when being used for pounding or breaking up hard substances4 ,closely akin to mortars were the querns or small mills used for grinding purposes from the ,roman period4 ,in shape they somewhat resembled the mortar1 but were covered in at the top1 having a hole in the centre through which the pestle was worked4 ,they were made of stone and wood4 ,a beautiful example of a wooden quern is depicted in ,fig4 #e4h ,it stands thirteen inches high1 and is made of very hard wood4 ,it is an exquisite specimen of the turner's art1 some of the side mouldings being of great delicacy1 no thicker than a fine needle1 yet perfectly true in every particular4 ,the pestle was worked through the hole in the centre of the cover4 ,these wooden querns were used during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 #h ,now in the possession of ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,cox1 to whom we are indebted for the sketch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,there is little doubt that marble succeeded stone as a material for making mortars1 and this brings us down to medival times1 when the apothecaries1 combining the practice of medicine and pharmacy1 became wielders of the pestle4 ,the value of the mortar as a pharmaceutical implement was recognised by these early practitioners1 and was given the most prominent position in their shops1 and so the pestle and mortar became a symbol or trade sign of pharmacy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the great bell-shaped mortar1 which was of considerable capacity1 usually stood1 mounted on a solid block of wood1 near the centre of the shop1 the huge pestle1 three feet or more in length1 being suspended from a long wooden spring beam by a chain and ring4 ,one can readily picture the youthful apprentice1 clad in jerkin and trunk hose1 exercising his muscles with the ponderous pestle1 and with what mingled feelings he would essay the task of pounding half a hundred-weight of aloes to begin his day's work and give him an appetite for his midday meal4 ,these large mortars were usually bell-shaped in form1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #f1 and composed of iron or bell-metal4 ,the smaller mortars of this period were made of brass1 copper1 and bell-metal1 and were occasionally ornamented with some symbol or device4 ,many were very elegant in form1 and they usually stood in bright array on the counter4 ,the pestles were made flat1 top and bottom1 so that either end could be used for pounding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the bell-metal mortar depicted in ,fig4 #g dates from the time of ,oliver ,cromwell1 and bears the arms of the ,commonwealth on both sides4 ,it was probably once the property of an official ,state apothecary4 ,the brass mortar shown in ,fig4 #h is peculiar in shape1 and is supported by four short legs4 ,it dates from the early part of the seventeenth century1 and round the middle are inscribed the letters of the alphabet4 ,fig4 #i represents a particularly handsome example of the brass mortar of the seventeenth century4 ,copper mortars when polished have a very elegant appearance1 and are somewhat rare4 ,a specimen is depicted in ,fig4 #aj4 ,a very fine bell-shaped mortar of brass was found in ,chester about two years ago1 and is now deposited in the museum of that city4 ,it stands nearly two feet high1 and dates from the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,small brass mortars were also formerly used by housewives in the stillroom1 and for other domestic purposes1 and may often yet be found ornamenting the kitchen mantelshelf in old country houses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #aj4 ,during the last and the early part of this century ,italian marble was largely employed for making mortars1 but with the introduction of wedgewood and composition ware1 which is lighter1 more durable1 and less liable to be acted on by chemicals1 marble mortars have now almost gone out of use with pharmacists4 ,small antique mortars of bronze are still to be found in many ,french pharmacies1 often bearing some symbol or device1 such as ,st4 ,michael and the dragon4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,alchemy ,,and ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,literature4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,chaucer4 ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales present one of the most interesting pictures of life and manners in the fourteenth century we have in ,english literature4 ,the father of ,english poetry was born in #acbh1 and ,london is generally believed to have been his birthplace4 ,it was his fortune to live under the wing of that chivalrous and high-spirited king1 ,edward ,,iii41 a time when gallantry1 prowess1 and courage were counted in the highest esteem4 ,in his ,canterbury ,tales he embodies some vivid sketches of the times and characters among which he lived4 ,a physician of course forms one of his motley crew of pilgrims1 who beguile the monotony of their ride to ,canterbury1 to pay homage at the shrine of ,thomas ,becket1 by the quaint stories related4 ,the pilgrim doctor is thus described3-- 8,with us there was a doctor of physic1 ,in all this world there was none him like ,to speak of physic and of surgery1 ,for he was grounded in astronomy1 ,he kept his patient in a full great deal1 ,in houres by his magic natural4 ,well could he fortune the ascendant1 ,of his images for his patient ,he knew the cause of every malady1 ,were it of cold1 or hot1 or moist1 or dry1 ,and where engendered and of what humour1 ,he was a very perfect practisour4 ,the cause-y-know and of his harm the root ,anon he gave to the sick man his boot4 ,full ready had he his apothecaries1 ,to send his drugges and his lectuaries ,for each of them made other for to win ,their friendship was not newe to begin4 ,well knew he the old sculapius1 ,and ,dioscorides1 and eke ,rufus1 ,old ,hippocras1 ,hali1 and ,gallien1 ,serapion1 ,rasis1 and ,avicen ,averrois1 ,damascene1 and ,constantin1 ,bernard1 and ,gatisden1 and ,gilbertin4 ,of his diet measurable was he1 ,for it was of no superfluity1 ,but of great nourishing and digestable2 ,his study was but little on the ,bible1 ,in sanguine and in perse he clad was1 all ,lined with taffata and with sendall1 ,and yet he was but easy of dispence1 ,he kept that he won in the pestilence4 ,for gold in physic is a cordial1 ,therefore he loved gold in special40 ,one can thus picture the ancient physician riding his steady jennet1 clad in doublet and hose of red and blue1 with cloak of sendall1 a fine silk material1 all lined with taffata4 ,in telling the stars and casting horoscopes he would be learned1 as astrology entered very largely into his practice1 and brought many big fees4 ,so learned a leech would doubtless have a large practice1 and the apothecaries evidently vied with one another in preparing his prescriptions4 ,the names of ancient philosophers with whom he was familiar is quite formidable1 nearly all the old authors being enumerated4 ,it is satisfactory to know he was no glutton1 and had an easy conscience4 ,that he was a wise and careful man is evident from the fact that when an epidemic came he lived but moderately1 and saved extra money that flowed in during the plague time4 ,the closing couplet is a pretty bit of wit1 and alludes to the frequent use of gold in medicine in ancient times4 ,among the pilgrims also was a cook-- 8,to boil the chickens and the marrow bones1 ,and powder marchant tart and garlingale04 ,the former ingredient1 probably a kind of baking powder1 is now unknown1 and the use of galingal in cookery has been quite forgotten4 ,this aromatic condiment was commonly used as a culinary spice in the middle ages4 ,reference is made to the drug in the writings of ,ibn ,khurdadbah1 the ,arabian geographer1 in the year #hfi4 ,it was used mixed with cloves and cardamoms1 and also employed in medical practice as early as the ninth century4 ,in the course of the knight's romantic tale1 ,palamon1 a gallant young knight1 escapes from a prison in which he has been immured for seven years1 by drugging the jailer3-- 8,soon after the midnight1 ,palamon ,by helping of a friend brake his prison ,and fled the city1 fast as he might go1 ,for he had given drink his gaoler so1 ,of a clary made of a certain wine ,with narcotise and opie of ,thebes fine1 ,that all the night through that men would him shake1 ,the gaoler slept he mighte not wake04 ,clary was ,hippocras wine made with spices1 probably chosen in order to mask the taste of the opium and other narcotics1 of which it was evident ,palamon must have given the unfortunate jailer a large dose if he slept through the vigorous shaking which is said to have been administered4 ,the opium of ,thebes was much used in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,prosper ,alpinus1 who visited ,egypt in #aehj-hc1 states that opium or meconium was in his time prepared in the ,thebid from the expressed juice of poppy-heads1 and it was called ,opium ,thebacum4 ,later in the story a sharp encounter occurs between two bands of knights1 in which3-- 8,all were they sorely hurt and namely one1 ,that with a spear was thirled his breast bone1 ,to other wounds and to broken arms1 ,some hadden salves and some hadden charms1 ,and pharmacies of herbs eke sage1 ,they dranken1 for they would their lives have40 ,the carrying of salves by knights to battle probably originated with the ,crusaders1 who carried1 prepared and blessed1 unguents to dress their wounds4 ,other warriors scorned to encumber themselves with the healing medicines1 and relied on the charm or talisman which almost every knight carried on going to war4 ,some would trust to the simple herb or decoction1 and sage which is here mentioned was supposed to have special healing virtue4 ,in the ,miller's tale we are introduced to one ,hendy ,nicholas1 a poor scholar or tutor who lived at ,oxford1 and 8,had learned art1 but all his fantasy ,was turned for to learn astrology04 ,nicholas was a sly fellow to boot1 and somewhat of a beau or a fop of his time and evidently having a turn for science1 he practised it in his leisure1 and was consulted by the farmers of the neighbourhood as to the state of the weather1 or in prognosticating the future for their wives4 ,he had a laboratory at his lodgings1 which is described in the following words3-- 8,a chamber had he in that hostelry1 ,alone withouten any company1 ,full fetisly-y-dight with herbs swoot1 ,and he himself was sweet as is the root ,of liquorice or any setewale4 ,his almagest1 and books great and small1 ,his astrolobe belonging to his art1 ,his augrim stones layed fair apart1 ,on shelves couched at his beddes head4 ,his press-y-covered with a falding red1 ,and above all them lay a gay psaltry1 ,on which he made at nightes melody ,so sweetely that all the chamber rang1 ,and ,angelus a virginem he sang2 ,and after that he sung the ,knight's note2 ,full often blessed was his merry throat4 ,and thus this sweete clerk his time spent1 ,after his friendes finding1 and his rent40 ,one can easily imagine from this sketch the astrologer sitting arrayed in his laboratory1 the room filled with the perfume of fragrant herbs1 with a manner that vied with the sweetness of liquorice or valerian root4 ,prominent among the many books with which he is surrounded is the ,almagest1 the book of ,ptolomy1 which formed the canon of astrological science in the middle ages4 ,in one corner his bed1 and above on a shelf his astrolobe1 with which he told the stars1 and the augrim stones1 probably pieces of slate marked with figures used by astrologers in their art4 ,then there was the press or chest covered with a red cloth1 and hanging above it his psaltery gaily decked with ribbons1 on which he accompanied himself when he sang1 at which he was evidently an adept4 ,later in the story the astrologer and man of science becomes smitten by ,cupid1 and one fine morning goes forth at an early hour to serenade a comely maid 7unfortunately for him1 married7 of whom he is enamoured1 and we are told-- 8,when that the first cock hath crowed1 anon ,up rose this jolly lover ,absolon1 ,and him arrayed gay at point devise1 ,but first he chewed grains and liquorice1 ,to smelle sweet ere he combed his hair4 ,under his tongue a true love he bear1 ,for thereby thought he to be gracious40 ,like unto other votaries at the shrine of ,venus1 our astrologer took pains to make himself look to the best advantage1 and evidently bestowed the greatest care on his dress4 ,to perfume his breath and make himself acceptable to his lady love1 he chewed grains of paradise and liquorice4 ,the former was a favourite spice in early times1 but now rarely used4 ,it has a strong aromatic taste1 which is imparted by an essential oil it contains4 ,the 8true love0 is thought to mean some charm or sweetmeat in the form of a 8true lover's knot10 which he placed under his tongue for the same purpose1 and thus this ancient gallant went forth to woo4 ,that belladonna was used in ,chaucer's time as a narcotic may be gathered from a passage in the ,reeve's tale1 which runs3-- 8,to bedde went the daughter right anon1 ,to bedde went ,alein and also ,john4 ,there was no more1 needed them no dwale40 ,dwale was an old name for the nightshade1 and we may infer its properties were known1 as it was used to produce sleep at this period4 ,in the ,nun's ,priest's tale we are given a receipt for bad dreams and melancholy1 which gives an example of the housewife's knowledge of the herbs and simples which grew in her garden3-- 8,through in this town is no apothecary1 ,i shall myself two herbes teache you1 ,that shall be for your health and for your prow1 ,and in our yard the herbs shall ,i find1 ,the which have of their property by kind1 ,to purge you beneath and eke above1 ,sire1 forget not this for ,godde's love4 ,ye be full coleric of complexion1 ,ware that the sun in his ascension1 ,you finde not replete of humours hot1 ,and if it do ,i dare well lay a groat1 ,that ye shall have a fever tertiane1 ,or else an ague that may be your bane4 ,a day or two ye shall have digestives1 ,of wormes1 ere ye take your laxatives ,of laurel1 centaury1 and fumetre1 ,or else of elderberry that groweth there1 ,of catapuce1 or of the gaitre berries1 ,or herb ivy growing in our yard that merry is4 ,pick them right as they grow and eat them in1 ,be merry husband for your father's kin4 ,dreade no dream4 ,i can say you no more40 ,the patient seems threatened with a fever1 and the good-wife1 after some wholesome advice1 doses him with digestives for a day or two1 and afterwards with aperients4 ,laurel would doubtless refer to the leaves of the cherry laurel1 which1 infused with wine1 was an old digestive tonic4 ,centaury1 common in our fields1 enjoyed a very early reputation4 ,the herb was so called because it is said that by its virtue the centaur ,chiron was healed when the poisoned arrow of ,hercules had accidentally wounded his foot4 ,fumitory1 too1 was grown by the housewives1 and was used as a tonic and a remedy for jaundice4 ,the curative properties of the elder-berry are still recognised as astringent and sudorific1 and take a place in domestic remedies4 ,catapuce is the old name for spurge1 a common herb formerly used for its purgative properties2 while the gaitre or dogwood-berries1 and the herb ivy1 were also used as laxative medicines and liver stimulants4 ,in the ,canon's ,yeoman's tale we are introduced to a canon who practises alchemy1 and whom ,chaucer makes the butt for some keen satire against the followers of that science4 8,it seems10 says ,tyrwhitt1 8that some sudden resentment had determined ,chaucer to interrupt the regular course of his work in order to insert a satire against the alchemists4 ,that their pretended science was much cultivated about this time1 and produced its usual evils1 may fairly be inferred from the ,act that was passed soon after1 whereas it was made a felony to multiply gold or silver above the art of multiplication40 ,the description of the canon as he joined the procession is somewhat amusing3-- 8,his hat hung at his back down by a lace1 ,for he had ridden more than trot or pace1 ,he hadde pricked like as he were wood4 ,a clote leaf he had laid under his hood1 ,for sweat and to keep his head from heat1 ,but it was joye for to see him sweat4 ,his forehead dropped as a stillatory ,were full of plantain or of paritory40 ,to keep his head cool while riding hard he had placed a clote or burdock leaf1 which was formerly used as a poultice1 in his hat or hood1 a common custom in some parts of the country at the present time4 ,to show the tone of the poet's mind when he wrote this tale1 it may be noted how early the chemical hyperbole is introduced1 in comparing the canon's perspiring forehead to a still which is in operation1 filled with plantain1 or paritory1 an old name for the wallflower4 ,the former plant had a large1 thick1 juicy leaf1 and was formerly used as an astringent1 while the wallflower once enjoyed a reputation as an anodyne4 ,the yeoman1 in proceeding with the story of his master's practises1 first describes his duties as the philosopher's man3-- 8,i will speak of our work1 ,when we be there as we shall exercise ,our elvion craft1 we seeme wonder wise1 ,our termes be so clergial and quaint1 ,i blow the fire till that mine hearte faint4 ,why should ,i tellen each proportion ,of things whiche that we work upon1 ,as on five or six ounces may well be ,of silver1 or some other quantity8 ,and busy me to tell you the names1 ,as orpiment1 burnt bones1 iron squames1 ,that into powder grounden be full small1 ,and in an earthen pot how put is all40 ,the poet here describes an old amalgam used in alchemy composed of red lead1 bone ash1 and iron scales3-- 8,of the care and woe ,that we had in our matters subliming1 ,and in amalgaming1 and calcining ,of quicksilver1 called mercury crude1 ,for all our sleightes we can not conclude04 ,the subliming of mercury was considered a most important process1 and was performed with much care4 ,the yeoman then goes on to enumerate other articles and apparatus used by the craft1 in a somewhat disjointed manner3-- 8,yet ,i will tell them as they come to mind1 ,as bol armoniac1 verdigris1 borace1 ,and sundry vessels made of earth and glass1 ,our urinals1 and our descensories2 ,phials1 and croslets1 and sublimatories1 ,cucurbites and alembikes eke1 ,and other suche dear enough a leek04 ,the descensorie was a kind of flask used in distilling per descensum1 while the croslet was an old name for the crucible4 ,the cucurbite was the retort used in distilling1 and the alembike was the still itself4 ,the yeoman then continues3-- 8,waters rubifying and bulle's gall1 ,arsenic1 sal-ammoniac1 and brimstone1 ,and herbs could ,i tell eke many a one1 ,as egremonie1 valerian1 and lunary2 ,and other such if that me list to tarry1 ,our lampes burning both night and day1 ,to bring about our craft if that we may1 ,our furnace eke of calcination1 ,and of waters albification04 ,egremonoine or agrimony1 commonly called liverwort1 was used in early medical practice as an astringent tonic1 lunary or moonwort 7,botrychium ,lunaria7 being possessed of similar medicinal properties3-- 8,clay made with horse and mannes hair1 and oil ,of tartar4 ,alum1 glass1 barm1 wort1 and argoil1 ,rosalgar and other matters imbibing1 ,and eke of our matters encorporing2 ,and of our silver citrination1 ,our cementing and fermentation1 ,our ingots1 tests1 and many things mo'40 ,among the other strange articles named1 argoil was the potters' clay used as a luting to close the joints1 seal the flasks1 and exclude the air4 ,rosalgar was the ancient name for flowers of antimony1 much esteemed by the philosophers4 ,the term citrination refers to the yellow colour1 which1 when it occurred through chemical action1 proved the philosopher's stone4 ,we next have the alchemist's creed1 and the fundamental principles of the old philosophy3-- 8,i will tell you as was one taught also1 ,the foure spirits and the bodies seven4 ,by order as oft ,i heard my lord them neven1 ,the first spirit quicksilver called is2 ,the second orpiment1 the third y-wis ,sal-ammoniac1 and the fourth brimstone1 ,the bodies sion eke lo them here anon2 ,sol gold is1 and ,luna silver was threpe1 ,mars iron1 ,mercury quicksilver1 we clepe4 ,saturnus is lead1 and ,jupiter is tin1 ,and ,venus copper by my father's kin40 ,the metallic bodies were described in the works of alchemists by the planet under whose influence they were supposed to operate1 and known by the alchemical symbol of that planet4 ,thus gold is called ,sol1 represented by the symbol 1 and copper is termed ,venus1 represented by the symbol 4 ,it appears to have been a custom of the apothecaries from very early times to fill bottles with coloured solutions which were marked with these symbols2 thus1 a bottle containing a yellow solution signifying gold would be marked 1 and a red one would be marked 1 signifying iron4 ,these gradually became a kind of trade sign1 and are probably the origin of the coloured globes used as the insignia of the pharmacist or compounder of medicines at the present time4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,shakespeare4 ,the bard of ,avon1 in the wide and general knowledge he displays of the manners1 ways1 and customs of his own and other countries in his plays1 makes many allusions to drugs and herbs1 and their use4 ,in his references to drugs1 there is none perhaps on which greater difference of opinion exists than that alluded to in the speech of the ,ghost in ,hamlet1 in which the apparition says3-- 8,sleeping within mine orchard1 ,my custom always in the afternoon1 ,upon my secure hour thy uncle stole1 ,with juice of cursd hebenon in a vial1 ,and in the porches of mine ear did pour ,the leprous distilment2 whose effect ,holds such an enmity with blood of man1 ,that1 swift as quicksilver1 it courses through ,the natural gates and alleys of the body2 ,and1 with a sudden vigour1 it doth posset ,and curd1 like eager droppings into milk1 ,the thin and wholesome blood3 so did it mine04#i #i ,hamlet1 act i41 scene v4 ,it has always been a matter of individual speculation and dispute as to the juice of what plant ,shakespeare alludes to here as the 8cursed hebenon04 ,the meaning of the word hebenon is ebony-coloured1 or black1 so that it might apply to any dark liquid4 ,most writers and commentators seem to be of opinion that henbane is alluded to1 but judging from the rapid effect of the liquid1 it would appear that some more powerful poison is intended4 ,the juice of henbane is not a powerful poison1 and it is but a feeble narcotic whose effects are mainly sedative and soothing4 ,it acts also as a neurotic1 affecting the brain and producing delirium4 ,it will be seen that there is little similitude between the actual effect of henbane and that of the poison described by the poet4 ,others think it more probable that hemlock1 an ancient poison of the ,greeks1 is intended4 ,its action is much more rapid and powerful1 the spinal cord being chiefly affected1 and paralysis caused1 ending in death4 ,the drug is a powerful narcotic and anodyne1 and is also a paralysant4 ,it was well known to the apothecaries of ,shakespeare's day1 its poisonous properties having been observed from very early times4 ,it should be taken into account1 that as a matter of fact the pouring of any poisonous liquid of vegetable origin into the ear would have little or no immediate effect2 and unless the tympanum had been ruptured it would be almost impossible for it to be absorbed into the system and at once prove fatal4 ,paris says3 8,might not the juice of cursed hebenon by which1 according to ,shakespeare1 the ,king of ,denmark was poisoned1 have been the essential oil of tobacco80 ,in the first place1 the learned commentator ,dr4 ,grey observes1 that the word here used--hebenon--was more probably designated by a metathesis1 either of the poet or transcriber1 for henebon1 i4e41 henbane4 ,now1 it appears from ,gerade1 the 8tobaco0 was commonly called henbane of ,peru--,hyoscyamus ,peruvianus2 and when we consider how high the public prejudice ran against this herb in the reign of ,james1 it seems not unlikely that ,shakespeare should have selected it as an agent of extraordinary malignity4 ,no preparation of hyoscyamus with which we are acquainted would produce death by application to the ear1 whereas the essential oil of tobacco might possibly have such an effect4 ,the term 8distilment10 says ,stevens1 8is calculated to support this conjecture4 ,surely the expression signifies that the preparation was the result of a distillation40 ,it is a singular fact that the essential oil of tobacco differs considerably in its physiological action from an infusion made from the leaves1 the former affecting the brain1 and the latter the heart4#aj #aj ,paris1 ,pharmacologia1 p4 #bid4 ,ellacombe states3 8,before1 and in the time of ,shakespeare1 other writers had spoken of the narcotic and poisonous effects of heben1 hebenon1 or hebona40 ,spenser says3-- 8,faire ,venus sonne1444 ,lay now thy deadly heben bow apart04 ,gower and ,marlowe also wrote of the juice of hebon4 ,it may be taken for granted that all these authors allude to the same tree4 ,nicholson and ,harrison1 after a very exhaustive investigation of the subject1 agree that the true reading is hebona1 and that hebona is the yew4 ,their main arguments are based on the following three facts3-- #a4 ,that in nearly all the northern nations the name of the yew is more or less like heben4 #b4 ,that all the effects attributed by ,shakespeare to the action of hebona are described by different medical writers as arising from yew poisoning4 #c4 ,that the post-mortem appearances after yew poisoning and snake poisoning are similar4 ,later on1 in the play performed before the ,king1 ,lucianus thus speaks of the poisonous medicine he uses3-- 8,thoughts break1 hands apt1 drugs fit1 and time agreeing1 ,confederate season1 else no creature seeing1 ,thou mixture rank1 of midnight weeds collected1 ,with ,hecate's ban thrice blasted1 thrice infected1 ,thy natural magic and dire property ,on wholesome life usurp immediately04 ,here allusion is made to a mixture of poisonous herbs gathered at midnight1 probably hemlock among others1 as mentioned in the witches' incantation in ,macbeth1 to which we shall refer later4 ,with regard to the gathering of herbs at night1 the practice was common1 it being supposed that the properties of the plant collected at night were stronger than in the daytime4 ,that there is a certain amount of truth in this is proved by the researches of ,sachs and ,brown1 who have found from their investigations that starch is formed in the leaves of plants during the day1 and is consumed during the night1 so that the old superstition of the increased activity of the midnight gathered herb was not mythical4 ,shakespeare's well-known description of the poor apothecary of his time1 which he introduces in ,romeo and ,juliet1 presents an excellent picture of the needy practitioner in the sixteenth century3-- 8,i do remember an apothecary1 ,and hereabouts he dwells1 whom late ,i noted ,in tatter'd weeds1 with overwhelming brows1 ,culling of simples2 meagre were his looks1 ,sharp misery had worn him to the bones3 ,and in his needy shop a tortoise hung1 ,an alligator stuff'd1 and other skins ,of ill-shaped fishes2 and about his shelves ,a beggarly account of empty boxes1 ,green earthen pots1 bladders1 and musty seeds2 ,remnants of packthread and old cakes of roses1 ,were thinly scattered to make up a show04#aa #aa ,romeo and ,juliet1 act v41 scene i4 ,one can readily picture the poverty-stricken appearance of the dark little shop1 littered and crowded with the stuffed skins of curious fishes and alligators4 ,one can almost smell the close musty odour blended with the aromatic perfume of drugs and the old cakes of pressed rose leaves1 the manner in which they were formerly preserved for medicinal purposes4 ,the fashionably-dressed ,romeo enters1 after having made a considerable noise to rouse the attention of the old apothecary from his perchance much-needed repose1 and offers his bribe for the poison4 ,of the purpose for which he requires it he makes little secret4 8,,romeo4 ,come hither1 man4 ,i see that thou art poor2 ,hold1 there is forty ducats2 let me have ,a dram of poison1 such soon-speeding gear ,as will disperse itself through all the veins1 ,that the life-weary taker may fall dead2 ,and that the trunk may be discharged of breath ,as violently as hasty powder fir'd ,doth hurry from the fatal cannon's mouth40 ,the ,apothecary's reply3-- 8,such mortal drugs ,i have2 but ,mantua's law ,is death to any he that utters them10 would show that ,shakspeare's idea of the law respecting the sale of poisons was a severe one1 and much before his time4 ,the law in ,england at that time as regards the selling of poisons was very lax4 ,but for the poor apothecary the bribe was too tempting4 ,perchance he was hungry1 and there is something pathetic in his rejoinder1 8,my poverty1 but not my will1 consents04 ,and giving ,romeo the poison3-- 8,put this in any liquid thing you will1 ,and drink it off2 and1 if you had the strength ,of twenty men1 it would despatch you straight04 ,the poet gives no indication of the nature of the poison beyond that its effect was very rapid1 as when the distracted lover drinks to his lady love in the deadly draught he exclaims3-- 8,o true apothecary6 ,thy drugs are quick4 ,thus with a kiss ,i die40 ,in the early part of the sixteenth century the practice of the black art was carried on throughout ,england1 mostly by old women1 who also sold charms and love philtres4 ,shakespeare's description of the witches' incantations in ,macbeth presents some idea of a seance1 and the gruesome articles in which they dealt4 ,to know the properties of the most poisonous herbs 7often quite fictitious7 was part of their trade4 8,round about the cauldron go2 ,in the poison'd entrails throw4 ,toad1 that under coldest stone1 ,days and nights hast thirty-one ,swelter'd venom sleeping got1 ,boil thou first i' the charmed pot4 ,double1 double1 toil and trouble2 ,fire burn1 and cauldron bubble4 8,fillet of a fenny snake1 ,in the cauldron boil and bake2 ,eye of newt and toe of frog1 ,wool of bat and tongue of dog1 ,adder's fork1 and blind-worm's sting1 ,lizard's leg1 and owlet's wing1 ,for a charm of powerful trouble2 ,like a hell-broth boil and bubble4 ,double1 double1 toil and trouble2 ,fire burn1 and cauldron bubble4 8,scale of dragon1 tooth of wolf1 ,witch's mummy1 maw and gulf ,of the ravin'd salt-sea shark2 ,root of hemlock1 digg'd i' the dark1 ,liver of blaspheming ,jew2 ,gall of goat1 and slips of yew1 ,sliver'd in the moon's eclipse2 ,nose of ,turk and ,tartar's lips2 ,finger of birth-strangled babe1 ,ditch-delivered by a drab1 ,make the gruel thick and slab2 ,add thereto a tiger's chaudron1 ,for the ingredients of our cauldron4 ,double1 double1 toil and trouble2 ,fire burn1 and cauldron bubble40 ,the method here used by the witches to measure the time that the cauldron should boil by singing their incantation is1 according to ,dr4 ,lauder ,brunton1 an ancient mode of calculating time still used in some parts of the country at the present day4 ,by thus repeating several verses they could regulate the time of boiling fairly well4 ,the old apothecaries used the moon as a method of calculating the time certain processes should take1 and the word 8menstruum10 still commonly used1 was employed because certain drugs were allowed to macerate a month in the liquid to extract the active constituents4 ,in the toad that had been lying under a stone for thirty-one days and nights1 we have another curious instance how the empirical practitioners of medival times acted on a certain traditional knowledge1 which modern science has since proved to be correct4 ,we have again in the toad which has lain dormant for a month1 the idea that it was the best time for his use1 when his venom would be most active1 besides the advantage also of catching him napping1 when he would have no opportunity of getting rid of the poisonous principle contained in his skin4 ,dr4 ,lauder ,brunton remarks with respect to this practice3 8,i remember reading as a child a story of how ,king ,john was poisoned by a friar who dropped a toad into his wine1 but some books of natural history forty or fifty years ago scouted the idea of toads being poisonous at all4 ,a little while ago1 however1 ,dr4 ,leonard ,guthie sent me an interesting account of a wicked ,italian woman whose husband was dying of dropsy4 ,he took so long about it that his wife became tired of the process1 and thought that she would help him on4 ,she accordingly caught a toad and put it in his wine1 so that he should drink the liquid and die1 but instead of dying he1 to her astonishment and disgust1 completely recovered4 ,forty years ago this story would have been scouted as equally mythical with that of ,king ,john1 but now we know that it is precisely what the woman would have expected if she had only been acquainted with the researches of modern pharmacology4 ,for the skin of a toad secretes a poison1 the active principle of which1 phrynin1 has an action very much resembling that of digitalis1 which is the remedy par excellence for dropsy depending on heart disease40 ,not less curious are the directions for gathering the poisonous hemlock at night1 which has recently been shown to be the time of its greatest activity4 ,these few instances show that the ancient apothecaries had often much greater knowledge than we give them credit for1 and that some of the modern discoveries in modern science were well known to them1 even if they could not account for them4 ,in the ,taming of the ,shrew allusion is made to the simples in vogue at the time for hurts and bruises4 ,the lord's directions for the treatment of ,christopher ,sly1 who is found sleeping in the road on a cold night after a drinking bout1 are curious3-- 8,balm his foul head with warm distilled waters1 ,and burn sweet wood to make the lodging sweet04 ,the distilled aromatic waters1 of which the apothecary manufactured a considerable number1 were much used in the middle ages for the purpose of fomentation4 ,the burning of sweet woods1 such as aloe or sandal1 to take away evil smells1 was a very ancient practice4 ,an old cure for melancholy is embodied in the following lines3-- 8,your honour's players1 hearing your amendment1 ,are come to play a pleasant comedy1 ,for so your doctors hold it very meet3 ,seeing too much sadness hath congeal'd your blood1 ,and melancholy is the nurse of frenzy1 ,therefore they thought it good you hear a play1 ,and frame your mind to mirth and merriment1 ,which bars a thousand harms1 and lengthens life04 ,in ,measure for ,measure1 the poet had evidently the dulcamara or bitter-sweet in mind when he penned the lines3-- 8,i should not think it strange1 for 'tis a physic ,that's bitter to sweet end04 ,the dulcamara or bitter-sweet has the peculiar property1 when first taken into the mouth1 of imparting a bitter flavour which gradually changes to a sweet one1 hence its name4 ,the knowledge of drugs and herbs possessed by the noble dames and housewives is frequently mentioned by ,shakespeare4 ,the chatelaine of his time was well acquainted with the medicinal properties of all the simples and herbs1 which she cultivated in her own garden4 ,her skill and experience were always at the service of her household and of dependants for miles around4 ,the ,queen1 wife of ,cymbeline1 gives evidence of this in her conversation with ,cornelius the physician3-- 8,,queen4 ,whiles yet the dew's on ground1 gather those flowers2 ,make haste3 who has the note of them8 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 master doctor1 have you brought those drugs8 8,,cornelius4 ,pleaseth your highness1 ay3 here they are1 madam 7presenting a small box71 ,but ,i beseech your grace1 without offence-- ,my conscience bids me ask--wherefore you have ,commanded of me these most poisonous compounds1 ,which are the movers of a languishing death2 ,but1 though slow1 deadly8 8,,queen4 ,i do wonder1 doctor1 ,thou ask'st me such a question4 ,have ,i not been ,thy pupil long8 ,hast thou not learned me how ,to make perfumes1 distil1 preserve8 yea1 so1 ,that our great king himself doth woo me oft ,for my confections8 ,having thus far proceeded 7,unless thou think'st me devilish71 is't not meet ,that ,i did amplify my judgment in ,other conclusions8 ,i will try the forces ,of these thy compounds on such creatures as ,we count not worth the hanging1 but none human1 ,to try the vigour of them1 and apply ,allayments to their act1 and by them gather ,their several virtues1 and effects4 8,,cornelius4 ,your highness ,shall from this practice but make hard your heart3 ,besides1 the seeing these effects will be ,both noisome and infectious4 8,,queen4 ,oh content thee4 ,enter ,,pisanio4 7aside7 ,here comes a flattering rascal2 upon him ,will ,i first work3 he's for his master1 ,and enemy to my son4 ,how now1 ,pisanio8 ,doctor1 your service for this time is ended2 ,take your own way4 8,,cornelius4 7aside7 ,i do suspect you1 madam1 ,but you shall do no harm4 ,i do not like her4 ,she doth think she has ,strange lingering poisons4 ,i do not know her spirit1 ,and will not trust one of her malice with ,a drug of such damn'd nature4 ,those she has ,will stupify and dull the sense a while3 ,which first1 perchance1 she'll prove on cats and dogs1 ,then afterwards up higher1 but there is ,no danger in what show of death it makes1 ,more than the locking up the spirits a time ,to be more fresh reviving4 ,she is fool'd ,with a most false effect2 and ,i the truer ,so to be false with her40#ab #ab ,cymbeline1 scene vi4 ,the caution of the physician is well described1 and his resort to subterfuge in order to checkmate the evil design of his wily mistress and old pupil1 whom he evidently distrusts4 ,the ,queen is supposed to have possessed considerable knowledge and skill in the use of drugs1 and her conserves had evidently a great reputation4 ,her scientific ideas were in advance of the age she lived in when she states her desire to make physiological experiments on animals to advance her knowledge2 but the clear acumen of ,cornelius saw through the apparently laudable spirit of research that imbued his pupil1 and he supplied her with drugs of less potency4 ,the following allusions are made to the apothecary3-- 8,,cardinal ,,beaufort4 ,bid the apothecary ,bring the strong poison that ,i bought of him40#ac ,and again1 in ,pericles1 ,prince of ,tyre1 ,cerimon says3-- 8,your master will be dead ere you return2 ,there's nothing can be minister'd to nature1 ,that can recover him4 ,give this to the apothecary1 ,and tell me how it works40#ad #ac ,henry ,,vi41 part iii41 act ii41 scene iii4 #ad ,pericles1 act iii41 scene ii4 ,this lord of ,ephesus was evidently something of an amateur physician1 as he tells us later that 8',tis known ,i ever ,have studied physic1 through which secret art1 ,by turning o'er authorities1 ,i have 7,together with my practice7 made familiar ,to me and to my aid the blest infusions ,that dwell in vegetives1 in metals1 stones2 ,and can speak of the disturbances that nature ,works1 and of the cures2 which doth give me ,a more content in course of true delight ,than to be thirsty after tottering honour04 ,the lines-- 8,one whose subdu'd eyes1 ,albeit unused to the melting mood1 ,drop tears as fast as the ,arabian trees ,their medicinal gum10#ae spoken by ,othello1 refer to the manner in which many of the medicinal gums are collected in the ,east4 ,small slits or punctures are made in the bark of the tree1 through which the semi-liquid gum slowly oozes4 ,it then coagulates in the form of a tear1 and is at length scraped off and collected4 #ae ,othello1 act v41 scene ii4 8,set ratsbane by his porridge40#af #af ,king ,lear1 act iii41 scene iv4 8,i had as lief they would put ratsbane in my mouth as offer to stop it with security40#ag #ag ,henry ,,iv41 part ii41 act i41 scene ii4 8,i would the milk ,thy mother gave thee1 when thou suck'dst her breast1 ,had been a little ratsbane for my sake40#ah #ah ,henry ,,vi41 act v41 scene iv4 ,ratsbane1 mentioned in the three preceding quotations1 was an old name for arsenic1 which in ,shakespeare's time was commonly used for poisoning rats1 hence the name4 8,i have bought the oil1 the balsamum1 and aqua vit10#ai says ,dromio of ,syracuse4 ,these were the medical comforts for the barque of ,epidamnum1 and show that sailing vessels in those days carried a certain amount of medicine4 ,the oil may have been one of the many panaceas of the time for 8purging the body of bile or humour10 while balsams there were by the score1 of ,hungary1 and aromatics for 8wind and pain04 ,the aqua vit alluded to was probably brandy1 which would serve to keep the courage of the voyagers up and the cold out4 #ai ,comedy of ,errors1 act iv41 scene i4 ,proteus1 in the ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 exclaims3-- 8,when ,i was sick you gave me bitter pills2 ,and ,i must minister like to you04#bj #bj ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 act ii41 scene iv4 ,in ,lucrece the bard shows he knew something of the counteracting effects of certain drugs from the following lines3-- 8,the poisonous simple sometimes is compacted ,in a pure compound2 being so applied1 ,his venom in effect is purified04#ba #ba ,lucrece1 v41 #gf4 8,,king ,,henry4 ,the united vessel of their blood1 ,mingled with venom of suggestion1 ,as1 for a purpose1 the age will pour it in1 ,shall never leak1 though it do work as strong ,as aconitum or rash gunpowder40#bb #bb ,king ,henry ,,iv41 part ii41 act iv41 scene iv4 ,the aconite or monkshood1 formerly called wolf's bane1 gives us one of the most powerful vegetable poisons1 its properties having long been known and employed in medical practice4 ,it was used by the early ,greeks and ,romans1 and is probably even of still greater antiquity4 ,on account of its rapid and deadly action1 ,shakespeare compares it to gunpowder4 ,some commentators are of the opinion that aconite was the poison sold by the apothecary to the lovesick ,romeo4 ,a curious old tradition is alluded to by ,falstaff when speaking of the chamomile1 in the following sentence3-- 8,though the camomile1 the more it is trodden on the faster it grows1 yet youth1 the more it is wasted the sooner it wears04#bc #bc ,king ,henry ,,iv41 part i41 act ii41 scene iv4 ,the chamomile has an ancient reputation for its medicinal properties as a stomachic and febrifuge4 ,its growth is said to be improved by being pressed or trampled into the earth4 8,,shallow4 ,nay1 you shall see my orchard1 where1 in an arbour1 we will eat a last year's pippin of my own graffing1 with a dish of caraways and so forth40#bd #bd ,king ,henry ,,iv41 part ii41 act v41 scene iii4 ,carraway seeds were very largely used in ,shakespeare's time as a spice and condiment4 ,the essential oil they yield has carminative properties4 ,the seeds were often served with roast apples1 a custom still said to be kept up at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 8,,iago4 ,the food that to him now is as luscious as locusts1 shall be to him shortly as bitter as coloquintida40#be ,the coloquintida mentioned1 is the old name for colocynth1 a drug largely used in medicine at the present time4 ,it was employed by the ,greek and ,roman physicians as a purgative1 and was known in ,britain as early as the eleventh century4 ,it has a drastic1 bitter taste1 and is commonly known as bitter apple4 #be ,othello1 act i41 scene iii4 ,shakespeare makes several allusions to the elder1 a tree concerning which there are many old traditions4 ,one of them will suffice4 8,,holofernes4 ,begin1 sir1 you are my elder4 8,,biron4 ,well followed2 ,judas was hanged on an elder40#bf #bf ,love's ,labour's ,lost1 act v41 scene ii4 ,the sambucus nigra1 or black elder1 has long been used in medicine as a discutient1 yet tradition gives it an evil name4 ,judas was supposed to have hanged himself on an elder tree1 which doubtless brought it into disrepute1 although its flowers distilled with water make an excellent cosmetic4 8,,ophelia4 ,there's fennel for you and columbines40#bg #bg ,hamlet1 act iv41 scene v4 ,this herb was greatly valued by the old apothecaries1 and was known also to the ancients4 ,there was an old belief that the fennel in flower predicted an early summer4 ,its chief use now is as a flavouring agent4 ,several allusions are also made to ginger4 8,,clown4 ,i must have saffron to colour the warden pies2 mace2 dates--none1 that's out of my note2 nutmegs1 seven2 a race or two of ginger1 but that ,i beg40#bh ,ginger was known and used by the ,greeks and ,romans as a spice1 and was esteemed by physicians in ,england at the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,its hot1 burning taste is due to a resinous principle contained in the root1 and is still used in medicine4 #bh ,winter's ,tale1 act iv41 scene iii4 ,the mandrake or mandragora is frequently mentioned in the plays4 ,thus says 8,,iago4 ,not poppy1 nor mandragora1 ,nor all the drowsy syrup of the world1 ,shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep ,which thou owedst yesterday40#bi ,also-- 8,,juliet4 ,and shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth1 ,that living mortals1 hearing them1 run mad10#cj alluding to the old tradition that the mandrake groaned when pulled up by the roots1 and the person who did it would surely die soon4 ,the mandragora1 to which wonderful properties were ascribed by the ancients1 is not now used in medicine4 #bi ,othello1 act iii41 scene iii4 #cj ,romeo and ,juliet1 act iv41 scene iii4 8,,lafeu4 ,go to1 sir1 you were beaten in ,italy for picking a kernel out of a pomegranate40#ca #ca ,all's ,well that ,ends ,well1 act ii41 scene iii4 ,the medicinal properties of the pomegranate have been known from very ancient times1 frequent mention of it being made in the ,bible4 ,a decoction of the root is recommended by ,celsus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny for tapeworm2 and it is still used as an astringent4 ,the poppy is mentioned by ,iago in the quotation previously given1 as being known for its narcotic properties4 8,,macbeth4 ,what rhubarb1 senna1 or what purgative drug ,would scour these ,english hence80#cb #cb ,macbeth1 act v41 scene iii4 ,rhubarb was known to the ,chinese #bgjj ,b4,c41 and has been used for its purgative properties from the earliest times4 ,it is said to take its name from the river ,rhu1 now the ,volga1 on whose banks it grows4 8,,perdita4 ,for you there's rosemary and rue2 these keep ,seeming and savour all the winter long2 ,grace and remembrance be to you both40#cc #cc ,winter's ,tale1 act iv41 scene iv4 ,rosemary has been esteemed for centuries for its refreshing and aromatic perfume1 due to the essential oil it contains1 and which even now has a reputation as an application for the hair4 ,it is mentioned by ,pliny1 and has been cultivated in ,britain since the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,on account of its evergreen leaves it was considered an emblem of constancy1 and was frequently carried at wedding and funeral ceremonies4 ,it was customary in ,france at one time1 to place a bunch of rosemary in the hands of the dead4 ,the old apothecaries had great faith in the oil as an embrocation1 and it was largely used to place among clothes as a preventive of moths4 8,,ophelia4 ,there's rue for you2 and here's some for me3 we may call it herb grace o' ,sundays3 ,o1 you must wear your rue with a difference40#cd #cd ,hamlet1 act iv41 scene v4 ,some curious traditions are attached to rue1 or1 as it was formerly called1 the herb of grace1 probably on account of its being often worn as an amulet to ward off disease1 and also used by the old ,romanists in the exorcisms4 ,it has ever been regarded as a symbol of sorrow or pity1 as its name implies4 ,the word is probably derived from the same root as ,ruth1 meaning sorrow and remorse1 while 8to rue0 was to be sorry for4 ,in ancient times it was supposed to be useful for almost every disease1 its properties being due to an essential oil still used in pharmacy4 ,it was largely employed in affections of the eye and for its antiseptic properties as a preservative to ward off decay4 ,the plant is not a native of ,england1 but has been cultivated in this country for more than #hjj years1 and was extensively grown in the old herb gardens4 ,euphrasie and rue were often used together as a curative application for the eyes4 ,in ,paradise ,lost ,milton says3-- 8,then purged with euphrasie and rue ,the visual nerve1 for he has much to see04 ,rue was employed also to take away warts1 the freshly cut stem being rubbed over the excrescence1 and the following couplet repeated3-- 8,ashen true1 ashen tree1 ,pray bury these warts of me04 ,another old rhyme runs3-- 8,what savour is better1 if physicke be true ,for places infected than wormwood or rue04 8,,clown4 ,i must have saffron to colour the warden pies40#ce #ce ,winter's ,tale1 act iv41 scene iii4 ,saffron was formerly much prized as a medicine1 a condiment1 and a dye4 ,it is said to have been introduced into ,england in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 and was cultivated in the neighbourhood of ,walden1 in ,essex1 to which it gave its name4 ,the quality of ,english saffron was renowned in ,shakspeare's time4 ,it was used by the monks in medival days in illuminating their missals1 and dyeing materials1 as well as being esteemed as a febrifuge and cordial4 8,,macbeth4 ,what rhubarb1 senna1 or what purgative drug ,would scour these ,english hence80#cf #cf ,macbeth1 act v41 scene iii4 ,the well-known purgative properties of senna leaves were held in great repute by the old apothecaries4 ,the drug was introduced into ,europe about the ninth or tenth century by the ,arabs1 and it soon attained a reputable position in medical practice4 ,the best variety was originally supposed to have been brought from ,mecca4 8,,rosaline4 ,to weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain40#cg #cg ,love's ,labour's ,lost1 act v41 scene ii4 ,wormwood has always had a high reputation as a medicine1 and was chiefly used as a tonic4 ,it yields an essential oil with an extremely bitter taste1 which is yet largely used in ,france in the manufacture of absinthe4 ,in one of his ,sonnets1 ,shakespeare alludes to the old alembic of the alchemist in the following lines3-- 8,what potions have ,i drunk of ,syren tears1 ,distill'd from limbecks foul as hell within04 ,and in the following verse he deals with some theories of medical treatment3-- 8,like as to make our appetites more keen1 ,with eager compounds we our palate urge2 ,as1 to prevent our maladies unseen1 ,we sicken to shun sickness when we purge3 ,even so1 being full of your ne'er-cloying sweetness1 ,to bitter sauces did ,i frame my feeding1 ,and1 sick of welfare1 found a kind of meetness ,to be diseas'd1 ere that there was true needing4 ,thus policy in love1 to anticipate ,the ills that were not1 grew to faults assur'd1 ,and brought to medicine a healthful state ,which1 rank of goodness1 would by ill be cur'd4 ,but thence ,i learn1 and find the lesson true1 ,drugs poison him that so fell sick of you40#ch #ch ,sonnets1 verses #aah1 #aai4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,spenser4 ,edmund ,spenser was born in ,london towards the close of the year #aeeb1 and in his after career1 added lustre to an age which for brilliancy in literature has never been equalled in the history of this country4 ,he lived for some time in ,lancashire in his early days1 but in #aegh quitted the country for the court4 ,it was probably his friend ,sir ,walter ,raleigh who introduced him to court-favour and ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,in #aehi he published the ,faerie ,queen1 a poem which will ever live in ,english literature4 ,there are few allusions in the works of ,edmund ,spenser to medicinal plants1 although he frequently mentions salves and other methods of administration used in the leechcraft of his time1 as instanced in the following quotations3-- 8,eftsoons he gan apply relief ,of salves and med'cines which has passing prefe04#ci #ci ,the ,faerie ,queen1 book i41 canto x4 8,with wholesome read of sad sobriety1 ,to rule the stubborn rage of passion blind1 ,give salves to every sore1 but counsel to the mind40#dj #dj ,the ,faerie ,queen1 book vi41 canto vi4 ,in the first book of the ,faerie ,queen ,spenser makes an interesting allusion to trees and their uses in his time1 in the following lines3-- 8,much gave they praise the trees so straight and high3 ,the sailing pine2 the cedar proud and tall2 ,the vine-prop elm2 the poplar never dry2 ,the builder oak1 sole king of forests all2 ,the aspen good for staves2 the cypress funeral2 ,the laurel1 meed of mighty conquerors ,and poets sage2 the fir that weepeth still2 ,the willow1 worn of forlorn paramours2 ,the yew1 obedient to the binder's will2 ,the birch for shafts2 the sallow for the mill2 ,the myrrh sweet bleeding in the bitter wound2 ,the warlike beech2 the ash for nothing ill2 ,the fruitful olive1 and the plantane round2 ,the carver holm2 the maple1 seldom inward sound04#da #da ,the ,faerie ,queen1 book i41 canto i4 ,the sailing pine was doubtless so called on account of it being so largely used for the masts of ships4 ,the wood of the aspen tree was often used for making staves on account of its toughness4 ,he alludes also to the ancient use of the cypress at funeral rites1 and the wearing of the willow as a badge of the unfortunate2 the yew1 chiefly employed for making the long bows2 the birch1 for the strongest arrows2 and the sallow1 which when plaited formed the sails of the windmills4 ,incisions are cut in the bark of the myrrh tree in order that the gum should exude as from an open wound4 ,beech was used for the shafts of spears and axes1 and the carver holm or cutting holly was so called from its prickles4 ,in the sixth canto we have mention of the flower-de-luce3-- 8,the lily1 lady of the flowering field1 ,the flow'r-de-luce her lovely paramour04#db ,flower-de-luce was the old name for the iris1 and is also the ,french fleur-de-lis1 and the origin of that symbol4 ,the roots of many of the iris species have long been used in medicine for their cathartic and emetic properties4 ,that of the ,i4 florentina is well known for its sweet violet smell1 and from early times has been employed to sweeten the breath and as an ingredient in tooth powders4 ,another old name for this plant was 8,the flower of delights04 #db ,the ,faerie ,queen1 book ii41 canto vi4 ,in the seventh canto the poet shows he was well acquainted with some medicinal plants1 and gives us quite a group of 8herbs of ill favour04 8,there mournful cypress grew in greatest store2 ,and trees of bitter gall2 and ebon sad2 ,dead sleeping poppy1 and black hellebore2 ,cold coloquintida1 and tetra mad2 ,mortal samnitis2 and cicuta bad1 ,with which th' unjust ,athenians made to die ,wise ,socrates1 who1 thereof quaffing glad1 ,pour'd out his life and last philosophy ,to the fair ,critias1 his dearest belamy60#dc ,here we have mention of the narcotic poppy and the black hellebore1 a drastic purgative with which tradition states ,melampus1 the great soothsayer and physician1 cured the daughters of ,prtus1 ,king of ,argos1 of madness4 ,also the colocynth or bitter apple2 tetra mad1 an old name for the belladonna or deadly nightshade2 savin1 here called mortal samnitis1 a plant possessing powerful properties1 used in medicine from the time of the ,romans2 and the cicuta or hemlock1 which formed the active ingredient in the poison cup of the ,greeks4 #dc ,the ,faerie ,queen1 book ii41 canto vii4 ,in the ,shepherd's ,calendar we have another allusion to the black hellebore3-- 8,here grows melampode ev'rywhere1 ,and terebinth1 good for goats2 ,the one my madding kids to smear1 ,the next to heal their throats04#dd ,the ancient name for hellebore was melampus root1 hence the name melampode1 which doubtless arose from the old tradition4 ,by terebinth the poet probably means one of the species of pine from which turpentine is obtained4 #dd ,shepherd's ,calendar--,july4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,goethe4 ,the ,faust-legend around which ,goethe wove his great tragedy1 was one of those floating traditions which were common in the romantic lore of many countries during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and which seem to have originated in the general belief in occult forces4 ,the ,johann ,faust of the popular stories was undoubtedly an individual of that name1 born towards the close of the fifteenth century in the little town of ,knittlingen1 near ,maulbronn1 in ,wrtemberg4 ,his parents were poor1 but he was enabled by the bequest of a rich uncle to study medicine4 ,he attended the ,university of ,cracow 7where he probably received his doctor's degree71 studied magic which was there taught as an accepted branch of knowledge1 and appears to have afterwards travelled for many years through ,europe4 ,manlius1 the disciple of ,melancthon1 quotes the latter as having said3 8,this fellow ,faust escaped from our town of ,wittenberg1 after our ,duke ,john had given the order to have him imprisoned4 ,he also escaped from ,nuremberg under the like circumstances4 ,this sorcerer ,faust1 an abominable beast1 a common sewer of many devils1 boasted that he1 by his magic arts had enabled the ,imperial armies to win their victories in ,italy40 ,it was probably the famous battle of ,pavia fought in #aebe of which ,faust spoke1 as the time of his visit to ,wittenberg appears to have been about the year #aecj4 ,further evidence of the existence of such a character is to be found in the ,index ,sanitatis of the physician1 ,philip ,begardi1 published at ,worms in #aeci1 and in the ,sermones ,conviviales of ,johann ,gast1 who gives an account of a dinner given by ,faust at ,basle at which he was present4 ,the original form of the legend is contained in a work published by ,spiess in ,frankfurt in #aehg1 entitled the ,history of ,dr4 ,joh4 ,faust1 the ,notorious ,sorcerer and ,black-artist1 etc41 etc4 ,this book was first translated into ,english in #aeij1 and from it ,marlowe doubtless obtained the material for his tragedy of 8,dr4 ,faustus10 which appears to have been first performed in ,london in #aeic1 the year of his death4 ,in the first act of ,goethe's tragedy we are introduced to ,faust1 who is sitting in his lofty-arched ,gothic chamber or laboratory1 his desk piled high with the works of noted writers on magic and astrology4 8,and this one ,book of ,mystery ,from ,nostradamus' very hand1 ,is't not sufficient company80 ,nostradamus1 the famous astrologer1 was born at ,st4 ,remy1 in ,provence1 in the year #aejc4 ,his real name was ,michel de ,notre ,dame4 ,for some time he practised as a physician1 but finally devoted himself to astrology1 and published in #aeee a collection of prophecies in rhymed quatrains1 entitled ,les ,prophecies de ,michel ,nostradamus1 which created an immediate sensation1 and found many believers1 especially as the death of ,henry ,,ii4 of ,france seemed to verify one of his mystical predictions4 ,he was appointed physician to ,charles ,,ix41 and continued the publication of his prophecies1 asserting1 however1 that the study of the planetary aspects was not alone sufficient1 but that the gift of second sight1 which ,god grants only to a few chosen persons1 is also necessary4 ,he died in the year #aeff4 ,in the following lines allusion is made to two popular forms of divination4 8,,citizen',s ,,daughter4 ,come1 ,agatha6 ,i shun the witch's sight ,before folks1 lest there be misgiving6 ',tis true1 she showed me1 on ,saint ,andrew's ,night1 ,my future sweetheart1 just as he were living4 8,,the ,,other4 ,she showed me mine1 in crystal clear1 ,with several wild young blades1 a soldier-lover04 ,st4 ,andrew's ,night is celebrated in some parts of ,germany by forms of divination very similar to those which are practised in ,scotland on ,hallow ,e'en4 ,the maidens believe that by calling upon ,st4 ,andrew1 undressed1 before getting into bed1 their future sweetheart will appear to them in a dream4 ,another charm is practised by pouring melted lead through the wards of a key1 wherein there is the form of a cross1 into a basin of water brought between eleven o'clock and midnight3 the cooling lead will then take the form of tools which indicate the trade of the destined lover4 ,crystal gazing1 which we have described in a previous chapter1 was also a common method of foretelling future events1 and young maidens were supposed to be specially successful in its practise4 ,faust's description of the preparation of a panacea is a good illustration of the fantastic language employed by the alchemists3-- 8,who1 in his dusky work-shop bending1 ,with proved adepts in company1 ,made1 from his recipes unending1 ,opposing substances agree4 ,there was a ,lion red1 a wooer daring1 ,within the ,lily's tepid bath espoused1 ,and both1 tormented then by flame unsparing1 ,by turns in either bridal chamber housed4 ,if then appeared1 with colours splendid1 ,the young ,queen in her crystal shell1 ,this was the medicine--the patient's woes soon ended1 ,and none demanded--who got well80 ,goethe is said to have drawn this description partly from ,paracelsus1 and partly from ,welling's ,opus ,mago ,cabbalisticum4 ,the 8,lion red0 is cinnabar1 called a 8wooer daring0 on account of its action in rushing to an intimate union with other bodies4 8,the ,lily0 is a preparation of antimony1 which bore the name of ,lilium ,paracelsi4 ,red1 moreover1 is the masculine1 and white the feminine colour4 ,the retort containing these substances was first placed in a 8tepid bath0 and gradually heated1 then 8tormented by flame unsparing10 the two were driven from one 8bridal chamber0 to another1 that is1 their wedded fumes were forced by the heat into an alembic4 ,if then the 8,young ,queen10 the sublimated compound1 appeared with a brilliant colour in the alembic the proper result was obtained and this signified the true medicine4 ,in scene iii4 ,mephistopheles says3-- 8,my steps by one slight obstacle controlled1-- ,the wizard's foot1 that on your threshold is04 ,the wizard's foot or pentagram1 was supposed to possess an especial potency against evil spirits1 and was often chalked on the door-steps to protect the household from their influence4 ,it consisted of a five-rayed star1 thus3-- ,illustration ,the belief in its efficacy doubtless sprang from the circumstance that it resolves itself into three triangles1 and thus a triple symbol of the ,trinity4 ,paracelsus ascribes a similar1 though a lesser degree of virtue to the hexagram4 ,another peculiarity of the pentagram is1 that it may be drawn complete from one point1 without lifting the pen1 and therefore belongs to those involuntary hieroglyphics which we sometimes make in moments of abstraction4 ,in scene xiii4 where ,margaret plucks a star-flower1 and pulls off the leaves one after the other1 murmuring-- 8,he loves me--loves me not0 we have an illustration of a favourite mode of amorous divination by means of flowers still practised by country maidens4 ,the custom is of great antiquity and is mentioned by ,theocritus4 ,the single daisy is a favourite flower for the purpose4 ,the following allusion to the red mouse refers to an ancient superstition concerning one of the many forms of diabolical possession4 ,the 8evil one0 was supposed to enter the body in the form of a red mouse4 8,,mephistopheles4 ,wherefore forsakest thou the lovely maiden1 ,that in the dance so sweetly sang8 8,,faust4 ,ah6 in the midst of it there sprang ,a red mouse from her mouth--sufficient reason40 ,in the second part of the work we are introduced to an astrologer who1 prompted by ,mephistopheles1 delivers himself as follows3-- 8,the ,sun himself is gold of purest ray2 ,the herald1 ,mercury1 serves for love and pay2 ,dame ,venus has bewitched you all1 for she1 ,early and late1 looks on you lovingly2 ,chaste ,luna has her whims1 no two alike2 ,mars threatens you1 although he may not strike1 ,and ,jupiter is still the splendid star4 ,saturn is great1 though seeming small and far2 ,as metal1 him we don't much venerate1 ,of value slight1 though heavy in his weight4 ,now1 when of ,sol and ,luna unions had1-- ,silver with gold1--then is the world made glad3 ,all else1 with them1 is easy to attain1-- ,palaces1 gardens1 cheeks of rosy stain2 ,and thus procures this highly learned man1 ,who that can do which none of us e'er can40 ,the astrologer here alludes to the seven principal metals1 to which the early alchemists attached the names of seven planets4 ,the ,sun was gold1 the ,moon silver1 ,mercury quicksilver1 ,venus copper1 ,mars iron1 ,jupiter tin1 and ,saturn lead4 ,in the same act1 reference is made to an old tradition that is still believed in some parts of ,germany4 8,lo6 at hand there ,is ancient juice of strength divine4 ,yet trust to him who's knowledge gotten1 ,the wood o' the staves has long been rotten1 ,a cask of tartar holds the wine40 ,it is a general belief in the wine districts1 that when a cask of wine has been kept for centuries1 the crust of argol or crude cream of tartar which is gradually deposited1 may acquire such a consistency as to hold the liquid when the staves have rotted away4 ,the wine thus becomes its own cask1 and preserves itself in a thick oily state4 ,it is then said to possess wonderful medicinal virtues4 ,later on ,mephistopheles is asked by a blonde beauty for a cure for her complexion4 8,one word1 sir6 ,here you see a visage fair1-- ,in sorry summer ,i another wear6 ,there sprout a hundred brown and reddish freckles1 ,and vex my lily skin with ugly speckles4 ,a cure6 8,,mephistopheles4 ',tis pity6 shining fair1 yet smitten1-- ,spotted1 when ,may comes1 like a panther-kitten6 ,take frog's spawn1 tongues of toads1 which contribute1 ,under the full moon deftly distillate1 ,and when it wanes1 apply the mixture3 ,next spring1 the spots will be no more a fixture4 8,a ,,brunette4 ,to sponge upon you1 what a crowd's advancing6 ,i beg a remedy3 a frozen foot ,annoys me much1 in walking as in dancing2 ,and awkwardly ,i manage to salute4 8,,mephistopheles4 ,a gentle kick permit1 then1 from my foot6 8,,the ,,brunette4 ,well1--that might happen when the two are lovers4 8,,mephistopheles4 ,my kick a more important meaning covers2 ,similia similibus1 when one is sick1 ,the foot cures foot1 each limb its hurt can palliate2 ,come near6 ,take heed6 and pray you don't retaliate60 ,frog's spawn and toad's tongues formed an old remedy for spots on the skin1 and in the 8gentle kick0 we have a satire on the homopathic theory of medicine4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,le ,,sage4 ,le ,sage draws a vivid picture of the medical practitioner of his day in his well-known work ,gil ,blas4 ,doctor ,sangrado1 bigoted1 obstinate1 and dominated by one idea1 was doubtless very true to nature1 and a type of physician not unfrequently met with even later than the seventeenth century4 ,the character is supposed to have been drawn from that of ,doctor ,hecquet1 ,dean of the ,faculty of ,medicine at ,paris1 a man extremely thin and spare in body1 and who is said never to have drank anything but water4 ,le ,sage describes his physician as 8a tall1 meagre1 pale man1 who had kept the shears of ,clotho employed during forty years4 ,he had a very solemn appearance1 weighed his discourse1 and gave an emphasis to his expressions3 his reason was geometrical1 and his opinions extremely singular40 ,all the city looked upon him as another ,hippocrates4 ,the licentiate ,sedillo1 a fat clerical epicurean1 having fallen sick with the fever and gout1 this great physician was called in1 and after examining his patient delivered himself of the following diagnosis3 8,the business here is to supply the defect of obstructed perspiration2 others in my place would doubtless prescribe saline draughts1 diuretics1 diaphoretics1 and such medicines as abound with mercury and sulphur2 but cathartics and sudorifics are pernicious drugs invented by quacks1 and all the preparations of chemistry are only calculated to do mischief10 said this disciple of sculapius4 8,you must renounce all palatable food2 and do you drink wine80 8,yes10 said the poor canon2 8wine and water40 8,oh6 watered as much as you please10 replied the physician3 8what an irregularity is here6 what a frightful regimen6 ,you ought to have been dead long ago4 ,if you had drunk nothing but pure water all your life1 and had been satisfied with simple nourishment1 such as1 for example1 boiled apples1 peas1 and beans1 you would not now be tormented with gout1 and all your limbs would perform their functions with ease40 ,the poor canon promised to obey in all these things1 but the doctor hadn't finished yet1 for he sent for a surgeon1 and ordered him to let 8six good porringers of blood as the first effort0 to supply the want of perspiration4 8,and return in three hours1 and take as much more1 and repeat the same to-morrow10 said this veritable leech to the surgeon1 8for a patient cannot be bled too much40 ,besides this1 the unfortunate patient was dosed incessantly with warm water1 two or three pints in as many draughts1 8for10 said the physician1 8water is the true specific in all distempers what-ever04 ,little wonder that in less than two days1 ,gil ,blas tells us1 the old canon was reduced to the last extremity1 and soon after breathed his last1 much to the regret of the physician1 who declared it was because he had not lost blood enough1 nor drank a sufficient quantity of water4 ,the mercurial ,gil ,blas shortly after took service with this learned medico1 and kept his books1 which he declares might have been with great justice styled a register of the dead2 for almost all the people whose names it contained died soon afterwards4 ,but after being about a week with the physician1 ,gil ,blas was seized with a cramp which he attributed to the quantity of the 8universal dissolvent0 he was compelled to imbibe1 and had to consult his master4 8,why1 truly1 ,gil ,blas1 ,i am not at all surprised that thou dost not enjoy good health10 said the hydropathist4 8,thou dost not drink enough1 my friend4 ,water taken in small quantities serves only to disentangle the particles of the bile1 and give them more activity1 whereas they should be drowned in a copious dilution4 ,i will warrant the consequence1 and if thou wilt not take my word1 ,celsus himself shall be thy security40 ,it need hardly be wondered at that ,gil ,blas soon came to believe that he also had a natural talent for the medical profession1 which was so easy to acquire and lucrative to practise1 and was rapidly promoted as assistant to his master4 8,listen1 my child10 said the doctor one day1 8,i will immediately disclose to thee the whole extent of that salutary art which ,i have professed so many years4 ,know1 my friend1 all that is required is to bleed thy patients and make them drink warm water4 ,this is the secret of curing all the distempers incident to man4 ,i have nothing more to impart2 thou knowest physic to the very bottom40 ,thus the ci-devant valet soon robed himself in a physician's gown and long perruque1 then went forth to practise1 but resolved to drink wine every day1 of which he said he drank huge draughts1 and 7no disparagement to the ,roman oracle7 8the more ,i filled my stomach1 the less did that organ complain of the injury it received04 ,so he bled and watered the community4 ,but the time soon came when this young practitioner met with a reverse4 ,when called in to consultation with a ,spanish doctor of another school1 a dispute arose on the subject of the water-cure1 which ended in a pitched battle being fought between the rival medicos over the unfortunate patient1 and they were not separated until each had lost a handful of hair4 ,this ended in the discharge of ,gil ,blas1 who immediately took the opportunity of imbibing a considerable quantity of wine at the first tavern he came across1 and returned to his patron in a condition of considerable elevation4 ,the wine having made him thirsty1 he consumed a large quantity of water while telling his story4 8,i see1 ,gil ,blas1 thou hast no longer an aversion to water10 said the physician4 8,heaven be praised6 thou drinkest it now like nectar6 a change that does not at all surprise me1 my friend40 8,sir10 replied ,gil ,blas1 8there's a time for all things2 ,i would not at present give a pint of water for a hogshead of wine40 ,that ,le ,sage had a very poor opinion of the professors of the art of medicine in his time may be gathered from the following conversation which ,gil ,blas holds with his employer3 8,scarcely a day passed in which we did not visit eight or ten patients each1 from whence it may be easily conceived what a quantity of blood was spilt and water drank4 ,but ,i do not know how it happened1 all our sick died4 ,we very seldom had occasion to make three visits to one patient2 at the second we were either told that he had just been buried1 or we found them at the last gasp2 and as ,i was but a young physician who had not yet had time to be inured to murder1 ,i began to be very uneasy at the fatal events which might be laid to my charge40 ,and so he at last gave it up1 after being threatened with his life by a gallant1 whose wife had succumbed to his drastic treatment4 ,towards the close of the story ,gil ,blas has an interview with his former master1 who describes to his old pupil the change that had taken place in the practice of medicine in a few years1 which forms an interesting account of the transition through which the medical art was passing towards the end of the seventeenth century4 8,ah1 my son10 says the worthy doctor1 8what a change has happened in physic within these few years4 ,there are in this city1 physicians1 or such as call themselves so1 who are yoked to the triumphal car of antimony--currus triumphalis antimonii4 ,truants from the school of ,paracelsus1 adorers of kermes1 accidental curers who make the whole science of medicine consist in knowing how to prepare chymical drugs4 ,what shall ,i tell you6 ,everything is turned topsy-turvey in their method4 ,bleeding at the foot1 for example1 hitherto so seldom practised1 is now almost the only bleeding in use4 ,those purgatives which were formerly gentle and benign are now changed for emetics and kermes4 8,i published a book against this brigandage of medicine1 but it was no use4 ,the surgeons1 mad with ambition of acting as physicians1 think themselves sufficiently qualified when there is nothing to be done but to give kermes and emetics1 to which they add bleeding at the foot1 according to their own fancy4 ,they even proceed so far as to mix kermes in apozems and cordial potions2 and so they are on a par with your celebrated prescribers4 ,this contagion has spread also among the cloisters4 ,there are some monks who act both as apothecaries and surgeons4 ,these apes of medicine apply themselves to chemistry1 and compose pernicious drugs1 with which they abridge the lives of the reverend fathers40 ,the doctor describes the dawn of pharmacy in ,france and ,spain1 which was first practised by the surgeons who became surgeon-apothecaries4 ,the use of emetics in medical treatment came largely into vogue in #afeh4 ,it is said that the life of ,louis ,,xiv4 was saved by an emetic administered by ,dusausoi1 in opposition to the opinion of ,vallot1 the chief physician to the king4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,ben ,,jonson4 ,ben ,jonson gives a description of the itinerant doctor in ,queen ,elizabeth's time1 who travelled the country1 usually accompanied by a jester or zany1 as he was called1 who carried the box or chest containing his remedies4 ,we see the professor with his copper rings1 shining chain1 better than gold but not quite so valuable1 his yellow jewel1 his dirty feather-embroidered suit1 grave look1 and starched beard4#de ,hush6 he begins3-- #de ,ben ,jonson's ,fox1 act ii41 scene i4 8,most noble gentlemen and my worthy patrons6--,i have nothing to sell1 little or nothing to sell1 though ,i protest1 ,i and my six servants are not able to make of my precious balsam so fast as it is fetched away from my lodging by the worthy men of the town4 ,o health6 health6 the blessing of the rich1 the riches of the poor1 who can buy thee at too dear a rate8 ,and since there is no enjoying the world without thee1 for when a humid flux or catarrh1 by the mutability of air1 falls from your head into an arm or shoulder1 take you a rose noble or an angel of gold and apply to the place affected2 see what good effect it can work4 ,no1 no2 to this blessed unguent1 this rare extraction1 that hath only power to dispose all malignant humours that proceed either of hot1 cold1 moist1 or windy causes2 to fortify the most indigest and crude stomach--aye1 were it one that through extreme weakness vomited blood1 applying only a warm napkin to the place after the unction and fricace2 for the vertigoe in the head1 putting out a drop into your nostrils1 likewise behind the ears1 a most sovereign and approved remedy2 the mal caduco1 cramps1 convulsions1 paralysies1 epilepsies1 tremor cordia1 retind nerves1 ill vapours of the spleen1 and stoppings of the liver1 or stops a dysentery1 immediately cureth poison of the small guts1 and cures melancholia1 being taken and applied according to my printed recipe 7shows his bill and vial1 and the zany sings a song74 ,it will cost you eight crowns1 and has cured all the kings in ,christendom4 ,many have attempted to make this oil1 wasting thousands of crowns in the ingredients 7for there go to it sixty several simples1 besides some quantity of human fat for conglutination1 which we buy of the anatomists72 but when these practitioners come to the last decoction1 blow1 blow6 puff1 puff6 it flies in fumes1 poor wretches4 8,gentlemen1 honourable gentlemen1 ,i will undertake by virtue of chemical art1 out of the honourable hat that covers your head1 to extract the four elements--that is to say1 the fire1 air1 water1 and earth1 and return you your felt without burn or stain4 ,you all know1 honourable gentlemen1 ,i never valued this ampulla or vial at less than eight crowns1 but for this time ,i am content to be deprived of it for six2 six crowns1 then1 is the price in courtesy4 ,i know you cannot offer me less2 take it or leave it1 howsoever1 both it and ,i are at your service 7zany sings another song74 8,well1 ,i am in a humour at this time to make a present of the small quantity my coffer contains to the rich in courtesy1 and to the poor for ,god's sake2 wherefore now mark1 ,i asked you six crowns1 and six crowns at other times you have paid me3 you shall not give me six crowns1 nor five1 nor four1 nor three1 nor two1 nor one1 nor half a one1 nor a shilling2 sixpence it will cost you or #fj4 ,expect no lower price1 for ,i will not bate a jot2 and this ,i take away as a pledge of your love1 to carry something from amongst you to show ,i am not condemned40 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott4 ,that picturesque period when the astrologer formed part of the entourage of almost every ,european court1 and was petted by emperors and kings1 is graphically described by ,sir ,walter ,scott in ,quentin ,durward in the following words3-- 8,louis ,,xi4 of ,france had retired to the castle of ,plessis1 where he received an ambassador from the ,duke of ,burgundy1 with whom his relations were somewhat strained4 ,attached to the court of the king1 we are told1 and lodged in magnificent apartments1 was the celebrated astrologer1 poet1 and philosopher1 ,galeotti ,martius1 author of the famous treatise ,de ,vulgo ,incognitis4 ,he had long flourished at the court of the ,king of ,hungary1 from whom1 it is said1 he was in some measure decoyed by ,louis1 who grudged the ,hungarian monarch the counsels of a sage accounted so skilful in reading the decrees of ,heaven4 ,martius was none of those ascetic1 withered1 pale professors of mystic learning of those days1 who bleared their eyes over the midnight furnace1 and macerated their bodies by outmatching the polar bear4 ,he was trained in arms1 and renowned as a wrestler4 ,his apartment was splendidly furnished1 and on a large oaken table lay a variety of mathematical and astrological instruments1 all of the most rich materials and curious workmanship4 ,his astrolabe of silver was the gift of the ,emperor of ,germany1 and his ,jacob's staff of ebony1 jointed with gold1 was a mark of esteem from the reigning ,pope4 ,in person the astrologer was a tall1 bulky1 yet stately man4 ,his features1 though rather overgrown1 were dignified and noble1 and a ,santon might have envied the dark and downward sweep of his long descending beard4 ,his dress was a chamber robe of the richest ,genoa velvet1 with ample sleeves clasped with frogs of gold1 and lined with sables4 ,it was fastened round his middle by a broad belt of virgin parchment1 round which were represented in crimson characters the signs of the zodiac4 8,such was the astrologer of ,louis ,,xi41 who was consulted in matters of state policy and intrigue1 and exercised a considerable influence over that weak monarch4 8,the costly nature of such a courtier is well illustrated in an interview which the king has with his astrologer1 and leaves on his table a purse of gold as a reward for some special service4 ,but the contents did not by any means satisfy the man of science4 8,he emptied the purse1 which contained neither more nor less than ten gold pieces4 8,the indignation of the astrologer was extreme4 8#8,thinks he that for such paltry rate of hire ,i will practice that celestial science which ,i have studied with the ,armenian ,abbot of ,istrahoff1 who had not seen the sun for forty years2 with the ,greek ,dubravius1 who is said to have raised the dead2 and have even visited the ,scheik ,ebn ,hali in his cave in the desert of ,thebais8 ,no1 by ,heaven6 ,he that contemns art shall perish through his ignorance4 ,ten pieces6--a pittance which ,i am half-ashamed to offer to ,toinette to buy her new breast laces4'0 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,dumas4 ,pharmacy1 pure and simple1 occupies but a small space in literature1 although the disciples of the sister arts of medicine and alchemy have often formed interesting studies for many great writers of fiction4 ,unfortunately the scientific knowledge of the average novelist is1 as a rule1 extremely limited1 and the effects they attribute to certain drugs are usually as fabulous as those believed in the dark ages4 ,they tell us of mysterious poisons of untold power1 an infinitesimal quantity of which will cause instantaneous death without leaving a trace behind4 ,they also describe ansthetics so powerful that a whiff from a bottle or the wave of a handkerchief will at once produce insensibility for any period desired4 ,in fact the writer of romance has a pharmacopia of his own4 ,but why should we cavil at it or try to analyse it in the prosaic test-tube of modern science4 ,exclude the marvellous and mysterious1 and you kill romance4 ,it performs its mission if it succeeds in interesting and amusing us1 so we should be lenient if it errs in mere matters of science4 ,the art of the romancer reaches its height when it succeeds in mixing the possible with the impossible so that we can scarce perceive it4 ,there are few characters in the realm of romantic fiction more fascinating than the ,count ,monte ,christo4 ,as a work of imaginative power and absorbing interest1 this masterpiece of ,dumas stands unique4 ,nothing is impossible to this extraordinary individual1 and incident after incident of the most dramatic and exciting nature crowd one upon another4 ,the count1 who is supposed to have studied the art of medicine in the ,east1 has always a remedy ready for every ill2 from his hashis1 in which he is a profound believer1 to his mysterious stimulating elixir1 a liquid1 we are told1 of the colour of blood1 which he always kept in a phial composed of ,bohemian glass4 ,a single drop of this vital fluid1 if allowed to fall on the lips1 almost before it reaches them1 restores the marble and inanimate form to life4 ,his pill-boxes were composed of emeralds and precious stones of huge size1 and their contents were composed of drugs whose effect was almost beyond comprehension4 ,in the ,memoirs of a ,physician1 ,dumas describes an alchemist of the last century1 a time when the seekers after the philosopher's stone and the elixir vit had almost died out4 ,joseph ,balsamo1 the hero of the story1 drawn from the life of the notorious ,cagliostro1 is a necromancer of the modern kind1 who works his marvels by what is now known as hypnotism or mesmerism1 a condition little understood in those days4 ,althotas1 an alchemist of renown1 lives with ,balsamo1 and aids him in his researches4 ,he is described as 8an old man of over a hundred years1 with grey eyes1 hooked nose1 and trembling bony hands1 and he sits half-buried in his chair4 ,clad in a long silk robe1 now nothing but a shapeless1 colourless ragged covering1 he grumbled as he drew over his ears his cap of velvet1 from under which a few locks of silver hair peeped out4 8,the dwelling of the alchemist10 says the novelist1 8might be about eight or nine feet high and sixteen in diameter2 it was lighted from the top like a well1 and hermetically closed on the four sides40 8,besides the phials1 boxes1 books1 and papers strewed around1 copper pincers were seen1 and pieces of charcoal which had been dipped in various liquids2 there was also a large vase half full of water1 and from the roof1 hung by threads1 were bundles of herbs1 some apparently gathered the night before1 others a hundred years ago4 ,a keen odour prevailed in this laboratory1 which in one less strange would have been called a perfume4 8,the old man was seated in his armchair on wheels1 in the centre of a marble table formed like a horseshoe1 and heaped up with a whole world1 or rather whole chaos1 of plants1 phials1 tools1 books1 instruments1 and papers covered with cabalistic characters4 8,he was so absorbed that he never raised his head when ,balsamo appeared4 8,the light of an astral lamp1 suspended from the culminating point of the window in the roof1 fell on his bald1 shining head4 8,he was turning to and fro in his fingers a small white bottle1 the transparency of which he was trying before his eye1 as a good housekeeper tries the eggs which she buys at market4 8,balsamo gazed on him at first in silence2 then1 after a moment's pause3-- 8#8,well1' said he1 #8have you any news8' 8#8,yes1 yes2 come hither1 ,acharat1 you see me enchanted--transported with joy6 ,i have found--,i have found----' 8#8,what8' 8#8,pardieu6 what ,i sought4' 8#8,gold8' 8#8,gold1 indeed6 ,i am surprised at you6' 8#8,the diamond8' 8#8,gold8 diamonds8 ,the man raves6 ,a fine discovery1 forsooth1 to be rejoiced at6' 8#8,then what you have found is your elixir8' 8#8,yes1 my son1 yes6--the elixir of life6 ,life8--what do ,i say8--the eternity of life6' 8#8,oh6' said ,balsamo in a dejected voice 7for he looked on this pursuit as mere insanity71 #8so it is that dream which occupies you still8' 8,but ,althotas1 without listening1 continued to gaze delightedly at his phial4 8#8,at last1' said he1 #8the combination is complete3 the elixir of ,aristus1 twenty grains2 balm of mercury1 fifteen grains2 precipitate of gold1 fifteen grains2 essence of the cedar of ,lebanon1 twenty-five grains4' 8#8,but it seems to me that1 with the exception of the elixir of ,aristus1 this is precisely your last combination1 master8' 8#8,yes1 but ,i had not then discovered one more ingredient1 without which all the rest are as nothing4' 8#8,and have you discovered it now8' 8#8,yes4' 8#8,can you procure it8' 8#8,i should think so6' 8#8,what is it8' 8#8,we must add to the several ingredients already combined in this phial1 the three last drops of the life-blood of an infant4' 8#8,well1 but where will you procure this infant8' said ,balsamo horror-struck4 8#8,i trust to you for that4' 8#8,to me8 ,you are mad1 master6' 8#8,mad8 ,and why8' asked the old man1 perfectly unmoved at this charge1 and licking with the utmost delight a drop of the fluid which had escaped from the cork of the phial and was trickling down the side4 8#8,why1 for that purpose you must kill the child4' 8#8,of course we must kill him2 and the handsomer he is the better4'0 ,but in the end the old man falls a victim to his own infatuation1 and at length dies incontinently without discovering the long-looked-for arcana4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,reade4 ,an excellent picture of a physician of the fifteenth century is drawn by that master in the art of fiction1 ,charles ,reade1 in his work ,the ,cloister and the ,hearth1 a story of much historic interest and beauty4 ,the hero1 ,gerard1 wounded in an encounter with a bear1 lies sick at ,dsseldorf1 and is visited by a physician4 8,it was an imposing figure that entered the sick room2 an old gentleman in a long sober gown trimmed with rich fur1 cherry-coloured hose1 and pointed shoes1 with a sword by his side in a morocco scabbard1 a ruff round his neck1 not only starched severely1 but treacherously stiffened in furrows by rebatoes1 or a little hidden framework of wood2 and on his head a four-cornered cap with a fur border2 on his chin and bosom1 a majestic white beard4 ,this was the full dress of a physician4 ,a boy followed at his heels with a basket1 where phials1 lint1 and surgical tools rather courted than shunned observation40 ,the old doctor1 on learning that his patient suffered from a wound1 exclaimed1 8,this must be cauterised forthwith10 and immediately called for his urchin to heat his iron4 ,gerard1 who didn't like the look of things1 informed the leech the wound was caused by the bear's paw1 and not his jaw4 8,and why did'st not tell me that at once80 8,because you kept telling me instead40 8,never conceal aught from your leech1 young man10 continued the senior1 who was a good talker1 but one of the worst listeners in ,europe4 8,well1 it is an ill business4 ,all the horny excrescences of animals--to wit1 claws of tigers1 panthers1 badgers1 cats1 bears1 and the like1 and horn of deer1 and nails of humans1 especially children1 are imbued with direst poison4 ,i had better have been bitten by a cur1 whatever you may say1 than gored by a bull or stag1 or scratched by bear4 ,however1 shalt have a good biting cataplasm for thy leg2 meantime keep we the body cool3 put out thy tongue6--good6--fever4 ,let me feel thy pulse3 good6--fever6 ,i ordain flebotomy1 and on the instant4 ,hans1 go fetch the things needful1 and ,i will entertain the patient meantime with reasons40 ,the man of art then entered into a learned disquisition on pathology and the healthful practice of blood-letting4 ,time was evidently no object1 neither the extremity of his patient4 8,think not10 said he warmly1 8that it suffices to bleed2 any paltry barber can open a vein4 ,the art is to know what vein to empty1 and for what disease4 ,t'other day they brought me one tormented with earache4 ,i let him blood in the right thigh1 and away flew his earache4 ,by-the-bye1 he has died since then4 ,another came with the toothache4 ,i bleed him behind the ear1 and relieved him in a jiffey4 ,he is also since dead as it happens40 ,after thus reciting his powers in venesection1 the worthy doctor thought he could not do better than back it up with a show of knowledge1 and recommenced on a new theme4 8,know1 young man1 that two schools of art contend at this moment throughout ,europe4 ,the ,arabian1 whose ancient oracles are ,avicenna1 ,rhazes1 ,allricazis2 and its revivers are ,chauliac and ,lanfranc2 and the ,greek school1 whose modern champions are ,bessarion1 ,platinus1 and ,marsilius ,ficinus1 but whose pristine doctors were medicine's very oracles--,phbus1 ,chiron1 sculapius1 and his sons ,podalinus and ,machaon1 ,pythagoras1 ,democritus2 ,praxagoras1 who invented the arteries1 and ,dioctes1 qui primus urin animum dedit4 ,all these taught orally4 ,then came ,hippocrates1 the eighteenth from sculapius1 and of him we have manuscripts1 to him we owe #8the vital principle'4 ,he also invented the bandage1 and tapped for water on the chest2 and above all1 he dissected1 yet only quadrupeds1 for the brutal prejudices of the pagan vulgar withheld the human body from the knife of science4 ,him followed ,aristotle1 who gave us the aorta1 the largest blood-vessel in the human body40 8,surely1 sir1 the ,almighty gave us all that is in our bodies1 and not ,aristotle nor any ,grecian man10 objected ,gerard humbly4 8,child6 of course ,he gave us the thing2 but ,aristotle did more--he gave us the name of the thing4 ,but young men will still be talking4 ,the next great light was ,galen2 he studied at ,alexandria1 then the home of science4 ,he1 justly malcontent with quadrupeds1 dissected apes1 as coming nearer to man1 and bled like a ,trojan4 ,then came ,theophilus1 who gave us the nerves1 the lacteal vessels1 and the pia mater40 8,i am put to silence1 sir40 8,and that is better still1 for garrulous patients are ill to cure1 especially in fever4 ,i say1 then1 that ,eristratus gave us the cerebral nerves and the milk vessels2 nay1 more1 he was the inventor of lithotomy1 whatever you may say4 ,then came another whom ,i forget2 you do somewhat perturb me with your petty exceptions4 ,then came ,ammonius1 the author of lithotrity1 and here comes ,hans with the basin to stay your volubility4 ,blow thy chafer1 boy1 and hand me the basin2 'tis well4 ,arabians1 quotha6 ,what are they but a sect of yesterday1 who about the year #ajjj did fall in with the writings of those very ,greeks1 and read them awry1 having no concurrent light of their own8 for their demi-god and camel-driver1 ,mahomed1 impostor in science as in religion1 had strictly forbidden them anatomy1 even of the lower animals1 the which he who severeth from medicine1 tollit solem e mundo1 as ,tully quoth4 ,nay1 wonder not at my fervour1 good youth2 where the general weal stands in jeopardy a little warmth is civic1 humane1 and honourable4 ,now1 there is settled of late in this town a pestilent ,arabist1 a mere empiric1 who1 despising anatomy1 and scarce knowing ,greek from ,hebrew1 hath yet spirited away half my patients1 and ,i tremble for the rest4 ,put forth thine ankle2 and thou1 ,hans1 breathe on the chafer40 ,at the end of this tirade ,gerard's friend and fellow-traveller ,denys appears on the scene1 and will not hear of the bleeding being carried out4 ,the blustering but good-tempered soldier soon comes to hot words with the old physician on the subject1 and a wordy battle ensues1 which ends by the doctor being offended1 and decides to beat a dignified retreat4 ,the concluding scene is too good to omit1 and we will give it in the author's own words4 8,ah6 you reject my skill1 you scorn my art4 ,my revenge shall be to leave you to yourself2 lost idiot1 take your last look at me1 and at the sun4 ,your blood be on your head60 ,and away he stamped4 ,but on reaching the door he whirled and came back1 his wicker tail twirling round after him like a cat's4 8,in twelve hours at furthest you will be in the secondary stage of fever4 ,your head will split4 ,your carotids will thump4 ,aha6 ,and let but a pin fall1 you will jump to the ceiling4 ,then send for me1 and ,i'll not come40 ,he departed4 ,but at the door-handle gathered fury1 wheeled and came flying1 with pale1 terror-stricken boy and wicker tail whisking after him4 8,next will come--,cramps of the stomach4 ,aha6 8,then--,bilious vomit4 ,aha6 8,then--,cold sweat and deadly stupor4 8,then--,confusion of all the senses4 8,then--,bloody vomit4 8,and after that nothing can save you1 not even ,i2 and if ,i could ,i would not1 and so farewell40 ,even ,denys changed colour at threats so fervent and precise2 but ,gerard only gnashed his teeth with rage at the noise1 and seized his hard bolster with kindling eye4 ,this added fuel to the fire1 and brought the insulted ancient back from the impassable door1 with his whisking train4 8,and after that--,madness6 8,and after that--,black vomit6 8,and then--,convulsions6 8,and then--,that cessation of all vital functions the vulgar call #8death1' for which thank your own ,satanic folly and insolence4 ,farewell40 ,he went4 ,he came4 ,he roared3 8,and think not to be buried in any ,christian churchyard1 for the bailiff is my good friend1 and ,i shall tell him how and why you died3 felo de se6 felo de se6 ,farewell40 ,gerard sprang to his feet on the bed by some supernatural gymnastic power excitement lent him1 and1 seeing him so moved1 the vindictive orator came back at him fiercer than ever1 to launch some master-threat the world has unhappily lost1 for as he came with his whisking train and shaking his fist1 ,gerard hurled the bolster furiously in his face and knocked him down like a shot1 the boy's head cracked under his falling master's1 and crash went the dumb-stricken orator into the basket1 and there sat1 wedged in an inverted angle1 crushing phial after phial4 ,the boy1 being light1 was strewed afar1 but in a squatting posture1 so that they sat in a sequence1 like graduated specimens1 the smaller howling4 ,but soon the doctor's face filled with horror1 and he uttered a far louder and unearthly screech1 and kicked and struggled with wonderful agility for one of his age4 ,he was sitting on the hot coals4 ,they had singed the cloth1 and were now biting the man4 ,struggling wildly but vainly to get out of the basket1 he rolled over with it sideways1 and lo6 a great hissing2 then the humane ,gerard ran and wrenched off the tight basket1 not without a struggle4 ,the doctor lay on his face groaning1 handsomely singed with his own chafer1 and slaked a moment too late by his own villainous compounds1 which1 however1 being as various and even beautiful in colour as they were odious in taste1 had strangely diversified his grey robe1 and painted it more gaudy than neat4 ,gerard and ,denys raised him up and consoled him4 8,courage1 man1 'tis but cautery2 balm of ,gilead--why1 you recommended it but now to my comrade here40 ,a curious specimen of medical treatment came to light when ,philip1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 lay sick at ,bruges4 ,he was a doughty warrior this ,earl of ,holland1 as he was sometimes called1 and wealthy withal1 so the best advice was secured4 8,now1 paupers got sick and got well as ,nature pleased1 but woe betided the rich10 says the novelist1 8in an age when for one ,mr4 ,malady killed1 three fell by ,dr4 ,remedy4 8,the duke's complaint1 nameless then1 is now called diphtheria4 ,he was old and weak1 so ,dr4 ,remedy bled him4 8,the duke turned cold--wonderful6 8,then ,dr4 ,remedy had recourse to the arcana of science4 8,ho6 ,this is grave4 ,flay me an ape incontinent1 to clap him to the duke's breast6 ,officers of state ran septemvious1 seeking an ape to counteract the blood-thirsty tomfoolery of the human species4 8,but an ape could not be found4 8,then ,dr4 ,remedy grew impatient1 and bade flay a dog4 8,a dog is next best to an ape2 only it must be a dog all of one colour4 8,so they flayed a liver-coloured dog and clapped it1 yet palpitating1 to their sovereign's breast2 and he died40 ,thus ended ,philip the ,good4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,dickens4 ,the apothecary of romance is almost invariably pale and lean1 with head nearly destitute of hirsute covering1 and a man of retiring habits and sad demeanour4 ,this is perhaps because he gets little chance to make the wherewithal to make him fat1 and has few opportunities to seek enjoyment and recreation4 ,dickens' chemist1 whom he describes in his pathetic little story ,the ,haunted ,man1 is no exception to this rule4 8,who could have seen his hollow cheek1 his sunken1 brilliant eye2 his black-attired figure1 indefinably grim1 although well knit and well proportioned2 his grizzled hair hanging like tangled seaweed about his face1--as if he had been through his whole life a lonely mark for the chafing and beating of the great deep of humanity--but might have said he looked like a haunted man8 8,who could have observed his manner--taciturn1 thoughtful1 gloomy1 shadowed by habitual reserve1 retiring always and jocund never1 with a distraught air of reverting to a bygone place and time1 or of listening to some old echoes in his mind--but might have said it was the manner of a haunted man8 8,who could have heard his voice--slow-speaking1 deep and grave1 with a natural fulness and melody in it which he seemed to set himself against and stop--but might have said it was the voice of a haunted man8 8,who that had seen him in his inner chamber1 part library and part laboratory1--for he was1 as the world knew far and wide1 a learned man in chemistry1 and a teacher on whose lips and hands a crowd of aspiring ears and eyes hung daily1--who that had seen him there1 upon a winter night1 alone1 surrounded by his drugs and instruments and books2 the shadow of his shaded lamp1 a monstrous beetle on the wall1 motionless among a crowd of spectral shapes raised there by the flickering of the fire upon the quaint objects around him2 some of these phantoms 7the reflection of glass vessels that held liquids7 trembling at heart like things that knew his power to uncombine them1 and to give back their component parts to fire and vapour2--who that had seen him then1 his work done and he pondering in his chair before the rusted grate and red flame1 moving his thin mouth as if in speech1 but silent as the dead1 would not have said that the man seemed haunted and the chamber too80 ,in the ,pickwick ,papers the author describes in one of his happiest veins1 the troubles of a chemist who is suddenly called to serve on a common jury--to try indeed the celebrated case of 8,bardell versus ,pickwick04 8#8,answer to your names1 gentlemen1 that you may be sworn1' said the gentleman in black4 8#8,richard ,upwitch4' 8#8,here1' said the greengrocer4 8#8,thomas ,groffin4' 8#8,here1' said the chemist4 8#8,take the book1 gentlemen4 ,you shall well and truly try----' 8#8,i beg this court's pardon1' said the chemist1 who was a tall1 thin1 yellow-visaged man1 #8but ,i hope this court will excuse my attendance4' 8#8,on what grounds1 sir8' said ,mr4 ,justice ,stareleigh4 8#8,i have no assistant1 my lord1' said the chemist4 8#8,then you ought to be able to afford it1 sir1' said the judge reddening1 for ,mr4 ,justice ,stareleigh's temper bordered on the irritable1 and brooked not contradiction4 8#8,i know ,i ought to do1 if ,i got on as well as ,i desired1 but ,i don't1 my lord1' answered the chemist4 8#8,swear the gentlemen1' said the judge peremptorily4 8,the officer had got no further than the #8,you shall well and truly try' when he was again interrupted by the chemist4 8#8,i am to be sworn1 my lord1 am ,i8' said the chemist4 8#8,certainly1 sir1' replied the testy little judge4 8#8,very well1 my lord1' replied the chemist in a resigned manner4 #8,then there'll be murder before this trial's over3 that's all4 ,swear me if you please1 sir4' ,and sworn the chemist was before the judge could find words to utter4 8#8,i merely wanted to observe1 my lord1' said the chemist1 taking his seat with great deliberation1 #8that ,i've left nobody but an errand boy in my shop4 ,he is a very nice boy1 my lord1 but he is not acquainted with drugs2 and ,i know that the prevailing impression in his mind is1 that ,epsom salts means oxalic acid1 and syrup of senna1 laudanum4 ,that's all1 my lord4' ,with this1 the tall chemist composed himself into a comfortable attitude1 and1 assuming a pleasant expression of countenance1 appeared to have prepared himself for the worst40 ,this little sketch shows the disabilities the chemist laboured under before he was exempted from jury service1 and the intimate knowledge ,dickens had of almost every phase of life on which he wrote4 ,in ,oliver ,twist he gives us an instance of prompt prescribing on the part of the parochial doctor's assistant and dispenser1 related by ,bumble4 ,mr4 ,bumble betakes himself to the undertaker's shop to arrange for the funeral4 8#8,bayton1' said the undertaker looking from the scrap of paper to ,mr4 ,bumble2 #8,i never heard the name before4' 8,bumble shook his head as he replied1 #8,obstinate people1 ,mr4 ,sowerberry--very obstinate4 ,proud1 too1 ,i'm afraid1 sir4' 8#8,proud1 eh8' exclaimed ,mr4 ,sowerberry with a sneer4 #8,come1 that's too much4' 8#8,oh1 its sickening1' replied the beadle2 #8antimonial1 ,mr4 ,sowerberry6' 8#8,so it is1' acquiesced the undertaker4 8#8,we only heard of the family the night before last1' said the beadle2 #8and we shouldn't have known anything about them then1 only a woman who lodges in the same house made an application to the parochial committee for them to send the parochial surgeon to see a woman as was very bad4 ,he had gone out to dinner1 but his 'prentice 7which is a very clever lad7 sent 'em some medicine in a blacking bottle off hand4' 8#8,ah1 there's promptness1' said the undertaker4 8#8,promptness indeed6' replied the beadle4 #8,but what's the consequence2 what's the ungrateful behaviour of these rebels1 sir8 ,why1 the husband sends back word that the medicine won't suit his wife's complaint1 and so she shan't take it--says she shan't take it1 sir6 ,good1 strong1 wholesome medicine1 as was given with great success to two ,irish labourers and a coal-heaver only a week before4 ,sent 'em for nothing1 with a blacking bottle in1 and he sends back word that she shan't take it1 sir6'0 ,,thackeray4 ,the great satirist1 in ,pendennis1 gives us a brief sketch of the apothecary of the ,georgian era in the early life of ,john ,pendennis1 who in the city of ,bath practised as an apothecary and surgeon1 8attending gentlemen in their sickrooms1 and ladies at the most interesting periods of their lives1 and condescending to sell a brown-paper plaister to a farmer's wife across the counter1 or to vend tooth-brushes1 hair-powder1 and ,london perfumery04 ,how he eventually merged into ,john ,pendennis1 ,esq41 of ,fairoaks1 ,clavering1 with a 8family pride10 is it not described with the pen of inimitable genius in the pages of the story8 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,marryat4 ,in his novel entitled ,japhet in ,search of a ,father1 ,captain ,marryat introduces to us that eccentric apothecary1 ,mr4 ,phineas ,cophagus2 and although the character is doubtless exaggerated to some extent1 it forms an amusing picture of the practising apothecary in the early part of this century4 ,japhet1 who is taken in hand and apprenticed to the worthy practitioner1 describes the shop looking upon ,smithfield ,market1 with its usual allowance of green1 yellow1 and blue bottles4 ,all the patent medicines in the known world were kept in stock1 even to the all-sufficient medicine for mankind of ,mr4 ,euony4 ,the shop was large1 and at the back part there was a most capacious iron mortar with a pestle to correspond4 ,the proprietor himself1 we are told1 might have been forty-five years of age4 8,he was of middle height1 his face was thin1 his nose very much hooked1 his eyes small and piercing1 with a good-humoured twinkle in them4 ,his mouth was large and drawn down at one corner4 ,he was stout in his body1 and carried a considerable protuberance before him1 which he was in the habit of patting with his left hand complacently4 ,but although stout in his body1 his legs were mere spindles1 so that in his appearance he reminded you of some bird of the crane genus4 8,he dressed in a black coat and waistcoat1 white cravat1 and high collar to his shirt2 blue cotton-net pantaloons and ,hessian boots1 both fitting so tight that it appeared as if he was proud of his spindle shanks4 ,his hat was broad-brimmed and low1 and he carried a stout black cane with a gold top in his right hand1 almost always raising the gold top to his nose when he spoke4 8,the apothecary's assistant1 ,brookes1 was a tall1 fresh-coloured1 but hectic-looking young man1 and1 with the ubiquitous ,timothy1 who took out the medicine1 formed the staff of the establishment40 ,japhet's introduction to the rudiments of the profession was to pound up some drugs in the big iron mortar1 which he did with a will until the perspiration ran down him in streams4 ,he hadn't been many months in the shop before he was left in charge with ,timothy1 who1 after cudgelling his brains as to how they shall make a little money on their own account1 agrees with ,japhet to physic any one who comes in the shop4 ,the story is related by ,japhet as follows3-- 8,an old woman soon came in1 and addressing ,timothy1 said that she #8wanted something for her poor grandchild's sore throat'4 8#8,i don't mix up the medicines1 ma'am1' replied ,timothy2 #8you must apply to that gentleman1 ,mr4 ,newland1 who is behind the counter2 he understands what is good for everybody's complaints4' 8#8,bless his handsome face--and so young1 too6 ,why1 be you a doctor1 sir8' 8#8,i should hope so1' replied ,i4 #8,what is it you require--a lotion or an embrocation8' 8#8,i don't understand those hard words1 but ,i want some doctor's stuff4' 8#8,very well1 my good woman2 ,i know what is proper1' replied ,i1 assuming an important air4 #8,here1 ,timothy1 wash out this phial very clean4' 8#8,yes1 sir1' replied ,timothy very respectfully4 8,i took one of the measures1 and putting in a little green1 a little blue1 and a little white liquid from the medicine bottles generally used by ,mr4 ,brookes1 filled it up with water1 poured the mixture into the phial1 corked1 and labelled it haustus statim sumendus1 and handed it over to the old woman4 8#8,is the poor child to take it1 or is it to rub outside8' inquired the old woman4 8#8,the directions are on the label2 but you don't read ,latin8' 8#8,deary me1 no6 ,latin6 and do you understand ,latin8 ,what a nice clever boy6' 8#8,i should not be a good doctor if ,i did not1' replied ,i4 ,on second thoughts ,i considered it advisable and safer that the application should be external1 so ,i translated the label to her3 haustus1 rub it in2 statim1 on the throat2 sumendus1 with the palm of the hand40 ,their next effort at doctoring is humorously described by the novelist in the following words3-- 8,an ,irish labourer1 more than half-tipsy1 came in one evening and asked whether we had such a thing as was called #8,a poor man's plaister'4 #8,by the powers1 it will be a poor man's plaister when it belongs to me2 but they tell me that it is a sure and sartain cure for the thumbago1 as they call it1 which ,i've at the small of my back1 and which is a hinder to my mounting up the ladder2 so as it's ,saturday night1 and ,i've just got the money1 ,i'll buy the plaister first1 and then try what a little whisky inside will do4 ,the devil is in't if it won't be driven out of me between the two4' 8,we had not that plaister in the shop1 but we had blister plaisters1 and ,timothy1 handing one to me1 ,i proffered it to him4 #8,and what may you be after asking for the same8' inquired he4 8,the blisters were sold at a shilling each1 when spread on paper1 so ,i asked him eighteen-pence1 that we might pocket the extra sixpence4 8#8,by the powers1 one would think that you had made a mistake1 and handed me the rich man's plaister instead of the poor one's4 ,it's less whisky ,i'll have to drink1 any how2 but here's the money1 and the top of the morning to ye1 seeing as how it's jist getting late4' 8,timothy and ,i laughed as we divided the sixpence4 ,it appeared that after taking his allowance of whisky the poor fellow fixed the plaister on his back when he went to bed1 and the next morning found himself in a condition not to be envied4 ,it was a week before we saw him again1 and1 much to the horror of ,timothy and myself1 he walked into the shop when ,mr4 ,brookes was employed behind the counter4 ,timothy perceived him before he saw us1 and pulling me behind the large mortar1 we contrived to make our escape into the back parlour1 the door of which we held ajar to hear what would take place4 8#8,murder and turf6' cried the man1 #8but that was the devil's own plaister you gave me here for my back1 and it left me as raw as a turnip1 taking every bit of my skin off me entirely1 forbye my lying in bed for a whole week and losing my day's work4' 8#8,i really do not recollect supplying you with a plaister1 my good man1' replied ,mr4 ,brookes4 8#8,then by the piper that played before ,moses1 if you don't recollect it1 ,i've an idea that ,i shall never forget it4 ,sure enough1 it cured me1 but wasn't ,i quite kilt before ,i was cured8' 8#8,it must have been some other shop1' observed ,mr4 ,brookes4 #8,you have made a mistake4' 8#8,devil a bit of a mistake1 except in selling me the plaister4 ,didn't ,i get it of a lad in this same shop8' 8#8,nobody sells things out of this shop without my knowledge4' 8,the ,irishman was puzzled--he looked round the shop4 #8,well1 then1 if this a'n't the shop1 it was own sister to it4'0 8,like all embryo apothecaries10 says ,japhet1 8,i carried in my appearance1 if not the look of wisdom1 most certainly that of self-sufficiency1 which does equally well with the world in general4 ,my forehead was smooth and very white1 and my dark locks were combed back systematically and with a regularity that said1 as plainly as hair could do1 #8,the owner of this does everything by prescription1 measurement1 and rule'4 ,altogether ,i cut such a truly medical appearance that even the most guarded would not have hesitated to allow me the sole conduct of a whitlow1 from inflammation to suppuration1 and from suppuration to cure1 or have refused to have confided to me the entire suppression of a gumboil4 8,such were my personal qualifications at the time ,i was raised to the important office of dispenser of1 ,i may say1 life and death40 ,transcriber's note ,text in italics was surrounded with underscores and small capitals changed to all capitals4 ,a few errors in punctuation were corrected silently4 ,also the following changes were made1 on page #eb 8furnance0 changed to 8furnace0 7seizing his red-hot tongs from the little furnace in which7 #gf 8,teragrammaton0 changed to 8,tetragrammaton0 7,tetragrammaton ,adonai7 #bcd 8the0 added 7centre of the cover7 #bgc 8,lanfen0 changed to 8,lafeu0 7,lafeu4 ,go to1 sir1 you were beaten in ,italy7 #bgh 8,spencer0 changed to 8,spenser0 7,edmund ,spenser was born in ,london74 ,otherwise the original was preserved1 including unusual or inconsistent spelling and hyphenation1 and possible errors in quotes from other books4