,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,italic text has been marked with underscores4 ,inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been corrected1 punctuation has been silently corrected4 ,a list of other corrections to the text can be found at the end of the document4 ,in the book the ,latin text is printed on the left page1 and the ,english translation on the right4 ,here1 the text is split by sections starting with a roman numeral1 and the ,latin text is followed by its ,english translation4 ,the section numbers that appeared in the margin are placed between 99asterisks994 ,sidenotes are placed between hashtags and are placed either above the paragraph they refer to or inline4 ,numbers printed in superscript are preceded by a 4 ,illustration3 ,m4 ,,tullius ,,cicero4 ,,from ,,the ,,james ,,loeb ,,collection4 ,,cicero ,,de ,,officiis ,,with ,,an ,,english ,,translation ,,by ,,walter ,,miller ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,mcmxiii ,,contents ,introduction ,page ix ,bibliography xiii ,book ,i #a ,book ,,ii #afg ,book ,,iii #bfi ,index #dje ,,introduction ,in the de ,officiis we have1 save for the latter ,philippics1 the great orator's last contribution to literature4 ,the last1 sad1 troubled years of his busy life could not be given to his profession2 and he turned his never-resting thoughts to the second love of his student days and made ,greek philosophy a possibility for ,roman readers4 ,the senate had been abolished2 the courts had been closed4 ,his occupation was gone2 but ,cicero could not surrender himself to idleness4 ,in those days of distraction 7#df-dc ,b4,c47 he produced for publication almost as much as in all his years of active life4 ,the liberators had been able to remove the tyrant1 but they could not restore the republic4 ,cicero's own life was in danger from the fury of mad ,antony and he left ,rome about the end of ,march1 #dd ,b4,c4 ,he dared not even stop permanently in any one of his various country estates1 but1 wretched1 wandered from one of his villas to another nearly all the summer and autumn through4 ,he would not suffer himself to become a prey to his overwhelming sorrow at the death of the republic and the final crushing of the hopes that had risen with ,caesar's downfall1 but worked at the highest tension on his philosophical studies4 ,the ,romans were not philosophical4 ,in #afa ,b4,c4 the senate passed a decree excluding all philosophers and teachers of rhetoric from the city4 ,they had no taste for philosophical speculation1 in which the ,greeks were the world's masters4 ,they were intensely1 narrowly practical4 ,and ,cicero was thoroughly ,roman4 ,as a student in a ,greek university he had had to study philosophy4 ,his mind was broad enough and his soul great enough to give him a joy in following after the mighty masters1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,zeno1 ,cleanthes1 ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1 and the rest4 ,but he pursued his study of it1 like a ,roman1 from a practical motive--to promote thereby his power as an orator and to augment his success and happiness in life4 ,to him the goal of philosophy was not primarily to know but to do4 ,its end was to point out the course of conduct that would lead to success and happiness4 ,the only side of philosophy1 therefore1 that could make much appeal to the ,roman mind was ethics2 pure science could have little meaning for the practical ,roman2 metaphysics might supplement ethics and religion1 without which true happiness was felt to be impossible4 ,philosophical study had its place1 therefore1 and the most important department of philosophy was ethics4 ,the treatise on ,moral ,duties has the very practical purpose of giving a practical discussion of the basic principles of ,moral ,duty and practical rules for personal conduct4 ,as a philosopher1 if we may so stretch the term as to include him1 ,cicero avows himself an adherent of the ,new ,academy and a disciple of ,carneades4 ,he had tried ,epicureanism under ,phaedrus and ,zeno1 ,stoicism under ,diodotus and ,posidonius2 but ,philo of ,larissa converted him to the ,new ,academy4 ,scepticism declared the attainment of absolute knowledge impossible4 ,but there is the easily obtainable golden mean of the probable2 and that appealed to the practical ,roman4 ,it appealed especially to ,cicero2 and the same indecision that had been his bane in political life naturally led him first to scepticism1 then to eclecticism1 where his choice is dictated by his bias for the practical and his scepticism itself disappears from view4 ,and while ,antiochus1 the eclectic ,academician of ,athens1 and ,posidonius1 the eclectic ,stoic of ,rhodes1 seem to have had the strongest influence upon him1 he draws at his own discretion from the founts of ,stoics1 ,peripatetics1 and ,academicians alike2 he has only contempt for the ,epicureans1 ,cynics1 and ,cyrenaics4 ,but the more he studied and lived1 the more of a ,stoic in ethics he became4 ,the cap-sheaf of ,cicero's ethical studies is the treatise on the ,moral ,duties4 ,it takes the form of a letter addressed to his son ,marcus 7see ,index71 at this time a youth of twenty-one1 pursuing his university studies in the ,peripatetic school of ,cratippus in ,athens1 and sowing for what promised to be an abundant crop of wild oats4 ,this situation gives force and definiteness to the practical tendencies of the father's ethical teachings4 ,and yet1 be it observed1 that same father is not without censure for contributing to his son's extravagant and riotous living by giving him an allowance of nearly #hgj a year4 ,our ,roman makes no pretensions to originality in philosophic thinking4 ,he is a follower--an expositor--of the ,greeks4 ,as the basis of his discussion of the ,moral ,duties he takes the ,stoic ,panaetius of ,rhodes 7see ,index71 1 drawing also from many other sources1 but following him more or less closely in ,books ,i and ,,ii2 ,book ,,iii is more independent and much inferior4 ,he is usually superficial and not always clear4 ,he translates and paraphrases ,greek philosophy1 weaving in illustrations from ,roman history and suggestions of ,roman mould in a form intended to make it1 if not popular1 at least comprehensible1 to the ,roman mind4 ,how well he succeeded is evidenced by the comparative receptivity of ,roman soil prepared by ,stoic doctrine for the teachings of ,christianity4 ,indeed1 ,anthony ,trollope labels our author the ,pagan ,christian4 ,you would fancy sometimes1 says ,petrarch1 it is not a ,pagan philosopher but a ,christian apostle who is speaking4 ,no less an authority than ,frederick the ,great has called our book the best work on morals that has been or can be written4 ,cicero himself looked upon it as his masterpiece4 ,it has its strength and its weakness--its sane common sense and noble patriotism1 its self-conceit and partisan politics2 it has the master's brilliant style1 but it is full of repetitions and rhetorical flourishes1 and it fails often in logical order and power2 it rings true in its moral tone1 but it shows in what haste and distraction it was composed2 for it was not written as a contribution to close scientific thinking2 it was written as a means of occupation and diversion4 ,,bibliography ,the following works are quoted in the critical notes3-- ,,mss4 ,a codex ,ambrosianus4 ,milan4 #ajth century4 ,b codex ,bambergensis4 ,hamburg4 #ajth century4 ,h codex ,herbipolitanus4 ,wrzburg4 #ajth century4 ,l codex ,harleianus4 ,london4 #ith century4 a b codices ,bernenses4 ,bern4 #ajth century4 c codex ,bernensis4 ,bern4 #acth century4 p codex ,palatinus4 ,rome4 #abth century4 ,editio ,princeps3 ,the first edition of the de ,officiis was from the press of ,sweynheim and ,pannartz at the ,monastery of ,subiaco2 possibly the edition published by ,fust and ,schffer at ,mainz is a little older4 ,both appeared in #adfe4 ,the latter was the first to print the ,greek words in ,greek type4 ,the de ,officiis is1 therefore1 the first classical book to be issued from a printing press1 with the possible exception of ,lactantius and ,cicero's de ,oratore which bear the more exact date of ,october #cj1 #adfe1 and were likewise issued from the ,monastery press at ,subiaco4 ,baiter ,kayser3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera quae supersunt omnia4 ,lipsiae1 #ahfj-fi4 ,beier3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres 444 cum commentariis editi a ,carolo ,beiero4 ,lipsiae1 #ahbj4 ,erasmus3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis ,officia1 diligenter restituta4 ,melanchthon3 ,ejusdem de ,amicitia et ,senectute dialogi4443 cum annotationibus ,erasmi et ,p4 ,melanchthonis4 ,parisiis1 #aecc4 ,ed43 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis ,scripta quae manserunt omnia recognovit ,c4 ,f4 ,w4 ,mller4 ,teubner3 ,lipsiae1 #ahgi4 ,this edition is the basis of the text of the present volume4 ,ernesti3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera ex recensione novissima4 ,j4 ,a4 ,ernesti2 cum eiusdem notis1 et clave ,ciceroniana4 ,editio prima ,americana4 ,bostoniae1 #ahae-af4 ,facciolati3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres1 de ,senectute1 de ,amicitia1 de ,somnio ,scipionis1 et ,paradoxa4 ,accedit ,q4 fratris commentariolum petitionis4 ,ex recensione ,j4 ,facciolati4 ,venetiis1 #agdg4 ,fleckeisen1 ,alf43 ,kritische ,miscellen4 ,dresden1 #ahfd4 ,gernhard3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres4 ,rec4 et scholiis ,iac4 ,facciolati suisque animadversionibus instruxit ,aug4 ,g4 ,gernhard4 ,lipsiae1 #ahaa4 ,graevius3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres2 444 de ,senectute2 444 de ,amicitia2 ,paradoxa2 ,somnium ,scipionis2 ex recensione ,j4 ,g4 ,graevii4 ,amstelodami1 #afhi4 ,gulielmus3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera omnia quae extant 444 ,gruter3 emendata studio 444 ,j4 ,gulielmi et ,j4 ,gruteri4 ,hamburgi1 #afah-ai4 ,heine1 ,otto3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis ad ,marcum ,filium ,libri tres4 #fte ,aufl4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 ,heusinger3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres 444 recensuit adjectisque ,j4 ,m4 ,heusingeri e suis annotationibus 444 editurus erat ,j4 ,f4 ,heusinger4 7,edited by ,c4 ,heusinger47 ,brunsvigae1 #aghc4 ,holden3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres1 with ,introduction1 ,analysis and ,commentary by ,herbert ,ashton ,holden4 #gth ,edition4 ,cambridge1 #ahia4 ,to his full notes the translator is indebted for many a word and phrase4 ,klotz3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis ,scripta quae manserunt omnia4 ,recognovit ,reinholdus ,klotz4 ,lipsiae1 #ahej-eg1 #ahfi-gd4 ,lambinus3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera omnia quae extant1 a ,d4 ,lambino 444 ex codicibus manuscriptis emendata et aucta 444 ,lutetiae1 #aeff-hd4 ,lange3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis lib4 ,,iii4 ,cato ,major vel de ,senectute 444 ,laelius vel de ,amicitia 444 ,paradoxa ,stoicorum sex1 ,somnium ,scipionis 444 opera ,c4 ,langii recogniti 444 ejusdem in hosce 444 libros annotationes4 ,cum annotationibus ,p4 ,manutii1 etc4 ,antverpiae1 #aefh4 ,lund3 ,de emendandis ,ciceronis libris de ,officiis observationes criticae4 ,scripsit ,g4 ,f4 ,g4 ,lund4 ,kopenhagen1 #ahdh4 ,manutius3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis ,officiorum libri tres3 ,cato ,maior1 vel de ,senectute3 ,laelius1 vel de ,amicitia3 ,paradoxa ,stoicorum sex 444 additae sunt 444 variae lectiones4 7,edited by ,p4 ,manuzio47 ,p4 ,manutius3 ,venetiis1 #aeda4 ,mller1 ,c4 ,f4 ,w43 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri ,,iii4 ,fr den ,schulgebrauch erklrt4 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,muretus3 ,m4 ,antoni ,mureti ,scholia in ,cic4 officia4 ,mureti opera ed4 ,ruhnken4 ,lugd4 ,bat41 #ahgi4 ,orelli3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera quae supersunt omnia1 ac ,baiter3 deperditorum fragmenta 444 ,edidit ,j4 ,c4 ,orellius 7,m4 ,halm3 ,tullii ,ciceronis ,scholiastae4 ,c4 ,m4 ,victorinus1 ,rufinus1 ,c4 ,julius ,victor1 ,boethius1 ,favonius ,eulogius1 ,asconius ,pedianus1 ,scholia ,bobiensia1 ,scholiasta ,gronovianus1 ,ediderunt ,j4 ,c4 ,orellius et ,j4 ,g4 ,baiter4 ,turici1 #ahbf-ch74 ,ed4 #b4 ,opus morte ,orellii interruptum contin4 ,j4 ,g4 ,baiterus et ,c4 ,halmius1 #ahde-fb4 ,pearce3 ,m4 ,ciceronis de ,officiis ad ,marcum filium libri tres4 ,notis illustravit et 444 emendavit ,z4 ,pearce4 ,londini1 #agde4 ,stuerenburg3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri ,,iii4 ,recensuit ,r4 ,stuerenburg4 ,accedit ,commentarius4 ,lipsiae1 #ahdc4 ,unger3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri ,,iii4 ,erklrt v4 ,g4 ,f4 ,unger4 ,leipzig1 #aheb4 ,victorius1 ,p43 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis opera1 omnium quae hactenus excusa sunt castigatissima1 nunc primum in lucem edita4 #d tom4 ,venetiis1 #aecb-cd-cf4 ,zumpt3 ,m4 ,tullii ,ciceronis de ,officiis libri tres cum selectis ,j4 ,m4 et ,j4 ,f4 ,heusingerorum suisque notis4 ,scholarum in usum iterum edidit ,car4 ,tim4 ,zumptius4 ,brunsvigae1 #ahdi4 ,,cicero ,,de ,,officiis ,,book ,i ,,moral ,,goodness ,,liber ,,primus _/ ,,book ,i 99#a99 ,i4 ,quamquam te1 ,marce fili1 annum iam audientem ,cratippum1 idque ,athenis1 abundare oportet praeceptis institutisque philosophiae propter summam et doctoris auctoritatem et urbis1 quorum alter te scientia augere potest1 altera exemplis1 tamen1 ut ipse ad meam utilitatem semper cum ,graecis ,latina coniunxi neque id in philosophia solum1 sed etiam in dicendi exercitatione feci1 idem tibi censeo faciendum1 ut par sis in utriusque orationis facultate4 ,quam quidem ad rem nos1 ut videmur1 magnum attulimus adiumentum hominibus nostris1 ut non modo ,graecarum litterarum rudes1 sed etiam docti aliquantum se arbitrentur adeptos et ad dicendum#a et ad iudicandum4 99#b99 ,quam ob rem disces tu quidem a principe huius aetatis philosophorum1 et disces1 quam diu voles2 tam diu autem velle debebis1 quoad te1 quantum proficias1 non paenitebit2 sed tamen nostra legens non multum a ,peripateticis dissidentia1 quoniam utrique ,socratici et ,platonici volumus esse1 de rebus ipsis utere tuo iudicio 7nihil enim impedio71 orationem autem ,latinam efficies profecto legendis nostris pleniorem4 ,nec vero hoc arroganter dictum existimari velim4 ,nam philosophandi scientiam concedens multis1 quod est oratoris proprium1 apte1 distincte1 ornate dicere1 quoniam in eo studio aetatem consumpsi1 si id mihi assumo1 videor id meo iure quodam modo vindicare4 99#c99 ,quam ob rem magnopere te hortor1 mi ,cicero1 ut non solum orationes meas1 sed hos etiam de philosophia libros1 qui iam illis fere se#b aequarunt1 studiose legas2 vis enim maior in illis dicendi1 sed hoc quoque colendum est aequabile et temperatum orationis genus4 ,et id quidem nemini video ,graecorum adhuc contigisse1 ut idem utroque in genere elaboraret#c sequereturque et illud forense dicendi et hoc quietum disputandi genus1 nisi forte ,demetrius ,phalereus in hoc numero haberi potest1 disputator subtilis1 orator parum vehemens1 dulcis tamen1 ut ,theophrasti discipulum possis agnoscere4 ,nos autem quantum in utroque profecerimus1 aliorum sit iudicium1 utrumque certe secuti sumus4 99#d99 ,equidem et ,platonem existimo1 si genus forense dicendi tractare voluisset1 gravissime et copiosissime potuisse dicere1 et ,demosthenem1 si illa1 quae a ,platone didicerat1 tenuisset et pronuntiare voluisset1 ornate splendideque facere potuisse2 eodemque modo de ,aristotele et ,isocrate iudico1 quorum uterque suo studio delectatus contempsit alterum4 #a dicendum ,edd42 discendum ,,mss4 7i4e4 acquisition of learning74 #b se ,a c1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b p4 #c elaboraret ,lambin41 ,edd42 laboraret ,,mss4 ,introduction3 the importance of combining ,greek and ,latin studies4 99#a99 ,i4 ,my dear son ,marcus1 you have now been studying a full year under ,cratippus1 and that too in ,athens1 and you should be fully equipped with the practical precepts and the principles of philosophy2 so much at least one might expect from the pre-eminence not only of your teacher but also of the city2 the former is able to enrich you with learning1 the latter to supply you with models4 ,nevertheless1 just as ,i for my own improvement have always combined ,greek and ,latin studies--and ,i have done this not only in the study of philosophy but also in the practice of oratory--so ,i recommend that you should do the same1 so that you may have equal command of both languages4 ,and it is in this very direction that ,i have1 if ,i mistake not1 rendered a great service to our countrymen1 so that not only those who are unacquainted with ,greek literature but even the cultured consider that they have gained much both in oratorical power and in mental training4 ,greek ,philosophy and ,cicero's own4 99#b99 ,you will1 therefore1 learn from the foremost of present-day philosophers1 and you will go on learning as long as you wish2 and your wish ought to continue as long as you are not dissatisfied with the progress you are making4 ,for all that1 if you will read my philosophical books1 you will be helped2 my philosophy is not very different from that of the ,peripatetics 7for both they and ,i claim to be followers of ,socrates and ,plato74 ,as to the conclusions you may reach1 ,i leave that to your own judgment 7for ,i would put no hindrance in your way71 but by reading my philosophical writings you will be sure to render your mastery of the ,latin language more complete4 ,but ,i would by no means have you think that this is said boastfully4 ,for there are many to whom ,i yield precedence in knowledge of philosophy2 but if ,i lay claim to the orator's peculiar ability to speak with propriety1 clearness1 elegance1 ,i think my claim is in a measure justified1 for ,i have spent my life in that profession4 ,philosophy and oratory4 99#c99 ,and therefore1 my dear ,cicero1 ,i cordially recommend you to read carefully not only my orations but also these,a books of mine on philosophy1 which are now about as extensive4 ,for while the orations exhibit a more vigorous style1 yet the unimpassioned1 restrained style of my philosophical productions is also worth cultivating4 ,moreover1 for the same man to succeed in both departments1 both in the forensic style and in that of calm philosophic discussion has not1 ,i observe1 been the good fortune of any one of the ,greeks so far1 unless1 perhaps1 ,demetrius of ,phalerum can be reckoned in that number--a clever reasoner1 indeed1 and1 though rather a spiritless orator1 he is yet charming1 so that you can recognize in him the disciple of ,theophrastus4 ,but let others judge how much ,i have accomplished in each pursuit2 ,i have at least attempted both4 99#d99 ,i believe1 of course1 that if ,plato had been willing to devote himself to forensic oratory1 he could have spoken with the greatest eloquence and power2 and that if ,demosthenes had continued the studies he pursued with ,plato and had wished to expound his views1 he could have done so with elegance and brilliancy4 ,i feel the same way about ,aristotle and ,isocrates1 each of whom1 engrossed in his own profession1 undervalued that of the other4 ,a ,cicero is alluding to his ,republic1 ,tusculan ,disputations1 ,theories of the ,supreme ,good and ,evil1 ,the ,nature of the ,gods1 ,academics1 ,hortensius1 his essays on ,friendship 7,laelius71 ,old ,age 7,cato71 ,fate1 ,divination1 etc4 7#ae in all74 ,,ii4 ,sed cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid hoc tempore1 multa posthac1 ab eo ordiri maxime volui1 quod et aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae4 ,nam cum multa sint in philosophia et gravia et utilia accurate copioseque a philosophis disputata1 latissime patere videntur ea1 quae de officiis tradita ab illis et praecepta sunt4 ,nulla enim vitae pars neque publicis neque privatis neque forensibus neque domesticis in rebus1 neque si tecum agas quid1 neque si cum altero contrahas1 vacare officio potest1 in eoque et colendo sita vitae est honestas omnis et neglegendo#d turpitudo4 99#e99 ,atque haec quidem quaestio communis est omnium philosophorum2 quis est enim1 qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis philosophum se audeat dicere8 ,sed sunt non nullae disciplinae1 quae propositis bonorum et malorum finibus officium omne pervertant4 ,nam qui summum bonum sic instituit1 ut nihil habeat cum virtute coniunctum1 idque suis commodis1 non honestate metitur1 hic1 si sibi ipse consentiat et non interdum naturae bonitate vincatur neque amicitiam colere possit nec iustitiam nec liberalitatem2 fortis vero dolorem summum malum iudicans aut temperans voluptatem summum bonum statuens esse certe nullo modo potest4 de ,fin4 ,,ii1 #ab ff42 ,tusc4 ,disp4 ,,iv-,v2 de ,off4 ,,iii1 #aag 99#f99 ,quae quamquam ita sunt in promptu1 ut res disputatione non egeat1 tamen sunt a nobis alio loco disputata4 ,hae disciplinae igitur si sibi consentaneae velint esse1 de officio nihil queant dicere1 neque ulla officii praecepta firma1 stabilia1 coniuncta naturae tradi possunt nisi aut ab iis1 qui solam1 aut ab iis1 qui maxime honestatem propter se dicant expetendam4 ,ita propria est ea praeceptio ,stoicorum1 ,academicorum1 ,peripateticorum1 quoniam ,aristonis1 ,pyrrhonis1 ,erilli iam pridem explosa sententia est2 qui tamen haberent ius suum disputandi de officio1 si rerum aliquem dilectum#e reliquissent1 ut ad officii inventionem aditus esset4 ,sequemur#f igitur hoc quidem tempore et hac in quaestione potissimum ,stoicos non ut interpretes1 sed1 ut solemus1 e fontibus eorum iudicio arbitrioque nostro1 quantum quoque modo videbitur1 hauriemus4 99#g99 ,placet igitur1 quoniam omnis disputatio de officio futura est1 ante definire1 quid sit officium2 quod a ,panaetio praetermissum esse miror4 ,omnis enim1 quae a ratione#g suscipitur de aliqua re institutio1 debet a definitione proficisci1 ut intellegatur1 quid sit id1 de quo disputetur4444#h #d et neglegendo ,a ,h a b1 ,edd42 et in neglegendo ,b c4 #e dilectum ,b ,h a b1 ,edd42 delectum ,a c4 #f sequemur ,graevius1 ,edd42 sequimur ,,mss4 #g a ratione ,ed42 a ratione ,,mss42 ratione ,mller4 #h ,cicero's definition must have followed here1 something like ,omne igitur1 quod ratione actum est officium appellamus ,unger4 ,statement of subject4 ,,ii4 ,but since ,i have decided to write you a little now 7and a great deal by and by71 ,i wish1 if possible1 to begin with a matter most suited at once to your years and to my position4 ,although philosophy offers many problems1 both important and useful1 that have been fully and carefully discussed by philosophers1 those teachings which have been handed down on the subject of moral duties seem to have the widest practical application4 ,for no phase of life1 whether public or private1 whether in business or in the home1 whether one is working on what concerns oneself alone or dealing with another1 can be without its moral duty2 on the discharge of such duties depends all that is morally right1 and on their neglect all that is morally wrong in life4 ,the philosophic schools and ethical teaching4 99#e99 ,moreover1 the subject of this inquiry is the common property of all philosophers2 for who would presume to call himself a philosopher1 if he did not inculcate any lessons of duty8 ,but there are some schools that distort all notions of duty by the theories they propose touching the supreme good and the supreme evil4 ,for he who posits the supreme good as having no connection with virtue and measures it not by a moral standard but by his own interests--if he should be consistent and not rather at times over-ruled by his better nature1 he could value neither friendship nor justice nor generosity2 and brave he surely cannot possibly be that counts pain the supreme evil1 nor temperate he that holds pleasure to be the supreme good4 ,reasons for choice of subject and authorities4 99#f99 ,although these truths are so self-evident that the subject does not call for discussion1 still ,i have discussed it in another connection4 ,if1 therefore1 these schools should claim to be consistent1 they could not say anything about duty2 and no fixed1 invariable1 natural rules of duty can be posited except by those who say that moral goodness is worth seeking solely or chiefly for its own sake4 ,accordingly1 the teaching of ethics is the peculiar right of the ,stoics1 the ,academicians1 and the ,peripatetics2 for the theories of ,aristo1 ,pyrrho1 and ,erillus have been long since rejected2 and yet they would have the right to discuss duty if they had left us any power of choosing between things1 so that there might be a way of finding out what duty is4 ,i shall1 therefore1 at this time and in this investigation follow chiefly the ,stoics1 not as a translator1 but1 as is my custom1 ,i shall at my own option and discretion draw from those sources in such measure and in such manner as shall suit my purpose4 99#g99 ,since1 therefore1 the whole discussion is to be on the subject of duty1 ,i should like at the outset to define what duty is1 as1 to my surprise1 ,panaetius has failed to do4 ,for every systematic development of any subject ought to begin with a definition1 so that every one may understand what the discussion is about4 ,,iii4 ,omnis de officio duplex est quaestio3 unum genus est1 quod pertinet ad finem bonorum1 alterum1 quod positum est in praeceptis1 quibus in omnis partis usus vitae conformari#i possit4 ,superioris generis huius modi sunt exempla3 omniane officia perfecta sint1 num quod officium aliud alio maius sit1 et quae sunt generis eiusdem4 ,quorum autem officiorum praecepta traduntur1 ea quamquam pertinent ad finem bonorum1 tamen minus id apparet1 quia magis ad institutionem vitae communis spectare videntur2 de quibus est nobis his libris explicandum4 ,atque etiam alia divisio est officii4 99#h99 ,nam et medium quoddam officium dicitur et perfectum4 ,perfectum officium rectum1 opinor1 vocemus1 quoniam ,graeci 1 hoc autem commune officium vocant4#aj ,atque ea sic definiunt1 ut1 rectum quod sit1 id officium perfectum esse definiant2 medium autem officium id esse dicunt1 quod cur factum sit1 ratio probabilis reddi possit4 99#i99 ,triplex igitur est1 ut ,panaetio videtur1 consilii capiendi deliberatio4 ,nam aut honestumne factu sit an turpe dubitant id1 quod in deliberationem cadit2 in quo considerando saepe animi in contrarias sententias distrahuntur4 ,tum autem aut anquirunt#aa aut consultant1 ad vitae commoditatem iucunditatemque1 ad facultates rerum atque copias1 ad opes1 ad potentiam1 quibus et se possint iuvare et suos1 conducat id necne1 de quo deliberant2 quae deliberatio omnis in rationem utilitatis cadit4 ,tertium dubitandi genus est1 cum pugnare videtur cum honesto id1 quod videtur esse utile2 cum enim utilitas ad se rapere1 honestas contra revocare ad se videtur1 fit ut distrahatur in deliberando animus afferatque ancipitem curam cogitandi4 99#aj99 ,hac divisione1 cum praeterire aliquid maximum vitium in dividendo sit1 duo praetermissa sunt2 nec enim solum utrum honestum an turpe sit1 deliberari solet1 sed etiam duobus propositis honestis utrum honestius1 itemque duobus propositis utilibus utrum utilius4 ,ita1 quam ille triplicem putavit esse rationem1 in quinque partes distribui debere reperitur4 ,primum igitur est de honesto1 sed dupliciter1 tum pari ratione de utili1 post de comparatione eorum disserendum4 #i conformari ,edd42 confirmari ,,mss4 7i4e4 fortified74 #aj officium vocant ,pearce1 ,ed41 ,heine2 officium vocant ,,mss41 ,bt4 #aa anquirunt ,a ,b ,h b2 inquirunt a c4 ,classification of duties4 ,,iii4 ,every treatise on duty has two parts3 one1 dealing with the doctrine of the supreme good2 the other1 with the practical rules by which daily life in all its bearings may be regulated4 ,the following questions are illustrative of the first part3 whether all duties are absolute2 whether one duty is more important than another2 and so on4 ,but as regards special duties for which positive rules are laid down1 though they are affected by the doctrine of the supreme good1 still the fact is not so obvious1 because they seem rather to look to the regulation of every-day life2 and it is these special duties that ,i propose to treat at length in the following books4 99#h99 ,and yet there is still another classification of duties3 we distinguish between mean,b duty1 so-called1 and absolute duty4 ,absolute duty we may1 ,i presume1 call right1 for the ,greeks call it 1 while the ordinary duty they call 4 ,and the meaning of those terms they fix thus3 whatever is right they define as absolute duty1 but mean duty1 they say1 is duty for the performance of which an adequate reason may be rendered4 ,the threefold classification of ,panaetius4 99#i99 ,the consideration necessary to determine conduct is1 therefore1 as ,panaetius thinks1 a threefold one3 first1 people question whether the contemplated act is morally right or morally wrong2 and in such deliberation their minds are often led to widely divergent conclusions4 ,and then they examine and consider the question whether the action contemplated is or is not conducive to comfort and happiness in life1 to the command of means and wealth1 to influence1 and to power1 by which they may be able to help themselves and their friends2 this whole matter turns upon a question of expediency4 ,the third type of question arises when that which seems to be expedient seems to conflict with that which is morally right2 for when expediency seems to be pulling one way1 while moral right seems to be calling back in the opposite direction1 the result is that the mind is distracted in its inquiry and brings to it the irresolution that is born of deliberation4 ,the question is fivefold4 99#aj99 ,although omission is a most serious defect in classification1 two points have been overlooked in the foregoing3,c for we usually consider not only whether an action is morally right or morally wrong1 but also1 when a choice of two morally right courses is offered1 which one is morally better2 and likewise1 when a choice of two expedients is offered1 which one is more expedient4 ,thus the question which ,panaetius thought threefold ought1 we find1 to be divided into five parts4 ,first1 therefore1 we must discuss the moral--and that1 under two sub-heads2 secondly1 in the same manner1 the expedient2 and finally1 the cases where they must be weighed against each other4 ,b ,cicero's technical terms are difficult because he has to invent them to translate ,greek that is perfectly simple3 rectum is 'right1' i4e4 perfect1 absolute4 ,its opposite is medium1 'mean1' i4e4 intermediate1 falling short of the 'absolute' and occupying a middle ground2 common2 ordinary4 honestum is 'morally right'2 as a noun1 'moral goodness' 7 honestas72 its opposite is turpe1 'morally wrong4' honestas is 'moral rectitude1'--'moral goodness'2 'morality'2 its opposite turpitudo1 'moral wrong1' 'immorality4' honestus1 on the other hand1 is always 'honourable'2 and honores are always 'offices of honour4' ,c ,for ,panaetius was a ,stoic1 and the ,stoics did not admit that there were any degrees of right or wrong4 99#aa99 ,,iv4 ,principio generi animantium omni est a natura tributum1 ut se1 vitam corpusque tueatur1 declinet ea1 quae nocitura videantur1 omniaque1 quae sint ad vivendum necessaria1 anquirat et paret1 ut pastum1 ut latibula1 ut alia generis eiusdem4 ,commune item#ab animantium omnium est coniunctionis adpetitus procreandi causa et cura quaedam eorum1 quae procreata sint#ac2 sed inter hominem et beluam hoc maxime interest1 quod haec tantum1 quantum sensu movetur1 ad id solum1 quod adest quodque praesens est1 se accommodat paulum admodum sentiens praeteritum aut futurum2 homo autem1 quod rationis est particeps1 per quam consequentia cernit1 causas rerum videt earumque praegressus#ad et quasi antecessiones non ignorat1 similitudines comparat rebusque praesentibus adiungit atque annectit futuras1 facile totius vitae cursum videt ad eamque degendam praeparat res necessarias4 99#ab99 ,eademque natura vi rationis hominem conciliat homini et ad orationis et ad vitae societatem ingeneratque in primis praecipuum quendam amorem in eos1 qui procreati sunt1 impellitque1 ut hominum coetus et celebrationes et esse et a se obiri velit ob easque causas studeat parare ea1 quae suppeditent ad cultum et ad victum1 nec sibi soli1 sed coniugi1 liberis ceterisque1 quos caros habeat tuerique debeat2 quae cura exsuscitat etiam animos et maiores ad rem gerendam facit4 99#ac99 ,in primisque hominis est propria veri inquisitio atque investigatio4 ,itaque cum sumus necessariis negotiis curisque vacui1 tum avemus aliquid videre1 audire1 addiscere cognitionemque rerum aut occultarum aut admirabilium ad beate vivendum necessariam ducimus4 ,ex quo intellegitur1 quod verum1 simplex sincerumque sit1 id esse naturae hominis aptissimum4 ,huic veri videndi cupiditati adiuncta est appetitio quaedam principatus1 ut nemini parere animus bene informatus a natura velit nisi praecipienti aut docenti aut utilitatis causa iuste et legitime imperanti2 ex quo magnitudo animi existit humanarumque rerum contemptio4 99#ad99 ,nec vero illa parva vis naturae est rationisque1 quod unum hoc animal sentit1 quid sit ordo1 quid sit1 quod deceat1 in factis dictisque qui modus4 ,itaque eorum ipsorum1 quae aspectu sentiuntur1 nullum aliud animal pulchritudinem1 venustatem1 convenientiam partium sentit2 quam similitudinem natura ratioque ab oculis ad animum transferens multo etiam magis pulchritudinem1 constantiam1 ordinem in consiliis factisque conservandam#ae putat cavetque1 ne quid indecore effeminateve faciat1 tum in omnibus et opinionibus et factis ne quid libidinose aut faciat aut cogitet4 ,quibus ex rebus conflatur et efficitur id1 quod quaerimus1 honestum1 quod etiamsi nobilitatum non sit1 tamen honestum sit1 quodque vere dicimus1 etiamsi a nullo laudetur1 natura esse laudabile4 #ab item ,manutius1 ,edd42 autem ,,mss4 #ac procreata sint ,b ,h a b2 procreata sunt ,a 7871 ,bt42 procreantur c4 #ad praegressus ,a ,h a b1 ,edd42 progressus ,b c4 #ae conservandam ,,mss42 conservanda codd4 aliquot recentiores1 ,bt4 ,the essential differences between man and the lower animals4 99#aa99 ,,iv4 ,first of all1 ,nature has endowed every species of living creature with the instinct of self-preservation1 of avoiding what seems likely to cause injury to life or limb1 and of procuring and providing everything needful for life--food1 shelter1 and the like4 ,a common property of all creatures is also the reproductive instinct 7the purpose of which is the propagation of the species7 and also a certain amount of concern for their offspring4 ,instinct and ,reason4 ,but the most marked difference between man and beast is this3 the beast1 just as far as it is moved by the senses and with very little perception of past or future1 adapts itself to that alone which is present at the moment2 while man--because he is endowed with reason1 by which he comprehends the chain of consequences1 perceives the causes of things1 understands the relation of cause to effect and of effect to cause1 draws analogies1 and connects and associates the present and the future--easily surveys the course of his whole life and makes the necessary preparations for its conduct4 ,family ties4 99#ab99 ,nature likewise by the power of reason associates man with man in the common bonds of speech and life2 she implants in him above all1 ,i may say1 a strangely tender love for his offspring4 ,she also prompts men to meet in companies1 to form public assemblies and to take part in them themselves2 and she further dictates1 as a consequence of this1 the effort on man's part to provide a store of things that minister to his comforts and wants--and not for himself alone1 but for his wife and children and the others whom he holds dear and for whom he ought to provide2 and this responsibility also stimulates his courage and makes it stronger for the active duties of life4 ,search after truth4 99#ac99 ,above all1 the search after truth and its eager pursuit are peculiar to man4 ,and so1 when we have leisure from the demands of business cares1 we are eager to see1 to hear1 to learn something new1 and we esteem a desire to know the secrets or wonders of creation as indispensable to a happy life4 ,thus we come to understand that what is true1 simple1 and genuine appeals most strongly to a man's nature4 ,to this passion for discovering truth there is added a hungering1 as it were1 for independence1 so that a mind well-moulded by ,nature is unwilling to be subject to anybody save one who gives rules of conduct or is a teacher of truth or who1 for the general good1 rules according to justice and law4 ,from this attitude come greatness of soul and a sense of superiority to worldly conditions4 ,moral sensibility4 99#ad99 ,and it is no mean manifestation of ,nature and ,reason that man is the only animal that has a feeling for order1 for propriety1 for moderation in word and deed4 ,and so no other animal has a sense of beauty1 loveliness1 harmony in the visible world2 and ,nature and ,reason1 extending the analogy of this from the world of sense to the world of spirit1 find that beauty1 consistency1 order are far more to be maintained in thought and deed1 and the same ,nature and ,reason are careful to do nothing in an improper or unmanly fashion1 and in every thought and deed to do or think nothing capriciously4 ,it is from these elements that is forged and fashioned that moral goodness which is the subject of this inquiry--something that1 even though it be not generally ennobled1 is still worthy of all honour,d2 and by its own nature1 we correctly maintain1 it merits praise1 even though it be praised by none4 ,d ,cicero plays on the double meaning of honestum3 7#a7 'moral goodness1' and 7#b7 'honourable1' 'distinguished1' etc4 ,phaedr41 #bej ,d 99#ae99 ,v4 ,formam quidem ipsam1 ,marce fili1 et tamquam faciem honesti vides1 quae si oculis cerneretur1 mirabiles amores1 ut ait ,plato1 excitaret sapientiae4 ,sed omne1 quod est honestum1 id quattuor partium oritur ex aliqua3 aut enim in perspicientia veri sollertiaque versatur aut in hominum societate tuenda tribuendoque suum cuique et rerum contractarum fide aut in animi excelsi atque invicti magnitudine ac robore aut in omnium1 quae fiunt quaeque dicuntur1 ordine et modo1 in quo inest modestia et temperantia4 997#ae799 ,quae quattuor quamquam inter se colligata atque implicata sunt1 tamen ex singulis certa officiorum genera nascuntur1 velut ex ea parte1 quae prima discripta#af est1 in qua sapientiam et prudentiam ponimus1 inest indagatio atque inventio veri1 eiusque virtutis hoc munus est proprium4 99#af99 ,ut enim quisque maxime perspicit1 quid in re quaque verissimum sit1 quique acutissime et celerrime potest et videre et explicare rationem1 is prudentissimus et sapientissimus rite haberi solet4 ,quocirca huic quasi materia1 quam tractet et in qua versetur1 subiecta est veritas4 99#ag99 ,reliquis autem tribus virtutibus necessitates propositae sunt ad eas res parandas tuendasque1 quibus actio vitae continetur1 ut et societas hominum coniunctioque servetur et animi excellentia magnitudoque cum in augendis opibus utilitatibusque et sibi et suis comparandis1 tum multo magis in his ipsis despiciendis eluceat4 ,ordo autem#ag et constantia et moderatio et ea1 quae sunt his similia1 versantur in eo genere1 ad quod est adhibenda actio quaedam1 non solum mentis agitatio4 ,iis enim rebus1 quae tractantur in vita1 modum quendam et ordinem adhibentes honestatem et decus conservabimus4 #af discripta ,heine2 descripta ,,mss41 ,bt4 #ag autem ,,mss41 ,mller1 ,heine2 item ,pearce1 ,ed41 ,bt4 99#ae99 ,v4 ,you see here1 ,marcus1 my son1 the very form and as it were the face of ,moral ,goodness2 and if1 as ,plato says1 it could be seen with the physical eye1 it would awaken a marvellous love of wisdom4 ,the four ,cardinal ,virtues4 ,but all that is morally right rises from some one of four sources3 it is concerned either 7#a7 with the full perception and intelligent development of the true2 or 7#b7 with the conservation of organized society1 with rendering to every man his due1 and with the faithful discharge of obligations assumed2 or 7#c7 with the greatness and strength of a noble and invincible spirit2 or 7#d7 with the orderliness and moderation of everything that is said and done1 wherein consist temperance and self-control4 ,their several provinces4 997#ae799 ,although these four are connected and interwoven1 still it is in each one considered singly that certain definite kinds of moral duties have their origin3 in that category1 for instance1 which was designated first in our division and in which we place wisdom and prudence1 belong the search after truth and its discovery2 and this is the peculiar province of that virtue4 99#af99 ,for the more clearly anyone observes the most essential truth in any given case and the more quickly and accurately he can see and explain the reasons for it1 the more understanding and wise he is generally esteemed1 and justly so4 ,so1 then1 it is truth that is1 as it were1 the stuff with which this virtue has to deal and on which it employs itself4 99#ag99 ,before the three remaining virtues1 on the other hand1 is set the task of providing and maintaining those things on which the practical business of life depends1 so that the relations of man to man in human society may be conserved1 and that largeness and nobility of soul may be revealed not only in increasing one's resources and acquiring advantages for one's self and one's family but far more in rising superior to these very things4 ,but orderly behaviour and consistency of demeanour and self-control and the like have their sphere in that department of things in which a certain amount of physical exertion1 and not mental activity merely1 is required4 ,for if we bring a certain amount of propriety and order into the transactions of daily life1 we shall be conserving moral rectitude and moral dignity4 99#ah99 ,,vi4 ,ex quattuor autem locis1 in quos honesti naturam vimque divisimus1 primus ille1 qui in veri cognitione consistit1 maxime naturam attingit humanam4 ,omnes enim trahimur et ducimur ad cognitionis et scientiae cupiditatem1 in qua excellere pulchrum putamus1 labi autem1 errare1 nescire1 decipi et malum et turpe ducimus4#ah ,in hoc genere et naturali et honesto duo vitia vitanda sunt1 unum1 ne incognita pro cognitis habeamus iisque temere assentiamur2 quod vitium effugere qui volet 7omnes autem velle debent71 adhibebit ad considerandas res et tempus et diligentiam4 99#ai99 ,alterum est vitium1 quod quidam nimis magnum studium multamque operam in res obscuras atque difficiles conferunt easdemque non necessarias4 ,quibus vitiis declinatis quod in rebus honestis et cognitione dignis operae curaeque ponetur1 id iure laudabitur1 ut in astrologia ,c4 ,sulpicium audivimus1 in geometria ,sex4 ,pompeium ipsi cognovimus1 multos in dialecticis1 plures in iure civili1 quae omnes artes in veri investigatione versantur2 cuius studio a rebus gerendis abduci contra officium est4 ,virtutis enim laus omnis in actione consistit2 a qua tamen fit intermissio saepe multique dantur ad studia reditus2 tum agitatio mentis1 quae numquam acquiescit1 potest nos in studiis cognitionis#ai etiam sine opera nostra continere4 ,omnis autem cogitatio motusque animi aut in consiliis capiendis de rebus honestis et pertinentibus ad bene beateque vivendum aut in studiis scientiae cognitionisque versabitur4 ,ac de primo quidem officii fonte diximus4 #ah ducimus c1 ,edd42 dicimus ,a ,b ,h a b4 #ai cognitionis ,a1 ,bt41 ,mller1 ,heine2 cogitationis ,,bh a b c 7error caused by cogitatio in next line74 ,a4 ,wisdom4 99#ah99 ,,vi4 ,now1 of the four divisions which we have made of the essential idea of moral goodness1 the first1 consisting in the knowledge of truth1 touches human nature most closely4 ,for we are all attracted and drawn to a zeal for learning and knowing2 and we think it glorious to excel therein1 while we count it base and immoral to fall into error1 to wander from the truth1 to be ignorant1 to be led astray4 ,in this pursuit1 which is both natural and morally right1 two errors are to be avoided3 first1 we must not treat the unknown as known and too readily accept it2 and he who wishes to avoid this error 7as all should do7 will devote both time and attention to the weighing of evidence4 99#ai99 ,the other error is that some people devote too much industry and too deep study to matters that are obscure and difficult and useless as well4 ,if these errors are successfully avoided1 all the labour and pains expended upon problems that are morally right and worth the solving will be fully rewarded4 ,such a worker in the field of astronomy1 for example1 was ,gaius ,sulpicius1 of whom we have heard2 in mathematics1 ,sextus ,pompey1 whom ,i have known personally2 in dialectics1 many2 in civil law1 still more4 ,all these professions are occupied with the search after truth2 but to be drawn by study away from active life is contrary to moral duty4 ,for the whole glory of virtue is in activity2 activity1 however1 may often be interrupted1 and many opportunities for returning to study are opened4 ,besides1 the working of the mind1 which is never at rest1 can keep us busy in the pursuit of knowledge even without conscious effort on our part4 ,moreover1 all our thought and mental activity will be devoted either to planning for things that are morally right and that conduce to a good and happy life1 or to the pursuits of science and learning4 ,with this we close the discussion of the first source of duty4 99#bj99 ,,vii4 ,de tribus autem reliquis latissime patet ea ratio1 qua societas hominum inter ipsos et vitae quasi communitas continetur2 cuius partes duae1#bj iustitia1 in qua virtutis est splendor maximus1 ex qua viri boni nominantur1 et huic coniuncta beneficentia1 quam eandem vel benignitatem vel liberalitatem appellari licet4 ,sed iustitiae primum munus est1 ut ne cui quis noceat nisi lacessitus iniuria1 deinde ut communibus pro communibus utatur1 privatis ut suis4 99#ba99 ,sunt autem privata nulla natura1 sed aut vetere occupatione1 ut qui quondam in vacua venerunt1 aut victoria1 ut qui bello potiti sunt1 aut lege1 pactione1 condicione1 sorte2 ex quo fit1 ut ager ,arpinas ,arpinatium dicatur1 ,tusculanus ,tusculanorum2 similisque est privatarum possessionum discriptio4#ba ,ex quo1 quia suum cuiusque fit eorum1 quae natura fuerant communia1 quod cuique obtigit1 id quisque teneat2 e quo#bb si quis sibi appetet1 violabit ius humanae societatis4 ,ep4 ,,ix1 ad ,archytam1 #ceh ,a 99#bb99 ,sed quoniam1 ut praeclare scriptum est a ,platone1 non nobis solum nati sumus ortusque nostri partem patria vindicat1 partem amici1 atque1 ut placet ,stoicis1 quae in terris gignantur1 ad usum hominum omnia creari1 homines autem hominum causa esse generatos1 ut ipsi inter se aliis alii prodesse possent1 in hoc naturam debemus ducem sequi1 communes utilitates in medium afferre mutatione officiorum1 dando accipiendo1 tum artibus1 tum opera1 tum facultatibus devincire hominum inter homines societatem4 99#bc99 ,fundamentum autem est iustitiae fides1 id est dictorum conventorumque constantia et veritas4 ,ex quo1 quamquam hoc videbitur fortasse cuipiam durius1 tamen audeamus imitari ,stoicos1 qui studiose exquirunt1 unde verba sint ducta1 credamusque1 quia fiat1 quod dictum est1 appellatam fidem4 ,sed iniustitiae genera duo sunt1 unum eorum1 qui inferunt1 alterum eorum1 qui ab iis1 quibus infertur1 si possunt1 non propulsant iniuriam4 ,nam qui iniuste impetum in quempiam facit aut ira aut aliqua perturbatione incitatus1 is quasi manus afferre videtur socio2 qui autem non defendit nec obsistit1 si potest1 iniuriae1 tam est in vitio1 quam si parentes aut amicos aut patriam deserat4 99#bd99 ,atque illae quidem iniuriae1 quae nocendi causa de industria inferuntur1 saepe a metu proficiscuntur1 cum is1 qui nocere alteri cogitat1 timet ne1 nisi id fecerit1 ipse aliquo afficiatur incommodo4 ,maximam autem partem ad iniuriam faciendam aggrediuntur1 ut adipiscantur ea1 quae concupiverunt2 in quo vitio latissime patet avaritia4 #bj partes duae ,,bh b2 partes duae sunt c1 ,bt41 ,heine4 #ba discriptio ,b1 ,edd42 descriptio ,a ,h a b c4 #bb e quo ,a#a ,h a b c1 ,mller2 eo ,b1 de quo ,bt4 7suppl471 ,heine4 ,b4 ,justice4 99#bj99 ,,vii4 ,of the three remaining divisions1 the most extensive in its application is the principle by which society and what we may call its common bonds are maintained4 ,of this again there are two divisions--justice1 in which is the crowning glory of the virtues and on the basis of which men are called good men2 and1 close akin to justice1 charity1 which may also be called kindness or generosity4 ,the first office of justice is to keep one man from doing harm to another1 unless provoked by wrong2 and the next is to lead men to use common possessions for the common interests1 private property for their own4 ,public vs4 private interests4 99#ba99 ,there is1 however1 no such thing as private ownership established by nature1 but property becomes private either through long occupancy 7as in the case of those who long ago settled in unoccupied territory7 or through conquest 7as in the case of those who took it in war7 or by due process of law1 bargain1 or purchase1 or by allotment4 ,on this principle the lands of ,arpinum are said to belong to the ,arpinates1 the ,tusculan lands to the ,tusculans2 and similar is the assignment of private property4 ,therefore1 inasmuch as in each case some of those things which by nature had been common property became the property of individuals1 each one should retain possession of that which has fallen to his lot2 and if anyone appropriates to himself anything beyond that1 he will be violating the laws of human society4 99#bb99 ,but since1 as ,plato has admirably expressed it1 we are not born for ourselves alone1 but our country claims a share of our being1 and our friends a share2 and since1 as the ,stoics hold1 everything that the earth produces is created for man's use2 and as men1 too1 are born for the sake of men1 that they may be able mutually to help one another2 in this direction we ought to follow ,nature as our guide1 to contribute to the general good by an interchange of acts of kindness1 by giving and receiving1 and thus by our skill1 our industry1 and our talents to cement human society more closely together1 man to man4 ,good faith4 99#bc99 ,the foundation of justice1 moreover1 is good faith--that is1 truth and fidelity to promises and agreements4 ,and therefore we may follow the ,stoics1 who diligently investigate the etymology of words2 and we may accept their statement that good faith is so called because what is promised is made good1 although some may find this derivation,e rather far-fetched4 ,injustice3 active and passive4 ,there are1 on the other hand1 two kinds of injustice--the one1 on the part of those who inflict wrong1 the other on the part of those who1 when they can1 do not shield from wrong those upon whom it is being inflicted4 ,for he who1 under the influence of anger or some other passion1 wrongfully assaults another seems1 as it were1 to be laying violent hands upon a comrade2 but he who does not prevent or oppose wrong1 if he can1 is just as guilty of wrong as if he deserted his parents or his friends or his country4 99#bd99 ,then1 too1 those very wrongs which people try to inflict on purpose to injure are often the result of fear3 that is1 he who premeditates injuring another is afraid that1 if he does not do so1 he may himself be made to suffer some hurt4 ,but for the most part1 people are led to wrong-doing in order to secure some personal end2 in this vice1 avarice is generally the controlling motive4 ,e ,of course1 'good faith' and 'made good' have just as little etymological connection as fiat and fidem4 99#be99 ,,viii4 ,expetuntur autem divitiae cum ad usus vitae necessarios1 tum ad perfruendas voluptates4 ,in quibus autem maior est animus1 in iis pecuniae cupiditas spectat ad opes et ad gratificandi facultatem1 ut nuper ,m4 ,crassus negabat ullam satis magnam pecuniam esse ei1 qui in re publica princeps vellet esse1 cuius fructibus exercitum alere non posset4 ,delectant etiam magnifici apparatus vitaeque cultus cum elegantia et copia2 quibus rebus effectum est1 ut infinita pecuniae cupiditas esset4 ,nec vero rei familiaris amplificatio nemini nocens vituperanda est1 sed fugienda semper iniuria est4 99#bf99 ,maxime autem adducuntur plerique1 ut eos iustitiae capiat oblivio1 cum in imperiorum1 honorum1 gloriae cupiditatem inciderunt4#bc ,quod enim est apud ,ennium3 ,fab4 inc4 7,thyestes87 ,vahlen#b1 #djd ,nlla sancta scietas ,nc fides regni st1 id latius patet4 ,nam quicquid eius modi est1 in quo non possint plures excellere1 in eo fit plerumque tanta contentio1 ut difficillimum sit servare sanctam societatem4 ,declaravit id modo temeritas ,c4 ,caesaris1 qui omnia iura divina et humana pervertit propter eum1 quem sibi ipse opinionis errore finxerat1 principatum4 ,est autem in hoc genere molestum1 quod in maximis animis splendidissimisque ingeniis plerumque exsistunt honoris1 imperii1 potentiae1 gloriae cupiditates4 ,quo magis cavendum est1 ne quid in eo genere peccetur4 99#bg99 ,sed in omni iniustitia permultum interest1 utrum perturbatione aliqua animi1 quae plerumque brevis est et ad tempus1 an consulto et cogitata#bd fiat iniuria4 ,leviora enim sunt ea1 quae repentino aliquo motu accidunt1 quam ea1 quae meditata et praeparata inferuntur4 ,ac de inferenda quidem iniuria satis dictum est4 #bc inciderunt ,a ,b ,h ,l a b2 inciderint c4 #bd cogitata ,a ,b ,h a b p1 ,edd42 cogitatu c1 cogitato alii1 ,madvig 7ad ,de ,fin4 p4 #fif74 99#be99 ,,viii4 ,again1 men seek riches partly to supply the needs of life1 partly to secure the enjoyment of pleasure4 ,the dangers of ambition4 ,with those who cherish higher ambitions1 the desire for wealth is entertained with a view to power and influence and the means of bestowing favours2 ,marcus ,crassus1 for example1 not long since declared that no amount of wealth was enough for the man who aspired to be the foremost citizen of the state1 unless with the income from it he could maintain an army4 ,fine establishments and the comforts of life in elegance and abundance also afford pleasure1 and the desire to secure it gives rise to the insatiable thirst for wealth4 ,still1 ,i do not mean to find fault with the accumulation of property1 provided it hurts nobody1 but unjust acquisition of it is always to be avoided4 99#bf99 ,the great majority of people1 however1 when they fall a prey to ambition for either military or civil authority1 are carried away by it so completely that they quite lose sight of the claims of justice4 ,for ,ennius says3 ,there is no fellowship inviolate1 ,no faith is kept1 when kingship is concerned2 and the truth of his words has an uncommonly wide application4 ,for whenever a situation is of such a nature that not more than one can hold pre-eminence in it1 competition for it usually becomes so keen that it is an extremely difficult matter to maintain a fellowship inviolate4 ,caesar4 ,we saw this proved but now in the effrontery of ,gaius ,caesar1 who1 to gain that sovereign power which by a depraved imagination he had conceived in his fancy1 trod underfoot all laws of gods and men4 ,but the trouble about this matter is that it is in the greatest souls and in the most brilliant geniuses that we usually find ambitions for civil and military authority1 for power1 and for glory1 springing up2 and therefore we must be the more heedful not to go wrong in that direction4 ,the motives to wrong4 99#bg99 ,but in any case of injustice it makes a vast deal of difference whether the wrong is done as a result of some impulse of passion1 which is usually brief and transient1 or whether it is committed wilfully and with premeditation2 for offences that come through some sudden impulse are less culpable than those committed designedly and with malice aforethought4 ,but enough has been said on the subject of inflicting injury4 99#bh99 ,,ix4 ,praetermittendae autem defensionis deserendique officii plures solent esse causae2 nam aut inimicitias aut laborem aut sumptus suscipere nolunt aut etiam neglegentia1 pigritia1 inertia aut suis studiis quibusdam occupationibusve sic impediuntur1 ut eos1 quos tutari debeant1 desertos esse patiantur4 ,rep4 ,,vi1 #dhe ff4 ,,vii1 #ebj ,d ,itaque videndum est1 ne non satis sit id1 quod apud ,platonem est in philosophos dictum1 quod in veri investigatione versentur quodque ea1 quae plerique vehementer expetant1#be de quibus inter se digladiari soleant1 contemnant et pro nihilo putent1 propterea iustos esse4 ,nam alterum iustitiae genus assequuntur1#bf ut#bg inferenda ne cui noceant iniuria1 in alterum incidunt#bh2 discendi enim studio impediti1 quos tueri debent1 deserunt4 ,rep4 ,i1 #cdg ,c ,itaque eos ne ad rem publicam quidem accessuros putat nisi coactos4 ,aequius autem erat id voluntate fieri2 nam hoc ipsum ita iustum est1 quod recte fit1 si est voluntarium4 99#bi99 ,sunt etiam1 qui aut studio rei familiaris tuendae aut odio quodam hominum suum se negotium agere dicant nec facere cuiquam videantur iniuriam4 ,qui altero genere iniustitiae vacant1 in alterum incurrunt2 deserunt enim vitae societatem1 quia nihil conferunt in eam studii1 nihil operae1 nihil facultatum4 ,quando igitur duobus generibus iniustitiae propositis adiunximus causas utriusque generis easque res ante constituimus1 quibus iustitia contineretur1 facile1 quod cuiusque temporis officium sit1 poterimus1 nisi nosmet ipsos valde amabimus1 iudicare2 99#cj99 est enim difficilis cura rerum alienarum4 ,heaut4 ,tim4 #gg ,quamquam ,terentianus ille ,chremes humani nihil a se alienum putat2 sed tamen1 quia magis ea percipimus atque sentimus1 quae nobis ipsis aut prospera aut adversa eveniunt1 quam illa1 quae ceteris1 quae quasi longo intervallo interiecto videmus1 aliter de illis ac de nobis iudicamus4 ,quocirca bene praecipiunt1 qui vetant quicquam agere1 quod dubites aequum sit an iniquum4 ,aequitas enim lucet ipsa per se1 dubitatio cogitationem significat iniuriae4 #be expetant ,a ,b a b2 expectant ,h2 exspectant c4 #bf alterum iustitiae genus assequuntur ,,mss42 alterum assequuntur ,pearce1 ,j4 ,m4 ,heusinger1 et al42 alterum genus assequuntur ,beier4 #bg ut ,halm2 in ,,mss42 om4 ,bt4 #bh in alterum incidunt ,a ,b ,h a b2 in altero delinqunt c1 ,bt4 7delinquunt1 i4e4 they offend in the other direction74 ,motives to passive injustice2 99#bh99 ,,ix4 ,the motives for failure to prevent injury and so for slighting duty are likely to be various3 people either are reluctant to incur enmity or trouble or expense2 a4 ,preoccupation4 or through indifference1 indolence1 or incompetence1 or through some preoccupation or self-interest they are so absorbed that they suffer those to be neglected whom it is their duty to protect4 ,and so there is reason to fear that what ,plato declares of the philosophers may be inadequate1 when he says that they are just because they are busied with the pursuit of truth and because they despise and count as naught that which most men eagerly seek and for which they are prone to do battle against each other to the death4 ,for they secure one sort of justice1 to be sure1 in that they do no positive wrong to anyone1 but they fall into the opposite injustice2 for hampered by their pursuit of learning they leave to their fate those whom they ought to defend4 ,and so1 ,plato thinks1 they will not even assume their civic duties except under compulsion4 ,but in fact it were better that they should assume them of their own accord2 for an action intrinsically right is just only on condition that it is voluntary4 b4 ,self-interest4 99#bi99 ,there are some also who1 either from zeal in attending to their own business or through some sort of aversion to their fellow-men1 claim that they are occupied solely with their own affairs1 without seeming to themselves to be doing anyone any injury4 ,but while they steer clear of the one kind of injustice1 they fall into the other3 they are traitors to social life1 for they contribute to it none of their interest1 none of their effort1 none of their means4 ,rules of duty required by ,justice4 ,now since we have set forth the two kinds of injustice and assigned the motives that lead to each1 and since we have previously established the principles by which justice is constituted1 we shall be in a position easily to decide what our duty on each occasion is1 unless we are extremely self-centred2 99#cj99 for indeed it is not an easy matter to be really concerned with other people's affairs2 and yet in ,terence's play1 we know1 ,chremes thinks that nothing that concerns man is foreign to him4 ,nevertheless1 when things turn out for our own good or ill1 we realize it more fully and feel it more deeply than when the same things happen to others and we see them only1 as it were1 in the far distance2 and for this reason we judge their case differently from our own4 ,it is1 therefore1 an excellent rule that they give who bid us not to do a thing1 when there is a doubt whether it be right or wrong2 for righteousness shines with a brilliance of its own1 but doubt is a sign that we are thinking of a possible wrong4 99#ca99 ,x4 ,sed incidunt saepe tempora1 cum ea1 quae maxime videntur digna esse iusto homine eoque1 quem virum bonum dicimus1 commutantur fiuntque contraria1 ut reddere depositum1 facere promissum2 quaeque pertinent ad veritatem et ad fidem1 ea migrare interdum et non servare fit iustum4 ,ch4 ,,vii ,referri enim decet ad ea1 quae posui principio1 fundamenta iustitiae1 primum ut ne cui noceatur1 deinde ut communi utilitati serviatur4 ,ea cum tempore commutantur1 commutatur officium et non semper est idem4 99#cb99 ,potest enim accidere promissum aliquod et conventum1 ut id effici sit inutile vel ei1 cui promissum sit1 vel ei1 qui promiserit4 e4g4 ,eur4 ,hipp4 #acae-acai ,nam si1 ut in fabulis est1 ,neptunus1 quod ,theseo promiserat1 non fecisset1 ,theseus ,hippolyto filio non esset orbatus2 ex tribus enim optatis1 ut scribitur1 hoc erat tertium1 quod de ,hippolyti interitu iratus optavit2 quo impetrato in maximos luctus incidit4 ,nec promissa igitur servanda sunt ea1 quae sint iis1 quibus promiseris1 inutilia1 nec1 si plus tibi ea noceant quam illi prosint1 cui#bi promiseris1 contra officium est maius anteponi minori2 ut1 si constitueris cuipiam te advocatum in rem praesentem esse venturum atque interim graviter aegrotare filius coeperit1 non sit contra officium non facere1 quod dixeris1 magisque ille1 cui promissum sit1 ab officio discedat1 si se destitutum queratur4 ,iam illis promissis standum non esse quis non videt1 quae coactus quis metu1 quae deceptus dolo promiserit8 quae quidem pleraque iure praetorio liberantur1 non nulla legibus4 99#cc99 ,exsistunt etiam saepe iniuriae calumnia quadam et nimis callida1 sed malitiosa iuris interpretatione4 ,ex quo illud ,summum ius summa iniuria factum est iam tritum sermone proverbium4 ,quo in genere etiam in re publica multa peccantur1 ut ille1 qui1 cum triginta dierum essent cum hoste indutiae factae1 noctu populabatur agros1 quod dierum essent pactae1 non noctium indutiae4 ,ne noster quidem probandus1 si verum est ,q4 ,fabium ,labeonem seu quem alium 7nihil enim habeo praeter auditum7 arbitrum ,nolanis et ,neapolitanis de finibus a senatu datum1 cum ad locum venisset1 cum utrisque separatim locutum1 ne cupide quid agerent1 ne appetenter1 atque ut regredi quam progredi mallent4 ,id cum utrique fecissent1 aliquantum agri in medio relictum est4 ,itaque illorum finis sic1 ut ipsi dixerant1 terminavit2 in medio relictum quod erat1 populo ,romano adiudicavit4 ,decipere hoc quidem est1 non iudicare4 ,quocirca in omni est re fugienda talis sollertia4 #bi cui ,b a1 ,edd42 cui quod ,h b2 cui quid ,a c4 ,change of duty in change of circumstances4 99#ca99 ,x4 ,but occasions often arise1 when those duties which seem most becoming to the just man and to the good man1 as we call him1 undergo a change and take on a contrary aspect4 ,it may1 for example1 not be a duty to restore a trust or to fulfil a promise1 and it may become right and proper sometimes to evade and not to observe what truth and honour would usually demand4 ,for we may well be guided by those fundamental principles of justice which ,i laid down at the outset3 first1 that no harm be done to anyone2 second1 that the common interests be conserved4 ,when these are modified under changed circumstances1 moral duty also undergoes a change1 and it does not always remain the same4 99#cb99 ,non-fulfilment of promises4 ,for a given promise or agreement may turn out in such a way that its performance will prove detrimental either to the one to whom the promise has been made or to the one who has made it4 ,if1 for example1 ,neptune1 in the drama1 had not carried out his promise to ,theseus1 ,theseus would not have lost his son ,hippolytus2 for1 as the story runs1 of the three wishes,f that ,neptune had promised to grant him the third was this3 in a fit of anger he prayed for the death of ,hippolytus1 and the granting of this prayer plunged him into unspeakable grief4 ,promises are1 therefore1 not to be kept1 if the keeping of them is to prove harmful to those to whom you have made them2 and1 if the fulfilment of a promise should do more harm to you than good to him to whom you have made it1 it is no violation of moral duty to give the greater good precedence over the lesser good4 ,for example1 if you have made an appointment with anyone to appear as his advocate in court1 and if in the meantime your son should fall dangerously ill1 it would be no breach of your moral duty to fail in what you agreed to do2 nay1 rather1 he to whom your promise was given would have a false conception of duty1 if he should complain that he had been deserted in his time of need4 ,further than this1 who fails to see that those promises are not binding which are extorted by intimidation or which we make when misled by false pretences8 ,such obligations are annulled in most cases by the praetor's edict in equity1,g in some cases by the laws4 ,chicanery4 99#cc99 ,injustice often arises also through chicanery1 that is1 through an over-subtle and even fraudulent construction of the law4 ,this it is that gave rise to the now familiar saw1 ,more law1 less justice4 ,through such interpretation also a great deal of wrong is committed in transactions between state and state2 thus1 when a truce had been made with the enemy for thirty days1 a famous general,h went to ravaging their fields by night1 because1 he said1 the truce stipulated days1 not nights4 ,not even our own countryman's action is to be commended1 if what is told of ,quintus ,fabius ,labeo is true--or whoever it was 7for ,i have no authority but hearsay73 appointed by the ,senate to arbitrate a boundary dispute between ,nola and ,naples1 he took up the case and interviewed both parties separately1 asking them not to proceed in a covetous or grasping spirit1 but to make some concession rather than claim some accession4 ,when each party had agreed to this1 there was a considerable strip of territory left between them4 ,and so he set the boundary of each city as each had severally agreed2 and the tract in between he awarded to the ,roman ,people4 ,now that is swindling1 not arbitration4 ,and therefore such sharp practice is under all circumstances to be avoided4 ,f ,the three wishes were3 7#a7 safe return from ,hades2 7#b7 escape from the ,labyrinth2 7#c7 the death of ,hippolytus4 ,g ,each praetor1 at his inauguration1 announced publicly the principles and policies that should guide him in the administration of his office4 ,these were the source of the ,ius ,praetorium1 which explained and supplemented the common law 7,ius ,civile7 and even modified its ancient rigour so as to conform with a more advanced public sentiment1 and form a most valuable part of the body of ,roman ,law4 ,h ,this story is told of ,cleomenes1 ,king of ,sparta 7#ebj-dia ,b4,c471 in the war with ,argos4 7,plutarch1 ,apophth4 ,lacon4 #bbc ,a47 ,,xi4 ,sunt autem quaedam officia etiam adversus eos servanda1 a quibus iniuriam acceperis4 ,est enim ulciscendi et puniendi modus2 atque haud scio an satis sit eum1 qui lacessierit1 iniuriae suae paenitere1 ut et ipse ne quid tale posthac et ceteri sint ad iniuriam tardiores4 99#cd99 ,atque in re publica maxime conservanda sunt iura belli4 ,nam cum sint duo genera decertandi1 unum per disceptationem1 alterum per vim1 cumque illud proprium sit hominis1 hoc beluarum1 confugiendum est ad posterius1 si uti non licet superiore4 99#ce99 ,quare suscipienda quidem bella sunt ob eam causam1 ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur1 parta autem victoria conservandi ii1 qui non crudeles in bello1 non immanes fuerunt1 ut maiores nostri ,tusculanos1 ,aequos1 ,volscos1 ,sabinos1 ,hernicos in civitatem etiam acceperunt1 at ,carthaginem et ,numantiam funditus sustulerunt2 nollem ,corinthum1 sed credo aliquid secutos1 opportunitatem loci maxime1 ne posset aliquando ad bellum faciendum locus ipse adhortari4 ,mea quidem sententia paci1 quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum1 semper est consulendum4 ,in quo si mihi esset optemperatum1 si non optimam1 at aliquam rem publicam1 quae nunc nulla est1 haberemus4 ,et cum iis1 quos vi deviceris1 consulendum est1 tum ii1 qui armis positis ad imperatorum fidem confugient1 quamvis murum aries percusserit1 recipiendi4 ,in quo tantopere apud nostros iustitia culta est1 ut ii1 qui civitates aut nationes devictas bello in fidem recepissent1 earum patroni essent more maiorum4 99#cf99 ,ac belli quidem aequitas sanctissime fetiali populi ,romani iure perscripta est4 ,ex quo intellegi potest nullum bellum esse iustum1 nisi quod aut rebus repetitis geratur aut denuntiatum ante sit et indictum4 ,popilius imperator tenebat provinciam1 in cuius exercitu ,catonis filius tiro militabat4 ,cum autem ,popilio videretur unam dimittere legionem1 ,catonis quoque filium1 qui in eadem legione militabat1 dimisit4 ,sed cum amore pugnandi in exercitu remansisset1 ,cato ad ,popilium scripsit1 ut1 si eum patitur#cj in exercitu remanere1 secundo eum obliget militiae sacramento1 quia priore amisso iure cum hostibus pugnare non poterat4 99#cg99 ,adeo summa erat observatio in bello movendo4#ca ,m4 quidem ,catonis senis est epistula ad ,m4 filium1 in qua scribit se audisse eum missum factum esse a consule1 cum in ,macedonia bello ,persico miles esset4 ,monet igitur1 ut caveat1 ne proelium ineat2 negat enim ius esse1 qui miles non sit1 cum hoste pugnare4 #cj patitur ,a ,b ,h a b2 patiatur c4 #ca ,popilius 444 movendo bracketed by ,madvig1 ,edd42 ,popilius 444 poterat bracketed by ,unger4 ,our duty to those who have wronged us4 ,,xi4 ,again1 there are certain duties that we owe even to those who have wronged us4 ,for there is a limit to retribution and to punishment2 or rather1 ,i am inclined to think1 it is sufficient that the aggressor should be brought to repent of his wrong-doing1 in order that he may not repeat the offence and that others may be deterred from doing wrong4 99#cd99 ,then1 too1 in the case of a state in its external relations1 the rights of war must be strictly observed4 ,for since there are two ways of settling a dispute3 first1 by discussion2 second1 by physical force2 and since the former is characteristic of man1 the latter of the brute1 we must resort to force only in case we may not avail ourselves of discussion4 99#ce99 ,excuse for war4 ,the only excuse1 therefore1 for going to war is that we may live in peace unharmed2 and when the victory is won1 we should spare those who have not been blood-thirsty and barbarous in their warfare4 ,justice toward the vanquished4 ,for instance1 our forefathers actually admitted to full rights of citizenship the ,tusculans1 ,aequians1 ,volscians1 ,sabines1 and ,hernicians1 but they razed ,carthage and ,numantia to the ground4 ,i wish they had not destroyed ,corinth2 but ,i believe they had some special reason for what they did--its convenient situation1 probably--and feared that its very location might some day furnish a temptation to renew the war4 ,in my opinion1 at least1 we should always strive to secure a peace that shall not admit of guile4 ,and if my advice had been heeded on this point1 we should still have at least some sort of constitutional government1 if not the best in the world1 whereas1 as it is1 we have none at all4 ,not only must we show consideration for those whom we have conquered by force of arms but we must also ensure protection to those who lay down their arms and throw themselves upon the mercy of our generals1 even though the battering-ram has hammered at their walls4 ,and among our countrymen justice has been observed so conscientiously in this direction1 that those who have given promise of protection to states or nations subdued in war become1 after the custom of our forefathers1 the patrons of those states4 ,the humanity of ,rome's laws of war4 99#cf99 ,as for war1 humane laws touching it are drawn up in the fetial code of the ,roman ,people under all the guarantees of religion2 and from this it may be gathered that no war is just1 unless it is entered upon after an official demand for satisfaction has been submitted or warning has been given and a formal declaration made4 ,popilius was general in command of a province4 ,in his army ,cato's son was serving on his first campaign4 ,when ,popilius decided to disband one of his legions1 he discharged also young ,cato who was serving in that same legion4 ,but when the young man out of love for the service stayed on in the field1 his father wrote to ,popilius to say that if he let him stay in the army1 he should swear him into service with a new oath of allegiance1 for in view of the voidance of his former oath he could not legally fight the foe4 ,so extremely scrupulous was the observance of the laws in regard to the conduct of war4 99#cg99 ,there is extant1 too1 a letter of the elder ,marcus ,cato to his son ,marcus1 in which he writes that he has heard that the youth has been discharged by the consul1,i when he was serving in ,macedonia in the war with ,perseus4 ,he warns him1 therefore1 to be careful not to go into battle2 for1 he says1 the man who is not legally a soldier has no right to be fighting the foe4 ,i ,lucius ,aemilius ,paulus 7,b4,c4 #afh74 ,,xii4 ,equidem etiam illud animadverto1 quod1 qui proprio nomine perduellis esset1 is hostis vocaretur1 lenitate verbi rei tristitiam mitigatam4 ,hostis enim apud maiores nostros is dicebatur1 quem nunc peregrinum dicimus4 ,indicant duodecim tabulae3 ,,aut ,,status ,,dies ,,cum ,,hoste1 itemque3 ,,adversus ,,hostem ,,aeterna ,,auctoritas4 ,quid ad hanc mansuetudinem addi potest1 eum1 quicum bellum geras1 tam molli nomine appellare8 ,quamquam id nomen durius effecit#cb iam vetustas2 a peregrino enim recessit et proprie in eo1 qui arma contra ferret1 remansit4 99#ch99 ,cum vero de imperio decertatur belloque quaeritur gloria1 causas omnino subesse tamen oportet easdem1 quas dixi paulo ante iustas causas esse bellorum4 ,sed ea bella1 quibus imperii proposita gloria est1 minus acerbe gerenda sunt4 ,ut enim cum civi aliter contendimus1 si#cc est inimicus1 aliter1 si competitor 7cum altero certamen honoris et dignitatis est1 cum altero capitis et famae71 sic cum ,celtiberis1 cum ,cimbris bellum ut cum inimicis gerebatur1 uter esset1 non uter imperaret1 cum ,latinis1 ,sabinis1 ,samnitibus1 ,poenis1 ,pyrrho de imperio dimicabatur4 ,poeni foedifragi1 crudelis ,hannibal1 reliqui iustiores4 ,pyrrhi quidem de captivis reddendis illa praeclara3 ,ennius1 ,ann4 ,,vi1 ,vahlen#b1 xii1 #aid-bja ,nec mi aurum posco nec mi pretium dederitis1 ,nec#cd cauponantes bellum1 sed belligerantes ,ferro1 non auro vitam cernamus utrique4 ,vosne velit an me regnare era1 quidve ferat ,fors1 ,virtute experiamur4 ,et hoc simul accipe dictum3 ,quorum virtuti#ce belli fortuna pepercit1 ,eorundem libertati me parcere certum est4 ,dono1 ducite1 doque volentibus cum magnis dis4 ,regalis sane et digna ,aeacidarum genere sententia4 #cb effecit ,edd42 efficit ,,mss4 #cc cum cive ,edd43 civi aliter contendimus si ,l1 ,anemoecius1 ,edd42 cum civiliter contendimus aliter si ,a ,b ,h a b c4 #cd ,nec ,a ,b ,h b c2 ,non ,l p1 ,bt41 ,heine4 #ce virtuti ,a ,b#b ,l c1 ,edd42 virtute ,b#a ,h b2 virtutei ,vahlen4 ,,xii4 ,this also ,i observe--that he who would properly have been called a fighting enemy 7perduellis7 was called a guest 7hostis71 thus relieving the ugliness of the fact by a softened expression2 for enemy 7hostis7 meant to our ancestors what we now call stranger 7peregrinus74 ,this is proved by the usage in the ,twelve ,tables3 ,or a day fixed for trial with a stranger 7hostis74 ,and again3 ,right of ownership is inalienable for ever in dealings with a stranger 7hostis74 ,what can exceed such charity1 when he with whom one is at war is called by so gentle a name8 ,and yet long lapse of time has given that word a harsher meaning3 for it has lost its signification of stranger and has taken on the technical connotation of an enemy under arms4 ,justice in war4 99#ch99 ,but when a war is fought out for supremacy and when glory is the object of war1 it must still not fail to start from the same motives which ,i said a moment ago were the only righteous grounds for going to war4 ,but those wars which have glory for their end must be carried on with less bitterness4 ,for we contend1 for example1 with a fellow-citizen in one way1 if he is a personal enemy1 in another1 if he is a rival3 with the rival it is a struggle for office and position1 with the enemy for life and honour4 ,so with the ,celtiberians and the ,cimbrians we fought as with deadly enemies1 not to determine which should be supreme1 but which should survive2 but with the ,latins1 ,sabines1 ,samnites1 ,carthaginians1 and ,pyrrhus we fought for supremacy4 ,the ,carthaginians violated treaties2 ,hannibal was cruel2 the others were more merciful4 ,from ,pyrrhus we have this famous speech on the exchange of prisoners3 ,gold will ,i none1 nor price shall ye give2 for ,i ask none2 ,come1 let us not be chaff'rers of war1 but warriors embattled4 ,nay2 let us venture our lives1 and the sword1 not gold1 weigh the outcome4 ,make we the trial by valour in arms and see if ,dame ,fortune ,wills it that ye shall prevail or ,i1 or what be her judgment4 ,hear thou1 too1 this word1 good ,fabricius3 whose valour soever ,spared hath been by the fortune of war--their freedom ,i grant them4 ,such my resolve4 ,i give and present them to you1 my brave ,romans2 ,take them back to their homes2 the great gods' blessings attend you4 ,a right kingly sentiment this and worthy a scion of the ,aeacidae4 99#ci99 ,,xiii4 ,atque etiam si quid singuli temporibus adducti hosti promiserunt1 est in eo ipso fides conservanda1 ut primo ,punico bello ,regulus captus a ,poenis cum de captivis commutandis ,romam missus esset iurassetque se rediturum1 primum1 ut venit1 captivos reddendos in senatu non censuit1 deinde1 cum retineretur a propinquis et ab amicis1 ad supplicium redire maluit quam fidem hosti datam fallere4 99#dj99 ,secundo autem ,punico bello post ,cannensem pugnam quos decem ,hannibal ,romam astrictos misit iure iurando se redituros esse1 nisi de redimendis iis1 qui capti erant1 impetrassent1 eos omnes censores1 quoad quisque eorum vixit1 qui peierassent1 in aerariis reliquerunt nec minus illum1 qui iuris iurandi fraude culpam invenerat4 ,cum enim ,hannibalis permissu exisset de castris1 rediit paulo post1 quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret2 deinde egressus e castris iure iurando se solutum putabat1 et erat verbis1 re non erat4 ,semper autem in fide quid senseris1 non quid dixeris1 cogitandum4 ,maximum autem exemplum est iustitiae in hostem a maioribus nostris constitutum1 cum a ,pyrrho perfuga senatui est pollicitus se venenum regi daturum et eum necaturum1 senatus et ,c4 ,fabricius perfugam ,pyrrho dedidit4 ,ita ne hostis quidem et potentis et bellum ultro inferentis interitum cum scelere approbavit4#cf 99#da99 ,ac de bellicis quidem officiis satis dictum est4 ,meminerimus autem etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam4 ,est autem infima condicio et fortuna servorum1 quibus non male praecipiunt qui ita iubent uti1 ut mercennariis3 operam exigendam1 iusta praebenda4 ,cum autem duobus modis1 id est aut vi aut fraude1 fiat iniuria1 fraus quasi vulpeculae1 vis leonis videtur2 utrumque homine alienissimum1 sed fraus odio digna maiore4 ,totius autem iniustitiae nulla capitalior quam eorum1 qui tum1 cum maxime fallunt1 id agunt1 ut viri boni esse videantur4 ,de iustitia satis dictum4 #cf ,secundo 444 re non erat om4 ,l c2 ,secundo 444 approbavit om4 ,a ,b ,h a b p1 ,edd4 ,fidelity to a promise3 99#ci99 ,,xiii4 ,again1 if under stress of circumstances individuals have made any promise to the enemy1 they are bound to keep their word even then4 7#a7 ,regulus4 ,for instance1 in the ,first ,punic ,war1 when ,regulus was taken prisoner by the ,carthaginians1 he was sent to ,rome on parole to negotiate an exchange of prisoners2 he came and1 in the first place1 it was he that made the motion in the senate that the prisoners should not be restored2 and in the second place1 when his relatives and friends would have kept him back1 he chose to return to a death by torture rather than prove false to his promise1 though given to an enemy4 7#b7 ,hannibal's envoys4 99#dj99 ,and again in the ,second ,punic ,war1 after the ,battle of ,cannae1 ,hannibal sent to ,rome ten ,roman captives bound by an oath to return to him1 if they did not succeed in ransoming his prisoners2 and as long as any one of them lived1 the censors kept them all degraded and disfranchised1 because they were guilty of perjury in not returning4 ,and they punished in like manner the one who had incurred guilt by an evasion of his oath3 with ,hannibal's permission this man left the camp and returned a little later on the pretext that he had forgotten something or other2 and then1 when he left the camp the second time1 he claimed that he was released from the obligation of his oath2 and so he was1 according to the letter of it1 but not according to the spirit4 ,in the matter of a promise one must always consider the meaning and not the mere words4 ,our forefathers have given us another striking example of justice toward an enemy3 when a deserter from ,pyrrhus promised the senate to administer poison to the king and thus work his death1 the senate and ,gaius ,fabricius delivered the deserter up to ,pyrrhus4 ,thus they stamped with their disapproval the treacherous murder even of an enemy who was at once powerful1 unprovoked1 aggressive1 and successful4 99#da99 ,with this ,i will close my discussion of the duties connected with war4 ,justice toward slaves4 ,but let us remember that we must have regard for justice even towards the humblest4 ,now the humblest station and the poorest fortune are those of slaves2 and they give us no bad rule who bid us treat our slaves as we should our employees3 they must be required to work2 they must be given their dues4 ,injustice of hypocrisy4 ,while wrong may be done1 then1 in either of two ways1 that is1 by force or by fraud1 both are bestial3 fraud seems to belong to the cunning fox1 force to the lion2 both are wholly unworthy of man1 but fraud is the more contemptible4 ,but of all forms of injustice1 none is more flagrant than that of the hypocrite who1 at the very moment when he is most false1 makes it his business to appear virtuous4 ,this must conclude our discussion of justice4 ,ch4 ,,vii 99#db99 ,,xiv4 ,deinceps1 ut erat propositum1 de beneficentia ac de liberalitate dicatur1 qua quidem nihil est naturae hominis accommodatius1 sed habet multas cautiones4 ,videndum est enim1 primum ne obsit benignitas et iis ipsis1 quibus benigne videbitur fieri1 et ceteris1 deinde ne maior benignitas sit quam facultates1 tum ut pro dignitate cuique tribuatur2 id enim est iustitiae fundamentum1 ad quam haec referenda sunt omnia4 ,nam et qui gratificantur cuipiam1 quod obsit illi1 cui prodesse velle videantur1 non benefici neque liberales1 sed perniciosi assentatores iudicandi sunt1 et qui aliis nocent1 ut in alios liberales sint1 in eadem sunt iniustitia1 ut si in suam rem aliena convertant4 99#dc99 ,sunt autem multi1 et quidem cupidi splendoris et gloriae1 qui eripiunt aliis1 quod aliis largiantur1 iique arbitrantur se beneficos in suos amicos visum iri1 si locupletent eos quacumque ratione4 ,id autem tantum abest ab#cg officio1 ut nihil magis officio possit esse contrarium4 ,videndum est igitur1 ut ea liberalitate utamur1 quae prosit amicis1 noceat nemini4 ,quare ,l4 ,sullae1 ,c4 ,caesaris pecuniarum translatio a iustis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri2 nihil est enim liberale1 quod non idem iustum4 99#dd99 ,alter locus erat cautionis1 ne benignitas maior esset quam facultates1 quod1 qui benigniores volunt esse1 quam res patitur1 primum in eo peccant1 quod iniuriosi sunt in proximos2 quas enim copias his#ch et suppeditari aequius est et relinqui1 eas transferunt ad alienos4 ,inest autem in tali liberalitate cupiditas plerumque rapiendi et auferendi per iniuriam1 ut ad largiendum suppetant copiae4 ,videre etiam licet plerosque non tam natura liberales quam quadam gloria ductos1 ut benefici videantur1 facere multa1 quae proficisci ab ostentatione magis quam a voluntate videantur4 ,talis autem simulatio vanitati est coniunctior quam aut liberalitati aut honestati4 99#de99 ,tertium est propositum1 ut in beneficentia dilectus esset dignitatis2 in quo et mores eius erunt spectandi in quem beneficium conferetur1 et animus erga nos et communitas ac societas vitae et ad nostras utilitates officia ante collata2 quae ut concurrant omnia1 optabile est2 si minus1 plures causae maioresque ponderis plus habebunt4 #cg ab c1 ,edd42 not in ,a ,b ,h ,l b4 #ch his ,h a1 ,edd42 iis ,a ,b b2 eis ,l c4 ,justice and generosity4 99#db99 ,,xiv4 ,next in order1 as outlined above1 let us speak of kindness and generosity4 ,nothing appeals more to the best in human nature than this1 but it calls for the exercise of caution in many particulars3 we must1 in the first place1 see to it that our act of kindness shall not prove an injury either to the object of our beneficence or to others2 in the second place1 that it shall not be beyond our means2 and finally1 that it shall be proportioned to the worthiness of the recipient2 for this is the corner-stone of justice2 and by the standard of justice all acts of kindness must be measured4 ,for those who confer a harmful favour upon some one whom they seemingly wish to help are to be accounted not generous benefactors but dangerous sycophants2 and likewise those who injure one man1 in order to be generous to another1 are guilty of the same injustice as if they diverted to their own accounts the property of their neighbours4 ,generosity must be 7#a7 hurtful to no one1 99#dc99 ,now1 there are many--and especially those who are ambitious for eminence and glory--who rob one to enrich another2 and they expect to be thought generous towards their friends1 if they put them in the way of getting rich1 no matter by what means4 ,such conduct1 however1 is so remote from moral duty that nothing can be more completely opposed to duty4 ,we must1 therefore1 take care to indulge only in such liberality as will help our friends and hurt no one4 ,the conveyance of property by ,lucius ,sulla and ,gaius ,caesar from its rightful owners to the hands of strangers should1 for that reason1 not be regarded as generosity2 for nothing is generous1 if it is not at the same time just4 7#b7 within our means1 99#dd99 ,the second point for the exercise of caution was that our beneficence should not exceed our means2 for those who wish to be more open-handed than their circumstances permit are guilty of two faults3 first1 they do wrong to their next of kin2 for they transfer to strangers property which would more justly be placed at their service or bequeathed to them4 ,and second1 such generosity too often engenders a passion for plundering and misappropriating property1 in order to supply the means for making large gifts4 ,we may also observe that a great many people do many things that seem to be inspired more by a spirit of ostentation than by heart-felt kindness2 for such people are not really generous but are rather influenced by a sort of ambition to make a show of being open-handed4 ,such a pose is nearer akin to hypocrisy than to generosity or moral goodness4 7#c7 according to merit4 99#de99 ,the third rule laid down was that in acts of kindness we should weigh with discrimination the worthiness of the object of our benevolence2 we should take into consideration his moral character1 his attitude toward us1 the intimacy of his relations to us1 and our common social ties1 as well as the services he has hitherto rendered in our interest4 ,it is to be desired that all these considerations should be combined in the same person2 if they are not1 then the more numerous and the more important considerations must have the greater weight4 99#df99 ,,xv4 ,quoniam autem vivitur non cum perfectis hominibus planeque sapientibus1 sed cum iis1 in quibus praeclare agitur si sunt simulacra virtutis1 etiam hoc intellegendum puto1 neminem omnino esse neglegendum1 in quo aliqua significatio virtutis appareat1 colendum autem esse ita quemque maxime1 ut quisque maxime virtutibus his lenioribus erit ornatus1 modestia1 temperantia1 hac ipsa1 de qua multa iam dicta sunt1 iustitia4 ,nam fortis animus et magnus in homine non perfecto nec sapiente#ci ferventior plerumque est1 illae virtutes bonum virum videntur potius attingere4 ,atque haec in moribus4 99#dg99 ,de benivolentia autem1 quam quisque habeat erga nos1 primum illud est in officio1 ut ei plurimum tribuamus1 a quo plurimum diligamur1#dj sed benivolentiam non adulescentulorum more ardore quodam amoris1 sed stabilitate potius et constantia iudicemus4 ,sin erunt merita1 ut non ineunda1 sed referenda sit gratia1 maior quaedam cura adhibenda est2 nullum enim officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est4 ,op4 #cdi-cea 99#dh99 ,quodsi ea1 quae utenda acceperis1 maiore mensura1 si modo possis1 iubet reddere ,hesiodus1 quidnam beneficio provocati facere debemus8 an imitari agros fertiles1 qui multo plus efferunt quam acceperunt8 ,etenim si in eos1 quos speramus nobis profuturos1 non dubitamus officia conferre1 quales in eos esse debemus1 qui iam profuerunt8 ,nam cum duo genera liberalitatis sint1 unum dandi beneficii1 alterum reddendi1 demus necne1 in nostra potestate est1 non reddere viro bono non licet1 modo#da id facere possit sine iniuria4 99#di99 ,acceptorum autem beneficiorum sunt dilectus habendi1 nec dubium1 quin maximo cuique plurimum debeatur4 ,in quo tamen in primis1 quo quisque animo1 studio1 benivolentia facerit1 ponderandum est4 ,multi enim faciunt multa temeritate quadam sine iudicio vel morbo in omnes vel repentino quodam quasi vento impetu animi incitati2 quae beneficia aeque magna non sunt habenda atque ea1 quae iudicio1 considerate constanterque delata sunt4 ,sed in collocando beneficio et in referenda gratia1 si cetera paria sunt1 hoc maxime officii est1 ut quisque maxime opis indigeat1 ita ei potissimum opitulari2 quod contra fit a plerisque2 a quo enim plurimum sperant1#db etiamsi ille iis non eget1 tamen ei potissimum inserviunt4 #ci sapiente ,,mss42 sapienti ,wesenberg1 ,bt4 #dj diligamur ,a ,b#b ,h ,l b c2 diligimur ,b#a1 ,bt#a4 #da modo ,a ,h ,l b c2 si modo ,b4 #db sperant ,marg4 ,a1 ,edd42 spectant ,a b 7spernant ,marg4 b74 99#df99 ,,xv4 ,now1 the men we live with are not perfect and ideally wise1 but men who do very well1 if there be found in them but the semblance of virtue4 ,i therefore think that this is to be taken for granted1 that no one should be entirely neglected who shows any trace of virtue2 but the more a man is endowed with these finer virtues--temperance1 self-control1 and that very justice about which so much has already been said--the more he deserves to be favoured4 ,i do not mention fortitude1 for a courageous spirit in a man who has not attained perfection and ideal wisdom is generally too impetuous2 it is those other virtues that seem more particularly to mark the good man4 ,so much in regard to the character of the object of our beneficence4 ,motives to generosity3 7#a7 love1 99#dg99 ,but as to the affection which anyone may have for us1 it is the first demand of duty that we do most for him who loves us most2 but we should measure affection1 not like youngsters1 by the ardour of its passion1 but rather by its strength and constancy4 7#b7 requital1 ,but if there shall be obligations already incurred1 so that kindness is not to begin with us1 but to be requited1 still greater diligence1 it seems1 is called for2 for no duty is more imperative than that of proving one's gratitude4 99#dh99 ,but if1 as ,hesiod bids1 one is to repay with interest1 if possible1 what one has borrowed in time of need1 what1 pray1 ought we to do when challenged by an unsought kindness8 ,shall we not imitate the fruitful fields1 which return more than they receive8 ,for if we do not hesitate to confer favours upon those who we hope will be of help to us1 how ought we to deal with those who have already helped us8 ,for generosity is of two kinds3 doing a kindness and requiting one4 ,whether we do the kindness or not is optional2 but to fail to requite one is not allowable to a good man1 provided he can make the requital without violating the rights of others4 99#di99 ,furthermore1 we must make some discrimination between favours received2 for1 as a matter of course1 the greater the favour1 the greater is the obligation4 ,but in deciding this we must above all give due weight to the spirit1 the devotion1 the affection1 that prompted the favour4 ,for many people often do favours impulsively for everybody without discrimination1 prompted by a morbid sort of benevolence or by a sudden impulse of the heart1 shifting as the wind4 ,such acts of generosity are not to be so highly esteemed as those which are performed with judgment1 deliberation1 and mature consideration4 ,but in bestowing a kindness1 as well as in making a requital1 the first rule of duty requires us--other things being equal--to lend assistance preferably to people in proportion to their individual need4 7#c7 self-interest1 ,most people adopt the contrary course3 they put themselves most eagerly at the service of the one from whom they hope to receive the greatest favours1 even though he has no need of their help4 99#ej99 ,,xvi4 ,optime autem societas hominum coniunctioque servabitur1 si1 ut quisque erit coniunctissimus1 ita in eum benignitatis plurimum conferetur4 ,sed1 quae naturae principia sint communitatis et societatis humanae1 repetendum videtur altius2 est enim primum1 quod cernitur in universi generis humani societate4 ,eius autem vinculum est ratio et oratio1 quae docendo1 discendo1 communicando1 disceptando1 iudicando conciliat inter se homines coniungitque naturali quadam societate2 neque ulla re longius absumus a natura ferarum1 in quibus inesse fortitudinem saepe dicimus1 ut in equis1 in leonibus1 iustitiam1 aequitatem1 bonitatem non dicimus2 sunt enim rationis et orationis expertes4 99#ea99 ,ac latissime quidem patens hominibus inter ipsos1 omnibus inter omnes societas haec est2 in qua omnium rerum1 quas ad communem hominum usum natura genuit1 est servanda communitas1 ut1 quae discripta#dc sunt legibus et iure civili1 haec ita teneantur1 ut sit constitutum legibus ipsis1#dd cetera sic observentur1 ut in ,graecorum proverbio est1 amicorum esse communia omnia4 ,omnium#de autem communia hominum videntur ea1 quae sunt generis eius1 quod ab ,ennio positum in una re transferri in permultas potest3 7,telephus87 ,vahlen#b1 ,fab4 ,inc4 #cih ,hom1 qui erranti cmiter monstrt viam1 ,quasi lmen de suo lmine accendt1 facit4 ,nihil minus ipsi lcet1#df cum illi accnderit4 ,una ex re satis praecipit1 ut1 quicquid sine detrimento commodari possit1 id tribuatur vel ignoto2 99#eb99 ex quo sunt illa communia3 non prohibere aqua profluente1 pati ab igne ignem capere1 si qui velit1 consilium fidele deliberanti dare1 quae sunt iis utilia1 qui accipiunt1 danti non molesta4 ,quare et his utendum est et semper aliquid ad communem utilitatem afferendum4 ,sed quoniam copiae parvae singulorum sunt1 eorum autem1 qui his egeant1 infinita est multitudo1 vulgaris liberalitas referenda est ad illum ,ennii finem3 ,nihilo minus ipsi lucet1 ut facultas sit1 qua in nostros simus liberales4 #dc discripta ,h b1 ,edd42 descripta ,a ,b ,l a c4 #dd legibus ipsis ,gulielmus1 ,edd42 e 7ex c7 quibus ipsis ,,mss4 #de ,omnium ,zumpt1 ,edd42 omnia ,,mss4 #df ipsi lucet ,edd42 ipsi luceat ,a ,b ,h b c2 ipsi ut luceat a4 7#d7 relationship4 99#ej99 ,,xvi4 ,the interests of society1 however1 and its common bonds will be best conserved1 if kindness be shown to each individual in proportion to the closeness of his relationship4 ,the principles of human society4 ,but it seems we must trace back to their ultimate sources the principles of fellowship and society that nature has established among men4 ,the first principle is that which is found in the connection subsisting between all the members of the human race2 and that bond of connection is reason and speech1 which by the processes of teaching and learning1 of communicating1 discussing1 and reasoning associate men together and unite them in a sort of natural fraternity4 ,in no other particular are we farther removed from the nature of beasts2 for we admit that they may have courage 7horses and lions1 for example72 but we do not admit that they have justice1 equity1 and goodness2 for they are not endowed with reason or speech4 99#ea99 ,this1 then1 is the most comprehensive bond that unites together men as men and all to all2 and under it the common right to all things that nature has produced for the common use of man is to be maintained1 with the understanding that1 while everything assigned as private property by the statutes and by civil law shall be so held as prescribed by those same laws1 everything else shall be regarded in the light indicated by the ,greek proverb3 ,amongst friends all things in common4,j ,furthermore1 we find the common property of all men in things of the sort defined by ,ennius2 and though restricted by him to one instance1 the principle may be applied very generally3 ,who kindly sets a wand'rer on his way ,does e'en as if he lit another's lamp by his3 ,no less shines his1 when he his friend's hath lit4 ,in this example he effectively teaches us all to bestow even upon a stranger what it costs us nothing to give4 99#eb99 ,on this principle we have the following maxims3 ,deny no one the water that flows by2 ,let anyone who will take fire from our fire2 ,honest counsel give to one who is in doubt2 for such acts are useful to the recipient and cause the giver no loss4 ,we should1 therefore1 adopt these principles and always be contributing something to the common weal4 ,but since the resources of individuals are limited and the number of the needy is infinite1 this spirit of universal liberality must be regulated according to that test of ,ennius--,no less shines his--in order that we may continue to have the means for being generous to our friends4 ,j 77 7,plato1 ,phaedr4 #bgi ,c2 ,aristotle1 ,eth4 ,,viii1 #aa74 99#ec99 ,,xvii4 ,gradus autem plures sunt societatis hominum4 ,ut enim ab illa infinita discedatur1 propior#dg est eiusdem gentis1 nationis1 linguae1 qua maxime homines coniunguntur2 interius etiam est eiusdem esse civitatis2 multa enim sunt civibus inter se communia1 forum1 fana1 porticus1 viae1 leges1 iura1 iudicia1 suffragia1 consuetudines praeterea et familiaritates multisque cum multis res rationesque contractae4 ,artior vero colligatio est societatis propinquorum2 ab illa enim immensa societate humani generis in exiguum angustumque concluditur4 99#ed99 ,nam cum sit hoc natura commune animantium1 ut habeant lubidinem procreandi1 prima societas in ipso coniugio est1 proxima in liberis1 deinde una domus1 communia omnia2 id autem est principium urbis et quasi seminarium rei publicae4 ,sequuntur fratrum coniunctiones1 post consobrinorum sobrinorumque1 qui cum una domo iam capi non possint1 in alias domos tamquam in colonias exeunt4 ,sequuntur conubia et affinitates1 ex quibus etiam plures propinqui2 quae propagatio et suboles origo est rerum publicarum4 ,sanguinis autem coniunctio et benivolentia devincit homines et#dh caritate2 99#ee99 magnum est enim eadem habere monumenta maiorum1 eisdem uti sacris1 sepulcra habere communia4 ,sed omnium societatum nulla praestantior est1 nulla firmior1 quam cum viri boni moribus similes sunt familiaritate coniuncti2 illud enim honestum1 quod saepe dicimus1 etiam si in alio cernimus1 tamen#di nos movet atque illi1 in quo id inesse videtur1 amicos facit4 99#ef99 ,et quamquam omnis virtus nos ad se allicit facitque1 ut eos diligamus1 in quibus ipsa inesse videatur1 tamen iustitia et liberalitas id maxime efficit4 ,nihil autem est amabilius nec copulatius quam morum similitudo bonorum2 in quibus enim eadem studia sunt1 eaedem voluntates1 in iis fit ut aeque quisque altero delectetur ac se ipso1 efficiturque id1 quod ,pythagoras vult in amicitia1 ut#ej unus fiat ex pluribus4 ,magna etiam illa communitas est1 quae conficitur ex beneficiis ultro et citro datis acceptis1 quae et mutua et grata dum sunt1 inter quos ea sunt1 firma devinciuntur societate4 99#eg99 ,sed cum omnia ratione animoque lustraris1 omnium societatum nulla est gravior1 nulla carior quam ea1 quae cum re publica est uni cuique nostrum4 ,cari sunt parentes1 cari liberi1 propinqui1 familiares1 sed omnes omnium caritates patria una complexa est1 pro qua quis bonus dubitet mortem oppetere1 si ei sit profuturus8 ,quo est detestabilior istorum immanitas1 qui lacerarunt omni scelere patriam et in ea funditus delenda occupati et sunt et fuerunt4 99#eh99 ,sed si contentio quaedam et comparatio fiat1 quibus plurimum tribuendum sit officii1 principes sint patria et parentes1 quorum beneficiis maximis obligati sumus1 proximi liberi totaque domus1 quae spectat in nos solos neque aliud ullum potest habere perfugium1 deinceps bene convenientes propinqui1 quibuscum communis etiam fortuna plerumque est4 ,quam ob rem necessaria praesidia vitae debentur iis maxime1 quos ante dixi1 vita autem victusque communis1 consilia1 sermones1 cohortationes1 consolationes1 interdum etiam obiurgationes in amicitiis vigent maxime1 estque ea iucundissima amicitia1 quam similitudo morum coniugavit4 #dg propior ,a a c 7ex corr471 ,edd42 proprior ,b ,h b4 #dh et ,perizonius1 ,edd42 not in ,,mss4 #di tamen ,,mss41 ,mller2 del4 ,unger1 ,bt41 ,heine4 #ej efficiturque id quod ,p4 ultimum in amicitia putavit ut ,nonius 7s4v4 ultimum7 7i4e4 ,pythagoras's ideal of friendship is realized74 ,degrees of social relationship3 7#a7 citizenship1 99#ec99 ,,xvii4 ,then1 too1 there are a great many degrees of closeness or remoteness in human society4 ,to proceed beyond the universal bond of our common humanity1 there is the closer one of belonging to the same people1 tribe1 and tongue1 by which men are very closely bound together2 it is a still closer relation to be citizens of the same city-state2 for fellow-citizens have much in common--forum1 temples1 colonnades1 streets1 statutes1 laws1 courts1 rights of suffrage1 to say nothing of social and friendly circles and diverse business relations with many4 7#b7 kinship1 ,but a still closer social union exists between kindred4 ,starting with that infinite bond of union of the human race in general1 the conception is now confined to a small and narrow circle4 99#ed99 ,for since the reproductive instinct is by nature's gift the common possession of all living creatures1 the first bond of union is that between husband and wife2 the next1 that between parents and children2 then we find one home1 with everything in common4 ,and this is the foundation of civil government1 the nursery1 as it were1 of the state4 ,then follow the bonds between brothers and sisters1 and next those of first and then of second cousins2 and when they can no longer be sheltered under one roof1 they go out into other homes1 as into colonies4 ,then follow between these1 in turn1 marriages and connections by marriage1 and from these again a new stock of relations2 and from this propagation and after-growth states have their beginnings4 ,the bonds of common blood hold men fast through good-will and affection2 99#ee99 for it means much to share in common the same family traditions1 the same forms of domestic worship1 and the same ancestral tombs4 7#c7 friendship1 ,but of all the bonds of fellowship1 there is none more noble1 none more powerful than when good men of congenial character are joined in intimate friendship2 for really1 if we discover in another that moral goodness on which ,i dwell so much1 it attracts us and makes us friends to the one in whose character it seems to dwell4 99#ef99 ,and while every virtue attracts us and makes us love those who seem to possess it1 still justice and generosity do so most of all4 ,nothing1 moreover1 is more conducive to love and intimacy than compatibility of character in good men2 for when two people have the same ideals and the same tastes1 it is a natural consequence that each loves the other as himself2 and the result is1 as ,pythagoras requires of ideal friendship1 that several are united in one4 ,another strong bond of fellowship is effected by mutual interchange of kind services2 and as long as these kindnesses are mutual and acceptable1 those between whom they are interchanged are united by the ties of an enduring intimacy4 7#d7 love of country4 99#eg99 ,but when with a rational spirit you have surveyed the whole field1 there is no social relation among them all more close1 none more dear than that which links each one of us with our country4 ,parents are dear2 dear are children1 relatives1 friends2 but one native land embraces all our loves2 and who that is true would hesitate to give his life for her1 if by his death he could render her a service8 ,so much the more execrable are those monsters who have torn their fatherland to pieces with every form of outrage and who are,k and have been,l engaged in compassing her utter destruction4 99#eh99 ,now1 if a contrast and comparison were to be made to find out where most of our moral obligation is due1 country would come first1 and parents2 for their services have laid us under the heaviest obligation2 next come children and the whole family1 who look to us alone for support and can have no other protection2 finally1 our kinsmen1 with whom we live on good terms and with whom1 for the most part1 our lot is one4 ,all needful material assistance is1 therefore1 due first of all to those whom ,i have named2 but intimate relationship of life and living1 counsel1 conversation1 encouragement1 comfort1 and sometimes even reproof flourish best in friendships4 ,and that friendship is sweetest which is cemented by congeniality of character4 ,k ,antony and his associates4 ,l ,caesar1 ,clodius1 ,catiline4 99#ei99 ,,xviii4 ,sed in his omnibus officiis tribuendis videndum erit1 quid cuique maxime necesse sit1 et quid quisque vel sine nobis aut possit consequi aut non possit4 ,ita non iidem erunt necessitudinum gradus1 qui temporum2 suntque officia1 quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur2 ut vicinum citius adiuveris in fructibus percipiendis quam aut fratrem aut familiarem1 at1 si lis in iudicio sit1 propinquum potius et amicum quam vicinum defenderis4 ,haec igitur et talia circumspicienda sunt in omni officio et consuetudo exercitatioque capienda1#ea ut boni ratiocinatores officiorum esse possimus et addendo deducendoque#eb videre1 quae reliqui summa fiat1 ex quo1 quantum cuique debeatur1 intellegas4 99#fj99 ,sed ut nec medici nec imperatores nec oratores1 quamvis artis praecepta perceperint1 quicquam magna laude dignum sine usu et exercitatione consequi possunt1 sic officii conservandi praecepta traduntur illa quidem1 ut facimus ipsi1 sed rei magnitudo usum quoque exercitationemque desiderat4 ,atque ab iis#ec rebus1 quae sunt in iure societatis humanae1 quem ad modum ducatur honestum1 ex quo aptum est officium1 satis fere diximus4 99#fa99 ,intelligendum autem est1 cum proposita sint genera quattuor1 e quibus honestas officiumque manaret1 splendidissimum videri1 quod animo magno elatoque humanasque res despiciente factum sit4 ,itaque in probris maxime in promptu est si quid tale dici potest3 ,inc4 inc4 fab41 ,ribbeck#b1 #baj ,vs enim1#ed iuvenes1 nimum geritis mliebrem1 lla virgo viri#ee et si quid eius modi3 ,enn4 ,aj41 ,vahlen#b1 #ah ,salmcida1 spolia sne sudore et snguine4 ,contraque in laudibus1 quae magno animo et fortiter excellenterque gesta sunt1 ea nescio quo modo quasi pleniore ore laudamus4 ,hinc rhetorum campus de ,marathone1 ,salamine1 ,plataeis1 ,thermopylis1 ,leuctris1 hinc noster ,cocles1#ef hinc ,decii1 hinc ,cn4 et ,p4 ,scipiones1 hinc ,m4 ,marcellus1 innumerabiles alii1 maximeque ipse populus ,romanus animi magnitudine excellit4 ,declaratur autem studium bellicae gloriae1 quod statuas quoque videmus ornatu fere militari4 #ea et 444 capienda om4 ,facciolati1 ,edd4 #eb deducendoque p2 ducendoque ,a ,b ,h ,l a b 7superscr4 sec4 m4 demendo72 demendoque c4 #ec iis ,edd42 his ,,mss4 #ed enim ,a ,b ,h b c2 etenim a4 #ee illa virgo viri ,ed42 illa virgo viri ,,mss42 virago ,orelli4 #ef ,leuctris1 hinc noster ,cocles ,baldwin1 ,edd42 leutris stercocles ,a ,b ,h a b2 leutrister chodes c2 leutris stercodes ,l4 ,duties may vary under varying circumstances4 99#ei99 ,,xviii4 ,but in the performance of all these duties we shall have to consider what is most needful in each individual case and what each individual person can or cannot procure without our help4 ,in this way we shall find that the claims of social relationship1 in its various degrees1 are not identical with the dictates of circumstances2 for there are obligations that are due to one individual rather than to another3 for example1 one would sooner assist a neighbour in gathering his harvest than either a brother or a friend2 but should it be a case in court1 one would defend a kinsman and a friend rather than a neighbour4 ,such questions as these must1 therefore1 be taken into consideration in every act of moral duty and we must acquire the habit and keep it up1 in order to become good calculators of duty1 able by adding and subtracting to strike a balance correctly and find out just how much is due to each individual4 99#fj99 ,but as neither physicians nor generals nor orators can achieve any signal success without experience and practice1 no matter how well they may understand the theory of their profession1 so the rules for the discharge of duty are formulated1 it is true1 as ,i am doing now1 but a matter of such importance requires experience also and practice4 ,this must close our discussion of the ways in which moral goodness1 on which duty depends1 is developed from those principles which hold good in human society4 ,c4 ,fortitude4 99#fa99 ,we must realize1 however1 that while we have set down four cardinal virtues from which as sources moral rectitude and moral duty emanate1 that achievement is most glorious in the eyes of the world which is won with a spirit great1 exalted1 and superior to the vicissitudes of earthly life4 ,and so1 when we wish to hurl a taunt1 the very first to rise to our lips is1 if possible1 something like this3 ,for ye1 young men1 show a womanish soul1 yon maiden,m a man's2 and this3 ,thou son of ,salmacis1 win spoils that cost nor sweat nor blood4 ,when1 on the other hand1 we wish to pay a compliment1 we somehow or other praise in more eloquent strain the brave and noble work of some great soul4 ,hence there is an open field for orators on the subjects of ,marathon1 ,salamis1 ,plataea1 ,thermopylae1 and ,leuctra1 and hence our own ,cocles1 the ,decii1 ,gnaeus and ,publius ,scipio1 ,marcus ,marcellus1 and countless others1 and1 above all1 the ,roman ,people as a nation are celebrated for greatness of spirit4 ,their passion for military glory1 moreover1 is shown in the fact that we see their statues usually in soldier's garb4 ,m ,cloelia 7see ,index74 99#fb99 ,,xix4 ,sed ea animi elatio1 quae cernitur in periculis et laboribus1 si iustitia vacat pugnatque non pro salute communi1 sed pro suis commodis1 in vitio est2 non modo enim id virtutis non est1 sed est potius immanitatis omnem humanitatem repellentis4 ,itaque probe definitur a ,stoicis fortitudo1 cum eam virtutem esse dicunt propugnantem pro aequitate4 ,quocirca nemo1 qui fortitudinis gloriam consecutus est insidiis et malitia1 laudem est adeptus2 nihil enim#eg honestum esse potest1 quod iustitia vacat4 ,menex4 #bdf ,e2 ,laches #aig ,b 99#fc99 ,praeclarum igitur illud ,platonis3 ,non1 inquit1 solum scientia1 quae est remota ab iustitia1 calliditas potius quam sapientia est appellanda1 verum etiam animus paratus ad periculum1 si sua cupiditate1 non utilitate communi impellitur1 audaciae potius nomen habeat quam fortitudinis4 ,itaque viros fortes et#eh magnanimos eosdem bonos et simplices1 veritatis amicos minimeque fallaces esse volumus2 quae sunt ex media laude iustitiae4 99#fd99 ,sed illud odiosum est1 quod in hac elatione et magnitudine animi facillime pertinacia et nimia cupiditas principatus innascitur4 ,laches #ahb ,e ,ut enim apud ,platonem est1 omnem morem ,lacedaemoniorum inflammatum esse cupiditate vincendi1 sic1 ut quisque animi magnitudine maxime excellet1#ei ita maxime vult princeps omnium vel potius solus esse4 ,difficile autem est1 cum praestare omnibus concupieris1 servare aequitatem1 quae est iustitiae maxime propria4 ,ex quo fit1 ut neque disceptatione vinci se nec ullo publico ac legitimo iure patiantur1 existuntque in re publica plerumque largitores et factiosi1 ut opes quam maximas consequantur et sint vi#fj potius superiores quam iustitia pares4 ,sed quo difficilius1 hoc praeclarius2 nullum enim est tempus1 quod iustitia vacare debeat4 99#fe99 ,fortes igitur et magnanimi sunt habendi1 non qui faciunt1 sed qui propulsant iniuriam4 ,vera autem et sapiens animi magnitudo honestum illud1 quod maxime natura sequitur1 in factis positum1 non in gloria iudicat principemque se esse mavult quam videri2 etenim qui ex errore imperitae multitudinis pendet1 hic in magnis viris non est habendus4 ,facillime autem ad res iniustas impellitur1 ut quisque altissimo animo est1 gloriae cupiditate#fa2 qui locus est sane lubricus1 quod vix invenitur1 qui laboribus susceptis periculisque aditis non quasi mercedem rerum gestarum desideret gloriam4 #eg enim ,a ,c1 ,edd42 not in ,a ,b ,h ,l b1 ,bt#b4 #eh et a1 ,edd42 not in ,a ,b ,h ,l b c p4 #ei excellet ,a ,b ,h ,l b c2 excellit a1 ,bt4 #fj vi a1 ,edd42 ut ,a ,b ,h b2 utcumque ,l c4 #fa altissimo animo est1 gloriae cupiditate ,pearce 7confirmed by several ,,mss471 ,edd42 alt4 an4 et gloriae cupiditate ,a ,b ,h b p2 est alt4 an4 et gloria et cupiditate ,l c4 ,fortitude in the light of justice4 99#fb99 ,,xix4 ,but if the exaltation of spirit seen in times of danger and toil is devoid of justice and fights for selfish ends instead of for the common good1 it is a vice2 for not only has it no element of virtue1 but its nature is barbarous and revolting to all our finer feelings4 ,the ,stoics1 therefore1 correctly define courage as that virtue which champions the cause of right4 ,accordingly1 no one has attained to true glory who has gained a reputation for courage by treachery and cunning2 for nothing that lacks justice can be morally right4 99#fc99 ,this1 then1 is a fine saying of ,plato's3 ,not only must all knowledge that is divorced from justice be called cunning rather than wisdom1 he says1 but even the courage that is prompt to face danger1 if it is inspired not by public spirit1 but by its own selfish purposes1 should have the name of effrontery rather than of courage4 ,and so we demand that men who are courageous and high-souled shall at the same time be good and straightforward1 lovers of truth1 and foes to deception2 for these qualities are the centre and soul of justice4 99#fd99 ,but the mischief is that from this exaltation and greatness of spirit spring all too readily self-will and excessive lust for power4 ,for just as ,plato tells us that the whole national character of the ,spartans was on fire with passion for victory1 so1 in the same way1 the more notable a man is for his greatness of spirit1 the more ambitious he is to be the foremost citizen1 or1 ,i should say rather1 to be sole ruler4 ,but when one begins to aspire to pre-eminence1 it is difficult to preserve that spirit of fairness which is absolutely essential to justice4 ,the result is that such men do not allow themselves to be constrained either by argument or by any public and lawful authority2 but they only too often prove to be bribers and agitators in public life1 seeking to obtain supreme power and to be superiors through force rather than equals through justice4 ,but the greater the difficulty1 the greater the glory2 for no occasion arises that can excuse a man for being guilty of injustice4 ,true greatness of spirit4 99#fe99 ,so then1 not those who do injury but those who prevent it are to be considered brave and courageous4 ,moreover1 true and philosophic greatness of spirit regards the moral goodness to which nature most aspires as consisting in deeds1 not in fame1 and prefers to be first in reality rather than in name4 ,and we must approve this view2 for he who depends upon the caprice of the ignorant rabble cannot be numbered among the great4 ,then1 too1 the higher a man's ambition1 the more easily he is tempted to acts of injustice by his desire for fame4 ,we are now1 to be sure1 on very slippery ground2 for scarcely can the man be found who has passed through trials and encountered dangers and does not then wish for glory as a reward for his achievements4 99#ff99 ,,xx4 ,omnino fortis animus et magnus duabus rebus maxime cernitur1 quarum una in rerum externarum despicientia ponitur1 cum persuasum est#fb nihil hominem1 nisi quod honestum decorumque sit1 aut admirari aut optare aut expetere oportere nullique neque homini neque perturbationi animi nec fortunae succumbere4 ,altera est res1 ut1 cum ita sis affectus animo1 ut supra dixi1 res geras magnas illas quidem et maxime utiles1 sed ut vehementer arduas plenasque laborum et periculorum cum vitae1 tum multarum rerum1 quae ad vitam pertinent4 99#fg99 ,harum rerum duarum splendor omnis1 amplitudo1 addo etiam utilitatem1 in posteriore est1 causa autem et ratio efficiens magnos viros in priore2 in eo est enim illud1 quod excellentes animos et humana contemnentes facit4 ,id autem ipsum cernitur in duobus1 si et solum id1 quod honestum sit1 bonum iudices et ab omni animi perturbatione liber sis4 ,nam et ea1 quae eximia plerisque et praeclara videntur1 parva ducere eaque ratione stabili firmaque contemnere fortis animi magnique ducendum est1 et ea1 quae videntur acerba1 quae multa et varia in hominum vita fortunaque versantur1 ita ferre1 ut nihil a statu naturae discedas1 nihil a dignitate sapientis1 robusti animi est magnaeque constantiae4 99#fh99 ,non est autem consentaneum1 qui metu non frangatur1 eum frangi cupiditate nec1 qui invictum se a labore praestiterit1 vinci a voluptate4 ,quam ob rem et haec vitanda#fc et pecuniae fugienda cupiditas2 nihil enim est tam angusti animi tamque parvi quam amare divitias1 nihil honestius magnificentiusque quam pecuniam contemnere1 si non habeas1 si habeas1 ad beneficentiam liberalitatemque conferre4 ,cavenda etiam est gloriae cupiditas1 ut supra dixi2 eripit enim libertatem1 pro qua magnanimis viris omnis debet esse contentio4 ,nec vero imperia expetenda ac potius aut non accipienda interdum aut deponenda non numquam4 99#fi99 ,vacandum autem omni est animi perturbatione1 cum cupiditate et metu1 tum etiam aegritudine et voluptate nimia#fd et iracundia1 ut tranquillitas animi et securitas adsit1 quae affert cum constantiam1 tum etiam dignitatem4 ,multi autem et sunt et fuerunt1 qui eam1 quam dico1 tranquillitatem expetentes a negotiis publicis se removerint ad otiumque perfugerint2 in his et nobilissimi philosophi longeque principes et quidam homines severi et graves nec populi nec principum mores ferre potuerunt1 vixeruntque non nulli in agris delectati re sua familiari4 99#gj99 ,his idem propositum fuit1 quod regibus1 ut ne qua re egerent1 ne cui parerent1 libertate uterentur1 cuius proprium est sic vivere1 ut velis4 #fb persuasum est ,madvig 7ad de ,fin4 p4 #ddh ff471 ,edd42 p4 sit ,,mss4 #fc vitanda ,edd4 7cum duobus codd4 ,guelpherbytanis72 videnda ,,mss4 #fd voluptate nimia ,orelli1 ,mller2 voluptate animi ,a ,h ,l a b c2 vol4 animi et securitas 7et iracundia ut tr4 animi by a later hand on the margin7 ,b2 voluptate animi1 ,bt41 ,heine4 ,characteristics of ,fortitude3 99#ff99 ,,xx4 ,the soul that is altogether courageous and great is marked above all by two characteristics3 one of these is indifference to outward circumstances2 for such a person cherishes the conviction that nothing but moral goodness and propriety deserves to be either admired or wished for or striven after1 and that he ought not to be subject to any man or any passion or any accident of fortune4 ,the second characteristic is that1 when the soul is disciplined in the way above mentioned1 one should do deeds not only great and in the highest degree useful1 but extremely arduous and laborious and fraught with danger both to life and to many things that make life worth living4 7#a7 ,moral courage4 99#fg99 ,all the glory and greatness and1 ,i may add1 all the usefulness of these two characteristics of courage are centred in the latter2 the rational cause that makes men great1 in the former4 ,indifference to outward fortunes4 ,for it is the former that contains the element that makes souls pre-eminent and indifferent to worldly fortune4 ,and this quality is distinguished by two criteria3 7#a7 if one account moral rectitude as the only good2 and 7#b7 if one be free from all passion4 ,for we must agree that it takes a brave and heroic soul to hold as slight what most people think grand and glorious1 and to disregard it from fixed and settled principles4 ,and it requires strength of character and great singleness of purpose to bear what seems painful1 as it comes to pass in many and various forms in human life1 and to bear it so unflinchingly as not to be shaken in the least from one's natural state of the dignity of a philosopher4 99#fh99 ,moreover1 it would be inconsistent for the man who is not overcome by fear to be overcome by desire1 or for the man who has shown himself invincible to toil to be conquered by pleasure4 ,we must1 therefore1 not only avoid the latter1 but also beware of ambition for wealth2 for there is nothing so characteristic of narrowness and littleness of soul as the love of riches2 and there is nothing more honourable and noble than to be indifferent to money1 if one does not possess it1 and to devote it to beneficence and liberality1 if one does possess it4 ,as ,i said before1 we must also beware of ambition for glory2 for it robs us of liberty1 and in defence of liberty a high-souled man should stake everything4 ,and one ought not to seek military authority2 nay1 rather it ought sometimes to be declined1,n sometimes to be resigned4,o 7#c7 ,freedom from passion4 99#fi99 ,again1 we must keep ourselves free from every disturbing emotion1 not only from desire and fear1 but also from excessive pain and pleasure1 and from anger1 so that we may enjoy that calm of soul and freedom from care which bring both moral stability and dignity of character4 ,the retired life4 ,but there have been many and still are many who1 while pursuing that calm of soul of which ,i speak1 have withdrawn from civic duty and taken refuge in retirement4 ,among such have been found the most famous and by far the foremost philosophers,p and certain other,q earnest1 thoughtful men who could not endure the conduct of either the people or their leaders2 some of them1 too1 lived in the country and found their pleasure in the management of their private estates4 99#gj99 ,such men have had the same aims as kings--to suffer no want1 to be subject to no authority1 to enjoy their liberty1 that is1 in its essence1 to live just as they please4 ,n ,as ,cicero did at the expiration of his consulship4 ,o ,as ,sulla did in his dictatorship4 ,the contrast to ,caesar is the more striking for ,cicero's not mentioning it4 ,p e4g4 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,zeno1 ,pythagoras1 ,anaxagoras4 ,q ,such as ,cicero's friend1 ,atticus1 and ,marcus ,piso4 ,,xxi4 ,quare cum hoc commune sit potentiae cupidorum cum iis1 quos dixi1 otiosis1 alteri se adipisci id posse arbitrantur1 si opes magnas habeant1 alteri1 si contenti sint et suo et parvo4 ,in quo neutrorum omnino contemnenda sententia est1 sed et facilior et tutior et minus aliis gravis aut molesta vita est otiosorum1 fructuosior autem hominum generi et ad claritatem amplitudinemque aptior eorum1 qui se ad rem publicam et ad magnas res gerendas accommodaverunt4 99#ga99 ,quapropter et iis forsitan concedendum sit rem publicam non capessentibus1 qui excellenti ingenio doctrinae sese dediderunt1 et iis1 qui aut valetudinis imbecillitate aut aliqua graviore causa impediti a re publica recesserunt1 cum eius administrandae potestatem aliis laudemque concederent4 ,quibus autem talis nulla sit causa1 si despicere se dicant ea1 quae plerique mirentur1 imperia et magistratus1 iis non modo non laudi1 verum etiam vitio dandum puto2 quorum iudicium in eo1 quod gloriam contemnant et pro nihilo putent1 difficile factu est non probare2 sed videntur labores et molestias1 tum offensionum et repulsarum quasi quandam ignominiam timere et infamiam4 ,sunt enim1 qui in rebus contrariis parum sibi constent1 voluptatem severissime contemnant1 in dolore sint molliores1 gloriam neglegant1 frangantur infamia1 atque ea quidem non satis constanter4 99#gb99 ,sed iis1 qui habent a natura adiumenta rerum gerendarum1 abiecta omni cunctatione adipiscendi magistrates et gerenda res publica est2 nec enim aliter aut regi civitas aut declarari animi magnitudo potest4 ,capessentibus autem rem publicam nihilo#fe minus quam philosophis1 haud scio an magis etiam et magnificentia et despicientia adhibenda est#ff rerum humanarum1 quam saepe dico1 et tranquillitas animi atque securitas1 siquidem nec anxii futuri sunt et cum gravitate constantiaque victuri4 99#gc99 ,quae faciliora sunt philosophis1 quo minus multa patent in eorum vita1 quae fortuna feriat1 et quo minus multis rebus egent1 et quia1 si quid adversi eveniat1 tam graviter cadere non possunt4 ,quocirca non sine causa maiores motus animorum concitantur maioraque studia efficiendi#fg rem publicam gerentibus quam quietis1 quo magis iis et magnitudo est animi adhibenda et vacuitas ab angoribus4 ,ad rem gerendam autem qui accedit1 caveat1 ne id modo consideret1 quam illa res honesta sit1 sed etiam ut habeat efficiendi facultatem2 in quo ipso considerandum est1 ne aut temere desperet propter ignaviam aut nimis confidat propter cupiditatem4 ,in omnibus autem negotiis1 prius quam aggrediare1 adhibenda est praeparatio diligens4 #fe nihilo ,wesenberg1 ,edd42 nihil ,,mss4 #ff est ,manutius1 ,edd42 sit ,,mss4 #fg maioraque studia efficiendi ,unger1 ,mller2 maioraque efficiendi ,a#a ,b ,h ,l b c2 maiorque cura efficiendi a1 ,bt41 ,heine2 maioraque efficienda ,a#b p4 ,the life of public service vs4 the life of retirement4 ,,xxi4 ,so1 while this desire is common to men of political ambitions and men of retirement1 of whom ,i have just spoken1 the one class think they can attain their end if they secure large means2 the other1 if they are content with the little they have4 ,and in this matter1 neither way of thinking is altogether to be condemned2 but the life of retirement is easier and safer and at the same time less burdensome or troublesome to others1 while the career of those who apply themselves to statecraft and to conducting great enterprises is more profitable to mankind and contributes more to their own greatness and renown4 99#ga99 ,so perhaps those men of extraordinary genius who have devoted themselves to learning must be excused for not taking part in public affairs2 likewise1 those who from ill-health or for some still more valid reason have retired from the service of the state and left to others the opportunity and the glory of its administration4 ,but if those who have no such excuse profess a scorn for civil and military offices1 which most people admire1 ,i think that this should be set down not to their credit but to their discredit2 for in so far as they care little1 as they say1 for glory and count it as naught1 it is difficult not to sympathize with their attitude2 in reality1 however1 they seem to dread the toil and trouble and also1 perhaps1 the discredit and humiliation of political failure and defeat4 ,for there are people who in opposite circumstances do not act consistently3 they have the utmost contempt for pleasure1 but in pain they are too sensitive2 they are indifferent to glory1 but they are crushed by disgrace2 and even in their inconsistency they show no great consistency4 ,public service a duty4 99#gb99 ,but those whom ,nature has endowed with the capacity for administering public affairs should put aside all hesitation1 enter the race for public office1 and take a hand in directing the government2 for in no other way can a government be administered or greatness of spirit be made manifest4 ,statesmen1 too1 no less than philosophers--perhaps even more so--should carry with them that greatness of spirit and indifference to outward circumstances to which ,i so often refer1 together with calm of soul and freedom from care1 if they are to be free from worries and lead a dignified and self-consistent life4 99#gc99 ,this is easier for the philosophers2 as their life is less exposed to the assaults of fortune1 their wants are fewer2 and if any misfortune overtakes them1 their fall is not so disastrous4 ,not without reason1 therefore1 are stronger emotions aroused in those who engage in public life than in those who live in retirement1 and greater is their ambition for success2 the more1 therefore1 do they need to enjoy greatness of spirit and freedom from annoying cares4 ,if anyone is entering public life1 let him beware of thinking only of the honour that it brings2 but let him be sure also that he has the ability to succeed4 ,at the same time1 let him take care not to lose heart too readily through discouragement nor yet to be over-confident through ambition4 ,in a word1 before undertaking any enterprise1 careful preparation must be made4 99#gd99 ,,xxii4 ,sed cum plerique arbitrentur res bellicas maiores esse quam urbanas1 minuenda est haec opinio4 ,multi enim bella saepe quaesiverunt propter gloriae cupiditatem1 atque id in magnis animis ingeniisque plerumque contingit1 eoque magis1 si sunt ad rem militarem apti et cupidi bellorum gerendorum2 vere autem si volumus iudicare1 multae res exstiterunt urbanae maiores clarioresque quam bellicae4 99#ge99 ,quamvis enim ,themistocles iure laudetur et sit eius nomen quam ,solonis illustrius citeturque ,salamis clarissimae testis victoriae1 quae anteponatur consilio ,solonis ei1 quo primum constituit ,areopagitas1 non minus praeclarum hoc quam illud iudicandum est2 illud enim semel profuit1 hoc semper proderit civitati2 hoc consilio leges ,atheniensium1 hoc maiorum instituta servantur2 et ,themistocles quidem nihil dixerit1 in quo ipse ,areopagum adiuverit1 at ille vere a#fh se adiutum ,themistoclem2 est enim bellum gestum consilio senatus eius1 qui a ,solone erat constitutus4 99#gf99 ,licet eadem de ,pausania ,lysandroque dicere1 quorum rebus gestis quamquam imperium ,lacedaemoniis partum#fi putatur1 tamen ne minima quidem ex parte ,lycurgi legibus et disciplinae conferendi sunt2 quin etiam ob has ipsas causas et parentiores habuerunt exercitus et fortiores4 ,mihi quidem neque pueris nobis ,m4 ,scaurus ,c4 ,mario neque1 cum versaremur in re publica1 ,q4 ,catulus ,cn4 ,pompeio cedere videbatur2 parvi enim sunt foris arma1 nisi est consilium domi2 nec plus ,africanus1 singularis et vir et imperator1 in exscindenda ,numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore ,p4 ,nasica privatus1 cum ,ti4 ,gracchum interemit2 quamquam haec quidem res non solum ex domestica est ratione 7attingit etiam bellicam1 quoniam vi manuque confecta est71 sed tamen id ipsum est gestum consilio urbano sine exercitu4 ,cic41 de temp4 suis1 iii 99#gg99 ,illud autem optimum est1 in quod invadi solere ab improbis et invidis audio3 ,cedant arma togae1 concedat laurea laudi4 ,ut enim alios omittam1 nobis rem publicam gubernantibus nonne togae arma cesserunt8 neque enim periculum in re publica fuit gravius umquam nec maius otium4 ,ita consiliis diligentiaque nostra celeriter de manibus audacissimorum civium delapsa arma ipsa ceciderunt4 ,quae res igitur gesta umquam in bello tanta8 99#gh99 qui triumphus conferendus8 licet enim mihi1 ,m4 fili1 apud te gloriari1 ad quem et hereditas huius gloriae et factorum imitatio pertinet4 ,mihi quidem certe vir abundans bellicis laudibus1 ,cn4 ,pompeius1 multis audientibus hoc tribuit1 ut diceret frustra se triumphum tertium deportaturum fuisse1 nisi meo in rem publicam beneficio1 ubi triumpharet1 esset habiturus4 ,sunt igitur domesticae fortitudines non inferiores militaribus2 in quibus plus etiam quam in his operae studiique ponendum est4 #fh a ,edd42 not in ,,mss42 se adiutum ,a ,b ,h b1 ,edd42 adiuvit ,l#a c p2 se adiutum ab illo dixerit 787 ,themistocles ,l#b4 #fi ,l4 partum ,lambinus1 ,mller2 partum ,l41 ,bt42 om4 partum ,a#a ,b ,h ,l#a a b2 ,l4 dilatatum ,a#b2 dilatatum ,l4 ,l#b c4 ,victories of war vs4 victories of peace4 99#gd99 ,,xxii4 ,most people think that the achievements of war are more important than those of peace2 but this opinion needs to be corrected4 ,for many men have sought occasions for war from the mere ambition for fame4 ,this is notably the case with men of great spirit and natural ability1 and it is the more likely to happen1 if they are adapted to a soldier's life and fond of warfare4 ,but if we will face the facts1 we shall find that there have been many instances of achievement in peace more important and no less renowned than in war4 ,themistocles vs4 ,solon4 99#ge99 ,however highly ,themistocles1 for example1 may be extolled--and deservedly--and however much more illustrious his name may be than ,solon's1 and however much ,salamis may be cited as witness of his most glorious victory--a victory glorified above ,solon's statesmanship in instituting the ,areopagus--yet ,solon's achievement is not to be accounted less illustrious than his4 ,for ,themistocles's victory served the state once and only once2 while ,solon's work will be of service for ever4 ,for through his legislation the laws of the ,athenians and the institutions of their fathers are maintained4 ,and while ,themistocles could not readily point to any instance in which he himself had rendered assistance to the ,areopagus1 the ,areopagus might with justice assert that ,themistocles had received assistance from it2 for the war was directed by the counsels of that senate which ,solon had created4 ,pausanias and ,lysander vs4 ,lycurgus4 99#gf99 ,the same may be said of ,pausanias and ,lysander4 ,although it is thought that it was by their achievements that ,sparta gained her supremacy1 yet these are not even remotely to be compared with the legislation and discipline of ,lycurgus4 ,nay1 rather1 it was due to these that ,pausanias and ,lysander had armies so brave and so well disciplined4 ,for my own part1 ,i do not consider that ,marcus ,scaurus was inferior to ,gaius ,marius1 when ,i was a lad1 or ,quintus ,catulus to ,gnaeus ,pompey1 when ,i was engaged in public life4 ,for arms are of little value in the field unless there is wise counsel at home4 ,so1 too1 ,africanus1 though a great man and a soldier of extraordinary ability1 did no greater service to the state by destroying ,numantia than was done at the same time by ,publius ,nasica1 though not then clothed with official authority1 by removing ,tiberius ,gracchus4 ,this deed does not1 to be sure1 belong wholly to the domain of civil affairs2 it partakes of the nature of war also since it was effected by violence2 but it was1 for all that1 executed as a political measure without the help of an army4 ,cicero's great victory4 99#gg99 ,the whole truth1 however1 is in this verse1 against which1 ,i am told1 the malicious and envious are wont to rail3 ,yield1 ye arms1 to the toga2 to civic praises1,r ye laurels4,s ,not to mention other instances1 did not arms yield to the toga1 when ,i was at the helm of state8 ,for never was the republic in more serious peril1 never was peace more profound4 ,thus1 as the result of my counsels and my vigilance1 their weapons slipped suddenly from the hands of the most desperate traitors--dropped to the ground of their own accord6 ,what achievement in war1 then1 was ever so great8 99#gh99 ,what triumph can be compared with that8 ,for ,i may boast to you1 my son ,marcus2 for to you belong the inheritance of that glory of mine and the duty of imitating my deeds4 ,and it was to me1 too1 that ,gnaeus ,pompey1 a hero crowned with the honours of war1 paid this tribute in the hearing of many1 when he said that his third triumph would have been gained in vain1 if he were not to have through my services to the state a place in which to celebrate it4 ,there are1 therefore1 instances of civic courage that are not inferior to the courage of the soldier4 ,nay1 the former calls for even greater energy and greater devotion than the latter4 ,r ,the praises of ,cicero for his overthrow of the conspiracy of ,catiline4 ,s ,the laurels of the triumphant general4 99#gi99 ,,xxiii4 ,omnino illud honestum1 quod ex animo excelso magnificoque quaerimus1 animi efficitur1 non corporis viribus4 ,exercendum tamen corpus et ita afficiendum est1 ut oboedire consilio rationique possit in exsequendis negotiis et in labore tolerando4 ,honestum autem id1 quod exquirimus1 totum est positum in animi cura et cogitatione2 in quo non minorem utilitatem afferunt1 qui togati rei publicae praesunt1 quam qui bellum gerunt4 ,itaque eorum consilio saepe aut non suscepta aut confecta bella sunt1 non numquam etiam illata1 ut ,m4 ,catonis bellum tertium ,punicum1 in quo etiam mortui valuit auctoritas4 99#hj99 ,quare expetenda quidem magis est decernendi ratio quam decertandi fortitudo1 sed cavendum1 ne id bellandi magis fuga quam utilitatis ratione faciamus4 ,bellum autem ita suscipiatur1 ut nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita videatur4 ,fortis vero animi et constantis est non perturbari in rebus asperis nec tumultuantem de gradu deici1 ut dicitur1 sed praesenti animo uti et consilio nec a ratione discedere4 99#ha99 ,quamquam hoc animi1 illud etiam ingenii magni est1 praecipere cogitatione futura et aliquanto#gj ante constituere1 quid accidere possit in utramque partem1 et quid agendum sit1 cum quid evenerit1 nec committere1 ut aliquando dicendum sit3 ,non putaram4 ,haec sunt opera magni animi et excelsi et prudentia consilioque fidentis2 temere autem in acie versari et manu cum hoste confligere immane quiddam et beluarum simile est2 sed cum tempus necessitasque postulat1 decertandum manu est et mors servituti turpitudinique anteponenda4 #gj aliquanto ,edd42 aliquando ,,mss4 7#b7 ,physical courage4 99#gi99 ,,xxiii4 ,that moral goodness which we look for in a lofty1 high-minded spirit is secured1 of course1 by moral1 not by physical1 strength4 ,and yet the body must be trained and so disciplined that it can obey the dictates of judgment and reason in attending to business and in enduring toil4 ,but that moral goodness which is our theme depends wholly upon the thought and attention given to it by the mind4 ,and in this way1 the men who in a civil capacity direct the affairs of the nation render no less important service than they who conduct its wars3 by their statesmanship oftentimes wars are either averted or terminated2 sometimes also they are declared4 ,upon ,marcus ,cato's counsel1 for example1 the ,third ,punic ,war was undertaken1 and in its conduct his influence was dominant1 even after he was dead4 99#hj99 ,and so diplomacy in the friendly settlement of controversies is more desirable than courage in settling them on the battlefield2 but we must be careful not to take that course merely for the sake of avoiding war rather than for the sake of public expediency4 ,war1 however1 should be undertaken in such a way as to make it evident that it has no other object than to secure peace4 ,but it takes a brave and resolute spirit not to be disconcerted in times of difficulty or ruffled and thrown off one's feet1 as the saying is1 but to keep one's presence of mind and one's self-possession and not to swerve from the path of reason4 ,courage and discretion4 99#ha99 ,now all this requires great personal courage2 but it calls also for great intellectual ability by reflection to anticipate the future1 to discover some time in advance what may happen whether for good or for ill1 and what must be done in any possible event1 and never to be reduced to having to say ,i had not thought of that4 ,these are the activities that mark a spirit1 strong1 high1 and self-reliant in its prudence and wisdom4 ,but to mix rashly in the fray and to fight hand to hand with the enemy is but a barbarous and brutish kind of business4 ,yet when the stress of circumstances demands it1 we must gird on the sword and prefer death to slavery and disgrace4 ,ch4 ,,xxii 99#hb99 ,,xxiv4 ,de evertendis autem diripiendisque urbibus valde considerandum est ne quid temere1 ne quid crudeliter4 ,idque est magni viri1 rebus agitatis punire sontes1 multitudinem conservare1 in omni fortuna recta atque honesta retinere4 ,ut enim sunt1 quem ad modum supra dixi1 qui urbanis rebus bellicas anteponant1 sic reperias multos1 quibus periculosa et calida#ga consilia quietis et cogitatis#gb splendidiora et maiora videantur4 99#hc99 ,nunquam omnino periculi fuga committendum est1 ut imbelles timidique videamur1 sed fugiendum illud etiam1 ne offeramus nos periculis sine causa1 quo esse nihil potest stultius4 ,quapropter in adeundis periculis consuetudo imitanda medicorum est1 qui leviter aegrotantes leniter curant1 gravioribus autem morbis periculosas curationes et ancipites adhibere coguntur4 ,quare in tranquillo tempestatem adversam optare dementis est1 subvenire autem tempestati quavis ratione sapientis1 eoque magis1 si plus adipiscare re explicata boni quam addubitata mali4 ,periculosae autem rerum actiones partim iis#gc sunt1 qui eas suscipiunt1 partim rei publicae4 ,itemque alii de vita1 alii de gloria et benivolentia civium in discrimen vocantur4 ,promptiores igitur debemus esse ad nostra pericula quam ad communia dimicareque paratius de honore et gloria quam de ceteris commodis4 99#hd99 ,inventi autem multi sunt1 qui non modo pecuniam1 sed etiam vitam profundere pro patria parati essent1 iidem gloriae iacturam ne minimam quidem facere vellent1 ne re publica quidem postulante2 ut ,callicratidas1 qui1 cum ,lacedaemoniorum dux fuisset ,peloponnesiaco bello multaque fecisset egregie1 vertit ad extremum omnia1 cum consilio non paruit eorum1 qui classem ab ,arginusis removendam nec cum ,atheniensibus dimicandum putabant2 quibus ille respondit ,lacedaemonios classe illa amissa aliam parare posse1 se fugere sine suo dedecore non posse4 ,atque haec quidem ,lacedaemoniis#gd plaga mediocris1 illa pestifera1 qua1 cum ,cleombrotus invidiam timens temere cum ,epaminonda conflixisset ,lacedaemoniorum opes corruerunt4 ,ann4 xii1 ,vahlen#b1 #cgj-cgb ,quanto ,q4 ,maximus melius6 de quo ,ennius3 ,unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem4 ,noenum rumores ponebat#ge ante salutem4 ,ergo postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret4 ,quod genus peccandi vitandum est etiam in rebus urbanis4 ,sunt enim1 qui1 quod sentiunt1 etsi optimum sit1 tamen invidiae metu non audeant#gf dicere4 #ga calida ,nonius1 ,edd42 callida ,,mss4 #gb consilia quietis et cogitatis ,edd42 consilia et quietis et cogitationis ,a ,b ,h a b2 consilia et quietis cogitationibus c p4 #gc iis ,edd42 his ,,mss4 #gd quidem ,lacedaemoniis ,edd41 quidem de ,lacedaemoniis ,,mss4 #ge ,noenum rumores ponebat ,lachmann 7ad ,lucr4 ,,iii1 #aih72 ,non enim rumores ponebat ,,mss42 ,non ponebat enim alii4 #gf audeant ,ernesti2 audent ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 99#hb99 ,,xxiv4 ,as to destroying and plundering cities1 let me say that great care should be taken that nothing be done in reckless cruelty or wantonness4 ,and it is a great man's duty in troublous times to single out the guilty for punishment1 to spare the many1 and in every turn of fortune to hold to a true and honourable course4 ,for whereas there are many1 as ,i have said before1 who place the achievements of war above those of peace1 so one may find many to whom adventurous1 hot-headed counsels seem more brilliant and more impressive than calm and well-considered measures4 ,courage in times of doubt and danger4 99#hc99 ,we must1 of course1 never be guilty of seeming cowardly and craven in our avoidance of danger2 but we must also beware of exposing ourselves to danger needlessly4 ,nothing can be more foolhardy than that4 ,accordingly1 in encountering danger we should do as doctors do in their practice3 in light cases of illness they give mild treatment2 in cases of dangerous sickness they are compelled to apply hazardous and even desperate remedies4 ,it is1 therefore1 only a madman who1 in a calm1 would pray for a storm2 a wise man's way is1 when the storm does come1 to withstand it with all the means at his command1 and especially1 when the advantages to be expected in case of a successful issue are greater than the hazards of the struggle4 ,patriotism and self-sacrifice4 ,the dangers attending great affairs of state fall sometimes upon those who undertake them1 sometimes upon the state4 ,in carrying out such enterprises1 some run the risk of losing their lives1 others their reputation and the good-will of their fellow-citizens4 ,it is our duty1 then1 to be more ready to endanger our own than the public welfare and to hazard honour and glory more readily than other advantages4,t 99#hd99 ,many1 on the other hand1 have been found who were ready to pour out not only their money but their lives for their country and yet would not consent to make even the slightest sacrifice of personal glory--even though the interests of their country demanded it4 ,for example1 when ,callicratidas1 as ,spartan admiral in the ,peloponnesian ,war1 had won many signal successes1 he spoiled everything at the end by refusing to listen to the proposal of those who thought he ought to withdraw his fleet from the ,arginusae and not to risk an engagement with the ,athenians4 ,his answer to them was that the ,spartans could build another fleet1 if they lost that one1 but he could not retreat without dishonour to himself4 ,and yet what he did dealt only a slight blow to ,sparta2 there was another which proved disastrous1 when ,cleombrotus in fear of criticism recklessly went into battle against ,epaminondas4 ,in consequence of that1 the ,spartan power fell4 ,how much better was the conduct of ,quintus ,maximus6 ,of him ,ennius says3 ,one man--and he alone--restored our state by delaying4 ,not in the least did fame with him take precedence of safety2 ,therefore now does his glory shine bright1 and it grows ever brighter4 ,this sort of offence,u must be avoided no less in political life4 ,for there are men who for fear of giving offence do not dare to express their honest opinion1 no matter how excellent4 ,t ,such as the esteem and good-will of fellow-citizens2 life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness2 the existence of the state and all the advantages it brings4 ,u ,sacrificing public interests to personal glory4 99#he99 ,,xxv4 ,omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt1 duo ,platonis praecepta teneant1 ,rep4 i4 #cdb ,e unum1 ut utilitatem civium sic tueantur1 ut1 quaecumque agunt1 ad eam referant obliti commodorum suorum1 ,rep4 iv1 #dbj ,b alterum1 ut totum corpus rei publicae curent1 ne1 dum partem aliquam tuentur1 reliquas deserant4 ,ut enim tutela1 sic procuratio rei publicae ad eorum utilitatem1 qui commissi sunt1 non ad eorum1 quibus commissa est1 gerenda est4 ,qui autem parti civium consulunt1 partem neglegunt1 rem perniciosissimam in civitatem inducunt1 seditionem atque discordiam2 ex quo evenit1 ut alii populares1 alii studiosi optimi cuiusque videantur1 pauci universorum4 99#hf99 ,hinc apud ,atheniensis magnae discordiae1 in nostra re publica non solum seditiones1 sed etiam pestifera bella civilia2 quae gravis et fortis civis et in re publica dignus principatu fugiet atque oderit tradetque se totum rei publicae neque opes aut potentiam consectabitur totamque eam sic tuebitur1 ut omnibus consulat2 nec vero criminibus falsis in odium aut invidiam quemquam vocabit omninoque ita iustitiae honestatique adhaerescet1 ut1 dum ea conservet1 quamvis graviter offendat mortemque oppetat potius quam deserat illa1 quae dixi4 ,rep4 vi1 #dhh ,b2 #dhi ,c 99#hg99 ,miserrima omnino est ambitio honorumque contentio1 de qua praeclare apud eundem est ,platonem1 similiter facere eos1 qui inter se contenderent1 uter potius rem publicam administraret1 ut si nautae certarent1 quis eorum potissimum gubernaret4 ,rep4 viii1 #efg ,c2 ,leg4 ix1 #hef ,b ,idemque praecipit1 ut eos adversarios existimemus1 qui arma contra ferant1 non eos1 qui suo iudicio tueri rem publicam velint1 qualis fuit inter ,p4 ,africanum et ,q4 ,metellum sine acerbitate dissensio4 99#hh99 ,nec vero audiendi1 qui graviter inimicis irascendum putabunt idque magnanimi et fortis viri esse censebunt2 nihil enim laudabilius1 nihil magno et praeclaro viro dignius placabilitate atque clementia4 ,in liberis vero populis et in iuris aequabilitate exercenda etiam est facilitas et altitudo animi1 quae dicitur1 ne1 si irascamur aut intempestive accedentibus aut impudenter rogantibus1 in morositatem inutilem et odiosam incidamus4 ,et tamen ita probanda est mansuetudo atque clementia1 ut adhibeatur rei publicae causa severitas1 sine qua administrari civitas non potest4 ,omnis autem et animadversio et castigatio contumelia vacare debet neque ad eius1 qui punitur#gg aliquem aut verbis castigat1#gh sed ad rei publicae utilitatem referri4 99#hi99 ,cavendum est etiam1 ne maior poena quam culpa sit1 et ne isdem de causis alii plectantur1 alii ne appellentur quidem4 ,prohibenda autem maxime est ira in puniendo2 numquam enim1 iratus qui accedet ad poenam1 mediocritatem illam tenebit1 quae est inter nimium et parum1 quae placet ,peripateticis1 et recte placet1 modo ne laudarent iracundiam et dicerent utiliter a natura datam4 ,illa vero omnibus in rebus repudianda est optandumque1 ut ii1 qui praesunt rei publicae1 legum similes sint1 quae ad puniendum non iracundia1 sed aequitate dicuntur4 #gg punitur ,nonius1 ,edd42 punit a2 puniet ,a ,b ,h b c4 #gh castigat ,,mss42 fatigat ,nonius1 ,orelli4 ,public administration must be free from 99#he99 ,,xxv4 ,those who propose to take charge of the affairs of government should not fail to remember two of ,plato's rules3 first1 to keep the good of the people so clearly in view that regardless of their own interests they will make their every action conform to that2 second1 to care for the welfare of the whole body politic and not in serving the interests of some one party to betray the rest4 7#a7 partisanship1 ,for the administration of the government1 like the office of a trustee1 must be conducted for the benefit of those entrusted to one's care1 not of those to whom it is entrusted4 ,now1 those who care for the interests of a part of the citizens and neglect another part1 introduce into the civil service a dangerous element--dissension and party strife4 ,the result is that some are found to be loyal supporters of the democratic1 others of the aristocratic party1 and few of the nation as a whole4 99#hf99 ,as a result of this party spirit bitter strife arose at ,athens1,v and in our own country not only dissensions,w but also disastrous civil wars,x broke out4 ,all this the citizen who is patriotic1 brave1 and worthy of a leading place in the state will shun with abhorrence2 he will dedicate himself unreservedly to his country1 without aiming at influence or power for himself2 and he will devote himself to the state in its entirety in such a way as to further the interests of all4 ,besides1 he will not expose anyone to hatred or disrepute by groundless charges1 but he will surely cleave to justice and honour so closely that he will submit to any loss1 however heavy1 rather than be untrue to them1 and will face death itself rather than renounce them4 7#b7 self-seeking1 99#hg99 ,a most wretched custom1 assuredly1 is our electioneering and scrambling for office4 ,concerning this also we find a fine thought in ,plato3 ,those who compete against one another1 he says1 to see which of two candidates shall administer the government1 are like sailors quarrelling as to which one of them shall do the steering4 ,and he likewise lays down the rule that we should regard only those as adversaries who take up arms against the state1 not those who strive to have the government administered according to their convictions4 ,this was the spirit of the disagreement between ,publius ,africanus and ,quintus ,metellus3 there was in it no trace of rancour4 7#c7 vindictiveness1 99#hh99 ,neither must we listen to those who think that one should indulge in violent anger against one's political enemies and imagine that such is the attitude of a great-spirited1 brave man4 ,for nothing is more commendable1 nothing more becoming in a pre-eminently great man than courtesy and forbearance4 ,indeed1 in a free people1 where all enjoy equal rights before the law1 we must school ourselves to affability and what is called mental poise,y2 for if we are irritated when people intrude upon us at unseasonable hours or make unreasonable requests1 we shall develop a sour1 churlish temper1 prejudicial to ourselves and offensive to others4 ,and yet gentleness of spirit and forbearance are to be commended only with the understanding that strictness may be exercised for the good of the state2 for without that1 the government cannot be well administered4 ,on the other hand1 if punishment or correction must be administered1 it need not be insulting2 it ought to have regard to the welfare of the state1 not to the personal satisfaction of the man who administers the punishment or reproof4 7#d7 anger4 99#hi99 ,we should take care also that the punishment shall not be out of proportion to the offence1 and that some shall not be chastised for the same fault for which others are not even called to account4 ,in administering punishment it is above all necessary to allow no trace of anger4 ,for if anyone proceeds in a passion to inflict punishment1 he will never observe that happy mean which lies between excess and defect4 ,this doctrine of the mean is approved by the ,peripatetics--and wisely approved1 if only they did not speak in praise of anger and tell us that it is a gift bestowed on us by ,nature for a good purpose4 ,but in reality1 anger is in every circumstance to be eradicated2 and it is to be desired that they who administer the government should be like the laws1 which are led to inflict punishment not by wrath but by justice4 ,v ,from the death of ,pericles on4 ,w ,such as the conspiracy of ,catiline4 ,x ,the civil wars of ,marius and ,sulla1 ,caesar and ,pompey4 ,y ,the quality elsewhere expressed by ,cicero with --'depth1' 'reserve1' the art of concealing and controlling one's feelings under an outward serenity of manner4 99#ij99 ,,xxvi4 ,atque etiam in rebus prosperis et ad voluntatem nostram fluentibus superbiam magnopere1 fastidium arrogantiamque fugiamus4 ,nam ut adversas res1 sic secundas immoderate ferre levitatis est1 praeclaraque est aequabilitas in omni vita et idem semper vultus eademque frons1 ut de ,socrate itemque#gi de ,c4 ,laelio accepimus4#hj ,philippum quidem1 ,macedonum regem1 rebus gestis et gloria superatum a filio1 facilitate et humanitate video superiorem fuisse2 itaque alter semper magnus1 alter saepe turpissimus2 ut recte praecipere videantur1 qui monent1 ut1 quanto superiores simus1 tanto nos geramus summissius4 ,panaetius quidem ,africanum1 auditorem et familiarem suum1 solitum ait dicere1 ut equos propter crebras contentiones proeliorum ferocitate exsultantes domitoribus tradere soleant1 ut iis#ha facilioribus possint uti1 sic homines secundis rebus effrenatos sibique praefidentes tamquam in gyrum rationis et doctrinae duci oportere1 ut perspicerent rerum humanarum imbecillitatem varietatemque fortunae4 99#ia99 ,atque etiam in secundissimis rebus maxime est utendum consilio amicorum iisque maior etiam quam ante tribuenda auctoritas4 ,isdemque temporibus cavendum est1 ne assentatoribus patefaciamus auris neve#hb adulari nos sinamus1 in quo falli facile est2 tales enim nos esse putamus1 ut iure laudemur2 ex quo nascuntur innumerabilia peccata1 cum homines inflati opinionibus turpiter irridentur et in maximis versantur erroribus4 ,sed haec quidem hactenus4 99#ib99 ,illud autem sic est iudicandum1 maximas geri res et maximi animi ab iis1#hc qui res publicas regant1 quod earum administratio latissime pateat ad plurimosque pertineat2 esse autem magni animi et fuisse multos etiam in vita otiosa1 qui aut investigarent aut conarentur magna quaedam seseque suarum rerum finibus continerent aut interiecti inter philosophos et eos1 qui rem publicam administrarent1 delectarentur re sua familiari non eam quidem omni ratione exaggerantes neque excludentes ab eius usu suos potiusque et amicis impertientes et rei publicae1 si quando usus esset4 ,quae primum bene parta#hd sit nullo neque turpi quaestu neque odioso1 deinde augeatur ratione1 diligentia1 parsimonia1#he tum quam plurimis1 modo dignis1 se utilem praebeat nec libidini potius luxuriaeque quam liberalitati et beneficentiae pareat4 ,haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice1 graviter animoseque vivere atque etiam simpliciter1 fideliter1 vere hominum amice4 #gi itemque ,h#b a1 ,edd42 idemque ,a ,b ,h#a ,l b c4 #hj accepimus ,b#b a c1 ,edd42 accipimus ,a ,b#a ,h b4 #ha iis ,edd42 his ,,mss4 #hb neve ,nonius1 ,edd42 nec ,,mss4 #hc iis ,edd42 his ,,mss4 #hd parta ,b#a1 ,edd42 parata ,a ,b#b ,h ,l a b c4 #he deinde 444 parsimonia ,edd41 after ,unger1 transpose2 in ,,mss4 it follows tum 444 pareat4 ,fortitude in prosperity4 99#ij99 ,,xxvi4 ,again1 when fortune smiles and the stream of life flows according to our wishes1 let us diligently avoid all arrogance1 haughtiness1 and pride4 ,for it is as much a sign of weakness to give way to one's feelings in success as it is in adversity4 ,but it is a fine thing to keep an unruffled temper1 an unchanging mien1 and the same cast of countenance in every condition of life2 this1 history tells us1 was characteristic of ,socrates and no less of ,gaius ,laelius4 ,philip1 king of ,macedon1 ,i observe1 however surpassed by his son in achievements and fame1 was superior to him in affability and refinement4 ,philip1 accordingly1 was always great2 ,alexander1 often infamously bad4 ,humility4 ,there seems to be sound advice1 therefore1 in this word of warning3 ,the higher we are placed1 the more humbly should we walk4 ,panaetius tells us that ,africanus1 his pupil and friend1 used to say3 ,as1 when horses have become mettlesome and unmanageable on account of their frequent participation in battles1 their owners put them in the hands of trainers to make them more tractable2 so men1 who through prosperity have become restive and over self-confident1 ought to be put into the training-ring1 so to speak1 of reason and learning1 that they may be brought to comprehend the frailty of human affairs and the fickleness of fortune4 99#ia99 ,the greater our prosperity1 moreover1 the more should we seek the counsel of friends1 and the greater the heed that should be given to their advice4 ,under such circumstances also we must beware of lending an ear to sycophants or allowing them to impose upon us with their flattery4 ,for it is easy in this way to deceive ourselves1 since we thus come to think ourselves duly entitled to praise2 and to this frame of mind a thousand delusions may be traced1 when men are puffed up with conceit and expose themselves to ignominy and ridicule by committing the most egregious blunders4 ,so much for this subject4 ,greatness of mind in public and in private life4 99#ib99 ,to revert to the original question,z--we must decide that the most important activities1 those most indicative of a great spirit1 are performed by the men who direct the affairs of nations2 for such public activities have the widest scope and touch the lives of the most people4 ,but even in the life of retirement there are and there have been many high-souled men who have been engaged in important inquiries or embarked on most important enterprises and yet kept themselves within the limits of their own affairs2 or1 taking a middle course between philosophers on the one hand and statesmen on the other1 they were content with managing their own property--not increasing it by any and every means nor debarring their kindred from the enjoyment of it1 but rather1 if ever there were need1 sharing it with their friends and with the state4 ,only let it1 in the first place1 be honestly acquired1 by the use of no dishonest or fraudulent means2 let it1 in the second place1 increase by wisdom1 industry1 and thrift2 and1 finally1 let it be made available for the use of as many as possible 7if only they are worthy7 and be at the service of generosity and beneficence rather than of sensuality and excess4 ,by observing these rules1 one may live in magnificence1 dignity1 and independence1 and yet in honour1 truth and charity toward all4 ,z #gj4 99#ic99 ,,xxvii4 ,sequitur1 ut de una reliqua parte honestatis dicendum sit1 in qua verecundia et quasi quidam ornatus vitae1 temperantia et modestia omnisque sedatio perturbationum animi et rerum modus cernitur4 ,hoc loco continetur id1 quod dici ,latine decorum potest2 ,graece enim dicitur4 ,huius#hf vis ea est1 ut ab honesto non queat separari2 99#id99 nam et1 quod decet1 honestum est et1 quod honestum est1 decet2 qualis autem differentia sit honesti et decori1 facilius intellegi quam explanari potest4 ,quicquid est enim1 quod deceat1 id tum apparet1 cum antegressa est honestas4 ,itaque non solum in hac parte honestatis1 de qua hoc loco disserendum est1 sed etiam in tribus superioribus quid deceat apparet4 ,nam et ratione uti atque oratione prudenter et agere1 quod agas1 considerate omnique in re quid sit veri videre et tueri decet1 contraque falli1 errare1 labi1 decipi tam dedecet quam delirare et mente esse captum2 et iusta omnia decora sunt1 iniusta contra1 ut turpia1 sic indecora4 ,similis est ratio fortitudinis4 ,quod enim viriliter animoque magno fit1 id dignum viro et decorum videtur1 quod contra1 id ut turpe1 sic indecorum4 99#ie99 ,quare pertinet quidem ad omnem honestatem hoc1 quod dico1 decorum1 et ita pertinet1 ut non recondita quadam ratione cernatur1 sed sit in promptu4 ,est enim quiddam1 idque intellegitur in omni virtute1 quod deceat2 quod cogitatione magis a virtute potest quam re separari4 ,ut venustas et pulchritudo corporis secerni non potest a valetudine1 sic hoc1 de quo loquimur1 decorum totum illud quidem est cum virtute confusum1 sed mente et cogitatione distinguitur4 99#if99 ,est autem eius discriptio#hg duplex2 nam et generale quoddam decorum intellegimus1 quod in omni honestate versatur1 et aliud huic subiectum1 quod pertinet ad singulas partes honestatis4 ,atque illud superius sic fere definiri solet3 decorum id esse1 quod consentaneum sit hominis excellentiae in eo1 in quo natura eius a reliquis animantibus differat4 ,quae autem pars subiecta generi est1 eam sic definiunt1 ut id decorum velint esse1 quod ita naturae consentaneum sit1 ut in eo moderatio et temperantia appareat cum specie quadam liberali4 #hf dicitur4 ,huius ,edd42 dicitur decorum4 huius ,,mss4 #hg discriptio b1 ,edd42 descriptio ,a ,b ,h a2 distinctio ,l c4 ,d4 ,temperance4 99#ic99 ,,xxvii4 ,we have next to discuss the one remaining division of moral rectitude4 ,that is the one in which we find considerateness and self-control1 which give1 as it were1 a sort of polish to life2 it embraces also temperance1 complete subjection of all the passions1 and moderation in all things4 ,propriety4 ,under this head is further included what1 in ,latin1 may be called decorum,,aa 7propriety72 for in ,greek it is called 4,,aa ,such is its essential nature1 that it is inseparable from moral goodness2 99#id99 for what is proper is morally right1 and what is morally right is proper4 ,the nature of the difference between morality and propriety can be more easily felt than expressed4 ,for whatever propriety may be1 it is manifested only when there is pre-existing moral rectitude4 ,and so1 not only in this division of moral rectitude which we have now to discuss but also in the three preceding divisions1 it is clearly brought out what propriety is4 ,propriety and the ,cardinal ,virtues4 ,for to employ reason and speech rationally1 to do with careful consideration whatever one does1 and in everything to discern the truth and to uphold it--that is proper4 ,to be mistaken1 on the other hand1 to miss the truth1 to fall into error1 to be led astray--that is as improper as to be deranged and lose one's mind4 ,and all things just are proper2 all things unjust1 like all things immoral1 are improper4 ,the relation of propriety to fortitude is similar4 ,what is done in a manly and courageous spirit seems becoming to a man and proper2 what is done in a contrary fashion is at once immoral and improper4 99#ie99 ,this propriety1 therefore1 of which ,i am speaking belongs to each division of moral rectitude2 and its relation to the cardinal virtues is so close1 that it is perfectly self-evident and does not require any abstruse process of reasoning to see it4 ,for there is a certain element of propriety perceptible in every act of moral rectitude2 and this can be separated from virtue theoretically better than it can be practically4 ,as comeliness and beauty of person are inseparable from the notion of health1 so this propriety of which we are speaking1 while in fact completely blended with virtue1 is mentally and theoretically distinguishable from it4 ,propriety defined4 99#if99 ,the classification of propriety1 moreover1 is twofold3 7#a7 we assume a general sort of propriety1 which is found in moral goodness as a whole2 then 7#b7 there is another propriety1 subordinate to this1 which belongs to the several divisions of moral goodness4 ,the former is usually defined somewhat as follows3 ,propriety is that which harmonizes with man's superiority in those respects in which his nature differs from that of the rest of the animal creation4 ,and they so define the special type of propriety which is subordinate to the general notion1 that they represent it to be that propriety which harmonizes with nature1 in the sense that it manifestly embraces temperance and self-control1 together with a certain deportment such as becomes a gentleman4 ,,aa ,decorum ,cicero's attempt to translate 1 means an appreciation of the fitness of things1 propriety in inward feeling or outward appearance1 in speech1 behaviour1 dress1 etc4 ,decorum is as difficult to translate into ,english as is to reproduce in ,latin2 as an adjective1 it is here rendered by 'proper1' as a noun1 by 'propriety4' ,cic41 ,or4 xxii1 #ga 99#ig99 ,,xxviii4 ,haec ita intellegi possumus existimare ex eo decoro1 quod potae sequuntur2 de quo alio loco plura dici solent4 ,sed tum#hh servare illud potas1 quod deceat1 dicimus1 cum id1 quod quaque persona dignum est1 et fit et dicitur2 ut1 si ,aeacus aut ,minos diceret3 ,attius1 ,atreus1 ,ribbeck#b1 #bjc derint1 dum mtuant1 aut3 ,ibid41 #bbf nats sepulchro ipse st parens1 indecorum videretur1 quod eos fuisse iustos accepimus2 at ,atreo dicente plausus excitantur2 est enim digna persona oratio4 ,sed potae1 quid quemque deceat1 ex persona iudicabunt2 nobis autem personam imposuit ipsa natura magna cum excellentia praestantiaque animantium reliquarum4#hi 99#ih99 ,quocirca potae in magna varietate personarum1 etiam vitiosis quid conveniat et quid deceat1 videbunt1 nobis autem cum a natura constantiae1 moderationis1 temperantiae1 verecundiae partes datae sint1 cumque eadem natura doceat non neglegere1 quem ad modum nos adversus homines geramus1 efficitur1 ut et illud1 quod ad omnem honestatem pertinet1 decorum quam late fusum sit1 appareat et hoc1 quod spectatur in uno quoque genere virtutis4 ,ut enim pulchritudo corporis apta compositione membrorum movet oculos et delectat hoc ipso1 quod inter se omnes partes cum quodam lepore consentiunt1 sic hoc decorum1 quod elucet in vita1 movet approbationem eorum1 quibuscum vivitur1 ordine et constantia et moderatione dictorum omnium atque factorum4 99#ii99 ,adhibenda est igitur quaedam reverentia adversus homines et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum4 ,nam neglegere1 quid de se quisque sentiat1 non solum arrogantis est1 sed etiam omnino dissoluti4 ,est autem1 quod differat in hominum ratione habenda inter iustitiam et verecundiam4 ,iustitiae partes sunt non violare homines1 verecundiae non offendere2 in quo maxime vis perspicitur decori4 ,his igitur expositis1 quale sit id1 quod decere dicimus1 intellectum puto4 99#ajj99 ,officium autem1 quod ab eo ducitur1 hanc primum habet viam1 quae deducit ad convenientiam conservationemque naturae2 quam si sequemur ducem1 numquam aberrabimus sequemurque et id1 quod acutum et perspicax natura est1 et id1 quod ad hominum consociationem accommodatum1 et id1 quod vehemens atque forte4 ,sed maxima vis decori in hac inest parte1 de qua disputamus2 neque enim solum corporis1 qui ad naturam apti sunt1 sed multo etiam magis animi motus probandi1 qui item ad naturam accommodati sunt4 99#aja99 ,duplex est enim vis animorum atque natura2#ij una pars in appetitu posita est1 quae est ,graece1 quae hominem huc et illuc rapit1 altera in ratione1 quae docet et#ia explanat1 quid faciendum fugiendumque#ib sit4 ,ita fit1 ut ratio praesit1 appetitus obtemperet4 #hh ,sed tum ,l c1 ,edd42 sed ut tum ,a ,b ,h b4 #hi reliquarum ,a#a ,b#a ,h a b2 reliquorum ,a#b ,b#b c4 #ij natura ,edd42 naturae ,,mss4 #ia et ,l c1 ,edd42 not in ,a ,b ,h b4 #ib fugiendumque ,a ,b ,h a b2 fugiendumve ,l c p4 ,poetic propriety4 99#ig99 ,,xxviii4 ,that this is the common acceptation of propriety we may infer from that propriety which poets aim to secure4 ,concerning that1 ,i have occasion to say more in another connection4 ,now1 we say that the poets observe propriety1 when every word or action is in accord with each individual character4 ,for example1 if ,aeacus or ,minos said3 ,let them hate1 if only they fear1 or3 ,the father is himself his children's tomb1 that would seem improper1 because we are told that they were just men4 ,but when ,atreus speaks those lines1 they call forth applause2 for the sentiment is in keeping with the character4 ,but it will rest with the poets to decide1 according to the individual characters1 what is proper for each2 but to us ,nature herself has assigned a character of surpassing excellence1 far superior to that of all other living creatures1 and in accordance with that we shall have to decide what propriety requires4 99#ih99 ,the poets will observe1 therefore1 amid a great variety of characters1 what is suitable and proper for all--even for the bad4 ,moral propriety4 ,but to us ,nature has assigned the rles of steadfastness1 temperance1 self-control1 and considerateness of others2 ,nature also teaches us not to be careless in our behaviour towards our fellow-men4 ,hence we may clearly see how wide is the application not only of that propriety which is essential to moral rectitude in general1 but also of the special propriety which is displayed in each particular subdivision of virtue4 ,for1 as physical beauty with harmonious symmetry of the limbs engages the attention and delights the eye1 for the very reason that all the parts combine in harmony and grace1 so this propriety1 which shines out in our conduct1 engages the approbation of our fellow-men by the order1 consistency1 and self-control it imposes upon every word and deed4 ,considerateness4 99#ii99 ,we should1 therefore1 in our dealings with people show what ,i may almost call reverence toward all men--not only toward the men who are the best1 but toward others as well4 ,for indifference to public opinion implies not merely self-sufficiency1 but even total lack of principle4 ,there is1 too1 a difference between justice and considerateness in one's relations to one's fellow-men4 ,it is the function of justice not to do wrong to one's fellow-men2 of considerateness1 not to wound their feelings2 and in this the essence of propriety is best seen4 ,with the foregoing exposition1 ,i think it is clear what the nature is of what we term propriety4 ,duties prescribed by propriety3 99#ajj99 ,further1 as to the duty which has its source in propriety1 the first road on which it conducts us leads to harmony with ,nature and the faithful observance of her laws4 7#a7 ,follow ,nature1 ,if we follow ,nature as our guide1 we shall never go astray1 but we shall be pursuing that which is in its nature clear-sighted and penetrating 7,wisdom71 that which is adapted to promote and strengthen society 7,justice71 and that which is strong and courageous 7,fortitude74 ,but the very essence of propriety is found in the division of virtue which is now under discussion 7,temperance74 ,for it is only when they agree with ,nature's laws that we should give our approval to the movements not only of the body1 but still more of the spirit4 7#b7 subject appetite to reason4 99#aja99 ,now we find that the essential activity of the spirit is twofold3 one force is appetite 7that is1 1 in ,greek71 which impels a man this way and that2 the other is reason1 which teaches and explains what should be done and what should be left undone4 ,the result is that reason commands1 appetite obeys4 ,,xxix4 ,omnis autem actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia nec vero agere quicquam1 cuius non possit causam probabilem reddere2 haec est enim fere discriptio#ic officii4 99#ajb99 ,efficiendum autem est1 ut appetitus rationi oboediant eamque neque praecurrant nec propter pigritiam aut ignaviam deserant sintque tranquilli atque omni animi perturbatione careant2 ex quo elucebit omnis constantia omnisque moderatio4 ,nam qui appetitus longius evagantur et tamquam exsultantes sive cupiendo sive fugiendo non satis a ratione retinentur1 ii#id sine dubio finem et modum transeunt2 relinquunt enim et abiciunt oboedientiam nec rationi parent1 cui sunt subiecti lege naturae2 a quibus non modo animi perturbantur1 sed etiam corpora4 ,licet ora ipsa cernere iratorum aut eorum1 qui aut libidine aliqua aut metu commoti sunt aut voluptate nimia gestiunt2 quorum omnium voltus1 voces1 motus statusque mutantur4 99#ajc99 ,ex quibus illud intellegitur1 ut ad officii formam revertamur1 appetitus omnes contrahendos sedandosque esse excitandamque animadversionem et diligentiam1 ut ne quid temere ac fortuito1 inconsiderate neglegenterque agamus4 ,neque enim ita generati a natura sumus1 ut ad ludum et iocum facti esse videamur1 ad severitatem potius et ad quaedam studia graviora atque maiora4 ,ludo autem et ioco uti illo quidem licet1 sed sicut somno et quietibus ceteris tum1 cum gravibus seriisque rebus satis fecerimus4 ,ipsumque genus iocandi non profusum nec immodestum1 sed ingenuum et facetum esse debet4 ,ut enim pueris non omnem ludendi licentiam damus1 sed eam1 quae ab honestatis actionibus non sit aliena1 sic in ipso ioco aliquod probi ingenii lumen eluceat4 99#ajd99 ,duplex omnino est iocandi genus1 unum illiberale1 petulans1 flagitiosum1 obscenum1 alterum elegans1 urbanum1 ingeniosum1 facetum4 ,quo genere non modo ,plautus noster et ,atticorum antiqua comoedia1 sed etiam philosophorum ,socraticorum libri referti sunt1 multaque multorum facete dicta1 ut ea1 quae a sene ,catone collecta sunt1 quae vocant 4 ,facilis igitur est distinctio ingenui et illiberalis ioci4 ,alter est1 si tempore fit1 ut si remisso animo1 gravissimo homine dignus1#ie alter ne libero quidem1 si rerum turpitudini adhibetur verborum#if obscenitas4 ,ludendi etiam est quidam modus retinendus1 ut ne nimis omnia profundamus elatique voluptate in aliquam turpitudinem delabamur4 ,suppeditant autem et campus noster et studia venandi honesta exempla ludendi4 #ic discriptio ,b ,h1 ,bt4#a2 descriptio ,a ,l a b c1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller1 ,heine4 #id ii ,edd42 hi a2 hii ,h2 hij c4 #ie fit1 ut si remisso animo1 gravissimo homine dignus ,ed42 fit1 ut 7et c7 remisso animo homine dignus ,,mss42 fit aut si rem4 an4 magno homine ,madvig2 fit1 ut sit remissio animo1 homine dignus ,unger4 #if turpitudini adhibetur verborum ,a ,b ,h a b1 ,edd42 turpitudo adhibetur et verborum ,l c4 ,,xxix4 ,again1 every action ought to be free from undue haste or carelessness2 neither ought we to do anything for which we cannot assign a reasonable motive2 for in these words we have practically a definition of duty4 99#ajb99 ,the appetites1 moreover1 must be made to obey the reins of reason and neither allowed to run ahead of it nor from listlessness or indolence to lag behind2 but people should enjoy calm of soul and be free from every sort of passion4 ,self-control in 7#a7 passions1 ,as a result strength of character and self-control will shine forth in all their lustre4 ,for when appetites overstep their bounds and galloping away1 so to speak1 whether in desire or aversion1 are not well held in hand by reason1 they clearly overleap all bound and measure2 for they throw obedience off and leave it behind and refuse to obey the reins of reason1 to which they are subject by ,nature's laws4 ,and not only minds but bodies as well are disordered by such appetites4 ,we need only to look at the faces of men in a rage or under the influence of some passion or fear or beside themselves with extravagant joy3 in every instance their features1 voices1 motions1 attitudes undergo a change4 99#ajc99 ,from all this--to return to our sketch of duty--we see that all the appetites must be controlled and calmed and that we must take infinite pains not to do anything from mere impulse or at random1 without due consideration and care4 7#b7 amusements1 ,for ,nature has not brought us into the world to act as if we were created for play or jest1 but rather for earnestness and for some more serious and important pursuits4 ,we may1 of course1 indulge in sport and jest1 but in the same way as we enjoy sleep or other relaxations1 and only when we have satisfied the claims of our earnest1 serious tasks4 7#c7 raillery1 ,further than that1 the manner of jesting itself ought not to be extravagant or immoderate1 but refined and witty4 ,for as we do not grant our children unlimited licence to play1 but only such freedom as is not incompatible with good conduct1 so even in our jesting let the light of a pure character shine forth4 99#ajd99 ,there are1 generally speaking1 two sorts of jest3 the one1 coarse1 rude1 vicious1 indecent2 the other1 refined1 polite1 clever1 witty4 ,with this latter sort not only our own ,plautus and the ,old ,comedy of ,athens1 but also the books of ,socratic philosophy abound2 and we have many witty sayings of many men--like those collected by old ,cato under the title of ,bons ,mots 7or ,apophthegms74 ,so the distinction between the elegant and the vulgar jest is an easy matter3 the one kind1 if well timed 7for instance1 in hours of mental relaxation71 is becoming to the most dignified person2 the other is unfit for any gentleman1 if the subject is indecent and the words obscene4 ,then1 too1 certain bounds must be observed in our amusements and we must be careful not to carry things too far and1 swept away by our passions1 lapse into some shameful excess4 ,our ,campus1 however1 and the amusements of the chase are examples of wholesome recreation4 99#aje99 ,,xxx4 ,sed pertinet ad omnem officii quaestionem semper in promptu habere1 quantum natura hominis pecudibus reliquisque beluis antecedat2 illae nihil sentiunt nisi voluptatem ad eamque feruntur omni impetu1 hominis autem mens discendo alitur et cogitando1 semper aliquid aut anquirit aut agit videndique et audiendi delectatione ducitur4 ,quin etiam1 si quis est paulo ad voluptates propensior1 modo ne sit ex pecudum genere 7sunt enim quidam homines non re1 sed nomine71 sed si quis est paulo erectior1 quamvis voluptate capiatur1 occultat et dissimulat appetitum voluptatis propter verecundiam4 99#ajf99 ,ex quo intellegitur corporis voluptatem non satis esse dignam hominis praestantia1 eamque contemni et reici oportere2 sin sit quispiam1 qui aliquid tribuat voluptati1 diligenter ei tenendum esse eius fruendae modum4 ,itaque victus cultusque corporis ad valetudinem referatur et ad vires1 non ad voluptatem4 ,atque etiam si considerare volumus1#ig quae sit in natura excellentia et dignitas1 intellegemus1 quam sit turpe diffluere luxuria et delicate ac molliter vivere quamque honestum parce1 continenter1 severe1 sobrie4 99#ajg99 ,intellegendum etiam est duabus quasi nos a natura indutos esse personis2 quarum una communis est ex eo1 quod omnes participes sumus rationis praestantiaeque eius1 qua antecellimus bestiis1 a qua omne honestum decorumque trahitur1 et ex qua ratio inveniendi officii exquiritur1 altera autem1 quae proprie singulis est tributa4 ,ut enim in corporibus magnae dissimilitudines sunt 7alios videmus velocitate ad cursum1 alios viribus ad luctandum valere1 itemque in formis aliis dignitatem inesse1 aliis venustatem71 sic in animis exsistunt maiores etiam varietates4 99#ajh99 ,erat in ,l4 ,crasso1 in ,l4 ,philippo multus lepos1 maior etiam magisque de industria in ,c4 ,caesare ,l4 filio2 at isdem temporibus in ,m4 ,scauro et in ,m4 ,druso adulescente singularis severitas1 in ,c4 ,laelio multa hilaritas1 in eius familiari ,scipione ambitio maior1 vita tristior4 ,de ,graecis autem dulcem et facetum festivique sermonis atque in omni oratione simulatorem1 quem ,graeci#ih nominarunt1 ,socratem accepimus1 contra ,pythagoram et ,periclem summam auctoritatem consecutos sine ulla hilaritate4 ,callidum ,hannibalem ex ,poenorum1 ex nostris ducibus ,q4 ,maximum accepimus1 facile celare1 tacere1 dissimulare1 insidiari1 praeripere hostium consilia4 ,in quo genere ,graeci ,themistoclem et ,pheraeum ,iasonem ceteris anteponunt2 in primisque versutum et callidum factum ,solonis1 qui1 quo et tutior eius vita esset et plus aliquanto rei publicae prodesset1 furere se simulavit4 99#aji99 ,sunt his alii multum dispares1 simplices et aperti1 qui nihil ex occulto1 nihil de insidiis agendum putant1 veritatis cultores1 fraudis inimici1 itemque alii1 qui#ii quidvis perpetiantur1 cuivis deserviant1 dum1 quod velint1 consequantur1 ut ,sullam et ,m4 ,crassum videbamus4 ,quo in genere versutissimum et patientissimum ,lacedaemonium ,lysandrum accepimus1 contraque ,callicratidam1 qui praefectus classis proximus post ,lysandrum fuit2 itemque in sermonibus alium quemque1 quamvis#ajj praepotens sit1 efficere1 ut unus de multis esse videatur2 quod in ,catulo1 et in patre et in filio1 itemque in ,q4 ,mucio ,mancia#aja vidimus4 ,audivi ex maioribus natu hoc idem fuisse in ,p4 ,scipione ,nasica1 contraque patrem eius1 illum qui ,ti4 ,gracchi conatus perditos vindicavit1 nullam comitatem habuisse sermonis ne ,xenocratem quidem1 severissimum philosophorum1#ajb ob eamque rem ipsam magnum et clarum fuisse4 ,innumerabiles aliae dissimilitudines sunt naturae morumque1 minime tamen vituperandorum4 #ig volumus ,a ,b#a ,h#a b2 volemus ,b#b ,h#b1 ,bt41 ,heine2 velimus ,l2 vellemus c4 #ih ,graeci ,edd42 ironia graeci ,a ,b ,h b2 ironian graeci a2 greci mironian c4 #ii qui ,a ,l c2 si ,b ,h a b4 #ajj alium quemque quamvis ,ed42 alium quemque quamvis ,,mss42 quemque alium quamvis p2 aliquem1 quamvis ,pearce1 ,bt42 alium quamvis1 ,facciolati1 ,heine4 #aja et in patre et in filio ,a ,b b1 ,edd42 et in patre et filio ,h a2 et patre et filio ,l c4 itemque ,b ,h#b1 ,bt4#a1 ,mller2 idemque ,a ,h#a ,l a b c1 ,bt4#b1 ,heine4 in ,q ,mucio ,mancia ,heine1 ,bt4#b2 in q4 mucio mantia ,b2 in q4 mutio mancia ,h ,l c2 in q4 mutio mantia a2 inque mucio mantia b2 inque mutio mantia ,a2 in q4 muntio mantia p2 in ,q4 ,mucio1 ,mancia ,mller4 #ajb ne 7nec c7 ,xenocratem 7-n ,l c7 444 philosophorum ,,mss42 bracketed by ,heumann1 ,edd4 99#aje99 ,,xxx4 ,but it is essential to every inquiry about duty that we keep before our eyes how far superior man is by nature to cattle and other beasts3 they have no thought except for sensual pleasure and this they are impelled by every instinct to seek2 but man's mind is nurtured by study and meditation2 he is always either investigating or doing1 and he is captivated by the pleasure of seeing and hearing4 7#d7 pleasure4 ,nay1 even if a man is more than ordinarily inclined to sensual pleasures1 provided1 of course1 that he be not quite on a level with the beasts of the field 7for some people are men only in name1 not in fact7--if1 ,i say1 he is a little too susceptible to the attractions of pleasure1 he hides the fact1 however much he may be caught in its toils1 and for very shame conceals his appetite4 99#ajf99 ,from this we see that sensual pleasure is quite unworthy of the dignity of man and that we ought to despise it and cast it from us2 but if some one should be found who sets some value upon sensual gratification1 he must keep strictly within the limits of moderate indulgence4 ,one's physical comforts and wants1 therefore1 should be ordered according to the demands of health and strength1 not according to the calls of pleasure4 ,and if we will only bear in mind the superiority and dignity of our nature1 we shall realize how wrong it is to abandon ourselves to excess and to live in luxury and voluptuousness1 and how right it is to live in thrift1 self-denial1 simplicity1 and sobriety4 ,the universal and the individual nature of man4 99#ajg99 ,we must realize also that we are invested by ,nature with two characters1 as it were3 one of these is universal1 arising from the fact of our being all alike endowed with reason and with that superiority which lifts us above the brute4 ,from this all morality and propriety are derived1 and upon it depends the rational method of ascertaining our duty4 ,individual endowments4 ,the other character is the one that is assigned to individuals in particular4 ,in the matter of physical endowment there are great differences3 some1 we see1 excel in speed for the race1 others in strength for wrestling2 so in point of personal appearance1 some have stateliness1 others comeliness4 99#ajh99 ,diversities of character are greater still4 ,lucius ,crassus and ,lucius ,philippus had a large fund of wit2 ,gaius ,caesar1 ,lucius's son1 had a still richer fund and employed it with more studied purpose4 ,contemporary with them1 ,marcus ,scaurus and ,marcus ,drusus1 the younger1 were examples of unusual seriousness2 ,gaius ,laelius1 of unbounded jollity2 while his intimate friend1 ,scipio1 cherished more serious ideals and lived a more austere life4 ,among the ,greeks1 history tells us1 ,socrates was fascinating and witty1 a genial conversationalist2 he was what the ,greeks call --in every conversation1 pretending to need information and professing admiration for the wisdom of his companion4 ,pythagoras and ,pericles1 on the other hand1 reached the heights of influence and power without any seasoning of mirthfulness4 ,we read that ,hannibal1 among the ,carthaginian generals1 and ,quintus ,maximus1 among our own1 were shrewd and ready at concealing their plans1 covering up their tracks1 disguising their movements1 laying stratagems1 forestalling the enemy's designs4 ,in these qualities the ,greeks rank ,themistocles and ,jason of ,pherae above all others4 ,especially crafty and shrewd was the device of ,solon1 who1 to make his own life safer and at the same time to do a considerably larger service for his country1 feigned insanity4 99#aji99 ,then there are others1 quite different from these1 straightforward and open1 who think that nothing should be done by underhand means or treachery4 ,they are lovers of truth1 haters of fraud4 ,there are others still who will stoop to anything1 truckle to anybody1 if only they may gain their ends4 ,such1 we saw1 were ,sulla and ,marcus ,crassus4 ,the most crafty and most persevering man of this type was ,lysander of ,sparta1 we are told2 of the opposite type was ,callicratidas1 who succeeded ,lysander as admiral of the fleet4 ,so we find that another1 no matter how eminent he may be1 will condescend in social intercourse to make himself appear but a very ordinary person4 ,such graciousness of manner we have seen in the case of ,catulus--both father and son--and also of ,quintus ,mucius ,mancia4 ,i have heard from my elders that ,publius ,scipio ,nasica was another master of this art2 but his father1 on the other hand--the man who punished ,tiberius ,gracchus for his nefarious undertakings--had no such gracious manner in social intercourse 4441 and because of that very fact he rose to greatness and fame4 ,countless other dissimilarities exist in natures and characters1 and they are not in the least to be criticized4 99#aaj99 ,,xxxi4 ,admodum autem tenenda sunt sua cuique non vitiosa1 sed tamen propria1 quo facilius decorum illud1 quod quaerimus1 retineatur4 ,sic enim est faciendum1 ut contra universam naturam nihil contendamus1 ea tamen conservata propriam nostram sequamur1 ut1 etiamsi sint alia graviora atque meliora1 tamen nos studia nostra nostrae naturae regula#ajc metiamur2 neque enim attinet naturae repugnare nec quicquam sequi1 quod assequi non queas4 ,ex quo magis emergit1 quale sit decorum illud1 ideo quia nihil decet invita ,minerva1 ut aiunt1 id est adversante et repugnante natura4 99#aaa99 ,omnino si quicquam est decorum1 nihil est profecto magis quam aequabilitas cum#ajd universae vitae1 tum singularum actionum1 quam conservare non possis1 si aliorum naturam imitans omittas tuam4 ,ut enim sermone eo debemus uti1 qui innatus#aje est nobis1 ne1 ut quidam1 ,graeca verba inculcantes iure optimo rideamur1 sic in actiones omnemque vitam nullam discrepantiam conferre debemus4 99#aab99 ,atque haec differentia naturarum tantam habet vim1 ut non numquam mortem sibi ipse consciscere alius debeat1 alius in eadem causa non debeat4#ajf ,num enim alia in causa ,m4 ,cato fuit1 alia ceteri1 qui se in ,africa ,caesari tradiderunt8 ,atqui ceteris forsitan vitio datum esset1 si se interemissent1 propterea quod lenior eorum vita et mores fuerant faciliores1 ,catoni cum incredibilem tribuisset natura gravitatem eamque ipse perpetua constantia roboravisset semperque in proposito susceptoque consilio permansisset1 moriendum potius quam tyranni vultus aspiciendus fuit4 99#aac99 ,quam multa passus est ,ulixes in illo errore diuturno1 cum et mulieribus1 si ,circe et ,calypso mulieres appellandae sunt1 inserviret et in omni sermone omnibus affabilem et iucundum#ajg esse se vellet6 domi vero etiam contumelias servorum ancillarumque pertulit1 ut ad id aliquando1 quod cupiebat1 veniret4 ,at ,aiax1 quo animo traditur1 milies oppetere mortem quam illa perpeti maluisset4 ,quae contemplantes expendere oportebit1 quid quisque habeat sui1 eaque moderari nec velle experiri1 quam se aliena deceant2 id enim maxime quemque decet1 quod est cuiusque maxime suum4 99#aad99 ,suum#ajh quisque igitur noscat ingenium acremque se et bonorum et vitiorum suorum iudicem praebeat1 ne scaenici plus quam nos videantur habere prudentiae4 ,illi enim non optimas1 sed sibi accommodatissimas fabulas eligunt2 qui voce freti sunt1 ,epigonos ,medumque1 qui gestu1 ,melanippam1 ,clytemnestram1 semper ,rupilius1 quem ego memini1 ,antiopam1 non saepe ,aesopus ,aiacem4 ,ergo histrio hoc videbit in scaena1 non videbit sapiens vir in vita8 ,ad quas igitur res aptissimi erimus1 in iis potissimum elaborabimus2 sin aliquando necessitas nos ad ea detruserit1 quae nostri ingenii non erunt1 omnis adhibenda erit cura1 meditatio1 diligentia1 ut ea si non decore1 at quam minime indecore facere possimus2 nec tam#aji est enitendum1 ut bona1 quae nobis data non sint1 sequamur1 quam ut vitia fugiamus4 #ajc studia nostra nostrae naturae regula ,ernesti1 ,bt41 ,heine2 studia nostra nostra 7corr4 ex nostri7 regula ,a2 studia nostrae regulae ,b2 studia nostrae regul ,h2 studia nostra regula a2 studia 7corr4 in studii7 nostri regula b2 studia nostra naturae regula ,l c1 ,nonius2 studia nostrae naturae regula ,mller4 #ajd cum ,lambinus1 ,edd42 not in ,,mss4 #aje innatus ,bt41 ,edd42 notus ,,mss4 #ajf alius in eadem causa non debeat ,l c p1 ,mller1 ,heine2 not in ,a ,b ,h b2 alius non debeat a2 alius in eadem causa non debeat ,bt41 ,ed4 #ajg et iocundum ,l c p2 not in ,a ,b ,h a b2 et iucundum ,bt41 ,ed4 #ajh ,suum ,orelli2 not in ,,mss42 but p has ingenium suum4 #aji tam ,l c1 ,edd42 tam 7i4e4 tamen7 ,a ,b ,h b4 ,conduct must accord with individual endowments4 99#aaj99 ,,xxxi4 ,everybody1 however1 must resolutely hold fast to his own peculiar gifts1 in so far as they are peculiar only and not vicious1 in order that propriety1 which is the object of our inquiry1 may the more easily be secured4 ,for we must so act as not to oppose the universal laws of human nature1 but1 while safeguarding those1 to follow the bent of our own particular nature2 and even if other careers should be better and nobler1 we may still regulate our own pursuits by the standard of our own nature4 ,for it is of no avail to fight against one's nature or to aim at what is impossible of attainment4 ,from this fact the nature of that propriety defined above comes into still clearer light1 inasmuch as nothing is proper that goes against the grain1 as the saying is--that is1 if it is in direct opposition to one's natural genius4 99#aaa99 ,if there is any such thing as propriety at all1 it can be nothing more than uniform consistency in the course of our life as a whole and all its individual actions4 ,and this uniform consistency one could not maintain by copying the personal traits of others and eliminating one's own4 ,for as we ought to employ our mother-tongue1 lest1 like certain people who are continually dragging in ,greek words1 we draw well deserved ridicule upon ourselves1 so we ought not to introduce anything foreign into our actions or our life in general4 99#aab99 ,the same course may be right for one1 wrong for another4 ,indeed1 such diversity of character carries with it so great significance that suicide may be for one man a duty1 for another under the same circumstances a crime4 ,did ,marcus ,cato find himself in one predicament1 and were the others1 who surrendered to ,caesar in ,africa1 in another8 ,and yet1 perhaps1 they would have been condemned1 if they had taken their lives2 for their mode of life had been less austere and their characters more pliable4 ,but ,cato had been endowed by nature with an austerity beyond belief1 and he himself had strengthened it by unswerving consistency and had remained ever true to his purpose and fixed resolve2 and it was for him to die rather than to look upon the face of a tyrant4 99#aac99 ,how much ,ulysses endured on those long wanderings1 when he submitted to the service even of women 7if ,circe and ,calypso may be called women7 and strove in every word to be courteous and complaisant to all6 ,and arrived at home1 he brooked even the insults of his men-servants and maid-servants1 in order to attain in the end the object of his desire4 ,but ,ajax1 with the temper he is represented as having1 would have chosen to meet death a thousand times rather than suffer such indignities6 ,let every one sustain his own character4 ,if we take this into consideration1 we shall see that it is each man's duty to weigh well what are his own peculiar traits of character1 to regulate these properly1 and not to wish to try how another man's would suit him4 ,for the more peculiarly his own a man's character is1 the better it fits him4 99#aad99 ,every one1 therefore1 should make a proper estimate of his own natural ability and show himself a critical judge of his own merits and defects2 in this respect1 we should not let actors display more practical wisdom than we have4 ,they select1 not the best plays1 but the ones best suited to their talents4 ,those who rely most upon the quality of their voice take the ,epigoni and the ,medus2 those who place more stress upon the action1 choose the ,melanippa and the ,clytaemnestra2 ,rupilius1 whom ,i remember1 always played in the ,antiope1 ,aesopus rarely in the ,ajax4 ,shall a player have regard to this in choosing his rle upon the stage1 and a wise man fail to do so in selecting his part in life8 ,we shall1 therefore1 work to the best advantage in that rle to which we are best adapted4 ,but if at some time stress of circumstances shall thrust us aside into some uncongenial part1 we must devote to it all possible thought1 practice1 and pains1 that we may be able to perform it1 if not with propriety1 at least with as little impropriety as possible2 and we need not strive so hard to attain to points of excellence that have not been vouchsafed to us as to correct the faults we have4 99#aae99 ,,xxxii4 ,ac duabus iis personis1 quas supra dixi1 tertia adiungitur1 quam casus aliqui aut tempus imponit2 quarta etiam1 quam nobismet ipsi iudicio nostro accommodamus4 ,nam regna1 imperia1 nobilitas1 honores1 divitiae1#aaj opes eaque1 quae sunt his contraria1 in casu sita temporibus gubernantur2 ipsi autem gerere quam personam velimus1 a nostra voluntate proficiscitur4 ,itaque se alii ad philosophiam1 alii ad ius civile1 alii ad eloquentiam applicant1 ipsarumque virtutum in alia alius mavult excellere4 99#aaf99 ,quorum vero patres aut maiores aliqua gloria praestiterunt1 ii student plerumque eodem in genere laudis excellere1 ut ,q4 ,mucius ,p4 f4 in iure civili1 ,pauli filius ,africanus in re militari4 ,quidam autem ad eas laudes1 quas a patribus acceperunt1 addunt aliquam suam1 ut hic idem ,africanus eloquentia cumulavit bellicam gloriam2 quod idem fecit ,timotheus ,cononis filius1 qui cum belli laude non inferior fuisset quam pater1 ad eam laudem doctrinae et ingenii gloriam adiecit4 ,fit autem interdum1 ut non nulli omissa imitatione maiorum suum quoddam institutum consequantur1 maximeque in eo plerumque elaborant ii1#aaa qui magna sibi proponunt obscuris orti maioribus4 99#aag99 ,haec igitur omnia1 cum quaerimus1 quid deceat1 complecti animo et cogitatione debemus2 in primis autem constituendum est1 quos nos et quales esse velimus et in quo genere vitae1 quae deliberatio est omnium difficillima4 ,ineunte enim adulescentia1 cum est maxima imbecillitas consilii1 tum id sibi quisque genus aetatis degendae constituit1 quod maxime adamavit2 itaque ante implicatur aliquo certo genere cursuque vivendi1 quam potuit1 quod optimum esset1 iudicare4 ,mem4 ,,ii1 i1 #ba-cd 99#aah99 ,nam quod#aab ,herculem ,prodicus#aac dicit1 ut est apud ,xenophontem1 cum primum pubesceret1 quod tempus a natura ad deligendum1 quam quisque viam vivendi sit ingressurus1 datum est1 exisse in solitudinem atque ibi sedentem diu secum multumque dubitasse1 cum duas cerneret vias1 unam ,voluptatis1 alteram ,virtutis1 utram ingredi melius esset1 hoc ,herculi ,iovis satu edito potuit fortasse contingere1 nobis non item1#aad qui imitamur1 quos cuique visum est1 atque ad eorum studia institutaque impellimur2 plerumque autem parentium praeceptis imbuti ad eorum consuetudinem moremque deducimur2 alii multitudinis iudicio feruntur1 quaeque maiori parti pulcherrima videntur1 ea maxime exoptant2 non nulli tamen sive felicitate quadam sive bonitate naturae sine#aae parentium disciplina rectam vitae secuti sunt viam4 #aaj nobilitas1 h41 divitiae ,unger2 nobilitatem1 h41 divitias ,,mss4 #aaa ii ,edd42 hii ,a ,h b2 hij c2 hi ,b a4 #aab ,nam quod ,l c1 ,edd42 namque ,a ,b ,h a b4 #aac ,prodicus ,manutius1 ,edd42 prodigus ,l c2 prodigum ,b ,h b4 #aad item ,edd42 idem ,,mss4 #aae sine ,stuerenburg1 ,edd4 plerique2 sive ,,mss41 ,bt4#a 99#aae99 ,,xxxii4 ,to the two above-mentioned characters,,ab is added a third1 which some chance or some circumstance imposes1 and a fourth also1 which we assume by our own deliberate choice4 ,regal powers and military commands1 nobility of birth and political office1 wealth and influence1 and their opposites depend upon chance and are1 therefore1 controlled by circumstances4 ,selection of a career3 ,but what rle we ourselves may choose to sustain is decided by our own free choice4 ,and so some turn to philosophy1 others to the civil law1 and still others to oratory1 while in case of the virtues themselves one man prefers to excel in one1 another in another4 7#a7 inheritance1 99#aaf99 ,they1 whose fathers or forefathers have achieved distinction in some particular field1 often strive to attain eminence in the same department of service3 for example1 ,quintus1 the son of ,publius ,mucius1 in the law2 ,africanus1 the son of ,paulus1 in the army4 ,and to that distinction which they have severally inherited from their fathers some have added lustre of their own2 for example1 that same ,africanus1 who crowned his inherited military glory with his own eloquence4 ,timotheus1 ,conon's son1 did the same3 he proved himself not inferior to his father in military renown and added to that distinction the glory of culture and intellectual power4 7#b7 choice1 ,it happens sometimes1 too1 that a man declines to follow in the footsteps of his fathers and pursues a vocation of his own4 ,and in such callings those very frequently achieve signal success who1 though sprung from humble parentage1 have set their aims high4 99#aag99 ,all these questions1 therefore1 we ought to bear thoughtfully in mind1 when we inquire into the nature of propriety2 but above all we must decide who and what manner of men we wish to be and what calling in life we would follow2 and this is the most difficult problem in the world4 ,for it is in the years of early youth1 when our judgment is most immature1 that each of us decides that his calling in life shall be that to which he has taken a special liking4 ,and thus he becomes engaged in some particular calling and career in life1 before he is fit to decide intelligently what is best for him4 ,hercules at the parting of the ways4 99#aah99 ,for we cannot all have the experience of ,hercules1 as we find it in the words of ,prodicus in ,xenophon3 ,when ,hercules was just coming into youth's estate 7the time which ,nature has appointed unto every man for choosing the path of life on which he would enter71 he went out into a desert place4 ,and as he saw two paths1 the path of ,pleasure and the path of ,virtue1 he sat down and debated long and earnestly which one it were better for him to take4 ,this might1 perhaps1 happen to a ,hercules1 scion of the seed of ,jove2 but it cannot well happen to us2 for we copy1 each the model he fancies1 and we are constrained to adopt their pursuits and vocations4 ,but usually1 we are so imbued with the teachings of our parents1 that we fall irresistibly into their manners and customs4 7#c7 accident1 ,others drift with the current of popular opinion and make especial choice of those callings which the majority find most attractive4 ,some1 however1 as the result either of some happy fortune or of natural ability1 enter upon the right path of life1 without parental guidance4 ,,ab ,the universal and the individual2 #ajg4 99#aai99 ,,xxxiii4 ,illud autem maxime rarum genus est eorum1 qui aut excellenti#aaf ingenii magnitudine aut praeclara eruditione atque doctrina aut utraque re ornati spatium etiam deliberandi habuerunt1 quem potissimum vitae cursum sequi vellent2 in qua deliberatione ad suam cuiusque naturam consilium est omne revocandum4 ,nam cum in omnibus1 quae aguntur1 ex eo1 quo modo quisque natus est1 ut supra dictum est1 quid deceat1 exquirimus1 tum in tota vita constituenda multo est ei rei#aag cura maior adhibenda1 ut constare in perpetuitate vitae possimus nobismet ipsis nec in ullo officio claudicare4 99#abj99 ,ad hanc autem rationem quoniam maximam vim natura habet1 fortuna proximam1 utriusque omnino habenda ratio est in deligendo genere vitae1 sed naturae magis2 multo enim et firmior est et constantior1 ut fortuna non numquam tamquam ipsa mortalis cum immortali natura pugnare videatur4 ,qui igitur ad naturae suae non vitiosae genus consilium vivendi omne contulerit1 is constantiam teneat 7id enim maxime decet71 nisi forte se intellexerit errasse in deligendo genere vitae4 ,quod si acciderit 7potest autem accidere71 facienda morum institutorumque mutatio est4 ,eam mutationem si tempora adiuvabunt1 facilius commodiusque faciemus2 sin minus1 sensim erit pedetemptimque facienda1 ut amicitias1 quae minus delectent et minus probentur1 magis decere censent sapientes sensim diluere quam repente praecidere4 99#aba99 ,commutato autem genere vitae omni ratione curandum est1 ut id bono consilio fecisse videamur4 ,sed quoniam paulo ante dictum est imitandos esse maiores1 primum illud exceptum sit1 ne vitia sint imitanda1 deinde si natura non feret1 ut quaedam imitari possit#aah 7ut superioris filius ,africani1 qui hunc ,paulo natum adoptavit1 propter infirmitatem valetudinis non tam potuit patris similis esse1 quam ille fuerat sui72 si igitur non poterit sive causas defensitare sive populum contionibus tenere sive bella gerere1 illa tamen praestare debebit1 quae erunt in ipsius potestate1 iustitiam1 fidem1 liberalitatem1 modestiam1 temperantiam1 quo minus ab eo id1 quod desit1 requiratur4 ,optima autem hereditas a patribus traditur liberis omnique patrimonio praestantior gloria virtutis rerumque gestarum1 cui dedecori esse nefas et vitium#aai iudicandum est4 #aaf excellenti ,l c2 excellente ,a ,b ,h a b2 excellentis p4 #aag est ei rei ,gruter1 ,edd42 est eius rei ,l c p2 est rei ,a ,b ,h b2 est ei a4 #aah possit ,j4 ,m4 ,heusinger1 ,edd42 possint ,,mss4 #aai et 7sed b7 vitium ,a ,b ,h a b2 et vitium ,bt4#b1 ,ed42 et vicium c2 et impium ,l p1 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 99#aai99 ,,xxxiii4 ,there is one class of people that is very rarely met with3 it is composed of those who are endowed with marked natural ability1 or exceptional advantages of education and culture1 or both1 and who also have time to consider carefully what career in life they prefer to follow2 and in this deliberation the decision must turn wholly upon each individual's natural bent4 7#d7 natural bias4 ,for we try to find out from each one's native disposition1 as was said above1 just what is proper for him2 and this we require not only in case of each individual act but also in ordering the whole course of one's life2 and this last is a matter to which still greater care must be given1 in order that we may be true to ourselves throughout all our lives and not falter in the discharge of any duty4 99#abj99 ,but since the most powerful influence in the choice of a career is exerted by ,nature1 and the next most powerful by ,fortune1 we must1 of course1 take account of them both in deciding upon our calling in life2 but of the two1 ,nature claims the more attention4 ,for ,nature is so much more stable and steadfast1 that for ,fortune to come into conflict with ,nature seems like a combat between a mortal and a goddess4 ,if1 therefore1 anyone has conformed his whole plan of life to the kind of nature that is his 7that is1 his better nature71 let him go on with it consistently--for that is the essence of ,propriety--unless1 perchance1 he should discover that he has made a mistake in choosing his life work4 ,change of vocation4 ,if this should happen 7and it can easily happen71 he must change his vocation and mode of life4 ,if circumstances favour such change1 it will be effected with greater ease and convenience4 ,if not1 it must be made gradually1 step by step1 just as1 when friendships become no longer pleasing or desirable1 it is more proper 7so wise men think7 to undo the bond little by little than to sever it at a stroke4 99#aba99 ,and when we have once changed our calling in life1 we must take all possible care to make it clear that we have done so with good reason4 ,but whereas ,i said a moment ago that we have to follow in the steps of our fathers1 let me make the following exceptions3 first1 we need not imitate their faults2 second1 we need not imitate certain other things1 if our nature does not permit such imitation2 for example1 the son of the elder ,africanus 7that ,scipio who adopted the younger ,africanus1 the son of ,paulus7 could not on account of ill-health be so much like his father as ,africanus had been like his4 ,if1 then1 a man is unable to conduct cases at the bar or to hold the people spell-bound with his eloquence or to conduct wars1 still it will be his duty to practise these other virtues1 which are within his reach--justice1 good faith1 generosity1 temperance1 self-control--that his deficiencies in other respects may be less conspicuous4 ,the noblest heritage1 however1 that is handed down from fathers to children1 and one more precious than any inherited wealth1 is a reputation for virtue and worthy deeds2 and to dishonour this must be branded as a sin and a shame4 99#abb99 ,,xxxiv4 ,et quoniam officia non eadem disparibus aetatibus tribuuntur aliaque sunt iuvenum1 alia seniorum1 aliquid etiam de hac distinctione dicendum est4 ,est igitur adulescentis maiores natu vereri exque iis deligere optimos et probatissimos1 quorum consilio atque auctoritate nitatur2 ineuntis enim aetatis inscitia senum constituenda et regenda prudentia est4 ,maxime autem haec aetas a libidinibus arcenda est exercendaque in labore patientiaque et animi et corporis1 ut eorum et in bellicis et in civilibus officiis vigeat industria4 ,atque etiam cum relaxare animos et dare se iucunditati volent1 caveant intemperantiam1 meminerint verecundiae1 quod erit facilius1 si ne in eius modi quidem rebus maiores natu nolent#abj interesse4 99#abc99 ,senibus autem labores corporis minuendi1 exercitationes animi etiam augendae videntur2 danda vero opera1 ut et amicos et iuventutem et maxime rem publicam consilio et prudentia quam plurimum adiuvent4 ,nihil autem magis cavendum est senectuti1 quam ne languori se desidiaeque dedat2 luxuria vero cum omni aetati turpis1 tum senectuti foedissima est2 sin autem etiam libidinum intemperantia accessit1 duplex malum est1 quod et ipsa senectus dedecus concipit et facit adulescentium impudentiorem intemperantiam4 99#abd99 ,ac ne illud quidem alienum est1 de magistratuum1 de privatorum1 de civium1#aba de peregrinorum officiis dicere4 ,est igitur proprium munus magistratus intellegere se gerere personam civitatis debereque eius dignitatem et decus sustinere1 servare leges1 iura discribere1#abb ea fidei suae commissa meminisse4 ,privatum autem oportet aequo et pari cum civibus iure vivere neque summissum et abiectum neque se efferentem1#abc tum in re publica ea velle1 quae tranquilla et honesta sint2 talem enim solemus et sentire bonum civem et dicere4 99#abe99 ,peregrini autem atque incolae officium est nihil praeter suum negotium agere1 nihil de alio anquirere minimeque esse in aliena re publica curiosum4 ,ita fere officia reperientur1 cum quaeretur1 quid deceat1 et quid aptum sit personis1 temporibus1 aetatibus4 ,nihil est autem1 quod tam deceat1 quam in omni re gerenda consilioque capiendo servare constantiam4 #abj si ne in 444 nolent ,stuerenburg1 ,edd42 si in 444 nolint ,a ,b ,h a b2 si in 444 volent ,l c2 si in 444 non nolint ,lambinus4 #aba de civium ,,mss42 de civium ,hieron41 ,wolff1 ,edd4 #abb discribere ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 describere ,,mss4 #abc efferentem ,a ,h#a ,l a b c2 ecferentem ,b ,h#b1 ,ed4 99#abb99 ,,xxxiv4 ,since1 too1 the duties that properly belong to different times of life are not the same1 but some belong to the young1 others to those more advanced in years1 a word must be said on this distinction also4 ,duties of 7#a7 youth1 ,it is1 then1 the duty of a young man to show deference to his elders and to attach himself to the best and most approved of them1 so as to receive the benefit of their counsel and influence4 ,for the inexperience of youth requires the practical wisdom of age to strengthen and direct it4 ,and this time of life is above all to be protected against sensuality and trained to toil and endurance of both mind and body1 so as to be strong for active duty in military and civil service4 ,and even when they wish to relax their minds and give themselves up to enjoyment they should beware of excesses and bear in mind the rules of modesty4 ,and this will be easier1 if the young are not unwilling to have their elders join them even in their pleasures4 7#b7 age1 99#abc99 ,the old1 on the other hand1 should1 it seems1 have their physical labours reduced2 their mental activities should be actually increased4 ,they should endeavour1 too1 by means of their counsel and practical wisdom to be of as much service as possible to their friends and to the young1 and above all to the state4 ,but there is nothing against which old age has to be more on its guard than against surrendering to feebleness and idleness1 while luxury1 a vice in any time of life1 is in old age especially scandalous4 ,but if excess in sensual indulgence is added to luxurious living1 it is a twofold evil2 for old age not only disgraces itself2 it also serves to make the excesses of the young more shameless4 99#abd99 ,at this point it is not at all irrelevant to discuss the duties of magistrates1 of private individuals1 of native citizens1 and of foreigners4 7#c7 magistrates1 ,it is1 then1 peculiarly the place of a magistrate to bear in mind that he represents the state and that it is his duty to uphold its honour and its dignity1 to enforce the law1 to dispense to all their constitutional rights1 and to remember that all this has been committed to him as a sacred trust4 7#d7 private citizens1 ,the private individual ought first1 in private relations1 to live on fair and equal terms with his fellow-citizens1 with a spirit neither servile and grovelling nor yet domineering2 and second1 in matters pertaining to the state1 to labour for her peace and honour2 for such a man we are accustomed to esteem and call a good citizen4 7#e7 aliens4 99#abe99 ,as for the foreigner or the resident alien1 it is his duty to attend strictly to his own concerns1 not to pry into other people's business1 and under no condition to meddle in the politics of a country not his own4 ,duty and ,propriety4 ,in this way ,i think we shall have a fairly clear view of our duties when the question arises what is proper and what is appropriate to each character1 circumstance1 and age4 ,but there is nothing so essentially proper as to maintain consistency in the performance of every act and in the conception of every plan4 99#abf99 ,,xxxv4 ,sed quoniam decorum illud in omnibus factis1 dictis1 in corporis denique motu et statu cernitur idque positum est in tribus rebus1 formositate1 ordine1 ornatu ad actionem apto1 difficilibus ad eloquendum1 sed satis erit intellegi1 in his autem tribus continetur cura etiam illa1 ut probemur iis1 quibuscum apud quosque vivamus1 his quoque de rebus pauca dicantur4 ,principio corporis nostri magnam natura ipsa videtur habuisse rationem1 quae formam nostram reliquamque figuram1 in qua esset species honesta1 eam posuit in promptu1 quae partes autem corporis ad naturae necessitatem datae aspectum essent deformem habiturae atque foedum1#abd eas contexit atque abdidit4 99#abg99 ,hanc naturae tam diligentem fabricam imitata est hominum verecundia4 ,quae enim natura occultavit1 eadem omnes1 qui sana mente sunt1 removent ab oculis ipsique necessitati dant operam ut quam occultissime pareant2 quarumque partium corporis usus sunt necessarii1 eas neque partes neque earum usus suis nominibus appellant2 quodque facere turpe non est1#abe modo occulte1 id dicere obscenum est4 ,itaque nec actio rerum illarum aperta petulantia vacat nec orationis obscenitas4 99#abh99 ,nec vero audiendi sunt ,cynici1 aut si qui fuerunt ,stoici paene ,cynici1 qui reprehendunt et irrident1 quod ea1 quae turpia#abf non sint1 verbis flagitiosa ducamus1 illa autem1 quae turpia#abg sint1 nominibus appellemus suis4 ,latrocinari1 fraudare1 adulterare re#abh turpe est1 sed dicitur non obscene2 liberis dare operam re honestum est1 nomine obscenum2 pluraque in eam sententiam ab eisdem contra verecundiam disputantur4 ,nos autem naturam sequamur et ab omni1 quod abhorret ab oculorum auriumque approbatione1 fugiamus2 status incessus1 sessio accubitio1 vultus oculi manuum motus teneat illud decorum4 99#abi99 ,quibus in rebus duo maxime sunt fugienda1 ne quid effeminatum aut molle et ne quid durum aut rusticum sit4 ,nec vero histrionibus oratoribusque concedendum est1 ut iis haec apta sint1 nobis dissoluta4 ,scaenicorum quidem mos tantam habet vetere disciplina verecundiam1 ut in scaenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo2 verentur enim1 ne1 si quo casu evenerit1 ut corporis partes quaedam aperiantur1 aspiciantur non decore4 ,nostro quidem more cum parentibus puberes filii1 cum soceris generi non lavantur4 ,retinenda igitur est huius generis verecundia1 praesertim natura ipsa magistra et duce4 #abd foedum ,klotz1 ,mller1 ,heine2 formam ,a ,b ,h a b2 turpem ,l c1 ,bt4 #abe turpe non est a1 ,edd42 non turpe est ,l2 non turpe 7om4 est7 c2 turpe non turpe est ,a ,b ,h b 7the first turpe crossed out in ,a ,b74 #abf quae turpia ,b b1 ,edd42 quae re turpia1 ,l c2 quae 444 autem om4 ,h4 #abg quae turpia ,b ,h b1 ,edd42 quae re turpia ,l c4 #abh re ,b ,h1 ,edd42 not in ,a ,l b c p4 ,propriety in bodily actions4 99#abf99 ,,xxxv4 ,but the propriety to which ,i refer shows itself also in every deed1 in every word1 even in every movement and attitude of the body4 ,and in outward1 visible propriety there are three elements--beauty1 tact1 and taste2 these conceptions are difficult to express in words1 but it will be enough for my purpose if they are understood4 ,in these three elements is included also our concern for the good opinion of those with whom and amongst whom we live4 ,for these reasons ,i should like to say a few words about this kind of propriety also4 ,first of all1 ,nature seems to have had a wonderful plan in the construction of our bodies4 ,our face and our figure generally1 in so far as it has a comely appearance1 she has placed in sight2 but the parts of the body that are given us only to serve the needs of nature and that would present an unsightly and unpleasant appearance she has covered up and concealed from view4 99#abg99 ,modesty4 ,man's modesty has followed this careful contrivance of ,nature's2 all right-minded people keep out of sight what ,nature has hidden and take pains to respond to nature's demands as privately as possible2 and in the case of those parts of the body which only serve nature's needs1 neither the parts nor the functions are called by their real names4 ,to perform these functions--if only it be done in private--is nothing immoral2 but to speak of them is indecent4 ,and so neither public performance of those acts nor vulgar mention of them is free from indecency4 99#abh99 ,but we should give no heed to the ,cynics 7or to some ,stoics who are practically ,cynics7 who censure and ridicule us for holding that the mere mention of some actions that are not immoral is shameful1 while other things that are immoral we call by their real names4 ,robbery1 fraud1 and adultery1 for example1 are immoral in deed1 but it is not indecent to name them4 ,to beget children in wedlock is in deed morally right2 to speak of it is indecent4 ,and they assail modesty with a great many other arguments to the same purport4 ,but as for us1 let us follow nature and shun everything that is offensive to our eyes or our ears4 ,so1 in standing or walking1 in sitting or reclining1 in our expression1 our eyes1 or the movements of our hands1 let us preserve what we have called propriety4 99#abi99 ,in these matters we must avoid especially the two extremes3 our conduct and speech should not be effeminate and over-nice1 on the one hand1 nor coarse and boorish1 on the other4 ,and we surely must not admit that while this rule applies to actors and orators1 it is not binding upon us4 ,as for stage-people1 their custom1 because of its traditional discipline1 carries modesty to such a point that an actor would never step out upon the stage without a breech-cloth on1 for fear he might make an improper exhibition1 if by some accident certain parts of his person should happen to become exposed4 ,and in our own custom1 grown sons do not bathe with their fathers1 nor sons-in-law with their fathers-in-law4 ,we must1 therefore1 keep to the path of this sort of modesty1 especially when ,nature is our teacher and guide4 99#acj99 ,,xxxvi4 ,cum autem pulchritudinis duo genera sint1 quorum in altero venustas sit1 in altero dignitas1 venustatem muliebrem ducere debemus1 dignitatem virilem4 ,ergo et a forma removeatur omnis viro non dignus ornatus1 et huic simile vitium in gestu motuque caveatur4 ,nam et palaestrici motus sunt saepe odiosiores1 et histrionum non nulli gestus ineptiis non vacant1#abi et in utroque genere quae sunt recta et simplicia1 laudantur4 ,formae autem dignitas coloris bonitate tuenda est1 color exercitationibus corporis4 ,adhibenda praeterea munditia est non odiosa neque exquisita nimis1 tantum quae fugiat agrestem et inhumanam neglegentiam4 ,eadem ratio est habenda vestitus1 in quo1 sicut in plerisque rebus1 mediocritas optima est4 99#aca99 ,cavendum autem est1 ne aut tarditatibus utamur in#acj ingressu mollioribus1 ut pomparum ferculis similes esse videamur1 aut in festinationibus suscipiamus nimias celeritates1 quae cum fiunt1 anhelitus moventur1 vultus mutantur1 ora torquentur2 ex quibus magna significatio fit non adesse constantiam4 ,sed multo etiam magis elaborandum est1 ne animi motus a natura recedant2 quod assequemur1 si cavebimus1 ne in perturbationes atque exanimationes incidamus1 et si attentos animos ad decoris conservationem tenebimus4 99#acb99 ,motus autem animorum duplices sunt1 alteri cogitationis1 alteri appetitus2 cogitatio in vero exquirendo maxime versatur1 appetitus impellit ad agendum4 ,curandum est igitur1 ut cogitatione ad res quam optimas utamur1 appetitum rationi oboedientem praebeamus4 #abi ineptiis non vacant ,a ,b ,h a b2 inepti non vacant offensione ,l c p4 #acj in ,edd42 not in ,,mss4 ,propriety3 7#a7 in outward appearance2 99#acj99 ,,xxxvi4 ,again1 there are two orders of beauty3 in the one1 loveliness predominates2 in the other1 dignity2 of these1 we ought to regard loveliness as the attribute of woman1 and dignity as the attribute of man4 ,therefore1 let all finery not suitable to a man's dignity be kept off his person1 and let him guard against the like fault in gesture and action4 ,the manners taught in the palaestra1,,ac for example1 are often rather objectionable1 and the gestures of actors on the stage are not always free from affectation2 but simple1 unaffected manners are commendable in both instances4 ,now dignity of mien is also to be enhanced by a good complexion2 the complexion is the result of physical exercise4 ,we must besides present an appearance of neatness--not too punctilious or exquisite1 but just enough to avoid boorish and ill-bred slovenliness4 ,we must follow the same principle in regard to dress4 ,in this1 as in most things1 the best rule is the golden mean4 7#b7 in inward self-control4 99#aca99 ,we must be careful1 too1 not to fall into a habit of listless sauntering in our gait1 so as to look like carriers in festal processions1 or of hurrying too fast1 when time presses4 ,if we do this1 it puts us out of breath1 our looks are changed1 our features distorted2 and all this is clear evidence of a lack of poise4 ,but it is much more important that we succeed in keeping our mental operations in harmony with nature's laws4 ,and we shall not fail in this if we guard against violent excitement or depression1 and if we keep our minds intent on the observance of propriety4 99#acb99 ,our mental operations1 moreover1 are of two kinds3 some have to do with thought1 others with impulse4 ,thought is occupied chiefly with the discovery of truth2 impulse prompts to action4 ,we must be careful1 therefore1 to employ our thoughts on themes as elevating as possible and to keep our impulses under the control of reason4 ,,ac ,the ,greek palaestra1 a public school of wrestling and athletics1 adopted by the ,romans became a place of exercise where the youth were trained in gestures and attitudes1 a nursery of foppish manners4 ,,xxxvii4 ,et quoniam magna vis orationis est1 eaque duplex1 altera contentionis1 altera sermonis1 contentio disceptationibus tribuatur iudiciorum1 contionum1 senatus1 sermo in circulis1 disputationibus1 congressionibus familiarium versetur1 sequatur etiam convivia4 ,contentionis praecepta rhetorum sunt1 nulla sermonis1 quamquam haud scio an possint haec quoque esse4 ,sed discentium studiis inveniuntur magistri1 huic autem qui studeant1 sunt nulli1 rhetorum turba referta omnia2 quamquam1 quae#aca verborum sententiarumque praecepta sunt1 eadem ad sermonem pertinebunt4 99#acc99 ,sed cum orationis indicem vocem habeamus1 in voce autem duo sequamur1 ut clara sit1 ut suavis1 utrumque omnino a natura petundum est1 verum alterum exercitatio augebit1 alterum imitatio presse loquentium et leniter4 ,nihil fuit in ,catulis1 ut eos exquisito iudicio putares uti litterarum1 quamquam erant litterati2 sed et alii2 hi autem optime uti lingua ,latina putabantur2 sonus erat dulcis1 litterae neque expressae neque oppressae1 ne aut obscurum esset aut putidum1 sine contentione vox nec languens nec canora4 ,uberior oratio ,l4 ,crassi nec minus faceta1 sed bene loquendi de ,catulis opinio non minor4 ,sale vero et facetiis ,caesar1 ,catuli patris frater1 vicit omnes1 ut in illo ipso forensi genere dicendi contentiones aliorum sermone vinceret4 ,in omnibus igitur his elaborandum est1 si in omni re quid deceat exquirimus4 99#acd99 ,sit ergo hic sermo1 in quo ,socratici maxime excellunt1 lenis minimeque pertinax1 insit in eo lepos2 nec vero1 tamquam in possessionem suam venerit1 excludat alios1 sed cum reliquis in rebus1 tum in sermone communi vicissitudinem non iniquam putet2 ac videat in primis1 quibus de rebus loquatur2 si seriis1 severitatem adhibeat1 si iocosis1 leporem2 in primisque provideat1 ne sermo vitium aliquod indicet inesse in moribus2 quod maxime tum solet evenire1 cum studiose de absentibus detrahendi causa aut per ridiculum aut severe maledice contumelioseque dicitur4 99#ace99 ,habentur autem plerumque sermones aut de domesticis negotiis aut de re publica aut de artium studiis atque doctrina4 ,danda igitur opera est1 ut1 etiamsi aberrare ad alia coeperit1 ad haec revocetur oratio1 sed utcumque aderunt2 neque enim isdem#acb de rebus nec omni tempore nec similiter delectamur4 ,animadvertendum est etiam1 quatenus sermo delectationem habeat1 et1 ut incipiendi ratio fuerit1 ita sit desinendi modus4 #aca quae ,a#b c1 ,edd42 quoniam 7per compend47 ,a#a ,b ,h a b4 #acb enim isdem 7hisdem ,b ,h7 ,a ,b ,h b1 ,mller2 enim omnes isdem ,l c1 most ,edd4 ,propriety in speech3 oratory and conversation4 ,,xxxvii4 ,the power of speech in the attainment of propriety is great1 and its function is twofold3 the first is oratory2 the second1 conversation4 ,oratory is the kind of discourse to be employed in pleadings in court and speeches in popular assemblies and in the senate2 conversation should find its natural place in social gatherings1 in informal discussions1 and in intercourse with friends2 it should also seek admission at dinners4 ,there are rules for oratory laid down by rhetoricians2 there are none for conversation2 and yet ,i do not know why there should not be4 ,but where there are students to learn1 teachers are found2 there are1 however1 none who make conversation a subject of study1 whereas pupils throng about the rhetoricians everywhere4 ,and yet the same rules that we have for words and sentences in rhetoric will apply also to conversation4 99#acc99 ,now since we have the voice as the organ of speech1 we should aim to secure two properties for it3 that it be clear1 and that it be musical4 ,we must1 of course1 look to nature for both gifts4 ,but distinctness may be improved by practice2 the musical qualities1 by imitating those who speak with smooth and articulate enunciation4 ,there was nothing in the two ,catuli to lead one to suppose that they had a refined literary taste2 they were men of culture1 it is true2 and so were others2 but the ,catuli were looked upon as the perfect masters of the ,latin tongue4 ,their pronunciation was charming2 their words were neither mouthed nor mumbled3 they avoided both indistinctness and affectation2 their voices were free from strain1 yet neither faint nor shrill4 ,more copious was the speech of ,lucius ,crassus and not less brilliant1 but the reputation of the two ,catuli for eloquence was fully equal to his4 ,but in wit and humour ,caesar1 the elder ,catulus's half-brother1 surpassed them all3 even at the bar he would with his conversational style defeat other advocates with their elaborate orations4 ,if1 therefore1 we are aiming to secure propriety in every circumstance of life1 we must master all these points4 ,conversation as an art4 99#acd99 ,conversation1 then1 in which the ,socratics are the best models1 should have these qualities4 ,it should be easy and not in the least dogmatic2 it should have the spice of wit4 ,and the one who engages in conversation should not debar others from participating in it1 as if he were entering upon a private monopoly2 but1 as in other things1 so in a general conversation he should think it not unfair for each to have his turn4 ,he should observe1 first and foremost1 what the subject of conversation is4 ,if it is grave1 he should treat it with seriousness2 if humorous1 with wit4 ,and above all1 he should be on the watch that his conversation shall not betray some defect in his character4 ,this is most likely to occur1 when people in jest or in earnest take delight in making malicious and slanderous statements about the absent1 on purpose to injure their reputations4 99#ace99 ,the subjects of conversation are usually affairs of the home or politics or the practice of the professions and learning4 ,accordingly1 if the talk begins to drift off to other channels1 pains should be taken to bring it back again to the matter in hand--but with due consideration to the company present2 for we are not all interested in the same things at all times or in the same degree4 ,we must observe1 too1 how far the conversation is agreeable and1 as it had a reason for its beginning1 so there should be a point at which to close it tactfully4 99#acf99 ,,xxxviii4 ,sed quo modo in omni vita rectissime praecipitur1 ut perturbationes fugiamus1 id est motus animi nimios rationi non optemperantes1 sic eius modi motibus sermo debet vacare1 ne aut ira exsistat aut cupiditas aliqua aut pigritia aut ignavia aut tale aliquid appareat1 maximeque curandum est1 ut eos1 quibuscum sermonem conferemus1 et vereri et diligere videamur4 ,obiurgationes etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae1 in quibus utendum est fortasse et vocis contentione maiore et verborum gravitate acriore1 id agendum etiam1 ut ea facere videamur irati4 ,sed1 ut ad urendum et secandum1 sic ad hoc genus castigandi raro invitique veniemus nec umquam nisi necessario1 si nulla reperietur alia medicina2 sed tamen ira procul absit1 cum qua nihil recte fieri1 nihil considerate potest4 99#acg99 ,magnam autem partem#acc clementi castigatione licet uti1 gravitate tamen adiuncta1 ut severitas adhibeatur et contumelia repellatur1 atque etiam illud ipsum1 quod acerbitatis habet obiurgatio1 significandum est1 ipsius id causa1 qui obiurgetur1 esse susceptum4 ,rectum est autem etiam in illis contentionibus1 quae cum inimicissimis fiunt1 etiamsi nobis indigna audiamus1 tamen gravitatem retinere1 iracundiam pellere4 ,quae enim cum aliqua perturbatione fiunt1 ea nec constanter fieri possunt neque iis1 qui adsunt1 probari4 ,deforme etiam est de se ipsum praedicare falsa praesertim et cum irrisione audientium imitari militem gloriosum4 #acc magnam autem partem ,lambinus1 ,edd42 magna autem parte ,,mss4 ,propriety of speech 99#acf99 ,,xxxviii4 ,but as we have a most excellent rule for every phase of life1 to avoid exhibitions of passion1 that is1 mental excitement that is excessive and uncontrolled by reason2 so our conversation ought to be free from such emotions3 let there be no exhibition of anger or inordinate desire1 of indolence or indifference1 or anything of the kind4 ,we must also take the greatest care to show courtesy and consideration toward those with whom we converse4 7#a7 in reproofs1 ,it may sometimes happen that there is need of administering reproof4 ,on such occasions we should1 perhaps1 use a more emphatic tone of voice and more forcible and severe terms and even assume an appearance of being angry4 ,but we shall have recourse to this sort of reproof1 as we do to cautery and amputation1 rarely and reluctantly--never at all1 unless it is unavoidable and no other remedy can be discovered4 ,we may seem angry1 but anger should be far from us2 for in anger nothing right or judicious can be done4 99#acg99 ,in most cases1 we may apply a mild reproof1 so combined1 however1 with earnestness1 that while severity is shown1 offensive language is avoided4 ,nay more1 we must show clearly that even that very harshness which goes with our reproof is designed for the good of the person reproved4 7#b7 in disputes1 ,the right course1 moreover1 even in our differences with our bitterest enemies1 is to maintain our dignity and to repress our anger1 even though we are treated outrageously4 ,for what is done under some degree of excitement cannot be done with perfect self-respect or the approval of those who witness it4 7#c7 in self-praise4 ,it is bad taste also to talk about oneself--especially if what one says is not true--and1 amid the derision of one's hearers1 to play ,the ,braggart ,captain4,,ad ,,ad ,like ,pyrgopolinices in the ,miles ,gloriosus of ,plautus1 or ,thraso in the ,eunuchus of ,terence4 99#ach99 ,,xxxix4 ,et quoniam omnia persequimur1 volumus quidem certe1 dicendum est etiam1 qualem hominis honorati et principis domum placeat esse1 cuius finis est usus1#acd ad quem accommodanda est aedificandi descriptio et tamen adhibenda commoditatis dignitatisque diligentia4 ,cn4 ,octavio1 qui primus ex illa familia consul factus est1 honori fuisse accepimus1 quod praeclaram aedificasset in ,palatio et plenam dignitatis domum2 quae cum vulgo viseretur1 suffragata domino1 novo homini1 ad consulatum putabatur2 hanc ,scaurus demolitus accessionem adiunxit aedibus4 ,itaque ille in suam domum consulatum primus attulit1 hic1 summi et clarissimi viri filius1 in domum multiplicatam non repulsam solum rettulit1 sed ignominiam etiam et#ace calamitatem4 99#aci99 ,ornanda enim est dignitas domo1 non ex domo tota quaerenda1 nec domo dominus1 sed domino domus honestanda est1 et1 ut in ceteris habenda ratio non sua solum1 sed etiam aliorum1 sic in domo clari hominis1 in quam et hospites multi recipiendi et admittenda hominum cuiusque modi multitudo1 adhibenda cura est laxitatis2 aliter ampla domus dedecori saepe domino fit1#acf si est in ea solitudo1 et maxime1 si aliquando alio domino solita est frequentari4 ,odiosum est enim1 cum a praetereuntibus dicitur3 ,inc4 inc4 fab41 ,ribbeck#b1 #ahd-ahe o domus ntiqua1 heu#acg quam dspari dominre domino6 quod quidem his temporibus in multis licet dicere4 99#adj99 ,cavendum autem est1 praesertim si ipse aedifices1 ne extra modum sumptu et magnificentia prodeas2 quo in genere multum mali etiam in exemplo est4 ,studiose enim plerique praesertim in hanc partem facta principum imitantur1 ut ,l4 ,luculli1 summi viri1 virtutem quis8 at quam multi villarum magnificentiam imitati6 quarum quidem certe est adhibendus modus ad mediocritatemque#ach revocandus4 ,eademque mediocritas ad omnem usum cultumque vitae transferenda est4 ,sed haec hactenus4 99#ada99 ,in omni autem actione suscipienda tria sunt tenenda1 primum ut appetitus rationi pareat1 quo nihil est ad officia conservanda accommodatius1 deinde ut animadvertatur1 quanta illa res sit1 quam efficere velimus1 ut neve maior neve minor cura et opera suscipiatur1 quam causa postulet4 ,tertium est1 ut caveamus1 ut ea1 quae pertinent ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem1#aci moderata#adj sint4 ,modus autem est optimus decus ipsum tenere1 de quo ante diximus1 nec progredi longius4 ,horum tamen trium praestantissimum est appetitum optemperare rationi4 #acd est usus ,l c1 ,edd42 et usus ,b ,h a b4 #ace et ,l c1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h b4 #acf fit ,bt41 ,ed42 sit ,b ,h a b2 est ,l 7corr4 ex sit b71 ,mller1 ,heine2 not in c4 #acg heu ,edd42 et ,,mss42 ei ,schenkl4 #ach mediocritatemque3 que italicized by ,ed4 but attested by ,b ,h ,l b c4 #aci ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem ,b ,h b1 ,edd42 ad liberalitatem specie et dignitate ,l c p4 #adj moderata ,l c p1 ,edd42 moderanda ,b ,h a b4 ,the proper home4 99#ach99 ,,xxxix4 ,but since ,i am investigating this subject in all its phases 7at least1 that is my purpose71 ,i must discuss also what sort of house a man of rank and station should1 in my opinion1 have4 ,its prime object is serviceableness4 ,to this the plan of the building should be adapted2 and yet careful attention should be paid to its convenience and distinction4 ,we have heard that ,gnaeus ,octavius--the first of that family to be elected consul--distinguished himself by building upon the ,palatine an attractive and imposing house4 ,everybody went to see it1 and it was thought to have gained votes for the owner1 a new man1 in his canvass for the consulship4 ,that house ,scaurus demolished1 and on its site he built an addition to his own house4 ,octavius1 then1 was the first of his family to bring the honour of a consulship to his house2 ,scaurus1 though the son of a very great and illustrious man1 brought to the same house1 when enlarged1 not only defeat1 but disgrace and ruin4 99#aci99 ,the truth is1 a man's dignity may be enhanced by the house he lives in1 but not wholly secured by it2 the owner should bring honour to his house1 not the house to its owner4 ,and1 as in everything else a man must have regard not for himself alone but for others also1 so in the home of a distinguished man1 in which numerous guests must be entertained and crowds of every sort of people received1 care must be taken to have it spacious4 ,but if it is not frequented by visitors1 if it has an air of lonesomeness1 a spacious palace often becomes a discredit to its owner4 ,this is sure to be the case if at some other time1 when it had a different owner1 it used to be thronged4 ,for it is unpleasant1 when passers-by remark3 ,o good old house1 alas6 how different ,the owner who now owneth thee6 ,and in these times that may be said of many a house6,,ae 99#adj99 ,one must be careful1 too1 not to go beyond proper bounds in expense and display1 especially if one is building for oneself4 ,for much mischief is done in this way1 if only in the example set4 ,for many people imitate zealously the foibles of the great1 particularly in this direction3 for example1 who copies the virtues of ,lucius ,lucullus1 excellent man that he was8 ,but how many there are who have copied the magnificence of his villas6 ,some limit should surely be set to this tendency and it should be reduced at least to a standard of moderation2 and by that same standard of moderation the comforts and wants of life generally should be regulated4 ,but enough on this part of my theme4 ,three rules for the duty of propriety4 99#ada99 ,in entering upon any course of action1 then1 we must hold fast to three principles3 first1 that impulse shall obey reason2 for there is no better way than this to secure the observance of duties2 second1 that we estimate carefully the importance of the object that we wish to accomplish1 so that neither more nor less care and attention may be expended upon it than the case requires2 the third principle is that we be careful to observe moderation in all that is essential to the outward appearance and dignity of a gentleman4 ,moreover1 the best rule for securing this is strictly to observe that propriety which we have discussed above1 and not to overstep it4 ,yet of these three principles1 the one of prime importance is to keep impulse subservient to reason4 ,,ae ,members of ,caesar's party were now occupying the houses that had been the homes of ,pompey's friends4 ,antony1 for example1 lived in ,pompey's house4 99#adb99 ,,xl4 ,deinceps de ordine rerum et de opportunitate temporum dicendum est4 ,haec autem scientia continentur ea1 quam ,graeci nominant1 non hanc1 quam interpretamur modestiam1 quo in verbo modus inest1 sed illa est 1 in qua intellegitur ordinis conservatio4 ,itaque1 ut eandem nos modestiam appellemus1 sic definitur a ,stoicis1 ut modestia sit scientia rerum earum1 quae agentur aut dicentur1 loco suo collocandarum4 ,ita videtur eadem vis ordinis et collocationis fore2 nam et ordinem sic definiunt3 compositionem rerum aptis et accommodatis locis2 locum autem actionis opportunitatem#ada temporis esse dicunt2 tempus autem actionis opportunum#adb ,graece 1 ,latine appellatur occasio4 ,sic fit1 ut modestia haec1 quam ita interpretamur1 ut dixi1 scientia sit opportunitatis#adc idoneorum ad agendum temporum4 ,ch4 ,,vi 99#adc99 ,sed potest eadem esse prudentiae definitio1 de qua principio diximus2 hoc autem loco de moderatione et temperantia et harum similibus virtutibus quaerimus4 ,itaque1 quae erant prudentiae propria1 suo loco dicta sunt2 quae autem harum virtutum1 de quibus iam diu loquimur1 quae pertinent ad verecundiam et ad eorum approbationem1 quibuscum vivimus1 nunc dicenda sunt4 99#add99 ,talis est igitur ordo actionum adhibendus1 ut1 quem ad modum in oratione constanti1 sic in vita omnia sint apta inter se et convenientia2 turpe enim valdeque vitiosum in re severa convivio digna#add aut delicatum aliquem inferre sermonem4 ,bene ,pericles1 cum haberet collegam in praetura ,sophoclem potam iique de communi officio convenissent et casu formosus puer praeteriret dixissetque ,sophocles3 ,o puerum pulchrum1 ,pericle6 ,at enim praetorem1 ,sophocle1 decet non solum manus1 sed etiam oculos abstinentes habere4 ,atqui#ade hoc idem ,sophocles si in athletarum probatione dixisset1 iusta reprehensione caruisset4 ,tanta vis est et loci et temporis4 ,ut1 si qui1 cum causam sit acturus1 in itinere aut in ambulatione secum ipse meditetur1 aut si quid aliud attentius cogitet1 non reprehendatur1 at hoc idem si in convivio faciat1 inhumanus videatur inscitia temporis4 99#ade99 ,sed ea1 quae multum ab humanitate discrepant1 ut si qui in foro cantet1 aut si qua est alia magna perversitas1 facile apparet nec magnopere admonitionem et praecepta desiderat2 quae autem parva videntur esse delicta neque a multis intellegi possunt1 ab iis#adf est diligentius declinandum4 ,ut in fidibus aut tibiis1 quamvis paulum discrepent1 tamen id a sciente animadverti solet1 sic videndum#adg est in vita ne forte quid discrepet1 vel multo etiam magis1 quo maior et melior actionum quam sonorum concentus est4 #ada oportunitate7m7 ,ed4 #adb oportunum ,ed4 #adc oportunitatis ,ed4 #add convivio digna ,b ,h a b1 ,edd42 convivio dignum c2 convivii dicta ,l p4 #ade ,atqui ,mller1 ,heine2 atque ,,mss41 ,bt4 #adf iis ,edd42 his ,,mss4 #adg videndum ,l c1 ,edd42 vivendum ,b ,h a b4 ,orderliness--the right thing at the right time4 99#adb99 ,,xl4 ,next1 then1 we must discuss orderliness of conduct and seasonableness of occasions4 ,these two qualities are embraced in that science which the ,greeks call --not that which we translate with moderation modestia1 derived from moderate2 but this is the by which we understand orderly conduct4 ,and so1 if we may call it also moderation1 it is defined by the ,stoics as follows3 ,moderation is the science of disposing aright everything that is done or said4 ,so the essence of orderliness and of right-placing1 it seems1 will be the same2 for orderliness they define also as the arrangement of things in their suitable and appropriate places4 ,by place of action1 moreover1 they mean seasonableness of circumstance2 and the seasonable circumstance for an action is called in ,greek 1 in ,latin occasio 7occasion74 ,so it comes about that in this sense moderation1 which we explain as ,i have indicated1 is the science of doing the right thing at the right time4 99#adc99 ,a similar definition can be given for prudence1 of which ,i have spoken in an early chapter4 ,but in this part we are considering temperance and self-control and related virtues4 ,accordingly1 the properties which1 as we found1 are peculiar to prudence1 were discussed in their proper place1 while those are to be discussed now which are peculiar to these virtues of which we have for some time been speaking and which relate to considerateness and to the approbation of our fellow-men4 99#add99 ,such orderliness of conduct is1 therefore1 to be observed1 that everything in the conduct of our life shall balance and harmonize1 as in a finished speech4 ,seasonableness of speech4 ,for it is unbecoming and highly censurable1 when upon a serious theme1 to introduce such jests as are proper at a dinner1 or any sort of loose talk4 ,when ,pericles was associated with the poet ,sophocles as his colleague in command and they had met to confer about official business that concerned them both1 a handsome boy chanced to pass and ,sophocles said3 ,look1 ,pericles2 what a pretty boy6 ,how pertinent was ,pericles's reply3 ,hush1 ,sophocles1 a general should keep not only his hands but his eyes under control4 ,and yet1 if ,sophocles had made this same remark at a trial of athletes1 he would have incurred no just reprimand4 ,so great is the significance of both place and circumstance4 ,for example1 if anyone1 while on a journey or on a walk1 should rehearse to himself a case which he is preparing to conduct in court1 or if he should under similar circumstances apply his closest thought to some other subject1 he would not be open to censure2 but if he should do that same thing at a dinner1 he would be thought ill-bred1 because he ignored the proprieties of the occasion4 ,the little things that count4 99#ade99 ,but flagrant breaches of good breeding1 like singing in the streets or any other gross misconduct1 are easily apparent and do not call especially for admonition and instruction4 ,but we must even more carefully avoid those seemingly trivial faults which pass unnoticed by the many4 ,however slightly out of tune a harp or flute may be1 the fault is still detected by a connoisseur2 so we must be on the watch lest haply something in our life be out of tune--nay1 rather1 far greater is the need for painstaking1 inasmuch as harmony of actions is far better and far more important than harmony of sounds4 99#adf99 ,,xli4 ,itaque1 ut in fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt1 sic nos1 si acres ac diligentes esse volumus animadversoresque#adh vitiorum1 magna saepe intellegemus ex parvis4 ,ex oculorum optutu1 superciliorum aut remissione aut contractione1 ex maestitia1 ex hilaritate1 ex risu1 ex locutione1 ex reticentia1 ex contentione vocis1 ex summissione1 ex ceteris similibus facile iudicabimus1 quid eorum apte fiat1 quid ab officio naturaque discrepet4 ,quo in genere non est incommodum1 quale quidque eorum sit1 ex aliis iudicare1 ut1 si quid dedeceat in illis1#adi vitemus ipsi2 fit enim nescio quo modo1 ut magis in aliis cernamus quam in nobismet ipsis1 si quid delinquitur4 ,itaque facillime corriguntur in discendo1 quorum vitia imitantur emendandi causa magistri4 99#adg99 ,nec vero alienum est ad ea eligenda1 quae dubitationem afferent1 adhibere doctos homines vel etiam usu peritos et1 quid iis de quoque officii genere placeat1 exquirere4 ,maior enim pars eo fere deferri solet1 quo a natura ipsa deducitur4 ,in quibus videndum est1 non modo quid quisque loquatur1 sed etiam quid quisque sentiat atque etiam de qua causa quisque sentiat4 ,ut enim pictores et ii1 qui signa fabricantur1 et vero etiam potae suum quisque opus a vulgo considerari vult1 ut1 si quid reprehensum sit a pluribus1 id corrigatur1 iique et secum et ab aliis1#aej quid in eo peccatum sit1 exquirunt1 sic aliorum iudicio permulta nobis et facienda et non facienda et mutanda et corrigenda sunt4 99#adh99 ,quae vero more agentur institutisque civilibus1 de iis nihil est praecipiendum2 illa enim ipsa praecepta sunt1 nec quemquam hoc errore duci oportet1 ut1 si quid ,socrates aut ,aristippus contra morem consuetudinemque civilem fecerint locutive sint1 idem sibi arbitretur licere2 magnis illi et divinis bonis hanc licentiam assequebantur4 ,cynicorum vero ratio tota est eicienda2 est enim inimica verecundiae1 sine qua nihil rectum esse potest1 nihil honestum4 99#adi99 ,eos autem1 quorum vita perspecta in rebus honestis atque magnis est1 bene de re publica sentientes ac bene meritos aut merentes sic ut#aea aliquo honore aut imperio affectos observare et colere debemus1 tribuere etiam multum senectuti1 cedere iis1 qui magistratum habebunt1 habere dilectum civis et peregrini in ipsoque peregrino1 privatimne an publice venerit4 ,ad summam1 ne agam de singulis1 communem totius generis hominum conciliationem et consociationem colere1 tueri1 servare debemus4 #adh animadversores que ,ed42 animadversoresque ,,mss42 99animadversoresque ,bt42 animadversores ,orelli1 ,mller1 ,heine4 #adi dedeceat a c1 ,edd42 deceat ,h ,l b2 non deceat ,b4 in illis a ,bt4#a1 ,ed42 in illos ,b ,h b c2 illos ,l1 ,bt4#b #aej et ab aliis a1 ,bt41 ,ed42 aliis ,b ,h b2 et cum aliis c2 et ex aliis ,unger1 ,mller4 #aea sic ut ,l p1 ,nonius2 not in ,b ,h b c4 ,we correct our faults 7#a7 by observing others1 99#adf99 ,,xli4 ,as1 therefore1 a musical ear detects even the slightest falsity of tone in a harp1 so we1 if we wish to be keen and careful observers of moral faults1 shall often draw important conclusions from trifles4 ,we observe others and from a glance of the eyes1 from a contracting or relaxing of the brows1 from an air of sadness1 from an outburst of joy1 from a laugh1 from speech1 from silence1 from a raising or lowering of the voice1 and the like1 we shall easily judge which of our actions is proper1 and which is out of accord with duty and nature4 ,and1 in the same manner1 it is not a bad plan to judge of the nature of our every action by studying others1 that so we may ourselves avoid anything that is unbecoming in them4 ,for it happens somehow or other that we detect another's failings more readily than we do our own2 and so in the school-room those pupils learn most easily to do better whose faults the masters mimic for the sake of correcting them4 7#b7 by the criticisms of the wise4 99#adg99 ,nor is it out of place in making a choice between duties involving a doubt1 to consult men of learning or practical wisdom and to ascertain what their views are on any particular question of duty4 ,for the majority usually drift as the current of their own natural inclinations carries them2 and in deriving counsel from one of these1 we have to see not only what our adviser says1 but also what he thinks1 and what his reasons are for thinking as he does4 ,for1 as painters and sculptors and even poets1 too1 wish to have their works reviewed by the public1 in order that1 if any point is generally criticized1 it may be improved2 and as they try to discover both by themselves and with the help of others what is wrong in their work2 so through consulting the judgment of others we find that there are many things to be done and left undone1 to be altered and improved4 ,the laws of the state are rules of duty4 99#adh99 ,but no rules need to be given about what is done in accordance with the established customs and conventions of a community2 for these are in themselves rules2 and no one ought to make the mistake of supposing that1 because ,socrates or ,aristippus did or said something contrary to the manners and established customs of their city1 he has a right to do the same2 it was only by reason of their great and superhuman virtues that those famous men acquired this special privilege4 ,but the ,cynics' whole system of philosophy must be rejected1 for it is inimical to moral sensibility1 and without moral sensibility nothing can be upright1 nothing morally good4 ,special rules4 99#adi99 ,it is1 furthermore1 our duty to honour and reverence those whose lives are conspicuous for conduct in keeping with their high moral standards1 and who1 as true patriots1 have rendered or are now rendering efficient service to their country1 just as much as if they were invested with some civil or military authority2 it is our duty also to show proper respect to old age1 to yield precedence to magistrates1 to make a distinction between a fellow-citizen and a foreigner1 and1 in the case of the foreigner himself1 to discriminate according to whether he has come in an official or a private capacity4 ,in a word1 not to go into details1 it is our duty to respect1 defend1 and maintain the common bonds of union and fellowship subsisting between all the members of the human race4 99#aej99 ,,xlii4 ,iam de artificiis et quaestibus1 qui liberales habendi1 qui sordidi sint1 haec fere accepimus4 ,primum improbantur ii quaestus1 qui in odia hominum incurrunt1 ut portitorum1 ut faeneratorum4 ,illiberales autem et sordidi quaestus mercennariorum omnium1 quorum operae1 non quorum artes emuntur2 est enim in illis ipsa merces auctoramentum servitutis4 ,sordidi etiam putandi1 qui mercantur a mercatoribus1 quod statim vendant2 nihil enim proficiant1 nisi admodum mentiantur2 nec vero est quicquam turpius vanitate4 ,opificesque omnes in sordida arte versantur2 nec enim quicquam ingenuum habere potest officina4 ,minimeque artes eae probandae1 quae ministrae sunt voluptatum3 ,eunuchus ,,ii1 #b1 #bf ,cetrii1 lani1 coqui1 fartres1 piscatres1 ut ait ,terentius2 adde huc1 si placet1 unguentarios1 saltatores totumque ludum talarium4 99#aea99 ,quibus autem artibus aut prudentia maior inest aut non mediocris utilitas quaeritur1 ut medicina1 ut architectura1 ut doctrina rerum honestarum1 eae sunt iis1 quorum ordini conveniunt1 honestae4 ,mercatura autem1 si tenuis est1 sordida putanda est2 sin magna et copiosa1 multa undique apportans multisque sine vanitate impertiens1 non est admodum vituperanda1 atque etiam1 si satiata quaestu vel contenta potius1 ut saepe ex alto in portum1 ex ipso portu se in agros possessionesque contulit1 videtur iure optimo posse laudari4 ,omnium autem rerum1 ex quibus aliquid acquiritur1 nihil est agri cultura melius1 nihil uberius1 nihil dulcius1 nihil homine libero#aeb dignius2 ,c4,m4 ,,xv-,,xvii de qua quoniam in ,catone ,maiore satis multa diximus1 illim#aec assumes1 quae ad hunc locum pertinebunt4 #aeb homine libero ,edd42 homine nihil libero ,b ,h ,l a b c4 #aec illim ,b#a1 ,edd42 illum ,h2 illa ,b#b p2 illinc a b c2 illic ,l4 ,occupations3 7#a7 vulgar1 99#aej99 ,,xlii4 ,now in regard to trades and other means of livelihood1 which ones are to be considered becoming to a gentleman and which ones are vulgar1 we have been taught1 in general1 as follows4 ,first1 those means of livelihood are rejected as undesirable which incur people's ill-will1 as those of tax-gatherers and usurers4 ,unbecoming to a gentleman1 too1 and vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour1 not for artistic skill2 for in their case the very wages they receive is a pledge of their slavery4 ,vulgar we must consider those also who buy from wholesale merchants to retail immediately2 for they would get no profits without a great deal of downright lying2 and verily1 there is no action that is meaner than misrepresentation4 ,and all mechanics are engaged in vulgar trades2 for no workshop can have anything liberal about it4 ,least respectable of all are those trades which cater to sensual pleasures3 ,fishmongers1 butchers1 cooks1 and poulterers1 ,and fishermen1 as ,terence says4 ,add to these1 if you please1 the perfumers1 dancers1 and the whole corps de ballet4,,af 7#b7 liberal4 99#aea99 ,but the professions in which either a higher degree of intelligence is required or from which no small benefit to society is derived--medicine and architecture1 for example1 and teaching--these are proper for those whose social position they become4 ,trade1 if it is on a small scale1 is to be considered vulgar2 but if wholesale and on a large scale1 importing large quantities from all parts of the world and distributing to many without misrepresentation1 it is not to be greatly disparaged4 ,nay1 it even seems to deserve the highest respect1 if those who are engaged in it1 satiated1 or rather1 ,i should say1 satisfied with the fortunes they have made1 make their way from the port to a country estate1 as they have often made it from the sea into port4 ,but of all the occupations by which gain is secured1 none is better than agriculture1 none more profitable1 none more delightful1 none more becoming to a freeman4 ,but since ,i have discussed this quite fully in my ,cato ,major1 you will find there the material that applies to this point4 ,,af ,the ludus talarius was a kind of low variety show1 with loose songs and dances and bad music4 99#aeb99 ,,xliii4 ,sed ab iis partibus1 quae sunt honestatis1 quem ad modum officia ducerentur1 satis expositum videtur4 ,eorum autem ipsorum1 quae honesta sunt1 potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio1 de duobus honestis utrum honestius1 qui locus a ,panaetio est praetermissus4 ,nam cum omnis honestas manet a partibus quattuor1 quarum una sit cognitionis1 altera communitatis1 tertia magnanimitatis1 quarta moderationis1 haec in deligendo officio saepe inter se comparentur necesse est4 99#aec99 ,placet igitur aptiora esse naturae ea officia1 quae ex communitate1 quam ea1 quae ex cognitione ducantur1 idque hoc argumento confirmari potest1 quod1 si contigerit ea vita sapienti1 ut omnium rerum affluentibus copiis quamvis omnia1#aed quae cognitione digna sint1 summo otio secum ipse consideret et contempletur1 tamen1 si solitudo tanta sit1 ut hominem videre non possit1 excedat e vita4 ,princepsque omnium virtutum illa sapientia1 quam ,graeci vocant--prudentiam enim1 quam ,graeci dicunt1 aliam quandam intellegimus1 quae est rerum expetendarum fugiendarumque scientia2 illa autem sapientia1 quam principem dixi1 rerum est divinarum et humanarum scientia1 in qua continetur deorum et hominum communitas et societas inter ipsos2 ea si maxima est1 ut est certe1 necesse est1 quod a communitate ducatur officium1 id esse maximum4 ,etenim cognitio contemplatioque naturae manca quodam modo atque inchoata sit1 si nulla actio rerum consequatur4 ,ea autem actio in hominum commodis tuendis maxime cernitur2 pertinet igitur ad societatem generis humani2 ergo haec cognitioni anteponenda est4 99#aed99 ,atque id optimus quisque re ipsa#aee ostendit et iudicat4 ,quis enim est tam cupidus in perspicienda cognoscendaque rerum natura1 ut1 si ei tractanti contemplantique res cognitione dignissimas subito sit allatum periculum discrimenque patriae1 cui subvenire opitularique possit1 non illa omnia relinquat atque abiciat1 etiamsi dinumerare se stellas aut metiri mundi magnitudinem posse arbitretur8 atque hoc idem in parentis1 in amici re aut periculo fecerit4 99#aee99 ,quibus rebus intellegitur studiis officiisque scientiae praeponenda esse officia iustitiae1 quae pertinent ad hominum utilitatem1#aef qua nihil homini esse debet antiquius4 #aed copiis quamvis omnia1 ,ed42 copiis quamvis omnia ,,mss42 copiis omnia ,lambinus1 ,bt41 ,mller1 ,heine4 #aee re ipsa ,b ,h a b1 ,bt41 ,ed42 re ab se ,l c 7i4e4 reapse ,orelli1 ,mller1 ,heine72 ab ipsa re p4 #aef utilitatem ,b ,h a b2 caritatem ,l c p 7affection74 ,comparative estimate of duties4 99#aeb99 ,,xliii4 ,now1 ,i think ,i have explained fully enough how moral duties are derived from the four divisions of moral rectitude4 ,but between those very actions which are morally right1 a conflict and comparison may frequently arise1 as to which of two moral actions is morally better--a point overlooked by ,panaetius4 ,for1 since all moral rectitude springs from four sources 7one of which is prudence2 the second1 social instinct2 the third1 courage2 the fourth1 temperance7 it is often necessary in deciding a question of duty that these virtues be weighed against one another4 ,justice vs4 ,wisdom4 99#aec99 ,my view1 therefore1 is that those duties are closer to nature which depend upon the social instinct than those which depend upon knowledge2 and this view can be confirmed by the following argument3 7#a7 suppose that a wise man should be vouchsafed such a life that1 with an abundance of everything pouring in upon him1 he might in perfect peace study and ponder over everything that is worth knowing1 still1 if the solitude were so complete that he could never see a human being1 he would die4 ,and then1 the foremost of all virtues is wisdom--what the ,greeks call 2 for by prudence1 which they call 1 we understand something else1 namely1 the practical knowledge of things to be sought for and of things to be avoided4 7#b7 ,again1 that wisdom which ,i have given the foremost place is the knowledge of things human and divine1 which is concerned also with the bonds of union between gods and men and the relations of man to man4 ,if wisdom is the most important of the virtues1 as it certainly is1 it necessarily follows that that duty which is connected with the social obligation is the most important duty4,,ag ,and 7#c7 service is better than mere theoretical knowledge1 for the study and knowledge of the universe would somehow be lame and defective1 were no practical results to follow4 ,such results1 moreover1 are best seen in the safe-guarding of human interests4 ,it is essential1 then1 to human society2 and it should1 therefore1 be ranked above speculative knowledge4 99#aed99 ,upon this all the best men agree1 as they prove by their conduct4 ,for who is so absorbed in the investigation and study of creation1 but that1 even though he were working and pondering over tasks never so much worth mastering and even though he thought he could number the stars and measure the length and breadth of the universe1 he would drop all those problems and cast them aside1 if word were suddenly brought to him of some critical peril to his country1 which he could relieve or repel8 ,and he would do the same to further the interests of parent or friend or to save him from danger4 99#aee99 ,from all this we conclude that the duties prescribed by justice must be given precedence over the pursuit of knowledge and the duties imposed by it2 for the former concern the welfare of our fellow-men2 and nothing ought to be more sacred in men's eyes than that4 ,,ag ,cicero is guilty of a curious fallacy4 ,if it follows from his premises1 7#a7 some one virtue is the highest virtue1 and 7#b7 the duties derived from the highest virtue are the highest duties1 and if 7#c7 wisdom is the highest virtue1 then it can only follow that the duties derived from wisdom are the highest duties4 ,but ,cicero throws in a fourth premise that the bonds of union between gods and men and the relations of man to man are derived from wisdom1 and therewith sidetracks wisdom and gives the duties derived from the social instinct the place from which wisdom has been shunted4 ,cicero could not refrain from introducing a bit of theoretical speculation that has no value for his practical position--it actually prejudices it and confuses the reader4 ,,xliv4 ,atque illi1 quorum studia vitaque omnis in rerum cognitione versata est1 tamen ab augendis hominum utilitatibus et commodis non recesserunt3 nam et erudiverunt multos1 quo meliores cives utilioresque rebus suis publicis essent1 ut ,thebanum ,epaminondam ,lysis ,pythagoreus1 ,syracosium ,dionem ,plato multique multos1 nosque ipsi1 quicquid ad rem publicam attulimus1 si modo aliquid attulimus1 a doctoribus atque doctrina instructi ad eam et ornati accessimus4 99#aef99 ,neque solum vivi atque praesentes studiosos discendi erudiunt atque docent1 sed hoc idem etiam post mortem monumentis litterarum assequuntur4 ,nec enim locus ullus est praetermissus ab iis1 qui ad leges1 qui ad mores1 qui ad disciplinam rei publicae pertineret1 ut otium suum ad nostrum negotium contulisse videantur4 ,ita illi ipsi doctrinae studiis et sapientiae dediti ad hominum utilitatem suam prudentiam intellegentiamque potissimum conferunt2 ob eamque etiam causam eloqui copiose1 modo prudenter1 melius est quam vel acutissime sine eloquentia cogitare1 quod cogitatio in se ipsa vertitur1 eloquentia complectitur eos1 quibuscum communitate iuncti sumus4 99#aeg99 ,atque ut apium examina non fingendorum favorum causa congregantur1 sed1 cum congregabilia natura sint1 fingunt favos1 sic homines1 ac multo etiam magis1 natura congregati adhibent agendi cogitandique#aeg sollertiam4 ,itaque1 nisi ea virtus1 quae constat ex hominibus tuendis1 id est ex societate generis humani1 attingat cognitionem rerum1 solivaga cognitio et ieiuna videatur1 itemque magnitudo animi remota communitate#aeh coniunctioneque humana feritas sit quaedam et immanitas4 ,ita fit1 ut vincat cognitionis studium consociatio hominum atque communitas4 ,plato1 ,rep4 ,,ii1 #cfi ,b2 ,arist41 ,pol4 ,i1 #abec ,a 99#aeh99 ,nec verum est1 quod dicitur a quibusdam1 propter necessitatem vitae1 quod ea1 quae natura desideraret1 consequi sine aliis atque efficere non possemus1 idcirco initam esse cum hominibus communitatem et societatem2 quodsi omnia nobis1 quae ad victum cultumque pertinent1 quasi virgula divina1 ut aiunt1 suppeditarentur1 tum optimo quisque ingenio negotiis omnibus omissis totum se in cognitione et scientia collocaret4 ,non est ita2 nam et solitudinem fugeret et socium studii quaereret1 tum docere tum discere vellet1 tum audire tum dicere4 ,ergo omne officium1 quod ad coniunctionem hominum et ad societatem tuendam valet1 anteponendum est illi officio1 quod cognitione et scientia continetur4 #aeg cogitandique ,l c p1 ,edd42 congregandique ,b ,h a b4 #aeh communitate p 7per compendium71 ,bt4#b1 ,mller1 ,heine2 comitate ,a ,b ,h ,l a b c4 ,wisdom in the service of ,justice4 ,,xliv4 ,and yet scholars1 whose whole life and interests have been devoted to the pursuit of knowledge1 have not1 after all1 failed to contribute to the advantages and blessings of mankind4 ,for they have trained many to be better citizens and to render larger service to their country4 ,so1 for example1 the ,pythagorean ,lysis taught ,epaminondas of ,thebes2 ,plato1 ,dion of ,syracuse2 and many1 many others4 ,as for me myself1 whatever service ,i have rendered to my country--if1 indeed1 ,i have rendered any--,i came to my task trained and equipped for it by my teachers and what they taught me4 99#aef99 ,and not only while present in the flesh do they teach and train those who are desirous of learning1 but by the written memorials of their learning they continue the same service after they are dead4 ,for they have overlooked no point that has a bearing upon laws1 customs1 or political science2 in fact1 they seem to have devoted their retirement to the benefit of us who are engaged in public business4 ,the principal thing done1 therefore1 by those very devotees of the pursuits of learning and science is to apply their own practical wisdom and insight to the service of humanity4 ,and for that reason also much speaking 7if only it contain wisdom7 is better than speculation never so profound without speech2 for mere speculation is self-centred1 while speech extends its benefits to those with whom we are united by the bonds of society4 99#aeg99 ,and again1 as swarms of bees do not gather for the sake of making honeycomb but make the honeycomb because they are gregarious by nature1 so human beings--and to a much higher degree--exercise their skill together in action and thought because they are naturally gregarious4 ,justice more valuable than ,wisdom and ,fortitude4 ,and so1 if that virtue ,justice which centres in the safeguarding of human interests1 that is1 in the maintenance of human society1 were not to accompany the pursuit of knowledge1 that knowledge would seem isolated and barren of results4 ,in the same way1 courage ,fortitude1 if unrestrained by the uniting bonds of society1 would be but a sort of brutality and savagery4 ,hence it follows that the claims of human society and the bonds that unite men together take precedence of the pursuit of speculative knowledge4 99#aeh99 ,and it is not true1 as certain people maintain1 that the bonds of union in human society were instituted in order to provide for the needs of daily life2 for1 they say1 without the aid of others we could not secure for ourselves or supply to others the things that nature requires2 but if all that is essential to our wants and comfort were supplied by some magic wand1 as in the stories1 then every man of first-rate ability could drop all other responsibility and devote himself exclusively to learning and study4 ,not at all4 ,for he would seek to escape from his loneliness and to find some one to share his studies2 he would wish to teach1 as well as to learn2 to hear1 as well as to speak4 ,every duty1 therefore1 that tends effectively to maintain and safeguard human society should be given the preference over that duty which arises from speculation and science alone4 99#aei99 ,,xlv4 ,illud forsitan quaerendum sit1 num haec communitas1 quae maxime est apta naturae1 sit etiam moderationi modestiaeque semper anteponenda4 ,non placet2 sunt enim quaedam partim ita foeda1 partim ita flagitiosa1 ut ea ne conservandae quidem patriae causa sapiens facturus sit4 ,ea ,posidonius collegit permulta1 sed ita taetra quaedam1 ita obscena1 ut dictu quoque videantur turpia4 ,haec igitur non suscipiet rei publicae causa1 ne res publica quidem pro se suscipi volet4 ,sed hoc#aei commodius se res habet1 quod non potest accidere tempus1 ut intersit rei publicae quicquam illorum facere sapientem4 99#afj99 ,quare hoc quidem effectum sit1 in officiis deligendis id#afj genus officiorum excellere1 quod teneatur hominum societate4 ,etenim cognitionem prudentiamque sequetur considerata actio2 ita fit1 ut agere considerate pluris sit quam cogitare prudenter4#afa ,atque haec quidem hactenus4 ,patefactus enim locus est ipse1 ut non difficile sit in exquirendo officio1 quid cuique sit praeponendum1 videre4 ,in ipsa autem communitate sunt gradus officiorum1 ex quibus1 quid cuique praestet1 intellegi possit1 ut prima dis immortalibus1 secunda patriae1 tertia parentibus1 deinceps gradatim reliquis debeantur4 99#afa99 ,quibus ex rebus breviter disputatis intellegi potest non solum id homines solere dubitare1 honestumne an turpe sit1 sed etiam duobus propositis honestis utrum honestius sit4 ,hic locus a ,panaetio est1 ut supra dixi1 praetermissus4 ,sed iam ad reliqua pergamus4 #aei hoc ,l c p1 ,edd42 haec ,b ,h a b4 #afj id a1 ,edd42 ut b2 hoc ,b ,h ,l c p4 #afa ,etenim 444 prudenter bracketed by ,unger4 ,justice vs4 ,temperance4 99#aei99 ,,xlv4 ,the following question should1 perhaps1 be asked3 whether this social instinct1 which is the deepest feeling in our nature1 is always to have precedence over temperance and moderation also4 ,i think not4 ,for there are some acts either so repulsive or so wicked1 that a wise man would not commit them1 even to save his country4 ,posidonius has made a large collection of them2 but some of them are so shocking1 so indecent1 that it seems immoral even to mention them4 ,the wise man1 therefore1 will not think of doing any such thing for the sake of his country2 no more will his country consent to have it done for her4 ,but the problem is the more easily disposed of because the occasion cannot arise when it could be to the state's interest to have the wise man do any of those things4 ,order of precedence of duties4 99#afj99 ,this1 then1 may be regarded as settled3 in choosing between conflicting duties1 that class takes precedence which is demanded by the interests of human society4 ,and this is the natural sequence2 for discreet action will presuppose learning and practical wisdom2 it follows1 therefore1 that discreet action is of more value than wise 7but inactive7 speculation4 ,so much must suffice for this topic4 ,for1 in its essence1 it has been made so clear1 that in determining a question of duty it is not difficult to see which duty is to be preferred to any other4 ,moreover1 even in the social relations themselves there are gradations of duty so well defined that it can easily be seen which duty takes precedence of any other3 our first duty is to the immortal gods2 our second1 to country2 our third1 to parents2 and so on1 in a descending scale1 to the rest4 99#afa99 ,from this brief discussion1 then1 it can be understood that people are often in doubt not only whether an action is morally right or wrong1 but also1 when a choice is offered between two moral actions1 which one is morally better4 ,this point1 as ,i remarked above1 has been overlooked by ,panaetius4 ,but let us now pass on to what remains4 ,,cicero ,,de ,,officiis ,,book ,,ii ,,expediency ,,liber ,,secundus _/ ,,book ,,ii 99#a99 ,i4 ,quem ad modum officia ducerentur ab honestate1 ,marce fili1 atque ab omni genere virtutis1 satis explicatum arbitror libro superiore4 ,sequitur1 ut haec officiorum genera persequar1 quae pertinent ad vitae cultum et ad earum rerum1 quibus utuntur homines1 facultatem1 ad opes1 ad copias2 in quo tum quaeri dixi1 quid utile1 quid inutile1 tum ex utilibus quid utilius aut quid maxime utile4#afb ,de quibus dicere aggrediar1 si pauca prius de instituto ac de iudicio meo dixero4 99#b99 ,quamquam enim libri nostri complures non modo ad legendi1 sed etiam ad scribendi studium excitaverunt1 tamen interdum vereor1 ne quibusdam bonis viris philosophiae nomen sit invisum mirenturque in ea tantum me operae et temporis ponere4 ,ego autem1 quam diu res publica per eos gerebatur1 quibus se ipsa commiserat1 omnis meas curas cogitationesque in eam conferebam2 cum autem dominatu unius omnia tenerentur neque esset usquam consilio aut auctoritati locus1 socios denique tuendae rei publicae1 summos viros1 amisissem1 nec me angoribus dedidi1 quibus essem confectus1 nisi iis restitissem1 nec rursum indignis homine docto voluptatibus4 99#c99 ,atque utinam res publica stetisset1 quo coeperat1 statu nec in homines non tam commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos incidisset6 ,primum enim1 ut stante re publica facere solebamus1 in agendo plus quam in scribendo operae poneremus1 deinde ipsis scriptis non ea1 quae nunc1 sed actiones nostras mandaremus1 ut saepe fecimus4 ,cum autem res publica1 in qua omnis mea cura1 cogitatio1 opera poni solebat1 nulla esset omnino1 illae scilicet litterae conticuerunt forenses et senatoriae4 99#d99 ,nihil agere autem cum animus non posset1 in his studiis ab initio versatus aetatis existimavi honestissime molestias#afc posse deponi1 si me ad philosophiam rettulissem4 ,cui cum multum adulescens discendi causa temporis tribuissem1 posteaquam honoribus inservire coepi meque totum rei publicae tradidi1 tantum erat philosophiae loci1 quantum superfuerat amicorum et rei publicae temporibus2#afd id autem omne consumebatur in legendo1 scribendi otium non erat4 #afb in quo 444 maxime utile bracketed by ,heumann1 ,facciolati1 ,edd42 tum ex 444 maxime utile not in ,b ,h a b4 #afc molestias ,l c p1 ,nonius1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #afd temporibus ,victorius1 ,edd42 temporis ,b ,h a b2 tempori ,l c p4 ,statement of subject4 99#a99 ,i4 ,i believe1 ,marcus1 my son1 that ,i have fully explained in the preceding book how duties are from moral rectitude1 or rather from each of virtue's four divisions4 ,my next step is to trace out those kinds of duty which have to do with the comforts of life1 with the means of acquiring the things that people enjoy1 with influence1 and with wealth4 ,in this connection1 the question is1 as ,i said3 7#a7 what is expedient1 and what is inexpedient2 and 7#b7 of several expedients1 which is of more and which of most importance4 ,these questions ,i shall proceed to discuss1 after ,i have said a few words in vindication of my present purpose and my principles of philosophy4 ,why ,cicero wrote on philosophy4 99#b99 ,although my books have aroused in not a few men the desire not only to read but to write1 yet ,i sometimes fear that what we term philosophy is distasteful to certain worthy gentlemen1 and that they wonder that ,i devote so much time and attention to it4 ,now1 as long as the state was administered by the men to whose care she had voluntarily entrusted herself1 ,i devoted all my effort and thought to her4 ,but when everything passed under the absolute control of a despot and there was no longer any room for statesmanship or authority of mine2 and finally when ,i had lost the friends,,ah who had been associated with me in the task of serving the interests of the state1 and who were men of the highest standing1 ,i did not resign myself to grief1 by which ,i should have been overwhelmed1 had ,i not struggled against it2 neither1 on the other hand1 did ,i surrender myself to a life of sensual pleasure unbecoming to a philosopher4 99#c99 ,i would that the government had stood fast in the position it had begun to assume and had not fallen into the hands of men who desired not so much to reform as to abolish the constitution4 ,for then1 in the first place1 ,i should now be devoting my energies more to public speaking than to writing1 as ,i used to do when the republic stood2 and in the second place1 ,i should be committing to written form not these present essays but my public speeches1 as ,i often formerly did4 ,but when the republic1 to which all my care and thought and effort used to be devoted1 was no more1 then1 of course1 my voice was silenced in the forum and in the senate4 99#d99 ,and since my mind could not be wholly idle1 ,i thought1 as ,i had been well-read along these lines of thought from my early youth1 that the most honourable way for me to forget my sorrows would be by turning to philosophy4 ,as a young man1 ,i had devoted a great deal of time to philosophy as a discipline2 but after ,i began to fill the high offices of state and devoted myself heart and soul to the public service1 there was only so much time for philosophical studies as was left over from the claims of my friends and of the state2 all of this was spent in reading2 ,i had no leisure for writing4 ,,ah ,such as ,pompey1 ,cato1 ,hortensius1 and ,piso4 99#e99 ,,ii4 ,maximis igitur in malis hoc tamen boni assecuti videmur1 ut ea litteris mandaremus1 quae nec erant satis nota nostris et erant cognitione dignissima4 ,quid enim est1 per deos1 optabilius sapientia1 quid praestantius1 quid homini melius1 quid homine dignius8 ,hanc igitur qui expetunt1#afe philosophi nominantur1 nec quicquam aliud est philosophia1 si interpretari velis1 praeter studium sapientiae4 ,sapientia autem est1 ut a veteribus philosophis definitum est1 rerum divinarum et humanarum causarumque1 quibus eae res continentur1 scientia2 cuius studium qui vituperat1 haud sane intellego1 quidnam sit1 quod laudandum putet4 99#f99 ,nam sive oblectatio quaeritur animi requiesque curarum1 quae conferri cum eorum studiis potest1 qui semper aliquid anquirunt1 quod spectet et valeat ad bene beateque vivendum8 sive ratio constantiae virtutisque ducitur1 aut haec ars est aut nulla omnino1 per quam eas assequamur4 ,nullam dicere maximarum rerum artem esse1 cum minimarum sine arte nulla sit1 hominum est parum considerate loquentium atque in maximis rebus errantium4 ,si autem est aliqua disciplina virtutis1 ubi ea quaeretur1 cum ab hoc discendi genere discesseris8 ,hortensius1 de ,div41 ,,ii1 #a4 ,sed haec1 cum ad philosophiam cohortamur1 accuratius disputari solent1 quod alio quodam libro fecimus2 hoc autem tempore tantum nobis declarandum fuit1 cur orbati rei publicae muneribus ad hoc nos studium potissimum contulissemus4 99#g99 ,occurritur autem nobis1 et quidem a doctis et eruditis quaerentibus1 satisne constanter facere videamur1 qui1 cum percipi nihil posse dicamus1 tamen et aliis de rebus disserere soleamus et hoc ipso tempore praecepta officii persequamur4 ,quibus vellem satis cognita esset nostra sententia4 ,non enim sumus ii1 quorum vagetur animus errore nec habeat umquam1 quid sequatur4 ,quae enim esset ista mens vel quae vita potius non modo disputandi1 sed etiam vivendi ratione sublata8 ,nos autem1 ut ceteri alia certa1 alia incerta esse dicunt1 sic ab his dissentientes alia probabilia1 contra alia dicimus4 99#h99 ,quid est igitur1 quod me impediat ea1 quae probabilia mihi videantur1 sequi1 quae contra1 improbare atque affirmandi arrogantiam vitantem fugere temeritatem1 quae a sapientia dissidet plurimum8 ,contra autem omnia disputatur#aff a nostris1 quod hoc ipsum probabile elucere non posset1#afg nisi ex utraque parte causarum esset facta contentio4 ,,ii1 #bj ff4 ,sed haec explanata sunt in ,academicis nostris satis1 ut arbitror1 diligenter4 ,tibi autem1 mi ,cicero1 quamquam in antiquissima nobilissimaque philosophia ,cratippo auctore versaris iis simillimo1 qui ista praeclara pepererunt1 tamen haec nostra finitima vestris ignota esse nolui4 ,sed iam ad instituta pergamus4 #afe expetunt ,l c p1 ,edd42 expetant ,h2 expectant ,b a b4 #aff disputatur ,edd42 disputantur ,,mss4 #afg posset a c2 possit ,b ,h b4 ,why philosophy is worth while4 99#e99 ,,ii4 ,therefore1 amid all the present most awful calamities ,i yet flatter myself that ,i have won this good out of evil--that ,i may commit to written form matters not at all familiar to our countrymen but still very much worth their knowing4 ,for what1 in the name of heaven1 is more to be desired than wisdom8 ,what is more to be prized8 ,what is better for a man1 what more worthy of his nature8 ,those who seek after it are called philosophers2 and philosophy is nothing else1 if one will translate the word into our idiom1 than the love of wisdom4 ,wisdom1 moreover1 as the word has been defined by the philosophers of old1 is the knowledge of things human and divine and of the causes by which those things are controlled4 ,and if the man lives who would belittle the study of philosophy1 ,i quite fail to see what in the world he would see fit to praise4 99#f99 ,for if we are looking for mental enjoyment and relaxation1 what pleasure can be compared with the pursuits of those who are always studying out something that will tend toward and effectively promote a good and happy life8 ,or1 if regard is had for strength of character and virtue1 then this is the method by which we can attain to those qualities1 or there is none at all4 ,and to say that there is no method for securing the highest blessings1 when none even of the least important concerns is without its method1 is the language of people who talk without due reflection and who blunder in matters of the utmost importance4 ,furthermore1 if there is really a way to learn virtue1 where shall one look for it1 when one has turned aside from this field of learning8 ,now1 when ,i am advocating the study of philosophy1 ,i usually discuss this subject at greater length1 as ,i have done in another of my books4 ,for the present ,i meant only to explain why1 deprived of the tasks of public service1 ,i have devoted myself to this particular pursuit4 ,position of the ,new ,academy4 99#g99 ,but people raise other objections against me--and that1 too1 philosophers and scholars--asking whether ,i think ,i am quite consistent in my conduct3 for although our school maintains that nothing can be known for certain1 yet1 they urge1 ,i make a habit of presenting my opinions on all sorts of subjects and at this very moment am trying to formulate rules of duty4 ,but ,i wish that they had a proper understanding of our position4 ,for we ,academicians are not men whose minds wander in uncertainty and never know what principles to adopt4 ,for what sort of mental habit1 or rather what sort of life would that be which should dispense with all rules for reasoning or even for living8 ,not so with us2 but1 as other schools maintain that some things are certain1 others uncertain1 we1 differing with them1 say that some things are probable1 others improbable4 99#h99 ,what1 then1 is to hinder me from accepting what seems to me to be probable1 while rejecting what seems to be improbable1 and from shunning the presumption of dogmatism1 while keeping clear of that recklessness of assertion which is as far as possible removed from true wisdom8 ,and as to the fact that our school argues against everything1 that is only because we could not get a clear view of what is probable1 unless a comparative estimate were made of all the arguments on both sides4 ,but this subject has been1 ,i think1 quite fully set forth in my ,academics4 ,and although1 my dear ,cicero1 you are a student of that most ancient and celebrated school of philosophy1 with ,cratippus as your master--and he deserves to be classed with the founders of that illustrious sect,,ai--still ,i wish our school1 which is closely related to yours1 not to be unknown to you4 ,let us now proceed to the task in hand4 ,,ai ,aristotle and ,theophrastus4 99#i99 ,,iii4 ,quinque igitur rationibus propositis officii persequendi1 quarum duae ad decus honestatemque pertinerent1 duae ad commoda vitae1 copias1 opes1 facultates1 quinta ad eligendi iudicium1 si quando ea1 quae dixi1 pugnare inter se viderentur1 honestatis pars confecta est1 quam quidem tibi cupio esse notissimam4 ,hoc autem1 de quo nunc agimus1 id ipsum est1 quod utile appellatur4 ,in quo verbo lapsa consuetudo deflexit de via sensimque eo deducta est1 ut honestatem ab utilitate secernens constitueret esse honestum aliquid1 quod utile non esset1 et utile1 quod non honestum1 qua nulla pernicies maior hominum vitae potuit afferri4 99#aj99 ,summa quidem auctoritate philosophi severe sane atque honeste haec tria genera confusa#afh cogitatione distinguunt4 ,quicquid enim iustum sit1 id etiam utile esse censent1 itemque quod honestum1 idem iustum2 ex quo efficitur1 ut1 quicquid honestum sit1 idem sit utile4#afi ,quod qui parum perspiciunt1 ii saepe versutos homines et callidos admirantes malitiam sapientiam iudicant4 ,quorum error eripiendus est opinioque omnis ad eam spem traducenda1 ut honestis consiliis iustisque factis1 non fraude et malitia se intellegant ea1 quae velint1 consequi posse4 99#aa99 ,quae ergo ad vitam hominum tuendam pertinent1 partim sunt inanima1 ut aurum1 argentum1 ut ea1 quae gignuntur e terra1 ut alia generis eiusdem1 partim animalia1 quae habent suos impetus et rerum appetitus4 ,eorum autem alia#agj rationis expertia sunt1 alia ratione utentia2 expertes rationis equi1 boves1 reliquae pecudes1 apes1#aga quarum opere efficitur aliquid ad usum hominum atque vitam2 ratione autem utentium duo genera ponunt1 deorum unum1 alterum hominum4 ,deos placatos pietas efficiet et sanctitas1 proxime autem et secundum deos homines hominibus maxime utiles esse possunt4 99#ab99 ,earumque item rerum1 quae noceant et obsint1 eadem divisio est4 ,sed quia deos nocere non putant1 iis exceptis homines hominibus obesse plurimum arbitrantur4 ,ea enim ipsa1 quae inanima diximus1 pleraque sunt hominum operis effecta2 quae nec haberemus1 nisi manus et ars accessisset1 nec iis sine hominum administratione uteremur4 ,neque enim valetudinis curatio neque navigatio neque agri cultura neque frugum fructuumque reliquorum perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuisset4 99#ac99 ,iam vero et earum rerum1 quibus abundaremus1 exportatio et earum1 quibus egeremus1 invectio certe nulla esset1 nisi his#agb muneribus homines fungerentur4 7,attius1 ,prometheus871 ,inc4 inc4 fab4 ,ribbeck#b1 #aed ,eademque ratione nec lapides ex terra exciderentur ad usum nostrum necessarii1 nec ferrum1 aes1 aurum1 argentum effoderetur penitus abditum sine hominum labore et manu4 #afh haec tria genera confusa ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4#b1 ,heine2 haec tria genere confusa c1 ,bt4#a1 ,mller2 haec tria genera1 re confusa ,j4 ,f4 ,heusinger4 #afi ,quicquid 444 sit utile bracketed by ,unger1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller1 ,heine4 #agj alia ,h#b 7inserted above the line7 a1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h#a b2 partim c4 #aga apes ,,mss42 bracketed by ,facciolati1 ,edd4 #agb his ,h1 ,edd42 iis ,b ,l b2 hijs c4 ,expediency and ,moral ,rectitude identical4 99#i99 ,,iii4 ,five principles1 accordingly1 have been laid down for the pursuance of duty3 two of them have to do with propriety and moral rectitude2 two1 with the external conveniences of life--means1 wealth1 influence2 the fifth1 with the proper choice1 if ever the four first mentioned seem to be in conflict4 ,the division treating of moral rectitude1 then1 has been completed1 and this is the part with which ,i desire you to be most familiar4 ,the principle with which we are now dealing is that one which is called ,expediency4 ,the usage of this word has been corrupted and perverted and has gradually come to the point where1 separating moral rectitude from expediency1 it is accepted that a thing may be morally right without being expedient1 and expedient without being morally right4 ,no more pernicious doctrine than this could be introduced into human life4 99#aj99 ,there are1 to be sure1 philosophers of the very highest reputation who distinguish theoretically between these three conceptions1,,aj although they are indissolubly blended together2 and they do this1 ,i assume1 on moral1 conscientious principles4 ,for whatever is just1 they hold1 is also expedient2 and in like manner1 whatever is morally right is also just4 ,it follows1 then1 that whatever is morally right1 is also expedient4 ,those who fail to comprehend that theory do often1 in their admiration for shrewd and clever men1 take craftiness for wisdom4 ,but they must be disabused of this error and their way of thinking must be wholly converted to the hope and conviction that it is only by moral character and righteousness1 not by dishonesty and craftiness1 that they may attain to the objects of their desires4 ,classification of expedients4 99#aa99 ,of the things1 then1 that are essential to the sustenance of human life1 some are inanimate 7gold and silver1 for example1 the fruits of the earth1 and so forth71 and some are animate and have their own peculiar instincts and appetites4 ,of these again some are rational1 others irrational4 ,horses1 oxen1 and the other cattle1 bees1 whose labour contributes more or less to the service and subsistence of man1 are not endowed with reason2 of rational beings two divisions are made--gods and men4 ,worship and purity of character will win the favour of the gods2 and next to the gods1 and a close second to them1 men can be most helpful to men4 99#ab99 ,the same classification may likewise be made of the things that are injurious and hurtful4 ,but as people think that the gods bring us no harm1 they decide 7leaving the gods out of the question7 that men are most hurtful to men4 ,necessity of man's helpfulness to man4 ,as for mutual helpfulness1 those very things which we have called inanimate are for the most part themselves produced by man's labours2 we should not have them without the application of manual labour and skill nor could we enjoy them without the intervention of man4 ,and so with many other things3 for without man's industry there could have been no provisions for health1 no navigation1 no agriculture1 no ingathering or storing of the fruits of the field or other kinds of produce4 99#ac99 ,then1 too1 there would surely be no exportation of our superfluous commodities or importation of those we lack1 did not men perform these services4 ,by the same process of reasoning1 without the labour of man's hands1 the stone needful for our use would not be quarried from the earth1 nor would iron1 copper1 gold1 and silver1 hidden far within1 be mined4 ,,aj ,that is1 they make a false distinction between 7#a7 moral rectitude that is at the same time expedient2 7#b7 moral rectitude that is 7apparently7 not expedient2 and 7#c7 the expedient that is 7apparently7 not morally right4 ,,iv4 ,tecta vero1 quibus et frigorum vis pelleretur et calorum molestiae sedarentur1 unde aut initio generi humano dari potuissent aut postea subveniri1#agc si aut vi tempestatis aut terrae motu aut vetustate cecidissent1 nisi communis vita ab hominibus harum rerum auxilia petere didicisset8 99#ad99 ,adde ductus aquarum1 derivationes fluminum1 agrorum irrigationes1 moles oppositas fluctibus1 portus manu factos1 quae unde sine hominum opere habere possemus8 ,ex quibus multisque aliis perspicuum est1 qui fructus quaeque utilitates ex rebus iis1 quae sint inanimae1 percipiantur1 eas nos nullo modo sine hominum manu atque opera capere potuisse4 ,qui denique ex bestiis fructus aut quae commoditas1 nisi homines adiuvarent1 percipi posset8 ,nam et qui principes inveniendi fuerunt1 quem ex quaque belua usum habere possemus1 homines certe fuerunt1 nec hoc tempore sine hominum opera aut pascere eas aut domare aut tueri aut tempestivos fructus ex iis capere possemus2 ab eisdemque et1 quae nocent1#agd interficiuntur et1 quae usui possunt esse1 capiuntur4 99#ae99 ,quid enumerem artium multitudinem1 sine quibus vita omnino nulla esse potuisset8 ,qui enim aegris subveniretur1#age quae esset oblectatio valentium1 qui victus aut cultus1 nisi tam multae nobis artes ministrarent8 quibus rebus exculta hominum vita tantum distat#agf a victu et cultu bestiarum4 ,urbes vero sine hominum coetu non potuissent nec aedificari nec frequentari2 ex quo leges moresque constituti1 tum iuris aequa discriptio#agg certaque vivendi disciplina2 quas res et mansuetudo animorum consecuta et verecundia est effectumque1 ut esset vita munitior1 atque ut dando et accipiendo mutuandisque facultatibus et commodandis#agh nulla re egeremus4 #agc subveniri ,l c1 ,mller1 ,heine2 subvenire ,b ,h a b1 ,bt41 ,ed4 #agd et1 quae nocent ,bt4#b2 et eae1 quae nocent ,b ,h b1 ,bt4#a2 et ea quae nocent ,l2 ea quae nocent c4 #age qui 444 subveniretur ,gernhard1 ,edd42 qui 444 subvenire ,b ,h2 quis 444 subveniret ,l c2 quid 444 subveniret a b4 #agf distat ,l c p1 ,mller1 ,heine2 destitute ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4 #agg discriptio ,h b2 descriptio ,b a c4 #agh mutuandisque facultatibus et commodandis ,nonius1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller2 mutandisque facultatibus et commodis ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 ,mutual helpfulness the key to civilization4 ,,iv4 ,and how could houses ever have been provided in the first place for the human race1 to keep out the rigours of the cold and alleviate the discomforts of the heat2 or how could the ravages of furious tempest or of earthquake or of time upon them afterward have been repaired1 had not the bonds of social life taught men in such events to look to their fellow-men for help8 99#ad99 ,think of the aqueducts1 canals1 irrigation works1 breakwaters1 artificial harbours2 how should we have these without the work of man8 ,from these and many other illustrations it is obvious that we could not in any way1 without the work of man's hands1 have received the profits and the benefits accruing from inanimate things4 ,finally1 of what profit or service could animals be1 without the co-operation of man8 ,for it was men who were the foremost in discovering what use could be made of each beast2 and to-day1 if it were not for man's labour1 we could neither feed them nor break them in nor take care of them nor yet secure the profits from them in due season4 ,by man1 too1 noxious beasts are destroyed1 and those that can be of use are captured4 99#ae99 ,why should ,i recount the multitude of arts without which life would not be worth living at all8 ,for how would the sick be healed8 ,what pleasure would the well enjoy8 ,what comforts should we have1 if there were not so many arts to minister to our wants8 ,in all these respects the civilized life of man is far removed from the standard of the comforts and wants of the lower animals4 ,and without the association of men1 cities could not have been built or peopled4 ,in consequence of city life1 laws and customs were established1 and then came the equitable distribution of private rights and a definite social system4 ,upon these institutions followed a more humane spirit and consideration for others1 with the result that life was better supplied with all it requires1 and by giving and receiving1 by mutual exchange of commodities and conveniences1 we succeeded in meeting all our wants4 99#af99 ,v4 ,longiores hoc loco sumus1 quam necesse est4 ,quis est enim1 cui non perspicua sint illa1 quae pluribus verbis a ,panaetio commemorantur1 neminem neque ducem bello#agi nec principem domi magnas res et salutares sine hominum studiis gerere potuisse8 ,commemoratur ab eo ,themistocles1 ,pericles1 ,cyrus1 ,agesilaus1 ,alexander1 quos negat sine adiumentis hominum tantas res efficere potuisse4 ,utitur in re non dubia testibus non necessariis4 ,atque ut magnas utilitates adipiscimur conspiratione hominum atque consensu1 sic nulla tam detestabilis pestis est1 quae non homini ab homine nascatur4 ,est ,dicaearchi liber de interitu hominum1 ,peripatetici magni et copiosi1 qui collectis ceteris causis eluvionis1 pestilentiae1 vastitatis1 beluarum etiam repentinae multitudinis1 quarum impetu docet quaedam hominum genera esse consumpta1 deinde comparat1 quanto plures deleti sint homines hominum impetu1 id est bellis aut seditionibus1 quam omni reliqua calamitate4 99#ag99 ,cum igitur hic locus nihil habeat dubitationis1 quin homines plurimum hominibus et prosint et obsint1 proprium hoc statuo esse virtutis1 conciliare animos hominum et ad usus suos adiungere4 ,itaque1 quae in rebus inanimis quaeque in usu et#ahj tractatione beluarum fiunt utiliter ad hominum vitam1 artibus ea tribuuntur operosis1 hominum autem studia ad amplificationem nostrarum rerum prompta ac parata virorum praestantium#aha sapientia et virtute excitantur4 99#ah99 ,etenim virtus omnis tribus in rebus fere vertitur1 quarum una est in perspiciendo1 quid in quaque re verum sincerumque sit1 quid consentaneum cuique1 quid consequens1 ex quo quaeque gignantur1 quae cuiusque rei causa sit1 alterum cohibere motus animi turbatos1 quos ,graeci nominant1 appetitionesque1 quas illi 1 oboedientes efficere rationi1 tertium iis1 quibuscum congregemur1 uti moderate et scienter1 quorum studiis ea1 quae natura desiderat1 expleta cumulataque habeamus1 per eosdemque1 si quid importetur nobis incommodi1 propulsemus ulciscamurque eos1 qui nocere nobis conati sint1 tantaque poena afficiamus1 quantam aequitas humanitasque patitur4 #agi bello ,b ,h a b1 ,mller1 ,heine2 belli ,l c p1 ,bt4 #ahj usu et ,l c p2 not in ,b ,h a b2 bracketed by ,bt4#a #aha virorum praestantium bracketed by ,ed4 99#af99 ,v4 ,i have dwelt longer on this point than was necessary4 ,for who is there to whom those facts which ,panaetius narrates at great length are not self-evident--namely1 that no one1 either as a general in war or as a statesman at home could have accomplished great things for the benefit of the state1 without the hearty co-operation of other men8 ,he cites the deeds of ,themistocles1 ,pericles1 ,cyrus1 ,agesilaus1 ,alexander1 who1 he says1 could not have achieved so great success without the support of other men4 ,he calls in witnesses1 whom he does not need1 to prove a fact that no one questions4 ,man's hurtfulness to man4 ,and yet1 as1 on the one hand1 we secure great advantages through the sympathetic co-operation of our fellow-men2 so1 on the other1 there is no curse so terrible but it is brought down by man upon man4 ,there is a book by ,dicaearchus on ,the ,destruction of ,human ,life4 ,he was a famous and eloquent ,peripatetic and he gathered together all the other causes of destruction--floods1 epidemics1 famines1 and sudden incursions of wild animals in myriads1 by whose assaults1 he informs us1 whole tribes of men have been wiped out4 ,and then he proceeds to show by way of comparison how many more men have been destroyed by the assaults of men--that is1 by wars or revolutions--than by any and all other sorts of calamity4 ,co-operation and the virtues4 99#ag99 ,since1 therefore1 there can be no doubt on this point1 that man is the source of both the greatest help and the greatest harm to man1 ,i set it down as the peculiar function of virtue to win the hearts of men and to attach them to one's own service4 ,and so those benefits that human life derives from inanimate objects and from the employment and use of animals are ascribed to the industrial arts2 the co-operation of men1 on the other hand1 prompt and ready for the advancement of our interests1 is secured through wisdom and virtue in men of superior ability4 99#ah99 ,and1 indeed1 virtue in general may be said to consist almost wholly in three properties3 the first is ,wisdom1 the ability to perceive what in any given instance is true and real1 what its relations are1 its consequences1 and its causes2 the second is ,temperance1 the ability to restrain the passions 7which the ,greeks call 7 and make the impulses 77 obedient to reason2 and the third is ,justice1 the skill to treat with consideration and wisdom those with whom we are associated1 in order that we may through their co-operation have our natural wants supplied in full and overflowing measure1 that we may ward off any impending trouble1 avenge ourselves upon those who have attempted to injure us1 and visit them with such retribution as justice and humanity will permit4 99#ai99 ,,vi4 ,quibus autem rationibus hanc facultatem assequi possimus1 ut hominum studia complectamur eaque teneamus1 dicemus1 neque ita multo post1 sed pauca ante dicenda sunt4 ,magnam vim esse in fortuna in utramque partem1 vel secundas ad res vel adversas1 quis ignorat8 ,nam et1 cum prospero flatu eius utimur1 ad exitus pervehimur optatos et1 cum reflavit1 affligimur4 ,haec igitur ipsa fortuna ceteros casus rariores habet1 primum ab inanimis procellas1 tempestates1 naufragia1 ruinas1 incendia1 deinde a bestiis ictus1 morsus1 impetus2 haec ergo1 ut dixi1 rariora4 99#bj99 ,at vero interitus exercituum1 ut proxime trium1 saepe multorum1 clades imperatorum1 ut nuper summi et singularis viri1 invidiae praeterea multitudinis atque ob eas bene meritorum saepe civium expulsiones1 calamitates1 fugae1 rursusque secundae res1 honores1 imperia1 victoriae1 quamquam fortuita sunt1 tamen sine hominum opibus et studiis neutram in partem effici possunt4 ,hoc igitur cognito dicendum est1 quonam modo hominum studia ad utilitates nostras allicere atque excitare possimus4 ,quae si longior fuerit oratio1 cum magnitudine utilitatis comparetur2 ita fortasse etiam brevior videbitur4 99#ba99 ,quaecumque igitur homines homini tribuunt ad eum augendum atque honestandum1 aut benivolentiae gratia faciunt1 cum aliqua de causa quempiam diligunt1 aut honoris1 si cuius virtutem suspiciunt1 quemque dignum fortuna quam amplissima putant1 aut cui fidem habent et bene rebus suis consulere arbitrantur1 aut cuius opes metuunt1 aut contra1 a quibus aliquid exspectant1 ut cum reges popularesve homines largitiones aliquas proponunt1 aut postremo pretio ac mercede ducuntur1 quae sordidissima est illa quidem ratio et inquinatissima et iis1 qui ea tenentur1 et illis1 qui ad eam#ahb confugere conantur2 99#bb99 male enim se res habet1 cum1 quod virtute effici debet1 id temptatur pecunia4 ,sed quoniam non numquam hoc subsidium necessarium est1 quem ad modum sit utendum eo1 dicemus1 si prius iis#ahc de rebus1 quae virtuti propiores sunt1 dixerimus4 ,atque etiam subiciunt se homines imperio alterius et potestati de causis pluribus4 ,ducuntur enim aut benivolentia aut beneficiorum magnitudine aut dignitatis praestantia aut spe sibi id utile futurum aut metu1 ne vi parere cogantur1 aut spe largitionis promissisque#ahd capti aut postremo1 ut saepe in nostra re publica videmus1 mercede conducti4 #ahb eam c1 ,edd42 ea ,b ,h a b4 #ahc iis ,edd42 his ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #ahd promissisque ,l c1 ,edd42 promissionisque ,b ,h a b2 promissionibusque alii4 99#ai99 ,,vi4 ,i shall presently discuss the means by which we can gain the ability to win and hold the affections of our fellow-men2 but ,i must say a few words by way of preface4 ,co-operation vs4 ,fortune4 ,who fails to comprehend the enormous1 two-fold power of ,fortune for weal and for woe8 ,when we enjoy her favouring breeze1 we are wafted over to the wished for haven2 when she blows against us1 we are dashed to destruction4 ,fortune herself1 then1 does send those other less usual calamities1 arising1 first1 from inanimate nature--hurricanes1 storms1 shipwrecks1 catastrophes1 conflagrations2 second1 from wild beasts--kicks1 bites1 and attacks4 ,but these1 as ,i have said1 are comparatively rare4 99#bj99 ,but think1 on the one side1 of the destruction of armies 7three lately1 and many others at many different times71 the loss of generals 7of a very able and eminent commander recently71 the hatred of the masses1 too1 and the banishment that as a consequence frequently comes to men of eminent services1 their degradation and voluntary exile2 think1 on the other hand1 of the successes1 the civil and military honours1 and the victories2--though all these contain an element of chance1 still they cannot be brought about1 whether for good or for ill1 without the influence and the co-operation of our fellow-men4 ,with this understanding of the influence of ,fortune1 ,i may proceed to explain how we can win the affectionate co-operation of our fellows and enlist it in our service4 ,and if the discussion of this point is unduly prolonged1 let the length be compared with the importance of the object in view4 ,it will then1 perhaps1 seem even too short4 ,how men are led to promote another's interests4 99#ba99 ,whenever1 then1 people bestow anything upon a fellow-man to raise his estate or his dignity1 it may be from any one of several motives3 7#a7 it may be out of good-will1 when for some reason they are fond of him2 7#b7 it may be from esteem1 if they look up to his worth and think him deserving of the most splendid fortune a man can have2 7#c7 they may have confidence in him and think that they are thus acting for their own interests2 or 7#d7 they may fear his power2 7#e7 they may1 on the contrary1 hope for some favour--as1 for example1 when princes or demagogues bestow gifts of money2 or1 finally1 7#f7 they may be moved by the promise of payment or reward4 ,this last is1 ,i admit1 the meanest and most sordid motive of all1 both for those who are swayed by it and for those who venture to resort to it4 99#bb99 ,for things are in a bad way1 when that which should be obtained by merit is attempted by money4 ,but since recourse to this kind of support is sometimes indispensable1 ,i shall explain how it should be employed2 but first ,i shall discuss those qualities which are more closely allied to merit4 ,now1 it is by various motives that people are led to submit to another's authority and power3 they may be influenced 7#a7 by good-will2 7#b7 by gratitude for generous favours conferred upon them2 7#c7 by the eminence of that other's social position or by the hope that their submission will turn to their own account2 7#d7 by fear that they may be compelled perforce to submit2 7#e7 they may be captivated by the hope of gifts of money and by liberal promises2 or1 finally1 7#f7 they may be bribed with money1 as we have frequently seen in our own country4 99#bc99 ,,vii4 ,omnium autem rerum nec aptius est quicquam ad opes tuendas ac tenendas quam diligi nec alienius quam timeri4 ,praeclare enim ,ennius3 7,thyestes87 ,fab4 inc4 ,vahlen#b1 #djb ,qum metuunt1 odrunt2 quem quisque dit1 periisse xpetit4 ,multorum autem odiis nullas opes posse obsistere1 si antea fuit ignotum1 nuper est cognitum4 ,nec vero huius tyranni solum1 quem armis oppressa pertulit civitas ac paret cum maxime mortuo1#ahe interitus declarat1 quantum odium hominum valeat#ahf ad pestem1 sed reliquorum similes exitus tyrannorum1 quorum haud fere quisquam talem interitum effugit2 malus enim est custos diuturnitatis metus contraque benivolentia fidelis vel ad perpetuitatem4 99#bd99 ,sed iis1 qui vi oppressos imperio corcent1 sit sane adhibenda saevitia1 ut eris#ahg in famulos1 si aliter teneri non possunt2 qui vero in libera civitate ita se instruunt1 ut metuantur1 iis#ahh nihil potest esse dementius4 ,quamvis enim sint demersae leges alicuius opibus1 quamvis timefacta libertas1 emergunt tamen haec aliquando aut iudiciis tacitis aut occultis de honore suffragiis4 ,acriores autem morsus sunt intermissae libertatis quam retentae4 ,quod igitur latissime patet neque ad incolumitatem solum1 sed etiam ad opes et potentiam valet plurimum1 id amplectamur1 ut metus absit1 caritas retineatur4 ,ita facillime quae volemus1 et privatis in rebus et in re publica consequemur4 ,etenim qui se metui volent1 a quibus metuentur1 eosdem metuant ipsi necesse est4 99#be99 ,quid enim censemus superiorem illum ,dionysium quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum1 qui cultros metuens tonsorios candente carbone sibi adurebat capillum8 quid ,alexandrum ,pheraeum quo animo vixisse arbitramur8 qui1 ut scriptum legimus1 cum uxorem ,theben admodum diligeret1 tamen ad eam ex epulis in cubiculum veniens barbarum1 et eum quidem1 ut scriptum est1 compunctum notis ,thraeciis1 destricto gladio iubebat anteire praemittebatque de stipatoribus suis1 qui scrutarentur arculas muliebres et1 ne quod in vestimentis telum occultaretur1 exquirerent4 ,o miserum1 qui fideliorem et barbarum et stigmatiam putaret quam coniugem6 ,nec eum fefellit2 ab ea est enim ipsa propter pelicatus suspicionem interfectus4 ,nec vero ulla vis imperii tanta est1 quae premente metu possit esse diuturna4 99#bf99 ,testis est ,phalaris1 cuius est praeter ceteros nobilitata crudelitas1 qui non ex insidiis interiit1 ut is1 quem modo dixi1 ,alexander1 non a paucis1 ut hic noster1 sed in quem universa ,agrigentinorum multitudo impetum fecit4 ,quid8 ,macedones nonne ,demetrium reliquerunt universique se ad ,pyrrhum contulerunt8 ,quid8 ,lacedaemonios iniuste imperantes nonne repente omnes fere socii deseruerunt spectatoresque se otiosos praebuerunt ,leuctricae calamitatis8 #ahe ac paret cum maxime mortuo1 ,halm1 ,mller1 ,heine2 paretque cum maxime mortuo c#a1 ,bt42 paretque1 c4 m4 m4 ,l2 apparet1 cuius maxime mortui b2 apparet cuius maxime portui ,b ,h a4 #ahf valeat c2 valet ,b ,h a b4 #ahg ut eris ,baiter2 ut eriis ,b2 uteris ,l2 utere hiis ,h2 utere iis b2 utere his a2 utantur eis c4 #ahh iis ,edd42 his ,b ,h ,l a2 hijs c2 hiis b4 ,the motive of love vs4 that of fear4 99#bc99 ,,vii4 ,but of all motives1 none is better adapted to secure influence and hold it fast than love2 nothing is more foreign to that end than fear4 ,for ,ennius says admirably3 ,whom they fear they hate4 ,and whom one hates1 one hopes to see him dead4 ,and we recently discovered1 if it was not known before1 that no amount of power can withstand the hatred of the many4 ,hatred of tyranny4 ,the death of this tyrant1,,ak whose yoke the state endured under the constraint of armed force and whom it still obeys more humbly than ever1 though he is dead1 illustrates the deadly effects of popular hatred2 and the same lesson is taught by the similar fate of all other despots1 of whom practically no one has ever escaped such a death4 ,for fear is but a poor safeguard of lasting power2 while affection1 on the other hand1 may be trusted to keep it safe for ever4 99#bd99 ,but those who keep subjects in check by force would of course have to employ severity--masters1 for example1 toward their servants1 when these cannot be held in control in any other way4 ,but those who in a free state deliberately put themselves in a position to be feared are the maddest of the mad4 ,for let the laws be never so much overborne by some one individual's power1 let the spirit of freedom be never so intimidated1 still sooner or later they assert themselves either through unvoiced public sentiment1 or through secret ballots disposing of some high office of state4 ,freedom suppressed and again regained bites with keener fangs than freedom never endangered4 ,let us1 then1 embrace this policy1 which appeals to every heart and is the strongest support not only of security but also of influence and power--namely1 to banish fear and cleave to love4 ,and thus we shall most easily secure success both in private and in public life4 ,furthermore1 those who wish to be feared must inevitably be afraid of those whom they intimidate4 99#be99 ,the wretchedness of fear4 ,what1 for instance1 shall we think of the elder ,dionysius8 ,with what tormenting fears he used to be racked6 ,for through fear of the barber's razor he used to have his hair singed off with a glowing coal4 ,in what state of mind do we fancy ,alexander of ,pherae lived8 ,we read in history that he dearly loved his wife ,thebe2 and yet1 whenever he went from the banquet hall to her in her chamber1 he used to order a barbarian--one1 too1 tattooed like a ,thracian1 as the records state--to go before him with a drawn sword2 and he used to send ahead some of his bodyguard to pry into the lady's caskets and to search and see whether some weapon were not concealed in her wardrobe4 ,unhappy man6 ,to think a barbarian1 a branded slave1 more faithful than his own wife6 ,nor was he mistaken4 ,for he was murdered by her own hand1 because she suspected him of infidelity4 ,and indeed no power is strong enough to be lasting1 if it labours under the weight of fear4 99#bf99 ,witness ,phalaris1 whose cruelty is notorious beyond that of all others4 ,he was slain1 not treacherously 7like that ,alexander whom ,i named but now71 not by a few conspirators 7like that tyrant of ours71 but the whole population of ,agrigentum rose against him with one accord4 ,again1 did not the ,macedonians abandon ,demetrius and march over as one man to ,pyrrhus8 ,and again1 when the ,spartans exercised their supremacy tyrannically1 did not practically all the allies desert them and view their disaster at ,leuctra1 as idle spectators8 ,,ak ,julius ,caesar4 ,,viii4 ,externa libentius in tali re quam domestica recordor4 ,verum tamen1 quam diu imperium populi ,romani beneficiis tenebatur1 non iniuriis1 bella aut pro sociis aut de imperio gerebantur1 exitus erant bellorum aut mites aut necessarii1 regum1 populorum1 nationum portus erat et refugium senatus1 99#bg99 nostri autem magistratus imperatoresque ex hac una re maximam laudem capere studebant1 si provincias1 si socios aequitate et fide defendissent2 997#bg799 itaque illud patrocinium orbis terrae verius quam imperium poterat nominari4 ,sensim hanc consuetudinem et disciplinam iam antea minuebamus1 post vero ,sullae victoriam penitus amisimus2 desitum est enim videri quicquam in socios iniquum1 cum exstitisset in cives tanta crudelitas4 ,ergo in illo secuta est honestam causam non honesta victoria2 est enim ausus dicere1 hasta posita cum bona in foro venderet et bonorum virorum et locupletium et certe civium1 praedam se suam vendere4 ,secutus est1 qui in causa impia1 victoria etiam foediore non singulorum civium bona publicaret1 sed universas provincias regionesque uno calamitatis iure comprehenderet4 99#bh99 ,itaque vexatis ac perditis exteris nationibus ad exemplum amissi imperii portari in triumpho ,massiliam vidimus et ex ea urbe triumphari1 sine qua numquam nostri imperatores ex ,transalpinis bellis triumpharunt4 ,multa praeterea commemorarem nefaria in socios1 si hoc uno quicquam sol vidisset indignius4 ,iure igitur plectimur4 ,nisi enim multorum impunita scelera tulissemus1 numquam ad unum tanta pervenisset licentia2 a quo quidem rei familiaris ad paucos1 cupiditatum ad multos improbos venit hereditas4 99#bi99 ,nec vero umquam bellorum civilium semen et causa deerit1 dum homines perditi hastam illam cruentam et meminerint et sperabunt2 quam ,p4#ahi ,sulla cum vibrasset dictatore propinquo suo1 idem sexto tricesimo anno post a sceleratiore hasta non recessit2 alter autem1 qui in illa dictatura scriba fuerat1 in hac fuit quaestor urbanus4 ,ex quo debet intellegi talibus praemiis propositis numquam defutura bella civilia4 ,itaque parietes modo urbis stant et manent1 iique ipsi iam extrema scelera metuentes1 rem vero publicam penitus amisimus4 ,atque in has clades incidimus 7redeundum est enim ad propositum71 dum metui quam cari esse et diligi malumus4 ,quae si populo ,romano iniuste imperanti accidere potuerunt1 quid debent putare singuli8 ,quod cum perspicuum sit1 benivolentiae vim esse magnam1 metus imbecillam sequitur1 ut disseramus1 quibus rebus facillime possimus eam1 quam volumus1 adipisci cum honore et fide caritatem4 99#cj99 ,sed ea non pariter omnes egemus2 nam ad cuiusque vitam institutam accommodandum est1 a multisne opus sit an satis sit a paucis diligi4 ,certum igitur hoc sit1 idque et primum et maxime necessarium1 familiaritates habere fidas amantium nos amicorum et nostra mirantium2 haec enim una#aij res prorsus1 ut non multum differat inter summos et mediocris viros1 aeque#aia utrisque est propemodum comparanda4 99#ca99 ,honore et gloria et benivolentia civium fortasse non aeque omnes egent1 sed tamen1 si cui haec suppetunt1 adiuvant aliquantum cum ad cetera1 tum ad amicitias comparandas4 #ahi ,p4 c1 ,edd42 ,l4 ,b ,h a b4 #aij enim una ,baiter2 enim est una ,,mss4 #aia aeque ,lund2 eaque ,,mss4 ,the old ,republic and the new despotism4 ,,viii4 ,i prefer in this connection to draw my illustrations from foreign history rather than from our own4 ,let me add1 however1 that as long as the empire of the ,roman ,people maintained itself by acts of service1 not of oppression1 wars were waged in the interest of our allies or to safeguard our supremacy2 the end of our wars was marked by acts of clemency or by only a necessary degree of severity2 the senate was a haven of refuge for kings1 tribes1 and nations2 99#bg99 and the highest ambition of our magistrates and generals was to defend our provinces and allies with justice and honour4 997#bg799 ,and so our government could be called more accurately a protectorate of the world than a dominion4 ,this policy and practice we had begun gradually to modify even before ,sulla's time2 but since his victory we have departed from it altogether4 ,for the time had gone by when any oppression of the allies could appear wrong1 seeing that atrocities so outrageous were committed against ,roman citizens4 ,in ,sulla's case1 therefore1 an unrighteous victory disgraced a righteous cause4 ,for when he had planted his spear,,al and was selling under the hammer in the forum the property of men who were patriots and men of wealth and1 at least1 ,roman citizens1 he had the effrontery to announce that he was selling his spoils4 ,after him came one who1 in an unholy cause1 made an even more shameful use of victory2 for he did not stop at confiscating the property of individual citizens1 but actually embraced whole provinces and countries in one common ban of ruin4 99#bh99 ,and so1 when foreign nations had been oppressed and ruined1 we have seen a model of ,marseilles carried in a triumphal procession1 to serve as proof to the world that the supremacy of the people had been forfeited2 and that triumph we saw celebrated over a city without whose help our generals have never gained a triumph for their wars beyond the ,alps4 ,i might mention many other outrages against our allies1 if the sun had ever beheld anything more infamous than this particular one4 ,the wages of the sin of ,rome4 ,justly1 therefore1 are we being punished4 ,for if we had not allowed the crimes of many to go unpunished1 so great licence would never have centred in one individual4 ,his estate descended by inheritance to but a few individuals1 his ambitions to many scoundrels4 99#bi99 ,and never will the seed and occasion of civil war be wanting1 so long as villains remember that blood-stained spear and hope to see another4 ,as ,publius ,sulla wielded that spear1 when his kinsman was dictator1 so again thirty-six years later he did not shrink from a still more criminal spear4 ,and still another ,sulla1 who was a mere clerk under the former dictatorship1 was under the later one a city quaestor4 ,from this1 one would realize that1 if such rewards are offered1 civil wars will never cease to be4 ,and so in ,rome only the walls of her houses remain standing--and even they wait now in fear of the most unspeakable crimes--but our republic we have lost for ever4 ,but to return to my subject3 it is while we have preferred to be the object of fear rather than of love and affection1 that all these misfortunes have fallen upon us4 ,and if such retribution could overtake the ,roman ,people for their injustice and tyranny1 what ought private individuals to expect8 ,and since it is manifest that the power of good-will is so great and that of fear is so weak1 it remains for us to discuss by what means we can most readily win the affection1 linked with honour and confidence1 which we desire4 ,the acquisition of friends4 99#cj99 ,but we do not all feel this need to the same extent2 for it must be determined in conformity with each individual's vocation in life whether it is essential for him to have the affection of many or whether the love of a few will suffice4 ,let this then be settled as the first and absolute essential--that we have the devotion of friends1 affectionate and loving1 who value our worth4 ,for in just this one point there is but little difference between the greatest and the ordinary man2 and friendship is to be cultivated almost equally by both4 99#ca99 ,all men do not1 perhaps1 stand equally in need of political honour1 fame1 and the good-will of their fellow-citizens2 nevertheless1 if these honours come to a man1 they help in many ways1 and especially in the acquisition of friends4 ,,al ,the ,romans were accustomed to set up a spear as a sign of an auction-sale--a symbol derived from the sale of booty taken in war4 ,,ix4 ,sed de amicitia alio libro dictum est1 qui inscribitur ,laelius2 nunc dicamus de gloria1 quamquam ea quoque de re duo sunt nostri libri1 sed attingamus1 quandoquidem ea in rebus maioribus administrandis adiuvat plurimum4 ,summa igitur et perfecta gloria constat ex tribus his3 si diligit multitudo1 si fidem habet1 si cum admiratione quadam honore dignos putat4 ,haec autem1 si est simpliciter breviterque dicendum1 quibus rebus pariuntur a singulis1 eisdem fere a multitudine4 ,sed est alius quoque quidam aditus ad multitudinem1 ut in universorum animos tamquam influere possimus4 99#cb99 ,ac primum de illis tribus1 quae ante dixi1 benivolentiae praecepta videamus2 quae quidem capitur beneficiis maxime1 secundo autem loco voluntate benefica benivolentia movetur1 etiamsi res forte non suppetit2 vehementer autem amor multitudinis commovetur ipsa fama et opinione liberalitatis1 beneficentiae1 iustitiae1 fidei omniumque earum virtutum1 quae pertinent ad mansuetudinem morum ac facilitatem4 ,etenim illud ipsum1 quod honestum decorumque dicimus1 quia per se nobis placet animosque omnium natura et specie sua commovet maximeque quasi perlucet ex iis1 quas commemoravi1 virtutibus1 idcirco illos1 in quibus eas virtutes esse remur1 a natura ipsa diligere cogimur4 ,atque hae quidem causae diligendi gravissimae2 possunt enim praeterea non nullae esse leviores4 99#cc99 ,fides autem ut habeatur1 duabus rebus effici potest1 si existimabimur adepti coniunctam cum iustitia prudentiam4 ,nam et iis fidem habemus1 quos plus intellegere quam nos arbitramur quosque et futura prospicere credimus et1 cum res agatur in discrimenque ventum sit1 expedire rem et consilium ex tempore capere posse2 hanc enim utilem homines existimant veramque prudentiam4 ,iustis autem et fidis#aib hominibus1 id est bonis viris1 ita fides habetur1 ut nulla sit in iis#aic fraudis iniuriaeque suspicio4 ,itaque his salutem nostram1 his fortunas1 his liberos rectissime committi arbitramur4 99#cd99 ,harum igitur duarum ad fidem faciendam iustitia plus pollet1 quippe cum ea sine prudentia satis habeat auctoritatis1 prudentia sine iustitia nihil valet ad faciendam fidem4 ,quo enim quis versutior et callidior1 hoc invisior et suspectior est detracta opinione probitatis4 ,quam ob rem intellegentiae iustitia coniuncta1 quantum volet1 habebit ad faciendam fidem virium2 iustitia sine prudentia multum poterit1 sine iustitia nihil valebit prudentia4 #aib et fidis ,,mss42 del4 ,facciolati1 ,pearce2 et fidis ,bt41 ,ed4 #aic iis ,b2 his ,h a b2 hijs c4 ,,ix4 ,but friendship has been discussed in another book of mine1 entitled ,laelius4 ,the attainment of glory4 ,let us now take up the discussion of ,glory1 although ,i have published two books,,am on that subject also4 ,still1 let us touch briefly on it here1 since it is of very great help in the conduct of more important business4 ,the highest1 truest glory depends upon the following three things3 the affection1 the confidence1 and the mingled admiration and esteem of the people4 ,such sentiments1 if ,i may speak plainly and concisely1 are awakened in the masses in the same way as in individuals4 ,how to gain popularity3 ,but there is also another avenue of approach to the masses1 by which we can1 as it were1 steal into the hearts of all at once4 7#a7 through good-will1 99#cb99 ,but of the three above-named requisites1 let us look first at good-will and the rules for securing it4 ,good-will is won principally through kind services,,an2 next to that1 it is elicited by the will to do a kind service1 even though nothing happen to come of it4 ,then1 too1 the love of people generally is powerfully attracted by a man's mere name and reputation for generosity1 kindness1 justice1 honour1 and all those virtues that belong to gentleness of character and affability of manner4 ,and because that very quality which we term moral goodness and propriety is pleasing to us by and of itself and touches all our hearts both by its inward essence and its outward aspect and shines forth with most lustre through those virtues named above1 we are1 therefore1 compelled by ,nature herself to love those in whom we believe those virtues to reside4 ,now these are only the most powerful motives to love--not all of them2 there may be some minor ones besides4 7#b7 through confidence1 99#cc99 ,secondly1 the command of confidence can be secured on two conditions3 7#a7 if people think us possessed of practical wisdom combined with a sense of justice4 ,for we have confidence in those who we think have more understanding than ourselves1 who1 we believe1 have better insight into the future1 and who1 when an emergency arises and a crisis comes1 can clear away the difficulties and reach a safe decision according to the exigencies of the occasion2 for that kind of wisdom the world accounts genuine and practical4 ,but 7#b7 confidence is reposed in men who are just and true--that is1 good men--on the definite assumption that their characters admit of no suspicion of dishonesty or wrong-doing4 ,and so we believe that it is perfectly safe to entrust our lives1 our fortunes1 and our children to their care4 ,justice vs4 ,wisdom2 99#cd99 ,of these two qualities1 then1 justice has the greater power to inspire confidence2 for even without the aid of wisdom1 it has considerable weight2 but wisdom without justice is of no avail to inspire confidence2 for take from a man his reputation for probity1 and the more shrewd and clever he is1 the more hated and mistrusted he becomes4 ,therefore1 justice combined with practical wisdom will command all the confidence we can desire2 justice without wisdom will be able to do much2 wisdom without justice will be of no avail at all4 ,,am ,now lost1 though they were still known to ,petrarch4 ,,an ,cicero means by kind services the services of the lawyer2 he was forbidden by law to accept a fee2 his services1 if he contributed them1 were acts of kindness4 99#ce99 ,x4 ,sed ne quis sit admiratus1 cur1 cum inter omnes philosophos constet a meque ipso saepe disputatum sit1 qui unam haberet1 omnes habere virtutes1 nunc ita seiungam1 quasi possit quisquam1 qui non idem prudens sit1 iustus esse1 alia est illa1 cum veritas ipsa limatur in disputatione1 subtilitas1 alia1 cum ad opinionem communem omnis accommodatur oratio4 ,quam ob rem1 ut volgus1 ita nos hoc loco loquimur1 ut alios fortes1 alios viros bonos1 alios prudentes esse dicamus2 popularibus enim verbis est agendum et usitatis1 cum loquimur#aid de opinione populari1 idque eodem modo fecit ,panaetius4 ,sed ad propositum revertamur4 99#cf99 ,erat igitur ex iis#aie tribus1 quae ad gloriam pertinerent1 hoc tertium1 ut cum admiratione hominum honore ab iis#aif digni iudicaremur4 ,admirantur igitur communiter illi quidem omnia1 quae magna et praeter opinionem suam animadverterunt1 separatim autem1 in singulis si perspiciunt necopinata quaedam bona4 ,itaque eos viros suspiciunt maximisque efferunt laudibus1 in quibus existimant se excellentes quasdam et singulares perspicere virtutes1 despiciunt autem eos et contemnunt1 in quibus nihil virtutis1 nihil animi1 nihil nervorum putant4 ,non enim omnes eos contemnunt1 de quibus male existimant4 ,nam quos improbos1 maledicos1 fraudulentos putant et ad faciendam iniuriam instructos1 eos haud contemnunt quidem1#aig sed de iis#aih male existimant4 ,quam ob rem1 ut ante dixi1 contemnuntur ii1#aii qui nec sibi nec alteri1 ut dicitur1 in quibus nullus labor1 nulla industria1 nulla cura est4 99#cg99 ,admiratione autem afficiuntur ii1 qui anteire ceteris virtute putantur et cum omni carere dedecore1 tum vero iis vitiis1 quibus alii non facile possunt obsistere4 ,nam et voluptates1 blandissimae dominae1 maioris partis animos#bjj a virtute detorquent et1 dolorum cum admoventur faces1 praeter modum plerique exterrentur2 vita mors1 divitiae paupertas omnes homines vehementissime permovent4 ,quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt1 cumque aliqua iis ampla et honesta res obiecta est1 totos ad se convertit et rapit1 tum quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudinemque virtutis8 #aid loquimur ,b2 loquamur ,h a b2 loquemur c4 #aie iis ,bt42 his ,b ,h2 hijs c2 not in a b4 #aif iis ,bt42 his ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #aig haud contemnunt quidem b1 ,bt4#b2 contemnunt quidem nautiquam ,b ,h a p1 ,bt4#a1 ,heine2 contemnunt quidem nequaquam c2 non contemnunt quidem ,madvig1 ,mller4 #aih iis ,b1 ,edd42 his ,h a b2 hijs c4 #aii ii ,b b2 hii ,h2 hi a2 hij1 c4 ,so #cg4 #bjj maioris partis animos c1 ,edd42 maiores partis animi ,b2 maiores partes animi ,h a b4 99#ce99 ,x4 ,but ,i am afraid some one may wonder why ,i am now separating the virtues--as if it were possible for anyone to be just who is not at the same time wise2 for it is agreed upon among all philosophers1 and ,i myself have often argued1 that he who has one virtue has them all4 ,the explanation of my apparent inconsistency is that the precision of speech we employ1 when abstract truth is critically investigated in philosophic discussion1 is one thing2 and that employed1 when we are adapting our language entirely to popular thinking1 is another4 ,and therefore ,i am speaking here in the popular sense1 when ,i call some men brave1 others good1 and still others wise2 for in dealing with popular conceptions we must employ familiar words in their common acceptation2 and this was the practice of ,panaetius likewise4 ,but let us return to the subject4 7#c7 through esteem and admiration4 99#cf99 ,the third1 then1 of the three conditions ,i named as essential to glory is that we be accounted worthy of the esteem and admiration of our fellow-men4 ,while people admire in general everything that is great or better than they expect1 they admire in particular the good qualities that they find unexpectedly in individuals4 ,and so they reverence and extol with the highest praises those men in whom they see certain pre-eminent and extraordinary talents2 and they look down with contempt upon those who they think have no ability1 no spirit1 no energy4 ,for they do not despise all those of whom they think ill4 ,for some men they consider unscrupulous1 slanderous1 fraudulent1 and dangerous2 they do not despise them1 it may be2 but they do think ill of them4 ,and therefore1 as ,i said before1 those are despised who are of no use to themselves or their neighbours1 as the saying is1 who are idle1 lazy1 and indifferent4 99#cg99 ,on the other hand1 those are regarded with admiration who are thought to excel others in ability and to be free from all dishonour and also from those vices which others do not easily resist4 ,for sensual pleasure1 a most seductive mistress1 turns the hearts of the greater part of humanity away from virtue2 and when the fiery trial of affliction draws near1 most people are terrified beyond measure4 ,life and death1 wealth and want affect all men most powerfully4 ,but when men1 with a spirit great and exalted1 can look down upon such outward circumstances1 whether prosperous or adverse1 and when some noble and virtuous purpose1 presented to their minds1 converts them wholly to itself and carries them away in its pursuit1 who then could fail to admire in them the splendour and beauty of virtue8 99#ch99 ,,xi4 ,ergo et haec animi despicientia admirabilitatem magnam facit et maxime iustitia1 ex qua una virtute viri boni appellantur1 mirifica quaedam multitudini videtur1 nec iniuria2 nemo enim iustus esse potest1 qui mortem1 qui dolorem1 qui exsilium1 qui egestatem timet1 aut qui ea1 quae sunt his contraria1 aequitati anteponit4 ,maximeque admirantur eum1 qui pecunia non movetur2 quod in quo viro perspectum sit1 hunc igni spectatum arbitrantur4 ,itaque illa tria1 quae proposita sunt ad gloriam1 omnia iustitia conficit1 et benivolentiam1 quod prodesse vult plurimis1 et ob eandem causam fidem et admirationem1 quod eas res spernit et neglegit1 ad quas plerique inflammati aviditate rapiuntur4 99#ci99 ,ac mea quidem sententia omnis ratio atque institutio vitae adiumenta hominum desiderat1 in primisque ut habeat1 quibuscum possit familiares conferre sermones2 quod est difficile1 nisi speciem prae te boni viri feras4 ,ergo etiam solitario homini atque in agro vitam agenti opinio iustitiae necessaria est1 eoque etiam magis1 quod1 eam si non habebunt1 iniusti habebuntur1#bja nullis praesidiis saepti multis afficientur iniuriis4 99#dj99 ,i1 #if ,atque iis#bjb etiam1 qui vendunt emunt1 conducunt locant contrahendisque negotiis implicantur1 iustitia ad rem gerendam necessaria est1 cuius tanta vis est1 ut ne illi quidem1 qui maleficio et scelere pascuntur1 possint sine ulla particula iustitiae vivere4 ,nam qui eorum cuipiam1 qui una latrocinantur1 furatur aliquid aut eripit1 is sibi ne in latrocinio quidem relinquit locum1 ille autem1 qui archipirata dicitur1 nisi aequabiliter praedam dispertiat1 aut interficiatur a sociis aut relinquatur2 quin etiam leges latronum esse dicuntur1 quibus pareant1 quas observent4 ,itaque propter aequabilem praedae partitionem et ,bardulis ,illyrius latro1 de quo est apud ,theopompum1 magnas opes habuit et multo maiores ,viriathus ,lusitanus2 cui quidem etiam exercitus nostri imperatoresque cesserunt2 quem ,c4 ,laelius1 is qui ,sapiens usurpatur1 praetor fregit et comminuit ferocitatemque eius ita repressit1 ut facile bellum reliquis traderet4 ,cum igitur tanta vis iustitiae sit1 ut ea etiam latronum opes firmet atque augeat1 quantam eius vim inter leges et iudicia et in constituta re publica fore putamus8 #bja iniusti habebuntur ,b ,h b2 bracketed by ,facciolati1 ,edd4 #bjb iis ,edd42 his ,b ,h a b1 not in c4 ,justice is the best way to popularity4 99#ch99 ,,xi4 ,as1 then1 this superiority of mind to such externals inspires great admiration1 so justice1 above all1 on the basis of which alone men are called good men1 seems to people generally a quite marvellous virtue--and not without good reason2 for no one can be just who fears death or pain or exile or poverty1 or who values their opposites above equity4 ,and people admire especially the man who is uninfluenced by money2 and if a man has proved himself in this direction1 they think him tried as by fire4 ,those three requisites1 therefore1 which were presupposed as the means of obtaining glory1 are all secured by justice3 7#a7 good-will1 for it seeks to be of help to the greatest number2 7#b7 confidence1 for the same reason2 and 7#c7 admiration1 because it scorns and cares nothing for those things1 with a consuming passion for which most people are carried away4 99#ci99 ,now1 in my opinion at least1 every walk and vocation in life calls for human co-operation--first and above all1 in order that one may have friends with whom to enjoy social intercourse4 ,and this is not easy1 unless one is looked upon as a good man4 ,so1 even to a man who shuns society and to one who spends his life in the country a reputation for justice is essential--even more so than to others2 for they who do not have it but are considered unjust will have no defence to protect them and so will be the victims of many kinds of wrong4 99#dj99 ,so also to buyers and sellers1 to employers and employed1 and to those who are engaged in commercial dealings generally1 justice is indispensable for the conduct of business4 ,honour among thieves4 ,its importance is so great1 that not even those who live by wickedness and crime can get on without some small element of justice4 ,for if a robber takes anything by force or by fraud from another member of the gang1 he loses his standing even in a band of robbers2 and if the one called the ,pirate ,captain should not divide the plunder impartially1 he would be either deserted or murdered by his comrades4 ,why1 they say that robbers even have a code of laws to observe and obey4 ,and so1 because of his impartial division of booty1 ,bardulis1 the ,illyrian bandit1 of whom we read in ,theopompus1 acquired great power1 ,viriathus1 of ,lusitania1 much greater4 ,he actually defied even our armies and generals4 ,but ,gaius ,laelius--the one surnamed the ,wise--in his praetorship crushed his power1 reduced him to terms1 and so checked his intrepid daring1 that he left to his successors an easy conquest4 ,since1 therefore1 the efficacy of justice is so great that it strengthens and augments the power even of robbers1 how great do we think its power will be in a constitutional government with its laws and courts8 99#da99 ,,xii4 ,mihi quidem non apud ,medos solum1 ut ait ,herodotus1 sed etiam apud maiores nostros iustitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges constituti4 ,nam cum premeretur inops#bjc multitudo ab iis1 qui maiores opes habebant1 ad unum aliquem confugiebant virtute praestantem2 qui cum prohiberet iniuria tenuiores1 aequitate constituenda summos cum infimis#bjd pari iure retinebat4#bje ,eademque constituendarum legum fuit causa1 quae regum4 99#db99 ,ius enim semper est quaesitum aequabile2 neque enim aliter esset ius4 ,id si ab uno iusto et bono viro consequebantur1 erant eo contenti2 cum id minus contingeret1 leges sunt inventae1 quae cum omnibus semper una atque eadem voce loquerentur4 ,ergo hoc quidem perspicuum est1 eos ad imperandum deligi solitos1 quorum de iustitia magna esset opinio multitudinis4 ,adiuncto vero1 ut idem etiam prudentes haberentur1 nihil erat1 quod homines iis auctoribus non posse consequi se arbitrarentur4 ,omni igitur ratione colenda et retinenda iustitia est cum ipsa per sese 7nam aliter iustitia non esset71 tum propter amplificationem honoris et gloriae4 ,sed ut pecuniae non quaerendae solum ratio est1 verum etiam collocandae1 quae perpetuos sumptus suppeditet1 nec solum necessarios1 sed etiam liberales1 sic gloria et quaerenda et collocanda ratione est4 99#dc99 ,xen4 ,mem4 ,,ii1 #f1 #ci ,quamquam praeclare ,socrates hanc viam ad gloriam proximam et quasi compendiariam dicebat esse1 si quis id ageret1 ut1 qualis haberi vellet1 talis esset4 ,quodsi qui simulatione et inani ostentatione et ficto non modo sermone1 sed etiam voltu stabilem se gloriam consequi posse rentur1 vehementer errant4 ,vera gloria radices agit atque etiam propagatur1 ficta omnia celeriter tamquam flosculi decidunt1 nec simulatum potest quicquam esse diuturnum4 ,testes sunt permulti in utramque partem1 sed brevitatis causa familia contenti erimus una4 ,ti4 enim ,gracchus ,p4 f4 tam diu laudabitur1 dum memoria rerum ,romanarum manebit2 at eius filii nec vivi probabantur bonis et mortui numerum optinent iure caesorum4 #bjc inops inferior ,,mss41 ,edd42 in otio 7i4e4 at will7 ,b ,h a b p2 inicio 7 initio7 c4 #bjd infimis c1 ,edd42 infirmis ,b a b2 infirmos ,h4 #bje retinebat c1 ,edd42 pertinebat ,b ,h a p2 pertinebant b4 ,kings chosen for the sake of justice4 99#da99 ,,xii4 ,now it seems to me1 at least1 that not only among the ,medes1 as ,herodotus tells us1 but also among our own ancestors1 men of high moral character were made kings in order that the people might enjoy justice4 ,for1 as the masses in their helplessness were oppressed by the strong1 they appealed for protection to some one man who was conspicuous for his virtue2 and as he shielded the weaker classes from wrong1 he managed by establishing equitable conditions to hold the higher and the lower classes in an equality of right4 ,the reason for making constitutional laws was the same as that for making kings4 99#db99 ,for what people have always sought is equality of rights before the law4 ,for rights that were not open to all alike would be no rights4 ,if the people secured their end at the hands of one just and good man1 they were satisfied with that2 but when such was not their good fortune1 laws were invented1 to speak to all men at all times in one and the same voice4 ,this1 then1 is obvious3 nations used to select for their rulers those men whose reputation for justice was high in the eyes of the people4 ,if in addition they were also thought wise1 there was nothing that men did not think they could secure under such leadership4 ,justice is1 therefore1 in every way to be cultivated and maintained1 both for its own sake 7for otherwise it would not be justice7 and for the enhancement of personal honour and glory4 ,but as there is a method not only of acquiring money but also of investing it so as to yield an income to meet our continuously recurring expenses--both for the necessities and for the more refined comforts of life--so there must be a method of gaining glory and turning it to account4 99#dc99 ,the way to glory is ,justice4 ,and yet1 as ,socrates used to express it so admirably1 the nearest way to glory--a short-cut1 as it were--is to strive to be what you wish to be thought to be4 ,for if anyone thinks that he can win lasting glory by pretence1 by empty show1 by hypocritical talk and looks1 he is very much mistaken4 ,true glory strikes deep root and spreads its branches wide2 but all pretences soon fall to the ground like fragile flowers1 and nothing counterfeit can be lasting4 ,there are very many witnesses to both facts2 but for brevity's sake1 ,i shall confine myself to one family3 ,tiberius ,gracchus1 ,publius's son1 will be held in honour as long as the memory of ,rome shall endure2 but his sons were not approved by patriots while they lived1 and since they are dead they are numbered among those whose murder was justifiable4 ,,xiii4 ,qui igitur adipisci veram gloriam#bjf volet1 iustitiae fungatur officiis4 ,i1 #bj-da ,ea quae essent1 dictum est in libro superiore4 #bjf veram gloriam ,edd42 veram iustitiae gloriam ,,mss4 ,ways of winning a good name3 ,,xiii4 ,if1 therefore1 anyone wishes to win true glory1 let him discharge the duties required by justice4 ,and what they are has been set forth in the course of the preceding book4 99#dd99 7,,xiii47 ,sed ut facillime1 quales simus1 tales esse videamur1 etsi in eo ipso vis maxima est1 ut simus ii1 qui haberi velimus1 tamen quaedam praecepta danda sunt4 ,nam si quis ab ineunte aetate habet causam celebritatis et nominis aut a patre acceptam1 quod tibi1 mi ,cicero1 arbitror contigisse1 aut aliquo casu atque fortuna1 in hunc oculi omnium coniciuntur atque in eum1 quid agat1 quem ad modum vivat1 inquiritur et1 tamquam in clarissima luce versetur1 ita nullum obscurum potest nec dictum eius esse nec factum4 99#de99 ,quorum autem prima aetas propter humilitatem et obscuritatem in hominum ignoratione versatur1 ii1#bjg simul ac iuvenes esse coeperunt1 magna spectare et ad ea rectis studiis debent contendere3 quod eo firmiore animo facient1 quia non modo non invidetur illi aetati1 verum etiam favetur4 ,prima igitur est adulescenti commendatio ad gloriam1 si qua ex bellicis rebus comparari potest1 in qua multi apud maiores nostros exstiterunt2 semper enim fere bella gerebantur4 ,tua autem aetas incidit in id bellum1 cuius altera pars sceleris nimium habuit1 altera felicitatis parum4 ,quo tamen in bello cum te ,pompeius alae alteri#bjh praefecisset1 magnam laudem et a summo viro et ab exercitu consequebare equitando1 iaculando1 omni militari labore tolerando4 ,atque ea quidem tua laus pariter cum re publica cecidit4 ,mihi autem haec oratio suscepta non de te est1 sed de genere toto2 quam ob rem pergamus ad ea1 quae restant4 99#df99 ,ut igitur in reliquis rebus multo maiora opera sunt animi quam corporis1 sic eae res1 quas ingenio ac ratione persequimur1 gratiores sunt quam illae1 quas viribus4 ,prima igitur commendatio proficiscitur a modestia cum#bji pietate in parentes1 in suos benivolentia4 ,facillime autem et in optimam partem cognoscuntur adulescentes1 qui se ad claros et sapientes viros bene consulentes rei publicae contulerunt2 quibuscum si frequentes sunt1 opinionem afferunt populo eorum fore se similes1 quos sibi ipsi delegerint ad imitandum4 99#dg99 ,p4 ,rutili adulescentiam ad opinionem et innocentiae et iuris scientiae ,p4 ,muci commendavit domus4 ,nam ,l4 quidem ,crassus1 cum esset admodum adulescens1 non aliunde mutuatus est1 sed sibi ipse peperit maximam laudem ex illa accusatione nobili et gloriosa1 et1 qua#baj aetate qui exercentur1 laude affici solent1 ut de ,demosthene accepimus1 ea aetate ,l4 ,crassus ostendit id se in foro optime iam facere1 quod etiam tum poterat domi cum laude meditari4 #bjg ii ,b1 ,edd42 hi ,h2 iis b2 hij c2 his a4 #bjh alteri ,,mss42 om4 ,graevius1 ,edd4 #bji cum ,victorius1 ,edd42 tum ,,mss4 #baj et1 qua ,manutius1 ,edd42 ex qua ,,mss4 99#dd99 7,,xiii47 ,but although the very essence of the problem is that we actually be what we wish to be thought to be1 still some rules may be laid down to enable us most easily to secure the reputation of being what we are4 ,for if anyone in his early youth has the responsibility of living up to a distinguished name acquired either by inheritance from his father 7as1 ,i think1 my dear ,cicero1 is your good fortune7 or by some chance or happy combination of circumstances1 the eyes of the world are turned upon him2 his life and character are scrutinized2 and1 as if he moved in a blaze of light1 not a word and not a deed of his can be kept a secret4 99#de99 ,those1 on the other hand1 whose humble and obscure origin has kept them unknown to the world in their early years ought1 as soon as they approach young manhood1 to set a high ideal before their eyes and to strive with unswerving zeal towards its realization4 ,this they will do with the better heart1 because that time of life is accustomed to find favour rather than to meet with opposition4 7#a7 by a military career1 ,well1 then1 the first thing to recommend to a young man in his quest for glory is that he try to win it1 if he can1 in a military career4 ,among our forefathers many distinguished themselves as soldiers2 for warfare was almost continuous then4 ,the period of your own youth1 however1 has coincided with that war in which the one side was too prolific in crime1 the other in failure4 ,and yet1 when ,pompey placed you in command of a cavalry squadron in this war1 you won the applause of that great man and of the army for your skill in riding and spear-throwing and for endurance of all the hardships of the soldier's life4 ,but that credit accorded to you came to nothing along with the fall of the republic4 ,the subject of this discussion1 however1 is not your personal history1 but the general theme4 ,let us1 therefore1 proceed to the sequel4 7#b7 by personal character1 99#df99 ,as1 then1 in everything else brain-work is far more important than mere hand-work1 so those objects which we strive to attain through intellect and reason gain for us a higher degree of gratitude than those which we strive to gain by physical strength4 ,the best recommendation1 then1 that a young man can have to popular esteem proceeds from self-restraint1 filial affection1 and devotion to kinsfolk4 7#c7 by association with the great1 ,next to that1 young men win recognition most easily and most favourably1 if they attach themselves to men who are at once wise and renowned as well as patriotic counsellors in public affairs4 ,and if they associate constantly with such men1 they inspire in the public the expectation that they will be like them1 seeing that they have themselves selected them for imitation4 99#dg99 ,his frequent visits to the home of ,publius ,mucius assisted young ,publius ,rutilius to gain a reputation for integrity of character and for ability as a jurisconsult4 ,not so1 however1 ,lucius ,crassus2 for though he was a mere boy1 he looked to no one else for assistance1 but by his own unaided ability he won for himself in that brilliant and famous prosecution,,ao a splendid reputation as an orator4 ,and at an age when young men are accustomed with their school exercises to win applause as students of oratory1 this ,roman ,demosthenes1 ,lucius ,crassus1 was already proving himself in the law-courts a master of the art which he might even then have been studying at home with credit to himself4 ,,ao ,at the age of #ba ,crassus conducted the case against ,gaius ,papirius ,carbo1 a former supporter of the ,gracchi4 ,the prosecution was so ably conducted that ,carbo committed suicide to escape certain condemnation4 99#dh99 ,,xiv4 ,sed cum duplex ratio sit orationis1 quarum in altera sermo sit1 in altera contentio1 non est id quidem dubium1 quin contentio orationis#baa maiorem vim habeat ad gloriam 7ea est enim1 quam eloquentiam dicimus72 sed tamen difficile dictu est1 quantopere conciliet animos comitas affabilitasque sermonis4 ,exstant epistulae et ,philippi ad ,alexandrum et ,antipatri ad ,cassandrum et ,antigoni ad ,philippum filium1 trium prudentissimorum 7sic enim accepimus72 quibus praecipiunt1 ut oratione benigna multitudinis animos ad benivolentiam alliciant militesque blande appellando sermone#bab deliniant4 ,quae autem in multitudine cum contentione habetur oratio1 ea saepe universam excitat gloriam#bac2 magna est enim admiratio copiose sapienterque dicentis2 quem qui audiunt1 intellegere etiam et sapere plus quam ceteros arbitrantur4 ,si vero inest in oratione mixta modestia gravitas1 nihil admirabilius fieri potest1 eoque magis1 si ea sunt in adulescente4 99#di99 ,sed cum sint plura causarum genera1 quae eloquentiam desiderent1 multique in nostra re publica adulescentes et apud iudices et apud populum#bad et apud senatum dicendo laudem assecuti sint1 maxima est admiratio in iudiciis4 ,quorum ratio duplex est4 ,nam ex accusatione et ex defensione constat2 quarum etsi laudabilior est defensio1 tamen etiam accusatio probata persaepe est4 ,dixi paulo ante de ,crasso2 idem fecit adulescens ,m4 ,antonius4 ,etiam ,p4 ,sulpici eloquentiam accusatio illustravit1 cum seditiosum et inutilem civem1 ,c4 ,norbanum1 in iudicium vocavit4 99#ej99 ,sed hoc quidem non est saepe faciendum nec umquam nisi aut rei publicae causa1 ut ii1 quos ante dixi1 aut ulciscendi1 ut duo ,luculli1 aut patrocinii1 ut nos pro ,siculis1 pro ,sardis in ,albucio ,iulius4 ,in accusando etiam ,m'4 ,aquilio ,l4 ,fufi cognita industria est4 ,semel igitur aut non saepe certe4 ,sin erit1 cui faciendum sit saepius1 rei publicae tribuat hoc muneris1 cuius inimicos ulcisci saepius non est reprehendendum2 modus tamen adsit4 ,duri enim hominis vel potius vix hominis videtur periculum capitis inferre multis4 ,id cum periculosum ipsi est1 tum etiam sordidum ad famam1 committere1 ut accusator nominere2 quod contigit ,m4 ,bruto summo genere nato1 illius filio1 qui iuris civilis in primis peritus fuit4 99#ea99 ,atque etiam hoc praeceptum officii diligenter tenendum est1 ne quem umquam innocentem iudicio capitis arcessas2 id enim sine scelere fieri nullo pacto potest4 ,nam quid est tam inhumanum quam eloquentiam a natura ad salutem hominum et ad conservationem datam ad bonorum pestem perniciemque convertere8 ,nec tamen1 ut hoc fugiendum est1 item est habendum religioni nocentem aliquando1 modo ne nefarium#bae impiumque1 defendere2 vult hoc multitudo1 patitur consuetudo1 fert etiam humanitas4 ,iudicis est semper in causis verum sequi1 patroni non numquam veri simile1 etiamsi minus sit verum1 defendere2 quod scribere1 praesertim cum de philosophia scriberem1 non auderem1 nisi idem placeret gravissimo ,stoicorum1 ,panaetio4 ,maxime autem et gloria paritur et gratia defensionibus1 eoque maior1 si quando accidit1 ut ei subveniatur1 qui potentis alicuius opibus circumveniri urguerique videatur1 ut nos et saepe alias et adulescentes contra ,l4 ,sullae dominantis opes pro ,sex4 ,roscio ,amerino fecimus quae1 ut scis1 exstat oratio4 #baa orationis ,,mss41 ,ed42 bracketed by ,fleckeisen1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller1 ,heine4 #bab blande appellando sermone a c1 ,edd42 blando appellando sermone ,b ,h b2 blande appellando ,gulielmus 7with three inferior ,,mss471 ,bt41 ,heine2 sermone ,ed4 #bac excitat gloriam ,,mss42 excitat gloriam ,ed42 excitat ,lange4 #bad et apud populum c1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bae modo ne nefarium ,l c1 ,edd42 modo nefarium ,nonius2 et nefarium ,b ,h a b4 7#d7 by eloquence4 99#dh99 ,,xiv4 ,but as the classification of discourse is a twofold one--conversation1 on the one side2 oratory1 on the other--there can be no doubt that of the two this debating-power 7for that is what we mean by eloquence7 counts for more toward the attainment of glory2 and yet1 it is not easy to say how far an affable and courteous manner in conversation may go toward winning the affections4 ,we have1 for instance1 the letters of ,philip to ,alexander1 of ,antipater to ,cassander1 and of ,antigonus to ,philip the ,younger4 ,the authors of these letters were1 as we are informed1 three of the wisest men in history2 and in them they instruct their sons to woo the hearts of the populace to affection by words of kindness and to keep their soldiers loyal by a winning address4 ,but the speech that is delivered in a debate before an assembly often stirs the hearts of thousands at once2 for the eloquent and judicious speaker is received with high admiration1 and his hearers think him understanding and wise beyond all others4 ,and if his speech have also dignity combined with moderation1 he will be admired beyond all measure1 especially if these qualities are found in a young man4 99#di99 ,but while there are occasions of many kinds that call for eloquence1 and while many young men in our republic have obtained distinction by their speeches in the courts1 in the popular assemblies1 and in the senate1 yet it is the speeches before our courts that excite the highest admiration4 ,prosecution vs4 defence4 ,the classification of forensic speeches also is a twofold one3 they are divided into arguments for the prosecution and arguments for the defence4 ,and while the side of the defence is more honourable1 still that of the prosecution also has very often established a reputation4 ,i spoke of ,crassus a moment ago2 ,marcus ,antonius1 when a youth1 had the same success4 ,a prosecution brought the eloquence of ,publius ,sulpicius into favourable notice1 when he brought an action against ,gaius ,norbanus1 a seditious and dangerous citizen4 99#ej99 ,but this should not be done often--never1 in fact1 except in the interest of the state 7as in the cases of those above mentioned7 or to avenge wrongs 7as the two ,luculli1 for example1 did7 or for the protection of our provincials 7as ,i did in the defence of the ,sicilians1 or ,julius in the prosecution of ,albucius in behalf of the ,sardinians74 ,the activity of ,lucius ,fufius in the impeachment of ,manius ,aquilius is likewise famous4 ,this sort of work1 then1 may be done once in a lifetime1 or at all events not often4 ,but if it shall be required of anyone to conduct more frequent prosecutions1 let him do it as a service to his country2 for it is no disgrace to be often employed in the prosecution of her enemies4 ,and yet a limit should be set even to that4 ,for it requires a heartless man1 it seems1 or rather one who is well-nigh inhuman1 to be arraigning one person after another on capital charges4,,ap ,it is not only fraught with danger to the prosecutor himself1 but is damaging to his reputation1 to allow himself to be called a prosecutor4 ,such was the effect of this epithet upon ,marcus ,brutus1 the scion of a very noble family and the son of that ,brutus who was an eminent authority in the civil law4 ,spare the innocent2 defend the guilty4 99#ea99 ,again1 the following rule of duty is to be carefully observed3 never prefer a capital charge against any person who may be innocent4 ,for that cannot possibly be done without making oneself a criminal4 ,for what is so unnatural as to turn to the ruin and destruction of good men the eloquence bestowed by nature for the safety and protection of our fellow-men8 ,and yet1 while we should never prosecute the innocent1 we need not have scruples against undertaking on occasion the defence of a guilty person1 provided he be not infamously depraved and wicked4 ,for people expect it2 custom sanctions it2 humanity also accepts it4 ,it is always the business of the judge in a trial to find out the truth2 it is sometimes the business of the advocate to maintain what is plausible1 even if it be not strictly true1 though ,i should not venture to say this1 especially in an ethical treatise1 if it were not also the position of ,panaetius1 that strictest of ,stoics4 ,then1 too1 briefs for the defence are most likely to bring glory and popularity to the pleader1 and all the more so1 if ever it falls to him to lend his aid to one who seems to be oppressed and persecuted by the influence of some one in power4 ,this ,i have done on many other occasions2 and once in particular1 in my younger days1 ,i defended ,sextus ,roscius of ,ameria against the power of ,lucius ,sulla when he was acting the tyrant4 ,the speech is published1 as you know4 ,,ap ,a capital charge meant to the ,roman a charge endangering a person's caput1 or civil status4 ,a conviction on such a charge resulted in his civil degradation and the loss of his privileges as a ,roman citizen4 99#eb99 ,,xv4 ,sed expositis adulescentium officiis1 quae valeant ad gloriam adipiscendam1 deinceps de beneficentia#baf ac de liberalitate dicendum est2 cuius est ratio duplex2 nam aut opera benigne fit indigentibus aut pecunia4 ,facilior est haec posterior1 locupleti praesertim1 sed illa lautior ac splendidior et viro forti claroque dignior4 ,quamquam enim in utroque inest gratificandi liberalis voluntas1 tamen altera ex arca1 altera ex virtute depromitur1 largitioque1 quae fit ex re familiari1 fontem ipsum benignitatis exhaurit4 ,ita benignitate benignitas tollitur2 qua quo in plures usus sis1 eo minus in multos uti possis4 99#ec99 ,at qui opera1 id est virtute et industria1 benefici et liberales erunt1 primum1 quo pluribus profuerint1 eo plures ad benigne faciendum adiutores habebunt1 dein consuetudine beneficentiae paratiores erunt et tamquam exercitatiores ad bene de multis promerendum4 ,praeclare in#bag epistula#bah quadam ,alexandrum filium ,philippus accusat1 quod largitione benivolentiam ,macedonum consectetur3 ,quae te1 malum6 inquit1 ratio in istam spem induxit1 ut eos tibi fideles putares fore1 quos pecunia corrupisses8 ,an tu id agis1 ut ,macedones non te regem suum1 sed ministrum et praebitorem#bai sperent fore8 ,bene ministrum et praebitorem1#bbj quia sordidum regi1 melius etiam1 quod largitionem corruptelam dixit esse2 fit enim deterior1 qui accipit1 atque ad idem semper exspectandum paratior4 99#ed99 ,hoc ille filio1 sed praeceptum putemus omnibus4 ,quam ob rem id quidem non dubium est1 quin illa benignitas1 quae constet ex opera et industria1 et honestior sit et latius pateat et possit prodesse pluribus2 non numquam tamen est largiendum1 nec hoc benignitatis genus omnino repudiandum est et saepe idoneis hominibus indigentibus de re familiari impertiendum1 sed diligenter atque moderate2 multi enim patrimonia effuderunt inconsulte largiendo4 ,quid autem est stultius quam1 quod libenter facias1 curare1 ut id diutius facere non possis8 ,atque etiam sequuntur largitionem rapinae2 cum enim dando egere coeperunt1 alienis bonis manus afferre coguntur4 ,ita1 cum benivolentiae comparandae causa benefici esse velint1 non tanta studia assequuntur eorum1 quibus dederunt1 quanta odia eorum1 quibus ademerunt4 99#ee99 ,quam ob rem nec ita claudenda res est familiaris1 ut eam benignitas aperire non possit1 nec ita reseranda1 ut pateat omnibus2 modus adhibeatur1 isque referatur ad facultates4 ,omnino meminisse debemus1 id quod a nostris hominibus saepissime usurpatum iam in proverbii consuetudinem venit1 largitionem fundum non habere2 etenim quis potest modus esse1 cum et idem1 qui consuerunt1 et idem illud alii desiderent8 #baf beneficentia ,edd42 beneficientia ,,mss4 7ubique74 #bag in ,b ,h a b2 not in ,l c p4 #bah epistula ,h1 ,heine2 epistola ,b ,l a b c4 #bai praebitorem ,b ,h ,l b c p2 praebitorem putant a4 #bbj sperent 444 praebitorem ,l c p1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 ,generosity of two kinds3 99#eb99 ,,xv4 ,now that ,i have set forth the moral duties of a young man1 in so far as they may be exerted for the attainment of glory1 ,i must next in order discuss kindness and generosity4 ,the manner of showing it is twofold3 kindness is shown to the needy either by personal service1 or by gifts of money4 ,the latter way is the easier1 especially for a rich man2 but the former is nobler and more dignified and more becoming to a strong and eminent man4 ,for although both ways alike betray a generous wish to oblige1 still in the one case the favour makes a draft upon one's bank account1 in the other upon one's personal energy2 and the bounty which is drawn from one's material substance tends to exhaust the very fountain of liberality4 ,liberality is thus forestalled by liberality3 for the more people one has helped with gifts of money1 the fewer one can help4 99#ec99 ,but if people are generous and kind in the way of personal service--that is1 with their ability and personal effort--various advantages arise3 first1 the more people they assist1 the more helpers they will have in works of kindness2 and second1 by acquiring the habit of kindness they are better prepared and in better training1 as it were1 for bestowing favours upon many4 ,in one of his letters ,philip takes his son ,alexander sharply to task for trying by gifts of money to secure the good-will of the ,macedonians3 ,what in the mischief induced you to entertain such a hope1 he says1 as that those men would be loyal subjects to you whom you had corrupted with money8 ,or are you trying to do what you can to lead the ,macedonians to expect that you will be not their king but their steward and purveyor8 ,steward and purveyor was well said1 because it was degrading for a prince2 better still1 when he called the gift of money corruption4 ,for the recipient goes from bad to worse and is made all the more ready to be constantly looking for one bribe after another4 99#ed99 ,it was to his son that ,philip gave this lesson2 but let us all take it diligently to heart4 ,that liberality1 therefore1 which consists in personal service and effort is more honourable1 has wider application1 and can benefit more people4 ,there can be no doubt about that4 7#a7 gifts of money1 ,nevertheless1 we should sometimes make gifts of money2 and this kind of liberality is not to be discouraged altogether4 ,we must often distribute from our purse to the worthy poor1 but we must do so with discretion and moderation4 ,for many,,aq have squandered their patrimony by indiscriminate giving4 ,but what is worse folly than to do the thing you like in such a way that you can no longer do it at all8 ,then1 too1 lavish giving leads to robbery,,ar2 for when through over-giving men begin to be impoverished1 they are constrained to lay their hands on the property of others4 ,and so1 when men aim to be kind for the sake of winning good-will1 the affection they gain from the objects of their gifts is not so great as the hatred they incur from those whom they despoil4 99#ee99 ,one's purse1 then1 should not be closed so tightly that a generous impulse cannot open it1 nor yet so loosely held as to be open to everybody4 ,a limit should be observed and that limit should be determined by our means4 ,we ought1 in a word1 to remember the phrase1 which1 through being repeated so very often by our countrymen1 has come to be a common proverb3 ,bounty has no bottom4 ,for indeed what limit can there be1 when those who have been accustomed to receive gifts claim what they have been in the habit of getting1 and those who have not wish for the same bounty8 ,,aq ,julius ,caesar was a striking example of this4 ,,ar ,cicero evidently had in mind such instances as ,sulla1 ,caesar1 ,antony1 and ,catiline--alieni appetens1 sui profusus 7,sall41 ,cat4 ,v74 ,,xvi4 ,omnino duo sunt genera largorum1 quorum alteri prodigi1 alteri liberales3 prodigi1 qui epulis et viscerationibus et gladiatorum muneribus1 ludorum venationumque apparatu pecunias profundunt in eas res1 quarum memoriam aut brevem aut nullam omnino sint relicturi1 99#ef99 liberales autem1 qui suis facultatibus aut captos a praedonibus redimunt aut aes alienum suscipiunt amicorum aut in filiarum collocatione adiuvant aut opitulantur in re vel quaerenda vel augenda4 997#ef799 ,itaque miror1 quid in mentem venerit ,theophrasto in eo libro1 quem de divitiis scripsit2 in quo multa praeclare1 illud absurde3 est enim multus in laudanda magnificentia et apparatione popularium munerum taliumque sumptuum facultatem fructum divitiarum putat4 ,mihi autem ille fructus liberalitatis1 cuius pauca exempla posui1 multo et maior videtur et certior4 ,not found in our ,aristotle4 ,quanto ,aristoteles gravius et verius nos reprehendit6 qui has pecuniarum effusiones non admiremur1 quae fiunt ad multitudinem deliniendam4 ,ait enim1#bba qui ab hoste obsidentur1 si emere aquae sextarium cogerentur#bbb mina1 hoc primo incredibile nobis videri1 omnesque mirari1 sed cum attenderint1 veniam necessitati dare1 in his immanibus iacturis infinitisque sumptibus nihil nos magnopere mirari1 cum praesertim neque necessitati subveniatur nec dignitas augeatur ipsaque illa delectatio multitudinis ad breve exiguumque tempus capiatur1#bbc eaque a levissimo quoque1 in quo tamen ipso una cum satietate memoria quoque moriatur voluptatis4 99#eg99 ,bene etiam colligit haec pueris et mulierculis et servis et servorum simillimis liberis esse grata1 gravi vero homini et ea1 quae fiunt1 iudicio certo ponderanti probari posse nullo modo4 ,quamquam intellego in nostra civitate inveterasse iam bonis temporibus1 ut splendor aedilitatum ab optimis viris postuletur4#bbd ,itaque et ,p4 ,crassus cum cognomine dives1 tum copiis functus est aedilicio maximo munere1 et paulo post ,l4 ,crassus cum omnium hominum moderatissimo ,q4 ,mucio magnificentissima aedilitate functus est1 deinde ,c4 ,claudius ,app4 f41 multi post1 ,luculli1 ,hortensius1 ,silanus2 omnes autem ,p4 ,lentulus me consule vicit superiores2 hunc est ,scaurus imitatus2 magnificentissima vero nostri ,pompei munera secundo consulatu2 in quibus omnibus quid mihi placeat1 vides4 #bba ,ait enim ,ed42 at hi a2 at hii ,h2 at ii ,b b2 at hij c4 #bbb cogerentur ,b ,h a b2 cogantur ,l c p4 #bbc capiatur ,beier2 not in ,,mss4 #bbd postuletur ,b ,h a b1 ,heine2 postularetur ,l c p1 ,bt4 ,extravagant waste of the public games4 ,,xvi4 ,there are1 in general1 two classes of those who give largely3 the one class is the lavish1 the other the generous4 ,the lavish are those who squander their money on public banquets1 doles of meat among the people1 gladiatorial shows1 magnificent games1 and wild-beast fights--vanities of which but a brief recollection will remain1 or none at all4 99#ef99 ,the generous1 on the other hand1 are those who employ their own means to ransom captives from brigands1 or who assume their friends' debts or help in providing dowries for their daughters1 or assist them in acquiring property or increasing what they have4 997#ef799 ,and so ,i wonder what ,theophrastus could have been thinking about when he wrote his book on ,wealth4 ,it contains much that is fine3 but his position is absurd1 when he praises at great length the magnificent appointments of the popular games1 and it is in the means for indulging in such expenditures that he finds the highest privilege of wealth4 ,but to me the privilege it gives for the exercise of generosity1 of which ,i have given a few illustrations1 seems far higher and far more certain4 ,how much more true and pertinent are ,aristotle's words1 as he rebukes us for not being amazed at this extravagant waste of money1 all to win the favour of the populace4 ,if people in time of siege1 he says1 are required to pay a mina for a pint of water1 this seems to us at first beyond belief1 and all are amazed2 but when they think about it1 they make allowances for it on the plea of necessity4 ,but in the matter of this enormous waste and unlimited expenditure we are not very greatly astonished1 and that1 too1 though by it no extreme need is relieved1 no dignity is enhanced1 and the very gratification of the populace is but for a brief1 passing moment2 such pleasure as it is1 too1 is confined to the most frivolous1 and even in these the very memory of their enjoyment dies as soon as the moment of gratification is past4 99#eg99 ,his conclusion1 too1 is excellent3 ,this sort of amusement pleases children1 silly women1 slaves1 and the servile free2 but a serious-minded man who weighs such matters with sound judgment cannot possibly approve of them4 ,magnificent entertainments expected of an aedile4 ,and yet ,i realize that in our country1 even in the good old times1 it had become a settled custom to expect magnificent entertainments from the very best men in their year of aedileship4 ,so both ,publius ,crassus1 who was not merely surnamed ,the ,rich but was rich in fact1 gave splendid games in his aedileship2 and a little later ,lucius ,crassus 7with ,quintus ,mucius1 the most unpretentious man in the world1 as his colleague7 gave most magnificent entertainments in his aedileship4 ,then came ,gaius ,claudius1 the son of ,appius1 and1 after him1 many others--the ,luculli1 ,hortensius1 and ,silanus4 ,publius ,lentulus1 however1 in the year of my consulship1 eclipsed all that had gone before him1 and ,scaurus emulated him4 ,and my friend ,pompey's exhibitions in his second consulship were the most magnificent of all4 ,and so you see what ,i think about all this sort of thing4 99#eh99 ,,xvii4 ,vitanda tamen suspicio est avaritiae4 ,mamerco1 homini divitissimo1 praetermissio aedilitatis consulatus repulsam attulit4 ,quare et1 si postulatur a populo1 bonis viris si non desiderantibus1 at tamen approbantibus faciundum est1 modo pro facultatibus1 nos ipsi ut fecimus1 et1 si quando aliqua res maior atque utilior populari largitione acquiritur1 ut ,oresti nuper prandia in semitis decumae nomine magno honori fuerunt4 ,ne ,m4#bbe quidem ,seio vitio datum est1 quod in caritate asse modium populo dedit2 magna enim se et inveterata invidia nec turpi iactura1 quando erat aedilis1 nec maxima liberavit4 ,sed honori summo nuper nostro ,miloni fuit1 qui gladiatoribus emptis rei publicae causa1 quae salute nostra continebatur1 omnes ,p4 ,clodi conatus furoresque compressit4 ,causa igitur largitionis est1 si aut necesse est aut utile4 99#ei99 ,in his#bbf autem ipsis mediocritatis regula optima est4 ,l4 quidem ,philippus ,q4 f41 magno vir ingenio in primisque clarus1 gloriari solebat se sine ullo munere adeptum esse omnia1 quae haberentur amplissima4 ,dicebat idem ,cotta1 ,curio4 ,nobis quoque licet in hoc quodam modo gloriari2 nam pro amplitudine honorum1 quos cunctis suffragiis adepti sumus nostro quidem anno1 quod contigit eorum nemini1 quos modo nominavi1 sane exiguus sumptus aedilitatis fuit4 99#fj99 ,atque etiam illae impensae meliores1 muri1 navalia1 portus1 aquarum ductus omniaque1 quae ad usum rei publicae pertinent4 ,quamquam1 quod praesens tamquam in manum datur1 iucundius est2 tamen haec in posterum gratiora4 ,theatra1 porticus1 nova templa verecundius reprehendo propter ,pompeium1 sed doctissimi non probant1 ut et his ipse ,panaetius1 quem multum in his libris secutus sum1 non interpretatus1 et ,phalereus ,demetrius1 qui ,periclem1 principem ,graeciae1 vituperat1 quod tantam pecuniam in praeclara illa propylaea coniecerit4 ,the portion here referred to is lost4 ,sed de hoc genere toto in iis libris1 quos de re publica scripsi1 diligenter disputatum4 ,tota igitur ratio talium largitionum genere vitiosa est1 temporibus necessaria1 et tum ipsum et ad facultates accommodanda et mediocritate moderanda est4 #bbe ,m4 ,orelli1 ,ed42 ,marco ,,mss4 #bbf his ,h1 ,edd42 hijs c2 iis ,b b2 is ,l4 99#eh99 ,,xvii4 ,still we should avoid any suspicion of penuriousness4 ,mamercus was a very wealthy man1 and his refusal of the aedileship was the cause of his defeat for the consulship4 ,justification of such extravagance4 ,if1 therefore1 such entertainment is demanded by the people1 men of right judgment must at least consent to furnish it1 even if they do not like the idea4 ,but in so doing they should keep within their means1 as ,i myself did4 ,they should likewise afford such entertainment1 if gifts of money to the people are to be the means of securing on some occasion some more important or more useful object4 ,thus ,orestes recently won great honour by his public dinners given in the streets1 on the pretext of their being a tithe-offering4 ,neither did anybody find fault with ,marcus ,seius for supplying grain to the people at an as,,as the peck at a time when the market-price was prohibitive2 for he thus succeeded in disarming the bitter and deep-seated prejudice of the people against him at an outlay neither very great nor discreditable to him in view of the fact that he was aedile at the time4 ,but the highest honour recently fell to my friend ,milo1 who bought a band of gladiators for the sake of the country1 whose preservation then depended upon my recall from exile1 and with them put down the desperate schemes1 the reign of terror1 of ,publius ,clodius4 ,the justification for gifts of money1 therefore1 is either necessity or expediency4 99#ei99 ,the golden mean is best4 ,and in making them even in such cases1 the rule of the golden mean is best4 ,to be sure1 ,lucius ,philippus1 the son of ,quintus1 a man of great ability and unusual renown1 used to make it his boast that without giving any entertainments he had risen to all the positions looked upon as the highest within the gift of the state4 ,cotta could say the same1 and ,curio4 ,i1 too1 may make this boast my own--to a certain extent,,at2 for in comparison with the eminence of the offices to which ,i was unanimously elected at the earliest legal age--and this was not the good fortune of any one of those just mentioned--the outlay in my aedileship was very inconsiderable4 ,lavish expenditure on public works4 99#fj99 ,again1 the expenditure of money is better justified when it is made for walls1 docks1 harbours1 aqueducts1 and all those works which are of service to the community4 ,there is1 to be sure1 more of present satisfaction in what is handed out1 like cash down2 nevertheless public improvements win us greater gratitude with posterity4 ,out of respect for ,pompey's memory ,i am rather diffident about expressing any criticism of theatres1 colonnades1 and new temples2 and yet the greatest philosophers do not approve of them--our ,panaetius himself1 for example1 whom ,i am following1 not slavishly translating1 in these books2 so1 too1 ,demetrius of ,phalerum1 who denounces ,pericles1 the foremost man of ,greece1 for throwing away so much money on the magnificent1 far-famed ,propylaea4 ,but this whole theme is discussed at length in my books on ,the ,republic4 ,to conclude1 the whole system of public bounties in such extravagant amount is intrinsically wrong2 but it may under certain circumstances be necessary to make them2 even then they must be proportioned to our ability and regulated by the golden mean4 ,,as ,the as was a copper coin worth somewhat less than a penny4 ,selling grain to the people at such a price was practically giving it away to purchase their good-will4 ,,at ,the saving clause is added1 because ,cicero never filled the office of ,censor4 99#fa99 ,,xviii4 ,in illo autem altero genere largiendi1 quod a liberalitate proficiscitur1 non uno modo in disparibus causis affecti esse debemus4 ,alia causa est eius1 qui calamitate premitur1 et eius1 qui res meliores quaerit nullis suis rebus adversis4 99#fb99 ,propensior benignitas esse debebit in calamitosos1 nisi forte erunt digni calamitate4 ,in iis tamen1 qui se adiuvari volent1 non ne affligantur1 sed ut altiorem gradum ascendant1 restricti omnino esse nullo modo debemus1 sed in deligendis idoneis iudicium et diligentiam adhibere4 ,nam praeclare ,ennius3 ,fab4 inc4 ,vahlen#b1 #dji ,bene fcta male locta male facta rbitror4 99#fc99 ,quod autem tributum est bono viro et grato1 in eo cum ex ipso fructus est1 tum etiam ex ceteris4 ,temeritate enim remota gratissima est liberalitas1 eoque eam studiosius plerique laudant1 quod summi cuiusque bonitas commune perfugium est omnium4 ,danda igitur opera est1 ut iis beneficiis quam plurimos afficiamus1 quorum memoria liberis posterisque prodatur1 ut iis ingratis esse non liceat4 ,omnes enim immemorem beneficii oderunt eamque iniuriam in deterrenda liberalitate sibi etiam fieri eumque1 qui faciat1 communem hostem tenuiorum putant4 ,atque haec benignitas etiam rei publicae est utilis1 redimi e servitute captos1 locupletari tenuiores2 quod quidem volgo solitum fieri ab ordine nostro in oratione ,crassi scriptum copiose videmus4 ,hanc ergo#bbg consuetudinem benignitatis largitioni munerum longe#bbh antepono2 haec est gravium hominum atque magnorum1 illa quasi assentatorum populi multitudinis levitatem voluptate quasi titillantium4 99#fd99 ,conveniet autem cum in dando munificum esse1 tum in exigendo non acerbum in omnique re contrahenda1 vendundo emendo1 conducendo locando1 vicinitatibus et confiniis1 aequum1 facilem1 multa multis de suo iure cedentem1 a litibus vero1 quantum liceat et nescio an paulo plus etiam1 quam liceat1 abhorrentem4 ,est enim non modo liberale paulum non numquam de suo iure decedere1 sed interdum etiam fructuosum4 ,habenda autem ratio est rei familiaris1 quam quidem dilabi#bbi sinere flagitiosum est1 sed ita1 ut illiberalitatis avaritiaeque absit suspicio2 posse enim liberalitate uti non spoliantem se patrimonio nimirum est pecuniae fructus maximus4 ,recte etiam a ,theophrasto est laudata hospitalitas2 est enim1 ut mihi quidem videtur1 valde decorum patere domus hominum illustrium hospitibus illustribus1 idque etiam rei publicae est ornamento1 homines externos hoc liberalitatis genere in urbe nostra non egere4 ,est autem etiam vehementer utile iis1 qui honeste posse multum volunt1 per hospites apud externos populos valere opibus et gratia4 ,theophrastus quidem scribit ,cimonem ,athenis etiam in suos curiales ,laciadas hospitalem fuisse2 ita enim instituisse et vilicis imperavisse1 ut omnia praeberentur1 quicumque ,laciades in villam suam devertisset4 #bbg ergo ,b ,h a b1 ,mller2 ego ,l c p1 ,lactantius1 ,bt41 ,heine4 #bbh longe ,l c p1 ,lactantius1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bbi dilabi ,l c1 ,ed41 ,heine2 delabi ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4 ,general rules for beneficence4 99#fa99 ,,xviii4 ,now1 as touching that second division of gifts of money1 those which are prompted by a spirit of generosity1 we ought to look at different cases differently4 ,the case of the man who is overwhelmed by misfortune is different from that of the one who is seeking to better his condition1 though he suffers from no actual distress4 99#fb99 ,it will be the duty of charity to incline more to the unfortunate1 unless1 perchance1 they deserve their misfortune4 ,but of course we ought by no means to withhold our assistance altogether from those who wish for aid1 not to save them from utter ruin but to enable them to reach a higher degree of fortune4 ,but in selecting worthy cases1 we ought to use judgment and discretion4 ,for1 as ,ennius says so admirably1 ,good deeds misplaced1 methinks1 are evil deeds4 99#fc99 ,furthermore1 the favour conferred upon a man who is good and grateful finds its reward1 in such a case1 not only in his own good-will but in that of others4 ,for when generosity is not indiscriminate giving1 it wins most gratitude and people praise it with more enthusiasm1 because goodness of heart in a man of high station becomes the common refuge of everybody4 ,pains must1 therefore1 be taken to benefit as many as possible with such kindnesses that the memory of them shall be handed down to children and to children's children1 so that they too may not be ungrateful4 ,for all men detest ingratitude and look upon the sin of it as a wrong committed against themselves also1 because it discourages generosity2 and they regard the ingrate as the common foe of all the poor4 ,ransoming prisoners from servitude and relieving the poor is a form of charity that is a service to the state as well as to the individual4 ,and we find in one of ,crassus's orations the full proof given that such beneficence used to be the common practice of our order4 ,this form of charity1 then1 ,i much prefer to the lavish expenditure of money for public exhibitions4 ,the former is suited to men of worth and dignity1 the latter to those shallow flatterers1 if ,i may call them so1 who tickle with idle pleasure1 so to speak1 the fickle fancy of the rabble4 99#fd99 ,it will1 moreover1 befit a gentleman to be at the same time liberal in giving and not inconsiderate in exacting his dues1 but in every business relation--in buying or selling1 in hiring or letting1 in relations arising out of adjoining houses and lands--to be fair1 reasonable1 often freely yielding much of his own right1 and keeping out of litigation as far as his interests will permit and perhaps even a little farther4 ,for it is not only generous occasionally to abate a little of one's rightful claims1 but it is sometimes even advantageous4 ,we should1 however1 have a care for our personal property1 for it is discreditable to let it run through our fingers2 but we must guard it in such a way that there shall be no suspicion of meanness or avarice4 ,for the greatest privilege of wealth is1 beyond all peradventure1 the opportunity it affords for doing good1 without sacrificing one's fortune4 ,another expression of beneficence is hospitality4 ,hospitality also is a theme of ,theophrastus's praise1 and rightly so4 ,for1 as it seems to me at least1 it is most proper that the homes of distinguished men should be open to distinguished guests4 ,and it is to the credit of our country also that men from abroad do not fail to find hospitable entertainment of this kind in our city4 ,it is1 moreover1 a very great advantage1 too1 for those who wish to obtain a powerful political influence by honourable means to be able through their social relations with their guests to enjoy popularity and to exert influence abroad4 ,for an instance of extraordinary hospitality1 ,theophrastus writes that at ,athens ,cimon was hospitable even to the ,laciads1 the people of his own deme2 for he instructed his bailiffs to that end and gave them orders that every attention should be shown to any ,laciad who should ever call at his country home4 99#fe99 ,,xix4 ,quae autem opera1 non largitione beneficia dantur1 haec tum in universam rem publicam1 tum in singulos cives conferuntur4 ,nam in iure cavere 1consilio iuvare1#bcj atque hoc scientiae genere prodesse quam plurimis vehementer et ad opes augendas pertinet et ad gratiam4 ,itaque cum multa praeclara maiorum1 tum quod optime constituti iuris civilis summo semper in honore fuit cognitio atque interpretatio2 quam quidem ante hanc confusionem temporum in possessione sua principes retinuerunt1 nunc1 ut honores1 ut omnes dignitatis gradus1 sic huius scientiae splendor deletus est1 idque eo indignius1 quod eo tempore hoc contigit1 cum is esset1 qui omnes superiores1 quibus honore par esset1 scientia facile vicisset4 ,haec igitur opera grata multis et ad beneficiis obstringendos homines accommodata4 99#ff99 ,atque huic arti finitima est dicendi gravior facultas#bca et gratior et ornatior4 ,quid enim eloquentia praestabilius vel admiratione audientium vel spe indigentium vel eorum1 qui defensi sunt1 gratia8 ,huic quoque ergo#bcb a maioribus nostris est in toga dignitatis#bcc principatus datus4 ,diserti igitur hominis et facile laborantis1 quodque in patriis est moribus1 multorum causas et non gravate et gratuito defendentis beneficia et patrocinia late patent4 99#fg99 ,admonebat me res1 ut hoc quoque loco intermissionem eloquentiae1 ne dicam interitum1 deplorarem1 ni vererer1 ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri4 ,sed tamen videmus1 quibus exstinctis oratoribus quam in paucis spes1 quanto in paucioribus facultas1 quam in multis sit audacia4 ,cum autem omnes non possint1 ne multi quidem1 aut iuris periti esse aut diserti1 licet tamen opera prodesse multis beneficia petentem1 commendantem iudicibus1 magistratibus1 vigilantem pro re alterius1 eos ipsos1 qui aut consuluntur aut defendunt1 rogantem2 quod qui faciunt1 plurimum gratiae consequuntur1 latissimeque eorum manat industria4 99#fh99 ,iam illud non sunt admonendi 7est enim in promptu71 ut animadvertant1 cum iuvare alios velint1 ne quos offendant4 ,saepe enim aut eos laedunt1 quos non debent1 aut eos1 quos non expedit2 si imprudentes1 neglegentiae est1 si scientes1 temeritatis4 ,utendum etiam est excusatione adversus eos1 quos invitus offendas1 quacumque possis1 quare id1 quod feceris1 necesse fuerit nec aliter facere potueris1 ceterisque operis et officiis erit id1 quod violatum videbitur1#bcd compensandum4 #bcj consilio iuvare ,,mss41 ,ed42 bracketed by ,muther1 ,mller1 ,heine4 #bca dicendi gravior facultas ,b ,h b2 gravior facultas ,l c p2 dicendi gravior facultas ,ed42 dicendi facultas ,lambinus4 #bcb huic quoque ergo ,b ,h ,l b c1 ,bt42 huic ergo ,facciolati2 huic quoque ergo ,ed4 #bcc in toga dignitatis ,l c p1 ,edd42 in tota dignitatis ,b ,h b2 in tota dignitate a4 #bcd videbitur ,l c p1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h b2 est a4 7#b7 personal service4 99#fe99 ,,xix4 ,again1 the kindnesses shown not by gifts of money but by personal service,,au are bestowed sometimes upon the community at large1 sometimes upon individual citizens4 ,to protect a man in his legal rights 1to assist him with counsel1 and to serve as many as possible with that sort of knowledge tends greatly to increase one's influence and popularity4 ,the profession of the law4 ,thus1 among the many admirable ideas of our ancestors was the high respect they always accorded to the study and interpretation of the excellent body of our civil law4 ,and down to the present unsettled times the foremost men of the state have kept this profession exclusively in their own hands2 but now the prestige of legal learning has departed along with offices of honour and positions of dignity2 and this is the more deplorable1 because it has come to pass in the lifetime of a man,,av who in knowledge of the law would easily have surpassed all his predecessors1 while in honour he is their peer4 ,service such as this1 then1 finds many to appreciate it and is calculated to bind people closely to us by our good services4 ,eloquence at the bar4 99#ff99 ,closely connected with this profession1 furthermore1 is the gift of eloquence2 it is at once more popular and more distinguished4 ,for what is better than eloquence to awaken the admiration of one's hearers or the hopes of the distressed or the gratitude of those whom it has protected8 ,it was to eloquence1 therefore1 that our fathers assigned the foremost rank among the civil professions4 ,the door of opportunity for generous patronage to others1 then1 is wide open to the orator whose heart is in his work and who follows the custom of our forefathers in undertaking the defence of many clients without reluctance and without compensation4 ,the decline of eloquence4 99#fg99 ,my subject suggests that at this point ,i express once more my regret at the decadence1 not to say the utter extinction1 of eloquence2 and ,i should do so1 did ,i not fear that people would think that ,i were complaining on my own account4 ,we see1 nevertheless1 what orators have lost their lives and how few of any promise are left1 how far fewer there are who have ability1 and how many there are who have nothing but presumption4 ,but though not all--no1 not even many--can be learned in the law or eloquent as pleaders1 still anybody may be of service to many by canvassing in their support for appointments1 by witnessing to their character before juries and magistrates1 by looking out for the interests of one and another1 and by soliciting for them the aid of jurisconsults or of advocates4 ,those who perform such services win the most gratitude and find a most extensive sphere for their activities4 ,a warning to eloquence4 99#fh99 ,of course1 those who pursue such a course do not need to be warned 7for the point is self-evident7 to be careful when they seek to oblige some1 not to offend others4 ,for oftentimes they hurt those whom they ought not or those whom it is inexpedient to offend4 ,if they do it inadvertently1 it is carelessness2 if designedly1 inconsiderateness4 ,a man must apologize also1 to the best of his ability1 if he has involuntarily hurt anyone's feelings1 and explain why what he has done was unavoidable and why he could not have done otherwise2 and he must by future services and kind offices atone for the apparent offence4 ,,au ,acts of kindness and personal service mean to ,cicero throughout this discussion the services of the lawyer1 which were voluntary and gratis4 ,,av ,this eminent jurist was ,servius ,sulpicius ,lemonia ,rufus1 a close friend of ,cicero1 author of the well-known letter of condolence to ,cicero on the death of his daughter ,tullia4 99#fi99 ,,xx4 ,sed cum in hominibus iuvandis aut mores spectari aut fortuna soleat1 dictu quidem est proclive1 itaque volgo loquuntur1 se in beneficiis collocandis mores hominum1 non fortunam sequi4 ,honesta oratio est2 sed quis est tandem1 qui inopis et optimi viri causae non anteponat in opera danda gratiam fortunati et potentis8 a quo enim expeditior et celerior remuneratio fore videtur1 in eum fere est voluntas nostra propensior4 ,sed animadvertendum est diligentius1 quae natura rerum sit4 ,nimirum enim inops ille1 si bonus est vir1 etiamsi referre gratiam non potest1 habere certe potest4 ,commode autem1 quicumque dixit1 pecuniam qui habeat1 non reddidisse1 qui reddiderit1 non habere1 gratiam autem et1 qui rettulerit1 habere#bce et1 qui habeat1 rettulisse4 ,at qui se locupletes1 honoratos1 beatos putant1 ii ne obligari quidem beneficio volunt2 quin etiam beneficium se dedisse arbitrantur1 cum ipsi quamvis magnum aliquod acceperint1 atque etiam a se aut postulari aut exspectari aliquid suspicantur1 patrocinio vero se#bcf usos aut clientes appellari mortis instar putant4 99#gj99 ,at vero ille tenuis1 cum1 quicquid factum sit1 se spectatum1 non fortunam putet1#bcg non modo illi1 qui est meritus1 sed etiam illis1 a quibus exspectat 7eget enim multis71 gratum se videri studet neque vero verbis auget suum munus1 si quo forte fungitur1 sed etiam extenuat4 ,videndumque illud est1 quod1 si opulentum fortunatumque defenderis1 in uno illo aut1 si#bch forte1 in liberis eius manet gratia2 sin autem inopem1 probum tamen et modestum1 omnes non improbi humiles1 quae magna in populo multitudo est1 praesidium sibi paratum vident4 99#ga99 ,quam ob rem melius apud bonos quam apud fortunatos beneficium collocari puto4 ,danda omnino opera est1 ut omni generi satis facere possimus2 sed si res in contentionem veniet1 nimirum ,themistocles est auctor adhibendus2 qui cum consuleretur1 utrum bono viro pauperi an minus probato diviti filiam collocaret3 ,ego vero1 inquit1 malo virum1 qui pecunia egeat1 quam pecuniam1 quae viro4 ,sed corrupti mores depravatique sunt admiratione divitiarum2 quarum magnitudo quid ad unum quemque nostrum pertinet8 ,illum fortasse adiuvat1 qui habet4 ,ne id quidem semper2 sed fac iuvare2 utentior#bci sane sit1 honestior vero quo modo8 ,quodsi etiam bonus erit vir1 ne impediant divitiae1 quo minus iuvetur1 modo ne adiuvent1 sitque omne iudicium1 non quam locuples1 sed qualis quisque sit6 ,extremum autem praeceptum in beneficiis operaque danda1 ne quid contra aequitatem contendas1 ne quid pro iniuria2 fundamentum enim est perpetuae commendationis et famae iustitia1 sine qua nihil potest esse laudabile4 #bce gratiam 444 habere ,l c p1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bcf vero se ,b ,h a b2 vero tuo se ,l c p4 #bcg putet ,ed42 putat ,,mss4 #bch si ,l c p1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bci utentior ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,heine2 potentior later ,,mss42 opulentior one ,,ms4 7,c4 ,lange71 ,lambinus1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller4 ,the basis for personal service is character not fortune4 99#fi99 ,,xx4 ,now in rendering helpful service to people1 we usually consider either their character or their circumstances4 ,and so it is an easy remark1 and one commonly made1 to say that in investing kindnesses we look not to people's outward circumstances1 but to their character4 ,the phrase is admirable6 ,but who is there1 pray1 that does not in performing a service set the favour of a rich and influential man above the cause of a poor1 though most worthy1 person8 ,for1 as a rule1 our will is more inclined to the one from whom we expect a prompter and speedier return4 ,but we should observe more carefully how the matter really stands3 the poor man of whom we spoke cannot return a favour in kind1 of course1 but if he is a good man he can do it at least in thankfulness of heart4 ,as some one has happily said1 ,a man has not repaid money1 if he still has it2 if he has repaid it1 he has ceased to have it4 ,but a man still has the sense of favour1 if he has returned the favour2 and if he has the sense of the favour1 he has repaid it4 ,on the other hand1 they who consider themselves wealthy1 honoured1 the favourites of fortune1 do not wish even to be put under obligations by our kind services4 ,why1 they actually think that they have conferred a favour by accepting one1 however great2 and they even suspect that a claim is thereby set up against them or that something is expected in return4 ,nay more1 it is bitter as death to them to have accepted a patron or to be called clients4 99#gj99 ,your man of slender means1 on the other hand1 feels that whatever is done for him is done out of regard for himself and not for his outward circumstances4 ,the poor man's gratitude4 ,hence he strives to show himself grateful not only to the one who has obliged him in the past but also to those from whom he expects similar favours in the future--and he needs the help of many2 and his own service1 if he happens to render any in return1 he does not exaggerate1 but he actually depreciates it4 ,this fact1 furthermore1 should not be overlooked--that if one defends a wealthy favourite of fortune1 the favour does not extend further than to the man himself or1 possibly1 to his children4 ,but if one defends a man who is poor but honest and upright1 all the lowly who are not dishonest--and there is a large proportion of that sort among the people--look upon such an advocate as a tower of defence raised up for them4 99#ga99 ,i think1 therefore1 that kindness to the good is a better investment than kindness to the favourites of fortune4 ,we must1 of course1 put forth every effort to oblige all sorts and conditions of men1 if we can4 ,but if it comes to a conflict of duty on this point1 we must1 ,i should say1 follow the advice of ,themistocles3 when some one asked his advice whether he should give his daughter in marriage to a man who was poor but honest or to one who was rich but less esteemed1 he said3 ,wealth no inducement nor a bar to personal service ,for my part1 ,i prefer a man without money to money without a man4 ,but the moral sense of to-day is demoralized and depraved by our worship of wealth4 ,of what concern to any one of us is the size of another man's fortune8 ,it is1 perhaps1 an advantage to its possessor2 but not always even that4 ,but suppose it is2 he may1 to be sure1 have more money to spend3 but how is he any the better man for that8 ,still1 if he is a good man1 as well as a rich one1 let not his riches be a hindrance to his being aided1 if only they are not the motive to it2 but in conferring favours our decision should depend entirely upon a man's character1 not on his wealth4 ,the supreme rule1 then1 in the matter of kindnesses to be rendered by personal service is never to take up a case in opposition to the right nor in defence of the wrong4 ,for the foundation of enduring reputation and fame is justice1 and without justice there can be nothing worthy of praise4 99#gb99 ,,xxi4 ,sed1 quoniam de eo genere beneficiorum dictum est1 quae ad singulos spectant1 deinceps de iis1 quae ad universos quaeque ad rem publicam pertinent1 disputandum est4 ,eorum autem ipsorum partim#bdj eius modi sunt1 ut ad universos cives pertineant1 partim1 singulos ut attingant2 quae sunt etiam gratiora4 ,danda opera est omnino1 si possit1 utrisque1 nec minus1 ut etiam singulis consulatur1 sed ita1 ut ea res aut prosit aut certe ne obsit rei publicae4 ,c4 ,gracchi frumentaria magna largitio2 exhauriebat igitur aerarium2 modica ,m4 ,octavi et rei publicae tolerabilis et plebi necessaria2 ergo et civibus et rei publicae salutaris4 99#gc99 ,in primis autem videndum erit ei1 qui rem publicam administrabit1 ut suum quisque teneat neque de bonis privatorum publice deminutio fiat4 ,perniciose enim ,philippus1 in tribunatu cum legem agrariam ferret1 quam tamen antiquari facile passus est et in eo vehementer se moderatum praebuit--sed cum in agendo multa populariter1 tum illud male1 non esse in civitate duo milia hominum1 qui rem haberent4 ,capitalis oratio est1 ad aequationem bonorum pertinens2 qua peste quae potest esse maior8 ,hanc enim ob causam maxime1 ut sua tenerentur1 res publicae civitatesque constitutae sunt4 ,nam1 etsi duce natura congregabantur homines1 tamen spe custodiae rerum suarum urbium praesidia quaerebant4 99#gd99 ,danda etiam opera est1 ne1 quod apud maiores nostros saepe fiebat propter aerarii tenuitatem assiduitatemque bellorum1 tributum sit conferendum1 idque ne eveniat1 multo ante erit providendum4 ,sin quae necessitas huius muneris alicui rei publicae obvenerit 7malo enim#bda quam nostrae ominari2 neque tamen de nostra1 sed de omni re publica disputo71 danda erit opera1 ut omnes intellegant1 si salvi esse velint1 necessitati esse parendum4 ,atque etiam omnes1 qui rem publicam gubernabunt1 consulere debebunt1 ut earum rerum copia sit1 quae sunt#bdb necessariae4 ,quarum qualis comparatio fieri soleat et debeat1 non est necesse disputare2 est enim in promptu2 tantum locus attingendus fuit4 99#ge99 ,caput autem est in omni procuratione negotii et muneris publici1 ut avaritiae pellatur etiam minima suspicio4 ,utinam1 inquit ,c4 ,pontius ,samnis1 ad illa tempora me fortuna reservavisset et tum essem natus1 quando ,romani dona accipere#bdc coepissent6 non essem passus diutius eos imperare4 ,ne illi multa saecula exspectanda fuerunt2 modo enim hoc malum in hanc rem publicam invasit4 ,itaque facile patior tum potius ,pontium fuisse1 siquidem in illo tantum fuit roboris4 ,nondum centum et decem anni sunt1 cum de pecuniis repetundis a ,l4 ,pisone lata lex est1 nulla antea cum fuisset4 ,at vero postea tot leges et proximae quaeque duriores1 tot rei1 tot damnati1 tantum ,italicum#bdd bellum propter iudiciorum metum excitatum1 tanta sublatis legibus et iudiciis expilatio direptioque sociorum1 ut imbecillitate aliorum1 non nostra virtute valeamus4 #bdj partim ,l c p1 ,edd42 quae 7que quae ,h7 partim ,b ,h a b4 #bda malo enim ,b ,h ,l b p2 malo enim alii a2 malo enim aliene 7alienae7 c4 #bdb sunt ,b ,h b1 ,bt4#b2 sunt ad victum ,l c p1 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 #bdc dona accipere ,b ,h ,l a p c2 accipere dona b1 ,ed4 #bdd tantum ,italicum ,bake1 ,edd42 tantum ,italicum ,l c p2 tantum ,iliacum ,b ,h2 tanti militari cum b4 ,service to the state through personal service to individuals4 99#gb99 ,,xxi4 ,now1 since we have finished the discussion of that kind of helpful services which concern individuals1 we must next take up those which touch the whole body politic and the state4 ,of these public services1 some are of such a nature that they concern the whole body of citizens2 others1 that they affect individuals only4 ,and these latter are the more productive of gratitude4 ,if possible1 we should by all means attend to both kinds of service2 but we must take care in protecting the interests of individuals that what we do for them shall be beneficial1 or at least not prejudicial to the state4 ,gaius ,gracchus inaugurated largesses of grain on an extensive scale2 this had a tendency to exhaust the exchequer4 ,marcus ,octavius inaugurated a moderate dole2 this was both practicable for the state and necessary for the commons2 it was1 therefore1 a blessing both to the citizens and to the state4 ,the statesman's duty toward 7#a7 property rights1 99#gc99 ,the man in an administrative office1 however1 must make it his first care that every one shall have what belongs to him and that private citizens suffer no invasion of their property rights by act of the state4 ,it was a ruinous policy that ,philippus proposed when in his tribuneship he introduced his agrarian bill4 ,however1 when his law was rejected1 he took his defeat with good grace and displayed extraordinary moderation4 ,but in his public speeches on the measure he often played the demagogue1 and that time viciously1 when he said that there were not in the state two thousand people who owned any property4 ,that speech deserves unqualified condemnation1 for it favoured an equal distribution of property2 and what more ruinous policy than that could be conceived8 ,for the chief purpose in the establishment of constitutional state and municipal governments was that individual property rights might be secured4 ,for although it was by ,nature's guidance that men were drawn together into communities1 it was in the hope of safeguarding their possessions that they sought the protection of cities4 7#b7 taxation1 99#gd99 ,the administration should also put forth every effort to prevent the levying of a property tax1 and to this end precautions should be taken long in advance4 ,such a tax was often levied in the times of our forefathers on account of the depleted state of their treasury and their incessant wars4 ,but if any state 7,i say any1 for ,i would rather speak in general terms than forebode evils to our own2 however1 ,i am not discussing our own state but states in general7--if any state ever has to face a crisis requiring the imposition of such a burden1 every effort must be made to let all the people realize that they must bow to the inevitable1 if they wish to be saved4 7#c7 necessities of life1 ,and it will also be the duty of those who direct the affairs of the state to take measures that there shall be an abundance of the necessities of life4 ,it is needless to discuss the ordinary ways and means2 for the duty is self-evident2 it is necessary only to mention the matter4 7#d7 official integrity4 99#ge99 ,but the chief thing in all public administration and public service is to avoid even the slightest suspicion of self-seeking4 ,i would1 says ,gaius ,pontius1 the ,samnite1 that fortune had withheld my appearance until a time when the ,romans began to accept bribes1 and that ,i had been born in those days6 ,i should then have suffered them to hold their supremacy no longer4 ,aye1 but he would have had many generations to wait2 for this plague has only recently infected our nation4 ,and so ,i rejoice that ,pontius lived then instead of now1 seeing that he was so mighty a man6 ,it is not yet a hundred and ten years since the enactment of ,lucius ,piso's bill to punish extortion2 there had been no such law before4 ,but afterward came so many laws1 each more stringent than the other1 so many men were accused and so many convicted1 so horrible a war,,aw was stirred up on account of the fear of what our courts would do to still others1 so frightful was the pillaging and plundering of the allies when the laws and courts were suppressed1,,ax that now we find ourselves strong not in our own strength but in the weakness of others4 ,,aw ,the ,italian or ,social ,war1 ,b4,c4 #ajj-hh4 ,,ax ,during the dictatorships of ,sulla and ,caesar4 99#gf99 ,,xxii4 ,laudat ,africanum ,panaetius1 quod fuerit abstinens4 ,quidni laudet8 ,sed in illo alia maiora2 laus abstinentiae#bde non hominis est solum1 sed etiam temporum illorum4 ,omni ,macedonum gaza1 quae fuit maxima1 potitus est#bdf ,paulus tantum in aerarium pecuniae invexit1 ut unius imperatoris praeda finem attulerit tributorum4 ,at hic nihil domum suam intulit#bdg praeter memoriam nominis sempiternam4 ,imitatus patrem ,africanus nihilo locupletior ,carthagine eversa4 ,quid8 qui eius collega fuit in censura1 ,l4 ,mummius1 numquid copiosior1 cum copiosissimam urbem funditus sustulisset8 ,italiam ornare quam domum suam maluit2 quamquam ,italia ornata domus ipsa mihi videtur ornatior4 99#gg99 ,nullum igitur vitium taetrius est1 ut eo1 unde egressa est1 referat se oratio1 quam avaritia1 praesertim in principibus et rem publicam gubernantibus4 ,habere enim quaestui rem publicam non modo turpe est1 sed sceleratum etiam et nefarium4 ,plut4 ,inst4 ,lacon4 #bci ,f ,itaque1 quod ,apollo ,pythius oraclum edidit1 ,spartam nulla re alia nisi avaritia esse perituram1 id videtur non solum ,lacedaemoniis1 sed etiam omnibus opulentis populis praedixisse4 ,nulla autem re conciliare facilius benivolentiam multitudinis possunt ii1 qui rei publicae praesunt1 quam abstinentia et continentia4 99#gh99 ,qui vero se populares volunt ob eamque causam aut agrariam rem temptant1 ut possessores pellantur suis sedibus1 aut pecunias creditas debitoribus condonandas putant1 labefactant fundamenta rei publicae1 concordiam primum1 quae esse non potest1 cum aliis adimuntur1 aliis condonantur pecuniae1 deinde aequitatem1 quae tollitur omnis1 si habere suum cuique non licet4 #gc ,id enim est proprium1 ut supra dixi1 civitatis atque urbis1 ut sit libera et non sollicita suae rei cuiusque custodia4 99#gi99 ,atque in hac pernicie rei publicae ne illam quidem consequuntur1 quam putant1 gratiam2 nam cui res erepta est1 est inimicus1 cui data est1 etiam dissimulat se accipere voluisse et maxime in pecuniis creditis occultat suum gaudium1 ne videatur non fuisse solvendo2 at vero ille1 qui accepit#bdh iniuriam1 et meminit et prae se fert dolorem suum1 nec1 si plures sunt ii1 quibus inprobe datum est1 quam illi1 quibus iniuste ademptum est1 idcirco plus etiam valent2 non enim numero haec iudicantur1 sed pondere4 ,quam autem habet aequitatem1 ut agrum multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum1 qui nullum habuit1 habeat1 qui autem habuit1 amittat8 #bde abstinentiae ,l c p1 ,edd42 sapientiae ,b ,h a b4 #bdf potitus ,j4 ,f4 ,heusinger2 potitus est ,edd42 potitus est ,,mss4 #bdg intulit ,b ,h b1 ,edd42 detulit ,l c p4 #bdh accepit ,l c1 ,edd42 accipit ,b ,h a b p4 99#gf99 ,,xxii4 ,panaetius praises ,africanus for his integrity in public life4 ,why should he not8 ,but ,africanus had other and greater virtues4 ,the boast of official integrity belongs not to that man alone but also to his times4 ,when ,paulus got possession of all the wealth of ,macedon--and it was enormous--he brought into our treasury so much money,,ay that the spoils of a single general did away with the need for a tax on property in ,rome for all time to come4 ,but to his own house he brought nothing save the glory of an immortal name4 ,africanus emulated his father's example and was none the richer for his overthrow of ,carthage4 ,and what shall we say of ,lucius ,mummius1 his colleague in the censorship8 ,was he one penny the richer when he had destroyed to its foundations the richest of cities8 ,he preferred to adorn ,italy rather than his own house4 ,and yet by the adornment of ,italy his own house was1 as it seems to me1 still more splendidly adorned4 ,integrity vs4 avarice4 99#gg99 ,there is1 then1 to bring the discussion back to the point from which it digressed1 no vice more offensive than avarice1 especially in men who stand foremost and hold the helm of state4 ,for to exploit the state for selfish profit is not only immoral2 it is criminal1 infamous4 ,and so the oracle1 which the ,pythian ,apollo uttered1 that ,sparta should not fall from any other cause than avarice1 seems to be a prophecy not to the ,lacedaemonians alone1 but to all wealthy nations as well4 ,they who direct the affairs of state1 then1 can win the good-will of the masses by no other means more easily than by self-restraint and self-denial4 ,the menace of agrarian laws4 99#gh99 ,but they who pose as friends of the people1 and who for that reason either attempt to have agrarian laws passed1 in order that the occupants may be driven out of their homes1 or propose that money loaned should be remitted to the borrowers1 are undermining the foundations of the commonwealth3 first of all1 they are destroying harmony1 which cannot exist when money is taken away from one party and bestowed upon another2 and second1 they do away with equity1 which is utterly subverted1 if the rights of property are not respected4 ,for1 as ,i said above1 it is the peculiar function of the state and the city to guarantee to every man the free and undisturbed control of his own particular property4 99#gi99 ,and yet1 when it comes to measures so ruinous to public welfare1 they do not gain even that popularity which they anticipate4 ,for he who has been robbed of his property is their enemy2 he to whom it has been turned over actually pretends that he had no wish to take it2 and most of all1 when his debts are cancelled1 the debtor conceals his joy1 for fear that he may be thought to have been insolvent2 whereas the victim of the wrong both remembers it and shows his resentment openly4 ,thus even though they to whom property has been wrongfully awarded be more in number than they from whom it has been unjustly taken1 they do not for that reason have more influence2 for in such matters influence is measured not by numbers but by weight4 ,and how is it fair that a man who never had any property should take possession of lands that had been occupied for many years or even generations1 and that he who had them before should lose possession of them8 ,,ay ,nearly two million pounds sterling4 99#hj99 ,,xxiii4 ,ac#bdi propter hoc iniuriae genus ,lacedaemonii ,lysandrum ephorum expulerunt1 ,agim regem1 quod numquam antea apud eos acciderat1 necaverunt1 exque eo tempore tantae discordiae secutae sunt1 ut et tyranni exsisterent et optimates exterminarentur et praeclarissime constituta res publica dilaberetur2 nec vero solum ipsa cecidit1 sed etiam reliquam ,graeciam evertit contagionibus malorum1#bej quae a ,lacedaemoniis profectae manarunt latius4 ,quid8 nostros ,gracchos1 ,ti4 ,gracchi summi viri filios1 ,africani nepotes1 nonne agrariae contentiones perdiderunt8 99#ha99 ,at vero ,aratus ,sicyonius iure laudatur1 qui1 cum eius civitas quinquaginta annos a tyrannis teneretur1 profectus ,argis ,sicyonem clandestino introitu urbe est potitus1 cumque tyrannum ,nicoclem improviso oppressisset1#bea sescentos exsules1 qui locupletissimi fuerant eius civitatis1 restituit remque publicam adventu suo liberavit4 ,sed cum magnam animadverteret in bonis et possessionibus difficultatem1 quod et eos1 quos ipse restituerat1 quorum bona alii possederant1 egere iniquissimum esse arbitrabatur et quinquaginta annorum possessiones moveri#beb non nimis aequum putabat1 propterea quod tam longo spatio multa hereditatibus1 multa emptionibus1 multa dotibus tenebantur sine iniuria1 iudicavit neque illis adimi nec iis non satis fieri1 quorum illa fuerant1 oportere4 99#hb99 ,cum igitur statuisset opus esse ad eam rem constituendam pecunia1 ,alexandream se proficisci velle dixit remque integram ad reditum suum iussit esse1 isque celeriter ad ,ptolomaeum1 suum hospitem1 venit1 qui tum regnabat alter post ,alexandream conditam4 ,cui#bec cum exposuisset patriam se liberare velle causamque docuisset1 a rege opulento vir summus facile impetravit1 ut grandi pecunia adiuvaretur4 ,quam cum ,sicyonem attulisset1 adhibuit sibi in consilium quindecim principes1 cum quibus causas cognovit et eorum1 qui aliena tenebant1 et eorum1 qui sua amiserant1 perfecitque aestimandis possessionibus1 ut persuaderet aliis1 ut pecuniam accipere mallent1 possessionibus cederent1 aliis1 ut commodius putarent numerari sibi1 quod tanti esset1 quam suum recuperare4 ,ita perfectum est1 ut omnes concordia constituta sine querella discederent4 99#hc99 ,o virum magnum dignumque1 qui in re publica nostra natus esset6 ,sic par est agere cum civibus1 non1 ut bis iam vidimus1 hastam in foro ponere et bona civium voci subicere#bed praeconis4 ,at ille ,graecus1 id quod fuit sapientis et praestantis viri1 omnibus consulendum putavit1 eaque est summa ratio et sapientia boni civis1 commoda civium non divellere atque omnis aequitate eadem continere4 ,habitent gratis in alieno4 ,quid ita8 ut1 cum ego emerim1 aedificarim1 tuear1 impendam1 tu me invito fruare meo8 ,quid est aliud aliis sua eripere1 aliis dare aliena8 99#hd99 ,tabulae vero novae quid habent argumenti1 nisi ut emas mea pecunia fundum1 eum tu habeas1 ego non habeam pecuniam8 #bdi ,ac ,edd42 at ,,mss4 #bej malorum ,l c p1 ,edd42 maiorum ,b ,h a b4 #bea oppressisset ,l c p1 ,edd42 pressisset ,b ,h a b4 #beb moveri ,l c p1 ,edd42 movere ,b ,h a b4 #bec cui ,edd42 qui ,,mss4 #bed subicere ,l c p1 ,edd42 subiacere ,b ,h a b4 ,instances of agrarian legislation4 99#hj99 ,,xxiii4 ,now1 it was on account of just this sort of wrong-doing that the ,spartans banished their ephor ,lysander1 and put their king ,agis to death--an act without precedent in the history of ,sparta4 ,from that time on--and for the same reason--dissensions so serious ensued that tyrants arose1 the nobles were sent into exile1 and the state1 though most admirably constituted1 crumbled to pieces4 ,nor did it fall alone1 but by the contagion of the ills that1 starting in ,lacedaemon1 spread widely and more widely1 it dragged the rest of ,greece down to ruin4 ,what shall we say of our own ,gracchi1 the sons of that famous ,tiberius ,gracchus and grandsons of ,africanus8 ,was it not strife over the agrarian issue that caused their downfall and death8 ,aratus of ,sicyon4 99#ha99 ,aratus of ,sicyon1 on the other hand1 is justly praised4 ,when his city had been kept for fifty years in the power of its tyrants1 he came over from ,argos to ,sicyon1 secretly entered the city and took it by surprise2 he fell suddenly upon the tyrant ,nicocles1 recalled from banishment six hundred exiles who had been the wealthiest men of the city1 and by his coming made his country free4 ,but he found great difficulty in the matter of property and its occupancy2 for he considered it most unjust1 on the one hand1 that those men should be left in want whom he had restored and of whose property others had taken possession2 and he thought it hardly fair1 on the other hand1 that tenure of fifty years' standing should be disturbed4 ,for in the course of that long period many of those estates had passed into innocent hands by right of inheritance1 many by purchase1 many by dower4 ,he therefore decided that it would be wrong either to take the property away from the present incumbents or to let them keep it without compensation to its former possessors4 99#hb99 ,so1 when he had come to the conclusion that he must have money to meet the situation1 he announced that he meant to make a trip to ,alexandria and gave orders that matters should remain as they were until his return4 ,and so he went in haste to his friend ,ptolemy1 then upon the throne1 the second king after the founding of ,alexandria4 ,to him he explained that he wished to restore constitutional liberty to his country and presented his case to him4 ,and1 being a man of the highest standing1 he easily secured from that wealthy king assistance in the form of a large sum of money4 ,and when he had returned with this to ,sicyon1 he called into counsel with him fifteen of the foremost men of the city4 ,with them he investigated the cases both of those who were holding possession of other people's property and of those who had lost theirs4 ,and he managed by a valuation of the properties to persuade some that it was more desirable to accept money and surrender their present holdings2 others he convinced that it was more to their interest to take a fair price in cash for their lost estates than to try to recover possession of what had been their own4 ,as a result1 harmony was preserved1 and all parties went their way without a word of complaint4 ,justice the corner-stone of statecraft4 99#hc99 ,a great statesman1 and worthy to have been born in our commonwealth6 ,that is the right way to deal with one's fellow-citizens1 and not1 as we have already witnessed on two occasions1 to plant the spear in the forum and knock down the property of citizens under the auctioneer's hammer4 ,but yon ,greek1 like a wise and excellent man1 thought that he must look out for the welfare of all4 ,and this is the highest statesmanship and the soundest wisdom on the part of a good citizen1 not to divide the interests of the citizens but to unite all on the basis of impartial justice4 ,let them live in their neighbour's house rent-free4,,az ,why so8 ,in order that1 when ,i have bought1 built1 kept up1 and spent my money upon a place1 you may without my consent enjoy what belongs to me8 ,what else is that but to rob one man of what belongs to him and to give to another what does not belong to him8 99#hd99 ,and what is the meaning of an abolition of debts1 except that you buy a farm with my money2 that you have the farm1 and ,i have not my money8 ,,az ,an assumed appeal to one of ,caesar's edicts4 ,,xxiv4 ,quam ob rem ne sit aes alienum1 quod rei publicae noceat1 providendum est1 quod multis rationibus caveri potest1 non1 si fuerit1 ut locupletes suum perdant1 debitores lucrentur alienum2 nec enim ulla res vehementius rem publicam continet quam fides1 quae esse nulla potest1 nisi erit necessaria solutio rerum creditarum4 ,numquam vehementius actum est quam me consule1 ne solveretur2 armis et castris temptata res est ab omni genere hominum et ordine2 quibus ita restiti1 ut hoc totum malum de re publica tolleretur4 ,numquam nec maius aes alienum fuit nec melius nec facilius dissolutum est2 fraudandi enim spe sublata solvendi necessitas consecuta est4 ,at vero hic nunc victor1 tum quidem victus1 quae cogitarat1 ea#bee perfecit1 cum eius iam nihil interesset4 ,tanta in eo peccandi libido fuit1 ut hoc ipsum eum delectaret1 peccare1 etiamsi causa non esset4 99#he99 ,ab hoc igitur genere largitionis1 ut aliis detur1 aliis auferatur1 aberunt ii1 qui rem publicam tuebuntur1 in primisque operam dabunt1 ut iuris et iudiciorum aequitate suum quisque teneat et neque tenuiores propter humilitatem circumveniantur neque locupletibus ad sua vel tenenda vel recuperanda obsit invidia1 praeterea1 quibuscumque rebus vel belli vel domi poterunt1 rem publicam augeant imperio1 agris1 vectigalibus4 ,haec magnorum hominum sunt1 haec apud maiores nostros factitata1 haec genera officiorum qui persequentur1#bef cum summa utilitate rei publicae magnam ipsi adipiscentur et gratiam et gloriam4 99#hf99 ,in his autem utilitatum praeceptis ,antipater ,tyrius ,stoicus1 qui ,athenis nuper est mortuus1 duo praeterita censet esse a ,panaetio1 valetudinis curationem et pecuniae2 quas res a summo philosopho praeteritas arbitror1 quod essent faciles2 sunt certe utiles4 ,sed valetudo sustentatur notitia sui corporis et observatione1 quae res aut prodesse soleant aut obesse1 et continentia in victu omni atque cultu corporis tuendi causa praetermittendis voluptatibus1#beg postremo arte eorum1 quorum ad scientiam haec pertinent4 99#hg99 ,res autem familiaris quaeri debet iis rebus1 a quibus abest turpitudo1 conservari autem diligentia et parsimonia1 eisdem etiam rebus augeri4 ,has res commodissime ,xenophon ,socraticus persecutus est in eo libro1 qui ,oeconomicus inscribitur1 quem nos1 ista fere aetate cum essemus1 qua es tu nunc1 e ,graeco in ,latinum convertimus4 #beh,sed toto hoc de genere1 de quaerenda1 de collocanda pecunia1 7vellem#bei etiam de utenda7 commodius a quibusdam optimis viris ad ,ianum#bfj medium sedentibus quam ab ullis philosophis ulla in schola disputatur4 ,sunt tamen ea cognoscenda2 pertinent enim ad utilitatem1 de qua hoc libro disputatum est4#beh #bee cogitarat1 ea ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller2 cogitarat1 cum ipsius intererat1 tum ea c p1 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 #bef persequentur c2 persequuntur b1 ,bt4#b2 persecuntur ,b ,h p1 ,bt4#a1 ,heine4 #beg praetermittendis voluptatibus ,,mss42 del4 ,heine1 ,edd4 #beh ,sed 444 disputatum est transposed from #ij by ,unger1 ,edd4 #bei vellem c p1 ,bt4#a1 ,ed42 not in ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4#b #bfj ,ianum c1 ,edd42 ianuae ,b ,h a b p4 ,economics of debts4 ,,xxiv4 ,we must1 therefore1 take measures that there shall be no indebtedness of a nature to endanger the public safety4 ,it is a menace that can be averted in many ways2 but should a serious debt be incurred1 we are not to allow the rich to lose their property1 while the debtors profit by what is their neighbour's4 ,for there is nothing that upholds a government more powerfully than its credit2 and it can have no credit1 unless the payment of debts is enforced by law4 ,never were measures for the repudiation of debts more strenuously agitated than in my consulship4 ,men of every sort and rank attempted with arms and armies to force the project through4 ,but ,i opposed them with such energy that this plague was wholly eradicated from the body politic4 ,indebtedness was never greater2 debts were never liquidated more easily or more fully2 for the hope of defrauding the creditor was cut off and payment was enforced by law4 ,but the present victor1 though vanquished then1 still carried out his old design1 when it was no longer of any personal advantage to him4,,ba ,so great was his passion for wrong-doing that the very doing of wrong was a joy to him for its own sake1 even when there was no motive for it4 99#he99 ,those1 then1 whose office it is to look after the interests of the state will refrain from that form of liberality which robs one man to enrich another4 ,administration of the courts in equity4 ,above all1 they will use their best endeavours that every one shall be protected in the possession of his own property by the fair administration of the law and the courts1 that the poorer classes shall not be oppressed because of their helplessness1 and that envy shall not stand in the way of the rich1 to prevent them from keeping or recovering possession of what justly belongs to them2 they must strive1 too1 by whatever means they can1 in peace or in war1 to advance the state in power1 in territory1 and in revenues4 ,such service calls for great men2 it was commonly rendered in the days of our ancestors2 if men will perform duties such as these1 they will win popularity and glory for themselves and at the same time render eminent service to the state4 ,sanitation4 99#hf99 ,now1 in this list of rules touching expediency1 ,antipater of ,tyre1 a ,stoic philosopher who recently died at ,athens1 claims that two points were overlooked by ,panaetius--the care of health and of property4 ,i presume that the eminent philosopher overlooked these two items because they present no difficulty4 ,at all events they are expedient4 ,although they are a matter of course1 ,i will still say a few words on the subject4 ,individual health is preserved by studying one's own constitution1 by observing what is good or bad for one1 by constant self-control in supplying physical wants and comforts 7but only to the extent necessary to self-preservation71 by foregoing sensual pleasures1 and finally1 by the professional skill of those to whose science these matters belong4 ,finance4 99#hg99 ,as for property1 it is a duty to make money1 but only by honourable means2 it is a duty also to save it and increase it by care and thrift4 ,these principles ,xenophon1 a pupil of ,socrates1 has set forth most happily in his book entitled ,oeconomicus4 ,when ,i was about your present age1 ,i translated it from the ,greek into ,latin4 ,but this whole subject of acquiring money1 investing money 7,i wish ,i could include also spending money7 is more profitably discussed by certain worthy gentlemen on ,change than could be done by any philosophers of any school4 ,for all that1 we must take cognizance of them2 for they come fitly under the head of expediency1 and that is the subject of the present book4 ,,ba ,caesar1 it seems1 had had some part in the schemes of ,catiline in ,b4,c4 #fc and possibly in the plot of ,b4,c4 #ff-fe4 ,when his conquests in ,gaul had freed him from his debts and made him rich1 his party1 with his consent1 passed 7,b4,c4 #di7 the obnoxious legislation here referred to--that all interest in arrears should be remitted1 and that that which had been paid should be deducted from the principal4 99#hh99 ,,xxv4 ,sed utilitatum comparatio1 quoniam hic locus erat quartus1 a ,panaetio praetermissus1 saepe est necessaria4 ,nam et corporis commoda cum externis et externa cum corporis#bfa et ipsa inter se corporis et externa cum externis comparari solent4 ,cum externis corporis hoc modo comparantur1 valere ut malis quam dives esse1 cum corporis externa hoc modo1 dives esse potius quam maximis corporis viribus1#bfb ipsa inter se corporis sic1 ut bona valetudo voluptati anteponatur1 vires celeritati1 externorum autem1 ut gloria divitiis1 vectigalia urbana rusticis4 99#hi99 ,ex quo genere comparationis illud est ,catonis senis3 a quo cum quaereretur1 quid maxime in re familiari expediret1 respondit3 ,bene pascere2 quid secundum3 ,satis bene pascere2 quid tertium3#bfc ,male pascere2 quid quartum3 ,arare2 et cum ille1 qui quaesierat1 dixisset3 ,quid faenerari81 tum ,cato3 ,quid hominem1 inquit1 occidere8 ,ex quo et multis aliis intellegi debet utilitatum comparationes fieri solere1 recteque hoc adiunctum esse quartum exquirendorum officiorum genus4#bfd ,reliqua deinceps persequemur4 #bfa et 444 corporis bracketed by ,unger1 ,edd4 #bfb cum corporis 444 corporis viribus bracketed by ,unger1 ,edd4 #bfc quid tertium3 ,male pascere c p1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bfd officiorum genus4 ,here follows in ,,mss4 ,sed toto 444 disputatum est transposed to #hg4 ,comparison of expediencies4 99#hh99 ,,xxv4 ,but it is often necessary to weigh one expediency against another2--for this1 as ,i stated1 is a fourth point overlooked by ,panaetius4 ,for not only are physical advantages regularly compared with outward advantages and outward1 with physical1 but physical advantages are compared with one another1 and outward with outward4 ,physical advantages are compared with outward advantages in some such way as this3 one may ask whether it is more desirable to have health than wealth2 external advantages with physical1 thus3 whether it is better to have wealth than extraordinary bodily strength2 while the physical advantages may be weighed against one another1 so that good health is preferred to sensual pleasure1 strength to agility4 ,outward advantages also may be weighed against one another3 glory1 for example1 may be preferred to riches1 an income derived from city property to one derived from the farm4 99#hi99 ,to this class of comparisons belongs that famous saying of old ,cato's3 when he was asked what was the most profitable feature of an estate1 he replied3 ,raising cattle successfully4 ,what next to that8 ,raising cattle with fair success4 ,and next8 ,raising cattle with but slight success4 ,and fourth8 ,raising crops4 ,and when his questioner said1 ,how about money-lending8 ,cato replied3 ,how about murder8 ,from this as well as from many other incidents we ought to realize that expediencies have often to be weighed against one another and that it is proper for us to add this fourth division in the discussion of moral duty4 ,let us now pass on to the remaining problems4 ,,cicero ,,de ,,officiis ,,book ,,iii ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,the ,,right ,,and ,,the ,,expedient ,,liber ,,tertius _/ ,,book ,,iii 99#a99 ,i4 ,p4 ,scipionem1 ,m4#bfe fili1 eum1 qui primus ,africanus appellatus est1 dicere solitum scripsit ,cato1 qui fuit eius fere aequalis1 numquam se minus otiosum esse1 quam cum otiosus1 nec minus solum1 quam cum solus esset4 ,magnifica vero vox et magno viro ac sapiente digna2 quae declarat illum et in otio de negotiis cogitare et in solitudine secum loqui solitum1 ut neque cessaret umquam et interdum colloquio alterius non egeret4 ,ita duae res1 quae languorem afferunt ceteris1 illum acuebant1 otium et solitudo4 ,vellem nobis hoc idem vere dicere liceret2 sed si minus imitatione tantam ingenii praestantiam consequi possumus1 voluntate certe proxime accedimus2 nam et a re publica forensibusque negotiis armis impiis vique prohibiti otium persequimur et ob eam causam urbe relicta rura peragrantes saepe soli sumus4 99#b99 ,sed nec hoc otium cum ,africani otio nec haec solitudo cum illa comparanda est4 ,ille enim requiescens a rei publicae pulcherrimis muneribus otium sibi sumebat aliquando et e#bff coetu hominum frequentiaque interdum tamquam in portum se in solitudinem recipiebat1 nostrum autem otium negotii inopia1 non requiescendi studio constitutum est4 ,exstincto enim senatu deletisque iudiciis quid est quod dignum nobis aut in curia aut in foro agere possimus8 99#c99 ,ita1 qui in maxima celebritate atque in oculis civium quondam vixerimus1 nunc fugientes conspectum sceleratorum1 quibus omnia redundant1 abdimus nos1 quantum licet1 et saepe soli sumus4 ,sed quia sic ab hominibus doctis accepimus1 non solum ex malis eligere minima oportere1 sed etiam excerpere ex his ipsis1#bfg si quid inesset boni1 propterea et otio fruor1 non illo quidem1 quo debebat is1#bfh qui quondam peperisset otium civitati1 nec eam solitudinem languere patior1 quam mihi affert necessitas1 non voluntas4 99#d99 ,quamquam ,africanus maiorem laudem meo iudicio assequebatur4 ,nulla enim eius ingenii monumenta mandata litteris1 nullum opus otii1 nullum solitudinis munus exstat2 ex quo intellegi debet illum mentis agitatione investigationeque earum rerum1 quas cogitando consequebatur1 nec otiosum nec solum umquam fuisse2 nos autem1 qui non tantum roboris habemus1 ut cogitatione tacita a#bfi solitudine abstrahamur1 ad hanc scribendi operam omne studium curamque convertimus4 ,itaque plura brevi tempore eversa quam multis annis stante re publica scripsimus4 #bfe ,m4 ,nonius2 ,marce ,,mss4 #bff e c1 ,edd42 a a2 not in ,b ,h b4 #bfg ex his ipsis c1 ,edd42 ex his a2 ex ipsis ,b ,h b4 #bfh debebat is c1 ,edd42 debeat ,b ,h b2 debeat is corr4 in debeat a4 #bfi a c1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 ,preface3 ,scipio and ,cicero4 99#a99 ,i4 ,cato1 who was of about the same years1 ,marcus1 my son1 as that ,publius ,scipio who first bore the surname of ,africanus1 has given us the statement that ,scipio used to say that he was never less idle than when he had nothing to do and never less lonely than when he was alone4 ,an admirable sentiment1 in truth1 and becoming to a great and wise man4 ,it shows that even in his leisure hours his thoughts were occupied with public business and that he used to commune with himself when alone2 and so not only was he never unoccupied1 but he sometimes had no need for company4 ,the two conditions1 then1 that prompt others to idleness--leisure and solitude--only spurred him on4 ,i wish ,i could say the same of myself and say it truly4 ,but if by imitation ,i cannot attain to such excellence of character1 in aspiration1 at all events1 ,i approach it as nearly as ,i can2 for as ,i am kept by force of armed treason away from practical politics and from my practice at the bar1 ,i am now leading a life of leisure4 ,for that reason ,i have left the city and1 wandering in the country from place to place1 ,i am often alone4 99#b99 ,but ,i should not compare this leisure of mine with that of ,africanus1 nor this solitude with his4 ,for he1 to find leisure from his splendid services to his country1 used to take a vacation now and then and to retreat from the assemblies and the throngs of men into solitude1 as into a haven of rest4 ,the orator's retirement4 ,but my leisure is forced upon me by want of public business1 not prompted by any desire for repose4 ,for now that the senate has been abolished and the courts have been closed1 what is there1 in keeping with my self-respect1 that ,i can do either in the senate-chamber or in the forum8 99#c99 ,so1 although ,i once lived amid throngs of people and in the greatest publicity1 ,i am now shunning the sight of the miscreants with whom the world abounds and withdrawing from the public eye as far as ,i may1 and ,i am often alone4 ,but ,i have learned from philosophers that among evils one ought not only to choose the least1 but also to extract even from these any element of good that they may contain4 ,for that reason1 ,i am turning my leisure to account--though it is not such repose as the man should be entitled to who once brought the state repose from civil strife--and ,i am not letting this solitude1 which necessity and not my will imposes on me1 find me idle4 99#d99 ,and yet1 in my judgment1 ,africanus earned the higher praise4 ,for no literary monuments of his genius have been published1 we have no work produced in his leisure hours1 no product of his solitude4 ,from this fact we may safely infer that1 because of the activity of his mind and the study of those problems to which he used to direct his thought1 he was never unoccupied1 never lonely4 ,but ,i have not strength of mind enough by means of silent meditation to forget my solitude2 and so ,i have turned all my attention and endeavour to this kind of literary work4 ,i have1 accordingly1 written more in this short time since the downfall of the republic than ,i did in the course of many years1 while the republic stood4 99#e99 ,,ii4 ,sed cum tota philosophia1 mi ,cicero1 frugifera et fructuosa nec ulla pars eius inculta ac deserta sit1 tum nullus feracior in ea locus est nec uberior#bgj quam de officiis1 a quibus constanter honesteque vivendi praecepta ducuntur4 ,quare1 quamquam a ,cratippo nostro1 principe huius memoriae philosophorum1 haec te assidue audire atque accipere confido1 tamen conducere arbitror talibus aures tuas vocibus undique circumsonare1 nec eas1 si fieri possit1 quicquam aliud audire4 99#f99 ,quod cum omnibus est faciendum1 qui vitam honestam ingredi cogitant1 tum haud scio an nemini potius quam tibi2 sustines enim non parvam exspectationem imitandae industriae nostrae1 magnam honorum1 non nullam fortasse nominis4 ,suscepisti onus praeterea grave et ,athenarum et ,cratippi2 ad quos cum tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus1 inanem redire turpissimum est dedecorantem et urbis auctoritatem et magistri4 ,quare1 quantum coniti animo potes1 quantum labore contendere1 si discendi labor est potius quam voluptas1 tantum fac ut efficias neve committas1 ut1 cum#bga omnia suppeditata sint a nobis1 tute tibi defuisse videare4 ,sed haec hactenus2 multa enim saepe ad te cohortandi gratia scripsimus2 nunc ad reliquam partem propositae divisionis revertamur4 99#g99 ,panaetius igitur1 qui sine controversia de officiis accuratissime disputavit1 quemque nos correctione quadam adhibita potissimum secuti sumus1 tribus generibus propositis1 in quibus deliberare homines et consultare de officio solerent1 uno1 cum dubitarent1 honestumne id esset1 de quo ageretur1 an turpe1 altero1 utilene esset an inutile1 tertio1 si id1 quod speciem haberet honesti1 pugnaret cum eo1 quod utile videretur1 quo modo ea discerni oporteret1 de duobus generibus primis tribus libris explicavit1 de tertio autem genere deinceps se scripsit dicturum nec exsolvit id1 quod promiserat4 99#h99 ,quod eo magis miror1 quia scriptum a discipulo eius ,posidonio est triginta annis vixisse ,panaetium1 posteaquam illos libros edidisset4 ,quem locum miror a ,posidonio breviter esse tactum in quibusdam commentariis1 praesertim cum scribat nullum esse locum in tota philosophia tam necessarium4 99#i99 ,minime vero assentior iis1 qui negant eum locum a ,panaetio praetermissum1 sed consulto relictum1 nec omnino scribendum fuisse1 quia numquam posset utilitas cum honestate pugnare4 ,de quo alterum potest habere dubitationem1 adhibendumne fuerit hoc genus1 quod in divisione ,panaeti tertium est1 an plane omittendum1 alterum dubitari non potest1 quin a ,panaetio susceptum sit1 sed relictum4 ,nam qui e divisione tripertita duas partes absolverit1 huic necesse est restare tertiam2 praeterea in extremo libro tertio de hac parte pollicetur se deinceps esse dicturum4 99#aj99 ,accedit eodem testis locuples ,posidonius1 qui etiam scribit in quadam epistula ,p4 ,rutilium ,rufum dicere solere1 qui ,panaetium audierat1 ut nemo pictor esset inventus1 qui in ,coa ,venere eam partem1 quam ,apelles inchoatam reliquisset1 absolveret 7oris enim pulchritudo reliqui corporis imitandi spem auferebat71 sic ea1 quae ,panaetius praetermisisset et non perfecisset#bgb propter eorum1 quae perfecisset1 praestantiam neminem persecutum4 #bgj uberior c1 ,edd42 uerior ,b ,h a b4 #bga ut1 cum c1 ,edd42 ut ne1 cum ,b ,h a b4 #bgb et non perfecisset ,,mss42 del4 ,muretus2 bracketed by ,edd4 ,young ,cicero admonished to diligence in his studies4 99#e99 ,,ii4 ,but1 my dear ,cicero1 while the whole field of philosophy is fertile and productive and no portion of it barren and waste1 still no part is richer or more fruitful than that which deals with moral duties2 for from these are derived the rules for leading a consistent and moral life4 ,and therefore1 although you are1 as ,i trust1 diligently studying and profiting by these precepts under the direction of our friend ,cratippus1 the foremost philosopher of the present age1 ,i still think it well that your ears should be dinned with such precepts from every side and that1 if it could be1 they should hear nothing else4 99#f99 ,these precepts must be laid to heart by all who look forward to a career of honour1 and ,i am inclined to think that no one needs them more than you4 ,for you will have to fulfil the eager anticipation that you will imitate my industry1 the confident expectation that you will emulate my course of political honours1 and the hope that you will1 perhaps1 rival my name and fame4 ,you have1 besides1 incurred a heavy responsibility on account of ,athens and ,cratippus3 for since you have gone to them for the purchase1 as it were1 of a store of liberal culture1 it would be a great discredit to you to return empty-handed1 thereby disgracing the high reputation of the city and of your master4 ,therefore1 put forth the best mental effort of which you are capable2 work as hard as you can 7if learning is work rather than pleasure72 do your very best to succeed2 and do not1 when ,i have put all the necessary means at your disposal1 allow it to be said that you have failed to do your part4 ,but enough of this4 ,for ,i have written again and again for your encouragement4 ,let us now return to the remaining section of our subject as outlined4 ,panaetius on ,moral ,duties4 99#g99 ,panaetius1 then1 has given us what is unquestionably the most thorough discussion of moral duties that we have1 and ,i have followed him in the main--but with slight modifications4 ,he classifies under three general heads the ethical problems which people are accustomed to consider and weigh3 first1 the question whether the matter in hand is morally right or morally wrong2 second1 whether it is expedient or inexpedient2 third1 how a decision ought to be reached1 in case that which has the appearance of being morally right clashes with that which seems to be expedient4 ,he has treated the first two heads at length in three books2 but while he has stated that he meant to discuss the third head in its proper turn1 he has never fulfilled his promise4 99#h99 ,and ,i wonder the more at this1 because ,posidonius1 a pupil of his1 records that ,panaetius was still alive thirty years after he published those three books4 ,and ,i am surprised that ,posidonius has but briefly touched upon this subject in certain memoirs of his1 and especially1 as he states that there is no other topic in the whole range of philosophy so essentially important as this4 ,why ,panaetius omitted the ,conflict of the moral and the expedient4 99#i99 ,now1 ,i cannot possibly accept the view of those who say that that point was not overlooked but purposely omitted by ,panaetius1 and that it was not one that ever needed discussion1 because there never can be such a thing as a conflict between expediency and moral rectitude4 ,but with regard to this assertion1 the one point may admit of doubt--whether that question which is third in ,panaetius's classification ought to have been included or omitted altogether2 but the other point is not open to debate--that it was included in ,panaetius's plan but left unwritten4 ,for if a writer has finished two divisions of a threefold subject1 the third must necessarily remain for him to do4 ,besides1 he promises at the close of the third book that he will discuss this division also in its proper turn4 99#aj99 ,we have also in ,posidonius a competent witness to the fact4 ,he writes in one of his letters that ,publius ,rutilius ,rufus1 who also was a pupil of ,panaetius's1 used to say that as no painter had been found to complete that part of the ,venus of ,cos which ,apelles had left unfinished 7for the beauty of her face made hopeless any attempt adequately to represent the rest of the figure71 so no one1 because of the surpassing excellence of what ,panaetius did complete1 would venture to supply what he had left undone4 99#aa99 ,,iii4 ,quam ob rem de iudicio ,panaeti dubitari non potest2 rectene autem hanc tertiam partem ad exquirendum officium adiunxerit an secus1 de eo fortasse disputari potest4 ,nam1 sive honestum solum bonum est1 ut ,stoicis placet1 sive1 quod honestum est1 id ita summum bonum est1 quem ad modum ,peripateticis vestris videtur1 ut omnia ex altera parte collocata vix minimi momenti instar habeant1 dubitandum non est1 quin numquam possit utilitas cum honestate contendere4 ,itaque accepimus ,socratem exsecrari solitum eos1 qui primum haec natura cohaerentia opinione distraxissent4 ,cui quidem ita sunt ,stoici assensi1 ut et1 quicquid honestum esset1 id utile esse censerent nec utile quicquam1 quod non honestum4 99#ab99 ,quodsi is esset ,panaetius1 qui virtutem propterea colendam diceret1 quod ea efficiens utilitatis esset1 ut ii1 qui res expetendas vel voluptate vel indolentia metiuntur1 liceret ei dicere utilitatem aliquando cum honestate pugnare2 sed cum sit is1 qui id solum bonum iudicet1 quod honestum sit1 quae autem huic repugnent specie quadam utilitatis1 eorum neque accessione meliorem vitam fieri nec decessione peiorem1 non videtur debuisse eius modi deliberationem introducere1 in qua1 quod utile videretur1 cum eo1 quod honestum est1 compararetur4 99#ac99 ,etenim quod summum bonum a ,stoicis dicitur1 convenienter naturae vivere1 id habet hanc1 ut opinor1 sententiam3 cum virtute congruere semper1 cetera autem1 quae secundum naturam essent1 ita legere1 si ea virtuti non repugnarent4 ,quod cum ita sit1 putant quidam hanc comparationem non recte introductam1 nec omnino de eo genere quicquam praecipiendum fuisse4 ,atque#bgc illud quidem honestum1 quod proprie vereque dicitur1 id in sapientibus est solis neque a virtute divelli umquam potest2 in iis autem1 in quibus sapientia perfecta non est1 ipsum illud quidem perfectum honestum nullo modo1 similitudines honesti esse possunt4 99#ad99 ,haec enim officia1 de quibus his libris disputamus1 media ,stoici appellant2 ea communia sunt et late patent2 quae et ingenii bonitate multi assequuntur et progressione discendi4 ,illud autem officium1 quod rectum idem appellant1 perfectum atque absolutum est et1 ut idem dicunt1 omnes numeros habet nec praeter sapientem cadere in quemquam potest4 99#ae99 ,cum autem aliquid actum est1 in quo media officia compareant1#bgd id cumulate videtur esse perfectum1 propterea quod volgus1 quid absit a perfecto1 non fere intellegit2 quatenus autem intellegit1 nihil putat praetermissum2 quod idem#bge in poematis1 in picturis usu venit in aliisque compluribus1 ut delectentur imperiti laudentque ea1 quae laudanda non sint1 ob eam1 credo1 causam1 quod insit in iis#bgf aliquid probi1 quod capiat ignaros1 qui quidem1#bgg quid in una quaque re vitii sit1 nequeant iudicare2 itaque1 cum sunt docti a peritis1 desistunt facile sententia4 #bgc ,atque ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,mller1 ,heine2 atqui ,fleckeisen1 ,bt4#b1 ,ed4 #bgd compareant ,anemoecius1 ,edd42 comparant ,b ,h a b2 appareant c2 comparent p4 #bge idem ,nonius1 ,mller1 ,heine2 autem ,b ,h a b2 item c1 ,bt4 #bgf iis ,baiter1 ,mller1 ,heine2 his ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #bgg qui quidem many ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,mller2 qui idem ,b ,h a b c2 qui idem ,bt4#b1 ,heine4 ,the conflict between ,expediency and ,moral ,rectitude only apparent4 99#aa99 ,,iii4 ,in regard to ,panaetius's real intentions1 therefore1 no doubt can be entertained4 ,but whether he was or was not justified in adding this third division to the inquiry about duty may1 perhaps1 be a matter for debate4 ,for whether moral goodness is the only good1 as the ,stoics believe1 or whether1 as your ,peripatetics think1 moral goodness is in so far the highest good that everything else gathered together into the opposing scale would have scarcely the slightest weight1 it is beyond question that expediency can never conflict with moral rectitude4 ,and so1 we have heard1 ,socrates used to pronounce a curse upon those who first drew a conceptual distinction between things naturally inseparable4 ,with this doctrine the ,stoics are in agreement in so far as they maintain that if anything is morally right1 it is expedient1 and if anything is not morally right1 it is not expedient4 99#ab99 ,but if ,panaetius were the sort of man to say that virtue is worth cultivating only because it is productive of advantage1 as do certain philosophers who measure the desirableness of things by the standard of pleasure or of absence of pain1 he might argue that expediency sometimes clashes with moral rectitude4 ,but since he is a man who judges that the morally right is the only good1 and that those things which come in conflict with it have only the appearance of expediency and cannot make life any better by their presence nor any worse by their absence1 it follows that he ought not to have raised a question involving the weighing of what seems expedient against what is morally right4 99#ac99 ,furthermore1 when the ,stoics speak of the supreme good as living conformably to nature1 they mean1 as ,i take it1 something like this3 that we are always to be in accord with virtue1 and from all other things that may be in harmony with nature to choose only such as are not incompatible with virtue4 ,this being so1 some people are of the opinion that it was not right to introduce this counterbalancing of right and expediency and that no practical instruction should have been given on this question at all4 ,and yet moral goodness1 in the true and proper sense of the term1 is the exclusive possession of the wise and can never be separated from virtue2 but those who have not perfect wisdom cannot possibly have perfect moral goodness1 but only a semblance of it4 99#ad99 ,the absolute and the mean4 ,and indeed these duties under discussion in these books the ,stoics call mean duties,,bb2 they are a common possession and have wide application2 and many people attain to the knowledge of them through natural goodness of heart and through advancement in learning4 ,but that duty which those same ,stoics call right is perfect and absolute and satisfies all the numbers1,,bc as that same school says1 and is attainable by none except the wise man4 99#ae99 ,on the other hand1 when some act is performed in which we see mean duties manifested1 that is generally regarded as fully perfect1 for the reason that the common crowd does not1 as a rule1 comprehend how far it falls short of real perfection2 but as far as their comprehension does go1 they think there is no deficiency4 ,this same thing ordinarily occurs in the estimation of poems1 paintings1 and a great many other works of art3 ordinary people enjoy and praise things that do not deserve praise4 ,the reason for this1 ,i suppose1 is that those productions have some point of excellence which catches the fancy of the uneducated1 because these have not the ability to discover the points of weakness in any particular piece of work before them4 ,and so1 when they are instructed by experts1 they readily abandon their former opinion4 ,,bb ,see note on ,i1 #h4 ,,bc ,i4e41 fills all the requirements of absolute perfection--an allusion to the ,pythagorean doctrine that specific numbers stand for perfection of specific kinds2 absolute duty combines them all4 ,,iv4 ,haec igitur officia1 de quibus his libris disserimus1 quasi secunda quaedam honesta esse dicunt1 non sapientium modo propria1 sed cum omni hominum genere communia4 99#af99 ,itaque iis omnes1 in quibus est virtutis indoles1 commoventur4 ,nec vero1 cum duo ,decii aut duo ,scipiones fortes viri commemorantur1 aut cum ,fabricius aut ,aristides#bgh iustus nominatur1 aut ab illis fortitudinis aut ab hoc#bgi iustitiae tamquam a sapiente petitur exemplum2 nemo enim horum sic sapiens1 ut sapientem volumus intellegi1 nec ii1 qui sapientes habiti et nominati1 ,m4 ,cato et ,c4 ,laelius1 sapientes fuerunt1 ne illi quidem septem1 sed ex mediorum officiorum frequentia similitudinem quandam gerebant speciemque sapientium4 99#ag99 ,quocirca nec id1 quod vere honestum est1 fas est cum utilitatis repugnantia comparari1 nec id1 quod communiter appellamus honestum1 quod colitur ab iis1 qui bonos se viros haberi volunt1 cum emolumentis umquam est comparandum1 tamque id honestum1 quod in nostram intellegentiam cadit1 tuendum conservandumque nobis est quam illud1 quod proprie dicitur vereque est honestum1 sapientibus2 aliter enim teneri non potest1 si qua ad virtutem est facta progressio4 ,sed haec quidem de iis1 qui conservatione officiorum existimantur boni4 99#ah99 ,qui autem omnia metiuntur emolumentis et commodis neque ea volunt praeponderari honestate1 ii solent in deliberando honestum cum eo1 quod utile putant1 comparare1 boni viri non solent4 ,itaque existimo ,panaetium1 cum dixerit homines solere in hac comparatione dubitare1 hoc ipsum sensisse1 quod dixerit1 solere modo1 non etiam oportere4 ,etenim non modo pluris putare1 quod utile videatur1 quam quod honestum sit1#bhj sed etiam haec inter se comparare et in his addubitare turpissimum est4 ,quid ergo est1 quod non numquam dubitationem afferre soleat considerandumque videatur8 ,credo1 si quando dubitatio accidit1 quale sit id1 de quo consideretur4 99#ai99 ,saepe enim tempore fit1 ut1 quod turpe plerumque haberi soleat1 inveniatur non esse turpe2 exempli causa ponatur aliquid1 quod pateat latius3 ,quod potest maius esse#bha scelus quam non modo hominem1 sed etiam familiarem hominem occidere8 ,num igitur se astrinxit scelere1 si qui tyrannum occidit quamvis familiarem8 ,populo quidem ,romano non videtur1 qui ex omnibus praeclaris factis illud pulcherrimum existimat4 ,vicit ergo utilitas honestatem8 ,immo vero honestas utilitatem secuta est4#bhb ,itaque1 ut sine ullo errore diiudicare possimus1 si quando cum illo1 quod honestum intellegimus1 pugnare id videbitur1 quod appellamus utile1 formula quaedam constituenda est2 quam si sequemur in comparatione rerum1 ab officio numquam recedemus4 99#bj99 ,erit autem haec formula ,stoicorum rationi disciplinaeque maxime consentanea2 quam quidem his libris propterea sequimur1 quod1 quamquam et a veteribus ,academicis et a ,peripateticis vestris1 qui quondam idem erant1 qui ,academici1 quae honesta sunt1 anteponuntur iis1 quae videntur utilia1 tamen splendidius haec ab eis disseruntur1#bhc quibus1 quicquid honestum est1 idem utile videtur nec utile quicquam1 quod non honestum1 quam ab iis1#bhd quibus et honestum aliquid non utile et utile#bhe non honestum4 ,nobis autem nostra ,academia magnam licentiam dat1 ut1 quodcumque maxime probabile occurrat1 id nostro iure liceat defendere4 ,sed redeo ad formulam4 #bgh aut ,aristides 7,aristidesve p7 ,,mss41 ,lactantius2 bracketed by ,j4 ,m4 ,heusinger1 ,edd4 #bgi hoc ,lactantius1 ,edd41 his ,,mss4 #bhj sit c1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller2 not in ,b ,h a b1 ,bt4#a2 est ,heine4 #bha esse c1 ,edd42 not in ,b ,h a b4 #bhb utilitatem secuta est ,,mss41 ,mller1 ,heine2 utilitatem2 honestatem utilitas secuta est ,baiter1 ,ed4 #bhc disseruntur certain ,,mss41 ,c4 ,lange and ,fr4 ,fabricius1 ,mller1 ,heine2 disserentur ,,mss41 ,bt4 #bhd iis ,edd42 his 7hijs c7 ,,mss4 #bhe et honestum 444 et utile ,lambinus1 ,bt4#b1 ,mller1 ,heine1 et honestum 444 aut utile ,b ,h a b2 aut honestum 444 aut utile c1 ,bt4#a ,absolute goodness and imperfect humanity4 ,,iv4 ,the performance of the duties1 then1 which ,i am discussing in these books1 is called by the ,stoics a sort of second-grade moral goodness1 not the peculiar property of their wise men1 but shared by them with all mankind4 99#af99 ,accordingly1 such duties appeal to all men who have a natural disposition to virtue4 ,and when the two ,decii or the two ,scipios are mentioned as brave men or ,fabricius or ,aristides is called the just1 it is not at all that the former are quoted as perfect models of courage or the latter as a perfect model of justice1 as if we had in one of them the ideal wise man4 ,for no one of them was wise in the sense in which we wish to have wise understood2 neither were ,marcus ,cato and ,gaius ,laelius wise1 though they were so considered and were surnamed the wise4 ,not even the famous ,seven were wise4 ,but because of their constant observance of mean duties they bore a certain semblance and likeness to wise men4 99#ag99 ,for these reasons it is unlawful either to weigh true morality against conflicting expediency1 or common morality1 which is cultivated by those who wish to be considered good men1 against what is profitable2 but we every-day people must observe and live up to that moral right which comes within the range of our comprehension as jealously as the truly wise men have to observe and live up to that which is morally right in the technical and true sense of the word4 ,for otherwise we cannot maintain such progress as we have made in the direction of virtue4 ,so much for those who have won a reputation for being good men by their careful observance of duty4 ,moral rectitude and apparent expediency4 99#ah99 ,those1 on the other hand1 who measure everything by a standard of profits and personal advantage and refuse to have these outweighed by considerations of moral rectitude are accustomed1 in considering any question1 to weigh the morally right against what they think the expedient2 good men are not4 ,and so ,i believe that when ,panaetius stated that people were accustomed to hesitate to do such weighing1 he meant precisely what he said--merely that such was their custom1 not that such was their duty4 ,and he gave it no approval2 for it is most immoral to think more highly of the apparently expedient than of the morally right1 or even to set these over against each other and to hesitate to choose between them4 ,occasion for doubt4 ,what1 then1 is it that may sometimes give room for a doubt and seem to call for consideration8 ,it is1 ,i believe1 when a question arises as to the character of an action under consideration4 99#ai99 ,for it often happens1 owing to exceptional circumstances1 that what is accustomed under ordinary circumstances to be considered morally wrong is found not to be morally wrong4 ,for the sake of illustration1 let us assume some particular case that admits of wider application3 what more atrocious crime can there be than to kill a fellow-man1 and especially an intimate friend8 ,but if anyone kills a tyrant--be he never so intimate a friend--he has not laden his soul with guilt1 has he8 ,the ,roman ,people1 at all events1 are not of that opinion2 for of all glorious deeds they hold such an one to be the most noble4 ,has expediency1 then1 prevailed over moral rectitude8 ,not at all2 moral rectitude has gone hand in hand with expediency4 ,need of a rule for guidance4 ,some general rule1 therefore1 should be laid down to enable us to decide without error1 whenever what we call the expedient seems to clash with what we feel to be morally right2 and if we follow that rule in comparing courses of conduct1 we shall never swerve from the path of duty4 99#bj99 ,that rule1 moreover1 shall be in perfect harmony with the ,stoics' system and doctrines4 ,it is their teachings that ,i am following in these books1 and for this reason3 the older ,academicians and your ,peripatetics 7who were once the same as the ,academicians7 give what is morally right the preference over what seems expedient2 and yet the discussion of these problems1 if conducted by those who consider whatever is morally right also expedient and nothing expedient that is not at the same time morally right1 will be more illuminating than if conducted by those who think that something not expedient may be morally right and that something not morally right may be expedient4 ,but our ,new ,academy allows us wide liberty1 so that it is within my right to defend any theory that presents itself to me as most probable4 ,but to return to my rule4 99#ba99 ,v4 ,detrahere igitur alteri aliquid et hominem hominis incommodo suum commodum augere magis est contra naturam quam mors1 quam paupertas1 quam dolor1 quam cetera1 quae possunt aut corpori accidere aut rebus externis4 ,nam principio tollit convictum humanum et societatem4 ,si enim sic erimus affecti1 ut propter suum quisque emolumentum spoliet aut violet alterum1 disrumpi necesse est1 eam quae maxime est secundum naturam1 humani generis societatem4 99#bb99 ,ut1 si unum quodque membrum sensum hunc haberet1 ut posse putaret se valere1 si proximi membri valetudinem ad se traduxisset1 debilitari et interire totum corpus necesse esset1 sic1 si unus quisque nostrum ad se rapiat commoda aliorum detrahatque1 quod cuique possit1 emolumenti sui gratia1 societas hominum et communitas evertatur necesse est4 ,nam sibi ut quisque malit1 quod ad usum vitae pertineat1 quam alteri acquirere1 concessum est non repugnante natura1 illud natura non patitur1 ut aliorum spoliis nostras facultates1 copias1 opes augeamus4 99#bc99 ,neque vero hoc solum natura1 id est iure gentium1 sed etiam legibus populorum1 quibus in singulis civitatibus res publica continetur1 eodem modo constitutum est1 ut non liceat sui commodi causa nocere alteri2 hoc enim spectant leges1 hoc volunt1 incolumem esse civium coniunctionem2 quam qui dirimunt1 eos morte1 exsilio1 vinclis1 damno corcent4 ,atque hoc multo magis efficit ipsa naturae ratio1 quae est lex divina et humana2 cui parere qui velit 7omnes autem parebunt1 qui secundum naturam volent vivere71 numquam committet1 ut alienum appetat et id1 quod alteri detraxerit1 sibi adsumat4 99#bd99 ,etenim multo magis est secundum naturam excelsitas animi et magnitudo itemque comitas1 iustitia1 liberalitas quam voluptas1 quam vita1 quam divitiae2 quae quidem contemnere et pro nihilo ducere comparantem cum utilitate communi magni animi et excelsi est4 ,detrahere autem de altero sui commodi causa magis est contra naturam quam mors1 quam dolor1 quam cetera generis eiusdem4#bhf 99#be99 ,itemque magis est secundum naturam pro omnibus gentibus1 si fieri possit1 conservandis aut iuvandis maximos labores molestiasque suscipere imitantem ,herculem illum1 quem hominum fama beneficiorum memor in concilio caelestium collocavit1 quam vivere in solitudine non modo sine ullis molestiis1 sed etiam in maximis voluptatibus abundantem omnibus copiis1 ut excellas etiam pulchritudine et viribus4 ,quocirca optimo quisque et splendidissimo ingenio longe illam vitam huic anteponit4 ,ex quo efficitur hominem naturae oboedientem homini nocere non posse4 99#bf99 ,deinde1 qui alterum violat1 ut ipse aliquid commodi consequatur1 aut nihil existimat se facere contra naturam aut magis fugiendam#bhg censet mortem1 paupertatem1 dolorem1 amissionem etiam liberorum1 propinquorum1 amicorum quam facere cuiquam iniuriam4 ,si nihil existimat contra naturam fieri hominibus violandis1 quid cum eo disseras1 qui omnino hominem ex homine tollat8 sin fugiendum id quidem censet1 sed#bhh multo illa peiora1 mortem1 paupertatem1 dolorem1 errat in eo1 quod ullum aut corporis aut fortunae vitium vitiis animi gravius existimat4 #bhf ,detrahere 444 generis eiusdem ,,mss42 bracketed by ,baiter1 ,edd4 #bhg fugiendam b1 ,ed42 fugienda ,b ,h a c4 #bhh sed c1 ,edd42 et ,b ,h a b4 ,wrongful gains are against the laws3 7#a7 of nature1 99#ba99 ,v4 ,well then1 for a man to take something from his neighbour and to profit by his neighbour's loss is more contrary to nature than is death or poverty or pain or anything else that can affect either our person or our property4 ,for1 in the first place1 injustice is fatal to social life and fellowship between man and man4 ,for if we are so disposed that each1 to gain some personal profit1 will defraud or injure his neighbour1 then those bonds of human society1 which are most in accord with nature's laws1 must of necessity be broken4 99#bb99 ,suppose1 by way of comparison1 that each one of our bodily members should conceive this idea and imagine that it could be strong and well if it should draw off to itself the health and strength of its neighbouring member1 the whole body would necessarily be enfeebled and die2 so1 if each one of us should seize upon the property of his neighbours and take from each whatever he could appropriate to his own use1 the bonds of human society must inevitably be annihilated4 ,for1 without any conflict with nature's laws1 it is granted that everybody may prefer to secure for himself rather than for his neighbour what is essential for the conduct of life2 but nature's laws do forbid us to increase our means1 wealth1 and resources by despoiling others4 7#b7 of nations1 99#bc99 ,but this principle is established not by nature's laws alone 7that is1 by the common rules of equity71 but also by the statutes of particular communities1 in accordance with which in individual states the public interests are maintained4 ,in all these it is with one accord ordained that no man shall be allowed for the sake of his own advantage to injure his neighbour4 ,for it is to this that the laws have regard2 this is their intent1 that the bonds of union between citizens should not be impaired2 and any attempt to destroy these bonds is repressed by the penalty of death1 exile1 imprisonment1 or fine4 7#c7 of gods and men4 ,again1 this principle follows much more effectually directly from the ,reason which is in ,nature1 which is the law of gods and men4 ,if anyone will hearken to that voice 7and all will hearken to it who wish to live in accord with nature's laws71 he will never be guilty of coveting anything that is his neighbour's or of appropriating to himself what he has taken from his neighbour4 99#bd99 ,then1 too1 loftiness and greatness of spirit1 and courtesy1 justice1 and generosity are much more in harmony with nature than are selfish pleasure1 riches1 and life itself2 but it requires a great and lofty spirit to despise these latter and count them as naught1 when one weighs them over against the common weal4 ,self-seeking vs4 self-sacrifice4 ,but for anyone to rob his neighbour for his own profit is more contrary to nature than death1 pain1 and the like4 99#be99 ,in like manner it is more in accord with nature to emulate the great ,hercules and undergo the greatest toil and trouble for the sake of aiding or saving the world1 if possible1 than to live in seclusion1 not only free from all care1 but revelling in pleasures and abounding in wealth1 while excelling others also in beauty and strength4 ,thus ,hercules denied himself and underwent toil and tribulation for the world1 and1 out of gratitude for his services1 popular belief has given him a place in the council of the gods4 ,the better and more noble1 therefore1 the character with which a man is endowed1 the more does he prefer the life of service to the life of pleasure4 ,whence it follows that man1 if he is obedient to nature1 cannot do harm to his fellow-man4 99#bf99 ,finally1 if a man wrongs his neighbour to gain some advantage for himself1 he must either imagine that he is not acting in defiance of nature or he must believe that death1 poverty1 pain1 or even the loss of children1 kinsmen1 or friends1 is more to be shunned than an act of injustice against another4 ,if he thinks he is not violating the laws of nature1 when he wrongs his fellow-men1 how is one to argue with the individual who takes away from man all that makes him man8 ,but if he believes that while such a course should be avoided1 the other alternatives are much worse--namely1 death1 poverty1 pain--he is mistaken in thinking that any ills affecting either his person or his property are more serious than those affecting his soul4 ,,vi4 ,ergo unum debet esse omnibus propositum1 ut eadem sit utilitas unius cuiusque et universorum2 quam si ad se quisque rapiet1 dissolvetur omnis humana consortio4 99#bg99 ,atque etiam1 si hoc natura praescribit1 ut homo homini1 quicumque sit1 ob eam ipsam causam1 quod is homo sit1 consultum velit1 necesse est secundum eandem naturam omnium utilitatem esse communem4 ,quod si ita est1 una continemur omnes et eadem lege naturae1 idque ipsum si ita est1 certe violare alterum naturae lege prohibemur4 ,verum autem primum2 verum igitur extremum4 99#bh99 ,nam illud quidem absurdum est1 quod quidam dicunt1 parenti se aut fratri nihil detracturos sui commodi causa1 aliam rationem esse civium reliquorum4 ,hi sibi nihil iuris1 nullam societatem communis utilitatis causa statuunt esse cum civibus1 quae sententia omnem societatem distrahit civitatis4 ,qui autem civium rationem dicunt habendam1 externorum negant1 ii#bhi dirimunt communem humani generis societatem3 qua sublata beneficentia1 liberalitas1 bonitas1 iustitia funditus tollitur2 quae qui tollunt1 etiam adversus deos immortales impii iudicandi sunt4 ,ab iis enim constitutam inter homines societatem evertunt1 cuius societatis artissimum vinculum est magis arbitrari esse contra naturam hominem homini detrahere sui commodi causa quam omnia incommoda subire vel externa vel corporis 444 vel etiam ipsius animi1 quae vacent iustitia#bij2 haec enim una virtus omnium est domina et regina virtutum4 99#bi99 ,forsitan quispiam dixerit3 ,nonne igitur sapiens1 si fame ipse conficiatur1 abstulerit cibum alteri homini ad nullam rem utili8 ,minime vero2 non enim mihi est vita mea utilior quam animi talis affectio1 neminem ut violem commodi mei gratia4#bia ,quid8 si ,phalarim1 crudelem tyrannum et immanem1 vir bonus1 ne ipse frigore conficiatur1 vestitu spoliare possit1 nonne faciat8 99#cj99 ,haec ad iudicandum sunt facillima4 ,nam1 si quid ab homine ad nullam partem utili utilitatis tuae causa detraxeris1 inhumane feceris contraque naturae legem2 sin autem is tu sis1 qui multam utilitatem rei publicae atque hominum societati1 si in vita remaneas1 afferre possis1 si quid ob eam causam alteri detraxeris1 non sit reprehendendum4 ,sin autem id non sit eius modi1 suum cuique incommodum ferendum est potius quam de alterius commodis detrahendum4 ,non igitur magis est contra naturam morbus aut egestas aut quid eius modi quam detractio atque appetitio alieni1 sed communis utilitatis derelictio contra naturam est2 est enim iniusta4 99#ca99 ,itaque lex ipsa naturae1 quae utilitatem hominum conservat et continet1 decernet profecto1 ut ab homine inerti atque inutili ad sapientem1 bonum1 fortem virum transferantur res ad vivendum necessariae1 qui si occiderit1 multum de communi utilitate detraxerit1 modo hoc ita faciat1 ut ne ipse de se bene existimans seseque diligens hanc causam habeat ad iniuriam4 ,ita semper officio fungetur utilitati consulens hominum et ei1 quam saepe commemoro1 humanae societati4 99#cb99 ,nam quod ad ,phalarim attinet1 perfacile iudicium est4 ,nulla est enim societas nobis cum tyrannis1 et potius summa distractio est1 neque est contra naturam spoliare eum1 si possis1 quem est honestum necare1 atque hoc omne genus pestiferum atque impium ex hominum communitate exterminandum est4 ,etenim1 ut membra quaedam amputantur1 si et ipsa sanguine et tamquam spiritu carere coeperunt et nocent reliquis partibus corporis1 sic ista in figura hominis feritas et immanitas beluae a communi tamquam humanitatis corpore#bib segreganda est4 ,huius generis quaestiones sunt omnes eae1 in quibus ex tempore officium exquiritur4 #bhi ii ,bt41 ,ed42 hi ,b a b2 hii ,h2 hij c4 #bij quae vacent iustitia ,,mss41 ,ed41 ,heine2 quae vacent iniustitia cod4 ,ubaldini1 ,bt4#a2 quae non v4 iustitia ,o4 #bia ,bracketed by ,unger1 ,edd4 #bib humanitatis corpore ,muret1 cod4 ,guelf41 ,ed41 ,bt41 ,heine2 humanitate corporis ,,mss41 ,mller2 ,unger strikes out corporis4 ,the interest of society is the interest of the individual4 ,,vi4 ,this1 then1 ought to be the chief end of all men1 to make the interest of each individual and of the whole body politic identical4 ,for if the individual appropriates to selfish ends what should be devoted to the common good1 all human fellowship will be destroyed4 99#bg99 ,and further1 if nature ordains that one man shall desire to promote the interests of a fellow-man1 whoever he may be1 just because he is a fellow-man1 then it follows1 in accordance with that same nature1 that there are interests that all men have in common4 ,and if this is true1 we are all subject to one and the same law of nature2 and if this also is true1 we are certainly forbidden by nature's law to wrong our neighbour4 ,now the first assumption is true2 therefore the conclusion is likewise true4 99#bh99 ,for that is an absurd position which is taken by some people1 who say that they will not rob a parent or a brother for their own gain1 but that their relation to the rest of their fellow-citizens is quite another thing4 ,such people contend in essence that they are bound to their fellow-citizens by no mutual obligations1 social ties1 or common interests4 ,this attitude demolishes the whole structure of civil society4 ,better endure any loss than wrong a fellow man for gain4 ,others again who say that regard should be had for the rights of fellow-citizens1 but not of foreigners1 would destroy the universal brotherhood of mankind2 and when this is annihilated1 kindness1 generosity1 goodness1 and justice must utterly perish2 and those who work all this destruction must be considered as wickedly rebelling against the immortal gods4 ,for they uproot the fellowship which the gods have established between human beings1 and the closest bond of this fellowship is the conviction that it is more repugnant to nature for man to rob a fellow-man for his own gain than to endure all possible loss1 whether to his property or to his person 444 or even to his very soul--so far as these losses are not concerned with justice,,bd2 for this virtue is the sovereign mistress and queen of all the virtues4 99#bi99 ,but1 perhaps1 some one may say3 ,well1 then1 suppose a wise man were starving to death1 might he not take the bread of some perfectly useless member of society8 ,not at all2 for my life is not more precious to me than that temper of soul which would keep me from doing wrong to anybody for my own advantage4 ,or again2 supposing a righteous man were in a position to rob the cruel and inhuman tyrant ,phalaris of clothing1 might he not do it to keep himself from freezing to death8 99#cj99 ,these cases are very easy to decide4 ,for if merely for one's own benefit one were to take something away from a man1 though he were a perfectly worthless fellow1 it would be an act of meanness and contrary to nature's law4 ,the interests of society must decide about exceptions4 ,but suppose one would be able1 by remaining alive1 to render signal service to the state and to human society--if from that motive one should take something from another1 it would not be a matter for censure4 ,but if such is not the case1 each one must bear his own burden of distress rather than rob a neighbour of his rights4 ,we are not to say1 therefore1 that sickness or want or any evil of that sort is more repugnant to nature than to covet and to appropriate what is one's neighbour's2 but we do maintain that disregard of the common interests is repugnant to nature2 for it is unjust4 99#ca99 ,and therefore nature's law itself1 which protects and conserves human interests1 will surely determine that a man who is wise1 good1 and brave1 should in emergency have the necessaries of life transferred to him from a person who is idle and worthless2 for the good man's death would be a heavy loss to the common weal2 only let him beware that self-esteem and self-love do not find in such a transfer of possessions a pretext for wrong-doing4 ,but thus guided in his decision1 the good man will always perform his duty1 promoting the general interests of human society on which ,i am so fond of dwelling4 ,no duty due to a tyrant4 99#cb99 ,as for the case of ,phalaris1 a decision is quite simple3 we have no ties of fellowship with a tyrant1 but rather the bitterest feud2 and it is not opposed to nature to rob1 if one can1 a man whom it is morally right to kill2--nay1 all that pestilent and abominable race should be exterminated from human society4 ,and this may be done by proper measures2 for as certain members are amputated1 if they show signs themselves of being bloodless and virtually lifeless and thus jeopardize the health of the other parts of the body1 so those fierce and savage monsters in human form should be cut off from what may be called the common body of humanity4 ,of this sort are all those problems in which we have to determine what moral duty is1 as it varies with varying circumstances4 ,,bd ,i4e41 there are no circumstances of loss or gain that can warrant a violation of justice4 99#cc99 ,,vii4 ,eius modi igitur credo res ,panaetium persecuturum fuisse1 nisi aliqui casus aut occupatio eius consilium peremisset4 ,ad quas ipsas consultationes superioribus libris satis multa praecepta sunt1 ex quibus#bic perspici possit1 quid sit propter turpitudinem fugiendum1 quid sit1 quod idcirco fugiendum non sit1 quod omnino turpe non sit4 ,sed quoniam operi inchoato1 prope tamen absoluto tamquam fastigium imponimus1 ut geometrae solent non omnia docere1 sed postulare1 ut quaedam sibi concedantur1 quo facilius1 quae volunt1 explicent1 sic ego a te postulo1 mi ,cicero1 ut mihi concedas1 si potes1 nihil praeter id1 quod honestum sit1 propter se esse expetendum4 ,sin hoc non licet per ,cratippum1 at illud certe dabis1 quod honestum sit1 id esse maxime propter se expetendum4 ,mihi utrumvis satis est et tum hoc1 tum illud probabilius videtur nec praeterea quicquam probabile4 99#cd99 ,ac primum in hoc ,panaetius defendendus est1 quod non utilia cum honestis pugnare aliquando posse dixerit 7neque enim ei fas erat71 sed ea1 quae viderentur utilia4 ,nihil vero utile1 quod non idem honestum1 nihil honestum1 quod non idem utile sit1 saepe testatur negatque ullam pestem maiorem in vitam hominum invasisse quam eorum opinionem1 qui ista distraxerint4 ,itaque1 non ut aliquando anteponeremus utilia honestis1 sed ut ea sine errore diiudicaremus1 si quando incidissent1#bid induxit eam1 quae videretur esse1 non quae esset1 repugnantiam4 ,hanc igitur partem relictam explebimus nullis adminiculis1 sed1 ut dicitur1 ,marte nostro4 ,neque enim quicquam est de hac parte post ,panaetium explicatum1 quod quidem mihi probaretur1 de iis1 quae in manus meas venerunt4#bie #bic superioribus 444 ex quibus ,walker1 ,bt4#b1 ,ed42 ex superioribus 444 quibus ,,mss41 ,bt4#a2 superioribus 444 quibus1 ,heine4 #bid ea 444 incidissent ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,heine1 ,ed42 eam repugnantiam 444 incidisset ,unger1 ,bt4#b #bie venerunt ,manutius1 ,edd42 venerint ,,mss4 99#cc99 ,,vii4 ,it is subjects of this sort that ,i believe ,panaetius would have followed up1 had not some accident or business interfered with his design4 ,for the elucidation of these very questions there are in his former books rules in plenty1 from which one can learn what should be avoided because of its immorality and what does not have to be avoided for the reason that it is not immoral at all4 ,we are now putting the capstone1 as it were1 upon our structure1 which is unfinished to be sure1 but still almost completed2 and as mathematicians make a practice of not demonstrating every proposition but require that certain axioms be assumed as true1 in order more easily to explain their meaning1 so1 my dear ,cicero1 ,i ask you to assume with me1 if you can1 that nothing is worth the seeking for its own sake except what is morally right4 ,moral ,right the only good or the chief good4 ,but if ,cratippus,,be does not permit this assumption1 you will still grant this at least--that what is morally right is the object most worth the seeking for its own sake4 ,either alternative is sufficient for my purposes2 first the one and then the other seems to me the more probable2 and besides these1 there is no other alternative that seems probable at all4,,bf ,vindication of ,panaetius3 nothing can be expedient that is not morally right4 99#cd99 ,in the first place1 ,i must undertake the defence of ,panaetius on this point2 for he has said not that the truly expedient could under certain circumstances clash with the morally right 7for he could not have said that conscientiously,,bg71 but only that what seemed expedient could do so4 ,for he often bears witness to the fact that nothing is really expedient that is not at the same time morally right1 and nothing morally right that is not at the same time expedient2 and he says that no greater curse has ever assailed human life than the doctrine of those who have separated these two conceptions4 ,and so he introduced an apparent1 not a real1 conflict between them1 not to the end that we should under certain circumstances give the expedient preference over the moral1 but that1 in case they ever should get in each other's way1 we might decide between them without uncertainty4 ,this part1 therefore1 which was passed over by ,panaetius1 ,i will carry to completion without any auxiliaries1 but fighting my own battle1 as the saying is4 ,for of all that has been worked out on this line since the time of ,panaetius1 nothing that has come into my hands is at all satisfactory to me4 ,,be ,as a ,peripatetic1 ,cratippus insisted that there was natural good as well as moral good2 thus health1 honour1 etc41 were good and worth seeking for their own sake1 though in less degree than virtue4 ,but the ,stoics 7and ,cicero is now speaking as a ,stoic7 called all those other blessings not good nor worth seeking for their own sake1 but indifferent4 ,,bf ,with this he waves aside1 without even the honour of mentioning them1 the ,epicureans1 ,cyrenaics1 etc4 ,,bg ,because he was a ,stoic4 99#ce99 ,,viii4 ,cum igitur aliqua species utilitatis obiecta est1 commoveri necesse est2 sed si1 cum animum attenderis1 turpitudinem videas adiunctam ei rei1 quae speciem utilitatis attulerit1 tum non utilitas relinquenda est1 sed intellegendum1 ubi turpitudo sit1 ibi utilitatem esse non posse4 ,quodsi nihil est tam contra naturam quam turpitudo 7recta enim et convenientia et constantia natura desiderat aspernaturque contraria7 nihilque tam secundum naturam quam utilitas1 certe in eadem re utilitas et turpitudo#bif esse non potest4 ,itemque1 si ad honestatem nati sumus eaque aut sola expetenda est1 ut ,zenoni visum est1 aut certe omni pondere gravior habenda quam reliqua omnia1 quod ,aristoteli placet1 necesse est1 quod honestum sit1 id esse aut solum aut summum bonum2 quod autem bonum1 id certe utile3 ita1 quicquid honestum1 id utile4 99#cf99 ,quare error hominum non proborum1 cum aliquid1 quod utile visum est1 arripuit1 id continuo secernit ab honesto4 ,hinc sicae1 hinc venena1 hinc falsa testamenta nascuntur1 hinc furta1 peculatus1 expilationes direptionesque sociorum et civium1 hinc opum nimiarum1 potentiae non ferendae1 postremo etiam in liberis civitatibus regnandi exsistunt cupiditates1 quibus nihil nec taetrius nec foedius excogitari potest4 ,emolumenta enim rerum fallacibus iudiciis vident1 poenam non dico legum1 quam saepe perrumpunt1 sed ipsius turpitudinis1 quae acerbissima est1 non vident4 99#cg99 ,quam ob rem hoc quidem deliberantium genus pellatur e medio 7est enim totum sceleratum et impium71 qui deliberant1 utrum id sequantur1 quod honestum esse videant1 an se scientes scelere contaminent2 in ipsa enim dubitatione facinus inest1 etiamsi ad id non pervenerint4 ,ergo ea deliberanda omnino non sunt1 in quibus est turpis ipsa deliberatio4 ,atque etiam ex omni deliberatione celandi et occultandi spes opinioque removenda est4 ,satis enim nobis1 si modo in philosophia aliquid profecimus1 persuasum esse debet1 si omnes deos hominesque celare possimus1 nihil tamen avare1 nihil iniuste1 nihil libidinose1 nihil incontinenter esse faciendum4 #bif re utilitas et turp4 c1 ,edd42 re utili turpitudo ,b ,h a b4 ,expediency and immorality incompatible4 99#ce99 ,,viii4 ,now when we meet with expediency in some specious form or other1 we cannot help being influenced by it4 ,but if upon closer inspection one sees that there is some immorality connected with what presents the appearance of expediency1 then one is not necessarily to sacrifice expediency but to recognize that there can be no expediency where there is immorality4 ,but if there is nothing so repugnant to nature as immorality 7for nature demands right and harmony and consistency and abhors their opposites71 and if nothing is so thoroughly in accord with nature as expediency1 then surely expediency and immorality cannot coexist in one and the same object4 ,the morally right is also expedient4 ,again3 if we are born for moral rectitude and if that is either the only thing worth seeking1 as ,zeno thought1 or at least to be esteemed as infinitely outweighing everything else1 as ,aristotle holds1 then it necessarily follows that the morally right is either the sole good or the supreme good4 ,now1 that which is good is certainly expedient2 consequently1 that which is morally right is also expedient4 ,the evils resulting from contrary view4 99#cf99 ,thus it is the error of men who are not strictly upright to seize upon something that seems to be expedient and straightway to dissociate that from the question of moral right4 ,to this error the assassin's dagger1 the poisoned cup1 the forged wills owe their origin2 this gives rise to theft1 embezzlement of public funds1 exploitation and plundering of provincials and citizens2 this engenders also the lust for excessive wealth1 for despotic power1 and finally for making oneself king even in the midst of a free people2 and anything more atrocious or repulsive than such a passion cannot be conceived4 ,for with a false perspective they see the material rewards but not the punishment--,i do not mean the penalty of the law1 which they often escape1 but the heaviest penalty of all1 their own demoralization4 99#cg99 ,away1 then1 with questioners of this sort 7for their whole tribe is wicked and ungodly71 who stop to consider whether to pursue the course which they see is morally right or to stain their hands with what they know is crime4 ,for there is guilt in their very deliberation1 even though they never reach the performance of the deed itself4 ,those actions1 therefore1 should not be considered at all1 the mere consideration of which is itself morally wrong4 ,moral rectitude and secret sin4 ,furthermore1 in any such consideration we must banish any vain hope and thought that our action may be covered up and kept secret4 ,for if we have only made some real progress in the study of philosophy1 we ought to be quite convinced that1 even though we may escape the eyes of gods and men1 we must still do nothing that savours of greed or of injustice1 of lust or of intemperance4 ,rep4 ,,ii1 #cei ,c 99#ch99 ,,ix4 ,hinc ille ,gyges inducitur a ,platone1 qui1 cum terra discessisset magnis quibusdam imbribus1 descendit in illum hiatum aneumque equum1 ut ferunt fabulae1 animadvertit1 cuius in lateribus fores essent2 quibus apertis corpus hominis mortui vidit magnitudine invisitata#big anulumque aureum in digito2 quem ut detraxit1 ipse induit 7erat autem regius pastor71 tum in concilium se pastorum recepit4 ,ibi cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat1 a nullo videbatur1 ipse autem omnia videbat2 idem rursus videbatur1 cum in locum anulum inverterat4 ,itaque hac opportunitate anuli usus reginae stuprum intulit eaque adiutrice regem dominum interemit1 sustulit1 quos obstare arbitrabatur1 nec in his eum facinoribus quisquam potuit videre4 ,sic repente anuli beneficio rex exortus est ,lydiae4 ,hunc igitur ipsum anulum si habeat sapiens1 nihilo#bih plus sibi licere putet peccare1 quam si non haberet#bii2 honesta enim bonis viris1 non occulta quaeruntur4 99#ci99 ,atque hoc loco philosophi quidam1 minime mali illi quidem1 sed non satis acuti1 fictam et commenticiam fabulam prolatam dicunt a ,platone2 quasi vero ille aut factum id esse aut fieri potuisse defendat6 ,haec est vis huius anuli et huius exempli3 si nemo sciturus1 nemo ne suspicaturus quidem sit1 cum aliquid divitiarum1 potentiae1 dominationis1 libidinis causa feceris1 si id dis hominibusque futurum sit semper ignotum1 sisne facturus4 ,negant id fieri posse4 ,nequaquam#cjj potest id quidem2 sed quaero1 quod negant posse1 id si posset1 quidnam facerent4 ,urguent rustice sane2 negant enim posse et in eo perstant2 hoc verbum quid valeat1 non vident4 ,cum enim quaerimus1 si celare possint1 quid facturi sint1 non quaerimus1 possintne celare1 sed tamquam tormenta quaedam adhibemus1 ut1 si responderint se impunitate proposita facturos1 quod expediat1 facinorosos se esse fateantur1 si negent1 omnia turpia per se ipsa fugienda esse concedant4 ,sed iam ad propositum revertamur4 #big invisitata ,b ,h#a1 ,edd42 inusitata ,h#b a b c4 #bih ni7c7hilo c1 ,edd42 nihil ,b ,h a b4 #bii peccare 444 haberet ,,mss42 bracketed by ,madv41 ,bt4 #cjj nequaquam ,manutius1 ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 quamquam 7and yet it is possible7 ,,mss41 ,mller4 ,the story of ,gyges and his ring4 99#ch99 ,,ix4 ,by way of illustrating this truth ,plato introduces the familiar story of ,gyges3 ,once upon a time the earth opened in consequence of heavy rains2 ,gyges went down into the chasm and saw1 so the story goes1 a horse of bronze2 in its side was a door4 ,on opening this door he saw the body of a dead man of enormous size with a gold ring upon his finger4 ,he removed this and put it on his own hand and then repaired to an assembly of the shepherds1 for he was a shepherd of the king4 ,as often as he turned the bezel of the ring inwards toward the palm of his hand1 he became invisible to every one1 while he himself saw everything2 but as often as he turned it back to its proper position1 he became visible again4 ,and so1 with the advantage which the ring gave him1 he debauched the queen1 and with her assistance he murdered his royal master and removed all those who he thought stood in his way1 without anyone's being able to detect him in his crimes4 ,thus1 by virtue of the ring1 he shortly rose to be king of ,lydia4 ,now1 suppose a wise man had just such a ring1 he would not imagine that he was free to do wrong any more than if he did not have it2 for good men aim to secure not secrecy but the right4 99#ci99 ,and yet on this point certain philosophers1 who are not at all vicious but who are not very discerning1 declare that the story related by ,plato is fictitious and imaginary4 ,as if he affirmed that it was actually true or even possible6 ,the moral of the story4 ,but the force of the illustration of the ring is this3 if nobody were to know or even to suspect the truth1 when you do anything to gain riches or power or sovereignty or sensual gratification--if your act should be hidden for ever from the knowledge of gods and men1 would you do it8 ,the condition1 they say1 is impossible4 ,of course it is4 ,but my question is1 if that were possible which they declare to be impossible1 what1 pray1 would one do8 ,they press their point with right boorish obstinacy3 they assert that it is impossible and insist upon it2 they refuse to see the meaning of my words1 if possible4 ,for when we ask what they would do1 if they could escape detection1 we are not asking whether they can escape detection2 but we put them as it were upon the rack3 should they answer that1 if impunity were assured1 they would do what was most to their selfish interest1 that would be a confession that they are criminally minded2 should they say that they would not do so1 they would be granting that all things in and of themselves immoral should be avoided4 ,but let us now return to our theme4 99#dj99 ,x4 ,incidunt multae saepe causae1 quae conturbent animos utilitatis specie1 non cum hoc deliberetur1 relinquendane sit honestas propter utilitatis magnitudinem 7nam id quidem improbum est71 sed illud1 possitne id1 quod utile videatur1 fieri non turpiter4 ,cum ,collatino collegae ,brutus imperium abrogabat1 poterat videri facere id iniuste2 fuerat enim in regibus expellendis socius ,bruti consiliorum et adiutor4 ,cum autem consilium hoc principes cepissent1 cognationem ,superbi nomenque ,tarquiniorum et memoriam regni esse tollendam1 quod erat utile1 patriae consulere1 id erat ita honestum1 ut etiam ipsi ,collatino placere deberet4 ,itaque utilitas valuit propter honestatem1 sine qua ne utilitas quidem esse potuisset4 ,at in eo rege1 qui urbem condidit1 non item2 99#da99 species enim utilitatis animum pepulit eius2 cui cum visum esset utilius solum quam cum altero regnare1 fratrem interemit4 ,omisit his et pietatem et humanitatem1 ut id1 quod utile videbatur neque erat1 assequi posset1 et tamen muri causam#cja opposuit1 speciem honestatis nec probabilem nec sane idoneam4 ,peccavit igitur1 pace vel ,quirini vel ,romuli dixerim4 99#db99 ,nec tamen nostrae nobis utilitates omittendae sunt aliisque tradendae1 cum iis#cjb ipsi egeamus1 sed suae cuique utilitati1 quod sine alterius iniuria fiat1 serviendum est4 ,scite ,chrysippus1 ut multa3 ,qui stadium1 inquit1 currit1 eniti et contendere debet1 quam maxime possit1 ut vincat1 supplantare eum1 quicum#cjc certet1 aut manu depellere nullo modo debet2 sic in vita sibi quemque petere1 quod pertineat ad usum1 non iniquum est1 alteri deripere ius non est4 99#dc99 ,maxime autem perturbantur officia in amicitiis1 quibus et non tribuere1 quod recte possis1 et tribuere1 quod non sit aequum1 contra officium est4 ,sed huius generis totius breve et non difficile praeceptum est4 ,quae enim videntur utilia1 honores1 divitiae1 voluptates1 cetera generis eiusdem1 haec amicitiae numquam anteponenda sunt4 ,at neque contra rem publicam neque contra ius iurandum ac fidem amici causa vir bonus faciet1 ne si index quidem erit de ipso amico2 ponit enim personam amici1 cum induit iudicis4 ,tantum dabit amicitiae1 ut veram amici causam esse malit1 ut orandae litis tempus1 quoad per leges liceat1 accommodet4 99#dd99 ,cum vero iurato sententia dicenda erit1#cjd meminerit deum se adhibere#cje testem1 id est1 ut ego arbitror1 mentem suam1 qua nihil homini dedit deus ipse divinius4 ,itaque praeclarum a maioribus accepimus morem rogandi iudicis1 si eum teneremus1 ,,quae ,,salva ,,fide ,,facere ,,possit4 ,haec rogatio ad ea pertinet1 quae paulo ante dixi honeste amico a iudice posse concedi2 nam si omnia facienda sint1 quae amici velint1 non amicitiae tales1 sed coniurationes putandae sint4 99#de99 ,loquor autem de communibus amicitiis2 nam in sapientibus viris perfectisque nihil potest esse tale4 ,damonem et ,phintiam ,pythagoreos ferunt hoc animo inter se fuisse1 ut1 cum eorum alteri ,dionysius tyrannus diem necis destinavisset et is1 qui morti addictus esset1 paucos sibi dies commendandorum suorum causa postulavisset1 vas factus sit#cjf alter eius sistendi1 ut1 si ille non revertisset1 moriendum esset ipsi4 ,qui cum ad diem se recepisset1 admiratus eorum fidem tyrannus petivit1 ut se ad amicitiam tertium ascriberent4 99#df99 ,cum igitur id1 quod utile videtur in amicitia1 cum eo1 quod honestum est1 comparatur1 iaceat utilitatis species1 valeat honestas2 cum autem in amicitia1 quae honesta non sunt1 postulabuntur1 religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae4 ,sic habebitur is1 quem exquirimus1 dilectus officii4 #cja causam c1 ,edd42 causa ,b ,h a b4 #cjb iis ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 his ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #cjc quicum ,,mss41 ,bt41 ,heine2 quocum ,ed4 #cjd erit ,ed41 ,bt4#b1 ,heine2 sit ,,mss42 est ,bt4#a #cje adhibere ,b ,h a1 ,bt41 ,ed42 habere b c1 ,lact41 ,mller4 #cjf sit ,manubius1 ,edd42 est ,,mss41 ,nonius4 ,conflicts between3 7#a7 apparent ,expediency and ,justice1 99#dj99 ,x4 ,many cases oftentimes arise to perplex our minds with a specious appearance of expediency3 the question raised in these cases is not whether moral rectitude is to be sacrificed to some considerable advantage 7for that would of course be wrong71 but whether the apparent advantage can be secured without moral wrong4 ,when ,brutus deposed his colleague ,collatinus from the consular office1 his treatment of him might have been thought unjust2 for ,collatinus had been his associate1 and had helped him with word and deed in driving out the royal family4 ,but when the leading men of the state had determined that all the kindred of ,superbus and the very name of the ,tarquins and every reminder of the monarchy should be obliterated1 then the course that was expedient--namely1 to serve the country's interests--was so pre-eminently right1 that it was even ,collatinus's own duty to acquiesce in its justice4 ,and so expediency gained the day because of its moral lightness2 for without moral rectitude there could have been no possible expediency4 ,not so in the case of the king,,bh who founded the city3 99#da99 it was the specious appearance of expediency that actuated him2 and when he decided that it was more expedient for him to reign alone than to share the throne with another1 he slew his brother4,,bi ,he threw to the winds his brotherly affection and his human feelings1 to secure what seemed to him--but was not--expedient2 and yet in defence of his deed he offered the excuse about his wall--a specious show of moral rectitude1 neither reasonable nor adequate at all4 ,he committed a crime1 therefore1 with due respect to him let me say so1 be he ,quirinus or ,romulus4,,bj 7#b7 individual and general interests1 99#db99 ,and yet we are not required to sacrifice our own interests and surrender to others what we need for ourselves1 but each one should consider his own interests1 as far as he may without injury to his neighbour's4 ,when a man enters the foot-race1 says ,chrysippus with his usual aptness1 it is his duty to put forth all his strength and strive with all his might to win2 but he ought never with his foot to trip1 or with his hand to foul a competitor4 ,thus in the stadium of life1 it is not unfair for anyone to seek to obtain what is needful for his own advantage1 but he has no right to wrest it from his neighbour4 7#c7 obligations to friends and duty1 99#dc99 ,it is in the case of friendships1 however1 that men's conceptions of duty are most confused2 for it is a breach of duty either to fail to do for a friend what one rightly can do1 or to do for him what is not right4 ,but for our guidance in all such cases we have a rule that is short and easy to master3 apparent advantages--political preferment1 riches1 sensual pleasures1 and the like--should never be preferred to the obligations of friendship4 ,but an upright man will never for a friend's sake do anything in violation of his country's interests or his oath or his sacred honour1 not even if he sits as judge in a friend's case2 for he lays aside the rle of friend when he assumes that of judge4 ,only so far will he make concessions to friendship1 that he will prefer his friend's side to be the juster one and that he will set the time for presenting his case1 as far as the laws will allow1 to suit his friend's convenience4 99#dd99 ,but when he comes to pronounce the verdict under oath1 he should remember that he has ,god as his witness--that is1 as ,i understand it1 his own conscience1 than which ,god himself has bestowed upon man nothing more divine4 ,from this point of view it is a fine custom that we have inherited from our forefathers 7if we were only true to it now7 to appeal to the juror with this formula--to do what he can consistently with his sacred honour4 ,this form of appeal is in keeping with what ,i said a moment ago would be morally right for a judge to concede to a friend4 ,for supposing that we were bound to do everything that our friends desired1 such relations would have to be accounted not friendships but conspiracies4 99#de99 ,but ,i am speaking here of ordinary friendships2 for among men who are ideally wise and perfect such situations cannot arise4 ,damon and ,phintias4 ,they say that ,damon and ,phintias1 of the ,pythagorean school1 enjoyed such ideally perfect friendship1 that when the tyrant ,dionysius had appointed a day for the execution of one of them1 and the one who had been condemned to death requested a few days' respite for the purpose of putting his loved ones in the care of friends1 the other became surety for his appearance1 with the understanding that if his friend did not return1 he himself should be put to death4 ,and when the friend returned on the day appointed1 the tyrant in admiration for their faithfulness begged that they would enrol him as a third partner in their friendship4 ,rules of precedence4 99#df99 ,well then1 when we are weighing what seems to be expedient in friendship against what is morally right1 let apparent expediency be disregarded and moral rectitude prevail2 and when in friendship requests are submitted that are not morally right1 let conscience and scrupulous regard for the right take precedence of the obligations of friendship4 ,in this way we shall arrive at a proper choice between conflicting duties--the subject of this part of our investigation4 ,,bh ,romulus4 ,,bi ,remus4 ,,bj ,i4e41 whether he be god or man4 ,,xi4 ,sed utilitatis specie in re publica saepissime peccatur1 ut in ,corinthi disturbatione nostri2 durius etiam ,athenienses1 qui sciverunt1 ut ,aeginetis1 qui classe valebant1 pollices praeciderentur4 ,hoc visum est utile2 nimis enim imminebat propter propinquitatem ,aegina ,piraeo4 ,sed nihil1 quod crudele1 utile2 est enim hominum naturae1 quam sequi debemus1 maxime inimica crudelitas4 99#dg99 ,male etiam1 qui peregrinos urbibus uti prohibent eosque exterminant1 ut ,pennus apud patres nostros1 ,papius nuper4 ,nam esse pro cive1 qui civis non sit1 rectum est non licere2 quam legem tulerunt sapientissimi consules ,crassus et ,scaevola2 usu vero urbis prohibere peregrinos sane inhumanum est4 ,illa praeclara1 in quibus publicae utilitatis species prae honestate contemnitur4 ,plena exemplorum est nostra res publica cum saepe1 tum maxime bello ,punico secundo2 quae ,cannensi calamitate accepta maiores animos habuit quam umquam rebus secundis2 nulla timoris significatio1 nulla mentio pacis4 ,tanta vis est honesti1 ut speciem utilitatis obscuret4 99#dh99 ,athenienses cum ,persarum impetum nullo modo possent sustinere statuerentque1 ut urbe relicta coniugibus et liberis ,troezene depositis naves conscenderent libertatemque ,graeciae classe defenderent1 ,cyrsilum quendam suadentem1 ut in urbe manerent ,xerxemque#cjg reciperent1 lapidibus obruerunt4 ,atqui#cjh ille utilitatem sequi videbatur2 sed ea nulla erat repugnante honestate4 99#di99 ,themistocles post victoriam eius belli1 quod cum ,persis fuit1 dixit in contione se habere consilium rei publicae salutare1 sed id sciri non opus esse2 postulavit1 ut aliquem populus daret1 quicum communicaret2 datus est ,aristides2 huic ille1 classem ,lacedaemoniorum1 quae subducta esset ad ,gytheum1 clam incendi posse1 quo facto frangi ,lacedaemoniorum opes necesse esset4 ,quod ,aristides cum audisset1 in contionem magna exspectatione venit dixitque perutile esse consilium1 quod ,themistocles afferret1 sed minime honestum4 ,itaque ,athenienses1 quod honestum non esset1 id ne utile quidem putaverunt totamque eam rem1 quam ne audierant quidem1 auctore ,aristide repudiaverunt4 ,melius hi quam nos1 qui piratas immunes1 socios vectigales habemus4 #cjg ,xerxemque ,b ,h a b1 ,bt41 ,heine2 ,xersenque c2 ,xersemque ,nonius1 ,ed4 #cjh ,atqui ,victorius1 ,fl41 ,bt4#b1 ,ed42 ,atque ,,mss41 ,bt4#a 7#d7 apparent political expediency and duty to humanity4 ,,xi4 ,through a specious appearance of expediency wrong is very often committed in transactions between state and state1 as by our own country in the destruction of ,corinth4 ,a more cruel wrong was perpetrated by the ,athenians in decreeing that the ,aeginetans1 whose strength lay in their navy1 should have their thumbs cut off4 ,this seemed to be expedient2 for ,aegina was too grave a menace1 as it was close to the ,piraeus4 ,but no cruelty can be expedient2 for cruelty is most abhorrent to human nature1 whose leadings we ought to follow4 99#dg99 ,they1 too1 do wrong who would debar foreigners from enjoying the advantages of their city and would exclude them from its borders1 as was done by ,pennus in the time of our fathers1 and in recent times by ,papius4 ,it may not be right1 of course1 for one who is not a citizen to exercise the rights and privileges of citizenship2 and the law on this point was secured by two of our wisest consuls1 ,crassus and ,scaevola4 ,still1 to debar foreigners from enjoying the advantages of the city is altogether contrary to the laws of humanity4 ,moral right far outweighs apparent expediency4 ,there are splendid examples in history where the apparent expediency of the state has been set at naught out of regard for moral rectitude4 ,our own country has many instances to offer throughout her history1 and especially in the ,second ,punic ,war when news came of the disaster at ,cannae1 ,rome displayed a loftier courage than ever she did in success2 never a trace of faint-heartedness1 never a mention of making terms4 ,the influence of moral right is so potent1 that it eclipses the specious appearance of expediency4 99#dh99 ,when the ,athenians could in no way stem the tide of the ,persian invasion and determined to abandon their city1 bestow their wives and children in safety at ,troezen1 embark upon their ships1 and fight on the sea for the freedom of ,greece1 a man named ,cyrsilus proposed that they should stay at home and open the gates of their city to ,xerxes4 ,they stoned him to death for it4 ,and yet he was working for what he thought was expediency2 but it was not--not at all1 for it clashed with moral rectitude4 99#di99 ,after the victorious close of that war with ,persia1 ,themistocles announced in the ,assembly that he had a plan for the welfare of the state1 but that it was not politic to let it be generally known4 ,he requested the people to appoint some one with whom he might discuss it4 ,they appointed ,aristides4 ,themistocles confided to him that the ,spartan fleet1 which had been hauled up on shore at ,gytheum1 could be secretly set on fire2 this done1 the ,spartan power would inevitably be crushed4 ,when ,aristides heard the plan1 he came into the ,assembly amid the eager expectation of all and reported that the plan proposed by ,themistocles was in the highest degree expedient1 but anything but morally right4 ,the result was that the ,athenians concluded that what was not morally right was likewise not expedient1 and at the instance of ,aristides they rejected the whole proposition without even listening to it4 ,their attitude was better than ours2 for we let pirates go scot free1 while we make our allies pay tribute4,,bk ,,bk ,the ,cilician pirates had been crushed by ,pompey and settled at ,soli 7,pompeiopolis74 ,they gathered strength again during the distractions of the civil wars1 and ,antony is even said to have sought their aid in the war against ,brutus and ,cassius4 ,marseilles and ,king ,deiotarus of ,armenia had supported ,pompey and in consequence were made tributary by ,caesar's party4 ,,xii4 ,maneat ergo1 quod turpe sit1 id numquam esse utile1 ne tum quidem1 cum id1 quod esse utile putes1 adipiscare2 hoc enim ipsum1 utile putare1 quod turpe sit1 calamitosum est4 99#ej99 #dj ,sed incidunt1 ut supra dixi1 saepe causae1 cum repugnare utilitas honestati videatur1 ut animadvertendum sit1 repugnetne plane an possit cum honestate coniungi4 ,eius generis hae sunt quaestiones3 si exempli gratia vir bonus ,alexandrea ,rhodum magnum frumenti numerum advexerit in ,rhodiorum inopia et fame summaque annonae caritate1 si idem sciat complures mercatores ,alexandrea solvisse navesque in cursu frumento onustas petentes ,rhodum viderit1 dicturusne sit id ,rhodiis an silentio suum quam plurimo venditurus4 ,sapientem et bonum virum fingimus2 de eius deliberatione et consultatione quaerimus1 qui celaturus ,rhodios non sit1 si id turpe iudicet1 sed dubitet1 an turpe non sit4 99#ea99 ,in huius modi causis aliud ,diogeni ,babylonio videri solet1 magno et gravi ,stoico1 aliud ,antipatro1 discipulo eius1 homini acutissimo4 ,antipatro omnia patefacienda1 ut ne quid omnino1 quod venditor norit1 emptor ignoret1 ,diogeni venditorem1 quatenus iure civili constitutum sit1 dicere vitia oportere1 cetera sine insidiis agere et1 quoniam vendat1 velle quam optime vendere4 ,advexi1 exposui1 vendo meum non pluris quam ceteri1 fortasse etiam minoris1 cum maior est copia4 ,cui fit iniuria8 99#eb99 ,exoritur ,antipatri ratio ex altera parte3 ,quid ais8 tu cum hominibus consulere debeas et servire humanae societati eaque lege natus sis et ea habeas principia naturae1 quibus parere et quae sequi debeas1 ut utilitas tua communis sit utilitas vicissimque communis utilitas tua sit1 celabis homines1 quid iis adsit commoditatis et copiae8 ,respondebit ,diogenes fortasse sic3 ,aliud est celare1 aliud tacere2 neque ego nunc te celo1 si tibi non dico1 quae natura deorum sit1 qui sit finis bonorum1 quae tibi plus prodessent cognita quam tritici vilitas#cji2 sed non1 quicquid tibi audire utile est1 idem#caj mihi dicere necesse est4 99#ec99 ,immo vero1 inquiet ille1 necesse est1#caa siquidem meministi esse inter homines natura coniunctam societatem4 ,memini1 inquiet ille2 sed num ista societas talis est1 ut nihil suum cuiusque sit8 ,quod si ita est1 ne vendendum quidem quicquam est1 sed donandum4 #cji vilitas a1 ,edd42 utilitas1 ,b ,h b c4 #caj idem ,b ,h a b2 id c1 ,bt4 #caa immo 444 est c1 ,ed41 ,heine2 immo vero necesse est p2 immo vero inquiet ille necesse est ,bt4 ,,xii4 ,let it be set down as an established principle1 then1 that what is morally wrong can never be expedient--not even when one secures by means of it that which one thinks expedient2 for the mere act of thinking a course expedient1 when it is morally wrong1 is demoralizing4 99#ej99 ,expediency vs4 moral rectitude in business relations4 ,but1 as ,i said above1 cases often arise in which expediency may seem to clash with moral rectitude2 and so we should examine carefully and see whether their conflict is inevitable or whether they may be reconciled4 ,the following are problems of this sort3 suppose1 for example1 a time of dearth and famine at ,rhodes1 with provisions at fabulous prices2 and suppose that an honest man has imported a large cargo of grain from ,alexandria and that to his certain knowledge also several other importers have set sail from ,alexandria1 and that on the voyage he has sighted their vessels laden with grain and bound for ,rhodes2 is he to report the fact to the ,rhodians or is he to keep his own counsel and sell his own stock at the highest market price8 ,i am assuming the case of a virtuous1 upright man1 and ,i am raising the question how a man would think and reason who would not conceal the facts from the ,rhodians if he thought that it was immoral to do so1 but who might be in doubt whether such silence would really be immoral4 ,diogenes vs4 ,antipater4 99#ea99 ,in deciding cases of this kind ,diogenes of ,babylonia1 a great and highly esteemed ,stoic1 consistently holds one view2 his pupil ,antipater1 a most profound scholar1 holds another4 ,according to ,antipater all the facts should be disclosed1 that the buyer may not be uninformed of any detail that the seller knows2 according to ,diogenes the seller should declare any defects in his wares1 in so far as such a course is prescribed by the common law of the land2 but for the rest1 since he has goods to sell1 he may try to sell them to the best possible advantage1 provided he is guilty of no misrepresentation4 ,i have imported my stock1 ,diogenes's merchant will say2 ,i have offered it for sale2 ,i sell at a price no higher than my competitors--perhaps even lower1 when the market is overstocked4 ,who is wronged8 99#eb99 ,what say you8 comes ,antipater's argument on the other side2 it is your duty to consider the interests of your fellow-men and to serve society2 you were brought into the world under these conditions and have these inborn principles which you are in duty bound to obey and follow1 that your interest shall be the interest of the community and conversely that the interest of the community shall be your interest as well2 ,is concealment of truth immoral8 will you1 in view of all these facts1 conceal from your fellow-men what relief in plenteous supplies is close at hand for them8 ,it is one thing to conceal1 ,diogenes will perhaps reply2 not to reveal is quite a different thing4 ,at this present moment ,i am not concealing from you1 even if ,i am not revealing to you1 the nature of the gods or the highest good2 and to know these secrets would be of more advantage to you than to know that the price of wheat was down4 ,but ,i am under no obligation to tell you everything that it may be to your interest to be told4 99#ec99 ,yea1 ,antipater will say1 but you are1 as you must admit1 if you will only bethink you of the bonds of fellowship forged by nature and existing between man and man4 ,i do not forget them1 the other will reply2 but do you mean to say that those bonds of fellowship are such that there is no such thing as private property8 ,if that is the case1 we should not sell anything at all1 but freely give everything away4 ,,xiii4 ,vides in hac tota disceptatione non illud dici3 ,quamvis hoc turpe sit1 tamen1 quoniam expedit1 faciam1 sed ita expedire1 ut turpe non sit1 ex altera autem parte1 ea re1 quia turpe sit1 non esse faciendum4 99#ed99 ,vendat aedes vir bonus propter aliqua vitia1 quae ipse norit1 ceteri ignorent1 pestilentes sint et habeantur salubres1 ignoretur in omnibus cubiculis apparere serpentes1 male materiatae sint1#cab ruinosae1 sed hoc praeter dominum nemo sciat2 quaero1 si haec emptoribus venditor non dixerit aedesque vendiderit pluris multo1 quam se venditurum putarit1 num id iniuste aut improbe fecerit4 99#ee99 ,ille vero1 inquit ,antipater2 quid est enim aliud erranti viam non monstrare1 quod ,athenis exsecrationibus publicis sanctum est1 si hoc non est1 emptorem pati ruere et per errorem in maximam fraudem incurrere8 ,plus etiam est quam viam non monstrare2 nam est scientem in errorem alterum inducere4 997#ee799 ,diogenes contra3 ,num te emere cogit1 qui ne hortatus quidem est8 ,ille1 quod non placebat1 proscripsit1 tu1 quod placebat1 emisti4 ,quodsi1 qui proscribunt villam bonam beneque aedificatam1 non existimantur fefellisse1 etiamsi illa nec bona est nec aedificata ratione1 multo minus1 qui domum non laudarunt4 ,ubi enim iudicium emptoris est1 ibi fraus venditoris quae potest esse8 ,sin autem dictum non omne praestandum est1 quod dictum non est1 id praestandum putas8 ,quid vero est stultius quam venditorem eius rei1 quam vendat1 vitia narrare8 quid autem tam absurdum1 quam si domini iussu ita praeco praedicet3 ',domum pestilentem vendo8' 99#ef99 ,sic ergo in quibusdam causis dubiis ex altera parte defenditur honestas1 ex altera ita de utilitate dicitur1 ut id1 quod utile videatur1 non modo facere honestum sit1 sed etiam non facere turpe4 ,haec est illa1 quae videtur utilium fieri cum honestis saepe dissensio4 ,quae diiudicanda sunt2#cac non enim1 ut quaereremus1 exposuimus1 sed ut explicaremus4 99#eg99 ,non igitur videtur nec frumentarius ille ,rhodios#cad nec hic aedium venditor celare emptores debuisse4 ,neque enim id est celare1 quicquid reticeas1 sed cum1 quod tu scias1 id ignorare emolumenti tui causa velis eos1 quorum intersit id scire4 ,hoc autem celandi genus quale sit et cuius hominis1 quis non videt8 ,certe non aperti1 non simplicis1 non ingenui1 non iusti1 non viri boni1 versuti potius1 obscuri1 astuti1 fallacis1 malitiosi1 callidi1 veteratoris1 vafri4 ,haec tot et alia plura nonne inutile est vitiorum subire nomina8 #cab sint ,bt4#a1 ,ed41 ,heine2 not in ,,mss41 ,bt#b4 #cac sunt ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,heine1 ,ed42 est dissensio ,unger1 ,bt4#b #cad ,rhodios c1 ,edd42 ,rhodius ,b ,h a b4 ,,xiii4 ,in this whole discussion1 you see1 no one says ,however wrong morally this or that may be1 still1 since it is expedient1 ,i will do it2 but the one side asserts that a given act is expedient1 without being morally wrong1 while the other insists that the act should not be done1 because it is morally wrong4 ,a vendor's duty4 99#ed99 ,suppose again that an honest man is offering a house for sale on account of certain undesirable features of which he himself is aware but which nobody else knows2 suppose it is unsanitary1 but has the reputation of being healthful2 suppose it is not generally known that vermin are to be found in all the bedrooms2 suppose1 finally1 that it is built of unsound timber and likely to collapse1 but that no one knows about it except the owner2 if the vendor does not tell the purchaser these facts but sells him the house for far more than he could reasonably have expected to get for it1 ,i ask whether his transaction is unjust or dishonourable4 99#ee99 ,yes1 says ,antipater1 it is2 for to allow a purchaser to be hasty in closing a deal and through mistaken judgment to incur a very serious loss1 if this is not refusing 'to set a man right when he has lost his way' 7a crime which at ,athens is prohibited on pain of public execration71 what is8 ,it is even worse than refusing to set a man on his way3 it is deliberately leading a man astray4 997#ee799 ,can you say1 answers ,diogenes1 that he compelled you to purchase1 when he did not even advise it8 ,he advertised for sale what he did not like2 you bought what you did like4 ,if people are not considered guilty of swindling when they place upon their placards ,,for ,,sale3 ,a ,,fine ,,villa1 ,,well ,,built1 even when it is neither good nor properly built1 still less guilty are they who say nothing in praise of their house4 ,for where the purchaser may exercise his own judgment1 what fraud can there be on the part of the vendor8 ,but if1 again1 not all that is expressly stated has to be made good1 do you think a man is bound to make good what has not been said8 ,what1 pray1 would be more stupid than for a vendor to recount all the faults in the article he is offering for sale8 ,and what would be so absurd as for an auctioneer to cry1 at the owner's bidding1 ',here is an unsanitary house for sale8' 99#ef99 ,in this way1 then1 in certain doubtful cases moral rectitude is defended on the one side1 while on the other side the case of expediency is so presented as to make it appear not only morally right to do what seems expedient1 but even morally wrong not to do it4 ,this is the contradiction that seems often to arise between the expedient and the morally right4 ,cicero's decision in the cases4 ,but ,i must give my decision in these two cases2 for ,i did not propound them merely to raise the questions1 but to offer a solution4 99#eg99 ,i think1 then1 that it was the duty of that grain dealer not to keep back the facts from the ,rhodians1 and of this vendor of the house to deal in the same way with his purchaser4 ,the fact is that merely holding one's peace about a thing does not constitute concealment1 but concealment consists in trying for your own profit to keep others from finding out something that you know1 when it is for their interest to know it4 ,and who fails to discern what manner of concealment that is and what sort of person would be guilty of it8 ,at all events he would be no candid or sincere or straightforward or upright or honest man1 but rather one who is shifty1 sly1 artful1 shrewd1 underhand1 cunning1 one grown old in fraud and subtlety4 ,is it not inexpedient to subject oneself to all these terms of reproach and many more besides8 99#eh99 ,,xiv4 ,quodsi vituperandi1 qui reticuerunt1 quid de iis existimandum est1 qui orationis vanitatem adhibuerunt8 ,c4 ,canius1 eques ,romanus1 nec infacetus et satis litteratus1 cum se ,syracusas otiandi1 ut ipse dicere solebat1 non negotiandi causa contulisset1 dictitabat#cae se hortulos aliquos emere velle1 quo invitare amicos et ubi se oblectare sine interpellatoribus posset4 ,quod cum percrebruisset1 ,pythius ei quidam1 qui argentariam faceret ,syracusis1 venales quidem se hortos non habere1 sed licere uti ,canio1 si vellet1 ut suis1 et simul ad cenam hominem in hortos invitavit in posterum diem4 ,cum ille promisisset1 tum ,pythius1 qui esset ut argentarius apud omnes ordines gratiosus1 piscatores ad se convocavit et ab iis petivit1 ut ante suos hortulos postridie piscarentur1 dixitque1 quid eos facere vellet4 ,ad cenam tempori#caf venit ,canius2 opipare a ,pythio apparatum convivium1 cumbarum ante oculos multitudo2 pro se quisque1 quod ceperat1 afferebat1 ante pedes ,pythi pisces abiciebantur4 99#ei99 ,tum ,canius3 ,quaeso1 inquit1 quid est hoc1 ,pythi8 tantumne piscium8 tantumne cumbarum8 ,et ille3 ,quid mirum8 inquit1 hoc loco est ,syracusis quicquid est piscium1 hic aquatio1 hac villa isti carere non possunt4 ,incensus ,canius cupiditate contendit a ,pythio1 ut venderet2 gravate ille primo2 quid multa8 impetrat4 ,emit homo cupidus et locuples tanti1 quanti ,pythius voluit1 et emit instructos2 nomina facit1 negotium conficit4 ,invitat ,canius postridie familiares suos1 venit ipse mature2 scalmum nullum videt1 quaerit ex proximo vicino1 num feriae quaedam piscatorum essent1 quod eos nullos videret4 ,nullae1 quod sciam1 inquit2 sed hic piscari nulli solent2 itaque heri mirabar1 quid accidisset4 99#fj99 ,stomachari ,canius2 sed quid faceret8 nondum enim ,c4 ,aquilius1 collega et familiaris meus1 protulerat de dolo malo formulas2 in quibus ipsis1 cum ex eo quaereretur1#cag quid esset dolus malus1 respondebat3 cum esset aliud simulatum1 aliud actum4 ,hoc quidem sane luculente ut ab homine perito definiendi4 ,ergo et ,pythius et omnes aliud agentes1 aliud simulantes perfidi1 improbi1 malitiosi4 ,nullum igitur eorum factum potest utile esse1 cum sit tot vitiis inquinatum4 #cae dictitabat c1 ,edd42 dictabat ,b ,h a b4 #caf tempori ,b ,h b1 ,bt4#a1 ,ed42 tempore a c2 temperi ,fl41 ,bt4#b1 ,heine4 #cag quaereretur ,edd41 with authority2 quaererem ,,mss4 ,concealment of truth vs4 misrepresentation and falsehood4 99#eh99 ,,xiv4 ,if1 then1 they are to be blamed who suppress the truth1 what are we to think of those who actually state what is false8 ,gaius ,canius1 a ,roman knight1 a man of considerable wit and literary culture1 once went to ,syracuse for a vacation1 as he himself used to say1 and not for business4 ,he gave out that he had a mind to purchase a little country-seat1 where he could invite his friends and enjoy himself1 uninterrupted by troublesome visitors4 ,when this fact was spread abroad1 one ,pythius1 a banker of ,syracuse1 informed him that he had such an estate2 that it was not for sale1 however1 but ,canius might make himself at home there1 if he pleased2 and at the same time he invited him to the estate to dinner next day4 ,canius accepted4 ,then ,pythius1 who1 as might be expected of a money-lender1 could command favours of all classes1 called the fishermen together and asked them to do their fishing the next day out in front of his villa1 and told them what he wished them to do4 ,canius came to dinner at the appointed hour2 ,pythius had a sumptuous banquet prepared2 there was a whole fleet of boats before their eyes2 each fisherman brought in in turn the catch that he had made2 and the fishes were deposited at the feet of ,pythius4 99#ei99 ,pray1 ,pythius1 said ,canius thereupon1 what does this mean8--all these fish8--all these boats8 ,no wonder1 answered ,pythius2 this is where all the fish in ,syracuse are2 here is where the fresh water comes from2 the fishermen cannot get along without this estate4 ,inflamed with desire for it1 ,canius insisted upon ,pythius's selling it to him4 ,at first he demurred4 ,to make a long story short1 ,canius gained his point4 ,the man was rich1 and1 in his desire to own the country-seat1 he paid for it all that ,pythius asked2 and he bought the entire equipment1 too4 ,pythius entered the amount upon his ledger and completed the transfer4 ,the next day ,canius invited his friends2 he came early himself4 ,not so much as a thole-pin was in sight4 ,he asked his next-door neighbour whether it was a fisherman's holiday1 for not a sign of them did he see4 ,not so far as ,i know1 said he2 but none are in the habit of fishing here4 ,and so ,i could not make out what was the matter yesterday4 ,criminal fraud4 99#fj99 ,canius was furious2 but what could he do8 ,for not yet had my colleague and friend1 ,gaius ,aquilius1 introduced the established forms to apply to criminal fraud4 ,when asked what he meant by criminal fraud1 as specified in these forms1 he would reply3 ,pretending one thing and practising another--a very felicitous definition1 as one might expect from an expert in making them4 ,pythius1 therefore1 and all others who do one thing while they pretend another are faithless1 dishonest1 and unprincipled scoundrels4 ,no act of theirs can be expedient1 when what they do is tainted with so many vices4 99#fa99 ,,xv4 ,quodsi ,aquiliana definitio vera est1 ex omni vita simulatio dissimulatioque tollenda est4 ,ita1 nec ut emat melius nec ut vendat1 quicquam simulabit aut dissimulabit vir bonus4 ,atque#cah iste dolus malus et legibus erat vindicatus1 ut tutela#cai duodecim tabulis1 circumscriptio adulescentium lege ,plaetoria1 et sine lege iudiciis1 in quibus additur ,,ex ,,fide ,,bona4 ,reliquorum autem iudiciorum haec verba maxime excellunt3 in arbitrio rei uxoriae ,,melius ,,aequius1 in fiducia ,,ut ,,inter ,,bonos ,,bene ,,agier4 ,quid ergo8 aut in eo1 ,,quod ,,melius ,,aequius1 potest ulla pars inesse fraudis8 aut1 cum dicitur ,,inter ,,bonos ,,bene ,,agier1 quicquam agi dolose aut malitiose potest8 ,dolus autem malus in simulatione1 ut ait ,aquilius1 continetur4 ,tollendum est igitur ex rebus contrahendis omne mendacium2 non illicitatorem#cbj venditor1 non1 qui contra se liceatur1 emptor apponet2 uterque1 si ad eloquendum venerit1 non plus quam semel eloquetur4 99#fb99 ,q4 quidem ,scaevola ,p4 f41 cum postulasset1 ut sibi fundus1 cuius emptor erat1 semel indicaretur idque venditor ita fecisset1 dixit se pluris aestimare2 addidit centum milia4 ,nemo est1 qui hoc viri boni fuisse neget1 sapientis negant1 ut si minoris1 quam potuisset1 vendidisset4 ,haec igitur est illa pernicies1 quod alios bonos1 alios sapientes existimant4 ,medea1 ,vahlen#b1 #bgc ,ex quo ,ennius nequiquam sapere sapientem1 qui ipse sibi prodesse non quiret4 ,vere id quidem1 si1 quid esset prodesse1 mihi cum ,ennio conveniret4 99#fc99 ,hecatonem quidem ,rhodium1 discipulum ,panaeti1 video in iis libris1 quos de officio scripsit ,q4 ,tuberoni1 dicere sapientis esse nihil contra mores1 leges1 instituta facientem habere rationem rei familiaris4 ,neque enim solum nobis divites esse volumus1 sed liberis1 propinquis1 amicis maximeque rei publicae4 ,singulorum enim facultates et copiae divitiae sunt civitatis4 ,huic#cba ,scaevolae factum1 de quo paulo ante dixi1 placere nullo modo potest2 etenim omnino tantum se negat facturum compendii sui causa1 quod non liceat4 ,huic nec laus magna tribuenda nec gratia est4 99#fd99 ,sed1 sive et simulatio et dissimulatio dolus malus est1 perpaucae res sunt1 in quibus non dolus malus iste versetur1 sive vir bonus est is1 qui prodest1 quibus potest1 nocet nemini1 certe#cbb istum#cbc virum bonum non facile reperimus4 ,numquam igitur est utile peccare1 quia semper est turpe1 et1 quia semper est honestum virum bonum esse1 semper est utile4 #cah ,atque ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,mller1 ,heine2 ,atqui ,manutius1 ,ed41 ,bt4#b #cai ut tutela ,,mss41 ,bt41 ,mller2 ut in tutela ,heine1 ,ed4 #cbj non illicitatorem c 7inl47 p1 ,edd42 non licitatorem ,b ,h a b4 #cba huic c1 ,edd42 huius ,b ,h a b4 #cbb certe ,lamb41 ,edd42 recte ,,mss4 #cbc istum p c1 ,edd42 iustum ,b ,h a b4 99#fa99 ,,xv4 ,but if ,aquilius's definition is correct1 pretence and concealment should be done away with in all departments of our daily life4 ,then an honest man will not be guilty of either pretence or concealment in order to buy or to sell to better advantage4 ,criminal fraud and the law4 ,besides1 your criminal fraud had previously been prohibited by the statutes3 the penalty in the matter of trusteeships1 for example1 is fixed by the ,twelve ,tables2 for the defrauding of minors1 by the ,plaetorian law4 ,the same prohibition is effective1 without statutory enactment1 in equity cases1 in which it is added that the decision shall be as good faith requires4,,bl ,in all other cases in equity1 moreover1 the following phrases are most noteworthy3 in a case calling for arbitration in the matter of a wife's dowry3 what is the fairer is the better2 in a suit for the restoration of a trust3 honest dealing1 as between honest parties4 ,pray1 then1 can there be any element of fraud in what is adjusted for the better and fairer8 ,or can anything fraudulent or unprincipled be done1 when honest dealing between honest parties is stipulated8 ,but criminal fraud1 as ,aquilius says1 consists in false pretence4 ,criminal fraud in the light of moral rectitude4 ,we must1 therefore1 keep misrepresentation entirely out of business transactions3 the seller will not engage a bogus bidder to run prices up nor the buyer one to bid low against himself to keep them down2 and each1 if they come to naming a price1 will state once for all what he will give or take4 99#fb99 ,why1 when ,quintus ,scaevola1 the son of ,publius ,scaevola1 asked that the price of a farm that he desired to purchase be definitely named and the vendor named it1 he replied that he considered it worth more1 and paid him #ajj1jjj sesterces over and above what he asked4 ,no one could say that this was not the act of an honest man2 but people do say that it was not the act of a worldly-wise man1 any more than if he had sold for a smaller amount than he could have commanded4 ,here1 then1 is that mischievous idea--the world accounting some men upright1 others wise2 and it is this fact that gives ,ennius occasion to say3 ,in vain is the wise man wise1 who cannot benefit himself4 ,and ,ennius is quite right1 if only he and ,i were agreed upon the meaning of benefit4 99#fc99 ,now ,i observe that ,hecaton of ,rhodes1 a pupil of ,panaetius1 says in his books on ,moral ,duty dedicated to ,quintus ,tubero that ,the standard of selfishness4 it is a wise man's duty to take care of his private interests1 at the same time doing nothing contrary to the civil customs1 laws1 and institutions4 ,but that depends on our purpose in seeking prosperity2 for we do not aim to be rich for ourselves alone but for our children1 relatives1 friends1 and1 above all1 for our country4 ,for the private fortunes of individuals are the wealth of the state4 ,hecaton could not for a moment approve of ,scaevola's act1 which ,i cited a moment ago2 for he openly avows that he will abstain from doing for his own profit only what the law expressly forbids4 ,such a man deserves no great praise nor gratitude4 99#fd99 ,be that as it may1 if both pretence and concealment constitute criminal fraud1 there are very few transactions into which criminal fraud does not enter2 or1 if he only is a good man who helps all he can1 and harms no one1 it will certainly be no easy matter for us to find the good man as thus defined4 ,to conclude1 then1 it is never expedient to do wrong1 because wrong is always immoral2 and it is always expedient to be good1 because goodness is always moral4 ,,bl ,see #gj below4 99#fe99 ,,xvi4 ,ac de iure quidem praediorum sanctum apud nos est iure civili1 ut in iis vendendis vitia dicerentur1 quae nota essent venditori4 ,nam1 cum ex duodecim tabulis satis esset ea praestari1 quae essent lingua nuncupata1 quae qui infitiatus esset1 dupli poenam subiret1 a iuris consultis etiam reticentiae poena est constituta2 quicquid enim esset#cbd in praedio vitii1 id statuerunt1 si venditor sciret1 nisi nominatim dictum esset1 praestari oportere4 99#ff99 ,ut1 cum in arce augurium augures acturi essent iussissentque ,ti4#cbe ,claudium ,centumalum1 qui aedes in ,caelio monte habebat1 demoliri ea1 quorum altitudo officeret auspiciis1 ,claudius proscripsit insulam vendidit1#cbf emit ,p4 ,calpurnius ,lanarius4 ,huic ab auguribus illud idem denuntiatum est4 ,itaque ,calpurnius cum demolitus esset cognossetque ,claudium aedes postea proscripsisse1 quam esset ab auguribus demoliri iussus1 arbitrum illum adegit1 ,,quicquid ,,sibi ,,dare ,,facere ,,oporteret ,,ex ,,fide ,,bona4 ,m4 ,cato sententiam dixit1 huius nostri ,catonis pater 7ut enim ceteri ex patribus1 sic hic1 qui illud lumen progenuit ex filio est nominandus7--is igitur iudex ita pronuntiavit3 cum in vendendo rem eam scisset et non pronuntiasset1 emptori damnum praestari oportere4 99#fg99 ,ergo ad fidem bonam statuit pertinere notum esse emptori vitium1 quod nosset venditor4 ,quod si recte iudicavit1 non recte frumentarius ille1 non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit4 ,sed huius modi reticentiae iure civili comprehendi#cbg non possunt2 quae autem possunt1 diligenter tenentur4 ,m4 ,marius ,gratidianus1 propinquus noster1 ,c4 ,sergio ,oratae vendiderat aedes eas1 quas ab eodem ipse paucis ante annis emerat4 ,eae serviebant1#cbh sed hoc in mancipio ,marius non dixerat4 ,adducta res in iudicium est4 ,oratam ,crassus1 ,gratidianum defendebat ,antonius4 ,ius ,crassus urguebat1 quod vitii venditor non dixisset sciens1 id oportere praestari1 aequitatem ,antonius1 quoniam id vitium ignotum ,sergio non fuisset1 qui illas aedes vendidisset1 nihil fuisse necesse dici1 nec eum esse deceptum1 qui1 id1 quod emerat1 quo iure esset1 teneret4 99#fh99 ,quorsus haec8 ,ut illud intellegas1 non placuisse maioribus nostris astutos4 #cbd esset p c1 ,edd42 est ,b ,h a b4 #cbe ,ti4 ,lange1 ,edd42 titum ,,mss4 #cbf vendidit ,b ,h a b2 et vendidit p c42 ,edd4 omit4 #cbg comprehendi ,,mss42 omnes comprehendi ,bt41 ,heine4 #cbh serviebant ,heus41 ,edd42 sergio serviebant ,b ,h a b2 sergio alii serviebant c4 ,concealment of truth about real estate prohibited by law4 99#fe99 ,,xvi4 ,in the laws pertaining to the sale of real property it is stipulated in our civil code that when a transfer of any real estate is made1 all its defects shall be declared as far as they are known to the vendor4 ,according to the laws of the ,twelve ,tables it used to be sufficient that such faults as had been expressly declared should be made good and that for any flaws which the vendor expressly denied1 when questioned1 he should be assessed double damages4 ,a like penalty for failure to make such declaration also has now been secured by our jurisconsults3 they have decided that any defect in a piece of real estate1 if known to the vendor but not expressly stated1 must be made good by him4 99#ff99 ,for example1 the augurs were proposing to take observations from the citadel and they ordered ,tiberius ,claudius ,centumalus1 who owned a house upon the ,caelian ,hill1 to pull down such parts of the building as obstructed the augurs' view by reason of their height4 ,claudius at once advertised his block for sale1 and ,publius ,calpurnius ,lanarius bought it4 ,the same notice was served also upon him4 ,and so1 when ,calpurnius had pulled down those parts of the building and discovered that ,claudius had advertised it for sale only after the augurs had ordered them to be pulled down1 he summoned the former owner before a court of equity to decide what indemnity the owner was under obligation 'in good faith' to pay and deliver to him4 ,the verdict was pronounced by ,marcus ,cato1 the father of our ,cato 7for as other men receive a distinguishing name from their fathers1 so he who bestowed upon the world so bright a luminary must have his distinguishing name from his son72 he1 as ,i was saying1 was presiding judge and pronounced the verdict that since the augurs' mandate was known to the vendor at the time of making the transfer and since he had not made it known1 he was bound to make good the purchaser's loss4 ,scope of ,cato's decision4 99#fg99 ,with this verdict he established the principle that it was essential to good faith that any defect known to the vendor must be made known to the purchaser4 ,if his decision was right1 our grain dealer and the vendor of the unsanitary house did not do right to suppress the facts in those cases4 ,but the civil code cannot be made to include all cases where facts are thus suppressed2 but those cases which it does include are summarily dealt with4 ,marcus ,marius ,gratidianus1 a kinsman of ours1 sold back to ,gaius ,sergius ,orata the house which he himself had bought a few years before from that same ,orata4 ,it was subject to an encumbrance1 but ,marius had said nothing about this fact in stating the terms of sale4 ,the case was carried to the courts4 ,crassus was counsel for ,orata2 ,antonius was retained by ,gratidianus4 ,crassus pleaded the letter of the law that the vendor was bound to make good the defect1 for he had not declared it1 although he was aware of it2 ,antonius laid stress upon the equity of the case1 pleading that1 inasmuch as the defect in question had not been unknown to ,sergius 7for it was the same house that he had sold to ,marius71 no declaration of it was needed1 and in purchasing it back he had not been imposed upon1 for he knew to what legal liability his purchase was subject4 99#fh99 ,what is the purpose of these illustrations8 ,to let you see that our forefathers did not countenance sharp practice4 ,,xvii4 ,sed aliter leges1 aliter philosophi tollunt astutias1 leges1 quatenus manu tenere possunt1 philosophi1 quatenus ratione et intellegentia4 ,ratio ergo hoc postulat1 ne quid insidiose1 ne quid simulate1 ne quid fallaciter4 ,suntne igitur insidiae tendere plagas1 etiamsi excitaturus non sis nec agitaturus8 ipsae enim ferae nullo insequente saepe incidunt4 ,sic tu aedes proscribas1 tabulam tamquam plagam ponas1 domum propter vitia vendas1#cbi in eam aliquis incurrat imprudens8 99#fi99 ,hoc quamquam video propter depravationem consuetudinis neque more turpe haberi neque aut lege sanciri aut iure civili1 tamen naturae lege sanctum est4 ,societas est enim 7quod etsi saepe dictum est1 dicendum est tamen saepius71 latissime quidem quae pateat1 omnium inter omnes1 interior eorum1 qui eiusdem gentis sint1 propior eorum1 qui eiusdem civitatis4 ,itaque maiores aliud ius gentium1 aliud ius civile esse voluerunt2 quod civile1 non idem continuo gentium1 quod autem gentium1 idem civile esse debet4 ,sed nos veri iuris germanaeque iustitiae solidam et expressam effigiem nullam tenemus1 umbra et imaginibus utimur4 ,eas ipsas utinam sequeremur6 feruntur enim ex optimis naturae et veritatis exemplis4 #gj99 ,nam quanti verba illa3 ,,uti ,,ne ,,propter ,,te ,,fidemve ,,tuam ,,captus ,,fraudatusve ,,sim6 quam illa aurea3 ,,ut ,,inter ,,bonos ,,bene ,,agier ,,oportet ,,et ,,sine ,,fraudatione6 ,sed1 qui sint boni1 et quid sit bene agi1 magna quaestio est4 ,q4 quidem ,scaevola1 pontifex maximus1 summam vim esse dicebat in omnibus iis arbitriis1 in quibus adderetur ,,ex ,,fide ,,bona1 fideique bonae nomen existimabat manare latissime1 idque versari in tutelis societatibus1 fiduciis mandatis1 rebus emptis venditis1 conductis locatis1 quibus vitae societas contineretur2 in iis magni esse iudicis statuere1 praesertim cum in plerisque essent iudicia contraria1 quid quemque cuique praestare oporteret4 99#ga99 ,quocirca astutiae tollendae sunt eaque malitia1 quae volt illa quidem videri se esse prudentiam1 sed abest ab ea distatque plurimum4 ,prudentia est enim locata in dilectu bonorum et malorum1 malitia1 si omnia1 quae turpia sunt1 mala sunt1 mala bonis ponit ante4 ,nec vero in praediis solum ius civile ductum a natura malitiam fraudemque vindicat1 sed etiam in mancipiorum venditione venditoris fraus omnis excluditur4 ,qui enim scire debuit de sanitate1 de fuga1 de furtis1 praestat edicto aedilium4 ,heredum alia causa est4 99#gb99 ,ex quo intellegitur1 quoniam iuris natura fons sit1 hoc secundum naturam esse1 neminem id agere1 ut ex alterius praedetur inscitia4 ,nec ulla pernicies vitae maior inveniri potest quam in malitia simulatio intellegentiae2 ex quo ista innumerabilia nascuntur1 ut utilia cum honestis pugnare videantur4 ,quotus enim quisque reperietur1 qui impunitate et ignoratione omnium proposita abstinere possit iniuria8 #cbi ,bracketed by ,unger1 ,edd4 ,law vs4 philosophy in dealing with knavery4 ,,xvii4 ,now the law disposes of sharp practices in one way1 philosophers in another3 the law deals with them as far as it can lay its strong arm upon them2 philosophers1 as far as they can be apprehended by reason and conscience4 ,now reason demands that nothing be done with unfairness1 with false pretence1 or with misrepresentation4 ,is it not deception1 then1 to set snares1 even if one does not mean to start the game or to drive it into them8 ,why1 wild creatures often fall into snares undriven and unpursued4 ,could one in the same way advertise a house for sale1 post up a notice ,to be sold1 like a snare1 and have somebody run into it unsuspecting8 ,civil law vs4 moral law4 99#fi99 ,owing to the low ebb of public sentiment1 such a method of procedure1 ,i find1 is neither by custom accounted morally wrong nor forbidden either by statute or by civil law2 nevertheless it is forbidden by the moral law4 ,for there is a bond of fellowship--although ,i have often made this statement1 ,i must still repeat it again and again--which has the very widest application1 uniting all men together and each to each4 ,this bond of union is closer between those who belong to the same nation1 and more intimate still between those who are citizens of the same city-state4 ,it is for this reason that our forefathers chose to understand one thing by the universal law and another by the civil law4 ,the civil law is not necessarily also the universal law2 but the universal law ought to be also the civil law4 ,but we possess no substantial1 life-like image of true ,law and genuine ,justice2 a mere outline sketch is all that we enjoy4 ,i only wish that we were true even to this2 for1 even as it is1 it is drawn from the excellent models which ,nature and ,truth afford4 99#gj99 ,good faith in performance of contracts4 ,for how weighty are the words3 ,that ,i be not deceived and defrauded through you and my confidence in you6 ,how precious are these3 ,as between honest people there ought to be honest dealing1 and no deception6 ,but who are honest people1 and what is honest dealing--these are serious questions4 ,it was ,quintus ,scaevola1 the pontifex maximus1 who used to attach the greatest importance to all questions of arbitration to which the formula was appended as good faith requires2 and he held that the expression good faith had a very extensive application1 for it was employed in trusteeships and partnerships1 in trusts and commissions1 in buying and selling1 in hiring and letting--in a word1 in all the transactions on which the social relations of daily life depend2 in these1 he said1 it required a judge of great ability to decide the extent of each individual's obligation to the other1 especially when counter-claims were admissible in most cases4 99#ga99 ,away1 then1 with sharp practice and trickery1 which desires1 of course1 to pass for wisdom1 but is far from it and totally unlike it4 ,for the function of wisdom is to discriminate between good and evil2 whereas1 inasmuch as all things morally wrong are evil1 trickery prefers the evil to the good4 ,it is not only in the case of real estate transfers that the civil law1 based upon a natural feeling for the right1 punishes trickery and deception1 but also in the sale of slaves every form of deception on the vendors part is disallowed4 ,for by the aediles' ruling the vendor is answerable for any deficiency in the slave he sells1 for he is supposed to know if his slave is sound1 or if he is a runaway1 or a thief4 ,the case of those who have just come into the possession of slaves by inheritance is different4 ,cunning is not wisdom4 99#gb99 ,from this we come to realize that since nature is the source of right1 it is not in accord with nature that anyone should take advantage of his neighbour's ignorance4 ,and no greater curse in life can be found than knavery that wears the mask of wisdom4 ,thence come those countless cases in which the expedient seems to conflict with the right4 ,for how few will be found who can refrain from wrong-doing1 if assured of the power to keep it an absolute secret and to run no risk of punishment6 99#gc99 ,,xviii4 ,periclitemur1 si placet1 et in iis quidem exemplis1 in quibus peccari volgus hominum fortasse non putet4 ,neque enim de sicariis1 veneficis1 testamentariis1 furibus1 peculatoribus hoc loco disserendum est1 qui non verbis sunt et disputatione philosophorum1 sed vinclis et carcere fatigandi1 sed haec#ccj consideremus1 quae faciunt ii1 qui habentur boni4 ,l4 ,minuci ,basili1 locupletis hominis1 falsum testamentum quidam e ,graecia ,romam attulerunt4 ,quod quo facilius optinerent1 scripserunt heredes secum ,m4 ,crassum et ,q4 ,hortensium1 homines eiusdem aetatis potentissimos2 qui cum illud falsum esse suspicarentur1 sibi autem nullius essent conscii culpae1 alieni facinoris munusculum non repudiaverunt4 ,quid ergo8 satin est hoc1 ut non deliquisse videantur8 ,mihi quidem non videtur1 quamquam alterum vivum amavi1 alterum non odi mortuum2 99#gd99 sed1 cum ,basilus ,m4 ,satrium1 sororis filium1 nomen suum ferre voluisset eumque fecisset heredem 7hunc dico patronum agri ,piceni et ,sabini2 o turpem notam temporum nomen illorum671#cca non erat aequum principes civis rem habere1 ad ,satrium nihil praeter nomen pervenire4 ,etenim1 si is1 qui non defendit iniuriam neque propulsat1#ccb cum potest1 iniuste facit1 #bc ut in primo libro disserui1 qualis habendus est is1 qui non modo non repellit1 sed etiam adiuvat iniuriam8 ,mihi quidem etiam verae hereditates non honestae videntur1 si sunt malitiosis blanditiis1 officiorum non veritate1 sed simulatione quaesitae4 ,atqui in talibus rebus aliud utile interdum1 aliud honestum videri solet4 99#ge99 ,falso2 nam eadem utilitatis1 quae honestatis1 est regula4 997#ge799 ,qui hoc non perviderit1 ab hoc nulla fraus aberit1 nullum facinus4 ,sic enim cogitans3 ,est istuc quidem honestum1 verum hoc expedit1 res a natura copulatas audebit errore divellere1 qui fons est fraudium1 maleficiorum1 scelerum omnium4 #ccj haec c4 ,edd42 hoc ,b ,h a b4 #cca turpem notam temporum nomen illorum ,h a 7turpe7 b1 ,bt42 excl4 nomen illorum ,victorius1 ,ed42 turpe nomen illorum temporum c4 #ccb propulsat cod4 ,bern41 ,o41 ,edd42 propulsat a suis ,edd4 99#gc99 ,,xviii4 ,let us put our principle to the test1 if you please1 and see if it holds good in those instances in which1 perhaps1 the world in general finds no wrong2 for in this connection we do not need to discuss cut-throats1 poisoners1 forgers of wills1 thieves1 and embezzlers of public moneys1 who should be repressed not by lectures and discussions of philosophers1 but by chains and prison walls2 but let us study here the conduct of those who have the reputation of being honest men4 ,certain individuals brought from ,greece to ,rome a forged will1 purporting to be that of the wealthy ,lucius ,minucius ,basilus4 ,the more easily to procure validity for it1 they made joint-heirs with themselves two of the most influential men of the day1 ,marcus ,crassus and ,quintus ,hortensius4 ,although these men suspected that the will was a forgery1 still1 as they were conscious of no personal guilt in the matter1 they did not spurn the miserable boon procured through the crime of others4 ,what shall we say1 then8 ,is this excuse competent to acquit them of guilt8 ,i cannot think so1 although ,i loved the one while he lived1 and do not hate the other now that he is dead4 99#gd99 ,be that as it may1 ,basilus had in fact desired that his nephew ,marcus ,satrius should bear his name and inherit his property4 7,i refer to the ,satrius who is the present patron of ,picenum and the ,sabine country--and oh1 what a shameful stigma it is upon the times6,,bm7 ,and therefore it was not right that two of the leading citizens of ,rome should take the estate and ,satrius succeed to nothing except his uncle's name4 ,for if he does wrong who does not ward off and repel injury when he can--as ,i explained in the course of the ,first ,book--what is to be thought of the man who not only does not try to prevent wrong1 but actually aids and abets it8 ,for my part1 ,i do not believe that even genuine legacies are moral1 if they are sought after by designing flatteries and by attentions hypocritical rather than sincere4 ,the same standard for expediency as for moral rectitude4 ,and yet in such cases there are times when one course is likely to appear expedient and another morally right4 99#ge99 ,the appearance is deceptive2 for our standard is the same for expediency and for moral rectitude4 997#ge799 ,and the man who does not accept the truth of this will be capable of any sort of dishonesty1 any sort of crime4 ,for if he reasons ,that is1 to be sure1 the right course1 but this course brings advantage1 he will not hesitate in his mistaken judgment to divorce two conceptions that nature has made one2 and that spirit opens the door to all sorts of dishonesty1 wrong-doing1 and crime4 ,,bm ,the shame was that states enjoying the rights of ,roman citizenship should need a patron to protect their interests in the ,roman capital4 ,,xix4 ,itaque1 si vir bonus habeat hanc vim1 ut1 si digitis concrepuerit1 possit in locupletium testamenta nomen eius inrepere1 hac vi non utatur1 ne si exploratum quidem habeat id omnino neminem umquam suspicaturum4 ,at dares hanc vim ,m4 ,crasso1 ut digitorum percussione heres posset scriptus esse1 qui re vera non esset heres1 in foro1 mihi crede1 saltaret4 ,homo autem iustus isque1 quem sentimus virum bonum1 nihil cuiquam1 quod in se transferat1 detrahet4 ,hoc qui admiratur1 is se1 quid sit vir bonus1 nescire fateatur4 99#gf99 ,at vero1 si qui voluerit animi sui complicatam notionem evolvere1 iam se ipse doceat eum virum bonum esse1 qui prosit1 quibus possit1 noceat nemini nisi lacessitus iniuria4 ,quid ergo8 hic non noceat1 qui quodam quasi veneno perficiat1 ut veros heredes moveat1 in eorum locum ipse succedat8 ,non igitur faciat1 dixerit quis1 quod utile sit1 quod expediat8 ,immo intellegat nihil nec expedire nec utile esse1 quod sit iniustum2 hoc qui non didicerit1 bonus vir esse non poterit4 99#gg99 ,c4#ccc ,fimbriam consularem audiebam de patre nostro puer iudicem ,m4 ,lutatio ,pinthiae fuisse1 equiti ,romano sane honesto1 cum is sponsionem fecisset1 ,,ni ,,vir ,,bonus ,,esset4 ,itaque ei dixisse ,fimbriam se illam rem numquam iudicaturum1 ne aut spoliaret fama probatum hominem1 si contra iudicavisset1 aut statuisse videretur virum bonum esse aliquem1 cum ea res innumerabilibus officiis et laudibus contineretur4 ,huic igitur viro bono1 quem ,fimbria etiam1 non modo ,socrates noverat1 nullo modo videri potest quicquam esse utile1 quod non honestum sit4 ,itaque talis vir non modo facere1 sed ne cogitare quidem quicquam audebit1 quod non audeat praedicare4 ,haec non turpe est dubitare philosophos1 quae ne rustici quidem dubitent8 a quibus natum est id1 quod iam contritum est vetustate1 proverbium4 ,cum enim fidem alicuius bonitatemque laudant1 dignum esse dicunt1 quicum in tenebris mices4 ,hoc quam habet vim nisi illam1 nihil expedire1 quod non deceat1 etiamsi id possis nullo refellente optinere8 99#gh99 ,videsne hoc proverbio neque ,gygi illi posse veniam dari neque huic1 quem paulo ante fingebam digitorum percussione hereditates omnium posse converrere8 ,ut enim1 quod turpe est1 id1 quamvis occultetur1 tamen honestum fieri nullo modo potest1 sic1 quod honestum non est1 id utile ut sit1 effici non potest adversante et repugnante natura4 #ccc ,c4 ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 not in ,,mss4 ,the good man not tempted to unrighteous gain4 ,,xix4 ,suppose1 then1 that a good man had such power that at a snap of his fingers his name could steal into rich men's wills1 he would not avail himself of that power--no1 not even though he could be perfectly sure that no one would ever suspect it4 ,suppose1 on the other hand1 that one were to offer a ,marcus ,crassus the power1 by the mere snapping of his fingers1 to get himself named as heir1 when he was not really an heir1 he would1 ,i warrant you1 dance in the forum4 ,but the righteous man1 the one whom we feel to be a good man1 would never rob anyone of anything to enrich himself4 ,if anybody is astonished at this doctrine1 let him confess that he does not know what a good man is4 99#gf99 ,who is the good man8 ,if1 on the other hand1 anyone should desire to unfold the idea of a good man which lies wrapped up in his own mind1,,bn he would then at once make it clear to himself that a good man is one who helps all whom he can and harms nobody1 unless provoked by wrong4 ,what shall we say1 then8 ,would he not be doing harm who by a kind of magic spell should succeed in displacing the real heirs to an estate and pushing himself into their place8 ,well1 some one may say1 is he not to do what is expedient1 what is advantageous to himself8 ,nay1 verily2 he should rather be brought to realize that nothing that is unjust is either advantageous or expedient2 if he does not learn this lesson1 it will never be possible for him to be a good man4 99#gg99 ,when ,i was a boy1 ,i used to hear my father tell that ,gaius ,fimbria1 an ex-consul1 was judge in a case of ,marcus ,lutatius ,pinthia1 a ,roman knight of irreproachable character4 ,on that occasion ,pinthia had laid a wager to be forfeited if he did not prove in court that he was a good man4 ,fimbria declared that he would never render a decision in such a case1 for fear that he might either rob a reputable man of his good name1 if he decided against him1 or be thought to have pronounced some one a good man1 when such a character is1 as he said1 established by the performance of countless duties and the possession of praiseworthy qualities without number4 ,to a good man moral wrong is never expedient4 ,to this type of good man1 then1 known not only to a ,socrates but even to a ,fimbria1 nothing can possibly seem expedient that is not morally right4 ,such a man1 therefore1 will never venture to think--to say nothing of doing--anything that he would not dare openly to proclaim4 ,is it not a shame that philosophers should be in doubt about moral questions on which even peasants have no doubts at all8 ,for it is with peasants that the proverb1 already trite with age1 originated3 when they praise a man's honour and honesty1 they say ,he is a man with whom you can safely play at odd and even,,bo in the dark4 ,what is the point of the proverb but this--that what is not proper brings no advantage1 even if you can gain your end without any one's being able to convict you of wrong8 99#gh99 ,do you not see that in the light of this proverb no excuse is available either for the ,gyges of the story or for the man who ,i assumed a moment ago could with a snap of his fingers sweep together everybody's inheritance at once4 ,for as the morally wrong cannot by any possibility be made morally right1 however successfully it may be covered up1 so what is not morally right cannot be made expedient1 for nature refuses and resists4 ,,bn ,the ,platonic doctrine of ideas known in a previous existence and gradually developing into renewed consciousness4 ,learning is but a remembering of what the soul has known before4 ,,bo ,lit4 'flash with the fingers'2 shoot out some fingers the number of which had to be guessed4 99#gi99 ,,xx4 ,at enim1 cum permagna praemia sunt1 est causa peccandi4 ,c4 ,marius cum a spe consulatus longe abesset et iam#ccd septimum annum post praeturam iaceret1 neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur1 ,q4 ,metellum1 cuius legatus erat1 summum virum et civem1 cum ab eo1 imperatore suo1 ,romam missus esset1 apud populum ,romanum criminatus est bellum illum ducere2 si se consulem fecissent2 brevi tempore aut vivum aut mortuum ,iugurtham se in potestatem populi ,romani redacturum4 ,itaque factus est ille quidem consul1 sed a fide iustitiaque discessit1 qui optimum et gravissimum civem1 cuius legatus et a quo missus esset1 in invidiam falso crimine adduxerit4 99#hj99 ,ne noster quidem ,gratidianus officio viri boni functus est tum1 cum praetor esset collegiumque praetorium tribuni plebi adhibuissent1 ut res nummaria de communi sententia constitueretur2 iactabatur enim temporibus illis nummus sic1 ut nemo posset scire1 quid haberet4 ,conscripserunt communiter edictum cum poena atque iudicio constitueruntque1 ut omnes simul in rostra post meridiem escenderent4 ,et ceteri quidem alius alio1 ,marius ab subselliis in rostra recta idque1 quod communiter compositum fuerat1 solus edixit4 ,et ea res1 si quaeris1 ei magno honori fuit2 omnibus vicis statuae1 ad eas tus1 cerei2 quid multa8 nemo umquam multitudini fuit carior4 99#ha99 ,haec sunt1 quae conturbent in deliberatione non numquam1 cum id1 in quo violatur aequitas1 non ita magnum1 illud autem1 quod ex eo paritur1 permagnum videtur1 ut ,mario praeripere collegis et tribunis plebi popularem gratiam non ita turpe1 consulem ob eam rem fieri1 quod sibi tum proposuerat1 valde utile videbatur4 ,sed omnium una regula est1 quam tibi cupio esse notissimam1 aut illud1 quod utile videtur1 turpe ne sit aut1 si turpe est1 ne videatur esse utile4 ,quod igitur8 possumusne aut illum ,marium virum bonum iudicare aut hunc#cce8 ,explica atque excute intellegentiam tuam1 ut videas1 quae sit in ea species forma#ccf et notio viri boni4 ,cadit ergo in virum bonum mentiri emolumenti sui causa1 criminari1 praeripere1 fallere8 ,nihil profecto minus4 99#hb99 ,est ergo ulla res tanti aut commodum ullum tam expetendum1 ut viri boni et splendorem et nomen amittas8 ,quid est1 quod afferre tantum utilitas ista1 quae dicitur1 possit1 quantum auferre1 si boni viri nomen eripuerit1 fidem iustitiamque detraxerit8 ,quid enim interest1 utrum ex homine se convertat quis in beluam an hominis figura immanitatem gerat beluae8 #ccd et iam ,edd42 etiam ,,mss4 #cce aut hunc c1 ,edd42 atque hunc ,b ,h a b4 #ccf ea species forma ,b ,h a b2 ea specie forma c p2 ea forma1 ,klotz1 ,heine1 ,ed42 ea species1 ,bt4 ,the moral loss that comes from wrong ambitions3 99#gi99 ,,xx4 ,but stay1 some one will object1 when the prize is very great1 there is excuse for doing wrong4 7#a7 ,marius1 ,gaius ,marius had been left in obscurity for more than six whole years after his praetorship and had scarcely the remotest hope of gaining the consulship4 ,it looked as if he would never even be a candidate for that office4 ,he was now a lieutenant under ,quintus ,metellus1 who sent him on a furlough to ,rome4 ,there before the ,roman ,people he accused his own general1 an eminent man and one of our first citizens1 of purposely protracting the war and declared that if they would make him consul1 he would within a short time deliver ,jugurtha alive or dead into the hands of the ,roman ,people4 ,and so he was elected consul1 it is true1 but he was a traitor to his own good faith and to justice2 for by a false charge he subjected to popular disfavour an exemplary and highly respected citizen1 and that too1 although he was his lieutenant and under leave of absence from him4 7#b7 ,gratidianus1 99#hj99 ,even our kinsman ,gratidianus failed on one occasion to perform what would be a good man's duty3 in his praetorship the tribunes of the people summoned the college of praetors to counsel1 in order to adopt by joint resolution a standard of value for our currency2 for at that time the value of money was so fluctuating that no one could tell how much he was worth4 ,in joint session they drafted an ordinance1 defining the penalty and the methods of procedure in cases of violation of the ordinance1 and agreed that they should all appear together upon the rostra in the afternoon to publish it4 ,and while all the rest withdrew1 some in one direction1 some in another1 ,marius 7,gratidianus7 went straight from the council chamber to the rostra and published individually what had been drawn up by all together4 ,and that coup1 if you care to know1 brought him vast honour2 in every street statues of him were erected2 before these incense and candles burned4 ,in a word1 no one ever enjoyed greater popularity with the masses4 ,no material gain can compensate for moral loss4 99#ha99 ,it is such cases as these that sometimes perplex us in our consideration1 when the point in which justice is violated does not seem so very significant1 but the consequences of such slight transgression seem exceedingly important4 ,for example1 it was not so very wrong morally1 in the eyes of ,marius1,,bp to overreach his colleagues and the tribunes in turning to himself alone all the credit with the people2 but to secure by that means his election to the consulship1 which was then the goal of his ambition1,,bq seemed very greatly to his interest4 ,but for all cases we have one rule1 with which ,i desire you to be perfectly familiar3 that which seems expedient must not be morally wrong2 or1 if it is morally wrong1 it must not seem expedient4 ,what follows8 ,can we account either the great ,marius or our ,marius ,gratidianus a good man8 ,work out your own ideas and sift your thoughts so as to see what conception and idea of a good man they contain4 ,pray1 tell me1 does it coincide with the character of your good man to lie for his own profit1 to slander1 to overreach1 to deceive8 ,nay1 verily2 anything but that6 99#hb99 ,is there1 then1 any object of such value or any advantage so worth the winning that1 to gain it1 one should sacrifice the name of a good man and the lustre of his reputation8 ,what is there that your so-called expediency can bring to you that will compensate for what it can take away1 if it steals from you the name of a good man and causes you to lose your sense of honour and justice8 ,for what difference does it make whether a man is actually transformed into a beast or whether1 keeping the outward appearance of a man1 he has the savage nature of a beast within8 ,,bp ,gratidianus's4 ,,bq ,never attained1 however4 ,for his conspicuous position as a popular leader made him an early mark for ,sulla's proscriptions4 ,,xxi4 ,quid8 qui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt1 dum modo potentiam consequantur1 nonne idem faciunt1 quod is1 qui etiam socerum habere voluit eum1 cuius ipse audacia potens esset8 ,utile ei videbatur plurimum posse alterius invidia2 id quam iniustum in patriam et quam turpe esset1 non videbat4 ,ipse autem socer in ore semper ,graecos versus de ,phoenissis habebat1 quos dicam1 ut potero1 incondite fortasse1 sed tamen1 ut res possit intellegi3 ,eur4 ,phoen4 #ebd-ebe ,nam s violandum est is1 regnandi grtia ,violndum est2 aliis rbus pietatm colas4 ,capitalis ,eteocles vel potius ,euripides1#ccg qui id unum1 quod omnium sceleratissimum fuerit1 exceperit6 99#hc99 ,quid igitur minuta colligimus1 hereditates1 mercaturas1 venditiones fraudulentas8 ecce tibi1 qui rex populi ,romani dominusque omnium gentium esse concupiverit idque perfecerit6 ,hanc cupiditatem si honestam quis esse dicit1 amens est2 probat enim legum et libertatis interitum earumque oppressionem taetram et detestabilem gloriosam putat4 ,qui autem fatetur honestum non esse in ea civitate1 quae libera fuerit quaeque#cch esse debeat1 regnare1 sed ei1 qui id facere possit1 esse utile1 qua hunc obiurgatione aut quo potius convicio a tanto errore coner avellere8 ,potest enim1 di immortales6 cuiquam esse utile foedissimum et taeterrimum parricidium patriae1 quamvis is1 qui se eo obstrinxerit1 ab oppressis civibus parens nominetur8 ,honestate igitur dirigenda#cci utilitas est1 et quidem sic1 ut haec duo verbo inter se discrepare1 re unum sonare videantur4 99#hd99 ,non habeo1 ad volgi opinionem quae maior utilitas quam regnandi esse possit2 nihil contra inutilius ei1 qui id iniuste consecutus sit1 invenio1 cum ad veritatem coepi revocare rationem4 ,possunt enim cuiquam esse utiles angores1 sollicitudines1 diurni et nocturni metus1 vita insidiarum periculorumque plenissima8 ,inc4 ,fab41 ,ribbeck#b1 #fea ,mlti iniqui atque nfideles rgno1 pauci bnivoli1#cdj inquit ,accius4 ,at cui regno8 ,quod a ,tantalo et ,pelope proditum iure optinebatur4 ,nam quanto pluris ei regi putas1 qui exercitu populi ,romani populum ipsum ,romanum oppressisset civitatemque non modo liberam1 sed etiam gentibus imperantem servire sibi cogisset8 99#he99 ,hunc tu quas conscientiae labes in animo censes habuisse1 quae vulnera8 ,cuius autem vita ipsi potest utilis esse1 cum eius vitae ea condicio sit1 ut1 qui illam eripuerit1 in maxima et gratia futurus sit et gloria8 ,quodsi haec utilia non sunt1 quae maxime videntur1 quia plena sunt dedecoris ac turpitudinis1 satis persuasum esse debet nihil esse utile1 quod non honestum sit4 #ccg ,bracketed by ,ed41 ,heine1 et al4 #cch fuerit quaeque c1 ,edd42 fuit ,b ,h a b4 #cci dirigenda ,,mss41 ,edd4 plerique2 derigenda ,ed4 #cdj beni7e7voli ,strenbg42 benivoli sunt c2 boni sunt ,b ,h a b4 ,,xxi4 ,again1 when people disregard everything that is morally right and true1 if only they may secure power thereby1 7#c7 ,pompey1 are they not pursuing the same course as he,,br who wished to have as a father-in-law the man by whose effrontery he might gain power for himself8 ,he thought it advantageous to secure supreme power while the odium of it fell upon another2 and he failed to see how unjust to his country this was1 and how wrong morally4 7#d7 ,caesar4 ,but the father-in-law himself used to have continually upon his lips the ,greek verses from the ,phoenissae1 which ,i will reproduce as well as ,i can--awkwardly1 it may be1 but still so that the meaning can be understood3 ,if wrong may e'er be right1 for a throne's sake ,were wrong most right3--be ,god in all else feared6,,bs ,our tyrant deserved his death for having made an exception of the one thing that was the blackest crime of all4 99#hc99 ,why do we gather instances of petty crime--legacies criminally obtained and fraudulent buying and selling8 ,behold1 here you have a man who was ambitious to be king of the ,roman ,people and master of the whole world2 and he achieved it6 ,even to gain a throne by moral wrong is not expedient4 ,the man who maintains that such an ambition is morally right is a madman2 for he justifies the destruction of law and liberty and thinks their hideous and detestable suppression glorious4 ,but if anyone agrees that it is not morally right to be king in a state that once was free and that ought to be free now1 and yet imagines that it is advantageous for him who can reach that position1 with what remonstrance or rather with what appeal should ,i try to tear him away from so strange a delusion8 ,for1 oh ye immortal gods6 can the most horrible and hideous of all murders--that of fatherland--bring advantage to anybody1 even though he who has committed such a crime receives from his enslaved fellow-citizens the title of ,father of his ,country,,bt8 ,identity of expediency and moral rectitude4 ,expediency1 therefore1 must be measured by the standard of moral rectitude1 and in such a way1 too1 that these two words shall seem in sound only to be different but in real meaning to be one and the same4 99#hd99 ,what greater advantage one could have1 according to the standard of popular opinion1 than to be a king1 ,i do not know2 when1 however1 ,i begin to bring the question back to the standard of truth1 then ,i find nothing more disadvantageous for one who has risen to that height by injustice4 ,for can occasions for worry1 anxiety1 fear by day and by night1 and a life all beset with plots and perils be of advantage to anybody8 ,thrones have many foes and friends untrue1 but few devoted friends1 says ,accius4 ,but of what sort of throne was he speaking8 ,why1 one that was held by right1 handed down from ,tantalus and ,pelops4 ,aye1 but how many more foes1 think you1 had that king who with the ,roman ,people's army brought the ,roman ,people themselves into subjection and compelled a state that not only had been free but had been mistress of the world to be his slave8 99#he99 ,what stains do you think he had upon his conscience1 what scars upon his heart8 ,but whose life can be advantageous to himself1 if that life is his on the condition that the man who takes it shall be held in undying gratitude and glory8 ,but if these things which seem so very advantageous are not advantageous because they are full of shame and moral wrong1 we ought to be quite convinced that nothing can be expedient that is not morally right4 ,,br ,pompey1 who in #ei married ,caesar's daughter ,julia1 twenty-four years his junior1 and already betrothed to ,caepio4 ,,bs ,from ,a4 ,s4 ,way's translation4 ,,bt ,the title bestowed on ,cicero for saving the republic 7in #fc7 and on ,caesar for overthrowing it 7after the battle of ,munda1 in #de74 99#hf99 ,,xxii4 ,quamquam id quidem cum saepe alias1 tum ,pyrrhi bello a ,c4 ,fabricio consule iterum et a senatu nostro iudicatum est4 ,cum enim rex ,pyrrhus populo ,romano bellum ultro intulisset1 cumque de imperio certamen esset cum rege generoso ac potenti1#cda perfuga ab eo venit in castra ,fabrici eique est pollicitus1 si praemium sibi proposuisset1 se1 ut clam venisset1 sic clam in ,pyrrhi castra rediturum et eum veneno necaturum4 ,hunc ,fabricius reducendum curavit ad ,pyrrhum1 idque eius factum laudatum a senatu est4 ,atqui1 si speciem utilitatis opinionemque quaerimus1 magnum illud bellum perfuga unus et gravem adversarium imperii sustulisset1 sed magnum dedecus et flagitium1 quicum laudis certamen fuisset1 eum non virtute1 sed scelere superatum4 99#hg99 ,utrum igitur utilius vel ,fabricio1 qui talis in hac urbe1 qualis ,aristides ,athenis1 fuit1 vel senatui nostro1 qui numquam utilitatem a dignitate seiunxit1 armis cum hoste certare an venenis8 ,si gloriae causa imperium expetendum est1 scelus absit1 in quo non potest esse gloria2 sin ipsae opes expetuntur quoquo modo1 non poterunt utiles esse cum infamia4 ,non igitur utilis illa ,l4 ,philippi ,q4 f4 sententia1 quas civitates ,l4 ,sulla pecunia accepta ex senatus consulto liberavisset1 ut eae rursus vectigales essent neque iis pecuniam1 quam pro libertate dederant1 redderemus4 ,ei senatus est assensus4 ,turpe imperio6 piratarum enim melior fides quam senatus4 ,at aucta vectigalia1 utile igitur4 ,quousque audebunt dicere quicquam utile1 quod non honestum8 99#hh99 potest autem ulli imperio1 quod gloria debet fultum esse et benivolentia sociorum1 utile esse odium et infamia8 ,ego etiam cum ,catone meo saepe dissensi2 nimis mihi praefracte videbatur aerarium vectigaliaque defendere1 omnia publicanis negare1 multa sociis1 cum in hos benefici esse deberemus1 cum illis sic agere1 ut cum colonis nostris soleremus1 eoque magis1 quod#cdb illa ordinum coniunctio ad salutem rei publicae pertinebat4 ,male etiam ,curio1 cum causam ,transpadanorum aequam esse dicebat1 semper autem addebat3 ,vincat utilitas6 ,potius doceret non esse aequam1 quia non esset utilis rei publicae1 quam1 cum utilem non esse diceret1 esse aequam fateretur4 #cda potenti ,nonius1 ,edd42 potente ,,mss4 #cdb quod ,l c1 ,edd42 quo ,b ,h a b4 ,apparent conflicts between expediency and moral rectitude3 7#a7 ,fabricius and the deserter1 99#hf99 ,,xxii4 ,and yet this very question has been decided on many occasions before and since2 but in the war with ,pyrrhus the decision rendered by ,gaius ,fabricius1 in his second consulship1 and by our senate was particularly striking4 ,without provocation ,king ,pyrrhus had declared war upon the ,roman ,people2 the struggle was against a generous and powerful prince1 and the supremacy of power was the prize2 a deserter came over from him to the camp of ,fabricius and promised1 if ,fabricius would assure him of a reward1 to return to the camp of ,pyrrhus as secretly as he had come1 administer poison to the king1 and bring about his death4 ,fabricius saw to it that this fellow was taken back to ,pyrrhus2 and his action was commended by the senate4 ,and yet1 if the mere show of expediency and the popular conception of it are all we want1 this one deserter would have put an end to that wasting war and to a formidable foe of our supremacy2 but it would have been a lasting shame and disgrace to us to have overcome not by valour but by crime the man with whom we had a contest for glory4 99#hg99 ,which course1 then1 was more expedient for ,fabricius1 who was to our city what ,aristides was to ,athens1 or for our senate1 who never divorced expediency from honour--to contend against the enemy with the sword or with poison8 ,if supremacy is to be sought for the sake of glory1 crime should be excluded1 for there can be no glory in crime2 but if it is power for its own sake that is sought1 whatever the price1 it cannot be expedient if it is linked with shame4 7#b7 the senate and the tributary allies1 ,that well-known measure1 therefore1 introduced by ,philippus1 the son of ,quintus1 was not expedient4 ,with the authority of the senate1 ,lucius ,sulla had exempted from taxation certain states upon receipt of a lump sum of money from them4 ,philippus proposed that they should again be reduced to the condition of tributary states1 without repayment on our part of the money that they had paid for their exemption4 ,and the senate accepted his proposal4 ,shame upon our government6 ,the pirates' sense of honour is higher than the senate's4 ,but1 some one will say1 the revenues were increased1 and therefore it was expedient4 ,how long will people venture to say that a thing that is not morally right can be expedient8 99#hh99 ,furthermore1 can hatred and shame be expedient for any government8 ,for government ought to be founded upon fair fame and the loyalty of allies8 7#c7 ,cato and the publicans1 ,on this point ,i often disagreed even with my friend ,cato2 it seemed to me that he was too rigorous in his watchful care over the claims of the treasury and the revenues2 he refused everything that the farmers of the revenue asked for and much that the allies desired2 whereas1 as ,i insisted1 it was our duty to be generous to the allies and to treat the publicans as we were accustomed individually to treat our tenants--and all the more1 because harmony between the orders was essential to the welfare of the republic4,,bu 7#d7 ,curio and the colonies4 ,curio1 too1 was wrong1 when he pleaded that the demands of the people beyond the ,po were just1 but never failed to add ,let expediency prevail4 ,he ought rather to have proved that the claims were not just1 because they were not expedient for the republic1 than to have admitted that they were just1 when1 as he maintained1 they were not expedient4 ,,bu ,the publicans1 farmers of the revenue1 were the moneyed men of the times and belonged to the equestrian order4 ,they purchased from the senate the farming of the revenues and then sublet their contract to the collectors4 ,sometimes they found that they had agreed to pay too high a rate and petitioned the senate to release them from their contract or reduce their obligations1 as on this occasion 7,b4,c4 #fa74 ,the opposition of ,cato and others strained the relations between the senate1 who had control of the business1 and the equestrian order1 driving many of the equites over to ,caesar's side4 ,complete harmony between the senate and the knights1 as ,cicero says1 was the only thing that could have saved ,rome from the popular party and ,caesar4 99#hi99 ,,xxiii4 ,plenus est sextus liber de officiis ,hecatonis talium quaestionum3 sitne boni viri in maxima caritate annonae familiam non alere4 ,in utramque partem disputat1 sed tamen ad extremum utilitate1 ut putat1 officium dirigit#cdc magis quam humanitate4 ,quaerit1 si in mari iactura facienda sit1 equine pretiosi potius iacturam faciat an servoli vilis4 ,hic alio res familiaris1 alio ducit humanitas4 ,si tabulam de naufragio stultus arripuerit1 extorquebitne eam sapiens1 si potuerit8 ,negat1 quia sit iniurium4 ,quid8 dominus navis eripietne suum8 ,minime1 non plus quam navigantem#cdd in alto eicere de navi velit1 quia sua sit4 ,quoad enim perventum est#cde eo1 quo sumpta navis est1 non domini est navis1 sed navigantium4 99#ij99 ,quid8 si una tabula sit1 duo naufragi1 eique sapientes1 sibine uterque#cdf rapiat1 an alter cedat alteri8 ,cedat vero1 sed ei1 cuius magis intersit vel sua vel rei publicae causa vivere4 ,quid1 si haec paria in utroque8 ,nullum erit certamen1 sed quasi sorte aut micando victus alteri cedet alter4 ,quid8 si pater fana expilet1 cuniculos agat ad aerarium1 indicetne id magistratibus filius8 ,nefas id quidem est1 quin etiam defendat patrem1 si arguatur4 ,non igitur patria praestat omnibus officiis8 ,immo vero1 sed ipsi patriae conducit pios habere cives in parentes4 ,quid8 si tyrannidem occupare1 si patriam prodere conabitur pater1 silebitne filius8 ,immo vero obsecrabit patrem1 ne id faciat4 ,si nihil proficiet1 accusabit1 minabitur etiam1 ad extremum1 si ad perniciem patriae res spectabit1 patriae salutem anteponet saluti patris4 99#ia99 ,quaerit etiam1 si sapiens adulterinos nummos acceperit imprudens pro bonis1 cum id rescierit1 soluturusne sit eos1 si cui#cdg debeat1 pro bonis4 ,diogenes ait1 ,antipater negat1 cui potius assentior4 ,qui vinum#cdh fugiens vendat sciens1 debeatne dicere4 ,non necesse putat ,diogenes1 ,antipater viri boni existimat4 ,haec sunt quasi controversa iura ,stoicorum4 ,in mancipio vendendo dicendane vitia1 non ea1 quae nisi dixeris1 redhibeatur mancipium iure civili1 sed haec1 mendacem esse1 aleatorem1 furacem1 ebriosum8 ,alteri dicenda videntur1 alteri non videntur4 99#ib99 ,si quis aurum vendens orichalcum se putet vendere1 indicetne ei vir bonus aurum illud esse an emat denario1 quod sit mille denarium8 ,perspicuum est iam1 et quid mihi videatur1 et quae sit inter eos philosophos1 quos nominavi1 controversia4 #cdc dirigit ,,mss41 ,edd4 plerique2 derigit ,ed4 #cdd quam navigantem ,heus41 ,edd42 quam si navigantem ,,mss4 #cde est c1 ,nonius2 sit ,b ,h a b4 #cdf sibine uterque ,victorius1 ,edd42 sibi neuter ,,mss4 #cdg si cui c1 ,nonius1 ,edd42 sicut ,b ,h a b4 #cdh vinum c1 ,nonius1 ,edd42 venenum ,b ,h a b p4 ,hecaton debates the question of expediency vs4 moral rectitude4 99#hi99 ,,xxiii4 ,the sixth book of ,hecaton's ,moral ,duties is full of questions like the following3 ,is it consistent with a good man's duty to let his slaves go hungry when provisions are at famine prices8 ,hecaton gives the arguments on both sides of the question2 but still in the end it is by the standard of expediency1 as he conceives it1 rather than by one of human feeling1 that he decides the question of duty4 ,then he raises this question3 supposing a man had to throw part of his cargo overboard in a storm1 should he prefer to sacrifice a high-priced horse or a cheap and worthless slave8 ,in this case regard for his property interest inclines him one way1 human feeling the other4 ,suppose that a foolish man has seized hold of a plank from a sinking ship1 shall a wise man wrest it away from him if he can8 ,no1 says ,hecaton2 for that would be unjust4 ,but how about the owner of the ship8 ,shall he take the plank away because it belongs to him8 ,not at all2 no more than he would be willing when far out at sea to throw a passenger overboard on the ground that the ship was his4 ,for until they reach the place for which the ship is chartered1 she belongs to the passengers1 not to the owner4 99#ij99 ,again2 suppose there were two to be saved from the sinking ship--both of them wise men--and only one small plank1 should both seize it to save themselves8 ,or should one give place to the other8 ,why of course1 one should give place to the other1 but that other must be the one whose life is more valuable either for his own sake or for that of his country4 ,but what if these considerations are of equal weight in both8 ,then there will be no contest1 but one will give place to the other1 as if the point were decided by lot or at a game of odd and even4 ,again1 suppose a father were robbing temples or making underground passages to the treasury1 should a son inform the officers of it8 ,nay2 that were a crime2 rather should he defend his father1 in case he were indicted4 ,well1 then1 are not the claims of country paramount to all other duties8 ,aye1 verily2 but it is to our country's interest to have citizens who are loyal to their parents4 ,but once more--if the father attempts to make himself king1 or to betray his country1 shall the son hold his peace8 ,nay1 verily2 he will plead with his father not to do so4 ,if that accomplishes nothing1 he will take him to task2 he will even threaten2 and in the end1 if things point to the destruction of the state1 he will sacrifice his father to the safety of his country4 ,a similar debate by ,diogenes vs4 ,antipater4 99#ia99 ,again1 he raises the question3 ,if a wise man should inadvertently accept counterfeit money for good1 will he offer it as genuine in payment of a debt after he discovers his mistake8 ,diogenes says ,yes2 ,antipater1 ,no1 and ,i agree with him4 ,if a man knowingly offers for sale wine that is spoiling1 ought he tell his customers8 ,diogenes thinks that it is not required2 ,antipater holds that an honest man would do so4 ,these are like so many points of the law disputed among the ,stoics4 ,in selling a slave1 should his faults be declared--not those only which the seller is bound by the civil law to declare or have the slave returned to him1 but also the fact that he is untruthful1 or disposed to gamble1 or steal1 or get drunk8 ,the one thinks such facts should be declared1 the other does not4 99#ib99 ,if a man thinks that he is selling brass1 when he is actually selling gold1 should an upright man inform him that his stuff is gold1 or go on buying for one shilling,,bv what is worth a thousand8 ,it is clear enough by this time what my views are on these questions1 and what are the grounds of dispute between the above-named philosophers4 ,,bv ,the denarius was worth at this time about ninepence4 ,,xxiv4 ,pacta et promissa semperne servanda sint1 ,,quae ,,nec ,,vi ,,nec ,,dolo ,,malo1 ut praetores solent1 ,,facta ,,sint4 ,si quis medicamentum cuipiam dederit ad aquam intercutem pepigeritque1 si eo medicamento sanus factus esset1 ne illo medicamento umquam postea uteretur1 si eo medicamento sanus factus sit et annis aliquot post inciderit in eundem morbum nec ab eo1 quicum pepigerat1 impetret1 ut iterum eo#cdi liceat uti1 quid faciendum sit4 ,cum sit is inhumanus1 qui non concedat1 nec ei quicquam fiat iniuriae1 vitae et saluti consulendum4 99#ic99 ,quid8 si qui sapiens rogatus sit ab eo1 qui eum heredem faciat1 cum ei testamento sestertium milies relinquatur1 ut1 ante quam hereditatem adeat1 luce palam in foro saltet1 idque se facturum promiserit1 quod aliter heredem eum scripturus ille non esset1 faciat1 quod promiserit1 necne8 ,promisisse nollem et id arbitror fuisse gravitatis2 quoniam promisit1 si saltare in foro turpe ducet1 honestius mentietur1 si ex hereditate nihil ceperit1 quam si ceperit1 nisi forte eam pecuniam in rei publicae magnum aliquod tempus contulerit1 ut vel saltare1 cum patriae consulturus sit1 turpe non sit4 #cdi iterum eo ,pearce1 ,edd42 item eo ,b ,h a b2 item tum c4 ,promises not binding3 7#a7 when life or health is at stake1 ,,xxiv4 ,the question arises also whether agreements and promises must always be kept1 when1 in the language of the praetors' edicts1 they have not been secured through force or criminal fraud4 ,if one man gives another a remedy for the dropsy1 with the stipulation that1 if he is cured by it1 he shall never make use of it again2 suppose the patient's health is restored by the use of it but some years later he contracts the same disease once more2 and suppose he cannot secure from the man with whom he made the agreement permission to use the remedy again1 what should he do8 ,that is the question4 ,since the man is unfeeling in refusing the request1 and since no harm could be done to him by his friend's using the remedy1 the sick man is justified in doing what he can for his own life and health4 7#b7 when reputation is at stake1 99#ic99 ,again3 suppose that a millionaire is making some wise man his heir and leaving him in his will a hundred million sesterces,,bw2 and suppose that he has asked the wise man1 before he enters upon his inheritance1 to dance publicly in broad daylight in the forum2 and suppose that the wise man has given his promise to do so1 because the rich man would not leave him his fortune on any other condition2 should he keep his promise or not8 ,i wish he had made no such promise2 that1 ,i think1 would have been in keeping with his dignity4 ,but seeing that he has made it1 it will be morally better for him1 if he believes it morally wrong to dance in the forum1 to break his promise and refuse to accept his inheritance rather than to keep his promise and accept it--unless1 perhaps1 he contributes the money to the state to meet some grave crisis4 ,in that case1 to promote thereby the interests of one's country1 it would not be morally wrong even to dance1 if you please1 in the forum4 ,,bw ,approximately #gej1jjj4 99#id99 ,,xxv4 ,ac ne illa quidem promissa servanda sunt1 quae non sunt iis#cej ipsis utilia1 quibus illa promiseris4 ,sol ,phathonti filio1 ut redeamus ad fabulas1 facturum se esse dixit1 quicquid optasset2 optavit1 ut in currum patris tolleretur2 sublatus est4 ,atque#cea is1 ante quam constitit1 ictu fulminis deflagravit4 ,quanto melius fuerat in hoc promissum patris non esse servatum6 ,quid1 quod ,theseus exegit promissum a ,neptuno8 cui cum tres optationes ,neptunus dedisset1 optavit interitum ,hippolyti filii1 cum is patri suspectus esset de noverca2 quo optato impetrato ,theseus in maximis fuit luctibus4 99#ie99 ,quid1 quod#ceb ,agamemnon cum devovisset ,dianae1 quod in suo regno pulcherrimum natum esset illo anno1 immolavit ,iphigeniam1 qua nihil erat eo quidem anno natum pulchrius8 ,promissum potius non faciendum quam tam taetrum facinus admittendum fuit4 ,ergo et promissa non facienda non numquam1 neque semper deposita reddenda4 ,si gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit1 repetat insaniens1 reddere peccatum sit1 officium non reddere4 ,quid8 si is1 qui apud te pecuniam deposuerit1 bellum inferat patriae1 reddasne depositum8 ,non credo2 facias#cec enim contra rem publicam1 quae debet esse carissima4 ,sic multa1 quae honesta natura videntur esse1 temporibus fiunt non honesta2 facere promissa1 stare conventis1 reddere deposita commutata utilitate fiunt non honesta4 ,ac de iis quidem1 quae videntur esse utilitates contra iustitiam simulatione prudentiae1 satis arbitror dictum4 99#if99 ,sed quoniam a quattuor fontibus honestatis #ae ff4 primo libro officia duximus1 in eisdem versemur1 cum docebimus ea1 #dj-gj quae videantur esse utilia neque sint1 #ga-ie quam sint virtutis inimica4 ,ac de prudentia quidem1 quam vult imitari malitia1 itemque de iustitia1 quae semper est utilis1 disputatum est4 ,reliquae sunt duae partes honestatis1 quarum altera in animi excellentis magnitudine et praestantia cernitur1 altera in conformatione et moderatione continentiae et temperantiae4 #cej iis ,edd42 his ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #cea ,atque ,,mss41 ,bt4#a1 ,mller1 ,heine2 ,atqui ,fl41 ,bt4#b1 ,ed4 #ceb quod ,ed42 not in ,,mss41 ,bt41 et al4 #cec facias c1 ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 facies ,a ,b ,h a b1 ,mller4 7#c7 when not expedient for him to whom the promise is made4 99#id99 ,,xxv4 ,no more binding are those promises which are inexpedient for the persons themselves to whom they have been given4 ,to go back to the realm of story1 the sungod promised his son ,phathon to do for him whatever he should wish4 ,his wish was to be allowed to ride in his father's chariot4 ,it was granted4 ,and before he came back to the ground he was consumed by a stroke of lightning4 ,how much better had it been1 if in his case the father's promise had not been kept4 ,and what of that promise1 the fulfilment of which ,theseus required from ,neptune8 ,when ,neptune offered him three wishes1 he wished for the death of his son ,hippolytus1 because the father was suspicious of the son's relations with his step-mother4 ,and when this wish was granted1 ,theseus was overwhelmed with grief4 99#ie99 ,and once more2 when ,agamemnon had vowed to ,diana the most beautiful creature born that year within his realm1 he was brought to sacrifice ,iphigenia2 for in that year nothing was born more beautiful than she4 ,he ought to have broken his vow rather than commit so horrible a crime4 ,trusts not always to be restored4 ,promises are1 therefore1 sometimes not to be kept2 and trusts are not always to be restored4 ,suppose that a person leaves his sword with you when he is in his right mind1 and demands it back in a fit of insanity2 it would be criminal to restore it to him2 it would be your duty not to do so4 ,again1 suppose that a man who has entrusted money to you proposes to make war upon your common country1 should you restore the trust8 ,i believe you should not2 for you would be acting against the state1 which ought to be the dearest thing in the world to you4 ,thus there are many things which in and of themselves seem morally right1 but which under certain circumstances prove to be not morally right3 to keep a promise1 to abide by an agreement1 to restore a trust may1 with a change of expediency1 cease to be morally right4 ,with this ,i think ,i have said enough about those actions which masquerade as expedient under the guise of prudence1 while they are really contrary to justice4 99#if99 ,since1 however1 in ,book ,one we derived moral duties from the four sources of moral rectitude1 let us continue the same fourfold division here in pointing out how hostile to virtue are those courses of conduct which seem to be1 but really are not1 expedient4 ,we have discussed wisdom1 which cunning seeks to counterfeit1 and likewise justice1 which is always expedient4 ,there remain for our discussion two divisions of moral rectitude1 the one of which is discernible in the greatness and pre-eminence of a superior soul1 the other1 in the shaping and regulation of it by temperance and self-control4 99#ig99 ,,xxvi4 ,utile videbatur ,ulixi1 ut quidem potae tragici prodiderunt 7nam apud ,homerum1 optimum auctorem1 talis de ,ulixe nulla suspicio est71 sed insimulant eum tragoediae simulatione insaniae militiam subterfugere voluisse4 ,non honestum consilium1 at utile1 ut aliquis fortasse dixerit1 regnare et ,ithacae vivere otiose cum parentibus1 cum uxore1 cum filio4 ,ullum tu decus in cotidianis laboribus et periculis cum hac tranquillitate conferendum putas8 ,ego vero istam contemnendam et abiciendam1 quoniam1 quae honesta non sit1 ne utilem quidem esse arbitror4 99#ih99 ,quid enim auditurum putas fuisse ,ulixem1 si in illa simulatione perseveravisset8 qui cum maximas res gesserit in bello1 tamen haec audiat ab ,aiace3 7,accius or ,pacuvius1 ,judicium ,armorum87 ,inc4 inc4 fab41 ,ribbeck#b #ee-fj ,cuius pse princeps iris iurand fuit1 ,quod mnes scitis1 slus neglext fidem2 ,furere ssimulare1 n coiret1 nstitit4 ,quodn ,palamedi prspicax prudntia ,istus percepset#ced mlitiosam audciam1 ,fid sacratae#cee is perpetuo flleret4 99#ii99 ,illi vero non modo cum hostibus1 verum etiam cum fluctibus1 id quod fecit1 dimicare melius fuit quam deserere consentientem ,graeciam ad bellum barbaris inferendum4 ,sed omittamus et fabulas et externa2 ad rem factam nostramque veniamus4 ,m4 ,atilius ,regulus cum consul iterum in ,africa ex insidiis captus esset duce ,xanthippo ,lacedaemonio1 imperatore autem patre ,hannibalis ,hamilcare1 iuratus missus est ad senatum1 ut1 nisi redditi essent ,poenis captivi nobiles quidam1 rediret ipse ,carthaginem4 ,is cum ,romam venisset1 utilitatis speciem videbat1 sed eam1 ut res declarat1 falsam iudicavit2 quae erat talis3 manere in patria1 esse domui suae cum uxore1 cum liberis1 quam calamitatem accepisset in bello1 communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis gradum4 ,quis haec negat esse utilia8 quem censes8 ,magnitudo animi et fortitudo negat4 99#ajj99 ,,xxvii4 ,num#cef locupletiores quaeris auctores8 ,harum enim est virtutum proprium nihil extimescere1 omnia humana despicere1 nihil1 quod homini accidere possit1 intolerandum putare4 ,itaque quid fecit8 ,in senatum venit1 mandata exposuit1 sententiam ne diceret recusavit1 quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur1 non esse se senatorem4 ,atque illud etiam 7,o stultum hominem1 dixerit quispiam1 et repugnantem utilitati suae671 reddi captivos negavit esse utile2 illos enim adulescentes esse et bonos duces1 se iam confectum senectute4 ,cuius cum valuisset auctoritas1 captivi retenti sunt1 ipse ,carthaginem rediit1 neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum4 ,neque vero tum ignorabat se ad crudelissimum hostem et ad exquisita supplicia proficisci1 sed ius iurandum conservandum putabat4 ,itaque tum1 cum vigilando necabatur1 erat in meliore causa1 quam si domi senex captivus1 periurus consularis remansisset4 99#aja99 ,at stulte1 qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos1 verum etiam dissuaserit4 ,quo modo stulte8 etiamne1 si rei publicae conducebat8 potest autem1 quod inutile rei publicae sit1 id cuiquam civi utile esse8 #ced percepset ,bt41 ,ed41 ,heine2 percepisset ,,mss42 perspexet ,mller4 #cee sacratae ,edd42 sacrata ,b ,h a b2 sacratum c4 #cef num ,a ,l c1 ,edd42 nam ,b ,h a b4 ,apparent ,expediency vs4 ,fortitude3 7#a7 ,ulysses's ruse1 99#ig99 ,,xxvi4 ,ulysses thought his ruse expedient1 as the tragic poets1 at least1 have represented him4 ,in ,homer1 our most reliable authority1 no such suspicion is cast upon him2 but the tragedies charge him with trying to escape a soldier's service by feigning madness4 ,the trick was not morally right1 but1 some one may perhaps say1 ,it was expedient for him to keep his throne and live at ease in ,ithaca with parents1 wife1 and son4 ,do you think that there is any glory in facing daily toil and danger that can be compared with a life of such tranquillity8 ,nay2 ,i think that tranquillity at such a price is to be despised and rejected2 for if it is not morally right1 neither is it expedient4 99#ih99 ,for what do you think would have been said of ,ulysses1 if he had persisted in that pretended madness1 seeing that1 notwithstanding his deeds of heroism in the war1 he was nevertheless upbraided by ,ajax thus3 ',twas he himself who first proposed the oath2 ye all ,do know2 yet he alone of all his vow did break2 ,he feigned persistently that he was mad1 that thus ,he might not have to join the host4 ,and had not then ,palamedes1 shrewd and wise1 his tricky impudence ,unmasked1 he had evaded e'en for aye his vow4 99#ii99 ,nay1 for him it had been better to battle not only with the enemy but also with the waves1 as he did1 than to desert ,greece when she was united for waging the war against the barbarians4 ,but let us leave illustrations both from story and from foreign lands and turn to real events in our own history4 7#b7 the example of ,regulus4 ,marcus ,atilius ,regulus in his second consulship was taken prisoner in ,africa by the stratagem of ,xanthippus1 a ,spartan general serving under the command of ,hannibal's father ,hamilcar4,,bx ,he was sent to the senate on parole1 sworn to return to ,carthage himself1 if certain noble prisoners of war,,by were not restored to the ,carthaginians4 ,when he came to ,rome1 he could not fail to see the specious appearance of expediency1 but he decided that it was unreal1 as the outcome proves4 ,his apparent interest was to remain in his own country1 to stay at home with his wife and children1 and to retain his rank and dignity as an ex-consul1 regarding the defeat which he had suffered as a misfortune that might come to anyone in the game of war4 ,who says that this was not expedient8 ,who1 think you8 ,greatness of soul and courage say that it was not4 99#ajj99 ,the violation of his oath could not have been expedient for him4 ,,xxvii4 ,can you ask for more competent authorities8 ,the denial comes from those virtues1 for it is characteristic of them to await nothing with fear1 to rise superior to all the vicissitudes of earthly life1 and to count nothing intolerable that can befall a human being4 ,what1 then1 did he do8 ,he came into the senate and stated his mission2 but he refused to give his own vote on the question2 for1 he held1 he was not a member of the senate so long as he was bound by the oath sworn to his enemies4 ,and more than that1 he said--,what a foolish fellow1 some one will say1 to oppose his own best interests--he said that it was not expedient that the prisoners should be returned2 for they were young men and gallant officers1 while he was already bowed with age4 ,and when his counsel prevailed1 the prisoners were retained and he himself returned to ,carthage2 affection for his country and his family failed to hold him back4 ,and even then he was not ignorant of the fact that he was going to a most cruel enemy and to exquisite torture2 still1 he thought his oath must be sacredly kept4 ,and so even then1 when he was being slowly put to death by enforced wakefulness1 he enjoyed a happier lot than if he had remained at home an aged prisoner of war1 a man of consular rank forsworn4 99#aja99 ,but1 you will say1 it was foolish of him not only not to advocate the exchange of prisoners but even to plead against such action4 ,how was it foolish8 ,was it so1 even if his policy was for the good of the state8 ,nay2 can what is inexpedient for the state be expedient for any individual citizen8 ,,bx ,cicero is careless in his dates4 ,regulus was consul in #bfg and #bef4 ,he was defeated and taken prisoner in his second proconsulship at the battle of ,tunes in #bee4 ,and the ,hamilcar of #bee was not ,hannibal's father1 for his career does not begin until #bdg1 when he was a mere youth1 and he was still in his prime when he fell in battle in ,spain1 in #bbi4 ,,by ,at the battle of ,panormus in #bej ,lucius ,caecilius ,metellus took among the prisoners no less than thirteen ,carthaginian generals--all men of noble birth4 ,,xxviii4 ,pervertunt homines ea1 quae sunt fundamenta naturae1 cum utilitatem ab honestate seiungunt4 ,omnes enim expetimus utilitatem ad eamque rapimur nec facere aliter ullo modo possumus4 ,nam quis est1 qui utilia fugiat8 aut quis potius1 qui ea non studiosissime persequatur8 ,sed quia nusquam possumus nisi in laude1 decore1 honestate utilia reperire1 propterea illa prima et summa habemus1 utilitatis nomen non tam splendidum quam necessarium ducimus4 99#ajb99 ,quid est igitur1 dixerit quis1 in iure iurando8 num iratum timemus ,iovem8 ,at hoc quidem commune est omnium philosophorum1 non eorum modo1 qui deum nihil habere ipsum negotii dicunt1 nihil exhibere alteri1 sed eorum etiam1 qui deum semper agere aliquid et moliri volunt1 numquam nec irasci deum nec nocere4 ,quid autem iratus ,iuppiter plus nocere potuisset1 quam nocuit sibi ipse ,regulus8 ,nulla igitur vis fuit religionis1 quae tantam utilitatem perverteret4 ,an ne turpiter faceret8 ,primum minima de malis4 ,num#ceg igitur tantum mali turpitudo ista habebat1#ceh quantum ille cruciatus8 ,deinde illud etiam apud ,accium3 ,atreus2 ,ribbeck#b1 #bbg-bbh ,fregistn#cei fidem8 ,nque dedi neque do nfideli cuquam quamquam ab impio rege dicitur1 luculente tamen dicitur4 99#ajc99 ,addunt etiam1 quem ad modum nos dicamus videri quaedam utilia1 quae non sint1 sic se dicere videri quaedam honesta1 quae non sint1 ut hoc ipsum videtur honestum1 conservandi iuris iurandi causa ad cruciatum revertisse2 sed fit non honestum1 quia1 quod per vim hostium esset actum1 ratum esse non debuit4 ,addunt etiam1 quicquid valde utile sit1 id fieri honestum1 etiamsi antea non videretur4 ,haec fere contra ,regulum4 ,sed prima quaeque#cfj videamus4 #ceg ,num ,edd42 non ,,mss4 #ceh habebat ,l c1 ,edd42 habebit ,a ,b ,h a b4 #cei fregistin ,edd42 fregistine ,a ,b ,h a b2 fregisti ,l c4 #cfj quaeque ,forchhammer1 ,mller1 ,heine2 not in ,,mss41 ,bt41 ,ed4 ,expediency inseparable from moral rectitude4 ,,xxviii4 ,people overturn the fundamental principles established by nature1 when they divorce expediency from moral rectitude4 ,for we all seek to obtain what is to us expedient2 we are irresistibly drawn toward it1 and we cannot possibly be otherwise4 ,for who is there that would turn his back upon what is to him expedient8 ,or rather1 who is there that does not exert himself to the utmost to secure it8 ,but because we cannot discover it anywhere except in good report1 propriety1 and moral rectitude1 we look upon these three for that reason as the first and the highest objects of endeavour1 while what we term expediency we account not so much an ornament to our dignity as a necessary incident to living4 ,arguments against ,regulus's fidelity to his oath3 7#a7 he had no need to fear ,god's wrath1 99#ajb99 ,what significance1 then1 some one will say1 do we attach to an oath8 ,it is not that we fear the wrath of ,jove1 is it8 ,not at all2 it is the universally accepted view of all philosophers that ,god is never angry1 never hurtful4 ,this is the doctrine not only of those,,bz who teach that ,god is ,himself free from troubling cares and that ,he imposes no trouble upon others1 but also of those,,ca who believe that ,god is ever working and ever directing ,his world4 ,furthermore1 suppose ,jupiter had been wroth1 what greater injury could ,he have inflicted upon ,regulus than ,regulus brought upon himself8 ,religious scruple1 therefore1 had no such preponderance as to outweigh so great expediency4 7#b7 ,of two evils choose the less1 ,or was he afraid that his act would be morally wrong8 ,as to that1 first of all1 the proverb says ',of evils choose the least4' ,did that moral wrong1 then1 really involve as great an evil as did that awful torture8 ,and secondly1 there are the lines of ,accius3 ,thyestes4 ',hast thou broke thy faith8' ,atreus4 ',none have ,i giv'n2 none give ,i ever to the faithless4' ,although this sentiment is put into the mouth of a wicked king1 still it is illuminating in its correctness4 7#c7 oaths extorted by constraint not binding1 99#ajc99 ,their third argument is this3 just as we maintain that some things seem expedient but are not1 so they maintain1 some things seem morally right but are not4 ,for example1 they contend1 in this very case it seems morally right for ,regulus to have returned to torture for the sake of being true to his oath4 ,but it proves not to be morally right1 because what an enemy extorted by force ought not to have been binding4 7#d7 exceptional expediency makes right4 ,as their concluding argument1 they add3 whatever is highly expedient may prove to be morally right1 even if it did not seem so in advance4 ,these are in substance the arguments raised against the conduct of ,regulus4 ,let us consider them each in turn4 ,,bz ,the ,epicureans4 ,,ca ,the ,stoics4 99#ajd99 ,,xxix4 ,non fuit ,iuppiter metuendus ne iratus noceret1 qui neque irasci solet nec nocere4 ,haec quidem ratio non magis contra ,reguli quam contra omne ius iurandum valet4 ,sed in iure iurando non qui metus1 sed quae vis sit1 debet intellegi2 est enim ius iurandum affirmatio religiosa2 quod autem affirmate quasi deo teste promiseris1 id tenendum est4 ,iam enim non ad iram deorum1 quae nulla est1 sed ad iustitiam et ad fidem pertinet4 ,nam praeclare ,ennius3 7,thyestes87 ,fab4 inc41 ,vahlen#b1 #djc ,fides alma pta pinnis t ius iurandm ,iovis6 ,qui ius igitur iurandum violat1 is ,fidem violat1 quam in ,capitolio vicinam ,iovis optimi maximi1 ,unknown ut in ,catonis oratione est1 maiores nostri esse voluerunt4 99#aje99 ,at enim ne iratus quidem ,iuppiter plus ,regulo nocuisset1 quam sibi nocuit ipse ,regulus4 ,certe1 si nihil malum esset nisi dolere4 ,id autem non modo non#cfa summum malum1 sed ne malum quidem esse maxima auctoritate philosophi affirmant4 ,quorum quidem testem non mediocrem1 sed haud scio an gravissimum ,regulum nolite1 quaeso1 vituperare4 ,quem enim locupletiorem quaerimus quam principem populi ,romani1 qui retinendi officii causa cruciatum subierit voluntarium8 ,nam quod aiunt3 minima de malis1 id est ut turpiter potius quam calamitose1 an est ullum maius malum turpitudine8 quae si in deformitate corporis habet#cfb aliquid offensionis1 quanta illa depravatio et foeditas turpificati animi debet videri6 99#ajf99 ,itaque nervosius qui ista disserunt1 solum audent malum dicere id1 quod turpe sit1 qui autem remissius1 ii tamen non dubitant summum malum dicere4 ,nam illud quidem3 ,accius1 ,atreus2 ,ribbeck#b1 #bbh ,nque dedi neque do nfideli cuquam idcirco recte a pota1 quia1 cum tractaretur ,atreus1 personae serviendum fuit4 ,sed si hoc sibi sument1 nullam esse fidem1 quae infideli data sit1 videant1 ne quaeratur latebra periurio4 99#ajg99 ,est autem ius etiam bellicum fidesque iuris iurandi saepe cum hoste servanda4#cfc ,quod enim ita iuratum est1 ut mens conciperet fieri oportere1 id servandum est2 quod aliter1 id si non fecerit1 nullum est periurium4 ,ut1 si praedonibus pactum pro capite pretium non attuleris1 nulla fraus sit1#cfd ne si iuratus quidem id non feceris2 nam pirata non est ex perduellium numero definitus1 sed communis hostis omnium2 cum hoc nec fides debet nec ius iurandum esse commune4 99#ajh99 ,non enim falsum iurare periurare est1 sed1 quod ,,ex ,,animi ,,tui ,,sententia iuraris1 sicut verbis concipitur more nostro1 id non facere periurium est4 ,scite enim#cfe ,euripides3 ,hippolytus #fab ,iurvi lingua1 mntem iniuratm gero4 ,regulus vero non debuit condiciones pactionesque bellicas et hostiles perturbare periurio4 ,cum iusto enim et legitimo hoste res gerebatur1 adversus quem et totum ius fetiale et multa sunt iura communia4 ,quod ni ita esset1 numquam claros viros senatus vinctos#cff hostibus dedidisset4 #cfa non modo non ,b ,h a2 non modo nos c2 non modo ,l c p1 ,edd4 #cfb habet ,l c1 ,edd42 habeat ,a ,b ,h a b4 #cfc ,est 444 servanda bracketed by ,unger1 ,bt4#b1 ,ed4 #cfd sit ,edd4 plerique2 est ,,mss41 ,bt4#a #cfe ,scite enim ,a ,l c1 ,edd42 scit enim ,b ,h a b4 #cff vinctos ,a ,l c1 ,edd42 victos ,b ,h a b4 ,rebuttal4 99#ajd99 ,,xxix4 ,he need not have been afraid that ,jupiter in anger would inflict injury upon him2 he is not wont to be angry or hurtful4 7#a7 ,an oath is a covenant with ,justice and ,good ,faith2 ,this argument1 at all events1 has no more weight against ,regulus's conduct than it has against the keeping of any other oath4 ,but in taking an oath it is our duty to consider not what one may have to fear in case of violation but wherein its obligation lies3 an oath is an assurance backed by religious sanctity2 and a solemn promise given1 as before ,god as one's witness1 is to be sacredly kept4 ,for the question no longer concerns the wrath of the gods 7for there is no such thing7 but the obligations of justice and good faith4 ,for1 as ,ennius says so admirably3 ,gracious ,good ,faith1 on wings upborne2 thou oath in ,jupiter's great name6 ,whoever1 therefore1 violates his oath violates ,good ,faith2 and1 as we find it stated in ,cato's speech1 our forefathers chose that she should dwell upon the ,capitol neighbour to ,jupiter ,supreme and ,best4 99#aje99 ,but1 objection was further made1 even if ,jupiter had been angry1 he could not have inflicted greater injury upon ,regulus than ,regulus brought upon himself4 ,what is evil8 ,quite true1 if there is no evil except pain4 ,but philosophers,,cb of the highest authority assure us that pain is not only not the supreme evil but no evil at all4 ,and pray do not disparage ,regulus1 as no unimportant witness--nay1 ,i am rather inclined to think he was the very best witness--to the truth of their doctrine4 ,for what more competent witness do we ask for than one of the foremost citizens of ,rome1 who voluntarily faced torture for the sake of being true to his moral duty8 7#b7 no evil can be greater than moral wrong2 ,again1 they say ,of evils choose the least--that is1 shall one choose moral wrong rather than misfortune1 or is there any evil greater than moral wrong8 ,for if physical deformity excites a certain amount of aversion1 how offensive ought the deformity and hideousness of a demoralized soul to seem6 99#ajf99 ,therefore1 those,,cc who discuss these problems with more rigour make bold to say that moral wrong is the only evil1 while those,,cd who treat them with more laxity do not hesitate to call it the supreme evil4 ,once more1 they quote the sentiment3 ,none have ,i given1 none give ,i ever to the faithless4 ,it was proper for the poet to say that1 because1 when he was working out his ,atreus1 he had to make the words fit the character4 ,but if they mean to adopt it as a principle1 that a pledge given to the faithless is no pledge1 let them look to it that it be not a mere loophole for perjury that they seek4 ,what is perjury8 99#ajg99 ,furthermore1 we have laws regulating warfare1 and fidelity to an oath must often be observed in dealings with an enemy3 for an oath sworn with the clear understanding in one's own mind that it should be performed must be kept2 but if there is no such understanding1 it does not count as perjury if one does not perform the vow4 ,for example1 suppose that one does not deliver the amount agreed upon with pirates as the price of one's life1 that would be accounted no deception--not even if one should fail to deliver the ransom after having sworn to do so2 for a pirate is not included in the number of lawful enemies1 but is the common foe of all the world2 and with him there ought not to be any pledged word nor any oath mutually binding4 99#ajh99 ,for swearing to what is false is not necessarily perjury1 but to take an oath upon your conscience1 as it is expressed in our legal formulas1 and then fail to perform it1 that is perjury4 ,for ,euripides aptly says3 ,my tongue has sworn2 the mind ,i have has sworn no oath4 ,oaths made to an enemy as binding as treaties4 ,but ,regulus had no right to confound by perjury the terms and covenants of war made with an enemy4 ,for the war was being carried on with a legitimate1 declared enemy2 and to regulate our dealings with such an enemy1 we have our whole fetial,,ce code as well as many other laws that are binding in common between nations4 ,were this not the case1 the senate would never have delivered up illustrious men of ours in chains to the enemy4 ,,cb ,the ,stoics4 ,,cc ,the ,stoics4 ,,cd ,the ,peripatetics4 ,,ce ,see ,index1 s4v4 99#aji99 ,,xxx4 ,at vero ,t4 ,veturius et ,sp4 ,postumius cum iterum consules essent1 quia1 cum male pugnatum apud ,caudium esset1 legionibus nostris sub iugum missis pacem cum ,samnitibus fecerant1 dediti sunt iis2 iniussu enim populi senatusque fecerant4 ,eodemque tempore ,ti4 ,numicius1 ,q4 ,maelius1 qui tum tribuni pl4 erant1 quod eorum auctoritate pax erat facta1 dediti sunt1 ut pax ,samnitium repudiaretur2 atque huius deditionis ipse ,postumius1 qui dedebatur1 suasor et auctor fuit4 ,quod idem multis annis post ,c4 ,mancinus1 qui1 ut ,numantinis1 quibuscum sine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat1 dederetur1 rogationem suasit eam1 quam ,l4 ,furius1 ,sex4 ,atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant2 qua accepta est hostibus deditus4 ,honestius his quam ,q4 ,pompeius1 quo1 cum in eadem causa esset1 deprecante accepta lex non est4 ,hic ea1 quae videbatur utilitas1 plus valuit quam honestas1 apud superiores utilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est4 #ajc 99#aaj99 ,at non debuit ratum esse1 quod erat actum per vim4--,quasi vero forti viro vis possit adhiberi4 ,cur igitur ad senatum proficiscebatur1 cum praesertim de captivis dissuasurus esset8 ,quod maximum in eo est1 id reprehenditis4 ,non enim suo iudicio stetit1 sed suscepit causam1 ut esset iudicium senatus2 cui nisi ipse auctor fuisset1 captivi profecto ,poenis redditi essent2 ita incolumis in patria ,regulus restitisset4 ,quod quia patriae non utile putavit1 idcirco sibi honestum et sentire illa et pati credidit4 #ajc ,nam quod aiunt1 quod valde utile sit1 id fieri honestum1 immo vero esse1 non fieri4 ,est enim nihil utile1 quod idem non honestum1 nec1 quia utile1 honestum1 sed1 quia honestum1 utile4 ,quare ex multis mirabilibus exemplis haud facile quis dixerit hoc exemplo aut laudabilius aut praestantius4 ,roman strictness4 99#aji99 ,,xxx4 ,and yet that very thing happened4 ,titus ,veturius and ,spurius ,postumius in their second consulship lost the battle at the ,caudine ,forks1 and our legions were sent under the yoke4 ,and because they made peace with the ,samnites1 those generals were delivered up to them1 for they had made the peace without the approval of the people and senate4 ,and ,tiberius ,numicius and ,quintus ,maelius1 tribunes of the people1 were delivered up at the same time1 because it was with their sanction that the peace had been concluded4 ,this was done in order that the peace with the ,samnites might be annulled4 ,and ,postumius1 the very man whose delivery was in question1 was the proposer and advocate of the said delivery4 ,many years later1,,cf ,gaius ,mancinus had a similar experience3 he advocated the bill1 introduced in accordance with a decree of the senate by ,lucius ,furius and ,sextus ,atilius1 that he should be delivered up to the ,numantines1 with whom he had made a treaty without authorization from the senate2 and when the bill was passed1 he was delivered up to the enemy4 ,his action was more honourable than ,quintus ,pompey's2 ,pompey's situation was identical with his1 and yet at his own entreaty the bill was rejected4 ,in this latter case1 apparent expediency prevailed over moral rectitude2 in the former cases1 the false semblance of expediency was overbalanced by the weight of moral rectitude4 7#c7 the interests of the state higher than personal advantage2 99#aaj99 ,but1 they argued against ,regulus1 an oath extorted by force ought not to have been binding4 ,as if force could be brought to bear upon a brave man6 ,why1 then1 did he make the journey to the senate1 especially when he intended to plead against the surrender of the prisoners of war8 ,therein you are criticizing what is the noblest feature of his conduct4 ,for he was not content to stand upon his own judgment but took up the case1 in order that the judgment might be that of the senate2 and had it not been for the weight of his pleading1 the prisoners would certainly have been restored to the ,carthaginians2 and in that case1 ,regulus would have remained safe at home in his country4 ,but because he thought this not expedient for his country1 he believed that it was therefore morally right for him to declare his conviction and to suffer for it4 7#d7 nothing expedient unless morally right4 ,when they argued also that what is highly expedient may prove to be morally right1 they ought rather to say not that it may prove to be but that it actually is morally right4 ,for nothing can be expedient which is not at the same time morally right2 neither can a thing be morally right just because it is expedient1 but it is expedient because it is morally right4 ,from the many splendid examples in history1 therefore1 we could not easily point to one either more praiseworthy or more heroic than the conduct of ,regulus4 ,,cf #ahd years1 i4e41 in ,b4,c4 #acg4 99#aaa99 ,,xxxi4 ,sed ex tota hac laude ,reguli unum illud est admiratione dignum1 quod captivos retinendos censuit4 ,nam quod rediit1 nobis nunc mirabile videtur1 illis quidem temporibus aliter facere non potuit2 itaque ista laus non est hominis1 sed temporum4 ,nullum enim vinculum ad astringendam fidem iure iurando maiores artius esse voluerunt4 ,id indicant leges in duodecim tabulis1 indicant sacratae1 indicant foedera1 quibus etiam cum hoste devincitur fides1 indicant notiones animadversionesque censorum1 qui nulla de re diligentius quam de iure iurando iudicabant4 99#aab99 ,l4 ,manlio ,a4 f41 cum dictator fuisset1 ,m4 ,pomponius tr4 pl4 diem dixit1 quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset2 criminabatur etiam1 quod ,titum filium1 qui postea est ,torquatus appellatus1 ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare iussisset4 ,quod cum audivisset adulescens filius1 negotium exhiberi patri1 accurrisse ,romam et cum primo luci#cfg ,pomponi domum venisse dicitur4 ,cui cum esset nuntiatum1 qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur1 surrexit e lectulo remotisque arbitris ad se adulescentem iussit venire4 ,at ille1 ut ingressus est1 confestim gladium destrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum1 nisi ius iurandum sibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum4 ,iuravit hoc terrore coactus ,pomponius2 rem ad populum detulit1 docuit1 cur sibi causa desistere necesse esset1 ,manlium missum fecit4 ,tantum temporibus illis ius iurandum valebat4 ,atque hic ,t4 ,manlius is est1 qui ad ,anienem ,galli1 quem ab eo provocatus occiderat1 torque detracto cognomen invenit1 cuius tertio consulatu ,latini ad ,veserim fusi et fugati1 magnus vir in primis et1 qui perindulgens in patrem1 idem acerbe severus in filium4 #cfg primo luci ,beier1 ,heine1 ,ed42 primo lucis c2 prima luce ,a ,b ,h a b4 ,the most striking lesson in the story of ,regulus4 99#aaa99 ,,xxxi4 ,but of all that is thus praiseworthy in the conduct of ,regulus1 this one feature above all others calls for our admiration3 it was he who offered the motion that the prisoners of war be retained4 ,for the fact of his returning may seem admirable to us nowadays1 but in those times he could not have done otherwise4 ,that merit1 therefore1 belongs to the age1 not to the man4 ,for our ancestors were of the opinion that no bond was more effective in guaranteeing good faith than an oath4 ,that is clearly proved by the laws of the ,twelve ,tables1 by the sacred laws1,,cg by the treaties in which good faith is pledged even to the enemy1 by the investigations made by the censors and the penalties imposed by them2 for there were no cases in which they used to render more rigorous decisions than in cases of violation of an oath4 ,the sanctity of an oath in the old days4 99#aab99 ,marcus ,pomponius1 a tribune of the people1 brought an indictment against ,lucius ,manlius1 ,aulus's son1 for having extended the term of his dictatorship a few days beyond its expiration4 ,he further charged him with having banished his own son ,titus 7afterward surnamed ,torquatus7 from all companionship with his fellow-men1 and with requiring him to live in the country4 ,when the son1 who was then a young man1 heard that his father was in trouble on his account1 he hastened to ,rome--so the story goes--and at daybreak presented himself at the house of ,pomponius4 ,the visitor was announced to ,pomponius4 ,inasmuch as he thought that the son in his anger meant to bring him some new evidence to use against the father1 he arose from his bed1 asked all who were present to leave the room1 and sent word to the young man to come in4 ,upon entering1 he at once drew a sword and swore that he would kill the tribune on the spot1 if he did not swear an oath to withdraw the suit against his father4 ,constrained by the terror of the situation1 ,pomponius gave his oath4 ,he reported the matter to the people1 explaining why he was obliged to drop the prosecution1 and withdrew his suit against ,manlius4 ,such was the regard for the sanctity of an oath in those days4 ,and that lad was the ,titus ,manlius who in the battle on the ,anio killed the ,gaul by whom he had been challenged to single combat1 pulled off his torque and thus won his surname4 ,and in his third consulship he routed the ,latins and put them to flight in the battle on the ,veseris4 ,he was one of the greatest of the great1 and one who1 while more than generous toward his father1 could yet be bitterly severe toward his son4 ,,cg ,sacred laws1 according to ,festus 7p4 #cah71 were laws that placed their transgressor1 together with his household and his property1 under the ban of some divinity2 other authorities limit the term to the laws enacted upon the ,sacred ,mount 7,b4,c4 #cid74 99#aac99 ,,xxxii4 ,sed1 ut laudandus ,regulus in conservando iure iurando1 sic decem illi1 quos post ,cannensem pugnam iuratos ad senatum misit ,hannibal se in castra redituros ea1 quorum erant potiti ,poeni1 nisi de redimendis captivis impetravissent1 si non redierunt1 vituperandi4 ,de quibus non omnes uno modo2 nam ,polybius1 bonus auctor in primis1 ex decem nobilissimis1 qui tum erant missi1 novem revertisse dicit re a senatu non impetrata2 unum ex decem1 qui paulo post1 quam erat#cfh egressus e castris1 redisset1 quasi aliquid esset oblitus1 ,romae remansisse2 reditu enim in castra liberatum se esse iure iurando interpretabatur1 non recte2 fraus enim astringit1#cfi non dissolvit periurium4 ,fuit igitur stulta calliditas perverse imitata prudentiam4 ,itaque decrevit senatus1 ut ille veterator et callidus vinctus ad ,hannibalem duceretur4 99#aad99cgj ,sed illud maximum3 octo hominum milia tenebat ,hannibal1 non quos in acie cepisset1 aut qui periculo mortis diffugissent1 sed qui relicti in castris fuissent a ,paulo et a ,varrone consulibus4 ,eos senatus non censuit redimendos1 cum id parva pecunia fieri posset1 ut esset insitum militibus nostris aut vincere aut emori4 ,qua quidem re audita fractum animum ,hannibalis scribit idem1 quod senatus populusque ,romanus rebus afflictis tam excelso animo fuisset4 ,sic honestatis comparatione ea1 quae videntur utilia1 vincuntur4 99#aae99 ,c4#cga ,acilius autem1 qui ,graece scripsit historiam1 plures ait fuisse1 qui in castra revertissent eadem fraude1 ut iure iurando liberarentur1 eosque a censoribus omnibus ignominiis notatos4 ,sit iam huius loci finis4 ,perspicuum est enim ea1 quae timido animo1 humili1 demisso fractoque fiant1 quale fuisset ,reguli factum1 si aut de captivis1 quod ipsi opus esse videretur1 non quod rei publicae1 censuisset aut domi remanere voluisset1 non esse utilia1 quia sint flagitiosa1 foeda1 turpia4 #cfh ,novem 444 quam erat c1 ,bt4#a1 ,ed42 om4 ,a ,b ,h a b2 unum qui ,unger1 ,bt4#b #cfi astringit c p1 ,ed41 ,heine2 distringit ,a ,b ,h a b1 ,unger1 ,bt4 #cgj #aad bracketed by ,heus41 ,bt41 as un-,ciceronian4 #cga ,c4 ,heine1 ,ed42 not in ,,mss4 ,contrast between ,regulus and the ten envoys from ,hannibal4 99#aac99 ,,xxxii4 ,now1 as ,regulus deserves praise for being true to his oath1 so those ten whom ,hannibal sent to the senate on parole after the battle of ,cannae deserve censure1 if it is true that they did not return2 for they were sworn to return to the camp which had fallen into the hands of the ,carthaginians1 if they did not succeed in negotiating an exchange of prisoners4 ,historians are not in agreement in regard to the facts4 ,polybius1 one of the very best authorities1 states that of the ten eminent nobles who were sent at that time1 nine returned when their mission failed at the hands of the senate4 ,but one of the ten1 who1 a little while after leaving the camp1 had gone back on the pretext that he had forgotten something or other1 remained behind at ,rome2 he explained that by his return to the camp he was released from the obligation of his oath4 ,he was wrong2 for deceit does not remove the guilt of perjury--it merely aggravates it4 ,the ancient ,roman discipline4 ,his cunning that impudently tried to masquerade as prudence was1 therefore1 only folly4 ,and so the senate ordered that the cunning scoundrel should be taken back to ,hannibal in chains4 99#aad99 ,but the most significant part of the story is this3 the eight thousand prisoners in ,hannibal's hands were not men that he had taken in the battle or that had escaped in the peril of their lives1 but men that the consuls ,paulus and ,varro had left behind in camp4 ,though these might have been ransomed by a small sum of money1 the senate voted not to redeem them1 in order that our soldiers might have the lesson planted in their hearts that they must either conquer or die4 ,when ,hannibal heard this news1 according to that same writer1 he lost heart completely1 because the senate and the people of ,rome displayed courage so lofty in a time of disaster4 ,thus apparent expediency is outweighed when placed in the balance against moral rectitude4 99#aae99 ,gaius ,acilius1 on the other hand1 the author of a history of ,rome in ,greek1 says that there were several who played the same trick of returning to the camp to release themselves thus from the obligation of their oath1 and that they were branded by the censors with every mark of disgrace4 ,expediency and ,courage identical4 ,let this be the conclusion of this topic4 ,for it must be perfectly apparent that acts that are done with a cowardly1 craven1 abject1 broken spirit1 as the act of ,regulus would have been if he had supported in regard to the prisoners a measure that seemed to be advantageous for him personally1 but disadvantageous for the state1 or if he had consented to remain at home--that such acts are not expedient because they are shameful1 dishonourable1 and immoral4 99#aaf99 ,,xxxiii4 ,restat quarta pars1 quae decore1 moderatione1 modestia1 continentia1 temperantia continetur4 ,potest igitur quicquam utile esse1 quod sit huic talium virtutum choro contrarium8 ,atqui ab ,aristippo ,cyrenaici atque ,annicerii philosophi nominati omne bonum in voluptate posuerunt virtutemque censuerunt ob eam rem esse laudandam1 quod efficiens esset voluptatis4 ,quibus obsoletis floret ,epicurus1 eiusdem fere adiutor auctorque sententiae4 ,cum his viris#cgb equisque1 ut dicitur1 si honestatem tueri ac retinere sententia est1 decertandum est4 99#aag99 ,nam si non modo utilitas1 sed vita omnis beata corporis firma constitutione eiusque constitutionis spe explorata1 ut a ,metrodoro scriptum est1 continetur1 certe haec utilitas1 et quidem summa 7sic enim censent71 cum honestate pugnabit4 ,nam ubi primum prudentiae locus dabitur8 an ut conquirat undique suavitates8 ,quam miser virtutis famulatus servientis voluptati6 ,quod autem munus prudentiae8 an legere intellegenter voluptates8 ,fac nihil isto esse iucundius1 quid cogitari potest turpius8 ,iam1 qui dolorem summum malum dicat1 apud eum quem habet locum fortitudo1 quae est dolorum laborumque contemptio8 ,quamvis enim multis locis dicat ,epicurus1 sicuti#cgc dicit1 satis fortiter de dolore1 tamen non id spectandum est1 quid dicat1 sed quid consentaneum sit ei dicere1 qui bona voluptate terminaverit1 mala dolore4 ,et1#cgd si illum audiam1 de continentia et temperantia dicit ille quidem multa multis locis1 sed aqua haeret1 ut aiunt2 nam qui potest temperantiam laudare is1 qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate8 est enim temperantia libidinum inimica1 libidines autem consectatrices voluptatis4 99#aah99 ,atque in his tamen tribus generibus1 quoquo modo possunt1 non incallide tergiversantur2 prudentiam introducunt scientiam suppeditantem voluptates1 depellentem dolores2 fortitudinem quoque aliquo modo expediunt1 cum tradunt rationem neglegendae mortis1 perpetiendi doloris2 etiam temperantiam inducunt non facillime illi quidem1 sed tamen quoquo modo possunt2 dicunt enim voluptatis magnitudinem doloris detractione finiri4 ,iustitia vacillat vel iacet potius omnesque eae virtutes1 quae in communitate cernuntur et in societate generis humani4 ,neque enim bonitas nec liberalitas nec comitas esse potest1 non plus quam amicitia1 si haec non per se expetantur1#cge sed ad voluptatem utilitatemve referantur4 ,conferamus igitur in pauca4 99#aai99 ,nam ut utilitatem nullam esse docuimus1 quae honestati esset contraria1 sic omnem voluptatem dicimus honestati esse contrariam4 ,quo magis reprehendendos ,calliphontem et ,dinomachum iudico1 qui se dirempturos controversiam putaverunt1 si cum honestate voluptatem tamquam cum homine pecudem copulavissent4 ,non recipit istam coniunctionem honestas1 aspernatur1 repellit4 ,nec vero finis bonorum et malorum1#cgf qui simplex esse debet1 ex dissimillimis rebus misceri et temperari potest4 ,de ,finibus1 ,,ii ,sed de hoc 7magna enim res est7 alio loco pluribus2 nunc ad propositum4 99#abj99 ,quem ad modum igitur1 si quando ea1 quae videtur#cgg utilitas1 honestati repugnat1 diiudicanda res sit1 satis est supra disputatum4 ,sin autem speciem utilitatis etiam voluptas habere dicetur1 nulla potest esse ei cum honestate coniunctio4 ,nam1 ut tribuamus aliquid voluptati1 condimenti fortasse non nihil1 utilitatis certe nihil habebit4 99#aba99 ,habes a patre munus1 ,marce fili1 mea quidem sententia magnum1 sed perinde erit1 ut acceperis4 ,quamquam hi tibi tres libri inter ,cratippi commentarios tamquam hospites erunt recipiendi2 sed1 ut1 si ipse venissem ,athenas 7quod quidem esset factum1 nisi me e medio cursu clara voce patria revocasset71 aliquando me quoque audires1 sic1 quoniam his voluminibus ad te profecta vox est mea1 tribues iis#cgh temporis quantum poteris1 poteris autem1 quantum voles4 ,cum vero intellexero te hoc scientiae genere gaudere1 tum et praesens tecum propediem1 ut spero1 et1 dum aberis1 absens loquar4 ,vale igitur1 mi ,cicero1 tibique persuade esse te quidem mihi carissimum1 sed multo fore cariorem1 si talibus monitis#cgi praeceptisque laetabere4 #cgb viris c p1 ,edd42 veris ,a ,b ,h b4 #cgc sicuti ,l c1 ,edd42 sicut id ,a ,b ,h a b4 #cgd dolore4 ,et ,mller1 ,heine2 dolore3 ut ,,mss41 ,bt42 dolore4 ,ut ,ed4 #cge expetantur ,a1 ,edd42 expectantur ,b a2 exspectantur c4 #cgf ,omitted by ,muretus2 bracketed by ,heine1 ,ed41 et al4 #cgg videtur c1 ,edd42 videretur ,b ,h a b2 viderentur ,a4 #cgh iis ,edd42 his ,a ,b ,h a b2 hijs c4 #cgi monitis ,lambinus1 ,edd42 monumentis ,a ,b ,h a b2 monimentis c4 ,apparent ,expediency vs4 ,temperance4 99#aaf99 ,,xxxiii4 ,we have still left our fourth division1 comprising propriety1 moderation1 temperance1 self-restraint1 self-control4 ,can anything be expedient1 then1 which is contrary to such a chorus of virtues8 ,and yet the ,cyrenaics1 adherents of the school of ,aristippus1 and the philosophers who bear the name of ,anniceris find all good to consist in pleasure and consider virtue praiseworthy only because it is productive of pleasure4 ,now that these schools are out of date1 ,epicurus has come into vogue--an advocate and supporter of practically the same doctrine4 ,against such a philosophy we must fight it out with horse and foot1 as the saying is1 if our purpose is to defend and maintain our standard of moral rectitude4 ,the fallacy of ,epicureanism4 99#aag99 ,for if1 as we find it in the writings of ,metrodorus1 not only expediency but happiness in life depends wholly upon a sound physical constitution and the reasonable expectation that it will always remain sound1 then that expediency--and what is more1 the highest expediency1 as they estimate it--will assuredly clash with moral rectitude4 ,for1 first of all1 what position will wisdom occupy in that system8 ,the position of collector of pleasures from every possible source8 ,what a sorry state of servitude for a virtue--to be pandering to sensual pleasure6 ,and what will be the function of wisdom8 ,to make skilful choice between sensual pleasures8 ,granted that there may be nothing more pleasant1 what can be conceived more degrading for wisdom than such a rle8 ,then again1 if anyone hold that pain is the supreme evil1 what place in his philosophy has fortitude1 which is but indifference to toil and pain8 ,for however many passages there are in which ,epicurus speaks right manfully of pain1 we must nevertheless consider not what he says1 but what it is consistent for a man to say who has defined the good in terms of pleasure and evil in terms of pain4 ,and further1 if ,i should listen to him1 ,i should find that in many passages he has a great deal to say about temperance and self-control2 but the water will not run1 as they say4 ,for how can he commend self-control and yet posit pleasure as the supreme good8 ,for self-control is the foe of the passions1 and the passions are the handmaids of pleasure4 ,epicureanism and the ,cardinal ,virtues4 99#aah99 ,and yet when it comes to these three cardinal virtues1 those philosophers shift and turn as best they can1 and not without cleverness4 ,they admit wisdom into their system as the knowledge that provides pleasures and banishes pain2 they clear the way for fortitude also in some way to fit in with their doctrines1 when they teach that it is a rational means for looking with indifference upon death and for enduring pain4 ,they bring even temperance in--not very easily1 to be sure1 but still as best they can2 for they hold that the height of pleasure is found in the absence of pain4 ,justice totters or rather1 ,i should say1 lies already prostrate2 so also with all those virtues which are discernible in social life and the fellowship of human society4 ,for neither goodness nor generosity nor courtesy can exist1 any more than friendship can1 if they are not sought of and for themselves1 but are cultivated only for the sake of sensual pleasure or personal advantage4 ,let us now recapitulate briefly4 ,sensual pleasure and moral rectitude incompatible4 99#aai99 ,as ,i have shown that such expediency as is opposed to moral rectitude is no expediency1 so ,i maintain that any and all sensual pleasure is opposed to moral rectitude4 ,and therefore ,calliphon and ,dinomachus1 in my judgment1 deserve the greater condemnation2 they imagined that they should settle the controversy by coupling pleasure with moral rectitude2 as well yoke a man with a beast6 ,but moral rectitude does not accept such a union2 she abhors it1 spurns it4 ,why1 the supreme good1 which ought to be simple1 cannot be a compound and mixture of absolutely contradictory qualities4 ,but this theory ,i have discussed more fully in another connection2 for the subject is a large one4 ,now for the matter before us4 99#abj99 ,we have1 then1 fully discussed the problem how a question is to be decided1 if ever that which seems to be expediency clashes with moral rectitude4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 the assertion is made that pleasure admits of a show of expediency also1 there can still be no possible union between it and moral rectitude4 ,for1 to make the most generous admission we can in favour of pleasure1 we will grant that it may contribute something that possibly gives some spice to life1 but certainly nothing that is really expedient4 ,conclusion4 99#aba99 ,herewith1 my son ,marcus1 you have a present from your father--a generous one1 in my humble opinion2 but its value will depend upon the spirit in which you receive it4 ,and yet you must welcome these three books as fellow-guests1 so to speak1 along with your notes on ,cratippus's lectures4 ,but as you would sometimes give ear to me also1 if ,i had come to ,athens 7and ,i should be there now1 if my country had not called me back with accents unmistakable1 when ,i was half-way there71 so you will please devote as much time as you can to these volumes1 for in them my voice will travel to you2 and you can devote to them as much time as you will4 ,and when ,i see that you take delight in this branch of philosophy1 ,i shall then talk further with you--at an early date1,,ch ,i hope1 face to face--but as long as you are abroad1 ,i shall converse with you thus at a distance4 ,farewell1 my dear ,cicero1 and be assured that1 while you are the object of my deepest affection1 you will be dearer to me still1 if you find pleasure in such counsel and instruction4 ,,ch ,but ,cicero never saw his son ,marcus again4 ,,index ,references are to ,book and ,section2 all dates1 given in parentheses 744471 are ,b4,c4 ,academicians4 #a4 adherents of the ,new ,academy 7q4v472 their right to teach ethics1 ,i1 #f2 attitude toward knowledge1 ,,ii1 #g2 ,cicero's philosophy1 ,,ii1 #a-h4 #b4 adherents of the ,old ,academy1 ,,iii1 #bj4 ,academy1 #a4 the ,older1 a school of philosophy founded by ,plato and so called from its home2 their doctrine of ideas1 ,,iii1 #gf1 #ha2 the pre-existence and immortality of the soul2 monotheism2 the goodness of ,god2 striving after ,his perfection4 #b4 the ,new1 a modification of the ,old1 sceptical1 anti-dogmatic1 eclectic1 ,,iii1 #bj4 ,accius1 ,lucius1 a tragic poet 7born #agj74 ,his tragedies were mostly imitations from the ,greek4 ,cicero knew him personally2 quotes from him1 ,,iii1 #hd1 #ajb1 #ajf4 ,acilius2 ,gaius ,acilius ,glabrio 7tribune1 #aig72 interpreter1 when ,carneades1 ,diogenes1 and ,critolaus came to ,rome2 author of ,history of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #aae4 ,admiration1 how won with dignity1 ,,ii1 #ca fg4 ,aeacidae1 descendants of ,aeacus 7q4v471 the father of ,peleus and ,telamon and grandfather of ,achilles and ,ajax1 ,i1 #ch4 ,aeacus1 son of ,zeus 7,jupiter7 and king of ,aegina 7q4v472 renowned for his justice and piety1 ,i1 #ig2 after his death he became with ,minos and ,rhadamanthus judge in ,hades4 ,aedileship1 cost of1 ,,ii1 #eg-fj4 ,aegina1 an island in the ,saronic ,gulf1 a dangerous rival to ,athens1 directly in front of ,piraeus and only twelve miles away1 ,,iii1 #df2 unjustly appropriated by ,athens 7#dbi71 ,,iii1 #df4 ,aeginetans1 the people of ,aegina 7q4v474 ,aelius2 see ,tubero4 ,aemilius2 see ,paulus and ,scaurus4 ,aequians1 a warlike mountain tribe on the upper ,anio1 warring against ,rome 7till #cjd71 ,i1 #ce4 ,aesopus1 ,claudius1 an intimate friend of ,cicero1 ,rome's greatest tragic actor1 ,i1 #aad4 ,africa1 the province in which ,carthage was1 ,i1 #aab 7,thapsus72 ,,iii1 #ii 7,carthage74 ,africanus2 see ,scipio4 ,agamemnon1 leader of the war against ,troy2 when detained at ,aulis he sacrificed his daughter ,iphigenia to save the expedition1 ,,iii1 #ie4 ,for this he was slain on his return from ,troy by his wife ,clytaemnestra4 ,agesilaus1 king of ,sparta 7#cih-cfj72 waged war in ,asia 7#cif-cid71 victor at ,coronea1 saviour of ,sparta after ,mantinea 7#cfb72 ,,ii1 #af4 ,agis ,,iv1 king of ,sparta 7#bdd-bdj72 attempted to re-establish the institutions of ,lycurgus and reform property abuses2 put to death through organized wealth1 ,,ii1 #hj4 ,agrarian ,laws1 a menace to the stability of the government1 ,,ii1 #gh-hc4 ,agriculture1 impossible without man1 ,,ii1 #ab2 man's noblest calling1 ,i1 #aea4 ,agrigentum1 a city on the south coast of ,sicily1 once the most beautiful city of mortals1 ruled by ,phalaris 7#efj71 ,,ii1 #bf4 ,ajax1 son of ,telamon2 could brook no wrong1 went mad1 and committed suicide when the arms of ,achilles were awarded to ,odysseus1 ,i1 #aac2 rebuked ,odysseus1 ,,iii1 #ih4 ,subject of a tragedy by ,ennius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,albucius1 ,titus1 an ,epicurean2 praetor in ,sardinia 7#aje72 prosecuted for extortion1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,alexander1 the ,great 7#cef-cbc71 son of ,philip of ,macedon1 ,,ii1 #af1 #dh2 greater than his father in achievement1 inferior in courtliness1 ,i1 #ij2 governor of ,macedonia 7#cdj71 ,,ii1 #ec2 conquered ,greece 7#cch-cce71 subdued ,asia 7#ccd-cca71 ,egypt 7#cca71 invaded ,india 7#cbi-cbg71 founded ,alexandria and other cities1 and died of a drunken debauch 7,i1 #ij74 ,alexander1 tyrant of ,pherae 7#cfi72 brother1 son-in-law1 and successor of ,jason 7q4v471 defeated and slew ,pelopidas of ,thebes at ,cynocephalae 7#cfd72 murdered by his wife and her three brothers1 ,,ii1 #be1 #bf4 ,alexandria1 the metropolis of ,egypt at the mouth of the ,nile2 founded by ,alexander 7#ccb72 centre of wealth 7,,ii1 #hb72 grain market1 ,,iii1 #ej4 ,alps1 the mountains between ,italy and further ,gaul1 ,,ii1 #bh4 ,ambition1 a cause of injustice1 ,i1 #be-bf1 #df1 #fe2 of moral wrong1 ,,iii1 #hb2 of treason1 ,,iii1 #hb-hc2 the foe of freedom1 ,i1 #fh2 ,,ii1 #bh4 ,amusements1 wholesome1 ,i1 #ajc-ajd4 ,anger1 never excusable1 ,i1 #hi4 ,anio1 the ,sabine river1 tributary to the ,tiber2 the battle on 7#cdj71 which gave ,rome supremacy over all ,latium1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,anniceris1 of ,cyrene 7#dth century71 a successor of ,aristippus2 his school a cross between the ,epicurean and the ,cyrenaic3 he denied that pleasure was merely absence of pain2 he held that every act had its own distinct purpose and that the virtues are good in themselves2 his teachings were not permanent1 ,,iii1 #aaf4 ,antigonus1 one of ,alexander's generals1 governor of ,asia 7#cbc-cja71 king of ,asia 7#cjf-cja72 father of ,demetrius ,poliorcetes and ,philip1 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,antiope1 mother of ,amphion and ,zethus1 by whom she was saved from the persecutions of her former husband ,lycus and his wife ,dirce2 her vengeance on ,dirce drove her mad2 subject of a tragedy of ,pacuvius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,antipater1 vice-regent of ,macedon 7#ccd72 father of ,cassander1 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,antipater1 of ,tarsus 7#bnd century71 pupil and successor of ,diogenes of ,babylonia2 teacher of ,panaetius2 his ethical teachings1 ,,iii1 #ea-ee1 #ia4 ,antipater1 of ,tyre 7#ast century71 friend of ,cato the younger2 a ,stoic1 ,,ii1 #hf4 ,antonius1 ,marcus1 the famous orator 7#adc-hg71 ,,ii1 #di2 advocate1 ,,iii1 #fg2 father of ,cicero's colleague and grandfather of the triumvir4 ,apelles1 of ,cos 7#dth century71 the greatest painter of his age2 court painter to ,alexander the ,great2 his masterpiece was a ,venus rising from the sea2 another ,venus left unfinished1 ,,iii1 #aj4 ,apollo1 god of the light of day2 giver of oracles at ,pytho1 ,,ii1 #gg4 ,appetite1 subject to ,reason1 ,i1 #aja-ajc1 #acb1 #ada4 ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher1 father of ,gaius1 ,,ii1 #eg4 ,aquilius2 ,gaius ,aquilius ,gallus1 famous jurist2 ,cicero's colleague in the praetorship2 author of formulae on criminal fraud1 ,,iii1 #fj-fa4 ,aquilius1 ,manius1 consul 7#aja7 with ,marius2 victorious in the ,servile ,war in ,sicily2 prosecuted 7#ih7 but acquitted1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,aratus1 of ,sicyon1 soldier and statesman 7#bga-bac71 removed the tyrant ,nicocles 7#bea7 and averted financial ruin1 ,,ii1 #ha1 #hb2 leader of the ,achaean ,league2 poisoned by order of ,philip of ,macedon4 ,areopagites1 members of the ,council of ,areopagus4 ,areopagus1 ,mars ,hill1 a spur of the ,acropolis1 seat of the highest court of ,athens2 the court itself1 with powers of senate and supreme court1 reorganized and enlarged in function by ,solon1 ,i1 #ge4 ,arginusae1 a group of islands off the coast of ,asia ,minor1 near ,lesbos1 scene of the victory of the ,athenian fleet 7#djf71 ,i1 #hd4 ,argos1 the chief city of ,argolis1 ,,ii1 #ha4 ,aristides1 the ,just1 ,,iii1 #af1 #di1 #hg2 fought at ,marathon 7#dij71 ,salamis 7#dhj71 and commanded the ,athenians at ,plataea 7#dgi72 exiled 7#dhc7 because his policies clashed with those of ,themistocles4 ,aristippus1 of ,cyrene 7flourished #cgj71 founder of the ,cyrenaic school1 ,,iii1 #aaf2 disciple of ,socrates1 but taught that the chief end of man was to get enjoyment from everything 7hedonism71 to subject all things and circumstances to himself for pleasure2 but pleasure must be the slave not the master2 good and bad identical with pleasure and pain2 ,i1 #adh4 ,aristo1 of ,chios 7#crd century71 a ,stoic philosopher1 pupil of ,zeno2 he taught indifference to externals1 nothing good but virtue1 nothing evil but vice2 his theories rejected1 ,i1 #f4 ,aristotle 7#che-cbb71 disciple of ,plato and teacher of ,alexander the ,great2 founder of the ,peripatetic school2 greatest of philosophers1 master of all knowledge--physics1 metaphysics1 natural philosophy1 ethics1 politics1 poetics1 sociology1 logic1 rhetoric1 etc42 ,,ii1 #ef2 ,,iii1 #ce2 might have been a great orator1 ,i1 #d4 ,arpinates1 the people of ,arpinum1 owners of public lands1 ,i1 #ba4 ,arpinum1 a town in ,latium1 birthplace of ,cicero and ,gaius ,marius1 ,i1 #ba4 ,athenians1 the people of ,athens1 ,i1 #ge1 #hd2 their cruel subjugation of ,aegina1 ,,iii1 #df2 left their homes to fight at ,salamis1 ,,iii1 #dh2 political strife1 ,i1 #hf2 high moral principles of1 ,,iii1 #di1 #ee4 ,athens1 ,,ii1 #fd1 #hf2 ,,iii1 #ee1 #hg2 the intellectual and artistic centre of the world2 led ,greece in the ,persian wars 7#dij-dgi72 humbled by ,sparta 7#djd72 the university city of the ,roman world1 ,i1 #a2 ,,iii1 #f1 #aba4 ,atilius2 see ,regulus4 ,atilius2 ,sextus ,atilius ,serranus1 consul 7#acf71 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,atreus1 son of ,pelops and father of ,agamemnon and ,menelaus1 murderer of his half-brother ,chrysippus and of his brother ,thyestes's children2 murdered by his nephew ,aegisthus2 a fruitful theme for tragedy1 ,i1 #ig2 ,,iii1 #ajf4 ,attic1 belonging to ,attica1 the province in which ,athens is situated2 ,attic comedy1 the comedy of ,aristophanes1 ,eupolis1 ,menander1 etc41 ,i1 #ajd4 ,avarice1 the great temptation1 ,,ii1 #ch1 #gg2 the root of evil1 ,,iii1 #gc-ge2 due to delusion as to expediency1 ,,iii1 #cf2 avoided by the statesman1 ,,ii1 #gf-gg2 contrary to all law1 ,,iii1 #ba-bc2 see also ,covetousness4 ,babylonia1 the district around ,babylon at the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 ,,iii1 #ea4 ,bardulis1 king of ,illyria1 conquered a large part of ,macedonia from ,perdiccas1 the brother and predecessor of ,philip2 defeated and slain by ,philip 7#ceh72 called a brigand1 because his career did not tend to promote civilization1 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,basilus1 ,lucius ,minucius1 otherwise unknown2 perhaps ,sulla's lieutenant1 ,,iii1 #gc-gd4 ,beauty1 physical1 ,i1 #ih1 #abf2 types of1 ,i1 #acj4 ,beneficence2 see ,generosity4 ,bribery1 in ,rome1 ,,ii1 #ba-bb1 #ge4 ,brutus1 ,lucius ,junius1 led the ,romans to expel the ,tarquins2 helped by ,collatinus1 who shared with him the first consulship 7#eji71 ,,iii1 #dj4 ,brutus1 ,marcus ,junius1 an eminent jurist1 one of the three founders of the civil law2 father of the ,accuser1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,brutus2 ,marcus ,junius ,brutus ,accusator1 orator and vigorous prosecutor1 son of the preceding1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,caelian ,hill1 the south-east hill of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #ff4 ,caesar1 ,gaius ,julius1 son of ,lucius ,caesar ,strabo ,vopiscus1 candidate for the consulship 7#hh71 slain by ,marius 7#hg72 poet and orator1 ,i1 #ajh1 #acc4 ,caesar1 ,gaius ,julius 7#ajj-dd71 consul 7#ei71 in ,gaul 7#eh-ej71 conquered ,pompey at ,pharsalus 7#dh71 dictator 7#dh-dd71 assassinated 7#dd72 orator1 statesman1 scholar1 soldier2 despot1 ,,ii1 #b2 tyrant1 ,i1 #aab2 ,,ii1 #bc-bh1 #hc2 confiscator1 ,i1 #dc2 ,,ii1 #hd2 enslaver of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #he2 treatment of ,marseilles1 ,,ii1 #bh2 a victim of depraved ambition1 ,i1 #bf2 ,,iii1 #hc2 a conspirator with ,catiline1 his love of wrong1 ,,ii1 #hd2 deserved his death1 ,,iii1 #ai1 #cb1 #hb4 ,caesar1 ,lucius ,julius1 father of the ,dictator1 ,i1 #ajh4 ,callicratidas1 succeeded ,lysander as admiral of the ,spartan fleet1 ,i1 #aji2 defeated ,conon1 took ,lesbos1 lost the battle and his life at ,arginusae 7#djf71 ,i1 #hd4 ,calliphon1 a ,greek philosopher1 probably a disciple of ,epicurus1 taught that the supreme good was a union between moral rectitude and pleasure1 ,,iii1 #aai4 ,calpurnius2 ,lucius ,calpurnius ,piso ,frugi2 see ,piso4 ,calpurnius2 ,publius ,calpurnius ,lanarius2 see ,lanarius4 ,calypso1 the nymph of ,ogygia1 who kept ,odysseus 7,ulysses7 with her seven years1 ,i1 #aac4 ,campus 7,martius71 the open plain next to the ,tiber outside the north wall of ,rome2 playground and drillground1 ,i1 #ajd4 ,canius1 ,gaius1 a ,roman knight1 ,,iii1 #eh-fj4 ,cannae1 a town on the ,aufidus in ,apulia1 scene of ,hannibal's overwhelming defeat of the ,romans 7#baf71 ,i1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #dg1 #aac4 ,capitolium1 the ,capitoline ,hill1 between the forum and the ,tiber1 the citadel of ,rome1 with the temple of ,jupiter and ,good ,faith1 ,,iii1 #ajd2 place of augury1 ,,iii1 #ff4 ,carthage1 once a mighty city1 on the north central coast of ,africa1 ,,iii1 #ii1 #ajj2 the most formidable commercial and military rival of ,rome2 conquered by ,rome in the ,first ,punic ,war 7#bfd-bda71 ,i1 #ci2 ,second ,punic ,war 7#bai-bjb71 ,i1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #dg2 destroyed in the ,third 7#adi-adf71 ,i1 #ce2 ,,ii1 #gf4 ,carthaginians1 the people of ,carthage1 ,i1 #ci1 #ajh2 ,,iii1 #ii1 #aaj1 #aac2 treacherous1 ,,iii1 #ajb2 cruel1 ,,iii1 #ajj1 #ajb2 treaty-breaking1 ,i1 #ch4 ,cassander1 son of ,antipater1 disinherited by his father1 gained the throne of ,macedonia 7#cjf7 by wars and murders 7#cai-cja71 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,cato1 ,marcus ,porcius1 the ,censor 7or ,major1 the ,elder1 ,i1 #cg7 7#bcd-adi71 author1 ,i1 #ajd2 ,,iii1 #a2 orator1 ,,iii1 #ajd2 soldier1 served in ,second ,punic ,war 7#bag-bjb72 statesman1 responsible for the destruction of ,carthage 7#adf71 ,i1 #gi2 the ,wise1 ,,iii1 #af2 consul 7#aie72 censor 7#ahd72 stalwart champion of the simple life and stern morals1 ,,ii1 #hi2 bitterly opposed luxury and ,greek culture2 yielded in old age4 ,cato1 ,marcus ,porcius1 son of the preceding2 jurist2 served under ,paulus in ,macedon 7#afh71 ,i1 #cg2 under ,marcus ,popilius ,laenas in ,liguria 7#agb71 ,i1 #cf4 ,cato1 ,marcus ,porcius1 grandson of the ,censor and father of ,cato ,uticensis1 ,,iii1 #ff4 ,cato2 ,marcus ,porcius ,cato ,uticensis 7#ie-df71 son of the preceding and great-grandson of the ,censor2 a ,stoic philosopher2 orator2 soldier1 ,i1 #aab2 defeated at ,thapsus 7#df72 judge1 ,,iii1 #ff2 stern and unyielding as his great-grandfather1 ,i1 #aab2 ,,iii1 #hh2 his suicide1 ,i1 #aab2 close friend of ,cicero 7,,ii1 #b72 ,,iii1 #hh4 ,catulus1 ,quintus ,lutatius1 half-brother of ,julius ,caesar ,strabo1 ,i1 #acc2 orator2 scholar1 ,i1 #acc2 author2 soldier2 consul with ,marius 7#ajb7 in the war against the ,cimbri 7#aja72 gentleman1 ,i1 #aji2 committed suicide to escape the proscriptions of ,marius 7#hg74 ,catulus1 ,quintus ,lutatius1 son of the preceding1 defeated ,lepidus at the ,milvian bridge2 statesman1 ,i1 #gf2 scholar1 ,i1 #acc4 ,caudium1 a little town in the mountains of ,samnium2 near it are the ,caudine ,forks1 the scene of the disastrous battle 7#cba72 ,,iii1 #aji2 7,,ii1 #gi74 ,celtiberians1 a powerful people of central ,spain1 opposed ,rome in ,second ,punic ,war1 were reduced in the ,numantian ,war 7#acd71 submitted on the death of ,sertorius 7#gb71 ,i1 #ch4 ,centumalus1 ,tiberius ,claudius2 unknown1 ,,iii1 #ff4 ,chicanery1 ,i1 #cc4 ,chremes1 a character in ,terence's ,heauton ,timorumenus1 ,i1 #cj4 ,chrysippus1 of ,soli 7#bej-bjg71 studied ,stoic philosophy at ,athens under ,cleanthes1 whom he succeeded2 voluminous writer4 ,had there been no ,chrysippus1 there had been no ,stoa1 ,,iii1 #db4 ,cicero1 ,marcus ,tullius1 the orator's father1 ,,iii1 #gg2 died 7#fd74 ,cicero1 ,marcus ,tullius1 the orator 7#ajf-dc71 born at ,arpinum1 educated at ,rome under ,archias1 the ,scaevolas1 and the teachers of philosophy 7see ,introduction71 at ,athens1 in ,asia1 and at ,rhodes2 his training was all for service1 ,i1 #aee2 as consul 7#fc7 he crushed the conspiracy of ,catiline1 ,i1 #hd2 banished 7#eh71 ,,ii1 #eh2 his enforced retirement from his profession1 ,,iii1 #b-d2 as a philosopher and orator1 ,i1 #a-c2 follower of ,socrates and ,plato1 ,i1 #b2 of the ,new ,academy1 ,,ii1 #g-h2 why he wrote on philosophy1 ,,ii1 #b-h2 ,,iii1 #a-e2 attitude on the downfall of the ,republic1 ,,ii1 #b4 ,cicero1 ,marcus ,tullius1 the orator's only son1 ,i1 #a1 #ae1 #gh2 ,,ii1 #a-h1 #dd2 ,,iii1 #a1 #e1 #cc2 born in #fe2 served with credit under ,pompey1 ,,ii1 #de1 and ,sextus ,pompey2 a student of ,peripatetic philosophy under ,cratippus in ,athens 7#dd-dc71 ,i1 #a2 admonished to read also his father's works1 ,i1 #c2 ,,iii1 #aba2 served under ,brutus 7#dc-db72 consul with ,octavian 7#cj74 ,cimbrians1 a ,celtic people1 migrating in a vast horde toward ,italy1 were cut to pieces by ,marius and ,catulus in the ,raudian ,plains near ,verona 7#aja71 ,i1 #ch4 ,cimon1 of ,athens1 son of the great ,miltiades2 victorious admiral2 statesman2 genial and generous1 ,,ii1 #fd2 died 7#ddi74 ,circe1 nymph of ,aeaea1 a sorceress2 she kept ,odysseus 7,ulysses7 in her halls a year1 ,i1 #aac4 ,civic1 compared with military service1 ,i1 #gd fg4 ,claudius2 see ,appius and ,centumalus and ,pulcher4 ,cleombrotus1 son of ,pausanias1 king of ,sparta1 fell at ,leuctra 7#cga71 ,i1 #hd4 ,cleomenes2 see note to ,i1 #cc4 ,clodius2 ,publius ,clodius ,pulcher1 ,cicero's inveterate enemy1 one of the most turbulent and corrupt characters of ,rome1 guilty of mutiny in the army1 bribery in the courts1 profligacy in his public and private life2 secured ,cicero's banishment2 hired gladiators to force his own election to the praetorship1 but was killed in a broil with ,milo's rival gang of ruffians1 ,,ii1 #eh4 ,cloelia1 a ,roman girl sent as a hostage to ,porsena2 she made her escape by swimming the ,tiber1 was sent back1 but restored by the king with rewards for her courage1 7,i1 #fa74 ,clytaemnestra1 daughter of ,tyndareus1 wife of ,agamemnon1 paramour of ,aegisthus1 with whom she murdered her husband on his return from ,troy2 she was in turn slain by her son ,orestes4 ,subject of a tragedy by ,accius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,cocles1 ,horatius1 the hero who with two others kept the bridge against ,porsena and ,tarquin1 ,i1 #fa4 ,collatinus1 ,lucius ,tarquinius1 husband of ,lucretia1 associate of ,brutus in driving out the ,tarquins and his colleague in the first consulship 7#eji71 ,,iii1 #dj4 ,comedy2 see ,old ,comedy4 ,concealment1 of guilt1 ,,iii1 #cg-ci4 ,conon1 famous ,athenian admiral1 defeated by ,lysander at ,aegospotami 7#dje71 victorious over ,pisander of ,sparta at ,cnidus 7#cid71 restored the long walls1 ,i1 #aaf4 ,considerateness1 a subdivision of the virtue of ,temperance1 ,i1 #ii1 #adc4 ,conversation1 a division of speech1 ,i1 #acb-acc2 ,,ii1 #dh2 an art1 ,i1 #acd-ace4 ,co-operation1 and civilization1 ,,ii1 #ab-af2 and the virtues1 ,,ii1 #ag-ah2 vs4 ,fortune1 ,,ii1 #ai2 a universal need1 ,,ii1 #ci2 how secured1 ,,ii1 #ba fg4 ,corinth1 a famous city at the ,isthmus of ,corinth2 wealthy2 next to ,athens1 richest in treasures of art2 head of the ,achaean ,league2 sacked and utterly destroyed by the ,romans under ,mummius 7#adf71 ,i1 #ce2 ,,ii1 #gf2 ,,iii1 #df4 ,cornelius2 see ,scipio and ,spinther and ,sulla4 ,cos1 chief city of the island of ,cos1 one of the ,sporades2 famed for its silks2 the birthplace of ,apelles1 painter of the ,coan ,venus1 ,,iii1 #aj4 ,cotta1 ,gaius ,aurelius1 distinguished orator2 one of the speakers in ,cicero's de ,oratore and de ,natura ,deorum2 consul 7#ge72 ,,ii1 #ei4 ,courage2 see ,fortitude4 ,covetousness1 ,i1 #fh2 ,,iii1 #cj2 see ,avarice4 ,crassus1 ,lucius ,licinius1 the famous orator1 ,,ii1 #fc2 ,,iii1 #fg2 at #ba 7#aai7 he won renown by his prosecution of ,carbo1 the one-time friend of the ,gracchi1 ,,ii1 #dg1 #di2 his aedileship most splendid1 ,,ii1 #eg2 as consul 7#ie71 he secured the expulsion from ,rome of all who were not citizens1 ,,iii1 #dg2 this was a cause of the ,social ,war4 ,he was the greatest orator of ,rome before ,cicero1 fluent1 graceful1 witty1 ,i1 #ajh1 #acc2 ,cicero's mouthpiece in the de ,oratore4 ,crassus2 ,marcus ,licinius ,crassus ,dives1 the triumvir2 his wealth and ambition1 ,i1 #be2 sided with ,sulla against ,marius and grew enormously rich by the proscriptions2 his avarice did not shrink from any meanness or even crime1 ,i1 #aji2 ,,iii1 #gc-ge4 ,he defeated ,spartacus 7#ga72 slain in ,parthia 7#ec74 ,crassus2 ,publius ,licinius ,crassus ,dives1 ,,ii1 #eg2 father of the triumvir1 consul 7#ig72 ended his own life to escape the prescriptions of ,marius 7#hg72 ,cicero bought his house4 ,cratippus1 of ,mitylene1 an eminent ,peripatetic1 came to ,athens 7about #ej7 to lecture2 foremost of contemporary philosophers and teacher of young ,cicero1 ,i1 #a1 #b2 ,,ii1 #h2 ,,iii1 #e1 #f1 #cc1 #aba4 ,cunning1 not wisdom1 ,,ii1 #aj2 ,,iii1 #gb1 #if4 ,curio1 ,gaius ,scribonius1 ,,ii1 #ei2 orator and statesman1 ,,iii1 #hh2 consul1 7#gf74 ,cynics1 a school of philosophy so called from the ,athenian gymnasium1 ,cynosarges1 where they met1 later adapted to their snarling manner and dirty habits2 its leaders were ,antisthenes of ,athens1 a disciple of ,socrates1 and ,diogenes of ,sinope2 they taught the virtue of poverty and want1 indifference to all convention and decency2 ,cicero's contempt for them and their so-called philosophy1 ,i1 #abh1 #adh4 ,cyrenaics1 the philosophic sect founded by ,aristippus 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #aaf4 ,cyrsilus1 a ,medizing ,athenian1 ,,iii1 #dh4 ,cyrus1 the ,great1 founder of the ,persian ,empire2 wonderfully gifted in winning the co-operation of men and nations1 ,,ii1 #af4 ,damon1 a ,pythagorean and friend of ,phintias1 ,,iii1 #de4 ,debts1 cancellation of1 ,,ii1 #gh-gi1 #hc-he2 avoidance of1 ,,ii1 #hd2 payment enforced1 ,,ii1 #hd4 ,decius2 ,publius ,decius ,mus1 father and son1 ,i1 #fa2 ,,iii1 #af2 the former1 consul with ,manlius ,torquatus 7#cfj71 devoted himself to death in the battle on the ,veseris4 ,the son did the same at the battle of ,sentinum 7#bie7 and brought the ,samnite wars to an end4 ,demetrius of ,phalerum 7#cde-bhc71 orator1 statesman1 ,,ii1 #fj2 philosopher1 poet2 pupil of ,theophrastus1 ,i1 #c2 the only ,greek who was both orator and philosopher1 ,i1 #c2 he inspired the founding of the ,alexandrine library4 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 ,,ii1 #bf2 son of ,antigonus and king of ,macedon 7#bid-bhg74 ,his life was occupied with continuous warfare against enemies in ,egypt1 ,asia1 ,greece1 ,macedonia1 ,epirus4 ,demosthenes1 the greatest orator of ,athens 7#che-cbb72 pupil of ,isaeus and of ,plato1 ,i1 #d2 might have been a great philosopher1 ,i1 #d2 at #ah he prosecuted his defaulting guardian with success1 ,,ii1 #dg2 then turned to public speaking and statecraft as a profession4 ,diana1 goddess of the light of the night1 identified with ,artemis1 ,,iii1 #ie4 ,dicaearchus1 of ,messana 7#dth century71 a ,peripatetic philosopher1 geographer1 and historian1 ,,ii1 #af2 pupil of ,aristotle and friend of ,theophrastus4 ,dinomachus1 a ,greek philosopher1 always named with ,calliphon 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #aai4 ,diogenes1 of ,babylonia1 pupil and successor of ,chrysippus2 best known for his part in the famous embassy with ,carneades and ,critolaus from ,athens to ,rome 7#aef7 where1 on motion of ,cato1 they were not permitted to remain2 his ethics rather loose1 ,,iii1 #ea-ee1 #ia4 ,dion1 a kinsman of the elder ,dionysius and tyrant of ,syracuse 7#cef-cec72 a devoted disciple of ,plato at ,syracuse and ,athens1 ,i1 #aee4 ,dionysius1 the elder 7#dcj-cfg71 tyrant of ,syracuse 7#dje-cfg71 a typically cruel tyrant1 suspicious and fearful1 ,,ii1 #be2 ,,iii1 #de 7872 devoted to art and literature1 himself a poet crowned with a prize at ,athens4 ,dionysius1 the younger1 son of the preceding and tyrant of ,syracuse 7#cfg-cef1 #cdf-cdc72 devoted to literature2 ,plato1 ,aristippus1 ,archytas1 and others were brought to his court4 ,whether the ,damon and ,phintias story is to be connected with him or his father is uncertain1 ,,iii1 #de 7874 ,drusus1 ,marcus ,livius1 son of ,gaius ,gracchus's colleague in the tribuneship2 an eloquent orator1 ,i1 #ajh2 as tribune 7#ia7 he attempted to renew the social and agrarian legislation of ,gracchus and was assassinated4 ,duty1 the most important subject in philosophy1 ,i1 #d2 the most fruitful field1 ,,iii1 #e2 the philosophic sects and duty1 ,i1 #d-f2 best presentation1 ,,iii1 #g2 classification1 ,i1 #g-i2 order of importance1 ,i1 #eh1 #aeb-afj2 ,,iii1 #ij2 to those who have wronged us1 ,i1 #cc2 to an enemy1 ,i1 #ce-dj2 ,,iii1 #ih-aae2 to a slave1 ,i1 #da2 ,,iii1 #hi2 toward the laws1 ,i1 #adh2 of generosity1 ,i1 #db-fj2 of ,temperance-,propriety1 ,i1 #ajj-aea2 ,,iii1 #aaf-aba2 of ,fortitude1 ,,iii1 #ig-aae2 to be prosperous1 ,,ii1 #hg2 duties of youth1 ,i1 #abb2 ,,ii1 #eb2 of age1 ,i1 #abc2 of magistrates1 ,i1 #abd2 of statesmen1 ,i1 #gc-he2 of private citizens1 ,i1 #abd2 of aliens1 ,i1 #abe2 vs4 claims of friendship1 ,,iii1 #dc-dd2 change of duty in change of circumstance1 ,i1 #ca1 #ei2 ,,iii1 #cb2 mean and absolute duty1 ,i1 #h2 ,,iii1 #ad2 doubts as to1 ,i1 #adg4 ,eloquence1 at the bar1 ,,ii1 #ff2 its decline1 ,,ii1 #fg2 see ,oratory4 ,ennius1 ,quintus 7#bci-afi71 a ,greek by birth1 the father of ,roman poetry1 wrote an epic 7the ,annals71 ,i1 #hd2 tragedies1 ,i1 #bf1 #ea1 #eb2 ,,ii1 #bc1 #fb2 ,,iii1 #fb1 #ajd2 comedies and satires4 ,epaminondas1 one of the greatest men of ,greece1 a student of ,pythagorean philosophy1 ,i1 #aee2 the greatest general of ,thebes1 victorious at ,leuctra 7#cga71 ,i1 #hd2 humbled ,sparta and made ,thebes the leading city of ,greece2 fell at ,mantinea 7#cfb74 ,epicurus 7#cdb-bgj71 founded at ,athens the school that bears his name2 author of #cjj books1 natural and ethical philosophy2 held happiness to be the highest good2 ,cicero confuses his teaching here with that of ,aristippus and the ,cyrenaics2 with the latter1 happiness consists in individual pleasures2 with ,epicurus1 it is permanent calm of soul and freedom from pain1 with pure and lasting pleasures--the pleasures that come from a life of righteousness1 ,,iii1 #ab1 #aag2 the gods existed but had nothing to do with human life1 ,,iii1 #ajb2 adopted the atomic theory4 ,his own life was temperate even to abstinence2 his followers went to excess4 ,a very popular school1 ,,iii1 #aaf2 represented by ,cicero as illogical1 ,,iii1 #ci2 their theory of society1 ,i1 #aeh4 ,epigoni1 the sons of the ,seven against ,thebes2 under ,alcmaeon1 ,diomedes1 etc41 they conquered and destroyed the city4 ,subject of a tragedy of ,accius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,erillus1 of ,carthage1 pupil of ,zeno the ,stoic1 held that knowledge is the only good1 while everything else is neither good nor evil2 his ethical theories rejected1 ,i1 #f4 ,eteocles1 son of ,oedipus1 drove out his brother ,polynices1 in order to reign alone1 and brought on the war of the ,seven against ,thebes2 the brothers fell by each other's hands2 ,,iii1 #hb4 ,euripides 7#dhj-djf71 tragic poet of ,athens2 disciple of ,anaxagoras and friend of ,socrates2 wrote #ge to #ij plays2 #ag are extant2 ,cicero quotes from the ,hippolytus1 ,,iii1 #hb2 the ,phoenissae1 ,,iii1 #ajh4 ,evil1 the supreme1 ,i1 #e2 ,,iii1 #aai2 not pain1 ,i1 #e2 ,,iii1 #aje1 #aag2 but moral wrong1 ,,iii1 #aje1 #ajf2 the only1 ,,iii1 #ajf4 ,expediency1 definition1 ,,ii1 #a1 #aa2 indispensable1 ,,iii1 #aja2 identical with ,moral ,rectitude1 ,,ii1 #i-aj2 ,,iii1 #bj1 #ce1 #di1 #hc1 #he1 #aaj2 conflict with ,moral ,rectitude impossible1 ,,iii1 #i1 #aa1 #ah1 #cd1 #dj1 #dh1 #gb2 incompatible with immorality1 ,,iii1 #ce1 #gg1 #ha1 #hb1 #hg2 ,,ii1 #fd2 one standard for both1 ,,iii1 #ge2 relative1 ,,ii1 #hh fg42 possible change of1 ,,iii1 #ie2 occasion for doubt1 ,,iii1 #ai2 apparent conflict with justice1 ,,iii1 #dj1 #hf2 apparent political expediency vs4 humanity1 ,,iii1 #df-di2 in business1 ,,iii1 #ej fg42 apparent conflict with ,fortitude1 ,,iii1 #ig-aae2 apparent conflict with ,temperance1 ,,iii1 #aaf4 ,fabius2 see ,maximus4 ,fabricius2 ,gaius ,fabricius ,luscinus1 hero of old ,rome1 famed for integrity and moral dignity2 called the ,just1 ,,iii1 #af1 #hg2 consul 7#bhb72 served against ,pyrrhus 7#bhj72 ambassador to ,pyrrhus to negotiate exchange of prisoners2 ,pyrrhus tried to gain his favour by appeals to his ambition1 avarice1 and fears--in vain1 ,i1 #ch2 consul again 7#bgh71 he sent back to ,pyrrhus the traitor1 ,i1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #hf-hg2 a rigorous censor 7#bge72 lived and died in poverty4 ,fame2 see ,glory4 ,fear1 the wretchedness of1 ,,ii1 #be-bf2 vs4 love1 ,,ii1 #bc-bf2 dangerous to the one who employs it1 ,,ii1 #bf4 ,fetial ,law1 the laws of the ,fetiales1 a college of four priests who served as guardians of the public faith2 they conducted the ceremonies attendant upon demands for redress1 declarations of war1 ratification of treaties1 establishment of peace2 ,i1 #cf2 ,,iii1 #ajh4 ,fides2 see ,good ,faith2 the goddess1 ,,iii1 #ajd2 etymology of1 ,i1 #bc4 ,fimbria1 ,gaius ,flavius1 colleague of ,marius in his second consulship 7#ajd72 orator and jurist1 ,,iii1 #gg4 ,finance1 ,,ii1 #hg2 reform of currency1 ,,iii1 #hj-ha4 ,fortitude1 the third ,cardinal ,virtue1 ,i1 #ae1 #fa-ib2 its characteristics1 ,i1 #ff2 in the light of justice1 ,i1 #fb1 #aeg2 dangers attending1 ,i1 #df1 #fb-fc2 vs4 expediency1 ,,iii1 #ig-aae2 in ,epicurus's system1 ,,iii1 #aag4 ,fraud1 criminal1 ,,iii1 #fj fg4 ,friendship1 motives to1 ,i1 #ee-ef2 acquisition of friends1 ,,ii1 #cj2 ideal1 ,i1 #ef2 ,,iii1 #de-df2 vs4 duty1 ,,iii1 #dc-dd4 ,fufius1 ,lucius1 an orator of no great ability1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,furius2 ,lucius ,furius ,philus1 consul 7#acf71 proconsul in ,spain1 ,,iii1 #aji2 a learned interlocutor in ,cicero's ,republic4 ,galus1 ,gaius ,sulpicius2 see ,sulpicius4 ,gaul1 an inhabitant of ,gaul1 the land north of the ,apennines1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,generosity1 divisions of1 ,,ii1 #eb2 close to nature1 ,,iii1 #bd2 must not harm its object1 ,i1 #db-dc2 in proportion to one's means1 ,i1 #db-dd2 ,,ii1 #ee2 to the recipient's merits1 ,i1 #de-fj2 motives to1 ,i1 #dg-di2 ,,iii1 #aah2 means to winning popularity1 ,,ii1 #cb2 gifts of money1 ,,ii1 #eb-fj2 personal service1 ,,ii1 #eb1 #ec2 to individuals1 ,,ii1 #fe-ga2 to the state1 ,,ii1 #gb fg42 when most appreciated1 ,,ii1 #fc4 ,glory1 a means to popularity1 ,,ii1 #ca1 #dc2 preferred to wealth1 ,,ii1 #hh4 ,gods1 favour of1 won by piety1 ,,ii1 #aa2 do no harm1 ,,ii1 #ab2 ,,iii1 #ajb2 free from care1 ,,iii1 #ajb2 slow to anger1 ,,iii1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,golden ,mean1 ,i1 #hi2 in generosity1 ,,ii1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj2 in personal adornment1 ,i1 #acj4 ,good1 the supreme1 ,i1 #e1 #g2 ,,iii1 #eb1 #aai2 not pleasure1 ,i1 #e2 ,,iii1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah2 but moral goodness1 ,,iii1 #aa1 #ce2 living in harmony with nature1 ,,iii1 #ac2 the only1 moral goodness1 ,i1 #fg2 ,,iii1 #ab4 ,good faith1 ,,iii1 #ajd2 even to an enemy1 ,,iii1 #hf fg41 #aaa1 #aac4 ,good man1 what constitutes a1 ,,iii1 #fc1 #ge-gg4 ,gracchus1 ,gaius ,sempronius1 brother of the younger ,tiberius2 a more radical reformer2 tribune 7#abc and #abb72 fell 7#aba7 a martyr to his reforms for the restoration of the public lands and the reduction of the cost of living1 ,,ii1 #gb1 #hj2 his death applauded by ,cicero1 ,,ii1 #dc4 ,gracchus1 ,publius ,sempronius1 father of the elder ,tiberius1 ,,ii1 #dc4 ,gracchus1 ,tiberius ,sempronius1 father of the tribunes1 ,,ii1 #dc2 in his own tribuneship he defended ,scipio 7#ahg72 a great soldier1 ,,ii1 #hj2 twice consul1 triumphed twice2 a just ruler in ,spain2 son-in-law of the elder1 father-in-law of the younger ,africanus1 an ardent aristocrat2 hence ,cicero's praise1 ,,ii1 #dc4 ,gracchus1 ,tiberius ,sempronius1 son of the foregoing2 a persuasive orator2 friend of the people and helper of the poor and oppressed2 murdered for attempting as tribune 7#acc7 to reform agrarian abuses and build up a class of small farmers1 ,i1 #gf1 #aji2 ,,ii1 #hj2 his death applauded by ,cicero1 ,,ii1 #dc4 ,gratidianus1 ,marcus ,marius2 see ,marius4 ,gratitude1 how won1 ,,ii1 #fc4 ,greece1 the land of liberty1 letters1 art1 and civilization1 ,,ii1 #fj2 ,,iii1 #dh1 #gc1 #ii2 cause of fall1 ,,ii1 #hj4 ,greek1 belonging to or a native of ,greece1 ,i1 #ajh1 #aaa2 ,,ii1 #hc2 ,,iii1 #hb2 leaders in literature1 ,i1 #c2 masters of philosophy1 ,i1 #h1 #ea1 #adb1 #aec2 ,,ii1 #ah2 ,greek and ,latin studies1 ,i1 #a4 ,gyges1 the shepherd who dethroned ,candaules and became king of ,lydia 7#gaf-fgh71 ,,iii1 #ch1 #gh4 ,gytheum1 the harbour-town and arsenal of ,sparta1 ,,iii1 #di4 ,hamilcar1 a successful ,carthaginian general in the ,first ,punic ,war1 defeated by ,regulus at ,ecnomus2 opposed ,regulus in ,africa1 ,,iii1 #ii2 confused with ,hamilcar ,barca 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #ii4 ,hamilcar ,barca1 famous commander of the ,carthaginian forces in ,sicily 7#bdg-bda72 in ,spain 7#bch-bbi72 father of ,hannibal1 ,,iii1 #ii4 ,hannibal 7#bdg-ahc71 one of the world's greatest generals1 ,i1 #ajh2 son of ,hamilcar ,barca1 ,,iii1 #ii2 sacked ,saguntum 7#bai71 crossed the ,alps and defeated the ,romans on the ,trebia and ,ticinus 7#bah71 at ,trasimenus 7#bag71 ,cannae 7#baf71 ,i1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #aac-aad2 defeated at ,zama 7#bjb72 maligned by the ,romans as treacherous and cruel1 ,i1 #ch4 ,harm1 from gods to men1 ,,ii1 #ab2 ,,iii1 #ajb2 men to men1 ,,ii1 #af fg4 ,health1 impossible without man's co-operation1 ,,ii1 #ab1 #ae2 care of1 ,,ii1 #hf4 ,hecaton1 of ,rhodes1 a ,stoic1 pupil of ,panaetius1 ,,iii1 #fc1 #hi4 ,hercules1 the greatest of heroes1 son of ,zeus 7,jupiter7 and ,alcmena1 ,i1 #aah2 his choice of his path in life1 ,i1 #aah2 performer of the twelve labours2 benefactor of humanity1 ,,iii1 #be2 his attainment of heaven1 ,,iii1 #be4 ,hernicians1 a tribe in the ,sabine mountains1 subdued by ,rome 7#cjf71 ,i1 #ce4 ,herodotus1 of ,halicarnassus 7#eth century71 lived also at ,athens and ,thurii2 the father of history2 travelled widely and wrote the history of ,persia and ,greece1 ,,ii1 #da4 ,hesiod1 the ,boeotian didactic poet 7#hth century72 author of the ,theogony1 the ,works and ,days1 etc41 ,i1 #dh4 ,hippolytus1 son of ,theseus2 his stepmother ,phaedra fell in love with him2 he rejected her advances but promised not to tell1 ,,iii1 #ajh2 she accused him falsely2 his innocence proved1 ,phaedra hanged herself and ,theseus suffered lifelong remorse1 ,i1 #cb2 ,,iii1 #id4 ,home1 of man of rank2 see ,house4 ,homer1 the poet1 author of ,iliad and ,odyssey1 ,,iii1 #ig4 ,honesty1 the bond of human society1 ,,iii1 #ba fg42 the corner-stone of government1 ,,ii1 #gh fg4 ,house1 suitable for a man of rank1 ,i1 #ach-adj4 ,hortensius1 ,quintus 7#aad-ej71 ,cicero's famous rival as orator and advocate2 his close friend 7after #fc71 ,,iii1 #gc2 enormously wealthy2 lavish in his aedileship 7#ge71 ,,ii1 #eg2 not always scrupulous1 ,,iii1 #gc-gd4 ,hospitality1 the duty of1 ,,ii1 #fd4 ,humility1 in prosperity1 ,i1 #ij-ia4 ,illyria1 the country between ,macedonia and the ,adriatic1 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,ingratitude1 abhorred1 ,,ii1 #fc4 ,injustice1 active and passive1 ,i1 #bc1 #bh2 never expedient1 ,,iii1 #hd2 of hypocrisy1 ,i1 #da4 ,instinct and ,reason1 difference between man and beast1 ,i1 #aa4 ,integrity1 official1 ,,ii1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg4 ,iphigenia1 daughter of ,agamemnon and ,clytaemnestra 7q4v472 sacrificed at ,aulis1 ,,iii1 #ie4 ,isocrates 7#dcf-cch71 one of the ten ,attic orators1 pupil of ,gorgias and ,socrates2 a polished speaker2 greater as a teacher than as an orator2 might have been a great philosopher1 ,i1 #d4 ,italian ,war 7#ij-hh71 caused by ,rome's injustice to the allies1 provoked by the fear of prosecution on the part of the corrupt aristocrats1 ,,ii1 #ge2 resulted in ,rome's granting the contentions of the allies4 ,italy1 in government identified with ,rome1 ,,ii1 #gf4 ,ithaca1 the home of ,odysseus 7,ulysses71 an island of the ,ionian group west of ,greece1 probably the historical ,leucas1 ,,iii1 #ig4 ,janus1 an old ,italian sun-god2 a covered passage 7commonly called his temple7 adjoining the forum accommodated the banking houses of ,rome1 ,,ii1 #hg4 ,jason1 tyrant of ,pherae 7#cie-cgj71 generalissimo of ,thessaly 7#cgd-cgj71 an able soldier and diplomat1 ,i1 #ajh4 ,jests2 see ,wit4 ,jove2 see ,jupiter4 ,jugurtha1 king of ,numidia 7#aah-ajf71 campaigned with ,scipio against ,numantia2 war with ,rome 7#aab-ajf7 protracted by his bribes as much as by his arms1 ,,iii1 #gi2 executed in ,rome 7#ajd74 ,julius2 see ,caesar4 ,junius2 see ,brutus and ,pennus and ,silanus4 ,jupiter1 the greatest of the gods of ,italy1 ,,iii1 #ajb1 #aje2 ,supreme and ,best1 ,,iii1 #ajd2 father of ,hercules1 ,i1 #aah4 ,justice1 the second ,cardinal ,virtue1 ,i1 #ae1 #ag1 #bj-da2 in what consisting1 ,i1 #bj2 not fully comprehended1 ,,iii1 #fi2 queen of all the virtues1 ,,iii1 #bh2 most important1 ,i1 #aec2 close to nature1 ,i1 #aec2 ,,iii1 #bd2 rule of duty1 ,i1 #bi-cj2 in war1 ,i1 #ch-dj2 and generosity1 ,i1 #db2 vs4 ,wisdom1 ,i1 #aeb-aeg2 vs4 ,fortitude1 ,i1 #aeg2 vs4 ,temperance1 ,i1 #aei-afj2 indispensable in business1 ,,ii1 #dj2 inspires most confidence1 ,,ii1 #cd2 the best means to popularity1 ,,ii1 #ci2 to glory1 ,,ii1 #dc2 always expedient1 ,,iii1 #if2 in conflict with apparent expediency1 ,,iii1 #dj1 #hf4 ,labeo1 ,quintus ,fabius1 grandson of ,fabius ,maximus1 consul 7#ahc72 injustice of1 ,i1 #cc4 ,lacedaemon2 see ,sparta4 ,laciads1 citizens of the deme of ,lacia1 west of ,athens1 the home of ,miltiades1 ,,ii1 #fd4 ,laelius1 ,gaius1 surnamed the ,wise1 ,,iii1 #af2 statesman2 soldier under ,scipio at ,carthage1 successful against ,viriathus1 ,,ii1 #dj2 a ,stoic1 pupil of ,diogenes and ,panaetius2 a man of endless charm and wit1 ,i1 #ij1 #ajh2 his friendship for ,africanus immortalized1 ,,ii1 #ca2 a man of letters1 centre of the literary group comprising also ,scipio1 ,panaetius1 ,polybius1 ,terence1 ,lucilius4 ,lanarius1 ,gaius ,calpurnius1 ,,iii1 #ff4 ,latin1 study of combined with ,greek1 ,i1 #a-b4 ,latins1 the people of ,latium1 the province in which ,rome is situated1 the first territory added to ,rome1 ,i1 #ch2 decisive battle on the ,anio1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,law1 the origin of1 ,,ii1 #da-db2 the majesty of1 ,i1 #adh2 as a profession1 ,,ii1 #fe2 its decline with the end of the ,republic1 ,,ii1 #fg2 ,,iii1 #b4 ,lentulus2 ,publius ,cornelius ,lentulus ,spinther1 the splendour of his aedileship 7#fc71 ,,ii1 #eg2 as consul 7#eg7 he was largely instrumental in securing ,cicero's recall from banishment4 ,leuctra1 a town of ,boeotia1 where the ,spartans under ,cleombrotus were disastrously defeated by ,epaminondas and the ,thebans 7#cga71 ,i1 #fa2 ,,ii1 #bf4 ,love1 how won1 ,,ii1 #cb2 vs4 fear1 ,,ii1 #bc-bf4 ,lucullus1 ,lucius ,licinius 7#aaj-ef71 surnamed ,ponticus for his victories over ,mithradates 7#hd-ff72 famed for his wealth and magnificence1 ,i1 #adj2 for the splendour of his aedileship with his brother ,marcus 7#gi71 ,,ii1 #eg2 with him prosecuted ,servilius to avenge their father whom he had accused of bribery and corruption1 ,,ii1 #ej2 patron of letters1 especially of the poet ,archias4 ,lucullus1 ,marcus ,licinius1 associated with his brother ,lucius 7q4v471 ,,ii1 #ej1 #eg2 soldier and orator4 ,lusitania1 western ,spain1 practically modern ,portugal1 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,lutatius2 see ,catulus4 ,luxury1 a vice1 ,i1 #ib1 #ajf1 #abc4 ,lycurgus 7#ith century71 the famous lawgiver of ,sparta1 author 787 of the ,spartan constitution1 ,i1 #gf4 ,lydia1 the central country of western ,asia ,minor1 ,,iii1 #ch4 ,lysander1 the ,spartan admiral who defeated the ,athenians at ,aegospotami 7#dje71 received the capitulation of ,athens 7#djd71 established the ,thirty ,tyrants 7#djc71 and gave ,sparta her leadership1 ,i1 #gf1 #aji4 ,lysander1 the ephor 7#bda71 a descendant of the admiral1 a friend of ,king ,agis 7q4v471 sought to bring about agrarian reforms based upon the constitution of ,lycurgus2 for this he was banished1 ,,ii1 #hj4 ,lysis1 of ,tarentum1 a ,pythagorean2 expelled from ,italy1 he came to ,thebes and taught ,epaminondas1 ,i1 #aee4 ,macedonia1 until the time of ,philip a small country north of ,thessaly1 ,i1 #cg4 ,macedonians1 the people of ,macedon1 ,i1 #ij2 ,,ii1 #ec2 deserted to ,pyrrhus1 ,,ii1 #bf2 ,paulus and their wealth1 ,,ii1 #gf4 ,maelius1 ,quintus1 tribune 7#cba71 more probably tribune-elect1 as tribunes could not leave the city1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,magnificence1 in the home1 ,i1 #adj4 ,mamercus2 ,aemilius ,lepidus ,mamercus ,livianus1 a kinsman of ,caesar2 though defeated once1 ,,ii1 #eh1 he was later 7#gg7 consul4 ,mancia1 ,quintus ,mucius1 unknown1 ,i1 #aji4 ,mancinus1 ,gaius ,hostilius2 in his consulship 7#acg7 he was defeated by the ,numantines2 his delivery to the enemy1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,manlius2 ,aulus ,manlius ,capitolinus1 father of ,lucius 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,manlius2 ,lucius ,manlius ,capitolinus ,imperiosus2 named dictator to mark the year 7#cfc71 he used his office to engage in a war2 that he transgressed but a few days was due to the intervention of the tribunes1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,manlius2 ,titus ,manlius ,imperiosus ,torquatus1 his son1 a famous hero of ,roman story2 as consul at the time of the battle on the ,veseris he executed his own son for disobeying orders1 though the disobedience won the spolia opima1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,marathon1 a plain about twenty miles north of ,athens where 7#dij7 ,miltiades and his ten thousand defeated the hosts of ,darius1 ,i1 #fa4 ,marcellus1 ,marcus ,claudius1 campaigned against ,hannibal in ,italy1 took ,syracuse 7#bab71 five times consul1 a brave but cruel soldier1 over-praised by the ,romans1 ,i1 #fa4 ,marcus2 see ,cicero--,marcus ,tullius1 the son4 ,marcius2 see ,philippus4 ,marius1 ,gaius 7#aeg-hg71 seven times consul2 gained his first consulship dishonourably1 ,,iii1 #gi1 #ha2 conquered ,jugurtha 7#ajg72 saved ,rome from the invading ,cimbri 7#ajb7 and ,teutons 7#aja72 a military genius1 ,i1 #gf2 cruel and selfish1 he flooded the streets of ,rome with her best blood in the civil war with ,sulla4 ,marius2 ,marcus ,marius ,gratidianus1 the son 7or grandson7 of ,marcus ,gratidius whose sister married ,cicero's grandfather2 adopted by a kinsman of the great ,marius2 hence his name2 twice praetor2 murdered by ,catiline during ,sulla's proscriptions1 ,,iii1 #fg2 his unbounded popularity in his first praetorship 7#hf71 ,,iii1 #hj-ha4 ,mars1 the god of war1 ,,iii1 #cd4 ,marseilles 7,massilia71 a ,greek city on the southern coast of ,gaul1 independent of the province2 it sided with ,pompey2 ,caesar captured the city after a protracted siege and exacted cruel vengeance1 ,,ii1 #bh4 ,maximus2 ,quintus ,fabius ,maximus ,cunctator1 consul four times2 in his second dictatorship 7#bag7 he won his surname by harassing ,hannibal1 watching his plans and working on the defensive1 ,i1 #hd1 #ajh4 ,medes1 the people of ,media1 a great kingdom in central ,asia ,minor added to ,persia by ,cyrus1 ,,ii1 #da4 ,medus1 a son of ,medea and ,aegeus2 wandering in search of his mother he came to ,colchis1 where ,medea saved his life2 the subject of a tragedy of ,pacuvius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,melanippa1 mother of ,boeotus and ,aeolus by ,posidon 7,neptune72 blinded and imprisoned by her father1 she was at last rescued by her sons and her sight was restored by ,posidon2 subject of a tragedy of ,ennius1 ,i1 #aad4 ,metellus2 ,quintus ,caecilius ,metellus ,macedonicus1 won his surname by his victories over ,andriscus 7#adh72 a political rival and yet a good friend of the younger ,scipio1 ,i1 #hg4 ,metellus2 ,quintus ,caecilius ,metellus ,numidicus1 nephew of the preceding1 statesman and soldier2 as consul 7#aji71 carried on the war with ,jugurtha with distinguished success1 ,,iii1 #gi4 ,metrodorus1 of ,lampsacus 7#ccj-bgg71 the most distinguished of the disciples of ,epicurus2 his ,epicureanism was of the grossly sensual sort2 his conception of happiness misunderstood by ,cicero1 ,,iii1 #aag4 ,milo1 ,titus ,annius1 an unscrupulous and turbulent fellow2 as tribune 7#eg7 he did much for ,cicero's recall and made a sworn enemy of ,clodius 7q4v472 hired gladiators to force his own election1 ,,ii1 #eh2 defended without success by ,cicero for killing ,clodius4 ,minerva1 goddess of thought1 temperament1 wit1 ,i1 #ig4 ,minos1 son of ,zeus 7,jupiter7 and king of ,crete2 because of his upright life he was made judge with ,aeacus 7q4v47 in ,hades1 ,i1 #ig4 ,moderation1 defined1 ,i1 #adb4 ,modesty1 ,i1 #abf-abi4 ,mucius2 see ,scaevola4 ,mummius2 ,lucius ,mummius ,achaicus1 as consul 7#adf7 broke up the ,achaean ,league1 razed ,corinth to the ground1 ,i1 #ce2 ,,ii1 #df2 carried to ,italy untold treasures of wealth and art1 ,,ii1 #gf4 ,naples1 the beautiful ,greek city of ,campania1 ,i1 #cc4 ,nasica2 see ,scipio4 ,neptune1 god of the sea1 ,i1 #cb2 ,,iii1 #id4 ,new ,academy2 see ,academy4 ,nicocles1 tyrant of ,sicyon1 ,,ii1 #ha4 ,nola1 a city in ,campania1 loyal to ,rome1 ,i1 #cc4 ,norbanus1 ,gaius1 tribune 7#ie71 impeached 7#id7 for treason1 ,,ii1 #di2 consul 7#hc74 ,numantia1 the capital of ,celtiberia1 razed to the ground after a long siege by the younger ,scipio1 ,i1 #ce1 #gf2 treacherously treated by ,rome1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,numicius1 ,tiberius1 colleague of ,quintus ,maelius 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,oath1 significance of1 ,i1 #ci1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #ajb fg42 fidelity to1 ,i1 #ci1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #ii-aab2 violation of1 ,,iii1 #aac fg42 see ,perjury4 ,octavius1 ,gnaeus1 as praetor commanded the fleet against ,perseus 7#afh7 and gained a triumph2 consul 7#afe71 ,i1 #ach4 ,octavius1 ,marcus1 tribune 7#abj72 had the corn law of ,gaius ,gracchus repealed and secured the passage of a new and more conservative one1 ,,ii1 #gb4 ,old ,age1 duties peculiar to1 ,i1 #abc2 worst vices of1 ,i1 #abc4 ,old ,comedy1 that of ,aristophanes1 ,cratinus1 ,eupolis1 etc41 the comedy of personal abuse1 ,i1 #ajd4 ,orata1 ,gaius ,sergius ,silus1 praetor 7#ig71 ,,iii1 #fg4 ,oratory1 a division of speech1 ,i1 #acb2 divisions of1 ,,ii1 #di2 a means for winning favour1 ,,ii1 #dh2 a means for service1 ,,ii1 #fe-ga2 a power to save1 ,,ii1 #ea4 ,orderliness1 defined1 ,i1 #adb2 of action1 ,i1 #adb-ade4 ,orestes2 ,gnaeus ,aufidius ,orestes ,aurelianus1 consul 7#ga71 ,,ii1 #eh4 ,palamedes1 the inventor2 exposed ,ulysses's trick1 ,,iii1 #ih2 treacherously done to death in revenge4 ,palatine1 the hill above the forum on the south2 east of the capital1 ,i1 #ach4 ,panaetius1 of ,rhodes 7#ahj-aaa ca471 ,stoic philosopher1 disciple of ,diogenes and ,antipater 7q4v47 at ,athens1 close friend of ,laelius 7q4v47 and ,scipio1 ,i1 #ij2 ,,ii1 #gf2 popularized philosophy1 ,,ii1 #ce2 wrote a book on moral duty1 ,,iii1 #g2 failed to define duty1 ,i1 #g2 classification of duty1 ,i1 #i2 omits third division1 ,i1 #aeb1 #afa2 ,,ii1 #hh2 reasons for omission1 ,,iii1 #g-ah1 #cd2 how it would have been met1 ,,iii1 #cc2 other omissions1 ,,ii1 #hf2 on co-operation1 ,,ii1 #af2 defends lawyer's efforts in a bad case1 ,,ii1 #ea2 on expensive public buildings1 ,,ii1 #fj2 ,cicero's model1 ,,ii1 #fj2 ,,iii1 #g2 ,hecaton's teacher1 ,,iii1 #fc4 ,papius1 ,gaius1 as tribune 7#fe71 revived the law of ,pennus 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #dg4 ,patriotism1 ,i1 #hc2 duty to country1 ,i1 #afj2 ,,iii1 #ij1 #ie2 to die for country1 ,i1 #eg2 sacrifice for1 ,i1 #hd2 ,,iii1 #ajj2 right to do wrong for one's country1 ,i1 #aei2 ,,iii1 #ic1 #ie4 ,paulus1 ,lucius ,aemilius1 consul 7#baf71 defeated and slain at ,cannae1 ,i1 #aad4 ,paulus2 ,lucius ,aemilius ,paulus ,macedonicus1 son of the preceding2 in his second consulship he conquered ,perseus of ,macedon at ,pydna 7#afh7 and enriched ,rome with spoils1 ,,ii1 #gf2 the father of the younger ,africanus1 ,i1 #aaf1 #aba4 ,pausanias1 king of ,sparta1 commander-in-chief of the forces of ,greece at ,plataea 7#dgi7 to the glory of ,sparta1 ,i1 #gf4 ,peloponnesian ,war1 the death-struggle of ,athens with ,sparta 7#dca-djd71 ,i1 #hd4 ,peloponnesus1 the lower peninsula of ,greece1 in which ,sparta was the chief city1 ,i1 #hd4 ,pelops1 son of ,tantalus and king of ,mycenae1 father of ,atreus and ,thyestes1 ,,iii1 #hd4 ,pennus1 ,marcus ,junius2 as tribune 7#abf7 he secured a law expelling all foreigners from ,rome1 ,,iii1 #dg4 ,pericles1 the peerless statesman of ,athens1 ,,ii1 #af2 philosopher1 friend of ,anaxagoras and ,socrates2 orator of mighty power1 serious and deep1 ,i1 #ajh2 general1 ,i1 #add2 his administration made ,athens unequalled in the splendour of her public buildings1 ,,ii1 #fj4 ,peripatetics1 followers of ,aristotle 7q4v471 empiricists1 ,,ii1 #af2 students of exact science2 lack the poetry and eloquence of ,plato but not very different from the ,new ,academy1 ,i1 #b2 ,,iii1 #bj2 followers of ,socrates and ,plato1 ,i1 #b2 their right to teach ethics1 ,i1 #f2 seek the golden mean1 ,i1 #hi2 moral rectitude the supreme good1 ,,iii1 #aa2 moral wrong the supreme evil1 ,,iii1 #ajf2 young ,cicero their follower1 ,i1 #a2 ,,ii1 #h4 ,perjury1 ,,iii1 #ajf-ajc1 #aac4 ,perseus1 the last king of ,macedon1 conquered by ,paulus 7q4v471 ,i1 #cg4 ,persians1 the people of ,persia1 the great empire of western ,asia2 under ,darius they invaded ,greece and were beaten back at ,marathon 7#dij71 ,i1 #fa2 under ,xerxes were overwhelmingly defeated at ,salamis 7#dhj71 ,i1 #fa2 ,,iii1 #dh1 #di2 and at ,plataea 7#dgi71 ,i1 #fa4 ,phaedra1 daughter of ,minos1 wife of ,theseus and stepmother of ,hippolytus 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #id4 ,phathon1 his story1 ,,iii1 #id4 ,phalaris1 tyrant of ,agrigentum 7#fth century71 type of inhuman cruelty1 ,,ii1 #bf2 ,,iii1 #bi1 #cb2 slain in an uprising of his people1 ,,ii1 #bf2 typical of ,caesar4 ,phalerum1 a deme of ,attica on the bay of ,phalerum1 ,i1 #c2 ,,ii1 #fj4 ,pherae1 a town of south-eastern ,thessaly1 the home of ,admetus2 of ,jason1 ,i1 #ajh2 of ,alexander1 ,,ii1 #be4 ,philip1 conqueror1 king of ,macedon 7#cei-ccf71 educated at ,thebes1 cultured1 ,i1 #ij2 wise1 ,,ii1 #dh2 eloquent1 tactful and firm in discipline1 ,,ii1 #ec4 ,philip1 the younger1 son of ,antigonus 7q4v471 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,philippus1 ,lucius ,marcius1 orator second only to ,crassus and ,antonius1 ,i1 #ajh2 statesman1 ,,ii1 #ei2 as tribune 7#ajd71 proposed agrarian reforms1 ,,ii1 #gc2 dishonest policy toward the ,asiatic states1 ,,iii1 #hg4 ,philippus1 ,quintus ,marcius1 father of preceding1 consul 7#ahf and #afi71 ,,ii1 #ei2 ,,iii1 #hg4 ,philosophers1 why righteous1 ,i1 #bh2 attitude toward civic duty1 ,i1 #bh2 as teachers1 ,i1 #aee4 ,philosophy1 the study of1 ,i1 #a-d2 theoretical speculation1 ,i1 #aec2 meaning1 ,,ii1 #e2 spirit of1 ,,ii1 #g2 as a discipline1 ,,ii1 #d2 worth while1 ,,ii1 #e fg42 why ,cicero turned to it1 ,,ii1 #b-h2 ,,iii1 #a-f4 ,phintias1 the friend of ,damon 7q4v47 ,,iii1 #de4 ,phoenissae1 the ,phoenician ,women1 a tragedy of ,euripides dealing with the war of the ,seven against ,thebes1 ,,iii1 #hb4 ,picenum1 state of north-east ,italy1 on the ,adriatic1 ,,iii1 #gd4 ,pinthia1 ,marcus ,lutatius1 unknown1 ,,iii1 #gg4 ,piraeus1 the great1 landlocked harbour of ,athens1 about five miles from the city1 ,,iii1 #df4 ,piso2 ,lucius ,calpurnius ,piso ,frugi1 so surnamed for his integrity2 author and statesman2 tribune 7#adi72 law against extortion1 ,,ii1 #ge2 consul 7#acc74 ,plaetorian ,law1 enacted 7#aib71 ,,iii1 #fa4 ,plataea1 the heroic little city at the foot of ,mount ,cithaeron in ,boeotia2 alone with ,athens at ,marathon 7#dij72 the scene of the final defeat of the ,persians in ,hellas 7#dgi71 ,i1 #fa4 ,plato 7#dbi-cdg71 pupil and friend of ,socrates1 profound philosopher and brilliant author1 ,i1 #bb1 #fc2 ideal statesman1 ,i1 #he1 #hg2 might have been a great orator1 ,i1 #d2 founder of the ,academy 7q4v472 a great teacher1 ,i1 #aee2 often quoted by ,cicero1 ,i1 #ae #bb1 #bh1 #fc1 #fd1 #he1 #hg2 ,,iii1 #ch1 #ci4 ,plautus1 ,titus ,maccius 7#bed-ahd71 the greatest of ,rome's comic poets2 rich in wit1 ,i1 #ajd4 ,po1 the great river of ,cisalpine ,gaul1 ,,iii1 #hh4 ,poeni2 see ,carthaginians4 ,polybius1 of ,megalopolis 7#bjd-abb71 president of the ,achaean ,league1 detained at ,rome in the house of ,aemilius ,paulus2 friend of ,scipio ,aemilianus and ,laelius2 author of a history of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #aac4 ,pompey2 ,gnaeus ,pompeius ,magnus 7#ajf-dh71 warrior1 ,i1 #gf2 7,,ii1 #bj27 politician1 the enemy of ,caesar1 the idol of ,cicero1 ,,ii1 #b2 conquered the pirates1 ,sertorians1 ,mithradates1 ,judaea1 ,i1 #gh2 triumvir2 married ,julia1 ,,iii1 #hb2 adorned ,rome with great buildings1 ,,ii1 #fj2 magnificent shows1 ,,ii1 #eg2 defeated at ,pharsalus 7#dh71 ,,ii1 #de4 ,pompey2 ,quintus ,pompeius ,rufus1 consul 7#ada72 as commander in the war with ,numantia 7#adj7 made the unfortunate peace1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,pompey1 ,sextus1 cousin of ,pompey the ,great1 ,stoic1 scholar1 geometrician1 ,i1 #ai4 ,pomponius1 ,marcus1 tribune 7#cfc72 accuser of ,lucius ,manlius1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,pontius1 ,gaius1 the ,samnite general1 victor at the ,caudine ,forks 7#cba71 ,,ii1 #ge2 faithlessly treated1 defeated 7#bib71 and executed in ,rome4 ,poor1 services to the1 ,,ii1 #fa fg42 their gratitude1 ,,ii1 #fc1 #fi-ga4 ,popilius ,marcus ,popilius ,laenas1 as consul 7#agb7 campaigning in ,liguria1 ,i1 #cf4 ,popular esteem1 a means to glory1 ,,ii1 #ca2 how gained1 ,,ii1 #dd fg4 ,posidonius1 of ,apamea 7#ace-ea71 a ,stoic1 disciple of ,panaetius at ,athens1 ,,iii1 #h2 established a school at ,rhodes where ,cicero studied under him2 later he lived with ,cicero in ,rome2 author of many works1 ,i1 #aei2 ,,iii1 #aj4 ,postumius2 ,spurius ,postumius ,albinus1 defeated in his second consulship 7#cba7 at the ,caudine ,forks1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,prodicus1 of ,ceos 7fifth century71 a respected sophist2 his ,choice of ,hercules1 ,i1 #aah4 ,profession2 see ,vocation4 ,promises1 non-fulfilment sometimes a duty1 ,i1 #cb2 ,,iii1 #ib-ie2 sacred though given to an enemy1 ,i1 #ci-dj4 ,property1 private1 how obtained1 ,i1 #ib2 rights of1 ,i1 #ba2 ,,ii1 #gc-gi1 #he2 ,,iii1 #ec2 public1 rights of1 ,i1 #ba1 #ea4 ,propriety1 defined1 ,i1 #if2 its relations to the ,cardinal ,virtues1 ,i1 #ic-ajj2 poetic1 ,i1 #ig2 moral1 ,i1 #ih-ii2 conduct in accord with personal endowment1 ,i1 #aaj-aag2 in choosing a career1 ,i1 #aae-aba2 in outward appearance1 ,i1 #acj2 in inward self-control1 ,i1 #aca-acb2 in speech1 ,i1 #acb fg42 in the home1 ,i1 #ach-adj4 ,propylaea1 the magnificent gateway to the ,acropolis of ,athens1 built 7#dcg-dca7 by ,pericles and ,mnesicles at a cost of #ejj1jjj1 ,,ii1 #fj4 ,prosecution1 ,,ii1 #di2 to be rarely undertaken1 ,,ii1 #ej2 a public service1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,prudence2 see ,wisdom4 ,ptolemy1 ,philadelphus 7#cji-bdg71 king of ,egypt1 patron of art and letters1 had the ,bible translated2 vastly rich1 ,,ii1 #hb4 ,public ,lands1 private occupation to be maintained1 ,i1 #ba4 ,public ,service1 as a career1 ,i1 #gj fg42 as a duty1 ,i1 #gb2 as an honour1 ,i1 #gc2 free from partisanship1 ,i1 #he-hf2 self-seeking1 ,i1 #hg2 vindictiveness1 ,i1 #hh2 anger1 ,i1 #hi2 guided by wisdom1 ,i1 #aee-aef4 ,public shows1 extravagant expenditures1 ,,ii1 #ee-fj2 expected of an aedile1 ,,ii1 #eg-fj4 ,pulcher1 ,gaius ,claudius1 son of ,appius1 aedile 7#ii71 ,,ii1 #eg2 consul 7#ib74 ,punic ,wars2 see ,carthage4 ,pyrrho1 of ,elis 7fourth century71 founder of the school of the ,sceptics2 held that virtue is the only good1 that truth and knowledge are unattainable2 his ethical theories rejected1 ,i1 #f4 ,pyrrhus 7#cah-bgb71 king of ,epirus1 descended from ,achilles and ,aeacus1 ,i1 #ch2 a daring soldier and a gallant enemy1 ,i1 #ch2 a career of adventure and conquest1 ,i1 #ch2 ,,iii1 #hf2 invaded ,italy 7#bhj-bge72 the story of the poisoner1 ,i1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #hf2 7see also ,fabricius72 invaded ,macedonia 7#bgc7 and the enemy's troops joined him1 ,,ii1 #bf2 killed in ,argos 7#bgb74 ,pythagorean1 a follower of ,pythagoras or member of his secret fraternity1 ,i1 #aee2 ,,iii1 #de4 ,pythagoras1 of ,samos 7sixth century71 studied in the ,orient1 great mathematician2 moral and religious teacher2 serious1 ascetic1 ,i1 #ajh2 taught transmigration of souls2 founded a secret brotherhood of ideal friendship1 ,i1 #ef2 asceticism was the rule of practice1 with deep meditation and lofty aspiration4 ,pythian1 epithet of ,apollo1 from ,pytho1 another name for ,delphi1 ,,ii1 #gg4 ,pythius1 of ,syracuse1 his dishonesty1 ,,iii1 #eh4 ,quirinus1 the ,sabine name for the deified ,romulus1 ,,iii1 #da4 ,recklessness1 to be avoided1 ,i1 #ha1 #hc4 ,regulus1 ,marcus ,atilius1 a favourite hero of old ,rome2 consul 7#bfg and #bef71 annihilated the ,carthaginian fleet1 took many towns1 was finally 7#bee7 defeated and taken prisoner1 ,i1 #ci2 ,,iii1 #ii2 his famous embassy and the ethics of his conduct1 ,,iii1 #ii-aae4 ,remus1 twin brother of ,romulus1 slain for leaping in derision over the new walls of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #da4 ,reproof1 how administered1 ,i1 #acf4 ,republic1 the ,roman2 its glory1 ,,ii1 #b2 the protectorate of the world1 ,,ii1 #bg2 its downfall1 ,i1 #ce2 ,,ii1 #b-e1 #bi1 #fe2 ,,iii1 #b1 #d1 #hc2 the tyrant's sway1 ,,ii1 #bc-bi2 ,,iii1 #ha-he2 enslaved1 ,,iii1 #hd-he4 ,retirement1 the life of1 ,i1 #fi-gj4 ,rhodes1 a large island off the coast of ,caria1 ,,iii1 #ej4 ,rhodian1 a native of ,rhodes1 ,,iii1 #ej1 #eg2 ,,iii1 #fc4 ,riches1 the object of acquiring1 ,i1 #be2 proper use of1 ,i1 #fh2 compared with virtue1 ,,iii1 #bd2 7see ,wealth74 ,roman1 of or belonging to ,rome1 ,,iii1 #eh2 people1 ,i1 #cc2 ,,iii1 #gi1 #hc-hf1 #aje1 #aji1 #aad2 the people of ,rome1 ,,ii1 #ge2 celebrated for courage1 ,i1 #fa2 champion of justice1 ,i1 #cf2 ,,ii1 #bf2 hatred of tyranny and injustice1 ,,iii1 #ai2 atonement for tyranny and injustice1 ,,ii1 #bg-bi2 their enslavement1 ,,iii1 #he-hf4 ,rome1 the capital of the ,empire and mistress of the world1 ,i1 #ci1 #dj2 ,,iii1 #gc1 #gi1 #ii1 #aab1 #aac4 ,romulus1 the mythical king1 founder of ,rome1 ,,iii1 #dj2 builder of its walls2 not justified in slaying his brother1 ,,iii1 #da4 ,roscius1 ,sextus1 of ,ameria1 accused by ,chrysogonus1 a freedman of ,sulla's1 of murdering his father2 bravely and successfully defended by ,cicero at the age of twenty-six1 ,,ii1 #ea4 ,rupilius1 an actor otherwise unknown1 ,i1 #aad4 ,rutilius2 ,publius ,rutilius ,rufus1 a disciple of ,publius ,scaevola1 ,,ii1 #dg2 of ,panaetius1 ,,iii1 #aj2 with ,quintus ,scaevola in ,asia he repressed the extortion of the publicans1 was banished1 and devoted his life to philosophy and literature1 ,,iii1 #aj4 ,sabine1 belonging to the province of central ,italy1 ,,iii1 #gd2 the ,sabines1 unfriendly to ,rome till subdued and added to the empire 7#bij71 ,i1 #ce1 #ch4 ,sacred ,laws2 the ,leges ,sacratae1 laws for the violation of which the offender was nominally consecrated to some god--i4e41 laden with a curse1 ,,iii1 #aaa4 ,salamis1 the island and straits directly in front of the ,piraeus 7q4v471 where 7#dhj7 ,themistocles and the allied ,greeks virtually annihilated the fleets of ,persia1 ,i1 #fa1 #ge4 ,sale1 fraud in sale of real estate1 ,,iii1 #ed-fd2 laws concerning1 ,,iii1 #fe-ga2 of slaves1 ,,iii1 #ga-gb4 ,salmacis1 a fountain 7and nymph7 at ,halicarnassus1 whose waters made men who drank them weak and effeminate1 ,i1 #fa4 ,samnites1 the brave1 liberty-loving people of ,samnium1 a province of south-central ,italy2 after seventy-one years 7#cdc-bgb7 of war with ,rome admitted to citizenship1 ,i1 #ch2 famous for their victory at the ,caudine ,forks1 ,,iii1 #aji2 ,gaius ,pontius1 ,,ii1 #ge4 ,sanitation2 see ,health4 ,sardinia1 the large island north of ,sicily1 made a province 7#bch71 misgoverned1 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,satrius2 ,marcus ,minucius ,basilus ,satrianus1 adopted by ,lucius ,minucius ,basilus1 his inheritance1 ,,iii1 #gd4 ,scaevola1 ,publius ,mucius1 father of the pontifex maximus1 consul 7#acc7 and friend of ,tiberius ,gracchus1 an expert in the pontifical law1 ,,ii1 #dg4 ,scaevola1 ,quintus ,mucius1 the ,augur1 son of the preceding1 son-in-law of ,laelius1 friend of ,africanus1 consul 7#aag71 preceptor to ,cicero2 simple in his greatness1 ,i1 #aji4 ,scaevola1 ,quintus ,mucius1 the ,pontifex ,maximus1 son of ,publius1 preceptor of ,cicero2 orator1 jurist2 authority on the civil law1 his business honour1 ,,iii1 #fb1 #gj2 followed his father's calling1 ,i1 #aaf2 magnificent aedileship1 ,,ii1 #eg2 consul 7#ie71 ,,iii1 #dg4 ,scaurus1 ,marcus ,aemilius1 consul 7#aae72 partisan rather than statesman1 ,i1 #gf2 ambassador to ,jugurtha 7#aab71 notorious corruptionist1 but loyal aristocrat2 hence ,cicero's praise1 ,i1 #ajh4 ,scaurus1 ,marcus ,aemilius1 son of the preceding1 step-son of ,sulla1 aedile 7#eh7 with extraordinary magnificence1 ,,ii1 #eg2 governor of ,sardinia 7#ef71 which he plundered outrageously2 successfully defended by ,cicero and ,hortensius2 later 7#eb7 condemned and banished1 ,i1 #ach2 palace on the ,palatine1 ,i1 #ach4 ,scipio1 ,gnaeus ,cornelius1 brother of ,publius 7see following72 consul 7#bbb7 with ,marcus ,marcellus2 with ,publius in ,spain 7#bag-baa72 a gallant soldier1 ,i1 #fa2 ,,iii1 #af4 ,scipio1 ,publius ,cornelius1 brother of ,gnaeus and father of the elder ,africanus1 ,i1 #aba2 consul 7#bah71 defeated by ,hannibal at the ,ticinus2 waged war in ,spain 7#bag-baa72 a gallant soldier1 ,i1 #fa2 ,,iii1 #af4 ,scipio2 ,publius ,cornelius ,scipio ,africanus ,major 7#bcd-ahc71 the son of ,publius1 ,i1 #aba2 grandfather of the ,gracchi1 ,,ii1 #hj2 defeated ,hannibal at ,zama 7#bjb7 and closed the war2 never idle in his zeal for ,rome1 ,,iii1 #a-d4 ,scipio1 ,publius ,cornelius1 son of ,africanus ,major1 adoptive father of ,africanus ,minor2 gifted mentally but physically disqualified for an active career1 ,i1 #aba4 ,scipio2 ,publius ,cornelius ,scipio ,aemilianus ,africanus ,minor1 son of ,aemilius ,paulus ,macedonicus1 ,i1 #aaf1 #aba2 adopted son of ,publius ,africanus's son1 ,i1 #aba2 friend and pupil of ,panaetius1 ,i1 #ij2 intimate friend of ,laelius 7q4v47 and devoted to literature2 serious1 earnest1 ,i1 #ajh2 self-control1 ,,ii1 #gf2 a great soldier1 ,i1 #gf1 #aaf2 at ,pydna 7#afh7 with his father2 captured and destroyed ,carthage 7#acf7 and ,numantia 7#acc71 ,i1 #ce2 ,,ii1 #gf2 statesman of high ideals1 a bitter rival and yet a friend of ,quintus ,metellus1 ,i1 #hg4 ,scipio2 ,publius ,cornelius ,scipio ,nasica ,serapio1 known chiefly as the man who led the riot and murdered ,tiberius ,gracchus1 ,i1 #gf1 #aji4 ,scipio2 ,publius ,cornelius ,scipio ,nasica1 son of the preceding2 died in his consulship 7#aaa72 a charming gentleman and a brilliant speaker1 ,i1 #aji4 ,secret sin1 ,,ii1 #cg fg4 ,seius1 ,marcus1 reduced the price of corn and regained his lost popularity1 ,,ii1 #eh4 ,self-control2 see ,temperance4 ,self-sacrifice1 ,,iii1 #be2 of ,regulus1 ,,iii1 #ig-aae4 ,sergius1 ,gaius2 see ,orata4 ,sicily1 the great island south-west of ,italy1 fertile and rich1 occupied along the coasts by prosperous ,greek colonies1 a ,roman province 7#bab on71 an easy prey for rapacious governors1 as ,verres whom ,cicero prosecuted 7#gj71 ,,ii1 #ej4 ,sicyon1 a city near ,corinth1 famous as a centre of art2 ,aratus and the tyranny1 ,,ii1 #ha-hb4 ,silanus1 ,decimus ,junius1 stepfather of ,marcus ,brutus1 consul 7#fb71 aedile1 ,,ii1 #eg4 ,slaves1 duty toward1 ,i1 #da2 ,,iii1 #hi4 ,social ,instinct1 man and beast1 ,i1 #ab1 #ej2 bees1 ,i1 #aeg2 leads to justice1 ,i1 #aeg2 weighed against justice1 ,i1 #aei fg4 ,society1 principles of1 ,i1 #ej-eg2 ,,iii1 #ec2 rights of1 ,i1 #ba2 service to1 ,i1 #aec1 #aee4 ,socrates 7#dfi-cii71 the great philosopher and teacher1 ,,ii1 #dc2 his ethics1 ,,iii1 #aa1 #gg2 his perfect poise1 ,i1 #ij2 brilliant dialectician1 with a profound meaning in every word1 ,i1 #ajh2 personal eccentricities1 ,i1 #adh4 ,the noblest1 ay1 and the wisest and most righteous man that we have ever known4 ,socratic1 following ,socrates1 ,i1 #ajd1 #acd2 ,,ii1 #hg2 most schools of philosophy are based on the teaching of ,socrates--the ,academy1 ,i1 #b2 the ,peripatetic1 ,i1 #b2 ,,iii1 #bj2 the ,cynic1 ,i1 #abh2 the ,cyrenaic1 ,,iii1 #aaf2 the ,stoic1 ,i1 #f2 etc4 ,sol1 the sun-god1 father of ,phathon1 ,,iii1 #id4 ,solon1 the great lawgiver of ,athens 7#fch-eeh ca471 poet1 soldier1 statesman2 his feigned madness and the acquisition of ,salamis1 ,i1 #ajh2 his constitution and the reorganized ,areopagus1 ,i1 #ge4 ,sophocles1 the great tragic poet 7#die-djf71 supreme on the ,athenian stage 7#dfh-dda72 general in the war against ,samos 7#ddj71 ,i1 #add4 ,sparta1 capital of ,lacedaemon in the south-eastern part of the ,peloponnesus1 ,,iii1 #ii2 constitution of ,lycurgus1 ,i1 #gf2 national character1 ,i1 #fd2 position at end of ,persian wars1 ,i1 #gf2 at end of ,peloponnesian war1 ,i1 #gf2 her arsenal1 ,,iii1 #di2 disasters1 ,i1 #hd2 despotic1 ,,ii1 #bf2 cause of her fall1 ,,ii1 #gg1 #hj4 ,stoics1 adherents of the school founded by ,zeno1 an offshoot from ,cynicism1 ,i1 #abh2 refounded by ,chrysippus2 philosophy with them is practical1 making life accord with ,nature's laws1 ,,iii1 #ac2 virtue and philosophy are identical2 virtue the only good1 ,i1 #f2 ,,iii1 #aa1 #ab2 moral wrong the only evil1 ,,iii1 #ajf2 pain no evil1 ,,iii1 #aje2 no degrees of right or wrong1 ,i1 #aj2 etymologists1 ,i1 #bc2 define fortitude1 ,i1 #fb2 temperance1 ,i1 #adb2 duties1 ,,iii1 #ad2 controversies1 ,,iii1 #ia2 their right to teach ethics1 ,i1 #f2 ,cicero adopts their teaching1 ,i1 #f2 ,,iii1 #bj2 common interests1 ,i1 #bb2 their theology a pantheistic materialism1 ,god working in his providence1 ,,iii1 #ajb2 representative ,stoics1 ,,ii1 #ea1 #hf2 ,,iii1 #ea4 ,sulla2 ,lucius ,cornelius ,sulla ,felix 7#ach-gh71 noble1 profligate1 brilliant genius2 would stoop to anything1 ,i1 #aji2 soldier against ,jugurtha1 ,mithradates1 ,marius1 ,rome2 statesman2 reformed the constitution2 absolute monarch of ,rome 7#ha-gi72 treatment of tributary allies1 ,,iii1 #hg2 confiscator1 ,i1 #dc2 ,,ii1 #bi2 overturned the old morals1 ,,ii1 #bg2 ,cicero opposed him1 ,,ii1 #ea4 ,sulla1 ,publius ,cornelius1 nephew of the dictator1 ,,ii1 #bi2 defended by ,cicero on charge of complicity in ,catiline's conspiracy4 ,sulla1 ,cornelius1 a freedman of the dictator1 ,,ii1 #bi4 ,sulpicius2 ,gaius ,sulpicius ,galus1 consul 7#aff72 famous astronomer1 ,i1 #ai2 predicted an eclipse of the moon4 ,sulpicius2 ,publius ,sulpicius ,rufus 7#abd-hh71 an eminent orator of little character1 ,,ii1 #di4 ,sungod2 see ,sol4 ,superbus2 see ,tarquin4 ,syracuse1 a great ,greek city in south-eastern ,sicily1 rich in art and in goods2 ruled by ,dion1 ,i1 #aee2 ,dionysius1 ,,ii1 #be2 ,,iii1 #de2 a popular resort1 ,,iii1 #eh4 ,tantalus1 son of ,zeus 7,jupiter7 and father of ,pelops 7q4v471 ,,iii1 #hd4 ,tarquin2 ,lucius ,tarquinius ,superbus1 the last king of ,rome 7#ece-eaj71 a cruel tyrant1 expelled by ,brutus and ,collatinus1 ,,iii1 #dj4 ,tarquins1 the kinsmen of ,tarquinius ,superbus1 all expelled 7#eaj71 ,,iii1 #dj4 ,taxation1 levying of1 ,,ii1 #gd4 ,temperance1 the fourth ,cardinal ,virtue1 ,i1 #ic-aea2 definition1 ,i1 #ic2 the passions1 ,i1 #ajb2 speech1 ,i1 #ajc2 vs4 ,justice1 ,i1 #aei-afj2 essential to success1 ,,ii1 #gg2 vs4 apparent ,expediency1 ,,iii1 #aaf fg4 ,terence2 ,publius ,terentius ,afer 7#aie-aei71 a comic poet1 friend of ,laelius and ,scipio2 six plays are left2 quotation from the ,heauton ,timorumenus1 ,i1 #cj2 the ,eunuchus1 ,i1 #aej4 ,thebe1 daughter of ,jason and wife of ,alexander of ,pherae1 ,,ii1 #be4 ,thebes1 the capital of ,boeotia1 home of ,pindar and ,epaminondas1 ,i1 #aee4 ,themistocles1 brilliant statesman of ,athens1 ,,ii1 #af2 gave ,athens her fleet and saved ,greece at ,salamis 7#dhj71 ,i1 #ge2 consummate general1 ,i1 #ajh2 not always scrupulous in his methods1 ,,iii1 #di2 his valuation of character1 ,,ii1 #ga4 ,theophrastus1 of ,lesbos1 favourite pupil and successor of ,aristotle1 a marvellous teacher1 master of ,demetrius of ,phalerum1 ,i1 #c2 a prolific author2 cited1 ,,ii1 #ef1 #fd4 ,theopompus1 of ,chios 7fourth century71 pupil of ,isocrates1 orator and historian1 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,thermopylae1 a narrow pass on the seashore between ,thessaly and ,locris1 held by ,leonidas and his three hundred against the hosts of ,xerxes 7#dhj71 ,i1 #fa4 ,theseus1 the great legendary hero of ,athens1 benefactor of the world2 uniter of ,athens and ,attica2 father of ,hippolytus 7q4v47 by ,antiope2 husband of ,phaedra2 his son's death1 ,i1 #cb2 ,,iii1 #id4 ,thrace1 the vast country north of the ,aegean2 though the home of ,orpheus1 ,linus1 etc41 it was generally considered barbarous1 ,,ii1 #be4 ,thyestes1 son of ,pelops and brother of ,atreus 7q4v471 7,,iii1 #ajb74 ,timotheus1 admiral of the ,athenian fleet 7#cgh-cef71 compared with his father ,conon1 ,i1 #aaf4 ,torquatus2 see ,manlius4 ,trades2 see ,vocation4 ,troezen1 a city of ,argolis1 near the shore opposite ,aegina2 the asylum of the ,athenians at the approach of ,xerxes1 ,,iii1 #dh4 ,trusts1 when not to be restored1 ,,iii1 #ie4 ,truth1 the search after1 ,i1 #ac4 ,tubero1 ,quintus ,aelius1 the ,stoic1 a pupil of ,panaetius1 praetor 7#abc72 a talented jurist1 ,,iii1 #fc4 ,tusculum1 a town in the ,alban hills1 the oldest municipium in ,italy1 admitted 7#cha71 ,i1 #ce2 public lands of1 ,i1 #ba2 ,cicero's favourite country home4 ,twelve ,tables1 the laws of1 drawn up 7#dej72 quoted1 ,i1 #cg2 ,,iii1 #aaa4 ,tyranny1 ,,ii1 #bc-bi2 inspired by false perspective1 ,,iii1 #cf2 right and duty toward the tyrant1 ,,iii1 #ai1 #he4 ,tyre1 the great commercial city on the coast of ,phoenice1 ,,ii1 #hf4 ,ulysses 7,odysseus71 son of ,laertes of ,ithaca1 the shrewdest of the ,greek heroes at ,troy1 ,,iii1 #ig2 the hero of the ,odyssey1 ,i1 #aac4 ,varro1 ,gaius ,terentius1 consul 7#baf7 with ,paulus1 responsible for the disaster at ,cannae1 ,,iii1 #aad4 ,venus 7,aphrodite71 the goddess of beauty and love2 of ,cos1 ,,iii1 #aj4 ,veseris1 a little stream near ,mount ,vesuvius2 scene of the battle of ,manlius ,torquatus and the elder ,decius1 ,,iii1 #aab4 ,veturius2 ,titus ,veturius ,calvinus1 consul with ,spurius ,postumius 7#cba7 at the ,caudine ,forks1 ,,iii1 #aji4 ,vice1 luxurious living1 ,i1 #abc2 sensual pleasure1 ,i1 #ajb1 #ajd-ajf1 #abb-abc2 ,,ii1 #cg2 avarice1 ,,ii1 #gg2 extravagance1 ,i1 #adj2 misrepresentation1 ,i1 #aej2 untruth1 ,i1 #aej2 corrected by observing others1 ,i1 #adf2 by the criticism of the wise1 ,i1 #adg4 ,viriathus1 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,virtue1 defined1 ,,ii1 #ah2 chief function of1 ,,ii1 #ag2 the four ,cardinal ,virtues described1 ,i1 #ae-ag2 the sources of moral rectitude1 ,i1 #aeb2 ,,iii1 #if2 ,nature's leadings to1 ,i1 #ajj2 endangered by sensual pleasure1 ,,ii1 #cg2 rulers chosen for1 ,,ii1 #da4 ,vocation1 choice of1 ,i1 #aae-abj2 change of1 ,i1 #abj-aba2 vulgar and liberal1 ,i1 #aej-aeb4 ,volscians1 a people of lower ,latium1 subdued 7#cjc71 given full citizenship 7#ahh71 ,i1 #ce4 ,war1 rights of1 to be enforced1 ,i1 #cd2 ,cato's son1 ,i1 #cf-cg2 excuse for war1 ,i1 #ce1 #hj2 justice in war1 ,i1 #ch2 war for supremacy1 ,i1 #ch2 for glory1 ,i1 #ch2 needless cruelty1 ,i1 #hb4 ,wealth1 ,theophrastus on1 ,,ii1 #ef2 insatiable thirst for1 ,i1 #be2 why sought1 ,i1 #be-bg2 the real good of wealth1 ,,ii1 #ef2 see ,riches4 ,wisdom1 the first of the ,cardinal ,virtues1 ,i1 #ae-ai2 most important1 ,i1 #aec2 ,,ii1 #f2 absolute1 ,,iii1 #af2 and propriety1 ,i1 #id1 #ajj2 vs4 ,justice1 ,i1 #aeb-aeg1 #afj2 confounded with cunning1 ,,ii1 #aj2 ,,iii1 #gb1 #if2 in ,epicurus's system1 ,,iii1 #aag4 ,wit1 kinds of1 ,i1 #ajc-ajd2 representatives of1 ,i1 #ajh4 ,xanthippus1 a ,spartan soldier of fortune1 whose generalship defeated ,regulus1 ,,iii1 #ii4 ,xenocrates1 of ,chalcedon 7#cif-cad71 a pupil of ,plato1 president of the ,academy1 industrious and severe1 ,i1 #aji4 ,xenophon1 soldier1 historian1 disciple of ,socrates1 ,,ii1 #hg2 the story of ,hercules's choice1 ,i1 #aah4 ,xerxes1 king of ,persia 7#dhe-dfe71 son of ,darius1 invaded ,greece 7#dhj71 came to grief at ,salamis and ,plataea1 ,,iii1 #dh4 ,youth1 duties peculiar to1 ,i1 #abc2 ,,ii1 #eb2 time for choosing profession1 ,i1 #aag4 ,zeno1 of ,cytium 7fourth century71 pupil of ,crates the ,cynic and founder of the ,stoic school 7see ,stoics71 ,,iii1 #ce4 ,,letchworth3 ,,at ,,the ,,arden ,,press4 ,,corrections3 page original text correction #aij sn ,fab4 inc4 ,valhen#b1 #djb ,fab4 inc4 ,vahlen#b1 #djb #bcj fn ,ma co ,,mss4 ,marco ,,mss4 #cdd set etiam adiuvat iniuriam8 sed etiam adiuvat iniuriam8 #dac treacherous and crue1 ,i1 #ch4 treacherous and cruel1 ,i1 #ch4 #dba friend o ,quintus ,metellus1 friend of ,quintus ,metellus1 #dbb father of ,phaethon1 ,,iii1 #id4 father of ,phathon1 ,,iii1 #id4