,,elements        ,,of ,,the            
,,theory ,,and ,,practice        ,,of   
,,chymistry          ,translated from   
the ,,french of        ,m4 ,,macquer1   
,member of the ,royal ,academy of       
,sciences1 and ,professor      of       
,medicine in the ,university of ,,paris4
          ,the ,,fifth ,,edition4       
,,edinburgh3        ,printed for        
,,alexander ,,donaldson2 and sold at his
      ,shop1 ,no4 #dh1 ,east ,corner of 
,st4 ,paul's ,church-,yard1             
,london2 and at ,edinburgh4        ,m4  
,,dcc4 ,,lxxvii4          ,,the         
,,author's ,,preface4      ,an hundred  
and fifty years are scarce elapsed since
 the clouds of  prejudice1 which had    
long overspread the world1 began to     
clear up1  and men were convinced1 by   
cultivating the ,sciences1 and attending
  to ,nature1 that no fanciful          
hypotheses would ever lead them to the  
true causes of those various phenomena  
that incessantly and every  where meet  
the observer's eye2 but that the narrow 

limits of the  human understanding      
confine the course of our researches to 
one  single path2 namely1 that of       
,experiment1 or the ,use of our ,senses4
  ,yet1 in this short period1 ,natural  
,philosophy hath risen to a high  pitch 
of improvement1 and may with truth be   
said to have made much  greater advances
 towards perfection1 since the          
experimental method was  introduced1    
than in the many ages before4    ,this  
is true with regard to every branch of  
,natural ,philosophy2 but  more         
particularly with regard to ,chymistry4 
,though this ,science cannot  be said to
 have ever existed without experiments1 
yet it laboured under  the same         
disadvantages with the rest2 because    
those who studied it made  all their    
experiments with a view to confirm their
 own ,hypotheses1 and  in consequence of
 principles which had no foundation     
whatever1 but in  their wild            
imaginations4    ,hence arose that      
enormous heap1 that incongruous jumble  

of facts1 which  some time ago          
constituted all the knowledge of        
,chymists4 ,most of them1  and          
especially those who assumed the pompous
 title of ,alchymists1  were persuaded  
that all the ,metals were no other than 
,nature's rude  unfinished essays       
towards making ,gold2 which1 by means of
 due coction  in the bowels of the      
earth1 advanced gradually towards       
maturity1 till  at last they were       
perfectly converted into that beautiful 
and precious  ,metal4    ,on this       
principle1 which1 if not demonstrably   
false1 is at least  utterly destitute of
 proof1 and unsupported by a single     
observation1  they attempted to finish  
what ,nature had begun1 by procuring to 
the  imperfect ,metals this much desired
 coction4 ,to attain it they made  an   
infinite number of experiments and      
trials2 which all conspired to  detect  
the falsity of their system1 and to     
satisfy men of sense1 that  the methods 
they employed were very far from        

answering the purpose4    ,however1 as  
facts always promote the knowledge of   
,nature1 it happened  that those        
experiments1 though quite useless with  
regard to the end for  which they were  
originally made1 proved the occasion of 
several curious  discoveries4    ,these 
lucky consequences of their mistaken    
labours raised the courage  of the      
,chymists1 or rather ,alchymists1 who   
looked upon every such  instance of     
success as a new step towards the ,grand
 ,work1 and greatly  increased the fond 
opinion they entertained of themselves1 
and of  their ,art1 which1 on that      
account1 they set up very high above all
  other ,sciences4 ,nay1 they carried   
this notion of superiority so far1  as  
to hold the rest of mankind unworthy1 or
 incapable1 of rising to  such sublime  
knowledge4 ,in consequence thereof      
,chymistry became an  occult and        
mysterious ,science2 its expressions    
were all tropes and  figures1 its       
phrases metaphorical1 and its axioms so 

many enigmas3 in  short1 an obscure     
unintelligible jargon is the justest    
character of the  ,alchymistic          
,language4    ,thus1 by endeavouring to 
conceal their secrets1 those gentlemen  
rendered their ,art useless to mankind1 
and brought it into deserved  contempt4 
,but at length the genius of true       
philosophy prevailed in  ,chymistry1 as 
well as in the other ,sciences4 ,some   
great men arose1 who  had generosity    
enough to think their knowledge no      
otherways valuable  than as it proved of
 service to ,society4 ,they did their   
utmost to  introduce both the knowledge 
and the practice of many important      
secrets1 till then of no use2 they drew 
aside the veil which hid the  charms of 
,chymistry2 and that ,science emerging  
from the profound  obscurity1 in which  
it had for many ages lain concealed1    
gained the  admiration of the world as  
soon as it appeared in open day4        
,several  societies of ingenious men    
were formed in the most learned         

countries  of ,europe1 who vied with one
 another in their labours to execute the
  noble scheme1 and assisted each other 
by mutually communicating their         
discoveries4 ,chymistry made the most   
rapid progress1 enriching and           
perfecting the ,arts derived from1 or   
depending on it4 ,in a word1 it  put on 
a new face1 and became truly worthy of  
the title of ,science2  founding its    
principles and its processes on solid   
experiments1 and on  just consequences  
deduced from them4    ,since that time  
the ,art is become so extensive1 by the 
numerous  discoveries which ,chymists   
have already made1 and are daily making1
  that large volumes are required to    
contain a complete ,treatise on the     
subject4 ,in short1 ,chymistry may now1 
in some degree1 be compared  to         
,geometry3 each of these ,sciences takes
 in a most ample field of  inquiry1     
which every day enlarges very           
considerably2 from each are  derived    
several ,arts1 not only useful but even 

necessary to ,society2  each hath its   
,axioms and its undeniable principles1  
either demonstrated  from internal      
evidence1 or founded on constant        
experience2 so that  the one1 as well as
 the other1 may be reduced to certain   
fundamental  truths1 on which all the   
rest are built4 ,these fundamental      
truths  connected together1 and laid    
down with order and precision1 form what
  we call the ,elements of a ,science4  
,it is well known that there are  many  
such works relating to ,geometry1 but it
 is not so with regard to  ,chymistry2  
there being very few books which treat  
of this ,science in an  ,elementary     
manner4    ,yet it must be owned1 that  
performances of this kind are           
exceedingly  useful4 ,many who have a   
relish for the ,sciences1 but have not  
leisure  to read elaborate ,works which 
treat of them minutely1 are glad to meet
  with a book from which1 without       
sacrificing too much of their time1  or 
neglecting their ordinary business1 they

 may obtain a taste or  just notion of a
 ,science that is not their principal   
study4 ,those who  incline to go        
farther1 and learn more1 may1 by reading
 an elementary  tract1 be enabled to    
understand ,authors1 who1 as they       
commonly write  only for proficients in 
the ,art1 are obscure and hardly        
intelligible  to mere beginners4 ,nay1  
,i presume to say1 that an ,elementary  
,treatise  of ,chymistry may prove a    
very useful book1 even to those who have
 made  some progress in the ,science3   
for as it contains only the fundamental 
propositions1 and indeed is an abstract 
of the whole ,art1 it may help  them to 
recollect the most important parts of   
what they have read in  many different  
works1 and fix in their memoirs the most
 essential  truths1 which might else be 
either confounded with others1 or       
entirely  forgot4 ,and these are the    
motives which determined me to compose  
the  ,work which ,i now offer to the    
,public4    ,the general ,plan on which 

,i proceed is to suppose my ,reader an  
absolute  ,novice in ,chymistry2 to lead
 him from the most simple truths1 and   
such  as imply the lowest degree of     
knowledge1 to such as are more complex1 
and require a greater acquaintance with 
,nature4 ,this order1 which ,i  have    
laid down for my rule1 hath obliged me  
to begin with examining  the most simple
 substances that we know1 and which we  
consider as the  elements whereof others
 are composed2 as1 by knowing the       
properties of  these elementary parts1  
we are naturally led to those of their  
several  combinations2 and1 on the other
 hand1 in order to know the properties  
of compound bodies1 it is necessary we  
should be first acquainted with  the    
properties of their principles4 ,the    
same reason induced me1 when  enquiring 
into the properties of one substance1 to
 take no notice of  those which relate  
to any other substance not treated of   
before4 ,for  example3 as ,i treat of   
,acids before ,metals1 ,i say nothing   

under the  head of those ,acids         
concerning their power of dissolving    
metals2 that ,i  defer till ,i come to  
the subject of ,metals3 and thus ,i     
avoid speaking  prematurely of a        
substance with which ,i suppose my      
,reader wholly  unacquainted4 ,and this 
method ,i was so much the more easily   
induced to  follow1 that ,i know of no  
,chymical book written on the same      
,plan4    ,after discoursing of         
,elements in general1 ,i treat next of  
such  substances as are immediately     
composed of them1 and are1 next to them1
  the most simple3 such are all saline  
substances4 ,this head comprehends      
mineral ,acids1 fixed ,alkalis1 and     
their several combinations2 the         
volatile sulphureous spirit1 sulphur1   
phosphorus1 and the ,neutral salts      
which have an earth or fixed ,alkali for
 their basis3 those which have  for     
their basis either a volatile ,alkali1  
or some metallic substance1  are        
referred1 according to my general ,plan1

 to the heads under which ,i  treat of  
those substances4    ,metallic          
substances are scarcely more compounded 
than the saline2  which induces me to   
consider them next4 ,i begin with those 
which are  the most simple1 or at least 
seem to be so2 because their principles1
  being very strongly connected         
together1 are separated with the        
greatest  difficulty3 such are the      
,metals properly so called2 namely1     
,gold1  ,silver1 ,copper1 ,iron1 ,tin1  
and ,lead4 ,after these come the        
,semi-metals  in order2 to wit1 ,regulus
 of ,antimony1 ,zinc1 ,bismuth1 and     
,regulus of  ,arsenic4 ,mercury being a 
doubtful substance1 which some ,chymists
 rank  with the ,metals1 and others with
 the ,semi-metals1 because it actually  
possesses certain properties in common  
with each1 ,i have treated of it  in a  
separate ,chapter1 which stands between 
the ,metals and ,semi-metals4    ,i next
 proceed to examine the several sorts of
 ,oils1 whether ,vegetable1  which are  

divided into fat1 essential1 and        
empyreumatic2 or ,animal1 and  ,mineral 
,oils4    ,by examining these substances
 we obtain ideas of all the principles  
which enter into the composition of     
,vegetable and ,animal bodies2 that  is1
 of those substances that are capable of
 fermentation3 this enables  me to treat
 of fermentation in general2 of its     
three different degrees  or kinds1 the  
spirituous1 acetous1 and putrid2 and of 
the products  of those fermentations1   
ardent spirits1 acids analogous to those
 of  vegetables and animals1 and        
volatile alkalis4    ,the order in which
 ,i treat of all those substances being 
different from  that in which they are  
obtained from compound bodies1 ,i give1 
in a  distinct ,chapter1 a general idea 
of ,chymical ,decomposition1 with a view
  to shew the order in which they are   
separated1 from the several bodies  in  
the composition whereof they are found4 
,this brings them a second  time under  
review1 and gives me an opportunity of  

distinguishing those  which exist       
naturally in compound bodies1 from those
 which are only the  result of a new    
combination of some of their principles 
produced by the  fire4    ,the          
succeeding ,chapter explains the late   
,mr ,geoffroy's ,table of  ,affinities2 
which ,i take to be of great use at the 
end of an ,elementary  tract like this1 
as it collects into one point of view   
the most  essential and fundamental     
doctrines which are dispersed through   
the  work4    ,i conclude with an       
account of the ,construction of such    
,vessels and  ,furnaces as are usually  
employed in ,chymistry4    ,in this     
,part ,i say nothing of any manual      
operations1 or the several  ways of     
performing ,chymical processes2         
reserving these particulars for  my     
,treatise of ,practical ,chymistry1 to  
which this must be considered as  an    
,introduction4          ,,contents4     
,elements of the ,,theory of            
,,chymistry4      ,,chap4 ,i4      ,of  

the ,principles of ,bodies              
,page        #a      ,sect4 #a4 ,of ,air
                                     #b 
,sect4 #b4 ,of ,water                   
#c      ,sect4 #c4 ,of ,earth           
#d      ,sect4 #d4 ,of ,fire            
#e      ,sect4 #e4 ,of the ,phlogiston  
#g      ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,a general ,view  
of the ,relations or    ,affinities     
between ,bodies                         
#i      ,,chap4 ,,iii4  ,of ,saline     
,substances in general       #aa        
,sect4 #a4 ,of ,acids                   
#ab      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,alkalis        
#ad      ,sect4 #c4 ,of ,neutral ,salts 
#ae      ,,chap4 ,,iv4  ,of the ,several
 ,sorts of ,saline ,substances4         
,sect4 #a4 ,of the ,universal ,acid     
#ah      ,sect4 #b4 ,of the ,nitrous    
,acid                        #bb        
,sect4 #c4 ,of the ,marine ,acid        
#be      ,,chap4 ,v4 ,of ,lime          
#bi      ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,of ,metallic    
,substances in general       #cd        
,,chap4 ,,vii4  ,of ,metals             

#cg      ,sect4 #a4 ,of ,gold           
ib4      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,silver         
#ci      ,sect4 #c4 ,of ,copper         
#dd      ,sect4 #d4 ,of ,iron           
#dg      ,sect4 #e4 ,of ,tin            
#eb      ,sect4 #f4 ,of ,lead           
#ec      ,,chap4 ,,viii4  ,of           
,quick-,silver                      #eh 
,,chap4 ,,ix4  ,of the ,semi-,metals4   
,sect4 #a4 ,of ,regulus of ,antimony    
#fb      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,bismuth        
#fi      ,sect4 #c4 ,of ,zinc           
#gj      ,sect4 #d4 ,of ,regulus of     
,arsenic                      #gb       
,,chap4 ,x4  ,of ,oil in general        
#gf      ,sect4 #a4 ,of ,charcoal       
#gg      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,soap           
#gh      ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,of the ,several 
,sorts of ,oils4      ,sect4 #a4 ,of    
,mineral ,oils                          
#gi      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,vegetable ,oils
                          #hj           
,sect4 #c4 ,of ,animal ,oils            
#hb      ,,chap4 ,,xii4  ,of            
,fermentation in general            #hc 

,,chap4 ,,xiii4  ,of the ,spirituous    
,fermentation       #hd      ,,chap4    
,,xiv4 ,of the ,acetous ,fermentation   
#ij      ,sect4 #a4 ,of ,vinegar        
#ia      ,sect4 #b4 ,of ,tartar         
#ic      ,,chap4 ,,xv4 ,of the ,putrid  
,fermentation1 or    ,putrefaction      
#if      ,,chap4 ,,xvi4 ,a general ,view
 of ,chymical    ,decomposition         
#aja      ,sect4 #a4 ,the ,analysis of  
,vegetable ,substances      #ajb        
,emulsions                              
#ajd      ,sect4 #b4 ,the ,analysis of  
,animal ,substances         #ajf        
,sect4 #c4 ,the ,analysis of ,mineral   
,substances        #ajh      ,of the    
,pyrites                                
#aaj      ,of ,ores                     
#aab      ,,chap4 ,,xvii4 ,explanation  
of the ,table of    ,affinities         
#aai      ,,chap4 ,,xviii4  ,the ,theory
 of ,constructing the    ,vessels most  
commonly used in ,chymistry             
#abf      ,,chap4 ,,xix4  ,the ,theory  
of ,constructing the    ,furnaces most  

commonly used in ,chymistry             
#acc      ,of ,lutes                    
#adg        ,elements of the ,,practice 
of ,,chymistry4      ,introduction      
#aec      ,,part ,i4  ,,of ,,minerals4  
,,section  ,i4    ,operations performed 
on ,saline ,mineral ,substances4        
,,chap4 ,i4  ,of the ,vitriolic ,acid4  
#a4 ,,process4 ,to extract ,vitriol from
 the ,pyrites    #aei      #b4 ,to      
extract ,sulphur from the ,pyrites1 and 
other ,sulphureous ,minerals            
#afb      #c4 ,to extract ,alum from    
aluminous ,minerals         #afe        
#d4 ,to extract the ,vitriolic ,acid    
from ,copperas    or ,green ,vitriol    
#agj      #e4 ,to decompose ,sulphur1   
and extract its ,acid1 by    burning it 
#agd      #f4 ,to concentrate the       
,vitriolic ,acid               #agf     
#g4 ,to decompound ,vitriolated ,tartar 
by means of the    ,phlogiston2 or to   
compose ,sulphur by combining the       
,vitriolic ,acid with the ,phlogiston   
#agi      ,,chap4 ,,ii4  ,of the        

,nitrous ,acid4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to 
,extract ,nitre out of ,nitrous ,earths 
and ,stones4 ,the ,purification of      
,salt-,petre4 ,mother    of ,nitre4     
,magnesia                               
#aha      #b4 ,to decompose ,nitre by   
means of the ,phlogiston4    ,nitre     
fixed by ,charcoal4 ,clyssus of ,nitre4 
,sal ,polychrestum                      
#ahf      #c4 ,to decompose ,nitre by   
means of the ,vitriolic ,acid4    ,the  
,smoking ,spirit of ,nitre4 ,sal de     
duobus4 ,the    ,purification of ,spirit
 of ,nitre                    #aia      
,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of the ,marine ,acid4   
#a4 ,,process4 ,to extract ,sea-salt    
from ,sea-water1 and    from            
,brine-springs4 ,epsom ,salt            
#aie      #b4 ,experiments concerning   
the ,decomposition of ,sea-salt    by   
means of the ,phlogiston4 ,kunckel's    
,phosphorus    #aig      #c4 ,to        
decompose ,sea-salt by means of the     
,vitriolic ,acid4    ,glauber's ,salt4  
,the ,purification and ,concentration   

of ,spirit of ,salt                     
#baa      #d4 ,to decompose ,sea-salt by
 means of the ,nitrous ,acid4    ,aqua  
regis4 ,quadrangular ,nitre             
#bag      ,,chap4 ,,iv4  ,of ,borax4    
#bah        ,,section  ,,ii4      ,of   
,operations on ,minerals4      ,,chap4  
,i4 ,of ,gold4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to  
separate ,gold1 by ,amalgamation    with
 ,mercury1 from the ,earths and ,stones 
with which    it is found mixed         
#bbc      #b4 ,to dissolve ,gold in     
,aqua ,regis1 and by that means         
separate it from ,silver4 ,aurum        
,fulminans4 ,aurum    ,fulminans reduced
                                  #bbg  
#c4 ,to dissolve ,gold by ,liver of     
,sulphur             #bcb      #d4 ,to  
separate ,gold from all other ,metalline
 substances    by means of ,antimony    
#bcc      ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,of ,silver4    
#a4 ,,process4 ,to separate ,silver from
 its ,ore1 by means    of ,scorification
 with ,lead                             
#bch      #b4 ,the refining of ,silver  

by the ,cupel              #bdc      #c4
 ,to purify ,silver by ,nitre           
#bdh      #d4 ,to dissolve ,silver in   
,aqua ,fortis1 and thereby separate     
it from every other ,metalline          
substance4 ,the ,purification    of     
,aqua ,fortis4 ,silver precipitated by  
,copper     #bej      #e4 ,to separate  
,silver from the ,nitrous ,acid by      
,distillation4 ,crystals of ,silver4    
,the ,infernal ,stone                   
#bed      #f4 ,to separate ,silver from 
the ,nitrous ,acid by    ,precipitation4
 ,luna ,cornea4 ,luna ,cornea reduced   
#bef      #g4 ,to dissolve ,silver1 and 
separate it from ,gold1 by              
,cementation                            
#beh      ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of ,copper4   
#a4 ,,process4 ,to separate ,copper from
 its ,ore         #bfb      #b4 ,to     
purify ,black ,copper1 and render it    
malleable  #bfd      #c4 ,to deprive    
,copper of its ,phlogiston by           
,calcination                            
#bff      #d4 ,to resuscitate the ,calx 

of ,copper1 and reduce it    to ,metal1 
by restoring its ,phlogiston            
#bfg      #e4 ,to dissolve ,copper in   
the ,mineral ,acids          #bfh       
,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,of ,iron4      #a4       
,,process4 ,to separate ,iron from its  
,ore           #bgj      #b4 ,to render 
,pig-iron and brittle ,iron malleable   
#bgc      #c4 ,to convert ,iron into    
,steel                       #bgd       
#d4 ,the ,calcination of ,iron4 ,sundry 
,saffrons of ,mars #bgf      #e4 ,iron  
dissolved by the mineral ,acids         
#bgg      ,,chap ,v4 ,of ,tin4      #a4 
,,process4 ,to extract ,tin from its    
,ore             #bgi      #b4 ,the     
,calcination of ,tin                    
#bhj      #c4 ,the ,dissolution of ,tin 
by ,acids                  #bhd         
,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,of ,lead4      #a4       
,,process4 ,to extract ,lead from its   
,ore            #bhf      #b4 ,to       
separate ,lead from ,copper             
#bhi      #c4 ,the ,calcination of ,lead
                          #bib      #d4 

,to prepare ,glass of ,lead             
#bic      #e4 ,lead dissolved by the    
,nitrous ,acid               #bie       
,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,of ,mercury4      #a4   
,,process4 ,to extract ,mercury from its
 ,ore1 or to    revivify it from        
,cinabar                            #bih
      #b4 ,to give ,mercury1 by the     
action of ,fire1 the    appearance of a 
,metalline ,calx                        
#cja      #c4 ,to dissolve ,mercury in  
the ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,turbith          
,mineral                                
#cjb      #d4 ,to combine ,mercury with 
,sulphur4 thiop's    ,mineral           
#cjd      #e4 ,to sublime the           
,combination of ,mercury and ,sulphur   
into ,cinabar                           
#cjf      #f4 ,to dissolve ,mercury in  
the ,nitrous ,acid4 ,sundry             
,mercurial ,precipitates                
#cjg      #g4 ,to combine ,mercury with 
the ,acid of ,sea-salt4    ,corrosive   
,sublimate                              
#cjh      #h4 ,sweet ,sublimate         

#cab      #i4 ,the ,panacea of ,mercury 
#cad        ,,section  ,,iii4      ,of  
,operations on the ,semi-,metals4       
,,chap4 ,i4 ,of ,antimony4      #a4     
,,process4 ,to separate ,antimony from  
its ,ore       #cae      #b4 ,the common
 ,regulus of ,antimony                  
#caf      #c4 ,regulus of ,antimony     
precipitated by ,metals       #cah      
#d4 ,the ,calcination of ,antimony      
#cba      #e4 ,calx of ,antimony reduced
 to a ,regulus            #cbc      #f4 
,antimony calcined with ,nitre4 ,liver  
of ,antimony4    ,crocus ,metallorum    
#cbe      #g4 ,another ,calcination of  
,antimony with ,nitre4    ,diaphoretic  
,antimony4 ,materia ,perlata4           
,clyssus of ,antimony                   
#cbf      #h4 ,calx of ,antimony        
vitrified                       #ccj    
#i4 ,kermes ,mineral                    
#cca      #aj4 ,regulus of ,antimony    
dissolved in the ,mineral    ,acids     
#cce      #aa4 ,regulus of ,antimony    
combined with the ,acid of    ,sea-salt 

,butter of ,antimony4 ,cinabar of       
,antimony    #cch      #ab4 ,butter of  
,antimony decompounded by means of      
,water only4 ,pulvis ,algaroth1 or      
,mercurius ,vit4    ,the ,philosophic   
,spirit of ,vitriol                     
#cdb      #ac4 ,bezoar ,mineral4  ,the  
,bezoartic ,spirit of ,nitre  #cdc      
#ad4 ,flowers of ,antimony              
#cdg      #ae4 ,regulus of ,antimony    
converted into ,flowers      #cdh       
,,chap4 ,,ii4  ,of ,bismuth4      #a4   
,,process4 ,to extract ,bismuth from its
 ,ore         #cej      #b4 ,bismuth    
dissolved by ,acids4 ,magistery of      
,bismuth4    ,sympathetic ,ink          
#ceb      ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of ,zinc4     
#a4 ,,process4 ,to extract ,zinc from   
its ,ore1 or    ,calamine               
#ceg      #b4 ,to sublime ,zinc into    
,flowers                     #cei       
#c4 ,to combine ,zinc with ,copper4     
,brass4 ,prince's    ,metal1 c4         
#cfa      #d4 ,zinc dissolved in the    
,mineral ,acids              #cfe       

,,chap4 ,,iv4  ,of ,arsenic4      #a4   
,,process4 ,to extract ,arsenic from its
 matrix4    ,zafre or ,smalt            
#cfg      #b4 ,to separate ,arsenic from
 ,sulphur                 #cga      #c4 
,to give ,arsenic the ,metalline ,form4 
,regulus of    ,arsenic                 
#cgd      #d4 ,to distil the ,nitrous   
,acid by the interposition    of        
,arsenic4 ,blue ,aqua ,fortis4 ,a new   
,neutral ,salt    of ,arsenic           
#cgg      #e4 ,to alkalizate ,nitre by  
,arsenic                   #cgi         
,,part ,,ii4  ,,of ,,vegetables4        
,,section ,i4 ,operations on unfermented
 ,vegetables4      ,,chap4 ,i4 ,of the  
,substances obtained from    ,vegetables
 by ,expression only4      #a4          
,,process4 ,to express and depurate the 
juice of a    ,plant1 containing its    
,essential ,salt4 ,the                  
crystallization of that ,salt           
#chc      #b4 ,to draw the ,oils out of 
,kernels1 ,seeds1 and ,fruits1    by    
,expression                             

#chf      #c4 ,to draw the ,essential   
,oils of certain ,fruits by             
,expression                             
#chg      ,,chap4 ,,ii4  ,of the        
,substances obtained from    ,vegetables
 by ,triture4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to   
make the ,extract of a ,plant by        
,trituration                            
#chi      #b4 ,to extract from ,seeds   
and ,kernels1 by    ,trituration1 the   
matter of ,emulsions                #cib
      ,,chap4 ,,iii4  ,of ,operations on
 ,fat ,oils4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to    
attenuate ,fat ,oils1 and change their  
nature1 by exposing them to the action  
of fire1 and    distilling them         
#cie      #b4 ,to combine ,fat ,oils    
with ,acids4 ,the decomposition    of   
this combination                        
#cih      #c4 ,to combine ,fat ,oils    
with ,fixed ,alkalis4 ,hard and    ,soft
 ,soap4 ,the decomposition of ,soap     
#djj      #d4 ,to combine ,fat ,oils    
with ,sulphur                 #dje      
#e4 ,to combine ,fat ,oils with ,lead1  

and the ,calces of    ,lead4 ,the ,basis
 of ,plasters4 ,the decomposition of    
this combination                        
#djf      ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,of the         
substances obtained from ,vegetables    
with    a degree of heat not exceeding  
that of boiling water4      #a4         
,,process4 ,to obtain from ,plants1 by  
distilling them    with the mean degree 
of heat between freezing and    boiling 
water1 a liquor impregnated with their  
,principle of ,odour                    
#djh      #b4 ,to extract the ,fat ,oils
 of ,plants by ,decoction in    boiling 
water4 ,cacao-,butter                   
#daj      #c4 ,to extract the ,essential
 ,oils of ,plants by    ,distillation   
with the heat of boiling water4         
,distilled ,water                       
#dab      #d4 ,to extract the ,essential
 ,oils of ,plants by    distillation per
 descensum                        #dah  
#e4 ,infusions1 ,decoctions1 and        
,extracts of ,plants    #dai            
,,chap4 ,v4 ,of ,operations on          

,essential ,oils4      #a4 ,,process4   
,the ,rectification of ,essential ,oils 
#dbb      #b4 ,to fire ,oils by         
combining them with highly              
concentrated ,acids3 instanced in ,oil  
of ,turpentine  #dbf      #c4 ,to       
combine ,essential ,oils with mineral   
,sulphur4    ,balsam of ,sulphur4 ,this 
composition decompounded    #dcd        
#d4 ,to combine ,essential ,oils with   
,fixed ,alkalis4    ,starkey's ,soap    
#dch      ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,of the         
,substances obtained from ,vegetables   
by means of a graduated heat1 from that 
of boiling    water1 to the strongest   
that can be applied to them    in close 
vessels4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to analyze
 vegetable substances that    yield     
neither a ,fat nor an ,essential ,oil3  
instanced    in ,guaiacum-,wood         
#ddj      #b4 ,to analyze a vegetable   
substance which yields the    same      
principles as are obtained from ,animal 
matters3    instanced in ,mustard-seed  
#dde      ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,of the        

,substances obtained from    ,vegetables
 by ,combustion4      #a4 ,,process4 ,to
 procure a ,fixed1 ,caustic1 ,alkaline  
,salt from a vegetable substance1 by    
burning it in    the open air           
#ddh      #b4 ,to procure the ,fixed    
,salt of a ,plant1 by burning    it     
after the manner of ,tachenius          
#dec      #c4 ,to render ,fixed ,alkalis
 very ,caustic by means of    ,lime4    
,the ,caustic ,stone                    
#dee      #d4 ,the ,analysis of ,soot   
#deg      ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,the ,analyses
 of some particular    substances       
belonging to the ,vegetable ,kingdom4   
#a4 ,,process4 ,analysis of the ,native 
,balsams3 instanced    in ,turpentine   
#dfj      #b4 ,the ,analysis of ,resins3
 instanced in ,benjamin4    ,the        
,flowers and ,oil of ,benjamin          
#dfc      ,reflections on the ,nature   
and ,properties of ,camphor #dfe        
#c4 ,the ,analysis of ,bitumens3        
instanced in ,amber4    ,the ,volatile  
,salt and ,oil of ,amber                

#dfg      #d4 ,the ,analysis of ,bee's  
,wax1 and such ,oily ,compounds    as   
are analogous to it                     
#dgb      #e4 ,the ,saccharine juices of
 ,plants analyzed3 instanced    in      
,honey                                  
#dgd      #f4 ,gummy substances         
analyzed3 instanced in ,gum    ,arabic  
#dgf      ,,section ,,ii4  ,of          
,operations on ,fermented ,vegetable    
,substances4      ,,chap4 ,i4 ,of the   
,product of ,spirituous ,fermentation4  
#a4 ,,process4 ,to make ,wine of        
,vegetable ,substances    that are      
susceptible of ,spirituous ,fermentation
     #dgh      #b4 ,to draw an ,ardent  
,spirit from substances that have       
undergone the ,spirituous ,fermentation4
 ,the ,analysis    of ,wine             
#dhb      #c4 ,to dephlegmate ,spirit of
 ,wine by the means of    ,fixed        
,alkalis4 ,spirit of ,wine analyzed     
#dhf      ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,spirit of ,wine
 combined with different    ,substances4
      #a4 ,,process4 ,to combine ,spirit

 of ,wine with the ,vitriolic    ,acid4 
,this combination decompounded4 ,rabel's
    ,water4 ther4 ,sweet ,oil of        
,vitriol4 ,hoffman's    ,anodyne        
,mineral ,liquor                        
#dib      #b4 ,spirit of ,wine combined 
with ,spirit of ,nitre4    ,sweet       
,spirit of ,nitre                       
#ejc      #c4 ,spirit of ,wine combined 
with the ,acid of ,sea-salt4            
,dulcified ,spirit of ,salt             
#ejh      #d4 ,oils1 or ,oily matters1  
that are soluble in ,spirit of    ,wine1
 separated from ,vegetables1 and        
dissolved1 by    means of that          
,menstruum4 ,tinctures2 ,elixirs2       
,varnishes4 ,aromatic ,strong ,waters   
#eaj      ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of ,tartar4   
#a4 ,,process4 ,tartar analyzed by      
distillation4 ,the ,spirit1    ,oil1 and
 ,alkaline ,salt of ,tartar             
#ead      #b4 ,the depuration of        
,tartar4 ,cream and ,crystals of        
,tartar                                 
#eag      ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,crystal of     

,tartar combined with several           
substances4      #a4 ,,process4 ,crystal
 of ,tartar combined with ,absorbent    
,earths4 ,soluble ,tartars              
#eai      #b4 ,crystal of ,tartar       
combined with ,fixed ,alkalis4 ,the     
,vegetable ,salt4 ,saignette's ,salt4   
,the decomposition    of ,soluble       
,tartar                                 
#ebd      #c4 ,crystal of ,tartar       
combined with ,iron4 ,chalybeated       
,tartar4 ,tincture of ,steel with       
,tartar4 ,soluble    ,chalybeated       
,tartar                                 
#ebh      #d4 ,crystal of ,tartar       
combined with the reguline    part of   
,antimony4 ,stibiated or ,emetic ,tartar
        #ecd      ,,chap4 ,v4 ,of the   
,product of ,acetous ,fermentation4     
#a4 ,,process4 ,substances susceptible  
of the ,acetous    ,fermentation turned 
into ,vinegar                    #ecf   
#b4 ,to concentrate ,vinegar by ,frost  
#edj      #c4 ,vinegar analyzed by      
distillation                 #edb       

,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,the ,acid of ,vinegar    
combined with    different ,substances4 
#a4 ,,process4 ,the ,acid of ,vinegar   
combined with ,alkaline    ,substances4 
,foliated ,salt of ,tartar1 or          
,regenerated    ,tartar4 ,decomposition 
of that ,salt                  #edg     
#b4 ,the ,acid of ,vinegar combined with
 ,copper4 ,verdegris4    ,crystals of   
,copper4 ,this combination decompounded4
    ,spirit of ,verdegris               
#eej      #c4 ,the ,acid of ,vinegar    
combined with ,lead4 ,ceruse4    ,salt  
or ,sugar of ,lead4 ,this combination   
decompounded                            
#eeb      ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,of the ,putrid
 ,fermentation of ,vegetable            
,substances4      #a4 ,,process4 ,the   
,putrefaction of ,vegetables            
#eeg      #b4 ,putrefied ,vegetable     
substances analyzed          #eei       
,,part ,,iii4 ,of ,operations on ,animal
 ,substances4      ,,chap4 ,i4  ,of     
,milk4      #a4 ,,process4 ,milk        
separated into ,butter1 ,curd1 and      

,whey3 instanced in ,cow's ,milk        
#efb      #b4 ,butter analyzed by       
distillation                  #eff      
#c4 ,the ,curd of ,milk analyzed by     
distillation        #efi      #d4 ,whey 
analyzed                                
#ega      ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,of the         
,substances which compose an ,animal    
,body4      #a4 ,,process4 ,blood       
analyzed3 instanced in ,bullock's       
,blood                                  
#egd      #b4 ,flesh analyzed3 instanced
 in ,beef                #ehj      #c4  
,bones analyzed3 instanced in ,ox-bones 
#ehc      #d4 ,animal ,fat analyzed3    
instanced in ,mutton-,suet    #ehd      
#e4 ,eggs analyzed3 instanced in        
,pullet's ,eggs        #ehf      ,,chap4
 ,,iii4 ,of ,animal ,excrements4        
#a4 ,,process4 ,dung analyzed3 instanced
 in ,human ,excrement4    ,mr4          
,homberg's ,phosphorus                  
#ehh      #b4 ,human ,urine analyzed    
#eif      ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,of ,volatile   
,alkalis4      #a4 ,,process4 ,volatile 

,alkalis rectified and    depurated     
#eii      #b4 ,volatile ,alkalis        
combined with ,acids4 ,sundry           
,ammoniacal ,salts4  ,sal ,ammoniac     
#fjb      #c4 ,sal ,ammoniac            
decompounded by ,acids                  
#fjg      #d4 ,sal ,ammoniac            
decompounded by ,fixed ,alkalis4        
,volatile ,salt4 ,the ,febrifuge of     
,sylvius             #fjh      #e4 ,sal 
,ammoniac decompounded by ,absorbent    
,earths    and ,lime4 ,volatile ,spirit 
of ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,fixed    ,sal       
,ammoniac4 ,oil of ,lime                
#faa      #f4 ,volatile ,alkalis        
combined with oily matters4    ,a       
,volatile ,oily ,aromatic ,salt         
#faf      ,illustration3 ,decorative    
,scroll            ,,elements    ,,of   
,,the    ,,theory ,,of ,,chymistry4     
,,chap4 ,i4    ,of the ,,principles of  
,,bodies4      ,the object and principal
 end of ,chymistry1 is to separate the  
different  substances that enter into   
the composition of bodies2 to examine   

each of them apart2 to discover their   
properties and relations2  to decompose1
 if possible1 those very substances2 to 
compare them  together1 and combine them
 with others2 to re-unite them again    
into one  body1 so as to reproduce the  
original compound with all its          
properties2  or even to produce new     
compounds that never existed among the  
works of  nature1 from mixtures of other
 matters differently combined4    ,but  
this ,analysis1 or ,decomposition1 of   
bodies is finite2 we being  unable to   
carry it beyond a certain limit4 ,in    
whatever way we attempt  to go further1 
we are always stopped by substances in  
which we can  produce no change1 which  
will not admit of being resolved into   
others1  and which stand as so many firm
 barriers obstructing our progress4     
,to these substances we may1 in my      
opinion1 give the title of ,principles  
or ,elements3 at least1 with regard to  
us1 they are really such4 ,of this  sort
 the principal are ,earth1 ,water1 ,air1

 and ,fire4 ,for though there  is ground
 to believe that these are not the      
primary component parts1  or the most   
simple elements1 of matter2 yet1 as we  
know by experience1  that our senses    
cannot possibly discover the principles 
of which they  are composed1 it seems   
more reasonable to fix upon them1 and   
consider  them as simple homogeneous    
bodies1 and the principles of the rest1 
than  to fatigue our minds with vain    
conjectures about the parts or elements 
of which they may consist2 seeing there 
is no criterion by which we  can know   
whether we have hit upon the truth1 or  
whether the notions we  have formed are 
mere fancies4 ,we shall therefore       
consider these four  substances as the  
principles or elements of all the       
various compounds  which nature presents
 to our inquiries3 because1 of all those
 we have  as yet discovered1 they are in
 fact the most simple2 and because all  
our decompositions1 all our experiments 
on other bodies1 plainly prove  that    

they are at last resolvable into these  
primary parts4    ,these principles do  
not enter in the same proportion into   
all bodies3  there are even some mixts  
in the composition of which this or that
  particular principle is not to be     
found4 ,thus ,air and ,water seem  to be
 wholly excluded from the texture of    
,metals2 at least all the  experiments  
that have hitherto been made on them    
seem to confirm this  opinion4    ,the  
substances composed immediately of these
 first ,elements we  shall call         
secondary ,principles2 because in       
reality their several  combinations with
 each other1 the interchangeable        
coalitions that take  place between     
them1 constitute the different natures  
of all other  bodies2 which1 as they    
result from the union both of primary   
and  secondary principles1 are properly 
entitled to the name of ,compounds or   
,mixts4    ,before we enter upon the    
examination of ,compound ,substances1 it
 is  necessary to consider with some    

attention the most ,simple ones1 or our 
four first principles1 in order to      
discover their chief properties4        
,,section ,i4    ,of ,,air4    ,air is  
that ,fluid which we constantly breathe1
 and which surrounds the  whole surface 
of the terrestrial globe4 ,being heavy1 
like all other  bodies1 it penetrates   
into all places that are not either     
absolutely  inaccessible1 or filled with
 some other body heavier than itself4   
,its principal property is to be        
susceptible of condensation and         
rarefaction2 so that the very same      
quantity of ,air may occupy a much      
greater1 or a much smaller space1       
according to the different state it  is 
in4 ,heat and cold1 or1 if you will1 the
 presence and the absence  of the       
particles of ,fire1 are the most usual  
causes1 and indeed  the measures1 of its
 condensation and rarefaction3 for if a 
certain  quantity of ,air be heated1 its
 bulk enlarges in proportion to the     
degree of heat applied to it2 the       

consequence of which is1 that the  same 
space now contains fewer particles of   
,air than it did before4 ,cold  again   
produces just the opposite effect4      
,on this property which ,air has1 of    
being condensed and rarefied by  heat1  
its elasticity or springiness chiefly   
depends4 ,for if ,air were  forced by   
condensation into a less compass than it
 took up before1 and  then exposed to a 
very considerable degree of cold1 it    
would remain  quite inactive1 without   
exerting such an effort as it usually   
makes  against the compressing body4 ,on
 the other hand1 the elasticity of      
heated ,air arises only from hence1 that
 being rarefied by the action of  ,fire1
 it requires much more space than it    
occupied before4    ,air enters into the
 composition of many substances1        
especially  vegetable and animal bodies3
 for by analysing most of them such a   
considerable quantity thereof is        
extricated1 that some naturalists  have 
suspected it to be altogether destitute 

of elasticity when thus  combined with  
the other principles in the composition 
of bodies4  ,according to them1 the     
efficacy of the elastic power of the    
,air is so  prodigious1 and its force   
when compressed so excessive1 that it is
  not possible the other component parts
 of bodies should be able to  confine so
 much of it1 in that state of           
compression which it must needs         
undergo1 if retaining its elasticity it 
were pent up among them4    ,however    
that be1 this elastic property of the   
,air produces the most  singular and    
important phenomena1 observable in the  
resolution and  composition of bodies4  
,,section ,,ii4    ,of ,,water4         
,water is a thing so well known1 that it
 is almost needless to attempt  giving a
 general idea of it here4 ,every one    
knows that it is a  transparent1 insipid
 substance1 and usually fluid4 ,i say it
 is usually  so2 for being exposed to a 
certain degree of cold it becomes solid3
  solidity therefore seems to be its    

most natural state4    ,water exposed to
 the ,fire grows hot2 but only to a     
limited degree1  beyond which its heat  
never rises1 be the force of ,fire      
applied to it  ever so violent3 it is   
known to have acquired this degree of   
heat by  its boiling up with great      
tumult4 ,water cannot be made hotter1   
because  it is volatile1 and incapable  
of enduring the heat1 without being     
evaporated and entirely dissipated4     
,if such a violent and sudden heat be   
applied to ,water1 as will not  allow it
 time to exhale gently in vapours1 as   
when1 for instance1  a small quantity   
thereof is thrown upon a metal in       
fusion1 it is  dissipated at once with  
vast impetuosity1 producing a most      
terrible and  dangerous explosion4 ,this
 surprising effect may be deduced from  
the  instantaneous dilatation of the    
parts of the ,water itself1 or rather   
of the ,air it contains4 ,moreover1     
,water enters into the texture of  many 
bodies1 both compounds and secondary    

principles2 but1 like ,air1  it seems to
 be excluded from the composition of all
 metals and most  minerals4 ,for        
although an immense quantity of ,water  
exists in the  bowels of the ,earth1    
moistening all its contents1 it cannot  
be thence  inferred1 that it is one of  
the principles of minerals4 ,it is only 
interposed between their parts2 for they
 may be entirely divested of  it1       
without any sort of decomposition3      
indeed it is not capable of an  intimate
 connection with them4      ,,section   
,,iii4    ,of ,,earth4    ,we observed  
that the two principles above treated of
 are volatile2 that  is1 the action of  
,fire separates them from the bodies    
they help to  compose1 carrying them    
quite off1 and dissipating them4 ,that  
of which  we are now to speak1 namely   
,earth1 is fixed1 and1 when it is       
absolutely  pure1 resists the utmost    
force of ,fire4 ,so that1 whatever      
remains of  a body1 after it hath been  
exposed to the power of the fiercest    

,fire1  must be considered as containing
 nearly all its earthy principle1  and  
consisting chiefly thereof4 ,i qualify  
my expression thus for two  reasons3 the
 first is1 because it often happens1    
that this remainder  does not actually  
contain all the ,earth which existed    
originally in  the mixt body decomposed 
by ,fire2 since it will afterwards      
appear that  ,earth1 though in its own  
nature fixed1 may be rendered volatile  
by  being intimately united with other  
substances which are so2 and that1  in  
fact1 it is common enough for part of   
the ,earth of a body to be thus         
volatilized by its other principles3 the
 second is1 that what remains  after the
 calcination of a body is not generally 
its earth in perfect  purity1 but       
combined with some of its other         
principles1 which1 though  volatile in  
their own natures1 have been fixed by   
the union contracted  between it and    
them4 ,we shall1 in the sequel1 produce 
some examples to  illustrate this       

theory4    ,earth1 therefore1 properly  
so called1 is a fixed principle1 which  
is  permanent in the ,fire4 ,there is   
reason to think it very difficult1 if   
not impossible1 to obtain the earthy    
principle entirely free from every      
other substance3 for after our utmost   
endeavours to purify them1 the  ,earths 
we obtain from different compounds are  
found to have different  properties1    
according to the different bodies from  
which they are  procured2 or else1 if   
those ,earths be pure1 we must allow    
them to be  essentially different1      
seeing they have different properties4  
,earth1 in general1 with regard to its  
properties1 may be distributed  into    
fusible1 and unfusible2 that is1 into   
,earth that is capable  of melting or   
becoming fluid in the ,fire1 and ,earth 
that constantly  remains in a solid     
form1 never melting in the strongest    
degree of heat  to which we can expose  
it4    ,the former is also called       
vitrifiable1 and the second             

unvitrifiable  ,earth2 because1 when    
,earth is melted by the force of ,fire1 
it becomes  what we call ,glass1 which  
is nothing but the parts of ,earth      
brought  into nearer contact1 and more  
closely united by the means of fusion4  
,perhaps the ,earth1 which we look upon 
as incapable of vitrification1  might be
 fused if we could apply to it a        
sufficient degree of heat4  ,it is at   
least certain1 that some ,earths1 or    
stones1 which separately  resist the    
force of ,fire1 so that they cannot be  
melted1 become  fusible when mixed      
together4 ,experience convinced ,mr4 du 
,hamel that  lime-stone and slate are of
 this kind4 ,it is however undoubtedly  
true1  that one ,earth differs from     
another in its degree of fusibility3 and
  this gives ground to believe1 that    
there may be a species of ,earth        
absolutely unvitrifiable in its nature1 
which1 being mixed in different         
proportions with fusible ,earths1       
renders them difficult to melt4         

,whatever may be in this1 as there are  
,earths which we are absolutely  unable 
to vitrify1 that is a sufficient reason 
for our division of  them4              
,unvitrifiable ,earths seem to be       
porous1 for they imbibe ,water2  whence 
they have also got the name of          
,absorbent ,earths4      ,,section ,,iv4
    ,of ,,fire4    ,the ,matter of the  
,sun1 or of ,light1 the ,phlogiston1    
,fire1 the  ,sulphureous ,principle1 the
 ,inflammable ,matter1 are all of them  
names  by which the ,element of ,fire is
 usually denoted4 ,but it should seem1  
that an accurate distinction hath not   
yet been made between the  different    
states in which it exists2 that is1     
between the phenomena of  ,fire actually
 existing as a principle in the         
composition of bodies1 and  those which 
it exhibits when existing separately and
 in its natural  state3 nor have proper 
distinct appellations been assigned to  
it in  those different circumstances4   
,in the latter state we may properly    

give  it the names of ,fire1 ,matter of 
the ,sun1 of ,light1 and of ,heat2 and  
may consider it as a substance composed 
of infinitely small particles1          
continually agitated by a most rapid    
motion1 and1 of consequence1            
essentially fluid4    ,this substance1  
of which the sun may be called the      
general reservoir1  seems to flow       
incessantly from that source1 diffusing 
itself over the  world1 and through all 
the bodies we know2 but not as a        
principle1 or  essential part of them1  
since they may be deprived thereof1 at  
least  in a great measure1 without      
suffering any decomposition4 ,the       
greatest  change produced on them1 by   
its presence or its absence1 is the     
rendering them fluid or solid3 so that  
all other bodies may be deemed          
naturally solid2 ,fire alone essentially
 fluid1 and the principle of  fluidity  
in others4 ,this being presupposed1 ,air
 itself might become  solid1 if it could
 be entirely deprived of the ,fire it   

contains2 as  bodies of most difficult  
fusion become fluid1 when penetrated by 
a  sufficient quantity of the particles 
of ,fire4    ,one of the chief          
properties of this pure ,fire is to     
penetrate easily  into all bodies1 and  
to diffuse itself among them with a sort
 of  uniformity and equality3 for if a  
heated body be contiguous to a cold     
one1 the former communicates to the     
latter all its excess of heat1  cooling 
in exact proportion as the other warms1 
till both come to have  the very same   
degree of heat4 ,heat1 however1 is      
naturally communicable  soonest to the  
upper parts of a body2 and consequently1
 when a body  cools1 the under parts    
become soonest cold4 ,it hath been      
observed1 for  instance1 that the lower 
extremity of a heated body1 freely      
suspended  in the air1 grows cold sooner
 than the upper2 and that1 when a bar of
  iron is red-hot at one end1 and cold  
at the other1 the cold end is much      
sooner heated by placing the bar so that

 the hot end may be undermost1  than1   
when that end is turned uppermost4 ,the 
levity of the matter of  ,fire1 and the 
vicinity of the ,earth1 may possibly be 
the causes of this  phenomenon4         
,another property of ,fire is to dilate 
all bodies into which it  penetrates4   
,this hath already been shewn with      
regard to ,air and ,water2  and it      
produces the same effect on ,earth4     
,fire is the most powerful agent we can 
employ to decompose bodies2 and  the    
greatest degree of heat producible by   
man1 is that excited by the  rays of the
 sun collected in the focus of a large  
burning-glass4      ,,section ,v4    ,of
 the ,,phlogiston4    ,from what hath   
been said concerning the nature of      
,fire1 it is  evidently impossible for  
us to fix and confine it in any body4   
,yet the  phenomena attending the       
combustion of inflammable bodies shew1  
that  they really contain the matter of 
,fire as a constituent principle4  ,by  
what mechanism then is this fluid1 which

 is so subtle1 so active1  so difficult 
to confine1 so capable of penetrating   
into every other  substance in nature2  
how comes it1 ,i say1 to be so fixed as 
to make  a component part of the most   
solid bodies8 ,it is no easy matter to  
give a satisfactory answer to this      
question4 ,but1 without pretending  to  
guess the cause of the phenomenon1 let  
us rest contented with the  certainty of
 the fact1 the knowledge of which will  
undoubtedly procure  us considerable    
advantages4 ,let us therefore examine   
the properties of  ,fire thus fixed1 and
 become a principle of bodies4 ,to this 
substance1  in order to distinguish it  
from pure and unfixed ,fire1 the        
,chymists  have assigned the peculiar   
title of the ,phlogiston1 which indeed  
is  no other than a ,greek word for the 
,inflammable ,matter2 by which latter   
name1 as well as by that of the         
,sulphureous ,principle1 it is also     
sometimes called4 ,it differs from      
elementary ,fire in the following       

particulars4 #a4 ,when united to a body1
 it communicates to it neither  heat nor
 light4 #b4 ,it produces no change in   
its state1 whether of  solidity or      
fluidity2 so that a solid body does not 
become fluid by  the accession of the   
,phlogiston1 and vice versa2 the solid  
bodies to  which it is joined being only
 rendered thereby more apt to be fused  
by  the force of the culinary fire4 #c4 
,we can convey it from the body with    
which it is joined into another body1 so
 that it shall enter into the           
composition thereof1 and remain fixed in
 it4    ,on this occasion both these    
bodies1 that which is deprived of the   
,phlogiston and that which receives it1 
undergo very considerable  alterations2 
and it is this last circumstance1 in    
particular1 that  obliges us to         
distinguish the ,phlogiston from pure   
,fire1 and to  consider it as the       
element of ,fire combined with some     
other substance1  which serves it as a  
basis for constituting a kind of        

secondary  principle4 ,for if there were
 no difference between them1 we should  
be  able to introduce and fix pure ,fire
 itself1 wherever we can introduce  and 
fix the ,phlogiston3 yet this is what we
 can by no means do1 as will  appear    
from experiments to be afterwards       
produced4    ,hitherto1 ,chymists have  
never been able to obtain the           
,phlogiston quite  pure1 and free from  
every other substance3 for there are but
 two ways  of separating it from a body 
of which it makes a part2 to wit1 either
  by applying some other body with which
 it may unite the moment it  quits the  
former2 or else by calcining and burning
 the compound from  which you desire to 
sever it4 ,in the former case it is     
evident that we  do not get the         
,phlogiston by itself1 because it only  
passes from one  combination into       
another2 and in the latter1 it is       
entirely dissipated  in the             
decomposition1 so that no part of it can
 possibly be secured4    ,the           

inflammability of a body is an          
infallible sign that it contains  a     
,phlogiston2 but from a body's not being
 inflammable1 it cannot be  inferred    
that it contains none2 for experiments  
have demonstrated that  certain metals  
abound with it1 which yet are by no     
means inflammable4    ,we have now      
delivered what is most necessary to be  
known concerning the  principles of     
bodies in general4 ,they have many other
 qualities besides  those               
above-mentioned2 but we cannot properly 
take notice of them  here1 because they 
presuppose an acquaintance with some    
other things  relating to bodies1 of    
which we have hitherto said nothing2    
intending  to treat of them in the      
sequel as occasion shall offer4 ,we     
shall only  observe in this place1 that 
when animal and vegetable matters are   
burnt1 in such a manner as to hinder    
them from flaming1 some part  of the    
,phlogiston contained in them unites    
intimately with their  most fixed earthy

 parts1 and with them forms a compound1 
that can be  consumed only by making it 
red-hot in the open air1 where it       
sparkles  and wastes away1 without      
emitting any flame4 ,this compound is   
called  a ,coal4 ,we shall inquire into 
the properties of this ,coal under the  
head of ,oils3 at present it suffices   
that we know in general what it  is1 and
 that it readily communicates to other  
bodies the ,phlogiston it  contains4    
,,chap4 ,,ii4    ,a general ,view of the
 ,relations or ,affinities between      
,bodies4      ,before we can reduce     
compound ,bodies to the first principles
 above  pointed out1 we obtain1 by      
analysing them1 certain substances which
  are indeed more simple than the bodies
 they helped to compose1 yet are        
themselves composed of our primary      
principles4 ,they are therefore at  one 
and the same time both principles and   
compounds2 for which reason  we shall1  
as was before said1 call them by the    
name of ,secondary  ,principles4 ,saline

 and oily matters chiefly constitute    
this class4 ,but  before we enter upon  
an examination of their properties1 it  
is fit we  lay before the reader a      
general view of what ,chymists          
understand by  the ,relations or        
,affinities of ,bodies2 because it is   
necessary to know  these1 in order to a 
distinct conception of the different    
combinations  we are to treat of4       
,all the experiments hitherto made      
concur with daily observation to  prove1
 that different bodies1 whether         
principles or compounds1 have  such a   
mutual ,conformity1 ,relation1          
,affinity1 or ,attraction1 if you  will 
call it so1 as disposes some of them to 
join and unite together1  while they are
 incapable of contracting any union with
 others4 ,this  effect1 whatever be its 
cause1 will enable us to account for1   
and  connect together1 all the phenomena
 that ,chymistry produces4 ,the nature  
of this universal affection of matter is
 distinctly laid down in the  following 

propositions4    ,first1 ,if any        
substance hath any ,affinity or         
conformity with another1  the two will  
unite together1 and form one compound4  
,secondly1 ,it may be laid down as a    
general rule1 that all similar          
substances have an ,affinity with each  
other1 and are consequently  disposed to
 unite2 as water with water1 earth with 
earth1 c4    ,thirdly1 ,substances that 
unite together lose some of their       
separate  properties2 and the compounds 
resulting from their union partake of   
the  properties of those substances     
which serve as their principles4        
,fourthly1 ,the simpler any substances  
are1 the more perceptible and           
considerable are their ,affinities3     
whence it follows1 that the less  bodies
 are compounded1 the more difficult it  
is to analyse them2 that  is1 to        
separate from each other the principles 
of which they consist4    ,fifthly1 ,if 
a body consist of two substances1 and to
 this compound  be presented a third    

substance1 that has no ,affinity at all 
with one  of the two primary substances 
aforesaid1 but has a greater ,affinity  
with the other than those two substances
 have with each other1 there  will ensue
 a decomposition1 and a new union2 that 
is1 the third  substance will separate  
the two compounding substances from each
 other1  coalesce with that which has an
 ,affinity with it1 form therewith a    
new combination1 and disengage the      
other1 which will then be left at       
liberty1 and such as it was before it   
had contracted any union4    ,sixthly1  
,it happens sometimes that when a third 
substance is presented  to a body       
consisting of two substances1 no        
decomposition follows2  but the two     
compounding substances1 without quitting
 each other1  unite with the substance  
presented to them1 and form a           
combination of  three principles3 and   
this comes to pass when that third      
substance  has an equal1 or nearly      
equal1 ,affinity with each of the       

compounding  substances4 ,the same thing
 may also happen even when the third    
substance hath no ,affinity but with one
 of the compounding substances  only4   
,to produce such an effect1 it is       
sufficient that one of the  two         
compounding substances have to the third
 body a ,relation equal1  or nearly     
equal1 to that which it has to the other
 compounding  substance with which it is
 already combined4 ,thence it follows1  
that  two substances1 which1 when apart 
from all others1 are incapable  of      
contracting any union1 may be rendered  
capable of incorporating  together in   
some measure1 and becoming parts of the 
same compound1 by  combining with a     
third substance with which each of them 
has an equal  ,affinity4    ,seventhly1 
,a body1 which of itself cannot         
decompose a compound  consisting of two 
substances1 because1 as we just now     
said1 they have  a greater affinity with
 each other than it has with either of  
them1  becomes nevertheless capable of  

separating the two by uniting with  one 
of them1 when it is itself combined with
 another body1 having a  degree of      
,affinity with that one1 sufficient to  
compensate its own want  thereof4 ,in   
that case there are two ,affinities1 and
 thence ensues a  double decomposition  
and a double combination4    ,these     
fundamental truths1 from which we shall 
deduce an explanation  of all the       
phenomena in ,chymistry1 will be        
confirmed and illustrated  by applying  
them1 as we shall do1 to the several    
cases1 of which our  design in this     
treatise obliges us to give a           
circumstantial account4          ,,chap4
 ,,iii4    ,of ,saline ,substances in   
general4      ,if a particle of water be
 intimately united with a particle of   
earth1  the result will be a new        
compound1 which1 according to our third 
proposition of ,affinities1 will partake
 of the properties of earth  and of     
water2 and this combination principally 
forms what is called  a ,saline         

,substance4 ,consequently every ,saline 
,substance must have  an affinity with  
earth and with water1 and be capable of 
uniting with  both or either of them1   
whether they be separate or mixed       
together3  and accordingly this property
 characterizes all ,salts1 or ,saline   
,substances1 in general4    ,water being
 volatile and ,earth fixed1 ,salts in   
general are less  volatile than the     
former1 and less fixed than the latter2 
that is1  fire1 which cannot volatilize 
and carry off pure earth1 is capable of 
rarefying and volatilizing a ,saline    
,substance2 but then this requires a    
greater degree of heat than is necessary
 for producing the same effects  on pure
 water4    ,there are several sorts of  
,salts1 differing from one another1 in  
respect either of the quantity1 or the  
quality of the earth in their           
composition2 or1 lastly1 they differ on 
account of some additional  principles1 
which not being combined with them in   
sufficient quantity  to hinder their    

,saline properties from appearing1      
permit them to retain  the name of      
,salts1 though they render them very    
different from the  simplest ,saline    
,substances4    ,it is easy to infer1   
from what has been said of ,salts in    
general1 that  some of them must be     
more1 some less1 fixed or volatile than 
others1  and some more1 some less1      
disposed to unite with water1 with      
earth1  or with particular sorts of     
earth1 according to the nature or the   
proportion of their principles4         
,before we proceed further1 it is proper
 just to mention the principle  reasons1
 which induce us to think that every    
,saline ,substance is  actually a       
combination of earth and water1 as we   
supposed at our  entering on this       
subject4 ,the first is1 the conformity  
,salts have  with earth and water1 or   
the properties they possess in common   
with  both4 ,of these properties we     
shall treat fully1 as occasion offers to
  consider them1 in examining the       

several sorts of ,salts4 ,the second    
is1 that all ,salts may be actually     
resolved into earth and water by  sundry
 processes2 particularly by repeated    
dissolution in water1  evaporation1     
desiccation1 and calcination4 ,indeed   
the ,chymists have  not yet been able to
 procure a ,saline ,substance1 by       
combining earth  and water together4    
,this favours a suspicion1 that1 besides
 these  two1 there is some other        
principle in the composition of salts1  
which  escapes our researches1 because  
we cannot preserve it when we decompose 
them2 but it is sufficient to our       
purpose1 that water and earth are       
demonstrably amongst the real principles
 of ,saline ,substances1 and that  no   
experiment hath ever shewn us any other4
      ,,section ,i4    ,of ,,acids4     
,of all ,saline ,substances1 the        
simplest is that called an ,acid1 on    
account of its taste2 which is like that
 of verjuice1 sorrel1 vinegar1  and     
other sour things1 which1 for the same  

reason1 are also called  ,acids4 ,by    
this peculiar taste are ,acids chiefly  
known4 ,they have  moreover the property
 of turning all the blue and violet     
colours of  vegetables red1 which       
distinguishes them from all other salts4
    ,the form1 under which ,acids most  
commonly appear1 is that of a           
transparent liquor2 though solidity is  
rather their natural state4  ,this is   
owing to their affinity with water2     
which is so great1 that1  when they     
contain but just as much of it as is    
necessary to constitute  them ,salts1   
and consequently have a solid form1 they
 rapidly unite  therewith the moment    
they come into contact with it3 and as  
the air  is always loaded with moisture 
and aqueous vapours1 its contact alone  
is sufficient to liquify them2 because  
they unite with its humidity1  imbibe it
 greedily1 and by that means become     
fluid4 ,we therefore say1  they attract 
the moisture of the air4 ,this change of
 a salt from a  solid to a fluid state1 

by the sole contact of the air1 is also 
called  ,deliquium2 so that when a salt 
changes in this manner from a solid     
into a fluid form1 it is said to run per
 deliquium4 ,acids being the  simplest  
species of ,saline bodies1 their        
affinities with different  substances   
are stronger than those of any other    
sort of salt with  the same substances2 
which is agreeable to our fourth        
proposition  concerning ,affinities4    
,acids in general have a great affinity 
with earths3 that with which  they most 
readily unite is the unvitrifiable earth
 to which we gave the  name of absorbent
 earth4 ,they seem1 not to act at all   
upon vitrifiable  earths1 such as sand2 
nor yet upon some other kinds of earths1
 at least  while they are in their      
natural state4 ,yet the nature of these 
earths  may be in some measure changed1 
by making them red-hot in the fire1  and
 then quenching them suddenly in cold   
water3 for1 by repeating this  often1   
they are brought nearer to the nature of

 absorbent earths1 and  rendered capable
 of uniting with ,acids4    ,when an    
acid liquor is mixed with an absorbent  
earth1 for instance with  chalk1 these  
two substances instantly rush into      
union1 with so much  impetuosity1       
especially if the acid liquor be as much
 dephlegmated1  or contain as little    
water1 as may be1 that a great          
ebullition is  immediately produced1    
attended with considerable hissing1     
heat1 and  vapours1 which rise the very 
instant of their conjunction4    ,from  
the combination of an acid with an      
absorbent earth there arises  a new     
compound1 which some ,chymists have     
called ,sal ,salsum2 because  the ,acid 
by uniting with the earth loses its sour
 taste1 and acquires  another not unlike
 that of the common sea-salt used in our
 kitchens2  yet varying according to the
 different sorts of ,acids and earths   
combined together4 ,the ,acid at the    
same time loses its property of  turning
 vegetable blues and violet colours red4

    ,if we inquire what is become of its
 propensity to unite with water1 we     
shall find that the earth1 which of     
itself is not soluble in water1  hath1  
by its union with the ,acid1 acquired a 
facility of dissolving  therein2 so that
 our ,sal ,salsum is soluble in water4  
,but1 on the  other hand1 the ,acid     
hath1 by its union with the earth1 lost 
part of  the affinity it had with water2
 so that if a ,sal ,salsum be dried1    
and freed of all superfluous humidity1  
it will remain1 in that dry  solid form1
 instead of attracting the moisture of  
the air1 and running  per deliquium1 as 
the ,acid would do if it were pure and  
unmixed  with earth4 ,however1 this     
general rule admits of some exceptions2 
and  we shall have occasion in another  
place to take notice of certain         
combinations of ,acids with earths1     
which still continue to attract the     
moisture of the air1 though not so      
strongly as a pure ,acid4    ,,acids    
have likewise a great affinity with the 

,phlogiston4 ,when we come  to treat of 
each ,acid in particular1 we shall      
examine the combinations  of each with  
the ,phlogiston3 they differ so widely  
from one another1  and many of them are 
so little known1 that we cannot at      
present give  any general idea of them4 
,,section ,,ii4    ,of ,,alkalis4       
,alkalis are ,saline combinations1 in   
which there is a greater proportion  of 
earth than in ,acids4 ,the principal    
arguments that may be adduced  to prove 
this fact are these3 ,first2 if they be 
treated in the manner  proposed above   
for analyzing ,saline ,substances1 we   
obtain from them  a much greater        
quantity of earth than we do from       
,acids4 ,secondly2 by  combining certain
 ,acids with certain earths we can      
produce ,alkalis2 or  at least such     
saline compounds as greatly resemble    
them4 ,our third and  last argument is  
drawn from the properties of those      
,alkalis which1 when  pure and          
unadulterated with any other principle1 

have less affinity  with water than     
,acids have1 and are also more fixed1   
resisting the  utmost force of fire4 ,on
 this account it is that they have      
obtained the  title of ,fixed1 as well  
as to distinguish them from another     
species  of ,alkali1 to be considered   
hereafter1 which is impure and volatile4
    ,though fixed ,alkalis1 when dry1   
sustain the utmost violence of fire     
without flying off in vapours1 it is    
remarkable that1 being boiled with      
water in an open vessel1 considerable   
quantities of them rise with the  steam3
 an effect which must be attributed to  
the great affinity between  these two   
substances1 by means whereof water      
communicates some part of  its          
volatility to the fixed salt4           
,alkalis freed of their superfluous     
humidity by calcination attract the     
moisture of the air1 but not so strongly
 as ,acids3 so that it is easier  to    
procure and preserve them in a solid    
form4    ,they flow in the fire1 and are

 then capable of uniting with           
vitrifiable  earths1 and of forming     
therewith true glass1 which1 however1   
will  partake of their properties1 if   
they be used in sufficient quantity4    
,as they melt more readily than         
vitrifiable earth1 they facilitate its  
fusion2 so that a weaker fire will      
reduce it to glass1 when a fixed        
,alkali is joined with it1 than will    
melt it without that addition4          
,alkalis are known by their taste1 which
 is acrid and fiery2 and by the         
properties they possess of turning      
vegetable blues and violet colours      
green2 particularly syrop of violets4   
,their affinity with acids is greater   
than that of absorbent earths2 and      
hence it comes to pass1 that if an      
,alkali be presented to a combination   
of an ,acid with an absorbent earth1 the
 earth will be separated from  the ,acid
 by the ,alkali1 and a new union between
 the ,acid and the ,alkali  will take   
place4 ,this is both an instance and a  

proof of our fifth  proposition         
concerning ,affinities4    ,if a pure   
,alkali be presented to a pure ,acid1   
they rush together with  violence1 and  
produce the same phenomena as were      
observed in the  union of an absorbent  
earth with an ,acid2 but in a greater   
and more  remarkable degree4    ,fixed  
,alkalis may in general be divided into 
two sorts3 one of these  hath all the   
above-recited properties2 but the other 
possesses some  that are peculiar to    
itself4 ,we shall consider this latter  
sort more  particularly under the head  
of ,sea-,salt4      ,,section ,,iii4    
,of ,,neutral ,,salts4    ,the ,acid and
 the ,alkali thus uniting mutually rob  
each other of their  characteristic     
properties2 so that the compound        
resulting from their  union produces no 
change in the blue colours of           
vegetables1 and  has a taste which is   
neither sour nor acrid1 but saltish4 ,a 
saline  combination of this kind is for 
that reason named ,sal ,salsum1 ,sal    

,medium1 of a ,neutral ,salt4 ,such     
combinations are also called by the     
plain general name of ,salts4    ,it    
must be observed that1 in order to make 
these ,salts perfectly  ,neutral1 it is 
necessary that neither of the two saline
 principles  of which they are          
compounded be predominant over the      
other2 for in  that case they will have 
the properties of the prevailing        
principle4  ,the reason is this3 neither
 of these saline substances can unite   
with  the other but in a limited        
proportion1 beyond which there can be no
  further coalition between them4 ,the  
action by which this perfect union  is  
accomplished is termed ,saturation2 and 
the instant when such  proportions of   
the two saline substances are mixed     
together1 that the  one is incorporated 
with as much of the other as it can     
possibly take  up1 is called the ,point 
of ,saturation4 ,all this is equally    
applicable  to the combination of an    
,acid with an absorbent earth4    ,the  

combination is known to be perfect1 that
 is1 the ,point of  ,saturation is known
 to be obtained1 when1 after repeated   
affusions of  an ,acid in small         
quantities to an ,alkali1 or an         
absorbent earth1 we  find those         
phenomena cease1 which in such cases    
constantly attend the  conflict of      
union1 as we said above1 namely1        
ebullition1 hissing1 c4  and we may be  
assured the ,saturation is complete when
 the new compound  hath neither an acid 
nor an acrid taste1 nor in the least    
changes the  blue colours of vegetables4
    ,neutral salts have not so great an 
affinity with water as either ,acids  or
 ,alkalis have2 because they are more   
compounded3 for we observed  before1    
that the affinities of the most         
compounded bodies are generally  weaker 
than those of the most simple4 ,in      
consequence hereof few ,neutral  ,salts1
 when dried1 attract the moisture of the
 air2 and those that do1  attract it    
more slowly1 and in less quantity1 than 

either ,acids or  ,alkalis do4    ,all  
,neutral ,salts are soluble in water2   
but more or less readily1 and  in a     
greater or smaller quantity1 according  
to the nature of their  component       
principles4    ,water made boiling hot  
dissolves a greater quantity of those   
salts  which do not attract the moisture
 of the air1 than when it is cold2  and 
indeed it must be boiling hot to take up
 as much of them as it  is capable of   
dissolving3 but as for those which run  
in the air1 the  difference1 if there be
 any1 is imperceptible4    ,some        
,neutral ,salts have the property of    
shooting into crystals1 and  others have
 it not4    ,the nature of              
,crystallization is this3 ,water cannot 
dissolve1 nor keep  in solution1 more   
than a determinate quantity of any      
particular ,salt3  when therefore such a
 quantity of water is evaporated from   
the solution  of a ,salt capable of     
crystallization1 that the remainder     
contains just  as much ,salt as it can  

dissolve1 then by continuing the        
evaporation  the ,salt gradually        
recovers its solid form1 and concretes  
into several  little transparent masses 
called ,crystals4 ,these crystals have  
regular  figures1 all differing from one
 another according to the species of    
salt of which they are formed4          
,different methods of evaporating saline
  solutions have different effects on   
the figure and regularity of the        
crystals2 and each particular sort of   
salt requires a peculiar method  of     
evaporation to make its crystals        
perfectly regular4    ,a solution of    
salt designed for crystallization is    
usually evaporated  by means of fire to 
a pellicle2 that is1 till the ,salt     
begin to  concrete2 which is perceived  
by a kind of thin dark skin that gathers
  on the surface of the liquor1 and is  
formed of the crystallized  particles of
 ,salt4 ,when this pellicle appears the 
solution is suffered  to cool1 and the  
crystals form therein faster or slower1 

according to  the sort of salt in hand4 
,if the evaporation be carried on       
briskly to  perfect dryness1 no crystals
 will be formed1 and only an irregular  
mass  of salt will be obtained4    ,the 
reasons why no crystals appear when the 
evaporation is hastily  performed1 and  
carried on to dryness1 are1 first1 that 
the particles  of salt1 being always in 
motion while the solution is hot1 have  
not  time to exert their mutual         
affinities1 and to unite together as    
crystallization requires3 ,secondly1    
that a certain quantity of water  enters
 into the very composition of crystals2 
which is therefore  absolutely necessary
 to their formation1 and in a greater or
 smaller  proportion according to the   
nature of the ,salt#a4      #a ,those   
who have the curiosity to see a more    
particular account    of the            
,crystallization of ,neutral ,salts1 may
 read ,mr4 ,rouelle's    excellent      
,memoir on that subject1 among those of 
the ,academy of    ,sciences for #agdd4 

,if these crystallized salts be exposed 
to the fire1 they first part  with that 
moisture which is not necessary to a    
saline concretion1 and  which they      
retained only by means of their         
crystallization3 afterwards  they begin 
to flow1 but with different degrees of  
fusibility4    ,it must be observed1    
that certain salts melt as soon as they 
are  exposed to the fire2 namely1 those 
which retain a great deal of water  in  
crystallizing4 ,but this fluor which    
they so readily acquire must be         
carefully distinguished from actual     
fusion3 for it is owing only to  their  
superfluous humidity1 which heat renders
 capable of dissolving  and liquifying  
them2 so that when it is evaporated the 
,salt ceases to  be fluid1 and requires 
a much greater degree of fire to bring  
it into  real fusion4    ,the ,neutral  
,salts that do not crystallize may1     
indeed1 be dried by  evaporating the    
water which keeps them fluid2 but by    
becoming solid  they acquire no regular 

form2 they again attract the moisture of
  the air1 and are thereby melted into a
 liquor4 ,these may be called           
,liquescent ,salts4    ,most of the     
,neutral ,salts1 that consist of an     
,acid joined with a fixed  ,alkali1 or  
with an absorbent earth1 are themselves 
fixed and resist  the force of fire2 yet
 several of them1 if they be dissolved  
in water1  and the solution boiled and  
evaporated1 fly off along with the      
steams4          ,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,of   
the several ,sorts of ,saline           
,substances4      ,,section ,i4    ,of  
the ,,universal ,,acid4    ,the         
,universal ,acid is so called1 because  
it is in fact the ,acid which  is most  
universally diffused through all nature1
 in waters1 in the  atmosphere1 and in  
the bowels of the earth4 ,but it is     
seldom pure2  being almost always       
combined with some other substance4     
,that from which  we obtain it with most
 ease1 and in the greatest quantity1 is 
,vitriol1  a mineral which we shall     

consider afterwards3 and this is the    
reason  why it is called the ,vitriolic 
,acid2 the name by which it is best     
known4    ,when the ,vitriolic ,acid    
contains but little phlegm1 yet enough  
to give  it a fluid form1 it is called  
,oil of ,vitriol1 on account of a       
certain  unctuosity belonging to it4 ,in
 truth this name is very improperly     
bestowed on it2 for we shall afterwards 
see that1 bating this  unctuousness1 it 
has none of the properties of oils4 ,but
 this is not  the only impropriety in   
names that we shall have occasion to    
censure4    ,if the ,vitriolic ,acid    
contain much water1 it is then called   
,spirit of  ,vitriol4 ,when it does not 
contain enough to render it fluid1 and  
so is  in a solid form1 it is named the 
,icy ,oil of ,vitriol4    ,when ,oil of 
,vitriol highly concentrated is mixed   
with water1 they rush  into union with  
such impetuosity1 that1 the moment they 
touch each  other1 there arises a       
hissing noise1 like that of red-hot iron

 plunged  in cold water1 together with a
 very considerable degree of heat1      
proportioned to the degree to which the 
,acid was concentrated4    ,if1 instead 
of mixing this concentrated ,acid with  
water1 you only  leave it exposed to the
 air for some time1 it attracts the     
moisture  thereof1 and imbibes it most  
greedily4 ,both its bulk and its weight 
are  increased by this accession2 and if
 it be under an icy form1 that is1  if  
it be concreted1 the phlegm thus        
acquired will soon resolve it into  a   
fluid4    ,the addition of water renders
 the ,vitriolic ,acid1 and indeed all   
other  ,acids1 weaker in one sense2     
which is1 that when they are very       
aqueous  they leave on the tongue a much
 fainter taste of acidity1 and are less 
active in the solution of some          
particular bodies3 but that occasions   
no change in the strength of their      
affinities1 but in some cases  rather   
enables them to dissolve several        
substances1 which1 when well            

dephlegmated1 they are not capable of   
attacking4    ,the ,vitriolic ,acid     
combined to the point of saturation with
 a  particular absorbent earth1 the     
nature of which is not yet well known1  
forms a ,neutral ,salt that             
crystallizes4 ,this ,salt is called     
,alum1 and  the figure of its crystals  
is that of an octahedron1 or solid of   
eight  sides4 ,these octahedra are      
triangular pyramids1 the angles of which
 are  so cut off that four of the       
surfaces are hexagons1 and the other    
four  triangles4    ,there are several  
sorts of ,alum1 which differ according  
to the earths  combined with the        
,vitriolic ,acid4 ,alum dissolves easily
 in water1 and  in crystallization      
retains a considerable quantity of it2  
which is the  reason that being exposed 
to the fire it readily melts1 swelling  
and  puffing up as its superfluous      
moisture exhales4 ,when that is quite   
evaporated1 the remainder is called     
,burnt ,alum1 and is very difficult  to 

fuse4 ,the ,acid of the ,alum is partly 
dissipated by this calcination4  ,its   
taste is saltish1 with a degree of      
roughness and astringency4    ,the      
,vitriolic ,acid combined with certain  
earths forms a kind of  ,neutral ,salt  
called ,selenites1 which crystallizes in
 different forms  according to the      
nature of its earth4 ,there are         
numberless springs  of water infected   
with dissolved ,selenites2 but when this
 ,salt is  once crystallized1 it is     
exceeding difficult to dissolve it in   
water  a second time4 ,for that purpose 
a very great quantity of water is       
necessary1 and moreover it must boil2   
for as it cools most of the  dissolved  
,selenites takes a solid form1 and falls
 in a powder to the  bottom of the      
vessel4    ,if an ,alkali be presented  
to the ,selenites1 or to ,alum1 these   
,salts1 according to the principles we  
have laid down1 will be  thereby        
decomposed2 that is1 the ,acid will quit
 the earths1 and join  the ,alkali1 with

 which it hath a greater affinity4 ,and 
from this  conjunction of the ,vitriolic
 ,acid with a fixed ,alkali there       
results  another sort of ,neutral ,salt1
 which is called ,arcanum duplicatum1   
,sal de duobus1 and ,vitriolated        
,tartar1 because one of the fixed       
,alkalis most in use is called ,salt of 
,tartar4    ,vitriolated ,tartar is     
almost as hard to dissolve in water as  
the  ,selenites4 ,it shoots into        
eight-sided crystals1 having the apices 
of  the pyramids pretty obtuse4 ,its    
taste is saltish1 inclining to bitter2  
and it decrepitates on burning coals4   
,it requires a very great degree  of    
fire to make it flow4    ,the ,vitriolic
 ,acid is capable of uniting with the   
,phlogiston1 or rather  it has a greater
 affinity with it than with any other   
body3 whence  it follows1 that all      
compounds1 of which it makes a part1 may
 be  decomposed by means of the         
,phlogiston4    ,from the conjunction of
 the ,vitriolic ,acid with the          

,phlogiston arises  a compound called   
,mineral ,sulphur1 because it is found  
perfectly  formed in the bowels of the  
earth4 ,it is also called ,sulphur      
vivum1  or simply ,sulphur4    ,sulphur 
is absolutely insoluble in water1 and   
incapable of contracting  any sort of   
union with it4 ,it melts with a very    
moderate degree of  heat1 and sublimes  
in fine light downy tufts called        
,flowers of  ,sulphur4 ,by being thus   
sublimed1 it suffers no decomposition1  
let  the operation be repeated ever so  
often2 so that ,sublimed ,sulphur1 or   
,flower of ,sulphur1 hath exactly the   
same properties as ,sulphur that has    
never been sublimed4    ,if ,sulphur be 
exposed to a brisk heat in the open air1
 it takes fire1  burns1 and is wholly   
consumed4 ,this deflagration of ,sulphur
 is the  only means we have of          
decomposing it1 in order to obtain its  
,acid in  purity4 ,the ,phlogiston is   
destroyed by the flame1 and the ,acid   
exhales  in vapours3 these vapours      

collected have all the properties of the
  ,vitriolic ,acid1 and differ from it  
only as they still retain some  portion 
of the ,phlogiston2 which1 however1 soon
 quits them of its own  accord1 if the  
free access of the common air be not    
precluded4    ,the portion of           
,phlogiston retained by the ,acid of    
,sulphur is much more  considerable when
 that mineral is burnt gradually and    
slowly3 in that  case the vapours which 
rise from it have such a penetrating    
odour1  that they instantaneously       
suffocate any person who draws in a     
certain  quantity of them with his      
breath4 ,these vapours constitute what  
is  called the ,volatile ,spirit of     
,sulphur4 ,there is reason to think this
  portion of ,phlogiston which the ,acid
 retains is combined therewith in a     
manner different from that in which     
these two are united in the ,sulphur    
itself2 for1 as has just been observed1 
nothing but actual burning is  capable  
of separating the ,vitriolic ,acid and  

the ,phlogiston1 which by  their union  
form ,sulphur2 whereas in the ,volatile 
,spirit of ,sulphur  they separate      
spontaneously when exposed to the open  
air2 that is1 the  ,phlogiston flies off
 and leaves the ,acid1 which then       
becomes in every  respect similar to the
 ,vitriolic ,acid4    ,that the         
,volatile ,spirit of ,sulphur is a      
compound1 as we have asserted  it to be1
 appears evidently from hence1 that     
whenever the ,vitriolic  ,acid touches  
any substance containing the            
,phlogiston1 provided that  ,phlogiston 
be disengaged or opened to a certain    
degree1 a ,volatile  ,spirit of ,sulphur
 is infallibly and immediately          
generated4 ,this ,spirit  hath all the  
properties of ,acids1 but considerably  
weakened1 and of  course less           
perceptible4 ,it unites with absorbent  
earths or fixed  ,alkalis2 and with them
 forms ,neutral ,salts2 but when        
combined therewith  it may be separated 
from them by the ,vitriolic ,acid1 and  

indeed by  any of the mineral ,acids1   
because its affinities are weaker4      
,sulphur  hath the property of uniting  
with absorbent earths1 but not near so  
intimately as with fixed ,alkalis4      
,if equal parts of ,sulphur and an      
,alkali be melted together1 they        
incorporate with each other2 and from   
their conjunction proceeds a  compound  
of a most unpleasant smell1 much like   
that of rotten eggs1  and of a red      
colour nearly resembling that of an     
animal liver1 which  has occasioned it  
to bear the name of ,hepar ,sulphuris1  
or ,liver of  ,sulphur4    ,in this     
composition the fixed ,alkali           
communicates to the ,sulphur the        
property of dissolving in water3 and    
hence it comes that ,liver of  ,sulphur 
may be made as well when the ,alkali is 
dissolved by water into  a fluid1 as    
when it is fused by the action of fire4 
,sulphur has less affinity than any     
,acid with the fixed ,alkalis3 and      
therefore ,liver of ,sulphur may be     

decompounded by any ,acid whatever2     
which will unite with the fixed ,alkali1
 form therewith a ,neutral ,salt1  and  
separate the ,sulphur4    ,if ,liver of 
,sulphur be dissolved in water1 and an  
,acid poured thereon1  the liquor1 which
 was transparent before1 instantly turns
 to an opaque  white2 because the       
,sulphur1 being forced to quit its union
 with the  ,alkali1 loses at the same   
time the property of dissolving in      
water1 and  appears again in its own    
opaque form4 ,the liquor thus made white
 by the  ,sulphur is called ,milk of    
,sulphur4    ,if this liquor be suffered
 to stand still for some time1 the      
particles  of ,sulphur1 now most        
minutely divided1 gradually approach    
each other1  unite1 and fall insensibly 
to the bottom of the vessel2 and then   
the  liquor recovers its transparency4  
,the ,sulphur thus deposited on the     
bottom of the vessel is called the      
,magistery or ,precipitate of  ,sulphur4
 ,the names of ,magistery and           

,precipitate are also given to all      
substances whatever1 that are separated 
from another by this method2  which is  
the reason that we use the expression of
 precipitating one  substance by        
another1 to signify the separating one  
of them by means of  the other4         
,,section ,,ii4    ,of the ,,nitrous    
,,acid4    ,it is not certainly known   
what constitutes the difference between 
the  ,nitrous ,acid and the ,vitriolic  
,acid1 with regard to the constituent   
principles of each4 ,the most probable  
opinion is1 that the ,nitrous ,acid  is 
no other than the ,vitriolic ,acid      
combined with a certain quantity of     
,phlogiston by the means of             
putrefaction4 ,if it be so1 the         
,phlogiston  must be united with the    
,universal ,acid in another manner than 
it is in  sulphur1 and in its volatile  
spirit3 for the ,nitrous ,acid differs  
from  them both in its properties4 ,what
 gives ground for this opinion is1  that
 the ,nitrous ,acid is never found but  

in earths and stones which  have been   
impregnated with matters subject to     
putrefaction1 and which  therefore must 
contain the ,phlogiston4 ,for it is     
necessary just to  observe here1 though 
it be not yet proper to enter           
particularly into  the subject1 that all
 substances susceptible of putrefaction 
really  contain the ,phlogiston4    ,the
 ,nitrous ,acid combined with certain   
absorbent earths1 such as chalk1  marle1
 boles1 forms ,neutral ,salts which do  
not crystallize2 and which1  after being
 dried1 run in the air per deliquium4   
,all those ,neutral ,salts which consist
 of the ,nitrous ,acid joined to an     
earth1 may be decomposed by a fixed     
,alkali1 with which the ,acid unites1   
and deserts the earth2 and from this    
union of the ,nitrous ,acid with a      
fixed ,alkali results a new ,neutral    
,salt which is called ,nitre1 or        
,salt-peter4 ,this latter name signifies
 the ,salt of ,stone2 and1  in fact1    
,nitre is extracted from the stones and 

plaster1 in which it  forms1 by boiling 
them in water saturated with a fixed    
,alkali4    ,nitre shoots in long       
crystals adhering sideways to each      
other2 it has  a saltish taste1 which   
produces a sensation of cold on the     
tongue4    ,this ,salt easily dissolves 
in water2 which1 when boiling hot1 takes
 up  still a greater quantity thereof4  
,it flows with a pretty moderate degree 
of heat1 and continues fixed  therein2  
but being urged by a brisk fire1 and in 
the open air1 it lets  go some part of  
its ,acid1 and indeed flies off itself  
in part4    ,the most remarkable        
property of ,nitre1 and that which      
characterizes it1  is its fulmination or
 explosion2 the nature of which is as   
follows3    ,when ,nitre touches any    
substance containing a ,phlogiston1 and 
actually  ignited1 that is1 actually on 
fire1 it bursts out into a flame1 burns1
  and is decompounded with much noise4  
,in this deflagration the ,acid is      
dissipated1 and totally separated from  

the ,alkali1 which now remains by       
itself4    ,indeed the ,acid1 at least  
the greatest part of it1 is by this     
means  quite destroyed4 ,the ,alkali    
which is left when ,nitre is            
decompounded  by deflagration1 is called
 in general ,fixed ,nitre1 and1 more    
particularly1 ,nitre fixed by such and  
such a substance as was used  in the    
operation4 ,but if ,nitre be deflagrated
 with an inflammable  substance         
containing the vitriolic ,acid1 as      
sulphur1 for instance1  the fixed ,salt 
produced by the deflagration is not a   
pure ,alkali1 but  retains a good deal  
of the vitriolic ,acid1 and1 by         
combining therewith1  hath now formed a 
neutral ,salt4    ,hitherto ,chymists   
have been at a loss for the reason why  
,nitre flames1  and is decompounded in  
the manner above-mentioned1 when it     
comes in  contact with a ,phlogiston    
properly circumstanced4 ,for my part1 ,i
  conjecture it to be for the same      
reason that vitriolated tartar is  also 

decompounded by the addition of a       
,phlogiston2 viz4 the ,nitrous  ,acid1  
having a greater affinity with the      
,phlogiston than with the  fixed        
,alkali1 naturally quits the latter to  
join with the former1 and  so produces a
 kind of sulphur1 differing probably    
from the common  sulphur1 formed by the 
vitriolic ,acid1 in that it is          
combustible to  such a degree1 as to    
take fire and be consumed in the very   
moment of  its production2 so that it is
 impossible to prevent its being thus   
destroyed1 and consequently impossible  
to save it4 ,in support of this  opinion
 let it be considered1 that the         
concurrence of the ,phlogiston  is      
absolutely necessary to produce this    
deflagration1 and that the  matter of   
pure fire is altogether incapable of    
effecting it3 for though  ,nitre be     
exposed to the most violent degree of   
fire1 even that in the  focus of the    
most powerful burning-glass1 it will not
 flame2 nor will  that effect ever      

happen till the ,nitre be brought into  
contact with a  ,phlogiston properly so 
called1 that is1 the matter of fire     
existing  as a principle of some body2  
and it is moreover necessary that this  
,phlogiston be actually on fire1 and    
agitated with the igneous motion1  or   
else that the ,nitre itself be red hot1 
and so penetrated with fire  as to      
kindle any inflammable matter that      
touches it4    ,this experiment1 among  
others1 helps to shew the distinction   
that ought  to be made between pure     
elementary fire1 and fire become a      
principle of  bodies1 to which we have  
given the name of ,phlogiston4          
,before we leave this subject1 we shall 
observe1 that ,nitre deflagrates  only  
with such substances as contain the     
,phlogiston in its simplest and  purest 
form2 such as charcoal1 sulphur1 and the
 metalline substances2  and that1 though
 it will not deflagrate without the     
addition of some  combustible matter1 it
 is nevertheless the only known body    

that will  burn1 and make other         
combustibles burn with it1 in close     
vessels1  without the admission of fresh
 air4    ,the ,nitrous ,acid hath not so
 great an affinity with earths and      
,alkalis  as the vitriolic ,acid hath   
with the same substances2 whence it     
follows  that the vitriolic ,acid       
decomposes all neutral salts arising    
from  a combination of the ,nitrous     
,acid with an earth or an ,alkali4 ,the 
vitriolic ,acids expells the ,nitrous   
,acid1 unites with the substance  which 
served it for a basis1 and therewith    
forms a neutral salt1 which  is an      
,alum1 a ,selenites1 or a vitriolated   
,tartar1 according to the  nature of    
that basis4    ,the ,nitrous ,acid1 when
 thus separated from its basis by the   
vitriolic  ,acid1 is named ,spirit of   
,nitre1 or ,aqua ,fortis4 ,if it be     
dephlegmated1 or contain but little     
superfluous water1 it exhales in        
reddish vapours2 these vapours1 being   
condensed and collected1 form  a liquor 

of a brownish yellow1 that incessantly  
emits vapours of the  same colour1 and  
of a pungent disagreeable smell4 ,these 
characters have  procured it the names  
of ,smoaking ,spirit of ,nitre1 and     
,yellow ,aqua  ,fortis4 ,this property  
in the ,nitrous ,acid1 of exhaling in   
vapours1  shews it to be less fixed than
 the vitriolic ,acid2 for the latter1   
though ever so thoroughly dephlegmated1 
never yields any vapours1 nor  has it   
any smell4      ,,section ,,iii4    ,of 
the ,,acid ,,of ,,sea-,,salt4    ,the   
,acid of ,sea-salt is so called because 
it is in fact obtained from  such       
,sea-salt as is used in our kitchens4   
,it is not certainly known  in what this
 ,acid differs from the vitriolic and   
the nitrous1 with  regard to its        
constituent parts4 ,several of the      
ablest ,chymists1 such  as ,becher and  
,stahl1 are of opinion that the ,marine 
,acid is no other  than the ,universal  
,acid united to a particular principle  
which they  call a ,mercurial ,earth4   

,concerning this earth we shall have    
occasion  to say more1 when we come to  
treat of metallic substances3 but in the
  mean time it must be owned1 that the  
truth of this opinion is so far  from   
being proved by a sufficient number of  
experiments1 that the  very existence of
 such a mercurial earth is not yet well 
established2  and therefore1 that we may
 not exceed the bounds of our knowledge1
  we shall content ourselves with       
delivering here the properties which    
characterize the ,acid in question1 and 
by which it is distinguished  from the  
two others considered above4    ,when it
 is combined with absorbent earths1 such
 as lime and chalk1  it forms a neutral 
salt that does not crystallize1 and1    
when dried1  attracts the moisture of   
the air4 ,if the absorbent earth be not 
fully  saturated with the ,marine ,acid1
 the salt thereby formed has the        
properties of a fixed ,alkali3 and this 
is what made us say1 when we  were on   
the subject of those salts1 that they   

might be imitated by  combining an earth
 with an ,acid4 ,the ,marine ,acid1 like
 the rest1 hath  not so great an        
affinity with earths as with fixed      
,alkalis4    ,when it is combined with  
the latter1 it forms a neutral salt     
which  shoots into cubical crystals4    
,this salt is inclined to grow moist in 
the air1 and is consequently one of     
those which water dissolves in  equal   
quantities1 at least as to sense1       
whether it be boiling hot or  quite     
cold4    ,the affinity of this ,acid    
with ,alkalis and absorbent ,earths is  
not  so great as that of the vitriolic  
and nitrous ,acids with the same        
substances3 whence it follows1 that1    
when combined therewith1 it may be      
separated from them by either of those  
,acids4    ,the ,acid of ,sea-salt1 thus
 disengaged from the substance which    
served  it for a basis1 is called       
,spirit of ,salt4 ,when it contains but 
little  phlegm it is of a lemon colour1 
and continually emits many white1 very  

dense1 and very elastic vapours2 on     
which account it is named the  ,smoaking
 ,spirit of ,salt4 ,its smell is not    
disagreeable1 nor much  unlike that of  
saffron2 but extremely quick and        
suffocating when it  smokes4    ,the    
,acid of ,sea-salt1 like the other two1 
seems to have a greater  affinity with  
the ,phlogiston1 than with fixed        
,alkalis4 ,we are led  to this opinion  
by a very curious operation1 which gives
 ground to  think that ,sea-salt may be 
decomposed by the proper application of 
a  substance containing the ,phlogiston4
    ,from the ,marine ,acid combined    
with a ,phlogiston results a kind  of   
,sulphur1 differing from the common sort
 in many respects2 but  particularly in 
this property1 that it takes fire of    
itself upon  being exposed to the open  
air4 ,this combination is called        
,english  ,phosphorus1 ,phosphorus of   
,urine1 because it is generally prepared
  from urine2 or1 only ,phosphorus4     
,this combination of the ,marine ,acid  

with a ,phlogiston is not easily        
effected2 because it requires a         
difficult operation in appropriated     
vessels4 ,for these reasons it does not 
always succeed2 and ,phosphorus  is so  
scarce and dear1 that hitherto ,chymists
 have not been able to  make on it the  
experiments necessary to discover all   
its properties4 ,if  ,phosphorus be     
suffered to burn away in the air1 a     
small quantity of an  acid liquor may be
 obtained from it1 which seems to be    
spirit of salt1  but either altered1 or 
combined with some adventitious matter2 
for it  has several properties that are 
not to be found in the pure ,marine     
,acid2 such as1 leaving a fixed fusible 
substance behind it when exposed  to a  
strong fire1 and being easily combined  
with the ,phlogiston so as  to reproduce
 a ,phosphorus4    ,phosphorus resembles
 sulphur in several of its properties3  
it is  soluble in oils2 it melts with a 
gentle heat2 it is very combustible2  it
 burns without producing soot2 and its  

flame is vivid and bluish4    ,from what
 has been said of the union of the ,acid
 of ,sea-salt with a  fixed ,alkali1 and
 of the neutral salt resulting          
therefrom1 it may  be concluded that    
this neutral salt is no other than the  
common  kitchen-salt4 ,but it must be   
observed1 that the fixed ,alkali1 which 
is  the natural basis of the common salt
 obtained from sea-water1 is of a  sort 
somewhat differing from fixed ,alkalis  
in general1 and hath certain  properties
 peculiar to itself4 ,for1    #a4 ,the  
basis of ,sea-salt differs from other   
fixed ,alkalis in this1 that  it        
crystallizes like a neutral salt4    #b4
 ,it does not grow moist in the air2 on 
the contrary1 when exposed  to the air1 
it loses part of the water that united  
with it in  crystallization1 by which   
means its crystals lose their           
transparency1  become1 as it were1      
mealy1 and fall into a fine flour4      
#c4 ,when combined with the vitriolic   
,acid to the point of saturation1  it   

forms a neutral salt differing from     
vitriolated tartar1 first1  in the      
figure of its crystals1 which are oblong
 six-sided solids2  secondly1 in its    
quantity of water1 which in             
crystallization unites  therewith in a  
much greater proportion than with       
vitriolated tartar2  whence it follows1 
that this salt dissolves in water more  
readily than  vitriolated tartar2       
thirdly1 in that it flows with a very   
moderate  degree of heat1 whereas       
vitriolated tartar requires a very      
fierce one4    ,if the ,acid of         
,sea-salt be separated from its basis by
 means of the  vitriolic ,acid1 it is   
easy to see that1 when the operation is 
finished1  the salt we have been        
speaking of must be the result4 ,a      
famous ,chymist1  named ,glauber1 was   
the first who extracted the ,spirit of  
,salt in  this manner1 examined the     
neutral salt resulting from his process1
  and1 finding it to have some singular 
properties1 called it his ,sal          

mirabile1 or wonderful ,salt3 on this   
account it is still called  ,glauber's  
,sal mirabile1 or plainly ,glauber's    
,salt4    #d4 ,when the basis of        
,sea-salt is combined with the nitrous  
,acid to  the point of saturation1 there
 results a neutral salt1 or a sort of   
nitre1 differing from the common nitre1 
first1 in that it attracts  the moisture
 of the air pretty strongly2 and this   
makes it difficult  to crystallize2     
secondly1 in the figure of its crystals1
 which are  parallelopipeds2 and this   
has procured it the name of             
,quadrangular  ,nitre4    ,common salt1 
or the neutral salt formed by combining 
the ,marine ,acid  with this particular 
sort of fixed ,alkali1 has a taste well 
known to  every body4 ,the figure of its
 crystals is exactly cubical4 ,it grows 
moist in the air1 and1 when exposed to  
the fire1 it bursts1 before it  melts1  
into many little fragments1 with a      
crackling noise2 which is  called the   
,decrepitation of ,sea-salt4    ,that   

neutral salt mentioned above1 which is  
formed by combining the  ,marine ,acid  
with a common fixed ,alkali1 and called 
,sal febrifugum  ,sylvii1 hath also this
 property4    ,india furnishes us with a
 saline substance1 known by the name of 
,borax1 which flows very easily1 and    
then takes the form of glass4 ,it  is of
 great use in facilitating the fusion of
 metallic substances4 ,it  possesses    
some of the properties of fixed         
,alkalis1 which has induced  certain    
,chymists to represent it1 through      
mistake1 as a pure fixed  ,alkali4      
,by mixing borax with the vitriolic     
,acid1 ,mr4 ,homberg obtained from  it a
 salt1 which sublimes in a certain      
degree of heat1 whenever such  a mixture
 is made4 ,this salt has very singular  
properties2 but its  nature is not yet  
thoroughly understood4 ,it dissolves in 
water with  great difficulty2 it is not 
volatile1 though it rises by sublimation
  from the borax4 ,according to ,mr4    
,rouelle's observation1 it rises then   

only by means of the water which carries
 it up3 for1 when once made1  it abides 
the fiercest fire1 flows and vitrifies  
just as borax does3  provided care be   
taken to free it previously from        
moisture by drying  it properly4 ,mr4   
,homberg called it ,sedative ,salt1 on  
account of its  medical effects4 ,the   
sedative salt hath the appearance1 and  
some of the  properties1 of a neutral   
salt2 for it shoots into crystals1 and  
does  not change the colour of violets2 
but it acts the part of an ,acid with   
regard to ,alkalis1 uniting with them to
 the point of saturation1 and  thereby  
forming a true neutral salt4 ,it also   
acts1 like the ,acid of  vitriol on all 
neutral salts2 that is1 it discharges   
the ,acid of such  as have not the      
vitriolic ,acid in their composition4   
,since ,mr4 ,homberg's time it hath been
 discovered1 that a sedative salt  may  
be made either with the nitrous or with 
the marine ,acid2 and that  sublimation 
is not necessary to extract it from the 

borax1 but that it  may be obtained by  
crystallization only4 ,for this latter  
discovery we  are indebted to ,mr4      
,geoffry1 as we are to ,mr4 ,lemery for 
the former4    ,since that time ,m4     
,baron d',henouville1 an able ,chymist1 
hath shewn that  a sedative salt may be 
obtained by the means of vegetable      
,acids2 and  hath lately demonstrated1  
in some excellent papers published in   
the  collection of ,memoirs written by  
the correspondents of the ,academy of   
,sciences1 that the sedative salt exists
 actually and perfectly in the  borax1  
and that it is not produced by mixing   
,acids with that saline  substance1 as  
it seems all the ,chymists before him   
imagined4 ,this he  proves convincingly 
from his analysis of borax1 7which      
thereby appears  to be nothing else but 
the sedative salt united with that fixed
 ,alkali  which is the basis of         
,sea-salt7 and from his regenerating the
 same  borax by uniting together that   
,alkali and the sedative salt3 a proof  

the most complete that can possibly be  
produced in natural philosophy1  and    
equivalent to demonstration itself4     
,in order to finish what remains to be  
said upon the several sorts of  saline  
substances1 we should now speak of the  
,acids obtained from  vegetables and    
animals1 and also of the volatile       
,alkalis3 but1 seeing  these saline     
substances differ from those of which we
 have already  treated1 only as they are
 variously altered by the unions they   
have  contracted with certain principles
 of vegetables and animals1 of which    
nothing has been yet said1 it is proper 
to defer being particular  concerning   
them1 till we have explained those      
principles4          ,,chap4 ,v4    ,of 
,,lime4      ,any substance whatever1   
that has been roasted a considerable    
time in  a strong fire without melting1 
is commonly called a ,calx4 ,stones  and
 metals are the principal subjects that 
have the property of being  converted   
into ,calces4 ,we shall treat of        

,metalline ,calces in a  subsequent     
chapter1 and in this confine ourselves  
to the ,calx of  ,stone1 known by the   
name of ,lime4    ,in treating of earths
 in general we observed that they may be
 divided  into two principal kinds2 one 
of which actually and properly flows    
when  exposed to the action of fire1 and
 turns to glass2 whence it is called  a 
fusible or vitrifiable earth2 the other 
resists the utmost force  of fire1 and  
is therefore said to be an unfusible or 
unvitrifiable  earth4 ,the latter is    
also not uncommonly called calcinable   
earth2  though sundry sorts of unfusible
 earths are incapable of acquiring by   
the action of fire all the qualities of 
calcined earth1 or ,lime  properly so   
called3 such earths are particularly    
distinguished by the  denomination of   
refractory earths4    ,as the different 
sorts of stones are nothing more than   
compounds of  different earths1 they    
have the same properties with the earths
 of  which they are composed1 and may1  

like them1 be divided into fusible  or  
vitrifiable1 and unfusible or           
calcinable4 ,the fusible stones are     
generally denoted by the name of        
,flints2 the calcinable stones1  again1 
are the several sorts of marbles1       
cretaceous stones1 those  commonly      
called free-stones1 c4 some of which1 as
 they make the best  ,lime1 are1 by way 
of eminence1 called ,lime-stones4       
,sea-shells1 also1  and stones that     
abound with fossile shells1 are capable 
of being burnt  to ,lime4    ,all these 
substances1 being exposed1 for a longer 
or shorter time1 as  the nature of each 
requires1 to the violent action of fire1
 are said to  be calcined4 ,by          
calcination they lose a considerable    
part of their  weight1 acquire a white  
colour1 and become friable though ever  
so solid  before2 as1 for instance1 the 
very hardest marbles4 ,these substances1
  when thus calcined1 take the name of  
,quick ,lime4    ,water penetrates      
,quick ,lime1 and rushes into it with   

vast activity4  ,if a lump of newly     
calcined ,lime be thrown into water1 it 
instantly  excites almost as great a    
noise1 ebullition1 and smoke1 as would  
be  produced by a piece of red-hot iron2
 with such a degree of heat too1  that1 
if the ,lime be in due proportion to the
 water1 it will set fire  to combustible
 bodies2 as hath unfortunately happened 
to vessels laden  with ,quick ,lime1 on 
their springing a small leak4    ,as    
soon as ,quick ,lime is put into water1 
it swells1 and falls asunder  into an   
infinite number of minute particles3 in 
a word1 it is in a  manner dissolved by 
the water1 which forms therewith a sort 
of white  paste called ,slacked ,lime4  
,if the quantity of water be            
considerable enough for the ,lime to    
form  with it a white liquor1 this      
liquor is called ,lac ,calcis2 which1   
being left some time to settle1 grows   
clear and transparent1 the ,lime  which 
was suspended therein1 and occasioned   
its opacity1 subsiding to  the bottom of

 the vessel4 ,then there forms on the   
surface of the liquor  a crystalline    
pellicle1 somewhat opaque and           
dark-coloured1 which being  skimmed off 
is reproduced from time to time4 ,this  
matter is called  ,cremor ,calcis4      
,slacked ,lime gradually grows dry1 and 
takes the form of a solid body1  but    
full of cracks and destitute of         
firmness4 ,the event is different  when 
you mix it up1 while yet a paste1 with a
 certain quantity of  uncalcined stony  
matter1 such as sand1 for example3 then 
it takes  the name of ,mortar1 and      
gradually acquires1 as it grows drier   
and  older1 a hardness equal to that of 
the best stones4 ,this is a very        
singular property of ,lime1 nor is it   
easy to account for it3 but it is  a    
beneficial one2 for every body knows the
 use of ,mortar in building4    ,quick  
,lime attracts the moisture of the air1 
in the same manner as  concentrated     
acids1 and dry fixed alkalis2 but not in
 such quantities  as to render it fluid3

 it only falls into extremely small     
particles1  takes the form of a fine    
powder1 and the title of ,lime slacked  
in the  air4    ,lime once slacked1     
however dry it may afterwards appear1   
always  retains a large portion of the  
water it had imbibed2 which cannot be   
separated from it again but by means of 
a violent calcination4 ,being so        
recalcined it returns to be ,quick      
,lime1 recovering all its properties4   
,besides this great affinity of ,quick  
,lime with water1 which discovers  a    
saline character1 it has several other  
saline properties1 to be  afterwards    
examined1 much resembling those of fixed
 alkalis4 ,in  ,chymistry it acts very  
nearly as those salts do1 and may be    
considered  as holding the middle rank  
between a pure absorbent earth and a    
fixed  alkali3 and this hath induced    
many ,chymists to think that ,lime      
contains  a true salt1 to which all the 
properties it possesses in common with  
salts may be attributed4    ,but as the 

chymical examination of this subject    
hath long been  neglected1 the existence
 of a saline substance in ,lime hath    
been long  doubtful4 ,mr4 du ,fay1      
author of some excellent chymical       
experiments1  was one of the first who  
obtained a salt from ,lime1 by          
lixiviating  it with a great deal of    
water1 which he afterwards evaporated4  
,but  the quantity of salt he obtained  
by that means was very small2 nor  was  
it of an alkaline nature1 as one would  
think it should have been1  considering 
the properties of ,lime4 ,mr4 du ,fay   
did not carry his  experiments on this  
subject any further1 probably for want  
of time2 nor  did he determine of what  
nature the salt was4    ,mr4 ,malouin   
had the curiosity to examine this salt  
of ,lime1 and  soon found that it was   
nothing else but what was above called  
,cremor ,calcis4 ,he found1 moreover1   
that1 by mixing a fixed alkali  with    
lime-water1 a vitriolated tartar was    
formed2 that1 by mixing  therewith an   

alkali like the basis of sea-salt1 a    
,glauber's salt was  produced2 and1     
lastly1 by combining lime with a        
substance abounding  in phlogiston1 he  
obtained a true sulphur4 ,these very    
ingenious  experiments prove to a       
demonstration1 that the vitriolic acid  
constitutes the salt of ,lime3 for1 as  
hath been shewn1 no other acid is       
capable of forming such combinations4   
,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,malouin1      
having forced the vitriolic acid of this
 salt to combine with a  phlogiston1    
found its basis to be earthy1 and       
analogous to that of the  selenites3    
whence he concluded1 that the salt of   
,lime is a true neutral  salt1 of the   
same kind as the selenites4 ,mr4        
,malouin tells us he found  several     
other salts in ,lime4 ,but as none of   
them was a fixed alkali1  and as all the
 saline properties of ,lime have an     
affinity with those of  that kind of    
salt1 there is great reason to think    
that all those salts  are foreign to    

,lime1 and that their union with it is  
merely accidental4    ,i myself have    
made several experiments in order to get
 some insight  into the saline nature of
 ,lime1 and shall here produce the      
result  with all possible conciseness4  
,i took several stones of different     
kinds1 some of which produced by        
calcination a very strong ,lime1 and    
others but a very weak one4 ,these ,i   
impregnated with different saline       
substances1 acids1 alkalis1 and         
neutrals1 and then exposed them all  to 
the same degree of fire1 which was a    
pretty strong one1 and long  enough     
continued to have made very good ,lime  
of stones the most  difficult to        
calcine4 ,the consequence was1 that1 in 
the first place1  those stones which    
naturally made but a weak ,lime were    
not1 by this  process1 converted into a 
stronger ,lime2 and1 moreover1 that none
 of  these stones1 even such as would   
naturally have produced the most  active
 ,lime1 had acquired the properties of  

,lime4 ,these experiments ,i  varied    
many ways1 employing different          
proportions of saline matters1  and     
almost every possible degree of fire1   
and constantly observed1  after         
calcination1 that all those stones were 
so much the farther from  the nature of 
,lime1 as they had been combined with   
larger doses of  salts4 ,among those    
which were impregnated with the greatest
 proportion  of salts1 and had suffered 
the greatest violence of fire1 ,i       
observed  some that had begun to flow1  
and were in a manner vitrified4 ,now1 as
  the same subject cannot be1 at one and
 the same time1 in the state  of glass  
and of ,lime too2 as a body cannot      
approach to one of these  states but in 
proportion as it recedes from the other2
 and as salts in  general dispose those 
bodies to fusion and vitrification which
 are in  themselves the most averse to  
either1 ,i concluded from my            
experiments1  that the saline substances
 ,i used1 had1 by acting as fluxes upon 

the  stones1 prevented their            
calcination2 that consequently we may   
suspect  there is no saline matter in   
the composition of ,lime1 as ,lime2 and 
that  ,lime does not owe its saline and 
alkaline properties to any salt2 or at  
least that1 if it does owe those        
properties to a salt1 such salt must  be
 naturally and originally combined with 
the matter of the stone in  so just a   
proportion1 that it is impossible to    
increase the quantity  thereof without  
prejudicing the ,lime1 and depriving it 
in some measure  of its virtue4 ,this   
theory agrees perfectly with the        
illustrious  ,stahl's opinion2 for he   
thinks1 as we observed in discoursing of
 salts  in general1 that every saline   
substance is but an earth combined in  a
 certain manner with water4 ,this notion
 he applies to ,lime1 and  says1 that   
fire only subtilizes and attenuates the 
earthy matter1 and  thereby renders it  
capable of uniting with water in such a 
manner1 that  the result of their       

combination shall be a substance having 
saline  properties2 and that ,lime      
accordingly never acquires these        
properties  till it be combined with    
water4    ,i have dwelt longer on the   
,salt of ,lime than ,i shall on any     
other  particular2 because the subject1 
though in itself of great importance1   
has hitherto been but little attended   
to1 and because the experiments  here   
recited are entirely new4    ,lime      
unites with all acids1 and in           
conjunction with them exhibits  various 
phenomena4    ,the vitriolic acid poured
 upon ,lime dissolves it with           
effervescence and  heat4 ,from this     
mixture there exhales a great quantity  
of vapours1 in  smell and colour        
perfectly like those of sea-salt2 from  
which1 however1  they are found to be   
very different when collected into a    
liquor4 ,from  this combination of the  
vitriolic acid with ,lime arises a      
neutral salt1  which shoots into        
crystals1 and is of the same kind with  

the selenetic  salt obtained from ,lime 
by ,mr4 ,malouin4    ,the nitrous acid  
poured upon ,lime dissolves it in like  
manner with  effervescence and heat3 but
 the solution is transparent1 and       
therein  differs from the former1 which 
is opaque4 ,from this mixture there     
arises a neutral salt1 which does not   
crystallize1 and has withal  the very   
singular property of being volatile1 and
 rising wholly by  distillation in a    
liquid form4 ,this phenomenon is so much
 the more  remarkable1 as ,lime1 the    
basis of this salt1 is one of the most  
fixed  bodies known in ,chymistry4      
,with the acid of sea-salt ,lime forms  
also a singular sort of salt1  which    
greedily imbibes the moisture of the    
air4 ,we shall have occasion  to take   
further notice of it in another place4  
,these experiments made on ,lime with   
acids are likewise quite new4 ,we  are  
indebted for them to ,mr4 ,du ,hamel of 
the ,academy of ,sciences1 whose        
admirable ,memoirs on several subjects  

shew his extensive knowledge in  all    
parts of ,natural ,philosophy4    ,lime 
applied to fixed alkalis adds           
considerably to their caustic  quality1 
and makes them more penetrating and     
active4 ,an alkaline  lixivium in which 
,lime hath been boiled1 being evaporated
 to dryness1  forms a very caustic      
substance1 which flows in the fire much 
more  easily1 attracts and retains      
moisture much more strongly1 than fixed 
alkalis that have not been so treated4  
,an alkali thus acuated by ,lime  is    
called the ,caustic ,stone1 or          
,potential ,cautery2 because it is      
employed by surgeons to produce eschars 
on the skin and cauterize it4           
,,chap4 ,,vi4    ,of ,metallic          
,substances in general4      ,metallic  
,substances are heavy1 glittering1      
opaque1 fusible bodies4 ,they  consist  
chiefly of a vitrifiable earth united   
with the phlogiston4    ,several        
,chymists insist on a third principle in
 these bodies1 and have  given it the   

name of ,mercurial ,earth2 which1       
according to ,becher and  ,stahl1 is the
 very same that being combined with the 
vitriolic acid  forms and characterizes 
the acid of sea-salt4 ,the existence of 
this  principle hath not yet been       
demonstrated by any decisive experiment2
  but we shall shew that there are      
pretty strong reasons for admitting it4 
,we shall begin with mentioning the     
experiments which prove ,metallic       
,substances to consist of a vitrifiable 
earth united with the  phlogiston4 ,the 
first is this3 if they be calcined in   
such a manner  as to have no            
communication with any inflammable      
matter1 they will be  spoiled of all    
their properties1 and reduced to an     
earth or calx1 that  has neither the    
splendour nor the ductility of a metal1 
and in a strong  fire turns to an actual
 glass1 instead of flowing like a metal4
    ,the second is1 that the calx or the
 glass resulting from a metal thus      
decomposed1 recovers all its metalline  

properties by being fused in  immediate 
contact with an inflammable substance1  
capable of restoring  the phlogiston of 
which calcination had deprived it4      
,on this occasion we must observe1 that 
,chymists have not yet been  able1 by   
adding the phlogiston1 to give the      
properties of metals to  all sorts of   
vitrifiable earths indiscriminately2 but
 to such only as  originally made a part
 of some metallic body4 ,for example1 a 
compound  cannot be made with the       
phlogiston and sand that shall have the 
least  resemblance of a metal3 and this 
is what seems to point out the reality  
of a third principle1 as necessary to   
form the metalline combination4  ,this  
principle may probably remain united    
with the vitrifiable earth  of a        
metallic substance1 when reduced to a   
glass2 whence it follows1  that such    
vitrified metals require only the       
addition of a phlogiston to  enable them
 to appear again in their pristine form4
    ,it may be inferred from another    

experiment1 that the calx and the glass 
of a metal are not its pure vitrifiable 
earth1 properly so called3 for  by      
repeated or long-continued calcinations1
 such a calx or glass may  be rendered  
incapable of ever resuming the metalline
 form1 in whatever  manner the          
phlogiston be afterwards applied to it2 
so that by this  means it is brought    
into the condition of a pure vitrifiable
 earth1  absolutely free from any       
mixture4 ,those ,chymists who patronize 
the  ,mercurial earth1 produce many     
other proofs of the existence of that   
principle in ,metallic ,substances2 but 
they would be misplaced in an           
elementary treatise like this4    ,when 
by adding the phlogiston to a metallic  
glass we restore it to the  form of a   
metal1 we are said to reduce1           
resuscitate1 or revivify  that metal4   
,metallic ,substances are of different  
kinds1 and are divided into  ,metals and
 ,semi-metals4    ,those are called     
,metals which1 besides their metalline  

splendour  and appearance1 are also     
malleable2 that is1 have the property of
  stretching under the hammer1 and by   
that means of being wrought into        
different forms without breaking4       
,those which have only the metalline    
splendour and appearance1 without       
malleability1 are called ,semi-metals4  
,metals are also further subdivided into
 two sorts2 viz4 ,perfect and           
,imperfect ,metals4    ,the ,perfect    
,metals are those which suffer no damage
 or change whatever  by the most violent
 and most lasting action of fire4       
,the ,imperfect ,metals are those which 
by the force of fire1 may be  deprived  
of their phlogiston1 and consequently of
 their metalline form4    ,when but a   
moderate degree of fire is employed to  
deprive a ,metal of  its phlogiston1 the
 metal is said to be calcined2 and then 
it appears  in the form of a powdered   
earth1 which is called a ,calx3 and this
  metalline calx being exposed to a more
 violent degree of fire melts and  turns

 to glass4    ,metallic ,substances have
 an affinity with acids3 but not equally
 with  all2 that is1 every ,metallic    
,substance is not capable of uniting and
  joining with every acid4    ,when an  
acid unites with a ,metallic ,substance 
there commonly arises  an ebullition1   
attended with a kind of hissing noise   
and fuming  exhalations4 ,by degrees1 as
 the union becomes more perfect1 the    
particles of the metal combining with   
the acid become invisible3 this  is     
termed ,dissolution2 and when a         
metalline mass thus appears in an  acid1
 the metal is said to be dissolved by   
that acid4 ,it is proper  to observe1   
that acids act upon ,metalline          
,substances1 in one respect1  just as   
they do upon alkalis and absorbent      
earths3 for an acid cannot  take up     
above such a certain proportion thereof 
as is sufficient to  saturate it1 to    
destroy several of its properties1 and  
weaken others4  ,for example1 when an   
acid is combined with a metal to the    

point of  saturation1 it loses its      
taste1 does not turn the blue colour of 
a  vegetable red1 and its affinity with 
water is considerably impaired4 ,on  the
 other hand1 ,metalline ,substances1    
which when pure are incapable of        
uniting with water1 by being joined with
 an acid acquire the property  of       
dissolving in water4 ,these combinations
 of ,metalline ,substances with  acids  
form different sorts of neutral salts2  
some of which have the  property of     
shooting into crystals1 while others    
have it not3 most of  them1 when        
thoroughly dried1 attract the moisture  
of the air4    ,the affinity which      
,metalline ,substances have with acids  
is less than  that which absorbent      
earths and fixed alkalis have with the  
same  acids2 so that all metalline salts
 may be decompounded by one of these    
substances1 which will unite with the   
acid1 and precipitate the metal4        
,metalline ,substances thus separated   
from an acid solvent are called         

,magisteries and ,precipitates of       
metals4 ,none of these precipitates1    
except those of the perfect metals1     
retain the metalline form3 most of      
their phlogiston hath been destroyed by 
the solution and precipitation1  and    
must be restored before they can recover
 their properties4 ,in  short1 they are 
nearly in the same state with ,metalline
 ,substances  deprived of their         
phlogiston by calcination2 and          
accordingly such a  precipitate is      
called a ,calx4    ,a metalline calx    
prepared in this manner loses a greater 
or a less  portion of its phlogiston1   
the more or less effectually and        
thoroughly  the ,metalline ,substance1  
of which it made a part1 was dissolved  
by the  acid4    ,metallic ,substances  
have affinities with each other which   
differ  according to their different    
kinds3 but this is not universal2 for   
some  of them are incapable of any sort 
of union with some others4    ,it must  
be observed1 that ,metallic ,substances 

will not unite1 except  they be both in 
a similar state2 that is1 both in a     
,metalline form1 or  both in the form of
 a ,glass2 for a ,metalline ,substance  
retaining its  phlogiston cannot        
contract an union with any metallic     
glass1 even its  own4          ,,chap4  
,,vii4    ,of ,,metals4      ,there are 
six ,metals1 of which two are ,perfect  
and four ,imperfect4 ,the  perfect      
,metals are ,gold and ,silver2 the      
others are ,copper1 ,tin1 ,lead1  and   
,iron4 ,some ,chymists admit a seventh  
,metal1 to wit1 ,quick-silver3  but as  
it is not malleable1 it has been        
generally considered as a  metallic body
 of a particular kind4 ,we shall soon   
have occasion to  examine it more       
minutely4    ,the ancient ,chymists1 or 
rather the ,alchymists1 who fancied a   
certain  relation or analogy between    
,metals and the ,heavenly ,bodies1      
bestowed  on the seven ,metals1         
reckoning ,quick-silver one of them1 the
 names of  the seven ,planets of the    

,ancients1 according to the affinity    
which  they imagined they observed      
between those several bodies4 ,thus     
,gold  was called ,sol1 ,silver ,luna1  
,copper ,venus1 ,tin ,jupiter1 ,lead    
,saturn1 ,iron ,mars1 and ,quick-silver 
,mercury4 ,though these names  were     
assigned for reasons merely chimerical1 
yet they still keep their  ground2 so   
that it is not uncommon to find the     
,metals called by the  names1 and       
denoted by the characters1 of the       
,planets1 in the writings  even of the  
best ,chymists4 ,metals are the heaviest
 bodies known in  nature4      ,,section
 ,i4    ,of ,,gold4    ,gold is the     
heaviest of all ,metals4 ,the arts of   
wire-drawing and  gold-beating shew its 
wonderful ductility4 ,the greatest      
violence  of fire is not able to produce
 any alteration in it4 ,indeed ,mr4     
,homberg1 a famous ,chymist1 pretended  
that he had made this metal fume1  and  
even vitrified it1 by exposing it to the
 focus of one of the  best              

burning-glasses1 known by the name of   
the ,lens of the ,palais  ,royal3 but1  
there are very good reasons for calling 
in question the  experiments he made on 
this occasion1 or rather for thinking   
that he  was quite mistaken4 ,for1      
#a4 ,no man hath since been able to     
vitrify ,gold1 though several good      
,experimenters have assiduously tried to
 effect it1 by exposing it to  the focus
 of the same lens1 and of other         
burning-glasses still stronger4    #b4  
,it hath been observed1 that though     
,gold1 when exposed to the focus  of    
those glasses1 did indeed emit some     
vapours and decrease in weight2  yet1   
those vapours being carefully collected 
on a piece of paper1  proved to be true 
,gold1 in no degree vitrified1 and which
 consequently  had suffered no change   
but that of being carried away by the   
violence  of the heat1 its nature not   
being in the least altered4    #c4 ,the 
small portion of vitrified matter1 which
 was formed on the arm  that supported  

the ,gold in ,mr4 ,homberg's experiment1
 may have come  either from the arm     
itself1 or rather from some             
heterogeneous particles  contained in   
the ,gold2 for it is almost impossible  
to have it perfectly  pure4    #d4      
,neither ,mr4 ,homberg1 nor any that    
have repeated his experiment1 ever      
reduced this pretended glass of ,gold by
 restoring its ,phlogiston1 as is  done 
with other metallic glasses4    #e4 ,to 
render the experiment decisive1 the     
whole mass of ,gold employed  ought to  
have been vitrified2 which was not the  
case4    ,nevertheless1 ,i do not       
pretend that this metal is in its own   
nature  absolutely indestructible1 and  
unvitrifiable3 but there is reason to   
think that no body hath hitherto found  
the means of producing those  effects on
 it1 probably for want of a sufficient  
degree of fire2 at  least the point is  
very doubtful4    ,gold cannot be       
dissolved by any pure acid3 but if the  
acid of nitre be  mixed with the acid of

 sea-salt1 there results a compound acid
 liquor1  with which it has so great an 
affinity that it is capable of being    
perfectly dissolved thereby4 ,the       
,chymists have called this solvent      
,aqua ,regis1 on account of its being   
the only acid that can dissolve  ,gold1 
which they consider as the ,king of     
,metals4 ,the solution of gold  is of a 
beautiful orange colour4    ,if ,gold   
dissolved in aqua regis be precipitated 
by an alkali or an  absorbent earth1 the
 precipitate gently dried1 and then     
exposed to a  certain degree of heat1 is
 instantly dispersed into the air1 with 
a  most violent explosion and noise3    
,gold thus precipitated is therefore    
called ,aurum ,fulminans4 ,but if the   
precipitated ,gold be carefully  washed 
in plenty of water1 so as to clear it of
 all the adhering saline  particles1 it 
will not fulminate1 but may be melted in
 a crucible  without any additament1 and
 will then appear in its usual form4    
,the  acid of vitriol being poured on   

aurum fulminans likewise deprives it  of
 its fulminating quality4    ,gold does 
not begin to flow till it be red-hot    
like a live coal4 ,though  it be the    
most malleable and most ductile of all  
metals1 it has the  singular property of
 losing its ductility more easily than  
any of them3  even the fumes of charcoal
 are sufficient to deprive it thereof1  
if  they come in contact with it while  
it is in fusion4    ,the malleability of
 this metal1 and indeed of all the rest1
 is also  considerably diminished by    
exposing it suddenly to cold when it is 
red-hot2 for example1 by quenching it in
 water1 or even barely exposing  it to  
the cold air4    ,the way to restore    
ductility to gold1 when lost by its     
coming in  contact with the vapour of   
coals1 and in general to any metal      
rendered  less malleable by being       
suddenly cooled1 is to heat it again1 to
 keep  it red hot a considerable time1  
and then to let it cool very slowly  and
 gradually2 this operation frequently   

repeated will by degrees much  increase 
the malleability of a metal4    ,pure   
sulphur hath no effect on ,gold2 but    
being combined with an alkali  into a   
hepar sulphuris1 it unites therewith    
very readily4 ,nay1 so  intimate is     
their union1 that the ,gold1 by means   
thereof1 becomes  soluble in water2 and 
this new compound of ,gold and liver of 
sulphur1  being dissolved in water1 will
 pass through the pores of brown paper  
without suffering any decomposition2    
which does not happen1 at least in  such
 a manifest degree1 to other metallic   
substances dissolved by liver  of       
sulphur4    ,aurum fulminans1 mixed and 
melted with flower of sulphur1 loses its
  fulminating quality3 which arises from
 hence1 that on this occasion  the      
sulphur burns1 and its acid1 which is   
the same with the vitriolic1  being     
thereby set at liberty becomes capable  
of acting upon the ,gold as  a vitriolic
 acid would2 which1 as was said above1  
deprives the ,gold of  its fulminating  

quality4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,of    
,,silver4    ,next to ,gold1 ,silver is 
the most perfect metal4 ,like ,gold it  
resists  the utmost violence of fire1   
even that in the focus of a             
burning-glass4  ,however1 it holds only 
the second place among metals2 because  
it is  lighter than ,gold by almost one 
half2 is also somewhat less ductile2    
and1 lastly1 because it is acted upon by
 a greater number of solvents4    ,yet  
,silver hath one advantage over gold1   
namely that of being a little  harder2  
which makes it also more sonorous4      
,this metal1 like ,gold1 begins to flow 
when it is so thoroughly  penetrated by 
the fire as to appear ignited like a    
live coal4    ,while this metal is in   
fusion1 the immediate contact of the    
vapour  of burning coals deprives it    
almost entirely of its malleability1 in 
the same manner as we observed happens  
to ,gold3 but both these metals  easily 
recover that property by being melted   
with nitre4    ,the nitrous acid is the 

true solvent of ,silver1 and being      
somewhat  dephlegmated will very readily
 and easily take up a quantity of       
,silver  equal in weight to itself4     
,silver thus combined with the nitrous  
acid forms a metallic salt which  shoots
 into crystals1 called by the name of   
,lunar ,crystals1 or  ,crystals of      
,silver4    ,these crystals are most    
violently caustic3 applied to the skin  
they  quickly affect it much as a live  
coal would2 they produce a blackish     
eschar1 corroding and entirely          
destroying the parts they touch4        
,surgeons use them to eat away the proud
 fungous flesh of ulcers4 ,as  ,silver  
united with the nitrous acid hath the   
property of blackening all  animal      
substances1 a solution of this metallic 
salt is employed to dye  hair1 or other 
animal matters1 of a beautiful and      
durable black4    ,these crystals flow  
with a very moderate heat1 and even     
before they  grow red4 ,being thus      
melted they form a blackish mass2 and in

 this  form they are used by ,surgeons1 
under the title of ,lapis ,infernalis1  
,infernal ,stone1 or ,lunar ,caustic4   
,silver is also dissolved by the        
vitriolic acid3 but then the acid must  
be concentrated1 and in quantity double 
the weight of the ,silver2 nor  will the
 solution succeed without a considerable
 degree of heat4    ,spirit of salt and 
aqua regis1 as well as the other acids1 
are  incapable of dissolving this metal2
 at least in the ordinary way4          
,though ,silver be not soluble in the   
acid of sea-salt1 nor easily in the     
acid of vitriol1 as hath just been      
observed1 it doth not follow that  it   
hath but a weak affinity with the       
latter1 and none at all with the        
former3 on the contrary1 it appears from
 experiment that it hath with  these two
 acids a much greater affinity than with
 the acid of nitre3  which is singular  
enough1 considering the facility with   
which this  last acid dissolves it4     
,the experiment which proves the fact1  

is this4 ,to a solution of ,silver  in  
the nitrous acid1 add the acid either of
 vitriol or of sea-salt1 and  the       
,silver will instantly quit its nitrous 
solvent to join with the  superadded    
acid4    ,silver thus united with the   
vitriolic or the marine acid is less    
soluble in water than when combined with
 the nitrous acid2 and for  this reason 
it is1 that when either of these two    
acids is added to  a solution of        
,silver1 the liquor immediately becomes 
white1 and a  precipitate is formed1    
which is no other than the ,silver      
united with  the precipitating acid4 ,if
 the precipitation be effected by the   
vitriolic acid1 the precipitate will    
disappear upon adding a sufficient      
quantity of water1 because there will   
then be water enough to dissolve  it4   
,but the case is not the same when the  
precipitation is made by the  marine    
acid2 for ,silver combined therewith is 
scarce soluble in water4    ,this       
,precipitate of ,silver1 procured by    

means of the marine acid1  is very      
easily fused1 and when fused changes to 
a substance in some  measure transparent
 and flexible1 which hath occasioned it 
to be called  by the name of ,luna      
,cornea4 ,if it be proposed to          
decompound this  luna cornea1 that is1  
to separate the marine acid from the    
,silver  with which it is united1 the   
luna cornea must be melted along with   
fatty and absorbent matters1 with which 
the acid will unite1 and leave  the     
metal exceeding pure4    ,it must be    
observed1 that if1 instead of the marine
 acid1 sea-salt  in substance be added  
to a solution of ,silver in the nitrous 
acid1 a  ,precipitate is also produced1 
which by fusion appears to be a true    
luna cornea4 ,the reason is1 that the   
sea-salt is decomposed by the  nitrous  
acid1 which seizes its basis1 as having 
a greater affinity  therewith than its  
own acid hath2 and this acid being      
consequently  disengaged and set at     
liberty unites with the ,silver1 which1 

as has  been shewn1 has a greater       
affinity with it than with the nitrous  
acid4  ,this is an instance of          
decomposition effected by means of one  
of those  double affinities mentioned by
 us in our seventh proposition          
concerning  ,affinities4    ,from what  
hath been already said it is clear1 that
 all these  combinations of ,silver with
 acids may be decompounded by absorbent 
earths and by fixed alkalis2 it being a 
general law with regard to all  metallic
 substances4 ,we shall not therefore    
repeat this observation  when we come to
 treat of the other metals2 unless some 
particular  occasion require it4        
,with regard to ,silver ,i must take    
notice that1 when separated by these    
means from the acids in which it was    
dissolved1 it requires nothing  but     
simple fusion to restore it to its usual
 form2 because it does  not1 any more   
than ,gold1 lose its ,phlogiston by     
those solutions and  precipitations4    
,silver unites with sulphur in fusion4  

,if this metal be only made  red-hot in 
a crucible1 and sulphur be then added1  
it immediately flows2  the sulphur      
acting as a flux to it4 ,silver thus    
united with sulphur  forms a mass that  
may be cut1 is half malleable1 and hath 
nearly the  colour and consistence of   
,lead4 ,if this sulphurated ,silver be  
kept a  long time in fusion1 and in a   
great degree of heat1 the sulphur flies 
off and leaves the ,silver pure4 ,but if
 the sulphur be evaporated by a  violent
 heat1 it carries off with it part of   
the ,silver4    ,silver unites and mixes
 perfectly with ,gold in fusion4 ,the   
two metals  thus mixed form a compound  
with properties partaking of both4      
,metallurgists have hitherto sought in  
vain for a perfectly good and  easy     
method of separating these two metals by
 the dry way only3 7this  term is used  
to signify all operations performed by  
fusion73 but they  are conveniently     
enough parted by the moist way1 that is1
 by acid  solvents4 ,this method is     

founded on the above-mentioned          
properties of  ,gold and ,silver with   
respect to acids4 ,it hath been shewn   
that aqua  regis only will dissolve     
,gold2 that ,silver1 on the contrary1 is
 not  soluble by aqua regis1 and that   
its proper solvent is the acid of       
nitre2 consequently1 when ,gold and     
,silver are mixed together1 if the      
compound mass be put into aqua fortis1  
this acid will take up all the  ,silver1
 without dissolving a particle of the   
,gold1 which will therefore  remain     
pure2 and by this means the desired     
separation is effected4 ,this  method1  
which is commonly made use of by        
,goldsmiths1 and in ,mints1 is  called  
the ,parting ,assay4    ,it is plain1   
that if aqua regis were employed instead
 of aqua  fortis1 the separation would  
be equally effected2 and that the only  
difference between this process and the 
former would consist in this1  that now 
the ,gold would be dissolved1 and the   
,silver remain pure4 ,but  the operation

 by aqua fortis is preferable2 because  
aqua regis  does take up a little       
,silver1 whereas aqua fortis hath not   
the least  effect on ,gold4    ,it must 
be observed1 that1 when ,gold and       
,silver are mixed together in  equal    
parts1 they cannot be parted by the     
means of aqua fortis4 ,to  enable the   
aqua fortis to act duly on the ,silver1 
this metal must  be1 at least1 in a     
triple proportion to the ,gold4 ,if it  
be in a less  proportion1 you must      
either employ aqua regis to make the    
separation1  or1 if you prefer the use  
of aqua fortis1 melt the metalline mass1
  and add as much ,silver as is         
necessary to make up the proportion     
above-mentioned3 and hence this ,process
 is called ,quartation4    ,this effect1
 which is pretty singular1 probably     
arises from hence1 that  when the ,gold 
exceeds or even equals the ,silver in   
quantity1 the parts  of both being      
intimately united1 the former are       
capable of coating over  the latter1 and

 covering them so as to defend them from
 the action of  the aqua fortis2 which  
is not the case when there is thrice as 
much  ,silver as ,gold4    ,there is one
 thing more to be taken notice of with  
regard to this  process2 which is1 that 
perfectly pure aqua fortis is rarely to 
be  met with1 for two reasons2 first1 it
 is difficult in making it wholly  to   
prevent the rising of the medium        
employed to disengage the nitrous  acid2
 that is1 a little of the vitriolic acid
 will mix with the vapours  of the aqua 
fortis3 secondly1 unless the salt-petre 
be very well  purified it will always   
hold some small portion of sea-salt1 the
 acid  of which1 we know1 is very       
readily set loose by the vitriolic acid1
  and consequently rises together with  
the vapours of the aqua fortis4  ,it is 
easy to see that aqua fortis mixed      
either with the one or the  other is not
 proper for the ,parting ,process2      
because1 as has just been  said1 the    
vitriolic and the marine acid equally   

precipitate ,silver  dissolved in the   
nitrous acid2 by which means1 when they 
are united  with that acid1 they weaken 
its action upon the ,silver1 and hinder 
the  dissolution4 ,add1 that aqua fortis
 adulterated with a mixture of  spirit  
of salt becomes an aqua regis1 and      
consequently is rendered  capable of    
dissolving ,gold1 in proportion as its  
action upon ,silver is  diminished4     
,in order to remedy this inconvenience1 
and free aqua fortis from  the vitriolic
 or marine acid with which it is        
tainted1 ,silver must  be dissolved     
therein3 by degrees as the metal        
dissolves1 those  heterogeneous acids   
lay hold of it1 and precipitate with it 
in the form  of a white powder1 as we   
observed before4 ,this precipitate being
 wholly  fallen1 the liquor grows clear2
 after which1 if it be found capable of 
dissolving more silver1 without turning 
milky1 it may be depended on as  a      
perfectly pure aqua fortis4 ,then filtre
 it1 dissolve more ,silver  in it1 as   

long as it will take up any1 and you    
will have a solution  of ,silver in a   
very pure aqua fortis4 ,by means of this
 solution may  other aqua fortis be     
purified3 for pour a few drops thereof  
into  a very impure aqua fortis1 and    
immediately the vitriolic or marine     
acid1 with which that aqua fortis is    
contaminated1 will join the  ,silver and
 fall therewith to the bottom4 ,when the
 solution of ,silver1  prepared as      
above1 does not in the least affect the 
transparency of  the aqua fortis1 it is 
then very pure1 and fit for the purposes
 of  ,quartation4    ,this operation of 
purifying aqua fortis by a solution of  
,silver is  called the ,precipitation of
 ,aqua ,fortis1 and aqua fortis thus    
purified is called ,precipitated ,aqua  
,fortis4    ,when ,silver is dissolved  
in aqua fortis it may be separated      
therefrom1 as hath been shewn1 by       
absorbent earths and fixed alkalis4     
,we shall see by and by that there are  
other means of effecting this3  but     

whatever way it be separated from its   
solvent it recovers its  metalline form1
 as ,gold does1 by being simply fused   
without any  additament4      ,,section 
,,iii4    ,of ,,copper4    ,of all the  
imperfect metals ,copper comes the      
nearest to ,gold and  ,silver4 ,its     
natural colour is a deep-red yellow4 ,it
 resists a very  violent degree of fire 
for a considerable time2 but losing its 
phlogiston at last1 it changes its      
metalline form for that of a calx1  or a
 pure reddish earth4 ,this calx is      
hardly1 if at all1 reducible to  glass1 
without the addition of something to    
promote its fusion2 all  that the       
fiercest heat can do being only to      
render it soft4 ,copper1  even while it 
retains its metalline form1 and is very 
pure1 requires a  considerable degree of
 fire to melt it1 and does not begin to 
flow till  long after it is red-hot4    
,when in fusion1 it communicates a      
greenish  colour to the flame of the    
coals4    ,this metal is inferior to    

,silver in point of gravity2 nor is its 
ductility so great1 though it be pretty 
considerable3 but1 on the  other hand1  
it exceeds that metal in hardness4 ,it  
unites readily with  ,gold and ,silver2 
nor does it greatly lessen their beauty 
when added to  them in a small quantity3
 nay1 it even procures them some        
advantages2  such as making them harder1
 and less subject to lose their         
ductility1  of which those metals are   
often liable to be deprived1 by the     
mixture  of the smallest heterogeneous  
particle4 ,this may probably arise from 
hence1 that the ductility of ,copper has
 the peculiarity of resisting  most of  
those causes which rob the perfect      
metals of theirs4    ,the property1     
which other metalline substances have in
 common with  ,copper1 of losing the    
phlogiston by calcining and then        
vitrifying1  furnishes us with a method 
of separating them from ,gold and       
,silver1  when they are combined        
therewith4 ,nothing more is required    

than to  expose the mass compounded of  
the perfect metals and other metalline  
substances to a degree of heat          
sufficient to calcine whatever is not   
either ,gold or ,silver4 ,it is evident1
 that1 by this means1 these two  metals 
will be obtained as pure as is possible2
 for1 as hath already  been said1 no    
metalline calx or glass is capable of   
uniting with metals  possessed of their 
phlogiston4 ,on this principle is formed
 the whole  business of refining ,gold  
and ,silver4    ,when the perfect metals
 have no other alloy but ,copper1 as    
this metal  is not to be calcined or    
vitrified without great difficulty1     
which is  increased by its union with   
the unvitrifiable metals1 it is easy to 
see  that it is almost impossible to    
separate them without adding something  
to facilitate the vitrification of the  
,copper4 ,such metals as have the       
property of turning easily to glass are 
very fit for this purpose2 and  it is   
necessary to add a certain quantity     

thereof1 when ,gold or ,silver  is to be
 purified from the alloy of ,copper4 ,we
 shall have occasion to  be more        
particular on this subject when we come 
to treat of ,lead4    ,copper is soluble
 in all the acids1 to which it          
communicates a green  colour1 and       
sometimes a blue4 ,even the neutral     
salts1 and water itself1  act upon this 
metal4 ,with regard to water indeed1 as 
the procuring  it absolutely pure and   
free from any saline mixture is next to 
an  impossibility1 it remains a question
 whether the effect it produces on      
,copper be not owing to certain saline  
particles contained in it4 ,it is  this 
great facility of being dissolved that  
renders ,copper so subject  to rust2    
which is nothing else but some parts of 
its surface corroded  by saline         
particles contained in the surrounding  
air and water4    ,the rust of ,copper  
is always green or blue1 or of a colour 
between  these two4 ,internally used it 
is very noxious1 being a real poison1 as

  are all the solutions of this metal   
made by any acid whatever4 ,the blue    
colour which ,copper constantly assumes1
 when corroded by any saline  substance1
 is a sure sign by which it may be      
discovered wherever it  exists1 even in 
a very small quantity4    ,copper       
dissolved in the vitriolic acid forms a 
kind of metalline salt1  which shoots   
into rhomboidal crystals of a most      
beautiful blue colour4  ,these crystals 
are called ,blue ,vitriol1 or ,vitriol  
of ,copper4 ,they  are sometimes found  
ready formed in the bowels of the earth2
 and may  be artificially made by       
dissolving ,copper in the vitriolic     
acid2 but  the solution will not succeed
 unless the acid be well dephlegmated4  
,the taste of this vitriol is saltish   
and astringent4 ,it retains a           
considerable quantity of water in       
crystallizing1 on which account it is   
easily rendered fluid by fire4    ,it   
must be observed1 that1 when it is      
exposed to a certain degree of  heat1 in

 order to free it of its humidity1 a    
great part of its acid  flies off at the
 same time3 and hence it is that1 after 
calcination1  there remains only a kind 
of earth1 or metalline calx1 of a red   
colour1  which contains but very little 
acid4 ,this earth cannot be brought to  
flow but with the greatest difficulty4  
,a solution of ,copper in the nitrous   
acid forms a salt which does not        
crystallize1 but1 when dried1 powerfully
 attracts the moisture of the  air4 ,the
 same thing happens when it is dissolved
 in the spirit of salt1  or in aqua     
regis4    ,if the ,copper thus dissolved
 by any of these acids be precipitated  
by an earth or an alkali1 it retains    
nearly the colour it had in the         
solution3 but these precipitates are    
scarce any thing more than the  earth of
 ,copper1 or ,copper deprived of most of
 its phlogiston2 so that  if they were  
exposed to a violent fire1 without any  
additament1 a great  part of them would 
be converted into an earth that could   

never be  reduced to a metalline form4  
,therefore1 when we intend to reduce    
these  precipitates to ,copper1 it is   
necessary to add a certain quantity of a
  substance capable of restoring to them
 the phlogiston they have lost4    ,the 
substance which hath been found fittest 
for such reductions is  charcoal-dust2  
because charcoal is nothing but a       
phlogiston closely  combined with an    
earth1 which renders it exceedingly     
fixed1 and capable  of resisting a      
violent force of fire4 ,but as charcoal 
will not melt1  and consequently is     
capable of preventing rather than       
forwarding the  flux of a metalline calx
 or glass1 which nevertheless is        
essentially  necessary to complete the  
reduction1 it hath been contrived to mix
  it1 or any other substance containing 
the phlogiston1 with such fixed  alkalis
 as easily flow1 and are fit to promote 
the flux of other  bodies4 ,these       
mixtures are called ,reducing ,fluxes2  
because the  general name of ,fluxes is 

given to all salts or mixtures of salts1
  which facilitate fusion4    ,if       
,sulphur be applied to ,copper made     
perfectly red-hot1 the metal            
immediately runs2 and these two         
substances uniting form a new compound  
much more fusible than pure ,copper4    
,this compound is destroyed by the sole 
force of fire1 for two reasons3  the    
first is1 that1 sulphur being volatile1 
the fire is capable  of subliming a     
great part of it1 especially when it is 
in a great  proportion to the ,copper   
with which it is joined2 the second is1 
that  the portion of sulphur which      
remains1 being more intimately united   
with  the ,copper1 though it be rendered
 less combustible by that union1 is     
nevertheless burnt and consumed in time4
 ,copper being combined with  sulphur1  
and together with it exposed to the     
force of fire1 is found  to be partly   
changed into a blue vitriol2 because the
 vitriolic acid1  being disengaged by   
burning the sulphur1 is by that means   

qualified to  dissolve the ,copper4 ,the
 affinity of ,copper with sulphur is    
greater  than that of ,silver4    ,this 
metal1 as well as the other imperfect   
metals and the semi-metals1  being      
mingled with nitre and exposed to the   
fire1 is decomposed and  calcined much  
sooner than by itself2 because the      
phlogiston which it  contains occasions 
the deflagration of the nitre1 and      
consequently  the two substances        
mutually decompose each other4 ,there   
are certain  metalline substances whose 
phlogiston is so abundant1 and so weakly
  connected with their earth1 that when 
they are thus treated with nitre1  there
 arises immediately a detonation1       
accompanied with flame1 and as  violent 
as if sulphur or charcoal-dust had been 
employed2 so that in a  moment the      
metalline substance loses its           
phlogiston1 and is calcined4  ,the      
nitre1 after these detonations1 always  
assumes an alkaline  character4         
,,section ,,iv4    ,of ,,iron4    ,iron 

is lighter and less ductile than        
,copper2 but it is much harder1  and of 
more difficult fusion4    ,it is the    
only body that has the property of being
 attracted by the  magnet1 which        
therefore serves to discover it wherever
 it is4 ,but it  must be observed1 that 
it hath this property only when in its  
metalline  state1 and loses it when     
converted to an earth or calx4 ,hence   
very few  ,iron-ores are attracted by   
the load-stone3 because1 for the most   
part1  they are only sorts of earths1   
which require a phlogiston to be added  
before they can be brought to the form  
of true ,iron4    ,when ,iron hath      
undergone no other preparation but the  
fusion which is  necessary to smelt it  
from its ore1 it is usually quite       
brittle1 and  flies to pieces under the 
hammer3 which arises in some measure    
from its  containing a certain portion  
of unmetallic earth interposed between  
its  parts4 ,this we call ,pig ,iron4   
,by melting this a second time it is    

rendered purer1 and more free from      
heterogeneous matters3 but still1 as its
 proper parts are probably not  brought 
sufficiently near1 or closely enough    
united1 till the ,iron hath  undergone  
some further preparation besides that of
 fusion1 it seldom  hath any degree of  
malleability4    ,the way to give it    
this property is to make it just        
red-hot1 and then  hammer it for some   
time in all directions2 to the end that 
its parts  may be properly united1      
incorporated1 and welded together1 and  
that  the heterogeneous matters which   
keep them asunder may be separated4     
,iron made by this means as malleable as
 possible we call ,bar ,iron1 or        
,forged ,iron4    ,bar ,iron is still   
harder to fuse than ,pig ,iron3 to make 
it flow  requires the utmost force of   
fire4    ,iron has the property of      
imbibing a greater quantity of          
phlogiston  than is necessary to give it
 the metalline form4 ,it may be made to 
take in this super-abundant phlogiston  

two ways3 the first is by fusing  it    
again with matters that contain the     
phlogiston2 the second is1 by           
encompassing it with a quantity of such 
matters1 charcoal-dust1 for  instance1  
and then exposing it so encompassed1 for
 a certain time1 to  a degree of fire   
barely sufficient to keep it red-hot4   
,this second  method1 whereby one       
substance is incorporated with another  
by means  of fire1 but without fusing   
either of them1 is in general called    
,cementation4    ,iron thus impregnated 
with an additional quantity of          
phlogiston is  called ,steel4 ,the      
hardness of ,steel may be considerably  
augmented by  tempering it2 that is1 by 
making it red-hot1 and suddenly         
quenching  it in some cold liquor4 ,the 
hotter the metal1 and the colder the    
liquor in which it is quenched1 the     
harder will the ,steel be4 ,by this     
means tools are made1 such as files and 
sheers1 capable of cutting  and dividing
 the hardest bodies1 as glass1 pebbles1 

and ,iron itself4  ,the colour of ,steel
 is darker than that of ,iron1 and the  
facets which  appear on breaking it are 
smaller4 ,it is also less ductile and   
more  brittle1 especially when tempered4
    ,as ,iron may be impregnated with an
 additional quantity of phlogiston1  and
 thereby converted into ,steel1 so may  
,steel be again deprived  of that       
super-abundant phlogiston1 and brought  
back to the condition  of ,iron4 ,this  
is effected by cementing it with poor   
earths1 such  as calcined bones and     
chalk4 ,by the same operation ,steel may
 be  untempered2 nay1 it will lose the  
hardness it had acquired by  tempering1 
if it be but made red-hot1 and left to  
cool gradually4 ,as  ,iron and ,steel   
differ only in the respects we have here
 taken notice  of1 their properties     
being in all other respects the same1   
what follows  is equally applicable to  
both4    ,iron being exposed to the     
action of fire for some time1 especially
 when  divided into small particles1    

such as filings1 is calcined and loses  
its phlogiston4 ,by this means it turns 
to a kind of reddish yellow  earth1     
which1 on account of its colour1 is     
called ,crocus ,martis1 or  ,saffron of 
,mars4    ,this calx of ,iron has the   
singular property of flowing in the fire
  with somewhat less difficulty than    
,iron itself2 whereas every other       
metalline calx flows with less ease than
 the metal that produced it4 ,it  has   
moreover the remarkable property of     
uniting with the phlogiston1  and of    
being reduced to ,iron without fusion2  
requiring for that purpose  only to be  
made red-hot4    ,iron may be           
incorporated with ,silver1 and even with
 ,gold1 by means of  certain operations4
 ,under the article of ,lead we shall   
see how it may  be separated from these 
metals4    ,the acids produce on it much
 the same effects as on ,copper2 every  
one  of them acts upon it4 ,certain     
neutral salts1 alkalis1 and even water  
itself1 are capable of dissolving it2   

and hence it is also very subject  to   
rust4 ,the vitriolic acid dissolves it  
with the greater ease3 but  the         
circumstances which attend the solution 
thereof are different from  those with  
which the same ,acid dissolves ,copper3 
for1 #a4 whereas the  vitriolic acid    
must be concentrated to dissolve        
,copper1 it must on  the contrary be    
diluted with water to dissolve ,iron1   
which it will  not touch when well      
dephlegmated4 #b4 ,the vapours which    
rise in this  dissolution are           
inflammable2 so that if it be made in a 
small-necked  bottle1 and the flame of a
 candle be applied to the mouth thereof1
 the  vapours in the bottle take fire   
with such rapidity as to produce a      
considerable explosion4    ,this        
solution is of a beautiful green colour2
 and from this union of  the vitriolic  
acid with ,iron there results a neutral 
metalline salt1  which has the property 
of shooting into crystals of a          
rhomboidal  figure1 and a green colour4 

,these crystals are called ,green       
,vitriol1  ,vitriol of ,mars1 and       
,copperas4    ,green ,vitriol hath a    
saltish and astringent taste4 ,as it    
retains a  great deal of water in       
crystallizing1 it quickly flows by the  
action  of fire3 but this fluidity is   
owing to its water only1 and is not a   
real fusion2 for1 as soon as its        
moisture is evaporated1 it resumes a    
solid form4 ,its green transparent      
colour is now changed into an opaque    
white3 and1 if the calcination be       
continued1 its acid also exhales and  is
 dissipated in vapours2 and as it loses 
that1 it turns gradually to  a yellow   
colour1 which comes so much the nearer  
to a red the longer  the calcination is 
continued1 or the higher the force of   
the fire is  raised2 which being driven 
to the utmost1 what remains is of a very
  deep red4 ,this remainder is nothing  
but the body of the ,iron1 which  having
 lost its phlogiston is now no more than
 an earth1 nearly of the  same nature   

with that which is left after calcining 
the metal itself4    ,green ,vitriol    
dissolved in water spontaneously lets   
fall a yellowish  earthy sediment4 ,if  
this solution be defecated by           
filtration1 it still  continues to      
deposite some of the same substance1    
till the vitriol be  wholly decomposed4 
,this sediment is nothing but the earth 
of ,iron1  which is then called ,ochre4 
,the nitrous acid dissolves ,iron with  
great ease4 ,this solution is of a      
yellow colour1 inclining more or less to
 a russet1 or dark-brown1 as it  is more
 or less saturated with ,iron4 ,iron    
dissolved by this acid1 also1  falls    
spontaneously in a kind of calx1 which  
is incapable of being  dissolved a      
second time2 for the nitrous acid will  
not act upon ,iron  that has lost its   
phlogiston4 ,this solution does not     
crystallize1 and  if evaporated to      
dryness attracts the moisture of the    
air4    ,spirit of salt likewise        
dissolves ,iron1 and this solution is   

green4 ,the  vapours which rise during  
the dissolution are inflammable1 like   
those  which ascend when this metal is  
attacked by the vitriolic acid4 ,aqua   
regis makes a solution of ,iron1 which  
is of a yellow colour4    ,iron hath a  
greater affinity than either ,silver or 
,copper with the  nitrous and vitriolic 
acids3 so that if iron be presented to a
 solution  of either in one of these two
 acids1 the dissolved metal will be     
precipitated2 because the acid quits it 
for the ,iron1 with which it has  a     
greater affinity4    ,on this occasion  
it must be observed1 that if a solution 
of ,copper in  the vitriolic acid be    
precipitated by means of ,iron1 the     
precipitate  has the form and splendour 
of a metal1 and does not require the    
addition of a phlogiston to reduce it to
 true ,copper2 which is not the  case1  
as has been shewn1 when the             
precipitation is effected by earths  or 
alkaline salts4    ,the colour of this  
metalline precipitate hath deceived     

several persons1  who being unacquainted
 with such phenomena1 and with the      
nature of blue  vitriol1 imagined that  
,iron was transmuted into ,copper1 when 
they saw  a bit of ,iron laid in a      
solution of that vitriol become1 in form
 and  external appearance1 exactly like 
,copper3 whereas the surface only of    
the ,iron was crusted over with the     
particles of ,copper contained in the   
vitriol1 which had gradually fallen upon
 and adhered to the ,iron1 as  they were
 precipitated out of the solution4      
,among the solvents of ,iron we         
mentioned fixed alkalis2 and that they  
have such a power is proved by the      
following phenomenon4 ,if a large       
proportion of alkaline salts be suddenly
 mixed with a solution of ,iron  in an  
acid1 no precipitation ensues1 and the  
liquor remains clear and  pellucid2 or  
if at first it look a little turbid1    
that appearance lasts  but a moment1 and
 the liquor presently recovers its      
transparency4  ,the reason is1 that the 

quantity of alkali is more than         
sufficient  to saturate all the acid of 
the solution1 and the super-abundant    
portion thereof1 meeting with the ,iron 
already finely divided by the  acid1    
dissolves it with ease as fast as it    
falls1 and so prevents  its muddying the
 liquor4 ,to evince that this is so in  
fact1 let the  alkali be applied in a   
quantity that is not sufficient1 or but 
barely  sufficient1 to saturate the     
acid1 and the ,iron will then           
precipitate  like any other metal4      
,water also acts upon ,iron2 and        
therefore ,iron exposed to moisture     
grows  rusty4 ,if iron-filings be       
exposed to the dew1 they turn wholly to 
a  rust1 which is called ,crocus ,martis
 ,aperiens4    ,iron exposed to the fire
 together with nitre makes it detonate  
pretty  briskly1 sets it in a flame1 and
 decomposes it with rapidity4    ,this  
metal hath a greater affinity than any  
other metalline substance  with sulphur2
 on which account it is successfully    

used to precipitate  and separate all   
metalline substances combined with      
sulphur4    ,sulphur uniting with ,iron 
communicates to it such a degree of     
fusibility1 that if a mass of this metal
 heated red-hot be rubbed with  a bit of
 sulphur1 it incessantly runs into as   
perfect a fusion as a  metal exposed to 
the focus of a large burning-glass4     
,,section ,v4    ,of ,,tin4    ,tin is  
the lightest of all metals4 ,though it  
yields easily to the  impression of hard
 bodies1 it has but little ductility4   
,being bent  backwards and forwards it  
makes a small crackling noise4 ,it flows
 with  a very moderate degree of fire1  
and long before it comes to be red-hot4 
,when it is in fusion1 its surface soon 
grows dusty1 and there forms  upon it a 
thin dark-coloured dusty pellicle1 which
 is no other than a  part of the ,tin   
that has lost its phlogiston1 or a calx 
of ,tin4 ,the  metal thus calcined      
easily recovers its metalline form on   
the addition  of a phlogiston4 ,if the  

calx of ,tin be urged by a strong fire  
it grows  white1 but the greatest       
violence of heat will not fuse it2 which
 makes  some ,chymists consider it as a 
calcinable or absorbent earth1 rather   
than a vitrifiable one4 ,yet it turns to
 glass1 in some sort1 when mixed  with  
any other substance that vitrifies      
easily4 ,however1 it always  produces an
 imperfect glass only1 which is not at  
all transparent1 but  of an opaque      
white4 ,the calx of ,tin thus vitrified 
is called ,enamel4  ,enamels are made of
 several colours by the addition of this
 or that  metalline calx4    ,tin unites
 easily with all the metals2 but it     
destroys the ductility  and malleability
 of every one of them1 ,lead excepted4  
,nay1 it possesses  this property of    
making metals brittle in such an eminent
 degree1 that  the very vapour of it1   
when in fusion1 is capable of producing 
this  effect4 ,moreover1 which is very  
singular1 the most ductile metals1 even 
,gold and ,silver1 are those on which it

 works this change with the most  ease1 
and in the greatest degree4 ,it has also
 the property of making  ,silver mixed  
with it flow over a very small fire4    
,it adheres to1 and in some measure     
incorporates with1 the surface of       
,copper and of ,iron2 whence arose the  
practice of coating over those  metals  
with ,tin4 ,tin plates are no other than
 thin plates of ,iron  tinned over4     
,if to twenty parts of ,tin one part of 
,copper be added1 this alloy  renders it
 much more solid1 and the mixed mass    
continues tolerably  ductile4    ,if1 on
 the contrary1 to one part of ,tin ten  
parts of ,copper be added1  together    
with a little ,zink1 a semi-metal to be 
considered hereafter1  from this        
combination there results a metalline   
compound which is hard1  brittle1 and   
very sonorous2 so that it is used for   
casting bells3 this  composition is     
called ,bronze and ,bell-metal4    ,tin 
hath an affinity with the vitriolic1    
nitrous1 and marine acids4 ,all  of them

 attack and corrode it2 yet none of them
 is able to dissolve  it without great  
difficulty3 so that if a clear solution 
thereof be  desired1 particular methods 
must be employed for that purpose2 for  
the  acids do but in a manner calcine   
it1 and convert it to a kind of white   
calx or precipitate4 ,the solvent which 
has the greatest power over it  is aqua 
regis1 which has even a greater affinity
 therewith than with  ,gold itself2     
whence it follows1 that ,gold dissolved 
in aqua regis  may be precipitated by   
means of ,tin2 but then the aqua regis  
must be  weakened4 ,gold thus           
precipitated by ,tin is of a most       
beautiful colour1  and is used for a red
 in enameling and painting on porcelain1
 as also  to give a red colour to       
artificial gems4 ,if the aqua regis be  
not  lowered1 the precipitate will not  
have the purple colour4    ,tin hath the
 property of giving a great lustre to   
all red colours  in general2 on which   
account it is used by the dyers for     

striking a  beautiful scarlet1 and tin  
vessels are employed in making fine     
syrup  of violets4 ,water does not act  
upon this metal1 as it does upon ,iron  
and ,copper2 for which reason it is not 
subject to rust3 nevertheless1  when it 
is exposed to the air1 its surface soon 
loses its polish and  splendour4    ,tin
 mixed with nitre and exposed to the    
fire deflagrates with it1 makes  it     
detonate1 and is immediately converted  
to a refractory calx3 for  so all       
substances are called which are         
incapable of fusion4    ,tin readily    
unites with sulphur1 and with it becomes
 a brittle and  friable mass4           
,,section ,,vi4    ,of ,,lead4    ,next 
to ,gold and ,mercury ,lead is the      
heaviest of all metalline  substances1  
but in hardness is exceeded by every one
 of them4 ,of all  metals also it melts 
the easiest except ,tin4 ,while it is in
 fusion  there gathers incessantly on   
its surface1 as on that of ,tin1 a      
blackish  dusty pellicle1 which is      

nothing but a calx of ,lead4    ,this   
calx further calcined by a moderate     
fire1 the flame being  reverberated on  
it1 soon grows white4 ,if the           
calcination be continued  it becomes    
yellow1 and at last of a beautiful red4 
,in this state it  is called ,minium1   
and is used as a pigment4 ,minium is not
 easily  made1 and the operation        
succeeds well in large manufactures     
only4    ,to convert ,lead into         
,litharge1 which is the metal in a      
manner half  vitrified1 you need only   
keep it melted by a pretty strong fire2 
for  then as its surface gradually      
calcines1 it tends more and more to     
fusion and vitrification4    ,all these 
preparations of ,lead are greatly       
disposed to perfect fusion  and         
vitrification1 and for that purpose     
require but a moderate degree  of fire2 
the calx or earth of ,lead being of all 
metalline earths that  which vitrifies  
the most easily4    ,lead hath not only 
the property of turning into glass with 

the greatest  facility1 but it hath also
 that of promoting greatly the          
vitrification  of all the other         
imperfect metals2 and1 when it is       
actually vitrified1  procures the ready 
fusion of all earths and stones in      
general1 even  those which are          
refractory1 that is1 which could not be 
fused without  its help4    ,glass of   
,lead1 besides its great fusibility1    
hath also the singular  property of     
being so subtile and active as to       
corrode and penetrate the  crucibles in 
which it is melted1 unless they be of an
 earth that is  exceeding hard1 compact1
 and withal very refractory3 for ,glass 
of ,lead  being one of the most powerful
 fluxes that we know1 if the earth of   
the crucible in which it is melted be in
 the smallest degree fusible1  it will  
be immediately vitrified2 especially if 
there be any metallic  matter in its    
composition4    ,the great activity of  
,glass of ,lead may be weakened by      
joining it with  other vitrifiable      

matters3 but unless these be added in a 
very great  proportion1 it will still   
remain powerful enough to penetrate     
common  earths1 and carry off the       
matters combined with it4    ,on these  
properties of ,lead1 and of the ,glass  
of ,lead1 depends the  whole business of
 refining ,gold and ,silver4 ,it hath   
been shewn1 that as  these two metals   
are indestructible by fire1 and the only
 ones which  have that advantage1 they  
may be separated from the imperfect     
metals1  when mixed therewith1 by       
exposing the compound to a degree of    
fire  sufficiently strong to vitrify the
 latter2 which1 when once converted     
into glass1 can no longer remain united 
with any metal that has its  metalline  
form4 ,but it is very difficult to      
procure this vitrification  of the      
imperfect metals1 when united with ,gold
 and ,silver2 nay1 it  is in a manner   
impossible to vitrify them entirely1 for
 two reasons3  first1 because most of   
them are naturally very difficult to    

vitrify2  secondly1 because the union   
they have contracted with the perfect   
metals defends them1 in a manner1 from  
the action of the fire1 and that  so    
much the more effectually as the        
proportion of the perfect metals  is    
greater2 which being indestructible1 and
 in some sort coating over  those with  
which they are alloyed1 serve them as a 
preservative and  impenetrable shield   
against the utmost violence of fire4    
,it is therefore clear1 that a great    
deal of labour may be saved1 and  that  
,gold and ,silver may be refined to a   
much greater degree of purity  than can 
otherwise be obtained1 if to a mixture  
of these metals with  ,copper1 for      
instance1 or any other imperfect metal  
be added a certain  quantity of ,lead4  
,for the ,lead1 by its known property1  
will infallibly  produce the desired    
vitrification2 and as it likewise       
increases  the proportion of the        
imperfect metals1 and so lessens that of
 the  perfect metals1 in the mass1 it   

evidently deprives the former of a  part
 of their guard1 and so effects a more  
complete vitrification4 ,in  conclusion1
 as the ,glass of ,lead hath the        
property of running through  the        
crucible1 and carrying with it the      
matters which it has vitrified1  it     
follows1 that1 when the vitrification of
 the imperfect metals is  effected by   
its means1 all those vitrified matters  
together penetrate  the vessel          
containing the fused metalline mass1    
disappear1 and leave  only the ,gold and
 ,silver perfectly pure1 and freed1 as  
far as is  possible1 from all admixture 
of heterogeneous parts4    ,the better  
to promote the separation of such parts 
it is usual to  employ1 in this process1
 a particular sort of small crucibles1  
made of  the ashes of calcined bones1   
which are exceedingly porous and easily 
pervaded4 ,they are called cupels1 on   
account of their figure1 which  is that 
of a wide-mouthed cup3 and from hence   
the operation takes its  name2 for when 

we refine ,gold and ,silver in this     
manner we are said  to cupel those      
metals4 ,it is easy to perceive that the
 more ,lead is  added the more          
accurately will the ,gold and ,silver be
 refined2 and  that so much the more    
,lead ought to be added as the perfect  
metals are  alloyed with a greater      
proportion of the imperfect4 ,this is   
the most  severe trial to which a       
perfect metal can be put2 and           
consequently any  metal that stands it  
may be fairly considered as such4    ,in
 order to denote the fineness of ,gold1 
it is supposed to be divided  into      
twenty-four parts called carats2 and    
,gold which is quite pure  and free from
 all alloy is said to be twenty-four    
carats fine2 that  which contains #a_/bd
 part of alloy is called ,gold of       
twenty-three  carats2 that which        
contains #b_/bd of alloy is but         
twenty-two carats2 and  so on4 ,silver  
again is supposed to be divided into    
twelve parts only1  which are called    

penny-weights3 so that when absolutely  
pure it is  said to be twelve           
penny-weights fine2 when it contains    
#a_/ab of alloy1  it is then called     
eleven penny-weights fine2 when it      
contains #b_/ab of  alloy1 it is called 
ten penny-weights fine1 and so on4      
,in treating of ,copper we promised to  
shew1 under the article of ,lead1  how  
to separate it from ,iron4 ,the process 
is founded on that property  of ,lead   
which renders it incapable of mixing and
 uniting with ,iron1  though it readily 
dissolves all other metalline           
substances4 ,therefore1  if you have a  
mass compounded of ,copper and ,iron1 it
 must be fused  with a certain quantity 
of ,lead1 and then the ,copper1 having a
 greater  affinity with ,lead than with 
,iron1 will desert the latter and join  
the  former1 which being incapable of   
any union with ,iron1 as was said1 will 
wholly exclude it from the new compound4
 ,the next point is to separate  the    
,lead from the ,copper2 which is done by

 exposing the mass compounded  of these 
two metals to a degree of fire strong   
enough to deprive the  ,lead of its     
metalline form1 but too weak to have the
 same effect on  the ,copper3 and this  
may be done2 since1 of all the imperfect
 metals1  ,lead is1 next to ,tin1 the   
easiest to be calcined1 and ,copper on  
the  contrary resists the greatest force
 of fire longest1 without losing its    
metalline form4 ,now what we gain by    
this exchange1 viz4 by separating       
,copper from ,iron and uniting it with  
,lead1 consists in this1 that as  ,lead 
is calcined with less fire than ,iron1  
the ,copper is less exposed  to be      
destroyed3 for it must be observed that1
 however moderate the  fire be1 it is   
hardly possible to prevent a certain    
quantity thereof  from being calcined in
 the operation4    ,lead melted with a  
third part of ,tin forms a compound1    
which being  exposed to a fire capable  
of making it thoroughly red-hot1 swells1
  puffs up1 seems in some sort to take  

fire1 and is presently calcined4  ,these
 two metals mixed together are much     
sooner calcined than either of  them    
separately4    ,both ,lead and ,tin are 
in some measure affected by water1 and  
by a moist  air2 but they are both much 
less subject than ,iron or ,copper to be
  corroded by these solvents1 and of    
course are much less liable to rust4    
,the vitriolic acid acts upon and       
dissolves ,lead1 much in the same       
manner as it doth ,silver4    ,the      
nitrous acid dissolves this metal with  
much ease1 and in great  quantities2 and
 from this solution a small portion of  
,mercury may  be obtained4 ,on this     
subject see our ,elements of the        
,practice of  ,chymistry4    ,when this 
solution of ,lead is diluted with a good
 deal of water1 the  ,lead precipitates 
in the form of a white powder2 which    
happens because  the acid is rendered   
too weak to keep the ,lead dissolved4   
,if this solution of ,lead be evaporated
 to a certain degree1 it shoots  into   

crystals formed like regular pyramids   
with square bases4 ,these  crystals are 
of a yellowish colour1 and a saccharine 
taste3 they do not  easily dissolve in  
water4 ,this nitrous metalline salt has 
the singular  property of detonating in 
a crucible1 without any additament1 or  
the  contact of any other inflammable   
substance4 ,this property it derives    
from the great quantity of phlogiston   
contained in1 and but loosely  connected
 with1 the ,lead which is one of its    
principles4    ,if spirit of salt1 or   
even sea-salt in substance1 be added to 
a  solution of ,lead in the nitrous     
acid1 a white precipitate immediately   
falls2 which is no other than the ,lead 
united with the marine acid4  ,this     
precipitate is extremely like the       
precipitate of ,silver made in  the same
 manner1 and that being called ,luna    
cornea hath occasioned  this to be named
 ,plumbum corneum4 ,like the luna cornea
 it is  very fusible1 and being melted  
hardens like it into a kind of horny    

substance3 it is volatile1 and may be   
reduced by means of inflammable  matters
 combined with alkalis4 ,but it differs 
from the luna cornea  in this chiefly1  
that it dissolves easily in water2      
whereas the luna  cornea1 on the        
contrary1 dissolves therein with great  
difficulty1 and  in a very small        
quantity4    ,as this precipitation of  
,lead from its solution in spirit of    
nitre is  procured by the marine acid1  
,lead is thereby proved to have a       
greater  affinity with the latter acid  
than with the former4 ,yet1 if you      
attempt  to dissolve ,lead directly by  
the acid of sea-salt1 the solution is   
not so easily effected as by the spirit 
of nitre1 and it is always  imperfect2  
for it wants one of the conditions      
essential to every  solution in a       
liquor1 namely transparency4    ,if     
,lead be boiled for a long time in a    
lixivium of fixed alkali1 part  of it   
will be dissolved4    ,sulphur renders  
this metal refractory and scarce        

fusible2 and the  mass they form when   
united together is friable4 ,hence it   
appears that  sulphur acts upon ,lead   
much in the same manner as upon ,tin2   
that is1 it  renders both these metals  
less fusible1 which are naturally the   
most  fusible of any1 while it          
exceedingly facilitates the fusion of   
,silver1  ,copper1 and ,iron1 metals    
which of themselves flow with the       
greatest  difficulty4          ,,chap4  
,,viii4    ,of ,,quick-,,silver4        
,we treat of ,quick-silver in a chapter 
apart1 because this metallic  substance 
cannot be classed with the metals       
properly so called1 and  yet has some   
properties which will not allow us to   
confound it with  the semi-metals4 ,the 
reason why ,quick-silver1 by the        
,chymists commonly  called ,mercury1 is 
not reputed a metal1 is1 that it wants  
one of the  essential properties        
thereof1 to wit1 malleability4 ,when it 
is pure  and unadulterated with any     
mixture1 it is always fluid1 and of     

course  unmalleable4 ,but as1 on the    
other hand1 it eminently possesses the  
opacity1 the splendour1 and1 above all1 
the gravity of a metal1 being  next to  
,gold the heaviest of all bodies1 it may
 be considered as a true  metal1        
differing from the rest no otherwise    
than by being constantly in  fusion2    
which we may suppose arises from its    
aptness to flow with such  a small      
degree of heat1 that be there ever so   
little warmth on earth1  there is still 
more than enough to keep ,mercury in    
fusion2 which would  become solid and   
malleable if it were possible to apply  
to it a degree  of cold considerable    
enough for that purpose4 ,these         
properties will not  allow us to        
confound it with the semi-metals4 ,add1 
that we are not yet  assured by any     
undoubted experiment that it can be     
wholly deprived of  its phlogiston1 as  
the imperfect metals may4 ,indeed we    
cannot apply the  force of fire to it as
 could be wished3 for it is so volatile 

that it  flies off and exhales in       
vapours1 with a much less degree of fire
 than  is necessary to make it red-hot4 
,the vapours of ,mercury thus raised by 
the action of fire1 being collected and 
united in a certain quantity1  appear to
 be no other than true ,mercury1        
retaining every one of its  properties2 
and no experiment hath ever been able to
 shew the least  change thus produced in
 its nature4    ,if ,mercury be exposed 
to the greatest heat that it can bear   
without  sublimation1 and continued in  
it for several months1 or even a whole  
year together1 it turns to a red powder1
 which the ,chymists call  ,mercurius   
,prcipitatus per se4 ,but1 to succeed in
 this operation1 it  is absolutely      
necessary that the heat be such as is   
above-specified2  for this metallic     
substance may remain exposed to a weaker
 heat for  a considerable number of     
years1 without undergoing any sensible  
alteration4    ,some ,chymists fancied1 
that by this operation they had fixed   

,mercury  and changed its nature2 but   
without any reason3 for if the ,mercury 
thus seemingly transmuted be exposed to 
a somewhat stronger degree of  fire1 it 
sublimes and exhales in vapours as      
usual2 and those vapours  collected are 
nothing else but running ,mercury1 which
 has recovered all  its properties      
without the help of any additament4     
,mercury has the property of dissolving 
all the metals1 ,iron only  excepted4   
,but it is a condition absolutely       
necessary to the success of  such       
dissolution1 that the metalline         
substances be possessed of their        
phlogiston2 for if they be calcined1    
,mercury cannot touch them3 and  hence  
it follows1 that ,mercury doth not unite
 with substances that are  purely       
earthy4 ,such a combination of a metal  
with ,mercury is called an  ,amalgam4   
,trituration alone is sufficient to     
effect it2 however1 a  proper degree of 
heat also is of use4    ,mercury        
amalgamated with a metal gives it a     

consistence more or less  soft1 and even
 fluid1 according to the greater or     
smaller proportion of  ,mercury         
employed4 ,all amalgams are softened by 
heat1 and hardened by  cold4    ,mercury
 is very volatile2 vastly more so than  
the most unfixed metals2  moreover1 the 
union it contracts with any metal is not
 sufficiently  intimate to entitle the  
new compound resulting from that union  
to all  the properties of the two       
substances united3 at least with regard 
to  their degree of fixity and          
volatility4 ,from all which it follows1 
that  the best and surest method of     
separating it from metals dissolved by  
it1 is to expose the amalgam to a degree
 of heat sufficient to make  all the    
,quick-silver rise and evaporate2 after 
which the metal remains  in the form of 
a powder1 and being fused recovers its  
malleability4  ,if it be thought proper 
to save the ,quick-silver1 the operation
 must  be performed in close vessels1   
which will confine and collect the      

mercurial vapours4 ,this operation is   
most frequently employed to  separate   
,gold and ,silver from the several sorts
 of earths and sands  with which they   
are mixed in the ore2 because these two 
metals1 ,gold  especially1 are of       
sufficient value to compensate the loss 
of ,mercury1  which is inevitable in    
this process3 besides1 as they very     
readily  amalgamate with it1 this way of
 separating them from every thing       
unmetallic is very facile and           
commodious4    ,mercury is dissolved by 
acids2 but with circumstances peculiar  
to each  particular sort of acid4       
,the vitriolic acid1 concentrated and   
made boiling hot1 seizes on  it1 and    
presently reduces it to a kind of white 
powder1 which turns  yellow by the      
affusion of water1 but does not dissolve
 in it2 it is  called ,turbith ,mineral4
 ,however1 the vitriolic acid on this   
occasion  unites with a great part of   
the ,mercury1 in such a manner that the 
compound is soluble in water4 ,for if to

 the water which was used to  wash the  
,turbith a fixed alkali be added1 there 
falls instantly a  russet-coloured      
precipitate1 which is no other than     
,mercury separated  from the vitriolic  
acid by the intervention of the alkali4 
,this dissolution of ,mercury by the    
vitriolic acid is accompanied with  a   
very remarkable phenomenon2 which is1   
that the acid contracts a  strong smell 
of volatile spirit of sulphur3 a notable
 proof that part  of the phlogiston of  
the ,mercury hath united therewith4 ,and
 yet1 if the  ,mercury be separated by  
means of a fixed alkali1 it does not    
appear to  have suffered any alteration4
 ,turbith mineral is not so volatile as 
pure ,mercury4    ,the nitrous acid     
dissolves ,mercury with ease4 ,the      
solution is limpid  and transparent1 and
 as it grows cold shoots into crystals1 
which are a  nitrous mercurial salt4    
,if this solution be evaporated to      
dryness1 the ,mercury remains           
impregnated with a little of the acid1  

under the form of a red powder1  which  
hath obtained the names of ,red         
,precipitate1 and ,arcanum  ,corallinum4
 ,this ,precipitate1 as well as         
,turbith1 is less volatile  than pure   
,mercury4    ,if this solution of       
,mercury be mixed with a solution of    
,copper1 made  likewise in the nitrous  
acid1 and the mixture evaporated to     
dryness1  there will remain a green     
powder called ,green ,precipitate4      
,these  precipitates are caustic and    
corrosive2 and are used as such in      
surgery4    ,though ,mercury be         
dissolved more easily and completely by 
the nitrous  acid than by the vitriolic1
 yet it has a greater affinity with the 
latter than with the former3 for if a   
vitriolic acid be poured into  a        
solution of ,mercury in spirit of nitre1
 the ,mercury will quit the  latter acid
 in which it was dissolved1 and join the
 other which was  added4 ,the same thing
 happens when the marine acid is        
employed instead  of the vitriolic4     

,mercury combined with spirit of salt   
forms a singular body2 a metalline  salt
 which shoots into long crystals1       
pointed like daggers4 ,this  salt is    
volatile1 and sublimes easily without   
decomposition4 ,it is  moreover the most
 violent of all the corrosives hitherto 
discovered  by ,chymistry4 ,it is called
 ,corrosive ,sublimate1 because it must 
absolutely be sublimed to make the      
combination perfect4 ,there are  several
 ways of doing this3 but the operation  
will never fail1 if the  ,mercury be    
rarefied into vapours1 and meet with the
 marine acid in a  similar state4       
,corrosive ,sublimate is dissolved by   
water1 but in very small quantities     
only4 ,it is decompounded by fixed      
alkalis1 which precipitate the  ,mercury
 in a reddish yellow powder1 called1 on 
account of its colour1  ,yellow         
,precipitate4    ,if ,corrosive         
,sublimate be mixed with tin1 and the   
compound distilled1  a liquor comes over
 which continually emits abundance of   

dense fumes1  and1 from the name of its 
inventor1 is called the ,smoking ,liquor
  of ,libavius4 ,this liquor is no other
 than the tin combined with  the marine 
acid of the ,corrosive ,sublimate1 which
 therefore it hath  actually            
decompounded3 whence it follows1 that   
this acid hath a greater  affinity with 
tin than with ,mercury4    ,the marine  
acid in ,corrosive ,sublimate is not    
quite saturated with  ,mercury2 but is  
capable of taking up a much greater     
quantity thereof4  ,for if ,corrosive   
,sublimate be mixed with fresh ,mercury1
 and sublimed  a second time1 another   
compound will be produced containing    
much more  ,mercury1 and less           
acrimonious2 for which reason it is     
named ,sweet  ,sublimate of ,mercury1   
,mercurius dulcis1 ,aquila alba4 ,this  
compound  may be taken internally1 and  
is purgative or emetic according to the 
dose administered4 ,it may be rendered  
still more gentle by repeated           
sublimations1 and then it takes the     

title of ,panacea ,mercurialis4  ,no way
 hath hitherto been found to dissolve   
,mercury in aqua regis  without great   
difficulty1 and even then it is but     
imperfectly dissolved4    ,mercury      
unites easily and intimately with       
sulphur4 ,if these two  substances be   
only rubbed together in a gentle heat1  
or even without  any heat1 they will    
contract an union1 though but an        
incomplete one4  ,this combination takes
 the form of a black powder1 which has  
procured  it the name of thiops         
,mineral4    ,if a more intimate and    
perfect union be desired1 this compound 
must be  exposed to a stronger heat2 and
 then a red ponderous substance will  be
 sublimed1 appearing like a mass of     
shining needles3 this is the            
combination desired1 and is called      
,cinabar4 ,in this form chiefly  is     
,mercury found in the bowels of the     
earth4 ,cinabar finely levigated        
acquires a much brighter red colour1 and
 is known to painters by the  name of   

,vermilion4    ,cinabar rises wholly by 
sublimation1 without suffering any      
decomposition2 because the two          
substances of which it consists1 viz4   
,mercury and ,sulphur1 are both         
volatile4    ,though ,mercury unites and
 combines very well with sulphur1 as    
hath  been said1 yet it hath less       
affinity with that mineral than any     
other  metal1 ,gold only excepted3      
whence it follows1 that any of the other
  metals will decompound ,cinabar1 by   
uniting with its sulphur1 and so        
setting the ,mercury at liberty to      
appear in its usual form4 ,mercury  thus
 separated from sulphur is esteemed the 
purest1 and bears the name  of ,mercury 
revivified from ,cinabar4    ,iron is   
generally used in this operation1       
preferably to the other  metals1 because
 among them all it has the greatest     
affinity with  sulphur1 and is the only 
one that has none with ,mercury4        
,cinabar may also be decompounded by    
means of fixed alkalis2 the  affinity of

 these salts with sulphur being         
generally greater than that  of any     
metalline substance whatever4           
,,chap4 ,,ix4    ,of the                
,,semi-,,metals4      ,,section ,i4     
,of ,,regulus ,,of ,,antimony4          
,regulus of ,antimony is a metallic     
substance of a pretty bright white      
colour4 ,it has the splendour1 opacity1 
and gravity of a metal3 but it  is quite
 unmalleable1 and crumbles to dust1     
instead of yielding or  stretching1     
under the hammer2 on which account it is
 classed with the  ,semi-metals4    ,it 
begins to flow as soon as it is         
moderately red2 but1 like the other     
,semi-metals1 it cannot stand a violent 
degree of fire2 being thereby           
dissipated into smoke and white vapours1
 which adhere to such cold  bodies as   
they meet with1 and so are collected    
into a kind of farina  called ,flowers  
of ,antimony4    ,if ,regulus of        
,antimony1 instead of being exposed to a
 strong fire1 be  only heated so        

moderately that it shall not even melt1 
it will calcine1  lose its phlogiston1  
and take the form of a greyish powder   
destitute of  all splendour3 this powder
 is called ,calx of ,antimony4    ,this 
calx is not volatile like the ,regulus1 
but will endure a very  violent fire2   
and being exposed thereto will flow1 and
 turn to a glass  of the yellowish      
colour of a hyacinth4    ,it is to be   
observed1 that the more the ,regulus is 
deprived of its  phlogiston by continued
 calcination1 the more refractory is the
 calx  obtained from it4 ,the glass     
thereof has also so much the less       
colour1  and comes the nearer to common 
glass4    ,the calx and the ,glass of   
,antimony will recover their metalline  
form1  like every other ,calx and ,glass
 of a metal1 if reduced by restoring to 
them their lost phlogiston4 ,yet if the 
calcination be carried too far1  their  
reduction will become much more         
difficult1 and a much smaller  quantity 
of ,regulus will be resuscitated4       

,regulus of ,antimony is capable of     
dissolving the metals3 but its          
affinities with them are various1 and   
differ according to the following       
order4 ,it affects ,iron the most       
powerfully1 next ,copper1 then ,tin1    
,lead1 and ,silver4 ,it promotes the    
fusion of metals1 but makes them all    
brittle and unmalleable4    ,it will not
 amalgamate with ,mercury2 and though by
 certain processes1  particularly the   
addition of water and continued         
trituration1 a sort  of union between   
these two substances may be produced1   
yet it is but  apparent and momentary2  
for1 being left to themselves and       
undisturbed1  they quickly disunite and 
separate#b4      #b ,m4 ,malouin1       
however1 hath found a way to unite these
 two metallic    substances3 but then he
 does it by the interposition of        
sulphur2 that    is1 he combines crude  
,antimony with ,mercury4 ,this          
combination is    brought about in the  
same way that thiops ,mineral is made2  

viz4    either by fusion1 or by         
trituration only without fire4 ,it      
resembles    the common thiops1 and ,m4 
,malouin calls it thiops of ,antimony4  
,he    observed that ,mercury unites    
with ,antimony much more intimately1 by 
melting1 than by rubbing them together4 
,the vitriolic acid1 assisted by heat1  
and even by distillation1  dissolves    
,regulus of ,antimony4 ,the nitrous acid
 likewise attacks it3  but the solution 
can by no art be made clear and limpid3 
so that the  ,regulus is only calcined1 
in a manner1 by this acid4    ,the      
marine acid dissolves it well enough2   
but then it must be  exceedingly        
concentrated1 and applied in a peculiar 
manner1 and  especially by distillation4
 ,one of the best methods of procuring a
  perfect union between the acid of     
sea-salt and ,regulus of ,antimony1 is  
to pulverize the latter1 mix it with    
corrosive sublimate1 and distil  the    
whole4 ,there rises in the operation a  
white matter1 thick1 and  scarce fluid1 

which is no other than the ,regulus of  
,antimony united  and combined with the 
acid of sea-salt4 ,this compound is     
extremely  corrosive1 and is called     
,butter of ,antimony4    ,it is plain   
that the corrosive sublimate is here    
decompounded2 that the  ,mercury is     
revivified1 and that the acid which was 
combined therewith  hath quitted it to  
join the ,regulus of ,antimony1 with    
which its  affinity is greater4 ,this   
,butter of ,antimony by repeated        
distillations  acquires a considerable  
degree of fluidity and limpidness4      
,if the acid of nitre be mixed with     
,butter of ,antimony1 and the whole     
distilled1 there rises an acid liquor1  
or a sort of aqua regis1 which  still   
retains some of the dissolved ,regulus1 
and is called ,bezoardic  ,spirit of    
,nitre4 ,after the distillation there   
remains a white matter1  from which     
fresh spirit of nitre is again          
abstracted1 and which being  then washed
 with water is called ,bezoar ,mineral4 

,this ,bezoar ,mineral  is neither so   
volatile nor so caustic as ,butter of   
,antimony2 because  the nitrous acid    
hath not the property of volatilizing   
metallic  substances1 as the marine acid
 does1 and because it remains much more 
intimately combined with the reguline   
part4    ,if ,butter of ,antimony be    
mixed with water1 the liquor immediately
  becomes turbid and milky1 and a       
precipitate falls1 which is nothing  but
 the metallic matter partly separated   
from its acid1 which is too  much       
weakened by the addition of water to    
keep it dissolved4 ,yet this            
precipitate still retains a good deal of
 acid2 for which reason it  continues to
 be a violent emetic1 and in some degree
 corrosive4 ,it hath  therefore been    
very improperly called ,mercurius ,vit4 
,the proper solvent of ,regulus of      
,antimony is aqua regis2 by means       
whereof a clear and limpid solution of  
this ,semi-metal may be obtained4       
,regulus of ,antimony mixed with nitre1 

and projected into a red-hot  crucible1 
sets the nitre in a flame1 and makes it 
detonate4 ,as it  produces this effect  
by means of its phlogiston1 it must     
needs at  the same time be calcined1 and
 lose its metallic properties1 which    
accordingly happens1 and when the nitre 
is in a triple proportion to  the       
,regulus1 the latter is so perfectly    
calcined as to leave only a  white      
powder1 which is fused with great       
difficulty1 and then turns to a  faintly
 coloured glass1 not very different from
 common glass1 and which  is not        
reducible to a ,regulus by the addition 
of inflammable matter2  at least it     
yields but a very small quantity        
thereof4 ,if less nitre be  used1 the   
calx is not so white2 the glass it      
produces is more like a  metalline      
glass1 and is more easily reduced4 ,the 
calx of the ,regulus  thus prepared by  
nitre is called1 on account of the      
medicinal virtue  ascribed to it1       
,diaphoretic ,antimony1 or ,diaphoretic 

,mineral4    ,nitre always becomes an   
alkali by deflagration1 and in the      
present  case retains part of the calx1 
which it even renders soluble in water4 
,this calx may be separated from the    
alkali1 if an acid be employed to       
precipitate it2 and then it is called   
,materia ,perlata4 ,this pearly  matter 
is a calx of ,antimony1 so completely   
deprived of its phlogiston  as to be    
altogether incapable of reduction to a  
,regulus4    ,regulus of ,antimony      
readily joins and unites with sulphur1  
forming  therewith a compound which has 
a very faint metallic splendour4  ,this 
compound appears like a mass of long    
needles adhering together  laterally2   
and under this form it is usually found 
in the ore1 or at  least when only      
separated by fusion from the stones and 
earthy matters  with which the ore is   
mixed4 ,it is called ,crude ,antimony4  
,antimony flows with a moderate heat1   
and becomes even more fluid than  other 
metallic substances4 ,the action of fire

 dissipates or consumes  the sulphur it 
contains1 and its phlogiston also1 so as
 to convert it  into a calx and a glass1
 as it does the ,regulus4    ,aqua      
regis1 which we observed to be the      
proper solvent of the  ,regulus1 being  
poured on ,antimony1 attacks and        
dissolves the reguline  part1 but       
touches not the sulphur2 in consequence 
whereof it decomposes  the ,antimony1   
and separates its sulphur from its      
,regulus4    ,there are several other   
ways of effecting this decomposition1   
and  obtaining the reguline part of     
,antimony by itself3 they consist either
  in destroying the sulphureous part of 
the ,antimony by combustion1 or in      
melting the ,antimony with some         
substance which has a greater affinity  
than its reguline part with sulphur4    
,most metals are very fit for this      
latter purpose3 for though the ,regulus 
has a considerable affinity with        
sulphur1 yet all the metals1 except     
,gold and ,mercury1 have a greater4     

,if therefore ,iron1 ,copper1 ,lead1    
,silver1 or ,tin1 be melted with        
,antimony1 the metal employed will unite
 with the sulphur1 and separate  it from
 the ,regulus4    ,it must be observed1 
that1 as these metals have some affinity
 with the  ,regulus of ,antimony1 the   
,regulus will be joined in the operation
 by  some of the metal employed as a    
,precipitant1 7so those substances  are 
called which serve as the means of      
separating two bodies from each  other72
 and therefore the ,regulus procured in 
this manner will not be  absolutely     
pure3 on this account care is taken to  
distinguish each by  adding the name of 
the metal employed in its precipitation2
 and thence  come these titles1 ,martial
 ,regulus of ,antimony1 or only ,martial
  ,regulus1 ,regulus ,veneris2 and so of
 the rest4    ,antimony is employed with
 advantage to separate ,gold from all   
the  other metals with which it may be  
alloyed4 ,it has been shewn1 that all   
the metals have a greater affinity than 

the reguline part of ,antimony  with    
sulphur1 ,gold only excepted2 which is  
incapable of contracting  any union     
therewith3 and therefore1 if a mass     
compounded of ,gold and  several other  
metals be melted with ,antimony1 every  
thing in that  mass which is not ,gold  
will unite with the sulphur of the      
,antimony4  ,this union occasions two   
separations1 to wit1 that of the sulphur
  of the ,antimony from its reguline    
part1 and that of the ,gold from  the   
metals with which it was adulterated2   
and from the whole two new  compounds   
arise2 namely1 a combination of the     
metals with the sulphur1  which being   
lightest rises to the surface in fusion2
 and a metalline  mass1 formed of the   
,gold and the reguline part of the      
,antimony united  together1 which being 
much the heaviest sinks to the bottom4  
,there is  no difficulty in parting the 
,gold from the ,regulus of ,antimony    
with  which it is alloyed3 for the      
metalline mass needs only be exposed to 

a  degree of fire capable of dissipating
 into vapours all the ,semi-metal  it   
contains2 which being very volatile1 the
 operation is much easier1  and more    
expeditiously finished1 than if the     
metals with which the ,gold  was debased
 were to be vitrified on the cupel2     
without taking into the  account1 that1 
if ,silver were one of them1 recourse   
must needs be had  to the process of    
quartation after that of the cupel4     
,if equal parts of nitre and ,antimony  
be mixed together1 and the mixture      
exposed to the action of fire1 a violent
 detonation ensues2 the nitre           
deflagrating consumes the sulphur of the
 ,antimony1 and even a part of  its     
phlogiston4 ,after the detonation there 
remains a greyish matter  which contains
 fixed nitre1 vitriolated tartar1 and   
the reguline part  of the ,antimony in  
some measure deprived of its phlogiston1
 and half  vitrified by the action of   
the fire1 which is considerably         
increased by  the deflagration4 ,this   

matter is called ,liver of ,antimony4   
,if1 instead of equal parts of nitre and
 ,antimony1 two parts of the  former be 
used to one of the latter1 then the     
reguline part loses much  more of its   
phlogiston1 and remains in the form of a
 yellowish powder4    ,again1 if three  
parts of nitre be taken to one of       
,antimony1 the ,regulus  is thereby     
entirely robbed of its phlogiston1 and  
converted to a white  calx1 which bears 
the name of ,diaphoretic ,antimony1 or  
,diaphoretic  ,mineral4 ,the pearly     
matter may be precipitated by pouring an
 acid  on the saline substances which   
here remain after the detonation1 in    
the same manner as we shewed above was  
to be done with regard to the  ,regulus4
    ,in the two last operations1 where  
the nitre is in a double or triple      
proportion to the ,antimony1 the        
reguline part is found after the        
detonation to be converted into a calx1 
and not into a half-vitrified  matter1  
which we have seen is the effect when   

equal parts only of nitre  and ,antimony
 are used4 ,the reason of this          
difference is1 that in these  two cases 
the reguline part1 being wholly1 or     
almost wholly1 deprived  of its         
phlogiston1 becomes1 as was observed1   
more difficult to fuse1  and            
consequently cannot begin to vitrify in 
the same degree of heat  as that which  
hath not lost so much of its phlogiston4
 ,if1 instead of  performing the        
operation with equal parts of nitre and 
,antimony alone1  a portion of some     
substance which abounds with phlogiston 
be added1 in  that case the sulphur only
 of the ,antimony will be consumed1 and 
the  ,regulus will remain united with   
its phlogiston and separated from its   
sulphur4    ,the ,regulus prepared in   
this manner is absolutely pure1 because 
no  metalline substance being employed1 
none can mix with and adulterate  it4   
,it is called ,regulus of ,antimony per 
se1 or only ,regulus of  ,antimony4     
,it is true indeed that in this         

operation much of the reguline part     
unavoidably loses its phlogiston and is 
calcined1 and consequently  a much      
smaller quantity of ,regulus is obtained
 than when metalline  precipitants are  
employed3 but this loss is easily       
repaired1 if it be  thought proper1 by  
restoring to the calcined part its lost 
phlogiston4    ,antimony melted with two
 parts of fixed alkali yields no        
,regulus1  but is entirely dissolved by 
the salt1 and forms with it a mass of a 
reddish yellow colour4    ,the reason   
why no precipitate is produced on this  
occasion is1 that the  alkali uniting   
with the sulphur of the ,antimony forms 
therewith the  combination called ,liver
 of ,sulphur1 which by its nature is    
qualified  to keep the reguline part    
dissolved4 ,this mass formed by the     
union of  the ,antimony with the alkali 
is soluble in water4 ,if any acid       
whatever  be dropt into this solution1  
there falls a precipitate of a reddish  
yellow colour2 because the acid unites  

with the alkali1 and forces it  to quit 
the matters with which it was combined4 
,this precipitate is  called ,golden    
,sulphur of ,antimony4    ,as in the    
operation for preparing ,regulus of     
,antimony per se1 some of  the nitre is1
 by the inflammable matters added       
thereto1 turned to an  alkali1 this     
alkali seizes on part of the ,antimony1 
and therewith forms  a compound like    
that just described4 ,hence it comes1   
that if the scoria  formed in this      
process be dissolved in water1 and an   
acid dropped into  the solution1 a true 
golden sulphur of ,antimony is thereby  
separated4    ,this union of ,antimony  
with an alkali may also be brought about
 by the  humid way2 that is1 by making  
use of an alkali resolved into a liquor1
  and boiling the mineral in it4 ,the   
alkaline liquor1 in proportion as  it   
acts upon the ,antimony1 gradually      
becomes reddish and turbid4 ,if  left to
 settle and cool when well saturated    
therewith1 it gradually  deposites the  

,antimony it had taken up1 which        
precipitates in the form  of a red      
powder2 and this precipitate is the     
celebrated remedy known  by the name of 
,kermes ,mineral4 ,it is plain that the 
kermes is nearly  the same thing with   
the golden sulphur3 yet it differs from 
it in some  respects2 and especially in 
this1 that being taken inwardly it      
operates  much more gently than the     
golden sulphur1 which is a violent      
emetic4  ,nitre fixed by charcoal1 and  
resolved into a liquor1 is the only     
alkali  employed in preparing the       
kermes4    ,it was shewn above1 that    
,regulus of ,antimony mixed and         
distilled with  corrosive sublimate     
decompounds it1 disengages the ,mercury1
 and joining  itself to the marine acid 
forms therewith a new combination1      
called  ,butter of ,antimony4 ,if the   
same operation be performed with crude  
,antimony instead of its ,regulus1 the  
same effects are produced3 but  then the
 ,antimony itself is also decomposed2   

that is1 the reguline  part is separated
 from the sulphur1 which being set free 
unites with  the ,mercury1 now also at  
liberty1 and these two together form a  
true  cinabar1 called ,cinabar of       
,antimony4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,of  
,,bismuth4    ,bismuth1 known also by   
the name of ,tin-glass1 is a semi-metal1
 having  almost the same appearance as  
,regulus of ,antimony2 yet it has a     
more dusky cast1 inclining somewhat to  
red1 and even presents some  changeable 
streaks1 especially after lying long in 
the air4    ,when exposed to the fire it
 melts long before it is red1 and       
consequently with less heat than        
,regulus of ,antimony1 which does not   
flow1 as was shewn above1 till it begin 
to be red-hot4 ,it becomes  volatile1   
like all the other semi-metals1 when    
acted on by a violent  fire3 being kept 
in fusion by a proper degree of heat it 
loses its  phlogiston with its metallic 
form1 and turns to a powder or a calx2  
and  that again is converted into glass 

by the continued action of fire4 ,the   
calx and glass of ,bismuth may be       
reduced1 like any other metallic calx1  
by restoring their phlogiston4          
,bismuth mixes with all the metals in   
fusion1 and even facilitates the  fusion
 of such as do not otherwise flow       
readily4 ,it whitens them by its  union1
 and destroys their malleability4    ,it
 amalgamates with ,mercury1 if they be  
rubbed together with the  addition of   
water3 yet after some time these two    
metalline substances  desert each other1
 and the ,bismuth appears again in the  
form of a  powder4 ,hence it is plain1  
that the union it contracts with        
,mercury is  not perfect2 and yet it has
 the singular property of attenuating   
,lead1  and altering it in such a manner
 that it afterwards amalgamates with    
,mercury much more perfectly1 so as even
 to pass with it through shamoy  leather
 without any separation4 ,the ,bismuth  
employed in making this  amalgama       
afterwards separates from it            

spontaneously1 as usual2 but the  ,lead 
still continues united with the         
,mercury1 and always retains the        
property thus acquired4    ,the         
vitriolic acid does not dissolve        
,bismuth3 its proper solvent is the     
nitrous acid1 which dissolves it with   
violence1 and abundance of fumes4       
,bismuth dissolved in the nitrous acid  
is precipitated not only by  alkalis1   
but even by the bare addition of water4 
,this precipitate is  extremely white1  
and known by the name of ,magistery of  
,bismuth4    ,the acid of sea-salt and  
aqua regis likewise act upon ,bismuth1  
but  with less violence4    ,this       
semi-metal does not sensibly deflagrate 
with nitre2 yet it is  quickly deprived 
of its phlogiston1 and turned into a    
vitrifiable calx1  when exposed with it 
to the action of fire4    ,it readily   
unites with sulphur in fusion1 and forms
 therewith a  compound which appears to 
consist of needles adhering laterally to
 each  other4    ,it may be separated   

from the sulphur with which is combined1
 by only  exposing it to the fire1      
without any additament2 for the sulphur 
is  either consumed or sublimed1 and    
leaves the ,bismuth behind4             
,,section ,,iii4    ,of ,,zinc4    ,zinc
 to appearance differs but little from  
,bismuth1 and has even been  confounded 
with it by several authors4             
,nevertheless1 besides that it  has     
something of a blueish cast1 and is     
harder than ,bismuth1 it differs  from  
it essentially in its properties1 as    
will presently be shewn4  ,these two    
metallic substances scarce resemble each
 other in any thing1  but the qualities 
common to all semi-metals4    ,zinc     
melts the moment it grows red in the    
fire1 and then also begins  to turn to a
 calx1 which1 like any other metallic   
calx1 may be reduced  by means of the   
phlogiston3 but if the fire be          
considerably increased1  it sublimes1   
flames1 and burns like an oily matter2  
which is a proof  of the great quantity 

of phlogiston in its composition4 ,at   
the same  time abundance of flowers rise
 from it in the form of white flakes1   
flying about in the air like very light 
bodies2 and into this form  may the     
whole substance of the ,zinc be         
converted4 ,several names have  been    
given to these flowers1 such as         
,pompholyx1 ,philosophic ,wool4  ,they  
are supposed to be no other than the    
,zinc itself deprived of its            
phlogiston2 yet no body has hitherto    
been able to resuscitate them  in the   
form of ,zinc1 by restoring their       
phlogiston according to the  methods    
used in the reduction of metals4 ,though
 they rise in the air  with very great  
ease while the ,zinc is calcining1 yet  
when once formed  they are very fixed2  
for they withstand the utmost violence  
of fire1  and are capable of being      
vitrified1 especially if joined with a  
fixed  alkali4 ,they are soluble in     
acids4    ,zinc unites with all         
metalline substances1 except ,bismuth4  

,it has  this singular property1 that   
being mixed with ,copper1 even in a     
considerable quantity1 such as a fourth 
part1 it does not greatly  lessen the   
ductility thereof1 and at the same time 
communicates to it  a very beautiful    
colour not unlike that of ,gold3 on     
which account the  composition is       
frequently made1 and produces what is   
called ,brass4  ,this metal melts much  
more easily than ,copper alone1 because 
of the  ,zinc with which it is alloyed4 
,if it be exposed to a great degree of  
heat1 the ,zinc which it contains takes 
fire1 and sublimes in white  flowers1   
just as when it is pure4    ,it is to be
 observed1 that ,brass is ductile only  
while it is cold1 and  not then1 unless 
the ,zinc used in making it was very    
pure2 otherwise  the composition will   
prove but a ,tombac or ,prince's ,metal1
 having  very little malleability4      
,zinc is very volatile1 and carries off 
with it any metallic substance  with    
which it is fused1 making a kind of     

sublimate thereof4 ,in the  furnaces    
where they smelt ores containing ,zinc1 
the matter thus  sublimed is called     
,cadmia ,fornacum1 to distinguish it    
from the  native ,cadmia called also    
,calamine1 or ,lapis ,calaminaris2      
which1  properly speaking1 is an ore of 
,zinc1 containing a great deal of that  
semi-metal1 together with some ,iron1   
and a stony substance4 ,the name of     
,cadmia ,fornacum is not appropriated   
solely to the metallic sublimates       
procured by means of ,zinc1 but is given
 in general to all the metallic         
sublimates found in smelting houses4    
,if a violent and sudden heat be applied
 to ,zinc1 it sublimes in its  metalline
 form2 there not being time for it to   
burn and be resolved  into flowers4     
,this semi-metal is soluble in all the  
acids1 but especially in spirit  of     
nitre1 which attacks and dissolves it   
with very great violence4    ,zinc has a
 greater affinity than iron or copper   
with the vitriolic  acid2 and therefore 

it decompounds the green and blue       
vitriols1  precipitating those two      
metals by uniting with the vitriolic    
acid1 with  which it forms a metallic   
salt1 or vitriol1 called ,white         
,vitriol1 or  ,vitriol of ,zinc4        
,nitre mixed with ,zinc1 and projected  
into a red-hot crucible1 detonates  with
 violence1 and during the detonation    
there rises a great quantity  of white  
flowers1 like those which appear when it
 is calcined by itself4    ,sulphur has 
no power over ,zinc4 ,even liver of     
sulphur1 which dissolves  all other     
metallic substances1 contracts no union 
with this semi-metal4    ,messrs4       
,hellot and ,malouin have bestowed a    
great deal of pains on this  semi-metal4
 ,an account of their experiments is to 
be found in the  ,memoirs of the        
,academy of ,sciences4      ,,section   
,,iv4    ,of ,,regulus ,,of ,,arsenic4  
,regulus of ,arsenic is the most        
volatile of all the semi-metals4 ,a very
  moderate heat makes it wholly         

evaporate1 and fly off in fumes2 on     
which  account it cannot be brought to  
fusion1 nor can any considerable masses 
thereof be obtained4 ,it has a metallic 
colour1 somewhat resembling  ,lead2 but 
it soon loses its splendour when exposed
 to the air4    ,it unites readily      
enough with metallic substances1 having 
the same  affinities with them as       
,regulus of ,antimony hath4 ,it makes   
them  brittle1 and unmalleable4 ,it hath
 also the property of rendering them    
volatile1 and greatly facilitates their 
scorification4    ,it very easily parts 
with its phlogiston and its metallic    
form4 ,when  exposed to the fire it     
rises in a kind of shining crystalline  
calx1  which1 on that account1 looks    
more like a saline matter than a        
metallic  calx4 ,to this calx or these  
flowers are given the names of ,white   
,arsenic1 ,crystalline ,arsenic1 and    
most commonly plain ,arsenic4    ,the   
properties of this substance are very   
singular1 and extremely  different from 

those of any other metallic calx4       
,hitherto it hath been  but little      
examined2 and this led me to make some  
attempts towards  discovering its       
nature1 which may be seen in the        
,memoirs of the ,academy  of ,sciences4 
,arsenic differs from every other       
metalline calx1 first1 in being         
volatile2 whereas the calces of all     
other metallic substances1 not          
excepting those of the most volatile    
semi-metals1 such as ,regulus of        
,antimony and ,zinc1 are exceeding      
fixed2 and1 secondly1 in having a       
saline character1 which is not found in 
any other metalline calx4    ,the saline
 character of ,arsenic appears1 first1  
from its being soluble  in water2       
secondly1 from its corrosive quality1   
which makes it one  of the most violent 
poisons3 a quality from which the other 
metallic  substances are free1 when they
 are not combined with some saline      
matter4 ,regulus of ,antimony must      
however be excepted4 ,but then the  best

 ,chymists agree that this semi-metal is
 either nearly of the same  nature with 
,arsenic1 or contains a portion thereof 
in its composition3  besides1 its       
noxious qualities never discover        
themselves so plainly  as when it is    
combined with some acid4 ,lastly1       
,arsenic acts just like  the vitriolic  
acid upon nitre2 that is1 it decompounds
 that neutral  salt1 by expelling its   
acid from its alkaline basis1 of which  
it takes  possession1 and therewith     
forms a new saline compound4    ,this   
combination is a species of salt that is
 perfectly neutral4 ,when  the operation
 is performed in a close vessel1 the    
salt shoots into  crystals in the form  
of right-angled quadrangular prisms1    
terminated at  each extremity by        
pyramids that are also quadrangular and 
right angled2  some of which however1   
instead of ending in a point1 are obtuse
 as if  truncated4 ,the consequence is  
different when the operation is         
performed  in an open vessel2 for then  

nothing is obtained but an alkaline salt
  impregnated with ,arsenic1 which      
cannot be crystallized4    ,the cause of
 this different effect is1 that1 when   
the ,arsenic is once  engaged in the    
alkaline basis of the nitre1 it can     
never be separated  from it by the      
utmost force of fire1 so long as it is  
kept in a close  vessel2 whereas1 if you
 expose it to the fire without that     
precaution1  it readily separates from  
it4 ,this property of arsenic was never 
before  observed by any ,chymist1 and   
therefore this our new species of       
,neutral  arsenical salt was absolutely 
unknown till lately4    ,this new salt  
possesses many singular properties1 the 
chief of which  are these4 ,first1 it   
cannot be decompounded by the           
intervention of  any acid1 even the     
strongest acid of vitriol2 and this1    
joined to its  property of expelling the
 nitrous acid from its basis1 shews that
 it  has a very great affinity with     
fixed alkalis4    ,secondly1 this very  

salt1 on which pure acids have no       
effect1 is  decompounded with the       
greatest ease by acids united with      
metallic  substances4 ,the reason of    
this phenomenon is curious1 and         
furnishes us  with an instance of what  
we advanced concerning double           
affinities4    ,if to a resolution of   
any metallic substance whatever1 made by
 any acid  whatever1 7except that of    
,mercury by the marine acid1 and that of
 ,gold  by aqua regis71 a certain       
quantity of our ,new ,salt dissolved in 
water  be added1 the metallic substance 
is instantaneously separated from the   
acid in which it was dissolved1 and     
falls to the bottom of the liquor4      
,all metallic precipitates obtained in  
this manner are found to be a           
combination of the metal with ,arsenic2 
whence it necessarily follows  that the 
new ,neutral ,salt is by this means     
decompounded1 its arsenical  part       
uniting with the metallic substance1 and
 its alkaline basis with  the acid in   

which that substance was dissolved4     
,the affinities of these several bodies 
must be considered as operating  on this
 occasion in the following manner3 ,the 
acids which tend to  decompound the     
,neutral ,salt of ,arsenic1 by virtue of
 their affinity  with its alkaline      
basis1 are not able to accomplish it1   
because this  affinity is powerfully    
counteracted by that which the ,arsenic 
has with  the same alkaline basis1 and  
which is equal or even superior to      
theirs4  ,but if these acids happen to  
be united with a substance which        
naturally  has a very great affinity    
with the arsenical part of the ,neutral 
,salt1  then1 the two parts of which    
this ,salt consists being drawn         
different  ways by two several          
affinities tending to separate them from
 each  other1 the ,salt will undergo a  
decomposition1 which could not have been
  effected without the help of this     
second affinity4 ,now1 as metallic      
substances have a great affinity with   

,arsenic1 it is not surprising  that the
 ,neutral ,salt of ,arsenic1 which      
cannot be decompounded by a  pure acid1 
should nevertheless yield to an acid    
combined with a metal4  ,the            
decomposition of this ,salt1 therefore1 
and the precipitation which  of course  
it produces in metallic solutions1 are  
brought about by the  means of a double 
affinity2 namely1 that of the acid with 
the alkaline  basis of the ,neutral     
,salt1 and that of the metal with the   
arsenical  part of that salt4           
,arsenic has not the same effect on     
sea-salt as on nitre1 and cannot  expel 
its acid3 a very singular phenomenon1   
for which it is hard to  assign a       
reason2 for the nitrous acid is known to
 have a greater  affinity than the      
marine acid with alkalis1 and even with 
the basis of  sea-salt itself4    ,yet  
,arsenic may be combined with the basis 
of sea-salt1 and a ,neutral  ,salt      
thereby obtained1 like that which       
results from the decomposition  of nitre

 by ,arsenic3 but for that purpose a    
quadrangular nitre must be  first       
prepared1 and ,arsenic applied thereto  
as to common nitre4    ,the ,salt       
produced by uniting ,arsenic with the   
basis of sea-salt very  much resembles  
the ,neutral ,salt of ,arsenic above    
treated of as well in  the figure of its
 crystals as in its several properties4 
,arsenic presents another singular      
phenomenon1 both with the alkali of     
nitre and with that of sea-salt2 which  
is1 that if it be combined with  these  
salts in a fluid state1 it forms with   
them a saline compound1  quite different
 from the ,neutral ,salts of ,arsenic   
which result from the  decomposition of 
nitrous salts4    ,this saline compound1
 which ,i call ,liver of ,arsenic1 takes
 up a  much greater quantity of ,arsenic
 than is necessary for the perfect      
saturation of the alkali4 ,it has the   
appearance of a glue1 which  is so much 
the thicker the more ,arsenic it        
contains4 ,its smell is  disagreeable2  

it attracts the moisture of the air1 and
 does not  crystallize2 it is easily    
decompounded by any acid whatever1 which
  precipitates the ,arsenic and unites  
with the alkali4 ,lastly1 the  effects  
it produces on metallic solutions are   
different from those of  our neutral    
arsenical salts4 ,but the bounds which  
,i have set myself  in this treatise    
will not allow me to be more particular4
 ,such as  have the curiosity to inquire
 further into the subject may consult my
  ,dissertations on ,arsenic1 published 
among the ,memoirs of the ,academy of   
,sciences4    ,arsenic is easily reduced
 to a ,regulus4 ,it need only be mixed  
with any  matter containing the         
phlogiston1 and by the help of a        
moderate heat a  true ,regulus will     
sublime4 ,this ,regulus1 as was said1 is
 very volatile1  and calcines with the  
greatest ease2 which is the reason why  
it cannot  be obtained but in small     
quantities1 and also why1 in order to   
obtain  masses of it1 some have thought 

of adding thereto some metal with which 
it has a great affinity1 such as ,copper
 or ,iron2 because1 by joining  with the
 metal1 it is partly fixed and          
restrained from flying off4 ,but  it is 
plain the ,regulus obtained by this     
means is not pure1 as it must  partake  
considerably of the metal employed4     
,arsenic readily unites with sulphur1   
and rises with it in a yellow  compound1
 called ,orpiment4    ,sulphur cannot be
 separated from ,arsenic but by the     
intervention of two  bodies only2 to    
wit1 a fixed alkali and ,mercury4       
,the property which ,mercury possesses  
of separating sulphur from ,arsenic  is 
founded on this1 that these two metallic
 substances are incapable  of           
contracting any union2 whereas1 though  
most of the other metals and            
semi-metals have a greater affinity with
 sulphur than ,mercury hath1 as  was    
shewn in treating of the decomposition  
of ,cinabar1 nevertheless  they are all 
unable to decompound ,orpiment2 because 

some of them have  as great an affinity 
with ,arsenic as with sulphur2 others   
have no  affinity with either2 and      
lastly1 sulphur hath as great an        
affinity  with ,arsenic as with any of  
them4    ,it must be observed that1 if  
fixed alkalis be employed to purify     
,arsenic in this manner1 no more must be
 used than is necessary to  absorb the  
sulphur or the phlogiston1 of which also
 it is their nature  to deprive         
,arsenic2 for otherwise1 as it has been 
shewn that ,arsenic  readily unites with
 alkalis1 they would absorb a           
considerable quantity  thereof4         
,,chap4 ,x4    ,of ,,oil in general4    
,oil is an unctuous body1 which burns   
and consumes with flame and smoke1  and 
is not soluble in water4 ,it consists of
 the phlogiston united with  water by   
means of an acid4 ,there is1 moreover1  
in its composition a  certain proportion
 of earth1 more or less1 according to   
each several  sort of ,oil4    ,the     
inflammability of ,oil evidently proves 

that it contains the  phlogiston4 ,that 
an acid is one of its constituent       
principles many  experiments            
demonstrate1 of which these are the     
chief3 ,if certain ,oils  be long       
triturated with an alkaline salt1 and   
the alkali afterwards  dissolved in     
water1 crystals of a true neutral salt  
will be produced3  some metals1 and     
particularly ,copper1 are corroded and  
rusted by ,oils1  just as they are by   
acids3 again1 acid crystals are found in
 some ,oils  that have been long kept4  
,this acid in ,oil serves undoubtedly to
 unite  its phlogiston with its water2  
because these two substances having no  
affinity with each other cannot be      
united without the intervention of  such
 a medium as an acid1 which has an      
affinity with both4 ,as to the          
existence of water in ,oils1 it appears 
plainly when they are decomposed  by    
repeated distillations1 especially after
 mixing them with absorbent  earths4    
,lastly1 when an ,oil is destroyed by   

burning1 a certain quantity  of earth is
 constantly left behind4    ,we are very
 sure that the above-mentioned          
principles enter into the  composition  
of ,oils2 for they may be obtained from 
every one of them3  but it is not       
absolutely certain that they consist of 
these only1 and  that they do not       
contain some other principle which may  
escape our  notice in decomposing them2 
for hitherto it doth not appear1 by any 
experiment we can depend on1 that ,oil  
was ever produced by combining  together
 the principles here specified3 yet such
 redintegrations are  the only means we 
have of satisfying ourselves that we    
know all the  principles which          
constitute a body4    ,oils exposed to  
the fire in close vessels pass over     
almost wholly from  the containing      
vessel into any other applied to receive
 them4 ,there  remains1 however1 a small
 quantity of black matter1 which is     
extremely  fixed1 and continues         
unalterable as long as it hath no       

communication  with the external air1 be
 the force of the fire ever so violent4 
,this  matter is no other than part of  
the phlogiston of the ,oil united  with 
its most fixed and grossest earth2 and  
this is what we called  ,charcoal1 or   
plainly a ,coal4      ,,section ,i4     
,of ,,charcoal4    ,when ,oil happens to
 be united to much earth1 as it is in   
vegetable and  animal bodies1 it leaves 
a considerable quantity of ,coal or     
charred  matter4    ,this ,coal1 exposed
 to the fire in the open air1 burns and 
wastes1  but without blazing like other 
combustible matters3 there appears  only
 a small blueish flame1 but not the     
least smoke4 ,most commonly  it only    
glows and sparkles1 and so gradually    
falls into ashes1 which  are nothing but
 the earth of the body1 combined with an
 alkaline salt  in burning4 ,this       
alkaline salt may be separated from the 
earth1 by  lixiviating the ashes with   
water1 which dissolves all the salt1 and
  leaves the earth quite pure4          

,charcoal is unalterable and            
indestructible by any other body but    
fire2  whence it follows1 that when it  
is not actually kindled and ignited1    
the most powerful agents1 such as the   
acids1 though ever so strong and        
concentrated1 have not the least effect 
on it4    ,the case is otherwise when it
 is lighted1 that is1 when its          
phlogiston  begins to separate from its 
earth2 for then the pure acid of vitriol
  being joined therewith1 contracts an  
instantaneous union with its            
phlogiston1 and evaporates in a volatile
 sulphureous spirit4 ,if the  vitriolic 
acid1 instead of being applied quite    
pure1 be first clogged  with some basis1
 especially an alkaline one1 it quits   
that basis1  enters into a more intimate
 union with the phlogiston of the       
burning  ,coal1 and so forms an actual  
sulphur1 with which the alkali now      
unites  and forms a hepar4    ,the pure 
acid of sea-salt hath not been observed 
to act in the least  upon ,charcoal1    

especially when it is not on fire4 ,but 
when this acid  is incorporated with an 
alkaline or metallic basis1 and combined
  according to a peculiar process with  
burning ,charcoal1 it in like  manner   
quits its basis1 unites with the        
phlogiston1 and therewith forms  a      
phosphorus1 of which we have already    
taken notice4    ,nor has the pure      
nitrous acid any effect on a charred    
,coal1 even when  ignited3 and so far is
 it from being able to kindle a cold    
one1 that  when poured on a live one1 it
 extinguishes it like water4 ,but when  
this acid is united with a basis1 it    
quits it rapidly as soon as it  touches 
a burning coal1 and rushes violently    
into an union with the  phlogiston      
thereof4 ,from this union there probably
 arises1 as we said  before1 a kind of  
sulphur or phosphorus1 which is so      
inflammable as to  be destroyed by the  
fire the very moment it is generated4   
,the acids of nitre and vitriol act upon
 ,oils2 but very differently1  according

 to the quantity of phlegm they contain4
 ,if they be weakened  with much water1 
they have no effect at all upon ,oils2  
if they contain  little water1 or be    
dephlegmated to a certain degree1 they  
dissolve  them with heat1 and with them 
form compounds of a thick consistence4  
,acids1 thus combined in a considerable 
proportion with ,oils1 render  them     
soluble in water4      ,,section ,,ii4  
,of ,,soap4    ,alkalis also have the   
same property4 ,when an ,oil is combined
 with an  acid or an alkali in such a   
manner1 that the compound resulting from
  their union is soluble in water2 such 
a compound may in general be  called a  
,soap4 ,soap itself hath the property of
 rendering fat bodies  in some measure  
soluble in water2 on which account it is
 very useful  for scouring or cleansing 
any thing greasy4    ,oily and saline   
substances1 combined together1 observe  
the same general  rules as all other    
combinations2 that is1 they mutually    
communicate  the properties belonging to

 each3 thus ,oils1 which naturally are  
not  soluble in water1 acquire1 by their
 union with saline matters1 the         
property of dissolving therein2 and     
salts lose1 by their conjunction  with  
,oils1 part of their natural tendency to
 incorporate with water2  so that1 while
 they serve to constitute soap1 they do 
not1 as before1  attract the moisture of
 the air1 c4 and1 in like manner1 as    
they are  not inflammable1 they         
considerably lessen the inflammability  
of the  ,oils combined with them4       
,acid ,soaps are decompounded by        
alkalis1 as alkaline ,soaps are by      
acids1  according to the general rules  
of affinities4    ,the acids of nitre   
and vitriol1 when highly concentrated1  
dissolve  ,oils with such violence as to
 heat them1 make them black1 burn them1 
and even set them on fire4 ,how sea-salt
 affects ,oils is not yet  sufficiently 
ascertained4    ,all ,oils have the     
property of dissolving sulphur2 which is
 not at all  surprising1 seeing each of 

its component principles hath an        
affinity  with ,oil4    ,it is also a   
property common to all ,oils to become  
more fluid1 subtile1  light1 and limpid1
 the oftener they are distilled4 ,on the
 contrary1  by being incorporated with  
saline substances they acquire a greater
  consistence1 and sometimes form       
compounds that are most solid4          
,,chap4 ,,xi4    ,of the several ,sorts 
of ,,oils4      ,oils are distinguished 
by the substances from which they are   
drawn3 and  as ,oils are extracted from 
minerals1 from vegetables1 and from     
animals1  there are of course ,mineral1 
,vegetable1 and ,animal ,oils4          
,,section ,i4    ,of ,,mineral ,,oils4  
,in the bowels of the earth we find but 
one sort of ,oil1 called  ,petroleum3   
its smell is strong and not             
disagreeable1 and its colour  sometimes 
more sometimes less yellow4 ,there are  
certain mineral  substances which yield 
by distillation a great deal of ,oil    
very like  ,petroleum4 ,this sort of    

substance is called a ,bitumen1 and is1 
indeed1 nothing but an ,oil rendered    
consistent and solid by being  combined 
with an acid2 as appears from hence1    
that by uniting ,petroleum  with the    
acid of vitriol we can produce an       
artificial ,bitumen very like  the      
native4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,of     
,,vegetable ,,oils4    ,vegetable       
substances yield a very great quantity  
and variety of oils3  for there is not a
 plant1 or part of a plant1 that does   
not contain one  or more sorts thereof1 
generally peculiar to itself1 and       
different from  all others4    ,by      
expression only1 that is1 by bruising   
and squeezing vegetable  substances1    
particularly certain fruits and seeds1 a
 sort of oil is  obtained which has     
scarce any smell or taste4 ,oils of this
 sort are  very mild and unctuous2 and1 
because in this respect they resemble   
animal fat more than the rest do1 they  
are called ,fat ,oils4    ,these ,oils1 
being exposed to the air for some time1 

sooner or latter  grow thick1 acquire an
 acrid taste1 and a strong disagreeable 
smell4  ,some of them congeal with the  
smallest degree of cold4 ,this sort of  
,oil is well adapted to dissolve those  
preparations of ,lead called  ,litharge 
and ,minium1 with which they form a     
thick tenacious substance1  that is used
 for the basis of almost all plasters4  
,they also dissolve  ,lead in its       
metalline form2 but not so easily as the
 sorts of calx  above-mentioned2        
probably because its body is not so much
 opened1 nor  its parts so divided4     
,by expression alone we also procure    
from certain vegetable substances       
another sort of ,oil1 which is thin1    
limpid1 volatile1 of a pungent  taste1  
and retains the smell of the vegetable  
that yielded it2 on which  account it is
 called an ,essential ,oil4 ,of this    
there are several  sorts1 differing from
 one another1 like the ,fat ,oils1      
according to the  subjects from which   
they are obtained4    ,we must observe1 

that it is very difficult1 or rather in 
most  cases impossible1 to force from   
the greatest part of vegetables1  by    
expression only1 all the essential ,oil 
they contain4 ,for this  purpose        
therefore recourse must be had to fire3 
a gentle heat1 not  exceeding that of   
boiling water1 will extract all the     
essential ,oils  of vegetables2 and this
 is the most usual and most convenient  
way of  procuring them4    ,the fat     
,oils cannot be obtained by the same    
method3 these being much  less volatile 
than the essential ,oils1 require a much
 greater degree of  heat to raise them2 
which nevertheless they cannot bear     
without being  much spoiled and entirely
 changed in their nature1 as shall      
presently  be shewn4 ,all ,oils1        
therefore1 which rise with the heat of  
boiling  water1 and such alone1 should  
be called ,essential ,oils4             
,essential ,oils1 in a longer or shorter
 time1 according to the nature  of each1
 lose the fragrant smell they had when  

newly distilled1 and  acquire another1  
which is strong1 rancid1 and much less  
agreeable3 they  also lose their        
tenuity1 becoming thick and viscid2 and 
in this state  they greatly resemble    
those substances abounding in ,oil which
 flow from  certain trees1 and which are
 called ,balsams or ,resins1 according  
as  they are less or more consistent4   
,balsams and ,resins are not soluble in 
water4 ,but there are other ,oily       
compounds which likewise run from trees2
 and1 though not unlike ,resins1  are   
however soluble in water4 ,these are    
called ,gums2 and their  property of    
dissolving in water arises from their   
containing more water  and more salt    
than ,resins have2 or at least their    
saline parts are less  clogged and more 
disengaged4    ,balsams and ,resins     
distilled with the heat of boiling water
 yield  great quantities of a limpid1   
subtile1 odoriferous1 and1 in one word1 
essential ,oil4 ,in the still there     
remains a substance thicker and more    

consistent than the ,balsam or ,resin   
was before distillation4 ,the same      
thing happens to essential ,oils which  
by length of time have acquired  a      
consistence and are grown resinous4 ,if 
they be re-distilled1 they  recover     
their former tenuity1 leaving behind    
them a remainder thicker  and more      
resinous than they themselves were4     
,this second distillation  is called the
 ,rectification of an ,oil4    ,it must 
be observed1 that an essential ,oil1    
combined with an acid  strong enough to 
dissolve it1 immediately becomes as     
thick and  resinous1 in consequence of  
this union1 as if it had been long      
exposed  to the air3 which proves the   
consistence an ,oil acquires by long    
keeping to be owing to this1 that its   
lightest and less acid parts  being     
evaporated1 the proportion of its acid  
to the remainder is so  increased1 that 
it produces therein the same change1 as 
an additional  acid mixed with the ,oil 
would have wrought before the           

evaporation4    ,this also shews us1    
that ,balsams and ,resins are only      
essential ,oils  combined with a great  
proportion of acid1 and thereby         
thickened4    ,if vegetable substances1 
from which no more essential ,oil can be
 drawn  by the heat of boiling water1 be
 exposed to a stronger heat1 they yield 
an additional quantity of ,oil2 but it  
is thicker and heavier than the         
essential ,oil4 ,these ,oils are black1 
and have a very disagreeable burnt      
smell1 which hath made them be called   
,fetid or ,empyreumatic ,oils4  ,they   
are moreover very acrid4    ,it must be 
observed1 that1 if a vegetable substance
 be exposed to a  degree of heat greater
 than that of boiling water1 before the 
fat or  the essential ,oil is extracted 
from it1 an empyreumatic ,oil only will 
then be obtained2 because both the fat  
and essential ,oils1 when exposed  to   
the force of fire1 are thereby burnt1   
rendered acrid1 acquire a  smell of the 
fire1 and1 in a word1 become truly      

empyreumatic4 ,there  is ground to      
think1 that an empyreumatic ,oil is     
nothing else but an  essential or fat   
,oil burnt and spoiled by the fire1 and 
that no other  ,oil besides these two   
exists naturally in vegetables4         
,empyreumatic ,oils1 distilled and      
rectified several times by a gentle     
heat1 acquire by every distillation a   
greater degree of tenuity1  lightness1  
and limpidity4 ,by this means also they 
lose something of  their disagreeable   
odour2 so that they gradually come      
nearer and  nearer to the nature of     
essential ,oils3 and if the             
rectifications be  often enough         
repeated1 ten or twelve times for       
instance1 they become  perfectly like   
those ,oils2 except that their smell    
will never be  so agreeable1 nor like   
that of the substances from which they  
were  obtained4    ,fat ,oils may also  
be brought by the same means to resemble
 essential  ,oils3 but neither essential
 nor empyreumatic ,oils are capable of  

acquiring the properties of fat ,oils4  
,,section ,,iii4    ,of ,,animal ,,oils4
    ,distillation procures us           
considerable quantities of ,oil from all
  the parts of animal bodies1 and       
especially from their fat4 ,this ,oil   
at first is not very fluid1 and is      
extremely fetid3 but by many            
rectifications it gradually acquires a  
great degree of clearness  and tenuity1 
and at the same time loses much of its  
disagreeable  odour4 ,animal ,oils1 thus
 rendered thin and fluid by a great     
number of  rectifications1 have the     
reputation of being an excellent        
medicine1 and  a specific in the        
epilepsy4          ,,chap4 ,,xii4    ,of
 ,,fermentation in general4      ,by    
,fermentation is meant an intestine     
motion1 which1 arising  spontaneously   
among the insensible parts of a body1   
produces a new  disposition and a       
different combination of those parts4   
,to excite a ,fermentation in a mixt    
body1 it is necessary1 first1 that      

there be in the composition of that mixt
 a certain proportion of  watery1       
saline1 oily1 and earthy parts3 but this
 proportion is not  yet sufficiently    
ascertained4 ,secondly1 it is requisite 
that the body  to be fermented be placed
 in a certain degree of temperate heat3 
for  much cold obstructs fermentation2  
and too much heat decomposes bodies4    
,lastly1 the concurrence of the air is  
also necessary to fermentation4    ,all 
vegetable and animal substances are     
susceptible of ,fermentation1  because  
all of them contain in a due proportion 
the principles above  specified4        
,however1 many of them want the proper  
quantity of water1 and  cannot ferment  
while they remain in such a state of    
dryness4 ,but it is  easy to supply that
 defect1 and so render them very apt to 
ferment4    ,with respect to minerals   
properly so called1 7that is1 excluding 
such  vegetable and animal substances as
 may have lain long buried in the       
earth71 they are not subject to any     

,fermentation2 at least1 that our       
senses can perceive4    ,there are three
 sorts of ,fermentation1 distinguished  
from one another  by their several      
productions4 ,the first produces wines  
and spirituous  liquors2 for which      
reason it is called the ,vinous or      
,spirituous  ,fermentation3 the result  
of the second is an acid liquor2 and    
therefore it is called the ,acetous     
,fermentation3 and the third  generates 
an alkaline salt2 which1 however1       
differs from the alkaline  salts        
hitherto treated of1 in this respect    
chiefly1 that1 instead of  being fixed1 
it is extremely volatile3 this last sort
 takes the name  of the ,putrid or      
,putrefactive ,fermentation4 ,we shall  
now consider  these three sorts of      
,fermentation and their effects a little
 more  particularly4    ,these three    
sorts of ,fermentation may take place   
successively in the  same subject2 which
 proves them to be only three different 
degrees of  fermentation1 all proceeding

 from one and the same cause1 rather    
than  three distinct fermentations4     
,these degrees of fermentation always   
follow the order in which we have here  
placed them4          ,,chap4 ,,xiii4   
,of the ,,spirituous ,,fermentation4    
,the juices of almost all fruits1 all   
saccharine vegetable matters1  all      
farinaceous seeds and grains of every   
kind1 being diluted with  a sufficient  
quantity of water1 are proper subjects  
of ,spirituous  ,fermentation4 ,if such 
liquors be exposed1 in vessels slightly 
stopped1  to a moderate degree of heat1 
they begin in some time to grow turbid2 
there arises insensibly a small         
commotion among their parts1 attended   
with a hissing noise2 this by little and
 little increases1 till the  grosser    
parts appear1 like little seeds or      
grains1 moving to and  fro1 agitated    
among themselves1 and thrown up to the  
surface4 ,at the  same time some air    
bubbles rise1 and the liquor acquires a 
pungent1  penetrating smell1 occasioned 

by the very subtile vapours which exhale
  from it4    ,these vapours have never 
yet been collected1 in order to examine 
their  nature2 and they are known only  
by their noxious effects4 ,they are so  
actively pernicious1 that if a man comes
 rashly into a close place1  where large
 quantities of liquors are fermenting1  
he suddenly drops  down and expires1 as 
if he were knocked on the head4    ,when
 these several phenomena1 begin to go   
off1 it is proper to stop  the          
fermentation1 if a very spirituous      
liquor be required3 for if it  be       
suffered to continue longer1 the liquor 
will become acid1 and from  thence      
proceed to its last stage1 that is1 to  
putrefaction4 ,this is  done by stopping
 the containing vessels very close1 and 
removing them  into a cooler place4     
,then the impurities precipitate1 and   
settling at  the bottom leave the liquor
 clear and transparent3 and now the     
palate  discovers that the sweet        
saccharine taste it had before          

fermentation is  changed to an agreeable
 pungency1 which is not acid4           
,liquors thus fermented are in general  
called ,wines3 for though in  common    
life that word properly signifies the   
fermented juice of grapes  only1 and    
particular names are given to the       
fermented juices of other  vegetable    
substances2 as that obtained from       
,apples is called ,cyder2  that made    
from malt is called ,beer3 yet in       
,chymistry it is of use to  have one    
general term denoting every liquor that 
has undergone this  first degree of     
fermentation4    ,by distillation we    
draw from ,wine an inflammable liquor1  
of a yellowish  white colour1 light1 and
 of a penetrating1 pleasant smell4 ,this
  liquor is the truly spirituous part of
 the wine1 and the product  of          
fermentation4 ,that which comes off in  
the first distillation is  commonly     
loaded with much phlegm and some oily   
parts1 from which it may  be afterwards 
freed4 ,in this state it goes by the    

name of ,brandy2 but  when freed from   
these heterogeneous matters by repeated 
distillations1  it becomes still        
clearer1 lighter1 more fragrant1 and    
much more  inflammable1 and then is     
called ,spirit of ,wine1 and ,rectified 
,spirit of ,wine1 or an ,ardent ,spirit1
 if considerably purified4 ,the         
properties which distinguish an ,ardent 
,spirit from all other substances  are  
its being inflammable2 its burning and  
consuming entirely1 without  the least  
appearance of smoke or fuliginosity2 its
 containing no  particles reducible to a
 coal2 and its being perfectly miscible 
with  water4 ,ardent ,spirits are       
lighter and more volatile than any of   
the  principles of the mixts from which 
they were produced1 and consequently    
more so than the phlegm1 the acid1 and  
the oil of which they themselves        
consist4 ,this arises from a particular 
disposition of these principles1  which 
are in a singular manner attenuated by  
fermentation1 and thereby  rendered more

 susceptible of expansion and           
rarefaction4    ,ardent spirits are     
supposed to be the natural solvents of  
oils and oily  matters4 ,but it is very 
remarkable that they dissolve essential 
oils  only1 without touching the fat of 
animals1 or the fat oils obtained  from 
vegetables by expression2 yet when these
 oils have once undergone  the action of
 fire1 they become soluble in spirit of 
wine1 and even  acquire a new degree of 
solubility every time they are          
distilled4 ,it is  not so with essential
 oils1 which can never be rendered more 
soluble in  ardent spirits than they are
 at first2 and are so far from acquiring
  a new degree of solubility every time 
they are distilled1 that on the         
contrary they even in some measure lose 
that property by repeated               
rectifications4    ,i have taken some   
pains to find out the causes of these   
singular  effects1 and the result of my 
inquiries is published among the        
,memoirs  of the ,academy of ,sciences  

for the year #agde4 ,i therein consider 
ardent  spirits as consisting of an oil1
 or at least a phlogiston1 mixed with a 
portion of water1 in which it is        
rendered soluble by means of an acid4   
,this being laid down1 ,i shew that the 
inability of spirit of wine to  dissolve
 some oils must be imputed to its       
aqueous part1 in which oils  are not    
naturally soluble without the           
intervention of a salt3 and that  the   
power which this spirit exerts in       
dissolving other oils with ease1  such  
as essential oils1 must in all          
probability be owing to this1 that  in  
these oils it meets with the necessary  
saline medium1 that is1 with  an acid1  
which numberless experiments shew they  
actually contain4    ,on the other hand1
 ,i there prove1 that the acid in       
essential oils is  super-abundant1 and  
in some sort foreign to their nature1 or
 that it  is but slightly connected with
 them1 and in part deserts them every   
time they are distilled2 which renders  

them less soluble after every  new      
rectification3 whereas1 on the contrary1
 the fat expressed oils in  their       
natural state give not the least sign of
 acidity1 but the action  of fire upon  
them discovers an acid which was not    
perceivable before4  ,hence ,i          
conjecture1 that these oils contain no  
more acid than is just  necessary to    
constitute them oils2 that this acid is 
intimately blended  with their other    
component parts2 that it is so sheathed 
and entangled  by these parts as to be  
incapable of exerting any of its        
properties2  and that on this account   
these oils in their natural state are   
not  soluble in spirit of wine3 but that
 the disposition of their parts  being  
gradually changed by the fire1 and their
 acid1 being by that  means set more and
 more at liberty1 at length recovers its
 properties1  and particularly that of  
rendering the oily parts soluble in an  
aqueous  menstruum3 and hence it        
follows1 that the fat oils become so    

much the  more soluble in spirit of wine
 the oftener they are exposed to the    
action of fire4    ,spirit of wine doth 
not dissolve fixed alkalis2 or at least 
it takes  up but a very small quantity  
thereof2 and hence ardent spirits may be
  freed from much of their phlegm by    
means of these salts thoroughly  dried3 
for as they strongly imbibe moisture1   
and have even a greater  affinity than  
ardent spirits with water1 if a fixed   
alkali1 well  exsiccated1 be mixed with 
spirit of wine that is not perfectly    
dephlegmated1 the alkali immediately    
attracts its superfluous moisture1  and 
is thereby resolved into a liquor1      
which1 on account of its  gravity1      
descends to the bottom of the vessel4   
,the spirit of wine1  which swims at    
top1 is by this means as much           
dephlegmated1 and as dry1  as if it had 
been rectified by several distillations4
 ,as it takes up  some alkaline         
particles in this operation1 it is      
thereby qualified to  dissolve oily     

matters with the greater facility4 ,when
 rectified in  this manner1 it is called
 ,alcoholized ,spirit of ,wine4    ,yet 
spirit of wine1 even when rectified to  
an alcohol1 is not capable  of          
dissolving all oily matters4 ,those     
named ,gums will by no means  enter into
 any sort of union therewith2 but it    
readily dissolves most  of those which  
are known by the appellation of ,resins4
 ,when it has  dissolved a certain      
proportion of resinous particles it     
acquires a  greater consistence1 and    
forms what is called a ,spirit ,varnish1
 or a  ,drying ,varnish1 because it soon
 dries4 ,this ,varnish is subject to be 
damaged by water4 ,many sorts thereof   
are prepared1 differing from each  other
 according to the different resins      
employed1 or the proportions  in which  
they are used4 ,most of these ,varnishes
 are transparent and  colourless4       
,such bitumens or resins1 as spirit of  
wine will not touch1 are  dissolved in  
oils by means of fire1 and then form    

another kind of  ,varnish1 which water  
does not hurt4 ,these ,varnishes are    
usually  coloured1 and require much     
longer time to dry than the ,spirit     
,varnishes3 they are called ,oil        
,varnishes4    ,spirit of wine hath a   
much greater affinity with water than   
with oily  matters3 and therefore if a  
solution of any oil or resin in spirit  
of  wine be mixed with water1 the liquor
 immediately grows turbid1 and  acquires
 a whitish milky colour1 owing entirely 
to the oily parts being  separated from 
the spirituous menstruum by the         
accession of water1 and  too finely     
divided to appear in their natural form4
 ,but if the liquor  stand some time    
quiet1 several of these particles unite 
together1 and  gradually acquire a bulk 
sufficient to render them very          
perceptible to  the eye4    ,acids have 
an affinity with spirit of wine1 and may
 be combined with  it4 ,by this union   
they lose most of their acidity1 and on 
that account  are said to be ,dulcified4

 ,but as these combinations of acids1   
especially of the vitriolic acid1 with  
spirit of wine furnish some new         
productions of very singular properties1
 and as an examination thereof  may     
throw much light on the nature of ardent
 spirits1 it will not be  amiss to take 
notice of them in this place1 and       
consider each of them  particularly4    
,one part of highly concentrated oil of 
vitriol being mixed with four  parts of 
well dephlegmated spirit of wine1 there 
arises immediately a  considerable      
ebullition and effervescence1 attended  
with great heat1  and abundance of      
vapours1 which smell pleasantly1 but are
 hurtful to  the lungs4 ,at the same    
time is heard a hissing like that       
produced by  a piece of red-hot iron    
plunged into water4 ,indeed it is proper
 to  mix the liquors very gradually2 for
 otherwise the vessels in which the     
operation is performed will be in great 
danger of breaking4    ,if the two      
liquors thus mixed be distilled with a  

very gentle heat1  there rises first a  
spirit of wine of a most penetrating and
 grateful  odour3 when about half       
thereof is come over1 what follows has a
 quicker  and more sulphureous smell1   
and is also more loaded with phlegm4    
,when  the liquor begins to boil a      
little1 there comes off a phlegm which  
smells very strong of sulphur1 and grows
 gradually more acid4 ,on this  phlegm  
floats a small quantity of a very light 
and very limpid oil4 ,in  the still     
there remains a thick blackish          
substance1 somewhat like a  resin or    
bitumen4 ,from this substance may be    
separated a good deal of a  vitriolic   
but sulphureous acid4 ,when that is     
extracted1 there remains  a black mass  
like a charred coal1 which being put    
into a crucible1 and  exposed to a      
violent heat1 leaves a small portion of 
earth1 very fixed1  and even            
vitrifiable4    ,by rectifying the      
ardent spirit1 which came over in       
distilling the  above-mentioned mixture1

 a very singular liquor is obtained1    
which  differs essentially both from    
oils and from ardent spirits1 though  in
 certain respects it resembles them     
both4 ,this liquor is known in          
,chymistry by the name of ther1 and its 
chief properties are as  follow4    ther
 is lighter1 more volatile1 and more    
inflammable1 than the most  highly      
rectified spirit of wine4 ,it quickly   
flies off when exposed  to the air1 and 
suddenly catches fire when any flame    
approaches it4  ,it burns like spirit of
 wine without the least smoke1 and      
consumes  entirely without leaving the  
smallest appearance of a coal or of     
ashes4  ,it dissolves oils and oily     
matters with great ease and rapidity4   
,these  properties it has in common with
 an ardent spirit4 ,but it resembles  an
 oil in that it is not miscible with    
water2 and this makes it  essentially   
different from spirit of wine1 the      
nature of which is to be  miscible with 
all aqueous liquors4    ,another very   

singular property of ther is its great  
affinity with  gold1 exceeding even that
 of aqua regis4 ,it does not indeed     
dissolve  gold when in a mass1 and in   
its metalline form2 but if a small      
quantity  of ther be added to a solution
 of gold in aqua regis1 and the whole   
shaken together1 the gold separates from
 the aqua regis1 joins the  ther1 and   
remains dissolved therein4    ,the      
reason of all the phenomena             
above-mentioned1 resulting from the     
mixture of spirit of wine with oil of   
vitriol1 is founded on the great        
affinity between this acid and water4   
,for if the vitriolic acid be  weak1 and
 as it were over-dosed with watery      
parts1 neither oil nor  ther can be     
obtained by means thereof3 but when     
highly concentrated1  it attracts the   
aqueous parts very powerfully2 and      
therefore1 being  mixed with spirit of  
wine1 lays hold of most of the water    
contained  in it1 and even robs it of   
some portion of that which is essential 

to  its nature1 and necessary to        
constitute it spirit of wine3 whence it 
comes to pass1 that a certain quantity  
of the oily particles in its            
composition being separated from the    
watery particles1 and so brought  nearer
 to each other1 they unite and assume   
their natural form2 and  thus the oil   
that swims at top of the sulphureous    
phlegm is produced4    ,the vitriolic   
acid moreover thickens and even burns   
some of this oil2  and hence comes the  
bituminous residuum left at the bottom  
of the  still1 which looks like the     
result of a vitriolic acid combined with
  common oil4 ,lastly1 the vitriolic    
acid becomes sulphureous1 as it  always 
doth when united with oily matters1 and 
also very aqueous1 on  account of the   
quantity of phlegm which it attracts    
from the spirit of  wine4    ther may be
 considered as a spirit of wine         
exceedingly dephlegmated1  even to such 
a degree that its nature is thereby     
changed2 so that the  few aqueous       

particles left in it are not sufficient 
to dissolve the  oily particles and keep
 them asunder2 which therefore being now
 much  nearer to one another than in    
common spirit of wine1 the liquor hath  
lost its property of being miscible with
 water4    ,spirit of nitre well        
dephlegmated1 and combined with spirit  
of wine1  presents likewise some very   
singular appearances4    ,first1 in the 
very instant of its mixture with spirit 
of wine1 it  produces a greater and more
 violent effervescence than the         
vitriolic  acid occasions4    ,secondly1
 this mixture1 without the help of      
distillation1 and only by  stopping the 
bottle in which the liquors are         
contained1 affords a sort  of ther1     
produced probably by the vapours which  
ascend from1 and swim  at top of the    
mixture4 ,this is a very singular       
liquor4 ,dr4 ,navier was  the first that
 took notice of it1 and gave a          
description thereof1 which  may be seen 
in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of      

,sciences4    ,thirdly1 some authors    
pretend that1 by distilling the mixture 
under  consideration1 an oil is obtained
 greatly resembling that which1 as we   
observed above1 rises from spirit of    
wine combined with the vitriolic  acid3 
others again deny this4 ,for my part1 ,i
 believe the thing depends  on the      
different concentration of the spirit of
 nitre1 as well as on  the quality of   
the spirit of wine1 which is sometimes  
more sometimes  less oily4    ,fourthly1
 the two liquors we are speaking of1    
being intimately mixed by  distillation1
 form a liquor slightly acid1 used in   
medicine1 and known  by the name of     
,sweet or ,dulcified ,spirit of ,nitre3 
a very proper  name1 seeing the nitrous 
acid1 by uniting with the spirit of     
wine1  actually loses almost all its    
acidity and corrosive quality4          
,fifthly and lastly1 when the           
distillation is finished1 there remains 
in  the bottom of the vessel a thick    
blackish substance1 nearly resembling   

that which is found after distilling oil
 of vitriol and spirit of wine4         
,spirit of salt hath likewise been      
combined with spirit of wine2 but it    
does not unite therewith so easily or so
 intimately as the two acids            
above-mentioned4 ,to mix them           
thoroughly1 the spirit of salt must be  
highly concentrated1 and smoking1 and   
moreover the assistance of the  still   
must be called in4 ,some authors pretend
 that from this mixture  also a small   
quantity of oil may be obtained2 which  
probably happens  when the liquors have 
the qualities above-specified4 ,the     
marine acid  likewise1 by uniting with  
spirit of wine1 loses most of its       
acidity2 on  which account it is in like
 manner called ,sweet or ,dulcified     
,spirit  of ,salt4 ,a thick residuum is 
also found here after distillation4     
,,chap4 ,,xiv4    ,of the ,,acetous     
,,fermentation4      ,besides an ardent 
spirit1 wine affords a great deal of    
water1 oil1  earth1 and a sort of acid  

which shall be considered presently4    
,when  the spirituous part is separated 
from these other matters1 they  undergo 
no further change4 ,but if all the      
constituent parts of wine  remain       
combined together1 then1 after some     
time1 shorter or longer as  the degree  
of heat in which the wine stands is     
greater or less1 the  fermentation      
begins afresh1 or rather arrives at its 
second stage4 ,the  liquor once more    
grows turbid1 a new intestine motion    
arises1 and1  after some days1 it is    
found changed into an acid2 which1      
however1  is very different from those  
hitherto treated of4 ,the liquor then   
takes the name of ,vinegar4 ,the acetous
 fermentation differs from  the         
spirituous1 not only in its effect1 but 
also in several of its  concomitant     
circumstances4 ,moderate motion is of   
service to this1  whereas it obstructs  
the spirituous2 and it is attended with 
much more  warmth than the spirituous4  
,the vapours it produces are not        

noxious1  like those of fermenting wine4
 ,lastly1 ,vinegar deposites no tartar1 
even when the wine employed in this     
operation is quite new1 and hath  not   
had time to discharge its tartar3       
instead of tartar1 ,vinegar  deposites a
 viscid matter which is very apt to     
putrify4    ,it must be observed1 that  
wine is not the only substance that is  
susceptible of the acetous fermentation3
 for several vegetable and even  animal 
matters1 which are not subject to the   
spirituous fermentation1  turn sour     
before they putrify4 ,but as vinous     
liquors possess in a  very eminent      
degree the property of being susceptible
 of the acetous  fermentation1 and      
likewise of producing the strongest     
acids that can  result from such        
fermentation1 their acid shall be more  
particularly  considered in this place4 
,,section ,i4    ,of ,,vinegar4    ,if  
wine1 which has gone through this second
 stage of fermentation1  be distilled1  
instead of an ardent spirit1 only an    

acid liquor is  obtained1 which is      
called ,distilled ,vinegar4    ,this    
acid has the same properties as the     
mineral acids of which we have  already 
treated2 that is1 it unites with        
alkaline salts1 absorbent  earths1 and  
metallic substances1 and therewith forms
 neutral saline  combinations4    ,its  
affinity with these substances observes 
the same order as that  observed by the 
mineral acids with regard to the same   
substances2  but in general it is       
weaker2 that is1 any mineral acid is    
capable of  expelling the acid of       
,vinegar out of all matters with which  
it is  united4    ,vinegar hath likewise
 a greater affinity than sulphur with   
alkalis3  whence it follows1 that it is 
capable of decompounding that           
combination  of sulphur with an alkali  
called ,liver of ,sulphur1 and of       
precipitating  the sulphur it contains4 
,the acid of ,vinegar is always clogged 
with a certain proportion of  oily      
parts1 which greatly weaken it1 and     

deprive it of much of its  activity2 and
 for this reason it is not near so      
strong as the mineral  acids1 which are 
not entangled with any oil4 ,by         
distillation1 indeed1  it may be freed  
from this oil1 and at the same time from
 the great  quantity of water which in a
 manner suffocates it1 and by that means
  may be brought much nearer to the     
nature of the mineral acids3 but this   
attempt hath not yet been prosecuted    
with the assiduity it deserves4         
,besides distillation1 there is another 
way of freeing ,vinegar from a  good    
deal of its phlegm2 and that is1 by     
exposing it to a hard frost1  which     
readily congeals the watery part into   
ice1 while the acid retains  its        
fluidity4    ,vinegar1 saturated with a 
fixed alkali1 forms a neutral oily salt1
 of  a dark colour1 which is            
semi-volatile1 melts with a very gentle 
heat1  flames when thrown upon burning  
coals1 and dissolves in spirit of wine1 
of which1 however1 it requires six parts

 to complete the solution4  ,this       
solution being evaporated to dryness    
leaves a matter in the form  of leaves  
lying on each other2 on which account it
 hath obtained the  name of ,terra      
,foliata4 ,the same foliated matter will
 be obtained1  though the salt be not   
previously dissolved in spirit of wine2 
but not  so readily4 ,this salt is also 
called ,regenerated ,tartar4 ,under the 
head of ,tartar we shall see the reason 
of these different appellations4        
,regenerated ,tartar is also in some    
degree capable of crystallizing3 for    
this purpose a solution thereof in water
 must be slowly evaporated to  the      
consistence of a syrup1 and then        
suffered to stand quiet in a cool       
place2 by which means it will shoot into
 clusters of crystals1 lying  one upon  
another1 not unlike the feathers on a   
quill4    ,with ,vinegar and several    
absorbent earths1 such as calcined      
pearls1  coral1 shells of fish1 c4 are  
also formed neutral saline compounds1   

each of which takes the name of the     
particular earth employed in its        
composition4    ,vinegar perfectly      
dissolves ,lead1 and converts it to a   
neutral metallic  salt1 which shoots    
into crystals1 and has a sweet          
saccharine taste4  ,this compound is    
called ,sugar of ,lead1 or ,sal         
,saturni4    ,if ,lead be exposed to the
 bare vapour of ,vinegar1 it will be    
thereby  corroded1 calcined1 and        
converted into a white matter much used 
in  painting1 and known by the name of  
,ceruse2 or1 when it is finer than      
ordinary1 ,white ,lead4    ,vinegar     
corrodes ,copper likewise1 and converts 
it into a beautiful  green rust1 which  
also is used in painting2 and           
distinguished by the  name of           
,verdegris4 ,however1 ,vinegar is not   
commonly employed to make  ,verdegris3  
for this purpose they use wine1 or the  
rape of wine1 from  which fire          
extricates an acid analogous to that of 
,vinegar4    ,in treating of the several

 substances which constitute wine1 we   
mentioned an acid matter1 but did not   
then enter into a particular            
examination thereof2 because as that    
matter greatly resembles the acid  of   
,vinegar1 we thought it more proper to  
defer the consideration of its          
properties till we had treated of the   
acetous fermentation1 and its  effects4 
,,section ,,ii4    ,of ,,tartar4        
,this substance is a saline compound1   
consisting of earthy1 oily1 and         
especially acid parts4 ,it is found in  
the form of crusts1 adhering to  the    
inner sides of vessels in which wines   
have stood for some time1  particularly 
acid wines1 such as those of ,germany4  
,tartar derives its origin from the     
super-abundant quantity of acid         
contained in the juice of the grape4    
,this superfluous acid1 being more  than
 is requisite to constitute the ardent  
spirit1 unites with some of  the oil and
 earth contained in the fermented       
liquor1 and forms a kind  of salt2 which

 for some time continues suspended in   
that liquor1 but1  when the wine stands 
undisturbed in a cool place1 is         
deposited1 as hath  been said1 on the   
sides of the cask4    ,tartar in this   
state contains many earthy parts1 which 
are superfluous1  and foreign to its    
nature4 ,from these it may be freed by  
boiling  it repeatedly with a sort of   
earth found in the neighbourhood of     
,montpelier1 as may be seen in the      
,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences4  
,when it is purified1 there appears on  
the surface of the liquor a sort  of    
white1 crystalline pellicle1 which is   
skimmed off as it forms4 ,this  matter  
is called ,cream of ,tartar4 ,the same  
liquor which produces this  ,cream1 and 
in which the purified ,tartar is        
dissolved1 being set to  cool1 yields a 
great number of white semi-transparent  
crystals1 which  are called ,crystals of
 ,tartar4 ,the ,cream and the ,crystals 
of ,tartar  are therefore no other than 
purified ,tartar1 and differ from each  

other  in their form only4    ,though   
the ,crystals of ,tartar have every     
appearance of a neutral salt1  yet they 
are far from being such2 for they have  
all the properties of  a true acid1     
which scarce differs from that of       
vinegar1 except that it  contains less  
water1 and more earth and oil2 to which 
it owes its solid  form1 as well as its 
property of not being soluble in water  
without  much difficulty3 for a very    
great quantity of water is requisite to 
keep the ,crystals of ,tartar in        
solution2 and it must moreover be       
boiling hot2 otherwise as soon as it    
cools most of the ,tartar dissolved  in 
it separates from the liquor1 and falls 
to the bottom in the form of  a white   
powder4    ,tartar is decomposed by     
calcination in the open fire4 ,all its  
oily  parts are consumed or dissipated  
in smoke1 together with most of its     
acid4 ,the other part of its acid1      
uniting intimately with its earth1      
forms a very strong and very pure fixed 

alkali1 called ,salt of ,tartar4    ,it 
will be shewn in its proper place1 that 
almost every vegetable  matter1 as well 
as ,tartar1 leaves a fixed alkali in its
 ashes3 yet  ,tartar has these peculiar 
properties2 first1 it assumes an        
alkaline  character even when burnt or  
calcined in close vessels1 whereas other
  substances acquire it only by being   
burnt in the open air2 secondly1  the   
alkali of ,tartar is stronger and more  
saline than almost any that  is obtained
 from other matters4    ,this alkali1   
when thoroughly calcined1 powerfully    
attracts the moisture  of the air1 and  
melts into an unctuous alkaline liquor1 
improperly  called ,oil of ,tartar per  
deliquium4 ,this is the alkali generally
 used  in making the ,terra ,foliata1   
mentioned under the head of ,vinegar2   
for which reason this combination is    
called ,terra ,foliata ,tartari2 a  name
 suitable enough4 ,but the same cannot  
be said of the other name1  ,regenerated
 ,tartar1 which is also given it4 ,it is

 true1 that on this  occasion an oily   
acid is restored to the earth of the    
,tartar1 analagous  to that of which the
 fire had deprived it3 but the compound 
thence  resulting is a neutral salt     
which very readily dissolves in water2  
whereas ,tartar is manifestly acid1 and 
not soluble1 or at least hardly         
soluble1 in water4    ,crystals of      
,tartar combined with alkali of ,tartar 
produce a great  effervescence while    
they are mixing1 as all acids usually   
do2 and if  the combination be brought  
exactly up to the point of saturation1 a
  perfectly neutral salt is formed1     
which shoots into crystals1 and  easily 
dissolves in water2 and this hath       
procured it the name of  ,soluble       
,tartar4 ,it is also called the         
,vegetable ,salt1 as being  obtained    
from vegetables only2 and again1        
,tartarised ,tartar1 because  it        
consists of the acid and the alkali of  
,tartar combined together4    ,crystals 
of ,tartar combined with alkalis        

procured from the ashes of  maritime    
plants1 such as ,soda1 which alkalis    
resemble the basis of  sea-salt1 form   
likewise a neutral salt1 which          
crystallizes well1 and  dissolves easily
 in water4 ,this salt is another sort of
 soluble  ,tartar4 ,it is called        
,saignette's ,salt1 from the inventor's 
name4    ,both the ,vegetable ,salt and 
,saignette's ,salt are gently purgative 
soaps1 and much used in ,medicine4      
,tartar likewise dissolves the absorbent
 earths1 as lime1 chalk1 c4  and with   
them forms neutral salts which are      
soluble in water#c4 ,it  even attacks   
metallic bodies1 and when combined with 
them becomes  soluble4 ,a soluble       
,tartar for medical use is prepared with
 ,crystals of  ,tartar and ,iron3 the   
metallic salt thereby produced hath the 
name of  ,chalybeated ,soluble ,tartar4 
,this salt attracts the moisture of the 
air1 and is one of those which do not   
crystallize4      #c ,see ,mr4          
,duhamel's ,essays on this subject in   

the ,memoirs of the    ,academy of      
,sciences4    ,crystallized ,tartar acts
 also upon several other metallic       
substances3  for instance1 it dissolves 
the ,regulus1 ,liver1 and ,glass of     
,antimony1  and thence acquires an      
emetic quality3 it is then called       
,stibiated or  ,emetic ,tartar4 ,it     
likewise dissolves ,lead1 and therewith 
forms a salt  which1 in the figure of   
its crystals1 resembles ,tartarised     
,tartar4    ,it is very extraordinary   
that ,tartar1 which of itself is not    
soluble in  water1 should be soluble    
therein when become a neutral salt by   
uniting  either with alkalis or with    
absorbent earths1 or even with metals4  
,with  respect to alkalis1 indeed1 it   
may be urged1 that1 having themselves  a
 great affinity with water1 they        
communicate to ,tartar some of that     
facility with which they naturally unite
 therewith3 but the same cannot  be     
alledged concerning absorbent earths1   
and metallic substances1 which  water   

dissolves not at all1 or at least with  
great difficulty1 and in  small         
quantity4 ,this effect1 therefore1 must 
be attributed wholly to  some change in 
the disposition of its parts which is to
 us unknown4    ,all the ,soluble       
,tartars are easily decompounded by     
exposing them to a  certain degree of   
heat4 ,in distillation they yield the   
same principles  which are obtained from
 ,tartar2 and what remains fixed in the 
fire1  after they are thoroughly burnt1 
is a compound of the alkali which       
,tartar naturally produces1 and of the  
alkaline or metallic substance  with    
which it was converted into a neutral   
salt4    ,as ,crystal of ,tartar is the 
weakest of all acids1 on account of the 
oily and earthy matters with which it is
 combined1 ,soluble ,tartars are        
decompounded by all the acids2 by any of
 which crystal of ,tartar may be        
separated from the substance that serves
 it for a basis and renders it  a       
neutral salt4    ,the other acids which 

are procured from vegetables1 and even  
those  which are obtainable from some   
animal substances1 may all be referred  
to and compared with either ,vinegar or 
,tartar1 according to the  quantities of
 oil or earth with which they are       
combined4    ,after all1 these acids    
have not yet been thoroughly examined4  
,there  is great reason to think that   
they are no other than the mineral      
acids1 which1 in passing through the    
bodies of vegetables1 and even of       
animals1 undergo a considerable change1 
especially by contracting an  union with
 oily matters4 ,for1 as we said before  
in treating of ,vinegar1  by freeing    
them from their oil they are brought    
very near to the nature  of mineral     
acids2 and so likewise the mineral acids
 acquire many of the  properties of     
vegetable acids by being combined with  
oils4          ,,chap4 ,,xv4    ,of the 
,,putrid ,,fermentation1 or             
,,putrefaction4      ,every body which  
hath gone through the two stages of     

fermentation above  described1 that is1 
the spirituous and the acetous          
fermentation1 being  left to itself in a
 due degree of warmth1 which varies     
according to  the subject1 advances to  
the last stage of fermentation2 that is1
 to  putrefaction4    ,it is proper to  
observe1 before we go any further1 that 
the converse  of this proposition is not
 true2 that is1 it is not necessary that
 a  body should successively pass       
through the spirituous and the acetous  
fermentation1 before it can arrive at   
the putrid2 but that1 as certain        
substances fall into the acetous without
 having gone through the  spirituous    
fermentation1 so others begin to putrify
 without having  undergone either the   
spirituous or the acetous fermentation2 
of which  last kind are1 for instance1  
most animal substances4 ,when therefore 
we represented these three sorts of     
fermentation as three different  degrees
 or stages of one and the same          
fermentation1 we supposed it to  be     

excited in a body susceptible of        
fermentation in its full extent4        
,however1 there is still room to think  
that every substance which is  capable  
of fermenting always passes necessarily 
through these three  different stages2  
but that the substances most disposed   
thereto pass  with such rapidity through
 the first1 and even the second1 that   
they  arrive at the third before our    
senses can perceive the least signs of  
either of the two former4 ,this opinion 
is not destitute of probability3  yet it
 is not supported by proofs sufficiently
 strong and numerous to  compel our     
assent4    ,when a body is in a         
putrefying state it is easy to discover 
7as in the  two sorts of fermentation   
already treated of7 by the vapours which
 rise  from it1 by the opacity which    
invades it1 if a pellucid liquor1 and   
frequently even by a greater degree of  
heat than is found in the two  other    
sorts of fermentation1 that an intestine
 motion is begun among  its constituent 

parts1 which lasts till the whole be    
entirely putrefied4    ,the effect of   
this intestine motion is in this1 as in 
the two other  sorts of fermentation1 to
 break the union1 and change the        
disposition1  of the particles          
constituting the body in which it is    
excited1 and to  produce a new          
combination4 ,this is brought about by a
 mechanism to  which we are strangers1  
and concerning which nothing beyond     
conjectures  can be advanced3 but these 
we neglect1 resolving to keep wholly to 
facts1 as the only things in ,natural   
,philosophy that are positively         
certain4    ,if1 then1 we examine a     
substance that has undergone            
putrefaction1 we  shall soon perceive   
that it contains a principle which did  
not exist in  it before4 ,if this       
substance be distilled1 there rises1    
first1 by means  of a very gentle heat1 
a saline matter which is exceedingly    
volatile1  and affects the organ of     
smelling briskly and disagreeably4 ,nor 

is the  aid of distillation necessary to
 discover the presence of this product  
of putrefaction3 it readily manifests   
itself in most substances where  it     
exists1 as any one may soon be convinced
 by observing the different  smell of   
fresh and of putrefied urine2 for the   
latter not only affects  the nose1 but  
even makes the eyes smart1 and irritates
 them so as to  draw tears from them in 
abundance4    ,this saline principle    
which is the product of putrefaction1   
when  separated from the other          
principles of the body which affords it1
 and  collected by itself1 appears      
either in the form of a liquor1 or in   
that  of a concrete salt1 according to  
the different methods used to obtain    
it4 ,in the former state it is called a 
,volatile ,urinous ,spirit2 and  in the 
latter a ,volatile ,urinous ,salt4 ,the 
qualification of urinous  is given it1  
because1 as was said1 a great deal      
thereof is generated in  putrefied      
urine1 to which it communicates its     

smell4 ,it goes also by  the general    
name of a ,volatile ,alkali1 whether in 
a concrete or in  a liquid form4 ,the   
enumeration of its properties will shew 
why it is  called an alkali4            
,volatile ,alkalis1 from whatever       
substance obtained1 are all alike1  and 
have all the same properties2 differing 
only according to their  degrees of     
purity4 ,the ,volatile ,alkali1 as well 
as the ,fixed1 consists  of a certain   
quantity of acid combined with and      
entangled by a portion  of the earth of 
the mixt body from which it was         
obtained2 and on that  account it has   
many properties like those of a ,fixed  
,alkali4 ,but there  is moreover in its 
composition a considerable quantity of a
 fat or oily  matter1 of which there is 
none in a ,fixed ,alkali2 and on this   
account  again there is a great         
difference between them4 ,thus the      
,volatility of  the ,alkali produced by 
putrefaction1 which is the principal    
difference  between it and the other    

kind of ,alkali whose nature it is to be
 ,fixed1  must be attributed to the     
portion of oil which it contains3 for   
there  is a certain method of           
volatilizing ,fixed ,alkalis by means of
 a fatty  substance4    ,volatile       
,alkalis have a great affinity with     
acids1 unite therewith  rapidly and with
 ebullition1 and form with them neutral 
salts1 which  shoot into crystals1 but  
differ from one another according to the
 kind  of acid employed in the          
combination4    ,the neutral salts which
 have a ,volatile ,alkali for their     
basis are  in general called ,ammoniacal
 ,salts4 ,that whose acid is the acid of
  sea-salt is called ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,as
 this was the first known1 it gave  name
 to all the rest4 ,great quantities of  
this salt are made in ,egypt1  and      
thence brought to us4 ,they sublime it  
from the soot of cow's dung1  which is  
the fuel of that country1 and contains  
sea-salt1 together with  a ,volatile    
,alkali1 or at least the materials      

proper for forming it2 and  consequently
 all the ingredients that enter into the
 composition of ,sal  ,ammoniac4 ,see   
the ,memoirs of the ,academy of         
,sciences4    ,the neutral salts formed 
by combining the acids of nitre and of  
vitriol  with a ,volatile ,alkali are   
called1 after their acids1 ,nitrous ,sal
  ,ammoniac1 and ,vitriolic ,sal        
,ammoniac3 the latter1 from the name of 
its inventor1 is also called ,glauber's 
,secret ,sal ,ammoniac4    ,a ,volatile 
,alkali1 then1 has the same property as 
a ,fixed ,alkali with  regard to acids3 
yet they differ in this1 that the       
affinity of the  former with acids is   
weaker than that of the latter3 and     
hence it  follows1 that any ,sal        
,ammoniac may be decompounded by a      
,fixed ,alkali1  which will lay hold of 
the acid1 and discharge the ,volatile   
,alkali4    ,a ,volatile ,alkali will   
decompound any neutral salt which has   
not a  ,fixed ,alkali for its basis2    
that is1 all such as consist of an acid 

combined with an absorbent earth or a   
metallic substance4 ,by joining  with   
the acids in which they are dissolved1  
it disengages the earths or  metallic   
substances1 takes their place1 and1 in  
conjunction with their  acids1 forms    
,ammoniac ,salts4    ,hence it might be 
concluded1 that1 of all substances1 next
 to the  ,phlogiston and the ,fixed     
,alkalis1 ,volatile ,alkalis have the   
greatest  affinity with acids in        
general4 ,yet there is some difficulty  
in this  matter3 for absorbent earths1  
and several metallic substances1 are    
also  capable of decompounding          
,ammoniacal ,salts1 discharging their   
volatile  ,alkali1 and forming new      
compounds by uniting with their acids4  
,this  might induce us to think1 that   
these substances have nearly the same   
affinity with acids4    ,but it is      
proper to observe1 that a ,volatile     
,alkali decompounds such  neutral salts 
as have for their basis either an       
absorbent earth or a  metallic          

substance1 without the aid of fire2     
whereas absorbent earths  or metallic   
substances will not decompound an       
,ammoniacal ,salt1 unless  they be      
assisted by a certain degree of heat4   
,now1 as all these matters are extremely
 fixed1 at least in comparison  with a  
,volatile ,alkali1 they have the        
advantage of being able to resist  the  
force of fire1 and so of acting in      
conjunction therewith2 and fire  greatly
 promotes the natural action of         
substances upon one another3  whereas   
the ,volatile ,alkali in the ,ammoniacal
 ,salt1 being unable to  abide the force
 of fire1 is compelled to desert its    
acid2 and that  so much the more        
quickly1 as its affinity therewith is   
considerably  weakened by the presence  
of an earthy or metallic substance1 both
 of  which have a great affinity with   
acids4    ,these considerations oblige  
us to conclude1 that ,volatile ,alkalis 
have a somewhat greater affinity1 than  
absorbent earths and metallic           

substances1 with acids4    ,ammoniacal  
,salts projected upon nitre in fusion   
make it detonate2 and  the ,nitrous ,sal
 ,ammoniac detonates by itself1 without 
the addition of  any inflammable matter4
 ,this singular effect evidently        
demonstrates  the existence of an oily  
matter in ,volatile ,alkalis2 for it is 
certain  that nitre will never          
deflagrate without the concurrence1 and 
even the  immediate contact1 of some    
combustible matter4    ,this oily       
substance is often found combined with  
,volatile ,alkalis in  such a large     
proportion as to disguise it1 in some   
measure1 and render  it exceedingly     
foul4 ,the salt may be freed from its   
superfluous oil by  repeated            
sublimations2 and particularly by       
subliming it from absorbent  earths1    
which readily drink up oils4 ,this is   
called the ,rectification  of a         
,volatile ,alkali4 ,the salt1 which     
before was of a yellowish or  dirty     
colour1 by being thus rectified becomes 

very white1 and acquires  an odour more 
pungent and less fetid than it had at   
first1 that is1  when obtained by one   
single distillation from a putrid       
substance4    ,it is proper to observe1 
that the rectification of a ,volatile   
,alkali  must not be carried too far1 or
 repeated too often2 for by that means  
it may be entirely decomposed at length2
 and particularly if an  absorbent      
earth1 and especially chalk1 be employed
 for that purpose1  the salt may be     
converted into an oil1 an earth1 and    
water4    ,volatile ,alkalis act upon   
several metallic substances1 and        
particularly  on copper2 of which they  
make a most beautiful blue solution4 ,on
 this  property depends a pretty        
singular effect1 which happens sometimes
 when  we attempt1 by means of a        
,volatile ,alkali1 to separate copper   
from  any acid with which it is         
combined4 ,instead of seeing the liquor 
grow  turbid1 and the metal fall1 both  
which generally happen when any ,alkali 

whatever is mixed with a metallic       
solution1 we are surprised to observe   
the solution of copper1 upon adding a   
,volatile ,alkali1 retain its           
limpidity1 and let fall no precipitate2 
or at least1 if the liquor does  grow   
turbid1 it remains so but for a moment1 
and instantly recovers its              
transparency4    ,this is occasioned by 
adding such a quantity of ,volatile     
,alkali as  is more than sufficient     
fully to saturate the acid of the       
solution1  and considerable enough to   
dissolve all the copper as fast as it is
  separated from the acid4 ,on this     
occasion the liquor acquires a deeper   
blue than it had before2 which arises   
from the property which ,volatile       
,alkalis have of giving this metal1 when
 combined with them1 a fuller  blue than
 any other solvent can3 hence we have a 
touchstone to discover  copper wherever 
it is2 for let the quantity of this     
metal combined  with other metals be    
ever so small1 a ,volatile ,alkali never

 fails to  discover it1 by making it    
appear of a blue colour4    ,though a   
,volatile ,alkali be constantly the     
result of putrefaction1 yet  it must not
 therefore be imagined that none can be 
produced by any  other means2 on the    
contrary1 most of those substances which
 contain  the ingredients necessary to  
form it1 yield no inconsiderable        
quantity  thereof in distillation4      
,tartar1 for example1 which by being    
burnt in  an open fire is converted1 as 
was shewn1 into a ,fixed ,alkali1 yields
 a  ,volatile ,alkali when it is        
decomposed in close vessels2 that is1   
when  it is distilled2 because1 in this 
latter case1 the oily part is not       
dissipated or burnt1 as it is by        
calcination in a naked fire1 but has    
time to unite with some of the earth and
 acid of the mixt1 in such a  manner as 
to form a true ,volatile ,alkali4    ,to
 prove that on this occasion1 as well as
 on all others1 where  unputrefied      
bodies yield a ,volatile ,alkali1 this  

salt is the product of  the fire1 we    
need only observe1 that in these        
distillations it never  rises till after
 some part of the phlegm1 of the acid1  
and even of the  thick oil of the mixt1 
is come over2 which never is the case   
when it is  formed beforehand in the    
body which is the subject of the        
operation1 as  it is in those which have
 undergone putrefaction3 for this salt1 
being  much lighter and more volatile   
than those other substances1 rises of   
course before them in distillation4     
,,chap4 ,,xvi4    ,a ,general ,view of  
,,chymical ,,decomposition4      ,though
 we have considered all the substances  
which enter into the  composition of    
,vegetables1 ,animals1 and ,minerals1   
whether as primary or  as secondary     
principles1 it will not be improper to  
shew in what order  we obtain these     
principles from the several mixts2 and  
especially from  ,vegetables and        
,animals1 because they are much more    
complicated than  ,minerals4 ,this is   

called ,analysing a compound4    ,the   
method most commonly taken to decompose 
bodies is by applying to  them          
successive degrees of heat1 from the    
gentlest to the most violent1  in       
appropriated vessels1 so contrived as to
 collect what exhales from  them4 ,by   
this means the principles are gradually 
separated from each  other2 the most    
volatile rise first1 and the rest follow
 in order1 as  they come to be acted on 
by the proper degree of heat3 and this  
is  called ,distillation4    ,but it    
being observed that fire1 applied to the
 decomposition of  bodies1 most commonly
 alters their secondary principles very 
sensibly1  by combining them in a       
different manner with each other1 or    
even partly  decomposing them1 and      
reducing them to their primitive        
principles2  other means have been used 
to separate those principles without the
  help of fire4    ,with this view the  
mixts to be decomposed are forcibly     
compressed1 in  order to squeeze out of 

them all such parts of their substance  
as they  will by this means part with3  
or else those mixts are for a long time 
triturated1 either along with water1    
which carries off all their saline  and 
saponaceous contents1 or with solvents1 
such as ardent spirits1  capable of     
taking up every thing in them that is of
 an oily or resinous  nature4    ,we    
shall here give a succinct account of   
the effects of these different  methods1
 as applied to the principal substances 
among ,vegetables and  ,animals1 and    
likewise to some ,minerals4             
,,section ,i4    ,the ,,analysis of     
,,vegetable ,,substances4    ,a vast    
many vegetable substances1 such as      
kernels and seeds1 yield1  by strong    
compression1 great quantities of mild1  
fat1 unctuous ,oils1  which are not     
soluble in ardent spirits3 these are    
what we called  ,expressed ,oils4 ,they 
are also sometimes called ,fat ,oils1 on
 account  of their unctuousness1 in     
which they exceed all other sorts of    

,oil4 ,as  these oils are obtained      
without the aid of fire1 it is certain  
that  they existed in the mixt just as  
we see them1 and that they are not in   
the least altered3 which could not have 
been the case had they been  obtained by
 distillation2 for that never produces  
any ,oils but such as  are acrid and    
soluble in spirit of wine4    ,some     
vegetable matters1 such as the rind of  
citrons1 lemons1 oranges1  c4 also      
yield1 only by being squeezed between   
the fingers1 a great  deal of ,oil4     
,this spirts out in fine small jets1    
which being received  upon any polished 
surface1 such as a looking glass1 run   
together and  form a liquor that is a   
real ,oil4    ,but it must be carefully 
noted1 that this sort of ,oil1 though   
obtained  by expression only1 is        
nevertheless very different from the    
,oils  mentioned before1 to which the   
title of ,expressed ,oils peculiarly    
belongs3 for this is far lighter and    
thinner2 moreover1 it retains the       

perfect odour of the fruit which yields 
it1 and is soluble in spirit  of wine2  
in a word1 it is a true essential ,oil1 
but abounds so in  the fruits which     
produce it1 and is lodged therein in    
such a manner1  occupying a vast number 
of little cells provided in the peel for
 its  reception1 that a very slight     
pressure discharges it2 which is not the
  case with many other vegetables that  
contain an essential ,oil4    ,succulent
 and green plants yield by compression a
 great deal of liquor  or juice1 which  
consists of most of the phlegm1 of the  
salts1 and a  small portion of the oil  
and earth of the plant4 ,these juices1  
being  set in a cool place for some     
time1 deposite saline crystals1 which   
are  a combination of the acid of the   
plant with part of its oil and earth1   
wherein the acid is always predominant4 
,these salts1 as is evident from  the   
description here given1 bear a great    
resemblance to the tartar  of wine      
treated of above4 ,they are called      

,essential ,salts2 so that  ,tartar     
might likewise be called the ,essential 
,salt of ,wine4    ,dried plants1 and   
such as are of a ligneous1 or acid      
nature1 require to  be long triturated  
with water1 before they will yield their
 essential  salts4 ,trituration with    
water is an excellent way to get out of 
them  all their saline and saponaceous  
contents4    ,a vegetable matter that is
 very oily yields its essential salt    
with  much difficulty1 if at all2       
because the excessive quantity of oil   
entangles the salt so that it cannot    
extricate itself or shoot into          
crystals4 ,mr4 ,gerike1 in his          
,principles of ,chymistry1 says1 that   
if part of the oil of a plant be        
extracted by spirit of wine1 its        
essential salt may be afterwards        
obtained with more ease and in greater  
quantity4 ,this must be a very good     
method for such plants as have an       
excessive proportion of essential oil2  
but will not succeed if the  essential  

salt be hindered from crystallizing by a
 redundancy of fat  oil1 because fat    
oils are not soluble in spirit of wine4 
,essential ,salts are among those       
substances which cannot be extracted    
from mixts by distillation3 for the     
first impression of fire decomposes     
them4    ,though the acid which         
predominates in the ,essential ,salts of
 plants1  be most commonly analogous to 
the vegetable acid1 properly so called1 
that is1 to the acid of vinegar and     
tartar1 which is probably no other  than
 the vitriolic acid disguised2 yet it   
sometimes differs therefrom1  and       
somewhat resembles the nitrous or the   
marine acid4 ,this depends  on the      
places where the plants grow which      
produce these salts3 if  they be        
maritime plants1 their acid is akin to  
the acid of sea-salt2  if on the        
contrary they grow upon walls1 or in    
nitrous grounds1 their  acid is like    
that of nitre4 ,sometimes one and the   
same plant contains  salts analogous to 

all the three mineral acids2 which shews
 that the  vegetable acids are no other 
than the mineral acids variously changed
  by circulating through plants4        
,liquors containing the ,essential      
,salts of plants being evaporated by a  
gentle heat to the consistence of honey1
 or even further1 are called  ,extracts4
 ,hence it is plain1 that an ,extract is
 nothing but the  essential salt of a   
plant1 combined with some particles of  
its oil and  earth1 that remained       
suspended in the liquor1 and are now    
incorporated  by evaporation4           
,extracts of plants are also prepared by
 boiling them long in water1 and  then  
evaporating some part of it4 ,but these 
,extracts are of inferior  virtue2      
because the fire dissipates many of the 
oily and saline parts4      ,,emulsions4
    ,substances which abound much in    
,oil1 being bruised and triturated  with
 water for some time1 afford a liquor of
 an opaque dead-white  colour1 like     
milk4 ,this liquor consists of such     

juices as the water is  capable of      
dissolving1 together with a portion of  
the oil1 which being  naturally         
indissoluble in water1 is only divided  
and dispersed in the  liquor1 the       
limpidity whereof is by that means      
destroyed4 ,this sort of  oily liquor1  
in which the oil is only divided1 not   
dissolved1 is called  an ,emulsion4 ,the
 oily particles in ,emulsions           
spontaneously separate  from the water1 
when left at rest1 and uniting into     
greater masses  rise1 on account of     
their lightness1 to the surface of the  
liquor1  which by that means recovers a 
degree of transparency4    ,if          
vegetables abounding in essential oils  
and resins be digested in  spirit of    
wine1 the menstruum takes up these oily 
matters1 as being  capable of dissolving
 them2 and they may afterwards be easily
 separated  from it by the affusion of  
water4 ,the water1 with which spirit of 
wine  has a greater affinity than with  
oily matters1 separates them by this    

means from their solvent1 agreeably to  
the common laws of affinities4          
,without the help of fire1 scarce any   
thing1 besides the substances  already  
mentioned1 can be obtained from a plant3
 but1 by the means  of distillation1 we 
are enabled to analyse them more        
completely4  ,in prosecuting this method
 of extracting from a plant the several 
principles of which it consists1 the    
following order is to be observed4    ,a
 plant being exposed to a very gentle   
heat1 in a distilling vessel set  in the
 balneum mari1 yields a water which     
retains the perfect smell  thereof4     
,some ,chymists1 and particularly the   
illustrious ,boerhaave1  have called    
this liquor the ,spiritus ,rector4 ,the 
nature of this  odoriferous part of     
plants is not yet thoroughly known2     
because it is  so very volatile that it 
is difficult to subject it to the       
experiments  necessary for discovering  
all its properties4    ,if1 instead of  
distilling the plant in the balneum     

mari1 it be  distilled over a naked     
fire1 with the precaution of putting a  
certain  quantity of water into the     
distilling vessel along with it1 to     
prevent  its suffering a greater heat   
than that of boiling water1 all the     
essential oil contained in that plant   
will rise together with that  water1 and
 with the same degree of heat4    ,on   
this occasion it must be observed1 that 
no essential oil can be  obtained from a
 plant after the ,spiritus ,rector hath 
been drawn off2  which gives ground to  
think that the volatility of these oils 
is owing  to that spirit4    ,the heat  
of boiling water is also sufficient to  
separate from vegetable  matters the fat
 oils which they contain4 ,that1        
however1 is to be done  by the way of   
decoction only1 and not by distillation3
 because1 though  these oils will swim  
on water1 yet they will not rise in     
vapours  without a greater degree of    
heat4    ,when the essential oil is come
 over1 if the plant be exposed to a     

naked fire1 without the addition of     
water1 and the heat be increased  a     
little1 a phlegm will rise that         
gradually grows acid2 after which1  if  
the heat be increased as occasion       
requires1 there will come over a        
thicker and heavier oil2 from some a    
volatile alkali2 and last of all1  a    
very thick1 black1 empyreumatic oil4    
,when nothing more rises with the       
strongest degree of heat1 there  remains
 of the plant a mere coal only1 called  
the ,caput ,mortuum1 or  ,terra         
,damnata4 ,this coal when burnt falls   
into ashes1 which1 being  lixiviated    
with water1 give a fixed alkali4    ,it 
is observable1 that in the distillation 
of plants which yield  an acid and a    
volatile alkali1 these two salts are    
often found  quite distinct and separate
 in the same receiver2 which seems very 
extraordinary1 considering that they are
 naturally disposed to  unite1 and have 
a great affinity with one another4 ,the 
reason of  this phenomenon is1 that they

 are both combined with much oil1 which 
embarrasses them so that they cannot    
unite to form a neutral salt1 as  they  
would not fail to do were it not for    
that impediment4    ,all vegetables1    
except such as yield a great deal of    
volatile alkali1  being burnt in an open
 fire1 and so as to flame1 leave in     
their ashes  a large quantity of an     
acrid1 caustic1 fixed alkali4 ,but if   
care be  taken to smother them1 so as to
 prevent their flaming while they burn1 
by covering them with something that may
 continually beat down again  what      
exhales1 the salt obtained from their   
ashes will be much less  acrid and      
caustic2 the cause whereof is1 that some
 part of the acid  and oil of the plant 
being detained in the burning1 and      
stopped from  being dissipated by the   
fire1 combines with its alkali4 ,these  
salts  crystallize1 and1 being much     
milder than the common fixed alkalis1   
may  be used in medicine1 and taken     
internally4 ,they are called            

,tachenius's  ,salts1 because invented  
by that ,chymist4    ,marine plants     
yield a fixed alkali analogous to that  
of sea-salt4  ,as for all other plants  
or vegetable substances1 the fixed      
alkalis  obtained from them1 if rightly 
prepared and thoroughly calcined1 are   
all perfectly alike1 and of the very    
same nature4    ,the last observation ,i
 have to make on the production of fixed
 alkalis  is1 that if the plant you     
intend to work upon be steeped or boiled
  in water before you burn it1 a much   
smaller quantity of salt will  be       
obtained from it2 nay1 it will yield    
none at all1 if repeated  boilings have 
robbed it entirely of those saline      
particles which must  necessarily concur
 with its earth to form a fixed ,alkali4
      ,,section ,,ii4    ,the ,,analysis
 of ,,animal ,,substances4    ,succulent
 animal substances1 such as new-killed  
flesh1 yield by  expression a juice or  
liquid1 which is no other than the      
phlegm1  replete with all the principles

 of the animal body1 except the earth1  
of which it contains but little4 ,the   
hard or dry parts1 such as the  horns1  
bones1 c4 yield a similar juice1 by     
boiling them in water4  ,these juices   
become thick1 like a glue or jelly1 when
 their watery  parts are evaporated2    
and1 in this state1 they are truly      
extracts of  animal matters4 ,these     
juices afford no crystals of essential  
salt1  like those obtained from         
vegetables1 and shew no sign either of  
an acid  or an alkali4    ,great part of
 the oil which is in the flesh of       
animals may be easily  separated without
 the help of fire2 for it lies in a     
manner by itself3  it is commonly in a  
concrete form1 and is called ,fat4 ,this
 oil  somewhat resembles the fat oils of
 vegetables2 for like them it is  mild1 
unctuous1 indissoluble in spirit of     
wine1 and is subtilized and  attenuated 
by the action of fire4 ,but there is not
 in animals1 as in  vegetables1 any     
light essential oil1 which rises with   

the heat of  boiling water2 so that1    
properly speaking1 animals contain but  
one sort  of oil4    ,few animal        
substances yield a perceptible acid4    
,ants and bees are  almost the only ones
 from which any can be obtained3 and    
indeed the  quantity they yield is very 
small1 as the acid itself is extremely  
weak4    ,the reason thereof is1 that as
 animals do not draw their nourishment  
immediately from the earth1 but feed    
wholly either on vegetables or  on the  
flesh of other animals1 the mineral     
acids1 which have already  undergone a  
great change by the union contracted    
between them and  the oily matters of   
the vegetable kingdom1 enter into a     
closer union  and combination with these
 oily parts while they are passing      
through  the organs and strainers of    
animals2 whereby their properties are   
destroyed1 or at least so impaired1 that
 they are no longer sensible4    ,animal
 matters yield in distillation1 first1 a
 phlegm1 and then1 on  increasing the   

fire1 a pretty clear oil1 which         
gradually becomes  thicker1 blacker1    
more fetid1 and empyreumatic4 ,it is    
accompanied  with a great deal of       
volatile alkali2 and if the fire be     
raised  and kept up till nothing more   
comes over1 there will remain in the    
distilling vessel a coal like that of   
vegetables2 except that when it  is     
reduced to ashes1 no fixed alkali1 or at
 least very little1 can be  obtained    
from them1 as from the ashes of         
vegetables4 ,this arises from  hence1   
that1 as we said before1 the saline     
principle in animals being  more        
intimately united with the oil than it  
is in plants1 and being  consequently   
more attenuated and subtilized1 is too  
volatile to enter  into the combination 
of a fixed alkali2 on the contrary1 it  
is more  disposed to join in forming a  
volatile alkali1 which on this occasion 
does not rise till after the oil1 and   
therefore must certainly be the         
production of the fire4 ,it must be     

observed1 that all we have hitherto     
said concerning the analysis of bodies  
must be understood of such  matters only
 as have not undergone any sort of      
,fermentation4    ,the chyle and milk of
 animals which feed on plants still     
retain some  likeness to vegetables2    
because the principles of which these   
liquors  are composed have not gone     
through all the changes which they must 
suffer before they enter into the animal
 combination4    ,urine and sweat are   
excrementitious aqueous liquors1 loaded 
chiefly  with the saline particles which
 are of no service towards the          
nourishment of the animal1 but pass     
through its strainers without  receiving
 any alteration2 such as the neutral    
salts which have a fixed  alkali for    
their basis1 and particularly the       
sea-salt1 which happens  to be in the   
food of animals1 whether it exist       
therein naturally1 as  it does in some  
plants1 or whether the animals eat it to
 please their  palates4    ,the saliva1 

the pancreatic juice1 and especially the
 bile1 are  saponaceous liquors1 that   
is1 they consist of saline and oily     
particles  combined together3 so that   
being themselves dissolved in an aqueous
  liquor1 they are capable of dissolving
 likewise the oily parts1 and of        
rendering them miscible with water4     
,lastly1 the blood being the receptacle 
of all these liquors partakes of  the   
nature of each1 more or less in         
proportion to the quantity thereof      
which it contains4      ,,section ,,iii4
    ,the ,,analysis of ,,mineral        
,,substances4    ,minerals differ       
greatly from vegetables1 and from       
animals2 they are  not near so complex  
as those organized bodies1 and their    
principles  are much more simple2 whence
 it follows1 that these principles are  
much more closely connected1 and that   
they cannot be separated without  the   
help of fire2 which not having on their 
parts the same action and  the same     
power as on organized bodies1 hath not  

the same ill effect  on them2 ,i mean   
the effect of changing their principles1
 or even  destroying them entirely4     
,i do not here speak of pure1           
vitrifiable1 or refractory earths2 of   
mere metals and semi-metals2 of pure    
acids2 or even of their simplest        
combinations1 such as sulphur1 vitriol1 
alum1 sea-salt3 of all these we  have   
said enough4    ,we are now to treat of 
bodies that are more complex1 and       
therefore more  susceptible of          
decomposition4 ,these bodies are        
compound masses1 or  combinations of    
those above-mentioned2 that is1 metallic
 substances as  they are found in the   
bowels of the earth1 united with several
 sorts  of sand1 stones1 earths1        
semi-metals1 sulphur1 c4 ,when the      
metallic  matter is combined with other 
matters1 in such a proportion to the    
rest that it may be separated from them 
with advantage and profit1  these       
compounds are called ,ores2 when the    
case is otherwise1 they are  called     

,pyrites1 and ,marcasites2 especially if
 sulphur or arsenic be  predominant     
therein1 which often happens4    ,in    
order to analyse an ore1 and get out of 
it the metal it contains1  the first    
step is to free it from a great deal of 
earth and stones1  which commonly adhere
 to it very slightly and superficially4 
,this  is effected by pounding the ore1 
and then washing it in water2 to  the   
bottom of which the metalline parts     
presently sink1 as being the  heaviest1 
while the small particles of earth and  
stone remain suspended  some time       
longer4    ,thus the metallic part is   
left combined with such matters only as 
are  most intimately complicated with   
it4 ,these substances are most commonly 
sulphur and arsenic4 ,now1 as they are  
much more volatile than other  mineral  
matters1 they may be dissipated in      
vapours1 or the sulphur may  be         
consumed1 by exposing the ore which     
contains them to a proper degree  of    
heat4 ,if the sulphur and arsenic be    

desired by themselves1 the fumes        
thereof may be catched and collected in 
proper vessels and places4 ,this        
operation is called ,roasting an ,ore4  
,the metal thus depurated is now fit to 
be exposed to a greater force of  fire1 
capable of melting it4    ,on this      
occasion the semi-metals and the        
imperfect metals require  the addition  
of some matter abounding in phlogiston1 
particularly  charcoal-dust2 because    
these metallic substances lose their    
phlogiston  by the action of the fire1  
or of the fluxes joined with them1 and  
therefore without this precaution would 
never acquire either the  splendour or  
the ductility of a metal4 ,by this means
 the metallic  substance is more        
accurately separated from the earthy and
 stony parts1  of which some portion    
always remains combined therewith till  
it is  brought to fusion4 ,for1 as we   
observed before1 a metallic glass or    
calx  only will contract an union with  
such matters2 a metal possessed of its  

phlogiston and metalline form being     
utterly incapable thereof4    ,we took  
notice of the cause of this separation  
above1 where we shewed  that a metal    
possessed of its phlogiston and         
metalline form will not  remain         
intimately united with any calcined or  
vitrified matter1 not  even with its own
 calx or glass4    ,the metal therefore 
on this occasion gathers into a mass1   
and lies  at the bottom of the vessel1  
as being most ponderous2 while the      
heterogeneous matters float upon it in  
the form of a glass1 or a               
semi-vitrification4 ,these floating     
matters take the name of ,scori1  and   
the metalline substance at bottom is    
called the ,regulus4    ,it frequently  
happens1 that the metalline regulus thus
 precipitated  is itself a compound of  
several metals mixed together1 which are
  afterwards to be separated4 ,we cannot
 at present enter into a detail  of the 
operations necessary for that purpose3  
they will appear in our  ,treatise of   

,practical ,chymistry3 but the          
principles on which they are  founded   
may be deduced from what we have said   
above1 concerning the  properties of the
 several metals and of acids4    ,it is 
proper to observe1 before we quit this  
subject1 that the rules  here laid down 
for analysing ores are not absolutely   
general3 for  example1 it is often      
adviseable to roast the ore before you  
wash it2  for by that means some ores   
are opened1 attenuated1 and made very   
friable1 which would cost much trouble  
and expence1 on account of their        
excessive hardness1 if you should       
attempt to pound them without a         
previous torrefaction4    ,it is also   
frequently necessary to separate the ore
 from part only  of its stone2 sometimes
 to leave the whole2 and sometimes to   
add  more to it1 before you smelt it4   
,this depends on the quality of the     
stone1 which always helps to promote    
fusion when it is in its own  nature    
fusible and vitrifiable4 ,it is then    

called the ,fluor of the  ore3 but of   
this we must say1 as we did of the      
preceding article1 it  is sufficient for
 our present purpose to lay down the    
fundamental  principles on which the    
reason of every process is built2 the   
description of the operations themselves
 being reserved for our second  ,part4  
,we shall now give a succinct account of
 the principal ores and mineral  bodies1
 contenting ourselves with just pointing
 out the particulars of  which they     
severally consist4      ,of the         
,,pyrites4    ,the yellow ,pyrites4     
,the yellow ,pyrites is a mineral       
consisting of sulphur1 iron1 an         
unmetallic earth1 and frequently a      
little copper3 the sulphur1 which  is   
the only one of these principles that is
 volatile1 may be separated  from the   
rest by sublimation3 it usually makes a 
fourth1 and sometimes  a third1 of the  
whole weight of these ,pyrites4 ,the    
other principles are  separated from one
 another by fusion and reduction with   

the phlogiston1  which1 by metallizing  
the ferruginous and cupreous earths1    
parts  them from the unmetallic earth3  
for this earth vitrifies1 and cannot    
afterwards continue united with metallic
 matters possessed of their  metalline  
form1 as hath been said before4         
,there is yet another way of decomposing
 the yellow ,pyrites1 which is to  let  
it ly till it effloresces1 or begins to 
shoot into flowers2 which  is nothing   
but a sort of slow accension of the     
sulphur it contains4  ,the sulphur being
 by this means decomposed1 its acid     
unites with the  ferruginous and        
cupreous parts of the ,pyrites1 and     
therewith forms  green and blue         
vitriols2 which may be extracted by     
steeping in water  the ,pyrites which   
has effloresced or been burnt1 and then 
evaporating  the lixivium to a pellicle2
 for by this means the vitriol will     
shoot  into crystals4    ,sometimes the 
,pyrites contains also an earth of the  
same nature with  that of alum2 a       

,pyrites of this sort1 after flowering1 
yields alum as  well as vitriol4        
,the white ,pyrites4    ,the white      
,pyrites contains much arsenic1 a       
ferruginous earth1 and an  unmetallic   
earth4 ,the arsenic1 being a volatile   
principle1 may be  separated by         
sublimation or distillation from the    
rest1 which are  fixed3 and these again 
may be disjoined from each other by     
fusion and  reduction1 as was said in   
relation to the yellow ,pyrites4        
,the ,copper ,pyrites4    ,the ,copper  
,pyrites contains sulphur1 copper1 and  
an unmetallic earth4  ,a great deal     
thereof likewise holds arsenic1 and its 
colour approaches  more or less to      
orange1 yellow1 or white1 according to  
the quantity of  arsenic in it4 ,it may 
be decomposed by the same means as the  
yellow and  white ,pyrites4    ,of      
,,ores4    ,of ,gold ,ores4    ,gold    
being constantly found in its metalline 
form1 and never combined  with sulphur  
and arsenic1 its matrices are not1      

properly speaking1  ores2 because the   
metal contained in them is not          
mineralized4 ,the  gold is only lodged  
between particles of stone1 earth1 or   
sand1 from  which it is easily separated
 by lotion1 and by amalgamation with    
quick-silver4 ,the gold thus found is   
seldom pure1 but is frequently  alloyed 
with more or less silver1 from which it 
is to be separated by  quartation4      
,it is also very common to find gold in 
most ores of other metals or            
semi-metals1 and even in the ,pyrites2  
but the quantity contained  therein is  
generally so small1 that it would not   
pay the cost of  extracting it4         
,however1 if any should incline to      
attempt it1 merely  out of curiosity1 it
 would be necessary to begin with       
treating these  ores in the manner      
proper for separating their metalline   
part2 then to  cupel the metalline      
regulus so obtained2 and1 lastly1 to    
refine it by  quartation4      ,of      
,silver ,ores4    ,it is no rare thing  

to find silver1 as well as gold1 in its 
metalline  form1 only lodged in sundry  
earths and stony matters1 from which it 
may  be separated in the same manner as 
gold4 ,but the greatest quantities  of  
this metal are usually dug out of the   
bowels of the earth in a  truly mineral 
state3 that is1 combined with different 
substances1 and  particularly with      
sulphur and arsenic4    ,several silver 
ores are distinguished by peculiar      
characteristics1 and  are accordingly   
denoted by particular names4 ,that which
 is called the  ,vitreous ,silver ,ore1 
is scarce any thing else but a          
combination of  silver and sulphur4     
,another is known by the name of the    
,horny ,silver  ,ore1 because when in   
thin plates it is semi-transparent3 in  
this ore  the silver is mineralized by  
sulphur and a little arsenic4 ,the ,red 
,silver ,ore is of the colour which its 
name imports1 sometimes more1  sometimes
 less vivid2 and is chiefly composed of 
silver1 arsenic1 and  sulphur3 it also  

contains a little iron4    ,these three 
ores are very rich in silver3 the first 
contains nearly  three fourths of its   
weight1 and the others about two thirds 
of theirs4    ,there is a fourth1 called
 the ,white ,silver ,ore1 which1 though 
it be  heavier1 is not so rich in       
silver1 because it contains much copper4
  ,many other minerals contain silver1  
yet are not1 properly speaking1  silver 
ores2 because a much greater quantity of
 other metals than of  silver is found  
in them4    ,when a silver ore is to be 
decomposed1 in order to have the silver 
pure1 or when silver is to be extracted 
out of any ore that contains  it1 the   
first thing to be done is to roast the  
ore1 in order to clear  it of the       
volatile minerals3 and as silver cannot 
be had pure without  the operation of   
the cupel1 which requires more or less  
lead to be  joined with it1 it is usual 
to mix with the torrified silver ore a  
quantity of lead1 proportioned to that  
of the heterogeneous matters  combined  

with the silver1 and to melt the whole  
together4 ,part of the  added lead      
vitrifies during the fusion1 and at the 
same time converts  some of the         
heterogeneous matters also into glass1  
with which it forms  a scoria that rises
 to the surface of the matter4 ,the     
other part of the  lead1 with which the 
silver is mixed1 falls to the bottom in 
the form  of a regulus1 which must be   
cupelled in order to have the silver    
pure4      ,of ,copper ,ores4    ,copper
 is much seldomer found in a metalline  
form than gold or silver3  it is        
commonly in a mineral state3 it is      
mineralized by sulphur and  arsenic3    
almost all its ores contain also more or
 less of iron2  sometimes a little      
silver1 or even gold1 together with     
unmetallic  earths and stones1 as all   
ores do4    ,most copper ores are of a  
beautiful green or blue1 or else in     
shades  blended of these two colours4   
,the minerals called mountain green1 and
  mountain blue1 are true copper ores2  

not in the form of hard stones1  like   
other ores1 but crumbly and friable like
 earth4    ,nevertheless1 there are     
several copper ores of different        
colours1 as  ash-coloured1 whitish1 and 
shaded with yellow or orange2 which     
colours  arise from the different       
proportions of arsenic1 sulphur1 and    
iron1  which these ores contain4    ,in 
order to decompose a copper ore1 and to 
extract the copper it  contains1 it is  
first of all to be freed from as many of
 its earthy1  stony1 sulphureous1 and   
arsenical parts1 as is possible1 by     
roasting  and washing2 then what remains
 is to be mixed with a flux1 compounded 
of a fixed alkali and some inflammable  
matter2 a little sea-salt is  to be put 
over all1 and the whole melted by a     
strong fire4 ,the salts  facilitate the 
fusion and scorification of the         
unmetallic matters1 and  therewith form 
a slag1 which being the lightest rises  
to the surface4  ,the metalline matters 
are collected below in the form of a    

shining  regulus of copper2 which1      
however1 is not usually fine copper1 but
  requires to be purified in the manner 
to be shewn in our second part4    ,in  
order to separate the copper from the   
unmetallic matters1 it is  absolutely   
necessary to melt its ore along with    
inflammable substances  abounding in    
phlogiston4 ,for1 as this metal is not  
possessed of its  metalline form while  
it is in a mineral state1 as it is      
destitute of  the true quantity of      
phlogiston1 and1 though it were not1    
would lose it  by the action of the     
fire1 it would come to pass1 that if its
 ore were  melted without the addition  
of any inflammable matter1 the cupreous 
earth or calx would be scorified and    
confounded with the unmetallic  matters2
 and as all metallic matters1 except    
gold and silver1 are  subject to this   
inconvenience as well as copper1 the    
addition of an  inflammable substance1  
in fluxing all ores that contain them1  
is a  general rule that ought constantly

 to be observed4      ,of ,iron ,ores4  
,iron is seldom found pure and malleable
 in the earth2 yet it is much  seldomer 
found in the mineral state1 properly so 
called1 than any of  the other metals3  
for most iron ores are scarce any thing 
more than a  ferruginous earth mixed in 
different proportions with unmetallic   
earths  and stones4 ,some of them1      
however1 contain also volatile minerals1
 such  as sulphur and arsenic2 and      
therefore it is necessary to roast the  
iron  ores1 like all others1 before you 
attempt to extract the metal out of     
them4 ,that being done1 they are to be  
smelted with a flux consisting of       
fusible and inflammable matters1 as the 
general rule directs4    ,iron is the   
commonest of all metals3 nay1 it is so  
universally diffused  through the earth1
 that it is difficult to find any stone1
 earth1 or  sand1 that does not contain 
some of it2 and therefore none of these 
are  usually considered and treated as  
iron ores1 except such as contain a     

great deal of that metal1 and melt      
easily4 ,the hematites1 emery1 yellow   
pyrites1 calamine1 all contain a pretty 
considerable quantity of iron2  but no  
body attempts to extract it from them1  
because they are very  hard to melt4    
,ferruginous earth being naturally of an
 orange colour1 a stone or earth  may be
 judged to contain iron1 if either      
naturally1 or after roasting1  it       
appears to have one shade of yellow or  
red4    ,the singular property which    
iron has of being attracted by the      
magnet1  and of being the only body1    
exclusive of all others1 that is so1    
likewise affords us an easy method of   
discovering the presence of  this metal 
among other matters1 where it often     
exists in such a small  quantity that it
 could not otherwise be found out4 ,for 
this purpose  the body in which iron is 
suspected to lurk1 must be pulverised   
and  torrefied with some inflammable    
matter2 and then the powder thus        
roasted being touched with a magnet1 or 

an animated bar1 if it contains  any    
particles of iron they will infallibly  
adhere to the magnet or bar4      ,of   
,tin ,ores4    ,tin is never found in   
the earth pure and malleable1 but always
 in a  mineral state1 and always        
mineralized by arsenic4 ,tin ores are   
not  sulphureous2 whence it comes1 that 
though tin be the lightest of all       
metals1 its ores are nevertheless       
heavier than those of other metals1  as 
arsenic greatly exceeds sulphur in      
gravity4 ,some tin ores contain  also a 
little iron4 ,the ores of tin are to be 
washed1 roasted1 and  smelted with a    
reducing flux1 according to the general 
rules4      ,of ,lead ,ores4    ,lead1  
like tin1 is never found but in a       
mineral state4 ,it is most  commonly    
mineralized by sulphur2 yet there are   
some lead ores which  also contain      
arsenic4    ,lead ores1 as well as      
others1 must be roasted and smelted with
 a  reducing flux3 however1 as it is    
difficult to free them from all their   

sulphur by torrefaction only1 the       
reducing flux employed in their  fusion 
may be made up with a quantity of iron  
filings1 which being  incapable of any  
union with lead1 and having a much      
greater affinity  than that metal with  
sulphur1 will1 on this occasion1 be of  
great  service by interposing between   
them4      ,of ,quick-silver ,ores4     
,running ,mercury is sometimes found in 
certain earths1 or grey1 friable        
stones2 but most commonly in a mineral  
state4 ,it is always mineralized  by    
sulphur1 and by sulphur alone3 so that  
cinabar is the only ore of  quick-silver
 that we know of2 and a very rich one it
 is1 seeing it  contains six or seven   
times as much mercury as sulphur4       
,roasting can be of no use towards      
decomposing the ore of mercury1 and     
separating its sulphur2 because mercury 
being itself very volatile  would be    
carried off by the fire together with   
the sulphur4 ,in order1  therefore1 to  
part the two substances of which cinabar

 consists1  recourse must necessarily be
 had to some third body1 which will     
unite  with one of them1 and by that    
means separate it from the other4 ,now  
all the metals1 except gold1 having a   
greater affinity than mercury  with     
sulphur1 such a body is easily found3   
any metal but gold may be  employed with
 success in this decomposition2 but as  
iron hath a greater  affinity with      
sulphur than any of the rest1 and is    
moreover the only  one that cannot unite
 with mercury1 it must1 on account of   
these two  qualities1 be preferred to   
all the rest4    ,fixed alkalis are also
 well qualified to absorb the sulphur of
 cinabar4  ,cinabar must be decomposed  
in close vessels1 and by the way of     
distillation2 otherwise the mercury1 as 
soon as it separates from the  sulphur1 
will be dissipated in vapours and       
entirely lost4    ,in this operation it 
is needless to add either flux or       
phlogiston2  because the cinabar is     
decomposed without melting1 and the     

mercury1  though in a mineral state1    
contains1 like gold and silver1 all the 
phlogiston requisite to secure its      
metalline properties4      ,of the ,ores
 of ,regulus of ,antimony4    ,regulus  
of ,antimony is always found in a       
mineral state3 it is  mineralized by    
sulphur2 but sometimes1 though rarely1  
it is also  combined with a little      
arsenic4    ,when the ore of regulus of 
antimony is to be decomposed1 the first 
thing to be done is to expose it to a   
degree of heat too weak to melt  its    
earthy and stony parts1 but strong      
enough to fuse its reguline1  together  
with its sulphureous parts1 which by    
this means are separated  from the      
earth1 and united into one mass1 known  
by the name of ,antimony4    ,it is     
plain that this first operation1 which  
is founded on the great  fusibility of  
antimony1 produces1 with regard to the  
ore of regulus  of antimony1 the same   
effect that washing hath on other ores3 
so that  after this first fusion nothing

 more is requisite to the obtaining of  
a pure regulus of antimony1 but to      
separate it from its sulphur by         
roasting1 and to melt it with some      
matter abounding in phlogiston1  in the 
same manner as other metallic matters   
are treated4 ,the term  ,calcination is 
generally used to express this          
torrefaction of  antimony1 by means     
whereof the metallic earth of the       
regulus of  antimony is separated from  
its sulphur4    ,as regulus of ,antimony
 hath1 like ,mercury1 much less affinity
 with  sulphur than the other metals    
have1 it follows that antimony may be   
decomposed by the same means as cinabar2
 but the regulus1 so obtained1  is      
adulterated with a portion of the       
additament made use of1 which  combines 
therewith4    ,there is still another   
process employed for obtaining the      
regulus of  antimony3 it consists1 as   
was mentioned in its place1 in          
detonating  the mineral with a mixture  
of nitre and tartar1 applied in such a  

proportion that1 after the detonation   
has consumed the sulphur1 there  may    
remain so much inflammable matter as    
will be sufficient to furnish  the      
metalline earth of the antimony with the
 phlogiston necessary to  preserve its  
metallic properties4 ,but by this method
 less regulus is  produced1 than by     
calcining1 or torrefying1 and reducing  
as usual4      ,of the ,ores of         
,bismuth4    ,the ore of ,bismuth       
consists of the semi-metal mineralized  
by arsenic1  and of an unmetallic earth4
 ,it is very easy to decompose this ore1
  and to extract the bismuth it         
contains3 for this purpose it need only 
be exposed to a moderate heat1 whereby  
the arsenic will be dissipated  in      
vapours1 and the bismuth melted1 which  
will then separate from the  unmetallic 
earth4 ,this earth1 at least1 in several
 ores of bismuth1  possesses the        
property of tinging all vitrifiable     
matters1 with which  it is melted1 of a 
beautiful blue colour4    ,to decompose 

the ore of bismuth no flux or           
inflammable matter is used2  because    
this semi-metal is possessed1 even in   
its mineral state1 of  all the          
phlogiston requisite to maintain its    
metalline properties2 and  its great    
fusibility makes it unnecessary to melt 
the unmetallic earth  contained in its  
ore4      ,of the ,ores of ,zinc4       
,zinc is not generally obtained from a  
particular ore of its own2 but  sublimes
 during the fusion of a mineral1 or     
rather a confused mass of  minerals1    
that contains this semi-metal together  
with iron1 copper1  lead1 sulphur1      
arsenic1 and1 like all other ores1 an   
unmetallic earth4    ,nevertheless1     
there is a substance which may be       
considered as the  proper ore of zinc1  
because it contains a pretty large      
quantity of  that semi-metal1 a little  
iron1 and an unmetallic earth4 ,it is   
called  ,calamine1 or ,lapis            
,calaminaris2 but hitherto the art of   
procuring  zinc directly from this      

mineral hath no where been practised4   
,calamine  is commonly employed only to 
convert copper into brass1 or a yellow  
metal1 by cementing it therewith4       
,indeed1 till lately1 no easy or        
practicable method of obtaining pure    
zinc from calamine was publicly  known2 
for that semi-metal being volatile and  
very inflammable1 its ore  cannot be    
fused like others4 ,mr4 ,margraaf was   
the first who1 by mixing  powdered      
charcoal with calamine in close vessels1
 obtained a perfect  zinc from it1 by   
the means of distillation or            
sublimation1 as shall be  shewn in our  
,practical ,chymistry4      ,of         
,arsenical ,minerals4    ,arsenic1 as   
well as sulphur1 is naturally combined  
with almost all  ores1 or minerals      
containing metallic substances4 ,as it  
is very  volatile1 while the matters    
with which it is united are fixed1 at   
least  in comparison therewith1 it is   
easily separated by sublimation4    ,the
 minerals that contain most arsenic are 

the white pyrites1 orpiment1  and       
cobalt4 ,we have already considered the 
white pyrites3 as to  orpiment1 it      
consists of sulphur and arsenic4 ,both  
these substances  being very volatile1  
it is difficult to separate them by     
sublimation3  yet1 with proper          
management1 and a due regulation of the 
fire1 this  separation may be effected2 
because sulphur sublimes a little more  
easily than arsenic4 ,but it is more    
convenient1 as well as more             
expeditious1 to make use of some        
additament that hath a greater  affinity
 with one of those substances than with 
the other4 ,fixed  alkalis and mercury1 
both of which have more affinity with   
sulphur than  with arsenic1 may be very 
properly employed on this occasion4     
,cobalt is a mineral composed of        
arsenic1 an unmetallic earth1 and       
frequently bismuth3 and as none of these
 are very volatile1 except the  arsenic1
 this may be easily separated from the  
rest by sublimation4 ,the  unmetallic   

earth which remains has1 like that of   
the ore of bismuth1  the property of    
giving a blue colour to any vitrifiable 
matters  melted with it2 whence it is   
conjectured1 that cobalt and the ore  of
 bismuth have a great resemblance1 or   
are often blended with each  other4     
,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,brant1 an ingenious
 ,swedish ,chymist1 insists  that they  
are very different3 he pretends that the
 metallic substance  contained in the   
true cobalt is a semi-metal of a        
peculiar nature1  which hath been       
erroneously confounded with bismuth3 and
 indeed he  proves by a great number of 
curious experiments1 related in the     
,memoirs  of the ,academy of ,upsal1    
that these two metallic substances have 
properties that are essentially         
different3 to that which is obtained    
from cobalt1 he gives the name of       
,regulus of ,cobalt4    ,besides the    
minerals already recited1 there is found
 in the bowels of  the earth another    
species of compound body1 of which we   

have already  taken notice2 but which is
 supposed1 with some degree of          
probability1  to belong as much to the  
vegetable as to the mineral kingdom3 ,i 
mean  the ,bitumens2 which the best     
observations oblige us to consider as   
vegetable oils1 that by lying long in   
the earth have contracted an  union with
 the mineral acids1 and by that means   
acquired the thickness1  consistence1   
and other properties observable in them4
    ,by distillation they yield an oil1 
and an acid not unlike a mineral  acid4 
,mr4 ,bourdelin has even demonstrated1  
by a very artful and  ingenious process1
 that amber contains a manifest acid of 
sea-salt4 ,see  the ,memoirs of the     
,royal ,academy of ,sciences4           
,,chap4 ,,xvii4    ,explanation of the  
,table of ,affinities4      ,it hath    
been shewn in the course of this work1  
that the causes of  almost all the      
phenomena1 which ,chymistry exhibits1   
are deducible from  the mutual          
affinities of different substances1     

especially the simplest4  ,we have      
already explained 7,chap4 ,,ii47 what is
 meant by affinities1 and  have laid    
down the principal laws to which the    
relations of different  bodies are      
subject4 ,the late ,mr4 ,geoffroy1 one  
of the best ,chymists we  have had1     
being convinced of the advantages which 
all who cultivate  ,chymistry would     
receive from having constantly before   
their eyes a  state of the best         
ascertained relations between the chief 
agents in  ,chymistry1 was the first who
 undertook to reduce them into order1   
and  unite them all in one point of     
view1 by means of a table4 ,we are of   
opinion1 with that great man1 that this 
,table will be of considerable  use to  
such as are beginning to study          
,chymistry1 in helping them to  form a  
just idea of the relations which        
different substances have with  one     
another2 and that the practical ,chymist
 will thereby be enabled  to account for
 what passes in several of his          

operations1 otherwise  difficult to be  
understood1 as well as to judge what may
 be expected to  result from mixtures of
 different compounds4 ,these reasons    
have induced  us to insert it at the end
 of this ,elementary ,treatise1 and to  
give a  short explanation of it here2   
especially as it will serve1 at the same
  time1 for a recapitulation of the     
whole work1 in which the several  axioms
 of this ,table are dispersed4    ,you  
have it here just as it was drawn up by 
,mr4 ,geoffroy1 without any  addition or
 alteration4 ,i own1 however1 that it   
might be improved  both ways3 for since 
the death of that great ,chymist many   
experiments  have been made1 some of    
which have discovered new affinities1   
and  others have raised exceptions to   
some of those laid down by him4 ,but    
several reasons dissuade me from        
publishing a new ,table of ,affinities1 
containing all the emendations and      
innovations that might be made in  the  
old one4    ,the first is1 that many of 

the affinities lately discovered are not
 yet  sufficiently verified1 but1 on the
 contrary1 subject to be contested3  in 
short1 they are perhaps liable to more  
considerable objections1 and            
exceptions1 than the other4    ,the     
second is1 that as ,mr4 ,geoffroy's     
,table contains all the  fundamental    
affinities1 it is more suitable to an   
,elementary ,treatise  than a much      
fuller one would be2 seeing this would  
necessarily suppose  the knowledge of   
many things not treated of by us1 and of
 which it was  not proper to say any    
thing in such a book as this4           
,however1 as it is essential to our     
purpose that we lead none into  error1  
we shall take care in explaining the    
affinities delivered by ,mr4  ,geoffroy1
 to mention the principal objections and
 exceptions to which  they are liable3  
we shall1 moreover1 add a very few new  
ones1 confining  ourselves to such only 
as are elementary and well ascertained4 
,the upper line of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's     

,table1 comprehends several substances  
used in ,chymistry4 ,under each of those
 substances are ranged in  distinct     
columns several matters compared with   
them1 in the order  of their relation to
 that first substance2 so as that which 
is the  nearest to it is that which hath
 the greatest affinity with it1 or that 
which none of the substances standing   
below it can separate therefrom2  but   
which1 on the contrary1 separates them  
all when they are combined  with it1 and
 expels them in order to join itself    
therewith4 ,the same is  to be          
understood of that which occupies the   
second place of affinity2  that is1 it  
has the same property with regard to all
 below it1 yielding  only to that which 
is above it3 and so of all the rest4    
,at the top of the first column stands  
the character which denotes an  ,acid in
 general4 ,immediately under this stands
 the mark of a ,fixed  ,alkali1 being   
placed there as the substance which has 
the greatest  affinity with an ,acid4   

,after the ,fixed ,alkali appears the   
,volatile  ,alkali1 whose affinity with 
,acids yields only to the ,fixed        
,alkali4  ,next come the ,absorbent     
,earths2 and last of all ,metallic      
,substances4  ,hence it follows1 that   
when a ,fixed ,alkali is united with an 
acid it  cannot be separated therefrom  
by any other substance2 that a ,volatile
  ,alkali united with an ,acid cannot be
 separated from it by any thing  but a  
,fixed ,alkali2 that an ,absorbent      
,earth combined with an acid  may be    
separated from it either by a ,fixed or 
by a ,volatile ,alkali2  and lastly1    
that any ,metallic ,substance combined  
with an ,acid may be  separated from it 
by a ,fixed ,alkali1 a ,volatile        
,alkali1 or an ,absorbent  ,earth4      
,there are many important remarks to be 
made on this first column4  ,first1 it  
is making the rule too general to say   
that any ,acid whatever  has a greater  
affinity with a ,fixed ,alkali1 than    
with any other  substance4 ,and indeed  

,mr4 ,geoffroy himself hath made an     
exception  with respect to the          
,vitriolic ,acid2 for in the fourth     
column1 at the  head of which stands    
that ,acid1 we find the sign of the     
,phlogiston  placed above that of the   
,fixed ,alkali1 as having a greater     
affinity  than the ,fixed ,alkali with  
the ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,this is founded  
on the  famous experiment1 wherein      
,vitriolated ,tartar and ,glauber's     
,salt are  decompounded by means of the 
,phlogiston1 which separates the ,fixed 
,alkalis of these ,neutral ,salts1 and  
uniting with the ,vitriolic ,acid       
contained in them forms therewith a     
,sulphur4    ,secondly1 ,nitre          
deflagrates1 and is decomposed1 by the  
contact of any  inflammable matter      
whatever that is actually ignited2 and  
the operation  which produces           
,phosphorus is no other than a          
decomposition of sea-salt1  whose ,acid 
quits its ,alkaline basis to join with  
the ,phlogiston3 now  these facts       

furnish very strong reasons for         
believing that both these  ,acids1 as   
well as the ,vitriolic1 have a stronger 
affinity with the  ,phlogiston than with
 a ,fixed ,alkali4 ,lastly1 as several  
experiments  shew the ,vegetable ,acids 
to be only the ,mineral ,acids disguised
 and  mortified1 there are sufficient   
grounds for suspecting that ,acids in   
general have a greater affinity with the
 ,phlogiston than with ,fixed  ,alkalis3
 so that instead of making an exception 
with regard to the  ,vitriolic ,acid1 it
 would perhaps be better to lay down    
this greater  affinity as common to all 
,acids whatever1 and to place the       
,phlogiston  in the first column1       
immediately under the character which   
denotes an  ,acid in general4 ,this     
theory1 however1 stands in need of      
confirmation  from other experiments#d4 
#d ,mr4 ,margraaf1 an able ,german      
,chymist1 has made several              
experiments1 which induce him to think  
that the ,acid of ,phosphorus    is of a

 particular kind1 and different from    
that of sea-salt4 ,may it    not be the 
,marine ,acid1 but altered by the union 
it has contracted    with the           
,phlogiston8 ,or may it not be1 with    
respect to ,phosphorus1    what the     
volatile sulphureous spirit is1 with    
respect to ,sulphur8    ,see the        
,memoirs of the ,royal ,academy of      
,sciences of ,berlin4    ,thirdly1 in   
this same column the character of a     
,volatile ,alkali is set  above that of 
an ,absorbent ,earth1 as having a       
greater affinity with  ,acids2 and yet  
these ,absorbent ,earths decompose the  
,ammoniacal salts1  drive away the      
,volatile ,alkali from the ,acids1 and  
assume its place4  ,this is one of the  
first objections made against ,mr4      
,geoffroy's ,table4  ,his answer thereto
 is printed in the ,memoirs of the      
,academy of ,sciences  for #agah1 where 
his ,table also is to be found4 ,we have
 already declared  our opinion about    
this matter in treating of a ,volatile  

,alkali4    ,fourthly1 in #agdd1 ,mr4   
,geoffroy1 brother to the author of the 
,table1  who hath done no less honour to
 ,chymistry than that eminent physician1
  gave in a ,memoir containing an       
exception to the last affinity in the   
first column2 namely1 that which places 
,absorbent ,earths above ,metallic      
substances4 ,he therein shews1 that     
,alum may be converted into ,copperas   
by boiling it in iron vessels2 that1 on 
this occasion1 the iron  precipitates   
the ,earth of the ,alum1 separates it   
from its ,acid1 and  assumes its place2 
so that of course it must have a greater
 affinity1  than the ,absorbent ,earth  
of ,alum1 with the ,vitriolic ,acid4    
,at the head of the second column stands
 the character of the ,marine  ,acid1   
which signifies that the affinities of  
this ,acid are the subject  of the      
column4 ,immediately below it is placed 
the mark of ,tin4 ,as this  is a        
metalline substance1 and as the first   
column places metalline  substances in  

the lowest degree of affinity with all  
,acids1 it is  plain we must suppose    
,fixed ,alkalis1 ,volatile ,alkalis1 and
 ,absorbent  ,earths1 to be placed here 
in order after the ,marine ,acid1 and   
before  ,tin4 ,tin1 then1 is of all     
,metalline substances that which has the
  greatest affinity with the ,marine    
,acid2 and then follow ,regulus of      
,antimony1 ,copper1 ,silver1 ,mercury4  
,gold comes last of all2 and there  are 
no less than two vacant places above it4
 ,by this means it is in  some sort     
excluded from the rank of substances    
that have an affinity  with the ,marine 
,acid4 ,the reason thereof is1 that this
 ,acid alone is  not capable of         
dissolving ,gold and combining          
therewith1 necessarily  requiring for   
that purpose the aid of the ,nitrous    
,acid1 or at least of  the ,phlogiston4 
,the third column exhibits the          
affinities of the ,nitrous ,acid1 the   
character whereof stands at its head4   
,immediately below it is the sign  of   

,iron1 as the metal which has the       
greatest affinity with this ,acid2  and 
then follow other metals1 each according
 to the degree of its  relation2 to wit1
 ,copper1 ,lead1 ,mercury1 and ,silver4 
,in this column1  as in the preceding   
one1 we must suppose the substances1    
which in the  first column stand above  
,metallic substances1 to be placed in   
their  proper order before ,iron4       
,the fourth column is intended to       
represent the ,affinities of the        
,vitriolic ,acid4 ,here ,mr4 ,geoffroy  
has placed the ,phlogiston as the       
substance which has the greatest        
affinity with this ,acid1 for the       
reason given in our explanation of the  
first column4 ,below it he has  ranked  
,fixed ,alkalis1 ,volatile ,alkalis1 and
 ,absorbent ,earths1 to  shew that this 
is an exception to the first column4 ,as
 to ,metalline  substances1 he has set  
down but three1 being those with which  
the  ,vitriolic ,acid has the most      
perceptible affinity3 these metals1     

placed  in the order of their           
affinities1 are ,iron1 ,copper1 and     
,silver4    ,the fifth column shews the 
affinities of ,absorbent ,earths4 ,as   
these  ,earths have no sensible affinity
 but with ,acids1 this column contains  
only the characters of the ,acids ranked
 according to the degree of  their      
strength1 or affinity with the ,earths2 
to wit1 the ,vitriolic1 the  ,nitrous1  
and the ,marine ,acids4 ,underneath this
 last might be placed the  ,acid of     
,vinegar1 or the ,vegetable ,acid4      
,the sixth column expresses the         
,affinities of ,fixed ,alkalis with     
,acids1  which are the same with those  
of ,absorbent ,earths4 ,moreover1 we    
find  ,sulphur placed here below all the
 ,acids2 because ,liver of ,sulphur1    
which is a combination of ,sulphur with 
a ,fixed ,alkali1 is actually           
decompounded by any ,acid3 for any ,acid
 precipitates the ,sulphur and  unites  
with the ,alkali4    ,immediately over  
the ,sulphur1 or in the same square with

 it1 might be  set a mark denoting the  
,volatile ,sulphureous ,spirit2 because1
 like  ,sulphur1 it has less affinity   
than any other ,acid with ,fixed        
,alkalis4  ,oils might also be ranked   
with ,sulphur1 because they unite with  
,fixed  ,alkalis1 and therewith form    
,soaps1 which are decompounded by any   
acid  whatever4    ,the seventh column  
points out the affinities of ,volatile  
,alkalis1 which  are likewise the same  
as those of ,absorbent ,earths2 and the 
,vegetable  ,acid might be placed here  
also under the ,marine ,acid4    ,the   
eighth column specifies the affinities  
of ,metallic substances  with ,acids4   
,the affinities of the ,acids1 which1   
with respect to ,fixed  ,alkalis1       
,volatile ,alkalis1 and ,absorbent      
,earths1 succeeded each other           
uniformly1 do not appear in the same    
order here4 ,the ,marine ,acid1  instead
 of being placed below the ,vitriolic   
and ,nitrous ,acids1 stands1  on the    
contrary1 at their head2 because1 in    

fact1 this ,acid separates  ,metalline  
substances from all the other ,acids    
with which they happen  to be united1   
and1 forcing these ,acids to quit       
possession1 intrudes  into their place4 
,nevertheless1 this is not a general    
rule2 for several  ,metalline substances
 must be excepted1 particularly ,iron   
and ,copper4    ,the ninth column       
declares the affinities of ,sulphur4    
,fixed ,alkalis1  ,iron1 ,copper1 ,lead1
 ,silver1 ,regulus of ,antimony1        
,mercury1 and ,gold1  stand below it in 
the order of their affinities4 ,with    
regard to ,gold it  must be observed1   
that it will not unite with pure        
,sulphur3 it suffers  itself to be      
dissolved only by the ,liver of         
,sulphur1 which is known to  be a       
composition of ,sulphur and ,fixed      
,alkali4    ,at the head of the tenth   
column appears ,mercury1 and beneath it 
several  ,metalline substances1 in the  
order of their affinities with it4      
,those  ,metalline substances are ,gold1

 ,silver1 ,lead1 ,copper1 ,zinc1 and    
,regulus  of ,antimony4    ,it is proper
 to remark on this column1 that ,regulus
 of ,antimony1  which stands the lowest1
 unites but very imperfectly with       
,mercury2  and that after a seeming     
union of these two ,metallic substances 
hath  been obtained1 by a tedious       
triture with the addition of water1 they
  do not continue long united1 but      
spontaneously separate from each  other 
in a short time4 ,iron and ,tin are here
 excluded2 the former  with great       
reason1 because hitherto it hath not    
been clearly proved1  by any known      
experiment1 that ever ,mercury was      
united with ,iron3 but  the same        
objection cannot be made to ,tin1 which 
amalgamates very well  with ,mercury1   
and might therefore be placed in this   
column nearly  between ,lead and        
,copper4 ,i use the word nearly1 because
 the different  degrees of affinity     
between ,metalline substances and       
,mercury are not so  exactly determined1

 as the other relations before          
considered2 seeing  they generally unite
 with it1 without excluding one another4
 ,we can  therefore scarce judge of the 
degree of affinity that belongs to each1
  but by the greater or less readiness  
of each to amalgamate therewith4    ,the
 eleventh column shews1 that ,lead has a
 greater affinity with ,silver  than    
with ,copper4    ,the twelfth1 that     
,copper has a greater affinity with     
,mercury than with  ,calamine4    ,the  
thirteenth1 that ,silver has a greater  
affinity with ,lead than with  ,copper4 
,the fourteenth contains the affinities 
of ,iron4 ,regulus of ,antimony  stands 
immediately underneath it1 as being the 
,metallic substance which  has the      
greatest affinity with it4 ,silver1     
,copper1 and ,lead1 are placed  together
 in the next square below1 because the  
degrees of affinity  which those metals 
have with ,iron are not exactly         
determined4    ,the same is to be said  
of the fifteenth column3 ,regulus of    

,antimony  stands at its head2 ,iron is 
immediately below it2 and below the     
,iron  the same three metals occupy one 
square as before4    ,lastly1 the       
sixteenth column indicates that ,water  
has a greater  affinity with ,spirit of 
,wine than with ,salts4 ,by this general
  expression must not be understood any 
,saline substance whatever2 but  only   
the ,neutral ,salts1 which ,spirit of   
,wine frees from the water that  kept   
them in solution4 ,fixed ,alkalis1 on   
the contrary1 as well as the  ,mineral  
,acids1 have a greater affinity than    
,spirit of ,wine with water3  so that   
these ,saline substances1 being well    
dephlegmated1 and mixed  with ,spirit of
 ,wine2 imbibe the water it contains and
 rectify it4    ,to these might be added
 another short column1 having ,spirit of
 ,wine at  its head3 immediately below  
it should be the character of ,water1   
and  below that the mark of ,oil4 ,this 
column would shew that the ,spirit of   
,wine has a greater affinity with ,water

 than with ,oils2 because any ,oily     
matter whatever1 that is dissolved in   
,spirit of ,wine1 may be actually       
separated from it by the affusion of    
,water4 ,this rule admits of no         
exception but in one case2 which is when
 the oily substance partakes  of the    
nature of soap1 by having contracted an 
union with some saline  matter4 ,but as 
this must be imputed wholly to that     
adventitious saline  matter being       
superadded to the oily substance1 it is 
no just foundation  for an exception1   
and the affinity in question is         
nevertheless general4    ,we have now   
delivered every thing material that we  
had to say  concerning ,mr4 ,geoffroy's 
,table of ,affinities4 ,it is1 as we    
observed  before1 of exceeding great    
service1 as it collects into one view   
the principal truths laid down in this  
,treatise4 ,indeed the most             
advantageous way of using it is1 not to 
delay consulting it till you  have read 
the book through1 but to turn to it     

while you are reading1 as  oft as any   
affinity between bodies is treated of2  
which it will imprint  more strongly on 
your mind1 by representing it in a      
manner before your  eyes4               
,,chap4 ,,xviii4    ,the ,,theory of    
,,constructing the ,,vessels most       
commonly used in  ,,chymistry4          
,chymists cannot perform the operations 
of their art without the help of  a     
considerable number of vessels1         
instruments1 and furnaces1 adapted  to  
contain the bodies on which they intend 
to work1 and to apply to  them the      
several degrees of heat required by     
different processes4 ,it is  therefore  
proper1 before we advance to the        
operations themselves1 to  consider     
particularly and minutely what relates  
to the instruments with  which they are 
to be performed4    ,vessels intended   
for ,chymical ,operations should1 to be 
perfect1 be  able to bear1 without      
breaking1 the sudden application of     
great heat  and great cold2 be          

impenetrable to every thing1 and        
unalterable by any  solvent2            
unvitrifiable1 and capable of enduring  
the most violent fire  without melting3 
but hitherto no vessels have been found 
with all these  qualities united4       
,they are made of sundry materials2     
namely1 of metal1 of glass1 and of      
earth4 ,metalline vessels1 especially   
those made of ,iron or ,copper1  are apt
 to be corroded by almost every saline1 
oily1 or even aqueous  substance4 ,for  
this reason1 in order to render the use 
of them a little  more extensive1 they  
are tinned on the inside4 ,but1         
notwithstanding  this precaution1 they  
are on many occasions not to be trusted2
 and  should never be employed in any   
nice operations which require great     
accuracy3 they are1 moreover1 incapable 
of resisting the force of fire4         
,earthen vessels are of several sorts4  
,some1 that are made of a  refractory   
earth1 are capable of being suddenly    
exposed to a strong  fire without       

breaking1 and even of sustaining a great
 degree of heat  for a considerable     
time3 but they generally suffer the     
vapours of  the matters which they      
contain1 as well as vitrified metals1 to
 pass  through them1 especially the     
glass of lead1 which easily penetrates  
them and runs through their pores as    
through a sieve4 ,there are others  made
 of an earth that1 when well baked1     
looks as if it were half  vitrified3    
these being much less porous1 are       
capable of retaining the  vapours of the
 matters which they contain1 and even   
glass of lead in  fusion2 which is one  
of the severest trials a vessel can be  
put to3 but  then they are more brittle 
than the other sort4    ,good glass     
vessels should constantly be employed in
 preference to all  others1 whenever    
they can possibly be used3 and that not 
only because  they are no way injured by
 the most active solvents1 nor suffer   
any  part of what they contain to pass  
through1 but also because their         

transparency allows the ,chymist to     
observe what passes within them3  which 
is always both curious and useful4 ,but 
it is pity that vessels of  this sort   
should not be able to endure a fierce   
fire without melting4  ,we shall take   
care1 when we come to describe the      
several sorts of  chymical instruments1 
and the manner of using them1 to note   
what  vessels are to be preferred to    
others on different occasions4          
,distillation1 as hath been already     
said1 is an operation by which  we      
separate from a body1 by the help of a  
gradual heat1 the several  principles of
 which it consists4    ,there are three 
methods of distilling4 ,the first is    
performed by  applying the heat over the
 body whose principles are to be        
extracted4  ,in this case1 as the       
liquors1 when heated and converted into 
vapours1  constantly endeavour to fly   
from the center of heat1 they are forced
 to  re-unite in the lower part of the  
vessel1 that contains the matter in     

distillation1 and so passing through the
 pores or holes of that vessel1  they   
fall into another cold vessel applied   
underneath to receive them4  ,this way  
of distilling is on this account called 
distilling per  ,descensum4 ,it requires
 no other apparatus than two vessels    
figured  like segments of hollow        
spheres1 whereof that which is pierced  
with  little holes1 and intended to     
contain the matter to be distilled1     
should be much less than the other1     
which is to contain the fire1  and to   
fill its aperture exactly2 the whole    
together to be supported  vertically    
upon a third vessel1 which is to serve  
the purpose of a  recipient1 admitting  
into its mouth the convex bottom of the 
vessel  containing the matter to be     
distilled1 which must accurately fill   
it4  ,this method of distilling is but  
little used4    ,the second method of   
distilling is performed by applying the 
heat  underneath the matter to be       
decomposed4 ,on this occasion the       

liquors  being heated1 rarefied1 and    
converted into vapours1 rise1 and are   
condensed in a vessel contrived for that
 purpose1 which we shall  presently     
describe4 ,this way of distilling is    
called distilling per  ,ascensum1 and is
 much used4    ,the vessel in which this
 distillation per ,ascensum is performed
 we  call an ,alembic4    ,there are    
several sorts thereof1 differing from   
one another both in the  matter of      
which1 and the manner in which1 they are
 made4    ,those employed to draw the   
odoriferous waters and essential oils of
  plants are generally made of copper1  
and consist of several pieces4 ,the     
first1 which is designed to contain the 
plant1 is formed nearly like a  hollow  
cone1 the vertex whereof is drawn out in
 the shape of a hollow  cylinder or     
tube3 this part is named the ,cucurbit1 
and its tube the  ,neck of the ,alembic4
 ,to the upper end of this tube another 
vessel  is soldered3 this is called the 
,head1 and commonly has likewise the    

form of a cone1 joined to the neck of   
the alembic by its base1 round  which1  
on the inside1 is hollowed a small      
groove1 communicating with  an orifice  
that opens at its most depending part4  
,to this orifice is  soldered a small   
pipe in a direction sloping downwards1  
which is called  the ,nose1 ,spout1 or  
,beak of the alembic4    ,as soon as the
 matters contained in the alembic grow  
hot1 vapours begin  to arise from them1 
and ascending through the neck of the   
alembic into  the head1 are by the sides
 thereof stopped and condensed3 from    
thence  they trickle down in little     
streams to the groove1 which conveys    
them  to the spout2 and by that they    
pass out of the alembic into a glass    
vessel with a long neck1 the end of the 
spout being introduced into  that neck1 
and luted thereto4    ,to facilitate the
 refrigeration and condensation of the  
vapours  circulating in the head1 all   
alembics of metal are moreover provided 
with another piece1 which is a kind of  

large pan of the same metal1  fitted and
 soldered round the head4 ,this piece   
serves to keep cold  water in1 which    
incessantly cools the head1 and         
therefore it is called  the             
,refrigeratory4 ,the water in the       
refrigeratory itself grows hot  after   
some time1 and must therefore be changed
 occasionally2 the heated  water being  
first drawn off by means of a cock fixed
 near the bottom of  the refrigeratory4 
,all copper alembics should be tinned on
 the inside  for the reasons already    
given4    ,when saline spirits are to be
 distilled1 alembics of metal must not  
be used2 because the saline vapours     
would corrode them4 ,in this case       
recourse must be had to alembics of     
glass4 ,these consist of two pieces     
only2 namely1 a ,cucurbit1 whose        
superior orifice is admitted into and   
exactly luted with its ,head1 which is  
the second piece4    ,in general1 as    
alembics require that the vapours of the
 matter to be  distilled should rise to 

a considerable heighth1 they ought to be
 used  only when the most volatile      
principles are to be drawn from bodies3 
and the lighter and more volatile the   
substances to be separated by           
distillation are1 the taller must the   
alembic be2 because the most  ponderous 
parts1 being unable to rise above a     
certain heighth1 fall  back again into  
the cucurbit as soon as they arrive     
there1 leaving the  lighter to mount    
alone1 whose volatility qualifies them  
to ascend into  the head4    ,when a    
matter is to be distilled1 that requires
 a very tall alembic1  and yet does not 
admit of a metalline vessel1 the end    
will be best  answered by a glass vessel
 of a round or oval shape1 having a very
  long neck1 with a small head fitted to
 its extremity4 ,such a vessel  serves  
many purposes3 it is sometimes employed 
as a receiver1 and at  other times as a 
digesting vessel2 on which last occasion
 it goes under  the name of a ,matrass4 
,when one of these1 provided with a     

head1 is  applied to the purpose of     
distilling1 it forms a sort of alembic4 
,there are some alembics of glass1 blown
 in such a manner by the  workmen1 that 
the body and head form but one continued
 piece4 ,as these  alembics do not stand
 in need of having their several pieces 
luted  together1 they are very useful on
 some occasions1 when such exceeding    
subtile vapours rise as are capable of  
transpiring through lutes4 ,the  head   
must have an aperture at the top1       
provided with a short tube1  through    
which1 by means of a funnel with a long 
pipe1 the matter to be  distilled may be
 introduced into the cucurbit4 ,this is 
to be exactly  closed with a glass      
stopple1 the surface whereof must be    
made to fit  the inside of the tube in  
every point1 by rubbing those two pieces
  well together with emery4    ,another 
sort of alembic hath also been invented1
 which may be used  with advantage when 
,cohobation is required2 that is1 when  
the liquor  obtained by distillation is 

to be returned upon the matter in the   
cucurbit2 and especially when it is     
intended that this cohobation  shall be 
repeated a great number of times4 ,the  
vessel we are speaking  of is           
constructed exactly in the same manner  
as that last described2  except that its
 beak1 instead of being in a straight   
line1 as in the  other alembics1 forms a
 circular arch1 and re-enters the cavity
 of the  cucurbit1 in order to convey   
back again the liquor collected in the  
head4 ,this instrument hath commonly two
 beaks opposite to each other1  both    
turned in this manner1 and is called a  
,pelican3 it saves the  artist the      
trouble of frequently unluting and      
reluting his vessels1 as  well as the   
loss of a great many vapours4    ,there 
are certain substances which in         
distillation afford matters in  a       
concrete form1 or rise wholly in the    
form of a very light powder1  called    
,flowers4 ,when such substances are to  
be distilled1 the  cucurbit which       

contains them is covered with a head    
without a nose1  which is named a       
,blind-head4    ,when the flowers rise  
in great quantities and very high1 a    
number of  heads is employed to collect 
them2 or rather a number of a kind of   
pots1 consisting of a body only without 
any bottom1 which fitting one  into the 
other form a canal1 that may be         
lengthened or shortened at  pleasure1   
according as the flowers to be sublimed 
are more or less  volatile4 ,the last of
 the heads1 which terminates the canal1 
is quite  close at one end1 and makes a 
true blind-head4 ,these vessels are     
called  ,aludels2 they are usually of   
earthen or stone ware4    ,all the      
vessels above-mentioned are fit only for
 distilling such light  volatile matters
 as can be easily raised and brought    
over2 such as  phlegm1 essential oils1  
fragrant waters1 acid oily spirits1     
volatile  alkalis1 c4 ,but when the     
point is to procure by distillation     
principles that are much less volatile1 

and incapable of rising high1  such as  
the thick fetid oils1 the vitriolic1 the
 nitrous1 and the  marine acids1 c4 we  
are under a necessity of having recourse
 to  other vessels1 and another manner  
of distilling4    ,it is easy to        
imagine1 that such a vessel must be much
 lower than  the alembic4 ,it is indeed 
no more than a hollow globe1 whose upper
  part degenerates into a neck or tube1 
that is bent into a horizontal          
position2 for which reason this         
instrument is called a ,retort3 it is   
always of one single piece4    ,the     
matter to be distilled is introduced    
into the body of the retort by  means of
 a ladle with a long tubular shank4     
,then it is set in a furnace  built     
purposely for this use1 and so that the 
neck of the retort coming  out of the   
furnace may1 like the nose of the       
alembic1 stand in a  sloping position1  
to facilitate the egress of the liquors1
 which by its  means are conveyed to a  
receiver1 into which it is introduced1  

and with  which it is luted4 ,this way  
of distilling1 in which the vapours seem
  rather to be driven out of the vessel 
horizontally and laterally1 than  raised
 up and sublimed1 is for that reason    
called ,distillation per  ,latus4       
,retorts are1 of all the instruments of 
distillation1 those that must  sustain  
the greatest heat1 and resist the       
strongest solvents2 and  therefore they 
must not be made of metal4 ,some1       
however1 which are  made of iron may do 
well enough on certain occasions3 the   
rest are  either of glass or earth4     
,those of glass1 for the reasons above  
given1  are preferable to the other     
sort1 in all cases where they are not to
  be exposed to such a force of fire as 
may melt them4 ,the best glass1  that   
which stands both heat and solvents     
best1 is that in which there  are fewest
 alkaline salts4 ,of this sort is the   
green ,german glass3 the  beautiful     
white crystal glass is far from being   
equally serviceable4    ,retorts1 as    

well as alembics1 may be of different   
forms4 ,for example1  some matters are  
apt to swell1 and rise over the neck of 
the retort in  substance1 without       
suffering any decomposition2 when such  
matters are  to be distilled in a       
retort1 it is proper that the body of   
the vessel1  instead of being globular1 
be drawn out into the form of a pear1 so
 as  nearly to resemble that of a       
cucurbit4 ,in a retort of this kind1 the
  distance between the bottom and the   
neck being much greater than in  those  
whose bodies are spherical1 the matters 
contained have much more  room for      
expansion2 so that the inconvenience    
here mentioned is thereby  prevented4   
,retorts of this form are called        
,english retorts4 ,as they  hold the    
middle place between alembics and common
 retorts1 they may be  used to distil   
such matters as have a mean degree of   
volatility between  the greatest and the
 least4    ,it is moreover proper to    
have1 in a laboratory1 sundry retorts   

with  necks of different diameters4     
,wide necks will be found the fittest   
for conveying thick matters1 and such as
 readily become fixed2 for  instance1   
some very thick fetid oils1 butter of   
antimony1 c42 for  as these matters     
acquire a consistence as soon as they   
are out of  the reach of a certain      
degree of heat1 they would soon choak a 
narrow  neck1 and by stopping the       
vapours which rise at the same time from
 the  retort1 might occasion the        
bursting of the vessels4    ,some       
retorts are also made with an opening on
 their upper side1 like  that of        
tubulated glass alembics1 which is to be
 closed in the same  manner with a glass
 stopple4 ,these retorts are also called
 ,tubulated  retorts1 and ought always  
to be used whenever it is necessary to  
introduce fresh matter into the retort  
during the operation2 seeing it  may be 
done by means of this invention1 without
 unluting and reluting  the vessels2    
which ought always to be avoided as much

 as possible4    ,one of the things that
 most perplexes the ,chymists1 is the   
prodigious  elasticity of many different
 vapours1 which are frequently          
discharged  with impetuosity during the 
distillation1 and are even capable of   
bursting the vessels with explosion1 and
 with danger to the artist4 ,on  such   
occasions it is absolutely necessary to 
give these vapours vent1  as we shall   
direct in its proper place3 but as that 
can never be done  without losing a     
great many of them2 as some of them in  
particular  are so elastic that scarce  
any at all would remain in the vessel2  
for  instance1 those of the spirit of   
nitre1 and especially those of the      
smoking spirit of salt2 the practice is 
to make use of very large  receivers1 of
 about eighteen or twenty inches        
diameter1 that the  vapours may have    
sufficient room to circulate in1 and by 
applying to  the wide surface presented 
them by the extensive inside of such a  
large  vessel1 may be condensed into    

drops4 ,these huge receivers are        
commonly  in the form of hollow globes1 
and are called ,ballons4    ,to give    
these vapours still more room1 ballons  
have been contrived  with two open      
gullets in each1 diametrically opposite 
to one another2  whereof one admits the 
neck of the retort1 and the other is    
received by  one of the gullets of a    
second ballon of the same form1 which is
 joined  in like manner to a third1 and 
so on4 ,by this artifice the space may  
be  enlarged at pleasure4 ,these ballons
 with two necks are called ,adopters4   
,operations on bodies that are          
absolutely fixed1 as metals1 stones1    
sand1 c4 require only such vessels as   
are capable of containing  those bodies1
 and resisting the force of fire4 ,these
 vessels are little  hollow pots1 of    
different dimensions1 which are called  
,crucibles4  ,crucibles can hardly be   
made of any thing but earth2 they ought 
to have  a cover of the same material   
fitted to shut them close4 ,the best    

earth  we know is that whereof those    
pots are made in which butter is brought
  from ,bretagne3 these pots themselves 
are exceeding good crucibles2 and  they 
are almost the only ones that are       
capable of holding glass of lead  in    
fusion1 without being penetrated by it4 
,for the roasting of ores1 that is1     
freeing them1 by the help of fire1  from
 their sulphureous and arsenical parts1 
little cups of the same  material with  
crucibles are used2 but they are made   
flat1 shallow1  and wider1 above than   
below1 that these volatile matters may  
the more  freely exhale4 ,these vessels 
are called ,tests1 or ,scorifiers3 they 
are  scarce ever used but in the        
,docimastic art1 that is1 in making     
small  ,assays of ores4          ,,chap4
 ,,xix4    ,the ,,theory of             
,,constructing the ,,furnaces most      
commonly used in  ,,chymistry4          
,skill in conducting and applying fire  
properly1 and determining its  different
 degrees1 is of very great consequence  

to the success of  ,chymical operations4
    ,as it is exceeding difficult to    
govern and moderate the action of fire1 
when the vessels in which any operation 
is performed are immediately  exposed to
 it1 ,chymists have contrived to convey 
heat to their vessels1  in nice         
operations1 through different mediums1  
which they place  occasionally between  
those vessels and the fire4    ,those   
intermediate substances in which they   
plunge their vessels are  called ,baths4
 ,they are either fluid or solid3 the   
fluid baths are water  or its vapours4  
,when the distilling vessel is set in   
water1 the bath is  called ,balneum     
,mari1 or the ,water ,bath2 and the     
greatest degree  of heat of which it is 
susceptible is that of boiling water4   
,when the  vessel is exposed only to the
 vapours which exhale from water1 this  
forms the ,vapour ,bath2 the heat of    
which is nearly the same with  that of  
the ,balneum ,mari4 ,these baths are    
useful for distilling  essential oils1  

ardent spirits1 sweet-scented waters2 in
 a word1 all  such substances as cannot 
bear a greater heat1 without prejudice  
either  to their odour1 or to some of   
their other qualities4    ,baths may    
also be made of any other fluids1 such  
as oils1 mercury1  c4 which are capable 
of receiving and communicating much more
 heat3  but they are very seldom used4  
,when a more considerable degree of     
heat is required1 a bath is prepared of 
any solid matter reduced to a  fine     
powder1 such as sand1 ashes1 filings of 
iron1 c4 ,the heat of  these baths may  
be pushed so far as to make the bottom  
of the vessel  become faintly red4 ,by  
plunging a thermometer into the bath1 by
 the  side of the vessel1 it is easy to 
observe the precise degree of heat      
applied to the substance on which you   
are working4 ,it is necessary  that the 
thermometers employed on this occasion  
be constructed on good  principles1 and 
so contrived as to be easily compared   
with those of the  most celebrated      

natural philosophers4 ,those of the     
illustrious ,raumur  are most used and  
best known1 so that it would not be     
amiss to give  them the preference4     
,when a greater heat is required than   
any of those  baths can give1 the       
vessels must be set immediately on live 
coals1 or  in a flaming fire3 this is   
called working with a naked fire2 and1  
in  this case it is much more difficult 
than in the other to determine the      
degrees of heat4    ,there are several  
ways of applying a naked fire4 ,when the
 heat or flame  is reflected upon the   
upper part of a vessel which is exposed 
to the  fire1 this is called a          
,reverberated heat4 ,a ,melting heat is 
that which  is strong enough to fuse    
most bodies4 ,a ,forging heat is that of
 a fire  which is forcibly excited by   
the constant blast of a pair of bellows1
  or more4    ,there is also another    
sort of fire which serves very          
commodiously for  many operations1      
because it does not require to be fed or

 frequently  mended3 this is afforded by
 a lamp with one or more wicks1 and may 
be  called a ,lamp-heat4 ,it is scarce  
ever employed but to heat baths1 in     
operations which require a gentle and   
long continued warmth3 if it hath  any  
fault1 it is that of growing gradually  
hotter4    ,all the different ways of   
applying fire require ,furnaces of      
different  constructions3 we shall      
therefore describe such as are of       
principal and  most necessary use4      
,furnaces must be divided into different
 parts or stories1 each of which  has   
its particular use and name4    ,the    
lower part of the furnace1 designed for 
receiving the ashes and  giving passage 
to the air1 is called the ,ash-hole4    
,the ash-hole is  terminated above by a 
grate1 the use of which is to support   
the coals  and wood1 which are to be    
burnt thereon3 this part is called the  
,fire-place4 ,the fire-place is in like 
manner terminated above by  several iron
 bars1 which lie quite across it from   

right to left1 in  lines parallel to    
each other3 the use of these bars is to 
sustain the  vessels in which the       
operations are to be performed4 ,the    
space above  these bars to the top of   
the furnace is the upper story1 and may 
be  called the ,laboratory of the       
furnace4 ,lastly1 some furnaces are     
quite  covered above by means of a kind 
of vaulted roof called the ,dome4       
,furnaces have moreover several         
apertures3 one of these is at the       
ash-hole1 which gives passage to the    
air1 and through which the ashes  that  
fall through the grate are raked out2   
this aperture is called the  ash-hole   
,door3 another is at the fire-place1    
through which the fire  is supplied with
 fuel1 as occasion requires2 this is    
called the mouth  or door of the        
,fire-place1 or the ,stoke-hole3 there  
is a third in the  upper story1 through 
which the neck of the vessel passes2 and
 a fourth  in the dome for carrying off 
the fuliginosities of combustible       

matters1  which is called the ,chimney4 
,to conclude1 there are several other   
openings in the several parts of  the   
furnace1 the use whereof is to admit the
 air into those places1 and  also1 as   
they can be easily shut1 to incite or   
slacken the activity of  the fire1 and  
so to regulate it2 which has procured   
them the title of  ,registers4 ,all the 
other openings of the furnace should be 
made to shut  very close1 the better to 
assist in governing the fire2 by which  
means  they likewise do the office of   
registers4    ,in order to our forming a
 just and general idea of the           
construction of  furnaces1 and of the   
disposition of the several apertures in 
them1 with  a view to increase or       
diminish the activity of the fire1 it   
will be  proper to lay down1 as our     
ground-work1 certain principles of      
natural  philosophy1 the truth of which 
is demonstrated by experience4    ,and  
first1 every body knows that combustible
 matters will not burn or  consume      

unless they have a free communication   
with the air2 insomuch  that if they be 
deprived thereof1 even when burning most
 rapidly1 they  will be extinguished at 
once3 that consequently combustion is   
greatly  promoted by the frequent       
accession of fresh air1 and that a      
stream of  air1 directed so as to pass  
with impetuosity through burning fuel1  
excites the fire to the greatest        
possible activity4    ,secondly1 it is  
certain that the air which touches1 or  
comes near  ignited bodies is heated1   
rarefied1 and rendered lighter than the 
air about it1 that is1 farther distant  
from the center of heat2  and           
consequently that this air1 so heated   
and become lighter1 is  necessarily     
determined thereby to ascend and mount  
aloft1 in order  to make room for that  
which is less heated and not so light1  
which by  its weight and elasticity     
tends to occupy the place quitted by the
  other4 ,another consequence hereof is1
 that if fire be kindled in a  place    

enclosed every where but above and      
below1 a current of air will  be formed 
in that place1 running in a direction   
from the bottom to the  top2 so that if 
any light bodies be applied to the      
opening below1 they  will be carried up 
towards the fire2 but1 on the contrary1 
if they be  held at the opening above1  
they will be impelled by a force which  
will  drive them up1 and carry them away
 from the fire4    ,thirdly and lastly1 
it is a truth demonstrated in           
hydraulics1 that the  velocity of a     
given quantity of any fluid1 determined 
to flow in any  direction whatever1 is  
so much the greater the narrower the    
channel is  to which that fluid is      
confined2 and consequently that the     
velocity  of a fluid will be increased  
by making it run from a wider through a 
narrower passage4    ,these principles  
being established1 it is easy to apply  
them to the  construction of furnaces4  
,first1 if a fire be kindled in the     
fire-place  of a furnace1 which is open 

on all sides1 it burns nearly as if it  
were  in the open air4 ,it has with the 
surrounding air a free communication2   
so that fresh air is continually        
admitted to facilitate the entire       
combustion of the inflammable matters   
employed as fuel4 ,but there being      
nothing to determine that air to pass   
with rapidity through the fire in  this 
case1 it does not at all augment the    
activity thereof1 but suffers  it to    
waste away quietly4    ,secondly1 if the
 ash-hole or dome of a furnace1 in which
 a fire  is burning1 be shut quite      
close1 then there is no longer any free 
communication between the air and the   
fire3 if the ash-hole be shut1  the air 
is debarred from having free access to  
the fire2 if the dome  be stopt1 the    
egress of the air rarefied by the fire  
is prevented2 and  consequently the fire
 must in either case burn very faintly  
and slowly1  gradually die away1 and at 
last go quite out4    ,thirdly1 if all  
the openings of the furnace be wholly   

closed1 it is  evident that the fire    
will be very quickly extinguished4      
,fourthly1 if only the lateral openings 
of the fire-place be shut1  leaving the 
ash-hole and upper part of the furnace  
open2 it is plain  that the air entering
 by the ash-hole will necessarily be    
determined  to go out at top1 and that  
consequently a current of air will be   
formed1 which will pass through the     
fire1 and make it burn briskly and      
vigorously4    ,fifthly1 if both the    
ash-hole and the upper story of the     
furnace be  of some length1 and form    
canals either cylindric or prismatic1   
then  the air being kept in the same    
direction through a longer space1 the   
course of its stream will be both       
stronger and better determined1 and     
consequently the fire will be more      
animated by it4    ,sixthly and lastly1 
if the ash-hole and the upper part of   
the furnace1  instead of being cylindric
 or prismatic canals1 have the form of  
truncated cones or pyramids1 standing on

 their bases1 and so ordered  that the  
upper opening of the ash-hole1 adjoining
 to the fire-place1  may be wider than  
the base of the superiour cone or       
pyramid1 then the  stream of air1 being 
forced to pass incessantly from a larger
 channel  through a smaller1 must be    
considerably accelerated1 and procure to
  the fire the greatest activity which  
it can receive from the make of a       
furnace4    ,the materials fittest for  
building furnaces are1 #a4 ,bricks1     
joined  together with potters clay mixed
 with sand and moistened with water4 #b4
  ,potters clay mingled with potsherds1 
moistened with water1 and baked in  a   
violent fire4 #c4 ,iron2 of which all   
furnaces may be made1 with this         
precaution1 that the inside be provided 
with a great many prominent  points1 as 
fastenings for a coat of earth1 with    
which the internal  parts of the furnace
 must necessarily be covered to defend  
it from the  action of the fire4    ,the
 reverberating furnace is one of those  

that are most employed in  ,chymistry3  
it is proper for distillations by the   
retort1 and should be  constructed in   
the following manner4    ,first1 the use
 of the ash-hole being1 as was said1 to 
give passage  to the air and to receive 
the ashes1 no bad consequence can attend
  its being made pretty high3 it may    
have from twelve to twenty or           
twenty-four inches in heighth4 ,its     
aperture should be wide enough to  admit
 billets of wood1 when a great fire is  
to be made4    ,secondly1 the ash-hole  
must be terminated at its upper part by 
an  iron grate1 the bars of which should
 be very substantial1 that they  may    
resist the action of the fire3 this     
grate is the bottom of the  fire-place1 
and destined to support the coals4 ,in  
the lateral part of  the fire-place1 and
 nearly about the same heighth with the 
grate1 there  should be a hole of such a
 size that it may easily admit charcoal1
 as  well as little tongs and shovels   
for managing the fire4 ,this aperture   

or mouth of the fire-place should be    
perpendicularly over the mouth of  the  
ash-hole4    ,thirdly1 from six to eight
 or ten inches high above the grate over
 the  ash-hole1 little apertures must be
 made in the walls of the furnace1  of  
eight or ten lines in diameter1 an inch 
from one another1 and those  in one side
 must be diametrically opposite to those
 in the other4 ,the  use of these holes 
is to receive bars of iron for the      
retort to rest  on2 which should be1 as 
,i said1 at different heights1 in order 
to  accommodate retorts of different    
sizes4 ,at the upper extremity of this  
part of the furnace1 which reaches from 
the iron bars to the top1 the  heighth  
whereof should be somewhat less than the
 width of the furnace1  must be cut a   
semi-circular aperture for the neck of  
the retort to come  through4 ,this hole 
must by no means be over the doors of   
the fire-place  and ash-hole2 for then1 
as it gives passage to the neck of the  
retort1  it must of course be opposite  

to the receiver1 and in that case the   
receiver itself would stand over against
 those two apertures2 which  would be   
attended with this double inconvenience1
 that the receiver  would not only grow 
very hot1 but greatly embarrass the     
operator1 whose  free access to the     
fire-place and ash-hole would be thereby
 obstructed4  ,it is proper therefore   
that the semi-circular cut we are       
speaking of be  so placed that when the 
greatest ballons are luted to the retort
 they  may leave an open passage to the 
fire-place and ash-hole4    ,fourthly1  
in order to cover in the laboratory of  
the reverberating  furnace1 there must  
be a roof made for it in the form of a  
cupola1  or concave hemisphere1 having  
the same diameter as the furnace4 ,this 
dome should have a semi-circular cut in 
its rim1 answering to that              
above-directed to be made in the upper  
extremity of the furnace1  so that1 when
 adjusted to each other1 the two        
together may form a  circular hole for  

the neck of the retort to pass through4 
,at the top of  this dome there must    
also be a circular hole of three or four
 inches  diameter1 carrying a short     
tapering funnel of the same diameter1   
and  three inches high1 which will serve
 for a chimney to carry off all         
fuliginosities1 and accelerate the      
current of the air4 ,this passage may   
be shut at pleasure with a flat cover4  
,moreover1 as it is necessary  that the 
dome should be taken off and put on with
 ease1 it should have  two ears or      
handles for that purpose3 a portative or
 moveable furnace  should also have a   
pair of handles1 fixed opposite to each 
other1  between the ash-hole and the    
fire-place4    ,sixthly and lastly1 a   
conical canal must be provided of about 
three  feet long1 and sufficiently wide 
at its lower end to admit the funnel  of
 the aperture at the top of the dome4   
,this conical tube is to be  applied to 
the dome when the fire is required to be
 extremely active3  it tapers gradually 

from its base upwards1 and breaks off as
 if  truncated at top1 where it should  
be about two inches wide4    ,besides   
the apertures already mentioned as      
necessary to a reverberating  furnace1  
there must also be many other smaller   
holes made in its  ash-hole1 fire-place1
 laboratory1 and dome1 which must all be
 so  contrived as to be easily opened   
and shut with stopples of earth3 these  
holes are the registers of the furnace1 
and serve to regulate the  activity of  
the fire1 according to the principles   
before laid down4    ,when the action of
 the fire is required to be exactly     
uniform and very  brisk1 it is necessary
 to stop carefully with moist earth all 
the  little chinks in the juncture of   
the dome with the furnace1 between the  
neck of the retort and the circular hole
 through which it passes1 and  which it 
never fills exactly1 and1 lastly1 the   
holes which receive the  iron bars that 
sustain the retort4    ,it is proper to 
have1 in a laboratory1 several          

reverberating furnaces  of different    
magnitudes2 because1 they must be       
proportioned to the size  of the retorts
 employed4 ,the retort ought to fill the
 furnace1 so as  to leave only the      
distance of an inch between it and the  
inside of the  furnace4    ,yet when the
 retort is to be exposed to a most      
violent fire1 and  especially when it is
 required that the heat shall act with  
equal force  on all parts of the        
furnace1 and as strongly on its vault as
 on its  bottom1 a greater distance must
 be left between the retort and the     
inside of the furnace2 for then the     
furnace may be filled with coals1  even 
to the upper part of the dome4 ,if      
moreover some pieces of wood be  put    
into the ash-hole1 the conical canal    
fitted on to the funnel of the  dome1   
and all the apertures of the furnace    
exactly closed1 except the  ash-hole and
 the chimney1 the greatest heat will    
then be excited that  this furnace can  
produce4    ,the furnace now described  

may also be employed in many other      
chymical  operations4 ,if the dome be   
laid aside1 an alembic may very well be 
placed therein3 but then the space1     
which will be left between the  body of 
the alembic and the top of the upper    
part of the furnace1 must  be carefully 
filled up with ,windsor-loam moistened2 
for without that  precaution the heat   
will soon reach the very head1 which    
ought to be  kept as cool as possible1  
in order to promote the condensation of 
the  vapours4 ,on this occasion         
therefore it will be proper to leave no 
holes  open in the fire-place1 but the  
lateral ones2 of which also those       
over-against the receiver must be       
stopped4    ,a pot1 or broad-brimmed    
earthen pan1 may be placed over this    
furnace1  and being so fitted to it as  
to close the upper part thereof         
accurately1 and filled with sand1 may   
serve for a sand-heat to distil  with4  
,the bars designed to support distilling
 vessels being taken out1 a  crucible   

may stand therein1 and many operations  
be performed that do  not require the   
utmost violence of fire4 ,in a word1    
this furnace is one  of the most        
commodious that can be1 and more        
extensively useful than  any other4     
,the ,melting furnace is designed for   
applying the greatest force of  heat to 
the most fixed bodies1 such as metals   
and earths4 ,it is never  employed in   
distilling3 it is of no use but for     
calcination and fusion2  and            
consequently need not admit any vessels 
but crucibles4    ,the ash-hole of this 
furnace differs from that of the        
reverberating  furnace only in this1    
that it must be higher1 in order to     
raise the  fire-place to a level with   
the artist's hand2 because in that all  
the operations of this furnace are      
performed4 ,the ash-hole therefore  must
 be about three feet high3 and this     
heighth procures it moreover  the       
advantage of a good draught of air4 ,for
 the same reason1 and in  consequence of

 the principles we laid down1 it should 
be so built that  its width lessening   
insensibly from the bottom to the top1  
it may be  narrower where it opens into 
the fire-place than any where below4    
,the ash-hole is terminated at its upper
 end1 like that of the  reverberating   
furnace1 by a grate1 which serves for   
the bottom of  the fire-place1 and ought
 to be very substantial1 that it may    
resist  the violence of the fire4 ,the  
inside of this furnace is commonly an   
elliptic curve2 because it is           
demonstrated by mathematicians that     
surfaces having that curvature reflect  
the rays of the sun1 or of fire1  in    
such a manner1 that meeting in a point1 
or a line1 they produce  there a violent
 heat4 ,but1 to answer this purpose1    
those surfaces must  be finely polished2
 an advantage hardly procurable to the  
internal  surface of this furnace1 which
 can be made of nothing but earth3      
besides1 if it were possible to give it 
a polish1 the violent action of  the    

fire that must be employed in this      
furnace would presently destroy  it4    
,yet the elliptical figure must not be  
entirely disregarded3 for1  if care be  
taken to keep the internal surface of   
the furnace as smooth  as possible1 it  
will certainly reflect the heat pretty  
strongly1 and  collect it about the     
center4    ,the fire-place of this      
furnace ought to have but four          
apertures4    ,first1 that of the lower 
grate1 which communicates with the      
ash-hole4    ,secondly1 a door in its   
fore-side1 through which may be         
introduced  coals1 crucibles1 and tongs 
for managing them3 this aperture should 
be  made to shut exactly with a plate of
 iron1 having its inside coated  with   
earth1 and turning on two hinges fixed  
to the furnace4    ,thirdly1 over this  
door a hole slanting downwards1 towards 
the place  where the crucible is to     
stand4 ,the use of this hole is to give 
the  operator an opportunity of         
examining the condition of the matters  

contained in his crucible without       
opening the door of the fire-place3     
this hole should be made to open and    
shut easily1 by means of a stopple  of  
earth4    ,fourthly1 a circular aperture
 of about three inches wide in the upper
  part or vault of the furnace1 which   
should gradually lessen and  terminate1 
like that of the dome of the            
reverberating furnace1 in a  short      
conical funnel of about three inches    
long1 and fitted to enter  the conical  
pipe before described1 which is applied 
when the activity  of the fire is to be 
increased4    ,when this furnace is to  
be used1 and a crucible to be placed in 
it1  care must be taken to set on the   
grate a cake of baked earth1 somewhat   
broader than the foot of the crucible4  
,the use of this stand is to  support   
the crucible1 and raise it above the    
grate1 for which purpose  it should be  
two inches thick4 ,were it not for this 
precaution the  bottom of the crucible1 
which would stand immediately on the    

grate1  could never be thoroughly       
heated1 because it would be always      
exposed to  the stream of cold air which
 enters by the ash-hole4 ,care should   
also  be taken to heat this earthen     
bottom red-hot before it be placed in   
the  furnace1 in order to free it from  
any humidity1 which might otherwise     
happen to be driven against the crucible
 during the operation1 and  occasion its
 breaking4    ,we omitted to take       
notice1 in speaking of the ash-hole1    
that1 besides  its door1 it should have 
about the middle of its heighth a small 
hole1  capable of receiving the nosel of
 a good perpetual bellows1 which is  to 
be introduced into it and worked1 after 
the door is exactly shut1  when it is   
thought proper to excite the activity of
 the fire to the  utmost violence4 ,the 
,forge is only a mass of bricks of about
 three  feet high1 along whose upper    
surface is directed the nose or pipe of 
a  pair of large perpetual bellows1 so  
placed that the operator may easily     

blow the fire with one hand4 ,the coals 
are laid on the hearth of the  forge    
near the nose of the bellows2 they are  
confined1 if necessary1  to prevent     
their being carried away by the wind of 
the bellows1 within  a space inclosed by
 bricks2 and then by pulling the bellows
 the fire  is continually kept up in its
 greatest activity4 ,the forge is of use
  when there is occasion to apply a     
great degree of heat suddenly to any    
substance1 or when it is necessary that 
the operator be at liberty to  handle   
frequently the matters which he proposes
 to fuse or calcine4    ,the ,cupelling 
furnace is that in which gold and silver
 are purified1 by  the means of lead1   
from all alloy of other metallic        
substances4 ,this  furnace must give a  
heat strong enough to vitrify lead1 and 
therewith  all the alloy which the      
perfect metals may contain4 ,this       
furnace is to  be built in the following
 manner4    ,first1 of thick iron       
plates1 or of some such composition of  

earth as we  recommended for the        
construction of furnaces1 must be formed
 a hollow  quadrangular prism1 whose    
sides may be about a foot broad1 and    
from ten  to eleven inches high2 and    
extending from thence upwards may       
converge  towards the top1 so as to form
 a pyramid truncated at the heighth of  
seven or eight inches1 and terminated by
 an aperture of the width  of seven or  
eight inches every way4 ,the lower part 
of the prism is  terminated1 and closed1
 by a plate of the same materials of    
which the  furnace is constructed4      
,secondly1 in the fore-side or front of 
this prism there is an opening  of three
 or four inches in heighth1 by five or  
six inches in breadth3  this opening1   
which should be very near the bottom1 is
 the door of the  ash-hole4 ,immediately
 over this opening is placed an iron    
grate1 the  bars of which are           
quadrangular prisms of half an inch     
square1 laid  parallel to each other1   
and about eight or nine inches asunder1 

and  so disposed that two of their      
angles are laterally opposite1 the two  
others looking one directly upwards and 
the other downwards4 ,as in this        
situation the bars of the grate present 
to the fire-place very oblique          
surfaces1 the ashes and very small coals
 do not accumulate between  them1 or    
hinder the free entrance of the air from
 the ash-hole4 ,this  grate terminates  
the ash-hole at its upper part1 and     
serves for the  bottom of the           
fire-place4    ,thirdly1 three inches1  
or three and a half1 above the grate1   
there is  in the fore-side of the       
furnace another opening1 terminated by  
an arch  for its upper part1 which      
consequently has the figure of a        
semi-circle3  it ought to be four inches
 wide at bottom1 and three inches and an
 half  high at its middle4 ,this opening
 is the door of the fire-place2 yet  it 
is not intended for the same uses as the
 door of the fire-place in  other       
furnaces3 the purpose for which it is   

actually destined shall  be explained   
when we come to shew how the furnace is 
to be used4 ,an  inch above the door of 
the fire-place1 still in the fore-side  
of the  furnace1 are two holes of about 
an inch diameter1 and at the distance   
of three inches and a half from each    
other1 to which answer two other  holes 
of the same size1 made in the hinder    
part1 directly opposite to  these4      
,there is1 moreover1 a fifth hole of the
 same width about an inch  above the    
door of the fire-place4 ,the design of  
all these holes shall  be explained when
 we describe the manner in which these  
furnaces are to  be used4    ,fourthly1 
the fore-part of the furnace is bound by
 three iron braces1  one of which is    
fixed just below the door of the        
ash-hole2 the second  occupies the whole
 space between the ash-hole door and the
 door of  the fire-place1 and has two   
holes in it1 answering to those which we
  directed to be made in the furnace    
itself about this place2 and the  third 

is placed immediately over the door of  
the fire-place4 ,these  braces must     
extend from one corner of the front of  
the furnace to the  other1 and be       
fastened thereto with iron pins1 in such
 a manner that  their sides next to the 
doors may not lie quite close to the    
body of  the furnace1 but form a kind of
 grooves for the iron plates to slide   
in1 that are designed to shut the two   
doors of the furnace when it is         
necessary4 ,each of these iron plates   
should have a handle1 by which it  may  
be conveniently moved2 and to each door 
there should be two plates1  which      
meeting each other1 and joining exactly 
in the middle of the  door-place1 may   
shut it very close4 ,each of the two    
plates belonging  to the door of the    
fire-place ought to have a hole in its  
upper part2  one of these holes should  
be a slit of about two lines wide1 and  
half  an inch long2 the other may be a  
semi-circular opening of one inch  in   
heighth and two in breadth4 ,these holes

 should be placed so that  neither of   
them may open into the fire-place when  
the two plates are  joined together in  
the middle of the door to shut it close4
    ,fifthly1 to terminate the furnace  
above1 there must be a pyramid formed   
of the same materials with the furnace1 
hollow1 quadrangular1 three  inches high
 on a base of seven inches1 which base  
must exactly fit  the upper opening of  
the furnace3 the top of this pyramidal  
cover must  end in a tube of three      
inches in diameter and two in heighth1  
which  must be almost cylindrical1 and  
yet a little inclining to the conical   
form4 ,this tube serves1 as in the      
furnaces already described1 to carry    
the conical funnel1 which is fitted to  
the upper part when a fire of           
extraordinary activity is wanted4       
,the furnace thus constructed is fit to 
serve all the purposes for  which it is 
designed3 yet before it can be used     
another piece must be  provided1 which1 
though it does not properly belong to   

the furnace1 is  nevertheless necessary 
in all the operations performed by it2  
and that  is a piece contrived to       
contain the cupels1 or other vessels    
which are  to be exposed to the fire in 
this furnace4 ,it is called a ,muffle1  
and  is made in the following manner4   
,on an oblong square1 of four inches in 
breadth1 and six or seven in  length1 a 
concave semi-cylinder is erected1 in the
 form of a vault1  which makes a        
semi-circular canal1 open at both ends4 
,one of these  is almost entirely       
closed1 except that near the bottom two 
small  semi-circular holes are left4 ,in
 each of its sides likewise two such    
holes are made1 and the other end is    
left quite open4    ,the ,muffle is     
intended to bear and communicate the    
fiercest heat2 and  therefore it must be
 made thin1 and of an earth that will   
resist the  violence of fire1 such as   
that of which crucibles are made4 ,the  
,muffle  being thus constructed1 and    
then well baked1 is fit for use4        

,when it is to be used it must be put   
into the furnace by the upper  opening1 
and set upon two iron bars1 introduced  
through the holes  made for that purpose
 below the door of the fire-place4 ,the 
,muffle  must be placed on these bars in
 the fire-place in such a manner that   
its open end shall stand next to1 and   
directly against the door of  the       
fire-place1 and may be joined to it with
 lute4 ,then the cupels  are ranged in  
it1 and the furnace is filled up1 to the
 heighth of two  or three inches above  
the ,muffle1 with small coals not bigger
 than  a walnut1 to the end that they   
may lie close round the ,muffle1 and    
procure it an equal heat on every side4 
,the chief use of the ,muffle  is to    
prevent the coals and ashes from falling
 into the cupels1 which  would be very  
prejudicial to the operations carrying  
on in them3  for the lead would not     
vitrify as it ought1 because the        
immediate  contact of the coals would   
continually restore its phlogiston2 or  

else the glass of lead1 which ought to  
penetrate and pass through the  cupels1 
would be rendered incapable of so doing2
 because the ashes  mixing therewith    
would give it such a consistence and    
tenacity as  would destroy that         
property1 or at least considerably      
lessen it4 ,the  openings1 therefore1   
which are left in the lower part of the 
,muffle1  should not be so high as to   
admit coals or ashes to get into the    
cupels2 the use of them is to procure an
 easier passage for the heat  and the   
air to those vessels4 ,the ,muffle is   
left quite open in its  fore-part1 that 
the operator may be at liberty to       
examine what passes  in the cupels1 to  
stir their contents1 to remove them from
 one place  to another1 to convey new   
matters into them1 c4 and also to       
promote  the free access of the air1    
which must concur with the fire towards 
the  evaporation necessary to the       
vitrification of lead2 which air1 if    
fresh  were not often enough admitted1  

would be incapable of producing that    
effect2 because it would soon be loaded 
with such a quantity of vapours  that it
 could not take up any more4    ,the    
government of the fire in this furnace  
is founded on the general  principles   
above laid down for all furnaces4 ,yet  
as there are some  little differences1  
and as it is very essential to the      
success of the  operations for which    
this furnace is intended1 that the      
artist should  be absolutely master of  
his degree of heat1 we shall in few     
words shew  how that may be raised or   
lowered4    ,when the furnace is filled 
with coals and kindled1 if the door of  
the  ash-hole be set wide open1 and that
 of the fire-place shut very close1  the
 force of the fire is increased2 and if1
 moreover1 the pyramidal  cover be put  
on the top1 and the conical funnel added
 to it1 the fire  will become still more
 fierce4    ,seeing the matters         
contained in this furnace are           
encompassed with fire  on all sides1    

except in the fore-part opposite to the 
door of the  fire-place1 and as there   
are occasions which require that the    
force  of the fire should be applied to 
this part also1 an iron box1 of the     
shape and size of the door1 hath been   
contrived to answer that purpose4  ,this
 box is filled with lighted coals1 and  
applied immediately to the  door-place1 
by which means the heat there is        
considerably augmented4  ,this help may 
be made use of at the beginning of the  
operation1 in  order to accelerate it1  
and bring the heat sooner to the desired
  degree2 or in case a very fierce heat 
be required2 or at a time when  the air 
being hot and moist will not make the   
fire burn with the  necessary vigour4   
,the heat may be lessened by removing   
the iron box1 and shutting the  door of 
the fire-place quite close4 ,it may be  
still further and  gradually diminished1
 by taking off the conical funnel from  
the top2 by  shutting the door of the   
fire-place with one of its plates only1 

that  which has the least1 or that which
 has the greatest aperture in it2 by    
taking off the pyramidal cover2 by      
shutting the ash-hole door wholly or  in
 part2 and1 lastly1 by setting the door 
of the fire-place wide open3  but1 in   
this last case1 the cold air penetrates 
into the cavity of the  ,muffle1 and    
refrigerates the cupels more than is    
almost ever necessary4  ,if it be       
observed1 during the operation1 that the
 ,muffle grows cold  in any particular  
part1 it is a sign there is a vacuity   
left by the  coals in that place3 in    
this case an iron wire must be thrust   
into the  furnace1 through the hole     
which is over the door of the           
fire-place1 and  the coals stirred      
therewith1 so as to make them fall into 
their places  and fill up the vacant    
interstices4    ,it is proper to        
observe1 that1 besides what has been    
said concerning  the ways of increasing 
the activity of the fire in the         
cupelling  furnace1 several other causes

 also may concur to procure to the      
matters  contained in the ,muffle a     
greater degree of heat3 for example1 the
  smaller the ,muffle is1 the wider and 
more numerous the holes in it are2  the 
nearer to its bottom1 or further end1   
the cupels are placed1 the  more will   
the matters therein contained be        
affected with heat4    ,besides the     
operations to be performed by the cupel1
 this furnace  is very useful1 and even 
necessary1 for many chymical            
experiments2  such1 for instance1 as    
those relating to sundry vitrifications 
and  enamelling4 ,as it is pretty low1  
the best way is to place it1 when it  is
 to be used1 on a base of brick-work    
that may raise it to a level  with the  
operator's hand4    ,a ,lamp-furnace is 
exceeding useful for all operations that
 require  only a moderate1 but          
long-continued1 degree of heat4 ,the    
furnace for  working with a lamp-heat is
 very simple3 it consists only of a     
hollow  cylinder1 from fifteen to       

eighteen inches high1 and five or six in
  diameter1 having at its bottom an     
aperture large enough for a lamp to  be 
introduced and withdrawn with ease4 ,the
 lamp must have three or four  wicks1 to
 the end that by lighting more or fewer 
of them a greater  or less degree of    
heat may be produced4 ,the body of the  
furnace must  moreover have several     
small holes in it1 in order to supply   
the flame  of the lamp with air enough  
to keep it alive4    ,on the top of this
 furnace stands a bason five or six     
inches deep1  which ought to fill the   
cavity of the cylinder exactly1 and to  
be  supported at its circumference by a 
rim which may entirely cover and  close 
the furnace3 the use of this bason is to
 contain the sand through  which the    
lamp-heat is usually conveyed4          
,besides this1 there must be a kind of  
cover or dome made of the same  material
 with the furnace1 and of the same      
diameter with the sand-bath1  without   
any other opening than a hole1 nearly   

circular1 cut in its  lower extremity4  
,this dome is a sort of reverberatory1  
which serves  to confine the heat and   
direct it towards the body of the       
retort2 for  it is used only when       
something is to be distilled in a vessel
 of this  fashion2 and then the hole at 
its bottom serves for a passage to the  
neck of the retort4 ,this dome should   
have an ear or handle1 for the          
conveniency of putting it on and taking 
it off with ease4      ,of ,lutes4      
,chymical vessels1 especially such as   
are made of glass1 and the earthen      
vessels commonly called stone-ware1 are 
very subject to break when  exposed to  
sudden heat or cold3 whence it comes1   
that they often crack  when they begin  
to heat1 and also when being very hot   
they happen to be  cooled1 either by    
fresh coals thrown into the furnace1 or 
by the access  of cold air4 ,there is no
 way to prevent the former of these     
accidents1  but by taking the pains to  
warm your vessel very slowly1 and by    

almost  insensible degrees4 ,the second 
may be avoided by coating the body of   
the vessel with a paste or lute1 which  
being dried will defend it  against the 
attacks of cold4    ,the fittest stuff  
for coating vessels is a composition of 
fat earth1  ,windsor-loam1 fine sand1   
filings of iron1 or powdered glass1 and 
chopped cow's hair1 mixed and made into 
a paste with water4 ,this lute  serves  
also to defend glass vessels against the
 violence of the fire1  and to prevent  
their melting easily4    ,in almost all 
distillations it is of great            
consequence1 as hath been  said1 that   
the neck of the distilling vessel be    
exactly joined with  that of the        
receiver into which it is introduced1 in
 order to prevent  the vapours from     
escaping into the air and so being lost3
 and this  junction is effected by means
 of a lute4    ,a few slips of paper    
applied round the neck of the vessels   
with common  size will be sufficient to 
keep in such vapours as are aqueous or  

not  very spirituous4    ,if the vapours
 are more acrid1 or more spirituous1    
recourse may be had  to slips of bladder
 long steeped in water1 which containing
 a sort of  natural glue1 close the     
junctures of the vessels very well4     
,if it be required to confine vapours of
 a still more penetrating  nature1 it   
will be proper to employ a lute that    
quickly grows very  hard2 particularly a
 paste made with quick-lime and any sort
 of jelly1  whether vegetable or animal2
 such as the white of an egg1 stiff     
size1  c4 ,this is an excellent lute1   
and not easily penetrated4 ,it is also  
used to stop any cracks or fractures    
that happen to glass vessels4 ,but  it  
is not capable of resisting the vapours 
of mineral acid spirits1  especially    
when they are strong and smoking3 for   
that purpose it is  necessary to        
incorporate the other ingredients       
thoroughly with fat  earth softened with
 water2 and even then it frequently     
happens that  this lute is penetrated by

 acid vapours1 especially those of the  
spirit  of salt1 which of all others are
 confined with the greatest difficulty4 
,in such cases its place may be supplied
 with another1 which is called  ,fat    
,lute1 because it is actually worked up 
with fat liquors4 ,this  lute is        
composed of a very fine cretaceous      
earth1 called tobacco-pipe  clay1       
moistened with equal parts of the drying
 oil of lint-seed1 and a  varnish made  
of amber and gum copal4 ,it must have   
the consistence of  a stiff paste4 ,when
 the joints of the vessels are closed up
 with this  lute1 they may1 for greater 
security1 be covered over with slips of 
linen smeared with the lute made of     
quick-lime and the white of an egg4     
,chymical vessels are liable to be      
broken in an operation by other  causes 
besides the sudden application of heat  
or cold4 ,it frequently  happens1 that  
the vapours of the matters exposed to   
the action of fire  rush out with such  
impetuosity1 and are so elastic1 that1  

finding no  passage through the lute    
with which the joints of the vessels are
  closed1 they burst the vessels        
themselves1 sometimes with explosion and
  danger to the operator4    ,to prevent
 this inconvenience1 it is necessary    
that in every receiver  there be a small
 hole1 which being stopped only with a  
little lute may  easily be opened and   
shut again as occasion requires4 ,it    
serves for a  vent-hole to let out the  
vapours1 when the receiver begins to be 
too  much crowded with them4 ,nothing   
but practice can teach the artist when  
it is requisite to open this vent4 ,if  
he hits the proper time1 the  vapours   
commonly rush out with rapidity1 and a  
considerable hissing  noise2 and the    
vent should be stopped again as soon as 
the hissing  begins to grow faint4 ,the 
lute employed to stop this small hole   
ought  always to be kept so ductile1    
that1 by taking the figure of the hole  
exactly1 it may entirely stop it4       
,besides1 if it should harden upon the  

glass1 it would stick so fast that it   
would be very difficult to remove  it   
without breaking the vessel4 ,this      
danger is easily avoided by making  use 
of the fat lute1 which continues pliant 
for a long time1 when it is  not exposed
 to an excessive heat4    ,this way of  
stopping the vent-hole of the receiver  
has yet another  advantage3 for if the  
hole be of a proper width1 as a line and
 half1 or  two lines1 in diameter1 then1
 when the vapours are accumulated in too
  great a quantity1 and begin to make a 
great effort against the sides of  the  
receiver1 they push up the stopple1     
force it out1 and make their  way       
through the vent-hole3 so that1 by this 
means1 the breaking of the  vessels may 
always be certainly prevented4 ,but     
great care must be taken  that the      
vapours be not suffered to escape in    
this manner1 except when  absolute      
necessity requires it2 for it is        
generally the very strongest  and most  
subtile part of a liquor which is thus  

dissipated and lost4    ,heat being the 
chief cause that puts the elasticity of 
the vapours in  action1 and prevents    
their condensing into a liquor1 it is of
 great  consequence in distillation that
 the receiver be kept as cool as        
possible4 ,with this view a thick plank 
should be placed between the  receiver  
and the body of the furnace1 to         
intercept the heat of the  latter1 and  
prevent its reaching the former4 ,as the
 vapours themselves  rise very hot from 
the distilling vessel1 they soon        
communicate their  heat to the receiver1
 and especially to its upper part1      
against which  they strike first4 ,for  
this reason it is proper that linen     
cloths1 dipt  in very cold water1 be    
laid over the receiver1 and frequently  
shifted4  ,by this means the vapours    
will be considerably cooled1 their      
elasticity  weakened1 and their         
condensation promoted4    ,by what hath 
been said in this first part1 concerning
 the properties  of the principal agents

 in ,chymistry1 the construction of the 
most  necessary vessels and furnaces1   
and the manner of using them1 we are    
sufficiently prepared for proceeding    
directly to the operations1  without    
being obliged to make frequent and long 
stops1 in order to give  the necessary  
explanations on those heads4            
,nevertheless1 we shall take every      
proper occasion to extend the  theory   
here laid down1 and to improve it by the
 addition of several  particulars1 which
 will find their places in our ,treatise
 of ,chymical  ,operations4             
,,elements      ,,of ,,the              
,,practice ,,of ,,chymistry2            
,,wherein      ,the ,fundamental        
,operations are described1 and          
illustrated by ,observations on each    
,process4      ,illustration3           
,decorative ,scroll                     
,,elements    ,,of ,,the    ,,practice  
,,of ,,chymistry4                       
,,introduction4      ,,as the ,elements 
of the ,theory of ,chymistry1 delivered 

in the former  part of this work1 were  
intended for the use of persons supposed
 to be  altogether unacquainted with the
 art1 they could not properly admit of  
any thing more than fundamental         
principles1 so disposed as constantly   
to lead from the simple to the compound1
 from things known to things  unknown3  
for which reason ,i could not therein   
observe the usual order  of ,chymical   
,decomposition1 which is not susceptible
 of such a method4  ,i therefore        
supposed all the analyses made1 and     
bodies reduced to  their simplest       
principles2 to the end that1 by         
observing the chief  properties of those
 primary elements1 we might be enabled  
to trace them  through their several    
combinations1 and to form some sort of  
judgment  a priori of the qualities of  
such compounds as may result from their 
junctions4    ,but this latter part is  
of a different nature4 ,it is a         
practical  ,treatise1 intended to       
contain the manner of performing the    

principal  ,operations of ,chymistry2   
the operations which serve as standards 
for  regulating all the rest1 and which 
confirm the fundamental truths laid     
down in the ,theory4    ,as these       
operations consist almost wholly of     
analyses and  decompositions1 there can 
be no doubt concerning the order proper 
to  be observed in giving an account of 
them3 it evidently coincides with  that 
of the analysis itself4    ,but as all  
bodies1 which are the subjects of       
,chymical operations1  are divided by   
nature into three classes or kingdoms1  
the mineral1  the vegetable1 and the    
animal1 the analysis thereof may        
naturally be  divided into three        
branches3 some difference may also arise
 from the  different order in which     
these three may be treated of4    ,as   
the reasons assigned for beginning with 
one kingdom rather than with  another   
have never been thoroughly canvassed1   
and may perhaps seem  equally good when 
viewed in a particular light1 ,chymical 

writers differ  in their opinions on    
this point4 ,for my part1 without       
entering into  a discussion of the      
motives which have determined others to 
follow a  different order1 ,i shall only
 produce the reasons that led me to     
begin  with the mineral kingdom1 to     
examine the vegetable in the second     
place1  and to conclude with the animal4
    ,first1 then1 seeing vegetables draw
 their nourishment from minerals1  and  
animals derive theirs from vegetables1  
the bodies which constitute  these three
 kingdoms seem to be generated the one  
by the other1 in a  manner that         
determines their natural rank4          
,secondly1 this disposition procures us 
the advantage of tracing the            
principles1 from their source in the    
mineral kingdom1 down to the  last      
combinations into which they are capable
 of entering1 that is1  into animal     
matters2 and of observing the successive
 alterations they  undergo in passing   
out of one kingdom into another4        

,thirdly and lastly1 ,i look upon the   
analysis of minerals to be the  easiest 
of all2 not only because they consist of
 fewer principles than  vegetables and  
animals1 but also because almost all of 
them are capable  of enduring the most  
violent action of fire1 when that is    
necessary to  their decomposition1      
without any considerable change or      
diminution of  their principles1 to     
which those of other substances are     
frequently  liable4    ,besides1 ,i am  
not singular in this distribution of the
 three classes  of bodies1 which are the
 subjects of the chymical analysis3 as  
it is  the most natural1 it has been    
adopted by several authors1 or rather by
  most who have published ,treatises of 
,chymistry4 ,but there is something     
peculiarly my own in the manner wherein 
,i have treated the analysis of  each   
kingdom4 ,in the mineral kingdom1 for   
instance1 will be found a  considerable 
number of operations not to be met with 
in other ,treatises  of ,chymistry2 the 

authors having probably considered them 
as useless1  or in some measure foreign1
 to the purpose of ,elementary ,books1  
and  as constituting together a distinct
 art4 ,i mean the processes for         
extracting saline and metallic          
substances from the minerals containing 
them4    ,yet1 if it be considered that 
salts1 metals1 and semi-metals are  far 
from being produced by nature in a state
 of perfection1 or in  that degree of   
purity which they are commonly supposed 
to have when  they are first treated of 
in ,books of ,chymistry2 but that1 on   
the  contrary1 these substances are     
originally blended with each other1 and 
adulterated with mixtures of            
heterogeneous matters1 wherewith they   
form  compound minerals2 ,i imagine it  
will be allowed1 that the operations by 
which these minerals are decomposed1 in 
order to extract the metals1            
semi-metals1 and other simpler          
substances1 especially as they are      
founded on the most curious properties  

of these substances1 are so  far from   
being useless or foreign to the purposes
 of an ,elementary  ,treatise1 that they
 are1 on the contrary1 absolutely       
necessary thereto4    ,after ,i had made
 these reflections1 ,i could not help   
thinking that  an analysis of minerals1 
which should treat of saline and        
metallic  substances1 without taking any
 notice of the manner in which their    
matrices must be analysed1 in order to  
extract them1 would be no less          
defective than a treatise of the        
analysis of vegetables1 in which ,oils1 
essential ,salts1 fixed and volatile    
,alkalis1 should be amply treated  of1  
without saying one word of the manner of
 analysing the plants from  which these 
several substances are obtained4 ,i     
therefore thought myself  indispensably 
obliged to describe the manner of       
decomposing every ore  or mineral1      
before ,i attempted to treat of the     
saline or metallic  substance which it  
yields4    ,for example3 as the         

,vitriolic ,acid1 with the consideration
 of which ,i  begin my ,mineral         
,analysis1 is originally contained in   
,vitriol1 ,sulphur1  and ,alum2 and as  
these substances again derive their     
origin from the  sulphureous and        
ferruginous ,pyrites1 the first         
operations ,i describe  under this head 
are the processes for decomposing the   
,pyrites in order  to extract its       
,vitriol1 ,sulphur1 and ,alum4 ,i then  
proceed to the  particular analysis of  
each of these substances1 with a view to
 extract  their ,vitriolic ,acid2 and   
afterwards deliver1 in their order1 the 
other  operations usually performed on  
this ,acid4 ,thus it appears1 that this 
saline substance occasions my describing
 the analyses of the ,pyrites1          
,vitriol1 ,sulphur1 and ,alum4 ,the     
whole of the ,treatise on ,minerals     
proceeds on the same plan4    ,the      
operations by which we decompose ores   
and minerals are of two  sorts3 those   
employed in working by the great1 and   

those for trying  in small the yield of 
any ore4 ,these two manners of operating
 are  sometimes a little different2 yet 
in the main they are the same1  because 
they are founded on the same principles1
 and produce the same  effects4    ,as  
my chief design was to describe the     
operations that may be  conveniently    
performed in a laboratory1 ,i have      
preferred the processes  for small      
assays3 especially as they are usually  
performed with more  care and accuracy  
than the operations in great works3 and 
here ,i must  acknowledge1 that ,i am   
obliged to ,m4 ,cramer's ,docimasia1 or 
,art  of ,assaying1 for all the         
operations of this kind in my analysis  
of  minerals4 ,as ,m4 ,hellot's work on 
that subject did not appear till after  
,i had finished this1 ,m4 ,cramer's     
,docimasia1 in which sound ,theory is   
joined with accurate practice1 was the  
best book of the kind ,i could  at that 
time consult4 ,i therefore preferred it 
to all others2 and as ,i  have not      

quoted it in my analysis of minerals1   
because the quotations  would have been 
too frequent1 let what ,i say here serve
 for a general  quotation4 ,i have been 
careful to name1 as often as occasion   
required1  the other authors whose      
processes ,i have borrowed3 it is a     
tribute  justly due to those who have   
communicated their discoveries to the   
public4    ,though ,i have told the     
reader that in my analysis of minerals  
he will  find the processes for         
extracting out of each the saline or    
metallic  substances contained in it1   
yet he must not expect that this book   
will instruct him in all that is        
necessary he should know to be able  to 
determine1 by an accurate assay1 the    
contents of every mineral4  ,my         
intention was not to compose a ,treatise
 of ,assaying2 and ,i have  taken in no 
more than was absolutely necessary to   
make the analysis  of minerals perfectly
 understood1 and to render it as        
complete as it  ought to be in an       

,elementary ,treatise4 ,i have therefore
 described only  the principal          
operations relating thereto2 the        
operations which are  fundamental1 and  
which1 as ,i said before1 are to serve  
as standards  for the rest1 abstracted  
from such additional circumstances as   
are of  consequence only to the ,art of 
,assaying1 properly so called4    ,such 
therefore as are desirous of being fully
 instructed in that ,art1  must have    
recourse to those works which treat     
professedly of the  subject2 and        
particularly to that published by ,m4   
,hellot3 a performance  most esteemed by
 such as are best skilled in ,chymistry1
 and rendered  so complete by the       
numerous and valuable observations and  
discoveries  of the ,author1 that       
nothing better of the kind can be wished
 for4 ,i  thought it proper to give     
these notices in relation to my analysis
 of  minerals2 and shall now proceed to 
shew the plan of my analyses of         
vegetables and of animals4    ,seeing   

all vegetable matters are susceptible of
 fermentation1 and when  analysed after 
fermentation1 yield principles different
 from those we  obtain from them before 
they are fermented1 ,i have divided them
 into  two classes2 the former including
 vegetables in their natural state1     
before they have undergone fermentation2
 and the latter those only  which have  
been fermented4 ,this analysis opens    
with the processes  by which we extract 
from vegetables all the principles they 
will  yield without the help of fire3   
and then follow the operations for      
decomposing plants by degrees of heat1  
from the gentlest to the most  violent1 
both in close vessels1 and in the open  
air4    ,i have not made the same       
division in the animal kingdom1 because 
the  substances that compose it are     
susceptible only of the last degree of  
fermentation1 or putrefaction2 and      
moreover the principles they yield1     
whether putrefied or unputrefied1 are   
the very same1 and differ only  with    

regard to their proportions1 and the    
order in which they are  extricated     
during the analysis4    ,i begin this   
analysis with an examination of the milk
 of animals that  feed wholly on        
vegetables2 because1 though this        
substance be elaborated  in the body of 
the animal1 and by that means brought   
nearer to the  nature of animal matters1
 yet it still retains a great similitude
  to the vegetables from which it       
derives its origin1 and is a sort  of   
intermediate substance between the      
vegetable and animal4 ,then ,i  proceed 
to the analysis of animal matters       
properly so called1 those  which        
actually make a part of the animal body4
 ,i next examine the  excrementitious   
substances1 that are thrown out of the  
animal body as  superfluous and useless4
 ,and then ,i conclude this latter part 
with  operations on the ,volatile       
,alkali2 a saline substance of principal
  consideration in the decomposition of 
animal matters4    ,though1 in the      

general view here given of the order    
observed in this  ,treatise of          
,practical ,chymistry1 ,i have mentioned
 only such processes  as serve for      
analysing bodies1 yet ,i have also      
inserted some other  operations of      
different kinds4 ,the book would be very
 defective if  it contained no more3 for
 the design of ,chymistry is not only to
  analyse the mixts produced by nature1 
in order to obtain the simplest         
substances of which they are composed1  
but moreover to discover by  sundry     
experiments the properties of those     
elementary principles1 and  to recombine
 them in various manners1 either with   
each other1 or with  different bodies1  
so as to reproduce the original mixts   
with all their  properties1 or even form
 new compounds which never existed in   
nature4  ,in this book therefore the    
reader will find processes for combining
  and recompounding1 as well as for     
resolving and decomposing bodies4 ,i    
have placed them next to the processes  

for decomposition1 taking all  possible 
care not to interrupt their order1 or   
break the connection  between them4     
,,part ,i4    ,,of ,,minerals4          
,,section ,i4    ,operations performed  
on ,saline ,mineral ,substances4        
,,chap4 ,i4    ,of the ,,vitriolic      
,,acid4      ,,process ,i4    ,to       
extract ,vitriol from the ,pyrites4     
,take any quantity you please of ,iron  
,pyrites2 leave them for some time      
exposed to the air3 they will crack1    
split1 lose their brightness1 and  fall 
into powder4 ,put this powder into a    
glass cucurbit1 and pour upon  it twice 
its weight of hot water2 stir the whole 
with a stick1 and the  liquor will grow 
turbid4 ,pour it1 while it is yet warm1 
into a glass  funnel lined with brown   
filtering paper2 and having placed your 
funnel  over another glass cucurbit1 let
 the liquor drain into it4 ,pour more   
hot water on the powdered ,pyrites1     
filter as before1 and so go on1  every  
time lessening the quantity of water1   

till that which comes off  the ,pyrites 
appears to have no astringent vitriolic 
taste4    ,put all these waters together
 into a glass vessel that widens        
upwards2  set it on a sand-bath1 and    
heat the liquor till a considerable     
smoke  arises2 but take care not to make
 it boil4 ,continue the same degree of  
fire till the surface of the liquor     
begins to look dim1 as if some  dust had
 fallen into it2 then cease evaporating1
 and remove the vessel  into a cool     
place3 in the space of four and twenty  
hours will be formed  therein a quantity
 of crystals1 of a green colour and a   
rhomboidal  figure3 these are ,vitriol  
of ,mars1 or ,copperas4 ,decant the     
remaining  liquor2 add thereto twice its
 weight of water2 filter1 evaporate1 and
  crystallize as before2 repeat these   
operations till the liquor will  yield  
no more crystals1 and keep by themselves
 the crystals obtained at  each         
crystallization4      ,,observations4   
,the ,pyrites are minerals which1 by    

their weight and shining colours1       
frequently impose on such as are not    
well acquainted with ores4 ,at  first   
sight they may be taken for very rich   
ones2 and yet they consist  only of a   
small quantity of metal combined with   
much sulphur or  arsenic1 and sometimes 
with both4    ,they strike fire with a  
steel as flints do1 and emit a          
sulphureous  smell3 so that they may be 
known by this extemporaneous proof4 ,the
  metal most commonly and most          
abundantly found in the ,pyrites is     
iron2  the quantity whereof sometimes   
equals1 or even exceeds1 that of the    
sulphur4 ,besides metallic and          
sulphureous matters1 the ,pyrites       
contain  also some unmetallic earth4    
,there are several sorts of ,pyrites3   
some of them contain only iron and      
arsenic4 ,they have not all the property
 of efflorescing spontaneously  in the  
air1 and turning into vitriol3 none do  
so but such as consist  only of iron and
 sulphur1 or at least contain but a very

 small portion  of copper1 or of        
arsenic3 and even amongst those that are
 composed of  iron and sulphur alone1   
there are some that will continue for   
years  together exposed to the air      
without shooting1 and indeed without    
suffering the least sensible alteration4
    ,the efflorescence of the ,iron     
,pyrites1 and the changes they undergo1 
are phenomena well worth our notice4    
,they depend on the singular  property  
which iron possesses of decomposing     
sulphur by the help of  moisture4 ,if   
very fine iron-filings be accurately    
mingled with flowers  of sulphur1 this  
mixture1 being moistened with water1    
grows very hot1  swells up1 emits       
sulphureous vapours1 and even takes     
fire2 what remains  is found converted  
into ,vitriol of ,mars4 ,on this        
occasion1 therefore1  the sulphur is    
decomposed2 its inflammable part is     
dissipated or  consumed2 its acid       
combines with the iron1 and a ,vitriol  
arises from  that conjunction4    ,this 

is the very case with the ,pyrites that 
consist only of iron  and sulphur2 yet  
some of them1 as we said before1 do not 
effloresce  spontaneously and turn to   
,vitriol4 ,the reason probably is1 that1
 in  such minerals1 the particles of    
iron and sulphur are not intimately     
mixed together1 but separated by some   
earthy particles4    ,in order to       
procure ,vitriol from ,pyrites of this  
kind1 they must be  for some time       
exposed to the action of fire1 which1 by
 consuming part  of their sulphur1 and  
rendering their texture less compact1   
makes way  for the air and moisture1 to 
which they must be afterwards exposed1  
to  penetrate their substance1 and      
produce in them the changes with which  
those others are affected that germinate
 spontaneously4    ,the ,pyrites which  
contain copper and arsenic1 and for that
 reason  do not effloresce1 must        
likewise undergo the action of fire2    
which1  besides the effects it produces 
on ,pyrites that consist of iron and    

sulphur only1 dissipates also the       
greatest part of the arsenic4 ,these    
,pyrites being first roasted1 and then  
exposed to the air for a year or  two1  
do also yield ,vitriol2 but then it is  
not a pure ,vitriol of ,iron1  but is   
combined with a portion of blue         
,vitriol1 the basis of which is         
,copper4    ,sometimes also there is    
,alum in the vitriolic waters drawn off 
the  ,pyrites4 ,it was on account of    
this mixture of different salts that we 
recommended the keeping apart the       
crystals obtained from each different   
crystallization3 for by this means they 
may be examined separately1 and  the    
species to which they belong discovered4
    ,when ,vitriol of ,iron is          
adulterated with a mixture of the       
,vitriol  of ,copper only1 it is easy to
 purify it and bring it to be entirely  
martial1 by dissolving it in water1 and 
setting plates of iron in the  solution3
 for iron having a greater affinity than
 copper with the  vitriolic acid1       

separates the latter from it1 and       
assuming its place  produces a pure     
,vitriol of ,mars4    ,in large works   
for extracting ,vitriol from the        
,pyrites they proceed  thus4 ,they      
collect a great quantity of ,pyrites on 
a piece of ground  exposed to the air1  
and pile them up in heaps of about three
 feet high4  ,there they leave them     
exposed to the action of the air1 sun1  
and rain1  for three years together2    
taking care to turn them every six      
months1  in order to facilitate the     
efflorescence of those which at first   
lay  undermost4 ,the rain-water which   
has washed those ,pyrites is conveyed by
  proper channels into a cistern2 and   
when a sufficient quantity thereof  is  
gathered1 they evaporate it to a        
pellicle in large leaden boilers1       
having first put into it a quantity of  
iron1 some part of which is  dissolved  
by the liquor1 because it contains a    
vitriolic acid that is  not fully       
saturated therewith4 ,when it is        

sufficiently evaporated1 they  draw it  
off into large leaden or wooden coolers1
 and there leave it to  shoot into      
crystals4 ,in these last vessels several
 sticks are placed1  crossing each other
 in all manner of directions1 in order  
to multiply  the surfaces on which the  
crystals may fasten4    ,the ,pyrites   
are not the only minerals from which    
,vitriol may be  procured4 ,all the ores
 of iron and copper that contain sulphur
 may  also be made to yield green or    
blue ,vitriol1 according to the nature  
of each1 by torrefying them1 and leaving
 them long exposed to the air3  but this
 use is seldom made of them1 as there is
 more profit to be got  by extracting   
the metals they contain4 ,besides1 it is
 easier to obtain  ,vitriol from the    
,pyrites than from those other mineral  
substances4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,to 
extract ,sulphur from the ,pyrites1 and 
other sulphureous ,minerals4    ,reduce 
to a coarse powder any quantity of      
yellow ,pyrites1 or other  ,mineral     

containing ,sulphur4 ,put this powder   
into an earthen or glass  retort1 having
 a long wide neck1 and so large a body  
that the matter  may fill but two thirds
 of it4 ,set the retort in a sand-bath  
fixed over  a reverberating furnace3 fit
 to it a receiver half full of water1   
and  so placed that the nose of the     
retort may be about an inch under the   
water3 give a gradual fire1 taking care 
you do not make it so strong as  to melt
 the matter4 ,keep the retort moderately
 red for one hour1 or an  hour and half1
 and then let the vessels cool4         
,almost all the ,sulphur separated by   
this operation from its matrix  will be 
found at the extremity of the neck of   
the retort1 being fixed  there by the   
water4 ,you may get it out either by    
melting it with such a  gentle heat as  
will not set it on fire1 or by breaking 
the neck of the  retort4                
,,observations4    ,of all minerals the 
,pyrites contain the most ,sulphur2     
those especially  which have the colour 

of fine brass1 a regular form1 such as  
round1  cubical1 hexagonal1 and being   
broken present a number of shining      
needles1 all radiating1 as it were1 from
 a center4    ,a very moderate heat is  
sufficient to separate the ,sulphur they
  contain4 ,we directed that the retort 
employed should have a long and  wide   
neck1 with a view to procure a free     
passage for the ,sulphur3 the  water set
 in the receiver detains the ,sulphur1  
fixes it1 and prevents  it from flying  
off2 so that it is unnecessary to close 
the joints of  the vessels4 ,but it is  
proper to take notice1 that whenever you
 use  an apparatus for distilling1 which
 requires the beak of the retort  to be 
under water1 it is of very great        
consequence that the fire be  constantly
 so regulated1 that the retort may not  
cool in the least2  for1 in that case1  
as the rarefied air contained therein   
would be  condensed1 the water in the   
receiver would rise into the retort and 
break it4    ,if in distilling ,sulphur1

 according to the present process1 the  
matter  contained in the retort should  
happen to melt1 the operation would be  
thereby considerably protracted1 and it 
would require a great deal  more time to
 extract all the ,sulphur2 because all  
evaporation is from  the surface only1  
and the matter1 while it remains in a   
coarse powder1  presents a much more    
extensive surface than when it is       
melted4    ,this remark holds with      
regard to all other distillations4 ,any 
quantity  of liquor1 set to distil in   
its fluid state1 will take much more    
time  to rise in vapours1 and pass from 
the retort into the receiver1 than  if  
it be incorporated with some solid body 
reduced to minute parts1 so  that the   
whole shall make a moist powder2 and    
this though the very same  degree of    
fire be applied in both cases4    ,if   
the matter from which it is proposed to 
extract ,sulphur be such as  will melt  
with the degree of fire necessary to    
this operation2 that  is1 with a heat   

which will make the retort but faintly  
red1 it must  be mixed with some        
substance that is not so fusible4 ,very 
pure coarse  sand1 or clean gravel1 may 
be used with success3 but absorbent     
earths  are altogether improper for this
 purpose1 because they will unite with  
the ,sulphur4    ,the sulphureous       
minerals which are most apt to fuse are 
the cupreous  ,pyrites1 or yellow copper
 ores3 common lead ores are also very   
fusible4    ,the ,pyrites are by this   
operation deprived of almost all the    
,sulphur  they contain2 and consequently
 little is left behind1 but the         
particles  of iron and copper1 together 
with a portion of unmetallic earth1     
which  we shall shew how to separate    
from these metals1 when we come to      
treat of them4 ,i say that by this      
operation the ,pyrites are deprived  of 
almost all1 and not entirely of all     
their ,sulphur2 because1 this           
separation being made in close vessels  
only1 there always remains  a certain   

quantity of ,sulphur1 which adheres so  
obstinately to the  metals1 that it     
would be almost impossible to get it all
 out1 even  though a much stronger fire 
than that directed in the process were  
applied for this purpose1 and though    
choice had been1 as it ought to  be1    
made of such ,pyrites1 or other         
sulphureous ,minerals as part most      
easily with their sulphur4 ,nothing but 
a very strong fire in the open  air is  
capable of carrying it wholly off1 or   
consuming it entirely4    ,in several   
places are found great quantities of    
native ,sulphur4 ,the  ,volcanoes abound
 with it1 and people gather it at the   
foot of those  burning mountains4       
,several springs of mineral waters also 
yield  ,sulphur1 and it is sometimes    
found sublimed to the vaulted roofs of  
certain wells1 and among others in one  
at ,aix-la-,chapelle4    ,the ,germans  
and ,italians have large works for      
extracting ,sulphur in  quantities out  
of ,pyrites1 and other minerals which   

abound therewith4  ,the process they    
work by is the same with that here      
delivered2 but with  this difference    
only1 that ,sulphur being but of small  
value they do  not use so many          
precautions4 ,they content themselves   
with putting the  sulphureous minerals  
into large crucibles1 or rather earthen 
cucurbits1  which they place in the     
furnace in such a manner that1 when the 
sulphureous part melts1 it runs into    
vessels filled with water1 and is       
thereby fixed4    ,the ,sulphur         
obtained1 either by distillation or by  
simple fusion1 is  not always pure4     
,when it is obtained by distillation1 if
 the matters from which you  extract it 
contain moreover some other minerals of 
nearly the same  volatility1 such1 for  
instance1 as ,arsenic1 or ,mercury1     
these minerals  will come over with it4 
,this is easily perceived3 for pure     
sublimed  ,sulphur is always of a       
beautiful yellow1 inclining to a lemon  
colour4  ,if it look red1 or have a     

reddish cast1 it is a sign that some    
,arsenic  hath risen along with it4     
,mercury sublimed with ,sulphur likewise
 gives it a red colour2 but  ,sulphur is
 very seldom adulterated with this      
metallic substance3 for  ,arsenic is    
frequently found combined with the      
,pyrites1 and other  sulphureous        
minerals2 whereas1 on the contrary1 we  
very rarely meet  with any ,mercury in  
them4    ,but if ,mercury should happen 
to rise with the ,sulphur in            
distillation1  it may be discovered by  
examining the sublimate2 which1 in that 
case1  will have the properties of      
,cinabar3 on being broken its inside    
will  appear to consist of needles      
adhering laterally to each other2 its   
weight will be very considerable2 and1  
lastly1 the great heat of the  place    
where it is collected will furnish      
another mark to know it by2  for1 as    
,cinabar is less volatile than ,arsenic 
or ,sulphur1 it fastens on  places too  
hot for either ,sulphur or ,arsenic to  

bear4    ,sulphur may also be           
adulterated with such fixed matters1    
either  metallic or earthy1 as it may   
have carried up along with it in the    
distillation1 or as may have been       
sublimed by the ,arsenic1 which has a   
still greater power than ,sulphur to    
volatilize fixed bodies4    ,if you     
desire to free the ,sulphur from most of
 these heterogeneous  matters1 it must  
be put into an earthen cucurbit1 and set
 in a  sand-bath4 ,to the cucurbit must 
be fitted one or more aludels1 and such 
a degree of heat applied as shall but   
just melt the ,sulphur2 which is  much  
less than that necessary to separate the
 ,sulphur from its matrix4  ,as soon as 
the ,sulphur is melted it will sublime  
in lemon-coloured  flowers1 that will   
stick to the insides of the aludels4    
,when nothing more appears to rise with 
this degree of heat1 the vessels  must  
be suffered to cool4 ,at the bottom of  
the cucurbit will be found  a           
sulphureous mass1 containing the        

greatest part of the adventitious       
matters that were mixed with the        
,sulphur1 and more or less red or       
dark-coloured1 according to the nature  
of those matters4    ,when we come to   
treat of ,arsenic and ,mercury1 we shall
 give the methods  of separating        
,sulphur entirely from those metallic   
substances4      ,,process ,,iii4    ,to
 extract ,alum from aluminous ,minerals4
    ,take such minerals as are known or 
suspected to contain ,alum4 ,expose     
them to the air1 that they may          
effloresce4 ,if they remain there a year
  without any sensible change1 calcine  
them1 and then leave them exposed  to   
the air1 till a bit thereof being put on
 the tongue imparts an  astringent      
aluminous taste4    ,when your matters  
are thus prepared1 put them into a      
leaden or glass  vessel2 pour upon them 
thrice their weight of hot water2 boil  
the  liquor2 filter it2 and repeat these
 operations till the earth be so        
edulcorated that the water which comes  

off it hath no taste4 ,mix all  these   
solutions together1 and let them stand  
four and twenty hours1  that the gross  
and earthy parts may settle to the      
bottom2 or else  filter the liquor3 then
 evaporate till it will bear a new-laid 
egg4 ,now  let it cool1 and stand quiet 
four and twenty hours3 in that time some
  crystals will shoot1 which are most   
commonly vitriolic2 for ,alum is  rarely
 obtained by the first crystallization4 
,remove these vitriolic  crystals3 if   
any crystals of ,alum be found amongst  
them1 these must be  dissolved anew1 and
 set to crystallize a second time in    
order to their  purification2 because   
they partake of the nature as well as of
 the  colour of vitriol4 ,by this method
 extract all the ,alum that the liquor  
will yield4    ,if you get no crystals  
of ,alum by this means1 boil your liquor
 again1  and add to it a twentieth part 
of its weight of a strong alkaline      
lixivium1 or a third part of its weight 
of putrefied urine1 or a small  quantity

 of quick-lime4 ,experience and repeated
 trials must teach you  which of these  
three substances is to be preferred1    
according to the  particular nature of  
the mineral on which you are to operate4
 ,keep  your liquor boiling1 and if     
there be any alum in it1 there will     
appear  a white precipitate3 in that    
case let it cool and settle4 ,when the  
white precipitate is entirely fallen1   
decant the clear1 and leave the         
crystals of ,alum to shoot at leisure1  
till the liquor will yield no  more3 it 
will then be exceeding thick4           
,,observations4    ,alum is obtained    
from several sorts of ,minerals4 ,in    
some parts of  ,italy1 and in sundry    
other places1 it effloresces naturally  
on the  surface of the earth4 ,there it 
is swept together with brooms1 and      
thrown into pits full of water4 ,this   
water is impregnated therewith  till it 
can dissolve no more4 ,then it is       
filtered1 and set to evaporate  in large
 leaden vessels2 and when it is         

sufficiently evaporated1 and  ready to  
shoot into crystals1 it is drawn off    
into wooden coolers1 and  there left for
 the salt to crystallize4    ,in        
aluminous soils there are often found   
springs strongly impregnated  with      
,alum3 so that to obtain it1 the water  
need only be evaporated4    ,in the     
country about ,rome there is a very hard
 stone1 which is hewn out  of the quarry
 just like other stones for building2   
this stone yields  a great deal of      
,alum4 ,in order to extract it1 the     
stones are calcined  for twelve or      
fourteen hours2 after which they are    
exposed to the air  in heaps1 and       
carefully watered three or four times   
a-day for forty  days together4 ,in that
 time they begin to effloresce1 and to  
throw out  a reddish matter on their    
surface4 ,then they are boiled in water1
 which  dissolves all the ,alum they    
contain1 and1 being duly evaporated1    
gives  it back in crystals4 ,this is the
 ,alum called ,roman ,alum4    ,several 

sorts of ,pyrites also yield a great    
deal of ,alum4 ,the ,english  have a    
stone of this kind1 which1 in colour1 is
 very like a slate4 ,this  stone        
contains much ,sulphur1 which they get  
rid of by roasting it4  ,after this they
 steep the calcined stone in water1     
which dissolves the  ,alum it contains1 
and to this solution they add a certain 
quantity of a  lye made of the ashes of 
sea-weeds4    ,the ,swedes have a       
,pyrites of a bright golden colour1     
variegated with  silver spots1 from     
which they procure ,sulphur1 ,vitriol1  
and ,alum4 ,they  separate from it the  
,sulphur and the ,vitriol by the methods
 above  prescribed4 ,when the liquor    
which hath yielded ,vitriol is become   
thick1  and no more vitriolic crystals  
shoot in it1 they add an eighth part of 
its weight of putrefied urine1 mixed    
with a lye made of the ashes of  green  
wood4 ,upon this there appears and falls
 to the bottom a copious  red sediment4 
,they decant the liquor from this       

precipitate1 and1 when  it is duly      
evaporated1 find it shoot into beautiful
 crystals of ,alum4    ,what hath been  
said1 concerning the several matrices   
from which ,alum  is obtained1          
sufficiently shews1 that it is seldom   
solitary in the  waters with which      
aluminous subjects have been lixiviated4
 ,it is almost  always accompanied with 
a certain quantity of ,vitriol1 or other
 saline  mineral matters1 which obstruct
 its crystallization1 and prevent its   
being pure4 ,it is with a view to free  
it from these matters1 that the  waters 
impregnated with ,alum are mixed with a 
certain quantity of the  lye of some    
fixed ,alkali1 or with putrefied urine1 
which contains much  volatile ,alkali4  
,these ,alkalis have the property of    
decompounding  all the ,neutral salts   
which have for their basis either an    
absorbent  earth or a metallic          
substance2 and such as have a metallic  
substance  for their basis more readily 
than those whose basis is an earth4     

,consequently1 if they are mixed with a 
liquor in which both these sorts  of    
salts are dissolved1 they must          
decompound that sort whose basis is     
metallic sooner than the other whose    
basis is an earth4 ,this is what  comes 
to pass in a solution of ,alum and      
,vitriol4 ,the metallic part of  the    
latter is separated from its acid by the
 ,alkalis when mixed with  that         
solution2 and it is this metallic part1 
which is generally iron1  that appears  
in the form of a reddish precipitate1 as
 above-mentioned4    ,but because       
,alkalis decompound also those ,neutral 
salts which have an  earth for their    
basis1 care must be taken that too much 
thereof be not  added2 else what you put
 in1 more than is necessary to          
decompound the  vitriolic salts in your 
liquor1 will attack the ,alum1 and      
decompound it  likewise4    ,the ,alkali
 made use of to promote the             
crystallization of the ,alum  joins with
 the ,vitriolic ,acid1 which had        

dissolved the substances now            
precipitated1 and therewith forms       
different ,neutral salts according  to  
its particular nature4 ,if the ,alkali  
be a lixivium of common  wood-ashes1 the
 ,neutral salt will be a vitriolated    
,tartar2 if a  lixivium of the ashes of 
a maritime plant like ,soda1 the        
,neutral salt  will be a ,glauber's     
salt2 if putrefied urine1 the ,neutral  
salt will be  a vitriolic ,ammoniacal   
salt4 ,some of these salts incorporate  
with the  ,alum1 which in large works   
crystallizes in vast lumps3 and hence it
  comes that some sorts of ,alum when   
mixed with a fixed ,alkali smell like  a
 volatile ,alkali4    ,the crystals of  
,alum are octaedral1 that is1 they are  
solids with eight  sides4 ,these        
octaedral solids are triangular         
pyramids1 having their  angles cut away1
 so that four of their surfaces are     
hexagons1 and the  other four triangles4
    ,sulphur1 ,vitriol1 and ,alum are   
the three principal subjects in which   

we certainly know that the universal or 
,vitriolic ,acid particularly  resides1 
and from which we extract it when we    
want to have it pure4 ,for  this reason 
we thought it proper1 before we treated 
of the extraction  of this ,acid1 to    
shew the method of separating those     
matters themselves  from the other      
minerals out of which we obtain them4   
,moreover1 all the other matrices1 in   
which the ,vitriolic ,acid is most      
commonly lodged1 may be referred to one 
or other of the matters which  serve as 
bases to these three minerals4    ,to   
,sulphur we may refer all combinations  
of the ,vitriolic ,acid with an         
inflammable matter3 but we must take    
care not to confound ,sulphur with      
those ,bitumens in which the ,vitriolic 
,acid may be found3 for the basis  of   
those bitumens is a real ,oil2 whereas  
the basis of ,sulphur is the  pure      
,phlogiston4 ,yet as ,oils themselves   
contain the ,phlogiston1 which1  in     
union with the ,vitriolic ,acid forms a 

true ,sulphur1 it follows that  such    
bitumens may in a certain respect be    
classed with ,sulphur4    ,the same is  
to be said of ,vitriol4 ,the name is    
usually given to such  combinations only
 as are formed of the ,vitriolic ,acid  
with ,iron or  ,copper1 which make the  
green and blue ,vitriol2 and to a third 
species  of ,vitriol1 which is white1   
and has ,zinc for its basis3 but as the 
,vitriolic ,acid may1 by particular     
combinations1 be united with many  other
 metallic substances1 all such ,metallic
 ,salts must be referred to  the class  
of ,vitriols4    ,the same may also be  
said of ,alum1 which is no other than a 
combination  of the ,vitriolic ,acid    
with a particular kind of absorbent     
earth2 so  that all combinations of this
 ,acid with any earth whatever may be   
placed in the same class4    ,this last 
class of mixts is the most extensive of 
all that contain the  ,vitriolic ,acid2 
because there are a vast many earths1   
all differing  from one another1 with   

which that ,acid may be united4 ,alum   
properly  so called1 the ,gypsums1      
,talcs1 ,selenites1 ,boles1 and all the 
other  compounds of this kind1 differ   
from each other only in their particular
  earths4    ,the different properties  
of these earthy salts depend on the     
nature of  their bases4 ,those which are
 of the aluminous kind retain much water
 in  crystallizing1 which makes them    
very soluble in water1 and gives them   
the property of acquiring readily the   
aqueous fluor when exposed to the  fire4
 ,those which are of the nature of the  
,selenites admit but very  little water 
in their crystals1 and consequently are 
almost insoluble  in water2 nor does the
 fire give them an aqueous fluor4       
,lastly1 the  ,gypsums and ,talcs are   
still more destitute of these           
properties4 ,the  natures of the earths 
in these several compounds are hitherto 
but very  imperfectly known1 and may    
give the ,chymists occasion for         
inquiries  equally curious and useful4  

,the ,vitriolic ,acid is sometimes found
 complicated with a fixed alkaline      
basis4 ,this is almost always the       
,alkali of ,sea-salt2 so that the       
compound is a ,glauber's ,salt4 ,some   
mineral waters are impregnated          
therewith2 which happens when these     
waters contain ,vitriol or ,alum1       
together with ,sea-salt4    ,from the   
principles laid down1 in our ,elements  
of the ,theory1 it  appears that the    
,vitriolic ,acid hath not so great an   
affinity with  earthy and metallic      
substances as with fixed ,alkalis2 and  
also that it  is stronger than the      
,marine ,acid1 and hath a greater       
affinity with  fixed ,alkalis4 ,this    
being allowed1 the generation of native 
,glauber's  ,salts is easily accounted  
for4 ,the ,acid of aluminous or         
vitriolic ,salts  quits the earth or the
 metal with which it was combined1 and  
expelling  the ,acid of ,sea-salt unites
 with its basis4 ,warmth greatly        
promotes  these decompositions4    ,if  

the common fossil salt1 usually called  
,sal ,gem1 or any other kind  of        
,sea-salt1 should happen to be near a   
,volcano1 when it discharges  flaming   
,sulphur1 as is frequently the case1 and
 if this ,sulphur should  run among the 
,sea-salt1 a ,glauber's ,salt would     
instantly be formed in  that place2     
because when ,sulphur burns1 its ,acid  
is separated and set  at liberty4       
,lastly1 if aluminous or vitriolic      
matters1 or burning ,sulphur1 should    
meet with the ashes of plants or trees  
consumed by fire1 a vitriolated  ,tartar
 would be formed1 because these ashes   
contain a fixed ,alkali of  the same    
nature with that of ,tartar4    ,the    
,vitriolic ,acid when combined with an  
earthy basis adheres strongly  thereto2 
so that the force of fire is able to    
expel very little or  none of it4 ,there
 is no way of separating it from such a 
basis1 but by  presenting to it an      
,alkaline ,salt1 with which it will     
unite3 nor is it  ever extracted from   

such matters when it is required pure4  
,it does not  adhere so firmly to       
metallic substances2 but is separated   
from them by  the force of fire3 so that
 it may be obtained from the several    
sorts  of ,vitriol4 ,it is usually drawn
 from ,green ,vitriol2 that being the   
commonest sort4    ,as to ,sulphur1 the 
,phlogiston which is its basis being the
 substance  wherewith the ,vitriolic    
,acid hath the greatest affinity1 it    
would be  altogether impossible to      
decompose it1 and to separate its ,acid1
 if it  were not inflammable2 but by    
burning it the ,phlogiston is destroyed1
  and leaves the ,acid at liberty4 ,by  
this means therefore it may be          
separated4 ,we shall now give the       
processes for extracting the ,acid from 
,vitriol and ,sulphur4      ,,process   
,,iv4    ,to extract the ,vitriolic     
,acid from ,green ,vitriol4    ,take any
 quantity of ,green ,vitriol3 put it in 
an unglazed earthen  vessel1 and heat it
 gradually4 ,vapours will soon begin to 

rise4  ,increase the fire a little1 and 
it will liquefy by means of the  water  
contained in it1 and acquire what we    
called an aqueous fluor4  ,continue the 
calcination1 and it will become less and
 less fluid1 grow  thick1 and turn of a 
greyish colour4 ,now raise your fire1   
and keep it  up till the salt recover   
its solidity1 acquire an orange colour1 
and  begin to grow red where it         
immediately touches the sides of the    
vessel4  ,then take it out1 and reduce  
it to powder4    ,put the ,vitriol thus 
calcined and pulverized into a good     
earthen  retort1 of which one half at   
least must remain empty4 ,set the retort
  in a reverberatory furnace3 fit       
thereto a large glass receiver1 and1    
having luted the joint well1 give fire  
by degrees4 ,you will soon see  white   
clouds rise into the receiver1 which    
will render it opaque1 and  heat it4    
,continue the same degree of fire till  
these clouds disappear3  they will be   
succeeded by a liquor which will trickle

 down the sides  of the receiver in     
veins4 ,still keep up the fire to the   
same degree  as long as these veins     
appear4 ,when they begin to abate1      
increase the  fire1 and push it to the  
utmost extremity3 upon this1 there will 
come  over a black1 thick liquor3 it    
will even be found congealed1 and prove 
the icy ,oil of ,vitriol1 if care hath  
been taken to change the receiver1  keep
 the vessels perfectly close1 and give a
 sufficient degree of heat4  ,proceed   
thus till nothing more comes over1 or at
 least very little4 ,let  the vessels   
cool1 unlute them1 pour the contents of 
the receiver into a  bottle1 and seal it
 hermetically4      ,,observations4     
,green ,vitriol retains much water in   
crystallizing2 and1 in order to  free it
 from that superfluous phlegm1 it must  
be calcined before you  distil it4      
,without this precaution the operation  
will be exceedingly  protracted1 and a  
great deal of time wasted in distilling 
such a  quantity of water2 which will   

moreover greatly weaken the ,acid by    
commixing with it1 unless care be taken 
to change the recipient as soon  as the 
water is all come over4    ,but there is
 also another advantage in calcining the
 ,vitriol before  you put it into the   
retort3 for otherwise this salt would   
melt on the  first application of heat1 
and run into a mass2 which would prove a
  great hindrance to its distillation4  
,this inconvenience is avoided by  a    
previous calcination1 in consequence    
whereof the ,vitriol is easily  reduced 
to a powder which never becomes fluid4  
,vitriol calcined as directed in the    
process grows so hard1 and adheres  so  
firmly to the vessel in which the       
calcination is performed1 that  it      
requires no small pains to separate and 
pulverize it4 ,care must  be taken to   
put it into the retort as soon as it is 
pulverized1 and  to stop that vessel    
very close if you do not begin the      
distillation  immediately3 for otherwise
 it will naturally attract from the air 

almost all the moisture it hath lost4   
,the ,acid which ,vitriol yields by     
distillation is sulphureous2 probably   
because it still retains some of the    
,phlogiston1 with which it was  united  
when under the form of sulphur in the   
,pyrites2 or else hath laid  hold on a  
portion of that belonging to the iron   
which served for its  basis in ,vitriol4
 ,but this sulphureous part is volatile1
 and flies off  in time4    ,this       
decomposition of ,vitriol in close      
vessels is a difficult and  laborious   
process4 ,to carry the operation to its 
utmost perfection  requires a fire of   
extreme violence1 kept up without       
intermission  during four or five days2 
such in short as few vessels are able to
  bear4 ,of course this operation is    
seldom performed in laboratories4  ,the 
,french ,chymists fetch their ,oil of   
,vitriol from ,holland1 where it  is    
extracted from ,vitriol in large        
quantities1 by means of furnaces        
erected for the purpose1 in which many  

retorts are employed at once4    ,in the
 ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences  
,m4 ,hellot hath given us the  most     
material circumstances of a very fine   
experiment of this kind1 in  which he   
pushed the distillation of ,green       
,vitriol to the utmost4 ,into  a ,german
 retort#e he put six pounds of ,green   
,english ,vitriol calcined  to redness1 
which he exposed to a fire of the       
extremest violence1  constantly kept up 
during four days and four nights4 ,at   
the expiration  of that time he found in
 the vessels employed as receivers an   
,icy ,oil  of ,vitriol1 which was       
altogether in a crystalline form and    
black4 ,the  precautions necessary to   
make this experiment succeed1 he        
represents1  in the following terms4    
#e ,they are much the best1 and bear a  
very fierce heat4    ,the success of    
this operation1 which produces an ,oil  
of ,vitriol  perfectly ,icy and without 
any liquor1 depends on the care taken to
  prevent the acid vapours1 driven by   

the fire out of ,vitriol calcined to    
redness1 from having any communication  
with the external air while they  are   
distilling3 for otherwise they will     
attract from it a moisture  which will  
keep them fluid in the receiver4 ,the   
receiver must be at  such a distance    
from the furnace that it may remain cool
 enough for  the vapours to condense in 
it4 ,there must also be sufficient room 
for those vapours to circulate in1 and  
to prevent the sulphureous  explosions1 
which are every now and then discharged 
out of the retort1  from bursting the   
vessels3 for though the previous        
calcination of the  ,vitriol hath       
carried off the most volatile1 yet there
 still remains  enough of the           
inflammable principle1 even in the iron 
itself1 to  form a ,sulphur with the    
,acid as it is extricated1 or at least a
 mixt  that would be as apt to take fire
 as common ,sulphur1 if it were not     
over-dosed with the ,acid4    ,as the   
best means of gaining these ends1 ,m4   

,hellot contrived to adapt  to the neck 
of his retort a receiver with two necks1
 the lowermost of  which was inserted   
into a large ballon4 ,receivers applied 
to each other  in this manner are called
 ,adopters4    ,it is no easy matter to 
get this ,icy ,oil out of the ballon3   
for as  soon as the air touches it such 
a thick cloud of sulphureous fumes      
arises1 that it is absolutely necessary 
to place the vessel on some  shelf over 
head1 because a man cannot stand exposed
 thereto for a  single minute without   
being suffocated4    ,this ,icy ,acid   
must be shut up with all possible       
expedition in a  crystal bottle         
accurately closed with a glass stopple1 
which should be  ground with emery in   
its neck so as to fit it exactly3 for it
 attracts  moisture so powerfully1 that1
 unless exceeding great care be taken to
  prevent all communication with the    
external air1 it will soon dissolve     
into a fluid4    ,the ,icy ,oil is      
black2 because the acid vapours carry   

over with them  something of a greasy   
matter1 from which ,vitriol is seldom   
free1 and  which always appears1 after  
repeated solutions and crystallizations 
of this ,salt1 in the mother-water which
 will shoot no more4 ,now the  smallest 
portion of inflammable matter presently 
blackens the most  highly rectified ,oil
 of ,vitriol1 which is perfectly clear4 
,the ,vitriolic ,acid1 when forced over 
by a violent heat1 carries  along with  
it some ferruginous particles also1 that
 want nothing but  to be united with a  
phlogiston to become true iron4 ,they   
are easily  discovered1 either in the   
common black ,oil of ,vitriol1 or in the
  blackish crystals of the ,icy ,oil1 by
 only dissolving them in a large        
quantity of distilled water3 for after  
seven or eight days digestion  a light  
powder or downy sediment precipitates1  
which being calcined  in a violent fire 
is partly attracted by the magnet2 and  
being again  calcined with bees-wax     
becomes almost entirely iron4    ,the   

,caput mortuum of this distillation of  
,vitriol is the ferruginous  earth of   
this ,salt1 and is called ,colcothar4   
,when this ,colcothar hath  undergone a 
violent fire1 as in the experiment now  
related1 scarce any  ,acid remains      
therein4 ,out of six pounds of ,vitriol 
that ,m4 ,hellot used1  he could recover
 no more1 by lixiviating what was left  
in the retort1  than two ounces of a    
,vitriolic ,salt2 and even that was very
 earthy4    ,if ,vitriol be exposed to a
 fire neither so violent nor so long    
continued1 its ,colcothar will yield a  
greater quantity of ,vitriol that  hath 
not been decomposed4 ,a white           
crystalline salt is also obtained  from 
it1 and called ,salt of ,colcothar2     
which is no other than the  small       
portion of ,alum usually contained in   
,vitriol1 and not so easily  decomposed 
by the the action of fire4              
,,process ,v4    ,to decompose ,sulphur1
 and extract its ,acid1 by burning it4  
,take any quantity of the purest        

,sulphur3 fill therewith a crucible or  
other earthen dish3 heat it till it     
melts2 then set it on fire1 and1  when  
its whole surface is lighted1 place it  
under a large glass head1  taking care  
that the flame of the ,sulphur do not   
touch either its sides  or bottom2 that 
the air have free access1 in order to   
make the ,sulphur  burn clear2 and that 
the head incline a little toward the    
side on which  its beak is1 that1 as the
 vapours condense therein1 the liquor   
may run  off with ease4 ,to the beak of 
this vessel fit a receiver3 the fumes of
  the lighted sulphur will be condensed1
 and gather into drops in the  head1 out
 of which they will run into the        
receiver4 ,there1 when the  ,sulphur has
 done burning1 you will find an ,acid   
liquor1 which is the  ,spirit of        
,sulphur4      ,,observations4    ,in   
the burning of ,sulphur1 the ,phlogiston
 which serves for its basis  is         
dissipated1 and separated from the acid 
which is left at liberty4  ,the acid    

fumes which rise from the lighted       
sulphur strike against the  inside of   
the head placed over it1 are there      
condensed1 and appear  in the form of a 
liquor4 ,but as ,sulphur1 like all other
 inflammable  bodies1 ,nitre excepted1  
will not burn in close vessels1 it is   
necessary  that the air be freely       
admitted here2 which occasions the loss 
of a  great deal of the ,acid of the    
,sulphur1 as is evident from the pungent
  suffocating smell perceived in the    
laboratory during the operation4        
,this ,acid1 while combined with the    
,phlogiston1 is incapable of            
contracting any union with water2 but   
when alone is very apt to mix           
therewith3 it is even proper to put some
 in its way1 that it may  incorporate   
therewith as soon as it is discharged   
from the ,sulphur2 for  it is then very 
free from phlegm1 very volatile1 and    
consequently very  little disposed to   
condense into a liquor1 but1 on the     
contrary1 very  apt to fly off in       

vapours4 ,the water1 which it imbibes   
with a kind of  avidity1 fixes and      
detains it2 so that by this means a much
 greater  quantity thereof is obtained  
from ,sulphur1 than if it were distilled
  without this precaution4    ,it is    
proper1 therefore1 now and then1 to     
introduce a dish full of  hot water     
under the head which receives the fumes 
of the ,sulphur4 ,the  vapours that     
exhale from the water be-dew the inside 
of the head1 and  procure the advantage 
we are speaking of4    ,the same thing  
may be effected several other ways3     
thus1 the crucible  containing the      
,sulphur may be set on a foot placed in 
an earthen dish  with some water in it2 
which1 however1 must not rise above the 
foot2  for if it should reach the       
crucible1 it might cool and fix the     
sulphur4  ,the dish thus prepared must  
be placed on a sand-bath hot enough to  
make  the water smoke continually2 and  
over all is to be placed the head as    
directed in the process4    ,the size   

and form of the vessel which immediately
 receives the  sulphureous fumes may    
also contribute to increase the quantity
 of the  ,acid ,spirit4 ,a very large   
vessel1 with a hole at bottom no wider  
than  is just sufficient to admit the   
vapours1 is the properest for this      
operation4    ,after the ,sulphur has   
burnt for some time1 it often happens   
that a sort  of skin or crust forms on  
its surface1 which is not inflammable1  
but  gradually lessens the quantity and 
vigour of the flame as it increases  in 
thickness1 and at last puts it quite    
out4 ,this crust proceeds from  the     
impurities1 and heterogeneous           
uninflammable particles contained in    
the sulphur4 ,care must be taken to     
remove it with an iron wire as fast  as 
it forms4    ,two quantities of sulphur 
may also be kept in two crucibles1 and  
heated alternately4 ,that in which the  
,sulphur is hot and melted may be       
substituted for the other in which the  
,sulphur is grown cold and fixed2       

because cold ,sulphur does not burn     
well4    ,the ,spirit of ,sulphur is at 
first pungent and volatile1 because it  
still retains a small portion of the    
,phlogiston3 but that sulphureous  part 
flies off1 especially if the bottle in  
which the ,spirit is kept be  left for  
some time unstopped4    ,the ,acid      
obtained from ,sulphur appears by all   
chymical proofs perfectly  like that    
obtained from ,vitriol3 they differ in  
this only1 that the  former is the      
purest2 for the ,acid obtained from     
,vitriol carries over  with it some     
metallic parts1 as we observed before1  
which can never  happen to that obtained
 from ,sulphur4    ,if linen rags dipped
 in a solution of ,fixed ,alkali be     
exposed to the  fumes of burning        
brimstone1 the ,spirit of ,sulphur joins
 with the  ,alkali1 and therewith forms 
a ,vitriolated ,tartar4 ,this ,salt is  
known  to be formed when the rags grow  
stiff1 and appear spangled with a vast  
many glittering points1 which are       

nothing but little crystals of the      
,salt we are speaking of4    ,when the  
,sulphur burns very gently and slowly   
the ,spirit that exhales  from it is so 
much the more sulphureous and volatile3 
and hence the  ,salt formed by the      
combination of this ,spirit with the    
,alkali exposed  to it in linen rags1 as
 in the above-mentioned experiment1 is  
not  at first a ,vitriolated ,tartar2   
but a ,neutral ,salt of a particular    
kind1 which is capable of being         
decomposed by any other ,mineral ,acid1 
the sulphureous ,acid having less       
affinity than any of the rest with      
,alkalis4 ,nevertheless1 this ,salt     
becomes in time a true ,vitriolated     
,tartar1 because the sulphureous part   
which weakened its ,acid easily  quits  
it and flies off4      ,,process ,,vi4  
,to concentrate the ,vitriolic ,acid4   
,take the ,vitriolic ,acid you intend to
 concentrate1 that is1 to  dephlegmate  
and make stronger3 pour it into a good  
glass retort1 of  such a size that your 

quantity of ,acid may but half fill it3 
set this  retort in the sand-bath of a  
reverberating furnace3 fit to it a      
receiver2 lute it on1 and give a gradual
 fire4 ,there will come over  into the  
receiver a clear liquor1 the first drops
 of which will be but  faintly acid3    
this is the most aqueous part4    ,when 
the drops begin to follow one another   
much more slowly1 raise your  fire1 till
 the liquor begin to bubble a little in 
the middle4 ,keep  it thus gently       
boiling1 till one half or two thirds    
thereof be come  over into the receiver4
 ,then let your vessels cool2 unlute    
them2 what  remains in the retort pour  
into a crystal bottle1 and stop it      
exactly  with a glass stopple rubbed    
with emery4      ,,observations4    ,the
 ,acid obtained from ,sulphur is        
generally very aqueous2 either  because 
in preparing it water must necessarily  
be administered1 that it  may unite     
therewith as it separates from the      
,sulphur2 or because it is  so greedy of

 moisture as to attract a great deal    
from the air1 which  must needs be      
admitted to make the ,sulphur burn4     
,the ,acid obtained from ,vitriol1      
excepting that which rises last1 is     
also mixed with a pretty considerable   
quantity of phlegm2 because  the        
,vitriol1 though calcined1 still retains
 a great deal thereof1  which rises with
 the ,acid in distillation4 ,now1 as    
there are many  chymical experiments    
that will not succeed without ,acids    
exceedingly  dephlegmated1 it is proper 
to have in a laboratory all the ,acids  
thus  conditioned2 because if they      
happen to be too strong for particular  
operations1 as is sometimes the case1 it
 is very easy to lower them to  the     
desired degree1 by adding a sufficient  
quantity of water4    ,the ,vitriolic   
,acid is much heavier and much less     
volatile than water4  ,if therefore a   
mixture of these two liquors be exposed 
to the fire1 the  aqueous part will rise
 with a degree of heat which is not able

 to carry  up the ,acid3 by this means  
they may be separated from each other2  
and  thus is the ,vitriolic ,acid       
concentrated4    ,nevertheless1 as this 
,acid combines most closely with water1 
and is in  a manner strongly connected  
with it1 the water carries up some      
portion  thereof along with it2 and     
hence it comes1 that the liquor which   
rises  into the receiver is acid3 it is 
called ,spirit of ,vitriol4    ,as the  
fire carries off the most aqueous part1 
the other which remains  in the retort  
increases in specific gravity4 ,the     
,acid particles  are brought nearer     
together1 retain the aqueous particles  
more  obstinately1 and therefore to     
separate them the degree of heat must be
  increased4    ,it is usual to draw off
 one half or two thirds of the liquor   
that was  put into the retort3 but this 
depends on the degree of strength the   
,acid was of before concentration1 and  
the degree of concentration  intended to
 be given it4    ,if the ,acid to be    

concentrated be ,oil of ,vitriol1 from  
being brown or  black it grows clearer  
as the operation advances1 and at last  
becomes  perfectly colourless and       
transparent2 because the fat matter     
which  tinged it black is dissipated    
during the process4 ,some of it         
deposites  a white crystalline earth4   
,a sulphureous smell is generally       
perceived about the vessels in this     
operation4 ,this arises from a small    
portion of the ,phlogiston from  which  
the ,acid is not free2 and it is this   
inflammable matter which  gives the ,oil
 of ,vitriol its black colour3 for the  
clearest and best  rectified ,oil of    
,vitriol will become brown1 and even    
black1 in a short  time1 if any         
inflammable matter1 though in a very    
small quantity1 be  dissolved therein4  
,the vessels are luted in this          
operation1 to prevent any loss of the   
,spirit of ,vitriol1 which being very   
acid is of use in many chymical         
experiments1 and may itself also be     

again concentrated4    ,we observed1    
that in this operation it is necessary  
the retort should  be of very good      
glass4 ,indeed the ,acid is so active1  
and so strong1  that if the glass be    
tender and have a little too much salt  
in its  composition1 it will be so      
corroded thereby that it will fall to   
pieces4    ,though we directed the      
retort to be set in a sand-bath for this
  operation1 it does not follow that it 
may not also be placed in a naked  fire3
 on the contrary1 when the heat is not  
conveyed through a bath the  operation  
advances faster1 and is much less       
tedious4 ,but then great  caution must  
be used1 and the closest attention given
 to the management  of the fire1 which  
must be raised by almost imperceptible  
degrees1  especially at the beginning of
 the operation2 otherwise it is next to 
a  certainty that the vessels will      
break4 ,in general1 a naked fire may be 
employed in almost all distillations    
which require a greater degree of  heat 

than that of boiling water1 or the      
balneum mari3 the operation  will be    
sooner finished2 but it requires an     
experienced hand1 that has  by practice 
acquired a habit of governing the fire  
with judgment4    ,there is moreover    
another advantage in not using the      
sand-bath2 which  is1 that if in the    
time of the operation you perceive the  
fire too  fierce1 you can quickly check 
it1 either by stopping close all the    
apertures of the furnace1 or by drawing 
out all or part of the lighted  coals4  
,this inconvenience is not near so      
easily remedied when you use  the       
sand-bath2 because when once heated it  
retains its heat very long  after the   
fire is quite extinguished4             
,,process ,,vii4     ,to decompose      
,vitriolated ,tartar by means of the    
,phlogiston2 or to   compose ,sulphur by
 combining the ,vitriolic ,acid with the
 ,phlogiston4    ,take equal parts of   
,vitriolated ,tartar1 and very dry ,salt
 of ,tartar1  separately reduced to     

powder2 add an eighth part of their     
weight of  charcoal-dust2 and mix the   
whole together very accurately4 ,throw  
this  mixture into a red-hot crucible1  
placed in a furnace filled with  burning
 coals4 ,cover it very close1 and keep  
it very hot2 till the  mixture melt1    
which may be known by uncovering the    
crucible from time  to time4 ,there will
 then appear a blueish flame1           
accompanied with a  pungent smell of    
,sulphur4    ,take the crucible out of  
the fire3 dissolve its contents in hot  
water3  filter the solution through     
brown paper supported by a glass funnel3
  drop into the filtered liquor by      
little and little any ,acid whatever4   
,as you add the acid the liquor will    
grow more and more turbid1 and let  fall
 a grey precipitate4 ,continue dropping 
in more ,acid till the liquor  will     
yield no more precipitate4 ,filter it a 
second time1 to separate it  from the   
precipitate3 what remains on the filter 
is a true inflammable  ,sulphur1 which  

you may either melt or sublime into     
flowers4      ,,observations4    ,all   
bodies that contain the ,vitriolic ,acid
 may contribute1 as well  as            
,vitriolated ,tartar1 to the generation 
of ,sulphur3 so that all the  neutral   
salts in which this ,acid is a          
principle1 the ,alums1 ,selenites1      
,gypsums1 ,vitriols1 may be substituted 
for it in this experiment4 ,all  these  
matters1 with the addition of           
charcoal-dust only1 being fused  in a   
crucible1 constantly produce ,sulphur2  
because the ,vitriolic ,acid  having a  
greater affinity with the ,phlogiston   
than with any thing  else1 will quit its
 basis1 whatever it be1 to join with the
 ,phlogiston  of the charcoal1 and      
therewith form a ,sulphur4    ,the fixed
 ,alkali added thereto helps to promote 
the fusion of the  ingredients1 which is
 necessary for effecting the desired    
combination4  ,it also serves to unite  
with the ,sulphur1 when formed2 and thus
 makes  the combination called ,liver of

 ,sulphur1 which prevents the ,sulphur  
from being consumed as soon as formed3  
for the fixed ,alkalis1 which are       
incombustible1 hinder ,sulphur from     
burning so easily as it would do if     
they were not joined with it4 ,they may 
afterwards be separated from  each      
other1 by the means of any ,acid        
whatever4    ,this process1 in which    
,sulphur is regenerated by recombining  
together  the principles of which it was
 originally composed1 is one of the most
  beautiful experiments that modern     
,chymistry hath produced4 ,we are       
indebted for it to ,m4 ,stahl2 and ,dr4 
,geoffroy hath given a particular       
account of it in the ,memoirs of the    
,academy of ,sciences4    ,before these 
gentlemen ,glauber and ,boyle had indeed
 published methods  of producing        
,sulphur1 ,glauber made use of his ,sal 
mirabile and  powdered charcoal3 ,boyle 
employed the ,vitriolic ,acid and ,oil  
of  ,turpentine4 ,but neither of those  
,chymists understood the true theory  of

 their operations3 they did not         
thoroughly know the principles of       
,sulphur3 they did not imagine they had 
composed ,sulphur3 they thought  they   
only extracted what they supposed to    
exist previously in the  matters they   
employed in their experiments4    ,m4   
,stahl was the first who discovered and 
explained the nature of  ,sulphur1 and  
proved that in ,glauber's and ,boyle's  
experiments ,sulphur  was actually      
produced1 by uniting together the       
principles of which it  is constituted4 
,this beautiful experiment gives the    
strongest lustre  of evidence to the    
theory of the composition of that mixt1 
which acts  such a capital part in      
,chymistry2 and it can no longer be     
doubted1  that ,sulphur is actually a   
combination of the ,vitriolic ,acid with
 the  ,phlogiston4    ,besides this     
important truth1 our process for        
composing ,sulphur by art  proves       
several others that are equally         
essential and fundamental4    ,the first

 is1 that the ,vitriolic ,acid hath a   
greater affinity with  the ,phlogiston  
than with any other thing1 seeing it    
quits metallic  and earthy substances1  
as well as ,alkaline salts1 in order to 
combine  therewith4    ,the second is1  
that ,sulphur combines with fixed       
,alkalis without  suffering any         
decomposition2 seeing it may be         
separated from them  entire and         
unaltered2 and seeing that very         
,sulphur1 which is naturally            
indissoluble in water1 is rendered      
soluble therein by the union it hath    
contracted with the fixed alkali4       
,the third is1 that the ,vitriolic      
,acid1 which1 when it is pure1 hath the 
greatest affinity with ,alkalis of any  
,acid whatever1 loses a great deal  of  
that affinity by contracting an union   
with the ,phlogiston2 seeing  the       
weakest acids are capable of decomposing
 the ,liver of ,sulphur1 and  separating
 the ,sulphur from the ,alkali4 ,and    
this also confirms one of  the general  

propositions concerning affinities      
advanced in our theory2  to wit1 that   
the affinities of compound or mixed     
substances are weaker  than those of the
 same substances in a purer or more     
simple state4          ,,chap4 ,,ii4    
,of the ,,nitrous ,,acid4      ,,process
 ,i4     ,to extract ,nitre out of      
nitrous ,earths and ,stones4 ,the       
,purification   of ,salt-petre4 ,mother 
of ,nitre4 ,magnesia4    ,take any      
quantity of nitrous earths or stones2   
reduce them to powder2  and therewith   
mix a third part of the ashes of        
green-wood and  quick-lime4 ,put this   
mixture into a barrel or vat1 and pour  
on it hot  water to about twice the     
weight of the whole mass4 ,let it stand 
thus  for twenty-four hours1 stirring it
 from time to time with a stick4 ,then  
filter the liquor through brown paper1  
or pass it through a flannel  bag1 till 
it come clear3 it will then have a      
yellowish colour4 ,boil  this liquor1   
and evaporate till you perceive that a  

drop of it let fall  on any cold body   
coagulates4 ,then stop the evaporation1 
and set your  liquor in a cool place4   
,in the space of four and twenty hours  
crystals  will be formed in it1 the     
figure of which is that of an hexagonal 
prism1 having its opposite planes       
generally equal1 and terminated at  each
 extremity by a pyramid of the same     
number of sides4 ,these crystals  will  
be of a brownish colour1 and deflagrate 
on a live coal4    ,decant the liquor   
from these crystals2 mix it with twice  
its weight  of hot water2 evaporate and 
crystallize as before4 ,repeat the same 
operation till the liquor will yield no 
more crystals3 it will then be  very    
thick1 and goes by the name of ,mother  
of ,nitre4      ,,observations4         
,earths and stones that have been       
impregnated with animal or vegetable    
juices susceptible of putrefaction1 and 
have been long exposed to the  air1 but 
sheltered from the sun and rain1 are    
those which yield the  greatest quantity

 of ,nitre4 ,but all sorts of earths and
 stones are not  equally fit to produce 
it4 ,none is ever found in flints or    
sands of a  crystalline nature4    ,some
 earths and stones abound so with       
,nitre1 that it effloresces             
spontaneously on their surface1 in the  
form of a crystalline down4 ,this       
,nitre may be collected with brooms1 and
 accordingly has the name of            
,salt-petre ,sweepings4 ,some of this   
sort is brought from ,india4            
,hitherto we are much in the dark as to 
the origin and generation of  ,nitre4   
,some ,chymists pretend that the        
,nitrous ,acid is diffused through  the 
air1 and gradually deposited in such    
earths and stones as are  qualified to  
receive it4    ,others1 considering that
 none of it is ever obtained but from   
earths  that have been impregnated with 
vegetable or animal juices1 have from   
thence concluded those two kingdoms to  
be the general repositories  of the     
,nitrous ,acid2 that if we do not       

perceive it to exist in such  matters at
 all1 or at least in any great quantity1
 till they have  undergone putrefaction1
 and are in some measure incorporated   
with  suitable earths and stones1 it is 
because the ,acid is so entangled  with 
heterogeneous particles that it requires
 the assistance of  putrefaction1 and   
much more of filtration through an      
earth1 to  disengage it1 and enable it  
to appear in its proper nature4         
,lastly1 others are of opinion that this
 ,acid is no other than the  universal  
or ,vitriolic ,acid2 disguised indeed by
 a portion of the  ,phlogiston1 which is
 combined with it in a peculiar manner  
by the means  of putrefaction4 ,they    
ground this opinion chiefly on the      
analogy or  resemblance which they find 
between the ,nitrous ,acid and the      
,volatile  ,sulphureous ,spirit4 ,its   
volatility1 its pungent smell1 its      
properties  of taking fire1 and of      
destroying the blue and violet colours  
of  vegetables1 serve them as so many   

proofs4    ,their opinion is the more   
probable on this account1 that even     
though  the ,nitrous ,acid should       
actually be produced by vegetable and   
animal  substances1 yet as these        
substances themselves draw all their    
component  principles from the earth1   
and as the ,vitriolic ,acid is diffused 
through all the soils which afford them 
nourishment1 there is great  reason to  
think that the ,nitrous ,acid is no     
other than the ,vitriolic  ,acid altered
 by the changes and combinations it hath
 undergone in its  passage into and     
through those substances4 ,in #agej the 
,royal ,academy  of ,sciences at ,berlin
 proposed an account of the generation  
of ,nitre  as the subject for their     
prize1 which was conferred on a ,memoir 
wherein this last opinion was supported 
by some new and very judicious          
experiments4    ,the process by which   
our ,salt-petre makers extract ,nitre in
 quantities1  out of rubbish and nitrous
 earths1 is very nearly the same with   

that  here set down2 so that ,i shall   
not enter into a particular account  of 
it4 ,i shall only take notice of one    
thing1 which it is of some  consequence 
to know2 namely1 that there is no       
nitrous earth which does  not contain   
sea-salt also4 ,the greatest quantities 
of this salt are to  be found in those  
earths which have been drenched with    
urine1 or other  animal excrements4 ,now
 as the rubbish of old houses in great  
cities  is in this class1 it comes to   
pass that when the ,salt-petre workers  
evaporate a nitrous lixivium drawn from 
that rubbish1 as soon as the            
evaporation is brought to a certain     
pitch1 a great many little crystals  of 
sea-salt form in the liquor1 and fall to
 the bottom of the vessel4    ,the      
,salt-petre workers in ,france call     
these saline particles the  ,grain1 and 
take care to separate them from the     
liquor 7which1 as  long as it continues 
hot1 keeps the salt-petre dissolved7    
before they  set it to crystallize4     

,this fact seems a little singular1     
considering  that sea-salt dissolves in 
water more easily than salt-petre1 and  
crystallizes with more difficulty4      
,in order to discover the cause of this 
phenomenon1 we must recollect  some     
truths delivered in our theoretical     
,elements4 ,the first is1 that  water   
can keep but a determinate quantity of  
any salt in solution1 and  that if water
 fully saturated with a salt be         
evaporated1 a quantity  of salt will    
crystallize in proportion to the        
quantity of water  evaporated4 ,the     
second is1 that those salts which are   
the most soluble  in water1 particularly
 those which run in the air1 will       
dissolve in  cold and in boiling water  
equally2 whereas much greater quantities
 of  the other salts will dissolve in   
hot and boiling water than in cold      
water4 ,these things being admitted1    
when we know that sea-salt is  one of   
the first sort1 and salt-petre of the   
second1 the reason why  sea-salt        

precipitates in the preparation of      
salt-petre appears at once4  ,for1      
,when the solution of ,salt-petre and   
,sea-salt comes to be evaporated to     
such a degree that it contains as much  
,sea-salt as it possibly can1  this salt
 must begin to crystallize1 and continue
 to do so gradually  as the evaporation 
advances4 ,but because at the same time 
it does not  contain as much salt-petre 
as it can hold1 seeing it is capable of 
dissolving a much greater quantity      
thereof when it is boiling hot than     
when it is cold1 this last-named salt   
will not crystallize so soon4 ,if  the  
evaporation were continued till the case
 of the ,salt-petre came to  be the same
 with that of the ,sea-salt1 then the   
salt-petre also would  begin to         
crystallize gradually in proportion to  
the water evaporated1  and the two salts
 will continue crystallizing            
promiscuously together3  but it is never
 carried so far2 nor is it ever         
necessary3 for1 as the  water cools1 it 

becomes more and more incapable of      
holding in solution  the same quantity  
of salt-petre as when it was boiling    
hot4    ,and then comes the very        
reverse1 with regard to the             
crystallizing of  the two salts2 for    
then the ,salt-petre shoots1 and not the
 ,sea-salt4  ,the reason of this fact   
also is founded on what has just been   
said4 ,the  ,sea-salt1 of which cold    
water will dissolve as much as boiling  
water1  and which owed its crystallizing
 before only to the evaporation1 now    
ceases to crystallize as soon as the    
evaporation ceases2 while the           
,salt-petre1 which the water kept       
dissolved only because it was boiling   
hot1 is forced to crystallize merely by 
the cooling of the water4    ,when the  
solution of ,salt-petre has yielded as  
many crystals of that  ,salt as it can  
yield by cooling1 it is again           
evaporated1 and being  then suffered to 
cool yields more crystals4 ,and thus    
they continue  evaporating and          

crystallizing1 till the liquor will     
afford no more  crystals4 ,it is plain  
that as the ,salt-petre crystallizes1   
the  proportion of ,sea-salt to the     
dissolving liquor increases2 and as a   
certain quantity of water evaporates    
also during the time employed in        
crystallizing the ,salt-petre1 a        
quantity of ,sea-salt1 proportioned to  
the water so evaporating1 must          
crystallize in that time3 and this is   
the reason why ,salt-petre is           
adulterated with a mixture of ,sea-salt4
  ,it likewise follows that the last    
crystals of ,nitre1 obtained from a     
solution of ,salt-petre and ,sea-salt1  
contain much more ,sea-salt than  the   
first4    ,from all that has been said  
concerning the crystallization of       
,salt-petre and ,sea-salt1 it is easy to
 deduce the proper way of  purifying the
 former of these two ,salts from a      
mixture of the latter4  ,for this       
purpose the ,salt-petre to be refined   
need only be dissolved  in fair water4  

,the proportion between the two salts in
 this second  solution is very different
 from what it was in the former2 for it 
contains no more ,sea-salt than what had
 crystallized along with the            
,salt-petre under favour of the         
evaporation1 the rest having been left  
dissolved in the liquor that refused to 
yield any more nitrous crystals4    ,as 
there is therefore a much greater       
quantity of ,salt-petre than of         
,sea-salt in this second solution1 it is
 easy to evaporate it to such a  degree 
that a great deal of ,salt-petre shall  
crystallize1 while much  more of the    
water must necessarily be evaporated    
before any of the  ,sea-salt will       
crystallize4    ,however1 the           
,salt-petre is not yet entirely freed   
from all mixture of  ,sea-salt by this  
first purification2 for the crystals    
obtained from  this liquor1 in which    
,sea-salt is dissolved1 are still       
encrusted1 and1  as it were1 infected   
therewith3 hence it comes1 that1 to     

refine the  ,salt-petre thoroughly1     
these crystallizations must be repeated 
four or  five times4    ,the ,salt-petre
 men commonly content themselves with   
crystallizing it  thrice1 and call the  
produce ,salt-petre of the first1       
second1 or third  shoot1 according to   
the number of crystallizations it has   
undergone4  ,but their best refined     
,salt-petre1 even that of the third     
shooting1 is  not yet sufficiently pure 
for ,chymical experiments that require  
much  accuracy3 so that it must be      
further purified2 but still by the same 
method4    ,the ,nitrous ,acid is not   
pure in the earths and stones from which
 it  is extracted4 ,it is combined      
partly with the very earth in which  it 
is formed1 and partly with the ,volatile
 ,alkali produced by the  putrefaction  
of the vegetable or animal matters that 
concurred to its  generation4 ,a ,fixed 
,alkali and ,quick-lime are added to the
 lixivium  of a nitrous earth1 in order 
to decompose the nitrous ,salt formed in

  that earth1 and to separate the ,acid 
from the ,volatile ,alkali and the      
absorbent earth with which it is united3
 thence comes that copious  sediment    
which appears in the lye at the         
beginning of the evaporation4  ,these   
matters form with that ,acid a true     
,nitre1 much more capable than  the     
original ,nitrous ,salts of             
crystallization1 detonation1 and the    
other properties which are essential    
thereto4 ,the basis of ,nitre is        
therefore a ,fixed ,alkali mixed with a 
little lime4    ,the ,mother of ,nitre1 
which will yield no more crystals1 is   
brown and  thick3 by evaporation over a 
fire it is further inspissated1 and     
becomes a dry1 solid body2 which1       
however1 being left to itself soon      
gives1 and runs into a liquor4 ,this    
water still contains a good deal of     
,nitre1 ,sea-salt1 and the ,acids of    
these ,salts united with an absorbent   
earth4 ,it contains moreover a great    
deal of a fat1 viscid matter1 which     

prevents its crystallizing4    ,all     
saline solutions in general1 after      
having yielded a certain  quantity of   
crystals1 grow thick1 and refuse to part
 with any  more1 though they still      
contain much ,salt4 ,they are all called
  ,mother-waters1 as well as that which 
hath yielded ,nitre4 ,the               
,mother-waters of different ,salts may  
prove the subjects of curious and       
useful inquiries4    ,if a ,fixed       
,alkali be mixed with the ,mother of    
,nitre1 a copious white  precipitate    
immediately falls1 which being collected
 and dried is  called ,magnesia4 ,this  
precipitate is nothing but the absorbent
 earth  that was united with the        
,nitrous ,acid1 together with a good    
deal of the  lime that was added1 and   
was also united with that ,acid1 from   
which  they are now separated by the    
,fixed ,alkali1 according to the usual  
laws  of affinities4    ,the ,vitriolic 
,acid poured upon ,mother of ,nitre     
causes many ,acid vapours  to rise1     

which are a compound of the ,nitrous and
 ,marine ,acids1 that is1  an ,aqua     
,regia4 ,on this occasion also there    
falls a large quantity of  a white      
powder1 which is still called ,magnesia2
 yet it differs from  the former in that
 it is not1 like it1 a pure absorbent   
earth1 but  combined with the ,vitriolic
 ,acid4    ,an ,aqua regis may also be  
drawn from nitrous earths by the force  
of  fire only1 without the help of any  
additament4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,to 
decompose ,nitre by means of the        
,phlogiston4 ,nitre fixed by  ,charcoal4
 ,clyssus of ,nitre4 ,sal ,polychrestum4
    ,take the purest ,salt-petre in     
powder2 put it into a large crucible1   
which it may but half fill2 set the     
crucible in a common furnace1  and      
surround it with coals4 ,when it is     
red-hot the ,nitre will melt1  and      
become as fluid as water4 ,then throw   
into the crucible a small  quantity of  
charcoal-dust3 the ,nitre and the       
,charcoal will immediately  deflagrate  

with violence2 and a great commotion    
will be raised1  accompanied with a     
considerable hissing1 and abundance of  
black smoke4  ,as the charcoal wastes1  
the detonation will abate1 and cease    
entirely  as soon as the coal is quite  
consumed4    ,then throw into the       
crucible the same quantity of           
charcoal-dust as  before1 and the same  
phenomena will be repeated4 ,let this   
coal also  be consumed3 then add more1  
and go on in the same manner till you   
can excite no further deflagration2     
always observing to let the  burning    
coal be entirely consumed before you add
 any fresh4 ,when no  deflagration      
ensues1 the matter contained in the     
crucible will have  lost much of its    
fluidity4      ,,observations4    ,nitre
 will not take fire1 unless the         
inflammable matter added to it  be      
actually burning1 or the ,nitre itself  
red-hot1 and so thoroughly  ignited1 as 
immediately to kindle it4 ,therefore1 if
 you would procure  the detonation of   

,nitre with charcoal1 and make use of   
cold charcoal1  as in the process1 the  
,nitre in the crucible must be red-hot1 
and in  perfect fusion3 but you may also
 use live coals1 and then the ,nitre    
need not be red-hot4    ,it is proper   
that the crucible used in this          
experiment should be only  half full2   
for during the detonation its contents  
swell1 and might run  over without this 
precaution4 ,for the same reason the    
charcoal-dust is  to be thrown in by    
little and little2 and that first put in
 must be  entirely consumed before any  
fresh be added4    ,the matter remaining
 in the crucible after the operation is 
a very  strong ,fixed ,alkali4 ,being   
exposed to the air it quickly attracts  
the  moisture thereof1 and runs into a  
liquor4 ,it is called ,alkalizated      
,nitre1 or1 to distinguish it from      
,nitre alkalizated by other  inflammable
 matters1 ,nitre fixed by charcoal4     
,however1 this ,alkali is not absolutely
 pure4 ,it still contains a  portion of 

the ,nitre that hath not been           
decomposed4 ,for when there  remains but
 a little of this salt mixed with a     
great quantity of  ,alkali1 which is not
 inflammable1 the ,alkali in some       
measure shelters  it1 coats it over1 and
 obstructs that immediate contact with  
the  inflammable matters applied1 which 
is necessary to make it deflagrate4     
,if the ,fixed ,alkali be desired       
perfectly free from any mixture of      
undecomposed ,nitre1 the fire about the 
crucible must be considerably  increased
 as soon as the detonation is entirely  
over2 the matter must  be made to flow1 
which requires a much stronger heat than
 would melt  ,nitre1 and kept thus in   
fusion for about an hour4 ,after this no
 perfect  ,nitre will be found therein3 
for the little that was left1 being     
unable  to abide the force of the fire1 
as not being extremely fixed1 either  is
 entirely dissipated1 or loses its      
,acid1 which is carried off by the      
violence of the heat4    ,fixed ,nitre  

contains also a portion of the earth    
that constituted the  basis of the      
,nitre1 which is no other than the lime 
employed in its  crystallization1 or    
else some of the earth with which its   
,acid was  originally combined1 and     
which it retained in crystallizing4     
,when ,nitre  is deflagrated with such  
matters as produce ashes1 these ashes   
likewise  furnish a certain quantity of 
earth1 which mixes with the ,fixed      
,alkali4  ,to separate these several    
earths from the ,alkali1 nothing more is
  requisite than to let it run per      
deliquium1 or to dissolve it in  water1 
and filter the solution through brown   
paper4 ,whatever is saline  will pass   
through the filtre with the water1 and  
the earthy part will  be left upon it4  
,the ,nitrous ,acid is not only         
dissipated during the deflagration of   
the  ,nitre1 but is even destroyed1 and 
perfectly decomposed4 ,the smoke that   
rises during the operation has not the  
least odour of an ,acid4 ,its  nature   

may be accurately examined by catching  
it in proper vessels1 and  condensing it
 into a liquor4    ,nitre differs from  
,sulphur1 and from all other inflammable
 bodies  whatever1 in this1 that the    
free access of the air is indispensably 
necessary to make any of the others     
burn2 whereas ,nitre1 and ,nitre  only1 
is capable of burning in close vessels3 
and this property  furnishes us with the
 means of collecting the vapours which  
it  discharges in deflagration4    ,for 
this purpose1 to a tubulated earthen    
retort you must fit two or  three large 
adopters3 set the retort in a furnace2  
and under it make a  fire sufficient to 
keep its bottom moderately red4 ,then   
take a small  quantity1 two or three    
pinches for example1 of a mixture of    
three parts  of ,nitre with one of      
charcoal-dust1 and drop it into the     
retort through  its tube1 which must be 
uppermost1 and immediately stopped      
close4  ,a detonation instantly ensues1 
and the vapours that rise from the      

inflamed mixture of ,nitre and charcoal1
 passing out through the neck  of the   
retort into the adopters1 circulate     
therein for a while1 and at  last       
condense into a liquor4    ,when the    
detonation is over1 and the vapours     
condensed1 or nearly so1  drop into the 
retort another equal quantity of the    
mixture2 and repeat  this till you find 
there is liquor enough in the recipients
 to be  examined with ease and accuracy4
 ,this liquor is almost insipid1 and    
shews no tokens of acidity2 or at most  
but very slight ones4 ,it is  called    
,clyssus of ,nitre4    ,it is easy to   
perceive why several adopters are       
required in this  experiment1 and why a 
very small quantity of the mixture must 
be  introduced into the retort at once4 
,the explosion1 and the quantity of  air
 and vapours discharged on this         
occasion1 would quickly burst the       
vessels1 if all these precautions were  
not attended to4 ,this plainly  appears 
from the terrible effects of gun-powder1

 which is nothing but a  composition of 
,nitre1 ,sulphur1 and ,charcoal4        
,nitre is also decomposed and takes fire
 by the means of ,sulphur2 but  the     
circumstances and the result differ     
widely from those produced  therewith by
 charcoal1 or any other inflammable     
body4    ,nitre deflagrates with        
,sulphur on account of the ,phlogiston  
which the  latter contains4 ,if one part
 of ,sulphur be mixed with two or three 
parts of ,nitre1 and the mixture thrown 
by little and little into a  red-hot    
crucible1 upon every projection there   
arises a detonation  accompanied with a 
vivid flame4    ,the vapours discharged 
on this occasion have the mingled smell 
of  a ,sulphureous ,spirit and ,spirit  
of ,nitre2 and if they be collected  by 
means of a tubulated retort1 and such an
 apparatus of vessels as  was used in   
the preceding experiment1 the liquor    
contained in the  recipients is found to
 be an actual mixture of the ,acid of   
,sulphur1 the  ,sulphureous ,spirit1 and

 the ,acid of ,nitre2 the first being in
 greater  quantity than the other two1  
and the second greater than the last4   
,nor is the remainder after detonation a
 ,fixed ,alkali1 as in the former       
experiments2 but a ,neutral ,salt1      
consisting of the ,acid of ,sulphur     
combined with the ,alkali of ,nitre2 a  
sort of ,vitriolated ,tartar known  in  
medicine by the name of ,sal            
,polychrestum4    ,there are evidently  
two essential differences between this  
last  experiment and the preceding one4 
,what remains after the deflagration  of
 ,nitre with ,sulphur is not a ,fixed   
,alkali3 and1 moreover1 the vapours     
emitted in the operation are impregnated
 with a quantity of the ,nitrous  ,acid2
 which is not the case when ,nitre is   
decomposed by any other  inflammable    
matter which contains no ,vitriolic     
,acid4    ,the reason of these          
differences is naturally deducible from 
what hath  been already said concerning 
the properties of the ,vitriolic and    

,nitrous ,acids4 ,we have seen that by  
burning ,sulphur its ,acid is not       
decomposed1 but only separated from its 
,phlogiston4 ,we also know1  that its   
,acid has a great affinity with ,fixed  
,alkalis4 ,these things  being granted1 
it follows that1 as soon as the ,nitrous
 ,acid quits its  ,alkaline basis1 by   
deflagrating with the ,phlogiston of the
 ,sulphur1 the  ,acid of this very      
,sulphur1 being set at liberty by that  
deflagration1  must unite with the      
,alkaline basis deserted by the ,acid of
 ,nitre1 and  therewith form a ,neutral 
,salt4 ,hence1 instead of a ,fixed      
,alkali1 we  find at the end of the     
operation a sort of ,vitriolated        
,tartar2 the  ,acids of ,sulphur and of 
,vitriol being the same1 as is evident  
from what  hath been above said         
concerning them4    ,in order to        
discover the cause of the other         
phenomenon1 we must  recollect two      
things advanced in our ,elements of the 
,theory2 to wit1  that the affinity of  

the ,vitriolic ,acid with ,fixed        
,alkalis is greater  than that of the   
,nitrous ,acid2 and again1 that the     
,nitrous ,acid is not  capable of       
combining and taking fire with the      
,phlogiston1 but when it  is in the form
 of a ,neutral ,salt1 that is1 when it  
is united with some  alkaline1 earthy1  
or metallic basis4 ,if these two        
principles be applied  to the effect in 
question1 the solution is easy and      
natural4 ,for1 in  the deflagration of  
,nitre with ,sulphur1 the ,phlogiston is
 not the only  substance capable of     
separating the ,nitrous ,acid from its  
basis3 the  ,acid of the ,sulphur1 more 
and more of which is set at liberty as  
the  ,phlogiston is consumed1 is also   
capable of producing the same effect2   
but with this difference1 that the      
portion of the ,nitrous ,acid which is  
detached from its ,alkali by the        
,phlogiston is at the same instant set  
on fire and decomposed by that union2   
whereas the portion thereof which  is   

separated by the ,vitriolic ,acid1 being
 when so separated incapable  of uniting
 with the ,phlogiston1 and of consuming 
therewith1 is  preserved entire1 and    
rises in vapours1 together with that    
portion of  the ,vitriolic ,acid which  
could not unite with the basis of the   
,nitre4      ,,process ,,iii4    ,to    
decompose ,nitre by means of the        
,vitriolic ,acid4 ,the ,smoking ,spirit 
of ,nitre4 ,sal de duobus4 ,the         
,purification of ,spirit of ,nitre4     
,take equal parts of well purified      
,nitre and ,green ,vitriol3 dry the     
,nitre thoroughly1 and bruise it to a   
fine powder4 ,calcine the ,vitriol  to  
redness3 reduce it likewise to a very   
fine powder2 and mingle  these two      
substances well together4 ,put the      
mixture into an earthen  long-neck1 or a
 good glass retort coated1 of such a    
size that it may be  but half full4     
,set this vessel in a reverberating     
furnace covered with its dome2 apply  a 
large glass receiver1 having a small    

hole in its body1 stopped with  a little
 lute4 ,let this receiver be accurately 
luted to the retort  with the fat lute1 
and the joint covered with a slip of    
canvas smeared  with lute made of       
quick-lime and the white of an egg4     
,heat the vessels  very gradually4 ,the 
receiver will soon be filled with very  
dense red  vapours1 and drops will begin
 to distil from the nose of the retort4 
,continue the distillation1 increasing  
the fire a little when you  observe the 
drops to follow each other but slowly1  
so that above two  thirds of a minute   
passes between them2 and1 in order to   
let out the  redundant vapours1 open the
 small hole in the receiver from time to
  time4 ,towards the end of the         
operation raise the fire so as to make  
the retort red4 ,when you find that1    
even when the retort is red-hot1        
nothing more comes over1 unlute the     
receiver1 and without delay pour  the   
liquor it contains into a crystal       
bottle1 and close it with a  crystal    

stopple ground in its neck with emery4  
,this liquor will be of a  reddish      
yellow colour1 smoking exceedingly1 and 
the bottle containing  it will be       
constantly filled with red fumes like   
those observed in the  receiver4        
,,observations4    ,the ,vitriolic ,acid
 having a greater affinity with ,fixed  
,alkalis than  with any other substance1
 the ,phlogiston excepted1 and being in 
the  ,vitriol united with a ferruginous 
basis1 will naturally quit that basis   
to join with the ,fixed ,alkali of the  
,nitre2 the ,acid whereof being  weaker 
than the ,vitriolic1 as we have already 
observed on several  occasions1 must    
needs be thereby expelled from its      
basis4 ,the ,nitre  therefore is        
decomposed by the ,vitriol1 and its     
,acid being set at  liberty1 is carried 
up by the force of the fire4    ,indeed 
the ,nitrous ,acid1 being thus separated
 from its alkaline  basis1 might be     
expected to combine with the ferruginous
 basis of  the ,vitriol3 but as it has1 

like all other ,acids1 much less        
affinity  with ,metallic substances than
 with ,alkalis1 even a moderate degree  
of  fire is sufficient to separate it   
from them4 ,moreover1 this ,acid hath   
either no effect1 or very little1 upon  
iron that has lost much of its          
,phlogiston by contracting an union with
 any ,acid2 which is the case of  the   
ferruginous basis of ,vitriol4    ,by   
the process here delivered a very       
strong1 perfectly dephlegmated1  and    
vastly smoking ,spirit of ,nitre is     
obtained4 ,if the precautions of  drying
 the ,nitre and calcining the ,vitriol  
be neglected1 the ,acid that  comes     
over1 greedily attracting the water     
contained in these salts1  will be very 
aqueous1 will not smoke1 and will be    
almost colourless1  with a very slight  
tinge of lemon4    ,the fumes of highly 
concentrated ,spirit of ,nitre1 such as 
that obtained  by the above process1 are
 light1 corrosive1 and very dangerous to
 the  lungs2 being no other than the    

most dephlegmated part of the ,nitrous  
,acid4 ,the person therefore who unlutes
 the vessels1 or pours the liquor  out  
of the receiver into the bottle1 ought  
with the greatest caution  to avoid     
drawing them in with his breath2 and for
 that reason ought to  place himself so 
that a current of air1 either natural or
 artificial1  may carry them off another
 way4 ,it is also necessary that care be
  taken1 during the operation1 to give  
the vapours a little vent every  now and
 then1 by opening the small hole in the 
recipient2 for they are  so elastic1    
that1 if too closely confined1 they will
 burst the vessels4    ,when the        
operation is over1 you will find a red  
mass at the bottom of  the retort1 cast1
 as it were1 in a mould4 ,this is a     
,neutral ,salt of the  nature of        
,vitriolated ,tartar1 resulting from the
 union of the ,acid of  the ,vitriol    
with the ,alkaline basis of the ,nitre4 
,the ferruginous basis of the ,vitriol1 
which is mixed with this salt1  gives it

 the red colour4 ,to separate it        
therefrom1 you must pulverise  it1      
dissolve it in boiling water1 and filter
 the solution several times  through    
brown paper2 because the ferruginous    
earth of the ,vitriol is  so fine1 that 
some of it will pass through the first  
time4 ,when the  solution is very clear1
 and deposites no sediment1 let it be   
set to  shoot1 and it will yield        
crystals of ,vitriolated ,tartar2 to    
which  ,chymists have given the peculiar
 title of ,sal de duobus4    ,in this   
,caput mortuum we frequently find1      
besides the ferruginous  earth of       
,vitriol1 a portion of ,nitre and       
,vitriol not decomposed2 either  because
 the two salts were not thoroughly      
mingled1 or because the fire  was not   
raised high enough towards the end of   
the operation4    ,nitre may also be    
decomposed1 and its acid obtained1 by   
the  interposition of any of the other  
,vitriols1 ,alums1 ,gypsums1 ,boles1    
,clays2 in short1 by means of any       

compound in which the ,vitriolic ,acid  
is found1 provided it have not a ,fixed 
,alkali for its basis4    ,the          
distillers of ,aqua fortis1 who make    
large quantities at a time1  and who use
 the least chargeable methods1 do their 
business by the  means of earths        
impregnated with the ,vitriolic ,acid2  
such as ,clays  and ,boles4 ,with these 
earths they accurately mix the ,nitre   
from which  they intend to draw their   
,spirit3 this mixture they put into     
large  oblong earthen pots1 having a    
very short curved neck1 which enters a  
recipient of the same matter and form4  
,these vessels they place in two  rows  
opposite to each other in long furnaces1
 and cover them over with  bricks       
cemented with ,windsor-loam1 which      
serves for a reverberatory3  then they  
light the fire in the furnace1 making it
 at first very small1  only to warm the 
vessels2 after which they throw in wood1
 and raise the  fire till the pots grow 
quite red-hot1 in which degree they keep

 it up  till the distillation is        
entirely finished4    ,the ,acid of     
,nitre may also be separated from its   
basis by means of the  pure ,vitriolic  
,acid4 ,for this purpose the ,nitre from
 which you mean to  extract the ,acid   
must be finely pulverized1 put into a   
glass retort1  and a third of its weight
 of concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol poured
 on it3  the retort must be placed in a 
reverberating furnace1 and a receiver1  
like that used in the preceding         
operation1 expeditiously applied4    ,as
 soon as the ,oil of ,vitriol touches   
the ,nitre the mixture grows hot1  and  
copious red fumes begin to appear3 some 
drops of the ,acid come over  even      
before the fire is kindled in the       
furnace4    ,on this occasion the fire  
must be moderate2 because the ,vitriolic
 ,acid1  being clogged by no basis1 acts
 upon the ,nitre much more briskly1 and 
with much greater effect1 than when it  
is not pure4    ,this operation may be  
performed by a sand-heat2 which is a    

speedy and  commodious way of obtaining 
the ,nitrous ,acid4 ,in other respects  
the  precautions recommended in the     
preceding experiment must be carefully  
observed here1 both in distilling the   
,acid and in taking it out of the       
receiver4    ,the ,spirit of ,nitre     
extracted by this method is as strong1  
and smokes  as much1 as that obtained by
 calcined ,vitriol1 provided the ,oil of
  ,vitriol made use of be well          
concentrated2 but it is generally       
tainted  by the admixture of a small    
portion of the ,vitriolic ,acid1 which1 
having no basis of its own to restrain  
it1 is carried up by the heat  before it
 can lay hold of the basis of the       
,nitre4    ,there are several           
experiments in ,chymistry that succeed  
equally well  whether the ,nitrous ,acid
 be or be not thus adulterated with a   
mixture  of the ,vitriolic ,acid2 but   
there are some1 as we shall see1 that   
will not succeed without a ,spirit of   
,nitre so mixed4 ,if the ,acid be       

distilled with a view to such           
experiments1 it must be kept as it is4  
,but most experiments require the       
,spirit of ,nitre to be absolutely pure2
  and if it be intended for such1 it    
must be perfectly cleansed from the     
,vitriolic taint4    ,this is easily    
effected by mixing your ,spirit with    
very pure ,nitre1  and distilling it a  
second time4 ,the ,vitriolic ,acid1 with
 which this  ,spirit of ,nitre is       
adulterated1 coming in contact with a   
great quantity  of undecomposed ,nitre1 
unites with its ,alkaline basis1 and    
expels a  proportionable quantity of the
 ,nitrous ,acid4    ,in the retort made 
use of to distil the ,nitrous ,acid1 by 
means of the  pure ,vitriolic ,acid1 is 
found a ,caput mortuum1 differing from  
that  left after the distillation of the
 same ,acid by the interposition of     
,vitriol1 in as much as it contains no  
red ferruginous earth4 ,this is  a very 
white saline mass1 moulded in the bottom
 of the retort3 if you  pound it1       

dissolve it in boiling water1 and       
evaporate the solution1  it will shoot  
into crystals of ,vitriolated ,tartar3  
sometimes also  it contains a portion of
 undecomposed ,nitre1 which shoots after
 the  ,vitriolated ,tartar1 because it  
is much more soluble in water4          
,,chap4 ,,iii4    ,of the ,,marine      
,,acid4      ,,process ,i4    ,to       
extract ,sea-salt from ,sea-water1 and  
from ,brine-springs4 ,epsom  ,salt4     
,filter the salt-water from which you   
intend to extract the salt3  evaporate  
it by boiling till you see on its       
surface a dark pellicle3  this consists 
wholly of little crystals of salt just  
beginning to  shoot3 now slacken the    
fire1 that the brine may evaporate more 
slowly1  and without any agitation4 ,the
 crystals1 which at first were very     
small1 will become larger1 and form     
hollow truncated pyramids1 the  apices  
whereof will point downwards1 and their 
bases be even with the  surface of the  
liquor4    ,these pyramidal crystals are

 only collections of small cubical      
crystals  concreted into this form4     
,when they have acquired a certain      
magnitude  they fall to the bottom of   
the liquor4 ,when they come to be in    
such  heaps as almost to reach the      
surface of the liquor1 decant it from   
them1 and continue the evaporation till 
no more crystals of ,sea-salt  will     
shoot4      ,,observations4    ,the     
,acid of ,sea-salt is scarce ever found1
 either in sea-water or in  the earth1  
otherwise than united with a fixed      
alkali of a particular  kind1 which is  
its natural basis2 and consequently it  
is in the form of  a ,neutral ,salt4    
,this salt is plentifully dissolved in  
the waters of the  ocean1 and when      
obtained therefrom bears the name of    
,sea-salt4 ,it is  also found in the    
earth in vast crystalline masses1 and is
 then called  ,sal-gem3 so that         
,sea-salt and ,sal-gem are but one and  
the same sort  of salt1 differing very  
little from each other1 except as to the

 places  where they are found4    ,in   
the earth are also found springs and    
fountains1 whose waters are  strong     
brines1 a great deal of ,sea-salt being 
dissolved in them4 ,these  springs      
either rise directly from the sea1 or   
run through some mines  of ,sal-gem1 of 
which they take up a quantity in their  
passage4    ,as the same1 or at least   
nearly the same1 quantity of ,sea-salt  
will  continue dissolved in cold water  
as boiling water will take up1 it       
cannot shoot1 as ,nitre does1 by the    
mere cooling of the water in which  it  
is dissolved3 it crystallizes only by   
the means of evaporation1  which        
continually lessens the proportion of   
the water to the salt2 so  that it is   
always capable of containing just so    
much the less ,sea-salt  the more there 
is crystallized4    ,the brine should   
not boil after you perceive the pellicle
 of little  crystals beginning to form  
on its surface2 for the calmness of the 
liquor allows them to form more         

regularly1 and become larger4 ,nor after
  this should the evaporation be hurried
 on too fast2 for a saline crust  would 
form on the liquor1 which1 by preventing
 the vapours from being  carried off1   
would obstruct the crystallization4     
,if the evaporation be continued after  
the liquor ceases to yield any  crystals
 of ,sea-salt1 other crystals will be   
obtained of an oblong  four-sided form1 
which have a bitter taste1 and are      
almost always  moist4 ,this sort of salt
 is known by the name of ,epsom ,salt1  
which  it owes to a salt spring in      
,england1 from the water of which it was
  first extracted4 ,this salt1 or rather
 saline compound1 is a congeries  of    
,glauber's salt and ,sea-salt1 in a     
manner confounded together1 and  mixed  
with some of the ,mother of ,sea-salt1  
in which is contained a  kind of        
bituminous matter4 ,these two ,neutral  
,salts1 which constitute  the ,epsom    
,salt1 may be easily separated from each
 other1 by means of  crystallization    

only4 ,epsom ,salt is purgative and     
bitter2 and therefore  named ,sal       
,catharticum ,amarum1 or bitter purging 
,salts4    ,there are different methods 
used in great works for obtaining       
,sea-salt  out of water in which it is  
dissolved4 ,the simplest and easiest is 
that  practised in ,france1 and in all  
those countries which are not colder4   
,on the sea-shore they lay out a sort of
 broad shallow pits1 pans1 or  rather   
ponds1 which the sea fills with the tide
 of flood4 ,when the  ponds are thus    
filled1 they stop their communication   
with the sea1 and  leave the water to   
evaporate by the heat of the sun2 by    
which means  all the salt contained in  
it necessarily crystallizes4 ,these pits
 are  called ,salt ,ponds4 ,salt can be 
made in this way in the summer-time     
only2 at least in ,france1 and other    
countries of the same temperature3  for 
during the winter1 when the sun has less
 power and rains are  frequent1 this    
method is not practicable4    ,for this 

reason1 as it often rains in the        
province of ,normandy1 the  inhabitants 
take another way to extract ,salt from  
sea-water4 ,the  labourers employed for 
this purpose raise heaps of sand on the 
shore1  so that the tide waters and     
drenches them when it flows1 and leaves 
the  sand dry when it ebbs4 ,during the 
interval between two tides of flood  the
 sun and the air easily carry off the   
moisture that was left1 and  so the sand
 remains impregnated with all the salt  
that was contained  in the evaporated   
water4 ,thus they let it acquire as much
 salt as it  can by several returns of  
flood1 and then wash it out with fresh  
water1  which they evaporate over a fire
 in leaden boilers4    ,to obtain the   
,salt from brine-springs1 the water need
 only be  evaporated3 but as several of 
these springs contain too little salt   
to pay the charges that would be        
incurred1 if the evaporation were       
effected by the force of fire only1 the 
manufacturers have fallen upon  a less  

expensive method of getting rid of the  
greatest part of the  water1 and        
preparing the brine for crystallization1
 in much less time1  and with much less 
fire1 than would otherwise have been    
necessary4    ,the method consists in   
making the water fall from a certain    
heighth on  a great many small spars of 
wood1 which divide it into particles    
like  rain4 ,this is performed under    
sheds open to all the winds1 which pass 
freely through this artificial shower4  
,by this means the water presents  to   
the air a great extent of surface1 being
 indeed reduced almost  entirely to     
surface1 and the evaporation is carried 
on with great ease  and expedition4 ,the
 water is raised by pumps to the heighth
 from which  it is intended to fall#f4  
#f ,the ,marquis de ,montalembert1 in a 
,memoir read before the ,academy    of  
,sciences1 proposes a new method of     
effecting these evaporations1           
together with some considerable         
improvements in the structure and       

disposition of the buildings necessary  
for that purpose4 ,they are    called by
 the ,french ,batiments de ,graduation2 
which may properly    enough be rendered
 ,brine-houses4      ,,process ,,ii4    
,experiments concerning the             
decomposition of ,sea-salt1 by means of 
the  ,phlogiston4 ,kunckel's            
,phosphorus4    ,of pure urine that has 
fermented five or six days take a       
quantity  in proportion to the quantity 
of phosphorus you intend to make3  it   
requires about one third part of a      
hogshead to make a dram of  ,phosphorus4
 ,evaporate it in iron pans1 till it    
become clotted1 hard1  black1 and nearly
 like chimney-soot2 at which time it    
will be reduced  to about a sixtieth    
part of its original weight before      
evaporation4    ,when the urine is      
brought to this condition put it in     
several portions  into so many iron     
pots1 under which you must keep a pretty
 brisk fire  so as to make their bottoms
 red1 and stir it incessantly till the  

volatile salt and the fetid oil be      
almost wholly dissipated1 till the      
matter cease to emit any smoke1 and till
 it smell like peach-blossoms4  ,then   
put out the fire1 and pour on the       
matter1 which will now be  reduced to a 
powder1 somewhat more than twice its    
weight of warm  water4 ,stir it about in
 this water1 and leave it to soak       
therein for  twenty-four hours4 ,pour   
off the water by inclination2 dry the   
drenched  matter1 and pulverize it4 ,the
 previous calcination carries off from  
the  matter about a third of its weight1
 and the lixiviation washes out half    
the remainder4    ,with what remains    
thus calcined1 washed1 and dried1 mix   
half its  weight of gravel1 or yellow   
freestone rasped1 having sifted out and 
thrown away all the finest particles4   
,river sand is not proper on this       
occasion1 because it flies in a hot     
fire4 ,then add to this mixture a       
sixteenth part of its weight of         
charcoal1 made of beech1 or of any      

other wood except oak1 because that also
 flies4 ,moisten the whole  with as much
 water as will bring it to a stiff      
paste1 by working and  kneading it with 
your hands3 now introduce it into your  
retort1 taking  care not to daub its    
neck4 ,the retort must be of the best   
earth1 and of  such a size1 that when   
your matter is in it1 a full third      
thereof shall  still be empty4    ,place
 your retort1 thus charged1 in a        
reverberating furnace1 so  proportioned1
 that there may be an interval of two   
inches all round  between the sides of  
the furnace and the bowl of the retort1 
even where  it contracts to form the    
neck1 which should stand inclined at an 
angle  of sixty degrees4 ,stop all the  
apertures of the furnace1 except the    
doors of the fire-place and ash-hole4   
,fit on to the retort a large glass     
ballon two thirds full of water1  and   
lute them together1 as in distilling the
 ,smoking ,spirit of ,nitre4  ,in the   
hinder part of this ballon1 a little    

above the surface of the  water1 a small
 hole must be bored4 ,this hole is to be
 stopped with a  small peg of           
birch-wood1 which must slip in and out  
very easily1 and  have a small knob to  
prevent its falling into the ballon4    
,this peg  is to be pulled out from time
 to time1 that by applying the hand to  
the hole it may be known whether the    
air1 rarefied by the head of the        
retort1 issues out with too much or too 
little force4    ,if the air rushes out 
with too much rapidity1 and with a      
hissing  noise1 the door of the ash-hole
 must be entirely shut1 in order to     
slacken the fire4 ,if it do not strike  
pretty smartly against the  hand1 that  
door must be opened wider1 and large    
coals thrown into the  fire-place to    
quicken the fire immediately4    ,the   
operation usually lasts four and twenty 
hours2 and the following  signs shew    
that it will succeed1 provided the      
retort resist the fire4    ,you must    
begin the operation with putting some   

unlighted charcoal in  the ash-hole1 and
 a little lighted charcoal at the door  
thereof1 in  order to warm the retort   
very slowly4 ,when the whole is kindled1
 push  it into the ash-hole1 and close  
the door thereof with a tile4 ,this     
moderate heat brings over the phlegm of 
the mixture4 ,the same degree of  fire  
must be kept up four hours1 after which 
some coals may be laid on  the grate of 
the fire-place1 which the fire          
underneath will kindle by  degrees4     
,with this second heat brought nearer   
the retort1 the ballon  grows warm1 and 
is filled with white vapours1 which have
 the smell of  fetid oil4 ,in four hours
 after1 this vessel will grow cool and  
clear2  and then you must open the door 
of the ash-hole one inch1 throw fresh   
coals into the fire-place every three   
minutes1 and every time shut the  door  
of it1 lest the cold air from without   
should strike against the  bottom of the
 retort and crack it4    ,when the fire 
has been kept up to this degree for     

about two hours1 the  inside of the     
ballon begins to be netted over with a  
volatile salt of a  singular nature1    
which cannot be driven up but by a very 
violent fire1  and which smells pretty  
strong of peach-kernels4 ,care must be  
taken  that this concrete salt do not   
stop the little hole in the ballon3 for 
in that case it would burst1 the retort 
being then red-hot1 and the  air        
exceedingly rarefied4 ,the water in the 
ballon1 being heated by the  vicinity of
 the furnace1 exhales vapours which     
dissolve this sprigged  salt1 and the   
ballon clears up in half an hour after  
it has ceased  rising4    ,in about     
three hours from the first appearance of
 this salt1 the  ballon is again filled 
with new vapours1 which smell like ,sal 
,ammoniac  thrown upon burning coals4   
,they condense on the sides of the      
receiver  into a salt which is not      
branched like the former1 but appears in
 long  perpendicular streaks1 which the 
vapours of the water do not dissolve4   

,these white vapours are the            
fore-runners of the ,phosphorus1 and a  
little before they cease to rise they   
lose their first smell of ,sal          
,ammoniac1 and acquire the odour of     
garlic4    ,as they ascend with great   
rapidity1 the little hole must be       
frequently  opened1 to observe whether  
the hissing be not too strong3 for1 in  
that  case1 it would be necessary to    
shut the door of the ash-hole quite     
close4 ,these white vapours continue two
 hours4 ,when you find they cease       
rising1 make a small passage through the
 dome1 by opening  some of its          
registers1 that the flame may just begin
 to draw4 ,keep up  the fire in this    
mean state till the first volatile      
,phosphorus begin to  appear4    ,this  
appears in about three hours after the  
white vapours first begin  to rise4 ,in 
order to discover it1 pull out the      
little birchen peg once  every minute1  
and rub it against some hot part of the 
furnace1 where it  will leave a trail of

 light1 if there be any ,phosphorus upon
 it4    ,soon after you observe this    
sign1 there will issue out through the  
little hole of the ballon a stream of   
blueish light1 which continues of  a    
greater or shorter extent to the end of 
the operation4 ,this stream or  spout of
 light does not burn4 ,if you hold your 
finger against it for  twenty or thirty 
seconds1 the light will adhere to it2   
and if you rub  that finger over your   
hand1 the light will besmear it1 and    
render it  luminous4    ,but from time  
to time this streamer darts out to the  
length of seven  or eight inches1       
snapping and emitting sparks of fire2   
and then it  burns all combustible      
bodies that come in its way4 ,when you  
observe  this1 you must manage the fire 
very warily1 and shut the door of the   
ash-hole quite close1 yet without       
ceasing to throw coals into the         
fire-place every two minutes4    ,the   
,volatile ,phosphorus continues two     
hours2 after which the little  spout of 

light contracts to the length of a line 
or two3 and now is the  time for pushing
 your fire to the utmost3 immediately   
set the door of  the ash-hole wide open1
 throw billets of wood into it1 unstop  
all the  registers of the reverberatory1
 supply the fire-place with large coals 
every minute3 in short1 for six or seven
 hours all the inside of the  furnace   
must be kept of a white heat1 so that   
the retort shall not be                 
distinguishable4    ,in this fierce     
extremity of heat the true ,phosphorus  
distils like an  oil1 or like melted    
wax3 one part thereof floats on the     
water in the  recipient1 the other falls
 to the bottom4 ,at last1 the operation 
is  known to be quite over when the     
upper part of the ballon1 in which the  
volatile ,phosphorus appears condensed  
in a blackish film1 begins to  grow red3
 for this shews that the ,phosphorus is 
burnt where the red  spot appears4 ,you 
must now stop all the registers1 and    
shut all the  doors of the furnace1 in  

order to smother the fire2 and then     
close  up the little hole in the ballon 
with fat lute or bees-wax4 ,in this     
condition the whole must be left for two
 days2 because1 the vessels  must not be
 separated till they are perfectly cold1
 lest the ,phosphorus  should take fire4
    ,as soon as the fire is out1 the    
ballon1 which is then in the dark1      
presents a most agreeable object3 all   
the empty part thereof above  the water 
seems filled with a beautiful blue      
light3 which continues  for seven or    
eight hours1 or as long as the ballon   
keeps warm1 never  disappearing till it 
is cooled4    ,when the furnace is quite
 cold take out the vessels1 and separate
 them  from each other as neatly as     
possible4 ,with a linen cloth wipe away 
all the black stuff you find in the     
mouth of the ballon2 for if that  filth 
should mix with the ,phosphorus1 it     
would hinder it from being  transparent 
when moulded4 ,this must be done with   
great expedition3  after which pour into

 the ballon two or three quarts of cold 
water1 to  accelerate the precipitation 
of the ,phosphorus that swims at top4   
,then  agitate the water in the ballon1 
to rinse out all the ,phosphorus that   
may stick to the sides3 pour out all the
 water thus shaken and turbid1  into a  
very clean earthen pan1 and let it stand
 till it grows clear4  ,then decant this
 first useless water1 and on the        
blackish sediment1  left at the bottom  
of the pan1 pour some boiling water to  
melt the  ,phosphorus2 which thereupon  
unites with the fuliginous matter1 or   
volatile ,phosphorus1 that precipitated 
with it1 both together forming a  mass  
of the colour of slate4 ,when this      
water1 in which you have melted  the    
,phosphorus1 is cool enough1 take out   
the ,phosphorus1 throw it into  cold    
water1 and therein break it into little 
bits in order to mould it4    ,then take
 a matras1 having a long neck somewhat  
wider next the body  than at its mouth3 
cut off half the body1 so as to make a  

funnel of  the neck-part1 the smaller   
end of which must be stopped with a     
cork4  ,the first mould being thus      
prepared1 plunge it endwise1 with its   
mouth uppermost1 in a vessel full of    
boiling water1 and fill it with  that   
water4 ,into this funnel throw the      
little bits of your slate-like  mass1   
which will melt again in this hot water1
 and fall so melted to  the bottom of   
the tube4 ,stir this melted matter with 
an iron wire1 to  promote the separation
 of the ,phosphorus from the fuliginous 
matter  with which it is fouled1 and    
which1 being less ponderous than the    
,phosphorus1 will gradually rise above  
it towards the upper part of the        
cylinder4    ,keep the water in the     
vessel as hot as at first1 till1 on     
taking out  the tube1 you see the       
,phosphorus clean and transparent4 ,let 
the clear  tube cool a little1 and then 
set it in cold water1 where the         
,phosphorus  will congeal as it cools4  
,when it is perfectly congealed1 pull   

out the  cork1 and with a small rod1    
near as big as the tube1 push the       
cylinder  of ,phosphorus towards the    
mouth of the funnel1 where the feculency
  lies4 ,cut off the black part of the  
cylinder1 and keep it apart3 for  when  
you have got a quantity thereof1 you may
 melt it over again in the  same manner1
 and separate the clean ,phosphorus     
which it still contains4  ,as to the    
rest of the cylinder which is clean and 
transparent1 if you  intend to mould it 
into smaller cylinders1 you may cut it  
in slices1  and melt it again by the    
help of boiling water in glass tubes of 
smaller dimensions4      ,,observations4
    ,this process for making ,phosphorus
 is copied from the ,memoirs of the     
,academy of ,sciences for the ,year     
#agcg2 where it is described by ,m4     
,hellot1 with so much accuracy1         
clearness1 and precision1 that ,i       
thought  ,i could not do better than    
transcribe it1 without departing from   
the  author's own expressions1 for the  

sake of such as may not have those      
,memoirs4 ,we shall take occasion1 in   
these observations1 to point out  some  
essential circumstances which ,i have   
omitted in the description  of the      
,process1 that ,i might not break the   
connection between the  phenomena that  
happen in the course of this experiment4
    ,it is proper to observe1 in the    
first place1 that one of the most usual 
causes of miscarriage in this operation 
is a defect of the requisite  qualities 
in the retort employed4 ,it is          
absolutely necessary to have  that      
vessel made of the best earth1 and so   
well made that it shall be  capable of  
resisting the utmost violence of fire1  
continued for a very  long time2 as     
appears by the description of the       
process4 ,the retorts  commonly sold by 
potters1 and other earthen-ware men1 are
 not fit for  this operation2 and ,m4   
,hellot was obliged to send to          
,hesse-,cassel for  such as he wanted4  
,we shall1 in the second place1 observe 

with ,m4 ,hellot1 that1 before  you set 
your retort in the furnace1 it is proper
 to make an essay of  your matter1 to   
see if there be reason to hope for      
success4 ,for this  purpose put about an
 ounce thereof into a small crucible1   
and heat it  till the vessel be red4    
,the mixture1 after having smoked1 ought
 to chop  or crack without puffing up1  
or even rising in the least4 ,from these
  cracks will issue undulating flames1  
white and blueish1 darting upwards  with
 rapidity4 ,this is the first volatile  
,phosphorus1 which occasions  all the   
danger of the operation4 ,when these    
first flashes are over1  increase the   
heat of your matter by laying a large   
live coal upon the  crucible4 ,you will 
then see the second ,phosphorus1 like a 
luminous1  steady vapour1 of a colour   
inclining to violet1 covering the whole 
surface of the matter3 it continues for 
a very long time1 and diffuses  a smell 
of garlic1 which is the distinguishing  
odour of the ,phosphorus  you are       

seeking4    ,when this luminous vapour  
is entirely gone1 pour the red hot      
matter  out of the crucible upon an iron
 plate4 ,if you do not find one drop of 
salt in fusion1 but that1 on the        
contrary1 the whole falls readily into  
powder1 it is a proof that your matter  
was sufficiently lixiviated1 and  that  
it contains no more fixed ,salt1 or     
,sea-salt1 if you will1 than  is        
requisite4 ,if you find on the plate a  
drop of salt coagulated1 it  shews that 
there is too much left in1 and that     
there is danger of your  miscarrying in 
the operation2 because the redundant    
salt would corrode1  and eat through the
 retort4 ,in this case your matter must 
be washed  again1 and then sufficiently 
dried4    ,our third observation shall  
be concerning the furnace proper to be  
employed in this operation4 ,this       
furnace must be so constructed1 that1   
within a narrow compass it may give a   
heat at least equal to that of  a       
glass-house furnace1 or rather greater1 

especially during the last  seven or    
eight hours of the operation4 ,m4       
,hellot in his ,memoir gives an  exact  
description of such a furnace4    ,as   
certain accidents may happen in the     
course of the operation1 some           
precautions are to be taken against     
them4 ,for instance1 if the ballon      
should break while the ,phosphorus is   
distilling1 and any of it should  fall  
on combustible bodies1 it would set them
 on fire1 and probably  burn the        
laboratory1 because it is not to be     
extinguished without the  greatest      
difficulty4 ,the furnace must therefore 
be erected under some  vault1 or upon a 
bed of brick-work raised under some     
chimney that draws  well3 nor must any  
furniture or utensil of wood be left    
near it4 ,if a  little flaming          
,phosphorus should fall on a man's legs 
or hands1 in less  than three minutes it
 would burn its way to the very bone4   
,in such a  case nothing but urine will 
stop its progress4    ,if the retort    

crack while the ,phosphorus is          
distilling1 there is an  unsuccessful   
end of your operation4 ,it is easy to   
perceive this by the  stink of garlic   
which you will smell about the furnace2 
and moreover1  the flame that issues    
through the apertures of the            
reverberatory will  be of a beautiful   
violet colour4 ,the ,acid of ,sea-salt  
always gives this  colour to the flame  
of such matters as are burnt along with 
it4 ,but  if the retort break before the
 ,phosphorus hath made its appearance1  
its contents may be saved by throwing a 
number of cold bricks into the          
fire-place1 and upon them a little water
 to quench the fire at once4  ,all these
 useful observations we owe also to ,m4 
,hellot4    ,the ,phosphorus here       
described was first discovered by a     
citizen  of ,hamburgh1 named ,brandt1   
who worked upon urine in search of the  
,philosopher's stone4 ,afterwards two   
other skilful ,chymists1 who knew       
nothing more of the process1 than that  

,phosphorus was obtained from  urine1   
or1 in general1 from the human body1    
likewise endeavoured  to discover it2   
and each of them separately did actually
 make the  discovery4 ,these two        
,chymists were ,kunckel and ,boyle4     
,the former perfected the discovery1 and
 found out a method of making it  in    
considerable quantities at a time2 which
 occasioned it to be called  ,kunckel's 
,phosphorus4 ,the other1 who was an     
,english gentleman1 had  not time to    
bring his discovery to perfection1 and  
contented himself  with lodging a       
voucher of his having discovered it in  
the hands of the  ,secretary of the     
,royal ,society of ,london1 who gave him
 a certificate  thereof4    ,though     
,brandt1 says ,m4 ,hellot1 who had      
before this sold his secret  to a       
,chymist named ,krafft1 sold it         
afterwards to several other persons1    
and even at a very low rate2 and though 
,mr4 ,boyle published the process  for  
making it2 yet it is extremely probable 

that both of them kept in  their own    
hands the master-key2 ,i mean1 the      
particular management  necessary to make
 the operation succeed3 for1 till       
,kunckel found it  out1 no other        
,chymist ever made any considerable     
quantity thereof1  except ,mr4 ,godfrey 
,hankwitz1 an ,english ,chymist1 to whom
 ,mr4 ,boyle  revealed the whole        
mystery4    ,nevertheless1 continues he1
 we are very far from alledging that    
all those who have described this       
operation meaned to impose upon the     
world3 but we conceive that most of them
 having observed luminous  vapours in   
the ballon1 and some sparks about the   
juncture of the  vessels1 were contented
 with those appearances4 ,and thus it   
came to  pass1 that1 after ,kunckel and 
,boyle died1 ,mr4 ,godfrey ,hankwitz was
 the  only ,chymist that could supply   
,europe therewith2 on which account it  
is  likewise very well known by the name
 of ,english ,phosphorus4    ,almost all
 the ,chymists consider ,phosphorus as a

 substance consisting  of the ,acid of  
,sea-salt combined with the ,phlogiston1
 in the same  manner as ,sulphur        
consists of the ,vitriolic ,acid        
combined with the  ,phlogiston4 ,this   
opinion is founded on the following     
principles4    ,first1 ,urine abounds   
with ,sea-salt1 and contains also a     
great deal of  ,phlogiston2 now these   
are the ingredients of which they       
conjecture  ,phosphorus to be composed4 
,secondly1 ,phosphorus has many of the  
properties of ,sulphur2 such  as being  
soluble in oils2 melting with a gentle  
heat2 being very  combustible2 burning  
without any soot2 giving a vivid and    
blueish  flame2 and lastly1 leaving an  
acid liquor when burnt3 sensible proofs 
that it differs from ,sulphur in nothing
 but the nature of its ,acid4           
,thirdly1 this ,acid of ,phosphorus1    
being mixed with a solution of silver   
in ,spirit of ,nitre1 precipitates the  
silver1 and this precipitate is  a true 
,luna cornea1 which appears to be more  

volatile even than the  common sort2 as 
,m4 ,hellot tells us1 who made the      
experiment4 ,this  fact proves          
incontestably that the ,acid of         
,phosphorus is of the same  nature with 
that of ,sea-salt3 for all ,chymists    
know that the property  of precipitating
 silver in a ,luna cornea belongs to the
 ,marine ,acid  only4    ,fourthly1 ,m4 
,stahl observes1 that1 if ,sea-salt be  
cast on live coals1  they instantly burn
 with great activity2 then they emit a  
very  vivid flame1 and are much sooner  
consumed than if none of this salt  had 
touched them2 that ,sea-salt in         
substance1 which will bear the  violence
 of fire a considerable time when fused 
in a crucible1 without  sustaining any  
sensible diminution1 yet evaporates very
 quickly1 and is  reduced to white      
flowers1 by the immediate contact of    
burning coals2  and1 lastly1 that the   
flame which rises on this occasion is of
 a blue  colour inclining to violet1    
especially if it be not thrown directly 

on the coals themselves1 but kept in    
fusion amidst burning coals1 in  a      
crucible so placed that the vapour of   
the ,salt may join with the  enflamed   
,phlogiston as it rises from the coals4 
,these experiments of ,m4 ,stahl's      
prove1 that the ,phlogiston acts upon   
the acid of ,sea-salt1 even while it is 
combined with its alkaline  basis4 ,the 
flame that appears on this occasion may 
be considered as an  imperfect          
,phosphorus3 and indeed its colour is   
exactly like that of  ,phosphorus4      
,all the facts above related evince1    
that the ,acid of ,phosphorus is akin   
to that of ,sea-salt2 or rather that it 
is the very same4 ,but there are  other 
facts which prove that this ,acid       
undergoes some change at least1  some   
peculiar preparation1 before it enters  
into the composition of a  true         
,phosphorus1 and that1 when extricated  
therefrom by burning1 it is  not a pure 
,acid of ,sea-salt1 but is still        
adulterated with a mixture of  some     

other substance1 which makes it         
considerably different from that  ,acid4
 ,for these observations we are obliged 
to ,m4 ,marggraff1 of the  ,academy of  
,sciences at ,berlin1 a celebrated      
,chymist4 ,i shall presently  give an   
account of his principal experiments as 
succinctly as possible4    ,m4          
,marggraff hath also published a process
 for making ,phosphorus1 and  assures   
us1 that by means thereof we may obtain 
in less time1 with less  heat1 less     
trouble1 and less expence1 a greater    
quantity of ,phosphorus  than by any    
other method4 ,his operation is this3   
,he takes two pounds of ,sal ,ammoniac  
in powder1 which he mixes  accurately   
with four pounds of ,minium4 ,this      
mixture he puts into  a glass retort1   
and with a graduated fire draws off a   
very sharp1  volatile1 urinous spirit4  
,we observed in our theoretical         
,elements1 that some metallic substances
  have the property of decomposing ,sal 
,ammoniac1 and separating its  volatile 

,alkali2 concerning which phenomenon we 
there gave our opinion4  ,minium1 which 
is a calx of lead1 is one of those      
metallic substances4  ,in this          
experiment it decomposes the ,sal       
,ammoniac1 and separates its  volatile  
,alkali2 what remains in the retort is a
 combination of the  ,minium with the   
,acid of the ,sal ,ammoniac1 which is   
well known to be  the same with the     
,marine ,acid2 and consequently the     
residue of this  operation is a sort of 
,plumbum corneum4    ,the quantity      
thereof is four pounds eight ounces4 ,of
 this he mixes  three pounds with nine  
or ten pounds of urine1 that has stood  
putrefying for two months1 evaporated to
 the consistence of honey4  ,these he   
mixes by little and little in an iron   
pan over the fire1  stirring the mixture
 from time to time4 ,then he adds half a
 pound of  charcoal-dust1 and evaporates
 the matter1 kept continually stirring1 
till the whole be brought to a black    
powder4 ,he next distils the  mixture in

 a glass retort with degrees of fire1   
which he raises towards  the end so as  
to make the retort red-hot1 in order to 
expel all the  urinous spirit1          
superfluous oil1 and ammoniacal salt4   
,the distillation  being finished1 there
 remains nothing in the retort but a    
very friable  caput mortuum4    ,this   
remainder he pulverises again1 and      
throws a pinch thereof on  live coals1  
thereby to discover whether or no the   
matter be rightly  prepared1 and in     
order for yielding ,phosphorus4 ,if it  
be so1 it  presently emits an arsenical 
odour1 and a blue undulating flame1     
which  passes over the surface of the   
coals like a wave4    ,being thus       
assured of the success of his operation1
 he puts one half  of his matter in     
three equal parts1 into three small     
earthen ,german  retorts1 capable of    
holding about eighteen ounces of water  
a-piece4  ,these three retorts1 none of 
which is above three quarters full1 he  
places together in one reverberatory    

furnace1 built much like those we  have 
described1 except that it is so         
constructed as to hold the three        
retorts disposed in one line4 ,to each  
retort he lutes a recipient  something  
more than half full of water1 ordering  
the whole in such a  manner1 that the   
noses of his retorts almost touch the   
surface of the  water4    ,he begins the
 distillation with warming the retorts  
slowly1 for about  an hour1 by a gentle 
heat4 ,when that time is elapsed he     
raises the fire  gradually1 so that in  
half an hour more the coals begin to    
touch the  bottoms of the retorts4 ,he  
continues throwing coals into the       
furnace by  little and little1 till they
 rise half way the heighth of the       
retorts2  and in this he employs another
 half hour4 ,lastly1 in the next half   
hour  he raises the coals above the     
bowls of the retorts4    ,then the      
,phosphorus begins to ascend in clouds3 
on this he instantly  increases the heat
 of the fire as much as possible1       

filling the furnace  quite up with      
coals1 and making the retorts very red4 
,this degree of  fire causes the        
,phosphorus to distil in drops1 which   
fall to the bottom  of the water4 ,he   
keeps up this intense heat for an hour  
and half1 at  the end of which the      
operation is finished2 so that it lasts 
but four  hours and an half in all3 nay1
 he further assures us1 that an artist  
well versed in managing the fire1 may   
perform it in four hours only4 ,in  the 
same manner he distils the second moiety
 of his mixture in three  other such    
retorts4    ,the advantage he finds in  
making use of several small retorts1    
instead  of a single large one1 is1 that
 the heat penetrates them with more     
ease1 and the operation is performed    
with less fire1 and in less time4  ,he  
purifies and moulds his ,phosphorus much
 in the same manner as ,m4  ,hellot     
does4 ,from the quantity of ingredients 
above-mentioned1 he  obtains two ounces 
and a half of fine crystalline moulded  

,phosphorus4    ,m4 ,marggraff          
considering1 as a consequence of the    
experiments above  related1 that a      
highly concentrated ,acid of ,sea-salt  
contributes  greatly towards the        
formation of ,phosphorus1 proceeded to  
try several  other experiments1 in which
 he employed that ,acid in a state of   
combination with other bases4 ,he mixed1
 for instance1 an ounce of ,luna  cornea
 with an ounce and half of putrefied and
 inspissated urine1 and  from the       
mixture obtained a very beautiful       
,phosphorus4    ,in short1 the several  
experiments mentioned having thoroughly 
persuaded  him that the ,acid of        
,sea-salt1 provided it were highly      
concentrated1  would combine with the   
,phlogiston as readily as the ,vitriolic
 ,acid  does1 he resolved to try whether
 he could not make ,phosphorus with     
matters containing that ,acid and the   
,phlogiston1 without making use of  any 
urine4    ,with this view he made a     
great number of different trials1       

wherein he  employed ,sea-salt in       
substance1 ,sal ,ammoniac1 ,plumbum     
corneum1 ,luna  cornea1 fixed ,sal      
,ammoniac1 otherwise called ,oil of     
,lime4 ,these  several substances1 all  
of which contain the ,acid of ,sea-salt1
 he mixed  with sundry matters abounding
 in ,phlogiston1 different vegetable    
coals1  and even animal matters1 such as
 the oil of hartshorn1 human blood1  c4 
varying the proportions of these        
substances many different ways1  without
 ever being able to produce a single    
atom of ,phosphorus3 which  gave this   
able ,chymist just cause to suspect1    
that the ,marine ,acid1  while pure and 
crude1 is not capable of combining with 
the ,phlogiston  in the manner requisite
 to form a ,phosphorus2 that for this   
purpose it  is necessary the ,acid would
 have contracted a previous union with  
some  other matter2 and that the ,acid  
found in urine hath probably undergone  
the necessary change4 ,m4 ,marggraff is 
of opinion that the matter1 which  by   

its union renders the ,marine ,acid     
capable of entering into the            
composition of ,phosphorus1 is a sort of
 exceedingly subtle vitrifiable  earth4 
,the experiments he made upon the ,acid 
of ,phosphorus1 will shew  that his     
notion is not altogether groundless4 ,m4
 ,marggraff having let  some urine1     
evaporated to the consistence of honey1 
stand quiet in a  cool place1 obtained  
from it1 by crystallization1 a ,salt of 
a singular  nature4 ,by distilling this 
urine afterwards1 he satisfied himself  
that  it yielded him much less          
,phosphorus than urine from which no    
,salt had  been extracted2 and as it    
cannot be entirely deprived of this     
,salt1 he  thinks that the small        
quantity of ,phosphorus1 which this     
urine yielded  him1 came from the ,salt 
that was still left in it4    ,further1 
he distilled this salt separately with  
lamp-black1 and  obtained from it a     
considerable quantity of very fine      
,phosphorus4 ,he  even mixed ,luna      

cornea with this ,salt1 in order to see 
whether it  would not increase the      
quantity of his ,phosphorus2 but without
 success3  whence he concluded1 that in 
this ,saline matter resides the true    
,acid  that is fit to enter into the    
composition of ,phosphorus4 ,this       
opinion  is confirmed by several        
experiments on the ,acid of ,phosphorus1
 which he  found to have some properties
 resembling those of this ,salt4    ,the
 ,acid of ,phosphorus seems to be more  
fixed than any other3 and  therefore if 
you would separate it1 by burning1 from 
the ,phlogiston  with which it is       
united1 there is no occasion for such an
 apparatus  of vessels as is employed   
for obtaining the ,spirit of ,sulphur4  
,for  this ,acid will remain at the     
bottom of the vessel in which you burn  
your ,phosphorus3 indeed1 if it be urged
 by the force of fire1 its most  subtile
 part evaporates1 and the remainder     
appears in the form of a  vitrified     
matter4    ,this ,acid effervesces with 

fixed and volatile ,alkalis1 and        
therewith  forms ,neutral ,salts2 but   
very different from ,sea-salt1 and from 
,sal  ,ammoniac4 ,that which has a fixed
 ,alkali for its basis does not crackle 
when thrown on burning coals2 but swells
 and vitrifies like ,borax4 ,that  which
 has a volatile ,alkali for its basis   
shoots into long pointed  crystals2 and1
 being urged by fire in a retort1 lets  
go its volatile  alkali1 a vitrified    
matter remaining behind4 ,this ,salt is 
like that  above-mentioned1 as obtained 
from urine and yielding ,phosphorus4    
,it appears from the experiments        
adduced1 that the ,acid of ,phosphorus  
tends always to vitrification2 which    
proves that it is not pure1 and  gave   
,m4 ,marggraff cause to think that it is
 altered by the admixture of  a very    
subtile vitrifiable earth4    ,m4       
,marggraff also obtained ,phosphorus    
from several vegetable substances  which
 we use every day for food4 ,this gives 
him occasion to conjecture1  that the   

,salt requisite to the formation of     
,phosphorus exists in  vegetables1 and  
passes from thence into the animals that
 feed upon them4    ,lastly1 he         
concludes his dissertation by informing 
us of a very  important truth1 viz4     
,that the ,acid obtained from           
,phosphorus1 by  burning it1 will serve 
to form ,phosphorus anew2 for which     
purpose it  need only be combined with  
some charred coal1 such as lamp-black1  
and  distilled4    ,from what hath been 
said on this subject it is plain1 that  
the ,chymists  have a great many curious
 and interesting inquiries to make      
concerning  ,phosphorus1 and            
particularly concerning its ,acid4    ,i
 shall conclude this article with an    
account of certain properties of        
,phosphorus which ,i have not yet       
mentioned4    ,phosphorus dissolves by  
lying exposed to the air4 ,what water   
cannot  effect1 says ,m4 ,hellot1 or at 
least requires eight or ten years to    
bring about1 the moisture of the air    

accomplishes in ten or twelve  days2    
whether it be that the ,phosphorus takes
 fire in the air1 and  the inflammable  
part evaporating1 almost entirely1      
leaves the ,acid of  the ,phosphorus    
naked1 which1 like all other ,acids1    
when exceedingly  concentrated1 is very 
greedy of moisture2 or else that the    
moisture  of the air1 being water       
divided into infinitely fine particles1 
is so  subtile as to find its way       
through the pores of the ,phosphorus1   
into  which the grosser particles of    
common water can by no means insinuate  
themselves4    ,phosphorus heated by the
 vicinity of fire1 or by being any way  
rubbed1  soon takes fire and burns      
fiercely4 ,it is soluble in all ,oils   
and in  ,ether1 giving to those liquors 
the property of appearing luminous when 
the bottle containing the solution is   
opened4 ,being boiled in water1  it     
likewise communicates thereto this      
luminous quality4 ,m4 ,morin1           
,professor at ,chartres1 is the author  

of this observation4    ,the late ,mr4  
,grosse1 a celebrated ,chymist of the   
,academy of ,sciences1  observed1 that  
,phosphorus being dissolved in essential
 oils  crystallizes therein4 ,these     
crystals take fire in the air1 either   
when  thrown into a dry vessel1 or wrapt
 up in a piece of paper4 ,if they  be   
dipped in ,spirit of ,wine1 and taken   
out immediately1 they do not  afterwards
 take fire in the air3 they smoke a     
little1 and for a very  short time1 but 
hardly waste at all4 ,though some of    
them were left in  a spoon for a        
fortnight1 they did not seem to have    
lost any thing of  their bulk3 but when 
the spoon was warmed a little they took 
fire1 just  like common ,phosphorus that
 had never been dissolved and           
crystallized  in an essential ,oil4     
,m4 ,marggraff1 having put a dram of    
,phosphorus1 with an ounce of highly    
concentrated ,spirit of ,nitre1 into a  
glass retort1 observed1 that1  without  
the help of fire1 the ,acid dissolved   

the ,phosphorus2 that part  of the ,acid
 came over into the recipient which was 
luted to the retort2  that1 at the same 
time1 the ,phosphorus took fire1 burnt  
furiously1 and  burst the vessels with  
explosion4 ,nothing of this kind happens
 when any  of the other ,acids1 though  
concentrated1 are applied to            
,phosphorus4      ,,process ,,iii4      
,to decompose ,sea-salt by means of the 
,vitriolic ,acid4 ,glauber's ,salt4     
,the ,purification and ,concentration of
 ,spirit of ,salt4    ,put the ,sea-salt
 from which you mean to extract the     
,acid into an  unglazed earthen pipkin1 
and set it amidst live coals4 ,the ,salt
 will  decrepitate1 grow dry1 and fall  
into a powder4 ,put this decrepitated   
,salt into a tubulated glass retort1    
leaving two thirds thereof empty4  ,set 
the retort in a reverberating furnace2  
apply a receiver like that  used in     
distilling the ,smoking ,spirit of      
,nitre1 and lute it on in the  same     
manner1 or rather more exactly if       

possible4 ,then through the  hole1 in   
the upper convexity of the retort1 pour 
a quantity of highly  concentrated ,oil 
of ,vitriol1 equal in weight to about a 
third part  of your ,salt1 and          
immediately shut the hole very close    
with a glass  stopple1 first ground     
therein with emery so as to fit it      
exactly4    ,as soon as the ,oil of     
,vitriol touches the ,salt1 the retort  
and receiver  will be filled with       
abundance of white vapours2 and soon    
after1  without lighting any fire in the
 furnace1 drops of a yellow liquor  will
 distil from the nose of the retort4    
,let the distillation proceed  in this  
manner without fire1 as long as you     
perceive any drops come3  afterwards    
kindle a very small fire under the      
retort1 and continue  distilling and    
raising the fire by very slow degrees1  
and with great  caution1 to the end of  
the distillation2 which will be finished
 before  you have occasion to make the  
retort red-hot4 ,unlute the vessels1 and

  without delay pour the liquor1 which  
is a very smoking ,spirit of ,salt1  out
 of the receiver into a crystal bottle1 
like that directed for the  smoking     
,spirit of ,nitre4      ,,observations4 
,sea-,salt1 as hath been already said1  
is a ,neutral ,salt composed of an      
,acid1 which differs from those of      
,vitriol and ,nitre1 combined with a    
fixed ,alkali that has some peculiar    
properties2 but does not vary from  the 
others in its affinities4 ,this ,salt   
therefore1 as well as ,nitre1  must be  
decomposed by the ,vitriolic ,acid2     
which accordingly is the  case in the   
process here described4 ,the ,vitriolic 
,acid unites with the  ,alkaline basis  
of the ,sea-salt1 and separates its     
,acid2 and that with  much greater      
facility than it expels the ,nitrous    
,acid from its ,alkaline  basis1 because
 the ,acid of ,sea-salt has not so great
 an affinity as the  ,nitrous ,acid with
 ,fixed ,alkalis4    ,as a highly       
concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol is used on

 this occasion1 and  as the ,sea-salt is
 previously dried and decrepitated1 the 
,acid obtained  from it by distillation 
is very free from phlegm1 and always    
smokes1  even more violently than the   
strongest ,acid of ,nitre4 ,the vapours 
of  this ,acid are also much more       
elastic and more penetrating than those 
of the ,nitrous ,acid3 on which account 
this distillation of the smoking        
,spirit of ,salt is one of the most     
difficult1 most laborious1 and most     
dangerous operations in ,chymistry4     
,this process requires a tubulated      
retort1 that the ,oil of ,vitriol  may  
be mixed with the ,sea-salt after the   
receiver is well luted to  the retort1  
and not before3 for1 as soon as these   
two matters come  together1 the ,spirit 
of ,salt rushes out with so much        
impetuosity1 that1  if the vessels were 
not luted at the time1 the copious      
vapours that  would issue through the   
neck of the ballon would so moisten it1 
as well  as the neck of the retort1 that

 it would be impracticable to apply the 
lute and secure the joint as the        
operation requires4 ,moreover1 the      
operator would be exposed to those      
dangerous fumes1 which1 on this         
occasion1 rush out1 and enter the lungs1
 with such incredible activity  as to   
threaten instant suffocation4    ,having
 said so much of the elasticity and     
activity of the fumes of  ,spirit of    
,salt1 it is needless to insist upon the
 necessity of giving  vent to the       
vessels from time to time1 by opening   
the little hole of  the ballon3 indeed  
the best way to prevent the loss of a   
great many  vapours1 on this occasion1  
is to employ adopters1 and cover them   
with  wet canvas1 which will cool and   
condense the vapours they contain4      
,when the operation is finished1 we find
 a white1 saline mass at the  bottom of 
the retort as in a mould4 ,if this mass 
be dissolved in water1  and the solution
 crystallized1 it yields a considerable 
quantity of  ,sea-salt that hath not    

been decomposed1 and a ,neutral ,salt   
consisting  of the ,vitriolic ,acid     
united with the ,alkaline basis of that 
part  which hath been decomposed4 ,this 
,neutral ,salt1 which bears the name of 
,glauber its inventor1 differs from     
,vitriolated ,tartar1 or the ,sal de    
duobus1 which remains after distilling  
the ,nitrous ,acid1 especially in  that 
it is more fusible1 more soluble in     
water1 and hath its crystals            
differently figured4 ,but as in these   
two ,salts the ,acid is the same1  the  
differences that appear between them    
must be attributed to the  peculiar     
nature of the basis of ,sea-salt4       
,spirit of ,salt drawn by the process   
above described is tainted with a  small
 mixture of the ,vitriolic ,acid1       
carried up by the force of fire  before 
it had time to combine with the ,alkali 
of the ,sea-salt2 which  happens        
likewise to the ,nitrous ,acid procured 
in the same manner4  ,if you desire to  
have it pure1 and absolutely free from  

the ,acid of  ,vitriol1 it must be      
distilled a second time from ,sea-salt1 
as the ,acid  of ,nitre was before      
directed to be distilled again from     
fresh ,nitre1 in  order to purify it    
from any ,vitriolic taint4    ,sea-salt1
 as well as ,nitre1 may be decomposed by
 any combination of  the ,vitriolic     
,acid with a metallic or earthy         
substance3 but it is  proper to observe1
 that if you distil ,spirit of ,salt by 
means of ,green  ,vitriol1 the operation
 will not succeed so well as when       
,spirit of ,nitre  is distilled in the  
same manner3 less ,spirit is obtained1  
and a much  fiercer fire is required4   
,the cause of this lies in the property 
which the ,acid of ,sea-salt  possesses 
of dissolving ,iron1 even when deprived 
of a part of its  ,phlogiston by having 
contracted an union with another ,acid2 
so that it  is no sooner dislodged from 
its own basis by the ,vitriolic ,acid1  
than  it unites with the ferruginous    
basis of the ,vitriol1 from which it    

cannot be separated but by a most       
violent fire4 ,this is the consequence  
more especially when calcined ,vitriol  
is made use of3 for moisture1  as we    
shall presently see1 greatly facilitates
 the separation of the  ,marine ,acid   
from those substances with which it is  
united4    ,when you do not desire a    
highly dephlegmated and smoking ,spirit 
of  ,salt1 you may distil with the      
additament of any earth containing the  
,vitriolic ,acid2 as ,clay1 for         
instance1 or ,bole4 ,to this end one    
part  of ,sea-salt1 slightly dried and  
reduced to a fine powder1 must be       
accurately mingled with two parts of the
 earth you intend to employ  likewise   
pulverized2 of this mixture make a stiff
 paste with a proper  quantity of rain  
water1 and having formed little balls   
thereof about  the size of a hazel nut1 
let them dry in the sun2 when dry1 put  
them  into a stone or coated glass      
retort1 leaving a third part thereof    
empty2 set this vessel in a             

reverberating furnace1 covered with its 
dome2 apply a receiver1 which need not  
be luted on for some time2 and  heat the
 vessels very slowly4 ,at first an      
insipid water will rise1  which must be 
thrown away3 afterwards the ,spirit of  
,salt will appear  in white clouds4 ,now
 lute your vessels1 and raise the fire  
by degrees2  which1 towards the end must
 be pushed to the utmost extremity4 ,the
  operation is known to be finished when
 no drops fall from the nose of  the    
retort1 the receiver cools1 and the     
white vapours that filled it  are seen  
no more4    ,the ,spirit of ,salt       
obtained by the process here delivered  
does not  smoke1 and contains much more 
phlegm than that which is distilled by  
means of the concentrated ,oil of       
,vitriol2 because the earth1 though     
dried in the sun1 still retains a great 
deal of moisture1 which  commixes with  
the ,acid of the ,sea-salt4             
,consequently it is much easier  to     
collect its vapours2 so that this       

operation is attended with much  less   
trouble than the other4 ,nevertheless it
 is adviseable to proceed  gently2 to   
apply but little heat at first1 and to  
unstop every now and  then the small    
hole of the receiver3 for a quantity of 
the vapours of  ,spirit of ,salt1 even  
when weakened by the admixture of water1
 is very  apt to burst the vessels4     
,a much greater degree of fire is       
necessary to raise the ,spirit of ,salt 
by this latter process1 than by that in 
which the pure ,vitriolic ,acid  is     
employed3 for1 as fast as the ,spirit of
 ,salt is dislodged from its  own basis1
 by the ,vitriolic ,acid contained in   
the earth made use of1  part of it joins
 that earth1 and cannot be separated    
from it without  the most violent heat4 
,a ,spirit of ,salt that shall not smoke
 may also be obtained by means of  the  
pure ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,spirit of       
,vitriol1 or ,oil of ,vitriol1 lowered  
with a good deal of water1 will do the  
business4    ,some ,chymists direct a   

little water to be placed in the        
receiver1 when  ,spirit of ,salt is to  
be distilled by the intermedium of      
concentrated  ,oil of ,vitriol1 in order
 to make the acid vapours condense more 
readily4 ,by this means indeed some of  
the inconveniencies attending  the      
distillation of smoking ,spirit of ,salt
 may be avoided3 but1 on the  other     
hand1 the acid vapours being absolutely 
suffocated by the water  as fast as they
 come over1 the ,spirit of ,salt        
obtained by this method  will be no less
 aqueous than that procured by the      
interposition of  earths3 so that here  
is an expence to no manner of purpose4  
,therefore1  when a ,spirit of ,salt is 
desired that shall not smoke1 it is best
  to employ an additament of earth2 and 
that so much the rather as  the ,marine 
,acid obtained by this means is purer   
and freer from any  ,vitriolic taint1   
for the reasons already assigned4       
,part of the ,acid of ,sea-salt may be  
separated from its ,alkaline basis  by  

the force of fire alone1 without the    
intervention of any other body4  ,with  
this view the ,salt must be put into the
 retort without being  dried4 ,at first 
an insipid water rises2 but it gradually
 becomes acid1  and hath all the        
properties of ,spirit of ,salt4 ,when   
the ,salt in the  retort is grown       
perfectly dry1 nothing more can be      
forced over by any  degree of heat      
whatever4 ,if you would obtain more     
,acid from the same  ,salt1 you must    
take it out of the retort1 where you    
will find it in a  lump1 reduce it to   
powder1 and expose it to the air for    
some time1 that  it may attract the     
moisture thereof2 or else wet it at once
 with some  rain water1 and distil as   
before4 ,you will again have an insipid 
water1  and a little ,spirit of ,salt2  
which will in like manner cease to rise 
when the ,salt in the retort becomes    
dry4 ,this operation may be repeated  as
 often as shall be thought proper3 and  
perhaps it may be possible to  decompose

 ,sea-salt entirely by means thereof1   
without the interposition  of any other 
body4 ,the ,spirit of ,salt thus        
obtained is exceeding weak1  in small   
quantity1 and loaded with much water4   
,this experiment proves1 that moisture  
greatly facilitates the  separation of  
the ,acid of ,sea-salt from the matters 
with which it is  united3 and this is   
the reason that1 in distilling ,spirit  
of ,salt with  the additament of an     
earth1 the operation requires much less 
fire  at the beginning1 while the earth 
and salt retain a great deal of         
humidity1 than towards the end1 when    
they begin to grow dry4    ,after the   
operation there remains in the retort a 
saline and earthy  mass1 which contains1
 #a4 ,some entire ,sea-salt that has    
suffered no  decomposition2 #b4 ,a      
,glauber's ,salt which is1 as we said   
before1 a  ,neutral ,salt consisting of 
the ,vitriolic ,acid united with the    
,alkaline  basis of the ,sea-salt1 from 
which it hath expelled its proper ,acid2

 #c4  ,part of the earth used as an     
intermedium1 still retaining a portion  
of  its original ,vitriolic ,acid1 which
 happening not to lie near enough to    
any particles of ,sea-salt1 could not   
exert its power in decomposing  them1   
and so remains united with its earthy   
basis2 #d4 ,another part  of the same   
earth1 impregnated with some of the     
,marine ,acid1 which  combined therewith
 upon being expelled from its ,alkaline 
basis by the  ,vitriolic ,acid1 and     
which the force of fire was unable to   
separate  from it when the matters were 
grown perfectly dry4 ,in consequence  of
 what remains in this caput mortuum1 if 
the whole mass be  triturated1 moistened
 with a little water1 and distilled a   
second time1  considerably more ,spirit 
of ,salt will be obtained from it3 and  
the same  is to be said of all          
distillations of this sort4    ,spirit  
of ,salt obtained by the means of any   
other additament than  concentrated ,oil
 of ,vitriol is generally very weak3 but

 it may be  dephlegmated and            
concentrated1 if required1 much in the  
same manner as  ,oil of ,vitriol4 ,for  
this purpose you must put it into a     
glass cucurbit1  set it in a balneum    
mari1 fit thereto a head and a receiver1
 and  with a moderate degree of heat    
draw off one third or one half of the   
liquor4 ,what comes over into the       
receiver will be the most aqueous  part1
 which being the lightest will rise     
first1 impregnated however  with a      
little acid3 in the cucurbit will be    
left a concentrated ,spirit  of ,salt1  
or the most acid part1 which being the  
heaviest will not rise  with the degree 
of heat that is capable of carrying up  
the phlegm4  ,spirit of ,salt thus      
concentrated1 called also ,oil of ,salt1
 does not  smoke3 it is of a yellow     
colour inclining to green1 and an       
agreeable  smell1 not unlike that of    
saffron4      ,,process ,,iv4    ,to    
decompose ,sea-salt by means of the     
,nitrous ,acid4 ,aqua regis4            

,quadrangular ,nitre4    ,take dried    
,sea-salt2 bruise it to powder2 put it  
into a glass retort1  leaving one half  
of the vessel empty4 ,pour upon it a    
third of its  weight of good ,spirit of 
,nitre4 ,place your retort in the       
sand-bath of a  reverberating furnace2  
put on the dome2 lute to the retort a   
receiver  having a small hole in it1 and
 heat the vessels very slowly4 ,there   
will  come over into the receiver some  
vapours1 and an acid liquor4 ,increase  
the fire gradually till nothing more    
rises4 ,then unlute the vessels1  and   
pour the liquor out of the receiver into
 a crystal bottle1 stopped  like others 
containing ,acid ,spirits4              
,,observations4    ,the ,nitrous ,acid  
hath a greater affinity than the ,marine
 ,acid with  fixed ,alkalis4 ,when      
therefore ,spirit of ,nitre and         
,sea-salt are mixed  together1 the same 
consequences1 in some measure1 will     
follow1 as when  the ,vitriolic ,acid is
 mixed with that salt2 that is1 the     

,nitrous ,acid  will1 like the          
,vitriolic1 decompose it1 by dislodging 
its ,acid from  its ,alkaline basis1 and
 assuming its place4 ,but as the        
,nitrous ,acid is  considerably weaker1 
and much lighter1 than the ,vitriolic   
,acid1 a good  deal of it rises along   
with the ,acid of ,sea-salt during the  
operation4  ,the liquor found in the    
receiver is therefore a true ,aqua      
regis4    ,if decrepitated ,salt1 and a 
right smoking ,spirit of ,nitre1 be     
employed  in this process1 the ,aqua    
regis obtained will be very strong2 and1
  during the operation1 very elastic    
vapours will rush out and burst the     
vessels1 if those precautions be not    
taken which we pointed out as  necessary
 in distilling the ,spirit of ,nitre1   
and the smoking ,spirit of  ,salt4      
,the operation being finished1 there is 
left in the retort a saline  mass1      
containing ,sea-salt not decomposed1 and
 a new species of ,nitre1  which having 
for its basis the ,alkali of ,sea-salt1 

that is1 as we have  several times      
observed1 an ,alkali of a peculiar      
nature1 differs from  the common ,nitre1
 #a4 ,in the figure of its crystals2    
which are solids of  four sides1 formed 
like lozenges3 #b4 ,in that it          
crystallizes with more  difficulty1     
retains more water in its crystals1     
attracts the moisture  of the air1 and  
dissolves in water with the same        
circumstances as  ,sea-salt4            
,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,of ,,borax4           
,,process4     ,to decompose ,borax by  
the means of ,acids1 and to separate    
from it the   ,sedative ,salt by        
sublimation and by crystallization4     
,reduce to a fine powder the ,borax from
 which you intend to extract  the       
,sedative ,salt4 ,put this powder into a
 wide-necked glass retort4  ,pour upon  
it an eighth part of its weight of      
common water1 to moisten  the powder2   
and then add concentrated ,oil of       
,vitriol to the weight of  somewhat more
 than a fourth part of the weight of    

,borax4 ,set the retort  in a           
reverberatory1 make a moderate fire at  
first1 and augment it  gradually till   
the retort become red-hot4    ,a little 
phlegm will first come over1 and then   
with the last moisture  that the heat   
expels the ,sedative ,salt will rise2 by
 which means some  of it will be        
dissolved in this last phlegm1 and pass 
therewith into  the receiver2 but most  
of it will adhere in the form of saline 
flowers  to the fore-part of the neck of
 the retort1 just where it is clear of  
the groove of the furnace4 ,there they  
collect into a heap1 which the          
succeeding flowers push insensibly      
forward till they slightly stop the     
passage4 ,those which rise after the    
neck is thus stopped stick to the       
after-part of it which is hot1 vitrify  
in some measure1 and form a  circle of  
fused ,salt4 ,in this state the flowers 
of the ,sedative ,salt  seem to issue   
out of the circle1 as from their basis3 
they appear  like very thin1 light1     

shining scales1 and must be brushed off 
with a  feather4    ,at the bottom of   
the retort will be left a saline mass3  
dissolve this  in a sufficient quantity 
of hot water2 filter the solution in    
order  to free it from a brown earth    
which it deposites2 set the liquor to   
evaporate1 and crystals of ,sedative    
,salt will form in it4                  
,,observations4    ,though ,borax is of 
great use in many chymical operations1  
especially in  the fusion of metals1 as 
we shall have occasion to see1 yet1 till
 of  late years1 ,chymists were quite   
ignorant of its nature1 as they still   
are of its origin2 concerning which we  
know nothing with certainty1 but  that  
it comes rough from the ,east ,indies1  
and is purified by the ,dutch4    ,m4   
,homberg was one of the first that      
attempted to analyse this ,salt4 ,he    
shewed1 that on mixing it with the      
,vitriolic ,acid1 and distilling the    
mixture1 a salt sublimes in little fine 
needles4 ,this product of ,borax  he    

called by the name of ,sedative ,salt1  
because he found it had the  property of
 moderating the great tumult and heat of
 the blood in fevers4    ,after ,m4     
,homberg1 other ,chymists also exercised
 themselves on ,borax4 ,m4  ,lemery     
discovered that the ,vitriolic is not   
the only ,acid by means of  which the   
,sedative ,salt may be obtained from    
,borax2 but that either of  the other   
two ,mineral ,acids1 the ,nitrous or the
 ,marine1 may be used in  its stead4    
,m4 ,geoffroy hath greatly facilitated  
the means of obtaining the  ,sedative   
,salt from ,borax2 having shewn that it 
may be extracted by  crystallization as 
well as by sublimation2 and that the    
,sedative ,salt  so obtained is in no   
respect inferior to that which was      
procured before  by sublimation only4   
,to him also we are indebted for the    
discovery1  that in the composition of  
,borax there is an ,alkaline ,salt of   
the same  nature as the basis of        
,sea-salt4 ,this he found by observing  

that he got  a ,glauber's ,salt from a  
solution of ,borax into which he had    
poured some  ,vitriolic ,acid with a    
view to obtain its ,sedative ,salt4     
,lastly1 ,m4 ,baron1 whom we mentioned  
before on occasion of this ,salt1  hath 
proved1 by a great number of            
experiments1 that a ,sedative ,salt  may
 be procured from ,borax by the help of 
,vegetable ,acids1 which was  never done
 by any body before him2 that the       
,sedative ,salt is not  a combination of
 an ,alkaline matter with the ,acid made
 use of in  extracting it1 as some of   
its properties seemed to indicate2 but  
that  it exists previously and          
completely formed in the ,borax2 that   
the ,acid  employed to extract it only  
helps to disengage it from the ,alkali  
with  which it is united2 that this     
,alkali is actually of the same nature  
as  the basis of ,sea-salt1 because that
 after extracting the ,sedative ,salt1  
which by its union therewith forms the  
,borax1 a ,neutral ,salt is found1  of  

the same sort with that which would be  
produced by combining the  basis of     
,sea-salt with the particular ,acid made
 use of2 that is1 if  with the          
,vitriolic ,acid1 a ,glauber's ,salt2 if
 with the ,nitrous ,acid1  a            
quadrangular ,nitre2 and if with the    
,marine ,acid1 a true ,sea-salt2  and1  
lastly1 that the ,sedative ,salt may be 
re-united to its ,alkali1 and  reproduce
 a ,borax4    ,nothing therefore now    
remains1 to give us all the insight we  
can desire  into the nature of ,borax1  
but to know what the ,sedative ,salt is4
 ,m4  ,baron hath already given us      
certain negative notices concerning it1 
by shewing what it is not2 that is1 that
 the ,acid employed in its  extraction  
doth not enter into its composition4 ,we
 have great reason to  hope1 that he    
will carry his inquiries still further1 
and clear up all  our doubts on this    
subject4    ,the ,sedative ,salt may be 
extracted from ,borax1 not only by the  
means  of pure and simple ,acids1 but   

also by the same ,acids combined with a 
metallic basis4 ,thus ,vitriols1 for    
instance1 may be employed for this      
purpose with good success4 ,it is easy  
to see1 that the ,vitriol must  be      
decomposed on this occasion1 and that   
its ,acid cannot unite with  the ,alkali
 in which the ,sedative ,salt is lodged1
 without quitting its  metallic basis1  
which must of course precipitate4       
,the ,sedative ,salt actually sublimes1 
when a liquid containing it is          
distilled2 but it does not therefore    
follow1 that it is naturally  volatile4 
,it rises only by the aid of the water  
with which it is mixed4  ,the proof of  
this assertion is1 that1 when all the   
humidity of the  mixture containing this
 ,salt is dissipated1 no more ,salt will
 rise1  be the fire ever so violent2 and
 that by adding more water to moisten   
the dried mass containing it1 more ,salt
 will every time be obtained1  through  
many repeated distillations4 ,in the    
same manner1 if some  ,sedative ,salt be

 moistened1 and exposed to a proper     
degree of heat1 a  small quantity       
thereof will rise at first by the help  
of the water2 but  as soon as it grows  
dry it remains exceedingly fixed4 ,this 
observation  we owe to ,m4 ,rouelle4    
,the ,sedative ,salt hath the appearance
 and the taste of a ,neutral ,salt3  it 
does not change the colour of the juice 
of violets2 nor does it  easily dissolve
 in water2 for it requires a quart of   
boiling water to  dissolve two ounces of
 it3 yet1 with regard to ,alkalis1 it   
has the  properties of an ,acid2 it     
unites with those salts1 forms therewith
 a  saline compound which crystallizes1 
and even expels the ,acids that  happen 
to be combined with them2 so that it    
decomposes the same ,neutral  ,salts    
that are decomposed by the ,vitriolic   
,acid4    ,the ,sedative ,salt1 when    
suddenly exposed to the violent heat of 
a  naked fire1 loses near half its      
weight1 melts1 puts on and retains the  
appearance of glass2 but its nature     

still remains unchanged4 ,this glass    
dissolves in water1 and shoots anew into
 crystals of ,sedative ,salt4  ,this    
,salt communicates to the ,alkaline salt
 with which it is united1  when in the  
form of ,borax1 the property of melting 
with a moderate  heat1 and forming a    
kind of glass2 and it is this great     
fusibility that  recommends the frequent
 use of ,borax as a flux for assaying   
ores4 ,it is  also employed sometimes as
 an ingredient in the composition of    
glass2  but1 in time1 it always         
communicates thereto the fault which its
 own  glass hath1 namely that of        
tarnishing with the air4 ,the ,sedative 
,salt  hath1 moreover1 the singular     
property of dissolving in ,spirit of    
,wine1  and of giving to its flame1 when
 set on fire1 a beautiful green colour4 
,all these observations we owe to ,mess4
 ,geoffroy and ,baron4    ,m4 ,geoffroy 
prepares the ,sedative ,salt by         
crystallization only1 in  the following 
manner4 ,he dissolves four ounces of    

refined ,borax in a  sufficient quantity
 of warm water1 and then pours into the 
solution  one ounce and two drams of    
highly concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol1   
which  makes a crackling noise as it    
falls in4 ,when this mixture has stood  
evaporating for some time1 the ,sedative
 ,salt begins to make its  appearance in
 little1 fine1 shining plates floating  
on the surface of  the liquor4 ,the     
evaporation is then to be stopped1 and  
the plates will  by little and little   
increase in thickness and breadth4 ,they
 unite  together into little tufts1     
forming with each other sundry different
  groups4 ,if the vessel be ever so     
little stirred1 the regularity of  the  
crystals will be disturbed2 so that it  
must not be touched till  the           
crystallization appears to be finished4 
,the crystalline clusters1  being grown 
too bulky and too heavy1 will then fall 
of themselves to  the bottom of the     
vessel4 ,this being observed1 the saline
 liquor must  be gently decanted from   

those little crystals1 which1 as they   
are not  easily dissolved1 must be      
washed clean1 by pouring cold water     
slowly  on the sides of the pan1 three  
or four times successively1 in order  to
 rinse out all remains of the saline    
liquor1 and then set first to  drain1   
and afterwards to dry in the sun4 ,this 
,salt1 in the form of  light flakes of  
snow1 is now soft to the touch1 cool in 
the mouth1  slightly bitter1 crackling a
 little between the teeth1 and leaving a
  small impression of acidity on the    
tongue4 ,it will keep long without      
giving or calcining1 if managed         
according to the preceding directions2  
that is1 if it be exactly freed from its
 saline liquor4    ,it differs from the 
,sedative ,salt obtained by sublimation 
in this  respect only1 that             
notwithstanding its seeming lightness it
 is a  little heavier than the other4   
,m4 ,geoffroy supposes the cause of this
  weight to be1 that1 as several of the 
thin plates adhere together in          

crystallizing1 they retain between them 
some small matter of humidity2  or1 if  
you will1 that1 as they form larger     
crystals1 they present  less surface to 
the air which elevates light bodies3    
whereas1 on the  contrary1 the other    
,sedative ,salt1 being driven up by the 
force of  fire1 rises into the head of  
the cucurbit in a more subtile form1    
having its particles much more expanded 
and divided4    ,m4 ,geoffroy1 having   
put his ,sedative ,salt made by         
crystallization to  all the same trials 
with that made by sublimation1 satisfied
 himself  that there is no other        
difference between the two4 ,if the     
,sedative ,salt  made by                
crystallizations happens to calcine in  
the sun2 that is1 if its  lustre        
tarnishes1 and its surface grows mealy1 
it is a sign that it  still contains    
either a little ,borax or some          
,glauber's ,salt3 for these  two ,salts 
are apt to calcine in this manner1 and  
pure ,sedative ,salt  should not be     

subject to this inconvenience4 ,in order
 to purify it1 and  free it entirely    
from those ,salts1 it must be dissolved 
once more in  boiling water4 ,as soon as
 the water cools1 the ,sedative ,salt   
reappears  in light1 shining1           
crystalline plates1 swimming in the     
liquor4 ,after  standing four and twenty
 hours1 the liquor must be decanted1 and
 the  salt washed with fresh water2 by  
which means it will be very pure and    
beautiful4    ,glauber's ,salt and      
,borax dissolve in water with vastly    
more ease than  the ,sedative ,salt1 and
 consequently do not crystallize so     
readily by  much3 so that the small     
portion of those salts which may have   
been left  on the surface of the        
,sedative ,salt1 being diffused through 
a large  quantity of water1 continues in
 a state of solution1 while the         
,sedative  ,salt crystallizes2 which    
being also washed afterwards with fair  
water1  it is impossible that the       
smallest particle of those other ,salts 

should remain adhering to it2 and       
consequently this must be deemed an     
excellent way of purifying it4          
,,section ,,ii4    ,of ,operations on   
,,metals4          ,,chap4 ,i4    ,of   
,,gold4      ,,process ,i4    ,to       
separate ,gold1 by ,amalgamation with   
,mercury1 from the ,earth and  ,stones  
with which it is found mixed4           
,pulverize the earths and stones        
containing ,gold4 ,put the powder into a
  little wooden tray2 dip this tray in  
water1 gently shaking it and its        
contents4 ,the water will grow muddy1 by
 taking up the earthy parts of  the ore4
 ,continue washing it in this manner    
till the water cease to  appear turbid4 
,upon the ore thus washed pour strong   
vinegar1 having  first dissolved        
therein1 by the help of heat1 about a   
tenth part of its  weight of alum4 ,the 
powder must be quite drenched and       
covered with this  liquor1 and so left  
to stand for twice twenty-four hours4   
,decant the vinegar1 and wash your      

powder with warm water1 till the  last  
that comes off hath no taste3 then dry  
it1 and put it into an  iron mortar1    
with four times its weight of           
,quick-silver3 triturate the  whole with
 a heavy wooden pestle1 till all the    
powder be of a blackish  colour3 then   
pour in a little water1 and continue    
rubbing for some time  longer4 ,more    
earthy and heterogeneous particles will 
be separated from  the metalline parts  
by means of this water1 which will look 
dirty3 it  must then be decanted1 and   
more fair water added4 ,repeat this     
several  times2 then dry what remains in
 the mortar with a sponge1 and by the   
help of a gentle heat3 you will find it 
an ,amalgam of the ,mercury with  the   
,gold4    ,put this ,amalgam into a     
chamoy bag3 tie a knot on its neck1 and 
squeeze  it hard between your fingers1  
over some wide-mouthed vessel2 there    
will issue through the pores of the     
leather numberless little jets  of      
,mercury1 forming a sort of shower1 that

 will collect into large  globules in   
the vessel placed underneath4 ,when you 
can force out no  more ,mercury by this 
means1 open the bag1 and in it you will 
find the  ,amalgam freed from the       
superfluous ,mercury2 the ,gold         
retaining only  about as much thereof as
 nearly equals itself in weight4    ,put
 this ,amalgam into a glass retort2 set 
this retort in the sand-bath  of a      
reverberating furnace2 cover it quite   
over with sand2 apply a  glass receiver 
half full of water1 so that the nose of 
the retort may  be under the water4 ,the
 receiver need not be luted to the      
retort4 ,give  a gradual heat1 and raise
 the fire till drops of the sublimed    
,mercury  appear in the neck of the     
retort1 and fall into the water with a  
hissing noise4 ,if you hear any noise in
 the retort slacken your fire a  little4
 ,lastly1 when you observe1 that1 though
 you raise the fire still  higher than  
before1 nothing more will come over1    
take out your retort1  break it1 and    

there you will find the ,gold1 which    
must be melted in a  crucible with      
,borax4      ,,observations4    ,gold is
 a perfect metal1 which can by no means 
be deprived of its  ,phlogiston1 and on 
which few1 even of the most powerful    
chymical  solvents1 have any effect3 and
 therefore it almost always hath its    
metalline form when found in the earth2 
from which it may sometimes  be         
separated by simple lotion4 ,the ,gold  
dust found in the sands of  certain     
rivers is of this kind4 ,when it resides
 in stones1 or tenacious  earths1 it may
 be extracted by the process here       
delivered2 to wit1 by  ,amalgamation1 or
 combination of ,mercury with ,gold4    
,mercury is incapable  of uniting with  
any earthy substances1 not even with the
 metallic  earths1 when they are        
deprived of their ,phlogiston1 and      
consequently  have not the metalline    
form4    ,hence it follows1 that when   
,mercury is triturated with particles of
  ,gold1 of earth1 and of stone1 mingled

 together1 it unites with the  ,gold1   
and separates it from those             
heterogeneous matters4 ,yet1 if there   
be along with the ,gold any other metal1
 in its metalline form1 except  ,iron1  
the ,mercury will amalgamate with that  
also4 ,this often happens  to ,silver1  
which being a perfect metal as well as  
,gold1 is for that  reason sometimes dug
 up in its metalline form1 and even     
incorporated  with ,gold4 ,when this is 
the case1 the mass that remains in the  
retort1  after abstracting the ,mercury 
of the ,amalgama1 is a compound of ,gold
  and ,silver1 which are to be separated
 from each other by the methods  we     
shall give for that purpose4 ,the       
present process is therefore  applicable
 to ,silver as well as ,gold4           
,sometimes ,gold is intimately combined 
with such mineral matters as  hinder the
 ,mercury from acting upon it4 ,in that 
case the mixed mass  must be roasted    
before you proceed to ,amalgamation3 for
 if the matters  be volatile1 such1 for 

instance1 as antimony or arsenic1 the   
fire  will carry them off2 so that1     
after roasting1 the ,amalgamation will  
succeed4 ,but sometimes these matters   
are fixed1 and require fusion2 if  so1  
recourse must be had to some particular 
methods1 which we shall  describe when  
we come to treat of ,silver1 as these   
two perfect metals  are to be treated in
 the same manner4    ,ores containing   
,gold must be washed before an ,amalgam 
is attempted2  that the metalline parts1
 being freed from the numerous particles
 of  earth with which they are          
encompassed1 may the more readily       
incorporate  with the ,mercury4         
,besides1 it is the property of ,mercury
 to take the  form of a dark unmetallic 
powder1 after being long rubbed with    
other  matters1 so that it cannot be    
easily distinguished from the particles 
of earth4 ,and hence1 if you still      
continue to grind the matters  together1
 after the ,amalgamation is completed1  
and wash them again  and again1 the     

water that comes off will always look   
turbid1 being  impregnated with some    
particles of the ,amalgam4 ,this is     
easily proved3  for if you let the      
turbid water settle1 and distil the     
sediment1 you  will obtain ,quick-silver
 from it4    ,the ore is to be steeped  
in vinegar charged with alum1 in order  
to  cleanse the surface of the ,gold1   
which is often covered with a thin  coat
 of earth that obstructs the            
,amalgamation4    ,great care must be   
taken that the ,mercury employed in this
 operation be  very pure4 ,if it be     
adulterated with any metallic substance1
 it must be  freed therefrom by the     
methods which we shall propose in their 
proper  place4    ,the way of separating
 ,mercury from ,gold is founded on the  
different  properties of these two      
metallic substances2 the one being      
exceedingly  fixed1 and the other very  
volatile4 ,the union which ,mercury     
contracts  with the metals is not       
intimate enough1 to give the new        

compound which  results therefrom all   
the properties of either of the two     
united  substances2 at least so far as  
concerns their degrees of fixity  and   
volatility4 ,hence it comes1 that1 in   
our ,amalgam1 the ,gold  communicates   
but very little of its fixity to the    
,mercury1 and the  ,mercury communicates
 to the ,gold but very little of its    
volatility4 ,yet  if the ,mercury be    
distilled off with a much greater degree
 of heat than  is necessary to elevate  
it1 a pretty considerable quantity of   
,gold will  most certainly be carried up
 along with it4    ,it is also of       
consequence1 on another account1 that   
the fire be duly  governed on this      
occasion4 ,for if too great a degree of 
heat be  applied1 and the fire          
afterwards lowered1 the water in the    
receiver1  which covers the nose of the 
retort1 will rise into its body1 break  
it  to pieces1 and spoil the operation4 
,the cause of this phenomenon depends on
 the property which air  possesses of   

rarefying with heat and condensing with 
cold1 joined to  its weight4 ,as soon as
 the retort is acted on by a less degree
 of heat  than acted on it the instant  
before1 the air contained therein is    
condensed1 and leaves a vacuum1 which   
the external air1 by virtue of  its     
weight1 tends to occupy2 but1 the       
orifice of the retort being under       
water1 the external air can no way gain 
admittance1 but by pushing in  before it
 the water which intercepts its passage4
 ,this caution1 as we  observed above1  
must be applied to all distillations1   
where the vessels  are disposed as they 
are in this4    ,care must also be taken
 that the nose of the retort be not     
placed too  deep under water3 for as the
 neck grows very warm during the        
operation1  because the degree of heat  
required to raise ,mercury is about     
three  times greater than that which    
raises water1 it may easily be broken by
  the contact of the cold water in the  
receiver4    ,this method of extracting 

,gold and ,silver from their ores1 by   
,amalgamation with ,mercury1 is not to  
be absolutely depended on as a  sure    
proof of the quantity of those metals   
that may be contained in  the earth     
assayed by this means3 for some small   
part of the ,amalgam is  always lost in 
washing it2 and1 moreover1 the ,mercury1
 when squeezed  through chamoy1 always  
carries with it a small portion of      
,gold4 ,so that  if you desire to know  
more exactly1 by this method1 the       
quantity of  ,gold or ,silver contained 
in any earth1 the ,amalgam must not be  
squeezed  through chamoy1 but distilled 
altogether4 ,much the surest method of  
making an accurate assay is that by     
fusion and scorification1 which we      
shall describe under the head of        
,silver4    ,in some countries1 and     
especially in ,america1 the method of   
,amalgamation is used for extracting    
,gold and ,silver in large  quantities1 
from the matrices which contain them in 
their metalline  form4 ,agricola and    

other metallurgists have described the  
machines by  means whereof such         
,amalgamations are managed4             
,,process ,,ii4     ,to dissolve ,gold  
in ,aqua regis1 and by that means to    
separate it   from ,silver4 ,aurum      
,fulminans4 ,aurum ,fulminans reduced4  
,take ,gold that is perfectly pure1 or  
alloyed with ,silver only4 ,reduce  it  
to little thin plates1 by hammering it  
on an anvil4 ,if it be not  sufficiently
 tough1 neal it till it be red in a     
moderate1 clear fire1  quite free from  
smoking coals1 and then let it cool     
gradually1 which  will restore its      
ductility4    ,when the plates are thin 
enough1 make them red hot once more1 and
 cut  them into small bits with a pair  
of sheers4 ,put these bits into a tall1 
narrow-mouthed cucurbit1 and pour on    
them twice their weight of good  ,aqua  
regis1 made of one part ,sal ,ammoniac1 
or ,spirit of ,salt1 and  four parts    
,spirit of ,nitre4 ,set the cucurbit in 
a sand-bath moderately  heated1 stopping

 its orifice slightly with a paper      
coffin1 to prevent  any dirt from       
falling in4 ,the ,aqua regis will       
presently begin to  smoke4 ,round the   
little bits of ,gold will be formed an  
infinite number  of small bubbles1 which
 will rise to the surface of the liquor4
 ,the  ,gold will totally dissolve1 if  
it be pure1 and the solution will be of 
a beautiful yellow colour3 if the ,gold 
be alloyed with a small quantity  of    
,silver1 the latter will remain at the  
bottom of the vessel in the  form of a  
white powder4 ,if the ,gold be alloyed  
with much ,silver1 when  the ,gold is   
dissolved the ,silver will retain the   
form of the little  metalline plates put
 into the vessel4    ,when the          
dissolution is completed1 gently pour   
off the liquor into  another low1       
wide-mouthed1 glass cucurbit1 taking    
care that none of the  ,silver1 which   
lies at the bottom in the form of a     
powder1 escape with  the liquor4 ,on    
this powder of ,silver pour as much     

fresh ,aqua regis as  will cover it     
entirely2 and repeat this till you are  
sure that nothing  more can be taken up 
by it4 ,lastly1 having decanted the     
,aqua regis  from the ,silver1 wash the 
,silver with a little ,spirit of ,salt  
weakened  with water1 and add this      
,spirit of ,salt to the ,aqua regis in  
which  your ,gold is dissolved4 ,then to
 the body containing these liquors fit  
a head and a receiver1 and distil with a
 gentle heat1 till the matter  contained
 in the cucurbit become dry4            
,,observations4    ,it is certain that  
aqua regis is the true solvent of ,gold1
 and that  it does not touch ,silver3 so
 that if the ,gold dissolved in it were 
alloyed with ,silver1 which is often the
 case1 the two metals would by  this    
means be pretty accurately separated    
from each other4 ,but if you  desire to 
obtain from this solution a ,gold       
absolutely pure1 you must  free it1     
before you dissolve it1 from every other
 metallic substance  but ,silver2       

because aqua regis acts upon most of the
 other metals  and the semi-metals4 ,we 
shall shew under the head of ,silver1 as
 we  promised before1 how to purify a   
mass of ,gold and ,silver from every    
other metallic alloy4 ,thither also we  
refer the common parting assay          
performed by means of aqua fortis3      
because in that operation the  ,silver  
is dissolved1 and not the ,gold4    ,if 
the ,gold put to dissolve in aqua regis 
be pure1 the dissolution  is easily and 
readily effected4 ,but if1 on the       
contrary1 it be alloyed  with ,silver1  
the aqua regis finds more difficulty in 
dissolving it4  ,nay1 if the ,silver    
exceed the ,gold in quantity1 the       
dissolution will  not take place at all1
 for the reasons adduced in our         
,theoretical  ,elements2 of which we    
shall speak more fully when we come to  
treat of  the ,parting ,assay4    ,in   
the process we directed the ,gold to be 
dissolved in a tall body4  ,this        
precaution is necessary to prevent the  

loss of some part thereof3  for it is   
the property of aqua regis to carry off 
along with it  some of the ,gold1       
especially when there is any ,sal       
,ammoniac in its  composition1 if the   
vessel be heated while the dissolution  
is going on1  or if the aqua regis be   
very strong4 ,yet it is proper to make  
use of  aqua regis that is too strong   
rather than too weak3 for if it prove   
too strong1 and be observed not to act  
upon the metal for that reason1  it is  
easy to weaken it1 by gradually adding  
small quantities of pure  water1 till   
you perceive it begin to act with       
vigour4 ,this is a general  rule        
regarding all metallic dissolutions in  
,acids4    ,when the solution of ,gold  
is evaporated to dryness1 if you desire 
to  reduce into a mass the ,gold dust   
left at the bottom of the cucurbit1  you
 must put it into a crucible1 and cover 
it with pulverized borax1  mixed with a 
little nitre and calcined wine-lees2    
then cover the  crucible close1 heat it 

with a moderate fire1 which must be     
afterwards  increased so as to melt the 
contents4 ,at the bottom of the crucible
 you  will find a lump of ,gold1 over   
which the salts you added will be as it 
were vitrified4 ,these salts are added  
chiefly to promote the fusion of  the   
metal4    ,the ,gold may1 if you will1  
be separated from its solvent without   
evaporating the solution as above       
directed4 ,you need only mix with the   
solution a fixed or volatile ,alkali by 
little and little1 till you see  no more
 precipitate fall1 and then let the     
liquor stand to settle1 at  the bottom  
of which you will find a sediment3      
filter the whole1 and dry  what is left 
on the filter4    ,both fixed and       
volatile ,alkalis possessing1 as hath   
been frequently  repeated1 a greater    
affinity with ,acids than metallic      
substances have1  they precipitate the  
,gold1 and separate it from the ,acids  
in which it  is dissolved3 but it is of 
great consequence to take notice1 that1 

if you attempt to melt this precipitated
 ,gold in a crucible1 it will  fulminate
 as soon as it feels the heat1 with such
 a terrible explosion1  that1 if the    
quantity be at all considerable1 it may 
prove fatal to  the operator3 even      
rubbing it a little hard will make it   
blow up4 ,this  preparation is therefore
 called ,aurum ,fulminans4    ,hitherto 
no satisfactory explanation hath been   
given of this  phenomenon4 ,some        
,chymists considering1 that1 in the     
precipitation of  the ,gold1 a ,nitre is
 regenerated by the union of the ,alkali
 with the  ,nitrous ,acid which enters  
into the composition of the aqua regis1 
imagine that some of this regenerated   
,nitre1 combining with the  precipitated
 ,gold1 takes fire and detonates1 either
 by means of some  small portion of     
,phlogiston that may be contained in the
 ,alkali1 or  by means of that which    
constitutes the ,gold itself4 ,but1 in  
the first  place1 it is well known that 
,fixed ,alkalis do not contain          

,phlogiston  enough to make ,nitre      
detonate4 ,indeed1 if a ,volatile       
,alkali be employed  in the             
precipitation1 a ,nitrous ,ammoniacal   
,salt will be formed1  containing       
,phlogiston enough to be capable of     
detonating without the  concourse of any
 additional ,phlogiston3 but this       
detonation of the  ,nitrous ,ammoniacal 
,salt is not to be compared1 as to the  
violence of  its effects1 with the      
fulmination of ,gold4 ,besides1 we do   
not find that  ,gold precipitated by a  
,volatile ,alkali explodes with greater 
force than  that precipitated by a      
,fixed ,alkali4 ,as for the ,gold1 it is
 certain  that it suffers no            
decomposition at all by fulminating4    
,when fulminated  under a glass bell1 in
 such small quantities as not to        
endanger the  operator1 the ,gold is    
found scattered about under the bell in 
very fine  particles1 without having    
undergone any alteration4    ,others    
have fancied this fulmination of the    

,gold to be nothing but the             
decrepitation of the ,sea-salt that is  
regenerated1 in the precipitation  of   
the metal1 by the ,fixed ,alkali uniting
 with the ,acid of ,sea-salt  which     
makes part of the aqua regis4 ,but to   
this it may be said1  that ,gold        
precipitated by a ,volatile ,alkali     
fulminates as violently  as that        
precipitated by a ,fixed ,alkali2 and   
yet no sea-salt can be  formed in the   
liquor by the addition of a ,volatile   
,alkali1 but only a  ,sal ,ammoniac     
which has not the property of           
decrepitating4 ,moreover1  there is no  
comparison1 as to the effects1 between  
the decrepitation of  ,sea-salt and the 
fulmination of ,gold4    ,nor1 lastly1  
can this fulmination be attributed1 as  
it is by some1 to  the effort made by   
the ,salts to escape from amidst the    
particles of  ,gold1 in which they are  
supposed by them to be imprisoned3 for  
then we  might deprive this ,gold       
entirely of its fulminating quality by  

only  boiling it in water1 and so       
washing off all the saline particles1   
which probably adhere to its surface    
only4 ,it is plain there is great  room 
for very beautiful discoveries on this  
subject4 ,in ,walerius's  ,mineralogy we
 find some observations that may throw a
 little light on  the point before us4  
,the quantity1 says he1 of fulminating  
,gold precipitated exceeds that  of the 
,gold dissolved3 if the aqua regis be   
made with ,sal ,ammoniac  the explosion 
will be stronger2 it will also be more  
violent if the  solution be precipitated
 with a ,volatile ,alkali1 than if a    
,fixed ,alkali  be used for that        
purpose4    ,one of the speediest and   
easiest methods to deprive this ,gold of
 its  fulminating quality1 is to grind  
in a mortar twice as much flowers  of   
,sulphur as you have ,gold to reduce1   
mixing your fulminating ,gold  therewith
 by little and little1 as you grind them
 together2 then to  put the mixture into
 a crucible1 and heat it just enough to 

melt the  ,sulphur4 ,part of the        
,sulphur will be dissipated in vapours1 
and the  rest will burn away4 ,when it  
is quite consumed1 increase the fire so 
as to make the crucible red-hot4 ,when  
you perceive no more smell of  ,sulphur1
 pour on the ,gold a little ,borax1     
previously melted in another  crucible  
with a ,fixed ,alkali1 as calcined      
,wine-lees1 or ,nitre fixed  with       
,tartar2 and then raise the fire        
sufficiently to make the whole  flow4   
,after the fusion is completed1 you will
 find a button of ,gold at  the bottom  
of the crucible under the ,salts4       
,fulminating ,gold may also be reduced  
by pouring on it a sufficient  quantity 
of ,fixed ,alkali reduced to a liquor1  
or of oil of ,vitriol1  evaporating all 
the moisture1 and gradually throwing    
what remains1  mixed up with some       
pinguinous matter1 into a crucible kept 
red-hot in  a furnace4 ,the reason why  
these substances deprive the ,gold of   
its  fulminating quality1 depends on the

 causes that produce the fulmination4   
,gold may also be separated from aqua   
regis1 and precipitated by the  means of
 several metallic substances that have a
 greater affinity1  either with aqua    
regis1 or with one of the two ,acids    
that compose it4  ,mercury is one of the
 fittest for this purpose4 ,on dropping 
a solution  of ,mercury in the ,nitrous 
,acid by little and little into a       
solution of  ,gold1 the mixture becomes 
turbid1 and a precipitate is formed4    
,continue  dropping in more of the      
solution of ,mercury till no more       
precipitate  falls2 then let the liquor 
stand to settle1 and at the bottom of it
  you will find a sediment1 which is the
 precipitated ,gold3 pour off the       
liquor by inclination1 and wash the     
precipitate with fair water4    ,mercury
 hath a greater affinity with the       
,marine than with the ,nitrous  ,acid4  
,the affinity which ,mercury hath with  
the ,marine ,acid is also  greater than 
that of ,gold with the ,marine ,acid2   

for unless this ,acid  be associated    
either with the ,nitrous ,acid1 or at   
least with a certain  proportion of     
,phlogiston1 it will not dissolve ,gold4
 ,hence it comes1  that when a solution 
of ,mercury in the ,nitrous ,acid is    
dropped into a  solution of ,gold in    
aqua regis1 the ,mercury unites with the
 ,acid of  ,sea-salt1 which is an       
ingredient in the aqua regis3 but the   
,marine  ,acid cannot on this occasion  
join the ,mercury1 without deserting the
  ,gold and the ,nitrous ,acid with     
which it was united2 and then the ,gold1
  which cannot be kept in solution by   
the ,nitrous ,acid alone1 is forced  to 
quit its solvent and precipitate4 ,the  
liquor1 therefore1 that now  floats over
 the ,gold thus precipitated1 must      
contain ,mercury united  with the ,acid 
of ,sea-salt3 and in fact it yields a   
true ,corrosive  ,sublimate1 which is   
known to be a combination of ,mercury   
with the  ,marine ,acid4    ,mercury    
dissolved in ,spirit of ,nitre is       

employed to procure the  precipitation  
we are speaking of2 because metallic    
substances1 when so  comminuted by an   
,acid1 are much fitter for such         
experiments than when  they are in a    
concrete form4    ,gold precipitated in 
this manner by a metallic substance doth
 not  fulminate4      ,,process ,,iii4  
,to dissolve ,gold by ,liver of         
,sulphur4      ,mix together equal parts
 of common ,brimstone1 and a very strong
 ,fixed  ,alkali2 for instance1 ,nitre  
fixed by ,charcoal4 ,put them in a      
crucible1  and melt the mixture1        
stirring it from time to time with a    
small rod4  ,there is no occasion to    
make the fire very brisk2 because the   
,sulphur  facilitates the fusion of the 
,fixed ,alkali4 ,some sulphureous       
vapours  will rise from the crucible2   
the two substances will mix intimately  
together1 and form a reddish compound4  
,then throw into the crucible  some     
little pieces of ,gold beat into thin   
plates1 so that the whole do  not exceed

 in weight one third part of the ,liver 
of ,sulphur3 raise the  fire a little4  
,as soon as the ,liver of ,sulphur is   
perfectly melted1 it  will begin to     
dissolve the ,gold with ebullition2 and 
will even emit  some flashes of fire4   
,in the space of a few minutes the ,gold
 will be  entirely dissolved1 especially
 if it was cut and flatted into small   
thin leaves4      ,,observations4       
,the process here delivered is taken    
from ,m4 ,stahl4 ,the design of that    
ingenious ,chymist's inquiry was to     
discover how ,moses could burn the      
golden calf1 which the ,israelites had  
set up and worshipped while he  was on  
the mount2 how he could afterwards      
reduce that calf to powder1  throw it   
into the water which the people used1   
and make all who had  apostatized drink 
thereof1 as related in the ,book of     
,exodus4    ,m4 ,stahl1 having first    
observed that ,gold is absolutely       
unalterable  and indestructible by the  
force of fire alone1 be it ever so      

violent1  concludes1 that without a     
miracle ,moses could not possibly       
perform the  above-mentioned operations 
on the golden calf any way but by mixing
  with the ,gold some matter qualified  
to alter and dissolve it4 ,he then      
takes notice1 that pure ,sulphur does   
not act upon ,gold at all1 and  that    
many other substances1 which are thought
 capable of dividing and  dissolving it1
 cannot however do it so completely as  
is necessary to  render that metal      
susceptible of the effects related4 ,he 
then gives the  method of dissolving it 
by ,liver of ,sulphur1 described in the 
process4    ,liver of ,sulphur dissolves
 likewise all the other metals3 but ,m4 
,stahl observes1 that it attenuates     
,gold more than any other metallic      
substance1 and unites with it much more 
intimately than with the rest4  ,this   
appears from what happens1 on attempting
 to dissolve in water  any of the mixts 
resulting from the union of another     
metal with the  ,liver of ,sulphur3 for 

then the metal separates1 and appears in
 the  form of a powder or fine calx2    
whereas1 when ,gold is united with      
,liver  of ,sulphur1 the whole compound 
dissolves in water so perfectly1 that   
the ,gold even passes with the ,liver of
 ,sulphur through the pores of          
filtering paper4    ,if an ,acid be     
poured into a solution of this          
combination of ,gold with  ,liver of    
,sulphur1 the ,acid unites with the     
,alkali of the ,hepar1 and  the ,gold   
falls to the bottom of the liquor along 
with the ,sulphur1  which doth not quit 
it4 ,the ,sulphur thus precipitated with
 the ,gold  is easily carried off by a  
slight torrefaction1 after which the    
,gold remains exceedingly comminuted4   
,the ,sulphur of this compound  may also
 be destroyed by torrefaction1 without  
the trouble of a  previous solution and 
precipitation1 and then also the ,gold  
remains so  attenuated as to be miscible
 with liquors1 and floats on them1 or   
swims  in them1 in such a manner that it

 may easily be swallowed with them in   
drinking4 ,from all this ,m4 ,stahl     
concludes there is great reason to      
believe it was by means of the ,liver of
 ,sulphur that ,moses divided1 and  in a
 manner calcined1 the golden calf1 so   
that he could mingle it with  water1 and
 make the ,israelites drink it4         
,,process ,,iv4    ,to separate ,gold   
from all other metallic ,substances by  
means of  ,antimony4    ,having put the 
,gold you intend to purify into a       
crucible1 set it in  a melting furnace1 
cover it1 and make the ,gold flow4 ,when
 the metal  is in fusion cast upon it1  
by a little at a time1 twice its weight 
of pure crude ,antimony in powder1 and  
after each projection cover  the        
crucible again immediately3 this done   
keep the matter in fusion  for a few    
minutes4 ,when you perceive that the    
metallic mixture is  perfectly melted1  
and that its surface begins to sparkle1 
pour it out  into a hollow iron cone1   
previously heated1 and smeared on the   

inside  with tallow4 ,immediately strike
 with a hammer the floor on which the   
cone stands2 and when all is cold1 or at
 least sufficiently fixed1  invert the  
cone and strike it3 the whole metallic  
mass will fall out1  and the under part 
thereof1 which was at the point of the  
cone1 will  be a ,regulus more or less  
yellow as the ,gold was more or less    
pure4  ,on striking the metallic mass   
the ,regulus will freely part from the  
sulphureous crust at top4    ,return    
this ,regulus into the crucible1 and    
melt it4 ,less fire will do  now than   
was required before4 ,add the same      
quantity of ,antimony1 and  proceed as  
at first4 ,repeat the same operation a  
third time1 if your  ,gold be very      
impure4    ,then put your ,regulus into 
a good crucible1 much larger than is    
necessary to hold it4 ,set your crucible
 in a melting furnace1 and heat  the    
matter but just enough to make it flow1 
with a smooth1 brilliant  surface4 ,when
 you find it thus conditioned1 point    

towards it the nose  of a long-snouted  
pair of bellows1 and therewith keep     
gently and  constantly blowing4 ,there  
will arise from the crucible a          
considerable  smoke1 which will abate   
greatly when you cease to blow1 and     
increase  as soon as you begin again4   
,you must raise the fire gradually as   
you  approach towards the end of the    
operation4 ,if the surface of the metal 
lose its brilliant polish1 and seem     
covered with a hard crust1 it is  a sign
 the fire is too weak2 in which case it 
must be increased1 till  the surface    
recover its shining appearance4 ,at     
last1 when no more smoke  rises1 and the
 surface of the ,gold looks neat and    
greenish1 cast on  it1 by little and    
little1 some pulverized ,nitre1 or a    
mixture of ,nitre  and ,borax4 ,the     
matter will swell up4 ,continue thus    
adding more ,nitre  gradually1 till no  
commotion is thereby produced in the    
crucible2 and  then let the whole cool4 
,if you find1 when the ,gold is cold1   

that it is  not tough enough1 melt it   
over again2 when it begins to melt1 cast
 in  the same ,salts as before2 and     
repeat this till it be perfectly        
ductile4      ,,observations4           
,antimony is a compound1 consisting of a
 semi-metallic part united with  about a
 fourth part of its weight of common    
,sulphur4 ,it appears1 in the  ninth    
column of the ,table of ,affinities1    
that all the metals1 ,mercury  and ,gold
 excepted1 have a greater affinity than 
the reguline part of  ,antimony with    
,sulphur4 ,if therefore ,gold1          
adulterated with a mixture  of ,copper1 
,silver1 or any other metal1 be melted  
with ,antimony1 those  metals will unite
 with the ,sulphur of the ,antimony1 and
 separate it  from the reguline part1   
which being thus set free will combine  
and be  blended with the ,gold4 ,these  
two metallic substances1 forming a mass 
far heavier than the other metals mixed 
with the sulphur1 fall together  to the 
bottom of the crucible in the form of a 

,regulus1 while the  others float over  
them like a sort of scoria or flag3 and 
thus the ,gold  is freed from all alloy 
but the reguline part of the ,antimony4 
,as all the other metals have a great   
affinity with ,sulphur1 and ,gold  is   
the only one that is capable of         
resisting its action1 one would  think  
,sulphur alone might be sufficient to   
free it from the metals  combined with  
it1 and that it would therefore be      
better to employ pure  ,sulphur1 in this
 operation1 than to make use of         
,antimony2 the reguline  part of which  
remaining united with the ,gold requires
 another long and  laborious operation  
to get rid of it4    ,indeed1 strictly  
speaking1 ,sulphur alone would be       
sufficient to  produce the desired      
separation3 but it is proper to observe1
 that1 as  ,sulphur alone is very       
combustible1 most of it would be        
consumed in  the operation before it    
could have an opportunity to unite with 
the  metallic substances2 whereas1 when 

it is combined with the ,regulus  of    
,antimony1 it is thereby enabled to bear
 the action of the fire  much longer    
without burning1 and consequently is    
much fitter for the  purpose in         
question4 ,besides1 if we were to make  
use of pure ,sulphur1  a great part of  
the ,gold1 which is kept in perfect     
fusion1 and its  precipitation          
facilitated1 by the ,regulus of         
,antimony1 would remain  confounded with
 the ,sulphureous scoria4               
,nevertheless1 seeing the metals with   
which ,gold is alloyed cannot  be       
separated from it by ,antimony1 but that
 a quantity of ,regulus  proportioned to
 the quantity of the metals so separated
 will unite  with the ,gold1 and that   
the more ,regulus combines with the     
,gold1 the  more tedious1 chargeable1   
and laborious will the operation prove1 
this  consideration ought to have some  
influence in directing our process4     
,therefore1 if the ,gold be very impure1
 and worse than sixteen carats1  we must

 not mix it with crude ,antimony alone1 
but add two drams of  pure ,sulphur for 
every carat the ,gold wants of sixteen1 
and lessen the  quantity of ,antimony in
 proportion to that of the real ,gold4  
,it is necessary to keep the crucible   
close covered1 after mixing the         
,antimony with the ,gold1 to prevent any
 coals from falling into it3 for1  if   
that should happen1 the melted mass     
would puff up considerably1 and  might  
perhaps run over4    ,the inside of the 
cone1 into which you pour the melted    
metallic mass1  must be greased with    
tallow1 to prevent its sticking thereto1
 and that  it may come easily out4      
,striking the floor1 on which the cone  
with the  melted metal stands1 helps the
 precipitation and descent of the       
,regulus  of ,gold and ,antimony to the 
bottom of the cone4    ,less fire is    
requisite to melt this compound         
,regulus1 in order to add  fresh        
,antimony1 than was necessary before the
 ,gold was mixed with the  reguline part

 of the ,antimony2 because this metallic
 substance1 being  much more fusible    
than ,gold1 promotes its melting4 ,the  
,antimony is  mixed with the ,gold by   
repeated projections1 that the          
separation of  the metals may be        
accomplished with the greater ease and  
accuracy4 ,yet  the operation might be  
successfully performed1 by putting in   
all the  ,antimony at once1 and with one
 melting only4    ,the metalline mass   
found at the bottom of the cone after   
all these  operations1 is a mixture of  
,gold with the reguline part of the     
,antimony4 ,all the rest of the process 
consists only in separating this        
reguline part from the ,gold4 ,as ,gold 
is the most fixed of all metals1  and as
 the ,regulus of ,antimony cannot bear  
the violence of fire without  flying off
 in vapours1 nothing more is necessary  
for this purpose but  to expose the     
compound1 as directed in the process1 to
 a heat strong  enough and long enough  
continued1 to dissipate all the ,regulus

 of  ,antimony4 ,this semi-metal exhales
 in the form of a very thick white      
smoke4 ,it is proper to blow gently into
 the crucible during the whole          
operation2 because the immediate contact
 of the fresh air incessantly  thrown in
 promotes and considerably increases the
 evaporation3 and this  is a general    
rule applicable to all evaporations4    
,the fire must be gradually raised as   
the ,regulus of ,antimony is            
dissipated1 and the operation draws     
towards an end2 because the mixed  mass 
of ,regulus of ,antimony and ,gold      
becomes so much the less fusible  as the
 proportion of the ,regulus is lessened4
 ,though the ,regulus of  ,antimony be  
separated from the ,gold in this        
operation1 because the  latter is of    
such a fixed nature that it cannot be   
volatilized by the  degree of fire which
 dissipates the ,regulus2 yet1 as the   
,regulus is  very volatile1 it will     
undoubtedly carry up some of the ,gold  
along with  it1 especially if you hurry 

on the evaporation too fast1 by applying
  too great a degree of fire1 by blowing
 too briskly into the crucible1  and    
still more if you evaporate your mixture
 in a broad flat vessel  instead of a   
crucible4 ,all these things must        
therefore be avoided1 if  you would lose
 no more ,gold than you needs must4     
,however1 unless the evaporation be     
carried to the utmost1 by the means     
above pointed out1 a small portion of   
the ,regulus of ,antimony will  always  
remain combined with the ,gold1 which   
defends it from the action  of the fire4
 ,this small portion of ,regulus hinders
 the ,gold from being  perfectly pure   
and ductile4 ,in order therefore to     
consume and scorify  it1 we cast ,nitre 
into the crucible when we perceive it to
 emit no more  white vapours4    ,we    
know that ,nitre has the property of    
reducing all metallic substances  to a  
calx1 ,gold and ,silver excepted2       
because it deflagrates with  the        
phlogiston to which their metalline form

 is owing3 but as this  accension of the
 ,nitre occasions a tumid effervescence1
 care must be  taken to throw it in but 
by little and little at a time2 for if  
too  much be projected at once the      
melted matter will run over4    ,this   
operation might be considerably abridged
 by taking advantage of  the property   
which ,nitre possesses of thus consuming
 the phlogiston  of metallic substances2
 as by means thereof we might destroy   
all the  ,regulus of ,antimony          
incorporated with the ,gold1 without    
having recourse  to a long and tedious  
evaporation4 ,but then we should at the 
same time  lose a much greater quantity 
of ,gold1 by reason of the tumult and   
ebullition which are inseparable from   
the detonation of ,nitre4 ,on the       
whole1 therefore1 if ,nitre be made use 
of to purify ,gold1 great care  must be 
taken to apply but very little of it at 
a time4    ,all the ,silver that was    
mixed with the ,gold1 and indeed a      
little of  the ,gold itself1 remains    

confounded with the sulphureous scoria1 
which  floats upon the ,golden ,regulus 
after the addition of the ,antimony3 we 
shall shew in the ,chapter on ,silver   
how these two metals are to be          
separated from the ,sulphur4            
,,chap4 ,,ii4    ,of ,,silver4          
,,process ,i4    ,to separate ,silver   
from its ,ore1 by means of              
,scorification with ,lead4    ,beat to  
powder in an iron mortar the ore from   
which you mean to  separate the ,silver1
 having first roasted it well in order  
to free it  from all the ,sulphur and   
,arsenic that it may contain4 ,weigh it 
exactly3  then weigh out by itself eight
 times as much granulated ,lead4 ,put   
one  half of this ,lead into a test1 and
 spread it equally thereon3 upon this   
,lead lay your ore1 and cover it quite  
over with the remaining half of  the    
,lead4    ,place the test thus loaded   
under the further end of the muffle in a
  cupelling furnace4 ,light your fire1  
and increase it by degrees4 ,if you     

look through one of the apertures in the
 door of the furnace you will  perceive 
the ore1 covered with calcined ,lead1   
swim upon the melted  ,lead4 ,presently 
afterwards it will grow soft1 melt1 and 
be thrown  towards the sides of the     
vessel1 the surface of the ,lead        
appearing in  the midst thereof bright  
and shining like a luminous disc3 the   
,lead  will then begin to boil1 and emit
 fumes4 ,as soon as this happens1 the   
fire must be a little checked1 so that  
the ebullition of the ,lead may  almost 
entirely cease1 for about a quarter of  
an hour4 ,after this it  must be excited
 to the degree it was at before1 so that
 the ,lead may  begin again to boil and 
smoke4 ,its shining surface will        
gradually  lessen1 and be covered with  
scori4 ,stir the whole with an iron     
hook1  and draw in towards the middle   
what you observe towards the sides of   
the vessel2 to the end that1 if any part
 of the ore should still remain         
undissolved by the ,lead1 it may be     

mixed therewith4    ,when you perceive  
that the matter is in perfect fusion1   
that the  greatest part of what sticks  
to the iron hook1 when you dip it in the
  melted matter1 separates from it      
again1 and drops back into the vessel2  
and that the extremity of this          
instrument1 when grown cold1 appears    
varnished over with a thin1 smooth1     
shining crust2 you may look on  these as
 marks that the business is done1 and   
the more uniform and  evenly the colour 
of the crust is1 the more perfect may   
you judge the  scorification to be4     
,matters being brought to this pass1    
take the test with a pair of tongs  from
 under the muffle1 and pour its whole   
contents into an iron cone1  first      
heated and greased with tallow4 ,this   
whole operation lasts about  three      
quarters of an hour4 ,when all is cold1 
the blow of a hammer  will part the     
,regulus from the scoria2 and as it is  
not possible1 how  perfect soever the   
scorification be1 to avoid leaving a    

little ,lead  containing ,silver in the 
scoria1 it is proper to pulverize this  
scoria1  and separate therefrom whatever
 extends under the hammer1 in order to  
add it to the ,regulus4                 
,,observations4    ,silver1 as well as  
,gold1 is often found quite pure1 and   
under its  metalline form1 in the bowels
 of the earth2 and in that case it may  
be separated from the stones or sand in 
which it is lodged by simple  washing1  
or by ,amalgamation with ,mercury1 in   
the same manner as before  directed for 
,gold4 ,but it also happens frequently1 
that ,silver is  combined in the ore    
with other metallic substances and      
minerals1 which  will not admit of this 
process1 but force us to employ other   
methods of  separating it from them4    
,sulphur and ,arsenic are the substances
 to which ,silver and the other  metals 
usually owe their mineral state4 ,these 
two matters are never  very closely     
united with ,silver2 but may be pretty  
easily separated  from it by the action 

of fire1 and the addition of ,lead4 ,if 
,arsenic be  predominant in a ,silver   
ore1 it will unite with the ,lead by the
 help  of a pretty moderate heat1 and   
quickly convert a considerable quantity 
thereof into a penetrating fusible      
glass1 which has the property of        
scorifying with ease all substances that
 are capable of scorification4    ,when 
,sulphur predominates1 the scorification
 proceeds more slowly1  and doth not    
always succeed2 because that mineral    
combined with ,lead  lessens its        
fusibility1 and retards its             
vitrification4 ,in this case1  part of  
the ,sulphur must be dissipated by      
roasting3 the other part  unites with   
the ,lead2 and that1 being rendered     
lighter by this union1  floats on the   
rest of the mixture1 which chiefly      
contains the ,silver4  ,at last1 the    
joint action of the air and of the fire 
dissipates the  portion of ,sulphur that
 had united with the ,lead3 the ,lead   
vitrifies  and reduces to a scoria      

whatever is not either ,silver or ,gold3
 and  thus the ,silver being            
disentangled from the heterogeneous     
matters with  which it was united1 one  
part thereof being dissipated and the   
other  vitrified1 combines with the     
portion of ,lead which is not vitrified1
  and falls through the scoria1 which1  
to favour its descent1 must be in       
perfect fusion4    ,the whole process1  
therefore1 consists of three distinct   
operations4  ,the first is ,roasting1   
which dissipates some of the volatile   
substances  found united with the       
,silver3 the second is ,scorification1  
or the  ,vitrification of the fixed     
matters also united with the ,silver1   
such  as sand1 stones1 metals1 c4 and   
the third is precipitation1 or the      
separation of the ,silver from the      
scoria4 ,the two first are1 as hath     
been shewn1 preparatives for the last1  
and indeed produce it4    ,as every     
thing we said concerning ,gold1 when we 
treated of the process  of              

,amalgamation1 is to be applied to      
,silver1 which may be extracted  by the 
same method when it is in its metalline 
form2 in the same  manner1 all we now   
advance touching the method of          
extracting ,silver  by ,scorification1  
when it is depraved with a mixture of   
heterogenous  matters1 is equally       
applicable to ,gold in the same         
circumstances3 and  indeed ,silver      
almost always contains more or less     
,gold naturally4    ,in the process we  
directed1 that the ore should be        
pulverized before  it be exposed to the 
fire1 with a view to enlarge its        
surface1 and by  that means facilitate  
the action of the ,lead upon it1 as well
 as the  evaporation of its volatile    
parts4    ,we recommended the precaution
 of slackening the fire a little at the 
beginning of the operation1 only to     
prevent the ,lead from being too        
hastily converted into litharge1 lest it
 should penetrate and corrode  the test 
before it had wholly dissolved the ore3 

but if we were  perfectly certain of the
 vessel's being so good as to be in no  
danger  of penetration by the ,lead1    
this precaution would be needless4      
,it is proper to add eight parts of     
,lead for one of ore2 though so  much is
 not always absolutely necessary1       
especially when the ore is  very        
fusible4 ,the success of this operation 
depends chiefly on the  completeness of 
the ,scorification2 and therefore the   
addition of more  ,lead than enough is  
attended with no inconvenience3 for1 as 
it always  promotes the ,scorification1 
it can never do any harm4    ,if the ore
 be mixed with such earthy and stony    
parts as cannot be  separated from it by
 washing1 it is the more difficult of   
fusion1  even though the stones should  
be such as are most disposed to vitrify2
  because the most fusible earths and   
stones are always less so than most     
metallic substances4 ,in that case it   
will be necessary1 for effecting  the   
,scorification1 to mix thoroughly with  

the pulverized ore an equal  quantity of
 ,glass of ,lead1 to add twelve times as
 much granulated ,lead1  and then to    
proceed as directed for a fusible ore2  
exposing the mixture  to a degree of    
fire strong enough1 and long enough kept
 up1 to give  the scoria all the        
properties above required as signs of a 
perfect  scorification4    ,silver ore  
is sometimes mixed with ,pyrites1 and   
the ore of ,arsenic1 or  ,cobalt1 which 
also make it refractory4 ,as the        
,pyrites contain a large  quantity of   
,sulphur1 which is very volatile as well
 as ,arsenic2 in  this case it is proper
 to begin with freeing the ore from     
these two  extraneous substances4 ,this 
is easily done by roasting3 only be     
sure1  when you first expose the ore to 
the heat1 to cover the vessel in which  
you roast it1 for some minutes1 with an 
inverted vessel of the same  width2     
because such sorts of ore are very apt  
to fly when they first  feel the heat4  
,after this uncover it1 and leave it    

exposed to the fire till no more        
sulphureous or arsenical matters rise4  
,then mix it with the same  quantity of 
,glass of ,lead as we ordered for ores  
rendered refractory by  the admixture of
 earths or stones1 and proceed in the   
same manner4    ,it is the more         
necessary to roast ,silver ore infected 
with ,sulphur and  ,arsenic1 because1 as
 ,sulphur obstructs the fusion of ,lead1
 it cannot  but do hurt1 and protract   
the operation2 and ,arsenic does        
mischief1 on  the other hand1 by        
scorifying a very great quantity of     
,lead too hastily4    ,when the ,sulphur
 and ,arsenic are dissipated by         
roasting1 the ore must  be treated like 
that which is rendered refractory by    
stony and earthy  matters2 for as the   
pyrites contain much iron1 there        
remains1 after the  ,sulphur is         
evaporated1 a considerable quantity of  
martial earth1 which  is difficult to   
scorify4 ,the pyrites1 as well as the   
cobalts1 contain  moreover an unmetallic

 earth1 which is hard to fuse4    ,the  
general rule therefore is1 when the ore 
is rendered refractory  by any cause    
whatever1 to mix it with ,glass of      
,lead1 and to add a  larger quantity of 
granulated ,lead4 ,yet some ores are so 
refractory  that ,lead alone will not do
 the business1 and recourse must be had 
to  some other flux4 ,that which is     
fittest for the present purpose is the  
,black ,flux1 composed of one part of   
,nitre and two parts of ,tartar         
deflagrated together4 ,the ,phlogiston  
contained in this quantity of  ,tartar  
is more than sufficient to alkalizate   
the ,nitre4 ,this ,flux1  therefore1 is 
nothing more than ,nitre alkalizated by 
,tartar1 mixed with  some of the same   
,tartar that hath not lost its          
,phlogiston1 and is only  reduced to a  
sort of coal4    ,the ,white ,flux is   
also very fit to promote fusion2 but on 
this  occasion the ,black ,flux is      
preferable1 because the ,phlogiston of  
the  ,black ,flux prevents the ,lead    

from being too soon converted to        
litharge1  and so gives it time to      
dissolve the metallic matters4 ,the     
,white ,flux1  which is the result of   
equal parts of ,tartar and ,nitre       
alkalizated  together1 being no more    
than an ,alkali destitute of            
,phlogiston1 or  containing but very    
little1 doth not possess this advantage4
    ,if ,silver should be combined in   
the ore with ,iron in its metalline     
state1 which however does not commonly  
happen1 then1 in order to  separate     
them1 the ,iron must be deprived of its 
,phlogiston1 and  converted to a crocus 
before the mixed mass be melted with    
,lead2  which may be done by dissolving 
it in the ,vitriolic ,acid1 and then    
evaporating the ,acid4    ,we are       
necessitated to make use of this        
contrivance1 because ,iron in  its      
metalline form cannot be dissolved      
either by ,lead or by the ,glass  of    
,lead2 but when it is reduced to a calx1
 litharge unites with it and  scorifies 

it4    ,if you have not at hand the     
utensils necessary for performing the   
operation we have been describing in a  
test1 and under the muffle2 or  if you  
have a mind to work on a greater        
quantity of ore at a time1 you  may make
 use of a crucible for the purpose1 and 
perform the operation  in a melting     
furnace4    ,in this case the ore must  
be prepared1 as above directed1         
according to  its nature1 and mixed with
 a proper quantity of ,lead and ,glass  
of ,lead2  the whole put into a good    
crucible1 leaving two thirds thereof    
empty1  and covered with a mixture of   
,sea-salt and a little ,borax1 both very
  dry1 to the thickness of a full half  
inch4    ,this being done1 set the      
crucible in the midst of a melting      
furnace1  raise the coals quite to the  
lip of the crucible2 light the fire2    
cover the furnace with its dome2 but do 
not urge the fire more than  is         
necessary to bring the mixture to       
perfect fusion3 leave it thus in  fusion

 for a good quarter of an hour2 stir the
 whole with a bit of  strong iron wire2 
then let it cool2 break the crucible1   
and separate  the ,regulus from the     
scoria4    ,the ,salts added on this    
occasion are fluxes1 and their use is to
  procure a perfect fusion of the       
scoria4    ,if the melted matters be    
left exposed to the fire1 either in a   
test  or in a crucible1 longer than is  
above prescribed1 the portion of  ,lead1
 that hath united and precipitated with 
the ,silver1 will at last  vitrify1 and 
at the same time scorify all the alloy  
with which that  metal may be mixed4    
,but as there are no vessels that can   
long endure  the action of litharge1    
without being pierced like a sieve1 some
 of the  ,silver may escape through the 
holes or fissures of the vessel1 and so 
be lost4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to   
complete the purification of your       
,silver by the operation of the ,cupel1 
the description of which follows4       
,,process ,,ii4    ,the refining of     

,silver by the ,cupel4    ,take a cupel 
capable of containing one third more    
matter than you  have to put into it3   
set it under the muffle of a furnace1   
like that  described in our ,theoretical
 ,elements1 as peculiarly appropriated  
to  this sort of operation4 ,fill the   
furnace with charcoal2 light it2 make   
the cupel red-hot1 and keep it so till  
all its moisture be evaporated2  that   
is1 for about a good quarter of an hour1
 if the cupel be made  wholly of the    
ashes of burnt bones2 and for a whole   
hour1 if there be  any washed wood-ash  
in its composition4    ,reduce the      
,regulus which remained after the       
preceding operation to  little thin     
plates1 flatting them with a small      
hammer1 and separating  them carefully  
from all the adherent scoria4 ,wrap     
these in a bit of  paper1 and with a    
small pair of tongs put them gently into
 the cupel4  ,when the paper is consumed
 the ,regulus will soon melt1 and the   
scoria1  which will be gradually        

produced by the ,lead as it turns to    
litharge1  will be driven to the sides  
of the cupel1 and immediately absorbed  
thereby4 ,at the same time the cupel    
will assume a yellow1 brown1 or         
blackish colour1 according to the       
quantity and nature of the scoria       
imbibed by it4    ,when you see the     
matter in the cupel in a violent        
ebullition1 and  emitting much smoke1   
lower the fire by the methods formerly  
prescribed4  ,keep up such a degree of  
heat only that the smoke which ascends  
from the matter may not rise very high1 
and that you may be able to  distinguish
 the colour which the cupel acquires    
from the scoria4    ,increase the fire  
by degrees1 as more and more litharge is
 formed and  absorbed4 ,if the ,regulus 
examined by this assay contain no       
,silver1  you will see it turn wholly   
into scoria1 and at last disappear4     
,when  it contains ,silver1 and the     
quantity of ,lead is much diminished1   
you  will perceive little vivid irises1 

or beautiful rain-bow colours1  shooting
 swiftly along its surface1 and crossing
 each other in many  different          
directions4 ,at last1 when all the ,lead
 is destroyed1 the  thin dark skin1 that
 is continually protruded by the ,lead  
while it is  turning into litharge1 and 
which hitherto covered the ,silver1     
suddenly  disappears2 and1 if at this   
moment the fire happen not to be strong 
enough to keep the ,silver in fusion1   
the surface of that metal will at  once 
dart out a dazzling splendour3 but1 if  
the fire be strong enough  to keep the  
,silver in fusion1 though freed from all
 mixture of ,lead1  this change of      
colour1 which is called its fulguration1
 will not be  so perceptible1 and the   
,silver will appear like a bead of fire4
    ,these phenomena shew that the      
operation is finished4 ,but the cupel   
must still be left a minute or two under
 the muffle1 and then drawn  slowly out 
with the iron hook towards the door of  
the furnace4 ,when the  ,silver is so   

cooled as to be but moderately red1 you 
may take the cupel  from under the      
muffle with your little tongs1 and in   
the middle of its  cavity you will find 
an exceeding white bead of ,silver1 the 
lower part  whereof will be unequal1 and
 full of little pits4                   
,,observations4    ,the ,regulus        
obtained by the former process consists 
altogether of  the ,silver contained in 
the ore1 alloyed with the other metals  
that  happened to be mixed therewith in 
its mineral state1 and a good deal of   
the ,lead that was added to precipitate 
the ,silver4 ,the operation of the      
cupel may be considered as the sequel of
 that process1 being intended  only to  
reduce into a scoria whatever is not    
,gold or ,silver4 ,lead being  of all   
metals that which vitrifies the most    
easily1 which most promotes  the        
vitrification of the rest1 and the only 
one which1 when vitrified1  penetrates  
the cupel1 and carries along with it the
 other metals which  it hath vitrified1 

is consequently the fittest for that    
purpose4 ,we  shall see in its place1   
that ,bismuth hath the same properties  
with  ,lead1 and may be substituted for 
it in this operation4    ,care must be  
taken to chuse a cupel of a proper      
capacity4 ,indeed it  should rather be  
too big than too little3 because the    
operation is  no way prejudiced by an   
excess in its size2 whereas1 if it be   
too  small1 it will be over-dosed with  
,lead1 and at last the litharge1 which  
destroys every thing1 will corrode its  
cavity1 and eat holes through  the very 
body of the vessel4 ,add1 that the      
ashes1 of which the cupel  is made1     
being once glutted with litharge1 absorb
 it afterwards but  slowly1 and that the
 quantity of this vitrified litharge1   
becoming too  great to be contained in  
the substance of the vessel1 exsudes    
through  it1 and drops on the floor of  
the muffle1 which it corrodes and       
renders  unequal2 and moreover solders  
to it the vessels set thereon4 ,it may  

be  laid down as a general rule for     
determining the size of a cupel1 that   
it weigh1 at least1 half as much as the 
metallic mass to be refined in  it4     
,it is also of the utmost consequence   
that the cupel be well dried  before the
 metal be put into it4 ,in order to make
 sure of this point1  it must be kept   
red-hot for a certain time1 as is above 
directed3  for though to the sight and  
to the touch it may appear very dry1 it 
nevertheless obstinately retains a small
 matter of moisture1 sufficient  to     
occasion the loss of some of the metal2 
which1 when it comes to  melt1 will be  
thereby spirited up1 in the form of     
little globules1 to  the very roof of   
the muffle4 ,the cupels that stand most 
in need of  an intense heat to dry them1
 are those chiefly in whose composition 
wood-ashes are employed3 for whatever   
care be taken to lixiviate those  ashes 
before they are used1 they will still   
retain a little alkaline  salt2 and     
that1 we know1 is very greedy of        

moisture1 will not part  entirely with  
it1 but by the means of a violent       
calcination1 and  presently re-imbibes  
it when exposed to the air4    ,a little
 ,phlogiston also may still be left in  
the ashes of which the  cupels are made2
 and that is another reason for         
calcining them before  they are used4   
,by this means the remaining ,phlogiston
 is dissipated1  which might otherwise  
combine with the litharge during the    
operation1  reduce it1 and occasion such
 a ferment in the matter as to make some
 of  it run over2 to these              
inconveniencies1 which any remainder of 
moisture  or ,phlogiston may produce1 we
 must add the cracks and flaws1 which   
are  very incident to cupels not        
perfectly freed from both those matters4
    ,it is of no less importance to the 
success of this operation1 that a  due  
degree of heat be kept up4 ,in the      
process we have described the  marks    
which shew the heat to be neither too   
strong nor too weak2 when  it exceeds in

 either of these respects it may be     
known by the following  signs4    ,if   
the fume emitted by the ,lead rise like 
a spout to the roof of  the muffle2 if  
the surface of the melted metal be      
extremely convex1  considering the      
quantity of the mass3 if the cupel      
appear of such a  white heat1 that the  
colour communicated thereto by the      
imbibed scoria  cannot be distinguished3
 all these shew that the heat is too    
great1 and  that it ought to be         
diminished4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the   
vapours only  hover1 as it were1 over   
the surface of the metal2 if the melted 
mass  be very flat1 considering its     
quantity2 if its ebullition appear but  
faint2 if the scori1 that appear like   
little fiery drops of rain1  have but a 
languid motion2 if the scoria gather in 
heaps1 and do not  penetrate the cupel2 
if the metal be covered with it as with 
a glassy  coat2 and1 lastly1 if the     
cupel look dull2 these are proofs that  
the  heat is too weak1 and ought to be  

increased4    ,the design of this       
operation being to convert the ,lead    
into litharge1  and to give it          
sufficient time and opportunity to      
scorify and carry  off with it whatever 
is not ,gold or ,silver2 the fire must  
be kept up  to such a degree that the   
,lead may easily be turned into         
litharge1 and  yet that litharge not be 
absorbed too hastily by the cupel1 but  
that  a small quantity thereof may all  
along remain1 like a ring1 round the    
melted metal4    ,the fire is to be     
gradually increased as the operation    
draws nearer  to its end3 for1 as the   
proportion of the ,lead to the ,silver  
is  continually lessening1 the metallic 
mass gradually becomes less  fusible2   
while the ,silver defends the ,lead     
mixed with it from the  action of the   
fire1 and prevents its being easily     
converted into  litharge4    ,when the  
operation is finished1 the cupel must   
still be left under  the muffle1 till it
 has imbibed all the litharge1 to the   

end that the  bead of ,silver may be    
easily taken out3 for1 without this     
precaution1  it would stick so fast as  
not to be removed1 but by breaking off  
part  of the cupel along with it4 ,care 
must also be taken to let this bead  of 
,silver cool gradually1 and be perfectly
 fixed1 before you draw it  from under  
the muffle2 for if you expose it at once
 to the cold air1  before it be fixed1  
it will swell1 shoot into sprigs1 and   
even dart out  several little grains to 
a considerable distance1 which will be  
lost4    ,if the bead appear to have a  
yellowish tinge1 it is a sign that it   
contains a great deal of ,gold1 which   
must be separated from it by the        
methods to be hereafter shewn4    ,it is
 proper to observe1 that there is scarce
 any ,lead that does not  contain some  
,silver2 too little perhaps to defray   
the charges necessary  to separate it1  
yet considerable enough to lead us into 
an error1 by  mixing with the ,silver   
obtained from an ore1 and increasing its

 weight4  ,and therefore1 when the      
operations above described are applied  
to the  assaying of an ore1 in order to 
know how much ,silver it yields1 it is  
previously necessary to examine the     
,lead to be used1 and to ascertain  the 
quantity of ,silver it contains1 which  
must be deducted from the  total weight 
of the bead of ,silver obtained by      
purifying it in this  manner4    ,silver
 may be separated from its ore1 and at  
the same time refined1 by  the single   
operation of the cupel1 without any     
previous scorification  with ,lead4 ,in 
order to do this1 you must pound the    
ore2 roast it1 to  dissipate all its    
volatile parts2 mix it with an equal    
quantity of  litharge1 if it be         
refractory2 divide it into five or six  
parcels1  wrapping each in a bit of     
paper2 weigh out eight parts of         
granulated  ,lead for one of ore1 if it 
be fusible1 and from twelve to sixteen1 
if it be refractory2 put one half of the
 ,lead into a very large  cupel under   

the muffle2 add thereto one of the      
little parcels of  ore1 when the ,lead  
begins to smoke and boil2 immediately   
slacken the  fire a little2 continue the
 same degree of heat till you perceive  
that the litharge formed round the      
metal1 and on its surface1 begins  to   
look bright2 then raise the fire2 add a 
fresh parcel of ore2  continue          
proceeding in the same manner till you  
have put in all the  ore2 then add the  
remaining half of the granulated ,lead1 
and conduct  the succeeding part of the 
operation in the same manner as that of 
cupelling4    ,in this operation it is  
necessary that the fire be not too      
strongly  urged1 and that it be         
diminished every time you add a fresh   
parcel of ore2 that so the ,lead and the
 litharge may have time  to dissolve1   
scorify1 and carry off into the pores of
 the cupel1  all the adventitious       
matters with which your ,silver may be  
mixed4  ,notwithstanding this           
precaution1 when the ore is refractory1 

there  often gathers in the cupel a     
great quantity of scoria1 together also 
with some of the ore that could not be  
dissolved and scorified4 ,it is  with a 
view to remedy this inconvenience that  
the second moiety of the  ,lead is added
 towards the end1 which completes the   
dissolution and  scorification of the   
whole2 so that by means thereof no      
scoria1 or very  little1 is left in the 
cupel at the end of the operation4      
,the operation of the cupel is chiefly  
used to purify ,silver from the  alloy  
of ,copper2 because this metal1 being   
more fixed and harder to  calcine than  
other metallic substances1 is the only  
one that remains  united with ,silver   
and ,lead1 after roasting and           
scorification with  ,lead4 ,it requires 
no less than sixteen parts of the ,lead 
to destroy  it in the cupel1 and        
separate it from ,silver4 ,it melts into
 one mass  with the ,lead2 and the glass
 produced by these two metals1 deprived 
of their phlogiston1 inclines to a brown

 or a black colour2 by which  appearance
 chiefly we know that our ,silver was   
alloyed with ,copper4      ,,process    
,,iii4    ,to purify ,silver by ,nitre4 
,granulate the ,silver you intend to    
purify1 or reduce it to thin plates2    
put it into a good crucible2 add thereto
 a fourth part in weight of  very dry   
pulverized ,nitre1 mixed with half the  
weight of the ,nitre of  calcined       
,wine-lees1 and about a sixth part of   
the same weight of common  glass in     
powder4 ,cover this crucible with       
another crucible inverted2  which must  
be of such a size that its mouth may    
enter a little way into  that of the    
lower one1 and have its bottom pierced  
with a hole of about  two lines in      
diameter4 ,lute the two crucibles       
together with clay and  ,windsor-loam4  
,when the lute is dry1 place the        
crucibles in a melting  furnace4 ,fill  
the furnace with charcoal1 taking care  
however that the  fuel do not rise above
 the upper crucible4    ,kindle the     

fire1 and make your vessels of a        
middling-red heat4 ,when  they are so1  
take up with the tongs a live-coal1 and 
hold it over  the hole of the upper     
crucible4 ,if you immediately perceive a
 vivid  splendour round the coal1 and at
 the same time hear a gentle hissing    
noise1 it is a sign that the fire is of 
a proper strength2 and it must  be kept 
up at the same degree till this         
phenomenon cease4    ,then increase the 
fire to the degree requisite to keep    
pure ,silver in  fusion2 and immediately
 after take your vessels out of the     
furnace4  ,you will find the ,silver at 
the bottom of the lower crucible1       
covered  with a mass of ,alkaline scoria
 of a greenish colour4 ,if the metal be 
not rendered perfectly pure and ductile 
by this operation1 it must be  repeated 
a second time4      ,,observations4     
,the purification of ,silver by ,nitre1 
as well as the process for  refining it 
on the cupel1 is founded on the property
 which this metal  possesses of         

resisting the force of the strongest    
fire1 and the  power of the most active 
solvents1 without losing its phlogiston4
  ,the difference between these two     
operations consists wholly in the       
substances made use of to procure the   
scorification of the imperfect  metals1 
or semi-metals1 that may be combined    
with the ,silver4 ,in the  former this  
was obtained by ,lead1 and here it is   
effected by ,nitre4  ,this ,salt1 as we 
have shewn1 hath the property of        
calcining and quickly  destroying all   
metallic substances1 by consuming their 
phlogiston1  except the perfect metals1 
,gold and ,silver1 which alone are able 
to  resist its force4 ,this method may  
therefore be employed to purify ,gold   
as well as ,silver1 or indeed both the  
two mixed together4    ,in this         
operation the ,nitre is gradually       
alkalizated1 as its ,acid is  consumed  
with the phlogiston of the metallic     
substances4 ,the ,alkaline  ,salt and   
pounded glass are added1 with a view to 

promote the fusion of  the metalline    
calces1 as fast as they are formed1 and 
to fix and retain  the ,nitre1 which1 as
 we shall presently see1 is apt to fly  
off in a  certain degree of heat4       
,the precaution of covering the crucible
 with another crucible inverted1  which 
hath only a small hole in its bottom1 is
 designed to prevent any  of the ,silver
 from being lost in the operation3 for  
when the ,nitre  comes to be acted on by
 a certain degree of heat1 and          
especially when  it deflagrates with any
 inflammable matter1 part of it flies   
off1 and  so rapidly too as to be       
capable of carrying off with it a good  
deal of  the ,silver4 ,the little hole  
left in the covering crucible is        
necessary  for giving vent to the       
vapours1 which rise during the          
deflagration  of the ,nitre1 as they    
would otherwise open themselves a       
passage by  bursting the vessels4 ,after
 the operation this vent-hole is found  
beset  with many little particles of    

,silver1 which would have been lost if  
the  crucible had not been covered4     
,if you should observe1 during the      
detonation of the ,nitre1 that a great  
many vapours issue through the vent-hole
 with a considerable hissing  noise1    
even without applying the coal1 you must
 take it for a sign that  the fire is   
too brisk1 and accordingly check it2    
else a great deal of  the ,nitre will be
 dissipated1 and with it much ,silver4  
,you must observe to take the ,silver   
out of the fire as soon as it is in     
fusion3 for if you neglect this1 the    
,nitre being entirely dissipated  or    
alkalizated1 the calces of the metals   
destroyed by it may possibly  recover a 
little phlogiston1 communicated either  
by the vapours of  the charcoal1 or by  
little bits of coal accidentally falling
 into the  crucible2 by which means some
 portion of those metals being reduced  
will mix again with the ,silver1 prevent
 its having the desired degree  of      
purity and ductility1 and oblige you to 

begin the operation afresh4             
,,process ,,iv4     ,to dissolve ,silver
 in ,aqua ,fortis1 and thereby separate 
it from   every other metalline         
substance4 ,the ,purification of ,aqua  
,fortis4   ,silver precipitated by      
,copper4    ,the ,silver you intend to  
dissolve being beaten into thin plates1 
put it  into a glass cucurbit2 pour on  
it twice its weight of good precipitated
  aqua fortis2 cover the cucurbit with a
 piece of paper1 and set it on  a       
sand-bath moderately heated4 ,the aqua  
fortis will begin to dissolve  the      
,silver as soon as it comes to be a     
little warm4 ,red vapours will  rise2   
and from the upper surfaces of the      
,silver there will seem to  issue       
streams of little bubbles1 ascending to 
the top of the liquor1  between which   
and the ,silver they will form1 as it   
were1 a number of  fine chains3 this is 
a sign that the dissolution proceeds    
duly1 and  that the degree of heat is   
such as it ought to be4 ,if the liquor  

appear  to boil and be agitated1 a great
 many red vapours rising at the same    
time1 it is a sign that the heat is too 
great1 and should be lessened  till it  
be reduced to the proper degree         
indicated above3 having  obtained that1 
keep it equally up till no more bubbles 
or red vapours  appear4    ,if your     
,silver be alloyed with ,gold1 the ,gold
 will be found1 when the  dissolution is
 finished1 at the bottom of the vessel  
in the form of a  powder4 ,this solution
 must now be decanted while it is yet   
warm2 on  the powder pour half as much  
fresh aqua fortis as before1 and make   
it boil2 again decant this second aqua  
fortis1 and repeat the same  a third    
time2 then with fair water wash the     
remaining powder well3 it  will be of a 
brown colour inclining to red4 ,in the  
observations we  shall show how the     
,silver is to be separated from the aqua
 fortis4      ,,observations4    ,all   
the processes on ,silver already        
delivered1 whether for extracting  it   

from its ores1 or for refining it1      
either by the ,cupel or by ,nitre1  are 
applicable to ,gold also4 ,and if       
,silver be alloyed with ,gold before  it
 undergo those several operations1 it   
will still remain alloyed  therewith    
after them1 in the same manner1 and in  
the same quantity2  because both metals 
bear them equally4 ,all therefore that  
can be  expected from those several     
assays1 is the separation of every thing
  that is neither ,silver nor ,gold from
 these two metals4 ,but in order to     
separate these two from each other1     
recourse must be had either to the      
process laid down under the head of     
,gold1 or to that here described1  which
 is the most commodious1 the most usual1
 and known by the names of  ,quartation 
and the ,parting ,assay4    ,aqua fortis
 is the true solvent of ,silver1 and is 
utterly incapable  of dissolving the    
least atom of ,gold4 ,if therefore a    
mass consisting of  ,gold and ,silver be
 exposed to the action of aqua fortis1  

that ,acid  will dissolve the ,silver   
contained in the compound1 without      
touching  the ,gold1 and the two metals 
will be separated from each other4 ,this
  method of parting them is just the    
reverse of that described before  under 
the head of ,gold1 which is effected by 
the means of aqua regis4    ,to the     
success of this separation1 by means of 
aqua fortis1 several  conditions are    
essentially necessary4 ,the first is1   
that the ,gold and  ,silver be in due   
proportion to each other2 that is1 there
 must be at  least twice as much ,silver
 as ,gold in the metalline mass1        
otherwise the  aqua fortis will not be  
able to dissolve it1 for the reason     
formerly  given4 ,if therefore the mass 
contain too little ,silver1 it must     
either  be melted down again1 and a     
proper quantity of ,silver added2 or    
else1  if the ,gold be in a sufficient  
proportion to the ,silver1 they may be  
parted by means of aqua regis4          
,secondly1 it is necessary that the aqua

 fortis employed in this  operation be  
absolutely pure1 and free from any taint
 of the ,vitriolic  or ,marine ,acid3   
for1 if it be adulterated with the      
,vitriolic ,acid1  the ,silver will     
precipitate as fast as it dissolves1 and
 so the  precipitated ,silver will again
 mix with the ,gold4 ,if the aqua fortis
  contain any of the ,marine ,acid1 the 
,silver will be precipitated in  that   
case also2 and this inconvenience will  
be attended with another1  namely1 that 
the menstruum1 being partly an aqua     
regis1 will dissolve  some of the ,gold4
 ,you must therefore be very sure that  
your aqua  fortis is pure1 before you   
set about the operation4 ,in order to   
discover its quality1 you must try it by
 dissolving1 in a small portion         
thereof1 as much ,silver as it will take
 up3 if the aqua fortis grow  opaque and
 milky as it dissolves the ,silver1 it  
is a sign it contains  some foreign     
,acid1 from which it must be purified4  
,in order to effect this1 let the       

portion of aqua fortis used for the     
above trial stand to settle3 the white  
milky part will gradually fall  to the  
bottom of the vessel4 ,when it is all   
fallen1 gently decant the  clear liquor1
 and pour a few drops of this decanted  
solution of ,silver  into the aqua      
fortis which you want to purify4 ,it    
will instantly  become milky4 ,let the  
white particles precipitate as before1  
and then  add a few more drops of your  
solution of ,silver4 ,if the aqua fortis
  still become milky1 let it precipitate
 again1 and repeat this till you  find  
that a drop of your solution of ,silver1
 let fall into this aqua  fortis1 does  
not make it in the least turbid4 ,then  
filter it through  brown paper1 and you 
will have an aqua fortis perfectly fit  
for the  ,parting ,assay4    ,the white 
particles that appear and settle to the 
bottom1 on dissolving  silver in an aqua
 fortis adulterated with a mixture of   
some foreign  ,acid1 are no other than  
that very ,silver1 which is no sooner   

dissolved  by the ,nitrous ,acid than it
 deserts that solvent to unite with the 
,vitriolic or ,marine ,acid1 wherewith  
it has a greater affinity1 and  falls to
 the bottom with them4 ,and this happens
 as long as there  remains in the aqua  
fortis a single atom of either of those 
two ,acids4    ,when therefore your aqua
 fortis hath dissolved as much ,silver  
as it  is capable of taking up1 and when
 all the white particles formed during  
the dissolution are settled to the      
bottom1 you may be assured that  the    
portion which remains clear and limpid  
is a solution of ,silver in  an         
exceeding pure aqua fortis4 ,but if the 
solution of ,silver thus  depurated be  
mixed with an aqua fortis adulterated   
with the ,vitriolic  or ,marine ,acid1 a
 like precipitation will immediately    
ensue1 for the  reasons above given1    
till the very last particle of the      
heterogeneous  ,acid contained in the   
aqua fortis be precipitated4    ,aqua   
fortis purified by this method contains 

no extraneous substance  whatever1      
except a small portion of ,silver2 so   
that it is very fit for  the parting    
process4 ,but if it be intended for     
other chymical purposes1  it must be    
rectified in a glass retort with a      
moderate heat1 in order  to separate it 
from the small portion of ,silver it    
contains1 which will  remain at the     
bottom of the retort4    ,the third     
condition necessary to the success of   
this operation is1 that  your aqua      
fortis be neither too aqueous1 nor too  
highly concentrated4  ,if too weak1 it  
will not act upon the ,silver3 and the  
consequence will  be the same if it be  
too strong4 ,both these inconveniencies 
are easily  remedied3 for in the former 
case part of the superfluous phlegm may 
be  drawn off by distillation2 or a     
sufficient quantity of much stronger    
aqua fortis may be mixed with that which
 is too weak3 and1 in the  latter case1 
very pure rain water1 or a weaker aqua  
fortis1 may be  mixed with that which is

 too strong4    ,you may satisfy        
yourself whether or no your aqua fortis 
hath the  requisite degree of strength1 
by dissolving therein a thin plate      
consisting of one part ,gold and two or 
three parts ,silver2 which plate  must  
be rolled up in form of a paper coffin4 
,if1 when all the ,silver  contained in 
the plate is dissolved1 the ,gold       
remains in the form  of the coffin1 it  
is a sign that your solvent has a due   
degree of  strength4 ,if1 on the        
contrary1 the ,gold be reduced to a     
powder1 it is a  proof that your aqua   
fortis is too strong1 and ought to be   
weakened4    ,the ,gold remaining after 
the dissolution of the ,silver must be  
melted  in a crucible with ,nitre and   
,borax1 as hath already been said under 
the  process for parting ,gold and      
,silver by means of aqua regis4 ,as to  
the  ,silver which remains dissolved in 
the aqua fortis1 there are several  ways
 to recover it4    ,the most usual is to
 precipitate it by the interposition of 

,copper1  which hath a greater affinity 
than ,silver with the ,nitrous ,acid#g4 
,for this purpose the solution is       
weakened by adding twice or thrice as   
much very pure rain water4 ,the cucurbit
 containing the solution is set  on a   
sand-bath gently heated1 and very clean 
plates of copper put into  it4 ,the     
surfaces of these plates are soon       
covered with little white  scales1 which
 gradually fall to the bottom of the    
vessel1 as they come  to be collected in
 quantities4 ,it is even proper to      
strike the cucurbit  gently now and     
then1 in order to shake the scales of   
,silver from the  copper plates1 and so 
make room for a new crop4      #g ,see  
the ,table of ,affinities1 ,column ,,iv4
    ,the aqua fortis parts with the     
,silver by degrees only1 as it          
dissolves the ,copper2 and therefore the
 liquor gradually acquires a  blueish   
green colour as the precipitation       
advances4 ,this precipitation  of the   
,silver is to be continued as long as   

any remains dissolved in  the aqua      
fortis3 you may be sure that your liquor
 contains no more  ,silver1 if the      
surface of a fresh plate of ,copper laid
 therein remain  clean and free from    
ash-coloured or greyish particles3 or if
 one drop  of a solution of ,sea-salt   
let fall into it produce no white or    
milky  cloud4    ,the precipitation     
being finished1 the liquor is to be     
gently poured off  from the precipitated
 ,silver1 which must be rinsed in       
several waters1  and even made to boil  
therewith1 in order to free it wholly   
from the  dissolved ,copper4 ,the       
,silver thus well washed must be        
thoroughly dried1  mixed with a fourth  
part of its weight of a flux compounded 
of equal  parts of ,nitre and calcined  
,borax1 and then melted in a crucible4  
,on this occasion care must be taken to 
raise the fire gently and  gradually1   
till the ,silver be brought to fusion4  
,with what accuracy soever the          
precipitated ,silver be washed1 in order

  to free it from the solution of       
,copper1 yet the ,silver will always be 
found alloyed with a small portion of   
the ,copper3 but then this ,copper  is  
easily destroyed by the ,nitre1 with    
which the ,silver is afterwards  melted2
 so that the latter metal remains       
perfectly pure after the  operation4    
,though the ,silver be not previously   
cupelled1 but be alloyed with  other    
metallic substances at the time it is   
thus dissolved1 yet  the dissolving1    
precipitating1 and fusing it with       
,nitre1 would be  sufficient to separate
 it accurately from them all1 and refine
 it to a  degree of purity equal to that
 obtained by the cupel4    ,the ,copper 
that remains dissolved in the aqua      
fortis1 after the  precipitation of the 
,silver1 may in like manner be          
precipitated by  ,iron1 and1 as it      
retains a small portion of ,silver1     
ought not to  be neglected when these   
operations are performed on considerable
  quantities4    ,in the two next       

processes we shall shew two other       
methods of separating  ,silver from aqua
 fortis4      ,,process ,v4    ,to      
separate ,silver from the ,nitrous ,acid
 by ,distillation4 ,crystals of         
,silver4 ,the ,infernal ,stone4    ,into
 a large1 low1 glass body put the       
solution of ,silver1 from which  you    
intend to separate the ,silver by       
distillation4 ,to this body fit  a      
tubulated head provided with its        
stopple4 ,set this alembic in a         
sand-bath1 so that the body may be      
almost covered with sand3 apply  a      
receiver1 and distil with a moderate    
heat1 so that the drops may  succeed    
each other at the distance of some      
seconds4 ,if the receiver  grow very    
hot1 check the fire4 ,when red vapours  
begin to appear1 pour  into the alembic1
 through the hole in its head1 a fresh  
quantity of  your solution of ,silver1  
first made very hot4 ,continue          
distilling in  this manner1 and         
repeating the addition of fresh liquor1 

till all your  solution be put into the 
alembic4 ,when you have no more fresh   
solution  to put in1 and when1 the      
phlegm being all come over1 red vapours 
begin  again to appear1 convey into the 
alembic half a dram or a dram of        
tallow1 and distil to dryness2 which    
being done1 increase your fire so  as to
 make the vessel containing the         
sand-bath red-hot4 ,in the alembic  you 
will find a calx of ,silver1 which must 
be melted in a crucible with  some soap 
and calcined wine-lees4                 
,,observations4    ,a low cucurbit is   
recommended for this operation1 to the  
intent that  the particles of the       
,nitrous ,acid1 which are ponderous1 may
 the more  easily be carried up and pass
 over into the receiver4 ,for the same  
reason the cucurbit is directed to be   
almost wholly covered with sand1  lest  
otherwise the acid vapours should be    
condensed about that part of  the       
cucurbit1 which1 being out of the sand1 
would be much cooler than  that which is

 encompassed therewith1 and from thence 
should fall back  again to the bottom2  
by which means the distillation would   
certainly be  retarded1 and the vessel  
probably be broken4    ,notwithstanding 
these precautions the vessels are liable
 to break  in such distillations2       
especially when they contain a great    
deal of  liquor4 ,with a view1          
therefore1 to prevent this accident1 we 
ordered  that the whole quantity of the 
solution of ,silver to be distilled     
should not be put at once into the      
alembic4 ,the little bit of tallow1     
added towards the end of the operation1 
is intended to hinder the metal  from   
adhering closely to the vessel1 as it   
would otherwise do1 when all  the       
moisture is dissipated4    ,the ,soap   
and ,fixed ,alkali mixed with the       
,silver to flux it1 after its           
separation from the aqua fortis in this 
way1 serve to absorb such of  the most  
fixed particles of the ,acid as may     
still remain united with  the metal4    

,if the distillation be stopped when    
part of the phlegm is drawn off1  and   
the liquor be then suffered to cool1    
many crystals will shoot  therein1 which
 are a ,neutral ,salt constituted of the
 ,nitrous ,acid and  ,silver4 ,if the   
distillation be carried further1 and    
stopped when near  its conclusion1 the  
liquor being then suffered to cool will 
wholly  coagulate into a blackish mass  
called the ,infernal ,stone4    ,this   
way of separating ,silver from its      
solvent is attended with the  advantage 
of saving all the aqua fortis1 which is 
excellent1 and fit  to be employed in   
other operations4      ,,process ,,vi4  
,to separate ,silver from the ,nitrous  
,acid by ,precipitation4 ,luna  ,cornea4
 ,luna ,cornea reduced4      ,into your 
solution of ,silver pour about a fourth 
part in weight of  ,spirit of ,salt1    
solution of ,sea-salt1 or solution of   
,sal ,ammoniac4 ,the  liquor will       
instantly become turbid and milky4 ,add 
twice or thrice  its weight of fair     

water1 and let it stand some hours to   
settle4 ,it  will deposite a white      
powder4 ,decant the clear liquor1 and on
 the  precipitate pour fresh aqua       
fortis1 or ,spirit of ,salt1 and warm   
the whole on a sand-bath with a gentle  
heat for some time4 ,pour off  this     
second liquor1 and boil your precipitate
 in pure water1 shifting  it several    
times1 till the precipitate and the     
water be both quite  insipid4 ,filter   
the whole1 and dry the precipitate1     
which will be a  ,luna ,cornea1 and must
 be reduced in the following manner4    
,smear the inside of a good crucible    
well with soap4 ,put your ,luna  ,cornea
 into it2 cover it with half its weight 
of ,salt of ,tartar1  thoroughly dried  
and pulverized2 press the whole hard    
down2 pour  thereon as much oil1 or     
melted tallow1 as the powder is capable 
of  imbibing2 set the crucible thus     
charged1 and close covered1 in a        
melting furnace1 and1 for the first     
quarter of an hour1 make no more  fire  

than is necessary to make the crucible  
moderately red3 after that  raise it so 
as to melt the ,silver and the ,salt1   
throwing into the  crucible from time to
 time little bits of tallow4 ,when it   
ceases to  smoke1 let the whole cool2 or
 pour it into a hollow iron cone1 warmed
  and tallowed4      ,,observations4    
,the process here delivered furnishes us
 with the means of procuring  ,silver in
 a degree of purity which is not to be  
obtained by any other  method of        
treating it whatever4 ,that which is    
refined on the cupel  always retains a  
small portion of ,copper1 from which it 
cannot possibly  be separated in that   
way3 but if it be dissolved in aqua     
fortis1  and precipitated thence in a   
,luna ,cornea by the ,marine ,acid1 the 
precipitate will be an absolutely pure  
,silver1 unalloyed with that  small     
portion of ,copper which is retained on 
the cupel4 ,the reason of  this effect  
is1 that the ,copper remains as         
perfectly dissolved in  ,spirit of ,salt

 and in aqua regia as in aqua fortis3 so
 that when  the ,silver1 and the ,copper
 with which it is alloyed1 are dissolved
  together in the ,nitrous ,acid1 if the
 ,acid of ,sea-salt be mixed with  the  
solution1 part of this latter ,acid     
unites with the ,silver1 and  therewith 
forms a new compound1 which not being   
soluble in the liquor1  falls to the    
bottom4 ,the other part of the ,acid    
mixing with the  ,nitrous1 forms an aqua
 regis1 in which the ,copper remains    
dissolved1  without separating from it4 
,fresh ,acid is poured on the           
precipitated calx of ,silver1 in order  
to  complete the solution of the small  
portion of ,copper that may have        
escaped the action of the first solvent4
 ,it is indifferent whether  the ,spirit
 of ,salt or the ,spirit of ,nitre be   
employed for this  purpose1 because they
 both dissolve ,copper alike1 and       
because ,silver  precipitated by ,spirit
 of ,salt is not soluble in either4     
,after this it is necessary to wash the 

precipitate well with pure  water1 in   
order to free it entirely from the      
particles of aqua fortis  adhering to   
the ,silver2 because they may possibly  
contain something  of ,copper1 which    
would mix with the ,silver in melting1  
and taint its  purity4    ,if this      
precipitate of ,silver be exposed to the
 fire1 unmixed with any  other          
substance1 it melts as soon as it begins
 to be red2 and1 if the  fire be        
increased1 part thereof will be         
dissipated in vapours1 and the  rest    
will make its way through the crucible4 
,but being poured out as  soon as       
melted1 it coagulates into a cake of a  
purplish red colour1  semi-transparent1 
ponderous1 and in some degree pliable1  
especially  if it be very thin4 ,it     
bears some resemblance to horn1 which   
hath  occasioned it to be called ,luna  
,cornea4    ,as ,luna ,cornea is not    
soluble in water1 recourse must be had  
to  fusion1 in order to reduce it1 by   
separating from the ,silver those  acids

 which give it the above-mentioned      
properties4 ,fixed ,alkalis and  fatty  
matters are very fit to produce that    
separation4    ,we directed that the    
inside of the crucible1 in which the    
reduction is  to be made1 should be     
carefully smeared with soap1 and that   
the ,luna  ,cornea should be quite      
covered with a ,fixed ,alkali and fat1  
to the end  that when the heat is strong
 enough to dissipate it in vapours1 or  
to  attenuate it so as to render it     
capable of penetrating the crucible1 it 
may be forced to pass through matters   
qualified to absorb its ,acid1 and      
reduce it4    ,luna ,cornea may also be 
reduced by being melted with such       
metalline  substances as have a greater 
affinity than ,silver with the ,acids   
wherewith it is impregnated4 ,of this   
kind are ,tin1 ,lead1 ,regulus of       
,antimony3 but the ,luna ,cornea rushes 
so impetuously into conjunction  with   
those metalline substances1 that a vast 
many vapours arise1 and  carry off with 

them part of the ,silver3 if therefore  
you chuse to  effect the reduction by   
the interposition of such metalline     
substances1  you must employ a retort   
instead of a crucible4    ,but this     
method is attended with another         
inconvenience2 which is1 that  some part
 of those metalline substances may unite
 with the ,silver1 and  adulterate it3  
for which reason it is best to keep to  
the method first  proposed4             
,,process ,,vii4    ,to dissolve        
,silver1 and separate it from ,gold1 by 
,cementation4      ,mix thoroughly      
together fine brick-dust four parts1    
,vitriol calcined to  redness one part1 
and ,sea-salt or ,nitre one part4       
,moisten this powder  with a little     
water4 ,with this cement cover the      
bottom of a crucible  half an inch      
thick2 on this first bed lay a thin     
plate of the mass of  ,gold and ,silver 
you intend to cement1 and which you must
 previously  take care to beat into such
 thin plates4 ,cover this plate with a  

second  layer of cement1 of the same    
thickness as the former2 on this second 
bed lay another plate of your metal2    
cover it in like manner with  cement2   
and so proceed till the crucible be     
filled to within half an  inch of its   
brim4 ,fill up the remaining space with 
cement1 and close  the crucible with a  
cover1 luted with a paste made of       
,windsor-loam and  water3 set your      
crucible thus charged in a furnace1     
whose fire-place  is deep enough to let 
it be entirely surrounded with coals1   
quite up to  its mouth4 ,light some     
coals in the furnace1 taking care not to
 make the  fire very brisk at first2    
increase it by degrees1 but only so far 
as to  make the crucible moderately red2
 keep up the fire in this degree for    
eighteen or twenty hours3 then let the  
fire go out2 open the crucible  when it 
is cold1 and separate the cement from   
your plates of ,gold4  ,boil the ,gold  
repeatedly in fair water1 till the water
 come off quite  insipid4               

,,observations4    ,it cannot but seem  
strange1 that1 after having so often    
declared the  ,acid of ,sea-salt to be  
incapable of dissolving ,silver1 we     
should  direct either ,nitre or         
,sea-salt indifferently to be employed  
in  composing a cement1 which is to     
produce an ,acid capable of eating  out 
all the ,silver mixed with ,gold4 ,it is
 easy to conceive how the  ,nitrous     
,acid extricated from its basis by means
 of the ,vitriolic ,acid  may produce   
this effect3 but if ,sea-salt instead of
 ,nitre be made an  ingredient in the   
cement1 its ,acid1 though set at liberty
 in the same  manner by the ,vitriolic  
,acid1 must at first sight appear unable
 to  answer the end4    ,in order to    
remove this difficulty1 we must here    
observe1 that there  are two very       
essential differences between the       
,marine ,acid collected  in a liquor1 as
 it is when distilled in the usual      
manner1 and the same  ,acid separated   
from its basis in a crucible1 as it is  

in cementation4    ,the first of these  
two differences is1 that the ,acid being
 reduced  into vapours when it acts on  
the ,silver in cementation1 its activity
  is thereby greatly increased3 the     
second is1 that in the crucible it      
sustains a vastly greater degree of heat
 than it can ever bear when  it is in   
the form of a liquor4 ,for1 after it is 
once distilled and  separated from its  
basis1 it cannot sustain any            
extraordinary degree  of heat without   
being volatilized and entirely          
dissipated3 whereas1  while it continues
 united with its basis1 it is much more 
fixed1 and  cannot be separated but by a
 very intense heat4 ,consequently1 if it
  meet with any body to dissolve1 at the
 very instant of its separation  from   
its basis1 while it is actuated by a    
much fiercer heat than can  ever be     
applied to it on any other occasion1 it 
must operate upon that  body with so    
much the more efficacy3 and thus it     
comes to pass1 that in  cementation it  

has the power of dissolving ,silver1    
which it would be  incapable of touching
 if it were not so circumstanced4       
,but herein ,gold differs from ,silver3 
for1 whatever force the ,nitrous  or the
 ,marine ,acid may exert1 when          
extricated from their bases in the      
cementing crucible1 this metal          
obstinately refuses to yield to either  
of those ,acids separately1 and can     
never be dissolved by them1 unless  both
 be united together4    ,our            
cementation1 therefore1 is actually a   
parting process in the dry  way4 ,the   
,silver is dissolved1 and the ,gold     
remains unaltered4 ,nay1 as  the action 
of the ,acids is much stronger when they
 are applied this  way1 than when they  
are used for dissolution in the moist   
way1 the  ,nitrous ,acid1 which in the  
common parting process will not dissolve
  ,silver unless its weight be double   
that of the ,gold1 is able in           
cementation to dissolve a very small    
quantity of ,silver diffused  through a 

large quantity of ,gold4    ,it         
sometimes happens1 that after the       
operation the cement proves  extremely  
hard1 so that it is very troublesome to 
separate it entirely  from the ,gold4   
,in this case it must be softened by    
moistening it with  hot water4 ,this    
hardness which the cement acquires is   
occasioned by  the fusion of the ,salts1
 which is the effect of too strong a    
heat4 ,it  was in order to prevent this1
 and that a due degree of heat might be 
applied1 without the danger of melting  
the salts1 that we directed  the cement 
to be mixed with a considerable quantity
 of earthy matter  incapable of fusion1 
such as brick-dust4 ,a greater          
inconvenience will  ensue1 if the fire  
be made so strong as to melt the ,gold3 
for then it  will partly commix again   
with the other metalline substances     
dissolved  by the cement1 and           
consequently will not be purified4      
,the crucible is covered1 and its cover 
luted on1 to prevent the acid  vapours  

from being too soon dissipated1 and to  
force them to circulate  the longer in  
the crucible4 ,however1 it is necessary 
that those vapours  should find a vent  
at last1 otherwise they would burst the 
vessel3  and for this reason we directed
 the crucible to be luted only with     
,windsor-loam1 which does not grow very 
hard by the action of fire1 and  so is  
capable of yielding and giving passage  
to the vapours1 when a  certain quantity
 of them is collected in the crucible1  
and they begin  to struggle for an      
escape on every side4    ,when the      
operation is finished1 the ,silver      
dissolved by the ,acid of  the cement is
 partly distributed through the cement1 
and partly in the  ,gold itself1 which  
is impregnated therewith4 ,for this     
reason the ,gold  must be washed several
 times in boiling water1 till the water 
become  absolutely insipid3 for1 if the 
,gold be melted without this precaution1
  it will mix again with the ,silver3   
the cement also may be washed in the    

same manner to recover the ,silver it   
contains4    ,though this cementation   
be1 properly speaking1 a purification of
  ,gold1 yet we have placed it among the
 processes on ,silver1 because it  is   
the ,silver that is dissolved on this   
occasion1 and because this  is a        
particular way of dissolving that metal4
 ,moreover1 most of the  processes      
hitherto delivered1 either on ,gold or  
,silver1 are equally  applicable to both
 these metals4    ,if the ,gold do not  
appear quite pure after the cementation1
 the process  must be repeated4         
,there are several ways to know the     
fineness of ,gold1 the quantity of      
,silver with which it is alloyed1 and   
the proportion in which these two       
metals are mixed in a mass purified by  
the cupel4    ,one of the simplest is   
the trial by the ,touch-stone2 which    
indeed is  hardly any more than judging 
by the eye only1 from the colour of the 
compound metal1 what proportion of ,gold
 and ,silver it contains4    ,the       

,touch-stone is a sort of black marble1 
whose surface ought to be  half         
polished4 ,if the metalline mass which  
you want to try be rubbed  on this      
stone1 it leaves thereon a thin coat of 
metal1 the colour of  which may be      
easily observed4 ,such as are accustomed
 to see and handle  ,gold and ,silver   
can at once judge very nearly from this 
sample in what  proportion the two      
metals are combined3 but1 for greater   
accuracy1  those who are in the way of  
having frequent occasion for this trial 
are provided with a sufficient number of
 small bars or needles1 of  which one is
 pure ,gold1 another pure ,silver1 and  
all the rest consist  of these two      
metals mixed together in different      
proportions1 varied  by carats1 or even 
by fractions of carats1 if greater      
exactness be  required4    ,the fineness
 of each needle being marked on it1 that
 needle whose  colour seems to come     
nearest the colour of the metalline     
streak on the  ,touch-stone1 is rubbed  

on the stone by the side of that streak4
 ,this  needle likewise leaves a mark2  
and if there appear to be no difference 
between the two metalline streaks1 the  
metalline mass is judged to be  of the  
same fineness as the needle thus        
compared with it4 ,if the eye  discovers
 a sensible difference1 another needle  
is sought for whose  colour may come    
nearer to that of the metal to be tried4
 ,but though  a man be ever so well     
versed in judging thus of the fineness  
of ,gold  by the eye only1 he can never 
be perfectly and accurately sure of it  
by this means alone4 ,if such certainty 
be required1 recourse must be  had to   
the parting assay2 and yet when you have
 gone through it1 there  always remains 
a small quantity of the metal1 which    
should have been  dissolved1 and yet    
escaped the action of the solvent4 ,for 
example1  if you make use of aqua regis1
 the ,silver that remains after the     
operation still contains a little ,gold2
 and1 if you make use of aqua  fortis1  

the ,gold that remains after the        
operation still contains a  little      
,silver4 ,and therefore if you resolve  
to carry the separation  of these two   
metals still further by solvents1 it    
will be necessary1  after you have gone 
through one parting process1 to perform 
a second  the contrary way4 ,for        
example1 if you begin with aqua fortis1 
then1  after it has dissolved all the   
,silver in the metalline mass that it is
  capable of taking up1 dissolve the    
remaining ,gold in aqua regis3 by  which
 means you will separate the small      
portion of ,silver left in it by  the   
aqua fortis4 ,the contrary is to be done
 if you made use of aqua  regis first4  
,,chap4 ,,iii4    ,of ,,copper4         
,,process ,i4    ,to separate ,copper   
from its ,ore4    ,beat your ,copper ore
 to a fine powder1 having first freed it
 as  accurately as possible1 by washing 
and roasting1 from all stony1  earthy1  
sulphureous1 and arsenical parts4 ,mix  
your ore thus pulverized  with thrice   

its weight of the black flux2 put the   
mixture into a  crucible2 cover it with 
common salt to the thickness of half an 
inch1  and press the whole down with    
your finger4 ,with all this the crucible
  must be but half full4 ,set it in a   
melting furnace2 kindle the fire by     
degrees1 and raise it insensibly till   
you hear the ,sea-salt crackle4  ,when  
the decrepitation is over1 make the     
crucible moderately red-hot  for half a 
quarter of an hour4 ,then give a        
considerable degree of heat1  exciting  
the fire with a pair of good perpetual  
bellows1 so that the  crucible may      
become very red-hot1 and be perfectly   
ignited4 ,keep the  fire up to this     
degree for about a quarter of an hour2  
then take out  the crucible1 and with a 
hammer strike a few blows on the floor  
whereon  you set it4 ,break it when     
cold4 ,if the operation hath been       
rightly and  successfully performed1 you
 will find at the bottom of the vessel a
  hard ,regulus1 of a bright yellow     

colour1 and semi-malleable2 and over  it
 a scoria of a yellowish brown colour1  
hard and shining1 from which  you may   
separate the ,regulus with a hammer4    
,,observations4    ,copper in the ore is
 often blended with several other       
metallic  substances1 and with volatile 
minerals1 such as ,sulphur and ,arsenic4
  ,copper ores also frequently          
participate of the nature of the        
pyrites1  containing a martial and an   
unmetallic earth1 both of which are     
entirely refractory1 and hinder the ore 
from melting4 ,in this case you  must   
add equal parts of a very fusile glass1 
a little borax1 and four  parts of the  
black flux1 to facilitate the fusion4   
,the black flux is  moreover necessary  
to furnish the ,copper with the         
,phlogiston it wants1  or restore so    
much thereof as it may lose in melting4 
,for the same  reason1 when any ore1 but
 that of ,gold or ,silver1 is to be     
smelted1 it  is a general rule to add   
some black flux1 or other matter        

abounding  with ,phlogiston4    ,the    
,regulus produced by this operation is  
not malleable1 because it is  not pure  
,copper1 but a mixture of ,copper with  
all the other metallic  substances that 
were in the ore2 except such as were    
separated from it  by roasting1 of which
 it contains but little4    ,according  
to the nature of the metallic matters   
that remain combined  with the ,copper  
after this fusion1 the colour of the    
,regulus is  either like that of pure   
,copper1 or a little more whitish3 it is
 also  frequently blackish1 which has   
procured it the name of ,black ,copper4 
,in this state1 and even in general1 it 
is usual enough to call this  ,regulus  
by the name of ,black ,copper1 when     
alloyed with other metallic  substances 
that render it unmalleable1 whatever its
 colour be4    ,hence it appears that   
there may be several different sorts of 
,black  ,copper4 ,iron1 ,lead1 ,tin1    
,bismuth1 and the reguline part of      
,antimony1  are almost always combined  

with the ores of ,copper1 in a multitude
 of  different proportions2 and all     
these substances1 being reduced by the  
black flux in the operation1 mix and    
precipitate with the ,copper4 ,if  the  
ore contain any ,gold or ,silver1 as is 
pretty often the case1 these  two metals
 also are confounded with the rest in   
the precipitation1 and  become part of  
the ,black ,copper4    ,pyritose1       
sulphureous1 and arsenical ,copper ores 
may be fused1 in order  to get rid of   
the grosser heterogeneous parts1 without
 previously  roasting them3 but in this 
case no alkaline flux must be mixed with
 the  ore2 because the ,alkali in       
combination with the ,sulphur would     
produce  a ,liver of ,sulphur1 and so   
dissolve the metalline part2 by which   
means  all would be confounded together1
 and no ,regulus1 or very little1 be    
precipitated4 ,on this occasion         
therefore nothing must be added to      
promote the fusion1 but some tender     
fusile glass1 together with a small     

quantity of borax4    ,this first fusion
 may also be performed amidst the coals1
 by casting  the ore upon them in the   
furnace1 without using a crucible2 and  
then an  earthen vessel1 thoroughly     
heated1 or even made red-hot1 must be   
placed  under the grate of the          
fire-place1 to receive the metal as it  
runs from  the ore4    ,the ,regulus    
obtained by this means is much more     
impure and brittle  than ,black ,copper1
 because it contains moreover a large   
quantity of  ,sulphur and ,arsenic2 as  
these volatile substances have not time 
to  evaporate during the short space    
requisite to melt the ore1 and as they  
cannot be carried off by the action of  
the fire after the ore is once  melted1 
whatever time be allowed for that       
purpose4 ,however1 some part  thereof is
 dissipated2 and the ,iron which is in  
pyritose ores1 having a  much greater   
affinity than ,copper1 and indeed than  
any other metallic  substance1 with     
,sulphur and ,arsenic1 absorbs another  

part thereof1 and  separates it from the
 ,regulus4    ,this ,regulus1 it is     
plain1 still contains all the same parts
 that were  in the ore1 but in different
 proportions2 there being more ,copper1 
combined with less ,sulphur1 ,arsenic1  
and unmetallic earth1 which have  been  
either dissipated or turned to slag4    
,therefore1 if you would make  it like  
,black ,copper1 you must pound it1 roast
 it over and over1 to  free it from its 
,sulphur and ,arsenic1 and then melt it 
with the black  flux4    ,if this       
,regulus contain much ,iron1 it will be 
adviseable to melt it  once or twice    
more1 before all the ,sulphur and       
,arsenic are separated  from it by      
roasting2 for as the ,iron1 by uniting  
with these volatile  substances1        
separates them from the ,copper1 with   
which they have not so  great an        
affinity2 so also the ,sulphur and      
,arsenic1 by uniting with the  ,iron1   
help in their turn to separate it from  
the ,copper4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,to

 purify ,black ,copper1 and render it   
malleable4    ,break into small bits the
 ,black ,copper you intend to purify2   
mix  therewith a third part in weight of
 granulated ,lead1 and put the  whole   
into a cupel set under the muffle in a  
cupelling furnace1 and  previously      
heated quite red4 ,as soon as the metals
 are in the cupel  raise the fire       
considerably1 making use1 if it be      
needful1 of a pair of  perpetual        
bellows1 to melt the ,copper speedily4  
,when it is thoroughly  melted1 lower   
the fire a little1 and continue it just 
high enough to  keep the metalline mass 
in perfect fusion4 ,the melted matter   
will then  boil1 and throw up some      
scori1 which will be absorbed by the    
cupel4    ,when most of the ,lead is    
consumed1 raise the fire again1 till the
 face  of the ,copper become bright and 
shining1 thereby shewing that all its   
alloy is separated4 ,as soon as your    
,copper comes to this state1 cover  it  
with charcoal-dust conveyed into the    

cupel with an iron ladle3 then  take the
 cupel out of the furnace and let it    
cool4      ,,observations4    ,of all   
the metals1 next to ,gold and ,silver1  
,copper bears fusion the  longest       
without losing its phlogiston2 and on   
this property is founded  the process   
here delivered for purifying it4    ,it 
is necessary the ,copper should melt as 
soon as it is in the cupel1  because its
 nature is to calcine much more easily  
and much sooner1  when it is only       
red-hot1 than when it is in fusion4 ,for
 this reason  the fire is to be         
considerably raised1 immediately on     
putting the  ,copper under the muffle1  
that it may melt as soon as possible4   
,yet too  violent a degree of fire must 
not be applied to it3 for when it is    
exposed to such a degree of heat only as
 is but just necessary to keep  it in   
fusion1 it is then in the most          
favourable condition for losing  as     
little as may be of its phlogiston2 and 
if the heat be stronger1  a greater     

quantity thereof will be calcined4 ,as  
soon therefore as it  flows it is proper
 to weaken the fire1 and reduce it to   
the degree just  requisite to keep up   
the fusion4    ,the ,lead added on this 
occasion is intended to facilitate and  
expedite  the scorification of the      
metallic substances combined with the   
,copper4  ,so that the event is here    
nearly the same as when ,gold or ,silver
 is  refined on the cupel4 ,the only    
difference between this refining of     
,copper1 and that of the perfect metals1
 is that the latter as hath been  shewn1
 absolutely resist the force of fire and
 the action of ,lead1  without suffering
 the least alteration2 whereas a good   
deal of ,copper  is calcined and        
destroyed1 when it is purified in this  
manner on the  cupel4 ,indeed it would  
be wholly destroyed1 if a greater       
quantity of  ,lead were added1 or if it 
were left too long in the furnace4 ,it  
is with  a view to save as much of it as
 possible that we order it to be covered

  with charcoal-dust as soon as the     
scorification is finished4    ,the ,lead
 serves moreover to free the ,copper    
expeditiously from the  ,iron with which
 it may be alloyed4 ,iron and ,lead are 
incapable of  contracting any union     
together3 so that as fast as the ,lead  
unites with  the ,copper1 it separates  
the ,iron1 and excludes it out of the   
mixture4  ,for the same reason if ,iron 
were combined in a large proportion with
  ,copper1 it would prevent the ,lead   
from entering into the composition4     
,now1 as it is necessary to give the    
more heat1 and to keep the ,copper  to  
be incorporated with ,lead the longer in
 fusion1 as that ,copper is  alloyed    
with a greater proportion of ,iron1 some
 black flux must be  added on this      
occasion1 to prevent the ,copper and the
 ,lead from being  calcined before their
 association can be effected4    ,copper
 purified in the manner here directed is
 beautiful and malleable4  ,it is now   
alloyed with no other metalline         

substance but ,gold or ,silver1  if     
there were any in the mixed mass4 ,if   
you desire to extract this ,gold  or    
,silver1 recourse must be had to the    
operation of the cupel4 ,the  process   
here given for purifying ,copper is not 
used in large works1  because it would  
be much too chargeable4 ,in order to    
purify their ,black  ,copper1 and render
 it malleable1 the smelters content     
themselves with  roasting it1 and       
melting it repeatedly1 that the metallic
 substances1  which are not so fixed as 
,copper1 may be dissipated by           
sublimation1 and  the rest scorified by 
fusion4      ,,process ,,iii4    ,to    
deprive ,copper of its ,phlogiston by   
calcination4    ,put your ,copper in    
filings into a test1 and set it under   
the muffle of  a cupelling furnace2     
light the fire1 and keep up such a      
degree of heat  as may make the whole   
quite red1 but not enough to melt the   
,copper4  ,the surface of the ,copper   
will gradually lose its metalline       

splendour1  and put on the appearance of
 a reddish earth4 ,from time to time    
stir  the filings with a little rod of  
copper or iron1 and leave your metal    
exposed to the same degree of fire till 
it be entirely calcined4                
,,observations4    ,in our observations 
on the preceding process we took notice 
that  ,copper1 in fusion1 calcines more 
slowly1 and less easily1 than when it   
is exposed to a degree of fire barely   
sufficient to keep it red-hot1  without 
melting it2 and therefore1 the design   
here being to calcine it1  we have      
directed that degree of heat only to be 
applied4    ,the cupelling furnace is   
the fittest for this operation1 because 
the  muffle is capable of receiving such
 a flat vessel as ought to be used  on  
this occasion1 and communicating to it a
 great deal of heat2 while1  at the same
 time1 it prevents the falling in of any
 coals1 which1 by  furnishing the       
,copper with fresh phlogiston1 would    
greatly prejudice  and protract the     

operation4    ,as ,copper calcines with 
great difficulty1 this operation is     
extremely  tedious3 nay1 though ,copper 
hath stood thus exposed to the fire  for
 several days and nights1 and seems     
perfectly calcined1 yet it  frequently  
happens that1 when you try afterwards to
 melt it1 some of  it resumes the form  
of ,copper3 a proof that all the ,copper
 had not  lost its phlogiston4 ,copper  
is much more expeditiously deprived of  
its  phlogiston by calcining it in a    
crucible with ,nitre4    ,the calx of   
,copper perfectly calcined is with great
 difficulty brought  to fusion3 yet1 in 
the focus of a large burning-glass1 it  
melts and  turns to a reddish and almost
 opaque glass4    ,by the process here  
delivered1 you may likewise calcine all 
other  metalline substances1 which do   
not melt till they are thoroughly       
red-hot4 ,as to those which melt before 
they grow red1 they are easily  enough  
calcined1 even while they are in fusion4
      ,,process ,,iv4    ,to resuscitate

 the ,calx of ,copper1 and reduce it to 
,copper1 by  restoring its ,phlogiston4 
,mix the ,calx of ,copper with thrice as
 much of the black flux2 put the        
mixture into a good crucible1 so as to  
fill two thirds thereof1 and  over it   
put a layer of ,sea-salt a finger thick4
 ,cover the crucible1 and  set it in a  
melting furnace2 heat it gradually1 and 
keep it moderately  red till the        
decrepitation of the ,sea-salt be over4 
,then raise the fire  considerably by   
means of a good pair of perpetual       
bellows2 satisfy  yourself that the     
matter is in perfect fusion1 by dipping 
into the  crucible an iron wire2        
continue the fire in this degree for    
half a  quarter of an hour4 ,when the   
crucible is cold1 you will find at its  
bottom a button of very fine ,copper1   
which will easily separate from  the    
saline scoria at top4                   
,,observations4    ,what hath been said 
before on the smelting of ,copper ores  
may be  applied to this process1 as     

being the very same4 ,the observations  
there  added should therefore be        
consulted on this occasion4             
,,process ,v4    ,to dissolve ,copper in
 the ,mineral ,acids4    ,on a          
sand-bath1 in a very gentle heat1 set a 
matrass containing some  ,copper        
filings2 pour on them twice their weight
 of ,oil of ,vitriol4 ,that  ,acid will 
presently attack the ,copper4 ,vapours  
will rise1 and issue  out of the neck of
 the matrass4 ,a vast number of bubbles 
will ascend  from the surface of the    
metal to the top of the liquor1 and the 
liquor  will acquire a beautiful blue   
colour4 ,when the ,copper is dissolved1 
put  in a little and a little more1 till
 you perceive the ,acid no longer  acts 
upon it4 ,then decant the liquor1 and   
let it stand quiet in a cool  place4 ,in
 a short time great numbers of beautiful
 blue crystals will  shoot in it4 ,these
 crystals are called ,vitriol of        
,copper1 or ,blue  ,vitriol4 ,they      
dissolve easily in water4               

,,observations4    ,the ,vitriolic ,acid
 perfectly dissolves ,copper1 which is  
also soluble in  all the ,acids1 and    
even in many other menstruums4    ,this 
,acid may be separated from the ,copper 
which it hath dissolved by  distillation
 only3 but the operation requires a fire
 of the utmost  violence4 ,the ,copper  
remaining after it must be fused with   
the black  flux1 to make it appear in   
its natural form2 not only because it   
still  retains a portion of the ,acid1  
but also because it hath lost part of   
its phlogiston by being dissolved       
therein4 ,the black flux is very well   
adapted both to absorb the ,acid that   
remains united with the ,copper1  and to
 restore the phlogiston which the metal 
hath lost4    ,the most usual method of 
separating ,copper from the ,vitriolic  
,acid  is by presenting to that ,acid a 
metal with which it hath a greater      
affinity than with ,copper4 ,iron being 
so qualified is consequently very  fit  
to bring about this separation4 ,when   

therefore plates of ,iron well  cleaned 
are laid in a solution of ,blue         
,vitriol1 the ,acid soon begins to  act 
upon them1 and by degrees1 as it        
dissolves them1 deposites on their      
surfaces a quantity of ,copper in       
proportion to the quantity of ,iron it  
takes up4 ,the ,copper thus precipitated
 hath the appearance of small  leaves or
 scales1 exceeding thin1 and of a       
beautiful copper-colour4  ,care must be 
taken to shake the ,iron-plates now and 
then1 to make the  scales of ,copper    
fall off1 which will otherwise cover    
them entirely1  hinder the ,vitriolic   
,acid from attacking the ,iron1 and so  
put a stop to  the precipitation of the 
remaining ,copper4    ,when these scales
 of ,copper cease to settle on the clean
 ,iron  plates1 you may be sure all the 
,copper that was in the liquor is       
precipitated1 and that this liquor1     
which was a solution of ,copper  before 
the precipitation1 is a solution of     
,iron after it4 ,so that here  two      

operations are performed at one and the 
same time2 to wit1 the  precipitation of
 the ,copper1 and the dissolution of the
 ,iron4    ,the ,copper thus            
precipitated requires only to be        
separated from the  liquor by           
filtration1 and melted with a little    
black flux1 to become  very fine        
malleable ,copper4    ,the ,copper may  
also be precipitated out of a solution  
of ,blue ,vitriol  by the interposition 
of a ,fixed ,alkali4 ,this precipitate  
is of a  greenish blue colour1 and      
requires a much greater quantity of the 
black  flux to reduce it4    ,copper    
dissolves in the ,nitrous ,acid1 in the 
,marine ,acid1 and in ,aqua  regis2 from
 all of which it may be separated by the
 same methods as  are here ordered with 
regard to the ,vitriolic ,acid4         
,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,of ,,iron4            
,,process ,i4    ,to separate ,iron from
 its ,ore4    ,pound into a coarse      
powder the martial stones or earths out 
of which  you design to extract the     

,iron3 roast this powder in a test under
 the  muffle for some minutes1 and let  
your fire be brisk4 ,then let it cool1  
beat it very fine1 and roast it a second
 time1 keeping it under the  muffle till
 it emit no more smell4    ,then mix    
with this powder a flux composed of     
three parts of ,nitre fixed  with       
,tartar1 one part of fusile glass1 and  
half a part of ,borax and               
charcoal-dust4 ,the dose of this        
reducing flux must be thrice the weight 
of the ore4    ,put this mixture into a 
good crucible2 cover it with about half 
a  finger thick of ,sea-salt2 over the  
crucible put its cover1 and lute it  on 
with ,windsor-loam made into a paste    
with water4 ,having thus prepared  your 
crucible1 set it in a melting furnace1  
which you must fill up with  charcoal4  
,light the fire1 and let it kindle by   
gentle degrees1 till  the crucible      
become red-hot4 ,when the decrepitation 
of the ,sea-salt  is over1 raise your   
fire to the highest by the blast of a   

pair of  perpetual bellows1 or rather   
several4 ,keep up this intense degree of
  heat for three quarters of an hour1 or
 an whole hour1 taking care that  during
 all this time the furnace be kept      
constantly filling up with  fresh coals 
as the former consume4 ,then take your  
crucible out of the  furnace2 strike the
 pavement on which you set it several   
times with a  hammer1 and let it stand  
to cool3 break it1 and you will find    
therein a  ,regulus of ,iron covered    
with slag4      ,,observations4    ,iron
 ore1 like all others1 requires         
roasting1 to separate from it1 as  much 
as possible1 the volatile minerals1     
,sulphur and ,arsenic1 which  being     
mixed with the ,iron would render it    
unmalleable4 ,indeed it is  so much the 
more necessary to roast these ores1 as  
,iron is1 of all  metallic substances1  
that which has the greatest affinity    
with those  volatile minerals2 on which 
account no metallic substance whatever  
is  capable of separating it from them  

by fusion and precipitation4    ,fixed  
,alkalis1 it is true1 have a greater    
affinity than ,iron with  ,sulphur2 but 
then the composition which a ,fixed     
,alkali forms with  ,sulphur is capable 
of dissolving all metals4 ,consequently1
 if you do  not dissipate the ,sulphur  
by roasting1 but attempt to separate it 
from  the ,iron by melting the ore with 
a ,fixed ,alkali1 the ,liver of ,sulphur
  formed in the operation will dissolve 
the martial part2 so that after  the    
fusion you will find little or no       
,regulus4    ,all ,iron ores in general 
are refractory1 and less fusible than   
any  other2 for which reason a much     
greater proportion of flux1 and a much  
more violent degree of fire1 is required
 to smelt them4 ,one principal  cause   
why these ores are so refractory is the 
property which ,iron  itself has of     
being extremely difficult to fuse1 and  
of resisting  the action of the fire so 
much the more as it is purer1 and       
further  removed from its mineral state4

 ,among all the metallic substances it  
is  the only one that is less fusible   
when combined with that portion of      
phlogiston which gives it the metalline 
form1 than when it is deprived  thereof1
 and in the form of a calx4    ,in      
smelting-houses ,iron ore is fused      
amidst charcoal1 the phlogiston  of     
which combines with the martial earth1  
and gives it the metalline  form4 ,the  
,iron thus melted runs down to the      
bottom of the furnace1 from  whence it  
is let out into large moulds1 in which  
it takes the shape of  oblong blocks1   
called ,pigs of ,iron4 ,this ,iron is   
still very impure1  and quite           
unmalleable4 ,its want of ductility     
after the first melting  arises partly  
from hence1 that1 notwithstanding the   
previous roasting  which the ore        
underwent1 there still remains1 after   
this first fusion1  a considerable      
quantity of ,sulphur or ,arsenic        
combined with the metal4    ,a certain  
quantity of quick-lime1 or of stones    

that will burn to lime1  is frequently  
mixed with ,iron ore on putting it into 
the smelting  furnace4 ,the lime being  
an absorbent earth1 very apt to unite   
with  ,sulphur and ,arsenic1 is of use  
to separate those minerals from the     
,iron4    ,it is also of use to mix some
 such matters with the ore1 when the    
stones or earths which naturally        
accompany it are very fusible2 for1 as  
the ,iron is of difficult fusion1 it may
 happen that the earthy matters  mixed  
with the ,iron shall melt as easily as  
the metal1 or perhaps  more easily4 ,in 
such a case there is no separation of   
the earthy  from the metalline part1    
both of which melt and precipitate      
together  promiscuously2 now quick-lime1
 being extremely refractory1 serves on  
this occasion to check the melting of   
those matters which are too  fusible4   
,yet quick-lime1 notwithstanding its    
refractory quality1 may sometimes  be of
 use as a flux for ,iron4 ,this is the  
case when the ore happens to  be        

combined with substances which1 being   
united with lime1 render it  fusible3   
such are all arsenical matters1 and even
 some earthy matters1  which being      
combined with quick-lime make a fusible 
compound4    ,when the ore of an ,iron  
mine is found difficult to reduce1 it is
  usually neglected even though it be   
rich3 because ,iron being very  common1 
people chuse to work those mines only   
whose ores are smelted  with the most   
ease1 and require the least consumption 
of wood4    ,yet refractory ores are not
 to be altogether rejected1 when another
  ,iron ore of a different quality is   
found near them4 ,for it often  happens1
 that two several ,iron ores1 which     
being worked separately  are very       
difficult to manage1 and yield at last  
but bad metal1 become  very tractable1  
and yield excellent ,iron1 when smelted 
together3 and  accordingly such mixtures
 are often made at ,iron-works4    ,the 
,iron obtained from ores by the first   
fusion may be divided into two  sorts4  

,the one1 when cold1 resists the hammer1
 doth not easily break1  and is in some 
measure extensible on the anvil2 but1 if
 struck with a  hammer when red-hot1    
flies into many pieces3 this sort of    
,iron hath  always a mixture of ,sulphur
 in it4 ,the other sort1 on the         
contrary1 is  brittle when cold1 but    
somewhat ductile when red-hot4 ,this    
,iron is not  sulphurated1 is naturally 
of a good quality1 and its brittleness  
arises  from its metalline parts not    
being sufficiently compacted together4  
,iron abounds so much1 and is so        
universally diffused through the earth1 
that it is difficult to find a body in  
which there is none at all3 and  this   
hath led several ,chymists1 even men of 
great fame1 into the error  of thinking 
that they had transmuted into ,iron     
several sorts of earths  in which they  
suspected no ,iron1 by combining them   
with an inflammable  matter2 whereas1 in
 fact1 all they did was to give the     
metalline form  to a true martial earth 

which happened to be mixed with other   
earths4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,to     
render ,pig-iron and brittle ,iron      
malleable4    ,into an earthen vessel   
widening upwards put some charcoal-dust1
 and  thereon lay the ,pig-iron which   
you propose to render ductile2 cover it 
all over with a quantity of charcoal2   
excite the fire violently with a  pair1 
or more1 of perpetual bellows till the  
,iron melt4 ,if it do not  readily flow 
and form a great deal of slag on its    
surface1 add some  flux1 such as a very 
fusible sand4    ,when the matter is in 
fusion keep stirring it from time to    
time1 that  all the parts thereof may be
 equally acted on by the air and the    
fire4  ,on the surface of the melted    
,iron scori will be formed1 which must  
be taken off as they appear4 ,at the    
same time you will see a great many     
sparkles darted up from the surface of  
the metal1 which will form a  sort of   
fiery shower4 ,by degrees1 as the ,iron 
grows purer1 the number  of these       

sparkles diminishes1 though they never  
vanish entirely4 ,when  but few sparkles
 appear1 remove the coals which cover   
the ,iron1 and  let the slag run out of 
the vessel2 whereupon the metal will    
grow  solid in a moment4 ,take it out   
while it is still red-hot1 and give  it 
a few strokes with a hammer1 to try if  
it be ductile4 ,if it be  not yet       
malleable1 repeat the operation a second
 time1 in the same  manner as before4   
,lastly1 when it is thus sufficiently   
purified by the  fire1 work it for a    
long time on the anvil1 extending it    
different  ways1 and making it red-hot  
as often as there is occasion4 ,iron    
thus  brought to the necessary degree of
 ductility1 so as to yield to the       
hammer1 and suffer itself to be extended
 every way1 either hot or cold1  without
 breaking to bits1 or even cracking in  
the least1 is very good  and very pure4 
,if it cannot be brought to this degree 
by the method  here prescribed1 it is a 
proof that the ore from which this ,iron

 was  extracted ought to be mixed with  
other ores2 but it frequently requires  
a great number of trials to obtain an   
exact knowledge of the quality  and     
proportion of those other ores with     
which it is to be mixed4                
,,observations4    ,the brittleness and 
shortness of ,pig-iron arises from the  
heterogeneous  parts which it contains1 
and which could not be separated from it
  by the first fusion4 ,these extraneous
 matters are usually ,sulphur1          
,arsenic1 and unmetallic earth1 and also
 a ferruginous earth2 but  such as could
 not be combined with the phlogiston as 
it ought to be1  in order to have the   
properties of a metal1 and must         
therefore be  considered as             
heterogeneous1 with respect to the other
 well-conditioned  martial particles4   
,the ,pig-iron1 by undergoing repeated  
fusions1 is freed from those            
heterogeneous matters2 those which are  
volatile1 such as ,sulphur and          
,arsenic1 being dissipated1 and the     

unmetallic matters being scorified4  ,as
 to the ferruginous earth1 which did not
 at first acquire the  metalline form1  
it becomes true ,iron at last2 because1 
among the coals  with which it is       
encompassed1 it meets with a sufficient 
quantity of  phlogiston to reduce it to 
metal4 ,charcoal is also necessary on   
this  occasion1 that it may continually 
furnish phlogiston to the ,iron1 which  
would otherways be converted into a     
calx4    ,hammering the red-hot ,iron1  
after each fusion1 serves to force out  
from  amongst the martial parts such    
earthy matters as may happen to remain  
there1 and so bring into closer contact 
the metalline parts which were          
separated before by the interposition of
 those heterogeneous matters4           
,,process ,,iii4    ,to convert ,iron   
into ,steel4    ,take small bars of the 
best ,iron2 that is1 of such as is      
malleable both  hot and cold2 set them  
on their ends in a cylindrical earthen  
vessel1  whose depth is equal to the    

length of the bars1 and in such a manner
  that they may be an inch distant from 
each other1 and from the sides of  the  
crucible4 ,fill the vessel with a cement
 compounded of two parts of  charcoal1  
one part of bones burnt in a close      
vessel till they become  very black1 and
 one half part of the ashes of green    
wood2 having first  pulverized and      
thoroughly mixed the whole together4    
,take care to lift  up the ,iron bars a 
little1 to the end that the cement may  
cover the  bottom of the vessel1 and so 
that there be about the depth of half an
  inch thereof under every bar3 cover   
the crucible and lute on the cover4     
,set the crucible thus prepared in a    
furnace1 so contrived that the  crucible
 may be surrounded with coals from top  
to bottom3 for eight  or ten hours keep 
up such a degree of fire that the vessel
 may be  moderately red2 after this take
 it out of the furnace2 plunge your     
little ,iron bars into cold water1 and  
you will find them converted into       

,steel4      ,,observations4    ,the    
principal difference between ,iron and  
,steel consists in this1 that  the      
latter is combined with a greater       
quantity of phlogiston than the  former4
    ,it appears by this experiment1     
that1 to make ,iron unite with an       
inflammable matter1 it is not necessary 
it should be in fusion2 it is           
sufficient that it be so red-hot as to  
be opened and softened by the  fire4    
,every kind of charcoal is fit to be an 
ingredient in the composition  of the   
cement employed to make ,steel1 provided
 it contain no ,vitriolic  ,acid4       
,however1 it hath been observed1 that   
animal coals produce a  speedier effect 
than others3 for which reason it is     
proper to mix  something of that kind   
with charcoal-dust1 as above directed4  
,the following signs shew that the      
operation hath succeeded1 and that  the 
,iron is changed into good ,steel4      
,this metal being quenched in cold      
water1 as proposed above1 acquires  such

 an extraordinary degree of hardness1   
that it will by no means  yield to any  
impression of the file or hammer1 and   
will sooner break  in pieces than       
stretch upon the anvil4 ,and here it is 
proper to  observe1 that the hardness of
 ,steel varies with the manner in which 
it  is quenched4 ,the general rule is1  
that the hotter the ,steel is when      
quenched1 and the colder the water is in
 which you quench it1 the  harder it    
becomes4 ,it may be deprived of the     
temper thus acquired1  by making it     
red-hot1 and letting it cool slowly2 for
 it is thereby  softened1 rendered      
malleable1 and the file will bite upon  
it4 ,for this  reason the artisans who  
work in ,steel begin with untempering   
it1 that  they may with more ease shape 
it into the tool they intend to make4   
,they afterwards new-temper the tool    
when finished1 and by this second       
temper the ,steel recovers the same     
degree of hardness it had acquired  by  
the first temper4    ,the colour of     

,steel is not so white as that of ,iron1
 but darker1 and  the grains1 facets1 or
 fibres1 which appear on breaking it1   
are finer  than those observed in ,iron4
    ,if the bars of ,iron thus cemented 
in order to convert them into ,steel  be
 too thick1 or not kept long enough in  
cementation1 they will not be  turned   
into ,steel throughout their whole      
thickness3 their surfaces only  will be 
,steel to a certain depth1 and the      
center will be mere ,iron2  because the 
phlogiston will not have thoroughly     
penetrated them4 ,on  breaking a bar of 
this sort1 the difference in colour and 
grain between  the ,steel and the ,iron 
is very visible4    ,it is easy to      
deprive ,steel of the super-abundant    
quantity of phlogiston  which           
constitutes it ,steel1 and thereby      
reduce it to ,iron4 ,for this  purpose  
it need only be kept red-hot some time1 
observing that no  matter approach it   
all the while that is capable of        
refunding to it  the phlogiston which   

the fire carries off4 ,the same end is  
still  sooner obtained by cementing it  
with meagre hungry matters1 capable  of 
absorbing the phlogiston2 such as bones 
calcined to whiteness1 and  cretaceous  
earths4    ,steel may also be made by   
fusion2 or ,pig-iron may be converted   
into  ,steel4 ,for this purpose the same
 method must be employed as was  above  
directed for reducing ,pig-iron into    
malleable ,iron2 with this  difference1 
that1 as ,steel requires more phlogiston
 than is necessary  to ,iron1 all the   
means must be made use of that are      
capable of  introducing into the ,iron a
 great deal of phlogiston2 such as      
melting  but a small quantity of ,iron  
at a time1 and keeping it constantly    
encompassed with abundance of charcoal2 
reiterating the fusions2 taking  care   
that the blast of the bellows directed  
along the surface of the  metal do not  
remove the coals that cover it1 c4 ,and 
here it must  be observed1 that there   
are some sorts of ,pig-iron which it is 

very  difficult to convert into ,steel  
by this method1 and that there are      
others which succeed very readily1 and  
with scarce any trouble at all4  ,the   
ores which yield the last-mentioned sort
 of ,pig-iron are called  ,steel ,ores4 
,steel made by this means must be       
tempered in the same  manner as that    
made by cementation#h4      #h ,m4      
,raumur hath obliged the public with a  
treatise on the means    of converting  
,iron into ,steel1 in which he hath     
exhausted the subject4    ,such as      
desire the amplest and most useful      
instructions on that part    of         
metallurgy1 would do well to consult his
 ,work4      ,,process ,,iv4    ,the    
,calcination of ,iron4 ,sundry ,saffrons
 of ,mars4    ,take filings of ,iron1 in
 what quantity you please2 put them into
 a  broad unglazed earthen vessel2 set  
it under the muffle of a cupelling      
furnace2 make it red-hot2 stir the      
filings frequently2 and keep up the     
same degree of fire till the ,iron be   

wholly turned into a red powder4        
,,observations4    ,iron easily loses   
its phlogiston by the action of fire4   
,the calx  that remains after its       
calcination is exceeding red2 which     
makes  this be thought the natural      
colour of the earth of that metal4 ,it  
hath accordingly been observed1 that all
 the earths and stones which  either are
 naturally red1 or acquire that colour  
by calcination1 are  ferruginous4       
,the yellowish red colour which every   
calx of ,iron hath1 in whatever  manner 
it be prepared1 hath procured the name  
of ,crocus or ,saffron  to every        
preparation of this kind4 ,that made in 
the manner above  directed is called in 
,medicine ,crocus ,martis astringens4   
,the rust produced on the surface of    
,iron is a sort of calx of ,iron made   
by way of dissolution4 ,the moisture of 
the air acts upon the metal1  dissolves 
it1 and robs it of some of its          
phlogiston4 ,this rust is  called in    
,medicine ,crocus ,martis ,aperiens2    

because it is thought that  the saline  
parts1 by means whereof the humidity    
dissolves the ,iron1  remain united with
 the metal after its dissolution1 and   
give it an  aperitive virtue4 ,the      
,apothecaries prepare this sort of      
,saffron of ,mars  by exposing ,iron    
filings to the dew1 till they be turned 
entirely to  rust3 which is then called 
,saffron of ,mars by dew4    ,another   
,saffron of ,mars is also prepared in a 
much shorter manner1 by  mixing filings 
of ,iron with pulverized ,sulphur1 and  
moistening the  mixture1 which after    
some time ferments and grows hot4 ,it is
 then set  on the fire2 the ,sulphur    
burns away1 and the mass is kept        
stirring till  it become a red matter4  
,this ,saffron is nothing but ,iron     
dissolved by  the ,acid of ,sulphur1    
which is known to be of the same nature 
with that  of ,vitriol2 and consequently
 this ,saffron of ,mars is no way       
differing  from ,vitriol calcined to    
redness4      ,,process ,v4    ,iron    

dissolved by the mineral ,acids4    ,put
 any mineral ,acid whatever into a      
matrass with some water2 set the        
matrass on a sand-bath gently heated2   
drop into the vessel some filings  of   
,iron3 the phenomena which usually      
accompany metalline dissolutions  will  
immediately appear4 ,add more filings1  
till you observe the ,acid  hath lost   
all sensible action upon them3 then     
remove your matrass from  the sand-bath2
 you will find in it a solution of      
,iron4      ,,observations4    ,iron is 
very easily dissolved by all the ,acids4
 ,if you make use of the  ,vitriolic    
,acid1 care must be taken to weaken it  
with water1 in case it  be concentrated2
 because the dissolution will succeed   
the better4 ,the  vapours that rise on  
this occasion are inflammable2 and if a 
lighted  paper be held to the mouth of  
the matrass1 especially after keeping   
it stopt for some time and shaking the  
whole gently1 the sulphureous  vapours  
take fire with such rapidity as to      

produce a considerable  explosion2 which
 is sometimes strong enough to burst the
 vessel into a  thousand pieces4 ,this  
solution hath a green colour1 and is in 
fact a  fluid ,green ,vitriol1 which    
wants nothing but rest to make it shoot 
into  crystals4    ,if you make use of  
the ,nitrous ,acid1 you must cease      
adding more filings  when the liquor1   
after standing still some moments1      
becomes turbid2  for1 when this ,acid is
 impregnated with ,iron to a certain    
degree1 it  lets fall some of that which
 it had dissolved1 and becomes capable  
of  taking up fresh filings4 ,thus1 by  
constantly adding new supplies of       
,iron1 this ,acid may be made to        
dissolve a much greater quantity thereof
  than is necessary to saturate it      
entirely4 ,this solution is of a russet 
colour1 and doth not crystallize4    ,if
 the weather be not extremely cold1 and 
the ,acids have a proper  degree of     
strength1 the sand-bath is unnecessary1 
as the dissolution  will succeed very   

well without it4    ,iron dissolved by  
,acids may be separated therefrom1 like 
all other  metallic substances in the   
same circumstances1 either by the action
  of fire1 which carries off the ,acid  
and leaves the ,martial ,earth1 or  by  
the interposition of substances which   
have a greater affinity than  metallic  
substances have with ,acids2 that is1 by
 ,absorbent ,earths  and ,alkaline      
,salts4 ,by whatever means you separate 
,iron from an ,acid  solvent1 it        
constantly appears1 after the           
separation1 in the form of  a yellowish 
red powder2 because it is then deprived 
of most of the  phlogiston to which it  
owed its metalline form2 whence it is   
reasonable  to think1 that this is the  
proper colour of ,martial earth4    ,all
 these precipitates of ,iron are true   
,saffrons of ,mars1 which1  as well as  
those prepared by calcination1 are so   
much the further  removed from the      
nature of a metal1 the more they are    
deprived of  their phlogiston4 ,thence  

it comes that they are more or less     
soluble  by ,acids1 and more or less    
attracted by the magnet3 as no          
ferruginous  earth1 perfectly deprived  
of all inflammable matter1 is at all    
attracted by the magnet1 or soluble by  
,acids4          ,,chap4 ,v4    ,of     
,,tin4      ,,process ,i4    ,to extract
 ,tin from its ,ore4    ,break your ,tin
 ore into a coarse powder1 and by       
washing carefully  separate from it all 
the heterogeneous matters1 and ores of a
 different  kind1 that may be mixed     
therewith4 ,then dry it1 and roast it in
 a  strong degree of fire1 till no more 
,arsenical vapour rise from it4 ,when   
the ore is roasted1 reduce it to a fine 
powder1 and mix it thoroughly  with     
twice its weight of the black flux well 
dried1 a fourth part of  its weight of  
clean iron filings1 together with as    
much borax and  pitch2 put the mixture  
into a crucible2 over all put ,sea-salt 
to the  thickness of four fingers1 and  
cover the crucible close4    ,set the   

crucible thus prepared in a melting     
furnace3 apply at first a  moderate and 
slow degree of fire1 till the flame of  
the pitch1 which  will escape through   
the joint of the cover1 disappear       
entirely4 ,then  suddenly raise your    
fire1 and urge it with rapidity to the  
degree  necessary for melting the whole 
mixture4 ,as soon as the whole is in    
fusion take the crucible out of the     
furnace1 and separate the ,regulus  from
 the scoria4      ,,observations4       
,all ,tin ores contain a considerable   
quantity of ,arsenic1 and no ,sulphur   
at all1 or at most very little4 ,hence  
it comes that1 though ,tin be the       
lightest of all metals1 its ore is      
nevertheless much heavier than any      
other2 ,arsenic being much heavier than 
,sulphur1 of which the ores of  every   
other kind always contain a pretty large
 proportion4 ,this ore is  moreover very
 hard1 and is not brought to a fine     
powder with so much  ease as the rest4  
,these properties of ,tin ore furnish us

 with the means of separating it  easily
 by lotion1 not only from earthy and    
stony parts1 but even from  the other   
ores which may be mixed with it4 ,and   
this is of the greater  advantage on two
 accounts1 viz4 because ,tin cannot     
endure1 without  the destruction of a   
great part thereof1 the degree of fire  
necessary  to scorify the refractory    
matters which accompany its ore2 and    
again  because this metal unites so     
easily with ,iron and ,copper1 the ores 
of which are pretty commonly blended    
with ,tin ore1 that1 after the          
reduction1 it would be found adulterated
 with a mixture of these two  metals1 if
 they were not separated from it before 
the fusion4    ,but sometimes the ,iron 
ore confounded with that of ,tin is very
 heavy1  and is not easily pulverized2  
whence it comes to pass that it cannot  
be  separated therefrom by washing only4
 ,in that case the magnet must be       
employed to separate it1 after the ore  
hath been roasted4    ,roasting is      

moreover necessary for ,tin ore1 in     
order to dissipate the  ,arsenic which  
volatilizes1 calcines1 or destroys one  
part of the ,tin1  and reduces the rest 
to a short1 brittle substance1 like a   
,semi-metal4  ,the ore is known to be   
sufficiently roasted when no more fumes 
rise  from it2 when it has lost the     
smell of garlic2 and when it does not   
whiten a clean plate of ,iron held over 
it4    ,tin being one of those metals   
which are most easily calcined1 it is   
necessary in reducing its ore to employ 
such matters as may furnish it  with    
phlogiston4 ,in order to defend it from 
the contact of the air1  which always   
accelerates the calcination of metallic 
substances1 the  mixture is to be       
covered with ,sea salt2 and the addition
 of pitch helps  to increase the        
quantity of phlogiston4      ,,process  
,,ii4    ,the ,calcination of ,tin4     
,into an unglazed earthen dish put the  
quantity of ,tin you intend to  calcine2
 melt it1 and keep stirring it from time

 to time4 ,its surface  will be covered 
with a greyish white powder3 continue   
the calcination  till all your ,tin be  
converted into such a powder1 which is  
the ,calx  of ,tin4      ,,observations4
    ,though the calcination of metalline
 substances is promoted by exposing     
them1 in powder1 or in filings1 to the  
action of fire1 and by ordering  it so  
that they may not melt1 because they    
present a much smaller  surface when    
melted than when unmelted2 yet we have  
not directed this  precaution to be used
 in calcining ,tin4 ,the reason is1 this
 metal is so  fusible that it cannot    
endure the degree of fire requisite to  
destroy  its phlogiston without melting1
 and of course1 though ,tin calcines    
easily1 the operation is nevertheless   
tedious1 because the melted metal       
presents but a small surface to be acted
 on by the fire and the air4  ,this     
inconvenience may be partly remedied1   
and the operation greatly  expedited1 by
 dividing the quantity of ,tin to be    

calcined into several  small parcels1   
and exposing them to the fire in        
separate vessels1 so  that they may not 
re-unite when melted1 and form one      
single mass4    ,leaf ,tin cast on      
,nitre in actual fusion causes it to    
deflagrate and  fulminate2 and from this
 mixture there rises a white vapour1    
which is  converted into flowers when it
 meets with any obstacle to impede its  
flying off entirely4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy1 
who went through a course of experiments
 on ,tin1 an  account whereof may be    
seen in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of 
,sciences1  found that from the colour  
of the calx of that metal a judgment may
 be  formed of its degree of purity1 and
 nearly of the quantity and quality  of 
the metallic substances with which it is
 alloyed4 ,the experiments  tried on    
this subject by that eminent ,chymist   
are very curious4    ,he performed the  
calcination in a crucible1 which he     
heated to a  cherry-red1 and kept up the
 same degree of fire from the beginning 

to  the end of the operation4 ,the calx 
which formed upon his metal1 in that    
degree of heat1 appeared like small     
white scales1 a little reddish on  the  
under side4 ,he pushed it to one side as
 it formed1 to the end that  it might   
not cover the surface of the metal1     
which1 like all others1  requires the   
contact of the air to turn it into a    
calx4    ,while he was making these     
calcinations1 he had an opportunity of  
observing a curious fact1 of which no   
body before him had ever taken  notice2 
probably because no body had ever       
calcined ,tin by the same  method4 ,the 
fact is1 that during the calcination of 
the ,tin1 whether  you break the        
pellicle which forms on the surface of  
the metal while  in red-hot fusion1 or  
whether you let it remain without       
touching it1  you perceive in several   
places a small swell of a certain       
matter1  which bursts and makes its way 
through the pellicle4 ,this matter puffs
  up1 grows red1 at the same instant    

takes fire1 and darts out a small       
whitish flame1 as vivid and as brilliant
 as that of ,zinc1 when urged  by a fire
 strong enough to sublime it into       
flowers4 ,the vividness of  this flame  
may be further compared to that of      
several small grains of  phosphorus of  
urine fired and gently dropped on       
boiling water4 ,from  this bright flame 
a white vapour exhales2 after which the 
swelled mass  partly crumbles down1 and 
turns to a light white powder1 sometimes
  spotted with red1 according to the    
force of the fire4 ,after this          
momentary ignition1 there arise         
stronger1 more numerous1 or more        
frequent heavings of matter1 out of     
which issues a good deal of white  fume1
 that may be intercepted by a cover of  
tin-plate or copper fitted  to the      
crucible1 and appears to be the flowers 
of ,tin1 which in some  measure corrode 
these metals4 ,hence ,mr4 ,geoffroy     
conjectures1 with a  great deal of      
probability1 that their sublimation is  

promoted by a  portion of ,arsenic4     
,when the crust formed by this calx     
comes to be too  thick1 or in too great 
a quantity1 to be pushed on one side1 so
 as to  leave part of the metal         
uncovered1 ,mr4 ,geoffroy puts out the  
fire1  because no more calx would be    
formed3 the communication of the        
external  air with the ,tin in fusion   
being absolutely necessary thereto1 as  
hath been already said4 ,in this        
operation it is to be observed that1  if
 the fire be too slow1 neither the      
inflammation of the sulphureous         
particles1 nor the white fumes that     
rise1 will be so distinctly  perceived1 
as when the fire is of the degree       
requisite to keep the  crucible just of 
a cherry-red heat4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy    
having taken off this first calx began  
the calcination  anew4 ,in this second  
heat the buddings or heavings were more 
considerable1 and shot up in the form of
 cauli-flowers2 but were still  composed
 of little scales4 ,the thoroughly      

calcined portion of this  vegetation was
 likewise white and red2 and the        
inferior surfaces of  some little bits  
thereof were wholly red4 ,when these    
calcinations are  continued1 sulphureous
 vapours rise seemingly of another kind 
than  those which appeared in the       
beginning2 for all the calx made by the 
first heat was perfectly white3 whereas 
in the second it begins to be  spotted  
here and there with a tinge of black4   
,mr4 ,geoffroy was obliged  to go       
through a course of twelve several      
calcinations before he could  convert   
two ounces of ,tin into a calx4 ,he had 
the opportunity1 during  these several  
calcinations1 to observe that after the 
fourth1 and  sometimes after the third1 
the red spots of the calx decrease1 and 
the  black increase2 that the           
germinations cease2 that the crust of   
the calx  remains flat2 that in the     
twelfth fire the ,tin yields no more of 
this  scaly crust2 that towards the end 
the undulations of the fused metal      

appear no longer2 and that the small    
remainder of calx is mixed with  several
 very minute grains of metal1 which seem
 much harder than ,tin4  ,mr4 ,geoffroy 
could not collect a sufficient quantity 
thereof to cupel  them1 and satisfy     
himself whether or no they were ,silver4
    ,though ,tin1 and all the imperfect 
metals in general1 seem converted  to a 
calx1 and lose the metalline form1 by   
one single calcination1  and that a     
slight one2 yet they are not wholly     
deprived of their  phlogiston3 for if   
the calx of ,tin1 for instance1 prepared
 according  to the process above        
delivered1 be cast upon ,nitre in       
fusion1 it will  make that salt         
deflagrate very perceptibly2 a          
convincing proof that it  still contains
 much inflammable matter4 ,if therefore 
a calx be required  absolutely free from
 phlogiston1 this first calx must be    
recalcined  by a more violent fire1 and 
the calcination continued till all the  
phlogiston be dissipated4    ,mr4       

,geoffroy1 being desirous of having his 
calx of ,tin very pure and  perfectly   
calcined1 exposed once more to the      
action of fire the twelve  portions of  
calx obtained by his former             
calcinations4 ,but1 as it would  have   
been too tedious to re-calcine them all 
separately1 he made four  parcels of the
 whole1 each consisting of three taken  
according to  the order in which they   
were first calcined2 and gave to each a 
fire  sufficiently strong1 and long     
enough continued1 to calcine them as    
thoroughly as was possible4 ,after this 
second calcination he found  them all of
 a most beautiful white1 except the     
first parcel3 as that  consisted of the 
portions obtained by the three first    
heats1 in all of  which there were      
scales tinged with red1 it still        
retained a stain of  carnation1 though  
hardly perceptible4 ,agreeably to the   
general rule1  the two ounces of ,tin   
gained in weight by being thus calcined2
 and the  increase was two drams and    

fifty seven grains4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy   
observes1 that no ,tin1 but what is     
absolutely pure1 will  yield a perfectly
 white calx4 ,he calcined in this manner
 several other  parcels of ,tin that    
were impure and variously alloyed2 each 
of which  produced a calx differently   
coloured1 according to the nature and   
quantity of its alloy3 whence he justly 
concludes1 that calcination  is a very  
good method of trying the fineness of   
,tin1 or its degree of  purity4 ,the    
particulars of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's         
experiments on this subject1  which are 
very curious1 may be seen in the        
,memoirs of the ,academy for  #agch4    
,it is proper to take notice that a man 
should be very cautious how he  exposes 
himself to the vapours of ,tin1 because 
they are dangerous2 this  metal being   
very justly suspected by ,chymists of   
containing something  ,arsenical4       
,,process ,,iii4    ,the dissolution of 
,tin by ,acids1 ,the ,smoking ,liquor of
 ,libavius4    ,put into a glass vessel 

what quantity you please of fine ,tin   
cut into  little bits4 ,pour on it      
thrice as much aqua regis1 compounded of
 two  parts aqua fortis weakened with an
 equal quantity of very pure water1  and
 one part ,spirit of ,salt4 ,an         
ebullition will arise1 and the ,tin will
  be very rapidly dissolved2 especially 
if the quantities of metal and of  aqua 
regis be considerable4                  
,,observations4    ,tin is soluble by   
all the ,acids2 but aqua regis dissolves
 it best  of any4 ,yet in this          
dissolution it comes to pass that part  
of the  dissolved ,tin precipitates of  
its own accord to the bottom of the     
vessel1 in the form of a white powder4  
,this solution of ,tin is very fit  for 
preparing the purple-coloured           
precipitate of ,gold4 ,for this purpose 
the solution of ,tin must be let fall1  
drop by drop1 into a solution of  ,gold4
 ,spirit of ,nitre dissolves ,tin nearly
 as aqua regis does2 but it  occasions a
 greater quantity of calx4    ,if two or

 three parts of ,oil of ,vitriol be     
poured on one part of ,tin1  and if the 
vessel in which the mixture is made be  
exposed to such a  degree of heat as to 
evaporate all the moisture1 there will  
remain  a tenacious matter sticking to  
the sides of the vessel4 ,if water  be  
poured on this matter1 and it be then   
exposed a second time to  the fire1 it  
will dissolve entirely1 excepting a     
small portion of  a glutinous substance1
 which also may be dissolved in fresh   
,oil of  ,vitriol4    ,the ,acid of     
,sea-salt may be combined with ,tin by  
the following process4  ,mix perfectly1 
by trituration in a marble mortar1 an   
amalgam of two  ounces of fine ,tin1 and
 two ounces and a half of ,quick-silver1
 with  as much ,corrosive ,sublimate4   
,as soon as the mixture is completed1   
put  it into a glass retort1 and distil 
with the same precautions as we         
directed to be used in preparing        
concentrated and smoking ,acids4 ,there 
will first come over into the receiver  

some drops of a limpid liquor1  which   
will be soon followed by an elastic     
spirit that will issue out  with        
impetuosity4 ,at last some flowers1 and 
a saline tenacious matter1  will rise   
into the neck of the retort4 ,then stop 
your distillation1  and pour into a     
glass bottle the liquor you will find in
 the receiver4  ,this liquor continually
 exhales a considerable quantity of     
dense1 white  fumes1 as long as it is   
allowed to have a free communication    
with the  air4    ,the product of this  
distillation is a combination of the    
,acid of  ,sea-salt with ,tin4 ,as the  
affinity of ,tin with this ,acid is     
greater  than that of ,mercury1 the     
,acid contained in the ,corrosive       
,sublimate  quits the ,mercury1         
wherewith it was united1 to join the    
,tin2 which it  volatilizes so as to    
make it rise with itself in a limpid    
form4 ,we make  use of the amalgam of   
,tin with ,quick-silver1 because we are 
thereby  enabled to mix the ,corrosive  

,sublimate perfectly therewith1 as the  
success of the operation requires it    
should be4    ,in this experiment the   
,tin is volatilized1 and the ,acid of   
,sea-salt1  which is exceedingly        
concentrated1 flies off incessantly in  
the form  of white vapours4 ,this       
compound is known in ,chymistry by the  
name of  ,smoking ,liquor of ,libavius2 
a name derived from its quality1 and    
from  its ,inventor4 ,tin dissolved by  
,acids is easily separated from them by 
,alkalis4 ,it always precipitates in the
 form of a white calx4          ,,chap4 
,,vi4    ,of ,,lead4      ,,process ,i4 
,to extract ,lead from its ,ore4        
,having roasted your ,lead ore reduce it
 to a fine powder2 mix it with  twice   
its weight of the black flux1 and one   
fourth of its weight of  clean iron     
filings and borax2 put the whole into a 
crucible capable of  containing at least
 thrice as much2 over all put ,sea-salt 
four fingers  thick2 cover the crucible2
 lute the juncture2 dry the whole with a

  gentle heat1 and set it in a melting  
furnace4    ,make the crucible          
moderately red3 you will hear the       
,sea-salt  decrepitate1 and after the   
decrepitation a small hissing in the    
crucible4 ,keep up the same degree of   
fire till that be over4    ,then throw  
in as many coals as are necessary to    
complete the operation  entirely1 and   
raise the fire suddenly1 so as to bring 
the whole mixture  into perfect fusion4 
,keep up this degree of fire for a      
quarter of an  hour1 which is time      
sufficient for the precipitation of the 
,regulus4    ,when the operation is     
finished1 which may be known by the     
quietness of  the matter in the         
crucible1 and by a bright vivid flame   
that will rise  from it1 take the       
crucible out of the furnace1 and        
separate the ,regulus  from the scoria4 
,,observations4    ,all ,lead ore       
contains a good deal of ,sulphur1 which 
must be first  separated from it by     
roasting3 and as this kind of ore is apt

 to fly  when first exposed to the fire1
 it is proper to keep it covered till it
  be thoroughly heated4 ,another        
precaution to be used1 in roasting this 
ore1 is not to give it too great a heat1
 but to keep the vessel which  contains 
it just moderately red2 because it      
easily turns clammy1 which  occasions it
 to stick to the vessel4    ,the ,iron  
that is added1 and mixed with the flux1 
absorbs the ,sulphur  which may happen  
to remain1 even after roasting3 it helps
 also to  separate from the ,lead some  
portions of semi-metal1 especially of   
,antimony1 which are frequently mixed   
with this ore4    ,there is no fear     
least the ,iron mix with the ,lead in   
fusion1 and  adulterate it3 for these   
two metals are incapable of contracting 
any  union together1 when each has its  
metalline form4    ,nor is there any    
reason to apprehend lest the ,iron      
should1 by its  refractory quality1     
obstruct the fusion of the mixture2 for 
though this  metal be not fusible when  

alone1 yet1 by the union it contracts   
with  the matters it is designed to     
absorb1 it becomes so to such a degree  
as  in some measure to perform1 on this 
occasion1 the office of a flux4    ,the 
government of the fire is a point of    
great consequence in this  operation4   
,it is necessary to apply but a moderate
 degree of heat  at first3 for1 when the
 metallic earth of the ,lead1 combining 
with  the phlogiston1 acquires the      
metalline form1 it swells up in such an 
extraordinary manner1 that there is     
great danger least the matter  should   
overflow1 and run all out of the        
containing vessel4 ,with a view         
therefore to avoid this inconvenience1  
we direct a very large crucible  to be  
used4 ,this heaving of the ,lead1 at the
 instant of its reduction1  is attended 
with a noise like the whistling of wind4
    ,notwithstanding all the precautions
 that can be used to prevent the        
reduction from taking place too hastily1
 and so occasioning the  effusion of the

 matter1 it often happens that1 on      
raising the fire in  order to bring the 
mixture into fusion1 the hissing        
suddenly begins  again1 and is very     
loud4 ,in that case all the apertures of
 the furnace  must immediately be shut  
close1 in order to choak and suffocate  
the  fire3 for1 if this be neglected1   
the matter in the crucible will swell   
up1 make its way through the luting of  
the juncture1 nay1 push up the  cover1  
and run over4 ,this accident is to be   
apprehended during the  first five or   
six minutes after you raise the fire in 
order to melt  the mixture4 ,this       
effusion of the matter is accompanied   
with a dull  flame1 a thick1 grey and   
yellow smoke1 and a noise like that of  
some  boiling liquor4 ,when you observe 
these several phenomena you may be  sure
 the matter is run out of the crucible1 
either in the manner above  described1  
or by making its way through some cracks
 in the vessel1 and  consequently that  
the operation is spoiled4    ,moreover1 

this event infallibly follows whenever a
 bit of coal happens  to fall into the  
crucible2 and this is one reason why it 
is necessary  to cover it4    ,you may  
be certain that the operation hath      
succeeded if the scoria be  smooth when 
cold1 and have not in part escaped      
through the lute2 if  the ,lead be not  
dispersed in globules through the whole 
mass of the  matter contained in the    
crucible1 but is1 on the contrary1      
collected at  the bottom1 in the form of
 a solid ,regulus1 not very shining1 but
 of a  blueish cast1 and ductile4       
,moreover1 the scoria ought1 in the     
present  case1 to be hard and black1 and
 should not appear full of holes like a 
sieve1 except only in that part which   
was contiguous to the ,salt4    ,here it
 is proper to observe1 that the         
,sea-salt doth not mix with the  scoria1
 but floats upon it4 ,after the         
operation it is black2 which  colour it 
gets1 no doubt1 from the charred parts  
of the flux4 ,the  absence of these     

signs shews the operation to have       
miscarried4    ,when the ore to be      
smelted is pyritose and refractory1 it  
may be  roasted at first with a much    
stronger degree of fire than is used for
  ores that are fusible2 because the    
martial earth1 and the unmetallic       
earth1 which are always mixed in        
pyritose matters1 hinder it from        
growing readily soft in the fire4       
,besides1 such an ore requires a        
greater quantity of the black flux and  
of borax to be mixed with it1  and a    
higher degree of fire to fuse it4    ,it
 is generally needless to mix iron      
filings with this sort of ore2  because 
the martial earth1 with which pyritose  
matters are always  accompanied1 is     
reduced during the operation by the help
 of the black  flux1 which for that     
purpose is mixed with it in a large     
proportion1  and furnishes a quantity of
 iron sufficient to absorb the          
heterogeneous  minerals mixed with the  
,lead4    ,yet1 if it should be observed

 that the pyrites which accompany the   
,lead  ore are arsenical1 then1 as such 
pyrites contain but a small quantity  of
 ferruginous earth1 iron filings must be
 added2 which are1 on this  occasion1 so
 much the more necessary for absorbing  
the ,arsenic1 as  this mineral remains  
in part confounded with the ore1 is     
reduced to  a ,regulus during the       
operation1 unites with the ,lead1 and   
destroys a  great deal of it by         
procuring its vitrification4    ,the    
,lead obtained from such pyritose ores  
is commonly not very pure2 it  is       
blackish and scarce ductile2 qualities  
communicated to it by a small  mixture  
of ,copper in the pyrites1 which always 
contain more or less  thereof4 ,we shall
 presently shew the method of separating
 ,lead from  ,copper4    ,lead ore may  
also be reduced by melting it amidst    
coals4 ,for that  purpose first kindle a
 fire in the furnace in which you intend
 to melt  your ore2 then put a layer of 
your ore immediately upon the lighted   

coals1 and cover it with another layer  
of coals4    ,though the melting furnace
 used for this operation be capable of  
giving  a considerable heat1 yet it is  
necessary further to increase the force 
of the fire by the means of a good pair 
of perpetual bellows1 which  will       
produce an effect like that of a forge4 
,the ore melts1 the earth  of the ,lead 
unites with the phlogiston of the coals1
 and so is reduced  to metal1 which runs
 through the coals1 and falls into an   
earthen  vessel placed at the bottom of 
the furnace to receive it4 ,care must be
  taken to keep this vessel well filled 
with charcoal-dust1 to the end  that the
 ,lead may be in no danger of           
calcination while it continues  there2  
the charcoal-dust constantly furnishing 
it with phlogiston to  preserve its     
metalline form4    ,the earthy and stony
 matters that accompany the ore are     
scorified by  this fusion1 just as they 
are by the other which is performed in a
  close vessel4 ,with regard to the     

,sulphur and ,arsenic1 they are supposed
  to have been first accurately         
separated from the ore by roasting4     
,this  is the method commonly employed  
for smelting ,lead ore at the works4    
,,process ,,ii4    ,to separate ,lead   
from ,copper4    ,with luting earth and 
charcoal-dust make a flat vessel1       
widening  upwards1 and large enough to  
contain your metalline mass4 ,set it    
shelving downwards from the back towards
 the fore-part2 and in the  fore-part1  
at the bottom1 make a little gutter     
communicating with  another vessel of   
the same nature1 placed near the former 
and a little  lower4 ,let the mouth of  
the gutter within side the upper vessel 
be  narrowed1 by means of a small iron  
plate fixed across it1 while the  loam  
is yet soft2 so as to leave a very small
 aperture1 in the lower  part of this   
canal1 sufficient to discharge the ,lead
 as it melts4 ,dry  the whole by placing
 lighted coals around it4    ,when this 
apparatus is dry1 put your mixed mass of

 ,copper and ,lead into  the upper      
vessel3 both in that1 and in the other  
vessel1 light a very  gentle fire of    
wood or charcoal1 so as not to exceed   
the degree of heat  necessary to melt   
,lead4 ,in such a degree of heat the    
,lead contained  in the mixed mass will 
melt1 and you will see it run out of the
 upper  vessel into the lower2 at the   
bottom of which it will unite into a    
,regulus4 ,when in this degree of heat  
no more ,lead flows1 increase the  fire 
a little1 so as to make the vessel      
moderately red4    ,when no more will   
run1 collect the ,lead contained in the 
lower vessel4  ,melt it over again in an
 iron ladle1 with a degree of fire      
sufficient  to make the ladle red2 throw
 into it a little tallow or pitch1 and  
while it burns keep stirring the metal1 
in order to reduce any part of  it that 
may be calcined4 ,remove the pellicle or
 thin crust which will  form on the     
surface2 squeeze out all the ,lead it   
contains1 and then put  it to the mass  

of ,copper left in the upper vessel4    
,check the fire1 and  in the same manner
 take off a second skin that will form  
on the surface  of the ,lead4 ,lastly1  
when the metal is ready to fix1 take off
 the skin  that will then appear on it4 
,the ,lead remaining after this will be 
very  pure1 and free from all alloy of  
,copper4    ,with regard to the ,copper 
itself1 you will find it in the upper   
vessel  covered with a thin coat of     
,lead3 and if the ,lead mixed with it   
was in  the proportion of a fourth or a 
fifth part only1 and the fire applied   
was gentle and slow1 it will retain     
nearly the same form after the          
operation that the mixed mass had       
before4      ,,observations4    ,lead   
frequently remains mixed with ,copper   
after the reduction of its  ore1        
especially if the ore was pyritose4     
,though ,copper be a much more          
beautiful and more ductile metal than   
,lead1 yet the latter by being  alloyed 
with the former is rendered eager and   

brittle4 ,this bad quality  is easily   
discovered by the eye on breaking it3   
for the surface of  the broken part     
appears all granulated2 whereas when it 
is pure it is  more evenly1 and         
resembles a congeries of solid angles4  
,if the ,lead  be alloyed with a        
considerable quantity of ,copper1 its   
colour hath a  yellowish cast4          
,considering the bad qualities which    
,copper communicates to ,lead1 it  is   
necessary to separate these two metals  
from each other4 ,the method  above laid
 down is the simplest and the best4 ,it 
is founded on two  properties belonging 
to ,lead3 the first is that of being    
much more  fusible than ,copper2 so that
 it will melt and run in a degree of    
heat  that is not capable of making the 
,copper even red-hot1 which yet is  very
 far from being able to melt it3 the    
second is1 that ,lead1 though  it hath  
an affinity with ,copper1 and unites    
very perfectly therewith1  yet is not   
able to dissolve it without a greater   

heat than the degree  barely necessary  
to fuse ,lead4 ,hence it comes that     
,lead may be melted  in a ,copper       
vessel1 provided no greater degree of   
heat be applied than  that purpose      
requires4 ,but when the ,lead becomes so
 hot as to be red1  fume1 and boil1 it  
instantly begins to dissolve the        
,copper4 ,for this  reason1 it is       
essential to the success of our         
operation that a moderate  degree of    
heat only be applied1 and no greater    
than is requisite to  keep the ,lead in 
fusion4    ,charcoal-dust is made an    
ingredient in the composition of the    
vessels  used on this occasion1 in order
 to prevent the calcination of the      
,lead4    ,the iron plate1 with which   
the entrance of the gutter within the   
upper  vessel is narrowed1 serves to    
prevent the larger pieces of ,copper1   
which the ,lead may carry along with it1
 from passing through3 it stops  them1  
and allows the ,lead to run off alone4  
,but as these parcels of ,copper may    

entirely choak the passage1 care  must  
be taken1 when any happen to be stopt1  
to remove them from the  entrance of the
 gutter1 and push them back into the    
middle of the  vessel4 ,it is also      
necessary to observe whether or no the  
,lead fixes  any where in the passage2  
and1 if it does1 the heat of that part  
must  be increased1 in order to melt it 
and make it run off4    ,notwithstanding
 all the precautions that can be taken1 
to hinder the  melted ,lead from        
carrying off any ,copper with it1 it is 
impossible to  prevent this             
inconvenience entirely2 and therefore   
the ,lead is melted  over again1 in     
order to separate the small portion of  
,copper with which  it is still         
adulterated4    ,as ,copper is much     
lighter than ,lead1 if these two metals 
happen to  be so blended together that  
the ,copper1 without being in fusion and
  dissolved by the ,lead1 is only       
interposed between the parts of the     
melted ,lead1 so as to swim therein1 it 

is then precisely in the case of  a     
solid body plunged into a fluid heavier 
than itself1 and must rise  to the      
surface1 like wood thrown into water4   
,it is proper to burn some  inflammable 
matter on this melted ,lead1 in order to
 reduce such parts  thereof as are      
constantly calcining on its surface     
while it is in  fusion2 for without this
 precaution they would be taken off     
together  with the ,copper4    ,the     
,copper remaining after this separation 
is1 as we took notice  before1 still    
mixed with a little ,lead4 ,if you      
desire to separate it  entirely         
therefrom1 you must put it into a cupel1
 and expose it under  the muffle to such
 a degree of fire as may convert all the
 ,lead into  litharge4 ,this cannot be  
so done but that some of the ,copper    
also  will be scorified by the heat of  
the fire1 and by the action of the      
,lead3 but as there is a very great     
difference between the facility and     
readiness with which these two metals   

calcine1 the portion of ,copper  that is
 calcined1 while the whole ,lead is     
turning into litharge1 is  scarce worth 
considering4    ,the ,lead1 though      
carefully separated from the ,copper by 
the process  here delivered1 is not yet 
absolutely pure3 sometimes it is alloyed
  with ,gold1 and almost always contains
 some ,silver4 ,if you would free  the  
,lead as much as possible from any      
mixture of these two metals1 you  must  
convert it into glass1 separate the     
remaining bead1 and afterwards  reduce  
this glass of ,lead4 ,but1 as these two 
perfect metals are of no  prejudice to  
the ,lead1 it is not usual to separate  
them from it1 unless  they be in a      
sufficient proportion to defray the     
charge1 and produce  some profit        
besides4    ,when we examine by the     
cupel the just proportion of ,gold and  
,silver  that an ore or a mixed         
metalline mass will yield1 we make a    
previous  assay of the ,lead to be      
employed in the operation1 and          

afterwards1 in  our estimate1 deduct a  
proper allowance for the quantity of    
fine metal  due to the ,lead made use   
of4      ,,process ,,iii4    ,the       
,calcination of ,lead4    ,take what    
quantity of ,lead you please2 melt it in
 one or more unglazed  earthen pans3 a  
dark grey powder will be found on its   
surface4 ,keep  stirring the metal      
incessantly till it be wholly converted 
into such a  powder1 which is the ,calx 
of ,lead4      ,,observations4    ,as   
,lead is a very fusible metal1 and in   
that respect greatly resembles  ,tin1   
most of the observations we made on the 
calcination of ,tin may be  applied     
here4    ,in the calcination of all     
metals1 and particularly in this of     
,lead1  there appears a singular        
phenomenon which is not easily accounted
 for4  ,it is this3 though these matters
 lose a great deal of their substance1  
either by the dissipation of their      
phlogiston1 or because some of the      
metal1 perhaps1 exhales in vapours1 yet 

when the calcination is over  their     
calces are found to be increased in     
weight1 and this increase is  very      
considerable4 ,an hundred pounds of     
,lead1 for example1 converted  into     
,minium1 which is nothing but a calx of 
,lead brought to a red  colour by       
continuing the calcination1 are found to
 gain ten pounds  weight2 so that for an
 hundred pounds of ,lead we have one    
hundred and  ten pounds of ,minium3 a   
prodigious and almost incredible        
augmentation1  if it be considered that1
 far from adding any thing to the ,lead1
 we  have on the contrary dissipated    
part of it4    ,to account for this     
phenomenon ,natural ,philosophers and   
,chymists have  invented several        
ingenious hypotheses1 but none of them  
entirely  satisfactory4 ,as we have no  
established theory to proceed upon1 we  
shall not undertake to explain this     
extraordinary fact4      ,,process ,,iv4
    ,to prepare ,glass of ,lead4        
,take two parts of ,litharge1 and one   

part of pure crystalline ,sand2  mingle 
them together as exactly as possible1   
adding a little ,nitre and  ,sea-salt3  
put this mixture into a crucible of the 
most solid and most  compact earth4     
,shut the crucible with a cover that may
 perfectly close  it4    ,set the       
crucible thus prepared in a melting     
furnace2 fill the furnace  with coals2  
light the fire gradually1 so that the   
whole may be slowly  heated3 then raise 
the fire so as to make the crucible very
 red1 and  bring the matter it contains 
into fusion2 keep it thus melted for a  
quarter of an hour4    ,then take the   
crucible out of the furnace1 and break  
it3 in the bottom  thereof you will most
 commonly find a small button of ,lead1 
and over  it a transparent ,glass1 of a 
yellow colour nearly resembling that of 
amber4 ,separate this ,glass from the   
little button of metal1 and from  the   
saline matters which you will find above
 it4      ,,observations4    ,pure      
,lead1 being exposed to a strong fire   

without any additament1  turns to       
,litharge2 which is a scaly sort of     
substance1 more or less  yellowish1     
shining1 and soft to the touch4 ,this is
 the first advance  to the              
,vitrification of ,lead4 ,the large     
refineries of ,gold and ,silver  by the 
means of ,lead furnish a great quantity 
of this material4 ,it is  sometimes     
whitish1 and is then called ,litharge of
 ,silver2 sometimes  yellow1 and then   
bears the name of ,litharge of ,gold4   
,the difference  of its colour depends  
on the degree of fire it hath undergone1
 and on  the metalline substances       
vitrified with it4    ,litharge alone is
 very fusible1 and being exposed to the 
fire is easily  converted into glass3   
but this ,glass of ,lead1 made without  
additament1  is so active1 so           
penetrating1 and so apt to swell1 that  
it can scarcely  be made use of when    
pure4 ,we are obliged in some sort to   
clog it1 by  uniting it with some       
vitrifiable matter that is not so       

subtile1 such  as sand2 and it is for   
this reason1 not to render the mixture  
more  fusible1 that we have directed the
 addition of one third part of ,sand  to
 two thirds of ,litharge4    ,the ,nitre
 and ,sea-salt1 prescribed as           
ingredients in the mixture1 are         
designed to procure an equal fusion of  
the whole4 ,for1 as the sand is  lighter
 and less fusible than the ,litharge1 it
 will partly rise towards  the upper    
part of the crucible when that matter   
first begins to flow2  in consequence   
whereof the contents of the upper part  
will be much more  difficult to melt1   
and form a ,glass much more compact than
 that below3  but the ,nitre and        
,sea-salt possessing the upper part of  
the crucible1  because they are still   
lighter than the ,sand1 and being in    
their own  nature very efficacious      
fluxes1 on account of their great       
fusibility1  they quickly bring about   
the fusion of those particles of sand1  
which1  having escaped the action of the

 ,litharge1 may have risen unvitrified  
to its surface4    ,the most difficult  
thing to procure1 and yet the most      
necessary to the  success of this       
operation1 is a crucible of earth so    
firm and compact  as not to be          
penetrated by the ,glass of ,lead1 which
 corrodes and makes  its way through    
every thing4    ,the precaution of      
chusing a crucible1 that shall contain a
 good deal  more than the matter to be  
vitrified1 is a necessary one1 because  
,litharge and ,glass of ,lead are very  
apt to swell4    ,the rule to keep the  
crucible close shut is also             
indispensably  necessary1 to prevent any
 bit of charcoal1 or other inflammable  
matter1  from falling into it3 for when 
this happens it occasions a reduction of
  the ,lead1 which is always attended   
with a sort of effervescence1 and  such 
a considerable heaving1 that commonly   
most of the mixture runs  over the      
crucible4 ,for the same reason it is    
very proper1 before you  expose the     

mixture to the fire1 to examine whether 
or no it contains  any matter capable of
 furnishing a phlogiston during the     
operation2 and  if it does1 to remove   
that matter with great care4    ,the    
little button of ,lead1 found at the    
bottom of the crucible after  the       
operation1 comes from a small portion of
 ,lead that is commonly  left in        
,litharge1 unless you prepare it        
carefully yourself1 and do not  take it 
from the fire till you are sure of      
having destroyed all the  ,lead4        
,besides1 this small portion of ,lead   
can be of no prejudice to the           
operation1 because it cannot communicate
 its phlogiston to the rest of  the     
matter4    ,the revivifying of          
,litharge1 of the ,calx1 and of the     
,glass of ,lead1 may  be obtained by the
 same processes as the reduction of its 
ore4      ,,process ,v4    ,lead        
dissolved by the ,nitrous ,acid4    ,put
 into a matrass some aqua fortis        
precipitated like that used to  dissolve

 ,silver2 weaken it by mixing therewith 
an equal quantity of  common water2 set 
the matrass in a hot sand-bath2 throw   
into it1 little  by little1 small bits  
of ,lead1 till you see that no more will
 dissolve4  ,aqua fortis thus lowered   
will dissolve about a fourth of its     
weight  of ,lead4    ,there is gradually
 formed upon the ,lead1 as it dissolves1
 first a  grey powder1 and afterwards a 
white crust1 which at last hinder the   
solvent from acting on the remaining    
part of the metal2 and therefore  the   
liquor should be made to boil1 and the  
vessel should be shaken to  remove those
 impediments1 by which means all the    
,lead will be dissolved4                
,,observations4    ,lead very much      
resembles ,silver1 with respect to the  
phenomena which  attend its dissolution 
in ,acids4 ,for example1 the ,nitrous   
,acid must  be very pure and            
uncontaminated with the ,vitriolic or   
,marine ,acid1 to  qualify it for       
keeping the ,lead in solution3 for1 if  

it be mixed with  either the one or the 
other of these ,acids1 the ,lead will   
precipitate  in the form of a white     
powder as fast as it dissolves2 which is
 just  the case with ,silver4    ,if the
 ,vitriolic ,acid be mixed with the     
,nitrous1 the precipitate will  be a    
combination of the ,vitriolic ,acid with
 ,lead2 that is1 a ,neutral  ,metallic  
,salt1 or ,vitriol of ,lead4 ,if the    
,acid of ,sea-salt be mixed  therewith1 
the precipitate will be a ,plumbum      
corneum2 that is1 a  ,metallic ,salt    
resembling the ,luna cornea4    ,when   
all the ,lead is dissolved as above     
described1 the liquor appears  milky4   
,if it be kept warm over the fire till  
little crystals begin to  appear on its 
surface1 and afterwards left to stand   
quiet1 in a certain  time there will be 
found at the bottom a greyish powder1   
which being  tried on ,gold is          
,mercurial enough to whiten it4 ,little 
globules of  ,quick-silver are even     
discernible in it4    ,we owe this      

observation1 together with this manner  
of proving the  existence of ,mercury in
 ,lead1 and of procuring it from thence1
 to ,m4  ,grosse1 who hath given an     
account of his process in the ,memoirs  
of the  ,academy of ,sciences1 from     
whence we have copied the description of
 the  operation in hand4    ,the        
solution being quickly poured off by    
inclination from the grey  mercurial    
precipitate is still milky1 and         
deposites another white  sediment4 ,when
 this second precipitate falls the      
liquor becomes clear  and limpid1 and is
 then of a fine yellow colour1 like a   
solution of  ,gold4 ,on this            
gold-coloured solution1 and on the two  
precipitates  above-mentioned1 ,m4      
,grosse made several observations1 the  
chief of  which we shall here insert4   
,the yellow liquor affects the tongue at
 first with a taste of  sweetness2 but  
afterwards vellicates it very smartly1  
and leaves on it  a strong sensation of 
acrimony1 which continues for a long    

time4    ,alkalis precipitate the ,lead 
suspended in this liquor1 just as they  
do  all other metals dissolved by       
,acids2 and this precipitate of ,lead is
  white4    ,sea-salt1 or ,spirit of    
,salt1 separates the ,lead from its     
solvent1 and  precipitates it1 as we    
observed before1 into a ,plumbum        
corneum3 but  this precipitate differs  
from the ,luna cornea1 as being very    
soluble  in water2 whereas the ,luna    
cornea will not dissolve in it at all2  
or at least dissolves therein with great
 difficulty1 and in a very  small       
quantity4 ,this ,plumbum corneum        
dissolved in water is again             
precipitated by the ,vitriolic ,acid4   
,m4 ,grosse observes1 that this  forms  
an exception to the eighth column of    
,mr4 ,geoffroy's ,table of  ,affinities2
 in which the ,acid of ,sea-salt is     
marked as having a greater  affinity    
than any other ,acid with ,metallic     
substances4    ,our solution of ,lead is
 also precipitated in a white powder by 

several  ,neutral ,salts2 such as       
,vitriolated ,tartar1 ,alum1 and common 
,vitriol4 ,it  is by the means of double
 affinities that these ,neutral ,salts  
effect  this precipitation4    ,even    
pure water alone is capable of          
precipitating the ,lead of our          
solution1 by weakening the ,acid1 and   
thereby disabling it from keeping  the  
metal suspended4    ,lastly1 as all the 
solutions of metals in ,acids are       
nothing but  ,neutral ,metallic ,salts  
in a fluid form1 so if the solution of  
,lead be  evaporated over the fire1 it  
will shoot into very beautiful crystals1
  about the bigness of hemp-seed1 shaped
 like regular pyramids having  square   
bases4 ,these crystals are yellowish1   
and have a sweet saccharine  taste3 but 
what is most singular in them is1 that1 
as they consist of  the ,nitrous ,acid  
combined with ,lead1 which manifestly   
contains a great  deal of phlogiston1   
they constitute a ,nitrous ,metallic    
,salt1 which has  the property of       

deflagrating in a crucible1 without the 
addition of any  other inflammable      
matter4 ,it is extremely hard to        
dissolve this ,salt in  water4    ,the  
grey mercurial precipitate which whitens
 ,gold1 and in which little  globules of
 running ,mercury are perceivable1 is   
far from being pure  ,mercury4 ,this    
metallic substance makes but a small    
part thereof3 for  it is an assemblage1 
#a4 of little crystals of the same      
nature with  those afforded by the      
evaporated solution2 #b4 of a portion of
 the white  matter1 or powder1 which    
renders the solution milky2 #c4 of a    
grey  powder1 which ,m4 ,grosse         
considers as the only mercurial part2   
#d4 and  lastly1 of little particles of 
,lead that have escaped the action of   
the  solvent2 especially if a little    
more ,lead than the ,acid is capable of 
dissolving were added with a view to    
saturate it entirely1 as in the  present
 process4    ,by means of motion and    
heat the small parcels of ,mercury may  

be  amalgamated with the ,lead4    ,that
 ,mercury should be found entire and in 
globules in the ,spirit of  ,nitre1     
which very easily dissolves that        
metallic substance1 will not  be        
surprizing to those who reflect that1 in
 the present case1 the  ,acid is        
saturated with ,lead1 with which it has 
a greater affinity  than with ,mercury2 
as appears by ,m4 ,geoffroy's ,table of 
,affinities1  where1 in the column that 
hath the ,nitrous ,acid at top1 ,lead is
 placed  above ,mercury4 ,agreeably to  
this1 if ,lead be presented to a        
solution  of ,mercury in ,spirit of     
,nitre1 the ,lead will be dissolved1 and
 as the  dissolution thereof advances   
the ,mercury will precipitate4    ,hence
 it appears that1 in order to find any  
,mercury in the spontaneous  precipitate
 of ,lead dissolved by the ,nitrous     
,acid1 it is necessary that  the ,acid  
be entirely saturated with ,lead2 or    
else that portion of the  ,acid which   
remains unsaturated will dissolve the   

,mercury4    ,with regard to the white  
powder that renders the solution milky1 
and  afterwards precipitates1 it is     
nothing but a portion of the ,lead1     
which1 not being intimately united with 
the ,acid1 falls in part of its  own    
accord4 ,it is a sort of calx of ,lead1 
which being exposed to the  fire becomes
 partly glass1 and partly ,lead1 because
 it still retains  some of its          
phlogiston4          ,,chap4 ,,vii4     
,of ,,mercury4      ,,process ,i4    ,to
 extract ,mercury from its ,ore1 or to  
revivify it from ,cinabar4    ,pulverize
 the ,cinabar from which you would      
extract the ,mercury2 with  this powder 
mix an equal part of clean iron filings2
 put the mixture  into a retort of glass
 or iron1 leaving at least one third    
part thereof  empty4 ,set the retort    
thus prepared in a sand-bath1 so that   
its body  may be quite buried in the    
sand1 and its neck decline considerably 
downwards3 fit on a receiver half filled
 with water1 and let the nose  of the   

retort enter about half an inch into the
 water4    ,heat the vessels so as to   
make the retort moderately red4 ,the    
,mercury  will rise in vapours1 which   
will condense into little drops1 and    
fall  into the water in the receiver4   
,when you see that nothing more comes   
over with this degree of heat1 increase 
it1 in order to raise what  ,mercury may
 still be left4 ,when all the ,mercury  
is thus brought over1  take off the     
receiver1 pour out the water contained  
in it1 and collect  the ,mercury4       
,,observations4    ,mercury is never    
mineralized in the bowels of the earth  
by any thing  but ,sulphur2 with which  
it forms a compound of a brownish red   
colour1  known by the name of ,cinabar4 
,sometimes it is only mixed with earthy 
and stony matters that contain  no      
,sulphur2 but1 as this metallic         
substance is never destitute of its     
phlogiston1 it then has its metalline   
form and properties4 ,when it is  found 
in this condition1 nothing is more easy 

than to separate it from  those         
heterogeneous matters4 ,for that purpose
 no more is requisite than  to distil   
the whole with a fire strong enough to  
raise the ,mercury in  vapours4 ,this   
mineral is volatile2 the earthy and     
stony matters are  fixed2 and a certain 
degree of heat will effect a complete   
separation  of what is volatile from    
what is fixed4    ,this is not the case 
when ,mercury is combined with ,sulphur3
 for this  latter mineral is volatile as
 well as ,mercury2 and the compound     
resulting from the union of them both is
 also volatile3 so that if  ,cinabar    
were exposed to the fire in close       
vessels1 as it must be to  save the     
,mercury1 it would be sublimed in       
substance1 without being  decomposed at 
all4    ,in order therefore to separate 
these two substances from each other1   
we must have recourse to the            
interposition of some third1 which hath 
a  greater affinity with one of them    
than the other hath1 and no affinity    

with that other4    ,iron hath all the  
conditions requisite for this purpose2  
seeing it  hath1 as may be seen in the  
,table1 a much greater affinity with    
,sulphur  than ,mercury hath1 and is    
incapable of contracting any union with 
,mercury4    ,iron1 however1 is not the 
only substance that may be employed on  
this  occasion3 ,fixed ,alkalis1        
,absorbent earths1 ,copper1 ,lead1      
,silver1  ,regulus of ,antimony1 have   
all1 as well as ,iron1 a greater        
affinity  than ,mercury with ,sulphur4  
,nay1 several of these substances1      
namely1  the saline and earthy ,alkalis1
 as well as ,regulus of ,antimony1      
cannot  contract any union with         
,mercury3 the rest1 to wit1 ,copper1    
,lead1 and  ,silver1 are indeed capable 
of amalgamating with ,mercury2 but then 
the  union which these metals contract  
with the ,sulphur prevents it2 and  even
 though they should unite with this     
metallic substance1 the degree  of heat 
to which the whole mixture is exposed   

would soon carry up the  ,mercury1 and  
separate it with ease from those fixed  
substances4    ,in this distillation the
 same cautions must be observed as in   
all  others3 that is1 the vessels must  
be slowly heated1 especially if a  glass
 retort be used2 the fire must be raised
 by degrees1 and a much  stronger one   
applied at last than at first4 ,this    
operation particularly  requires a very 
strong degree of fire1 when there is but
 a small  quantity of ,mercury left4    
,after the operation there remains in   
the retort a compound of ,iron and      
,sulphur1 which may easily be converted 
into a crocus1 by calcining it  and     
burning away the ,sulphur4    ,if a     
,fixed ,alkali be employed1 a ,liver of 
,sulphur will be found in the  retort   
after the distillation4    ,if the      
,cinabar from which you extract the     
,mercury be good1 you will  generally   
obtain seven eighths of its weight in   
,quick-silver4    ,in the present       
operation it is not necessary to lute on

 the receiver1  because the water1 in   
which the nose of the retort is plunged1
 is  sufficient to fix the ,mercurial   
vapours4 ,in case the ,cinabar1 from    
which you intend to separate the        
,mercury1 be mixed with a great         
quantity of heterogeneous1 but fixed1   
matters1 such as earths1 stones1  c4 it 
may be separated from them by subliming 
it with a proper degree  of heat1       
because it is volatile4    ,the vapours 
of ,mercury are prejudicial1 and may    
excite a salivation1  tremors1 and      
palsies2 they should therefore be always
 avoided by such  as work on this       
mineral4    ,the oldest and richest mine
 of ,mercury is that of ,almaden in     
,spain4  ,it is a singular property of  
that mine that1 though the ,mercury     
found  in it is combined with ,sulphur1 
and in the form of ,cinabar1 yet no     
additament is required to procure the   
separation of these two2 the  earthy and
 stony matter1 with which the particles 
of the ore are  incorporated1 being     

itself an excellent absorbent of        
,sulphur4    ,in the ,quick-silver works
 carried on at this mine they make no   
use  of retorts4 ,they place lumps of   
the ore on an iron grate1 which  stands 
immediately over the furnace4 ,the      
furnaces which serve for  this operation
 are closed at the top by a sort of     
dome1 behind which  stands the shaft of 
a chimney that communicates with the    
fire-place1  and gives vent to the      
smoke4 ,these furnaces have in their    
fore-side  sixteen apertures1 to each of
 which is luted an aludel in a          
horizontal  position1 communicating with
 a long row of other aludels placed     
likewise in an horizontal direction2    
which aludels so connected  together    
form one long pipe or canal1 the further
 end whereof opens  into a chamber      
destined to receive and condense all the
 mercurial  vapours4 ,these rows of     
aludels are supported from end to end by
 a  terrass1 which runs from the body of
 the building1 wherein the furnaces  are

 erected1 to that where the chambers are
 built that perform the  office of      
receivers4    ,this is a very ingenious 
contrivance and saves much labour1      
expence1  and trouble1 that would be    
unavoidable if retorts were employed4   
,that part of the furnace which contains
 the lumps of ore1 serves for  the body 
of the retort2 the row of aludels for   
its neck2 and the little  chambers in   
which these canals terminate are actual 
receivers4 ,the  terrass of             
communication1 which reaches from the   
one building to the  other1 is formed of
 two inclined planes1 the lower edges of
 which1  meeting in the middle of the   
terrass1 rise from thence insensibly2   
the  one quite to the building where the
 furnaces are1 and the other to that    
which forms the recipient chambers4 ,by 
this means1 when any ,mercury  escapes  
through the joints of the aludels1 it   
naturally runs down  along these        
inclined planes1 and so is collected in 
the middle of the  terrass1 where the   

inferior sides of the planes meeting    
together form a  sort of canal1 out of  
which it is easily taken up4    ,the    
celebrated ,m4 de ,jussieu having viewed
 the whole himself1 in a  journey he    
made to this mine1 furnished us with    
this description of the  work4          
,,process ,,ii4    ,to give ,mercury1 by
 the action of ,fire1 the appearance of 
a ,metalline  ,calx4    ,put ,mercury   
into several little glass matrasses with
 long and narrow  necks4 ,stop the      
matrasses with a little paper1 to       
prevent any dirt from  falling into     
them4 ,set them all in one sand-bath1 so
 that they may  be surrounded with sand 
as high as two thirds of their length4  
,apply  the strongest degree of heat    
that ,mercury can bear without          
subliming3  continue this heat without  
interruption1 till all the ,mercury be  
turned  to a red powder4 ,the operation 
lasts about three months4               
,,observations4    ,mercury treated     
according to the process here delivered 

hath all  the appearance of a metalline 
calx1 but it hath no more3 for1 if it   
be exposed to a pretty strong degree of 
fire1 it sublimes1 and is  wholly       
reduced to running ,mercury1 without the
 addition of any other  inflammable     
matter2 which proves that during this   
long calcination it  lost none of its   
phlogiston4    ,the volatile nature of  
,mercury1 which permits it not to bear a
 heat  of any strength without          
subliming1 prevents our examining all   
the  effects that fire is capable of    
producing on it4 ,yet there is reason   
to believe that1 as this metallic       
substance resembles the perfect  metals 
in its weight1 its splendour1 and a     
brilliancy which resists all  the       
impressions of the air without          
alteration1 it would like them be       
unchangeable by the greatest force of   
fire1 if it were fixed enough to  bear  
it4    ,in order to give ,mercury the   
form of a metalline calx1 it must       
necessarily be exposed for about three  

months together1 to the utmost  heat it 
can bear without subliming1 as is above 
directed4 ,boerhaave  kept it digesting 
in a less heat for fifteen years        
successively1 both  in open and in close
 vessels1 without observing it to suffer
 the least  change2 except that there   
was formed upon its surface a small     
quantity  of a black powder1 which was  
reduced to running ,mercury by          
trituration  alone4    ,mercury thus    
converted to a red powder is known in   
chymistry and  medicine by the name of  
,mercury precipitated per se3 a title   
proper  enough1 as it is actually       
reduced to the form of a precipitate1   
and  that without any additament2 but   
very improper on the other hand1        
considering1 that in reality this       
,mercury is not a precipitate1 as not   
having been separated from any menstruum
 in which it was dissolved4             
,,process ,,iii4    ,to dissolve        
,mercury in the ,vitriolic ,acid4       
,turbith ,mineral4    ,put ,mercury into

 a glass retort1 and pour on it thrice  
its weight of  good ,oil of ,vitriol4   
,set the retort in a sand-bath2 fit on a
 recipient2  warm the bath by degrees   
till the liquor just simmer4 ,with this 
heat  the ,mercury will begin to        
dissolve4 ,continue the fire in this    
degree  till all the ,mercury be        
dissolved4      ,,observations4    ,the 
,vitriolic ,acid dissolves ,mercury     
pretty well3 but for this purpose  the  
,acid must be very hot1 or even boil2   
and then too it is a very  long time    
before the dissolution is completed4 ,we
 have directed the  operation to be     
performed in a retort2 because this     
solution is usually  employed to make   
another preparation called ,turbith     
,mineral1 which  requires that as much  
as possible of the ,acid solvent be     
abstracted by  distillation4 ,having    
therefore dissolved your ,mercury in the
 ,vitriolic  ,acid1 if you will now     
prepare the ,turbith1 you must1 by      
continuing  to heat the retort1 drive   

over all the liquor into the receiver1  
and  distil till nothing remains but a  
white powdery matter3 then break  the   
retort2 pulverize its contents in a     
glass mortar1 and thereon  pour common  
water1 which will immediately turn the  
white matter of a  lemon-colour2 wash   
this yellow matter in five or six warm  
waters1 and  it will be what is called  
in medicine ,turbith ,mineral2 that is1 
a  combination of the ,vitriolic ,acid  
with ,mercury1 five or six grains       
whereof is a violent purgative1 and also
 an emetic2 qualities which  it         
possesses in common with the ,vegetable 
,turbith1 whose name it hath  therefore 
taken4    ,there rises out of the       
retort1 both while the ,mercury is      
dissolving1  and while the solvent is   
abstracting1 a weak ,spirit of ,vitriol2
 because  a great part of the ,acid     
remains united with the ,quick-silver1  
which  at last appears in the form of a 
white powder3 so that1 if you do not    
incline to save the ,acid which rises on

 this occasion1 you may1 instead  of    
drawing off the liquor in a retort1     
evaporate it in a glass bason  set on a 
sand-bath1 which will be much sooner    
done4    ,it is very remarkable that1 on
 this occasion1 the ,mercury may be     
exposed1 without any danger of          
subliming1 to a much greater heat than  
it is capable of bearing when not       
combined with the ,vitriolic ,acid2     
which shews that this ,acid hath the    
property of fixing ,mercury to a        
certain degree4    ,the white matter1   
that remains after the evaporation of   
the fluid1 is  one of the most violent  
corrosives1 and would prove an actual   
poison if  taken internally4 ,by washing
 it several times in warm water it is   
freed  from a great deal of its ,acid1  
and so considerably sweetened4 ,the     
proof  is this2 if the water used in    
washing the ,turbith be evaporated1     
there  remains after the evaporation a  
matter in form of a ,salt1 that being   
set in a cellar runs into a liquor      

called ,oil of ,mercury1 which is a     
powerful corrosive4 ,several authors    
further direct ,spirit of ,wine to be   
burnt on the ,turbith1 to sweeten it    
still more4    ,if1 instead of washing  
the white matter that remains after the 
moisture  is drawn off1 fresh ,oil of   
,vitriol be poured on it1 and then      
abstracted  as before2 this treatment   
being repeated two or three times1 there
  will at last remain in the retort a   
matter having the appearance of an  oil1
 which resists the action of the fire1  
and cannot be desiccated3  qualities    
which are owing to the great quantity of
 ,acid particles thus  united with the  
,mercury4 ,this ,oil of ,mercury is one 
of the most violent  corrosives4 ,the   
,mercury may be separated therefrom1 by 
precipitating it  with an ,alkali1 or a 
metallic substance that hath more       
affinity than  ,mercury with the        
,vitriolic ,acid3 ,iron1 for instance1  
may be employed in  this precipitation4 
,mercury thus separated from the        

,vitriolic ,acid need  only be distilled
 to recover the form of ,quick-silver4  
,,process ,,iv4    ,to combine ,mercury 
with ,sulphur4 thiops ,mineral4    ,mix 
a dram of ,sulphur with three drams of  
,quick-silver1 by triturating  the whole
 in a glass mortar with a glass pestle4 
,by degrees1 as you  triturate1 the     
,mercury will disappear1 and the matter 
will acquire a  black colour4 ,continue 
the triture till you cannot perceive the
 least  particle of running ,mercury4   
,the black matter you will then have in 
the mortar is known in medicine by the  
name of thiops ,mineral4 ,an  thiops may
 also be made by fire in the following  
manner4    ,in a shallow unglazed       
earthen pan melt one part of flowers of 
,sulphur3  add three parts of running   
,mercury1 making it fall into the pan in
  the form of small rain1 by squeezing  
it through chamoy leather4 ,keep        
stirring the mixture with the shank of a
 tobacco-pipe all the while the         
,mercury is falling3 you will see the   

matter grow thick and acquire a  black  
colour4 ,when the whole is thoroughly   
mixed1 set fire to it with a  match1 and
 let as much of the ,sulphur burn away  
as will flame4      ,,observations4     
,mercury and ,sulphur unite together    
with great ease2 cold triture alone  is 
sufficient to join them4 ,by this means 
the ,mercury is reduced into  exceeding 
small atoms1 and combines so perfectly  
with the ,sulphur that  the least       
vestige thereof is not to be seen4      
,sulphur is not the only matter which   
being rubbed with ,mercury will  destroy
 its form and fluidity3 all fat         
substances that have any degree  of     
consistence1 such as the fat of animals1
 balsams1 and resins1 are  capable of   
producing the same effect4 ,this        
metallic substance1 being  triturated   
for some time in a mortar with these    
matters1 becomes at  last invisible1 and
 communicates to them a black colour4   
,when thus  divided by the interposition
 of heterogeneous particles1 it is said 

to  be ,killed4 ,but ,mercury doth not  
contract such an intimate union with    
these other matters as it doth with     
,sulphur4    ,the thiops prepared by    
fusion is a more perfect and accurate   
combination of ,mercury and ,sulphur    
than the other3 for1 the quantity  of   
,sulphur directed to be used in making  
it being much greater than  is          
absolutely necessary to fix the         
,mercury1 the redundant ,sulphur is     
destroyed by burning1 and none left but 
what is most intimately united  with the
 ,mercury2 and hindered by the union it 
hath contracted with  that metallic     
substance from being so easily consumed4
 ,the thiops  therefore1 which is       
prepared by fusion and burning the      
,sulphur1  contains a much greater      
proportion of ,mercury than that which  
is made  by simple triture2 so that in  
,medicine it ought to be prescribed in  
different cases1 and in smaller doses4  
,if no more ,sulphur than is just       
necessary to kill the ,mercury be added 

to it at first1 it will be difficult to 
obtain a perfect mixture2  because that 
quantity is very small3 it is better1   
therefore1 to employ  at once the       
quantity above directed4      ,,process 
,v4    ,to sublime the ,combination of  
,mercury and ,sulphur into ,cinabar4    
,grind to powder thiops mineral prepared
 by fire4 ,put it into a  cucurbit2 fit 
thereto a head2 place it in a sand-bath1
 and begin with  applying such a degree 
of heat as is requisite to sublime      
,sulphur4 ,a  black matter will rise1   
and adhere to the sides of the vessel4  
,when  nothing more will rise with this 
degree of heat1 raise the fire so  as to
 make the sand and the bottom of the    
cucurbit red2 and then the  remaining   
matter will sublime in the form of a    
brownish red mass1 which  is true       
,cinabar4      ,,observations4    thiops
 ,mineral requires nothing but          
sublimation to become true  ,cinabar1   
like that found in ,quick-silver mines3 
but our thiops  contains still more     

,sulphur than ought to be in the        
composition of  ,cinabar2 for which     
reason we have directed the degree of   
fire applied  at first to be no greater 
than that which is capable of subliming 
,sulphur4 ,as ,cinabar1 though          
consisting of ,mercury and ,sulphur1 is 
yet much less volatile than either of   
these substances alone2 which  probably 
arises from the ,vitriolic ,acid        
contained in the ,sulphur2  therefore1  
if there be any redundant ,sulphur in   
the thiops1 which hath  not contracted  
an intimate union with the ,mercury1 it 
will sublime by  itself in this first   
degree of heat4 ,some mercurial         
particles also will  rise with it1 and  
give it a black colour4    ,cinabar     
contains no more ,sulphur than about a  
sixth or seventh part of  its weight3 so
 that1 instead of employing the common  
thiops to make  it1 it would be better  
to prepare one on purpose that should   
contain  much less ,sulphur2 because too
 much ,sulphur prevents the success of  

the  operation by blackening the        
,sublimate4 ,indeed in whatever manner  
you  go about it1 the ,cinabar always   
appears black at first3 but when it is  
well prepared1 and contains no more than
 its due proportion of ,sulphur1  the   
blackness is only external4 ,this black 
coat therefore may be taken  off2 and   
then the internal part will appear of a 
fine red1 and1 if  sublimed a second    
time1 will be very beautiful4    ,as    
artificial ,cinabar hath the same       
properties with the native1 it may  be  
decomposed by the same means3 so that1  
if you want to extract the  ,mercury out
 of it1 recourse must be had to the     
process above delivered  for working on 
,cinabar ores4      ,,process ,,vi4     
,to dissolve ,mercury in the ,nitrous   
,acid4 ,sundry ,mercurial               
,precipitates4    ,put into a matrass   
the quantity of ,mercury you intend to  
dissolve3 pour  on it an equal quantity 
of good ,spirit of ,nitre1 and set the  
matrass  in a sand-bath moderately      

heated4 ,the ,mercury will dissolve with
 the  phenomena that usually attend the 
dissolutions of metals in this ,acid4   
,when the dissolution is completed let  
the liquor cool4 ,you will know  that   
the ,acid is perfectly saturated1 if    
there remain at the bottom of  the      
vessel1 notwithstanding the heat1 a     
little globule of ,mercury that  will   
not dissolve4      ,,observations4      
,mercury dissolves in the ,nitrous ,acid
 with much more facility1 and  in much  
greater quantity1 than in the           
,vitriolic2 so that it is not           
necessary1 on this occasion1 to make the
 liquor boil4 ,this solution  when cold 
yields crystals1 which are a ,nitrous   
,mercurial ,salt4 ,if you  desire to    
have a clear limpid solution of         
,mercury1 you must employ an  aqua      
fortis that is not tainted with the     
,vitriolic or ,marine ,acid3  for1 the  
affinity of these two ,acids with       
,mercury being greater than  that of the
 ,nitrous ,acid1 they precipitate it in 

the form of a white  powder1 when they  
are mixed with the solvent4    ,mercury 
thus precipitated in a white powder1 out
 of a solution  thereof in the ,spirit  
of ,nitre1 is used in ,medicine4 ,to    
obtain this  precipitate1 which is known
 by the name of the ,white ,precipitate1
  ,sea-salt dissolved in water together 
with a little ,sal ,ammoniac is  used2  
and the precipitate is washed several   
times in pure water1  without which     
precaution it would be corrosive1 on    
account of the great  quantity of the   
,marine ,acid which it would contain4   
,the preparation known by the name of   
,red ,precipitate is also obtained  from
 our solution of ,mercury in ,spirit of 
,nitre4 ,it is made by  abstracting all 
the moisture of the solution1 either by 
distillation in  a retort1 or by        
evaporation in a glass bason set on a   
sand-bath4 ,when  it begins to grow dry 
it appears like a white ponderous mass4 
,then the  fire is made strong enough to
 drive off almost all the ,nitrous      

,acid1  which1 being now concentrated1  
rises in the form of red vapours4 ,if   
these vapours be catched in a receiver1 
they condense into a liquor1  which is a
 very strong and vastly smoking ,spirit 
of ,nitre4    ,by degrees1 as the       
,nitrous ,acid is forced up by the fire1
 the mercurial  mass loses its white    
colour1 and becomes first yellow1 and at
 last  very red4 ,when it is become     
entirely of this last colour the        
operation  is finished4 ,the red mass   
remaining is a ,mercury that contains   
but  very little ,acid1 in comparison of
 what it did while it was white3  and   
indeed the first white mass is such a   
violent corrosive1 that it  cannot be   
used in ,medicine2 whereas1 when it is  
become red1 it makes an  excellent      
escharotic1 which those who know how to 
use it properly apply  with very great  
success1 particularly to venereal       
ulcers4    ,this preparation is very    
improperly called a ,precipitate3 for   
the  ,mercury is not separated from the 

,spirit of ,nitre by the interposition  
of any other substance1 but only by     
evaporating the ,acid4 ,it is also      
called ,arcanum ,corallinum4    ,it must
 be observed that ,mercury1 by its union
 with the ,nitrous ,acid1  acquires a   
certain degree of fixity3 for the red   
precipitate is capable  of sustaining1  
without being volatilized1 a stronger   
degree of heat  than pure ,mercury can2 
which1 as we observed before1 is the    
property of  ,turbith ,mineral also4    
,,process ,,vii4    ,to combine ,mercury
 with the ,acid of ,sea-salt4 ,corrosive
 ,sublimate4    ,evaporate a solution of
 ,mercury in the ,nitrous ,acid till    
there remain  only a white powder1 as   
mentioned in our observations on the    
preceding  process4 ,with this powder   
mix as much ,green ,vitriol calcined to 
whiteness1 and as much decrepitated     
,sea-salt1 as there was ,mercury in  the
 solution4 ,triturate the whole         
carefully in a glass mortar4 ,put  this 
mixture into a matrass1 so that two     

thirds thereof may remain  empty1 having
 first cut off the neck to half its     
length3 or instead  thereof you may use 
an apothecary's phial4 ,set your vessel 
in a  sand-bath1 and put sand round it  
as high as the contents can reach4      
,apply a moderate fire at first1 and    
raise it by slow degrees4 ,vapours  will
 begin to ascend4 ,continue the fire in 
the same degree till they  cease4 ,then 
stop the mouth of the vessel with paper1
 and increase the  fire till the bottom 
of the sand-bath be red-hot4 ,with this 
degree of  heat a ,sublimate will rise1 
and adhere to the inside and upper part 
of the vessel1 in the form of white1    
semi-transparent crystals4 ,keep  up the
 fire to the same degree till nothing   
more will sublime4 ,then  let the vessel
 cool2 break it1 and take out what is   
sublimed1 which is  ,corrosive          
,sublimate4      ,,observations4    ,in 
this operation the mineral ,acids act1  
and are acted upon1 in a  remarkable    
manner4 ,every one of the three is at   

first neutralized1  or united with a    
different basis2 the ,vitriolic being   
combined with  ,iron2 the ,nitrous with 
,mercury1 forming therewith a ,nitrous  
,mercurial  ,salt2 and the ,marine with 
its natural ,alkaline basis4 ,the       
,vitriolic  and ,nitrous ,acids1 which  
are united with metalline substances1   
being  both stronger than the ,acid of  
,sea-salt1 strive to expel it from its  
basis1 in order to combine with it      
themselves2 but the ,vitriolic ,acid1   
being the strongest of the two1 would   
take sole possession of this  basis     
exclusive of the ,nitrous1 which would  
continue united with the  ,mercury1 if  
the ,marine ,acid had not a greater     
affinity than the ,nitrous  with this   
metallic substance4 ,this ,acid         
therefore being expelled from  its basis
 by the ,vitriolic ,acid1 and so set at 
liberty1 must unite with  the ,mercury1 
and separate the ,nitrous ,acid from it2
 which now hath no  resource but to     
unite with the ,iron deserted by the    

,vitriolic ,acid4 ,but  as all these    
changes are brought about by the means  
of a considerable  heat1 and as the     
,nitrous ,acid hath not a very firm     
connection with the  ,iron1 it is driven
 off by the force of the fire2 and this 
it is which  we see rise in vapours     
during the operation4 ,it also carries  
off with  it some parts of the other two
 ,acids1 but in a very small quantity4  
,after the operation therefore there    
remains1 #a4 ,a combination of the      
,vitriolic ,acid with the basis of      
,sea-salt2 that is1 a ,glauber's ,salt3 
#b4 ,a red martial earth1 being that    
which was the basis of the ,vitriol3    
these two substances are blended        
together1 and remain at the bottom of   
the vessel because of their fixity3 #c4 
,a combination of the ,marine  ,acid    
with ,mercury2 both of which being      
volatile1 they ascend together  into the
 upper part of the vessel1 and there    
form a ,corrosive ,sublimate4    ,if we 
reflect on this process with attention1 

and recollect distinctly  the affinities
 of the different substances employed in
 it1 we shall  perceive that it is not  
necessary to make use of all those      
matters1 and  that the operation would  
succeed though several of them were left
 out4    ,first1 the ,nitrous ,acid may 
be omitted2 since1 as hath been shewn1  
it  is not an ingredient in the         
,sublimate1 but is dissipated in vapours
  during the operation4 ,from an        
accurate mixture therefore of ,vitriol1 
,sea-salt1 and ,mercury1 a ,corrosive   
,sublimate must be obtained3 for  as the
 ,acid of the ,vitriol will disengage   
the ,acid of ,sea-salt1 the  latter will
 be at liberty to combine with the      
,mercury1 and so form the  compound we  
are in quest of4    ,secondly1 if we    
make use of ,mercury dissolved by the   
,nitrous ,acid1  we may omit the        
,vitriol2 because the ,nitrous ,acid    
having a greater  affinity than the     
,marine ,acid itself with the basis of  
,sea-salt1 and  the ,acid of ,sea-salt  

having a greater affinity than the      
,nitrous ,acid  with ,mercury1 these two
 ,acids will naturally make an exchange 
of the  bases with which they are       
united3 the ,nitrous will lay hold on   
the  basis of ,sea-salt1 and form a     
quadrangular ,nitre1 while the ,marine  
,acid  will join the ,mercury1 and with 
it form a ,corrosive ,sublimate4        
,thirdly1 instead of ,sea-salt its ,acid
 only may be employed2 which being      
mixed with the solution of ,mercury in  
the ,spirit of ,nitre1 will1 by  virtue 
of its greater affinity with that       
metallic substance1 separate  it from   
the ,nitrous ,acid1 unite with it1 and  
form a white mercurial  precipitate1    
which need only be sublimed to become   
the combination  required4    ,fourthly1
 instead of ,mercury dissolved in the   
,nitrous ,acid1 ,mercury  dissolved by  
the ,vitriolic ,acid1 or ,turbith1 may  
be used2 only mixing  ,sea-salt         
therewith3 for these two saline         
substances will mutually  decompound    

each other1 by virtue of the affinities 
of their ,acids1  and for the same      
reasons that ,sea-salt and the          
,mercurial ,nitrous ,salt  decompound   
each other4 ,the ,vitriolic ,acid quits 
the ,mercury with which  it is combined1
 to unite with the basis of the         
,sea-salt2 and the  ,acid of this ,salt 
being expelled by the ,vitriolic1       
combines with the  ,mercury1 and        
consequently forms our ,corrosive       
,sublimate4 ,in this case a  ,glauber's 
,salt remains after the sublimation4    
,these several methods of preparing     
,corrosive ,sublimate are never used1   
because each of them is attended with   
some inconvenience2 such as  requiring  
too long triture1 yielding a ,sublimate 
less corrosive than it  should be1 or a 
smaller quantity of it4 ,we must1       
however1 except the  last2 which was    
invented by the late ,mr4 ,boulduc1 of  
the ,academy of  ,sciences1 who found   
none of these inconveniencies attending 
it#i4      #i ,see the ,memoirs of the  

,academy for #agcj4    ,corrosive       
,sublimate may also be made only by     
mixing ,mercury with  ,sea-salt1 without
 any additament4 ,this may appear       
surprizing when we  consider that1 as   
,acids have a greater affinity with     
,alkalis than with  metallic substances1
 the ,acid of ,sea-salt ought not to    
quit its basis1  which is ,alkaline1 to 
unite with ,mercury4    ,in order to    
explain this phenomenon it must be      
remembered that  ,sea-salt1 when exposed
 to the fire without additament1 suffers
 a little  of its ,acid to escape4 ,now 
this portion of the ,marine ,acid unites
 with  the ,mercury1 and forms a        
,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,moreover1 as    
there is a  pretty strong affinity      
between the ,marine ,acid and ,mercury1 
this may  help to detach from the       
,sea-salt a greater quantity of ,acid   
than it  would otherwise part with4     
,nevertheless1 the quantity of          
,sublimate  obtained by this means is   
not considerable1 nor is it very        

corrosive4    ,on this occasion we must 
also mention another combination of the 
,marine  ,acid with ,mercury2 which is  
made by mixing that metallic substance  
perfectly with ,sal ,ammoniac1 by the   
means of triture4 ,mercury1 like all    
other metals except ,gold1 possesses the
 property of decompounding ,sal         
,ammoniac1 separating the volatile      
,alkali which serves it for a basis1    
and combining1 by the help of a very    
gentle heat1 with its ,acid1 which  is  
well known to be the same with that of  
,sea-salt4 ,this decomposition  of ,sal 
,ammoniac1 by the metalline substances1 
is a full exception  to the first column
 of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's ,table of          
,affinities1 and is  the basis of       
several new ,medicines invented by the  
late ,comte de la  ,garaye#aj4      #aj 
,see the ,memoir given in by me on this 
subject to the ,academy of    ,sciences 
in the ,memoires l',acadamie #aged4     
,corrosive ,sublimate is the most       
violent and the most active of all      

corrosive poisons4 ,it is never used in 
,medicine1 but in external              
applications4 ,it is a powerful         
escharotic2 it destroys proud flesh1    
and cleans old ulcers3 but it must be   
used by those only who know how  to     
apply it properly1 and requires an able 
hand to manage it4 ,it is not  commonly 
applied by itself1 but mixed in the     
proportion of half a dram  to a pound of
 lime-water4 ,this mixture is yellowish1
 and bears the name  of ,aqua           
,phagadenica4    ,water dissolves       
,corrosive ,sublimate1 but in a small   
quantity4 ,if a  ,fixed ,alkali be mixed
 with this solution1 the ,mercury       
precipitates in  the form of a red      
powder4 ,if the precipitate be procured 
by a ,volatile  ,alkali1 it is white2 if
 by ,lime-water1 it is yellow4 ,this    
,mercurial  ,salt dissolves pretty      
easily in boiling ,spirit of ,wine4     
,,process ,,viii4    ,sweet ,sublimate4 
,take four parts of ,corrosive          
,sublimate2 pulverize it in a glass  or 

marble mortar2 add by little and little 
three parts of ,mercury  revivified from
 ,cinabar2 triturate the whole          
carefully1 till the  ,mercury be        
perfectly killed1 so that no globule    
thereof can be  perceived4 ,the matter  
will then be grey4 ,put this powder into
 an  apothecary's phial1 or into a      
matrass1 whose neck is not above four or
  five inches long1 leaving two thirds  
thereof empty4 ,set the vessel in  a    
sand-bath1 and put sand round it to one 
third of its heighth4 ,apply  a moderate
 fire at first2 and afterwards raise it 
gradually till you  perceive that the   
mixture sublimes4 ,keep it up to this   
degree till  nothing more will rise1 and
 then break the vessel4 ,reject1 as     
useless1  a small quantity of earth     
which you will find at the bottom2      
separate  also what adheres to the neck 
of the vessel1 and carefully collect the
  matter in the middle1 which will be   
white4 ,pulverize it2 sublime it  a     
second time1 in the same manner as      

before2 and in the same manner  separate
 the earthy matter left at the bottom of
 the vessel1 and what  you find sublimed
 into the neck4 ,pulverize1 and sublime 
a third time1  the white matter you last
 found in the middle4 ,the white matter 
of this  third sublimation is the ,sweet
 ,sublimate1 called also ,aquila ,alba4 
,,observations4    ,the ,acid of        
,sea-salt in the ,corrosive ,sublimate  
is very far from being  perfectly       
saturated with ,mercury2 and thence     
comes the corrosive  quality of this    
saline compound4 ,but though ,mercury1  
as appears by this  combination1 is     
capable of imbibing a much greater      
quantity of ,acid  than is necessary to 
dissolve it2 nay1 though it naturally   
takes up  this super-abundant quantity  
of ,acid1 yet it doth not follow from   
thence  that this redundant ,acid may   
not combine with ,mercury to the point  
of  perfect saturation1 so as to lose   
its corrosive acidity4    ,this is the  
case in the operation here described4 ,a

 fresh quantity  of running ,mercury is 
mixed with ,corrosive ,sublimate2 and   
the fresh  ,mercury1 combining with the 
super-abounding ,acid1 deprives the     
,sublimate of its acrimony1 and forms a 
compound which comes much nearer  the   
nature of a ,neutral ,metallic ,salt4   
,trituration alone is not sufficient to 
produce an union between the  newly     
added ,mercury and the ,acid of the     
,corrosive ,sublimate3 because1         
generally speaking1 the ,acid of        
,sea-salt cannot dissolve ,mercury      
without the help of a certain degree of 
heat1 and unless it be reduced  into    
vapours4    ,thus1 though the newly     
added ,mercury becomes invisible by     
trituration1  and seems actually        
combined with the ,corrosive ,sublimate1
 yet the  union is not intimate4 ,there 
is only an interposition of parts1 but  
no true dissolution of the newly added  
,mercury by the super-abundant  ,acid of
 the ,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,for this   
reason the mixture must be  sublimed2   

and by this sublimation only is the true
 union effected4 ,nor  is one single    
sublimation sufficient3 no less than    
three are necessary  to deprive the     
,sublimate of the corrosive quality     
which renders it  poisonous4 ,after the 
third sublimation1 the ,sublimate being 
put upon  the tongue gives no           
considerable sensation of acrimony2 nor 
doth it  retain any more of its former  
activity than is requisite to make it a 
gentle purgative1 when administered from
 six to thirty grains for a  dose4      
,if a less quantity of ,mercury than    
that above directed be mixed  with the  
,corrosive ,sublimate1 the              
super-abundant ,acid will not be        
sufficiently saturated2 and the less    
,mercury is added1 the more of its      
corrosive virtue will the ,sublimate    
retain4    ,if1 on the contrary1 a      
greater quantity of ,mercury be added1  
there  will be more than the ,acid can  
possibly dissolve1 and the superfluous  
quantity will remain in its natural form

 of ,quick-silver4 ,it is better        
therefore to err in the excess than in  
the defect of the proportion of         
,mercury to be added2 because the       
,corrosive ,sublimate will take up no   
more than is necessary to dulcify it4   
,part of the ,acid of the ,corrosive    
,sublimate is also dissipated in        
vapours during the operation2 and it is 
necessary to allow room for  these      
vapours to circulate1 and a vent to give
 them passage1 or else  they will burst 
the vessels4 ,these are our reasons for 
leaving an empty  space in the subliming
 vessels1 and for having their necks no 
more than  five or six inches long4     
,the matter which sublimes into the neck
 of the vessel is always very  acrid2   
for which reason it must be separated   
from the ,sweet ,sublimate4  ,there     
remains also at the bottom of the       
matrass an earthy1 reddish  matter2     
which probably comes from the ,vitriol  
employed in making the  ,corrosive      
,sublimate4 ,this matter must likewise  

be rejected as useless  after every     
sublimation4      ,,process ,,ix4       
,the ,panacea of ,mercury4    ,pulverize
 some ,sweet ,sublimate1 and sublime it 
in the same manner as  you did thrice   
before4 ,repeat this nine times4 ,after 
these sublimations  it will make no     
impression on the tongue4 ,then pour on 
it aromatic  ,spirit of ,wine1 and set  
the whole in digestion for eight days4  
,after  that decant the ,spirit of      
,wine1 and dry what remains1 which is   
the  ,panacea of ,mercury4              
,,observations4    ,the great number of 
sublimations1 which the ,sweet          
,sublimate is made to  undergo1 sweeten 
it still more1 and to such a degree that
 it leaves no  sensation on the tongue1 
nor hath any purgative virtue4    ,the  
,spirit of ,wine in which it is digested
 after all the sublimations1  is        
designed to blunt still more the        
sharpness of any acid particles  that   
may not have been sufficiently dulcified
 by the preceding  sublimations4    ,as 

,mercury is the specific remedy for     
venereal disorders1 sundry  preparations
 thereof have been attempted with a view
 to produce  different effects4 ,sweet  
,sublimate is purgative2 and for that   
reason is  not quite proper for         
procuring a salivation1 because it      
carries off the  humours by stool4 ,the 
,panacea of ,mercury1 which1 on the     
contrary1 is  not purgative1 may raise a
 salivation when taken inwardly4        
,,section ,,iii4    ,of ,operations on  
the ,,semi-,,metals4          ,,chap4   
,i4    ,of ,,antimony4      ,,process   
,i4    ,to ,separate ,antimony from its 
,ore by ,fusion4    ,having drilled some
 small holes1 of about two lines in     
diameter1 in  the bottom of a crucible1 
put into it your ,antimonial ,ore broken
 into  little bits1 about the size of a 
hazel nut2 lute on its cover2 set the   
crucible thus prepared in the mouth of  
another crucible1 and close the  joints 
with lute4    ,at the distance of half a
 foot from this compound vessel place   

bricks  all round1 so as to form a      
furnace2 the sides of which must rise as
  high as the brim of the uppermost     
crucible4    ,let the bottom of this    
furnace be filled with ashes1 up to the 
top of  the lower crucible1 and the rest
 of the furnace with lighted coals4     
,blow the fire1 if it be necessary1 with
 bellows1 till the upper  crucible      
become red4 ,keep it up in this degree  
for about a quarter of  an hour4 ,then  
take your vessels out of the furnace1   
and you will find  the ,antimony        
collected in the bottom of the lower    
crucible1 having run  through the holes 
of the upper one4      ,,observations4  
,the ore of ,antimony is one of the most
 fusible3 it always contains a  great   
deal of ,sulphur1 and cannot sustain a  
fire of any force without  being        
dissipated into vapours4 ,it requires no
 additament to flux it3  for it is not  
necessary1 on this occasion1 that the   
earthy and stony  matters mixed         
therewith be brought to fusion4 ,it is  

sufficient that  the ,antimonial part be
 melted2 which1 as soon as it becomes   
fluid1 is  carried by its weight to the 
lower part of the crucible4 ,thus it is 
separated from all heterogeneous        
matters2 which are left in the upper    
crucible1 while it passes through the   
holes in its bottom1 and forms a  mass  
in the lower4    ,the precaution of     
closing all the apertures of both       
crucibles is  necessary1 on account of  
the volatility of this mineral3 and that
 the  ,antimony1 when once melted1 may  
not continue exposed to a great heat1   
it is made to run down into a vessel    
surrounded with ashes only1 and  by that
 means very little affected with heat2  
ashes being one of those  solid mediums 
that transmit least of it4              
,,process ,,ii4    ,the common ,regulus 
of ,antimony4    ,reduce crude ,antimony
 to powder4 ,mix it with three fourths  
of its  weight of white ,tartar1 and    
half its weight of refined ,salt-petre1 
both pulverized4 ,into a large crucible 

made red-hot in the fire1  throw a      
spoonful of your mixture1 and cover it4 
,there will be a very  considerable     
detonation4 ,when it is over1 throw in a
 second spoonful  of your mixture1 and  
cover the crucible as before3 this will 
produce a  second detonation4 ,go on    
thus1 till you have thrown in all your  
mixture4    ,when the whole has thus    
fulminated1 increase the fire so as to  
bring  the matter into fusion2 that     
being done1 take the crucible out of the
  furnace1 and immediately pour its     
contents into an iron cone heated and   
greased with tallow4 ,strike the floor  
and the cone some gentle blows  with a  
hammer1 to make the ,regulus            
precipitate3 and when the matter  is    
fixed and cold1 invert the cone and turn
 it out4 ,you will see it  consist of   
two distinct substances2 the uppermost  
of which is a saline  scoria1 and the   
undermost the reguline part4 ,strike    
this mass a blow  with a hammer1 in the 
place where these substances join1 and  

you will  by this means separate the    
scoria from the ,regulus2 the latter of 
which  will have the form of a metallic 
cone1 on whose base you will observe    
the signature of a bright star4         
,,observations4    ,antimony1 though    
separated by a former fusion from the   
earthy and stony  parts of its ore1 must
 nevertheless be still considered as an 
ore1 on  account of the great quantity  
of ,sulphur it contains1 which          
mineralizes  the metalline part or      
,regulus4 ,therefore1 if you desire to  
have this  ,regulus pure1 you must      
separate it from the ,sulphur that is   
combined  with it4 ,this may be done    
several ways4 ,the method above proposed
  is one of the readiest and easiest1   
though not altogether free from         
inconveniencies1 as we shall shew4      
,the ,salt-petre in the mixture         
detonates by means of the ,sulphur of   
the ,antimony1 which it consumes1 and   
from which it separates the  reguline   
part3 but lest it should also consume   

some of the phlogiston  which gives the 
,regulus its metalline form1 ,tartar is 
added2 because  it contains a great deal
 of inflammable matter1 and so is       
capable  of furnishing enough for the   
detonation of the ,nitre1 or rather for 
restoring to the metallic earth of the  
,antimony1 the phlogiston that  may be  
consumed by the ,nitre4    ,if we       
consider what passes in this operation  
we shall soon be convinced  that a great
 deal must be lost in it1 and that we do
 not thereby obtain  near the whole of  
the ,regulus that the ,antimony is      
capable of yielding3  for1 #a4 the      
,regulus of ,antimony being a volatile  
substance1 much of it  must be          
dissipated during the detonation2 and so
 much the more as the  detonation is    
frequently repeated1 and continued for a
 considerable  time4 ,the flowers that  
may be collected by presenting cold     
bodies to  the smoke that rises in the  
operation1 and which may be reduced to a
  ,regulus by the addition of a         

phlogiston1 sufficiently prove what is  
here advanced4    #b4 ,all the ,sulphur 
of the ,antimony is not consumed by the 
,nitre on  this occasion2 and moreover1 
the ,acid of that part thereof which is 
burnt1 uniting with some of the ,alkali 
produced by the deflagration  of the    
,nitre and ,tartar1 forms a ,vitriolated
 ,tartar1 which meeting  with a         
sufficient quantity of phlogiston in the
 mixture produces new  ,sulphur4 ,now   
this ,sulphur1 whether not consumed1 or 
reproduced1 in the  operation1 combining
 with the ,alkali forms a ,liver of     
,sulphur2 and that  dissolves part of   
the ,regulus1 which by this means       
remains confounded  with the scoria4    
,the proof of this is1 that1 if the     
scoria be mixed  with filings of iron1  
and fused a second time1 you will find  
at the  bottom of the crucible a button 
of ,regulus1 which it contained1 and    
which is separated therefrom by the     
interposition of the ,iron4 ,we shall   
say more on this subject in the process 

for making the ,martial ,regulus1  which
 immediately follows this4 ,if1 instead 
of melting the scoria  with iron        
filings1 we pulverize it1 boil it in    
water1 and then pour  an acid into that 
water2 the liquor will instantly grow   
turbid1 and a  ,sulphureous ,precipitate
 will fall1 commonly called the ,golden 
,sulphur  of ,antimony2 which is nothing
 else but common ,sulphur still combined
  with some particles of the ,regulus2 a
 new proof of what we advanced          
concerning the production of ,liver of  
,sulphur in this operation4    ,as      
,regulus of ,antimony is of no great    
value1 the loss sustained in  this      
process is seldom regarded4 ,however1 we
 shall have occasion1 in  the sequel1 to
 point out a method of obtaining this   
,regulus with less  disadvantage4       
,,process ,,iii4    ,regulus of         
,antimony precipitated by ,metals4      
,put one part of small iron nails into a
 crucible1 and set it amidst  burning   
coals1 in a melting furnace4 ,when the  

iron is thoroughly  red-hot1 and begins 
to grow white1 add thereto little by    
little1 and at  several times1 two parts
 of crude ,antimony in powder4 ,the     
,antimony will  immediately flow and    
unite with the ,iron4 ,when the         
,antimony is entirely  melted1 add      
thereto1 at several times1 the fourth of
 its weight of  pulverized ,nitre3 a    
detonation will ensue1 and the whole    
mixture will  be in fusion4    ,after   
you have kept the matter in this        
condition for some minutes1 pour  it    
into an iron cone1 first heated and     
tallowed4 ,strike the sides of  the cone
 with a hammer1 that the ,regulus may   
fall to the bottom2 and1  when all is   
cold1 separate it from the scoria by a  
blow with a hammer4  ,melt this first   
,regulus again in another crucible1     
adding a fourth  part of its weight of  
crude ,antimony4 ,keep the crucible     
close shut1  and give no more heat than 
is necessary to melt the matter4 ,when  
it is  in perfect fusion1 add to it at  

several times1 as you did before1 the   
sixth part of its weight of pulverized  
,nitre2 and1 in half a quarter  of an   
hour after this1 pour the whole into a  
cone as you did the first  time4        
,lastly1 melt your ,regulus over again a
 third1 or even a fourth time1  always  
adding a little ,nitre1 which will      
detonate as before4 ,if after  all these
 fusions you pour the ,regulus into an  
iron cone1 you will find  it very       
beautiful1 and the star well formed3 it 
will be covered with a                  
semi-transparent1 lemon-coloured scoria4
 ,this scoria is extremely acrid  and   
caustic4      ,,observations4    ,though
 ,regulus of ,antimony unites very      
readily with ,sulphur1 and is  always   
found combined therewith in the earth1  
we must not thence  conclude that it    
hath a greater affinity than other      
substances with  that mineral3 on the   
contrary1 all the metals1 except ,gold1 
have a  greater affinity than this      
,semi-metal with ,sulphur4 ,hence it    

follows  that all the metals1 except    
,gold1 are capable of decomposing       
,antimony1  and separating the          
sulphureous part from the metalline2 so 
that1  instead of employing ,iron1 as in
 our process1 ,copper1 ,lead1 ,tin1 or  
,silver1 may be used1 and a ,regulus    
obtained by means thereof4    ,but as   
,iron is1 of all the metallic           
substances1 that which hath the         
greatest affinity with ,sulphur1 it is  
on this occasion preferred to  the rest4
 ,and from hence two advantages arise3  
the first is1 that the  operation is    
performed sooner and with greater ease3 
the second1 that  the ,regulus is purer1
 and contains less of the precipitating 
metal4 ,for  it is a general rule1 that1
 when one metallic substance is employed
  to precipitate another1 the           
precipitated substance is always a      
little  adulterated by the admixture of 
some particles of the precipitant4 ,now1
  the greater affinity the precipitant  
hath with the matter united to  that    

which is to be precipitated1 the less   
doth the precipitate retain  of the     
precipitant4    ,in this process the    
,iron melts very easily by means of the 
union it  contracts with the ,sulphur2  
which1 as we observed before1 hath the  
property of rendering this metal very   
fusible1 though of itself the  most     
refractory of all4    ,the scoria found 
on the ,regulus of the first fusion is a
 combination  of ,iron with the         
sulphureous part of the ,antimony4 ,this
 scoria is  extremely hard1 and not to  
be separated from the ,regulus without  
some  trouble4 ,the ,nitre added1 being 
alkalizated and united therewith1       
renders it a little softer1 and gives it
 the property of relenting in  the air4 
,any ,alkaline ,salt may be substituted 
for the ,nitre4    ,the ,nitre that is  
alkalizated in the operation1 or the    
,alkali that is  added1 procures        
moreover another advantage2 namely1     
that1 by uniting  with part of the      
,sulphur of the ,antimony1 it produces a

 ,liver of  ,sulphur1 which dissolves   
the ,iron1 retains it1 and hinders that 
which  is not yet combined with pure    
,sulphur from uniting so readily with   
the  ,regulus as it otherwise would do4 
,lastly1 the addition of ,nitre1 or an  
,alkali1 contributes greatly to  promote
 the fusion1 to render it more perfect1 
and to procure a more  complete         
precipitation of the ,regulus4    ,the  
second fusion which the ,regulus is made
 to undergo is intended to  purify it   
from any mixture of ,iron4 ,when the    
fresh ,antimony added on  that occasion 
comes to melt with the ,regulus1 the    
,sulphur contained  in the ,antimony    
joins with the ferruginous parts in the 
,regulus2 and  the ,iron becoming       
lighter by this union is thrown up to   
the surface  of the matter4 ,there it   
forms a sort of scoria1 with which a    
good  deal of ,antimony is mixed2 the   
,regulus not being wholly precipitated1 
because there is not ,iron enough in the
 mixture for that purpose4 ,the         

,salt-petre added here produces the same
 effect as in the first fusion4    ,but 
if1 on one hand1 the ,regulus           
precipitated in the first fusion be     
purified1 by this addition of fresh     
,antimony1 from most of the ,iron  with 
which it was alloyed2 on the other hand1
 this same ,regulus cannot  be kept from
 re-uniting with some sulphureous parts4
    ,in order therefore to separate it  
entirely from these1 it must be  melted 
over again once or twice more1 and a    
little ,nitre added each  time1 to      
consume them by deflagration4 ,but this 
cannot be done  without consuming also  
some of the very phlogiston which gives 
the  ,regulus its metalline form3 whence
 it comes to pass that part of the      
,regulus is converted to a calx1 which1 
by means of the alkalizated  ,nitre1 is 
turned into glass2 and it is this glass 
which mixing with  the scoria gives it  
the yellow colour observed therein4     
,this yellow  colour may also be in part
 produced by some ferruginous particles1

  of which a small quantity always      
remains combined with the ,regulus1     
notwithstanding its former depuration by
 ,antimony4    ,it is of no use to      
repeat the fusions of the ,regulus      
oftener than  is above proposed1 or to  
add fresh ,nitre with a view to consume 
the  ,sulphur it may still contain3 for 
after the second fusion it contains     
none at all1 and retains only the       
phlogiston necessary to give it the     
metalline form4 ,so that1 by prosecuting
 the matter further1 you would  only    
calcine and destroy the ,regulus to no  
manner of purpose4    ,from what hath   
been said it is plain that1 even by this
 process1  we do not obtain all the     
,regulus which our ,antimony is capable 
of  yielding2 seeing part of it is      
destroyed by the fusions it must        
necessarily undergo with ,nitre1 in     
order to its purification4 ,we shall    
give a process for obtaining from       
,antimony the greatest quantity of      
,regulus it can possibly be made to     

yield1 after we have treated of its     
,calcination1 which is in some sort the 
first step of that process4             
,,process ,,iv4    ,the ,calcination of 
,antimony4    ,take an unglazed earthen 
vessel1 wider at top than at bottom2 put
  into it two or three ounces of crude  
,antimony finely pulverized4 ,set  this 
vessel over a weak charcoal fire1 and   
increase the heat till you  see the     
,antimony begin to smoke a little4      
,continue the fire in this  degree1 and 
keep incessantly stirring the ,antimony 
with the shank of a  tobacco-pipe all   
the while it is upon the fire4    ,the  
powder of ,antimony1 which1 before      
calcination1 was of a brilliant  colour 
inclining to black1 will become dull1   
and look like an earth4  ,when it comes 
to have this appearance raise your fire 
till the vessel  be red-hot1 and keep it
 up in this degree till the matter cease
  entirely to smoke4                    
,,observations4    ,antimony1 as hath   
been already said1 is a sort of ore     

consisting of a  metalline or reguline  
part mineralized by ,sulphur4    ,the   
design of this calcination is1 by the   
action of fire1 to dissipate  the       
sulphureous part1 which is the most     
volatile1 in order to separate  it from 
the metalline part4 ,it is evidently a  
real torrefaction2 but  the operation is
 very difficult1 and requires a good    
deal of attention2  for ,antimony very  
easily melts1 while at the same time it 
is necessary  to our success that it do 
not melt2 because when the matter is in 
fusion the ,sulphur requires a much     
greater degree of heat to carry it  off4
 ,now1 as ,regulus of ,antimony itself  
is very volatile1 a good deal  of it    
would be dissipated along with the      
,sulphur1 if it were exposed to  the    
degree of heat necessary to carry off   
the ,sulphur when the mass is  melted4  
,therefore if it happen that the        
,antimony begin to melt during the      
calcination1 which is easily perceived  
by its running into clots1 it  must be  

taken off the fire1 and the clotted     
parts be again pulverized2  after which 
the calcination is to be prosecuted with
 a less degree of  heat4    ,when the   
,antimony has lost all its brightness1  
and is become like an  earth1 it is time
 to augment the degree of heat1 in order
 to complete  the calcination2 because  
the last portions of the ,sulphur are   
the  most difficult to raise4 ,moreover1
 the inconveniences just mentioned  are 
not now to be apprehended3 for1 as the  
great fusibility of the  reguline part  
is owing to the ,sulphur1 what remains1 
after you have  dissipated the greatest 
part of the ,sulphur1 is much less      
fusible2 and1  as the redundant ,sulphur
 of the ,antimony cannot be driven off1 
without  dissipating at the same time a 
good deal of the phlogiston necessary   
to metallize its ,regulus1 the matter   
that remains comes much nearer  to the  
nature of a calx1 than to that of a     
metalline substance2 and  consequently  
partakes of the nature of all metallic  

calces1 which is to  be very fixed4     
,antimony may also be calcined by mixing
 with that mineral an equal  quantity of
 charcoal-dust4 ,as charcoal is         
incapable of fusion1 it  prevents the   
,antimony from clotting1 as well as from
 losing so much of  its metallizing     
phlogiston as it otherwise would3 and   
hence it comes  to pass that the calx of
 ,antimony1 prepared in this manner1    
comes  nearer to the nature of a        
,regulus1 than that which is prepared   
without  addition4    ,if you happen to 
raise the fire too much1 in this        
calcination with  charcoal-dust1 the    
calx will be partly reduced to a        
,regulus1 by means  of the phlogiston   
which the charcoal furnishes2 and then  
the ,regulus  will be dissipated in     
vapours1 especially as this calx1 which 
comes  very near the nature of a        
,regulus1 is not so fixed as that       
prepared  without addition4 ,for this   
reason it always continues to smoke1    
even  when it contains no superfluous   

,sulphur3 and therefore you must not    
wait till it cease to smoke before you  
put an end to your calcination2  for you
 will lose a great deal of it in        
vapours4 ,it is time to stop  when the  
vapours that rise from it1 while it is  
moderately red1 do not  smell of burning
 ,sulphur4      ,,process ,v4    ,calx  
of ,antimony reduced to a ,regulus4     
,mix the calx of ,antimony1 which you   
intend to reduce1 with an equal         
quantity of black soap4 ,this mixture   
will make a thin paste4 ,put it  little 
by little into a crucible1 previously   
made red-hot amidst live  coals4 ,thus  
let the soap burn till it cease to emit 
any oily smoke4  ,then cover the        
crucible2 make the fire strong enough to
 melt the  matter1 and you will hear it 
effervesce and boil4 ,when this noise is
  over let the crucible cool1 and then  
break it3 you will find in it a         
beautiful scoria1 marked with circles of
 several colours2 and under  that a     
button of ,regulus1 which is not yet    

quite pure1 and must be  purified in the
 following manner4    ,pound this       
,regulus1 and mix it with half its      
weight of an antimonial  calx as        
perfectly desulphurated as possible4    
,put it into a crucible1  and cover it3 
melt the whole1 so that the surface of  
the melted matter  may be smooth and    
uniform4 ,let the crucible cool1 and    
then break it3  you will find in it a   
beautiful button of very pure ,regulus1 
covered  with a scoria having the       
appearance of an opaque glass1 or a kind
 of  greyish enamel1 moulded on the     
finely radiated surface of the ,regulus4
      ,,observations4    ,of all the    
metalline calces that of ,antimony is   
most easily reduced4  ,any matter that  
contains the phlogiston1 even           
charcoal-dust alone1 is  sufficient to  
procure it the form of a ,regulus1      
without the addition of  any thing to   
facilitate its fusion2 because this     
calx1 which is not of  itself altogether
 refractory1 becomes still more fusible 

as it combines  with the phlogiston1 and
 approaches to the reguline state4      
,though all inflammable matters are     
capable of procuring the reduction  of  
the calx of ,antimony1 yet there are    
some with which the operation  succeeds 
better1 and produces a greater quantity 
of ,regulus1 than it  does with others4 
,fatty matters1 joined with ,alkalis1   
are those which  answer best in this    
reduction1 as they do in most others4   
,the black  flux1 for instance1 is very 
proper for this purpose3 but ,mr4       
,geoffroy1  who made many experiments on
 ,antimony1 found by repeated trials    
that  black soap is still fitter for it1
 and that a greater quantity of         
,regulus was obtained by its means1 than
 by any other reducing flux  whatever4  
,the process here given is taken from   
one of the ,memoirs on  this subject1   
which he laid before the ,academy of    
,sciences4    ,black soap is made of the
 lye of a ,fixed ,alkali1 such as potash
  for instance1 with quick-lime1        

incorporated by boiling with oil of     
lint-seed1 rape-seed1 or hemp-seed1 and 
sometimes also with animal fat4  ,the   
oily matters1 contained in this reducing
 flux1 are first burnt and  charred to a
 coal in the crucible4 ,as soon as they 
are brought to this  state1 the crucible
 is covered1 and the fire is increased1 
till the  matters melt4 ,at that instant
 the reduction begins to take place2 and
  the bubbling noise observed is an     
effect thereof4    ,the ,regulus        
obtained by this first fusion is not yet
 very pure1  being adulterated with the 
mixture of some unmetallic earth that   
was  contained in the ,antimony1 and    
with a portion of the calcarious earth  
of the soap4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy found    
that his ,regulus was contaminated with 
this  substance1 by putting it into     
water3 for on that occasion he observed 
a very brisk ebullition about the       
reguline buttons1 which sometimes       
lasted above four and twenty hours2 and 
on examining them with a glass1  he     

discovered some little holes1           
imperceptible to the naked eye1  through
 which the water entered1 to unite with 
the lime retained in the  internal parts
 of the ,regulus1 which having been     
recalcined in the  operation required to
 be slaked4    ,this ,regulus may be    
purified by simple fusion1 without any  
additament1  because the particles of   
lime1 being lighter than those of the   
,regulus1  will be thrown up to the     
surface1 on which they will form a sort 
of  scoria4 ,but ,mr4 ,geoffroy took    
notice that1 in this case1 the surface  
of the ,regulus is never very neat2 that
 it is always sullied with a  very      
adhesive scoria1 and that no star is    
formed upon it4 ,besides1  the ,regulus 
must be kept a long while in very thin  
fusion1 that the  heterogeneous matters1
 which hinder the perfect re-union of   
its parts1  may have time to rise to the
 surface by their lightness4 ,but the   
longer  the ,regulus is kept in fusion1 
the more of it evaporates1 because of   

its volatility4 ,he was therefore       
obliged to have recourse to other       
means4    ,we have in the process       
described the method which succeeded    
best with  ,mr4 ,geoffroy4 ,it consists 
in melting the ,regulus over again1 with
 the  addition of a little fresh calx of
 ,antimony thoroughly freed from  its   
,sulphur4 ,this calx being in its nature
 easily vitrifiable1 and  combining with
 the earthy parts that deprave the      
,regulus1 and which  cannot be vitrified
 without addition1 scorifies these      
matters1 and with  them forms the opaque
 glass1 or kind of enamel which is found
 over the  ,regulus purified in this    
manner4    ,the star on that part of the
 ,regulus of ,antimony1 which was       
contiguous  to the scoria1 is a mark of 
its purity1 and a proof that the        
operation  was well performed4 ,this    
star is nothing but a particular        
disposition  of the parts of the        
,antimony1 which have the property of   
running  naturally into facets and      

needles4 ,the perfect fusion1 both of   
the  ,regulus and the scoria that covers
 it1 leaves the parts of the ,regulus   
at liberty to range themselves in this  
order4 ,this disposition appears  not   
only on the upper surface of the        
,regulus1 but1 if you break the  button1
 you find the same in its internal      
parts4 ,there are some round  pyrites   
whose insides have nearly the same      
appearance1 and seem to  consist of rays
 issuing from a common center4    ,the  
quantity of ,regulus obtained by ,mr4   
,geoffroy's process is more than  double
 of what is procured in the common way1 
which yields but about  four ounces in  
the pound2 whereas this gives from eight
 to ten ounces4    ,when ,antimony is   
calcined with charcoal-dust1 what       
remains after the  dissipation of all   
the ,sulphur is not1 properly speaking1 
a calx of  ,antimony2 but a sort of     
,regulus quite formed1 and differing    
from the  common ,regulus only in that  
its parts are disunited1 and not        

collected  into a mass4 ,for if this    
pretended calx of ,antimony be melted1  
it  directly coalesces into a ,regulus1 
without the addition of any  inflammable
 matter fit to procure its reduction4   
,indeed less ,regulus is  obtained by   
this means than when a reductive is     
added3 but nevertheless  this experiment
 still proves what ,i advanced2 seeing  
,regulus of  ,antimony cannot be melted 
without losing more or less thereof1    
either  because some of it is dissipated
 in vapours1 or because part of it      
loses its phlogiston in the fusion1 and 
so is converted into a calx4            
,,process ,,vi4    ,antimony calcined   
with ,nitre4 ,liver of ,antimony4       
,crocus ,metallorum4    ,pulverize and  
mix perfectly together equal parts of   
,nitre and ,antimony3  put the mixture  
into an iron mortar1 and cover it with a
 tile1 which  however must not shut it  
quite close4 ,with a live coal set fire 
to the  matter in the mortar1 and       
immediately withdraw it4 ,the mixture   

will  flame1 with great detonation2     
which being over1 and the mortar cooled1
  invert it1 and strike its bottom to   
make all the matter fall out4 ,then1  by
 a blow with a hammer1 separate the     
scoria from the shining part1  which is 
the ,liver of ,antimony4                
,,observations4    ,in this operation   
the ,nitre takes fire and detonates with
 the ,sulphur  of the ,antimony2 and    
nothing remains but the metallic earth  
of the  mineral1 which1 meeting with no 
substance to restore its phlogiston1    
cannot take the form of a ,regulus2 but1
 being combined with a large  quantity  
of fused saline matters1 begins itself  
to flow1 and forms a  sort of           
vitrification2 which1 however1 is not a 
complete one1 because  the matters do   
not continue long enough in fusion1 but 
cool too soon4  ,this preparation of    
,antimony is a violent ,emetic4 ,it is  
used to make  ,emetic ,wine and ,tartar 
,emetic3 it is also given in substance  
to horses4    ,the saline matters found 

after the operation in the form of a    
scoria1  or perhaps confounded with the 
,liver of ,antimony1 are combinations   
of ,fixed ,nitre1 partly with the ,acid 
of the burnt ,sulphur1 forming a        
,neutral ,salt of the same kind as      
,vitriolated ,tartar1 and partly with   
some unburnt ,sulphur1 forming a sort of
 ,liver of ,sulphur that contains  a    
little ,regulus4 ,it is usual to        
pulverize this ,liver of ,antimony and  
wash it with water1 in order to dissolve
 and carry off all the ,salts4  ,when   
thus pulverized and washed it is called 
,crocus ,metallorum4 ,if  ,liver of     
,antimony be melted with any inflammable
 matter1 it will be  reduced to a       
,regulus2 because it is nothing but a   
metalline calx half  vitrified4         
,,process ,,vii4    ,another            
,calcination of ,antimony with ,nitre4  
,diaphoretic ,antimony4  ,materia       
,perlata4 ,clyssus of ,antimony4    ,mix
 one part of ,antimony with three parts 
of ,nitre2 project this  mixture by     

spoonfuls into a crucible kept red-hot  
in a furnace4 ,each  projection will be 
attended with a detonation4 ,continue   
doing this till  you have used all your 
mixture3 then raise the fire1 and keep  
it up  for two hours2 after which throw 
your matter into a pan full of hot      
water4 ,let it lie steeping in water    
kept hot for a whole day4 ,then pour    
off the liquor3 wash the white powder   
you find at bottom in warm water2  and  
repeat the ablutions till the powder    
become insipid4 ,dry it1 and  you have  
,diaphoretic ,antimony4                 
,,observations4    ,this operation      
differs from the preceding one1 in      
respect of the  quantity of ,nitre      
deflagrated with the ,antimony4 ,in the 
former we added  one part only of ,nitre
 to one part of ,antimony2 but in this  
three parts  of ,nitre are put to one of
 the mineral2 and the calx resulting    
from  this mixture is of course very    
different from the other4    ,in the    
first place1 ,liver of ,antimony hath a 

reddish colour2 whereas  ,diaphoretic   
,antimony is very white4 ,secondly1     
,liver of ,antimony is in a  manner half
 vitrified2 ,diaphoretic ,antimony is1  
on the contrary1 in the  form of a      
powder1 the parts of which have no      
connection together4    ,the reason of  
these differences will easily appear1 if
 we consider1  that1 ,liver of ,antimony
 being the result of calcination with   
one part  of the ,nitre only1 which is  
not sufficient to consume all the       
,sulphur  of the mineral1 what remains  
after the detonation is not entirely    
deprived of its phlogiston2 from whence 
arise the colour it retains and  the    
ease with which it flows in the fire3   
but that1 when three parts of  ,nitre   
are added instead of one1 this quantity 
is not only sufficient to  consume all  
the ,sulphur and the phlogiston of the  
,antimony1 but even  more than enough2  
seeing that1 after the operation1 some  
,nitre is still  found undecomposed4    
,the calx of ,antimony1 prepared by     

calcining it with three parts of        
,nitre1 is therefore deprived of all its
 phlogiston4 ,this is the cause  of its 
whiteness1 and the reason why it is not 
half vitrified by  the operation1 as    
,liver of ,antimony is3 for we know that
 the more a  metallic calx is deprived  
of its phlogiston1 the less fusible and 
the less vitrifiable it is4 ,this calx  
of ,antimony bears the name of          
,diaphoretic ,antimony1 or ,diaphoretic 
,mineral3 because1 being  neither emetic
 nor purgative1 it is thought to have   
the virtue of  promoting perspiration4  
,antimony may be calcined with various  
proportions of ,nitre1 between  that    
used to make ,liver of ,antimony1 and   
this with which ,diaphoretic  ,antimony 
is prepared2 and from these calcinations
 will result calces  possessed of       
properties both chymical and medical1 of
 an intermediate  nature between the    
extremes of those two preparations4 ,the
 nearer  the proportion of ,nitre comes 
to that employed in preparing ,liver of 

,antimony1 the more will the resulting  
calx resemble that preparation2  and in 
the same manner1 a calx prepared with a 
greater proportion of  ,nitre will so   
much the more resemble ,diaphoretic     
,antimony1 as the  proportion of ,nitre 
used comes nearer three parts of ,nitre 
for one of  ,antimony4    ,it is not    
necessary that ,antimony in substance be
 employed to make the  ,diaphoretic     
,mineral3 you may1 if you please1 make  
use of its ,regulus4  ,but as the       
,regulus contains no ,sulphur1 nor any  
more phlogiston than  is requisite to   
secure its metalline form1 it is        
needless to put three  parts of ,nitre  
to one of ,regulus2 an equal quantity   
thereof being  sufficient4    ,the      
matter is projected by spoonfuls1 to the
 end that1 by gradual and  repeated     
detonations1 the ,antimony may be more  
perfectly calcined3  it is also with a  
view to destroy entirely the small      
remainder of  phlogiston1 which may have
 escaped the action of the ,nitre1 that 

the  matter is kept red-hot in the      
crucible for two hours4    ,the whole is
 afterwards thrown into hot water1 and  
left steeping  therein for several      
hours1 with design to give the water    
time to  dissolve all the saline matters
 that are mixed with the ,diaphoretic   
,calx4 ,when crude ,antimony is used in 
making this preparation1 these  saline  
matters are1 #a4 an ,alkalizated ,nitre2
 #b4 a ,neutral ,salt formed  by the    
union of the ,acid of ,sulphur with part
 of that ,alkali1 as in the  preparation
 of ,liver of ,antimony2 #c4 a portion  
of undecomposed ,nitre4    ,the water in
 which the ,diaphoretic is washed takes 
up moreover a  portion of the calx of   
,antimony1 which is exceeding finely    
attenuated1  and continues united with  
the fixed ,nitre1 and suspended         
therewith in  the liquor4 ,this matter  
is to be separated from the ,fixed      
,nitre1 by  mixing the water wherein it 
is dissolved with an ,acid1 which unites
  with the ,alkali1 and precipitates    

this matter in the form of a white      
powder1 to which the name of ,materia   
,perlata hath been given4  ,because it  
is precipitated in the same manner as   
the ,golden ,sulphur of  ,antimony1 and1
 like that1 is found in the water with  
which the saline  matters are washed    
out1 after the detonation of ,nitre with
 ,antimony1  some ,chymists have given  
it1 though very improperly1 the name of 
the  ,fixed ,sulphur of ,antimony4      
,this matter is a true ,calx of         
,antimony1 and differs from ,diaphoretic
  ,antimony in nothing but its being    
still more perfectly calcined4 ,it  is  
so indeed to such a degree that it is   
impossible to restore its  metalline    
form1 or reduce it to a ,regulus1 by the
 addition of an  inflammable matter4    
,diaphoretic ,antimony1 on the contrary1
 may be  re-metallized1 by supplying it 
with phlogiston3 but it must be observed
  that1 in whatever manner you go about 
this1 you will obtain a much  smaller   
quantity of ,regulus1 than when you use 

a ,calx of ,antimony  prepared with a   
smaller quantity of ,nitre4    ,if you  
attempt to reduce either ,liver of      
,antimony or ,diaphoretic  ,antimony1   
great care must be taken to wash them   
thoroughly1 in order  to free them from 
every thing saline3 for1 without this   
precaution1  the ,acid of the ,sulphur1 
having1 as was observed1 formed a       
,neutral  ,salt with the ,alkali of the 
,nitre1 will combine with the           
inflammable  matter added to revivify   
the calx of ,antimony and reproduce a   
,sulphur2  which1 uniting afterwards    
with the same ,alkali1 will produce a   
,liver  of ,sulphur1 that will dissolve 
part of the ,regulus1 hinder its        
precipitation1 and greatly lessen the   
quantity which might otherwise be       
expected4    ,a particular sort of      
,diaphoretic ,antimony is sometimes     
prepared for  ,medical uses1 which hath 
a purgative quality3 it is not washed at
 all1  and is therefore called ,unwashed
 ,diaphoretic ,mineral4    ,diaphoretic 

,antimony may also be prepared in close 
vessels1 by means  of which the vapours 
that rise during the operation are      
retained4  ,for this purpose a tubulated
 retort is employed1 having a series of 
adopters fitted to it4 ,the retort is   
placed in a furnace1 and heated  till   
its bottom become red3 then a very small
 quantity of the mixture1  for making   
,diaphoretic ,antimony1 is introduced   
through the tube in  the upper part of  
the retort1 and the tube immediately    
stopped4 ,a  detonation ensues1 and the 
vapours expand themselves into the      
adopters1  where they condense4 ,this is
 repeated till the intended quantity of 
matter be used4 ,after the operation    
some white flowers are found  sublimed  
in the neck of the retort1 and a small  
quantity of liquor in  the recipients4  
,this liquor is acid4 ,it consists of   
some of the ,acid  of the ,nitre1 which 
the ,acid of the ,sulphur hath expelled 
from its  basis1 and also a little of   
the ,acid of the ,sulphur carried up by 

the  heat before it could combine with  
the basis of the ,nitre4 ,this liquor   
is called ,clyssus of ,antimony4 ,the   
name of ,clyssus is given to all        
liquors in general that are prepared by 
this method4    ,the white flowers found
 in the neck of the retort are flowers  
of  ,antimony2 that is1 a calx of       
,antimony forced up by the heat1 and by 
the  impetus of the detonation4 ,these  
flowers may be reduced to a ,regulus4   
,what remains in the retort is the same 
with the matter that remains  in the    
crucible1 wherein the mixture of ,nitre 
and ,antimony for making  ,diaphoretic  
,antimony hath been deflagrated4        
,neither ,diaphoretic ,antimony nor the 
,pearly matter are soluble in any       
,acid4      ,,process ,,viii4    ,calx  
of ,antimony ,vitrified4    ,take any   
quantity you please of calx of          
,antimony1 made without  addition2 put  
it into a good crucible1 which set in a 
melting furnace3  kindle the fire       
gradually1 and leave the crucible       

uncovered at the  beginning4    ,a      
quarter of an hour after the matter is  
red-hot1 cover the crucible1  and excite
 the fire vigorously till the calx melt4
 ,you may know when it  is thoroughly   
melted1 by dipping into the crucible an 
iron wire1 to the  end of which a little
 knob of glass will adhere1 if the      
matter be in  perfect fusion4 ,keep it  
in fusion for a quarter of an hour1 or  
rather  longer if your crucible can bear
 it4 ,then take it out of the furnace1  
and immediately pour out the melted     
matter on a smooth stone1 made very  hot
 for the purpose3 it will presently fix 
into a yellow ,glass4                   
,,observations4    ,all the calces of   
,antimony1 when exposed to a violent    
fire1 are  converted into ,glass2 but   
not all with the same facility4 ,in     
general1  the more of their phlogiston  
they have lost in the calcination1 the  
more difficult is their vitrification4  
,this causes also a difference in  the  
colour of the ,glass2 which will be of  

so much a deeper yellow1 and  the nearer
 to a red1 the less the ,antimony was   
calcined4    ,it frequently happens1    
when we employ a calx of ,antimony which
 is not  sufficiently deprived of its   
phlogiston1 that we find in the crucible
 a  button of ,regulus1 which1 being    
heavier than the ,glass1 always lies at 
the bottom4 ,with a view to avoid this  
inconvenience1 and to dissipate         
completely the excess of phlogiston that
 may still be left in the calx  of      
,antimony1 we direct the crucible to be 
left uncovered for some time1  at the   
beginning of the operation4 ,if1        
notwithstanding this precaution1  any   
,regulus be still found at the bottom of
 the crucible1 and you  resolve to      
vitrify it1 the crucible must be        
returned to the furnace1  and the fusion
 continued2 by which means the ,regulus 
will at last be  converted into ,glass4 
,if1 on the contrary1 you meet with any 
difficulty in effecting the             
vitrification1 on account of your having

 employed a calx that hath lost  too    
much of its phlogiston1 such as         
,diaphoretic ,antimony1 or the ,pearly  
matter1 the fusion may be greatly       
facilitated by throwing into the        
crucible a little crude ,antimony4      
,glass of ,antimony is a most violent   
emetic4 ,this ,glass1 as well as  ,liver
 of ,antimony1 is employed in preparing 
,emetic ,wine and ,emetic  ,tartar4     
,it may be resuscitated1 like the calces
 of ,antimony1 into a ,regulus1  by     
re-uniting it with a phlogiston4 ,for   
this purpose it must be  finely         
pulverized1 thoroughly mixed with some  
black flux1 and melted  in a covered    
crucible4 ,this ,glass1 as well as that 
of ,lead1 hath the  property of greatly 
promoting the vitrification of matters  
that are to  be scorified4              
,,process ,,ix4    ,kermes ,mineral4    
,break any quantity you will of         
,hungarian ,antimony into little bits3  
put it into a good earthen coffee-pot3  
pour on it twice its weight of          

rain-water1 and a fourth part of its    
weight of well filtered liquor  of      
,nitre fixed by charcoal4 ,boil the     
whole briskly for two hours1 and  then  
filter the liquor4 ,as it cools it will 
acquire a red colour1 grow  turbid1 and 
leave a red powder on the filter4       
,return your ,antimony into the         
coffee-pot4 ,pour on it as much         
rain-water  as before1 and three fourths
 of the former quantity of the liquor of
  ,fixed ,nitre4 ,boil it again for two 
hours1 and then filter the liquor4  ,it 
will again deposite a red sediment4     
,return your ,antimony into the         
coffee-pot3 pour on it the same quantity
 of rain-water1 and half the  first     
quantity of the liquor of ,fixed ,nitre4
 ,boil it again for two  hours1 and then
 filter the liquor as formerly4 ,wash   
all these sediments  with warm water1   
till they become insipid2 then dry them1
 and you have  the ,kermes ,mineral4    
,,observations4    ,if you recollect    
what we said concerning the property    

which ,fixed  ,alkalis possess of       
uniting with ,sulphur1 both by fusion1  
and1 when  those ,salts are resolved    
into a liquor1 by boiling1 and of       
forming  therewith a ,liver of ,sulphur1
 which dissolves all metalline          
substances1  you will readily comprehend
 the nature of this ,kermes4            
,antimony consists of a sulphureous and 
a reguline part4 ,therefore1  if this   
mineral be boiled in a solution of a    
,fixed ,alkali1 such as  ,nitre fixed by
 charcoal1 the ,alkali will dissolve the
 ,sulphur of the  ,antimony1 and form   
therewith a ,liver of ,sulphur1 which1  
in its turn1  will dissolve the reguline
 part4 ,now1 ,kermes ,mineral1 prepared 
as above  directed1 is no other than a  
,liver of ,sulphur combined with a      
certain  quantity of ,regulus of        
,antimony4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy hath set   
this truth in the clearest light1 by his
  accurate analysis of the ,kermes      
,mineral4 ,the experiments he made on   
that subject are circumstantially       

related in several ,memoirs printed  in 
the volumes of the ,academy for #agcd   
and #agce4 ,by combining ,acids  with   
the ,kermes he demonstrated1 #a4 the    
existence of ,sulphur in this  compound2
 having separated from it a burning     
,sulphur1 which cannot  be mistaken for 
any other than the ,sulphur of          
,antimony4 ,in order to  obtain this    
,sulphur pure1 an ,acid must be employed
 that will not only  absorb the ,alkali1
 but also perfectly dissolve the        
reguline part that  might otherwise     
remain united with the ,sulphur4 ,aqua  
regia was the  ,acid which succeeded    
best with ,mr4 ,geoffroy4 #b4 ,he also  
proved that  there is a ,fixed ,alkali  
in the composition of the ,kermes2      
seeing the  ,acids with which he        
precipitated the ,sulphur became        
,neutral ,salts1 and  just such as those
 very ,acids combined with a ,fixed     
,alkali would have  constituted3 that   
is1 the ,vitriolic ,acid produced a ,sal
 de duobus2  the ,nitrous ,acid a       

regenerated ,nitre2 and the ,marine     
,acid a regenerated  ,sea-salt4 #c4 ,mr4
 ,geoffroy demonstrated the reguline    
part of ,antimony  to be an ingredient  
in the ,kermes2 having procured         
therefrom an actual  ,regulus of        
,antimony1 by fusing it with the black  
flux4    ,in preparing the ,kermes it is
 necessary to renew the liquor from time
  to time1 as above directed2 because1  
when it is once impregnated with        
,kermes to a certain degree1 it can take
 up no more2 and consequently  the same 
liquor cannot operate again on the      
,antimony4 ,experience hath  shewn1     
that1 if the doses above prescribed be  
applied1 the liquor will  after two     
hours boiling be sufficiently saturated 
with ,kermes4    ,if the liquor in which
 the ,kermes is dissolved be filtered   
while it  is very hot1 and almost       
boiling1 it leaves nothing on the       
filter2 the  ,kermes passing through    
with it3 but as it cools it grows       
turbid1 and  gradually deposites the    

,kermes4 ,therefore it ought not to be  
filtered  till it be cold2 or1 if it be 
filtered while it is boiling hot1 in    
order to separate from it some coarse   
particles of ,antimony not yet          
converted into ,kermes1 it must be      
filtered a second time when it is  cold1
 in order to get the ,kermes4    ,though
 in the method usually practised for    
making ,kermes1 the ,antimony  is boiled
 only thrice1 yet it does not follow    
that more ,kermes may not  be obtained  
from it1 or that but little more would  
be obtained by a  fourth and fifth      
boiling2 on the contrary1 it would yield
 considerably  more4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy     
observed1 that he got more ,kermes by   
the second  boiling than by the first1  
and still more by the third than by the 
second2 and that the yield goes on      
increasing in this manner to a very     
great number of times1 which he hath not
 determined4 ,this increased  effect    
arises from hence1 that by multiplying  
the frictions of the  little bits of    

,antimony against each other1 new       
surfaces are exposed to  the action of  
the ,alkaline liquor1 and furnish it    
with more ,sulphur2  while the addition 
of this sulphur renders the hepar more  
active and  more penetrating2 or1 if you
 please1 produces a new hepar every time
  the matters are boiled4 ,when the     
,alkaline liquor is once saturated  with
 ,kermes1 it ceases to act1 and forms no
 new hepar2 but it does  not follow that
 its virtue is quite exhausted4 ,to     
restore its ability  of acting as well  
as at first1 or nearly so1 you need only
 let it  cool1 and deposite the ,kermes 
dissolved in it4 ,we owe this singular  
observation also to ,mr4 ,geoffroy3 he  
had the patience to go through no  less 
than threescore and ten boilings with   
the same liquor1 without  adding any    
thing but rain water1 to supply the     
place of what was  dissipated by        
evaporation3 and he always obtained a   
pretty considerable  quantity of ,kermes
 by each boiling1 for the reason given  

above4    ,boiling is not the only means
 of making ,kermes4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy found
 the  way of making it by fusion4 ,for  
this purpose you must mix accurately    
one part of very pure ,fixed ,alkali1   
dried and pulverized1 with two  parts of
 ,hungarian ,antimony also pulverized1  
and melt the mixture4  ,mr4 ,geoffroy   
made use of a retort4 ,when the mass is 
melted1 it must  again be pulverized1   
while it is still hot1 and then put     
into1 and  kept in1 boiling hot water   
for an hour or two2 after which the     
liquor1  now become saline and          
antimonial1 must be filtered into       
another vessel  filled with boiling     
water4 ,every ounce of ,antimony treated
 in this  manner yields1 by thrice      
boiling the melted mass1 from six drams 
to  six drams and a half of ,kermes2    
which differs from the ,kermes made by  
boiling1 only in that it is not quite so
 soft to the touch1 having in  every    
other respect the same qualities4    ,as
 ,liver of ,sulphur is made two         

different ways1 to wit1 by boiling and  
by fusion1 and as the ,kermes is nothing
 but a ,liver of ,sulphur in which  the 
reguline part is dissolved2 it follows  
that ,kermes may be made by  fusion as  
well as by boiling4 ,it is necessary to 
pulverize the melted  mass1 and to steep
 it in boiling hot water for an hour or 
two1 that the  water may dissolve and   
divide it sufficiently to make the      
,kermes fine  and beautiful4    ,with   
the same view1 that is1 to make it finer
 and more perfect1 ,mr4  ,geoffroy      
orders the water saturated with the     
,kermes made by fusion1  to be received1
 when filtered1 in a vessel full of     
other boiling hot  water4 ,he observed1 
that when the liquor impregnated with   
,kermes cools  too fast1 the ,kermes    
that precipitates is much coarser4 ,the 
warm  solution of ,kermes is diffused   
through the boiling-hot water into which
  it is filtered1 and is thereby enabled
 to retain its heat so much the  longer4
    ,from what hath been said on the    

nature of ,kermes1 it plainly appears   
that there must be a great resemblance  
between it and the ,golden  ,sulphur of 
,antimony1 obtained from the scoria1    
either of plain ,regulus  of ,antimony1 
or of the ,liver of ,antimony2 this     
,golden ,sulphur being  no other than a 
portion of the ,antimony combined with  
the ,nitre  alkalizated during the      
operation4    ,yet there is a difference
 in the manner of precipitating these   
two  compounds3 for the ,kermes         
precipitates spontaneously1 on the bare 
cooling of the water in which it is     
dissolved2 whereas an ,acid is  employed
 to precipitate the ,golden ,sulphur    
suspended in the water1 with  which the 
scoria of the plain ,regulus of         
,antimony1 or that of ,liver of         
,antimony1 hath been washed4 ,this gives
 some ground to suspect that the        
reguline part is not so intimately      
united with the ,liver of ,sulphur in   
the ,kermes1 as in the scori from which 
the ,golden ,sulphur is obtained4       

,,process ,x4    ,regulus of ,antimony  
dissolved in the ,mineral ,acids4       
,compound an aqua regis by mixing       
together four measures of ,spirit of    
,nitre1 and one measure of ,spirit of   
,salt3 on a sand-bath moderately  heated
 place a matrass1 into which pour       
sixteen times as much of this  aqua     
regis as you have ,regulus to dissolve4 
,break your ,regulus  into little bits2 
and throw them successively one after   
another into  the matrass1 observing not
 to add a new one till that put in      
before  is entirely dissolved3 continue 
this till your ,regulus be all used4    
,by degrees1 as the dissolution         
advances1 the liquor will acquire a     
beautiful golden colour2 which1 however1
 will insensibly disappear1 as  the     
white fumes that continually ascend from
 it evaporate4      ,,observations4     
,regulus of ,antimony is one of those   
metalline substances that dissolve  with
 the greatest difficulty4 ,not but that 
most of the ,acids attack  and corrode  

it2 but they do not make a clear1 limpid
 solution thereof3  they in some sort   
only calcine it1 and this semi-metal1 as
 fast as  it dissolves1 precipitates of 
its own accord in the form of a white   
magistery4 ,in order to effect a        
complete dissolution thereof1 it is     
necessary to employ an aqua regis       
compounded as directed1 and in  the dose
 prescribed in the process1 which is    
wholly taken from ,mr4  ,geoffroy's     
,memoirs on ,antimony mentioned above4  
,if1 instead of the ,regulus1 small bits
 of crude ,antimony be thrown into  the 
aqua regis1 the ,acid will attack and   
dissolve the reguline part1  and so     
separate it from the sulphureous part   
which it will not touch4  ,when the     
dissolution is finished1 the particles  
of ,sulphur being now  become lighter1  
because no longer united with the       
metalline part1 will  float upon the    
liquor4 ,being collected they form a    
true ,sulphur1 which  seems no way      
different from common brimstone4 ,this  

operation1 you see1  is a sort of       
,parting ,process4    ,the ,vitriolic   
,acid1 whether concentrated or much     
weakened with water1  does not act when 
cold either on ,antimony or on its      
,regulus4 ,this ,acid  only dims the    
splendour of the facets of the ,regulus2
 but if one part  of exceeding pure     
,regulus of ,antimony be put into a     
retort1 and four  parts of clear        
concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol poured on 
it1 as soon as the  ,acid is heated it  
turns brown1 and emits a most           
suffocating smell of  ,sulphur1 which   
increases as the ,regulus is penetrated 
and corroded by  the ,acid4    ,on      
raising the fire1 there separates from  
it a matter that seems  mucilaginous2   
and when the ,acid hath boiled some     
time1 the ,regulus is  converted into a 
white saline mass1 as ,mercury is in the
 preparation of  ,turbith mineral4 ,at  
the same time a little ,sulphur sublimes
 into the  neck of the retort4 ,at last 
all the ,oil of ,vitriol passes over    

into the  receiver1 and leaves the      
,regulus in a white1 spungy1 saline mass
 in the  retort4 ,when the fire is out1 
the vessels unluted1 and the receiver   
separated from the retort1 there rises a
 white vapour like that of the  smoking 
liquor of ,libavius4    ,the saline mass
 left in the retort1 after the          
operation1 is found  increased to near  
double its weight3 this increased weight
 is owing to  the ,acid that hath united
 with the ,regulus4    ,this combination
 of the ,vitriolic ,acid with the       
,regulus of ,antimony  is excessively   
caustic1 and cannot1 for that reason1 be
 administered  internally4    ,the      
purest ,spirit of ,salt hath no sensible
 effect either on ,antimony  or its     
,regulus3 but if ,antimony be coarsely  
pounded1 it separates  therefrom1 though
 slowly1 some light1 sulphureous flakes4
    ,the action of ,spirit of ,nitre on 
this metallic substance is more         
perceptible3 by little and little it    
attacks the plates of the  ,antimony1   

which discharge a great number of       
air-bubbles4 ,as the  dissolution       
advances1 the ,acid acquires a greenish 
colour inclining to  blue2 and if there 
be not too much of it1 it will be almost
 entirely  imbibed by the ,antimony1    
penetrate between its lamin1 and        
exfoliate  them in the direction of the 
needles that compose them4 ,if there be 
too much of the ,acid1 that is1 if it   
rise above the ,antimony1 it will       
destroy these plates1 and reduce them to
 a white powder4    ,but when the ,acid 
is imbibed slowly1 we discover between  
the swelled  lamin little saline        
transparent crystals1 that vegetate much
 in the  same manner as those of the    
pyrites1 in which small crystals of     
,vitriol  are frequently observed1 whose
 figures are not very well determined4  
,these little crystals between the      
,antimonial plates are intermixed with  
yellow particles1 which being carefully 
separated burn like common  ,sulphur4   
,all these useful observations1         

concerning the action of the ,acids on  
,antimony and its ,regulus1 we owe      
likewise to ,mr4 ,geoffroy2 who advises 
the collecting a quantity of these      
little crystals in time2 because  they  
disappear soon after they are formed1   
being probably covered by  the white    
powder1 or magistery1 which is          
continually produced as fast  as the    
,nitrous ,acid disunites and separates  
the needle-like fibres of  the          
,antimony4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy observed   
the same sort of crystals on the        
,regulus of  ,antimony1 when substituted
 for crude ,antimony in this experiment2
  but it requires a great deal of care  
to separate these crystals2  for as soon
 as the air comes into contact with them
 they lose their  transparency2 and if  
you wait till the ,regulus be in some   
measure  converted into a magistery1    
they are not then to be distinguished4  
,in order therefore to have a good view 
of these crystals1 the ,regulus  must be
 broken to pieces2 these pieces put in a

 glass bason1 and ,spirit  of ,nitre    
poured on them to half their heighth1   
but not to cover them4  ,this ,acid     
penetrates them1 exfoliates them in     
white scales2 and on the  surface of    
these scales the crystals shoot of a    
dead white colour4 ,in  two or three    
days time these crystals vegetate and   
grow in the form  of cauli-flowers3 they
 must then be gathered1 to prevent their
 being  confounded in the white         
magistery which continues to be         
produced1  and would not suffer them to 
be distinguished4 ,if you attempt to    
dissolve the reguline part of ,antimony 
by an aqua regis compounded  in         
different proportions1 and applied in a 
different dose from what  is prescribed 
in the process1 the ,regulus of         
,antimony will only be  calcined1 as it 
is by the other ,acids1 and will        
precipitate in the form  of a white     
magistery as fast as it dissolves1 so   
that no part thereof  will remain united
 with the solvent4 ,the proof of this   

is1 that if an  alkaline liquor be      
poured1 even to the point of saturation1
 upon the  aqua regis that hath thus    
dropt the ,antimony1 no new precipitate 
will  be deposited4      ,,process ,,xi4
    ,regulus of ,antimony combined with 
the ,acid of ,sea-salt4 ,butter of      
,antimony4 ,cinabar of ,antimony4       
,pulverize and mix thoroughly six parts 
of ,regulus of ,antimony1 and  sixteen  
parts of ,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,put    
this mixture into a glass  retort that  
hath a wide short neck1 and let one half
 of its body at  least be left empty4   
,set it in a reverberatory furnace1 and 
having  fitted a recipient thereto1 and 
luted the joint1 make a very small fire 
at first1 to heat it slowly4 ,increase  
it afterwards by degrees1 till  you see 
a liquor ascend from the retort that    
grows thick as it cools4  ,keep up the  
fire to this degree as long as you see  
any of this matter  come over4    ,when 
no more rises with this degree of fire1 
unlute your vessels1 take  off the      

receiver1 and in its place substitute   
another filled with  water4 ,then       
increase your fire by degrees till the  
retort be red-hot4  ,some running       
,mercury will fall into the water1 which
 you may dry and  keep for use2 it being
 very pure4      ,,observations4    ,in 
our observations on the preceding       
process1 we took notice that the  purest
 ,marine ,acid1 in the form of a liquor1
 will not dissolve the  reguline part of
 ,antimony4 ,here this very ,acid       
combined with ,mercury1  and applied in 
a dry form to the ,regulus of ,antimony1
 quits the ,mercury  with which it was  
united1 in order to join this very      
,regulus1 as having  a greater affinity 
therewith4 ,this operation is a further 
proof of what  we advanced on the       
subject of ,mercury2 to wit1 that       
several metallic  substances1 which are 
not soluble by certain ,acids when in a 
fluid  state1 may be dissolved by those 
,acids when most highly concentrated2   
as they are when combined with any other

 substance in a dry form1 and  are      
separated from it by the force of fire4 
,their efficacy is also  further        
promoted by their being reduced1 on this
 occasion1 into subtile  vapours4       
,the ,marine ,acid combined with the    
reguline part of ,antimony doth not     
form a hard1 solid compound2 but a kind 
of soft substance1 that melts  in a very
 gentle heat1 and also becomes fixed by 
the least cold1 much  in the same manner
 as butter2 and from this property it   
hath its name4    ,soon after mixing the
 ,regulus with the ,corrosive           
,sublimate1 the matter  sometimes grows 
considerably hot3 this is occasioned by 
the ,marine  ,acid's beginning to act on
 the reguline part1 and to desert its   
,mercury4    ,the ,butter of ,antimony  
rises with a very moderate heat2 because
 the  ,acid of ,sea salt hath the       
property of volatilizing1 and carrying  
up  along with it1 the metallic         
substances with which it is combined3   
and  for this reason a very gentle heat 

only is required at the beginning of    
the operation4    ,it is absolutely     
necessary that the neck of the retort be
 wide and  short3 for otherwise if the  
,butter of ,antimony should fix and be  
accumulated therein1 it might stop up   
the passage entirely1 and  occasion the 
bursting of the vessels4 ,by this       
operation we obtain eight  parts and    
three quarters of fine ,butter of       
,antimony1 and ten parts of  running    
,mercury2 there being left in the retort
 one part and a half of  a rarefied     
matter1 black1 white1 and red4 ,this is 
probably the most  earthy and most      
impure part of the ,regulus of          
,antimony4    ,it is of the utmost      
consequence to the operator that he     
avoid with the  greatest care the       
vapours that issue from the vessels1    
because they are  extremely noxious1 and
 may occasion mortal disorders4 ,the    
,butter of  ,antimony is a most violent 
,corrosive and ,caustic4    ,when all   
the ,butter is risen1 the receiver is   

shifted in order to  receive the        
,mercury2 which1 being disengaged from  
the ,acid that gave  it a saline form1  
appears in its natural form of          
,quick-silver3 but it  requires a much  
greater degree of heat than the ,butter 
of ,antimony to  raise it by            
distillation4    ,if crude ,antimony1   
instead of ,regulus of ,antimony1 be    
mixed with  ,corrosive ,sublimate1 a    
,butter of ,antimony will be obtained in
 the same  manner2 but1 instead of      
having a running ,mercury after the     
,butter1 you  will find a ,cinabar      
sublimed into the neck and upper        
concavity of the  retort4    ,the reason
 of this difference is easily conceived3
 for when the  ,regulus is used1 the    
,mercury being deserted by its ,acid    
finds no other  substance to unite with1
 and so rises in the form of            
,quick-silver2 but  when crude ,antimony
 is employed instead of its ,regulus1 as
 the reguline  part thereof cannot      
combine with the ,acid without quitting 

its ,sulphur1  so this ,sulphur1 being  
at liberty1 unites with the ,mercury1   
which is so  likewise1 and therewith    
forms a ,cinabar2 which from its origin 
is named  ,cinabar of ,antimony4 ,when  
you intend to make both ,butter and     
,cinabar  of ,antimony at the same time1
 six parts of ,antimony must be mixed   
with  eight of ,corrosive ,sublimate2   
and care must be taken1 while the       
,butter  is coming over1 to warm the    
neck of the retort by holding some live 
coals near it1 with the precautions     
necessary to avoid breaking it4  ,this  
warmth makes the ,butter melt and run   
into the receiver2 whereas1  being      
thicker and of a much denser consistence
 than that made with the  ,regulus1 it  
would otherwise gather in the neck of   
the retort1 choak it  entirely1 and     
burst the vessel4    ,when the ,butter  
is drawn from crude ,antimony1 more     
circumspection is  necessary to make it 
of a beautiful white colour1 than when  
it is  obtained from the ,regulus3 for1 

if the fire be too strong during the    
distillation1 or if the receiver be not 
soon enough separated from the  neck of 
the retort1 certain red sulphureous     
vapours1 the fore-runners  of the       
,cinabar1 will at last ascend1 and      
mixing with the ,butter give it  a brown
 colour4    ,in order to restore its    
beauty it must be put into a clean      
retort1  and rectified by distilling it 
over again with a gentle sand-heat4  ,by
 this rectification the ,butter of      
,antimony becomes more fluid2 and  by   
re-distilling it a second time you may  
give it the thinness and  fluidity of an
 oil4    ,after the operation there will
 be found in the receiver three parts   
and  three quarters of ,butter of       
,antimony1 and some small crystals      
adhering  to its inside1 in the form of 
sprigs4 ,when you break the retort there
  exhales from it a sulphureous odour2  
and you will find in it seven  parts of 
,cinabar of ,antimony1 the greatest part
 of which is usually in  compact glebes1

 that are heavy1 smooth1 shining1       
blackish throughout  most of the mass1  
but in some places red3 another part    
thereof appears  in shining needles1 and
 the rest in powder4    ,when all the   
,butter of ,antimony is come over1 and  
you begin to see the  red vapours that  
predict the approaching ascent of the   
,cinabar1 the  receiver containing the  
,butter must be removed1 lest the colour
 of the  ,butter should be spoiled by   
those sulphureous vapours4 ,another     
receiver  is usually fitted on1 without 
luting2 in which a small quantity of    
running ,mercury is sometimes found1    
when the operation is finished4         
,there remains1 at the bottom of the    
retort1 a fixed1 shining1  crystalline1 
black mass1 which may be reduced to a   
,regulus by the  common method4         
,butter of ,antimony may also be        
obtained from a mixture of ,antimony    
with  any of the other preparations of  
,mercury in which the ,acid of ,sea-salt
  is an ingredient2 such as sweet       

,sublimate1 the ,mercurial ,panacea1 and
  ,white ,precipitate3 but as none of   
these combinations contain so great  a  
proportion of that ,acid as is in the   
,corrosive ,sublimate1 the ,butter      
obtained by their means is far from     
being so caustic and so fiery as  that  
which rises from a mixture of ,antimony1
 or its ,regulus1 with  ,corrosive      
,sublimate4    ,silver precipitated by  
the ,acid of ,sea-salt1 and ready to be 
melted  into a ,luna cornea1 being mixed
 with powdered ,regulus of ,antimony    
yields likewise a ,butter of ,antimony4 
,if you propose to make it by this      
means1 you must mingle one part of  the 
,regulus of ,antimony in powder with two
 parts of the ,precipitate2  put this   
mixture into a glass retort of such a   
size that it may fill  but one half     
thereof2 set it in a furnace2 apply a   
receiver2 begin  with a gentle heat1    
which will make a clear liquor come     
over2 and then  increase your fire by   
degrees4 ,white vapours will rise and   

condense  into a liquid ,butter2 and in 
the mean time there will be a slight    
ebullition in the receiver1 attended    
with a little heat4 ,continue the  fire 
till nothing more will come over2 then  
let your vessels cool and  unlute them4 
,you will find in the receiver an ,oil  
or ,butter of ,antimony1 partly  fluid  
and partly congealed1 somewhat inclined 
to yellow1 weighing an  eighth part more
 than the ,regulus of ,antimony made use
 of4    ,the inside of the retort will  
be carpeted over with small white       
flowers1 of a brilliant silver colour1  
and an acid taste2 and in the  bottom of
 the retort will be found a hard1       
compact1 ponderous mass1  difficult to  
break1 yet falling of itself to a       
powder2 its colour  externally grey1    
white1 and blueish2 internally black1   
and shining much  like ,regulus of      
,antimony2 having a saltish taste on its
 surface1 and  weighing about a         
sixteenth less than the ,precipitate of 
,silver employed  in the operation4     

,this experiment demonstrates that the  
,acid of ,sea-salt hath a greater       
affinity with ,regulus of ,antimony than
 with ,silver4    ,the ,butter of       
,antimony prepared by this method is    
somewhat less caustic  than that made   
with ,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,it is      
called the ,lunar ,butter  of ,antimony4
    ,the effervescence that arises in   
the receiver is remarkable4 ,probably   
the ,acid of ,sea-salt1 though reduced  
into vapours when it ascends out  of the
 retort1 is not yet perfectly combined  
with the reguline part  of the          
,antimony1 which it nevertheless carries
 over with it1 and the  union is        
completed in the receiver2 which        
occasions the effervescence  observed4  
,the little white silvery flowers1      
adhering to the inside of the retort1   
are flowers of ,regulus of ,antimony1   
which sublime towards the end of  the   
distillation4    ,the compact mass1     
found at the bottom of the retort1 is no
 other than  the ,silver separated from 

its ,acid1 and combined with a portion  
of the  ,regulus of ,antimony4 ,the     
colours and the saltish taste of its    
surface  are occasioned by a remainder  
of the ,marine ,acid4 ,this ,silver is  
rendered brittle and eager by the union 
it hath contracted with some of  the    
,regulus of ,antimony4    ,it is easy to
 purify it1 and restore its ductility1  
by separating it  from the ,regulus of  
,antimony4 ,there are several ways of   
doing this3  one of the most expeditious
 is to flux it with ,nitre1 which burns 
and  converts to a calx the semi-metal  
with which the ,silver is adulterated4  
,,process ,,xii4    ,butter of ,antimony
 decompounded by means of ,water only4  
,the ,pulvis  ,algaroth1 or ,mercurius  
,vit4 ,the ,philosophic ,spirit of      
,vitriol4    ,melt with a gentle heat as
 much ,butter of ,antimony as you       
please4  ,when it is melted1 pour it    
into a large quantity of warm water4    
,the  water will immediately grow       
turbid1 but whitish1 and let fall a     

great  quantity of white powder4 ,when  
all the precipitate is settled1 decant  
the water3 pour on fresh warm water2 and
 having thus edulcorated it  by several 
ablutions1 dry it1 and you have the     
,pulvis ,algaroth1 or  ,mercurius ,vit4 
,,observations4    ,in the preceding    
processes we observed that the ,marine  
,acid will not  dissolve the reguline   
part of ,antimony1 unless it be very    
highly  concentrated1 and more so than  
it can possibly be while in the form of 
a liquor4 ,of this the experiment before
 us is a further proof4 ,whilst  the    
,marine ,acid is so perfectly           
dephlegmated1 as it is in ,corrosive    
,sublimate and ,butter of ,antimony1 it 
remains combined with the reguline  part
 of ,antimony2 but if this combination  
be dissolved in water1 the  moment the  
,acid is weakened by the interposition  
of the particles of  water1 it becomes  
incapable of continuing united with the 
semi-metal  which it had before         
dissolved2 deserts it1 and lets it fall 

in the  form of a white powder4    ,the 
,pulvis ,algaroth is therefore no other 
than the reguline part of  ,antimony1   
attenuated and divided by the union it  
had contracted with  the ,acid of       
,sea-salt1 and afterwards separated from
 that ,acid by the  intervention of     
water alone4 ,the proof is1 that this   
powder retains  none of the properties  
of the ,butter of ,antimony3 it is      
neither so  fusible nor so volatile2 on 
the contrary1 it is capable of          
sustaining a  very strong degree of     
fire1 without subliming and without     
melting3 it  may be reduced to a        
,regulus3 it hath not now the same      
caustic nature3  it is only an emetic2  
which however is extremely violent1 and 
on that  account is never prescribed by 
any prudent physician4    ,another      
proof1 that the ,marine ,acid is        
separated from the ,regulus of          
,antimony in the precipitation of the   
,pulvis ,algaroth1 is1 that the  water  
in which this precipitation is made     

becomes acid1 or a sort  of weak ,spirit
 of ,salt4 ,if it be evaporated1 and    
concentrated by  distillation1 a very   
strong acid liquor may be obtained from 
it4 ,this  ,acid goes1 very improperly1 
by the name of the ,philosophic ,spirit 
of  ,vitriol2 for it is rather a ,spirit
 of ,salt4    ,the ,pulvis ,algaroth1   
made with ,butter of ,antimony procured 
from the  ,regulus1 is whiter than that 
made with ,butter of ,antimony procured 
from crude ,antimony2 probably because  
the latter always retains some          
sulphureous particles4    ,butter of    
,antimony exposed to the air attracts   
the moisture thereof1  and partly runs  
into a liquor2 but1 as fast as this     
liquor is  produced1 it deposites a     
white sediment1 which is an actual      
,pulvis  ,algaroth4 ,this also is very  
agreeable to what we advanced touching  
the decomposition of ,butter of         
,antimony by the addition of water4 ,the
  ,butter attracts the moisture of the  
air1 because the ,acid it contains  is  

exceedingly concentrated2 and this      
moisture produces the same effect  as   
water purposely added4      ,,process   
,,xiii4    ,bezoar ,mineral4 ,the       
,bezoartic ,spirit of ,nitre4    ,melt  
,butter of ,antimony over warm ashes1   
and put it into a phial or  matrass4    
,gradually pour on it good ,spirit of   
,nitre1 till the matter  be entirely    
dissolved4 ,this usually requires as    
much ,spirit of ,nitre  as there is     
,butter of ,antimony4 ,during the       
dissolution fumes will  rise1 which must
 be carefully avoided4 ,pour your       
solution1 which will  be clear and of a 
reddish colour1 into a glass cucurbit1  
or a pan of  stone-ware3 set it in a    
sand-bath1 and evaporate to dryness with
 a  moderate heat4 ,there will be left a
 white mass1 weighing a fourth part     
less than the whole quantity used1 both 
of the ,butter and the ,spirit  of      
,nitre4 ,let it cool1 and again pour on 
it as much ,spirit of ,nitre as  you    
used the first time4 ,place the vessel  

again in the sand-bath1 and  evaporate  
the moisture as before4 ,you will have a
 white mass that hath  neither gained   
nor lost in weight4 ,on this pour1 for  
the third time1  the same quantity of   
,spirit of ,nitre as you did the first  
time4 ,again  evaporate the moisture to 
perfect dryness3 then increase your     
fire1  and calcine the matter for half  
an hour4 ,you will have a dry1 friable1 
light1 white matter1 of an agreeable    
acid taste2 which will fall into  a     
coarse powder1 and must be kept in a    
phial carefully stopt4 ,this  is ,bezoar
 ,mineral3 it is neither caustic nor    
emetic1 and has only  a sudorific       
virtue4 ,it obtained the name it bears1 
because1 like the  animal ,bezoar1 it   
was imagined to have the property of    
resisting poison4      ,,observations4  
,it is not surprising that the ,nitrous 
,acid poured on ,butter of ,antimony    
should dissolve it1 and unite with it3  
for with the ,marine ,acid1 which  makes
 a part of this combination1 it forms an

 aqua regis1 which we  know is the true 
solvent of the reguline part of         
,antimony4 ,but in this  dissolution1   
and the changes it produces1 there are  
some things very  remarkable and worthy 
of attention4 #a4 ,the ,nitrous ,acid1  
by uniting  with the ,butter of         
,antimony1 deprives it of its property  
of rising with  a very gentle heat1 and 
makes it much more fixed3 it can now be 
dried1  and suffer all its moisture to  
be evaporated2 which is not to be done  
with pure ,butter of ,antimony3 for     
that1 being exposed to a certain  degree
 of heat1 instead of letting go its     
moisture and remaining dry1  rises      
wholly1 without the least appearance of 
any separation of parts4    #b4 ,the    
,butter of ,antimony1 which1 before its 
combination with the  ,nitrous ,acid1 is
 a most violent ,caustic and ,corrosive1
 becomes so mild  after it1 that it may 
not only be taken internally without    
danger1 but  hath scarce any sensible   
operation4    ,the following            

considerations will lead us to a        
reasonable explanation  of these        
phenomena4 #a4 ,the ,nitrous ,acid1 when
 combined with metallic  substances1    
doth not communicate to them the same   
volatility as they  acquire from the    
,marine ,acid4 ,hence it follows1 that1 
if the ,nitrous  ,acid be added to any  
combination of a metallic substance with
 the  ,marine ,acid1 this new compound  
will be rendered less volatile1 and     
consequently more able1 without rising  
in vapours1 to bear a degree of  heat   
sufficient to carry off part of its     
,acid4 ,this is the case with  ,butter  
of ,antimony1 after ,spirit of ,nitre is
 mixed with it2 especially  considering1
 #b4 ,that the ,nitrous ,acid cannot    
unite with the reguline  part of the    
,butter of ,antimony without weakening  
the connection between  it and the      
,marine ,acid2 whence it follows1 that  
the combination of the  ,nitrous ,acid  
further facilitates the separation of   
the ,marine ,acid  from the ,regulus4   

,now as soon as the ,marine ,acid quits 
the reguline  part1 that part becomes   
more fixed1 and consequently more       
capable of  enduring the degree of heat 
requisite to discharge all the adhering 
,acid2 and not only the ,marine1 but    
even the ,nitrous also4 ,it is not      
therefore surprizing that1 after the    
,antimony which remains combined  with  
the ,nitrous ,acid is dried1 it should  
not possess that corrosive  power which 
it derives only from the ,acids         
wherewith it is armed4 ,in  order to    
free it more perfectly from all ,acid1  
we order the fire to be  increased after
 the third desiccation2 and the         
remainder of the ,butter  of ,antimony  
to be calcined for a full half-hour     
longer4    ,that the ,marine ,acid is   
separated from the reguline part of the 
,butter  of ,antimony1 by the           
desiccations it undergoes in converting 
it into  ,bezoar1 is proved by this1    
that1 when these desiccations are       
performed  in close vessels1 the liquor 

drawn off is a true aqua regis1 known by
  the name of the ,bezoartic ,spirit of 
,nitre4    ,it remains to be considered 
why the ,bezoar mineral1 though freed   
from  all acid1 is not emetic2 while the
 ,pulvis ,algaroth1 which is likewise   
the reguline part of the ,butter of     
,antimony deprived of its ,acid1  is    
such a violent emetic1 and even to be   
dreaded for its remaining  causticity4  
,in order to discover the reason of this
 difference1 it is proper to  observe   
that1 when we say ,bezoar mineral and   
the ,pulvis ,algaroth  contain no ,acid1
 we must not be understood in too strict
 a sense3 on  the contrary1 there is    
reason to think that a certain quantity 
of ,acid  still remains in each of them2
 which however is scarce worth notice1  
in comparison of the quantity each      
contained at first4 ,this being         
allowed1 it will not be hard to find the
 difference between these two           
preparations of ,antimony4 ,the ,pulvis 
,algaroth is deprived of its  ,acid by  

the addition of water alone1 which only 
carries off all the  loose ,acid it can 
take up1 without making any change in   
the nature of  that which continues in  
combination with the reguline part4     
,now1 as  the ,marine ,acid is not      
intimately united with the reguline part
 in  ,butter of ,antimony2 as it still  
retains some of its properties1 such as 
attracting the moisture of the air1     
giving manifest tokens of its ,acid     
nature1 c42 and as the corrosive quality
 of this compound depends on  this last 
in particular2 the small portion of     
,acid left in the ,pulvis  ,algaroth    
will in some degree preserve its former 
character3 and hence  comes the effect  
of this powder1 which still retains a   
little of the  corrosive quality that   
belonged to the ,butter of ,antimony4   
,but this is not the case with the small
 remainder of ,acid1 which  possibly    
still continues united with the ,bezoar 
mineral prepared as  here directed4     
,this compound hath been exposed to a   

fire sufficient1  not only to dry it1   
but even to calcine it4 ,now fire is    
capable of  producing great changes in  
the texture of bodies4 ,it must have    
forced  off from the ,bezoar all the    
,acid that was not intimately combined  
with it2 and that part which it could   
not drive off1 because of its  obstinate
 adhesion1 it must have further united  
and combined more  closely with the     
metallic earth3 for we see that fire    
greatly promotes  the action of solvents
 on the matters with which they are     
united4    ,with regard to the properly 
emetic quality of the ,pulvis ,algaroth1
  it cannot be imputed to the           
combination of any ,acid with that      
powder2  since we see that the most     
powerfully emetic preparations of       
,antimony1  viz4 its ,regulus and       
,glass1 contain no ,acid3 it must       
therefore be  attributed to some cause  
different from that on which its        
corrosive  quality depends4 ,this cause 
we shall easily find by attending to the

  different manners in which the ,marine
 ,acid1 when alone and in aqua  regia1  
operates on the reguline part of        
,antimony4    ,the ,marine ,acid alone  
dissolves the ,regulus of ,antimony1 but
 with  great difficulty2 nor doth it    
effect a complete dissolution thereof1  
as is evident from what hath been       
already said3 whereas the ,marine       
,acid1 combined with the ,nitrous ,acid1
 and therewith forming an aqua  regis1  
as in the preparation of ,bezoar1       
dissolves the reguline part  of         
,antimony completely and radically4     
,now1 it is certain that1 the  more     
efficaciously ,acids operate on metallic
 substances1 the more of  their         
phlogiston do they destroy2 and we      
cannot but recollect that  the          
preparations of ,antimony are so much   
the less emetic the less  phlogiston    
they contain1 or the further they recede
 from the nature  of a ,regulus1 and the
 nearer they approach to that of        
,diaphoretic  ,antimony3 consequently it

 is plain how ,bezoar mineral1 which is 
a  sort of calx of ,antimony entirely   
deprived of its phlogiston by the       
intimate dissolution thereof made by the
 ,acids of the aqua regis1  may be in no
 degree emetic2 while the ,pulvis       
,algaroth1 being a true  ,regulus of    
,antimony1 on which the ,marine ,acid   
hath operated but very  superficially1  
and which still contains a great deal of
 phlogiston1 is  a most violent emetic4 
,,process ,,xiv4    ,flowers of         
,antimony4    ,take an unglazed earthen 
pot1 having an aperture in its side1    
with a  stopple to shut it close4 ,set  
this pot in a furnace1 the cavity       
whereof  it may fit as exactly as       
possible2 and fill up with lute the     
space1  if any1 left between the vessel 
and the furnace4 ,over this vessel fix  
three aludels1 with a blind-head at the 
top2 and light a fire in the  furnace   
under the pot4    ,when the bottom of   
the pot is thoroughly red1 throw into   
the lateral  aperture a small spoonful  

of powdered ,antimony4 ,stir the matter 
immediately with an iron spatula made a 
little bending1 in order to  spread it  
over the bottom of the vessel1 and then 
stop the hole4 ,the  flowers will rise  
and adhere to the insides of the        
aludels4 ,keep up the  fire so that the 
bottom of the pot may always continue   
red2 and1 when  nothing more sublimes1  
put in a like quantity of ,antimony1 and
 operate  as before4 ,in this manner go 
on subliming your ,antimony1 till you   
have  as many flowers as you want4 ,then
 let the fire go out2 and when the      
vessels are cold unlute them4 ,you will 
find flowers adhering all round  the    
insides of the aludels and the head1    
which you may collect with a  feather4  
,,observations4    ,antimony is a       
volatile mineral1 capable of being      
sublimed into flowers2  but this cannot 
be effected without occasioning a       
notable change  in its parts4 ,the      
reguline and the sulphureous parts are  
not united  so intimately1 or in the    

same proportion1 in the flowers as in   
the  ,antimony itself2 and accordingly  
we find these flowers have a strong     
emetic quality1 which ,antimony hath    
not4 ,they are of divers colours2  which
 probably arises from their containing  
more or less ,sulphur4 ,three  or four  
aludels are placed one over another1 not
 only with a view to  provide a greater 
surface1 to which the flowers may       
adhere1 but also to  give them room     
enough to circulate1 without which they 
might burst the  vessels4    ,if you    
introduce the nosle of a pair of bellows
 into the pot that  contains the        
,antimony1 and blow upon it1 the        
sublimation of the flowers  will be much
 sooner effected4 ,this is a general    
rule with regard to all  matters that   
are to be sublimed or evaporated2 the   
reason of which we  have already given4 
,it is proper that no interval be left  
between the furnace and the pot         
containing the ,antimony1 lest the heat 
should be thereby communicated  to the  

aludels1 on which the flowers fasten    
best when they are cold4    ,after the  
operation1 there remains at the bottom  
of the pot a portion  of ,antimony half 
calcined2 which being pulverized1 and   
thoroughly  calcined till it emit no    
fume1 may be employed to make the ,glass
 of  ,antimony4      ,,process ,,xv4    
,regulus of ,antimony converted into    
,flowers4    ,pulverize your ,regulus of
 ,antimony3 put the powder into an      
unglazed  earthen pot3 three or four    
fingers breadth above the powder1 fit   
into  the pot a little cover1 made of   
the same earth1 and having a small  hole
 in its middle1 so that it may with ease
 be placed in the pot1 and  taken out   
when there is occasion3 cover the mouth 
of the pot with a  common lid2 set it in
 a furnace1 and kindle a fire under it  
sufficient  to make the bottom of the   
pot red1 and to melt the ,regulus4 ,when
 it  hath been thus kept in fusion for  
about an hour1 let the fire go out1  and
 the whole cool4 ,then remove the two   

covers4 ,you will find adhering  to the 
surface of the ,regulus1 which will be  
in a mass at the bottom  of the pot1    
white flowers resembling snow1          
intermixed with beautiful1  brilliant1  
silver-coloured needles4 ,take them out1
 and you will find  them make about one 
part in sixty-two of the whole ,regulus 
employed4    ,put the covers again in   
their places1 and proceed in the same   
manner  as before2 when the vessels are 
cold you will find half as many more    
flowers as you got the first time4      
,proceed thus till you have converted   
all your ,regulus into flowers4  ,this  
will require a considerable number of   
sublimations1 which1 as you  advance1   
will always yield you a greater portion 
of flowers2 respect1  however1 being had
 to the quantity of ,regulus remaining  
in the pot4      ,,observations4    ,we 
must here repeat what we said just      
before1 in our observations on  the     
preceding process2 viz4 that ,regulus of
 ,antimony is capable of  being wholly  

elevated and sublimed by the action of  
fire2 but that it  must at the same time
 undergo a considerable change and      
alteration4  ,these flowers of ,regulus 
of ,antimony are very different from    
every  other ,antimonial preparation4   
,they resemble the ,pearly ,matter in   
this1  that they cannot be reduced to a 
,regulus by any means whatever3 but     
they differ from it1 #a4 in that they   
are not fixed2 for1 when melted  by     
fire1 they fly wholly away in vapours3  
#b4 in that they are capable  of being  
dissolved by aqua regis1 much in the    
same manner as the  ,regulus2 whereas   
the ,pearly ,matter is known to be      
indissoluble by any  ,acid4    ,as soon 
as ,regulus of ,antimony is in fusion1  
it begins to sublime into  flowers2 so  
that it is needless to apply a greater  
degree of heat than  is just sufficient 
to melt it4    ,a pan of some width is  
preferable to a crucible for this       
operation2  because the upper surface of
 the ,regulus melted therein is larger1 

and1 the larger that surface is1 the    
more considerable is the quantity       
sublimed from it4    ,the two covers    
which are applied within and over the   
pot are designed  to check1 as much as  
possible1 the dissipation of the melted 
,regulus2 yet without absolutely        
excluding the free access of the  air1  
the concourse of which is useful in all 
metallic sublimations4  ,notwithstanding
 these precautions1 it is impossible to 
prevent the  escape of some of the      
,regulus1 in vapours that cannot be     
confined4  ,somewhat less than three    
fourths of the ,regulus made use of is  
nearly  the yield in flowers3 the rest  
evaporates through the interstices left 
by the covers1 which must not be luted  
for the reason just assigned4           
,,chap4 ,,ii4    ,of ,,bismuth4         
,,process ,i4    ,to extract ,bismuth   
from its ,ore4    ,break the ore of     
,bismuth into small pieces1 and         
therewith fill a  crucible either of    
earth or iron4 ,set the crucible in a   

furnace1 and  light such a fire that the
 bits of ore may become moderately red4 
,stir  the ore from time to time1 and1  
if you perceive it crackle and fly1     
keep the crucible covered4 ,at the      
bottom you will find a button of        
,bismuth4      ,,observations4    ,the  
extraction of ,bismuth from its ore     
requires nothing but simple  fusion1    
without the addition of any inflammable 
matter1 because it is  naturally        
possessed of its metalline form4 ,nor   
does it require any  flux2 because it is
 very fusible3 which allows us to melt  
it1 and  collect it in a mass1 without  
the necessity of fusing likewise the    
earthy and stony matters in which it is 
lodged4 ,these matters remain in  their 
first state2 and the melted ,bismuth    
descends by its gravity to  the bottom  
of the crucible4 ,no greater degree of  
heat must be applied1  on this occasion1
 than is necessary to melt the          
semi-metal3 for1 as it  is volatile1    
part of it would be dissipated2 so that 

much less thereof  would be obtained1 if
 the fire were made too strong1 and so  
much the  less as another portion       
thereof would be converted into a calx4 
,for the  same reason1 the crucible must
 be taken out of the furnace as soon as 
you perceive that all the ,bismuth      
contained in the ore is melted1 and     
that the button doth not increase4      
,the ore of ,bismuth may also be treated
 like the ores of ,lead and ,tin2  that 
is1 it may be reduced into a fine       
powder1 mixed with the black  flux1 a   
little ,borax1 and ,sea-salt2 put into a
 close crucible1 and  fused in a melting
 furnace4 ,in that case you will find a 
button of  ,regulus covered with scoria4
 ,by this method rather more ,bismuth is
  obtained2 and it is best to make use  
of it when the ore is poor1  because1 in
 such a case1 none at all would be      
obtained by the other  process4 ,but    
here care must be taken to apply at once
 the degree of  fire necessary to melt  
the mixture3 for1 if it remain long in  

the fire1  much ,bismuth will be lost1  
on account of the great volatility of   
this  semi-metal1 and the facility with 
which it turns to a calx4    ,bismuth is
 pretty frequently found pure in its    
earthy and stony  matrices2 and when    
mineralized it is usually so by         
,arsenic1 which1  being still more      
volatile1 flies off in vapours while the
 ore is  melting1 provided it be but in 
a small quantity3 if there be much  of  
it1 and the ore be smelted by fusing it 
with the black flux1 the  ,arsenic also 
is reduced to a ,regulus1 unites more   
intimately with the  ,bismuth1 becomes a
 little more fixed by that union1 and   
increases the  quantity of the          
semi-metallic mass found after the      
fusion4    ,though ,bismuth be not      
usually mineralized by ,sulphur1 that is
 not  because it is incapable of uniting
 therewith2 for1 if equal parts of      
,bismuth and ,sulphur be melted         
together1 after the fusion the ,bismuth 
will be found increased near an eighth  

part1 and formed into a mass  disposed  
in needles much like ,antimony4    ,when
 we come to treat of the ore of         
,arsenic1 we shall have occasion  to say
 a good deal more concerning ,bismuth   
and its ore2 because these  minerals    
resemble each other very much4    ,mr4  
,geoffroy1 son of the ,academician1 hath
 shewn in a ,memoir read  before the    
,academy of ,sciences1 that there is a  
great resemblance  between ,bismuth and 
,lead4 ,that ,memoir1 which contains    
only the  beginning of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's 
course of experiments1 proves that the  
author supports with dignity the glory  
of his name4 ,it is there  demonstrated1
 by a very great number of experiments1 
that fire produces  the same effects on 
,bismuth as on ,lead4 ,this semi-metal  
is converted  into a calx1 into         
litharge1 and into glass1 as ,lead is2  
and these  productions have the same    
properties as the preparations of ,lead 
made  with the same degree of fire4     
,bismuth is capable of vitrifying all   

the  imperfect metals1 and of carrying  
them off through the pores of the       
crucible4 ,so that ,gold and ,silver may
 be purified and cupelled by its  means1
 as well as with ,lead4 ,you may on this
 occasion turn to what we  have said    
concerning ,lead4      ,,process ,,ii4  
,bismuth dissolved by ,acids4 ,magistery
 of ,bismuth4 ,sympathetic ,ink4        
,into a matrass put ,bismuth broken into
 little bits3 pour on it1  by little and
 little1 twice as much aqua fortis4     
,this ,acid will  attack the semi-metal 
briskly1 and dissolve it entirely1 with 
heat1  effervescence1 vapours1 and      
puffing up4 ,the solution will be clear 
and  limpid4      ,,observations4    ,of
 all ,acids the ,nitrous is that which  
best dissolves ,bismuth4 ,it is  not    
necessary1 on this occasion1 to place   
the phial1 in which the  dissolution is 
performed1 on a sand-heat1 as in most   
other metallic  dissolutions3 on the    
contrary1 care must be taken not to pour
 on all  the aqua fortis at once2       

because it operates with so much        
activity  that the mixture will heave up
 and run over the vessel4    ,the bare  
addition of water is sufficient to      
precipitate the solution  of ,bismuth4  
,if this solution be mixed with a very  
large proportion  of water1 the liquor  
grows turbid1 appears milky1 and        
deposites a  precipitate of a very      
beautiful white4 ,this is that white    
which the  ladies use at their toilets4 
,water produces this precipitation by   
weakening the ,acid2 which probably  is 
incapable of keeping the ,bismuth       
dissolved1 unless it have a certain     
degree of strength4    ,if you would    
have a ,magistery of ,bismuth           
beautifully white1 you must  perform the
 dissolution with an aqua fortis that is
 not tainted with  any mixture of the   
,vitriolic ,acid2 for this gives the    
precipitate a  dirty white colour1      
inclining to grey4 ,several authors     
advise the use  of a solution of        
,sea-salt1 instead of pure water1 for   

precipitating  the ,bismuth1 imagining  
that this ,salt will effect a           
precipitation here  as it does in the   
cases of ,silver and ,lead4 ,but ,mr4   
,pott1 a ,german  ,chymist1 who hath    
published a long dissertation on        
,bismuth1 pretends1  on the contrary1   
that neither ,sea-salt1 nor its ,acid1  
is capable of  precipitating this       
semi-metal2 and that when a             
precipitation takes  place on mixing    
them with our solution1 it is brought   
about only by  means of the water in    
which those substances are diffused4    
,bismuth may also be precipitated by the
 means of ,fixed or ,volatile  ,alkalis2
 but the precipitate is not of so fine a
 white as when procured  by the means of
 pure water only4    ,if a greater      
quantity of aqua fortis1 than that      
prescribed in the  process1 be made use 
of to dissolve the ,bismuth1 a great    
deal more  water will also be required  
to precipitate the ,magistery2 because  
there  will be much more ,acid to       

weaken4 ,this white ought to be well    
washed1  in order to free it from any   
remainder of acidity2 and it should be  
kept in a bottle well stopped2 because  
the access of the air makes it  turn    
brown1 and if any of the ,acid be left  
it will turn it yellow4    ,a solution  
of ,bismuth prepared with the proper    
quantity of aqua  fortis1 that is1 with 
two parts of the ,acid to one of the    
semi-metal1  concretes into little      
crystals almost as soon as made4        
,aqua fortis not only acts on ,bismuth  
when separated from its ore1  and       
reduced to a ,regulus1 but attacks it   
even in its ore1 and likewise  dissolves
 at the same time some portion of the   
ore itself4 ,with  this solution of the 
ore of ,bismuth ,mr4 ,hellot makes a    
very curious  ,sympathetic ,ink1        
differing from all that were known      
before4    ,mr4 ,hellot prepares the    
liquor in the following manner3 ,he     
bruises  the ore of ,bismuth to a coarse
 powder4 ,on two ounces of this powder  

he pours a mixture of five ounces of    
common water with five ounces of  aqua  
fortis4 ,he does not heat the vessel    
till the first ebullitions  are over4   
,he then sets it in a gentle sand-heat1 
and lets it digest  there till he sees  
no more air bubbles rise4 ,when none    
appear in this  heat1 he increases it so
 as to make the solvent boil slightly   
for a  full quarter of an hour4 ,it     
takes up a tincture nearly of the colour
  of brown beer4 ,the ore that gives the
 aqua fortis this colour is  the best4  
,he then lets the solution cool1 laying 
the matrass on its  side1 that he may   
decant the liquor more conveniently when
 all is  precipitated that is not taken 
up by the solvent4    ,the second       
vessel1 into which the liquor is first  
decanted1 he also  lays declining1 that 
a new precipitation of the undissolved  
matters may  be obtained2 after which he
 pours the liquor into a third vessel4  
,this  liquor must not be filtered1 if  
you would have the rest of the process  

succeed perfectly2 because the aqua     
fortis would dissolve some of the       
paper1 and that would spoil the colour  
of your paper4    ,when this solution1  
which ,mr4 ,hellot calls the            
,impregnation1 is  thoroughly clarified 
by being decanted three or four times1  
he puts  it into a glass bason with two 
ounces of very pure ,sea-salt4 ,the fine
  white salt made by the sun succeeded  
best with ,mr4 ,hellot4 ,if that  cannot
 be had1 common bay-salt1 purified by   
solution1 filtration1  and              
crystallization1 may be used instead of 
it4 ,but as it is rare to  meet with any
 of the sort that is not a little       
tainted with iron1  the white bay-salt  
is to be preferred4 ,the glass bason he 
sets in a  gentle sand-heat1 and keeps  
it there till the mixture be reduced by 
evaporation to an almost dry saline     
mass4    ,if you desire to save the aqua
 regis1 the impregnation must be put    
into a retort1 and distilled with the   
gentle heat of a sand-bath4 ,but  there 

is an inconveniency1 as ,mr4 ,hellot    
observes1 in employing a  retort2 which 
is1 that1 as the saline mass cannot be  
stirred while it  coagulates in the     
retort1 it is reduced to a compact cake 
of coloured  ,salt1 which presents but  
one single surface to the water in which
 it  must be dissolved2 so that the     
dissolution thereof takes up sometimes  
no less than five or six days4 ,in the  
bason1 on the contrary1 the  saline mass
 is easily brought to a granulated      
,salt1 by stirring it  with a glass rod2
 and1 when thus granulated1 it has a    
great deal more  surface2 it dissolves  
more easily1 and yields its tincture to 
water  in four hours time4 ,indeed one  
is more exposed to the vapours of the   
solvent1 which would be dangerous1 if   
the operation were to be often          
performed1 without proper precautions4  
,when the bason1 or little vessel1      
containing the mixture of the           
,impregnation and ,sea-salt is heated1  
the liquor1 which was of an             

orange-coloured red1 becomes a crimson  
red2 and1 when all the phlegm of  the   
solvent is evaporated1 it acquires a    
beautiful emerald colour4 ,by  degrees  
it thickens1 and acquires the colour of 
a mass of ,verdegris4  ,it must then be 
carefully stirred with the glass rod1 in
 order to  granulate the ,salt1 which   
must not be kept over the fire till it  
be  perfectly dry2 because you run a    
risk of losing irrecoverably the  colour
 you are seeking4 ,you may be sure you  
have lost it1 if by too  much heat the  
,salt that was of a green colour become 
of a dirty yellow4  ,if it be once      
brought to this state1 it will continue 
without changing  when cold3 but if care
 be taken to remove it from the fire    
while it  is still green1 you will see  
it gradually grow pale1 and become of a 
beautiful rose colour as it cools4      
,mr4 ,hellot removes it from this       
vessel1 and throws it into another      
containing distilled rain water3 and    
this second vessel he keeps in  gentle  

digestion till he observes that the     
powder which falls to the  bottom is    
perfectly white4 ,if1 after three or    
four hours digesting1  this powder still
 continues tinged with a rose colour1 it
 is a proof  that water enough was not  
added to dissolve all the ,salt         
impregnated  with the tincture of the   
solution4 ,in this case1 the first      
tinged  liquor must be poured off1 and  
fresh water added1 in proportion to the 
quantity of tinged ,salt1 that is       
supposed to remain mixed with the       
precipitate4    ,when the ore is pure1  
and doth not contain a great deal of    
fusible  stone1 commonly called ,fluor  
or ,quartz1 an ounce of it generally    
yields tincture enough for eight or nine
 ounces of water1 and the  liquor is of 
a beautiful colour like that of the     
lilach or pipe-tree  blossom4 ,in order 
to prove the effect of this tincture1   
you must write  with this               
lilach-coloured liquor on good          
well-gummed paper1 that does  not sink3 

or you may use it to shade the leaves of
 some tree or plant1  having first drawn
 the outlines thereof lightly1 with     
,china-ink or  with a black-lead pencil4
 ,let this coloured drawing1 or writing1
 dry  in a warm air4 ,you will perceive 
no colour while it is cold2 but if  it  
be gently warmed before the fire1 you   
will see the writing1 or the  drawing1  
gradually acquire a blue or             
greenish-blue colour1 which is  visible 
as long as the paper continues a little 
warm1 and disappears  entirely when it  
cools4    ,the singularity of this      
sympathetic ink consists in its property
 of  disappearing entirely and becoming 
invisible1 though it be not touched     
with any thing whatever3 and this       
distinguishes it from all others2       
which1 when once rendered visible by the
 application of proper means1  do not   
again disappear1 or at least not without
 touching the strokes on  the paper with
 some other liquor4    ,mr4 ,hellot made
 a vast variety of experiments on this  

subject1 and gave  his sympathetic ink  
successively the properties of all      
others that are  known4    ,it follows  
from ,mr4 ,hellot's experiments1 that it
 is the ,acid of  ,sea-salt which makes 
this saline magma of a green colour     
while it  is hot3 that without this     
,acid the saline matter continues red2  
and  that the solution of ,bismuth-ore  
in aqua fortis may therefore serve  as a
 touchstone1 to discover whether or no  
any unknown ,salt under  examination    
contains ,sea-salt1 or a portion of the 
,marine ,acid4    ,he also proves1 in   
the ,memoirs he hath given in on this   
subject1  that the ,nitrous ,acid is the
 true solvent of those ores of ,bismuth 
which contain moreover ,smalt and       
,arsenic4 ,that ,acid dissolves all the 
metallic and colouring matters contained
 in those ores1 sparing nothing  but the
 sulphureous and arsenical portion1 the 
greatest part of which  remains         
precipitated2 and from this colouring   
matter the sympathetic  ink derives its 

virtue4    ,under the head of ,arsenic  
we shall speak more amply of this matter
 in  ,cobalt1 or the ore of ,arsenic1   
that gives a blue colour to the sand    
with which it is vitrified4    ,the     
,vitriolic ,acid does not1 properly     
speaking1 dissolve ,bismuth4 ,if  to one
 part and an half of this semi-metal you
 add one part of ,oil of  ,vitriol2     
distil the whole to dryness2 and then   
lixiviate with water  what remains in   
the retort2 the liquor you obtained by  
this means will  be of a reddish yellow 
colour1 but will let nothing fall when  
mixed  with an ,alkali3 and this shews  
that the ,vitriolic ,acid acts only upon
  the inflammable part of ,bismuth1 and 
doth not dissolve its metallic  earth4  
,it dissolves the ore of ,bismuth more  
perceptibly than ,bismuth itself2       
because the ore contains1 besides the   
reguline part1 an arsenical  matter1 and
 a coloured matter1 over which perhaps  
it hath more power4    ,the ,acid of    
,sea-salt attacks and dissolves ,bismuth

 in some small  measure1 but slowly and 
with difficulty4 ,that this ,acid       
dissolves a  portion of our semi-metal  
may be proved1 by mixing a ,fixed or    
,volatile  ,alkali with ,spirit of ,salt
 in which ,bismuth hath lain some time  
digesting2 for then a precipitate falls4
    ,but1 though the ,marine ,acid be   
capable of dissolving ,bismuth1 it doth 
not follow that it hath a greater       
affinity than the ,nitrous ,acid with   
this metallic substance1 as some        
,chymists have thought2 who imagined    
that1 in the precipitation of the       
,magistery of ,bismuth by a solution  of
 ,sea-salt1 the ,acid of that ,salt     
quits its basis to unite with the       
,bismuth which it precipitates1 as is   
the case in the precipitations  of ,lead
 and of ,silver by the same ,salt1 and  
that it forms1 on this  occasion1 a     
,bismuthum corneum4    ,on this subject1
 ,mr4 ,pott observed1 #a4 that1 when    
only a small quantity  of the solution  
of ,sea-salt is mixed with the solution 

of ,bismuth in  the ,nitrous ,acid1 no  
precipitate is formed3 now it is certain
 that when  the smallest quantity       
whatever of ,sea-salt is mixed with the 
solution  either of ,lead or of ,silver1
 a precipitate is immediately deposited1
 in  a quantity proportioned to that of 
the ,salt used4    #b4 ,mr4 ,pott1      
having examined the precipitate of      
,bismuth thrown down  by a solution of  
,sea-salt1 found it not to have the     
properties of a  metallic substance     
rendered horny3 on the contrary1 that   
precipitate  being exposed to a very    
violent fire appeared refractory1 and   
could not  be melted4          ,,chap4  
,,iii4    ,of ,,zinc4      ,,process ,i4
    ,to extract ,zinc from its ,ore1 or 
,calamine4    ,take eight parts of      
,calamine reduced to a powder2 mix this 
powder  accurately with one part of fine
 charcoal-dust1 previously calcined  in 
a crucible to free it from all moisture3
 put this mixture into a  stone retort  
coated with lute1 leaving a third part  

of it empty3 set  your retort in a      
reverberatory furnace1 capable of giving
 a very fierce  heat4 ,to the retort    
apply a receiver1 with a little water in
 it4 ,kindle  the fire1 and raise it by 
degrees till the heat be strong enough  
to  melt ,copper4 ,with this degree of  
fire the ,zinc being metallized will    
separate from the mixture1 and sublime  
into the neck of the retort1  in the    
form of metallic drops4 ,break the      
retort when it is cold1 and  collect the
 ,zinc4      ,,observations4    ,the    
process here given for smelting ,zinc   
out of ,calamine is taken from  the     
,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences at
 ,berlin4 ,the author of it is  ,mr4    
,marggraff1 a skilful ,chymist1 whom we 
have already had occasion to  mention   
under the article of ,phosphorus4       
,till this process was published1 we    
knew no method of obtaining pure  ,zinc 
directly from the ,lapis ,calaminaris4  
,most of the ,zinc we have comes from an
 ore of difficult fusion that is  worked

 at ,goslar1 and yields1 at one and the 
same time1 ,lead1 ,zinc1 and  another   
metallic matter called ,cadmia          
,fornacum1 which also contains  much    
,zinc1 as we shall afterwards see4      
,the furnace used for smelting this ore 
is closed on its fore-side with  thin   
plates or tables of stone1 not above an 
inch thick4 ,this stone is  greyish1 and
 bears a violent fire4    ,in this      
furnace the ore is melted amidst        
charcoal1 by the help of  bellows4 ,each
 melting takes twelve hours1 during     
which time the ,zinc  flowing with the  
,lead is resolved into flowers and      
vapours1 great part  of which adheres to
 the sides of the furnace in the form of
 a very hard  crust of earth4 ,the      
workmen take care to remove this crust  
from time  to time2 for it would        
otherwise grow so thick at last as to   
lessen the  cavity of the furnace very  
considerably4    ,there adheres moreover
 to the fore-part of the furnace1 which 
is  formed1 as we said before1 of thin  

plates of stone1 a metallic matter1     
which is the ,zinc1 and is carefully    
collected at the end of each  melting1  
by removing from this part all the live 
coals4 ,a quantity  of small coal is    
laid unlighted at the bottom2 and on    
this small  coal1 by striking the stone 
plates gently with a hammer1 the ,zinc  
is made to fall out of the other matter1
 known by the ,latin name  of ,cadmia   
,fornacum1 among which it appears fixed 
in a radiated  form4 ,to this other     
matter we may properly enough give the  
name of  ,furnace-,calamine4 ,the ,zinc 
falls in the form of a melted metal1 all
  on fire1 and in a bright flame4 ,it   
would soon be entirely burnt and        
reduced to flowers1 as we shall see1 if 
it were not extinguished1 and  easily   
cooled and fixed1 by being hid under the
 unlighted small-coal  placed below on  
purpose to receive it4    ,the ,zinc    
adheres to the fore-part of the furnace 
preferably to any  other1 because that  
being the thinnest is therefore the     

coolest3 and1  in order further to      
promote its fixing on this part1 they   
take care to  keep the thin stone plates
 cool during the operation1 by throwing 
water  on them4    ,hence it appears1   
that ,zinc is not extracted from its ore
 by fusion and  the precipitation of a  
,regulus1 like other metallic           
substances4 ,this is  owing to the great
 volatility of our semi-metal1 which    
cannot1 without  subliming1 bear the    
degree of fire necessary to melt its    
ore4 ,it is at  the same time so        
combustible1 that a great part of it    
rises in flowers  which have not the    
metalline form4    ,mr4 ,marggraff      
provides against these inconveniences by
 working the  ore of ,zinc in close     
vessels4 ,by this means he prevents the 
,zinc from  taking fire1 and being      
converted into flowers2 so that it      
sublimes in  its metalline form4 ,the   
water in the recipient serves to receive
 and  cool the drops of ,zinc that may  
be forced quite over the helm4 ,as the  

operation requires a most violent fire1 
these drops must needs issue  exceeding 
hot1 and1 without this precaution1 break
 the recipient4    ,mr4 ,marggraff by   
the same process extracted ,zinc out of 
the  ,furnace-,calamine procured from   
ores containing ,zinc2 from ,tutty1     
which  is a sort of furnace-calamine2   
from the flowers and from the calx of   
,zinc2 and from the precipitate of      
,white ,vitriol2 all of them matters    
known to be ,zinc1 that wanted nothing  
but the phlogiston to give it a         
semi-metalline form1 and from which     
nevertheless no body could ever  before 
him procure any ,zinc4    ,mr4          
,marggraff observes1 that the ,zinc     
obtained by his process bears  being    
flatted under the hammer into pretty    
thin plates2 which the  common ,zinc    
will not do4 ,the cause of this probably
 is1 that the ,zinc  obtained by his    
method is more intimately combined with 
the phlogiston1  and contains a greater 
quantity thereof1 than that which is    

procured in  the ordinary way4          
,,process ,,ii4    ,to sublime ,zinc    
into ,flowers4    ,take a very deep1    
large crucible3 place it in a furnace1  
so that it may  stand inclining in an   
angle of forty-five degrees nearly4     
,throw some  ,zinc into it1 and kindle a
 fire in the furnace somewhat stronger  
than  would be necessary to keep ,lead  
in fusion4 ,the ,zinc will melt4 ,stir  
it  with an iron wire1 and there will   
appear on its surface a very bright     
white flame3 two inches above this flame
 a thick smoke will be formed1  and with
 this smoke exceeding white ,flowers    
will rise1 and remain some  time        
adhering to the sides of the crucible1  
in the form of a very fine  light down4 
,when the flame slackens1 stir your     
melted matter again with  the iron wire3
 you will see the flame renewed1 and the
 flowers begin  again to appear in      
greater abundance4 ,go on thus till you 
observe that  the matter will not flame1
 nor any more ,flowers rise4            

,,observations4    ,zinc takes fire very
 easily as soon as it is affected by a  
certain  degree of heat2 which proves1  
that in the composition of this         
semi-metal there is very much           
phlogiston1 united but slightly with    
its metallic earth4 ,the ,flowers into  
which ,zinc resolves1 during its        
combustion1 are of a perfectly singular 
nature1 and differ greatly from  all the
 other productions obtainable out of    
metallic substances4    ,they may be    
considered as the very calx of ,zinc1 or
 its metallic earth  robbed of its      
phlogiston1 and sublimed during the     
combustion of this  semi-metal1 being   
probably carried up by the phlogiston in
 flying off4  ,for these ,flowers1 when 
once sublimed1 are afterwards           
exceedingly  fixed3 they sustain the    
greatest violence of fire without       
rising1 and  are converted by it into a 
sort of glass4    ,none of the methods  
hitherto employed1 for restoring to the 
,flowers  of ,zinc their metalline form1

 have ever succeeded4 ,when treated like
  other metalline calces in a crucible1 
with every kind of inflammable  matter1 
and different sorts of reducing fluxes1 
they never can be  re-metallized3 they  
only melt with the flux1 and produce a  
kind of  ,glass4    ,mr4 ,marggraff     
indeed1 as mentioned before1 obtained   
,zinc from these  ,flowers1 by treating 
them as he did ,calamine in a retort    
with  charcoal-dust3 but as the ,flowers
 often carry up with them little        
particles of undecomposed ,zinc1 there  
still remains some doubt  concerning the
 reduction of these ,flowers1 even by   
this method4    ,if the crucible1 into  
which you put the ,zinc to be converted 
into  ,flowers1 instead of being left   
open1 as directed1 be covered with      
another crucible inverted1 the two      
vessels luted together1 placed in  a    
melting furnace1 and a strong fire      
immediately kindled and kept up  for    
about half an hour2 you will find1 when 
the vessels are cold1 that  all the     

,zinc hath left the lower crucible1 and 
is sublimed into the  upper one1 in its 
metalline form1 without suffering any   
decomposition4  ,this experiment proves1
 that ,zinc1 to be converted into       
,flowers1 must  necessarily be set on   
fire and burnt4 ,as it cannot burn in   
close  vessels1 any more than other     
combustible bodies1 and as it is        
volatile1  it sublimes without suffering
 any decomposition4 ,regulus of         
,antimony  and ,bismuth may be sublimed 
in the same manner2 but not so easily as
  ,zinc1 which is still more volatile   
than those other semi-metals4    ,it is 
necessary to stir the ,zinc in fusion   
from time to time with  an iron wire1   
when you intend to convert it into      
,flowers3 for there  forms on its       
surface a grey crust that obstructs its 
deflagration1  and beneath which it is  
gradually converted into a clotted calx4
 ,in  order1 therefore1 to promote the  
rising of the flowers1 care must be     
taken to break this crust1 as oft as it 

begins to form4 ,on this there          
immediately appears a very bright white 
flame3 two inches above the  flame is   
seen a thick smoke1 and with this smoke 
very white ,flowers  rise1 that continue
 some time adhering to the inside of the
 crucible1  in the form of a fine down4 
,m4 ,malouin1 who1 in sundry ,memoirs on
 ,zinc1 hath endeavoured to  discover   
what resemblance there is between this  
semi-metal and ,tin1  tried to calcine  
,zinc in the same manner as ,tin2 but   
found it somewhat  more difficult4      
,zinc1 while it is not in fusion1 doth  
not calcine2 but  it begins to turn to a
 calx the moment it begins to melt4 ,m4 
,malouin1  having repeated the fusion of
 ,zinc a great number of times1 by that 
means collected at last a quantity of   
the calx of this semi-metal1  resembling
 other metalline calces4 ,this calx of  
,zinc he melted in  a crucible with     
animal fat2 whereby the calx was        
re-metallized1 and  reduced to ,zinc4   
,there is great reason to believe that  

the calx of ,zinc  made by this method  
is not so much burnt as the ,flowers1   
and that it  still contains a portion of
 phlogiston4      ,,process ,,iii4      
,to combine ,zinc with ,copper4 ,brass4 
,prince's ,metal1 c4    ,pound one part 
and an half of ,calamine1 and an equal  
quantity of  charcoal3 mingle these two 
powders together1 and moisten them with 
a  little water4 ,put this mixture into 
a large crucible1 or some other  earthen
 vessel that will bear a melting heat4  
,amongst and over this  mixture put one 
part of very pure ,copper in thin       
plates1 and then put  fresh             
charcoal-dust over all3 cover the       
crucible2 set it in a melting  furnace2 
put coals all round it1 and let them    
kindle gradually4 ,raise  the fire so as
 to make the crucible very red-hot4     
,when you observe  that the flame hath  
acquired a purple or bluish-green       
colour1 uncover  the crucible1 and dip  
into it an iron wire1 to examine whether
 or no  the copper be in fusion under   

the charcoal-dust4 ,if you find it is1  
moderate the force of the fire a little1
 and let your crucible remain  in the   
furnace for a few minutes4 ,then take it
 out and let it cool3 you  will find    
your ,copper of a gold colour1 increased
 in weight a fourth1  or perhaps a third
 part1 and yet very malleable4          
,,observations4    ,the ,lapis          
,calaminaris is not the only substance  
with which ,copper  may be converted    
into brass3 all other ores containing   
,zinc1 the  ,furnace-,calamine that     
sublimes where such ores are worked1    
,tutty1 ,zinc  in substance1 may be     
substituted for it1 and1 like it1 will  
make very  fine ,brass2 but1 in order to
 succeed1 sundry precautions are        
necessary  which we shall now lay before
 you4    ,this process is a sort of     
cementation3 for the ,calamine doth not 
melt2  only the ,zinc is converted into 
vapours1 and then combines with the     
,copper4 ,on this the success of the    
operation partly depends1 as it  is the 

means of the ,copper's preserving its   
purity and malleability2  because the   
other metallic substances that may be   
united with the ore  of ,zinc1 or with  
the ,zinc itself1 not having the same   
volatility1  cannot be reduced to       
vapours4 ,if you are apprised that the  
,calamine1  or other ore of ,zinc used  
on this occasion1 is contaminated with a
  mixture of any other metallic matter1 
you must mingle luting earth  with the  
charcoal-dust and the matter containing 
the ,zinc2 make it  into stiff paste    
with water2 of this make a bed at the   
bottom of your  crucible1 and ram it    
hard down2 lay the ,copper plates       
thereon1 cover  them with charcoal-dust1
 and then proceed as before4 ,by this   
means when  the ,copper melts it cannot 
fall to the bottom of the crucible1 nor 
mix  with the ore2 but is borne up by   
the mixture1 and cannot combine with    
any thing but the ,zinc1 that rises in  
vapours1 and1 passing through the  lute1
 fixes in the ,copper4    ,lapis        

,calaminaris1 or other ore of ,zinc1 may
 also be purified before  it be used for
 making ,brass2 especially if           
adulterated with ,lead ore1  which is   
often the case4 ,for this purpose the   
ore must be roasted in  a fire strong   
enough to give a small degree of fusion 
to the leaden  matter2 which will       
thereby be reduced into larger1 heavier1
 and tougher  masses4 ,the most subtile 
particles are dissipated in the         
torrefaction1  together with some of the
 ,calamine4 ,the ,calamine1 on the      
contrary1 is  by roasting made more     
tender1 lighter1 and much more friable4 
,when it  is in this condition1 put it  
into a washing tray or van2 dip the tray
  in a vessel full of water1 and bruise 
the matter it contains4 ,the water  will
 carry off the lightest powder1 which is
 the ,calamine1 and leave  nothing at   
the bottom of the tray but the heaviest 
substance2 that is  the leaden matter1  
which is to be rejected as useless4 ,the
 powder of  the ,calamine will settle at

 the bottom of the vessel1 where1 after 
pouring off the water1 it may be found1 
and used as above directed4    ,in this 
operation the charcoal-dust serves to   
prevent both the ,copper  and the ,zinc 
from being calcined3 and for this       
reason1 when you work  on a great       
quantity of materials at once1 it is not
 necessary to use  so much              
charcoal-dust1 in proportion1 as when   
you work but on a small  quantity2      
because1 the greater the mass of metal1 
the less easily will  it calcine4       
,though the ,copper melts in this       
operation1 yet it is far from being     
necessary to apply such a strong fire as
 ,copper usually requires to  melt it3  
for the accession of the ,zinc1 on this 
occasion1 communicates  to it a great   
deal of fusibility4 ,the increase of its
 weight is also  owing to the quantity  
of ,zinc combined with it4 ,copper      
acquires still  another advantage by its
 association with this semi-metal2 for  
it  remains longer in the fire without  

calcining4    ,brass well prepared ought
 to be malleable when cold4 ,but in     
whatever  manner it be made1 and        
whatever proportion of ,zinc there be in
 it1 it  is constantly found quite      
unmalleable when red-hot4    ,brass     
melted in a crucible1 with a fierce     
heat1 takes fire almost like  ,zinc1 and
 from its surface many white flowers    
ascend1 dancing about  in flakes like   
the flowers of ,zinc4 ,they are indeed  
the flowers of  ,zinc1 and the flame of 
,brass urged by a strong fire is no     
other than  the flame of the ,zinc that 
is united with the ,copper1 and at that 
time burns4 ,if ,brass be thus kept long
 in fusion it will lose almost  all the 
,zinc it contains4 ,it will also lose   
much of its weight1 and  its colour will
 be nearly that of ,copper4 ,it is      
therefore necessary1  towards performing
 this operation aright1 to seize the    
moment when the  ,copper is sufficiently
 impregnated with ,zinc1 when it hath   
acquired  the most weight and the finest

 colour1 with the least detriment to its
  ductility1 that is possible1 and that 
instant to put out the fire2  because1  
if the ,copper be left longer in fusion1
 it will only lose  the ,zinc already   
united with it4 ,skill acquired by much 
practice1 and  an acquaintance with the 
particular ,calamine employed1 are      
necessary  to guide the artist surely   
through this operation2 for there are   
very  considerable differences between  
the sundry ores of ,zinc4 ,some of them 
contain ,lead1 as was said above1 and in
 others there is ,iron4 ,when  these    
heterogeneous metals come to be mixed   
with the ,copper1 they do  indeed       
augment its weight1 but they render it  
at the same time pale1  and make it very
 harsh4 ,some ,calamines require to be  
roasted before  they can be used for    
this purpose1 and in the torrefaction   
emit vapours  of a ,volatile ,alkali1   
succeeded by vapours of a ,sulphureous  
,spirit3  others exhale no vapours while
 roasting1 and may be employed without  

any antecedent preparation4 ,these      
different qualities must evidently      
produce great differences in the        
operation4    ,brass may also be made as
 ,prince's metal and other imitations of
 ,gold  are actually made1 by using     
,zinc in substance1 instead of the ores 
that  contain it4 ,but these            
compositions have not1 when cold1 the   
ductility  of ,brass prepared with      
,lapis ,calaminaris1 because ,zinc is   
seldom  pure1 or free from a mixture of 
,lead4 ,perhaps also the different      
manner in which the ,zinc unites with   
the ,copper may contribute to this      
variation4    ,to obviate this          
inconvenience1 the ,zinc must be refined
 from all alloy  of ,lead4 ,the property
 of being indissoluble by ,sulphur1     
which this  semi-metal possesses1 points
 out a very practicable method of doing 
it4 ,the ,zinc must be melted in a      
crucible1 and stirred briskly with  a   
strong iron wire1 while tallow and      
mineral ,sulphur are alternately        

projected upon it2 but so that the      
quantity of ,sulphur may greatly  exceed
 that of the tallow4 ,if the ,sulphur do
 not burn entirely away1  but form a    
kind of scoria on the surface of the    
,zinc1 it is a sign  that your          
semi-metal contains ,lead4 ,in this case
 you must continue  throwing in more    
,sulphur1 and keep stirring the ,zinc   
incessantly1 till  you perceive that the
 ,sulphur ceases to unite any more with 
a metallic  substance1 but burns freely 
on the surface of the ,zinc4 ,the       
semi-metal  is then refined1 because the
 ,sulphur1 which cannot dissolve it1    
unites  very readily with the ,lead1 or 
other metallic substance1 contained in  
it4    ,if ,zinc thus refined be mixed  
with pure ,copper1 in the proportion  of
 a fourth or a third part1 and the      
mixture be kept in fusion and           
constantly stirring for some time1 the  
,brass produced will be as  ductile1    
when cold1 as that made by cementation  
with the ,lapis  ,calaminaris4    ,with 

regard to ,prince's metal1 and other    
imitations of ,gold1 they are  made     
either with ,copper or ,brass           
re-combined with more ,zinc4 ,as it is  
necessary1 for giving them a fine golden
 colour1 to mix with them other         
proportions of ,zinc than that acquired 
to make ,brass only1 they are  generally
 much less ductile4 ,in #agbe1 ,m4      
,geoffroy gave a ,memoir on this        
subject in which he examined the effects
 of incorporating both ,copper  and     
,brass with ,zinc1 from a small to a    
very large quantity4      ,,process     
,,iv4    ,zinc dissolved in the ,mineral
 ,acids4    ,weaken concentrated ,oil of
 ,vitriol by mixing with it an equal    
quantity  of water4 ,into a matrass put 
the ,zinc you intend to dissolve1 first 
broken to small pieces4 ,pour on it six 
times its weight of the  ,vitriolic     
,acid1 lowered as above directed1 and   
set the matrass in a  sand-bath gently  
heated4 ,the ,zinc will dissolve        
entirely1 without any  sediment4 ,the   

,neutral ,metallic ,salt resulting from 
this dissolution  shoots into crystals1 
which go by the name of ,white ,vitriol1
 or  ,vitriol of ,zinc4                 
,,observations4    ,though ,zinc be     
soluble in all the ,acids1 and when     
combined with  those ,acids exhibits    
some uncommon phenomena1 yet ,m4 ,hellot
 is the  first that ever gave a         
particular account of what happens in   
those  dissolutions3 so that all we have
 to say on this head is extracted  from 
that ,gentleman's ,memoirs4 ,if a       
solution of ,zinc in the ,vitriolic     
,acid1 prepared according to the        
directions in the process1 be  distilled
 from a retort placed in a sand-bath    
with a graduated heat1  almost half the 
liquor presently comes over in pure     
phlegm4 ,a small  quantity of a         
,sulphureous ,acid ,spirit rises next4  
,a greater force of  fire is now        
requisite3 the retort must therefore be 
removed into a  reverberatory1 and the  
distillation continued with a naked     

fire4 ,on the  first impression of this 
heat an odour of ,liver of ,sulphur     
discovers  itself1 which becomes sharp  
and suffocating towards the end of the  
distillation4 ,in two hours time white  
vapours begin to appear1 as in  the     
rectification of common ,oil of         
,vitriol4 ,if the receiver be then      
shifted1 you will obtain an ,oil of     
,vitriol1 in quantity about the         
eighteenth part of the whole used in the
 distillation1 which1 though            
sulphureous1 is yet so concentrated1    
that1 if a few drops thereof be  poured 
into a weak ,oil of ,vitriol1 they fall 
to the bottom with as much  noise as if 
they were so many bits of red-hot iron1 
and heat this ,oil  of ,vitriol as much 
as common ,oil of ,vitriol heats water4 
,at the bottom of the retort there      
remains a dry1 white1 crystalline1      
saline mass1 exceeding in weight the    
,zinc that was dissolved1 about  a      
twelfth part of the whole weight of the 
liquor4 ,the increase of  its weight is 

owing to a portion of the ,vitriolic    
,acid that remains  concentrated in the 
,zinc1 and could not be expelled by the 
fire4 ,this  portion of ,acid adheres to
 it most tenaciously3 for1 though ,m4   
,hellot  kept the retort containing it  
during two whole hours in so violent a  
fire that the vessel began to melt1 the 
smallest vapour did not rise  from it4  
,this saline caput mortuum is in the    
form of needles1 much like  the         
,sedative ,salt4 ,it is caustic1 grows  
considerably hot when water  is poured  
on it1 and gives in the air1 but slowly4
 ,spirit of wine1  digested with this   
,salt for eight or ten days1 acquires   
the same smell  as that which is mixed  
with concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol in   
preparing  ther4    ,zinc is dissolved  
by the ,nitrous and ,marine ,acids1 much
 in the same  manner as by the          
,vitriolic2 except that the ,marine     
,acid does not touch  a black1 spungy1  
rarefied matter1 which it separates from
 the ,zinc4 ,m4  ,hellot found upon     

trial that this matter is not ,mercury1 
and that it  cannot be reduced to a     
metallic substance4    ,that ingenious  
,chymist distilled likewise ,solutions  
of ,zinc in the  ,nitrous and ,marine   
,acids4 ,there came over at first1 as   
there did from  the solution made by the
 ,vitriolic ,acid1 an aqueous1 and then 
an  acidulated liquor4 ,at last1 by     
exciting the fire with great violence1  
towards the end of the distillation1 he 
obtained a small quantity of  the ,acid 
that hath been employed in the          
dissolution3 but the small  portion of  
,acid thus obtained was exceeding       
strong2 and the quantity of  the        
,nitrous much more considerable than    
that of the ,marine ,acid4    ,a        
solution of ,zinc in the ,marine ,acid1 
being distilled to dryness1  yields a   
,sublimate on applying a violent heat to
 it4    ,all the ,acids dissolve with   
ease1 not only ,zinc1 but its ,flowers  
also2 and that nearly in the same       
quantity1 and with almost all the  same 

phenomena4 ,m4 ,hellot1 observing that  
the residues of most of the  solutions  
of ,zinc have a great resemblance with  
its flowers1 is of  opinion that this   
semi-metal may be reduced1 by the means 
of solvents1  to the same state into    
which it is brought by the fire when    
sublimed in  ,flowers4          ,,chap4 
,,iv4    ,of ,,arsenic4      ,,process  
,i4    ,to extract ,arsenic from its    
,matrices4 ,zaffre or ,smalt4    ,powder
 some ,cobalt1 white ,pyrites1 or other 
,arsenical matters4 ,put  this powder   
into a retort with a short wide neck1   
leaving a full third  thereof empty4    
,set your retort in a reverberating     
furnace2 lute on a  receiver2 heat your 
vessel by degrees1 and increase the fire
 till you  see a powder sublime into the
 neck of the retort4 ,keep up the fire  
in  this degree as long as the          
sublimation continues3 when this begins 
to slacken1 raise your fire1 and make it
 as strong as the vessels  will bear4   
,when nothing more ascends1 let it go   

out4 ,on unluting the  vessels1 you will
 find in the receiver a little ,arsenic 
in the form of  a fine light farina4    
,the neck of the retort will be full of 
white  flowers1 not quite so fine1 some 
of which will appear like little        
crystals2 and if a good deal of ,arsenic
 be sublimed1 a ponderous  matter1 like 
a white1 semi-transparent glass1 will be
 found adhering to  that part of the    
neck of the retort which is next its    
body4      ,,observations4    ,arsenic  
is a metallic substance still more      
volatile than ,zinc2 so  that it cannot 
be separated from the matters with which
 it is mixed  otherwise than by         
sublimation4 ,it is proper1 however1 to 
take notice1  that it is not naturally  
in a metallic form1 and that1 properly  
speaking1 the whole ,sublimate obtained 
from ,cobalt1 as above directed1  is    
nothing but a metallic calx1 that cannot
 be brought to the form and  gloss of a 
metal1 till it be worked up with fatty  
matters1 as we shall  shew in its place4

    ,this calx is of a very singular    
nature1 and differs from every other    
metallic calx1 in that this is volatile1
 and all the rest extremely  fixed2 even
 those procured from the semi-metals3   
for the ,flowers of  ,zinc1 which are   
justly considered as a calcined ,zinc1  
though obtained  by a sort of           
sublimation1 are not for all that of a  
volatile nature1  but rather exceedingly
 fixed2 seeing they are capable of      
sustaining  the most violent fire1 and  
melt instead of subliming4 ,arsenic1 on 
the  contrary1 is not only extracted    
from its ore by sublimation1 but when   
once sublimed continues to be volatile1 
and flies off in vapours as  soon as it 
is exposed even to a moderate degree of 
heat4    ,this metallic matter1 before  
it is combined with the phlogiston1 is  
called ,white ,arsenic1 or plain        
,arsenic3 it acquires the title  of     
,regulus of ,arsenic when it is united  
with the phlogiston1 and  glitters like 
a metal4    ,though ,arsenic be         

volatile1 yet it requires a pretty      
strong fire to  separate it from the    
minerals containing it1 especially in   
close  vessels2 because it adheres very 
close to earthy and vitrifiable         
matters4 ,this adhesion is so firm1     
that1 when thus combined1 it is  capable
 of bearing a melting heat1 and         
vitrifies with metallic calces1  and    
other fusible matters4 ,on this account 
it is impossible to extract  from       
,cobalt1 or other ,arsenical matters1   
all the ,arsenic they contain  by       
working them only in close vessels4 ,if 
such matters are to be  freed from all  
their ,arsenic1 you must1 after you have
 extracted all  they will yield by      
distillation1 put them into a crucible1 
and set  it uncovered in the midst of a 
strong fire4 ,many ,arsenical vapours   
will still rise2 and care must be taken 
to stir the contents of the  crucible   
frequently with an iron rod1 to         
facilitate the discharge of  the        
remaining ,arsenic4    ,it often happens

 that the ,arsenic1 obtained from       
minerals by  sublimation1 is not very   
white1 but of a lighter or darker grey  
colour4  ,this is owing to some         
particles of inflammable matter1 from   
which  ,arsenical minerals are seldom   
quite free4 ,a very small quantity of   
phlogiston is sufficient to deprive much
 ,arsenic of its whiteness1  and to give
 it a grey colour4 ,but when fouled in  
this manner1 it may  easily be brought  
to its due degree of whiteness3 it need 
only be  sublimed once more1 after      
mixing it with some substance on which  
it  doth not act2 ,sea-salt1 for        
instance4 ,if the matters from which    
,arsenic  is extracted contain ,sulphur 
also1 as some pyrites do1 the ,arsenic  
sublimes with much less heat1 than when 
it is united with earthy  matters only2 
because it combines with the ,sulphur1  
wherewith it hath  a great affinity1 and
 the ,sulphur serves to separate the    
,arsenic1 by  this interposition1 from  
the earth4 ,in consequence hereof1      

,sulphur may  be employed to extract    
,arsenic out of the earths in which it  
is fixed4  ,in this case1 the ,sulphur  
changes the colour of the ,arsenic1     
which it  makes of a lighter or deeper  
yellow1 or even red1 in proportion to   
the  quantity there is of it1 and to the
 degree of fire that hath acted on  both
 together4    ,the consistence of       
,arsenic is different1 according to the 
degree of  heat applied in subliming it4
 ,if the ,arsenical vapour meet with a  
cold  place1 it gathers there in the    
form of a powder1 as the ,flowers of    
,sulphur do3 this is the case with that 
which falls into the receiver in        
distilling it4 ,but if it be stopped in 
a hot place1 and cannot escape  from    
that heat1 it condenses into a heavy1   
compact1 semi-transparent  body1 having 
undergone the first degree of fusion4   
,yet it cannot be perfectly melted1 so  
as to flow like other fused  matters3   
not that it is refractory2 for1 on the  
contrary1 the degree of  heat in which  

it begins to melt is very moderate1 and 
it is in its own  nature very fit to    
promote the fusion of refractory        
matters3 but the  reason is this2 it is 
necessarily converted into vapours by   
the degree  of heat necessary to fuse   
it1 and these vapours burst the vessels1
 if  they find no vent4    ,arsenic made
 yellow by a mixture of ,sulphur1 which 
is also called  ,orpiment1 is reducible 
to the form of a solid ,sublimate with  
more  ease2 because it is alloyed with a
 twentieth1 or perhaps a tenth part1  of
 its weight of ,sulphur1 which renders  
it more fusible4    ,red ,arsenic1 which
 contains still more ,sulphur1 melts    
also more easily4  ,it then becomes of a
 transparent red1 like a ruby3 and      
hence1 when it  is in this form1 it is  
called ,ruby of ,arsenic4    ,when a    
combination of ,sulphur and ,arsenic is 
wanted1 it is better  to mingle and     
distil together such minerals as contain
 ,sulphur and  ,arsenic1 the white and  
the yellow pyrites1 for instance1 than  

to mingle  pure ,arsenic with pure      
,sulphur3 for the great volatility of   
these two  substances is a hindrance to 
their uniting2 whereas1 when combined   
with  other matters1 they are capable of
 sustaining a much greater degree of    
heat1 which favours and promotes their  
union4    ,those who work by the grate  
do not extract ,arsenic out of ,cobalt  
by  distillation3 they throw the ore    
mixed promiscuously with wood and       
charcoal into a great furnace1 from     
whence a flue carries the vapours  into 
a long winding passage1 across which    
beams of wood are fixed at  proper      
distances from each other4 ,the         
,arsenical vapours being conducted  into
 this passage1 adhere both to the sides 
thereof and to the joists  that lye     
across it4 ,the fuliginous parts of the 
combustible matters  being lighter      
ascend higher1 and go out through a     
chimney at the  farther end of this     
passage4    ,the ,arsenic sublimed by   
this method is not white1 but of a grey 

colour2  owing to the inflammable matter
 of the wood and charcoal with which the
  ore is torrefied4    ,when all the    
,arsenic the ,cobalt will yield is thus 
separated1 the  earthy fixed matter left
 behind is mixed with divers fusible    
matters  and vitrified1 and produces a  
glass of a beautiful blue colour4 ,it is
  called ,smalt4 ,this glass is to be   
prepared in the following manner4       
,take four parts of fine fusible sand1  
an equal quantity of any ,fixed  ,alkali
 perfectly depurated1 and one part of   
,cobalt from which the  ,arsenic hath   
been sublimed by torrefaction4          
,pulverize these different  substances  
very finely1 and mix them thoroughly    
together2 put the  mixture into a good  
crucible1 cover it1 and set it in a     
melting  furnace4 ,make a strong fire1  
and keep it up constantly in the same   
degree for some hours4 ,then dip an iron
 wire into the crucible2 to the  end of 
which a glassy matter will stick1 in the
 form of threads1 if the  fusion and    

vitrification be perfect4 ,in this case 
take the crucible out  of the fire2 cool
 it by throwing water on it1 and then   
break it4 ,you  will find in it a glass1
 which will be of an exceeding deep     
blue1 and  almost black1 if the         
operation hath succeeded4 ,this glass1  
when reduced  to a fine powder1 acquires
 a much brighter and more lively blue   
colour4    ,if you find after the       
operation that the glass hath too little
 colour1  the fusion must be repeated a 
second time1 with twice or thrice the   
quantity of ,cobalt4 ,if1 on the        
contrary1 the glass be too dark1 less   
,cobalt must be used4    ,instead of the
 mixture here prescribed you may employ 
a ready-made  glass1 providing it be    
white and fusible4 ,but as glass is     
always  hard to melt1 and as the mixing 
,cobalt with it renders it still more   
refractory1 therefore though an         
,alkaline ,salt be one of the           
ingredients  in its composition1 it is  
proper to promote the fusion1 by mixing 

therewith calcined wine-lees1 in the    
quantity of one third part of the       
weight of the ,cobalt4    ,in order to  
make the assay of a particular ,cobalt1 
with a view to know  what quantity of   
blue glass it will yield1 it is         
necessary to perform  the operation in  
the manner here set down2 a great deal  
of time and  trouble may be saved by    
melting one part of ,cobalt with two or 
three  parts of ,borax4 ,this ,salt is  
very fusible1 and turns1 when melted1   
into  a substance which1 for a time1    
possesses all the properties of glass4  
,in this trial the glass of ,borax will 
be nearly of the same colour as  the    
true glass1 or ,smalt1 made with the    
same ,cobalt4    ,the ores of ,bismuth1 
as well as ,cobalt1 yield a matter that 
colours  glass blue2 nay1 the ,smalt    
made with these ores is more beautiful  
than  that procured from the ore of pure
 ,arsenic4 ,some ,cobalts yield both    
,arsenic and ,bismuth4 ,when such       
,cobalts are used1 it is common to find 

at the bottom of the crucible a little  
button of metallic matter1 which  is    
called ,regulus of ,cobalt4 ,this       
,regulus is a sort of ,bismuth1         
generally adulterated with a mixture of 
ferruginous and arsenical parts4    ,the
 heaviest and most fixed ,flowers of    
,arsenic1 procured from ,cobalt1  have  
likewise the property of giving a blue  
colour to glass4 ,but this  colour is   
faint3 it is owing to a portion of the  
colouring matter  carried up along with 
the ,arsenic4 ,these ,flowers may be    
made an  ingredient in the composition  
of blue glass1 not only because of the  
colouring principle they contain1 but   
also because they greatly promote       
fusion2 ,arsenic being one of the most  
efficacious fluxes known4    ,in short1 
all those blue glasses1 or ,smalts1     
contain a certain quantity  of ,arsenic2
 for a portion of this semi-metal always
 remains united with  the fixed matter  
of the ,cobalt1 though roasted for a    
long time1 and in  a very hot fire4 ,the

 portion of ,arsenic that is thus fixed 
vitrifies  with the colouring matter1   
and enters into the composition of the  
,smalt4    ,the blue glass made with the
 fixed part of ,cobalt hath several     
names1  according to the condition in   
which it is4 ,when it hath undergone the
  first imperfect degree of fusion only 
it is called ,zaffre4 ,it takes  the    
name of ,smalt when perfectly vitrified3
 and this again being  pulverized is    
called ,powder-blue1 or1 if finely      
levigated1 ,blue  ,enamel2 because it is
 used in enamelling1 as well as in      
painting  earthen ware and porcelain4   
,,process ,,ii4    ,to separate ,arsenic
 from ,sulphur4    ,powder the yellow or
 red ,arsenic which you intend to       
separate from  its ,sulphur4 ,moisten   
this powder with a ,fixed ,alkali       
resolved into a  liquor4 ,dry the       
mixture gently2 put it into a very tall 
glass cucurbit1  and fit on a           
blind-head4 ,set this cucurbit in a     
sand-bath2 warm the  vessels gently1 and

 increase the fire by degrees1 till you 
perceive  that no more ,arsenic         
sublimes4 ,the ,arsenic1 which before   
was yellow  or red1 rises into the head 
partly in white flowers1 and partly in a
  compact1 white1 semi-transparent      
matter1 which looks as if it were       
vitrified4 ,the ,sulphur combined with  
the ,fixed ,alkali remains at the       
bottom of the cucurbit4                 
,,observations4    ,a ,fixed ,alkali    
hath more affinity than any metallic    
substance with  ,sulphur3 so that it is 
not surprising ,sulphur should be       
separated from  ,arsenic by its         
interposition4 ,yet there is an         
inconvenience attends the  use of it3   
for it hath a great affinity with the   
,arsenic also1 and so  always retains   
some part thereof1 which continues fixed
 with it4 ,for  this reason care should 
be taken not to mix1 with sulphurated   
,arsenic1  a greater quantity of ,alkali
 than is necessary to absorb the        
,sulphur  it contains4 ,nothing1        

however1 but experience and repeated    
trials  can teach us the exact quantity 
of ,alkali that ought to be employed2   
because the quantity of ,sulphur that   
may be contained in yellow or red       
,arsenic is indefinite4    ,the vessel  
ought to be tall1 that the upper part of
 the head1 where the  ,arsenical        
particles condense1 may be the less     
exposed to heat4 ,towards  the end of   
the operation the fire must be strongly 
excited1 so as to  make the sand        
red-hot2 because the last portions of   
,arsenic that rise  are strongly        
retained by the ,fixed ,alkali4         
,arsenic that is grey or blackish may be
 depurated and whitened by the  same    
means2 because a ,fixed ,alkali absorbs 
the phlogiston likewise with  great     
avidity4 ,mercury1 as well as a ,fixed  
,alkali1 is an excellent  additament for
 separating ,arsenic from ,sulphur4 ,if 
you will use it for  that purpose1      
reduce the sulphurated ,arsenic to a    
very fine powder1 by  rubbing it a long 

time in a glass mortar2 when it is well 
pulverized1  let a few drops of ,mercury
 fall upon it1 by squeezing it through  
chamoy1 and continue the trituration4   
,the yellow or red colour of  the       
,arsenic will insensibly change1 and    
gradually grow darker as the  ,mercury  
incorporates with it4 ,when the ,mercury
 is perfectly killed1  add a little more
 of it than you did the first time1 and 
in the same  manner3 continue to        
triturate till it disappear2 and thus go
 on adding  more and more till the      
,mercury you add remain quick1 and you  
can kill  no more of it4 ,neither the   
red nor the yellow colour will then     
appear  in the mixture2 which will be   
grey1 if it contain but a little        
,sulphur1  and black1 if a great deal4  
,put this mixture into a very tall glass
 cucurbit2 fit on a blind-head2  set it 
in a sand-bath1 and bury it in the sand 
as far as the contained  mixture        
reaches4 ,heat the vessels1 and1 during 
the whole operation1  keep up a degree  

of fire a little weaker than that       
required for  subliming ,cinabar4 ,white
 ,arsenical ,flowers will adhere to the 
upper  part of the head1 amongst which  
will be some beautiful crystals of      
,arsenic2 and underneath them you will  
find some ,cinabar sublimed1 but  not   
entirely free from ,arsenic4 ,if you    
desire to have your ,cinabar and  your  
,arsenic purer1 and more unmixed with   
each other1 separate the  upper         
sublimate1 which is ,arsenical1 from the
 lower1 which consists  chiefly of      
,cinabar4 ,powder each of them coarsely1
 and sublime them  separately each in a 
different cucurbit4    ,on this occasion
 the ,mercury separates the ,sulphur    
from the ,arsenic1  because it hath a   
greater affinity than ,arsenic with that
 mineral4 ,it  is not the only metallic 
substance of this character3 for1 as    
hath  been shewn1 there are several     
others that have a greater affinity     
than ,mercury with ,sulphur1 being able 
to decompose ,cinabar by their          

interposition4 ,yet those metallic      
substances must not be substituted  for 
,mercury in the present operation3      
because there is none of them  but hath 
at the same time a very great affinity  
with ,arsenic1 or even  as strong an one
 as they have with ,sulphur2 whereas    
,mercury will by no  means unite with   
,arsenic4    ,this method of separating 
,arsenic from ,sulphur hath two         
advantages over  that in which a ,fixed 
,alkali is the medium4 ,the first is1   
that by this  means all the ,arsenic    
contained in the mixture is extracted   
out of it2  and the second1 that1 as    
,mercury doth not absorb ,arsenic1 we   
are not  put to the trouble of groping  
out1 as it were1 by trials the quantity 
necessary to be added2 and that1 though 
more be added than is necessary  to     
absorb all the ,sulphur1 it will be of  
no prejudice to the operation4  ,but    
then it is attended with the            
inconvenience of being much more        
tedious and more laborious than the     

other4 ,for1 in the first place1 it     
requires previously a very tiresome     
trituration1 in order to procure an     
union between the ,sulphur and the      
,mercury1 and so to form an thiops2     
without which the ,mercury and the      
sulphurated ,arsenic will sublime       
separately1 so that no decomposition    
will be effected4 ,secondly1 though  the
 ,mercury be sufficiently united with   
the ,sulphur of the ,arsenic  by the    
long trituration that precedes the      
sublimation1 this doth not  prevent1 as 
we took notice above1 the sublimed      
,arsenic and ,cinabar  from being in    
some measure blended together2 so that  
each requires a  second separate        
sublimation to render it very pure4     
,these inconveniencies cause a ,fixed   
,alkali to be used preferably to        
,mercury2 the loss of a small quantity  
of the ,arsenic1 which remains  united  
with the ,alkali1 being little regarded2
 as that metallic  substance is neither 
scarce nor precious4    ,when ,arsenic  

is united with a great quantity of      
,sulphur1 it may be  freed from a part  
thereof without the intervention of any 
third body3  it is sufficient for the   
purpose to sublime it with a very gentle
 fire1  increased by insensible degrees4
 ,the most sulphureous part ascends     
first2 what rises afterwards is more    
,arsenical1 and less sulphureous2  and  
the last flowers of all are pure        
,arsenic1 or at least nearly so4        
,,process ,,iii4    ,to give ,arsenic   
the ,metalline ,form4 ,regulus of       
,arsenic4    ,take two parts of white   
,arsenic in fine powder1 one part of the
 black  flux1 half a part of ,borax1 and
 as much clean iron filings4 ,rub the   
whole together1 in order to mix them    
thoroughly4 ,put this mixture into  a   
good crucible1 and over it put ,sea-salt
 three fingers thick4 ,cover  the       
crucible2 set it in a melting furnace2  
and begin with a gentle fire  to heat   
the crucible equally4    ,when arsenical
 vapours begin to ascend from the       

crucible1 raise the  fire immediately so
 as to melt the mixture4 ,examine       
whether or no the  matter be thoroughly 
melted1 by introducing an iron wire into
 the  crucible2 and if the fusion be    
perfect1 take the crucible out of the   
furnace4 ,let it cool2 break it2 and you
 will find in it a ,regulus of  a white 
and livid metallic colour1 very brittle1
 scarcely hard1 but  rather friable4    
,,observations4    ,white ,arsenic is1  
as hath been said1 a metallic calx2 and 
consequently  wants no more1 in order to
 its acquiring the metalline properties1
 than  to be combined with the          
phlogiston3 this is effected by the     
operation  before us4    ,the ,iron     
added doth not serve here1 as in making 
the ,regulus of  ,antimony1 to          
precipitate the ,regulus of ,arsenic1 by
 separating it from  some other         
substance with which it was united3 on  
this occasion it does  nothing but join 
the ,regulus of ,arsenic1 to which it   
gives solidity and  consistence4 ,this  

is the only reason of its being made an 
ingredient  in the mixture2 as the      
,regulus of ,arsenic1 without it1 would 
have such  a tender consistence1 that it
 could scarce be handled without falling
  asunder into little bits4 ,the ,iron  
procures a further advantage in this    
process2 which is1 that it prevents a   
great quantity of ,arsenic from  being  
lost in vapours3 for the ,arsenic1 with 
which it combines1 is  restrained1 and1 
in some measure1 fixed by it4    ,copper
 may be substituted for ,iron1 and      
procures the same advantages4    ,it is 
very necessary to remove the crucible   
from the fire as soon  as the matter is 
melted1 and indeed to cool it as        
expeditiously as  possible1 to prevent  
the ,arsenic from flying off in vapours3
 for1 when  once the ,regulus is formed1
 the proportion of ,arsenic1 with       
respect  to that of the metal mixed with
 it1 is continually lessening while it  
stays in the fire2 so that1 after some  
time1 there will be left in the         

crucible1 not a ,regulus of ,arsenic1   
but only ,iron or ,copper1 alloyed  with
 a little ,arsenic4 ,on this occasion   
the ,copper turns white1 and  assumes   
the colour of ,silver2 but it soon      
tarnishes in the air4    ,it is easy to 
perceive1 by what hath been said1 that  
the ,regulus of  ,arsenic made according
 to this process is never pure1 but     
contains  always a considerable quantity
 of ,iron or ,copper1 whatever          
precautions  be used3 but it is         
difficult to avoid this inconvenience1  
for the  reasons above assigned2 and if 
we attempt to fuse ,arsenic alone1 with 
reducing fluxes1 the greatest part      
thereof is dissipated in vapours1  long 
before the very flux begins to melt3 and
 that part of it1 which  is found       
metallized1 is not collected in one mass
 at the bottom of the  crucible1 as in  
other metallic reductions2 but in small 
particles1  dispersed and mixed among   
the scori4 ,there are nevertheless      
several  expedients for obtaining a     

,regulus of ,arsenic absolutely pure1   
and  unalloyed with any metallic        
substance4    ,first3 into a little low 
cucurbit1 covered with a blind-head1 put
  ,regulus of ,arsenic made with ,iron  
or ,copper2 set this cucurbit in a      
sand-bath2 heat it till the sand begins 
to grow red1 and you will  see part of  
the ,regulus sublime into the head1     
still retaining  its metalline          
splendour4 ,the portion of ,regulus thus
 sublimed is  pure ,arsenic1 or at least
 contains but a very small portion of   
the  adventitious metal1 which may have 
been carried up with it4 ,what is  left 
in the bottom of the cucurbit is the    
metal that was added1 still  containing 
a little ,arsenic1 which continues      
obstinately fixed with it1  and which   
the violence of fire is unable to force 
away from it in close  vessels4         
,secondly3 mix your ,arsenic in equal   
parts with the black flux2 put  the     
mixture into such a cucurbit as that    
last mentioned2 and apply to  it the    

strongest degree of heat that can be    
procured by a sand-bath2  arsenical     
flowers1 of a blackish grey colour1 will
 first sublime into  the head1 and after
 them a ,regulus of ,arsenic of a white 
metalline  colour1 which is pretty      
glossy1 but tarnishes very soon in the  
air4  ,this ,regulus hath no solidity3  
it is exceedingly friable2 but it is    
pure4    ,thirdly3 ,i have also made a  
,regulus of pure ,arsenic by another    
method1  which produces a much greater  
quantity thereof1 with a much smaller   
degree of heat4 ,for this purpose ,i    
powder the ,arsenic1 and mix with it    
any ,fat ,oil2 so that the mixture may  
be like a liquid paste3 this paste  ,i  
put into a little phial of thin glass1  
like one of those used by  apothecaries2
 ,i set this phial in a sand-bath1 and  
gradually heat it1  till the bottom of  
the pot containing the sand begin to be 
red4 ,part of  the ,oil first rises out 
of the phial in vapours1 which must be  
suffered  to pass off4 ,after this the  

upper part of the phial is gradually    
lined1  on the inside1 with a glittering
 metallic crust1 which makes it look    
like a quick-silvered glass4 ,this crust
 is the ,regulus of ,arsenic4 ,when  it 
begins to sublime1 the mouth of the     
phial must be slightly stopped  with a  
bit of paper1 and the heat increased a  
little1 till you see that  nothing more 
rises4    ,if you break the bottle after
 the operation1 you will find its upper 
part crusted over with a coat of        
,regulus1 thicker or thinner in         
proportion to the quantity of ,arsenic  
employed4 ,the ,regulus is in a  mass1  
of a beautiful brilliant colour1 which  
to me seems to stand the  air better    
than that of any ,regulus made by other 
methods2 probably  because of the great 
quantity of fat matter with which it is 
united1  and by which it is defended4   
,this ,regulus of ,arsenic is absolutely
 pure1 and a much greater quantity      
thereof is obtained1 by this method1    
than by treating it with the black      

flux2 because the ,arsenic is much      
sooner and more easily combined  with   
the inflammable matter3 and hence it    
comes to pass that part of  the ,arsenic
 doth not rise at first in grey flowers1
 as in operating  with the black flux4  
,moreover1 by our process1 all the      
,arsenic is  sublimed in ,regulus3      
whereas1 when the black flux is         
employed1 a pretty  considerable part of
 the ,arsenic unites with the alkaline  
part of the  flux1 and remains fixed    
therewith4 ,in our operation there is   
nothing  left at the bottom of the      
phial1 except an oily1 light1 but very  
fixed  coal4    ,regulus of ,arsenic1 in
 whatever manner made1 may be easily    
reduced  into white1 crystalline        
,arsenic1 by the means of a ,fixed      
,alkali1 or  of ,mercury1 applied in the
 same manner as for separating ,arsenic 
from  ,sulphur4      ,,process ,,iv4    
,to distil the ,nitrous ,acid by the    
interposition of ,arsenic4 ,blue ,aqua  
,fortis4 ,a new ,neutral ,salt of       

,arsenic4    ,pulverize finely any      
quantity you please of refined          
,salt-petre4 ,mix  it accurately with an
 equal weight of white crystalline      
,arsenic1 well  pulverized1 or else with
 very white and very fine flowers of    
,arsenic4  ,put this mixture into a     
glass retort1 leaving one half of it    
empty4  ,set your retort in a           
reverberating furnace2 apply a receiver 
having a  small hole drilled in it1 and 
containing a little filtered rain-water2
  lute the receiver to the retort with  
stiff lute4 ,begin with putting two  or 
three small live coals in the ash-hole  
of the furnace1 and replace  them with  
others when they are ready to go out4   
,go on thus warming your  vessels by    
insensible degrees1 and put no coals in 
the fire-place1  till the retort begin  
to be very warm4 ,you will soon see the 
receiver  filled with vapours of a      
dark-red1 inclining to a russet colour4 
,with  a bit of lute stop the little    
hole of the receiver4 ,the vapours will 

be condensed in the water of this       
vessel1 and give it a very fine blue    
colour1 that will grow deeper and deeper
 as the distillation advances4  ,if your
 ,salt-petre was not very dry1 some     
drops of ,acid will also come  over1 and
 falling from the nose of the retort mix
 with the water in  the receiver4       
,continue your distillation1 increasing 
the fire little  by little as it        
advances1 but exceeding slowly1 till you
 see that when  the retort is red-hot   
nothing more comes off2 and then let    
your vessels  cool4    ,when the vessels
 are cold1 unlute the receiver1 and1 as 
expeditiously  as you can1 pour the blue
 aqua fortis it contains into a crystal 
bottle2 which you must seal             
hermetically1 because this colour       
disappears in a short time when the     
liquor takes air4 ,you will find in  the
 retort a white saline mass moulded in  
its bottom1 and some flowers  of        
,arsenic sublimed to its upper cavity1  
and into its neck4    ,pulverize the    

saline mass1 and dissolve it in warm    
water4 ,filter the  solution1 in order  
to separate some arsenical parts that   
will be left  on the filter4 ,let the   
filtered liquor evaporate of itself in  
the  open air2 when it is sufficiently  
evaporated1 crystals will shoot in  it  
representing quadrangular prisms1       
terminated at each extremity  by        
pyramids1 that are also quadrangular4   
,these crystals will be in  confused    
heaps at the bottom of the vessel3 over 
them will be other  crystals in the form
 of needles2 a saline vegetation        
creeping along the  sides of the vessel2
 and the surface of the liquor will be  
obscured by  a thin dusty pellicle4     
,,observations4    ,arsenic1 as we took 
notice in our ,elements of the ,theory1 
besides the  properties it hath in      
common with metallic substances1        
possesses others  also in common with   
saline substances4 ,one of the most     
remarkable among  the latter is that of 
decomposing ,nitre2 of expelling the    

,acid of that  ,salt from its ,alkaline 
basis1 assuming its place1 and forming  
with that  ,alkali a ,neutral ,salt1    
which is very soluble in water1 and     
shoots into  regular crystals4    ,to   
inquire into what passes in the         
decomposition of ,nitre by ,arsenic1    
and into the new ,salt resulting from   
thence1 was the design of the  first    
,memoir given in by me to the ,academy  
of ,sciences on this  subject1 and from 
that the present process is copied4     
,though the whole  quantity of ,arsenic 
prescribed in the process doth not enter
 into the  composition of the new       
,neutral ,salt1 seeing some of it       
sublimes in  flowers1 that quantity must
 not therefore be thought too great3 for
  we see1 on the other hand1 that part  
of the ,nitre is not decomposed4  ,the  
needle-like ,salt is no other than      
,nitre that hath not suffered any       
decomposition1 and actually deflagrates 
on live coals like common ,nitre4       
,the precaution of putting some water in

 the receiver is absolutely  necessary1 
to condense the nitrous vapours that    
rise in the  distillation3 for they are 
so elastic1 so volatile1 so             
dephlegmated1  that a very small part of
 them will otherwise be condensed into a
  liquor1 while the rest will remain in 
the form of vapours1 to which  vent must
 be given through the small hole in the 
receiver1 as without  that they will    
burst the vessels with impetuosity3 and 
consequently  scarce any ,acid will be  
obtained2 especially if the ,nitre      
employed be  very dry1 as it must be to 
be reducible into a fine powder4    ,the
 blue colour communicated by the        
,nitrous ,acid to the water is very     
remarkable4 ,the cause that produces    
this colour is not yet known4    ,though
 the ,acid is1 on this occasion1        
mortified by a great quantity of  water1
 yet1 when it rises out of the retort1  
it is so concentrated as  to form1 even 
with that water1 if too much be not put 
in1 a most active  and even smoking aqua

 fortis4    ,it is necessary in this    
operation1 and more so than in any      
other1 to  warm the vessels gradually1  
and to proceed exceeding slowly2        
otherwise  the artist runs the risque of
 seeing his vessels burst to pieces with
  violence1 and with great danger to his
 person3 for ,arsenic acts on  ,nitre   
with incredible vivacity2 insomuch that1
 if a mixture of ,nitre  and ,arsenic be
 heated to a certain degree1 the ,nitre 
is decomposed  almost as rapidly1 and   
with as great an explosion1 as when it  
is made  to fulminate with an           
inflammable matter4 ,in short1 the      
appearances are  such1 that one would be
 almost induced to think the ,nitre     
really takes  fire on this occasion3    
though it be only decomposed just as it 
is by  the ,vitriolic ,acid4    ,the    
solution of the caput mortuum of this   
distillation contains1 at  the same     
time1 several sorts of ,salts3 to wit1  
#a4 the ,neutral ,salt  of ,arsenic1    
formed by the union of the ,arsenic with

 the basis of the  ,nitre2 this shoots  
into the prismatic crystals             
above-mentioned3 #b4 some  ,nitre that  
hath not been decomposed2 this forms the
 needles and part  of the vegetations3  
#c4 a small portion of ,arsenic1 that is
 known to be  soluble in water2 this    
forms the thin dark pellicle that covers
 the  surface of the liquor when it     
begins to evaporate4    ,for the        
properties of this new ,neutral ,salt of
 ,arsenic you may consult  what we have 
said thereupon in our ,elements of the  
,theory1 and in the  ,memoirs of the    
,academy of ,sciences4      ,,process   
,v4    ,to alkalizate ,nitre by         
,arsenic4    ,melt in a crucible the    
,nitre you intend to alkalizate4 ,when  
it is  melted1 and moderately red1      
project upon it two or three pinches of 
pulverized ,arsenic4 ,a considerable    
effervescence and ebullition  will      
immediately be produced in the crucible1
 attended with a noise  like that which 
,nitre makes1 when it detonates with an 

inflammable  matter4 ,at the same time a
 thick smoke will rise1 which at first  
will  smell like garlic1 the odour      
peculiar to ,arsenic2 it will also smell
  afterwards like ,spirit of ,nitre4    
,when the effervescence in the crucible 
is over1 throw again upon the ,nitre as 
much pulverized ,arsenic as  you did the
 first time2 and all the same phenomena 
will be repeated4  ,continue thus       
throwing in ,arsenic in small parcels1  
till it produce no  more effervescence2 
taking care to stir the matter at every 
projection  with an iron wire1 the      
better to mix the whole together4 ,then 
increase  your fire1 and melt what      
remains4 ,keep it thus in fusion for a  
quarter  of an hour1 and then take the  
crucible out of the fire4 ,it will      
contain  a ,nitre alkalizated by        
,arsenic4      ,,observations4    ,this 
operation1 as well as the preceding one1
 is a decomposition of  ,nitre by       
,arsenic2 yet the result is very        
different3 for1 instead of a  ,salt     

capable of crystallizing1 and           
discovering no tokens either of ,acid   
or ,alkali1 we obtain1 on this occasion1
 only a ,salt that runs into a  liquor  
by the moisture of the air1 doth not    
crystallize1 and hath all  the          
properties of an ,alkali4    ,these     
differences arise only from the         
different manner in which the           
decomposition of the ,nitre1 and the    
union of the ,arsenic with the basis  of
 that ,salt1 is brought about4 ,when the
 ,nitrous ,acid is distilled by  the    
interposition of ,arsenic1 with a view  
to obtain the ,arsenical ,salt1  the    
operation must be performed in close    
vessels2 no greater degree of  heat must
 be applied to the mixture than is      
necessary for enabling the  ,arsenic to 
act2 and that heat must be administered 
very slowly and by  insensible degrees4 
,but1 when the business is to alkalizate
 ,nitre by  the means of ,arsenic1 the  
operation is performed in a crucible1 in
 a  naked fire1 with a strong degree of 

heat1 and that suddenly applied4  ,the  
violence of the heat1 the suddenness    
with which it is applied1 the  vivacity 
wherewith the ,arsenic unites with the  
basis of the ,nitre2 and1  still more   
than all these1 the free access of the  
air1 occasion the  greatest part of the 
,arsenic1 which at first combines with  
the basis of  the ,nitre after having   
expelled its ,acid1 to be presently     
carried off  and dissipated in vapours2 
and consequently the basis of the       
,nitre1  not being sufficiently         
saturated1 discovers its ,alkaline      
properties4    ,i say1 the concurrence  
of the air contributes1 still more than 
all the  rest1 to separate the ,arsenic 
from the ,alkaline basis of the ,nitre2 
experience having taught me that the    
,neutral ,salt of ,arsenic is not  to be
 alkalizated by the most violent force  
of heat1 as long as it  continues in    
close vessels1 and the external air hath
 no communication  with it2 but that    
some of the ,arsenic contained in that  

,salt is  dissipated1 by exposing it to 
a strong heat in open vessels4    ,the  
tumult and effervescence that arise1    
when ,arsenic is projected on  ,nitre   
fused in a crucible1 are so             
considerable1 and so nearly resemble    
the detonation of ,nitre with an        
inflammable matter1 that we should  be  
tempted to think1 if we trusted         
appearances only1 that ,arsenic         
furnishes a combustible matter1 and that
 the ,alkalization of the ,nitre  is    
effected1 on this occasion1 in the same 
manner as when it is fixed  by charcoal3
 but1 by examining attentively what     
passes1 we easily  discover that there  
is no inflammation at all1 and that the 
,nitre is  alkalizated in the manner and
 by the means above pointed out4    ,the
 first vapours that rise1 when ,arsenic 
is projected on ,nitre1 are  purely     
arsenical2 and1 if any cold body be put 
in their way1 they  adhere to it in the 
form of flowers4 ,these vapours are     
actual particles  of ,arsenic1 carried  

up by the heat before they could come to
 act on the  ,nitre2 but they are soon  
after mixed with ,nitrous vapours1      
consisting  of the ,acid of the ,nitre1 
which the ,arsenic expels from its basis
 as  fast as it comes to act on that    
,salt4    ,the nearer you come to the   
end of the operation1 the more does the 
matter in the crucible lose of its      
fluidity1 though an equal fire  be      
constantly kept up in the furnace4 ,at  
last it becomes quite like  a paste1 and
 the fire must be made much stronger to 
put it again in  fusion4 ,the reason of 
this is1 that ,nitre when alkalizated is
 much less  fusible than when it is not 
so4 ,the case is the same when this     
,salt is  alkalizated by deflagration4  
,though the ,nitre1 when alkalizated1   
makes no more effervescence with        
,arsenic1 and though1 when kept in      
fusion1 it emits no more arsenical      
vapours1 it doth not thence follow that 
it is a pure ,alkali1 and that  it      
contains no ,arsenic3 it still contains 

a large quantity thereof1  but so       
strongly united that the force of fire  
is not able to separate  them2 which    
hath led some authors to give this ,salt
 the title of ,fixed  ,arsenic4    ,the 
existence of ,arsenic in this saline    
compound is easily discovered1  by      
fusing it with metallic substances1 on  
which it produces the same  effects as  
,arsenic4    ,with solutions of metals  
in the ,acids1 it also presents almost  
the same  phenomena as the ,neutral     
,salt of ,arsenic4 ,particularly it     
precipitates  ,silver dissolved by the  
,nitrous ,acid in a red powder1 as that 
,salt  does2 and the differences        
observed between the precipitations made
 by  our new ,neutral ,salt of ,arsenic1
 and those made by ,nitre alkalizated   
with ,arsenic1 can be attributed only to
 the alkaline quality of the  latter4   
,see the ,memoirs of the ,academy for   
#agdf4          ,illustration3          
,decorative ,scroll4    ,,part ,,ii4    
,,of ,,vegetables4          ,,section   

,i4    ,operations on unfermented       
,vegetables4          ,,chap4 ,i4    ,of
 the ,,substances obtained from         
,,vegetables by ,,expression only4      
,,process ,i4    ,to express and        
depurate the ,juice of a ,plant1        
containing its ,essential  ,salt4 ,the  
,crystallization of that ,salt4         
,before sun-rise gather a good quantity 
of the plant from which you  design to  
express the juice1 in order to obtain   
its ,salt4 ,wash it well  in running    
water1 to clear it of earth1 insects1   
and other adventitious  matters4 ,bruise
 it in a marble mortar2 put it into a   
bag of new1  strong1 thick linen cloth2 
tye the bag tight1 and commit it to a   
press4  ,by pressing it strongly you    
will squeeze out a great quantity of    
green1  thick juice1 which will have the
 same taste as the plant4 ,dilute this  
juice with six times as much pure       
rain-water1 and filter it repeatedly    
through a woollen bag1 till it pass     
clear and limpid4 ,evaporate the        

filtered juice with a gentle heat1 till 
it be almost as thick as before  it was 
mixed with water4 ,put this inspissated 
juice into a jar1 or  other vessel of   
earth or glass2 on its surface pour     
olive oil to the  depth of a line1 and  
set it in a cellar4 ,seven or eight     
months after  this1 pour off gently the 
liquor contained in the vessel1 the     
inside  of which you will find covered  
with a crystallized ,salt4 ,separate the
  crystals gently2 wash them quickly    
with a little fair cold water1 and  dry 
them3 this is the ,essential ,salt of   
the plant4      ,,observations4         
,every plant is not equally disposed to 
yield its ,essential ,salt1  by the     
method here proposed4 ,succulent        
vegetables only1 whose  juices are      
aqueous and not too viscous1 are fit for
 this purpose4  ,such1 for example1 as  
sorrel1 brook-lime1 succory1 fumitory1  
water-cresses1 plantain1 c4 ,an         
,essential ,salt cannot be procured     
from those that yield thick1 viscid1    

mucilaginous juices1 such as  the seeds 
of flea-wort2 unless their juices be    
previously attenuated  by fermentation1 
and that viscosity destroyed which      
obstructs the  ,crystallization of this 
,salt4    ,nor can the ,essential ,salt 
be obtained in any quantity from        
vegetable  matters abounding in ,oil4   
,most kernels and seeds are of this     
sort3  they all contain a great quantity
 of fat oil1 which so entangles and     
clogs this ,salt1 that the particles    
thereof cannot shoot away from the      
tenacious juices into crystals4    ,the 
same is to be said of dry aromatic      
plants2 because they contain  much      
essential oil1 or resinous matters that 
produce the same effect4  ,it is true   
the ,essential ,salt itself contains a  
certain portion of  oil2 for it is no   
other than the ,acid of the plant       
incorporated and  crystallized with part
 of its oil and of its earth3 but then  
the oil  must not be in too great a     
quantity3 because it sheaths the ,acid1 

renders it clammy1 as it were1 and      
hinders it from extricating itself1  so 
as to be able to exert its qualities1   
and appear in the form of ,salt4    ,the
 plants1 from which you intend to       
extract this ,salt1 should be  gathered 
in the morning before sun-rise2 because 
they are then most  succulent1 not being
 yet dried up or withered by the heat of
 the sun4    ,the juice of plants       
obtained by expression is very thick2   
because it  contains many particles of  
the bruised plant1 that are unavoidably 
squeezed out along with it4 ,in order to
 clear it of these superfluous  parts1  
it is proper to filter it2 but as that  
would be difficult1 on  account of the  
thickness of the juice1 it must be      
thinned1 by diluting  it with a quantity
 of water1 sufficient to give it the    
requisite degree  of fluidity4          
,instead of thus diluting the expressed 
juice1 the plant may be ground  with    
water1 before it is put into the press3 
it will by this means  furnish a more   

fluid juice1 that will easily pass      
through the filter4  ,this method may be
 employed with success on dry plants1 or
 such as are  not very succulent4 ,for  
this operation rain-water is to be      
preferred  to any other2 because it is  
the purest3 for all waters that have run
  some time through the earth1 or on its
 surface1 are to be suspected of        
containing some saline or selenetic     
matter1 which would mix with and        
deprave the ,essential ,salt4    ,the   
juice of the plant1 when diluted with   
the quantity of water  sufficient to    
facilitate its filtration1 is too       
aqueous to let the ,salt  it contains   
unite into crystals3 it must therefore  
be evaporated1 till  it hath recovered a
 somewhat thicker consistence4 ,the heat
 applied for  that purpose must be      
gentle2 lest the acid and oily parts1   
that are to  form the ,salt1 be spoiled 
or dissipated1 as they are not very     
fixed4 ,in  summer1 the heat of the sun 
is sufficient to effect this            

evaporation3  but if you make use of    
this method1 the juice to be evaporated 
must be  put into several broad flat    
pans2 that1 a larger surface being      
exposed  to the action of the air and   
sun1 the evaporation may be the sooner  
completed3 for if the juice should      
continue too long in the degree of  heat
 requisite for its evaporation1 it might
 begin to ferment2 which  would be very 
detrimental4    ,the oil poured on the  
liquor prevents its fermenting1         
putrefying1  or growing mouldy1 during  
the long space of time required for the 
crystallization of the ,essential ,salt4
    ,these ,salts are excellent         
medicines1 being endued with the same   
virtues  as the plants from which they  
were obtained4    ,they cannot be       
procured from plants by distillation1   
though they  consist in a great measure 
of volatile principles3 nor are they    
obtainable by any other process that    
requires much heat2 because  they are   
easily decomposed1 and the fire changes 

their natures  entirely4 ,the oily      
,acids extracted from plants by         
distillation do not  crystallize1 and   
always have an empyreumatic acrimony1   
that makes  them very different from the
 ,essential ,salts1 which are very mild 
and  saponaceous4      ,,process ,,ii4  
,to draw the ,oils out of ,kernels1     
,seeds1 and ,fruits1 by ,expression4    
,pound in a marble mortar1 or grind in a
 mill1 the kernels1 seeds1 or  fruits1  
out of which you intend to express the  
,oil4 ,if your matters be  meagre1 and  
grind to meal1 suspend that meal in the 
steam of boiling  water1 in order to    
moisten it a little1 and then dry it4   
,tye up your matter thus prepared in a  
new1 strong1 thick1 canvass bag1  and   
put it into a press1 between two iron   
plates previously heated in  boiling    
water3 squeeze it strongly1 and you will
 see the ,oil run in  streams into the  
receiving vessel4      ,,observations4  
,the ,fat ,oil of ,plants is            
particularly found in kernels1 seeds1   

and  some fruits2 some kernels contain  
such a vast quantity thereof1 that1  on 
being very slightly bruised in a mortar1
 they discharge it in great  abundance4 
,sweet and bitter ,almonds1 ,walnuts1   
and ,lint-seed1 are all  of this kind2  
and require no other management but to  
be pounded and  pressed1 to make them   
yield a great deal of ,oil4 ,but there  
are others  more meagre1 that being     
ground produce an almost dry flower4 ,in
 order  to facilitate the expression of 
the ,oil out of such1 they must be      
expressed1 when ground1 to the steam of 
boiling water4 ,for this purpose  the   
meal may be put into a fine sieve1 and  
that suspended over a pan  half-full of 
water kept boiling on the fire4 ,the    
ascending vapours  will moisten the     
flower1 render it more unctuous1 and    
facilitate the  expression of the ,oil4 
,it is proper to dry it a little before 
it be put into the press1  that it may  
yield as little water as possible along 
with the ,oil4  ,nevertheless1 so much  

water happens now and then to be left in
 it1 that  some is expressed together   
with the ,oil3 but as oil and water do  
not  incorporate1 they are easily       
separated after the operation is        
finished4    ,the extraction of the ,oil
 is also greatly facilitated by heating 
the  plates1 between which the          
oleaginous matters are squeezed3 but    
they  must not be made too hot1 if you  
mean to have a very mild ,oil1 designed 
either for aliment or for medicine2 such
 as the ,oil of ,olives1 and that  of   
sweet almonds4 ,for this reason the     
plates must be warmed in boiling  water 
only3 if you heat them to a greater     
degree1 you run the risk of  giving an  
acrimony to the ,oils you express4 ,but1
 when these ,oils are  intended for     
other uses1 the plates may be made      
hotter1 because their  heat increases   
the yield of ,oil4    ,it is remarkable1
 that all the ,oils obtained by         
expression1 with the  precautions above 
recommended1 are constantly very mild2  

even though  the matters from which they
 are extracted be in themselves very    
acrid4  ,mustard-seed1 which is so acrid
 that it is even caustic1 yields1 by    
expression1 an ,oil as mild as that of  
sweet almonds4 ,but then the  kernels1  
seeds1 and fruits1 from which the ,oils 
are extracted1 must  not be old2 because
 these ,oils1 which are perfectly mild  
when fresh  and new1 become intolerably 
acrid when they grow old1 and acquire   
this  acrimony even in the fruit itself2
 for it is observed that these fruits   
turn rancid as they grow old4    ,the   
,fat ,oils obtained by expression are   
used in medicine1 both  internally and  
externally1 as ,lenitives and           
,emollients4 ,every body  knows the     
great use of ,oil of sweet ,almonds1 in 
inflammatory distempers  of the breast  
and intestines4 ,but it must be         
carefully noted1 that  these ,oils can  
produce no good effects1 unless they be 
fresh expressed1  and from fruits1      
kernels1 or seeds1 that have not been   

long kept3 for  they not only lose their
 lenient virtue by growing old1 but they
 even  acquire an opposite quality1 and 
contract such a sharp acrimony1 that    
far from procuring any salutary relief  
or mitigation to the inflamed  parts1   
they are capable of irritating and      
inflaming the sound4    ,it is therefore
 of the last importance to administer   
them only when  they are quite fresh3   
they ought never to be above two or     
three days  old4 ,those that are old are
 generally more limpid and transparent  
than  the fresh1 which look a little    
more cloudy4 ,the best way to           
distinguish  them is to taste them1 and 
to try whether or no they leave any     
sensation of rancidity on the palate and
 in the throat4      ,,process ,,iii4   
,to draw the ,essential ,oils of certain
 ,fruits by ,expression4    ,take the   
rind of a ,citron1 ,lemon1 ,orange1     
,bergamot-pear1 or other fruit  of that 
kind2 cut it in slices1 and1 doubling   
the slices1 squeeze them  between your  

fingers1 over against a polished glass  
set upright1 with  its lower end in a   
vessel of earth or porcelain4 ,every    
time you squeeze  the peel in a new ply1
 there will squirt out of it several    
fine jets of  liquor1 which1 meeting    
with the surface of the glass1 will be  
condensed  into drops1 and trickle down 
in small streams into the recipient4    
,this  liquor is the ,essential ,oil of 
the fruit4      ,,observations4    ,no  
fruits but those of the kind            
above-mentioned will yield an essential 
,oil by expression4 ,the rind of the    
fruit is the reservoir of this ,oil3  it
 is contained in little vesicles1 which 
may be seen by the naked eye1  spread   
all over the surface of the peel1 and   
which1 bursting when the  peel is       
squeezed1 discharge the ,oil in the form
 of very fine slender  spouts4 ,every   
body knows1 that these little oily      
streams instantly take  fire1 when      
spirted through the flame of a candle3  
the ,oil in this case  is entirely      

consumed4    ,the ,essential ,oil1 thus 
obtained by expression1 hath a very     
sweet and  most agreeable scent4 ,it is 
in every respect the same as when it    
made  a part of the fruit that yielded  
it1 seeing it hath not undergone the    
action of fire4 ,yet this method1       
however good it may be1 can hardly be   
practised but in the countries where    
those fruits are in great plenty2       
because we cannot by this means obtain  
any thing near the quantity of  ,oil    
they contain4    ,this inconvenience may
 be remedied by rubbing the rind1 which 
contains  the ,essential ,oil1 on the   
surface of a sugar-loaf4 ,the           
inequalities of  that surface produce   
the effects of a rasp1 by tearing all   
the oily  vesicles4 ,the ,oil1 which    
issues in abundance1 is imbibed by the  
sugar  and moistens it4 ,when the sugar 
is sufficiently impregnated therewith1  
it may be scraped off with a knife1 and 
put into a well-stopped bottle4  ,the   
sugar does not alter the nature of the  

,oil2 which may be kept in  this manner 
for years1 and used1 though combined    
with the sugar1 for  almost all the same
 purposes as when in a fluid state2 that
 is1 to  aromatize the several matters  
with which you incline to mix it4 ,we   
owe  these observations to ,mr4         
,geoffroy4    ,this experiment1 in which
 the ,essential ,oil of a vegetable is  
obtained  by expression alone1 and      
without the aid of fire1 proves that the
 ,oils  of this kind exist naturally in 
vegetables2 and that the ,oils of the   
same kind obtained by distillation1 as  
shall be shewn in its place1 are  not   
the product of the fire4 ,essential     
,oils drawn by expression do not  very  
sensibly differ from those procured by  
distillation4          ,,chap4 ,,ii4    
,of the ,,substances obtained from      
,,vegetables by ,,trituration4          
,,process ,i4    ,to make the ,extract  
of a ,plant by ,trituration4    ,bruise 
the vegetable substance of which you    
intend to make the ,extract2  or1 if it 

be hard and dry1 grind it to a powder3  
put the matter thus  prepared1 together 
with seven or eight times as much       
rain-water1 into  an earthen vessel2 and
 into this vessel fit a churning staff1 
so that  it may be continually whirled  
round with a rotatory motion1 by means  
of a cord1 a wheel1 and a winch4 ,ply   
this machine for ten or twelve  hours2  
and then filter the liquor through two  
linen cloths spread on a  hair-sieve4   
,let your filtered liquor stand quiet   
for twelve hours more3  then pour it off
 by inclination from the sediment you   
will find at  bottom2 and filter it a   
second time through a flannel bag4      
,pour fresh water1 but in a smaller     
quantity1 on the mass left after        
trituration with the machine4 ,triturate
 it again for four or five  hours4      
,treat the liquor of this second triture
 just as you did that  of the first1 and
 mix them both together4 ,distribute all
 the liquor  you now have among a       
sufficient number of shallow earthen    

plates1 and  evaporate it by a gentle   
warmth1 such as that of the sun1 or of a
  vapour-bath1 to the consistence of an 
,extract1 or even to dryness1 as  you   
think proper4      ,,observations4      
,in trituration the water takes up1 not 
only the ,salts of plants1 but  also a  
pretty considerable quantity of their   
oily and earthy parts1  which those     
,salts have rendered soluble therein1 by
 communicating  to them a saponaceous   
and mucilaginous quality4 ,after        
trituration1  therefore1 nothing remains
 but the grossest particles of oil and  
earth4 ,hence it is evident1 that the   
water1 in which plants have been        
triturated1 contains nearly the same    
principles as the juices of those       
plants drawn by expression2 and that it 
is also impregnated with their          
,essential ,salts3 so that1 by          
evaporating it to a due consistence1 we 
have a well made ,extract of the        
triturated plant4    ,the ,count de la  
,garaye1 who hath long cultivated with  

great assiduity  those parts of         
,chymistry by which ,medicine may be    
improved1 hath made a  great number of  
experiments for obtaining from plants1  
by triture with  water1 the matters in  
which their virtues chiefly reside1 and 
hath also  published a work1 entitled   
,hydraulic ,chymistry1 in which he gives
 a  particular account of all the       
processes for making such ,extracts of  
the  chief mineral1 vegetable1 and      
animal substances1 as are most          
frequently  used in the ,practice of    
,physic4 ,his way of evaporating1 by a  
gentle  heat1 the liquor containing the 
,extract of a triturated substance is a 
very good one3 for we know that heat1 if
 but a very little too strong1  is      
capable of changing the natures of      
compound bodies1 by disuniting  their   
principles1 and exhaling some of them4  
,if all vegetable matters were fat and  
succulent1 as most pot-herbs  are1      
triture would not be necessary for the  
making an ,extract of them1  even       

without the help of fire4 ,we should    
have nothing to do1 for that  purpose1  
but to express their juices1 as before1 
clarify them1 and  evaporate with a     
gentle heat to the consistence of an    
,extract4 ,but  many vegetable          
substances1 such as woods1 barks1 roots1
 c4 are dry1  hard1 and compact4 ,these 
matters will not give out their         
,extract1  without such an application  
of water as shall dissolve their saline1
  saponaceous1 and mucilaginous parts4  
,now this must be effected either  by   
triture or by fire4 ,trituration has the
 advantage of procuring  ,extracts1 in  
which the principles are perfectly      
unaltered1 and retain  the same         
proportions1 with respect to each other1
 as in the plant3 but  then it is       
attended with the inconveniencies of    
being very tedious1  troublesome1 and   
chargeable4 ,when we come to deliver the
 methods of  making extracts by         
decoction and by infusion1 we shall see 
what are the  advantages and            

disadvantages of preparing ,extracts by 
heat4    ,the matters1 from which an    
extract is to be made by triture1 must  
be  previously bruised and reduced into 
small parts1 in order to facilitate  the
 action of water upon them4 ,the several
 filtrations and decantations  here     
directed are intended to separate the   
grosser parts of the plant1  that were  
only suspended in the liquor1 but not   
truly dissolved1 by  means of the       
agitation and motion3 for this reason   
also1 the longer the  liquor is left to 
settle1 the purer will the ,extract be4 
,though the plant be triturated the     
first time with a great deal of  water1 
and for a good while too1 yet it is not 
by that means wholly  exhausted3 ,m4 de 
la ,garaye therefore directs the        
remainder to be  triturated again with  
fresh water3 but this second operation  
requires  only half the water used in   
the former1 and need be continued only  
half  the time2 the plant having been   
already opened by the former triture1   

and having fewer parts to give out4 ,it 
is better to add fresh water1  and      
triturate a second time1 than to        
triturate but once1 and for a  greater  
length of time3 for when the water is   
impregnated with the  principles of the 
plant to a certain degree1 it is less   
capable of  acting1 and of dissolving   
more1 than when it is pure4    ,as the  
water impregnated with the principles of
 the plant by triture  must be almost   
wholly evaporated1 in order to bring    
those principles  nearer together1 and  
that the whole may lie in the smallest  
compass  possible2 and1 moreover1 as    
this evaporation must be effected by the
  gentlest heat1 it is necessary to     
spread the liquor so1 by distributing   
it among a great number of plates1 that 
it shall be reduced in a manner         
entirely to surface4 ,by this means the 
,extract may be evaporated even  to     
dryness2 and this is ,m4 de la ,garaye's
 practice4 ,as the ,extracts1  thus     
evaporated to dryness1 cannot be taken  

up otherwise than in  little scales1 the
 lower surfaces whereof1 by adhering to 
the glazing  of the plate1 are smooth   
and shining1 they in some measure       
resemble a  crystallized ,salt2 which   
led ,m4 de la ,garaye into an error1 and
 induced  him to give the title of      
,essential ,salts to the ,extracts      
prepared in  this manner4 ,the          
,essential ,salt is indeed contained in 
them2 but still  they are only          
,extracts1 as ,mr4 ,geoffroy hath shewn1
 in a memoir on this  subject given in  
by him to the ,academy2 since1 besides  
the ,essential  ,salt1 they contain     
moreover1 as was said before1 a great   
deal of the  oil and earth of the       
matters from which they were extracted4 
,this1 in  the main1 is no objection1   
but rather an advantage to them2        
considering  that such saline ,extracts 
are1 on that account1 so much the more  
like  the substances from which they    
were obtained2 especially with regard to
  their medicinal properties4           

,,process ,,ii4    ,to extract from     
,seeds and ,kernels1 by ,trituration1   
the ,matter of  ,emulsions4    ,blanch  
the kernels of which you desire to make 
an ,emulsion2 put them  into a marble   
mortar2 add a very little water2 and    
pound them with a  wooden pestle4       
,continue pounding and triturating till 
the matter become  like a white paste4  
,from time to time pour on it1 by little
 and little1  more fair water warmed1   
still continuing the trituration2 by    
which  means the paste will grow        
thinner4 ,go on thus till every particle
 of  your kernels be crushed to pap4    
,then add1 still rubbing the mixture1   
enough of water to make the whole an    
actual fluid2 and you will have  a      
liquor of a dead-white colour1          
resembling milk4 ,strain it through a   
clean linen cloth2 it will leave on the 
filter some coarse parts1 which  must be
 returned to those left in the mortar4  
,again triturate and rub  the remainder 
of the kernels1 with the addition of    

water as before4  ,this second liquor   
will not be so white nor so rich as the 
former3  filter it in the same manner1  
and again grind with water the solid    
parts remaining4 ,in this manner        
proceed1 repeatedly rubbing and adding  
fresh water1 till it appear no longer   
milky1 but come off clear4 ,the  white  
milky waters thus obtained go by the    
name of an ,emulsion4                   
,,observations4    ,all the matters1    
from which a ,fat ,oil is obtainable by 
expression1  produce ,emulsions when    
triturated with water4    ,an ,emulsion 
consists chiefly of two substances4 ,one
 of these is  mucilaginous1 and soluble 
in water4 ,this substance by itself     
would not  give a milky appearance to   
the ,emulsion1 which1 with it alone1    
would  be limpid4 ,the other is a ,fat  
,oil1 which of itself is not soluble in 
water2 but being divided by the means of
 trituration into very small  globules1 
it is dispersed through the whole       
liquor1 and suspended  therein by the   

aid of the mucilaginous part4 ,it is    
this oily part that  gives the ,emulsion
 its dead-white1 milky colour2 because  
it is not  actually dissolved in the    
water1 but only diffused through it4    
,if ,oil be mixed with water in a phial1
 and the mixture strongly shaken  for   
some time1 with a rapid and continued   
motion1 the ,oil will be  divided into a
 vast number of little globules1 which  
intervening  between the parts of the   
water will destroy its transparency1 and
 give  it a dead-white colour1 like that
 of our ,emulsion4 ,but1 as the ,oil is 
not so minutely divided by this means1  
as by triturating the matters           
containing it2 and again1 there being no
 mucilage in this liquor1 as  there is  
in ,emulsions1 the ,oil soon separates  
from the water when it is  left at rest1
 re-unites into round globules1 and     
these joining together  rise to the     
surface of the liquor1 which then       
recovers its transparency4    ,the case 
is not exactly the same with ,emulsions2

 but something like it  happens to them 
also4 ,if they be left to stand quiet in
 a long bottle1  the liquor1 which at   
first appeared homogeneous1 separates   
into two  manifestly different parts4   
,the upper part retains its dead-white  
colour1 but is thicker and more opaque2 
while the lower part becomes  perfectly 
transparent4 ,this is the beginning of  
an entire separation  of the oily from  
the aqueous parts4 ,the former1 being   
the lighter1  ascend and gain the upper 
part of the liquor2 while the lower1    
being  freed from that which obstructed 
its translucence1 recovers its proper   
limpidity3 but the oily parts do not    
re-unite into masses large enough  to   
form one homogeneous whole1 with the    
appearance and limpidness  of ,oil2     
their being minutely divided and        
entangled in the mucilage  impeding     
their natural tendency4    ,emulsions   
first begin to spoil1 as they grow old1 
not by turning rancid  and acrimonious  
like the ,fat ,oils drawn by expression1

 but by turning  sour2 which is owing to
 the great quantity of mucilage they    
contain4  ,as there is a ,fat ,oil in   
their composition1 they have the same   
virtues  with that sort of ,oil2 but    
they are1 moreover1 incrassating1       
cooling1  and emollient2 qualities which
 render them extremely useful in acute  
and inflammatory disorders4 ,they grow  
sour in a very short time1  especially  
in the heat of summer2 nay1 they        
sometimes do so in two  hours3 and      
therefore they ought to be prepared from
 time to time as  they are to be used4  
,the matter that is left when all the   
substance of the ,emulsion is           
extracted1 and from which the water     
comes off clear and limpid1 is  scarce  
any thing but the earthy part of the    
seed or kernel that was  triturated2    
which1 however1 still retains a portion 
of tenacious and  gross ,oil1 adhering  
to it so firmly as not to be separable  
by water4    ,the chyle and milk of     
animals resemble an ,emulsion in several

 respects1  and particularly in their   
dead-white colour2 which arises1 in the 
same  manner1 from the very minute      
particles of ,oil contained in them1 and
  distributed through an aqueous        
gelatinous fluid1 but not dissolved     
therein4 ,in general1 whenever any ,oil 
of any kind happens to be lodged  in    
this manner between the parts of an     
aqueous liquor1 it always makes  the    
whole of an opaque white3 for ,oil will 
not mix with water1 so as to  produce a 
liquor that shall appear homogeneous and
 transparent1 unless  it be intimately  
dissolved in the water2 which cannot be 
effected but  by means of an union      
previously contracted between it and    
some saline  matter3 as is the case of  
mucilages1 certain saponaceous matters1 
and  some other combinations of which we
 shall have occasion to treat in the    
sequel4    ,the methods we have hitherto
 proposed1 for extracting from vegetable
  substances all that they will yield   
without the assistance of fire1 are  not

 capable of analyzing those substances  
accurately1 as you may have  observed2  
since by expression and trituration we  
obtain only the liquid  parts1          
impregnated indeed with almost all the  
principles of plants1  which1 however   
are still combined with each other1 and 
barely separated  from the grossest     
earthy and oily parts4 ,we must         
therefore necessarily  have recourse to 
a more effectual expedient for carrying 
our analysis  further4 ,this expedient  
consists in making them undergo the     
action of  fire1 successively graduated1
 from the gentlest to the most violent  
heat4    ,but1 before we enter on this  
,analysis of ,vegetables1 it is proper  
to  describe the different operations   
that may be performed on ,oils1 the     
only pure principle we have been able to
 obtain without the help of  fire4 ,as  
we shall have occasion1 when we come to 
treat of the analysis  of plants by     
fire1 to say a great deal more          
concerning ,essential  ,oils1 we reserve

 till then what relates to the          
operations that may be  performed on    
them2 and confine ourselves here to the 
operations on ,fat  ,oils4              
,,chap4 ,,iii4    ,of ,,operations on   
,,fat ,,oils4      ,,process ,i4    ,to 
attenuate ,fat ,oils1 and change their  
,nature1 by exposing them to  the       
,action of ,fire1 and distilling them4  
,mix thoroughly three or four pounds of 
any ,fat ,oil whatever1 with  twice its 
weight of lime flaked in the air4 ,put  
this mixture into a  large earthen      
retort1 leaving a third part of it      
empty4 ,set it in a  reverberating      
furnace1 and lute on a receiver4 ,heat  
the vessel with a  very gentle fire4 ,a 
little phlegm will rise first1 and will 
soon be  followed by an ,oil that will  
fall in drops from the nose of the      
retort4  ,continue the distillation very
 slowly1 till you perceive the ,oil that
  comes over begin to be not quite so   
fluid as before1 but rather a  little   
thicker4    ,then unlute your receiver1 

and put another in its place4 ,continue 
the  distillation1 increasing your fire 
by degrees4 ,the ,oil that comes over   
will grow thicker and thicker1 its      
fluidity will decrease1 and it will     
acquire a dark-brown colour1 which at   
last will become blackish4 ,the  ,oil   
will then be very thick4 ,push the      
operation till nothing more will  come  
off1 though the retort be red-hot4      
,during the whole time this             
distillation lasts1 there rises a good  
deal of water1 in company with  the     
,oil4 ,keep the second thick ,oil by    
itself4    ,mix the ,oil that came over 
first1 in this operation1 with an equal 
part  of fresh lime flaked in the air4  
,put the mixture into an earthen or     
glass retort1 of a size so proportioned 
to the quantity1 that a third  part     
thereof may remain empty4 ,distil as    
before4 ,the same phenomena  will       
appear3 a clear ,oil will first come    
over1 and be succeeded by one  a little 
thicker4 ,then shift your receiver1 and 

distil off all the  rest of the ,oil    
with an increased fire4 ,the first ,oil 
obtained by this  second distillation   
will be clearer and thinner than that of
 the first  distillation2 and the second
 ,oil will not be so thick1 nor of so   
deep a  colour as before4    ,distil    
over again1 in the same manner1 the thin
 ,oil of this second  distillation1 and 
go on thus repeatedly distilling1 till  
the first  clear oil come over with a   
degree of heat not exceeding that of    
boiling  water4 ,then1 instead of mixing
 your ,oil with lime1 put it with some  
water into a glass retort1 or into a    
body with its head fitted on1 and       
distil it1 keeping the water just in a  
simmer4 ,your ,oil will be more  and    
more attenuated1 and1 after being thus  
distilled twice or thrice  with water1  
will be so limpid1 so thin1 and so      
clear1 that you will  scarce be able to 
distinguish it from water itself4       
,,observations4    ,fat ,oils1 which are
 naturally mild1 unctuous1 inodorous1 or

 have at  most a scarce perceptible     
smell1 resembling that of the fruit or  
kernel  from which they were extracted1 
change their natures totally when       
exposed to the action of fire4 ,if they 
be but heated so as to boil1  they      
become acrid1 lose much of their        
unctuosity1 and acquire a very  pungent 
odour4 ,from several analogies1 and by  
several experiments1  recited in a      
,memoir on ,oils which ,i read to the   
,academy1 ,i shewed that  these         
alterations of ,fat ,oils are produced  
by the fire's extricating an  ,acid in  
them1 which before lay concealed and    
inactive4 ,what ,i advanced  on this    
subject may be seen in the ,memoirs of  
the ,academy for #agde1 and  in my      
,elements of the ,theory of ,chymistry4 
,i shall take occasion to add  something
 more1 in my ,observations on the       
following process1 by which  these ,oils
 are combined with ,acids4 ,in this     
place ,i shall only examine  what passes
 in the repeated distillations they are 

here made to undergo4    ,fat ,oils do  
not rise in distillation without a      
degree of heat greater  than that of    
boiling water2 and therefore they must  
be distilled in  a sand-bath1 or with a 
naked fire4 ,we prefer the latter       
method1 for  reasons elsewhere assigned1
 and chiefly because the operator is    
more  master of his fire2 it being      
absolutely necessary1 in this operation1
  that he have it in his power to       
suppress it in an instant1 when he      
finds it too strong3 for1 in such a     
case1 it will impetuously raise  the    
thin ,oil mixed with the thick2 nay1 the
 whole will be burnt1 as  it were1 to a 
coal1 if a degree of fire ever so little
 too strong  be kept up but for a few   
moments4 ,when this accident happens1 it
 is  always predicted by a great        
quantity of white vapours ascending with
  impetuosity out of the retort1 and by 
drops of ,oil following each other  very
 fast1 that are scarce limpid at first1 
and soon become of a dark  colour4 ,all 

this may be prevented by distilling very
 slowly1 and with  great patience4      
,fat ,oils may be distilled and         
attenuated without any additament3 but  
then the operation1 which is tedious and
 troublesome enough1 even when  lime is 
used1 as appears from our description of
 the process1 would be  much more so if 
the ,oil were distilled alone1 without  
the addition of  any thing to divide it1
 spread it1 and enlarge its surface4    
,lime is one of the best additaments    
that can be employed on this  occasion2 
not only because it procures the        
advantages just mentioned1  but also by 
reason that1 being an absorbent of fat  
matters1 it unites  with the grosser    
parts of the ,oil1 retains them1 and so 
allows the  thinnest and lightest parts 
to be readily separated from the rest4  
,by  this means it greatly expedites the
 operation3 and1 the more of it is      
added1 with respect to the oil1 the     
sooner is a considerable quantity  of   
thin limpid ,oil obtained3 and this is  

the reason of our directing  a double   
quantity of lime to be mixed with the   
,oil in the first  distillation4        
,lime slaked in the air is employed     
preferably to quick-lime2 because  it is
 naturally divided into a very fine     
powder1 and capable of mixing  perfectly
 with all sorts of matters4    ,the     
water that first appears in the         
distillation comes from the  lime3 it is
 part of the humidity which the lime had
 imbibed from  the air4 ,this water     
continues to rise with the ,oil during  
the whole  distillation1 according as   
the degree of heat is increased3 and1 if
 the  distillation be finished by       
keeping the retort red-hot for some time
  after all is come over1 the lime in it
 will have a greyish cast1 and1  when   
water is poured on it1 grow almost as   
hot as quick-lime4    ,if you resolve to
 carry on these distillations of a ,fat 
,oil1 till it  becomes as light as an   
,essential ,oil1 it is necessary to     
begin with  a pretty large quantity     

thereof1 as three or four pounds3 for   
the  quantity of the ,oil is            
considerably lessened by every          
distillation2 not  only because the     
thickest and grossest part is separated 
from it every  time2 but also because a 
portion of the ,oil remains so strongly 
united  with the lime1 that the force of
 fire is not able to separate them4     
,moreover1 there is reason to believe   
that some of it is decomposed  every    
time it is distilled4    ,if ,oil be    
distilled by itself1 the thickest and   
heaviest part remains  charred1 as it   
were1 in the retort1 the inside of which
 is lined with a  crust of coal1 that is
 to the last degree fixed3 this         
therefore always  occasions a diminution
 of the ,oil4    ,a ,fat ,oil must be   
distilled eight or nine times1 even with
 lime1 before  it become as light as an 
,essential ,oil1 and capable of rising  
wholly  with the heat of boiling water3 
by that time therefore it must be       
considerably diminished2 and if1 at     

least1 the quantity prescribed be  not  
taken at first1 there will scarce remain
 a few ounces capable of  being         
distilled with water4    ,the portion of
 thick heavy ,oil1 obtained in the      
several distillations1  may1 if you     
will1 be rectified again4 ,for this     
purpose you must mix it  with fresh     
lime1 and distil it as you did the clear
 ,oil4 ,a portion of  this also will be 
attenuated1 and come over first4 ,thus  
all the ,fat  ,oil may be subtilized by 
the action of fire2 an absolutely       
charred  black part excepted1 that      
remains fixed1 and appears susceptible  
of no  change1 but by burning it in the 
open air1 and thereby reducing it to    
ashes1 from which a little ,fixed       
,alkali may be obtained4 ,in this fixed 
part of the ,oil the acid and earthy    
parts are combined therewith1 in a      
greater proportion than they ought to be
 in pure ,oil4    ,the portion of ,oil  
that hath become light and thin is      
nothing but the  purest oily part1      

separated from the gross acids1 and from
 a certain  quantity of earth1 which    
made it thick and heavy4 ,this ,oil     
resembles  the ,essential ,oils in      
lightness1 fluidity1 and a penetrating  
agreeable  odour3 it dissolves in       
,spirit of ,wine4 ,we shall have        
occasion in the  sequel to enlarge      
further on the qualities of the several 
sorts of  ,oils1 and their solubility in
 ,spirit of ,wine1 when we come to treat
 of  ,ardent ,spirits and of ther4      
,,process ,,ii4    ,to combine ,fat     
,oils with ,acids4 ,the ,decomposition  
of this ,combination4    ,put any ,fat  
,oil whatever into a glass bason1 and   
set it in a sand-bath  very moderately  
heated4 ,pour on this ,oil an equal     
quantity of  concentrated ,oil of       
,vitriol1 which will immediately        
dissolve it with  violence2 a           
considerable ebullition and             
effervescence will arise1  attended with
 great heat1 and a prodigious quantity  
of black1 thick  vapours1 in which may  

be easily perceived the smell of burnt  
,oil1  together with that of a          
,sulphureous ,acid4 ,the mixture will   
become of  a deep-red1 black1 and thick4
 ,stir it with a small stick1 till you  
observe that all is quiet4              
,,observations4    ,the ,vitriolic and  
,nitrous ,acids unite with ,fat ,oils1  
and dissolve  them with violence2 but   
these ,acids must be sufficiently strong
 and  concentrated1 otherwise they will 
not act upon the ,oils4 ,the ,vitriolic 
,acid1 in particular1 dissolves them    
pretty thoroughly4 ,if hot water  be    
poured on the mixture described in our  
process1 this water will  become cloudy 
and milky1 by dissolving some of it3 so 
that ,oils may be  rendered soluble in  
water by the means of ,acids4 ,spirit of
 ,wine1 which  doth not attack ,fat     
,oils in their natural state1 unites    
perfectly with  them1 and makes a clear 
limpid solution of them1 when they are  
thus  combined with ,acids4    ,the     
,acids also suffer a considerable       

alteration by contracting an union  with
 ,oils4 ,they become much milder1 and   
lose almost all their strength4  ,if the
 mixture described in the process be    
distilled1 there will come  over a great
 quantity of an empyreumatic acidulated 
phlegm1 that  smells strong of          
,sulphureous ,spirit2 an ,oil thinner   
than the original  saponaceous mixture2 
a weak ,oily ,acid1 and a very thick1   
black ,oil4 ,if  the fire be made very  
strong1 when the ,oil ceases to rise1 it
 sometimes  happens that a little       
,sulphur sublimes into the neck of the  
retort4    ,by this analysis it appears1
 that the strong concentrated ,acid1    
which  was an ingredient in the         
combination1 is not now to be found4    
,the  ,vitriolic ,acid hath changed its 
nature1 and is considerably weakened  by
 the union it hath contracted with the  
principles of the ,oil4 ,the  aqueous   
part of this latter substance weakens   
the other1 and loads it  with phlegm2   
the inflammable part thereof renders it 

sulphureous1 and  even converts it into 
,sulphur4    ,hence it follows1 that    
same part of the ,oil is decomposed1 by 
the  union it contracts with the        
,vitriolic ,acid2 for its phlogiston and
 its  aqueous principle cannot be       
disunited1 so as to form a ,sulphureous 
,spirit1 or an actual ,sulphur1 and an  
aqueous ,acid1 without the              
decomposition of a certain quantity of  
the ,oil1 in proportion to the  two     
disjoined principles4 ,another portion  
of the ,oil remains united  with the    
,vitriolic ,acid1 without suffering any 
decomposition1 and  communicates to that
 portion of the ,acid1 with which it is 
combined1  a somewhat saponaceous       
quality1 which makes it resemble the    
,vegetable  ,acids4    ,thus we see1    
that when the ,vitriolic ,acid and a    
,fat ,oil are combined  together1 they  
both suffer considerable changes2 the   
,acid by the new  alliances into which  
it enters1 and the ,oil by the          
decomposition it  undergoes4 ,in        

consequence hereof a much smaller       
quantity of ,oil is  obtained1 by       
decompounding this combination1 than was
 at first put in4    ,if the ,oil       
abstracted by distillation be combined  
again with a fresh  quantity of the     
concentrated ,acid1 the same effects    
will again follow2  and by this means   
any quantity of ,oil at pleasure may be 
entirely  decomposed4 ,this single      
experiment affords an evident proof of  
many  important truths advanced in our  
,elements of the ,theory4    ,spirit of 
,nitre likewise dissolves expressed     
,oils4 ,with ,oil of ,olives  it forms a
 white paste1 resembling a fine pomatum4
 ,this compound is  perfectly soluble in
 ,spirit of ,wine4 ,the ,acid must be   
very strong and  smoking to unite with  
this1 or with any other ,fat ,oil3 but  
it dissolves  some of them with more    
rapidity than others2 in which number is
 the ,oil  of ,walnuts4 ,it acts on     
these ,oils with so much vehemence that 
it burns  them1 in some measure1 making 

them black and thick4      ,,process    
,,iii4    ,to combine ,fat ,oils with   
,fixed ,alkalis4 ,hard and soft ,soap4  
,the  ,decomposition of ,soap4    ,take 
a lixivium of ,alicant kelp made more   
caustic by lime1 as we shall  shew when 
we come to speak of ,alkalis4 ,evaporate
 this lye till it be  capable of bearing
 a new-laid egg4 ,divide it into two    
parts2 and to one  of these put just    
water enough to weaken it so1 that a    
new-laid egg  will not swim in it1 but  
fall to the bottom4 ,with the lye thus  
weakened  mix an equal quantity of      
fresh-drawn ,olive ,oil4 ,stir and      
agitate the  mixture well1 till it      
become very white4 ,set it over a gentle
 fire1  and continue stirring it        
incessantly1 that the two ingredients of
  which it is compounded may gradually  
combine together1 as part of the  water 
evaporates4 ,when you perceive they     
begin to unite1 pour into the  mixture  
thrice as much of the first strong lye  
as you took of ,olive  ,oil4 ,continue  

the coction with a gentle fire1 always  
stirring the  matter1 till it becomes so
 thick that a drop of it fixes1 as it   
cools1  into the consistence that ,soap 
ought to have4 ,by dissolving a little  
of this ,soap in water1 you will        
discover whether or no it contains  more
 ,oil than ought to be in the           
composition4 ,if it dissolves therein   
wholly and perfectly1 without the       
appearance of the least little drop  of 
,oil floating on the water1 it is a sign
 that it doth not contain  too much     
,oil4 ,if1 on the contrary1 you perceive
 any of these little  globules1 you must
 pour into the vessel1 containing your  
matter1 a  little more of the strong    
lye1 to absorb the redundant ,oil4 ,if  
there be  too much of the ,alkali it may
 be discovered by the taste4 ,if the    
,soap  leave on your tongue the         
sensation of an ,alkaline ,salt1 and    
produce an  urinous savour1 it is a sign
 that there is too much ,salt in        
proportion  to the ,oil4 ,in this case a

 little ,oil must be added to the       
mixture1 to  saturate the super-abundant
 ,alkali4 ,an excess in the quantity of 
,alkali  discovers itself likewise by   
the ,soap's growing moist in the air1 on
  being exposed to it for some time4    
,,observations4    ,fixed ,alkalis1 even
 when resolved into a liquor1 that is1  
when loaded  with much water1 unite     
easily with ,fat ,oils1 as appears from 
the  experiment just recited1 and       
require but a moderate heat to perfect  
that union4 ,this combination may even  
be completely effected without  the aid 
of fire1 and by the heat of the sun     
only1 provided sufficient  time be      
allowed for that purpose2 as ,mr4       
,geoffroy found upon trial4 ,it  only   
requires the mixture of the ,oil and    
,alkali to be kept five or six  days in 
digestion1 and stirred from time to     
time4 ,a lixivium of pure  ,alkali1 not 
acuated by lime1 may also be used to    
make ,soap3 but it is  observed1 that   
the combination succeeds better1 and    

that the ,alkali  unites sooner and more
 perfectly with the ,oil1 when it is    
sharpened by  lime4    ,the ,oil is     
first mixed with a weaker and more      
aqueous lye1 to the end  that the       
combination may not take place too      
hastily1 but that all the  particles of 
the two substances to be compounded     
together may unite  equally4 ,but as    
soon as the ,alkali begins to dissolve  
the ,oil gradually  and quietly1 the    
dissolution may then be accelerated2 and
 that is done  by adding the remaining  
lye1 which is stronger and less diluted 
than  the other4    ,soap made with     
,olive ,oil is white1 hard1 and hath not
 a very  disagreeable smell3 but as that
 ,oil is dear1 others1 even the fat and 
oils of animals1 are sometimes          
substituted for it4 ,the ,soaps made    
with  most of these other matters are   
neither so hard1 nor so white1 as that  
made of ,olive ,oil3 they are called    
,soft ,soaps4    ,oils thus associated  
with ,fixed ,alkalis are by that means  

rendered  soluble in water2 because the 
,alkaline ,salts1 having a great        
affinity  with water1 communicate part  
thereof to the ,oils with which they are
  now incorporated4 ,yet the ,oil is not
 for all that rendered thoroughly       
miscible with water1 or perfectly       
soluble therein2 for the water in  which
 ,soap is dissolved hath always a milky 
cast3 now there is no other  criterion  
of a perfect solution but transparency4 
,alkalis also lose part of their        
affinity with water1 by the union  they 
thus contract with ,oils3 for1 when the 
combination is properly  made1 they no  
longer attract the moisture of the air1 
nor doth water  dissolve them in such   
quantities as before4 ,the composition  
of ,soap is  plainly a saturation of an 
,alkali with an ,oil2 and1 in order to  
make  perfect ,soap1 we are forced1 as  
was said in the process1 to grope1 in a 
manner1 by repeated trials1 for this    
point of saturation2 just as when  we   
prepare a ,neutral ,salt by saturating  

an ,alkali with an ,acid4 ,the  union   
which the ,oil contracts with the       
,alkali makes it lose1 in part1  the    
readiness with which it naturally takes 
fire2 because the ,salt is  not         
inflammable3 the water also1 which      
enters in pretty considerable           
quantities into the composition of      
,soap1 as we shall presently see1       
contributes a good deal to hinder the   
accension of the ,oil4    ,soap may be  
decompounded either by distilling it1 or
 by mixing it with  some substance that 
hath a greater affinity than ,oil with  
,alkalis4    ,if we decompound it by    
distillation1 a phlegm1 or transparent  
spirit1  of a somewhat yellowish colour1
 first comes over4 ,this liquor is the  
aqueous part of the ,soap1 quickened by 
a little of its ,alkali1 which  gives it
 an acrid taste4 ,it is followed by a   
red ,oil1 which at first  is pretty thin
 and limpid1 but thickens as the        
distillation advances1  grows black1 and
 has a very disagreeable empyreumatic   

smell4 ,this ,oil  is soluble in ,spirit
 of ,wine4    ,when the distillation is 
finished1 that is1 when the retort being
 kept  red-hot for some time will       
discharge no more1 there is left in it a
  saline mass2 which is the ,alkali of  
the ,soap1 crusted over with some  of   
the most fixed parts of the ,oil1 that  
are charred to a coal4 ,this  ,salt may 
be restored to the same degree of purity
 it had before its  combination with the
 ,oil1 by calcining it in a crucible    
with a naked  fire1 that may consume    
this burnt part of the ,oil1 and reduce 
it to  ashes4    ,it is plain that the  
,oil contained in ,soap is affected by  
distillation1  much in the same manner  
as that which we mixed with lime and    
distilled4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy1 by        
analysing ,soap with care1 discovered   
that two ounces  thereof contain        
ninety-six grains of ,salt of kelp1     
freed from all ,oil  and moisture2 or   
two drams and forty-eight grains of that
 ,salt1 as it  is used in manufacturing 

,soap2 that is1 containing water enough 
to make  it crystallize2 one ounce three
 drams twenty grains of ,olive ,oil2 and
  about two drams four grains of water4 
,as ,acids have a greater affinity than 
any other substance with ,alkalis1  they
 may be very effectually employed to    
decompound ,soap4    ,if you propose to 
decompound ,soap by means thereof1 you  
must first  dissolve it in a sufficient 
quantity of water4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy1 who  
made  this experiment likewise1         
dissolved two ounces thereof in about   
three  gallons of warm water1 and to the
 solution added ,oil of ,vitriol1 which 
he let fall into it drop by drop4 ,every
 time a drop of ,acid falls into  it1 a 
coagulum is formed in the liquor4 ,the  
vessel in which the  solution is        
contained must then be shaken1 that the 
,acid may equally  attack all the       
,alkali diffused in it4 ,when no new    
coagulation is  produced by a drop of   
the ,acid1 it is a sign you have added  
enough4  ,the liquor then begins to grow

 clear3 and if another quart of water be
  added1 in order to facilitate the     
separation of the oily particles1 you   
will see them rise and unite together on
 the surface of the liquor4    ,this is 
a pure1 clear1 true ,olive ,oil1 hath   
its taste1 its smell1 and1  like it1 is 
fluid in warm weather1 and becomes fixed
 by cold4 ,yet it  differs in some      
respects from that which never hath been
 united with  an ,alkali in order to    
form a ,soap2 for it burns more vividly 
and more  rapidly1 and is soluble in    
,spirit of ,wine4 ,we shall account for 
these  differences when we come to treat
 of ,ardent ,spirits4    ,not only the  
,vitriolic ,acid1 but all others1 even  
those obtained from  vegetables1 are    
capable of decompounding ,soap1 and     
separating the ,oil  from the ,alkali4  
,in the liquor wherein ,soap is thus    
decompounded is  found a ,neutral ,salt1
 consisting of the ,acid made use of1   
united with  the ,alkali of the ,soap4  
,if the ,vitriolic ,acid be used1 you   

will have a  ,glauber's ,salt2 a        
quadrangular ,nitre1 if the ,nitrous    
,acid be used2 and  so of the rest4     
,the facility with which ,acids         
decompound ,soap is the reason that no  
water1 but what is very pure1 will      
dissolve it1 or is fit to be used in    
washing with it4    ,water that doth not
 dissolve ,soap well is usually called  
,hard ,water4  ,such waters contain a   
certain quantity of saline matters1     
washed out of  the earths through which 
they pass4 ,the hardness of water is    
generally  occasioned by selenitic      
particles4    ,the hardness of all the  
well-water in and about ,paris is owing 
to a  considerable quantity of          
,selenetic ,gypsum with which the ,soil 
abounds4  ,the ,selenites1 we know1 are 
,neutral ,salts1 consisting of the      
,vitriolic  ,acid united with an earthy 
basis4 ,if therefore ,soap be put into  
water  in which a ,salt of this kind is 
dissolved1 it is evident that the       
,vitriolic ,acid in the ,selenites1     

having a greater affinity with the      
fixed ,alkali of the ,soap than with its
 own earthy basis1 will quit the  latter
 to unite with the former2 and thus the 
,soap will be decompounded  instead of  
being dissolved4 ,accordingly we see1   
that1 when we attempt  to dissolve ,soap
 in our well-water1 the surface of the  
liquor is  in a short time covered with 
a fat oily pellicle4 ,however1 this     
decomposition of ,soap is not complete2 
at least1 but a small part of  it is    
perfectly decompounded2 because the     
great quantity of ,selenites1  with     
which the water is impregnated1 hinders 
the ,soap from mixing so  thoroughly    
with it1 as is requisite to produce a   
total decomposition  thereof4    ,all   
mineral waters are likewise hard1 with  
regard to ,soap2 for as most  of them   
owe their virtues to the efflorescences 
they have washed off  from pyrites1 that
 have grown hot and begun to be         
decomposed1 they are  impregnated with  
the saline matters produced by pyrites  

in that state3  that is1 with aluminous1
 vitriolic1 and sulphureous substances1 
which  have the same effect on ,soap as 
the ,selenites have4    ,mineral waters 
containing ,neutral ,salts only1 such as
 ,sea-salt1 ,epsom  ,salt1 ,glauber's   
,salt1 are nevertheless hard with regard
 to ,soap1  though the ,acids of those  
,salts1 being united with ,fixed        
,alkalis1 are  incapable of             
decompounding it4 ,the reason is1 that  
those ,neutral ,salts  are more soluble 
in water than ,soap is2 so much indeed  
as even to  exclude it3 because each of 
the two principles that composed them   
hath  a very great affinity with water2 
whereas only one of the principles  of  
,soap1 namely1 its ,alkali1 hath that   
affinity2 the other1 to wit1  the oily  
principle1 having none at all4 ,thus    
water impregnated with  an ,acid1 or    
with any ,neutral ,salt1 is hard with   
regard to ,soap1 and  incapable of      
dissolving it2 and hence it follows1    
that ,soap is a sort  of touchstone for 

trying the purity of water4    ,wine    
dissolves ,soap2 but imperfectly1       
because it contains an acid or          
tartarous part4 ,spirit of ,wine also   
dissolves it3 but neither is this       
dissolution perfect2 because it contains
 too little water3 for its  spirituous  
part can dissolve nothing but the ,oil  
of the ,soap2 and the  ,alkali is not at
 all1 or at least in a very small       
quantity1 soluble in  this menstruum4   
,the true solvent of ,soap is therefore 
a liquor that is  partly spirituous1    
partly aqueous1 and not acid4    ,brandy
 has these qualities3 and accordingly it
 is the solvent that  unites best with  
,soap1 dissolves the greatest quantity1 
and makes the  most limpid solution     
thereof4 ,yet even this solution hath   
something  of a milky cast1 occasioned  
by its not being entirely free from an  
,acid1 or the tartarous principle4 ,this
 fault may be easily corrected1  by     
mixing with it a little ,alkali to      
absorb the ,acid4 ,a dram of            

crystallized salt of kelp mixed with    
three ounces and a half of good  brandy1
 renders it capable of dissolving an    
ounce and two drams of good  hard ,soap1
 into a perfectly limpid liquor4 ,this  
experiment also we owe  to ,mr4         
,geoffroy4    ,some years ago it was    
discovered that ,soap might be used with
 great  success in ,medicine1 and that  
it possesses the property of dissolving 
the stony concretions that form in      
several parts of the body1  particularly
 in the kidneys and bladder4 ,soap is   
the basis of the  composition known by  
the name of ,mrs4 ,stephen's ,remedy1   
and in this  one ingredient its whole   
virtue resides4    ,from what hath been 
said on the nature of this compound1 as 
well as on  the cause and phenomena of  
its dissolution1 it plainly appears to  
be  of the last consequence1 in         
administering it to a patient1 that his 
constitution be considered1 and a proper
 regimen ordered4 ,all ,acids  should be
 absolutely forbid him2 as we know they 

hinder the ,soap from  dissolving1 and  
decompound it2 and if the patient have  
any acidities  in the first passages1   
matters capable of neutralizing them    
should be  prescribed him3 as prepared  
crabs eyes1 and other absorbents known  
in  ,medicine3 in such cases those with 
which the ,soap is compounded in ,mrs4  
,stephen's remedy may be of use4        
,,process ,,iv4    ,to combine ,fat     
,oils with ,sulphur4    ,put any ,fat   
,oil whatever into an earthen vessel2   
add to it about the  fourth part of its 
weight of ,flower of ,sulphur1 and set  
the vessel in  a furnace1 with lighted  
coals under it4 ,when the ,oil hath     
acquired  a certain degree of heat1 the 
,sulphur will melt1 and you will see  it
 fall immediately to the bottom of the  
,oil1 in the form of a very  red fluid4 
,the two substances will remain thus    
separated1 without  mixing together1    
while the heat is no greater than is    
necessary to  keep the ,sulphur in      
fusion4 ,increase it therefore2 but     

slowly and with  circumspection1 lest   
the matter take fire4 ,when the ,oil    
begins to  smoke1 the two liquors will  
begin to mix and look turbid3 at last   
they  will unite so as to appear one    
homogeneous whole4 ,if you keep up the  
heat so that the mixture shall always   
continue smoking and ready to  boil1 you
 may add more ,sulphur1 which will      
perfectly incorporate with  it3 and thus
 may a pretty considerable quantity     
thereof be introduced  into this        
composition4      ,,observations4       
,the ,phlogiston and the ,vitriolic     
,acid have each an affinity with ,oils4 
,it is not therefore surprising that    
,sulphur1 which is a compound of  these 
two substances1 should be soluble in    
oily matters4 ,yet it is  remarkable1   
that ,essential ,oils1 which are much   
thinner than the ,fat  ,oils1 dissolve  
,sulphur with much more difficulty2 as  
will be shewn when  we come to treat of 
those ,oils2 and that ,spirit of ,wine1 
which contains  an exceeding subtile    

,oil1 doth not act upon ,sulphur at all4
    ,oil1 by contracting an union1 with 
,sulphur1 produces a considerable       
alteration in that mineral3 a phenomenon
 so much the more surprising1  that we  
know it to be in some sort unalterable  
by any other solvent1  of what kind     
soever1 add1 that its nature admits of  
no change but by  burning4 ,we shall say
 more on this subject under the head of 
,essential  ,oils4      ,,process ,v4   
,to combine ,fat ,oils with ,lead1 and  
the ,calces of ,lead4 ,the ,basis of    
,plasters4 ,the ,decomposition of this  
,combination4    ,into an earthen vessel
 put granulated ,lead1 ,litharge1       
,ceruse1 or  ,minium2 and pour thereon  
twice its weight of any ,fat ,oil       
whatever4 ,if  you set the vessel over a
 brisk fire1 the ,lead at bottom will   
melt  before the ,oil begin to boil4    
,when it boils1 stir the matter with a  
stick3 the ,lead1 or the ,calx of ,lead1
 will gradually disappear1 and  at last 
be totally dissolved by the ,oil1 to    

which it will give a very  thick        
consistence4      ,,observations4       
,fat ,oils dissolve not only ,lead1 but 
its calces also3 nay1 they  dissolve the
 latter more readily than ,lead in      
substance2 probably  because they are   
more divided4 ,the result of a          
combination of these  matters is a      
thick1 tenacious mass1 that grows in    
some degree hard in  the cold1 and soft 
by heat4 ,this composition is known in  
,pharmacy by  the name of ,plaster4 ,it 
is made up with several drugs into      
plasters1  which partake of the virtues 
of those drugs2 so that it is the basis 
of  almost all plasters4    ,lead itself
 is seldom used to make plasters3       
,ceruse1 ,litharge1 or  ,minium1 are    
preferred to it2 because these matters  
unite1 as hath been  said1 more readily 
and more easily with ,oils4    ,it      
sometimes happens1 that the ,oil is     
burnt in the operation1 and that  the   
calx of ,lead is partly resuscitated3   
and this gives the plaster  a black     

colour1 which however it ought not to   
have4 ,this accident is  occasioned by  
an excess of heat3 and as it is very    
difficult to keep  the ,oil and the     
,lead in the proper degree of heat1     
seeing both these  matters are apt to   
grow very hot1 it hath been contrived to
 put into  the vessel1 in which the     
coction is to be performed1 a pretty    
large  quantity of water2 which being   
susceptible only of a much smaller and  
a certain degree of heat1 that is       
constantly the same when it boils1      
procures the advantage of having the    
composition very uniform and very       
white4    ,it is necessary to stir the  
mixture incessantly1 in order to prevent
  the burning of the combined ,oil and  
,lead2 which1 as they unite1 sink  in   
the water by their greater weight4 ,if  
the water happen to be wasted  before   
the ,oil hath dissolved all the ,lead1  
or before the plaster hath  acquired a  
proper degree of consistence1 you must  
remove the vessel  from the fire1 and   

let the mixture cool1 before you add    
more3 for1 if  this precaution be       
neglected1 the heat of the matter1 which
 is now  much greater than that of      
boiling water1 will occasion a          
considerable  explosion and             
extravasation thereof1 though the water 
poured into it be  as hot as possible4  
,the combination of ,fat ,oil with a    
,calx of ,lead may be considered as  a  
sort of metallic ,soap1 having a        
metalline ,calx1 instead of a ,fixed    
,alkali1 for its basis4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy  
hath observed1 that if a pound of       
,litharge1 rubbed very fine and well    
washed1 be incorporated with two  pounds
 of ,olive ,oil1 in the same manner as  
plaster is made1 keeping  water enough  
in the vessel to hinder the mixture from
 burning1 there  rises a smoke1 while   
the ,oil is uniting with the ,calx of   
,lead1 smelling  much like that which   
rises from ,soap4    ,the ,oil may be   
separated from the ,calx of ,lead1 by   
the methods used to  separate it from a 

,fixed ,alkali3 and when it is so       
separated1 it hath  the same properties 
as that separated from common ,soap4    
,this species of metallic ,soap1 formed 
by the union of a ,fat ,oil with  the   
,calx of ,lead1 is not soluble in water1
 and communicates nothing to  it but a  
greasy taste4 ,therefore1 if you would  
decompound it by the  means of an ,acid1
 you must pour that ,acid immediately on
 the compound4  ,the ,acid will attack  
and dissolve the ,calx of ,lead2 and the
 ,oil1 being  thus set at liberty1 will 
rise clear and limpid to the surface of 
the  acid liquor4 ,distilled vinegar    
effects this separation better than any 
other ,acid1 because it is the true     
solvent of ,lead4          ,,chap4 ,,iv4
    ,of the ,,substances obtained from  
,,vegetables with a ,degree of ,heat    
not exceeding that of boiling ,water4   
,,process ,i4     ,to obtain from       
,plants1 by distilling them with the    
mean ,degree of   ,heat between freezing
 and boiling ,water1 a ,liquor          

impregnated with   their ,principle of  
,odour4    ,in the morning1 before      
sun-rise1 gather the plant from which   
you design  to extract its odoriferous  
water4 ,chuse the plant in its full     
vigour1  perfectly sound1 and free from 
all adventitious matters1 except dew4   
,put this plant1 without squeezing it1  
into the body of a tinned copper        
alembic1 and set it in a water-bath4    
,fit on its head1 and to the nose       
thereof lute a glass receiver with wet  
bladder4    ,warm the bath to the mean  
degree between freezing and boiling     
water4  ,you will see a liquor distil   
and fall drop by drop into the receiver4
  ,continue the distillation with this  
degree of heat1 till no more drops  fall
 from the nose of the alembic4 ,then    
unlute the vessels2 and if  you have not
 as much liquor as you want1 take out of
 the cucurbit the  plant already        
distilled1 and put a fresh one in its   
place4 ,distil  as before1 and go on    
thus till you have a sufficient quantity

 of  odoriferous liquor4 ,put it into a 
bottle2 stop it close2 and set it in  a 
cool place4      ,,observations4    ,the
 liquor obtained from plants1 with the  
degree of heat here  prescribed1        
consists of the dew that was on the     
plant1 and some of the  phlegm of the   
plant itself1 together with its odorous 
principle4 ,mr4  ,boerhaave1 who        
examined this odoriferous part of plants
 with great  care1 calls it the         
,spiritus ,rector4 ,the nature of this  
,spirit is  not yet thoroughly          
ascertained2 because it is so very      
volatile1 that  it cannot easily be     
subjected to the experiments that are   
necessary  to analyze it1 and to        
discover all its properties4 ,if the    
bottle  containing the liquor1 which may
 be considered as the vehicle of this   
,spirit1 be not exceeding carefully     
stopped1 it flies quite off3 so that  in
 a few days nothing will be found but an
 insipid inodorous water4    ,great part
 of the virtue of plants resides in this

 their principle  of odour2 and to it   
must be ascribed the most singular and  
the most  wonderful effects we every day
 see produced by them4 ,every body      
knows1 that a great number of odorous   
plants affect1 in a particular  manner1 
by their scent only1 the brain and the  
genus nervosum1 of  such especially     
whose nerves are very sensible1 and     
susceptible of  the slightest           
impression2 such as hypochondriacal or  
melancholy men1  and hysterical women4  
,the smell of the ,tuberose1 for        
instance1 is  capable of throwing such  
persons into fits1 so as to make them   
drop  down and swoon away4 ,the smell of
 ,rue1 again1 which is equally strong   
and penetrating1 but of a different     
kind1 is a specific remedy against  the 
ill effects of the ,tuberose2 and brings
 those persons to life  again1 with as  
quick and as surprising an efficacy1 as 
that by which  they were reduced to a   
state not unlike death4 ,this is ,mr4   
,boerhaave's  observation4    ,the      

odorous exhalations of plants must be   
considered as a continual  emanation of 
their ,spiritus ,rector3 but as growing 
plants are in a  condition to repair1   
every instant1 the losses they sustain  
by this  means1 as well as by           
transpiration1 it is not surprising that
 they  are not soon exhausted1 while    
they continue in vigour4 ,those1 on the 
contrary1 which we distil1 having no    
such resource1 are very soon  entirely  
deprived of this principle4    ,the     
separation of the ,spiritus ,rector from
 plants requires but a  very gentle     
heat1 equally distant from the freezing 
point and from  the heat of boiling     
water4 ,accordingly the heat of the sun 
in summer  is sufficient to dissipate it
 almost entirely4 ,this shews why it is 
dangerous to stay long in fields1 or    
woods1 where many noxious plants  grow4 
,the virtues of plants residing chiefly 
in their exhalations1  which the heat of
 the sun increases considerably1 a sort 
of atmosphere  is formed round them1 and

 carried by the air and the wind to very
 great  distances4    ,for the same     
reason the air of a country may be      
rendered salutary and  medicinal1 by the
 exhalations of wholesome plants growing
 therein4 ,from  the facility with which
 the odorous principle of plants        
evaporates1 we  learn what care ought to
 be taken in drying those intended for  
medical  uses1 so as to preserve their  
virtues4 ,they must by no means be      
exposed  to the sun1 or laid in a warm  
place3 a cool1 dry place1 into which the
  rays of the sun never penetrate1 is   
the properest for drying plants1  with  
as little loss of their virtue as       
possible4    ,though there is reason to 
believe that every vegetable matter hath
  a ,spiritus ,rector1 seeing each hath 
its particular scent1 yet  this         
principle is not very perceptible in any
 but those which have  a very manifest  
odour3 and accordingly it is extracted  
chiefly from  aromatic plants1 or the   
most odoriferous parts of plants4 ,i say

 the  most odoriferous parts2 because1  
in most plants and trees1 there are     
generally certain parts that have a much
 more sensible1 and much  stronger scent
 than the rest4 ,the odour of a plant1  
or of a tree1 hath  its principal       
residence sometimes in the root1        
sometimes in the leaves1  at other times
 in the bark or wood1 and very          
frequently in the flowers  and seeds4   
,therefore1 when you design to extract  
the principle of odour  from a vegetable
 that is not equally odoriferous in     
every part1 you  must chuse those parts 
that have the most perceptible and      
strongest  scent4      ,,process ,,ii4  
,to extract the ,fat ,oils of ,plants by
 ,decoction in boiling ,water4 ,cacao   
,butter4    ,pound or bruise in a marble
 mortar your vegetable substances1      
abounding  with the ,fat ,oil which you 
intend to extract by decoction3 tie them
  up in a linen cloth2 put this packet  
into a pan1 with seven or eight  times  
as much water1 and make the water boil4 

,the ,oil will be separated  by the     
ebullition1 and float on the surface of 
the water4 ,skim it off  carefully with 
a ladle1 and continue boiling till no   
more ,oil appear4      ,,observations4  
,the heat of boiling water is capable of
 separating the ,fat ,oils from         
vegetable matters that contain any3 but 
this is to be effected by  actual       
decoction only1 and not by distillation2
 because these ,oils will  not rise in  
an alembic with the heat of boiling     
water4 ,we are therefore  necessitated  
to collect them from the surface of the 
water1 as above  directed4 ,by this     
means a much greater quantity of ,fat   
,oil may be  obtained than by expression
 alone2 because the degree of heat      
applied  greatly facilitates the        
separation of the ,oil4 ,for a          
convincing proof  of this truth1 take   
the remains of any vegetable matters1   
from which  the ,oil hath been so       
thoroughly expressed that they would    
yield no  more2 boil them in this       

manner1 and you will obtain a great deal
 more  ,oil4    ,the water used in this 
coction generally becomes milky1 like an
  emulsion2 because it contains many    
oily particles1 that are dispersed  in  
it just as in an emulsion4              
,nevertheless1 this way of obtaining the
  ,fat ,oils is not generally practised2
 because the heat1 to which they  are   
exposed in the operation1 occasions     
their being less mild than they         
naturally are3 but it is an excellent   
method1 and indeed the only one  that   
can be employed1 for extracting from    
particular vegetables certain  concrete 
oily matters1 in the form of ,butter or 
,wax2 which matters are  no other than  
,fat ,oils in a fixed state4 ,the ,cacao
 yields1 by this  means1 a very mild    
butter2 and in the same manner is a ,wax
 obtained  from a certain shrub in      
,america4    ,the heat of boiling water 
melts these oily matters1 which then    
ascend  to the surface of the liquor1   
and float on it like other ,oils4 ,they 

afterwards fix as they cool1 and resume 
their natural consistence4 ,we  shall   
see in the sequel1 that they cannot be  
extracted in a concrete  form by        
distillation1 which requires a greater  
degree of heat than  that of boiling    
water2 because distillation changes     
their nature1  partly decomposes them1  
and prevents their returning to their   
proper  consistence as they cool4       
,,process ,,iii4    ,to extract         
,essential ,oils of ,plants by          
,distillation with the ,heat of  boiling
 ,water4 ,distilled ,waters4    ,put    
into a cucurbit the plant from which you
 design to extract the  ,essential ,oil4
 ,add as much water as will fill two    
thirds of your  vessel1 and dissolve    
therein half an ounce of ,sea-salt for  
every quart  of water you use4 ,to this 
body fit on an alembic-head1 and to the 
nose  thereof lute a receiver1 with     
sized paper1 or wet bladder4 ,set it in 
a  furnace1 and let the whole digest    
together1 in a very gentle warmth1  for 

twenty-four hours4    ,this being done1 
light a wood-fire under your vessel1    
brisk enough to  make the water in it   
boil immediately4 ,then slacken your    
fire1 and  leave it just strong enough  
to keep the water simmering4 ,there will
  come over into the receiver a liquor  
of a whitish colour1 somewhat  milky2 on
 the surface of which1 or at the bottom1
 will be found an ,oil2  which is the   
,essential ,oil of the vegetable you put
 into the cucurbit4  ,continue your     
distillation with the same degree of    
heat1 till you  perceive the liquor come
 off clear1 and unaccompanied with any  
,oil4    ,when the distillation is      
finished1 unlute the receiver2 and1 if  
the  ,essential ,oil be of that sort    
that it is lighter than water1 fill the 
vessel up to the top with water4 ,on    
this occasion a long-necked matrass     
should be used for a receiver2 that the 
,oil which floats on the water  may     
collect together in its neck1 and rise  
up to its mouth4 ,then in the  neck of  

this vessel put the end of a thread of  
cotton-twine1 so that  the depending    
part without the vessel may be longer   
than that in the  ,oil1 and the         
extremity thereof hang within the mouth 
of a little phial1  just big enough to  
contain your quantity of ,oil4 ,the ,oil
 will rise  along the yarn as in a      
siphon1 filter through it1 and fall drop
 by drop  into the little phial4 ,when  
all the ,oil is thus come over1 stop    
your  little bottle very close1 with a  
cork coated over with a mixture of wax  
and a little pitch4    ,if your ,oil be 
ponderous1 and of the sort that sinks in
 water1 pour the  whole contents of the 
receiver into a glass funnel1 the pipe  
of which  must terminate in a very small
 aperture that may be stopped with your 
fore-finger4 ,all the ,oil will be      
collected in the lower part of the      
funnel3 then remove your finger1 and let
 the ,oil run out into a little  bottle 
through another small funnel4 ,when you 
see the water ready to  come1 stop the  

pipe of the funnel1 and cork the bottle 
containing your  ,oil4                  
,,observations4    ,essential ,oils1    
though they all resemble each other in  
their principal  properties1 are        
nevertheless very different in some     
respects3 for which  reason almost every
 one of them requires a particular      
management1 for  obtaining it with the  
greatest advantage possible1 both as to 
quality  and quantity4    ,one of the   
first things requisite is1 to chuse the 
proper time for  distilling the plant1  
from which you desire to extract the    
,essential  ,oil2 because the quantity  
of ,oil varies considerably1 according  
to  the season of the year1 as well as  
the age of the plant4 ,for example1  the
 most favourable time for obtaining     
these ,oils from the leaves of          
ever-green plants or trees1 such as     
,thyme1 ,sage1 ,rosemary1 the ,orange1  
the ,bay1 the ,fir1 c4 is the end of    
,autumn2 because these vegetables       
contain a great deal more ,oil at that  

season than at any other4 ,with  regard 
to annual plants1 they must be chosen   
when in their prime1 and  just before   
they begin to decline4 ,the time        
therefore of gathering them  is when    
they begin to flower3 and if you want to
 extract the ,oil from  the flowers     
themselves1 you must pull them just when
 they are newly  blown4    ,secondly1 it
 must be observed1 that the ,essential  
,oils of plants  are1 as it were1 the   
chief residence and reservoir of their  
odorous  principle2 that they are to be 
found wherever that principle exists1   
and never where it is not3 so that what 
we said concerning the  ,spiritus       
,rector of plants is applicable here4   
,it must be remembered1  that all the   
parts of some vegetables are            
odoriferous4 ,such plants may  be put   
into the alembic all together1 and the  
,essential ,oil distilled  from all     
their parts at once4 ,but others1 and   
indeed the greatest  number1 have no    
odour1 or at least none that is very    

perceptible1  except in some particular 
parts2 as in their leaves1 flowers1     
roots1  or seeds3 therefore1 when you   
want to have the ,essential ,oil of such
 a  plant1 you must chuse that part in  
which the ,odour resides4 ,the sense  of
 smelling must be the artist's principal
 guide on this occasion4    ,thirdly1   
all vegetables1 and all the parts of    
vegetables1 have not the  same texture3 
some are hard and compact1 as woods1    
barks1 and some  roots2 others are      
tender and succulent1 as most annual    
plants1 and  some fruits4 ,for this     
reason1 they must be differently        
prepared for  distillation4 ,it may be  
laid down as a general rule1 that the   
closer  and more compact their texture  
is1 the more they require to be opened  
and divided1 either by comminuting them 
into small particles1 or by  digesting  
them a considerable time in water       
acuated with ,salt4    ,fourthly1 though
 all ,essential ,oils be capable of     
rising in  distillation with the heat of

 boiling water1 yet they have not all   
an equal degree of levity and weight3 on
 the contrary1 they vary  exceedingly in
 this respect3 some1 as1 for instance1  
those of all our  ,european aromatics1  
being lighter than water1 so that they  
always float  on its surface2 whereas   
others1 such as those of ,cloves1       
,sassafras1  c4 which are ,indian       
aromatics1 are heavier than water1 and  
always  sink in it by their specific    
gravity4 ,these differences therefore   
require different methods of            
distillation4 ,it is proper1 for        
example1  to make use of a low alembic  
in distilling such ,essential ,oils as  
are  heavier than water2 and1 moreover1 
to facilitate their separation1 by      
applying a degree of heat somewhat      
stronger than that of boiling water4    
,this is easily done by impregnating the
 water with a proper quantity  of       
,sea-salt1 or the ,vitriolic ,acid2 for1
 the more saline matters are  contained 
in water1 the more will the degree of   

heat it acquires1 by  being brought to  
boil1 exceed that of pure boiling water4
    ,fifthly1 ,essential ,oils differ   
from one another in point of fluidity4  
,some are as thin and as fluid as       
,spirit of ,wine3 of this number is the 
,essential ,oil of ,turpentine4 ,others1
 again1 are thick1 and even congeal  as 
they cool3 such1 for instance1 is the   
,oil of ,roses4 ,in distilling  ,oils of
 this latter sort1 care must be taken   
that the spout of the  alembic head do  
not grow too cold1 but be kept always in
 such a degree  of warmth as may prevent
 the ,oil from fixing in it1 and        
stopping it up2  which would interrupt  
the distillation1 and might also        
occasion some  other more considerable  
inconveniencies1 of which we shall take 
notice  presently4    ,from what hath   
been said it appears1 that the          
distillation of ,essential  ,oils cannot
 be regulated by any one general rule2  
but that the manner  of operating must  
be a little varied1 according to the    

nature of the  ,oil to be distilled1 and
 to that of the vegetable from which it 
is to  be drawn4    ,the time of day    
fittest to gather plants for this       
distillation is the  morning before     
sun-rise2 because the coolness of the   
night hath shut  all their pores1 and   
concentrated their odour3 whereas in the
 evening1  after the plants have been   
exposed all day to the heat of the sun1 
their odorous principle is in a great   
measure dissipated1 and they  are left  
almost quite exhausted of it4 ,now1 the 
more of the odorous  principle the      
plants contain1 the more ,essential ,oil
 will they yield1  and the more virtue  
will that ,oil have4    ,plants fresh   
gathered1 and as yet full of moisture1  
do not yield so  much ,oil in           
distillation as they do when dried2     
because the oily  particles in a very   
moist plant are more diffused1 and even 
separated  from each other1 by the      
interposition of the aqueous parts3     
whence  it comes to pass that1 in       

distillation1 they ascend in a state of 
separation from each other2 so that     
being dispersed through the water  they 
give it a milky colour1 like that of an 
emulsion2 and cannot unite  together but
 in small quantities1 which hinders     
their being easily  separated from the  
water4    ,this inconvenience doth not  
happen1 or at least is considerably     
less1  when the greatest part of the    
humidity of the plant is evaporated by  
desiccation3 for the oily particles1    
being thus delivered from the           
intervening aqueous parts1 which kept   
them separated from each other1  are    
brought nearer together1 unite1 and form
 little visible globules of  ,oil1 which
 easily emerge from the water employed  
in the distillation4  ,but1 in drying   
plants from which the ,essential ,oil is
 to be extracted1  great care must be   
taken that they be neither exposed to   
the sun1 nor  laid in a warm place2     
because the heat would carry off part of
 their  odour1 and even1 from some      

plants1 a pretty considerable quantity  
of  their ,essential ,oil4    ,plants of
 a loose texture1 that easily give out  
their ,essential ,oils1  need not be    
comminuted1 or macerated in water with  
,salt4 ,but this  method must           
unavoidably be taken with such as are   
hard1 and do not  readily part with     
their ,oil4 ,woods1 barks1 roots1 for   
instance1 must be  first rasped1 then   
set to macerate in water impregnated    
with ,salt1 as  before directed2 and    
this sometimes for several weeks before 
they be  distilled4    ,on this occasion
 ,salt procures three different         
advantages4 ,in the  first place1 it    
prevents the matters1 that must stand in
 maceration  for some time1 from running
 into fermentation3 an inconvenience    
that  would considerably diminish the   
quantity of ,essential ,oil1 or perhaps 
rob us of the whole1 by converting it   
into an ,ardent ,spirit1 if the         
fermentation were spirituous2 or into a 
,volatile ,alkali1 if it went  on to the

 last stage1 and as far as putrefaction4
 ,in the next place1  it acuates the    
water1 and renders it more capable of   
penetrating and  properly dividing1     
during the maceration1 the texture of   
the plant  which requires to be thus    
prepared4 ,lastly1 it adds a little to  
the  heat of the boiling water1 and so  
promotes the ascent of the heaviest     
,oils4    ,nevertheless1 when you find  
it necessary1 for the reasons assigned  
above1 to mix ,salt with the water to be
 employed in distilling your  ,essential
 ,oil1 you must be cautious of putting  
in too much4 ,you will  indeed obtain1  
by means thereof1 much more ,oil than if
 you distilled  it without ,salt3 but1  
as a great quantity of ,salt will make  
the water  acquire a much greater degree
 of heat than that of pure boiling      
water1  a good deal of the heavy ,oil of
 the vegetable will be raised by such a 
heat1 mix with the ,essential ,oil1     
deprave it1 and make it like those  that
 are adulterated with a mixture of some 

heterogeneous ,oil1 as will  be         
afterwards shewn4    ,when every thing  
is prepared for distillation1 it is     
proper1 as  directed in the process1 to 
apply at once a flaming fire1 brisk     
enough  to make the liquor boil         
immediately3 for1 if the water be kept  
long  heating before it be made to boil1
 the ,essential ,oil1 which cannot rise 
without the heat of boiling water1 will1
 by a less degree of heat1 be  only     
agitated1 dashed about every way1 and   
churned as it were2 by which  means it  
will be divided into very minute        
particles1 and dispersed in  the water1 
which will thence acquire a milky       
colour3 and consequently  we shall fall 
into the inconvenience that was pointed 
out above1 as  happening when we distil 
plants without having dried them1 and   
while  they are loaded with all the     
moisture and sap that was in them when  
fresh gathered4    ,when the water in   
the cucurbit boils1 it will be known by 
the noise  that boiling water usually   

makes1 which is produced by the numerous
  bubbles that rise and burst on its    
surface4 ,the spout of the alembic  is  
then so hot1 that a man cannot lay his  
finger on it1 without such a  sensation 
of burning heat as is not to be endured4
 ,with this degree of  heat the water   
distils in drops1 which succeed each    
other so fast1 that  they seem to form a
 continued small stream2 and this water 
is replete  with much ,essential ,oil4  
,and now it is proper to weaken the fire
 considerably1 so as to leave it  but   
just strong enough to keep the liquor   
gently boiling3 for if the  distillation
 be urged too precipitately1 the aqueous
 and oily vapours1  being forcibly      
hurried up by too great a heat1 may     
carry along with  them some parts of the
 plant1 which may stick in the spout1   
stop it  up1 and endanger the bursting  
of the vessel1 or at least the forcing  
off its head1 by the exceedingly        
rarefied particles of water1 oil1 and   
air1 all striving to escape at the same 

time2 and these burning hot  vapours1   
being discharged with impetuosity1 may  
not only scald the  operator1 but injure
 his lungs4    ,in such distillations it
 is of consequence to keep constantly   
cooling  the head of the alembic1 by    
frequency renewing the water in the     
refrigeratory1 in order to facilitate   
the condensation of the oily  particles4
 ,the water in the cooler ought to be   
renewed when it begins  to smoke very   
perceptibly4    ,whatever care be taken 
to save as much of the ,oil as possible1
 and  to prevent its being left         
dispersed in the water1 yet some loss of
  this kind cannot be totally avoided3  
and thus the water that rises  in       
distilling the ,oil is always more or   
less milky1 and strongly  scented1 even 
after it is separated from the          
,essential ,oil4 ,yet this  portion of  
the ,oil and of the odorous principle1  
which is retained by  the water employed
 in such distillation1 is not therefore 
lost3 the  water impregnated with these 

principles partakes of the properties   
of the plant from which the ,essential  
,oil was drawn1 and may be used         
medicinally3 it is known in ,pharmacy by
 the title of the ,distilled  ,water of 
the plant4    ,the same water may be    
used again1 with advantage1 in          
distilling the  ,essential ,oil of a    
fresh plant of the same sort2 because   
the oily and  odorous particles1 with   
which it is impregnated1 joining with   
those  afforded by the fresh plant1 form
 larger molecul1 capable of uniting     
more easily1 and emerging better from   
the water2 and consequently  they       
increase the quantity of ,oil4 ,thus the
 same water may be always  employed in  
new distillations2 and1 the oftener it  
is used1 with the  greater advantage may
 it be used again4    ,after all the    
,essential ,oil is risen1 if the        
distillation be continued1  and the     
receiver changed1 the liquor that will  
then come off will not  be milky1 but   
limpid4 ,it will have no odour at all of

 the plant1 but  a kind of sourish      
smell2 and indeed it is a part of the   
,acid of the  vegetable in the still1   
which is elevated by the heat of boiling
 water1  after all the ,essential ,oil  
is come over4    ,if you intend to keep 
the distilled water which hath served as
 a  vehicle to the ,essential ,oil1 and 
design it for medicinal use1 great  care
 must be taken to stop the distillation 
before this acid phlegm  begin to rise3 
for1 if it should mix with the distilled
 water1 it would  spoil it1 and hinder  
it from keeping2 probably because it    
contains some  mucilaginous parts1 which
 are apt to putrify4      ,,process     
,,iv4    ,to extract the ,essential     
,oils of ,plants by ,distillation per   
,descensum4    ,reduce to a powder1 or a
 paste1 the vegetable substances from   
which you  intend to extract the        
,essential ,oil by the method proposed4 
,lay this  matter about half an inch    
thick on a fine1 close1 linen cloth4 ,if
 it be  dry and hard1 expose the cloth  

containing it to the steam of boiling   
water1 till the matter become moist and 
soft4 ,then lay the cloth1 with  its    
contents1 over the mouth of a very tall 
cylindrical glass vessel1  which is to  
do the office of a receiver in this     
distillation2 and1 by  means of a piece 
of small pack-thread1 fasten down the   
extremities of  the cloth1 by winding   
the thread several times over them and  
round the  vessel2 in such a manner1    
however1 that the cloth be not tight1   
but  may yield to a small weight1 and   
sink about five or six lines deep  into 
the vessel over which it is fastened4   
,set this recipient in a  larger vessel1
 containing so much cold water as will  
reach half way up  the cylindrical      
vessel2 which1 having little in it but  
air1 must be  ballasted with as much    
lead as will sink it to the bottom of   
the water4    ,on the cloth containing  
the substance to be distilled set a flat
 pan  of iron or copper1 about five or  
six lines deep1 that may just fit  the  

mouth of the glass vessel over which the
 cloth is fastened1 so as  to shut it   
quite close4 ,fill this pan with hot    
ashes1 and on these  lay some live      
coals4 ,soon after this1 you will see   
vapours descend  from the cloth1 which  
will fill the recipient1 and drops of   
liquor  will be formed on the under side
 of the cloth1 from whence they will    
fall into the vessel4 ,keep up an equal 
gentle heat till you perceive  nothing  
more discharged4 ,then uncover the      
recipient3 you will find in  it two     
distinct liquors2 one of which is the   
phlegm1 and the other the  ,essential   
,oil of the substance distilled4        
,,observations4    ,the apparatus for   
distilling above described is very      
convenient1 when  we have not the       
vessels necessary for distilling with   
water1 or when  we want to obtain the   
,essential ,oil of any vegetable        
substance in much  less time4 ,the      
aqueous and oily parts of the substances
 distilled in  this manner1 being       

rarefied by the heat of the fire placed 
over them1  cannot ascend upwards1      
because they are close confined on that 
side2  and1 moreover1 the fire which    
rarefies them possessing all the upper  
part of the vessel in which they are    
contained1 they are forced to fly  from 
it to the place which most favours their
 condensation3 and this  determines them
 to descend in the recipient1 where they
 meet with a  coolness that condenses   
and fixes them4 ,it was with a view to  
promote  this condensation1 that we     
ordered the lower part of the recipient 
to  be sunk in cold water4    ,cloves   
are one of those substances whose       
,essential ,oil is best obtained  by    
this method4 ,in the same way also may  
be drawn the ,essential ,oil  of        
,lemon-peel1 ,citron-peel1 ,orange-peel1
 ,nutmegs1 and several other  vegetable 
substances3 but you must be cautious of 
applying too strong  a heat2 for in that
 case the ,oil1 instead of being white  
and limpid1  acquires a red1 dark-brown1

 blackish colour1 is burnt1 and smells  
of  empyreuma3 and1 on the other hand1  
if you do not apply a proper degree  of 
heat1 you will scarce get any ,oil at   
all4 ,it is the surest1 and  therefore  
the best1 way to distil these ,oils with
 water in an alembic4  ,and indeed the  
distillation per descensum is seldom    
used1 but out of  curiosity to try its  
effect1 or on such pressing occasions as
 allow no  choice4      ,,process ,v4   
,infusions1 ,decoctions1 and ,extracts  
of ,plants4    ,make some water         
boiling-hot1 and then take it off the   
fire4 ,when it  ceases to boil1 pour it 
on the plant of which you desire to have
  the ,infusion2 taking care there be   
enough of it to cover the plant         
entirely4 ,cover the vessel1 and let    
your plant lie in the hot water for  the
 space of half an hour1 or longer1 if it
 be of a firm close texture4  ,then pour
 off the water by inclination3 it will  
have partly acquired  the colour1 the   
smell1 the taste1 and the virtues of the

 plant4 ,this  liquor is called an      
,infusion4    ,to make the ,decoction of
 a vegetable substance1 put it into an  
earthen pan1 or into a tinned copper    
vessel1 with a quantity of water        
sufficient to bear being boiled for     
several hours1 without leaving  any part
 of the plant dry4 ,boil your plant more
 or less according to  its nature2 and  
then pour off the water by inclination4 
,this water is  impregnated with several
 of the principles of the plant1 of     
which we  shall take notice in the      
following observations4                 
,,observations4    ,water1 especially   
when boiling hot1 is capable of         
dissolving not only  all that is purely 
saline in vegetables1 but also a pretty 
considerable  quantity of their ,oil and
 of their earth1 which1 by contracting  
an  union with the saline parts1 have   
formed saponaceous1 gummy1 and          
mucilaginous compounds1 that are soluble
 in water4 ,after violent and           
long-continued boiling1 therefore1 there

 remains nothing in the plant  but the  
purest oily part1 and such as is the    
most fixed1 that is1 the  most closely  
united with the earth of the plant4 ,i  
say1 the most fixed3  for some part of  
the oily matters1 though not soluble in 
water1 may be  separated by the action  
of boiling water1 when those matters    
abound  greatly in the vegetable        
decocted2 as we have seen happen to the 
,fat  ,oils of certain vegetable        
matters2 but in that case these oily    
matters  float upon the ,decoction1 and 
do not constitute a part of it4    ,from
 what we have already said1 touching the
 analysis of plants1 it  seems evident1 
that1 if those decocted be odoriferous  
and contain an  ,essential ,oil1 the    
,decoction will contain none1 or at most
 but very  little1 of their ,essential  
,oil1 or their odorous principle2 seeing
  we know that these substances cannot  
bear the heat of boiling water1  without
 being carried off and entirely         
dissipated by it4 ,therefore1  when we  

make a decoction of an aromatic plant1  
containing an ,essential  ,oil1 we may  
be assured that it will not possess the 
virtues1 either  of the odorous part1 or
 of the ,essential ,oil1 and that it    
will have  none but those of the other  
more fixed principles of the plant1 with
  which it may be impregnated4 ,the     
,decoction of such a plant perfectly    
resembles the water left in the         
cucurbit1 after distilling its          
,essential ,oil4 ,but for those plants  
in which there are no such volatile     
parts1 or whose virtue doth not reside  
in those principles1 such as  astringent
 and emollient plants1 for example1 that
 owe their properties  wholly to an     
earthy ,salt1 or to a mucilage1 they are
 capable of  communicating their whole  
virtue to the water in which they are   
infused  or decocted4    ,if1 on one    
hand1 the ,salts of plants render some  
portion of the  principles of those     
plants soluble in water1 such as part of
 their  ,oil and their earth1 which if  

they were pure would not dissolve       
therein2 on the other hand1 these       
principles1 being of their own  nature  
indissoluble in water1 hinder the       
,salts1 by the union they have          
contracted together1 from dissolving in 
it so easily1 so soon1 and in  such     
quantities1 as if they were pure4 ,this 
is so true1 that water1  though boiled  
long and violently1 is far from         
extracting out of plants  all those     
parts that it is capable of dissolving4 
,if1 after boiling a  plant in water1 as
 directed in the process1 this water be 
poured off1  fresh water added1 and a   
second decoction made in the same manner
 as  the first1 the water of this latter
 decoction will1 by that means1 be      
almost as strongly impregnated with the 
principles of the plant as  the former  
was4 ,mr4 ,boerhaave was obliged to make
 twenty successive  decoctions of the   
same plant1 to wit1 ,rosemary1 before   
the water came  off the plant colourless
 and insipid2 in a word1 just as it was 

before  the plant was boiled in it4     
,mr4 ,boerhaave observes1 that a plant1 
after having thus given out all  that   
water can dissolve1 still retains       
exactly the same form that it  had      
before it underwent any of the many     
boilings necessary to exhaust  it2 that 
its colour1 from being green at first1  
becomes brown2 and  that the plant1     
which when green is lighter than water1 
or at least  doth not sink in it1 is    
heavier after this operation1 and falls 
to the  bottom4 ,this is a proof that   
the water hath extracted out of the     
plant  its lightest substances1 assuming
 their places itself1 and that it hath  
left nothing but its heaviest           
principles1 namely1 its fixed oil and   
its  earth4 ,we shall afterwards examine
 more particularly these remains of     
plants exhausted by water4    ,if the   
,infusions and ,decoctions of plants be 
filtered1 and evaporated  in a gentle   
heat1 they become ,extracts1 that may be
 kept for whole  years1 especially if   

they be evaporated to a thick           
consistence2 and  better still if they  
be evaporated to dryness4    ,from what 
hath been said concerning the           
,infusions1 ,decoctions1 and  ,extracts 
of plants1 it follows1 #a4 ,that        
,infusions and ,decoctions of  aromatic 
plants do not furnish a complete        
,extract of those plants2  because they 
do not contain the volatile and odorous 
parts1 in which  the principal virtue of
 such plants usually resides4 ,if       
therefore you  desire to make ,extracts 
of such vegetables1 that shall have no  
defect1  you must employ their juices   
drawn by expression1 or water           
impregnated  with their principles by   
the means of trituration1 and evaporate 
the liquor by spreading it over a great 
number of plates1 in order  to enlarge  
its surface1 and quicken the            
evaporation1 which must be  effected by 
the heat of the sun alone1 or the       
well-tempered warmth of a  stove4    #b4
 ,it may also be inferred1 that water   

alone1 aided by the degree  of heat it  
is capable of acquiring by being made to
 boil1 is not  sufficient to effect the 
complete analysis of a plant2 since not 
only some of its principles are still   
left combined in it1 though  exhausted  
as much as it can be by boiling water2  
but also several of  the substances     
extracted from it by water are compounds
 of some of  the principles of the      
plant1 and susceptible of a much more   
accurate  analysis2 as we shall be      
convinced when we come to examine the   
effects  which a degree of heat superior
 to that of boiling water is able to    
produce on entire plants1 on their      
,extracts1 and on their remains         
exhausted as much as they can be by     
boiling water4    ,but before we enter  
on that part of the analysis1 it is     
proper to  consider the experiments and 
combinations that may be made with the  
principles we have already obtained2 in 
order to discover their nature1  and in 
some measure analyze even them4         

,essential ,oils in particular  deserve 
to be thus examined4    ,we also obtain 
from certain plants1 with a degree of   
heat less than  that of boiling water1 a
 ,volatile ,alkali1 which exists        
formally in  them3 but as these plants1 
when analyzed1 yield principles         
different  from these we obtain out of  
all other vegetable substances1 and as  
they  resemble animal matters1 we shall 
refer their analysis to a distinct      
chapter4          ,,chap4 ,v4    ,of    
,,operations on ,,essential ,,oils4     
,,process ,i4    ,the ,rectification of 
,essential ,oils4    ,put into a        
cucurbit the ,essential ,oil you propose
 to rectify4 ,set the  cucurbit in a    
balneum mari2 fit to it a head of tin1  
or of copper  tinned1 together with its 
refrigeratory2 and lute on a receiver4  
,make the water in the bath boil1 and   
keep up this degree of heat  till       
nothing more will come over4 ,when the  
distillation is finished1  you will find
 in the receiver a rectified ,essential 

,oil1 which will  be clearer1 thinner1  
and better scented1 than before it was  
thus  re-distilled2 and in the bottom of
 the cucurbit will be left a matter  of 
a deeper colour1 more tenacious1 more   
resinous1 and of a less  grateful smell4
      ,,observations4    ,essential     
,oils1 even the purest1 the best        
prepared1 and the thinnest1  suffer     
great changes1 and are much impaired by 
growing old3 they  gradually turn thick 
and resinous2 their sweet grateful scent
 is lost1  and succeeded by a more      
disagreeable smell1 somewhat like that  
of  ,turpentine4 ,the cause of these    
changes is1 that their finest and most  
volatile part1 that which contains most 
of the odorous principle1 is  dissipated
 and separated from that which contains 
least of it2 which  therefore grows     
thicker1 and comes so much the nearer to
 the nature  of a resin1 as the quantity
 of ,acid1 that was distributed through 
the  whole ,oil before the dissipation  
of the more volatile part is1 after     

such dissipation1 united and            
concentrated in the heaviest part2 the  
,acid in ,oils being much less volatile 
than the odorous part1 to which  alone  
they owe their levity4    ,hence it     
appears what precautions are to be used 
for preserving  ,essential ,oils1 as    
long as possible1 without spoiling4     
,they must be  kept in a bottle         
perfectly well stopped1 and always in a 
cool place1  because heat quickly       
dissipates the volatile parts4 ,some    
authors direct  the bottle to be kept   
under water4    ,if these ,oils should  
grow thick and resinous by age1 yet they
 are  not to be thrown away4 ,we shall  
shew1 in the analysis of ,balsams and   
,resins1 that1 from these thick and even
 solid substances1 ,essential  ,oils may
 be drawn1 as thin and as limpid as from
 plants4 ,essential  ,oils1 thickened by
 time1 may therefore be treated like    
,balsams1 and  actually analyzed1 by    
separating all the subtile odorous      
matter they  contain from their thick   

acid parts4 ,for this purpose they need 
only  be distilled with a degree of heat
 just sufficient to elevate the thin    
odorous parts1 without raising the thick
 matter4    ,the residue left at the    
bottom of the vessel1 because it could  
not  rise in distillation1 is much      
thicker and less odorous than the ,oil  
was before rectification4 ,the reason of
 this is evident1 and follows  from what
 hath just been said4 ,this remainder   
dissolves in ,spirit of  ,wine more     
readily1 and in greater quantity1 than  
the light ,oil drawn  from it2 because  
it contains more ,acid1 and because     
,oils owe their  solubility in this     
menstruum to their ,acid part1 as is    
proved in our  ,memoir on ,oils already 
quoted4    ,when we come to treat of    
,resins1 we shall inquire more          
particularly  what this remainder is1   
and what principles it yields when      
analyzed3 in  this place it is          
sufficient to take notice1 that though  
all the ,oil of  which it made a part   

came over at first with the heat of     
boiling water1  yet it cannot now be    
raised by the same degree of heat in    
distillation2  because it is not now    
combined with the principle of odour    
which gives  the ,oil its volatility1   
and because it is rendered sluggish by  
being  clogged with too great a         
proportion of ,acid4    ,from what hath 
been already said1 it must be concluded1
 that ,essential  ,oils suffer great    
diminution by being rectified2 and that 
in proportion  to the quantity of       
resinous matter left behind4 ,all this  
resinous  matter1 while combined with a 
proper quantity of the odorous principle
  of the plant1 7that is1 at the time of
 its being distilled1 and a  little     
while after71 was really an ,essential  
,oil3 the change of its  nature1        
therefore1 is entirely owing to its     
having left that principle4    ,an      
,essential ,oil1 though rectified1 is   
still as apt to change and be  spoiled  
as before1 because it still continues to

 lose its odorous  principle by degrees4
 ,after some time1 therefore1 it        
requires a second  rectification1 which 
again lessens its quantity4 ,in short1  
it is plain  that ,oils will1 in a      
number of years1 greater or smaller     
according to  their nature1 and the     
manner in which they are kept1 be wholly
 changed1  and metamorphosed into a     
resinous matter1 from which no thin ,oil
 can  be drawn with the heat of boiling 
water3 and this is a proof of the       
fugacity of that odorous principle1 or  
,spiritus ,rector1 of plants1  which1   
when united with their lightest ,oil1   
gives it the character of  an ,essential
 ,oil4    ,this resinous matter1 to     
which ,essential ,oils are finally      
reduced1  being subjected to repeated   
distillations1 with a degree of heat    
superior to that of boiling water1 is   
still capable of yielding a  certain    
portion of a thin1 limpid1 sweet-scented
 ,oil1 which is as light  as an         
,essential ,oil2 as we observed before  

is the case with ,fat ,oils  drawn by   
expression3 but the thin ,oil obtained  
by this means1 though it  possesses     
almost all the properties of an         
,essential ,oil1 is not for all  that a 
genuine one2 seeing it hath not the same
 odour with the plant  from which it was
 originally drawn4    ,essential ,oils  
must be rectified in the balneum mari1  
as ordered in  the process3 for1 as some
 of the ,oil touches the sides of the   
vessel in  the operation1 if that vessel
 be made hotter than boiling water1 the 
thick matter will rise with the thin    
,oil1 which therefore will not be       
rectified4    ,rectification is of use  
not only for procuring to ,essential    
,oils the  tenuity and levity they may  
have lost by age1 but also to separate  
them from other oily matters with which 
they may be adulterated4 ,if1  for      
instance1 an ,essential ,oil be not     
properly distilled2 if1 by  the addition
 of too much ,salt1 the water have      
acquired a degree of  heat greater than 

that of pure boiling water1 and if1 in  
consequence  thereof1 some of the heavy 
,oil of the plant have risen with the   
,essential ,oil1 and mixed therewith1   
the ,essential ,oil may1 by             
rectification1 be separated from this   
heterogeneous ,oil2 which1 being        
heavier and incapable of rising with the
 heat of pure boiling water1  will      
remain at the bottom of the vessel4     
,the effect will be the same1 if your   
,essential ,oil be falsified with a     
mixture of any ,fat ,oil1 as is often   
the case3 for1 some of them being       
extremely dear1 the vender frequently   
adds a portion of ,fat ,oil to  increase
 the quantity4 ,for this purpose ,oil of
 ,ben is generally used4    ,when an    
,essential ,oil is thus falsified with a
 mixture of any ,fat ,oil1  it may be   
discovered by letting a few drops of it 
fall into rectified  ,spirit of ,wine2  
which will dissolve the ,essential ,oil 
only1 leaving the  ,fat ,oil quite      
untouched4    ,essential ,oils are      

sometimes falsified by mixing them with 
a certain  quantity of ,spirit of ,wine4
 ,this fraud doth not render their smell
  less fragrant3 on the contrary1 it    
becomes rather more agreeable  and      
quicker4 ,in order to try an ,oil       
suspected of being falsified in  this   
manner1 drop a little of it into very   
clear water4 ,if a milky  cloud appear  
in the water1 be assured the ,oil is    
mixed with ,spirit  of ,wine3 for as    
this liquor unites more readily with    
water than with  ,oil1 it quits the ,oil
 with which it was mixed to incorporate 
with the  water3 mean time a good deal  
of the ,oil that was dissolved by the   
,spirit of ,wine1 and is now separated  
from it by the intervention of  water1  
necessarily remains dispersed through   
this water in very small  particles2 and
 these form the milky cloud produced on 
this occasion4    ,an ,essential ,oil   
may also be adulterated with another    
,essential ,oil  that is much more      
common1 and of much less value4 ,those  

who practise  this fraud generally      
employ ,oil of ,turpentine for that     
purpose1 on  account of its cheapness   
and tenuity4 ,the cheat is easily       
discovered1  by moistening a linen rag  
with the ,oil supposed to be thus       
falsified1  and then holding the rag a  
little before the fire1 which presently 
dissipates the odorous part of the      
falsified ,oil4 ,this odour1 which      
prevented our distinguishing that of the
 ,oil of ,turpentine1 being  vanished1  
the peculiar smell of the ,turpentine1  
which is much more  permanent1 remains  
alone2 and is so perceptible that it    
cannot easily  be mistaken4    ,those   
who are much accustomed to see and      
examine ,essential ,oils1  have seldom  
occasion to make the experiments here   
proposed for  discovering their         
qualities4 ,a certain degree of         
thickness1 partaking  of unctuosity1 in 
an ,essential ,oil1 convinces them that 
it is falsified  with a ,fat ,oil3 on   
the other hand1 a greater degree of     

tenuity1  together with a quicker smell1
 than a pure ,essential ,oil ought to   
have1  discovers the admixture of       
,spirit of ,wine4 ,lastly1 any one1     
whose sense  of smelling is not very    
dull1 will easily discover the odour of 
the ,oil  of ,turpentine1 though        
disguised by that of the ,essential ,oil
 with which  it is mixed4      ,,process
 ,,ii4    ,to fire ,oils by combining   
them with highly concentrated ,acids3   
instanced in ,oil of ,turpentine4       
,mix together1 in a glass1 equal parts  
of concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol1  and  
highly smoking fresh-drawn ,spirit of   
,nitre3 pour this mixture at  several   
times1 but suddenly1 on three parts of  
,oil of ,turpentine1 set  for that      
purpose in a glass bason4 ,by a part    
here must be understood a  dram at      
least4 ,a most violent commotion1       
accompanied with smoke1 will            
immediately be raised in the liquors1   
and the whole will take fire in  an     
instant1 flame1 and be consumed4        

,,observations4    ,there is not in     
,chymistry a phenomenon more            
extraordinary1 and more  surprising1    
than the firing of ,oils by mixing them 
with ,acids4 ,it  could never have been 
suspected that a mixture of two cold    
liquors  would produce a sudden1        
violent1 bright1 and lasting flame1 like
 that  we are at present considering4   
,beccher gave notice1 in his ,physica   
subterranea1 that highly rectified      
,spirit of ,wine would be set on fire   
by mixing it with highly concentrated   
,oil of ,vitriol4    ,afterwards        
,borrichius1 a ,danish ,chymist1        
published a process for  kindling ,oil  
of ,turpentine1 by mixing it with the   
,nitrous ,acid1 as  we find in the      
,philosophical ,transactions of         
,copenhagen for the year  #afga4 ,most  
,chymists have since tried to repeat    
those experiments1 and  particularly to 
fire the ,oil of ,turpentine by mixing  
it with ,oil of  ,vitriol1 or ,spirit of
 ,nitre2 but to no purpose1 when they   

made use of  the ,oil of ,vitriol1 till 
,mr4 ,homberg told us1 in the ,memoirs  
of the  ,academy of ,sciences for #agja1
 that he had fired ,oil of ,turpentine  
by  mixing it with ,oil of ,vitriol4    
,to make the experiment succeed he      
requires1 ,that the ,oil of ,vitriol  be
 dephlegmated as much as possible1 and  
that the ,oil of ,turpentine be  the    
last that comes over in distillation1   
which is thick like a syrop1  and of a  
dark-brown colour2 for that which is    
white1 and rises at the  beginning of   
the distillation1 never takes fire4     
,these are his own  words3 but no body  
else hath ever succeeded in making the  
experiment4    ,tournefort had          
succeeded1 a little before ,homberg1 in 
firing1 not  ,oil of ,turpentine indeed1
 in which he always failed1 but the ,oil
 of  ,sassafras1 by mixing it with an   
equal quantity of well dephlegmated     
,spirit of ,nitre4 ,homberg came        
afterwards1 as appears by the ,memoirs  
of the ,academy for the year #agjb1 to  

fire with ,spirit of ,nitre the         
,essential ,oils of the aromatic plants 
of ,india2 and in #agjf ,mr4  ,rouviere 
fired1 with ,spirit of ,nitre1 the      
empyreumatic ,oil of ,guaiacum4  ,while 
this ,oil of ,guaiacum is burning1 a    
porous spongy body rises from  the midst
 of the flame1 to the height of about   
two feet above the  vessel4    ,lastly1 
several years after all these           
discoveries1 ,messrs4 ,geoffroy and     
,hoffman1 the one at ,paris1 and the    
other at ,hall in ,saxony1 found a way  
to fire the thereal ,oil of ,turpentine1
 each by a different process2  yet      
agreeing in this1 that they both        
combined the ,vitriolic ,acid with  the 
,nitrous1 and with this compound ,acid  
fired that thereal ,essential  ,oil1    
which is one of the thinnest1 and1      
probably for that very reason1  the most
 unfit to produce a flame with ,acids4  
,the most celebrated ,chymists1 as      
appears from this short account1 have   
employed themselves in firing ,essential

 ,oils2 but no body attempted the       
experiment on ,fat ,oils4 ,it was not so
 much as suspected that they were       
capable of taking fire after this       
manner1 till in #agde ,i read before    
the ,academy a ,memoir on ,oils1 which  
,i have already mentioned1 and in  which
 ,i express myself thus3    ,i put two  
ounces and a half of ,walnut ,oil into  
the bottom part of a  broken retort1    
having the figure of a cap1 or concave  
hemisphere2 and  poured thereon two     
ounces of smoking ,spirit of ,nitre4 ,it
 was scarce  put in when a considerable 
ebullition arose1 with a very thick     
smoke4  ,as ,i found it continually     
increasing1 and very fast too1 ,i       
retired a  little1 that ,i might observe
 the event without danger4 ,this caution
 was  not unnecessary3 for immediately  
the whole mixture blew up as high as    
the ceiling1 with a noise like the      
discharge of a musket4 ,nothing was     
left in the vessel but a black matter1  
which still continued to boil  a little 

and run over1 and at last remained very 
rare1 spungy1 and as  full of holes as a
 honeycomb3 its consistence also was    
such that it did  not stick to my       
fingers when ,i handled it4    ,as ,mr4 
,geoffroy1 who first found the means of 
firing the natural  ,balsams1 observed  
in them a similar explosion on that     
occasion1 it  appears that my ,oil was  
very near taking fire in this           
experiment3  which makes me presume that
 we may at last succeed in firing ,fat  
,oils  likewise1 and consequently all   
others2 seeing these have always been   
looked upon as the most unlikely to     
produce that phenomenon4 ,i imagine     
that1 to accomplish this1 nothing more  
is necessary than to make use of        
sufficiently great quantities1 and to   
order it so that the surfaces of  the   
liquors1 where they come into contact1  
may be of a large extent4               
,afterwards1 in #agdg1 ,mr4 ,rouelle    
read before the ,academy a ,memoir on   
the accension of ,oils by ,acids4 ,that 

,memoir contains a great number  of     
curious experiments1 and peculiar manual
 operations described very  distinctly1 
from which there results a general      
method of firing without  fail1 not only
 ,essential ,oils1 but even any ,fat    
,oil whatever3 so that  my conjecture1  
concerning the possibility of firing    
these latter ,oils1  mentioned in my    
above-cited ,memoir of #agde1 is now    
changed into a  certainty4 ,i shall     
proceed to explain how ,i conceive these
 accensions  are brought about1 and     
endeavour to account for the phenomenon 
from  such causes as to me seem the most
 probable4    ,a due attention to the   
phenomena produced by mixing ,oils with 
,acids  will enable us1 ,i imagine1 to  
discover the natural cause why the      
,oils take fire4 ,it is certain1 and    
demonstrated by the most decisive       
experiments1 that the friction of       
several bodies rubbing against each     
other produces heat2 and that when these
 bodies are combustible1 and  the heat  

produced by their friction rises to a   
certain degree1 they  take fire4 ,this1 
in my opinion1 is what happens to ,oils 
when mixed  with concentrated ,acids4   
,when these two sorts of substances rush
 into  union with rapidity1 as in the   
experiments under consideration1 there  
must necessarily be a great friction    
among their parts4 ,this friction       
produces the heat observed at the time  
of their union4 ,the more  concentrated 
the ,acids are1 with the greater        
violence and rapidity do  they act upon 
the ,oils1 and the greater is the heat  
raised4 ,if the  ,acids be concentrated 
to such a degree as to produce1 by      
uniting with  the ,oils1 a heat equal to
 that of an ignited body1 the           
combustible  substances that are exposed
 to it1 which in this case are ,oils1   
must  needs take fire and flame4    ,the
 heat produced on this occasion is so   
great1 that1 even when the  inflammation
 doth not take place1 if you touch the  
surface of the ,oil  with your finger1  

as soon as the ,acid hath had its       
effect1 you will  find it burn you like 
a live coal4    ,two pieces of wood1    
rapidly and violently rubbed against    
each other1  take fire4 ,what is it that
 is kindled in this case8 ,it can be    
nothing  but their ,oil3 for they       
contain no other combustible principle4 
,why  doth this ,oil take fire8 ,i do   
not think it possible to assign any     
reason for it1 but the heat produced by 
the friction of the pieces of  wood     
containing the ,oil4 ,if1 when ,oil is  
dispersed in a body1 of which  it is    
only one component principle1 and       
consequently mixed with many  saline1   
aqueous1 and earthy parts1 that are not 
inflammable1 but1 on  the contrary1 make
 the ,oil less so1 the ,oil nevertheless
 takes fire1  and burns when agitated by
 a sufficient degree of heat2 why shall 
not  this very ,oil1 when separated from
 the mixt of which it made a part1  when
 united into one distinct mass1 and     
entirely1 or almost entirely1  freed    

from the heterogeneous1 incombustible   
parts with which it was  combined1 and  
consequently now more inflammable than  
before2 why1 ,i  say1 shall it not take 
fire1 when exposed to a degree of heat  
equal1  or rather superior1 to that     
which is produced by rubbing two pieces 
of  wood together8    ,let us now       
examine the phenomena produced when     
,oils are fired by ,acids1  all the     
circumstances that favour or hinder     
their accension1 and see if  they agree 
with the explanation here offered4      
,first1 no sort of ,oil will take fire  
with any ,acid whatever that  is not    
highly concentrated2 for weak ,acids act
 but feebly on ,oils1  and dissolve them
 slowly2 so that the friction is neither
 quick nor  violent1 and consequently   
produces too faint a heat1 far below the
  degree of ignition4    ,secondly1 no  
inflammation is produced when ,acids and
 ,oils are mixed  in too small          
quantities2 but the more ,acid and ,oil 
you mix together1  the greater is the   

certainty of succeeding3 for the heat is
 exactly in  proportion to the friction 
that produces it2 and the total         
quantity1  or amount1 of this friction  
is so much the greater1 as there are    
more  particles rubbing against each    
other at the same time4 ,so that if a   
very small quantity of ,acid and ,oil be
 mixed together1 there will be  but a   
very small quantity of friction1 and    
consequently a very small  quantity of  
heat2 and in that case no inflammation4 
,it was with a view  to avoid these     
inconveniencies1 and to procure the     
opposite advantages  in as great a      
degree as possible1 that1 in the passage
 above quoted  from my ,memoir of ,oils1
 ,i proposed mixing together large doses
 of  ,acid and of ,oil1 as one of the   
means by which we might succeed in the  
accension of ,fat ,oils4    ,thirdly1   
the figure of the vessel1 in which the  
two liquors are mixed  together1 is not 
a matter of indifference4 ,a            
wide-spreading vessel1  of a large      

diameter with respect to the quantity of
 liquor it is  to contain1 favours the  
inflammation much more than one of a    
small  diameter4 ,nay1 it may not       
succeed at all in too narrow a vessel1  
though  all other circumstances be      
properly attended to4    ,the reason of 
this is1 that the activity of heat      
produced by friction  is not in         
proportion to the successive1 but to the
 simultaneous  frictions3 for the heat  
actually produced by the frictions of an
  hundred particles1 rubbing            
successively against each other1 with   
intervals sufficient to let the heat go 
off1 almost as fast as it is  generated1
 would be equal to the friction of a    
single particle only2  whereas the heat 
actually produced by the friction of the
 same number  of particles1 all rubbing 
against each other at the same instant1 
would be equal to the frictions of all  
the particles taken together1  and      
consequently an hundred times more      
active than the other#aa4 ,this  being  

laid down1 it is easy to conceive how a 
large vessel favours the  accension more
 than a small one4 ,it is certain that  
two liquors which  mutually present     
large surfaces to each other1 at the    
instant of their  being mixed together1 
touch each other at one and the same    
time in a  much greater number of       
points1 than if each had but a small    
surface2  and consequently that they    
must unite much sooner1 and with greater
  rapidity1 in the former case than in  
the latter4      #aa ,i believe this    
proposition is not strictly true3 for it
 appears    to me1 that1 in order to    
make the heat1 produced by the          
simultaneous    frictions of an hundred 
particles1 an hundred times more active 
than    that produced by the successive 
frictions of the same number of         
particles1 it is necessary that the     
simultaneous frictions should act    all
 together in one point or center2 which 
is impossible4 ,but1 as the    particles
 that rub against each other1 in the    

present case1 are very    near and      
contiguous1 it is still true that the   
heat1 resulting from    their           
simultaneous frictions1 is much more    
active than that produced    by         
successive frictions only3 which is     
sufficient for our present    purpose4  
,with these views1 and in order to give 
the liquors this advantageous           
disposition1 ,i recommended it as what  
would greatly promote the  inflammation 
of ,fat ,oils1 to order the liquors so1 
that1 at the moment  of their mixture1 a
 large surface of each might come into  
contact with  the other4    ,fourthly1  
if we reflect on the experiments        
hitherto made for kindling  ,oils by    
,acids1 we shall easily be convinced    
that all ,oils are not  equally apt to  
be fired2 and that light1 thereal1 very 
thin1 ,essential  ,oils do not produce  
this phenomenon so readily and so       
surely1 as those  of the same kind that 
are heavy and thick1 or at least soon   
grow thick  upon being mixed with       

,acids4    ,mr4 ,homberg says positively
 in the above-cited passage of his      
,memoir1  that he never could succeed in
 setting fire with the ,acid of ,vitriol
 to  the white1 thereal ,oil of         
,turpentine2 that is1 to the lightest   
which  comes over first in distillation2
 but that the very same ,acid set fire  
to that which comes over last in        
distillation1 which is thick like a     
syrop1 and of a dark-brown colour4      
,all the experiments by which ,oils have
 been fired1 from those of  ,beccher and
 ,borrichius down to those of ,geoffroy 
and ,hoffman1 were  made on the         
,essential ,oils of the aromatic plants 
of ,india1 which are  the heaviest we   
know1 and on the empyreumatic ,oil of   
,guaiacum1 which1  besides being very   
ponderous1 is also very thick4    ,now  
these singular effects likewise agree   
perfectly well with our  explanation4   
,it is certain that the parts of a heavy
 fluid do not yield  to any impulse or  
shock1 so easily as those of a lighter  

fluid2 just  as the parts of a thick1   
viscous fluid undoubtedly resist any    
attempt  to separate them1 so much the  
more the nearer the consistence of that 
fluid is to solidity1 or the further it 
is removed from the state of  fluidity4 
,now1 the more resistance the ,acid     
meets with in separating  and dividing  
the parts of the ,oil1 as it must do to 
dissolve them1  the more considerable   
will be the force and motion with which 
it must  necessarily act to surmount    
those obstacles2 besides1 as experience 
teaches us that the density and         
viscidity of the ,oils do not1 at least 
to sense1 diminish the quickness and    
activity which the ,acid exerts  in     
uniting with them2 the greater therefore
 must be the collisions1  frictions1 and
 heat produced3 and this plainly shews  
why heavy1 thick  ,oils take fire1 in   
this case1 more readily than those which
 are fluid  and light4    ,it may here  
be objected1 that ,fat ,oils1 which are 
thicker and heavier  than the light     

,essential ,oils1 take fire nevertheless
 with greater  difficulty4 ,this        
objection is easily answered1 by        
observing1 that when  we say ,acids fire
 heavy thick ,oils with more ease than  
thin light ,oils1  this position must be
 restricted to ,oils of the same kind1  
on which  ,acids have an equal1 or      
nearly equal1 action2 that is1 to such  
,oils  as differ from each other in no  
other respect but their thickness and   
weight4    ,for example1 ,mr4 ,homberg1 
who could by no means set fire1 with    
,oil of  ,vitriol1 to the ,oil that     
rises first in the distillation of      
,turpentine1  found that the same ,acid 
would fire the ,oil that comes last     
over3 and  therefore it is reasonable to
 attribute his success1 in firing this  
last ,oil1 to its being thicker and     
heavier than the former2 seeing  these  
two ,oils are in other respects of the  
same nature2 that ,acids  have an equal 
action on both2 and that they differ    
from each other only  in the qualities  

specified above4    ,but it is evident1 
that1 if the ,oils compared together be 
of different  kinds1 and differ from    
each other1 not only in weight and      
thickness1  but also by containing      
different principles1 or1 at least1 the 
same  principles combined differently1  
and in different proportions1  the      
action of any ,acid on those ,oils must 
also be different2 and  that regard must
 be had thereto in determining their    
degrees of  inflammability4    ,now all 
this is applicable to ,fat ,oils1 when  
compared with light  ,essential ,oils1  
in point of inflammability4 ,if all     
these ,oils were of  the same nature1   
and differed from each other in weight  
and thickness  only1 the objection drawn
 from ,fat ,oils1 which though thicker  
than  ,essential ,oils do not take fire 
so easily1 would be a very good one1    
and fact would be against our reasoning4
 ,but this is far from being  the case3 
the properties1 as well as the analysis1
 of ,fat ,oils shew  their nature to be 

very different from that of ,essential  
,oils2 that  there is more water in     
their composition2 and that they are    
full of  a mucilaginous or gummy        
principle1 which must greatly obstruct  
their  inflammability1 and the action of
 ,acids upon them4    ,none of the      
effects1 therefore1 that attend the     
firing of ,oils with  ,acids1 is        
repugnant to our way of accounting for  
the phenomenon1 which  is one of the    
most beautiful in all ,natural          
,philosophy4 ,to conclude  this         
important subject1 nothing now remains  
but to consider the effects  produced by
 the ,vitriolic ,acid in these          
accensions4    ,this ,acid1 though of a 
stronger nature1 and capable of being   
more  highly concentrated than the      
,nitrous ,acid1 seems however less      
qualified  to produce a flame with      
,oils4 ,indeed ,mr4 ,homberg fired ,oil 
of  ,turpentine by mixing it with ,oil  
of ,vitriol3 but ,i do not know that the
  experiment hath succeeded with any    

other ,chymist2 on the contrary1 most   
of those who have tried it affirm1 that 
they never could fire any ,oil  with    
that ,acid alone4    ,oils are probably 
in the same case as metallic substances1
 with regard  to these two ,acids4 ,we  
know that the ,nitrous ,acid dissolves  
those  substances with vastly more      
activity and violence than the          
,vitriolic  ,acid exerts upon them2     
which may depend1 either on the         
disposition and  configuration of their 
parts1 or on the portion of phlogiston  
which1  according to the opinion of most
 ,chymists1 is united with the ,nitrous 
,acid1 is its peculiar characteristic1  
and the cause of the great  vivacity    
with which it dissolves almost all      
matters that contain the  phlogiston4   
,i say almost all matters that contain  
the phlogiston2 because there  are some 
substances that contain a great deal    
thereof1 and yet are  not at all acted  
on by the pure ,nitrous ,acid4 ,these   
substances are  matters perfectly       

charred3 that is1 such as are capable of
 enduring the  greatest violence of fire
 in close vessels1 without yielding a   
single  atom of ,oil2 that burn almost  
quite away1 yet only grow red hot       
without  flaming2 or at least produce   
but a very small1 slight flame1 from    
which  it is impossible to obtain the   
least particle of soot or fuliginosity2 
in a word1 that contain an inflammable  
matter1 but such as is fit to be  an    
ingredient in the composition of        
metallic substances1 to which the       
peculiar title of the ,phlogiston is    
appropriated4    ,i say1 then1 that if  
the ,nitrous ,acid be poured on a mere  
coal1  perfectly charred1 it is         
impossible for the ,acid1 be it ever so 
highly  concentrated1 to set the coal on
 fire1 though heated before to the      
greatest degree that it can possibly    
admit of without kindling2 and1  which  
is still more remarkable1 if a live coal
 be plunged into the most  highly       
smoking ,spirit of ,nitre1 it will be   

extinguished as if dipt in  pure water4 
,but to return to the ,vitriolic ,acid3 
it is singular enough that this  ,acid1 
which attacks ,oils with less activity1 
and for that reason seems  less fit to  
set them on fire1 than the ,nitrous     
,acid1 yet greatly  promotes their      
accension1 when mixed with that very    
,acid4 ,this may  be owing to its       
rendering the ,oils with which it mixes 
heavier and  thicker2 or else1 as ,mr4  
,rouelle conjectures with great         
probability1  being more concentrated   
than the ,nitrous ,acid1 and having a   
greater  affinity with water1 it        
dephlegmates the other1 and thereby     
increases  its activity2 or1 lastly1    
this may arise from some other cause yet
  unknown to us1 and perhaps from that  
by which the ,acids of ,nitre and of    
,sea-salt1 which1 when separate and     
perfectly pure1 can neither of them     
dissolve ,gold1 are enabled1 when       
combined together1 to make a perfect    
solution of that metal4      ,,process  

,,iii4    ,to combine ,essential ,oils  
with ,mineral ,sulphur4 ,balsam of      
,sulphur4  ,this ,composition           
decompounded4    ,put into a matrass one
 part of ,flowers of ,sulphur2 pour on  
them six  parts of the ,essential ,oil  
of ,turpentine1 for instance2 set the   
matrass  in a sand-bath1 and heat it    
gradually till the ,oil boil4 ,the      
,sulphur1  which at first lay at the    
bottom of the matrass1 will begin to    
melt1  and appear to dissolve in the    
,oil4 ,when it hath boiled in this      
manner  for about an hour1 take the     
matrass from the fire1 and let the      
liquor  cool4 ,a great deal of the      
,sulphur that was dissolved therein will
  separate from it as it cools1 and fall
 to the bottom of the vessel in  the    
form of needles1 much like a ,salt      
shooting in water4    ,when the liquor  
is perfectly cold1 decant it from the   
,sulphur that  lies at the bottom of the
 vessel3 to that ,sulphur put fresh ,oil
 of  ,turpentine1 and proceed as before3

 the ,sulphur will again disappear1  and
 be dissolved in the ,oil3 but when the 
mixture is cold1 you will  find new     
crystals of ,sulphur deposited at the   
bottom4 ,decant once more  this ,oil    
from the crystals1 and pour on fresh    
,oil to dissolve them3  continue the    
same method1 and you will find that     
about sixteen parts of  ,essential ,oil 
are required to keep one part of        
,sulphur dissolved when  cold4 ,this    
combination is called ,balsamum         
,sulphuris ,terebinthinatum1  if made   
with ,oil of ,turpentine2 ,anisatum1 if 
with ,oil of ,anise-seeds2  and so of   
others4      ,,observations4            
,essential ,oils do not dissolve        
,sulphur1 in such quantities1 and with  
so much ease1 as ,fat ,oils do4 ,it was 
shewn above1 that a ,fat ,oil is        
capable of keeping a considerable       
quantity of ,sulphur in solution2       
whereas no less than sixteen parts of   
,essential ,oil are required to         
dissolve one part only of ,sulphur1 as  

in this process4    ,the property which 
,sulphur hath of separating1 in part1   
from the  ,essential ,oil in which it is
 dissolved1 and falling to the bottom of
  the vessel in the form of crystals1 as
 the ,oil cools1 proves that it is  a   
kind of ,neutral ,salt1 which1 being    
insoluble in water1 because of the      
great quantity of inflammable matter    
that serves it for a basis1 is not  to  
be dissolved but by substances that     
actually contain themselves a  great    
deal of inflammable matter2 such as     
,oils and ,metallic substances4         
,though the latter are almost always    
solid1 it nevertheless unites with      
several of them into regular forms1     
resembling saline crystals in every     
thing but pellucidity2 as appears1 for  
example1 in several ,pyrites1           
,antimony1 and some other sulphureous   
minerals4 ,but when it is dissolved  in 
,oils1 especially in such as are capable
 of keeping but a small  quantity       
thereof in solution1 and consequently   

drop a good deal of it  as they cool1 it
 is precisely in the case of one of     
those ,salts whereof  hot water         
dissolves more than cold2 that is1 the  
,oil1 that is saturated  with as much   
,sulphur as it can possibly take up when
 boiling hot1 lets  some part thereof   
precipitate as it cools2 while the      
,sulphur thus  separated from the ,oil  
unites into little glebes of a regular  
figure1  and actually crystallizes2 in  
the same manner as ,nitre1 when boiling 
water hath dissolved as much thereof as 
it can possibly take up1 partly         
separates from it when it cools1 and    
falls to the bottom of the vessel  in   
small crystalline molecul1 of the form  
peculiar to that ,salt4    ,mr4 ,homberg
 made some very curious experiments on  
this combination of  ,sulphur with an   
,essential ,oil4 ,in the ,memoirs of the
 ,academy he gives  the following       
analysis thereof4    ,put your ,sulphur 
dissolved by ,oil of ,turpentine into a 
pretty large  retort1 because the matter

 puffs up towards the end1 and distil   
with  a very gentle heat for twelve or  
fifteen days and nights4 ,there will    
come over about two thirds of the       
quantity of a colourless ,oil of        
,turpentine1 and at the same time a     
pretty considerable quantity of  a      
whitish ponderous water1 as acid as good
 ,spirit of ,vitriol4 ,after  this1 the 
drops of ,oil that come off will begin  
to be red4 ,then change  your receiver1 
and increase the fire gradually2 and in 
seven or eight  hours time1 with a very 
great heat1 force off all that will     
rise1 using  a glass retort for your    
recipient4 ,at last1 most of the ,oil   
will come  over into the receiver very  
thick and high-coloured1 still          
accompanied  with a whitish and very    
acid water4 ,in the retort will be left 
a  black caput mortuum1 spongy1 or      
foliated1 shining1 and insipid4444      
,this caput mortuum neither grows white1
 nor flames1 nor wastes  considerably in
 a strong fire4    ,the matter that     

comes over into the receiver must be    
distilled again1  with a very gentle    
heat continued for several days and     
nights1 in order  to separate once more 
the colourless ,oil and the remaining   
acid water1  till the ,oil begin to come
 off red4 ,then take the retort from the
 fire1  and on the black gummy matter   
left in it pour good ,spirit of ,wine2  
mix  the whole well together1 and distil
 with a very gentle heat4 ,when this    
,spirit of ,wine is come off1 pour some 
fresh on the black gum left in  the     
retort1 and distil as before4 ,repeat   
this till the ,spirit of ,wine  cease to
 have a bad smell4    ,there is great   
reason to believe1 that1 by the union   
which the ,sulphur  contracts with the  
,oil1 the cohesion of the ,acid and the 
,phlogiston1  which constitute that     
mineral1 is considerably weakened2 and  
that  this is what occasions the        
decomposition of the ,sulphur so        
manifest  in ,mr4 ,homberg's analysis4  
,the inflammable matter of the ,sulphur 

is  so incorporated with that of the    
,oil in the solution1 that they form    
together one homogeneous whole2 by which
 means the ,acid of the ,sulphur1  which
 is of course dispersed through the     
whole liquor1 is not now  combined with 
the ,phlogiston1 as it was in the       
,sulphur before it was  blended with the
 ,oil2 that is1 with the pure           
,phlogiston2 but with that  ,phlogiston 
which constitutes the oily mixture1 or1 
which is the same  thing1 with actual   
,oil4 ,and this is the reason that a    
composition of  ,oil and ,sulphur       
yields1 in distillation1 nearly the same
 principles  that a combination of the  
same ,oil with the ,vitriolic ,acid     
would yield4    ,we have already seen1  
under the head of ,fat ,oils1 that when 
,oils are  combined with ,acids1 if this
 combination be again decompounded by   
distillation1 those two substances      
cannot be obtained in their original    
state2 but that they are changed and    
partly decomposed4 ,the case is  the    

same in the experiment before us4 ,we   
first get1 by distillation1 a  pretty   
considerable quantity of ,oil of        
,turpentine1 that seems to have         
suffered no change at all4 ,this first  
,oil is that which the action of  fire  
separates from the ,acid2 and this it   
effects with so much the  more ease1    
that1 a great quantity thereof having   
been necessarily  used to dissolve a    
little ,sulphur1 it greatly exceeds the 
quantity of  ,acid in the mixture1 and  
that the distillation is ordered to be  
made  with a very weak degree of heat3  
for ,m4 ,homberg says1 it ought to  be  
continued twelve or fifteen days and    
nights4 ,now this manner of  distilling1
 with a very gentle heat1 is the most   
effectual means of  separating ,oils1   
especially light ,essential ,oils1 from 
,acids2 because  these ,oils rise in    
distillation with very little heat2     
whereas the  ,acids1 being much more    
ponderous1 require a great deal more4   
,the ,oil that rises first in           

distillation1 appears indeed to be the  
same  with that which was originally    
used in the mixture2 but the quantity is
  much smaller3 first1 because some part
 of it1 being combined with the  ,acid  
of the ,sulphur1 is thereby rendered    
thick and heavy1 which hinders  it from 
rising in this first distillation with a
 very gentle heat1 and  is the reason   
that it cannot be elevated without a    
much stronger degree  of fire4 ,it is   
this part that afterward comes over in  
the form of a red  liquor upon          
increasing the fire4    ,the second     
cause why the quantity of ,oil is       
lessened1 is1 that part  of it is       
decomposed in the operation4 ,this      
decomposed part of the ,oil  furnishes  
that considerable quantity of water     
which ascends at the same  time with the
 ,oil1 or a little after it1 and serves 
for a vehicle to  the ,acid that rises  
with it in this first distillation2     
which ,acid1  though pretty strong1 is  
now much more loaded with water than    

when it  was an ingredient in the       
combination of ,sulphur4 ,this acid     
water is of  a milky white colour1      
because many oily particles are         
suspended and  diffused in it1 but not  
perfectly dissolved4    ,the caput      
mortuum that is left in the retort1     
after all the red thick  ,oil is driven 
up by a very strong degree of fire1 is a
 sort of charred  matter1 consisting of 
some of the earth of the ,sulphur1 and  
of the  decomposed ,oil1 united with a  
phlogiston1 which is probably furnished 
by both these substances4 ,this matter  
contains also a little ,acid fixed  with
 it4 ,this ,acid reproduces ,sulphur1 or
 at least becomes sulphureous1  and     
flies off in vapours1 when the coal is  
urged by a violent  forge-heat3 for ,mr4
 ,homberg observed1 that by this means  
it exhaled an  odour of ,sulphur1 and   
lost in weight4    ,this charred matter 
is of a singular nature3 for1 by being  
exposed to  a forge-heat1 and even to   
the heat in the focus of a burning      

glass1 it  seemed to suffer no other    
change than some loss of weight1        
occasioned  by the evaporation of the   
acid effluvia carried off by the heat2  
for  it still retained its black colour1
 and was neither consumed nor           
vitrified4 ,in order to melt it1 ,mr4   
,homberg was forced to mix it with      
,borax4 ,this ,salt converted it into a 
glass of a dark-grey colour3 and1  as   
there appeared a little verdegris on the
 surface of this glass  after keeping it
 in a moist place1 he thereby found that
 the ,sulphur he  had used contained a  
little ,copper4    ,we know that the    
earth of ,copper is refractory1 and that
 it  communicates a dark colour to      
matters vitrified along with it3 and    
perhaps it was the cause why the fixed  
matter in question retained its         
blackish colour so obstinately1         
notwithstanding the phlogiston that     
must have been in it at first was1 in   
all probability1 consumed by the        
violent ignitions it underwent4    ,as  

to the thick oily matter1 called gummy  
by ,mr4 ,homberg1 from which  he directs
 ,spirit of ,wine to be repeatedly      
distilled1 till it cease to  have a     
disagreeable smell1 there is great      
reason for thinking it to be1  as we    
said before1 a portion of the ,oil which
 the ,acid hath rendered  thick and     
heavy4 ,the ,spirit of ,wine dissolves  
and carries up the most  acid part1     
which always hath a disagreeable smell4 
,mr4 ,homberg says1 that the part       
remaining after this1 which he calls    
the ,gum of common ,sulphur1 hath a     
pleasant balsamic odour2 that it  partly
 dissolves in ,spirit of ,wine1 a hard  
resinous matter being left1  which will 
not dissolve1 either in ,spirit of      
,wine1 or in the strongest  lixivium4   
,of consequence1 therefore1 it is       
neither a resinous matter  nor a        
sulphur2 yet it dissolves perfectly in  
distilled ,oils4 ,what  then is this    
singular body8 ,it is certainly a       
subject for very  curious inquiries4 ,in

 general1 ,mr4 ,homberg's whole process 
is full of  interesting facts1 and well 
deserves to be repeated1 carried        
further1  and carefully attended to4    
,,process ,,iv4    ,to combine          
,essential ,oils with ,fixed ,alkalis4  
,starkey's ,soap4    ,take ,salt of     
,tartar1 or any other ,alkali1          
thoroughly calcined4 ,heat it  in a     
crucible till it be red1 and in that    
condition throw it into a hot  iron     
mortar3 rub it quickly with a very hot  
iron pestle2 and as soon as  it is      
powdered pour on it1 little by little1  
nearly an equal quantity  of ,oil of    
,turpentine4 ,the ,oil will enter into  
the ,salt1 and unite  intimately with   
it1 so as to form a hard paste4         
,continue rubbing this  composition with
 the pestle1 in order to complete the   
union of the two  substances2 and1 as   
your ,oil of ,turpentine disappears1 add
 more1 which  will unite in the same    
manner1 and give a softer consistence to
 the  soapy mass4 ,you may add still    

more ,oil1 according to the consistence 
you intend to give your ,soap4          
,,observations4    ,essential ,oils do  
not unite near so easily as ,fat ,oils  
with ,alkalis4  ,for this reason1 to    
make a ,soap with an ,essential ,oil1 we
 must take  a method different from that
 used in common soaperies4 ,for if an   
,essential ,oil be substituted for the  
,fat ,oil1 in the ordinary way of       
making ,soap1 far from combining with   
the alkaline lixivium1 though ever  so  
strong1 it will be wholly dissipated and
 vanish3 so that1 after  boiling some   
time1 you will find nothing but the lye1
 just as when  first put in1 only a     
little more concentrated4    ,the water1
 in which the ,alkali is dissolved when 
in the form of a  lye1 is the principal 
thing that hinders the ,salt from       
uniting with  the ,essential ,oil4      
,water is such an enemy to this union1  
that1 if the  ,alkali be ever so little 
moist1 the operation will not succeed2  
even  though all the other precautions  

mentioned in the process should be      
exactly observed4    ,in order1         
therefore1 to free the ,alkali from all 
humidity1 it is  necessary to begin with
 making it red-hot2 and then1 that this 
,salt1  which is very greedy of         
moisture1 may not imbibe any from the   
air1  before it be mixed with the       
,essential ,oil1 it must not be suffered
 to  cool2 but the mixture must be made 
in a hot vessel1 as soon as the ,salt   
is reduced to powder4 ,when every       
particle of the ,salt is once covered   
with ,oil1 you need not fear its        
attracting any moisture1 at least very  
quickly1 because the ,oil opposes its   
admission4    ,starkey1 the first       
,chymist who found the means of making  
,soap with  an ,essential ,oil1 and by  
whose name this kind of ,soap is        
therefore  called1 made use of a much   
more tedious method than that proposed  
in  our process4 ,he began with mixing a
 very small quantity of ,oil with  this 
,salt1 and waited till all the ,oil     

united therewith of its own  accord1 so 
as to disappear entirely1 before he     
added any more2 and thus  protracted his
 operation exceedingly1 though in the   
main it was the  same with ours4 ,the   
method here proposed is more            
expeditious1 and was  invented by ,dr4  
,geoffroy4    ,starkey's ,soap dissolves
 in water much as common ,soap does1    
without  any separation of the ,oil3 and
 by this mark it is known to be well    
made4 ,it may also be decompounded1     
either by distillation1 or by mixing  it
 with an ,acid3 and its decomposition1  
in either of these ways1 is  attended   
with nearly the same phenomena as the   
decomposition of common  ,soap4         
,,chap4 ,,vi4     ,of the ,,substances  
obtained from ,,vegetables by ,means of 
a   ,,graduated ,,heat1 from that of    
boiling ,water1 to the strongest that   
can   be applied to them in close       
,vessels4      ,,process ,i4    ,to     
analyze ,vegetable ,substances that     
yield neither a ,fat nor an  ,essential 

,oil4 ,instanced in ,guaiacum-,wood4    
,take thin shavings of ,guaiacum-wood1  
and put them into a glass or  stone     
retort1 leaving one half thereof empty4 
,set your retort in a  reverberating    
furnace1 and lute on a large glass      
receiver having a  small hole drilled in
 it2 such as is used for distilling the 
,mineral  ,acids4 ,put a live coal or   
two in the furnace1 to warm the vessels 
gently and slowly4    ,with a degree of 
heat below that of boiling water1 you   
will see drops  of a clear insipid      
phlegm fall into the receiver4 ,if you  
raise the  fire a little1 this water    
will come slightly acid1 and begin to   
have a  pungent smell4 ,with a degree of
 fire somewhat stronger1 a water will   
continue to rise which will be still    
more acid1 smell stronger1 and  become  
yellowish4 ,when the heat comes to      
exceed that of boiling water1  the      
phlegm that rises will be very acid1    
high coloured1 have a strong  pungent   
smell1 like that of matters long smoked 

with wood in a chimney1  and will be    
accompanied with a red1 light ,oil1 that
 will float on the  liquor in the       
receiver4    ,and now it is necessary   
that the operation be carried on very   
cautiously1 and vent frequently given to
 the rarefied air by opening  the small 
hole in the receiver3 such an incredible
 quantity thereof  rushing out of the   
,wood1 with this degree of heat1 as may 
burst the  vessels to pieces1 if not    
discharged from time to time4    ,when  
this red1 light ,oil is come over1 and  
the air ceases to rush out  with        
impetuosity1 raise your fire gradually1 
till the retort begin to  redden4 ,the  
receiver will be filled with dense      
vapours2 and1 together  with the watery 
liquor1 which will then be extremely    
acid1 there will  rise a black1 thick1  
ponderous ,oil1 which will fall to the  
bottom of  the receiver1 and lye under  
the liquor4    ,then give the utmost    
degree of heat2 that is1 the greatest   
your furnace  will allow1 and your      

vessels bear4 ,with this excessive heat 
a little  more ,oil will rise1 which    
will be very ponderous1 as thick and    
black  as pitch2 and the vessels will   
continue full of vapours that will not  
condense4    ,at last1 when you have    
kept the retort exceeding red for a long
 time in  this extremity of heat1 so    
that it begins to melt1 if it be of     
glass1  and you perceive nothing more   
come over1 let the fire go out and the  
vessel cool4 ,then take off your        
receiver3 from the black oil at bottom  
decant the acid liquor with the red ,oil
 floating on it1 and pour them  both    
into a glass funnel1 lined with brown   
filtering paper1 and placed  over a     
bottle4 ,the acid liquor will pass      
through the filter into the  bottle1 and
 the ,oil will be left behind1 which    
must be kept by itself  in a separate   
bottle4 ,lastly1 into another funnel1   
prepared as the  former1 pour the thick 
,oil remaining with a little of the acid
 liquor  at the bottom of the receiver4 

,this liquor will filter off in the same
  manner1 and thus be separated from the
 heavy ,oil4    ,in the retort you will 
find your ,guaiacum-shavings1 not in the
 least  altered as to their figure1 but 
light1 friable1 very black1 scentless1  
and tasteless1 easily taking fire1 and  
consuming without flame or  smoke2 in   
short1 you will find them charred to a  
perfect coal4      ,,observations4      
,hitherto we have examined the          
substances that may be obtained from    
vegetables1 either without the help of  
fire1 or with a degree of heat  not     
exceeding that of boiling water4 ,the   
analysis of plants can be  carried no   
further without a greater degree of     
heat3 for1 when the  principle of odour1
 and the essential oil of an aromatic   
plant1 are  wholly extracted by the     
preceding processes1 if the distillation
 be  afterward continued without        
increasing the heat1 nothing more will  
be  obtained but a little ,acid2 which  
will soon cease1 as a small part only   

of the quantity contained in the plant  
will be elevated2 the rest being  either
 too ponderous1 or too much entangled   
with the other principles  of the body1 
to rise with so small a degree of heat4 
,in order1 therefore1 to carry on the   
decomposition of a plant1 from  which   
you have1 by the methods before         
proposed1 extracted all the  principles 
it is capable of yielding when so       
treated2 or1 which comes  to the same   
thing1 in order to analyze a vegetable  
matter1 which  affords neither an       
expressed nor an essential oil1 it must 
be distilled  in a retort with a naked  
fire1 as directed in the process1 and be
 made  to undergo all the degrees of    
heat successively1 from that of boiling 
water1 to the highest that can be raised
 in a reverberating furnace4    ,a heat 
inferior to that of boiling water1 with 
which we must begin in  order to warm   
the vessel gradually1 brings nothing    
over1 as hath been  said1 but an insipid
 water1 destitute of all acidity4 ,by   

increasing it  nearly to the degree of  
boiling water1 the distilled water comes
 to be  slightly acid4    ,when the heat
 is made a little stronger than that    
which is necessary  for the elevation of
 an ,essential ,oil1 the acidity of the 
water that  comes off is much more      
considerable4 ,it hath now both colour  
and smell1  and there rises with it a   
red1 light ,oil1 that floats on the     
liquor in  the receiver4 ,this is not an
 ,essential ,oil2 it hath none of the   
odour  of the plant4 ,though so light as
 to float on water1 yet it will not     
rise with the degree of heat that raises
 ,essential ,oils2 even those  that much
 surpass it in gravity1 and will not    
swim on water as this  does4 ,this      
proves that the ease or difficulty1 with
 which a particular  degree of heat     
raises any substance in distillation1   
doth not depend  altogether on its      
gravity3 its dilatability1 or the       
volatile nature of  the matters1 with   
which it is so closely united as not to 

be separated  from them by distillation1
 may probably contribute greatly to     
produce  this effect4    ,it is very    
surprising that a substance so hard1 so 
compact1 so dry1  in appearance1 as     
,guaiacum-wood1 should yield such a     
large quantity  of water by             
distillation2 and it is equally so1 that
 it should  discharge so much air1 and  
with so much impetuosity1 as nothing but
  experience could render credible4 ,we 
have1 in the process1 directed  the     
precautions to be taken when this air1  
from being prodigiously  condensed in   
the body of which it made a part1 is set
 at large1 rushes  out of confinement1  
and expands with all its natural        
elasticity4 ,from  this air arises the  
greatest danger attending the operation4
    ,it hath been remarked1 that the    
heaviest and most compact woods yield   
the most air in distillation3 and       
accordingly ,guaiacum-wood1 which we    
have chosen for an instance1 as         
exceeding almost all others in hardness 

and weight1 discharges a vast quantity  
of air when analyzed4    ,the thick1    
burnt1 empyreumatic ,oil1 that comes    
over last in this  distillation1 is     
heavier than water2 on account1         
probably1 of the  great quantity of     
,acid with which it is replete4 ,the two
 kinds of ,oil  obtained in this        
analysis may be rectified1 by distilling
 them a second  time1 or rather several 
times2 by which means they will become  
lighter  and more fluid1 as we have seen
 happen to ,fat and ,essential ,oils4   
,in  general1 all thick1 heavy ,oils    
constantly owe these qualities to an    
,acid united with them2 and it is by    
being freed from some of that ,acid  in 
distillation1 that they always acquire a
 greater degree of lightness  and       
fluidity from that operation4 ,to these 
laws all vegetable ,oils are  subject1  
of what nature soever they be4    ,the  
analysis of a vegetable substance1      
exhibited above1 shews what  may be     
obtained from them1 when distilled in   

close vessels1 with a  graduated heat1  
from that of boiling water1 to that     
which converts the  mixt to a perfect   
coal2 viz4 ,phlegm1 an ,acid1 a light   
,oil1 much ,air1  and a thick ,oil4 ,but
 this analysis is far from being a      
complete one3 it  may be carried much   
farther1 and made more perfect4    ,none
 of the principles obtained by this     
analysis are pure1 simple1 and          
thoroughly separated from the rest4     
,they are still in some measure  blended
 all together3 their separation is but  
begun2 and each requires  a second and  
more accurate analysis1 to reduce it to 
the greatest  degree of purity of which 
it is capable4 ,the ,oil and the ,acid  
chiefly  merit so much pains4    ,a     
great deal of the ,acid of the plant    
remains1 as was said1 combined  with the
 two sorts of ,oil here obtained2 which 
we have reason to  think differ no      
otherwise from one another1 than as     
there is more  or less ,acid united with
 each4 ,the best way of freeing these   

,oils  from their redundant ,acid is to 
distil them frequently from ,alkalis    
and ,absorbents4 ,some of our best      
,chymists have taken this pains with    
several sorts of ,oils2 but the method  
might be still extended1 and the        
operation carried further than hath yet 
been done4    ,the ,acid is in the same 
circumstances nearly as the ,oil4 ,the  
first that  rises is mortified with much
 water1 to which it owes a good deal of 
its  volatility4 ,that which comes over 
last is much more concentrated1 and     
consequently heavier2 yet it is still   
very aqueous4 ,it might be freed  in a  
great measure from this adventitious    
water1 and so rendered much  stronger2  
which would give us a better opportunity
 to discover its  nature and properties1
 of which we know but very little4      
,water is not the only heterogeneous    
substance that disguises the  vegetable 
,acid3 a pretty considerable quantity of
 the ,oil of the plant  is also combined
 with it1 and contaminates its purity4  

,the proof of  this is1 that1 when these
 ,acids are kept1 in the same condition 
in  which they first come over1 for any 
length of time1 in a glass vessel1  they
 gradually deposite1 on the bottom and  
sides of the vessel1 an oily            
incrustation1 which grows thicker and   
thicker the longer it stands2  and1 as  
this oily matter separates from it1 the 
,acid liquor appears  less unctuous and 
saponaceous4    ,a very good way to     
separate this ,oil more effectually from
 the ,acid  is to combine the whole with
 absorbents1 and abstract the ,oil again
  by distillation4 ,by this means a very
 sensible quantity of ,oil may  be      
separated that was not perceived before4
 ,on this occasion it is  proper to     
remark1 that the ,oil thus united with  
the vegetable ,acid is  perfectly       
dissolved by it2 seeing it is thereby   
rendered miscible with  water1 so that  
it doth not1 like ,alkaline soaps1 in   
the least obscure  its limpidity1 or    
give it a milky cast3 for these aqueous1

 oily ,acids  are very transparent1     
especially after they have stood for    
some time4    ,the air that is          
discharged with impetuosity in the      
operation1 and must  be let out1 is     
loaded with many particles of ,acid and 
,oil reduced to  vapours1 which it      
carries off2 and by this means the      
quantity of the  principles extracted   
from the mixt cannot be accurately      
determined3 nor  are the vapours1 of    
which the vessels remain full after the 
operation1  any other than particles of 
,acid and ,oil1 which the violence of   
the  fire hath rarefied exceedingly1 and
 which do not easily condense4    ,if we
 distil in this manner a vegetable      
aromatic substance1 which of  course    
contains an ,essential ,oil1 provided it
 hath not been previously  extracted by 
the appropriated process1 this          
,essential ,oil will rise  first1 as    
soon as the distilling vessel acquires  
the heat of boiling  water3 but its     
scent will not be near so sweet or      

grateful1 as if it  were distilled in   
the manner before directed as properest 
for it4 ,on  the contrary1 it will have 
an empyreumatic smell3 because in this  
way  it is impossible to avoid scorching
 and half-burning some of the matter    
distilled2 especially that part of it   
which touches the sides of the  retort4 
,moreover1 the very same equable degree 
of heat can hardly be  kept up with a   
naked fire4 ,the ,essential ,oil1       
therefore1 though it  rises first1 will 
not be pure1 but contaminated with a    
mixture of  the empyreumatic ,oil that  
first comes over1 and will be confounded
  therewith4    ,if a substance         
abounding with ,fat ,oil1 that hath not 
been expressed  from it1 be distilled   
according to the present process1 it    
will yield  no ,fat ,oil by             
distillation2 but only much more of the 
first clear  ,oil1 and of the second    
thick ,oil1 than if all the ,fat ,oil it
 would  have afforded had been first    
drawn off by expression3 for as the ,fat

  ,oil will not rise in distillation1   
without a degree of heat greater  than  
that of boiling water1 neither can it   
endure such a degree of  heat without   
changing its nature1 without losing that
 mildness1 and1  in a great measure1    
that unctuosity which is natural to it4 
,it will  therefore be confounded with  
the other empyreumatic ,oil1 which1 in  
all probability1 would itself be no     
other than a ,fat ,oil1 if it could  be 
wholly extracted1 without the aid of    
fire1 from the vegetable  substances    
containing it4    ,most vegetable       
substances1 when distilled with a strong
 fire1 yield  the same principles with  
that which we have chosen for an        
instance4  ,entire plants of this kind1 
those from which the odorous principle1 
the  ,essential ,oil1 or the ,fat ,oil1 
hath been drawn1 those of which extracts
  have been made by infusion or         
decoction1 or the extracts themselves2  
all such matters being distilled yield a
 ,phlegm1 an ,acid1 a thin ,oil1  ,air1 

and a thick ,oil1 and the products of   
their several analyses  differ from each
 other1 only on account of the different
 quantity or  proportion that each      
contains of the principles here         
enumerated4    ,but there are many other
 plants1 which1 besides these           
substances1 yield  also a considerable  
quantity of a ,volatile ,alkaline ,salt4
 ,this property  is possessed chiefly by
 that tribe of plants which is          
distinguished  by having cruciform      
flowers2 among which there are some that
 being  analyzed greatly resemble animal
 matters4 ,we shall now analyze one of  
these2 ,mustard-seed1 for instance4     
,,process ,,ii4     ,to analyze a       
vegetable ,substance which yields the   
same ,principles as   are obtained from 
,animal ,matters2 instanced in          
,mustard-seed4    ,with an apparatus    
like that of the preceding process1 and 
with the  same fire1 distil             
,mustard-seed4 ,with a degree of heat   
inferior to that  of boiling water1     

there will come over a phlegm somewhat  
coloured1  and impregnated with a       
,volatile ,alkaline ,salt4 ,with a      
degree of  heat greater than that of    
boiling water1 the same kind of phlegm1 
impregnated with the same ,salt1 will   
continue to come over2 but it will  be  
much higher coloured1 and will be       
accompanied with a light ,oil4 ,at  this
 time a considerable quantity of air is 
discharged2 with regard to  which the   
same precautions must be taken as in    
distilling ,guaiacum4    ,if the fire be
 gradually raised1 there will come over 
a black thick  ,oil1 lighter however    
than water2 and at the same time vapours
 will  rise1 and1 condensing on the     
sides of the receiver1 form into sprigs 
or  ramifications4 ,this is a ,volatile 
,alkaline ,salt1 in a concrete form1    
like that of animals1 as we shall       
hereafter see4 ,these vapours are much  
whiter than those of ,guaiacum4    ,when
 you have thus drawn off1 with a very   
strong fire1 all the ,volatile  ,alkali 

and thick ,oil contained in the subject1
 there will be nothing  left in the     
retort but a sort of coal1 from which a 
small quantity of  phosphorus may be    
obtained1 provided the retort you employ
 for that  purpose be good enough to    
stand a very violent heat4              
,,observations4    ,mustard-seed        
furnishes us with an instance of a      
vegetable1 from which  we obtain1 by    
analyzing it1 the very same principles  
that animal  matters yield4 ,instead of 
getting an ,acid from it1 we obtain only
 a  ,volatile ,alkali2 probably because 
the ,acid1 which originally enters  into
 the composition of this kind of        
vegetables1 as well as of all  others1  
undergoes in passing through their      
strainers1 and mixing with  their       
juices1 such alterations as it suffers  
when it enters into the  composition of 
animals3 that is1 it combines with some 
of their ,earth  and of their ,oil1 in  
such a manner as to be changed into a   
,volatile  ,alkali1 or at least disposed

 to be converted into one with the aid  
of  fire4    ,we shall not here speak of
 the manner of separating and depurating
 the  principles obtained by this       
process2 but reserve it for the analysis
 of  animals1 which is absolutely the   
same4 ,we shall content ourselves with  
observing1 that the first ,volatile     
,alkali which rises at the beginning  of
 the operation together with the phlegm1
 in a degree of heat below  that of     
boiling water1 differs from that which  
doth not come over till  towards the end
 of the distillation1 when the last     
thick ,oil ascends4  ,the different     
times1 and different degrees of heat1 in
 which these two  ,alkalis rise1 shew   
that the former exists actually and     
perfectly in the  plant2 but that the   
latter is generated during the          
distillation1 and is  the product of the
 fire1 which combines together the      
materials whereof  it is composed4      
,vegetables that thus yield a ,volatile 
,alkali with a heat less than  that of  

boiling water1 irritate the organ of    
smelling1 affecting it  with a sensation
 of acrimony2 and the effluvia1 which   
rise from them  when bruised1 make the  
eyes smart so as to draw tears from them
 in  abundance4 ,several of these       
matters1 being only bruised1 effervesce 
with ,acids3 effects producible only by 
a very ,volatile ,alkaline  principle4  
,this is that ,alkali1 the lightest of  
all the principles that can be          
extracted from bodies1 which rises first
 in our distillation along  with the    
phlegm1 and with a degree of heat much  
inferior to that of  boiling water4 ,as 
the phlegm with which it rises is very  
copious1 it is  dissolved thereby2 which
 is the reason it doth not appear in a  
concrete  form4 ,to this water it gives 
a slight yellowish tinge1 because it is 
impure and oily4 ,the saline ,alkaline  
properties of this liquor have  procured
 it the title of a ,volatile ,spirit4   
,this ,volatile ,alkali1 which  exists  
naturally and perfectly formed in       

,mustard-seed1 ,onions1 ,garlic1        
,cresses1 and other such vegetables1    
constitutes a difference between  them  
and animal substances1 which contain    
only the materials requisite  to form a 
,volatile ,alkali1 but none ready       
formed1 unless they have  undergone the 
putrid fermentation4    ,the second     
,volatile ,alkali which rises in our    
distillation1 but not  without a very   
strong degree of fire1 and at the same  
time with the  last thick ,oil1 seems to
 be a production of the fire2 for if it 
were  already formed in the mixt1 as the
 other is1 it would rise with the  same 
heat1 and at the same time1 being       
equally volatile4 ,it is not            
impossible1 however1 that it may exist  
perfectly formed in the plant2  but1    
having contracted an union with some    
,acid1 and therewith composing  an      
,ammoniacal ,salt1 it may by that means 
be hindered from rising so  readily as  
is agreeable to its natural volatility4 
,the ,phosphorus obtained by a violent  

fire1 from the caput mortuum  of this   
distillation1 seems to throw a light of 
probability on this  conjecture4 ,there 
is certainly a great deal of ,acid in   
the composition  of ,phosphorus4        
,perhaps this ,acid was originally      
combined with our  second ,volatile     
,alkali1 and formed therewith1 as was   
said1 a sort of  ,sal ,ammoniac4        
,moreover1 almost all the plants that   
yield a ,volatile  ,alkali by           
distillation1 yield also a considerable 
quantity of ,acid3  which may perhaps be
 the remains of such a ,sal ,ammoniac   
decomposed by  the operation4 ,this is a
 subject for curious and useful         
inquiries4 ,this  second ,volatile      
,alkali appears in a concrete form1     
because very little  phlegm comes over  
along with it2 so that the vapours      
thereof are not  sufficient to dissolve 
it1 as they did the first4              
,,chap4 ,,vii4    ,of the ,,substances  
obtained from ,,vegetables by           
,,combustion4      ,,process ,i4    ,to 

procure a ,fixed ,caustic ,alkaline     
,salt from a ,vegetable ,substance1  by 
burning it in the open ,air4    ,take   
any vegetable matter whatever2 set it on
 fire1 and let it burn  in the open air 
till it be wholly reduced to ashes4 ,on 
these ashes  pour a quantity of boiling 
water sufficient to drench them         
thoroughly4  ,filter the liquor in order
 to separate the earthy parts2 and      
evaporate  your lye to dryness1 stirring
 it incessantly2 and you will have a    
yellowish-white ,salt4    ,put this     
,salt in a crucible2 set it in a melting
 furnace1 and make a  moderate fire1 so 
as not to fuse the ,salt4 ,it will turn 
first of a  blue-grey colour1 afterwards
 of a blue-green1 and at last reddish4  
,put  on the dome of the furnace2 fill  
it with coals2 make your fire strong    
enough to melt the ,salt1 and keep it in
 fusion for an hour1 or an hour  and    
half4 ,then pour it into a heated metal 
mortar2 pound it while it  is red-hot2  
put it1 as soon as possible1 into a     

glass bottle1 first  made very hot and  
dry1 and shut it up close with a glass  
stopple rubbed  with emery4 ,by this    
means you will have the pure ,fixed     
,alkali of the  vegetable substance you 
burnt4      ,,observations4    ,burning 
a vegetable substance in the open air is
 a kind of violent and  rapid analysis  
made by fire1 which separates1 resolves1
 and decomposes1  several of its        
principles4    ,when any wood or plant  
is laid on a quick fire1 there ascends  
from  it immediately an aqueous smoke1  
which consists of little more than      
phlegm2 but this smoke soon becomes     
thicker and blacker3 it is then         
pungent1 draws tears from one's eyes1   
and excites a cough if drawn into  the  
lungs with the breath4 ,these effects   
arise from its being replete  with the  
,acid1 and some of the ,oil1 of the     
vegetable converted into  vapours4 ,soon
 after this the smoke grows exceeding   
black and thick3 it  is now still more  
acrid1 and the plant turns black4 ,its  

strongest ,acid  and last thick ,oil are
 now discharged with impetuosity4       
,this rarefied ,oil being heated red-hot
 suddenly takes fire and flames4  ,the  
vegetable burns and deflagrates rapidly1
 till all its ,oil is  consumed4 ,then  
the flame ceases2 and nothing remains   
but a coal1  like that found in a retort
 after all the principles of a plant    
have  been extracted by the force of    
fire4 ,but this coal having a free      
communication with the air1 which is    
absolutely necessary to keep a          
combustible burning1 continues to be    
red1 sparkles1 and wastes1 till  all its
 phlogiston is dissipated and destroyed4
 ,after this nothing  remains but the   
,earth and ,fixed ,salt of the          
vegetable2 which1 mixed  together1 form 
what we call the ,ashes4 ,water1 which  
is the natural  solvent of ,salts1 takes
 up every thing of that kind that is    
contained  in the ashes2 so that1 by    
lixiviating them1 as directed1 all the  
,salt  is extracted1 and nothing left   

but the pure earth of the mixt which is 
thus decomposed4    ,the phenomena      
observed in the burning of a vegetable  
substance1 and the  production thereby  
of a ,fixed ,alkali1 seem to prove that 
this salt is  the work of the fire2 that
 it did not exist in the plant before it
 was  burnt2 that the plant only        
contained materials adapted to form this
  ,salt2 and that this ,salt is no other
 than a combination of some of the      
,acid1 united with a portion of ,earth1 
by means of the igneous motion4    ,in  
the first place2 a ,fixed ,alkali may be
 obtained by lixiviation from  the ashes
 of all vegetable matters that contain  
an ,acid1 ,earth1 and  ,phlogiston1 in  
due proportion4 ,thus ,essential ,salts2
 the substance  of extracts made by     
trituration1 infusion1 or decoction2    
wood coals  burnt to ashes2 all yield a 
quantity of this ,salt in proportion to 
the  quantity of ,acid and ,earth       
contained in them4    ,secondly2 ,fat1  
,essential1 and ,empyreumatic ,oils     

afford1 when burnt1  such a small       
quantity of ,fixed ,alkali as is scarce 
perceptible2 because  they contain but a
 little ,acid1 and still less ,earth3   
and these same  ,oils1 when rectified by
 repeated distillations1 and then burnt1
 leave  still less of this ,salt2       
because they are separated by           
rectification  from most of the ,acid1  
together with1 the small matter of      
,earth  contained in them4    ,thirdly2 
those vegetable matters which1 being    
analyzed1 furnish a great  deal of      
,volatile ,alkali1 yield but very little
 ,fixed ,alkali2 because a  great deal  
of their ,acid is employed in forming   
the ,volatile ,alkali1  which is        
dissipated by burning the plant3 and1   
for the same reason1  those which in    
distillation afford only a ,volatile    
,alkali1 and no ,acid1  leave in their  
ashes little or no ,fixed ,alkali1 as is
 also the case  with animal matters4    
,fourthly1 and lastly2 the ashes of such
 plants as have been long  steeped in   

water1 and from which infusions and     
decoctions have been  made1 always      
contain the less ,alkali the longer they
 have been infused  or boiled1 and the  
more water they were infused or boiled  
in2 because  water dissolves and carries
 off their ,acid4 ,it is for this reason
 that  the ashes of float-wood are much 
less saline than those of green wood4   
,boerhaave assures us1 in his           
,chymistry1 that having exhausted       
,rosemary  by repeated decoctions1 and  
having afterwards boiled the plant thus 
treated1 the ashes produced by it shewed
 not the least sign of a ,fixed         
,alkali4 ,he says1 that1 in order to    
exhaust thoroughly all the saline       
matters contained in ,rosemary1 he was  
obliged to decoct it no less  than      
twenty times successively1 with fresh   
water every time1 and never  ceased     
boiling it in this manner1 till he was  
sure that the water1 by  boiling the    
plant in it for a long time1 took up    
from it no kind of  matter whatever that

 in the least affected its purity3 so   
that the  water of his last decoction   
had absolutely no smell1 taste1 or      
colour2  but was in short precisely the 
same as before he used it for the       
decoction4 ,the same author observes1   
that his plant1 after having been       
exhausted in this manner1 and having    
suffered such continued boiling1        
retained nevertheless its perfect       
external form2 that from being green  at
 first it became brown1 and sunk to the 
bottom of the water1 instead  of        
floating thereon as it did before       
decoction4    ,if1 in reiterating this  
beautiful experiment of ,mr4            
,boerhaave's1 you  should not succeed as
 you expect1 you must not therefore     
accuse this  great man of having been   
mistaken on this occasion2 seeing it is 
very  difficult1 not to say impossible1 
to ascertain exactly1 from the  account 
he hath given of his experiment1 all    
that is necessary to its  perfect       
success3 for he hath not specified      

either the duration of the  coctions    
which he made the ,rosemary undergo1 or 
the quantity of water  he employed in   
each2 whereas a difference in either of 
these may  occasion a vast difference in
 the result4 ,it is evident1 that if    
five  or six pounds of water be used for
 each coction of a pound of ,rosemary1  
and be kept boiling for two or three    
hours1 the plant will not be near  so   
much exhausted by being so treated1 as  
if the same quantity thereof  were kept 
boiling for several days1 in forty or   
fifty quarts of water4    ,indeed1 these
 points seem1 in some measure1 to be    
determined1 by  what he says of the     
quality which the water of the last     
decoction  ought to have4 ,but the same 
objections occur here also2 nay1 the two
  circumstances of the quantity of water
 and the duration of the boiling1  have 
the greatest influence here3 for the    
more a plant is exhausted  of its       
,salts1 the more difficult it becomes   
for the water to dissolve  and separate 

the small quantity thereof that remains 
united with the  tenacious ,oil2 and    
consequently it may happen1 that this   
last water1  after the plant hath boiled
 in it five or six hours1 shall appear  
insipid1 scentless1 colourless2 and yet 
that a much greater quantity  of water1 
but reduced by longer boiling to the    
same quantity with that  which hath been
 boiled but five or six hours1 shall    
have acquired both  taste and colour2 in
 a word1 shew that it hath taken up some
 of the  principles of the plant4 ,it   
may also happen1 that1 a small portion  
of  saline matter being diffused through
 a large quantity of water1 after  long 
continued coction1 shall not be         
perceptible either to the taste  or to  
the eye2 but that the very same portion 
of saline matter shall  become very     
sensible1 when the quantity of water in 
which it is lost1  as it were1 is       
sufficiently lessened by evaporation4   
,hence1 if we would make sure of        
fulfilling the conditions required  by  

,mr4 ,boerhaave1 the last decoction of  
the plant must be made in a  much       
greater quantity of water1 and continued
 for a much longer time1  than may      
perhaps be imagined1 or perhaps easily  
determined2 and this  decoction being   
evaporated to any degree you please1    
must have neither  taste1 smell1 nor    
colour3 in short1 it must from first to 
last remain  perfectly like pure water4 
,in other words1 it is very difficult to
  attain to any certainty in this       
matter4    ,though what hath hitherto   
been said1 about procuring the ,fixed   
,alkali  of plants by combustion1 seems 
to prove that this ,salt is wholly the  
production of the fire1 yet it must not 
be asserted that no part  thereof       
pre-existed formally in the plant before
 it was burnt4 ,on the  contrary1 it is 
certain that1 amongst the saline matters
 found in the  composition of plants1   
there are true ,neutral ,salts whose    
basis is a  ,fixed ,alkali2 but this    
,alkali being combined with an ,acid    

discovers  none of its properties1 and  
never appears in its true form till the 
,neutral ,salt1 of which it makes a     
part1 is decomposed by combustion4  ,the
 case of ,sea-plants1 all of which      
contain ,sea-salt1 and when burnt  yield
 an ,alkaline ,salt perfectly resembling
 the basis of ,sea-salt1  seems to      
decide this point4    ,if1 in           
lixiviating the ashes of a plant1 to    
dissolve and wash out  its ,alkali1 you 
intend that nothing should be left but  
an absolutely  pure earth1 fit for      
making cupels1 you must not be contented
 with one  ablution only1 even with a   
large quantity of water2 because the    
ashes  continue drenched with the water 
in which the ,salts are dissolved1 and  
consequently1 when this water is        
evaporated1 some of the ,salts will be  
left with the earth4 ,therefore1 if this
 be your view1 you must wash it  three  
or four several times1 using fresh water
 every time4    ,the water impregnated  
with the ,alkali cannot be evaporated   

without  a considerable loss of ,salt1  
especially if it be violently boiled2   
because the water1 with which it is     
closely united1 carries off part of  it4
 ,in consequence of this intimate union1
 it is very difficult1 when  the        
evaporation is near finished1 and but a 
little water left1 to dry  the ,salt    
perfectly1 because it pertinaciously    
retains this last portion  of humidity4 
,the ,alkali obtained from the ashes of 
a burnt plant is not perfectly  pure3 it
 is contaminated with a small mixture of
 fatty matters1 which  were probably    
defended thereby against the action of  
the fire1 and  which render it somewhat 
saponaceous4 ,in order to free it from  
this  extraneous matter1 and to render  
it very caustic1 it must be calcined a  
long time in a crucible1 but without    
melting it at first3 because it is  with
 this ,salt as with most metallic       
matters1 which are sooner and more      
easily deprived of their phlogiston by  
being calcined without melting1         

provided they be comminuted into small  
particles1 than when they are in        
fusion2 all melted matters having but a 
small surface exposed to the  air1 by   
the contact of which the evaporation or 
anything whatever is  exceedingly       
promoted4 ,it was for this reason we    
directed the ,salt to be  calcined for a
 long time in a crucible before melting 
it4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave was very sensible
 of the utility of this calcination  of 
the ,alkali previous to its being       
melted1 when in his ,chymistry he       
ordered the ashes containing this ,salt 
to be put into a large earthen  vessel1 
kept red-hot for a considerable time1   
taking great care that  the ,salt do not
 melt4 ,he takes notice1 that1 the      
longer the ashes are  calcined in this  
manner1 the stronger is the ,alkali     
obtained from  them4 ,this method is1 in
 the main1 the very same with that here 
prescribed1 and produces the same       
effect2 because the ,alkali is equally  
well freed of the extraneous fatty      

matter1 whether it be calcined  before  
or after its separation1 provided it be 
not suffered to melt4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave
 gives another reason for recommending  
care to be taken  that the ,fixed       
,alkali do not melt1 while the ashes are
 calcining to  render it stronger and   
more caustic3 for1 if that should       
happen1 the  melted mixture of the ,salt
 and ashes would produce a vitrified    
mass1  which would have none of the     
properties of the ,salt4      ,,process 
,,ii4    ,to procure the ,fixed ,salt of
 a ,plant by burning it after the manner
 of  ,tachenius4    ,into an iron pot   
put the plant whose ,salt you desire to 
obtain in the  manner of ,tachenius1 and
 set it over a fire1 strong enough to   
make  its bottom red-hot2 at the same   
time cover your plant with a plate of   
iron1 that may lie immediately upon it  
in the pot4 ,the plant will grow  black1
 and smoke considerably2 but will not   
flame1 because it hath not  a sufficient
 communication with the air4 ,the black 

smoke only will  escape through the     
interstice left between the side of the 
pot and the  rim of the plate2 which1   
for that purpose1 should be made so as  
not to  fit exactly into the pot4 ,from 
time to time take up the iron plate1    
stir the plant1 and cover it again      
immediately1 to prevent its taking      
fire1 or to smother it if it should     
happen to flame3 go on thus till  the   
black smoke cease4    ,then take off the
 iron plate3 the upper part of the      
half-burnt plant  will take fire as soon
 as the air is admitted1 consume        
gradually1 and  be reduced to a white   
ash4 ,stir your matter with an iron     
wire1 that the  undermost parts1 which  
are still black1 may be successively    
brought  uppermost1 take fire1 and burn 
to white ashes4 ,go on thus as long as  
you perceive the least blackness        
remaining4 ,after this1 leave your      
ashes some time longer on the fire2 but 
stir them frequently1 to the  end that1 
if any black particles should still be  

left1 they may be  entirely consumed4   
,your ashes being thus prepared1        
lixiviate them with seven times their   
quantity of water1 made to simmer over  
the fire1 and keep stirring  it with an 
iron ladle4 ,then filter the liquor1 and
 evaporate it to  dryness in an iron    
pot1 stirring it incessantly towards the
 end1 lest  the matter1 when it grows   
stiff1 should adhere too closely to the 
vessel4 ,when all the humidity is       
evaporated1 you will have a ,salt of a  
darkish colour1 and alkaline nature2    
which you may melt in a crucible1  and  
mould into cakes4 ,this is the ,fixed   
,salt of plants1 prepared in the  manner
 of ,tachenius4      ,,observations4    
,the ,fixed ,salt obtained from plants  
in the manner invented by  ,tachenius1  
and here described1 is in many respects 
different from the  ,caustic ,fixed     
,alkali extracted out of the ashes of   
plants that have  been consumed by      
flaming in the open air4 ,tachenius's   
,salt is indeed  of an ,alkaline nature2

 but much weaker than a pure ,fixed     
,alkali4 ,it is  not by far so caustic2 
it attracts the moisture of the air much
 more  feebly and slowly2 it melts with 
a much smaller degree of heat2 and it   
doth not make so strong an effervescence
 with ,acids4 ,in short1 if you         
dissolve it in water1 evaporate the     
solution to a pellicle1 and set it  in a
 cool place1 it will shoot into small   
crystals2 which is not the  case with a 
pure ,fixed ,alkali4    ,these several  
different effects1 which characterize   
,tachenius's ,salt1  and distinguish it 
from the ,caustic ,fixed ,alkali        
produced by burning a  plant in the open
 air1 prove that it is not a pure       
,alkali1 but combined  with certain     
substances that bring it nearer to the  
nature of a ,neutral  ,salt1 and place  
it1 as it were1 in the mid-way between  
such a ,salt and  a true ,alkali4 ,if we
 reflect on the manner in which it is   
produced1 it  is easy to perceive what  
those substances are that must be       

combined  with it4 ,it hath been shewn  
that plants1 when analyzed1 yield a     
great  deal of ,oil and of ,acid4 ,when 
they are burnt in the open air1 all     
their  ,oil is dissipated in smoke1 or  
consumed in flame4 ,great part of the   
,acid is likewise dissipated1 and the   
remainder combining with the ,earth  of 
the plant forms a ,fixed ,alkali4       
,when the same plants are analyzed1 by  
distilling them in close vessels1  the  
same principles are carried up by the   
action of the fire1 forced  to separate 
from the fixed parts1 and pass over into
 the receiver  in the form of vapours   
and of a liquid3 but1 when they are     
burnt in  the manner of ,tachenius1 the 
,acid and ,oil of the plant1 as fast as 
they are expelled by the action of the  
fire1 are repelled by the iron  cover1  
which1 at the same time that it prevents
 the ,oil from being  entirely consumed 
in flame1 obliges these two substances  
to circulate1  reverberates them on the 
rest of the plant1 and1 in a manner1    

forces  them to re-unite1 in part1 with 
that from which they were just before   
separated4    ,a considerable quantity1 
therefore1 of the ,oil and ,acid of the 
plant1  must evidently combine1 in this 
operation1 with its ,fixed ,salt1 as    
fast  as it is produced2 and the        
properties above specified are owing to 
these two substances4 ,tachenius's ,salt
 is1 therefore1 a ,fixed ,alkali1       
partly neutralized by some of the ,acid 
of the plant1 and rendered a  little    
saponaceous by a portion of its ,oil2   
whence it is much milder  than a pure   
,fixed ,alkali1 and proper to be given  
internally1 as an  excellent remedy in  
several disorders4    ,for the medicinal
 virtues of this ,salt ,mr4 ,boerhaave's
 ,chymistry ought  to be consulted1 as  
the author was a very good judge of such
 matters4    ,tachenius's ,salt may be  
converted into a ,caustic ,fixed        
,alkali1 by  freeing it from the ,acid  
and from the ,oil to which its peculiar 
properties are owing4 ,for this purpose 

nothing more is requisite than  to      
calcine it for a long time in a         
crucible1 stirring it frequently  with  
an iron wire1 and taking care not to    
melt it1 till it have  undergone the    
same changes1 and successively acquired 
the same colours1  as our ,fixed        
,alkali2 and1 when it becomes reddish1  
melting it and  keeping it in fusion for
 an hour or two4    ,hitherto no        
sensible difference hath been observed  
between the ,caustic  ,fixed ,alkalis   
obtained from different plants1 when    
equally calcined2  except that those    
produced by ,sea-plants have1 as we said
 before1 the  same properties as the    
,alkaline basis of ,sea-salt4 ,much the 
same thing  may be said of the ,fixed   
,salts obtained from plants by          
,tachenius's  method3 for1 though they  
be combined with a portion of the ,acid 
and ,oil  of the plant1 yet1 as these   
principles have-been exposed to the     
action  of a strong fire1 they are      
exceedingly altered1 and almost wholly  

reduced to one and the same condition4  
,,process ,,iii4    ,to render ,fixed   
,alkalis very caustic by means of ,lime4
 ,the ,caustic  ,stone4    ,take a lump 
of newly burnt quick-lime1 that hath not
 yet begun to  flake in the air3 put it 
into a stone pan1 and cover it with     
twice  its weight of the unwashed ashes 
of some plant1 that are full of the     
,salt you design to render caustic4     
,pour on them a great quantity of  hot  
water2 let them steep in it five or six 
hours1 and then boil them  gently4      
,filter the liquor through a thick      
canvas bag1 or through brown  filtering 
paper supported by a linen cloth4       
,evaporate the filtered liquor in a     
copper bason set over the fire2 and     
there will remain a ,salt1 which must be
 put into a crucible set in  the fire4  
,it will melt1 and boil for some time2  
after which it will  be still1 and look 
like an ,oil1 or melted ,fat4 ,when it  
comes to this  condition1 pour it out on
 a very hot copper plate1 and cut it    

into  oblong tapering slips1 before it  
grow hard by cooling4 ,put these slips1 
while they are still hot1 into a very   
dry glass bottle1 and seal it           
hermetically4 ,this is the ,caustic     
,stone1 or common ,caustic4             
,,observations4    ,the design of this  
operation is to combine with the ,fixed 
,alkali all  the saline acrid parts of  
the quick-lime4 ,this is to be effected 
only  by dispersing and diffusing both  
those substances in water1 which is  the
 proper solvent of all saline matters4  
,seeing1 therefore1 we must  have an    
actual lixivium1 it is needless to      
employ an ,alkali already  prepared and 
separated from ashes2 for which reason  
we directed ashes  that are still       
replete with ,alkali to be used instead 
of a pure ,alkali4  ,by this means two  
ends are answered at once3 the ,salt    
contained in  the ashes is extracted    
from them1 and combined with the most   
acrid1  subtile1 and saline parts of the
 lime4    ,the lye1 when saturated with 

these two saline matters together1 is   
vastly more acrid and caustic than if it
 contained but one of the  two in a     
quantity equal to both4 ,with this lye  
,soap is usually made2  because the     
acuated ,alkali contained in it hath a  
much greater effect  on ,oils than any  
other kind of ,alkali4 ,it also acts    
with incredible  violence on all animal 
matters2 which it dissolves1 divides1   
and1 in  some measure1 destroys1 with   
surprising efficacy and quickness4      
,for this reason it is impossible to    
filter it through a woollen or  silken  
bag2 for it will eat holes in them1 or  
even reduce them to a  pap1 almost as   
soon as it touches them4 ,besides1 as   
the lye would  dissolve some part       
thereof1 it would thence acquire a      
saponaceous  quality1 and so lose much  
of its caustic nature4 ,we must1        
therefore1  necessarily use a filter    
made of vegetable matters1 which resist 
this  destroying ,salt much better than 
animal matters4    ,an ,alkali thus     

acuated by quick-lime attracts and      
retains humidity more  strongly than any
 other kind of ,alkali1 even the        
perfectest and best  calcined4 ,for this
 reason it is almost impossible to dry  
it thoroughly  in the bason wherein you 
evaporate the lixivium4    ,to the      
moisture still left in it must be       
attributed its boiling when it  begins  
to melt in the crucible4 ,when all the  
humidity is dissipated1  the fused ,salt
 remains smooth and unruffled1 like wax 
melted with a  gentle heat4    ,this    
caustic ,salt is vastly more fusible    
than the common ,alkalis4 ,it  scarce   
grows red before it flows like wax4     
,when it is once in quiet  fusion1 all  
the humidity that occasioned the boiling
 observed at first  being dissipated1 it
 is as caustic as it can be made4 ,it is
 then time  to pour it out1 and to cut  
it into long narrow sticks1 fit for the 
use  of ,surgeons1 who apply it to eat  
away callosities and excrescences1 and  
to open tissues4 ,on this account it is 

called the ,caustic  ,stone4 ,the       
operation of this ,salt is so quick1    
that1 in a very short  time1 it produces
 on the skin a sensation like that of   
fire4    ,as this ,salt grows           
surprisingly soon moist in the air1 and 
loses its  virtue when so moistened1 it 
is necessary to shut it up1 while it is 
still hot1 in a very dry bottle1 which  
must be immediately stopped  with a     
glass stopple rubbed with emery1 or else
 with a round cork and  then dipt in    
pitch4 ,in spite of all these           
precautions1 it can scarce  be kept five
 or six months in full vigour2          
especially if the bottle be  sometimes  
opened in the mean while4 ,we shall not 
attempt to explain  here why an ,alkali 
becomes so violently caustic by being   
combined with  quick-lime4 ,this        
question seems to be one of the most    
subtile1 and the  most difficult to     
answer1 in all ,chymistry4 ,it depends  
on the cause of  the ,alkaline          
properties of lime2 and can hardly be   

resolved1 till we  attain a further     
insight into the nature of that         
substance than we have  yet got4        
,,process ,,iv4    ,the ,analysis of    
,soot4    ,take wood-soot from a chimney
 under which no animal matter hath been 
dressed or burnt3 put it into a glass   
retort set in a reverberating  furnace2 
lute on a receiver1 and begin to distil 
with a degree of heat  somewhat less    
than that of boiling water4 ,a          
considerable quantity of  limpid phlegm 
will come over4 ,keep the fire in the   
same degree as long  as any of this     
phlegm rises2 but increase it when the  
drops begin to  come slow3 and then     
there will ascend a good deal of a milky
 water4  ,when this water ceases to run1
 change the receiver1 and increase your 
fire a little3 a yellow ,volatile ,salt 
will rise1 and stick to the sides  of   
the receiver4 ,the fire ought now to be 
very fierce1 and1 if so1 will  force up 
at the same time a very thick black     
,oil4 ,let the vessels cool3  you will  

find a saline matter risen into the neck
 of the retort1 which  could not pass   
over into the receiver3 in the bottom of
 the retort will  be a caput mortuum1 or
 black charred substance1 the upper part
 of  which will be crusted over with a  
saline matter1 like that in the neck  of
 the retort4      ,,observations4       
,the preceding analysis shewed what     
principles are obtained from  vegetable 
substances without the aid of fire2     
those which the heat of  fire raises and
 carries over out of one close vessel   
into another2  and1 lastly1 those that  
continue fixed after the vegetable hath 
been thoroughly charred1 either in a    
close vessel1 or in the open  air3      
nothing therefore remained1 to finish   
the subject of vegetable  principles1   
but to examine those which fire raises1 
in the form of  vapours1 smoke1 and     
flame1 from a vegetable matter burnt and
 consumed  in the open air4 ,every body 
knows that ,soot consists only of these 
principles1 collected in the shafts of  

chimneys1 which serve as  alembics for  
this sort of distillation in the open   
air4 ,by analysing  ,wood-soot1         
therefore1 we shall discover the        
principles we are in  quest of4 ,the    
process we have given for that purpose  
is taken from  ,boerhaave's ,chymistry1 
where we find it described with great   
exactness  and precision4    ,as we are 
at present inquiring into the nature of 
vegetables only1  it is evidently       
necessary that we chuse a ,soot produced
 by burning  vegetables alone4 ,soot1   
though dry in appearance1 contains      
nevertheless  much humidity1 as appears 
from this analysis2 seeing there comes  
over  at first a considerable quantity  
of phlegm1 that doth not seem to be     
impregnated with any principle1 except  
perhaps an extremely subtile1  saline1  
and oily matter1 that communicates to it
 a disagreeable smell1  from which it   
cannot by any means be entirely freed4  
,the white milky liquor1 which follows  
this first phlegm1 is still  water1 but 

much1 more impregnated with saline and  
oily parts than  the former4 ,by its    
smell1 which is exceeding quick and     
pungent1 we  may judge it contains much 
,volatile ,alkali2 and accordingly1 when
  re-distilled by itself1 it yields a   
,volatile ,spirit1 and a ,volatile      
,salt in a concrete form4 ,with regard  
to its white colour1 it is  occasioned  
by the oily parts which are diffused and
 suspended1 but not  dissolved1 in the  
water4 ,when this second liquor is come 
off1 there  ascends a ,volatile ,alkali 
in a dry form1 and a very thick black   
,oil2  because there is not moisture    
enough left to dissolve these           
principles1  or rather to divide and    
disperse them4    ,the ,volatile ,alkali
 obtained from ,soot is1 in a double    
respect1 the  product of the fire4 ,in  
the first place1 though it derives its  
origin  wholly from wood1 or other      
vegetables1 which1 when distilled in    
close  vessels1 yield no ,volatile      
,alkali at all1 yet it produces such a  

,salt  when analyzed in the present     
manner3 whence it must be inferred1 that
  the principles of those vegetables are
 metamorphosed into a ,volatile         
,alkali1 by being burnt in the open air1
 and sublimed in the form of  ,soot4    
,secondly1 though ,soot when analyzed   
yields a great deal of this  ,salt1 yet 
this ,salt doth not formally pre-exist  
therein2 for it doth  not rise till     
after the phlegm1 nor without a very    
considerable degree  of heat3 therefore 
,soot contains only the materials       
necessary to form  this ,salt2 therefore
 the perfect combination of this ,salt  
requires that  the force of fire be     
applied a second time2 therefore it is1 
as was  said1 doubly the product of the 
fire4    ,the saline matter which we    
find sublimed into the neck of the      
retort1  and which also forms the crust 
that covers the caput mortuum of the    
,soot1 appears by all ,chymical trials  
to be an ,ammoniacal ,salt2 that  is1 a 
,neutral ,salt consisting of an ,acid   

and a ,volatile ,alkali4 ,this          
,ammoniacal ,salt rises only into the   
neck of the retort1 and doth not  come  
over into the receiver3 because it is   
but semi-volatile4 ,we shall  treat more
 at large of the production of a        
,volatile ,alkali1 and of  this         
,ammoniacal ,salt1 when we come to the  
analysis of ,animals1 and the  article  
of ,sal ,ammoniac4    ,the charred      
matter that remains in the retort after 
distillation1 being  burnt in the open  
air1 is reduced to an exceeding fixed   
white earth4  ,as this fixed matter was 
part of that very ,soot1 which was      
sublimed to  a great height whilst the  
vegetable was burning2 this is a proof  
of  what we advanced before1 that the   
most fixed matters are capable of       
sublimation1 when united with volatile  
substances2 especially when they  are   
exposed at the same time to the combined
 action of air and of fire4             
,,chap4 ,,viii4    ,the ,,analysis of   
some particular ,,substances belonging  

to the  ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4          
,,process ,i4    ,analysis of the       
natural ,balsams3 instanced in          
,turpentine4    ,into a cucurbit put as 
much rain-water as will fill about a    
fourth  part of its cavity1 and pour    
into it the ,turpentine you intend to   
analyze4 ,cover the cucurbit with its   
head1 and lute it on with slips of      
sized paper or wet bladder4 ,set your   
alembic in a sand-heat2 lute on  a      
long-necked receiver2 and give a gradual
 fire till the water in the  cucurbit   
boil4 ,there will come over into the    
receiver a good deal of  phlegm1 which1 
by little and little1 will become more  
and more acid2  and at the same time    
there will rise a great quantity of an  
thereal  ,oil1 extremely light1 fluid1  
and as limpid and colourless as water4  
,when you observe that no more ,oil     
comes off1 unlute your vessels2 and  in 
the receiver you will find an acidulated
 water1 and the thereal ,oil  floating  
on it4 ,these two liquors may be easily 

separated from each  other1 by means of 
a glass funnel4    ,in the cucurbit will
 be left some of the water you put in1  
together  with the remainder of your    
turpentine2 which1 when cold1 instead of
  being fluid as it was before          
distillation1 will be solid1 and of the 
consistence of a resin1 and is then     
called ,rosin4    ,put this residuum    
into a glass retort1 and distil it in a 
reverberatory  with a naked fire1       
gradually increased according to the    
general rule  for all distillations4 ,at
 first1 with a degree of heat a little  
greater  than that of boiling water1 you
 will see two liquors come over into the
  recipient2 one of which will be       
aqueous and acid1 the other will be a   
transparent1 limpid1 yellowish ,oil1    
floating on the acid liquor4            
,continue your distillation1 increasing 
your fire from time to time1 by  slow   
degrees4 ,these two liquors will        
continue to come off together3  and the 
nearer the operation draws to its end1  

the more acid will  the aqueous liquor  
become1 and the thicker and deeper      
coloured will  the ,oil grow4 ,at last  
the ,oil will be very thick1 and of a   
deep  reddish-yellow colour4 ,when      
nothing more ascends1 unlute your       
vessels3  in the retort you will find   
only a very small quantity of a charred1
  light1 friable substance4             
,,observations4    ,all ,natural        
,balsams1 as well as ,turpentine1 are   
oily1 aromatic matters1  which flow in  
great quantities from the trees         
containing them1 either  spontaneously1 
or through incisions made on purpose4   
,as these matters  have a strong scent1 
it is not surprising that they should   
greatly  abound with ,essential ,oils4  
,they may even be considered as         
,essential  ,oils1 that naturally1 and  
of their own accord1 separate from the  
vegetables in which they exist4         
,indeed these ,natural ,balsams differ  
from the ,essential ,oils obtained  out 
of plants by distillation1 in this      

alone1 that the former contain  a       
greater proportion of ,acid2 and1 for   
that reason1 are thicker than           
,essential ,oils distilled with the heat
 of boiling water4 ,but it hath  been   
shewn1 that these same distilled        
,essential ,oils1 though ever  so fluid 
and light at first1 gradually lose their
 tenuity as they  grow old1 and at last 
become considerably thick4 ,on that     
occasion we  observed that they are thus
 changed1 because the lightest1 most    
fluid1  and least acid parts1 are little
 by little dissipated and evaporated2   
so that at last there remains only the  
thickest and heaviest part1  which owes 
these qualities to the ,acid wherewith  
it is over-dosed4    ,hence it follows1 
that ,natural ,balsams1 and ,essential  
,oils grown  thick with age1 are exactly
 one and the same thing4 ,accordingly we
  see that fire and distillation produce
 the same effects on both4 ,the         
rectification of an ,essential ,oil1    
thickened by keeping1 is nothing but  a 

decomposition thereof1 by separating1   
with the heat of boiling water1  all    
those parts that are light enough to    
rise with that degree of heat1  from    
what is so loaded with ,acid as to      
remain fixed therein4    ,this operation
 is therefore precisely the same as our 
first  distillation of ,balsams with the
 heat of boiling water1 by which the    
,essential ,oil contained in them is    
drawn off4 ,the residues of these  two  
operations are also the same3 each of   
them is a thick ,oil1 loaded  with      
,acid1 that is wholly1 or nearly1       
deprived of the principle of  odour     
peculiar to the original vegetable1 and 
requires a degree of  heat greater than 
that of boiling water to decompose it1  
by separating  part of the ,acid from   
the ,oil2 which will be rendered still  
the more  fluid1 the more the thickening
 ,acid is separated from it by repeated 
distillations4    ,the newer ,natural   
,balsams are1 the thinner they are1 and 
the more  ,essential ,oil do they yield2

 and this ,essential ,oil1 like all     
others1  grows thick in time1 and at    
last turns again to an actual ,balsam4  
,these ,balsams1 by being long exposed  
to the heat of the sun1 acquire  such a 
consistence as to become solid4 ,they   
then take another name1  and are called 
,resins4 ,resins yield much less        
,essential ,oil1 when  distilled1 than  
,balsams do4 ,hence it follows1 that    
,resins are to  ,balsams1 what ,balsams 
are to ,essential ,oils4 ,all these     
effects are  produced by the causes     
assigned above1 and confirm the analogy 
we have  established4    ,we have no    
other observations to make on this      
analysis of ,turpentine1  except that   
when ,rosin is distilled in a retort    
with a naked fire1 the  operation must  
be carried on very slowly1 and the fire 
duly governed3  for the matter is apt to
 swell1 and to rise in substance into   
the  receiver1 without being at all     
decomposed4 ,in order to avoid this     
inconvenience1 it is adviseable to make 

use of a long-bodied retort1  such as is
 known by the name of the ,english      
,retort4    ,if you stop the            
distillation of ,rosin about mid-way1 or
 when the  ,oil that comes over begins  
to grow thick1 you may1 by changing the 
receiver1 keep the first ,oil apart3 it 
is pretty fluid1 and of a middle  nature
 between the thereal ,oil1 obtained with
 the heat of boiling  water1 and the    
last thick ,oil1 that doth not rise till
 towards the end  of the distillation4  
,this last thick ,oil is that which ,mr4
 ,homberg  fired with concentrated ,oil 
of ,vitriol4    ,if we examine the      
matter contained in the retort1 when the
 distillation  is thus stopped short1 it
 appears1 when cold1 in the form of a   
solid  substance1 almost perfectly      
diaphanous1 of a deep reddish-yellow    
colour1 and friable3 ,it is known by the
 name of ,colophony4    ,this analysis  
of boiled ,turpentine1 is a specimen of 
the analysis of  almost all other       
resins2 so that what hath been said on  

this occasion  is in a manner general1  
and applicable to other decompositions  
of the  same kind4 ,we shall now proceed
 to examine some other oily matters1    
which exhibit peculiar phenomena1 and do
 not come under the general  rules4     
,,process ,,ii4    ,the ,analysis of    
,resins3 instanced in ,benjamin3 ,the   
,flowers and ,oil of  ,benjamin4        
,into a pretty deep earthen pot1 having 
a border or rim round its  mouth1 put   
the ,benjamin you intend to analyze4    
,cover the pot with a  large conical cap
 of very thick white paper1 and tye it  
on under the  rim4 ,set your pot in a   
sand-bath1 and warm it gently till the  
,benjamin  melt4 ,continue the heat in  
this degree for an hour and half4 ,then 
untie  the paper cap and take it off1   
shaking it as little as possible4 ,you  
will find all the inside of the cap     
covered with a great quantity of        
beautiful1 white1 shining ,flowers1 in  
the form of little needles4 ,brush  them
 off gently with a feather1 put them    

into a bottle1 and stop it  close4      
,as soon as you take off the first cap1 
cover your pot immediately with  a      
second like the former4 ,in this manner 
go on till you perceive the  ,flowers   
begin to grow yellowish2 and then it is 
proper to desist4    ,the matter left in
 the pot will be blackish and friable   
when cold4  ,pulverize it2 mix it with  
sand2 and distil it in a glass retort   
with  a graduated heat4 ,there will come
 over a light ,oil1 of a fragrant       
scent1 but in very small quantity2 a    
little of an acid liquor1 and a  great  
quantity of a red thick ,oil4 ,there    
will be left in the retort a  charred1  
spongy substance4      ,,observations4  
,all oily matters1 that are naturally   
thick and in a concrete form1  resemble 
each other in this1 that they derive    
these qualities from an  ,acid combined 
with them4 ,but they nevertheless differ
 greatly from one  another in many      
respects4 ,the quality1 the quantity1 of
 the ,acid to  which they owe their     

consistence1 and the manner in which it 
is united  with them1 diversify them a  
thousand ways4    ,in the preceding     
process we advanced1 that ,natural      
,balsams are  distinguished from ,resins
 by their containing so much more ,oil1 
in  proportion to their ,acid1 as       
suffices to render them almost fluid4   
,for this reason they yield an essential
 ,oil3 whereas ,resins1 on the          
contrary1 are solid2 all their ,oil     
being loaded and weighed down with  a   
great quantity of ,acid1 so that no     
,essential ,oil can be drawn from  them4
    ,we observed at the same time1 that1
 when all the ,essential ,oil  contained
 in a ,natural ,balsam is drawn off1    
with the heat of boiling  water1 the    
residue takes a solid consistence1 and  
resembles a ,resin4 ,in  fact1 almost   
all ,resins yield1 by distillation1 the 
same principles as  that residue2 that  
is1 an ,oil of a middling nature between
 ,essential  ,oils and thick ,oils1 in  
point of lightness and fluidity2 the    

whole  being always accompanied with an 
,acid diffused in phlegm4    ,in        
consequence hereof1 the analysis of     
,benjamin1 described in the  process1   
appears to vary much from that of other 
,resins3 for here we  see a volatile    
matter in a concrete form2 namely1 the  
white ,flowers  that rise first2 which  
doth not usually occur in the analysis  
of  ,resins4 ,yet1 if we examine the    
matter1 we shall be convinced that  it  
is very analagous to one of the         
principles obtainable from all  ,resins2
 that indeed it differs therefrom in    
some of its properties1  particularly in
 its external form2 but that it is in   
reality the very  same4    ,in fact1 the
 ,flowers of ,benjamin are no other than
 an ,oily ,acid1  nearly of the same    
nature with those obtained from all     
other vegetable  substances2 but which1 
instead of being liquid like them1      
appears in a  dry concrete form1 and in 
a manner crystallized4 ,it probably     
derives  this property from its ,oil    

being combined with its ,acid1 either in
  greater quantity1 or in a more        
intimate manner1 than in the rest1  and 
so strongly united therewith as not to  
be separated from it by a  subliming    
heat2 or from hence1 that the compound1 
of which it is a  part1 contains too    
little phlegm to dissolve it2 or else1  
that it is  hindered from dissolving    
therein by the ,oil with which it is    
combined4  ,perhaps all these causes may
 concur together in producing its       
concrete  form4    ,the saline character
 of this substance appears chiefly from 
its being  soluble in water3 but the    
water must be very hot1 and even        
boiling1  before it will effect this    
solution2 and when it cools1 the ,salt  
shoots  into fine needles at the bottom4
 ,this phenomenon directs us to a method
  of separating it from ,benjamin       
without sublimation4    ,for this       
purpose the ,resin must be boiled in    
water3 the water will  then dissolve the
 ,salt2 and1 as it cools1 the ,salt will

 crystallize1  and may be easily        
collected4 ,but as the ,oil1 with which 
the ,acid  is combined1 hinders the     
water from dissolving it so easily as it
  otherwise would1 we cannot obtain     
quite so much of it1 from the same      
quantity of ,benjamin1 by decoction as  
by sublimation2 the last portions       
thereof being united with a great       
quantity of ,oil1 which defends them    
against the action of the water4 ,this  
,salt dissolves readily in ,spirit  of  
,wine1 on account of the ,oil combined  
with it4 ,a course of well  connected   
experiments might give us a far greater 
insight into its  natural properties    
than we can now boast of4    ,benjamin  
yields a much smaller quantity of fluid 
,oil by distillation  than other ,resins
 do2 because the greatest part of its   
,oil is employed  in the composition of 
its oily1 volatile1 acid ,salt4 ,the    
thick ,oil  drawn from this ,resin1 is  
thicker than that obtained from any     
other  ,resin1 and even fixes like      

butter when cold2 nor can we get more   
than  a very small quantity of ,acid in 
a distinct liquor4 ,all these effects   
depend on what we mentioned above1 in   
relation to its saline flowers3  to wit1
 the peculiar and intimate union between
 the ,acid and ,oily  part of this      
,resin1 so that the fire cannot so      
easily or so perfectly  disjoin them1 as
 it doth those of other ,resins4        
,benjamin1 when distilled1 leaves in the
 retort much more of a charred  coal    
than is left by most other resinous     
matters4 ,this may be owing  to the     
considerable quantity of earthy matter  
which it contains1 and  which1 perhaps1 
may also be one of the causes that      
contribute to give  its ,salt a concrete
 form4      ,,reflections    ,on the    
,nature and ,properties of ,,camphor4   
,we do not propose to give an analysis  
of this singular body2 because  hitherto
 there is no process known in ,chymistry
 by which it can be  decomposed4 ,we    
shall therefore content ourselves with  

reciting its  principal properties1 and 
making a few reflections on its nature4 
,camphor is an oily concrete substance2 
a kind of ,resin1 brought to  us from   
the island of ,borneo1 but chiefly from 
,japan4 ,this substance  resembles      
,resins1 in being inflammable1 and      
burning much as they do2 it  is not     
soluble in water1 but dissolves entirely
 and perfectly in ,spirit  of ,wine2 it 
is easily separated again from this     
menstruum1 as all  other oily matters   
are1 by the addition of water2 it       
dissolves both in  expressed and in     
distilled ,oils2 it hath a very strong  
aromatic smell4  ,these are the chief   
properties which ,camphor possesses in  
common with  ,resins3 but in other      
respects it differs totally from them2  
especially  in the following            
particulars4    ,camphor takes fire and 
flames with vastly more ease than any   
other  ,resin4 ,it is so very volatile1 
that it vanishes entirely in the air1   
without any other heat than that of the 

atmosphere4 ,in distillation it  rises  
entire1 without any decomposition1 or   
even the least alteration4  ,it         
dissolves in concentrated mineral       
,acids2 but with circumstances very     
different from those that attend other  
oily or resinous substances4 ,the       
dissolution is accompanied with no      
effervescence1 no sensible heat2 and    
consequently can produce no             
inflammation4 ,acids do not burn1       
blacken1  or thicken it1 as they do     
other oily matters2 on the contrary1 it 
becomes fluid1 and runs with them into a
 liquor that looks like ,oil4           
,camphor doth not1 like other oily      
matters1 acquire a disposition to       
dissolve in water by the union it       
contracts with ,acids2 though its  union
 with them seems to be more intimate    
than that of many oily  matters with the
 same ,acids4 ,on the contrary1 if a    
combination of  ,camphor and an ,acid be
 diluted with water1 these two          
substances  instantly separate from each

 other3 the ,acid unites with the water1
 and  the ,camphor1 being entirely      
disengaged from it1 swims on the surface
  of the liquor4 ,neither ,volatile     
,alkalis1 nor the most caustic ,fixed   
,alkalis1 can be brought into union with
 it2 for it always eludes their  power4 
,notwithstanding these wide differences 
between ,camphor and all other  oily and
 resinous substances1 the rule1 that    
,acids thicken ,oils1 seems  to be      
universal1 and so constantly observed by
 nature1 that we cannot  help thinking  
this substance1 like all the rest1 is an
 ,oil thickened by  an ,acid4 ,but what 
,oil8 ,what ,acid8 and how are they     
united8 ,this is a  subject for very    
curious inquiries4    ,with a yellow    
,oil drawn from wine1 and an acid vinous
 ,spirit1 of  which we shall say more   
under the article of ther1 ,mr4 ,hellot 
made a  kind of artificial ,camphor2 a  
substance having the odour1 favour1 and 
inflammability of ,camphor2 an imperfect
 ,camphor4 ,true ,camphor hath the      

levity1 the volatility1 and the         
inflammability of ther4 ,can it be a    
substance of the same nature with ther1 
a kind of solid ther1 an  ther in a     
concrete form8      ,,process ,,iii4    
,the ,analysis of ,bitumens3 instanced  
in ,amber1 ,the ,volatile ,salt and     
,oil of ,amber4    ,into a glass retort 
put some small bits of ,amber1 so as to 
fill but two  thirds of the vessel4 ,set
 your retort in a furnace covered with  
its  dome2 fit on a large glass         
receiver2 and1 beginning with a very    
gentle  heat1 distil with degrees of    
fire4 ,some phlegm will first come off1 
which will gradually grow more acid1 and
 be succeeded by a ,volatile  ,salt1    
figured like fine needles1 that will    
stick to the sides of the  receiver4    
,keep the fire up to this degree1 in    
order to drive over all the ,salt4      
,when you perceive that little or none  
rises1 change the receiver1 and         
increase your fire a little4 ,a light1  
clear1 limpid ,oil will ascend4  ,as the

 distillation advances1 this ,oil will  
grow higher coloured1 less  limpid1 and 
thicker1 till at last it will be opaque1
 black1 and have  the consistence of    
,turpentine4    ,when you perceive that 
nothing more comes off1 though the      
retort be  red-hot1 let the fire go out4
 ,you will have in the retort a black1  
light1 spongy coal4 ,if you have taken  
care to shift the receiver1 from  time  
to time1 during the distillation of your
 ,oil1 you will have sundry  separate   
portions thereof1 each of which will    
have a different degree  of tenuity or  
thickness1 according as it came over at 
the beginning1 or  towards the end of   
the distillation4      ,,observations4  
,the substance of which we have here    
given the analysis1 together with  all  
others of the same1 that is1 of the     
,bituminous kind1 is by most  ,chymists 
and ,naturalists classed with ,minerals3
 and so far they are  right1 that we    
actually get these mixts1 like other    
minerals1 out of  the bowels of the     

earth1 and never procure them           
immediately from any  vegetable or      
animal compound4 ,yet we have our       
reasons for proceeding  otherwise1 and  
for thinking that we could not1 in this 
work1 place them  better1 than          
immediately after those vegetable       
substances which we call  ,resins4      
,several motives determine us to act in 
this manner4 ,the analysis of  ,bitumens
 demonstrates1 that1 with regard to the 
principles of which  they consist1 they 
are totally different from every other  
kind of  mineral2 and that1 on the      
contrary1 they greatly resemble         
vegetable  ,resins in almost every      
respect4 ,in short1 though they are not 
immediately procured from vegetables1   
there is the greatest reason for        
believing that they were originally of  
the vegetable kingdom1 and that  they   
are no other than resinous and oily     
parts of trees or plants1  which1 by    
lying long in the earth1 and there      
contracting an union with  the mineral  

,acids1 have acquired the qualities that
 distinguish them  from ,resins4        
,mineralogists know very well that we   
find1 every where in the earth1  many   
vegetable substances1 that have lain    
very long buried under it1  and         
frequently at a considerable depth4 ,it 
is not uncommon to find1  under ground1 
vast beds of fossile trees1 which seem  
to be the remains  of immense forests3  
and ,bitumens1 particularly ,amber1 are 
often found  among this subterraneous   
wood4    ,these considerations1 joined  
to proofs drawn from their analysis1    
make  this opinion more than probable3  
nor are we singular in maintaining it1  
as it is adopted by many able modern    
,chymists4    ,the analysis of ,amber1  
above described1 may serve as a general 
specimen  of the decomposition of other 
,bitumens3 with this single difference1 
that ,amber is the only one among them  
which yields the ,volatile ,salt        
aforesaid2 and this determined us to    
examine it preferably to any  other4 ,as

 for the rest1 they all yield a phlegm1 
an acid liquor1 and  an ,oil2 which is  
thin at first1 but grows thicker and    
thicker1 as the  distillation draws     
towards an end4 ,it must be understood1 
however1 that  these ,acids and these   
,oils may differ1 according to the      
nature of the  ,bitumens from which they
 are drawn2 just as the ,phlegm1 the    
,acid1 and  the ,oil1 resulting from the
 decomposition of ,resins1 differ in    
quantity  and quality1 according to the 
nature of the ,resins from which they   
are  procured4    ,the principal        
differences observed between ,resins and
 ,bitumens are  these3 the latter are   
less soluble in ,spirit of ,wine2 have a
 peculiar  scent1 which cannot be       
accurately described1 and of which the  
sense of  smelling only can judge2 and  
their ,acid is stronger and more fixed4 
,this last property is one of the       
motives which induce us to think1  that1
 besides the vegetable ,acid1 originally
 combined with the resinous  or oily    

matter now become a ,bitumen1 a certain 
quantity of mineral ,acid  hath1 in a   
course of time1 been superadded to      
constitute this mixt4  ,we shall        
presently see that the fact is certainly
 so1 in the case of  ,amber at least4   
,almost all authors1 who mention the    
analysis of ,amber1 have given          
different accounts of the volatility of 
its ,salt1 and of the time  of the      
distillation when it begins to rise4    
,some make it ascend  immediately after 
the first acid phlegm4 ,others say1 that
 it doth  not begin to appear till after
 the first thin ,oil2 and others again  
affirm1 that it comes over with the last
 thick ,oil4 ,mr4 ,bourdelin1 who  hath 
examined this matter to the bottom1 in a
 ,memoir on the analysis  of ,amber     
given in to the ,academy1 very          
judiciously remarks1 that the  different
 results which those ,chymists met with 
in analyzing our mixt1  arose wholly    
from the different manner wherein each  
conducted his fire  during the          

operation4    ,it is certain that such a
 cause is capable of producing vast     
differences3 for when fire is hastily   
applied1 or made too violent1 it  not   
only confounds and tumultuously mingles 
the principles of the body  to be       
analyzed1 but it even frequently drives 
up the entire substance  itself out of  
the retort into the receiver1 without   
decomposing it at  all4 ,this is really 
so in the case of ,amber1 and of almost 
all compound  substances that are not   
extremely fixed4    ,it ought therefore 
to be observed1 as a general and        
important rule in  every analysis1 to   
administer the fire exceeding slowly and
 cautiously1  as one can never err on   
that side2 and to increase it only by   
such  degrees as appear necessary for   
carrying on the distillation4 ,by       
observing this method1 an accurate      
analysis will be attained3 by this      
means the ,salt of ,amber will rise     
before the ,oil2 whereas1 if a degree   
of heat sufficient to raise the thin    

,oil1 or even the thick ,oil1 be        
applied at first1 the ,salt will        
accordingly come over with the one or   
the other of these ,oils4    ,chymists  
remained a long time unacquainted with  
the nature of this ,salt  of ,amber1 and
 authors of the greatest name agreed as 
little on this  point as on that just   
mentioned4 ,some asserted it to be a    
,volatile ,salt  of the same kind with  
that which is obtained from animal      
substances2  that is1 a ,volatile       
,alkali3 others1 on the contrary1       
pretended that it  was an ,acid of a    
singular nature4    ,it is very         
surprising that such authors should     
disagree on such a  point1 considering  
how easily it may be ascertained whether
 this ,salt  be really an ,acid or an   
,alkali4 ,mr4 ,bourdelin justly decides 
the  question in favour of those who    
affirm it to be an ,acid4 ,in fact it   
hath all the properties of an ,acid3 it 
hath the taste of one1 forms  ,neutral  
,salts with ,alkalis1 and differs from  

the most unquestionable  ,acids in this 
alone1 that1 being combined with a      
portion of ,oil and  a small quantity of
 earth1 these give it a concrete form2  
which is  not a solitary case in        
,chymistry1 as is evident from ,cream of
 ,tartar4  ,with regard to its          
,volatility1 there is nothing in that   
repugnant to  the properties of its     
constituent principles2 seeing the ,acid
 and the  ,oil predominant therein may  
easily be supposed to communicate their 
volatile nature to the small portion of 
earth with which they are  combined4    
,those ,chymists who looked upon the    
,salt of ,amber as a ,volatile ,alkali1 
either did not examine it thoroughly1   
but contented themselves with its  first
 appearance1 in which it resembles the  
,volatile ,salt of animals1  or else    
were led into the error by some         
particular circumstances4 ,we  know1 for
 example1 that animal as well as        
vegetable substances are dug  out of the
 earth4 ,the insects1 sometimes found   

inclosed in lumps of  ,amber1           
sufficiently prove this4 ,perhaps they  
made their experiments on  such pieces  
of ,amber2 or else1 that which they used
 might be mixed with  some animal       
substance not very perceptible4 ,in such
 a case1 it would be  no wonder if the  
,volatile ,salt obtained should shew    
some tokens of an  ,alkali3 for the     
,volatile ,alkali arising from the      
animal matter would  only be mixed1 not 
combined1 with the ,salt of the ,amber2 
as the great  quantity of the ,oil1 in  
which both these ,salts are entangled1  
would  hinder them from dissolving each 
other1 and forming such a ,neutral ,salt
  as would be produced in other         
circumstances4    ,the acid or alkaline 
nature of the ,salt of ,amber was not   
the only  point that remained to be     
discussed on this occasion4 ,its acid   
quality  being once clearly ascertained1
 the nature of this ,acid was next to   
be determined4 ,this is the object      
chiefly aimed at in ,mr4 ,bourdelin's   

,memoirs1 and his discovery thereof is  
unquestionably one of the finest1  and  
at the same time one of the most        
difficult1 that could be attempted  with
 regard to this ,bitumen4    ,it appears
 plainly from several experiments1 of   
which we have given an  account in the  
course of this work1 that the strongest 
mineral ,acids1  by being combined with 
an oily matter1 are so vastly altered1  
and so  strangely disguised1 that we not
 only are incapable of distinguishing   
what they are1 but even can hardly avoid
 decomposing1 and partly  destroying    
them1 by those very operations which    
seem the best adapted  to separate them 
from the ,oil in which they are         
inviscated4 ,mr4  ,bourdelin had all    
these difficulties to surmount1 and     
incessantly met  with new obstacles in  
that troublesome fatty matter1 which1   
like an  impenetrable veil1 concealed   
from his view the ,acid whose nature he 
wanted to discover4 ,but at last1 by    
dint of manifold experiments1 he        

happily gained his end4 ,two parts of   
pure ,nitre1 unadulterated with  the    
lead particle of ,sea-salt1 and one part
 of ,amber1 pulverized and  mingled     
together1 procured him1 by deflagration1
 a ,salt partly neutral  and partly     
alkaline2 which being lixiviated1 and   
set to evaporate  spontaneously1 there  
formed at the bottom a residue of a     
mucilaginous1  pappy1 whitish matter1   
amongst which he could distinguish      
crystals1  that were very transparent1  
regularly figured1 of a cubical form1   
but  rather oblong2 so that they        
represented little oblong squares most  
exactly formed1 and about half a line   
thick4    ,as these crystals perfectly  
resembled1 in their figure1 the ,neutral
  ,salt produced by a combination of the
 ,acid of ,sea-salt with the  alkaline  
basis of ,nitre2 this was a proof to    
,mr4 ,bourdelin that  the ,acid of      
,amber is of the same kind1 or rather   
exactly the same1  with that of         
,sea-salt4 ,the ,nitre being alkalizated

 by means of the  phlogiston of the     
,amber1 the ,acid of the ,bitumen1      
finding this ,alkali a  proper basis to 
fix in1 unites with it1 and by that     
means is enabled to  resist the action  
of the fire1 so as not to be carried off
 by it4    ,on the other hand1 it is    
separated from the fat matter by which  
it  was masked before2 for by the help  
of this fat matter the ,nitre  is       
alkalizated4 ,the ,acid1 having by this 
means recovered all its  properties1    
begins to discover them1 as hath been   
said1 by the figure  it constantly gives
 to the crystals of the ,neutral ,salt  
which it helps  to constitute4          
,moreover1 this ,neutral ,salt hath all 
the essential properties of  ,sea-salt4 
,it hath its taste2 it decrepitates in  
the same manner on  live coals2 if ,oil 
of ,vitriol be poured on it1 white      
vapours arise1  which have the smell of 
,spirit of ,salt1 and are an actual     
,spirit of  ,salt4 ,lastly1 it makes a  
white precipitate of ,mercury dissolved 

in  ,spirit of ,nitre1 and a luna cornea
 of ,silver dissolved in the same       
,spirit2 which last proofs would alone  
be sufficient to establish ,mr4         
,bourdelin's opinion1 though we had no  
other4    ,it were to be wished that the
 experiments which ,mr4 ,bourdelin hath 
made on ,amber were also tried on other 
,bitumens4 ,there is reason to  think   
they would be found to contain either   
the ,marine or the ,vitriolic  ,acid3   
for though they do not yield a ,volatile
 ,salt1 as ,amber doth1  in             
distillation1 yet the ,acids obtained   
from them are very strong1  and appear1 
as we said before1 to have a mineral    
origin4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy  observed1 that  
,amber1 being pulverized and infused in 
hot water1 parts  with its ,salt in the 
same manner as ,benjamin does2 which    
gives room to  suspect that ,amber is to
 ,bitumens what ,benjamin is to ,resins4
      ,,process ,,iv4    ,the ,analysis 
of ,bees-,wax1 and such ,oily ,compounds
 as are analogous to  it4    ,melt the  

,wax you intend to analyze1 and mix with
 it as much fine sand  as will make it  
into stiff paste4 ,put this paste in    
little bits into a  retort1 and distil  
as usual1 with a graduated fire1        
beginning with a  very gentle heat4 ,an 
acid phlegm will come over1 and be      
followed by a  liquor which at first    
will look like an ,oil1 but will soon   
congeal in  the receiver1 and have the  
appearance of a butter or grease4       
,continue  the distillation1 increasing 
the fire by insensible degrees1 till    
nothing more will come off4 ,then       
separate the butter from the acid       
phlegm in the receiver1 mix it with     
fresh sand1 and distil it again  just as
 you did the ,wax before4 ,some acid    
phlegm will still come off1  and an ,oil
 will ascend1 which will not fix in the 
receiver1 though it  be still thick4    
,continue the distillation1 with a fire 
so governed  that the drops may succeed 
each other at the distance of six or    
seven  seconds of time4 ,do not increase

 it1 till you perceive the drops fall   
more slowly2 and then increase it no    
more than is necessary to make  the     
drops follow each other as above        
directed4 ,when the distillation  is    
finished1 you will find in the receiver 
the ,oil come wholly over1  and a little
 acid phlegm4 ,separate the ,oil from   
this liquor2 and1 if  you desire to have
 it more fluid1 re-distil it a third    
time in the same  manner4               
,,observations4    ,bees-,wax1 like all 
other oily matters in a concrete form1  
is an ,oil  thickened by an ,acid4 ,its 
decomposition furnishes us with a very  
convincing proof of this truth2 which1  
you see1 is confirmed more and  more1 by
 every new analysis we make of such     
substances4    ,wax doth not part with  
all its ,acid in the first distillation3
 and this  is the reason that it doth   
not then become a fluid ,oil1 but a     
butter1  which hath only a degree of    
softness proportioned to the quantity of
  ,acid separated from it4 ,the same    

thing holds with regard to its butter2  
which losing1 by a second distillation1 
a great part of the remaining  ,acid    
which caused its consistence1 is by that
 means turned to an ,oil4  ,lastly1 this
 ,oil1 from being thick1 becomes very   
fluid by a third  distillation1 and so  
follows the general rule of ,oils2 which
 always  become the more fluid the      
oftener they are distilled or rectified4
    ,what is here said concerning ,wax  
is applicable to ,resins1 also2 which   
it further resembles in its consistence1
 and its refusing to dissolve  in water3
 yet it differs from them essentially in
 several respects2 and  for this reason 
we thought proper to treat of it in     
particular4 ,the  properties in which it
 differs from ,resins are these3        
,first1 ,it hath no aromatic scent1 nor 
acrid taste1 as ,resins have4           
,secondly1 ,it doth not yield a thin    
limpid ,oil1 in the first  distillation1
 as they do4    ,thirdly1 ,its ,oil1 or 
its butter1 doth not grow sensibly      

thicker with  age4 ,mr4 ,boerhaave kept 
some butter of ,bees-,wax for twenty    
years1 in a  vessel that was not stopt1 
but only covered with a bit of paper2   
yet it  did not grow hard4 ,an          
,essential ,oil1 though kept much closer
 shut up1  would in much less time have 
acquired the consistence of a ,balsam2  
and  a ,balsam1 in that time1 would have
 become a ,resin4    ,fourthly1         
,bees-,wax is not soluble in ,spirit of 
,wine2 whereas it is the  very nature of
 ,resins to dissolve in that menstruum4 
,fifthly1 ,i have observed that ,spirit 
of ,wine acts faintly on the butter  of 
,bees-,wax2 dissolves that butter when  
distilled to an ,oil2 unites  more      
readily with that ,oil when rectified by
 a third distillation2  and dissolves it
 still the more readily the oftener it  
is distilled4  ,resins1 on the contrary1
 are more soluble in ,spirit of ,wine   
than the  thin ,oils drawn from them2   
and those ,oils acquire the property of 
resisting that menstruum more and more  

obstinately the oftener they are        
rectified4    ,by these differences we  
may judge whether it be proper to       
confound  ,bees-,wax with ,resins1 or   
whether it ought not rather to be       
considered  as an oily compound of a    
singular species1 which deserves to be  
ranked  in a different class1 or at     
least in some other division4    ,if we 
take the most cursory view of the       
properties of ,essential ,oils1  and    
compare them with those of ,fat ,oils1  
we cannot avoid being struck  with a    
resemblance between the properties of   
,essential ,oils and  those of ,resins1 
as well as with the apparent conformity 
between the  properties of ,fat ,oils   
and those of ,bees-,wax3 from all which 
we may  conclude with good reason1 in my
 opinion1 that the ,oil of ,bees-,wax   
is not of the same nature with that of  
,resins4 ,the ,oil of ,resins hath  all 
the properties of an ,essential ,oil1   
and is justly allowed to be  an         
,essential ,oil rendered thick and      

ponderous by an ,acid4 ,the ,oil of     
,bees-,wax1 on the contrary1 hath all   
the properties of ,fat ,oils2 and  there
 is great room to think1 that this      
substance is really no other  than a    
,fat ,oil hardened by an ,acid4         
,bees-,wax is not the only oily compound
 that appears to have a ,fat  ,oil for  
its basis4 ,certain shrubs in ,america  
yield1 by decoction1 a  substance that  
hath all the properties of ,bees-,wax1  
differing therefrom  only in its colour1
 which is green4 ,the ,butter of ,cacao 
is also a  substance analogous to       
,bees-,wax1 and would be really ,wax1 if
 it were  but as hard2 for it contains  
the same principles1 but in different   
proportions3 in short1 it is to         
,bees-,wax what ,balsams are to ,resins4
      ,,process ,v4    ,the ,saccharine 
,juices of ,plants analyzed3 instanced  
in ,honey4    ,put into a stone cucurbit
 the ,honey you intend to distil2 set it
 in a  moderate sand-heat1 and evaporate
 the greatest part of its humidity1     

till you perceive the phlegm begin to be
 acid4 ,then take out the matter        
remaining in the cucurbit1 put it into a
 retort1 leaving a full third  thereof  
empty1 and distil in a reverberatory    
with degrees of fire4 ,an  acid1        
amber-coloured liquor will come over4   
,as the operation advances1  this liquor
 will continually become deeper coloured
 and more acid1 and  at the same time a 
little black ,oil will ascend4 ,when the
 distillation  is over1 you will find in
 the retort a pretty large charred mass1
 which  being burnt in the open air1 and
 lixiviated1 affords a ,fixed ,alkali4  
,,observations4    ,if we consider      
nothing but the nature of the principles
 obtained from  ,honey1 we may be       
induced to think that this substance is 
of the same  kind with ,resins2 for we  
get from each a ,phlegm1 an ,acid1 an   
,oil1 and  a ,coal4 ,yet there is a very
 great difference between these two     
sorts  of compounds4 ,oily matters of   
the resinous kind are very inflammable1 

and by no means soluble in water3       
,honey1 on the contrary1 is not         
inflammable in its natural state2 will  
not flame till it be half  consumed1 or 
turned almost to a coal1 by the fire2   
and mixes readily  and perfectly with   
water4 ,now whence can this difference  
arise8 ,since  it is not owing to the   
nature of the principles that constitute
 these  mixts1 it must necessarily be   
attributed to the proportions in which  
those principles are united4 ,and indeed
 if we attend to the quantities         
obtained from each by analyzing them    
severally1 we shall find that1  in this 
respect1 there is a very great          
difference between them4 ,oily          
compounds of the nature of ,resins1     
which are not soluble in water1  yield  
in distillation a little phlegm1 a      
quantity of ,oil vastly  exceeding that 
of their ,acid1 and a very small matter 
of coal1 which1  when burnt1 scarce     
leaves any token of a ,fixed ,alkali4   
,honey1 on the  contrary1 and all other 

juices of the same nature1 give out1    
when  analyzed1 a great deal of phlegm1 
a quantity of ,acid much superior to    
that of their ,oil1 and a considerable  
mass of coal2 from which1 when  burnt in
 the open air and lixiviated1 a very    
perceptible ,alkali may be  obtained4   
,if the quantity of the principles      
procured by these two analyses be       
compared together1 it will be easy to   
deduce from thence the causes  of the   
different properties observed in the    
mixts that afforded them4  ,in the large
 quantity of ,oil1 of which resinous    
substances consist  almost entirely1 we 
see the cause of their being so         
inflammable1 and so  indissoluble in    
water4 ,when such bodies are decomposed1
 there remains  but little coal1 and    
very little ,fixed ,alkali2 because     
their ,oil  carries off with it almost  
all their ,acid1 leaving a scarce       
perceptible  portion thereof fixed in   
the coal4 ,now we know that this ,acid  
is an  essential requisite to the       

formation of an ,alkali4 ,honey1 on the 
contrary1 and the analogous mixts1 are  
so unapt to take fire1 and mix  so      
readily with water1 only because there  
is very little ,oil in their            
composition1 in comparison of the ,acid1
 which is their predominant  principle4 
,for the same reason they leave1 when   
decomposed1 a greater  quantity of coal1
 which also yields much more ,fixed     
,alkali than we find  in the coals of   
,resins4 ,perhaps these mixts may also  
contain a little  more earth4 ,the cause
 of this greater quantity of ,fixed     
,alkali will  be found in what we       
delivered above concerning the          
combination and  production of that     
,salt4    ,sugar1 ,manna1 and the       
,saccharine juices of fruits and plants1
 are of  the same nature as ,honey1     
yield the same principles1 and in the   
same  proportions4 ,all these substances
 must be considered as native ,soaps2   
because they consist of an ,oil rendered
 miscible with water1 by means  of a    

saline substance4 ,they differ from the 
common artificial ,soaps in  several    
respects2 but chiefly in this1 that     
their saline part is an  ,acid1 whereas 
that of common ,soap is an ,alkali4 ,the
 natural ,soaps are  not for that reason
 the less perfect3 on the contrary1 they
 dissolve  in water without destroying  
its transparency1 and without giving it 
a  milky colour3 which proves that      
,acids are not less proper than         
,alkalis1  or rather that they are more 
proper additaments1 for bringing ,oils  
into  a saponaceous state4    ,but it   
must be owned1 that we are not yet able 
to imitate by art the  ,acid ,soaps     
which are prepared and so perfectly     
combined by nature1 and  that the       
detersive quality of these is not near  
so strong as that of  the ,soaps which  
have an ,alkali for their saline        
principles4    ,though ,honey1 and the  
other vegetable substances analogous to 
it1  contain much ,acid1 yet they have  
no taste of sourness1 nor any of the    

other properties of ,acids2 but1 on the 
contrary1 their taste is soft  and      
saccharine3 the cause of this is1 that  
their ,acid is intimately  mixed and    
perfectly combined with their ,oil1     
which entirely sheathes  and blunts it4 
,,process ,,vi4    ,gummy ,substances   
analyzed3 instanced in ,gum ,arabic4    
,distil ,gum ,arabic in a retort with   
degrees of fire4 ,a limpid1  scentless1 
and tasteless phlegm will first come    
over2 and then a  russet-coloured acid  
liquor1 a little ,volatile ,alkali1 and 
an ,oil1  which will first be thin and  
afterwards come thick4 ,in the retort   
will  be left a good deal of a charred  
substance1 which being burnt and        
lixiviated will give a ,fixed ,alkali4  
,,observations4    ,gums have at first  
sight some resemblance of ,resins2 which
 hath  occasioned many resinous matters 
to be called ,gums1 though very         
improperly3 for they are two distinct   
sorts of substances1 of natures         
absolutely different from each other4   

,it hath been shewn1 that ,resins  have 
an aromatic odour2 that they are        
indissoluble in water1 and  soluble in  
,spirit of ,wine2 that they are only an 
,essential ,oil grown  thick4 ,gums1 on 
the contrary1 have no odour1 are soluble
 in water1  indissoluble in ,spirit of  
,wine1 and1 by being analyzed as in the 
process1 are converted almost wholly    
into a phlegm and an ,acid4 ,the  small 
portion of ,oil contained in them is so 
thoroughly united with  their ,acid1    
that it dissolves perfectly in water1   
and the solution is  clear and limpid4  
,in this respect ,gums resemble ,honey1 
and the other  vegetable juices         
analogous to it4 ,they are all fluid    
originally2 that  is1 when they begin to
 ooze out of their trees4 ,at that time 
they  perfectly resemble mucilages1 or  
rather they are actual mucilages1  which
 grow thick and hard in time by the     
evaporation of a great part of  their   
moisture3 just as ,resins are true      
,oils1 which1 losing their most  fluid  

parts by evaporation1 at last become    
solid4 ,infusions or slight  decoctions 
of mucilaginous plants1 when evaporated 
to dryness1 become  actual ,gums4       
,some trees abound both in ,oil and in  
mucilage3 these two substances  often   
mix and flow from the tree blended      
together4 ,thus they both grow  dry and 
hard together in one mass1 which of     
course is at the same  time both gummy  
and resinous3 and accordingly such mixts
 are named  ,gum-resins4    ,but it must
 be observed1 that these resinous and   
gummy parts suffer  no alteration by    
being thus mixed2 but each preserves its
 properties1  as if it were alone4 ,the 
reason is1 that they are not truly      
united  together3 ,gums being           
indissoluble by ,oils or by ,resins1 the
 parts of  each are only entangled among
 those of the other1 by means of their  
viscosity4 ,hence1 if the ,gum-resin be 
put into water1 the water will  dissolve
 only the gummy part1 without touching  
the resinous4 ,on the  contrary1 if the 

same ,gum-resin be put into ,spirit of  
,wine1 this  menstruum will dissolve the
 ,resin1 and leave the ,gum4 ,we shall  
treat  more particularly of this        
dissolution under the head of ,spirit of
 ,wine4    ,if a ,gum-resin1 instead of 
being only infused in water1 be         
triturated  with water1 it will be      
thereby wholly diffused through it3 but 
the  resinous part1 which is only       
divided by the triture1 and not         
dissolved  in the water1 gives the      
liquor a milky colour1 like that of an  
emulsion4 ,it is indeed an actual       
emulsion2 that which is made with       
kernels being1 like this1 no other than 
a divided oil1 dispersed in  small      
particles by triture1 and suspended in  
the water by means of a  mucilage4      
,,section ,,ii4    ,of ,operations on   
,fermented ,vegetable ,substances4      
,,chap4 ,i4    ,of the ,,product of     
,,spirituous ,,fermentation4            
,,process ,i4    ,to make ,wine of      
,vegetable ,substances that are         

susceptible of  ,spirituous             
,fermentation4    ,let a liquor         
susceptible of1 and prepared for1 the   
,spirituous  ,fermentation be put into a
 cask4 ,set this cask in a temperately  
warm  cellar1 and cover the bung-hole   
with a bit of linen cloth only4 ,in more
  or less time1 according to the nature 
of the liquor to be fermented1  and to  
the degree of heat in the air1 the      
liquor will begin to swell1  and be     
rarefied4 ,there will arise an intestine
 motion1 attended with a  small hissing 
and effervescence1 throwing up bubbles  
to the surface1  and discharging        
vapours3 while the gross1 viscous1 and  
thick parts1  being driven up by the    
fermenting motion1 and rendered lighter 
by  little bubbles of air adhering to   
them1 will rise to the top1 and there   
form a kind of soft1 spongy crust1 which
 will cover the liquor all  over4 ,the  
fermenting motion still continuing1 this
 crust will1 from  time to time1 be     
lifted up and cracked by vapours making 

their escape  through it2 but those     
fissures will presently close again1    
till1 the  fermentation gradually going 
off1 and at last entirely ceasing1 the  
crust will fall in pieces to the bottom 
of the liquor1 which will  insensibly   
grow clear4 ,then stop the cask close   
with its bung1 and set  it in a cooler  
place4      ,,observations4    ,matters 
that are susceptible of the ,spirituous 
,fermentation are seldom  so perfectly  
prepared for it by nature as they       
require to be4 ,if we  except the juices
 that flow naturally from certain trees1
 but oftener  from incisions made on    
purpose in them1 all other substances   
require  some previous preparation4     
,boerhaave1 who hath handled this       
subject excellently well in his         
,chymistry1 divides the substances that 
are fit for ,spirituous  ,fermentation  
into five classes4 ,in the first he     
places all the mealy  seeds1 the        
legumens1 and the kernels of almost all 
fruits4 ,the  second class includes the 

juices of all fruits that do not tend to
  putrefaction4 ,in the third class     
stand the juices of all the parts  of   
plants which tend rather to acidity than
 to putrefaction2 and  consequently     
those which yield much ,volatile ,alkali
 are to be excluded4  ,the fourth class 
comprehends the juices or saps that     
spontaneously  distil from several trees
 and plants1 or flow from them when     
wounded4  ,he forms his fifth and last  
class of the saponaceous1 saccharine1   
and concrete or thick juices of         
vegetables4 ,resinous or purely gummy   
matters are excluded1 as not being      
fermentable4    ,these five classes may 
be reduced to two2 one comprehending all
 the  ,juices1 and another all the      
,mealy parts1 of vegetables that are    
susceptible of fermentation4 ,the juices
 want nothing to fit them for           
fermentation1 but to be expressed out of
 the substances containing  them1 and to
 be diluted with a sufficient quantity  
of water4 ,if they  be very thick1 the  

best way is to add so much water as     
shall render  the mixed liquor just     
capable of bearing a new-laid egg4 ,with
 respect  to farinaceous substances1 as 
they are almost all either oily or      
mucilaginous1 they require a little more
 management4 ,the method of  brewing    
malt-liquors will furnish us with       
examples of such management4  ,it is    
thus described by ,mr4 ,boerhaave4      
,in warm weather the grain is put into  
large vats1 and a considerable  quantity
 of rain-water1 or very clean           
river-water1 is poured thereon1  in     
which it lies till it be well soaked and
 swelled4 ,this first  operation is     
called the ,steeping4    ,when the grain
 is by this means grown very plump1 it  
is taken out of  the steep1 and laid on 
great heaps in an open place1 yet not   
too much  exposed to the wind4 ,in a    
very little time those heaps grow hot1  
the  grain begins to sprout1 and shoot  
out little buds of leaves and roots4    
,the art of managing this operation     

properly consists in seizing the  exact 
point of time when the germination      
should be stopt3 on this in a  great    
measure depends the success of the      
business4 ,for1 if the grain  be left   
too long in this hot bed1 it may begin  
to rot1 or else the  leaves and roots1  
by growing too much1 may consume most of
 the mealy  substance1 which1 in this   
case1 is the only subject of            
fermentation2  and1 if the germination  
be checked too soon1 the advantage      
expected  from it will be lost2 that is1
 the mucid matters will not be          
sufficiently attenuated4    ,as soon    
therefore as the germination is observed
 to have attained its  proper stage1 it 
must be stopt with all possible         
expedition4 ,for this  purpose the grain
 is carried into an open place exposed  
to the north  wind1 where it is spread  
on a boarded floor and dried2 by which  
means  it is hindered from sprouting any
 more4 ,it is next made to run slowly   
down through a long tunnel made very    

hot1 which at once dries it  thoroughly 
to the very heart1 and in some measure  
scorches it1 though  very slightly4     
,grain thus prepared is called ,malt4   
,by this germination1 exsiccation1 and  
slight torrefaction of the grain1  the  
farinaceous substance is considerably   
attenuated1 and its natural  viscosity  
destroyed1 which would otherwise hinder 
the meal1 when boiled  in water1 from   
mixing with it and dissolving in it1 as 
it must in some  measure do to form a   
liquor fit for ,spirituous              
,fermentation4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave takes 
notice1 that if grain1 which hath not   
been thus  prepared1 be chewed in the   
mouth1 its meal makes a paste that is   
not  easily attenuated1 or entirely     
dissolved1 by the spittle2 whereas the  
meal of the same grain1 after malting1  
mixes immediately and perfectly  with   
the spittle3 it hath moreover a sweet   
agreeable taste1 which  common grain    
hath not4    ,the grain being thus      
malted1 is ground3 then hot water is    

poured  thereon1 in which it is left to 
infuse for three or four hours4 ,in that
  time the water takes up all the       
attenuated flour of the ,malt2 whereas  
it would not dissolve the farina of     
grain that had not undergone the  above 
described preparations4 ,the ,wort is   
then drawn off the grains1  and boiled  
to a proper degree of inspissation2 the 
decoction is  suffered to cool1 and     
afterwards put into casks to be         
fermented as the  process directs4      
,as ,malt-liquor is apt to grow sour1   
and will not keep so long as ,wine1     
some bitter plants are usually boiled in
 the decoction1 to make it keep  the    
longer1 and hinder it from turning sour 
so soon as it otherwise  would4 ,for    
this purpose such plants are chosen as  
have an agreeable  bitter taste2 and the
 preference is generally given to ,hops4
    ,besides these preparations1        
relating chiefly to ,malt-liquors1      
there are many other things to be       
observed relating to ,spirituous        

,fermentation in general1 and to all    
matters susceptible of that             
fermentation4 ,for example2 all grains  
and fruits designed for that            
fermentation must be perfectly ripe2 for
 otherways they will not  ferment       
without difficulty1 and will produce    
little or no inflammable  ,spirit4 ,such
 matters as are too austere1 too acrid1 
or astringent1 are  for the same reason 
unfit for ,spirituous ,fermentation2 as 
well as those  which abound too much in 
,oil4    ,in order to make the          
fermentation succeed perfectly1 so as to
 produce  the best ,wine that the       
fermented liquor is capable of          
affording1 it is  necessary to let it   
stand quiet without stirring it1 lest   
the crust  that forms on its surface    
should be broken to little fragments1   
and  mix with the liquor4 ,this crust is
 a kind of cover1 which hinders the     
spirituous parts from exhaling as fast  
as they are formed4 ,the free  access of
 the air is another condition necessary 

to fermentation3 and  for this reason   
the vessel that contains the fermenting 
liquor must  not be close stopped2 the  
bung-hole is only to be covered with a  
linen  cloth1 to hinder dirt and insects
 from falling into it4 ,nor must the    
bung-hole be too large1 lest too much of
 the spirituous parts should  escape and
 be lost4    ,lastly1 a just degree of  
warmth is one of the conditions most    
necessary  for fermentation3 for in very
 cold weather there is no fermentation  
at  all2 and too much heat precipitates 
it in such a manner1 that the whole     
liquor becomes turbid1 and many         
fermenting and fermented particles are  
dissipated4    ,if1 notwithstanding the 
exactest observance of every particular 
requisite to excite a successful        
fermentation1 the liquor cannot1        
without difficulty1 be brought to       
effervesce1 which scarce ever  happens  
but to ,malt-liquor1 it may be          
accelerated by mixing therewith  some   
matter that is very susceptible of      

fermentation1 or actually  fermenting4  
,such matters are called ,ferments4 ,the
 crust1 or ,yest1  that forms on the    
surface1 of fermenting liquors is a most
 efficacious  ferment1 and on that      
account very much used4    ,it sometimes
 happens1 that there is occasion to     
check the fermentation  excited in the  
liquor1 before it ceases of itself4 ,to 
effect this1 such  means must be used as
 are directly opposite to those         
mentioned above  for promoting          
fermentation4 ,the end is obtained by   
mixing with the  liquor a quantity of   
,alkali1 sufficient to absorb the ,acid 
contained  therein3 but this method is  
seldom made use of1 because it spoils   
the liquor3 which1 after being thus     
treated1 is incapable of any  spirituous
 fermentation1 but on the contrary will 
certainly putrefy4    ,spirituous       
fermentation may also be stopped by     
mixing with the liquor  a great quantity
 of some mineral ,acid4 ,but this       
likewise alters its  nature2 because    

these ,acids1 being fixed1 always remain
 confounded  therewith1 and never       
separate from it4    ,the best method   
yet found out for checking this         
fermentation1 without  injury to the    
fermenting liquor1 is to impregnate it  
with the fumes  of burning sulphur4     
,these fumes are known to be acid1 and  
it is that  quality in them which       
suspends the fermentation4 ,but1 at the 
same time1  this ,acid is extremely     
volatile3 so that it separates          
spontaneously  from the liquor1 after   
some time1 and leaves it in a condition 
to  continue its fermentation4    ,for  
this reason1 when a ,wine is desired    
that shall be but half  fermented1 and  
shall partly retain the sweet taste it  
had in the state  of ,must1 7the proper 
name for the unfermented juice of the   
grape71  it is put into casks in which  
,sulphur hath been previously burnt1 and
  the vapours thereof confined by       
stopping the bung-hole4 ,these are      
called ,matched ,wines4 ,if the same    

operation be performed on ,must1  its   
fermentation will be absolutely         
prevented3 it will retain all its       
saccharine taste1 and is then called    
,stum4 ,as the sulphureous ,acid        
evaporates spontaneously1 in no long    
space1 it is necessary to fumigate      
matched wines1 or stums1 from time to   
time1 when they are intended to  be kept
 long without fermenting4      ,,process
 ,,ii4    ,to draw an ,ardent ,spirit   
from ,substances that have undergone the
  ,spirituous ,fermentation4 ,the       
,analysis of ,wine4    ,fill a large    
copper cucurbit half full of ,wine4 ,fit
 on its head and  refrigeratory4 ,lute  
on a receiver with wet bladder1 and     
distil with  a gentle fire2 yet so that 
the drops which fall from the nose of   
the  alembic may succeed one another    
pretty quick1 and form a sort of small  
continued stream4 ,go on thus till you  
perceive that the liquor which  comes   
over ceases to be inflammable2 and then 
desist4 ,you will find in  the receiver 

a clear liquor1 somewhat inclining to an
 amber-colour1 of  a pleasant quick     
smell1 and which being thrown into the  
fire instantly  flames4 ,the quantity   
thereof will be nearly a fourth part of 
the ,wine  you put into the alembic2 and
 this is what is called ,brandy2 that   
is1 the ,ardent ,spirit of ,wine loaded 
with much phlegm4    ,in order to       
rectify it1 and reduce it to ,spirit of 
,wine1 put it into  a long-necked       
matrass1 capable of holding double the  
quantity4 ,fit a  head to the matrass1  
and lute on a receiver3 place your      
matrass over  a pot half full of water2 
set this pot over a moderate fire2 and  
with  this vapour-bath distil your      
,spirit1 which will rise pure4 ,continue
  this degree of heat till nothing more 
will come over4 ,you will find in1  the 
receiver a very clear colourless ,spirit
 of ,wine1 of a quick but  agreeable    
smell1 which will catch fire at once by 
the bare contact of  any flaming        
substance4      ,,observations4    ,it  

hath been shewn1 that ,honey1 and the   
vegetable juices analogous to  it1 such 
as ,must1 and the juices of all         
saccharine fruits and plants1  yield by 
distillation no other principles than   
,phlegm1 an ,acid1 and  a small quantity
 of ,oil4 ,the analysis of ,wine1 and of
 all substances  that have undergone the
 spirituous fermentation1 shews us that 
this  fermentation produces1 and in some
 sense creates1 in those mixts1 a       
principle that did not exist in them    
before2 ,i mean the ,ardent ,spirit1    
which is an inflammable liquor that is  
miscible with water4 ,this liquor       
results from a closer combination of the
 ,acid and the ,oil1 which are          
attenuated and united together by       
fermentation4 ,to this ,oil1 which  is  
one of its constituent parts1 its       
inflammability is owing2 and  the ,acid 
imparts to this ,oil the property of    
mixing with water1 more  perfectly and  
more intimately than when it makes a    
part of any other  compound4 ,nay1 there

 is1 in the very composition of an      
,ardent ,spirit1  a certain quantity of 
water which is necessary to it1 which is
 one of  its essential parts1 and       
without which it would not have the     
properties  that characterise it4 ,we   
shall presently have occasion to see1   
that1  when ,spirit of ,wine is         
dephlegmated to a certain pitch1 we     
cannot  deprive it of any more of its   
aqueous parts1 without decomposing a    
quantity of the ,spirit1 proportioned to
 the quantity of water drawn  from it4  
,ardent ,spirits are more volatile than 
any of the principles of the  mixt from 
which they are produced1 and            
consequently more volatile  than the    
phlegm1 the ,acid1 or the ,oil thereof1 
though they wholly  consist of these4   
,this cannot be attributed to any thing 
but a peculiar  disposition of these    
principles1 which are attenuated in a   
singular  manner by the fermenting      
motion1 and thereby rendered more       
susceptible  of expansion and           

rarefaction4    ,the great volatility of
 the ,ardent ,spirit procures us an easy
 method of  separating it from the other
 principles of ,wine1 and of            
dephlegmating  it4 ,for this purpose it 
need only be distilled with such a      
gentle heat  as is just capable of      
raising the ,spirit1 but too weak to    
produce the  same effect on the other   
matters from which you desire to free   
it4 ,for  this reason the more slowly1  
and with the less heat1 you distil your 
,wine1 the stronger and more spirituous 
will your ,brandy be4 ,the same is  to  
be said of the second distillation1 by  
which ,brandy is changed into  ,spirit  
of ,wine1 or1 in other words1           
dephlegmated4 ,the ,spirit of ,wine     
thus drawn from it will be so much the  
better1 the more exactly you  observe   
the conditions here proposed4    ,if    
,spirit of ,wine be treated in the same 
manner as ,brandy1 that is1  if it be   
rectified by distillation with the same 
precautions1 it  will be thereby        

dephlegmated as much as possible2 and   
then it is  called ,alkohol4 ,by this   
rectification it is not only freed from 
its redundant phlegm1 but also from some
 particles of ,acid and of  ,oil1 which1
 though much less volatile than itself1 
yet ascend with it  in the first        
distillation3 nor is it possible wholly 
to avoid this  inconvenience4    ,mr4   
,boerhaave proposes to dephlegmate      
,spirit of ,wine more easily1 and  more 
accurately1 by distilling it from       
decrepitated ,sea-salt mixed1  while    
very hot1 with the ,spirit4 ,this must  
certainly be a very good  method2       
because decrepitated ,sea-salt          
powerfully attracts moisture1  and      
consequently is very apt to imbibe and  
retain that which is in  the ,ardent    
,spirit3 and ,spirit of ,wine doth not  
dissolve ,sea-salt2 so  that there is no
 reason to fear its being in the least  
contaminated  therewith4    ,all        
fermented liquors do not yield near an  
equal quantity of ,ardent  ,spirit2     

because they do not all1 before         
fermentation1 equally contain  the      
principles necessary to produce an      
,ardent ,spirit1 in the most            
advantageous proportion or disposition4 
,there are several ways of proving      
whether or no ,spirit of ,wine be as    
highly rectified as it possibly can be1 
that is1 whether or no it  contain any  
more phlegm than is precisely necessary 
to constitute it  ,spirit of ,wine2 and 
many ,chymists have judged that worthy  
of the title  which burns away entirely1
 without leaving behind it the least    
token of  humidity2 or that which1 being
 burnt on gun-powder1 fires it at last4 
,but ,mr4 ,boerhaave justly observes1   
that neither of these is a  sufficient  
proof2 because1 though there should be a
 small quantity  of unnecessary phlegm  
in ,spirit of ,wine1 yet it may very    
well be  evaporated and dissipated by   
the deflagration in either way4 ,he     
therefore proposes another proof1 which 
is much more to be depended on2  that   

is1 by mixing and shaking with the      
,spirit of ,wine a small quantity  of a 
very dry pulverized ,alkali4 ,if this   
,salt1 when thus agitated1 and  even    
warmed1 with ,spirit of ,wine1 continue 
as dry as it was at first1  it is a sign
 that the ,spirit is perfectly          
dephlegmated4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave tried  
in this manner some ,spirit of ,wine    
that had fired  gun-powder1 and found it
 to contain so much phlegm that it      
moistened  his ,salt very perceptibly3  
nay1 one single drop of water1 being    
mixed  with a considerable quantity of  
,spirit of ,wine1 which before left the 
,alkali perfectly dry1 discovered itself
 in this way by the moisture it         
communicated to the very same ,salt4    
,spirit of ,wine may also be            
contaminated with some heterogeneous    
substances2 such as acid1 alkaline1 or  
oily matters4 ,these are to be          
discovered by very easy experiments     
proper to each3 for an acid or          
alkalious ,spirit of ,wine being mixed  

with syrop of violets will give it  a   
red or a green colour1 according to the 
nature of the saline matter  contained  
in it2 and1 if it be combined with an   
,oil1 that will shew  itself by the     
white milky colour which a drop of it   
will give to water4    ,besides the     
,ardent ,spirit1 ,wine contains an ,acid
 united with a portion  of earth and of 
,oil1 which give the ,acid a concrete   
form4 ,this  substance generally        
separates spontaneously from the ,wine1 
and adheres1  in the form of a strong   
crust1 to the sides of the cask4 ,it is 
called  ,tartar1 and is1 properly       
speaking1 the ,essential ,salt of ,wine4
 ,we  shall exhibit the analysis of     
,tartar1 and treat of it more at length1
  in a chapter apart4    ,wine-lees     
consist of the grossest parts of the    
fermented liquor2 which  being uncapable
 of remaining dissolved1 sink to the    
bottom1 and form a  sediment1 which     
contains also some ,tartar and a little 
,ardent ,spirit4    ,the residue left in

 the cucurbit1 after the ,spirit is     
drawn off1 is a  sort of ,extract of    
,wine4 ,this liquor hath an exceeding   
rough1 or rather  acid taste4 ,when     
distilled it yields an acid phlegm1     
which comes more  and more acid as the  
distillation advances1 and a fetid      
empyreumatic  ,oil4 ,from the caput     
mortuum1 when burnt1 a considerable     
quantity of a  ,fixed ,alkali may be    
extracted4    ,from all this it follows1
 that ,wine consists of an ,ardent      
,spirit1 and  a ,tartarous ,acid1       
diffused through a great quantity of    
water1 together  with some oily and     
earthy parts4    ,malt-liquor contains  
much less ,tartar than ,wine2 but1      
instead thereof1  it is impregnated with
 a mucilaginous matter1 which becomes   
very  perceptible when any body is      
smeared with it and dried2 for then  it 
makes a kind of ,varnish4 ,this         
mucilaginous matter1 which is not       
sufficiently attenuated1 especially when
 the ,malt-liquor is new1 makes  it very

 apt to swell up and rise over the helm 
with rapidity1 in the  distillation of  
an ,ardent ,spirit from it3 for which   
reason it is  necessary to proceed more 
cautiously1 and more slowly1 in         
distilling a  ,spirit from this liquor  
than from ,wine4      ,,process ,,iii4  
,to dephlegmate ,spirit of ,wine by the 
means of ,fixed ,alkalis4 ,spirit of    
,wine analyzed4    ,into a glass        
cucurbit pour the ,spirit of ,wine you  
intend to  dephlegmate1 and add to it   
about a third part of its weight of     
,fixed  ,alkali1 newly calcined1        
perfectly dry1 heated1 and pulverized4  
,shake  the vessel1 that the two matters
 may be mixed and blended together4     
,the ,salt will gradually grow moist1   
and1 if the ,spirit of ,wine be very    
aqueous1 melt into a liquor1 that will  
always lie at the bottom of the  vessel1
 without uniting with the ,spirit of    
,wine which will swim at top4    ,when  
you perceive that the ,alkali attracts  
no new moisture1 and that no  more of it

 melts1 decant your ,spirit of ,wine    
from the liquor beneath  it1 and add to 
your ,spirit fresh ,salt thoroughly     
dried as before4 ,this  ,salt will also 
imbibe a little moisture2 but it will   
not grow liquid1  because the ,alkali1  
with which it was mixed before1 hath    
left too  little phlegm to melt this4   
,decant it from this ,salt as at first1 
and  continue to mix and make it in the 
same manner with fresh ,salt1 till  you 
observe that the ,salt remains as dry   
after as it was before mixing  it with  
the ,spirit of ,wine4 ,then distil your 
,spirit in a small alembic  with a      
gentle heat1 and you will have it as    
much dephlegmated as it can  be4        
,,observations4    ,next to the ,mineral
 ,acids1 ,fixed ,alkalis perfectly      
calcined are the  substances which have 
the greatest affinity with water1 and   
therefore  it is no wonder they are so  
very fit to dephlegmate ,spirit of      
,wine1  and to free it from all its     
redundant humidity4 ,indeed ,spirit of  

,wine  cannot be perfectly dephlegmated 
without their assistance3 for when      
distillation alone is made use of for   
that purpose1 it is impossible  to      
prevent some phlegm from rising with the
 ,spirit of ,wine1 whatever  precautions
 we take to avoid it4 ,hence it comes to
 pass1 that ,spirit of  ,wine1 though   
ever so highly rectified by             
distillation1 always imparts a  little  
moisture to an ,alkali1 when mixed with 
it in order to prove its  goodness4     
,but1 while the ,alkali attracts the    
super-abundant phlegm of the ,spirit  of
 ,wine1 it produces in that liquor1 and 
undergoes itself1 remarkable  changes4  
,spirit of wine1 when so highly         
dephlegmated by an ,alkali that1 being  
kept in digestion therewith1 it leaves  
the ,salt perfectly dry1 hath a  red    
colour1 an odour somewhat different from
 that which is peculiar  to it when     
perfectly pure1 a taste in which that of
 the ,fixed ,alkali  may be             
distinguished2 and it makes a slight    

effervescence with ,acids3  which       
manifestly proves1 that it is united    
with a portion of the ,alkali  employed 
to rectify it4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave       
thinks1 with great probability1 that    
this portion of the  ,alkali unites with
 the ,spirit of ,wine1 much in the same 
manner as with  ,oils1 viz4 that it     
forms with the ,spirit a kind of liquid 
,soap4 ,he  observes1 that this         
alkalizated ,spirit cleans the fingers2 
and that  things wetted with it do not  
dry so speedily as those wetted with    
pure  ,spirit of ,wine4 ,this           
alkalizated ,spirit is also called      
,tincture of  ,salt of ,tartar4    ,in  
making this ,alkaline ,tincture1 great  
care is to be taken that the  ,spirit of
 ,wine you use be as highly rectified as
 possible3 for1 as long  as it          
communicates any phlegm to the ,alkali1 
it doth not acquire from  the ,salt     
mixed with it either the red colour1 or 
the other properties  which shew it to  
have dissolved part thereof4 ,it is also

 a rule1 to  throw the ,alkali exceeding
 hot into the ,spirit of ,wine1 which   
being  heated beforehand boils on the   
addition of the hot ,salt4 ,in order to 
render the ,tincture still stronger1    
they are left to digest together  for   
some time2 after which1 if part of the  
,spirit of ,wine be drawn off  by       
distillation1 the remainder will have a 
redder colour and a more  acrid taste4  
,the ,spirit drawn off by distillation  
is clear1 colourless1 and doth  not give
 the same tokens of an alkaline quality 
as the ,tincture2 and  for that reason1 
as the design of the present process is 
only to  dephlegmate and rectify ,spirit
 of ,wine by means of a ,fixed ,alkali1 
we  have directed it to be distilled as 
soon as all its phlegm is absorbed  by  
the ,salt4    ,however1 ,spirit of ,wine
 rectified in this manner must not be   
considered  as absolutely pure2 for a   
small degree of an alkaline quality is  
still  perceptible in it3 but that doth 
not hinder its being employed with      

success in several chymical operations1 
where the property chiefly  required in 
,spirit of ,wine is that it be perfectly
 dephlegmated4    ,in order to free     
,spirit of ,wine from the small portion 
of ,alkali  remaining in it after       
distillation1 ,mr4 ,boerhaave proposes  
to mix with  it a few drops of the      
,vitriolic ,acid1 before the last       
distillation4 ,but  there is great      
reason to apprehend an opposite         
inconvenience from this  practice3 that 
is1 instead of an alkaline character1 we
 may give the  ,spirit an acid taint4   
,indeed this cannot be avoided1 but by  
mixing with  the ,spirit of ,wine       
exactly as much ,acid1 as suffices to   
saturate the  ,alkali contained in it1  
and no more2 which is a point very      
difficult to  hit4    ,van ,helmont     
tells us1 that having distilled ,spirit 
of ,wine from ,salt  of ,tartar         
perfectly calcined1 half of it came over
 pure water2 and ,mr4  ,boerhaave1 to   
whom this appeared very surprising1     

resolved to repeat  ,van ,helmont's     
experiment1 in order to satisfy himself 
of the truth1 and  see with his own eyes
 what would be the result4 ,with this   
view he made  a tincture of ,salt of    
,tartar in the manner above described1  
as strong  and as fully impregnated as  
he possibly could4 ,he set it in        
digestion  with the ,alkali for several 
months1 and afterwards let it stand four
  years without touching it4 ,he then   
poured the whole into a cucurbit1  and  
drew off the ,spirit of ,wine from the  
,salt by distillation4 ,the  ,spirit of 
,wine1 which was before very red1 became
 clear on being  distilled1 having left 
its colour in the ,salt which remained  
at the  bottom of the cucurbit4 ,this   
,spirit he returned upon the ,salt1 and 
distilled as before4 ,he observed1 that1
 in this second distillation1  the      
,spirit of ,wine rose with a little more
 difficulty1 and that the  remaining    
,salt was of a more saturated colour1   
and become of a dark  red4 ,in this     

manner he cohobated and distilled his   
,spirit twenty times1  with the same    
,salt4 ,he then found that the ,spirit  
of ,wine had acquired  a caustic1 fiery 
taste1 and that the saline mass in the  
bottom of the  cucurbit was grown black4
 ,this saline residue he distilled with 
a  stronger fire1 and obtained from it a
 liquor1 which was water1 and not       
,spirit of ,wine4    ,though ,mr4       
,boerhaave seems1 by this tedious       
labour1 to have made ,van  ,helmont's   
experiment succeed1 at least in part1   
yet that famous and  accurate           
,philosopher did not flatter himself    
with the notion of having  solved the   
problem4 ,he first observes1 that he was
 far from getting the  quantity of water
 which ,van ,helmont says he obtained1  
viz4 half the  weight of the ,spirit of 
,wine4 ,secondly1 he could scarce think 
that the  quantity he did obtain        
actually came from the ,spirit of ,wine4
 ,the thing  appeared to him so         
singular1 and so hard to be accounted   

for1 that he  inclined to believe the   
water was quite extraneous both to his  
,spirit  of ,wine and to his ,salt1 and 
that it came from the air1 which could  
not  but be admitted in the frequent    
cohobations of the ,spirit of ,wine with
  the ,alkali4    ,when ,mr4 ,boerhaave 
undertook this long laborious course of 
operations1  he had it also in his view 
to try whether he could not1 by the same
  means1 solve another problem famed    
among the ,chymists1 namely1 the        
,volatilization of the ,salt of ,tartar4
 ,he acquaints us1 that in this  also he
 failed2 which may easily be believed3  
but1 in my opinion1 he  was more        
successful with regard to the first     
point1 than he himself  imagined2 for ,i
 think the water he obtained came       
immediately from the  ,spirit of ,wine4 
,we shall easily be convinced of this1  
if we carefully  consider all the       
circumstances attending his experiments4
    ,it hath been shewn1 that ,spirit of
 ,wine consists of an ,oil1 of an       

,acid1 and of water1 with which the ,oil
 is intimately mixed by means of  the   
,acid2 that ,spirit of ,wine1 which is  
not perfectly dephlegmated1  may be     
deprived of a pretty considerable       
quantity of ,water1 which is            
superfluous and unnecessary to its      
composition2 and that it suffers  no    
change thereby1 except that it becomes  
lighter1 stronger1 more  inflammable1 in
 short1 more ,spirit of ,wine3 but that1
 when it is once  freed of this         
super-abundant phlegm1 it would be in   
vain to attempt  separating a greater   
quantity of water from it4 ,all the     
water then left  in it is essential to  
its composition1 and necessary to give  
it its  properties2 for1 without that1  
it would not be ,spirit of ,wine1 but   
only  an ,oil loaded with an ,acid4     
,this being laid down1 the water which  
cannot be separated from ,spirit  of    
,wine while it continues ,spirit of     
,wine1 must become sensible when it  is 
decomposed4 ,and this actually comes to 

pass3 for if you rob ,spirit  of ,wine  
of one of its principles1 its ,oil1 for 
instance1 and for that  purpose burn it 
under a glass bell1 as you do ,sulphur1 
you will by this  means collect a great 
quantity of water1 even though you make 
use of  the most highly rectified       
,spirit of ,wine2 which proves that this
 water  was one of the essential parts  
that constituted the ,spirit4    ,if1   
instead of depriving this mixt of its   
oily principle1 you separate  from it   
one of its other principles1 such as its
 ,acid1 it is plain that  it will in    
like manner be decomposed1 and that then
 the ,oil and the  water1 which were    
combined together only by means of that 
,acid1 will  separate from one another1 
and appear each in its natural form4    
,now  this is exactly the case in ,van  
,helmont's experiment1 as repeated by   
,boerhaave4 ,the ,fixed ,alkali1 on     
which the ,spirit of ,wine is cohobated1
  hath a greater affinity with the ,acid
 of this mixt than with its phlegm  or  

its ,oil4 ,it therefore unites with part
 of that ,acid2 by which means  a       
proportional quantity of its ,oil and   
water must needs separate from  each    
other1 and of course a portion of the   
,spirit of ,wine will be  decomposed4   
,accordingly ,boerhaave observed1 that1 
in dephlegmating  ,spirit of ,wine by a 
,fixed ,alkali1 a portion of ,oil is    
always separated  from it1 and that the 
,alkali employed in this operation is   
impregnated  with an ,acid1 so that1    
when it hath been several times used for
 this  purpose1 it is almost changed    
into a ,neutral ,salt1 and hath acquired
  the properties of the ,foliated ,salt 
of ,tartar4 ,that on which ,spirit of   
,wine hath been cohobated a great number
 of times must consequently be          
impregnated with a great quantity of    
,acid2 and1 as the ,acid carries  with  
it a great deal of water1 it is not     
surprising that when the  ,alkali1 thus 
impregnated with ,acid and phlegm1 is   
exposed to a strong  fire1 the phlegm   

should be separated from it3 seeing the 
union between  them is but weak4        
,thus it appears that the water obtained
 by ,mr4 ,boerhaave1 in his  experiment1
 came immediately from the ,spirit of   
,wine1 agreeably to  ,van ,helmont's    
notion2 whose most intelligent followers
 have clearly  explained his sentiments 
on this subject1 telling us1 as their   
author's  positive assertion1 that1 in  
his experiment1 the purest ,spirit of   
,wine  deposites one of its principles  
in the ,salt of ,tartar2 that another   
of them is turned into water1 and so    
separated from that ,spirit1 and  from  
the principle attracted by the ,salt of 
,tartar2 that consequently  ,spirit of  
,wine certainly consists of these two   
principles1 which may be  separated from
 each other2 and that the principle     
which unites with the  ,alkali of the   
,tartar changes this ,salt into a       
medicament1 or ,balsam1 of  admirable   
virtue in curing wounds1 known by the   
title of the ,samech  of ,paracelsus4   

,it may here be asked1 why ,boerhaave   
obtained but a small quantity of  water 
in this experiment1 seeing ,van ,helmont
 pretends that it ought to  be equal to 
half the weight of the ,spirit of ,wine4
 ,the most natural  answer to this      
question is1 that1 as ,van ,helmont did 
not publish all  the circumstances of   
his experiment1 there is reason to think
 ,boerhaave  did not go about it in the 
same manner as ,van ,helmont did4    ,in
 my opinion he would have succeeded     
perfectly1 and have obtained from  his  
,spirit of ,wine the whole quantity of  
water he desired1 if1 instead  of       
cohobating it always on the same        
,alkali1 he had taken fresh ,alkali     
every time2 had drawn a tincture from   
it2 had distilled his ,spirit of  ,wine 
from this ,salt2 and1 after collecting  
all the parcels of ,alkali  remaining   
after those distillations1 he had       
exposed them to a strong  fire1 in order
 to separate all the moisture contained 
in them4 ,perhaps  also such a great    

number of cohobations and distillations 
would not  have been necessary to       
decompose the ,spirit of ,wine totally  
by this  method2 especially if he had   
employed a greater quantity of ,alkali  
in each operation4 ,for it is evident1  
that a ,fixed ,alkali1 by being         
impregnated with a certain quantity of  
the ,acid and water of the ,spirit  of  
,wine1 loses thereby a great deal of its
 strength and activity1 and  at last    
becomes incapable of absorbing any more2
 so that1 when it is  entirely          
saturated1 it is no more able to act    
upon ,spirit of ,wine1 so  as to        
decompose it1 than so much ,vitriolated 
,tartar1 or common ,sand4  ,hence you   
see1 that there are still many beautiful
 experiments to be  made on this        
subject1 and that we may hope by a      
regular course of them  to obtain a     
perfect solution of ,van ,helmont's     
problem4    ,in the following processes 
we shall treat of another method of     
decomposing ,spirit of ,wine1 which     

consists in depriving it of its         
essential water1 or aqueous principle1  
by the means of highly  concentrated    
,acids4          ,,chap4 ,,ii4          
,,spirit ,,of ,,wine combined with      
,,different ,,substances4      ,,process
 ,i4     ,to combine ,spirit of ,wine   
with the ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,this        
combination   decompounded4 ,rabel's    
,water4 ther4 ,sweet ,oil of ,vitriol4  
,hoffman's   ,anodyne ,mineral ,liquor4 
,into an ,english glass retort put two  
pounds of ,spirit of ,wine perfectly    
dephlegmated1 and pour on it at once two
 pounds of highly concentrated  ,oil of 
,vitriol3 shake the retort gently       
several times1 in order to mix  the two 
liquors4 ,this will produce an          
ebullition1 and considerable  heat2     
vapours will ascend1 with a pretty loud 
hissing noise1 which will  diffuse a    
very aromatic smell1 and the mixture    
will be of a deeper or  lighter red     
colour1 according as the ,spirit of     
,wine was more or less  oily4 ,set the  

retort on a sand-bath1 made nearly as   
hot as the liquor2  lute on a tubulated 
ballon1 and distil the mixture with a   
fire strong  enough to keep the liquor  
always boiling3 a very aromatic ,spirit 
of  ,wine will first come over into the 
ballon1 after which the ther will  rise4
 ,when about five or six ounces of it   
are come off1 you will see  in the upper
 concavity of the retort a vast number  
of little points in  a veined form1     
which will appear fixed1 and which are  
nevertheless so  many little drops of   
ther1 rolling over one another1 and     
trickling  down into the receiver4      
,these little points continue to appear 
and  succeed each other to the end of   
the operation4 ,keep up the same  degree
 of fire1 till upon opening the little  
hole in the ballon you  perceive that   
the vapours1 which instantly fill the   
receiver1 have the  suffocating smell of
 volatile ,spirit of ,sulphur#ab4       
#ab ,these white vapours do not appear  
when the vessels are perfectly    close4

 ,mr4 ,hellot1 to whom we owe the       
remark1 having performed this           
operation in a crystal retort procured  
from ,london1 the neck of which    had  
been rubbed with emery in the mouth of  
its receiver1 so that    these two      
vessels fitted each other exactly1 saw  
the therial liquor    distil pretty     
fast1 but without white vapours4 ,he    
then loosened the    receiver1 by       
turning it a little upon the neck of the
 retort1 so that    the external air    
might get in2 whereupon the white       
vapours appeared    immediately4 ,when  
the receiver was close fitted on again1 
the vapours    disappeared4 ,he repeated
 the same thing five times from half    
hour to    half hour1 and these vapours 
as often appeared and disappeared4      
,then unlute the ballon1 pour the liquor
 it contains into a crystal  bottle1 and
 stop it close3 there will be about     
eighteen ounces of it4  ,lute on your   
receiver again1 and continue the        
distillation with a  greater degree of  

fire4 ,there will come over an aqueous1 
acid liquor1  smelling strong of a      
sulphureous spirit1 which is not        
inflammable4 ,it  will be accompanied   
with undulating vapours2 which being    
condensed will  form an oil1 most       
commonly yellow1 one part of which will 
float on the  surface of the liquor1 and
 another will sink to the bottom4       
,towards the end of the distillation of 
this acid liquor1 and of the  yellow    
,oil of which it is the vehicle1 that   
part of the mixture1 which  is left in  
the retort and grown black1 will begin  
to rise in froth4  ,then suppress your  
fire at once3 stop the distillation1 and
 change your  receiver once more4 ,when 
the vessels are grown pretty cool1      
finish your  distillation with a        
lamp-heat1 kept up for twelve or fifteen
 days1  which in all that time will     
raise but a very little sulphureous     
spirit4  ,then break your retort1 in    
which you will find a black1 solid mass1
  like a ,bitumen4 ,it will have an acid

 taste1 arising from a remainder of  the
 ,acid imperfectly combined with ,oil4  
,this artificial ,bitumen may be freed  
from its redundant ,acid1 by  washing it
 in several waters4 ,then put it into a 
glass retort1 and  distil it with a     
strong reverberated fire4 ,you will     
obtain a reddish  ,oil that will swim on
 water1 much like the ,oil obtained by  
distilling  the natural ,bitumens4 ,this
 ,oil also will be accompanied with an  
aqueous  acid liquor4 ,in the retort    
will be left a charred matter1 which1   
being  put into an ignited crucible in  
the fire1 burns for some time1 and1     
when well calcined1 leaves a white      
earth4    ,the liquors that rise first  
in this distillation1 and which we      
directed  to be kept by themselves1 are 
a mixture consisting1 #a4 of a highly   
dephlegmated ,spirit of ,wine1 of a most
 fragrant smell2 #b4 of ther1  which the
 ,spirit of ,wine wherewith it is united
 renders miscible  with water2 #c4 of a 
portion of ,oil1 which commonly rises   

with the  ther1 towards the end of the  
operation2 #d4 and sometimes of a little
  sulphureous acid1 if the receiver be  
not changed soon enough4    ,in order to
 separate the ther from these other     
substances1 put the  whole into an      
,english retort1 with a little ,oil of  
,tartar per  deliquium to absorb the    
,sulphureous ,acid1 and distil very     
slowly in  a sand-bath heated by a lamp1
 till near half the liquor be come over4
  ,then cease distilling2 put the liquor
 in the receiver into a phial with  some
 water and shake it2 you will see it    
rise with rapidity to the  upper part of
 the phial1 and float on the surface of 
the water3 this is  the ther4           
,,observations4    ,this operation is   
only a decomposition of ,spirit of ,wine
 by means of  ,oil of ,vitriol4 ,in the 
preceding process we saw that this      
,spirit1 which  consists of three       
essential principles1 viz4 an ,oil1 an  
,acid1 and  ,water1 cannot be deprived  
of one of them without being at the same

 time  decomposed2 the two others that  
remain having1 by such separation1 lost 
the bond of intimate union and          
connection that was between them4 ,we   
saw  also that ,spirit of ,wine1 when   
mixed and digested with a very caustic  
,fixed ,alkali1 and several times       
distilled from it1 deposites its ,acid  
in that ,salt3 and hence it comes that  
the ,oil and the ,water1 being  deprived
 of the principle which was the bond of 
their union1 separate  from each other1 
and appear in their natural forms4      
,in the present experiment1 the         
,vitriolic ,acid decomposes the ,spirit 
of ,wine in a different manner4 ,we know
 that this ,acid acts powerfully  on    
,oils2 and that1 when it is highly      
concentrated1 as the operation  requires
 it should be1 it seizes and attracts   
with surprising force the  moisture of  
all bodies that touch it4 ,so that1 when
 it is mixed with  ,spirit of ,wine1 it 
acts at the same time both on the       
aqueous and on  the oily principle of   

that mixt4 ,the rapidity and activity1  
wherewith  it rushes into union with    
these substances1 produce the heat1 the 
ebullition1 and the hissing noise1 which
 we observe during the first  moments   
after their mixture4    ,the red colour1
 which the two liquors confounded       
together acquire after  some time1 is   
owing to the combination of the acid    
with the oily part2  for it is known    
that ,oils1 as colourless as ,spirit of 
,wine1 such as the  ,essential ,oil of  
,turpentine1 become of a brownish red   
when dissolved  by a concentrated ,acid3
 and ,kunckel observed1 that1 the more  
,oil there  is in ,spirit of ,wine mixed
 with ,oil of ,vitriol1 the deeper is   
the red  colour it acquires on being so 
mixed4 ,he even gives this experiment as
  the certain means of discovering      
whether ,spirit of ,wine be more or less
  oily2 and he adds1 that ,spirit of    
,wine1 which hath lost part of its ,oil 
by being rectified with ,lime1 acquires 
less redness than any other by  being   

mixed with ,oil of ,vitriol4    ,when   
the mixture hath acquired this colour1  
and before it undergoes  distillation1  
it appears like a homogeneous liquor4   
,there is yet no  decomposition2 or at  
least none that is perceptible2 and the 
,vitriolic  ,acid is united at the same 
time with the ,oil1 the ,acid1 and the  
,water of the ,spirit of ,wine2 that is1
 with the whole ,spirit of ,wine  in    
substance4 ,this mixture1 when made with
 three parts of ,spirit of  ,wine to one
 of ,oil of ,vitriol1 is an astringent  
remedy much used in  hemorrhages1 and   
known by the name of ,rabel's ,water4   
,the actual decomposition of the ,spirit
 of ,wine is effected by the            
distillation4 ,the first liquor1 or the 
first portion of the liquor  that rises 
before the rest1 hath the smell and all 
the properties of  ,spirit of ,wine4 ,it
 is indeed part of the ,spirit of ,wine 
employed as  an ingredient in the       
mixture2 but1 being abstracted from a   
highly  concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol1  

which1 of all known substances1 attracts
  moisture with the greatest power1 it  
is perfectly freed of all its           
unnecessary phlegm1 and retains no more 
than what is a constituent part         
thereof1 as one of its principles1      
without which it would not be ,spirit   
of ,wine4    ,the liquor that succeeds  
this first ,spirit of ,wine is of a     
different  nature4 ,it may be considered
 as an ther3 for1 though it be not a    
pure  ther1 it contains the whole of it3
 from this liquor only can it be        
obtained2 it is no other than an ther   
mixed with some of the ,spirit of  ,wine
 that comes over first1 and a little of 
the acid liquor which comes  afterward4 
,now the production of ther is the      
effect of a beginning  decomposition of 
the ,spirit of ,wine3 it is ,spirit of  
,wine degenerated1  half decomposed2    
,spirit of ,wine too highly             
dephlegmated2 that is1  ,spirit of ,wine
 which hath lost a part of its essential
 phlegm1 of that  phlegm which as a     

necessary principle made it ,spirit of  
,wine3 it is a  liquor still composed of
 oily parts mixed with aqueous parts1   
and on  that account must retain a      
resemblance of ,spirit of ,wine2 but    
such that  its oily parts1 not being    
dissolved and diffused among a          
sufficient  number of aqueous particles1
 are brought nearer to each other than  
they should be to constitute perfect    
,spirit of ,wine2 on which account  it  
is not now miscible with water1 but is  
as much nearer to the nature  of ,oil1  
as it is removed from the nature of     
,spirit of ,wine3 it is a  liquor1 in   
short1 which1 being neither ,spirit of  
,wine nor pure ,oil1 yet  possesses some
 properties in common with both1 and is 
consequently to  be ranked in the middle
 between them4    ,this explanation of  
the nature of ther1 which ,i imagine was
 never  before given by any other1 is   
the same that we proposed in our        
,elements  of the ,theory of ,chymistry1
 which may be consulted on this         

occasion4    ,an objection against this 
opinion may1 perhaps1 be drawn from an  
experiment well known in ,chymistry4 ,it
 may be said1 that1 if ther  were       
nothing but depraved ,spirit of ,wine1  
which ceases to be miscible  with water1
 because the loss it hath sustained of a
 portion of the  water necessary to its 
constitution hath disordered the        
proportion  which ought to subsist      
between its aqueous and oily parts1 from
 which  proportion it derives that      
property1 it would be very easy to      
change  ,spirit of ,wine into ther by a 
method quite contrary to the usual  one2
 viz4 by mixing ,spirit of ,wine with a 
sufficient quantity of  superfluous     
,oil3 for it seems to be a matter of    
indifference whether  the proportion1   
between the aqueous and the oily parts  
of ,spirit of  ,wine1 be changed by     
lessening the quantity of the former1 as
 in the  common operation for ther1 or  
by increasing the quantity of the       
latter1 as is here proposed2 and we can1

 by the last method1 put these  two     
principles together in what proportion  
we please4 ,now it is certain  that1    
whatever quantity of ,oil be dissolved  
in ,spirit of ,wine1 it will  still     
remain miscible with water2 and that1 if
 ,spirit of ,wine thus  replete with    
,oil be mixed with water1 it will unite 
therewith as usual1  and quit the ,oil  
which it had dissolved4    ,this        
objection1 though seemingly a very      
specious one1 will be removed  with the 
utmost ease1 if we reflect but ever so  
little on some of the  principles       
already laid down4 ,we said1 and we gave
 some instances  of it1 that certain    
substances may be united together in    
sundry  different manners3 so that from 
these combinations1 though made in  the 
same proportions1 there shall result    
compounds of very dissimilar            
properties4 ,the combination we are now 
considering is another evidence  of this
 truth4 ,it is allowed that the         
proportion between the oily and  the    

aqueous parts may be exactly the same in
 ther and in ,spirit of  ,wine replete  
with ,oil2 but it must also be owned    
that the manner in  which the ,oil is   
combined in these two cases is very     
different4    ,that ,oil1 which at first
 is a constituting part of the ,spirit  
of ,wine1  and afterwards becomes a part
 of the ther1 is united with the other  
principles of those mixts1 that is1 with
 their ,acid and their ,water1  by the  
means of fermentation1 whereby it is    
much more attenuated1 and  much more    
closely combined1 than that with which  
,spirit of ,wine is  impregnated by     
dissolution only4 ,and accordingly this 
adventitious  ,oil is so slightly       
connected with ,spirit of ,wine1 that it
 is easily  separable from it by barely 
distilling it1 or even mixing it with   
water3 whereas that which makes a part  
of the ,spirit of ,wine1 as one of  its 
constituent principles1 is united       
therewith in such a manner as not  to be
 separable from it by either of these   

methods1 nor indeed without  employing  
the most vigorous and powerful agents   
for that purpose4 ,so  that the chief   
differences between ther and ,oily      
,spirit of ,wine must  be ascribed to   
the different manner in which the ,oil  
is combined in  these two mixts3 and1 if
 a sufficient quantity of superfluous   
,oil could  be united with ,spirit of   
,wine1 in such a manner that1 without   
being  soapy1 it should not be separable
 therefrom by the affusion of water1 ,i 
make no doubt but such a ,spirit of     
,wine would be perfectly like ther1  so 
far as not to be miscible with water4   
,but let us return to our distillation1 
and trace the decomposition  of the     
,spirit of ,wine by the ,vitriolic      
,acid4 ,we have shewn that the  ,acid   
begins with attracting part of the      
,water which constitutes the  ,spirit of
 ,wine1 by which means it changes the   
nature of this compound1  destroys its  
miscibility with water1 and brings it as
 much nearer to  the nature of an ,oil  

as it thereby removes it from the nature
 of ,spirit  of ,wine4    ,according to 
the theory laid down it is evident1     
that1 if the ,acid  continue to act in  
the same manner on ,spirit of ,wine thus
 depraved  and become ther2 that is1 if 
it continue to draw from it the small   
remaining quantity of the aqueous       
principle1 to which it owes the         
properties it still retains in common   
with ,spirit of ,wine1 this must        
produce a total decomposition thereof2  
so that the oily parts1 being no  longer
 dissolved and divided by the aqueous   
parts1 will be collected  together1     
unite1 and appear under their natural   
form1 with all their  properties4 ,now  
this is exactly the case4 ,the          
,vitriolic ,acid rises in  the          
distillation after the ther2 but        
considerably changed1 because  it is    
loaded with the scattered remains of the
 decomposed ,spirit of  ,wine4 ,it is in
 a manner suffocated by the ,water it   
hath attracted from  the ,spirit2 which 

is the reason why it appears in the form
 of a very  aqueous acid liquor4 ,it    
carries up along with it the ,oil which 
it hath  separated from that ,water3    
this is the ,oil we took notice of in   
the  process1 and it is consequently    
that very ,oily principle which actually
  constituted the ,spirit of ,wine4     
,lastly1 by acting on this ,oil also1 it
  takes up a portion of phlogiston1     
which renders it sulphureous4    ,what  
remains in the retort is also a portion 
of the ,oil1 that was  contained in the 
,spirit of ,wine1 now combined with some
 of the ,acid2  which is the reason why 
it is black and thick4 ,it is a compound
 much  resembling a ,bitumen1 and when  
analyzed yields the same principles we  
obtain from native ,bitumens1 or from an
 ,essential ,oil thickened and  half    
burnt by its combination with           
concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol4    ,as to
 the ,acid of the ,spirit of ,wine1 some
 of it remains combined  with the ther3 
but there is great reason to think1     

that1 when the  ,vitriolic ,acid robs   
the ,spirit of ,wine of its aqueous     
part1 it takes  up at the same time most
 of its ,acid1 which being itself very  
aqueous1  may be considered as pure     
water with respect to the concentrated  
,oil of  ,vitriol1 by which it is       
attracted1 and with which it is         
confounded4    ,the properties which    
characterise ther agree perfectly well  
with what  we have said of its nature1  
and of the manner in which it is        
produced4  ,it is one of the lightest   
liquors we know2 it evaporates so       
suddenly1  that1 if a little of it be   
dropt on the palm of your hand1 you will
  scarce perceive the part it touches to
 be wet by it2 it is more  volatile than
 ,spirit of ,wine2 which is not at all  
surprising1 seeing it  differs therefrom
 only by containing less water1 which is
 the heaviest  principle in ,spirit of  
,wine4    ther is more inflammable than 
,spirit of ,wine2 for1 if any flame be  
brought but near it1 it immediately     

catches fire4 ,the reason of this  is1  
that the oily parts of which it consists
 are not only as much  attenuated1 and  
as subtile1 as those of ,spirit of      
,wine1 but also in  a greater proportion
 with regard to its aqueous parts4 ,to  
the same  cause must be attributed the  
facility with which it dissolves any    
oily  matters whatever4    ther burns   
without smoke1 as ,spirit of ,wine does1
 and without leaving  any coal or earthy
 matter behind2 because the inflammable 
or oily parts  contained in it are1 in  
this respect1 disposed like those of    
,spirit of  ,wine4    ,the properties of
 not being miscible with water1 and of  
taking up  ,gold dissolved in aqua      
regis1 it possesses in common with      
,essential  ,oils2 but the latter       
property it possesses in a much more    
sensible  degree than any ,oil3 for     
,essential ,oils sustain the ,gold they 
thus  take up but a little while2       
whereas the ther never lets it fall4    
,it seems the ancient ,chymists were    

unacquainted with the ther3 or  at      
least1 if they did know it1 they made a 
mystery of it1 according  to custom1 and
 spoke of it only in enigmatical terms4 
,amongst the  moderns ,frobenius1 a     
,german ,chymist1 seems to have been the
 first  who brought it to perfection4   
,godfrey ,hankwitz1 also a ,german1 but 
settled in ,england1 made mention of it 
much about the same time in the         
,philosophical ,transactions4 ,according
 to the latter1 ,mr4 ,boyle and ,sir    
,isaac ,newton both knew the preparation
 of ther1 for which they had  each a    
different process4 ,but none of these   
,chymists ever published an  exact and  
circumstantial account of a method by   
which this liquor might  be prepared3 so
 that ,messrs4 ,duhamel1 ,grosse1 and   
,hellot1 who have  since made several   
experiments for that purpose1 and have  
discovered1  and communicated to the    
public1 easy and certain methods of     
procuring  ther1 had no assistance in   
their labours but from their own skill  

and  sagacity2 which gives them a just  
title to the honour of the invention4   
,mr4 ,beaum also1 a very ingenious      
,artist in ,paris1 who hath bestowed a  
great deal of pains on this subject1    
lately communicated to the ,academy  a  
,memoir1 which1 among several very      
important observations1 contains  the   
commodious and expeditious process above
 inserted4 ,as there are  many          
experiments in ,mr4 ,hellot's ,memoir1  
agreeing perfectly well with  what hath 
been said concerning the decomposition  
of ,spirit of ,wine by  the ,vitriolic  
,acid1 we think it will be proper to    
take notice of them  here1 and to       
examine them briefly at least4    ,the  
quantity1 the colour1 and the weight of 
the ,oil1 which rises in  the           
distillation at the same time with the  
aqueous acid liquor1 are  various1      
according to the different proportions  
of ,spirit of ,wine and  ,oil of        
,vitriol that are mixed together4 ,mr4  
,hellot observed that by  increasing the

 quantity of the ,vitriolic ,acid he    
obtained more of this  ,oil1 and less of
 the ,ardent ,spirit containing the     
ther4 ,the reason is  this3 the more    
,oil of ,vitriol you put in the mixture1
 the more ,spirit  of ,wine must be     
totally decomposed1 and consequently the
 more of this  ,oil will be obtained2   
which1 as we have shewn1 is one of the  
principles  resulting from the          
decomposition of ,spirit of ,wine4      
,this ,oil is also lighter or heavier1  
in proportion to the quantity of  ,oil  
of ,vitriol poured on the ,spirit of    
,wine4 ,that which arises from  mixing  
six1 five1 four1 or even three parts of 
,spirit of ,wine with one  part of      
concentrated ,oil of ,vitriol1 always   
floats on the water1 and  continues     
white4 ,that which ascends from two     
parts of ,spirit of ,wine is  yellow1   
and most commonly sinks2 and1 lastly1   
that which is produced  from equal parts
 of these two liquors is greenish1 and  
constantly falls  to the bottom4    ,mr4

 ,hellot remarks1 on this occasion1 that
 part of the ,acid1 by the  intervention
 of which this ,oil is separated1 unites
 therewith2 and1  to the greater or     
smaller quantity of the ,acid thus      
combined with the  ,oil1 he imputes its 
being more or less ponderous3 which is  
the more  probable1 as the heaviest ,oil
 is always obtained from a mixture in   
which the ,acid bears the greatest      
proportion1 and vice versa4 ,perhaps    
the different specific gravity of       
,essential ,oils is wholly owing to the 
greater or smaller quantity of ,acid    
they contain4    ,mr4 ,hoffman hath made
 several observations on this ,oil1     
which evidently  prove that it contains 
much ,acid4 ,he says1 that1 if it be    
kept for some  time in a bottle1 it     
grows red1 and loses its transparency2  
that its  agreeable aromatic taste      
becomes acid and corrosive2 and that if 
you  hold it over the fire in a silver  
spoon1 it corrodes it1 and leaves  a    
black spot on it2 and that it also      

corrodes ,mercury1 when heated          
therewith in a matrass4 ,to this ,mr4   
,pott adds1 that it makes a very        
perceptible effervescence with ,fixed   
,alkalis2 and that being rectified  by  
those salts it loses all the acid       
properties observed by ,mr4 ,hoffman4   
,mr4 ,hellot obtained a still more      
considerable quantity of this ,oil1 by  
adding three or four ounces of a ,fat   
,oil to the mixture of ,spirit of  ,wine
 with the ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,now1 as the
 ,oil we are speaking of hath  the      
properties of ,essential ,oils1 and is  
soluble in ,spirit of ,wine1  ,mr4      
,hellot observes1 that ,oil of ,vitriol 
by uniting with ,fat ,oils  converts    
them into ,essential ,oils3 which agrees
 very well with our  opinion concerning 
the cause of the solubility of ,oils in 
,spirit of  ,wine2 which1 in the ,memoir
 already referred to on other occasions1
 we  attribute to an ,acid superficially
 and slightly united with ,oils4    ,the
 ,oil which thus rises1 in distilling   

,spirit of ,wine mixed with the         
,vitriolic ,acid1 is known by the name  
of the ,sweet ,spirit of ,vitriol4      
,this name is very improper1 because it 
may suggest a notion that this  ,oil    
derives its origin from the ,vitriolic  
,acid1 as some ,chymists have           
erroneously thought2 whereas it comes   
entirely from the ,spirit of ,wine1  as 
we have shewn4 ,if any reason can be    
assigned for keeping up the  name1 it   
must be because of the considerable     
quantity of the ,vitriolic  ,acid that  
remains in the combination1 and is      
dulcified by its union  with the ,spirit
 of ,wine4    ,this ,oil is an          
ingredient in ,hoffman's famous ,anodyne
 ,mineral ,liquor4  ,that liquor is     
thought to be nothing but this very ,oil
 dissolved1 and  combined with the two  
liquors that rise first in the          
distillation1 and  immediately before   
the sulphureous acid phlegm4 ,it        
dissolves very  easily and quickly in   
those spirituous menstrua2 so that1 if  

you intend  to have it by itself1 and to
 prevent its recombining with the       
liquors  that come off before1 7which   
should be prevented1 because it hinders 
the separation of the ther71 you must   
take great care to change the  receiver 
as soon as the acid phlegm with which it
 rises begins to  appear4    ,we have   
seen that1 by the methods which ,mr4    
,hellot hath pointed  out1 this ,sweet  
,oil of ,vitriol may be increased1 both 
in weight and  quantity4 ,in that       
ingenious ,chymist's ,memoir we also    
find some methods  of preventing it from
 rising in the distillation4 ,they      
consist wholly  in the addition of some 
,absorbent bodies1 which1 he tells us1  
divert  the action of the ,vitriolic    
,acid1 at least in some measure1 from   
the  inflammable part of the ,spirit of 
,wine4 ,one of these methods is as      
follows4    ,put into ,spirit of ,wine  
as much soft ,soap as it can dissolve3  
filter  it1 and pour on it some of the  
heaviest and most concentrated ,oil of  

,vitriol3 shake the mixture4 ,the ,soap 
will be instantly decompounded1  and its
 ,oil will float on the surface2 because
 the ,vitriolic ,acid robs  it of the   
,alkali1 which renders it miscible with 
,spirit of ,wine4 ,distil  it1 and you  
will obtain but a very little of        
,rabel's water2 which1  moreover1 will  
have the disagreeable smell of a most   
rancid ,oil4 ,there  will afterwards    
ascend a great quantity of ,spirit of   
,wine having the  same smell2 then an   
aqueous1 acid1 and sulphureous liquor2  
but not a  drop of yellow ,oil4 ,mean   
time there forms a bituminous fungus1 of
 some  confidence1 rising above the ,oil
 of the ,soap which floats on the rest  
of the liquid4    ,most of the          
,vitriolic ,acid having been absorbed by
 the ,alkali of the  ,soap1 in this     
experiment1 as ,mr4 ,hellot observes1 it
 is not surprising  that it should not  
act upon the ,spirit of ,wine with so   
much efficacy as  to decompose it1 and  
separate its ,oil4 ,for the same reason 

but a little  of ,rabel's ,water comes  
over1 and almost all the ,spirit of     
,wine rises  without undergoing any     
sensible alteration4 ,the disagreeable  
smell of  those liquors comes from the  
,oil of the ,soap1 which1 being         
naturally  heavy1 remains behind in the 
retort1 where it grows rancid and is    
partly burnt4    ,the last experiment in
 ,mr4 ,hellot's ,memoir1 of which we    
shall take  notice1 is a peculiar       
process for preparing ther2 by means    
whereof1  with the help of an earthy    
medium1 it is easy to distil the vinous 
acid  ,spirit containing the ther1      
without any sensible change of smell    
from  the beginning to the end of the   
operation2 without its being succeeded  
by an acid sulphureous liquor1 oil1     
black scum1 resin1 or bitumen2 and      
without the necessity of taking any     
great care about the management of  the 
fire1 as the liquor may always be kept  
boiling in the retort1 and  distilled to
 dryness without any danger4 ,this      

medium is common potter's  earth4 ,mr4  
,hellot puts six ounces thereof1 well   
dried and pulverized1  into a large     
retort1 with one pound of ,spirit of    
,wine and eight ounces  of ,oil of      
,vitriol4 ,these he digests together    
three or four days4 ,the  mixture       
acquires no sensible colour4 ,he sets   
the retort in a sand-bath1  and         
continues the distillation to dryness   
with a moderate charcoal  fire4         
,excepting a few drops that rise first1 
and which are pure ,spirit  of ,wine1   
all the rest of the liquor that distils 
hath constantly the  smell of ther3     
which is even somewhat more penetrating 
than that of  the vinous acid ,spirit   
obtained without the intervention of    
this earthy  medium4    ,we have shewn1 
that the production of the thereal      
liquor is owing to a  semi-decomposition
 of the ,spirit of ,wine effected by the
 ,vitriolic ,acid  during the           
distillation2 that this ,acid continuing
 to act1 produces a  total              

decomposition1 or perfect separation of 
the ,oil and ,phlegm of the  ,spirit of 
,wine from each other2 and that the     
,vitriolic ,acid1 uniting  with these   
two principles1 forms the sulphureous   
phlegm1 the fluid oil1  and the         
bituminous matter1 all frequently       
mentioned above4 ,why then1  in this    
experiment of ,mr4 ,hellot's1 do we     
obtain only a ,spirit of ,wine  replete 
with ther1 while none of the other      
productions appear8 ,the  reason is a   
very natural one1 and very clear3 it is 
this2 the potter's  clay containing an  
earth of that kind which we called      
,absorbent1  because it possesses the   
property of uniting with ,acids1 that   
earth  joins with the ,vitriolic ,acid  
in the mixture1 reduces it to a ,neutral
  ,salt1 and thereby prevents its       
continuing to act upon the ,spirit of   
,wine1 as is necessary to the total     
decomposition thereof4    ,mr4 ,hellot  
says on this occasion1 that part of the 
,vitriolic ,acid  turning its action on 

this soluble earth or bole1 which it    
finds in  the potter's clay1 ceases to  
act on the inflammable principle of the 
,spirit of ,wine2 that1 consequently1 as
 there is not an immediate and          
continuous combination of these two     
substances1 neither a resin nor a       
bitumen can result therefrom4 ,this is  
so true1 that a great part of the  ,oil 
of ,vitriol may be afterwards recovered 
from the potter's clay as  colourless as
 when it was first used4    ,mr4 ,hellot
 makes use of the following method for  
procuring the ther  from the acid vinous
 ,spirit obtained by this distillation4 
,you must1  says he1 put all this liquor
 into a glass body1 made of one piece   
with its head2 pour upon it1 through the
 hole in the upper part of the  head1   
twice or thrice as much well-water1 the 
hardest to the taste1 and  the most     
impregnated with gypsum1 that can be    
got4 ,very pure water1 he  observes1    
produces much less ther4    ,if the     
vinous acid ,spirit have such a         

sulphureous smell1 as to  occasion a    
suspicion that it contains a little too 
much of a ,volatile  ,vitriolic ,acid1  
you must add to the water two or three  
drams of ,salt of  potash to absorb that
 ,acid2 and then distil with a          
lamp-heat4    ,while any true ther      
remains in the mixture1 you will see it 
ascend  like a white pillar issuing from
 the midst of the liquor1 and           
consisting of an infinite number of air 
bubbles inexpressibly small4  ,nothing  
seems to condense in the cavity of the  
head1 which always  remains clear1 and  
without any visible humidity4 ,the gutts
 which light  on the sides of the       
receiver1 instead of forming a net-work 
thereon1 as  ,spirit of ,wine doth when 
it is a little aqueous1 spread to the   
breadth  of two inches or more1 when    
they consist of true ther4 ,as soon as  
you  perceive this track begin to grow  
considerably narrower1 the fire must  be
 put out2 for what rises afterwards will
 be mixed with water1 and  communicate  

that fault to the ther already collected
 in the receiver4    ,then pour this    
therial liquor into a long bottle1 and  
add to it an  equal quantity of         
well-water4 ,shake the bottle2 the      
liquor will become  milky1 and the true 
ther will instantly separate1 float upon
 the  water1 and mix no more with it4   
,separate it then by a siphon1 and keep 
it in a glass bottle shut close with a  
glass stopple4      ,,process ,,ii4     
,spirit of ,wine combined with ,spirit  
of ,nitre4 ,sweet ,spirit of ,nitre4    
,into an ,english retort of crystal     
glass put some highly rectified  ,spirit
 of ,wine2 and1 by means of a glass     
funnel with a long pipe1  let fall into 
your ,spirit of ,wine a few drops of the
 ,smoking ,spirit  of ,nitre4 ,there    
will arise in the retort an             
effervescence attended  with heat1 red  
vapours1 and a hissing noise like that  
of a live coal  quenched in water4      
,shake the vessel a little1 that the    
liquors may mix  thoroughly1 and that   

the heat may be equally communicated to 
the whole4  ,then add more ,spirit of   
,nitre1 but in a very small quantity1   
and with  the same precautions as       
before4 ,continue thus adding ,spirit of
 ,nitre1  by little and little at a     
time1 till you have put into the retort 
a  quantity equal to a third part of    
your ,spirit of ,wine4 ,let this mixture
  stand quiet1 in a cool place1 for ten 
or twelve hours2 then set it to  digest 
in a very gentle warmth for eight or ten
 days1 having first  luted on a receiver
 to the retort4    ,during this time a  
small quantity of liquor will come over 
into the  receiver1 which must be poured
 into the retort4 ,then distil with a   
somewhat stronger degree of heat1 but   
still very gently1 till nothing  be left
 in the retort but a thick matter4 ,in  
the receiver you will find  a spirituous
 liquor1 of a quick grateful smell1     
which will excite a  very smart         
sensation on the tongue1 but without any
 corrosive acrimony4  ,this is ,the     

,sweet ,spirit of ,nitre4               
,,observations4    ,by this operation   
,spirit of ,nitre is combined with      
,spirit of ,wine2  these two liquors    
being united with each other1 much in   
the same manner  as the ,vitriolic ,acid
 is with ,spirit of ,wine in ,rabel's   
,water4    ,the proportion of the       
liquors which form this combination is  
not  absolutely determined1 and the     
several authors who have written on  the
 subject differ much about it4 ,some    
require equal parts of the  ingredients2
 others again from two as far as ten    
parts of ,spirit of  ,wine to one of    
,spirit of ,nitre4 ,this depends on the 
degree to which the  ,spirit of ,nitre  
made use of is concentrated1 and on the 
greater or less  acidity which your     
dulcified ,spirit of ,nitre is intended 
to have4    ,the ,dispensatory of the   
,college of ,paris orders one part of   
,spirit of  ,nitre distilled from dried 
clay1 that is1 of ,spirit which doth not
  smoke1 to be mixed with two parts of  

rectified ,spirit of ,wine1 and the     
whole to stand in digestion for a month1
 without distilling the mixture  at all4
 ,this is a very good method3 because   
the long digestion supplies  the place  
of distillation1 and the ,spirit of     
,nitre1 not being highly  concentrated1 
doth not greatly alter the ,spirit of   
,wine2 besides that  many               
inconveniences1 to be presently taken   
notice of1 are by this means  avoided4  
,but as our design is not to describe   
such ,chymical preparations only  as are
 commonly used in medicine1 our plan    
requiring us to treat  particularly of  
those which may give any light into the 
fundamental  properties of bodies1 the  
process here set down appeared the      
fittest  for our purpose2 because the   
action which ,spirit of ,nitre exerts   
upon  ,spirit of ,wine is therein       
stronger and more perceptible4    ,one  
of the first particularities attending  
the mixture of those two  liquors1 is   
the great effervescence1 accompanied    

with violent heat1  abundance of fumes1 
and loud hissing1 which arises as soon  
as the  ,spirit of ,nitre and the       
,spirit of ,wine come into contact with 
each  other4 ,there is great reason to  
think1 that these phenomena are         
produced only by the rapidity and vigour
 with which the ,nitrous ,acid  rushes  
into union with the inflammable part of 
the ,spirit of ,wine4  ,we observed1 in 
treating of the ther1 that phenomena of 
the same  kind appear at the instant    
when the ,vitriolic ,acid unites with   
,spirit  of ,wine3 but on that occasion1
 how highly soever the ,vitriolic ,acid 
be concentrated1 all these effects are  
in a less degree than those  produced in
 the present experiment2 because the    
,nitrous ,acid1 though  weaker than the 
,vitriolic1 generally acts much more    
vigorously and  violently on the bodies 
with which it unites1 than any other    
sort of  ,acid4    ,concerning these    
mixtures of ,acids with ,spirit of      
,wine1 ,mr4 ,pott  observes1 that it is 

not a matter of indifference whether you
 pour the  ,spirit of ,wine upon the    
,acid1 or the ,acid on the ,spirit of   
,wine2 but  that every thing passes much
 more quietly1 when the ,acid is poured 
to  the ,spirit of ,wine1 than when the 
contrary is done3 and he gives the  true
 reason thereof2 to wit1 that when the  
,acid is poured on the ,spirit  of ,wine
 it finds in that liquor a great        
quantity of water1 with which  it       
immediately unites2 that this weakens   
it1 and hinders it from acting  on the  
inflammable part with so much           
impetuosity as it otherwise would2  and 
therefore he advises that such mixtures 
be always made in this  manner4 ,but it 
is evident that this advantage is gained
 only by mixing  the ,acid with the     
,spirit of ,wine very gradually1 and    
drop by drop1 as  directed in the       
process after ,mr4 ,pott4 ,for1 if the  
two liquors were  to be mixed together  
suddenly1 and all at once1 it is certain
 that the  ,acid would not meet with a  

single drop of phlegm more or less in   
that  way than in the other4            
,therefore the chief1 and1 in some      
measure1 the only precaution  necessary 
to be taken1 in the making of such      
mixtures1 to prevent the  violent       
effervescence and other inconveniences  
that may attend it1 such  as explosion1 
and the bursting of the vessels1 is to  
pour but a very  small quantity of one  
liquor into the other at a time1 and to 
add no  more till the effervescence1 and
 even the heat1 produced by the first   
portion1 be entirely ceased4 ,with these
 precautions you may proceed  either    
way1 and be always sure that the vessels
 will not burst2 because  it is in your 
power to add such a small quantity of   
liquor at a time1  as shall scarce      
produce a sensible effervescence4 ,we   
own1 however1 that  ,mr4 ,pott's        
observation is a very just one4 ,there  
is even an advantage  in pouring the    
,acid to the ,spirit of ,wine1 as he    
directs2 which is1  that the mixture is 

a little sooner made1 and without any   
danger4    ,we have shewn1 that the     
,vitriolic ,acid becomes aqueous and    
sulphureous  by mixing ,spirit of ,wine 
with it3 the ,nitrous ,acid is changed  
by this  mixture in a manner no less    
remarkable4 ,mr4 ,pott observes1 that   
when  ,spirit of ,nitre is dulcified1   
that is1 when it is perfectly combined  
with ,spirit of ,wine1 it loses the     
disagreeable odour peculiar to it1  and 
acquires another that is quick and      
fragrant2 it doth not afterwards  emit  
any red fumes2 it rises with a less     
degree of heat than when pure2  it acts 
with less vigour on ,fixed ,alkalis and 
,absorbent earths4 ,lastly1  we shall   
here relate an experiment made by that  
,chymist1 which seems to  prove that the
 ,nitrous ,acid loses its most          
characteristic properties1  and entirely
 changes its nature1 by being combined  
with ,spirit of ,wine4    ,mr4 ,pott    
examined the thick liquor left in the   
retort1 when the  dulcified ,spirit of  

,nitre is distilled off4 ,by analyzing  
it he obtained  an acid liquor1 of a    
yellow colour1 and of a somewhat        
empyreumatic  smell4 ,this ,acid was    
followed by some drops of a red         
empyreumatic  ,oil2 and there remained1 
at the bottom of the distilling vessel1 
a  black1 shining1 charred matter1 like 
that which remains after the            
rectification of a fetid ,oil4    ,the  
,oil extracted from this residue is a   
portion of that which helped  to        
constitute the ,spirit of ,wine2 being  
separated therefrom by the  ,nitrous    
,acid1 in the same manner as that       
treated of in the preceding  process1   
and called ,sweet ,oil of ,vitriol1 is  
separated by the  ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,but
 as the ,nitrous ,acid1 which is weaker 
than the  ,vitriolic1 doth not so       
effectually decompose the ,spirit of    
,wine1 the  ,oil1 obtained in the       
present experiment1 is in smaller       
quantity than  that procured in the     
distillation of a mixture of the        

,vitriolic ,acid  with ,spirit of ,wine4
    ,as to the ,acid which ,mr4 ,pott   
drew off in his experiment1 there is    
great reason to think it a part of that 
which was an ingredient in the  mixture2
 namely1 of the ,nitrous ,acid4 ,and yet
 ,mr4 ,pott having saturated  with a    
,fixed ,alkali one part of the residuum1
 which he had a mind to  examine before 
the ,acid was separated from it by      
distillation1 and  expecting this matter
 to contain a regenerated ,nitre1 he    
threw it on  a live coal2 but was       
surprised to see it burn without the    
least sign  of detonation2 and thence   
concluded1 that the ,nitrous ,acid had  
changed  its nature4 ,this experiment1  
he thinks1 may furnish hints for the    
transmutation of ,acids2 and he is of   
opinion1 that the ,nitrous ,acid  loses 
its virtue of detonating1 in the present
 case1 only because its  inflammable    
part1 to which it owes its              
distinguishing properties1 hath         
deserted it1 and joined with that of the

 ,spirit of ,wine4    ,indeed if the    
,acid obtained by ,mr4 ,pott1 which     
being reduced to a  ,neutral ,salt doth 
not detonate1 derives its origin from   
the ,nitrous  ,acid that was combined   
with the ,spirit of ,wine1 there is no  
doubt of  its being depraved in a       
peculiar manner1 and having entirely    
changed  its nature4 ,but may we not    
suppose it to have another origin8 ,may 
it not be the ,acid of the ,spirit of   
,wine itself1 resulting from the        
decomposition of that mixt in the       
distillation8    ,mr4 ,navier1 whom we  
mentioned in our ,elements of the       
,theory1 extracted  a very singular oily
 liquor from the mixture of ,spirit of  
,wine and  ,spirit of ,nitre1 without   
distillation1 and even without the help 
of  fire4 ,he put equal parts of the two
 liquors1 by measure1 not by weight1    
into a bottle1 which he stopped close   
with a good cork1 fastened  down with   
pack-thread4 ,nine days afterwards he   
found about a sixth  part of the mixture

 separated from1 and floating on1 the   
rest of the  liquor4 ,this was a very   
fine thereal ,oil1 very limpid1 and     
almost as  colourless as water4    ,in  
another experiment ,mr4 ,navier         
substituted a solution of ,iron in  the 
,nitrous ,acid for pure ,spirit of      
,nitre2 and with this solution  he mixed
 an equal weight of ,spirit of ,wine4   
,from the mixture1 after  a fermentation
 which appeared in it1 he obtained by   
the same method  an thereal ,oil1 like  
that of his former experiment2 except   
that  the latter1 which was at first as 
colourless as the other1 acquired  a    
redness in the space of about three     
weeks4 ,he conjectures1 with            
probability1 that this colour proceeded 
from some particles of ,iron  which were
 united with it1 and which gradually    
exhaled4    ,if a few drops of ,oil of  
,tartar per deliquium be poured on this 
,oil1  as soon as it is separated1 there
 appears at first no sensible change    
therein3 but after some time needle-like

 crystals shoot in it1 which  are a true
 regenerated ,nitre2 and if the bottle  
be then unstopped1 the  liquor emits a  
most pungent nitro-sulphureous odour2   
which leaves no  doubt of this ,oil's   
containing a ,nitrous ,acid4 ,when it is
 thus freed of  its ,acid1 by means of  
the ,oil of ,tartar1 it is much more    
volatile than  before4    ,neither the  
,vitriolic nor the ,marine ,acid is     
capable of separating such  an ,oil from
 ,spirit of ,wine3 but the ,nitrous     
,acid always produces it1  even when it 
is not concentrated1 and doth not smoke4
    ,it is very certain that this ,oil  
derives its origin from the ,spirit of  
,wine3 but there are not yet experiments
 enough made upon it1 to enable  us to  
speak very accurately about the manner  
in which this liquor is  formed1 or of  
the cause of its separation from the    
,spirit of ,wine4      ,,process ,,iii4 
,spirit of ,wine combined with the ,acid
 of ,sea-salt4 ,dulcified ,spirit of    
,salt4    ,mix together1 little by      

little1 in a glass retort1 two parts of 
,spirit  of ,wine with one part of      
,spirit of ,salt4 ,set this mixture to  
digest for  a month in a gentle heat1   
and distil it1 till nothing remain in   
the  retort but a thick matter4         
,,observations4    ,the ,acid of        
,sea-salt is much less disposed to unite
 with inflammable  matters than the     
other two mineral ,acids2 and therefore1
 though it be  ever so highly           
concentrated1 when mixed with ,spirit of
 ,wine1 it never  produces an           
effervescence comparable to that which  
is produced by the  ,spirit of ,nitre4  
,neither the proportion nor strength of 
the ,spirit of  ,salt1 requisite to     
prepare the ,sweet ,spirit of ,salt1 are
 unanimously  agreed upon by ,authors4  
,some direct equal parts of the two     
liquors2  while others prescribe from   
two to four or five parts of ,spirit of 
,wine  to one part of ,spirit of ,salt4 
,some use only common ,spirit of ,salt2 
others require the ,smoking ,spirit1    

distilled by means of ,spirit of        
,vitriol4 ,lastly1 some order the       
mixture to be distilled1 after some     
days digestion2 and others content      
themselves with barely digesting it4    
,the whole depends on the degree of     
strength which the ,sweet ,spirit of    
,salt is intended to have4 ,this        
composition1 as well as the ,sweet      
,spirit  of ,nitre1 is esteemed in      
medicine to be very aperitive and       
diuretic4    ,when the mixture of       
,spirit of ,salt and ,spirit of ,wine is
 distilled1  there comes over but one   
liquor1 which appears homogeneous4 ,this
 is the  ,sweet ,spirit of ,salt4 ,the  
nature of the ,marine ,acid is not      
changed in  this combination3 the ,acid 
is only weakened and rendered more mild2
 but  in other respects it retains its  
characteristic properties4    ,some     
authors pretend1 that an ,oil is        
obtained by distilling the  mixture for 
the ,sweet ,spirit of ,salt2 but others 
expressly deny the  fact4 ,this variety 

may be occasioned by the quality of the 
,spirit of  ,wine employed4 ,it would   
not be surprising if a ,spirit of ,wine1
 which  contains much ,oil that is      
unnecessary to its nature1 and1 as it   
were1  adventitious to it1 should yield 
an ,oil when distilled with ,spirit of  
,salt4    ,the thick residue1 found in  
the retort after distillation1 contains 
the most ponderous part of the ,acid1   
united with part of the ,spirit of      
,wine4 ,if the distillation be continued
 to dryness1 there remains in  the      
retort a black charred matter1 much like
 that which is left by the  combinations
 of ,spirit of ,wine with the other     
,acids4    ,a sweet ,spirit of ,salt may
 also be prepared by digesting ,spirit  
of  ,wine with1 or distilling it from1  
metallic compositions replete with  the 
,marine ,acid adhering but slightly to  
them2 such as ,corrosive  ,sublimate1   
and ,butter of ,antimony4 ,part of this 
,acid1 which is very  highly            
concentrated1 quits the metallic        

substance with which it is but          
superficially combined1 in order to     
unite with the ,spirit of ,wine4 ,if    
,butter of ,antimony be used for this   
purpose1 ,mr4 ,pott1 the author of      
these experiments1 observes1 that a     
,mercurius ,vit precipitates2  which is 
nothing else1 as we observed in its     
place1 but the reguline  part of the    
,butter of ,antimony deserted by its    
,acid4      ,,process ,,iv4     ,oils1  
or ,oily ,matters1 that are soluble in  
,spirit of ,wine1 separated   from      
,vegetables1 and dissolved by means of  
that ,menstruum4 ,tinctures2   ,elixirs2
 ,varnishes4 ,aromatic ,strong ,waters4 
,put into a matrass the substances from 
which you intend to extract a           
,tincture1 having first pounded them1 or
 pulverized them if they are  capable of
 it4 ,pour upon them ,spirit of ,wine to
 the depth of three  fingers breadth4   
,cover the matrass with a piece of wet  
bladder1 and tye  it on with            
pack-thread4 ,make a little hole in this

 bit of bladder with  a pin1 leaving it 
in the hole to keep it stopped4 ,set the
 matrass in a  sand-bath very gently    
heated4 ,if the ,spirit of ,wine        
dissolve any part  of the body1 it will 
accordingly acquire a deeper or lighter 
colour4  ,continue the digestion till   
you perceive that the ,spirit of ,wine  
gains  no more colour4 ,from time to    
time pull out the pin1 to give vent to  
the vapours1 or rarefied air1 which     
might otherwise burst the matrass4      
,decant your ,spirit of ,wine1 and keep 
it in a bottle well corked4 ,pour  on   
some fresh ,spirit in its stead2 digest 
as before2 and go on in this  manner1   
pouring on and off fresh ,spirit of     
,wine1 till the last come off           
colourless4      ,,observations4    ,it 
is commonly said1 that ,spirit of ,wine 
is the solvent of ,oils and  oily       
matters3 but this proposition is too    
general2 for there are  several sorts of
 ,oils and oily matters which this      
menstruum will not  dissolve4 ,of this  

number are the ,fat ,oils1 ,bees-,wax1  
and the other ,oily  compounds of that  
kind4 ,properly speaking1 it dissolves  
but two sorts  of oily substances2      
namely1 ,essential ,oils1 and ,balsams  
or ,resins1  which are matters of the   
same kind1 differing from each other    
only as  they are more or less thick2   
and ,oils that are in a saponaceous     
state4    ,in our ,elements of the      
,theory we have explained our opinion on
  this head1 from a ,memoir on the      
subject printed among those of the      
,academy for #agde4 ,to repeat it in a  
few words3 we take the cause of  the    
solubility of ,oils in ,spirit of ,wine 
to be an ,acid1 which is  but           
superficially united with them1 and so  
as still to retain its  properties4     
,the principal proofs on which we found 
this opinion are drawn from that        
property of ,essential ,oils1 ,balsams1 
and ,resins1 which are naturally        
soluble in ,spirit of ,wine1 that they  
become so much the less soluble  in this

 menstruum1 the oftener they are        
distilled or rectified2 and  from that  
property which ,fat ,oils1 or other     
,oily matters1 naturally  indissoluble  
in ,spirit of ,wine1 possess1 of        
becoming more and more  soluble therein 
the oftener they are distilled4 ,we     
shewed that  distillation lessens the   
solubility of ,essential ,oils1         
,balsams1 and  ,resins1 only by         
depriving these substances of part of   
the manifest  ,acid which they contain1 
and which is the cause of their         
solubility2  and that ,fat ,oils1 and   
other oily matters1 naturally           
indissolvable  in ,spirit of ,wine1 are 
by the same operation rendered capable  
of  dissolving therein1 only because it 
discovers1 and partly extricates1  an   
,acid1 which is naturally combined with 
them so intimately that it is  entirely 
deprived of action1 and all its         
properties perfectly masked4  ,if these 
principles be well attended to1 and if  
it be recollected  withal1 that ,spirit 

of ,wine unites with ,water preferably  
to ,oils2  insomuch that1 if it be mixed
 with water when it hath dissolved an   
,oil1  it quits the ,oil to unite with  
the ,water2 that for the same reason  it
 is not capable1 when very aqueous1 of  
dissolving any ,oil1 seeing  that1 as   
,oil and water are not susceptible of   
contracting any union1  it must then    
desert its phlegm to unite with the     
,oil2 which it cannot  do1 because it   
hath a greater affinity with phlegm than
 with ,oil2 and1  lastly1 that if ,oil  
be combined with any saline substance1  
which makes  it soluble in water2 that  
is1 if it be in a saponaceous state1 it 
will  then remain dissolved in ,spirit  
of ,wine1 without being precipitated  by
 water2 or will be dissolved by a very  
aqueous ,spirit of ,wine1 and           
frequently much better than by a highly 
rectified ,spirit3 if these  things1 ,i 
say1 be considered1 we shall easily     
perceive what must be  the effect of    
digesting ,spirit of ,wine with any     

vegetable substance  whatever4          
,spirit of ,wine dissolves all the      
,essential ,oil1 ,balsam1 and ,resin    
contained in any vegetable2 and as these
 matters are not soluble  in water1 they
 may be separated from the ,spirit in   
which they are  dissolved1 by lowering  
it with much water4 ,it instantly       
becomes white  and opaque1 like milk2   
the oily parts gradually unite1 and form
  considerable masses1 especially if    
they be resinous4 ,this is the method   
commonly made use of to extract the     
,resin of ,scammony1 ,jalap1 ,guaiacum1 
and several other vegetable substances1 
which it would be difficult to  procure 
by any other means4    ,if the matters  
digested with ,spirit of ,wine contain  
any saponaceous  juices1 the ,spirit    
will take up those juices also4 ,but as 
soaps  are soluble in water1 as well as 
in ,spirit of ,wine1 they cannot be     
separated1 by the addition of water1    
from the ,spirit in which they are      
dissolved4 ,whatever quantity of water  

therefore you mix with a ,spirit  that  
is impregnated with such juices1 no     
separation thereof will be  produced2   
and for the same reason the saponaceous 
matters will be  dissolved by a very    
aqueous ,spirit of ,wine4    ,spirit of 
,wine impregnated with such parts of any
 vegetable substance1  as it is capable 
of dissolving1 is commonly called a     
,tincture4  ,several ,tinctures mixed   
together1 or a ,tincture drawn from     
sundry  vegetable substances at the same
 time1 and in the same vessel1 take the 
name of an ,elixir4 ,tinctures or       
,elixirs impregnated with ,resinous     
matters only are true ,varnishes4 ,all  
these preparations are made in  the same
 manner2 to wit1 as directed in our     
process4 ,we shall only add  here1 that 
if the substances from which a ,tincture
 or ,elixir is to be  made contain too  
much moisture1 it is proper to free them
 from it by a  gentle desiccation2      
especially if you design that the       
,tincture should  be well impregnated   

with the oily and resinous parts3 for   
their excess  of moisture uniting with  
the ,spirit of ,wine would weaken it1   
and render  it unable to act on those   
matters1 which it cannot dissolve when  
it is  aqueous4    ,vegetable substances
 which have been repeatedly digested    
with different  parcels of ,spirit of   
,wine1 till the last would extract      
nothing1 are  deemed to be exhausted of 
all their ,essential ,oils1 and         
saponaceous  juices3 but if they contain
 moreover any ,fat ,oil1 ,wax1 or ,gum1 
these  principles will still remain     
therein after the digestion1 in the same
  quantity as before2 because ,spirit of
 ,wine is incapable of dissolving  them4
    ,with regard to the ,fat ,oil and   
,wax1 this is not at all surprising3 we 
have explained in another place why     
these matters are indissoluble  by      
,ardent ,spirits3 but as for the ,gum1  
it would seem1 according to  the general
 principles above-mentioned1 that it    
should be soluble  in that menstruum1   

even with more ease than ,resins2 as it 
consists  almost entirely of water1 with
 which ,spirit of ,wine is known to     
unite  more easily than with ,oils4     
,indeed there is also a little ,oil in  
its  composition3 but this ,oil seems to
 be in a perfectly saponaceous state2   
for ,gum dissolves wholly and easily in 
water1 without lessening its            
transparency in the least4    ,i own    
that it is extremely difficult to give a
 very satisfactory  account of this     
matter4 ,we may however venture to throw
 out some  conjectures concerning it1   
deduced from what hath been already     
said1  relating to the cause of the     
solubility of ,oils in ,spirit of ,wine4
  ,we shewed that the ,oils which       
dissolve in this menstruum derive  that 
property from a manifest ,acid1 which is
 united with them but  superficially1   
and in such a manner as to retain all   
its virtue2 but  that if this same ,acid
 be too intimately united with the ,oil1
 so as to  have no manifest power1 but  

be in a manner destroyed1 and converted 
as  it were into a ,neutral ,salt1 it   
will not then produce this effect4    ,a
 modern author#ac relates two           
experiments which agree very well with  
this opinion1 and indeed confirm it4 ,he
 mixed together ,oil of ,vitriol  and   
,oil of ,turpentine1 with a view to     
imitate by art a bituminous  matter2    
which1 we know1 is not at all1 or at    
least scarcely1 soluble in  water4      
,these two matters being united together
 produced a red1 thick  compound1 which 
by evaporation became like a natural    
,bitumen4      #ac ,mr4 ,eadows1 in a   
little ,english book1 entitled ,the     
,modern    ,apothecary4    ,the author  
observes1 that when this mixture is just
 made it dissolves  in ,alcohol2 but    
that in some time it changes its nature1
 and  communicates scarce any part of   
its substance to that solvent4 ,now     
whence can such a difference arise1 but 
from this1 that when the  mixture is    
new1 the ,acid is as yet but            

superficially united with the  ,oil1 and
 combines with it more and more         
intimately1 as the mixture  grows older4
    ,the same author1 having repeated   
the experiment with ,spirit of ,vitriol1
  obtained a compound which continued   
always very soluble in ,spirit of       
,wine3 because ,spirit of ,vitriol being
 much weaker and more aqueous than  ,oil
 of ,vitriol1 was incapable of combining
 so closely with the ,oil of            
,turpentine1 as that concentrated ,acid 
did in the former experiment4 ,by  the  
by1 there is great reason to believe    
that the very intimate union  of a      
mineral ,acid with an oily matter is the
 true cause why ,bitumens  will not     
dissolve in ,spirit of ,wine4    ,it    
seems therefore pretty probable1 that   
the ,acid which makes the ,oil  of      
,gummy matters soluble in water1 and    
reduces it to a saponaceous  state1 is  
so intimately united with that ,oil1    
that it loses its  properties1 and is in
 a manner converted into a ,neutral     

,salt4 ,now we  know that such ,salts   
are soluble in water1 but are not so1   
for the  most part1 in ,spirit of ,wine4
    ,if your ,tinctures or ,elixirs be  
not so strong or so saturated as you    
desire1 you may by distillation abstract
 part of the ,spirit of ,wine  which    
they contain1 and by that means give    
them such a degree of  thickness as you 
judge proper4 ,but the ,spirit of ,wine 
thus drawn off  constantly carries along
 with it a good deal of the aromatic    
principle4  ,it is a truly ,aromatic    
,strong ,water4 ,this ,spirit of ,wine  
also  carries up with it a portion of   
thin ,oil1 which is so much the more    
considerable as the degree of heat      
employed is greater3 and this is the    
reason why it becomes of a milky colour 
when mixed with water4    ,if you intend
 to make an ,aromatic ,strong ,water    
only1 you need not  previously extract a
 ,tincture from the vegetable substance 
with which  you mean to prepare your    
water3 you need only put it in a        

cucurbit1  pour ,spirit of ,wine upon   
it1 and distil with a gentle heat4 ,by  
this  means you will obtain a ,spirit of
 ,wine impregnated with all the odour   
of the plant4          ,,chap4 ,,iii4   
,of ,,tartar4      ,,process ,i4        
,tartar analyzed by distillation4 ,the  
,spirit1 ,oil1 and ,alkaline ,salt of   
,tartar4    ,into a stone retort1 or a  
glass one coated with lute1 put some    
white  ,tartar broken into small bits1  
observing that one half1 or at least  a 
full third1 of the vessel be left empty4
 ,set your retort in a  reverberating   
furnace4 ,fit on a large ballon1 having 
a small hole  drilled in it2 lute it    
exactly with fat lute1 and secure the   
joint  with a linen cloth smeared with  
lute made of quick-lime and the white   
of an egg4 ,apply at first an exceeding 
gentle heat1 which will raise  a limpid1
 sourish1 pungent water1 having but     
little smell1 and a  bitterish taste4   
,when this first phlegm ceases to come  
off1 increase your fire a little1  and  

make the degree of heat nearly equal to 
that of boiling water4 ,a  thin limpid  
,oil will rise1 accompanied with white  
vapours1 and with a  prodigious quantity
 of air1 which will issue out with such 
impetuosity1  that if you do not open   
the little hole in the receiver time    
enough to  give it vent1 it will burst  
the vessels with explosion4 ,an acid    
liquor  will rise at the same time4     
,continue the distillation1 increasing  
the  heat by insensible degrees1 and    
frequently unstopping the little hole   
of the receiver1 till the elastic       
vapours cease to issue1 and the oil  to 
distil4    ,then raise your fire more   
boldly4 ,the acid ,spirit will continue 
to  rise1 and will be accompanied with a
 black1 fetid1 empyreumatic1  ponderous1
 and very thick ,oil4 ,urge the fire to 
the utmost extremity1  so that the      
retort may be of a perfect red heat4    
,this violent fire will  raise a little 
,volatile ,alkali1 besides a portion of 
,oil as thick as  pitch4 ,when the      

distillation is finished1 you will find 
in the retort  a black1 saline1 charred 
matter1 which grows hot when wetted1    
attracts  the moisture of the air1 runs 
per deliquium1 and hath all the         
properties of a ,fixed ,alkali4    ,this
 mass1 being exposed to a naked fire in 
the open air1 burns1  consumes1 and is  
reduced to a white ash1 which is a      
fiery1 caustic1  ,fixed ,alkali4        
,,observations4    ,the matters         
qualified to produce a spirituous liquor
 by fermentation1  do not all contain   
the just and accurate proportion of     
,acid necessary  to constitute an       
,ardent ,spirit4 ,many of them1 the     
juices of fruits  for instance1 and     
especially that of the ,grape1 are      
replete with a  super-abundant quantity 
of ,acid1 more than concurs to form that
 product  of fermentation4 ,this        
super-abundant ,acid1 combined with some
 of the  ,oil and earth contained in the
 fermented liquor1 produces a sort of   
,salt1 which hangs for a while suspended

 in that liquor1 but after some  time1  
when the ,wine stands quiet in a cool   
place1 separates from it1  and forms a  
stone-like incrustation on the inside of
 the vat in which  the ,wine is kept4   
,this matter is called ,tartar4    ,the 
,lees of ,wine resemble ,tartar1 in as  
much as they contain1 and yield  when   
analyzed1 the same principles2 but they 
differ from it in this1  that they      
contain1 moreover1 a greater quantity of
 earth1 of phlegm1  and a little ,ardent
 ,spirit1 which are only mixed1 but not 
united1 with  the tartarous ,acid4      
,the residue1 or sort of extract1 which 
remains in the cucurbit after  ,wine    
hath been deprived of its ,ardent       
,spirit by distillation1 hath also  a   
great conformity with ,tartar4 ,it even 
contains that portion of ,tartar  which 
remained suspended in the ,wine at the  
time of its distillation3  and          
accordingly this residue of ,wine1 being
 analyzed1 yields the same  principles  
with ,tartar4    ,hence we see1 that    

liquors1 which have undergone the       
spirituous  fermentation1 consist of an 
,ardent ,spirit and a ,tartarous ,acid  
suspended in a certain quantity of      
,water4    ,in the analysis of ,tartar  
there are several things worthy of      
notice4  ,the first is1 the vast        
quantity of ,air that this mixt body    
yields when  it begins to be decomposed4
 ,the chief difficulty attending its    
analysis  arises from this air2 which   
issues out and exerts its elastic force 
with such impetuosity1 that all the     
precautions above-mentioned are no  more
 than necessary to prevent the bursting 
of the vessels4    ,the singular nature 
of the thin limpid ,oil1 which rises    
with this  air1 after the first acid    
phlegm1 deserves likewise our particular
  attention4 ,this ,oil is one of the   
most penetrating we know4 ,boerhaave1   
who distilled ,tartar without having a  
vent-hole in his receiver1 was  obliged1
 in order to prevent its bursting1 to   
apply it to his retort  with a lute so  

weak that most of the elastic vapours   
might perspire  through it2 and he      
observed1 that1 though the neck of his  
retort  entered above five inches into  
the mouth of his receiver1 and was      
luted on as closely as possible with    
such a lute1 yet this light ,oil  of    
,tartar constantly returned back again1 
as it were1 and pervaded the  substance 
of the lute1 so that a good deal of it  
dropped in a dish  placed on the outside
 on purpose to receive it4 ,this ,oil is
 probably  rendered so active and       
subtile1 only by having been exceedingly
  attenuated by the fermenting motion4  
,this experiment is one of those  which 
sufficiently prove the necessity of     
employing receivers having a  small     
vent-hole1 that may be opened and shut  
as occasion requires4    ,the last      
remark we shall make1 on the productions
 of ,tartar by  distillation1 relates to
 the caput mortuum found in the retort  
when  the operation is finished4 ,this  
residue is very different from that     

which other vegetable matters afford3   
for1 when they are decomposed in  close 
vessels1 they leave nothing but a mere  
charred matter1 in which  no saline     
property appears1 and from which no     
,fixed ,alkali can be  obtained1 but by 
carrying their analysis to the utmost2  
that is1 by  burning them in the open   
air4 ,tartar1 on the contrary1 only by  
being  distilled in close vessels1      
without burning it afterwards in the    
open  air1 is changed into a substance  
which hath all the properties of a      
,fixed ,alkali4 ,this is probably owing 
to the ,tartar's containing the         
principles requisite to form a ,fixed   
,alkali in a much greater quantity  than
 they are to be found in any other      
substance4 ,as ,tartar thus  alkalizated
 in close vessels still contains much   
inflammable matter1  it might be        
employed with advantage as a reducing   
flux1 in several  operations of         
metallurgy4    ,of all the vegetable    
matters we know1 calcined ,tartar yields

 the  greatest quantity of ,fixed       
,alkali2 which is likewise very pure1   
and  therefore much used in ,chymistry4 
,burnt ,lees of ,wine also afford a     
great quantity of ,fixed ,alkali1  which
 is of the same nature with that of     
,tartar4 ,this ,salt is used in         
different trades1 and particularly in   
,dying4 ,the ,french ,vinegar-makers    
collect quantities of these ,lees1 which
 they make up into cakes and  dry3 while
 it is in this state they call it       
,gravelle or ,gravele2  and ,cendre     
,gravele when it is burnt4    ,if the   
extract of ,wine1 which remains after   
the ,spirit is drawn off1  be gently    
evaporated to dryness1 and that dry     
matter burnt like ,tartar  or ,gravelle1
 it will make a sort of ,cendre ,gravele
 very rich in  alkaline ,salt4          
,,process ,,ii4    ,the ,depuration of  
,tartar4 ,cream and ,crystals of        
,tartar4    ,reduce to a fine powder the
 ,tartar you intend to purify1 and boil 
it in  twenty-five or thirty times as   

much water4 ,filter the boiling liquor  
through a flannel-bag1 and then gently  
evaporate some part of it3 there  will  
soon form on its surface a saline crust1
 which is the ,cream of  ,tartar4 ,let  
your liquor cool1 and there will adhere 
to the sides of  the vessel a great     
quantity of a crystallized saline       
matter1 which is  ,crystal of ,tartar4  
,,observations4    ,tartar1 when taken  
out of the vats in which it forms1 is   
mixed with a  considerable quantity of  
earthy parts1 which are not intimately  
united  therewith1 but adulterate it4   
,this extraneous earth makes about two  
fifths of the whole weight of common    
,tartar2 but white ,tartar1 which is    
the best1 contains but about a third    
part of earth4    ,the method of        
refining ,tartar1 and freeing it from   
this adventitious  earth1 is very       
simple1 as appears from the process4    
,earthy matters1  which are not         
intimately combined with an ,acid in the
 form of a ,neutral  ,salt1 are not     

dissoluble in water3 for which reason   
the water1 in which  crude ,tartar is   
boiled1 dissolves the saline part only1 
which passes  with it through the       
filter2 but doth not dissolve the earth 
of the  ,tartar1 because that earth is  
not combined with the saline part1 and  
so  being only suspended in the liquor  
remains on the filter4    ,the saline   
parts of the ,tartar1 though they are   
now separated from the  gross earth with
 which they were mixed1 are not yet     
perfectly pure4  ,these first ,crystals 
of ,tartar have a disagreeable russet   
colour1 and  are not transparent3 this  
is owing to their being coated over1 as 
it  were1 with a fatty matter1 which    
also is foreign to their nature1 and    
may be separated from them without      
decomposing them in the least4    ,the  
crystals of ,tartar are but seldom      
perfectly depurated in ,chymical        
,laboratories2 because the operation    
doth not usually succeed well on  small 
quantities3 but there are manufactories 

which do it by the great1  and supply   
the ,chymists1 as well as the several   
tradesmen1 with very  fine and very pure
 ,crystals of ,tartar4 ,these           
manufactories are chiefly  set up in the
 neighbourhood of ,montpelier4 ,mr4     
,fifes1 a celebrated  ,professor of     
,medicine1 hath in the ,memoirs of the  
,academy for #agbe  described the       
operation as performed in one of these  
works4 ,he tells  us1 that having       
separated the earthy part from the      
,crystals of ,tartar1  by boiling and   
filtering1 they dissolve them again1 and
 boil them in  large caldrons1 mixed    
with a white saponaceous earth1 which   
cleanses  and whitens them to           
perfection4    ,the saponaceous earth is
 found near the works2 but it is not the
  only one that may be employed for this
 purpose2 since1 as ,mr4 ,fifes         
observed1 they have successively made   
use of several different earths  in that
 very work1 and that the earth they now 
use hath not been long  employed4 ,there

 is reason to think that most           
saponaceous earths might  answer the    
purpose of refining ,crystal of ,tartar3
 but one necessary  condition is1 that  
they be altogether indissoluble by      
,crystal of  ,tartar1 which being acid  
dissolves many sorts of earth2 for1 if  
they  have not this quality1 they will  
form a ,neutral ,salt with the saline   
part of the ,tartar1 the nature of which
 they will entirely change1 and  convert
 it into soluble ,tartar1 as will appear
 by the experiments that  follow4       
,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,,crystal of ,,tartar  
combined with several ,,substances4     
,,process ,i4    ,crystal of ,tartar    
combined with ,absorbent ,earths4       
,soluble ,tartars4    ,boil an          
,absorbent ,earth1 such as ,chalk1 in a 
pan with water2 and1 when  you perceive 
the ,earth thoroughly divided1 and      
equally distributed  through the water1 
throw into a pan1 from time to time1    
some pulverized  ,crystal of ,tartar1   
which will excite a considerable        

effervescence4  ,continue those         
projections1 till you observe no        
effervescence excited  thereby4 ,all the
 ,absorbent ,earth1 which obscured the  
transparency of  the water1 and gave it 
an opaque white colour1 will gradually  
disappear  as the ,crystal of ,tartar   
combines with it2 and when the          
combination is  perfected1 the liquor   
will be clear and limpid4 ,then filter  
it1 and  there will be left on the      
filter but a very small quantity of     
earth4  ,evaporate all the filtered     
liquor with a gentle heat2 and then set 
it  in a cool place to shoot4 ,crystals 
will form therein1 having the figure  of
 flat quadrangular prisms1 with almost  
always one1 sometimes two1 of  the      
angles of the prism shaved down1 as it  
were2 and then the surfaces  at each end
 are oblique1 answering to those        
depressed angles4 ,these  crystals are a
 ,neutral ,salt1 which readily dissolves
 in water2 a true  ,soluble ,tartar4    
,,observations4    ,crystal of ,tartar  

is a saline substance of a singular     
nature4 ,though  it crystallizes like a 
,neutral ,salt1 yet it is not one3 it   
hath  only the form of one2 its         
principal properties being those of an  
,acid4 ,nevertheless it is not a pure   
,acid2 for it is united with a  certain 
quantity of ,oil and of earth1 which    
give it the property  of crystallizing1 
and it is scarce dissolvable in water4  
,it is a  middle substance between an   
,acid and a ,neutral ,salt4 ,it is an   
,acid  half-neutralized2 on which       
account it is capable of acting like an 
,acid on all substances soluble by      
,acids1 and so of being converted  into 
a perfectly ,neutral ,salt by combining 
with them to the point of  saturation4  
,in the experiments made to neutralize  
,crystal of ,tartar1 ,fixed ,alkaline   
,salts alone were formerly used4        
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse were the  
first who discovered that ,absorbent    
,earths might be substituted for        
,alkalis1 and would produce nearly the  

same effects on ,crystal of  ,tartar4   
,the experiments made by these two      
,academicians in conjunction  are       
circumstantially related in two curious 
,memoirs on this subject1  given in by  
them jointly1 and printed with those of 
the ,academy for  #agcb and #agcc4 ,from
 these ,memoirs we took the process here
 given1 and  shall also borrow from     
thence most of the remarks we are now   
going to  make4    ,stone-lime holds1 as
 it were1 the middle place between mere 
,absorbent  ,earths and ,fixed ,alkalis4
 ,now1 seeing ,crystal of ,tartar may be
  converted into a ,neutral ,salt by    
either of these two substances1  it     
follows1 that lime ought to produce the 
same effect upon it4  ,accordingly      
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse found it  
to be so upon trial3  having formed1    
with ,lac calcis and ,crystal of        
,tartar1 a ,neutral  ,salt perfectly    
like that which results from the union  
of that saline  matter with ,chalk4     
,cremor calcis1 or that salino-terrene  

pellicle  which forms on lime-water1    
produced the same effect3 but1 what is  
most  singular is1 that lime-water      
itself1 though it be clear and limpid1  
and consequently doth not seem to       
contain any earthy particles1  produced 
nevertheless a great effervescence with 
,crystal of ,tartar1 and  neutralized it
 as perfectly as ,cremor calcis1 or     
water ever so much  impregnated with    
,chalk4 ,this arises from hence1 that a 
great quantity  of the salino-terrene   
matter1 which forms the ,cremor calcis  
is  dissolved in the lime-water4        
,though lime-water neutralizes ,crystal 
of ,tartar as perfectly as ,chalk  does1
 and though the ,crystals of soluble    
,tartar1 or neutralized ,tartar1        
thereby produced1 be like those which   
have ,chalk for their basis1 yet        
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse observed  
some differences1 worthy of notice1     
between the phenomena accompanying the  
production of these two ,neutral        
,salts1 which resemble each other so    

much that they seem but one and the     
same species of ,salt4 ,the principal   
difference consists in this1 that  the  
water containing the ,tartar neutralized
 by ,chalk is very limpid1  and leaves  
but a very small quantity of earth on   
the filter2 whereas  the lime-water1    
with which ,tartar hath been            
neutralized1 leaves on the  filter a    
considerable quantity of earth4    ,this
 must appear the more surprising1 that  
the water replete with ,chalk  was1     
before its union with the ,crystal of   
,tartar1 turbid and opaque2  whereas the
 ,lime water was at first clear and     
limpid4 ,messrs4 ,duhamel  and ,grosse  
suspect this to arise from hence1 that  
the effervescence  excited1 while the   
,crystal of ,tartar dissolves the matter
 contained in  lime-water1 is greater   
than that which is produced by its union
 with  ,chalk suspended in water4    ,if
 we consider1 say they1 that in a great 
effervescence a  considerable quantity  
of the acid ,spirit is evaporated1 we   

shall easily  perceive1 that1 the more  
of that ,spirit escapes1 the more of the
 earth  of the ,tartar will be          
precipitated4 ,now1 as the effervescence
 with  lime-water is more considerable1 
and as there is less alkaline earth to  
check1 as it were1 and restrain the     
,acid1 than in the experiment with      
,chalk1 a greater quantity of the acid  
,spirit may escape2 which being         
entirely lost will cause more earth to  
precipitate in this case than  in the   
other1 where the ,acid is all at once   
attracted by a great deal  of alkaline  
earth3 and accordingly this was the     
reason that our ,tartar  dissolved by   
,chalk deposited1 in crystallizing1 a   
grey earth1 which was  scarce           
perceivable in the experiment made with 
,lime-water4    ,yet perhaps1 say they1 
an ,acid1 which we suspect to be        
contained  in lime1 may have partly     
occasioned the precipitation of this    
earth4  ,the existence of this ,acid1   
which these gentlemen at that time only 

suspected1 hath been since demonstrated 
by several experiments1 and             
particularly by those which ,mr4        
,malouin hath published4 ,this ,acid  is
 the ,vitriolic1 which1 in combination  
with some of the earth of  the lime1    
forms a sort of ,selenitic ,salt2 which 
adds greatly to the  probability of     
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse's last    
conjecture4 ,i shall  now explain how ,i
 conceive the ,vitriolic ,acid in lime  
may occasion the  copious precipitate   
which falls in lime-water1 when ,crystal
 of ,tartar  is neutralized by it4      
,the quantity of ,vitriolic ,acid       
contained in lime is very               
inconsiderable2 so that to convert it   
into a ,neutral ,salt requires  its     
intimate union with a very small        
quantity of the earthy and  absorbent   
parts4 ,hence it comes to pass1 that1   
when water is poured  upon quick-lime1  
in order to make the ,lime-water1 it in 
some sort  divides the lime into two    
parts4 ,all the particles of ,absorbent 

,earth1  which had not contracted an    
union with the ,acid1 are at first      
barely  suspended in the liquor1 the    
transparency of which they destroy1     
giving  it an opaque white colour2 and  
this is what makes the ,lac calcis3  but
 they soon separate from it1 and fall to
 the bottom1 in the form  of a          
precipitate2 because they are not       
soluble in water4 ,by this              
precipitation the liquor becomes limpid1
 and remains impregnated only  with such
 of the earthy parts as are united with 
the ,vitriolic ,acid1  in the form of a 
kind of ,neutral ,salt1 and have by that
 union acquired  solubility4 ,but the   
,vitriolic ,acid finding many more      
,absorbent parts in  the lime than were 
necessary to neutralize it1 in a manner 
over-dosed  itself with earthy parts1   
and thereby exceeded the bounds of a    
perfect  ,neutrality4    ,on the other  
hand1 it hath been shewn1 that ,crystal 
of ,tartar is an  imperfect ,neutral    
,salt4 ,now these two ,salts1 which are 

neither of them  perfectly ,neutral1    
differ from a perfectly ,neutral ,salt  
by properties  directly opposite to each
 other2 seeing the ,selenitic matter in 
,lime  exceeds in its absorbent or      
alkaline quality1 and ,crystal of       
,tartar  exceeds1 on the contrary1 in   
acidity4    ,what must be the           
consequence1 therefore1 of mixing these 
two saline  matters together8 ,the same 
as when an ,acid is mixed with a ,fixed 
,alkali2 that is1 the ,salt which       
exceeds in acidity will combine with    
the super-abundant alkaline earth of the
 ,selenitic ,salt2 so that these  two   
saline matters will both become         
perfectly ,neutral ,salts4 ,yet these   
two ,neutral ,salts have not the same   
degree of solubility in water4  ,the    
neutralized ,crystal of ,tartar         
dissolves very readily in water1  and is
 for that reason called ,soluble        
,tartar3 the ,selenitic ,salt1 on  the  
contrary1 is hardly dissolvable in it at
 all4 ,now it is a rule  that1 when two 

,salts of this nature meet together1 the
 most soluble  always remains united    
with the water1 exclusive of the other1 
which  is forced to precipitate4 ,this  
,i imagine to be what happens in the    
present case2 and the precipitate which 
we see fall1 in the lime-water  employed
 to neutralize ,crystal of ,tartar1     
seems to me to be no other  than the    
,selenitic ,salt of the ,lime2 which1   
being less soluble than the  neutralized
 ,tartar1 gives place to it1 and        
separates from the liquor4    ,indeed we
 cannot1 in my opinion1 account for the 
precipitate under  consideration1 any   
other way1 than by supposing it to be a 
portion  either of the earth of the     
,crystal of ,tartar1 or a portion of the
  ,lime4 ,now1 either of these earths is
 dissolvable by ,acids2 whereas the     
precipitate in question1 according to   
the observations of ,messrs4  ,duhamel  
and ,grosse1 is not so3 and this ought  
to be the case1 if the  precipitate be  
nothing but the selenitic ,salt of the  

,lime1 which being  a ,neutralized      
,salt1 partly constituted by the most   
powerful of all the  ,acids1 must be    
unalterable by any ,acid whatever4      
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse made a    
great many experiments on the           
combinations of ,crystal of ,tartar with
 different sorts of earths4 ,the  result
 of the whole is1 that there are some   
earths which this ,acid  dissolves1 and 
which contract such an union with       
,crystal of ,tartar1  that they not only
 change its external character1 that is1
 its tendency  to crystallize1 and its  
indissolubleness in cold water1 but also
  entirely alter its taste and other    
qualities4 ,in a word1 those earths     
produce on this ,salt all the effects of
 alkaline ,salts4 ,these earths  are    
such as are called ,absorbent ,earths2  
stone-lime1 animal-lime1  cretaceous    
earths1 a portion of calcined gypsum1   
and of potash2 in  short1 all such as   
distilled vinegar is capable of         
dissolving3 this  is the mark by which  

those earths1 which are qualified to    
neutralize  ,crystal of ,tartar1 and to 
render it soluble1 may be distinguished4
    ,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse found 
also upon trial1 that there are other   
earths1 on the contrary1 which are1 in a
 manner1 inaccessible to the  ,acid of  
,crystal of ,tartar2 that they take up1 
indeed1 the grossest and  redundant ,oil
 of the ,tartar1 but without affecting  
its saline part  at all3 and if these   
earths are ever observed to form any    
union with  the ,crystals of ,tartar1 as
 happens in the refineries near         
,montpelier1  that union is only        
superficial1 not intimate2 and therefore
 it alters  none of the characters of   
the ,salt4 ,among these earths are the  
clayey1  bolar1 sandy earths1 and others
 of that kind4 ,hence ,messrs4 ,duhamel 
and  ,grosse conclude1 that these are   
the earths which ought to be employed   
in the purification and whitening of    
,crystal of ,tartar4 ,vinegar is here   
also the test by which it may be known  

whether an earth intended for  this     
purpose be fit for it3 for you may be   
sure that it will form no  union with   
,crystal of ,tartar1 if the ,acid of    
,vinegar be incapable of  dissolving it4
      ,,process ,,ii4     ,crystal of   
,tartar combined with ,fixed ,alkalis4  
,the ,vegetable ,salt4   ,saignette's   
,salt4 ,the ,decomposition of ,soluble  
,tartars4    ,in eight parts of water   
dissolve one part of a very pure        
alkaline ,salt1  perfectly freed from   
the phlogiston by calcination4 ,heat    
this lixivium  in a stone pan set on a  
sand-bath1 and from time to time throw  
into  it a little powdered ,cream or    
,crystal of ,tartar4 ,each projection   
will  excite a great effervescence1     
attended with many bubbles1 which will  
rise to a considerable height one over  
the other4 ,stir the liquor when  the   
effervescence ceases1 and you will see  
it begin again4    ,when no             
effervescence appears upon stirring the 
liquor1 add a little  more ,cream of    

,tartar1 and the same phenomena will be 
renewed4 ,go on  thus till you have     
obtained the point of perfect           
saturation4    ,then filter your liquor4
 ,if the ,alkali you made use of was the
 ,salt of  ,soda1 evaporate your liquor 
quickly to a pellicle1 and there will   
shoot  in it crystals of nine sides1    
resembling a coffin2 the bottom part    
thereof being concave1 and streaked with
 a great many parallel lines2  and this 
is ,saignette's ,salt4 ,if you have     
employed any other ,alkali  but ,soda1  
or the basis of ,sea-salt1 evaporate    
your liquor slowly to the  consistence  
of a syrup3 let it stand quiet1 and     
there will form in it  crystals having  
the figure of slatted parallellopipeds2 
and this is the  ,vegetable ,salt1 or   
,tartarized ,tartar4                    
,,observations4    ,seeing pure         
,absorbent ,earths are capable of       
neutralizing ,crystal of  ,tartar1 and  
converting it into ,soluble ,tartar1    
there is still more  reason to expect   

that ,fixed ,alkalis should possess the 
same property1  as they have a much     
greater affinity with ,acids3 and       
accordingly  ,crystal of ,tartar always 
forms1 with every species of these      
salts1 a  ,neutral ,salt which is a     
,soluble ,tartar4    ,a ,soluble        
,tartar1 formed by the union of ,crystal
 of ,tartar with ,tartar  converted into
 an ,alkali by fire1 hath been long used
 in medicine as  a gentle saponaceous   
purgative1 known by the names of        
,tartarized  ,tartar1 or the ,vegetable 
,salt4 ,but the ,soluble ,tartar1       
prepared  by combining ,crystal of      
,tartar with the ,alkali of ,soda1      
which1 as we  remarked before1 is       
analogous to the basis of ,sea-salt1 and
 different  from all other ,alkalis1 was
 not well known to ,chymists till the   
year  #agca1 when ,m4 ,boulduc published
 the preparation in a ,memoir printed in
  the ,academy's collection for that    
year#ad4      #ad ,it could not be any  
longer concealed2 for ,m4 ,geoffroy     

having made    some experiments on the  
same subject1 without knowing any thing 
of    what ,m4 ,boulduc had done1       
likewise discovered it4 ,see the        
,history of    the ,academy for #agca1  
p4 #ce4    ,not but that it was very    
much used before that time3 for it had  
been for several years in high          
reputation1 and prescribed instead  of  
,tartarized ,tartar1 which became almost
 quite neglected4 ,but ,m4  ,saignette1 
a physician of ,rochelle1 who was the   
first inventor and  vender of this      
,salt1 did not publish the preparation  
of it1 which he  kept as a secret3 and  
this probably contributed not a little  
to the  great esteem which this medicine
 had acquired2 for men are naturally    
inclined to put a much greater value on 
secrets1 than on what is  universally   
known4 ,he gave it the name of ,sal     
,polychrestum2 and the  public called it
 also ,saignette's ,salt1 and ,rochelle 
,salt4 ,since  the discoveries of ,m4   
,geoffroy and ,m4 ,boulduc were         

published1 the  method of preparing this
 ,salt hath been no secret2 it was      
described in  ,dispensatories1 and every
 apothecary hath made it ever since4    
,saignette's ,salt1 as well as every    
other ,soluble ,tartar1 melts when  laid
 on live coals1 boils up1 emits smoke1  
and leaves a black charred  matter      
behind4 ,this resemblance of            
,saignette's ,salt to ,tartarized       
,tartar1 joined to the smell of the     
vapour which exhaled in burning it1  and
 is the same with that of ,tartar1 were 
the first notices that led  ,m4 ,boulduc
 to suppose this ,salt to be a soluble  
,tartar4 ,on examining  the alkaline    
coal produced by the calcination1 and   
comparing it with  that left by         
,tartarized ,tartar1 he perceived there 
was some difference  between them4 ,at  
last his friend1 ,m4 ,grosse1 having    
advised him1 as he  tells us in his     
,memoir1 to combine ,crystal of ,tartar 
with the ,salt of  ,soda1 and to examine
 the new ,salt that would result from   

their union1  ,m4 ,boulduc immediately  
suspected that it must produce a species
 of  ,soluble ,tartar1 which might      
possibly prove to be the ,salt in       
question4  ,nor was he mistaken in his  
conjecture3 for with these two saline   
substances he actually composed a ,salt 
perfectly like ,saignette's4    ,under  
the head of ,borax we remarked that it  
contains an ,alkali like  the basis of  
,sea-salt4 ,this ,alkali is not         
perfectly neutralized by  the sedative  
,salt1 which is also contained in       
,borax3 for its alkaline  properties are
 so perceptible as to have led some     
,chymists to think  that ,borax was only
 an ,alkali of a particular kind4 ,this 
induced ,m4 le  ,fevre1 a ,physician at 
,uzes1 and one of the ,academy's        
correspondents1  to combine ,crystal of 
,tartar with ,borax1 and to examine the 
result4 ,he  communicated to the        
,academy his experiments on this        
subject2 by which  he found that the    
combination of these two saline matters 

forms a  ,soluble ,tartar1 but greatly  
different from ,saignette's ,salt2      
especially  in that it doth not         
crystallize1 but remains in the form of 
a gummy  matter1 and retains all the    
acidity natural to pure ,cream or       
,crystal of  ,tartar3 a circumstance    
which is very remarkable4    ,mr4       
,lemery had the curiosity to repeat ,m4 
le ,fevre's experiment1 and  found that 
this singular ,soluble ,tartar had the  
properties ascribed to  it by the       
inventor4 ,the process he recommends for
 making the experiment  with success is 
as follows3    ,take four ounces of     
,crystal of ,tartar finely pulverized1  
and two  ounces of ,borax carefully     
powdered1 and put these two ,salts into 
a flint-glass body4 ,pour on them two   
ounces of water1 and set the  cucurbit  
into a sand-bath4 ,warm it with a gentle
 fire1 and then  increase the heat so as
 to make the liquor boil for a quarter  
of  an hour2 which will produce a       
perfect dissolution of the ,cream of    

,tartar and ,borax4 ,after the          
dissolution of these two ,salts united  
together1 the liquor will remain clear  
and limpid1 though the boiling  hath    
dissipated a good deal of it4 ,if the   
liquor be still further  evaporated1 the
 remainder will have the consistence of 
,honey1 or  ,turpentine3 and1 if the    
evaporation be carried still farther1   
with a  gentle heat1 the matter         
remaining will in colour resemble the   
gum of a  plumb-tree1 and yield to      
pressure as that does2 and1 if it be    
exposed  to the air in a damp place1 it 
will grow moist and run1 almost like    
,salt of ,tartar3 a new and singular    
property1 which belongs neither to      
,borax nor to ,crystal of ,tartar1 when 
they are not combined together4    ,all 
,soluble ,tartars are easily            
decompounded1 by means of a certain     
degree of heat4 ,they yield in the      
distillation the same principles as     
,tartar2 and the ,alkali that remains1  
when they are perfectly calcined1       

consists of that which the ,tartar      
naturally affords1 and of the  alkaline 
matter with which it was converted into 
a ,neutral ,salt4    ,these ,neutral    
,salts1 resulting from the union of     
,crystal of ,tartar with  any alkaline  
matter1 are also decompounded by all the
 ,acids1 even by  vinegar1 which        
nevertheless is an ,oily ,vegetable     
,acid1 and consequently  of the same    
kind with ,crystal of ,tartar4 ,the     
reason of this is that  the ,acid of    
,vinegar1 though blunted by much phlegm 
and oil1 must be  considered as a free  
and pure ,acid1 when compared with      
,crystal of  ,tartar2 which is still    
more embarrassed with heterogeneous     
matters1 so  as to be a semi-neutral    
,salt4    ,when ,soluble ,tartar is     
decompounded by an ,acid1 the ,crystal  
of ,tartar1  which helped to constitute 
the ,neutral ,salt1 is then wholly      
recovered4  ,this saline matter1 being  
separated from that which rendered it   
soluble  in water1 ceases now to be so1 

and for that reason precipitates to the 
bottom of the liquor4    ,the ,neutral  
,salts1 resulting from the decomposition
 of ,soluble ,tartar  by an ,acid1      
differ according to the ,acid made use  
of4 ,from ,saignette's  ,salt           
decompounded by the ,vitriolic ,acid ,m4
 ,boulduc obtained a true  ,glauber's   
,salt1 and a precipitate of ,crystal of 
,tartar3 and this he  justly adduces as 
a demonstrative proof1 that ,saignette's
 ,salt is no  other than ,crystal of    
,tartar neutralized by a ,fixed ,alkali 
analogous to  the basis of ,sea-salt4   
,though all ,soluble ,tartars may be    
decompounded by ,acids1 as hath just    
been said1 yet they do not all forsake  
their bases with equal facility4        
,messrs4 ,duhamel and ,grosse found     
that1 in this respect1 they observe  the
 following order1 beginning with those  
which afford the readiest and  most     
copious precipitate3 viz4 ,soluble      
,tartar made #a4 with ,potash2 #b4  with
 ,chalk2 #c4 with uncalcined            

,oyster-shells2 #d4 with ,stone-,lime2  
#e4  with calcined ,oyster-shells2 #f4  
with ,salt of ,tartar2 #g4 with ,salt of
  ,soda2 #h4 and lastly1 ,tartar made   
soluble with ,borax is not precipitated 
by distilled vinegar4    ,it is not easy
 to account for this difference between 
,soluble ,tartars4  ,if the ,salt of    
,soda were more alkaline than ,salt of  
,tartar1 and ,borax  more alkaline than 
the ,salt of ,soda1 it might be         
conjectured that  the more alkaline the 
matters are with which ,crystal of      
,tartar is  neutralized1 the closer is  
the union it contracts with them2 since 
it is plain1 from what hath been said on
 this subject1 that though  ,soluble    
,tartars1 which have for their basis    
,absorbent ,earths only1 not  converted 
into ,lime1 are more easily decompounded
 than those which are  rendered soluble 
by ,limes2 and these again more easily  
than those which  have a ,fixed ,alkali 
for their basis4 ,but1 on the contrary1 
the ,salt of  ,soda is less alkaline    

than ,salt of ,tartar1 and ,borax still 
less than  the ,salt of ,soda4          
,,process ,,iii4     ,crystal of ,tartar
 combined with ,iron4 ,chalybeated      
,tartar4 ,tincture of   ,steel with     
,tartar4 ,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar4 
,mix four ounces of ,iron1 in filings1  
with one pound of white ,tartar1  finely
 pulverized4 ,boil the mixture in about 
twelve times as much water  as you took 
of ,tartar4 ,when the saline part of the
 ,tartar is dissolved1  filter the      
liquor boiling-hot through a flannel    
bag1 and then set it in  a cool place4  
,in a very little time crystals of a    
russet colour will  shoot therein4      
,decant the liquor from these crystals2 
evaporate it to  a pellicle1 and set it 
again to crystallize4 ,go on in this    
manner till  it will shoot no more4     
,collect all the ,salt you have thus    
obtained1 and  keep it under the name of
 ,chalybeated ,tartar4    ,to make the  
,tincture of ,steel with ,tartar1 mix   
together six ounces of  clean ,iron     

filings1 and one pound of white ,tartar 
in powder4 ,put this  mixture into a    
large iron kettle1 and pour thereon as  
much rain-water  as will moisten it4    
,make a paste of this matter1 and leave 
it thus in a mass for  twenty-four      
hours4 ,then pour on it twelve pounds of
 rain-water1  and boil the whole for    
twelve hours at least1 stirring the     
mixture  frequently1 and adding from    
time to time some hot water1 to supply  
the  place of what evaporates4 ,when you
 have thus boiled the liquor1 let it    
stand quiet for some time1 and then pour
 it off from the sediment at  bottom4   
,filter1 and evaporate to the           
consistence of a syrup2 and you  have   
the ,tincture of ,mars with ,tartar4    
,the ,dispensatories generally  order an
 ounce of rectified ,spirit of ,wine to 
be poured on this  ,tincture1 in order  
to preserve it1 and to keep it from     
growing mouldy1  as it is very apt to   
do4    ,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar is 
prepared by mixing four ounces of       

,tartarized ,tartar1 with one pound of  
the ,tincture of ,mars with ,tartar1    
and evaporating them together in an iron
 vessel to dryness2 after which  it is  
kept in a well stopped phial1 to prevent
 its growing moist in the  air4         
,,observations4    ,the three           
preparations of this process are        
medicines very well known  and much     
used4 ,there is even reason to think    
that those1 who first  thought of       
combining ,tartar in this manner with   
,iron1 had it in their  view to prepare 
compositions useful in medicine1 rather 
than merely to  produce new combinations
 for the improvement of ,chymistry4     
,indeed1 were  we to consider only the  
account here given of the manner in     
which these  three compositions are     
made1 we should be inclined to think    
,crystal  of ,tartar incapable of       
dissolving ,iron so thoroughly and      
radically1  that1 from the union of     
these two substances1 a ,neutral        
,metallic ,salt  should arise1 a ,tartar

 neutralized and made soluble by ,iron4 
,for it  is very certain that the first 
of these preparations1 which is called  
,chalybeated ,tartar1 is nothing but the
 saline part of ,tartar dissolved  by   
boiling water1 and then precipitated and
 crystallized along with  particles of  
iron1 that are reduced1 at most1 into a 
rust1 or a  crocus only1 but have       
contracted no union with the crystal of 
,tartar1  which remains as ,acid and as 
indissoluble after this preparation as  
before4 ,accordingly it is called only  
,chalybeated ,tartar1 and not  ,soluble 
,chalybeated ,tartar3 and1 as this      
latter name hath been given  only to the
 ,tartarized ,tincture of ,mars         
compounded with ,tartarized  ,tartar2   
that is1 with ,tartar rendered soluble  
by a ,fixed ,alkali1 and  not by ,iron2 
there is reason to presume1 that the    
,tincture of ,mars  alone was not       
thought worthy of being called a        
,soluble ,chalybeated  ,tartar2 but that
 the name1 importing ,tartar rendered   

soluble by ,mars1  belongs to that      
,tincture only when compounded with a   
true ,soluble  ,tartar4    ,it is       
nevertheless very certain1 that the     
,tincture of ,mars made with  ,tartar   
contains a true ,soluble ,chalybeated   
,tartar2 that is1 a ,neutral  ,salt     
consisting of ,crystal of ,tartar united
 with ,iron1 and rendered  soluble by   
that union4 ,the long boiling1 necessary
 to prepare this  ,tincture1 gives the  
,acid of ,tartar time to dissolve the   
,iron radically1  and to unite very     
closely therewith3 but this is not the  
case in the  preparation of ,chalybeated
 ,tartar2 to make which the ,tartar is  
boiled  in water only as long as is     
necessary for the dissolution of its    
saline  parts2 that is1 about a quarter 
or half an hour2 in which space the     
,acid of the ,tartar can scarce begin to
 act on the surface of the ,iron3  for  
,acids have not so quick an effect on   
metals1 as on ,alkalis and  ,absorbent  
,earths4 ,metallic substances1 being    

vastly more compact1 are  not near so   
soon dissolved by ,acids1 and especially
 by vegetable ,acids1  weakened with    
heterogeneous matters1 as the ,acid of  
,tartar is4    ,i thought the           
dissolution of ,iron by ,tartar a point 
of sufficient  importance to deserve a  
little more attention than hath commonly
 been  given to it2 and for that reason 
resolved to examine1 and trace with     
care1 the phenomena observable in this  
operation4    ,as the crude ,tartar1    
employed in making the ,tartarized      
,tincture of  ,mars1 is replete with    
many oily and earthy parts1 which cannot
 but  obstruct the dissolution of the   
,iron1 and prevent our seeing clearly   
how that dissolution is carried on1 ,i  
thought it better to make use  of       
,cream1 or ,crystals1 of ,tartar1 which1
 being pure and freed from  all those   
heterogeneous parts1 dissolve in boiling
 water without  prejudicing its         
transparency4    ,i therefore pulverized
 ,cream of ,tartar1 and dissolved as    

much thereof  in boiling water as it    
would take up4 ,this solution ,i poured 
boiling  hot into a matrass1 at the     
bottom of which ,i laid some fine iron  
wire  cut into small pieces4 ,i set the 
matrass in a sand-bath2 and having      
heated it so as to make the liquor boil1
 ,i observed that1 the instant  before  
it boiled1 the liquor began to act very 
perceptibly upon the  ,iron1 in the same
 manner as other ,acids act upon        
metallic substances2  that is1 there    
appeared on the surfaces of the little  
bits of ,iron  small bubbles1 which     
immediately rose to the surface of the  
liquor1  and succeeded each other so    
fast1 that they formed lines1 or jets1  
seemingly continued from the surface of 
the ,iron to the surface of the  liquor1
 which1 little by little1 acquired a    
faint tinge of yellow4    ,when the     
liquor was heated so as to boil1 the    
dissolution still went  on1 but much    
more briskly1 and the liquor acquired a 
deeper colour4  ,after boiling about an 

hour1 the liquor1 which at first was    
very clear1  became turbid1 and of an   
opaque white2 which made me think1 that 
some  of the ,cream of ,tartar1         
dissolved therein1 began to precipitate4
    ,i let the whole boil some time     
longer1 and the white precipitate       
becoming more considerable1 ,i resolved 
to filter the liquor1 which  passed     
through clear1 and tinged with a        
greenish yellow4 ,there remained  on the
 filter a whitish sediment1 which ,i    
found to be true ,cream of  ,tartar4    
,the filtered liquor tasted much like a 
solution of ,copperas4  ,i evaporated it
 in a glass bason1 set in a sand-heat1  
but no pellicle  appeared2 which made me
 conclude that it would produce no      
crystals3  accordingly1 having taken    
some of it out of the bason1 when it was
  considerably reduced by evaporation1  
and set it in a cool place1 no  crystal 
shot in it4    ,the rest of the liquor  
,i evaporated to dryness3 it left a     
blackish  brown residuum1 which had the 

same taste with the liquor before       
evaporation1 but much stronger4 ,this   
residuum melts very readily in  the     
mouth1 without leaving on the tongue the
 least gritty particle4  ,being exposed 
very dry to the air1 it grows moist1 and
 runs into a  liquor in a very little   
time4 ,it dissolves easily and readily  
in a very  small quantity of cold water4
 ,this solution being mixed with ,fixed 
,alkalis1 in various proportions1 doth  
not grow turbid1 nor drops any          
precipitate2 but with a decoction of    
galls it makes ink4 ,acids give it  a   
much clearer colour1 and at first       
produce no precipitation2 but1 in a     
quarter of an hour1 there appears a     
precipitate much of the same colour     
with the solution4 ,this precipitate is 
no other than ,cream of ,tartar1  tinged
 of a russet colour by the liquor1 which
 grows turbid1 and a  little whitish1   
when the precipitate begins to form4    
,these experiments1 and the             
circumstances attending them1 will not  

allow us to doubt the truth of what ,i  
advanced concerning the ,tincture  of   
,mars made with ,tartar1 viz4 that it is
 nothing but ,crystal of  ,tartar by    
which ,iron is dissolved1 and which is  
rendered soluble by  that metal4 ,we see
 at the very first that ,crystal of     
,tartar acts upon  ,iron1 just as other 
,acids do4 ,indeed this metallic        
solution is not  precipitated by        
,alkalis3 but we know that ,alkalis     
possess the property  of dissolving     
,iron1 especially when the metal is     
previously divided by  an ,acid2 so that
 there is reason to think this may be   
the case1 when an  ,alkali is mixed with
 our ,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar4     
,as this ,soluble ,tartar is a          
saponaceous and oily ,salt1 it is also  
possible that it may be dissolved       
entirely by the ,alkali1 without        
suffering any decomposition2 especially 
as ,alkalis decompound ,neutral         
,metallic ,salts1 by means only of the  
stronger affinity which they  have with 

the ,acids1 than with the ,metals1 of   
which those ,salts are  compounded4     
,now1 as our ,soluble ,chalybeated      
,tartar is compounded of  that ,metal   
which the ,alkali dissolves with the    
greatest ease1 and  of that ,acid with  
which it hath the least affinity of any1
 it is  very possible that it may not   
have a greater affinity with the ,acid  
than with the metallic basis of this    
,salt1 and so be uncapable of           
decompounding it4 ,however1 as this     
,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar makes  a  
black liquor with a decoction of ,galls1
 and as nothing but ,iron  dissolved by 
an ,acid hath that property1 it may be  
safely concluded1  that this ,salt      
really consists of ,iron dissolved by   
the ,acid of ,tartar4    ,the           
precipitate which a solution of this    
,salt lets fall1 on the  addition of an 
,acid1 is another proof that it consists
 of these two  principles3 for this     
precipitate can be no other than the    
,tartarous  ,acid1 which1 being the     

weakest of all ,acids1 is separated from
 the ,iron  by the ,acid added to the   
solution2 which ,acid unites with the   
,martial  basis1 and forms another      
,neutral ,metallic ,salt1 according to  
the ,acid  employed4 ,lastly1 the great 
solubility of the desiccated residuum of
  the ,tincture of ,mars1 made with     
,tartar1 is a very strong and decisive  
proof1 that this residuum is no other   
than ,iron dissolved by the ,acid  of   
,tartar3 for what else can it be8       
,nothing but ,iron and ,crystal of      
,tartar is made use of in the operation2
 and neither of these two  substances   
singly is so soluble as this new body4  
,we know1 moreover1 that ,crystal of    
,tartar1 which itself is  indissoluble1 
forms a ,soluble ,tartar when combined  
with pure ,absorbent  ,earths1 though   
these matters be still more indissoluble
 than it1  or rather1 are not soluble at
 all4 ,hence it is very natural to      
conclude1 that our residuum is a ,tartar
 rendered soluble by ,iron4  ,this      

,chalybeated ,tartar is even more       
soluble than any other sort  of ,soluble
 ,tartar2 for it very readily grows     
moist in the air1 and  runs wholly into 
a liquid2 on which account it is not    
susceptible of  crystallization4    ,i  
return to one of the circumstances      
attending my experiment1 which  it is   
proper ,i should account for2 though ,i 
have hitherto only  mentioned it1       
without more particular notice1 that ,i 
might not break  the connection between 
facts1 and the consequences resulting   
from  them4 ,the circumstance ,i mean is
 the precipitation of the ,cream of     
,tartar dissolved in the liquor1 which1 
,i said1 happens when the saline        
solution hath boiled upon the ,iron     
about an hour4 ,this precipitation  of  
the ,cream of ,tartar may be partly     
occasioned by the evaporation of  the   
water in which it is dissolved3 for the 
water having taken up1 as  was said1 as 
much ,cream of ,tartar as it was capable
 of dissolving1 when  the quantity of   

water comes to be lessened1 a           
proportional quantity of  ,cream of     
,tartar must precipitate4    ,but some  
other cause must also contribute to     
produce this  precipitation3 for1 as ,i 
boiled my liquor in a matrass1 the      
evaporation  of the liquor could not be 
considerable1 and yet the precipitate   
was  very copious4 ,moreover1 ,i        
replenished the matrass with much more  
water  than was necessary to replace    
what had evaporated2 yet ,i could not   
re-dissolve the precipitated ,cream of  
,tartar1 nor even sensibly lessen  its  
quantity4    ,the true cause of this    
effect ,i take to be as follows4 ,when  
the  solution of ,cream of ,tartar hath 
boiled for some time upon the ,iron1    
and dissolved a certain quantity        
thereof1 a proportional quantity of     
,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar is formed4
 ,now as this ,salt is much more        
soluble in water than ,cream of ,tartar1
 and as water always takes up  the more 
soluble ,salts1 preferably to the less  

soluble1 it is not  surprising that     
,cream of ,tartar1 being one of those   
saline substances  which dissolve with  
the greatest difficulty1 should on this 
occasion  separate from the liquor1 and 
precipitate2 yielding its place to a    
,salt  which hath a much greater        
affinity with water4    ,hence it       
appears1 that to re-dissolve the ,cream 
of ,tartar1 and render  it capable of   
continuing to dissolve the iron as      
efficaciously as  before1 it is not     
sufficient that fresh water be added2   
but the  solution of the ,soluble       
,chalybeated ,tartar already formed must
 be  entirely decanted1 and fresh water 
poured on the residue2 and then this    
water1 not being impregnated with any   
,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar1 will  be 
capable of re-dissolving the ,cream of  
,tartar1 and every thing will  go on as 
at the beginning of the operation1 till 
the ,cream of ,tartar  come to          
precipitate again1 for the same reason  
as before1 and make a  repetition of the

 same management necessary4 ,the liquor 
is far from  being saturated with       
,soluble ,chalybeated ,tartar1 when the 
precipitation  of the ,cream of ,tartar 
renders it necessary to decant it3 so   
that the  water must be often renewed1  
if you carry the operation to the       
utmost2  and then all these solutions   
must be added together1 and evaporated1 
either to dryness1 if you desire to have
 the salt in a dry form1 or to  any     
other degree you think proper4    ,this 
method ,i followed at first3 but as it  
is exceeding long and  tedious1 though  
perhaps the best2 and as ,i wanted to   
have a moderate  quantity of ,soluble   
,chalybeated ,tartar1 with less trouble1
 and in less  time1 if possible1 ,i     
resolved to try whether or no ,cream of 
,tartar1  though separated from the     
liquor and undissolved1 were still      
capable of  acting on the iron with such
 efficacy as to dissolve it4 ,i         
therefore  continued to boil the        
tartarous solution on the filings of    

,iron1  notwithstanding the             
precipitation of the ,cream of ,tartar1 
taking care  only to add fresh water    
from time to time1 as directed in the   
process  for the ,tartarized ,tincture  
of ,mars1 to replace what evaporated2   
and  ,i observed that1 in fact1 the     
,cream of ,tartar1 though not perfectly 
dissolved1 but only divided and agitated
 by the motion of boiling1  still       
continued to act upon the ,iron2 so that
 the liquor1 after boiling  seven or    
eight hours1 was so impregnated as to   
yield by evaporation a  reasonable      
quantity1 in bulk1 of ,salt in a dry    
form4      ,,process ,,iv4    ,crystal  
of ,tartar combined with the reguline   
,part of ,antimony4  ,stibiated or      
,emetic ,tartar4    ,pulverize and mix  
together equal parts of the ,glass and  
of the ,liver  of ,antimony4 ,put this  
mixture1 with the same quantity of      
pulverized  ,cream of ,tartar1 into a   
vessel capable of containing as much    
water as  will dissolve the ,cream of   

,tartar4 ,boil the whole for twelve     
hours1  from time to time adding warm   
water1 to replace what is dissipated by 
evaporation4 ,having thus boiled your   
liquor1 filter it while boiling  hot2   
evaporate to dryness2 and you will have 
a saline matter which is  ,emetic       
,tartar4      ,,observations4    ,the   
,glass and ,liver of ,antimony are no   
other1 as was said in its place1  than  
the metallic earth of ,antimony         
separated from the redundant  ,sulphur  
of that mineral2 but still retaining    
such a quantity of  phlogiston as to    
possess1 excepting its metalline colour1
 nearly the  same properties with       
,regulus of ,antimony1 and especially   
its emetic  quality1 and its solubility 
in ,acids4 ,indeed these two            
preparations  seem to have more of an   
emetic quality than the ,regulus itself1
 and  therefore are employed preferably 
to all others in the preparation of     
,emetic ,tartar4    ,it is not yet      
ascertained in which of the principles  

of ,antimony its  emetic virtue resides4
 ,we are sure1 however1 that it cannot  
be ascribed  to its earthy part3 for the
 calx of ,antimony1 when entirely       
deprived of  all phlogiston1 is not     
emetic1 nor even purgative2 as is       
evident from  the effects of            
,diaphoretic ,antimony and the ,pearly  
,matter4    ,some authors think         
,antimony contains an arsenical         
principle1 to which  they impute its    
emetic quality2 nor is their opinion    
altogether void of  probability4 ,for   
this arsenical part seems to be         
indicated by several  of the properties 
of ,antimony1 and particularly by its   
affinities with  other metallic         
substances1 in which it very nearly     
resembles ,arsenic4  ,but this doth not 
amount to a positive proof3 for we can  
draw nothing  but probable conjectures1 
at most1 from such analogies4    ,other 
,chymists think the emetic virtue of    
,antimony depends on the  union of its  
metallic earth with its phlogiston4     

,this opinion seems  to me much more    
probable than the other3 for by only    
recombining a  phlogiston with the earth
 of ,antimony1 deprived by calcination  
of all  its emetic virtue1 that virtue  
is perfectly restored1 and the ,regulus 
thus revivified is no less emetic than  
that which never underwent  calcination4
    ,however this be1 it is certain that
 ,cream of ,tartar acquires an  emetic  
quality1 not by barely uniting with one 
of the principles of  ,antimony1 but by 
dissolving entirely the reguline1 or    
semi-reguline1  part thereof2 and that  
its emetic quality is so much the       
stronger1 the  more of that substance it
 hath dissolved4 ,this is the result of 
several  experiments made on the subject
 by ,mr4 ,geoffroy4    ,that gentleman  
collected several parcels of ,emetic    
,tartar1 having  different degrees of   
strength4 ,i employed1 says he#ae1 an   
ounce of  each of those ,emetic         
,tartars3 ,i rubbed them separately with
 an equal  weight1 or something more1 of

 a black flux1 made of two parts of red 
,tartar1 and one part of ,nitre calcined
 together4 ,these mixtures ,i put  into 
different crucibles1 formed like        
inverted cones3 ,i kept them in a       
melting heat till the ,salts in fusion  
sunk1 and appeared like a smooth  oil at
 the bottom of each crucible4 ,i then   
let the fire go out1 broke  the         
crucibles when cold1 and found the      
resuscitated ,regulus in a mass  at     
bottom4      #ae ,memoirs of the        
,academy for #agcd1 p4 #dba4    ,out of 
one ounce of the weakest ,emetic        
,tartars ,i obtained from thirty  grains
 to one dram eighteen grains of         
,regulus4 ,from one ounce of such  as   
were of a middling strength ,i got one  
dram and an half2 and the most  violent 
yielded me two drams and ten grains4    
,the power1 therefore1 of the strongest 
,emetic ,tartars1 continues he1  depends
 on the quantity of ,regulus of         
,antimony dissolved by the ,cream  of   
,tartar1 and the nearer the preparations

 of ,antimony1 on which the  solution of
 ,cream of ,tartar is boiled1 are to the
 form of a ,regulus or  a ,glass1 the   
more violent is the ,emetic ,tartar2    
because the ,vegetable  ,acid of the    
,tartar acts then more immediately upon 
the ,emetic part of  the ,antimony1 and 
dissolves more of it4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy 
found upon trial1 that ,cream of ,tartar
 boiled for a due  time on ,crude       
,antimony1 doth indeed dissolve a little
 of the reguline  part thereof2 but that
 the quantity of ,regulus dissolved     
thereby is  so very small1 that the     
,emetic ,tartar produced is extremely   
weak4 ,the  gross ,sulphur1 in this     
case1 hinders the ,cream of ,tartar from
 acting  on the reguline part with so   
much efficacy1 as when the ,antimony is 
properly prepared by freeing it entirely
 from its redundant ,sulphur4           
,nothing can be added to what ,mr4      
,geoffroy hath said on this subject4    
,his experiments are decisive1 and set  
the truth he intended to prove in  the  

clearest light4    ,mr4 ,hoffman        
affirms1 that ,emetic ,tartar loses part
 of its virtue by  being boiled too     
long4 ,a very able ,chymist goes so far 
as to say1 that  ,tartar ought not to   
boil above six or seven minutes with    
prepared  ,antimony2 because longer     
boiling destroys part of its ,emetic    
quality4  ,can this arise from hence1   
that ,cream of ,tartar1 after dissolving
  a certain quantity of the reguline    
substance1 separates from it            
afterwards8 ,or is the ,cream of ,tartar
 itself decomposed by too long  boiling8
 ,this deserves to be particularly      
inquired into1 as well as the  nature of
 the ,metallic ,salt1 which results from
 the union of the ,acid  of ,tartar with
 the ,regulus of ,antimony4    ,crystal 
of ,tartar acts also on several other   
metallic substances1 and  particularly  
on ,lead2 with which it forms a ,salt1  
resembling ,tartarized  ,tartar in the  
figure of its crystals4          ,,chap4
 ,v4    ,of the ,,product of ,,acetous  

,,fermentation4      ,,process ,i4      
,substances susceptible of the ,acetous 
,fermentation turned into  ,vinegar4    
,the ,wine1 the ,cyder1 or the          
,malt-liquor1 which you intend to       
convert  into ,vinegar1 being first     
thoroughly mixed with its lees1 and with
 the  ,tartar it may have deposited1 put
 your liquor into a vat used before1    
either for making or for holding        
,vinegar4 ,this vessel must not be quite
  full1 and the external air must have  
access to the liquor contained in  it4  
,set it where the air may have a degree 
of warmth answering nearly  to the      
twentieth degree above #j in ,mr4 de    
,raumur's ,thermometer4 ,stir  the      
liquor from time to time4 ,there will   
arise in it a new fermentative  motion1 
accompanied with heat3 its vinous odour 
will gradually change1  and turn to a   
sour smell1 which will become stronger  
and stronger1  till the fermentation be 
finished1 and cease of itself4 ,then    
stop your  vessel close2 the liquor it  

contains will be found converted into   
,vinegar4      ,,observations4    ,all  
substances that have undergone the      
spirituous fermentation are  capable of 
being changed into an ,acid1 by passing 
through this second  fermentation1 or   
this second stage of fermentation4      
,spirituous liquors1  such as ,wine1    
,cyder1 ,beer1 being exposed to a hot   
air1 grow sour in  a very short time4   
,nay1 these liquors1 though kept with   
all possible  care1 in very close       
vessels1 and in a cool place1 degenerate
 at last1  change their natures1 and    
insensibly turn sour4 ,thus the product 
of  spirituous fermentation naturally   
and spontaneously degenerates to an     
,acid4    ,for this reason it is of     
great importance1 in making ,wine1 or   
any  other vinous liquor1 to stop the   
fermentation entirely1 if you desire    
the ,wine should contain as much ,spirit
 as possible4 ,it is even more          
advantageous to check the fermentation a
 little before it comes to the  height1 

than afterwards3 because the            
fermentation1 though slackened1  and in 
appearance totally ceased1 still        
continues in the vessels2 but  in a     
manner so much the less perceptible1 as 
it proceeds more slowly4  ,thus those   
liquors1 in which the fermentation is   
not quite finished1  but checked1       
continue for some time to gain more     
,spirit3 whereas1 on  the contrary1 they
 degenerate and gradually turn sour1 if 
you let the  spirituous fermentation go 
on till it be entirely finished4    ,the
 production of the second fermentation1 
which we are now to  consider1 is an    
,acid of so much the greater strength1  
the stronger and  more generous the     
spirituous liquor1 in which it is       
excited1 originally  was4 ,the strength 
of this ,acid1 commonly called ,vinegar1
 depends  likewise1 in a great measure1 
on the methods used in fermenting the   
vinous liquor1 in order to convert it   
into ,vinegar3 for if it be  fermented  
in broad1 flat vessels1 and left to grow

 sour of itself1 the  spirituous part   
will be dissipated1 and the liquor1     
though sour indeed1  will be vapid and  
effete4    ,the ,vinegar-makers1 to     
increase the strength of their ,vinegar1
 use  certain methods of which they make
 a mystery1 keeping them very secret4   
,however1 ,mr4 ,boerhaave gives us1 from
 some ,authors1 the following           
description of a process for making     
,vinegar4    ,take two large oaken ,vats
 or ,hogsheads1 and in each of these    
place a  wooden grate or hurdle1 at the 
distance of a foot from the bottom4 ,set
  the vessel upright1 and on the grates 
place a moderately close layer  of green
 twigs1 or fresh cuttings of the vine4  
,then fill up the vessel  with the      
foot-stalks of grapes1 commonly called  
the ,rape1 to within a  foot of the top 
of the vessel1 which must be left quite 
open4    ,having thus prepared the two  
vessels1 pour into them the ,wine to  be
 converted into ,vinegar1 so as to fill 
one of them quite up1 and  the other but

 half full4 ,leave them thus for        
twenty-four hours1 and  then fill up the
 half-filled vessel1 with liquor from   
that which is  quite full1 and which    
will now in its turn be left only       
half-full4  ,four and twenty hours      
afterwards repeat the same operation1   
and thus  go on1 keeping the vessels    
alternately full and half-full1 during  
every twenty-four hours1 till the       
,vinegar be made4 ,on the second or     
third day there will arise1 in the      
half-filled vessel1 a fermentative      
motion1 accompanied with a sensible     
heat1 which will gradually  increase    
from day to day4 ,on the contrary1 the  
fermenting motion is  almost            
imperceptible in the full vessel2 and as
 the two vessels are  alternately full  
and half-full1 the fermentation is by   
that means1 in  some measure1           
interrupted1 and is only renewed every  
other day1 in each  vessel4    ,when    
this motion appears to be entirely      
ceased1 even in the  half-filled vessel1

 it is a sign that the fermentation is  
finished2  and therefore the vinegar is 
then to be put into common casks1 close 
stopped1 and kept in a cool place4    ,a
 greater or less degree of warmth       
accelerates or checks this1 as  well as 
the spirituous fermentation4 ,in ,france
 it is finished in  about fifteen days1 
during the summer2 but if the heat of   
the air be  very great1 and exceed the  
twenty-fifth degree of ,mr4 de ,raumur's
  ,thermometer1 the half-filled vessel  
must be filled up every twelve  hours2  
because1 if the fermentation be not so  
checked in that time1  it will become so
 violent1 and the liquor will be so     
heated1 that  many of the spirituous    
parts1 on which the strength of the     
,vinegar  depends1 will be dissipated2  
so that nothing will remain1 after the  
fermentation1 but a vapid wash1 sour    
indeed1 but effete4 ,the better to      
prevent the dissipation of the          
spirituous parts1 it is a proper and    
usual precaution to close the mouth of  

the half-filled vessel1 in which  the   
liquor ferments1 with a cover made also 
of oak-wood4 ,as to the full  vessel1 it
 is always left open1 that the air may  
act freely on the  liquor it contains3  
for it is not liable to the same        
inconveniencies1  because it ferments   
but very slowly4    ,the vine-cuttings  
and grape-stalks1 which the             
,vinegar-makers put  into their vessels1
 serve to increase the strength of the  
liquor4  ,these matters contain a very  
manifest and perceptible ,acid4 ,they   
also  serve as a ferment2 that is1 they 
dispose the ,wine to become eager  more 
expeditiously1 and more vigorously4     
,they are the better1 and  the more     
efficacious1 for having been once used1 
because they are  thereby thoroughly    
drenched with the fermented ,acid3 and  
therefore the  ,vinegar-makers lay them 
by1 for preparing other ,vinegar1 after 
washing  them nimbly in running water1  
in order to free them from a viscid oily
  matter1 which settles on them during  

the fermentation4 ,this matter must  by 
all means be removed2 because it is     
disposed to grow mouldy and rot2  so    
that it cannot but be prejudicial to any
 liquor into which you put  it4    ,as  
the ,acetous fermentation differs from  
the ,spirituous in its  production1 so  
it doth in many circumstances attending 
it4 #a4 ,motion  and agitation are not  
prejudicial to the ,acetous             
fermentation1 as they  are to the       
,spirituous2 on the contrary1 moderate  
stirring1 provided  it be not continual1
 is of service to it4 #b4 ,this         
fermentation is  accompanied with       
remarkable heat2 whereas1 the warmth of 
the spirituous  fermentation is scarce  
sensible4 #c4 ,i do not believe there   
ever was an  instance of the vapour that
 rises from a liquor in ,acetous        
fermentation  proving noxious1 and      
producing either disorders or sudden    
death1 as  the vapour of fermenting     
,wine doth4 #d4 ,vinegar deposites a    
viscid oily  matter1 as hath just been  

observed1 very different from the ,lees 
and  ,tartar of ,wine4 ,vinegar never   
deposites any ,tartar2 even though new  
,wine1 that hath not yet deposited its  
,tartar1 should be used in making  it4  
,the following processes will give us   
occasion to treat of the nature of      
,vinegar1 and the principles of which it
 consists4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,to  
concentrate ,vinegar by ,frost4         
,expose to the air1 in frosty weather1  
the ,vinegar you desire to  concentrate4
 ,icicles will form in it2 but the whole
 liquor will  not freeze4 ,take out     
those icicles3 and if you desire a      
further  concentration of your ,vinegar 
by this method1 the liquor which did    
not freeze the first time must be       
exposed to a stronger frost4 ,more      
icicles will form therein1 which must   
likewise be separated1 and kept  by     
themselves4 ,the liquor which doth not  
freeze this second time will  be a very 
strong concentrated ,vinegar4           
,,observations4    ,liquors1 replete    

with an ,acid1 freeze with much more    
difficulty than  pure water4 ,thus1 if a
 very aqueous acid liquor be exposed to 
frost1  some of the water in the liquor 
will presently freeze2 while the rest1  
being rendered more acid by the         
separation of the frozen phlegm1 will   
remain fluid1 and resist the degree of  
cold which freezes water4 ,now          
,vinegar1 being an acid liquor          
containing much water1 may therefore be 
highly concentrated by freezing its     
phlegm in this manner2 and the  more    
icicles you get from it1 the stronger   
and more active will the  remaining     
,vinegar be4    ,mr4 ,stahl was the     
first1 ,i believe1 who thus made use of 
congelation1  for procuring a very      
strong ,acid of ,vinegar4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy
 hath since  taken the same method4 ,a  
curious and circumstantial account of   
his  experiments1 on this subject1 are  
printed in the ,memoirs of the ,academy 
for #agci4    ,as it was excessive cold 
in the winter of that year1 ,mr4        

,geoffroy took  the opportunity of      
exposing to the frost several ,vinegars 
of different  strengths2 and he         
determined the degree of ,acidity in    
each1 both before  and after their      
concentration1 in order to compare them1
 and discover  how much stronger each   
,vinegar was rendered by the freezing of
 the  aqueous part4 ,to determine the   
strength of the ,vinegars1 he made use  
of the method pointed out by ,mr4       
,homberg and ,mr4 ,stahl4 ,this method  
consists in combining to the exact point
 of saturation1 a certain  quantity of  
,vinegar with well-dried ,salt of       
,tartar4 ,the more ,salt of  ,tartar is 
required1 to absorb and perfectly       
neutralize the ,vinegar1 the  stronger  
it must be reckoned2 because the        
quantity of ,alkali necessary  to       
constitute a ,neutral ,salt is always   
proportioned to the quantity of  ,acid  
in that ,salt4    ,one of the ,vinegars 
employed in ,mr4 ,geoffroy's            
experiments1 two drams  of which were   

entirely absorbed by six grains of ,salt
 of ,tartar1 having  been concentrated  
by once freezing1 and thereby reduced   
from eighteen  quarts to six1 he found  
it so increased in strength1 that two   
drams  thereof required twenty-four     
grains of ,salt of ,tartar to absorb    
them4    ,the first icicles that        
separate from ,vinegar1 in this process1
 are  perfectly clear1 and as insipid as
 water4 ,as the ,vinegar becomes more   
concentrated1 the plates of ice becoming
 thinner1 more spongy1 and  flaky like  
snow1 retain between them some portion  
of the ,acid2 and it  is proper to begin
 to save them as soon as they appear to 
be sensibly  acid4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy    
carried the concentration of ,vinegar as
 far as the cold  of that winter in     
#agci would allow him2 and eight quarts 
of ,vinegar1  already concentrated by   
frost in the preceding years1 being     
reduced to  two quarts and a half by the
 frost of the #aith of ,january1 the    
coldest  day of that year1 was found to 

be so strong1 that two drams thereof    
required forty-eight grains of ,salt of 
,tartar to absorb them4 ,the  icicles of
 this ,vinegar1 being thawed1 retain so 
much strength as to  require thirteen   
grains of the ,salt of ,tartar to absorb
 them4    ,vinegar suffers no           
decomposition by the congelation of its 
phlegm1 and  the consequent             
concentration of its ,acid4 ,what is    
left still contains  all the principles 
of which ,vinegar consists4 ,its        
principles are only  brought nearer     
together1 and into a smaller compass3   
and for this  reason it grows the       
thicker the more it is concentrated4    
,when therefore  you desire to          
concentrate the ,acid of ,vinegar1 and  
at the same time to  purify it1 that is1
 to free it from some of its oil and    
earth1 you must  have recourse to       
distillation4    ,wine1 as well as      
,vinegar1 may be concentrated by        
freezing4 ,mr4 ,stahl  exposed several  
sorts of ,wine to the frost1 and by that

 means separated  from them about two   
thirds1 or three quarters1 of almost    
pure phlegm4  ,the remainders of the    
,wines so concentrated were of a        
somewhat  thickish consistence4 ,they   
were very strong1 and kept for several  
years without altering1 in places where 
the free access of the air1  alternately
 cold and hot according to the seasons1 
would have soured1  or spoiled1 any     
other kind of ,wine in the space of a   
few weeks4    ,wine thus concentrated by
 freezing is not thereby decomposed1 any
  more than ,vinegar3 it is only        
dephlegmated4 ,by the addition of as    
much water as was separated from it1 you
 may restore it to its former           
condition2 in which respect it differs  
greatly from the residue of  ,wine whose
 spirituous part1 with a proportion of  
its phlegm1 hath been  drawn off by     
distillation3 for though you mix that   
residue again with  the principles you  
separated from it1 you can never make   
,wine of it  again2 the spirituous part 

being no longer in a capacity to combine
  with the other principles of the      
,wine1 in the same manner as before     
that separation4 ,and this shews that   
heat1 besides separating the  most      
volatile parts1 produces moreover a     
considerable change in the  disposition 
of those which did not rise in the first
 distillation4    ,since the above      
experiments were made by ,messrs4 ,stahl
 and ,geoffroy1  concentration by       
freezing is pretty frequently practised 
in  laboratories2 but on ,vinegar only1 
seldom on ,wine3 because1 when  ,vinegar
 is thus concentrated1 a much stronger  
,acid is more easily and  more          
expeditiously obtained from it1 as will 
be shewn in the following  process2     
whereas the distillation1 as well as the
 quality1 of ,spirit  of ,wine is much  
the same1 whether the ,wine it is       
obtained from be  concentrated or no4   
,the reason of this difference is1 that 
,spirit  of ,wine1 being very light1    
rises in distillation before the phlegm2

  whereas the ,acid of ,vinegar1 being  
much more ponderous1 rises only at  the 
same time with the aqueous part1 or even
 after it4      ,,process ,,iii4        
,vinegar analyzed by ,distillation4     
,into a glass or stone cucurbit put the 
,vinegar to be distilled2 fit to  it a  
glass head2 place your alembic in the   
sand-bath of a distilling  furnace1 and 
lute on a receiver4 ,apply a very gentle
 heat at first4 ,a  clear1 limpid1 light
 liquor will rise1 and fall in distinct 
drops1  like water1 from the nose of the
 alembic4    ,continue distilling this  
first liquor1 till the vinegar contained
  in the cucurbit be diminished about a 
fourth part4 ,then shift your  receiver1
 and increase the fire a little4 ,a     
clear liquor will still  come over1 but 
heavier and more acid than the former4  
,distil in this  manner1 till you have  
drawn off1 into your second receiver1   
two-thirds  of the liquor that was left 
in the cucurbit4    ,a thick matter will
 now remain at the bottom of the still3 

put it  into a retort2 lute on a        
receiver2 set your retort in a          
reverberating  furnace1 and distil with 
degrees of fire4 ,there will come over a
 limpid  liquor1 very acid and sharp1   
yet ponderous1 and requiring a great    
degree of fire to raise it2 on which    
account it makes the receiver very  hot4
 ,it hath a strong empyreumatic smell4  
,when the distillation begins  to       
slacken1 increase your fire4 ,there will
 rise an ,oil of a fetid1  quick smell4 
,at last1 when nothing more will rise   
with the strongest  fire1 break the     
retort1 and in it you will find a black 
charred matter3  burn it1 and from the  
ashes lixiviated with water you will    
obtain a  ,fixed ,alkali4               
,,observations4    ,none of the liquors 
that come over in this operation1 before
 the  last fetid ,oil1 seem to have any 
other properties than those of  an oily 
,acid2 none of them is inflammable1 none
 of them resembles  ,spirit of ,wine2   
but all of them being thrown into the   

fire extinguish  it4 ,mr4 ,boerhaave    
however takes notice1 that a ,chymist1  
named  ,vigani1 affirms the first       
portion of the liquor which rises in the
  distillation of ,vinegar to be        
inflammable1 and no other than ,spirit  
of ,wine4 ,mr4 ,boerhaave suspected that
 this might happen from ,vigani's       
having distilled ,vinegar too newly     
made2 and found upon trial that         
,vinegar1 being distilled soon after it 
was made1 yielded at first  in          
distillation a certain quantity of an   
,ardent ,spirit2 but that  the same     
thing did not happen in the distillation
 of old ,vinegar4  ,and this proves that
 fermentation hath the same effect on   
,vinegar  as on ,wine2 that is1 that    
though the fermentation which produces  
these liquors seems to be over in a     
certain time1 when the violent          
intestine commotion ceases1 yet it still
 continues in the vessels for a         
considerable time after1 though it be   
imperceptible4 ,thus1 the portion  of   

,ardent ,spirit1 obtained from some     
,vinegars1 comes from a small  quantity 
of ,wine1 which still remains unchanged 
in these ,vinegars1  not having had time
 enough to turn sour4 ,for it is        
certain1 from the  experiments of all   
other ,chymists as well as ,mr4         
,boerhaave1 that  ,vinegar1 when old    
enough1 yields no ,ardent ,spirit in    
distillation4    ,but though old and    
well-made ,vinegar yields no ,ardent    
,spirit in  distillation1 we cannot     
thence conclude that it contains none4  
,on the  contrary1 there are experiments
 which demonstrate that some of the     
,ardent ,spirit1 which was in the ,wine 
before it was turned into ,vinegar1     
still remains2 but probably so combined 
and blended with the acid part1  that it
 cannot be separated and rendered       
perceptible but by peculiar  processes4 
,mr4 ,geoffroy obtained an ,ardent      
,spirit from ,vinegar1 by distilling it 
as soon as it was concentrated by       
freezing4 ,this spirit1 says he#af1  is 

the first liquor that rises4 ,at first  
it hath only the same degree  of        
inflammability as brandy2 but1 when     
re-distilled in the balneum  mari1 it   
fires gun-powder1 like the best         
rectified ,spirit of ,wine3  with this  
difference1 that our ,spirit is         
impregnated with an oil of an  acrid    
taste and empyreumatic smell1 which     
makes it yellow1 and imparts  its odour 
to it4 ,this ,spirit1 at least that     
which comes over first1  retains none of
 the ,acid of the ,vinegar2 seeing it   
neither changes the  tincture of        
violets1 nor effervesces with ,salt of  
,tartar4      #af ,memoirs of the       
,academy for #agbi4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy   
observes1 that1 if ,vinegar concentrated
 by freezing  be afterwards kept for    
several years1 no ,ardent ,spirit will  
then  be obtained from it by            
distillation4 ,and this confirms what we
  said of unconcentrated ,vinegar1 and  
gives reason to think that the  ,ardent 
,spirit obtained from ,vinegar1 either  

by distilling it after  concentration by
 freezing1 or by other processes of     
which we shall  treat in the sequel1 is 
foreign to the ,vinegar1 and is only    
found  therein1 as was said above1      
because ,vinegar contains a certain     
quantity  of ,wine which hath not       
altered its nature4 ,for the ,spirit of 
,wine we  obtain from ,vinegar doth not 
hinder our obtaining from it a great    
deal  of ,acid1 which being more        
ponderous rises after it4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy
 gives  the following account of the    
sequel of his analysis of ,vinegar by   
distillation4    ,continuing to distil  
in a balneum mari the concentrated      
,vinegar1  of which ,i had employed four
 pounds two ounces1 there was left1     
after  the distillation1 a residuum of  
fourteen ounces2 which could not rise1  
because it was too thick4 ,i found it   
covered with a saline crust1 which  is  
the true ,essential ,salt of ,vinegar1  
and not of the same nature with         
,tartar3 for ,tartar of ,wine is        

scentless2 whereas the ,salt of ,vinegar
  hath a pungent smell1 being the ,acid 
of ,tartar subtilized by its union  with
 the ,sulphureous parts4 ,if a sand-bath
 be now used1 instead of  the balneum   
mari1 to carry on the distillation      
without burning the  matter1 part of    
this ,salt will be resolved1 and yield  
the last ,acid  ,spirit1 which is the   
strongest that can be obtained4         
,after ,i had1 by a sand-heat1 extracted
 all the ,acid ,spirit that the  several
 residuums put together would yield1 ,i 
found at the bottom  of the cucurbit a  
brown mass1 of the consistence of a     
pretty solid  extract4 ,of this ,i put  
into a retort two pounds1 together with 
six  pounds of sand well washed and very
 dry2 and1 applying a graduated  heat1  
,i first obtained six ounces of an ,acid
 ,spirit1 that smelt very  strong of the
 empyreuma1 and was a little coloured   
with some portion  of oil2 seven ounces 
of ,spirit1 having a volatile urinous   
smell1 came  over next3 at last the     

white vapours appeared more and more    
dense4 ,a  volatile concrete ,salt      
adhered to the sides of the ballon1 and 
,i found  four ounces of a thick fetid  
,oil floating on the ,spirit4 ,the      
concrete  volatile ,salt1 when          
collected1 weighed two drams4 ,the black
 matter  remaining in the bottom of the 
retort1 being calcined and lixiviated1  
yielded a fat alkaline ,salt1 which it  
is almost impossible to dry4    ,i have 
given this account of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's  
analysis of ,vinegar at  length1 only   
because it differs in several respects  
from that described  in the process1    
which is ,mr4 ,boerhaave's1 as well as  
from those  delivered by several other  
,authors1 who make no mention either of 
the  saline matter1 which ,mr4 ,geoffroy
 found on the residuum of ,vinegar1     
after its first distillation in the     
balneum mari1 or of the volatile        
urinous ,spirit and ,salt1 which he     
obtained from that residuum4    ,these  
differences may arise either from the   

manner of distilling the  ,vinegar1 or  
from ,mr4 ,geoffroy's ,vinegar having   
been concentrated by  freezing1 or      
rather from the quantity1 and1 above    
all1 from the age of  the ,vinegar1     
examined by those different ,chymists4  
,the distillation of ,vinegar serves not
 only to separate its ,acid from  a     
considerable quantity of earth and oily 
parts1 with which it is  entangled1 but 
also to dephlegmate and concentrate it4 
,yet ,mr4 ,lemeri  affirms1 that        
,vinegar is not distilled with a view to
 dephlegmate it4  ,he condemns the      
common method of throwing away the first
 runnings as  useless phlegm1 and saving
 only what comes off afterwards2 having1
 he  says1 observed1 that the phlegm of 
,vinegar cannot be abstracted1 like     
that of many other acid liquors1 and    
that what comes over first is  almost as
 sharp as what rises afterwards1 be the 
fire applied at first  ever so small4   
,there is reason to think that ,mr4     
,lemeri did not carefully enough        

examine the strength of his ,spirit of  
,vinegar1 at the different stages  of   
his distillation3 for ,mr4 ,geoffroy1 in
 the ,memoir above cited1  gives an     
account of a distillation of ,vinegar1  
the product whereof  he examined with   
care1 having for that purpose divided it
 into five  different portions3 and his 
experiments put it beyond all doubt1    
that  the first portions of ,spirit of  
,vinegar are far from being so acid  as 
the last4 ,this ,vinegar was so strong  
before distillation1 that it  required  
six grains of ,salt of ,tartar to absorb
 two drams of it4 ,two  drams of the    
first portion of his ,spirit were       
absorbed by three grains  only of ,salt 
of ,tartar3 the ,acid of the second     
portion took five grains  to absorb it4 
7,each experiment was made with two     
drams of ,vinegar74  ,the third portion 
was absorbed by ten grains2 the fourth  
by thirteen1  and the fifth took no less
 than nineteen3 which proves that       
,vinegar1  like most other ,acids1 may  

be concentrated by distilling off the   
most  aqueous part1 which is lighter    
than the ,acid4    ,there are therefore 
two ways of concentrating ,vinegar1 and 
separating  its most acid part1 namely  
distillation and congelation4 ,these    
two methods may be successively applied 
to the same ,vinegar1 and  a very       
powerful ,acid obtained by their        
concurrence4 ,mr4 ,geoffroy  having     
exposed to the frost1 on the #aith of   
,january #agci1 the last                
russet-coloured liquor1 drawn from the  
residuum of distilled ,vinegar1  found  
it so concentrated thereby1 that it     
required sixty grains of ,salt  of      
,tartar to absorb two drams of it4      
,,chap4 ,,vi4    ,the ,,acid of         
,,vinegar combined with different       
,,substances4      ,,process ,i4        
,the ,acid of ,vinegar combined with    
alkaline ,substances4 ,foliated ,salt   
of ,tartar1 or ,regenerated ,tartar4    
,decomposition of that ,salt4    ,into a
 glass cucurbit put some very pure and  

well-dried ,salt of ,tartar2  and pour  
on it some good distilled ,vinegar1 by  
little and little at  a time4 ,an       
effervescence will arise4 ,pour on more 
,vinegar1 till you  attain the point of 
saturation4 ,then fit a head to the     
cucurbit2 set it  in a sand-bath2 and   
having luted on a receiver1 distil with 
a gentle  heat1 and very slowly1 till   
nothing remain but a dry matter4 ,on    
this  residuum drop a little of the same
 ,vinegar2 and if any effervescence     
appears1 add more ,vinegar till you     
attain the point of saturation1 and     
distil again as before4 ,if you observe 
no effervescence1 the operation  was    
rightly performed4      ,,observations4 
,it is not easy to hit the exact point  
of saturation in preparing this         
,neutral ,salt2 because the oily parts1 
with which the ,acid of ,vinegar is     
loaded1 hinder it from acting so briskly
 and readily as it would do1  if it were
 as pure as the ,mineral ,acids3 and for
 this reason it often  happens1 that1   

when we have nearly attained the point  
of saturation1  the addition of an ,acid
 makes no sensible effervescence1 though
 the  ,alkali be not yet entirely       
saturated2 which deceives the operator1 
and  makes him conclude erroneously that
 he hath attained the true point of     
saturation4    ,but he easily perceives 
his mistake1 when1 after having         
separated from  this saline compound all
 its superfluous moisture by            
distillation1  he drops fresh ,vinegar  
upon it3 for then the ,salts being more 
concentrated1 and consequently more     
active1 produce an effervescence1  which
 would not have been sensible if this   
last portion of ,acid1  instead of      
coming into immediate contact with the  
dried ,alkali1 could  not have mixed    
therewith till diffused through1 and in 
a manner  suffocated by1 that phlegm    
from which the ,acid of the ,vinegar1   
before  neutralized1 was gradually      
separated by its combining with the     
,alkali2  that phlegm keeping in        

solution both the ,neutral ,salt already
 formed1  and the ,alkali not yet       
saturated4 ,and for this reason it is   
necessary  to try1 after the first      
desiccation of this ,salt1 which is     
called  ,regenerated ,tartar1 whether or
 no the just point of saturation hath   
been attained4    ,it may also happen1  
that1 though the point of saturation was
 exactly  hit at first1 this compound   
,salt shall nevertheless1 after         
desiccation1  effervesce with fresh     
,vinegar1 and therefore not be in a     
perfectly  neutral state at that time4  
,in this case the ,salt must have been  
dried  by too violent a fire1 and partly
 decompounded by an excess of heat      
carrying off some of the ,acid1 which   
does not adhere very strongly  to the   
,alkali4 ,this is one of the reasons why
 it is necessary that  ,regenerated     
,tartar be desiccated with a very gentle
 heat4    ,from what hath been said1    
concerning the desiccation of this      
,neutral  ,salt1 it is plain1 that the  

use of it is only to free the ,salt from
  the great quantity of superfluous     
moisture wherein it is dissolved3  which
 proves that the ,acid of ,vinegar1 like
 all other ,acids dissolved  in much    
water1 is separated from most of this   
redundant phlegm by being  combined with
 a ,fixed ,alkali4 ,and hence we must   
conclude1 that the  ,acid of ,vinegar1  
contained in ,regenerated ,tartar       
desiccated1 is vastly  stronger and more
 concentrated than it was before3 and   
accordingly ,mr4  ,geoffroy1 having     
decompounded this ,salt1 by the means of
 concentrated  ,oil of ,vitriol1        
obtained a ,spirit of ,vinegar in white 
vapours1 which  was very volatile and   
very strong1 but perhaps somewhat       
depraved with a  taint of the ,vitriolic
 ,acid4    ,though the ,acid of ,vinegar
 be freed1 by combining with a ,fixed   
,alkali1  from a great quantity of      
superfluous phlegm1 as was shewn above2 
yet  the oily parts with which it is    
entangled still cleave to it3 these     

parts are not separated from it by its  
conversion into a ,neutral ,salt1  but1 
without quitting it1 combine also with  
the ,fixed ,alkali2 and this  gives     
,regenerated ,tartar a saponaceous      
quality1 and several other  peculiar    
properties4    ,regenerated ,tartar1    
when dried1 is of a brown colour4 ,it is
  semi-volatile2 melts with a very      
gentle heat1 and then resembles an      
unctuous liquor2 which indicates its    
containing an ,oil3 when cast upon  live
 coals it flames2 and1 when distilled   
with a strong heat1 yields an  actual   
oil2 all which evidently prove the      
existence of that ,oil4    ,this ,salt  
is soluble in ,spirit of ,wine2 a       
quality which it probably  owes also to 
its ,oil4 ,it requires about six parts  
of ,spirit of ,wine  to dissolve it2 and
 the dissolution succeeds very well in a
 matrass1  with the help of a gentle    
warmth4 ,if the ,spirit of ,wine be     
abstracted  from this solution1 by      
distilling with a small fire1 the ,salt 

remains  at the bottom of the cucurbit1 
in the form of a dry substance composed 
of leaves lying one upon another2 which 
hath procured it the name of  ,terra    
,foliata ,tartari1 or ,foliated ,salt of
 ,tartar4    ,it is not absolutely      
necessary that ,regenerated ,tartar be  
dissolved in  ,spirit of ,wine to make  
the ,foliated ,salt3 for it may be      
procured in  this form1 by only         
evaporating the water in which it is    
dissolved4 ,but  the operation succeeds 
better with ,spirit of ,wine2 probably  
because the  success thereof depends on 
using an exceeding gentle warmth3 now   
,spirit  of ,wine evaporates with much  
less heat than water4    ,regenerated   
,tartar may also be crystallized4 ,if   
you desire to have  it in this form1    
combine the ,acid with the ,alkali to   
the point of  saturation2 evaporate the 
liquor slowly to the consistence of a   
syrop1  and set it in a cool place2     
where it will shoot into clusters of    
crystals lying one upon another like    

feathers4    ,vinegar perfectly         
dissolves absorbent matters also1 and   
particularly  those of the animal       
kingdom2 such as ,coral1 ,crabs-eyes1   
,pearls1 c4 ,in  order to a dissolution 
of such matters1 you must pulverize     
them1 put  them into a matrass1 and pour
 on them ,spirit of ,vinegar to the     
depth of  four fingers breadth3 an      
effervescence will arise3 when that is  
over1  set the mixture to digest two or 
three days in a sand-bath2 then decant  
the liquor1 filter it1 and evaporate it 
to dryness with a very gentle  heat4    
,the matter which remains is called     
,salt of ,coral1 of ,pearls1  of        
,crabs-eyes1 c4 according to the        
substances dissolved4 ,if1  instead of  
evaporating the liquor1 a ,fixed ,alkali
 be mixed therewith1  the absorbent     
matter1 that was dissolved by the ,acid1
 will precipitate  in the form of a     
white powder1 which is called the       
,magistery of  ,coral1 of ,pearls1 c4   
,,process ,,ii4     ,the ,acid of       

,vinegar combined with ,copper4         
,verdegris4 ,crystals of   ,copper4     
,this combination decompounded4 ,spirit 
of ,verdegris4    ,into a large matrass 
put ,verdegris in powder4 ,pour on it   
distilled  ,vinegar to the depth of four
 fingers breadth4 ,set the matrass in a 
moderate sand-heat1 and leave the whole 
in digestion1 shaking it from  time to  
time4 ,the ,vinegar will acquire a very 
deep blue-green colour4  ,when the      
liquor is sufficiently coloured1 pour it
 off by inclination4  ,put some fresh   
,vinegar into the matrass2 digest as    
before2 and decant  the liquor again    
when it is sufficiently coloured4       
,proceed in this  manner till the       
,vinegar will extract no more colour4   
,there will remain  in the matrass a    
considerable quantity of undissolved    
matter4 ,the  ,vinegar thus impregnated 
with ,verdegris is called ,tincture of  
,copper4    ,mix these several          
,tinctures1 and evaporate them with a   
gentle heat to  a pellicle4 ,then set   

the liquor in a cool place3 in the space
 of a few  days a great many crystals of
 a most beautiful green colour will     
shoot  therein1 and stick to the sides  
of the vessel4 ,pour off the liquor     
from the crystals2 evaporate it again to
 a pellicle1 and set it by to           
crystallize4 ,continue these            
evaporations and crystallizations1 till 
no  more crystals will shoot in the     
liquor4 ,these are called ,crystals of  
,copper1 and are used in painting4 ,to  
this combination of the ,acid of        
,vinegar with ,copper the painters and  
dealers have given the title of         
,distilled ,verdigris4                  
,,observations4    ,verdegris is        
prepared at ,montpelier4 ,to make it    
they take very clean  plates of ,copper1
 which they lay1 one over another1 with 
husks of  grapes between1 and after a   
certain time take them out4 ,their      
surfaces  are then covered all over with
 a very beautiful green crust1 which  is
 ,verdegris4 ,this ,verdegris is nothing

 but ,copper corroded by the  ,acid of  
,tartar1 analagous to the ,acid of      
,vinegar1 which abounds in the  ,wines  
of ,languedoc1 and especially in the    
rape1 husks1 and stones of  grapes that 
have a very austere taste4 ,verdegris is
 a sort of rust of  ,copper2 or ,copper 
corroded and opened by the ,acid of     
,wine1 but not yet  converted intirely  
into a ,neutral ,salt3 for it is not    
soluble in water1  nor does it          
crystallize4 ,this arises from its not  
being united with a  sufficient quantity
 of ,acid4 ,the design of the operation 
here described  is to furnish the       
,verdegris with the quantity of ,acid   
requisite to make  it a true ,metallic  
,salt3 for which purpose distilled      
,vinegar is very  fit4    ,crystals of  
,copper may be obtained1 without        
employing ,verdegris1  by making use of 
,copper itself dissolved by the ,acid of
 ,vinegar1  according to the method     
practised with respect to ,lead1 as     
shall  be shewn hereafter4 ,but         

,verdegris is generally used1 because it
  dissolves soonest2 it being a ,copper 
already half-dissolved by an ,acid      
correspondent to that of ,vinegar4      
,crystals of ,copper are decompounded by
 the action of fire alone1  without any 
additament2 because the ,acid of        
,vinegar adheres but loosely  to        
,copper4 ,in order to decompound this   
,salt and extract its ,acid1 it  must be
 put into a retort1 and distilled in a  
reverbatory furnace with  degrees of    
fire4 ,an insipid phlegm rises first1   
which is the water  retained by the     
,salt in crystallizing4 ,this phlegm is 
succeeded by  an acid liquor1 which     
rises in the form of white vapours that 
fill  the receiver4 ,towards the end of 
the distillation the fire must be       
violently urged1 in order to raise the  
strongest and most fixed ,acid4  ,at    
last there remains in the retort a black
 matter1 which is nothing  but ,copper1 
that may be reduced by melting it in a  
crucible with one  part of ,salt-petre  

and two parts of ,tartar4 ,a similar    
,acid1 but more  oily1 and in a much    
smaller quantity1 may be obtained from  
,verdegris by  distillation4    ,the    
,acid1 which in this distillation comes 
over after the first phlegm1  is an     
exceeding strong and concentrated       
,vinegar4 ,it is known by the  title of 
,spirit of ,verdegris4 ,zwelfer1 and    
after him ,m4 le ,fevre in  his         
,chymistry1 bestows extraordinary       
praises on this ,spirit2 pretending     
that it will produce the ,salt of       
,coral1 and others of the same kind1    
without losing any of its virtue1 or    
ceasing to be acid2 so as to  remain    
still capable of performing other       
operations of the same nature4  ,but    
,mr4 ,boerhaave and ,mr4 ,lemeri        
positively deny the fact2 and with  good
 reason1 having formed their judgments  
on their own experiments4    ,yet ,i can
 hardly think both ,zwelfer and le      
,fevre would have affirmed a  thing of  
this nature1 in such a positive and     

confident manner1 if they  had been     
convinced in their minds that it was    
false4 ,we must suppose  that those     
,chymists examined the matter with too  
little attention1  and were misled by   
some fallacious appearance4 ,probably   
they may have  compared this            
concentrated ,vinegar with common       
distilled ,vinegar2  they may have put  
to their ,coral an equal dose thereof2  
and1 after  saturation1 they may have   
distilled off the superfluous liquor1   
which  may have effervesced with fresh  
,coral and dissolved it4 ,surprised at  
this effect1 they may have imagined that
 their ,acid had lost none of  its      
strength1 and that it had the virtue of 
converting into ,salt any  quantity of  
,coral1 or such other matters1 without  
any prejudice to its  ,acidity4 ,a rash 
conclusion3 which certainly they never  
would have made1  if they had carried   
the experiment far enough2 if they had  
dissolved a  third or a fourth quantity 
of ,coral in their ,vinegar3 for they   

would  have been thereby convinced that 
the ,spirit of ,verdegris1 like all     
other acid ,spirits1 deposites and      
leaves its ,acid in absorbent matters2  
and that if the liquor1 which they drew 
off by distillation from  their first   
,salt of ,coral1 was still acid1 and    
capable of dissolving  fresh ,coral1    
nothing could be inferred from thence   
but that ,spirit  of ,verdegris is an   
exceedingly concentrated ,vinegar1      
which1 in the  same quantity of liquor1 
contains much more ,acid than the       
strongest  distilled ,vinegar prepared  
in the common way2 that therefore a much
  smaller dose thereof is required to   
convert a given quantity of ,coral  into
 ,salt2 and that the liquor1 which they 
distilled from their first  ,salt1 still
 retained some of its virtue1 only      
because it was replete  with much more  
,acid than could be neutralized by the  
,coral4 ,but a  love of the marvellous  
so prepossesses the mind of man1 that it
 often  hinders him from perceiving the 

most obvious facts4 ,this is the fault  
of all the ancient ,chymists in general3
 and ,i believe the only reason  why we 
find their books stuffed with so many   
unsucceeding experiments  was1 that     
their heated imaginations frequently    
represented things to  them otherwise   
than they really were4      ,,process   
,,iii4    ,the ,acid of ,vinegar        
combined with ,lead4 ,ceruse4 ,salt or  
,sugar of ,lead4  ,this combination     
decompounded4    ,into the glass head of
 a cucurbit1 put thin plates of ,lead1  
and secure  them so that they may not   
fall out when the head is put upon the  
cucurbit4 ,fit on this head to a        
wide-mouthed cucurbit containing some   
,vinegar4 ,set it in a sand-bath2 lute  
on a receiver1 and distil with a  gentle
 heat for ten or twelve hours4 ,then    
take off the head3 in it you  will find 
the leaden plates covered1 and1 in a    
manner1 crusted over  with a white      
matter4 ,this being brushed off with a  
hare's foot is what  we call ,ceruse4   

,the leaden plates thus cleansed may be 
employed again  for the same purpose1   
till they be wholly converted into      
,ceruse by  repeated distillations4     
,during the operation there will come   
over into  the receiver a liquor        
somewhat turbid and whitish4 ,this is a 
distilled  ,vinegar in which some ,lead 
is dissolved4    ,reduce a quantity of  
,ceruse into powder2 put it into a      
matrass2 pour on  it twelve or fifteen  
times as much distilled ,vinegar2 set   
the matrass  in a sand-bath2 leave the  
matter in digestion for a day1 shaking  
it  from time to time3 then decant your 
liquor1 and keep it apart4 ,pour  fresh 
,vinegar on what is left in the matrass1
 and digest as before4  ,proceed thus   
till you have dissolved one half1 or two
 thirds1 of the  ,ceruse4    ,evaporate 
to a pellicle the liquors you poured off
 from the ,ceruse1 and  set them in a   
cool place4 ,greyish crystals will shoot
 therein4 ,decant  the liquor from the  
crystals2 evaporate it again to a       

pellicle1 and set  it by to crystallize4
 ,proceed thus evaporating and          
crystallizing1 as  long as any crystals 
will shoot4 ,dissolve your crystals in  
distilled  ,vinegar1 and evaporate the  
solution1 which will then shoot into    
whiter  and purer crystals4 ,this is the
 ,salt or ,sugar of ,lead4              
,,observations4    ,lead is easily      
dissolved by the ,acid of ,vinegar4 ,if 
it be barely  exposed to the vapour of  
that ,acid1 its surface is corroded1 and
  converted into a kind of calx or white
 rust1 much used in painting1 and  known
 by the name of ,ceruse or ,white ,lead4
 ,but this preparation of  ,lead is not 
combined with a sufficient quantity of  
,acid to convert it  into a ,salt3 it is
 no more than lead divided and opened by
 the ,acid of  ,vinegar2 a matter which 
is to ,lead what ,verdegris is to       
,copper4 ,and  therefore if you desire  
to combine ,ceruse with the quantity of 
,acid  necessary to convert it into a   
true ,neutral ,salt1 you must treat it  

in the same manner as we did ,verdegris1
 in order to procure ,crystals  of      
,copper2 that is1 you must dissolve it  
in distilled ,vinegar1 as the  process  
directs4    ,the ,salt of ,lead is not  
very white when it first shoots2 and for
 this  reason it is dissolved again in  
distilled ,vinegar1 and crystallized  a 
second time4 ,if salt of ,lead be       
repeatedly dissolved in distilled       
,vinegar1 and the liquor evaporated1 it 
will grow thick2 but cannot be          
desiccated without great difficulty4 ,if
 the same operation be oftener          
repeated1 this quality will be thereby  
more and more increased2 till  at last  
it will remain on the fire like an ,oil1
 or melted ,wax3 it  coagulates as it   
cools1 and then looks1 at first sight1  
like a metallic  mass1 somewhat         
resembling ,silver4 ,this matter runs   
with a very gentle  heat1 almost as     
easily as wax4    ,the ,salt of ,lead   
hath a saccharine taste1 which hath     
procured it  the name also of ,sugar of 

,lead4 ,for this reason when ,wine      
begins to  turn sour1 the ready way to  
cure it of that disagreeable taste is1  
to substitute a sweet one which is not  
disagreeable to the taste1 by  mixing   
therewith ,ceruse1 ,litharge1 or some   
such preparation of ,lead3  for the     
,acid of the ,wine dissolves the ,lead1 
and therewith forms a  ,sugar of ,lead1 
which remains mixed with the ,wine1 and 
hath a taste  which1 joined with that of
 the ,wine1 is not unpleasant4 ,but1 as 
,lead is  one of the most dangerous     
poisons we know1 this method ought never
 to  be practised2 and whoever employs  
such a pernicious drug deserves to be   
most severely punished4 ,yet something  
very like this happens every day1  and  
must needs have very bad consequences2  
while there is nobody to  blame1 and    
those to whom the thing may prove fatal 
can have no mistrust  of it4    ,all the
 retailers of ,wine have a custom of    
filling their bottles on a  counter     
covered with ,lead1 having a hole in the

 middle1 into which a  leaden pipe is   
soldered4 ,the ,wine which they spill on
 the counter1 in  filling the bottles1  
runs through this pipe into a leaden    
vessel below4  ,in that it usually      
stands the whole day1 or perhaps several
 days2 after  which it is taken out of  
the leaden vessel1 and mixed with other 
,wine1  or put into the bottle of some  
petty customer4 ,but1 alas for the man  
to whose lot such ,wine falls6 ,he must 
feel the most fatal effects from  it2   
and the danger to which he is exposed is
 so much the greater1 the  longer the   
,wine hath stood in the leaden vessel1  
and thereby acquired  more of a noxious 
quality4 ,we daily see cruel distempers 
among the  common people1 occasioned by 
such causes1 which are not sufficiently 
attended to4    ,wine that is not kept  
in close vessels is apt to turn sour    
very soon1  especially in the summer2   
and the retailers of ,wine have observed
 that  their drippings1 thus collected  
in vessels of ,lead1 are not liable  to 

this inconvenience4 ,this is what hath  
established among them the  practice ,i 
am speaking against4 ,as they see only  
the good effects  thereof1 and know     
nothing of its ill consequences1 we     
cannot be angry  with them4 ,it is      
natural to think1 that1 as ,lead hath   
the property  of keeping ,wine cool1 it 
may by that means prevent its growing   
sour  for some time2 and persons who are
 not versed in ,chymistry can hardly    
suspect that ,wine is preserved from    
being pricked1 only by being  converted 
into a kind of poison4 ,yet this is the 
very case3 for ,lead  doth not hinder   
the ,wine from growing sour2 but1       
uniting with its  ,acid1 as soon as it  
appears1 and forming therewith a ,sugar 
of ,lead1  changes the taste thereof as 
hath been said1 and hinders the ,acid   
from  affecting the palate4    ,hence it
 appears how much it were to be wished  
that the use of those  counters covered 
with ,lead were abolished entirely4 ,i  
am informed1 by  a ,chymist zealous for 

the public good#ag1 that he represented 
this  matter to the ,magistrates several
 years ago4 ,it is not to be doubted1   
that1 when the dealers in ,wine know the
 ill consequences attending this        
practice1 they will with pleasure       
sacrifice the small benefit they        
receive from it to the public safety4   
#ag ,mr4 ,rouelle1 whom ,i have had     
occasion to mention several times    in 
this work with the honour which he      
deserves1 and with whom ,i went         
through a course of ,chymistry1 when ,i 
was a ,student in ,medicine4 ,it    must
 be observed1 to the praise of this     
ingenious ,artist1 that he is    the    
first ,frenchman that ever gave ,courses
 of ,chymistry4 ,in these he    explains
 the operations according to the true   
and sound ,theory of the    ,science1   
drawn from the writings of ,beccher1    
,stahl1 ,juncker1 ,boyle1    ,boerhaave1
 ,hoffman1 and many other excellent     
,chymists1 whom it would    be tedious  
to mention here1 as well as from the    

,memoirs of the most    celebrated      
,academies1 particularly those of the   
,academy of ,sciences    at ,paris4     
,it is easy to prove whether or no a    
suspected ,wine contains ,lead4 ,you    
need only pour into it a little ,oil of 
,tartar per deliquium2 or1 if  you have 
not that at hand1 a lye of the ashes of 
green wood4 ,if there  be any ,lead     
dissolved in it1 the liquor will        
immediately grow turbid1  and the ,lead 
will precipitate in the form of a white 
powder2 because  the ,sugar of ,lead it 
contains1 being a ,neutral ,salt1 whose 
basis is a  metal1 is decompounded by   
the ,fixed ,alkali1 which separates that
 metal  from the ,acid4 ,lead thus      
separated from the ,acid of ,vinegar by 
an  ,alkali is called ,magistery of     
,lead4    ,ceruse1 or ,white ,lead1 is  
also a very dangerous poison4 ,it is a  
pigment  very much used1 being the only 
,white that can be applied with ,oil4   
,this ,white is the most common1 or1    
perhaps1 the only cause of those        

dreadful colics with which painters1 and
 all that work in colours1 are          
frequently afflicted4 ,this induced me  
to examine all the substances  capable  
of affording a ,white1 in order to find 
one1 if possible1  which might be       
substituted for ,white ,lead3 but1 after
 a vast number  of experiments1 ,i had  
the mortification to be convinced1 that 
all  ,whites1 even the brightest and    
most beautiful1 which are not metallic1 
produce nothing1 when ground with ,oil1 
but greys1 or dirty yellows4  ,there is 
still something to be hoped for in      
,whites obtainable from  certain        
metallic substances3 but1 as every one  
of those matters may be  suspected of   
some noxious quality1 long experience   
alone will remove  our just             
apprehensions of danger from every thing
 afforded by such  substances4    ,to   
return to the ,salt of ,lead3 it may be 
decompounded by distillation  without   
addittament4 ,in order to perform this1 
you must put the ,salt  of ,lead into a 

glass or stone retort1 leaving a full   
third thereof  empty1 and distil in a   
reverberating furnace with degrees of   
fire4 ,a  spirit rises1 which fills the 
receiver with clouds4 ,when nothing more
  will come over with a fire that makes 
the retort red-hot1 let the  vessels    
cool1 and then unlute them4 ,you will   
find in the receiver1 an  austere       
liquor1 which is inflammable1 or1 at    
least1 an inflammable  ,spirit may be   
obtained from it1 if about one half     
thereof be drawn off  by distillation in
 a glass alembic4 ,the retort in which  
the ,salt of  ,lead was decompounded    
contains at the end of the operation1 a 
blackish  matter3 this is ,lead1 which  
will resume its metallic form on being  
melted in a crucible2 because the ,acid 
by which it was dissolved1 and  from    
which it hath been separated1 being of a
 very oily nature1 hath  left in it a   
sufficient quantity of phlogiston4      
,what is most remarkable in this        
decomposition of ,salt of ,lead is the  

inflammable ,spirit which it yields1    
though the ,vinegar which entered  into 
the composition of the ,salt seemed to  
contain none at all4          ,,chap4   
,,vii4    ,of the ,,putrid              
,,fermentation of ,,vegetable           
,,substances4      ,,process ,i4    ,the
 ,putrefaction of ,vegetables4    ,fill 
a hogshead with green plants1 and tread 
them down a little2 or1  if the         
vegetables be dry and hard substances1  
divide them into minute  parts1 and     
steep them a little in water to moisten 
them3 then leave  them1 or the green    
plants1 in the vessel1 uncovered and    
exposed to the  open air4 ,by degrees a 
heat will arise in the center of the    
vessel1  which will continue increasing 
daily1 at last grow very strong1 and  be
 communicated to the whole mass4 ,as    
long as the heat is moderate1  the      
plants will retain their natural smell  
and taste4 ,as the heat  increases1 both
 these will gradually alter1 and at last
 become very  disagreeable1 much like   

those of putrid animal substances4 ,the 
plants  will then be tender as if they  
had been boiled2 or even be reduced to a
  kind of pap1 more or less liquid      
according to the quantity of moisture   
they contained before4                  
,,observations4    ,almost all vegetable
 matters are susceptible of             
putrefaction2 but some  of them rot     
sooner1 and others more slowly4 ,as     
putrefaction is only a  species of      
fermentation1 the effect whereof is to  
change entirely the  state of the ,acid1
 by combining it with a portion of the  
earth and ,oil  of the mixt1 which are  
so attenuated that from this union there
 results  a new saline substance in     
which no ,acid is discernible2 which on 
the  contrary hath the properties of an 
,alkali1 but rendered ,volatile2 it is  
plain1 that1 the nearer the ,acid of a  
plant set to putrefy is to this  state1 
the sooner will the putrefaction of that
 plant be completed4  ,accordingly all  
plants that contain a ,volatile ,alkali 

ready formed1 or  from which it can be  
obtained by distillation1 are the most  
disposed to  putrefaction4    ,those    
plants1 in which the ,acid is very      
manifest and sensible1 are less  apt to 
putrefy2 because all their ,acid must   
undergo the change above  specified4    
,but vegetable matters1 whose ,acid is  
entangled and clogged  by several of    
their other principles1 must be still   
longer elaborated1  before they can be  
reduced to the condition into which     
complete  putrefaction brings all       
vegetables4 ,the earthy and oily parts1 
in which  the ,acids of these substances
 are sheathed1 must be attenuated and   
divided by a previous fermentation1     
which1 from those parts subtilized  and 
united with the ,acid1 forms an ,ardent 
,spirit1 wherein the ,acid is  more     
perceptible than in the almost insipid1 
or saccharine juices1 out  of which it  
is produced4 ,the ,acid contained in the
 ,ardent ,spirit must  be still further 
disengaged1 before it can enter into the

 combination  of a ,volatile ,alkali3   
consequently the ,ardent ,spirit must   
undergo a  sort of decomposition2 its   
,acid must be rendered more sensible1   
and  be brought to the same condition as
 the ,acid of plants in which it        
manifests all its properties4    ,hence 
it appears1 that the spirituous and     
acetous fermentations are  only         
preparatives1 which nature makes use of1
 for bringing certain  vegetable matters
 to putrefaction4 ,these fermentations  
therefore must  be considered as        
advances towards that putrefaction1 in  
which they  terminate1 or rather as the 
first stages of putrefaction itself4    
,this  is the opinion of ,mr4 ,stahl1   
who hath treated this subject with great
  sagacity1 and thrown much light upon  
it4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave is not altogether
 of the same mind4 ,he considers        
putrefaction as something foreign to    
fermentation2 as an operation           
independent of it1 and very different   
from it4 ,he gives the title  of        

fermentation to that intestine and      
spontaneous motion only which  produces 
an ,ardent ,spirit1 and changes it into 
an ,acid4 ,he founds  his opinion on    
this1 that the circumstances attending  
putrefaction  are different from those  
which accompany spirituous and acetous  
fermentation2 that the product of       
putrefaction is very different from  the
 products of these fermentations2 and   
lastly1 that all vegetable and  animal  
substances are susceptible of           
putrefaction1 whereas only some  kinds  
of them are capable of fermentation     
properly so called4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave  
is so far right1 that we ought not to   
confound together  operations which     
differ in several respects1 and result  
in different  productions2 but ,mr4     
,stahl's opinion must nevertheless be   
looked  on as highly probable1 or rather
 absolutely true4 ,for it doth not      
necessarily follow1 from the difference 
between the circumstances  and          
productions of fermentative motions1    

that the operations have no  relation   
to1 or connection with1 each other4     
,they may nevertheless  be considered as
 different steps of one and the same    
operation3 and  if all vegetable and    
animal matters are not susceptible of   
the three  degrees of fermentation1 we  
can only infer from thence that there   
are mixts1 in which the whole work of   
fermentation is yet to do2 and  that    
there are others whose principles are so
 disposed that they are  in the same    
condition as if they had already        
undergone the first1 or  even the       
second1 degree of fermentation2 and     
consequently such mixts  are susceptible
 only of the second1 or perhaps of the  
third1 degree of  fermentation4    ,mr4 
,stahl therefore says very judiciously1 
that1 far from denying  putrefaction to 
be a fermentation1 we ought on the      
contrary to consider  all fermentation  
as no other than putrefaction4 ,matters 
susceptible  of the spirituous and      
acetous fermentation do but pass through

 these  previous alterations in their   
way to complete putrefaction4 ,on this  
principle1 ,wine and ,vinegar are only  
liquors that had begun to putrefy1  but 
were stopt at the first or second stage 
of their putrefaction4 ,this  is so     
true1 that1 if a fermenting liquor be   
left to itself in the open  air1 and in 
a due degree of heat1 it will proceed   
directly1 without any  stop1 to perfect 
putrefaction4    ,the acetous           
fermentation is attended with more heat 
than the  spirituous1 and the putrid    
with still more than the acetous4 ,the  
heat  of putrefying plants is sometimes 
so considerable1 that1 when they are    
not too moist1 and are stacked up in    
great heaps1 they take fire and  burn   
violently4 ,of this there are frequent  
instances in hay-ricks4      ,,process  
,,ii4    ,putrefied ,vegetable          
,substances analyzed4    ,put the       
putrefied plants you mean to analyze    
into a glass cucurbit1 and  set it in a 
sand-bath4 ,fit to it a head2 lute on a 

receiver2 distil  with a gentle fire1   
and a limpid fetid liquor will come     
over4 ,continue  the distillation till  
the matter contained in the retort be   
almost dry4    ,then unlute your        
vessels1 and keep the liquor you find in
 the receiver  by itself4 ,put the      
matter remaining in the cucurbit into a 
retort1  and distil with a graduated    
heat4 ,there will rise white vapours2 a 
pretty considerable quantity of liquor  
nearly like that of the former          
distillation2 a ,volatile ,salt in a    
concrete form2 and a black oil1  which  
towards the end will be very thick4 ,in 
the retort there will  remain a black   
charred matter1 which being burnt in the
 open air will  fall into ashes1 from   
which no ,fixed ,alkali can be          
extracted4    ,by means of a funnel     
separate your oil from the aqueous      
liquor4  ,distil this liquor with a     
gentle heat4 ,you will by this means    
obtain  a ,volatile ,salt like that of  
animals2 of which you may also get some1

  by the same means1 from the liquor    
which came over in the first            
distillation4      ,,observations4      
,this analysis shews the changes which  
putrefaction produces in  vegetable     
matters4 ,scarce any of their principles
 are now to be  discerned4 ,they now    
yield no aromatic liquor2 no ,essential 
,oil2 no  ,acid2 and consequently no    
,essential ,salt1 ,ardent ,spirit1 or   
,fixed  ,alkali3 in a word1 whatever    
their natures were before putrefaction1 
they are all alike when they have once  
undergone this fermentative  motion in  
its full extent4 ,nothing can then be   
obtained from them but  ,phlegm1 a      
,volatile ,alkali1 a fetid ,oil1 and an 
insipid ,earth4    ,almost all these    
changes are owing to the transmutation  
of the ,acid1  which is depraved by     
putrefaction1 and combined with a       
portion of the  ,oil and subtilized     
,earth of the mixt2 so that the result  
of their union  is a ,volatile ,alkali4 
,now1 as the ,fixed ,alkali1 found in   

the ashes of  unputrefied plants1 is    
only the most fixed part of their earth 
and  of their ,acid1 closely united     
together by the igneous motion1 it is   
not surprising that1 when all the ,acid1
 with a part of the earth1 is           
subtilized and volatilized by           
putrefaction1 no ,fixed ,alkali can be  
found in the ashes of putrefied         
,vegetables4 ,the alteration which the  
,acid suffers by the putrefactive motion
 is1 in my opinion1 the greatest  it can
 undergo1 without being entirely        
destroyed and decomposed1 so as  to be  
no longer a ,salt4    ,we have seen it1 
in the ,mineral kingdom1 in its greatest
 purity and  strength4 ,its combination 
with ,oil1 and the other alterations its
  undergoes1 in the ,vegetable kingdom1 
have shewn it weakened and  disguised4  
,the changes it suffers by the          
spirituous and acetous  fermentation1   
have exhibited it in other forms4 ,and  
lastly1  putrefaction disfigures it     
completely1 and1 in some sort1 changes  

its  very nature1 so that it cannot be  
distinguished4 ,in the animal kingdom   
we find it nearly in the same condition3
 for though the ,vegetable  substances1 
on which animals feed1 do not undergo   
direct putrefaction1  in its full       
extent1 before they are converted into  
animal juices1 yet  they suffer most of 
the alterations produced by             
putrefaction2 so that  when they have   
acquired the qualities necessary to     
their becoming an  actual nutritious    
animal juice1 they are within one step  
of complete  putrefaction4 ,for this    
reason all animal substances are very   
apt to  putrefy1 and are unsusceptible  
of the first degrees of fermentation4   
,but this discussion belongs to the     
animal kingdom1 of which we are  now    
going to treat in the third part of     
these ,elements2 the theory of          
putrefaction serving to introduce it1   
and naturally leading us to it4         
,illustration3 ,decorative ,scroll4     
,,part ,,iii4    ,,of ,,operations ,,on 

,,animal ,,substances4          ,,chap4 
,i4    ,of ,,milk4      ,,process ,i4   
,milk separated into ,butter1 ,curd1 and
 ,whey2 instanced in ,cow's ,milk4      
,put new ,cow's milk into a flat earthen
 pan1 and set it in a temperate  heat4  
,in ten or twelve hours time there will 
gather on its surface a  thick matter1  
of a somewhat yellowish white3 this is  
called ,cream4  ,gently skim off this   
,cream with a spoon1 letting the milk   
you take up  with it run off4 ,put all  
this ,cream into another vessel1 and    
keep it4  ,the milk thus skimmed will   
not be quite so thick as before3 nor    
will  it be of such a dead white1 but   
have a little blueish cast4 ,if all the 
,cream be not separated from it1 more   
will gather on its surface after  some  
time1 which must be taken off as the    
former4 ,in two or three days  the      
skimmed milk will coagulate into a soft 
mass called ,curd1 and  then it tastes  
and smells sour4    ,cut this ,curd     
across in several places4 ,it will      

immediately discharge  a large quantity 
of ,serum4 ,put the whole into a clean  
linen cloth2  hang it up1 and underneath
 it set a vessel to receive the ,serum  
as it  drops4 ,when the aqueous part    
hath done dripping1 there will remain in
  the filter a white substance somewhat 
harder than the curdled milk4  ,this    
substance is called ,cheese1 and the    
,serum separated from it is  known by   
the name of ,whey4      ,,observations4 
,the milk of animals1 that feed only on 
vegetables1 is of all animal  matters   
the least removed from the vegetable    
nature4 ,the truth of  this will be     
demonstrated by the experiments we shall
 produce by and  by1 for the further    
analysis of milk4 ,for this reason we   
judged1 with  ,mr4 ,boerhaave1 that it  
was proper to begin the analysis of     
animals by  examining this liquor4      
,most ,chymists justly consider ,milk as
 of the same nature with ,chyle4        
,indeed there is great reason to think1 
that1 except some small  differences to 

be afterwards taken notice of1 these two
 matters are  nearly the same4 ,they are
 both of a dead white colour1 like that 
of an  emulsion2 which proves that1 like
 emulsions1 they consist of an oily     
matter divided1 diffused1 and suspended1
 but not perfectly dissolved1  in an    
aqueous liquor4    ,it is not surprising
 that these liquors should resemble     
emulsions2 for  they are produced in the
 same manner1 and may very justly be    
called  ,animal ,emulsions4 ,for how are
 vegetable substances converted into    
,chyle and ,milk in an animal body8     
,they are bruised1 divided1 and         
triturated by mastication and digestion1
 as perfectly1 at least1 as  the matters
 pounded in a mortar to make an         
emulsion2 and must thereby  undergo the 
same changes as those matters2 that is1 
their oily parts1  being attenuated by  
those motions1 must be mixed with and   
lodged  between the aqueous parts1 but  
not dissolved therein2 because they do  
not1 in the bodies of animals1 meet with

 saline matters1 sufficiently           
disentangled and active1 to unite       
intimately with them1 and by that  means
 render them soluble in water4          
,nevertheless ,chyle and ,milk1 though  
produced in the same manner as          
emulsions1 and very much resembling     
them1 differ greatly from them in  some 
respects2 owing chiefly to the time they
 remain in the bodies of  animals1 their
 being heated while there1 the          
elaborations they undergo  therein1 and 
the animal juices commixed with them4   
,new ,milk hath a mild agreeable taste1 
without any saline pungency2 nor  hath  
any ,chymical trial discovered in it    
either an ,acid or an ,alkali4  ,yet it 
is certain that the juices of plants1   
out of which milk is  formed1 contain   
many saline matters1 and especially     
,acids3 accordingly  ,milk also contains
 the same2 but the ,acids are so        
sheathed and  combined1 that they are   
not perceptible4 ,the case is the same  
with all  the other liquors intended to 

constitute part of an animal body3 there
  is no perceptible ,acid in any of     
them4    ,hence it may be inferred that 
one of the principal changes which      
vegetables undergo1 in order to their   
being converted into an animal          
substance1 consists in this1 that their 
,acids are combined1 entangled1  and    
sheathed in such a manner that they     
become imperceptible1 and exert  none of
 their properties4    ,milk left to     
itself1 without the help of             
distillation1 or any  additament        
whatever1 undergoes a sort of           
decomposition4 ,it runs into a  kind of 
spontaneous analysis2 which doth not    
indeed reduce it to its  first          
principles1 yet separates it into three 
distinct substances1 as  the process    
shews2 namely1 into ,cream1 or the      
buttery fat part1 into  ,curd or        
,cheese1 and into ,serum or ,whey3 which
 shews that those three  substances of  
which ,milk consists1 are only mixed and
 blended together1  but not intimately  

united4    ,the first parts1 being the  
lightest1 rise gradually to the surface 
of  the liquor as they separate from the
 rest3 and this forms the ,cream4       
,cream1 as skimmed from the surface of  
,milk1 is not however the pure  buttery 
or fat part2 it is still mixed with many
 particles of ,cheese  and ,whey1 which 
must be separated in order to reduce it 
into ,butter4  ,the most simple1 and at 
the same time the best method of        
effecting  this1 is daily practised by  
the country people4 ,it consists in     
beating  or churning the ,cream1 in a   
vessel contrived for that purpose1 with 
the flat side of a circular piece of    
wood1 in the center of which a  staff is
 fixed4 ,one would think that the       
motion1 impressed on the ,cream  by this
 instrument1 should rather serve to     
blend more intimately the  particles of 
,butter1 ,cheese1 and ,whey1 of which it
 consists1 than to  separate them from  
each other2 as this motion seems        
perfectly adapted  to divide and        

attenuate those particles4 ,but1 if we  
consider what  passes on this occasion1 
we shall soon perceive that the motion  
by  which ,butter is churned is nothing 
like triture3 for churning is no  other1
 properly speaking1 than a continually  
repeated compression1 the  effect       
whereof is to squeeze out from amongst  
the buttery particles  those of ,cheese 
and ,whey mixed therewith2 by which     
means the particles  of ,butter are     
brought into contact with each other1   
unite1 and adhere  together4    ,milk1  
whether skimmed or no1 grows sour of    
itself1 and curdles in a few  days4     
,when it is newly curdled1 the ,cheese  
and ,whey seem to be united1  and to    
make but one mass3 but these two matters
 separate spontaneously  from each      
other1 with the greatest ease1 and in a 
very short time4    ,the acidity1 which 
,milk naturally contracts in the space  
of a few  days1 must be considered as   
the effect of a fermenting motion1 which
  discovers in that liquor an ,acid that

 was not perceptible before4  ,this1    
properly speaking1 is an acetous        
fermentation1 which ,milk passes        
through in its way to putrefaction2 and 
it soon follows1 especially if  the     
,milk be exposed to a hot air4    ,if1  
instead of leaving ,milk to grow sour   
and curdle of itself1 an  ,acid be mixed
 therewith1 while it is yet sweet and   
newly milked1 it  immediately           
coagulates2 which gives reason to think1
 that its curdling  naturally is the    
effect of the ,acid1 which discovers    
itself therein as  it grows stale4      
,the coagulation of ,milk may also be   
considerably accelerated1 by  setting it
 in a sand-bath gently heated2 or by    
mixing therewith a  little of what1 in  
the language of the ,dairy1 is called   
,runnet2 which  is nothing but some     
curdled and half-digested ,milk taken   
from the  stomach of a ,calf3 or both   
these methods may be employed at once1  
which  will produce the effect still    
more expeditiously4    ,it is not       

difficult to find out the cause of these
 effects4 ,the ,runnet1  which is ,milk 
already curdled and grown sour1 is an   
actual ferment to  sweet ,milk1         
disposing it to turn sour1 much more    
readily3 for though  ,milk1 when thus   
hastily curdled by the ,runnet1 hath not
 a manifestly  acid taste1 yet it is    
certain that this ,acid begins to exert 
itself4  ,the proof thereof is1 that1   
being exposed to the same degree of heat
  with ,milk equally new1 that is not   
mixed with this ferment1 it turns  sour 
much sooner4 ,as to the effect of heat  
in coagulating ,milk1 there  is nothing 
extraordinary in it3 we know how much it
 promotes and  accelerates all          
fermentative motion4 ,the whole of this 
perfectly agrees  with what we said     
before concerning fermentation4         
,fixed ,alkalis also coagulate ,milk2   
but at the same time they separate  the 
,whey from the ,cheese1 which floats on 
the liquor in clots4 ,they  give the    
,milk a russet-colour inclining to red2 

which may arise from  their attacking   
the fat part4    ,the separation of     
,milk into ,butter1 ,cheese1 and ,whey1 
is a kind of  imperfect analysis        
thereof1 or rather the beginning of one4
 ,in order  to render it complete1 we   
must examine each of these substances   
separately1 and find the principles of  
which they consist4 ,this we  shall     
endeavour to do in the following        
process4      ,,process ,,ii4    ,butter
 analyzed by ,distillation4    ,into a  
glass retort put the quantity of fresh  
,butter you intend to  distil4 ,set the 
retort in a reverberatory2 apply a      
receiver1 and let  your fire be very    
gentle at first4 ,the ,butter will melt1
 and there  will come over some drops of
 clear water1 which will have the       
peculiar  smell of fresh ,butter1 and   
shew some tokens of ,acidity4 ,if the   
fire be  increased a little1 the ,butter
 will seem to boil3 a froth will gather 
on its surface1 and the phlegm1 still   
continuing to run1 will gradually  come 

to smell just like ,butter clarefied in 
order to be preserved4 ,its  ,acidity   
will be stronger and more manifest than 
that of the first drops  that came over4
    ,soon after this1 by increasing the 
fire a little more1 there will rise  an 
,oil1 having nearly the same degree of  
fluidity as fat ,oils2 but it  will grow
 thicker as the distillation advances1  
and at last will fix in  the receiver   
when it cools4 ,it will be accompanied  
with some drops of  liquor1 the ,acidity
 whereof will always increase1 while its
 quantity  decreases1 as the            
distillation advances4    ,while this   
thick ,oil is distilling1 the ,butter   
contained in the retort1  which at first
 seemed to boil1 will be calm and       
smooth1 without the  least appearance of
 ebullition2 though the heat be then    
much greater  than when it boiled4      
,continue the distillation1 constantly  
increasing  the fire by degrees as you  
find it necessary for the elevation of  
the  thick ,oil4 ,this ,oil1 or rather  

this kind of ,butter1 will be at last   
of a russet-colour4 ,there will rise    
along with it some white vapours        
exceeding sharp and pungent4    ,when   
you observe that nothing more comes     
over1 though the retort be  quite       
red-hot1 let the vessels cool1 and      
unlute them4 ,you will find in  the     
receiver an aqueous acid liquor1 a fluid
 ,oil1 and a kind of fixed  brown       
,butter4 ,break the retort1 and you will
 find therein a charred  matter2 the    
surface of which1 where it touched the  
glass1 will be of a  shining black1 and 
have a fine polish4      ,,observations4
    ,the analysis of ,butter proves that
 this substance1 which is an oily       
matter in a concrete form1 owes its     
consistence to the ,acid only1 with     
which the oily part is combined3 that   
is1 it follows the general  rule        
frequently mentioned above in treating  
of other oily compounds2  the           
consistence whereof we shewed to be so  
much the firmer1 the  more ,acid they   

contain4 ,the first portions of ,oil    
that come over in  the distillation of  
,butter are fluid1 because a pretty     
considerable  quantity of ,acid rose    
before them1 which being mixed with the 
phlegm  gives it the ,acidity we took   
notice of4    ,this ,oil1 being freed   
from its ,acid1 and by that means       
rendered fluid1  rises first2 because it
 is by the same means rendered lighter4 
,the  kind of ,butter that comes over   
afterwards1 though it be fixed1 is      
nevertheless far from having the same   
consistence as it had before            
distillation2 because it loses much of  
its ,acid in the operation4  ,this ,acid
 is what rises in the form of white     
vapours4 ,these vapours  are1 at least1 
as pungent and irritating as the        
,sulphureous ,acid or  ,volatile        
,alkalis3 but their smell is different3 
it hath a resemblance1  or rather is the
 same1 with that which rises from       
,butter1 when it  is burnt and browned  
in an open vessel4 ,but1 when           

concentrated and  collected in close    
vessels1 as in the distillation of      
,butter1 they are  vastly stronger3 they
 irritate the throat so as to inflame   
it2 they are  exceeding sharp and       
pungent to the smell1 and are so hurtful
 to the  eyes that they quickly inflame 
them1 as in an ophthalmy1 and make them 
shed abundance of tears4 ,the great     
volatility of this ,acid is entirely    
owing to a portion of the phlogiston of 
the ,butter with which it is  still     
combined4    ,it may be asked why       
,butter1 or the oily part of ,milk which
 hath the  consistence of a fixed ,oil1 
is more replete with an ,acid than the  
,oils  of the vegetables whereof the    
,milk was formed2 as these ,oils are    
almost  all fluid1 which indicates their
 containing less ,acid before than after
  they were digested in the body of an  
animal4 ,this must appear the more      
extraordinary1 because the ,acid        
contained in the liquors of animals is  
sheathed and imperceptible1 and         

consequently incapable of combining     
with the ,oils of vegetables so as to   
give them this consistence4    ,i think 
it will be easy to give a satisfactory  
answer to this question1  if it be      
considered1 that the ,oils1 which exist 
in the vegetable juices  whereof the    
,milk is formed1 are far from being     
combined with the whole  ,acid of those 
vegetables2 because there is hardly a   
plant that doth not  yield a great deal 
of ,acid1 even without the help of fire4
 ,now1 there  is reason to think1 that  
one of the principal effects of         
digestion is1  to combine and unite this
 ,acid1 with the oily parts of          
vegetables1 more  intimately than it was
 before4    ,the further we advance in  
the analysis of animals1 the more we    
shall  be convinced1 that1 in the       
different elaborations1 which vegetable 
substances undergo in order to their    
being changed into the nutritious       
juices of animals1 nature employs all   
her powers to expel1 destroy1 or  at    

least1 weaken and blunt the ,acids1 so  
as to render them absolutely            
imperceptible4 ,one of the best means by
 which she can effect this1 is  the     
combining and uniting them intimately   
with the oily parts3 and  this operation
 she probably begins in digestion4 ,she 
gets rid of most  part of the ,acids    
contained in the aliments1 by thus      
uniting them with  the ,oils contained  
in those aliments4 ,hence arises the    
consistence  of ,butter1 which is the   
fat part of ,milk1 that is1 of a liquor 
half-changed into an animal juice4      
,this explication furnishes us also with
 the reason why ,acids agree so  ill    
with people of weak and delicate        
constitutions4 ,the motion and heat  in 
their bodies is not sufficient to effect
 a due combination of the  ,acids with  
the ,oils4 ,hence it comes to pass1     
that1 during and after  digestion1 they 
find in their bowels the bad effects of 
those ,acids1 in  the disorder commonly 
called the ,heart-burn4 ,hence also it  

is that  such people receive great      
benefit from the use of ,absorbents1    
which  uniting with the ,acids          
neutralize them1 and relieve nature when
 she has  not strength enough herself to
 get the better of them4    ,to return  
to our analysis of ,butter3 we took     
notice in the process that  ,butter     
seems to boil with a very moderate heat 
at the beginning of the  distillation1  
and that in the course of the operation 
the ebullition  ceases entirely1 though 
the heat be then greatly increased2     
which  is contrary to the general rule4 
,the reason is1 that butter1 though  a  
seemingly homogeneous mass1 contains    
nevertheless some particles  of ,cheese 
and ,whey4 ,the particles of ,whey1     
being much the lightest1  endeavour1 on 
the first application of heat1 to       
extricate themselves  from amongst the  
particles of ,butter1 and to rise in    
distillation4 ,thus  they form the drops
 of acidulated phlegm which come over at
 first1  and1 in struggling to get free1

 lift up the buttery parts1 or actually 
boil1 which occasions the ebullition    
observable at the beginning of  the     
process4 ,when they are once separated1 
the melted ,butter remains  calm and    
smooth without boiling4 ,if you want to 
make it boil you must  apply a much     
greater degree of heat2 which you cannot
 do in close  vessels1 without spoiling 
the whole operation3 because the degree 
of  heat necessary for that purpose     
would force up the ,butter in substance1
  which would rush over into the        
receiver1 without any decomposition4    
,indeed if the vessels were luted they  
would be in danger of bursting4    ,as  
to the caseous parts1 which are mixed   
with fresh ,butter1 they also  separate 
at the beginning of the distillation1   
when the ,butter is  melted1 and gather 
on its surface in a scum4 ,these        
particles of ,cheese  and ,whey1 which  
are heterogeneous to ,butter1 help to   
make it spoil the  sooner4 ,and for this
 reason those who want to keep ,butter a

 long time1  without the use of salt1   
melt it1 and thereby evaporate the      
aqueous  parts4 ,the lightest portion of
 the particles of ,cheese rises to the  
surface1 and is skimmed off2 the rest   
remains at the bottom of the  vessel1   
from which the ,butter is easily        
separated1 by decanting it  while it is 
yet fluid4    ,butter may also be       
distilled1 by incorporating it with some
 additament  which will yield no        
principle itself1 nor retain any of     
those of the  ,butter4 ,i have distilled
 it in this manner with the additament  
of fine  sand3 the operation succeeds   
very well1 is sooner finished1 and more 
easily conducted3 but ,i chose to       
describe here the manner of doing  it   
without additament2 because the several 
changes1 which the ,butter  undergoes in
 the retort during the operation1 may be
 better observed4    ,if you desire to  
convert the ,butter wholly into ,oil1   
you must take the  fixed matter you find
 in the receiver1 and distil it once    

more1 or  oftener1 according to the     
degree of fluidity you want to give it4 
,the  case is the same with this matter 
as with all other thick ,oils1 which1   
the oftener they are distilled1 grow    
always the more fluid1 because in  every
 distillation they are separated from   
part of the ,acid1 to which  alone they 
owe their consistence4      ,,process   
,,iii4    ,the ,curd of ,milk analyzed  
by distillation4    ,into a glass retort
 put some new ,curd1 having first       
drained it  thoroughly of all its ,whey1
 and even squeezed it in a linen cloth  
to  express all its moisture4 ,distil it
 as you did ,butter4 ,there will come   
over at first an acidulated phlegm1     
smelling like ,cheese or ,whey4 ,as  the
 distillation advances1 the ,acidity of 
this phlegm will increase4    ,when it  
begins to run but very slowly raise your
 fire4 ,there will come  over a yellow  
,oil1 somewhat empyreumatic4 ,continue  
the distillation1  still increasing the 
fire by degrees as occasion requires4   

,the ,oil and  acid ,phlegm will        
continue to rise2 the ,phlegm growing   
gradually more  acid1 and the ,oil      
deeper coloured1 and more empyreumatic4 
,at last1 when  the retort is almost    
red-hot1 there comes off a second black 
,oil1 of  the consistence of            
,turpentine1 very empyreumatic1 and so  
heavy as to  sink in water4 ,in the     
retort will be left a considerable      
quantity of  charred matter4            
,,observations4    ,cheese-curd barely  
drained1 till no more ,whey will drip   
from it1 is  not entirely freed thereof2
 and for this reason we directed it to  
be pressed in a linen cloth1 before it  
be put into the retort to be  distilled4
 ,without this precaution1 the remaining
 ,whey would rise in a  considerable    
quantity on the first application of    
heat2 and1 instead of  analyzing the    
,curd only1 we should at the same time  
analyze the ,whey  also4 ,this is to be 
understood of green ,curd and new-made  
,cheese2 for1  if it be suffered to grow

 old1 it will at length dry of itself3  
but  then we should not obtain from it  
the same principles by distillation2  as
 it corrupts and begins to grow putrid  
after some time1 especially if  it be   
not mixed with some seasoning to        
preserve it4    ,the first ,phlegm that 
rises in this distillation1 as in that  
of ,butter1  is a portion of the ,whey  
that was left in the ,cheese1           
notwithstanding  its being well pressed4
 ,this ,phlegm grows gradually more     
acid1 being  the vehicle of the ,acids  
of the ,cheese1 which are forced up     
along with  it by the fire4    ,the     
,acid obtained from this matter is less 
in quantity1 and weaker1  than that of  
,butter3 and accordingly the ,oil       
distilled from ,cheese  is not fixed    
like that of ,butter4 ,yet it is        
remarkable that the last  empyreumatic  
,oil1 which is as thick as ,turpentine1 
is heavier than  water3 a property which
 it probably derives from the quantity  
of ,acid  it retains4    ,the quantity  

of charred matter1 which remains in the 
retort after the  distillation of       
,cheese1 is much greater than that left 
by ,butter2 which  proves that the      
former contains a much greater quantity 
of earth4 ,these  coals are exceeding   
difficult to burn and reduce to ashes4  
,i have kept  them red-hot1 in the open 
air1 and in a very strong fire1 about   
six  hours1 continually stirring them1  
in order to bring the under parts to    
the surface1 that they might be burnt1  
yet ,i could not consume them  entirely4
 ,they even deflagrated afterwards with 
,nitre1 as if they  had not been burnt  
at all2 and yet1 during the whole time  
of their  calcination1 there appeared   
constantly a small flame1 like that of  
charcoal1 on the surface of the matter4 
,,process ,,iv4    ,whey analyzed4      
,evaporate two or three quarts of ,whey 
almost to dryness in a balneum  mari2   
and distil the extract1 or residuum1 in 
a retort set in a  reverberating        
furnace1 with degrees of fire1 according

 to the general  rule4 ,at first some   
,phlegm will come over2 then a          
lemon-coloured acid  ,spirit2 and       
afterwards a pretty thick ,oil4 ,there  
will remain in the  retort a charred    
matter1 which being exposed to the air  
grows moist4  ,lixiviate it with rain   
water1 and evaporate the lixivium3 it   
will yield  you crystals of ,sea-salt4  
,dry the charred matter1 and burn it in 
the  open air with a strong fire1 till  
it be reduced into ashes4 ,a lixivium   
of these ashes will shew some tokens of 
a ,fixed ,alkali4      ,,observations4  
,milk1 as was said before1 separates    
naturally and spontaneously into  three 
sorts of substances1 the analyses       
whereof being put together make  a      
complete analysis of this animal liquor4
 ,i know no ,author that hath  delivered
 the analyses of ,butter and ,cheese2 so
 that the processes  here given for     
analyzing these two substances are taken
 from the  experiments ,i thought proper
 to make1 in order to obtain the        

necessary  lights in this matter4 ,as   
for the analysis of ,whey1 it is taken  
from  one of ,mr4 ,geoffroy's ,memoirs1 
containing experiments on several animal
  substances1 which was published in    
#agcb4 ,it is there so particularly  and
 so well described1 that it was needless
 for me to attempt it anew4    ,it will 
appear1 on examining the three analyses 
of the substances  whereof ,milk        
consists1 that none of them yields a    
,volatile ,alkali3  which ,i think very 
worthy of notice2 as it is1 ,i believe1 
the only  animal matter from which such 
a ,salt cannot be obtained4 ,it is true1
  the milk of animals that feed on      
vegetables may be considered as an      
intermediate liquor between vegetable   
and animal substances2 as an  imperfect 
animal juice1 which still retains much  
of the vegetable  nature3 and we        
actually find that ,milk almost always  
hath1 at least in  part1 the properties 
of those plants with which the animals  
that yield  it are fed4 ,yet1 as it     

cannot be formed in the body of the     
animal1  without mixing with several of 
its juices that are entirely perfected1 
and become purely animal1 it must appear
 strange that the analysis  thereof     
should not afford the least vestige of  
that principle1 which  all other animal 
matters yield in the greatest plenty4   
,i imagine the reason of this may be    
found in the use to which ,milk is      
destined4 ,it is intended for the       
nourishment of animals of the same      
species with those in whose bodies it is
 produced4 ,consequently it  ought as   
much as possible to resemble the juices 
of the food which is  proper for those  
animals4 ,now1 as animals that live only
 on vegetables  could not be properly   
nourished by animal matters1 for which  
nature  itself hath even given them an  
aversion1 it is not surprising that the 
,milk of such animals should be free    
from any mixture of such things as  are 
unsuitable to the young ones whom it is 
designed to nourish4 ,there  is reason  

therefore to think that nature hath     
disposed the organs1  in which the      
secretion of ,milk is performed1 so as  
to separate it  entirely from all the   
animal juices first mixed with it3 and  
this ,i  take to be the principal       
difference between ,milk and ,chyle2 the
 latter  being necessarily blended with 
the saliva1 the gastric and pancreatic  
juices1 the bile and lymph1 of the      
animals in which it is formed4 ,hence   
it may be concluded1 that1 if a quantity
 of ,chyle could be collected           
sufficient to enable us to analyze it1  
the analysis thereof would  differ from 
that of ,milk1 in this chiefly that it  
would yield a great  deal of ,volatile  
,alkali1 of which ,milk1 as hath been   
said1 yields none  at all4    ,the same 
thing probably takes place in           
carnivorous animals4 ,it is  certain    
that those animals chuse to eat the     
flesh of such others only  as feed upon 
vegetables2 and that nothing but extreme
 hunger1 and the  absolute want of more 

agreeable food1 will force them to eat  
the flesh  of other carnivorous animals4
 ,wolves1 which greedily devour sheep1  
goats1 c4 seldom eat ,foxes1 ,cats1     
,polecats1 c4 though these animals  are 
not strong enough to resist them4       
,foxes1 ,cats1 and ,birds of prey1  that
 make such terrible havock among wild   
fowl1 and other sorts of  game1 do not  
devour one another4 ,this being laid    
down1 there is reason  to think that the
 ,milk of carnivorous animals is        
something of the  nature of the flesh of
 those animals that feed on vegetables1 
and which  they chuse to eat1 and not of
 the nature of their own flesh2 as the  
,milk of animals that feed on vegetables
 is analagous to the juice of           
vegetables1 and when analyzed yields no 
,volatile ,alkali1 though every  other  
part of their body does4    ,but        
whatever be the nature of ,milk1 and of 
whatever ingredients  it be formed1 it  
always contains the three several       
substances  above-mentioned2 namely1 the

 fat1 or ,buttery part1 properly so     
called1 the ,cheesy1 and the ,serous    
part1 the last of which we are  now     
examining4 ,it is1 properly speaking1   
the ,phlegm of the ,milk1 and  consists 
almost entirely of water4 ,for this     
reason it is proper to  lessen the      
quantity thereof considerably by        
evaporation1 so that its  other         
principles1 being concentrated and      
brought nearer together1 may  become    
much more sensible4 ,there is no danger 
of losing any essential  part of the    
,whey in the evaporation1 if it be      
performed in the balneum  mari1 with    
such a gentle heat as may carry off the 
aqueous parts  only3 this greatly       
shortens the analysis1 which will prove 
exceeding  long and tedious1 if all the 
water be distilled off in close vessels4
    ,as ,whey is chiefly the aqueous    
part of ,milk1 as said above1 it must   
contain all the principles thereof that 
are soluble in water2 that  is1 its     
saline and saponaceous parts4 ,and      

accordingly the analysis  thereof shews 
that it contains an ,oil1 rendered      
perfectly saponaceous  by an ,acid2 that
 is1 made perfectly miscible with water4
 ,this quality  of the ,oil contained in
 ,whey appears from the perfect         
transparency of  that liquor1 which we  
know is the mark of a complete          
dissolution4 ,in  the distillation of   
,whey1 the saponaceous matter contained 
therein is  decomposed2 the saline part 
rises first1 as being the lightest2 this
  is the ,acid taken notice of in the   
process2 after which the ,oil1 now      
separated from the principle which      
rendered it miscible with water1  comes 
over in its natural form1 and doth not  
afterwards mix with the  aqueous part4  
,besides the saponaceous matter1 ,whey  
contains also another saline  substance2
 namely1 ,sea-,salt3 this is obtained by
 lixiviating the caput  mortuum left in 
the retort1 which1 because of its       
fixedness1 cannot  rise with the other  
principles in distillation4 ,to this    

,salt it is  owing that what remains in 
the retort after distillation grows     
moist in  the air2 for we know that     
,sea-salt thoroughly dried hath this    
property4    ,the fixed ,alkaline ,salt1
 obtained from the caput mortuum burnt  
to  ashes1 proves that ,milk still      
retains something of the vegetable      
nature3 for the following analysis will 
shew us that matters purely  animal     
yield none at all4          ,,chap4     
,,ii4    ,of the ,,substances which     
compose an ,,animal ,,body4             
,,process ,i4    ,blood analyzed4       
,instanced in ,bullock's ,blood4    ,in 
a balneum mari evaporate all the        
moisture of the ,blood that the  heat of
 boiling water will carry off4 ,there   
will remain an almost dry  matter4 ,put 
this dried ,blood into a glass retort1  
and distil with  degrees of heat1 till  
nothing more will come over1 even when  
the retort  is quite red-hot1 and ready 
to melt4 ,a brownish phlegm will rise at
  first3 this will soon be impregnated  

with a little ,volatile ,alkali1 and    
then will come over a yellow ,oil1 a    
very pungent ,volatile ,spirit1 a       
volatile ,salt in a concrete form1 which
 will adhere to the sides of the        
receiver2 and1 at last1 a black ,oil1 as
 thick as pitch4 ,there will be  left in
 the retort a charred matter1 which     
being burnt yields no ,fixed  ,alkali4  
,,observations4    ,blood1 which is     
carried by the circulation into all the 
parts of the  animal body1 and furnishes
 the matter of all the secretions1 must 
be  considered as a liquor consisting of
 almost all the fluids necessary to  the
 animal machine3 so that the analysis   
thereof is a sort of general1  though   
imperfect1 analysis of an animal4       
,blood drawn from the body of an animal1
 and set by in a vessel1  coagulates as 
it grows cold2 and sometime afterwards  
the coagulum  discharges a yellowish    
,serum or lymph2 and in the midst       
thereof  swims the red part1 which      
continues curdled4 ,these two           

substances1  when analyzed1 yield nearly
 the same principles2 and in that       
respect  seem to differ but little from 
each other4 ,though the ,serum of ,blood
  be naturally in a fluid form1 yet it  
hath also a great tendency to           
coagulate1 and a certain degree of heat 
applied to it1 either by water1  or by a
 naked fire1 will curdle it4 ,spirit of 
,wine mixed with this  liquor produces  
on it the same effect as heat4          
,blood1 while circulating in the body of
 a healthy animal1 and when  newly taken
 from it1 hath a mild taste1 which      
discovers nothing like  either an ,acid 
or an ,alkali2 nor doth it shew any sign
 of either  the one or the other in     
,chymical trials4 ,when tasted with     
attention  it betrays something like a  
savour of ,sea-salt2 because it actually
  contains a little thereof1 which is   
found in the charred matter left in  the
 retort after distillation1 when        
carefully examined4    ,we shewed that  
,milk also contains a little of this    

,salt4 ,it enters the  bodies of animals
 with the food they eat1 which contains 
more or less  thereof according to its  
nature4 ,it plainly suffers no          
alteration by  undergoing the           
digestions1 and passing through the     
strainers1 of the  animal body4 ,the    
case is the same with the other ,neutral
 ,salts which  have a ,fixed ,alkali for
 their basis3 we find them unchanged in 
the  juices of animals into whose bodies
 they have been introduced4 ,they  are  
incapable of combining1 as ,acids do1   
with the oily parts2 and so  are        
dissolved by the aqueous fluids1 of     
which nature makes use to free  herself 
from those ,salts1 and discharge them   
out of the body2 as shall  be shewn when
 we come to speak of ,urine and ,sweat4 
,blood1 like all other animal matters1  
is1 properly speaking1  susceptible of  
no fermentation but that of             
putrefaction4 ,yet it turns  somewhat   
sour before it putrefies4 ,this small   
degree of acetous  fermentation is most 

sensible in flesh2 and especially in the
 flesh of  young animals1 such as       
calves1 lambs1 chickens1 c4    ,the     
quantity of pure water1 which ,blood1 in
 its natural state1  contains1 is very  
considerable1 and makes almost seven    
eighths thereof4  ,if it be distilled1  
without being first dried1 the operation
 will be  much longer2 because it will  
be necessary to draw off all this       
insipid  phlegm with a gentle fire4     
,there is no reason to apprehend that1  
by  drying ,blood in open vessels as    
directed1 any of its other principles   
will be carried off with its ,phlegm3   
for it contains no other substance  that
 is volatile enough to rise with the    
warmth of a balneum mari4  ,this may be 
proved by putting some undried ,blood   
into a glass cucurbit1  fitting thereto 
a head and receiver1 and distilling1 in 
a balneum  mari1 all that the heat of   
the bath1 not exceeding the heat of     
boiling water1 will raise3 for1 when    
nothing more will come over1 you  will  

find in the receiver an insipid phlegm  
only1 scarce differing  from pure water1
 except in having a faint smell like    
that of ,blood2  wherein it resembles   
all the phlegms that rise first in      
distillation1  which always retain      
something of the smell of the matters   
from which  they were drawn4 ,that part 
of the ,blood1 which remains in the     
cucurbit  after this first distillation1
 being put into a retort1 and distilled 
with a stronger fire1 yields exactly the
 same principles1 and in the  same      
proportion1 as ,blood dried in open     
vessels in the balneum mari3  so that1  
if this ,phlegm of ,blood contain any   
principles1 the quantity  thereof is so 
small as to be scarce perceptible4      
,the ,volatile ,alkali that rises with  
the ,oil1 when ,blood is distilled  in a
 retort with a degree of heat greater   
than that of boiling water1  is either  
the production of the fire1 or arises   
from the decomposition  of an           
,ammoniacal ,salt1 of which it made a   

part4 ,for we shall see1 when  we come  
to treat of this saline substance1 that 
it is so extremely  volatile as to      
exceed1 in that respect1 almost all     
other bodies that  we know3 and         
therefore if this ,volatile ,alkali     
pre-existed formally in  the ,blood1    
uncombined with any other matter        
capable1 in some measure1  of fixing it1
 it would rise at first almost          
spontaneously1 or at least1  on the     
first application of the gentlest heat4 
,we have an instance of  this in ,blood1
 or any other animal matter1 that is    
perfectly putrefied2  which containing a
 ,volatile ,alkali1 either formed or    
extricated by  putrefaction1 lets go    
this principle when distilled1 even     
before  the first phlegm3 and1 for this 
reason1 when putrefied ,blood is to  be 
analyzed1 it must by no means be dried1 
like fresh ,blood1 before  distillation2
 for all the ,volatile ,alkali would by 
that means be  dissipated and lost at   
once4    ,the ,volatile ,alkali obtained

 from ,blood that hath not undergone    
putrefaction1 affords matter of some    
speculation4 ,indeed the separation  of 
this ,salt from ,blood requires a degree
 of heat1 vastly greater than  that     
which is necessary to make it rise1 when
 it is perfectly formed  and            
disentangled3 and this gives room to    
think that it is the result  of a       
combination formed by the fire1 during  
the distillation4 ,but then  this same  
degree of heat neither separates nor    
forms any ,volatile  ,alkali in a great 
number of plants1 or in milk1 as hath   
been shewn4 ,yet  it cannot be supposed 
that the blood of animals1 which feed   
only on  those plants or on milk1 is any
 other than these very matters digested 
and rendered perfectly animal           
substances3 whence it must be concluded1
  that1 when vegetable substances are   
converted into animal substances1  they 
undergo such alterations as render them 
capable of yielding1 when  analyzed1 a  
principle that was not discoverable in  

them before4 ,now we  know that this    
same principle1 that is1 the ,volatile  
,alkali1 is the  product of             
putrefaction1 or1 which is the same     
thing1 of the last  degree of           
fermentation3 and this1 ,i think1 makes 
the opinion of those  more than         
probable1 who believe that trituration  
and mechanical motion  are not the only 
causes1 that effect the conversion of   
food into an  animal juice1 but that    
fermentation hath a great share in this 
change4  ,it is true1 we do not find1 in
 animal matters1 any manifest token of  
an  ,ardent ,spirit1 an ,acid1 or a     
,volatile ,alkali2 nor1 consequently1   
any  substance that is an evident       
production of any of the three different
  degrees of fermentation3 and yet1 as  
substances perfectly animalized  are    
exactly in the same state with          
vegetables that have undergone the      
first1 and even the second1 degree of   
fermentation1 so that they are          
susceptible of putrefaction only1 7or1  

at least1 if they shew at first  some   
faint tokens of acidity1 they run       
immediately and rapidly into  complete  
putrefaction72 it is nevertheless       
probable1 that vegetable  matters1 in   
order to their becoming animal          
substances1 undergo certain  changes and
 alterations1 which have some           
resemblance with those  produced by     
fermentation4    ,this opinion is       
further confirmed by two other          
analogies1 between  animal matters1 and 
vegetables advanced to the last stage of
  fermentation2 which is1 that they     
yield neither an ,essential ,oil nor  a 
,fixed ,alkali3 for the coal1 that      
remains in the retort after the         
distillation of ,blood1 being burnt in  
an open fire1 discovers no ,fixed       
,alkali in its ashes4    ,the want of a 
,fixed ,alkali in animal matters arises 
from hence1 that  their ,acid is nearly 
in the same state with the ,acid of     
vegetable  matters which have undergone 
putrefaction2 that is1 it is so         

subtilized  and attenuated1 as to be fit
 to enter into the combination of a     
,volatile ,alkali1 and is no longer so  
intimately united with the fixed  earth 
as to produce therewith a ,fixed ,alkali
 in the fire4    ,though ,blood and     
other animal matters afford no ,fixed   
,alkali1 but1 on  the contrary1 yield   
much ,volatile ,alkali1 it doth not     
therefore follow  that all the ,acid1   
which those substances contained before 
they were  analyzed1 is employed in the 
production of a ,volatile ,alkali4 ,we  
shall  hereafter take notice of an      
animal matter which contains a great    
deal  of ,acid3 and1 not to depart from 
our present subject1 it doth not  appear
 to me to be a settled point among      
,chymists1 whether or no ,blood1  when  
analyzed1 yields a portion manifestly   
acid1 and possessing all the  properties
 of an ,acid4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave1 with  
some other ,chymists1 makes no mention  
of any  ,acid in his analysis of ,blood4
 ,mr4 ,homberg1 on the contrary1 says#ah

  expressly1 that he constantly obtained
 an ,acid from the ,blood and  flesh of 
different sorts of animals1 of which he 
analyzed a great  number4 ,mr4          
,boerhaave's authority is very          
respectable1 and of great  weight3 on   
the other hand1 ,mr4 ,homberg's         
experiments are very  conclusive1 seem  
to be made with great care1 and are all 
affirmative4  ,this apparent diversity  
in the same analysis1 delivered by these
 two  great men1 determined me to       
analyze ,blood myself1 and to examine   
scrupulously all the principles ,i could
 obtain from it4      #ah ,memoirs of   
the ,academy of ,sciences for #agab4    
,i therefore distilled some ,bullock's  
,blood in a retort with degrees  of     
fire4 ,some ,phlegm came over first1 and
 then a ,volatile ,spirit4 ,i  changed  
my receiver2 and on increasing the fire 
there arose1 with the  ,volatile        
,spirit1 a yellow ,oil1 a ,volatile     
,salt in a concrete form1 a  russet     
liquor which smelled strong of ,volatile

 ,alkali1 and seemed at  first to be    
only a ,spirit impregnated with much of 
that ,salt3 at last  came a very thick  
fetid ,oil4    ,in this brown liquor1   
which comes off towards the end of the  
distillation1 ,mr4 ,homberg affirms the 
,acid to be contained3 but1 as it       
certainly is replete with a ,volatile   
,alkali also1 he alledges that it       
contains1 at the same time1 both a      
,volatile ,alkali and the animal ,acid2 
that these two ,salts are distinct from 
each other1 and not combined  together  
in the form of an ,ammoniacal ,salt2    
that each of consequence  possesses its 
peculiar properties2 and that this      
liquor is at the same  time both ,acid  
and ,alkaline2 that it effervesces with 
,acids1 and also  changes the blue      
colours of plants to red4    ,the       
,alkaline quality of this liquor is very
 evident1 and discovers  itself in every
 ,chymical trial2 but the same cannot be
 said of its  ,acid property4 ,i dropped
 some of it on blue paper1 the colour of

 which  did not at first change in the  
least1 nor acquire the faintest shade   
of redness4 ,this experiment almost     
determined me to conclude that ,mr4     
,homberg was mistaken3 but some time    
afterwards ,i perceived that the  blue  
paper began to turn red where it had    
been wetted1 and that the red  colour   
grew deeper and deeper as the paper     
dried3 and this convinced  me1 that this
 liquor actually contains an ,acid1 as  
,mr4 ,homberg  asserted2 but1 that the  
,volatile ,alkali in this liquor1 being 
much more  copious than the ,acid1 had  
first entered the paper1 and hindered   
the  ,acid from turning it red as usual2
 and that1 as the ,alkali evaporated1   
the ,acid began to act1 and produce the 
customary effect4 ,hence we see  that   
the ,acid of ,blood1 though extricated  
by distillation1 is not  easily         
perceived at first1 because of the great
 proportion of ,volatile  ,alkali1 with 
which the liquor containing it is       
impregnated4 ,this is  probably what    

prevented its being discovered by       
several ,chymists1 who1  it seems1 did  
not suspect its existence1 and therefore
 did not look for  it4    ,mr4 ,homberg 
takes no notice of this little          
difficulty in his ,memoir3  but he      
relates an experiment which might have  
given occasion to suspect  it4 ,it is in
 his analysis of ,human ,blood4 ,as the 
,acid in ,human ,blood is  in less      
quantity1 and less perceptible1 than in 
the ,blood of animals  that live wholly 
on vegetables1 he directs a second      
distillation of the  brown liquor1 which
 contains at once both the ,volatile    
,alkali and the  ,acid1 till very little
 thereof be left in the retort4 ,this   
residuum1  says he1 contains a very     
perceptible and distinct ,acid4 ,there  
is  reason to believe1 from ,mr4        
,homberg's directing the saline liquor  
to be distilled again1 that he did not  
find the ,acid sufficiently  perceptible
 in it at first4 ,now a second          
distillation is a very good  way to     

render it much more sensible4 ,for      
though this animal ,acid be  volatile1  
the ,volatile ,alkali is still vastly   
more so2 and therefore  if the liquor   
containing both these saline substances 
be distilled1  the ,volatile ,alkali    
must needs rise first1 and leave the    
,acid alone1  or almost alone1 at the   
bottom of the retort4 ,this is exactly  
the case  in our experiment on blue     
paper2 the operation being here         
performed  with a small quantity1 and   
much more expeditiously1 as appears from
 our  account of it4    ,it is not at   
all surprising that the ,volatile       
,alkali and animal ,acid1  though       
confounded in the same liquor1 should   
not be united together and  converted   
into a ,neutral ,ammoniacal ,salt4 ,mr4 
,homberg pretends that  these two saline
 matters do not act upon each other1    
because they are  too much dephlegmated4
 ,the oily parts1 with which they are   
both loaded1  may also contribute       
thereto3 nor is this unprecedented2 the 

same thing  being observed of the ,acid 
and the ,volatile ,alkali of several    
vegetable  substances4    ,mr4 ,homberg1
 justly suspecting that there might be  
some difference  between the condition  
of the ,acid in the ,blood of animals   
that feed  altogether on vegetables1 and
 that in the blood of those that feed   
only  on flesh1 examined likewise1 by   
decomposition1 the ,blood and the flesh 
of some carnivorous animals4 ,in these  
also he found an ,acid2 and it  doth not
 appear that he observed any great      
difference1 in this respect1  between   
their ,blood and that of other animals4 
,the difference he found  between the   
,blood of young1 and that of grown1 or  
old1 animals1 with  respect to the      
,acid1 seems1 by his account1 to be more
 considerable2  the ,blood of the former
 containing much more of it than that of
 the  latter3 and this is so much the   
more probable1 as we know that the      
flesh of young animals grows sour1      
before it putrefies1 more sensibly  than

 that of old ones4    ,we shall conclude
 this head with a remark concerning the 
management  required in distilling      
,blood4 ,when the operation is advanced 
to a  certain point1 the matter         
contained in the retort often swells so 
as to  stop the neck of that vessel     
entirely1 and by that means makes it    
burst  with an explosion4 ,to avoid this
 inconvenience1 a very small quantity   
of ,blood must be put into the retort1  
and the fire must be governed  very     
warily4 ,i have also found that this    
accident may generally be  prevented by 
mixing the ,blood with some matter that 
can afford no  principle by             
distillation2 such as pounded glass or  
fine sand4      ,,process ,,ii4         
,flesh analyzed4 ,instanced in ,beef4   
,into an alembic or retort1 placed in a 
sand-bath1 put some lean ,beef1  from   
which you have carefully separated all  
the fat4 ,distil till  nothing more will
 rise4 ,in this first distillation a    
phlegm will come  over1 weighing at     

least half the mass of the distilled    
flesh4 ,in the  retort you will find a  
matter almost dry1 which you must       
afterwards  distil1 with a naked fire1  
in a reverberating furnace1 taking the  
usual  precautions4 ,there will come    
over at first a little phlegm replete   
with ,volatile ,alkali2 then a ,volatile
 ,alkali in a dry form1 which will      
stick to the sides of the vessel2 and   
also a thick ,oil4 ,after the           
distillation there will be left in the  
retort a black1 shining1 light  coal4   
,burn it to ashes in the open air1 and  
lixiviate those ashes3 the  water of the
 lixivium will have no ,alkaline        
property1 but will shew  some tokens of 
its containing a little ,sea-salt4      
,,observations4    ,this analysis of    
,beef is taken from a ,memoir given in  
by ,mr4 ,geoffroy  in #agcj1 the purpose
 of which was a ,chymical examination of
 the meat  commonly used to make broth4 
,the flesh of an animal1 as appears from
  the process1 yields much the same     

principles with its ,blood3 and it      
cannot be otherwise2 because it is      
formed all together of materials        
furnished by the ,blood4    ,mr4        
,geoffroy observes1 that the first      
phlegm1 drawn off from it in  the       
balneum mari1 produces a white          
precipitate in a solution of  ,corrosive
 ,sublimate2 which shews it to contain a
 little ,volatile  ,alkali3 but the     
quantity thereof must be very small2    
seeing the phlegm  that contains it     
smells only like broth1 and not like a  
,volatile  ,alkali2 one particle of     
which1 we know1 is capable of affecting 
the  organ of smelling very sensibly4   
,as to the ,acid of flesh1 there is     
great reason to believe that it is      
conditioned exactly like that of        
,blood4    ,the ashes of the caput      
mortuum of flesh1 burnt in an open fire1
  attract the moisture of the air1 as   
,mr4 ,geoffroy remarks1 and increase  in
 weight1 though they contain no ,fixed  
,alkali4 ,however1 this is not at  all  

surprising2 since they contain some     
,sea-salt1 the known property  whereof  
is to grow moist in the air4    ,the    
flesh of animals contains much matter   
that is soluble in water4 ,mr4          
,geoffroy examined separately that part 
of flesh which water is capable  of     
dissolving4 ,with this view he boiled   
four ounces of beef with three  pints of
 water1 in a very close vessel1 and     
repeated the operation six  times with  
equal quantities of fresh water2 in     
order to extract1 as  far as possible1  
all the juices of the meat4 ,these      
broths he put all  together1 the last of
 them having but a faint smell of very  
weak veal  broth3 he evaporated them    
over a slow fire1 filtering them towards
 the  end of the evaporation1 to        
separate an earthy part2 and there      
remained  in the vessel a moderately    
solid extract1 which soon grew moist in 
the air4 ,this extract1 being analyzed1 
yielded a dram and two grains  of       
,volatile ,salt1 which adhered to the   

sides of the receiver2 not in           
ramifications1 as ,volatile ,salts      
usually do1 but in flat crystals1       
mostly in the form of parallelopipeds4  
,the ,spirit and the ,oil1 which  came  
over together after the ,volatile ,salt1
 weighed thirty-eight  grains4 ,salt of 
,tartar being mixed with this ,volatile 
,salt seemed to  increase its strength2 
which gives room to suspect that the    
latter  contains an ,ammoniacal ,salt4  
,the charred matter left in the retort  
weighed but six grains4 ,its  lixivium  
gave some tokens of ,sea-salt1 by making
 a white precipitate  in a solution of  
quick-silver4 ,the mass of fleshy       
fibres1 that was  exhausted by boiling1 
being dried and analyzed in the same    
manner1  yielded a ,volatile ,spirit1 a 
,volatile ,salt in a concrete form1     
which  stuck to the sides of the        
receiver in ramifications as usual2 and 
a  thick fetid ,oil4 ,there now remained
 in the retort a charred matter1  which 
being burnt in the open air or not      

burnt1 shewed not the least  sign of its
 containing any saline matter4    ,this 
method of analyzing flesh1 by boiling it
 at first in water1 in  order to extract
 all that can be dissolved by this      
menstruum1 shews us  that animal flesh  
contains an ,oil1 which is in a         
saponaceous state3  for the extract made
 therefrom1 by water1 yields in         
distillation a  considerable quantity of
 ,oil1 which was perfectly dissolved in 
the  water1 while that extract was in   
the diluted state of broth1 and before  
it was analyzed4    ,it is remarkable   
that the ,volatile ,salt1 yielded by the
 extract of  flesh1 is different from   
that which is obtained out of the flesh 
itself1 when nothing hath been extracted
 from it4 ,this ,salt1 as ,mr4          
,geoffroy observed1 differs from the    
common ,volatile ,alkalis in the form   
of its crystals2 which made that        
,chymist justly consider it as a ,salt  
of a somewhat ,ammoniacal nature2 a kind
 of ,essential ,salt of flesh4    ,there

 is reason to think that this ,salt1    
when dissolved in the water  in which we
 boil flesh1 is separated therefrom1 by 
the action of  fire1 with more ease than
 while it remains combined with the     
other  principles1 in the substance of  
the flesh2 that its separation1 in  the 
latter case1 requiring a greater degree 
of heat1 it is thereby  decomposed2 and 
that the ,volatile ,alkali1 which is    
obtained from  flesh distilled in the   
usual manner1 is only one of the parts  
that  constituted the ,ammoniacal ,salt 
thereby decomposed4    ,the charred     
matter remaining1 after the distillation
 of flesh first  exhausted by boiling1  
yields nothing saline2 because the      
,sea-salt1  which is the only ,fixed    
,salt it could contain1 was dissolved by
 the  water together with the matter of 
the extract4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy likewise 
examined what parts of flesh ,spirit of 
,wine  is capable of dissolving4 ,for   
this purpose he took four ounces of     
,beef1 dried in the balneum mari1 poured

 on it an equal weight of  well         
rectified ,spirit of ,wine1 and left the
 whole in digestion for a  considerable 
time4 ,the ,spirit extracted from the   
,beef a weak tincture1  and separated   
from it some drops of ,oil3 it acquired 
a brown colour1  and a faint smell4 ,mr4
 ,geoffroy found1 by several            
experiments1 that  the ,spirit of ,wine 
had taken up a portion of the           
,ammoniacal1 or  ,essential1 ,salt of   
the flesh4 ,with respect to the ,oil1 if
 any at all  were dissolved1 it could be
 but very little2 for that which the    
,spirit  separated1 and which retained  
its natural form1 was certainly not     
dissolved3 seeing in that case it would 
not have been perceived1 but  would have
 made a homogeneous liquor1 to          
appearance1 with the ,spirit of  ,wine4 
,,process ,,iii4    ,bones analyzed4    
,instanced in ,ox-bones4    ,cut into   
pieces the ,bones of a leg of beef1     
carefully separating all  the marrow4   
,put them into a retort1 and distil them

 in a reverberating  furnace1 as usual4 
,a phlegm will come over first2 then a  
,volatile  ,spirit1 which will become   
stronger and stronger2 afterwards a     
,volatile  ,salt in a dry form1 with    
some ,oil2 and1 lastly1 a black ,oil1   
with a  little more ,volatile ,salt4    
,there will be left in the retort a     
charred  matter1 from which a little    
,sea salt may be extracted4 ,reduce this
  charred matter to ashes1 by burning it
 in the open air4 ,these ashes  will    
give some slight tokens of a ,fixed     
,alkali4      ,,observations4    ,the   
analysis of ,bones proves that they     
consist of the same principles  with    
flesh and blood2 and the same may be    
said1 in general1 of all  matters that  
are truly animal1 or that actually      
constitute any part of  an animal4      
,nevertheless1 we find in the ashes of  
,bones somewhat of an ,alkaline         
quality2 seeing they make a red         
precipitate in a solution of ,corrosive 
,sublimate3 and yet a true ,fixed       

,alkali cannot be obtained from them4   
,these ashes are probably in the same   
case with quick lime2 which hath        
certain properties of ,alkaline ,salts1 
though no ,salt of that kind can  be    
extracted from it4    ,mr4 ,geoffroy    
analyzed ,bones in the same manner as he
 did flesh2 that  is1 he at first made a
 strong decoction of them with water1   
and  then examined and distilled apart  
the extract afforded him by that        
decoction1 and the ,bones deprived of   
that extract4 ,on this analysis he  made
 two remarkable observations4    ,the   
first is1 that ,bones yielded to boiling
 water their principles and  their      
,volatile ,salts1 both sooner and more  
copiously than flesh did3  for in the   
analysis which ,mr4 ,geoffroy made of   
several sorts of flesh1  though he      
robbed them in a manner of all their    
principles by boiling1  yet their dried 
fibres afterwards yielded a considerable
 quantity of  ,volatile ,salt2 whereas  
the ,bones1 of which he had made an     

extract by  boiling1 afforded him but a 
very small quantity thereof when        
analyzed4    ,the second observation    
worthy of notice which ,mr4 ,geoffroy   
made on  his analysis of ,bones is this2
 the ,salt1 which1 as was shewn in the  
analysis of flesh1 was resolved by the  
water wherein he boiled the  flesh1 and 
consequently arose when he distilled the
 extract obtained  from that decoction1 
and crystallized in the form of         
parallelopipeds1  took a quite different
 turn in the analysis of ,bones4 ,none  
of it  appeared in distilling the       
extract made by decoction1 but arose in 
distilling the boiled ,bones1 that were 
exhausted of almost all their  other    
principles by the decoction with water4 
,these differences  probably arise from 
the different contexture of the animal  
matters in  which they are observed4    
,this analysis of ,bones may serve as a 
pattern for analyzing all the  solid    
parts of animals1 such as horns1 hoofs1 
ivory1 c4      ,,process ,,iv4          

,animal ,fat analyzed4 ,instanced in    
,mutton-,suet4    ,put as much          
,mutton-,suet as you please into a glass
 retort1 only taking  care that the     
vessel be but half-full2 and distil with
 degrees of fire  as usual4 ,a phlegm   
smelling of the ,suet will rise first1  
and soon grow  very acid4 ,after this   
some drops of ,oil will come over1 and  
be followed  by a matter like ,oil1 in  
appearance1 when it comes over2 but it  
will  fix in the receiver1 and acquire a
 consistence somewhat softer than       
,suet4 ,this kind of ,butter of ,suet   
will continue to rise to the end of  the
 distillation2 and there will be left in
 the retort a small quantity  of charred
 matter4      ,,observations4    ,though
 animal ,fat be a substance that hath   
passed through all the  strainers of the
 body2 though it hath undergone all the 
elaborations  necessary to form an      
animal matter1 and become itself part of
 the  animal3 it contains1 nevertheless1
 as its analysis shews1 principles      

differing greatly from those of all     
other animal matters3 so that it  must  
be classed1 in some sort1 by itself4    
,it consists almost entirely of ,oil3   
but this ,oil is in a concrete  form1   
and observes the general rule of all    
concreted oily matters1  which owe their
 consistence wholly to the ,acid that is
 combined with  them4 ,the rule is      
evidently so general1 that it extends   
even to the  animal kingdom1 where1 in  
all other instances1 ,acids seem to be  
almost  annihilated4    ,all we said    
above on the subject of ,butter must be 
applied here3 for  animal ,fat1 properly
 so called1 and ,butter1 do not1 in my  
opinion1  differ sensibly from each     
other1 with respect to their analysis4  
,and  therefore there is great reason to
 believe1 that what is ,butter in       
,chyle1 or ,milk1 becomes ,fat when     
fixed in the animal body4 ,it is a  kind
 of repository1 in which nature lays up 
and confines the ,acid that  is         
unnecessary to the animal composition1  

and which she could not any  other way  
eliminate4    ,i made choice of         
,mutton-,suet for an instance of the    
analysis of ,fat2  because this ,fat1   
being the firmest of any1 must contain a
 stronger and  more perceptible ,acid4  
,when it is thus distilled1 the part    
which remains fixed hath much less      
consistence than the ,suet had before2  
which arises from its having lost  part 
of its ,acid4 ,repeated distillations   
will deprive it of a much  greater      
quantity thereof1 and so reduce it into 
an ,oil that will always  remain clear  
and fluid4    ,not one particle of      
,volatile ,alkali is obtained by        
distilling ,suet3  but then the         
experiment will not succeed as it ought1
 unless care  be taken to free the ,suet
 perfectly from all the membranes1 and  
all  the particles of flesh and blood   
that may be mixed with it2 for1 if  it  
should be distilled without this        
precaution1 those heterogeneous  matters
 mingled with it would yield a great    

deal of ,volatile ,alkali in            
distillation2 which might impose on the 
,artist1 and make him think the  ,salt  
came actually from the ,suet4 ,suet that
 hath been often melted1 as  the tallow1
 for instance1 of which candles are     
made1 is sufficiently  purified3 of this
 ,i made use in my analysis1 and it     
yielded me no  ,volatile ,alkali2 at    
least ,i could perceive none4    ,in    
conclusion1 all that hath been said1 on 
several occasions1 touching  the        
properties of concreted oily matters1   
may be applied to ,suet4 ,i  shall only 
observe here1 that it is one of those   
that manifest no  ,acidity1 and         
consequently that in its natural state  
it is not soluble  in ,spirit of ,wine1 
and only becomes soluble in that        
menstruum by  degrees1 as its ,acid is  
extricated by repeated distillations3   
and on  this account it ought to be     
classed with ,bees-,wax1 and other oily 
compounds of that kind4      ,,process  
,v4    ,eggs analyzed4 ,instanced in    

,pullet's ,eggs4    ,put some ,hen's    
,eggs in water1 and boil them till they 
be hard4 ,then  separate the ,yelks from
 the ,whites4 ,cut the ,whites into     
little bits2  put them into a glass     
cucurbit2 fit on a head and receiver2   
distil in  a balneum mari with degrees  
of fire1 raising it towards the end  to 
the strongest heat which that bath can  
give2 that is1 to the heat  of boiling  
water4 ,there will come over an aqueous 
liquor1 or insipid  phlegm2 the quantity
 whereof will be very considerable1     
seeing it will  make about nine-tenths  
of the whole mass of the ,whites of the 
,eggs4  ,continue your distillation1 and
 keep the water in the bath constantly  
boiling1 till not a drop more of liquor 
will ascend from the alembic4  ,then    
unlute your vessels4 ,in the cucurbit   
you will find your ,whites of  ,eggs    
considerably shrunk in their bulk4 ,they
 will look like little bits  of brown   
glass1 and be hard and brittle4    ,put 
this residuum into a glass retort1 and  

distil1 as usual1 in a  reverberating   
furnace with degrees of heat4 ,there    
will come over a  ,volatile ,oily       
,spirit1 a yellow ,oil1 a ,volatile     
,salt in a dry form1 and1  at last1 a   
black thick ,oil4 ,there will be left in
 the retort a charred  matter4          
,reduce also into the smallest pieces   
you can the hard ,yelks of the  ,eggs   
which you separated from the ,whites4   
,set them in a pan over a  gentle fire3 
stir them with a stick till they turn a 
little brown1 and  discharge a substance
 like melted marrow4 ,then put them into
 a new  strong canvass bag1 and press   
them between two iron plates well       
heated2  whereby you will obtain a      
considerable quantity of a yellow ,oil4 
,let what remains in the bag be         
distilled in a retort set in a          
reverberating furnace3 it will give you 
the same principles as you got  from the
 ,whites4      ,,observations4    ,of   
the two perfectly distinct substances   
that constitute the ,egg1 the  ,yelk    

contains the embryo of the chick1 and is
 destined to hatch it3  the ,white is to
 serve for the nourishment of the chick 
when it is  formed4    ,these two       
matters1 though they contain the very   
same principles1 yet  differ            
considerably from each other2 and       
chiefly in this1 that their  principles 
are not in the same proportions4    ,the
 ,white of an ,egg contains so much     
phlegm1 that it seems to consist  almost
 totally thereof4 ,all the aqueous      
liquor1 obtained by distilling  it in   
the balneum mari1 is1 properly speaking1
 nothing but pure  water2 for no        
,chymical trial can discover in it      
either an ,acid or a  ,volatile ,alkali2
 or any very perceptible ,oily part4    
,and yet it must  contain some ,oil1    
because the liquor that rises last is a 
little  bitterish to the taste1 and     
smells somewhat of empyreuma4 ,but the  
principles from which it derives these  
properties are in too small  quantities 
to be distinctly perceived4    ,if1     

instead of distilling the hard ,white of
 an ,egg1 with a view  to draw off the  
great quantity of water it contains1 you
 leave it  some time in an air that is  
not too dry1 the greatest part of its   
moisture separates spontaneously1 and   
becomes very sensible4 ,in all          
probability this is the effect of a     
beginning putrefaction1 which           
attenuates this substance1 and breaks   
its contexture4 ,the liquor thus        
discharged by the ,white of an ,egg     
thoroughly dissolves ,gum-,resins1 and  
particularly ,myrrh4 ,if you desire to  
dissolve ,myrrh in this manner1  cut a  
hard-boiled ,egg in halves2 take out the
 ,yelk2 put the powdered  ,gum-,resin   
into the cavity left by the ,yelk2 join 
the two halves of  the ,white2 fasten   
them together with a thread1 and hang   
them up in a  cellar4 ,in a few days    
time the ,myrrh will be dissolved by the
 moisture  that issues from the ,white  
of the ,egg1 and will drop into the     
vessel  placed underneath to receive it4

 ,this liquor is improperly called ,oil 
of ,myrrh per deliquium4    ,all the    
properties of the ,whites of ,eggs1 as  
well as the principles  obtained by     
analyzing them1 are the same with those 
of the lymphatic  part of the blood2 so 
that there is a great resemblance       
between these  two substances4    ,as to
 the ,yelk1 it is plain from its        
analysis that ,oil is the  predominant  
principle thereof4 ,if the ,yelk of an  
,egg be mixed with  water1 the ,oil with
 which it is replete1 and which is by   
nature very  minutely divided1 diffuses 
itself through the whole liquor1 and    
remains  suspended therein by means of  
its viscosity4 ,the liquor at the same  
time becomes milk-white like an         
emulsion1 and is in fact a true animal  
emulsion4    ,in order to obtain the    
,oil of ,eggs by expression with the    
more ease1  care must be taken to chuse 
,eggs that are seven or eight days old2 
because they are then a little less     
viscous4 ,nevertheless1 their  viscosity

 is still so great that they will not   
easily yield their  ,oil by expression3 
and therefore1 in order to attenuate and
 destroy  entirely this viscosity1 they 
must be torrefied before they are put to
  be pressed4    ,the ,oil of ,eggs1    
like all other oily animal matter1 seems
 analagous  to the ,fat ,oils of        
vegetables4 ,it hath all the properties 
that  characterise those ,oils4 ,its    
colour is yellow1 and it smells and     
tastes  a little of the empyreuma1      
occasioned by torrefying the ,yelks4 ,it
 is  rendered somewhat less disagreeable
 by being exposed to the dew for  thirty
 or forty nights1 if care be taken to   
stir it often in the mean  time4    ,to 
conclude3 all the principles1 both in   
the ,yelk and the ,white of an  ,egg1   
are the same as those found in ,blood1  
,flesh1 and all other matters  that are 
perfectly animal4          ,,chap4      
,,iii4    ,of the ,,excrements of       
,,animals4      ,,process ,i4    ,dung  
analyzed4 ,instanced in ,human          

,excrement4 ,mr4 ,homberg's ,phosphorus4
    ,take any quantity you please of    
human ,excrement1 and distil it in a    
glass alembic set in the balneum mari4  
,you will obtain an aqueous1  clear1    
insipid liquor2 which will nevertheless 
have a disagreeable  odour4 ,having     
urged the distillation as far as is     
possible1 with the  heat of this bath1  
unlute your vessels1 and you will find  
at the bottom  of the cucurbit a dry    
matter1 making about an eighth part only
 of what  you put into it4 ,put this    
residuum into a glass retort1 and distil
 in a  reverberating furnace1 with      
degrees of heat4 ,you will obtain a     
,volatile  ,spirit1 and a ,volatile     
,salt1 with a fetid ,oil2 and a charred 
matter  will be left in the retort4     
,,observations4    ,mr4 ,homberg made a 
great many experiments on the dung of   
animals2  concerning which he composed  
two ,memoirs published in the ,academy's
  collection for #agaa4 ,that ,chymist  
tells us1 that1 in distilling           

,excrement1 he aimed not so much at     
discovering the principles of which  it 
consists1 as he was desirous to satisfy 
a friend of his1 who had  earnestly     
entreated him to try whether he could   
not extract therefrom  a clear ,oil1    
having no bad smell2 because he had     
seen1 as he said1  ,mercury fixed into  
pure ,silver by such an ,oil4    ,mr4   
,homberg's labour had the usual fate of 
all enterprises of this  nature4 ,he    
actually found the art of drawing from  
,excrement a  clear scentless ,oil2 but1
 in whatever way he applied it to       
,mercury1  it produced no change in that
 metallic substance4 ,however1 as ,mr4  
,homberg was a man of sagacity1 and knew
 how to improve every hint  offered by  
his experiments1 he made several curious
 discoveries on this  occasion2 of which
 we shall give a concise account1 after 
we have made  some remarks on the       
principles obtained from ,excrement by  
the method  described in the process4   
,this substance1 consisting of matters  

subject to putrefaction1 hath           
constantly a fetid smell1 like that of  
all putrid matters2 having been  for    
some time confined in a warm1 moist     
place1 which we know promotes           
putrefaction1 and even quickly produces 
it4 ,yet the analysis thereof  proves   
that it is not putrefied1 or at least   
not entirely so3 for  all putrefied     
matters contain a ,volatile ,alkali     
perfectly formed and  extricated2 and1  
as this principle rises with less heat  
than that of  boiling water1 it always  
comes over first in distillation4 ,now  
we have  seen that1 with the heat of    
boiling water1 it parts with nothing but
 an  insipid phlegm1 containing no      
,volatile ,alkali3 a sure proof that the
  fecal matter is not completely        
putrefied4    ,there is nothing         
remarkable in the ,volatile ,salt and   
fetid ,oil1 which  rise with a degree of
 heat greater than that of boiling      
water4 ,they are  common productions1 of
 which we have made frequent mention in 

several  of the preceding analyses2 and 
therefore they need not now detain  us  
from proceeding to give a summary       
account of ,mr4 ,homberg's chief        
discoveries4    ,one of the methods by  
which ,mr4 ,homberg endeavoured to      
obtain from  ,excrement a clear ,oil1   
without any bad smell1 was to separate  
its  earthy and gross parts1 by         
filtering it before he distilled it4    
,for  this purpose he diluted ,excrement
 newly discharged with hot water1  using
 a quart of water to an ounce of feces4 
,then he let the mixture  stand to cool1
 and1 the gross parts falling to the    
bottom1 he poured  off the water by     
inclination4 ,this liquor he filtered   
through brown  paper1 and evaporated to 
a pellicle over a gentle fire4 ,there   
shot  in it long crystals of four1 five1
 and six sides1 which ,mr4 ,homberg     
thinks may be called the ,essential     
,salt of ,excrement4 ,they resemble     
,salt-petre1 in some measure1 and       
deflagrate in the fire much like it2    

with this difference1 that their flame  
is red1 and they burn slowly2  whereas  
the flame of ,salt-petre is white and   
very vivid3 probably1 says  ,mr4        
,homberg1 because there is too much of  
an oily matter in the one1  and less in 
the other4    ,mr4 ,homberg distilled   
this ,salt in a glass retort with       
degrees of  fire1 and at last with a    
very violent one4 ,at first there came  
over an  aqueous liquor1 sharp and acid1
 which was followed by a brown fetid    
oil1 smelling very strong of empyreuma4 
,this distillation he attempted  four   
several times2 and each time the matter 
in the retort took fire1  just when the 
,oil began to come off4    ,the ,salt   
which ,mr4 ,homberg obtained from       
excrement is very remarkable4  ,we shall
 have occasion to speak of it in another
 place1 and shall only  observe here1   
that its ,nitrous character is by no    
means ambiguous3  its deflagrating on   
live coals convinced ,mr4 ,homberg of   
its being a  true ,nitre4 ,but its      

constantly taking fire in the retort1 as
 oft as  distilled1 is a sure proof that
 it is a ,nitrous ,salt3 for ,nitre only
  hath the property of thus taking fire 
in close vessels1 and making  other     
combustible matters burn along with it4 
,the process by which ,mr4 ,homberg at  
last obtained from ,excrement a  clear  
oil without any bad smell is curious1   
and worthy of a place here2  on account 
of the views and occasions of reflection
 which it may open4    ,mr4 ,homberg    
having tried in vain1 by distilling     
,excrement a great many  different ways1
 to obtain from it such an ,oil as he   
wanted1 resolved to  employ             
fermentation1 the effect whereof is to  
change the disposition  of the          
principles of mixts4 ,with this view he 
dried some ,excrement in  the           
water-bath1 and1 having pulverized it1  
poured thereon six times its  weight of 
phlegm that had been separated from it  
by distillation1 and  put the whole into
 a large glass cucurbit1 covered with an

 inverted  vessel that fitted exactly   
into it1 and was close luted4 ,this     
vessel he  set in a balneum mari for six
 weeks1 keeping up such a gentle heat   
as would not burn one's hand2 after     
which he uncovered the cucurbit1  and   
having fitted thereto a head and a      
receiver1 distilled off all the  aqueous
 moisture in the balneum mari with a    
very gentle heat4 ,it had  now lost     
almost all its bad smell1 which was     
changed into a faint one4  ,it came over
 somewhat turbid1 whereas it was very   
clear when put into  the cucurbit4 ,mr4 
,homberg found this water to have a     
cosmetic virtue3  ,he gave some of it to
 persons whose complexion1 neck1 and    
arms1 were  quite spoiled1 being turned 
brown1 dry1 rough1 and like a goose     
skin3  they washed with it once a day1  
and1 by continuing the use of this      
water1 their skin became very soft and  
white4    ,the dry matter1 that remained
 in the bottom of the cucurbit after    
distillation1 had lost about a twentieth

 part of its weight2 that is1  of twenty
 ounces1 put at one time into the       
cucurbit1 somewhat less than  nineteen  
ounces remained4 ,mr4 ,homberg suspects 
that it was not so dry  when put into   
the cucurbit as when it was taken out4  
,perhaps also the  species of           
fermentation which the matter underwent 
had attenuated and  volatilized some    
part of it2 so that it came over with   
the phlegm in  distillation4 ,the       
turbidness of that phlegm1 which was    
clear and limpid  before1 seems to      
countenance this conjecture4    ,the dry
 matter left in the cucurbit after the  
first distillation1 had  not the least  
smell of feces3 on the contrary1 it had 
an agreeable  aromatic odour2 and the   
vessel in which ,mr4 ,homberg had       
digested it1  being left open in a      
corner of his laboratory1 acquired in   
time a  strong smell of ,ambergris4 ,it 
is surprising1 as ,mr4 ,homberg justly  
observes1 that digestion alone should   
change the abominable smell of          

,excrement into an odour as agreeable as
 that of ,ambergris4    ,this dry matter
 he powdered coarsely1 and put two      
ounces thereof at  once into a glass    
retort1 that would hold about a pound or
 a pound  and half of water4 ,this he   
distilled in a sand-bath with a very    
gentle heat4 ,a small quantity of an    
aqueous liquor came over first1  and    
then an ,oil as colourless as           
spring-water4 ,mr4 ,homberg continued   
the same gentle degree of heat1 till the
 drops began to come off a  little      
reddish2 and then he changed the        
receiver1 stopping that which  contained
 the clear ,oil very close with a cork4 
,having carried on  the distillation    
with a fire gradually augmented1 there  
came over a  considerable quantity of   
red ,oil2 and there remained in the     
retort a  charred matter which burnt    
very readily4    ,the clear ,oil1       
without any ill smell1 which ,mr4       
,homberg obtained from  the fecal matter
 by this process1 was the very thing he 

was in search  of1 and which he had been
 assured would convert ,mercury into    
fine fixed  ,silver3 yet he ingenuously 
owns1 that1 whatever way he applied it1 
he  could never produce any change in   
that metallic substance4 ,we shall now  
proceed to the other discoveries made by
 ,mr4 ,homberg on this occasion4    ,in 
his attempt to obtain a clear ,oil from 
,excrement1 he distilled it  with       
different additaments1 and amongst the  
rest with ,vitriol and ,alum4  ,he found
 that the matters left in the retort1   
when he made use of these  ,salts1 being
 exposed to the open air1 took fire of  
themselves2 that  they kindled          
combustible matters2 in a word1 that    
they were a true  ,phosphorus1 of a     
species different from all then known4  
,pursuing these  first hints1 he sought 
and found the means of preparing this   
,phosphorus  by a way much more         
expeditious1 certain1 and easy4 ,his    
process is this4    ,take four ounces of
 ,feces newly excreted3 ,mix therewith  

an equal  weight of ,roch-,alum coarsely
 powdered3 put the whole into a little  
iron  pan that will hold about a quart  
of water1 and set it over a gentle  fire
 under a chimney4 ,the mixture will     
melt1 and become as liquid as  water4   
,let it boil with a gentle fire1        
constantly stirring it2 breaking  it    
into little crumbs1 and scraping off    
with a spatula whatever sticks  to the  
bottom or sides of the pan1 till it be  
perfectly dry4 ,the pan  must from time 
to time be removed from the fire1 that  
it may not grow  red-hot1 and the matter
 must be stirred1 even while it is off  
the fire1  to prevent too much of it    
from sticking to the pan4 ,when the     
matter is  perfectly dried1 and in      
little clots1 let it cool1 and powder it
 in a  metal mortar4 ,then put it again 
into the pan1 set it over the fire1  and
 stir it continually4 ,it will again    
grow a little moist1 and adhere         
together in clots1 which must be        
continually bruised and roasted till    

they be perfectly dry2 after which they 
must be suffered to cool1 and  then be  
pulverized4 ,this powder must be        
returned a third time to the  pan1 set  
on the fire1 roasted and perfectly      
dried3 after which it must  be reduced  
to a fine powder1 and kept in a paper in
 a dry place4 ,this  is the first or    
preparatory operation4    ,take two or  
three drams of this powder4 ,put it into
 a little matrass1  the belly of which  
will hold an ounce or an ounce and half 
of water1  and having a neck about six  
or seven inches long4 ,order it so that 
your  powder shall take up no more than 
about a third part of the matrass4      
,stop the neck of the matrass slightly  
with paper3 then take a crucible  four  
or five inches deep3 in the bottom of   
the crucible put three  or four         
spoonfuls of sand3 set the matrass on   
this sand1 and in the  middle of the    
crucible1 so as not to touch its sides4 
,then fill up  the crucible with sand1  
so that the belly of the matrass may be 

quite  buried therein4 ,this done1 place
 your crucible1 with the matrass1 in    
the midst of a little earthen furnace1  
commonly called a ,stove1 about  eight  
or ten inches wide above1 and six inches
 deep from the mouth to  the grate4     
,round the crucible put lighted coals   
about half way up1 and  when it hath    
stood thus half an hour1 fill up with   
coals to the very  top of the crucible4 
,keep up this fire a full half-hour     
longer1 or till  you see the inside of  
the matrass begin to be red4 ,then      
increase your  fire1 by raising your    
coals above the crucible4 ,continue this
 strong  heat for a full hour1 and then 
let the fire go out4    ,at the         
beginning of this operation dense fumes 
will rise out of the  matrass1 through  
the stopple of paper4 ,these fumes issue
 sometimes in  such abundance as to push
 out the stopple2 which you must then   
replace1  and slacken the fire4 ,the    
fumes cease when the inside of the      
matrass  begins to grow red2 and then   

you may increase the fire without any   
fear  of spoiling your operation4       
,when the crucible is so cold that it   
may be safely taken out of the  furnace 
with one's hand1 you must gradually draw
 the matrass out of the  sand1 that it  
may cool slowly1 and then stop it close 
with a cork4    ,if the matter at the   
bottom of the matrass appear to be in   
powder when  shaken1 it is a sign the   
operation hath succeeded3 but if it be  
in a  cake1 and doth not fall into      
powder on shaking the matrass1 it shews 
that your matter was not sufficiently   
roasted and dried in the iron  pan1     
during the preparatory operation4       
,since ,mr4 ,homberg1 ,mr4 ,lemeri the  
younger hath made a great many          
experiments on this ,phosphorus1 which  
may be seen in the ,memoirs  of the     
,academy for #agad and #agae4 ,in those 
,memoirs ,mr4 ,lemeri hath  shewn1 that 
,excrement is not the only matter       
capable of producing this  ,phosphorus  
with ,alum2 but that1 on the contrary1  

almost all animal and  even vegetable   
matters are fit for this combination2   
that though ,mr4  ,homberg mixed ,alum  
in equal quantities only with the fecal 
matter1 it  may be used in a much       
greater proportion1 and1 in certain     
cases1 will  succeed the better2 that1  
according to the nature of the          
substances to  be worked on1 the        
quantity of that ,salt may be more or   
less increased2  and that whatever is   
added1 more than the dose requisite for 
each  matter1 serves only to lessen the 
virtue of the ,phosphorus1 or even      
destroys it entirely3 that the degree of
 fire applied must be different         
according to the nature of those        
matters2 and1 lastly1 that ,salts       
containing exactly the same ,acid with  
that of ,alum1 or the ,acid of  those   
,salts separated from its basis and     
reduced into ,spirit1 do not  answer in 
the present operation3 which shews1 says
 ,mr4 ,lemeri1 that  many sulphureous   
matters may be substituted for          

,excrement in this  operation2 but that 
there are no ,salts1 or very few if any1
 that will  succeed in the place of     
,alum4 ,nevertheless1 a ,chymist1 who   
lately  communicated to the ,academy a  
great number of experiments on this     
,phosphorus1 found that any ,salt       
containing the ,vitriolic ,acid may be  
substituted for ,alum4    ,this         
,phosphorus1 made either by ,mr4        
,homberg's or by ,mr4 ,lemeri's  method1
 shines both by day and by night4       
,besides emitting light1  it takes fire 
soon after it is exposed to the air1 and
 kindles all  combustible matters with  
which it comes in contact2 and this     
without  being rubbed or heated4        
,mess4 ,homberg and ,lemeri have given  
the most probable and the most  natural 
explanation of the cause of the         
accension and other phenomena  of this  
,phosphorus4 ,what they say amounts in  
short to what follows4    ,alum is known
 to be a ,neutral ,salt1 consisting of  
the ,vitriolic ,acid  and a calcareous  

earth4 ,when this ,salt is calcined with
 the fecal  matter1 or other substances 
abounding in ,oil1 the volatile         
principles  of these substances1 such as
 their ,phlegm1 their ,salts1 and their 
,oils1 exhale in the same manner as if  
they were distilled2 and there  is      
nothing left in the matrass1 when those 
principles are dissipated1  but a       
charred matter1 like that which is found
 in retorts wherein such  mixts have    
been decomposed by distillation4        
,this remainder therefore is nothing but
 a mixture of ,alum and charcoal4  ,now1
 as the ,acid of this ,salt1 which is   
the ,vitriolic1 hath a greater  affinity
 with the phlogiston than with any other
 substance1 it will  quit its basis to  
unite with the phlogiston of the coal1  
and be  converted by that union into a  
,sulphur4 ,and this is the very case2   
of which we have certain proofs in the  
operation for preparing this            
,phosphorus3 for when1 after the        
volatile principles of the oily matter  

are drawn off1 the fire is increased1 in
 order to combine closely  together the 
fixed parts that remain in the matrass1 
that is1 the ,alum  and the charred     
matter1 we perceive at the mouth of the 
matrass a  small blue sulphureous flame1
 and a pungent smell of burning         
,sulphur4  ,nay1 when the operation is  
finished1 we find a real ,sulphur       
sticking  in the neck of the matrass2   
and1 while the ,phosphorus is burning1  
it hath plainly a strong sulphureous    
smell4 ,it is therefore certain  that   
this ,phosphorus contains an actual     
,sulphur2 that is1 a matter  disposed to
 take fire with the greatest ease4 ,but 
though ,sulphur be  very inflammable1 it
 never takes fire of itself1 without    
being either  in contact with some      
matter that is actually ignited1 or else
 being  exposed to a considerable degree
 of heat4 ,let us then see what may  be 
the cause of its accension1 when it is a
 constituent part of this  ,phosphorus4 
,we mentioned just now that the ,acid of

 the ,alum quits its basis1 in  order to
 form a ,sulphur by combining with the  
,phlogiston of the coal4  ,this basis we
 know to be an earth capable of being   
converted into ,lime2  and that it is   
actually converted into ,quick-lime by  
the calcination  necessary to produce   
the ,phosphorus4 ,we know that new-made 
,lime  hath the property of uniting with
 water so readily1 that it thereby      
contracts a very great degree of heat4  
,now when this ,phosphorus1  which is   
partly constituted of the basis of the  
,alum converted into  ,quick-lime1 is   
exposed to the air1 the ,lime instantly 
attracts the  moisture of which the air 
is always full1 and by this means1      
probably1  grows so hot as to fire the  
,sulphur with which it is mixed4        
,perhaps  also the ,acid of the ,alum is
 not totally changed into ,sulphur2 some
  part thereof may be only half         
disengaged from its basis1 and in that  
condition be capable of attracting      
strongly the humidity of the air1  of   

growing very hot likewise by imbibing   
the moisture1 and so of  contributing to
 the accension of the ,phosphorus4      
,there is also room to think that all   
the ,phlogiston of the charred  matter  
is not employed in the production of    
,sulphur in this ,phosphorus1  but that 
some part of it remains in the state of 
a true coal4 ,the black  colour of the  
unkindled ,phosphorus1 and the red      
sparkles it emits while  burning1       
sufficiently prove this4 ,the           
explanation of the accension of  this   
,phosphorus1 as here given by ,mess4    
,homberg and ,lemeri1 is very           
ingenious1 and in the main just2 but    
yet1 in my opinion1 the subject         
deserves a more thorough examination4   
,,process ,,ii4    ,human ,urine        
analyzed4    ,put some ,human ,urine    
into a glass ,alembic2 set it in a      
water-bath1  and distil till there      
remain only about a fortieth part of    
what you  put in2 or else evaporate the 
,urine1 in a pan set in the balneum     

mari1 till it be reduced to the same    
quantity4 ,with this heat nothing  will 
exhale but an insipid ,phlegm1 smelling 
however like ,urine4 ,the  residuum     
will1 as the evaporation advances1      
become of a darker and  darker russet1  
and at last acquire an almost black     
colour4 ,mingle this  residuum with     
thrice its weight of sand1 and distil it
 in a retort set  in a reverberating    
furnace1 with the usual precautions4 ,at
 first there  will come over a little   
more insipid ,phlegm like the former4   
,when the  matter is almost dry1 a      
,volatile ,spirit will rise4 ,after this
 ,spirit1  white vapours will appear on 
increasing the fire2 a yellow oily      
liquor  will come off1 trickling down in
 veins2 and together with this liquor a 
concrete ,volatile ,salt1 which will    
stick to the sides of the receiver4  ,at
 last there will come over a            
deep-coloured fetid ,oil4 ,in the retort
  there will remain a saline earthy     
residuum1 which being lixiviated will   

yield some ,sea-salt4                   
,,observations4    ,urine must be       
considered as an aqueous liquor replete 
with all the  saline matters which are  
of no use to the body1 either for       
nourishment  or health3 it is a lixivium
 of animal matters1 prepared by nature  
for  dissolving and separating from them
 all the unnecessary ,salts4 ,it        
contains a very large quantity of almost
 pure phlegm1 which evaporates  with the
 heat of a water-bath4    ,the residue  
of the ,urine1 from which this phlegm is
 separated by the  first distillation1  
though thereby rendered considerably    
thicker1 doth  not coagulate1 or curdle 
in the least1 like ,milk or ,blood2     
which shews  that it contains no parts  
analagous to those of these two         
nutritious  liquors4 ,yet it contains   
oily and saline parts1 disposed like    
those  of truly animal matters2 as      
appears from the ,spirit1 the ,volatile 
,salt1 and the ,oil1 obtained from it by
 distillation2 which are1 in  every     

respect1 perfectly like the same        
principles yielded by other  animal     
substances4 ,but1 if the animal that    
made the ,urine took in  with its food  
any of the ,neutral ,salts1 which cannot
 be decompounded  by digestion2 that is1
 of those chiefly which consist of      
,acids and  ,alkalis1 the ,urine will   
contain1 over and above the other parts 
of  that animal1 almost all the ,neutral
 ,salt that entered into its body4      
,accordingly human ,urine is replete    
with a considerable quantity of         
,sea-salt1 because men eat a great deal 
of it4 ,it is found1 after the          
distillation of the ,urine1 united with 
the caput mortuum left in the  retort2  
because1 being of a fixed nature1 it    
doth not rise with the  volatile        
principles in distillation4    ,besides 
this ,sea-salt1 ,urine contains another 
,salt of a singular  nature1 which      
crystallizes differently from ,sea-salt4
 ,in this ,salt1  according to ,mr4     
,marggraff's experiments mentioned on   

the subject of  ,phosphorus1 is         
contained the ,acid necessary to produce
 the ,phosphorus  of ,urine4 ,there is  
reason to think that this ,salt is a    
,sea-salt1  disguised by the fat matters
 with which it combines during its stay 
in  the animal body4    ,mr4 ,boerhaave 
calls it the ,essential ,salt of ,urine4
 ,if you desire to  have it by itself1  
you must evaporate the ,urine1 with a   
gentle heat1  to the consistence of     
fresh cream1 filter it1 and let it stand
 quiet  in a cool place4 ,crystals will 
at length shoot therein1 and adhere  to 
the sides of the vessel4 ,these crystals
 are the ,salt you want3  they are brown
 and oily4 ,if you desire to have them  
purer1 you must  dissolve them in warm  
water1 filter the solution1 and set it  
by to  shoot4 ,this operation repeated  
several times will render them clear and
  transparent4 ,mr4 ,schlosser1 a young 
and very promising ,chymist1 is the     
last who hath made any experiments on   
this curious ,salt of ,urine4 ,those    

who are desirous of a particular account
 of its properties may consult  his     
dissertation1 printed at ,leyden in     
#agec1 as well as ,mr4 ,marggraff's     
excellent ,memoirs1 printed among those 
of the ,academy of ,berlin4    ,the     
chief result of ,mr4 ,schlosser's       
experiments is1 first1 that this  ,salt 
may be obtained from recent ,urine1 and 
even in greater quantities  than from   
putrid ,urine1 and that too in very     
little time3 seeing it  crystallizes in 
twenty-four hours1 after due            
evaporation4    ,secondly1 that this    
,salt is a ,neutral ,ammoniacal ,salt1  
consisting of a  ,volatile ,alkali1     
7which can never be extracted from it   
but in a liquid  form1 like that which  
is separated from ,urine by the addition
 of ,lime72  and of an ,acid of a very  
singular nature1 the most remarkable    
property  of which is1 its being so     
fixed as to resist the violence of fire1
  and turn into a sort of glass rather  
than exhale in vapours4 ,this is  that  

,acid which1 according to ,mr4          
,marggraff's experiments1 forms the     
combination of ,phosphorus when united  
with the ,phlogiston4 ,the other        
properties of this singular ,acid are   
the principal objects of ,mr4           
,marggraff's inquiries4    ,it follows1 
in the third place1 from ,mr4           
,schlosser's experiments1 that  this    
,acid1 being combined to the point of   
saturation with a common  ,volatile     
,alkali1 forms a true1 regenerated ,salt
 of ,urine2 and that1 by  this union1   
the nature of the ,volatile ,alkali is  
so changed1 that it  cannot afterwards  
appear by itself in a concrete form1 but
 is always  fluid1 like that which is   
extricated by the additament of lime4   
,if ,fixed ,alkalis be mixed with fresh 
,urine1 they immediately separate  from 
it a ,volatile ,alkali2 and1 if the     
mixture be quickly put into  an alembic1
 and distilled1 the first liquor that   
rises is a ,volatile  ,spirit3 or else a
 ,volatile ,alkali in a concrete form   

will rise first1  provided the ,fixed   
,alkali made use of be not liquid1 and  
the ,urine be  dephlegmated4    ,herein 
,urine resembles other animal matters3  
for ,fixed ,alkalis produce  the same   
effect on them4 ,this affords us good   
grounds for believing  that all animal  
matters contain a ,neutral ,salt of an  
,ammoniacal nature1  which the ,fixed   
,alkali decomposes1 as it doth all other
 ,ammoniacal  ,salts4 ,quick-lime also  
extricates from ,urine a ,volatile      
,alkali1  still more quick and pungent  
than that which is separated by a ,fixed
  ,alkali1 and which constantly remains 
liquid without ever putting on  a       
concrete form3 and this is another proof
 of the existence of the  ,ammoniacal   
,salt above-mentioned2 for quick-lime   
hath just the same  effect on           
,sal-,ammoniac1 as we shall see in its  
place4 ,mr4 ,schlosser's  experiments1  
compared with those now mentioned1 seem 
to shew that the  ,urine contains       
several distinct sorts of ,ammoniacal   

,salts4    ,of all the liquors which    
animals afford1 ,urine putrefies the    
most  easily1 and by putrefaction parts 
with1 or forms1 the greatest quantity   
of ,volatile ,alkali4 ,if it be         
distilled when putrefied1 there comes   
over first a ,spirit impregnated with   
much ,volatile ,alkali2 then an  aqueous
 liquor1 which ,van ,helmont assures us 
is a medicine of wonderful  efficacy in 
dissolving the stone in the bladder4    
,when all this water is  come over1 and 
the remaining matter is almost dry1     
there ascends1 on  increasing the fire1 
a yellow ,oil1 together with a ,volatile
 ,salt4    ,after this there remains in 
the retort a black charred earthy       
matter1  containing a great deal of     
,sea-salt4 ,if this matter be calcined  
in  the open air1 in order to consume   
its ,phlogiston1 and be afterwards      
lixiviated1 all the ,sea-salt it        
contains may by this means be easily    
separated2 nothing but its earth being  
left behind4 ,this caput  mortuum       

contains also the materials proper for  
forming ,kunckel's  ,phosphorus2 and if1
 instead of calcining it in the open    
air1 it  be urged with a violent fire1  
in close vessels1 it will yield a       
,phosphorus3 but then all the           
precautions recommended on the subject  
of  ,phosphorus must be used2 and1 in   
particular1 the caput mortuum must  be  
lixiviated before it be distilled1 in   
order to free it from part of  the      
,sea-salt contained therein2 because too
 much of that ,salt might  defeat the   
operator1 by not only melting itself1   
but melting also the  containing vessel 
during the operation4          ,,chap4  
,,iv4    ,of the ,,volatile ,,alkali4   
,,process ,i4    ,volatile ,alkalis     
rectified and depurated4    ,mix        
together the ,spirit1 the ,volatile     
,salt1 the ,phlegm1 and the ,oil1       
obtained from any substance whatever4   
,put the whole into a large             
wide-mouthed glass body1 and thereto fit
 a head with a large beak4 ,set  this   

alembic in a water-bath1 lute on a      
receiver1 and distil with a  very gentle
 heat4 ,there will ascend a ,spirit1    
strongly impregnated with  a ,volatile  
,alkali1 and a ,volatile ,salt in a     
concrete form1 which must  be kept by   
itself4 ,then increase your heat to the 
degree of boiling  water2 whereupon     
there will rise a second ,volatile      
,spirit1 somewhat  more ponderous than  
the former1 with a light ,oil that will 
swim on its  surface1 and a little      
concrete ,volatile ,salt4 ,proceed till 
nothing more  will rise with this degree
 of heat4 ,keep by itself what came over
 into  the receiver4 ,at the bottom of  
the cucurbit you will find a thick fetid
  ,oil4    ,into such another distilling
 vessel put the ,spirit and ,salt that  
rose  first in this distillation1 and   
distil them in the balneum mari with  a 
heat still gentler than before4 ,a      
whiter1 purer1 ,volatile ,salt will     
sublime4 ,continue the distillation till
 an aqueous moisture rise1 which  will  

begin to dissolve the ,salt4 ,at the    
bottom of the vessel will be  left a    
phlegm1 with a little ,oil floating on  
it4 ,keep your ,salt in a  bottle well  
stopped4      ,,observations4    ,in the
 analysis of any substance that yields a
 ,volatile ,alkali1 this  ,salt is      
generally found in the receiver1 blended
 with the other  principles of the mixt2
 which1 ascending from the retort in the
 form  of liquors and vapours1 dissolve 
the ,salt1 or at least moisten it1 and  
render it very impure4 ,so that1 if you 
desire to have it without any  mixture1 
recourse must be had to a second        
distillation1 in order to  separate it  
from the heterogeneous matters with     
which it is confounded4    ,it is of    
consequence in this distillation to     
apply but a very weak  degree of heat2  
because on that depends the success of  
the operation1  insomuch that1 the less 
heat you employ to sublime the ,salt1   
the  purer it will be4 ,for1 being far  
more volatile than any of the other     

principles with which it is mixed1 it   
must evidently rise by itself1 if  no   
more heat be applied than is just       
necessary to elevate it2 such a  heat   
being much too weak to raise the ,oil   
and phlegm with which it is  blended4   
,nevertheless1 whatever care be taken to
 govern the heat1 it is not  possible to
 hinder this ,volatile ,salt from       
carrying up some portions  of the       
principles mixed with it2 those1 to wit1
 with which it is most  closely united1 
and to which it hath by that means      
communicated a share  of its volatility4
 ,for this reason it requires a second  
rectification1  which is performed in   
the same manner as the former4 ,but1    
seeing it is  more volatile and lighter 
after the first rectification than      
before1  being thereby freed from part  
of the heterogeneous matters with which 
it was loaded1 a still less degree of   
heat must be applied in this  second    
rectification4    ,the ,oil with which  
the ,volatile ,salt is loaded1 when but 

once  distilled1 is perceivable only by 
the yellow colour and weight it         
communicates thereto2 because it is     
closely united therewith1 and in  a     
perfectly saponaceous state4 ,this      
appears from the facility with  which   
,volatile ,salts1 even the most oily1   
dissolve in water1 without  discovering 
in the solution any separation of the   
oily parts1 and even  without giving it 
a milky colour4 ,but1 in the second     
rectification1  this ,oil becomes very  
perceptible2 for it then separates1 in a
 great  measure1 from the ,salt1 and    
remains at the bottom of the cucurbit1  
floating on the phlegm1 which is also   
separated from the ,salt4    ,the ,salt 
is then whiter1 more volatile1 and      
purer2 yet it is still  far from being  
brought to the utmost degree of purity1 
even by this  second rectification4 ,it 
requires a third1 a fourth1 and even    
many more  rectifications1 to purify it 
perfectly3 every rectification separates
  from it some oily particles3 and if   

you should resolve to go on  rectifying 
till you can separate no more ,oil1     
there is reason to think  this ,salt    
would be entirely decomposed2 because   
there is necessarily a  certain quantity
 of ,oil in its composition1 without    
which it would not  be a ,volatile      
,alkali4 ,you must therefore desist from
 rectifying it any  further1 when you   
find it very white1 and very light2 and 
shut it up in  bottles hermetically     
sealed4    ,it often happens that       
,volatile ,salts1 though of a beautiful 
white after  rectification1 grow yellow 
after being kept some time in close     
bottles4  ,this is occasioned by the    
,oil they contain disengaging1 and      
discovering  itself by degrees4 ,to     
remedy this inconvenience1 ,mr4         
,boerhaave  proposes to mingle the      
,volatile ,salt1 which you intend to    
purify1  with four times its weight of  
pulverized chalk1 thoroughly dried1 and 
even heated2 to put the mixture into a  
glass alembic1 and distil it  with a    

gentle heat4 ,by this means the ,salt   
rises exceeding pure and  very white2   
because the chalk absorbs most of its   
,oil1 and frees it  therefrom4 ,he adds1
 that ,volatile ,salt thus purified may 
be kept a long  time1 and will retain   
all its whiteness4    ,if a ,volatile   
,alkali thus purified be combined1 to   
the point of  saturation1 with an ,acid1
 such as the ,marine ,acid for instance2
 the  result of this union1 as we shall 
afterwards see1 will be a ,sal          
,ammoniac1 from which the ,volatile     
,alkali may be separated by the         
intervention of a ,fixed ,alkali4 ,a    
,volatile ,alkali that hath passed      
through all these trials will then be in
 the highest degree of purity  that     
,chymistry can bring it to1 and appears 
constantly the same1 from  whatever     
substance it was originally obtained3   
which proves that  if ,volatile         
,alkalis1 extracted from different      
vegetable and animal  substances1 seem  
to differ from each other in some       

respects1 this can  arise only from the 
heterogeneous matters with which they   
are mixed2  but that1 at bottom1 they   
are all constituted of one single       
principle1  which is constantly the     
same1 and exactly alike in them all4    
,it is of the last consequence1 on all  
occasions where a ,volatile ,alkali  is 
to be distilled in a concrete form1 to  
make use of subliming vessels  with very
 large necks1 that it may have room     
enough to make its way to  the receiver 
with ease2 for otherwise it may choak up
 the passage1 and  burst the vessels4   
,,process ,,ii4    ,volatile ,alkalis   
combined with ,acids4 ,sundry           
,ammoniacal ,salts4 ,sal  ,ammoniac4    
,on a ,volatile ,spirit or ,salt pour   
gradually any ,acid whatever4 ,an       
effervescence will arise1 and be more or
 less violent according to the  nature  
of the ,acid4 ,go on adding more ,acid  
in the same manner1 till no             
effervescence be thereby excited1 or at 
least till it be very small4  ,the      

liquor will now contain a semi-volatile 
,neutral ,salt1 called an  ,ammoniacal  
,salt2 which may be obtained in a dry   
form by crystallizing  as usual1 or by  
subliming it in close vessels1 after the
 superfluous  moisture hath been drawn  
off4      ,,observations4    ,volatile  
,alkalis have the same properties with  
,fixed ,alkalis1 fixity  only excepted3 
so that a ,volatile ,alkali must produce
 an effervescence  when mixed with      
,acids1 and form therewith ,neutral     
,salts1 differing from  each other in   
nothing but the nature of the ,acid in  
their composition4    ,it must be       
observed1 that1 on this occasion1 the   
point of saturation  is very difficult  
to hit2 owing probably to the           
,volatility of the  ,alkali1 which1     
being much lighter than the ,acid1 tends
 always to  possess the uppermost part  
of the mixture1 while the ,acid sinks to
 the  bottom3 whence it comes to pass1  
that the lower part of the liquor is    
sometimes over-charged with ,acid1 while

 the upper part is still very           
,alkaline4 ,but it is most eligible that
 the ,alkali should predominate  in the 
mixture2 because the excess of this     
principle easily flies off1  while the  
moisture is evaporating1 in order to the
 crystallization or  sublimation of the 
,ammoniacal ,salt2 which being only     
semi-volatile  resists the heat longer1 
and remains perfectly ,neutral4    ,if  
the ,vitriolic ,acid be combined with a 
,volatile ,alkali1 and the  mixture     
distilled in a retort to draw off the   
superfluous moisture1  a liquor comes   
over into the receiver1 which smells    
strong of  a ,sulphureous ,acid4 ,now1  
as the ,acid of ,vitriol never becomes  
sulphureous1 but when it is combined    
with an inflammable matter1 this        
experiment is one of those which        
demonstrate that ,volatile ,alkalis     
contain a very sensible quantity of     
inflammable matter4 ,this same  liquor  
tastes of an ,ammoniacal ,salt2 which   
proves that it carries up  with it some 

of the ,neutral ,salt contained in the  
mixture4 ,the rest  of this ,salt1 which
 is called ,glauber's ,secret ,sal      
,ammoniac1 or  ,vitriolic ,sal          
,ammoniac1 sublimes into the neck of the
 retort4 ,it is  very pungent on the    
tongue2 it crackles a little when thrown
 on a red  hot shovel1 and then flies   
off in vapours4    ,the ,ammoniacal     
,salt formed by the ,acid of ,nitre     
exhibits much the  same phenomena2 but  
it requires greater care in drying and  
subliming  it1 because it hath the      
property of detonating all alone1       
without the  addition of any other      
inflammable matter3 and it will         
infallibly do  so1 if too strong a fire 
be applied towards the end of the       
operation1  when it begins to be very   
dry4 ,this property of detonating by    
itself it  derives from the inflammable 
matter contained in the ,volatile       
,alkali  which serves for its basis3 and
 this is another demonstrative proof of 
the existence of such an inflammable    

matter in the ,volatile ,alkali4  ,this 
,salt is called ,nitrous ,sal ,ammoniac4
    ,with the vegetable ,acids1 that of 
,vinegar for instance1 is formed an     
,ammoniacal ,salt of a singular nature1 
and which can scarce be brought  to a   
dry form4    ,a ,volatile ,alkali1      
combined to the point of saturation with
 the ,acid  of ,sea-salt1 forms another 
,neutral ,salt1 which takes a concrete  
form  either by sublimation or          
crystallization4 ,the crystals of this  
,salt are  so very soft and fine1 that a
 parcel of it looks like cotton or wool4
  ,this is the ,salt properly called    
,sal ,ammoniac4 ,it is of great use  in 
,chymistry and in manufactures3 but that
 which is daily consumed in  great      
quantities is not made in the manner    
above mentioned4 ,it would  come        
extremely dear if we had no other way of
 procuring it1 but by  forming it thus  
with the ,acid of ,sea-salt and a       
,volatile ,alkali4 ,this  ,salt1 or at  
least the materials of which it is      

formed1 may be found  in the            
fuliginosities and soots of most animal1
 and of some vegetable  substances4 ,the
 greatest part of what we use comes from
 ,egypt1 where  vast quantities thereof 
are made4    ,the method of preparing   
,sal ,ammoniac in ,egypt was not known  
among us1  till ,mess4 ,lemaire and     
,granger1 two of the ,academy's         
correspondents1  gave in several        
,memoirs in which that business is      
described with great  accuracy1 from    
their own view on the spot4 ,their      
,memoirs inform us1  that chimney-soot  
alone1 without any additament1 is the   
matter from  which they obtain their    
,sal ,ammoniac2 that those chimneys     
under which  nothing is burnt but       
,cow's-dung furnish the best ,soot4 ,six
 and twenty  pounds of that ,soot yield 
usually six pounds of ,sal ,ammoniac4   
,the operation takes up about fifty1 or 
two and fifty hours4 ,the  vessels in   
which they put the soot are ballons of  
very thin glass1  terminating in a neck 

of fifteen or sixteen lines long1 and an
 inch  in diameter3 but they are not all
 of the same size4 ,the least contain   
twelve pounds of ,soot1 and the greatest
 fifty2 but they fill them only  three  
quarters full1 in order to leave room   
for the sublimation of the  ,salt4      
,the furnace1 in which they place these 
ballons1 consists of four  walls1 built 
in a quadrangular form4 ,the two front  
walls are ten1 and  the sides nine feet 
long3 but they are all five feet high1  
and ten  inches thick4 ,within the      
quadrangle formed by these walls three  
arches  run lengthwise from end to end  
thereof1 at the distance of ten inches  
asunder4 ,the mouth of this furnace is  
in the middle of one of its  fronts1 and
 of an oval form2 two feet four inches  
high1 and sixteen  inches wide4    ,the 
ballons lie in the spaces between the   
arches of the furnace1 which  serve     
instead of a grate to support them4     
,four of them are usually  placed in    
each interval2 which makes sixteen for  

one furnace4 ,they are  set at the      
distance of about half a foot from each 
other1 and secured  in their places with
 brick and earth4 ,but they leave about 
four inches  on the upper part of the   
ballon uncovered1 with a view to promote
 the  sublimation1 as they also do six  
inches of the inferior part1 that the   
heat may the better act on the matters  
to be sublimed4 ,things being  thus     
prepared they first make a fire with    
straw1 which they continue  for an hour4
 ,afterwards they throw in ,cow's-dung  
made up in square  cakes like bricks4   
7,the want of wood in this country is   
the reason that  they generally make use
 of this fuel74 ,these cakes of dung add
 to the  violence of the fire1 which    
they continue in this manner for        
nineteen  hours2 after which they       
increase it considerably for fifteen    
hours  more2 and then they slacken it by
 little and little4    ,when the matter 
contained in the vessels begins to grow 
hot1 that is1  after six or seven hours 

baking1 it emits a very thick and       
ill-scented  smoke1 which continues for 
fifteen hours4 ,four hours after that1  
the  ,sal ,ammoniac is observed to rise 
in white flowers1 which adhere to the   
inside of the neck of the vessel2 and   
those who have the direction of  the    
operation take care1 from time to time1 
to pass an iron rod into  the neck of   
the ballon1 in order to preserve a      
passage through the  saline vault1 for  
giving vent to some blueish vapours1    
which constantly  issue out of the      
vessel during the whole operation4      
,from this history of the preparation of
 ,sal ,ammoniac it appears that  ,soot1 
and particularly the ,soot of animal    
matters1 either contains  abundance of  
this ,salt perfectly formed1 and waiting
 only for  sublimation to separate it   
therefrom1 or1 at least1 that it        
contains  the proper materials for      
forming it2 and that during the         
operation1  which is a kind of          
distillation of ,soot1 these materials  

combine  together and sublime4    ,we   
shewed1 in our analysis of ,soot1 that  
this substance yields by  distillation a
 great deal of ,volatile ,alkali2 and   
this is an ingredient  which makes at   
least one-half of ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,as to
 the other  principle of this ,salt1 ,i 
mean the ,marine ,acid1 this also must  
needs  exist in ,soot3 but it is not so 
easy to conceive how it should come     
there4    ,it is very true that         
vegetable and animal substances1 the    
only ones  that produce ,soot in        
burning1 contain some portion of        
,sea-salt3 but  then this ,salt is very 
fixed1 and seems unfit to rise with the 
,acid1  the ,oil1 and the subtile       
,earth1 of which the ,volatile ,alkali  
is formed4  ,therefore we must suppose  
either that its elevation is procured   
by the force of the fire1 aided by the  
volatility of the matters  that exhale  
in burning2 or that1 being decomposed by
 the violence  of the combustion1 its   
,acid alone rises with the other        

principles  above-mentioned4 ,the latter
 seems probable enough3 for though in   
the  common operations of ,chymistry the
 bare force of fire doth not seem       
sufficient to decompose ,sea salt2 yet  
the example of ,sea-plants1 which1      
before burning1 contain this ,salt in   
abundance1 and whole ashes contain      
scarce any at all1 but are replete with 
its fixed part1 that is1 with  its      
,alkaline basis1 seems to prove that1   
when this ,salt is intimately  mixed    
with inflammable matters1 it may be     
destroyed by burning2 so  that its ,acid
 shall desert its basis1 and fly off    
with the ,soot4    ,before the exact    
method of procuring ,sal ,ammoniac was  
known1 it  was generally imagined that  
the manufacturers1 mixed ,sea-salt1 and 
even ,urine1 with the ,soot2 because    
these two substances contain  the       
principles of which this ,salt consists4
 ,but1 besides that the  contrary now   
certainly appears from the              
above-mentioned ,memoirs1 it  hath been 

shewn by ,mr4 ,duhamel1 who hath        
published several ,memoirs  and         
experiments concerning the composition  
and decomposition of ,sal  ,ammoniac1   
from which we have partly taken what we 
have already said  on this subject1 and 
which will furnish us with some more    
curious  observations2 it hath been     
shewn1 ,i say1 in the first of ,mr4     
,duhamel's  ,memoirs1 printed with those
 of the ,academy for #agce1 that the    
addition  of ,sea-salt to the ,soot1    
from which ,sal ,ammoniac is to be      
extracted1  contributes nothing to its  
production1 and cannot increase its     
quantity4 ,that alone1 therefore1 which 
was originally contained in  the matters
 that produced the ,soot1 enters as a   
principle into the  composition of ,sal 
,ammoniac4 ,we observed also1 in        
treating of the  analysis of ,soot1 that
 ,mr4 ,boerhaave obtained from it a     
considerable  quantity of an ,ammonical 
,salt without any additament4    ,sal   
,ammoniac is sometimes found perfectly  

formed in the neighbourhood  of         
,volcanoes4 ,this ,salt is probably     
produced from the fuliginosities of     
vegetable or animal matters consumed by 
the fire of the ,volcano4    ,sal       
,ammoniac is often impure1 because it   
carries up with it1 in  sublimation1    
some of the black charred matter which  
ought to be left  at the bottom of the  
vessel3 but it is easily purified4 ,for 
this  purpose you need only dissolve it 
in water1 filter the solution1 then     
evaporate and crystallize2 by which     
means you will have a very white  and   
very pure ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,you may1 if  
you please1 sublime it again  in a      
cucurbit and blind head1 with a fire not
 too brisk4 ,some of it  will rise in   
the form of a light white powder1 called
 ,flowers of ,sal  ,ammoniac4 ,these    
,flowers are no other than true ,sal    
,ammoniac1 which  hath suffered no      
decomposition2 because the bare action  
of fire is not  capable of separating   
the ,acid and the ,volatile ,alkali1 of 

which this  ,neutral ,salt consists4    
,when you intend to decompose it1 you   
must use  the means to be mentioned     
hereafter4    ,though ,sal ,ammoniac be 
only semi-volatile1 and requires a      
considerable  heat to sublime it1 yet it
 hath the property of carrying up with  
it matters that are very fixed and      
ponderous2 such as metallic  substances1
 and some kinds of earths4 ,for         
medicinal uses we sublime  therewith    
,iron1 ,lapis ,hmatites1 the ,copper in 
blue ,vitriol1 c4 and  then it takes    
different names1 as ,martial ,flowers of
 ,sal ,ammoniac1  ,ens veneris1 and     
other such denominations1 which it      
borrows from the  matters sublimed with 
it4      ,,process ,,iii4    ,sal       
,ammoniac decompounded by ,acids4       
,into a large tubulated glass retort put
 a small quantity of ,sal  ,ammoniac in 
powder3 set your retort in a furnace1   
and lute on a large  ballon1 as in the  
distillation of the smoaking ,acids of  
,nitre and  ,sea-salt4 ,through the hole

 in your retort pour a quantity of ,oil 
of  ,vitriol1 or ,spirit of ,nitre1     
equal in weight to your ,sal ,ammoniac4 
,an effervescence will instantly follow4
 ,the mixture will swell1 and  discharge
 white vapours1 which will come over    
into the receiver4  ,stop the hole in   
the retort immediately1 and let the     
first vapours  pass over1 together with 
some drops of liquor1 which will distil 
without fire4 ,then put a few coals into
 the furnace1 and continue the          
distillation with a very gentle heat2   
which however must be increased1  little
 by little1 till nothing more will come 
off4 ,when the operation  is finished1  
you will find in the receiver a ,spirit 
of ,salt1 if you  made use of ,oil of   
,vitriol2 or an ,aqua regis1 if ,spirit 
of ,nitre was  employed3 and in the     
retort will be left a saline mass1 which
 will be  either a ,glauber's ,secret   
,sal ,ammoniac1 or a ,nitrous ,sal      
,ammoniac1  according to the nature of  
the ,acid used to decompound the ,sal   

,ammoniac4      ,,observations4    ,sal 
,ammoniac1 which consists of the ,marine
 ,acid united to a ,volatile  ,alkali1  
is1 with respect to the ,vitriolic and  
,nitrous ,acids1 just  the same as      
,sea-salt is with respect to those      
,acids2 that is1 the  ,vitriolic and    
,nitrous ,acids1 having a greater       
affinity1 than the ,marine  ,acid1 with 
,volatile as well as ,fixed ,alkalis1   
will decompound the ,sal  ,ammoniac1 by 
expelling the ,acid from its basis1 and 
assuming its place1  just as they do    
with regard to ,sea-salt4 ,most         
therefore of what was  said concerning  
the decomposition of ,sea-salt1 and the 
distillation of  its ,acid1 by the two  
other ,acids1 must be applied here4     
,we shall only observe1 that1 when the  
,acid of ,sal ,ammoniac is to be        
distilled from it by the interposition  
of the ,vitriolic or ,nitrous  ,acid1   
great care must be taken to put but a   
very small quantity of  this ,salt into 
the retort2 especially if the ,acids to 

be added are  concentrated3 for1 as soon
 as they mix with the ,sal ,ammoniac1 a 
great effervescence arises1 and the     
mixture swells to such a degree1  that1 
unless the quantity in the retort be    
very small1 it may run  over altogether 
into the receiver4 ,it is also proper to
 take notice1  that this operation      
admits of but a small degree of heat1   
for two  reasons2 first1 because the    
,acid of the ,sal ,ammoniac1 being very 
easily  dislodged by an ,acid stronger  
than itself1 rises also very easily2    
secondly1 because the ,sal ,ammoniac    
which is to be decompounded1 as  well as
 the ,ammoniacal ,salts which result    
from its decomposition1 are             
semi-volatile1 and will sublime in      
substance if they be exposed to the     
smallest excess of heat4 ,moreover1 the 
,nitrous ,sal ,ammoniac would be in     
danger of taking fire and exploding1 for
 a reason frequently mentioned  above4  
,the ,nitrous ,sal ,ammoniac may be     
decompounded1 as well as ,sal ,ammoniac1

  by the ,vitriolic ,acid4 ,but1 as the 
,nitrous ,acid contained in the ,salt   
is the strongest of all ,acids next to  
the ,vitriolic1 no other ,acid but  this
 is able to expel it from its basis2 in 
which respect this ,salt  resembles     
,nitre4    ,instead of employing the    
,acids of ,vitriol and ,nitre to        
decompound ,sal  ,ammoniac1 we might    
make use of ,neutral ,salts consisting  
of these ,acids  combined with metallic 
or earthy bases3 but then1 as this      
decomposition  cannot be effected       
without a greater degree of heat1 there 
is reason  to apprehend that some of the
 ,sal ,ammoniac would be thereby        
sublimed1  before it could be           
decompounded4      ,,process ,,iv4      
,sal ,ammoniac decompounded by ,fixed   
,alkalis4 ,volatile ,salt4 ,the         
,febrifuge of ,sylvius4    ,into a glass
 alembic or retort put ,sal ,ammoniac   
and ,salt of ,tartar1  pulverized and   
mixed together in equal quantities4 ,set
 your vessel in  a proper furnace1 and  

immediately lute on a large receiver4 ,a
 little  volatile ,spirit will ascend2  
and a volatile ,alkali1 in a concrete   
form1  very white and beautiful1 will   
sublime into the head1 and come over    
into the receiver1 in quantity near two 
thirds or three fourths of  the ,sal    
,ammoniac used4 ,continue the           
distillation1 increasing the fire  by   
degrees1 till nothing more will sublime4
 ,then unlute the vessels4  ,put up your
 ,volatile ,salt immediately into a     
wide-mouthed bottle1 and  stop it close 
with a crystal stopple4 ,at the bottom  
of the retort1  or cucurbit1 you will   
find a saline mass1 which1 being        
dissolved and  crystallized1 will form a
 ,salt nearly cubical1 having the taste 
and  other properties of ,sea-salt4     
,this is the ,sal ,febrifugum ,sylvii4  
,,observations4    ,this decomposition  
of ,sal ,ammoniac is the reverse of that
 in the  preceding process4 ,in the     
former operation it was shewn that the  
,acid  of ,sal ,ammoniac may be         

separated from its basis1 by applying to
 that  basis a stronger ,acid3 in the   
present operation1 on the contrary1 the 
basis of this ,salt is separated from   
its ,acid1 by presenting to that  ,acid 
a ,fixed ,alkali1 wherewith it hath a   
greater affinity than with the          
,volatile ,alkali which serves it for a 
basis4    ,the action of ,fixed ,alkalis
 upon ,sal ,ammoniac is so vigorous and 
sudden1 that1 as soon as these two      
matters are mixed together1 the         
,volatile urinous ,salt rushes out with 
great activity1 even without the  help  
of heat2 so that much of it will be     
lost1 if care be not taken to  confine  
the mixture immediately in those vessels
 by means of which it  is to be         
distilled4    ,the ,volatile ,salt      
obtained by this operation is white1    
pure1 and very  active2 having been     
freed from the greatest part of its     
superfluous fat  matter1 both by the    
union it had contracted with the ,marine
 ,acid1 and  by the ,fixed ,alkali      

employed to separate it therefrom4 ,this
 ,salt is so  quick and volatile1 that  
if1 on taking out the receiver1 it be   
left a  little too long exposed to the  
air1 before it be put into the bottle in
  which it is to be kept1 a great deal  
of it will exhale and be lost4 ,for  the
 same reason care should be taken1 while
 the vessels are unluting1  that the    
vapour of this ,salt do not strike the  
organ of smelling1 or  be drawn into the
 lungs in respiration2 for it affects   
those organs  so powerfully1 and makes  
such a quick impression on them1 that   
the  operator would be in danger of     
suffocation4 ,yet it is of great        
service1  when cautiously smelled to1   
for exciting the vibrations of the      
,genus  ,nervosum1 in ,apoplexies1      
,fainting fits1 and ,hysterical         
disorders4  ,but it must always be      
administered with great caution2 for it 
hath a  corrosive quality1 and is no    
less caustic than a ,fixed ,alkali4     
,this is  proved by applying it to the  

bare skin1 and keeping it on by means of
  a pitch-plaster1 so that it cannot fly
 off in vapours3 for1 as soon as  it    
begins to grow warm1 it produces on the 
skin a smarting sensation1  like that of
 burning1 attended with much pain1 and  
in a very short time  makes an eschar   
like a caustic4    ,the ,volatile       
,spirit1 obtained in the decomposition  
of ,sal ,ammoniac by  a ,fixed ,alkali1 
derives its origin from the ,phlegm     
contained in the  saline matters that   
are mixed together on that occasion4    
,the moister  those matters are1 the    
more ,spirit there will be4 ,this also  
is very  active and penetrating4 ,but as
 it owes these qualities wholly to the  
,volatile ,salt dissolved in it1 the    
more of this ,spirit comes off1 the     
less ,salt will there be4    ,if you    
desire to have much ,volatile ,spirit1 a
 quantity of water1  proportioned to the
 quantity of ,spirit you want1 must be  
mixed with  the ,salts4 ,in this case   
the distillation begins with a humid    

vapour1  which coagulates on the sides  
of the receiver into a concrete ,salt1  
almost as soon as it comes over4 ,there 
rises afterwards an aqueous  vapour1 not
 so saline or volatile as the former4   
,this liquor dissolves  the ,salt that  
was coagulated before2 and1 if the water
 added was in  sufficient quantity1 it  
will dissolve the ,salt entirely2       
otherwise  it will dissolve but a part  
thereof1 and then it is certain that the
  liquor is a ,volatile ,spirit as      
strongly impregnated with ,salt as it   
can  be4 ,the reason why the liquor that
 rises first contains a great deal  more
 ,volatile ,salt than the other1 in so  
much that it coagulates and  becomes    
solid1 is because the ,volatile ,salt   
rises in distillation much  more easily 
than water4    ,in whatever manner the  
,volatile ,spirit or ,salt be distilled 
from ,sal  ,ammoniac1 by means of a     
,fixed ,alkali1 we always find at the   
bottom of  the retort1 or cucurbit1 when
 the operation is finished1 a new       

,neutral  ,salt compounded of the ,acid 
of the ,sal ,ammoniac1 and of the       
,alkali used  in the distillation4 ,if  
the ,salt of ,tartar be used1 this new  
,neutral  ,salt will be perfectly like  
that produced by combining this ,alkali 
with the ,acid of ,sea-salt1 to the     
point of saturation4 ,the figure of  the
 crystals of this ,salt1 though much    
like that of the crystals of  ,sea-salt1
 is nevertheless a little different4    
,however1 this ,salt  possesses the     
chief properties of ,sea-salt4 ,it bears
 the name of ,sal  ,febrifugum ,sylvii1 
because that ,physician attributed to it
 the virtue  of curing intermitting     
fevers4 ,but its title to this virtue is
 very  doubtful1 at least in this       
country4    ,if the ,salt of ,soda be   
used1 instead of ,salt of ,tartar1 to   
decompound  ,sal ,ammoniac1 a ,volatile 
,spirit and ,salt will in like manner be
  obtained2 and the ,neutral ,salt left 
in the retort1 after distillation1  will
 be a true regenerated ,sea-salt1       

perfectly like native ,sea-salt2        
because1 as we have said before1 the    
,salt of ,soda is of the same kind  with
 the natural basis of ,sea-salt2 and the
 inconsiderable differences1  observable
 between the ,sal ,febrifugum and       
,sea-salt1 can be attributed  only to   
such as may be found between the        
,alkaline bases of those two  ,salts4   
,,process ,v4     ,sal ,ammoniac        
decompounded by ,absorbent ,earths and  
,lime4 ,the ,volatile   ,spirit of ,sal 
,ammoniac4 ,fixed ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,oil  
of ,lime4    ,let one part of ,sal      
,ammoniac1 and three parts of ,lime1    
slaked in the  air1 be pulverized       
separately1 and expeditiously mixed     
together4 ,put  this mixture immediately
 into a glass retort1 so large that half
 of it  may remain empty4 ,apply thereto
 a capacious receiver1 with a small hole
  in it to give vent to the vapours1 if 
needful4 ,let your retort stand  in the 
furnace about a quarter of an hour1     
without any fire under it4  ,while it   

stands thus1 a great quantity of        
invisible vapours will rise1  condense  
into drops1 and form a liquor in the    
receiver4 ,then put two  or three live  
coals in your furnace1 and gradually    
increase the fire  till no more liquor  
will rise4 ,now unlute your vessels1    
taking all  possible care to avoid the  
vapours1 and quickly pour the liquor out
 of  the receiver into a bottle1 which  
you must stop with a crystal stopple    
rubbed with emery4 ,there will remain1  
at the bottom of the retort1  a white   
mass1 consisting of the ,lime employed  
in the distillation1  together with the 
,acid of the ,sal ,ammoniac3 this is    
called ,fixed ,sal  ,ammoniac4          
,,observations4    ,in our ,elements of 
the ,theory1 we explained how we imagine
 that  ,lime and other substances1      
which1 according to the ,table1 have    
less  affinity than ,volatile ,alkalis  
with ,acids1 are nevertheless capable of
  decompounding ,sal ,ammoniac1 by      
uniting with its ,acid1 after expelling 

it from its basis1 which is a ,volatile 
,alkali4 ,to recapitulate our  opinion  
in two words3 we conceive this to depend
 on the fixedness of  these earthy and  
metallic additaments1 which enables them
 to resist  the force of fire1 and on   
the volatility of the basis of ,sal     
,ammoniac1  which proves a great        
disadvantage to it when it comes to     
struggle1  as it were1 with those fixed 
additaments1 aided by a considerable    
degree of heat4 ,we shall only observe1 
that we are not singular in  this       
opinion1 nor indeed did we deliver it as
 a new one2 that several  modern        
,chymists concur with us therein1 and   
particularly ,mr4 ,baron1  whom we have 
already mentioned more than once on the 
subject of ,borax2  and who1 we think1  
was the first that ever took particular 
notice of  it in print1 viz4 in his     
,memoirs on ,borax1 communicated to the 
,academy  before the publication of our 
,elements4 ,for the explanation of this 
phenomenon1 therefore1 we refer to those

 ,memoirs1 which are actually           
published1 and to what we have already  
said on the subject in our  treatise    
above-mentioned4    ,another phenomenon1
 which is equally singular and curious1 
furnishes us  with matter for several   
reflections1 and gives us occasion to   
relate1  in few words1 the result of    
,mr4 ,duhamel's most sagacious          
experiments  and speculations tending to
 discover the cause thereof4 ,the point 
under consideration is the different    
forms and properties which the          
,volatile ,alkali assumes1 when         
separated from ,sal ,ammoniac by the    
means  of a ,fixed ,alkali1 and by the  
means of ,lime4 ,we know that the former
  is always in a concrete form1 unless  
the mixture1 from which it is           
distilled1 be absolutely drenched with  
water2 and that the latter1  on the     
contrary1 is always in a fluid form1 and
 constantly liquid1  whatever method be 
taken to distil it4    ,some ,chymists  
imagine1 that the ,volatile ,salt of    

,sal ,ammoniac appears  in a concrete   
form1 only because it still contains    
some ,acid2 whence  they conclude that  
the reason why no concrete ,volatile    
,salt can be  obtained by the means of  
,lime is1 because it absorbs all the    
,acid of  the ,sal ,ammoniac2 which is  
not the case1 they say1 with ,fixed     
,alkalis4  ,others impute the constant  
fluidity of the ,volatile ,spirit of    
,sal  ,ammoniac1 obtained with ,lime1 to
 the particles of fire which they       
suppose communicated thereto by that    
substance4 ,mr4 ,duhamel equally        
refutes both these opinions1 by proving 
from experiments that ,fixed  ,alkalis  
are capable of absorbing as much ,acid  
as ,lime can1 and even  more2 and that1 
having been calcined as long1 and with  
as violent a  fire1 as ,lime1 they must 
contain and communicate as many         
particles  of fire2 if indeed it be     
possible that the particles of fire     
should  actually be lodged1 and continue
 imprisoned1 in calcined substances1  as

 these gentlemen suppose4 ,yet this is  
contrary to experience2 seeing  the     
,volatile ,salt distilled by the means  
of a ,fixed ,alkali1 though ever  so    
long and ever so violently calcined1 is 
always in a concrete form1  and doth not
 resemble the ,volatile ,spirit of ,sal 
,ammoniac prepared with  ,lime4    ,in  
order to throw the necessary lights on  
this point1 ,mr4 ,duhamel  had recourse 
to the only method that can be depended 
on in ,natural  ,philosophy2 namely1    
,experiments4 ,he accordingly made      
several1 of which  these are the chief4 
,first1 he distilled a ,volatile ,salt1 
by the means of well desiccated  ,salt  
of ,tartar1 and ,salt of ,soda2 and1    
urging the fire with great  violence    
towards the end of the operation1 he    
thus obtained a quantity  of ,volatile  
,salt equal to1 or even exceeding1 that 
of the ,sal ,ammoniac  he used3 whence  
he justly concluded that1 on this       
occasion1 the  ,volatile ,salt carried  
up1 and volatilized some of the ,fixed  

,salt4    ,secondly1 he found upon trial
 that the ,volatile ,spirit1 obtained   
from  ,sal ,ammoniac by the means of    
,lime1 appears in the form of a liquor1 
only because it is mixed with some water
 which was contained in the  ,lime4 ,of 
this truth he had the following decisive
 proof3 having  attempted to prepare a  
,volatile ,spirit of ,sal ,ammoniac with
 ,lime1 which  had not been slaked1     
either in the air or by water1 he could 
not obtain  any ,volatile ,spirit3 or1  
at least1 the quantity was so small that
 it  might be reckoned as nothing2 and  
even that was wholly due to the         
moisture which ,sal ,ammoniac           
necessarily contains1 together with that
  which ,lime imbibes from the air1 if  
ever so little exposed thereto4    ,from
 these two experiments ,mr4 ,duhamel    
draws the following  consequences3 viz4 
that the ,volatile ,salt cannot be      
separated from the  ,sal ,ammoniac and  
sublimed1 without carrying along with it
 some of the  additament which serves to

 extricate it2 or1 instead thereof1 some
  other body with which it is capable of
 uniting3 that ,fixed ,alkalis  have the
 property of being thus carried up by   
the ,volatile ,alkali1  and subliming   
with it3 that the case is not the same  
with ,lime1 which  therefore cannot1    
when alone1 separate and sublime the    
,volatile ,alkali  of the ,sal          
,ammoniac2 but becomes capable thereof  
when it hath imbibed  any moisture1     
which joins with the ,volatile ,salt1   
and rises therewith  in distillation4   
,and hence it must be concluded1 that1  
seeing the  ,volatile ,salt carries up  
with it some of the ,fixed ,alkali1 by  
the  means of which it is separated1 it 
will be in a concrete form2 what  it    
carries up along with it being dry and  
solid3 whereas1 when it is  distilled   
with ,lime1 it cannot but be liquid2    
seeing it must needs be  dissolved by   
the moisture it gets from the ,lime1    
without which it would  not rise4       
,but to what must we attribute these    

effects produced by ,lime1 so  different
 from those produced by ,fixed ,alkalis8
 ,are they owing to  its quality of     
,lime8 or would it produce the same1 if 
it were only a  mere ,absorbent ,earth8 
,mr4 ,duhamel hath answered this        
question by a  third sort of experiment4
 ,he tried to decompound ,sal ,ammoniac1
 and to  separate its ,volatile ,alkali1
 by a pure ,absorbent of ,earth1 without
  mixing any water with it1 or calcining
 it4    ,for this purpose he made use of
 ,chalk2 and his experiment succeeded4  
,by means of this additament he         
decompounded ,sal ,ammoniac1 and by the 
experiment obtained the lights he       
wanted4 ,the ,volatile ,alkali1 being   
extricated by the dry but uncalcined    
,chalk1 rose in a concrete form1  as    
with ,fixed ,alkalis2 and in like manner
 carried up with it some of  the earthy 
additament4 ,the same ,chalk when       
calcined1 and converted  into ,lime1    
produced the very effect of ,lime on    
,sal ,ammoniac4 ,it is  therefore from  

calcination alone that ,absorbent       
,earths derive the  property of         
retaining obstinately the ,volatile     
,alkali1 and preventing  its sublimation
 by refusing to rise with it as ,fixed  
,alkalis do4    ,though these ingenious 
experiments evidently furnish us with   
great  lights1 for discovering the cause
 of the solidity or fluidity of  the    
,volatile ,alkali1 when separated from  
,sal ,ammoniac by different             
additaments1 as they fully determine    
several preliminary questions           
immediately relating thereto2 yet they  
still leave us1 in some measure1  at a  
loss with regard to the chief point4    
,for we do not yet know why  ,fixed     
,alkalis and ,absorbent ,earths1 which1 
in all ,chymical trials1 shew  that they
 have certainly as much fixity as ,lime1
 are carried up by the  ,volatile       
,alkali1 while ,lime resists1 instead of
 rising with it as those  other         
substances do1 obstinately retains it1  
and even fixes it in some  measure1 so  

that it is impossible for it to sublime4
 ,this question1 in  my opinion1 depends
 on the theory of ,lime2 nor can we hope
 to resolve  it in its full extent1 till
 we get a further insight into the      
nature of  that singular substance than 
we have at present4    ,on this subject1
 however1 ,mr4 ,duhamel hath offered    
some conjectures1  founded on the known 
properties of ,lime1 and supported by   
experiments4  ,lime1 says he1 is an     
earth freed by calcination from almost  
all its  humidity1 almost all its ,acid1
 and all the fat it contained2 whether  
that fat came from some animal parts1 as
 is the case of those stones  which     
consist of shells2 or whether it were a 
bituminous fat1 as may  happen to be the
 case with some others3 this substance  
is withal acrid  and fiery2 it is very  
greedy of moisture1 and imbibes it when 
exposed  thereto4 ,it absorbs ,acids1   
and retains them strongly2 and1 lastly1 
it  unites with fat matters1 and        
therewith makes a kind of soap4    ,all 

these properties are verified by        
experiments2 and therefore ,mr4         
,duhamel thinks he hath a right to say1 
that ,lime acts not only on  the ,acid  
of ,sal ,ammoniac1 but also on the fatty
 matter which always  accompanies       
,volatile ,alkalis1 and is essential to 
their nature2 and  therefore it         
decompounds them4 ,of this ,mr4 ,duhamel
 gives the following  convincing proof1 
founded on experiment4 ,he took some    
,volatile ,spirit  distilled with ,lime1
 and abstracted it several times from a 
fresh  parcel of ,quick-,lime4 ,the     
quantity of the ,spirit diminished      
sensibly  every time2 and the ,lime was 
at last so replete with fat1 that the   
,vitriolic ,acid1 when poured thereon1  
became very sulphureous2 and  moreover1 
when calcined in a crucible1 it emitted 
a very perceptible  smell of burnt      
grease4    ,indeed ,fixed ,alkalis are  
also capable of absorbing and retaining 
fat  matters2 but not near so strongly  
as ,lime3 because these ,salts are      

never entirely freed from that which    
they contain originally2 whereas  ,lime 
seems much poorer1 and absolutely void  
of any oily matter4    ,on these        
principles ,mr4 ,duhamel resolved to try
 if he could not obtain  a ,volatile    
,alkali in a concrete form1 by          
distilling the ,volatile ,spirit  from  
,lime1 brought nearly to the condition  
of a ,fixed ,alkali1 by  imbibing a     
portion of fat matter4 ,with this view  
he distilled a great  quantity of       
,volatile ,spirit from a little ,lime1  
and actually obtained a  small portion  
of ,volatile ,salt2 because the great   
quantity of ,volatile  ,spirit had1 in  
some measure1 saturated the ,lime with  
fat matter4    ,mr4 ,duhamel tried also 
to bring ,lime back to the condition of 
a pure  ,absorbent ,earth1 to decalcine 
it1 if ,i may use the term2 in order  to
 try whether he could not by this means 
make it produce the same  effect as     
,chalk4 ,for this purpose he lixiviated 
some ,lime four months  successively1   

pouring every day fresh water on it1 and
 removing that  of the preceding day1   
together with the crystalline crust     
which always  formed on it2 and after   
leaving this ,lime two years in the     
shade1 he  applied it to ,sal ,ammoniac4
 ,it produced a moderate quantity of    
,volatile  ,salt1 which was very        
transparent1 and seemed to be           
crystallized in  cubes4 ,thus we see    
,lime rendered very like ,chalk4 ,yet it
 was pretty  acrid on the tongue1 and   
the ,volatile ,salt1 obtained by its    
means1 was  more disposed to run into a 
liquid than that separated by ,chalk3   
which  shews that this ,lime still      
retained some part of its former        
character1  and that its transformation 
was not complete4    ,to conclude what  
relates to the ,volatile ,alkali of ,sal
 ,ammoniac1 it  only remains that we say
 a word or two of that portion of the   
earthy  or saline additament1 which1    
though fixed in its nature1 sublimes    
nevertheless with the ,volatile ,alkali1

 and gives it a concrete form4    ,mr4  
,duhamel1 who1 in every subject that he 
handles1 omits nothing  worthy of       
attention1 made several other           
experiments1 with a view to  discover   
whether or no the ,salt of ,tartar1 and 
the ,chalk1 carried  up by the ,volatile
 ,alkali1 be truly volatilized2 and     
whether or no  there be such a strict   
union contracted1 between the ,urinous  
,salt and  these fixed substances1 that 
the whole results in what is called a   
,concrete ,volatile ,salt2 or if those  
fixed substances be united but          
superficially with the ,urinous ,salt1  
which only carries them up along  with  
itself in sublimation1 as ,sal ,ammoniac
 carries up several very  fixed metallic
 matters4    ,the result of the         
experiments made by ,mr4 ,duhamel for   
this purpose is1  that the fixed        
substances carried up by the ,volatile  
,alkali of the ,sal  ,ammoniac are      
actually volatilized2 that they make1 as
 it were1 one  whole with it2 and are so

 closely combined therewith1 that almost
 all  the most efficacious means of     
separating fixed from volatile matters  
are unsuccessful with regard thereto4   
,nothing1 for instance1 is fitter  to   
separate a volatile substance from a    
fixed one1 than to mix the  compound    
with a great quantity of water1 and to  
distil the whole1 with  such a degree of
 heat as shall be exactly sufficient to 
elevate the  volatile part4 ,in this    
manner ,mr4 ,duhamel treated ,volatile  
,alkalis  replete with ,fixed ,salt1 and
 with ,chalk3 but though he applied no  
more than the gentlest degree of heat2  
nay1 exposed his mixture to the  air    
only1 fearing lest he should make the   
heat too strong if he used  fire2 yet   
the fixed part1 which the ,volatile     
,salt had carried up with  it1 continued
 still united therewith2 so that the    
whole passed over in  distillation1 or  
was dissipated by evaporation1 without  
leaving any  thing fixed at the bottom  
of the vessel4    ,he also justly looked

 on ,acids as an effectual means of     
procuring  the separation1 or           
decomposition1 he was in quest of4 ,we  
know that1  with the ,volatile ,alkali1 
they form ,ammoniacal ,salts1 which1    
though  they are not so light as the    
,volatile ,alkali1 sublime nevertheless 
with a moderate heat2 and that1 on the  
contrary1 the same ,acids with  ,fixed  
,alkalis1 or ,absorbent ,earths1 form   
,neutral ,salts1 which resist  the      
violence of fire4 ,on this principle    
,mr4 ,duhamel poured ,acids1 to  the    
point of saturation1 upon ,volatile     
,alkalis containing much ,fixed         
,alkali1 or ,chalk4 ,but this experiment
 succeeded no better than the           
foregoing2 for the mixture being put to 
distil1 sublimed wholly in ,sal         
,ammoniac4 ,indeed a little fixed matter
 was left at the bottom of the  retort2 
but the quantity thereof was too small  
to merit notice4    ,at last1 the only  
way ,mr4 ,duhamel could think of1 for   
separating1  from a ,concrete ,volatile 

,alkali1 the fixed parts which that     
,salt had  rendered ,volatile1 was to   
expose it to the air1 covered with a    
piece  of gauze only2 but in its dry    
state1 without dissolving it in water4  
,the ,volatile ,urinous ,salt was by    
this means dissipated2 having deserted  
the fixed part1 which remained at the   
bottom of the bason1 and1 being  exposed
 to the fire1 retained its fixed nature4
 ,but it took more than a  year to      
effect this separation2 nor are we sure 
that it was complete2  for it is not    
certain that all the fixed part was left
 behind1 and that  some of it was not   
dissipated with the ,volatile ,urinous  
,salt4    ,this volatilization1 this    
kind of metamorphosis of a ,fixed       
,alkali  and an ,absorbent ,earth into a
 ,volatile ,alkali1 is a very curious   
phenomenon1 and deserves to be          
considered by the best ,chymists4    ,we
 shall finish our observations on the   
decomposition of ,sal ,ammoniac  by     
,lime1 with some reflections on the     

nature of the caput mortuum  that       
remains after this distillation4        
,this residuum is only ,lime            
impregnated1 but not saturated1 with the
  ,acid of ,sea-salt4 ,if the           
distillation be urged at last with a    
violent  fire1 the caput mortuum will be
 found formed into a mass1 seeming to   
have been half-melted4 ,this matter is a
 kind of ,phosphorus1 and emits  light  
in the dark1 when struck with any hard  
body4 ,mr4 ,homberg was the  first who  
discovered it to have this property4    
,having calcined1 and  melted together  
in a crucible1 one part of ,sal         
,ammoniac and two parts  of ,lime1 with 
a design to fix that ,salt1 he observed 
the mass remaining  after the fusion to 
have the property just mentioned4       
,lime1 thus impregnated with the ,acid  
of ,sal ,ammoniac1 is very  improperly  
called by the name of ,fixed ,sal       
,ammoniac4 ,this compound  attracts the 
moisture of the air1 and even runs      
wholly into a liquid1  if it be         

impregnated with much ,acid4 ,it hath   
almost all the properties  of ,fixed    
,alkalis4 ,this liquid is called ,oil of
 ,lime1 for the same  reason that       
deliquated ,salt of ,tartar is called   
,oil of ,tartar4      ,,process ,,vi4   
,volatile ,alkalis combined with ,oily  
matters4 ,a ,volatile ,oily ,aromatic   
,salt4    ,pulverise and mix together   
equal parts of ,sal ,ammoniac and ,salt 
of  ,tartar3 put the mixture into a     
glass or stone cucurbit3 pour on it good
  ,spirit of ,wine1 till it rise half an
 inch above the matter4 ,mix the  whole 
with a wooden spatula2 apply a head and 
a receiver1 and distil  in a sand-bath1 
gently heated1 for two or three hours4  
,a ,volatile ,salt  will rise into the  
head2 and then the ,spirit of ,wine will
 distil into  the receiver1 carrying    
with it a portion of the ,volatile      
,salt4    ,when nothing more will come  
over1 let your vessels cool2 then unlute
  them1 separate the ,volatile ,salt1   
and weigh it directly4 ,return it into  

a glass cucurbit1 and for every ounce   
thereof add a dram and a half  of       
,essential ,oil1 drawn from one or more 
sorts of aromatic plants4  ,stir the    
whole with a wooden spatula1 that the   
,essence may incorporate  thoroughly    
with the ,volatile ,salt4 ,cover the    
cucurbit with a head1 fit  on a         
receiver1 and1 having luted it exactly1 
distil in a sand-bath1 as  before1 with 
a very gentle heat4 ,all the ,volatile  
,salt will rise1 and  stick to the head4
 ,let the fire go out1 and when the     
vessels are cooled  take your ,salt out 
of the head4 ,it will have an odour     
compounded of  its own proper smell1 and
 the smell of the ,essence with which it
 is  combined4 ,this is an ,aromatic    
,oily ,salt4 ,put it into a bottle      
stopped  close with a crystal stopple4  
,,observations4    ,the design of this  
operation is to incorporate and unite an
 ,oil with  a ,volatile ,alkali4 ,spirit
 of ,wine is added in the distillation  
of the  ,volatile ,salt1 intended for   

this purpose1 in order to prepare it for
  receiving the ,oil1 and combining more
 easily therewith4 ,this ,salt  hath the
 property1 as was shewn in the preceding
 operation1 to carry  up with it part of
 the substances with which it is        
distilled4 ,on this  occasion therefore1
 it is impregnated with a little of the 
,spirit of  ,wine2 and this ,spirit1    
which contains in itself an oily matter1
 and is  the solvent of ,oils1 cannot   
fail to facilitate the union of the ,oil
  with the ,volatile ,salt1 as it serves
 for a medium between them4 ,yet it     
must not be considered as a necessary   
one4 ,a ,volatile ,salt1 sublimed  with 
,salt of ,tartar alone1 would also very 
readily take up any ,oil with  which it 
should be distilled4 ,we have seen that 
,volatile ,alkalis are  originally      
impregnated with much ,oil1 which is    
radically dissolved in  them2 and       
consequently they have a great affinity 
with that substance4  ,so that if we    
distil them with ,spirit of ,wine1 at   

the beginning of this  operation1 we do 
it not out of any necessity1 but only   
with a view to  accelerate or facilitate
 the intended union4    ,in this        
distillation the ,volatile ,alkali      
always rises first1 and before  the     
,spirit of ,wine2 which proves that it  
is much more volatile1 though  it be    
more ponderous than the ,spirit4    ,if 
the ,spirit of ,wine used in this       
distillation be very aqueous1 it  will  
dissolve the ,salt as it comes over1 and
 will reduce it into a  ,spirit3 but if1
 on the contrary1 it be well            
dephlegmated1 the ,volatile  ,alkali    
will remain in a concrete form1 and will
 not be dissolved in  this first        
distillation4    ,if you desire to have 
the ,volatile ,salt entirely dissolved  
in the  ,spirit of ,wine1 though highly 
dephlegmated1 it must be repeatedly     
distilled a great number of times with  
the same ,spirit of ,wine3 for1  though 
the small quantity of ,spirit of ,wine1 
with which it unites in  the first      

distillation1 be not capable of reducing
 it into a liquid1  yet1 as it takes up 
more and more every time it is          
distilled1 it  dissolves at last1 and   
then with the ,spirit of ,wine forms a  
fluid that  appears perfectly           
homogeneous4 ,the ,volatile ,alkali is  
now rendered  considerably milder by the
 union thus contracted1 and is          
accordingly  called the ,dulcified      
,volatile ,spirit of ,sal ,ammoniac4    
,when well dephlegmated ,spirit of ,wine
 is mixed with a ,volatile ,spirit  of  
,sal ,ammoniac1 perfectly saturated with
 ,volatile ,salt1 these two  liquors    
together immediately form a white opaque
 coagulum4 ,but for  this purpose you   
must not use a ,volatile ,spirit        
distilled with ,lime2  for then the     
experiment will not succeed4    ,this   
coagulum does not seem to be the effect 
of an intimate union  between the two   
substances mixed together1 like that    
which results  from the union of a      
,fixed ,alkali with an ,oil4 ,it hath   

just now been  shewn that ,spirit of    
,wine and a ,volatile ,alkali do not    
readily unite  together4 ,i believe the 
effect rather depends on this1 that     
,spirit  of ,wine hath a greater        
affinity than the ,volatile ,salt with  
water2  and therefore the ,spirit1 which
 ought to be perfectly dephlegmated1    
attracts the water wherein the ,volatile
 ,salt was dissolved1 which  thereupon  
recovers its concrete form2 and being at
 that time mixed with  the ,spirit of   
,wine1 it keeps that ,spirit locked up  
among its parts1 and  hinders it from   
appearing with its natural fluidity4    
,what confirms this notion is1 that the 
coagulum1 which at first  seems to make 
but one whole1 soon separates into two  
parts1 whereof  one1 which is solid1 and
 nothing but the ,volatile ,salt        
concreted1 lies  at the bottom of the   
vessel2 and the other1 which is fluid1  
cannot be  mistaken for any thing but   
the ,spirit of ,wine1 which1 being      
disengaged  from the particles of ,salt1

 recovers the form of a liquid1 and1    
being  the lightest1 floats over the    
,salt4 ,yet these two substances1 though
  now very distinct from each other1 are
 not so pure as before they were  mixed 
together4 ,the ,spirit of ,wine hath    
dissolved a little of the  ,volatile    
,salt2 and1 on the other hand1 the      
,volatile ,salt retains a  little of the
 ,spirit of ,wine4 ,they may indeed be  
perfectly united and  blended with each 
other1 by the method above delivered2   
that is1 by  being frequently distilled 
and cohobated together1 till they form  
one  mixt2 but then that mixt will be in
 a liquid form4    ,the first time this 
mixture is distilled1 a great deal of   
,volatile ,salt  rises first1 which is  
very fit to unite with an ,essential    
,oil1 and so  to become a ,volatile     
,oily ,aromatic ,salt4      ,,the ,,end4
    ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,i4             
,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,ii4               
,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4              
,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4               

,illustration3 ,pl4 ,v4 and ,,vi4       
,,geoffroy',s ,,table of the            
,,comparative ,,affinities  observed    
between sundry substances4      ,i4     
,acid ,spirits    ,fixed ,alkali        
,volatile ,alkali    ,absorbent ,earths 
,metallic ,substances      ,,ii4 ,marine
 ,acid    ,tin    ,regulus of ,antimony 
,copper    ,silver    ,mercury          
,gold      ,,iii4 ,nitrous ,acid        
,iron    ,copper    ,lead    ,mercury   
,silver      ,,iv4 ,vitriolic ,acid     
,phlogiston    ,fixed ,alkali           
,volatile ,alkali    ,absorbent ,earths 
,iron    ,copper    ,silver      ,v4    
,absorbent ,earths    ,vitriolic ,acid  
,nitrous ,acid    ,marine ,acid         
,,vi4 ,fixed ,alkali    ,vitriolic ,acid
    ,nitrous ,acid    ,marine ,acid     
,spirit of ,vinegar    ,sulphur         
,,vii4 ,volatile ,alkali    ,vitriolic  
,acid    ,nitrous ,acid    ,marine ,acid
      ,,viii4 ,metallic ,substances     
,marine ,acid    ,vitriolic ,acid       
,nitrous ,acid      ,,ix4 ,sulphur      

,fixed ,alkali    ,iron    ,copper      
,lead    ,silver    ,regulus of         
,antimony    ,mercury    ,gold      ,x4 
,mercury    ,gold    ,silver    ,lead   
,copper    ,zinc    ,regulus of         
,antimony      ,,xi4 ,lead    ,silver   
,copper      ,,xii4 ,copper    ,mercury 
,calomine      ,,xiii4 ,silver    ,lead 
,copper      ,,xiv4 ,iron    ,regulus of
 ,antimony    ,silver1 ,copper1 ,lead   
,,xv4 ,regulus of ,antimony    ,iron    
,silver1 ,copper1 ,lead      ,,xvi4     
,water    ,ardent ,spirits    ,neutral  
,salts      ,,explanation ,,of ,,the    
,,plates4          ,,plate ,,first4     
,,fig4 ,i4 ,a ,copper ,alembic4      ,a4
 ,the ,cucurbit or ,body4    ,b4 ,the   
,neck4    ,c4 ,the ,head4    ,d4 ,the   
,beak1 ,nose1 or ,spout4    ,e4 ,the    
,refrigeratory1 or ,cooler4    ,f4 ,its 
,cock4    ,g4 ,the ,receiver4           
,,fig4 ,,ii4 ,a ,glass ,alembic4        
,a4 ,the ,cucurbit4    ,b4 ,the ,head4  
,c4 ,the ,gutter within the ,head4      
,d4 ,the ,beak4        ,,fig4 ,,iii4 ,a 

long-necked ,glass ,alembic4      ,a4   
,the ,body of the ,matrass4    ,b4 ,the 
,neck4    ,c4 ,the ,head4               
,,plate ,,second4        ,,fig4 ,i4 ,a  
,glass ,alembic of one piece4      ,a4  
,the ,cucurbit4    ,b4 ,the ,head4      
,c4 ,the ,aperture in the ,head4    ,d4 
,its ,stopple4    ,e4 ,the ,mouth of the
 ,cucurbit4        ,,fig4 ,,ii4 ,a      
,pelican4      ,a4 ,the ,cucurbit4      
,b4 ,the ,head4    ,c4 ,the ,aperture in
 the ,head1 with its ,stopple4    ,d4   
,d4 ,the two curved ,spouts4            
,,fig4 ,,iii4 ,a ,row of ,aludels4      
,,fig4 ,,iv4 ,a ,retort4      ,a4 ,its  
,bowl4    ,b4 ,its ,neck4        ,,fig4 
,v4 ,an ,english ,retort4               
,,plate ,,third4        ,,fig4 ,i4 ,a   
,reverberating ,furnace4      ,a4 ,the  
,ash-hole ,door4    ,b4 ,the ,fire-place
 ,door4    ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,registers4  
,d4 ,the ,dome1 or ,reverberatory4      
,e4 ,the ,conical ,funnel4    ,f4 ,the  
,retort in the ,furnace4    ,g4 ,the    
,receiver4    ,h4 ,h4 ,iron ,bars to    

sustain the ,retort4        ,,fig4 ,,ii4
 ,the ,conical ,funnel by itself4       
,,fig4 ,,iii4 ,back ,view of a ,muffle4 
,a4 ,the bottom of the ,muffle4    ,b4  
,its ,arch4    ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,lateral     
apertures4        ,,fig4 ,,iv4          
,fore-,view of a ,muffle4        ,,fig4 
,v4 ,a ,melting ,furnace4      ,a4 ,a4  
,the ,base of the ,furnace4    ,b4 ,the 
,ash-hole4    ,c4 ,d4 ,the ,grate for   
the ,fire4    ,e4 ,the ,fire-place4     
,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,curvature of the inside of 
the upper part of the    ,fire-place4   
,i4 ,the ,shaft or ,chimney4            
,,plate ,,fourth4        ,a ,cupelling  
,furnace4      ,a4 ,the ,ash-hole4      
,b4 ,b4 ,its sliding ,doors4    ,c4 ,the
 ,fire-place4    ,d4 ,d4 ,its sliding   
,doors4    ,e4 ,f4 ,small apertures in  
the ,sliders4    ,g4 ,g4 ,holes for     
,bars to bear the ,muffles4    ,h4 ,h4  
,h4 ,iron braces in the fore-part of the
 ,furnace1 which form    grooves for the
 ,doors of the ,fire-place and ,ash-hole
 to slide in4    ,i4 ,the upper         

pyramidal part of the ,furnace4    ,k4  
,an aperture therein for managing the   
,coals4    ,l4 ,the opening at top4     
,m4 ,the ,pyramidal ,cover4    ,n4 ,the 
,chimney or end of the ,shaft1 on which 
the conical ,funnel    may be fitted4   
,o4 ,o4 ,o4 ,o4 ,handles for moving the 
sliding ,doors4    ,p4 ,p4 ,ears of the 
,pyramidal ,cover4    ,n4 ,b4 ,the      
,furnaces1 as represented in the two    
last ,plates1 are not in  due proportion
 to each other4 ,the ,cupelling ,furnace
 is much larger than  it should be1 with
 respect to the ,melting ,furnace4      
,these dimensions  are here given it1   
only that all its parts might be more   
distinctly  expressed1 than could have  
been done if we had made it less4       
,,index4        ,a      ,absorbent      
,earths1 ,pag4 #e1 #eab      ,acetous   
,fermentation1 #ij1 #ecf1 #eci          
,acids in general1 #ac      the         
,universal1 or ,vitriolic1 #ai1 #agb    
the ,nitrous1 #ab1 #agj      the        
,marine1 #be1 #bac      the ,vegetable1 

#ij1 #ddj      the ,animal1 #ajg1 #egh  
,acids dulcified1 #hg      ,adopters1   
#acb      ther1 #hh1 #dib1 #eja         
thiops ,mineral1 #fa1 #cjd      of      
,antimony1 #fc      ,affinities between 
,bodies in general1 #i      of ,acids in
 general1 #aba      of the ,marine      
,acid1 #abb      of the ,nitrous ,acid1 
#abc      of the ,vitriolic ,acid1 ib4  
of ,absorbent ,earths1 ib4      of      
,fixed ,alkalis1 ib4      of ,volatile  
,alkalis1 #abd      of ,metallic        
,substances1 ib4      of ,sulphur1 ib4  
of ,mercury1 ib4      of ,lead1 #abe    
of ,copper1 ib4      of ,silver1 ib4    
of ,iron1  ib4      of ,regulus of      
,antimony1 ib4      of ,water1 ib4      
of ,spirit of ,wine1 ib4      ,air1 #b  
from ,guaiacum-,wood1 #ddj      from    
,tartar1 #eaf      ,alembics of ,metal1 
#abh      ,alembics of ,glass1 #abi     
tubulated1 ib4      ,algaroth1 ,pulvis1 
#cdb      ,alkalis1 #ad        ,fixed1  
#ad1 #ajf1 #ddh1 #ddi        from       
,sea-salt1 #bf        from maritime     

plants1 #ajf        from burnt          
vegetables1 #ddh        from ,nitre1    
#ahg        from ,tartar1 #eae          
from ,wine-lees1 #eag        made more  
,caustic by quick-lime1 #cf1 #dee       
,volatile1 #ih1 #ajg1 #ddf1 #eii1 #fji  
from plants with cruciform flowers1 #dde
      ,alkohol1 #hh1 #dhd      ,aludels1
 #acj      ,alum1 #ai1 #afe      ,roman1
 #afg      ,amalgams1 #ei1 #bcc         
,amber1 #aai1 #dfg      ,ammoniacal     
,salts1 #ih      ,analysis1 ,chymical1  
#aja      of ,vegetables1 #ajb      of  
,animals1 #ajf      of ,minerals1 #ajh  
of ,guaiacum ,wood1 #ddj      of        
,mustard-seed1 #dde      of ,wood-soot1 
#deg      of ,turpentine1 #dfj      of  
,benzoin1 #dfc      of ,amber1 #dfg     
of ,bees-,wax1 #dgb      of ,honey1 #dgd
      of ,gum-,arabic1 #dgf      of     
,wine1 #dhj      of ,spirit of ,wine1   
#dhf      of ,tartar1 #ead      of      
,vinegar1 #edb      of ,putrid          
,vegetables1 #eei      of ,butter1 #eff 
of ,cheese1 #efi      of ,whey1 #ega    

of ,bullock's ,blood1 #egd      of      
,beef1 #ehj      of ,ox-bones1 #ehc     
of ,mutton-,suet1 #ehd      of ,pullet's
 ,eggs1 #ehf      of ,human ,excrement1 
#ehh        ,urine1 #eif      ,animals1 
#ajf1 #egd      ,anodyne ,mineral       
,liquor1 #ejj      ,antimony1 ,crude1   
#fe1 #aaf1 #bcd1 #cae1 #cce1 #cci       
,diaphoretic1 #fg1 #cbf        unwashed1
 #cbi      ,aqua ,fortis1 #bd1 #db      
purified1 #dc      blue1 #cgg      ,aqua
 ,phagedenica1 #cab      ,aqua ,regis1  
#ch1 #db1 #bag1 #bbg      ,aquila ,alba1
 #fa1 #cab      ,arcanum ,duplicatum1   
#ai      ,corrallinum1 #fj1 #cjh        
,ardent ,spirits1 #he1 #dha             
,aromatic strong ,waters1 #ead          
,oily ,volatile ,salt1 #fbj             
,arsenic1 #gb1 #aah      ,fixed1 #cha   
,assay1 parting1 #db1 #bej              
,ash-hole1 #acd      ,aurum ,fulminans1 
#ch1 #ci1 #bbi      reduced1 #ch1 #ci1  
#bcj        ,b      ,ballons1 #acb      
,balneum ,mari1 #acc      ,balsams1 #ha1
 #dfj      of ,sulphur1 #dcd      ,bar  

iron1 #dh      ,basis of ,sea-,salt1 #bf
      of ,nitre1 #ahe      ,baths1      
,water1 ,vapour1 ,sand1 #acc      ,beak 
of an ,alembic1 #abh      ,bee's-wax1   
#dgb      ,bell-metal1 #ec              
,benjamin1 or ,benzoin1 #dfc            
,bezoar ,mineral1 #fd1 #cdc             
,bezoartic ,spirit of ,nitre1 ib4       
,bile1 #ajh      ,bismuth1 #fi1 #aag1   
#cej      ,bitumens1 ,native1 #gi1 #aai1
 #dfg      ,artificial1 #dic1 #eac      
,black ,copper1 #bfc1 #bfd      ,flux1  
#bda      ,blind ,head1 #acj            
,blood1 #ajh1 #egd      ,blue ,aqua     
,fortis1 #cgg      ,enamel1 #cga        
,powder1 ib4      ,vitriol1 #df1 #aaa1  
#bhf      ,boles1 #afi      ,bones1 #ehc
      ,borax1 #bg1 #bah1 #ebd           
,brandy1 #he1 #dhc      ,brass1 #ga1    
#ceb      ,brewing ,malt liquor1 #dgi   
,bronze1 #ec      ,burnt ,alum1 #ai     
,butter of ,antimony1 #fd1 #cch         
,lunar1 #cda      of ,bee's-wax1 #dgb   
of ,cacao1 #daj1 #dgc      of ,milk1    
#efd1 #eff1 #efh        ,c      ,cadmia 

,fornacum1 #ga1 #ceh      ,calamine1 or 
,lapis ,calaminaris1 #ga1 #aah1 #ceg    
,calcination1 #bi1 #cj1 #cf1 #aag       
,calx of ,antimony1 #fc1 #cba           
reduced1 #cbc        vitrified1 #ccj    
of ,arsenic1 #cfg      of ,bismuth1 #fi 
of ,copper1 #bfg      of ,lead1 #bib    
,calx of ,tin1 #eb1 #bhj      of ,zinc1 
#cfa      ,camphor1 ,native1 #dfe       
,factitious1 #dff      ,caput mortuum1  
#aje      ,carat1 #ee      ,caustic     
,stone1 common ,caustic1 or potential   
,cautery1 #cc1 #dee      ,cementation1  
#dh1 #beh      ,cendre ,gravele1 #eag   
,ceruse1 #ib1 #eec      ,chalybeated    
,tartar1 #ie1 #ebh      ,soluble1 #id1  
#ebh      ,charcoal1 #h1 #gg1 #ddi      
,cheese1 #efb      ,churning1 #efd      
,chyle1 #ajh1 #cic1 #efc      ,chymical 
,decomposition1 #aja      ,vessels1 #abf
      ,furnaces1 #acc      ,chymistry1  
its ,object1 #a      ,cinabar1 #fb1     
#aaf1 #bih1 #cjf      of ,antimony1 #fi1
 #cch      ,clyssus of ,antimony1 #ccj  
of ,nitre1 #ahi      ,coal1 #h1 #gg1    

#ddi      ,cobalt1 #aai1 #cfg           
,cohobation1 #acj      ,colcothar1 #agd 
its ,salt1 ib4      ,colophony1 #dfb    
,combination of ,mercury with ,sulphur1 
#cjf        with the ,marine ,acid1 #cjh
    of ,regulus of ,antimony with the   
,marine ,acid1 #cch      of ,zinc with  
,copper1 #cfa      of ,fat ,oils with   
,acids1 #cih        with ,fixed         
,alkalis1 #djj        with ,sulphur1    
#dje        with ,lead1 #djf      of    
,essential ,oils with ,sulphur1 #dcd    
with ,fixed ,alkalis1 #dch      of      
,spirit of ,wine with the vitriolic     
,acid1 #dib        with ,spirit of      
,nitre1 #ejc        with the ,marine    
,acid1 #ejh      of ,crystal of ,tartar 
with ,absorbent ,earths1 #eai      of   
,crystal of ,tartar with ,fixed         
,alkalis1 #ebd        with ,iron1 #ebh  
with ,regulus of ,antimony1 #ecd      of
 ,vinegar with ,alkalis1 #edg           
with ,copper1 #eej        with ,lead1   
#eeb      of a ,volatile ,alkali with   
,acids1 #fjb        with oily ,matters1 

#fah      ,combustion1 its effect on    
,vegetables1 #ddh      ,condensation of 
,air1 #c      ,cooler of an ,alembic1   
#abi      ,copper1 #dd1 #aac1 #bdg1     
#bec1 #bfb1 #bhi      separated from    
,iron1 #ef        from ,lead1 ib4       
,black1 #bfc      ,copperas1 or ,green  
,vitriol1 #di1 #afj      ,corrosive     
,sublimate1 #fa1 #cjh      ,cream1 of   
,milk1 #efb      of ,tartar1 #ic1 #eag  
,cremor ,calcis1 #cj1 #ebj      ,crocus 
,martis1 #di1 #bgf        ,aperiens1    
#ea1 #bgg        ,astringens1 ib4       
,metallorum1 #ff1 #cbf      ,crucibles1 
#acb      ,cruciform flowered ,plants1  
#dde      ,crystallization1 #af         
,crystals of ,antimony1 #ccf      of    
,arsenic1 #gb1 #cgg      of ,bismuth1   
#bec      of ,silver1 #dj1 #bed      of 
,tartar1 #ic1 #eag      of ,lead1 #ib1  
#big      of ,mercury1 #cjg      of     
,venus1 or ,copper1 #eej      ,cucurbit1
 #abh      ,cupel1 #ee1 #bdc            
,cupelling1 #bdc      ,curd1 #ef1 #efi  
,d      ,decoction1 #daj1 #dai          

,decomposition1 ,chymical1 #aja      of 
,sulphur by burning it1 #agf      of    
vitriolated ,tartar by means of the     
,phlogiston1 #agi      of ,nitre by     
means of the ,phlogiston1 #ahf        of
 the vitriolic ,acid1 #aia        of    
,arsenic1 #cgg      of ,sea-salt by     
means of the ,phlogiston1 #aig        of
 the vitriolic ,acid1 #baa        of the
 ,nitrous ,acid1 #bag      of ,borax by 
means of ,acids1 #bah      of ,butter of
 ,antimony by means of ,water1 #cdb     
of ,fat ,oils combined with ,acids1 #cih
        with ,fixed ,alkalis1 #djj      
with ,lead1 #djf      of ,essential     
,oils combined with ,sulphur1 #dcd      
with ,fixed ,alkalis1 #dch      of      
,spirit of ,wine combined with the      
vitriolic ,acid1 #dib      of ,soluble  
,tartars1 #ie1 #ebf      of ,regenerated
 ,tartar1 #edg      of ,salt of ,coral1 
,crab's eyes1 ,pearl1 c41 #edi      of  
,verdegris1 #eej      of ,salt or ,sugar
 of ,lead1 #eee      of ,sal ,ammoniac  
by ,acids1 #fjg        by ,fixed        

,alkalis1 #fjh        by ,absorbent     
,earths and ,lime1 #faa                 
,decrepitation1 #bg      ,deliquium1 #ab
      ,diaphoretic ,antimony1 or        
,mineral1 #fe1 #fg1 #cbf                
,unwashed1 #cbi      ,dissolution of    
,metals1 #ce      ,distillation1 #aja   
per descensum1 #abg1 #dai      per      
ascensum1 #abh      per latus1 #aca     
,distilled ,verdegris1 #eej             
,vinegar1 #ia      ,dome of a ,furnace1 
#ace      ,dry way of parting ,metals1  
#db      ,drying varnish1 #hg           
,dulcified ,acids1 ib4      ,volatile   
,spirit of ,sal ,ammoniac1 #fbj         
,e      ,earth1 #d      fusible or      
vitrifiable1 #e1 #bi      unfusible or  
unvitrifiable1 ib4      absorbent1 #e   
calcinable and uncalcinable1 #bi        
,eggs analyzed1 #ehf      ,elasticity of
 air1 #c      ,elements of ,bodies1 #b  
,elixirs1 #eab      ,emetic ,tartar1    
#ie1 #cbf1 #cca1 #ecd      ,wine1 #cbf1 
#cca      ,empyreumatic ,oils1 #hb      
,emulsion2 vegetable1 #ajd1 #cib        

,animal1 #efc1 #ehg      ,enamel1 #eb   
,blue1 #cga      ,ens ,veneris1 #fjg    
,epsom ,salt1 #aif      ,essential      
,oils1 see ,oils4      ,essential       
,salts1 #ajc1 #chg      of ,vinegar1    
#ede      of ,wine1 #ajc      of ,flesh1
 #ehb      ,expressed ,juices1 of       
,plants1 #ajc1 #chc      of ,animals1   
#ajf      ,expressed ,oils1 #ajc1 #chf1 
#chg      ,extracts1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #dai   
by ,triture1 #chi      ,f               
,falsification of ,essential ,oils1 #dbe
      ,fat1 ,animal1 #ajg1 #ehd         
,fat ,oils by expression1 #ajc1 #chf    
by decoction1 #daj      attenuated1 #cie
      ,fat ,lute1 #adh      ,febrifuge  
of ,sylvius1 #fjh      ,ferment1 or     
,yest1 #dha      ,fermentation1 #hc     
,vinous or ,spirituous1 #hc1 #dgh1 #dha 
checked1 #dha      ,acetous1 #hc1 #hg1  
#ij1 #ecf      ,putrefactive1 #hc1 #eeg 
,fetid or empyreumatic ,oils1 #hb       
,fire1 element of1 #e      how applied1 
#acd      naked1 ib4      ,fire-place1  
of a ,furnace1 ib4      ,fixed ,nitre1  

#bc      ,sulphur of ,antimony1 #fh1    
#cbi      ,sal ,ammoniac1 #fah          
,arsenic1 #cha      ,flesh analyzed1    
#ehj      ,flints1 #bi      ,flowers1   
#acj      of ,antimony1 #fc1 #cdg       
of ,regulus of ,antimony1 #cdh      of  
,sulphur1 #bj      of ,zinc1 #gj1 #cei  
of ,benzoin1 #dfc      of ,sal          
,ammoniac1 #fjf        ,martial1 #fjg   
,fluor1 of an ,ore1 #aaj      aqueous of
 a ,salt1 #ahj      ,fluxes1 #df1 #bda  
,foliated ,salt of ,tartar1 #edi        
,forge1 #adb      ,forged ,iron1 #dh    
,fulguration in cupelling1 #bdd         
,fulmination of ,nitre1 #bc             
,furnaces their ,construction1 #acd     
,reverberating1 #acg      ,melting1 #adj
      ,cupelling1 #adb      ,lamp-heat1 
#adf      ,forge-heat1 #adb             
,furnace-,calamine1 #ceh        ,g      
,glass1 #e      of ,lead1 #ed1 #bic     
of ,antimony1 #fc1 #ccj      of         
,bismuth1 #fi1 #cea      of ,zinc1 #cfj 
,glauber's ,salt1 #bg1 #afi1 #bac       
,gold1 #cg1 #aab1 #bbc      refined by  

,cementation1 #beh      imitated1 #ga1  
#cfd      ,golden ,sulphur of ,antimony1
 #fh1 #cah1 #ccd      ,grain1 in ,salt  
,petre working1 #ahc      ,gravelle1 or 
,gravellee1 #eag      ,green            
,precipitate1 #fj      ,vitriol1 #di1   
#aaa      fluid1 #bgh      ,guaiacum    
,wood analyzed1 #ddj      ,gums1 #ha    
analyzed1 #dgf      ,gum ,resins1 #dgg  
,gypsum1 #afi1 #djd        ,h      ,head
 of an ,alembic1 #abh      ,blind-head1 
#acj      ,heart-burn1 #efh      ,heat1 
reverberated1 melting1 forging1         
lamp-heat1 c41 #acd      ,hepar         
,sulphuris1 #ba      ,hoffman's ,anodyne
 ,mineral ,liquor1 #ejj      ,honey     
analyzed1 #dgd      ,hops1 #dhd         
,i      ,icy ,oil of ,vitriol1 #ah1 #agc
      ,infernal ,stone1 #dj1 #bee       
,infusion1 #dib      ,ink1 sympathetic1 
#cec      ,iron1 #dg1 #aad1 #bgj        
red-shire and cold-shire1 #bgb          
pig-iron made malleable1 #bgc           
converted into ,steel1 #dh1 #bgd        
,juices by expression1 of ,plants1 #ajb1

 #chc      of ,animals1 #ajf      ,k    
,kermes ,mineral1 #fh1 #ccb      ,killed
 ,mercury1 #cje        ,l               
,laboratory1 of a ,furnace1 #ace        
,lac ,calcis1 #cj1 #ebj      ,sulphuris1
 #ba      ,lapis infernalis1 #dj1 #bee  
,calaminaris1 #ga1 #aah1 #ceg           
purified1 #cfb      ,lead1 #ec1 #aae1   
#bhf      ,white1 #ib1 #eec      ,lees  
of ,wine1 #eae1 #eag      ,libavius1 his
 smoking ,liquor1 #fa1 #bhe      ,lime1 
,lime-stone1 #bi1 #ebj      slaked in   
the air1 #cj      ,lime-water1 #cj1 #ebj
      ,liquescent ,salts1 #ag           
,litharge1 #ed1 #bid      ,liver of     
,sulphur1 #ba1 #gc      of ,antimony1   
#fg1 #cbe      of ,arsenic1 #ge         
,luna ,cornea1 #eg1 #bef1 #beg          
,lunar ,crystals1 #dj      ,lutes1 #adg1
 #adh        ,m      ,maceration of     
,plants1 #dae      ,magistery1 #bb1 #cf 
of ,sulphur1 #bb      of ,bismuth1 #gj1 
#ceb      of ,coral1 ,pearl1            
,crab's-eyes1 c41 #edi      of ,lead1   
#eec      ,magnesia1 #ahf      ,malt1   

,malting1 ,malt-liquor1 #dgi1 #dhf      
,manna1 #dge      ,marcasites1 #aji     
,matched ,wines1 #dhb      ,materia     
perlata1 #fe1 #fg1 #cbh      ,matrass1  
#abi      ,mercury1 #eh1 #aae1 #bih     
revivified from ,cinabar1 #fb           
obtained from ,lead1 #bif1 #bih         
,mercurius prcipitatus per se1 #eh1 #cjb
      dulcis1 #fa1 #cab      vit1 #fd1  
#cdb      ,mercurial ,earth1 #be1 #cd   
,metals1 #cg      perfect and imperfect1
 #ce1 #cg      ,metallic substances1 #ce
      ,milk1 #ajh1 #cic1 #efb           
,minerals1 #ajh      ,minium1 #ec       
,moist way of parting ,metals1 #db      
,mortar1 #cj      ,mother-water1 #ahf   
,muffle1 #add      ,must1 #dhb          
,mustard-seed analyzed1 #ddf        ,n  
,neck of the ,alembic1 #abh             
,neutral ,salts1 #ae      having ,lime  
for their basis1 #cc      ,arsenical1   
#gc1 #cgg      of ,vinegar with         
absorbent ,earths1 #ib      ,nose of the
 ,alembic1 #abh      ,nitre1 #bb1 #aha  
its basis1 #ahe      fixed or           

alkalizated1 #bc1 #ahg1 #cgi            
quadrangular1 #bg1 #bbj      ,nitrous   
,salts with an earthy basis1 #bb        
with ,lead1 #big      with ,mercury1    
#cjg        ,o      ,object of          
,chymistry1 #a      ,ochre1 #ej         
,oils1 in general1 #gf      ,mineral1   
#gi      ,vegetable1 #hj      ,animal1  
#hb      ,fetid1 or ,empyreumatic1 ib4  
,fat1 by expression1 #ajb1 #chf         
by decoction1 #daj      ,essential by   
expression1 #chh        by distillation1
 #dab1 #ddd        per descensum1 #dah  
rectified1 #dbb        falsified1 #dbe  
,oils fired by ,acids1 #dbf      ,oil of
 ,vitriol1 #ah      ,icy1 #ah1 #agc     
,oil-varnish1 #hg      ,oil of ,tartar  
per deliquium1 #id      of ,lime1 #bjh1 
#faa      of ,salt1 #baf      of        
,mercury1 #cjd      of ,amber1          
,volatile1 #dfg      of ,eggs1 by       
expression1 #ehf1 #ehh      of ,myrrh   
per deliquium1 #ehg      ,ores1 #aji    
,orpiment1 #ge1 #aah1 #cfi        ,p    
,panacea of ,mercury1 #fa1 #cad         

,pancreatic ,juice1 #ajh      ,parting  
,process1 in the humid way1 #db1 #bej   
in the dry way1 #beh      ,pearly       
matter1 #fe1 #fg1 #cbh      ,pelican1   
#acj      ,penny-weight1 #ef            
,petroleum1 #gi      ,philosophic ,wool1
 #gj      ,spirit of ,vitriol1 #cdc     
,phlogiston1 #g      ,phosphorus of     
,urine1 #bf1 #gg1 #gh1 #aih1 #ddf1 #ddg 
,homberg's1 #fah      ,pig-,iron1 #dh1  
#bga      ,plaster1 #djg      ,plumbum  
corneum1 #eg      ,point of ,saturation1
 #af      ,pompholyx1 #gj               
,potential cautery1 #cc                 
,powder-blue1 #cga      ,precipitant1   
#ff      ,precipitation1 #bb1 #cf       
,precipitate of ,sulphur1 #bb      of   
,gold1 purple1 #bhd      ,precipitate1  
,red1 #fj1 #cjg      ,green1 #fj        
,yellow1 #fa      ,white1 #cjg          
,precipitated ,aqua ,fortis1 #dd        
,prince's ,metal1 #ga1 #cfd             
,principles of ,bodies1 #b              
,principle of ,odour1 #djh1 #dac        
,proof of ,spirit of ,wine1 #dhd        

,pulvis ,algaroth1 #cdb                 
,purification of ,nitre1 #ahe      of   
,spirit of ,nitre1 #aid      of ,spirit 
of ,salt1 #bac      of the ,sedative    
,salt1 #bbb      of ,silver by ,nitre1  
#bdh      ,pyrites1 #aaj1 #afj          
,yellow1 #aaj      ,white1 #aaa1 #aah   
,copper-coloured1 #aaa        ,q        
,quadrangular ,nitre1 #bg1 #bag         
,quartation1 #dc1 #bea      ,quartz1    
#adg      ,quick-lime1 #cj              
,quick-silver1 see ,mercury4        ,r  
,rabel's ,water1 #die      ,rape1 of    
,grapes1 #ech      ,rarefaction of ,air1
 #b      ,rectification of ,oils1 #ha1  
#dbb      of ,volatile ,alkalis1 #ajj   
,rectified ,spirit of ,wine1 #he        
,reducing1 a ,metal1 #ce      ,reducing 
,fluxes1 #df      ,refining ,gold and   
,silver1 #de1 #ee1 #ff1 #cea            
,refined ,salt-petre1 #ahc              
,refractory ,earth1 #bi      ,calx1 #ec 
,refrigeratory1 #abi      ,regenerated  
,tartar1 #ib1 #id1 #edg      ,registers 
of a ,furnace1 #ace      ,regulus1 #aaj 

of ,antimony1 #fb1 #aaf1 #caf           
pure1 or per se1 #fg        with        
,metals1 #bcd1 #cah      of ,arsenic1   
#gb1 #cgd      of ,cobalt1 #aai1 #cga   
,resins1 #ha1 #dfb      ,resuscitation  
of ,metals1 #ce      ,retort1 #aca      
,english1 ib4      ,tubulated1 #acb     
,revivify a ,metal1 #ce      ,roasting  
of an ,ore1 #aji      ,rochelle ,salt1  
#ebe      ,rosin1 #dfj      ,ruby of    
,arsenic1 #cfi      ,runnet1 #efe       
,rust of ,copper1 #de        ,s         
,saccharine ,juices of ,plants analyzed1
 #dgd      ,saffrons of ,mars1 #di1 #ea1
 #bgf1 #bgg      ,saignette's ,salt1    
#ie1 #ebd      ,saline ,substances1 in  
general1 #aa      ,saliva1 #ajh         
,sal ,ammoniac1 #ih1 #fjb               
,native1 #fjf        with ,vinegar1 #fjc
        ,nitrous1 #ih1 #fjc1 #fjh       
,vitriolic1 or ,glauber's ,secret1 #fjg 
,catharticum ,amarum1 #aif      ,de     
,duobus1 #ai1 #aic      ,febrifugum     
,sylvii1 #bi1 #fji1 #faa      ,gem1 #aie
      ,mirabile1 #bg      ,polychrestum1

 #ahi      ,salsum1 #ac1 #ae            
,saturni1 #ib1 #eec1 #eed               
,sedativum1 #bh1 #bai      ,salt of     
,amber1 ,volatile1 #dfg1 #dfi      of   
,benzoin1 ,volatile1 #dfd      of       
,colcothar1 #agd      ,common1 or       
,sea-salt1 #bg1 #aie      ,epsom1 #aif  
of ,lime1 #ca      ,petre1 #bb1 #aha1   
#ahb      ,quieting or ,sedative1 #bh1  
#bai      of ,soda1 or maritime ,plants1
 #id1 #ebd      of ,pearl1 ,coral1      
,crab's-eyes1 c41 #edi      of          
,rochelle1 #ie1 #ebe      of ,tartar1   
#id      of ,urine1 which produces      
,phosphorus1 #bji      ,salts1 ,neutral1
 #ae        with ,lime for their basis1 
#cb        with ,arsenic1 #gc1 #cgg     
of ,vinegar with absorbent ,earths1 #ia 
,nitrous with absorbent ,earths1 #bb    
with ,lead1 #big        with ,mercury1  
#cjg        from ,excrement1 #eij       
,salts1 ,urinous ,volatile1 #ig         
,ammoniacal1 #ih1 #fjb      ,essential1 
#ajc1 #chc      ,glauber's1 ,artificial1
 #bg1 #baa        ,native1 #afi         

,saignette's1 #ie1 #ebd      ,sylvius's 
,febrifuge1 #bi1 #fji1 #faa             
,tachenius's1 #ajf1 #dec      ,samech of
 ,paracelsus1 #dij      ,sand-bath1 #acc
      ,saturation1 #ae      ,scoria1    
#aaj      ,scorifiers1 #acc             
,scorification with lead1 #bch          
,sedative ,salt1 #bh1 #bai              
,selenites1 #ai1 #djd      ,semi-metals1
 #ce1 #fb      ,serum of ,milk1 #efb    
of ,blood1 #egd      ,silver1 #dj1 #dd1 
#aab1 #bbd1 #bch1 #bec      ,caustic1   
#dj      ,silver rendered very pure1    
#bef      ,slaked ,lime1 #cj            
,smalt1 #cgj1 #cga      ,smoking liquor 
of ,libavius1 #fa      ,soap1 #gh1 #djj 
liquid1 #djd      ,starkey's1 #dch      
,metallic1 #djh      common used in     
,medicine1 #dje      ,soluble ,tartar1  
#ie1 #ebh        chalybeated1 #ebh1 #ebi
      ,soot of ,wood1 analyzed1 #deg    
of ,cows dung yields ,sal ,ammoniac1    
#fjd      ,spirit of ,vitriol #ah1 #agg 
,philosophic #cdc        ,sweet1 #ejj   
,volatile of ,sulphur1 #bj1 #dhe      of

 ,nitre #bd        ,smoking1 #bd1 #aia1 
#cjh        ,sweet or dulcified1 #ij1   
#ejd        purified1 #aid              
,bezoartic1 #fd1 #cde      of ,salt1 #be
        ,smoking1 #bf        ,sweet or  
dulcified1 #ij1 #ejh                    
concentrated1 #baf      of ,wine1 #he1  
#dhc        ,alcoholized1 #hg           
dephlegmated1 #dhd1 #dhf      of        
,verdegris1 #eea      ,spirit ,varnish1 
#hg      ,spirituous ,fermentation1 #hd1
 #dgh      ,spirit1 ,volatile1 ,urinous1
 #ig      ,spiritus ,rector of ,plants1 
#aje1 #dji      ,spout of the ,alembic1 
#abh      ,steel1 #dh1 #bgd      ore1   
#bgf      ,stibiated1 or ,emetic        
,tartar1 #ie1 #ecd      ,stum1 #dhb     
,sublimate1 ,corrosive1 #fa1 #cjh       
,sweet1 #fa1 #cab      ,sugar1 #dge     
of ,lead1 #ib1 #eec      ,sulphur       
,mineral1 #bj      extracted from the   
,pyrites1 c41 #afb      ,native1 #afd   
factitious1 #agi1 #cii      of          
,antimony1 golden1 #fh1 #cah            
fixed1 #cbi      ,sweat1 #ajh           

,sweet ,sublimate1 #fa1 #cab        ,t  
,tachenius's ,salt1 #ajf1 #dec          
,talc1 #afi      ,tartar1 #ic1 #ajc1    
#cae1 #dhe1 #eag      ,emetic1 #ie1 #ecd
      ,regenerated1 #ib1 #edf1 #edg     
,soluble1 #ie1 #eai      ,tartarized1   
#ie1 #agg      ,stibiated1 #ie1 #ecd    
,vitriolated1 #ai1 #agj      ,tartarized
 ,spirit of ,wine1 #hg      ,tempering  
of ,steel1 #dh1 #bge      ,terra        
damnata1 #aje      ,foliata ,tartari1   
#ib1 #id1 #edi      ,tests1 #acc        
,tin1 #eb1 #aae1 #bgi      ,tincture1 of
 ,salt of ,tartar1 #dhg      of ,mars   
with ,tartar1 #ebh      of ,copper1 #eej
      ,tinctures1 ,vegetable1 #eaj1 #eab
      ,tin-glass1 #fi      ,tin-plates1 
#eb      ,tombac1 #ga      ,touch-stone1
 #bfa      ,trituration1 #chi           
,turbith ,mineral1 #fj1 #cjc            
,turpentine analyzed1 #dfj      ,tutty1 
#cei      ,u      ,urine1 #ajh          
,urinous spirit and salt1 #ig        ,v 
,vapour-bath1 #acc      ,varnish1 #hg1  
#eab      ,vegetable-salt1 #id1 #ebd    

,verdegris1 #ib1 #eea      distilled1   
#eej      ,vermillion1 #fb              
,vinegar1 #ia1 #ebc1 #ecg               
distilled1 #ia      concentrated1 #edj1 
#ede      analyzed1 #edb      ,vinous   
fermentation1 #hc1 #dgh1 #dha           
,vitriol1 blue1 #df1 #aaa1 #bfh         
,green1 #di1 #aaa1 #afi      ,white1    
#ga1 #afi1 #cfe      extracted from the 
pyrites1 #aei      of ,lead1 #bif       
,vitriolated ,tartar1 #ai1 #agj1 #aib1  
#aid      ,vitriolic acid1 #ah          
concentrated1 #agf      ,volatile spirit
 of sulphur1 #bj      urinous spirit and
 salt1 #ig1 #fji      ,spirit of sal    
ammoniac1 #faa      oily aromatic salt1 
#fbj        ,w      ,water1 #c          
hard1 #djc      ,water-bath1 #acc       
,waters1 odoriferous1 #djh              
distilled1 #dab      ,wax from plants by
 decoction1 #daj1 #dgb      ,whey1 #efb 
analyzed1 #ega      ,white arsenic1 #gb 
,lead1 #ib1 #eec      ,vitriol1 #ga1    
#cfe      ,precipitate1 #cjg      ,white
 paint for ladies1 #ceb      ,white of  

an egg analyzed1 #ehf      ,wines1 #hd1 
#dgh1 #dhf      matched1 #dhb           
concentrated1 #eda      ,wine-lees1 #dhe
      ,wool1 philosophic1 #gj        ,y 
,yelk of an egg1 analyzed1 #ehf         
,yellow aqua fortis1 #bd      arsenic1  
#gb      precipitate1 #fa      ,yest1 or
 ferment1 #dha        ,z      ,zaffre1  
#cga      ,zinc1 #gj1 #aag1 #ceg        
purified1 #cfd      ,,finis4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,transcriber's ,notes4    ,obvious      
typographical errors1 including missing 
punctuation have been  corrected and    
hyphenation has been standardised1 but  
variations in  spelling in the original 
have been retained4    ,chap4 ,,ii41    
,part ,,ii41 ,section ,i4 is wrongly    
headed ,chap4 ,i4 in the text4  ,this   
has been corrected4    ,a reference to  
,mr4 ,fifes1 on page #eah1 could        
possibly be ,mr4 ,fises4    ,on page    
#edg fit for the use of ,surgeons1 who  
apply it to eat away  callosities and   
excrescences1 and to open issues4 issues

 has been  changed to tissues4          
,colophony1 #dfb has been placed in     
correct alphabetical order in the       
index4    ,pl4 ,v4 and ,,vi4            
,,geoffroy',s ,,table of the            
,,comparative ,,affinities1 a table     
using symbols to represent the various  
substances1 has been replaced  by a     
simple list of text descriptions showing
 the relationships4    ,words in italics
 are shown thus italic4