,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,language-,,/udy ,,by ,,h>old ,e4 ,,palm] ,,assi/ant ,,9 ,,! ,,phonetics ,,dep>tm5t ,,univ]sity ,,college ,,london ,,lectur] ,,on ,,l+ui/ics ,,at ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,ori5tal ,,/udies ,,london ,,au?or ,,( 8,,! ,,sci5tific ,,/udy ,,& ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,languages0 8,a ,,fir/ ,,c\rse ,,( ,,engli% ,,phonetics0 8#ajj ,,sub/itution ,,tables0 ,,etc4 ,,yonk]s-,,on-,,hudson1 ,,new ,,york ,,_w ,,book ,,company #aiba ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,neill ,,& ,,co ,,ltd41 ,,ed9burgh1 ,,great ,,brita9 ,,pr,,face ,d,,dicatoire ,a ,,mon ,,vieil ,,ami ,,le ,,comm&ant ,,*>les ,,lemaire1 ,,actuellem5t ,,directeur ,,de ,l',,in/itut ,,sup,,rieur ,,colonial ,,anv]s ,,mon ,,*] ,,comm&ant1 ,v\s s\v5ez-v\s encore de la visite que je v\s fis l't d]ni] aux ,s\rces ,fra*es1 aprs les c9q annes tragiques que n\s avons vcues8 ,je m'en s\vi5s encore comme si c'tait hi]4 ,v\s tiez s\ffrant2 je v\s ai tr\v t5du1 accabl1 affaibli1 et je ress5s encore la pe9e pr(onde que j'pr\vai cette m9ute prcise o le contra/e s'imposait mon esprit entre l'tat dans lequel je v\s avais quitt en #aiad et celui dans lequel je v\s retr\vais4 ,mais cette impression premire1 dont je g>d]ai t\j\rs un s\v5ir mu1 fut brve4 ,v\s me p>liez de votre n\vel ouvrage1 traitant de l'enseignem5t rationnel1 et dveloppiez la conception qui en =me la base4 ,a mesure que v\s avanciez1 v\s v\s laissiez emport] p> votre sujet et1 r$ress1 v\s p>liez avec l'ardeur et le feu que je v\s ai t\j\rs connus1 sc&ant vos phrases de ge/es n]giques et puissants4 ,je retr\vais en v\s le soldat d'avant-g>de en?\sia/e et =t1 t\t vibrant de foi et de conviction1 que v\s n'avez jamais cess d'tre4 ,la nature1 disiez-v\s1 e/ une s\rce fconde d'enseignem5t et de m?ode2 elle e/ la seule in/itutrice des noirs4 ,ceux-ci1 dans les matires se rapportant la vie primitive--et dont une p>tie correspond celles que l'on enseigne aux blancs--sont1 mieux que n\s1 naturellem5t dans le vrai1 dans le vrai exprim5tal4 ,longuem5t v\s dveloppiez votre ?se1 l'appuyant de nombreuses con/atations de faits rcoltes p5dant vos longues annes d'obs]vation en ple9 cur de l',afrique4 ,je v\s ai c\t longuem5t et1 en v\s quittant1 je me suis retr\v dans ce dcor que v\s avez *oisi p\r y conc5tr] votre att5tion sur les problmes auxquels v\s avez v\lu tr\v] une solution2 je me suis retr\v dans cette ,fagne imm5se et admirable1 au milieu de ces bruyres aux colorations *audes1 sur cette t]re aux va/es horizons frangs de sap9ires1 et1 seul en face de la nature1 de cette s\rce t]nelle dont v\s m'aviez p>l avec tant d'en?\siasme1 j'ent5dais vos d]nires p>oles rsonn] encore mes oreilles4444 99 99 99 99 99 ,le j\r mme j'crivis le premi] *apitre de ce livre4 ,v\s y retr\v]ez vos propres p>oles et l'*o qu'elles ont veill en moi4 ,la nature doit-elle tre notre guide8 ,oui1 sans aucun d\te4 ,doit-elle tre notre seul guide8 ,sans aucun d\te encore1 non4 ,la nature doit1 disiez-v\s1 tre notre inspiratrice2 n\s devons1 grce nos capacits acquises1 appliqu] les leons qu'elle n\s donne en utilisant les =ces qui sont inhr5tes l'tre huma94 ,comm5t pass] du pr9cipe son application8 ,dans quelle mesure faut-il puis] la s\rce naturelle1 faire agir l'intellig5ce huma9e et se s]vir de ses =ces #8subconsci5tes'8 ,c'tait le po9t de d"p du livre que voici4444 99 99 99 99 99 ,j'ai crit1 il y a quelques annes1 un livre1 ,! ,sci5tific ,/udy & ,tea*+ ( ,languages1 auquel j'avais donn la =me d'une tude s\levant des que/ions n\velles1 sujettes controv]se et montrant qu'en ralit la sci5ce de l'tude des langues n'exi/ait pas et qu'il tait gr& temps de rassembl] les matriaux et les tudes p]mettant de lui donn] un po9t de d"p srieux4 ,ce livre traitait de la nature du langage et du processus de l'acquisition des langues a9si que des div]s types d'tudiants et de leurs buts respectifs2 il posait des pr9cipes et prs5tait un #8programme-type idal' avec des modles de leons et un catalogue complet des m?odes de travail2 il exam9ait longuem5t les programmes spciaux1 les fonctions du pr(esseur2 il envisageait les problmes au po9t de vue de l'lve et1 aprs cet ensemble d'tudes1 il concluait p> un appel l'unit et la coopration de t\s4 ,cet appel n'e/ pas re/ sans rponse1 et je suis heureux d'exprim] ici ma satisfaction p\r les avis et les enc\ragem5ts que m'a valus mon travail4 ,il m'a gagn de nombreux amis et collaborateurs2 il m'a mis en contact avec des #8samideani' 7s'il m'e/ p]mis de me s]vir d'un des mots les plus connus des langues artificielles7 et m'a a9si montr d'o p\rra v5ir l'aide pro*a9e4 ,je suis heureux du sec\rs que ce livre a apport ceux qui en s5tai5t le beso91 et c'e/ p\r moi un prcieux enc\ragem5t de savoir qu'il en e/ beauc\p qui travaill5t dans la voie qui vi5t d'tre ouv]te4 ,le livre que je prs5te auj\rd'hui ne c\vre pas le mme *amp que le prcd5t4 ,ce n'e/ ni une tude1 ni une srie de problmes avec leurs solutions4 ,c'e/ un expos de faits1 prsumant que le lecteur admet1 comme je les ai admis moi-mme1 les pr9cipes fondam5taux du langage et de l'tude des langues4 ,ce n\vel ouvrage se borne expos] les pr9cipes ess5tiels que sont t5us d'obs]v] ceux qui veul5t enseign]--ou tudi]--avec succs4 ,il e/ vrai que dans ,! ,sci5tific ,/udy & ,tea*+ ( ,languages j'ai consacr soixante pages l'exam5 de c]ta9s pr9cipes1 mais quelques annes ont pass depuis que j'ai crit ces lignes1 et pas mal de *oses qui semblai5t vagues cette poque se sont prcises et dveloppes4 ,si je n'ai ri51 ou peu de *ose1 retran*] de ce travail1 j'ai p> contre beauc\p aj\t] et revoir4 ,j'ai v\lu prs5t] la matire de mon n\vel ouvrage dans un ordre plus rig\reux que celui de l'tude prcd5te1 bi5 qu'en lui-mme le n\veau livre soit mo9s te*nique et que la t]m9ologie en soit mo9s spciale4 ,en ralit1 le sujet trait1 comme t\s les sujets d'ailleurs1 se prs5te plus simplem5t aprs une priode de rflexion et d'incubation1 et la =me actuelle a p\r b prcism5t de ralis] une prs5tation populaire4 ,c]ta9s1 j'en suis sr1 e/im]ont que mon ouvrage n'e/ pas assez te*nique4 ,plusieurs amis m'ont suggr avec insi/ance de prs5t] le sujet au seul po9t de vue de la psy*ologie1 d'autres de me s]vir exclusivem5t de t]mes sci5tifiques4 ,mais je n'ai pas pu me ralli] aucune de ces propositions p>ce que j'ai d t5ir compte de ce que mes lecteurs ne sont pas t\s v]ss dans 8la t]m9ologie psy*ologique40 ,au surplus1 je s5s que le sujet n'e/ pas mr p\r subir une analyse dtaille envisage s\s l'angle de la psy*ologie pure4 ,de plus compt5ts que moi la t5t]ont peut-tre qu& le mom5t s]a v5u4 ,p\r l'in/ant1 cette tude n'apport]ait pas l'aide pratique et immdiate que j'espre avoir ralise dans les pages qui suiv5t1 et dont le beso9 se fait s5tir *ez t\s ceux qui s'occup5t de l'enseignem5t des langues4 99 99 99 99 99 ,je ti5s exprim] aussi ma reconnaissance ceux qui m'ont aid dans la prp>ation de ce travail4 ,la collaboration de ,m4 ,morris ,g9sb]g 7de ,univ]sity ,college1 ,londres7 conc]nant 8la =mation et l'adaptation des habitudes0 a t si prcieuse que je ne puis m'emp*] de la s\lign] t\t spcialem5t2 j'espre qu'il appr\v]a la prs5tation de ce sujet p>ticuli]4 ,les vues de ,m4 ,h4 ,p]]a 7de ,univ]sity ,college1 ,londres7 sur la 8p>ole intrieure0 m'ont galem5t t =t utiles4 ,je dois des rem]ciem5ts ,mrs ,p[]s 7,k+smead ,tra9+ ,in/itution = ,mission>y ,c&idates71 qui s'e/ *>ge d'exam9] le manuscrit phrase p> phrase au po9t de vue de la cl>t et de la prcision4 ,a prs5t1 mon *] ,comm&ant1 p]mettez-moi de conclure3 une ide que v\s avez exprime un mom5t propice a dclan* *ez moi un ordre de p5ses qui m'a conduit crire l'ouvrage que je prs5te auj\rd'hui1 et que je suis heureux de v\s ddi]4 ,,h>old ,e4 ,,palm] ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,,pr,,face ,d,,dicatoire #e ,,synopsis #ac ,i4 ,,our ,,spontane\s ,,capacities ,,= ,,acquir+ ,,spee* #cc ,,ii4 ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities ,,& ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,!m #dg ,,iii4 ,,:y ,,we ,,mu/ ,,use ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities #eb ,,iv4 ,,! ,,/ud5t ,,& ,,8 ,,aim #fj ,v4 ,,! ,,supreme ,,importance ,,( ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,/age #fh ,,vi4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,language-,,tea*+ #ge ,,vii4 ,,initial ,,prep>ation #hb ,,viii4 ,,habit-,,=m+ ,,& ,,habit-,,adapt+ #ih ,,ix4 ,,accuracy #ajf ,x4 ,,gradation #aac ,,xi4 ,,proportion #abc ,,xii4 ,,concret5ess #abi ,,xiii4 ,,int]e/ #acf ,,xiv4 ,a ,,rational ,,ord] ,,( ,,progression #adh ,,xv4 ,,! ,,multiple ,,l9e ,,( ,,approa* #afa ,,xvi4 #8,,memoriz$ ,,matt]' ,,& #8,,con/ruct$ ,,matt]' #agj ,,index #ahc ,,synopsis #a4 ,,we ,,possess ,,natural ,,or ,,spontane\s ,,capacities ,,= ,,acquir+ ,,spee* ,9 ord] to become pr(ici5t 9 mo/ arts1 we are assum$ to /udy1 i4e4 to make consci\s ef=ts p]si/5tly & p]sev]+ly2 we are assum$ to use our intellig5ce4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o complex art 9 :i* all ( u h become pr(ici5t )\t any su* process & )\t us+ our intellig5ce consci\sly1 viz4 ! art ( spee*1 i4e4 ( us+ ! spok5 =m ( a language z actually us$ 9 ev]yday life4 ,we are end[$ by nature ) capacities = assimilat+ spee*4 ,ea* ( u is a liv+ te/imony to ?is fact1 = ea* ( u has successfully acquir$ t =m ( our "m-tongue ) :i* we h be5 9 contact4 ,^! capacities are n limit$ to ! acquir+ ( our "m-tongue1 b are also available = "o or m languages 9 addition4 ,! "y *ild possesses ^! capacities 9 an active /ate2 consequ5tly he picks up a second or a ?ird language 9 ! same mann] z he does ! fir/4 ,! adult possesses ^! same capacities1 b g5]ally 9 a lat5t /ate2 by disuse he has all[$ !m to lapse4 ,if he wi%es1 he may re-educate ^! p[]s & raise !m to ! active /ate2 he w !n by ?is means become z capable z ! *ild ( assimilat+ =eign languages4 ,^? adults :o h ma9ta9$ ^! p[]s 9 an active /ate are said to h a gift = languages4 #b4 ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities ,,& ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,!m ,9 addition to c]ta9 spontane\s capacities1 we possess :at we may t]m #8/udial' capacities = language-acquisition4 ,^! mu/ be utiliz$ :5 we le>n h[ to read & write a language1 & also :5 we wi% to le>n =ms ( language n actually us$ 9 ev]yday spee* 7i4e4 ! lit]>y1 oratorical1 or c]emoni\s =ms74 ,! me?ods by :i* we utilize ^! capacities are g5]ally *>act]iz$ by consci\s "w 7su* z analysis & syn!sis7 & by conv]sion1 i4e4 conv]t+ writt5 into spok5 7read+ al\d71 conv]t+ spok5 into writt5 7dictation71 conv]t+ f "o language into ano!r 7translation71 or conv]t+ "o grammatical =m into ano!r 7conjugation1 decl5sion1 etc474 ,all ex]cises requir+ ! use ( ! eyes & ! h& are ( ! /udial ord]1 z are also ^? connect$ ) accid5ce & d]ivation4 ,mo/ ( ^? =ms ( "w by :i* we utilize or adapt habits :i* we acquir$ previ\sly :ile le>n+ "s o!r language 7g5]ally ! "m-tongue7 are m or less /udial =ms ( "w4 ,mo/ language-le>n]s at ! pres5t day are f\nd to make an almo/ exclusive use ( _! /udial capacities1 & 9 do+ s use me?ods :i* are m or less unnatural4 #c4 ,,:y ,,we ,,mu/ ,,use ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities ,we mu/ n conclude f ! =ego+ t me?ods involv+ ! use ( our capacities = /udy are necess>ily bad1 nor t ^? bas$ on our spontane\s capacities are necess>ily always to be us$4 ,9 c]ta9 cases & = c]ta9 purposes we %all be =c$ to use ! =m]4 ,nature alone w n tea* u h[ to read or write2 = ^! purposes we mu/ use our /udial capacities4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 refra9 f read+ or writ+ any giv5 mat]ial until we h le>nt to use ! spok5 =m4 ,nature w n tea* u h[ to use =ms ( language :i* are n curr5tly us$ 9 ev]yday spee*2 9 ord] to acquire ^! we mu/ h rec\rse to our p[]s ( /udy2 ?us we %all use ^! p[]s :5 le>n+ lit]>y composition1 ! language ( c]emony1 etc4 ,moreov]1 ! /udial p[]s mu/ be utiliz$ = ! purposes = :i* a corrective c\rse is design$4 ,:at has be5 badly assimilat$ mu/ be elim9at$ consci\sly2 bad habits c only be replac$ by good habits ?r\gh processes unkn[n to ! language-tea*+ =ces ( nature4 ,ev5 ^? :o h n be5 previ\sly spoil$ by defective /udy require a c]ta9 am\nt ( corrective "w 9 ord] t !y may react aga9/ ! t5d5cy to import into ! new language "s ( ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! previ\sly acquir$ language or languages4 ,"s /ud5ts h no desire to use ! =eign language1 b m]ely wi% to le>n ab\t x1 to "k some?+ ( its /ructure4 ,9 su* cases no attempt :atev] ne$ be made to develop or to utilize _! spontane\s language-le>n+ capacities2 !y may "w exclusively by ! me?ods ( /udy4 #d4 ,,! ,,/ud5t ,,& ,,8 ,,aim ,we _c design a language c\rse until we "k some?+ ab\t ! /ud5ts = :om ! c\rse is int5d$1 = a programme ( /udy dep5ds on ! aim or aims ( ! /ud5ts4 ,all we c say 9 advance is t we mu/ endeav\r to utilize ! mo/ appropriate means to atta9 ! desir$ end4 ,a c\rse :i* is suitable 9 "o case may prove unsuitable 9 ano!r4 ,"s /ud5ts may require only a k ( ! writt5 language1 o!rs are conc]n$ ) ! spok5 language1 o!rs desire to become conv]sant ) bo? aspects4 ,"s /ud5ts only require a sup]ficial k1 :ile o!rs aim at a p]fect k4 ,special categories ( le>n]s 7e4g4 cl]ks1 hotel-keep]s1 t\ri/s1 gramm>ians7 wi% to specialize4 ,! sole aim ( "s /ud5ts is to pass a giv5 exam9ation2 o!rs wi% to become pr(ici5t z translators or int]pret]s4 ,! l5g? ( ! c\rse or programme is a mo/ important det]m9+ factor2 a two mon?s' c\rse w diff] fundam5tally f "o :i* is design$ to la/ two ye>s2 ! =m] w be a prep>atory c\rse1 ! latt] w be highly develop$4 ,x w n be possible = u to design a special c\rse = ea* individual1 /ill less to write a special text-book = him2 we c1 h[ev]1 broadly gr\p our /ud5ts into types1 & recomm5d = ea* type ! mo/ appropriate =ms ( "w4 ,9 any case1 ! tea*] is b\nd to draw up "s sort ( programme 9 advance & to divide ?is into /ages appropriately grad$4 ,?is programme mu/ n be ( ! rigid type1 ! same = all requirem5ts2 x %\ld be design$ on an ela/ic basis & %\ld be 9 accordance ) kn[n p$agogical pr9ciples4 #e4 ,,! ,,supreme ,,importance ,,( ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,/age ,! read] ( ?is book may notice1 p]haps ) "s surprise1 h[ mu* we h to say conc]n+ ! "w ( ! beg9n]1 & h[ little we say ab\t ! m advanc$ "w2 he may be puzzl$ at ! am\nt ( att5tion we pay to 7:at he may consid]7 crude elem5t>y "w comp>$ ) ! am\nt we give to 7:at he may consid]7 ! m complex & int]e/+ "w connect$ ) ! high] /ages4 ,x w !re=e be useful1 at ?is po9t1 to anticipate :at w be m fully dealt ) "u ! head+ ( gradation 7,*apt] ,x71 & insi/ "h already on ! supreme importance ( ! elem5t>y /age4 ,language-/udy is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process1 & ! important /age 9 habit-=m+ is ! elem5t>y /age4 ,if we d n secure habits ( accurate obs]vation1 reproduction1 & imitation dur+ ! fir/ /age1 x is d\btful :e!r we %all ev] secure !m subsequ5tly4 ,x is m difficult to unle>n a ?+ ?an to le>n x4 ,if ! elem5t>y /age is gone ?r\gh )\t due reg>d to ! pr9ciples ( /udy1 ! /ud5t w be caus$ to d ?+s :i* he mu/ subsequ5tly undo2 he w acquire habits :i* w h to be eradicat$4 ,if 8 e>-tra9+ is neglect$ dur+ ! elem5t>y /age1 he w replace =eign s\nds by native ones & ins]t intrusive s\nds into ! words ( ! language he is le>n+2 he w become unable to receive any b eye-impressions1 & s w become ! dupe ( unphonetic or?ographies4 ,if he has n be5 tra9$ dur+ ! elem5t>y /age to cultivate 8 p[]s ( unconsci\s assimilation & reproduction1 he w attempt ! hopeless task ( pass+ all ! language-matt] ?r\gh ! *annel ( full consci\sness4 ,if dur+ ! elem5t>y /age he =ms ! #8isolat+ habit1' he w n be able to use or to build accurate s5t5ces4 ,an abuse ( translation dur+ ! elem5t>y /age w cause ! /ud5t to translate m5tally ev]y?+ he he>s1 reads1 says1 or writes4 ,bad habits ( articulation w cause him to use language ( an artificializ$ type4 ,! function ( ! elem5t>y /age is to inculcate good habits1 & once ?is "w is done !re is little or no fe> ( ! /ud5t go+ a/ray 9 8 lat] "w4 ,if we take c>e ( ! elem5t>y /age1 ! advanc$ /age w take c>e ( itself4 #f4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,language-,,tea*+ ,! art ( design+ a language c\rse appe>s to be 9 its infancy4 ,^? arts :i* h a*iev$ maturity h gradually evolv$ f a numb] ( di/9ct primitive ef=ts :i*1 by a process ( gradual conv]g5ce t[>ds ea* o!r1 h result$ 9 ! ideal type4 ,s w x be 9 ! art ( compos+ language c\rses3 ! pres5t div]se types w gradually be replac$ by m g5]al types1 & 9 ! end ! ideal type w be evolv$4 ,?is w come ab\t z a result ( a sy/em ( collaboration 9 :i* ea* work] w pr(it by t :i* has be5 done 9 ! pa/ & t :i* is be+ done by o!r work]s 9 ! pres5t4 ,uns\nd me?ods w gradually be elim9at$ & w make room = me?ods :i* are be+ evolv$ sl[ly & exp]im5tally & :i* w pass ! te/s ( exp]i5ce4 ,by ?is "t a s]ies ( ess5tial pr9ciples w h be5 discov]$1 & ^! w be recogniz$ z /&>d pr9ciples by all ^: "w is to design language c\rses4 ,! foll[+ li/ w\ld seem to embody "s ( ^!1 & probably repres5ts pr9ciples on :i* !re is g5]al agreem5t among ^? :o h made a /udy ( ! subject3 7#a7 ,! initial prep>ation ( ! /ud5t by ! tra9+ ( 8 spontane\s capacities = assimilat+ spok5 language4 7#b7 ,! =m+ ( new & appropriate habits & ! utilization ( previ\sly =m$ habits4 7#c7 ,accuracy 9 "w 9 ord] to prev5t ! acquir+ ( bad habits4 7#d7 ,gradation ( ! "w 9 su* a way z to ensure an ev]-increas+ rate ( progress4 7#e7 ,due proportion 9 ! treatm5t ( ! v>i\s aspects & bran*es ( ! subject4 7#f7 ,! pres5tation ( language-mat]ial 9 a concrete r ?an 9 an ab/ract way4 7#g7 ,! secur+ & ma9ta9+ ( ! /ud5t's int]e/ 9 ord] to accel]ate 8 progress4 7#h7 ,a logical ord] ( progression 9 accordance ) pr9ciples ( spee*-psy*ology4 7#i7 ,! approa*+ ( ! subject simultane\sly f diff]5t sides by means ( diff]5t & appropriate devices4 #g4 ,,initial ,,prep>ation ,we mu/ realize t language-le>n+ is an art1 n a sci5ce4 ,we may acquire pr(ici5cy 9 an art 9 two ways3 by le>n+ ! !ory1 or by a process ( imitation4 ,?is latt] process is (t5 t]m$ ! me?od ( trial & error1 b z ! t]m may be mis9t]pret$ x is bett] to consid] x z ! me?od ( practice4 ,! me?od ( practice is a natural "o1 ! me?od ( !ory is n4 ,we may acquire pr(ici5cy 9 two ways3 by =m+ appropriate new habits1 or by utiliz+ & adapt+ appropriate old habits 7i4e4 habits already acquir$74 ,! natural process is ! =m]1 ! latt] be+ m or less artificial4 ,language-/udy is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process1 s we mu/ le>n to =m habits4 ,by ! natural or spontane\s me?od we le>n unconsci\sly2 we mu/ !re=e tra9 ourselves or our /ud5ts to =m habits unconsci\sly4 ,! adult ^: natural capacities = unconsci\s habit-=m+ h be5 dormant may reawak5 !m by means ( appropriate ex]cises4 ,^! are notably3 7a7 ,e>-tra9+ ex]cises1 by means ( :i* he may le>n to p]ceive correctly :at he he>s4 7b7 ,articulation ex]cises1 by means ( :i* he may cause 8 vocal organs to make ! "r sort ( muscul> ef=ts4 7c7 ,ex]cises 9 mimicry1 by means ( :i* he w become able to imitate & reproduce successfully any ^w or /r+ ( words utt]$ by ! native ^: spee* s]ves z model4 7,! comb9ation ( ! ?ree =ego+ types ( ex]cise w result 9 ! capacity = reproduc+ at fir/ he>+ a /r+ ( syllables1 su* z a s5t5ce4 ,! /ud5t w !reby become enabl$ to memorize unconsci\sly ! =m ( spee*47 7d7 ,ex]cises 9 imm$iate compreh5sion1 by means ( :i* he w come to grasp )\t m5tal translation or analysis ! g5]al s5se ( :at he he>s4 7e7 ,ex]cises 9 =m+ ! "r associations betwe5 words & _! mean+s1 by means ( :i* he w become able to express 8 ?\ghts4 ,! comb9ation ( ^! five types ( ex]cise w develop ! /ud5t's capacity to use spok5 language4 #h4 ,,habit-,,=m+ ,,& ,,habit-,,adapt+ ,language-/udy is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process4 ,we speak & und]/& automatically z ! result ( p]fectly =m$ habits4 ,no =eign ^w or s5t5ce is really #8kn[n' until ! /ud5t c produce x automatically 7i4e4 )\t hesitation or consci\s calculation74 ,no "o c und]/& by any process ( calculation 7e4g4 translation or analysis7 ! language z spok5 normally by ! native4 ,few p 7if any7 h ev] succe$$ 9 speak+ ! language by a s]ies ( m5tal gymna/ics2 our progress is to be measur$ only by ! quantity ( language-mat]ial :i* we c use automatically4 ,adult /ud5ts g5]ally dislike ! "w ( acquir+ new habits1 & seek to replace x by =ms ( /udy dep5d5t ^u ! intellect1 /riv+ to ju/ify _! ab/5tion f me*anical "w on educational gr\nds4 ,?is fe> ( t$i\sness is really gr\ndless2 automatism is c]ta9ly acquir$ by repetition1 b ?is ne$ n be ( ! monoton\s1 p>rot-l type1 = !re exi/ _m psy*ologically s\nd repetition devices & v>i$ drills int5d$ to ensure automatism & int]e/4 ,mo/ ( ! "t sp5t by ! tea*] 9 demon/rat+ :y a =eign s5t5ce is con/ruct$ 9 a p>ticul> way is "t wa/$2 x is g5]ally en\gh = ! /ud5t to le>n to d ?+s )\t le>n+ :y he mu/ d !m 7due exception be+ made 9 special cases1 notably t ( corrective c\rses74 ,! /ud5t %\ld n only be caus$ to =m new habits2 he %\ld also be help$1 :5 exp$i5t1 to utilize "s ( 8 exi/+ habits2 x is ev5 "p ( ! tea*]'s duties to aid ! /ud5t to select f 8 previ\sly acquir$ habits ^? :i* are likely to be ( s]vice to him4 #i4 ,,accuracy ,accuracy means con=mity ) a giv5 model or /&>d1 :atev] t model or /&>d may happ5 to be4 ,if we *oose to take colloquial ,fr5* or colloquial ,engli% z our /&>d1 ! =ms p]ta9+ to classical ,fr5* or ,engli% 7i4e4 traditionally correct =ms7 are to be reject$ z inaccurate4 ,!re are two types ( inaccuracy3 t 9 :i* a colloquial =m is replac$ by a classical =m & vice v]sa1 & t 9 :i* a native =m is replac$ by a pidg9 =m4 ,9 bo? cases ! tea*]'s duty is to react aga9/ ! t5d5cy t[>ds inaccuracy4 ,appropriate drills & ex]cises exi/ :i* ensure accuracy 9 s\nds1 /ress1 intonation1 flu5cy1 spell+1 s5t5ce-build+ & -comp\nd+1 inflexions1 & mean+s4 ,! pr9ciple ( accuracy requires t ! /ud5t %all h no opportunities = mak+ mi/akes until he has arriv$ at ! /age at :i* accurate "w is reasonably to be expect$4 ,if we compel a /ud5t to utt] =eign words be=e he has le>nt h[ to make ! requisite =eign s\nds1 if we compel him to write a composition 9 a =eign language be=e he has become reasonably pr(ici5t 9 s5t5ce-build+1 or if we compel him to talk to u 9 ! =eign language be=e he has done ! necess>y drill-"w1 we are compell+ him to use ! pidg9 =m ( ! language4 ,9 addition to specific ex]cises & devices :i* ensure accuracy 9 special po9ts1 we %\ld obs]ve c]ta9 g5]al rules :i* w be describ$ & treat$ "u ! head+ ( gradation4 #aj4 ,,gradation ,gradation means pass+ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n by easy /ages1 ea* ( :i* s]ves z a prep>ation = ! next4 ,if a c\rse or a lesson is insuffici5tly grad$1 or grad$ on a wrong basis1 ! /ud5t's "w w be m>k$ by an excessive degree ( inaccuracy4 ,if a c\rse is well grad$1 ! /ud5t's rate ( progress w increase 9 proportion z he advances4 ,9 ! ideally grad$ c\rse ! /ud5t is caus$ to assimilate p]fectly a relatively small b exce$+ly important vocabul>y2 :5 p]fectly assimilat$1 ?is nucleus w develop & gr[ 9 ! mann] ( a sn[ball4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to di/+ui% betwe5 false grad+ & s\nd grad+4 ,! foll[+ applications ( ?is pr9ciple are psy*ologically s\nd3 7a7 ,e>s be=e ,eyes4--,! /ud5t to be giv5 ample opportunities1 at appropriate int]vals1 ( he>+ a s\nd1 a ^w1 or a gr\p ( words be=e see+ !m 9 _! writt5 =m 7phonetic or o!r74 7b7 ,reception be=e ,reproduction4--,! /ud5t to be giv5 ample opportunities1 ) appropriate int]vals1 ( he>+ a s\nd or comb9ation ( s\nds1 a ^w1 or a gr\p ( words be=e be+ call$ ^u to imitate :at he he>s4 7c7 ,oral ,repetition be=e ,read+4--,! /ud5t to be giv5 ample opportunities ( repeat+ matt] aft] ! tea*] be=e be+ call$ ^u to read ! same matt]4 7d7 ,imm$iate ,memory be=e ,prolong$ ,memory4--,! /ud5t %\ld n be requir$ to reproduce matt] he>d a long "t previ\sly until he has become pr(ici5t 9 reproduc+ :at he has j he>d4 7e7 ,*orus-"w be=e ,individual ,"w4--,9 ! case ( classes1 new mat]ial %\ld be repeat$ by ! :ole ( ! /ud5ts toge!r be=e ea* /ud5t is call$ ^u to repeat individually4 ,?is w t5d to ensure confid5ce4 7f7 ,drill-"w be=e ,free ,"w4--,! /ud5t %\ld n be giv5 opportunities = free conv]sation1 free composition1 or free translation until he has acquir$ a reasonable pr(ici5cy 9 ! correspond+ =ms ( drill-"w4 ,ea* individual item 9 ! tea*+ %\ld be grad$1 & 9 addition ! :ole c\rse may be grad$ by divid+ x into appropriate /ages or phases1 :i* w succe$ ea* o!r en *elon4 #aa4 ,,proportion ,! ultimate aim ( mo/ /ud5ts is f\rfold3 7a7 ,to und]/& :at is said 9 ! =eign language :5 x is spok5 rapidly by natives4 7b7 ,to speak ! =eign language 9 ! mann] ( natives4 7c7 ,to und]/& ! language z writt5 by natives4 7d7 ,to write ! language 9 ! mann] ( natives4 ,we obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( proportion :5 we pay ! "r am\nt ( att5tion to ea* ( ^! f\r aspects1 )\t exagg]at+ ! importance ( any ( !m4 ,!re are five *ief bran*es ( practical l+ui/ics3 7a7 ,phonetics1 :i* tea*es u to recognize & to reproduce s\nds & tones4 7b7 ,or?ography1 :i* tea*es u to spell :at we h already le>nt by e>4 7c7 ,accid5ce & etymology1 :i* tea*es u ! nature ( inflect$ =ms & d]ivatives1 & also h[ to use !m4 7d7 ,syntax & analysis1 :i* tea*es u h[ to build up s5t5ces f _! compon5ts4 7e7 ,semantics1 :i* tea*es u ! mean+s ( words & =ms4 ,we obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( proportion :5 we pay ! "r am\nt ( att5tion to ea* ( ^! five bran*es1 )\t exagg]at+ ! importance ( any ( !m4 ,9 *oos+ ! units ( our vocabul>y we may be guid$ by sev]al consid]ations1 su* z intr9sic utility1 s5t5ce-=m+ utility1 grammatical function1 regul>ity1 facility1 concret5ess1 or complet5ess4 ,we obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( proportion :5 we select ! mat]ial ( our vocabul>ies 9 su* a way t due att5tion is paid to all su* desid]ata1 & )\t exagg]at+ ! importance ( any ( !m4 ,we also obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( proportion :5 we give ! "r am\nt ( drill-"w or free "w1 ( translation-"w or #8direct' "w1 ( int5sive read+ or ext5sive read+4 ,a well-proportion$ c\rse1 l a well-grad$ c\rse1 ensures a /eady & ev]-increas+ rate ( progress4 #ab4 ,,concret5ess ,we are enjo9$ by ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess to tea* m by example ?an by precept4 ,:5 we give explanations we %\ld illu/rate ^! by /rik+ & vivid examples embody+ ! po9t ( !ory :i* is ! subject ( our explanation4 ,"o example is g5]ally n en\gh2 x is by furni%+ sev]al examples be>+ on ! same po9t t we cause ! /ud5t to grasp t :i* is common to !m all4 ,b ?is is n en\gh3 ! examples !mselves may v>y 9 concret5ess2 !re=e we %\ld select = our purpose ^? :i* demon/rate 9 ! cle>e/ possible way ! po9t we are tea*+ & :i* t5d to =m ! close/ semantic associations4 ,we %\ld utilize z f> z possible ! actual environm5t ( ! /ud5t3 ! gramm> ( ! n\n is be/ und]/ood :5 we talk ( books1 p5cils1 & *airs2 ! gramm> ( ! v]b is be/ grasp$ :5 we *oose z examples v]bs :i* c be #8act$'2 black1 :ite1 r\nd1 squ>e are m concrete adjectives ?an ri*1 poor1 idle1 dilig5t4 ,!re are f\r ways ( tea*+ ! mean+s ( words or =ms3 7#a7 ,by imm$iate association1 z :5 we po9t to ! object repres5t$ by a n\n4 7#b7 ,by translation1 z :5 we give ! /ud5t ! ne>e/ native equival5t4 7#c7 ,by def9ition1 z :5 we describe ! unit by means ( a synonym\s expression4 7#d7 ,by context1 z :5 we embody ! ^w or expression 9 a s5t5ce :i* w make its mean+ cle>4 ,^! f\r mann]s are giv5 "h 9 :at is g5]ally _! ord] ( concret5ess2 x is int]e/+ to note 9 ?is connexion t translation is n ne>ly s #8indirect' or #8unconcrete' z ! extreme #8direct me?odi/s' h l$ u to suppose4 ,x is = ! tea*] to judge "u :at conditions ea* ( ^! f\r mann]s ( tea*+ mean+s may be appropriately us$4 #ac4 ,,int]e/ ,no "w is likely to be successfully accompli%$ if ! /ud5t is n int]e/$ 9 :at he is do+1 b 9 our ef=ts to int]e/ ! pupil we mu/ take c>e t ! quality ( ! tea*+ does n suff]4 ,habit-=m+ "w has ! reputation ( be+ dull & t$i\s4 ,! rem$y1 h[ev]1 w\ld n be to ab&on x 9 fav\r ( "w :i* 9 itself is or seems m int]e/+ 7su* z read+1 composition1 & translation ex]cises71 = by s do+ we %\ld m]ely be leav+ undone "w :i* mu/ be done4 ,! true rem$y is to devise a numb] ( v>i$ & appropriate ex]cises 9 ord] to make ! habit-=m+ "w itself int]e/+4 ,! mo/ +5i\s & int]e/+ ari?metical problems alone w n assi/ ! /ud5t 9 memoriz+ ! multiplication table1 & ! mo/ +5i\s & int]e/+ s5t5ce-build+ devices alone w n cause ! /ud5t to obta9 ! necess>y automatic comm& ( ! fundam5tal mat]ial ( ! language4 ,!re are notably six factors mak+ = int]e/ 7& ! obs]v+ ( ^! w n 9 any appreciable degree violate ! eight o!r pr9ciples involv$71 viz43 7#a7 ,! ,elim9ation ( ,bewild]m5t4--,difficulty is "o ?+3 bewild]m5t is ano!r4 ,! /ud5t mu/1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts1 be confront$ ) difficulties1 b he %\ld nev] be fac$ ) hopeless puzzles4 ,rational explanations & good grad+ w elim9ate bewild]m5t &1 9 s do+1 w t5d to make ! c\rse int]e/+4 7#b7 ,! ,s5se ( ,progress a*iev$4--,:5 ! /ud5t feels t he is mak+ progress1 he w r>ely fail to be int]e/$ 9 8 "w4 7#c7 ,competition4--,! _s ( emulation adds ze/ to all /udy4 7#d7 ,game-l ,ex]cises4--,_m =ms ( ex]cise s resemble games ( skill t !y are (t5 consid]$ z int]e/+ z *ess & simil> pa/imes4 7#e7 ,! ,relation betwe5 ,tea*] & ,/ud5t4--,! "r attitude ( ! tea*] t[>ds 8 pupils w contribute l>gely t[>ds ! int]e/ tak5 9 ! "w4 7#f7 ,v>iety4--,*ange ( "w g5]ally adds int]e/3 an alt]nation ( diff]5t sorts ( monoton\s "w makes ! :ole "w less monoton\s4 ,spells ( drill-"w1 h[ev]1 %\ld be reliev$ by int]vals devot$ to "w ( a less monoton\s "*4 #ad4 ,a ,,rational ,,ord] ,,( ,,progression ,ap>t f all que/ions ( grad+1 we may obs]ve 9 mo/ ( ! bran*es ( language-"w diff]5t ord]s ( progression4 ,we may proce$ f ! spok5 to ! writt5 or f ! writt5 to ! spok53 we may />t ) e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises or leave !m to a lat] /age3 we may treat intonation z a fundam5tal or leave x to ! f9al /age3 we may proce$ f ! s5t5ce to ! ^w or vice v]sa3 irregul>ities may be includ$ or exclud$ dur+ ! fir/ "p ( ! c\rse3 we may proce$ f rapid & flu5t to sl[ utt]ance or vice v]sa4 ,mod]n p$agogy t5ds to fav\r ! =m] ( ea* ( ^! alt]natives3 :]eas ! tea*]s ( ! pa/ g5]ations g5]ally pron\nc$ 9 fav\r ( ! latt]4 ,! anci5t s*ool said3 ,fir/ le>n h[ to =m words1 !n le>n h[ to =m s5t5ces1 !n pay att5tion to ! #8idiomatic' ph5om5a1 & la/ly le>n h[ to pron\nce & to speak4 ,! mod]n s*ool says3 ,fir/ le>n to =m s\nds1 !n memorize s5t5ces1 !n le>n sy/ematically h[ to =m s5t5ces1 & la/ly le>n h[ to =m words4 ,! two ord]s ( progression1 x w be se51 are almo/ directly opposite to ea* o!r4 ,we :o h c>efully exam9$ & analys$ ! argum5ts on ei!r side are =c$ to conclude t ! mod]n ord] is ! rational ord]1 & psy*ologi/s w confirm our conclusion4 ,! old ord] /&s = cramm+ & = an erratic & weak curve ( progress3 ! mod]n ord] /&s = results :i* are bo? imm$iate & ( a p]man5t nature4 ,! old ord] tea*es u mu* ab\t ! language & its !ory3 ! mod]n ord] tea*es u h[ to use a language4 #ae4 ,,! ,,multiple ,,l9e ,,( ,,approa* ,?is n9? & la/ ( ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( language-/udy welds ! eight o!rs into a consi/5t :ole2 x h>monizes any seem+ contradictions & enables u to obs]ve 9 a p]fectly rational mann] all ( ! precepts set =? "u _! respective head+s2 x answ]s once = all mo/ ( ^? p]plex+ que/ions :i* h engag$ ! att5tion ( s _m language-tea*]s & controv]siali/s = su* a long "t4 ,if ?is pr9ciple is 9 contradiction to ! _s ( p>tisan%ip1 x is equally oppos$ to ! _s ( compromise2 x sugge/s a ?ird & bett] c\rse1 t ( accept+ any two or m rival exp$i5ts & ( embody+ !m boldly z sep>ate items 9 ! programme1 9 ord] t ea* may fulfil its function 9 a well-proportion$ & well-organiz$ :ole4 ,! t]m #8multiple l9e ( approa*' implies t we are to proce$ simultane\sly f _m diff]5t />t+-po9ts t[>ds "o & ! same end2 we use ea* & e me?od1 process1 ex]cise1 drill1 or device :i* may fur!r u 9 our imm$iate purpose & br+ u ne>] to our ultimate goal2 we adopt e good idea & leave ! door op5 = all future developm5ts2 we reject no?+ except useless & h>mful =ms ( "w4 ,! multiple l9e ( approa* embodies ! eclectic pr9ciple 7us+ ! t]m 9 its g5]al & fav\rable s5se71 = x enjo9s u to select judici\sly & )\t prejudice all t is likely to help u 9 our "w4 ,:e!r our purpose is ! complete ma/]y ( ! language 9 all its aspects & bran*es1 or :e!r our purpose is a m special "o1 ! pr9ciple holds good3 we adopt ! be/ & mo/ appropriate means t[>ds ! requir$ end4 #af4 #8,,memoriz$ ,,matt]' ,,& #8,,con/ruct$ ,,matt]' ,:5 m is kn[n ab\t spee*-psy*ology & ! ultimate processes ( language-/udy1 x w be possible to embody z "o ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ! foll[+ consid]ations3 ,! :ole ( our spee*-mat]ial is possess$ by u ei!r z #8memoriz$ matt]' or z #8con/ruct$ matt]4' ,memoriz$ matt] includes ev]y?+ :i* we h memoriz$ integrally1 :e!r syllables1 words1 ^w-gr\ps1 s5t5ces1 or :ole passages4 ,con/ruct$ matt] includes ev]y?+ n s memoriz$1 i4e4 matt] :i* we compose z we g on1 matt] :i* we build up unit by unit f our /ock ( memoriz$ matt] :ile we are speak+ or writ+4 ,!re are ?ree mann]s ( produc+ con/ruct$ matt] f memoriz$ matt]2 we may t]m ^! respectively grammatical con/ruction1 ergonic con/ruction1 & conv]sion4 ,grammatical ,con/ruction4--,9 ?is process1 our memoriz$ matt] consi/s ( #8diction>y words' 7i4e4 un9flect$ & unmodifi$ root-l words74 ,by le>n+ ! !ories ( accid5ce1 syntax1 d]ivation1 & composition we become 7or hope to become7 able to produce con/ruct$ matt] at w4 ,ergonic ,con/ruction4--,9 ?is process1 our memoriz$ matt] consi/s ( two elem5ts3 m or less complete s5t5ces & #8work+ words' 7units ( spee* ready inflect$1 ready modifi$1 ready d]iv$1 or ready comp\nd$71 :i* units may be t]m$ #8ergons4' ,by means ( appropriate tables & drill-l =ms ( "w1 f ?is memoriz$ matt] we produce m or less spontane\sly ! requisite con/ruct$ matt]4 ,conv]sion4--,9 ?is process1 our memoriz$ matt] consi/s ( classifi$ s]ies ( s5t5ces :i* are to be conv]t$ into o!r =ms by means ( appropriate ex]cises ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,9 ! op9ion ( _m1 ! greate/ evil 9 pres5t-day me?ods lies 9 ! fact t an almo/ exclusive use is made ( ! fir/ ( ^! processes z a me?od ( produc+ con/ruct$ matt]4 ,in/ead ( conc5trat+ _! ef=ts on condemn+ ?is process z a vici\s & unnatural "o1 ! re=m]s ( ?irty ye>s ago m]ely advocat$ :at has be5 t]m$ ! #8direct me?od1' ! *ief features ( :i* are ! abolition ( translation ex]cises & ( ! use ( ! "m-tongue z a vehicle ( in/ruction4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,language-,,/udy ,,*apt] ,i ,,our ,,spontane\s ,,capacities ,,= ,,acquir+ ,,spee* ,:at d we d 9 ord] to become skilful 9 ! ex]cise ( an art8 ,if we wi% to become pr(ici5t 9 p]=m+ an unlimit$ s]ies ( complicat$ acts1 :at c\rse d we adopt 9 ord] to obta9 su* pr(ici5cy8 ,! fir/ answ] :i* sugge/s itself is to ! effect t su* skill or pr(ici5cy is acquir$ by a process call$ /udy or le>n+4 ,we le>n to d x2 we /udy ! art2 we foll[ a c\rse & all t ! c\rse implies2 we att5d lectures1 we take lessons1 we read ! text-book conta9+ ! pr9ciples 7rudim5t>y or o!rwise7 :i* embody ! precepts relat+ to t art1 we p]=m ex]cises2 9 %ort1 we become /ud5ts4 ,v well2 let u accept ! answ] = :at x is wor? & proce$ to =mulate a s]ies ( supplem5t>y que/ions3 ,:at are ! qualities :i* m>k ! successful /ud5t8 ,:at sort ( p are likely to /udy ) success8 ,( :at p c we pr$ict failure or incapacity = mak+ progress8 ,mo/ p w answ]3 ,! /ud5t mu/ possess intellig5ce1 assiduity1 & p]sev]ance2 if at ! same "t he %\ld be #8gift$1' 8 progress w be mu* great] ?an ! progress ( "o :o possesses no #8natural tal5ts' = le>n+ ! art 9 "q4 ,?is answ]1 on ! face ( x1 seems a reasonable "o & a "r "o2 x gives u ! impression ( be+ 9 accordance ) ! traditions & maxims ( ! p$agogic _w1 & ) our exp]i5ce1 ei!r z tea*]s or z le>n]s4 ,we ?9k ( our ef=ts 7successful or unsuccessful7 to le>n %or?&1 piano-play+1 viol9-play+1 s++1 *ess1 typewrit+1 danc+1 draw+1 pa9t+1 modell+1 c>p5t]+1 & a ho/ ( simil> subjects2 we rememb] ! int5sive acts ( analysis & syn!sis1 ! ef=ts ( att5tion1 ! /ra9 ( compreh5d+1 ! /riv+ to reta92 we rememb] ! h\rs ( solid lab\r1 ! ex]cises1 ! drills1 ! spade-"w2 we consid] ! p]iod ( "t cov]$ by ^! cont9u\s ef=ts1 & we realize ! co/ at :i* we h acquir$ our pres5t pr(ici5cy4 ,& yet !re exi/s an art1 we are told1 9 :i* e "o ( u has become pr(ici5t1 an art 9 :i* e man1 woman1 & *ild ?r\gh\t ! _w is a skilful adept1 an art :i* has be5 acquir$ )\t any process resembl+ /udy1 )\t lectures or lessons or text-books or !ory1 )\t ! ex]cise ( our p[]s ( consci\s or critical reflection1 or analysis1 or syn!sis1 or g5]alization1 )\t ! giv+ ( our consci\s att5tion1 )\t delib]ate ef=t or /riv+4 ,?is art1 we are told1 requires no intellig5ce on ! "p ( ! "o :o is le>n+ x2 on ! contr>y1 ! lea/ intellig5t (t5 prove to be among ! mo/ successful adepts1 notably v "y *ildr51 idiots1 or b>b>ians ( ! l[e/ scale4 ,?is /atem5t seems s /range on ! face ( x1 s p>adoxical & s contr>y to our preconceiv$ notions conc]n+ ! acquir+ ( k1 t we imm$iately suspect "s #8cat*'2 we are incl9$ to treat z a jok] ! "o :o has s gravely made ! /atem5t4 ,! #8art' 9 "q is probably some?+ ( an absurdly rudim5t>y "*1 some?+ ( su* a simple nature t x nei!r admits ( analysis or syn!sis nor requires any =m ( logical or co-ord9at$ ?\ght4 ,b no1 ! art 9 "q is "o involv+ at lea/ ?ree di/9ct sci5ces1 ea* ( :i* is s complex & s va/ t ! le>n$ _w has n yet succe$$ 9 unravell+ x or 9 s\nd+ its dep?s4 ,conv9c$ by n[ t we are ! object ( "s =m ( +5i\s witticism1 we ask3 ,:at1 !n1 is ?is /range art 9 :i* ! dunce excels1 ?is art :i* requires ( its adepts nei!r bra9s1 indu/ry1 nor pati5ce8 ,! answ] is3 ,! art ( us+ ! spok5 & ev]yday =m ( any giv5 language4 ,%[ me ! *ild ( ?ree ye>s ( age1 ! madman1 or ! savage1 :o is n an exp]t at x6 ,let u make sure t we h und]/ood ?is answ]1 9 ord] t we may n mis9t]pret x1 9 ord] t we may n read into x a mean+ :i* is n !re4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is no "q "h ( read+ or writ+ ! language1 b ( und]/&+ :at is said1 & ( express+ :at we wi% to say by speak+2 & ! art 9 "q has no?+ to d ) alphabets1 ) lett]s1 ) spell+1 ) calligraphy1 :i* are artificial developm5ts delib]ately inv5t$ by man4 ,nor is !re any "q ( lit]>y composition 9 prose or poetry2 we are n deal+ ) any /hetic =m1 b m]ely ) ! #8ev]yday' =m1 ! colloquial =m1 ! sort ( spee* we use on ord9>y occasions 9 ord] to express our usual ?\ghts4 ,let !re be no mi/ake on ?is po9t3 ! high] =ms ( language1 ! arti/ic developm5ts1 eloqu5ce or lit]ature1 may int]e/ u1 may int]e/ u int5sely1 b ! p>ticul> art ( :i* we are n[ speak+ is f> remov$ f ^! heights2 we are consid]+ language z manife/$ by ! normal colloquial =m z us$ by ! av]age speak] 9 ord9>y circum/ances4 ,n[ !re is no d\bt :atev] t pr(ici5cy 9 ?is p>ticul> sort ( human activity is possess$ by e human be+ :o is n cong5itally deaf or dumb2 we are all able to say :at we want to say1 we are all able to und]/& :at is said to u provid$ t ! communication conc]ns ?+s :i* are )9 ! limits ( our k4 ,we h acquir$ ?is pr(ici5cy n by a c\rse ( /udy z we und]/& ! t]m 9 its ord9>y use2 we h n le>nt x z a result ( lectures or lessons2 x has n come z a consequ5ce ( delib]ate ef=t & conc5tration4 ,"s ( u1 9 exceptional circum/ances1 may h avail$ ourselves ( our intellig5ce2 b 9 g5]al our intellig5ce1 our reason+ p[]s1 our capacities = d$uction1 = analysis & syn!sis1 h c\nt$ = no?+ 9 ! process4 ,might we n !n call x a #8gift'8 ,did we n m5tion specifically t ^? :o h a gift = a p>ticul> art c to a c]ta9 ext5t disp5se ) ! qualities ( intellig5ce1 assiduity1 p]sev]ance8 ,!re is no objection aga9/ us+ ! t]m #8gift1' provid$ t x is cle> to our m9ds t ev]ybody possesses ! gift 9 "q4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 we und]/& by #8gift' some?+ #8giv5' to c]ta9 individuals only2 consequ5tly we are n 9 ! habit ( speak+ ab\t ! gift ( sight1 ( he>+1 or ( locomotion4 ,x w\ld be saf] to avoid ! t]m & to speak r ( our natural1 spontane\s1 & univ]sal capacity = us+ spok5 language4 ,b are we "r z to our facts8 ,is x true t we acquire spee* by "s capacity o!r ?an our intellig5ce1 our reason+ p[]s8 ,let our answ] be bas$ on objective & easily prov5 evid5ce4 ,a *ild ( two or ?ree ye>s ( age c use ! spok5 language appropriate to 8 age1 b :at does t *ild "k ( reason+8 ,& :at is its /&>d ( intellig5ce8 ,n en\gh to cause x to realize or und]/& t two & two make f\r4 ,& yet t *ild obs]ves ) a m>vell\s degree ( accuracy mo/ ( ! complicat$ laws gov]n+ 8 "m-tongue4 ,& ! savage4 ,by def9ition he is un9tellig5t1 he has nev] le>nt to ?9k logically1 he has no p[] ( ab/raction1 he is probably unaw>e t su* a ?+ z language exi/s2 b he w fai?fully obs]ve to ! f9e/ details ! complexities 7phonetic1 grammatical1 & semantic7 ( 8 #8savage' language4 ,he w use ! "r v[el or tone 9 ! "r place2 he w n confuse any ( ! doz5 or s g5d]s ) :i* 8 language is end[$2 a #8savage' language 7) an accid5ce s ri* t ,lat9 is by comp>ison a language ( simple /ructure7 w to him be an in/rum5t on :i* he plays 9 ! mann] ( an arti/1 a ma/]3 & we are speak+ ( a savage1 m>k y1 ^: intellig5ce is ( s l[ an ord] t = him t :i* is n concrete has no exi/5ce6 ,9 ,engli% we h a tone-sy/em s complicat$ t no "o has s f> discov]$ its laws1 b little ,engli% *ildr5 obs]ve ea* nicety ( tone ) m>vell\s precision2 a le>n$ speciali/ 9 #8tonetics' 7or :atev] ! sci5ce ( tones w come to be call$7 may make an error1 b ! little *ild w n4 ,! grammatical sy/em ( ! ,bantu languages dep5ds l>gely on f9e %ades ( intonation2 ! dropp+ ( ! voice a semitone at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! s5t5ce1 = in/ance1 is an ess5tial feature ( _! syntax1 :ile ! highly complex sy/em ( tone-mutation s]ves z a basis ( _! conjugation & decl5sion2 b no ,be*uana or ,matabele native1 illit]ate z he may be1 w ev] commit ! slighte/ error 9 ! use ( 8 tones4 ,:51 !re=e1 we f9d t a p]son has become exp]t 9 a difficult & complex subject1 ! !ory ( :i* has n yet be5 work$ out1 nor yet be5 discov]$1 x is manife/ t 8 exp]tness has be5 acquir$ o!rwise ?an by ! /udy ( ! !ory4 ,let u fur!rmore exam9e :at passes 9 our m9d :5 we are speak+ our own language1 & endeav\r to asc]ta9 :e!r we =m our s5t5ces 9 unconsci\s ob$i5ce to "s rules unkn[n to u1 or :e!r we are consci\sly apply+ rules we h le>nt4 ,d y say ,i g always !re or ,i always g !re8 ,y c]ta9ly use ! latt] =m4 ,:y8 ,h y ev] be5 told t a c]ta9 class ( adv]bs 7among !m ! ^w always7 is plac$ be=e & n aft] ! v]b8 ,h y be5 told t !re are tw5ty-?ree exceptions to ! rule1 & h y ev] le>nt ^! exceptions8 ,x is mo/ probable t y h nev] _h y\r att5tion call$ to ! rule or to its exceptions4 ,y put always 9 front ( all v]bs except ! tw5ty-?ree exceptional v]b-=ms = ! v reason = :i* ! ,african native puts ! "r tone on ! "r syllable 9 ! "r case4 ,9 :at cases d y replace ! ^w f> by ! expression a long way8 ,:at are ! precise laws gov]n+ ! respective uses ( w5t & did g8 ,:i* are ! ,engli% #8po/positions1' if any8 ,9 :at cases d we use n\ns unprec$$ by any article or o!r det]m9ative ^w8 ,:at is ! exact diff]5ce betwe5 _h y & did y h8 ,^! are a few odd examples *os5 at r&om out ( ! ?\s&s ( items ! sum ( :i* con/itutes ! !ory ( ! /ructure ( ! ,engli% colloquial language4 ,mo/ ( !m are n conta9$ 9 any manual ( ,engli% gramm> nor ev] taught z a s*ool subject4 ,we are =c$ to conclude t we h become pr(ici5t 9 ! use ( our "m-tongue by "s process o!r ?an t ( le>n+ by d9t ( consci\s ef=ts ( reason+ & syn!sis4 ,:ile grant+ ! above conclusion & recogniz+ its validity1 "s may object t ! process ( unconsci\s assimilation is n suffici5t to ensure skill & pr(ici5cy 9 ! use ( ! language4 ,?is objection may be support$ by pro(s to ! effect t ! ,engli% ( "y *ildr5 7n to m5tion adults7 is frequ5tly #8incorrect' or #8ungrammatical4' ,c ?is process ( nature be said to h succe$$ :5 x produces su* results z 8,any bloke :at don't d x prop] didn't ought to come08 ,c]ta9ly ! process has succe$$2 mo/ c]ta9ly ! natural =ces h op]at$ ) p]fect success6 ,! only tr\ble is t us]s ( su* s5t5ces h succe$$ 9 le>n+ a dialect :i* mo/ ( u agree to consid] a deplorable "o2 ?is dialect is to our e>s an ugly & a repell+ "o1 b 9 itself x is probably no easi] to le>n ?an ! educat$ colloquial4 ,an educat$ p]son to :om ?is dialect is =eign w\ld probably h to pass a long p]iod ( /udy %\ld he wi%1 = any p>ticul> purpose1 to become exp]t 9 its use4 ,x is q a fallacy to suppose t a debas$ or vulg> =m ( spee* is ( easi] acquisition ?an ! m elevat$ =ms4 ,! language1 dialect1 patois1 or =m ( spee* taught by nature to ! *ild 7or adult7 is t =m :i* he he>s spok5 by ^? ab\t him dur+ ! p]iod ( acquisition1 be x ! /ilt$ spee* ( ! p$ant or ! j>gon ( ! slums4 ,let u accept ! !sis z s f> prov52 let u agree t ?is spontane\s capacity exi/s1 t e *ild does become exp]t 9 ?is art1 & t 8 exp]tness has be5 ga9$ by ! ex]cise ( "s p[]s o!r ?an ^? ( consci\s reflection or reason+4 ,b does n ?is relate solely to ! acquisition ( "o's "m-tongue8 ,9 ! def9ition ( ! art 9 "q ! t]m #8any giv5 language' 0 us$4 ,d we conclude t ?is giv5 language is ! fir/ language1 or are we assum+ t ! same process holds good = any =eign or subsequ5tly le>nt language8 ,! "q is a legitimate "o2 we may well ask ourselves :e!r ! =ces :i* 7 op]ative 9 ! case ( our fir/ language are available = ! acquisition ( a second1 ?ird1 or f\r? language4 ,let u1 z be=e1 g to ! actual facts & collect objective evid5ce on ! po9t4 ,:at evid5ce is af=d$ by bil+ual *ildr51 t is to say1 by *ildr5 :o h le>nt two languages simultane\sly1 *ildr5 ( mix$ p>5tage1 *ildr5 ^: c>e has be5 entru/$ to =eign nurses1 *ildr5 :o live abroad ) _! p>5ts8 ,9 ne>ly all ! cases ( :i* we h any record x w\ld appe> t ! two languages h be5 acquir$ simultane\sly )\t mutual detrim5t2 !re has be5 practically no confusion betwe5 ! two1 & ! "o has _h little or no influ5ce on ! o!r4 ,bo? h be5 acquir$ by ! natural language-tea*+ =ces :i* are at pres5t engag+ our att5tion4 ,! next evid5ce w consi/ ( ! te/imony af=d$ by *ildr5 :o />t$ _! second language aft] ! fir/ _h already be5 acquir$ z a go+ conc]n4 ,we f9d almo/ inv>iably t ! second language is pick$ up ) ! same facility & accuracy z ! fir/4 ,?\s&s ( ,belgian refugee *ildr5 return$ to _! c\ntry 9 possession ( an ,engli% spee* h>dly to be di/+ui%$ f ! spee* ( ,engli% *ildr5 ( _! own age4 ,_! fir/ language _h int]f]$ 9 no way ) _! p[] ( acquir+ ! second4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 exceptions2 9 "s in/ances ! possession ( ! fir/ language did int]f]e ) ! prop] acquir+ ( ! second4 ,:at 0 ! det]m9+ factor8 ,to :at 0 due ?is diff]5tiation8 ,we f9d t 9 mo/ cases ! *ild 0 ( a rip] age1 he _h arriv$ at ! age ( intellig5ce1 & _h be5 =c$ to use 8 rudim5t>y intellig5ce z a means t[>ds le>n+ ,engli%4 ,he 0 old en\gh & clev] en\gh to receive eye-impressions side by side ) e>-impressions4 ,he 0 old en\gh to pay att5tion1 he 0 intellig5t en\gh to conc5trate1 he 0 skilful en\gh to analyse & to comp>e ! second language ) 8 fir/1 he 0 able to translate4 ,^! ?+s _h a h>mful influ5ce on 8 "w2 !y int]f]$ ) ! processes by :i* nature causes u to assimilate & to rememb]1 & ! quality ( 8 ,engli% suff]$2 x 0 to a c]ta9 ext5t #8=eign]'s' ,engli%1 :]eas 8 y\ng] bro!rs spoke #8,engli%' ,engli%4 ,& :at happ5s 9 ! case ( ! adult1 ( "o :o />ts 8 second language f fifte5 to tw5ty ye>s aft] he has acquir$ ! fir/8 ,! same ?+ g5]ally happ5s z 9 ! la/ in/ance quot$1 b 9 a m m>k$ degree4 ,! same int]f]5ce takes place2 ! use ( ! eyes inhibits ! use ( ! e>s2 ! utilization ( 8 consci\s & focus$ att5tion militates aga9/ ! prop] function+ ( ! natural capacities ( assimilation4 ,moreov]1 he is enc\rag$ & tra9$ to use ! non-natural me?ods1 he is direct$ by 8 tea*] to pay att5tion to ev]y?+1 to use 8 eyes1 to memorize spell+s 7g5]ally non-phonetic72 8 books %[ him h[ to analyse1 !y provide him ) ex]cises calculat$ to make him conc5trate on ! detail1 & 9 s do+ to miss ! syn!tic :ole4 ,exam9e ! adult :o is suppos$ to h #8le>nt' a =eign language2 9 ! majority ( cases y w f9d t 8 spee* is pidg9-spee*1 t 8 s\nds are wrong & wrongly di/ribut$1 t 8 inflexions are inaccurate1 t 8 s5t5ces are con/ruct$ on ! model ( 8 native language1 t he uses =eign words 9 a way unkn[n to ! native us]s ( ^! same words4 ,inquire 9 ea* case h[ ! p]son acquir$ 8 k1 & y w f9d t he acquir$ x by d9t ( ex]cis+ 8 capacities = /udy4 ,& ! m9ority8 ,we f9d a m9ority 7alas1 a small m9ority67 :o h come to possess ! =eign language z if x 7 _! fir/4 ,_! s\nds are "r1 ! di/ribution is "r1 ! inflexions are accurate1 _! s5t5ces are con/ruct$ on ! model ( ^? us$ by ! native speak]s1 !y use =eign words z ! natives !mselves use !m1 !y are z accurate & z flu5t 9 ! =eign language z 9 _! own4 ,!y d n int]rupt ! speak] ( ! language ) reque/s to speak m sl[ly1 to speak m di/9ctly1 to spell or to write ! words2 9 %ort1 !y use ! second language z !y use _! fir/4 ,inquire 9 ea* case h[ ! p]son acquir$ 8 k1 & y w f9d t he acquir$ x by me?ods mak+ no call on 8 capacities = reason+1 = conc5trat+1 = analys+1 or = !oriz+4 ,in/ead ( select+ & adapt+ previ\sly acquir$ habits connect$ ) 8 fir/ language1 he 0 able to =m new habits4 ,to sum up our inquiry1 we f9d t !re are p :o h be5 able to use _! spontane\s capacities ( assimilation 9 ord] to acquire a second or a ?ird language2 we f9d t "y *ildr5 ne>ly always d s1 t c]ta9 adults sometimes d s4 ,b we mu/ make q sure ( our gr\nd be=e proce$+ f>!r4 ,we mu/ asc]ta9 def9itely :e!r all adults possess :at we are call+ ?is spontane\s capacity = assimilation1 or :e!r ?is is a #8gift' 9 ! usual acceptation ( ! t]m1 t is1 :e!r x is a capacity giv5 to "s b )held by nature f o!rs4 ,"s ma9ta9 t f ! age ( reason onw>ds none b ! gift$ possess ! capacity 9 "q1 & t ^? :o d n possess x are b\nd to use :at we %all call ! /udial processes4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 ma9ta9 t all possess ! capacity ei!r 9 an active or 9 a lat5t /ate1 t mo/ adults delib]ately b innoc5tly inhibit _! p[]1 or t1 unaw>e t ^! p[]s exi/1 !y fail to take ! necess>y /eps to awak5 !m f _! lat5t into _! active /ate4 ,:i* ( ^! two is ! correct view8 ,let u endeav\r to answ] ?is all-important "q by exam9+ ^? :o und\bt$ly d possess ?is #8gift' or natural capacity4 ,we fir/ inquire :e!r !y 7 enc\rag$ or dispos$ to resi/ ! temptation to receive _! impressions ?r\gh ! eyes1 to resi/ ! temptation to rely on spell+s1 :e!r !y did cons5t to use _! e>s z ! receptive m$ium4 ,9 ea* case we le>n t !y 7 s dispos$2 !y did resi/ ! temptation t[>ds eye-"w & did all[ ! e>s to p]=m ! "w = :i* !y 7 int5d$4 ,we next inquire :e!r ! conditions 7 su* z prohibit$ !m f focus+ _! consci\sness1 f pay+ an exagg]at$ att5tion to detail1 f submitt+ ! language-matt] to a =m ( analysis1 f comp>+ ea* =eign ^w or =m ) "s ^w or =m ( _! native language4 ,9 ea* case we are in=m$ t su* 7 ! conditions4 ,our next inquiry is direct$ t[>ds asc]ta9+ :e!r1 9 ! e>li] /ages1 ! conditions af=d$ !m full & con/ant opportunities ( he>+ ! language us$1 )\t be+ "u ! necessity ( speak+ x !mselves4 ,9 ea* in/ance we are in=m$ t ^? 7 precisely ! conditions4 ,?is is almo/ conclusive2 we h asc]ta9$ t ea* successful acquir] ( ! =eign language 0 work+ precisely "u ! conditions enjoy$ by ! "y *ild 7& we rememb] t ! "y *ild is inv>iably a successful acquir] ( =eign languages74 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n conclusive en\gh2 we h yet to inquire "u :at conditions ! o!r type ( adult 7! suppos$ly non-gift$ "o7 _h be5 work+4 ,we ask ! same ?ree sets ( que/ions1 & 9 answ] we le>n3 7a7 ,t he 0 enc\rag$ by 8 tea*]s to le>n by ! m$ium ( 8 eyes1 to base 8 k on spell+s 7g5]ally non-phonetic71 & 9 s do+ to inhibit 8 e>s f fulfill+ _! natural function4 7b7 ,t he g5]ally focus$ 8 consci\sness1 t he paid att5tion to detail1 t he /udi$ rules & practis$ analysis1 t he con/antly e/abli%$ comp>isons betwe5 ! =eign ^w & ! ne>e/ native equival5t4 7c7 ,t conditions 7 su* t he _h few or no opportunities ( he>+ ! language us$1 :ile he 0 oblig$ to use ! language himself1 to =ge out s5t5ces z be/ he might1 neglectful ( accuracy & he$less ( _! con=mity or non-con=mity ) au!ntic models4 ,?is is conclusive2 !re is no d\bt ab\t x n[4 ,^? :o seem+ly d n possess ! spontane\s capacity = assimilat+ =eign languages are precisely ^? :o 7 unwill+ to avail !mselves ( x1 or :o 7 preclud$ f avail+ !mselves ( x4 ,& by develop+ _! /udial p[]s !y simply inhibit$ ! spontane\s p[]s & effectively prev5t$ !m f work+4 ,no reasonable d\bt rema9s3 we are all end[$ by nature ) c]ta9 capacities :i* enable ea* ( u1 )\t ! ex]cise ( our p[]s ( /udy1 to assimilate & to use ! spok5 =m ( any colloquial language1 :e!r native or =eign4 ,we may avail ourselves ( ^! p[]s by tra9+ ourselves delib]ately to utilize !m1 or1 hav+ m confid5ce 9 our /udial ef=ts1 or = "s reason ( special exp$i5cy1 we may *oose to leave our spontane\s capacities 9 _! lat5t /ate & make no use ( !m4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 af=d to ignore !m1 & x w\ld be fooli% to d5y _! exi/5ce4 ,we %all see lat] :at /eps we mu/ take if we wi% to r\se ^! p[]s f _! lat5t /ate1 :at we mu/ d if we wi% to enli/ !m & h !m at our disposal = ! purpose ( le>n+ or ( tea*+ a =eign language4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities ,,& ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,!m ,we h se5 t ea* ( u possesses c]ta9 spontane\s capacities = le>n+ h[ to use ! spok5 =m ( any language or v>iety ( language4 ,we h se5 t ^! capacities may be ei!r 9 a lat5t or an active /ate4 ,we h se5 t unless we enli/ ^! p[]s 9 our s]vice we are unlikely to make any real progress 9 language-/udy1 ei!r 9 po9t ( quality or quantity4 ,we %all see lat] by :at means we may awak5 our lat5t capacities & cause !m to become active1 &1 incid5tally1 h[ we c ex]cise ourselves to make ! fulle/ use ( !m4 ,b we also possess capacities o!r ?an ^! = assimilat+ & us+ a language4 ,x is our purpose 9 ! pres5t *apt] to see :at ^! are1 & to diff]5tiate betwe5 !m & ^? already describ$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 let u note c>efully t we h s f> dealt ) no o!r =m ( language ?an ! normal spok5 colloquial1 t =m :i* is us$ "u normal conditions by ! av]age educat$ native4 ,we h n be5 consid]+ any writt5 =m ( language :atev]1 ei!r colloquial or classical1 nor h we giv5 any att5tion to ! m classical or lit]>y =m ( spee* :e!r spok5 or writt54 ,we h1 inde$1 allud$ to ^! aspects or v>ieties ( language1 b m]ely 9 ord] to /ate t !y are beyond ! range ( any truly spontane\s capacities4 ,read+ & writ+ are n spontane\s processes2 !y are ev5 unnatural processes if we d n already possess ! spok5 =m4 ,le>n+ h[ to use classical or artificializ$ =ms ( language su* z poetry or rhetoric is a m or less /udial process1 an unnatural process if we d n already possess ! normal colloquial4 ,= ?is1 !n1 if n = o!r reasons1 we mu/ be prep>$ to adopt c]ta9 =ms ( "w unkn[n to man 9 8 natural /ate 7z exemplifi$ by ! v "y *ild72 we %all allude to ^! z ! #8/udial me?ods4' ,:at1 !n1 are ^! /udial me?ods8 ,r\ghly speak+1 we may say t !y comprise all ^? =ms ( "w :i* require on ! "p ( ! /ud5t consci\s ef=ts ( att5tion2 "w 9 :i* he mu/ ?9k1 reflect1 or calculate2 "w necessitat+ ! ex]cise ( 8 reason+ p[]s1 "w :i* _c be p]=m$ automatically2 ?is con/itutes consci\s "w1 & all me?ods embody+ consci\s "w become ipso facto /udial me?ods4 ,mo/ "w ( analysis & syn!sis is ( ?is ord]2 all t we d to break up a s5t5ce into words1 into syllables1 into s\nds2 all t we d to piece toge!r s\nds1 syllables1 & words 9 ord] to =m s5t5ces is ( ?is ord]4 ,:5ev] we are di/9ctly consci\s ( ! words & con/ructions we are us+1 we are do+ some?+ unkn[n to nature4 ,:5ev] we come to und]/& a s5t5ce by analys+ x1 or to utt] a s5t5ce by piec+ toge!r z we g on1 we are work+ by processes ( ! /udial ord]2 !y 7 n us$ :5 we 7 le>n+ our "m-tongue4 ,all ^? =ms ( "w :i* we may include "u ! head+ ( #8conv]sion' are /udial1 & ^! are _m & v>i$4 ,dictation consi/s 9 caus+ ! pupil to conv]t ! spok5 into ! writt5 aspect ( language1 read+ consi/s 9 caus+ him to d ! rev]se1 mo/ =ms ( translat+ consi/ 9 caus+ him to conv]t some?+ f "o language into ano!r4 ,we may also at times require our pupils to conv]t an affirmative s5t5ce into a negative or an int]rogative "o1 to conv]t a pres5t t5se into a pa/1 a s+ul> into a plural1 passive into active1 to conv]t a c]ta9 ^w-ord] into ano!r4 ,all ^! ?+s are ( ! /udial ord]2 s\nd !y may be1 necess>y or ess5tial !y may be1 b !y are n spontane\s =ms ( "w1 = we h n by _! aid le>nt to use ! spok5 colloquial =m ( our "m-tongue4 ,all me?ods :i* necessitate ! use ( ! eye are /udial me?ods2 nature nev] meant u to le>n spok5 language by eye4 ,we may !re=e designate z /udial all =ms ( read+1 read+ al\d or m5tal read+1 read+ f traditional or?ographies or phonetic transcriptions1 read+ ( isolat$ s\nds or ( connect$ passages4 ,m especially ( ! /udial ord] are ^? curi\s & complicat$ practices 7common1 alas6 to s _m /ud5ts7 ( #8read+ :at we he>' or #8writ+ :at we speak4' ,9 ! =m] case1 we he> a s5t5ce1 we r$uce x m5tally to writt5 *>act]s1 & read m5tally :at we see 9 our imag9ation2 9 ! o!r case we write 9 our imag9ation :at we wi% to say1 & read al\d :at we are writ+4 ,x foll[s t all me?ods :i* require u to use ! h& are /udial me?ods2 nature kn[s no m ( spell+s & h&writ+ ?an %e does ( %or?&1 typewrit+1 & type-sett+2 all ^! ?+s are ( comp>atively rec5t orig91 & all ( !m h be5 delib]ately inv5t$ by man4 ,all me?ods :i* tea* mean+s by means ( etymology are ( ! /udial ord]2 nature int5d$ t ea* ^w %\ld become atta*$ to t = :i* x /&s & n become associat$ ) its ance/ral etymon or mod]n cognates4 ,! dictum ( nature is t a ^w means :at all speak]s ( ! same language 7or v>iety ( language7 mean x to mean4 ,?us x w\ld appe> t ne>ly ev]y?+ t ! av]age p]son actually does :5 le>n+ a =eign language comes "u ! head+ ( ! /udial processes4 ,he le>ns rules 9 ord] to become pr(ici5t 9 analysis & syn!sis2 = ! same purpose1 he memorizes ! exceptions to ! rules4 ,he becomes 7or hopes to become7 an exp]t 9 pull+ words to pieces & 9 recon/ruct+ !m f roots & affixes1 9 s5t5ce-mak+ & s5t5ce-break+4 ,he le>ns *iefly by eye1 & expresses himself *iefly by ! p5-grasp+ h&4 ,inde$1 he becomes s pr(ici5t 9 conv]t+ ! spok5 into ! writt5 =m t he _c und]/& or reta9 ! =eign words or s5t5ces he le>ns until he has conv]t$ !m into an imag9>y writt5 =m :i*1 9 8 imag9ation1 he reads (f ^w by ^w4 ,simil>ly1 he f9ds himself only able to express himself by d9t ( read+ al\d ! s5t5ces :i* he is con/ruct+ bit by bit by a complicat$ process ( #8m5tal writ+4' ,he aims at becom+ 7& (t5 does become7 exp]t 9 conv]t+ "o language into ano!r by a process 7unkn[n to nature7 call$ translat+4 ,8 accuracy is ga9$ by rapid conv]sions ( words f "o inflect$ =m to ano!r3 nom9atives into accusatives1 s+ul>s into plurals1 inf9itives into p>ticiples4 ,he atta*es great importance to etymology1 & ! "t he might sp5d 9 associat+ words ) _! mean+s is (t5 devot$ to work+ out ! family tree ( =eign words4 ,he sp5ds little "t 9 f9d+ out :at mean+s ! natives atta* to _! words & =ms1 b mu* "t 9 id5tify+ ! units ( etymology & 9 trac+ !m f "o language to ano!r4 ,?is does n necess>ily imply t ! /ud5t is always do+ ! wrong ?+1 nor t 8 me?ods are always bad ones2 we m]ely obs]ve t he uses 7or is taught to use7 all mann] ( /udial me?ods at ! exp5se ( spontane\s ones1 & t1 9 s do+1 he develops 8 /udial capacities ( language-/udy at ! exp5se ( 8 spontane\s ones4 ,! "q :e!r ! /udial me?ods %\ld be us$ at all &1 if s1 :i* %\ld be us$1 =ms ! subject ( ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,:y ,,we ,,mu/ ,,use ,,our ,,/udial ,,capacities ,we %\ld n conclude t me?ods involv+ our p[]s ( /udy are to be ab&on$1 & t nature alone is to be responsible = our l+ui/ic education4 ,on ! contr>y1 we sugge/ t an ext5sive use be made ( p[]s :i* are n possess$ by ! "y *ild or ! b>b>ian4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 nature w n tea* u to read or to write1 b m]ely to become pr(ici5t 9 ! use ( ! spok5 =m ( a giv5 language4 ,h[ev] valuable x may be to possess ! spok5 =m1 mo/ ( u wi% to g beyond ?is2 we wi% ev5tually to be able to use "s =m ( or?ography4 ,"s ev5 desire to g beyond ?is & to le>n to use %or?& or ! typewrit]1 man-made inv5tions ( a /ill m rec5t date4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t1 aft] all1 traditional or?ography is n a :it m #8natural' ?an %or?&1 & a good deal less #8natural' ?an phonetic transcription or re=m$ spell+4 ,to le>n1 h[ev]1 ! writt5 =m ( a language be=e hav+ le>nt h[ to assimilate ! spok5 =m is unnatural & contr>y to all our l+ui/ic in/9cts2 x is comp>able to le>n+ to cycle be=e hav+ le>nt to walk4 ,at a c]ta9 /age1 !re=e1 ! le>n] w be taught h[ to recognize by eye :at he has already assimilat$ by e>1 & h[ to express ) ! p5 :at he has hi!rto express$ by means ( articulate s\nds4 ,9 ea* case ! process w be "o ( conv]sion1 conv]t+ writt5 *>act]s into s\nds or conv]t+ s\nds into writt5 *>act]s4 ,9 bo? cases !re w be articulation ( "s sort1 = m5tal read+ means m5tal articulation1 & :5 we write we only write :at we are repeat+ to ourselves m5tally4 ,nei!r ( ^! =ms ( conv]sion is necess>ily difficult4 ,! processes1 )\t be+ spontane\s 9 ! true s5se ( ! t]m1 pres5t at times c]ta9 analogies to truly spontane\s processes 9 t !y are app>5tly p]=m$ )\t ef=t4 ,mu* dep5ds1 h[ev]1 on ! sy/em ( script2 if ! alphabet ( ! =eign language is almo/ id5tical ) an alphabet we h already le>nt to use1 ! difficulty w be less ?an 9 ! case ( a totally /range alphabet or syllab>y4 ,japanese script1 :i* conta9s a /range mixture ( ,*9ese *>act]s us$ bo? ideographically & phonetically1 toge!r ) two diff]5t sy/ems ( native phonetic writ+1 pres5ts difficulties unkn[n to ! ,european /ud5t ( ,european languages4 ,! artificial elem5t 9 writ+ is p>ticul>ly evid5t :5 we consid] t _m if n mo/ or?ographic sy/ems are 9 contradiction to ! spok5 =m ( ! languages !y claim to repres5t4 ,engli% spell+ is an excell5t case 9 po9t2 its div]g5ces f ! actual language are s num]\s & s great t we may be said to possess two di/9ct languages1 ! spok5 & ! writt54 ,to le>n & to apply ! arbitr>y laws & conv5tions :i* s]ve to bridge ! gap betwe5 ! two requires capacities ( obs]vation & reason+ ( a special ord]1 ess5tially /udial4 ,= t reason we mu/ make use ( conv]sion devices ( v>i\s k9ds3 dictation1 read+ al\d1 transcription 7or translit]ation71 & spell+ drill4 ,_m s-call$ #8difficulties ( gramm>' prove to be m]e difficulties ( spell+2 ! ,fr5* conjugation & :at rema9s ( ,fr5* decl5sion are l>gely matt]s ( spell+1 (t5 z baffl+ to ! native ,fr5* speak] z to ! non-,fr5* /ud5t4 ,!re are o!r reasons :y /udial me?ods mu/ be adopt$ 9 a complete language-c\rse4 ,!re exi/ =ms ( spee* o!r ?an ! =m :i* is us$ normally 9 ev]yday conv]sation4 ,!re exi/ artificializ$ non-colloquial dialects1 su* z poetry1 ! language ( emotion & oratory1 ! language ( c]emony1 ! liturgical1 & simil> classical or ar*aic v>ieties4 ,z we h already se51 nature tea*es u only ^? liv+ =ms :i* are us$ by ! p ( our environm5t2 = ! o!rs we mu/ h rec\rse to /udial me?ods4 ,! ev]yday colloquial =m is some?+ we le>n at home or 9 ! /reet2 ! high] or m /hetic =ms are taught u at s*ool or at college2 we h to /udy !m4 ,! art ( lit]>y composition1 ! art ( select+ & assembl+ delib]ately & consci\sly ^? words :i* express our ?\ghts & emotions 9 ! cle>e/ & mo/ appropriate mann]1 diff]s widely & ess5tially f ! art ( colloquy z ex]cis$ 9 our daily life4 ,9 ord] to become pr(ici5t 9 lit]>y composition1 we mu/ acquire habits ( conc5tration1 we mu/ be able to analyse1 we mu/ become exp]t 9 syn!sis1 we mu/ le>n to discrim9ate1 we mu/ develop our intellig5ce4 ,! "y *ild _c d ^! ?+s1 nor c ! savage or ! idiot4 ,!re is ano!r reason :y we _c leave ev]y?+ to nature3 mo/ language-c\rses mu/ necess>ily be corrective c\rses4 ,! tea*] g5]ally f9ds among 8 adult /ud5ts a l>ge numb] :o h already acquir$ c]ta9 notions ( ! language2 !y may h sp5t "o or m ye>s work+ at s*ool-,fr5*1 s*ool-,engli%1 or :atev] ! language may be2 !y may h sp5t "s "t 9 ! c\ntry :]e x is spok51 or !y may h /udi$ privately4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! cases x is practically c]ta9 t ! /ud5t w h =m$ bad l+ui/ic habits2 8 pronunciation w be deplorable1 8 comm& ( ! inflect$ =ms w be defici5t1 8 syntax w be faulty1 & 8 semantic sy/em w be t ( 8 native tongue4 ,9 o!r t]ms1 he has acquir$ a pidg9 =m ( ! language1 su* z ,anglo-,fr5* or ,franco-,engli%1 unnatural dialects unkn[n to native speak]s2 he may h become accu/om$ to us+ ?is =m ( language1 ev5 to us+ x automatically4 ,nor is t all2 n only is 8 language-mat]ial faulty 7to say ! lea/ ( x71 b 8 mann] ( /udy w probably h impair$ v s]i\sly 8 capacities = any s\nd =m ( assimilation4 ,he has n be5 tra9$ to obs]ve nor to imitate nor to con/ruct s5t5ces by analogy2 he has s tra9$ himself to he>+ :at he expects to he> & :at he ?9ks he he>s t he has no notion ( :at he actually does he>2 9 %ort1 he has g5]ally le>nt wrong mat]ial 9 wrong ways4 ,! only suitable c\rse = su* a /ud5t w\ld be a corrective c\rse1 a c\rse :i* w\ld aim at replac+ 8 faulty mat]ial by s\nd mat]ial & at replac+ 8 =m] me?ods ( /udy by s\nd me?ods4 ,"o by "o 8 uns\nd acquisitions mu/ be replac$ by s\nd ones2 we mu/ tea* him a new language4 ,n[ ?is _c be done by means ( spontane\s me?ods alone2 unconsci\sness w n undo ! "w consci\sness has done2 ! natural p[]s :i* enable u to assimilate normal spee* w r>ely1 if ev]1 turn bad habits into good ones or conv]t pidg9-spee* into normal spee*4 ,:at has be5 done consci\sly mu/ be undone consci\sly4 ,! /ud5t mu/ be %[n specifically 9 :at respects 8 spee* diff]s f t us$ by natives1 & he mu/ delib]ately set to "w to correct x item by item2 we mu/ expla9 ?+s to him2 we mu/ provide him ) *>ts1 diagrams1 & ex]cises2 we mu/ put him ?r\gh c\rses ( drill-"w1 & all ^! ?+s w require 8 c>eful & ev5 conc5trat$ att5tion4 ,we mu/ also tea* him h[ to correct 8 faulty me?ods ( assimilat+2 we mu/ expla9 to him :y !y are faulty & conv9ce him t1 h[ev] natural & easy !y may seem to him1 !y are only ( utility to ! le>n] ( pidg9-spee*4 ,we mu/ tea* him h[ to utilize ! s\nd processes 7bo? spontane\s & /udial72 he w n l to d s1 he w con/antly t5d to rev]t to ! processes to :i* he has become accu/om$2 we mu/ react & cause him to react aga9/ 8 vici\s t5d5cies4 ,aft] a "t1 if =tunate1 we may succe$ 9 eradicat+ mo/ ( ! faulty matt] & 9 initiat+ ! "r habits ( assimilation4 ,f t po9t onw>ds ! c\rse w n be a corrective "o b a normal "o4 ,d ^! consid]ations apply only to "o :o has already /udi$ ! language faultily1 to ! us] ( pidg9-spee*8 ,are we to take x t ! raw beg9n] is exempt f unnatural or vici\s habits8 ,un=tunately ?is is n ! case3 m (t5 ?an n1 ! /ud5t 7ev5 ! /ud5t unspoil$ by previ\s defective "w7 w t5d to let 8 fir/ language influ5ce 8 second4 ,if he is ,engli%1 he w t5d to ins9uate ,engli% s\nds1 ,engli% =ms1 & ,engli% ?\ghts into ! new language1 :i* w !re=e t5d to become pidg9iz$4 ,?is t5d5cy w be great] ) "s ?an ) o!rs2 mu* dep5ds on ! attitude ( ! /ud5t t[>ds ! language he is ab\t to le>n2 he may already h /udi$ o!r =eign languages1 & 9 do+ s may h acquir$ ! wrong attitude t[>ds =eign languages 9 g5]al4 ,if he consid]s !m z bran*es ( /udy simil> to ma!matics1 hi/ory1 or geography2 or if he consid]s !m ess5tially z or?ographic sy/ems ( :i* ! phonetic =m is an unimportant detail1 he w already h become "o = :om a corrective c\rse is necess>y4 ,we %all h to remove 8 prejudices & to modify 8 po9t ( view2 a c]ta9 am\nt ( prelim9>y "w w h to be done 9 ord] t he may see languages z !y really are1 9 ord] t he may see ! nature ( ! task be=e him4 ,?is prelim9>y "w w be ( ! /udial ord]1 b w be succe$$ at ! "r mom5t by ! m normal & m spontane\s me?ods4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m /ud5ts />t ) no preconceiv$ ideas :atev]2 *ildr51 ! less intellig5t adults1 & ^? :o h be5 unspoil$ by ! traditional classical fallacies w slip easily & naturally into ! "r attitude4 ,!y w recognize ! necessity = le>n+ new s\nds & comb9ations1 = assimilat+ =eign mat]ial )\t at ea* in/ant comp>+ x ) ! mat]ial ( ! "m-tongue2 = reta9+ by ! auditory memory /r+s ( words & s5t5ces1 = reproduc+ orally :at !y he>1 & = =m+ ! "r semantic associations4 ,su* /ud5ts w be immune or ne>ly s f ! vici\s t5d5cies :i* s *>act]ize ! av]age language-le>n]2 !y w m]ely h to be put on _! gu>d at c]ta9 critical mom5ts2 we %all at su* mom5ts obs]ve c]ta9 reasonable precautions 9 ord] t bad habits may n be acquir$4 ,a f\r? reason :y we mu/ n neglect ! /udial me?ods may be m5tion$ "h4 ,_m set out n s mu* to acquire ! capacity = us+ ! language z to le>n its /ructure & peculi>ities1 j z a me*anic may wi% to become acqua9t$ ) a ma*9e )\t hav+ ! int5tion ( ev] us+ x4 ,phoneticians1 gramm>ians1 & philologi/s mu/ 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( _! "w become famili> ) ! *>act]i/ic features ( _m languages or dialects4 ,= ?is purpose x is by no means necess>y t !y %\ld acquire ! capacity = und]/&+1 speak+1 read+1 or writ+ ! languages :i* int]e/ !m4 ,9 su* cases ! spontane\s me?ods w\ld obvi\sly be out ( place2 no call ne$ be made or %\ld be made on ! /ud5ts' natural p[]s ( language-assimilat+4 ,!y w\ld proce$ by way ( analysis & syn!sis1 & in/ead ( reta9+ ! actual language-mat]ial itself w\ld reta9 m]ely ! laws :i* gov]n ! function+ ( ! language4 ,we might place 9 ?is category ( /ud5ts ^? ^: subsequ5t int5tion is to tea* ! language to o!rs4 ,x may n be necess>y = ! language-le>n] to "k mu* ab\t ! !ory ( phonetics1 b ! language-tea*] mu/ possess a consid]able k ( phonetic !ory bo? g5]al & z appli$ to ! p>ticul> language 9 :i* he is an in/ructor4 ,! le>n] ne$ "k little ab\t ! sci5ces deal+ ) inflexions1 s5t5ce-con/ruction1 or mean+s2 b ! tea*] mu/ "k a good deal ab\t ^! ?+s 9 ord] t he may =esee ! special difficulties :i* 8 pupils w enc\nt]1 & devise ! necess>y ex]cises to ov]come !m4 ,! te*nical side ( language w !re=e be ( importance to all :o are or :o int5d to become tea*]s1 & su* k1 l any o!r te*nical k1 is acquir$ by me?ods unrelat$ to our spontane\s capacities = assimilat+ normal colloquial spee*4 ,! f\r s]ies ( consid]ations set =? above are suffici5t to %[ t x w\ld be ei!r unwise or impossible to proce$ by ! sole aid ( nature or by ! recon/itution ( natural conditions4 ,language-/udy is su* a complex ?+1 ) s _m aspects1 & x requires to be look$ at f s _m po9ts ( view1 t we mu/ enli/ all our capacities :5 /riv+ to obta9 ! ma/]y we desire2 we mu/ n neglect our spontane\s p[]s1 nor %\ld we despise our intellectual p[]s2 bo? are ( s]vice to u1 bo? h _! place 9 a well-conceiv$ programme ( /udy1 ea* w to a c]ta9 ext5t balance ! o!r & be complem5t>y to x4 ,an excess on ei!r side may be prejudicial to ! /ud5t1 & "o ( ! m important problems be=e ! spee*-psy*ologi/ is to det]m9e 9 :at circum/ances & on :at occasions ea* %\ld be us$4 ,m w be said on ?is p>ticul> phase ( ! subject 9 ,*apt] ,,xv 78,! ,multiple ,l9e ( ,approa*074 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,/ud5t ,,& ,,8 ,,aim ,:at is ! be/ me?od ( language-/udy8 ,?is fundam5tal "q is "o :i* is cont9ually ask$ by all ^? :o are s]i\sly engag$ 9 tea*+ or 9 le>n+ a =eign language4 ,we say #8s]i\sly' & lay /ress on ! ^w1 = among tea*]s & /ud5ts !re are _m1 un=tunately1 :o are n dispos$ to take _! "w s]i\sly1 :o see no necessity = any e>ne/ consid]ation ( ! ways & means to be adopt$4 ,!y are cont5t to tea* z !y !mselves h be5 taught1 or to le>n z o!rs h le>nt be=e !m1 )\t inquir+ :e!r ! plan or ! programme is a s\nd "o1 )\t ev5 inquir+ :e!r ! me?od is "o :i* is likely to produce any good results :atev]4 ,b ! s]i\s tea*] or /ud5t1 :o wi%es to p]=m effici5t "w1 mu/ ( necessity ask himself :e!r ! pa? he has *os5 is "o :i* w lead any:]e ne> ! desir$ end or ends4 ,he may exp]im5t ) v>i\s me?ods & try a numb] ( diff]5t sy/ems 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :i* ( ^! secures ! be/ results1 & aft] _m su* trials he may ei!r hit ^u :at seems to be an ideal type ( "w & /ick to x1 or1 dissatisfi$ ) ev]y?+ he has tri$1 he may once aga9 seek c\nsel & ask once m ! old & hackney$ "q3 ,:at is ! be/ me?od ( language-/udy8 ,! fir/ answ] :i* sugge/s itself is3 8,! be/ me?od is t :i* adopts ! be/ means to ! requir$ end10 & inde$ ?is is p]haps ! only concise answ] :i* c be furni%$ (f-h&4 ,b ! answ] is n satisfactory2 x is too g5]al1 & s true t x ranks z a truism2 x is res5t$ z be+ a faceti\s mann] ( %elv+ ! "q4 ,! inquir] has e "r to return to ! *>ge & to put ! supplem5t>y "q3 8,:at is ! me?od :i* adopts ! be/ means to ! requir$ end80 ,9 ! pres5t book we %all endeav\r to f9d ! be/ answ] or ! be/ s]ies ( answ]s to ?is mo/ legitimate "q4 ,9 do+ s we %all set =?1 ) z mu* precision z is consi/5t ) ! claims ( concis5ess1 ! conclusions arriv$ at by ^? :o h specializ$ 9 ! subject & h obta9$ positive evid5ce be>+ on x4 ,fundam5tal z ! "q appe>s1 !re is yet a previ\s "q ( :i* we mu/ dispose be=e go+ fur!r1 = we _c det]m9e 8:at is ! be/ me?od adopt+ ! be/ means t[>ds ! requir$ end0 until we "k m precisely :at is ! requir$ end4 ,= !re are _m possible ends1 & _m categories ( /ud5ts1 ea* ) a p>ticul> aim be=e him4 ,_m desire a k ( ! writt5 language only2 !y wi% to be able to read & write1 n to und]/& ! spok5 language nor to speak4 ,"s may limit _! atta9m5t to a capacity = read+ ! language2 !y wi% to h direct access to te*nical or o!r books4 ,o!rs conceivably may wi% solely to become able to write lett]s 9 ! language4 ,_m are only conc]n$ ) spok5 language2 !y wi% to be able to speak & to und]/& :at !y he>4 ,"s wi% to possess an #8und]/&+' k only1 :ile o!rs are cont5t m]ely to make !mselves und]/ood4 ,! /ud5t may limit 8 requirem5ts to a v sup]ficial k ( "s pidg9 =m ( ! language1 & w be p]fectly happy if he j succe$s 9 mak+ himself und]/ood by us+ "s atroci\s c>icature ( ! language :i* he is suppos$ to be le>n+4 ,or he may be m ambiti\s & set out 9 e>ne/ to become ma/] ( ! liv+ language j z x is spok5 & writt5 by ! natives !mselves4 ,! phonetician w wi% to atta9 absolute p]fection 9 ! pronunciation ( ! language2 ! etymologi/ w conc5trate on ! hi/orical aspect2 ! philologi/ w n be happy unless he is comp>+ ! /ructure ) t ( cognate languages2 ! gramm>ian w specialize 9 gramm>1 & ! lexicologi/ or semantician w /udy ! mean+s4 ,! cl]k or m]*ant w specialize 9 ! comm]cial language & le>n h[ to draw up bills ( lad+ or to conduct bus9ess correspond5ce4 ,! hotel-keep] or wait] w conc5trate on hotel colloquial1 z also w ! t\ri/ or tripp]4 ,! littrateur w aim /raight at ! lit]ature & disda9 any ( ! non-/hetic aspects or bran*es4 ,e call+ or pr(ession w seek its own p>ticul> l9e1 & = ea* !re w be a p>ticul> aim4 ,_m /ud5ts h z _! sole aim ! pass+ ( a giv5 exam9ation4 ,:e!r !y come to "k ! language or n is a matt] ( comp>ative indiff]5ce to !m2 _! bus9ess is to obta9 z _m m>ks z possible ) ! lea/ am\nt ( ef=t1 & :at does n lead directly to ?is aim is n ( int]e/4 ,x is ! duty ( _m or mo/ tea*]s to coa* or to cram _! pupils 9 ord] t satisfactory exam9ation results may be obta9$2 !y _c af=d to d any?+ else1 nor h !y any desire to d s4 ,if ! exam9ation includes que/ions on phonetic !ory1 ! pupil w be cramm$ ) phonetic !ory2 if x includes a te/ 9 conv]sation1 ! pupil w be cramm$ ) conv]sational tags2 if x requires ! capacity ( translat+1 ! pupil w duly be coa*$ 9 ! art ( translat+2 if x requires a k ( a giv5 text or s]ies ( texts1 ^! w be ! subject ( /udy4 ,if ! pupil or 8 tea*] kn[s some?+ ( ! p>ticul> exam9]1 special ef=ts w be made to please t p>ticul> exam9]4 ,b ?is has little or no?+ to d ) ! s]i\s /udy ( languages4 ,"s p are pr(essional translators or int]pret]s2 x is _! bus9ess to r5d] a fai?ful acc\nt ( a spee* or a s5t5ce utt]$ 9 ano!r language or to int]pret ! ?\ghts ( "s =eign writ]4 ,?is "w requires v special qualifications & necessitates a v special /udy1 s mu* s t ^? :o are p]fectly bil+ual exp]i5ce a great difficulty e "t t !y are call$ ^u to r5d] a fai?ful translation ( any docum5t or a fai?ful int]pretation ( any oral communication4 ,! task ( ! translator is q di/9ct f t ( ! ord9>y /ud5t ( language1 & is to be dealt ) z su*4 ,g5]ally speak+1 h[ev]1 ! language-le>n] w h comp>atively little to d ) ! pr(ession ( int]pret] or translator1 & ev5 9 ! exceptional cases he w d well to leave ?is p>ticul> bran* until he has atta9$ a c]ta9 pr(ici5cy 9 us+ ! =eign language indep5d5tly ( any o!r4 ,we h already allud$ to ! special requirem5ts ( ! te*nician2 we h se5 t "s require a k ( ! /ructure or ( c]ta9 aspects ( "o or m languages4 ,su* p1 hav+ entirely diff]5t aims1 require entirely diff]5t me?ods2 !y mu/ be furni%$ ) ev]y?+ t w facilitate _! "w ( analysis or syn!sis1 & we may omit f _! programme ev]y?+ :i* does n lead directly t[>ds ! limit$ & special end !y h 9 view4 ,yet ano!r factor is pres5t & mu/ be consid]$ be=e we c draw up any def9ite programme ( /udy4 ,are we giv+ a ?ree mon?s' c\rse or a ?ree ye>s' c\rse8 ,if we are to obta9 concrete & def9ite results 9 a limit$ space ( "t1 our c\rse mu/ necess>ily be an int5sive "o2 we %all h to make a g5]\s use ( /udial me?ods2 we %all n be able to af=d any?+ l an adequate p]iod ( prep>ation2 we %all be =c$ to take %ort cuts & we %all reluctantly be compell$ to sacrifice a c]ta9 measure ( s\ndness to ! requirem5ts ( spe$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 at ! end ( ! %ort c\rse to :i* circum/ances limit our /ud5t's opportunity1 he has a *ance to cont9ue 8 /udies by himself or to reside 9 ! c\ntry :]e ! language is spok51 we may devote ! :ole ( our "t to prep>atory "w4 ,we may give him an int5sive c\rse ( e>-tra9+1 articulation1 or flu5cy ex]cises1 cause him to memorize a c]ta9 numb] ( key-s5t5ces1 & drill him into good habits ( language-/udy4 ,if we adopt$ ?is plan we %\ld be lay+ ! f\ndations ^u :i* ! /ud5t w\ld build lat] by 8 own initiative1 b ! drawback w\ld be t ! /ud5t w\ld h made b small progress 9 ! actual process ( assimilat+ vocabul>y2 he w\ld be well prep>$1 b w\ld h little to %[ z a result ( 8 two or ?ree mon?s' "w4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we "k t we h a cle> p]iod ( two or m ye>s be=e u1 our task w be mu* easi]4 ,in/ead ( proce$+ at a brea?less rate to produce imm$iate concrete results1 we may g to "w 9 a m leisurely & m natural way4 ,we may s[1 & be assur$ t ! h>ve/ w be reap$ 9 due "t2 ! natural p[]s ( language-/udy "w surely b n rapidly2 nature takes h] "t b yields a g5]\s int]e/4 ,) a long p]iod 9 front ( u1 we may af=d adequate int]vals = #8incubation'2 x w n be necess>y = u to accel]ate ! normal process ( assimilation1 b m]ely to let x develop 9 a gradual b ev]-increas+ & cumulative ratio4 ,at ! end (1 let u say1 ! fir/ ye>1 our /ud5t w easily out/rip ^? ^: initial progress seem$ m satisfactory4 ,evid5tly x w n be possible to draw up a programme ( /udy :i* w be suitable = all ! div]se requirem5ts we h set =?4 ,nor w x be possible = e tea*] to consid] ! individual requirem5ts ( ea* "o ( 8 pupils4 ,we _c h a specially pr9t$ c\rse1 nor ev5 a manuscript "o1 = e /ud5t2 b 9 ! case ( private lessons or ( self-in/ruction we may c]ta9ly give a l>ge am\nt ( consid]ation to individual ne$s4 ,! bad pron\nc] w conc5trate on phonetic "w1 ! bad spell] on or?ographic "w1 ! bad li/5] on devices lead+ t[>ds imm$iate compreh5sion2 ! cl]k w "w ) texts ( a comm]cial nature1 ! t\ri/ w specialize on hotel colloquial1 etc4 ,no /ud5t w ev] be expect$ to "w ) "o book only2 ea* w gradually acquire a m9iature libr>y1 & ?is libr>y ne$ n be ! same = ev]ybody4 ,9 ! case ( collective c\rses & class tea*+1 individual requirem5ts w be less obs]v$1 b 9 draw+ up ! programme ! tea*] w aim at ! av]age result desir$ by or consid]$ desirable = ! av]age memb] ( ! class4 ,z we %all see lat]1 x is q feasible to design lessons suitable = a class conta9+ pupils ( diff]5t capacities2 we c arrange t "s %all take an active "p :ile o!rs are assimilat+ m or less passively4 ,we see1 9 %ort1 t :5 />t+ a new c\rse "u new conditions ! tea*] mu/ draw up a programme4 ,?is programme w be divid$ into s _m p]iods or /ages1 & = ea* p]iod c]ta9 =ms ( "w w be specifi$1 ^! be+ design$ to lead 9 ! mo/ effici5t way to :atev] ! aim may happ5 to be4 ,)\t su* a programme ! tea*] w nev] "k exactly :]e 8 class /&s1 ! "w w be too mu* ( a h&-to-m\? nature1 & !re w be loose ends4 ,?is programme may ( c\rse be m or less exp]im5tal or t5tative2 x may be modifi$ 9 accordance ) ! tea*]'s exp]i5ce & ) ! results he has s f> obta9$4 ,! idea ( a h>d-&-fa/ programme does n comm5d itself2 x %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 be m or less ela/ic 9 ord] t x may be exp&$ or contract$ accord+ to circum/ances4 ,any?+ 9 ! nature ( a #8pat5t me?od' 7gu>ante$ to "w )9 s _m lessons7 sugge/s quack]y4 ,our programme %\ld be some?+ o!r ?an a rigid proc$ure bas$ on any "o p>ticul> pr9ciple1 h[ev] logical t pr9ciple may seem to be4 ,!re are _m logical pr9ciples1 & we mu/ /rive to incorporate all ( !m into :atev] programme we design4 ,we %all treat ( ^! 9 ! next *apt]s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,supreme ,,importance ,,( ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,/age ,be=e exam9+ & review+ ! pr9ciples ( language-/udy1 x w be well = u to note "o important po9t4 ,! read] ere long may prote/ t we pay no att5tion to any?+ except beg9n]'s "w1 t we exam9e no evid5ce be>+ on ! m advanc$ /ages1 t we give no advice nor (f] any sugge/ions conc]n+ ! "w ( ! second & subsequ5t ye>s4 8,we are n int]e/$ 9 elem5t>y "w10 "s may say2 8:at we require is a s]ies ( c\nsels z to h[ to conduct ! subsequ5t 7& m difficult7 "w40 ,& yet we %all h little to say conc]n+ ! m advanc$ c\rse2 on ! contr>y1 we %all con/antly lay /ress & insi/ on ! supreme importance ( ! elem5t>y /age4 ,x is ! fir/ lessons t c\nt2 x is ! e>ly lessons :i* are go+ to det]m9e ! ev5tual success or failure ( ! c\rse4 ,z ! b5d+ ( ! twig det]m9es ! =m ( ! tree1 z on ! f\ndations dep5ds ! /ability ( ! build+1 s also w ! elem5t>y tra9+ ( ! /ud5t det]m9e 8 subsequ5t success or failure4 ,x is dur+ ! fir/ /age t we c secure habits ( accuracy1 t we c tra9 ! /ud5t to use 8 e>s1 t we c develop 8 capacities ( natural & rapid assimilation1 t we c fo/] 8 p[]s ( obs]vation4 ,good habits are easily =m$ 7z also are bad habits72 at ! outset ( 8 /udies ! le>n]1 :oev] he may be1 educat$ or illit]ate1 *ild or adult1 enjoys ! advantage ( a pla/ic m9d2 x c be %ap$ accord+ to our w2 we c tra9 x to =m good & s\nd habits ( language-/udy4 ,at no o!r p]iod %all we f9d su* pla/icity4 ,difficult1 almo/ impossible1 is ! task ( undo+ :at has already be5 done1 ( remov+ faulty habits ( p]ception & ( replac+ !m by s\nd ones4 ,! /ud5t :o has pass$ ?r\gh an uns\nd elem5t>y c\rse f9ds 8 road to progress b>r$2 ! twig has be5 badly b5t1 ! f\ndations h be5 badly laid4 ,all we c !n d is to endeav\r by means ( a corrective c\rse to undo ! mis*ief :i* has be5 done1 & a ?ankless task x is4 ,no am\nt ( advanc$ "w c fully comp5sate or make good ! h>m :i* has be5 wr\ght by ! untra9$ or unwise tea*]4 ,x is too late4 ,c]ta9 habits h be5 =m$1 & we all realize :at x means to eradicate a bad habit & to replace x by a good "o4 ,:at are "s ( ^! bad habits8 ,:at are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic vici\s t5d5cies :i* h be5 enc\rag$ by an uns\nd elem5t>y /age8 ,"s ( ^! are positive1 o!rs are negative4 ,9 "s cases ! /ud5t has acquir$ bad habits2 9 o!rs he has neglect$ to acquire good ones2 (t5 ! two k9ds are complem5t>y to ea* o!r4 ,we f9d1 = in/ance1 t he has neglect$ to tra9 8 e>s1 he has n be5 %[n :at to obs]ve nor h[ to obs]ve4 ,! consequ5ce is t he is unaw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 =eign s\nds1 & inv>iably replaces !m by absurd or impossible imitations bas$ on ! s\nds ( 8 "m-tongue4 ,in/ead ( ,fr5* he w use ,engli% ay2 in/ead ( ,fr5* on he w use ,engli% ong2 a trill$ r w be replac$ by an ,engli% fricative r or by no r at all4 ,lack ( e>-tra9+ w cause him to ins]t imag9>y s\nds :]e !re are none4 ,! ,fr5* /ud5t w introduce an r 7& a ,fr5* r at t67 9 words su* z c\rse or f>m2 he w ins]t a weak e 9 ! pl ( p or 9 ! bl ( able4 ,he has nev] actually he>d su* s\nds1 b imag9es t he has2 8 e>s h n be5 tra9$ to obs]ve4 ,he has =m$ ! habit ( replac+ e>-impressions by eye-impressions2 he believes :at 8 eyes tell him1 & 8 untra9$ e>s _c correct ! t5d5cy2 he has become ! dupe ( unphonetic spell+s4 ,! neglect ( 8 p[]s ( audition w cause him to rely absolutely on 8 p[]s ( visualiz+ ! writt5 =m4 ,he w refuse to receive ! language-matt] by ! auditory *annel2 he w decl>e ) insi/5ce t 8he _c le>n a ^w or a s5t5ce until he has se5 x writt502 he w ev5 decl9e to le>n a ^w except 9 its traditional 7& probably phonetically inaccurate7 or?ographic =m4 ,if ! elem5t>y c\rse has n provid$ = ! developm5t & use ( ! p[]s ( unconsci\s assimilation1 ! /ud5t w attempt ! hopeless task ( pass+ ! :ole ( ! language-mat]ial ?r\gh 8 limit$ *annel ( consci\sness4 ,he w seek to conc5trate 8 att5tion on e simple unit ( :i* ! =eign language is compos$1 & hope !reby to reta9 e "o1 a feat ( memory :i* we "k to be impossible4 ,he w !re=e h =m$ ! habit ( delib]ately avoid+ t natural process :i* alone w enable him to make effective progress4 ,he w also h =m$ ! #8isolat+' habit1 :i* consi/s 9 le>n+ ! individual elem5ts ( a gr\p in/ead ( le>n+ ! gr\p z x /&s4 ,he w le>n *aise in/ead ( la *aise1 all in/ead ( suis all or e/ all4 ,9 o!r t]ms1 he w h =m$ ! habit ( ^w-le>n+ & h neglect$ t ( ^w-gr\p-le>n+4 ,h5ce1 in/ead ( hav+ at 8 disposal a numb] ( useful comp\nds su* z ,je ne le lui ai pas donn1 ,il n'y en a pas de ce ct-ci1 or cette poque-ci1 he w endeav\r labori\sly & g5]ally unsuccessfully to build up by "s syn!tic process 7probably t ( lit]al translation7 e ^w-gr\p1 phrase1 or s5t5ce 9 ! language4 ,_h 8 elem5t>y c\rse includ$ ! sy/ematic memoriz+ ( ^w-gr\ps1 ?is w\ld h become a habit2 z x is1 he has acquir$ ! habit ( n do+ s4 ,bad semantic habits may also h be5 =m$4 ,t is to say1 ! /ud5t may h tra9$ himself 7or ev5 may h be5 tra9$7 to consid] t ea* =eign ^w corresponds precisely to "s ^w 9 8 own language4 ,= him pr5dre is ! exact equival5t ( to take2 to get is an untranslatable ^w1 & _m =eign words are mean+less6 ,if translation 7n 9 itself a bad habit7 has be5 c>ri$ to extremes1 & if ! habit ( direct association has be5 neglect$1 ! /ud5t w h =m$ ! habit ( translat+ m5tally ev]y?+ t he he>s or reads1 & ?is w be fatal to subsequ5t progress4 ,! pr9ciple ( gradation may h be5 faultily appli$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,! tea*] may h consid]$ x 8 duty to ov]-articulate 8 words1 to pause be=e ea* ^w1 & to speak "u ! normal spe$ ( five syllables p] second4 ,9 ?is case ! /ud5t w h =m$ ! habit ( und]/&+ no =m ( spee* o!r ?an ?is artificializ$ type4 ,! capacity = und]/&+ normal1 rapid1 & ev5 "u-articulat$ spee* c only be develop$ by ex]cise 9 li/5+ to su* spee*1 & he w n h _h ?is ex]cise4 ,! elem5t>y programme may also h be5 drawn up 9 su* a way z to preclude ! /udy ( irregul> =ms4 ,if ?is has be5 ! case1 ! /ud5t1 unprep>$ = irregul>ities1 w n "k h[ to deal ) !m1 & 8 rate ( progress w be correspond+ly dim9i%$ :5 !y occur 9 m advanc$ "w4 ,^! are "s ( ! bad habits1 positive & negative1 :i* w result f an uns\nd elem5t>y c\rse2 ^! w be "s ( ! fruits ( e>ly lessons :i* h n be5 bas$ on ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( language-tea*+4 ,"o ( ! functions ( an elem5t>y c\rse is to enable ! /ud5t to make use1 ev5 if only 9 a rudim5t>y way1 ( ! language he is le>n+4 ,x is !re=e ma9ta9$ by "s t any =m :atev] ( tea*+ :i* leads to su* result may be consid]$ z satisfactory4 ,on ^! gr\nds x might be urg$ t1 z pidg9-spee* is bett] ?an no spee* at all1 we %\ld at ! outset aim at pidg91 & leave x to ! m advanc$ /age to conv]t ?is type ( spee* into ! normal v>iety z us$ by ! natives4 ,b ^? :o may hold ?is view =get t ! elem5t>y c\rse has a second & m important function1 viz4 s to prep>e ! /ud5t t 8 subsequ5t rate ( progress %all con/antly increase4 ,! quantity ( matt] conta9$ 9 ev5 ! ev]yday language is great--great] ?an mo/ ( u g5]ally imag9e4 ,n only are !re ?\s&s ( words1 b ! majority ( ^! consi/ ( a gr\p ( alli$ =ms1 decl5sional1 conjugational1 & d]ivative4 ,v _m words also /& = two1 ?ree1 or m diff]5t mean+s2 moreov]1 ! mean+ ( any ^w is influ5c$ by ! pres5ce ( o!r words 9 ! same s5t5ce4 ,7 ! beg9n] able to see 9 advance ! full ext5t ( ! "w t lies be=e him1 he might ab&on 8 task at ! outset4 ,! "w ( assimilat+ ?is enorm\s mass ( language-/uff w c]ta9ly nev] be accompli%$ on retail l9es2 x w n be done by m]e ef=ts ( analysis1 syn!sis1 & eye-"w4 ,unless ! rate ( progress increases cont9u\sly1 unless ! pr9ciple ( gradation is obs]v$ /rictly1 !re is no prospect ( ! /ud5t ga9+ t ma/]y ( ! language :i* is 8 aim4 ,x is ! elem5t>y /age1 long or %ort1 :i* w prep>e ! /ud5t = ?is increas+ rate ( progress1 & an elem5t>y c\rse :i* has n s prep>$ ! /ud5t _c be said to h accompli%$ its purpose4 ,x is dur+ ! elem5t>y /age t we turn out ! good or ! bad work]4 ,! function ( ! fir/ lessons is n only to tea* ! language1 b1 m important /ill1 to tea* ! /ud5t h[ to le>n4 ,:5 we h in/ill$ into him ! habits ( correct obs]vation1 ( us+ 8 e>s1 ( us+ 8 capacities = unconsci\s assimilation1 ( =m+ direct associations--9 %ort1 :5 we h taught him h[ to le>n--! subsequ5t /ages may safely be left to ! /ud5t & to nature4 ,let u take c>e ( ! elem5t>y /age1 & ! advanc$ /age w take c>e ( itself4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,language-,,tea*+ ,! art ( me?od-writ+ 7or ( c\rse-design+1 :i* is n v diff]5t7 is 9 its infancy2 x has all ! m>ks ( ! e>ly or ev5 primitive /age2 x is 9 a /ate ( sl[ evolution comp>able to t :i* *>act]iz$ ! gradual p]fect+ ( me*anical inv5tions & devices su* z ! typewrit]1 ! bicycle1 or ! calculat+ ma*9e4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( ea* ( ^! 7& _m simil> ?+s7 ea* model 0 m or less rudim5t>y & clumsy4 ,a doz5 diff]5t inv5tors work+ individually produc$ a doz5 diff]5t ma*9es2 al?\gh all design$ to accompli% ! same "w1 ! means adopt$ 9 ea* case diff]$ fundam5tally4 ,9 #ahij x 0 possible to di/+ui% ev5 at a di/ance ! make ( any p>ticul> bicycle4 ,at ! pres5t day we c /ill see great diff]5ces ( /ructure betwe5 ! diff]5t makes ( typewrit]s & calculat+ ma*9es4 ,z "t goes on1 h[ev]1 we notice a gradual conv]g5ce ( types2 "o inv5tor pr(its by ! "w ( o!rs2 9 spite ( ! laws ( pat5t1 c]ta9 improvem5ts are copi$ or adapt$1 individual defects are gradually elim9at$ & devices or dispositions :i* h prov$ _! wor? are adopt$4 ,! t5d5cy is always t[>ds ! m p]fect type1 ! m effici5t app>atus2 & ! pa? t[>ds p]fection is m>k$ by an ev]-gr[+ conv]g5ce ( types4 ,! ideal appe>s to be rea*$ :5 !re is practically no scope = fur!r improvem5ts2 by t "t ! !oretical pr9ciples h be5 work$ out & h become common prop]ty2 :at div]g5ces d cont9ue to exi/ are n conc]n$ ) ess5tials1 !y are m]ely v>iations ( equal value4 ,7 we to ask a hundr$ diff]5t bicycle-mak]s or boat-build]s to design :at !y consid]$ an ideal model1 ! hundr$ resultant models w\ld be = all practical purposes id5tical4 ,n[1 if we ask$ a hundr$ diff]5t language-tea*]s to design :at ea* consid]$ an ideal c\rse or text-book1 ! result at ! pres5t day w\ld c]ta9ly be a hundr$ diff]5t c\rses4 ,!y w\ld diff] 9 e conceivable way2 mo/ ( !m w\ld diff] f ! o!rs fundam5tally4 ,?is w\ld prove t ! art 9 "q is 9 a v e>ly /age2 x w\ld prove t few or no fundam5tal pr9ciples are g5]ally recogniz$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 at "s date 9 ! di/ant future we 7 to make ! same reque/1 re/rict+ our invitation to ^? :o w h made a special /udy ( ! subject1 to ^? :o w h be5 /riv+ t[>ds p]fection1 we %\ld probably f9d no great degree ( div]sity 9 ! treatm5t2 we %\ld see ! conv]g+ t5d5cy at "w1 & %\ld ga!r t ! fundam5tal pr9ciples 7 beg9n+ to /& out & to be respect$4 ,9 ! yet m di/ant future ! answ] to our reque/ might take ! =m ( a hundr$ manuscripts1 all ess5tially ! same1 & diff]+ only 9 non-ess5tial details2 we %\ld !n "k t ! fundam5tal pr9ciples _h be5 e/abli%$ & _h be5 accept$1 b by t "t none b exp]ts 9 ! subject w ev] v5ture to c>ry out su* highly te*nical "w4 ,mu* "t w probably elapse be=e we arrive at ?is desirable /ate ( ?+s2 mu* error w h to be elim9at$ & mu* exp]im5tal "w w h to be accompli%$4 ,we %all h to asc]ta9 exactly :at does take place :5 we le>n1 & exactly :at are ! m5tal processes involv$4 ,we %all !n h to grope ab\t & feel our way1 adopt+ & reject+1 modify+ & adapt+1 improv+ & p]fect+4 ,we %all h to co-ord9ate our ef=ts s t ea* may pr(it by ! success or failure ( fell[-work]s2 we %all h to exp]im5t "u all sorts ( conditions1 ) all sorts ( le>n]s1 & ) all sorts ( languages4 ,!re are di/9ct signs to-day t ?is k9d ( co-op]ation is com+ ab\t4 ,we see1 = in/ance1 t ! bran* ( language-/udy conc]n$ ) pronunciation is already f> advanc$ 9 ! exp]im5tal /age4 ,= ye>s pa/ phoneticians h be5 busily engag$ 9 rese>* "w2 at fir/ work+ ap>t1 !y are n[ com+ toge!r & pool+ _! ef=ts1 ea* pr(it+ by ! discov]ies ( ! o!rs4 ,a univ]sal t]m9ology is com+ into exi/5ce2 a univ]sal phonetic alphabet is well on its way2 ! pr9ciples ( phonetics & ( phonetic transcription are develop+ rapidly1 & ! inevitable exp]ts' qu>rels are becom+ m & m conf9$ to matt]s ( detail & to non-ess5tials4 ,! rem>kable advance 9 ?is comp>atively new sci5ce is "o ( ! mo/ hopeful signs ( progress1 & a pl$ge ( ev5tual p]fection4 ,a simil> advance 9 ! si/] sci5ces su* z gramm> & semantics is n yet app>5t1 b !re are signs t ere long ! _m isolat$ work]s 9 ^! doma9s w be able to d :at ! phoneticians did tw5ty or ?irty ye>s ago2 !y w enli/ new work]s1 !y w op5 up ! field ( rese>*1 !y w draw up1 fir/ t5tatively & !n decisively1 ! broad pr9ciples on :i* ! exp]im5tal & con/ructive "w w repose1 !re w be co-ord9at$ & co-op]ative ef=t 9 _m c\ntries1 & we %all witness ! com+ into exi/5ce ( ! g5]al sci5ce ( l+ui/ics4 ,9 ! meantime1 ! subject is engag+ ! att5tion ( psy*ologi/s4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ! psy*ologi/s1 ^: function x is to asc]ta9 h[ we le>n1 h n be5 consult$ by writ]s ( language-c\rses1 & few ( !m h ev] int]v5$ 9 ! matt]4 ,ea* language-tea*] has _h to feel 8 way z be/ he c\ld1 proce$+ empirically1 dabbl+ 9 psy*ology1 :i* meant t he did n always apply & (t5 mis9t]pret$ :atev] pr9ciples ( ! subject he may h pick$ up4 ,!re are signs t spee*-psy*ologi/s are ab\t to co-ord9ate _! ef=ts ) ^? ( ! phoneticians & ) ! exp]i5ce ( ^? :o are actively engag$ 9 mak+ _! language-tea*+ m effici5t4 ,we c po9t to m ?an "o c5tre bo? 9 ,engl& & abroad :]e ?is co-op]ation is 9 its initial /age1 & once ?is co-op]ation becomes an accompli%$ fact progress w be v rapid1 & ! progress w be s\nd4 ,! "w ( ,sweet1 ( ,jesp]s51 & ( de ,saussure 7to cite only ?ree ( our mod]n lead]s7 has already pav$ ! way = ! new & gr[+ cont+5t ( work]s :o are prep>$ to take up ! ?reads & to weave !m toge!r 9 ! fabric ( ! future4 ,:at are ! pr9ciples ( language-/udy s f> evolv$8 ,:at are ! fundam5tal axioms s f> po/ulat$8 ,d !y give u ! impression ( s\ndness8 ,d !y appe> to u to be reasonable8 ,d !y be> ! aspect ( f9ality8 ,we %all judge4 ,we %all endeav\r to =mulate ! lead+ pr9ciples :i* h result$ f long p]iods ( exp]im5tal "w s f> c>ri$ on by individual work]s4 ,! li/ w probably n be exhau/ive1 nor w ! items be pres5t$ 9 t p]fectly logical sequ5ce :i* ! future res]ves = x4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 seek to embody ! l>ge/ numb] ( important precepts "u ! smalle/ numb] ( head+s1 9 ord] t we may see 9 a concise =m some?+ :i* is /ill evolv+ & progress+ t[>ds fur!r effici5cy & simplicity4 ,we purposely omit f ! li/ c]ta9 m9or pr9ciples & modes ( application1 nor c p>ticul> details connect$ ) ! /udy ( p>ticul> languages be well includ$ 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,at ! pres5t day n9e ess5tial pr9ciples seem to /& out fairly cle>ly1 & may provisionally be nam$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,initial prep>ation4 7#b7 ,habit-=m+4 7#c7 ,accuracy4 7#d7 ,gradation4 7#e7 ,proportion4 7#f7 ,concret5ess4 7#g7 ,int]e/4 7#h7 ,ord] ( progression4 7#i7 ,multiple l9e ( approa*4 ,we app5d a brief def9ition or broad description ( ^! pr9ciples1 & res]ve = ! foll[+ *apt]s a detail$ explanation ( ea* ( !m4 7#a7 ,initial ,prep>ation4--,dur+ ! initial /ages ( ! c\rse ! tea*] w1 if necess>y1 endeav\r by means ( appropriate =ms ( ex]cise to awak5 & to develop ! /ud5t's natural or spontane\s capacities = language-/udy1 9 ord] t he may be adequately prep>$ = 8 subsequ5t "w4 7#b7 ,habit-=m+4--,language-/udy is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process2 ! tea*] w !re=e n only assi/ ! /ud5t 9 utiliz+ 8 previ\sly =m$ habits1 b w also cause him to acquire new ones appropriate to ! "w he is to p]=m4 7#c7 ,accuracy4--,no =m ( "w is to be adopt$ :i* may lead to inaccurate habits ( language-us+1 = habit-=m+ )\t accuracy means ! =m+ ( bad habits4 7#d7 ,gradation4--,! tea*] w cause ! /ud5t to pass f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n by easy /ages1 ea* ( :i* w s]ve z a prep>ation = ! next1 & !reby secure a con/antly increas+ rate ( progress4 7#e7 ,proportion4--,! v>i\s aspects ( language 7i4e4 und]/&+1 speak+1 read+1 & writ+7 z well z ! v>i\s bran*es ( ! /udy 7i4e4 phonetics1 or?ography1 etymology1 syntax1 & semantics7 to receive an appropriate measure ( att5tion4 7#f7 ,concret5ess4--,! /ud5t w proce$ f ! concrete to ! ab/ract1 & w !re=e be furni%$ ) an abundance ( well-*os5 examples4 7#g7 ,int]e/4--,! me?ods are to be devis$ 9 su* a way t ! int]e/ ( ! /ud5t is always secur$1 = )\t int]e/ !re c be little progress4 7#h7 ,ord] ( ,progression4--,! /ud5t %\ld fir/ be taught to he> & to articulate correctly1 !n to use s5t5ces1 !n to make s5t5ces1 !n to make 7i4e4 to inflect or to d]ive7 words4 ,9 ?is way he w secure rapid & yet p]man5t results4 7#i7 ,multiple ,l9e ( ,approa*4--,! language %\ld be approa*$ simultane\sly f _m diff]5t sides 9 _m diff]5t ways1 by means ( _m diff]5t =ms ( "w4 ,text-books may diff] 9 ! sort ( mat]ial suppli$2 tea*]s may diff] 9 _! mode ( pres5tation2 !re w be room = individuality & p]sonality4 ,= ye>s to come we %all n secure p]fect uni=mity & ideal results1 b if ^! n9e ess5tial pr9ciples are und]/ood & reasonably well obs]v$ by ! me?od-writ]1 c\rse-design]1 & tea*]1 ! resultant tea*+ is b\nd to be good & ! results are b\nd to be satisfactory4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,initial ,,prep>ation ,9 ! fir/ *apt] we h se5 t ea* ( u1 *ild or adult1 possesses 9 ei!r an active or a lat5t /ate c]ta9 capacities = ! spontane\s assimilation ( ! spok5 & colloquial =m ( any giv5 language1 native or =eign4 ,9 ! case ( ! "y *ild1 ^! capacities are 9 an active /ate & at 8 imm$iate s]vice1 he does n require to be tra9$ 9 _! use2 9 ! case ( ! av]age adult1 ^! capacities are 9 a lat5t /ate1 !y h fall5 into disuse1 !y are n at 8 imm$iate s]vice1 he mu/ tra9 himself to use !m1 he mu/ le>n h[ to le>n4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he mu/ realize t language-le>n+ 7)9 ! scope ( our def9ition7 is an art & n a sci5ce2 to become pr(ici5t 9 an art is to acquire ! capacity = do+ some?+2 to become pr(ici5t 9 a sci5ce is to acquire k conc]n+ some?+4 ,s long z ! /ud5t treats language-/udy z a sci5ce he w make little or no progress 9 ! art ( us+ language4 ,n[1 !re are two possible ways ( acquir+ pr(ici5cy 9 an art2 ! "o consi/s 9 apply+ !ory1 ! o!r consi/s 9 p]si/5t ef=ts to imitate ! successful p]=mances ( o!rs4 ,let u say t ! /ud5t wi%es to use ! ,fr5* equival5t ( #8%e w5t4' ,by ! me?od ( !ory he w rememb] t pa/ actions are g5]ally express$ by ! ,fr5* pass indf9i 7or p]fect72 he w !n rememb] t ?is t5se is =m$ by means ( "o ( ! two auxili>ies plus ! pa/ p>ticiple4 ,8 k ( !ory w tell him to d]ive f ! inf9itive all] ! pa/ p>ticiple all2 !ory w also tell him t ?is p>ticul> v]b requires ! auxili>y tre & n avoir1 & t ! pres5t t5se ?ird p]son s+ul> ( tre is e/4 ,if he is writ+ ! s5t5ce1 he mu/ rememb] t ! p>ticiple mu/ 9 ?is case agree ) ! subject & be spelt alle4 ,by ! me?od ( practice he w m]ely reproduce by imitation ! s5t5ce elle e/ alle1 :i* s5t5ce he w h _h occasions ( le>n+ or ( read+4 ,9 bo? cases !re is ! possibility ( error2 ! !ory may be imp]fectly kn[n & "o or m l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( reason+ may be weak1 or ! s5t5ce may h be5 badly memoriz$4 ,fir/ attempts at imitation are sometimes inaccurate2 our initial attempts at reproduc+ are occasionally unsuccessful2 we wi% to produce a =eign s\nd we h j he>d1 b utt] a native s\nd in/ead2 we wi% to produce a =eign s5t5ce1 b con/ruct x wrongly2 we wi% to express a c]ta9 ?\ght1 & fail to hit ^u ! "r ^w4 ,= ?is reason ! me?od ( practice is (t5 t]m$ ! me?od ( trial & error4 ,we are told t "s ( our ef=ts w be successful & o!rs unsuccessful1 & t 9 ! c\rse ( practice we %all gradually elim9ate ! unsuccessful ones4 ,we are ev5 told t x is only by mak+ mi/akes t we le>n n to make !m4 ,al?\gh we may admit a modicum ( tru? 9 ?is some:at hyp]bolical dictum1 we w\ld sugge/ t x is liable to mis9t]pretation4 ,nor is ! t]m trial & error an ideal "o f ! language-tea*]'s po9t ( view4 ,9 bo? cases !re is an implication t all successful attempts mu/ necess>ily be prec$$ by unsuccessful ones1 :i* is n only untrue b uns\nd p$agogy4 ,! lit]al int]pretation ( ! t]m & doctr9e may induce a sort ( fatali/ic attitude1 & ! pr9ciple ( accuracy 7:i* we %all deal ) lat]7 w suff] 9 consequ5ce4 ,x may provide tea*] & /ud5t ) an easy pretext to condone c>eless "w4 ,! /ud5t may say1 8,s9ce x appe>s t error mu/ prec$e p]fection1 ,i w n unduly /rive t[>ds accuracy40 ,! tea*] may say1 8,s9ce psy*ologi/s tell u t error is inevitable1 ,i w all[ my pupil to d inaccurate "w40 ,x may be true t "s =ms ( inaccuracy 9 c]ta9 conditions t5d to elim9ate !mselves 9 ! c\rse ( "t & practice1 b x is c]ta9ly true t errors also t5d to become habitual1 & no psy*ologi/ has ev] ma9ta9$ t ! =m+ ( bad habits is a necess>y /ep t[>ds ! acquisition ( good ones4 ,we w\ld lay /ress on ?is po9t1 = !re seems to be a real dang] 9 ! misapplication ( su* t]ms z #8trial & error1' #8! selection ( ! successful & ! rejection ( ! unsuccessful ef=ts1' #8practice makes p]fect1' etc4 ,misund]/&+ on ?is po9t has caus$ _m tea*]s to enc\rage1 & _m /ud5ts to acquire1 pidg9-spee*1 & to consid] x z ! inevitable or ev5 indisp5sable prelude to normal spee*4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] we are inquir+ :at are ! processes ( nature & h[ we may tra9 ! /ud5t to obs]ve !m4 ,we h j se5 t !re is a me?od ( !ory & a me?od ( practice2 x is fairly evid5t t ! latt] is a natural process & t ! =m] is n4 ,we w n[ proce$ to set =? ano!r pair ( rival processes & det]m9e :i* is ! "o foll[$ by ! natural language-tea*+ =ces4 ,:5 we are "y we =m new habits ) facility2 a new sort ( "w has to be p]=m$1 & we proce$ to acquire ! new habit :i* w enable u to p]=m x4 ,:5 we are old] we =m new habits ) great] difficulty & c]ta9ly ) great] reluctance4 ,we make all sorts ( ef=ts 7g5]ally unconsci\sly7 to avoid =m+ a new habit1 = 9 "s respects ! adult seems to dread novelty4 ,a new sort ( "w has to be p]=m$1 & in/ead ( acquir+ ! new habit or habits :i* w p]=m x we select habits already =m$ & /rive to make !m d ! new "w4 ,let u take a few examples 9 ord] to realize :at ?is means4 ,suppose we wi% to make ,*9ese *>act]s ) a native writ+-bru%4 ,?is is a new sort ( "w2 9 ord] to d x successfully we mu/ hold ! bru% v]tically 9 a way we h nev] held a bru% be=e2 we mu/ =m a new bru%-hold+ & bru%-us+ habit4 ,b ! av]age ,european adult w /rive to use ! bru% & to trace ! *>act]s by hold+ ! bru% z he holds a p52 he w be us+ ! kn[n p5-hold+ habit in/ead ( acquir+ ! unkn[n habit ( hold+ a writ+-bru%4 ,or we wi% to le>n to pron\nce ! v[el g5]ally repres5t$ 9 ,fr5* by 4 ,?is w require a muscul> habit unkn[n to ! av]age ,engli%man4 ,:at does he d8 ,he seeks imm$iately to replace ! requir$ new ef=t by a kn[n ef=t--& replaces ! ,fr5* by ! ,engli% ay4 ,if ?is is too unsatisfactory he w /rive to modify 8 ay until x seems to resemble suffici5tly ! requir$ s\nd4 ,simil>ly1 he w sub/itute = ,fr5* au1 u1 or on1 ,engli% o 7z 9 #8boat'71 ew 7z 9 #8new'71 & ong4 ,or ! ,engli% adult /ud5t may wi% to le>n to use ,fr5* ^w-gr\ps or s5t5ces1 9 :i* case we %all almo/ inv>iably f9d t he only le>ns to use ^? :i* correspond mo/ ne>ly to ,engli% con/ructions2 he pref]s to adapt 8 kn[n syntax-habits r ?an =m new ones4 ,n[ *ildr5 h n ?is same reluctance to =m new habits1 ei!r because _! m9ds are m pla/ic1 i4e4 !y are s us$ to =m+ new habits t a few m d n incommode !m1 or because !y are n clev] or intellig5t en\gh to make ! necess>y selection f _! /ock ( acquir$ habits4 ,language-le>n+ is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process1 a process dur+ :i* we mu/ acquire new habits4 ,x is1 !n1 "o ( ! cases :]e we _c always proce$ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n 9 ! m obvi\s s5se ( ! t]m2 we mu/ (t5 cons5t to plunge 7or be plung$7 /raight into ! unkn[n4 ,! mo/ important ?+ we h to d1 !n1 is to tra9 ! /ud5t to =m new habits & to cause him to refra9 f adapt+ 8 old ones 9 cases :]e we "k t su* adaptation w be fruitless4 ,we make ?is la/ qualification advis$ly1 because !re are c]ta9 cases :]e successful adaptation is possible4 ,a =eign language is n :olly diff]5t f our own tongue1 & :]e id5tity exi/s obvi\sly no new habit is requir$4 7,we mu/1 h[ev]1 see t ! /ud5t selects ! "r previ\sly acquir$ habit1 t is to say1 ! ne>e/ native equival5t47 ,! capacity ( =m+ new habits ( obs]vation1 articulation1 inflexion1 comp\nd+1 or expression = e new language is "o ( our spontane\s capacities1 & ! /ud5t mu/ :5 necess>y be taught to =m su* new habits4 ,ano!r v *>act]i/ic feature ( ! natural process is unconsci\s assimilation2 we le>n )\t kn[+ t we are le>n+4 ,:at we !re=e h to d is to tra9 ourselves 7or our /ud5ts7 consci\sly to le>n unconsci\sly2 we mu/ set out delib]ately to inhibit our capacities = focus+ or conc5trat+ our att5tion on ! language-mat]ial itself4 ,att5tion mu/ be giv5 to :at we want to say & n to ! way we say x4 ,h[ %all we d x8 ,9 ! fir/ place we mu/ set out to %>p5 our p[]s ( receiv+ & reta9+ k communicat$ to u orally4 ,?is may be difficult2 we h become s accu/om$ to acquir+ in=mation f ! writt5 ^w via ! eyes t we feel v bewild]$ & incapable :5 depriv$ ( ?is m$ium4 ,we he> a =eign ^w or s5t5ce1 & ?is auditory impression is su* a rapid & transitory "o t we feel t we _c possibly reta9 x 9 our memory2 we feel t we require at lea/ "o good look at ! ^w s t we may h]eaft] reproduce 9 our imag9ation ! writt5 =m4 ,b we mu/ resi/ ?is t5d5cy2 we mu/ discipl9e ourselves to =go ?is artificial aid to memory1 = e>-memory _c be cultivat$ :ile we are visualiz+4 ,if we truly desire to tap ! natural language-le>n+ en]gies we mu/ obey nature2 we mu/ tra9 & drill our e>s to d ! "w = :i* !y 7 int5d$4 ,if we make up our m9ds to tra9 our e>s to be effici5t in/rum5ts we c d s3 a little pati5ce1 a little practice1 & we %all surely rega9 ! p[] t we _h all[$ to lapse4 ,! ex]cises we use 9 ord] to %>p5 our e>-p]ceptions & to make !m s]ve u may be t]m$ #8e>-tra9+ ex]cises4' ,?is t]m may n satisfy ^? :o delight 9 hair-splitt+ def9itions2 !y may say1 8,we _c tra9 our e>s1 b we c tra9 our capacities = us+ !m02 b ! t]m is suffici5tly accurate to designate :at we mean x to designate4 ,h[ are e>-tra9+ ex]cises p]=m$8 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties4 ,! simple/ ( all is ?is3 ! tea*] articulates v>i\s s\nds1 ei!r s+ly or 9 comb9ation ) o!rs2 we li/5 to ^! s\nds & make unconsci\s ef=ts to reproduce !m by say+ !m to ourselves4 ,?is is ! mo/ passive & mo/ natural =m ( e>-tra9+2 we did x ye>s ago :5 ly+ 9 our cradles li/5+ to ! s\nds made by ! p ar\nd u4 ,if ! tea*] sy/ematizes 8 "w1 s mu* ! easi] w x be = u :o are tra9+ our e>s4 ,we mu/ !n seek to recognize or id5tify c]ta9 s\nds & to di/+ui% !m f o!rs4 ,! tea*] may write 79 conv5tional phonetic symbols7 a s]ies ( s\nds on ! blackbo>d & app5d to ea* a conv5tional numb]4 ,he w articulate a s\nd & ask u to give him ! numb] p]ta9+ to x1 or we may g up to ! blackbo>d & po9t to ! s\nd we ?9k we h he>d1 or he may give u #8phonetic dictation1' 9 :i* case he w articulate s\nds :i* we mu/ write d[n by means ( ^! conv5tional phonetic symbols4 ,?is latt] process has ! advantage t x c subsequ5tly be ext5d$ to ! dictation ( syllables or words4#a #a ,x w be pref]able = ^! to be #8nons5se words1' t is to say1 artificial words ) no mean+1 = if real kn[n words are articulat$ to u we may possibly write d[n n ! s\nds t we really he> b "s sort ( +5i\s phonetic translit]ation ( ! or?ographic =m ( ! ^w4 ,o!r =ms ( e>-tra9+ ex]cises may be devis$ by ^? :o are engag$ 9 c>ry+ out su* "w1 c>e be+ tak5 t su* ex]cises d really tra9 ! e>s & n our capacities = successful guess+4 ,if y wi% to "k to :at ext5t su* ex]cises d h ! desir$ effect1 g ?r\gh a %ort c\rse ( e>-tra9+ on ^! l9es & y w y\rself be a witness to _! efficacy4 ,e>-tra9+ is n conf9$ to isolat$ s\nds & simple comb9ations ( s\nds2 x also includes ! ex]cise ( our capacities = p]ceiv+ or reta9+ long /r+s ( syllables su* z s5t5ces4 ,we are able to d ?is 9 ! case ( our "m-tongue1 & !re is no reason :y we %\ld n soon become fairly pr(ici5t 9 do+ x 9 ! case ( a =eign language4 ,! next ?+ 9 importance is to le>n h[ to articulate =eign s\nds1 s+ly1 9 simple comb9ations1 or 9 long /r+s ( syllables4 ,we mu/ tra9 our m\? & our vocal organs g5]ally2 9 "s cases we mu/ develop c]ta9 muscles 9 ord] t !y may d easily & rapidly :at is requir$ ( !m4 ,we h le>nt to d ?is 9 ! case ( our "m-tongue1 & we c le>n to d ! same = s\nds :i* are s f> unkn[n to u4 ,x is nev] too late 9 life to develop a muscle 9 ord] t x may p]=m ! small am\nt ( "w :i* w be requir$ ( x4 ,we mu/ g ?r\gh a c\rse ( m\?-gymna/ics2 if we are dis9cl9$ to d s x means t we are dis9cl9$ to take ! tr\ble to tap our natural language-le>n+ res\rces4 ,:at are articulation ex]cises8 ,l e>-tra9+ ex]cises1 !y exi/ 9 _m v>ieties4 ,we beg9 by practis+ on kn[n s\nds4 ,we take simple s\nds & le>n to prolong !m = a few seconds or to utt] !m rapidly1 & we practise !m 9 new & unfamili> comb9ations4 ,we are %[n h[ to conv]t voic$ into voiceless s\nds & vice v]sa2 we are taught h[ to produce s\nds :i* are int]m$iate betwe5 two kn[n s\nds2 we are %[n h[ to conv]t kn[n s\nds into _! nasal1 lip-r\nd$1 or palataliz$ =ms1 etc4 ,we are tra9$ to imitate /range noises ( all sorts1 & ! phonetician is ready to %[ u h[ to make !m4 ,our e>-tra9+ ex]cises w be ( assi/ance to u1 = x is easi] to articulate s\nds t we recognize ?an s\nds :i* h s f> be5 unfamili> to our e>s4 ,at a m advanc$ /age1 articulation ex]cises gradually become m]g$ into #8flu5cy ex]cises4' ,:5 we are ask$ to articulate a giv5 /r+ ( syllables s _m times 9 s _m seconds we are le>n+ to become flu5t1 to connect s\nd ) s\nd & syllable ) syllable )\t ugly gaps & awkw>d hesitations4 ,:ile e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises are be+ c>ri$ on ! /ud5t %\ld be enc\rag$ to develop 8 p[]s ( mimicry2 aft] hav+ he>d on _m diff]5t occasions words or /r+s ( words utt]$ by ! tea*] he %\ld /rive to become at lea/ z pr(ici5t z p>rots & phonograph records 9 reproduc+ !m spontane\sly4 ,! t]m imitation is n adequate to express ! process by :i* he %\ld "w2 :at we require is absolute mimicry4 ,s\nds1 ) all t app]ta9s to !m--pit*1 timbre1 l5g?1 abruptness1 drawl1 di/9ctness1 & any o!r qualities & attributes possess$ by !m--%\ld be mimick$ fai?fully & accurately2 little or no di/9ction %\ld be made by ! le>n] betwe5 ! *>act]i/ic pronunciation ( ! language he is le>n+ & ! p]sonal pronunciation ( 8 tea*]4 ,! tea*]1 inde$1 %\ld say to ! /ud5t1 8,don't be cont5t ) a m]e reproduction ( :at y imag9e to be my /&>d ( pronunciation2 g fur!r & mimic me40 ,e>-tra9+1 articulation1 & mimicry ex]cises w c>ry u a long way t[>ds our aim2 :5 fairly pr(ici5t 9 ^!1 we %all f9d little difficulty 9 reproduc+ at fir/ he>+ a s5t5ce :i* has be5 articulat$ to u4 ,?is is "o ( our mo/ important aims2 once able to d ?is1 we are able to avail ourselves imm$iately ( "o ( ! mo/ valuable *annels = acquir+ ! =eign language2 we are able to assimilate =eign s5t5ces by e>2 e s5t5ce repeat$ 9 our he>+ w h its due effect 9 fur!r+ our k ( ! language & our capacity = us+ x4 ,anyone :o is unable to repeat ) tol]able accuracy any s5t5ce he has j he>d is c]ta9ly unable to assimilate ! =eign language by spontane\s me?ods4 ,he may seek to comp5sate ?is inability by me?ods involv+ ! imag]y ( ! writt5 ^w1 b ^! me?ods w be unnatural ones & w inhibit ! developm5t ( ! spontane\s p[]s4 ,anyone :o exp]i5ces a difficulty 9 repeat+ a =eign s5t5ce :i* he has j he>d w be sev]ely h&icapp$ 9 8 subsequ5t "w1 = he w be pay+ att5tion to 8 he>+ & articulation :5 he %\ld be devot+ 8 att5tion to o!r ?+s4 ,inde$1 we w\ld g s f> z to say t ! p[] ( correctly reproduc+ a /r+ ( syllables j he>d is "o ( ! ess5tial ?+s we mu/ possess 9 ord] to make any real progress 9 ! acquisition ( ! spok5 language4 ,x is ?is p[] :i* enables u to memorize on a wide scale s5t5ces & simil> /r+s ( words4 ,:e!r we l x or n1 :e!r ! prospect is enc\rag+ or n1 x is q c]ta9 t an easy comm& ( ! spok5 7& ev5 ( ! writt57 language c only be ga9$ by acquir+ ! absolute ma/]y ( ?\s&s ( comb9ations1 regul> & irregul>4 ,we %all see lat] t c]ta9 =ms ( syn!tic "w exi/ :i* w enable u to =m correctly an almo/ unlimit$ numb] ( =eign s5t5ces2 we %all see t ! utiliz+ ( ^! /udial =ms ( "w w c>ry u v f> on our way to acquire ! language2 b1 +5i\s & s\nd ?\gh !y may be1 !y w n replace ! crud] & m primitive process ( memoriz+ integrally a va/ numb] ( ^w-gr\ps4 ,n[ ?is task _c be accompli%$ by means ( int5sive & labori\s repetition "w2 x _c be accompli%$ by ! traditional me?ods ( memoriz+2 book-"w & p]sev]ance w nev] lead u to ! goal ( our memoriz+ ambitions4 ,z we %all see lat]1 9 ! e>ly /ages a c]ta9 am\nt ( delib]ate & consci\s memoriz+ mu/ be done2 we %all insi/ on ! daily repetition ( a c]ta9 numb] ( useful comp\nds1 b soon] or lat] we %all come to a /age 9 :i* memory-"w mu/ be c>ri$ out on a f> l>g] scale & 9 a f> m spontane\s mann]4 ,we mu/ tra9 ourselves to become spontane\s memoriz]s1 & ?is c only be done 9 "o way3 we mu/ acquire ! capacity = reta9+ a *ance phrase or comp\nd :i* has fall5 ^u our e>s 9 ! c\rse ( a conv]sation or spee*4 ,x is 9 ?is way t we h acquir$ ^? ?\s&s ( phrases & comb9ations :i* make up ! bulk ( our daily spee* 9 our own language4 ,we h acquir$ ! capacity ( not+ & reta9+ any new comb9ations ( ,engli% words :i* we may *ance to he>2 we d ?is unconsci\sly1 & are n aw>e ( do+ s2 we r>ely or nev] inv5t new types ( comp\nds1 b simply reproduce at appropriate mom5ts ^? types ( comp\nds :i* we h happ5$ to he> us$ by ^? speak+ 9 our pres5ce4 ,?is is "o ( ! habits we acquir$ 9 our infancy2 ?is is "o ( ! habits we mu/ revive n[ & use = ! =eign language we are /udy+4 ,s long z we h n acquir$ ?is habit our progress w be sl[--too sl[ = ! purpose we h 9 view4 ,at a lat] /age ( our /udy1 x is true1 we may make su* acquisitions by read+ in/ead ( li/5+1 b ?is w only be aft] we h become pr(ici5t 9 reproduc+ :at we he>4 ,we may be incl9$ to ?9k t we assimilate new l+ui/ic mat]ial by ! eye alone1 b ?is is n ! case2 ! eye alone _c assimilate4 ,x may be tak5 z prov$ to-day t all normal p #8inn]-articulate' all t !y read1 t we are inde$ incapable ( und]/&+ :at we read unless a process ( #8inn]-articulat+' is go+ on at ! same "t4 ,we ne$ n /op at pres5t to inquire exactly :at is ! psy*ological def9ition & explanation ( ?is inn]-articulat+2 we may cont5t ourselves = ! mom5t by def9+ ?is process z a sort ( #8m5tal repetition4'#b ,x is well kn[n t deaf-mute *ildr5 :o h be5 taught to read & to write nev] acquire ! p[] ( writ+ _! #8native language' z normally us$2 !y produce an artificial v>iety :i* reads z if x 7 writt5 by a =eign]4 ,nor is ?is to be wond]$ at2 x is p]fectly 9 accordance ) :at might be expect$2 deaf-mutes _c articulate1 ei!r al\d or m5tally2 !y are !re=e compell$ to le>n by /udial me?ods1 & !y acquire language z sl[ly & z pa9fully z anyone acquires a =eign language by m]e /udial me?ods4 #b ,victor ,egg]1 ,la ,p>ole intrieure3 8,s\v5t ce que n\s appelons ent5dre compr5d un comm5cem5t d'articulation sil5cieuse1 des m\vem5ts faibles1 bau*s1 dans l'app>eil vocal0 7,ribot74 ,to le>n to repeat m5tally exactly :at we he>1 nei!r m nor less1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( any o!r elem5ts ?an ^? ( he>+ & articulat+1 is1 !n1 "o ( ! ?+s we mu/ d if we wi% to avail ourselves ( ! help :i* nature is ready to af=d u4 ,ano!r ( ! spontane\s capacities ) :i* we are end[$ is t ( und]/&+ ! gi/ ( :at we he> )\t any int]v5tion ( analysis or syn!sis4 ,"s p seem nev] to h lo/ ?is p[]4 ,x suffices t !y %\ld h a c]ta9 numb] ( opportunities ( li/5+ to ! language be+ us$ = !m to be able to ga!r ! g5]al s5se ( :at !y he>4 ,o!rs d n appe> to possess ?is #8gift'2 !y _c und]/& any?+ !y h n analys$ & r$uc$ to its compon5t units4 ,9 reality1 if !y w\ld refra9 f s analys+ :at !y he> 7or ev5 read7 !y w\ld soon f9d !mselves able to d z well 9 ?is respect z ! #8gift$4' ,we !re=e sugge/ t a programme ( ?is sort %\ld include a c]ta9 numb] ( ex]cises design$ expressly to develop ?is p[] ( direct und]/&+4 ,:at sort ( ex]cises %\ld ^! be8 ,!y are _m & v>i$4 ,! ess5tial feature %\ld be ! rigid exclusion ( all opportunities = reason+1 calculation1 analysis1 or syn!sis4 ,! pupil mu/ n be all[$ to focus 8 consci\sness on ! /ructure ( ! language2 he mu/ keep 8 att5tion on ! subject-matt]4 ,! natural law 9 ?is respect w\ld seem to be t we %all come to und]/& :at we he> provid$ t we fix our m9ds n on ! actual words us$ b on ! circum/ances :i* result 9 ! words 9 "q4 ,int]e/ mu/ be pres5t4 ,if y are n int]e/$ directly or indirectly 9 :at y he>1 y may li/5 & li/5 = mon?s or ev5 ye>s )\t und]/&+ :at y he>4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ?+s are said 9 y\r pres5ce conc]n+ matt]s :i* affect ev5 di/antly y\r welf>e or :i* are connect$ ) y\r int]e/s or surr\nd+s1 y w h a t5d5cy to grasp ! mean+ ( :at is said4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to devise a s]ies ( ex]cises :i* fulfil ^! conditions2 we mu/ design =ms ( "w 9 :i* ! /ud5t's att5tion %all be direct$ t[>ds ! subject-matt] & away f ! =m 9 :i* x is express$4 ,gradation1 h[ev]1 mu/ be obs]v$ if we wi% to obta9 fairly rapid results1 we mu/ fir/ "w ) a comp>atively limit$ vocabul>y1 we mu/ use an abundance ( ge/ure1 we mu/ avail ourselves ( ev]y?+ likely to fur!r our aim4 ,9 s do+1 h[ev]1 we mu/ avoid ! o!r extreme2 if we are too c>eful 9 our *oice ( words1 if we speak too sl[ly & ov]-emphasize our spee*1 ! process ( und]/&+ w be too consci\s2 we %all be fo/]+ habits ( consci\s /udy & ( focus$ att5tion1 ?+s :i* are v good 9 _! way1 b :i* are n calculat$ to fur!r ! p>ticul> end we h at pres5t 9 view4 ,! mo/ natural =m ( "w1 inde$ ! fir/ =m ( "w :i* sugge/s itself to u1 consi/s 9 talk+ to our pupils1 talk+ to !m naturally & flu5tly1 talk+ to !m ab\t any?+ :i* may conceivably be ( int]e/ to !m4 ,we may %[ !m ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! room 9 :i* ! lessons are giv51 ! furniture1 objects on ! table or 9 our pockets1 & :ile %[+ !m we "n !m & speak ab\t !m4 ,we may p]=m all sorts ( actions & say :at we are do+2 we may describe ! position ( ! v>i\s objects1 _! qualities & attributes2 we may %[ pictures & describe !m4 ,^! elem5t>y talks w gradually develop2 we may pass by easi] /ages f ! concrete to ! ab/ract2 9 ! end we %all be relat+ 7& ev5 read+7 simple /ories1 & our li/5]s w come to foll[ our ?\ghts & und]/& :at we are say+1 ev5 z we und]/ood ! simple /ories = :i* we clam\r$ 9 our nurs]y days4 ,ano!r =m ( "w1 call$ #8imp]ative drill1' consi/s 9 giv+ ord]s 9 ! =eign language to ! pupils to p]=m c]ta9 actions 7/& up1 sit d[n1 take y\r book1 op5 x1 %ut x1 etc474 ,9 ! initial /age su* ord]s w be accompani$ by ! necess>y ge/ures2 ! /ud5ts w n be sl[ to grasp :at is requir$ ( !m1 & 9 a v %ort "t !y w respond automatically to ! /imulus provid$ by ! =eign imp]ative s5t5ce4 ,ano!r =m ( ex]cise design$ to cultivate ! capacity ( imm$iate compreh5sion is t 9 :i* we require our pupils to answ] yes or no 7oui or non1 ja or ne91 etc47 to hundr$s ( que/ions :i* we ask !m1 7,is ?is y\r book8 ,is ! sky blue8 ,am ,i speak+ to y8 ,are we 9 ,france8 etc41 etc47 ,c]ta9 o!r simple =ms ( sy/ematic que/ionnaire ex]cises w fur!r develop ! natural p[]s ( compreh5sion1 ( associat+ ! ^w ) ! ?\ght4 ,a type ( ex]cise call$ #8action-drill' w h ! same effect if c>ri$ out z a means to ! p>ticul> end we h 9 view4 ,^! !n are ! *ief ?+s to be done once we h decid$ to enli/ on our behalf ! univ]sal & natural p[]s ( language-us+1 & ^! are "s ( ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* we may a*ieve our aim4 ,all ( !m are possible & all ( !m c be c>ri$ out 9 actual practice by any tea*] :o has a suffici5t comm& ( ! =eign language 7& if he has n1 we c h>dly call him a compet5t tea*]74 ,no?+ has be5 sugge/$ "h :i* has n already be5 successfully c>ri$ out by ^? ^: bus9ess x is to asc]ta9 exp]im5tally h[ languages are actually le>n$4 ,! initial /ages ( ! language-c\rse w be v l>gely *>act]iz$ by ^! =ms ( "w1 9 ord] t ! /ud5t may be ?or\ghly prep>$ & m5tally equipp$ = ! lat] /ages4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,habit-,,=m+ ,,& ,,habit-,,adapt+ ,language-le>n+1 l all o!r arts z contra/$ ) sci5ces1 is a habit-=m+ process4 ,pr(ici5cy 9 ! und]/&+ ( ! /ructure ( a language is atta9$ by treat+ ! subject z a sci5ce1 by /udy+ ! !ory2 b pr(ici5cy 9 ! use ( a language c only come z a result ( p]fectly =m$ habits4 ,no =eign ^w1 =m1 or comb9ation ( ^! is #8kn[n' or #8ma/]$' until we c use x automatically1 until we c atta* x to its mean+ )\t consci\s analysis1 until we c produce x )\t hesitation & consci\s syn!sis4 ,we he> a =eign s5t5ce z pron\nc$ at a normal spe$ by a native speak]4 ,if we und]/& ?is s5t5ce z soon z x falls f 8 lips1 if we und]/& x )\t be+ consci\s ( its =m or )\t ev5 realiz+ t we are li/5+ to a =eign language1 we #8possess' t s5t5ce1 x =ms "p ( ! mat]ial :i* we h ga9$ z ! result ( a habit2 our und]/&+ ( x is #8automatic4' ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we ask ! speak] to repeat x or to say x m sl[ly1 if we claim a mom5t ( reflection 9 ord] to realize ! p>ts ( :i* x is compos$1 if we subject x to a rapid analysis or to a rapid translation1 we d n possess ! s5t5ce2 x has n become automatic4 ,we wi% to speak2 if ! =eign s5t5ce spr+s to our lips z soon z we h =mulat$ ! ?\ght1 if we are unconsci\s ( ! words or ! =m ( ! words conta9$ 9 x1 if we are unaw>e ( ! mann] 9 :i* we h piec$ x toge!r1 x is c]ta9 t we h produc$ x automatically1 we h produc$ x z ! result ( a p]fectly =m$ habit4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we prep>e ! s5t5ce 9 advance2 if1 z we utt] x1 we consci\sly *oose ! words or ! =m ( ! words conta9$ 9 x2 if we build x up by consci\s syn!sis or by a rapid translation f an equival5t s5t5ce ( our native tongue1 we d n produce x automatically2 we h n =m$ ! habit ( us+ ! s5t5ce or ! type ( s5t5ce to :i* x belongs2 we are produc+ x by means ( consci\s calculation4 ,adult /ud5ts 9 g5]al dislike =m+ new habits & avoid su* "w z f> z possible2 !y seek to replace x by =ms ( /udy requir+ discrim9ation & o!r processes ( ! intellect4 ,"o reason = ?is is t habit-=m+ (t5 entails monoton\s "w1 :]eas ! o!r types ( "w are m or less int]e/+2 ano!r reason is t ! =m+ ( a habit seems a sl[ process2 s _m repetitions are requir$ & progress is n at once app>5t1 :]eas ! o!r =m ( "w has all ! appe>ance ( rapidity4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t 9 reality :at we h le>nt z ! result ( a habit is n only imm$iately available at all times1 b is also a p]man5t acquisition1 & t :at we h le>nt by ! aid ( !ory alone is nei!r imm$iately available nor p]man5t4 ,let u take an example to illu/rate our po9t4 ,we wi% to le>n :5 & h[ to use ea* ( ! ,g]man cases4 ,! !ory ( ! decl5sion provides u ) all ! necess>y rules & exceptions4 ,"o set ( prepositions requires ! accusative1 ano!r ! dative1 ano!r ! g5itive1 ano!r accusative or dative accord+ to c]ta9 semantic consid]ations4 ,?is rule c be ma/]$ )\t any great difficulty2 )9 ! space ( a few h\rs ! necess>y =mul may be committ$ to memory1 & ! /ud5t imag9es t ! problem is solv$ = all "t4 8,:5ev] ,i want to "k :at case to use10 he ?9ks1 8,i %all only h to rememb] to :i* category ! preposition belongs & ,i %all "k :at case is requir$40 ,9 reality 8 k ( ! !ory1 i4e4 8 memory ( ! categories1 w soon become blurr$ & w t5d to fade away2 & ev5 if he does succe$ 9 reta9+ ?is fre% 9 8 memory1 he w always require a second or two ( consci\s reflection be=e he is able to hit on ! "r case4 ,he w be us+ consci\sness :]e unconsci\sness w\ld s]ve him bett]2 if 7z is probable7 he has le>nt to det]m9e g5d] by a simil> process1 8 consci\s att5tion w h to be devot$ to ?is z well1 he w be focus+ 8 att5tion on ! language-mat]ial1 :i* w prev5t him f focus+ x on ! ?+s he wi%es to say4 ,decid+ to use ^! #8%ort cuts' he w !re=e assume = 8 :ole lifetime ! burd5 ( cont9ual consci\s ef=t4 ,n[1 in/ead ( le>n+ & apply+ !ory he might memorize a hundr$ or s real liv+ s5t5ces1 ea* exemplify+ "o ( ! results ( ! !ory4 ,by do+ s he w\ld acquire a hundr$ or s new habits or automatic actions4 ,he recoils be=e ! task2 ! p]fect memoriz+ ( a simple s5t5ce is s di/a/eful to him2 x seems to take s long2 he fails to realize ! p]man5t advantages :i* he might obta9 by do+ x2 he *ooses :at seems ! easi] pa?1 ! %ort cut4 ,x is "h t we see ! value ( spontane\s assimilation4 ,if ! /ud5t has tra9$ 8 capacities ( reta9+ unconsci\sly :at he may happ5 to he> 7or read71 he w memorize )\t ef=t1 & )\t ! exp5diture ( any appreciable am\nt ( n]v\s en]gy4 ,! same consid]ations apply to ! le>n+ ( ! ,fr5* conjugation1 ,engli% pronunciation1 ,hung>ian vocalic h>mony1 ,wel% mutation1 or to ! ov]com+ ( ! o!r ob/acles 9 ! pa? ( progress t[>ds p]fect atta9m5t4 ,! fe> ( monoton\s & t$i\s memoriz+ "w1 & ! realization ( ! l5g? ( "t necess>y = ea* act ( memoriz+1 induce ! /ud5t to inv5t pretexts = avoid+ su* "w4 ,he decl>es t #8p>rot-"w' is n education1 t mod]n educationali/s condemn #8le>n+ by rote1' t ! age ( bl9d repetition is ov] & t ! age ( intellig5t und]/&+ has tak5 its place4 ,he w talk ( ! me?od ( discov]y1 ! factor ( int]e/1 & w ev5 quote to u #8! laws ( nature' 9 def5ce ( 8 !sis4 ,b we "k t 9 reality ^! are b s _m excuses = 8 dis9cl9ation to =m ^? habits :i* c secure him ! automatism :i* alone w result 9 s\nd & p]man5t progress4 ,?is fe> ( t$i\sness is n really ju/ifi$ at all1 = me*anical "w is n necess>ily monoton\s4 ,automatism1 x is true1 is acquir$ by repetition1 b ?is repetition ne$ n be ( ! p>rot-l type4 ,repetition1 9 ! s5se ascrib$ to x by ! psy*ologi/1 simply means hav+ _m sep>ate occasions to he>1 to see1 to utt]1 or to write a giv5 ^w or s5t5ce4 ,! object ( mo/ ( ! language-tea*+ ex]cises1 drills1 & devices inv5t$ or develop$ 9 rec5t ye>s is precisely to ensure prop] repetition 9 attractive & int]e/+ ways4 ,ne>ly all ! "t sp5t by ! tea*] 9 expla9+ :y su* & su* a =m is us$ & :y a c]ta9 s5t5ce is con/ruct$ 9 a c]ta9 way is "t lo/1 = su* explanations m]ely appease curiosity2 !y d n help u to =m new habits1 !y d n develop automatism4 ,^? :o h le>nt to use ! =eign language & :o d use x successfully h long s9ce =gott5 ! :y & ! :]e=e2 !y c no long] quote to y ! !ory :i* 0 suppos$ to h procur$ !m _! comm& ( ! language4 ,:5 tea*+ ! ,fr5* ^w *auve-s\ris x is n necess>y to po9t out t ?is is lit]ally equival5t to #8bald-m\se'2 & if we tell our /ud5t t a se compr5d really means #8t und]/&s itself1' we are tell+ him some?+ :i* is n true1 & some?+ t w cause him ne$less p]plexity4 ,haupt/adt is ! ,g]man equival5t ( #8capital' 79 ! geographical s5se71 & we ne$ n p&] to morbid etymological habits by mak+ an allusion to #8head-t[n4' ,no?+ is ga9$1 b mu* is lo/1 if we tell ! /ud5t t ! ,fr5* say #8,i am become' in/ead ( #8,i h become4' ,x may be object$ t habit-=m+ is aid$ by ^! explanations1 t ! k ( ! :y & ! :]e=e is a useful aid to ! process ( memoriz+4 ,!re is some?+ to be said = ?is /atem5t2 we are ready to admit t 9 "s in/ances x is good to po9t out ! nature ( ! laws t /& beh9d ! s5t5ces :i* exemplify !m2 we %all ev5 %[ lat] 9 :at cases & = :at reasons we c\nsel ! giv+ ( explanations4 ,b we are entirely at issue ) ^? :o ma9ta9 t explanations are an indisp5sable concomitant ( memoriz+1 & we give a flat contradiction to ^? :o ma9ta9 t 8!y _c memorize :at !y don't und]/&40 ,! mo/ successful l+ui/s h atta9$ _! pr(ici5cy by memoriz+ s5t5ces !y c\ld n analyse4 ,! temptation to replace habit-=m+ by analysis & syn!sis is s /rong t ! tea*] mu/ cont9ually react aga9/ x4 ,z we h already se51 in/ead ( acquir+ ! habit ( us+ ! ,fr5* s\nd ! ,engli% /ud5t p]si/s 9 replac+ x by "s =m ( ! ,engli% ay2 conv]sely1 ! ,fr5* /ud5t ( ,engli% t5ds to replace ! ,engli% ay by ! ,fr5* 4 ,mo/ ( ^! acts ( sub/itution are illegitimate2 ,fr5* eu is a v poor sub/itute = ,engli% u 9 b1 ! ,engli% ^w air is a m]e c>icature ( ! ,fr5* ^w air2 ( ! six s\nds conta9$ 9 ! ^w ?or\ghly rli1 only two1 & l1 are 9 any way equival5t to ,fr5* s\nds4 ,ab\t half ( ! =ty-six s\nds 7or r #8phones'7 conta9$ 9 ! ,engli% phonetic sy/em h no equival5t 9 ,fr5*1 & ab\t ! same proportion ( ! ?irty-sev5 ,fr5* s\nds are abs5t f ,engli%4 ,yet mo/ ,fr5* us]s ( ,engli% & mo/ ,engli% us]s ( ,fr5* endeav\r respectively to speak ! =eign language ) no o!r s\nds ?an _! native s\nds4 ,! ,fr5* sy/em ( /ress & intonation is entirely diff]5t f ! ,engli% sy/em1 b mo/ ,engli% /ud5ts w use _! native sy/em :5 speak+ ,fr5*4 ,! av]age ,engli% /ud5t replaces ,fr5* habits ( s5t5ce-build+ by 8 previ\sly acquir$ ,engli% habits1 & also attributes to ,fr5* words or ^w-comp\nds ! mean+s 7or connotations7 possess$ by :at he imag9es to be _! ,engli% equival5ts4 ,9 _m cases he is und\bt$ly ju/ifi$2 8 ef=ts are n all misplac$2 "s =eign s\nds are actually id5tical ) "s native s\nds1 "s =eign con/ructions are actually p>allel ) "s native con/ructions1 & "s =eign words & expressions d possess an exact c\nt]p>t 9 ! native language4 ,b ! tr\ble is t ! /ud5t fails to realize 9 :at cases ^! id5tities exi/2 untra9$ 9 obs]vation & discrim9ation1 he consid]s z equival5ts ?+s :i* are n1 & fails to id5tify z equival5ts ?+s :i* are4 ,fr5* a 9 patte is frequ5tly n f> remov$ f a p]fectly ,engli% v>iety ( u 9 cut1 b ! av]age ,fr5*man pron\nces cut ) ! ,fr5* v[el eu 9 veuve1 & ! av]age ,engli%man pron\nces patte ei!r ) ! v[el ( pat or ( "p4 ,! la/ syllable ( pleasure is practically id5tical ) ! ,fr5* ^w je1 b ! av]age ,fr5*man does n "k ?is1 & sub/itutes "s sort ( ,fr5* ure or eure4 ,! ,fr5* words s\haite1 semelle1 la9e1 dialecte are v simil> to ! 7real or imag9>y7 ,engli% words sweat1 smell1 l51 d'yullect1 b ! av]age ,engli% /ud5t does n "k ?is1 & uses pronunciations su* z soohate1 semell1 lane1 dee-ah-lect in/ead4 ,9 ^! & all p>allel cases ! /ud5t is utiliz+ c]ta9 ( 8 previ\sly acquir$ habits1 b un=tunately he has select$ ! wrong ones in/ead ( ! "r ones2 x is = ! skilful language-tea*] to asc]ta9 :i* ( ! /ud5t's kn[n habits c be mo/ ne>ly adapt$ to :at is requir$4 ,! same ?+ holds good 9 ! case ( con/ruction1 *oice ( words1 etc4 ,! ,engli% /ud5t con/ructs ! s5t5ce ,je m>*]ai la g>e on ! wrong model2 if he mu/ use an ,engli% habit at all1 he %\ld 9 ?is case proce$ f ,i %all g on foot to ! /ation & n f ,i %all walk to ! /ation4 ,"s may inquire at ?is po9t1 8,:y drag 9 ,engli% at all8 ,:y n ?9k 9 ! =eign language )\t ref]5ce to ! "m-tongue80 ,we w\ld reply t ?is is h>dly relevant to ! matt] "u imm$iate consid]ation2 we are simply %[+ t ! av]age /ud5t1 if left to himself1 w t5d n only to utilize 8 native l+ui/ic habits1 b to select v unsuitable ones4 ,we w\ld1 h[ev]1 add t cases d und\bt$ly exi/ 9 :i* ! /ud5t w\ld be well advis$ to enli/ "s ( 8 previ\sly acquir$ habits2 a judici\sly select$ native =m w produce bett] results ?an a badly con/ruct$ =eign =m4#c #c ,a typical example has j be5 notic$ by ! writ]3 a ,dut* /ud5t's pronunciation ( #8"k x' 0 almo/ un9telligible1 b :5 advis$ to replace ?is r5d]+ by ! ,dut* ^w nooit he produc$ a v close approximation to ! ,engli% pronunciation4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,accuracy ,let u be q sure we und]/& :at we mean by ! t]m #8accuracy4' ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no su* ?+ z intr9sic or uncondition$ accuracy2 ! t]m is a relative & n an absolute "o2 ?is ^w1 & its synonyms #8correctness1' #8rightness1' & ! adjectives #8accurate1' #8correct1' #8"r1' #8good1' #8prop]1' etc41 all imply con=mity ) a giv5 /&>d or model4 ,if ! dialect we are le>n+ is an unclassical "o1 diff]+ appreciably f ! lit]>y =m1 !n accuracy w consi/1 among o!r ?+s1 9 n us+ ! lit]>y or traditionally correct =ms4 ,!re=e1 if we are le>n+ colloquial ,fr5* we %all be guilty ( inaccuracies e "t we use cela in/ead ( a & e "t we use ! pass df9i 7or :atev] ! pres5t "n ( ?is t5se may be7 or ! imp>fait du subjonctif4 ,:e!r ! ,fr5* ,academician approves ( ! colloquial =ms does n conc]n u f ! mom5t t we h set out to le>n ! colloquial =ms4 ,du bon pa91 c'e/ pas a1 i' m'a dit que'qu'*ose may or may n be typical ( educat$ spee*1 b if1 = reasons ( our own1 we h decid$ to acquire ! type ( spee* exemplifi$1 !n de bon pa91 ce n'e/ pas cela1 il m'a dit quelque *ose w be inaccurate z n be+ 9 con=mity ) ! /&>d we h *os54 ,:o d y give x to8 ,:at h y got8 ,x's me1 ,"u ! circum/ances1 etc41 etc41 may or may n repres5t an atroci\s ,engli% dialect2 b we may decide to tea* ?is dialect to our =eign /ud5ts1 if only because ?is is ! dialect mo/ (t5 us$ by ! av]age educat$ speak]4 ,once we h made ?is decision we %all consid] z inaccuracies su* =ms z ,to :om did y give x8 ,:at h y8 ,x is ,i1 ,9 ! circum/ances4 ,:51 !re=e1 we use ! t]ms inaccuracy1 mi/ake1 fault1 wrong =m1 error1 etc41 we %all always mean some?+ n 9 con=mity ) ! type ( spee* *os5 z a conv5i5t /&>d4 ,"o ( ! duties ( ! language-tea*] & me?od-writ] is to react aga9/ ! t5d5cy ( ! /ud5t t[>ds inaccuracy4 ,we %all g5]ally f9d two types ( inaccuracy3 7a7 t :i* consi/s 9 us+ ! wrong dialect 7lit]>y in/ead ( colloquial1 or vice v]sa71 & 7b7 t :i* consi/s 9 us+ pidg94 ,pidg9 or pidg9-spee* may be def9$ z t v>iety ( a language :i* is us$ exclusively by =eign]s4#d ,"s k9ds ( pidg9 7e4g4 pidg9-,engli% ( ! ,*9a ports1 ! ,*9ook j>gon ( ,briti% ,columbia7 h become s /&>diz$ t !y may almo/ be consid]$ z normal languages2 _m p delib]ately set out to le>n su* pidg9-languages1 & we may conceive ( ! possibility ( ^! possess+ sub-pidg9 =ms4 #d ,or1 9 "s cases1 by natives :5 speak+ to =eign]s4 ,9 connexion ) ! fir/ type ( inaccuracy 7wrong dialect71 we %\ld "h note t ! un$ucat$ native t5ds to make too ext5sive a use ( ! popul> dialect1 :]eas ! t5d5cy ( ! /ud5t to :om ! language is =eign is ! contr>y "o3 he makes too ext5sive a use ( ! classical or traditionally correct =m4 ,! un$ucat$ native w t5d to use ! colloquial =m :5 writ+2 ! =eign] w t5d to use ! lit]>y :5 speak+4 ,9 bo? cases x is "p ( ! functions ( ! tea*] to react aga9/ ^! t5d5cies3 to ! s*ool*ild he w say1 8,don't use a preposition to f9i% a s5t5ce )602 to ! =eign speak] he w give ! contr>y advice4 ,hav+ def9$ ! t]ms accuracy & inaccuracy1 let u n[ see to h[ _m bran*es ( language-/udy ^! t]ms 7& _! synonyms7 may be appli$4 7a7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 s\nds4 ,! /ud5t mu/ be taught1 by means ( appropriate drills & ex]cises1 to make & to use ! s\nds ( ! language he is /udy+2 if he uses an ,engli% s\nd 9 place ( a ,fr5* "o1 or if he uses a "r ,fr5* s\nd 9 ! wrong place1 he w be do+ inaccurate "w4 ,e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises 7z describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii7 w t5d to make him accurate 9 ?is respect4 7b7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 ! use ( /ress & intonation4 ,to use "o language ) ! /ress & intonation sy/em ( ano!r results 9 a =m ( pidg94 ,! /ud5t mu/ be taught1 by means ( appropriate drills & ex]cises1 to obs]ve & to imitate ! sy/em us$ by ! natives4 7c7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 flu5cy4 ,mo/ languages are spok5 at ! rate ( five syllables p] second4 ,no?+ is to be ga9$ by speak+ at a sl[] rate2 inde$1 x w (t5 be f\nd t rapid spee* is easi] ( acquisition ?an sl[ spee*4 ,correct flu5cy includes correct assimilation or abs5ce ( assimilation1 & ! requisite degree ( smoo?ness or grace ( utt]ance2 we may (t5 note ! h>% & halt+ effect ( ! spee* ( =eign]s :o :5 speak+ _! native tongue are ma/]s ( ! art ( elocution4 ,by means ( appropriate ex]cises1 ! /ud5t c be made to obs]ve accuracy 9 flu5cy4 7d7 ,:5 ! /ud5t uses ! traditional spell+ ( ! language he %\ld be enc\rag$ to avoid or?ographic inaccuracy4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 few mi/akes ( ?is sort are made1 & ^! t5d to be elim9at$ m or less spontane\sly4 ,if ?is is n ! case1 appropriate ex]cises may be devis$ 9 ord] to ensure accuracy 9 ?is respect4 ,let u note "h1 ) all ! emphasis :i* is due to su* an important po9t1 t ! exclusive use ( a phonetic script 9 ! e>ly /ages g5]ally leads to a great] accuracy 9 ! traditional spell+ :i* is le>nt subsequ5tly4 ,we make no attempt "h to furni% an explanation ( :y & h[ ?is is s1 b leave x to psy*ologi/s to inve/igate ! subject & to asc]ta9 ! causes ( :at may seem p>adoxical & ev5 incr$ible to ^? :o h n _h suffici5t tea*+ exp]i5ce4 7e7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 comb9+ words2 ! laws ( s5t5ce-build+ are n ! same = all languages1 & ! /ud5t mu/ be tra9$ to obs]ve ! "r laws2 he mu/ be taught to be accurate 9 concord1 9 comp\nd+1 & 9 ^w-ord]4 ,"s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ me?ods & devices are design$ specifically to react aga9/ inaccurate t5d5cies 9 ?is respect4 ,x is z easy & z natural to say la table 7& n le table7 z x is to say latitude 7& n letitude72 x is z easy to le>n je ne le lui ai pas donn z any ( ! inaccurate examples ( ^w-ord] by :i* ! av]age ,engli% /ud5t t5ds to replace x4 7f7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 ! use ( inflexions4 ,x is z important to le>n ! "r inflect$ =ms ( a ^w z to le>n ! un9flect$ ^w4 ,if our me?ods are "r1 x is z easy to le>n ! ^w env]rai z x is to le>n ! ^w envoy]1 & f> easi] to le>n env]rai ?an envoy]ai4 ,! habit ( us+ ! "r inflexions is "o t mu/ be acquir$ at z e>ly a /age z possible & z unconsci\sly z possible4 ,_m me?ods & devices exi/ :i* h be5 design$ to combat inaccuracy 9 ?is respect4 7g7 ,!re may be accuracy or inaccuracy 9 mean+s4 ,! mean+ ( a ^w may v>y consid]ably accord+ to its context4 ,op5 9 ! s5se ( op5 ! door has n ! same mean+ z op5 9 ! s5se ( op5 ! box4 ,mo/ ,engli% words h two or m mean+s2 ! =eign words :i* are assum$ to be _! equival5ts may also h two or m mean+s1 b ! =eign ^w does n necess>ily h all ! mean+s ( ! ,engli% ^w1 & vice v]sa4 ,! bran* ( l+ui/ics :i* deals ) mean+s1 synonyms1 translations1 def9itions1 etc41 is call$ #8semantics'2 special =ms ( "w h be5 devis$ to ensure semantic accuracy on ! "p ( ! /ud5t4 ,! pr9ciple ( accuracy may be express$ z foll[s3 ,d n all[ ! /ud5t to h opportunities = inaccurate "w until he has arriv$ at ! /age at :i* accurate "w is to be reasonably expect$4 ,if we =ce him to speak ,fr5* be=e he has be5 suffici5tly drill$ 9 ,fr5* s\nds1 we are =c+ him to pron\nce inaccurately4 ,if we tell him to d ,fr5* composition be=e he has acquir$ ! necess>y habits ( inflexion1 comp\nd+1 & s5t5ce-build+1 we are invit+ him to d inaccurate "w4 ,if we compel him to talk to u 9 ,fr5* be=e he has become pr(ici5t 9 conv]sion & simil> drills1 we are virtually compell+ him to speak pidg9-,fr5* &1 incid5tally1 to =m ! habit ( do+ s4 ,9 opposition to ! pr9ciple ( accuracy1 we are frequ5tly told t 8,x is only by mak+ mi/akes t we le>n n to make !m10 & t 8,only by go+ into ! wat] c we le>n to swim40 ,^! are *eap prov]bs1 & we may z easily co9 o!rs su* z3 8,x is by mak+ mi/akes t we =m ! habit ( mak+ !m02 or1 8,he :o has n le>nt to swim w dr[n :5 ?r[n into deep wat]40 ,! me?od ( trial & error1 to :i* we h already allud$1 is 9 direct opposition to ! pr9ciples ( accuracy2 x is ! me?od ( s9k-or-swim1 ( die-or-survive1 ( fl\nd]-&-grope-until-y-hit-on-!-"r-way4 ,to replace ?is me?od by some?+ less cruel is ! function ( su* ?+s z guides1 tea*]s1 & p$agogic devices4 ,= let u rem>k t ! environm5t ( ! "y *ild :o acquires language spontane\sly1 z expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,i1 is su* t error has little or no *ance ( surviv+2 ! p]sons ) :om he is 9 contact are provid+ him cont9ually ) accurate models ( :atev] ! dialect may happ5 to be2 he is giv5 no *ance ( imitat+ wrong models1 & he is n intellig5t en\gh to create !m himself 9 any appreciable degree4 ,fur!rmore1 ! "y *ild z a matt] ( fact does n beg9 to use language until he is fairly pr(ici5t 9 ! important spee*-habits2 he r>ely or nev] uses a =m ( spee* until he has memoriz$ x by he>+ x us$ by o!rs4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important advances 9 ! art ( language-tea*+ w h be5 made :5 ! pr9ciple ( accuracy is und]/ood1 accept$1 & adopt$ by all :o are engag$ 9 ?is "w ei!r z tea*]s or z tra9]s ( tea*]s4 ,we h se51 !n1 t !re are sev5 bran*es ( language-/udy 9 :i* accuracy 7or inaccuracy7 may be develop$4 ,9 connexion ) ea* ( ^! !re exi/ me?ods1 ex]cises1 & devices design$ to inculcate "r habits & to prev5t ! =mation ( wrong ones4 ,!re exi/ also sci5ces ^u :i* mo/ ( ^! are bas$4 ,! me?ods deal+ ) s\nds1 /ress1 intonation1 & flu5cy are bas$ on ! data furni%$ by phonetics1 & )\t a k ( ?is sci5ce ! tea*] is unlikely to secure accuracy 9 ^! bran*es4 ,! 7s f> empirical7 sci5ce ( gramm> is ! basis ( ^? me?ods & ex]cises calculat$ to ensure accuracy 9 inflexions & s5t5ce-build+4 ,or?ography 7possibly a sci5ce1 ?\gh ?is is d\btful7 is ! basis ( spell+ "w1 & ! new 7& s f> empirical7 sci5ce ( semantics w furni% ! necess>y data = all me?ods1 ex]cises1 & devices conc]n$ ) mean+s4 ,9 addition to ^! specific sci5ces1 me?ods1 ex]cises1 & devices1 !re are g5]al =ms ( me?od ( ! /rategical ord]1 ! effect ( :i* is to ensure g5]al accuracy4 ,z ^! are practically id5tical ) gradation1 we res]ve _! consid]ation = ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,gradation ,gradation means pass+ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n by easy /ages1 ea* ( :i* s]ves z a prep>ation = ! next4 ,if a /ud5t :o is will+ to le>n & is capable ( le>n+ f9ds 8 lessons too difficult1 if he fails to und]/& or to apply correctly ! explanations we give him1 if 8 rate ( progress is too sl[1 if he =gets frequ5tly :at he has already le>nt1 & if 8 oral or writt5 "w is *>act]iz$ by an excessive degree ( inaccuracy1 x is p]fectly c]ta9 t 8 c\rse & 8 lessons are badly grad$4 ,! /ud5t's progress may 9 ! initial /age be sl[2 aft] t5 or tw5ty lessons he may n seem to h advanc$ v f>2 b if he has be5 lay+ a good f\ndation he has be5 do+ good "w1 = x w mean t ! next /age ( 8 "w w be accompli%$ m easily & m rapidly4 ,dur+ ! fir/ lessons he is n s mu* le>n+ ! language z le>n+ h[ to le>n x4 ,dur+ ! second p]iod 8 progress w be m rapid & he w assimilate m ( ! actual language-mat]ial1 & he w !n be le>n+ 9 su* a way t ! ?ird /age w be /ill m rapid1 & s on ?r\gh ! subsequ5t /ages2 8 rate ( progress w increase 9 proportion z he advances4 ,9 ! ideal c\rse1 ?is pr9ciple w be obs]v$ 9 ! fulle/ possible measure2 ! c\rse itself w be divid$ into appropriate /ages1 ea* ( :i* w be m>k$ by an increas$ capacity on ! "p ( ! /ud5t = assimilat+ & us+ language-mat]ial4 ,! vocabul>y 9 a well-grad$ language-c\rse w be arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t ! m useful words w be le>nt be=e ! less useful4 7,let u rememb] t !re are two sorts ( #8useful words'3 ^? :i* are useful 9 !mselves on acc\nt ( _! intr9sic mean+1 & words :i* are useful z s5t5ce-=m]s47 ,! rate ( progress on ! "p ( ! /ud5t w dep5d v l>gely on ! mann] 9 :i* ! vocabul>y is grad$4 ,tw5ty-five well-*os5 words w =m m useful s5t5ces ?an _m p believe2 ) five hundr$ well-*os5 words an incr$ibly l>ge numb] ( valuable s5t5ces c be =m$4 ,= detail$ in=mation on ?is po9t we w\ld ref] ! read] to ! /ati/ics :i* h be5 compil$ by ^? :o h made a special /udy ( ?is p>ticul> subject4 ,9 ! ideally grad$ c\rse ! /ud5t fir/ assimilates a relatively small b exce$+ly important vocabul>y2 he le>ns to use x1 he le>ns ! m important peculi>ities ( ea* ^w1 he le>ns h[ to comb9e ^! words 9 s5t5ces1 he le>ns ! exact range ( mean+s cov]$ by ea* ^w ei!r s+ly or 9 comb9ation ) its fell[s4 ,?is small vocabul>y !n con/itutes a s\nd nucleus1 & ?is nucleus is ( tw(old utility2 x n only provides ! /ud5t ) useful words1 ) language-mat]ial :i* he c actually use1 b x s]ves at ! same "t z a sort ( c5tre ( attraction = new language-mat]ial4 ,! mo/ apt illu/ration ( ?is =m ( gradation is ! sn[ball1 ! huge mass ( sn[ :i* accumulates rapidly & easily once we h provid$ ! nucleus repres5t$ by ! fir/ compact & well-r\nd$ h&ful4 ,! grammatical mat]ial mu/ also be grad$4 ,c]ta9 moods & t5ses are m useful ?an o!rs2 let u !re=e conc5trate on ! useful ones fir/4 ,9 a language possess+ a numb] ( cases1 we w n le>n (f ! :ole set ( prepositions1 _! uses & requirem5ts1 b we w select !m 9 accordance ) _! degree ( importance4 ,z = li/s ( rules & exceptions1 if we le>n !m at all we w le>n !m 9 /rict ord] ( necessity4 ,9 mo/ languages we %all probably f9d c]ta9 fundam5tal laws ( gramm> & syntax ^u :i* ! :ole /ructure ( ! language dep5ds2 if our c\rse is to comprise ! consci\s /udy ( ! me*anism ( a giv5 language1 !n1 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple ( gradation1 let u fir/ le>n ^! ess5tials & leave ! details to a lat] /age4 ,gradation c & mu/ also be obs]v$ 9 ! /udy ( ! semantic aspect ( a language4 ,if a giv5 ^w has sev]al mean+s1 let u fir/ associate ! ^w ) its m usual or useful mean+s4 ,if a =eign] is to le>n ! ,engli% v]b to af=d1 let him beg9 by us+ x 9 su* s5t5ces z ,i c't af=d x1 & n 9 su* examples z ,x af=ds me ! necess>y opportunity4 ,if we are tea*+ ,fr5*1 let u fir/ use ciel 9 ! s5se ( sky & leave ! idea ( heav5 to a lat] /age4 ,i may g has m ?an "o mean+1 b let u fir/ tea* x 9 ! s5se ( ,p]haps ,i %all g2 ! o!r v>ieties are n ( press+ importance4 ,:5 we introduce b1 let u associate x ) its usual mean+ & =get = ! mom5t t semantic v>iety :i* is equival5t to except4 ,x is n suffici5t = u to adopt ! g5]al pr9ciple ( gradation2 we mu/ adopt ! "r sort ( gradation2 = we c easily imag9e all sorts ( false grad+4 ,we c imag9e a tea*] refus+1 on ! score ( gradation1 to tea* irregul> =ms be=e regul> ones1 & ju/ify+ 8 proc$ure by ! ass]tion t ! regul> is easy & ! irregul> difficult4 ,?is k9d ( gradation1 h[ev]1 is obvi\sly uns\nd1 see+ t "s ( ! mo/ useful words 9 mo/ languages are v irregul>4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 9 a s\nd c\rse ( /udy bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( automatism ! irregul> =ms are le>nt z easily z 7& sometimes m easily ?an7 regul> =ms4 ,we c also imag9e "s tea*]s ma9ta9+ 7on gr\nds ( gradation7 t ! ^w %\ld be treat$ be=e ! s5t5ce4 ,!y w\ld say t x is easi] to assimilate a ^w ?an a s5t5ce1 t :at is easi] %\ld come fir/4 ,o!rs might say1 8,tea* easy words fir/ & difficult ones lat]40 ,b ?is _c be "r1 = if we obs]v$ ?is rule we %\ld tea* a ,spani>d or a ,fr5*man ! ,engli% v]b to compreh5d be=e ! v]b to und]/&4 ,gradation does n necess>ily imply pass+ f ! easy to ! difficult1 b x always does imply pass+ f ! m important1 useful1 or fundam5tal to ! less important1 useful1 or fundam5tal4 ,n[1 :atev] ! true unit ( spee* may be1 our lead+ semanticians & spee*-psy*ologi/s are all agre$ t ?is unit is r>ely ! ^w1 b g5]ally ! ^w-gr\p or s5t5ce4 ,consequ5tly1 to />t f ! ^w is n only bad gradation b bad semantics4 ,we h he>d x ass]t$ on gr\nds ( gradation t ! writt5 =m ( a language %\ld be /udi$ be=e its spok5 =m4 ,"h aga9 we f9d ! same mis9t]pretation ( ! t]m gradation & ! same fallacy ( #8facility4' ,if relative facility is to be ! basis ( gradation1 !n we %\ld tea* ! geography ( ,portugal be=e tea*+ ! geography ( ! ,briti% ,empire1 & we %\ld po/pone our /udy ( *ess until we h become exp]t 9 ! easi] game ( n\ghts & crosses4 ,to le>n h[ to read & to write a language may possibly be easi] ?an to le>n h[ to speak x & to und]/& x :5 spok51 b ?is has no be>+ on ! subject ( gradation4 ,ano!r false int]pretation ( ! pr9ciple is to assume t ! /ud5t w beg9 by us+ incorrect or pidg9-,fr5* 7or :atev] ! language may be7 & w gradually become m p]fect #8) practice' z he goes on4 ,n[ if ?is is gradation1 x is a p>ticul>ly vici\s =m1 & 9 flat contradiction to ! pr9ciples ( habit-=m+ & accuracy4 ,to tea* to adults #8*ild-l words' be=e ! words us$ by adults is ano!r mis9t]pretation ( gradation4 ,we d inde$ see classes 9 :i* boys or girls ( twelve or ?irte5 le>n to recite =eign nurs]y rhymes1 b we d\bt :e!r any tea*] w\ld s]i\sly ma9ta9 t words su* z dog or %eep %\ld be prec$$ by b[-w[ or baa-baa4 ,hav+ exam9$ "s faulty & vici\s mann]s ( int]pret+ ! t]m gradation1 let u n[ proce$ to epitomize a few rational applications ( ! pr9ciple we h set =?1 & let u assure ! read] t ea* "o ( ^! has be5 prov$ to be psy*ologically s\nd4 7a7 ,e>s be=e ,eyes4--,all fre% language-mat]ial %\ld be pres5t$ 9 its oral =m & n 9 its writt5 =m4 ,s\nds %\ld fir/ be practis$ )\t any ref]5ce to any graphic =ms ( repres5tation2 ! e>1 n ! eye1 is ! organ provid$ by nature = recogniz+ & assimilat+ s\nds4 ,words %\ld fir/ be he>d & imitat$ orally1 = ideal assimilation is n help$ b h9d]$ :5 ! writt5 =m is pres5t4 ,fre% ^w-gr\ps & s5t5ces %\ld also z f> z possible be fir/ introduc$ & le>nt orally4 ,! adult /ud5t :o compla9s t ! process is too difficult is "u ! illusion t we he> ) our eyes4 7b7 ,reception be=e ,production4--,x is q c]ta9 t ! /ud5t w be unable to reproduce a s\nd1 a ^w1 or a ^w-gr\p t has be5 pron\nc$ to him until he has really he>d ! model t he is call$ ^u to imitate4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 really he>+ & m]ely imag9+ t "o has he>d a s\nd or a succession ( s\nds4 ,z a rule we d n he> :at is actually said to u2 we m]ely he> :at we expect to he>4 ,ask ! av]age =eign] to repeat aft] y a ^w su* z und'/&2 in/ead ( reproduc+ ! exagg]at$ly %ort5$ =m z repres5t$ above 9 two syllables1 he w say und]/& 9 ?ree syllables4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 he is "u ! impression t he he>d y articulate ! ?ree syllables1 & consequ5tly he reproduces :at he ?\ght y said4 ,ask ! av]age =eign] to repeat aft] y ! ^w turn pron\nc$ 9 ,s\!rn ,engli% 7i4e4 )\t an r7 & he w ins]t an r because he imag9es t he he>d "o4 ,! s5t5ce il doit v5ir is pron\nc$ by ! av]age ,fr5*man z idwavnir2 pron\nce x l t to ! av]age ,engli% /ud5t ( ,fr5* & ask him to imitate y2 9 mo/ cases y w obta9 :at ! /ud5t imag9$ he he>d1 viz4 il dwa vni 7! la/ ^w hav+ a rem>kable resemblance to ! ,engli% ^w v5e]74 ,! /ud5t mu/ !re=e n only be tra9$ to he>1 b 9 all fairness to him he %\ld be giv5 ample opportunity ( he>+ ! s\nd1 ^w1 or ^w-gr\p t he w be call$ ^u to reproduce4 ,let him he> x sev]al times1 let him conc5trate 8 att5tion on ! succession ( s\nds )\t any reg>d to its writt5 =m or its mean+4 ,let u endeav\r z f> z possible to give ! /ud5t two or ev5 m sep>ate opportunities 7) appropriate int]vals7 ( truly he>+ any giv5 s\nd1 ^w1 or ^w-gr\p be=e call+ ^u him to imitate ! model4 7c7 ,oral ,repetition be=e ,read+4--,j z oral repetition %\ld be prec$$ by a p]iod ( audition1 s %\ld read+ be prec$$ by oral repetition4 ,be=e call+ ^u a pupil to read (f f ! blackbo>d or 8 book a ^w1 li/ ( words1 s5t5ce1 or succession ( s5t5ces1 let u fir/ ask him to repeat aft] u ! requir$ mat]ial4 ,if he _c reproduce to our satisfaction a s5t5ce t he has j he>d f our lips1 he w c]ta9ly be unable to reproduce ! s5t5ce by ! process ( read+4 7d7 ,imm$iate ,memory be=e ,prolong$ ,memory4--,! tea*] pron\nces a s\nd or a succession ( s\nds 7a ^w1 a ^w-gr\p1 or a s5t5ce74 ,a few seconds lat] ! pupil reproduces :at he has he>d2 he does n f9d x v difficult to d s1 = ! s\nd ( ! tea*]'s voice is /ill r++ 9 8 e>s2 9 8 imag9ation he c /ill he> ! tea*]'s voice1 & he has b to speak 9 unison ) x4 ,! sort ( memory :i* enables him to reproduce :at he has j he>d is call$ imm$iate memory4 ,ano!r "t ! tea*] pron\nces a s\nd or a succession ( s\nds4 ,! next day ! pupil is call$ ^u 7)\t be+ prompt$7 to reproduce :at he he>d ! day be=e4 ,he may fail altoge!r to d s1 or he may succe$4 ,t sort ( memory :i* enables him to reproduce :at he has he>d "o1 sev]al1 or _m days be=e is call$ prolong$ memory4 ,let u be q c]ta9 t we und]/& ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two extreme v>ieties ( memory4 ,let u *oose a ^w 9 a language unkn[n to u4 ,let ?is be ! ,hung>ian ^w sz5v$ni1 mean+ to suff]4 ,! ^w is pron\nc$ snvdni2 9 ! abs5ce ( a tea*] let u pron\nce ! ^w ourselves ?ree or f\r times4444 ,let u take our eyes f ! book1 & let a few seconds pass4444 ,h[ d y say to suff] 9 ,hung>ian8 snvdni4 ,q correct2 we h reproduc$ ! ^w f imm$iate memory4 ,to-morr[ or ! day aft] let u ask ourselves h[ !y express to suff] 9 ,hung>ian4 ,if we are able to answ] correctly )\t ref]r+ to ! book1 x w be by d9t ( our prolong$ memory4 ,if ?is exp]im5t is inconclusive1 let u take a ^w-gr\p1 a s5t5ce1 or a li/ ( words2 we %all !n realize h[ mu* m difficult x is to reproduce new matt] aft] ! s\nd ( x has fad$ f our e>s4 ,let u rememb] ?is exp]im5t :5 we are tea*+2 :5 our pupils reproduce correctly 7ei!r by repetition or by translation7 :at !y h he>d a few seconds 7or ev5 a few m9utes7 be=e1 let u rememb] t we h s f> only appeal$ to _! imm$iate memory1 & let u n expect an equally satisfactory result :5 we call ^u !m to reproduce ! same matt] ! next day )\t prompt+4 ,to expect ! same results f ! prolong$ z f ! imm$iate memory implies a faulty grasp ( ! pr9ciple ( gradation4 ,let u give our pupils ample opportunities1 on an appropriate numb] ( occasions1 ( reproduc+ matt] he>d a few mom5ts previ\sly2 ?is w /r5g!n _! associations & :5 lat] on we appeal to _! prolong$ memory1 ! results w be satisfactory4 7e7 ,*orus-"w be=e ,individual ,"w4--,be=e we call on an individual pupil to articulate a s\nd or a succession ( s\nds1 let ! "w be done 9 *orus on two or m diff]5t occasions4 ,= an individual to h to submit 8 t5tative ef=ts to ! criticism & p]haps laught] ( 8 fell[-pupils is n conducive to good results4 ,let ! individual pupils te/ _! articulation 9 company ) o!rs1 & :5 by s do+ !y h ga9$ a c]ta9 ma/]y ( :at !y h to repeat & h !reby ga9$ a c]ta9 degree ( confid5ce1 let !m proce$ to reproduce s+ly :at !y h previ\sly phonat$ toge!r4 7f7 ,drill-"w be=e ,free ,"w4--,?is is p]haps ! mo/ important ( ! precepts to be obs]v$ 9 connexion ) gradation4 ,! =ms ( ex]cise to :i* ! g5]al t]m drill-"w may be appli$ are _m & v>i$4 ,"s ( !m are calculat$ to tra9 ! /ud5t 9 p]ceiv+ & discrim9at+ ! s\nds ( :i* ! language is compos$2 o!rs are articulation ex]cises2 !re are also special =ms ( drill-"w :i* aim at secur+ flu5cy & accuracy 9 produc+ successions ( syllables4 ,! "q-&-answ] me?od may be embodi$ 9 _m int]e/+ =ms ( drill-"w2 !re exi/ also _m v>ieties ( action drill1 conv]sion drill1 translation drill1 & gramm> drill4 ,all ^! =ms are *>act]iz$ by common attributes3 !y are all sy/ematic1 highly organiz$1 & susceptible ( inf9ite gradation2 ! "w is me?odical & proce$s /eadily & cont9u\sly )\t breaks or int]ruptions4 ,mo/ =ms ( drill-"w h be5 compos$ & are c>ri$ out 9 su* a way z to preclude ! possibility ( ! /ud5t's =m+ bad habits4 ,inde$1 if ! "w is c>ri$ out z design$ ! elem5t ( error %\ld be almo/ entirely exclud$4 ,n[ free "w 9 all its v>i$ =ms1 su* z free conv]sation1 free translation1 & free composition1 diff]s greatly f drill-"w1 & we c all te/ify to ! ludicr\s results ^! =ms ( "w yield :5 p]=m$ by "o :o has _h no previ\s drill+4 ,if ! /ud5t has n be5 put ?r\gh a prop] c\rse ( drill-"w1 all 8 ef=ts at free "w w be bas$ on t mo/ unnatural & vici\s ( processes--conv5tional translation f ! "m-tongue4 ,! undrill$ ,fr5* /ud5t w be speak+ & writ+ n ,engli% z we und]/& ! t]m1 b angliciz$ ,fr5*4 ,hav+ =m$ no ,engli% language habits1 he w ca/ all 8 ?\ghts 9 ! ,fr5* m\ld1 & :5 ! exact ,engli% equival5ts to 8 ,fr5* words & phrases are miss+ he w break d[n4 ,free "w )\t ! ess5tial prep>ation means faulty "w1 unc]ta9 & erratic "w2 x means ! =mation ( ne>ly all ! bad habits :i* *>act]ize ! av]age /ud5t & :i* m> 8 "w4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,proportion ,9 language-/udy z 9 any o!r bran* ( activity we mu/ obs]ve a s5se ( proportion2 we mu/ pay due att5tion to ! v>i\s aspects ( ! "q 9 ord] to ensure a h>moni\s :ole4 ,x is possible to devote too mu* "t & ef=t to a giv5 aspect or bran*2 ?is is ! case :5 su* "t & ef=t are sp5t at ! exp5se ( an aspect or bran* ( equal or ( great] importance4 ,x is necess>y1 = in/ance1 to give mu* att5tion to ! und]/&+ ( ! language z spok5 rapidly & idiomatically by natives2 b if ?is occupies ! :ole ( our "t we %all be able to d no?+ else1 & %all nei!r le>n to speak1 nor to read1 nor to write4 ,?is w\ld be an obvi\s violation ( ! pr9ciple ( proportion4 ,x is necess>y to "k some?+ ( ! gramm> ( ! language1 b if we devote e lesson ( a ?ree ye>s' c\rse to ! /udy ( gramm> we %all aga9 be (f5d+ aga9/ ?is pr9ciple4 ,we t5d to give too mu* att5tion to ?+s :i* int]e/ u1 & too little to ^? ?+s 9 :i* we are n p>ticul>ly int]e/$4 ,su* inequality ( treatm5t is m p>ticul>ly apt to occur 9 ^! days ( specialization2 ! intonation speciali/ ?9ks ( little b intonation1 & t5ds to ?9k t ev]y?+ else is ( second>y importance2 ! phonetician is s ke5ly alive to ! imm5se importance ( e>-tra9+ & ( correct articulation t he may t5d to dismiss all o!r ?+s z trivialities2 ! gramm>ian gr9ds away at decl5sions & conjugations reg>dless ( ! exi/5ce ( su* ?+s z s\nds & tones2 ! semantician is s int5t on mean+s t all has to be sacrific$ to 8 special bran*4 ,! mo/ typical example ( disproportionate treatm5t is1 ( c\rse1 t af=d$ by ! or?ographi/ ( ! old s*ool2 = him language is no?+ b a set ( spell+ rules2 pronunciation = him is ! int]pretation ( spell+s2 gramm> is a bran* ( or?ography1 & mean+s !mselves are l>gely dep5d5t on ! way a ^w is spelt4 ,9 ! pres5t-day reaction aga9/ ! or?ographi/ we may expect a sw+ to ! o!r extreme1 & we may f9d s*oolma/]s welcom+ spell+ mi/akes z ! signs ( a heal?y t5d5cy t[>ds phoneticism4 ,already ! reaction aga9/ ! ov]-use & abuse ( translation ex]cises has result$ 9 an almo/ equally grave ov]-use & abuse ( ! #8direct' me?od4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 times :5 a seem+ly undue proportion ( att5tion %\ld be direct$ to c]ta9 ?+s1 notably :5 we h to react aga9/ a vici\s t5d5cy4 ,if our /ud5t is too ke5ly int]e/$ 9 or?ography & oblivi\s to ! importance ( phonetics1 we may be ju/ifi$ 9 exclud+ or?ography f 8 programme4 ,if he is morbidly int]e/$ 9 gramm> & analysis1 we may f9d x necess>y to give him ov]doses ( semantics & unconsci\s assimilation 9 ord] to re-e/abli% "s sort ( equilibrium4 ,) ! /ud5t :o refuses to le>n a ^w until he sees x writt5 we mu/ = "s "t make an exclusive & seem+ly disproportionate use ( oral "w & phonetic writ+4 ,! pr9ciple ( proportion1 !n1 does n necess>ily imply equality ( treatm5t nor ev5 a fix$ /&>d ( ratios2 x simply means t all ! items 9 ! :ole range ( subjects & aspects mu/ receive an appropriate degree ( att5tion1 s t ! /ud5t's k ( !m may ultimately =m a h>moni\s :ole4 ,x is impossible to obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( proportion )\t hav+ 9 view ! ultimate aim ( ! /ud5t4 ,if 8 sole object is to become a ma/] ( colloquial expression1 our s5se ( proportion w tell u to exclude 9 a v l>ge measure ! /udy ( ! conv5tional or?ography4 ,! ultimate aim ( mo/ /ud5ts is f\rfold3 7a7 ,to und]/& ! language :5 spok5 rapidly by natives4 7b7 ,to speak ! language 9 ! mann] ( natives4 7c7 ,to und]/& ! language z writt5 by natives 7i4e4 to read ! language74 7d7 ,to write ! language 9 ! mann] ( natives4 ,ea* ( ^! f\r aspects requires special me?ods ( tea*+4 ,a me?od or device :i* w rapidly enable ! /ud5t to und]/& ! language :5 spok5 w be inefficaci\s z a me?od = tea*+ him to produce a writt5 composition4 ,no am\nt ( composition "w1 on ! o!r h&1 w tea* him h[ to und]/& :at is rapidly utt]$ by natives4 ,if 7z is freely admitt$7 a comm& ( ! spok5 language is a great help t[>ds acquir+ comm& ( ! writt51 ! conv]se is n ! case2 pr(ici5cy 9 writt5 "w does n imply progress 9 oral "w4 ,to pay too mu* or too little att5tion to any ( ^! f\r aspects is a violation ( ! pr9ciple ( proportion4 ,! pr9ciple may also be violat$ by pay+ too mu* or too little att5tion to any ( ! five *ief bran*es ( practical l+ui/ics3 phonetics1 or?ography1 ^w-build+1 s5t5ce-build+1 & semantics4 ,let u pass !m 9 review 9 ord] to make q sure t we und]/& ! scope ( ea* & h prop]ly discrim9at$ betwe5 !m4 ,phonetics tea*es u h[ to recognize & h[ to make ! s\nds ( :i* ! language is compos$2 x tea*es u ! diff]5ce betwe5 two or m s\nds :i* resemble ea* o!r1 & betwe5 a giv5 =eign s\nd & its ne>e/ native equival5t4 ,or?ography 7) :i* we may associate or?oepy7 tea*es u h[ to spell :at we h already le>nt by e>2 x also tea*es u h[ to pron\nce :at we h le>nt by eye f an ord9>y or?ographic text4 ,^w-build+ 7accid5ce & etymology7 tea*es u inflexions1 prefixes1 & suffixes1 & h[ to use !m1 h[ to =m plurals f s+ul>s1 accusatives f nom9atives1 f9ite t5ses f inf9itives2 mo/ ( ! my/]ies ( decl5sion & conjugation are includ$ "u ?is head+2 ! collect+ ( ^w-families p]ta9s to ?is bran*4 ,s5t5ce-build+ 7syntax & analysis7 tea*es u h[ to comb9e words into s5t5ces1 h[ to =m comp\nd t5ses1 phrases1 & clauses2 x tea*es u ! places ( ! v>i\s s5t5ce-compon5ts1 ! nature & use ( concord or agreem5t2 x %[s u ! diff]5ces betwe5 regul> & irregul> s5t5ces4 ,:5 prop]ly sy/ematiz$ 7accord+ to a special sci5ce to :i* ! "n ( #8ergonics' has be5 giv57 ?is p>ticul> bran* ( l+ui/ics %[s u h[ to =m ! l>ge/ possible numb] ( s5t5ces ) ! fewe/ words4 ,semantics tea*es u ! mean+ ( words1 ( inflexions1 & ( comp\nds2 x %[s u h[ to trans=m our ?\ghts into language1 to select ! mo/ appropriate ^w or =m1 & to int]pret correctly :at we he> & read4 ,x is m especially ?is bran* :i* tea*es u ! diff]5ces 9 /yle & dialect1 & enables u to di/+ui% ! colloquial f ! classical & to keep ei!r f contam9at+ ! o!r4 ,if we are to judge by ! av]age tea*] & ! av]age language-c\rse1 ! pr9ciple ( proportion is usually violat$ by tea*+3 7a7 ,no phonetics at all4 7b7 ,too mu* or?ography or or?oepy4 7c7 ,too mu* ^w-build+4 7d7 ,too little s5t5ce-build+4 7e7 ,practically no semantics4 ,! pr9ciple ( proportion may also be obs]v$ or violat$ 9 ! selection ( vocabul>ies & ( grammatical mat]ial4 ,to include 9 e>ly lessons words or =ms :i* are comp>atively r>e1 ar*aic1 & useless1 :ile exclud+ "s ( ! commone/ & mo/ useful items ( language-mat]ial1 is an (f5ce n only aga9/ ! pr9ciple ( gradation b also aga9/ ! pr9ciple ( proportion4 ,too little att5tion also is usually paid to ensur+ a j proportion betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts ( spee*4 ,!re is a fairly well def9$ s]ies ( laws :i* det]m9e ! relative numb] ( n\ns1 v]bs1 & adjectives occurr+ 9 a giv5 vocabul>y radius1 & ) ! gr[+ att5tion :i* is be+ giv5 to ?is sort ( /ati/ical "w ^! laws are /&+ out m cle>ly & are com+ to be bett] und]/ood4 ,we h also to note a regrettable t5d5cy to give pref]5ce 9 vocabul>ies to words ( special utility 7su* z names ( plants1 animals1 p>ts ( ! body1 tools1 implem5ts1 & su*-l semi-te*nical words7 & to neglect unduly words ( g5]al utility1 words :i* may occur 9 any context & :i* are common to any subject4 ,?is is a p>ticul>ly grave case ( disproportion :5 we consid] t ! bulk ( any giv5 text 7probably f #hj p] c5t4 to #ij p] c5t4 ( x7 is made up ( ^! g5]al words4 ,proportion mu/ be obs]v$ 9 det]m9+ ! respective quantities ( drill-"w & free "w1 ( translation-"w & #8direct "w1' ( int5sive read+ & ext5sive read+1 ( *orus-"w & individual "w ne$$2 ?r\gh\t ! :ole range ( ! subject !re are possibilities ( good or ( bad proportion4 ,x is = ! tea*] or = ! design] ( language-c\rses to see t ! pr9ciple is reasonably well obs]v$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,concret5ess ,su* expressions z = in/ance1 = example1 or "h is a case 9 po9t are fairly common 9 our spee*4 ,:5ev] we he> somebody expla9+ some?+ we may be c]ta9 t "o ( ^! expressions w occur n once b _m times4 ,:5 we ourselves set out to expla9 any?+ we may be q sure t 9 a v few mom5ts we %all use "o ( ! expressions 9 "q1 & inde$ our c]ta9ty is ju/ifi$ 9 almo/ e case4 ,! reason = us+ su* phrases is q cle>2 e "t we d s x is because we feel in/9ctively t we h j made a /atem5t :i* is n suffici5tly explicit2 we are m or less aw>e t we h express$ some?+ 9 t]ms r too ab/ract1 & we wi% to r$uce our /atem5t to m concrete t]ms2 we feel ! necessity = concret5ess4 ,!re is a simil> reason = us+ su* expressions z 9 o!r t]ms1 9 o!r words1 or t is to say4 ,we feel 9 ^! cases t an explanation j giv5 is want+ 9 lucidity1 & we add a supplem5t>y explanation 9 ord] to make our po9t m concrete4 ,! sub/ance ( ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess is conta9$ 9 ! maxim1 8,example is bett] ?an precept02 we intuitively "k ?is to be true1 & our own exp]i5ce confirms our judgm5t2 we rememb] on h[ _m occasions a few typical examples h be5 ( great] help to our und]/&+ ?an ! be/-word$ def9itions or ! mo/ detail$ descriptions4 ,psy*ologi/s confirm u 9 our impression & assure u t x is correct2 inde$1 "o ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! psy*ology ( /udy is t we mu/ "w f ! concrete to ! ab/ract4 ,let u take a concrete example to s]ve z an illu/ration4 ,"o ( ! ?+s we h to tea* ! ,fr5* /ud5t ( ,engli% is t ant]ior duration is express$ 9 ,engli% by ! use ( ! p]fect t5ses 7if possible 9 _! progressive =m7 & n by ! use ( ! ord9>y non-p]fect t5ses z 9 ,fr5*1 & t depuis or its equival5t is n m]ely s9ce4 ,! :ole po9t c be express$ m or less ab/ractly by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,fr5* ,engli% ,non-p]fect t5se depuis measure ( duration or ,correspond+ p]fect ,il y 7non-p]fect t5se ( 7progressive7 t5se 7=7 avoir7 measure ( duration measure ( duration4 que non-p]fect t5se ,non-p]fect t5se depuis ,correspond+ p]fect t]m signify+ initial 7progressive7 t5se mom5t ( duration s9ce t]m signify+ initial mom5t ( duration4 ,n[ ?is is a v concise =mula & probably cov]s ! :ole ( ! gr\nd4 ,b x is express$ 9 su* ab/ract t]ms t we _c expect ! av]age /ud5t to grasp x1 /ill less to apply x 9 8 spee*4 ,we c concretize x by furni%+ "o or two typical examples4 ,we c say3 8,look at ! clock1 x's j half-pa/ twelve--we />t$ ?is lesson at twelve1 didn't we8 ,well1 x means t we h be5 work+ s9ce twelve o'clock2 we h be5 work+ = half an h\r4 ,h[ long h we be5 work+8 ,= half an h\r4 ,s9ce :5 h we be5 work+8 ,s9ce twelve o'clock4 ,repeat t aft] me4 ,repeat x aga94 ,n[ j note t we say ,we h be5 work+1 n ,we "w or ,we are work+4 ,n[1 !n1 h[ d y say ,n\s travaillons depuis midi8 ,& ,n\s travaillons depuis une demi-heure8 ,note t n\s sommes sometimes becomes we h be540 ,t w\ld be a fairly concrete 7b n ideally concrete7 way ( tea*+ ! po9t 9 "q4 ,! av]age /ud5t w\ld grasp ! po9t1 & ! consci5ti\s /ud5t w\ld probably obs]ve x & incorporate x into 8 usage4 ,b ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess goes beyond ?is2 x does n m]ely /ate t examples ( e rule %\ld be giv51 x specifies v>i\s degrees & v>i\s k9ds ( concret5ess4 ,an example 9 itself is m concrete ?an a rule1 b "o example may be m concrete ?an ano!r2 let u !re=e *oose ! m concrete examples1 t is to say1 ^? :i* w create ! /ronge/ semantic associations4 ,concret5ess w be ! *ief det]m9+ factor 9 ! *oice ( ! e>ly vocabul>ies2 x w t5d to make u give a pref]5ce to words & comp\nds l5d+ !mselves to #8direct' "w4 ,x w n1 h[ev]1 be ! sole factor1 = if we decid$ to make an exclusive use ( su* words x w\ld be at ! exp5se ( ! pr9ciple ( proportion4 ,"h is ano!r example ( :at is impli$ by concret5ess4 ,x (t5 occurs t a /ud5t w le>n h[ to con/ruct a s5t5ce--inde$1 he may ev5 memorize x--& yet fail to realize t x is a real liv+ s5t5ce1 an integral "p ( 8 l+ui/ic rep]tory ready = imm$iate use4 ,he may h le>nt ! con/ruction ,w\ld y m9d ----+ & be able to translate x backw>ds & =w>ds & inv>iably to quote x 9 8 li/ ( comp\nds requir+ ! use ( ! +-=m1 & yet1 in/ead ( us+ x 9 actual practice1 may replace x by ,w\ld y be s k9d z to or "s su* /ilt$ equival5t4 ,9 su* cases we may be sure t ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess has n be5 suffici5tly obs]v$4 ,! #8direct me?odi/s' ( ! m extreme type int]pret concret5ess 9 a curi\s way1 & id5tify x ) ! non-translation pr9ciple & ) ! pr9ciple ( ! exclusion ( ! "m-tongue z a vehicul> language4 ,!y t5d to ?9k t by keep+ ,engli% out ( ! ,fr5* lesson1 ! tea*] causes ,fr5* to be acquir$ concretely4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ?is is true1 b !re are probably f> m contr>y cases4 ,9 ! example relat+ to ! expression ( ant]ior duration ! concret5ess consi/s v l>gely 9 po9t+ out ! diff]5ce ( usage 9 ! two languages4 ,9 ord] to make ! con/ruction ,w\ld y m9d p]fectly concrete to a ,fr5*man1 we mu/ insi/ on its semantic equival5ce to 8 ,e/-ce que a ne v\s f]ait ri5 de4 ,"o ( ! ?+s we mu/ d to concretize ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,i did s1 ,s ,i did1 & ,s did ,i1 is to furni% ! /ud5t ) 8 respective native equival5ts4 ,!re are f\r ways & f\r ways only ( furni%+ a /ud5t ) ! mean+ ( giv5 =eign units3 7#a7 ,by imm$iate association1 z :5 we po9t to ! object or a picture ( ! object designat$ by a n\n or pron\n1 :5 we p]=m ! action designat$ by a v]b1 :5 we po9t to a real example ( ! quality designat$ by an adjective1 or :5 we demon/rate 9 simil> ways t :i* is designat$ by a preposition ( place or c]ta9 categories ( adv]bs4 7#b7 ,by translation1 z :5 we give ! ne>e/ native equival5t or equival5ts ( ! =eign unit4 7#c7 ,by def9ition1 z :5 we give a synonym or p>aphrase ( ! ^w or ^w-gr\p or a description ( t :i* is designat$ by x4 7#d7 ,by context1 z :5 we embody ! unit 9 s5t5ces :i* w make its mean+ cle> 7e4g4 ,janu>y is ! fir/ mon? ( ! ye>2 ,london is ! capital ( ,engl&74 ,^! f\r me?ods or modes ( #8semanticiz+' a unit are "h giv5 9 ord] ( :at are g5]ally _! relative degrees ( concret5ess4 ,!re may1 h[ev]1 be "s cases 9 :i* translation w be m concrete ?an imm$iate association4 ,translation is n 9 itself necess>ily #8indirect' 7or #8inconcrete1' z we %\ld pref] to express x72 x may be relatively indirect :5 comp>$ ) good examples ( imm$iate association1 b x is und\bt$ly m #8direct' ?an a cumbr\s or vague def9ition1 or an obscure context4 ,! foll[+ precepts may s]ve z concrete examples ( ! way we c c>ry ! pr9ciples ( concret5ess into practice3 7#a7 ,let ! example prec$e or ev5 replace ! rule4 ,a well-*os5 example or set ( examples may s completely embody ! rule t ! rule itself w be sup]flu\s4 7#b7 ,give _m examples to ea* important rule4 ,we h not$ t ! sugge/$ treatm5t ( ! problem ( ant]ior duration 0 n an ideal "o4 ,9 ord] to make x ideal we %\ld h tak5 a second example 7e4g4 ,h[ long h y be5 le>n+ ,engli%87 & /ill m examples 7e4g4 ,h[ long h y be5 9 ?is room8--be5 liv+ 9 ,engl&8--be5 liv+ at y\r pres5t address8 ,h y be5 sitt+ "h s9ce twelve o'clock or s9ce a qu>t] pa/ twelve8 ,h[ long has ,france be5 a republic874 ,too (t5 ! tea*] imag9es t "o example con/itutes a complete exposition ( a giv5 po9t3 :]eas 9 reality x is by f9d+ 7consci\sly or unconsci\sly7 ! common elem5t 9 _m examples t we come to grasp ! usage exemplifi$4 7#c7 ,:5 tea*+ or allud+ to ! peculi>ities connect$ ) n\ns1 *oose z examples ! n\ns :i* are ! names ( v>i\s objects actually 9 ! room1 & 9 ea* case po9t to or h&le ! object 9 "q4 ,h&l+ p5cils1 p5s1 & books :ile talk+ ab\t !m v mu* facilitates ! grasp+ ( pr9ciples ( decl5sion4 7#d7 ,:5 tea*+ or allud+ to ! peculi>ities connect$ ) v]bal =ms1 *oose z examples v]bs su* z take1 put1 see1 g1 come1 sit1 /&1 etc4--t is to say1 v]bs t c be #8act$4' ,pres5t1 pa/1 & future t5ses are mu* m easily di/+ui%$ & reta9$ if ! tea*] illu/rates !m by actions4 7,9 a mom5t ,i %all take ! book--,je pr5drai le livre4 ,j'ouvrirai le livre--,j'ouvre le livre--,j'ai ouv]t le livre47 ,if a ,fr5*man _c grasp ! diff]5ce betwe5 to g 9 & to come 91 x is because ! explanations giv5 to him are lack+ 9 concret5ess4 7#e7 ,:5 tea*+ or allud+ to ! peculi>ities connect$ ) adjectives1 *oose z examples su* words z black1 :ite1 l>ge1 small1 r\nd1 squ>e1 etc41 & avoid ! traditional good1 bad1 beautiful1 idle1 dilig5t1 etc4 7#f7 ,:5 tea*+ or allud+ to ! peculi>ities & semantic values ( prepositions *oose z f> z possible prepositions su* z 91 on1 "u1 ov]1 9 front (1 beh9d1 beside1 etc4 ,useful "w 9 ?is connexion c be done ) a mat* & a mat*box 79 ! box1 on ! box1 "u ! box1 etc41 etc474 7#g7 ,*oose z _m real examples z possible1 examples sugge/$ by pres5t & actual conditions4 ,d n tea* ! me*anism ( direct & indirect objects by allusions to imag9>y f>m]s giv+ imag9>y oats to imag9>y horses1 b give books1 p5cils1 & p5s to ! /ud5ts & make !m give !m to y1 & !n talk to !m ab\t :at y are do+4 ,d n illu/rate ! active & passive voices by ref]5ce to m5 beat+ boys & boys be+ beat51 b speak ab\t writ+ words & words be+ writt5 or ab\t speak+ ,engli% & ,engli% be+ spok54 7#h7 ,9 z _m cases z possible cause ! /ud5t to make active use ( any =m he has j le>nt4 ,:5 y h taught him to say ,i don't und]/& give him an opportunity ( us+ ! s5t5ce4 ,if y tea* him to say ,x's "t to /op see t he duly makes use ( ! expression at ! end ( ! lesson4 7#i7 ,enc\rage ge/ures1 ev5 9 ! case ( ,engli% /ud5ts4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages !y %\ld %ake _! heads :5 utt]+ a negative s5t5ce1 raise _! eyebr[s :5 us+ an int]rogative =m1 & use o!r appropriate ge/ures = su* words z "h1 !re1 me1 t1 ^!1 etc4 ,9 %ort1 obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess by us+ examples1 _m examples1 cumulative examples1 real examples1 & examples embody+ ! p]sonal int]e/4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,int]e/ ,we h laid great /ress on ! necessity = drill-l "w1 = me*anical "w1 = ex]cises calculat$ to secure automatism1 = habit-=m+ types ( "w4 ,x has ev5 seem$ at times t we take a malici\s pleasure 9 pillory+ & condemn+ precisely ^? =ms ( "w :i* are g5]ally ! mo/ attractive to ! av]age /ud5t4 8,! writ] ( ?is book10 "s may say1 8takes a savage delight 9 reprov+ tea*] & /ud5t :5ev] !y contemplate "w ( an int]e/+ nature1 heads !m (f :5ev] !y approa* any?+ resembl+ intellectual "w1 & turns !m into *annels ( r\t9e & repetition4 ,he positively gloats ov] words l #8automaticity1' #8passivity1' #8me*anism1' or #8unconsci\s assimilation1' & app>5tly glories 9 ! !ory t language-le>n+ l life itself %\ld be #8"o demd horrid gr9d4'0 ,we readily plead guilty to a firm insi/5ce on habit-=m+ ex]cises & drills1 b cont9ue to urge 9 mitigation t ! practical /udy ( language1 ! ma/]y ( any =m ( actual spee*1 is a habit-=m+ process & little else4 ,we mu/ h ! c\rage & hone/y to face facts z we f9d !m3 a language _c be ma/]$ by le>n+ int]e/+ ?+s ab\t t language1 b only by assimilat+ ! mat]ial ( :i* t language is made up4 ,b our attitude1 f> f be+ a pessimi/ic "o1 is positively optimi/ic4 ,we are prep>$ to d5y mo/ emphatically t good drill-"w is dull & un9t]e/+1 & if "s tea*]s make x s x is our duty to tell !m n to4 ,^? :o h se5 ! sort ( lessons t embody ! =ms ( tea*+ :i* result f ! rigid obs]vance ( ^! pr9ciples all te/ify t !y are #8live' lessons 7to use ! t]m !y mo/ g5]ally employ71 t ! /ud5ts are ke5 & ! tea*]s en?usia/ic4 ,x is only too evid5t t e lesson mu/ be made z int]e/+ z is compatible ) p$agogic s\ndness4 ,few p le>n any?+ well unless !y are int]e/$ 9 :at !y are le>n+4 ,hope ( rew>d & fe> ( puni%m5t are c]ta9ly /imuli to "w1 b v poor /imuli comp>$ ) t repres5t$ by int]e/4 ,if ! me?od is ! ma*9]y ( language-/udy 7or any o!r /udy = ! matt] ( t71 !n int]e/ is ! motive p[]4 ,be ! clock ev] s well & +5i\sly con/ruct$1 x w n g )\t "s sort ( ma9spr+2 be ! me?od ev] s effici5t z a me?od1 x w n "w unless ! /ud5t is int]e/$4 ,all ^! /atem5ts are ( c\rse truisms & are accept$ z axiomatic2 ! tr\ble comes :5 we discuss ! means by :i* int]e/ c be induc$ & ma9ta9$1 = we are n all 9 agreem5t on ?is po9t4 ,!re is1 too1 ! "q ( intr9sic & extr9sic int]e/2 ! subject may be int]e/+ 9 itself or x may d]ive an artificial sort ( int]e/ f "s att5dant circum/ance1 su* z ! hope ( rew>d & fe> ( non-success & all t t may imply4 ,b a po9t arises at ! outset :i* des]ves our att5tion4 ,a fallacy exi/s 9 connexion ) int]e/1 a fallacy :i* is ! cause ( mu* error & ( mu* bad tea*+4 ,?is fallacy :5 r$uc$ to ! absurd consi/s 9 say+1 8,we c make a subject ( /udy int]e/+ by *ang+ ! subject ( /udy40 ,n[ obvi\sly x is absurd to say t we c make ! /udy ( ,fr5* int]e/+ by tea*+ geometry 9 its /ead1 or t we c make ari?metic int]e/+ by replac+ ! ari?metic lesson by a hi/ory lesson4 ,& yet ?is is ! sort ( ?+ t frequ5tly does take place 9 "s =m or o!r4 ,x is necess>y t ! /ud5t %all le>n h[ to und]/& spok5 ,fr5*1 spok5 ,engli%1 or spok5 ,pek+ese2 x is assum$ t ! necess>y phonetic & oral repetition "w w be un9t]e/+1 s we *ange ! subject & tea* ! /ud5t to read ,fr5*1 ,engli%1 or ,m&>9 ,*9ese1 or to analyse ^! languages or to con/ruct s5t5ces 9 !m by syn!sis4 ,n[ read+ & analysis & syn!sis may to "s p be m int]e/+ ?an e>-tra9+ & oral memoriz+1 b :e!r ?is is ! case or n x is c]ta9ly beyond ! po9t4 ,if we wi% to le>n to read1 let u read2 if we wi% to d analytic & syn!tic "w1 let u analyse & syn!size2 b if ! object ( our /udy happ5s to be ! comm& ( ! spok5 language1 x is no use to amuse ourselves by do+ "w :i* does n fur!r our aim4 8,p>rot-"w is s monoton\s1 un9spir+1 & un9t]e/+3 let u r translate ! "w ( "s au?or into our "m-tongue40 8,i don't f9d ! /udy ( ! colloquial language elevat+3 ,i pref] to "w at ! classical40 ,v well1 we w n qu>rel ab\t ta/es1 b we w ask y to make x q cle> :at y are sett+ out to le>n & :at y\r object really is2 :5 we h asc]ta9$ t1 we w see h[ we c make y\r pa? an easy & pleasant "o4 ,a j\rney to ,london may or may n be an int]e/+ "o1 b if y\r object is to get to ,london x is no use tak+ a ticket to ! ,isle ( ,wight or to ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 h[ev] int]e/+ su* j\rneys may be4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy among educationali/s to-day is t[>ds int]e/+ me?ods1 me?ods involv+ ! intellig5t use ( ! intellig5ce1 me?ods :i* develop ! reason+ capacities1 me?ods :i* =m ! judgm5t1 :i* proce$ f ! trivial1 famili>1 & kn[n t[>ds ! m pr(\nd1 unfamili>1 & unkn[n4 ,geography is no long] a process ( le>n+ li/s ( place-names by he>t1 hi/ory is no long] repres5t$ z a catalogue ( dates1 ari?metic is taught by play+ ) cubes1 *emi/ry is pres5t$ z a s]ies ( exp]im5ts 9 ! laboratory1 botany & geology are /udi$ 9 ! field4 ,! old cramm+ process is be+ replac$ by ! me?od ( discov]y2 ! tea*] furni%es ! docum5ts & ! /ud5ts discov] ! rules2 ! tea*] sugge/s ! problems & ! pupils set _! wits to "w & f9d out ! solutions4 ,all ( :i* is v int]e/+ &1 on ! :ole1 v good4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ?is dang]3 ^! int]e/+ & m9d-develop+ me?ods d n t5d t[>ds automatism & habit-=mation2 !y are1 inde$1 n int5d$ to fo/] any =m ( me*anical comm&4 ,pr(ici5cy 9 %or?& _c be ga9$ by any me?od ( discov]y1 & ! capacity = do+ good & rapid "w on a typewrit] is n atta9$ by ! heuri/ic me?od4 ,ma!matics is a sci5ce1 b ! absolute ma/]y ( ! multiplication table is an art & _c be ga9$ by ! exclusive practice ( play+ ) cubes4 8,! memoriz+ ( ! multiplication table is a we>isome gr9d2 let u !re=e make x int]e/+ by tea*+ 9 its place ! !ory ( num]ation60 8,practis+ scales on ! piano is monoton\s & in>ti/ic2 let u !re=e aboli% su* f+]-gymna/ics & replace all su* "w by ! !ory ( h>mony60 8,le>n+ s5t5ces by he>t & p]=m+ ^! drills are s t$i\s2 let u !re=e reject ^! =ms ( "w1 & replace !m by analys+ a text or by try+ our h& at lit]>y composition60 ,n[1 z we h se5 & prov$ to our satisfaction1 language-le>n+ is ess5tially a habit-=m+ process1 is an art & n a sci5ce1 & if we insi/ on consid]+ z a sci5ce :at is an art we are confus+ ! issues & creat+ a bre$+-gr\nd = all sorts ( fallacies4 ,l+ui/ics is a sci5ce1 language-tea*+ is l>gely a sci5ce1 b ! practical /udy ( languages is n2 let u rememb] ?is primordial fact :ile we are endeav\r+ to make our subjects int]e/+4 ,:at are ! *ief ?+s mak+ = int]e/8 ,we sugge/ six rational & reasonable factors calculat$ to produce int]e/ if n en?usiasm )\t any detrim5t to any ( ! eight o!r fundam5tal pr9ciples1 viz43 7#a7 ,! elim9ation ( bewild]m5t4 7#b7 ,! s5se ( progress a*iev$4 7#c7 ,competition4 7#d7 ,game-l ex]cises4 7#e7 ,! "r relation betwe5 tea*] & /ud5t4 7#f7 ,v>iety4 7#a7 ,! ,elim9ation ( ,bewild]m5t4--8,i c't make out :at x's all ab\t6 ,:at on e>? is ! tea*] driv+ at8 ,i don't und]/& ^! new t]ms nor ! use ( !m4 ,:at is x all =8 ,:at good is x go+ to d me8 ,i d hate ?is lesson60 ,h y ev] he>d comm5ts ( ?is sort8 ,h y ev] made !m y\rself8 ,! attitude ( "o mak+ su* comm5ts 7ei!r op5ly or inw>dly7 is n a hopeful "o2 x gives no promise ( successful "w2 x %[s t int]e/ is entirely lack+4 ,:at is ! cause ( ?is attitude1 & h[ c we *ange x8 ,is x because ! subject is too difficult8 ,no1 surely n1 = "s ( ! mo/ difficult subjects may be mo/ fasc9at+1 ev5 = ! av]age /ud5t2 difficulty (t5 adds to ! attractiv5ess ( "w & may ev5 induce int]e/4 ,difficulty is n necess>ily an unfav\rable factor4 ,b bewild]m5t inv>iably is6 ,!re is an imm5se diff]5ce betwe5 difficult "w & bewild]+ "w2 ( difficulties !re mu/ necess>ily be _m1 b ( bewild]m5t !re %\ld be none4 ,new me?ods (t5 bewild] ^? :o h become us$ to ! old ones2 unfamili> grammatical sy/ems are bewild]+ to ^? :o ?9k t "o sy/em ( gramm> is common to all ! languages ( ! _w4 ,x is disconc]t+ to face ! fact t languages h classical & colloquial gramm>s exi/+ side by side1 :i* gramm>s are mutually exclusive 9 _m respects2 x is m especially bewild]+ to ^? :o h nev] made any /udy ( colloquial language4 ,easy ?+s & easy sy/ems are m bewild]+ ?an difficult ones if "o has already become m or less famili> ) ! difficult sy/em4 ,to ^? :o h wre/l$ = ye>s ) difficult & tangl$ or?ographies a phonetic sy/em ( writ+1 ! acme ( ease & simplicity1 may appe> bewild]+ly difficult4 ,a good deal ( bewild]m5t may be ascrib$ to prejudice or to preconceiv$ notions conc]n+ ! nature ( language2 ?is is :y 7o!r ?+s be+ equal7 *ildr5 are g5]ally less bewild]$ ?an adults :5 le>n+ h[ to use ! spok5 =m ( language2 !y h few] prejudices or ev5 none at all4 ,!re are two ways ( elim9at+ bewild]m5t4 ,"o is to give 9 ! cle>e/ possible way c]ta9 fundam5tal explanations :5ev] !re appe>s to be confusion 9 ! m9d ( ! /ud5t2 ! o!r is to see t ! programme is prop]ly grad$4 ,once ! /ud5t grasps ! scope ( ! p>ticul> problem or s]ies ( problems1 & once ! programme is reasonably well grad$1 !re w be no m bewild]m5t & !re w be no m puzzl$ le>n]s4 ,we might p]haps add "h t !re are times1 /rangely en\gh1 :5 ! tea*] f9ds x necess>y to induce a tempor>y bewild]m5t4 ,categoric & unconv5tional devices h occasionally to be adopt$ 9 ord] to break c]ta9 undesirable associations2 #8my/]y words' & #8my/]y s5t5ces' (t5 play a useful "p 9 de/roy+ false associations & vici\s l+ui/ic habits4 ,b ^! int5tionally creat$ my/]ies1 puzzl+ = ! "t be+1 are n ( ! same ord] z ^? hopeless & p]petual my/]ies :i* are ! cause ( s mu* disc\ragem5t & discomfiture4 ,x is a subject ( debate :e!r we ought to use explanations at all = ! purpose ( tea*+ anyone to use a language4 ,"s ma9ta9 t we %\ld no m expla9 a po9t ( !ory to a s*ool*ild or an adult ?an we %\ld to a *ild ( eighte5 mon?s4 ,! "y *ild1 x is said1 le>ns to speak ! language :i* he he>s ar\nd him by d9t ( %e] imitation2 he le>ns no !ory & w\ld und]/& no explanations2 :y !re=e %\ld we expla9 at all8 ,we w\ld sugge/ t ! *ief function ( explanations is to prev5t bewild]m5t4 ,x may or may n be useful = a s*ool*ild or an adult to "k :y c]ta9 ?+s are s1 :y ,fr5* n\ns are ei!r mascul9e or fem99e1 :y x is sometimes avoir & sometimes tre1 :y we d n say 9 ,engli% he comesn't1 :y we d n say ,i _h bett] to g1 & :y c]ta9 ,fr5* conjunctions require ! use ( ! subjunctive4 ,appropriate explanations may induce a m rapid rate ( progress or !y may n 7probably 9 ! long run g5]ally n71 b !y c]ta9ly d h ! effect ( satisfy+ t in/9ctive curiosity :i*1 if unappeas$1 w induce bewild]m5t & s cause ! /ud5t to lose int]e/4 ,we might add 7al?\gh ?is is n p]t95t to ! subject "u discussion7 t 9 ! case ( a #8corrective c\rse' simple & rational explanations %\ld =m an ess5tial "p ( ! treatm5t4 ,) reg>d to ! second mann] ( elim9at+ ! factor ( bewild]m5t1 viz4 ! prop] grad+ ( ! c\rse1 we w\ld ref] ! read] to ! *apt] deal+ specifically ) ?is subject4 7#b7 ,! ,s5se ( ,progress ,a*iev$4--,all "w becomes m int]e/+ :5 we are consci\s t we h made & are mak+ progress 9 t "w4 ,t s5se ( disc\ragem5t :i* is s inimical to int]e/ arises :51 9 spite ( our ef=ts1 we seem to be no ne>] to our goal4 ,/ati/ics compil$ by ^? :o h made a special /udy ( ! psy*ology ( le>n+ %[ u t p]iods frequ5tly occur 9 :i* !re is no app>5t progress & dur+ :i*1 z a necess>y consequ5ce1 ! int]e/ ( ! /ud5t dim9i%es4 ,x is g5]ally dur+ su* p]iods 7te*nically call$ plateaux7 t ! adult /ud5t gives up 8 /udy z a bad job & retires f ! conte/4 ,! cause ( su* plateaux w\ld appe> to be a defective sy/em ( gradation2 ! /ud5t has ov]rea*$ himself & has tempor>ily absorb$ m mat]ial ?an he c reta9 p]man5tly2 he has work$ too fa/ = 8 habit-=m+ capacities & has to m>k "t until ! previ\sly acquir$ mat]ial has be5 prop]ly assimilat$4 ,novelty always gives a c]ta9 am\nt ( int]e/ to a new subject1 & dur+ ! fir/ p]iod /ud5ts (t5 ga9 ! idea t !y are mak+ m progress ?an is w>rant$ by ! facts2 :5 ! novelty we>s (f ! reaction occurs1 & a p]iod ( depression foll[s4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to make x possible = ! /ud5t always to feel he is mak+ progress1 & ?us to ma9ta9 int]e/ & ze/1 x is necess>y to see t ! c\rse is prop]ly grad$1 t ! repetitions are kept up regul>ly & sy/ematically1 & t ! rate ( progression is consi/5tly increas$4 7#c7 ,competition4--,! _s ( emulation gives ze/ to a /udy4 ,! fe> ( be+ outdi/anc$ by "o's fell[-/ud5ts or rivals1 ! satisfaction ( ga9+ gr\nd on !m1 & ! hope ( becom+ or rema9+ ! be/ /ud5t 9 ! class is a /imulus n to be despis$4 ,?is is really "o ( ! *ief raisons d'tre = exam9ations1 te/s1 & regi/]s ( progress4 7#d7 ,game-l ,ex]cises4--,9 ! case ( "y /ud5ts a consid]able am\nt ( int]e/ c be induc$ by mak+ c]ta9 =ms ( ex]cise s resemble games t ! pupils d n q "k :e!r !y are play+ or work+4 ,games ( skill su* z *ess are almo/ indi/+ui%able f _m subjects ( s*ola/ic /udy1 & _m types ( puzzles & problem-games are practically id5tical ) ma!matical problems4 ,! only dang] "h is t language-games may n fur!r ! /ud5t suffici5tly 9 ! habit-=m+ process2 "s types c]ta9ly w n2 inde$1 we c imag9e types ( ex]cise-games :i* w\ld t5d to inhibit x4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! necessity = habit-=m+ is con/antly pres5t to ! tea*]'s m9d1 x is p]missible to introduce at appropriate mom5ts =ms ( ex]cise su* z #8action drill1' #8liv+ gramm>1' or #8sort+ ex]cises1' possess+ real educative value & an int]e/-giv+ value at ! same "t4 7#e7 ,! ,relation betwe5 ,tea*] & ,/ud5t4--8,no1 ,i don't take ,fr5* lessons n[4 ,m4 ,untel us$ to be my tea*]1 b he w5t away1 & ,i didn't mu* l ! man :o took 8 place1 & s ,i lo/ int]e/ & /opp$4 ,! new man 0 all "r 9 8 way1 b x wasn't at all ! same ?+ z ) ,m4 ,untel2 he didn't h ! same way ( giv+ ! lessons1 & someh[ or o!r ,i didn't seem to get on ) him40 8,i l ! ,fr5* lesson2 ,m4 ,untel makes x s int]e/+2 he's got a nice way ( expla9+ ?+s1 & we are nev] afraid ( ask+ him que/ions4 ,he doesn't laugh at y if y say some?+ t s\nds silly2 he und]/&s :at y're try+ to drive at1 & always kn[s :at ! tr\ble is4 ,i didn't use to l ,fr5* lessons at all4 ,we _h ano!r ma/] !n2 he always seem$ to be tell+ y ?+s t y didn't feel y want$ to "k1 & yet :5 y did want to "k some?+ he nev] und]/ood :at x 0 y want$ to "k40 ,^! expressions ( op9ion 7writt5 9 colloquial ,engli%7 give u a good idea ( :y two /ud5ts 7"o an adult & ! o!r a s*ool*ild7 are int]e/$ 9 le>n+ ,fr5* :5 ,m4 ,untel gives ! lesson4 7#f7 ,v>iety4--,a monoton\s type ( drill-"w is p]=m$ dur+ an entire lesson4 ,9 ! next lesson a second & diff]5t type ( monoton\s drill-"w is p]=m$4 ,! ?ird lesson is devot$ to a ?ird type ( drill-"w4 ,a f\r? lesson consi/s ( sixty m9utes ( ano!r sort ( gr9d4 ,a fif? & a six? lesson are simil>ly devot$ to two o!r sorts ( me*anical "w4 ,! net result is six dull & monoton\s lessons4 ,ano!r case4 ,six lessons are giv54 ,ea* lesson is divid$ into six p]iods ( t5 m9utes4 ,ea* p]iod is devot$ to a diff]5t type ( me*anical "w or drill-"w4 ,! net result is six mod]ately int]e/+ lessons4 ,n t any lesson %\ld consi/ exclusively ( drill-"w or me*anical "w2 !re is a place 9 e lesson = li/5+ to ! liv+ language 9 actual use2 !re is a place 9 e lesson = int]e/+ explanations & = ! factor ( human int]e/1 = ! use ( devices :i* usually engage ! ke5e/ att5tion ( ! /ud5ts4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !re are =ms ( "w :i* g5]ally appe> less popul> or less vivaci\s1 if ! repeat+ ( ^w-li/s & ! recit+ ( gr\ps ( s5t5ces d t5d t[>ds dullness1 !n we c comp5sate = ?is tempor>y lack ( vivacity by introduc+ an extra dose ( v>iety4 ,a *ange ( "w is 9 itself a factor ( int]e/ ev5 if ! "w %\ld n be p>ticul>ly int]e/+2 v>iety w relieve any t$ium :i* may possibly be associat$ ) me*anical "w4 ,let u suppose t on "o or m occasions we d f9d x necess>y = "s p>ticul> purpose to introduce an unpopul> =m ( ex]cise2 we c s&wi* t ex]cise betwe5 two popul> =ms ( "w1 & ! evil t5 m9utes w pass unnotic$4 ,?is po9t w be treat$ incid5tally :5 we come to exam9e pr9ciple #i 7! multiple l9e ( approa*72 we %all see :at be>+ ?is !ory has on ! "q ( v>iety & ! int]e/ eng5d]$ !reby4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,a ,,rational ,,ord] ,,( ,,progression ,"o ( ! greate/ diff]5ces betwe5 ! old-fa%ion$ mann] ( tea*+ languages & ! new mann] t[>ds :i* we are feel+ our way is a diff]5ce 9 :at we call #8ord] ( progression4' ,?is t]m & ! pr9ciple :i* is involv$ !re9 _c1 at ! pres5t /age ( our k1 be def9$ 9 v categoric t]ms2 its connotation is some:at loose1 = x may be appli$ to ! g5]al programme ( /udy & also to any p>ticul> item ( /udy4 ,9 "s ways ! pr9ciple seems to h a close connexion ) gradation1 & yet on ! :ole x appe>s to cov] o!r gr\nd1 = we c imag9e entirely diff]5t ord]s ( progression1 & ea* may be well or badly grad$4 ,"u ?is p>ticul> head+ we h to consid] ! ord] 9 :i* ! v>i\s aspects & bran*es ( a language may be dealt )4 ,we may conceivably "w f ! writt5 to ! spok5 or vice v]sa2 we may />t ) sy/ematic e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises or leave ^! to a lat] /age2 we may advise or we may reject ! use ( a phonetic alphabet2 we may tea* or we may leave intonation2 we may proce$ f ! ^w t[>ds ! s5t5ce or we may take ! s5t5ce z our />t+-po9t2 we may exclude irregul>ities dur+ ! e>ly /ages or we may include !m2 we may insi/ on a sl[ & di/9ct pronunciation at ! outset & leave abbreviations & %ort5$ =ms to a lat] /age4 ,9 all ^! matt]s1 & 9 o!r cases z well1 we h to consid] v s]i\sly two alt]natives2 we h to weigh ! respective advantages & disadvantages1 rememb]+ always t our object is to secure rapid b p]man5t progress4 ,ea* ( ! pairs ( alt]natives enum]at$ above has be5 & /ill is ! subject ( discussion & controv]sy2 !re is mu* to be said on bo? sides1 & an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! "o side may seem conclusive--until we h he>d ! argum5t = ! o!r4 ,let u exam9e ea* ( ! po9ts we h m5tion$ & place ! oppos+ views 9 p>allel columns2 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce we w 9 ea* case place ! argum5ts ( ! old] s*ool on ! left-h& side & ! mod]n answ] on ! "r4 ,writt5 or spok5 fir/8 ,! mo/ /able =m ( spee* is writt5 spee*2 x does n v>y f "o p]son to ano!r or f "o region to ano!r z spok5 language always does4 ,9 ! writt5 =m we f9d ! ess5ce ( a language & its treasure-h\se4 ,spok5 language is a fa9t & att5uat$ c\nt]p>t1 g5]ally m or less debas$ & alt]$ by slang1 dialect1 & slov5ly habits ( utt]ance4 ,! only true =m ( spee* is spok5 spee*2 x con/itutes ! liv+ language itself4 ,all languages 7 spok5 long be=e !y 7 writt54 ,or?ographies are comp>atively rec5t inv5tions1 & h no m claim to be+ ! ess5ce ( language ?an %or?&4 ,! writt5 aspect ( language is artificial2 ! spok5 aspect alone is pursu+ ! normal c\rse ( evolution1 & is always free+ itself f ar*aic & useless encumbrances4 ,! spok5 language is a tok5 ( life1 = dead languages are ^? :i* exi/ b 9 writt5 =m4 ,an unwritt5 language is almo/ a contradiction 9 t]ms1 = a language )\t a lit]ature is b a b>b>\s j>gon1 primitive 9 its /ructure1 weak 9 vocabul>y & 9 means ( expression4 ,! facts are all wrong4 ,mo/1 if n all1 unwritt5 languages s f> inve/igat$ prove to be ( a rem>kable ri*ness4 ,! ,bantu gr\p1 to quote "o example1 has an inflexional sy/em rivall+ & excell+ ^? ( ,lat9 & ,greek1 & possesses wond]fully ri* syntactical & semantic sy/ems4 ,:5 a *ild goes to s*ool1 he />ts le>n+ 8 language on its writt5 basis4 ,he />ts at ! ,a ,b ,c4 ,9 ! meantime he has already become an exp]t us] ( ! spok5 language1 includ+ ! complete phonetic sy/em unconsid]$ 9 writt5 spee* & a mo/ complex & beautiful sy/em ( intonation unkn[n to or?ographies4 ,gramm> only exi/s 9 writt5 language4 ,if ! gramm> ( ! writt5 language only exi/s 9 ! writt5 language1 ! gramm> ( ! spok5 language only exi/s 9 ! spok5 language4 ,x is easi] to le>n a writt5 ^w ?an a spok5 ^w1 = ! writt5 ^w rema9s be=e ! eyes1 :]eas ! spok5 ^w is intangible & evanesc5t4 ,consequ5tly if we le>n ! writt5 ^w we are unable to und]/& :at is said to u & to express ourselves orally4 ,x is easy to conv]t eye-k into e>-k4 ,once we "k h[ a ^w is writt5 we easily le>n h[ to pron\nce x4 ,! facts are all wrong aga94 ,! mo/ difficult ?+ 9 language-/udy is to conv]t eye-k into e>-k4 ,once we "k h[ a ^w is pron\nc$ we c recognize & reproduce its writt5 =m ) ! greate/ ease4 ,%all we />t ) sy/ematic e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises8 ,no4 ,bo? are ( d\btful value "u ! be/ ( conditions4 ,! majority ( /ud5ts manage ev5tually to und]/& & to make !mselves und]/ood )\t su* adv5titi\s & fanciful aids4 ,c]ta9ly4 ,unless ! tea*+ re/s on ?is f\ndation all ! subsequ5t "w w be di/ort$ & false4 ,! "y *ild does n h to und]go su* processes :5 le>n+ 8 native tongue1 & yet he succe$s 9 he>+ & 9 articulat+ correctly4 ,! "y *ild at ! cradle age does little else ?an g ?r\gh a c\rse ( su* ex]cises4 ,he li/5s & imitates1 at fir/ imp]fectly1 b lat] ) great exp]tness1 recogniz+ & reproduc+ isolat$ s\nds & complex comb9ations ( ^!4 ,su* ex]cises are extremely monoton\s & dull2 !y are likely to kill int]e/ & to cause ! /ud5ts to dislike ! :ole process ( language-le>n+4 ,su* ex]cises are always f\nd extremely int]e/+1 & t5d to con/itute an additional attraction to ! /udy ( ! language4 ,few language-tea*]s "k h[ to make ! =eign s\nds correctly1 & !re=e few c give su* ex]cises )\t caus+ ! /ud5ts to acquire bad habits4 ,no tea*] %\ld be all[$ to d language-"w :o is n pr(ici5t 9 ! s\nds ( ! =eign language1 = ^? :o are incapable ( mak+ ! s\nds _c be good language-tea*]s4 ,x is useless to attempt to tea* sy/ematically ! s\nds ( ! language1 see+ t ^! v>y f "o region to ano!r & f "o p]son to ano!r4 ,any =m ( normal spee* w s]ve z a model1 provid$ t ! spee* is t ( educat$ natives4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any model at all1 ! /ud5t w speak ! =eign language ) ! s\nds ( 8 "m-tongue6 ,%all we admit or reject ! use ( phonetic transcription8 ,reject x c]ta9ly1 = v>i\s reasons4 ,accept x c]ta9ly = v>i\s reasons4 ,x is extremely difficult2 ^? :o h be5 le>n+ languages = ye>s1 ev5 languages ) /range alphabets1 f9d phonetic symbols s puzzl+ t !y are =c$ to discont9ue _! ef=ts4 ,x is extremely easy2 "y *ildr5 le>n to use x readily & accurately4 ,^? :o exp]i5ce any difficulty are ^? :o are unable or unwill+ to =m new habits4 ,a language is su* a difficult ?+ t we mu/ utilize e means ( mak+ our "w easi]4 ,x w\ld take weeks or ev5 mon?s to le>n ! /range & unnatural symbols4 ,! half a doz5 /range symbols usually requir$ 9 addition to ^? ( ! ord9>y alphabet c usually be le>nt at sight )\t any special practice4 ,ev5 a /range #8or?ographic alphabet' su* z ! ,russian "o c be ma/]$ 9 a few days4 ,! :ole proce$+ is an unnatural "o1 contr>y to all ! laws ( language4 ,all writ+ is an unnatural process 9 ! s5se t x is n p]=m$ by in/9ct1 b has to be le>nt z an art4 ,( all sy/ems ( writ+1 h[ev]1 ! phonetic sy/em is ! "o mo/ 9 accordance ) logic & natural law4 ,x is try+ to ! eyes4 ,mo/ phonetic alphabets are cle>] ?an ^? us$ 9 ,g]man & ,russian1 = in/ance4 ,x is a wa/e ( valuable "t to le>n an artificial alphabet4 ,! le>n+ ( a p]fectly natural alphabet is 9 itself ( educative value2 x inculcates ! idea ( phonetic writ+ & s]ves once = all z an ess5tial prep>ation = ! /udy ( any numb] ( =eign languages4 ,x is evid5t t ! use ( a phonetic alphabet w make havoc ( ! ord9>y spell+ to be le>nt subsequ5tly4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$ exp]im5tally t ^? :o h be5 taught to read & to write a language phonetically become q z effici5t spell]s z ^? n s tra9$4 ,9 _m cases ! phonetically tra9$ /ud5t becomes ! bett] spell]4 ,to le>n phonetic writ+ means le>n+ two languages in/ead ( "o4 ,9 all cases :]e ! traditional or?ography is n 9 agreem5t ) ! native pronunciation ! /ud5t is necess>ily =c$ to le>n ! two ?+s4 ,! use ( a phonetic alphabet is ! only way to p]=m ?is d\ble "w rapidly1 rationally1 & ) ! m9imum ( confusion4 ,phonetic texts always give slov5ly & incorrect mann]s ( pron\nc+ words4 ,au?ors ( phonetic texts always /rive to give an accurate r5d]+ ( ! language z really & effectively spok5 by educat$ natives2 !y r>ely attempt to tea* =ms t h no exi/5ce 9 ! language z actually us$ 9 ord9>y spee*4 ,%\ld we tea* intonation 9 ! e>ly /ages8 ,no4 ,x is a fancy subject ( little or no importance & c]ta9ly =ms no integral "p ( language-/udy4 ,yes4 ,x is a subject ( great importance & =ms an integral "p ( language-/udy4 ,9 _m languages spee* )\t ! correct tones is only half intelligible2 9 ,*9ese & o!r languages x is p]fectly un9telligible4 ,9 any case x c be left to ! v f9al /age ( ! programme4 ,if x is n taught 9 ! v e>lie/ /age correct intonation w be v difficult to acquire4 ,language-/udy is a habit-=m+ process1 & ! habit ( speak+ ) wrong tones is a bad habit4 ,^w or s5t5ce fir/8 ,! ^w is ! unit ( language4 ,:atev] ! unit ( language is1 x is n ! ^w4 ,words are def9ite entities & con/itute ! compon5t p>ts ( s5t5ces4 ,s5t5ces may be r$uc$ to compon5t p>ts2 sometimes ^! are words1 b q z (t5 !y are ^w-gr\ps 7su* z comp\nds & phrases7 or units less ?an words 7su* z affixes74 ,! ^w1 n ! s5t5ce1 is ! basis ( translation4 ,s9ce a ^w has a def9ite mean+ & conveys a def9ite idea x is easy to f9d ! =eign equival5t4 ,a s5t5ce has g5]ally1 if n always1 a def9ite =eign equival5t4 ,a ^w is s un/able t x may entirely *ange its mean+ :5 us$ ) o!r words4 ,x is easy to memorize words & difficult to memorize s5t5ces4 ,x is z easy to memorize a six-^w s5t5ce z six words4 ,we speak 9 words4 ,we express our ?\ghts 9 s5t5ces4 ,if we le>n a few doz5 words we c build up ?\s&s ( s5t5ces f ^! by ! syn!tic process4 ,if we le>n a few doz5 s5t5ces we c con/ruct ?\s&s ( o!rs f ^! by dis9tegration & sub/itution1 &1 :at is m1 we c recognize !m & use !m ev5 9 rapid spee*4 ,words are ! basis ( gramm>4 ,s5t5ces are ! basis ( syntax4 ,! collection ( ^w-families is a valuable way ( enri*+ "o's vocabul>y4 ,! enri*+ ( "o's vocabul>y %\ld be left to a comp>atively late /age 9 ! /udy ( language1 especially 9 ! /udy ( mo/ d]ivatives & comp\nds4 ,words con/itute ! #8prim>y matt]' 7i4e4 matt] to be memoriz$ integrally )\t analysis or syn!sis74 ,s5t5ces con/itute ! #8second>y matt]' 7i4e4 matt] to be d]iv$ syn!tically f prim>y matt]74 ,x is precisely because s5t5ces are s r>ely consid]$ z #8memoriz$ matt]' t s few p manage to und]/& ! =eign language :5 spok5 or to express !mselves correctly 9 x4 ,take c>e ( ! words & ! s5t5ces w take c>e ( !mselves4 ,take c>e ( ! s5t5ces & ! words w take c>e ( !mselves4 ,%\ld irregul>ities be includ$ or exclud$ dur+ ! e>li] /ages8 ,! regul> is easy1 ! irregul> is difficult2 9 ! int]e/ ( gradation let u !re=e exclude tempor>ily ! irregul>4 ,irregul> =ms are g5]ally m us$ & m useful ?an regul> ones2 9 ! int]e/ ( gradation let u !re=e include all necess>y irregul>ities ev5 9 ! e>li] /ages4 ,irregul> =ms make x difficult to =mulate precise rules4 ,rules ) num]\s exceptions are n wor? =mulat+ at all4 ,! normal & logical %\ld prec$e ! abnormal & illogical4 ,!n1 z natural languages are full ( abnormalities & bad logic1 let ! /ud5t />t ) an artificial language6 ,imm$iate flu5cy or gradual flu5cy8 ,x is easy to pron\nce a s5t5ce sl[ly & di/9ctly2 difficult to pron\nce x rapidly & flu5tly4 ,x is j z easy to pron\nce a s5t5ce rapidly & flu5tly z to pron\nce x sl[ly2 x is ev5 easi] 9 "s cases4 ,! conv]se is only true :5 we are con/ruct+ our s5t5ces syn!tically1 ^w by ^w1 b ?is is n a s\nd process4 ,x is m correct to articulate cle>ly & delib]ately4 ,to articulate m cle>ly & delib]ately ?an ! av]age educat$ native is a m>k ( inaccuracy1 =1 z ,dr ,cumm+s says1 8flu5cy is an integral "p ( accuracy40 #8,%ort5$ =ms1' su* z don't or ,i'm1 %\ld nev] be taught4 ,! /ud5t1 alas6 w only too soon pick up ^! undesirable vulg>isms4 ,don't ha/5 ! process4 ,all #8%ort5$ =ms' :i* are inv>iably us$ 9 normal spee* by educat$ natives 7e4g4 don't1 ,i'm7 %\ld be taught to ! exclusion ( ! long] =m4 ,! /ud5t1 alas6 w only too soon acquire ! habit ( us+ p$anticisms4 ,let u n ha/5 ! process4 ,x is always easy1 too easy1 to trans=m cle> & incisive spee* into a blurr$ & slov5ly /yle ( speak+4 ,x is almo/ impossible1 9 ! case ( =eign /ud5ts1 to conv]t an ov]-di/9ct & halt+ spee* into a smoo?1 h>moni\s /yle ( utt]ance ) ! prop] cad5ce & rhy?m4 ,x is = ?is reason t :5 a =eign] wi%es to say ,sunday1 two to two1 or f\r = f\r1 we s frequ5tly und]/& "s day1 #b1 #b1 #b1 or #d1 #d1 #d4 ,a v[el or ev5 a consonant may p]haps disappe> :5 we are speak+ v rapidly or v c>elessly4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we are delib]ately tea*+ a ^w1 we %\ld give ! mo/ p]fect model & employ ! mo/ sonor\s =ms4 ,! ma9t5ance ( su* syllables 9 ord9>y rapid spee* is "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( pidg9 or =eign]'s spee*4 ,x is n yet suffici5tly realiz$ t ! use ( c]ta9 s\nds is only correct 9 sl[ spee* or 9 isolat$ words4 ,if #8/ay%un' is a m sonor\s & correct r5d]+ ( s-t-a-t-i-o-n ?an #8/ay%n1' !n #8/ay%on' is /ill bett]1 & #8/ay-si-on' or #8/ay-ti-on' bett] /ill4 ,conclusion ,on ! basis ( ! =ego+ consid]ations1 we conclude t x is desirable1 if n ess5tial3 ,on ! basis ( ! =ego+ consid]ations1 we conclude t x is desirable1 if n ess5tial3 7a7 ,to le>n to read & to write be=e le>n+ to speak & to und]/& :at is said4 7a7 ,to le>n to speak & to und]/& :at is said be=e le>n+ to read & to write4 7b7 ,to avoid sy/ematic e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises1 at any rate 9 ! e>ly /ages4 7b7 ,to />t a language-c\rse ) sy/ematic e>-tra9+ & articulation ex]cises4 7c7 ,to reject ! use ( phonetic transcription4 7c7 ,to make a mo/ ext5sive use ( ! phonetic transcription1 especially 9 ! e>ly /ages4 7d7 ,to leave to a v late /age or to omit altoge!r ! /udy ( intonation4 7d7 ,to tea* intonation at a v e>ly /age4 7e7 ,to memorize words & to le>n to inflect !m1 be=e memoriz+ & le>n+ h[ to con/ruct s5t5ces4 7e7 ,to memorize s5t5ces & to le>n h[ to con/ruct !m1 be=e memoriz+ words & le>n+ h[ to build ei!r inflect$ =ms or d]ivatives4 7f7 ,to avoid irregul> & idiomatic =ms 9 ! e>li] /ages4 7f7 ,to include irregul> & idiomatic =ms ev5 9 ! e>li] /ages4 7g7 ,to pron\nce v sl[ly & di/9ctly1 leav+ flu5cy to a lat] /age4 7g7 ,to tea* f ! outset a rapid & flu5t /yle ( pronunciation1 res]v+ m di/9ct utt]ance to a lat] /age4 ,all our exp]i5ce leads u to endorse mo/ emphatically all ! /atem5ts made 9 ! "r-h& column4 ,numb]s ( ^? :o 7 =m]ly ( ! op9ion express$ 9 ! left-h& column h become & are becom+ conv]t$ to ! opposite view2 ! contr>y case is practically unkn[n4 ,! mod]ni/s are n argu+ 9 ! d>k2 !y h _! data & _! evid5ce1 & are p]fectly well acqua9t$ ) ! argum5ts ( ! anci5ts1 :]eas few ( ^? pr(ess+ ! old] views h ev] ev5 he>d ( ! mod]ni/s' case1 /ill less giv5 x any reasonable am\nt ( consid]ation4 ,we %\ld note t ! protagoni/s ( ea* ( ! two s*ools are n inv>iably z %>ply & z consi/5tly divid$ z 9 ! =ego+ comp>ison4 ,x is only natural t we %\ld f9d individuals tak+ ! mod]n view 9 ! case ( c]ta9 ( ! po9ts quot$1 & ! anci5t view 9 ! o!r cases4 ,an en?usia/ic adh]5t ( ! phonetic !ory w n necess>ily endorse ! view t rapid & flu5t spee* %\ld prec$e sl[ & di/9ct spee*4 ,"o may believe 9 tea*+ s5t5ces be=e words & yet be unconv9c$ z to ! necessity = phonetics & all t t implies4 ,"s may fav\r ! memoriz+ ( s5t5ces at an e>ly /age1 b w n agree t ! colloquial language %\ld be giv5 a m fav\r$ place ?an ! classical4 ,! two s*ools1 h[ev]1 d appe> to be fairly well def9$1 = 9 ! majority ( cases x w mo/ probably be f\nd t ^? :o fav\r ! anci5t view 9 any "o respect w g5]ally fav\r ! :ole ( ! anci5t programme & reg>d ) di/ru/ & misgiv+s ! ord] ( progression g5]ally recomm5d$ by ! mod]ni/s4 ,let u sum up1 & set =? 9 p>allel columns ! two mo/ widely diff]+ ord]s ( progression 9 ord] t we may fully realize t ea* is ! anti!sis ( ! o!r4 ,,! ,,anci5t ,,ord] 7bas$ on tradition7 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,ord] 7bas$ on psy*ology7 ,fir/1 le>n h[ to conv]t #8diction>y-words' 7i4e4 etymons7 into #8work+ s5t5ce-units' 7i4e4 ergons74 ,?is w be done by memoriz+ ! rules ( accid5ce & d]ivation4 ,fir/1 become pr(ici5t 9 recogniz+ & 9 produc+ =eign s\nds & tones1 bo? isolat$ & 9 comb9ations4 ,secondly1 le>n ! g5]al /ructure ( s5t5ces4 ,?is w be done *iefly by read+ & translation ex]cises4 ,secondly1 memorize 7)\t analysis or syn!sis7 a l>ge numb] ( complete s5t5ces *os5 specifically = ?is purpose by ! tea*] or by ! compos] ( ! c\rse4 ,?irdly1 memorize ! irregul> or idiomatic ph5om5a ( ! language4 ,?irdly1 le>n to build up all types ( s5t5ces 7bo? regul> & irregul>7 f #8work+ s5t5ce-units' 7i4e4 ergons7 *os5 specifically = ?is purpose by ! tea*] or by ! compos] ( ! c\rse4 ,la/ly1 7if necess>y7 conv]t ! eye-k' ( ! language into #8e>-k' by means ( read+ al\d & by #8conv]sation-lessons4' ,la/ly1 le>n h[ to conv]t #8diction>y words' 7i4e4 etymons7 into #8work+ s5t5ce-units' 7i4e4 ergons74 ,an irrational ord] ( progression is b\nd to entail mu* #8cramm+1' a process by :i* mu* in=mation 7valuable or valueless7 is reta9$ = a %ort "t 7g5]ally = exam9ation purposes71 b )\t ensur+ any p]man5t results except bad results4 ,a rational ord] ( progression w n only rapidly secure useful & desirable results1 b w also enc\rage ! =mation ( ! "r sort ( language-habits & ensure z a p]man5t result ! capacity = us+ ! =eign language 9 ! fulle/ s5se ( ! t]m4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,multiple ,,l9e ,,( ,,approa* ,! n9? & la/ ( ! ess5tial pr9ciples is1 9 reality1 m ?an a m]e pr9ciple ( language-/udy1 x is ev5 m ?an a pr9ciple ( /udy1 x is almo/ a philosophy 9 itself4 ,x seems to be a special application ( a doctr9e :i*1 to _m1 con/itutes a l9e ( conduct1 an attitude1 t[>ds mo/ ( ! problems & int]e/s ( our daily exi/5ce4 ,?is attitude is fairly well designat$ by ! t]m eclectic2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n an ideal t]m1 see+ t1 l s _m o!rs1 x possesses a d\ble connotation4 ,its fir/ s5se is di/9ctly pejorative2 x sugge/s unorig9ality1 a lack ( coh]5t sy/em1 a pat*work ( o!r p's op9ions4 ,9 its second & broad] s5se1 s f> f be+ a t]m ( disp>agem5t or reproa* x implies ! delib]ate *oice ( all ?+s :i* are good1 a judici\s & reason$ selection ( all ! div]se factors ! sum ( :i* may con/itute a complete & homog5e\s sy/em4 ,if1 !re=e1 we speak "h ( ! doctr9e or attitude ( eclecticism1 we are obvi\sly us+ ! t]m 9 its second & broad] connotation2 us$ 9 ?is way x /&s z ! anti!sis ( prejudice1 ( fadd9ess1 ( crank9ess1 & ( fix$ ideas4 ,_m ( ^? :o practise eclecticism call x ! #8philosophy ( ! complete life'2 :e!r ?is is or is n a philosophy 9 ! true s5se ( ! t]m1 we w leave to philosoph]s to discuss2 we w cont5t ourselves by quot+ a few maxims or aphorisms :i* w s]ve to make cle> ! attitude 9 "q4 ,all is good :i* t5ds t[>ds good4 ,! recognition & appreciation ( any p>ticul> good ?+ does n necess>ily invalidate ^? ?+s :i* d n resemble x1 nor ev5 cause u to disp>age or deprecate ?+s :i* are seem+ly 9 conflict ) x4 ,let u neglect no?+ except futilities & ?+s :i* we h prov$ to our satisfaction to be 9 !mselves bad & h>mful4 ,two or m oppos+ pr9ciples1 ideas1 likes1 op]ations1 int]e/s1 9 %ort any two or m conflict+ t5d5cies1 may be comb9$1 & ?is comb9ation c be effect$ by o!r means ?an ! exp$i5t ( compromis+4 ,lob/] salad & fruit salad may be attractive to ! g\rmet1 b no compromise betwe5 ! two w\ld be palatable4 ,x is n always ! height ( wisdom & exp$i5cy to kill too _m birds ) "o /one4 ,?is attitude t[>ds life 9 g5]al does inde$ solve _m problems & vex$ que/ions4 ,x con/itutes a me?od ( conciliat+ inconsi/5cies1 bo? real & app>5t4 ,x expla9s h[ x is t "o c appreciate bo? classical & popul> music1 classical & light lit]ature1 h[ idealism may exi/ side by side ) a ke5 int]e/ 9 mat]ial ?+s4 ,! real & ! ideal1 sci5tific precision & unsci5tific emotion1 patriotism & int]nationalism1 are n incompatible ) ea* o!r 9 ! #8philosophy ( ! complete life4' ,& :at has all ?is to d ) language-/udy8 ,:at be>+ h ^! fanciful or fanta/ical philosophical consid]ations on ! problem ( tea*+ or le>n+ a language rapidly & well8 ,! connexion is cle>] ?an "o might imag9e at fir/ sight1 = ea* ( ! aphorisms quot$ above may s]ve1 if n z a def9ition ( ! n9? pr9ciple1 at lea/ z a /rong sugge/ion ( :at ! pr9ciple implies4 ,^? :o h foll[$ u1 po9t by po9t1 9 our enum]ation & analysis ( ! eight prec$+ pr9ciples may be 9 p]fect agreem5t ) our conclusions1 b may1 nev]!less1 be sorely tr\bl$ z to h[ !y are to be c>ri$ out 9 practice4 ,on _m po9ts !re appe> to be conflicts & inconsi/5cies2 9 _m cases x w\ld appe> to be exce$+ly difficult1 if n impossible1 to obs]ve two or m ( ^! pr9ciples simultane\sly4 ,h[ is habit-=m+ consi/5t ) int]e/8 ,h[ c we comb9e a /udy ( phonetics ) a /udy ( or?ography8 ,h[ c we comb9e ! developm5t ( our spontane\s capacities ) t ( our /udial capacities8 ,h[ c we obs]ve ! pr9ciple ( accuracy & comb9e x ) o!r pr9ciples :i* are seem+ly 9 conflict ) x--su* z ! inhibition ( our p[]s ( analysis & syn!sis8 ,h[ are we to fo/] a ke5 appreciation ( ! classical or lit]>y /yle ( composition1 & yet conc5trate on ! colloquial & trivial8 ,! pr9ciples ( gradation & ( ord] ( progression seem to reveal inconsi/5cies :5 !y are comp>$ ) ea* o!r2 !re is m ?an a seem+ inconsi/5cy betwe5 ! process ( unconsci\s assimilation & ! pr9ciple ( concret5ess4 ,translation is de/ructive1 or is (t5 consid]$ s1 ( ! p[] ( #8?9k+ 9 ! =eign language1' & yet x is sugge/$ t ! /ud5t %\ld d translation "w & at ! same "t tra9 himself to ?9k 9 ! =eign language4 ,^! & _m o!r problems or difficulties sugge/$ by ! c>eful /udy ( ! =ego+ eight pr9ciples c only be solv$ by ! ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! _s ( eclecticism und]ly+ ?is n9? pr9ciple4 ,we h allud$ to ! philosophy ( ! complete life 9 ord] t we may bett] realize ! significance ( :at we may t]m ! complete me?od4 ,?is complete me?od1 m>k y1 is n a compromise betwe5 two or m antagoni/ic s*ools2 x boldly incorporates :at is valuable 9 any sy/em or me?od ( tea*+ & refuses to recognize any conflict1 except ! conflict betwe5 ! good & ! inh]5tly bad4 ,! complete me?od w embody e type ( tea*+ except bad tea*+1 & e process ( le>n+ except defective le>n+4 ,! complete me?od 7( :i* ! multiple l9e ( approa* is ! expression7 is ! anti!sis ( ! special or pat5t me?od4 ,pat5t or propriet>y me?ods v (t51 b n always1 resemble pat5t m$ic9es4 ,we "k :at !y are4 ,a pat5t language me?od1 l a pat5t m$ic9e1 claims to prev5t or to cure all possible ills 7l+ui/ic or physical1 z ! case may be7 by repeat$ applications ( "o special device or drug2 bo? ( !m claim to kill innum]able birds ) "o /one4 ,"o is always incl9$ to d\bt ! effici5cy ( an in/rum5t :i* is design$ to p]=m too _m di/9ct functions2 a tool design$ to s]ve bo? z a hairbru% & z a hamm] is n likely ei!r to bru% or to hamm] v effici5tly1 & our imag9ation refuses to picture :at "o vehicle c\ld possibly af=d u all ! advantages ( a bicycle1 a motor-c>1 a :eelb>r[1 & an express tra91 n to m5tion ^? ( a boat or balloon4 ,"o di%1 h[ev] nutritive1 succul5t1 & satisfy+1 w n con/itute a complete banquet4 ,let u apply ! pr9ciple ( ! multiple l9e ( approa* to ! solv+ ( a numb] ( vex$ que/ions1 well kn[n to all ^? :o h read or p>ticipat$ 9 discussions & controv]sies on ! subject ( language-tea*+4 ,%all read+ be int5sive or ext5sive8 ,t is to say1 %all we take a text1 /udy x l9e by l9e1 ref]r+ at e mom5t to our diction>y & our gramm>1 comp>+1 analys+1 translat+1 & reta9+ e expression t x conta9s8 ,or %all we take a l>ge numb] ( texts & read !m rapidly & c>elessly1 tru/+ t quantity w make up = ! lack ( quality 9 our att5tion & ! lack ( int5sity8 ,%all we translate8 ,we c le>n mu* f translation2 x af=ds u _m types ( int]e/+ & valuable ex]cises4 ,or %all we ban translation8 ,= we "k t "u c]ta9 conditions translation may fo/] & enc\rage m ?an "o vici\s t5d5cy4 ,%all we memorize s5t5ces or %all we le>n to con/ruct !m1 bo? syn!tically & by ! sub/itution process8#e ,ei!r plan seems to h its advantages & its disadvantages4 #e ,see page #agf & footnote1 & p4 #agg4 ,:i* is bett]3 drill-"w or free "w8 ,! pr9ciple ( accuracy incl9es u t[>ds ! =m]2 ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ & our in/9ctive /riv+ = naturalness incl9e u t[>ds ! latt]4 ,are we to /udy ) consci\s att5tion or ) ef=tless att5tion8 ,9 ! av]age lesson or language-c\rse1 ! =m] alone is consid]$1 b ! "y *ild1 or ! adult assimilat+ a language "u ideal conditions1 kn[s no o!r ?an ! latt]4 ,%all we assimilate our language-mat]ial by read+ or by li/5+ to p8 ,_m claim to h ma/]$ a language rapidly & successfully by ! "o me?od1 :ile _m o!rs ascribe _! success to ! fact t !y h le>nt exclusively by ! o!r4 ,:i* is ! be/ me?od ( reta9+ language-mat]ial3 by repeat+ x al\d or by writ+ x8 ,!re aga91 we f9d _m :o are /aun* adh]5ts ( ei!r me?od 7& consequ5tly oppon5ts ( ! o!r74 ,active or passive "w8 ,d we ga9 & reta9 our impressions by speak+ & writ+1 or d we 9 reality acquire pr(ici5cy 9 ! use ( language by ! processes ( read+ & li/5+8 ,)\t ! pr9ciple ( ! multiple l9e ( approa* !re are only two ways ( settl+ ^! & all simil> que/ions4 ,"o is to adopt "o alt]native1 reject+ ! second2 ! o!r is to effect a work+ compromise betwe5 ! two4 ,%all we read int5sively or ext5sively8 8,read int5sively10 says "o2 8,no1 read ext5sively10 says ano!r2 & ! compromis] comes along & says1 8,read nei!r v int5sively nor v ext5sively40 ,%all we translate or %all we bani% translation8 8,translate by all means10 says "o2 8,bani% translation10 says ano!r2 & ! compromis] says1 8,translate a little occasionally1 b d n let ! translation be p>ticul>ly good40 ,drill-"w or free "w8 ,! compromis] sugge/s some?+ betwe5 ! two1 me*anical en\gh to de/roy naturalness1 & free en\gh to enc\rage inaccuracy4 ,%all we memorize s5t5ces1 or %all we con/ruct !m8 ,! compromis] sugge/s t we %\ld aid our memory by doses ( m5tal syn!sis1 9 fact j en\gh to prev5t ! laws ( memoriz+ f op]at+4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! multiple l9e ( approa* sugge/s a ?ird & bett] proc$ure4 ,in/ead ( accept+ ! "o & reject+ ! o!r1 in/ead ( adopt+ ! middle c\rse :i* frequ5tly militates aga9/ ! success ( ei!r extreme1 ?is pr9ciple says1 8,adopt !m bo? concurr5tly1 b n 9 "o & ! same op]ation4 ,at times read int5sively2 at o!rs read ext5sively4 ,at appropriate mom5ts1 & = specific purposes1 make ! fulle/ use ( all sorts ( translation "w2 at o!r mom5ts1 & = o!r specific purposes1 bani% translation entirely4 ,at times1 m especially dur+ ! e>ly /ages1 let !re be an abundance ( drill-"w2 lat]1 b n be=e ! /ud5t is p]fectly ripe = x1 let u introduce free "w2 & !n let ! two types alt]nate4 ,at c]ta9 mom5ts1 m especially dur+ ! e>ly /ages1 let ! memoriz+ ( s5t5ces be c>ri$ out on a mo/ ext5sive scale2 at o!r mom5ts1 z a di/9ctly sep>ate op]ation1 let u cause ! /ud5t to p]=m ex]cises 9 con/ruct+ correct s5t5ces himself40 ,we h _h occasion to note t ?is pr9ciple sugge/s ! inadvisability ( kill+ too _m birds ) "o /one4 ,! pr9ciple goes f>!r & adds to ! figure ( spee* j quot$ ! two foll[+ coroll>ies1 viz43 8,f9d ! "r /one to kill ! "r bird10 & 8,x is (t5 advisable to kill "o bird ) m ?an "o /one40 ,!re are _m diff]5t ways ( tea*+ a difficult s\nd1 !re are _m diff]5t ways ( tea*+ a difficult po9t 9 gramm>1 a curi\s =m ( con/ruction1 or ( caus+ ! /ud5t to discrim9ate betwe5 two ?+s :i* ought n to be confus$4 ,9 ^! & 9 all simil> cases1 !re is no reason :y sev]al me?ods %\ld n be us$ concurr5tly2 !y ne$ n be /rictly co-ord9at$4 ,! cumulative effect ( approa*+ ! difficulty f diff]5t & indep5d5t angles w c]ta9ly secure ! desir$ result4 ,sup]ficial & rapid "w on mo/ po9ts plus int5sive & ?or\gh "w on c]ta9 ess5tial specific po9ts w g5]ally ensure a well-assimilat$ :ole4 ,ei!r ( ^! me?ods w t5d to correct any disadvantages atta*$ to ! o!r & w be complem5t>y to ! o!r4 ,! high degree ( accuracy :i* results f int5sive "w w t5d to spread by contagion to t portion ( ! "w :i* mu/ necess>ily be done 9 a m summ>y fa%ion4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :i* und]lies all o!rs1 leaves ! door op5 = new devices1 new me?ods1 & improvem5ts on ! old ones4 ,x leaves u free to welcome & to adopt all sorts ( innovations1 provid$ su* innovations are likely to prove ( value4 ,we w quote "o example ( :at may happ5 :5 we d n suffici5tly realize ! importance or ! scope ( ! n9? pr9ciple4 ,! tea*] ( ,fr5* may consid] t a c]ta9 am\nt ( !ory is useful & helpful2 he may consid] x necess>y to expla9 all mann] ( ?+s to /ud5ts--h[ c]ta9 s\nds are =m$1 h[ c]ta9 v]bs are conjugat$1 :y c]ta9 con/ructions mu/ be us$2 he may consid] x 8 duty to give in=mation on hundr$s ( d\btful or difficult po9ts4 ,& he is (t5 p]fectly ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s2 explanations ( ! "r sort & giv5 at ! "r mom5t are inde$ valuable4 ,?is same tea*] consid]s also t _m opportunities %\ld be giv5 ( he>+ ,fr5* spok51 9 ord] to tra9 8 /ud5t's p[]s ( obs]vation & ( semantic association4 ,?is also is good & reasonable2 passive audition1 unconsci\s or semi-consci\s assimilation1 imm$iate und]/&+ & expression1 are processes ! value ( :i* we h always insi/$ ^u4 ,b ?is tea*]1 too anxi\s to kill two birds ) "o /one1 comb9es ! two =ms ( "w2 he says1 8,i h a numb] ( difficult ?+s to expla91 & ,i w expla9 !m 9 ,fr5*2 ! /ud5t w !re=e h a d\ble ga940 ,! /ud5t1 h[ev]1 unless already v consid]ably advanc$1 is n a ga9] b a los]2 he fails to und]/& ! explanation1 & 9 8 ef=ts to d s he fails to adopt ! prop] receptive attitude t[>ds ! actual language mat]ial4 ,aft] all1 we d n le>n h[ to write %or?& f books writt5 exclusively 9 %or?&1 & ! book :i* tea*es u h[ to use ! ,morse code is n pr9t$ exclusively 9 ! ,morse code4 ,to use ! =eign language = ! purposes ( a vehicul> language "u ! pretext t ! m ! /ud5t he>s ( ! =eign language ! bett] he w le>n1 is a me?od :i* /&s fully condemn$ :5 we prop]ly realize ! nature & scope ( ! pr9ciple we are n[ exam9+4 ,we may sum up ?is pr9ciple ( ! multiple l9e ( approa* fairly concisely 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,let u approa* ! language1 or any specific po9t 9 ! language1 simultane\sly f sev]al di/9ct po9ts ( dep>ture1 by sev]al di/9ct b gradually conv]g+ av5ues4 ,! obs]v+ ( ?is pr9ciple w alone enable u to obs]ve consi/5tly & successfully ! eight o!r vital pr9ciples :i* x has be5 ! object ( ?is book to set =?4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi #8,,memoriz$ ,,matt]' ,,& #8,,con/ruct$ ,,matt]' ,until we "k m ab\t spee*-psy*ology & ! ultimate processes ( language-/udy1 x is d\btful :e!r we c embody 9 ! =m ( a concrete pr9ciple ! subject treat$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! writ] w\ld pref]1 at ?is /age ( our k1 simply to submit ! foll[+ consid]ations 9 ! hope t future rese>* w ?r[ fur!r light on ! subject & r5d] x possible to co-ord9ate x ) ^? bran*es ( l+ui/ic p$agogy :i* are m famili> to u4 ,inde$1 :5 we h asc]ta9$ exp]im5tally ! exact nature ( :at we %all call #8memoriz$' & #8con/ruct$' spee*-mat]ial1 x is conceivable t ! :ole subject w become s cl>ifi$ t x w be possible to r$uce to "o ma9 pr9ciple all or mo/ ( :at has be5 said 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s4 ,n[1 :5ev] we op5 our lips to speak1 or :5ev] we set p5 to pap]1 x is ) ! object ( produc+ "o or m units ( spee*4 ,^! units may be %ort & simple1 su* z3 ,yes1 ,no1 ,"h1 or !y may be ^w-gr\ps1 su* z3 ,v well1 ,i don't "k1 ,yes1 if ,i c1 or !y may be complete & ev5 complicat$ s5t5ces conta9+ "o or m subord9ate clauses4 ,b :atev] ! unit may be1 long or %ort1 simple or complex1 "o ?+ is cle>3 ea* unit has ei!r be5 memoriz$ by ! us] integrally z x /&s or else is compos$ by ! us] f small] & previ\sly memoriz$ units4 ,?is is a fundam5tal fact ab\t spee* :i* /&s out cle>ly & unmi/akably2 x is n a fanciful supposition or an idle conjecture1 x is an axiomatic tru?4 ,n[ let u t]m #8memoriz$ matt]' ev]y?+ t we h memoriz$ integrally1 & #8con/ruct$ matt]' ev]y?+ t we h n s memoriz$1 b :i* we compose or build up z we g on4 ,c we di/+ui% ! two ?+s8 ,9 mo/ cases we c4 ,monosyllabic words h g5]ally 7al?\gh n necess>ily7 be5 memoriz$ z !y /&2 we say & und]/& ! ^w cat1 because once ^u a "t we _h ! occasion to he> ! ^w 9 "q & ! opportunity to connect x ) its mean+ & to reta9 x4 ,! ^w cat is includ$ 9 our memoriz$ matt]4 ,probably mo/ words ( two or ev5 m syllables h be5 acquir$ z memoriz$ matt]4 ,great numb]s ( comp\nd words h also be5 acquir$ 9 ! same way4 ,a consid]able numb] ( ^w-gr\ps & s5t5ces are includ$ 9 our memoriz$ matt]4 ,su* s5t5ces z ,i don't "k1 ,j come "h1 ,pick x up1 ,i don't want x1 are mo/ probably memoriz$ ) mo/ speak]s4 ,n[ consid] a unit ( spee* su* z3 ,i saw ,h5ry ,sidd+s betwe5 six & half-pa/ at ! corn] ( ,ri?+ton ,lane4 ,is x ! sort ( unit :i* we %\ld use z a result ( hav+ memoriz$ x integrally8 ,an actor or recit] may inde$ h occasion to d s1 b ap>t f ^? ^: duty or hobby x is to memorize #8l9es' x is an extremely unlikely specim5 ( memoriz$ matt]4 ,! writ] has j compos$ x1 & does n ev5 "k :e!r !re exi/s su* a surname z ,sidd+s or a place call$ ,ri?+ton ,lane2 !re are millions ( *ances to "o t x is an entirely orig9al s5t5ce4 ,mo/ ( ! ?+s we utt] or write come into ! category ( con/ruct$ matt]2 _! compon5t p>ts h be5 memoriz$ integrally & s con/itute memoriz$ matt]2 b ! complete units are con/ruct$1 !y are ! result ( rapid & probably unconsci\s acts ( syn!sis4 ,?is is no place = /ati/ics1 ev5 if data 7 available2 x mu/ be left to inve/igators to asc]ta9 ! relative am\nt ( memoriz$ & con/ruct$ matt] us$ by ! "y *ild 9 8 fir/ mon?s or ye>s ( spee*4 ,inquiries ( ?is sort %\ld af=d "s valuable & surpris+ evid5ce2 ! writ] has _h occasion to note t a ,fr5*-speak+ *ild ( ab\t t5 0 ev5 unconsci\s ( ! composition ( units su* z pomme de t]re or quatre-v+ts1 j z ! av]age adult ,engli% p]son is unconsci\s ( ! composition ( =tnight or nev]!less4#f ,:at w c]ta9ly complicate su* rese>* "w is ! p>adoxical fact t con/ruct$ matt] may become memoriz$ by d9t ( frequ5t repetition4 ,a fur!r complication is add$ by ! fact t ! two types ( matt] may also be consid]$ f ! po9t ( view1 n ( ! speak]1 b ( ! auditor4 #f ,see ,! ,sci5tific ,/udy & ,tea*+ ( ,languages1 pp4 #ajc-aai4 ,"o ( ! que/ions t conc]ns u at pres5t is to asc]ta9 :at %\ld be ! "r proportions ( memoriz$ & con/ruct$ matt] 9 ! initial /ages ( le>n+ a =eign language4 ,too l>ge a proportion ( memoriz$ matt] w r5d] /udy unnecess>ily t$i\s1 = memoriz+ "w1 ev5 "u ! be/ ( conditions1 is less int]e/+ ?an ! piec+ toge!r ( kn[n units4 ,too l>ge a proportion ( con/ruct$ matt]1 on ! o!r h&1 w c]ta9ly result 9 an artificial sort ( spee* or a pidg9 =m1 ) all its evil consequ5ces4 ,at ! pres5t day1 z 9 ! pa/1 ! t5d5cy 9 language-/udy is to pay f> too mu* att5tion to con/ruct+ & n ne>ly en\gh to memoriz+4 ,:at conc]ns u /ill m is to asc]ta9 def9itely by exp]im5t :at is ! exact nature ( ^? processes by :i* con/ruct$ matt] is d]iv$ f memoriz$ matt]4 ,we mu/ f9d out :at really does happ5 9 ! case ( "y *ildr5 9 ! fir/ /ages ( _! spee*-exp]i5ce1 & by :at m5tal processes ^? p]sons call$ born l+ui/s atta9 _! results4 ,!re w\ld appe> to be ?ree di/9ct mann]s ( produc+ con/ruct$ matt]2 ^! may be t]m$ respectively3 7a7 ,grammatical con/ruction4 7b7 ,ergonic con/ruction4 7c7 ,conv]sion4 7a7 ,,grammatical ,,con/ruction ,?is process consi/s 9 memoriz+ #8diction>y words' 7! inf9itives ( v]bs1 ! nom9ative s+ul> ( n\ns1 ! mascul9e nom9ative s+ul> ( adjectives1 etc47 & ( =m+ s5t5ces f !m 7) or )\t ! int]v5tion ( translation7 by means ( apply+ ! v>i\s rules ( accid5ce1 syntax1 d]ivation1 & composition4 ,! foll[+ is a typical example ( ! process4 ,an ,engli% /ud5t wi%es to =m z con/ruct$ matt] ! ,g]man s5t5ce3 ,i* habe mit grs/em ,v]gng5 se95 freundli*5 ,vors*lag ang5omm51 f ! previ\sly memoriz$ units i*1 hab51 mit1 gross1 ,v]gng51 se91 freundli*1 ,vors*lag1 annehm54 ,besides hav+ to det]m9e 79 accordance ) rules ( ^w-ord]7 ! relative position ( ! n9e prim>y units1 he has to p]=m ! twelve foll[+ op]ations3 7#a7 ,*oose ! appropriate =m ( ! pron\n ( ! fir/ p]son s+ul>4 7#b7 ,*oose ! appropriate t5se ( ! v]b annehm54 7#c7 ,d]ive ! pres5t t5se fir/ p]son s+ul> =m ( hab54 7#d7 ,det]m9e ! case gov]n$ by ! preposition mit4 7#e7 ,d]ive ! sup]lative =m ( ! adjective gross4 7#f7 ,det]m9e ! g5d] ( ! n\n ,v]gng54 7#g7 ,d]ive ! mascul9e dative s+ul> =m ( ! sup]lative adjective grs/--:5 n prec$$ by a det]m9ative4 7#h7 ,det]m9e ! g5d] ( ! n\n ,vors*lag4 7#i7 ,det]m9e ! function ( ! same 9 ?is p>ticul> s5t5ce4 7#aj7 ,det]m9e ! =m ( ! possessive adjective ( ! ?ird p]son mascul9e s+ul> :5 modify+ a mascul9e accusative s+ul> n\n4 7#aa7 ,det]m9e ! =m ( ! adjective freundli* :5 prec$$ by a possessive adjective & :5 modify+ a mascul9e accusative n\n4 7#ab7 ,d]ive ! pa/ p>ticiple ang5omm5 f ! inf9itive4 ,x w be notic$ t mo/ ( ^! op]ations require1 9 addition to a p]fect memory ( ! grammatical rules 7includ+ numb]s ( ^w-li/s71 a f9e p[] ( logical discrim9ation4 ,ne$less to say1 no speak] ( ,g]man actually does p]=m any ( ^! op]ations 7except p]haps on v special & r>e occasions71 & we dismiss z a pat5t absurdity ! supposition t ! "y native *ild con/ructs 8 matt] 9 any su* way4 7b7 ,,ergonic ,,con/ruction ,9 ?is process we "w f an entirely diff]5t sort ( memoriz$ matt]2 in/ead ( be+ m]ely #8diction>y words' x consi/s ( 7a7 m or less complete s5t5ces1 & 7b7 units ( spee* :i* we may t]m #8ergons1' i4e4 #8work+ units' d]iv$ & inflect$ 9 advance by ! tea*] 7or ! au?or ( ! c\rse71 ea* ergon be+ ?us q ready = use4 ,! foll[+ is a typical example ( ! process3 ,a fairly simple s5t5ce is memoriz$2 let u say1 ,i* kann me95 ,/ock heute ni*t nehm51 8,i c't take my /ick to-day40 ,appropriate gr\ps ( ergons are also memoriz$1 su* z3 ,a i*1 ,i ,b kann1 c muss1 mu/ soll1 am to w]de1 %all knnte1 c\ld mus/e1 _h to sollte1 ought to wrde1 %\ld ,c me95 ,/ock1 my /ick me95 ,blei/ift1 my p5cil ,ihr5 ,reg5s*irm1 y\r umbrella d5 ,/uhl1 ! *air d5selb51 ! same ihn1 him1 x sie1 h]1 x es1 x ,d heute1 to-day morg51 to-morr[ heute morg51 ?is morn+ morg5 frh1 to-morr[ morn+ um zwei ,uhr1 at two o'clock n*/5 ,monat1 next mon? n*/e ,wo*e1 next week n*/es ,jahr1 next ye> ,e ni*t1 n ,f nehm51 take seh51 see br+51 br+1 take trag51 c>ry1 take su*51 look = f9d51 f9d bekomm51 get ,! /ud5t w !n =m 7z con/ruct$ matt]7 z _m ( ! #af1abh resultant s5t5ces#g z is consid]$ necess>y = ?is p>ticul> vocabul>y4 ,?is w be done by means ( drills & habit-=m+ ex]cises bas$ on ! foll[+ sub/itution table3 #g ,see #ajj ,engli% ,sub/itution ,tables1 by ! au?or ( ! pres5t book 7,heff]1 ,cambridge74 ,also ! s]ies ( 8,auto-,translators0 7,int]national ,/ud5ts' ,bureau1 #ef ,russell ,squ>e1 ,w4,c4 #a74 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,i*kann me95 ,/ock heute ni*tnehm5 muss me95 ,blei/ift morg5 seh5 soll ,ihr5 ,reg5s*irmheute morg5 br+5 w]de d5 ,/uhl morg5 frh trag5 knnted5selb5 um zwei ,uhr su*5 mus/eihn n*/5 ,monat f9d5 solltesie n*/e ,wo*e bekomm5 wrde es n*/es ,jahr ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 grammatical & ergonic con/ruction lies 9 ! sort ( memoriz$ matt] us$ 9 ei!r case4 ,9 grammatical con/ruction ! memoriz$ matt] consi/s exclusively ( :at we h call$ #8diction>y words' 7a l>ge proportion ( :i* require modify+ 9 "s =m or o!r be=e be+ available = use 9 a s5t5ce71 :]eas 9 ergonic con/ruction two sorts ( memoriz$ matt] are requir$3 a m or less complete s5t5ce & a numb] ( ergons 7units ( language inflect$ or compos$ 9 advance = ! /ud5t1 in/ead ( by ! /ud5t74 7c7 ,,conv]sion ,?is process consi/s 9 memoriz+ a numb] ( s5t5ces all compos$ 9 a m or less uni=m way4 ,:5 ^! s5t5ces h be5 memoriz$1 ! /ud5t is taught by a s]ies ( appropriate drills & habit-=m+ ex]cises to conv]t ea* s5t5ce into ano!r =m4 ,! foll[+ is a typical example ( ! process4 ,! /ud5t memorizes ! t5 foll[+ s5t5ces3 7#a7 ,he goes to ! /ation4 7#b7 ,he comes "h4 7#c7 ,he takes x4 7#d7 ,he waits = x4 7#e7 ,he /ays !re4 7#f7 ,he writes a lett]4 7#g7 ,he reads a book4 7#h7 ,he speaks ,fr5*4 7#i7 ,he gets up4 7#aj7 ,he's "h4#h #h ,! inclusion ( an exceptional =m 7#8,he isn't "h'7 9 a conv]sion table is a useful feature 9 ^! ex]cises4 ,he !n li/5s to ! tea*]1 :o says3 ,he goes to ! /ation ,he doesn't g to ! /ation4 ,he comes "h ,he doesn't come "h4 etc4 etc4 & aft] "o or m repetitions p]=ms ! conv]sion himself 9 ! same way1 ) or )\t prompt+ by ! tea*] or ! book4 ,! tea*] w !n *ange ! s5t5ces 9 "s o!r mann]1 = in/ance3 ,he goes to ! /ation ,does he g to ! /ation8 ,he comes "h ,does he come "h8 etc4 etc4 ,! /ud5t li/5s1 & subsequ5tly p]=ms ! same s]ies4 ,on o!r occasions ea* ( ! t5 s5t5ces may be conv]t$ into =ms su* z3 ,he'll g to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he wants to g to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he's go+ to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he didn't g to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he w5t to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he's gone to ! /ation1 etc4 ,x's impossible = him to g to ! /ation1 etc4 ,he always goes to ! /ation1 etc4 ,9 ! case ( conv]sion ! diff]5ce betwe5 memoriz$ & con/ruct$ matt] is n s m>k$ z 9 ! two syn!tic op]ations1 nor is ! yield ( con/ruct$ matt] s great4 ,inde$1 9 extreme cases1 ! =m into :i* ! orig9al s5t5ce is to be conv]t$ w h to be le>nt integrally1 & s becomes 9 itself memoriz$ matt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s =ms ( ?is type ( "w are practically id5tical ) ex]cises bas$ on ergonic con/ruction1 & = ^! two reasons x has be5 held t conv]sion is n a di/9ct process = =m+ con/ruct$ matt]1 b m]ely a modifi$ =m ( ergonic "w4 ,:e!r ?is view is ju/ifi$ or n is a matt] m ( academic ?an ( practical int]e/ to ! language-tea*]4 ,^! !n appe> to be ! only ?ree processes kn[n by :i* memoriz$ matt] c be develop$ & exp&$ into orig9al composition4 ,:at we h call$ grammatical con/ruction is ! classical & almo/ univ]sal me?od4 ,:at we h call$ ergonic con/ruction is embodi$ m or less unsy/ematically 9 a numb] ( language-c\rses & ! m enlight5$ books ( in/ruction4 ,conv]sion is also practis$1 b /ill 9 a sporadic & desultory fa%ion4 ,n[1 "s ?irty ye>s ago ! re=m movem5t />t$4 ,9 sev]al diff]5t c\ntries b&s ( zeal\s pione]s took up arms aga9/ ! !n prevail+ sy/em & s\ght to put an end to x4 ,! re=m prosp]$4 ,! re=m]s h c>ri$ all be=e !m1 & ! d>+ innovators ( tw5ty or ?irty ye>s ago n[ enjoy ! pre/ige t _! ef=ts h e>n$ = !m4 ,:at 0 ! nature ( ?is re=m8 ,:at abuses has x swept away8 ,& = :at innovations h we to ?ank x8 ,x w\ld appe>1 on analysis1 to h _h a ?reefold object3 7a7 ,to promote ! rational & sy/ematic /udy ( pronunciation by means ( phonetic !ory & transcription4 7b7 ,to promote ! idea t a language is us$ prim>ily z a means ( communicat+ ?\ghts4 7c7 ,to promote ! idea t =eign languages %\ld be le>n$ by me?ods approximat+ to ^? by :i* we le>n our native tongue4 ,! fir/ two objects h c]ta9ly be5 atta9$2 phonetics is ! ord] ( ! day1 & bo? tea*]s & /ud5ts h to use phonetic symbols :e!r !y l x or n2 moreov]1 ! new g5]ation does recognize t ! deciph]+ & analysis ( anci5t texts is n ! prim>y use ( language4 ,! ?ird object has n be5 s successfully pursu$2 inde$1 we are /ill v f> f le>n+ ! =eign tongue by ! same processes z ^? by :i* we le>nt our own4 ,! *ief reason = ?is failure 0 a bad diagnosis ( ! *ief evils ( ! sy/em hi!rto employ$4 ,_m ( ! re=m]s & mo/ ( _! disciples imag9$ #8translation' to be ! root ( ! evil1 & s translation 9 e %ape or =m 0 bann$2 !re mu/ be no bil+ualism at all1 & s ! "m-tongue mu/ be exclud$ f ! c\rse1 ! lessons mu/ be conduct$ entirely 9 ! =eign language4 ,b translation & ! use ( ! "m-tongue1 z x turns out1 are p]fectly h>mless & 9 _m cases positively b5eficial2 ! evil lay 9 ! exagg]at$ att5tion :i* _h always be5 paid to grammatical con/ruction2 t 0 ! dragon t ! ,/ ,georges might well h sla9 _h n ! r$ h]r+ ( #8translation' un=tunately be5 drawn across ! track4 ,z x 01 ! r$ h]r+ 0 duly run d[n & annihilat$1 & ! dragon /ill lives6 ,! misund]/&+ 0 natural en\gh2 logicians w\ld quote x z an example ( ! fallacy ( ! ,false ,cause4 ,! process ( grammatical con/ruction 0 c>ri$ out by means ( a vici\s =m ( translation ex]cise1 & ! result 0 utt]ly bad4 ,two important re=ms might h be5 effect$3 9 ! fir/ place1 ! vici\s =m ( translation might h be5 replac$ by a b5eficial =m2 & secondly1 new & m wor?y uses ( translation might h be5 f\nd4 ,b ! act ( translation itself 7nay1 ! m]e use ( ! "m-tongue7 0 made ! scapegoat & s paid ! p5alty4 ,x is n[ "t = a second b& ( re=m]s to attack & to de/roy ! orig9al cause ( unsuccessful language-/udy1 viz4 grammatical con/ruction1 or at any rate to limit x to special cases & to appropriate occasions4 ,x is "t1 too1 to rehabilitate 9 "s measure ! "* ( ! comp>atively innoc5t process ( translation1 & to remove ! /igma atta*$ to ^? :o /ill use ! "m-tongue z a vehicul> language1 & by s do+ proce$ naturally en\gh f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n4 ,^! are no reaction>y sugge/ions2 !y are made 9 ! _s ( ! n9e ess5tial pr9ciples treat$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s1 & are n 9 contradiction to ! urg5t plea set =? 9 ^! pages = ! recognition & fo/]+ ( our #8spontane\s' capacities = language-/udy4 ,we c af=d to ignore no necess>y tool 9 our ef=ts to tea* well & to produce p]fect results1 & translation is (t5 a necess>y tool1 especially dur+ ! process ( d]iv+ con/ruct$ f memoriz$ matt]4 ,we sugge/ = ! mom5t no t5? pr9ciple bas$ on ^! consid]ations2 we submit ! problem & we m ?an h9t at a solution4 ,x is n[ "t = exp]im5tal "w on #8ergonic' l9es1 & ! data to be obta9$ !reby w enable u to =m our conclusions & to embody !m among ! pr9ciples ( language-/udy4 ,,index ,accid5ce1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #abf ,accuracy1 pr9ciple (1 #ba1 #bb1 ,*apt] ,,ix ,action-drill1 effect (1 #if ,active or passive "w81 #aff ,aim ( ! /ud5t1 #ae1 #af ,ar*aic spee*1 #ed1 #abg ,articulation ex]cises1 object (1 #bj1 #aba -- -- at :at /age to introduce1 #bh1 #aea -- -- description (1 #hi1 #ij -- -- z a means ( ensur+ accuracy1 #ajh ,articulation1 m5tal or #8inn]1' #ec1 #ic ,att5tion1 consci\s & unconsci\s1 #afe ,audition1 opportunities =1 #aah1 #aai ,automatism1 necessity =1 #bj1 #ba -- nature (1 #ih1 #ii -- acquir$ by repetition1 #aja ,bantu languages1 #ch1 #aej ,bewild]m5t1 elim9ation (1 #bg1 #adj1 #ada ,*ildr51 & language1 #cg -- bil+ual1 #dj1 #da -- ,belgian refugee1 #da -- use spontane\s capacities1 #dc1 #hb -- successful acquir]s ( =eign languages1 #dd -- /udial me?ods unkn[n to1 #dh -- n av]se to =m+ new habits1 #hf -- l+ui/ic environm5t (1 #aaa -- e>ly phonetic "w1 #aea -- unconsci\s ( elem5ts 9 comp\nd words1 #agb ,*9ese *>act]s1 9 ,japanese writ+1 #ec -- -- habit ( writ+1 ) bru%1 #he ,*9ook j>gon1 #ajg ,*orus-"w1 #bc1 #abj1 #aba ,classical spee*1 /udial process necess>y 9 ord] to le>n1 #dh1 #ed ,colloquial spee*1 z /&>d1 #bb -- -- z us$ by av]age speak]1 #cf1 #dg -- -- comp>$ ) vulg> spee*1 #ci -- -- & /udial "w1 #di1 #ed -- -- & inaccuracy1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh -- -- gramm> (1 #ada -- -- us$ 9 passages1 #ade ,competition z factor ( int]e/1 #bg1 #add ,complete me?od1 #afd ,concret5ess1 pr9ciple (1 #be1 #bf1 ,*apt] ,,xii 8,con/ruct$ matt]10 #cj1 #ca1 ,*apt] ,,xvi ,context z me?od ( tea*+ mean+s1 #bf1 #acc ,conv]sion1 a /udial =m ( "w1 #ad1 #di1 #ej -- me?od = produc+ con/ruct$ matt]1 #cj1 #ca -- drills z aid to accuracy1 #aaj1 #aba -- process describ$1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi ,corrective c\rses require /udial capacities1 #ae -- -- require explanations1 #ba1 #adc -- -- :5 necess>y1 #ee -- -- nature (1 #ef ,c\rse1 l5g? (1 #af1 #fd1 #fe ,c\rse-design+1 #ah1 #ge ,cramm+1 #bh1 #aci1 #afj ,cumm+s1 ,dr ,t4 ,f41 quot$1 #aef ,deaf-mutes1 #ic ,def9ition z me?od ( tea*+ mean+s1 #bf1 #acc ,depuis1 ,engli% equival5t (1 #acj1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd ,dialect1 #ci1 #dj #8,diction>y-words1' comp>$ ) #8work+ words' or ergons1 #cj1 #aei1 #agc1 #age ,direct me?od1 #ca1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha ---- ---- abuse (1 #abd ---- ---- & concret5ess1 #aca1 #acb ,drill-"w1 to ensure automatism1 #ba ---- comp>$ ) free "w1 #bd1 #be1 #aba1 #abh1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ---- v>i\s types (1 #if ---- necessity =1 #acf ---- n necess>ily un9t]e/+1 #acg1 #adf ,e>-tra9+1 necessity =1 #ag1 #gj1 #ajh1 #aeg ---- z initial prep>ation1 #bj1 #bh1 #fd ---- description (1 #hh1 #hi ---- z a means ( reception1 #aah ---- argum5ts = & aga9/1 #aea ,eclecticism1 #bi1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd ,egg]1 ,victor1 quot$1 #ic ,elem5t>y /age1 supreme importance ( !1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 ,*apt] ,v ,ergonics1 #abg1 #ahb ,ergonic con/ruction1 comp>$ ) grammatical con/ruction1 #cj1 #agc ---- description (1 #age1 #agf1 #agg ,ergons1 #aei1 #afj ,etymology1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #abf ---- ( ! /udial ord]1 #ej ---- abuse (1 #ea ,etymons1 #aei ,exam9ations1 #fb1 #fc ,ex]cises1 articulation1 #bj1 #bh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ajh1 #aba1 #aea1 #aeg ,ex]cises1 conv]sion1 #ad1 #cj1 #ca1 #di1 #ej1 #aaj1 #aba1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi ---- flu5cy1 #ij1 #aba ---- "q & answ]1 #if1 #aba ,explanations1 abuse (1 #ajb ---- z means ( elim9at+ bewild]m5t1 #adb1 #adc ---- sometimes helpful1 #afh ---- 9 =eign language1 #afi ,ext5sive read+1 comp>$ ) int5sive read+1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ,eye-"w contra/$ ) e>-"w3 ,e>s be=e eyes1 #bc1 #ec1 #aag ,abuse ( eye-"w1 #db1 #di1 #gj ,successful results f e>-"w1 #dd ,eye-"w ( ! /udial ord]1 #di ,oppos+ views on subject1 #aej ,facility1 fallacy (1 #aaf ,false gradation1 #aaf1 #aag ,flu5cy1 ex]cises1 #ij1 #aba ---- accuracy 91 #ajh ---- imm$iate or gradual81 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh ,game-l ex]cises1 #bg1 #add1 #ade ,g]man prepositions & cases1 #ajj ---- sub/itution table1 #agg ,ge/ures1 #if1 #ace ,gift = language-/udy1 #ad1 #cc1 #cf1 #dc1 #dd1 #id ,gradation1 pr9ciple (1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 ,*apt] ,x #8,grammatical con/ruction' comp>$ ) #8ergonic con/ruction1' #cj1 #agc1 #agd1 #agi1 #aha ,habit-=m+ & habit-adapt+1 pr9ciple (1 #bj1 #ba1 #dc1 #hj1 ,*apt] ,,viii ---- process1 #ag1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #acf ---- & int]e/1 #bf ---- 9 initial /age1 #fi ---- z initial prep>ation1 #he1 #hf1 #ic ,habits1 utilization ( exi/+1 #ai1 #ba1 #he1 #hf1 #ajd1 #aje ,habits1 bad1 positive & negative1 #gb ---- ---- =m+ (1 #hd ---- ---- h[ to prev5t1 #aba ---- ---- cause (1 #abb ,heuri/ic me?od1 #aci ,idiomatic =ms1 #aei ,imm$iate association1 #bf1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace ---- compreh5sion1 #bj1 #id1 #ie1 #if ---- & prolong$ memory1 #bc1 #aai1 #abj ,imp]ative drill1 #if ,inaccuracy1 two types (1 #bb ,inconsi/5cies1 seem+1 #afc #8,incorrect' or #8ungrammatical' ,engli%1 #ci ,incubation1 p]iods (1 #fe ,initial prep>ation1 pr9ciple (1 #ai1 #bj1 ,*apt] ,,vii ,int5sive & ext5sive read+1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ,int]e/1 pr9ciple (1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 ,*apt] ,,xiii ---- fallacy 9 connexion )1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci ,intonation1 :5 to introduce1 #bh1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeg ---- accuracy 91 #ajh ---- & proportion1 #abc ---- ,engli% sy/em (1 #cg ,inv5tions1 evolution 91 #ge1 #gf ,irregul>ities1 %all we include or exclude8 #bg1 #aee1 #aeh ,isolat+ habit1 #ag1 #ga ,japanese writ+1 #ec ,jesp]s51 ,pr(essor1 #gh ,language ( c]emony1 #ae ---- ( savage peoples1 #cg ,lat5t capacities = language-/udy1 #df1 #dg1 #hb ,l+ui/ics1 five *ief bran*es (1 #bd1 #hj1 #abf #8,memoriz$ matt]1' #cj1 #ca1 ,*apt] ,,xvi ,memoriz+ key-s5t5ces1 #fd ---- ^w-gr\ps1 #ga1 #aeg ---- on a l>ge scale1 #ia1 #ib ,memoriz+ contra/$ ) !ory-le>n+1 #ajj1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ---- & fe> ( t$ium1 #aja ,m5tal read+ & writ+1 #ej1 #hg1 #ia ,me?od ( discov]y1 #aci ,me?ods ( ! future1 #gf1 #gg ,mimicry1 #bj1 #ij1 #ia ,morse code1 #afi ,multiple l9e ( approa*1 pr9ciple (1 #bi1 #cj1 ,*apt] ,,xv ,my/]y words & s5t5ces1 #adb ,nons5se words1 #hh n4 ,oral repetition1 #aai ,ord] ( progression1 anci5t & mod]n1 #aei1 #afj ,or?ography1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #abf ---- n a product ( nature1 #eb ---- accuracy 91 #aji1 #aab ---- & proportion1 #abd ,phonetics1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #abf ---- progress made by sci5ce (1 #gg ---- ,engli% & ,fr5* sy/ems comp>$1 #ajc ---- data furni%$ by1 #aab ,phonetic dictation1 #hh ,phonetic transcription1 m #8natural' ?an traditional spell+1 #eb ---- ---- exclusive use (1 #aji ---- ---- & proportion1 #abd ---- ---- ! acme ( simplicity1 #ada ---- ---- argum5ts = & aga9/1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aeg ---- ---- & ! re=m movem5t1 #ahj ,pidg9-spee*1 a =m ( inaccuracy1 #bb1 #db1 #ee1 #ef1 #aaj1 #aaa ---- z an aim1 #fb ---- bett] ?an none1 #gb ---- def9ition & examples (1 #ajg ---- & con/ruct$ matt]1 #agc ,plateaux1 #add ,pr9ciples ( language-tea*+1 #ah1 #ai1 ,*apt] ,,vi ,progress1 a factor ( int]e/1 #bg1 #adc1 #add ,programme ( /udy1 dep5ds on aim ( /ud5t1 #ae1 #af1 #fe1 #ff ,proportion1 pr9ciple (1 #bd1 #be1 ,*apt] ,,xi ,psy*ologi/s & language-/udy1 #gh1 #aji ,"q-&-answ] ex]cises1 #if1 #aba ,rate ( progress1 #bc1 #fe1 #gc1 #hj1 #aac1 #aad ,rational ord] ( progression1 pr9ciple (1 #bh1 #bi1 ,*apt] ,,xiv ,read+ %\ld be prec$$ by oral "w1 #aai ,reception be=e production1 #bc1 #aah ,re=m movem5t1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha ,repetition1 & automatism1 #ba1 #aja ---- & int]e/1 #ba1 #aja ---- def9ition (1 #aja ,rules & exceptions1 li/s (1 #aae ,saussure1 de1 #gh ,semantics1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #be ---- bad habits 9 connexion )1 #ga ---- future (1 #gg ---- inaccuracy 91 #aaj ---- data af=d$ by1 #aab ---- & gradation1 #aae1 #aaf ---- & proportion1 #abg ,%ort5$ =ms1 #aef ,%or?&1 & or?ography1 #di1 #eb1 #adi ---- n le>nt by me?od ( discov]y1 #aci ---- text-books n writt5 9 %or?&1 #afi ,special or pat5t me?od 9 language-/udy1 #afd ,spell+1 re=m$1 #eb ---- difficulties (1 #ed ,spontane\s capacities = acquir+ spee*1 #ac1 #ad1 ,*apt] ,i ,/ud5t & 8 aim1 #ae1 #af1 ,*apt] ,,iv ,/udial capacities = acquir+ spee*1 #ad1 ,*apt] ,,ii ---- ---- :y we mu/ use1 #ad1 #ae1 ,*apt] ,,iii ,sub/itution process1 #afe ---- table1 #agf n41 #agg ,sweet1 ,dr1 #gh ,syntax1 a bran* ( l+ui/ics1 #bd1 #abf ---- & gradation1 #aae ,tea*] & /ud5t1 #bg1 #ade ,!ory & practice1 #ai1 #hb1 #hc1 #afh ',tonetics1' #cg ,translation1 z me?od ( tea*+ mean+s1 #bf1 #acb ---- abuse (1 #ag1 #ga1 #ahj ---- a =m ( conv]sion1 #di ---- a /udial process1 #ej ---- ! art (1 #fc ---- or no translation8 #afe1 #aff1 #afg ---- & ! re=m movem5t1 #ahj1 #aha ,trial & error1 me?od (1 #ai1 #hc1 #hd1 #aaa ,unconsci\s assimilation1 #hg1 #ie1 #afh ,units ( spee*1 #aaf1 #agj ,unphonetic writ+1 #ec ,unwritt5 ,engli% gramm>1 #ch1 #ci ,v>iety1 necessity =1 #bg1 #adg ,vici\s t5d5cies1 we mu/ react aga9/1 #ef1 #ajg1 #abd ---- ---- relative immunity f1 #eg1 #eh ---- ---- v>i\s types (1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #ajb1 #abb ,vocabul>y1 nucleus (1 #aad ---- selection (1 #abg ,^w-ord]1 inaccuracy 91 #aji ,^w or s5t5ce fir/8 #aed1 #aee ,writt5 or spok5 language fir/8 #adi1 #aej 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,! alt]nat+ left-align$ & ind5t$ p>agraphs foll[+ ! head+ ,writt5 or spok5 fir/8 7 pr9t$ 9 p>allel columns4 ,! foll[+ app>5t errors h be5 correct$3 p4 #abc v>i\ saspects *ang$ to v>i\s aspects p4 #aee #8second>y matt]' 7i4e *ang$ to #8second>y matt]' 7i4e4