,transcriber's ,note3                   
,this e-text is based on the #ahjb      
edition4 ,the original spelling has been
  retained1 as well as inconsistencies1 
such as 'musquetry'_/'musketry'1  ',du  
,frne'_/'du ,fresne'1                   
',melzio'_/',meltio'_/',melzi'1 etc4    
,uncommon or  old-style spelling has not
 been altered1 such as 'opake' 7opaque71
  'verdegris' 7verdigris71 'dutchess'   
7duchess71 etc4 ,errors due to bad      
print1 as well as minor punctuation     
errors have been tacitly corrected4     
,in the text1 the plates are referenced 
by using ,roman numerals1 whereas  the  
captions of the plates show ,arabic     
numerals2 the same applies to  the      
,table of ,chapters and the chapter     
headings1 respectively4 ,this           
inconsistency has been retained4        
,footnotes related to introductory      
chapters have been prefixed with the    
letter 'i' 7i#a-;i#baj72 footnotes in da
 ,vinci's own text1 however1  are shown 
in plain ,arabic numerals 7#a-ajb74     

,italic passages in the original version
 have been placed between  underscores  
7text72 text in small caps has been     
symbolised by forward  slashes 7_/small 
caps_/74 ,a superscript character has   
been denominated by  a preceding caret  
symbol 774    ,the following            
typographical errors have been          
corrected3         p4 xviii3 'overspead'
 -- 'overspread'2 ',vincius ast oculis' 
--           ',vincius est oculis'      
p4 lxxxiii3 ',vasari1 #cf1' -- ',vasari1
 p4 #cf'       p4 lxxxv3 ',maestrodi' --
 ',maestro di'       p4 xcii3           
',fontainbleau' -- ',fontainebleau'     
p4 #bb3 ,plate #b3 original caption     
points to page #b2 corrected to         
page #bb4       p4 #cg3 'pully'         
--'pulley'       p4 #aag3 'andso' --    
'and so'       p4 #aef3 ',a ,b ,e ,d' --
 ',c ,b ,e ,d'       p4 #aha3 'that     
that' -- 'than that'       ,footnote    
#fb3 'tranferred' -- 'transferred'      
,the ,table of ,chapters has been moved 
to the beginning of the text for        

reasons of clarity and                  
comprehensibility4                      
,a                                      
,,treatise                              
,,on                                    
,,painting1                             
,,by                                    
,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4                
,printed by _/,s4 ,gosnell_/1           
,little ,queen ,street1 ,holborn1       
,london4                                
,illustration3 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci1 
from a ,picture                         
,in the ,florentine ,museum4            
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor #ei  
,high ,holborn                          
,a                                      
,,treatise                              
,,on                                    
,,painting1                             
,,by                                    
,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4                
,,faithfully ,,translated ,,from ,,the  
,,original ,,italian1                   
,,and ,,now ,,first ,,digested ,,under  

,,proper ,,heads1                       
_/,by_/ ,,john ,,francis ,,rigaud1      
_/,esq4_/          ,,academician ,,of   
,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,painting 
,,at ,,london1 ,,and         ,,also ,,of
 ,,the ,,academia ,,clementina ,,at     
,,bologna1 ,,and ,,the ,,royal          
,,academy ,,at ,,stockholm4             
,illustrated with twenty-three          
,copper-plates1 and other ,figures4     
,,to ,,which ,,is ,,prefixed            
,a ,,new ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,author1    
,,drawn ,,up ,,from ,,authentic         
,,materials ,,till ,,now ,,inaccessible1
                   _/,by_/ ,,john       
,,sidney1 ,,hawkins1 _/,esq4_/ ,f4,a4,s4
               ,ars est habitus quidam  
faciendi ver cum ratione4               
,,aristot4 ,,ethic4 ,,lib4 #f4          
,london3                                
,,printed ,,for ,j4 ,,taylor1           
,,at ,,the ,,architectural ,,library1   
,,high ,,holborn4                       
,m4,,dccc4,,ii4          ,,table ,,of   
,,chapters4      ,the ,number at the    

,end of each ,title refers to the       
corresponding ,chapter  in the original 
,edition in ,italian4                   
,,drawing4          ,,proportion4       
,chap4        #a4 ,what the young       
,student in ,painting ought in the first
 ,place to         learn4 ,chapter #a4  
#b4 ,rule for a young ,student in       
,painting4 #c4        #c4 ,how to       
discover a young ,man's ,disposition for
 ,painting4 #d4        #d4 ,of          
,painting1 and its ,divisions4 #dg4     
#e4 ,division of the ,figure4 #dh4      
#f4 ,proportion of ,members4 #di4       
#g4 ,of ,dimensions in general4 #agc4   
#h4 ,motion1 ,changes1 and ,proportion  
of ,members4 #aff4        #i4 ,the      
,difference of ,proportion between      
,children and grown ,men4 #afi4         
#aj4 ,the ,alterations in the           
,proportion of the human ,body from     
,infancy to full ,age4 #afg4        #aa4
 ,of the ,proportion of ,members4 #age4 
#ab4 ,that every ,part be proportioned  
to its ,whole4 #bej4        #ac4 ,of the

 ,proportion of the ,members4 #ahe4     
#ad4 ,the ,danger of forming an         
erroneous ,judgment in regard to the    
,proportion and ,beauty of the ,parts4  
#db4        #ae4 ,another ,precept4 #ab4
        #af4 ,the ,manner of drawing    
from ,relievos1 and rendering ,paper fit
          for it4 #abg4        #ag4 ,of 
drawing from ,casts or ,nature4 #ca4    
#ah4 ,to draw ,figures from ,nature4    
#ch4        #ai4 ,of drawing from       
,nature4 #be4        #bj4 ,of drawing   
,academy ,figures4 #cj4        #ba4 ,of 
studying in the ,dark1 on first waking  
in the ,morning1 and          before    
going to sleep4 #ag4        #bb4        
,observations on drawing ,portraits4    
#ahh4        #bc4 ,the ,method of       
retaining in the ,memory the ,likeness  
of a ,man1 so          as to draw his   
,portrait1 after having seen him only   
once4 #ahi4        #bd4 ,how to remember
 the ,form of a ,face4 #aij4        #be4
 ,that a ,painter should take ,pleasure 
in the ,opinion of every          ,body4

 #ai4          ,,anatomy4        #bf4   
,what is principally to be observed in  
,figures4 #bac4        #bg4 ,mode of    
,studying4 #g4        #bh4 ,of being    
universal4 #bb4        #bi4 ,a ,precept 
for the ,painter4 #e4        #cj4 ,of   
the ,measures of the human ,body1 and   
the bending of ,members4          #agd4 
#ca4 ,of the small ,bones in several    
,joints of the human ,body4 #bbi4       
#cb4 ,memorandum to be observed by the  
,painter4 #eg4        #cc4 ,the         
,shoulders4 #aga4        #cd4 ,the      
,difference of ,joints between ,children
 and grown ,men4 #afh4        #ce4 ,of  
the ,joints of the ,fingers4 #agj4      
#cf4 ,of the ,joint of the ,wrist4 #agf4
        #cg4 ,of the ,joint of the      
,foot4 #agg4        #ch4 ,of the ,knee4 
#agh4        #ci4 ,of the ,joints4 #agi4
        #dj4 ,of the ,naked4 #bbj4      
#da4 ,of the ,thickness of the ,muscles4
 #bba4        #db4 ,fat ,subjects have  
small ,muscles4 #bbb4        #dc4 ,which
 of the ,muscles disappear in the       

different ,motions of the               
,body4 #bbc4        #dd4 ,of the        
,muscles4 #bbf4        #de4 ,of the     
,muscles4 #bbd4        #df4 ,the        
,extension and ,contraction of the      
,muscles4 #bbg4        #dg4 ,of the     
,muscle between the ,chest and the lower
 ,belly4 #bcj4        #dh4 ,of a ,man's 
complex ,strength1 but first of the     
,arm4 #bcd4        #di4 ,in which of the
 two ,actions1 ,pulling or ,pushing1 a  
,man has the          greatest ,power1  
,plate ,,ii4 #bce4        #ej4 ,of the  
bending of ,members1 and of the ,flesh  
round the bending          ,joint4 #bcf4
        #ea4 ,of the naked ,body4 #ahj4 
#eb4 ,of a ,ligament without ,muscles4  
#bbh4        #ec4 ,of ,creases4 #bch4   
#ed4 ,how near behind the ,back one ,arm
 can be brought to the other4           
,plate ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 #bcb4           
#ee4 ,of the ,muscles4 #bbe4        #ef4
 ,of the ,muscles4 #aid4        #eg4 ,of
 the bending of the ,body4 #bjd4        
#eh4 ,the same ,subject4 #bje4          

#ei4 ,the ,necessity of anatomical      
,knowledge4 #dc4          ,,motion ,,and
 ,,equipoise ,,of ,,figures4        #fj4
 ,of the ,equipoise of a ,figure        
standing still4 #bjc4        #fa4       
,motion produced by the ,loss of        
,equilibrium4 #bjh4        #fb4 ,of the 
,equipoise of ,bodies1 ,plate ,v4 #bfc4 
#fc4 ,of ,positions4 #aib4        #fd4  
,of balancing the ,weight round the     
,centre of ,gravity in ,bodies4         
#bad4        #fe4 ,of ,figures that have
 to lift up1 or carry any ,weight4 #bae4
        #ff4 ,the ,equilibrium of a ,man
 standing upon his ,feet1 ,plate ,,vi4  
#bja4        #fg4 ,of ,walking1 ,plate  
,,vii4 #bjb4        #fh4 ,of the ,centre
 of ,gravity in ,men and ,animals4 #aii4
        #fi4 ,of the corresponding      
,thickness of ,parts on each ,side of   
the          ,body4 #bfi4        #gj4   
,of the ,motions of ,animals4 #bdi4     
#ga4 ,of ,quadrupeds and their ,motions4
 #bfh4        #gb4 ,of the ,quickness or
 ,slowness of ,motion4 #bfg4        #gc4

 ,of the ,motion of ,animals4 #bii4     
#gd4 ,of a ,figure moving against the   
,wind1 ,plate ,,viii4 #bie4        #ge4 
,of the ,balance of a ,figure resting   
upon its ,feet4 #bff4        #gf4 ,a    
,precept4 #cej4        #gg4 ,of a ,man  
standing1 but resting more upon one     
,foot than the          other4 #bfd4    
#gh4 ,of the ,balance of ,figures1      
,plate ,,ix4 #bji4        #gi4 ,in what 
,manner extending one ,arm alters the   
,balance4 #aih4        #hj4 ,of a ,man  
bearing a ,weight on his ,shoulders1    
,plate ,x4 #bjj4        #ha4 ,of        
,equilibrium4 #bjf4        #hb4 ,of     
,motion4 #aie4        #hc4 ,the ,level  
of the ,shoulders4 #aif4        #hd4    
,objection to the above answered1 ,plate
 ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 #aig4        #he4 ,of 
the ,position of ,figures1 ,plate       
,,xiii4 #hi4        #hf4 ,of the        
,joints4 #ahd4        #hg4 ,of the      
,shoulders4 #agb4        #hh4 ,of the   
,motions of a ,man4 #bjg4        #hi4   
,of the ,disposition of ,members        

preparing to act with great             
,force1 ,plate ,,xiv4 #bcc4        #ij4 
,of throwing any ,thing with ,violence1 
,plate ,,xv4 #bfa4        #ia4 ,on the  
,motion of driving any ,thing into or   
drawing it out of          the ,ground4 
#bfb4        #ib4 ,of forcible ,motions1
 ,plate ,,xvi4 #aha4        #ic4 ,the   
,action of ,jumping4 #bfj4        #id4  
,of the three ,motions in jumping       
upwards4 #bgj4        #ie4 ,of the easy 
,motions of ,members4 #baa4        #if4 
,the greatest ,twist which a ,man can   
make1 in turning to look at             
himself behind1 ,plate ,,xvii4 #bca4    
#ig4 ,of turning the ,leg without the   
,thigh4 #bcg4        #ih4 ,postures of  
,figures4 #bfe4        #ii4 ,of the     
,gracefulness of the ,members4 #baj4    
#ajj4 ,that it is impossible for any    
,memory to retain the ,aspects and      
,changes of the ,members4 #bga4         
#aja4 ,the ,motions of ,figures4 #bdb4  
#ajb4 ,of common ,motions4 #bdh4        
#ajc4 ,of simple ,motions4 #bci4        

#ajd4 ,complex ,motions4 #bdj4          
#aje4 ,motions appropriated to the      
,subject4 #bda4        #ajf4            
,appropriate ,motions4 #bde4            
#ajg4 ,of the ,postures of ,women and   
young ,people4 #bei4        #ajh4 ,of   
the ,postures of ,children4 #beh4       
#aji4 ,of the ,motion of the ,members4  
#ahf4        #aaj4 ,of mental ,motions4 
#bdf4        #aaa4 ,effect of the ,mind 
upon the ,motions of the ,body1         
occasioned by           some outward    
,object4 #bdg4          ,,linear        
,,perspective4        #aab4 ,of those   
who apply themselves to the ,practice1  
without having           learnt the     
,theory of the ,art4 #bc4        #aac4  
,precepts in ,painting4 #cdi4           
#aad4 ,of the ,boundaries of ,objects   
called ,outlines or ,contours4 #bia4    
#aae4 ,of linear ,perspective4 #cbb4    
#aaf4 ,what ,parts of ,objects disappear
 first by ,distance4 #cah4        #aag4 
,of remote ,objects4 #caf4        #aah4 
,of the ,point of ,sight4 #bha4         

#aai4 ,a ,picture is to be viewed from  
one ,point only4 #ei4        #abj4 ,of  
the ,dimensions of the first ,figure in 
an historical           ,painting4 #ia4 
#aba4 ,of ,objects that are lost to the 
,sight1 in ,proportion to their         
,distance4 #bib4        #abb4 ,errors   
not so easily seen in small ,objects as 
in large ones4           #eb4           
#abc4 ,historical ,subjects one above   
another on the same ,wall to be         
avoided4 #ed4        #abd4 ,why ,objects
 in ,painting can never detach as       
natural ,objects           do4 #ec4     
#abe4 ,how to give the proper ,dimension
 to ,objects in ,painting4 #ga4         
#abf4 ,how to draw accurately any       
particular ,spot4 #cb4        #abg4     
,disproportion to be avoided1 even in   
the accessory ,parts4 #bij4             
,,invention _/or_/ ,,composition4       
#abh4 ,precept for avoiding a bad       
,choice in the ,style or ,proportion    
of ,figures4 #de4        #abi4 ,variety 
in ,figures4 #ba4        #acj4 ,how a   

,painter ought to proceed in his        
,studies4 #f4        #aca4 ,of sketching
 ,histories and ,figures4 #ac4          
#acb4 ,how to study ,composition4 #if4  
#acc4 ,of the ,attitudes of ,men4 #baf4 
#acd4 ,variety of ,positions4 #bag4     
#ace4 ,of ,studies from ,nature for     
,history4 #cg4        #acf4 ,of the     
,variety of ,figures in ,history        
,painting4 #id4        #acg4 ,of        
,variety in ,history4 #ig4        #ach4 
,of the ,age of ,figures4 #beb4         
#aci4 ,of ,variety of ,faces4 #ih4      
#adj4 ,a ,fault in ,painters4 #dd4      
#ada4 ,how you may learn to compose     
,groups for ,history ,painting4 #ij4    
#adb4 ,how to study the ,motions of the 
human ,body4 #ie4        #adc4 ,of      
,dresses1 and of ,draperies and ,folds4 
#ceh4        #add4 ,of the ,nature of   
,folds in ,draperies4 #cei4        #ade4
 ,how the ,folds of ,draperies ought to 
be represented1 ,plate                  
,,xviii4 #cfj4        #adf4 ,how the    
,folds in ,draperies ought to be made4  

#cfa4        #adg4 ,fore-shortening of  
,folds1 ,plate ,,xix4 #cfb4        #adh4
 ,of ,folds4 #cfd4        #adi4 ,of     
,decorum4 #bea4        #aej4 ,the       
,character of ,figures in ,composition4 
#bec4        #aea4 ,the ,motion of the  
,muscles1 when the ,figures are in      
natural           ,positions4 #aic4     
#aeb4 ,a ,precept in ,painting4 #eh4    
#aec4 ,of the ,motion of ,man1 ,plate   
,,xx4 and ,,xxi4 #ahb4        #aed4 ,of 
,attitudes1 and the ,motions of the     
,members4 #ahc4        #aee4 ,of a      
single ,figure separate from an         
historical ,group4 #bab4        #aef4   
,on the ,attitudes of the human ,figure4
 #bah4        #aeg4 ,how to represent a 
,storm4 #ff4        #aeh4 ,how to       
compose a ,battle4 #fg4        #aei4    
,the ,representation of an ,orator and  
his ,audience4 #bed4        #afj4 ,of   
demonstrative ,gestures4 #bdc4          
#afa4 ,of the ,attitudes of the         
,by-standers at some remarkable ,event4 
#bai4        #afb4 ,how to represent    

,night4 #fe4        #afc4 ,the ,method  
of awakening the ,mind to a ,variety of 
,inventions4           #af4        #afd4
 ,of ,composition in ,history4 #ic4     
,,expression _/and_/ ,,character4       
#afe4 ,of expressive ,motions4 #ej4     
#aff4 ,how to paint ,children4 #fa4     
#afg4 ,how to represent old ,men4 #fb4  
#afh4 ,how to paint old ,women4 #fc4    
#afi4 ,how to paint ,women4 #fd4        
#agj4 ,of the ,variety of ,faces4 #bdd4 
#aga4 ,the ,parts of the ,face1 and     
their ,motions4 #ahg4        #agb4      
,laughing and ,weeping4 #beg4           
#agc4 ,of ,anger4 #bee4        #agd4    
,despair4 #bef4          ,,light _/and_/
 ,,shadow4        #age4 ,the ,course of 
,study to be pursued4 #b4        #agf4  
,which of the two is the most useful    
,knowledge1 the ,outlines of            
,figures1 or that of ,light and ,shadow4
 #ef4        #agg4 ,which is the most   
important1 the ,shadow or ,outlines in  
,painting4 #bgg4        #agh4 ,what is a
 ,painter's first ,aim and ,object4     

#cje4        #agi4 ,the ,difference of  
,superficies1 in regard to ,painting4   
#bgh4        #ahj4 ,how a ,painter may  
become universal4 #aj4        #aha4     
,accuracy ought to be learnt before     
,dispatch in the ,execution4            
#ah4        #ahb4 ,how the ,painter is  
to place himself in regard to the       
,light1           and his ,model4 #dj4  
#ahc4 ,of the best ,light4 #da4         
#ahd4 ,of drawing by ,candle-light4 #cd4
        #ahe4 ,of those ,painters who   
draw at ,home from one ,light1 and      
afterwards adapt their ,studies to      
another ,situation in the               
,country1 and a different ,light4 #df4  
#ahf4 ,how high the ,light should be in 
drawing from ,nature4 #bg4        #ahg4 
,what ,light the ,painter must make use 
of to give most ,relief to           his
 ,figures4 #ee4        #ahh4 ,advice to 
,painters4 #bf4        #ahi4 ,of        
,shadows4 #fj4        #aij4 ,of the     
,kind of ,light proper for drawing from 
,relievos1 or from           ,nature4   

#bi4        #aia4 ,whether the ,light   
should be admitted in ,front or         
sideways2 and           which is the    
most pleasing and graceful4 #gd4        
#aib4 ,of the ,difference of ,lights    
according to the ,situation4 #bhi4      
#aic4 ,how to distribute the ,light on  
,figures4 #bgi4        #aid4 ,of the    
,beauty of ,faces4 #aia4        #aie4   
,how1 in drawing a ,face1 to give it    
,grace1 by the ,management of           
,light and ,shade4 #ce4        #aif4    
,how to give ,grace and ,relief to      
,faces4 #bhg4        #aig4 ,of the      
,termination of ,bodies upon each other4
 #bid4        #aih4 ,of the             
,back-grounds of painted ,objects4 #aed4
        #aii4 ,how to detach and bring  
forward ,figures out of their           
,back-ground4 #bhh4        #bjj4 ,of    
proper ,back-grounds4 #ada4        #bja4
 ,of the general ,light diffused over   
,figures4 #cjc4        #bjb4 ,of those  
,parts in ,shadows which appear the     
darkest at a           ,distance4 #cbg4 

#bjc4 ,of the ,eye viewing the ,folds of
 ,draperies surrounding a               
,figure4 #cfc4        #bjd4 ,of the     
,relief of ,figures remote from the     
,eye4 #ccf4        #bje4 ,of ,outlines  
of ,objects on the ,side towards the    
,light4 #ccg4        #bjf4 ,how to make 
,objects detach from their ,ground1 that
 is to say1           from the ,surface 
on which they are painted4 #cdb4        
,,contraste ,,and ,,effect4        #bjg4
 ,a ,precept4 #cdc4        #bjh4 ,of the
 ,interposition of transparent ,bodies  
between the ,eye and           the      
,object4 #ceg4        #bji4 ,of proper  
,back-grounds for ,figures4 #bhc4       
#baj4 ,of ,back-grounds4 #afj4          
,,reflexes4        #baa4 ,of ,objects   
placed on a light ,ground1 and why such 
a ,practice           is useful in      
,painting4 #aei4        #bab4 ,of the   
different ,effects of ,white1 according 
to the ,difference           of         
,back-grounds4 #aci4        #bac4 ,of   
,reverberation4 #ge4        #bad4 ,where

 there cannot be any ,reverberation of  
,light4 #gf4        #bae4 ,in what ,part
 the ,reflexes have more or less        
,brightness4 #gi4        #baf4 ,of the  
reflected ,lights which surround the    
,shadows4 #gh4        #bag4 ,where      
,reflexes are to be most apparent4 #hb4 
#bah4 ,what ,part of a ,reflex is to be 
the lightest4 #hj4        #bai4 ,of the 
,termination of ,reflexes on their      
,grounds4 #hh4        #bbj4 ,of double  
and treble ,reflexions of ,light4 #hc4  
#bba4 ,reflexes in the ,water1 and      
particularly those of the ,air4 #ace4   
,,colours _/and_/ ,,colouring4          
,,colours4        #bbb4 ,what ,surface  
is best calculated to receive most      
,colours4 #abc4        #bbc4 ,what      
,surface will shew most perfectly its   
true ,colour4 #abe4        #bbd4 ,on    
what ,surface the true ,colour is least 
apparent4 #aca4        #bbe4 ,what      
,surfaces shew most of their true and   
genuine ,colour4 #acb4        #bbf4 ,of 
the ,mixture of ,colours4 #aba4         

#bbg4 ,of the ,colours produced by the  
,mixture of other ,colours1             
called secondary ,colours4 #afa4        
#bbh4 ,of ,verdegris4 #aai4        #bbi4
 ,how to increase the ,beauty of        
,verdegris4 #abj4        #bcj4 ,how to  
paint a ,picture that will last almost  
for ever4 #ceb4        #bca4 ,the ,mode 
of painting on ,canvass1 or ,linen      
,cloth4 #cec4        #bcb4 ,of lively   
and beautiful ,colours4 #ajj4           
#bcc4 ,of transparent ,colours4 #aac4   
#bcd4 ,in what ,part a ,colour will     
appear in its greatest ,beauty4 #aad4   
#bce4 ,how any ,colour without ,gloss1  
is more beautiful in the ,lights        
than in the ,shades4 #aae4        #bcf4 
,of the ,appearance of ,colours4 #aaf4  
#bcg4 ,what ,part of a ,colour is to be 
the most beautiful4 #aag4        #bch4  
,that the ,beauty of a ,colour is to be 
found in the ,lights4 #aah4        #bci4
 ,of ,colours4 #aaa4        #bdj4 ,no   
,object appears in its true ,colour1    
unless the ,light which                 

strikes upon it be of the same ,colour4 
#aej4        #bda4 ,of the ,colour of   
,shadows4 #adg4        #bdb4 ,of        
,colours4 #aec4        #bdc4 ,whether it
 be possible for all ,colours to appear 
alike by           means of the same    
,shadow4 #aji4        #bdd4 ,why ,white 
is not reckoned among the ,colours4     
#aee4        #bde4 ,of ,colours4 #aef4  
#bdf4 ,of the ,colouring of remote      
,objects4 #cci4        #bdg4 ,the       
,surface of all opake ,bodies           
participates of the ,colour of          
the surrounding ,objects4 #bih4         
#bdh4 ,general ,remarks on ,colours4    
#afb4          ,,colours ,,in ,,regard  
,,to ,,light ,,and ,,shadow4            
#bdi4 ,of the ,light proper for painting
 ,flesh ,colour from ,nature4 #cf4      
#bej4 ,of the ,painter's ,window4 #bif4 
#bea4 ,the ,shadows of ,colours4 #aja4  
#beb4 ,of the ,shadows of ,white4 #ajd4 
#bec4 ,which of the ,colours will       
produce the darkest ,shade4 #aje4       
#bed4 ,how to manage1 when a ,white     

terminates upon another ,white4 #ach4   
#bee4 ,on the ,back-grounds of ,figures4
 #adj4        #bef4 ,the ,mode of       
composing ,history4 #ib4        #beg4   
,remarks concerning ,lights and         
,shadows4 #cjb4        #beh4 ,why the   
,shadows of ,bodies upon a white ,wall  
are blueish           towards the       
,evening4 #cbh4        #bei4 ,of the    
,colour of ,faces4 #abf4        #bfj4 ,a
 ,precept relating to ,painting4 #bhd4  
#bfa4 ,of ,colours in ,shadow4 #aeh4    
#bfb4 ,of the ,choice of ,lights4 #bh4  
,,colours ,,in ,,regard ,,to            
,,back-,,grounds4        #bfc4 ,of      
avoiding hard ,outlines4 #ea4           
#bfd4 ,of ,outlines4 #cch4        #bfe4 
,of ,back-grounds4 #ccd4        #bff4   
,how to detach ,figures from the        
,ground4 #gj4        #bfg4 ,of          
,uniformity and ,variety of ,colours    
upon plain ,surfaces4 #cjd4        #bfh4
 ,of ,back-grounds suitable both to     
,shadows and ,lights4 #acg4        #bfi4
 ,the apparent ,variation of ,colours1  

occasioned by the ,contraste            
of the ,ground upon which they are      
placed4 #aab4          ,,contraste1     
,,harmony1 ,,and ,,reflexes1 ,,in       
,,regard ,,to ,,colours4        #bgj4   
,gradation in ,painting4 #add4          
#bga4 ,how to assort ,colours in such a 
,manner as that they may add            
,beauty to each other4 #ii4        #bgb4
 ,of detaching the ,figures4 #gc4       
#bgc4 ,of the ,colour of ,reflexes4 #hg4
        #bgd4 ,what ,body will be the   
most strongly tinged with the ,colour of
           any other ,object4 #abd4     
#bge4 ,of ,reflexes4 #gg4        #bgf4  
,of the ,surface of all shadowed        
,bodies4 #abb4        #bgg4 ,that no    
reflected ,colour is simple1 but is     
mixed with the           ,nature of the 
other ,colours4 #hd4        #bgh4 ,of   
the ,colour of ,lights and ,reflexes4   
#aeg4        #bgi4 ,why reflected       
,colours seldom partake of the ,colour  
of the ,body           where they meet4 
#he4        #bhj4 ,the ,reflexes of     

,flesh ,colours4 #ha4        #bha4 ,of  
the ,nature of ,comparison4 #adf4       
#bhb4 ,where the ,reflexes are seen4    
#hf4          ,,perspective ,,of        
,,colours4        #bhc4 ,a ,precept of  
,perspective in regard to ,painting4    
#ced4        #bhd4 ,of the ,perspective 
of ,colours4 #acd4        #bhe4 ,the    
,cause of the ,diminution of ,colours4  
#acf4        #bhf4 ,of the ,diminution  
of ,colours and ,objects4 #cef4         
#bhg4 ,of the ,variety observable in    
,colours1 according to their            
,distance or ,proximity4 #ajb4          
#bhh4 ,at what ,distance ,colours are   
entirely lost4 #ajc4        #bhi4 ,of   
the ,change observable in the same      
,colour1 according to its               
,distance from the ,eye4 #abh4          
#bij4 ,of the blueish ,appearance of    
remote ,objects in a ,landscape4        
#cag4        #bia4 ,of the ,qualities in
 the ,surface which first lose          
themselves by           ,distance4 #bic4
        #bib4 ,from what ,cause the     

,azure of the ,air proceeds4 #aea4      
#bic4 ,of the ,perspective of ,colours4 
#ajg4        #bid4 ,of the ,perspective 
of ,colours in dark ,places4 #adh4      
#bie4 ,of the ,perspective of ,colours4 
#adi4        #bif4 ,of ,colours4 #aeb4  
#big4 ,how it happens that ,colours do  
not change1 though placed in            
different ,qualities of ,air4 #ajh4     
#bih4 ,why ,colours experience no       
apparent ,change1 though placed in      
different ,qualities of ,air4 #ajf4     
#bii4 ,contrary ,opinions in regard to  
,objects seen afar off4 #adb4           
#cjj4 ,of the ,colour of ,objects remote
 from the ,eye4 #adc4        #cja4 ,of  
the ,colour of ,mountains4 #afc4        
#cjb4 ,why the ,colour and ,shape of    
,objects are lost in some               
,situations apparently dark1 though not 
so in ,reality4 #aaj4        #cjc4      
,various ,precepts in ,painting4 #cdj4  
,,aerial ,,perspective4        #cjd4    
,aerial ,perspective4 #afe4        #cje4
 ,the ,parts of the smallest ,objects   

will first disappear in                 
,painting4 #cjf4        #cjf4 ,small    
,figures ought not to be too much       
finished4 #bhb4        #cjg4 ,why the   
,air is to appear whiter as it          
approaches nearer to the                
,earth4 #fi4        #cjh4 ,how to paint 
the distant ,part of a ,landscape4 #fh4 
#cji4 ,of precise and confused ,objects4
 #gb4        #caj4 ,of distant ,objects4
 #cee4        #caa4 ,of ,buildings seen 
in a thick ,air4 #cab4        #cab4 ,of 
,towns and other ,objects seen through a
 thick ,air4 #cji4        #cac4 ,of the 
inferior ,extremities of distant        
,objects4 #cae4        #cad4 ,which     
,parts of ,objects disappear first by   
being removed           farther from the
 ,eye1 and which preserve their         
,appearance4 #cba4        #cae4 ,why    
,objects are less distinguished in      
proportion as they are           farther
 removed from the ,eye4 #cai4           
#caf4 ,why ,faces appear dark at a      
,distance4 #cbj4        #cag4 ,of ,towns

 and other ,buildings seen through a    
,fog in the ,morning           or       
,evening4 #cbe4        #cah4 ,of the    
,height of ,buildings seen in a ,fog4   
#cbd4        #cai4 ,why ,objects which  
are high1 appear darker at a ,distance  
than           those which are low1     
though the ,fog be uniform1 and of equal
           ,thickness4 #cbf4            
#cbj4 ,of ,objects seen in a ,fog4 #cbc4
        #cba4 ,of those ,objects which  
the ,eye perceives through a ,mist or   
thick ,air4 #caa4        #cbb4          
,miscellaneous ,observations4 #cjh4     
,,miscellaneous ,,observations4         
,,landscape4        #cbc4 ,of ,objects  
seen at a ,distance4 #cac4        #cbd4 
,of a ,town seen through a thick ,air4  
#cad4        #cbe4 ,how to draw a       
,landscape4 #cc4        #cbf4 ,of the   
,green of the ,country4 #abi4           
#cbg4 ,what ,greens will appear most of 
a blueish ,cast4 #acj4        #cbh4 ,the
 ,colour of the ,sea from different     
,aspects4 #ade4        #cbi4 ,why the   

same ,prospect appears larger at some   
,times than at           others4 #cjg4  
#ccj4 ,of ,smoke4 #cca4        #cca4 ,in
 what ,part ,smoke is lightest4 #cbi4   
#ccb4 ,of the ,sun-beams passing through
 the ,openings of ,clouds4 #caj4        
#ccc4 ,of the ,beginning of ,rain4 #cdg4
        #ccd4 ,the ,seasons are to be   
observed4 #cde4        #cce4 ,the       
,difference of ,climates is to be       
observed4 #cdd4        #ccf4 ,of ,dust4 
#ccj4        #ccg4 ,how to represent the
 ,wind4 #cdf4        #cch4 ,of a        
,wilderness4 #bhe4        #cci4 ,of the 
,horizon seen in the ,water4 #cfe4      
#cdj4 ,of the ,shadow of ,bridges on the
 ,surface of the ,water4 #cdh4          
#cda4 ,how a ,painter ought to put in   
,practice the ,perspective of           
,colours4 #afd4        #cdb4 ,various   
,precepts in ,painting4 #ccb4           
#cdc4 ,the ,brilliancy of a ,landscape4 
#acc4          ,,miscellaneous          
,,observations4        #cdd4 ,why a     
painted ,object does not appear so far  

distant as a real           one1 though 
they be conveyed to the ,eye by equal   
,angles4 #ccc4        #cde4 ,how to draw
 a ,figure standing upon its ,feet1 to  
appear forty           ,braccia high1 in
 a ,space of twenty ,braccia1 with      
proportionate           ,members4 #cjj4 
#cdf4 ,how to draw a ,figure twenty-four
 ,braccia high1 upon a ,wall            
twelve ,braccia high4 ,plate ,,xxii4    
#cja4        #cdg4 ,why1 on measuring a 
,face1 and then painting it of the same 
,size1 it will appear larger than the   
natural one4 #big4        #cdh4 ,why the
 most perfect ,imitation of ,nature will
 not appear to           have the same  
,relief as ,nature itself4 #cda4        
#cdi4 ,universality of ,painting4 ,a    
,precept4 #i4        #cej4 ,in what     
,manner the ,mirror is the true ,master 
of ,painters4 #bge4        #cea4 ,which 
,painting is to be esteemed the best4   
#bgf4        #ceb4 ,of the ,judgment to 
be made of a ,painter's ,work4 #cce4    
#cec4 ,how to make an imaginary ,animal 

appear natural4 #bhf4        #ced4      
,painters are not to imitate one        
another4 #bd4        #cee4 ,how to judge
 of one's own ,work4 #bgd4        #cef4 
,of correcting ,errors which you        
discover4 #ad4        #ceg4 ,the best   
,place for looking at a ,picture4 #bhj4 
#ceh4 ,of ,judgment4 #ae4        #cei4  
,of ,employment anxiously wished for by 
,painters4 #bgb4        #cfj4 ,advice to
 ,painters4 #h4        #cfa4 ,of        
,statuary4 #cea4        #cfb4 ,on the   
,measurement and ,division of ,statues  
into ,parts4 #ci4        #cfc4 ,a       
,precept for the ,painter4 #aa4         
#cfd4 ,on the ,judgment of ,painters4   
#bgc4        #cfe4 ,that a ,man ought   
not to trust to himself1 but ought to   
consult           ,nature4 #bj4         
,,preface                               
,,to ,,the                              
,,present ,,translation4      ,the      
excellence of the following ,treatise is
 so well known to all in any  tolerable 
degree conversant with the ,art of      

,painting1 that it would be  almost     
superfluous to say any thing respecting 
it1 were it not that it  here appears   
under the form of a new translation1 of 
which some account  may be expected4    
,of the original ,work1 which is in     
reality a selection from the  voluminous
 manuscript collections of the ,author1 
both in folio and  quarto1 of all such  
passages as related to ,painting1 no    
edition  appeared in print till #afea1  
though its ,author died so long before  
as  the year #aeai2 and it is owing to  
the circumstance of a manuscript  copy  
of these extracts in the original       
,italian1 having fallen into  the hands 
of ,raphael du ,fresne2 that in the     
former of these years  it was published 
at ,paris in a thin folio volume in that
 language1  accompanied with a set of   
cuts from the drawings of ,nicolo       
,poussin1 and  ,alberti2 the former     
having designed the human figures1 the  
latter the  geometrical and other       
representations4 ,this precaution was   

probably  necessary1 the sketches in the
 ,author's own collections being so very
  slight as not to be fit for           
publication without further assistance4 
,poussin's drawings were mere outlines1 
and the shadows and back-grounds  behind
 the figures were added by ,errard1     
after the drawings had been  made1 and1 
as ,poussin himself says1 without his   
knowledge4    ,in the same year1 and    
size1 and printed at the same place1 a  
translation of the original work into   
,french was given to the world by       
,monsieur de ,chambray 7well known1     
under his family name of ,freart1 as    
the author of an excellent ,parallel of 
ancient and modern ,architecture1  in   
,french1 which ,mr4 ,evelyn translated  
into ,english74 ,the style of this      
translation by ,mons4 de ,chambray1     
being thought1 some years after1 too    
antiquated1 some one was employed to    
revise and modernise it2 and in  #agaf a
 new edition of it1 thus polished1 came 
out1 of which it may be  truly said1 as 

is in general the case on such          
occasions1 that whatever  the supposed  
advantage obtained in purity and        
refinement of language  might be1 it was
 more than counterbalanced by the want  
of the more  valuable qualities of      
accuracy1 and fidelity to the original1 
from  which1 by these variations1 it    
became further removed4    ,the first   
translation of this ,treatise into      
,english1 appeared in the  year #agba4  
,it does not declare by whom it was     
made2 but though it  professes to have  
been done from the original ,italian1 it
 is evident1  upon a comparison1 that   
more use was made of the revised edition
 of  the ,french translation4           
,indifferent1 however1 as it is1 it had 
become  so scarce1 and risen to a price 
so extravagant1 that1 to supply the     
demand1 it was found necessary1 in the  
year #agif1 to reprint it as it  stood1 
with all its errors on its head1 no     
opportunity then offering of  procuring 
a fresh translation4    ,this last      

impression1 however1 being now also     
disposed of1 and a new  one again called
 for1 the present ,translator was       
induced to step  forward1 and undertake 
the office of fresh translating it1 on  
finding1  by comparing the former       
versions both in ,french and ,english   
with  the original1 many passages which 
he thought might at once be more        
concisely and more faithfully rendered4 
,his object1 therefore1 has  been to    
attain these ends1 and as rules and     
precepts like the present  allow but    
little room for the decorations of      
style1 he has been more  solicitous for 
fidelity1 perspicuity1 and precision1   
than for smooth  sentences1 and         
well-turned periods4    ,nor was this   
the only advantage which it was found   
the present  opportunity would afford2  
for the original work consisting in fact
 of  a number of entries made at        
different times1 without any regard to  
their subjects1 or attention to method1 
might rather in that state be           

considered as a chaos of intelligence1  
than a well-digested treatise4  ,it has 
now1 therefore1 for the first time1 been
 attempted to place  each chapter under 
the proper head or branch of the art to 
which  it belongs2 and by so doing1 to  
bring together those which 7though      
related and nearly connected in         
substance7 stood1 according to the      
original arrangement1 at such a distance
 from each other as to make  it         
troublesome to find them even by the    
assistance of an index2 and  difficult1 
when found1 to compare them together4   
,the consequence of this plan1 it must  
be confessed1 has been1 that in  a few  
instances the same precept has been     
found in substance repeated2  but this  
is so far from being an objection1 that 
it evidently proves  the precepts were  
not the hasty opinions of the moment1   
but settled and  fixed principles in the
 mind of the ,author1 and that he was   
consistent  in the expression of his    
sentiments4 ,but if this mode of        

arrangement  has in the present case    
disclosed what might have escaped       
observation1  it has also been          
productive of more material advantages2 
for1 besides  facilitating the finding  
of any particular passage 7an object in 
itself  of no small importance71 it     
clearly shews the work to be a much more
  complete system than those best       
acquainted with it1 had before any idea 
of1 and that many of the references in  
it apparently to other writings  of the 
same ,author1 relate in fact only to the
 present1 the chapters  referred to     
having been found in it4 ,these are now 
pointed out in the  notes1 and where any
 obscurity has occurred in the text1 the
 reader  will find some assistance at   
least attempted by the insertion of a   
note  to solve the difficulty4    ,no   
pains or expense have been spared in    
preparing the present work  for the     
press4 ,the cuts have been re-engraven  
with more attention  to correctness in  
the drawing1 than those which           

accompanied the two  editions of the    
former ,english translation possessed   
7even though they  had been fresh       
engraven for the impression of #agif72  
and the diagrams  are now inserted in   
their proper places in the text1 instead
 of being1  as before1 collected all    
together in two plates at the end4      
,besides  this1 a new ,life of the      
,author has been also added by a ,friend
 of the  ,translator1 the materials for 
which have been furnished1 not from     
vague  reports1 or uncertain            
conjectures1 but from memoranda of the  
,author  himself1 not before used4      
,fortunately for this undertaking1 the  
manuscript collections of  ,leonardo da 
,vinci1 which have lately passed from   
,italy into ,france1  have1 since their 
removal thither1 been carefully         
inspected1 and  an abstract of their    
contents published in a quarto pamphlet1
  printed at ,paris in #agig1 and       
intitled1 ,essai sur les ,ouvrages      
physico-mathematiques de ,leonard de    

,vinci2 by ,j4 ,b4 ,venturi1 ,professor 
of ,natural ,philosophy at ,modena2 a   
,member of the ,institute of ,bologna1  
c4 ,from this pamphlet a great deal of  
original intelligence respecting  the   
,author has been obtained1 which1       
derived as it is from his own           
information1 could not possibly be      
founded on better evidence4    ,to this 
,life we shall refer the reader for a   
further account of the  origin and      
history of the present ,treatise1       
conceiving we have already  effected our
 purpose1 by here giving him a          
sufficient idea of what he  is to expect
 from the ensuing pages4                
,,the ,,life                            
,,of                                    
,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4      ,leonardo 
da ,vinci1 the ,author of the following 
,treatise1 was the  natural son of      
,pietro da ,vinci1 a notary of ,vinci1  
in ,tuscanyi#a1 a  village situated in  
the valley of ,arno1 a little below     
,florence1 and  was born in the year    

#adeb;i#b4    ,having discovered1 when a
 child1 a strong inclination and talent 
for  painting1 of which he had given    
proofs by several little drawings and   
sketches2 his father one day            
accidentally took up some of them1 and  
was induced to shew them to his friend  
,andrea ,verocchio1 a painter  of some  
reputation in ,florence1 who was also a 
chaser1 an architect1  a sculptor1 and  
goldsmith1 for his advice1 as to the    
propriety of  bringing up his son to the
 profession of painting1 and the        
probability  of his becoming eminent in 
the art4 ,the answer of ,verocchio was  
such as  to confirm him in that         
resolution2 and ,leonardo1 to fit him   
for that  purpose1 was accordingly      
placed under the tuition of             
,verocchioi#c4    ,as ,verocchio        
combined in himself a perfect knowledge 
of the arts of  chasing and sculpture1  
and was a deep proficient in            
architecture1  ,leonardo had in this    
situation the means and opportunity of  

acquiring a  variety of information1    
which though perhaps not immediately    
connected  with the art to which his    
principal attention was to be directed1 
might1 with the assistance of such a    
mind as ,leonardo's1 be rendered        
subsidiary to his grand object1 tend to 
promote his knowledge of the  theory1   
and facilitate his practice of the      
profession for which he  was intended4  
,accordingly we find that he had the    
good sense to avail  himself of these   
advantages1 and that under ,verocchio he
 made great  progress1 and attracted his
 master's friendship and confidence1 by 
the  talents he discovered1 the         
sweetness of his manners1 and the       
vivacity  of his dispositioni#d4 ,of his
 proficiency in painting1 the following 
instance is recorded2 and the skill he  
afterwards manifested in other  branches
 of science1 on various occasions1      
evidently demonstrated how  solicitous  
he had been for knowledge of all kinds1 
and how careful in  his youth to lay a  

good foundation4 ,verocchio had         
undertaken for the  religious of        
,vallombrosa1 without ,florence1 a      
picture of our ,saviour's  ,baptism by  
,st4 ,john1 and consigned to ,leonardo  
the office of putting  in from the      
original drawing1 the figure of an angel
 holding up the  drapery2 but1          
unfortunately for ,verocchio1 ,leonardo 
succeeded so well1  that1 despairing of 
ever equalling the work of his scholar1 
,verocchio  in disgust abandoned his    
pencil for ever1 confining himself in   
future  solely to the practice of       
sculpturei#e4    ,on this success       
,leonardo became sensible that he no    
longer stood in  need of an instructor2 
and therefore quitting ,verocchio1 he   
now began  to work and study for        
himself4 ,many of his performances of   
this period  are still1 or were lately  
to be seen at ,florence2 and besides    
these1  the following have been also    
mentioned3 ,a cartoon of ,adam and ,eve 
in  the ,garden1 which he did for the   

,king of ,portugali#f4 ,this is highly  
commended for the exquisite gracefulness
 of the two principal figures1  the     
beauty of the landscape1 and the        
incredible exactitude of the  shrubs and
 fruit4 ,at the instance of his father1 
he made a painting for  one of his old  
neighbours at ,vincii#g2 it consisted   
wholly of such  animals as have         
naturally an hatred to each other1      
joined artfully  together in a variety  
of attitudes4 ,some authors have said   
that this  painting was a shieldi#h1 and
 have related the following particulars 
respecting it4    ,one of ,pietro's     
neighbours meeting him one day at       
,florence1 told him he  had been making 
a shield1 and would be glad of his      
assistance to get it  painted2 ,pietro  
undertook this office1 and applied to   
his son to make  good the promise4 ,when
 the shield was brought to ,leonardo1 he
 found it  so ill made1 that he was     
obliged to get a turner to smooth it2   
and when  that was done1 he began to    

consider with what subject he should    
paint  it4 ,for this purpose he got     
together1 in his apartment1 a collection
 of  live animals1 such as lizards1     
crickets1 serpents1 silk-worms1 locusts1
  bats1 and other creatures of that     
kind1 from the multitude of which1      
variously adapted to each other1 he     
formed an horrible and terrific  animal1
 emitting fire and poison from his jaws1
 flames from his eyes1  and smoke from  
his nostrils2 and with so great         
earnestness did ,leonardo  apply to     
this1 that though in his apartment the  
stench of the animals  that from time to
 time died there1 was so strong as to be
 scarcely  tolerable1 he1 through his   
love to the art1 entirely disregarded   
it4  ,the work being finished1 ,leonardo
 told his father he might now see it2   
and the father one morning coming to his
 apartment for that purpose1  ,leonardo1
 before he admitted him1 placed the     
shield so as to receive  from the window
 its full and proper light1 and then    

opened the door4  ,not knowing what he  
was to expect1 and little imagining that
 what he  saw was not the creatures     
themselves1 but a mere painted          
representation  of them1 the father1 on 
entering and beholding the shield1 was  
at first  staggered and shocked2 which  
the son perceiving1 told him he might   
now  send the shield to his friend1 as1 
from the effect which the sight of  it  
had then produced1 he found he had      
attained the object at which he  aimed4 
,pietro1 however1 had too much sagacity 
not to see that this was  by much too   
great a curiosity for a mere countryman1
 who would never  be sensible of its    
value2 he therefore privately bought for
 his friend  an ordinary shield1 rudely 
painted with the device of an heart with
 an  arrow through it1 and sold this for
 an hundred ducats to some merchants  at
 ,florence1 by whom it was again sold   
for three hundred to the ,duke of       
,milani#i4    ,he afterwards painted a  
picture of the ,virgin ,mary1 and by her

 side a  vessel of water1 in which were 
flowers3 in this he so contrived it1 as 
that the light reflected from the       
flowers threw a pale redness on the     
water4 ,this picture was at one time in 
the possession of ,pope ,clement  the   
,seventhi#aj4    ,for his friend        
,antonio ,segni he also made a design1  
representing  ,neptune in his car1 drawn
 by sea-horses1 and attended by tritons 
and  sea-gods2 the heavens overspread   
with clouds1 which were driven in  all  
directions by the violence of the winds2
 the waves appeared to be  rolling1 and 
the whole ocean seemed in an uproari#aa4
 ,this drawing was  afterwards given by 
,fabio the son of ,antonio ,segni1 to   
,giovanni ,gaddi1  a great collector of 
drawings1 with this epigram3            
,pinxit ,virgilius ,neptunum1 pinxit    
,homerus1        ,dum maris undisoni per
 vada flectit equos4      ,mente quidem 
vates illum conspexit uterque1          
,vincius est oculis1 jureque vincit     
eosi#ab4                        ,in     

,english thus3        ,virgil and       
,homer1 when they ,neptune shew'd1      
,as he through boist'rous seas his      
steeds compell'd1      ,in the mind's   
eye alone his figure view'd2        ,but
 ,vinci saw him1 and has both           
excell'di#ac4    ,to these must be added
 the following3 ,a painting representing
 two  horsemen engaged in fight1 and    
struggling to tear a flag from  each    
other3 rage and fury are in this        
admirably expressed in the  countenances
 of the two combatants2 their air       
appears wild1 and the  drapery is thrown
 into an unusual though agreeable       
disorder4 ,a ,medusa's  head1 and a     
picture of the ,adoration of the        
,magii#ad4 ,in this last  there are some
 fine heads1 but both this and the      
,medusa's head are said  by ,du ,fresne 
to have been evidently unfinished4      
,the mind of ,leonardo was however too  
active and capacious to be  contented   
solely with the practical part of his   
art2 nor could it  submit to receive as 

principles1 conclusions1 though         
confirmed  by experience1 without first 
tracing them to their source1 and       
investigating their causes1 and the     
several circumstances on which  they    
depended4 ,for this purpose he          
determined to engage in a deep          
examination into the theory of his art2 
and the better to effect his  intention1
 he resolved to call in to his aid the  
assistance of all such  other branches  
of science as could in any degree       
promote this grand  object4    ,vasari  
has relatedi#ae1 that at a very early   
age he had1 in the short  time of a few 
months only that he applied to it1      
obtained a deep  knowledge of           
arithmetic2 and says1 that in literature
 in general1 he  would have made great  
attainments1 if he had not been too     
versatile  to apply long to one subject4
 ,in music1 he adds1 he had made some   
progress2 that he then determined to    
learn to play on the lyre2 and  that    
having an uncommonly fine voice1 and an 

extraordinary promptitude  of thought   
and expression1 he became a celebrated  
improvisatore3 but  that his attention  
to these did not induce him to neglect  
painting  and modelling in which last   
art he was so great a proficient1 that  
in his youth he modelled in clay some   
heads of women laughing1 and  also some 
boys' heads1 which appeared to have come
 from the hand of a  master4 ,in        
architecture1 he made many plans and    
designs for buildings1  and1 while he   
was yet young1 proposed conveying the   
river ,arno into  the canal at          
,pisai#af4 ,of his skill in poetry the  
reader may judge  from the following    
sonnet preserved by ,lomazzoi#ag1 the   
only one now  existing of his           
composition2 and for the translation    
with which it is  accompanied we are    
indebted to a lady4                     
,,sonnetto ,,morale4        ,chi non pu 
quel vuol1 quel che pu voglia1          
,che quel che non si pu folle  volere4  
,adunque saggio  l'uomo da tenere1      

,che da quel che non pu suo voler       
toglia4        ,per ch'ogni diletto     
nostro e doglia          ,sta in s e n1 
saper1 voler1 potere1          ,adunque 
quel sol pu1 che co 'l dovere      ,ne  
trahe la ragion suor di sua soglia4     
,ne sempre  da voler quel che l'uom     
puote1          ,spesso par dolce quel  
che torna amaro1          ,piansi gia   
quel ch'io volsi1 poi ch'io l'ebbi4     
,adunque tu1 lettor di queste note1     
,s'a te vuoi esser buono e a' gli altri 
caro1          ,vogli sempre poter quel 
che tu debbi4                           
,,translation4                    ,a    
,,moral ,,sonnet4        ,the man who   
cannot what he would attain1            
,within his pow'r his wishes should     
restrain3      ,the wish of ,folly o'er 
that bound aspires1      ,the wise man  
by it limits his desires4        ,since 
all our joys so close on sorrows run1   
,we know not what to choose or what to  
shun2      ,let all our wishes still our
 duty meet1      ,nor banish ,reason    

from her awful seat4        ,nor is it  
always best for man to will      ,ev'n  
what his pow'rs can reach2 some latent  
ill      ,beneath a fair appearance may 
delude      ,and make him rue what      
earnest he pursued4        ,then1       
,reader1 as you scan this simple page1  
,let this one care your ev'ry thought   
engage1      7,with self-esteem and     
gen'ral love 't is fraught17      ,wish 
only pow'r to do just what you ought4   
,the course of study which ,leonardo had
 thus undertaken1 would1 in its  most   
limited extent by any one who should    
attempt it at this time1 be  found      
perhaps almost more than could be       
successfully accomplished2  but yet his 
curiosity and unbounded thirst for      
information1 induced  him rather to     
enlarge than contract his plan4         
,accordingly we find1  that to the study
 of geometry1 sculpture1 anatomy1 he    
added those of  architecture1 mechanics1
 optics1 hydrostatics1 astronomy1 and   
,nature in  general1 in all her         

operationsi#ah2 and the result of his   
observations  and experiments1 which    
were intended not only for present use1 
but  as the basis and foundation of     
future discoveries1 he determined1 as   
he proceeded1 to commit to writing4 ,at 
what time he began these his            
collections1 of which we shall have     
occasion to speak more particularly     
hereafter1 is no where mentioned2 but it
 is with certainty known1 that  by the  
month of ,april #adij1 he had already   
completely filled two folio             
volumesi#ai4    ,notwithstanding        
,leonardo's propensity and application  
to study1 he was  not inattentive to the
 graces of external accomplishments2 he 
was very  skilful in the management of  
an horse1 rode gracefully1 and when he  
afterwards arrived to a state of        
affluence1 took particular pleasure in  
appearing in public well mounted and    
handsomely accoutred4 ,he possessed     
great dexterity in the use of arms3 for 
mien and grace he might contend  with   

any gentleman of his time3 his person   
was remarkably handsome1  his behaviour 
so perfectly polite1 and his            
conversation so charming1  that his     
company was coveted by all who knew him2
 but the avocations to  which this last 
circumstance subjected him1 are one     
reason why so many  of his works remain 
unfinishedi#bj4    ,with such advantages
 of mind and body as these1 it was no   
wonder that  his reputation should      
spread itself1 as we find it soon did1  
over all  ,italy4 ,the painting of the  
shield before mentioned1 had already1 as
 has  been noticed1 come into the       
possession of the ,duke of ,milan2 and  
the  subsequent accounts which he had   
from time to time heard of ,leonardo's  
abilities and talents1 induced ,lodovic 
,sforza1 surnamed the ,moor1  then ,duke
 of ,milan1 about1 or a little before   
the year #adhi;i#ba1 to  invite him to  
his court1 and to settle on him a       
pension of five hundred  crowns1 a      
considerable sum at that timei#bb4      

,various are the reasons assigned for   
this invitation3 ,vasarii#bc  attributes
 it to his skill in music1 a science of 
which the ,duke is  said to have been   
fond2 others have ascribed it to a      
design which the  ,duke entertained of  
erecting a brazen statue to the memory  
of his  fatheri#bd2 but others conceive 
it originated from the circumstance1    
that the ,duke had not long before      
established at ,milan an academy for    
the study of painting1 sculpture1 and   
architecture1 and was desirous  that    
,leonardo should take the conduct and   
direction of iti#be4 ,the  second was1  
however1 we find1 the true motive2 and  
we are further  informed1 that the      
invitation was accepted by ,leonardo1   
that he went to  ,milan1 and was already
 there in #adhi;i#bf4    ,among the     
collections of ,leonardo still existing 
in manuscript1 is a  copy of a memorial 
presented by him to the ,duke about     
#adij1 of which  ,venturi has given an  
abridgmenti#bg4 ,in it he offers to make

 for the  ,duke military bridges1 which 
should be at the same time light and    
very  solid1 and to teach him the method
 of placing and defending them with     
security4 ,when the object is to take   
any place1 he can1 he says1 empty  the  
ditch of its water2 he knows1 he adds1  
the art of constructing a  subterraneous
 gallery under the ditches themselves1  
and of carrying  it to the very spot    
that shall be wanted4 ,if the fort is   
not built  on a rock1 he undertakes to  
throw it down1 and mentions that he has 
new contrivances for bombarding         
machines1 ordnance1 and mortars1 some   
adapted to throw hail shot1 fire1 and   
smoke1 among the enemy2 and  for all    
other machines proper for a siege1 and  
for war1 either by  sea or land1        
according to circumstances4 ,in peace   
also1 he says he  can be useful in what 
concerns the erection of buildings1     
conducting  of water-courses1 sculpture 
in bronze or marble1 and painting2 and  
remarks1 that at the same time that he  

may be pursuing any of the above        
objects1 the equestrian statue to the   
memory of the ,duke's father1 and  his  
illustrious family1 may still be going  
on4 ,if any one doubts the  possibility 
of what he proposes1 he offers to prove 
it by experiment1  and ocular           
demonstration4    ,from this memorial it
 seems clear1 that the casting of the   
bronze  statue was his principal object2
 painting is only mentioned             
incidentally1 and no notice is taken of 
the direction or management of  the     
academy for painting1 sculpture1 and    
architecture2 it is probable1           
therefore1 that at this time there was  
no such intention1 though it is         
certainly true1 that he was afterwards  
placed at the head of it1 and  that he  
banished from it the barbarous style of 
architecture which till  then had       
prevailed in it1 and introduced in its  
stead a more pure and  classical taste4 
,whatever was the fact with respect to  
the academy1 it  is however well known  

that the statue was cast in bronze1     
finished1 and  put up at ,milan1 but    
afterwards demolished by the ,french    
when they took  possession of that      
placei#bh after the defeat of ,lodovic  
,sforza4    ,some time after ,leonardo's
 arrival at ,milan1 a design had been   
entertained of cutting a canal from     
,martesana to ,milan1 for the purpose   
of opening a communication by water     
between these two places1 and1 as  it is
 said1 of supplying the last with water4
 ,it had been first thought  of so early
 as #adeg;i#bi2 but from the            
difficulties to be expected in  its     
execution1 it seems to have been laid   
aside1 or at least to have  proceeded   
slowly1 till ,leonardo's arrival4 ,his  
offers of service as  engineer in the   
above memorial1 probably induced        
,lodovic ,sforza1 the  then ,duke1 to   
resume the intention with vigour1 and   
accordingly we  find the plan was       
determined on1 and the execution of it  
intrusted to  ,leonardo4 ,the object was

 noble1 but the difficulties to be      
encountered  were sufficient to have    
discouraged any mind but ,leonardo's2   
for the  distance was no less than two  
hundred miles2 and before it could be   
completed1 hills were to be levelled1   
and vallies filled up1 to render  them  
navigable with securityi#cj4    ,in     
order to enable him to surmount the     
obstacles with which he  foresaw he     
should have to contend1 he retired to   
the house of his  friend ,signior       
,melzi1 at ,vaverola1 not far distant   
from ,milan1 and  there applied himself 
sedulously for some years1 as it is     
said1 but  at intervals only we must    
suppose1 and according as his           
undertaking  proceeded1 to the study of 
philosophy1 mathematics1 and every      
branch  of science that could at all    
further his design2 still continuing    
the method he had before adopted1 of    
entering down in writing  promiscuously1
 whatever he wished to implant in his   
memory3 and at  this place1 in this and 

his subsequent visits from time to time1
 he is  supposed to have made the       
greater part of the collections he has  
left  behind himi#ca1 of the contents of
 which we shall hereafter speak more  at
 large4    ,although engaged in the     
conduct of so vast an undertaking1 and  
in  studies so extensive1 the mind of   
,leonardo does not appear to have  been 
so wholly occupied or absorbed in them  
as to incapacitate him  from attending  
at the same time to other objects also2 
and the ,duke  therefore being desirous 
of ornamenting ,milan with some         
specimens of  his skill as a painter1   
employed him to paint in the refectory  
of the  ,dominican convent of ,santa    
,maria delle ,gratie1 in that city1 a   
picture1  the subject of which was to be
 the ,last ,supper4 ,of this picture it 
is related1 that ,leonardo was so       
impressed with the dignity of the       
subject1 and so anxious to answer the   
high ideas he had formed of it in  his  
own mind1 that his progress was very    

slow1 and that he spent much  time in   
meditation and thought1 during which the
 work was apparently  at a stand4 ,the  
,prior of the convent1 thinking it      
therefore neglected1  complained to the 
,duke2 but ,leonardo assuring the ,duke 
that not less  than two hours were every
 day bestowed on it1 he was satisfied4  
,nevertheless the ,prior1 after a short 
time1 finding the work very  little     
advanced1 once more applied to the      
,duke1 who in some degree of  anger1 as 
thinking ,leonardo had deceived him1    
reprimanded him in strong  terms for his
 delay4 ,what ,leonardo had scorned to  
urge to the ,prior in  his defence1 he  
now thought fit to plead in his excuse  
to the ,duke1 to  convince him that a   
painter did not labour solely with his  
hands1 but  that his mind might be      
deeply studying his subject1 when his   
hands were  unemployed1 and he in       
appearance perfectly idle4 ,in proof of 
this1 he  told the ,duke that nothing   
remained to the completion of the       

picture  but the heads of our ,saviour  
and ,judas2 that as to the former1 he   
had  not yet been able to find a fit    
model to express its divinity1 and      
found his invention inadequate of itself
 to represent it3 that with  respect to 
that of ,judas1 he had been in vain for 
two years searching  among the most     
abandoned and profligate of the species 
for an head  which would convey an idea 
of his character2 but that this         
difficulty  was now at length removed1  
since he had nothing to do but to       
introduce  the head of the ,prior1 whose
 ingratitude for the pains he was       
taking1  rendered him a fit archetype of
 the perfidy and ingratitude he wished  
to express4 ,some persons have saidi#cb1
 that the head of ,judas in the  picture
 was actually copied from that of the   
,prior2 but ,mariette denies  it1 and   
says this reply was merely intended as a
 threati#cc4    ,a difference of opinion
 has also prevailed concerning the head 
of our ,saviour in this picture2 for    

some have conceived it left             
intentionally unfinishedi#cd1 while     
others think there is a gradation  of   
resemblance1 which increasing in beauty 
in ,st4 ,john and our ,saviour1  shews  
in the dignified countenance of the     
latter a spark of his divine  majesty4  
,in the countenance of the ,redeemer1   
say these last1 and in  that of ,judas1 
is excellently expressed the extreme    
idea of ,god made  man1 and of the most 
perfidious of mortals4 ,this is also    
pursued in the  characters nearest to   
each of themi#ce4    ,little judgment   
can now be formed of the original beauty
 of this  picture1 which has been1 and  
apparently with very good reason1 highly
  commended4 ,unfortunately1 though it  
is said to have been in oil1 the  wall  
on which it was painted not having been 
properly prepared1 the  original colours
 have been so effectually defaced by the
 damp1 as  to be no longer visiblei#cf2 
and the fathers1 for whose use it was   
painted1 thinking it entirely destroyed1

 and some years since wishing  to       
heighten and widen a door under it1     
leading out of their refectory1  have   
given a decided proof of their own want 
of taste1 and how little  they were     
sensible of its value1 by permitting the
 workmen to break  through the wall on  
which it was painted1 and1 by so doing1 
entirely  to destroy the lower part of  
the picturei#cg4 ,the injury done by the
  damp to the colouring has been1 it is 
true1 in some measure repaired by       
,michael ,angelo ,bellotti1 a painter of
 ,milan1 who viewing the picture  in    
#agbf1 made an offer to the ,prior and  
convent to restore1 by means  of a      
secret which he possessed1 the original 
colours4 ,his proposition  being        
accepted1 and the experiment succeeding 
beyond their hopes1 the  convent made   
him a present of five hundred pounds for
 his labour1 and  he in return          
communicated to them the secret by which
 it had been  effectedi#ch4             
,deprived1 as they certainly are by     

these events1 of the means of  judging  
accurately of the merit of the original1
 it is still some  consolation to the   
lovers of painting1 that several copies 
of it made  by ,leonardo's scholars1    
many of whom were very able artists1 and
 at a  time when the picture had not    
been yet injured1 are still in          
existence4  ,a list of these copies is  
given by ,p4 ,m4 ,guglielmo della       
,valle1 in his  edition of ,vasari's    
,lives of the ,painters1 in ,italian1   
vol4 v4 p4 #cd1  and from him it is here
 inserted in the notei#ci4 ,francis the 
,first  was so charmed on viewing the   
original1 that not being able to remove 
it1 he had a copy made1 which is now1 or
 was some years since1 at ,st4          
,germains1 and several prints have been 
published from it2 but the best  which  
has yet appeared 7and very fine it is7  
is one not long since  engraven by      
,morghen1 at ,rome1 impressions of which
 have found their way  into this        
country1 and been sold1 it is said1 for 

ten or twelve guineas  each4    ,in the 
same refectory of the ,dominicans at    
,milan is1 or was1 also  preserved a    
painting by ,leonardo1 representing     
,duke ,lodovic1 and  ,beatrix his       
duchess1 on their knees2 done no doubt  
about this  timei#dj4 ,and at or near   
this period1 he also painted for the    
,duke the  ,nativity1 which was         
formerly1 and may perhaps be still1 in  
the ,emperor  of ,germany's             
collectioni#da4    ,as ,leonardo's      
principal aim1 whenever he was left at  
liberty to pursue  the bent of his own  
inclination1 seems to have been         
progressive  improvement in the art of  
painting1 he appears to have sedulously 
embraced all opportunities of increasing
 his information2 and wisely            
perceiving1 that without a thorough     
acquaintance with anatomy1 a  painter   
could effect but little1 he was         
particularly desirous of  extending his 
knowledge in that branch4 ,for that     
purpose he had  frequent conferences on 

the subject with ,marc ,antonio della   
,torre1  professor of anatomy at        
,paviai#db1 and not only was present at 
many  dissections performed by him1 but 
made abundance of anatomical drawings   
from ,nature1 many of which were        
afterwards collected into a volume by   
his scholar ,francisco ,melzii#dc4      
,such perseverance and assiduity as     
,leonardo's1 united as they were  with  
such uncommon powers as his1 had already
 formed many artists at  that time of   
distinguished reputation1 but who       
afterwards became still  more famous1   
and might probably have rendered ,milan 
the repository  of some of the most     
valuable specimens of painting1 and     
raised it to  a rank little1 if at all1 
inferior to that which ,florence has    
since  held with the admirers of the    
polite arts1 had it not happened that by
  the disastrous termination of a       
contest between the ,duke of ,milan and 
the ,french1 all hopes of further       
improvement were entirely cut off2  and 

,milan1 at one blow1 lost all the       
advantages of which it was even  then in
 possession4 ,for about this time the   
troubles in ,italy began  to break in on
 ,leonardo's quiet1 and he found his    
patron1 the ,duke1  engaged in a war    
with the ,french for the possession of  
his dukedom2  which not only endangered 
the academy1 but ultimately deprived him
 both  of his dominions and his liberty2
 as the ,duke was1 in #aejj1 completely 
defeated1 taken prisoner1 and carried   
into ,france1 where1 in #aeaj1 he  died 
a prisoner in the castle of ,lochesi#dd4
    ,by this event of the ,duke's       
defeat1 and the consequent ruin of the  
,sforza family1 all further progress in 
the canal of ,martesana1 of which  much 
still remained to be donei#de1 was put a
 stop to2 the academy  of architecture  
and painting was entirely broken up2 the
 professors  were turned adrift1 and the
 arts banished from ,milan1 which at one
  time had promised to have been their  
refuge and principal feati#df4  ,italy  

in general was1 it is true1 a gainer by 
the dispersion of so many  able and     
deeply instructed artists as issued from
 this school1 though  ,milan suffered2  
for nothing could so much tend to the   
dissemination  of knowledge as the      
mixing such men among others who needed 
that  information in which these        
excelled4 ,among the number thus        
separated  from each other1 we find     
painters1 carvers1 architects1 founders1
  and engravers in crystal and precious 
stones1 and the names of the  following 
have been given1 as the principal3      
,cesare da ,sesto1 ,andrea  ,salaino1   
,gio4 ,antonio ,boltraffio1 ,bernardino 
,lovino1 ,bartolommeo della  ,porta1    
,lorenzo ,lottoi#dg4 ,to these has been 
added ,gio4 ,paolo ,lomazzo2  but ,della
 ,valle1 in a note in his edition of    
,vasari1 vol4 v4 p4 #cd1  says this last
 was a disciple of ,gio4 ,battista della
 ,cerva1 and not of  ,leonardo4 ,du     
,fresne mentions besides the above1     
,francis ,melzi1 ,mark  ,uggioni ,gobbo1

 an extraordinary painter and carver2   
,annibal ,fontana1  a worker in marble  
and precious stones2 and ,bernazzano1 an
 excellent  painter of landscapes2 but  
omits ,della ,porta1 and ,lorenzo       
,lotto4    ,in #adii1 the year before   
,duke ,lodovic's defeat1 ,leonardo being
 at  ,milan1 was employed by the        
principal inhabitants to contrive an    
automaton for the entertainment of      
,lewis ,,xii4 ,king of ,france1 who was 
expected shortly to make a public entry 
into that city4 ,this ,leonardo  did1   
and it consisted of a machine           
representing a lion1 whose inside  was  
so well constructed of clockwork1 that  
it marched out to meet the  ,king1 made 
a stand when it came before him1 reared 
up on its hinder  legs1 and opening its 
breast1 presented an escutcheon with    
fleurs de  lis quartered on iti#dh4     
,lomazzo has said that this machine was 
made  for the entry of ,francis the     
,first2 but he is mistaken1 that prince 
having never been at ,milan till the    

year #aeae;i#di1 at which time          
,leonardo was at ,rome4    ,compelled by
 the disorders of ,lombardy1 the        
misfortunes of his patron1  and the ruin
 of the ,sforza family1 to quit ,milan1 
,leonardo betook  himself to ,florence1 
and his inducements to this resolution  
seem to  have been the residence there  
of the ,medici family1 the great patrons
  of arts1 and the good taste of its    
principal inhabitantsi#ej1 rather  than 
its vicinity to the place of his birth2 
for which1 under the  circumstances that
 attended that event1 it is not probable
 he could  entertain much1 if any       
predilection4 ,the first work which he  
here  undertook was a design for an     
altar-piece for the chapel of the       
college  of the ,annunciati4 ,its       
subject was1 our ,saviour1 with his     
mother1 ,st4  ,ann1 and ,st4 ,john2 but 
though this drawing is said to have     
rendered  ,leonardo very popular among  
his countrymen1 to so great a degree1   
that  numbers of people went to see it1 

it does not appear that any picture  was
 painted from it1 nor that the          
undertaking ever proceeded farther  than
 a sketch of a design1 or rather1       
perhaps1 a finished drawing4 ,when      
,leonardo some years afterwards went    
into ,francei#ea1 ,francis the ,first   
was desirous of having a picture from   
this drawing1 and at his desire  he then
 put it into colours2 but whether even  
this last was a regular  picture1 or1   
which is more probable1 only a coloured 
drawing1 we are  not informed4    ,the  
picture1 however1 on which he bestowed  
the most time and labour1  and which    
therefore seems intended by him as the  
completest specimen of  his skill1 at   
least in the branch of                  
portrait-painting1 was that which  he   
did of ,mona ,lisa1 better known by the 
appellation of la ,gioconda1 a          
,florentine lady1 the wife of ,francisco
 del ,giocondo4 ,it was painted for  her
 husband1 afterwards purchased by       
,francis the ,first1 and was till       

lately to be seen in the ,king of       
,france's cabinet4 ,leonardo bestowed   
four entire years upon it1 and after all
 is said to have left it                
unfinishedi#eb4    ,this has been so    
repeatedly said of the works of this    
painter1 that we  are here induced to   
inquire into the evidence of the fact4  
,an artist  who feels by experience1 as 
every one must1 how far short of the    
ideas  of perfection he has formed in   
his own mind1 his best performances     
always fall1 will naturally be led to   
consider these as but very  faint       
expressions of his own conceptions4     
,leonardo's disposition to  think       
nothing effected while any thing        
remained to be done1 and a  mind like   
his1 continually suggesting successive  
improvements1 might  therefore1 and most
 probably did produce in him an opinion 
that his own  most laboured pieces were 
far from being finished to that extent  
of  beauty which he wished to give them2
 and these sentiments of them he  might 

in all likelihood be frequently heard to
 declare4 ,comparing his  productions1  
however1 with those of other masters1   
they will be found1  notwithstanding    
this assertion to the contrary1 as      
eminent in this  particular also1 as for
 the more valuable qualities of         
composition1  drawing1 character1       
expression1 and colouring4    ,about the
 same time with this of la ,gioconda1 he
 painted the portraits  of a nobleman of
 ,mantua1 and of la ,ginevra1 a daughter
 of ,americus  ,bencii#ec1 much         
celebrated for her beauty2 and is said  
to have  finished a picture of ,flora   
some years since remaining at           
,parisi#ed2  but this last ,mariette    
discovered to be the work of ,melzio1   
from the  circumstance of finding1 on a 
close inspection1 the name of this last 
master written on iti#ee4    ,in the    
year #aejc1 he was elected by the       
,florentines to paint their             
council-chamber4 ,the subject he chose  
for this1 was the battle against        

,attilai#ef2 and he had already made    
some progress in his work1  when1 to his
 great mortification1 he found his      
colours peel from the  walli#eg4        
,with ,leonardo was joined in this      
undertaking1 ,michael ,angelo1 who      
painted another side of the room1 and   
who1 then a young man of not  more than 
twenty-nine1 had risen to such          
reputation1 as not to fear a            
competition with ,leonardo1 a man of    
near sixtyi#eh4 ,the productions of  two
 such able masters placed in the same   
room1 begun at the same time1  and      
proceeding gradually step by step       
together1 afforded1 no doubt1  occasion 
and opportunity to the admirers and     
critics in painting to  compare and     
contrast with each other their          
respective excellencies and  defects4   
,had these persons contented themselves 
simply with comparing  and appreciating 
the merits of these masters according to
 justice and  truth1 it might perhaps   
have been advantageous to both1 as      

directing  their attention to the       
correction of errors2 but as each artist
 had his  admirers1 each had also his   
enemies2 the partisans of the one       
thinking  they did not sufficiently     
value the merit of their favourite if   
they  allowed any to his antagonist1 or 
did not1 on the contrary1 endeavour  to 
crush by detraction the too formidable  
reputation of his adversary4  ,from this
 conduct was produced what might easily 
have been foreseen2  they first became  
jealous rivals1 and at length open and  
inveterate  enemiesi#ei4    ,leonardo's 
reputation1 which had been for many     
years gradually  increasing1 was now so 
firmly established1 that he appears to  
have been  looked up to as being1 what  
he really was1 the reviver and restorer 
of  the art of painting2 and to such an 
height had the curiosity to view  his   
works been excited1 that ,raphael1 who  
was at that time young1 and  studying1  
thought it worth his while to make a    
journey to ,florence in  the month of   

,october #aejd;i#fj1 on purpose to see  
them4 ,nor was his  labour lost1 or his 
time thrown away in so doing2 for on    
first seeing  the works of ,leonardo's  
pencil1 he was induced to abandon the   
dry and  hard manner of his master      
,perugino's colouring1 and to adopt in  
its  stead the style of ,leonardoi#fa1  
to which circumstance is owing no  small
 portion of that esteem in the art1 to  
which ,raphael afterwards  very justly  
arrived4    ,his father having died in  
#aejd;i#fb1 he in consequence of that   
event  became engaged with his          
half-brothers1 the legitimate sons of   
,pietro  da ,vinci1 in a law-suit for   
the recovery of a share of his father's 
property1 which in a letter from        
,florence to the ,governor of ,milan1   
the date of which does not appear1 he   
speaks of having almost brought  to a   
conclusioni#fc4 ,at ,florence he        
continued from #aejc to #aejg;i#fd1  and
 in the course of that time painted1    
among other pictures of less  note1 a   

,virgin and ,child1 once in the hands of
 the ,botti family2 and  a ,baptist's   
head1 formerly in those of ,camillo     
,albizzii#fe2 but in  #aejh1 and the    
succeeding year1 he was at ,milan1 where
 he received a  pension which had been  
granted him by ,lewis ,,xii4i#ff2 and in
 the  month of ,september #aeac1 he1 in 
company with his scholar ,francesco     
,melzi1 quitted ,milani#fg1 and set out 
for ,rome 7which till that  time he had 
never visited71 encouraged perhaps to   
this resolution by  the circumstance    
that his friend ,cardinal ,john de      
,medicis1 who was  afterwards known by  
the assumed name of ,leo ,x4 had a few  
months before  been advanced to the     
papacyi#fh4 ,his known partiality to the
 arts1 and  the friendship which had    
subsisted between him and ,leonardo1    
held out  to the latter a well-founded  
expectation of employment for his pencil
  at ,rome1 and we find in this         
expectation he was not deceived2 as1    
soon  after his arrival1 the ,pope      

actually signified his intention of     
setting  him to work4 ,upon this        
,leonardo began distilling oils for his 
colours1  and preparing varnishes1 which
 the ,pope hearing1 said pertly and     
ignorantly enough1 that he could expect 
nothing from a man who thought  of      
finishing his works before he had begun 
themi#fi4 ,had the ,pope  known1 as he  
seems not to have done1 that oil was the
 vehicle in which  the colours were to  
have been worked1 or been witness either
 to the  almost annihilation of the     
colours in ,leonardo's famous picture of
 the  ,last ,supper1 owing to the damp  
of the wall1 or to the peeling of the   
colours from the wall in the            
council-chamber at ,florence1 he        
probably  would have spared this        
ill-natured reflection4 ,if it applied  
at all1  it could only be to a very     
small part of the pursuit in which      
,leonardo  was occupied1 namely1        
preparing varnish2 and if age were      
necessary  to give the varnish strength1

 or it were the better for keeping1 the 
answer was in an equal degree both silly
 and impertinent2 and it is no  wonder  
it should disgust such a mind as        
,leonardo's1 or produce1 as we  find it 
did1 such a breach between the ,pope and
 him1 that the intended  pictures1      
whatever they might have been1 were     
never begun4    ,disgusted with his     
treatment at ,rome1 where the former    
antipathy  between him and ,michael     
,angelo was again revived by the        
partisans of  each1 he the next year    
quitted it2 and accepting an invitation 
which  had been made him by ,francis the
 ,first1 he proceeded into ,francei#gj4 
,at the time of this journey he is said 
to have been seventy years  oldi#ga1    
which cannot be correct1 as he did not  
live to attain that  age in the whole4  
,probably the singularity of his        
appearance 7for in  his latter years he 
permitted his beard to grow long71      
together with  the effect which his     
intense application to study had        

produced in his  constitution1 might    
have given rise to an opinion that he   
was older  than he really was2 and      
indeed it seems pretty clear1 that when 
he  arrived in ,france he was nearly    
worn out in body1 if not in mind1  by   
the anxiety and application with which  
he had pursued his former  studies and  
investigations4    ,although the ,king's
 motive to this invitation1 which seems 
to have been  a wish to profit by the   
pencil of ,leonardo1 was completely     
disappointed  by his ill state of       
health1 which the fatigues of his       
journey and the  change of the climate  
produced1 so that on his arrival in     
,france no  hopes could be entertained  
by the ,king of enriching his collection
  with any pictures by ,leonardo2 yet   
the ,french people in general1 and  the 
,king in particular1 are expressly said 
to have been as favourable  to him as   
those of ,rome had been injurious1 and  
he was received by the  ,king in the    
most affectionate manner4 ,it was       

however unfortunately too  soon evident 
that these symptoms of decay were only  
the forerunners of  a more fatal        
distemper under which for several months
 he languished1  but which by degrees   
was increasing upon him4 ,of this he was
 sensible1  and therefore in the        
beginning of the year #aeah1 he         
determined to make  his will1 to which  
he afterwards added one or more         
codicils4 ,by these  he first describes 
himself as ,leonardo da ,vinci1 painter 
to the ,king1  at present residing at   
the place called ,cloux1 near ,amboise1 
and then  desires to be buried in the   
church of ,st4 ,florentine at ,amboise1 
and  that his body should be accompanied
 from the said place of ,cloux to  the  
said church1 by the college of the said 
church1 and the chaplains  of ,st4      
,dennis of ,amboise1 and the friars     
minor of the said place2 and  that      
before his body is carried to the said  
church1 it should remain  three days in 
the chamber in which he should die1 or  

in some other2 he  further orders that  
three great masses and thirty lesser    
masses of ,st4  ,gregory1 should be     
celebrated there1 and a like service be 
performed  in the church of ,st4        
,dennis1 and in that of the said friars 
minor4  ,he gives and bequeaths to      
,franco di ,melzio1 a gentleman of      
,milan1 in  return for his services1 all
 and every the books which he the       
testator  has at present1 and other     
instruments and drawings respecting his 
art3  ,to ,baptista de ,villanis1 his   
servant1 the moiety of the garden which 
he has without the walls of ,milan2 and 
the other moiety of the said  garden to 
,salay his servant4 ,he gives to the    
said ,francesco ,meltio the  arrears of 
his pension1 and the sum of money owing 
to him at present1  and at the time of  
his death1 by the treasurer ,m4 ,johan  
,sapin2 and to  the same person all and 
singular his clothes and vestments4 ,he 
orders  and wills1 that the sum of four 
hundred crowns of the sum which he has  

in the hands of the chamberlain of      
,santa ,maria ,nuova1 at ,florence1     
should be given to his brethren residing
 at ,florence1 with the profit  and     
emolument thereon4 ,and lastly1 he      
appoints the said ,gia4 ,francesco  de  
,meltio1 whole and sole executori#gb4   
,this ,will bears date1 and appears to  
have been executed on the #bc;d of      
,april #aeah4 ,he however survived the  
making of it more than a year2  and on  
the #bc;d of ,april #aeai;i#gc1 the day 
twelvemonth on which it  had been       
originally made1 he1 though it does not 
appear for what  reason1 re-executed it2
 and the next day added a codicil1 by   
which he  gave to his servant1 ,gio4    
,battista de ,villanis1 the right which 
had  been granted him in return for his 
labours on the canal of ,martesana1  of 
exacting a certain portion of all the   
wood transported on the  ,ticinoi#gd4   
,all this interval of time between the  
making and re-execution of his  will1   
and indeed the whole period from his    

arrival in ,france1 he seems  to have   
been struggling under an incurable      
illness4 ,the ,king frequently  during  
its continuance honoured him with       
visits2 and it has been said1  that in  
one of these ,leonardo exerting himself 
beyond his strength1  to shew his sense 
of this prince's condescension1 was     
seized with  a fainting fit1 and that   
the ,king stooping forward to support   
him1  ,leonardo expired in his arms1 on 
the #b;d of ,may #aeai;i#ge4 ,venturi   
has  taken some pains to disprove this  
fact1 by shewingi#gf1 that though in    
the interval between the years #aeaf and
 #aeai1 the ,french court passed  eleven
 months at different times at ,amboise2 
yet on the #ast of ,may  #aeai1 it was  
certainly not here1 but at ,st4         
,germains4 ,history1 however1  when     
incorrect1 is more frequently a mixture 
of true and false1 than  a total        
fabrication of falsehood2 and it is     
therefore not impossible1  or           
improbable1 that the ,king might shew   

such an act of kindness in  some of his 
visits when he was resident at ,amboise1
 and that ,leonardo  might recover from 
that fit1 and not die till some time    
after2 at which  latter time the ,court 
and the ,king might be absent at ,st4   
,germains4  ,this is surely a more      
rational supposition than to imagine    
such a fact  could have been invented   
without any foundation for it whatever4 
,it is impossible within the limits that
 can here be allowed1 to do any  thing  
like justice to the merits of this      
extraordinary man3 all that  can in this
 place be effected is to give the       
principal facts respecting  him2 and    
this is all1 therefore1 that has been   
attempted4 ,a sufficient  account1      
however1 at least for the present       
purpose1 it is presumed has  been given 
above of the ,author1 and the           
productions of his pencil1 and  it now  
remains therefore only to speak of those
 of his pen4    ,with what view the     
,author engaged in this arduous course  

of study1  how eager he was in the      
pursuit of knowledge1 how anxious to    
avail  himself of the best means of     
obtaining complete information on every 
subject to which he applied1 and how    
careful to minute down whatever he      
procured that could be useful1 have been
 already shewn in the course  of the    
foregoing narrative2 but in order to    
prevent the necessity of  interrupting  
there the succession of events1 it has  
been reserved for  this place to        
describe the contents and extent of his 
collections1 and  to give a brief idea  
of the branches to which they relate4   
,on inquiry then we learn1 that         
,leonardo's productions of this kind    
consist of fourteen manuscript volumes1 
large and small1 now in the  library of 
the ,national ,institute at ,paris1     
whither they have been  some few years  
since removed from the ,ambrosian       
library at ,milan2  and of one folio    
volume in manuscript also1 in the       
possession of his  ,majesty the ,king of

 ,great ,britain4 ,of those at ,paris1  
,j4 ,b4 ,venturi1  ,professor of        
,natural ,philosophy at ,modena1 and of 
the ,institute of  ,bologna1 c4 who was 
permitted to inspect them1 saysi#gg1    
that they  contain speculations in those
 branches of natural philosophy nearest 
allied to geometry2 that they are first 
sketches and occasional notes1  the     
,author always intending afterwards to  
compose from them complete  treatises4  
,he adds further1 that they are written 
backwards from  right to left1 in the   
manner of the oriental writers1 probably
 with  intention that the curious should
 not rob him of his discoveries4  ,the  
spirit of geometry guided him           
throughout1 whether it were in the  art 
of analysing a subject in the connexion 
of the discourse1 or the  care of always
 generalizing his ideas4 ,as to natural 
philosophy1 he  never was satisfied on  
any proposition if he had not proved it 
by  experiment4 ,from the extracts given
 from these manuscripts by ,venturi     

himself1 and which he has ranged under  
the different heads mentioned  in the   
notei#gh1 the contents of these volumes 
appear to be extremely  miscellaneous2  
and it is evident1 as ,venturi has      
marked by references  where each extract
 is to be found in the original1 that   
from the great  distance at which       
passages on the same subject are placed 
from each  other1 they must have been   
entered without any regard to method or 
arrangement of any kind whatever4       
,the volume in the possession of his    
,britannic ,majesty is described as     
consisting of a variety of elegant      
heads1 some of which are drawn  with red
 and black chalks on blue or red paper1 
others with a metal  pencil on a tinted 
paper2 a few of them are washed and     
heightened with  white1 and many are on 
common paper4 ,the subjects of these    
drawings  are miscellaneous1 as         
portraits1 caricatures1 single figures1 
tilting1  horses1 and other animals2    
botany1 optics1 perspective1 gunnery1   

hydraulics1 mechanics1 and a great      
number of anatomical subjects1 which    
are drawn with a more spirited pen1 and 
illustrated with a variety of           
manuscript notes4 ,this volume contains 
what is of more importance1 the  very   
characteristic head of ,leonardo1 as it 
was sketched by himself1  and now       
engraved by that eminent artist ,mr4    
,bartolozzii#gi4 ,specimens  from this  
volume have been published some years   
since by ,mr4 ,dalton1  and more        
recently and accurately by ,mr4         
,chamberlaine2 and though it  must be   
confessed1 that the former are extremely
 ill drawn1 and betray  the grossest    
ignorance of the effect which light and 
shadow were  intended to produce1 yet   
some of the subjects which the volume   
contains  may be ascertained by them2   
and among them is also a fac simile of a
  page of the original manuscript1 which
 proves this1 like the other  volumes1  
to be in ,italian1 and written          
backwards4 ,the latter is a  very       

beautiful work1 and is calculated to    
give an accurate idea of  ,leonardo's   
talents as a draughtsmani#hj4 ,from     
these two publications  it appears1 that
 this volume also is of a very          
miscellaneous nature1  and that it      
consists of manuscript entries1         
interspersed with finished  drawings of 
heads and figures1 and slight sketches  
of mechanical  engines and anatomical   
subjects1 some of which are intermixed  
with the  writing itself4    ,it has    
been already seen1 that these volumes   
were originally given by  the will of   
,leonardo to ,francisco ,melzi2 and     
their subsequent history  we are enabled
 to state on the authority of ,john     
,ambrose ,mazenta1  through whose hands 
they passed4 ,du ,fresne1 in the life   
prefixed to  the edition which he       
published in ,italian1 of ,leonardo da  
,vinci's  ,treatise on ,painting1 has1  
in a very loose way1 and without citing 
any authority1 given their history2 but 
,venturi has insertedi#ha  a translation

 into ,french1 from the original        
manuscript memoir of  ,mazenta2 and from
 him a version of it into ,english is   
here given1 with  the addition of       
,venturi's notes1 rendered also into    
,english4    ,it is near fifty yearsi#hb
 since there fell into my hands thirteen
  volumes of ,leonardo da ,vinci in     
folio and quarto1 written backwards4    
,accident brought them to me in the     
following manner3 ,i was residing  at   
,pisa1 for the purpose of studying the  
law1 in the family of ,aldus  ,manutius 
the younger1 a great lover of books4 ,a 
person named ,lelio  ,gavardi1 of       
,asola1 ,prevost of ,s4 ,zeno1 at       
,pavia1 a very near relation  of ,aldus1
 came to our house2 he had been a       
teacher of the belles  lettres in the   
family of the ,melzi of ,milan1 called  
de ,vavero1 to  distinguish them from   
other families of the same name in that 
city4  ,he had1 at their country house  
at ,vavero1 met with several drawings1  
instruments1 and books of ,leonardo4    

,francisco ,melzii#hc approached  nearer
 than any one to the manner of ,de      
,vinci2 he worked little1  because he   
was rich2 his pictures are very much    
finished1 they are  often confounded    
with those of his master4 ,at his death 
he left the  works of ,leonardo in his  
house at ,vavero1 to his sons1 who      
having  tastes and pursuits of a        
different kind1 neglected these         
treasures1  and soon dispersed them2    
,lelio ,gavardi possessed himself of as 
many of  them as he pleased2 he carried 
thirteen volumes to ,florence1 in hopes 
of receiving for them a good price from 
the ,grand ,duke ,francis1 who  was     
eager after works of this sort2 and the 
rather as ,leonardo was in  great       
reputation in his own country4 ,but this
 prince diedi#hd as soon  as ,gavardi   
was arrived at ,florence4 ,he then went 
to ,pisa1 to the house  of ,manutius4 ,i
 could not approve his proceeding2 it   
was scandalous4  ,my studies being      
finished1 ,i had occasion to return to  

,milan4 ,he gave  me the volumes of     
,vinci1 desiring me to return them to   
the ,melzi3 ,i  acquitted myself        
faithfully of my commission2 ,i carried 
them all back  to ,horatio1 the chief of
 the family of ,melzi1 who was surprised
 at  my being willing to give myself    
this trouble4 ,he made me a present  of 
these books1 telling me he had still    
many drawings by the same  author1 long 
neglected in the garrets of his house in
 the country4  ,thus these books became 
my property1 and afterwards they        
belonged to  my brothersi#he4 ,these    
latter having made too much parade of   
this  acquisition1 and the ease with    
which ,i was brought to it1 excited the 
envy of other amateurs1 who beset       
,horatio1 and obtained from him some    
drawings1 some figures1 some anatomical 
pieces1 and other valuable  remains of  
the cabinet of ,leonardo4 ,one of these 
spungers for the works  of ,leonardo1   
was ,pompeo ,aretin1 son of the         
,cavalier ,leoni1 formerly a  disciple  

of ,bonaroti1 and who was about ,philip 
,,ii4 ,king of ,spain1 for  whom he did 
all the bronzes which are at the        
,escorial4 ,pompeo engaged  himself to  
procure for ,melzi an employment to the 
senate of ,milan1  if he succeeded in   
recovering the thirteen books1 wishing  
to offer  them to ,king ,philip1 a lover
 of such curiosities4 ,flattered with   
this  hope1 ,melzi went to my brother's 
house3 he besought him on his knees  to 
restore him his present2 he was a       
fellow-collegian1 a friend1 a           
benefactor3 seven volumes were returned 
to himi#hf4 ,of the six others  which   
remained to the ,mazenta family1 one was
 presented to ,cardinal  ,frederic      
,borromeo1 for the ,ambrosian           
libraryi#hg4 ,my brother gave a  second 
to ,ambrose ,figini1 a celebrated       
painter of his time1 who left  it to his
 heir ,hercole ,bianchi1 with the rest  
of his cabinet4 ,urged by  the ,duke of 
,savoy1 ,i procured for him a third2 and
 in conclusion1 my  brother having died 

at a distance from ,milani#hh1 the three
 remaining  volumes came also into the  
hands of ,pompeo ,aretin2 he            
re-assembled  also others of them1 he   
separated the leaves of them to form a  
thick  volumei#hi1 which passed to his  
heir ,polidoro ,calchi1 and was         
afterwards sold to ,galeazzo ,arconati4 
,this gentleman keeps it now in  his    
rich library2 he has refused it to the  
,duke of ,savoy1 and to other  princes  
who were desirous of it4    ,in addition
 to this memoir1 ,venturi noticesi#ij1  
that ,howard ,earl  of ,arundel made    
ineffectual efforts to obtain this large
 volume1  and offered for it as far as  
#fj1jjj francs1 in the name of the ,king
  of ,england4 ,arconati would never    
part with it2 he bought eleven  other   
books of ,da ,vinci1 which came also1   
according to appearance1  from ,leoni2  
in #afcg he made a gift of them all to  
the ,ambrosian  libraryi#ia1 which      
already was in possession of the volume 
,e1 from  ,mazenta1 and received        

afterwards the volume ,k from ,horatio  
,archinto1 in  #afgd;i#ib4    ,venturi  
says1 this is the history of all the    
manuscripts of ,vinci that  are come    
into ,france2 they are in number        
fourteen1 because the volume  ,b        
contains an appendix of eighteen leaves1
 which may be separated1 and  considered
 as the fourteenth volumei#ic4    ,in   
the printed catalogue of the library of 
,turin1 one does not see  noticed the   
manuscript which ,mazenta gave to the   
,duke of ,savoy3 it has  then           
disappeared4 ,might it not be that which
 an ,englishman got copied  by ,francis 
,ducci1 library-keeper at ,florence1 and
 a copy of which is  still remaining in 
the same cityi#id8    ,the ,trivulce    
family at ,milan1 according to          
,venturii#ie1 possess also a  manuscript
 of ,vinci1 which is in great part only 
a vocabulary4    ,of the volume in the  
possession of his ,britannic ,majesty1  
the following  account is given in the  
life of ,leonardo1 prefixed to that     

number  already published from it by    
,mr4 ,chamberlaine3 ,it was one of the  
three  volumes which became the property
 of ,pompeo ,leoni1 that is now in his  
,majesty's cabinet4 ,it is rather       
probable than certain1 that this great  
curiosity was acquired for ,king        
,charles ,i4 by the ,earl of ,arundel1  
when  he went ,ambassador to the        
,emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii4 in #afcf1 as  
may indeed  be inferred from an         
instructive inscription over the place  
where the  volumes are kept1 which sets 
forth1 that ,james ,king of ,england    
offered  three thousand pistoles for one
 of the volumes of ,leonardo's works4   
,and  some documents in the ,ambrosian  
library give colour to this conjecture4 
,this volume was happily preserved      
during the civil wars of the last       
century among other specimens of the    
fine arts1 which the munificence  of    
,charles ,i4 had amassed with a         
diligence equal to his taste4 ,and it   
was discovered soon after his present   

,majesty's accession in the same        
cabinet where ,queen ,caroline found the
 fine portraits of the court of  ,henry 
,,viii4 by ,hans ,holbein1 which the    
,king's liberality permitted  me lately 
to lay before the public4 ,on the cover 
of this volume is  written1 in gold     
letters1 what ascertains its descent2   
,disegni di  ,leonardo da ,vinci1       
restaurati da ,pompeo ,leoni4           
,although no part of the collections of 
,leonardo was arranged and  prepared by 
himself1 or others under his direction1 
for publication1  some extracts have    
been made from his writings1 and given  
to the world  as separate tracts4 ,the  
best known1 and indeed the principal of 
these1  is the following ,treatise on   
,painting1 of which there will be       
occasion  to say more presently2 but    
besides this1 ,edward ,cooper1 a ,london
  bookseller1 about the year #agbj1     
published a fragment of a ,treatise by  
,leonardo da ,vinci1 on the ,motions of 
the ,human ,body1 and the ,manner of    

drawing ,figures1 according to          
geometrical ,rules4 ,it contains but ten
  plates in folio1 including the        
title-page1 and was evidently extracted 
from some of the volumes of his         
collections1 as it consists of slight   
sketches and verbal descriptions both in
 ,italian and ,english1 to  explain such
 of them as needed it4    ,mr4 ,dalton1 
as has been before noticed1 several     
years since published  some engravings  
from the volume in our ,king's          
collection1 but they are  so badly done 
as to be of no value4 ,mr4 ,chamberlaine
 therefore1 in  #agif1 took up the      
intention afresh1 and in that year his  
first number  came out1 which is all    
that has yet appeared4    ,of the       
,treatise on ,painting1 ,venturii#if    
gives the following  particulars3 ,the  
,treatise on ,painting which we have of 
,vinci is only  a compilation of        
different fragments extracted from his  
manuscripts4  ,it was in the ,barberini 
library at ,rome1 in #afcj;i#ig3 the    

,cav4 del  ,pozzo obtained a copy from  
it1 and ,poussin designed the figures of
 it  in #afdj;i#ih4 ,this copy1 and     
another derived from the same source1   
in the possession of ,thevenot1 served  
as the basis for the edition  published 
in #afea1 by ,raphael du ,frne4 ,the    
manuscript of ,pozzo1  with the figures 
of ,poussin1 is actually at ,paris1 in  
the valuable  collection of books of    
,chardini#ii4 ,it is from this that ,i  
have taken  the relation of ,mazenta2 it
 is at the end of the manuscript under  
this  title3 ,some ,notices of the      
,works of ,leonardo da ,vinci at ,milan1
 and  of his ,books1 by ,j4 ,ambrose    
,mazenta of ,milan1 of the ,congregation
 of  the ,priests ,regular of ,st4      
,paul1 called the ,barnabites4 ,mazenta 
does  not announce himself as the author
 of the compilation2 he may however  be 
so2 it may also happen1 that the        
compilation was made by the heir        
himself of ,vinci1 ,francisco ,melzo4   
,vasari1 about #aefg1 saysi#ajj1 that  a

 painter of ,milan had the manuscripts  
of ,vinci1 which were written           
backwards2 that this painter came to    
him1 and afterwards went to ,rome1  with
 intention to get them printed1 but that
 he did not know what was  the result4  
,however it may be1 ,du ,frne confesses 
that this compilation  is imperfect in  
many respects1 and ill arranged4 ,it is 
so1 because the  compiler has not seized
 the methodical spirit of ,vinci1 and   
that there  are mixed with it some      
pieces which belong to other tracts2    
besides1  one has not seen where many   
other chapters have been neglected which
  ought to make part of it4 ,for        
example1 the comparison of painting with
  sculpture1 which has been announced as
 a separate treatise of the same        
author1 is nothing more than a chapter  
belonging to the ,treatise on           
,painting1 ,a4 #aje4 ,all this will be  
complete1 and put in order1 in the      
,treatise on ,opticsi#aja4 ,in the mean 
time1 however1 the following are  the   

different editions of this compilation1 
such as it is at present3    ,trattato  
della ,pittura di ,leonardo da ,vinci1  
nuovamente dato in ,luce1  con la ,vita 
dell' ,autore da ,raphaele du ,frne1    
,parigi #afea1 in fol42  reprinted at   
,naples in #agcc1 in folio2 at ,bologna1
 in #aghf1 in folio2  at ,florence1 in  
#agib1 in #dto4 ,this last edition has  
been given from a  copy in the          
hand-writing of ,stephano della ,bella4 
----,translated into ,french by ,roland 
,freart de ,chambray1 ,paris #afea1     
fol4 reprinted ibid4 #agaf1 in #abmo1   
and #agif1 in #hvo4    ----,translated  
into ,german1 in #dto4 ,nuremberg #aghf1
 ,weigel4    ----,translated into ,greek
 by ,panagiotto1 manuscript in the ,nani
  library at ,venice4    ,another       
manuscript copy of this compilation was 
in the possession of  ,p4 ,orlandi1 from
 whence it passed into the library of   
,smithi#ajb4    ,cellini1 in a discourse
 published by ,morelli1 saysi#ajc1 that 
he  possessed a copy of a book of ,de   

,vinci on ,perspective1 which he        
communicated to ,serlio1 and that this  
latter published from it all that  he   
could comprehend4 ,might not this be the
 tract which ,gori announces  to be in  
the library of the ,academy of          
,cortonai#ajd8    ,the reputation in    
which the ,treatise on ,painting ought  
to be held1  is not now for the first   
time to be settled2 its merit has been  
acknowledged by the best judges1 though 
at that time it laboured under  great   
disadvantage from the want of a proper  
arrangement4 ,in the  present           
publication that objection is removed1  
and the attempt has  been favourable to 
the work itself1 as it has shewn it1 by 
bringing  together the several chapters 
that related to each other1 to be a     
much more complete and connected        
treatise than was before supposed4      
,notwithstanding however the fair       
estimation in which it has always       
stood1 and which is no more than its    
due1 one person has been found  hardy   

enough to endeavour1 though             
unsuccessfully1 to lessen its credit3  a
 circumstance which it would not have   
been worth while to notice1 if  it had  
not been intimated to us1 that there are
 still some persons  in ,france who side
 with the objector1 which1 as he was a  
,frenchman1  and ,leonardo an ,italian1 
may perhaps be ascribed1 in some measure
 at  least1 to the desire which in      
several instances that people have      
lately  shewn of claiming on behalf of  
their countrymen1 a preference over     
others1 to which they are not entitled4 
,abraham ,bosse1 of the city of  ,tours1
 an engraver in copper1 who lived in the
 last century1 is the  person here      
alluded to2 and it may not be           
impertinent in this place to  state some
 of the motives by which he was induced 
to such a conduct4  ,at the time when   
this ,treatise first made its appearance
 in ,france1  as well in ,italian as in 
,french1 ,bosse appears to have been    
resident  at ,paris1 and was a member of

 the ,academy of ,painting1 where he    
gave  the first lessons on perspective1 
and1 with the assistance of ,mons4      
,desargues1 published from time to time 
several tracts on geometry and          
perspective1 the manner of designing1   
and the art of engraving1 some  of which
 at least are described in the          
title-page1 as printed at ,paris  for   
the authori#aje4 ,this man1 in his      
lectures1 having1 it is said1  attacked 
some of the pictures painted by ,le     
,brun1 the then ,director of  the       
,academy1 had been very deservedly      
removed from his situation1 and  forced 
to quit the ,academy1 for endeavouring  
to lessen that authority1  which for the
 instruction and improvement of students
 it was necessary  the ,director should 
possess1 and attempting thus to render  
fruitless  the precepts which his       
situation required him to deliver4 ,as  
this  ,treatise of ,leonardo had in the 
translation been adopted by ,le ,brun1  
who fully saw its value1 and introduced 

it into the ,academy for the  advantage 
of the students1 by which means the sale
 of ,bosse's work  might be1 and        
probably was1 affected2 ,bosse1 at the  
end of a ,treatise  on ,geometry and    
,perspective1 taught in the ,royal      
,academy of ,painting  and ,sculpture1  
published by him in octavo in #affe1 has
 inserted a paper  with this title1     
which in the original is given in       
,french1 but we have  preferred         
translating it3 ,what follows is for    
those who shall have  the curiosity to  
be acquainted with a part of the        
procedings of ,mons4  ,desargues1 and   
myself1 against some of our antagonists1
 and part of  their skill2 together with
 some remarks made on the contents of   
several  chapters of a ,treatise        
attributed to ,leonardo de ,vinci1      
translated  from ,italian into ,french  
by ,mons4 ,freart ,sieur de ,chambray1  
from a  manuscript taken from that which
 is in the library of the illustrious1  
virtuous1 and curious ,mons4 le         

,chevalier ,du ,puis at ,rome4    ,after
 the explanation of his motives above   
given1 it is not wonderful  to find him 
asserting1 that this ,treatise of       
,leonardo was in a number  of           
circumstances inferior to his own2 nor  
to observe1 that in a list of  some of  
the chapters which he has there given1  
we should be frequently  told by him    
that they are false1 absurd1 ridiculous1
 confused1  trifling1 weak1 and1 in     
short1 every thing but good4 ,it is true
 that  the estimation of ,leonardo da   
,vinci was in ,france too high for him  
to  attack without risking his own      
character for judgment and taste1 and he
  has therefore found it necessary for  
his purpose insidiously to suggest  that
 these chapters were interpolations2 but
 of this he has produced no  proof1     
which1 had it been the fact1 might have 
been easily obtained1 by  only getting  
some friend to consult ,leonardo's      
manuscript collections  in the          
,ambrosian library4 ,that he would have 

taken this step if he  had expected any 
success from it1 may fairly be inferred 
from the  circumstance of his writing to
 ,poussin at ,rome1 apparently in hopes 
of  inducing him to say something to the
 disadvantage of the work2 and his      
omitting to make this inquiry after the 
enmity he has shewn against the  book1  
fully justifies an opinion that he      
forbore to inquire1 because  he was     
conscious that such an investigation    
would have terminated in  vindicating   
his adversaries from his aspersions1 and
 have furnished  evidence of their      
fidelity and accuracy4    ,what the     
letter which he wrote to ,poussin       
contained1 he has not  informed us2 but 
he has given us1 as he says1 ,poussin's 
answeri#ajf1  in which are some passages
 relating to this ,treatise1 of which we
 here  give a translation3 ,as to what  
concerns the book of ,leonard ,vinci1 it
  is true that ,i have designed the     
human figures which are in that which   
,mons4 le ,chevalier du ,puis has2 but  

all the others1 whether geometrical  or 
otherwise1 are of one man1 named ,gli   
,alberti1 the very same who has  drawn  
the plants which are in the book of     
subterraneous ,rome2 and the  awkward   
landscapes which are behind some of the 
little human figures of  the copy which 
,mons4 du ,chambray has caused to be    
printed1 have been  added to it by one  
,errard1 without my knowing any thing of
 it4    ,all that is good in this book  
may be written on one sheet of paper1 in
  a large character1 and those who      
believe that ,i approve all that is in  
it1 do not know me2 ,i who profess never
 to give sanction to things of  my      
profession which ,i know to be ill done 
and ill said4    ,whoever recollects the
 difference in the course of study      
pursued and  recommended by ,leonardo   
7that of ,nature71 from that observed by
 ,poussin  7that of the antique71 and   
remembers also the different fortunes of
  ,le ,brun and ,poussin1 that the one  
was at the head of his profession1      

enjoying all its honours and emoluments1
 while the other1 though  conscious of  
his own great powers1 was toiling for a 
daily subsistence  in comparative       
obscurity1 may easily conceive why the  
latter could not  approve a work which  
so strongly inculcates the adopting     
,nature as the  guide throughout2 and   
which was at the same time patronized by
 one whom  he could not but consider as 
his more fortunate rival4 ,it may       
however  be truly affirmed1 that even   
the talents of ,poussin1 great as they  
certainly were1 and his knowledge and   
correctness in drawing1 would  have been
 abundantly improved by an attention to 
the rules laid down  in this ,treatise1 
and that the study of ,nature would have
 freed his  pictures from that          
resemblance to statues which his figures
 frequently  have1 and bestowed on them 
the soft and fleshy appearance for which
  ,leonardo was so remarkable2 while a  
minute investigation of ,leonardo's     
system of colouring would have produced 

perhaps in him as fortunate a  change as
 we have seen it did in the case of     
,raphael4    ,though ,bosse tells       
usi#ajg1 that he had seen in the hands  
of ,mons4  ,felibien1 a manuscript copy 
of this ,tract on ,painting1 which he   
said  he had taken from the same        
original mentioned before1 for the      
purpose  of translating it into ,french2
 and that on ,bosse's pointing out to   
him some of these errors1 and informing 
him that ,mons4 de ,chambray  was far   
advanced in his translation1 he         
abandoned his design1 and  assigned to  
the ,sieur de ,chambray the privilege he
 had obtained for it2  we have no       
intention here to enumerate or answer   
,bosse's objections1  merely because    
such an undertaking would greatly exceed
 the limits  which can here be allowed  
us4 ,most of them will be found captious
  and splenetic1 and1 together with the 
majority of the rest1 might be  fully   
refuted by a deduction of facts2 it is  
however sufficient on the  present      

occasion to say1 that wherever          
opportunity has been afforded  of       
tracing the means by which ,leonardo    
procured his materials for any  great   
composition1 he is found to have exactly
 pursued the path which  he recommends  
to othersi#ajh2 and for the success of  
his precepts1 and  what may be effected 
by them1 we need only appeal to his own 
example4    ,to this enumeration of the 
productions of ,leonardo's pen1 and in  
contradiction to the fact already       
asserted1 that no part of his           
collections was ever arranged or        
prepared for publication by himself1  it
 is probable we may be told we should   
add tracts on ,motion2 on the           
,equilibrium of bodies2 on the nature1  
equilibrium1 and motion of ,water2  on  
,anatomy2 on the ,anatomy of an horse2  
on ,perspective2 and on ,light  and     
,shadow3 which are either mentioned by  
himself in the ,treatise on  ,painting1 
or ascribed to him by others4 ,but as to
 these1 there is great  reason for      

supposing1 that1 though they might be   
intended1 they were  never actually     
drawn up into form4 ,certain it is1 that
 no such have  been ever given to the   
world1 as those before noticed are the  
only  treatises of this author that have
 yet appeared in print2 and even they   
have already been shewn to be no more   
than extracts from the immense  mass of 
his collections of such passages as     
related to the subjects on  which they  
profess to give intelligence4 ,if any   
tracts therefore in his  name1 on any of
 the above topics1 are any where        
existing in manuscript1  and in         
obscurity1 it is probable they are only 
similar selections4 ,and  indeed it will
 be found on inspection1 that his       
collections consist  of a multitude of  
entries made at different times1 without
 method1  order1 or arrangement of any  
kind1 so as to form an immense chaos of 
intelligence1 which he1 like many other 
voluminous collectors1 intended  at some
 future time to digest and arrange1 but 

unfortunately postponed  this task so   
long1 that he did not live to carry that
 intention into  effect4 ,under these   
circumstances1 should it happen1 as     
perhaps it  may1 that any volume of the 
whole is confined exclusively to any one
  branch of science1 such as            
hydrostatics for instance1 it was not   
the  consequence of a designed plan1 but
 only arose from this accident1 that  he
 had then made that branch the object of
 his pursuit1 and for a time  laid aside
 the rest4 ,in proof of this assertion  
it may be observed1  that the very      
treatise of light and shadow above      
mentioned1 is  described as in the      
,ambrosian library at ,milan1 and as a  
folio volume  covered with red velvet1  
presented by ,signior ,mazzenta to      
,cardinal  ,borromeoi#aji2 from all     
which circumstances it is evidently     
proved  to be one of the volumes now    
existing in ,francei#aaj1 which were    
inspected and described by ,venturi in  
the tract so often cited in the  course 

of this life4    ,although the principal
 of ,leonardo's productions have been   
already  mentioned1 it has been thought 
proper1 for the satisfaction of the     
curious1 here to subjoin a catalogue of 
such of them as have come to  our       
knowledge2 distinguishing in it such as 
were only drawings1 from  such as were  
finished pictures1 and noticing also    
which of them have  been engraven1 and  
by whom4                                
,,catalogue                             
,,of ,,the                              
,,works                                 
,,of                                    
,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4                
,,architecture4    ,many designs for    
plans and buildings1 made by him in his 
youthi#aaa4    ,a model made by him for 
raising the roof of the church of ,st4  
,john1  at ,florencei#aab4    ,the house
 of the family of ,melzi at ,vaprio1    
supposed by ,della ,valle  to be        
designed by ,leonardoi#aac4             
,,models _/and_/ ,,sculpture4    ,some  

heads of laughing women1 modelled by him
 in clay1 in his  youthi#aad4    ,some  
boys' heads also1 which appeared to have
 come from the hand of a  masteri#aae4  
,three figures in bronze1 over the gate 
on the north side of the  church of ,st4
 ,john1 at ,florence1 made by ,gio4     
,francesco ,rustici1 but  designed with 
the advice of ,leonardo da ,vincii#aaf4 
,a model in clay1 in alto relievo4 ,it  
is a circle of about two palms  in      
diameter1 and represents ,st4 ,jerom in 
a grotto1 old1 and much worn  out by    
prayer4 ,it was in the possession of    
,sig4 ,ignazio ,hugford1 a  painter at  
,florence1 who was induced to buy it in 
consequence of the  great praises which 
in his youth he had heard bestowed on it
 by the  celebrated ,anton4 ,dominico   
,gabbiani1 his master1 who knew it to be
 of  the hand of ,leonardo4 ,this model 
appears to have been much studied in    
the time of ,pontormo and ,rosso2 and   
many copies of it1 both drawings  and   
pictures1 are to be found throughout    

,florence1 well painted in  their       
manneri#aag4    ,the equestrian statue  
in memory of the ,duke of ,milan's      
father1 which  was not only finished and
 exposed to view1 but broken to pieces  
by the  ,french when they took          
possession of ,milan4 ,it has been said 
by some1  that the model only was       
finished1 and the statue never cast1 and
 that  it was the model only which the  
,french destroyedi#aah4    ,vasari1 p4  
#cf1 mentions a little model by         
,leonardo in wax1 but he  does not say  
what was its subject4      ,,drawings4  
_/,vasari_/1 p4 #bd1 says1 that it was  
,leonardo's practice to model figures   
from the life1 and then to cover them   
with fine thin lawn or cambric1  so as  
to be able to see through it1 and with  
the point of a fine pencil  to trace off
 the outlines in black and white2 and   
that some such  drawings he had in his  
collection4    ,a head in chiaro oscuro1
 in the possession of ,vasari1 and      
mentioned  by him as divine1 a drawing  

on paperi#aai4    ,a carton of ,adam and
 ,eve in ,paradise1 made by him for the 
,king of  ,portugal4 ,it is done with a 
pen in chiaro oscuro1 and heightened    
with  white1 and was intended to be     
worked as tapestry in silk and gold2 but
  ,vasari says it was never executed1   
and that in his time the carton         
remained at ,florence1 in the house of  
,ottaviano de ,medici4 ,whether this    
carton is still existing is             
unknowni#abj4    ,several ridiculous    
heads of men and women1 formerly in     
,vasari's  collection1 drawn in pen and 
inki#aba4 ,aurelio ,lovino had1 says    
,lomazzo1 a book of sketches by         
,leonardo1 of odd and ridiculous heads4 
,this book appears to have contained    
about #bej figures of countrymen  and   
countrywomen laughing1 drawn by the hand
 of ,leonardo4 ,card4 ,silvio  ,valenti 
had a similar book1 in which were       
caricature heads drawn with a  pen1 like
 that engraven by ,count ,caylus4 ,of   
these caricatures mention  is made in   

the second volume of the ,lettere       
,pittoriche1 p4 #agj;i#abb4  ,the       
passage in the ,lettere ,pittoriche here
 referred to1 is part of a  letter      
without any name or date1 addressed ,al 
,sig4 ,c4 di ,c42 but a  note of the    
editor's explains these initials1 as    
meaning ,sig4 ,conte  di ,caylus1 and   
supposes the author to have been the    
younger ,mariette4  ,the letter mentions
 a collection of heads from ,leonardo's 
drawings1  published by the ,count2 and 
the editor1 in another note1 tells us1  
that  they are caricature heads drawn in
 pen and ink2 that the originals  were  
bought in ,holland1 from ,sig4 ,cardin4 
,silvio ,valenti1 and that the  prints  
of which the letter speaks1 are in the  
famous collection of the  ,corsini      
library4 ,the author of the ,letter     
supposes these caricatures to  have been
 drawn when ,vinci retired to ,melzi's  
house1 that he invented  them as a new  
sort of recreation1 and intended them as
 a subject for  the academy which he had

 established at ,milan4    ,in another  
part of the same ,letter1 p4 #agc1 #agd1
 this collection of  drawings of heads  
is again mentioned1 and it is there     
said1 that it  might be that which      
belonged to the ,earl of ,arundel4 ,this
 conjecture  is founded on there being  
many such heads engraven formerly by    
,hollar4  ,in fact1 the number of the   
plates which he has done from drawings  
of  this painter1 are near one hundred1 
which compose different series4 ,the    
author of the ,letter adds1 that1 if a  
conjecture might be permitted1  we might
 affirm1 that this is the collection of 
heads of which ,paul  ,lomazzo speaks2  
at least the description which he gives 
of a similar  collection which was in   
the hands of ,aurelio ,lovino1 a painter
 of  ,milan1 corresponds with this as   
well in the number of the drawings  as  
their subjects4 ,it represents1 like    
this1 studies from old men1  countrymen1
 wrinkled old women1 which are all      
laughing4 ,another part of  this ,letter

 says1 it is easy to believe that the   
collection of drawings  of heads which  
occasioned this ,letter1 might be one of
 those books in  which ,leonardo noted  
the most singular countenances4    ,in  
p4 #aih of the same ,letter1 ,hollar's  
engravings are said to be about  an     
hundred1 and to have been done at       
,antwerp in #afde1 and the following    
year2 and in p4 #aii1 ,count ,caylus's  
publication is said to contain #ei      
plates in aqua fortis1 done in #agcj1   
and that this latter is the work  so    
often mentioned in the ,letter4         
,another collection of the same kind of 
caricature heads mentioned in           
,mariette's ,letteri#abc1 as existing in
 the cabinet of either the ,king  of    
,spain or the ,king of ,sardinia4       
,four caricature heads1 mentioned1      
,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aij1  as     
being in the possession of ,sig4        
,crozat4 ,they are described as  drawn  
with a pen1 and are said to have come   
originally from ,vasari's  collection of

 drawings4 ,of this collection it is    
said1 in a note on the  above passage1  
that it was afterwards carried into     
,france1 and fell  into the hands of a  
bookseller1 who took the volume to      
pieces1 and  disposed of the drawings   
separately1 and that many of them came  
into  the cabinets of the ,king1 and    
,sig4 ,crozat4 ,others say1 and it is   
more  credible1 that ,vasari's          
collection passed into that of the      
,grand ,dukes  of ,medici4    ,a head of
 ,americo ,vespucci1 in charcoal1 but   
copied by ,vasari in pen  and inki#abd4 
,a head of an old man1 beautifully drawn
 in charcoali#abe4    ,an head of       
,scarramuccia1 captain of the gypsies1  
in chalk2 formerly  belonging to        
,pierfrancesco ,giambullari1 canon of   
,st4 ,lorenzo1 at  ,florence1 and left  
by him to ,donato ,valdambrini of       
,arezzo1 canon of ,st4  ,lorenzo        
alsoi#abf4    ,several designs of       
combatants on horseback1 made by        
,leonardo for  ,gentil ,borri1 a master 

of defencei#abg1 to shew the different  
positions necessary for a horse soldier 
in defending himself1 and  attacking his
 enemy4    ,a carton of our ,saviour1   
the ,virgin1 ,st4 ,ann1 and ,st4 ,john4 
,vasari  says of this1 that for two     
days1 people of all sorts1 men and      
women1  young and old1 resorted to      
,leonardo's house to see this wonderful 
performance1 as if they had been going  
to a solemn feast2 and adds1  that this 
carton was afterwards in ,france4 ,it   
seems that this was  intended for an    
altar-piece for the high altar of the   
church of the  ,annunziata1 but the     
picture was never paintedi#abh4         
,however1 when  ,leonardo afterwards    
went into ,france1 he1 at the desire of 
,francis  the ,first1 put the design    
into colours4 ,lomazzo has said1 that   
this  carton of ,st4 ,ann was carried   
into ,france2 that in his time it was at
  ,milan1 in the possession of ,aurelio 
,lovino1 a painter2 and that many       
drawings from it were in existence4     

,what was the fate this carton of  ,st4 
,ann underwent1 may be seen in a letter 
of ,p4 ,resta1 printed in the  third    
volume of the ,lettere ,pittoriche1 in  
which he says1 that ,leonardo  made     
three of these cartons1 and nevertheless
 did not convert it into  a picture1 but
 that it was painted by ,salai1 and that
 the picture is  still in the sacristy  
of ,st4 ,celsus at ,milani#abi4    ,a   
drawing of an old man's head1 seen in   
front1 in red chalk2  mentioned ,lett4  
,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aia4    ,a carton   
designed by him for painting the        
council-chamber at  ,florence4 ,the     
subject which he chose for this purpose 
was1 the history  of ,niccolo           
,piccinino1 the ,captain of ,duke       
,philip of ,milan1 in which  he drew a  
group of men on horseback fighting for a
 standardi#acj4  ,mariette1 in a note1  
,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aic1 mentions
 this carton1  which he says represented
 two horsemen fighting for a standard2  
that  it was only part of a large       

history1 the subject of which was the   
rout  of ,niccolo ,piccinino1 ,general  
of the army of ,philip ,duke of ,milan1 
and that a print was engraven of it by  
,edelinck1 when young1 but the  drawing 
from which he worked was a bad one4 ,in 
the catalogue of prints  from the works 
of ,leonardo1 inserted ,lett4 ,pitt4    
vol4 ii4 p4 #aie1 this  print is again  
mentioned and described more truly1 as  
representing  four horsemen fighting for
 a standard4 ,it is there supposed to   
have  been engraven from a drawing by   
,fiammingo1 and that this drawing might 
have been made from the picture which   
,du ,fresne speaks of as being in  his  
time in the possession of ,sig4 ,la     
,maire1 an excellent painter of         
perspective4    ,a design of ,neptune   
drawn in his car by sea horses1 attended
 by sea  gods2 made by him for his      
friend ,antonio ,segnii#aca4    ,several
 anatomical drawings made from the life1
 many of which  have been since         
collected into a volume1 by his scholar 

,francesco  ,melzii#acb4    ,a book of  
the ,anatomy of man1 mentioned by       
,vasari1 p4 #cf1 the  drawings for which
 were made with the assistance of ,marc 
,antonio della  ,torre1 before noticed  
in the present life4 ,it is probably the
 same with  the preceding4    ,a        
beautiful and well-preserved study in   
red and black chalk1 of the  head of a  
,virgin1 from which he afterwards       
painted a picture4 ,this  study was at  
one time in the celebrated ,villa de    
,vecchietti1 but  afterwards1 in        
consequence of a sale1 passed into the  
hands of ,sig4  ,ignazio ,hugfordi#acc4 
,two heads of women in profile1 little  
differing from each other1  drawn in    
like manner in black and red chalk1     
bought at the same sale  by ,sig4       
,hugford1 but now among the ,elector    
,palatine's collection of               
drawingsi#acd4    ,a book of the        
,anatomy of a horse1 mentioned by       
,vasari1 p4 #cf1 as  a distinct work2   
but probably included in ,leonardo's    

manuscript  collections4 ,see the       
account before given of them4           
,several designs by ,leonardo were in   
the possession of ,sig4 ,jabac1 who     
seems to have been a collector of       
pictures1 and to have bought up for  the
 ,king of ,france several excellent     
pictures particularly by ,leonardo  da  
,vincii#ace4    ,a drawing of a young   
man embracing an old woman1 whom he is  
caressing  for the sake of her riches4  
,this is mentioned1 ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4  
ii4 p4  #aih1 as engraven by ,hollar1 in
 #afdf4    ,a head of a young man seen  
in profile1 engraven in aqua fortis  by 
,conte di ,caylus1 from a drawing in the
 ,king of ,france's  collectioni#acf4   
,a fragment of a ,treatise on the       
,motions of the ,human ,body1 already   
mentioned in the foregoing life4    ,in 
the ,lettere ,pittoriche1 vol4 ii4 p4   
#aii1 mention is made of a print        
representing some intertwisted lines    
upon a black ground1 in the  style of   
some of ,albert ,durer's engravings in  

wood4 ,in the middle of  this1 in a     
small compartment1 is to be read1       
_/,academia ,leonardi ,vin_/4  ,vasari1 
it is there said1 has noticed it as a   
singularity4    ,in p4 #bjj of the same 
work1 a similar print is also noticed1  
which  differs only in the inscription  
from the former4 ,in this last it is    
_/,academia ,leonardi ,vici_/4 ,both    
this and the former print are said to   
be extremely rare1 and only to have been
 seen in the ,king of ,france's         
collection4 ,it does not however appear 
from any thing in the ,lett4  ,pitt4    
that they were designed by ,leonardo4   
,the ,abate di ,villeloin1 in his       
,catalogue of ,prints published in      
#afff1  speaks1 under the article of    
,leonardo da ,vinci1 of a print of the  
taking down from the ,cross2 but the    
,lett4 ,pitt4 says it was engraven  from
 ,eneas ,vico1 not from ,leonardoi#acg4 
,two drawings of monsters1 mentioned by 
,lomazzo1 consisting of a boy's  head   
each1 but horribly distorted by the     

misplacing of the features1  and the    
introduction of other members not in    
,nature to be found  there4 ,these two  
drawings were in the hands of ,francesco
 ,borella1 a  sculptori#ach4    ,a      
portrait by ,leonardo1 of ,artus1       
,maestro di ,camera to ,francis ,i4     
drawn in black lead pencili#aci4    ,the
 head of a ,csar crowned with oak1 among
 a valuable collection  of drawings in a
 thick volume in folio1 in the          
possession of ,sig4  ,pagavei#adj4      
,the proportions of the human body4 ,the
 original of this is preserved  in the  
possession of ,sig4 ,pagave4 ,at the    
head and foot of this drawing  is to be 
read the description which begins thus3 
,tanto apre l',uomo  nelle braccia      
quanto  la sua altezza1 c4 and above    
all1 at the  head of the work is the    
famous ,last ,supper1 which he proposes 
to his  scholars as the rule of the     
arti#ada4    ,the ,circumcision1 a large
 drawing mentioned ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4   
ii4  #bhc1 as the work of ,leonardo1 by 

,nicolo ,gabburri1 in a letter dated    
,florence1 #dth ,oct4 #agcb1 and        
addressed ,al ,sig4 ,pietro ,mariette4  
,gabburri says he saw this drawing1 and 
that it was done on white paper  a      
little tinted with ,indian ink1 and     
heightened with ceruse4 ,its owner  then
 was ,alessandro ,galilei1 an architect 
of ,florence4    ,a drawing consisting  
of several laughing heads1 in the middle
 of which  is another head in profile1  
crowned with oak leaves4 ,this drawing  
was  the property of the ,earl of       
,arundel1 and was engraven by ,hollar in
  #afdf;i#adb4    ,a man sitting1 and   
collecting in a looking-glass the rays  
of the sun1  to dazzle the eyes of a    
dragon who is fighting with a lion4 ,a  
print of  this is spoken of1 ,lett4     
,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aig1 as badly       
engraven by an  anonymous artist1 but it
 is there said to have so little of     
,leonardo's  manner as to afford reason 
for believing it not designed by him1   
though  it might perhaps be found among 

his drawings in the ,king of ,france's  
collection4 ,another print of it1 of the
 same size1 has been engraven  from the 
drawing by ,conte de ,caylus4 ,it       
represents a pensive man1 and  differs  
from the former in this respect1 that in
 this the man is naked1  whereas in the 
drawing he is clothed4      ,,paintings4
    ,a ,madonna1 formerly in the        
possession of ,pope ,clement the        
,seventhi#adc4    ,a small ,madonna and 
,child1 painted for ,baldassar ,turini  
da ,pescia1  who was the ,dataryi#add at
 ,lyons1 the colours of which are much  
fadedi#ade4 ,it is not known where this 
now is4    ,a ,virgin and ,child1 at one
 time in the hands of the ,botti        
familyi#adf4    ,the ,virgin sitting in 
,st4 ,ann's lap1 and holding her little 
,son1  formerly at ,parisi#adg4 ,this   
has been engraven in wood1 in chiaro    
oscuro1 by an unknown artist4 ,the      
picture was in the ,king of ,france's   
cabinet1 and a similar one is in the    
sacristy of ,st4 ,celsus at             

,milani#adh4    ,another ,virgin with   
her ,son1 ,st4 ,john1 and an ,angel1    
mentioned by ,du  ,fresne1 as at        
,parisi#adi4    ,a ,madonna and ,child1 
in the possession of the ,marquis di    
,surdii#aej4    ,a ,madonna and ,child1 
painted on the wall in the church of    
,st4 ,onofrio  at ,romei#aea4    ,a     
,madonna kneeling1 in the ,king's       
gallery in ,francei#aeb4    ,an ,holy   
,family1 with ,st4 ,michael1 and another
 ,angel1 in the ,king of  ,france's     
collectioni#aec4    ,a ,madonna1 in the 
church of ,st4 ,francis at ,milan1      
attributed to  ,leonardo by             
,sormani#aed4    ,a ,virgin and ,child1 
by ,leonardo1 in ,piacenza1 near the    
church of ,our  ,lady in the ,fields4   
,it was bought for #cjj chequins by the 
,principe di  ,belgioiosoi#aee4    ,a   
,madonna1 half length1 holding on her   
knee the infant ,jesus1 with a  lily in 
his hand4 ,a print of this1 engraven in 
aqua fortis by ,giuseppe  ,juster1 is   
mentioned ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4     

#aif4 ,the picture is there  said to    
have been in the possession of ,charles 
,patin1 and was supposed  by some to    
have been painted for ,francis ,i4      
,an ,herodiade1 some time in ,cardinal  
,richelieu's possessioni#aef4    ,the   
daughter of ,herodias1 with an          
executioner holding out to her the  head
 of ,st4 ,john1 in the ,barberini       
palacei#aeg4    ,an ,herodiade with a   
basket1 in which is the head of ,john   
the ,baptist4  ,a print of this in aqua 
fortis1 by ,gio4 ,troven1 under the     
direction of  ,teniers1 is mentioned    
,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aig1 and is  
there said  to have been done from a    
picture which was then in the cabinet of
 the  ,archduke ,leopold1 but had been  
before in that of the ,emperor4         
,another picture of the same subject1   
but differently disposed4 ,it is  also  
an half length4 ,a print from it1 in    
aqua fortis1 by ,alessio ,loyr1  is     
mentioned ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4     
#aig2 but it is not there said in  whose

 possession the picture ever was4       
,the angel in ,verrochio's picture      
before mentionedi#aeh4    ,the shield1  
mentioned by ,vasari1 p4 #bf1 as painted
 by him at the  request of his father1  
and consisting of serpents1 c4    ,a    
head of ,medusa1 in oil1 in the palace  
of ,duke ,cosmo4 ,it is still in  being1
 and in good preservationi#aei4    ,a   
head of an angel raising one arm in the 
air1 in the collection  of ,duke        
,cosmoi#afj4 ,whether this is a picture1
 or only a drawing1  does not appear2   
but as ,vasari does not notice any      
difference between  that and the head of
 ,medusa1 which he decidedly says is in 
oil1 it is  probable that this is so    
also4    ,the ,adoration of the ,magi3  
it was in the house of ,americo ,benci1 
opposite to the ,portico of             
,peruzzii#afa4    ,the famous ,last     
,supper1 in the ,refectory of the       
,dominican convent of  ,santa ,maria    
delle ,graziei#afb4 ,a list of the      
copies made from this  celebrated       

picture has1 together with its history1 
been given in a  former page4 ,a print  
has been engraven from it under the     
direction of  ,pietro ,soutman2 but he  
being a scholar of ,rubens1 has         
introduced into  it so much of ,rubens's
 manneri#afc1 that it can no longer be  
known for  ,leonardo da ,vinci's4       
,besides this1 ,mariette also mentions  
two other  prints1 one of them an       
engraving1 the other an etching1 but    
both by  unknown authors4 ,he notices   
also1 that the ,count di ,caylus had    
etched  it in aqua fortisi#afd4 ,the    
print lately engraven of it by ,morghen 
has  been already noticed in a former   
page4    ,a ,nativity1 sent as a present
 from the ,duke of ,milan to the        
,emperori#afe4    ,the portraits of     
,lodovic ,sforza1 ,duke of ,milan1 and  
,maximilian his  eldest son1 and on the 
other side ,beatrix his dutchess1 and   
,francesco  his other son1 all in one   
picture1 in the same ,refectory with the
 ,last  ,supperi#aff4    ,the portraits 

of two of the handsomest women at       
,florence1 painted by  him as a present 
to ,lewis ,,xiii#afg4    ,the painting  
in the council-chamber at               
,florencei#afh4 ,the subject of  this is
 the battle of ,attilai#afi4    ,a      
portrait of ,ginevra1 daughter of       
,americo ,bencii#agj4    ,the portrait  
of ,mona ,lisa1 the wife of ,francesco  
del ,giocondo1  painted for her         
husbandi#aga4 ,lomazzo has said1 she was
 a ,neapolitan1  but this is supposed a 
mistake1 and that she was a             
,florentinei#agb4 ,in  a note of        
,mariette's1 ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4  
#age1 this picture is said  to have been
 in the collection of ,francis ,i4 ,king
 of ,france1 who gave  for it #djjj     
crowns4    ,a small picture of a child1 
which was at ,pescia1 in the possession 
of  ,baldassar ,turini4 ,it is not known
 where this now isi#agc4    ,a painting 
of two horsemen struggling for a flag1  
in the ,palais ,royal  at ,parisi#agd4  
,a nobleman of ,mantuai#age4    ,a      

picture of ,flora1 which ,du ,fresne    
mentions as being in his time  at       
,paris4 ,this is said to have been once 
in the cabinet of ,mary de              
,medicisi#agf1 and though for some time 
supposed to have been painted  by       
,leonardo da ,vinci1 was discovered by  
,mariette to have been the work  of     
,francisco ,melzi1 whose name is upon   
iti#agg4 ,in the supplement to  the life
 of ,leonardo1 inserted in ,della       
,valle's edition of ,vasari1 this       
picture is said to have been painted for
 the ,duke de ,s4 ,simone4    ,a head of
 ,john the ,baptist1 in the hands of    
,camillo ,albizzoi#agh4    ,the         
,conception of the blessed ,virgin1 for 
the church of ,st4 ,francis  at         
,milani#agi4 ,this was esteemed a copy1 
and not worth more than #cj  chequins1  
till an ,englishman came there1 who     
thought a large sum of  money well      
employed in the purchase of iti#ahj4    
,st4 ,john in the ,wilderness1 said to  
be at ,parisi#aha4 ,in ,lett4 ,pitt4    

vol4 ii4 p4 #aig1 mention is made of a  
print of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1  half 
length1 by ,sig4 ,jabac1 who had the    
original picture1 which was  formerly in
 the ,king of ,france's cabinet4        
,joseph and ,potiphar's wife1 which     
,mons4 de ,charmois1 secretary to the   
,duke of ,schomberg1 hadi#ahb4    ,a    
portrait of ,raphael1 in oil1 in the    
,medici gallery4 ,this is  mentioned in 
,vasari1 p4 #dg2 and though not         
expressly there said to be  by          
,leonardo1 is so placed as to make it   
doubtful whether it was or not4    ,a   
,nun1 half length1 by ,leonardo1 in the 
possession of ,abbate  ,nicolinii#ahc4  
,two fine heads1 painted in oil by      
,leonardo1 bought at ,florence by  ,sig4
 ,bali di ,breteuil1 ambassador from    
,malta to ,rome4 ,one of these1         
representing a woman1 was in his first  
manner4 ,the other1 a ,virgin1 in  his  
lasti#ahd4    ,a ,leda1 which ,lomazzo  
says was at ,fontainebleau1 and did not 
yield in  colouring to the portrait of  

,joconda in the ,duke's gallery4        
,richardson  says it was in the palace  
,matteii#ahe4    ,the head of a dead    
man1 with all its minute parts1 painted 
by  ,leonardo1 formerly in the ,mattei  
palace1 but no longer therei#ahf4    ,a 
picture containing a study of two most  
delicate female heads1 in  the          
,barberini palace at ,romei#ahg4    ,a  
portrait of a girl with a book in her   
hand1 in the ,strozzi palace  in        
,romei#ahh4    ,the ,dispute of ,jesus  
with the ,doctors1 half length1 in the  
,panfili  palacei#ahi4    ,five pictures
 in the ,ambrosian library at ,milan1   
the subjects not  mentionedi#aij4       
,some in the gallery of the             
archbishopric at ,milan1 the number and 
subjects equally unnoticedi#aia4    ,one
 picture in the sacristy of ,santa      
,maria1 near ,st4 ,celsus at            
,milani#aib4    ,a small head of        
,christ1 while a youth1 mentioned by    
,lomazzo4 ,probably  this may be the    
study for the picture of ,jesus         

disputing with the  ,doctors1 at the    
,panfili palacei#aic4    ,st4 ,michael  
with a man kneeling1 in the ,king of    
,france's  collectioni#aid4    ,a       
,bacchus1 in the same collectioni#aie4  
,the fair ,ferraia1 in the same         
collectioni#aif4    ,a portrait of a    
lady1 there alsoi#aig4    ,a ,christ    
with a globe in his handi#aih4 ,a very  
fine picture1 half  length1 now in the  
possession of ,richard ,troward1 ,esq4  
of ,pall ,mall4  ,this was engraven by  
,hollar in #afej1 in aqua fortisi#aii4  
,the ,fall of ,phaeton1 in the gallery  
of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 of     
which ,scannelli speaks1 but it is      
mentioned by no one elsei#bjj4    ,st4  
,catherine with a palm-branch1 in the   
gallery of the ,duke of  ,modenai#bja4  
,the head of a young man armed1 in the  
same collection1 very graceful1  but    
inferior to the ,st4 ,catherinei#bjb4   
,a portrait of the ,queen of ,naples1   
which was in the ,aldobrandini  gallery1
 but afterwards to be found in a chamber

 of portraits in the  ,panfili palace4  
,it is not equal in colouring to the    
,dispute of ,jesus  with the            
,doctorsi#bjc4    ,a portrait in profile
 of the ,dutchess of ,milan1 mentioned  
by  ,richardson as being in a chamber   
leading to the ,ambrosian libraryi#bjd4 
,a beautiful figure of the ,virgin1 half
 length1 in the palace of  ,vaprio4 ,it 
is of a gigantic size1 for the head of  
the ,virgin is  six common palms in     
size1 and that of the ,divine ,infant   
four in  circumference4 ,della ,valle   
speaks of having seen this in the year  
#agia1  and says he is not ignorant that
 tradition ascribes this ,madonna to    
,bramante1 notwithstanding which he     
gives it to ,leonardoi#bje4    ,a       
laughing ,pomona with three veils1      
commended by ,lomazzo4 ,it was done  for
 ,francis ,i4 ,king of ,francei#bjf4    
,the portrait of ,cecilia ,gallarani1   
mentioned by ,bellincione in one of  his
 sonnets1 as painted by ,leonardoi#bjg4 
,another of ,lucrezia ,cavelli1 a       

celebrated performer on the lute1       
ascribed to him on the same authority4  
,copies of both this and the  former may
 be seen at ,milani#bjh4    ,our        
,saviour before ,pilate1 in the church  
of ,s4 ,florentino1 at  ,amboise4 ,it is
 thought that the carton only of this   
was ,leonardo's1 and  that the picture  
was painted by ,andrea ,salai1 or       
,melzii#bji4    ,a portrait of ,leonardo
 by himself1 half length1 in the        
,ambrosian  library at ,milani#baj4     
,della ,valle has inserted a copy of    
this before  the ,supplement to         
,leonardo's ,life1 in his edition of    
,vasari1 for  which purpose ,sig4       
,pagave transmitted him a drawing from  
the original  picture4 ,but ,leonardo's 
own drawing for the picture itself1 is  
in the  possession of his ,britannic    
,majesty1 and from that ,mr4            
,chamberlaine  has prefixed to his      
publication before mentioned1 a plate   
engraven by  ,bartolozzi4               
,a                                      

,,treatise1                             
c4                                      
,,drawing4                              
,,proportion4          _/,chap4         
,i4_/--,what the young ,student in      
,painting ought in the first  ,place to 
learn4      _/,the_/ young student      
should1 in the first place1 acquire a   
knowledge  of perspective1 to enable him
 to give to every object its proper     
dimensions3 after which1 it is requisite
 that he be under the care of  an able  
master1 to accustom him1 by degrees1 to 
a good style of drawing  the parts4     
,next1 he must study ,nature1 in order  
to confirm and fix in  his mind the     
reason of those precepts which he has   
learnt4 ,he must also  bestow some time 
in viewing the works of various old     
masters1 to form  his eye and judgment1 
in order that he may be able to put in  
practice  all that he has been taught#a4
          _/,chap4 ,,ii4_/--,rule for a 
young ,student in ,painting4            
_/,the_/ organ of sight is one of the   

quickest1 and takes in at a single      
glance an infinite variety of forms2    
notwithstanding which1 it cannot        
perfectly comprehend more than one      
object at a time4 ,for example1 the     
reader1 at one look over this page1     
immediately perceives it full of        
different characters2 but he cannot at  
the same moment distinguish each        
letter1 much less can he comprehend     
their meaning4 ,he must consider it     
word by word1 and line by line1 if he be
 desirous of forming a just  notion of  
these characters4 ,in like manner1 if we
 wish to ascend to  the top of an       
edifice1 we must be content to advance  
step by step1  otherwise we shall never 
be able to attain it4    ,a young man1  
who has a natural inclination to the    
study of this art1  ,i would advise to  
act thus3 ,in order to acquire a true   
notion of the  form of things1 he must  
begin by studying the parts which       
compose  them1 and not pass to a second 
till he has well stored his memory1 and 

sufficiently practised the first2       
otherwise he loses his time1 and will   
most certainly protract his studies4    
,and let him remember to acquire        
accuracy before he attempts quickness4  
_/,chap4 ,,iii4_/--,how to discover a   
young ,man's ,disposition for ,painting4
      _/,many_/ are very desirous of    
learning to draw1 and are very fond of  
it1  who are1 notwithstanding1 void of a
 proper disposition for it4 ,this may   
be known by their want of perseverance2 
like boys1 who draw every thing  in a   
hurry1 never finishing1 or shadowing4   
_/,chap4 ,,iv4_/--,of ,painting1 and its
 ,divisions4      _/,painting_/ is      
divided into two principal parts4 ,the  
first is the figure1  that is1 the lines
 which distinguish the forms of bodies1 
and their  component parts4 ,the second 
is the colour contained within those    
limits4          _/,chap4               
,v4_/--,division of the ,figure4        
_/,the_/ form of bodies is divided into 
two parts2 that is1 the proportion  of  

the members to each other1 which must   
correspond with the whole2 and  the     
motion1 expressive of what passes in the
 mind of the living figure4             
_/,chap4 ,,vi4_/--,proportion of        
,members4      _/,the_/ proportion of   
members is again divided into two parts1
 viz4  equality1 and motion4 ,by        
equality is meant 7besides the measure  
corresponding with the whole71 that you 
do not confound the members  of a young 
subject with those of old age1 nor plump
 ones with those  that are lean2 and    
that1 moreover1 you do not blend the    
robust and firm  muscles of man with    
feminine softness3 that the attitudes   
and motions  of old age be not expressed
 with the quickness and alacrity of     
youth2  nor those of a female figure    
like those of a vigorous young man4 ,the
  motions and members of a strong man   
should be such as to express his        
perfect state of health4                
_/,chap4 ,,vii4_/--,of ,dimensions in   
general4      _/,in_/ general1 the      

dimensions of the human body are to be  
considered  in the length1 and not in   
the breadth2 because in the wonderful   
works  of ,nature1 which we endeavour to
 imitate1 we cannot in any species  find
 any one part in one model precisely    
similar to the same part in  another4   
,let us be attentive1 therefore1 to the 
variation of forms1  and avoid all      
monstrosities of proportion2 such as    
long legs united  to short bodies1 and  
narrow chests with long arms4 ,observe  
also  attentively the measure of joints1
 in which ,nature is apt to vary        
considerably2 and imitate her example by
 doing the same4          _/,chap4      
,,viii4_/--,motion1 ,changes1 and       
,proportion of ,members4      _/,the_/  
measures of the human body vary in each 
member1 according as it  is more or less
 bent1 or seen in different views1      
increasing on one  side as much as they 
diminish on the other4          _/,chap4
 ,,ix4_/--,the ,difference of           
,proportion between ,children and grown 

,men4      _/,in_/ men and children ,i  
find a great difference between the     
joints of  the one and the other in the 
length of the bones4 ,a man has the     
length  of two heads from the extremity 
of one shoulder to the other1 the same  
from the shoulder to the elbow1 and from
 the elbow to the fingers2 but  the     
child has only one1 because ,nature     
gives the proper size first to  the seat
 of the intellect1 and afterwards to the
 other parts4          _/,chap4         
,x4_/--,the ,alterations in the         
,proportion of the human ,body from     
,infancy to full ,age4      _/,a man_/1 
in his infancy1 has the breadth of his  
shoulders equal to the  length of the   
face1 and to the length of the arm from 
the shoulder  to the elbow1 when the arm
 is bent#b4 ,it is the same again from  
the  lower belly to the knee1 and from  
the knee to the foot4 ,but1 when a  man 
is arrived at the period of his full    
growth1 every one of these  dimensions  
becomes double in length1 except the    

face1 which1 with  the top of the head1 
undergoes but very little alteration in 
length4  ,a well-proportioned and       
full-grown man1 therefore1 is ten times 
the  length of his face2 the breadth of 
his shoulders will be two faces1 and  in
 like manner all the above lengths will 
be double4 ,the rest will be  explained 
in the general measurement of the human 
body#c4          _/,chap4 ,,xi4_/--,of  
the ,proportion of ,members4            
_/,all_/ the parts of any animal        
whatever must be correspondent with  the
 whole4 ,so that1 if the body be short  
and thick1 all the members  belonging to
 it must be the same4 ,one that is long 
and thin must have  its parts of the    
same kind2 and so of the middle size4   
,something of the  same may be observed 
in plants1 when uninjured by men or     
tempests2 for  when thus injured they   
bud and grow again1 making young shoots 
from old  plants1 and by those means    
destroying their natural symmetry4      
_/,chap4 ,,xii4_/--,that every ,part be 

proportioned to its ,whole4      _/,if_/
 a man be short and thick1 be careful   
that all his members be  of the same    
nature1 viz4 short arms and thick1 large
 hands1 short  fingers1 with broad      
joints2 and so of the rest4             
_/,chap4 ,,xiii4_/--,of the ,proportion 
of the ,members4      _/,measure_/ upon 
yourself the proportion of the parts1   
and1 if you find  any of them defective1
 note it down1 and be very careful to   
avoid it in  drawing your own           
compositions4 ,for this is reckoned a   
common fault in  painters1 to delight in
 the imitation of themselves4           
_/,chap4 ,,xiv4_/--,the ,danger of      
forming an erroneous ,judgment in regard
 to  the ,proportion and ,beauty of the 
,parts4      _/,if_/ the painter has    
clumsy hands1 he will be apt to         
introduce them  into his works1 and so  
of any other part of his person1 which  
may not  happen to be so beautiful as it
 ought to be4 ,he must1 therefore1 guard
  particularly against that self-love1  

or too good opinion of his own  person1 
and study by every means to acquire the 
knowledge of what is  most beautiful1   
and of his own defects1 that he may     
adopt the one and  avoid the other4     
_/,chap4 ,,xv4_/--,another ,precept4    
_/,the_/ young painter must1 in the     
first instance1 accustom his hand to    
copying the drawings of good masters2   
and when his hand is thus formed1  and  
ready1 he should1 with the advice of his
 director1 use himself also  to draw    
from relievos2 according to the rules we
 shall point out in the  treatise on    
drawing from relievos#d4                
_/,chap4 ,,xvi4_/--,the ,manner of      
drawing from ,relievos1 and rendering   
,paper  fit for it4      _/,when_/ you  
draw from relievos1 tinge your paper of 
some darkish  demi-tint4 ,and after you 
have made your outline1 put in the      
darkest  shadows1 and1 last of all1 the 
principal lights1 but sparingly1        
especially the smaller ones2 because    
those are easily lost to the eye  at a  

very moderate distance#e4               
_/,chap4 ,,xvii4_/--,of drawing from    
,casts or ,nature4      _/,in_/ drawing 
from relievo1 the draftsman must place  
himself in such a  manner1 as that the  
eye of the figure to be drawn be level  
with his  own#f4          _/,chap4      
,,xviii4_/--,to draw ,figures from      
,nature4      _/,accustom_/ yourself to 
hold a plummet in your hand1 that you   
may judge  of the bearing of the parts4 
_/,chap4 ,,xix4_/--,of drawing from     
,nature4      _/,when_/ you draw from   
,nature1 you must be at the distance of 
three times  the height of the object2  
and when you begin to draw1 form in your
 own  mind a certain principal line     
7suppose a perpendicular72 observe well 
the bearing of the parts towards that   
line2 whether they intersect1 are       
parallel to it1 or oblique4             
_/,chap4 ,,xx4_/--,of drawing ,academy  
,figures4      _/,when_/ you draw from a
 naked model1 always sketch in the whole
 of the  figure1 suiting all the members

 well to each other2 and though you     
finish only that part which appears the 
best1 have a regard to the  rest1 that1 
whenever you make use of such studies1  
all the parts may  hang together4    ,in
 composing your attitudes1 take care not
 to turn the head on the same  side as  
the breast1 nor let the arm go in a line
 with the leg#g4 ,if  the head turn     
towards the right shoulder1 the parts   
must be lower on  the left side than on 
the other2 but if the chest come        
forward1 and the  head turn towards the 
left1 the parts on the right side are to
 be the  highest4          _/,chap4     
,,xxi4_/--,of studying in the ,dark1 on 
first waking in the ,morning1  and      
before going to sleep4      _/,i have_/ 
experienced no small benefit1 when in   
the dark and in bed1 by  retracing in my
 mind the outlines of those forms which 
,i had previously  studied1 particularly
 such as had appeared the most difficult
 to  comprehend and retain2 by this     
method they will be confirmed and       

treasured up in the memory4             
_/,chap4 ,,xxii4_/--,observations on    
drawing ,portraits4      _/,the_/       
cartilage1 which raises the nose in the 
middle of the face1  varies in eight    
different ways4 ,it is equally straight1
 equally  concave1 or equally convex1   
which is the first sort4 ,or1 secondly1 
unequally straight1 concave1 or convex4 
,or1 thirdly1 straight in the  upper    
part1 and concave in the under4 ,or1    
fourthly1 straight again  in the upper  
part1 and convex in those below4 ,or1   
fifthly1 it may be  concave and straight
 beneath4 ,or1 sixthly1 concave above1  
and convex  below4 ,or1 seventhly1 it   
may be convex in the upper part1 and    
straight  in the lower4 ,and in the     
eighth and last place1 convex above1 and
  concave beneath4    ,the uniting of   
the nose with the brows is in two ways1 
either it is  straight or concave4 ,the 
forehead has three different forms4 ,it 
is  straight1 concave1 or round4 ,the   
first is divided into two parts1 viz4   

it is either convex in the upper part1  
or in the lower1 sometimes both2  or    
else flat above and below4              
_/,chap4 ,,xxiii4_/--,the ,method of    
retaining in the ,memory the ,likeness  
of  a ,man1 so as to draw his ,profile1 
after having seen him only once4        
_/,you_/ must observe and remember well 
the variations of the four  principal   
features in the profile2 the nose1      
mouth1 chin1 and forehead4  ,and first  
of the nose1 of which there are three   
different sorts#h1  straight1 concave1  
and convex4 ,of the straight there are  
but four  variations1 short or long1    
high at the end1 or low4 ,of the concave
  there are three sorts2 some have the  
concavity above1 some in the  middle1   
and some at the end4 ,the convex noses  
also vary three ways2  some project in  
the upper part1 some in the middle1 and 
others at the  bottom4 ,nature1 which   
seems to delight in infinite variety1   
gives again  three changes to those     
noses which have a projection in the    

middle2 for  some have it straight1 some
 concave1 and some convex4              
_/,chap4 ,,xxiv4_/--,how to remember the
 ,form of a ,face4      _/,if_/ you wish
 to retain with facility the general    
look of a face1 you  must first learn   
how to draw well several faces1 mouths1 
eyes1 noses1  chins1 throats1 necks1 and
 shoulders2 in short1 all those         
principal  parts which distinguish one  
man from another4 ,for instance1 noses  
are  often different sorts#i4 ,straight1
 bunched1 concave1 some raised  above1  
some below the middle1 aquiline1 flat1  
round1 and sharp4 ,these  affect the    
profile4 ,in the front view there are   
eleven different sorts4  ,even1 thick in
 the middle1 thin in the middle1 thick  
at the tip1 thin  at the beginning1 thin
 at the tip1 and thick at the beginning4
 ,broad1  narrow1 high1 and low         
nostrils2 some with a large opening1 and
 some  more shut towards the tip4       
,the same variety will be found in the  
other parts of the face1 which  must be 

drawn from ,nature1 and retained in the 
memory4 ,or else1 when  you mean to draw
 a likeness from memory1 take with you a
 pocket-book1  in which you have marked 
all these variations of features1 and   
after  having given a look at the face  
you mean to draw1 retire a little       
aside1 and note down in your book which 
of the features are similar to  it2 that
 you may put it all together at home4   
_/,chap4 ,,xxv4_/--,that a ,painter     
should take ,pleasure in the ,opinion of
  every body4      _/,a painter_/ ought 
not certainly to refuse listening to the
 opinion of  any one2 for we know that1 
although a man be not a painter1 he may 
have  just notions of the forms of men2 
whether a man has a hump on his back1  a
 thick leg1 or a large hand2 whether he 
be lame1 or have any other  defect4     
,now1 if we know that men are able to   
judge of the works of  ,nature1 should  
we not think them more able to detect   
our errors8          ,,anatomy4         
_/,chap4 ,,xxvi4_/--,what is principally

 to be observed in ,figures4            
_/,the_/ principal and most important   
consideration required in drawing       
figures1 is to set the head well upon   
the shoulders1 the chest upon the  hips1
 the hips and shoulders upon the feet4  
_/,chap4 ,,xxvii4_/--,mode of ,studying4
      _/,study_/ the science first1 and 
then follow the practice which results  
from that science4 ,pursue method in    
your study1 and do not quit one  part   
till it be perfectly engraven in the    
memory2 and observe what  difference    
there is between the members of animals 
and their joints#aj4          _/,chap4  
,,xxviii4_/--,of being universal4       
_/,it_/ is an easy matter for a man who 
is well versed in the principles  of his
 art1 to become universal in the        
practice of it1 since all  animals have 
a similarity of members1 that is1       
muscles1 tendons1 bones1  c4 ,these only
 vary in length or thickness1 as will be
 demonstrated  in the ,anatomy#aa4 ,as  
for aquatic animals1 of which there is  

great  variety1 ,i shall not persuade   
the painter to take them as a rule1     
having no connexion with our purpose4   
_/,chap4 ,,xxix4_/--,a ,precept for the 
,painter4      _/,it_/ reflects no great
 honour on a painter to be able to      
execute only  one thing well1 such as a 
head1 an academy figure1 or draperies1  
animals1 landscape1 or the like1        
confining himself to some particular    
object of study2 because there is       
scarcely a person so void of genius  as 
to fail of success1 if he apply         
earnestly to one branch of study1  and  
practise it continually4                
_/,chap4 ,,xxx4_/--,of the ,measures of 
the human ,body1 and the bending of     
,members4      _/,it_/ is very necessary
 that painters should have a knowledge  
of  the bones which support the flesh by
 which they are covered1 but            
particularly of the joints1 which       
increase and diminish the length of     
them in their appearance4 ,as in the    
arm1 which does not measure the  same   

when bent1 as when extended2 its        
difference between the greatest         
extension and bending1 is about one     
eighth of its length4 ,the increase  and
 diminution of the arm is effected by   
the bone projecting out of  its socket  
at the elbow2 which1 as is seen in      
figure ,a ,b1 ,plate ,i4 is  lengthened 
from the shoulder to the elbow2 the     
angle it forms being  less than a right 
angle4 ,it will appear longer as that   
angle becomes  more acute1 and will     
shorten in proportion as it becomes more
 open or  obtuse4    ,illustration3     
,page #ae4  ,chap4 #cg4  ,plate #a4     
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high
 ,holborn4          _/,chap4            
,,xxxi4_/--,of the small ,bones in      
several ,joints of the human ,body4     
_/,there_/ are in the joints of the     
human body certain small bones1 fixed   
in the middle of the tendons which      
connect several of the joints4 ,such    
are the patellas of the knees1 and the  
joints of the shoulders1 and  those of  

the feet4 ,they are eight in number1 one
 at each shoulder1 one  at each knee1   
and two at each foot under the first    
joint of the great  toe towards the     
heel4 ,these grow extremely hard as a   
man advances in  years4                 
_/,chap4 ,,xxxii4_/--,memorandum to be  
observed by the ,painter4      _/,note_/
 down which muscles and tendons are     
brought into action by the  motion of   
any member1 and when they are hidden4   
,remember that these  remarks are of the
 greatest importance to painters and    
sculptors1 who  profess to study        
anatomy1 and the science of the muscles4
 ,do the same  with children1 following 
the different gradations of age from    
their  birth even to decrepitude1       
describing the changes which the        
members1  and particularly the joints1  
undergo2 which of them grow fat1 and    
which  lean4          _/,chap4          
,,xxxiii4_/--,the ,shoulders4           
_/,the_/ joints of the shoulders1 and   
other parts which bend1 shall be        

noticed in their places in the ,treatise
 on ,anatomy1 where the cause  of the   
motions of all the parts which compose  
the human body shall be  explained#ab4  
_/,chap4 ,,xxxiv4_/--,the ,difference of
 ,joints between ,children and grown    
,men4      _/,young_/ children have all 
their joints small1 but they are thick  
and  plump in the spaces between them2  
because there is nothing upon the  bones
 at the joints1 but some tendons to bind
 the bones together4 ,the  soft flesh1  
which is full of fluids1 is enclosed    
under the skin in the  space between the
 joints2 and as the bones are bigger at 
the joints  than in the space between   
them1 the skin throws off in the        
progress to  manhood that superfluity1  
and draws nearer to the bones1 thinning 
the  whole part together4 ,but upon the 
joints it does not lessen1 as there  is 
nothing but cartilages and tendons4 ,for
 these reasons children are  small in   
the joints1 and plump in the space      
between1 as may be observed  in their   

fingers1 arms1 and narrow shoulders4    
,men1 on the contrary1 are  large and   
full in the joints1 in the arms and     
legs2 and where children  have hollows1 
men are knotty and prominent4           
_/,chap4 ,,xxxv4_/--,of the ,joints of  
the ,fingers4      _/,the_/ joints of   
the fingers appear larger on all sides  
when they  bend2 the more they bend the 
larger they appear4 ,the contrary is the
  case when straight4 ,it is the same in
 the toes1 and it will be more          
perceptible in proportion to their      
fleshiness4          _/,chap4           
,,xxxvi4_/--,of the ,joint of the       
,wrist4      _/,the_/ wrist or joint    
between the hand and arm lessens on     
closing the  hand1 and grows larger when
 it opens4 ,the contrary happens in the 
arm1  in the space between the elbow and
 the hand1 on all sides2 because in     
opening the hand the muscles are        
extended and thinned in the arm1 from   
the elbow to the wrist2 but when the    
hand is shut1 the same muscles  swell   

and shorten4 ,the tendons alone start1  
being stretched by the  clenching of the
 hand4          _/,chap4                
,,xxxvii4_/--,of the ,joint of the      
,foot4      _/,the_/ increase and       
diminution in the joint of the foot is  
produced  on that side where the tendons
 are seen1 as ,d ,e ,f1 ,plate ,i4 which
  increases when the angle is acute1 and
 diminishes when it becomes  obtuse4 ,it
 must be understood of the joint in the 
front part of the  foot ,a ,b ,c4       
_/,chap4 ,,xxxviii4_/--,of the ,knee4   
_/,of_/ all the members which have      
pliable joints1 the knee is the only    
one that lessens in the bending1 and    
becomes larger by extension4            
_/,chap4 ,,xxxix4_/--,of the ,joints4   
_/,all_/ the joints of the human body   
become larger by bending1 except  that  
of the leg4          _/,chap4           
,,xl4_/--,of the ,naked4      _/,when_/ 
a figure is to appear nimble and        
delicate1 its muscles must  never be too
 much marked1 nor are any of them to be 

much swelled4  ,because such figures are
 expressive of activity and swiftness1  
and are  never loaded with much flesh   
upon the bones4 ,they are made light by 
the  want of flesh1 and where there is  
but little flesh there cannot be any    
thickness of muscles4          _/,chap4 
,,xli4_/--,of the ,thickness of the     
,muscles4      _/,muscular_/ men have   
large bones1 and are in general thick   
and short1  with very little fat2       
because the fleshy muscles in their     
growth  contract closer together1 and   
the fat1 which in other instances lodges
  between them1 has no room4 ,the       
muscles in such thin subjects1 not being
  able to extend1 grow in thickness1    
particularly towards their middle1  in  
the parts most removed from the         
extremities4          _/,chap4          
,,xlii4_/--,fat ,subjects have small    
,muscles4      _/,though_/ fat people   
have this in common with muscular men1  
that they  are frequently short and     
thick1 they have thin muscles2 but their

 skin  contains a great deal of spongy  
and soft flesh full of air2 for that    
reason they are lighter upon the water1 
and swim better than muscular  people4  
_/,chap4 ,,xliii4_/--,which of the      
,muscles disappear in the different     
,motions of the ,body4      _/,in_/     
raising or lowering the arm1 the        
pectoral muscles disappear1 or  acquire 
a greater relievo4 ,a similar effect is 
produced by the hips1  when they bend   
either inwards or outwards4 ,it is to be
 observed1 that  there is more variety  
of appearances in the shoulders1 hips1  
and neck1  than in any other joint1     
because they are susceptible of the     
greatest  variety of motions4 ,but of   
this subject ,i shall make a separate   
treatise#ac4          _/,chap4          
,,xliv4_/--,of the ,muscles4            
_/,the_/ muscles are not to be          
scrupulously marked all the way1 because
 it  would be disagreeable to the sight1
 and of very difficult execution4  ,but 
on that side only where the members are 

in action1 they should  be pronounced   
more strongly2 for muscles that are at  
work naturally  collect all their parts 
together1 to gain increase of strength1 
so  that some small parts of those      
muscles will appear1 that were not seen 
before4          _/,chap4 ,,xlv4_/--,of 
the ,muscles4      _/,the_/ muscles of  
young men are not to be marked strongly1
 nor too much  swelled1 because that    
would indicate full strength and vigour 
of age1  which they have not yet        
attained4 ,nevertheless they must be    
more or  less expressed1 as they are    
more or less employed4 ,for those which 
are  in motion are always more swelled  
and thicker than those which remain  at 
rest4 ,the intrinsic and central line of
 the members which are bent1  never     
retains its natural length4             
_/,chap4 ,,xlvi4_/--,the ,extension and 
,contraction of the ,muscles4           
_/,the_/ muscle at the back part of the 
thigh shows more variety in  its        
extension and contraction1 than any     

other in the human body2 the  second1 in
 that respect1 are those which compose  
the buttocks2 the  third1 those of the  
back2 the fourth1 those of the neck2 the
 fifth1  those of the shoulders2 and the
 sixth1 those of the ,abdomen1 which1   
taking their rise under the breast1     
terminate under the lower belly2 as  ,i 
shall explain when ,i speak of each4    
_/,chap4 ,,xlvii4_/--,of the ,muscle    
between the ,chest and the lower ,belly4
      _/,there_/ is a muscle which      
begins under the breast at the ,sternum1
 and  is inserted into1 or terminates at
 the ,os pubis1 under the lower belly4  
,it is called the ,rectus of the        
,abdomen2 it is divided1 lengthways1    
into three principal portions1 by       
transverse tendinous intersections  or  
ligaments1 viz4 the superior part1 and a
 ligament2 the second part1  with its   
ligaments2 and the third part1 with the 
third ligament2  which last unites by   
tendons to the ,os pubis4 ,these        
divisions and  intersections of the same

 muscle are intended by nature to       
facilitate  the motion when the body is 
bent or distended4 ,if it were made of  
one  piece1 it would produce too much   
variety when extended1 or contracted1   
and also would be considerably weaker4  
,when this muscle has but little        
variety in the motion of the body1 it is
 more beautiful#ad4          _/,chap4   
,,xlviii4_/--,of a ,man's complex       
,strength1 but first of the ,arm4       
_/,the_/ muscles which serve either to  
straighten or bend the arm1 arise  from 
the different processes of the ,scapula2
 some of them from the  protuberances of
 the ,humerus1 and others about the     
middle of the ,os  humeri4 ,the         
extensors of the arm arise from behind1 
and the flexors  from before4    ,that a
 man has more power in pulling than in  
pushing1 has been proved  by the ninth  
proposition ,de ,ponderibus#ae1 where it
 is said1 that of  two equal weights1   
that will have the greatest power which 
is farthest  removed from the pole or   

centre of its balance4 ,it follows then 
of  course1 that the muscle ,n ,b1      
,plate ,,ii4 and the muscle ,n ,c1 being
 of  equal power1 the inner muscle ,n   
,c1 will nevertheless be stronger than  
the outward one ,n ,b1 because it is    
inserted into the arm at ,c1 a point    
farther removed from the centre of the  
elbow ,a1 than ,b1 which is on  the     
other side of such centre1 so that that 
question is determined4  ,but this is a 
simple power1 and ,i thought it best to 
explain it before  ,i mentioned the     
complex power of the muscles1 of which  
,i must now  take notice4 ,the complex  
power1 or strength1 is1 for instance1   
this1  when the arm is going to act1 a  
second power is added to it 7such as    
the weight of the body and the strength 
of the legs1 in pulling or  pushing71   
consisting in the extension of the      
parts1 as when two men  attempt to throw
 down a column2 the one by pushing1 and 
the other by  pulling#af4               
_/,chap4 ,,xlix4_/--,in which of the two

 ,actions1 ,pulling or ,pushing1 a ,man 
has the greatest ,power1 ,plate ,,ii4   
_/,a man_/ has the greatest power in    
pulling1 for in that action he has  the 
united exertion of all the muscles of   
the arm1 while some of them  must be    
inactive when he is pushing2 because    
when the arm is extended  for that      
purpose1 the muscles which move the     
elbow cannot act1 any  more than if he  
pushed with his shoulders against the   
column he means  to throw down2 in which
 case only the muscles that extend the  
back1  the legs under the thigh1 and the
 calves of the legs1 would be active4   
,from which we conclude1 that in pulling
 there is added to the power  of        
extension the strength of the arms1 of  
the legs1 of the back1 and  even of the 
chest1 if the oblique motion of the body
 require it4 ,but  in pushing1 though   
all the parts were employed1 yet the    
strength of  the muscles of the arms is 
wanting2 for to push with an extended   
arm  without motion does not help more  

than if a piece of wood were placed     
from the shoulder to the column meant to
 be pushed down4    ,illustration3      
,page #bb4  ,chap4 #dh1 #di4  ,plate #b4
    ,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor  
,high ,holborn4          _/,chap4       
,l4_/--,of the bending of ,members1 and 
of the ,flesh round the  bending ,joint4
      _/,the_/ flesh which covers the   
bones near and at the joints1 swells or 
diminishes in thickness according to    
their bending or extension2 that  is1 it
 increases at the inside of the angle   
formed by the bending1 and  grows narrow
 and lengthened on the outward side of  
the exterior angle4  ,the middle between
 the convex and concave angle           
participates of this  increase or       
diminution1 but in a greater or less    
degree as the parts  are nearer to1 or  
farther from1 the angles of the bending 
joints4          _/,chap4 ,,li4_/--,of  
the naked ,body4      _/,the_/ members  
of naked men who work hard in different 
attitudes1 will  shew the muscles more  

strongly on that side where they act    
forcibly to  bring the part into action2
 and the other muscles will be more or  
less  marked1 in proportion as they     
co-operate in the same motion4          
_/,chap4 ,,lii4_/--,of a ,ligament      
without ,muscles4      _/,where_/ the   
arm joins with the hand1 there is a     
ligament1 the largest  in the human     
body1 which is without muscles1 and is  
called the strong  ligament of the      
,carpus2 it has a square shape1 and     
serves to bind  and keep close together 
the bones of the arm1 and the tendons of
 the  fingers1 and prevent their        
dilating1 or starting out4              
_/,chap4 ,,liii4_/--,of ,creases4       
_/,in_/ bending the joints the flesh    
will always form a crease on the        
opposite side to that where it is tight4
          _/,chap4 ,,liv4_/--,how near  
behind the ,back one ,arm can be brought
 to the  other1 ,plate ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 
_/,when_/ the arms are carried behind   
the back1 the elbows can never be       

brought nearer than the length from the 
elbow to the end of the longest  finger2
 so that the fingers will not be seen   
beyond the elbows1 and  in that         
situation1 the arms with the shoulders  
form a perfect square4  ,the greatest   
extension of the arm across the chest   
is1 when the elbow  comes over the pit  
of the stomach2 the elbow and the       
shoulder in this  position1 will form an
 equilateral triangle4          _/,chap4
 ,,lv4_/--,of the ,muscles4      _/,a   
naked_/ figure being strongly marked1 so
 as to give a distinct view  of all the 
muscles1 will not express any motion2   
because it cannot  move1 if some of its 
muscles do not relax while the others   
are pulling4  ,those which relax cease  
to appear in proportion as the others   
pull  strongly and become apparent4     
,illustration3  ,page #bd4  ,chap4 #ed4 
,plate #c4    ,london1 ,published by ,j4
 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4                
,illustration3  ,page #bd4  ,chap4 #ec4 
,plate #d4    ,london1 ,published by ,j4

 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4                
_/,chap4 ,,lvi4_/--,of the ,muscles4    
_/,the_/ muscles of the human body are  
to be more or less marked according  to 
their degree of action4 ,those only     
which act are to be shewn1 and  the more
 forcibly they act1 the stronger they   
should be pronounced4  ,those that do   
not act at all must remain soft and     
flat4          _/,chap4 ,,lvii4_/--,of  
the ,bending of the ,body4      _/,the_/
 bodies of men diminish as much on the  
side which bends1 as they  increase on  
the opposite side4 ,that diminution may 
at last become  double1 in proportion to
 the extension on the other side4 ,but  
of this ,i  shall make a separate       
treatise#ag4          _/,chap4          
,,lviii4_/--,the same ,subject4         
_/,the_/ body which bends1 lengthens as 
much on one side as it shortens  on the 
other2 but the central line between them
 will never lessen or  increase4        
_/,chap4 ,,lix4_/--,the ,necessity of   
anatomical ,knowledge4      _/,the_/    

painter who has obtained a perfect      
knowledge of the nature of the  tendons 
and muscles1 and of those parts which   
contain the most of them1  will know to 
a certainty1 in giving a particular     
motion to any part of  the body1 which1 
and how many of the muscles give rise   
and contribute  to it2 which of them1 by
 swelling1 occasion their shortening1   
and which  of the cartilages they       
surround4    ,he will not imitate those 
who1 in all the different attitudes they
  adopt1 or invent1 make use of the same
 muscles1 in the arms1 back1 or  chest1 
or any other parts4          ,,motion   
,,and ,,equipoise ,,of ,,figures4       
_/,chap4 ,,lx4_/--,of the ,equipoise of 
a ,figure standing still4      _/,the_/ 
non-existence of motion in any animal   
resting on its feet1 is  owing to the   
equality of weight distributed on each  
side of the line of  gravity4           
_/,chap4 ,,lxi4_/--,motion produced by  
the ,loss of ,equilibrium4              
_/,motion_/ is created by the loss of   

due equipoise1 that is1 by  inequality  
of weight2 for nothing can move of      
itself1 without losing  its centre of   
gravity1 and the farther that is        
removed1 the quicker and  stronger will 
be the motion4    ,illustration3  ,page 
#bg4  ,chap4 #fb4  ,plate #e4           
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high
 ,holborn4          _/,chap4            
,,lxii4_/--,of the ,equipoise of        
,bodies1 ,plate ,v4      _/,the_/       
balance or equipoise of parts in the    
human body is of two sorts1  viz4       
simple1 and complex4 ,simple1 when a man
 stands upon his feet  without motion3  
in that situation1 if he extends his    
arms at different  distances from the   
middle1 or stoop1 the centre of his     
weight will  always be in a             
perpendicular line upon the centre of   
that foot which  supports the body2 and 
if he rests equally upon both feet1 then
 the  middle of the chest will be       
perpendicular to the middle of the line 
which measures the space between the    

centres of his feet4    ,the complex    
balance is1 when a man carries a weight 
not his own1 which  he bears by         
different motions2 as in the figure of  
,hercules stifling  ,anteus1 by pressing
 him against his breast with his arms1  
after he has  lifted him from the       
ground4 ,he must have as much of his own
 weight  thrown behind the central line 
of his feet1 as the weight of ,anteus   
adds before4          _/,chap4          
,,lxiii4_/--,of ,positions4             
_/,the_/ pit of the neck1 between the   
two ,clavicles1 falls perpendicularly   
with the foot which bears the weight of 
the body4 ,if one of the arms be  thrown
 forwards1 this pit will quit that      
perpendicular2 and if one of  the legs  
goes back1 that pit is brought forwards1
 and so changes its  situation at every 
change of posture4          _/,chap4    
,,lxiv4_/--,of balancing the ,weight    
round the ,centre of ,gravity in        
,bodies4      _/,a figure_/ standing    
upon its feet without motion1 will form 

an  equipoise of all its members round  
the centre of its support4    ,if this  
figure without motion1 and resting upon 
its feet1 happens to  move one of its   
arms forwards1 it must necessarily throw
 as much of its  weight on the opposite 
side1 as is equal to that of the        
extended arm  and the accidental weight4
 ,and the same ,i say of every part1    
which is  brought out beyond its usual  
balance4          _/,chap4 ,,lxv4_/--,of
 ,figures that have to lift up1 or carry
 any ,weight4      _/,a weight_/ can    
never be lifted up or carried by any    
man1 if he do not  throw more than an   
equal weight of his own on the opposite 
side4          _/,chap4 ,,lxvi4_/--,the 
,equilibrium of a ,man standing upon his
 ,feet1 ,plate  ,,vi4      _/,the_/     
weight of a man resting upon one leg    
will always be equally  divided on each 
side of the central or perpendicular    
line of gravity1  which supports him4   
_/,chap4 ,,lxvii4_/--,of ,walking1      
,plate ,,vii4      _/,a man_/ walking   

will always have the centre of gravity  
over the centre  of the leg which rests 
upon the ground4    ,illustration3      
,page #bh4  ,chap4 #ff4  ,plate #f4     
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high
 ,holborn4    ,illustration3  ,page #bh4
  ,chap4 #fg4  ,plate #g4    ,london1   
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4          _/,chap4             
,,lxviii4_/--,of the ,centre of ,gravity
 in ,men and ,animals4      _/,the_/    
legs1 or centre of support1 in men and  
animals1 will approach  nearer to the   
centre of gravity1 in proportion to the 
slowness of their  motion2 and1 on the  
contrary1 when the motion is quicker1   
they will be  farther removed from that 
perpendicular line4          _/,chap4   
,,lxix4_/--,of the corresponding        
,thickness of ,parts on each ,side of   
the ,body4      _/,the_/ thickness or   
breadth of the parts in the human body  
will never be  equal on each side1 if   
the corresponding members do not move   
equally  and alike4          _/,chap4   

,,lxx4_/--,of the ,motions of ,animals4 
_/,all_/ bipeds in their motions lower  
the part immediately over the foot  that
 is raised1 more than over that resting 
on the ground1 and the  highest parts do
 just the contrary4 ,this is observable 
in the hips and  shoulders of a man when
 he walks2 and also in birds in the head
 and  rump4          _/,chap4           
,,lxxi4_/--,of ,quadrupeds and their    
,motions4      _/,the_/ highest parts of
 quadrupeds are susceptible of more     
variation  when they walk1 than when    
they are still1 in a greater or less    
degree1  in proportion to their size4   
,this proceeds from the oblique position
 of  their legs when they touch the     
ground1 which raise the animal when they
  become straight and perpendicular upon
 the ground4          _/,chap4          
,,lxxii4_/--,of the ,quickness or       
,slowness of ,motion4      _/,the_/     
motion performed by a man1 or any other 
animal whatever1 in  walking1 will have 
more or less velocity as the centre of  

their weight  is more or less removed   
from the centre of that foot upon which 
they  are supported4          _/,chap4  
,,lxxiii4_/--,of the ,motion of         
,animals4      _/,that_/ figure will    
appear the swiftest in its course which 
leans the  most forwards4    ,any body1 
moving of itself1 will do it with more  
or less velocity  in proportion as the  
centre of its gravity is more or less   
removed  from the centre of its support4
 ,this is mentioned chiefly in regard   
to the motion of birds1 which1 without  
any clapping of their wings1  or        
assistance of wind1 move themselves4    
,this happens when the centre  of their 
gravity is out of the centre of their   
support1 viz4 out of  its usual         
residence1 the middle between the two   
wings4 ,because1 if  the middle of the  
wings be more backward than the centre  
of the whole  weight1 the bird will move
 forwards and downwards1 in a greater or
  less degree as the centre of its      
weight is more or less removed from  the

 middle of its wings4 ,from which it    
follows1 that if the centre of  gravity 
be far removed from the other centre1   
the descent of the bird  will be very   
oblique2 but if that centre be near the 
middle of the  wings1 the descent will  
have very little obliquity4             
,illustration3  ,page #ca4  ,chap4 #gd4 
,plate #h4    ,london1 ,published by ,j4
 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4                
_/,chap4 ,,lxxiv4_/--,of a ,figure      
moving against the ,wind1 ,plate ,,viii4
      _/,a man_/ moving against the wind
 in any direction does not keep his     
centre of gravity duly disposed upon the
 centre of support#ah4          _/,chap4
 ,,lxxv4_/--,of the ,balance of a       
,figure resting upon its ,feet4         
_/,the_/ man who rests upon his feet1   
either bears the weight of his body     
upon them equally1 or unequally4 ,if    
equally1 it will be with some           
accidental weight1 or simply with his   
own2 if it be with an additional        
weight1 the opposite extremities of his 

members will not be equally  distant    
from the perpendicular of his feet4 ,but
 if he simply carries  his own weight1  
the opposite extremities will be equally
 distant from  the perpendicular of his 
feet3 and on this subject of gravity ,i 
shall  write a separate book#ai4        
_/,chap4 ,,lxxvi4_/--,a ,precept4       
_/,the_/ navel is always in the central 
or middle line of the body1 which       
passes through the pit of the stomach to
 that of the neck1 and must  have as    
much weight1 either accidental or       
natural1 on one side of the  human      
figure as on the other4 ,this is        
demonstrated by extending the  arm1 the 
wrist of which performs the office of a 
weight at the end of  a steelyard2 and  
will require some weight to be thrown on
 the other  side of the navel1 to       
counterbalance that of the wrist4 ,it is
 on that  account that the heel is often
 raised4          _/,chap4              
,,lxxvii4_/--,of a ,man standing1 but   
resting more upon one ,foot  than the   

other4      _/,after_/ a man1 by        
standing long1 has tired the leg upon   
which he  rests1 he sends part of his   
weight upon the other leg4 ,but this    
kind  of posture is to be employed only 
for old age1 infancy1 or extreme        
lassitude1 because it expresses         
weariness1 or very little power in the  
limbs4 ,for that reason1 a young man1   
strong and healthy1 will always  rest   
upon one of his legs1 and if he removes 
a little of his weight  upon the other1 
it is only a necessary preparative to   
motion1 without  which it is impossible 
to move2 as we have proved before1 that 
motion  proceeds from inequality#bj4    
_/,chap4 ,,lxxviii4_/--,of the ,balance 
of ,figures1 ,plate ,,ix4      _/,if_/  
the figure rests upon one foot1 the     
shoulder on that side will  always be   
lower than the other2 and the pit of the
 neck will fall  perpendicularly over   
the middle of that leg which supports   
the body4  ,the same will happen in     
whatever other view we see that figure1 

when it  has not the arm much extended1 
nor any weight on its back1 in its hand1
  or on its shoulder1 and when it does  
not1 either behind or before1  throw out
 that leg which does not support the    
body4    ,illustration3  ,page #cb4     
,chap4 #gh4  ,plate #i4    ,london1     
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4    ,illustration3  ,page #cc4 
,chap4 #hj4  ,plate #aj4    ,london1    
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4          _/,chap4             
,,lxxix4_/--,in what ,manner extending  
one ,arm alters the ,balance4           
_/,the_/ extending of the arm1 which was
 bent1 removes the weight of the  figure
 upon the foot which bears the weight of
 the whole body3 as is  observable in   
rope-dancers1 who dance upon the rope   
with their arms  open1 without any pole4
          _/,chap4 ,,lxxx4_/--,of a ,man
 bearing a ,weight on his ,shoulders1   
,plate ,x4      _/,the_/ shoulder which 
bears the weight is always higher than  
the other4  ,this is seen in the figure 

opposite1 in which the centre line      
passes  through the whole1 with an equal
 weight on each side1 to the leg on     
which it rests4 ,if the weight were not 
equally divided on each side  of this   
central line of gravity1 the whole would
 fall to the ground4  ,but ,nature has  
provided1 that as much of the natural   
weight of the man  should be thrown on  
one side1 as of accidental weight on the
 other1  to form a counterpoise4 ,this  
is effected by the man's bending1 and   
leaning on the side not loaded1 so as to
 form an equilibrium to the  accidental 
weight he carries2 and this cannot be   
done1 unless the  loaded shoulder be    
raised1 and the other lowered4 ,this is 
the resource  with which ,nature has    
furnished a man on such occasions4      
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxi4_/--,of ,equilibrium4  
_/,any_/ figure bearing an additional   
weight out of the central line1 must    
throw as much natural or accidental     
weight on the opposite side as is       
sufficient to form a counterpoise round 

that line1 which passes from  the pit of
 the neck1 through the whole mass of    
weight1 to that part  of the foot which 
rests upon the ground4 ,we observe1 that
 when a man  lifts a weight with one    
arm1 he naturally throws out the        
opposite arm2  and if that be not enough
 to form an equipoise1 he will add as   
much of  his own weight1 by bending his 
body1 as will enable him to resist such 
accidental load4 ,we see also1 that a   
man ready to fall sideways and          
backwards at the same time1 always      
throws out the arm on the opposite      
side4          _/,chap4 ,,lxxxii4_/--,of
 ,motion4      _/,whether_/ a man moves 
with velocity or slowness1 the parts    
above the  leg which sustains the       
weight1 will always be lower than the   
others on  the opposite side4           
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxiii4_/--,the ,level of   
the ,shoulders4      _/,the_/ shoulders 
or sides of a man1 or any other animal1 
will preserve  less of their level1 in  
proportion to the slowness of their     

motion2  and1 vice vers1 those parts    
will lose less of their level when the  
motion is quicker4 ,this is proved by   
the ninth proposition1 treating of      
local motions1 where it is said1 any    
weight will press in the direction  of  
the line of its motion2 therefore the   
whole moving towards any one  point1 the
 parts belonging to it will follow the  
shortest line of the  motion of its     
whole1 without giving any of its weight 
to the collateral  parts of the whole4  
,illustration3  ,page #ce4  ,chap4 #hd4 
,plate #aa4    ,london1 ,published by   
,j4 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4             
,illustration3  ,page #ce4  ,chap4 #hd4 
,plate #ab4    ,london1 ,published by   
,j4 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4             
,illustration3  ,page #ce4  ,chap4 #he4 
,plate #ac4    ,london1 ,published by   
,j4 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4             
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxiv4_/--,objection to the 
above answered1 ,plate ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 
_/,it_/ has been objected1 in regard to 
the first part of the above             

proposition1 that it does not follow    
that a man standing still1 or  moving   
slowly1 has his members always in       
perfect balance upon the  centre of     
gravity2 because we do not find that    
,nature always follows  that rule1 but1 
on the contrary1 the figure will        
sometimes bend  sideways1 standing upon 
one foot2 sometimes it will rest part of
 its  weight upon that leg which is bent
 at the knee1 as is seen in the  figures
 ,b ,c4 ,but ,i shall reply thus1 that  
what is not performed by the  shoulders 
in the figure ,c1 is done by the hip1 as
 is demonstrated in  another place4     
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxv4_/--,of the ,position  
of ,figures1 ,plate ,,xiii4      _/,in_/
 the same proportion as that part of the
 naked figure marked ,d ,a1  lessens in 
height from the shoulder to the hip1 on 
account of its  position the opposite   
side increases4 ,and this is the reason3
 the  figure resting upon one 7suppose  
the left7 foot1 that foot becomes the   
centre of all the weight above2 and the 

pit of the neck1 formed by the  junction
 of the two ,clavicles1 quits also its  
natural situation at the  upper         
extremity of the perpendicular line     
7which passes through the  middle       
surface of the body71 to bend over the  
same foot2 and as this  line bends with 
it1 it forces the transverse lines1     
which are always at  right angles1 to   
lower their extremities on that side    
where the foot  rests1 as appears in ,a 
,b ,c4 ,the navel and middle parts      
always preserve  their natural height4  
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxvi4_/--,of the ,joints4  
_/,in_/ the bending of the joints it is 
particularly useful to observe the      
difference and variety of shape they    
assume2 how the muscles swell on  one   
side1 while they flatten on the other2  
and this is more apparent in  the neck1 
because the motion of it is of three    
sorts1 two of which are  simple motions1
 and the other complex1 participating   
also of the other  two4    ,the simple  
motions are1 first1 when the neck bends 

towards the  shoulder1 either to the    
right or left1 and when it raises or    
lowers  the head4 ,the second is1 when  
it twists to the right or left1 without 
rising or bending1 but straight1 with   
the head turned towards one of  the     
shoulders4 ,the third motion1 which is  
called complex1 is1 when to  the bending
 of it is added the twisting1 as when   
the ear leans towards  one of the       
shoulders1 the head turning the same    
way1 and the face  turned upwards4      
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxvii4_/--,of the          
,shoulders4      _/,of_/ those which the
 shoulders can perform1 simple motions  
are the  principal1 such as moving the  
arm upwards and downwards1 backwards and
  forwards4 ,though one might almost    
call those motions infinite1 for if  the
 arm can trace a circle upon a wall1 it 
will have performed all the  motions    
belonging to the shoulders4 ,every      
continued quantity being  divisible ad  
infinitum1 and this circle being a      
continued quantity1  produced by the    

motion of the arm going through every   
part of the  circumference1 it follows1 
that the motions of the shoulders may   
also be  said to be infinite4           
,illustration3  ,page #cg4  ,chap4 #hi4 
,plate #ad4    ,london1 ,published by   
,j4 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4             
_/,chap4 ,,lxxxviii4_/--,of the ,motions
 of a ,man4      _/,when_/ you mean to  
represent a man removing a weight1      
consider that the  motions are various1 
viz4 either a simple motion1 by bending 
himself  to raise the weight from the   
ground upwards1 or when he drags the    
weight after him1 or pushes it before   
him1 or pulls it down with a rope       
passing through a pulley4 ,it is to be  
observed1 that the weight of the  man's 
body pulls the more in proportion as the
 centre of his gravity  is removed from 
the centre of his support4 ,to this must
 be added the  strength of the effort   
that the legs and back make when they   
are bent1  to return to their natural   
straight situation4    ,a man never     

ascends or descends1 nor walks at all in
 any direction1  without raising the    
heel of the back foot4          _/,chap4
 ,,lxxxix4_/--,of the ,disposition of   
,members preparing to act with  great   
,force1 ,plate ,,xiv4      _/,when_/ a  
man prepares himself to strike a violent
 blow1 he bends and  twists his body as 
far as he can to the side contrary to   
that which  he means to strike1 and     
collecting all his strength1 he1 by a   
complex  motion1 returns and falls upon 
the point he has in view#ba4            
_/,chap4 ,,xc4_/--,of throwing any      
,thing with ,violence1 ,plate ,,xv4     
_/,a man_/ throwing a dart1 a stone1 or 
any thing else with violence1  may be   
represented1 chiefly1 two different     
ways2 that is1 he may be  preparing to  
do it1 or the act may be already        
performed4 ,if you mean to  place him in
 the act of preparation1 the inside of  
the foot upon which  he rests will be   
under the perpendicular line of the pit 
of the neck2  and if it be the right    

foot1 the left shoulder will be         
perpendicular  over the toes of the same
 foot4          _/,chap4 ,,xci4_/--,on  
the ,motion of driving any ,thing into  
or drawing it  out of the ,ground4      
_/,he_/ who wishes to pitch a pole into 
the ground1 or draw one out of it1  will
 raise the leg and bend the knee        
opposite to the arm which acts1  in     
order to balance himself upon the foot  
that rests1 without which he  could     
neither drive in1 nor pull out any      
thing4          _/,chap4 ,,xcii4_/--,of 
forcible ,motions1 ,plate ,,xvi4        
_/,of_/ the two arms1 that will be most 
powerful in its effort1 which1  having  
been farthest removed from its natural  
situation1 is assisted  more strongly by
 the other parts to bring it to the     
place where it  means to go4 ,as the man
 ,a1 who moves the arm with a club ,e1  
and brings  it to the opposite side ,b1 
assisted by the motion of the whole     
body4    ,illustration3  ,page #ch4     
,chap4 #ij4  ,plate #ae4    ,london1    

,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4    ,illustration3  ,page #ci4 
,chap4 #ib4  ,plate #af4    ,london1    
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4          _/,chap4             
,,xciii4_/--,the ,action of ,jumping4   
_/,nature_/ will of itself1 and without 
any reasoning in the mind of a man      
going to jump1 prompt him to raise his  
arms and shoulders by a sudden  motion1 
together with a great part of his body1 
and to lift them up  high1 till the     
power of the effort subsides4 ,this     
impetuous motion  is accompanied by an  
instantaneous extension of the body     
which had  bent itself1 like a spring or
 bow1 along the back1 the joints of the 
thighs1 knees1 and feet1 and is let off 
obliquely1 that is1 upwards  and        
forwards2 so that the disposition of the
 body tending forwards  and upwards1    
makes it describe a great arch when it  
springs up1 which  increases the leap4  
_/,chap4 ,,xciv4_/--,of the three       
,motions in jumping upwards4            

_/,when_/ a man jumps upwards1 the      
motion of the head is three times       
quicker than that of the heel1 before   
the extremity of the foot quits  the    
ground1 and twice as quick as that of   
the hips2 because three  angles are     
opened and extended at the same time3   
the superior one is  that formed by the 
body at its joint with the thigh before1
 the second  is at the joint of the     
thighs and legs behind1 and the third is
 at the  instep before#bb4              
_/,chap4 ,,xcv4_/--,of the easy ,motions
 of ,members4      _/,in_/ regard to the
 freedom and ease of motions1 it is very
 necessary  to observe1 that when you   
mean to represent a figure which has to 
turn  itself a little round1 the feet   
and all the other members are not to    
move in the same direction as the head4 
,but you will divide that motion  among 
four joints1 viz4 the feet1 the knees1  
the hips1 and the neck4  ,if it rests   
upon the right leg1 the left knee should
 be a little bent  inward1 with its foot

 somewhat raised outward4 ,the left     
shoulder should  be lower than the      
other1 and the nape of the neck turned  
on the same  side as the outward ankle  
of the left foot1 and the left shoulder 
perpendicular over the great toe of the 
right foot4 ,and take it as a  general  
maxim1 that figures do not turn their   
heads straight with the  chest1 ,nature 
having for our convenience formed the   
neck so as to turn  with ease on every  
side1 when the eyes want to look round2 
and to this  the other joints are in    
some measure subservient4 ,if the figure
 be  sitting1 and the arms have some    
employment across the body1 the breast  
will turn over the joint of the hip4    
,illustration3  ,page #da4  ,chap4 #if4 
,plate #ag4    ,london1 ,published by   
,j4 ,taylor ,high ,holborn4             
_/,chap4 ,,xcvi4_/--,the greatest ,twist
 which a ,man can make1 in turning to   
look at himself behind4 ,plate ,,xvii4  
_/,the_/ greatest twist that the body   
can perform is when the back of  the    

heels and the front of the face are seen
 at the same time4 ,it is  not done     
without difficulty1 and is effected by  
bending the leg and  lowering the       
shoulder on that side towards which the 
head turns4 ,the  cause of this motion1 
and also which of the muscles move first
 and  which last1 ,i shall explain in my
 treatise on anatomy#bc4                
_/,chap4 ,,xcvii4_/--,of turning the    
,leg without the ,thigh4      _/,it_/ is
 impossible to turn the leg inwards or  
outwards without turning  the thigh by  
the same motion1 because the setting in 
of the bones at  the knee is such1 that 
they have no motion but backwards and   
forwards1  and no more than is necessary
 for walking or kneeling2 never         
sideways1  because the form of the bones
 at the joint of the knee does not allow
  it4 ,if this joint had been made      
pliable on all sides1 as that of the    
shoulder1 or that of the thigh bone with
 the hip1 a man would have  had his legs
 bent on each side as often as backwards

 and forwards1  and seldom or never     
straight with the thigh4 ,besides1 this 
joint can  bend only one way1 so that in
 walking it can never go beyond the     
straight line of the leg2 it bends only 
forwards1 for if it could bend          
backwards1 a man could never get up     
again upon his feet1 if once he  were   
kneeling2 as when he means to get up    
from the kneeling posture 7on  both     
knees71 he gives the whole weight of his
 body to one of the knees  to support1  
unloading the other1 which at that time 
feels no other  weight than its own1 and
 therefore is lifted up with ease1 and  
rests  his foot flat upon the ground2   
then returning the whole weight upon    
that foot1 and leaning his hand upon his
 knee1 he at once extends the  other    
arm1 raises his head1 and straightening 
the thigh with the body1  he springs up1
 and rests upon the same foot1 while he 
brings up the  other4          _/,chap4 
,,xcviii4_/--,postures of ,figures4     
_/,figures_/ that are set in a fixed    

attitude1 are nevertheless to have  some
 contrast of parts4 ,if one arm come    
before1 the other remains  still or goes
 behind4 ,if the figure rest upon one   
leg1 the shoulder on  that side will be 
lower than the other4 ,this is observed 
by artists  of judgment1 who always take
 care to balance the figure well upon   
its  feet1 for fear it should appear to 
fall4 ,because by resting upon one      
foot1 the other leg1 being a little     
bent1 does not support the body any     
more than if it were dead2 therefore it 
is necessary that the parts  above that 
leg should transfer the centre of their 
weight upon the leg  which supports the 
body4          _/,chap4 ,,xcix4_/--,of  
the ,gracefulness of the ,members4      
_/,the_/ members are to be suited to the
 body in graceful motions1  expressive  
of the meaning which the figure is      
intended to convey4  ,if it had to give 
the idea of genteel and agreeable       
carriage1 the  members must be slender  
and well turned1 but not lean2 the      

muscles very  slightly marked1          
indicating in a soft manner such as must
 necessarily  appear2 the arms1         
particularly1 pliant1 and no member in a
 straight  line with any other adjoining
 member4 ,if it happen1 on account of   
the  motion of the figure1 that the     
right hip be higher than the left1 make 
the joint of the shoulder fall          
perpendicularly on the highest part of  
that hip2 and let that right shoulder be
 lower than the left4 ,the pit  of the  
neck will always be perpendicular over  
the middle of the instep  of the foot   
that supports the body4 ,the leg that   
does not bear will  have its knee a     
little lower than the other1 and near   
the other leg4    ,in regard to the     
positions of the head and arms1 they are
 infinite1 and  for that reason ,i shall
 not enter into any detailed rule       
concerning  them2 suffice it to say1    
that they are to be easy and free1      
graceful1  and varied in their bendings1
 so that they may not appear stiff like 

pieces of wood4          _/,chap4       
,c4_/--,that it is impossible for any   
,memory to retain the ,aspects  and     
,changes of the ,members4      _/,it_/  
is impossible that any memory can be    
able to retain all the  aspects or      
motions of any member of any animal     
whatever4 ,this case  we shall exemplify
 by the appearance of the hand4 ,and    
because any  continued quantity is      
divisible ad infinitum1 the motion of   
the eye  which looks at the hand1 and   
moves from ,a to ,b1 moves by a space ,a
 ,b1  which is also a continued         
quantity1 and consequently divisible ad 
infinitum1 and in every part of the     
motion varies to its view the  aspect   
and figure of the hand2 and so it will  
do if it move round the  whole circle4  
,the same will the hand do which is     
raised in its motion1  that is1 it will 
pass over a space1 which is a continued 
quantity#bd4    ,illustration           
_/,chap4 ,,ci4_/--,the ,motions of      
,figures4      _/,never_/ put the head  

straight upon the shoulders1 but a      
little turned  sideways to the right or 
left1 even though the figures should be 
looking up or down1 or straight1 because
 it is necessary to give them  some     
motion of life and spirit4 ,nor ever    
compose a figure in such  a manner1     
either in a front or back view1 as that 
every part falls  straight upon another 
from the top to the bottom4 ,but if you 
wish to  introduce such a figure1 use it
 for old age4 ,never repeat the same    
motion of arms1 or of legs1 not only not
 in the same figure1 but in  those which
 are standing by1 or near2 if the       
necessity of the case1  or the          
expression of the subject you represent1
 do not oblige you to  it#be4           
_/,chap4 ,,cii4_/--,of common ,motions4 
_/,the_/ variety of motions in man are  
equal to the variety of accidents  or   
thoughts affecting the mind1 and each of
 these thoughts1 or  accidents1 will    
operate more or less1 according to the  
temper and age  of the subject2 for the 

same cause will in the actions of youth1
 or of  old age1 produce very different 
effects4          _/,chap4              
,,ciii4_/--,of simple ,motions4         
_/,simple_/ motion is that which a man  
performs in merely bending  backwards or
 forwards4          _/,chap4            
,,civ4_/--,complex ,motion4             
_/,complex_/ motion is that which1 to   
produce some particular action1         
requires the body to bend downwards and 
sideways at the same time4 ,the  painter
 must be careful in his compositions to 
apply these complex  motions according  
to the nature of the subject1 and not to
 weaken or  destroy the effect of it by 
introducing figures with simple motions1
  without any connexion with the        
subject4          _/,chap4              
,,cv4_/--,motions appropriated to the   
,subject4      _/,the_/ motions of your 
figures are to be expressive of the     
quantity of  strength requisite to the  
force of the action4 ,let not the same  
effort  be used to take up a stick as   

would easily raise a piece of timber4   
,therefore shew great variety in the    
expression of strength1 according  to   
the quality of the load to be managed4  
_/,chap4 ,,cvi4_/--,appropriate         
,motions4      _/,there_/ are some      
emotions of the mind which are not      
expressed by any  particular motion of  
the body1 while in others1 the          
expression cannot  be shewn without it4 
,in the first1 the arms fall down1 the  
hands and  all the other parts1 which in
 general are the most active1 remain at 
rest4 ,but such emotions of the soul as 
produce bodily action1 must put  the    
members into such motions as are        
appropriated to the intention of  the   
mind4 ,this1 however1 is an ample       
subject1 and we have a great deal  to   
say upon it4 ,there is a third kind of  
motion1 which participates  of the two  
already described2 and a fourth1 which  
depends neither on  the one nor the     
other4 ,this last belongs to            
insensibility1 or fury1  and should be  

ranked with madness or stupidity2 and so
 adapted only to  grotesque or ,moresco 
work4          _/,chap4 ,,cvii4_/--,of  
the ,postures of ,women and young       
,people4      _/,it_/ is not becoming in
 women and young people to have their   
legs  too much asunder1 because it      
denotes boldness2 while the legs close  
together shew modesty4          _/,chap4
 ,,cviii4_/--,of the ,postures of       
,children4      _/,children_/ and old   
people are not to express quick motions1
 in what  concerns their legs4          
_/,chap4 ,,cix4_/--,of the ,motion of   
the ,members4      _/,let_/ every member
 be employed in performing its proper   
functions4 ,for  instance1 in a dead    
body1 or one asleep1 no member should   
appear alive  or awake4 ,a foot bearing 
the weight of the whole body1 should not
 be  playing its toes up and down1 but  
flat upon the ground2 except when it    
rests entirely upon the heel4           
_/,chap4 ,,cx4_/--,of mental ,motions4  
_/,a mere_/ thought1 or operation of the

 mind1 excites only simple and  easy    
motions of the body2 not this way1 and  
that way1 because its  object is in the 
mind1 which does not affect the senses  
when it is  collected within itself4    
_/,chap4 ,,cxi4_/--,effect of the ,mind 
upon the ,motions of the ,body1         
occasioned by some outward ,object4     
_/,when_/ the motion is produced by the 
presence of some object1 either  the    
cause is immediate or not4 ,if it be    
immediate1 the figure will  first turn  
towards it the organs most necessary1   
the eyes2 leaving its  feet in the same 
place2 and will only move the thighs1   
hips1 and knees  a little towards the   
same side1 to which the eyes are        
directed4          ,,linear             
,,perspective4          _/,chap4        
,,cxii4_/--,of those who apply          
themselves to the ,practice1 without    
having learnt the ,theory of the ,art4  
_/,those_/ who become enamoured of the  
practice of the art1 without having     
previously applied to the diligent study

 of the scientific part of it1  may be  
compared to mariners1 who put to sea in 
a ship without rudder or  compass1 and  
therefore cannot be certain of arriving 
at the wished-for  port4    ,practice   
must always be founded on good theory2  
to this1 ,perspective is  the guide and 
entrance1 without which nothing can be  
well done4          _/,chap4            
,,cxiii4_/--,precepts in ,painting4     
_/,perspective_/ is to ,painting what   
the bridle is to a horse1 and the       
rudder to a ship4    ,the size of a     
figure should denote the distance at    
which it is situated4    ,if a figure be
 seen of the natural size1 remember that
 it denotes its  being near to the eye4 
_/,chap4 ,,cxiv4_/--,of the ,boundaries 
of ,objects called ,outlines or         
,contours4      _/,the_/ outlines or    
contours of bodies are so little        
perceivable1 that  at any small distance
 between that and the object1 the eye   
will not be  able to recognise the      
features of a friend or relation1 if it 

were not  for their clothes and general 
appearance4 ,so that by the knowledge of
  the whole it comes to know the parts4 
_/,chap4 ,,cxv4_/--,of linear           
,perspective4      _/,linear_/          
,perspective consists in giving1 by     
established rules1 the true  dimensions 
of objects1 according to their          
respective distances2 so that  the      
second object be less than the first1   
the third than the second1  and by      
degrees at last they become invisible4  
,i find by experience1  that1 if the    
second object be at the same distance   
from the first1 as  the first is from   
the eye1 though they be of the same     
size1 the second  will appear half the  
size of the first2 and1 if the third be 
at the  same distance behind the second1
 it will diminish two thirds2 and so    
on1 by degrees1 they will1 at equal     
distances1 diminish in proportion2      
provided that the interval be not more  
than twenty cubits#bf2 at  which        
distance it will lose two fourths of its

 size3 at forty it will  diminish three 
fourths2 and at sixty it will lose five 
sixths1 and so  on progressively4 ,but  
you must be distant from your picture   
twice the  size of it2 for1 if you be   
only once the size1 it will make a great
  difference in the measure from the    
first to the second4          _/,chap4  
,,cxvi4_/--,what ,parts of ,objects     
disappear first by ,distance4           
_/,those_/ parts which are of less      
magnitude will first vanish from the    
sight#bg4 ,this happens1 because the    
shape of small objects1 at an  equal    
distance1 comes to the eye under a more 
acute angle than the  large ones1 and   
the perception of them is less1 in      
proportion as they  are less in         
magnitude4 ,it follows then1 that if the
 large objects1 by  being removed to a  
great distance1 and consequently coming 
to the eye  by a small angle1 are almost
 lost to the sight1 the small objects   
will  entirely disappear4               
_/,chap4 ,,cxvii4_/--,of remote         

,objects4      _/,the_/ outlines of     
objects will be less seen1 in proportion
 as they are  more distant from the eye4
          _/,chap4 ,,cxviii4_/--,of the 
,point of ,sight4      _/,the_/ point of
 sight must be on a level with the eyes 
of a common-sized  man1 and placed upon 
the horizon1 which is the line formed by
 a flat  country terminating with the   
sky4 ,an exception must be made as to   
mountains1 which are above that line4   
_/,chap4 ,,cxix4_/--,a ,picture is to be
 viewed from one ,point only4           
_/,this_/ will be proved by one single  
example4 ,if you mean to represent  a   
round ball very high up1 on a flat and  
perpendicular wall1 it will  be         
necessary to make it oblong1 like the   
shape of an egg1 and to place  yourself 
7that is1 the eye1 or point of view7 so 
far back1 as that its  outline or       
circumference may appear round4         
_/,chap4 ,,cxx4_/--,of the ,dimensions  
of the first ,figure in an historical   
,painting4      _/,the_/ first figure in

 your picture will be less than ,nature1
 in  proportion as it recedes from the  
front of the picture1 or the bottom     
line2 and by the same rule the others   
behind it will go on lessening in  an   
equal degree#bh4          _/,chap4      
,,cxxi4_/--,of ,objects that are lost to
 the ,sight in ,proportion to  their    
,distance4      _/,the_/ first things   
that disappear1 by being removed to some
 distance1  are the outlines or         
boundaries of objects4 ,the second1 as  
they remove  farther1 are the shadows   
which divide contiguous bodies4 ,the    
third  are the thickness of legs and    
feet2 and so in succession the small    
parts are lost to the sight1 till       
nothing remains but a confused mass1    
without any distinct parts4             
_/,chap4 ,,cxxii4_/--,errors not so     
easily seen in small ,objects as in     
large  ones4      _/,supposing_/ this   
small object to represent a man1 or any 
other animal1  although the parts1 by   
being so much diminished or reduced1    

cannot be  executed with the same       
exactness of proportion1 nor finished   
with the  same accuracy1 as if on a     
larger scale1 yet on that very account  
the  faults will be less conspicuous4   
,for example1 if you look at a man at   
the distance of two hundred yards1 and  
with all due attention mean to  form a  
judgment1 whether he be handsome or     
ugly1 deformed or well made1  you will  
find that1 with all your endeavours1 you
 can hardly venture  to decide4 ,the    
reason is1 that the man diminishes so   
much by the  distance1 that it is       
impossible to distinguish the parts     
minutely4 ,if  you wish to know by      
demonstration the diminution of the     
above figure1  hold your finger up      
before your eye at about nine inches    
distance1 so  that the top of your      
finger corresponds with the top of the  
head of  the distant figure3 you will   
perceive that your finger covers1 not   
only its head1 but part of its body2    
which is an evident proof of the        

apparent diminution of that object4     
,hence it often happens1 that we are    
doubtful1 and can scarcely1 at some     
distance1 distinguish the form of  even 
a friend4          _/,chap4             
,,cxxiii4_/--,historical ,subjects one  
above another on the same  ,wall to be  
avoided4      _/,this_/ custom1 which   
has been generally adopted by painters1 
on the  front and sides of chapels1 is  
much to be condemned4 ,they begin with  
an  historical picture1 its landscape   
and buildings1 in one compartment4      
,after which1 they raise another        
compartment1 and execute another        
history with other buildings upon       
another level2 and from thence they     
proceed to a third and fourth1 varying  
the point of sight1 as if the  beholder 
was going up steps1 while1 in fact1 he  
must look at them all  from below1 which
 is very ill judged in those matters4   
,we know that the point of sight is the 
eye of the spectator2 and if  you ask1  
how is a series of subjects1 such as the

 life of a saint1 to  be represented1 in
 different compartments on the same     
wall8 ,i answer1  that you are to place 
the principal event in the largest      
compartment1  and make the point of     
sight as high as the eye of the         
spectator4 ,begin  that subject with    
large figures2 and as you go up1 lessen 
the objects1  as well the figures1 as   
buildings1 varying the plans according  
to the  effect of perspective2 but never
 varying the point of sight3 and so     
complete the series of subjects1 till   
you come to a certain height1  where    
terrestrial objects can be seen no more1
 except the tops of  trees1 or clouds   
and birds2 or if you introduce figures1 
they must be  aerial1 such as angels1 or
 saints in glory1 or the like1 if they  
suit  the purpose of your history4 ,if  
not1 do not undertake this kind of      
painting1 for your work will be faulty1 
and justly reprehensible#bi4            
_/,chap4 ,,cxxiv4_/--,why ,objects in   
,painting can never detach1 as natural  

,objects do4      _/,painters_/ often   
despair of being able to imitate        
,nature1 from  observing1 that their    
pictures have not the same relief1 nor  
the same  life1 as natural objects have 
in a looking-glass1 though they both    
appear upon a plain surface4 ,they say1 
they have colours which surpass  in     
brightness the quality of the lights1   
and in darkness the quality of  the     
shades of the objects seen in the       
looking-glass2 but attribute this       
circumstance to their own ignorance1 and
 not to the true cause1 because  they do
 not know it4 ,it is impossible that    
objects in painting should  appear with 
the same relief as those in the         
looking-glass1 unless we  look at them  
with only one eye4    ,the reason is    
this4 ,the two eyes ,a ,b looking at    
objects one behind  another1 as ,m and  
,n1 see them both2 because ,m cannot    
entirely occupy  the space of ,n1 by    
reason that the base of the visual rays 
is so broad1  that the second object is 

seen behind the first4 ,but if one eye  
be  shut1 and you look with the other   
,s1 the body ,f will entirely cover  the
 body ,r1 because the visual rays       
beginning at one point1 form a          
triangle1 of which the body ,f is the   
base1 and being prolonged1 they  form   
two diverging tangents at the two       
extremities of ,f1 which cannot  touch  
the body ,r behind it1 therefore can    
never see it#cj4    ,illustration       
_/,chap4 ,,cxxv4_/--,how to give the    
proper ,dimension to ,objects in        
,painting4      ,illustration    _/,in_/
 order to give the appearance of the    
natural size1 if the piece  be small 7as
 miniatures71 the figures on the        
fore-ground are to be  finished with as 
much precision as those of any large    
painting1 because  being small they are 
to be brought up close to the eye4 ,but 
large  paintings are seen at some       
distance2 whence it happens1 that though
  the figures in each are so different  
in size1 in appearance they will  be the

 same4 ,this proceeds from the eye      
receiving those objects under  the same 
angle2 and it is proved thus4 ,let the  
large painting be ,b ,c1  the eye ,a1   
and ,d ,e a pane of glass1 through which
 are seen the figures  situated at ,b   
,c4 ,i say that the eye being fixed1 the
 figures in the  copy of the paintings  
,b ,c are to be smaller1 in proportion  
as the glass  ,d ,e is nearer the eye   
,a1 and are to be as precise and        
finished4 ,but if  you will execute the 
picture ,b ,c upon the glass ,d ,e1 this
 ought to be  less finished than the    
picture ,b ,c1 and more so than the     
figure ,m ,n  transferred upon the glass
 ,f ,g2 because1 supposing the figure ,p
 ,o to  be as much finished as the      
natural one in ,b ,c1 the perspective of
 ,o ,p  would be false1 since1 though in
 regard to the diminution of the figure 
it would be right1 ,b ,c being          
diminished in ,p ,o1 the finishing would
 not  agree with the distance1 because  
in giving it the perfection of the      

natural ,b ,c1 ,b ,c would appear as    
near as ,o ,p2 but1 if you search for   
the diminution of ,o ,p1 ,o ,p will be  
found at the distance ,b ,c1 and the    
diminution of the finishing as at ,f ,g4
          _/,chap4 ,,cxxvi4_/--,how to  
draw accurately any particular ,spot4   
_/,take_/ a glass as large as your      
paper1 fasten it well between your eye  
and the object you mean to draw1 and    
fixing your head in a frame 7in  such a 
manner as not to be able to move it7 at 
the distance of two  feet from the      
glass2 shut one eye1 and draw with a    
pencil accurately  upon the glass all   
that you see through it4 ,after that1   
trace upon  paper what you have drawn on
 the glass1 which tracing you may paint 
at  pleasure1 observing the aerial      
perspective4          _/,chap4          
,,cxxvii4_/--,disproportion to be       
avoided1 even in the accessory  ,parts4 
_/,a great_/ fault is committed by many 
painters1 which is highly to be  blamed1
 that is1 to represent the habitations  

of men1 and other parts  of their       
compositions1 so low1 that the doors do 
not reach as high as  the knees of their
 inhabitants1 though1 according to their
 situation1  they are nearer to the eye 
of the spectator1 than the men who seem 
willing to enter them4 ,i have seen some
 pictures with porticos1  supported by  
columns loaded with figures2 one        
grasping a column against  which it     
leans1 as if it were a walking-stick1   
and other similar  errors1 which are to 
be avoided with the greatest care4      
,,invention1 _/or_/ ,,composition4      
_/,chap4 ,,cxxviii4_/--,precept for     
avoiding a bad ,choice in the ,style or 
,proportion of ,figures4      _/,the_/  
painter ought to form his style upon the
 most proportionate  model in ,nature2  
and after having measured that1 he ought
 to measure  himself also1 and be       
perfectly acquainted with his own       
defects or  deficiencies2 and having    
acquired this knowledge1 his constant   
care  should be to avoid conveying into 

his work those defects which he has     
found in his own person2 for these      
defects1 becoming habitual to his       
observation1 mislead his judgment1 and  
he perceives them no longer4 ,we  ought1
 therefore1 to struggle against such a  
prejudice1 which grows  up with us2 for 
the mind1 being fond of its own         
habitation1 is apt to  represent it to  
our imagination as beautiful4 ,from the 
same motive it  may be1 that there is   
not a woman1 however plain in her       
person1 who may  not find her admirer1  
if she be not a monster4 ,against this  
bent of the  mind you ought very        
cautiously to be on your guard4         
_/,chap4 ,,cxxix4_/--,variety in        
,figures4      _/,a painter_/ ought to  
aim at universal excellence2 for he will
 be  greatly wanting in dignity1 if he  
do one thing well and another badly1  as
 many do1 who study only the naked      
figure1 measured and proportioned  by a 
pair of compasses in their hands1 and do
 not seek for variety4 ,a  man may be   

well proportioned1 and yet be tall or   
short1 large or lean1  or of a middle   
size2 and whoever does not make great   
use of these  varieties1 which are all  
existing in ,nature in its most perfect 
state1  will produce figures as if cast 
in one and the same mould1 which is     
highly reprehensible4          _/,chap4 
,,cxxx4_/--,how a ,painter ought to     
proceed in his ,studies4      _/,the_/  
painter ought always to form in his mind
 a kind of system of  reasoning or      
discussion within himself on any        
remarkable object  before him4 ,he      
should stop1 take notes1 and form some  
rule upon it2  considering the place1   
the circumstances1 the lights and       
shadows4          _/,chap4              
,,cxxxi4_/--,of sketching ,histories and
 ,figures4      _/,sketches_/ of        
historical subjects must be slight1     
attending only to the  situation of the 
figures1 without regard to the finishing
 of particular  members1 which may be   
done afterwards at leisure1 when the    

mind is so  disposed4          _/,chap4 
,,cxxxii4_/--,how to study ,composition4
      _/,the_/ young student should     
begin by sketching slightly some single 
figure1 and turn that on all sides1     
knowing already how to contract1  and   
how to extend the members2 after which1 
he may put two together in  various     
attitudes1 we will suppose in the act of
 fighting boldly4 ,this  composition    
also he must try on all sides1 and in a 
variety of ways1  tending to the same   
expression4 ,then he may imagine one of 
them very  courageous1 while the other  
is a coward4 ,let these attitudes1 and  
many  other accidental affections of the
 mind1 be with great care studied1      
examined1 and dwelt upon4               
_/,chap4 ,,cxxxiii4_/--,of the          
,attitudes of ,men4      _/,the_/       
attitudes and all the members are to be 
disposed in such  a manner1 that by them
 the intentions of the mind may be      
easily  discovered4          _/,chap4   
,,cxxxiv4_/--,variety of ,positions4    

_/,the_/ positions of the human figure  
are to be adapted to the age and  rank2 
and to be varied according to the       
difference of the sexes1 men or  women4 
_/,chap4 ,,cxxxv4_/--,of ,studies from  
,nature for ,history4      _/,it_/ is   
necessary to consider well the situation
 for which the history  is to be        
painted1 particularly the height2 and   
let the painter place  accordingly the  
model1 from which he means to make his  
studies for that  historical picture2   
and set himself as much below the       
object1 as the  picture is to be above  
the eye of the spectator1 otherwise the 
work  will be faulty4          _/,chap4 
,,cxxxvi4_/--,of the ,variety of        
,figures in ,history ,painting4         
_/,history_/ painting must exhibit      
variety in its fullest extent4 ,in      
temper1 size1 complexion1 actions1      
plumpness1 leanness1 thick1 thin1       
large1 small1 rough1 smooth1 old age and
 youth1 strong and muscular1  weak1 with
 little appearance of muscles1          

cheerfulness and melancholy4  ,some     
should be with curled hair1 and some    
with straight2 some short1  some long1  
some quick in their motions1 and some   
slow1 with a variety  of dresses and    
colours1 according as the subject may   
require4          _/,chap4              
,,cxxxvii4_/--,of ,variety in ,history4 
_/,a painter_/ should delight in        
introducing great variety into his      
compositions1 avoiding repetition1 that 
by this fertility of invention  he may  
attract and charm the eye of the        
beholder4 ,if it be requisite  according
 to the subject meant to be represented1
 that there should be  a mixture of men 
differing in their faces1 ages1 and     
dress1 grouped  with women1 children1   
dogs1 and horses1 buildings1 hills and  
flat  country2 observe dignity and      
decorum in the principal figure2 such   
as a king1 magistrate1 or philosopher1  
separating them from the low  classes of
 the people4 ,mix not afflicted or      
weeping figures with joyful  and        

laughing ones2 for ,nature dictates that
 the cheerful be attended  by others of 
the same disposition of mind4 ,laughter 
is productive of  laughter1 and vice    
vers4          _/,chap4                 
,,cxxxviii4_/--,of the ,age of ,figures4
      _/,do_/ not bring together a      
number of boys with as many old men1 nor
  young men with infants1 nor women with
 men2 if the subject you mean to        
represent does not oblige you to it4    
_/,chap4 ,,cxxxix4_/--,of ,variety of   
,faces4      _/,the_/ ,italian painters 
have been accused of a common fault1    
that is1  of introducing into their     
compositions the faces1 and even the    
whole  figures1 of ,roman emperors1     
which they take from the antique4 ,to   
avoid such an error1 let no repetition  
take place1 either in parts1  or the    
whole of a figure2 nor let there be even
 the same face in  another composition3 
and the more the figures are contrasted1
 viz4 the  deformed opposed to the      
beautiful1 the old to the young1 the    

strong  to the feeble1 the more the     
picture will please and be admired4     
,these  different characters1 contrasted
 with each other1 will increase the     
beauty of the whole4    ,it frequently  
happens that a painter1 while he is     
composing1 will use  any little sketch  
or scrap of drawing he has by him1 and  
endeavour to  make it serve his purpose2
 but this is extremely injudicious1     
because  he may very often find that the
 members he has drawn have not the      
motion suited to what he means to       
express2 and after he has adopted1      
accurately drawn1 and even well finished
 them1 he will be loth to rub  out and  
change them for others4                 
_/,chap4 ,,cxl4_/--,a ,fault in         
,painters4      _/,it_/ is a very great 
fault in a painter to repeat the same   
motions in  figures1 and the same folds 
in draperies in the same composition1 as
  also to make all the faces alike4     
_/,chap4 ,,cxli4_/--,how you may learn  
to compose ,groups for ,history         

,painting4      _/,when_/ you are well  
instructed in perspective1 and know     
perfectly how  to draw the anatomy and  
forms of different bodies or objects1 it
 should  be your delight to observe and 
consider in your walks the different    
actions of men1 when they are talking1  
or quarrelling2 when they laugh1  and   
when they fight4 ,attend to their       
positions1 and to those of the          
spectators2 whether they are attempting 
to separate those who fight1  or merely 
lookers-on4 ,be quick in sketching these
 with slight strokes  in your           
pocket-book1 which should always be     
about you1 and made of  stained paper1  
as you ought not to rub out4 ,when it is
 full1 take  another1 for these are not 
things to be rubbed out1 but kept with  
the  greatest care2 because forms and   
motions of bodies are so infinitely     
various1 that the memory is not able to 
retain them2 therefore preserve  these  
sketches as your assistants and masters4
          _/,chap4 ,,cxlii4_/--,how to  

study the ,motions of the human ,body4  
_/,the_/ first requisite towards a      
perfect acquaintance with the various   
motions of the human body1 is the       
knowledge of all the parts1             
particularly the joints1 in all the     
attitudes in which it may be  placed4   
,then make slight sketches in your      
pocket-book1 as opportunities  occur1 of
 the actions of men1 as they happen to  
meet your eye1 without  being perceived 
by them2 because1 if they were to       
observe you1 they  would be disturbed   
from that freedom of action1 which is   
prompted by  inward feeling2 as when two
 men are quarrelling and angry1 each of 
them seeming to be in the right1 and    
with great vehemence move their         
eyebrows1 arms1 and all the other       
members1 using motions appropriated  to 
their words and feelings4 ,this they    
could not do1 if you wanted them  to    
imitate anger1 or any other accidental  
emotion2 such as laughter1  weeping1    
pain1 admiration1 fear1 and the like4   

,for that reason1 take  care never to be
 without a little book1 for the purpose 
of sketching  those various motions1 and
 also groups of people standing by4     
,this  will teach you how to compose    
history4 ,two things demand the         
principal  attention of a good painter4 
,one is the exact outline and shape of  
the  figure2 the other1 the true        
expression of what passes in the mind of
  that figure1 which he must feel1 and  
that is very important4                 
_/,chap4 ,,cxliii4_/--,of ,dresses1 and 
of ,draperies and ,folds4      _/,the_/ 
draperies with which you dress figures  
ought to have their  folds so           
accommodated as to surround the parts   
they are intended to  cover2 that in the
 mass of light there be not any dark    
fold1 and in  the mass of shadows none  
receiving too great a light4 ,they must 
go  gently over1 describing the parts2  
but not with lines across1 cutting  the 
members with hard notches1 deeper than  
the part can possibly  be2 at the same  

time1 it must fit the body1 and not     
appear like an  empty bundle of cloth2 a
 fault of many painters1 who1 enamoured 
of  the quantity and variety of folds1  
have encumbered their figures1          
forgetting the intention of clothes1    
which is to dress and surround the      
parts gracefully wherever they touch2   
and not to be filled with wind1  like   
bladders1 puffed up where the parts     
project4 ,i do not deny that  we ought  
not to neglect introducing some handsome
 folds among these  draperies1 but it   
must be done with great judgment1 and   
suited to the  parts1 where1 by the     
actions of the limbs and position of the
 whole  body1 they gather together4     
,above all1 be careful to vary the      
quality  and quantity of your folds in  
compositions of many figures2 so that1  
if some have large folds1 produced by   
thick woollen cloth2 others1  being     
dressed in thinner stuff1 may have them 
narrower2 some sharp and  straight1     
others soft and undulating4             

_/,chap4 ,,cxliv4_/--,of the ,nature of 
,folds in ,draperies4      _/,many_/    
painters prefer making the folds of     
their draperies with acute  angles1 deep
 and precise2 others with angles hardly 
perceptible2 and  some with none at all2
 but instead of them1 certain curved    
lines4          _/,chap4 ,,cxlv4_/--,how
 the ,folds of ,draperies ought to be   
represented1  ,plate ,,xviii4           
_/,that_/ part of the drapery1 which is 
the farthest from the place where  it is
 gathered1 will appear more approaching 
its natural state4 ,every  thing        
naturally inclines to preserve its      
primitive form4 ,therefore a  stuff or  
cloth1 which is of equal thickness on   
both sides1 will always  incline to     
remain flat4 ,for that reason1 when it  
is constrained by some  fold to         
relinquish its flat situation1 it is    
observed that1 at the part  of its      
greatest restraint1 it is continually   
making efforts to return  to its natural
 shape2 and the parts most distant from 

it reassume more  of their primitive    
state by ample and distended folds4 ,for
 example1 let  ,a ,b ,c be the drapery  
mentioned above2 ,a ,b the place where  
it is folded  or restrained4 ,i have    
said that the part1 which is farthest   
from the  place of its restraint1 would 
return more towards its primitive shape4
  ,therefore ,c being the farthest1 will
 be broader and more extended than  any 
other part4    ,illustration3  ,page    
#fh4  ,chap4 #ade4  ,plate #ah4         
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high
 ,holborn4    ,illustration3  ,page #fi4
  ,chap4 #adg4  ,plate #ai4    ,london1 
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4          _/,chap4             
,,cxlvi4_/--,how the ,folds in          
,draperies ought to be made4            
_/,draperies_/ are not to be encumbered 
with many folds3 on the contrary1  there
 ought to be some only where they are   
held up with the hands or  arms of the  
figures1 and the rest left to fall with 
natural simplicity4  ,they ought to be  

studied from ,nature2 that is to say1 if
 a woollen  cloth be intended1 the folds
 ought to be drawn after such cloth2 if 
it  be of silk1 or thin stuff1 or else  
very thick for labourers1 let it  be    
distinguished by the nature of the      
folds4 ,but never copy them1 as  some   
do1 after models dressed in paper1 or   
thin leather1 for it greatly  misleads4 
_/,chap4 ,,cxlvii4_/--,fore-shortening  
of ,folds1 ,plate ,,xix4      _/,where_/
 the figure is fore-shortened1 there    
ought to appear a greater  number of    
folds1 than on the other parts1 all     
surrounding it in a  circular manner4   
,let ,e be the situation of the eye4 ,m 
,n will have the  middle of every       
circular fold successively removed      
farther from its  outline1 in proportion
 as it is more distant from the eye4 ,in
 ,m ,o of  the other figure the outlines
 of these circular folds will appear    
almost straight1 because it is situated 
opposite the eye2 but in ,p and  ,q     
quite the contrary1 as in ,n and ,m4    

_/,chap4 ,,cxlviii4_/--,of ,folds4      
_/,the_/ folds of draperies1 whatever be
 the motion of the figure1 ought  always
 to shew1 by the form of their outlines1
 the attitude of such  figure2 so as to 
leave1 in the mind of the beholder1 no  
doubt or  confusion in regard to the    
true position of the body2 and let there
 be  no fold1 which1 by its shadow1     
breaks through any of the members2 that 
is to say1 appearing to go in deeper    
than the surface of the part it  covers4
 ,and if you represent the figure       
clothed with several garments1  one over
 the other1 let it not appear as if the 
upper one covered only  a mere skeleton2
 but let it express that it is also well
 furnished with  flesh1 and a thickness 
of folds1 suitable to the number of its 
under  garments4    ,the folds          
surrounding the members ought to        
diminish in thickness near  the         
extremities of the part they surround4  
,the length of the folds1 which are     
close to the members1 ought to  produce 

other folds on that side where the      
member is diminished by                 
fore-shortening1 and be more extended on
 the opposite side4          _/,chap4   
,,cxlix4_/--,of ,decorum4               
_/,observe_/ decorum in every thing you 
represent1 that is1 fitness of  action1 
dress1 and situation1 according to the  
dignity or meanness of  the subject to  
be represented4 ,be careful that a king1
 for instance1  be grave and majestic in
 his countenance and dress2 that the    
place be  well decorated2 and that his  
attendants1 or the by-standers1 express 
reverence and admiration1 and appear as 
noble1 in dresses suitable to a  royal  
court4    ,on the contrary1 in the      
representation of a mean subject1 let   
the  figures appear low and despicable2 
those about them with similar           
countenances1 and actions1 denoting base
 and presumptuous minds1 and  meanly    
clad4 ,in short1 in both cases1 the     
parts must correspond with  the general 
sentiment of the composition4    ,the   

motions of old age should not be similar
 to those of youth2 those  of a woman to
 those of a man2 nor should the latter  
be the same as  those of a boy4         
_/,chap4 ,,cl4_/--,the ,character of    
,figures in ,composition4      _/,in_/  
general1 the painter ought to introduce 
very few old men1 in the  ordinary      
course of historical subjects1 and those
 few separated from  young people2      
because old people are few1 and their   
habits do not agree  with those of      
youth4 ,where there is no conformity of 
custom1 there can  be no intimacy1 and1 
without it1 a company is soon separated4
 ,but if  the subject require an        
appearance of gravity1 a meeting on     
important  business1 as a council1 for  
instance1 let there be few young men    
introduced1 for youth willingly avoids  
such meetings4          _/,chap4        
,,cli4_/--,the ,motion of the ,muscles1 
when the ,figures are in  natural       
,positions4      _/,a figure_/1 which   
does not express by its position the    

sentiments and  passions1 by which we   
suppose it animated1 will appear to     
indicate  that its muscles are not      
obedient to its will1 and the painter   
very  deficient in judgment4 ,for that  
reason1 a figure is to shew great       
eagerness and meaning2 and its position 
is to be so well appropriated  to that  
meaning1 that it cannot be mistaken1 nor
 made use of for any  other4            
_/,chap4 ,,clii4_/--,a ,precept in      
,painting4      _/,the_/ painter ought  
to notice those quick motions1 which men
 are apt to  make without thinking1 when
 impelled by strong and powerful        
affections  of the mind4 ,he ought to   
take memorandums of them1 and sketch    
them in  his pocket-book1 in order to   
make use of them when they may answer   
his  purpose2 and then to put a living  
model in the same position1 to see  the 
quality and aspect of the muscles which 
are in action4          _/,chap4        
,,cliii4_/--,of the ,motion of ,man1    
,plates ,,xx4 and ,,xxi4      _/,the_/  

first and principal part of the art is  
composition of any sort1  or putting    
things together4 ,the second relates to 
the expression and  motion of the       
figures1 and requires that they be well 
appropriated1  and seeming attentive to 
what they are about2 appearing to move  
with  alacrity and spirit1 according to 
the degree of expression suitable  to   
the occasion2 expressing slow and tardy 
motions1 as well as those  of eagerness 
in pursuit3 and that quickness and      
ferocity be expressed  with such force  
as to give an idea of the sensations of 
the actors4  ,when a figure is to throw 
a dart1 stones1 or the like1 let it be  
seen evidently by the attitude and      
disposition of all the members1  that   
such is its intention2 of which there   
are two examples in the  opposite       
plates1 varied both in action and power4
 ,the first in point  of vigour is ,a4  
,the second is ,b4 ,but ,a will throw   
his weapon farther  than ,b1 because1   
though they seem desirous of throwing it

 to the same  point1 ,a having turned   
his feet towards the object1 while his  
body is  twisted and bent back the      
contrary way1 to increase his power1    
returns  with more velocity and force to
 the point to which he means to throw4  
,but the figure ,b having turned his    
feet the same way as his body1  it      
returns to its place with great         
inconvenience1 and consequently  with   
weakened powers4 ,for in the expression 
of great efforts1 the  preparatory      
motions of the body must be strong and  
violent1 twisting  and bending1 so that 
it may return with convenient ease1 and 
by that  means have a great effect4 ,in 
the same manner1 if a cross-bow be not  
strung with force1 the motion of        
whatever it shoots will be short and    
without effect2 because1 where there is 
no impulse1 there can be no  motion2 and
 if the impulse be not violent1 the     
motion is but tardy  and feeble4 ,so a  
bow1 which is not strong1 has no motion2
 and1 if it  be strung1 it will remain  

in that state till the impulse be given 
by another power which puts it in       
motion1 and it will shoot with a        
violence equal to that which was        
employed in bending it4 ,in the same    
manner1 the man who does not twist and  
bend his body will have acquired  no    
power4 ,therefore1 after ,a has thrown  
his dart1 he will find himself  twisted 
the contrary way1 viz4 on the side where
 he has thrown2 and  he will have       
acquired only power sufficient to serve 
him to return to  where he was at first4
    ,illustration3  ,page #gb4  ,chap4  
#aec4  ,plate #bj4    ,london1          
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4    ,illustration3  ,page #gb4 
,chap4 #aec4  ,plate #ba4    ,london1   
,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high         
,holborn4          _/,chap4             
,,cliv4_/--,of ,attitudes1 and the      
,motions of the ,members4      _/,the_/ 
same attitude is not to be repeated in  
the same picture1 nor the  same motion  
of members in the same figure1 nay1 not 

even in the hands  or fingers4 ,and if  
the history requires a great number of  
figures1 such  as a battle1 or a        
massacre of soldiers1 in which there are
 but three  ways of striking1 viz4      
thrusting1 cutting1 or back-handed2 in  
that  case you must take care1 that all 
those who are cutting be expressed  in  
different views2 some turning their     
backs1 some their sides1 and  others be 
seen in front2 varying in the same      
manner the three different  ways of     
fighting1 so that all the actions may   
have a relation to those  three         
principles4 ,in battles1 complex motions
 display great art1 giving  spirit and  
animation to the whole4 ,by complex     
motion is meant1 for  instance1 that of 
a single figure shewing the front of the
 legs1 and at  the same time the profile
 of the shoulder4 ,but of this ,i shall 
treat in  another place#ca4             
_/,chap4 ,,clv4_/--,of a single ,figure 
separate from an historical ,group4     
_/,the_/ same motion of members should  

not be repeated in a figure which  you  
mean to be alone2 for instance1 if the  
figure be represented  running1 it must 
not throw both hands forward2 but one   
forward and the  other backward1 or else
 it cannot run4 ,if the right foot come 
forward1  the right arm must go backward
 and the left forward1 because1 without 
such disposition and contraste of parts1
 it is impossible to run well4  ,if     
another figure be supposed to follow    
this1 one of its legs should  be brought
 somewhat forward1 and the other be     
perpendicular under the  head2 the arm  
on the same side should pass forward4   
,but of this we  shall treat more fully 
in the book on motion#cb4               
_/,chap4 ,,clvi4_/--,on the ,attitudes  
of the human ,figure4      _/,a         
painter_/ is to be attentive to the     
motions and actions of men1  occasioned 
by some sudden accident4 ,he must       
observe them on the spot1  take         
sketches1 and not wait till he wants    
such expression1 and then  have it      

counterfeited for him2 for instance1    
setting a model to weep  when there is  
no cause2 such an expression without a  
cause will be  neither quick nor        
natural4 ,but it will be of great use to
 have observed  every action from       
nature1 as it occurs1 and then to have a
 model set in  the same attitude to help
 the recollection1 and find out         
something to  the purpose1 according to 
the subject in hand4          _/,chap4  
,,clvii4_/--,how to represent a ,storm4 
_/,to_/ form a just idea of a storm1 you
 must consider it attentively in  its   
effects4 ,when the wind blows violently 
over the sea or land1 it  removes and   
carries off with it every thing that is 
not firmly fixed  to the general mass4  
,the clouds must appear straggling and  
broken1  carried according to the       
direction and the force of the wind1 and
  blended with clouds of dust raised    
from the sandy shore4 ,branches and     
leaves of trees must be represented as  
carried along by the violence  of the   

storm1 and1 together with numberless    
other light substances1  scattered in   
the air4 ,trees and grass must be bent  
to the ground1 as if  yielding to the   
course of the wind4 ,boughs must be     
twisted out of their  natural form1 with
 their leaves reversed and entangled4   
,of the figures  dispersed in the       
picture1 some should appear thrown on   
the ground1 so  wrapped up in their     
cloaks and covered with dust1 as to be  
scarcely  distinguishable4 ,of those who
 remain on their feet1 some should be   
sheltered by and holding fast behind    
some great trees1 to avoid the  same    
fate3 others bending to the ground1     
their hands over their faces  to ward   
off the dust2 their hair and their      
clothes flying straight up  at the mercy
 of the wind4    ,the high tremendous   
waves of the stormy sea will be covered 
with  foaming froth2 the most subtle    
parts of which1 being raised by the     
wind1 like a thick mist1 mix with the   
air4 ,what vessels are seen should      

appear with broken cordage1 and torn    
sails1 fluttering in the wind2  some    
with broken masts fallen across the     
hulk1 already on its side  amidst the   
tempestuous waves4 ,some of the crew    
should be represented as  if crying     
aloud for help1 and clinging to the     
remains of the shattered  vessel4 ,let  
the clouds appear as driven by          
tempestuous winds against  the summits  
of lofty mountains1 enveloping those    
mountains1 and  breaking and recoiling  
with redoubled force1 like waves against
 a rocky  shore4 ,the air should be     
rendered awfully dark1 by the mist1     
dust1 and  thick clouds4                
_/,chap4 ,,clviii4_/--,how to compose a 
,battle4      _/,first_/1 let the air   
exhibit a confused mixture of smoke1    
arising from  the discharge of artillery
 and musquetry1 and the dust raised by  
the  horses of the combatants2 and      
observe1 that dust being of an earthy   
nature1 is heavy2 but yet1 by reason of 
its minute particles1 it is  easily     

impelled upwards1 and mixes with the    
air2 nevertheless1 it  naturally falls  
downwards again1 the most subtle parts  
of it alone  gaining any considerable   
degree of elevation1 and at its utmost  
height  it is so thin and transparent1  
as to appear nearly of the colour of    
the air4 ,the smoke1 thus mixing with   
the dusty air1 forms a kind of  dark    
cloud1 at the top of which it is        
distinguished from the dust by a        
blueish cast1 the dust retaining more of
 its natural colour4 ,on that  part from
 which the light proceeds1 this mixture 
of air1 smoke1 and  dust1 will appear   
much brighter than on the opposite side4
 ,the more the  combatants are involved 
in this turbulent mist1 the less        
distinctly  they will be seen1 and the  
more confused will they be in their     
lights  and shades4 ,let the faces of   
the musketeers1 their bodies1 and every 
object near them1 be tinged with a      
reddish hue1 even the air or cloud  of  
dust2 in short1 all that surrounds them4

 ,this red tinge you will  diminish1 in 
proportion to their distance1 from the  
primary cause4 ,the  groups of figures1 
which appear at a distance between the  
spectator  and the light1 will form a   
dark mass upon a light ground2 and their
  legs will be more undetermined and    
lost as they approach nearer to the     
ground2 because there the dust is       
heavier and thicker4    ,if you mean to 
represent some straggling horses1       
running out of the  main body1 introduce
 also some small clouds of dust1 as far 
distant  from each other as the leap of 
the horse1 and these little clouds will 
become fainter1 more scanty1 and        
diffused1 in proportion to their        
distance from the horse4 ,that nearest  
to his feet will consequently be  the   
most determined1 smallest1 and the      
thickest of all4    ,let the air be full
 of arrows1 in all directions2 some     
ascending1 some  falling down1 and some 
darting straight forwards4 ,the bullets 
of the  musketry1 though not seen1 will 

be marked in their course by a train  of
 smoke1 which breaks through the general
 confusion4 ,the figures in  the        
fore-ground should have their hair      
covered with dust1 as also their        
eyebrows1 and all parts liable to       
receive it4    ,the victorious party    
will be running forwards1 their hair and
 other  light parts flying in the wind1 
their eyebrows lowered1 and the motion  
of every member properly contrasted2 for
 instance1 in moving the right  foot    
forwards1 the left arm must be brought  
forwards also4 ,if you make  any of them
 fallen down1 mark the trace of his fall
 on the slippery1  gore-stained dust2   
and where the ground is less impregnated
 with blood1  let the print of men's    
feet and of horses1 that have passed    
that  way1 be marked4 ,let there be some
 horses dragging the bodies of their    
riders1 and leaving behind them a       
furrow1 made by the body thus trailed   
along4    ,the countenances of the      
vanquished will appear pale and         

dejected4 ,their  eyebrows raised1 and  
much wrinkled about the forehead and    
cheeks4  ,the tip of their noses        
somewhat divided from the nostrils by   
arched  wrinkles terminating at the     
corner of the eyes1 those wrinkles being
  occasioned by the opening and raising 
of the nostrils2 the upper  lips turned 
up1 discovering the teeth4 ,their mouths
 wide open1 and  expressive of violent  
lamentation4 ,one may be seen fallen    
wounded  on the ground1 endeavouring    
with one hand to support his body1 and  
covering his eyes with the other1 the   
palm of which is turned towards  the    
enemy4 ,others running away1 and with   
open mouths seeming to cry  aloud4      
,between the legs of the combatants let 
the ground be strewed  with all sorts of
 arms2 as broken shields1 spears1       
swords1 and the  like4 ,many dead bodies
 should be introduced1 some entirely    
covered  with dust1 others in part only2
 let the blood1 which seems to issue    
immediately from the wound1 appear of   

its natural colour1 and running  in a   
winding course1 till1 mixing with the   
dust1 it forms a reddish  kind of mud4  
,some should be in the agonies of death2
 their teeth shut1  their eyes wildly   
staring1 their fists clenched1 and their
 legs in a  distorted position4 ,some   
may appear disarmed1 and beaten down by 
the  enemy1 still fighting with their   
fists and teeth1 and endeavouring  to   
take a passionate1 though unavailing    
revenge4 ,there may be also a           
straggling horse without a rider1       
running in wild disorder2 his mane      
flying in the wind1 beating down with   
his feet all before him1 and  doing a   
deal of damage4 ,a wounded soldier may  
also be seen falling to  the ground1 and
 attempting to cover himself with his   
shield1 while an  enemy bending over him
 endeavours to give him the finishing   
stroke4  ,several dead bodies should be 
heaped together under a dead horse4     
,some  of the conquerors1 as having     
ceased fighting1 may be wiping their    

faces  from the dirt1 collected on them 
by the mixture of dust with the water   
from their eyes4    ,the corps de       
reserve will be seen advancing gaily1   
but cautiously1  their eyebrows directed
 forwards1 shading their eyes with their
 hands  to observe the motions of the   
enemy1 amidst clouds of dust and smoke1 
and seeming attentive to the orders of  
their chief4 ,you may also make  their  
commander holding up his staff1 pushing 
forwards1 and pointing  towards the     
place where they are wanted4 ,a river   
may likewise be  introduced1 with horses
 fording it1 dashing the water about    
between  their legs1 and in the air1    
covering all the adjacent ground with   
water  and foam4 ,not a spot is to be   
left without some marks of blood and    
carnage4          _/,chap4              
,,clix4_/--,the ,representation of an   
,orator and his ,audience4      _/,if_/ 
you have to represent a man who is      
speaking to a large assembly of  people1
 you are to consider the subject matter 

of his discourse1 and  to adapt his     
attitude to such subject4 ,if he means  
to persuade1 let it  be known by his    
gesture4 ,if he is giving an            
explanation1 deduced from  several      
reasons1 let him put two fingers of the 
right hand within one  of the left1     
having the other two bent close1 his    
face turned towards  the audience1 with 
the mouth half open1 seeming to speak4  
,if he is  sitting1 let him appear as   
going to raise himself up a little1 and 
his  head be forward4 ,but if he is     
represented standing1 let him bend his  
chest and his head forward towards the  
people4    ,the auditory are to appear  
silent and attentive1 with their eyes   
upon  the speaker1 in the act of        
admiration4 ,there should be some old   
men1  with their mouths close shut1 in  
token of approbation1 and their lips    
pressed together1 so as to form wrinkles
 at the corners of the mouth1  and about
 the cheeks1 and forming others about   
the forehead1 by raising  the eyebrows1 

as if struck with astonishment4 ,some   
others of those  sitting by1 should be  
seated with their hands within each     
other1 round  one of their knees2 some  
with one knee upon the other1 and upon  
that1  one hand receiving the elbow1 the
 other supporting the chin1 covered     
with a venerable beard4                 
_/,chap4 ,,clx4_/--,of demonstrative    
,gestures4      _/,the_/ action by which
 a figure points at any thing near1     
either in  regard to time or situation1 
is to be expressed by the hand very     
little  removed from the body4 ,but if  
the same thing is far distant1 the hand 
must also be far removed from the body1 
and the face of the figure  pointing1   
must be turned towards those to whom he 
is pointing it out4          _/,chap4   
,,clxi4_/--,of the ,attitudes of the    
,by-standers at some remarkable  ,event4
      _/,all_/ those who are present at 
some event deserving notice1 express    
their admiration1 but in various        
manners4 ,as when the hand of justice   

punishes some malefactor4 ,if the       
subject be an act of devotion1 the  eyes
 of all present should be directed      
towards the object of their  adoration1 
aided by a variety of pious actions with
 the other members2  as at the elevation
 of the host at mass1 and other similar 
ceremonies4  ,if it be a laughable      
subject1 or one exciting compassion and 
moving to  tears1 in those cases it will
 not be necessary for all to have their 
eyes turned towards the object1 but they
 will express their feelings  by        
different actions2 and let there be     
several assembled in groups1 to  rejoice
 or lament together4 ,if the event be   
terrific1 let the faces of  those who   
run away from the fight1 be strongly    
expressive of fright1  with various     
motions2 as shall be described in the   
tract on ,motion4          _/,chap4     
,,clxii4_/--,how to represent ,night4   
_/,those_/ objects which are entirely   
deprived of light1 are lost to the      
sight1 as in the night2 therefore if you

 mean to paint a history under  those   
circumstances1 you must suppose a large 
fire1 and those objects  that are near  
it to be tinged with its colour1 and the
 nearer they are  the more they will    
partake of it4 ,the fire being red1 all 
those objects  which receive light from 
it will appear of a reddish colour1 and 
those that are most distant from it will
 partake of the darkness that  surrounds
 them4 ,the figures which are           
represented before the fire will  appear
 dark in proportion to the brightness of
 the fire1 because those  parts of them 
which we see1 are tinged by that        
darkness of the night1  and not by the  
light of the fire1 which they intercept4
 ,those that are  on either side of the 
fire1 will be half in the shade of      
night1 and  half in the red light4      
,those seen beyond the extent of the    
flames1  will be all of a reddish light 
upon a black ground4 ,in regard to their
  attitudes1 let those who are nearest  
the fire1 make screens of their  hands  

and cloaks1 against the scorching heat1 
with their faces turned  on the contrary
 side1 as if ready to run away from it4 
,the most remote  will only be shading  
their eyes with their hands1 as if hurt 
by the too  great glare4                
_/,chap4 ,,clxiii4_/--,the ,method of   
awakening the ,mind to a ,variety of    
,inventions4      _/,i will_/ not omit  
to introduce among these precepts a new 
kind of  speculative invention1 which   
though apparently trifling1 and almost  
laughable1 is nevertheless of great     
utility in assisting the genius to  find
 variety for composition4    ,by looking
 attentively at old and smeared walls1  
or stones and veined  marble of various 
colours1 you may fancy that you see in  
them several  compositions1 landscapes1 
battles1 figures in quick motion1       
strange  countenances1 and dresses1 with
 an infinity of other objects4 ,by these
  confused lines the inventive genius is
 excited to new exertions4              
_/,chap4 ,,clxiv4_/--,of ,composition in

 ,history4      _/,when_/ the painter   
has only a single figure to represent1  
he must avoid  any shortening whatever1 
as well of any particular member1 as of 
the  whole figure1 because he would have
 to contend with the prejudices of      
those who have no knowledge in that     
branch of the art4 ,but in subjects  of 
history1 composed of many figures1      
shortenings may be introduced  with     
great propriety1 nay1 they are          
indispensable1 and ought to be used     
without reserve1 as the subject may     
require2 particularly in battles1  where
 of course many shortenings and         
contortions of figures happen1  amongst 
such an enraged multitude of actors1    
possessed1 as it were1 of  a brutal     
madness4          ,,expression _/and_/  
,,character4      _/,chap4              
,,clxv4_/--,of expressive ,motions4     
_/,let_/ your figures have actions      
appropriated to what they are intended  
to think or say1 and these will be well 
learnt by imitating the deaf1  who by   

the motion of their hands1 eyes1        
eyebrows1 and the whole body1  endeavour
 to express the sentiments of their     
mind4 ,do not ridicule the  thought of a
 master without a tongue teaching you an
 art he does not  understand2 he will do
 it better by his expressive motions1   
than all  the rest by their words and   
examples4 ,let then the painter1 of     
whatever  school1 attend well to this   
maxim1 and apply it to the different    
qualities of the figures he represents1 
and to the nature of the  subject in    
which they are actors4          _/,chap4
 ,,clxvi4_/--,how to paint ,children4   
_/,children_/ are to be represented with
 quick and contorted motions1  when they
 are sitting2 but when standing1 with   
fearful and timid  motions4             
_/,chap4 ,,clxvii4_/--,how to represent 
old ,men4      _/,old_/ men must have   
slow and heavy motions2 their legs and  
knees must  be bent when they are       
standing1 and their feet placed parallel
 and wide  asunder4 ,let them be bowed  

downwards1 the head leaning much        
forward1  and their arms very little    
extended4          _/,chap4             
,,clxviii4_/--,how to paint old ,women4 
_/,old_/ women1 on the contrary1 are to 
be represented bold and quick1  with    
passionate motions1 like furies#cc4 ,but
 the motions are to appear  a great deal
 quicker in their arms than in their    
legs4          _/,chap4 ,,clxix4_/--,how
 to paint ,women4      _/,women_/ are to
 be represented in modest and reserved  
attitudes1 with  their knees rather     
close1 their arms drawing near each     
other1 or folded  about the body2 their 
heads looking downwards1 and leaning a  
little on  one side4          _/,chap4  
,,clxx4_/--,of the ,variety of ,faces4  
_/,the_/ countenances of your figures   
should be expressive of their  different
 situations3 men at work1 at rest1      
weeping1 laughing1 crying  out1 in fear1
 or joy1 and the like4 ,the attitudes   
also1 and all the  members1 ought to    
correspond with the sentiment expressed 

in the faces4          _/,chap4         
,,clxxi4_/--,the ,parts of the ,face1   
and their ,motions4      _/,the_/       
motions of the different parts of the   
face1 occasioned by sudden  agitations  
of the mind1 are many4 ,the principal of
 these are1 ,laughter1  ,weeping1       
,calling out1 ,singing1 either in a high
 or low pitch1  ,admiration1 ,anger1    
,joy1 ,sadness1 ,fear1 ,pain1 and       
others1 of which  ,i propose to treat4  
,first1 of ,laughing and ,weeping1 which
 are very  similar in the motion of the 
mouth1 the cheeks1 the shutting of the  
eyebrows1 and the space between them2 as
 we shall explain in its place1  in     
treating of the changes which happen in 
the face1 hands1 fingers1  and all the  
other parts of the body1 as they are    
affected by the  different emotions of  
the soul2 the knowledge of which is     
absolutely  necessary to a painter1 or  
else his figures may be said to be twice
  dead4 ,but it is very necessary also  
that he be careful not to fall into  the

 contrary extreme2 giving extraordinary 
motions to his figures1 so  that in a   
quiet and peaceable subject1 he does not
 seem to represent a  battle1 or the    
revellings of drunken men3 but1 above   
all1 the actors in  any point of history
 must be attentive to what they are     
about1 or to  what is going forward2    
with actions that denote admiration1    
respect1  pain1 suspicion1 fear1 and    
joy1 according as the occasion1 for     
which  they are brought together1 may   
require4 ,endeavour that different      
points  of history be not placed one    
above the other on the same canvass1 nor
  walls with different horizons#cd1 as  
if it were a jeweller's shop1  shewing  
the goods in different square caskets4  
_/,chap4 ,,clxxii4_/--,laughing and     
,weeping4      _/,between_/ the         
expression of laughter and that of      
weeping there is no  difference in the  
motion of the features either in the    
eyes1 mouth1  or cheeks2 only in the    
ruffling of the brows1 which is added   

when  weeping1 but more elevated and    
extended in laughing4 ,one may represent
  the figure weeping as tearing his     
clothes1 or some other expression1  as  
various as the cause of his feeling may 
be2 because some weep  for anger1 some  
through fear1 others for tenderness and 
joy1 or for  suspicion2 some for real   
pain and torment2 whilst others weep    
through  compassion1 or regret at the   
loss of some friend and near relation4  
,these different feelings will be       
expressed by some with marks of         
despair1 by others with moderation2 some
 only shed tears1 others cry  aloud1    
while another has his face turned       
towards heaven1 with his  hand          
depressed1 and his fingers twisted4     
,some again will be full of             
apprehension1 with their shoulders      
raised up to their ears1 and so on1     
according to the above causes4    ,those
 who weep1 raise the brows1 and bring   
them close together above  the nose1    
forming many wrinkles on the forehead1  

and the corners of the  mouth are turned
 downwards4 ,those who laugh have them  
turned upwards1  and the brows open and 
extended4          _/,chap4             
,,clxxiii4_/--,of ,anger4      _/,if_/  
you represent a man in a violent fit of 
anger1 make him seize  another by the   
hair1 holding his head writhed down     
against the ground1  with his knee fixed
 upon the ribs of his antagonist2 his   
right arm up1  and his fist ready to    
strike2 his hair standing on end1 his   
eyebrows  low and straight2 his teeth   
close1 and seen at the corner of the    
mouth2  his neck swelled1 and his body  
covered in the ,abdomen with creases1   
occasioned by his bending over his      
enemy1 and the excess of his passion4   
_/,chap4 ,,clxxiv4_/--,despair4         
_/,the_/ last act of despondency is1    
when a man is in the act of putting a   
period to his own existence4 ,he should 
be represented with a knife in  one     
hand1 with which he has already         
inflicted the wound1 and tearing it     

open with the other4 ,his garments and  
hair should be already torn4 ,he  will  
be standing with his feet asunder1 his  
knees a little bent1 and  his body      
leaning forward1 as if ready to fall to 
the ground4          ,,light _/and_/    
,,shadow4      _/,chap4 ,,clxxv4_/--,the
 ,course of ,study to be pursued4       
_/,the_/ student who is desirous of     
making great proficiency in the art  of 
imitating the works of ,nature1 should  
not only learn the shape of  figures or 
other objects1 and be able to delineate 
them with truth and  precision1 but he  
must also accompany them with their     
proper lights and  shadows1 according to
 the situation in which those objects   
appear4          _/,chap4               
,,clxxvi4_/--,which of the two is the   
most useful ,knowledge1 the  ,outlines  
of ,figures1 or that of ,light and      
,shadow4      _/,the_/ knowledge of the 
outline is of most consequence1 and yet 
may be  acquired to great certainty by  
dint of study2 as the outlines of the   

different parts of the human figure1    
particularly those which do not  bend1  
are invariably the same4 ,but the       
knowledge of the situation1  quality1   
and quantity of shadows1 being infinite1
 requires the most  extensive study4    
_/,chap4 ,,clxxvii4_/--,which is the    
most important1 the ,shadows or         
,outlines  in ,painting4      _/,it_/   
requires much more observation and study
 to arrive at perfection  in the        
shadowing of a picture1 than in merely  
drawing the lines of it4  ,the proof of 
this is1 that the lines may be traced   
upon a veil or a  flat glass placed     
between the eye and the object to be    
imitated4 ,but  that cannot be of any   
use in shadowing1 on account of the     
infinite  gradation of shades1 and the  
blending of them1 which does not allow  
of  any precise termination2 and most   
frequently they are confused1 as will   
be demonstrated in another place#ce4    
_/,chap4 ,,clxxviii4_/--,what is a      
,painter's first ,aim1 and ,object4     

_/,the_/ first object of a painter is to
 make a simple flat surface appear  like
 a relievo1 and some of its parts       
detached from the ground2 he  who excels
 all others in that part of the art1    
deserves the greatest  praise4 ,this    
perfection of the art depends on the    
correct distribution  of lights and     
shades1 called ,chiaro-scuro4 ,if the   
painter then avoids  shadows1 he may be 
said to avoid the glory of the art1 and 
to render  his work despicable to real  
connoisseurs1 for the sake of acquiring 
the  esteem of vulgar and ignorant      
admirers of fine colours1 who never have
  any knowledge of relievo4             
_/,chap4 ,,clxxix4_/--,the ,difference  
of ,superficies1 in regard to ,painting4
      _/,solid_/ bodies are of two      
sorts3 the one has the surface          
curvilinear1  oval1 or spherical2 the   
other has several surfaces1 or sides    
producing  angles1 either regular or    
irregular4 ,spherical1 or oval bodies1  
will  always appear detached from their 

ground1 though they are exactly of  the 
same colour4 ,bodies also of different  
sides and angles will always  detach1   
because they are always disposed so as  
to produce shades on  some of their     
sides1 which cannot happen to a plain   
superficies#cf4          _/,chap4       
,,clxxx4_/--,how a ,painter may become  
universal4      _/,the_/ painter who    
wishes to be universal1 and please a    
variety of  judges1 must unite in the   
same composition1 objects susceptible of
  great force in the shadows1 and great 
sweetness in the management of  them2   
accounting1 however1 in every instance1 
for such boldness and  softenings4      
_/,chap4 ,,clxxxi4_/--,accuracy ought to
 be learnt before ,dispatch in the      
,execution4      _/,if_/ you wish to    
make good and useful studies1 use great 
deliberation  in your drawings1 observe 
well among the lights which1 and how    
many1  hold the first rank in point of  
brightness2 and so among the shadows1   
which are darker than others1 and in    

what manner they blend together2        
compare the quality and quantity of one 
with the other1 and observe  to what    
part they are directed4 ,be careful also
 in your outlines1 or  divisions of the 
members4 ,remark well what quantity of  
parts are to be  on one side1 and what  
on the other2 and where they are more or
 less  apparent1 or broad1 or slender4  
,lastly1 take care that the shadows and 
lights be united1 or lost in each other2
 without any hard strokes1 or  lines3 as
 smoke loses itself in the air1 so are  
your lights and shadows  to pass from   
the one to the other1 without any       
apparent separation4    ,when you have  
acquired the habit1 and formed your hand
 to accuracy1  quickness of execution   
will come of itself#cg4                 
_/,chap4 ,,clxxxii4_/--,how the ,painter
 is to place himself in regard to the   
,light1 and his ,model4      _/,let_/ ,a
 ,b be the window1 ,m the centre of it1 
,c the model4 ,the best  situation for  
the painter will be a little sideways1  

between the window  and his model1 as   
,d1 so that he may see his object partly
 in the light  and partly in the shadow4
    ,illustration          _/,chap4     
,,clxxxiii4_/--,of the best ,light4     
_/,the_/ light from on high1 and not too
 powerful1 will be found the best       
calculated to shew the parts to         
advantage4          _/,chap4            
,,clxxxiv4_/--,of ,drawing by           
,candle-light4      _/,to_/ this        
artificial light apply a paper blind1   
and you will see the  shadows           
undetermined and soft4          _/,chap4
 ,,clxxxv4_/--,of those ,painters who   
draw at ,home from one ,light1  and     
afterwards adapt their ,studies to      
another ,situation in the ,country1  and
 a different ,light4      _/,it_/ is a  
great error in some painters who draw a 
figure from ,nature at  home1 by any    
particular light1 and afterwards make   
use of that drawing  in a picture       
representing an open country1 which     
receives the general  light of the sky1 

where the surrounding air gives light on
 all sides4  ,this painter would put    
dark shadows1 where ,nature would either
 produce  none1 or1 if any1 so very     
faint as to be almost imperceptible2 and
 he  would throw reflected lights where 
it is impossible there should be any4   
_/,chap4 ,,clxxxvi4_/--,how high the    
,light should be in drawing from        
,nature4      _/,to_/ paint well from   
,nature1 your window should be to the   
,north1 that  the lights may not vary4  
,if it be to the ,south1 you must have  
paper  blinds1 that the sun1 in going   
round1 may not alter the shadows4 ,the  
situation of the light should be such as
 to produce upon the ground a  shadow   
from your model as long as that is high4
          _/,chap4 ,,clxxxvii4_/--,what 
,light the ,painter must make use of to 
give  most ,relief to his ,figures4     
_/,the_/ figures which receive a        
particular light shew more relief than  
those which receive an universal one2   
because the particular light  occasions 

some reflexes1 which proceed from the   
light of one object  upon the shadows of
 another1 and helps to detach it from   
the dark  ground4 ,but a figure placed  
in front of a dark and large space1 and 
receiving a particular light1 can       
receive no reflexion from any other     
objects1 and nothing is seen of the     
figure but what the light strikes  on1  
the rest being blended and lost in the  
darkness of the back ground4  ,this is  
to be applied only to the imitation of  
night subjects with very  little light4 
_/,chap4 ,,clxxxviii4_/--,advice to     
,painters4      _/,be_/ very careful1 in
 painting1 to observe1 that between the 
shadows  there are other shadows1 almost
 imperceptible1 both for darkness and   
shape2 and this is proved by the third  
proposition#ch1 which says1  that the   
surfaces of globular or convex bodies   
have as great a variety  of lights and  
shadows as the bodies that surround them
 have4          _/,chap4                
,,clxxxix4_/--,of ,shadows4             

_/,those_/ shadows which in ,nature are 
undetermined1 and the extremities of    
which can hardly be perceived1 are to be
 copied in your painting in  the same   
manner1 never to be precisely finished1 
but left confused and  blended4 ,this   
apparent neglect will shew great        
judgment1 and be the  ingenious result  
of your observation of ,nature4         
_/,chap4 ,,cxc4_/--,of the ,kind of     
,light proper for drawing from          
,relievos1  or from ,nature4            
_/,lights_/ separated from the shadows  
with too much precision1 have a  very   
bad effect4 ,in order1 therefore1 to    
avoid this inconvenience1  if the object
 be in the open country1 you need not   
let your figures  be illumined by the   
sun2 but may suppose some transparent   
clouds  interposed1 so that the sun not 
being visible1 the termination of the   
shadows will be also imperceptible and  
soft4          _/,chap4                 
,,cxci4_/--,whether the ,light should be
 admitted in ,front or  sideways2 and   

which is most pleasing and graceful4    
_/,the_/ light admitted in front of     
heads situated opposite to side walls   
that are dark1 will cause them to have  
great relievo1 particularly if  the     
light be placed high2 and the reason is1
 that the most prominent  parts of those
 faces are illumined by the general     
light striking them  in front1 which    
light produces very faint shadows on the
 part where it  strikes2 but as it turns
 towards the sides1 it begins to        
participate  of the dark shadows of the 
room1 which grow darker in proportion as
  it sinks into them4 ,besides1 when the
 light comes from on high1 it  does not 
strike on every part of the face alike1 
but one part produces  great shadows    
upon another2 as the eyebrows1 which    
deprive the whole  sockets of the eyes  
of light4 ,the nose keeps it off from   
great part of  the mouth1 and the chin  
from the neck1 and such other parts4    
,this1 by  concentrating the light upon 
the most projecting parts1 produces a   

very  great relief4          _/,chap4   
,,cxcii4_/--,of the ,difference of      
,lights according to the  ,situation4   
_/,a small_/ light will cast large and  
determined shadows upon the  surrounding
 bodies4 ,a large light1 on the         
contrary1 will cast small  shadows on   
them1 and they will be much confused in 
their termination4  ,when a small but   
strong light is surrounded by a broad   
but weaker  light1 the latter will      
appear like a demi-tint to the other1 as
 the sky  round the sun4 ,and the bodies
 which receive the light from the one1  
will serve as demi-tints to those which 
receive the light from the  other4      
_/,chap4 ,,cxciii4_/--,how to distribute
 the ,light on ,figures4      _/,the_/  
lights are to be distributed according  
to the natural situation  you mean your 
figures should occupy4 ,if you suppose  
them in sunshine1  the shades must be   
dark1 the lights broad and extended1 and
 the shadows  of all the surrounding    
objects distinctly marked upon the      

ground4 ,if  seen in a gloomy day1 there
 will be very little difference between 
the lights and shades1 and no shadows at
 the feet4 ,if the figures  be          
represented within doors1 the lights and
 shadows will again be  distinctly      
divided1 and produce shadows on the     
ground4 ,but if you  suppose a paper    
blind at the window1 and the walls      
painted white1  the effect will be the  
same as in a gloomy day1 when the lights
 and  shadows have little difference4   
,if the figures are enlightened by the  
fire1 the lights must be red and        
powerful1 the shadows dark1 and the     
shadows upon the ground and upon the    
walls must be precise2 observing  that  
they spread wider as they go off from   
the body4 ,if the figures  be           
enlightened1 partly by the sky and      
partly by the fire1 that side  which    
receives the light from the sky will be 
the brightest1 and on  the other side it
 will be reddish1 somewhat of the colour
 of the fire4  ,above all1 contrive1    

that your figures receive a broad light1
 and that  from above2 particularly in  
portraits1 because the people we see in 
the  street receive all the light from  
above2 and it is curious to observe1    
that there is not a face ever so well   
known amongst your acquaintance1  but   
would be recognised with difficulty1 if 
it were enlightened from  beneath4      
_/,chap4 ,,cxciv4_/--,of the ,beauty of 
,faces4      _/,you_/ must not mark any 
muscles with hardness of line1 but let  
the  soft light glide upon them1 and    
terminate imperceptibly in delightful   
shadows3 from this will arise grace and 
beauty to the face4          _/,chap4   
,,cxcv4_/--,how1 in drawing a ,face1 to 
give it ,grace1 by the  ,management of  
,light and ,shade4      _/,a face_/     
placed in the dark part of a room1      
acquires great additional  grace by     
means of light and shadow4 ,the shadowed
 part of the face  blends with the      
darkness of the ground1 and the light   
part receives  an increase of brightness

 from the open air1 the shadows on this 
side  becoming almost insensible2 and   
from this augmentation of light and     
shadow1 the face has much relief1 and   
acquires great beauty4          _/,chap4
 ,,cxcvi4_/--,how to give ,grace and    
,relief to ,faces4      _/,in_/ streets 
running towards the west1 when the sun  
is in the meridian1  and the walls on   
each side so high that they cast no     
reflexions on that  side of the bodies  
which is in shade1 and the sky is not   
too bright1  we find the most           
advantageous situation for giving relief
 and grace to  figures1 particularly to 
faces2 because both sides of the face   
will  participate of the shadows of the 
walls4 ,the sides of the nose and  the  
face towards the west1 will be light1   
and the man whom we suppose  placed at  
the entrance1 and in the middle of the  
street1 will see all  the parts of that 
face1 which are before him1 perfectly   
illumined1  while both sides of it1     
towards the walls1 will be in shadow4   

,what  gives additional grace is1 that  
these shades do not appear cutting1     
hard1 or dry1 but softly blended and    
lost in each other4 ,the reason of  it  
is1 that the light which is spread all  
over in the air1 strikes also  the      
pavement of the street1 and reflecting  
upon the shady part of the  face1 it    
tinges that slightly with the same hue3 
while the great light  which comes from 
above being confined by the tops of     
houses1 strikes  on the face from       
different points1 almost to the very    
beginning of  the shadows under the     
projecting parts of the face4 ,it       
diminishes by  degrees the strength of  
them1 increasing the light till it comes
 upon  the chin1 where it terminates1   
and loses itself1 blending softly into  
the shades on all sides4 ,for instance1 
if such light were ,a ,e1 the line  ,f  
,e would give light even to the bottom  
of the nose4 ,the line ,c ,f will  give 
light only to the under lip2 but the    
line ,a ,h would extend the  shadow to  

all the under parts of the face1 and    
under the chin4    ,in this situation   
the nose receives a very strong light   
from all the  points ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e4    
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cxcvii4_/--,of the ,termination of    
,bodies upon each other4      _/,when_/ 
a body1 of a cylindrical or convex      
surface1 terminates upon  another body  
of the same colour1 it will appear      
darker on the edge1  than the body upon 
which it terminates4 ,and any flat body1
 adjacent to  a white surface1 will     
appear very dark2 but upon a dark ground
 it will  appear lighter than any other 
part1 though the lights be equal4       
_/,chap4 ,,cxcviii4_/--,of the          
,back-grounds of painted ,objects4      
_/,the_/ ground which surrounds the     
figures in any painting1 ought to  be   
darker than the light part of those     
figures1 and lighter than the  shadowed 
part4          _/,chap4 ,,cxcix4_/--,how
 to detach and bring forward ,figures   
out of their  ,back-ground4      _/,if_/

 your figure be dark1 place it on a     
light ground2 if it be light1  upon a   
dark ground2 and if it be partly light  
and partly dark1 as is  generally the   
case1 contrive that the dark part of the
 figure be upon  the light part of the  
ground1 and the light side of it against
 the  dark#ci4          _/,chap4        
,,cc4_/--,of proper ,back-grounds4      
_/,it_/ is of the greatest importance to
 consider well the nature of            
back-grounds1 upon which any opake body 
is to be placed4 ,in order to  detach it
 properly1 you should place the light   
part of such opake body  against the    
dark part of the back-ground1 and the   
dark parts on a light  ground#dj2 as in 
the cut#da4    ,illustration            
_/,chap4 ,,cci4_/--,of the general      
,light diffused over ,figures4          
_/,in_/ compositions of many figures and
 animals1 observe1 that the parts  of   
these different objects ought to be     
darker in proportion as they are  lower1
 and as they are nearer the middle of   

the groups1 though they  are all of an  
uniform colour4 ,this is necessary1     
because a smaller  portion of the sky   
7from which all bodies are illuminated7 
can give  light to the lower spaces     
between these different figures1 than to
 the  upper parts of the spaces4 ,it is 
proved thus3 ,a ,b ,c ,d is that portion
  of the sky which gives light to all   
the objects beneath2 ,m and ,n are  the 
bodies which occupy the space ,s ,t ,r  
,h1 in which it is evidently  perceived1
 that the point ,f1 receiving the light 
only from the portion  of the sky ,c ,d1
 has a smaller quantity of it than the  
point ,e which  receives it from the    
whole space ,a ,b 7a larger portion than
 ,c ,d72  therefore it will be lighter  
in ,e than in ,f4    ,illustration      
_/,chap4 ,,ccii4_/--,of those ,parts in 
,shadows which appear the darkest at a  
,distance4      ,illustration           
_/,the_/ neck1 or any other part which  
is raised straight upwards1 and  has a  
projection over it1 will be darker than 

the perpendicular  front of that        
projection2 and this projecting part    
will be lighter1  in proportion as it   
presents a larger surface to the light4 
,for  instance1 the recess ,a receives  
no light from any part of the sky ,g    
,k1 but ,b begins to receive the light  
from the part of the sky ,h ,k1  and ,c 
from ,g ,k2 and the point ,d receives   
the whole of ,f ,k4 ,therefore  the     
chest will be as light as the forehead1 
nose1 and chin4 ,but what  ,i have      
particularly to recommend1 in regard to 
faces1 is1 that you  observe well those 
different qualities of shades which are 
lost at  different distances 7while     
there remain only the first and         
principal  spots or strokes of shades1  
such as those of the sockets of the     
eyes1  and other similar recesses1 which
 are always dark71 and at last the      
whole face becomes obscured2 because the
 greatest lights 7being small  in       
proportion to the demi-tints7 are lost4 
,the quality1 therefore1  and quantity  

of the principal lights and shades are  
by means of great  distance blended     
together into a general half-tint2 and  
this is the  reason why trees and other 
objects are found to be in appearance   
darker  at some distance than they are  
in reality1 when nearer to the eye4     
,but then the air1 which interposes     
between the objects and the eye1  will  
render them light again by tinging them 
with azure1 rather in the  shades than  
in the lights2 for the lights will      
preserve the truth of  the different    
colours much longer4          _/,chap4  
,,cciii4_/--,of the ,eye viewing the    
,folds of ,draperies surrounding  a     
,figure4      _/,the_/ shadows between  
the folds of a drapery surrounding the  
parts of  the human body will be darker 
as the deep hollows where the shadows   
are  generated are more directly        
opposite the eye4 ,this is to be        
observed  only when the eye is placed   
between the light and the shady part of 
the  figure4          _/,chap4          

,,cciv4_/--,of the ,relief of ,figures  
remote from the ,eye4      _/,any_/     
opake body appears less relieved in     
proportion as it is farther  distant    
from the eye2 because the air1          
interposed between the eye  and such    
body1 being lighter than the shadow of  
it1 it tarnishes and  weakens that      
shadow1 lessens its power1 and          
consequently lessens also  its relief4  
_/,chap4 ,,ccv4_/--,of ,outlines of     
,objects on the ,side towards the       
,light4      _/,the_/ extremities of any
 object on the side which receives the  
light1  will appear darker if upon a    
lighter ground1 and lighter if seen upon
 a  darker ground4 ,but if such body be 
flat1 and seen upon a ground equal  in  
point of light with itself1 and of the  
same colour1 such boundaries1  or       
outlines1 will be entirely lost to the  
sight#db4          _/,chap4             
,,ccvi4_/--,how to make ,objects detach 
from their ,ground1 that is  to say1    
from the ,surface on which they are     

painted4      _/,objects_/ contrasted   
with a light ground will appear much    
more detached  than those which are     
placed against a dark one4 ,the reason  
is1 that  if you wish to give relief to 
your figures1 you will make those parts 
which are the farthest from the light1  
participate the least of it2  therefore 
they will remain the darkest1 and every 
distinction of  outline would be lost in
 the general mass of shadows4 ,but to   
give it  grace1 roundness1 and effect1  
those dark shades are always attended by
  reflexes1 or else they would either   
cut too hard upon the ground1 or  stick 
to it1 by the similarity of shade1 and  
relieve the less as the  ground is      
darker2 for at some distance nothing    
would be seen but the  light parts1     
therefore your figures would appear     
mutilated of all that  remains lost in  
the back-ground4          ,,contraste   
,,and ,,effect4      _/,chap4           
,,ccvii4_/--,a ,precept4                
_/,figures_/ will have more grace1      

placed in the open and general light1   
than in any particular or small one2    
because the powerful and  extended light
 will surround and embrace the objects3 
and works done  in that kind of light   
appear pleasant and graceful when placed
 at a  distance#dc1 while those which   
are drawn in a narrow light1 will       
receive great force of shadow1 but will 
never appear at a great  distance1 but  
as painted objects4          _/,chap4   
,,ccviii4_/--,of the ,interposition of  
transparent ,bodies between  the ,eye   
and the ,object4      _/,the_/ greater  
the transparent interposition is between
 the eye and the  object1 the more the  
colour of that object will participate  
of1 or be  changed into that of the     
transparent medium#dd4    ,when an opake
 body is situated between the eye and   
the luminary1 so  that the central line 
of the one passes also through the      
centre of the  other1 that object will  
be entirely deprived of light4          
_/,chap4 ,,ccix4_/--,of proper          

,back-grounds for ,figures4      _/,as_/
 we find by experience1 that all bodies 
are surrounded by lights  and shadows1  
,i would have the painter to accommodate
 that part which is  enlightened1 so as 
to terminate upon something dark2 and to
 manage the  dark parts so that they may
 terminate on a light ground4 ,this will
 be  of great assistance in detaching   
and bringing out his figures#de4        
_/,chap4 ,,ccx4_/--,of ,back-grounds4   
_/,to_/ give a great effect to figures1 
you must oppose to a light one a  dark  
ground1 and to a dark figure a light    
ground1 contrasting white  with black1  
and black with white4 ,in general1 all  
contraries give a  particular force and 
brilliancy of effect by their           
opposition#df4          ,,reflexes4     
_/,chap4 ,,ccxi4_/--,of ,objects placed 
on a light ,ground1 and why such a      
,practice is useful in ,painting4       
_/,when_/ a darkish body terminates upon
 a light ground1 it will appear         
detached from that ground2 because all  

opake bodies of a curved  surface are   
not only dark on that side which        
receives no light1 and  consequently    
very different from the ground2 but even
 that side of the  curved surface which 
is enlightened1 will not carry its      
principal light  to the extremities1 but
 have between the ground and the        
principal light  a certain demi-tint1   
darker than either the ground or that   
light4          _/,chap4 ,,ccxii4_/--,of
 the different ,effects of ,white1      
according to the  ,difference of        
,back-grounds4      _/,any_/ thing white
 will appear whiter1 by being opposed to
 a dark  ground2 and1 on the contrary1  
darker upon a light ground4 ,this we    
learn  from observing snow as it falls2 
while it is descending it appears       
darker against the sky1 than when we see
 it against an open window1  which      
7owing to the darkness of the inside of 
the house7 makes it  appear very white4 
,observe also1 that snow appears to fall
 very quick  and in a great quantity    

when near the eye2 but when at some     
distance1  it seems to come down slowly1
 and in a smaller quantity#dg4          
_/,chap4 ,,ccxiii4_/--,of               
,reverberation4      _/,reverberations_/
 are produced by all bodies of a bright 
nature1 that  have a smooth and         
tolerably hard surface1 which1 repelling
 the light it  receives1 makes it       
rebound like a foot-ball against the    
first object  opposed to it4            
_/,chap4 ,,ccxiv4_/--,where there cannot
 be any ,reverberation of ,light4       
_/,the_/ surfaces of hard bodies are    
surrounded by various qualities of      
light and shadow4 ,the lights are of two
 sorts2 one is called original1  the    
other derivative4 ,the original light is
 that which comes from the  sun1 or the 
brightness of fire1 or else from the    
air4 ,the derivative is  a reflected    
light4 ,but to return to our definition1
 ,i say1 there can  be no reflexion on  
that side which is turned towards any   
dark body2  such as roofs1 either high  

or low1 shrubs1 grass1 wood1 either dry 
or green2 because1 though every         
individual part of those objects be     
turned towards the original light1 and  
struck by it2 yet the quantity  of      
shadow which every one of these parts   
produces upon the others1 is  so great1 
that1 upon the whole1 the light1 not    
forming a compact mass1  loses its      
effect1 so that those objects cannot    
reflect any light upon  the opposite    
bodies4          _/,chap4 ,,ccxv4_/--,in
 what ,part the ,reflexes have more or  
less ,brightness4      _/,the_/         
reflected lights will be more or less   
apparent or bright1 in  proportion as   
they are seen against a darker or       
fainter ground2 because  if the ground  
be darker than the reflex1 then this    
reflex will appear  stronger on account 
of the great difference of colour4 ,but1
 on the  contrary1 if this reflexion has
 behind it a ground lighter than itself1
  it will appear dark1 in comparison to 
the brightness which is close to  it1   

and therefore it will be hardly         
perceptible#dh4          _/,chap4       
,,ccxvi4_/--,of the reflected ,lights   
which surround the ,shadows4            
_/,the_/ reflected lights which strike  
upon the midst of shadows1 will         
brighten up or lessen their obscurity in
 proportion to the strength  of those   
lights1 and their proximity to those    
shadows4 ,many painters  neglect this   
observation1 while others attend to and 
deduce their  practice from it4 ,this   
difference of opinion and practice      
divides the  sentiments of artists1 so  
that they blame each other for not      
thinking  and acting as they themselves 
do4 ,the best way is to steer a middle  
course1 and not to admit of any         
reflected light1 but when the cause of  
it is evident to every eye2 and vice    
vers1 if you introduce none  at all1 let
 it appear evident that there was no    
reasonable cause for  it4 ,in doing so1 
you will neither be totally blamed nor  
praised by the  variety of opinion1     

which1 if not proceeding from entire    
ignorance1  will ensure to you the      
approbation of both parties4            
_/,chap4 ,,ccxvii4_/--,where ,reflexes  
are to be most apparent4      _/,of_/   
all reflected lights1 that is to be the 
most apparent1 bold1 and  precise1 which
 detaches from the darkest ground2 and1 
on the contrary1  that which is upon a  
lighter ground will be less apparent4   
,and this  proceeds from the contraste  
of shades1 by which the faintest makes  
the  dark ones appear still darker2 so  
in contrasted lights1 the brightest     
cause the others to appear less bright  
than they really are#di4                
_/,chap4 ,,ccxviii4_/--,what ,part of a 
,reflex is to be the lightest4          
_/,that_/ part will be the brightest    
which receives the reflected light      
between angles the most nearly equal4   
,for example1 let ,n be the  luminary1  
and ,a ,b the illuminated part of the   
object1 reflecting the  light over all  
the shady part of the concavity opposite

 to it4 ,the  light which reflects upon 
,f will be placed between equal angles4 
,but  ,e at the base will not be        
reflected by equal angles1 as it is     
evident  that the angle ,e ,a ,b is more
 obtuse than the angle ,e ,b ,a4 ,the   
angle  ,a ,f ,b however1 though it is   
between angles of less quality than the 
angle ,e1 and has a common base ,b ,a1  
is between angles more nearly equal     
than ,e1 therefore it will be lighter in
 ,f than in ,e2 and it will also  be    
brighter1 because it is nearer to the   
part which gives them light4  ,according
 to the #fth rule#ej1 which says1 that  
part of the body is to  be the lightest1
 which is nearest to the luminary4      
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,ccxix4_/--,of the ,termination of     
,reflexes on their ,grounds4            
_/,the_/ termination of a reflected     
light on a ground lighter than that     
reflex1 will not be perceivable2 but if 
such a reflex terminates upon a  ground 
darker than itself1 it will be plainly  

seen2 and the more so in  proportion as 
that ground is darker1 and vice         
versa#ea4          _/,chap4             
,,ccxx4_/--,of double and treble        
,reflexions of ,light4      _/,double_/ 
reflexes are stronger than single ones1 
and the shadows which  interpose between
 the common light and these reflexes are
 very faint4  ,for instance1 let ,a be  
the luminous body1 ,a ,n1 ,a ,s1 are the
 direct  rays1 and ,s ,n the parts which
 receive the light from them4 ,o and ,e 
are  the places enlightened by the      
reflexion of that light in those parts4 
,a ,n ,e is a single reflex1 but ,a ,n  
,o1 ,a ,s ,o is the double reflex4 ,the 
single reflex is that which proceeds    
from a single light1 but the  double    
reflexion is produced by two different  
lights4 ,the single one  ,e is produced 
by the light striking on ,b ,d1 while   
the double one ,o  proceeds from the    
enlightened bodies ,b ,d and ,d ,r      
co-operating together2  and the shadows 
which are between ,n ,o and ,s ,o will  

be very faint4    ,illustration         
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxi4_/--,reflexes in the   
,water1 and particularly those of the   
,air4      _/,the_/ only portion of air 
that will be seen reflected in the      
water1  will be that which is reflected 
by the surface of the water to the eye  
between equal angles2 that is to say1   
the angle of incidence must be  equal to
 the angle of reflexion4                
,,colours _/and_/ ,,colouring4          
,,colours4      _/,chap4                
,,ccxxii4_/--,what ,surface is best     
calculated to receive most  ,colours4   
_/,white_/ is more capable of receiving 
all sorts of colours1 than the  surface 
of any body whatever1 that is not       
transparent4 ,to prove it1 we  shall    
say1 that any void space is capable of  
receiving what another  space1 not void1
 cannot receive4 ,in the same manner1 a 
white surface1  like a void space1 being
 destitute of any colour1 will be       
fittest to  receive such as are conveyed
 to it from any other enlightened body1 

and  will participate more of the colour
 than black can do2 which latter1  like 
a broken vessel1 is not able to contain 
any thing4          _/,chap4            
,,ccxxiii4_/--,what ,surface will shew  
most perfectly its true  ,colour4       
_/,that_/ opake body will shew its      
colour more perfect and beautiful1      
which has near it another body of the   
same colour4          _/,chap4          
,,ccxxiv4_/--,on what ,surfaces the true
 ,colour is least apparent4             
_/,polished_/ and glossy surfaces shew  
least of their genuine colour4 ,this  is
 exemplified in the grass of the fields1
 and the leaves of trees1  which1 being 
smooth and glossy1 will reflect the     
colour of the sun1 and  the air1 where  
they strike1 so that the parts which    
receive the light  do not shew their    
natural colour4          _/,chap4       
,,ccxxv4_/--,what ,surfaces shew most of
 their true and genuine  ,colour4       
_/,those_/ objects that are the least   
smooth and polished shew their  natural 

colours best2 as we see in cloth1 and in
 the leaves of such  grass or trees as  
are of a woolly nature2 which1 having no
 lustre1  are exhibited to the eye in   
their true natural colour2 unless that  
colour happen to be confused by that of 
another body casting on them  reflexions
 of an opposite colour1 such as the     
redness of the setting  sun1 when all   
the clouds are tinged with its colour4  
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxvi4_/--,of the ,mixture  
of ,colours4      _/,although_/ the     
mixture of colours may be extended to an
 infinite  variety1 almost impossible to
 be described1 ,i will not omit touching
  slightly upon it1 setting down at     
first a certain number of simple        
colours to serve as a foundation1 and   
with each of these mixing one  of the   
others2 one with one1 then two with two1
 and three with three1  proceeding in   
this manner to the full mixture of all  
the colors  together3 then ,i would     
begin again1 mixing two of these colours
 with  two others1 and three with three1

 four with four1 and so on to the end4  
,to these two colours we shall put      
three2 to these three add three more1   
and then six1 increasing always in the  
same proportion4    ,i call those simple
 colours1 which are not composed1 and   
cannot be made  or supplied by any      
mixture of other colours4 ,black and    
,white are not  reckoned among colours2 
the one is the representative of        
darkness1 the  other of light3 that is1 
one is a simple privation of light1 the 
other  is light itself4 ,yet ,i will not
 omit mentioning them1 because there is 
nothing in painting more useful and     
necessary2 since painting is but an     
effect produced by lights and shadows1  
viz4 chiaro-scuro4 ,after ,black  and   
,white come ,blue and ,yellow1 then     
,green1 and ,tawny or ,umber1 and  then 
,purple and ,red4 ,these eight colours  
are all that ,nature produces4  ,with   
these ,i begin my mixtures1 first ,black
 and ,white1 ,black and  ,yellow1 ,black
 and ,red2 then ,yellow and ,red3 but ,i

 shall treat more at  length of these   
mixtures in a separate work#eb1 which   
will be of great  utility1 nay very     
necessary4 ,i shall place this subject  
between theory  and practice4           
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxvii4_/--,of the ,colours 
produced by the ,mixture of other       
,colours1 called secondary ,colours4    
_/,the_/ first of all simple colours is 
,white1 though philosophers will  not   
acknowledge either ,white or ,black to  
be colours2 because the first  is the   
cause1 or the receiver of colours1 the  
other totally deprived  of them4 ,but as
 painters cannot do without either1 we  
shall place them  among the others2 and 
according to this order of things1      
,white will  be the first1 ,yellow the  
second1 ,green the third1 ,blue the     
fourth1  ,red the fifth1 and ,black the 
sixth4 ,we shall set down ,white for the
  representative of light1 without which
 no colour can be seen2 ,yellow  for the
 earth2 ,green for water2 ,blue for air2
 ,red for fire2 and ,black  for total   

darkness4    ,if you wish to see by a   
short process the variety of all the    
mixed1 or  composed colours1 take some  
coloured glasses1 and1 through them1    
look  at all the country round3 you will
 find that the colour of each object    
will be altered and mixed with the      
colour of the glass through which it  is
 seen2 observe which colour is made     
better1 and which is hurt by the        
mixture4 ,if the glass be yellow1 the   
colour of the objects may either  be    
improved1 or greatly impaired by it4    
,black and ,white will be most  altered1
 while ,green and ,yellow will be       
meliorated4 ,in the same manner  you may
 go through all the mixtures of colours1
 which are infinite4  ,select those     
which are new and agreeable to the      
sight2 and following  the same method   
you may go on with two glasses1 or      
three1 till you have  found what will   
best answer your purpose4               
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxviii4_/--,of ,verdegris4 
_/,this_/ green1 which is made of       

copper1 though it be mixed with oil1    
will lose its beauty1 if it be not      
varnished immediately4 ,it not only     
fades1 but1 if washed with a sponge and 
pure water only1 it will detach  from   
the ground upon which it is painted1    
particularly in damp weather2  because  
verdegris is produced by the strength of
 salts1 which easily  dissolve in rainy 
weather1 but still more if washed with a
 wet sponge4          _/,chap4          
,,ccxxix4_/--,how to increase the       
,beauty of ,verdegris4      _/,if_/ you 
mix with the ,verdegris some ,caballine 
,aloe1 it will add to it  a great degree
 of beauty4 ,it would acquire still more
 from ,saffron1 if  it did not fade4    
,the quality and goodness of this ,aloe 
will be proved  by dissolving it in warm
 ,brandy4 ,supposing the ,verdegris has 
already  been used1 and the part        
finished1 you may then glaze it thinly  
with  this dissolved ,aloe1 and it will 
produce a very fine colour4 ,this ,aloe 
may be ground also in oil by itself1 or 

with the ,verdegris1 or any  other      
colour1 at pleasure4          _/,chap4  
,,ccxxx4_/--,how to paint a ,picture    
that will last almost for ever4         
_/,after_/ you have made a drawing of   
your intended picture1 prepare a  good  
and thick priming with pitch and        
brickdust well pounded2 after  which    
give it a second coat of white lead and 
,naples yellow2 then1  having traced    
your drawing upon it1 and painted your  
picture1 varnish  it with clear and     
thick old oil1 and stick it to a flat   
glass1 or  crystal1 with a clear        
varnish4 ,another method1 which may be  
better1  is1 instead of the priming of  
pitch and brickdust1 take a flat tile   
well vitrified1 then apply the coat of  
white and ,naples yellow1 and all  the  
rest as before4 ,but before the glass is
 applied to it1 the painting  must be   
perfectly dried in a stove1 and         
varnished with nut oil and  amber1 or   
else with purified nut oil alone1       
thickened in the sun#ec4                

_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxi4_/--,the ,mode of     
painting on ,canvass1 or ,linen         
,cloth#ed4      _/,stretch_/ your       
canvass upon a frame1 then give it a    
coat of weak size1  let it dry1 and draw
 your outlines upon it4 ,paint the flesh
 colours  first2 and while it is still  
fresh or moist1 paint also the shadows1 
well softened and blended together4 ,the
 flesh colour may be made with  white1  
lake1 and ,naples yellow4 ,the shades   
with black1 umber1 and  a little lake2  
you may1 if you please1 use black chalk4
 ,after you  have softened this first   
coat1 or dead colour1 and let it dry1   
you  may retouch over it with lake and  
other colours1 and gum water that  has  
been a long while made and kept liquid1 
because in that state it  becomes       
better1 and does not leave any gloss4   
,again1 to make the shades  darker1 take
 the lake and gum as above1 and ink#ee2 
and with this you  may shade or glaze   
many colours1 because it is transparent2
 such as  azure1 lake1 and several      

others4 ,as for the lights1 you may     
retouch  or glaze them slightly with gum
 water and pure lake1 particularly      
vermilion4          _/,chap4            
,,ccxxxii4_/--,of lively and beautiful  
,colours4      _/,for_/ those colours   
which you mean should appear beautiful1 
prepare a  ground of pure white4 ,this  
is meant only for transparent colours3  
as  for those that have a body1 and are 
opake1 it matters not what ground  they 
have1 and a white one is of no use4     
,this is exemplified by painted         
glasses2 when placed between the eye and
 clear air1 they exhibit most  excellent
 and beautiful colours1 which is not the
 case1 when they have  thick air1 or    
some opake body behind them4            
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxiii4_/--,of transparent 
,colours4      _/,when_/ a transparent  
colour is laid upon another of a        
different  nature1 it produces a mixed  
colour1 different from either of the    
simple ones which compose it4 ,this is  
observed in the smoke coming  out of a  

chimney1 which1 when passing before the 
black soot1 appears  blueish1 but as it 
ascends against the blue of the sky1 it 
changes its  appearance into a reddish  
brown4 ,so the colour lake laid on blue 
will  turn it to a violet colour2 yellow
 upon blue turns to green2 saffron  upon
 white becomes yellow2 white scumbled   
upon a dark ground appears  blue1 and is
 more or less beautiful1 as the white   
and the ground are  more or less pure4  
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxiv4_/--,in what ,part a 
,colour will appear in its greatest     
,beauty4      _/,we_/ are to consider   
here in what part any colour will shew  
itself in  its most perfect purity2     
whether in the strongest light or       
deepest  shadow1 in the demi-tint1 or in
 the reflex4 ,it would be necessary to  
determine first1 of what colour we mean 
to treat1 because different  colours    
differ materially in that respect4      
,black is most beautiful  in the shades2
 white in the strongest light2 blue and 
green in the  half-tint2 yellow and red 

in the principal light2 gold in the     
reflexes2  and lake in the half-tint4   
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxv4_/--,how any ,colour  
without ,gloss1 is more beautiful in    
the ,lights than in the ,shades4        
_/,all_/ objects which have no gloss1   
shew their colours better in the  light 
than in the shadow1 because the light   
vivifies and gives a true  knowledge of 
the nature of the colour1 while the     
shadows lower1 and  destroy its beauty1 
preventing the discovery of its nature4 
,if1 on the  contrary1 black be more    
beautiful in the shadows1 it is because 
black  is not a colour4                 
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxvi4_/--,of the          
,appearance of ,colours4      _/,the_/  
lighter a colour is in its nature1 the  
more so it will appear when  removed to 
some distance2 but with dark colours it 
is quite the reverse4          _/,chap4 
,,ccxxxvii4_/--,what ,part of a ,colour 
is to be the most beautiful4            
_/,if_/ ,a be the light1 and ,b the     
object receiving it in a direct line1   

,e cannot receive that light1 but only  
the reflexion from ,b1 which we  shall  
suppose to be red4 ,in that case1 the   
light it produces being red1  it will   
tinge with red the object ,e2 and if ,e 
happen to be also red  before1 you will 
see that colour increase in beauty1 and 
appear redder  than ,b2 but if ,e were  
yellow1 you will see a new colour1      
participating  of the red and the       
yellow4    ,illustration                
_/,chap4 ,,ccxxxviii4_/--,that the      
,beauty of a ,colour is to be found  in 
the ,lights4      _/,as_/ the quality of
 colours is discovered to the eye by the
 light1 it  is natural to conclude1 that
 where there is most light1 there also  
the true quality of the colour is to be 
seen2 and where there is most  shadow   
the colour will participate of1 and be  
tinged with the colour of  that shadow4 
,remember then to shew the true quality 
of the colour in  the light parts       
only#ef4          _/,chap4              
,,ccxxxix4_/--,of ,colours4             

_/,the_/ colour which is between the    
light and the shadow will not be so     
beautiful as that which is in the full  
light4 ,therefore the chief beauty  of  
colours will be found in the principal  
lights#eg4          _/,chap4            
,,ccxl4_/--,no ,object appears in its   
true ,colour1 unless the  ,light which  
strikes upon it be of the same ,colour4 
_/,this_/ is very observable in         
draperies1 where the light folds casting
 a  reflexion1 and throwing a light on  
other folds opposite to them1 make  them
 appear in their natural colour4 ,the   
same effect is produced by gold  leaves 
casting their light reciprocally on each
 other4 ,the effect is  quite contrary  
if the light be received from an object 
of a different  colour#eh4              
_/,chap4 ,,ccxli4_/--,of the ,colour of 
,shadows4      _/,the_/ colour of the   
shadows of an object can never be pure  
if the body  which is opposed to these  
shadows be not of the same colour as    
that on  which they are produced4 ,for  

instance1 if in a room1 the walls of    
which  are green1 ,i place a figure     
clothed in blue1 and receiving the light
  from another blue object1 the light   
part of that figure will be of a        
beautiful blue1 but the shadows of it   
will become dingy1 and not like a  true 
shade of that beautiful blue1 because it
 will be corrupted by the  reflexions   
from the green wall2 and it would be    
still worse if the walls  were of a     
darkish brown4          _/,chap4        
,,ccxlii4_/--,of ,colours4              
_/,colours_/ placed in shadow will      
preserve more or less of their original 
beauty1 as they are more or less        
immersed in the shade4 ,but colours     
situated in a light space will shew     
their natural beauty in proportion  to  
the brightness of that light4 ,some say1
 that there is as great  variety in the 
colours of shadows1 as in the colours of
 objects shaded  by them4 ,it may be    
answered1 that colours placed in shadow 
will shew  less variety amongst         

themselves as the shadows are darker4   
,we shall  soon convince ourselves of   
this truth1 if1 from a large square1 we 
look  through the open door of a church1
 where pictures1 though enriched with  a
 variety of colours1 appear all clothed 
in darkness4          _/,chap4          
,,ccxliii4_/--,whether it be possible   
for all ,colours to  appear alike by    
means of the same ,shadow4      _/,it_/ 
is very possible that all the different 
colours may be changed  into that of a  
general shadow2 as is manifest in the   
darkness of a  cloudy night1 in which   
neither the shape nor colour of bodies  
is  distinguished4 ,total darkness being
 nothing but a privation of the         
primitive and reflected lights1 by which
 the form and colour of bodies  are     
seen2 it is evident1 that the cause     
being removed the effect  ceases1 and   
the objects are entirely lost to the    
sight4          _/,chap4                
,,ccxliv4_/--,why ,white is not reckoned
 among the ,colours4      _/,white_/ is 

not a colour1 but has the power of      
receiving all the other  colours4 ,when 
it is placed in a high situation in the 
country1 all its  shades are azure2     
according to the fourth proposition#ei1 
which says1  that the surface of any    
opake body participates of the colour of
 any  other body sending the light to   
it4 ,therefore white being deprived of  
the light of the sun by the             
interposition of any other body1 will   
remain  white2 if exposed to the sun on 
one side1 and to the open air on the    
other1 it will participate both of the  
colour of the sun and of the air4  ,that
 side which is not opposed to the sun1  
will be shaded of the colour  of the    
air4 ,and if this white were not        
surrounded by green fields all  the way 
to the horizon1 nor could receive any   
light from that horizon1  without doubt 
it would appear of one simple and       
uniform colour1 viz4  that of the air4  
_/,chap4 ,,ccxlv4_/--,of ,colours4      
_/,the_/ light of the fire tinges every 

thing of a reddish yellow2 but  this    
will hardly appear evident1 if we do not
 make the comparison with  the daylight4
 ,towards the close of the evening this 
is easily done2 but  more certainly     
after the morning twilight2 and the     
difference will be  clearly             
distinguished in a dark room1 when a    
little glimpse of daylight  strikes upon
 any part of the room1 and there still  
remains a candle  burning4 ,without such
 a trial the difference is hardly       
perceivable1  particularly in those     
colours which have most similarity2 such
 as white  and yellow1 light green and  
light blue2 because the light which     
strikes  the blue1 being yellow1 will   
naturally turn it green2 as we have said
  in another place#fj1 that a mixture of
 blue and yellow produces green4  ,and  
if to a green colour you add some       
yellow1 it will make it of a more       
beautiful green4          _/,chap4      
,,ccxlvi4_/--,of the ,colouring of      
remote ,objects4      _/,the_/ painter1 

who is to represent objects at some     
distance from the  eye1 ought merely to 
convey the idea of general undetermined 
masses1  making choice1 for that        
purpose1 of cloudy weather1 or towards  
the  evening1 and avoiding1 as was said 
before1 to mark the lights and  shadows 
too strong on the extremities2 because  
they would in that  case appear like    
spots of difficult execution1 and       
without grace4 ,he  ought to remember1  
that the shadows are never to be of such
 a quality1  as to obliterate the proper
 colour1 in which they originated2 if   
the  situation of the coloured body be  
not in total darkness4 ,he ought to     
mark no outline1 not to make the hair   
stringy1 and not to touch with  pure    
white1 any but those things which in    
themselves are white2 in  short1 the    
lightest touch upon any particular      
object ought to denote  the beauty of   
its proper and natural colour4          
_/,chap4 ,,ccxlvii4_/--,the ,surface of 
all opake ,bodies participates  of the  

,colour of the surrounding ,objects4    
_/,the_/ painter ought to know1 that if 
any white object is placed between  two 
walls1 one of which is also white1 and  
the other black1 there will  be found   
between the shady side of that object   
and the light side1 a  similar          
proportion to that of the two walls2 and
 if that object be  blue1 the effect    
will be the same4 ,having therefore to  
paint this  object1 take some black1    
similar to that of the wall from which  
the  reflexes come2 and to proceed by a 
certain and scientific method1 do as    
follows4 ,when you paint the wall1 take 
a small spoon to measure exactly  the   
quantity of colour you mean to employ in
 mixing your tints2 for  instance1 if   
you have put in the shading of this wall
 three spoonfuls  of pure black1 and one
 of white1 you have1 without any doubt1 
a mixture  of a certain and precise     
quality4 ,now having painted one of the 
walls  white1 and the other dark1 if you
 mean to place a blue object between    

them with shades suitable to that       
colour1 place first on your pallet  the 
light blue1 such as you mean it to be1  
without any mixture of  shade1 and it   
will do for the lightest part of your   
object4 ,after which  take three        
spoonfuls of black1 and one of this     
light blue1 for your  darkest shades4   
,then observe whether your object be    
round or square3  if it be square1 these
 two extreme tints of light and shade   
will be  close to each other1 cutting   
sharply at the angle2 but if it be      
round1  draw lines from the extremities 
of the walls to the centre of the       
object1 and put the darkest shade       
between equal angles1 where the lines   
intersect upon the superficies of it2   
then begin to make them lighter  and    
lighter gradually to the point ,n ,o1   
lessening the strength of the  shadows  
as much as that place participates of   
the light ,a ,d1 and mixing  that colour
 with the darkest shade ,a ,b1 in the   
same proportion4    ,illustration       

_/,chap4 ,,ccxlviii4_/--,general        
,remarks on ,colours4      _/,blue_/ and
 green are not simple colours in their  
nature1 for blue is  composed of light  
and darkness2 such is the azure of the  
sky1 viz4  perfect black and perfect    
white4 ,green is composed of a simple   
and a  mixed colour1 being produced by  
blue and yellow4    ,any object seen in 
a mirror1 will participate of the colour
 of that  body which serves as a mirror2
 and the mirror in its turn is tinged in
  part by the colour of the object it   
represents2 they partake more or  less  
of each other as the colour of the      
object seen is more or less  strong than
 the colour of the mirror4 ,that object 
will appear of the  strongest and most  
lively colour in the mirror1 which has  
the most  affinity to the colour of the 
mirror itself4    ,of coloured bodies1  
the purest white will be seen at the    
greatest  distance1 therefore the darker
 the colour1 the less it will bear      
distance4    ,of different bodies equal 

in whiteness1 and in distance from the  
eye1  that which is surrounded by the   
greatest darkness will appear the       
whitest2 and on the contrary1 that      
shadow will appear the darkest that  has
 the brightest white round it4    ,of   
different colours1 equally perfect1 that
 will appear most excellent1  which is  
seen near its direct contrary4 ,a pale  
colour against red1 a  black upon white 
7though neither the one nor the other   
are colours71  blue near a yellow2 green
 near red2 because each colour is more  
distinctly seen1 when opposed to its    
contrary1 than to any other  similar to 
it4    ,any thing white seen in a dense 
air full of vapours1 will appear larger 
than it is in reality4    ,the air1     
between the eye and the object seen1    
will change the colour  of that object  
into its own2 so will the azure of the  
air change the  distant mountains into  
blue masses4 ,through a red glass every 
thing  appears red2 the light round the 
stars is dimmed by the darkness of the  

air1 which fills the space between the  
eye and the planets4    ,the true colour
 of any object whatever will be seen in 
those parts  which are not occupied by  
any kind of shade1 and have not any     
gloss 7if  it be a polished surface74   
,i say1 that white terminating abruptly 
upon a dark ground1 will cause  that    
part where it terminates to appear      
darker1 and the white whiter4           
,,colours ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,light    
,,and ,,shadow4      _/,chap4           
,,ccxlix4_/--,of the ,light proper for  
painting ,flesh ,colour from  ,nature4  
_/,your_/ window must be open to the    
sky1 and the walls painted of a  reddish
 colour4 ,the summertime is the best1   
when the clouds conceal the  sun1 or    
else your walls on the south side of the
 room must be so high1  as that the     
sun-beams cannot strike on the opposite 
side1 in order  that the reflexion of   
those beams may not destroy the shadows4
          _/,chap4 ,,ccl4_/--,of the    
,painter's ,window4      _/,the_/ window

 which gives light to a painting-room1  
ought to be made of  oiled paper1       
without any cross bar1 or projecting    
edge at the opening1  or any sharp angle
 in the inside of the wall1 but should  
be slanting by  degrees the whole       
thickness of it2 and the sides be       
painted black4          _/,chap4        
,,ccli4_/--,the ,shadows of ,colours4   
_/,the_/ shadows of any colour whatever 
must participate of that colour  more or
 less1 as it is nearer to1 or more      
remote from the mass of  shadows2 and   
also in proportion to its distance from1
 or proximity to  the mass of light4    
_/,chap4 ,,cclii4_/--,of the ,shadows of
 ,white4      _/,to_/ any white body    
receiving the light from the sun1 or the
 air1 the  shadows should be of a       
blueish cast2 because white is no       
colour1 but a  receiver of all colours2 
and as by the fourth proposition#fa we  
learn1  that the surface of any object  
participates of the colours of other    
objects near it1 it is evident that a   

white surface will participate of  the  
colour of the air by which it is        
surrounded4          _/,chap4           
,,ccliii4_/--,which of the ,colours will
 produce the darkest ,shade4            
_/,that_/ shade will be the darkest     
which is produced by the whitest        
surface2 this also will have a greater  
propensity to variety than any  other   
surface2 because white is not properly a
 colour1 but a receiver  of colours1 and
 its surface will participate strongly  
of the colour of  surrounding objects1  
but principally of black or any other   
dark colour1  which being the most      
opposite to its nature1 produces the    
most sensible  difference between the   
shadows and the lights4                 
_/,chap4 ,,ccliv4_/--,how to manage1    
when a ,white terminates upon another   
,white4      _/,when_/ one white body   
terminates on another of the same       
colour1 the  white of these two bodies  
will be either alike or not4 ,if they be
  alike1 that object which of the two is

 nearest to the eye1 should be  made a  
little darker than the other1 upon the  
rounding of the outline2  but if the    
object which serves as a ground to the  
other be not quite so  white1 the latter
 will detach of itself1 without the help
 of any darker  termination4            
_/,chap4 ,,cclv4_/--,on the             
,back-grounds of ,figures4      _/,of_/ 
two objects equally light1 one will     
appear less so if seen upon  a whiter   
ground2 and1 on the contrary1 it will   
appear a great deal  lighter if upon a  
space of a darker shade4 ,so flesh      
colour will appear  pale upon a red     
ground1 and a pale colour will appear   
redder upon  a yellow ground4 ,in short1
 colours will appear what they are not1 
according to the ground which surrounds 
them4          _/,chap4 ,,cclvi4_/--,the
 ,mode of composing ,history4           
_/,amongst_/ the figures which compose  
an historical picture1 those which  are 
meant to appear the nearest to the eye1 
must have the greatest  force2 according

 to the second proposition#fb of the    
third book1 which  says1 that colour    
will be seen in the greatest perfection 
which has  less air interposed between  
it and the eye of the beholder2 and for 
that reason the shadows 7by which we    
express the relievo of bodies7  appear  
darker when near than when at a         
distance1 being then deadened by  the   
air which interposes4 ,this does not    
happen to those shadows which  are near 
the eye1 where they will produce the    
greatest relievo when  they are darkest4
          _/,chap4 ,,cclvii4_/--,remarks
 concerning ,lights and ,shadows4       
_/,observe_/1 that where the shadows    
end1 there be always a kind of          
half-shadow to blend them with the      
lights4 ,the shadow derived from any    
object will mix more with the light at  
its termination1 in proportion  as it is
 more distant from that object4 ,but the
 colour of the shadow  will never be    
simple3 this is proved by the ninth     
proposition#fc1  which says1 that the   

superficies of any object participates  
of the  colours of other bodies1 by     
which it is surrounded1 although it were
  transparent1 such as water1 air1 and  
the like3 because the air receives  its 
light from the sun1 and darkness is     
produced by the privation of  it4 ,but  
as the air has no colour in itself any  
more than water1 it  receives all the   
colours that are between the object and 
the eye4 ,the  vapours mixing with the  
air in the lower regions near the earth1
 render  it thick1 and apt to reflect   
the sun's rays on all sides1 while the  
air  above remains dark2 and because    
light 7that is1 white7 and darkness     
7that is1 black71 mixed together1       
compose the azure that becomes the      
colour of the sky1 which is lighter or  
darker in proportion as the air  is more
 or less mixed with damp vapours4       
_/,chap4 ,,cclviii4_/--,why the ,shadows
 of ,bodies upon a white ,wall are      
blueish towards ,evening4               
,illustration    _/,the_/ shadows of    

bodies produced by the redness of the   
setting  sun1 will always be blueish4   
,this is accounted for by the eleventh  
proposition#fd1 which says1 that the    
superficies of any opake body           
participates of the colour of the object
 from which it receives the  light2     
therefore the white wall being deprived 
entirely of colour1 is  tinged by the   
colour of those bodies from which it    
receives the light1  which in this case 
are the sun and the sky4 ,but because   
the sun is red  towards the evening1 and
 the sky is blue1 the shadow on the wall
 not  being enlightened by the sun1     
receives only the reflexion of the sky1 
and therefore will appear blue2 and the 
rest of the wall1 receiving  light      
immediately from the sun1 will          
participate of its red colour4          
_/,chap4 ,,cclix4_/--,of the ,colour of 
,faces4      _/,the_/ colour of any     
object will appear more or less distinct
 in  proportion to the extent of its    
surface4 ,this proportion is proved1 by 

observing that a face appears dark at a 
small distance1 because1 being  composed
 of many small parts1 it produces a     
great number of shadows2  and the lights
 being the smallest part of it1 are     
soonest lost to the  sight1 leaving only
 the shadows1 which being in a greater  
quantity1 the  whole of the face appears
 dark1 and the more so if that face has 
on the  head1 or at the back1 something 
whiter4          _/,chap4 ,,cclx4_/--,a 
,precept relating to ,painting4         
_/,where_/ the shadows terminate upon   
the lights1 observe well what parts  of 
them are lighter than the others1 and   
where they are more or less  softened   
and blended2 but above all remember1    
that young people have  no sharp        
shadings3 their flesh is transparent1   
something like what  we observe when we 
put our hand between the sun and eyes2  
it appears  reddish1 and of a           
transparent brightness4 ,if you wish to 
know what  kind of shadow will suit the 
flesh colour you are painting1 place one

  of your fingers close to your picture1
 so as to cast a shadow upon it1  and   
according as you wish it either lighter 
or darker1 put it nearer or  farther    
from it1 and imitate it4                
_/,chap4 ,,cclxi4_/--,of ,colours in    
,shadow4      _/,it_/ happens very often
 that the shadows of an opake body do   
not retain  the same colour as the      
lights4 ,sometimes they will be         
greenish1 while  the lights are reddish1
 although this opake body be all over of
 one  uniform colour4 ,this happens when
 the light falls upon the object 7we    
will suppose from the ,east71 and tinges
 that side with its own colour4  ,in the
 ,west we will suppose another opake    
body of a colour different  from the    
first1 but receiving the same light4    
,this last will reflect  its colour     
towards the ,east1 and strike the first 
with its rays on the  opposite side1    
where they will be stopped1 and remain  
with their full  colour and brightness4 
,we often see a white object with red   

lights1 and  the shades of a blueish    
cast2 this we observe particularly in   
mountains  covered with snow1 at        
sun-set1 when the effulgence of its rays
 makes  the horizon appear all on fire4 
_/,chap4 ,,cclxii4_/--,of the ,choice of
 ,lights4      _/,whatever_/ object you 
intend to represent is to be supposed   
situated  in a particular light1 and    
that entirely of your own choosing4 ,if 
you  imagine such objects to be in the  
country1 and the sun be overcast1  they 
will be surrounded by a great quantity  
of general light4 ,if the  sun strikes  
upon those objects1 then the shadows    
will be very dark1  in proportion to the
 lights1 and will be determined and     
sharp2 the  primitive as well as the    
secondary ones4 ,these shadows will vary
 from  the lights in colour1 because on 
that side the object receives a         
reflected light hue from the azure of   
the air1 which tinges that part2  and   
this is particularly observable in white
 objects4 ,that side which  receives the

 light from the sun1 participates also  
of the colour of  that4 ,this may be    
particularly observed in the evening1   
when the sun  is setting between the    
clouds1 which it reddens2 those clouds  
being  tinged with the colour of the    
body illuminating them1 the red colour  
of the clouds1 with that of the sun1    
casts a hue on those parts which        
receive the light from them4 ,on the    
contrary1 those parts which are not     
turned towards that side of the sky1    
remain of the colour of the air1  so    
that the former and the latter are of   
two different colours4 ,this  we must   
not lose sight of1 that1 knowing the    
cause of those lights and  shades1 it be
 made apparent in the effect1 or else   
the work will be  false and absurd4 ,but
 if a figure be situated within a house1
 and seen  from without1 such figure    
will have its shadows very soft2 and if 
the  beholder stands in the line of the 
light1 it will acquire grace1 and do    
credit to the painter1 as it will have  

great relief in the lights1 and  soft   
and well-blended shadows1 particularly  
in those parts where the  inside of the 
room appears less obscure1 because there
 the shadows are  almost imperceptible3 
the cause of which we shall explain in  
its proper  place4          ,,colours   
,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,back-,,grounds4    
_/,chap4 ,,cclxiii4_/--,of avoiding hard
 ,outlines4      _/,do_/ not make the   
boundaries of your figures with any     
other colour  than that of the          
back-ground1 on which they are placed2  
that is1 avoid  making dark outlines4   
_/,chap4 ,,cclxiv4_/--,of ,outlines4    
_/,the_/ extremities of objects which   
are at some distance1 are not seen  so  
distinctly as if they were nearer4      
,therefore the painter ought to         
regulate the strength of his outlines1  
or extremities1 according to the        
distance4    ,the boundaries which      
separate one body from another1 are of  
the nature  of mathematical lines1 but  
not of real lines4 ,the end of any      

colour  is only the beginning of        
another1 and it ought not to be called a
  line1 for nothing interposes between  
them1 except the termination of  the one
 against the other1 which being nothing 
in itself1 cannot be  perceivable2      
therefore the painter ought not to      
pronounce it in distant  objects4       
_/,chap4 ,,cclxv4_/--,of ,back-grounds4 
_/,one_/ of the principal parts of      
painting is the nature and quality of   
back-grounds1 upon which the extremities
 of any convex or solid body  will      
always detach and be distinguished in   
nature1 though the colour  of such      
objects1 and that of the ground1 be     
exactly the same4 ,this  happens1       
because the convex sides of solid bodies
 do not receive the  light in the same  
manner with the ground1 for such sides  
or extremities  are often lighter or    
darker than the ground4 ,but if such    
extremities  were to be of the same     
colour as the ground1 and in the same   
degree  of light1 they certainly could  

not be distinguished4 ,therefore such a 
choice in painting ought to be avoided  
by all intelligent and judicious        
painters2 since the intention is to make
 the objects appear as it were  out of  
the ground4 ,the above case would       
produce the contrary effect1  not only  
in painting1 but also in objects of real
 relievo4          _/,chap4             
,,cclxvi4_/--,how to detach ,figures    
from the ,ground4      _/,all_/ solid   
bodies will appear to have a greater    
relief1 and to come  more out of the    
canvass1 on a ground of an undetermined 
colour1 with  the greatest variety of   
lights and shades against the confines  
of  such bodies 7as will be demonstrated
 in its place71 provided a proper       
diminution of lights in the white tints1
 and of darkness in the shades1  be     
judiciously observed4          _/,chap4 
,,cclxvii4_/--,of ,uniformity and       
,variety of ,colours upon plain         
,surfaces4      _/,the_/ back-grounds of
 any flat surfaces which are uniform in 

colour and  quantity of light1 will     
never appear separated from each other2 
vice  vers1 they will appear separated  
if they are of different colours or     
lights4          _/,chap4               
,,cclxviii4_/--,of ,back-grounds        
suitable both to ,shadows and  ,lights4 
_/,the_/ shadows or lights which        
surround figures1 or any other objects1 
will help the more to detach them the   
more they differ from the  objects2 that
 is1 if a dark colour does not terminate
 upon another dark  colour1 but upon a  
very different one2 as white1 or        
partaking of white1  but lowered1 and   
approximated to the dark shade4         
_/,chap4 ,,cclxix4_/--,the apparent     
,variation of ,colours1 occasioned by   
the  ,contraste of the ,ground upon     
which they are placed4      _/,no_/     
colour appears uniform and equal in all 
its parts unless it  terminate on a     
ground of the same colour4 ,this is very
 apparent when a  black terminates on a 
white ground1 where the contraste of    

colour gives  more strength and richness
 to the extremities than to the middle4 
,,contraste1 ,,harmony1 ,,and           
,,reflexes1 ,,in ,,regard ,,to          
,,colours4      _/,chap4                
,,cclxx4_/--,gradation in ,painting4    
_/,what_/ is fine is not always         
beautiful and good3 ,i address this to  
such painters as are so attached to the 
beauty of colours1 that they  regret    
being obliged to give them almost       
imperceptible shadows1 not  considering 
the beautiful relief which figures      
acquire by a proper  gradation and      
strength of shadows4 ,such persons may  
be compared to  those speakers who in   
conversation make use of many fine words
 without  meaning1 which altogether     
scarcely form one good sentence4        
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxi4_/--,how to assort    
,colours in such a ,manner as that they 
may add ,beauty to each other4          
_/,if_/ you mean that the proximity of  
one colour should give beauty to        
another that terminates near it1 observe

 the rays of the sun in the  composition
 of the rainbow1 the colours of which   
are generated by the  falling rain1 when
 each drop in its descent takes every   
colour of that  bow1 as is demonstrated 
in its place#fe4    ,if you mean to     
represent great darkness1 it must be    
done by contrasting  it with great      
light2 on the contrary1 if you want to  
produce great  brightness1 you must     
oppose to it a very dark shade3 so a    
pale yellow  will cause red to appear   
more beautiful than if opposed to a     
purple  colour4    ,there is another    
rule1 by observing which1 though you do 
not increase  the natural beauty of the 
colours1 yet by bringing them together  
they  may give additional grace to each 
other1 as green placed near red1  while 
the effect would be quite the reverse1  
if placed near blue4    ,harmony and    
grace are also produced by a judicious  
arrangement of  colours1 such as blue   
with pale yellow or white1 and the like2
 as will  be noticed in its place4      

_/,chap4 ,,cclxxii4_/--,of detaching the
 ,figures4      _/,let_/ the colours of 
which the draperies of your figures are 
composed1  be such as to form a pleasing
 variety1 to distinguish one from the   
other2 and although1 for the sake of    
harmony1 they should be of the  same    
nature#ff1 they must not stick together1
 but vary in point of  light1 according 
to the distance and interposition of the
 air between  them4 ,by the same rule1  
the outlines are to be more precise1 or 
lost1  in proportion to their distance  
or proximity4          _/,chap4         
,,cclxxiii4_/--,of the ,colour of       
,reflexes4      _/,all_/ reflected      
colours are less brilliant and strong1  
than those which  receive a direct      
light1 in the same proportion as there  
is between the  light of a body and the 
cause of that light4          _/,chap4  
,,cclxxiv4_/--,what ,body will be the   
most strongly tinged with the  ,colour  
of any other ,object4      _/,an_/ opake
 surface will partake most of the       

genuine colour of the body  nearest to  
it1 because a great quantity of the     
species of colour will  be conveyed to  
it2 whereas such colour would be broken 
and disturbed if  coming from a more    
distant object4          _/,chap4       
,,cclxxv4_/--,of ,reflexes4             
_/,reflexes_/ will partake1 more or     
less1 both of the colour of the object  
which produces them1 and of the colour  
of that object on which they are        
produced1 in proportion as this latter  
body is of a smoother or more  polished 
surface1 than that by which they are    
produced4          _/,chap4             
,,cclxxvi4_/--,of the ,surface of all   
shadowed ,bodies4      _/,the_/ surface 
of any opake body placed in shadow1 will
 participate of  the colour of any other
 object which reflects the light upon   
it4 ,this  is very evident2 for if such 
bodies were deprived of light in the    
space  between them and the other       
bodies1 they could not shew either shape
 or  colour4 ,we shall conclude then1   

that if the opake body be yellow1 and   
that which reflects the light blue1 the 
part reflected will be green1  because  
green is composed of blue and yellow4   
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxvii4_/--,that no        
reflected ,colour is simple1 but is     
mixed  with the ,nature of the other    
,colours4      _/,no_/ colour reflected 
upon the surface of another body1 will  
tinge that  surface with its own colour 
alone1 but will be mixed by the         
concurrence  of other colours also      
reflected on the same spot4 ,let us     
suppose ,a to  be of a yellow colour1   
which is reflected on the convex ,c ,o  
,e1 and that  the blue colour ,b be     
reflected on the same place4 ,i say that
 a mixture  of the blue and yellow      
colours will tinge the convex surface2  
and that1  if the ground be white1 it   
will produce a green reflexion1 because 
it  is proved that a mixture of blue and
 yellow produces a very fine green4     
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cclxxviii4_/--,of the ,colour of      

,lights and ,reflexes4      _/,when_/   
two lights strike upon an opake body1   
they can vary only in  two ways2 either 
they are equal in strength1 or they are 
not4 ,if  they be equal1 they may still 
vary in two other ways1 that is1 by  the
 equality or inequality of their        
brightness2 they will be equal1  if     
their distance be the same2 and unequal1
 if it be otherwise4 ,the  object placed
 at an equal distance1 between two equal
 lights1 in point  both of colour and   
brightness1 may still be enlightened by 
them in two  different ways1 either     
equally on each side1 or unequally4 ,it 
will be  equally enlightened by them1   
when the space which remains round the  
lights shall be equal in colour1 in     
degree of shade1 and in brightness4  ,it
 will be unequally enlightened by them  
when the spaces happen to be  of        
different degrees of darkness4          
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxix4_/--,why reflected   
,colours seldom partake of the ,colour  
of the ,body where they meet4           

_/,it_/ happens very seldom that the    
reflexes are of the same colour with    
the body from which they proceed1 or    
with that upon which they meet4  ,to    
exemplify this1 let the convex body ,d  
,f ,g ,e be of a yellow colour1  and the
 body ,b ,c1 which reflects its colour  
on it1 blue2 the part of  the convex    
surface which is struck by that         
reflected light1 will take  a green     
tinge1 being ,b ,c1 acted on by the     
natural light of the air1 or  the sun4  
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cclxxx4_/--,the ,reflexes of ,flesh   
,colours4      _/,the_/ lights upon the 
flesh colours1 which are reflected by   
the light  striking upon another        
flesh-coloured body1 are redder and more
 lively  than any other part of the     
human figure2 and that happens according
  to the third proposition of the second
 book#fg1 which says1 the  surface of   
any opake body participates of the      
colour of the object  which reflects the
 light1 in proportion as it is near to  

or remote  from it1 and also in         
proportion to the size of it2 because1  
being  large1 it prevents the variety of
 colours in smaller objects round it1   
from interfering with1 and discomposing 
the principal colour1 which  is nearer4 
,nevertheless it does not prevent its   
participating more of  the colour of a  
small object near it1 than of a large   
one more remote4  ,see the sixth        
proposition#fh of perspective1 which    
says1 that large  objects may be        
situated at such a distance as to appear
 less than small  ones that are near4   
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxxi4_/--,of the ,nature  
of ,comparison4      _/,black_/         
draperies will make the flesh of the    
human figure appear whiter  than in     
reality it is#fi2 and white draperies1  
on the contrary1 will  make it appear   
darker4 ,yellow will render it higher   
coloured1 while red  will make it pale4 
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxxii4_/--,where the      
,reflexes are seen4      _/,of_/ all    
reflexions of the same shape1 size1 and 

strength1 that will be  more or less    
strong1 which terminates on a ground    
more or less dark4    ,the surface of   
those bodies will partake most of the   
colour of the  object that reflects it1 
which receive that reflexion by the most
  nearly equal angles4    ,of the       
colours of objects reflected upon any   
opposite surface by equal  angles1 that 
will be the most distinct which has its 
reflecting ray the  shortest4    ,of all
 colours1 reflected under equal angles1 
and at equal distance  upon the opposite
 body1 those will be the strongest1     
which come  reflected by the lightest   
coloured body4    ,that object will     
reflect its own colour most precisely on
 the opposite  object1 which has not    
round it any colour that clashes with   
its own2  and consequently that         
reflected colour will be most confused  
which  takes its origin from a variety  
of bodies of different colours4    ,that
 colour which is nearest the opposed    
object1 will tinge it the most          

strongly2 and vice vers3 let the        
painter1 therefore1 in his reflexes  on 
the human body1 particularly on the     
flesh colour1 mix some of the  colour of
 the drapery which comes nearest to it2 
but not pronounce it  too distinctly1 if
 there be not good reason for it4       
,,perspective ,,of ,,colours4           
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxxiii4_/--,a ,precept of 
,perspective in regard to ,painting4    
_/,when_/1 on account of some particular
 quality of the air1 you can no  longer 
distinguish the difference between the  
lights and shadows of  objects1 you may 
reject the perspective of shadows1 and  
make use only  of the linear            
perspective1 and the diminution of      
colours1 to lessen the  knowledge of the
 objects opposed to the eye2 and this1  
that is to say1  the loss of the        
knowledge of the figure of each object1 
will make the  same object appear more  
remote4    ,the eye can never arrive at 
a perfect knowledge of the interval     
between  two objects variously distant1 

by means of the linear perspective      
alone1 if not assisted by the           
perspective of colours4                 
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxxiv4_/--,of the         
,perspective of ,colours4      _/,the_/ 
air will participate less of the azure  
of the sky1 in proportion  as it comes  
nearer to the horizon1 as it is proved  
by the third and  ninth proposition#gj1 
that pure and subtile bodies 7such as   
compose  the air7 will be less          
illuminated by the sun than those of    
thicker and  grosser substance3 and as  
it is certain that the air which is     
remote  from the earth1 is thinner than 
that which is near it1 it will follow1  
that the latter will be more impregnated
 with the rays of the sun1  which giving
 light at the same time to an infinity  
of atoms floating  in this air1 renders 
it more sensible to the eye4 ,so that   
the air will  appear lighter towards the
 horizon1 and darker as well as bluer in
  looking up to the sky2 because there  
is more of the thick air between  our   

eyes and the horizon1 than between our  
eyes and that part of the  sky above our
 heads4    ,illustration    ,for        
instance3 if the eye placed in ,p1 looks
 through the air along the  line ,p ,r1 
and then lowers itself a little along ,p
 ,s1 the air will begin  to appear a    
little whiter1 because there is more of 
the thick air in  this space than in the
 first4 ,and if it be still removed     
lower1 so  as to look straight at the   
horizon1 no more of that blue sky will  
be  perceived which was observable along
 the first line ,p ,r1 because there  is
 a much greater quantity of thick air   
along the horizontal line ,p ,d1  than  
along the oblique ,p ,s1 or the         
perpendicular ,p ,r4          _/,chap4  
,,cclxxxv4_/--,the ,cause of the        
,diminution of ,colours4      _/,the_/  
natural colour of any visible object    
will be diminished in  proportion to the
 density of any other substance which   
interposes  between that object and the 
eye4          _/,chap4                  

,,cclxxxvi4_/--,of the ,diminution of   
,colours and ,objects4      _/,let_/ the
 colours vanish in proportion as the    
objects diminish in size1  according to 
the distance4          _/,chap4         
,,cclxxxvii4_/--,of the ,variety        
observable in ,colours1 according to    
their ,distance1 or ,proximity4         
_/,the_/ local colour of such objects as
 are darker than the air1 will  appear  
less dark as they are more remote2 and1 
on the contrary1 objects  lighter than  
the air will lose their brightness in   
proportion to their  distance from the  
eye4 ,in general1 all objects that are  
darker or  lighter than the air1 are    
discoloured by distance1 which changes  
their  quality1 so that the lighter     
appears darker1 and the darker lighter4 
_/,chap4 ,,cclxxxviii4_/--,at what      
,distance ,colours are entirely lost4   
_/,local_/ colours are entirely lost at 
a greater or less distance1  according  
as the eye and the object are more or   
less elevated from the  earth4 ,this is 

proved by the seventh proposition#ga1   
which says1 the  air is more or less    
pure1 as it is near to1 or remote from  
the earth4  ,if the eye then1 and the   
object are near the earth1 the thickness
 of  the air which interposes1 will in a
 great measure confuse the colour of    
that object to the eye4 ,but if the eye 
and the object are placed high  above   
the earth1 the air will disturb the     
natural colour of that object  very     
little4 ,in short1 the various          
gradations of colour depend not only  on
 the various distances1 in which they   
may be lost2 but also on the  variety of
 lights1 which change according to the  
different hours of the  day1 and the    
thickness or purity of the air1 through 
which the colour  of the object is      
conveyed to the eye4          _/,chap4  
,,cclxxxix4_/--,of the ,change          
observable in the same ,colour1         
according to its ,distance from the     
,eye4      _/,among_/ several colours of
 the same nature1 that which is the     

nearest  to the eye will alter the      
least2 because the air which interposes 
between the eye and the object seen1    
envelopes1 in some measure1 that        
object4 ,if the air1 which interposes1  
be in great quantity1 the object  seen  
will be strongly tinged with the colour 
of that air2 but if the  air be thin1   
then the view of that object1 and its   
colour1 will be very  little obstructed4
          _/,chap4 ,,ccxc4_/--,of the   
blueish ,appearance of remote ,objects  
in a  ,landscape4      _/,whatever_/ be 
the colour of distant objects1 the      
darkest1 whether  natural or accidental1
 will appear the most tinged with azure4
 ,by  the natural darkness is meant the 
proper colour of the object2 the        
accidental one is produced by the shadow
 of some other body4          _/,chap4  
,,ccxci4_/--,of the ,qualities in the   
,surface which first lose  themselves by
 ,distance4      _/,the_/ first part of 
any colour which is lost by the         
distance1 is the  gloss1 being the      

smallest part of it1 as a light within a
 light4 ,the  second that diminishes by 
being farther removed1 is the light1    
because  it is less in quantity than the
 shadow4 ,the third is the principal    
shadows1 nothing remaining at last but a
 kind of middling obscurity4            
_/,chap4 ,,ccxcii4_/--,from what ,cause 
the ,azure of the ,air proceeds4        
_/,the_/ azure of the sky is produced by
 the transparent body of the  air1      
illumined by the sun1 and interposed    
between the darkness of the  expanse    
above1 and the earth below4 ,the air in 
itself has no quality  of smell1 taste1 
or colour1 but is easily impregnated    
with the quality  of other matter       
surrounding it2 and will appear bluer in
 proportion to  the darkness of the     
space behind it1 as may be observed     
against the  shady sides of mountains1  
which are darker than any other object4 
,in  this instance the air appears of   
the most beautiful azure1 while on the  
other side that receives the light1 it  

shews through that more of the  natural 
colour of the mountain4                 
_/,chap4 ,,ccxciii4_/--,of the          
,perspective of ,colours4      _/,the_/ 
same colour being placed at various     
distances and equal  elevation1 the     
force and effect of its colouring will  
be according  to the proportion of the  
distance which there is from each of    
these  colours to the eye4 ,it is proved
 thus3 let ,c ,b ,e ,d be one and the   
same  colour4 ,the first1 ,e1 is placed 
at two degrees of distance from the eye 
,a2 the second1 ,b1 shall be four       
degrees1 the third1 ,c1 six degrees1    
and the fourth1 ,d1 eight degrees2 as   
appears by the circles which  terminate 
upon and intersect the line ,a ,r4 ,let 
us suppose that the  space ,a ,r1 ,s ,p1
 is one degree of thin air1 and ,s ,p ,e
 ,t another degree  of thicker air4 ,it 
will follow1 that the first colour1 ,e1 
will pass  to the eye through one degree
 of thick air1 ,e ,s1 and through       
another  degree1 ,s ,a1 of thinner air4 

,and ,b will send its colour to the eye 
in  ,a1 through two degrees of thick    
air1 and through two others of the      
thinner sort4 ,c will send it through   
three degrees of the thin1 and  three of
 the thick sort1 while ,d goes through  
four degrees of the one1  and four of   
the other4 ,this demonstrates1 that the 
gradation of colours  is in proportion  
to their distance from the eye#gb4 ,but 
this happens  only to those colours     
which are on a level with the eye2 as   
for those  which happen to be at unequal
 elevations1 we cannot observe the same 
rule1 because they are in that case     
situated in different qualities of  air1
 which alter and diminish these colours 
in various manners4    ,illustration    
_/,chap4 ,,ccxciv4_/--,of the           
,perspective of ,colours in dark        
,places4      _/,in_/ any place where   
the light diminishes in a gradual       
proportion till  it terminates in total 
darkness1 the colours also will lose    
themselves  and be dissolved in         

proportion as they recede from the eye4 
_/,chap4 ,,ccxcv4_/--,of the            
,perspective of ,colours4      _/,the_/ 
principal colours1 or those nearest to  
the eye1 should be pure  and simple2 and
 the degree of their diminution should  
be in proportion  to their distance1    
viz4 the nearer they are to the         
principal point1 the  more they will    
possess of the purity of those colours1 
and they will  partake of the colour of 
the horizon in proportion as they       
approach to  it4          _/,chap4      
,,ccxcvi4_/--,of ,colours4      _/,of_/ 
all the colours which are not blue1     
those that are nearest to  black will1  
when distant1 partake most of the azure2
 and1 on the  contrary1 those will      
preserve their proper colour at the     
greatest  distance1 that are most       
dissimilar to black4    ,the green      
therefore of the fields will change     
sooner into blue than  yellow1 or white1
 which will preserve their natural      
colour at a greater  distance than that1

 or even red4          _/,chap4         
,,ccxcvii4_/--,how it happens that      
,colours do not change1 though  placed  
in different ,qualities of ,air4        
_/,the_/ colour will not be subject to  
any alteration when the distance  and   
the quality of air have a reciprocal    
proportion4 ,what it loses by  the      
distance it regains by the purity of the
 air1 viz4 if we suppose  the first or  
lowest air to have four degrees of      
thickness1 and the  colour to be at one 
degree from the eye1 and the second air 
above to  have three degrees4 ,the air  
having lost one degree of thickness1 the
  colour will acquire one degree upon   
the distance4 ,and when the air  still  
higher shall have lost two degrees of   
thickness1 the colour will  acquire as  
many upon the distance2 and in that case
 the colour will be  the same at three  
degrees as at one4 ,but to be brief1 if 
the colour be  raised so high as to     
enter that quality of air which has lost
 three  degrees of thickness1 and       

acquired three degrees of distance1 then
 you  may be certain that that colour   
which is high and remote1 has lost  no  
more than the colour which is below and 
nearer2 because in rising  it has       
acquired those three degrees which it   
was losing by the same  distance from   
the eye2 and this is what was meant to  
be proved4          _/,chap4            
,,ccxcviii4_/--,why ,colours experience 
no apparent ,change1 though  placed in  
different ,qualities of ,air4           
,illustration    _/,it_/ may happen that
 a colour does not alter1 though placed 
at  different distances1 when the       
thickness of the air and the distance   
are in the same inverse proportion4 ,it 
is proved thus3 let ,a be the  eye1 and 
,h any colour whatever1 placed at one   
degree of distance  from the eye1 in a  
quality of air of four degrees of       
thickness2 but  because the second      
degree above1 ,a ,m ,n ,l1 contains a   
thinner air by  one half1 which air     
conveys this colour1 it follows that    

this colour  will appear as if removed  
double the distance it was at before1   
viz4  at two degrees of distance1 ,a ,f 
and ,f ,g1 from the eye2 and it will be 
placed in ,g4 ,if that is raised to the 
second degree of air ,a ,m ,n ,l1 and   
to the degree ,o ,m1 ,p ,n1 it will     
necessarily be placed at ,e1 and will   
be removed from the eye the whole length
 of the line ,a ,e1 which will  be      
proved in this manner to be equal in    
thickness to the distance ,a ,g4  ,if in
 the same quality of air the distance ,a
 ,g interposed between the  eye and the 
colour occupies two degrees1 and ,a ,e  
occupies two degrees  and a half1 it is 
sufficient to preserve the colour ,g1   
when raised to  ,e1 from any change1    
because the degree ,a ,c and the degree 
,a ,f being  the same in thickness1 are 
equal and alike1 and the degree ,c ,d1  
though  equal in length to the degree ,f
 ,g1 is not alike in point of thickness 
of air2 because half of it is situated  
in a degree of air of double the        

thickness of the air above3 this half   
degree of distance occupies as  much of 
the colour as one whole degree of the   
air above would1 which  air above is    
twice as thin as the air below1 with    
which it terminates2  so that by        
calculating the thickness of the air1   
and the distances1  you will find that  
the colours have changed places without 
undergoing  any alteration in their     
beauty4 ,and we shall prove it thus3    
reckoning  first the thickness of air1  
the colour ,h is placed in four degrees 
of  thickness1 the colour ,g in two     
degrees1 and ,e at one degree4 ,now let 
us see whether the distances are in an  
equal inverse proportion2 the  colour ,e
 is at two degrees and a half of        
distance1 ,g at two degrees1  and ,h at 
one degree4 ,but as this distance has   
not an exact proportion  with the       
thickness of air1 it is necessary to    
make a third calculation  in this       
manner3 ,a ,c is perfectly like and     
equal to ,a ,f2 the half  degree1 ,c ,b1

 is like but not equal to ,a ,f1 because
 it is only half a  degree in length1   
which is equal to a whole degree of the 
quality of  the air above2 so that by   
this calculation we shall solve the     
question4  ,for ,a ,c is equal to two   
degrees of thickness of the air above1  
and the  half degree ,c ,b is equal to a
 whole degree of the same air above2 and
  one degree more is to be taken in1    
viz4 ,b ,e1 which makes the fourth4  ,a 
,h has four degrees of thickness of air1
 ,a ,g also four1 viz4 ,a ,f two  in    
value1 and ,f ,g also two1 which taken  
together make four4 ,a ,e has  also     
four1 because ,a ,c contains two1 and ,c
 ,d one1 which is the half  of ,a ,c1   
and in the same quality of air2 and     
there is a whole degree  above in the   
thin air1 which all together make four4 
,so that if ,a ,e is  not double the    
distance ,a ,g1 nor four times the      
distance ,a ,h1 it is  made equivalent  
by the half degree ,c ,b of thick air1  
which is equal  to a whole degree of    

thin air above4 ,this proves the truth  
of the  proposition1 that the colour ,h 
,g ,e does not undergo any alteration by
  these different distances4            
_/,chap4 ,,ccxcix4_/--,contrary         
,opinions in regard to ,objects seen    
afar off4      _/,many_/ painters will  
represent the objects darker1 in        
proportion as  they are removed from the
 eye2 but this cannot be true1 unless   
the  objects seen be white2 as shall be 
examined in the next chapter4           
_/,chap4 ,,ccc4_/--,of the ,colour of   
,objects remote from the ,eye4          
_/,the_/ air tinges objects with its own
 colour more or less in proportion  to  
the quantity of intervening air between 
it and the eye1 so that a  dark object  
at the distance of two miles 7or a      
density of air equal to  such distance71
 will be more tinged with its colour    
than if only one  mile distant4    ,it  
is said1 that1 in a landscape1 trees of 
the same species appear  darker in the  
distance than near2 this cannot be true1

 if they be of  equal size1 and divided 
by equal spaces4 ,but it will be so if  
the  first trees are scattered1 and the 
light of the fields is seen through  and
 between them1 while the others which   
are farther off1 are thick  together1 as
 is often the case near some river or   
other piece of water3  in this case no  
space of light fields can be perceived1 
but the trees  appear thick together1   
accumulating the shadow on each other4  
,it also  happens1 that as the shady    
parts of plants are much broader than   
the  light ones1 the colour of the      
plants becoming darker by the multiplied
  shadows1 is preserved1 and conveyed to
 the eye more strongly than that  of the
 other parts2 these masses1 therefore1  
will carry the strongest  parts of their
 colour to a greater distance4          
_/,chap4 ,,ccci4_/--,of the ,colour of  
,mountains4      _/,the_/ darker the    
mountain is in itself1 the bluer it will
 appear at a  great distance4 ,the      
highest part will be the darkest1 as    

being more  woody2 because woods cover a
 great many shrubs1 and other plants1   
which never receive any light4 ,the wild
 plants of those woods are also         
naturally of a darker hue than          
cultivated plants2 for oak1 beech1 fir1 
cypress1 and pine trees are much darker 
than olive and other domestic  plants4  
,near the top of these mountains1 where 
the air is thinner and  purer1 the      
darkness of the woods will make it      
appear of a deeper azure1  than at the  
bottom1 where the air is thicker4 ,a    
plant will detach very  little from the 
ground it stands upon1 if that ground be
 of a colour  something similar to its  
own2 and1 vice vers1 that part of any   
white  object which is nearest to a dark
 one1 will appear the whitest1 and  the 
less so as it is removed from it2 and   
any dark object will appear  darker1 the
 nearer it is to a white one2 and less  
so1 if removed from  it4                
_/,chap4 ,,cccii4_/--,why the ,colour   
and ,shape of ,objects are lost in some 

,situations apparently dark1 though not 
so in ,reality4      _/,there_/ are some
 situations which1 though light1 appear 
dark1 and in  which objects are deprived
 both of form and colour4 ,this is      
caused by  the great light which        
pervades the intervening air2 as is     
observable by  looking in through a     
window at some distance from the eye1   
when nothing  is seen but an uniform    
darkish shade2 but if we enter the      
house1 we  shall find that room to be   
full of light1 and soon distinguish     
every  small object contained within    
that window4 ,this difference of effect 
is produced by the great brightness of  
the air1 which contracts  considerably  
the pupil of the eye1 and by so doing   
diminishes its  power4 ,but in dark     
places the pupil is enlarged1 and       
acquires as much  in strength1 as it    
increases in size4 ,this is proved in my
 second  proposition of perspective#gc4 
_/,chap4 ,,ccciii4_/--,various ,precepts
 in ,painting4      _/,the_/ termination

 and shape of the parts in general are  
very little  seen1 either in great      
masses of light1 or of shadows2 but     
those which  are situated between the   
extremes of light and shade are the most
  distinct4    ,perspective1 as far as  
it extends in regard to painting1 is    
divided  into three principal parts2 the
 first consists in the diminution of    
size1 according to distance2 the second 
concerns the diminution of  colours in  
such objects2 and the third treats of   
the diminution of the  perception       
altogether of those objects1 and of the 
degree of precision  they ought to      
exhibit at various distances4    ,the   
azure of the sky is produced by a       
mixture composed of light and           
darkness#gd2 ,i say of light1 because of
 the moist particles floating  in the   
air1 which reflect the light4 ,by       
darkness1 ,i mean the pure air1  which  
has none of these extraneous particles  
to stop and reflect the  rays4 ,of this 
we see an example in the air interposed 

between the eye  and some dark          
mountains1 rendered so by the shadows of
 an innumerable  quantity of trees2 or  
else shaded on one side by the natural  
privation  of the rays of the sun2 this 
air becomes azure1 but not so on the    
side  of the mountain which is light1   
particularly when it is covered with    
snow4    ,among objects of equal        
darkness and equal distance1 those will 
appear  darker that terminate upon a    
lighter ground1 and vice vers#ge4       
,that object which is painted with the  
most white and the most black1  will    
shew greater relief than any other2 for 
that reason ,i would  recommend to      
painters to colour and dress their      
figures with the  brightest and most    
lively colours2 for if they are painted 
of a dull  or obscure colour1 they will 
detach but little1 and not be much seen1
  when the picture is placed at some    
distance2 because the colour of  every  
object is obscured in the shades2 and if
 it be represented as  originally so all

 over1 there will be but little         
difference between  the lights and the  
shades1 while lively colours will shew a
 striking  difference4          ,,aerial
 ,,perspective4      _/,chap4           
,,ccciv4_/--,aerial ,perspective4       
_/,there_/ is another kind of           
perspective called aerial1 because by   
the  difference of the air it is easy to
 determine the distance of different    
objects1 though seen on the same line2  
such1 for instance1 as buildings  behind
 a wall1 and appearing all of the same  
height above it4 ,if in  your picture   
you want to have one appear more distant
 than another1 you  must first suppose  
the air somewhat thick1 because1 as we  
have said  before1 in such a kind of air
 the objects seen at a great distance1  
as mountains are1 appear blueish like   
the air1 by means of the great  quantity
 of air that interposes between the eye 
and such mountains4  ,you will then     
paint the first building behind that    
wall of its proper  colour2 the next in 

point of distance1 less distinct in the 
outline1  and participating1 in a       
greater degree1 of the blueish colour of
 the  air2 another which you wish to    
send off as much farther1 should be     
painted as much bluer2 and if you wish  
one of them to appear five times        
farther removed beyond the wall1 it must
 have five times more of the  azure4 ,by
 this rule these buildings which        
appeared all of the same  size1 and upon
 the same line1 will be distinctly      
perceived to be of  different           
dimensions1 and at different distances4 
_/,chap4 ,,cccv4_/--,the ,parts of the  
,smallest ,objects will first disappear 
in ,painting4      _/,of_/ objects      
receding from the eye the smallest will 
be the first lost  to the sight2 from   
which it follows1 that the largest will 
be the last  to disappear4 ,the painter1
 therefore1 ought not to finish the     
parts of  those objects which are very  
far off1 but follow the rule given in   
the  sixth book#gf4    ,how many1 in the

 representation of towns1 and other     
objects remote  from the eye1 express   
every part of the buildings in the same 
manner  as if they were very near4 ,it  
is not so in nature1 because there is no
  sight so powerful as to perceive      
distinctly at any great distance the    
precise form of parts or extremities of 
objects4 ,the painter therefore  who    
pronounces the outlines1 and the minute 
distinction of parts1 as  several have  
done1 will not give the representation  
of distant objects1  but by this error  
will make them appear exceedingly near4 
,again1 the  angles of buildings in     
distant towns are not to be expressed   
7for they  cannot be seen71 considering 
that angles are formed by the           
concurrence  of two lines into one      
point1 and that a point has no parts2 it
 is  therefore invisible4               
_/,chap4 ,,cccvi4_/--,small ,figures    
ought not to be too much finished4      
_/,objects_/ appear smaller than they   
really are when they are distant  from  

the eye1 and because there is a great   
deal of air interposed1  which weakens  
the appearance of forms1 and1 by a      
natural consequence1  prevents our      
seeing distinctly the minute parts of   
such objects4 ,it  behoves the painter  
therefore to touch those parts slightly1
 in an  unfinished manner2 otherwise it 
would be against the effect of ,nature1 
whom he has chosen for his guide4 ,for1 
as we said before1 objects  appear small
 on account of their great distance from
 the eye2 that  distance includes a     
great quantity of air1 which1 forming a 
dense body1  obstructs the light1 and   
prevents our seeing the minute parts of 
the  objects4          _/,chap4         
,,cccvii4_/--,why the ,air is to appear 
whiter as it approaches  nearer to the  
,earth4      _/,as_/ the air is thicker 
nearer the earth1 and becomes thinner as
 it  rises1 look1 when the sun is in the
 east1 towards the west1 between the    
north and south1 and you will perceive  
that the thickest and lowest air  will  

receive more light from the sun than the
 thinner air1 because its  beams meet   
with more resistance4    ,if the sky    
terminate low1 at the end of a plain1   
that part of it  nearest to the horizon1
 being seen only through the thick air1 
will  alter and break its natural       
colour1 and will appear whiter than over
  your head1 where the visual ray does  
not pass through so much of that  gross 
air1 corrupted by earthy vapours4 ,but  
if you turn towards the  east1 the air  
will be darker the nearer it approaches 
the earth2 for  the air being thicker1  
does not admit the light of the sun to  
pass so  freely4          _/,chap4      
,,cccviii4_/--,how to paint the distant 
,part of a ,landscape4      _/,it_/ is  
evident that the air is in some parts   
thicker and grosser than  in others1    
particularly that nearest to the earth2 
and as it rises  higher1 it becomes     
thinner and more transparent4 ,the      
objects which  are high and large1 from 
which you are at some distance1 will be 

less  apparent in the lower parts2      
because the visual ray which perceives  
them1 passes through a long space of    
dense air2 and it is easy to prove  that
 the upper parts are seen by a line1    
which1 though on the side of  the eye it
 originates in a thick air1             
nevertheless1 as it ascends to  the     
highest summit of its object1 terminates
 in an air much thinner  than that of   
the lower parts2 and for that reason the
 more that line  or visual ray advances 
from the eye1 it becomes1 in its        
progress  from one point to another1    
thinner and thinner1 passing from a pure
  air into another which is purer2 so   
that a painter who has mountains  to    
represent in a landscape1 ought to      
observe1 that from one hill  to another1
 the tops will appear always clearer    
than the bases4 ,in  proportion as the  
distance from one to another is greater1
 the top will  be clearer2 and the      
higher they are1 the more they will shew
 their  variety of form and colour4     

_/,chap4 ,,cccix4_/--,of precise and    
confused ,objects4      _/,the_/ parts  
that are near in the fore-ground should 
be finished in a  bold determined       
manner2 but those in the distance must  
be unfinished1  and confused in their   
outlines4          _/,chap4             
,,cccx4_/--,of distant ,objects4        
_/,that_/ part of any object which is   
nearest to the luminary from which  it  
receives the light1 will be the         
lightest4    ,the representation of an  
object in every degree of distance1     
loses  degrees of its strength2 that is1
 in proportion as the object is more    
remote from the eye it will be less     
perceivable through the air in its      
representation4          _/,chap4       
,,cccxi4_/--,of ,buildings seen in a    
thick ,air4      ,illustration          
_/,that_/ part of a building seen       
through a thick air1 will appear less   
distinct than another part seen through 
a thinner air4 ,therefore the  eye1 ,n1 
looking at the tower ,a ,d1 will see it 

more confusedly in the  lower degrees1  
but at the same time lighter2 and as it 
ascends to the  other degrees it will   
appear more distinct1 but somewhat      
darker4          _/,chap4               
,,cccxii4_/--,of ,towns and other       
,objects seen through a thick ,air4     
,illustration    _/,buildings_/ or towns
 seen through a fog1 or the air made    
thick by  smoke or other vapours1 will  
appear less distinct the lower they     
are2 and1 vice vers1 they will be       
sharper and more visible in  proportion 
as they are higher4 ,we have said1 in   
,chapter cccxxi4 that  the air is       
thicker the lower it is1 and thinner as 
it is higher4 ,it is  demonstrated also 
by the cut1 where the tower1 ,a ,f1 is  
seen by the eye  ,n1 in a thick air1    
from ,b to ,f1 which is divided into    
four degrees1  growing thicker as they  
are nearer the bottom4 ,the less the    
quantity of  air interposed between the 
eye and its object is1 the less also    
will  the colour of the object          

participate of the colour of that air4  
,it  follows1 that the greater the      
quantity of the air interposed between  
the eye and the object seen1 is1 the    
more this object will participate  of   
the colour of the air4 ,it is           
demonstrated thus3 ,n being the eye     
looking at the five parts of the tower  
,a ,f1 viz4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e1 ,i say1     
that if the air were of the same        
thickness1 there would be the same      
proportion between the colour of the air
 at the bottom of the tower and  the    
colour of the air that the same tower   
has at the place ,b1 as there  is in    
length between the line ,m and ,f4 ,as1 
however1 we have supposed  that the air 
is not of equal thickness1 but1 on the  
contrary1 thicker  as it is lower1 it   
follows1 that the proportion by which   
the air tinges  the different elevations
 of the tower ,b ,c ,f1 exceeds the     
proportion  of the lines2 because the   
line ,m ,f1 besides its being longer    
than the  line ,s ,b1 passes by unequal 

degrees through a quality of air which  
is  unequal in thickness4               
_/,chap4 ,,cccxiii4_/--,of the inferior 
,extremities of distant ,objects4       
_/,the_/ inferior or lower extremities  
of distant objects are not so  apparent 
as the upper extremities4 ,this is      
observable in mountains  and hills1 the 
tops of which detach from the sides of  
other mountains  behind4 ,we see the    
tops of these more determined and       
distinctly than  their bases2 because   
the upper extremities are darker1 being 
less  encompassed by thick air1 which   
always remains in the lower regions1    
and makes them appear dim and confused4 
,it is the same with trees1  buildings1 
and other objects high up4 ,from this   
effect it often happens  that a high    
tower1 seen at a great distance1 will   
appear broad at top1  and narrow at     
bottom2 because the thin air towards the
 top does not  prevent the angles on the
 sides and other different parts of the 
tower  from being seen1 as the thick air

 does at bottom4 ,this is demonstrated  
by the seventh proposition#gg1 which    
says1 that the thick air  interposed    
between the eye and the sun1 is lighter 
below than above1  and where the air is 
whiteish1 it confuses the dark objects  
more than if  such air were blueish or  
thinner1 as it is higher up4 ,the       
battlements  of a fortress have the     
spaces between equal to the breadth of  
the  battlement1 and yet the space will 
appear wider2 at a great distance  the  
battlements will appear very much       
diminished1 and being removed  still    
farther1 will disappear entirely1 and   
the fort shew only the  straight wall1  
as if there were no battlements4        
_/,chap4 ,,cccxiv4_/--,which ,parts of  
,objects disappear first by being       
removed farther from the ,eye1 and which
 preserve their ,appearance4            
_/,the_/ smallest parts are those which1
 by being removed1 lose their           
appearance first2 this may be observed  
in the gloss upon spherical  bodies1 or 

columns1 and the slender parts of       
animals2 as in a stag1  the first sight 
of which does not discover its legs and 
horns so soon  as its body1 which1 being
 broader1 will be perceived from a      
greater  distance4 ,but the parts which 
disappear the very first1 are the lines 
which describe the members1 and         
terminate the surface and shape of      
bodies4          _/,chap4               
,,cccxv4_/--,why ,objects are less      
distinguished in proportion as  they are
 farther removed from the ,eye4         
_/,this_/ happens because the smallest  
parts are lost first2 the second1  in   
point of size1 are also lost at a       
somewhat greater distance1 and so  on   
successively2 the parts by degrees      
melting away1 the perception of  the    
object is diminished2 and at last all   
the parts1 and the whole1 are  entirely 
lost to the sight#gh4 ,colours also     
disappear on account of  the density of 
the air interposed between the eye and  
the object4          _/,chap4           

,,cccxvi4_/--,why ,faces appear dark at 
a ,distance4      _/,it_/ is evident    
that the similitude of all objects      
placed before us1  large as well as     
small1 is perceptible to our senses     
through the iris  of the eye4 ,if       
through so small an entrance the        
immensity of the sky  and of the earth  
is admitted1 the faces of men 7which are
 scarcely any  thing in comparison of   
such large objects71 being still        
diminished by  the distance1 will occupy
 so little of the eye1 that they become 
almost  imperceptible4 ,besides1 having 
to pass through a dark medium from the  
surface to the ,retina in the inside1   
where the impression is made1  the      
colour of faces 7not being very strong1 
and rendered still more  obscure by the 
darkness of the tube7 when arrived at   
the focus appears  dark4 ,no other      
reason can be given on that point1      
except that the speck  in the middle of 
the apple of the eye is black1 and1     
being full of a  transparent fluid like 

air1 performs the same office as a hole 
in a  board1 which on looking into it   
appears black2 and that those things    
which are seen through both a light and 
dark air1 become confused and  obscure4 
_/,chap4 ,,cccxvii4_/--,of ,towns and   
other ,buildings seen through a ,fog in 
the ,morning or ,evening4               
_/,buildings_/ seen afar off in the     
morning or in the evening1 when there   
is a fog1 or thick air1 shew only those 
parts distinctly which are  enlightened 
by the sun towards the horizon2 and the 
parts of those  buildings which are not 
turned towards the sun remain confused  
and  almost of the colour of the fog4   
_/,chap4 ,,cccxviii4_/--,of the ,height 
of ,buildings seen in a ,fog4           
_/,of_/ a building near the eye the top 
parts will appear more confused  than   
the bottom1 because there is more fog   
between the eye and the top  than at the
 base4 ,and a square tower1 seen at a   
great distance through  a fog1 will     
appear narrower at the base than at the 

summit4 ,this is  accounted for in      
,chapter cccxiii4 which says1 that the  
fog will appear  whiter and thicker as  
it approaches the ground2 and as it is  
said  before#gi1 that a dark object will
 appear smaller in proportion as it  is 
placed on a whiter ground4 ,therefore   
the fog being whiter at bottom  than at 
top1 it follows that the tower 7being   
darkish7 will appear  narrower at the   
base than at the summit4                
_/,chap4 ,,cccxix4_/--,why ,objects     
which are high1 appear darker at a      
,distance than those which are low1     
though the ,fog be uniform1 and of      
equal ,thickness4      _/,amongst_/     
objects situated in a fog1 thick air1   
vapour1 smoke1 or at  a distance1 the   
highest will be the most distinctly     
seen3 and amongst  objects equal in     
height1 that placed in the darkest fog1 
will be most  confused and dark4 ,as it 
happens to the eye ,h1 looking at ,a ,b 
,c1 three  towers of equal height2 it   
sees the top ,c as low as ,r1 in two    

degrees  of thickness2 and the top ,b1  
in one degree only2 therefore the top ,c
  will appear darker than the top of the
 tower ,b4    ,illustration             
_/,chap4 ,,cccxx4_/--,of ,objects seen  
in a ,fog4      _/,objects_/ seen       
through a fog will appear larger than   
they are in  reality1 because the aerial
 perspective does not agree with the    
linear1  viz4 the colour does not agree 
with the magnitude of the object#hj2    
such a fog being similar to the         
thickness of air interposed between the 
eye and the horizon in fine weather4    
,but in this case the fog is near  the  
eye1 and though the object be also near1
 it makes it appear as if  it were as   
far off as the horizon2 where a great   
tower would appear no  bigger than a man
 placed near the eye4          _/,chap4 
,,cccxxi4_/--,of those ,objects which   
the ,eyes perceive through a  ,mist or  
thick ,air4      _/,the_/ nearer the air
 is to water1 or to the ground1 the     
thicker it  becomes4 ,it is proved by   

the nineteenth proposition of the second
  book#ha1 that bodies rise in          
proportion to their weight2 and it      
follows1 that a light body will rise    
higher than another which is heavy4     
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxii4_/--,miscellaneous   
,observations4      _/,of_/ different   
objects equal in magnitude1 form1 shade1
 and distance  from the eye1 those will 
appear the smaller that are placed on   
the  lighter ground4 ,this is           
exemplified by observing the sun when   
seen  behind a tree without leaves2 all 
the ramifications seen against that     
great light are so diminished that they 
remain almost invisible4 ,the  same may 
be observed of a pole placed between the
 sun and the eye4    ,parallel bodies   
placed upright1 and seen through a fog1 
will  appear larger at top than at      
bottom4 ,this is proved by the ninth    
proposition#hb1 which says1 that a fog1 
or thick air1 penetrated by  the rays of
 the sun1 will appear whiter the lower  
they are4    ,things seen afar off will 

appear out of proportion1 because the   
parts  which are the lightest will send 
their image with stronger rays than  the
 parts which are darkest4 ,i have seen a
 woman dressed in black1  with a white  
veil over her head1 which appeared twice
 as large as her  shoulders covered with
 black4          ,,miscellaneous        
,,observations4      ,,landscape4       
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxiii4_/--,of ,objects    
seen at a ,distance4      _/,any_/ dark 
object will appear lighter when removed 
to some distance  from the eye4 ,it     
follows1 by the contrary reason1 that a 
dark object  will appear still darker   
when brought nearer to the eye4         
,therefore the  inferior parts of any   
object whatever1 placed in thick air1   
will appear  farther from the eye at the
 bottom than at the top2 for that reason
 the  lower parts of a mountain appear  
farther off than its top1 which is in   
reality the farthest4          _/,chap4 
,,cccxxiv4_/--,of a ,town seen through a
 thick ,air4      _/,the_/ eye which1   

looking downwards1 sees a town immersed 
in very thick  air1 will perceive the   
top of the buildings darker1 but more   
distinct  than the bottom4 ,the tops    
detach against a light ground1 because  
they  are seen against the low and thick
 air which is beyond them4 ,this is a   
consequence of what has been explained  
in the preceding chapter4               
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxv4_/--,how to draw a    
,landscape4      _/,contrive_/ that the 
trees in your landscape be half in      
shadow and half  in the light4 ,it is   
better to represent them as when the sun
 is veiled  with thin clouds1 because in
 that case the trees receive a general  
light from the sky1 and are darkest in  
those parts which are nearest to  the   
earth4          _/,chap4                
,,cccxxvi4_/--,of the ,green of the     
,country4      _/,of_/ the greens seen  
in the country1 that of trees and other 
plants  will appear darker than that of 
fields and meadows1 though they may     
happen to be of the same quality4       

_/,chap4 ,,cccxxvii4_/--,what ,greens   
will appear most of a blueish ,cast4    
_/,those_/ greens will appear to        
approach nearest to blue which are  of  
the darkest shade when remote4 ,this is 
proved by the seventh  proposition#hc1  
which says1 that blue is composed of    
black and white  seen at a great        
distance4          _/,chap4             
,,cccxxviii4_/--,the ,colour of the ,sea
 from different ,aspects4      _/,when_/
 the sea is a little ruffled it has no  
sameness of colour2 for  whoever looks  
at it from the shore1 will see it of a  
dark colour1 in a  greater degree as it 
approaches towards the horizon1 and will
 perceive  also certain lights moving   
slowly on the surface like a flock of   
sheep4  ,whoever looks at the sea from  
on board a ship1 at a distance from the 
land1 sees it blue4 ,near the shore it  
appears darkish1 on account of  the     
colour of the earth reflected by the    
water1 as in a looking-glass2  but at   
sea the azure of the air is reflected to

 the eye by the waves in  the same      
manner4          _/,chap4               
,,cccxxix4_/--,why the same ,prospect   
appears larger at some ,times  than at  
others4      _/,objects_/ in the country
 appear sometimes larger and sometimes  
smaller  than they actually are1 from   
the circumstance of the air interposed  
between the eye and the horizon1        
happening to be either thicker or       
thinner than usual4    ,of two horizons 
equally distant from the eye1 that which
 is seen  through the thicker air will  
appear farther removed2 and the other   
will  seem nearer1 being seen through a 
thinner air4    ,objects of unequal     
size1 but equally distant1 will appear  
equal if the  air which is between them 
and the eye be of proportionable        
inequality  of thickness1 viz4 if the   
thickest air be interposed between the  
eye  and the smallest of the objects4   
,this is proved by the perspective of   
colours#hd1 which is so deceitful that a
 mountain which would appear  small by  

the compasses1 will seem larger than a  
small hill near the  eye2 as a finger   
placed near the eye will cover a large  
mountain far  off4          _/,chap4    
,,cccxxx4_/--,of ,smoke4      _/,smoke_/
 is more transparent1 though darker     
towards the extremities of  its waves   
than in the middle4    ,it moves in a   
more oblique direction in proportion to 
the force of the  wind which impels it4 
,different kinds of smoke vary in       
colour1 as the causes that produce  them
 are various4    ,smoke never produces  
determined shadows1 and the extremities 
are lost  as they recede from their     
primary cause4 ,objects behind it are   
less  apparent in proportion to the     
thickness of the smoke4 ,it is whiter   
nearer its origin1 and bluer towards its
 termination4    ,fire appears darker1  
the more smoke there is interposed      
between it and  the eye4    ,where smoke
 is farther distant1 the objects are    
less confused by it4    ,it encumbers   
and dims all the landscape like a fog4  

,smoke is seen to  issue from different 
places1 with flames at the origin1 and  
the most  dense part of it4 ,the tops of
 mountains will be more seen than the   
lower parts1 as in a fog4               
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxxi4_/--,in what ,part   
,smoke is lightest4      _/,smoke_/     
which is seen between the sun and the   
eye will be lighter and  more           
transparent than any other in the       
landscape4 ,the same is observed  of    
dust1 and of fog2 while1 if you place   
yourself between the sun and  those     
objects1 they will appear dark4         
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxxii4_/--,of the         
,sun-beams passing through the ,openings
 of  ,clouds4      _/,the_/ sun-beams   
which penetrate the openings interposed 
between clouds  of various density and  
form1 illuminate all the places over    
which they  pass1 and tinge with their  
own colour all the dark places that are 
behind3 which dark places are only seen 
in the intervals between the  rays4     
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxxiii4_/--,of the        

,beginning of ,rain4      _/,when_/ the 
rain begins to fall1 it tarnishes and   
darkens the air1  giving it a dull      
colour1 but receives still on one side a
 faint light  from the sun1 and is      
shaded on the other side1 as we observe 
in clouds2  till at last it darkens also
 the earth1 depriving it entirely of the
  light of the sun4 ,objects seen       
through the rain appear confused and of 
undetermined shape1 but those which are 
near will be more distinct4 ,it  is     
observable1 that on the side where the  
rain is shaded1 objects will  be more   
clearly distinguished than where it     
receives the light2 because  on the     
shady side they lose only their         
principal lights1 whilst on  the other  
they lose both their lights and shadows1
 the lights mixing  with the light part 
of the rain1 and the shadows are also   
considerably  weakened by it4           
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxxiv4_/--,the ,seasons   
are to be observed4      _/,in_/ ,autumn
 you will represent the objects         

according as it is more or  less        
advanced4 ,at the beginning of it the   
leaves of the oldest branches  only     
begin to fade1 more or less1 however1   
according as the plant is  situated in a
 fertile or barren country2 and do not  
imitate those who  represent trees of   
every kind 7though at equal distance7   
with the same  quality of green4        
,endeavour to vary the colour of        
meadows1 stones1  trunks of trees1 and  
all other objects1 as much as possible1 
for ,nature  abounds in variety ad      
infinitum4          _/,chap4            
,,cccxxxv4_/--,the ,difference of       
,climates to be observed4      _/,near_/
 the sea-shore1 and in southern parts1  
you will be careful not to  represent   
the ,winter season by the appearance of 
trees and fields1 as  you would do in   
places more inland1 and in northern     
countries1 except  when these are       
covered with ever-greens1 which shoot   
afresh all the  year round4             
_/,chap4 ,,cccxxxvi4_/--,of ,dust4      

_/,dust_/ becomes lighter the higher it 
rises1 and appears darker the less  it  
is raised1 when it is seen between the  
eye and the sun4          _/,chap4      
,,cccxxxvii4_/--,how to represent the   
,wind4      _/,in_/ representing the    
effect of the wind1 besides the bending 
of trees1  and leaves twisting the wrong
 side upwards1 you will also express the
  small dust whirling upwards till it   
mixes in a confused manner with the     
air4          _/,chap4                  
,,cccxxxviii4_/--,of a ,wilderness4     
_/,those_/ trees and shrubs which are by
 their nature more loaded with  small   
branches1 ought to be touched smartly in
 the shadows1 but those  which have     
larger foliage1 will cause broader      
shadows4          _/,chap4              
,,cccxxxix4_/--,of the ,horizon seen in 
the ,water4      _/,by_/ the sixth      
proposition#he1 the horizon will be seen
 in the water  as in a looking-glass1 on
 that side which is opposite the eye4   
,and  if the painter has to represent a 

spot covered with water1 let him        
remember that the colour of it cannot be
 either lighter or darker than  that of 
the neighbouring objects4               
_/,chap4 ,,cccxl4_/--,of the ,shadow of 
,bridges on the ,surface of the ,water4 
_/,the_/ shadows of bridges can never be
 seen on the surface of the water1      
unless it should have lost its          
transparent and reflecting quality1  and
 become troubled and muddy2 because     
clear water being polished and  smooth  
on its surface1 the image of the bridge 
is formed in it as in  a looking-glass1 
and reflected in all the points situated
 between the  eye and the bridge at     
equal angles2 and even the air is seen  
under the  arches4 ,these circumstances 
cannot happen when the water is muddy1  
because it does not reflect the objects 
any longer1 but receives the  shadow of 
the bridge in the same manner as a dusty
 road would receive  it4                
_/,chap4 ,,cccxli4_/--,how a ,painter   
ought to put in ,practice the           

,perspective of ,colours4      _/,to_/  
put in practice that perspective which  
teaches the alteration1 the  lessening1 
and even the entire loss of the very    
essence of colours1  you must take some 
points in the country at the distance of
 about  sixty-five yards#hf from each   
other2 as trees1 men1 or some other     
remarkable objects4 ,in regard to the   
first tree1 you will take a glass1  and 
having fixed that well1 and also your   
eye1 draw upon it1 with the  greatest   
accuracy1 the tree you see through it2  
then put it a little  on one side1 and  
compare it closely with the natural one1
 and colour  it1 so that in shape and   
colour it may resemble the original1 and
 that  by shutting one eye they may both
 appear painted1 and at the same        
distance4 ,the same rule may be applied 
to the second and third tree  at the    
distance you have fixed4 ,these studies 
will be very useful if  managed with    
judgment1 where they may be wanted in   
the offscape of a  picture4 ,i have     

observed that the second tree is less by
 four fifths  than the first1 at the    
distance of thirteen yards4             
_/,chap4 ,,cccxlii4_/--,various         
,precepts in ,painting4      _/,the_/   
superficies of any opake body           
participates of the colour of the       
transparent medium interposed between   
the eye and such body1 in a  greater or 
less degree1 in proportion to the       
density of such medium and  the space it
 occupies4    ,the outlines of opake    
bodies will be less apparent in         
proportion as  those bodies are farther 
distant from the eye4    ,that part of  
the opake body will be the most shaded1 
or lightest1 which  is nearest to the   
body that shades it1 or gives it light4 
,the surface of any opake body          
participates more or less of the colour 
of that body which gives it light1 in   
proportion as the latter is more  or    
less remote1 or more or less strong4    
,objects seen between lights and shadows
 will appear to have greater  relievo   

than those which are placed wholly in   
the light1 or wholly in  shadow4        
,when you give strength and precision to
 objects seen at a great  distance1 they
 will appear as if they were very near4 
,endeavour that  your imitation be such 
as to give a just idea of distances4 ,if
 the  object in nature appear confused  
in the outlines1 let the same be        
observed in your picture4    ,the       
outlines of distant objects appear      
undetermined and confused1  for two     
reasons3 the first is1 that they come to
 the eye by so small  an angle1 and are 
therefore so much diminished1 that they 
strike the  sight no more than small    
objects do1 which though near can hardly
 be  distinguished1 such as the nails of
 the fingers1 insects1 and other        
similar things3 the second is1 that     
between the eye and the distant  objects
 there is so much air interposed1 that  
it becomes thick2 and1  like a veil1    
tinges the shadows with its own         
whiteness1 and turns them  from a dark  

colour to another between black and     
white1 such as azure4    ,although1 by  
reason of the great distance1 the       
appearance of many  things is lost1 yet 
those things which receive the light    
from the sun  will be more discernible1 
while the rest remain enveloped in      
confused  shadows4 ,and because the air 
is thicker near the ground1 the things  
which are lower will appear confused2   
and vice vers4    ,when the sun tinges  
the clouds on the horizon with red1     
those objects  which1 on account of     
their distance1 appear blueish1 will    
participate  of that redness1 and will  
produce a mixture between the azure and 
red1  which renders the prospect lively 
and pleasant2 all the opake bodies      
which receive that light will appear    
distinct1 and of a reddish colour1  and 
the air1 being transparent1 will be     
impregnated with it1 and appear  of the 
colour of lilies#hg4    ,the air which  
is between the earth and the sun when it
 rises or sets1  will always dim the    

objects it surrounds1 more than the air 
any where  else1 because it is whiter4  
,it is not necessary to mark strongly   
the outlines of any object which  is    
placed upon another4 ,it ought to detach
 of itself4    ,if the outline or       
extremity of a white and curved surface 
terminate  upon another white body1 it  
will have a shade at that extremity1    
darker  than any part of the light2 but 
if against a dark object1 such outline1 
or extremity1 will be lighter than any  
part of the light4    ,those objects    
which are most different in colour1 will
 appear the most  detached from each    
other4    ,those parts of objects which 
first disappear in the distance1 are    
extremities similar in colour1 and      
ending one upon the other1 as the       
extremities of an oak tree upon another 
oak similar to it4 ,the next to         
disappear at a greater distance are1    
objects of mixed colours1 when  they    
terminate one upon the other1 as trees1 
ploughed fields1 walls1  heaps of       

rubbish1 or of stones4 ,the last        
extremities of bodies that  vanish are  
those which1 being light1 terminate upon
 a dark ground2 or  being dark1 upon a  
light ground4    ,of objects situated   
above the eye1 at equal heights1 the    
farthest  removed from the eye will     
appear the lowest2 and if situated below
  the eye1 the nearest to it will appear
 the lowest4 ,the parallel lines        
situated sidewise will concur to one    
point#hh4    ,those objects which are   
near a river1 or a lake1 in the distant 
part of  a landscape1 are less apparent 
and distinct than those that are remote 
from them4    ,of bodies of equal       
density1 those that are nearest to the  
eye will  appear thinnest1 and the most 
remote thickest4    ,a large eye-ball   
will see objects larger than a small    
one4 ,the  experiment may be made by    
looking at any of the celestial bodies1 
through a pin-hole1 which being capable 
of admitting but a portion  of its      
light1 it seems to diminish and lose of 

its size in the same  proportion as the 
pin-hole is smaller than the usual      
apparent size of  the object4    ,a     
thick air interposed between the eye and
 any object1 will render the  outlines  
of such object undetermined and         
confused1 and make it appear  of a      
larger size than it is in reality2      
because the linear perspective  does not
 diminish the angle which conveys the   
object to the eye4 ,the  aerial         
perspective carries it farther off1 so  
that the one removes it  from the eye1  
while the other preserves its           
magnitude#hi4    ,when the sun is in the
 ,west the vapours of the earth fall    
down again  and thicken the air1 so that
 objects not enlightened by the sun     
remain  dark and confused1 but those    
which receive its light will be tinged  
yellow and red1 according to the sun's  
appearance on the horizon4  ,again1     
those that receive its light are very   
distinct1 particularly  public buildings
 and houses in towns and villages1      

because their  shadows are dark1 and it 
seems as if those parts which are       
plainly seen  were coming out of        
confused and undetermined foundations1  
because at  that time every thing is of 
one and the same colour1 except what is 
enlightened by the sun#ij4    ,any      
object receiving the light from the sun1
 receives also the general  light2 so   
that two kinds of shadows are produced3 
the darkest of the  two is that which   
happens to have its central line        
directed towards the  centre of the sun4
 ,the central lines of the primitive and
 secondary  lights are the same as the  
central lines of the primitive and      
secondary  shadows4    ,the setting sun 
is a beautiful and magnificent object   
when it tinges  with its colour all the 
great buildings of towns1 villages1 and 
the top  of high trees in the country4  
,all below is confused and almost lost  
in  a tender and general mass2 for1     
being only enlightened by the air1 the  
difference between the shadows and the  

lights is small1 and for that  reason it
 is not much detached4 ,but those that  
are high are touched  by the rays of the
 sun1 and1 as was said before1 are      
tinged with its  colour2 the painter    
therefore ought to take the same colour 
with which  he has painted the sun1 and 
employ it in all those parts of his work
  which receive its light4    ,it also  
happens very often1 that a cloud will   
appear dark without  receiving any      
shadow from a separate cloud1 according 
to the situation  of the eye2 because it
 will see only the shady part of the    
one1 while  it sees both the enlightened
 and shady parts of the other4    ,of   
two objects at equal height1 that which 
is the farthest off will  appear the    
lowest4 ,observe the first cloud in the 
cut1 though it  is lower than the       
second1 it appears as if it were higher4
 ,this is  demonstrated by the section  
of the pyramidical rays of the low cloud
 at  ,m ,a1 and the second 7which is    
higher7 at ,n ,m1 below ,m ,a4 ,this    

happens  also when1 on account of the   
rays of the setting or rising sun1 a    
dark  cloud appears higher than another 
which is light4    ,illustration        
_/,chap4 ,,cccxliii4_/--,the ,brilliancy
 of a ,landscape4      _/,the_/ vivacity
 and brightness of colours in a         
landscape will never bear  any          
comparison with a landscape in nature   
when illumined by the sun1  unless the  
picture be placed so as to receive the  
same light from the  sun itself4        
,,miscellaneous ,,observations4         
_/,chap4 ,,cccxliv4_/--,why a painted   
,object does not appear so far distant  
as a real one1 though they be conveyed  
to the ,eye by equal ,angles4           
,illustration    _/,if_/ a house be     
painted on the pannel ,b ,c1 at the     
apparent distance of  one mile1 and by  
the side of it a real one be perceived  
at the true  distance of one mile also2 
which objects are so disposed1 that the 
pannel1 or picture1 ,a ,c1 intersects   
the pyramidical rays with the same      

opening of angles2 yet these two objects
 will never appear of the same  size1   
nor at the same distance1 if seen with  
both eyes#ia4          _/,chap4         
,,cccxlv4_/--,how to draw a ,figure     
standing upon its ,feet1 to  appear     
forty ,braccia#ib high1 in a ,space of  
twenty ,braccia1 with  proportionate    
,members4      _/,in_/ this1 as in any  
other case1 the painter is not to mind  
what kind  of surface he has to work    
upon2 particularly if his painting is to
 be  seen from a determined point1 such 
as a window1 or any other opening4      
,because the eye is not to attend to the
 evenness or roughness of the  wall1 but
 only to what is to be represented as   
beyond that wall2 such  as a landscape1 
or any thing else4 ,nevertheless a      
curved surface1 such  as ,f ,r ,g1 would
 be the best1 because it has no angles4 
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cccxlvi4_/--,how to draw a ,figure    
twenty-four ,braccia high1 upon  a ,wall
 twelve ,braccia high4 ,plate ,,xxii4   

_/,draw_/ upon part of the wall ,m ,n1  
half the figure you mean to  represent2 
and the other half upon the cove above1 
,m ,r4 ,but before  that1 it will be    
necessary to draw upon a flat board1 or 
a paper1 the  profile of the wall and   
cove1 of the same shape and dimension1  
as that  upon which you are to paint4   
,then draw also the profile of your     
figure1  of whatever size you please1 by
 the side of it2 draw all the lines to  
the point ,f1 and where they intersect  
the profile ,m ,r1 you will have  the   
dimensions of your figure as they ought 
to be drawn upon the real  spot4 ,you   
will find1 that on the straight part of 
the wall ,m ,n1 it will  come of its    
proper form1 because the going off      
perpendicularly will  diminish it       
naturally2 but that part which comes    
upon the curve will be  diminished upon 
your drawing4 ,the whole must be traced 
afterwards upon  the real spot1 which is
 similar to ,m ,n4 ,this is a good and  
safe method4    ,illustration3  ,page   

#aif4  ,chap4 #cdf4  ,plate #bb4        
,london1 ,published by ,j4 ,taylor ,high
 ,holborn4          _/,chap4            
,,cccxlvii4_/--,why1 on measuring a     
,face1 and then painting it of  the same
 ,size1 it will appear larger than the  
natural one4      ,a ,b is the breadth  
of the space1 or of the head1 and it is 
placed on  the paper at the distance ,c 
,f1 where the cheeks are1 and it would  
have  to stand back all ,a ,c1 and then 
the temples would be carried to the     
distance ,o ,r of the lines ,a ,f1 ,b   
,f2 so that there is the difference ,c  
,o and ,r ,d4 ,it follows that the line 
,c ,f1 and the line ,d ,f1 in order  to 
become shorter#ic1 have to go and find  
the paper where the whole  height is    
drawn1 that is to say1 the lines ,f ,a1 
and ,f ,b1 where the true  size is2 and 
so it makes the difference1 as ,i have  
said1 of ,c ,o1 and ,r  ,d4             
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cccxlviii4_/--,why the most perfect   
,imitation of ,nature will not  appear  

to have the same ,relief as ,nature     
itself4      _/,if_/ nature is seen with
 two eyes1 it will be impossible to     
imitate it  upon a picture so as to     
appear with the same relief1 though the 
lines1  the lights1 shades1 and colour1 
be perfectly imitated#id4 ,it is proved 
thus3 let the eyes ,a ,b1 look at the   
object ,c1 with the concurrence of  both
 the central visual rays ,a ,c and ,b   
,c4 ,i say1 that the sides of the       
visual angles 7which contain these      
central rays7 will see the space ,g  ,d1
 behind the object ,c4 ,the eye ,a will 
see all the space ,,fd1 and the  eye ,b 
all the space ,g ,e4 ,therefore the two 
eyes will see behind the  object ,c all 
the space ,f ,e2 for which reason that  
object ,c becomes as  it were           
transparent1 according to the definition
 of transparent bodies1  behind which   
nothing is hidden4 ,this cannot happen  
if an object were  seen with one eye    
only1 provided it be larger than the    
eye4 ,from all  that has been said1 we  

may conclude1 that a painted object1    
occupying  all the space it has behind1 
leaves no possible way to see any part  
of  the ground1 which it covers entirely
 by its own circumference#ie4           
,illustration          _/,chap4         
,,cccxlix4_/--,universality of          
,painting2 a ,precept4      _/,a        
painter_/ cannot be said to aim at      
universality in the art1 unless  he love
 equally every species of that art4 ,for
 instance1 if he delight  only in       
landscape1 his can be esteemed only as a
 simple investigation2  and1 as our     
friend ,botticello#if remarks1 is but a 
vain study2 since1  by throwing a sponge
 impregnated with various colours       
against a wall1  it leaves some spots   
upon it1 which may appear like a        
landscape4 ,it is  true also1 that a    
variety of compositions may be seen in  
such spots1  according to the           
disposition of mind with which they are 
considered2  such as heads of men1      
various animals1 battles1 rocky scenes1 

seas1  clouds1 woods1 and the like4 ,it 
may be compared to the sound of bells1  
which may seem to say whatever we choose
 to imagine4 ,in the same manner  also1 
those spots may furnish hints for       
compositions1 though they do  not teach 
us how to finish any particular part2   
and the imitators of  them are but sorry
 landscape-painters4          _/,chap4  
,,cccl4_/--,in what ,manner the ,mirror 
is the true ,master of  ,painters4      
_/,when_/ you wish to know if your      
picture be like the object you mean to  
represent1 have a flat looking-glass1   
and place it so as to reflect the       
object you have imitated1 and compare   
carefully the original with the  copy4  
,you see upon a flat mirror the         
representation of things which  appear  
real2 ,painting is the same4 ,they are  
both an even superficies1  and both give
 the idea of something beyond their     
superficies4 ,since you  are persuaded  
that the looking-glass1 by means of     
lines and shades1  gives you the        

representation of things as if they were
 real2 you being  in possession of      
colours which in their different lights 
and shades are  stronger than those of  
the looking-glass1 may certainly1 if you
 employ  the rules with judgment1 give  
to your picture the same appearance of  
,nature as you admire in the            
looking-glass4 ,or rather1 your picture 
will  be like ,nature itself seen in a  
large looking-glass4    ,this           
looking-glass 7being your master7 will  
shew you the lights and  shades of any  
object whatever4 ,amongst your colours  
there are some  lighter than the        
lightest part of your model1 and also   
some darker  than the strongest shades2 
from which it follows1 that you ought to
  represent ,nature as seen in your     
looking-glass1 when you look at it  with
 one eye only2 because both eyes        
surround the objects too much1          
particularly when they are small#ig4    
_/,chap4 ,,cccli4_/--,which ,painting is
 to be esteemed the best4      _/,that_/

 painting is the most commendable which 
has the greatest  conformity to what is 
meant to be imitated4 ,this kind of     
comparison  will often put to shame a   
certain description of painters1 who    
pretend  they can mend the works of     
,nature2 as they do1 for instance1 when 
they pretend to represent a child twelve
 months old1 giving him eight  heads in 
height1 when ,nature in its best        
proportion admits but five4  ,the       
breadth of the shoulders also1 which is 
equal to the head1 they  make double1   
giving to a child a year old1 the       
proportions of a man of  thirty4 ,they  
have so often practised1 and seen others
 practise these  errors1 that they have 
converted them into habit1 which has    
taken so  deep a root in their corrupted
 judgment1 that they persuade themselves
  that ,nature and her imitators are    
wrong in not following their own        
practice#ih4          _/,chap4          
,,ccclii4_/--,of the ,judgment to be    
made of a ,painter's ,work4             

_/,the_/ first thing to be considered   
is1 whether the figures have their      
proper relief1 according to their       
respective situations1 and the light    
they are in3 that the shadows be not the
 same at the extremities of  the groups1
 as in the middle2 because being        
surrounded by shadows1 or  shaded only  
on one side1 produce very different     
effects4 ,the groups in  the middle are 
surrounded by shadows from the other    
figures1 which are  between them and the
 light4 ,those which are at the         
extremities have  the shadows only on   
one side1 and receive the light on the  
other4 ,the  strongest and smartest     
touches of shadows are to be in the     
interstice  between the figures of the  
principal group where the light cannot  
penetrate#ii4    ,secondly1 that by the 
order and disposition of the figures    
they appear  to be accommodated to the  
subject1 and the true representation of 
the  history in question4    ,thirdly1  
that the figures appear alive to the    

occasion which brought  them together1  
with expressions suited to their        
attitudes4          _/,chap4            
,,cccliii4_/--,how to make an imaginary 
,animal appear natural4      _/,it_/ is 
evident that it will be impossible to   
invent any animal without  giving it    
members1 and these members must         
individually resemble those  of some    
known animal4    ,if you wish1          
therefore1 to make a chimera1 or        
imaginary animal1 appear  natural 7let  
us suppose a serpent72 take the head of 
a mastiff1 the  eyes of a cat1 the ears 
of a porcupine1 the mouth of a hare1 the
  brows of a lion1 the temples of an old
 cock1 and the neck of a sea            
tortoise#ajj4          _/,chap4         
,,cccliv4_/--,painters are not to       
imitate one another4      _/,one_/      
painter ought never to imitate the      
manner of any other2 because  in that   
case he cannot be called the child of   
,nature1 but the  grandchild4 ,it is    
always best to have recourse to ,nature1

 which is  replete with such abundance  
of objects1 than to the productions of  
other masters1 who learnt every thing   
from her4          _/,chap4             
,,ccclv4_/--,how to judge of one's own  
,work4      _/,it_/ is an acknowledged  
fact1 that we perceive errors in the    
works of  others more readily than in   
our own4 ,a painter1 therefore1 ought to
  be well instructed in perspective1 and
 acquire a perfect knowledge of  the    
dimensions of the human body2 he should 
also be a good architect1  at least as  
far as concerns the outward shape of    
buildings1 with their  different parts2 
and where he is deficient1 he ought not 
to neglect  taking drawings from        
,nature4    ,it will be well also to    
have a looking-glass by him1 when he    
paints1  to look often at his work in   
it1 which being seen the contrary way1  
will appear as the work of another hand1
 and will better shew his  faults4 ,it  
will be useful also to quit his work    
often1 and take some  relaxation1 that  

his judgment may be clearer at his      
return2 for too  great application and  
sitting still is sometimes the cause of 
many  gross errors4          _/,chap4   
,,ccclvi4_/--,of correcting ,errors     
which you discover4      _/,remember_/1 
that when1 by the exercise of your own  
judgment1 or the  observation of others1
 you discover any errors in your work1  
you  immediately set about correcting   
them1 lest1 in exposing your works to   
the public1 you expose your defects     
also4 ,admit not any self-excuse1  by   
persuading yourself that you shall      
retrieve your character1 and  that by   
some succeeding work you shall make     
amends for your shameful  negligence2   
for your work does not perish as soon as
 it is out of your  hands1 like the     
sound of music1 but remains a standing  
monument of your  ignorance4 ,if you    
excuse yourself by saying that you have 
not time for  the study necessary to    
form a great painter1 having to struggle
 against  necessity1 you yourself are   

only to blame2 for the study of what is 
excellent is food both for mind and     
body4 ,how many philosophers1 born  to  
great riches1 have given them away1 that
 they might not be retarded  in their   
pursuits6          _/,chap4             
,,ccclvii4_/--,the best ,place for      
looking at a ,picture4      _/,let_/ us 
suppose1 that ,a ,b is the picture1     
receiving the light from ,d2  ,i say1   
that whoever is placed between ,c and   
,e1 will see the picture  very badly1   
particularly if it be painted in oil1 or
 varnished2 because  it will shine1 and 
will appear almost of the nature of a   
looking-glass4  ,for these reasons1 the 
nearer you go towards ,c1 the less you  
will be  able to see1 because of the    
light from the window upon the picture1 
sending its reflection to that point4   
,but if you place yourself between  ,e  
,d1 you may conveniently see the        
picture1 and the more so as you draw    
nearer to the point ,d1 because that    
place is less liable to be struck  by   

the reflected rays4    ,illustration    
_/,chap4 ,,ccclviii4_/--,of ,judgment4  
_/,there_/ is nothing more apt to       
deceive us than our own judgment1 in    
deciding on our own works2 and we should
 derive more advantage from  having our 
faults pointed out by our enemies1 than 
by hearing the  opinions of our friends1
 because they are too much like         
ourselves1 and  may deceive us as much  
as our own judgment4          _/,chap4  
,,ccclix4_/--,of ,employment anxiously  
wished for by ,painters4      _/,and_/  
you1 painter1 who are desirous of great 
practice1 understand1  that if you do   
not rest it on the good foundation of   
,nature1 you will  labour with little   
honour and less profit2 and if you do it
 on a good  ground your works will be   
many and good1 to your great honour and 
advantage4          _/,chap4            
,,ccclx4_/--,advice to ,painters4       
_/,a painter_/ ought to study universal 
,nature1 and reason much within  himself
 on all he sees1 making use of the most 

excellent parts that  compose the       
species of every object before him4 ,his
 mind will by this  method be like a    
mirror1 reflecting truly every object   
placed before  it1 and become1 as it    
were1 a second ,nature4                 
_/,chap4 ,,ccclxi4_/--,of ,statuary4    
_/,to_/ execute a figure in marble1 you 
must first make a model of it in  clay1 
or plaster1 and when it is finished1    
place it in a square case1  equally     
capable of receiving the block of marble
 intended to be shaped  like it4 ,have  
some peg-like sticks to pass through    
holes made in the  sides1 and all round 
the case2 push them in till every one   
touches the  model1 marking what remains
 of the sticks outwards with ink1 and   
making  a countermark to every stick and
 its hole1 so that you may at pleasure  
replace them again4 ,then having taken  
out the model1 and placed the  block of 
marble in its stead1 take so much out of
 it1 till all the pegs  go in at the    
same holes to the marks you had made4   

,to facilitate the  work1 contrive your 
frame so that every part of it1         
separately1 or all  together1 may be    
lifted up1 except the bottom1 which must
 remain under  the marble4 ,by this     
method you may chop it off with great   
facility#aja4          _/,chap4         
,,ccclxii4_/--,on the ,measurement and  
,division of ,statues into  ,parts4     
_/,divide_/ the head into twelve parts1 
each part into twelve degrees1  each    
degree into twelve minutes1 and these   
minutes into seconds#ajb4               
_/,chap4 ,,ccclxiii4_/--,a ,precept for 
the ,painter4      _/,the_/ painter who 
entertains no doubt of his own ability1 
will attain  very little4 ,when the work
 succeeds beyond the judgment1 the      
artist  acquires nothing2 but when the  
judgment is superior to the work1 he    
never ceases improving1 if the love of  
gain do not retard his progress4        
_/,chap4 ,,ccclxiv4_/--,on the ,judgment
 of ,painters4      _/,when_/ the work  
is equal to the knowledge and judgment  

of the painter1  it is a bad sign2 and  
when it surpasses the judgment1 it is   
still  worse1 as is the case with those 
who wonder at having succeeded so  well4
 ,but when the judgment surpasses the   
work1 it is a perfectly good  sign2 and 
the young painter who possesses that    
rare disposition1 will1  no doubt1      
arrive at great perfection4 ,he will    
produce few works1 but  they will be    
such as to fix the admiration of every  
beholder4          _/,chap4             
,,ccclxv4_/--,that a ,man ought not to  
trust to himself1 but ought  to consult 
,nature4      _/,whoever_/ flatters     
himself that he can retain in his memory
 all the  effects of ,nature1 is        
deceived1 for our memory is not so      
capacious2  therefore consult ,nature   
for every thing4          ,,the ,,end4  
,,books                                 
,,printed ,,for ,j4 ,,taylor4      #a4  
,,sketches for ,,country ,,houses1      
,,villas1 and ,,rural ,,dwellings2      
calculated  for ,persons of moderate    

,income1 and for comfortable            
,retirement4 ,also  some ,designs for   
,cottages1 which may be constructed of  
the simplest  ,materials2 with ,plans   
and general ,estimates4 ,by _/,john     
,plaw_/4 ,elegantly  engraved in        
,aquatinta on ,forty-two ,plates4       
,quarto1 #al4 #aas4 #f;d4  in boards4   
#b4 ,,ferme ,,orn,e1 or ,,rural         
,,improvements2 a ,series of domestic   
and  ornamental ,designs1 suited to     
,parks1 ,plantations1 ,rides1 ,walks1   
,rivers1 ,farms1 c4 consisting of       
,fences1 ,paddock-houses1 a ,bath1      
,dog-kennels1 ,pavilions1 ,farm-yards1  
,fishing-houses1 ,sporting-boxes1       
,shooting-lodges1 single and double     
,cottages1 c4 calculated for  landscape 
and picturesque ,effects4 ,by _/,john   
,plaw_/1 ,architect4 ,engraved  in      
,aquatinta1 on ,thirty-eight ,plates1   
with appropriate ,scenery1 ,plans1  and 
,explanations4 ,quarto2 in boards1 #al4 
#aas4 #f;d4    #c4 ,,rural              
,,architecture1 or ,designs from the    

simple ,cottage to the  decorated       
,villa1 including some which have been  
executed4 ,by _/,john  ,plaw_/4 ,on     
,sixty-two ,plates1 with ,scenery1 in   
,aquatinta4 ,half-bound1  #bl4 #bs4     
#d4 ,,hints for ,,dwellings1 consisting 
of original ,designs for ,cottages1     
,farm-houses1 ,villas1 c4 ,plain and    
,ornamental2 with ,plans to each1  in   
which strict ,attention is paid1 to     
unite ,convenience and ,elegance  with  
,economy4 ,including some ,designs for  
,town-houses4 ,by _/,d4 ,laing_/1       
,architect and ,surveyor4 ,elegantly    
engraved on ,thirty-four ,plates in     
,aquatinta1 with appropriate ,scenery1  
,quarto1 #al4 #es4 in boards4    #e4    
,,sketches for ,,cottages1 ,,villas1 c4 
with their ,plans and appropriate       
,scenery4 ,by _/,john ,soane_/4 ,to     
which are added1 ,six ,designs for      
improving  and embellishing ,grounds1   
with ,explanations by an ,amateur1 on   
,fifty-four ,plates1 elegantly engraved 
in ,aquatinta2 ,folio1 #bl4 #abs4  #f;d4

 half-bound4    #f4 ,,the ,,architect   
and ,,builder's ,,miscellany1 or ,pocket
 ,library2  containing original         
picturesque ,designs1 in ,architecture1 
for  ,cottages1 ,farm1 ,country1 and    
,town ,houses1 ,public ,buildings1      
,temples1  ,green-houses1 ,bridges1     
,lodges1 and ,gates for ,entrances to   
,parks and  ,pleasure-grounds1 ,stables1
 ,monumental ,tombs1 ,garden ,seats1 c4 
,by  _/,charles ,middleton_/1           
,architect2 on ,sixty ,plates1 ,octavo1 
coloured1  #al4 #as4 bound4    #g4      
,,designs for ,,gates and ,,rails1      
suitable to ,parks1 ,pleasure-grounds1  
,balconies1 c4 ,also some ,designs for  
,trellis ,work1 on ,twenty-seven        
,plates4 ,by _/,c4 ,middleton_/1 #fs4   
,octavo4      ,printed by _/,s4         
,gosnell_/1  ,little ,queen ,street1    
,holborn1 ,london4          ,,footnotes3
    ,footnote i#a3 ,vasari1 ,vite de    
,pittori1 edit4 ,della ,valle1 #hvo4    
,siena  #agib1 vol4 v4 p4 #bb4 ,du      
,fresne1 in the life prefixed to the    

,italian  editions of this ,treatise on 
,painting4 ,venturi1 ,essai sur les     
,ouvrages  de ,leonard de ,vinci1 #dto4 
,paris1 #agig1 p4 #c1 #cf4    ,footnote 
i#b3 ,venturi1 p4 #c4    ,footnote i#c3 
,vasari1 #bc4    ,footnote i#d3 ,du     
,fresne4    ,footnote i#e3 ,du ,fresne4 
,vasari1 #be4    ,footnote i#f3 ,vasari1
 #bf4 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#g3 ,du
 ,fresne4    ,footnote i#h3 ,vasari1    
#bf4    ,footnote i#i3 ,vasari1 #bh4    
,footnote i#aj3 ,du ,fresne4 ,vasari1   
#bh4    ,footnote i#aa3 ,du ,fresne4    
,vasari1 #bh4    ,footnote i#ab3        
,vasari1 #bh4    ,footnote i#ac3 ,it is 
impossible in a translation to preserve 
the jingle  between the name ,vinci1 and
 the ,latin verb vincit which occurs in 
the  original4    ,footnote i#ad3 ,du   
,fresne1 ,vasari1 #bh4    ,footnote     
i#ae3 ,vasari1 #bb4    ,footnote i#af3  
,vasari1 #bb and #bc4    ,footnote i#ag3
 ,lomazzo1 ,trattato della ,pittura1 p4 
#bhb4    ,footnote i#ah3 ,vasari1 #bc4  
,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#ai3         

,venturi1 #cg4    ,footnote i#bj3 ,du   
,fresne4    ,footnote i#ba3 ,venturi1   
#cf4    ,footnote i#bb3 ,du ,fresne4    
,footnote i#bc3 ,vasari1 #cj4 ,lettere  
,pittoriche1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahd4          
,footnote i#bd3 ,venturi1 #c4           
,footnote i#be3 ,suppl4 to ,life of ,l4 
da ,vinci1 in ,vasari1 #fe4 ,du ,fresne4
    ,footnote i#bf3 ,venturi1 #cf2 who  
mentions also1 that ,leonardo at this   
time constructed a machine for the      
theatre4    ,footnote i#bg3 ,venturi1 p4
 #dd4    ,footnote i#bh3 ,suppl4 in     
,vasari1 #gd4    ,footnote i#bi3 ,suppl4
 in ,vasari1 #fc4    ,footnote i#cj3 ,du
 ,fresne4    ,footnote i#ca3 ,du        
,fresne4    ,footnote i#cb3 ,de ,piles1 
in the ,life of ,leonardo4 ,see ,lettere
  ,pittoriche1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahg4        
,footnote i#cc3 ,lettere ,pittoriche1   
vol4 ii4 p4 #ahg4    ,footnote i#cd3 ,du
 ,fresne4 ,lettere ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4   
#ahf4    ,footnote i#ce3 ,vasari1 #ca1  
in a note4    ,footnote i#cf3 ,let4     
,pit4 vol4 ii4 #ahc4    ,footnote i#cg3 

,additions to the ,life in ,vasari1 #ec4
 ,my worthy friend1  ,mr4 ,rigaud1 who  
has more than once seen the original    
picture1 gives  this account of it3 ,the
 cutting of the wall for the sake of    
opening  a door1 was no doubt the effect
 of ignorance and barbarity1 but it  did
 not materially injure the painting2 it 
only took away some of the  feet under  
the table1 entirely shaded4 ,the true   
value of this picture  consists in what 
was seen above the table4 ,the door is  
only four  feet wide1 and cuts off only 
about two feet of the lower part of the 
picture4 ,more damage has been done by  
subsequent quacks1 who1 within my  own  
time1 have undertaken to repair it4     
,footnote i#ch3 ,additions to the ,life 
in ,vasari1 #ec4    ,footnote i#ci3     
,,copies ,,existing ,,in ,,milan ,,or   
,,elsewhere4    ,no4 #a4 ,that in the   
refectory of the fathers ,osservanti    
della ,pace3 it  was painted on the wall
 in #aefa1 by ,gio4 ,paolo ,lomazzo4    
#b4 ,another1 copied on board1 as a     

picture in the refectory of the         
,chierici ,regolari di ,s4 ,paolo1 in   
their college of ,st4 ,barnabas4 ,this  
is perhaps the most beautiful that can  
be seen1 only that it is not  finished  
lower than the knees1 and is in size    
about one eighth of the  original4      
#c4 ,another on canvas1 which was first 
in the church of ,s4 ,fedele1 by        
,agostino ,s4 ,agostino1 for the        
refectory of the ,jesuits3 since their  
suppression1 it exists in that of the   
,orfani a ,s4 ,pietro1 in ,gessate4     
#d4 ,another of the said ,lomazzo's1    
painted on the wall in the monastery    
,maggiore1 very fine1 and in good       
preservation4    #e4 ,another on canvas1
 by an uncertain artist1 with only the  
heads and  half the bodies1 in the      
,ambrosian library4    #f4 ,another in  
the ,certosa di ,pavia1 done by ,marco  
d',ogionno1 a scholar  of ,leonardo's1  
on the wall4    #g4 ,another in the     
possession of the monks ,girolamini di  
,castellazzo  fuori di ,porta ,lodovica1

 of the hand of the same ,ogionno4      
#h4 ,another copy of this ,last ,supper 
in the refectory of the fathers  of ,st4
 ,benedict of ,mantua4 ,it was painted  
by ,girolamo ,monsignori1 a  ,dominican 
friar1 who studied much the works of    
,leonardo1 and copied  them excellently4
    #i4 ,another in the refectory of the
 fathers ,osservanti di ,lugano1 of the 
hand of ,bernardino ,lovino2 a valuable 
work1 and much esteemed as well  for its
 neatness and perfect imitation of the  
original1 as for its own  integrity1 and
 being done by a scholar of ,leonardo's4
    #aj4 ,a beautiful drawing of this   
famous picture is1 or was lately1 in    
the possession of ,sig4 ,giuseppe       
,casati1 king at arms4 ,supposed to be  
either the original design by ,leonardo 
himself1 or a sketch by one of  his best
 scholars1 to be used in painting some  
copy on a wall1 or on  canvas4 ,it is   
drawn with a pen1 on paper larger than  
usual1 with a mere  outline heightened  
with bistre4    #aa4 ,another in the    

refectory of the fathers ,girolamini1 in
 the  monastery of ,st4 ,laurence1 in   
the ,escorial in ,spain4 ,it was        
presented  to ,king ,philip ,,ii4 while 
he was in ,valencia2 and by his order   
placed in  the said room where the monks
 dine1 and is believed to be by some    
able  scholar of ,leonardo4    #ab4     
,another in ,st4 ,germain d',auxerre1 in
 ,france2 ordered by ,king  ,francis ,i4
 when he came to ,milan1 and found he   
could not remove the  original4 ,there  
is reason to think this the work of     
,bernardino ,lovino4    #ac4 ,another in
 ,france1 in the castle of ,escovens1 in
 the possession of  the ,constable      
,montmorency4    ,the original drawing  
for this picture is in the possession of
 his  ,britannic ,majesty4 ,see the life
 prefixed to ,mr4 ,chamberlaine's       
publication of the ,designs of ,leonardo
 da ,vinci1 p4 #e4 ,an engraving  from  
it is among those which ,mr4 ,rogers    
published from drawings4    ,footnote   
i#dj3 ,vasari1 #cd4 ,du ,fresne4        

,footnote i#da3 ,du ,fresne4            
,footnote i#db3 ,vasari1 #cf4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#dc3 ,vasari1    
#cg4 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#dd3 ,du
 ,fresne4    ,footnote i#de3 ,suppl4 in 
,vasari1 #fd4    ,footnote i#df3 ,du    
,fresne4    ,footnote i#dg3 ,suppl4 in  
,vasari1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh4            
,footnote i#dh3 ,vasari1 #ch4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#di3 ,du ,fresne4
    ,footnote i#ej3 ,du ,fresne4        
,footnote i#ea3 ,vasari1 #ci4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#eb3 ,vasari1    
#ci4 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#ec3    
,vasari1 #ci4 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote 
i#ed3 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#ee3   
,supp4 in ,vasari1 #ha4    ,footnote    
i#ef3 ,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fh4          
,footnote i#eg3 ,vasari1 #db4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#eh3 ,du ,fresne4
    ,footnote i#ei3 ,du ,fresne4        
,footnote i#fj3 ,venturi1 #cg4          
,footnote i#fa3 ,du ,fresne4            
,footnote i#fb3 ,venturi1 #cg4          
,footnote i#fc3 ,venturi1 #ch4          

,footnote i#fd3 ,venturi1 #cg4          
,footnote i#fe3 ,du ,fresne4            
,footnote i#ff3 ,venturi1 #ch4          
,footnote i#fg3 ,venturi1 #ch4          
,footnote i#fh3 ,du ,fresne4            
,footnote i#fi3 ,vasari1 #dd4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#gj3 ,vasari1    
#dd4 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#ga3 ,du
 ,fresne4    ,footnote i#gb3 ,suppl4 in 
,vasari1 #gi1 #hj4    ,footnote i#gc3   
,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #hj4    ,footnote   
i#gd3 ,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fe4          
,footnote i#ge3 ,vasari1 #de4 ,du       
,fresne4    ,footnote i#gf3 ,venturi1   
#ci4 ,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #hj4           
,footnote i#gg3 ,venturi1 p4 #d4        
,footnote i#gh3 ,sect4 #a4 ,of the      
,descent of heavy ,bodies1 combined with
  the ,rotation of the ,earth4 #b4 ,of  
the ,earth divided into ,particles4 #c4 
,of the ,earth and the ,moon4 #d4 ,of   
the ,action of the ,sun on the ,sea4 #e4
  ,of the ancient ,state of the ,earth4 
#f4 ,of the ,flame and the ,air4 #g4    
,of ,statics4 #h4 ,of the ,descent of   

heavy ,bodies by inclined ,planes4 #i4  
,of the ,water which one draws from a   
,canal4 #aj4 ,of ,whirlpools4 #aa4 ,of  
,vision4 #ab4 ,of military              
,architecture4 #ac4 ,of some            
,instruments4 #ad4 ,two  chymical       
,processes4 #ae4 ,of ,method4           
,footnote i#gi3 ,see the ,life prefixed 
to ,mr4 ,chamberlaine's publication  of 
the ,designs of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 p4 
#aa4    ,footnote i#hj3 ,fac similes of 
some of the pages of the original work1 
are also to be found in this            
publication4    ,footnote i#ha3 ,p4 #cc4
    ,footnote i#hb3 ,j4 ,a4 ,mazenta    
died in #afce4 ,he gave the designs for 
the  fortifications of ,livorno in      
,tuscany2 and has written on the method 
of rendering the ,adda navigable4       
,argelati ,script4 ,mediol4 vol4 ii4    
,venturi1 #cc4    ,footnote i#hc3 ,we   
shall see afterwards that this man was  
,leonardo's  heir3 he had carried back  
these writings and drawings from ,france
 to  ,milan4 ,venturi1 #cd4    ,footnote

 i#hd3 ,this was in #aehg4 ,venturi1 p4 
#cd4    ,footnote i#he3 ,j4 ,amb4       
,mazenta made himself a ,barnabite in   
#aeij4  ,venturi1 #cd4    ,footnote     
i#hf3 ,the drawings and books of ,vinci 
are come for the most  part into the    
hands of ,pompeo ,leoni1 who has        
obtained them from the  son of          
,francisco ,melzo4 ,there are some also 
of these books in the  possession of    
,guy ,mazenta ,lomazzo1 ,tempio della   
,pittura1 in #do1 ,milano  #aeij1 page  
#ag4 ,venturi1 #ce4    ,footnote i#hg3  
,it is volume ,c4 ,there is printed on  
it in gold1 ,vidi  ,mazenta ,patritii   
,mediolanensis liberalitate ,an4 #afjc4 
,venturi1 #ce4    ,footnote i#hh3 ,he   
died in #afac4 ,venturi1 #ce4           
,footnote i#hi3 ,this is volume ,n1 in  
the ,national ,library4 ,it is in       
folio1 of a large size1 and has #cib    
leaves3 it bears on the cover  this     
title3 ,disegni di ,macchine delle ,arti
 secreti et altre ,cose di  ,leonardo da
 ,vinci1 raccolte da ,pompeo ,leoni4    

,venturi1 #ce4    ,footnote i#ij3 ,p4   
#cf4    ,footnote i#ia3 ,a memorial is  
preserved of this liberality by an      
inscription4 ,venturi1 #cf4    ,footnote
 i#ib3 ,this is marked at p4 #a of the  
same volume4 ,venturi1  #cf4            
,footnote i#ic3 ,venturi1 #cf4          
,footnote i#id3 ,lettere ,pittoriche1   
vol4 ii4 ,venturi1 #cf4    ,footnote    
i#ie3 ,p4 #cf4 ,his authority is ,gerli1
 ,disegni del ,vinci1  ,milano1 #aghd1  
fol4    ,footnote i#if3 ,p4 #db4        
,footnote i#ig3 ,it is said1 that this  
compilation is now in the ,albani       
library4 ,venturi1 #db4    ,footnote    
i#ih3 ,the sketches to illustrate his   
meaning1 were probably  in ,leonardo's  
original manuscripts so slight as to    
require that more  perfect drawings     
should be made from them before they    
could be fit for  publication4          
,footnote i#ii3 ,the identical          
manuscript of this ,treatise1 formerly  
belonging to ,mons4 ,chardin1 one of the
 two copies from which the  edition in  

,italian was printed1 is now the        
property of ,mr4 ,edwards of  ,pall     
,mall4 ,judging by the chapters as there
 numbered1 it would appear  to contain  
more than the printed edition2 but this 
is merely owing to  the circumstance    
that some of those which in the         
manuscript stand as  distinct chapters1 
are in the printed edition consolidated 
together4    ,footnote i#ajj3 ,vasari1  
p4 #cg1 gives the initials ,n4 ,n4      
,footnote i#aja3 ,which ,venturi1 p4 #f1
 professes his intention of  publishing 
from the manuscript collections of      
,leonardo4    ,footnote i#ajb3          
,bibliotheca ,smithiana1 #dto4 ,ven4    
#agee4 ,venturi1 #dd4    ,footnote      
i#ajc3 ,libreria ,nani1 #dto4 ,ven4     
#aggf4 ,venturi1 #dd4    ,footnote      
i#ajd3 ,gori ,simbol literar4 ,flor4    
#agea1 vol4 viii4 p4 #ff4  ,venturi1    
#dd4    ,footnote i#aje3 ,see his ,trait
 des ,pratiques ,geometrales et         
,perspectives1 #hvo4 ,paris1 #affe4     
,footnote i#ajf3 ,p4 #abh4    ,footnote 

i#ajg3 ,p4 #acd4    ,footnote i#ajh3 ,he
 observed criminals when led to         
execution 7,lett4  ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4   
#ahb2 on the authority of ,lomazzo72    
noted down any  countenance that struck 
him 7,vasari1 #bi72 in forming the      
animal for  the shield1 composed it of  
parts selected from different real      
animals  7,vasari1 p4 #bg72 and when he 
wanted characteristic heads1 resorted to
  ,nature 7,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4    
#aha74 ,all which methods are           
recommended  by him in the course of the
 ,treatise on ,painting4    ,footnote   
i#aji3 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#aaj3 
,venturi1 #ce1 in a note4    ,footnote  
i#aaa3 ,vasari1 #bc4    ,footnote i#aab3
 ,vasari1 #bd4    ,footnote i#aac3      
,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fg4    ,footnote   
i#aad3 ,vasari1 #bc4    ,footnote i#aae3
 ,ibid4    ,footnote i#aaf3 ,vasari1    
#de4    ,footnote i#aag3 ,additions to  
the life in ,vasari1 p4 #dg4            
,footnote i#aah3 ,suppl4 in ,vasari1    
#gd4    ,footnote i#aai3 ,vasari1 #bd4  

,footnote i#abj3 ,vasari1 #bf4          
,footnote i#aba3 ,vasari1 #bi4          
,footnote i#abb3 ,additions to the life 
in ,vasari1 #fa4    ,footnote i#abc3    
,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 #aga4            
,footnote i#abd3 ,vasari1 #bi4          
,footnote i#abe3 ,ibid4    ,footnote    
i#abf3 ,ibid4    ,footnote i#abg3       
,venturi1 #db4    ,footnote i#abh3      
,vasari1 #ci4 ,in a note in ,lettere    
,pittoriche1 vol4  ii4 p4 #agd1 on the  
before cited letter of ,mariette1 it is 
said that  ,bernardino ,lovino was a    
scholar of ,leonardo1 and had in his    
possession  the carton of ,st4 ,ann1    
which ,leonardo had made for a picture  
which he  was to paint in the church    
della ,nunziata1 at ,florence4 ,francis 
,i4 got  possession of it1 and was      
desirous that ,leonardo should execute  
it when  he came into ,france1 but      
without effect4 ,it is known it was not 
done1  as this carton went to ,milan4   
,lomazzo1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #ag4 ,lett4     
,pitt4  vol4 ii4 p4 #agd1 in a note4 ,a 

carton similar to this is now in the    
library of the ,royal ,academy1 at      
,london4    ,footnote i#abi3 ,vasari1 p4
 #ci1 in a note4    ,footnote i#acj3    
,vasari1 #da4 ,in the suppl4 to the     
life1 ,vasari1 #fh1 the  subject painted
 in the council-chamber at ,florence is 
said to be the  wonderful battle against
 ,attila4    ,footnote i#aca3 ,du       
,fresne4 ,vasari1 #bh4    ,footnote     
i#acb3 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#acc3 
,additions to the ,life in ,vasari1 #dh4
    ,footnote i#acd3 ,ibid4    ,footnote
 i#ace3 ,additions to the ,life in      
,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#acf3 ,lett4
 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aih4    ,footnote  
i#acg3 ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjj4  
,footnote i#ach3 ,additions to the ,life
 in ,vasari1 #fh4    ,footnote i#aci3   
,ibid4    ,footnote i#adj3 ,ibid4       
,footnote i#ada3 ,ibid4    ,footnote    
i#adb3 ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 #aih4     
,footnote i#adc3 ,vasari1 #bh4          
,footnote i#add3 ,the ,datary is the    
,pope's officer who nominates to  vacant

 benefices4    ,footnote i#ade3 ,vasari1
 #dd4    ,footnote i#adf3 ,du ,fresne4  
,footnote i#adg3 ,du ,fresne4 ,additions
 in ,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#adh3   
,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 ii4 #aif4            
,footnote i#adi3 ,du ,fresne4           
,footnote i#aej3 ,du ,fresne4 ,additions
 to ,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#aea3   
,additions to ,vasari1 #ei4    ,footnote
 i#aeb3 ,additions to ,vasari1 #fj4     
,footnote i#aec3 ,additions to ,vasari1 
#fj4    ,footnote i#aed3 ,additions in  
,vasari1 #fa4    ,footnote i#aee3       
,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fh4    ,footnote   
i#aef3 ,du ,fresne4    ,footnote i#aeg3 
,additions to ,vasari1 #ei4    ,footnote
 i#aeh3 ,vasari1 #be4    ,footnote      
i#aei3 ,vasari1 #bh4    ,footnote i#afj3
 ,vasari1 #bi4    ,footnote i#afa3      
,vasari1 #cj4 ,in p4 #bi1 it is said in 
a note1 that  there is in the ,medici   
gallery an ,adoration of the ,magi1 by  
,leonardo1  unfinished1 which may       
probably be the picture of which ,vasari
 speaks4    ,footnote i#afb3 ,vasari1   

#cj4    ,footnote i#afc3 ,lett4 ,pitt4  
vol4 ii4 #ahd4 ,the real fact is known  
to be1  that it was engraven from a     
drawing made by ,rubens himself1 who1 as
 ,i  am informed1 had in it altered the 
back-ground4    ,footnote i#afd3 ,lett4 
,pitt4 vol4 ii4 #aie4    ,footnote      
i#afe3 ,vasari1 #cj4    ,footnote i#aff3
 ,vasari1 #cc4    ,footnote i#afg3      
,venturi1 #d4    ,footnote i#afh3       
,venturi1 #cg4    ,footnote i#afi3      
,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fh4    ,footnote   
i#agj3 ,vasari1 #ci4    ,footnote i#aga3
 ,ibid4    ,footnote i#agb3 ,suppl4 in  
,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#agc3       
,vasari1 #dd4    ,footnote i#agd3 ,du   
,fresne4    ,footnote i#age3 ,du        
,fresne4    ,footnote i#agf3 ,suppl4 in 
,vasari1 #fa4    ,footnote i#agg3 ,ibid4
 #ha4    ,footnote i#agh3 ,du ,fresne4  
,footnote i#agi3 ,du ,fresne4 ,add4 to  
the ,life in ,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote 
i#ahj3 ,suppl4 in ,vasari1 #fi4         
,footnote i#aha3 ,du ,fresne4 ,add4 to  
,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#ahb3 ,du   

,fresne4    ,footnote i#ahc3 ,add4 in   
,vasari1 #dg4    ,footnote i#ahd3 ,add4 
to ,vasari1 #dh4    ,footnote i#ahe3    
,add4 in ,vasari1 #eg4    ,footnote     
i#ahf3 ,add4 to ,vasari1 #eh4           
,footnote i#ahg3 ,add4 to ,vasari1 #ei4 
,footnote i#ahh3 ,ibid4    ,footnote    
i#ahi3 ,ibid4 ,this is the picture      
lately exhibited in ,brook  ,street1    
,grosvenor ,square1 and is said to have 
been purchased by the  ,earl of         
,warwick4    ,footnote i#aij3 ,add4 to  
,vasari1 #ei4    ,footnote i#aia3 ,ibid4
    ,footnote i#aib3 ,ibid4    ,footnote
 i#aic3 ,ibid4    ,footnote i#aid3      
,ibid4 #fj4    ,footnote i#aie3 ,ibid4  
,footnote i#aif3 ,ibid4    ,footnote    
i#aig3 ,ibid4    ,footnote i#aih3 ,ibid4
    ,footnote i#aii3 ,lett4 ,pitt4 vol4 
ii4 #aig4    ,footnote i#bjj3 ,add4 in  
,vasari1 #fj4    ,footnote i#bja3 ,add4 
in ,vasari1 #fa4    ,footnote i#bjb3    
,ibid4    ,footnote i#bjc3 ,ibid4       
,footnote i#bjd3 ,ibid4    ,footnote    
i#bje3 ,supp4 in ,vasari1 #fg4          

,footnote i#bjf3 ,ibid4 #fh4            
,footnote i#bjg3 ,supp4 in ,vasari1 #ge4
    ,footnote i#bjh3 ,ibid4    ,footnote
 i#bji3 ,supp4 in ,vasari1 #hj4         
,footnote i#baj3 ,supp4 in ,vasari1 #ha4
    ,footnote #a3 ,this passage has been
 by some persons much misunderstood1    
and supposed to require1 that the       
student should be a deep proficient  in 
perspective1 before he commences the    
study of painting2 but it is  a         
knowledge of the leading principles only
 of perspective that the  author here   
means1 and without such a knowledge1    
which is easily to be  acquired1 the    
student will inevitably fall into       
errors1 as gross as  those humorously   
pointed out by ,hogarth1 in his         
,frontispiece to ,kirby's  ,perspective4
    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,chap4 #cea4     
,footnote #c3 ,not to be found in this  
work4    ,footnote #d3 ,from this1 and  
many other similar passages1 it is      
evident1  that the author intended at   
some future time to arrange his         

manuscript  collections1 and to publish 
them as separate treatises4 ,that he did
 not  do so is well known2 but it is    
also a fact1 that1 in selecting from the
  whole mass of his collections the     
chapters of which the present work      
consists1 great care appears in general 
to have been taken to extract  also     
those to which there was any reference  
from any of the chapters  intended for  
this work1 or which from their subject  
were necessarily  connected with them4  
,accordingly1 the reader will find1 in  
the notes  to this translation1 that all
 such chapters in any other part of the 
present work are uniformly pointed out1 
as have any relation to the  respective 
passages in the text4 ,this1 which has  
never before been  done1 though         
indispensably necessary1 will be found  
of singular use1  and it was thought    
proper here1 once for all1 to notice it4
    ,in the present instance the        
chapters1 referring to the subject in   
the  text1 are ,chap4 xvi4 xvii4 xviii4 

xix4 xx4 xxvi42 and though these  do not
 afford complete information1 yet it is 
to be remembered1 that  drawing from    
relievos is subject to the very same    
rules as drawing from  ,nature2 and     
that1 therefore1 what is elsewhere said 
on that subject is  also equally        
applicable to this4    ,footnote #e3    
,the meaning of this is1 that the last  
touches of light1  such as the shining  
parts 7which are always narrow71 must be
 given  sparingly4 ,in short1 that the  
drawing must be kept in broad masses as 
much as possible4    ,footnote #f3 ,this
 is not an absolute rule1 but it is a   
very good one  for drawing of portraits4
    ,footnote #g3 ,see ,chap4 ci4       
,footnote #h3 ,see the preceding        
chapter4    ,footnote #i3 ,see the two  
preceding chapters4    ,footnote #aj3   
,man being the highest of the animal    
creation1 ought to be  the chief object 
of study4    ,footnote #aa3 ,an intended
 ,treatise1 as it seems1 on ,anatomy1   
which  however never was published2 but 

there are several chapters in the       
present work on the subject of ,anatomy1
 most of which will be found  under the 
present head of ,anatomy2 and of such as
 could not be placed  there1 because    
they also related to some other branch1 
the following  is a list by which they  
may be found3 ,chapters vi4 vii4 x4 xi4 
xxxiv4  xxxv4 xxxvi4 xxxvii4 xxxviii4   
xxxix4 xl4 xli4 xlii4 xliii4 xliv4 xlv4 
xlvi4 xlviii4 xlix4 l4 li4 lii4 cxxix4  
,footnote #ab3 ,see chap4 lxxxvii4      
,footnote #ac3 ,it does not appear that 
this intention was ever carried  into   
execution2 but there are many chapters  
in this work on the subject  of motion1 
where all that is necessary for a       
painter in this branch  will be found4  
,footnote #ad3 ,anatomists have divided 
this muscle into four or five  sections2
 but painters1 following the ancient    
sculptors1 shew only  the three         
principal ones2 and1 in fact1 we find   
that a greater number  of them 7as may  
often be observed in nature7 gives a    

disagreeable  meagreness to the subject4
 ,beautiful nature does not shew more   
than  three1 though there may be more   
hid under the skin4    ,footnote #ae3 ,a
 treatise on weights1 like many others1 
intended by this  author1 but never     
published4    ,footnote #af3 ,see the   
next chapter4    ,footnote #ag3 ,it is  
believed that this treatise1 like many  
others  promised by the author1 was     
never written2 and to save the necessity
 of  frequently repeating this fact1 the
 reader is here informed1 once for  all1
 that in the life of the author prefixed
 to this edition1 will be  found an     
account of the works promised or        
projected by him1 and how far  his      
intentions have been carried into       
effect4    ,footnote #ah3 ,see chap4    
lxiv4    ,footnote #ai3 ,see in this    
work from chap4 lx4 to lxxxi4           
,footnote #bj3 ,see chapters lxi4 lxiv4 
,footnote #ba3 ,see chapters civ4 cliv4 
,footnote #bb3 ,the author here means to
 compare the different quickness  of the

 motion of the head and the heel1 when  
employed in the same  action of jumping2
 and he states the proportion of the    
former to be  three times that of the   
latter4 ,the reason he gives for this is
 in  substance1 that as the head has but
 one motion to make1 while in fact  the 
lower part of the figure has three      
successive operations to perform  at the
 places he mentions1 three times the    
velocity1 or1 in other  words1 three    
times the degree of effort1 is necessary
 in the head1 the  prime mover1 to give 
the power of influencing the other      
parts2 and  the rule deducible from this
 axiom is1 that where two different     
parts  of the body concur in the same   
action1 and one of them has to perform  
one motion only1 while the other is to  
have several1 the proportion of         
velocity or effort in the former must be
 regulated by the number of  operations 
necessary in the latter4    ,footnote   
#bc3 ,it is explained in this work1 or  
at least there is  something respecting 

it in the preceding chapter1 and in     
chap4 cli4    ,footnote #bd3 ,the       
eyeball moving up and down to look at   
the hand1  describes a part of a circle1
 from every point of which it sees it   
in an infinite variety of aspects4 ,the 
hand also is moveable ad  infinitum 7for
 it can go round the whole circle--see  
chap4 lxxxvii471  and consequently shew 
itself in an infinite variety of        
aspects1 which  it is impossible for any
 memory to retain4    ,footnote #be3    
,see chap4 xx4 clv4    ,footnote #bf3   
,about thirteen yards of our measure1   
the ,florentine  braccia1 or cubit1 by  
which the author measures1 being #a foot
 #aj inches  #g-hths ,english measure4  
,footnote #bg3 ,see chap4 cxxi4 and     
cccv4    ,footnote #bh3 ,it is supposed 
that the figures are to appear of the   
natural size1 and not bigger4 ,in that  
case1 the measure of the first1  to be  
of the exact dimension1 should have its 
feet resting upon the  bottom line2 but 
as you remove it from that1 it should   

diminish4    ,no allusion is here       
intended to the distance at which a     
picture is to  be placed from the eye4  
,footnote #bi3 ,the author does not mean
 here to say1 that one historical       
picture cannot be hung over another4 ,it
 certainly may1 because1 in  viewing    
each1 the spectator is at liberty       
7especially if they are  subjects       
independent of each other7 to shift his 
place so as to stand  at the true point 
of sight for viewing every one of them2 
but in  covering a wall with a          
succession of subjects from the same    
history1  the author considers the whole
 as1 in fact1 but one picture1 divided  
into compartments1 and to be seen at one
 view1 and which cannot  therefore admit
 more than one point of sight4 ,in the  
former case1 the  pictures are in fact  
so many distinct subjects unconnected   
with each  other4    ,footnote #cj3 ,see
 chap4 cccxlviii4    ,this chapter is   
obscure1 and may probably be made clear 
by merely  stating it in other words4   

,leonardo objects to the use of both    
eyes1  because1 in viewing in that      
manner the objects here mentioned1 two  
balls1 one behind the other1 the second 
is seen1 which would not be  the case1  
if the angle of the visual rays were not
 too big for the  first object4 ,whoever
 is at all acquainted with optics1 need 
not be  told1 that the visual rays      
commence in a single point in the       
centre1 or  nearly the centre of each   
eye1 and continue diverging4 ,but1 in   
using  both eyes1 the visual rays       
proceed not from one and the same       
centre1  but from a different centre in 
each eye1 and intersecting each other1  
as they do a little before passing the  
first object1 they become  together     
broader than the extent of the first    
object1 and consequently  give a view of
 part of the second4 ,on the contrary1  
in using but one  eye1 the visual rays  
proceed but from one centre2 and as1    
therefore1  there cannot be any         
intersection1 the visual rays1 when they

 reach the  first object1 are not       
broader than the first object1 and the  
second is  completely hidden4 ,properly 
speaking1 therefore1 in using both eyes 
we  introduce more than one point of    
sight1 which renders the perspective    
false in the painting2 but in using one 
eye only1 there can be1 as  there ought1
 but one point of sight4 ,there is1     
however1 this difference  between       
viewing real objects and those          
represented in painting1 that in        
looking at the former1 whether we use   
one or both eyes1 the objects1  by being
 actually detached from the back ground1
 admit the visual rays  to strike on    
them1 so as to form a correct           
perspective1 from whatever  point they  
are viewed1 and the eye accordingly     
forms a perspective of  its own2 but in 
viewing the latter1 there is no         
possibility of varying  the perspective2
 and1 unless the picture is seen        
precisely under the  same angle as it   
was painted under1 the perspective in   

all other views  must be false4 ,this is
 observable in the perspective views    
painted for  scenes at the playhouse4   
,if the beholder is seated in the       
central line  of the house1 whether in  
the boxes or pit1 the perspective is    
correct2  but1 in proportion as he is   
placed at a greater or less distance to 
the  right or left of that line1 the    
perspective appears to him more or less 
faulty4 ,and hence arises the necessity 
of using but one eye in viewing  a      
painting1 in order thereby to reduce it 
to one point of sight4    ,footnote #ca3
 ,chap4 xcvi4 and civ4    ,footnote #cb3
 ,see the ,life of the ,author prefixed1
 and chap4 xx4 and  ci4 of the present  
work4    ,footnote #cc3 ,the author here
 speaks of unpolished ,nature2 and      
indeed  it is from such subjects only1  
that the genuine and characteristic     
operations of ,nature are to be learnt4 
,it is the effect of education  to      
correct the natural peculiarities and   
defects1 and1 by so doing1 to           

assimilate one person to the rest of the
 world4    ,footnote #cd3 ,see chap4    
cxxiii4    ,footnote #ce3 ,see chap4    
cclxiv4    ,footnote #cf3 ,see chapter  
cclxvii4    ,footnote #cg3 ,sir ,joshua 
,reynolds frequently inculcated these   
precepts  in his lectures1 and indeed   
they cannot be too often enforced4      
,footnote #ch3 ,probably this would have
 formed a part of his intended          
,treatise on ,light and ,shadow1 but no 
such proposition occurs in the  present 
work4    ,footnote #ci3 ,see chapters   
cc4 and ccix4    ,footnote #dj3 ,see    
chap4 ccix4    ,footnote #da3 ,this     
cannot be taken as an absolute rule2 it 
must be left  in a great measure to the 
judgment of the painter4 ,for much      
graceful  softness and grandeur is      
acquired1 sometimes1 by blending the    
lights of  the figures with the light   
part of the ground2 and so of the       
shadows2  as ,leonardo himself has      
observed in chapters cxciv4 cxcv4 and   
,sir  ,joshua ,reynolds has often put in

 practice with success4    ,footnote    
#db3 ,see chap4 cclxv4    ,footnote #dc3
 ,see chap4 cxcvi4    ,footnote #dd3 ,he
 means here to say1 that in proportion  
as the body  interposed between the eye 
and the object is more or less          
transparent1  the greater or less       
quantity of the colour of the body      
interposed will  be communicated to the 
object4    ,footnote #de3 ,see the note 
to chap4 cc4    ,footnote #df3 ,see the 
preceding chapter1 and chap4 cc4        
,footnote #dg3 ,the appearance of motion
 is lessened according to the  distance1
 in the same proportion as objects      
diminish in size4    ,footnote #dh3 ,see
 chap4 ccxvii4 and ccxix4    ,footnote  
#di3 ,see chap4 ccxv4 and ccxix4        
,footnote #ej3 ,this was intended to    
constitute a part of some book of       
,perspective1 which we have not2 but the
 rule here referred to will be  found in
 chap4 cccx4 of the present work4       
,footnote #ea3 ,see chap4 ccxv4 and     
ccxvii4    ,footnote #eb3 ,no such work 

was ever published1 nor1 for any thing  
that  appears1 ever written4            
,footnote #ec3 ,the ,french translation 
of #agaf has a note on this  chapter1   
saying1 that the invention of enamel    
painting found out since  the time of   
,leonardo da ,vinci1 would better answer
 to the title of this  chapter1 and also
 be a better method of painting4 ,i must
 beg leave1  however1 to dissent from   
this opinion1 as the two kinds of       
painting  are so different1 that they   
cannot be compared4 ,leonardo treats of 
oil  painting1 but the other is         
vitrification4 ,leonardo is known to    
have  spent a great deal of time in     
experiments1 of which this is a         
specimen1  and it may appear ridiculous 
to the practitioners of more modern     
date1 as he does not enter more fully   
into a minute description of  the       
materials1 or the mode of employing     
them4 ,the principle laid down  in the  
text appears to me to be simply this3 to
 make the oil entirely  evaporate from  

the colours by the action of fire1 and  
afterwards to  prevent the action of the
 air by the means of a glass1 which in  
itself  is an excellent principle1 but  
not applicable1 any more than enamel    
painting to large works4    ,footnote   
#ed3 ,it is evident that distemper or   
size painting is here  meant4           
,footnote #ee3 ,indian ink4    ,footnote
 #ef3 ,this rule is not without         
exception3 see chap4 ccxxxiv4           
,footnote #eg3 ,see chap4 ccxxxviii4    
,footnote #eh3 ,see chap4 ccxxxvii4     
,footnote #ei3 ,see chapters ccxlvii4   
cclxxiv4 in the present work4  ,probably
 they were intended to form a part of a 
distinct treatise1 and  to have been    
ranged as propositions in that1 but at  
present they are  not so placed4        
,footnote #fj3 ,see chap4 ccxlviii4     
,footnote #fa3 ,see chap4 cclxxiv4      
,footnote #fb3 ,although the author     
seems to have designed that this1 and   
many other propositions to which he     
refers1 should have formed a part  of   

some regular work1 and he has           
accordingly referred to them whenever   
he has mentioned them1 by their intended
 numerical situation in that  work1     
whatever it might be1 it does not appear
 that he ever carried  this design into 
execution4 ,there are1 however1 several 
chapters in  the present work1 viz4     
ccxciii4 cclxxxix4 cclxxxv4 ccxcv4 in   
which the  principle in the text is     
recognised1 and which probably would    
have been  transferred into the         
projected treatise1 if he had ever drawn
 it up4    ,footnote #fc3 ,the note on  
the preceding chapter is in a great     
measure  applicable to this1 and the    
proposition mentioned in the text is    
also  to be found in chapter ccxlvii4 of
 the present work4    ,footnote #fd3    
,see the note on the chapter next but   
one preceding4 ,the  proposition in the 
text occurs in chap4 ccxlvii4 of the    
present work4    ,footnote #fe3 ,not in 
this work4    ,footnote #ff3 ,i do not  
know a better comment on this passage   

than  ,felibien's ,examination of ,le   
,brun's ,picture of the ,tent of        
,darius4  ,from this 7which has been    
reprinted with an ,english translation1 
by  ,colonel ,parsons in #agjj1 in      
folio7 it will clearly appear1 what the 
chain of connexion is between every     
colour there used1 and its nearest      
neighbour1 and consequently a rule may  
be formed from it with more  certainty  
and precision than where the student is 
left to develope  it for himself1 from  
the mere inspection of different        
examples of  colouring4    ,footnote    
#fg3 ,see chap4 ccxxiii4 ccxxxvii4      
cclxxiv4 cclxxxii4 of  the present work4
 ,we have before remarked1 that the     
propositions so  frequently referred to 
by the author1 were never reduced into  
form1  though apparently he intended a  
regular work in which they were to be   
included4    ,footnote #fh3 ,no where in
 this work4    ,footnote #fi3 ,this is  
evident in many of ,vandyke's portraits1
  particularly of ladies1 many of whom  

are dressed in black velvet2 and  this  
remark will in some measure account for 
the delicate fairness  which he         
frequently gives to the female          
complexion4    ,footnote #gj3 ,these    
propositions1 any more than the others  
mentioned  in different parts of this   
work1 were never digested into a regular
  treatise1 as was evidently intended by
 the author1 and consequently are  not  
to be found1 except perhaps in some of  
the volumes of the author's  manuscript 
collections4    ,footnote #ga3 ,see     
chap4 ccxciii4 cccvii4 cccviii4         
,footnote #gb3 ,see chap4 cclxxxvii4    
,footnote #gc3 ,this book on perspective
 was never drawn up4    ,footnote #gd3  
,see chap4 ccxcii4    ,footnote #ge3    
,see chap4 ccxii4 ccxlviii4 cclv4       
,footnote #gf3 ,there is no work of this
 author to which this can at  present   
refer1 but the principle is laid down in
 chapters cclxxxiv4  cccvi4 of the      
present treatise4    ,footnote #gg3 ,see
 chapters cccvii4 cccxxii4    ,footnote 

#gh3 ,see chap4 cxvi4 cxxi4 cccv4       
,footnote #gi3 ,see chap4 cccxiii4 and  
cccxxiii4    ,footnote #hj3 ,to our     
obtaining a correct idea of the         
magnitude and  distance of any object   
seen from afar1 it is necessary that we 
consider  how much of distinctness an   
object loses at a distance 7from the    
mere  interposition of the air71 as well
 as what it loses in size2 and these    
two considerations must unite before we 
can decidedly pronounce as to  its      
distance or magnitude4 ,this            
calculation1 as to distinctness1 must   
be made upon the idea that the air is   
clear1 as1 if by any accident it  is    
otherwise1 we shall 7knowing the        
proportion in which clear air dims  a   
prospect7 be led to conclude this       
farther off than it is1 and1 to  justify
 that conclusion1 shall suppose its real
 magnitude correspondent  with the      
distance1 at which from its degree of   
distinctness it appears  to be4 ,in the 
circumstance remarked in the text there 

is1 however1 a  great deception2 the    
fact is1 that the colour and the minute 
parts of  the object are lost in the    
fog1 while the size of it is not        
diminished  in proportion2 and the eye  
being accustomed to see objects         
diminished  in size at a great distance1
 supposes this to be farther off than it
  is1 and consequently imagines it      
larger4    ,footnote #ha3 ,this         
proposition1 though undoubtedly intended
 to form a  part of some future work1   
which never was drawn up1 makes no part 
of  the present4    ,footnote #hb3 ,see 
chap4 cccvii4    ,footnote #hc3 ,vide   
chap4 ccxcii4 ccciii4    ,footnote #hd3 
,see chapter ccxcviii4    ,footnote #he3
 ,this was probably to have been a part 
of some other work1  but it does not    
occur in this4    ,footnote #hf3 ,cento 
braccia1 or cubits4 ,the ,florence      
braccio is one  foot ten inches seven   
eighths1 ,english measure4    ,footnote 
#hg3 ,probably the ,author here means   
yellow lilies1 or fleurs  de lis4       

,footnote #hh3 ,that point is always    
found in the horizon1 and is called  the
 point of sight1 or the vanishing point4
    ,footnote #hi3 ,see chap4 cccxx4    
,footnote #ij3 ,see chap4 cccxvii4      
,footnote #ia3 ,this position has been  
already laid down in chapter  cxxiv4    
7and will also be found in chapter      
cccxlviii472 and the reader  is referred
 to the note on that passage1 which will
 also explain that  in the text1 for    
further illustration4 ,it may1 however1 
be proper to  remark1 that though the   
author has here supposed both objects   
conveyed  to the eye by an angle of the 
same extent1 they cannot1 in fact1 be so
  seen1 unless one eye be shut2 and the 
reason is this3 if viewed with  both    
eyes1 there will be two points of sight1
 one in the centre of each  eye2 and the
 rays from each of these to the objects 
must of course be  different1 and will  
consequently form different angles4     
,footnote #ib3 ,the braccio is one foot 
ten inches and seven eighths  ,english  

measure4    ,footnote #ic3 i4e4 ,to be  
abridged according to the rules of      
perspective4    ,footnote #id3 ,see     
chap4 cxxii4    ,footnote #ie3 ,the     
whole of this chapter1 like the next but
 one  preceding1 depends on the         
circumstance of there being in fact two 
points of sight1 one in the centre of   
each eye1 when an object is  viewed with
 both eyes4 ,in natural objects the     
effect which this  circumstance produces
 is1 that the rays from each point of   
sight1  diverging as they extend towards
 the object1 take in not only that1 but 
some part also of the distance behind   
it1 till at length1 at a certain        
distance behind it1 they cross each     
other2 whereas1 in a painted            
representation1 there being no real     
distance behind the object1 but the     
whole being a flat surface1 it is       
impossible that the rays from the       
points of sight should pass beyond that 
flat surface2 and as the object  itself 
is on that flat surface1 which is the   

real extremity of the  view1 the eyes   
cannot acquire a sight of any thing     
beyond4    ,footnote #if3 ,a well-known 
painter at ,florence1 contemporary with 
,leonardo da ,vinci1 who painted several
 altar-pieces and other public  works4  
,footnote #ig3 ,see chap4 cxxiv4 and    
cccxlviii4    ,footnote #ih3 ,see chap4 
x4    ,footnote #ii3 ,see chap4 cci4    
,footnote #ajj3 ,leonardo da ,vinci was 
remarkably fond of this kind of         
invention1 and is accused of having lost
 a great deal of time that way4         
,footnote #aja3 ,the method here        
recommended1 was the general and common 
practice at that time1 and continued so 
with little1 if any variation1  till    
lately4 ,but about thirty years ago1 the
 late ,mr4 ,bacon invented  an entirely 
new method1 which1 as better answering  
the purpose1  he constantly used1 and   
from him others have also adopted it    
into  practice4    ,footnote #ajb3 ,this
 may be a good method of dividing the   
figure for the  purpose of reducing from

 large to small1 or vice vers2 but it   
not  being the method generally used by 
the painters for measuring their        
figures1 as being too minute1 this      
chapter was not introduced amongst      
those of general proportions4