,transcriber's ,note3 ,this e-text is based on the #aijc edition of the original book4 ,minor punctuation errors have been tacitly corrected4 ,inconsistencies in hyphenation1 ligatures1 and accented forms1 such as 'sun-flower_/sunflower'1 'formul_/formulae'1 ',combinatori_/,combinatoria'1 etc41 have been retained4 ,missing footnote numbers have been added according to sequence4 ,the ,table of ,contents has been changed regarding the content of the first section ',biographies1 ,works1 and ,essays4' ,italic text in the original version has been placed between underscores 7italic72 passages in small caps have been symbolised by forward slashes 7_/small caps_/74 oe represents the respective ligature1 text signifies a superscript passage4 ,the following passages have been corrected3 p4 #af3 ',beza' -- ',bza'2 'before ,venetian tribunal' -- 'before the ,venetian tribunal' p4 #ah 7sidenote73 ',circus' -- ',circus' p4 #cj3 ',artic' -- ',arctic'2 'terrestial' -- 'terrestrial' p4 #cg3 ',mauvissre' -- ',mauvissire' p4 #fd3 'aquaintance' -- 'acquaintance' p4 #ga3 'bann' -- 'ban' p4 #aca3 'fanastic' -- 'fantastic' p4 #beb3 'philosphy' -- 'philosophy' p4 #bie3 'allmighty' -- 'almighty' p4 #ccj3 'intuites' -- 'intuits' p4 #cdh3 'docrine' -- 'doctrine' p4 #cec3 ',carrire' -- ',carrire' ,index1 ,bartholmss1 ,christian3 ' #b1 #af1 #bj1 444' -- '#e1 #af1 #bj1 444' ,,giordano ,,bruno ,illustration ,illustration3 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,statue by ,ettore ,ferrari4 ,,giordano ,,bruno ,,by ,j4 ,,lewis ,mc,i,n,t,y,r,e ,m4,a4 ,,edin4 ,,and ,,oxon43 ,d4,,sc4 ,,edin43 ,,anderson ,,lecturer ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,aberdeen ,london ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 _/,limited_/ ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aijc ,all rights reserved ,to ,,my ,,wife ,,preface ,this volume attempts to do justice to a philosopher who has hardly received in ,england the consideration he deserves4 ,apart from the ,life of ,giordano ,bruno1 by ,i4 ,frith 7,mrs4 ,oppenheim71 in the ,english and ,foreign ,philosophical ,library1 #ahhg1 there has been no complete work in our language upon the poet1 teacher1 and martyr of ,nola1 while his philosophy has been treated only in occasional articles and reviews4 ,yet he is recognised by the more liberal-minded among ,italians as the greatest and most daring thinker their country has produced4 ,the pathos of his life and death has perhaps caused his image to stand out more strongly in the minds of his countrymen than that of any other of their leaders of thought4 ,a movement of popular enthusiasm1 begun in #ahgf1 resulted1 on #ith ,june #ahhi1 in the unveiling of a statue in ,rome in the ,campo dei ,fiori1 the place on which ,bruno was burned4 ,both in ,france and in ,germany he has been recognised as the prophet1 if not as the actual founder1 of modern philosophy1 and as one of the earliest apostles of freedom of thought and of speech in modern times4 ,the first part of the present work--the ,life of ,bruno--is based upon the documents published by ,berti1 ,dufour1 and others1 and on the personal references in ,bruno's own works4 ,i have tried to throw some light on ,bruno's life in ,england1 on his relations with the ,french ,ambassador1 ,mauvissire1 and on his share in some of the literary movements of the time4 ,i have1 however1 been no more successful than others in finding any documents referring directly to ,bruno's visit to ,england4 ,in the second part--,the ,philosophy of ,bruno--,i have sought to give not a systematic outline of ,bruno's philosophy as a whole under the various familiar headings1 which would prove an almost impossible task1 but a sketch1 as nearly as possible in ,bruno's own words1 of the problems which interested this mind of the sixteenth century1 and of the solutions offered4 ,the first chapter points out the sources from which ,bruno derived the materials of his thinking4 ,the succeeding chapters are devoted to some of the main works of ,bruno1--the ,causa 7,chapter ,,ii471 ,infinito and ,de ,immenso 7,chapters ,,iii4 and ,,iv471 ,de ,minimo 7,chapter ,v471 ,spaccio 7,chapter ,,vi471 and ,heroici ,furori 7,chapter ,,vii471--and contain as little as possible of either criticism or comment1 except in so far as these are implied in the selection and arrangement of the material4 ,i have adopted this method partly because ,bruno's works are still comparatively unknown to the ,english reader1 and partly because his style1 full as it is of obscurities1 redundances1 repetitions1 lends itself to selection1 but not easily to compact exposition4 ,several phases of ,bruno's activity ,i have left almost untouched--his poetry1 his mathematical theories1 his art of memory4 ,the eighth chapter turns upon his philosophy of religion1 about which there has been much controversy2 while the last attempts to bring him into relation and comparison with some of the philosophers who succeeded him4 ,i subjoin a list of works and articles which are of importance for the study of ,bruno4 ,throughout ,i have referred for ,bruno's works to the recent ,italian edition of the ,latin works1 issued at the public expense1 #ahgi to #ahia 7three volumes in eight parts1 with introductions1 etc471 and to ,lagarde's edition of the ,italian works--,gotha1 #ahhh4 ,of the latter there are two volumes1 but the paging is continuous from one to the other1 page #dja beginning the second volume4 ,j4 ,,lewis ,m',,intyre4 _/,university of ,aberdeen_/1 #afth ,july #aijc4 ,,contents ,,page _/,biographies1 ,works1 and ,essays_/ xiii ,,part ,i _/,life of ,bruno_/ #a ,,part ,,ii _/,philosophy of ,bruno_/ #aai ,,chapter ,i _/,the ,sources of the ,philosophy_/ #aba ,,chapter ,,ii _/,the ,foundations of ,knowledge_/ #aec ,,chapter ,,iii _/,the ,infinite ,universe--,the ,mirror of ,god_/ #ahj ,,chapter ,,iv _/,nature and the ,living ,worlds_/ #bjc ,,chapter ,v _/,the ,last and the ,least ,things3 ,atoms and ,soul-,monads_/ #bbc ,,chapter ,,vi _/,the ,practical ,philosophy of ,bruno_/ #beb ,,chapter ,,vii _/,the ,higher ,life_/ #bgg ,,chapter ,,viii _/,positive ,religions and the ,religion of ,philosophy_/ #bid ,,chapter ,,ix _/,bruno in the ,history of ,philosophy_/ #cbc ,,index #cfa ,,biographies ,,and ,,general ,,works ,,on ,,bruno ,bartholmss1 ,christian1 ,jordano ,bruno1 vol4 i41 ,paris1 #ahdf--on the life and times of ,bruno2 vol4 #b1 #ahdg--on his works and philosophy4 ,carrire1 ,moritz1 ,die philosophische ,weltanschauung der ,reformationszeit1 #ast ed41 #ahdg2 #bnd ed41 #ahhg4 ,berti1 ,domenico1 ,giordano ,bruno da ,nola1 sua vita e sua dottrina4 ,appeared first in the ,nuova ,antologia1 #ahfg4 ,some new documents were published in ,documenti intorno a ,giordano ,bruno da ,nola1 #ahhj4 ,a second edition of the ,life1 including all the documents1 appeared in #ahhi4 ,dufour1 ,g4 ,b4 ,genve 7#aegh74 ,documents indits3 ,genve1 #ahhd4 ,also given in ,berti's second edition4 ,sigwart1 ,die ,lebensgeschichte ,g4 ,b4's 7,verzeichniss der ,doctoren1 etc41 ,tbingen1 #ahhj71 a paper which is expanded and corrected in his ,kleine ,schriften1 #ast series 7pp4 #di-abd and #bic-cjd73 ,freiburg i4 ,b41 #ahhi4 ,brunnhofer1 ,g4 ,b4's ,weltanschauung und ,verhngniss3 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,a vigorous eulogy of ,bruno and his work4 ,frith1 ,life of ,giordano ,bruno3 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,riehl1 ,giordano ,bruno1 ,zur ,erinnerung an den #ag4 ,februar1 #afjj3 ,leipzig1 #ast ed41 #ahhi2 #bnd1 #aijj4 ,khlenbeck 7,landseck7 ,bruno1 der ,mrtyrer der neuen ,weltanschauung3 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,pognisi1 ,g4 ,b4 e l',archivio di ,san ,giovanni ,decollato2 ,torino1 etc41 #ahia4 ,italian biographies and pamphlets are innumerable4 ,among the best are-- ,mariano1 ,g4 ,b4 ,la ,vita e l'uomo3 ,roma1 #ahha4 ,levi1 ,g4 ,b4 o la ,religione del ,pensiero3 ,torino1 #ahhg4 ,morselli1 ,g4 ,b41 ,commemorazione1 etc43 ,torino1 #ahhh4 ,morselli regards ,bruno as the precursor of all modern philosophy1 and as prophet of most of the scientific discoveries of the #aith century4 ,tocco1 ,g4 ,b4 ,conferenza3 ,firenze1 #ahhf4 ,on ,bruno's religion and philosophy of religion4 ,of writers in ,english on ,bruno may also be named3--,owen1 in his ,sceptics of the ,italian ,renaissance3 ,london1 #ahic 7pp4 #bdd-cdb72 ,daniel ,brinton and ,thomas ,davidson1 ,g4 ,b41 ,philosopher and ,martyr1 ,two ,addresses3 ,philadelphia1 #ahij2 ,plumptre1 in his ,studies in ,little-known ,subjects3 ,london1 #ahih 7pp4 #fa-abg72 ,whittaker in ,essays and ,notices1 #ahie 7reprinted from ,mind1 ,april #ahhd and ,july #ahhg72 the ,quarterly ,review for ,october #aijb1 ,giordano ,bruno in ,england2 and ,r4 ,adamson1 ,the ,development of ,modern ,philosophy3 ,edinburgh and ,london1 #aijc1 vol4 #b 7pp4 #bc-dd74 ,,part ,i ,,life ,,of ,,bruno ,i ,sidenote3 ,birth and ,family4 ,in #aedh1 at a stormy period of the history of ,italy1 ,bruno was born in the township of ,nola1 lying within the kingdom of ,naples1 which at that time was under ,spanish rule4 ,his father1 ,giovanni1 was a soldier1 probably of good family1 and in deference1 it may be supposed1 to the ,king of ,spain1 the son was named ,filippo2 the more famous name of ,giordano was only assumed when he entered a religious order4 ,through his mother1 ,fraulissa ,savolina1 a ,german or ,saxon origin has been claimed for ,bruno2 there were several inhabitants of ,teutonic name in the village of his birth--suggesting a settlement of ,landknechts1--and the name1 ,fraulissa1 has a ,german ring2#a but ,bruno himself nowhere in the addresses or works published in ,germany makes any hint of his own connection with the race1 while the name was probably a generic term for the wife of a soldier1 borrowed from the ,swiss or ,german men-at-arms4#b ,sidenote3 ,nola4 ,their home was on the lower slopes of ,mount ,cicala1 which rises above ,nola1 and amid its laughing gardens ,bruno first imbibed a love of nature1 which marked him out from so many of his contemporaries4 ,the soil of ,nola is among the most fertile of all ,italy1 and the pleasant plain in which it lies is ringed with hills which lie shadowy under the clear sky2 most prominent and most mysterious is ,vesuvius1 a few miles to the south4 ,but the charms of natural beauty in ,nola were surpassed by those of picturesque antiquity3 the half-mythical ,pelasgians founded it before the walls of ,rome were begun2 they were followed by the ,chalcidians of ,cuma1 from whom the ,nolans inherited a ,greek spirit1 calm yet quick1 eager in the pursuit of wisdom and in the love of beauty1 which down even to the #afth century distinguished them above other ,italians4 ,there followed a chequered history in which the ,samnites1 the early ,romans1 ,hannibal1 ,sulla1 and ,spartacus1 played successive parts4 ,nola was the death-place of ,augustus1 and to that fact owed its greatness in ,imperial times1 when its two great amphitheatres and multitude of beautiful temples topped a great city1 shut in by massive walls1 with twelve gates that opened to all parts of ,italy4 ,evil times were to come2 ,alaric1 the ,saracens1 ,manfred1 and others had their will of ,nola1 and earthquakes1 flood1 and plague reduced it by the end of the #aeth century to one tenth of its former self4 ,it had its own martyrs1 for the old faith and for the new2 one of the latter1 ,pomponio ,algerio1 suffered during ,bruno's lifetime a fate that foreshadowed his own2 accused while a student at ,padua of contempt for the ,christian religion1 he was imprisoned in ,padua1 ,venice1 and ,rome1 and finally burnt at the stake4 ,its sons never lost their love for the mother-town2 ,bruno speaks of it always with affection1 as to him the garden of ,italy2 of a nephew of ,ambrogio ,leone1 the historian of its antiquities1 we are told that1 on returning to ,nola after a few days' absence1 seeming ill with longing1 he threw himself on the earth and kissed it with unspeakable joy4#c ,perhaps the suggestion of ,bartholmss is not groundless1 that the volcanic soil and air of ,nola influenced the character of the people as of the wine4 ,hence the delicacy of their senses1 vivacity of gesture1 mobility of humour1 and passionate ardour of spirit4#d ,sidenote3 ,childhood of ,bruno4 ,of the childhood of ,bruno little is to be learned4 ,cicala1 his home1 he describes as a little village of four or five cottages not too magnificent4#e ,in all probability his upbringing was simple1 his surroundings homely4 ,we need not go further1 and suppose that his surroundings were not only homely1 but degraded and vicious4#f ,his father1 although a soldier by profession1 seems to have been a man of some culture2 at least he was a friend of the poet ,tansillo1 who excited the admiration of the young ,bruno1 and first turned his mind towards the ,muses4 ,tansillo's poetry1 following the taste of the age1 was not too refined1 but its passion called forth a ready reflection in the ardent nature of the lad4 ,it was perhaps the only door to the higher artistic life of the time which was open to ,bruno2 the neighbours1 if we may judge from satiric references in the ,italian ,dialogues1 were of a rough homely type4 ,bruno tells1 for example1#g how ,scipio ,savolino 7perhaps his uncle7 used to confess all his sins to ,don ,paulino1 ,cur of ,s4 ,primma that is in a village near ,nola 7,cicala71 on a ,holy ,friday1 of which though they were many and great1 his boon companion the ,cur absolved him without difficulty4 ,once was enough1 however1 for in the following years1 without many words or circumstances1 ,scipio would say to ,don ,paulino1 ,father mine1 the sins of a year ago to-day1 you know them2 and ,don ,paulino would reply1 ,son1 thou knowest the absolution of a year ago to-day--go in peace and sin no more6 ,one incident of ,bruno's childhood1 which has been thought a promise of extraordinary powers1 he himself relates in the ,sigillus ,sigillorum4 ,describing the different causes of concentration1#h 7,contractio71 he instances fear among them3--,i myself1 when still in swaddling clothes1 was once left alone1 and saw a great and aged serpent1 which had come out of a hole in the wall of the house2 ,i called my father1 who was in the next room2 he ran with others of the household1 sought for a stick1 growled at the presence of the serpent1 uttering words of vehement anger1 while the others expressed their fear for me1--and ,i understood their words no less clearly1 ,i believe1 than ,i should understand them now4 ,after several years1 waking up as if from a dream1 ,i recalled all this to their memory1 nothing being further from the minds of my parents2 they were greatly astonished4#i ,as well they might be6 ,it is hardly right1 however1 to see in the story evidence of marvellous faculty showing itself in infancy1 beyond that of an impressionable and tenacious mind4 ,no doubt the drama had been repeated many times by the parents for behoof of visitors4#aj ,superstitious beliefs abounded among ,bruno's fellow-countrymen2 many of them clung to him through life1 were moulded by him into a place in his philosophy1 and bore fruit in his later teaching and practice of natural magic4 ,thus we are told how the spirits of the earth and of the waters may at times1 when the air is pure and calm1 become visible to the eye4 ,he himself had seen them on ,beech ,hill1 and on ,laurel ,hill1 and they frequently appeared to the inhabitants of these places1 sometimes playing tricks upon them1 stealing and hiding their cattle1 but afterwards returning the property to their stalls4 ,other spirits were seen about ,nola by the temple of ,portus in a solitary place1 and even under a certain rock at the roots of ,mount ,cicala1 formerly a cemetery for the plague-stricken2 he and many others had suffered the experience when passing at night of being struck with a multitude of stones1 which rebounded from the head and other parts of the body with great force1 in quick succession1 but did no injury either to him or to any of the others4#aa ,it was at ,nola that ,bruno saw what seemed a ball or beam of fire1 but was really one of the living beings that inhabit the ethereal space2 as it came moving swiftly in a straight line1 it almost touched the roofs of the houses and would have struck the face of ,mount ,cicala1 but it sprang up into the air and passed over4#ab ,to understand the mind of ,bruno1 it is necessary to remember the atmosphere of superstition in which he lived as a child4 ,sidenote3 ,unity of ,nature4 ,one lesson from nature was early implanted which gave body and form to ,bruno's later views3 he had seen from ,cicala1 the fair mount1 how ,vesuvius looked dark1 rugged1 bare1 barren1 and repellent2 but when later he stood on the slopes of ,vesuvius itself1 he discovered that it was a perfect garden1 rich in all the fairest forms and colours1 and luxurious bounty of fruits1 while now it was his own beloved hill1 ,cicala1 that gloomed dim and formless in the distance4 ,he learnt once for all that the divine majesty of nature is everywhere the same1 that distance alters the look but never the nature or substance of things1 that the earth is everywhere full of life1--and beyond the earth the whole universe1 he inferred1 must be the same4#ac ,,ii ,sidenote3 ,naples4 ,sidenote3 #aefc4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,dominicans4 ,when about eleven years of age1 ,bruno passed from ,nola to ,naples in order to receive the higher education of the day--,humanity1 ,logic1 and ,dialectic1--attending both public and private courses2 and in his fifteenth year 7#aefb or #aefc7 he took the habit of ,st4 ,dominic1 and entered the monastery of that order in ,naples4 ,of his earlier teachers he mentions only two1--il ,sarnese1 who is probably ,vincenzo ,colle da ,sarno1 a writer of repute1 and ,fra ,theophilo da ,vairano1 a favourite exponent of ,aristotle1 who was afterwards called to lecture in ,rome4 ,much ingenuity has been exercised in attempting to find a reason for ,bruno's choice of a religious life2 but the ,church was almost the only career open to a clever and studious boy1 whose parents were neither rich nor powerful4 ,the ,dominican ,order into which he was taken1 although the narrowest1 and the most bigoted1#ad was all-powerful in the kingdom1 and directed the machinery of the ,inquisition4 ,naples was governed by ,spain with a firm hand1 and the ,dominican was the chosen order of ,spain4 ,just at this time there were riots against the ,inquisition1 to which an end was put by the beheading and burning of two of the ringleaders4#ae ,the ,waldensian persecution was then fiercer and more brutal than it had ever been2 on a day of #aefa eighty-eight victims were butchered with the same knife1 their bodies quartered1 and distributed along the road to ,calabria4#af ,plague1 famine1 earthquake1 the ,turks1 and the ,brigands1 under ,king ,marconi1 swelled the wave of disaster that had come upon the kingdom of ,naples4 ,little wonder then that one whose aim was a life of learning should seek it under the mantle of the strong ,dominican order4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cloister4 ,sidenote3 #aegb4 ,the cloister stood above ,naples1 amidst beautiful gardens1 and had been the home of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 whose gentle spirit still breathed within its walls4 ,in its church1 amid the masterpieces of ,giovanni ,merliano of ,nola1 the ,buonarotti of ,naples1 stood the image of ,christ which had spoken with the ,angelic ,doctor1 and had approved his works4 ,long afterwards1 at his trial1 ,bruno spoke of having the works of ,st4 ,thomas always by him1 continually reading1 studying and re-studying them1 and holding them dear4 ,on his entry into the order1 ,bruno laid down1 as was customary1 the name ,filippo1 and took that of ,giordano1 by which1 except for a short period1 he was thenceforth known4 ,after his year's probation he took the vows before ,ambrosio ,pasqua1 the ,prior1 and in due course1 probably about #aegb1 became priest1 his first mass being said in ,campagna4#ag ,sidenote3 ,processes for heresy4 ,sidenote3 #aegf4 ,sidenote3 ,rome4 ,it was the age of the counter-reformation which had been inaugurated by ,loyola1 its course set by the decision of the ,council of ,trent to erase with fire and sword the least traces of heresy1 and ,bruno early began to feel his fetters1 and to suffer from their weight4 ,during his noviciate even1 a writing had been drawn up against him1 because he had given away some images of the saints1 retaining for himself only a crucifix1 and again because he had advised a fellow-novice1 who was reading ,the ,seven ,delights of the ,madonna to throw it aside and take rather ,the ,lives of the ,fathers or some such book4 ,but the writing was merely intended to terrify him1 and the same day was torn up by the ,prior4#ah ,in #aegf1 however1 the suspicions of his superiors took a more active turn1 and a process was instituted in which the matter of the noviciate was supported by charges of later date1 of which ,bruno never learned the details4 ,he believed the chief count was an apology for the ,arian heresy made by him in the course of a private conversation1 and rather on the ground of its scholastically correct form than on that of its truth4#ai ,in any case ,bruno left ,naples while the process was pending1 and came to ,rome1 where he put up in the cloister of ,minerva4 ,his accusers did not leave him in peace1 however3 a third process was threatened at ,rome with #acj articles2#bj and1 on learning from a friendly source that some works of ,st4 ,chrysostom and ,st4 ,hieronymus1 with a commentary of the arch-heretic ,erasmus1 had been discovered--he had1 as he supposed1 safely disposed of them before leaving ,naples1--,bruno yielded to discretion1 abandoned his monkly habit1 and escaped from ,rome4 ,from this time began a life of restless wandering throughout ,europe which ended only after sixteen years1 when he fell into the power of the ,inquisition at ,venice4 ,,iii ,sidenote3 ,noli4 ,sidenote3 #aegf8 ,sidenote3 ,savona4 ,turin4 ,venice4 ,bruno1 who resumed for the time his baptismal name of ,filippo1 journeyed first to the picturesque little town of ,noli1 in the ,gulf of ,genoa1 whither a more famous exile1 ,dante1 had also come4 ,there he lived for four or five months1 teaching grammar to boys1 and the ,sphere--that is1 astronomy and cosmography1 with a dash of metaphysics1--to certain gentlemen4 ,thence he came to ,savona1 to ,turin1#ba and to ,venice4 ,in ,venice six weeks were spent1 probably in the vain attempt to find work--the printing offices and the schools were closed on account of the plague which was carrying off thousands of the inhabitants2 but the time was utilised in printing the first of his books--no longer extant--on the ,signs of the ,times1#bb written1 like so many other works of other people1 to put together a few danari4 ,it was shown to a reverend ,father ,remigio of ,florence1 therefore was probably orthodox1 or its unorthodoxy was veiled4 ,this work may have been the first of ,bruno's writings on the art of memory or on ,lully's art of knowing4 ,another work belonging to this early period was the ,ark of ,noah4 ,it was probably written before he left ,naples1 and was dedicated to ,pope ,pius ,v41 but is not known to have been published3 its title is that of a mystical writing of ,hugo of ,st4 ,victor1 but according to the account in the ,cena1#bc it was an allegorical and probably satirical work1 somewhat after the fashion of ,bruno's ,cabala3--,the animals had assembled to settle a disputed question of rank1 and the ass was in great danger of losing his pre-eminent post1--in the poop of the ,ark1--because his power lay in hoofs rather than in horns2 when we consider ,bruno's frequent and bitter invocations of ,asinity1 we can hardly avoid seeing in the work an allusion to the credulity and ignorance of the monkhood4 ,sidenote3 ,padua4 ,sidenote3 ,brescia4 ,sidenote3 ,milan4 ,sidenote3 ,bergamo4 ,sidenote3 ,chambry4 ,sidenote3 ,geneva4 ,sidenote3 ,may #aegi4 ,sidenote3 ,did ,bruno adopt ,calvinism8 ,sidenote3 ,freedom of speech4 ,sidenote3 ,de la ,faye4 ,from ,venice1#bd ,bruno tells us1 ,i went to ,padua1 where ,i found some fathers of the order of ,st4 ,dominic1 whom ,i knew2 they persuaded me to resume the habit1 even though ,i should not wish to return to the order1 as it was more convenient for travel3 with this idea ,i went to ,bergamo1 and had a robe made of cheap white cloth1 placing over it the scapular which ,i kept when ,i left ,rome4 ,on his way to ,bergamo he seems to have touched at ,brescia and ,milan1 at the former place curing1 with vinegar and polypod1 a monk who claimed to have the spirit of prophecy4#be ,at ,milan he first heard of his future patron and friend1 ,sir ,philip ,sidney4#bf ,from ,bergamo he was making for ,lyons1 but at ,chambry was warned that he would meet with little sympathy there1 and turned accordingly towards ,geneva1 the home of exiled reformers of all nationalities1 but especially of ,italians4 ,it is uncertain how the time was distributed among these places1--possibly ,bruno spent a winter1 as ,berti suggests1 at ,chambry1 having crossed the ,alps the previous autumn2--what is certain is1 that he arrived at ,geneva in ,april or ,may of #aegi4 ,under the date ,may #bb1 of that year1 in the book of the ,rector of the ,academy at ,geneva1 is inscribed the name ,philippus ,brunus1 in his own hand4 ,on his arrival at the hostelry in ,geneva1 he was called upon by a distinguished exile and reformer1 the ,marquis of ,vico1 a ,neapolitan4 ,to the court at ,venice1 ,bruno gave the following account of this visit and of his life in ,geneva3--,he asked me who ,i was1 and whether ,i had come to stay there and to profess the religion of the city1 to which1 after ,i had given an account of myself and of my reasons for abandoning the ,order1 ,i said that ,i had no intention of professing the religion of the city1 not knowing what it was1 and that therefore ,i wished rather to remain living in freedom and security1 than in any other manner4 ,i was persuaded1 in any case1 to lay aside the habit ,i wore2 so ,i had made for myself from the cloth a pair of trews and other things1 while the ,marquis himself1 with other ,italians1 gave me a sword1 hat1 cape1 and other necessaries of clothing1 and enabled me to support myself so far by correcting proofs4 ,i stayed about two months1 and attended at times the preachings and discussions1 both of ,italians and ,frenchmen who lectured and preached in the city2 among others1 ,i heard several times ,nicolo ,balbani of ,lucca1 who read on the epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 and preached the ,gospels2 but having been told that ,i could not remain there long if ,i did not make up my mind to adopt the religion of the city1 for if not ,i should receive no assistance1 ,i resolved to leave4#bg ,when the inscription of ,bruno's name in the book of the ,rector of the ,academy was found1 a doubt appeared to be thrown upon the truth or frankness of this evidence about himself4 ,the regulations of #aeei had made it necessary for intending members to accept and sign the ,calvinist confession of faith2 but from #aegf onward1 it was only required that they should belong to the community1 a condition ,bruno fulfilled by attending the ministrations of ,nicolo ,balbani at the ,italian ,church2 this would account also for his name being in the list of the ,protestant refugees4 ,the real cause of his departure from ,geneva has1 however1 been revealed by the documents which ,dufour published in #ahhd4bh ,on ,thursday ,august #f1 #aegi1 one ,philippe ,jordan called ,brunus1 an ,italian1 was brought before the ,council1 for having caused to be printed certain replies and invectives against ,m4 de la ,faye1 enumerating twenty errors made by the latter in one of his lectures4 ,de la ,faye was then ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,academy1 of which in #aehj he became ,rector1 resigning that post for the theological chair a few years later4 ,his one title to fame is1 that he was the biographer of ,bza1 and he was in no sense a strong man2 all the more bitter and intense was his anger at the intruding ,italian who criticised his views1 and--a far graver crime--disparaged his learning4 ,bruno1 heard before a body of councillors1 and having confessed his fault1 was to be set free on giving thanks to ,god and an apology to ,m4 de la ,faye1 admitting his fault before the ,consistory 7the governing body of the ,church in ,geneva71 and tearing up the defamatory libel4#bi ,but when he did appear1 on ,august #ac1 the philosopher adopted a different tone3--,philippe ,brun appeared before the ,consistory--to admit his fault1 in so far as he had erred in doctrine1 and called the ministers of the ,church of ,geneva 'pedagogues1' asserting that he neither would excuse nor condemn himself in that1 for it had not been reported truly1 although he understood that one1 ,anthony de la ,faye1 had made such a report4 ,inquired whom he had called pedagogues1 he replied with many excuses and assertions that he had been persecuted1 making many conjectures and numerous other accusations4----,finally1 it was decided that he be duly admonished1 that he have to admit his fault1 and that1 should he refuse to do so1 he be forbidden communion1 and sent back again to the ,council1 who are prayed not to endure such a person1 a disturber of the school2 and in the meantime he shall have to admit his fault4 ,he replied that he repented of having committed the fault1 for which he would make amends by a better conversation1 and further confessed that he had uttered calumny against ,de la ,faye4 ,the admonitions and exclusions from the communion were carried out1 and he was sent back with admonitions4#cj ,apparently these steps were effective2 the required apology was made1 and on ,august #bg ,bruno was absolved from the form of excommunication passed upon him4 ,no doubt1 however1 life in ,geneva was made less easy for him1 and he left soon after4 ,the sentence of excommunication passed by the ,consistory--the only one within its power--does not prove that ,bruno was a full member of the ,protestant community1 nor that he partook of the communion1 which at his trial in ,venice he absolutely denied ever having done2 but formal excommunication must have entailed many unpleasantnesses1 so that his appeal for remission is quite comprehensible4 ,his unfortunate experiences in ,geneva account1 however1 for the extreme dislike of ,calvinism which his writings express4 ,of the two reformed schools1 ,lutheranism was by far the more tolerant1 and gave him1 later1 the more cordial welcome4 ,calvin1 we must remember1 whose spirit continued in ,theodore ,bza1 had written a pamphlet on ,servetus1 a faithful exposition of the errors of ,michael ,servetus1 a short refutation of the same1 in which it is shown to be lawful to coerce heretics by the sword4 ,it was more probably1 however1 ,bruno's attitude towards the ,aristotelian philosophy which brought him into conflict with the authorities3 ,geneva was as thoroughly convinced of the all-wisdom of ,aristotle as ,rome4#ca ,bza had written to ,ramus that they had decided once for all1 ne tantillum ab ,aristotelis sententi deflectere1 and ,arminius1 when a youth of twenty-two1 was expelled from ,geneva for teaching the ,dialectic of ,ramus4 ,,iv ,sidenote3 ,lyons4 ,sidenote3 ,toulouse4 ,sidenote3 #aegi-ha ,after a short stay in ,lyons1 where he could not make enough to keep him alive1 ,bruno passed to ,toulouse1 which boasted then of one of the most flourishing universities in the world4 ,in his account of his life before the ,venetian tribunal1 he gives two years and a half to ,toulouse1 but he must have left it before the end of #aeha1 so that his actual stay was only two years4 ,while he was holding private classes on the ,sphere1 and other philosophical subjects1 a chair at the ,university fell vacant4 ,bruno was persuaded to become a candidate2 to that end he took a ,doctorate 7in ,theology71 and was allowed to compete4 ,by the free election of the students1 as the custom was1 he was chosen for the chair1 and thereafter for two sessions lectured on ,aristotle's ,de ,anima and on other matters4 ,part of these lectures is perhaps given to us in the works published afterwards at ,paris4 ,it was fortunate that the ,university did not require of its ordinary professors that they should attend mass1 as was the case1 for example1 at the ,sorbonne4 ,bruno could not have done so owing to his excommunication1 but that he was unconscious of any want of sympathy towards the ,catholic ,church is shown by his visit in ,toulouse to the confessional of a ,jesuit4 ,the city was not generally favourable to heretics1 and in #afaf ,lucilio ,vanini was burnt there for his opinions4 ,a cancelled phrase in the evidence suggests that ,bruno's departure from ,toulouse was owing to disputes and difficulties regarding his doctrine1 but his alleged reason was the civil war that was then raging in the south of ,france1 with ,henry of ,navarre in the field4 ,while at ,toulouse1 ,bruno seems to have completed a work in more than one volume1 the ,clavis ,magna1 or ,great ,key1 a general1 and as ,bruno thought1 a final textbook on the art of memory3--,all the ideas of the older writers on this subject 7so far as we are able to make out from the books that have come to our hands71 their doctrines and methods1 have their fitting place in our invention1 which is a superlatively pregnant one1 and has appropriated to it the book of the ,great ,key4#cb ,one volume only1 it appears1 was published by ,bruno1 and that in ,england1 the ,sigillus ,sigillorum4 ,sidenote3 ,works published in ,paris4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,umbris4 ,sidenote3 ,ars ,memori4 ,sidenote3 ,cantus ,circus4 ,to ,paris ,bruno came about the close of #aeha1 and almost at once sprang into fame4 ,a course of thirty lectures on ,the thirty divine attributes 7as given by ,thomas ,aquinas7 brought him the offer of an ordinary professorship1 but this he could not take1 being unable to attend mass4 ,however1 his fame reached the ears of the king1 ,henry the ,third1 who summoned him to his presence1 to know among other things whether the memory ,bruno had1 and the art of memory he professed1 were natural or due to magic4 ,bruno proved to him that a powerful memory was a natural product1 and dedicated to him a book on the ,art of ,memory4 ,henry ,,iii4 was the son of an ,italian mother1 and had a keen1 if uncritical and dilettante1 love of learning4 ,at the time ,bruno arrived in ,paris philosophy was one of the king's chief hobbies1 and the fact had a great influence on ,bruno's future4 ,during his stay in ,paris ,bruno published several works1 of which the first perhaps was the ,shadows of ,ideas 7,de ,umbris ,idearum71 #aehb1 dedicated to ,henry ,,iii41 along with which1 but without a separate frontispiece1 was the ,art of ,memory 7,ars ,memori ,jordani ,bruni72 there followed ,the ,incantation of ,circe 7,cantus ,circus71 #aehb1 dedicated to ,prince ,henry of ,angoulme1 and edited by ,regnault4 ,the ,de ,umbris gives the metaphysical basis of the art of memory1 the ,ars ,memori a psychological analysis of the faculty1 and an account of the theory of the art itself1 while the ,cantus ,circus offers first a practical application1 and secondly a more elementary account of the theory and practice of the system4 ,obscurity was1 in those days of pedantry1 one of the safest ways of securing a hearing3 there is nothing of value in ,bruno's art except the philosophy by which he sought to support it--a renovated ,neoplatonism4 ,it has been pointed out1 however1 that the art was a convenient means of introducing ,bruno to strange universities1 gaining him favour with the great1 or helping him out of pressing money troubles4 ,it was his exoteric philosophy with which he could carefully drape his philosophy of religion hostile to the ,church1 and ride as a hobby horse in his unfruitful humours4#cc ,there can be no question of ,bruno's own belief in it2 it was not1 for example1 a cipher language by which he covered his real thoughts3 the ,copernican theory is not1 as ,berti says1 absent from the ,parisian writings1 rather it is forced obtrusively into them4#cd ,sidenote3 ,de ,compendios ,architectur1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,il ,candelaio4 ,in ,paris was published also the ,compendious ,architecture 7,de ,compendios ,architectur et ,complemento ,artis ,lullii71 #aehb1 dedicated to ,giovanni ,moro1 the ,venetian ,ambassador in ,paris4 ,it is the earliest of the ,lullian works in which ,bruno expounds or comments upon the art of ,raymond ,lully1 a logical calculus and mnemonic scheme in one1 that attracted many imitators up to and after ,bruno's time4 ,in the same year appeared a work of a very different stamp1 ,il ,candelaio1 or ,the ,torchbearer1 a comedy by ,bruno of ,nola1 ,academico di nulla academia1 detto il fastidito3 ,in tristitia hilaris1 hilaritate tristis4 ,it is a satire upon some of the chief vices of the age--in the forefront pedantry1 superstition1 and sordid love4 ,without great dramatic power--the characters are personified types1 not individuals--it has been judged to be second to none of the comedies of the time1 in spirit1 wit1 and pert comedy4 ,it certainly excels in many respects the ,cortegiana of ,aretino1 to which it is similar in character4 ,it is equally realistic in the sense that it calls a spade a spade1 and does not shrink from representing vice as speaking in its own language4 ,bruno is not1 however1 to be blamed for an obscenity which was de rigueur in the literature of the time4 ,but although the humour is broad and occasionally amusing1 there is no grace1 no lighter touch2 the picture is all dark4 ,the attack upon the pedant1 however1 strikes a keynote of ,bruno's life2 in him he saw the greatest enemy his teaching had to face1 and therefore he struck at him whenever the opportunity offered4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,university4 ,owing perhaps to some of these works1 ,bruno was granted an ,extraordinary ,readership at the university4 ,there were1 however1 two universities in ,paris1 and it is uncertain at which ,bruno taught3 they were the ,sorbonne1 catholic and conservative1 the censorship of which must have passed his ,parisian works1 and the ,college of ,france--following the liberal policy of its founder1 ,francis ,,ii41 declaring war against pedantry in general1 and the ,jesuit ,society in particular4#ce ,as has been said1 ,bruno was at this time eager to be taken back into the fold of the ,church1 and turned to the ,jesuits for assistance1 so that the latter college could hardly have been his habitation2 on the other hand1 his revolutionary teaching could not fail in the end to excite the indignation of the ,sorbonne pupils3 ,aristotle was1 here as elsewhere1 divine4 ,yet when ,bruno returned to ,paris in #aehe1 and when he was on the eve of a second departure1 he recalled with pleasure the humanity and kindness shown to him by rectors and professors on his first visit4 ,they had honoured him by the continued presence of the more learned at his lectures both public and private1 so that any title rather than that of stranger was befitting him with this kindly parent of letters4#cf ,and ,nostitz1 one of ,bruno's pupils1 remembered with admiration1 thirty-three years later1 the skill and versatility of his teacher3 ,he was able to discourse impromptu on any subject suggested1 to speak without preparation extensively and eloquently1 and he attracted many pupils and admirers in ,paris4#cg ,but ,bruno's evil genius would not allow him rest2 whether on account1 as he himself says1 of tumults1--which may mean either the civil war#ch or an active resistance to his own teaching on the part of the youth of ,paris1--or because of the attraction of a less bigoted country1 he was drawn in #aehc to exchange ,paris for ,london4 ,v ,sidenote3 ,england1 #aehc4 ,england under ,elizabeth was renowned for its tolerance2 all manner of religious refugees found there a place of safety3 to ,italians its welcome was particularly cordial1 their language was the favoured one of the court1 and ,elizabeth herself eagerly saw and spoke with them in their own tongue4 ,florio--an ,italian in spite of having had ,london for his birthplace1 the friend of ,shakespeare1 of ,spenser and ,ben ,jonson--was constantly at court2 two of ,elizabeth's physicians were ,italian1 as were several of the teachers of the universities4 ,perhaps the happiest days of ,bruno's troubled life were spent here2 he had access to the most brilliant literary society of the time2 he was able to speak1 write1 and publish in his own tongue1 and in consequence gave all the most polished and brilliant of his works to the world during this period4 ,sidenote3 ,oxford1 #aehc4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,university and ,aristotle4 ,in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june of #aehc ,bruno was in ,oxford1 although the university and college records make no mention of his name4 ,he must have known it as a stronghold of ,aristotelianism2 on its statutes stood that ,bachelors and ,masters who did not follow ,aristotle faithfully were liable to a fine of five shillings for every point of divergence1 and for every fault committed against the ,logic of the ,organon2 and that this was no dead law had been proved a few years before when one ,barebones was degraded and expelled because of an attack on ,aristotle from the standpoint of ,ramus4 ,the only living subject of teaching was theology1 there was no real science1 and no real scholarship4 ,this peaceful school was not likely to be gratified by the letter which ,bruno wrote asking permission to lecture at ,oxford2 it is printed in the ,explicatio ,triginta ,sigillorum3#ci ,to the most excellent the ,vice-,chancellor of the ,university of ,oxford1 its most famous ,doctors and celebrated ,masters--,salutation from ,philotheus ,jordanus ,brunus of ,nola1 ,doctor of a more scientific theology1 professor of a purer and less harmful learning1 known in the chief universities of ,europe1 a philosopher approved and honourably received1 a stranger with none but the uncivilised and ignoble1 a wakener of sleeping minds1 tamer of presumptuous and obstinate ignorance1 who in all respects professes a general love of man1 and cares not for the ,italian more than for the ,briton1 male more than female1 the mitre more than the crown1 the toga more than the coat of mail1 the cowled more than the uncowled2 but loves him who in intercourse is the more peaceable1 polite1 friendly and useful--7,brunus7 whom only propagators of folly and hypocrites detest1 whom the honourable and studious love1 whom noble minds applaud4 ,the epistle which so begins is the preface to a work on the art of discovering1 arranging1 and remembering facts of knowledge1 by which ,bruno hoped to commend himself to the ,english1 as he had succeeded in commending himself to the ,french universities4 ,he attempted to disarm prejudice by sheltering under the twofold truth--if this writing appears to conflict with the common and approved faith1 understand that it is put forward by me not as absolutely true1 but as more consonant with our senses and our reason1 or at least less dissonant than the other side of the antithesis4 ,and remember1 that we are not so much eager to show our own knowledge1 as moved by the desire of showing the weakness of the common philosophy1 which thrusts forward what is mere opinion as if demonstratively proved1 and of making it clear by our discussion 7if the gods grant it7 how much in harmony with regulated sense1 in consonance with the truth of the substance of things1 is that which the garrulous multitude of plebeian philosophers ridicule as foreign to sense4 ,sidenote3 ,alasco of ,poland4 ,sidenote3 ,the disputation4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cena4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,causa4 ,he was coldly received1 however2 in common-sense ,england his new art could evoke no enthusiasm1 and his real and vital doctrines met with nothing but opposition at the old university--the widow of true science1 ,bruno calls it4 ,from the #ajth to the #acth ,june the ,polish prince1 ,alasco1 was in ,oxford1 and disputations were held in his honour as well as banquets4 ,among others1 ,bruno disputed publicly in presence of the prince and some of the ,english nobility4#dj ,alasco appears to have caused some excitement to the ,elizabethan court4 ,according to ,mr4 ,faunt 7of the secretary's office7 he had been ,general in more than forty fought battles1 spoke ,latin and ,italian well1 and was of great revenues4 ,mauvissire grumbled in a letter to the ,french king1 that the ,palatine ,lasque and a ,scottish ambassador seemed to be governing the court4#da ,the real object of the visit was apparently political1 to prevent the traffic in arms between ,england and ,muscovy4#db ,whether ,alasco succeeded in this design or not1 he seems to have found life in ,england too fast for his purse--,a learned man of graceful figure1 with a very long beard1 in decorous and beautiful attire1 who was received kindly by the ,queen1 with great honour and praise by the nobles1 by the university of ,oxford with erudite delectations 7oblectationibus7 and varied spectacles2 but after four months1 being harassed for debt1 he withdrew secretly4#dc ,the arrival of this tragic-comic figure in ,oxford appears to have gratified the city and university2 he was most hospitably received1 and put up at ,christ ,church4 ,on the following day there was a dinner at ,all ,souls1 at which he was solemnlie satisfied with scholarlie exercises and courtlie fare4 ,that evening was performed a pleasant comedie1 the ,rivales1 and on the following night a statelie tragedie1 ,dido1#dd and there were in the intervals shows1 disputations in philosophy1 physics1 and divinity1 in all of which1 we are glad to know1 these learned opponents1 respondents1 and moderators1 acquitted themselves like themselves1 sharplie and soundlie4 ,let us hope that ,bruno too1 who took part in one of these disputations1 made this impression4 ,according to his own account the protagonist put forward by the university could not reply to one of his arguments1 and was left fifteen times by as many syllogisms1 like a hen in the stubble1 resorting accordingly to incivility and abuse1 in face of the patience and humanity of the ,neapolitan reared under a kinder sky4 ,the result was unfortunate for ,bruno2 it put an end to the public lectures1 which he was giving at the time1 on the ,immortality of the ,soul and on the ,five-fold ,sphere4 ,the same month he returned to ,london1 and shortly after published the ,cena 7,ash-,wednesday ,supper71 in which he ridiculed the ,oxford ,doctors4 ,inter alia1 he thought they knew a good deal more of beer than of ,greek4#de ,the impression this attack produced in his ,london circle was apparently not that which he desired1 for in the following dialogue1 the ,causa1 he was much more judicious4#df ,he admitted much in the university that was well instituted from the beginning3 the fine arrangement of studies1 the gravity of the ceremonies1 careful ordering of the exercises1 seemliness of the habits worn1 and many other circumstances that made for the requirements and adornment of a university2 without doubt every one must admit it to be the first in ,europe1 and consequently in all the world--nay1 more1 in gentleness of spirit and acuteness of mind1 such as are naturally brought out in both parts of ,britain1 it equals perhaps the most excellent of the universities4 ,nor is it to be forgotten that before speculative philosophy was taught in any other part of ,europe it flourished here1 and through its princes in metaphysics 7although barbarians in speech and of the profession of the cowl7 the splendour of one of the noblest and rarest spheres of philosophy1 in our times almost extinct1 was diffused to all other academies in civilised countries4 ,what ,bruno condemned in ,oxford was the undue attention it gave to language and words1 to the ability to speak in ,ciceronian ,latin and in eloquent-phrase1 neglecting the realities of which the words were signs4 ,as for the knowledge of ,aristotle and of philosophy generally that was demanded for the degree of ,master or ,doctor1 ,bruno suggests an evasion that probably had its origin in the undergraduate wit of the time4 ,the statute read nisi potaverit e fonte ,aristotelis1 but there were three springs in the town1 the ,fons ,aristotelis1 ,fons ,pythagorae1 ,fons ,platonis1 and as the water for the beer and cider was taken from these springs1 one could not be three days in ,oxford without imbibing not merely of the spring of ,aristotle1 but of those of ,pythagoras and of ,plato as well4 ,doctors were easily created and doctorates easily bought4 ,there were of course exceptions1 men renowned for eloquence and doctrine like ,tobias ,matthew#dg and ,culpepper1#dh but as a rule the nobility and best men generally refused to avail themselves of the honour1 and preferred the substance of learning to its shadow4 ,,vi ,sidenote3 ,london4 ,it was after his return from ,oxford that the pleasant and busy life in ,london literary society began--the period of ,bruno's greatest productiveness4 ,in the house of the enlightened and cultured ,mauvissire he found1 for the first time since leaving ,nola1 a home4#di ,bruno's position in ,london has given rise to great difference of opinion2 none of the ordinary contemporary records make mention of him1 or the slightest allusion to his presence in ,england4 ,at his trial he professed to have brought letters to the ,french ,ambassador from the ,king of ,france1 to have stayed at the house of the former continuously1 to have gone constantly to the ,court with the ,ambassador1 and to have known ,elizabeth2 and in his works he claims intimacy with ,sidney and ,greville4 ,it was consequently thought that he moved in the highest ,english society of the time1 and from the ,cena that he belonged to a literary coterie1 or club1 of which ,sidney1 ,greville1 ,dyer1 ,temple1 and others were members4 ,lagarde1 believing ,bruno 7but on ludicrous grounds7#ej to have sprung from the lowest of ,italian society1 could hardly accept this familiar legend of ,bruno-biographies1 and more recently1 the ,quarterly ,review has questioned both the friendship with ,sidney and ,greville1 and the existence of the supposed ,society4 ,as to the last1 there was certainly at one time a literary society1 ,sidney's ,areopagus1 to which ,spenser belonged in #aegi1 but which concerned itself chiefly with artificial rules of versification1 and the merits of various metres2 the habit of meeting may have very well persisted for a few years1 after the first flush of enthusiasm had passed1 and the ,ash ,wednesday supper may have represented one of these meetings to which ,bruno--the defender of the ,copernican theory--may have been invited as ,protagonist4 ,as for ,bruno's position1 it must have been that of a secretary or tutor1 perhaps both1 in ,mauvissire's employment4 ,the ,french ,ambassador was constantly in want of funds1 and could not very well afford to support any casual stranger whom the ,king of ,france recommended to him4 ,in ,november #aehd he complained of absolute penury1 of being unable to obtain money due to him from the ,king of ,france 7the ,king paid him by occasional doles only71 of being hard pressed by ,london and ,italian bankers1 while his wife was in ill health4 ,he was not greatly respected either by the ,court1 who1 with good grounds1 believed him to have no influence with the ,french ,king1 or by ,mary of ,scotland and the ,english ,catholics1 partly because of his supposed ,huguenot leanings1 and partly because of their distrust of ,henry ,,iii41 or by the ,french ,king himself4 ,mauvissire had been sent to ,england as one who could be trusted not to err by way of undue zeal4 ,henry had no desire to see the unfortunate ,queen of ,scots liberated1 although he put out all his diplomatic power to save her life2 the status quo in ,england suited his policy only too well2 there was no need for active interference4 ,it was ,mary of ,guise that spurred on ,mauvissire to act as energetically as he did for ,queen ,mary4 ,we may assume then that ,bruno1 when ,oxford rejected him1 entered the ,french ,embassy as an unofficial secretary4 ,the words he employed at the ,venetian inquiry quite harmonise with this supposition3 ,in his house ,i stayed as his gentleman1 nothing more1 not as friend or guest1 but as his gentleman4#ea ,that he went constantly to ,court with the ,ambassador1 and was introduced to ,queen ,elizabeth1 would be natural in the case of a secretary--it would be curious in the case of a mere guest1 or of any servant lower than a secretary4 ,finally1 in the ,infinito#eb the grateful remark that ,mauvissire entertained ,bruno within his family1 not as one who was of service to him 7,mauvissire71 but as one whom he could serve on the many occasions in which aid was required by the ,nolan1 obviously suggests that services were rendered by ,bruno to the ,ambassador4 ,a man who was prepared to make a living by teaching children as readily as by lecturing to students1 by setting books in print as readily as by writing them1 was not likely to be an expensive secretary1 and it must have been pleasant to ,bruno to escape from the turmoil of scholastic strife and its bitter antagonisms to the quiet haven of the ,embassy4 ,his host was a well-meaning1 kindly1 but unfortunate man1 unequal to the great issues that were being decided around him4 ,although it was a ,catholic family1 and mass was frequently said in the house1 ,bruno's religious freedom was respected4 ,he attended neither mass nor any of the preachings1 on account of his excommunication4 ,if one may judge from ,bruno's enthusiasm1 the wife and daughter of ,mauvissire must have been charming companions1 the one endowed with no mean beauty of form1 both veiling and clothing the spirit within1 and also with the threefold blessing of a discreet judgment1 a pleasing modesty1 and a kind courtesy1 holding in an indissoluble tie the mind of her consort1 and captivating all who come to know her2 the other1 who has scarcely seen six summers1 and from her speech you could not tell whether she be of ,italy1 of ,france1 or of ,england2 from her musical play1 whether she is of corporeal or incorporeal substance2 from the ripe sweetness of her manners1 whether she is descended from heaven or risen from earth4#ec ,for ,mauvissire himself1 to whom the three most important of the ,italian dialogues are dedicated1 no words that ,bruno can invent are too high praise4 ,in the dedication of the ,causa1 after comparing his persevering zeal and delicate diplomatic powers to the dropping of water upon hard stone1 and his steadfast support of ,bruno in face of detractions of the ignorant and the mercenary1 of sophists1 hypocrites1 barbarians1 and plebeians1 to the strength of the rock against seething waves1 the philosopher adds1 ,i1 whom the foolish hate1 the ignoble despise1 whom the wise love1 the learned admire1 the great honour--,i1 for the great favours enjoyed from you1 food and shelter1 freedom1 safety1 harbourage1 who through you have escaped so terrible and fierce a storm1 to you consecrate this anchor1 these shrouds and slackened sails1 this merchandise so dear to me1 more precious still to the future world1 to the end that through your favour they may not fall a prey to the ocean of injustice1 turbulence1 and hostility4 ,the merchandise of which ,bruno thought so highly was the ,dialogue itself2 we must of course allow for the grandiloquence of the dedications of the time1 and of ,bruno's especially1 but a real gratitude shines through the words4 ,sidenote3 ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,sidenote3 ,mendoa4 ,his account of the ,queen must be taken much less seriously1 although his praise of her formed one of the many counts against him in ,venice4 ,that most singular and rare of ladies1 who from this cold clime1 near to the ,arctic parallel1 sheds a bright light upon all the terrestrial globe4 ,elizabeth1 a ,queen in title and in dignity1 inferior to no ,king in all the world4 ,for her judgment1 counsel1 and government1 not easily second to any other that bears a sceptre in the earth4 ,in her familiarity with the arts1 knowledge of the sciences1 understanding and practice of all languages spoken in ,europe by the people or by the learned1 ,i leave the whole world to judge what rank she should hold among princes4#ed ,in a satirical passage of the ,causa1 where ,bruno is proving that all vices1 defects1 crimes are masculine1 all virtues1 excellences1 goodnesses1 feminine1 ,elizabeth is given as a crowning example3--than whom no man is more worthy in the whole kingdom1 among the nobles no one more heroic1 among the long robed no one more learned1 among the councillors no one more wise4#ee ,exaggerated as the language is1 it is not more so than was common with the writers who adorned ,elizabeth's ,court2 and it was one of his errors which ,bruno could easily regret before his judges4 ,in my book on 'the ,cause1 ,principle1 and ,one1' ,i praise the ,queen of ,england and call her 'divine1' not as a term of worship1 but as an epithet such as the ancients used to apply to their princes1 and in ,england where ,i then was1 and where ,i composed this book1 the title 'divine' is usually given to the ,queen4 ,i was the more inclined to call her so1 that she knew me1 as ,i went continually with the ,ambassador to ,court2 but ,i know ,i erred in praising this lady1 she being a heretic1 and in calling her 'divine4' ,through ,mauvissire1 ,bruno made acquaintance with ,bernardino di ,mendoa1 ,spanish ,ambassador to ,england from #aegh to #aehd1 a much stronger man as well as a more unscrupulous servant of his king than ,mauvissire could be4 ,bruno says definitely that ,mendoa was known by him at the ,english ,court4 ,so well was he known that ,bruno approached the ,ambassador in ,paris on the delicate subject of his own relations with the ,catholic ,church1 and was introduced by him to the ,papal ,nuncio4 ,there is absolutely no reason for doubting these statements1 and if true1 they are quite compatible with acquaintance1 if not friendship1 between ,bruno and ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 or the others whom he mentions4 ,mendoa was not1 however a persona grata at ,court3 he was a thorough-going supporter of the ,scottish ,queen1 and seems to have had a finger in almost every conspiracy that was planned or formed by the ,english ,catholics4 ,he became unbearable to ,queen ,elizabeth2 his recall was demanded and refused2 but in ,january of #aehd he was compelled to leave ,england1 and a formal rupture with ,spain was the consequence1 which became actual war four years afterwards4 ,philip of ,spain did not desert his champion1 in whom he had the highest confidence4 ,in ,october of #aehd ,mendoa became ,ambassador to ,france1 and there in #ahee ,bruno renewed acquaintance with him4 ,sidenote3 ,sidney4 ,sidenote3 ,greville4 ,sidenote3 ,spenser4 ,like all his contemporaries1 ,bruno came under the spell of ,sir ,philip ,sidney's charm4 ,he had already heard in ,milan and in ,france of that most illustrious and excellent cavalier1 one of the rarest and brightest spirits in the world4 ,to ,sir ,philip are dedicated the two chief ethical writings of ,bruno1 the ,spaccio1 and the ,heroici ,furori1 with the expressed assurance that the author is not presenting a lyre to a deaf man1 nor a mirror to a blind4 ,the ,italian reasons with one who can understand his speech2 his verses are under the censure and the protection of a poet4 ,philosophy displays her form unveiled to so clear an eye as yours4 ,the way of heroism is pointed out to a heroic and generous spirit4 ,sidney was one of the first to take an interest in the ,italian on his arrival in ,england1 and when the ,spaccio was published1 on the eve1 as ,bruno thought1 of his departure from ,england towards the close of #aehd1ef ,bruno could not turn his back upon ,sidney's beautiful1 fortunate1 and chivalrous country1 without saluting him with a mark of recognition1 along with the generous and humane spirit1 ,sir ,fulke ,greville4 ,there was some disagreement1 however1 between ,greville and ,bruno1 the invidious ,erinnys of vile1 malignant1 ignoble1 interested persons1 had spread its poison between them1 in ,bruno's emphatic words4 ,what the ground of division was we do not know2 possibly the tone in which the ,cena spoke of ,oxford men1 and of ,english scholars generally1 had offended ,greville1 and this may have called out the partial retractation in the ,causa4 ,as is well known the friendship of the two men1 ,sidney and ,greville 7with whom ,edward ,dyer was closely associated71 was of the noblest type4 ,greville died in #afbh in the fulness of years and of honours1 but had retained the impress of his young friendship fresh to the end4#eg ,it may be added that he became an intimate of ,francis ,bacon1 who may through him have been introduced to ,bruno's works4 ,it must have been in some such way also that ,spenser knew of ,bruno1 as it is probable that the ,cantos on ,mutability 7first published posthumously in #afji1 but written probably after his visit to ,england in #aeif7 were suggested by ,bruno's ,spaccio4#eh ,the new poet certainly could not have met ,bruno1 for he was in ,ireland continuously1 as secretary1 from #aehj till #aehi1 when he came over to publish the first three books of the ,faerie ,queen4 ,sidenote3 ,bacon4 ,sidenote3 ,shakespeare4 ,it is possible1 on the other hand1 that ,bruno met ,bacon1 who was a rising young barrister and member of ,parliament when he arrived in ,england1 and had already achieved some fame as a critic of ,aristotle4 ,the idea1 however1 that he knew and influenced ,shakespeare1 is entirely fanciful4 ,richard ,field1 a friend of ,shakespeare1 had come to ,london in #aegi1 and served his apprenticeship with ,thomas ,vautrollier2 and ,field was ,shakespeare's first publisher1 having set up for himself by #aehg4 ,it has been suggested that before this time ,shakespeare worked in ,vautrollier's printing office4 ,on the other hand1 it has been universally received that ,vautrollier was ,bruno's publisher in ,england1 and ,bruno usually corrected his own proofs4 ,hence the two may have met1 ,shakespeare and ,bruno1 in a grimy printer's den4 ,the idea is charming1 but it has to yield before the light of fact4 ,shakespeare did not come to ,london until #aehf1 and there is no proof that he worked with ,vautrollier4 ,bruno had left ,england by the end of #aehe1 and there is no proof that ,vautrollier was his printer4 ,the suggested analogies between one or two ideas in ,hamlet and ,bruno's conceptions of transmigration1 of the relativity of evil1 and the rest1 are of the shallowest4#ei ,thomas ,vautrollier1 a ,french printer who came to ,london some years before1 and set up a press in ,blackfriars1 was said 7by ,thomas ,baker7 to have gained an undesired notoriety as ,bruno's printer1 and to have been compelled to leave ,england for a period1 which he spent in ,edinburgh1 to the advantage of ,scottish printing4 ,the ,triginta ,sigilli and all the ,italian ,dialogues of ,bruno were certainly published in ,england1 although ,venice or ,paris was set down as their place of publication4 ,according to ,bruno1 this was that they might sell more easily1 and have the greater success1 for if they had been marked as printed in ,england1 they would have sold with greater difficulty in those parts4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether ,vautrollier was really the printer2 in any case it was not on that account that he went to ,edinburgh4#fj ,sidenote3 ,florio4 ,sidenote3 ,alexander ,dicson4 ,sidenote3 ,antidicsonus4 ,sidenote3 ,watson4 ,of the ,italians in ,england during ,elizabeth's reign the most familiar to us is ,florio1 whose father had been preacher to the ,protestant ,italians in ,london4 ,florio had been at ,oxford1 from which university he dedicated his ,first ,fruites to ,leicester in #aegh1 so that he was already well known as a scholar when ,bruno came to ,england and made his acquaintance4 ,this may have occurred through ,sidney2 or vice versa1 ,sidney's attention may have been called to ,bruno by ,florio4 ,the latter was described by ,cornwallis as one who looked more like a good fellow than a wise man1 yet was wise beyond his fortune or his education4 ,it was long after ,bruno's departure that ,florio devoted himself to the charming translation of ,montaigne 7published in #afjc71 of which a copy has been found bearing ,shakespeare's name1 while to ,shakespeare is attributed a sonnet in praise of ,florio4 ,curiously1 we find him in his translation acknowledging assistance from one with whom ,bruno also has casually connected him in the ,cena1 viz4 ,matthew ,gwinne4 ,of ,bruno's more intimate acquaintance in ,england we know little3 there are two whose names occur in the dialogues1 ,smith in the ,cena1 and ,dicson in the ,causa1 both sympathetic listeners and adherents of ,theophilo1 who is ,bruno's representative4 ,the former it is naturally difficult to place3 he may however have been the poet ,william ,smith1 a disciple of ,spenser1 who published a pastoral poem ,chloris1 or the ,complaint of the ,passionate ,despised ,shepherd4 ,of ,dicson1--learned1 honourable1 lovable1 well-born faithful friend ,alexander ,dicson1 whom the ,nolan loves as his own eyes1#fa a little more can be told4 ,he was the author of a ,de ,umbra ,rationis1 7#aehc71 obviously inspired by ,bruno's ,de ,umbris ,idearum1 and on the same basis of ,neoplatonism4 ,the work is extremely sketchy1 occasionally diffuse1 and of little value even were there anything of value in the ,art of ,memory which it teaches4 ,but it seems from a reply it called forth 7,antidicsonus7 to have had some vogue1 and to have been backed by a vigorous and aggressive school in which ,bruno1 who is joined in condemnation with ,dicson1 may have had a place4#fb ,the poet ,thomas ,watson has also connected ,bruno with ,dicson in his ,compendium ,memori ,localis1 published in #aehe or #aehf4 ,watson also published a translation of ,tasso's ,aminta1 in ,latin hexameters1--in #aehe1 i4e4 in the year following the appearance of ,bruno's ,spaccio1 with its satire on ,tasso's ,age of ,gold4#fc ,watson had been in ,paris in #aeha1 when he met ,walsingham1 and he may of course have met ,bruno also3 he was a scholarly poet1 although his work lay more in the direction of translation and imitation of foreign writers1 than in that of original verse1 but during his lifetime he ranked as the equal of ,spenser and ,sidney4 ,the ,compendium of ,local ,memory is in clear1 simple1 classical ,latin1 in strong contrast with the corresponding works of ,dicson and of ,bruno2 but the principles of the ,art which it describes are those of ,bruno1 or ,ravenna1 or of some common source1 more skilfully arranged and more aptly expressed4 ,,vii ,sidenote3 ,the ,thirty ,seals4 ,sidenote3 ,cena de le ,ceneri4 ,sidenote3 ,de la causa1 principio et ,uno1 #aehd4 ,sidenote3 ,de l'infinito universo et ,mondi4 ,no fewer than seven works from ,bruno's facile pen were published in ,england2 the first of these was the ,thirty ,seals1 and the ,seal of ,seals 7#aehc7 ,explicatio ,triginta ,sigillorum1 quibus adjectus est ,sigillus#fd ,sigillorum4 ,it was dedicated to ,mauvissire1 but the introductory epistle was addressed to the ,vice-,chancellor of ,oxford4 ,bound along with it1 in front1 was a ,modern and ,complete ,art of ,remembering which is merely a reprint of the last part of the ,cantus ,circus4 ,the work belongs to the mnemonic and psychological writings of ,bruno2 the thirty seals are hints for the acquiring1 arranging1 and recollecting of all sciences and arts1 the ,seal of ,seals for comparing and explaining all operations of the mind4 ,and it may be called ,art of ,arts2 for here you will easily find all that is theoretically enquired into by logic1 metaphysics1 the cabala1 natural magic1 arts great and small4 7,the part called ,sigillus ,sigillorum was a volume of ,bruno's ,clavis ,magna1 perhaps the only volume published47 ,it was followed by an ,italian dialogue1 the ,ash ,wednesday ,supper1 ,la ,cena de le ,ceneri1 also dedicated to ,mauvissire4 ,written in praise of the ,copernican theory1 it goes beyond ,copernicus himself in its intuition of the infinity of the universe1 of the identity of matter in the earth with the matter of the planets and stars1 and of the possibility that such living beings inhabit them as inhabit the earth3 earth and stars themselves are also said to be living organisms3 so there are not seven planets or wandering stars only1 but innumerable such2 for every world1 whether of the sun-type or of the earth-type1 is in motion1 its motion proceeding from the spirit within it4 ,finally1 this philosophy is shown to be in complete accord with all true religion1 to conflict only with the false4 ,after the ,ash-,wednesday ,supper came ,cause1 ,principle1 and ,unity 7,de la causa1 principio et ,uno71 #aehd2 again dedicated to ,mauvissire4#fe ,the first of its dialogues is an apology for the ,cena1 which1 as we have seen1 had caused considerable feeling in ,bruno's circle of readers1 for the severity and irony of its strictures upon ,oxford1 and ,england generally4 ,in the others the immanence or spirituality of all causation2 the eternity of matter2 its divinity as the potentiality of all life2 its realisation in the universe as a whole 7as a formed thing72 the infinite whole and the innumerable parts1 as different aspects of the same3 the origin of evil and of death3 the coincidence of matter and form in the ,one3 the source of all individual and finite forms in the one material substance3 the coincidence in the ,one of the possible and the real1 the century and the moment1 the solid and the point3 the universe all centre and all circumference3 diversity and difference as nothing but diverse and different aspects of one and the same substance3 the coincidence of contraries3--these are among the chief topics of this1 the freshest and most brilliant of ,bruno's philosophical writings3 a dialogue worthy of ,plato1 ,moritz ,carrire has said4 ,in the same year appeared ,the ,infinite ,universe and its worlds 7,de l'infinito universo et ,mondi71 dedicated to ,mauvissire4#ff ,it contained a masterly array of reasons1 physical and metaphysical1 for the belief that the universe is infinite1 and is full of innumerable worlds of living creatures2 sense and imagination are shown to be at once the source and the limit of human knowledge4 ,yet the argument is mainly a priori3 the infinite power of the ,efficient ,cause cannot be ineffective1 the divine goodness cannot withhold the good of life from any possible being2 the divine will is one with the divine intelligence and with the divine action3 all possible existence falls within the sphere of the divine intelligence1 therefore is willed2 but whatever is willed is realised1 for the power is infinite2 and whatever is is good1 for it is willed by the infinitely good4 ,whatever really is1 is a substance1 and therefore immortal4 ,the substance of us is immutable1 only the outward face or form of it changes1 passes away2 in the whole all things are good2 where things appear evil or defective1 it is because we look at the part or the present1 not at the whole or the eternal4 ,sidenote3 ,spaccio de la bestia trionfante4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cabala1 #aehe4 ,the ,expulsion of the ,triumphant ,beast1 ,spaccio de la bestia trionfante1 #aehd1fg was dedicated to ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,in form an allegorical1 satirical prose poem1 it is in fact an introduction to a new ethical system4 ,a repentant ,jupiter resolves to drive out the numerous beasts that occupy his heavenly firmament--the constellations--and to replace them by the virtues1 with ,truth as their crown4 ,he calls a council of the gods to consider this plan1 and in the discussion that follows numberless topics are touched upon--the history of religions1 the contrast between natural and positive religion1 and the fundamental forms of morality4 ,the ,spaccio is1 however1 preparatory to a future work1 in which moral philosophy shall be treated by the inner light which the divine intellectual sun has irradiated into my soul1 says ,bruno2#fh in it1 and other dialogues1 the whole structure of the philosophy is to be completed1 of which the ,bestia is merely a tentative sketch4#fi ,jupiter represents the human spirit2 and the constellations1 the ,bear1 the ,scorpion1 etc41 are the vices of the age1 which are to be driven out by ,bruno's hierarchy of virtues4 ,the work1 which is rich in both moral and religious suggestion1 was early regarded as an attack on the ,pope or the ,church1 the supposed ,triumphant ,beast4 ,gaspar ,schopp1 for example1 writes to that effect after witnessing ,bruno's death4 ,it is really an attack upon all religions of mere credulity as opposed to religions of truth and of deeds4 ,the ,cabal 7,cabala del ,cavallo ,pegaseo1 con l' ,aggiunta dell' ,asino ,cillenico7 was published in #aehe4gj ,it is dedicated to an imaginary ,bishop of ,casamarciano1 who represents the spirit of backwardness1 ignorant simplicity1 and was not a real person1 as some biographers supposed4 ,it is a still more biting1 a merciless satire on ,asinity 7i4e4 ignorance1 credulity1 and unenquiring faith in religion74 ,in a later work#ga there is a remark on the ,asinus ,cillenicus1 the image and figure of the animal are well known1 many have written on it1 we among the rest1 in a particular fashion2 but as it displeased the vulgar1 and failed to please the wise1 for its sinister meaning1 the work was suppressed4 ,whether this refers to the whole ,cabala1 or to the last part of it1 is not known4 ,sidenote3 ,heroici ,furori1 #aehe4 ,the ,enthusiasms of the ,noble 7,de gl' heroici furori71 #aehe1gb dedicated to ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 consists of sonnets1 with prose illustrations1 after the model of ,dante's ,vita ,nuova4 ,its theme is that of the ,phdrus and ,symposium1 the rising of the love for spiritual beauty out of that for sensible beauty1 reaching its height in the divine furor--an ecstatic unity with the divine life1 in which all the miseries and misfortunes of the merely earthly life disappear4 ,many of the sonnets are of extreme beauty1 although ,brunnhofer goes too far when he speaks of them as surpassing ,petrarca's1 except in smoothness of form1 and as equalling ,shakespeare's4 ,,viii ,sidenote3 ,the women of ,england4 ,it may not be amiss to give from these works some illustrations of life in ,england as ,bruno found it4 ,england1 as in the days of ,erasmus1 was renowned on the continent for its beautiful women1 and ,bruno's passionate and enthusiastic nature could not but feel the attraction of the fair and gracious nymphs of ,england4 ,in the ,cena he appeals to the muses of ,england1 gracious and gentle1 soft and tender1 young1 fair and delicate1 blond-haired1 white of chin1 pink of cheek1 of enticing lips1 eyes divine1 breasts of ivory1 and hearts of adamant3 how many thoughts do ,i weave for you in my mind1 how many emotions besiege my spirit1 how many passions fill my life1 how many tears pour from my eyes1 sighs burst from my breast1 fires sparkle from my heart8#gc ,nature was taking its revenge indeed for the long years of suppression in the ,church4 ,if this dark1 slender1 interesting ,italian found favour with the fair and cultured inhabitants of ,england1 he was the less successful with the people in general1 the ,plebs1 then as now uncompromisingly opposed to the foreigner4 ,in his belief ,england could boast of a ,plebs which for want of respect1 rudeness1 roughness1 rusticity1 savagery1 ill training1 was second to none in the world4#gd ,no doubt he writes from experience when he describes the greater part of them as appearing like so many wolves and bears1 when they see a foreigner--one part of them1 the artisans1 shopkeepers1 knowing you as some kind of foreigner1 screw their noses at you1 call you dog6 traitor6 stranger6 which is with them a term of high abuse1 and renders its object liable to all the injuries in the world1 no matter what manner of man he is1 young or old1 in gown or in uniform1 noble or gentleman4 ,they will come upon you with a rustic fury1 careless of the who or why1 where1 or how1 not referring to one another1 but every one1 giving vent to the natural hatred he has for the foreigner1 will try with his own hand and his own rod to take the measure of your doublet1 and if you are not careful to save yourself1 of the hair of your head2--and when at length you think you may be allowed to go to the barber's1 and to rest your wearied1 ill-handled body1 behold them so many executioners and tipstaffs2--if they can pretend that you touched any one of them1 you will have your back and legs as sore as if you had the heels of ,mercury1 or were mounted upon the ,pegasean ,horse1 or bestrode the steed of ,perseus1 the ,hippogriff of ,astolfo1 the dromedary of ,madian1 or had trotting under you one of the giraffes of the three ,magicians3 by force of blows they will make you run1 helping you forward with their heavy fists1--better for you were they hoofs of ox1 ass1 or mule3 and will not let you go till they have you fast in a prison1--and there ,i take my leave of you4 ,in the second dialogue of the ,cena1 there occurs incidentally1 a characteristic account of the state of ,elizabethan ,london4 ,fulke ,greville had agreed with ,bruno to have a discussion in his house on the ,copernican theory1 on the evening of ,ash ,wednesday4 ,when the day came1 no further message arriving1 ,bruno concluded that the meeting had been postponed1 and after dinner went out to visit some ,italian friends4 ,returning after sunset1 he found ,florio and ,guin 7,gwynne71 impatiently awaiting him3 a number of cavaliers1 gentlemen1 and doctors1 had met to hear the discussion1 but the chief character of the play was awanting4 ,they hurried him off1 in the dark1 and thinking to shorten the road1 left the straight way and made for the ,thames to get a boat to take them to the ,palace4 ,arrived at the bridge of ,lord ,buckhurst's ,palace1 we shouted and cried for 'oares'--'id est ,gondolieri'--and wasted as much time as would easily have sufficed to take us by land to our destination1 and to have done some business on the way4 ,at last from afar two boatmen replied1 and slowly1 slowly drew up to the shore2 after many interrogations and replies as to the whence1 whither1 why1 and how much1 they rested the bow on the last step of the bridge4 ,then one of the two1 that appeared like the ancient boatman of the ,tartarean world1 gave his hand to the ,nolan1 while the other1 who ,i think was his son1 although his years were five and sixty or so1 received the rest of us4 ,although there was no ,hercules or ,aeneas or ,rhadamanth1 king of ,sarza1 still 444 ,gemuit sub pondere cimba ,sutilis1 et multam accepit limosa paludem4444 ,the sweet harmony 7of its creaking and whistling7 like love1 invited us to forget our misfortunes1 the times and the seasons1 and to accompany the sounds with song4 ,florio 7recalling his days of love7 sang ,dove senza me dolce mia vita1 and the ,nolan replied with ,saracin dolente or ,femenil ingegno1 and the like2 and so little by little we advanced as the barque permitted4 ,although worms and age had reduced it to something like cork1 it seemed from its festina lente all of lead1 and the arms of the two ancients worn out4 ,so with much time we made little way1 and before we had covered a third of the distance--a little beyond the place they call the ,temple--our old fathers1 instead of hurrying1 ran their prow alongside the shore4 ,to the ,nolan asking if they wished a little breathing time1 they answered that they were not going any further1 for this was their stance4 ,in conclusion1 they would not budge for us1 and when we had paid them and thanked them 7there is nothing else to do when you suffer a wrong from one of these canaille71 they showed us the direct road for getting on to the street4 ,now1 oh for your help1 ,maphelina1 muse of ,merlin6 ,that was a road which commenced in a black mud1 from which there was no escape even by good luck4 ,the ,nolan1 who had studied and practised in the schools more than we1 bade us follow him through a passage1 that he thought to see1 filthy though it was4 ,but he had not ceased speaking when he was planted in the mire so firmly that he could not drag out his limbs1 and so with mutual help we went through the midst of it1 hoping that the purgatory would be of short duration2 but by unjust and hard fate he and we found ourselves engulfed in a slimy passage1 that1 just as if it were the 'field of jealousy' or the 'garden of delights1' was bounded on this side and on that by good walls1 and because there was no light to guide us we could not distinguish between the way we had come and the way we ought to go1 hoping at every step for the end4 444 ,higher up the street we found a lava which on one side left a stony place where we could walk dry2 step by step we stumbled like drunk men--and not without danger of breaking a head or a leg4 ,to make a long story short at last the ,elysian fields appeared1 viz4 the broad1 ordinary street--and then from the houses we discovered we were about twenty steps from the place where we had set out to find the boatman1 and not far from the ,nolan's rooms6 ,the temptation to give up the expedition was overcome1 and after sundry adventures with apprentices1 servitors1 and bravos of the gentle class1 they arrived safely at ,fulke ,greville's1 where supper was already in progress4 ,sidenote3 ,hostility in ,england4 ,in the ,italian dialogues the personal note of complaint sounds more highly than in ,bruno's other works1 and we may imagine that ,bruno himself felt neglected in ,england more than in other countries1 while ,english hostility to his teaching was probably more contemptuous1 therefore more galling and more difficult to overcome4 ,he might repeat as he did1 the bold saying that to the true philosopher every country is fatherland1 or call himself with ,socrates a citizen of the world2 but a touch of despair sounds through the words3--a citizen and servant of the world1 son of ,father ,sol and ,mother ,earth2 because he loves the world too much1 he must be hated1 cursed1 persecuted1 and rejected by it4 ,meanwhile let him not be idle1 nor ill-occupied while awaiting death1 transmigration1 change4#ge ,elsewhere there is almost a savage stoicism2 he cries that he is attacked not by one but by many1 almost by all1 and the reason is that he hates the people1 cares not for the multitude1 adores one thing only3--,that through which he in subjection is free1 in pain content1 in necessity rich1 in death living1 and through which he envies not those who in freedom are slaves1 in pleasure pained1 in riches poor1 in life dead1 because in the body they have a chain that binds them1 in the spirit an inferno that depresses them1 in the soul error that weakens them1 and in the mind lethargy that slays1 etc4#gf ,yet the climate of ,england seems to have pleased ,bruno3 there more than in any other region the climate is temperate2 for the excessive rigour of the snows is driven out by the earth beneath1 and the superfluous fervour of the sun blesses it with a continuous1 a perpetual spring1 as is testified by the ever green and flowery land4#gg ,from the ,spaccio1 it appears that he was struck in ,england1 inter alia1 with the multitude of crows1 the richness of the sheep and the sleekness of the cattle1 the stern game-laws1 and the land-hunger of the people4#gh ,,ix ,sidenote3 ,return to ,france1 ,october #aehe4 ,when ,mauvissire was recalled1 ,bruno in all probability sailed with him4 ,it had been decided1 unjustly1 as ,mauvissire thought1 to recall him to ,france in #aehd2 but owing to his wife's health and perhaps his claims on the ,french treasury1 he secured a postponement till the following year1 on condition he should do his best for ,queen ,mary and her son with ,elizabeth1 but not mix himself up with any of the plots against ,elizabeth4 ,in ,october #b1 #aehe1 he was still in ,london1 for he wrote to his friend ,archibald ,douglas1 the ,scottish ,ambassador1 from ,london on that date2 the following letter1 however1 was from ,paris 7,nov4 #c1 #aehe7 and told a pathetic story4#gi ,on his way across 7,bruno with him1 we may suppose7 he had been robbed of all he had in ,england1 down to his shirt1 of the handsome presents given him by the ,queen1 and of his silver plate3 nothing was left1 either to him or to his wife and children1 so that they resembled those exiled ,irish who solicit alms in ,england1 with their children by their side4 ,he had lent money also to the ,queen of ,scots1 and was in great trouble concerning it1 for neither her officers nor her treasurer possessed a sou1 nor did they speak of repayment4 ,the unfortunate ambassador had fallen upon evil days3 he was accused of having spoken ill of his successor1 ,chateauneuf1 and had to write1 as the report went1 to ,elizabeth1 to unsay his insinuations4 ,in ,december #aehf1 he wrote to ,archibald ,douglas of his wife--the ,maria de ,bochetel1 whom ,bruno praises--having died in childbirth4 ,it would be interesting to know how ,bruno fared in the robbery of ,mauvissire's goods4 ,at least we may assume that he arrived in ,paris with very little worldly goods1 but with part of the manuscript of a great work on the ,universe 7the ,de ,immenso7 in his possession1 during the month of ,october #aehe4 ,x ,sidenote3 ,paris3 ,oct4 #aehe-;,june #aehf4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,the #abj ,theses4 ,in ,paris ,i spent another year in the house of gentlemen of my acquaintance1 but at my own expense the greater part of the time3 because of the tumults ,i left ,paris1 and went from there to ,germany4#hj ,so ,bruno told the tribunal at ,venice2 but the duration of his second visit to ,paris was from ,october #aehe to ,june #aehf4 ,one of his first steps was to make further efforts towards reconciliation with the ,church3 he presented himself for confession to a ,jesuit father1 while consulting with the ,bishop of ,bergamo 7the ,papal ,nuncio71 but they were unable to absolve him1 as he was an apostate4 ,what ,bruno wished was that he might be received into the ,church without being compelled to return again to the priesthood1 and he begged the ,nuncio to write to the ,pope ,sixtus ,v4 on his behalf4 ,the ,bishop1 however1 had no hope of the favour being granted1 and declined to write unless ,bruno agreed to return to his order4 ,to the same effect was the advice of the ,jesuit father ,alfonso ,spagnolo to whom he was referred2 to obtain absolution from the ,pope he must return to the order--to his bonds1 in other words2 and without absolution he could not enjoy the privileges either of mass or of the confessional4#ha ,this idea ,bruno could by no means entertain1 and therefore he resigned himself to his position as an alien to the ,catholic ,church4 ,he had no intention of remaining in ,paris1 where perhaps his ,italian writings had made him no longer acceptable1 but he desired not to leave it without some recognition of the favour shown him there in the past4 ,the means he adopted was a public disputation1 to be held in the ,royal ,hall of the university at ,pentecost of the year #aehf4 ,these disputations of the learned were a delight to the youth of the time1 and drew audiences comparable in our own time only to great football or cricket matches4#hb ,he drew up one hundred and twenty theses against the ,peripatetic ,philosophy1 which still formed the substance of the teaching at the ,sorbonne2 and his side was taken up by the rival1 more modern1 college of ,cambray 7afterwards the ,college of ,france71 of which he appears now to have become an associate4#hc ,it was the custom of the real propounder of the theses to preside at the debate1 leaving it to another to act as protagonist1 and intervening only when the latter's discomfiture was imminent4 ,in this case ,bruno chose a young ,parisian nobleman of his own following--,john ,hennequin1 a ,master of ,arts--but we may well imagine that he did not long keep silent himself4 ,we have no knowledge of how the debate went1 but it cannot have been too favourable to ,bruno1 for he left ,paris immediately afterwards4 ,its date was the #beth of ,may2 ,bruno1 therefore1 left ,paris probably in early ,june #aehf4 ,sidenote3 ,criticism of ,peripatetic ,theory4 ,the articles1 with a note of explanation attached to each1 and an introduction to the whole--7,excubitor1 the ,awakener7--being the address of ,hennequin at the beginning of the disputation1 but written by ,bruno himself--were published in ,paris and again at ,wittenberg4#hd ,they contain a temperate but powerful criticism of the ,aristotelians1 by the words of ,aristotle himself1 and of ,aristotle from the standpoint of ,bruno's own physical theory1 which he believed to be that of the ,pythagoreans and ,platonists4 ,the right to criticise the divine ,aristotle1 ,bruno claimed on the same grounds as those on which ,aristotle himself enjoyed the right of criticising his predecessors3 we are to him as he to them3 their truth1 which to him seemed error1 may be right to us again1 for opinion1 like other history1 moves in cycles4 ,and as to authority1 the mass of which was against ,bruno1 if we are really sick1 it helps us nought that public opinion thinks we are really making for health4#he ,it is a poor mind that will think with the multitude because it is a multitude3 truth is not altered by the opinions of the vulgar or the confirmation of the many--it is more blessed to be wise in truth in face of opinion than to be wise in opinion in face of truth4#hf ,the new philosophy gives wings to the mind1 to carry it far from the prison cell in which it has been detained by the old system1 and from which it could look out upon the orbs of the stars only through chinks and cracks3--to carry it out into infinite space1 to behold the innumerable worlds1 sisters of the earth1 like it in heart and in will1 living and life-producing2 and returning1 to see within itself--not without1 apart1 or far from us1 but in ourselves1 and everywhere one1 more intimate1 more in the heart of each of us1 than we are to ourselves#hg--the divine cause1 source1 and centre of things4 ,aristotle and the sources of the scholastic philosophy were occupying ,bruno's leisure almost exclusively at this time3 he had begun the great ,latin work1 the ,de ,immenso1 which was to see the light in ,frankfort2 and he published in this year a commentary on the physics of ,aristotle as well as an account of a mathematical and cosmometric invention of one ,fabrizio ,mordenti1 which seems to be of much less value than ,bruno supposed4#hh ,,xi ,sidenote3 #aehf4 ,sidenote3 ,mainz4 ,sidenote3 ,marburg4 ,sidenote3 ,july #be1 #aehf4 ,sidenote3 ,wittenberg4 ,sidenote3 ,aug4 #bj1 #aehf4 ,sidenote3 ,dedication of ,de ,lampade4 ,leaving ,france for ,germany1 the ,nolan made his first halt at ,mez1 or ,magonza1 which is an archiepiscopal city1 and the first elector of the ,empire2#hi it is certainly ,mayence4 ,there he remained some days2 but not finding either there or at ,vispure1 a place not far from there1 any means of livelihood such as he cared for1 he went on to ,wittenberg in ,saxony4 ,vispure has caused considerable exercise of ingenuity among ,bruno's biographers4 ,the best explanation seems to be that of ,brunnhofer1 that it represents ,wiesbaden1 which is not far from ,mayence1 and is still popularly known as ,wisbare or ,wisbore2 but there may also be a telescoping of the words ,wiesbaden and ,marburg4 ,bruno was certainly at the latter town1 but it is of course a long distance from ,mayence4 ,on the #ast of ,july #aehf1 ,petrus ,nigidius1 ,doctor of ,law and ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy1 was elected ,rector of the university at ,marburg4 ,in the roll of students matriculated under his rectorship stands as eighth name that of ,jordanus ,nolanus of ,naples1 ,doctor of ,roman ,theology1 with the date ,july #be1 #aehf1 and the following note by the rector3--,when the right of publicly teaching philosophy was denied him by me1 with the consent of the faculty of philosophy1 for weighty reasons1 he blazed out1 grossly insulting me in my own house1 protesting ,i was acting against the law of nations1 the custom of all the universities of ,germany1 and all the schools of humanity4 ,he refused then to become a member of the university1--his fee was readily returned1 and his name accordingly erased from the album of the university by me4 ,the name could still be read through the thick line drawn across it1 and some later rector1 when ,bruno had become more famous1 re-wrote the name above1 and cancelled the words with the consent of the faculty of philosophy in ,nigidius' note4#ij ,the weighty reasons for which ,bruno was driven from ,marburg may have been merely his description of himself as a ,doctor of ,roman ,theology at a ,protestant university2 or perhaps an attack upon ,ramus at a place where the ,ramian ,logic had many adherents2 or the ,copernican system taught by him1 which was as firmly opposed by ,protestants as by ,catholics4 ,in any case the ,knight-,errant of ,philosophy departed sorrowfully and came to ,wittenberg1 where he found1 for the third time1 a respite from his journeyings4 ,on the #bjth ,august #aehf he matriculated at the university1#ia and there remained for nearly two years4 ,then1 as now1 the ,protestant ,church in ,germany was divided into two parties1 the ,lutheran and the ,calvinist or ,reformed ,churches4 ,melanchthon's attempt to unite the two--he himself belonged to the latter--brought upon his head the formula of concord1 better known as the formula of discord1 because of the disputes it caused4 ,among other things it condemned the views of the ,calvinists on the person of ,christ1 their denial of his ,real ,presence in the bread and wine of the communion table1 and their doctrine of predestination4 ,when ,bruno arrived in ,wittenberg1 ,lutherans were still in power1 as they had been under the old ,duke ,augustus4 ,his son ,christian ,i41 however1 under the influence of ,john ,casimir1 his brother-in-law1 of the ,palatinate1 had gone over to the ,calvinist faction1 and was trying with the aid of the ,chancellor1 ,krell1 to supplant the reigning faith and authority4 ,at the university the philosophical faculty was1 in the main1 ,calvinist1 the theological ,lutheran2 and among the latter party was an ,italian ,alberico ,gentile1 the father of ,international ,law1 whom ,bruno had perhaps known in ,england as a professor at ,oxford4 ,through him ,bruno found favour with the ,lutheran party1 and received permission to lecture1 on the condition that he taught nothing that was subversive of their religion4 ,for two years1 accordingly1 he lectured on the ,organon of ,aristotle1 and other subjects of philosophy1 including the ,lullian art1 which he had for a time discarded4 ,the excellent terms on which he stood with his colleagues is shown by the dedication of a ,lullian work1 ,de ,lampade ,combinatoria1 to the senate of the university4 ,he speaks gratefully of their kind reception of himself1 the freedom of access and residence which was granted not only to students but to professors from all parts of ,europe4 ,in his own case a man of no name1 fame1 or authority among you1 escaped from the tumults of ,france1 supported by no princely commendation1 with no outward marks of distinction such as the public loves1 neither approved nor even questioned in the dogmas of your religion2 but as showing no hostility to man1 rather a peaceful and general philanthropy1 and my only title the profession of philosophy1 merely because ,i was a pupil in the temple of the ,muses1 you thought me worthy of the kindliest welcome1 enrolled me in the album of your academy1 and gave me a place in a body of men so noble and learned that ,i could not fail to see in you neither a private school nor an exclusive conventicle1 but as becomes the ,athens of ,germany1 a true university4 ,in this introduction a large number of the professors are invoked by name1 among them the enlightened ,grn1 a professor of philosophy1 who taught that theology cannot be detached from philosophy--that they are necessary complements one of the other4 ,sidenote3 ,works published4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,progressu1 #aehg4 ,in ,wittenberg was published 7#aehg71 the ,de ,lampade ,combinatoria ,lulliana1 the second of the commentaries on ,lully's art1 and representing perhaps the clavis magna of the ,de ,umbris and other ,parisian publications4 ,it was dedicated to the senatus of the ,university of ,wittenberg4 ,a reprint1 however1 appeared in ,prague in the following year with a new frontispiece1 a dedication to ,william of ,st4 ,clement1 and the addition of a small treatise4#ib ,the chief purpose of the work was to furnish the reader with means for the discovery of an indefinite number of propositions and middle terms for speaking and arguing4 ,it is also the sole key to the intelligence of all ,lullian works whatsoever1 ,bruno writes with his sublime confidence1 and no less to a great number of the mysteries of the ,pythagoreans and ,cabalists4 ,as in the earlier work1 so in this also1 the root ideas are that thought is a complex of elements1 which are to it as the letters of the alphabet are to a printed book2 but thought and reality or nature are not opposed to one another--they are essentially one4 ,the elements of thought when discovered will accordingly give us the constitutive elements of nature and the connections in1 and workings of1 nature will be understood from the different complications of these simple elements of thought4 ,in the same year appeared the ,de ,progressu et ,lampade ,venatori ,logicorum1 ,to enable one to dispute promptly and copiously on any subject proposed4 ,it was dedicated to the ,chancellor of the ,university of ,wittenberg1 and was mainly a commentary1 without special references1 on the ,topics of ,aristotle1 and doubtless formed part of the lectures on the ,organon1 given in ,bruno's first year at ,wittenberg4 ,the simile of the hunt--i4e4 the idea that the solution of a problem or the finding of a middle term is like a quarry that has to be stalked and hunted down--is a favourite one with ,bruno4 ,sidenote3 #aehh4 ,sidenote3 ,oratio ,valedictoria4 ,sidenote3 ,luther4 ,unfortunately for ,bruno1 the ,duke's party in ,wittenberg soon gained the upper hand--only for a time1 it is true#ic--;and the party to which ,bruno himself belonged fell out of power4 ,as a ,copernican1 ,bruno must in any case soon have fallen foul of the ,calvinists1 by whom the new theory had been declared a heresy4 ,he therefore left ,wittenberg in the beginning of #aehh1 after delivering on the #hth of ,march an eloquent farewell address to the university 7,oratio ,valedictoria74 ,by the fable of ,paris and the three ,goddesses1 he indicated his own choice of ,wisdom 7,minerva7 over riches or fame 7,juno71 and over worldly pleasure or the delights of society 7,venus73--,wisdom is communicated neither so readily nor so widely as riches or pleasure4 ,there are not and there never have been so many ,philosophers as ,emperors and ,princes2 nor to so many has it been granted to see ,minerva robed and armed1 as to see ,venus and ,juno even in naked simplicity4 ,to see her is to become blind1 to be wise through her is to be foolish4 ,they say ,tiresias saw ,minerva naked1 and was struck blind2 who that had looked upon her1 would not despise the sight of other things8--'man shall not see me and live4' 444 ,wisdom1 ,sophia1 ,minerva1 beautiful as the moon1 great as the sun1 terrible as the marshalled ranks of armies2 like the moon in her fair gracefulness1 like the sun in her lofty majesty1 like armies in her invincible courage4444 ,the first-born before all creatures1 sprung from the head of ,jove--for she is a breath from the virtue of ,god1 an emanation of omnipotent brightness1 sincere and pure1 clear and inviolate1 honourable1 powerful1 and kind beyond words1 well pleasing to ,god1 incomparable3--pure1 because nothing of defilement can touch her2 clear1 because she is the brightness of eternal light2 inviolate1 because she is the spotless mirror of the majesty of ,god2 honourable1 because the image of goodness itself2 powerful1 because being one she can do all things1 being permanent in herself1 she renews all things2 kind1 because she visits the nations that are sacred to her and makes men friends of ,god1 and prophets2 pleasing to ,god1 because ,god loves only him that dwells with wisdom2 incomparable1 for she is more beautiful than the sun and brighter than the light of all the stars4 ,her have ,i loved and sought from my youth1 and desired for my spouse1 and have become a lover of her form--and ,i prayed that she might be sent to abide with me1 and work with me1 that ,i might know what ,i lacked1 and what was acceptable to ,god3 for she knew and understood1 and would guide me soberly in my work and would keep me in her charge3 444 ,but wisdom in the highest sense1 in its essence as the thought of ,god1 is incommunicable1 incomprehensible1 apart from all things4 ,wisdom has three phases or aspects or 'mansions'--first1 the mind of ,god the eternal1 then the visible world itself which is the first-born1 and third1 the mind of man which is the second-born of the highest1 the true wisdom unattainable by man4 ,here among men wisdom has built herself a house of reason and of thought 7which comes after the world71 in which we see the shadow of the first1 the archetypal and ideal house 7which is before the world71 and the image of the second1 the sensible and natural house1 which is the world4 ,the seven columns of the house or temple are the seven ,arts--,grammar1 ,rhetoric 7with poetry71 ,logic1 ,mathematics1 ,physics1 ,ethics1 and ,metaphysics1 and the temple was built first among the ,egyptians and ,assyrians1 viz4 in the ,chaldeans1 then among the ,persians1 with the ,magi and ,zoroaster1 third the ,indians with their ,gymnosophists2 444 seventhly1 in our time1 among the ,germans4 ,so far has ,bruno come from taking the ,germans as mere beer-bibbers1 as he had written of them in ,england4#id ,since the empire 7of wisdom7 devolved upon you there have risen amongst you new arts and great minds1 the like of which no other nations can shew4 ,in the category of ,german temple-builders are ,albertus ,magnus1 ,nicolas of ,cusa1 ,copernicus1 ,palingenius1 ,paracelsus2 among humanists many1 apt imitators of the ,attic and ,ausonian muses1 and among them one greater than the rest who more than imitates1 rather rivals1 the ancient muses 7,erasmus74 ,it is not unnatural that1 in his own ,wittenberg1 ,luther should be praised1 as among the temple-builders or priests of truth3 but ,bruno's words have a ring of sincerity1 proving that his sympathy was really aroused for the ,lutherans4 ,when the world was infected by that strong man armed with key and sword1 fraud and force1 cunning and violence1 hypocrisy and ferocity1--at once fox and lion1 and vicar of the tyrant of hell1--infected with a superstitious worship and an ignorance more than brutal1 under the name of divine wisdom and of a ,god-pleasing simplicity2 and there was no one to oppose or withstand the voracious beast1 or dispose an unworthy and abandoned generation to better and happier state and condition1--what other part of ,europe or the world could have brought forth for us that ,alcides1 stronger than ,hercules himself1 in that he did greater things with less effort and with fewer instruments1--destroying a greater and far more deadly monster than ever any of the past centuries had to suffer8 ,here in ,wittenberg he dragged up that three-headed ,cerberus with its threefold tiara from its pit of darkness3 you saw it1 and it the sun4 ,here that dog of ,styx was compelled to vomit forth its poison4 ,here your ,hercules1 your country's ,hercules1 triumphed over the adamantine gates of hell1 over the city girt about with its threefold wall1 and defended by its nine windings of the ,styx4 ,to this temple ,bruno1 eager in his pursuit of the ever-eluding ,truth1 had come1--a foreigner1 an exile1 a fugitive1 the sport of fortune1 meagre in body1 slender of means1 destitute of favour1 pursued by the hatred of the multitude and the contempt of fools and the base1 and could on leaving say to its people that he had become an occasion1 or matter1 or subject in whom they unfolded and demonstrated to the world the beauty and wealth of their virtues of moderation1 urbanity1 and kindness of heart4 ,it was the last1 or nearly the last1 spell of happiness that life had in store for him4 ,,xii ,sidenote3 ,prague3 #aehh4 ,sidenote3 ,june #aj1 #aehh4 ,sidenote3 ,january #ac1 #aehi4 ,sidenote3 ,helmstadt4 ,the court of the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 was at ,prague1 in ,bohemia2 from there his fame as a ,maecenas of the learned1 and especially of those who claimed power to read the heavens or to work magic1 had spread to many countries4 ,perhaps ,sidney1 who had visited him from ,elizabeth on the death of ,maximilian1 may have spoken of him to ,bruno3 while two of ,bruno's friends1 the ,spanish ,ambassador ,st4 ,clement and the mathematician ,mordentius1 were at ,prague in #aehh4 ,thither1 accordingly1 he now turned in the hope of settled quarters1 introducing himself1 as was his frequent habit1 with a ,lullian work1 which he caused to be printed soon after his arrival1 and dedicated to the ,spanish ,ambassador4#ie ,the introductory letter is dated from ,prague1 ,june #aj1 #aehh1 and is in praise of ,lully1 whose importance to philosophy ,bruno values much more highly than his successors have done3 it promised at the same time a future work1 the ,lampas ,cabalistica1 in which the inner secrets of ,lullism were to be more fully revealed4 ,this1 so far as we know1 never appeared1 and ,bruno tried to obtain the ,emperor's patronage by a mathematical work dedicated to him1 of somewhat revolutionary type--,one hundred and sixty articles against the mathematicians and philosophers of the day4 ,the ,emperor1 however1 had few funds to spare for any but the professed astrologists and alchemists in whom lay his real interest--not at all scientific1 although ,tycho ,brah and ,kepler profited themselves and the world by it4 ,with three hundred dollars1 which the ,emperor gave in recognition of his powers1 ,bruno left about the close of the year1 and on ,january #ac1 #aehi1 matriculated in the ,julian university of ,brunswick at ,helmstadt4 ,this1 the youngest university in ,germany at the time1 of only twelve years' standing1 had been founded for the ,protestant cause by the reigning ,duke ,julius1 a breezy and popular prince1 who loved theologians little1 ,catholics not at all1 and founded a model university on liberal principles4 ,it was not1 however1 an unqualified success4 ,bruno received some recognition from the university1 or from the ,duke1 and when the latter died in ,may #aehi he obtained permission to give a funeral oration some days after the official programme had been carried through 7on the #ast of ,july7--the ,oratio ,consolatoria4#if ,bruno professes as his reason for wishing to speak that he must express his gratitude to one who had made the university he founded free to all lovers of the ,muses1 even to strangers such as ,bruno himself was3--an exile from his ,italian fatherland for honourable reasons and zeal for the truth1 here he had received the freedom of the university3 in ,italy he was exposed to the greedy maw of the ,roman wolf--here he was in safety3 there he had been chained to a superstitious and absurd cult--here he was exhorted to more reformed rites4 ,what is remarkable in this speech is the bitterness of ,bruno's personal attack upon ,rome1 and the violent tyranny of the ,tiberine beast4 ,the constellations are allegorically treated as symbols of the virtues of ,julius1 or of the vices which he attacked and repressed3 among them the head of the ,gorgon1 on which for hair there grow venomous snakes1 representing that monster of perverse ,papal tyranny1 which has tongues more numerous than the hairs of the head1 aiding and serving it1 each and all blasphemous against ,god1 nature1 and man1 infecting the world with the rankest poison of ignorance and vice4 ,it was indeed strange that ,bruno should have thought of entering ,italy after publishing words like these4 ,sidenote3 ,excommunication of ,bruno in ,helmstadt4 ,sidenote3 ,oct4 #f1 #aehi4 ,sidenote3 #aeij4 ,however1 he was not to find the ,protestants much more tolerant than the ,catholics4 ,in the university archives there is extant a letter from him to the prorector of the academy1 appealing against a public excommunication of himself by the first pastor and superintendent of the church at ,helmstadt1 ,boethius4 ,according to this letter1 ,boethius had made himself both judge and executioner1 without giving the ,italian a hearing at all3 and the letter appealed to the senate and rector against the public execution of an unjust sentence1 privately passed2 it demanded a hearing1 so that if any legal derogation were to be made from his rank and good name1 he might at least feel it to be justly made1 and demanded that ,boethius be summoned to show he had not fulminated his bolt out of private malice1 but in pursuance of the duty of a good pastor on behalf of his sheep4 ,the date of the letter is ,october #f1 #aehi4 ,no further records of the affair have been found1 so that the appeal was probably rejected4 ,the meaning of the excommunication is not quite clear3 ,bruno does not seem to have been a full member of either the reformed or the ,lutheran church1 although attending services2 and in all probability the sentence was a formal one1 which1 however1 carried serious social inconveniences with it4 ,the prorector1 ,hofmann1 was not one to sympathise either with ,bruno or with his philosophy2 he was unhappy unless attacking some other person's opinions3 philosophy in general fell under his condemnation1 although he professed knowledge of it4 ,a few years after he drove ,bruno from ,helmstadt he himself was dethroned from his place of authority1 ordered to stick to his last1 and had to leave ,helmstadt in the end 7#afja74 ,no doubt it is against him that the invectives in ,de ,immenso1#ig are directed3--,this scholarch1 excelling director of the school of ,minerva3 this ,rhadamanthus of boys1 without a shadow of an idea even of ordinary philosophy1 lauds to the skies the ,peripatetic1 and dares to criticise the thoughts of diviner men 7whose ashes are to be preferred to the souls of such as these74 ,later ,boethius also had to be suppressed by the consistory4#ih ,the young ,duke1 with whom no doubt ,bruno stood in favour1 since he presented him with eighty scudi after the funeral oration1 was of the opposite party to ,hofmann1 but even with this support the ,italian could not struggle against his enemies1 and towards the middle of #aeij he left for ,frankfort1 in order to get two books printed4 ,,xiii ,sidenote3 ,frankfort4 ,sidenote3 ,zrich1 #aeia4 ,these were the great ,latin works he had been writing1 perhaps begun in ,england itself2--the ,de ,minimo1 and the ,de ,immenso1 with the ,de ,monade as a part of or introduction to the latter4 ,the printing1 however1 was not begun till the following year3 the censor's permission was obtained for the first of them only in ,march #aeia1 and it appeared in the catalogue of the ,spring bookmarket4 ,he again sought and found patronage with an old friend of ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 one of the ,wechels1 famous printers of their day1 in the house of another of whom 7,andr7 ,sidney had lived4 ,in the protocol-book of the council of ,frankfort1 under the date ,july #b1 #aeij1 a petition of ,jordanus ,brunus of ,nola is mentioned1 in which he asks permission to stay in the house of the printer ,wechel4 ,this1 as the book of the ,burgomaster under the same date shows1 was roughly refused3--,soll man ime sein pitt abschlagen1 und sagen1 das er sein pfennig anderswo verzehre--his petition is to be refused and he is to be told go and spend his coin elsewhere4 ,in spite of this refusal1 ,wechel found ,bruno lodging in the ,carmelite ,monastery1 where he stayed1 working with his own hands at the printing of his books1 for some six months1--until ,december1 perhaps1 of that year4 ,frankfort was the main centre of the book world in those days2 to its half-yearly book-marts printers and sellers came from all parts of ,europe to see the new books of the world1 to dispose of their goods1 to stock their houses4 ,among others in this year came the booksellers ,ciotto and ,bertano1 who afterwards were witnesses before the ,inquisition1 and who stayed in the monastery probably in ,september of that year1 where they met ,bruno4 ,in the dedication of the ,de ,minimo1 of date ,february #ac1 #aeia1 ,bruno's publishers wrote that he had only the last folium of the work to correct1 when by an unforeseen chance he was hurried away1 and could not put the finishing hand upon it1 as he had done on the rest of the work3 he wrote accordingly asking us to supply in his name what by chance it had been denied him to complete4 ,the unforeseen chance may1 as ,sigwart suggests1 have been the final putting into effect of the ,council's refusal to allow him to stay in the town1 which may till then have remained a dead letter2 or it may have been the summons to ,zurich4 ,he had made the acquaintance of a young ,swiss squire1 ,hainzel1 an ,augsburger by birth1 at whose castle of ,elgg in ,switzerland a gay and open hospitality was extended to a number of the bizarre and the learned spirits of the time3 ,hainzel had leanings towards the ,black ,arts1--,alchemy and the rest1--but had interest to spare for any others about which an air of mystery clung1 such as ,bruno's ,art of ,memory and of ,knowledge4 ,bruno spent a few months with him near ,zrich and wrote for him the ,de imaginum compositione1 etc4--as a handbook of these arts4 ,another of the ,frankfort pupils would also be in ,zrich1 the brilliant but erratic ,raphael ,eglin1 who published in #afji at ,marburg 7where he was professor of theology71 a work ,bruno had dictated in ,zrich1--the ,summa ,terminorum ,metaphysicorum4 ,eglin suffered along with his friend ,hainzel from the trickery of the ,alchemists1 to whom recourse was had in the hope of repairing the fortunes dissipated by the ,squire of ,elgg's hospitality4#ii ,the ,summa is dedicated in a letter of ,april #aeie 7from ,zrich7 to ,frederic a ,salices1 and in a personal reminiscence ,eglin remarks on ,bruno's fluency of thought and speech--standing on one foot1 he would both think and dictate as fast as the pen could follow3 so rapid was his mind1 so forceful his spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,march1 #aeia4 ,in order perhaps to print the ,de ,imaginum ,compositione for ,hainzel1 or to complete the other works1 ,bruno returned to ,frankfort about the beginning of ,march1 #aeia1 and on the #agth of that month obtained permission to publish the ,de ,minimo4#ajj ,it is to this period probably that he referred when he spoke of himself before the ,venetian tribunal1 as having spent six months in ,frankfort 7,doc4 #i74 ,it was a second period of six months after his return from the ,zrich visit1 of which he omitted all mention--no doubt he had good reason for that4#aja ,at the autumn book-market his ,de ,monade1 ,de ,immenso1 and ,de ,imag4 ,compositione1 were ready#ajb--the last works that he published4 ,about the same time1 on an evil day for himself1 he responded to the invitation of a young ,venetian patrician1 and crossed over to his fatherland1--the last of his free journeyings4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,minimo4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,monade4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,immenso4 ,the ,frankfort works are fully dealt with in the chapters on ,bruno's philosophy that follow3 in their order they were 7#a7 the ,de triplici ,minimo et ,mensura3--,on the threefold minimum and measurement1 being the elements of three speculative and of many practical sciences3--dedicated to ,duke ,henry of ,brunswick4 ,it is the first of three ,latin poems1 written somewhat after the manner of ,lucretius1 but with prose notes to each chapter or section4 ,the style unfortunately seldom approaches that of ,lucretius1 either in ,latinity or in poetic imagery1 but the works are full of vigorous verse1 and the force of the ideas suffers little from the fact that they are pressed into the ,procrustean bed of rhyme and rhythm4 ,the others were 7#b7 the ,de ,monade1 ,numero et ,figura3--,on the ,monad1 number and figure1 being the elements of a more esoteric 7secret1 or perhaps inward7 ,physics1 ,mathematics1 and ,metaphysics2 and 7#c7 the ,de ,immenso et ,innumerabilibus3--,on the ,immeasurable and the ,innumerable1 or on the universe and the worlds4 ,both are dedicated to ,duke ,henry4 ,the three works together contain ,bruno's finished philosophy of ,god and of ,nature1 of the universe and of the worlds within it1 as well as a criticism of the prevailing and contrary doctrines of the time4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,imag4 ,comp4 ,in ,frankfort appeared also1 in #aeia1 7#d7 the ,de ,imaginum1 ,signorum1 et ,idearum ,compositione3--,on the composition or arrangement1 of ,images1 ,signs1 and ,ideas1 for all kinds of inventions1 dispositions1 and memory4 ,it is dedicated to ,hainzel1 and is the last of the works published by ,bruno himself4 ,it sums up all those published earlier on the theory of knowledge and on the art of memory4 ,it assumes an identity between the ,mind from which the universe sprang1 or which is expressed in the universe1 and the mind of each individual by whom it is known or approached4 ,it follows that the ideas in our own minds contain implicitly a knowledge of the inmost nature of reality4 ,here1 however1 it is chiefly the mnemonic corollaries of this thought that are developed--ideas are to be arranged or grouped about certain images or pictures1 in such a way that when any one occurs to the mind1 it may readily call up those others which are most closely associated with it1 i4e4 which belong to the same ,greek3 topos or place in the mind4 ,,xiv ,sidenote3 ,venice4 ,sidenote3 ,aug4 #aeia4 ,during the second part of his stay in ,frankfort1 ,bruno received an invitation from a young patrician of ,venice1 ,giovanni ,mocenigo1 to come to him there and instruct him in the arts for which ,bruno was famed4 ,to the surprise of all who knew the circumstances1 ,bruno accepted1 and re-entered1 in ,august1 the ,italy which he had left some fourteen years earlier as a refugee4 ,it was through the bookseller ,ciotto that the negotiations were carried on4 ,mocenigo appeared in his shop one day to buy a work of ,bruno which ,ciotto in his deposition called at first the ,heroici ,furori1 but this name was cancelled1 and ,de ,minimo magno et mensura written in its stead2 in all probability it was neither the ,furori nor any of the ,latin poems to which the second 7erroneous7 title might refer1 but one of the ,lullian works4 ,mocenigo asked at the same time whether ,ciotto knew ,bruno1 and where he was2 and on the reply that he was probably at ,frankfort 7they had found lodging in the same monastery there71 ,mocenigo expressed a wish that ,bruno would come to ,venice to teach him the secrets of ,memory1 and the others he professed1 as shown by the book that had just changed hands4 ,ciotto believed ,bruno would come if asked2 and accordingly1 after a few days1 ,mocenigo brought a letter for ,bruno1 which ,ciotto undertook to deliver1 and in which he was besought to come to ,venice4 ,the message must have been delivered in the autumn of #aeia1 and ,bruno seems to have replied by immediate acceptance4#ajc ,a previous letter1 however1 had been written1 probably before ,mocenigo spoke with ,ciotto1 and sent by another hand2 it may have been the receipt of it which brought ,bruno from ,zrich to ,frankfort1 to hasten the printing of his ,latin works4 ,in both letters there were evidently specious promises of protection4#ajd ,sidenote3 ,bruno's reasons for returning4 ,sidenote3 ,march #c1 #aeib4 ,the motives of ,mocenigo were more than questionable4 ,he was of the noblest blood of ,venice1 the ,doge's ,chair having been seven times filled by members of his family1 and among the patrician youth there was a fashionable craze for ,lullism and kindred much-promising arts at this time4#aje ,de ,valeriis1 another ,venetian noble1 wrote1 in #aehi1 an ,opus ,aureum1 which was published at ,strassburg along with other ,lullian works 7including ,bruno's7 in #afji4 ,again1 ,bruno believed in1 and probably taught1 a kind of natural magic1 the magic of sympathetic influence from stars1 animals1 plants1 and stones upon the life of man4 ,mocenigo1 as his conduct abundantly showed1 was shallow1 mean1 superstitious1 weak-minded1 and vain4 ,he was just the type of man to be attracted therefore by anything that savoured of the black art1 of which ,bruno was popularly regarded as a devotee4 ,his real aim may have been to be initiated by ,bruno into this1 although he professed the desire merely of having the ,lullian mnemonics and art of invention taught him4 ,his disappointment1 when he found ,bruno had nothing new to give him in that direction1 might account1 in a man of his character1 for the revenge he took4 ,but there may have been worse behind3 ,mocenigo had been one of the ,savii all' ,eresia--the assessors appointed by the ,state to the ,inquisition ,board in ,venice--and was therefore familiar with the intrigues of that body4 ,he was also under the influence of his ,father ,confessor1 by whose orders he denounced ,bruno4 ,the proceedings make it extremely probable1 therefore1 that the ,inquisition laid a trap for ,bruno1 into which he unsuspectingly walked4 ,it is more difficult to understand how the latter so calmly entered the lion's jaws4 ,acidalius 7,valens ,havekenthal71 writing to ,michael ,forgacz from ,bologna 7,january #ba1 #aeib71 expressed the general surprise4 ,tell me one thing more3 ,giordano ,bruno1 whom you knew at ,wittenberg1 the ,nolan1 is said to be living just now among you at ,padua4 ,is it really so8 ,what sort of man is this that he dares enter ,italy1 which he left an exile1 as he used himself to confess8 ,i wonder1 ,i wonder6 ,i cannot yet believe the rumour1 although ,i have it on good authority4 ,you shall tell me whether it is true or false4 ,but clearly ill rumours were spreading1 for on the third of ,march he wrote in a different tone1 ,i no longer wonder about that other sophist1 so diverse and incredible are the tales ,i hear daily of him here4#ajf ,probably ,bruno did not understand what manner of reputation he had2 he still regarded himself as belonging to the ,catholic ,church4 ,ciotto deposed he had heard nothing from ,bruno's lips which might suggest a doubt of his being a good ,catholic and ,christian4 ,venice was a free and powerful state1 ,mocenigo the son of a powerful house1 so that he may well have looked for safety2 and it was his beloved ,italy1 for which he had never ceased to yearn since the day he had crossed the ,alps4 ,to ,venice1 at any rate1 he came1 living for a time by himself1 and spending some three months also at ,padua1 the neighbouring university town1 where he gathered pupils about him1 and wrote as constantly as before4 ,some manuscripts that were bought in ,paris a few years ago1 and which had belonged to ,bruno1 were partly written in the hand of one of these pupils1 ,jerome ,besler1 whom ,bruno had known in ,helmstadt1 and who acted there as his copyist4 ,others of his ,german1 and possibly some ,english friends were met with at this renowned university4#ajg ,it was only a few months after he left that ,galilei was invited to teach in ,padua--the creator of modern science following in the steps of its prophet4#ajh ,the university was in a state of ferment at the time ,bruno arrived1 one of the hottest disputes being that between the students and certain professors1 who read or dictated instead of freely speaking their lectures--,doctores chartacei they were called--and a fine of twenty ducats was imposed by the senate on every one who should be found guilty of this crime4 ,bruno's memory-art may therefore1 as ,bartholmss suggests1 have supplied a felt want4 ,sidenote3 ,bruno in ,mocenigo's house4 ,early in #aeib ,bruno took a fatal step1 which showed how little he realised his danger--he gave up his personal freedom and went to live in ,mocenigo's house4 ,there the two opposite natures soon clashed1 and the young patrician began to show his real character4 ,the teaching did not satisfy him1 did not give him the power over nature and man which he no doubt expected4 ,he approached ,ciotto again before the spring book-market1 telling him how ,giordano was living in his house at his expense1 who promised to teach me much1 and has had clothes and money in plenty from me1 but ,i cannot bring him to a point1 and fear he may not be quite honest2 and asking him to make inquiries in ,frankfort as to ,bruno's character1 and the likelihood of his fulfilling his obligations4 ,ciotto returned with an unfavourable report3 ,bruno was known to make profession of a memory-art1 and of other similar secrets1 but had never been known to do any good with them1 and all who had gone to him for such things had remained unsatisfied2 moreover1 it was not understood in ,frankfort how he could stay in ,venice1 as he was held for a man of no religion4 ,to this ,mocenigo replied1 ,i too have my doubts of him1 but ,i will see how much ,i can get of what he promised me1 so as not to lose entirely what ,i have paid him1 and then ,i will give him up to the judgment of the ,holy ,office--the ,inquisition4 ,this estimable frame of mind no doubt asserted itself in the relations of pupil and master4 ,bruno had been introduced by ,ciotto to the house of ,andrea ,morosini1 an enlightened patrician1 whose open hospitality a number of the most cultured men of the time enjoyed2 they formed an ,academy after the manner of those of ,cosenza1 ,naples1 and other places4 ,several gentlemen meet there1 said ,morosini of these gatherings1 prelates among them1 for entertainment1 discoursing of literature1 and principally of philosophy2 thither ,bruno came several times1 and talked of various things1 as is the custom2 but there was never a sign that he held any opinions against the faith1 and so far as ,i 7,morosini7 am concerned1 ,i have always thought him a ,catholic1 and had ,i had the least suspicion of the contrary ,i should not have permitted him to enter my house4#aji ,the last statement must1 of course1 be taken cum grano4 ,at this time ,bruno was preparing a work on the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 and on ,seven other ,inventive ,arts1#aaj which he hoped to be able to present to the ,pope in order to obtain from him absolution1 and have the ban of excommunication removed1 without the compulsion of again entering the order4 ,many ,neapolitan fathers of the order came to ,venice to a meeting of ,chapter1 and to some of these ,bruno spoke--to a ,father ,domenico especially3--he wished to present himself at the feet of his ,holiness with some approved work1 and his ultimate design1 as he told ,domenico1 was to go to ,rome and live quietly a life of letters1 perhaps obtaining some lecturing in addition4#aaa ,among others he consulted ,mocenigo1 who promised to assist him so far as he could4 ,,xv ,sidenote3 ,may #bb4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,inquisition4 ,sidenote3 ,second ,denunciation4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,venetian tribunal4 ,meantime ,mocenigo was putting pressure on ,bruno to obtain the secrets he sought to know1 while ,bruno at last became aware of his danger4 ,he pretended he wished to go to ,frankfort to have some books printed1 and on a certain ,thursday in ,may he took leave of ,mocenigo4 ,the latter1 fearing his prey was about to escape1 began to cajole him into staying1 but passed to complaint and finally to threats as ,bruno persisted4 ,on the night of the following day 7,friday71 as ,bruno had already made preparations for leaving1 ,mocenigo came with his servitor ,bartolo and five or six men1 whom ,bruno recognised as gondoliers1 from the neighbouring stance1 seized the philosopher and locked him up in an attic-room4 ,mocenigo promised1 if he would stay and teach what was desired--viz4 the formul for memory and geometry6--to set him at liberty1 otherwise something unpleasant would befal him4 ,this novel method of drawing instruction being foiled by the self-respect of the prisoner1 the latter was left for the night1 transferred the following day to a cellar under the ground1 and during the night was handed over to the servants of the ,inquisition1 who brought him to their prison4 ,on the #bcrd of ,may1 ,mocenigo denounced him to the ,holy ,office1 with a hideous but cunning travesty of some of his opinions1 reporting him1 for example1 as saying that ,christ's miracles were only apparent1 that ,he and the apostles were magicians1 and that he himself 7,bruno7 could do as much or more if he had a mind2 that the ,catholic faith was full of blasphemies against ,god2 that the ,friars ought to be prevented from preaching1 and should be deprived of their revenues1 because the world was befouled by them--they were asses1 and the doctrines of the ,church asses' beliefs1 and so on4 ,the arrest was on the following night 7,sunday night71 and on the ,monday a second denunciation was entered by ,mocenigo1 than which there is no more pitiful self-revelation of meanness and hypocrisy extant4 ,he confesses or rather boasts that1 on locking up ,bruno1 he had recited the charges he would make against him1 hoping to coerce him into revealing his secrets1 i4e4 the ,secret ,arts4 ,bruno's only reply had been to ask for his liberty1 to say that he had not really intended to leave1 but was still ready to teach ,mocenigo everything he knew1 to work for him 7to be my slave1 said ,mocenigo71 without any further recognition1 and to give him anything that he had in the house2 only he asked to have returned him a copy of a book of conjurations that ,mocenigo had found among his written papers and had appropriated4 ,to explain his delay in accusing ,bruno1 ,mocenigo professed not to have been able to get enough against the latter until he had the philosopher in his own house two months earlier 7viz4 in ,march71 and then ,i wished to get the good of him1 and by the steps ,i took ,i was able to assure myself that he would not leave without telling me of it4 ,all the time ,i promised myself to bring the matter before the censorship of the ,holy ,office4 ,these denouncements were confirmed on oath by ,mocenigo1 whose age is given at thirty-four years1 so that the excuse of youth falls from him4 ,the following ,tuesday the ,holy ,tribunal met to consider the case4 ,it consisted1 in ,venice1 of the ,papal ,nuncio 7,ludovico ,taberna71 the ,patriarch of ,venice 7,lorenzo ,priuli71#aab the ,father ,inquisitor 7,john ,gabrielli of ,saluzzo1 de ,salutiis71#aac along with three assessors or representatives of the ,state 7,savii all' ,eresia71 one of whom was always present1 with the right of suspending the meeting if he thought proper3 at the present time the three were ,aloysius ,fuscari1 ,sebastian ,barbadico1 and ,tomaso ,morosini4 ,on this day the evidence of ,ciotto and ,bertano1 the booksellers who had known ,bruno at ,frankfort as well as at ,venice 7,bertano was also at ,zrich71 was taken2 it was in the main favourable1 only ,bertano recalled the prior of the ,carmelite monastery at ,frankfort having said of ,bruno that he spent most of his time in writing1 and went about dreaming dreams and meditating new things1 that he had a fine mind and knowledge of letters1 and was a universal man1 but that he had no religion so far as the prior knew1 and he quoted a saying of ,bruno's to the effect that the apostles did not know everything1 and that he had the mind1 if he wished1 to make all the world of one religion2 while ,ciotto reported the common belief in ,frankfort that ,bruno was a man of no religion4 ,sidenote3 ,first examination of ,bruno4 ,the prisoner himself was then brought forward--,a man of ordinary stature1 with chestnut-brown beard1 of the age and appearance of forty years2 ,ciotto1 too1 described him as a slender man of small stature1 with a small dark beard1 about forty years of age4 ,bruno of his own accord1 before a question was put1 professed his readiness to speak the truth2 he had several times had the threat made to him of being brought before the ,holy ,office 7viz4 by ,mocenigo71 but had always treated it as a jest1 because he was quite ready to give an account of himself4 ,this he proceeded to do4 ,the biographical part of his account has been embodied in the preceding pages4 ,sidenote3 ,third deposition of ,mocenigo4 ,on the #bith ,mocenigo made another deposition1 the result of further reflections1 at the request of the ,father ,inquisitor1 on the utterances of ,bruno against the ,catholic faith4 ,bruno had said that the ,catholics did not act on the model of the apostles1 who taught by example and good deeds1 converting through love1 not force2 that he preferred the ,catholic religion to others1 but it also stood in great need of reform2 that he hoped great things from the ,king of ,navarre2 that it was a mistake to allow the friars to remain so rich 7in ,venice73 they should do as in ,france1 where the nobles enjoyed the revenues of the monasteries1 the friars living on soup1 as befitted such asses4 ,this was a powerful stroke of diplomacy on ,mocenigo's part4 ,it was also hinted that ,bruno's life was not pure1 that he said the ,church erred in making a sin of what was of great service in nature1 and of what he 7,bruno7 regarded as a high merit4 ,sidenote3 ,the twofold truth4 ,sidenote3 ,fra ,domenico4 ,sidenote3 ,philosophical and theological truth4 ,sidenote3 ,bruno's creed4 ,next day 7,saturday7 ,bruno continued his account of his life1 the first note of defence being struck in an appeal to the famous doctrine of the twofold truth4 ,some of the works composed by me and printed ,i do not approve1 because ,i spoke and discoursed too much as a philosopher rather than as an 'honest'#aad man and good ,christian1 and in particular ,i know that in some of these works ,i taught and believed on philosophic grounds what ought to have been referred to the potency1 wisdom1 and goodness of ,god1 according to the ,christian faith1 basing my doctrine on sense and reason1 and not upon faith4 ,on ,tuesday1 ,june #b1 a deposition was read from ,fra ,domenico da ,nocera confirming ,bruno's appeal to him1 and his desire for the favour of the ,pope and a reconciliation with the ,church1 so that he might be able to live quietly in ,rome4 ,the prisoner was then cross-examined1 and submitted a list of his works1 published and unpublished4 ,in these he claimed to have spoken always philosophically1 and according to the light of nature1 having no special regard to what ought to be believed according to the faith3 his intention had been not to impugn religion1 but only to exalt philosophy1 although many impieties might have been uttered on the strength of his natural light4 ,directly he had taught nothing contrary to the ,christian ,catholic religion2 thus in ,paris he had been allowed to vindicate the articles against the ,peripatetics and others1 by natural principles1 without prejudice to the truth according to the light of the faith3 indirectly1 ,aristotle's and ,plato's works were as contrary1 indeed much more contrary1 to the faith than the articles philosophically propounded and defended by him4 ,he proceeded to give an admirable statement of his philosophical creed which might have fired the hearts of his judges3--,i believe in an infinite universe1 the effect of the infinite divine potency1 because it has seemed to me unworthy of the divine goodness and power to create a finite world1 when able to produce besides it another and others infinite3 so that ,i have declared that there are endless particular worlds similar to this of the ,earth2 with ,pythagoras ,i regard it as a star1 and similar to it are the moon1 the planets1 and other stars1 which are infinite1 and all these bodies are worlds1 and without number1 constituting the infinite all 7universit7 in an infinite space2 while the latter is called the infinite universe1 in which are innumerable worlds2 so that there are two kinds of infinity1 one in the magnitude of the universe1 the other in the multitude of worlds1 by which indirectly the truth according to the faith may be impugned4 ,in this universe ,i place a universal providence1 in virtue of which everything lives1 grows1 moves1 and comes to and abides in its perfection4 ,it is present in two fashions3 the one is that in which the spirit is present in the body1 wholly in the whole1 and wholly in any part of the whole1 and that ,i call nature1 the shadow1 the footprint of divinity2 the other is the ineffable way in which ,god by essence1 presence and power1 is in all and above all1 not as part1 not as spirit or life1 but in an inexplicable way4 ,then in the divinity1 ,i regard all attributes as being one and the same thing4 ,with theologians and the greatest philosophers ,i assume three attributes--power1 wisdom1 and goodness1 or mind1 understanding1 and love2 through these1 things have1 first1 existence by reason of mind2 then an ordered and distinct existence by reason of understanding2 third1 concord and symmetry by reason of love4 ,distinction in divinity is thus posited by way of reason1 not of substantial truth4 ,god in ,himself is one2 but three aspects of this unity may be distinguished1 ,mind 7,will or ,force or ,power71 ,understanding 7,knowledge1 the ,word71 and ,love or ,soul4 ,these three aspects correspond1 of course1 to the three ,persons of the ,godhead1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit respectively4 ,bruno confesses1 however1 to have doubted1 from the philosophic point of view1 the becoming flesh of the ,understanding or ,word of ,god1 although he did not remember giving definite expression to this doubt2 and as to the ,spirit1 he did not think of it as a person1 but rather as the soul or life in the universe4#aae ,from the ,spirit1 the life of the universe1 springs1 in my philosophy1 the life and soul of everything that has soul and life2 and ,i regard it as immortal1 as also bodies in substance are immortal1 death being nothing but division and congregation3 as the ,preacher says1 ',the thing that hath been it is that which shall be1 and that which is done is that which shall be done2 and there is no new thing under the sun4' ,sidenote3 ,aquinas4 ,bruno confessed to have doubted the application of the word persons to these distinctions within the ,godhead1 since his eighteenth year2 but he had read in ,st4 ,augustine that it was not an old term1 but new at that time4 ,to none of his doubts as to the distinction of persons or the ,incarnation had he ever knowingly given expression1 except in quoting others1 ,arius1 ,gabellius1 and the like4444 ,on the same day1 in his prison-house1 he was further examined1 and repeated that whatever he had written or said contrary to the ,catholic faith was not intended as direct impugnment of the faith1 but was based on philosophic grounds or on the authority of heretics2 he made clearer also his reason for doubting the applicability of the term persons to the distinctions in the ,godhead1 quoting ,augustine's words1 ,cum formidine proferimus hoc nomen personae1 quando loquimur de divinis1 et necessitate coacti utimur4 ,especially as to the divinity of ,christ he had been unable to understand how there could be any such relation between the infinite1 divine substance1 and the human1 finite1 as between any other two things1--soul and body1 for example1--which may subsist together as one reality1 but he had only hesitated as to the ineffable manner of the ,incarnation1 and not as to the authority of the ,holy ,scriptures which says ,the ,word was made flesh4 ,divinity could not be held1 theologically speaking1 to be along with humanity in any other fashion than by way of assistentia 7i4e4 temporary influence or presence71 but he did not infer anything from this contrary to the divinity of ,christ1 or of the supposed ,divine ,being that is called ,christ2 the miracles of ,christ he had always held to be divine1 true1 and real--not apparent miracles2 while the miracles of others were only in virtue of ,christ3 as to the sacrifice of the ,holy ,mass and the ,transubstantiation of the flesh and blood of ,christ he had always held with the ,church3 he had not attended ,mass because of his excommunication1 but had been to ,vespers and to preachings in the ,churches3 in his dealings with heretics1 he had always treated of matters philosophical1 and had never allowed anything to escape him that was contrary to the ,catholic ,doctrine1 and for that reason ,calvinists and ,lutherans had always thought of him as having no religion1 because he did not entangle himself with theirs1 and had been in many parts without having communicated1 or accepted the religion of any of them4 ,some of the grosser charges of ,mocenigo were read to him1 which he strenuously denied1--and as he spoke1 says the faithful record1 he grew exceedingly sorrowful1 marvelling that such things could be imputed to him4 ,more strenuous grew his assertion of his orthodoxy--as to the person of ,christ1 the ,virgin ,motherhood1 the ,sacrament of ,repentance2 he spoke of his repeated efforts to obtain absolution1 how for his sins he had always asked pardon of ,god1 and would also willingly have confessed himself had he been able1 because he had never doubted of this sacrament 7or of any of the others71 being firmly convinced that impenitent sinners were condemned and that hell was their portion4 ,heretic theologians1--,melanchthon1 ,luther1 ,calvin and others1--he condemned and despised1 and had read their books from curiosity merely1 although there were others1 as those of ,raymond ,lully1 which he had kept by him because they treated of matters philosophical4 ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas1 on the other hand1 he had always esteemed and loved as his own soul2 had his writings always by him1 read1 studied1 and pondered over them2 and had spoken of ,aquinas in one of his works as ,the ,honour and ,light of all the race of theologians1 and of ,peripatetics among philosophers4#aaf ,when he had spoken of good works as necessary for salvation1 he had in his mind not ,catholicism1 but the reformed religion1 which is in fact deformed in the extreme4 ,one by one ,mocenigo's charges were read1 and denied1 except that as to his contrasting the apostles' method of spreading the ,gospel with that of the ,catholic ,church1--this charge he evaded4 ,when the grossest of all1 however1 was read1 alleging him to have said the apparent miracles of ,christ and the apostles were due to the black art1 and that he himself could equally well do them all--he could not restrain himself2--raising both hands1 and crying1 ',what is this8 ,who has invented these devilries8 ,i never said such a thing1 it never entered my imagination2 oh ,god6 what is this8 ,i would rather be dead than that such a thing should have been uttered by me6' ,his references to women he admitted an error1 but they had been spoken in lightness amid company and during talk of things otiose and mundane4 ,threatened with extreme measures if he refused to confess his errors with respect to the ,church1 ,bruno promised to make a greater effort to recall all he had said and done against the ,christian and ,catholic faith1 protested the sincerity of all he said1 and was left in peace for a time4 ,this interview took place in the prison of the ,inquisition4 ,on the following day in the same place the examination was continued--his neglect of ,holy ,days and ,fastings in ,england and ,germany2 his attendance at heretic preachings 7although he emphatically denied that he ever partook of the communion in any ,protestant church72 his doubts concerning the ,incarnation1 the ,miracles1 the ,sacraments2 his familiarity with magical arts2 his praise of heretics and heretic ,princes1--these were some of the many points of indictment which he had to face4 ,the ,book of ,conjurations1 and others like it1 he professed to have had only out of curiosity1 although he despised and discredited sorcery2 but he had wished to study the divining art1 and especially the divinatory 7prophetic7 side of astrology1 merely out of scientific interest1 and therefore had such books by him4 ,heretics he had praised1 only for the moral virtues they had showed1 or from convention 7as in the case of ,queen ,elizabeth74 ,the course of his examination was making clear to ,bruno at last in how great danger he really stood2 and on this day he made1 probably in hope of immediate release1 a formal and solemn abjuration of all the errors he had ever committed pertaining to the ,catholic life and profession1 all the heresies he had believed and the doubts he had permitted himself to hold about the ,catholic ,faith or the decrees of the ,church2 and prayed that the ,holy ,tribunal would receive him into the bosom of the ,holy ,church1 provide him with remedies proper to his salvation1 and show mercy upon him4 ,sidenote3 ,july #cj4 ,the earlier processes against him at ,naples and at ,rome were1 however1 recalled to mind2 and on the following day he was again questioned as to his familiarity with the magic arts4 ,three weeks later ,morosini was examined and ,ciotto re-examined2 in both cases the evidence was wholly in ,bruno's favour4 ,then a long interval elapsed4 ,it was not till the #cjth of ,july that the case was again taken up4#aag ,bruno had nothing to add to his defence1 except his constant desire to enter the ,church1 if he could only do so without undergoing the bondage of monkhood again4 ,worn out by anxiety1 and possibly by torture1 he humbled himself before his judges3 kneeling1 he asked pardon of ,god and of his judges for all the errors he had committed1 and offered himself as prepared for any penance they might lay upon him4 ,he hoped his chastisement might exceed rather in gravity than in publicity1 whereby dishonour might be cast upon the sacred habit of the ,order which he had borne2 and if by the mercy of ,god and of their illustrious lordships1 his life should be granted him1 he promised to make amends for the scandal he had created by equally great edification4 ,,xvi ,sidenote3 ,dec4 #bb4 ,this closed the acts of the process so far as the ,venetian tribunal was concerned4 ,the ,sacred ,congregation of the ,supreme ,tribunal of the ,holy ,office1 at ,rome1 was eager to secure the distinguished heretic for itself1 and on the #abth of ,september the ,cardinal ,san ,severina wrote to this effect2 the ,venetian tribunal1 on the #agth1 gave orders that ,bruno be sent as soon as possible to the ,governor of ,ancona1 who would see to his further custody to ,rome4 ,on the #bhth this decision was reported to the ,doge and ,council of ,venice by the ,vicar of the ,patriarch 7the ,father ,inquisitor and ,thomas ,morosini being present71 with an account of the charges against ,bruno1 and he added1 that they did not wish to act without first informing the ,college 7the ,doge and ,senators71 so that they might give what order they thought fit1 and the tribunal would wait to know what reply should be made to ,rome2 but he begged for expedition1 since there was at that very time an opportunity of sending the prisoner in security2 to all which the ,senate promised to give due consideration4 ,on the same day the ,father ,inquisitor returned1 after dinner1 to learn the decision of the ,signors1 adding that there was a vessel at hand1 ready to set out4 ,the ,state was not so willing1 however1 to allow the ,church to have its way1 and it was replied that the matter being of moment1 and deserving consideration1 and the occupations of the ,state being many and weighty1 they could not at that time come to a decision1 and his ,reverence might for the present let the vessel sail4 ,on the #crd of ,october they wrote to their ambassador 7,donato7 at ,rome1 that the request had been refused1 on the ground that it meant an infringement of the rights of the ,venetian tribunal and a menace for the future to their subjects4 ,nearly three months elapsed before any further steps were taken4 ,on the #bbnd ,december the ,papal ,nuncio appeared before the ,college pressing them to deal with the ,friar ,giordano ,bruno1 described as a publicly known ,arch-heretic1 whom the ,pope desired to have at ,rome1 in order to bring to an end the process that was begun against him in the ,holy ,inquisition1 and their serenities were begged to permit his being carried to ,rome1 that justice might be done4 ,his ,holiness1 the ,pope1 had already1 in the interval1 impressed his desire upon the minds of the ambassadors at ,rome4 ,on the procurator1 ,donato1 who had meanwhile returned from ,rome1 pressing the unconstitutional nature of the act1 the ,nuncio pointed out that ,bruno was a ,neapolitan1 not a subject of the ,venetian ,republic at all2 that there were earlier unfinished processes against him both in ,naples and in ,rome2 and that in similar cases the accused had been sent to the chief tribunal at ,rome4 ,the ,senate agreed to consider the matter1 and expressed their desire to give every possible satisfaction to his ,holiness4 ,sidenote3 ,january #g1 #aeic4 ,on the #gth of ,january1 their procurator1 ,contarini1 reported on ,bruno to the ,college that his faults were extremely grave in respect of heresies1 although in other respects one of the most excellent and rarest natures1 and of exquisite learning and knowledge2 but1 since the case was begun at ,naples and ,rome1 was one of extraordinary gravity1 and ,bruno a stranger1 not a subject1 he thought it might be convenient to satisfy his ,holiness1 as had been done before at times in similar cases4 ,he also hinted that ,bruno himself1 on being informed that his case was to be brought to a speedy conclusion1 had said he would send a writing in which he was to ask to be remitted to ,rome1 but that this might have been intended merely to put off time4 ,his report he desired to have kept secret1 both for public and for private reasons4#aah ,it was successful in its aim1 for on the #gth of ,january it was decided that to gratify the ,pope1 the said ,giordano ,bruno be remitted to the ,tribunal of the ,inquisition at ,rome1 being consigned to ,monsignor the ,nuncio that he may be sent in what custody and by what means his ,reverend ,lordship thinks best2 that the ,nuncio be notified of this1 and that our ambassador at ,rome be also advised thereof to represent it to his ,holiness as a mark of the continued readiness of the ,republic to do what is pleasing to him4#aai ,the ambassador1 ,paruta1 was informed of the decision1 and asked to present it to the ,pope as proceeding1 in the words of the letter1 from our reverend and filial regard for his ,holiness1 with whom you should condole in our name on his indisposition2 and if on the arrival of these presents he is in good health1 as with the grace of ,god we hope1 you shall congratulate him thereupon4 ,his ,holiness1 on ,paruta's informing him of the decision1 was highly gratified1 and replied with courteous and kindly words1 saying how greatly he desired to remain always in harmony with the ,republic1 and how he hoped it might not give him bones that were very hard to gnaw1 in case others should cast up to him that he yielded overmuch to the affection he bore it4#abj ,clearly ,venice had no desire to quarrel with the ,papal ,government just at that time1 and the unfortunate ,bruno was made a political sacrifice4 ,the persistency of the ,pope's representative at ,venice in demanding ,bruno's transference to ,rome1 and the ,pope's evident relief when ,venice yielded1 show how important the death or complete recantation of ,bruno had come to be thought by the ,catholic party4 ,on the #bgth of ,february #aeic ,bruno entered the prison of the ,inquisition at ,rome4#aba ,,xvii ,bruno's behaviour before the ,venetian tribunal has been regarded as a signal blot upon his character4 ,in the course of his cross-examination he entirely changed his attitude1 which was at first one of defiant self-confidence1 open confession of his 7philosophic7 differences from the ,church1 and of indirect attacks upon the faith in his writings2 insistence upon his right to use the natural light of sense and reason1 so long as the doctrines of the ,church were accepted by way of faith4 ,later he passed from this attitude to one of anxious and angry denial of all charges of heterodoxy1 of trafficking with heretics1 and the like2 and finally to one of almost cringing submission and professed readiness to undergo any punishment for his misdeeds4 ,it is possible that he began by overrating the tolerance of the ,venetian ,republic4 ,in ,morosini's circle1 of which ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi was afterwards a member1 he had heard enlightened talk and free criticism of the ,church1 and especially of ,rome4 ,one of the reputed sayings of ,morosini1 we were born ,venetians before we became ,christians1 makes one hesitate to accept as quite honest his evidence before the tribunal4 ,but ,bruno's trial occurred at a time when tolerance had given way to diplomacy4 ,had ,bruno been a ,venetian or of another nationality the result would have been different4 ,they had adopted a policy of friendship towards the ,papal government1 and in consequence dealt during that period much more severely with heretical doctrine than with looseness of life4 ,bruno may have discovered this in the course of his trial1 and changed his position in order to save his life4 ,sigwart comes to the conclusion that it is impossible to believe in his entire genuineness and truthfulness2 it is clear that he was now trying to save himself and escape condemnation by submission4 ,numberless quotations might be made from his writings which give the lie to his denials before the tribunal1 and his wonderful memory could not have allowed them to slip from his mind4 ,however1 there is this to be said1 that ,bruno had never regarded himself as anything but a ,catholic2 that his criticisms of that ,church were suggestions of reform from within rather than attacks from without2 that he had always retained an instinctive dislike both of ,calvinism and of ,lutheranism1 in spite of his exaggerated but conventional praises of ,luther at ,wittenberg2 that he had never formally compared his philosophy with his traditional faith1 but rather laid that faith aside and worked as a philosopher merely3 hence his reputation in ,germany as a man of no religion4 ,when he first became aware that he was in danger of losing life or at least liberty1 and his dream of a quiet retirement with freedom of work in ,italy began to fade1 he must have lost his centre of judgment1 and had difficulty in estimating his own past doings and sayings from the new standpoint4 ,it would be unjust to say there was the smallest element of hypocrisy in his submission1 or of deceit in his denial of guilt4 ,and in any case1 whatever errors he committed before the ,venetian tribunal were amply amended by his behaviour before the ,roman4#abb ,one thing is certain3 he never either then or afterwards recanted or in any sense withdrew a single proposition belonging to his philosophical creed4 ,to ,rome there went with him1 in all probability1 copies of the denunciations and evidence given at ,venice1 the works which ,mocenigo had marked1 and lists of all his works1 including that given by himself1 which would be valuable could it now be found4 ,from ,january #af1 #aeic to ,january #ad1 #aeii there is absolute silence concerning ,bruno1 so far as discovered documents go4 ,in #ahdi an opportunity was obtained of studying the archives of the ,vatican1 but the student did not pass beyond ,november #aeih 7beginning from ,february #afjj71 before the opportunity was over4#abc ,the earliest of these records of ,bruno is1 as stated above1 of ,january #ad1 #aeii4 ,to the congregation 7of the ,holy ,office7 there were read eight heretical propositions1 taken from the works of ,fra ,giordano ,bruno of ,nola1 apostate of the order of ,preaching ,friars1 imprisoned in the prison of the ,holy ,office1 and from the process against him1 by the ,reverend ,fathers ,commissario and ,bellarmino4 ,it was decided that selected propositions be read to him1 in order to determine whether he was willing to abjure them as heretical4 ,other heretical propositions are to be looked for in the process and in the books4 ,what had happened all these years8 ,why was ,bruno's life spared so long8 ,this unusual clemency on the part of the ,inquisition points to a great difference in their estimate of ,bruno's importance from their view of that of other heretics4 ,in a list of twenty-one prisoners of the ,inquisition made on the #eth of ,april #aeii1 only one besides ,bruno had been for more than a year in their hands2 the duration of imprisonment for the others could be counted by months or days4 ,as a general rule they were not slow in striking4 ,among the reasons that have been suggested is the time required to go over the four processes which had already been drawn up against ,bruno1 if the documents were extant1 and to obtain and read his books and manuscripts4 ,this may be dismissed at once2 ,bruno's books could not be scarce then1 although they became so later1 and it could not require six years to find enough material to condemn him if that were desired4 ,another suggestion is that ,bruno was a ,dominican1 and the whole order was concerned in procuring his recantation1 rather than have the scandal which his death in apostasy would cause4 ,the historians of the order afterwards denied that ,bruno1 if really put to death1 had been one of their order--,had he been one of us he would have remained with us et convictu et sensibus4#abd ,more probable is the idea that ,pope ,clement had some favour for ,bruno1 who had intended to dedicate a book to him1 and whose skilful pen and biting tongue he hoped to win over to the side of the ,church4 ,the book on the ,seven ,liberal ,arts may have been actually completed1 and may have presented a modus vivendi between religious authority and philosophic freedom1 as ,brunnhofer suggests4 ,if the hope of winning him over was really held1 it is not likely that they refrained in his case1 any more than in ,campanella's1 from the use of torture4 ,bellarmino1 a ,jesuit1 to whom along with ,commissario the study of ,bruno's works and of the processes had been entrusted1 was one of the most learned prelates of the day1 a keen and ready controversialist1 in spite of his reputed love of peace1 and a skilful writer of many apologetic and polemical works4 ,beneath the surface of enlightenment there lay hidden a nature of intense bigotry3 it was he who decided that ,copernicanism was a heresy2 he played a part later in the process against ,galilei1 and in the attack upon ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi2 through his agency the ,platonist ,patrizzi was induced to retract his heresies1 and his works were placed along with those of ,telesius1 the apostle of ,naturalism1 upon the index4 ,sidenote3 ,february #d1 #aeii4 ,on the #dth of ,february the congregation again considered ,bruno's case1 he having in the interval made some protest against the eight propositions selected4 ,his ,holiness decreed that it should be intimated to him by the ,reverend ,fathers ,bellarmino and ,commissario1 that the propositions are heretical1 and not only now or lately declared heretical1 but according to the most ancient ,fathers of the ,church and the ,apostolic ,see4 ,if he shall admit them as such1 it is well1 but if not1 a term of forty days shall be set him4 ,what were the eight propositions8 ,it is of course almost impossible to say1 but probably ,tocco#abe is right in suggesting that they were neither any of those already withdrawn in ,venice 7as held philosophically1 but not theologically71 nor any of the charges of ,mocenigo which ,bruno had so vigorously denied1 but actual admissions common to his works and to the confessions he had made at ,venice--for example1 propositions as to 7#a7 the distinction of persons in ,god2 7#b7 the ,incarnation of the ,word2 7#c7 the nature of the ,holy ,spirit2 7#d7 the ,divinity of ,christ2 7#e1 #f1 and #g7 the necessity1 eternity1 and infinity of ,nature2 7#h7 the ,transmigration of ,souls4 ,it must have been in the last four of these1 or some similar propositions1 that ,bruno stood fast by his new faith4 ,,xviii ,sidenote3 ,december #ba1 #aeii4 ,he was granted more than forty days1 however1 or the period was renewed1 for it was not until the #bast of ,december of that year that the patience or perseverance of the ,inquisition began to be exhausted4 ,on that date--the next on which there is any record of ,bruno--the congregation again reopened the case4 ,in a rough copy of the report which has been found ,bruno is quoted as saying1 that he neither ought nor will recant1 that he has nothing to recant1 no matter for recantation1 does not know what he ought to recant4 ,in the fair copy the names of the members of the tribunal are given4 ,at their head was ,cardinal ,madruzzi1 and among them were the fanatical ,san ,severin1 embittered by his failure to secure the ,papacy 7he had gone so far as to choose his name--,clement--when his rival was elected in #aeib1 and became ,clement ,,viii471 the man who figures in history as having declared ,st4 ,bartholomew's a glorious day1 a day of joy for ,catholics2 the ascetic ,sfondrati2 the intolerant ,borghese1 afterwards ,pope ,paul ,v42 and the learned ,bellarmino4 ,after hearing ,bruno on his defence1 it was decided among them that ,hippolyte ,maria1 general of the ,dominican order1 and ,paul of ,mirandula1 their vicar1 should deal with ,bruno1 show him what had to be abjured1 that he might confess his errors1 amend his ways1 and agree to abjure2 and should try to bring him to the point as soon as possible4 ,bruno1 however1 as they reported1 stood firm1 denying that he had made any heretical statements1 and insisting that he had been misunderstood by the ministers of the ,holy ,office1 and by his ,holiness2 and at the same meeting 7#bjth of ,january #afjj7 a memorial from ,bruno to the ,pope1 who was present1 having been opened but not read1 it was decreed that further measures be proceeded to1 servatis servandis1 that sentence be passed1 and that the said ,friar ,giordano be handed over to the secular authority4 ,on the #hth of ,february this decision was carried into effect1 and he was placed in the hands of the ,governor of ,rome1 with the usual recommendation that he be punished with as great clemency as possible1 and without effusion of blood--the formula for burning at the stake4 ,a witness of the passing of the sentence was ,gaspar ,schopp1 a youthful but none the less fanatical convert from the reformed religion to ,catholicism4 ,it was a year of jubilee in ,rome4 ,pope ,clement was possessed of great diplomatic gifts1 he had gained the submission of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 had united ,france again with ,spain1 and detached it from ,england1 and had quieted or lulled numerous disputes within the ,church itself4 ,rome was therefore crowded with visitors1 more so than usual even in a year of jubilee4 ,of the distinguished foreigners paying their homage to ,clement1 ,gaspar ,schopp was one2 facile of tongue as of pen1 he quickly gained the ,pope's favour1 was made a knight of ,st4 ,peter1 and a count of the ,sacred ,palace4 ,this adept at coat-turning sent from ,rome a letter to ,conrad ,rittershausen1 which was for long the sole authority for ,bruno's death1 but was held by ,catholic writers on ,bruno to be a forgery4 ,in the face of the solid arguments and evidence forthcoming1 ,catholic reviewers even at the present day deny that ,bruno was put to death4 ,it is quite needless at this date to enter into the question of the authenticity of the letter1 its assertion of ,bruno's punishment being the sole ground on which that was ever doubted4#abf ,we learn from it that ,bruno was publicly reported in ,rome to have been burned as a ,lutheran2 and one of the aims of ,schopp in writing--which he did on the very day of ,bruno's death--was to prove the falsity of this report4 ,he had heard the sentence pronounced1 and its damnatory clauses he gives as the following3--7#a7 ,bruno's early doubts concerning and ultimate denial of the ,transubstantiation1 and of the virgin conception2 7#b7 the publication in ,london of the ,bestia ,trionfanti1 which was held to mean the ,pope2 7#c7 the horrible absurdities taught in his ,latin writings1 such as the infinite number of worlds1 the transmigration of souls1 the lawfulness and utility of magic1 the ,holy ,spirit described as merely the soul of the world1 the eternity of the world1 ,moses spoken of as an ,egyptian working his miracles by magic--in which he excelled other ,egyptians--and as having invented the decalogue1 the ,holy ,scriptures a fable1 the salvation of the devil1 the ,hebrews alone descended from ,adam and ,eve1 other peoples from the men created the previous day2 ,christ not ,god1 but an illustrious magician1 who deceived men1 and on that account was properly hanged 7impiccato7 and not crucified2 the prophets and apostles corrupt men1 magicians1 who were for the most part hanged4 ,in fine1 ,i should never have done were ,i to pass in review all the monstrosities he has advanced1 whether in his books or by word of mouth4 ,in one word1 there is not an error of the pagan philosophers or of our heretics1 ancient or modern1 that he did not sustain4 ,the delay at ,rome1 it is suggested1 was due to ,bruno's constant promises to retract1 but he was only putting off his judges1 and the duration of his imprisonment is given 7officially87 at about two years4 ,it is clear that on the occasion of the sentence being read the denouncements of ,mocenigo1 as well as all later evidences dragged from ,bruno's own lips1 or picked up from his books1 were recited for the benefit1 presumably1 of the visitors present4 ,when the sentence was pronounced ,bruno was degraded1 excommunicated1 and handed over to the secular magistrates1 as we have seen4 ,the whole letter is redeemed by the reply of ,bruno to his judges--,greater perhaps is your fear in pronouncing my sentence than mine in hearing it4 ,these strong words are almost the last we have of ,bruno4 ,at the stake he turned his eyes angrily away from the crucifix held before him4 ,and so1 adds ,schopp1 he was burned and perished miserably1 and is gone to tell1 ,i suppose1 in those other worlds of his fancy1 how the blasphemous and impious are dealt with by the ,romans6 ,it is pleasant to know that when ,lord ,digby was ,english ambassador to ,spain he caused ,gaspard ,schopp to be horse-whipped4#abg ,for the degradation of ,bruno1 as we learn from the ,register of the ,depository-,general of the ,pontificate1 two scudi of gold were paid to the ,bishop of ,sidonia4 ,the memorable words he uttered at the time were reported by another than ,schopp1 the ,count of ,ventimiglia1 who was a pupil of ,bruno1 and present at his death 7perhaps at the sentence also7--,you who sentence me are in greater fear than ,i who am condemned2 and before his death ,bruno recommended ,ventimiglia to follow in his glorious footsteps1 to avoid prejudices and errors4#abh ,in the ,avvisi and ,ritorni of ,rome1 which represented1 however meagrely1 the newspapers of the time1 two references to ,bruno appeared1 with short garbled accounts of him4 ,in one he was spoken of as a ,friar of ,s4 ,dominic1 of ,nola1 burnt alive in the ,campo di ,fiori1 an obstinate heretic1 with his tongue tied1 owing to the brutish words he uttered1 refusing to listen to the comforters or others3 in another he was reported as saying that he died a martyr1 and willingly1 and that his soul would ascend with the smoke to ,paradise1 but now he knows whether he spoke the truth6 ,the fullest account1 however1 of his death1 and one which should put to rest all doubts on the subject1 is in the reports of the ,company of ,st4 ,john the ,beheaded4 ,this company--called also the ,company of ,mercy or ,pity 7della misericordia7--was instituted for the purpose of accompanying condemned heretics to the place of death1 encouraging them to repent1 to die with contrition for their sins4 ,the priests bore tablets painted with images1 which were presented to the condemned to kiss1 from time to time1 till the faggots were lit4 ,even the executioner was called to their aid occasionally1 and the cruellest methods adopted to produce at least the appearance of kissing1 and so of repentance4 ,in obstinate cases1 on the other hand1 the tongue was tied1 so that the heretic could not speak to the people4 ,when the sufferers repented before death the ,company took note of their last wishes1 and they were buried in the tombs of the ,cloister donated for that purpose by ,innocent ,,viii41 but if they were impenitent no will was allowed1 and the ashes were abandoned to the winds of heaven4 ,this must have happened in ,bruno's case1 for there is no mention of will or of burial in the report4 ,its date is ,thursday1 #afth ,february 7an error for #agth71 and it reads thus3#abi--;,at the second hour of the night it was intimated to the ,company that an impenitent was to be executed in the morning2 so at the sixth hour the comforters and the chaplain met at ,st4 ,ursula1 and went to the prison of the ,tower of ,nona4 ,after the customary prayers in the chapel there was consigned to them the under-mentioned condemned to death1 viz4 ,giordano1 son of the late ,giovanni ,bruno1 an ,apostate ,friar of ,nola in the ,kingdom1 an impenitent heretic4 ,with all charity our brethren exhorted him to repent1 and there were called two ,fathers of ,st4 ,dominic1 two of the ,society of ,jesus1 two of the new ,church1 and one of ,st4 ,jerome1 who1 with all affection and much learning1 showed him his error1 but he remained to the end in his accursed obstinacy1 his brain and intellect seething with a thousand errors and vanities4 ,so1 persevering in his obstinacy1 he was led by the servants of justice to the ,campo dei ,fiori1 there stripped1 bound to a stake1 and burnt alive1 attended always by our ,company chanting the litanies1 the comforters exhorting him up to the last point to abandon his obstinacy1 but in it finally he ended his miserable1 unhappy life4 ,so ,bruno passed away2 his ashes were scattered1 his name almost forgotten4 ,his death was the merest incident amid the great doings of the year of ,jubilee4 ,none of the many bishops and cardinals and distinguished visitors in ,rome1 with the single exception of ,gaspard ,schopp1 makes any mention of the occurrence or of the man2 and ,schopp did so only because he wished to point a moral from the case4 ,during his seven years' imprisonment1 ,bruno had almost passed out of the short-lived memory of his fellowmen4 ,burnings of heretics were not infrequent spectacles1 and required no special notice4 ,three years later 7,august #g1 #afjc7 all his works were placed upon the ,index1 and consequently became rare4 ,they were classed with other dangerous works on the black arts1 and ,bruno's name became one to avoid4 ,this was the death which in happier days he had foreseen for himself should he ever enter ,italy3--,torches1 fifty or a hundred1 will not fail him1 even though the march be at mid-day1 should it be his fate to die in ,roman ,catholic country4 ,what were the real grounds on which his condemnation and sentence were founded8 ,the alleged grounds we have already seen1 but they cannot have formed the actual motive of the ,pope and the ,inquisition4 ,neither at ,venice nor in ,rome can much weight have been laid upon the evidence of the weakling ,mocenigo4 ,the ,cardinals cannot have imagined that ,bruno would ever open his heart or even speak freely to so shallow a nature so utterly different in all things from himself4 ,the mere fact of his having left his order was not enough1 nor his refusal to return to it1 nor were his heretical opinions--defended as they might be1 and as ,aristotle's own teaching had to be defended in the ,church1 by the subterfuge of the twofold truth4 ,had his chief fault been1 as some have thought1 his praises of ,elizabeth1 ,henry ,,iii41 ,henry of ,navarre1 ,luther1 ,duke ,julius1 and other enemies1 real or supposed1 of the ,church1 he would not so long have occupied the prisons of the ,inquisition4 ,probably his earliest biographer1 ,bartholmss1 was right in suggesting that ,bruno was regarded as a heresiarch--he is several times so described in the documents--the founder of a new sect1 the leader of an incipient but dangerous crusade against the ,church4 ,it was as the apostle of a new religion1 founded on a new intuition1 a new conception of the universe1 and of its relation to ,god1 that ,bruno died4 ,had he been won over to the side of the ,church1 his mind conquered and his spirit crushed by the long years of waiting1 and possibly the days and nights of physical torture1 it would have been a signal triumph for the papacy4 ,but the heart which had trembled at the beginning1 when the sudden gulf yawned before it1 grew more and more steadfast as its trials increased4 ,we can only re-echo ,carrire's words1 that in the soul of such a man1 who after eight years' confinement in the prisons of the ,inquisition remained so firm1 the governing motives must have been an eternal and inviolable impulse towards ,truth1 an unbending sense of right1 an irrepressible and free enthusiasm4 ,that for which he died was not any special cult or any special interpretation of ,scripture or history1 but a broad freedom of thought with the right of free interpretation of history and of nature1 which in his own case was founded upon a philosophy1 one of the noblest that has been thought out by man4 ,the fear of death was no part of this philosophy2 what we call death1 it teaches1 is a mere change of state1 of accidents--no real substance1 such as the human spirit is1 can ever die4 ,one of the highest values of his philosophy he thought to be this1 that it freed man from the fear of death1 which is worse than death itself4 ,strikingly apposite to his own fate is a passage from ,ovid#acj that he quotes-- ,o' genus attonitum gelidae formidine mortis1 ,quid ,styga1 quid tenebras1 et nomina vana timetis1 ,materiam vatum1 falsique pericula mundi8 ,corpora sive rogus flamma1 seu tabe vetustas ,abstulerit1 mala posse pati non ulla putetis2 ,morte carent animae domibus habitantque receptae4 ,bruno himself lived within the sphere of which he writes in the ,spaccio1 surrounded by the impregnable wall of true philosophic contemplation1 where the peacefulness of life stands fortified and on high1 where truth is open1 where the necessity of the ,eternity of all substantial things is clear1 where nought is to be feared but to be deprived of human perfection and justice4 ,his finest epitaph is to be found in his own words1 ,i have fought3 that is much--victory is in the hands of fate4 ,be that as it may with me1 this at least future ages will not deny of me1 be the victor who may1--that ,i did not fear to die1 yielded to none of my fellows in constancy1 and preferred a spirited death to a cowardly life4 ,no end in history is more tragic1 when looked at in all its circumstances1 than that of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,first a life of endless1 unresting struggle1 striving through years of wandering1 in many lands1 to overcome prejudice and outworn authority1 to proclaim and urge on unwilling minds the splendid gospel which inspired himself1 and by which for a brief time he may have thought to supplant the old2 now admired of kings1 and sought after by the highest in the land1 at another time a hunted pedlar of literary wares2 then eight years in darkness from the world1 with shame or death to choose for release4 ,the choice made for the nobler end1 the mockeries of religion he had detested and reviled pursued him to the end to--the very stake2 and the funeral pyre of this martyr for liberty of thought1 for the new light of science1 became a spectacle for the gay and thoughtless sight-seers of the ,roman ,jubilee year1 to all of whom1 one sad disciple excepted1 it was but another damnable and obstinate heretic who was on this earth1 for that brief spell1 foretasting his eternal doom4 ,,xix ,it is not easy to characterise so complex a personality as ,bruno undoubtedly was4 ,the fiery passionate blood of the south ran in his veins1 the joy of a strong-flowing life was in his heart and brain4 ,a child of ,nature1 he was almost from the first1 cribbed1 cabined1 and confined by the stone walls of the cloister1 as his mind was hampered by the laws and dogmas of the ,church4#aca ,from ,nature herself he drew his first lessons4 ,while his fellows taught that ,nature was a thing of evil1 he learnt to love her1 and to turn to her rather than to the authority of man for instruction4 ,he believed also1 as very few of his age did1 in the power of human thought to penetrate the secret nature of things1 to reach even to the deepest and highest reality1 so far as that can be known by another than itself4 ,trusting to his own mind1 to sense and reason1 for his theory of the world1 he found himself opposed in all essentials to the general thought of the time4 ,his purpose from the first was to use his own eyes1 to discover truth for himself1 and to hold fast whatever seemed to be right1 irrespective of the opinions of others4 ,from the beginning ,i was convinced of the vanity of the cry which summons us to close or lower the eyes that were given to us open and upward-looking4 ,seeing ,i do not pretend not to see1 nor fear to profess it openly2 and as there is continual war between light and darkness1 knowledge and ignorance1 everywhere have ,i met with hatred1 abuse1 clamour1 insult 7ay1 not without risk to my life7 from the brute and stupid multitude2 but guided by the hand of truth and the divine light1 ,i have overcome it4 ,not that he really formed his theory by induction from sense-data1 or by deductive reasoning2 it was rather an inspiration1 or an intuition1 springing from his temperament1 to which optimism was as necessary as pessimism repellent2 and there were numerous suggestions of it both in ,bruno's immediate predecessors1 ,copernicus and the rest1 and in earlier thinkers4 ,bruno himself found it1 as he thought1 in the more ancient pre-,aristotelian philosophies4 ,but1 however obtained1 this philosophy satisfied even his boundless enthusiasm1 and it became the chief motive of his life to convince others of its truth1 inspire them with the same enthusiasm1 and endow them with the joyous freedom of life of which it seemed to him to be the source4 ,his philosophy1 in other words1 became his religion1 his inward religion1--,catholicism remaining a mere habit1 a set of formulae to which he was indifferent1 to most of which he was willing to subscribe because he had not questioned them4 ,sidenote3 ,authority4 ,his perfect self-confidence1 and belief in the power of human reason 7especially his own reason7 to penetrate the mysteries of things1 was accompanied by contempt for the argument from authority in philosophy1 contempt for humility1 submission1 obedience in the speculative life4 ,to believe with the many because they were many was the mark of a slave4 ,bruno1 before ,bacon1 before ,descartes1 insisted on the need of first of all clearing the mind from all prejudices1 all traditional beliefs that rested on authority alone1 before attempting the pursuit of truth4 ,they were impediments--burdens that delayed or prevented the attainment of the goal4 ,the whole of the ,cabala is a satire on the quietistic attitude1 the standpoint of ignorant and ignoring faith1 which regards sense and reason as alike misleading and unnecessary guides1 for which science and philosophy are mere troublings of the still waters of life4 ,oh1 holy asinity6 one of the sonnets begins1 oh1 holy ignorance1 holy folly and pious devotion1 which alone makest souls so good that human wit and zeal can no further go2 strenuous watchfulness1 in whatsoever art1 or invention1 or contemplation of the wise1 arrives not to the heaven wherein thou buildest thy mansion4 ,of what avail is your study1 ye curious ones1 your desire to know how nature works1 whether the stars are earth1 or fire or sea8 ,holy asinity for that cares not1 but with folded hands and bended knees awaits from ,god its fate4#acb ,having already that touch of vanity in his character which the possession of a quick mind among sluggards or dullards almost inevitably entails1 he was thrown1 by his attitude towards nature and the ,church1 more and more back upon himself4 ,at every step he met with a leaden1 uncomprehending1 but dogged opposition1 until he seemed to himself the one seeing man in a world of the blind4 ,at times this belief was expressed only too emphatically2 the reader of ,bruno must expect to find a passage in almost every work pointing out that that work is the best of its kind1 and dispenses with all others on the subject2 while his opponents in any theory are bedaubed with epithets to which the amenities of modern party strife are politeness itself4#acc ,boundless was his confidence in himself1 in his power of discerning truth1 and in his ability to overcome all difficulties in the way of its discovery4 ,difficulty1 he writes in the ,cena1 is ordained to check poltroons4 ,things ordinary and easy are for the vulgar1 for ordinary people4 ,but rare1 heroic1 divine men pass along this way of difficulty1 that necessity may be constrained to yield them the palm of immortality4 ,although it may not be possible to come so far as to gain the prize1 run your race nevertheless1 do your hardest in what is of so great importance1 strive to your last breath4 ,it is not only he who arrives at the goal that is praised1 but also whoever dies no coward's or poltroon's death2 he casts the fault of his loss and of his death upon the back of fate1 and shows the world that he has come to such an end by no defect of himself1 but by error of fortune4#acd ,his outward fortunes left ,bruno indifferent2 it was the opposition to his philosophy that embittered him1 and excited the magnificent invectives scattered everywhere through his works4 ,of his own mission ,bruno had the highest conception3 ,the ,nolan has set free the human mind1 and its knowledge1 that was shut up within the narrow prison-house of the atmosphere 7the troubled air71 whence it could only with difficulty1 as through chinks1 see the far distant stars2 its wings were clipped1 that it might not fly and pass through the veil of clouds1 and see that which is really to be found there4444 ,but he in the eye of sense and reason1 with the key of unwearied inquiry1 has opened those prison-doors of the truth which man might open1 laid bare nature that was covered over and veiled from sight1 given eyes to the moles1 enlightened the blind 444 loosened the tongue of the mute1 that could not and dared not express their inmost feelings4#ace ,it was not to the many that he spoke1 however2 there was little in his heart of that love for his fellowman that was so charming a trait in ,spinoza1 with all the latter's desire for solitude1 and under all his persecutions4 ,bruno1 whether a son of the people or not1 had never the slightest respect for that body4 ,we have already seen what opinion he formed of the ,english populace1 and he held a similar view of the plebs in general--,rogatus tumet1 ,pulsatus rogat1 ,pugnis concisus adorat1 he quotes 7or misquotes7#acf concerning it4 ,distrust of the natural man he had imbibed along with the teaching of the ,church1 and doubt as to his capacity for receiving or understanding the truth4 ,those who have acquired the truth that he has to teach need not1 he writes1 communicate it to all1 unless they will see what swine can do with pearls1 and will gather those fruits of their zeal and labour which usually spring from rash and foolish ignorance1 together with presumption and incivility1 its constant and trusty companions4#acg ,speaking of the doctrine of the necessity of all human events1 as determined and foreseen by ,god1 and its coincidence with true liberty1 he shows how theologians and philosophers have held it1 but have refrained from communicating it to the vulgar1 by whom it could not be understood1 who would use it as an excuse for giving rein to their passions4 ,faith is required for the instruction of the plebs1 that must be governed2 demonstration 7truth7 for the wise1 the contemplative1 that know how to govern themselves and others4#ach ,so speculation as to the future life must be kept from them1 for it is with the greatest difficulty that they can be restrained from vice and impelled to virtuous acts through their faith in eternal punishment3 what would become of them if they were persuaded of some lighter condition regulating the rewards of heroic and humane deeds1 the punishment of wickedness and sin8#aci ,he was an aristocrat of learning1--only the wise should have the government of the world2 the people were unfit to judge either of truth or of men4 ,sidenote3 ,pedantry4 ,along with this distrust of the vulgar went a far more intense dislike of the kind of learning they admired1 and of the type of scholar1 the pedant1 that most appealed to them4 ,the minds of the vulgar1 it seemed to him1 were more readily turned by sophisms1 by the appearances on the surface of things1 than by the truth that is hidden in their substance1 and is indeed their substance itself2#adj and the man--too frequent in the ,italian1 and generally in the learned world of those days--most apt to veil a real ignorance by a pretended knowledge1 by a show of externals1 by appeal to authorities with whom he had himself no acquaintance1 was the pedant4 ,bruno himself was not without that touch of vanity which led him1 like others1 to mass together quotations and phrases from ,latin and even from ,greek writers2 to point an argument by forced analogies from classical mythology2 to heap up references1 in support of his theories1 to the ,neoplatonists1 to the mystics1 to the ,cabbalah1 to the older ,greek philosophers3 these adornments were quite in the fashion of his time1 and looked at in that light they add to1 rather than detract from1 the peculiar charm and spirit of his writings4 ,the true pedant--such as ,polihimnio in the ,causa 7who has been thought to have suggested ,polonius in ,hamlet71 ,mamphurio in the ,candelaio1 ,prudentio in the ,cena--is one that for style loves long words1 learned phrases1 irrespective of their context2 who1 under pretence of accuracy1 delights in trifling1 subtle distinctions1 sows broadcast mythological or classical allusions without a hint of relevancy4 ,his favourite hunting-ground is1 however1 philosophy1 and it is to philosophy1 according to ,bruno1 that the pedant has done greatest injury4 ,one of the most vigorous descriptions of him which ,bruno gives is in the ,causa1#ada where1 no doubt1 some of the actual writers of the time are satirised4 ,curiously1 ,ramus and ,patrizzi1 both reformers of philosophy1 are mentioned as arch-pedants2 but men have always criticised most bitterly those who stood nearest to themselves4 ,bruno regarded words as the servants of his pen1 claimed1 and indeed exercised almost too freely1 the right of inventing new words for new things4 ,use and wont1 he knew1 determined the fate of words as of other things2 some which had fallen into decay would rise again1 others now honoured would lapse from use4 ,for the teaching of the philosophers of old their own old words were the clearest mirror1 but for new theories new words might be sought from the readiest source3--grammarians are the servants of words1 words are our servants2 it is for them to study the use to which we put our words4#adb ,,xx ,for such coinage1 as for illustrations to his theories1 references to old authorities1 material for his satire on pedants1 as well as for more doubtful purposes1--mystical or magical formul1 or proofs1--his prodigious memory never left ,bruno at a loss4 ,but if this memory1 in its tenacity1 supplied him with powerful and ready arguments against his opponents in their appeal to the authority of antiquity1 it was also1 in its fertility1 the source of the chief defects of his writing1 and perhaps also of his speaking4 ,his imagination runs riot in the pursuit of allegories1 metaphors1 similes from mythology4 ,tiraboschi1 the historian of ,italian literature1 defies the most acute intelligence to penetrate into his system1 the most patient of men to endure the reading of it4 ,so far was this enormous mass of material from blocking up the spring of originality in his mind1 however1 that the ideas in which he may be said to have anticipated modern thought are innumerable4 ,no doubt1 in many cases1 they came from the earlier ,greek philosophers whom he chiefly studied2 but ,bruno invariably gives them a connection with his own theory1 such as precludes us from taking his restoration of them for a happy chance4 ,such ideas1 for example1 are those of the evolution or gradual transformation of lower organisms into higher 7,de ,umbris1 ,int4 #g71 of the part played by the hand in the evolution of the human race 7,cabala1 ,l4 #ehf4 #ce71 of the gradual changes brought about on the surface of the earth1 its seas1 its islands1 the configuration of the land1 the climate of different countries1 by the constant1 if imperceptible1 operation of natural causes 7,cena1 ,l4 #aij ff473 of the true nature of mountains1 which are only excrescences as compared with the real mountains1 the larger continents that slope upwards from the sea 7e4g4 ,france73 of the true nature of comets1 so far at least as that they are perfectly natural bodies allied to planets#adc 7,infinit4 ,l4 #cgb2 ,de ,imm4 iv4 #i4 #ea72 of the identity of the matter of heavenly bodies with that of the earth1 the universality of movement 7even the fixed stars move1 cf4 ,infinit41 ,l4 #cej1 #cea1 #djj71 the possibility 7he said rather the certainty7 of other worlds than our own being inhabited by beings similar to or more highly developed than ourselves 7,l4 #cfj4 #bg74 ,he anticipated also the idea of ,lessing that myths may contain foreshadowings of truth1 and that they should be interpreted not by their letter1 as matters of fact1 but by their spirit1 as indications of higher truths of reason4 ,the ,bible should be interpreted in the same way3 as ,spinoza afterwards taught1 so ,bruno held1 that the ,scriptures inculcated moral and practical truths1 to which their seemingly historical statements were entirely subordinate4 ,add to this fermenting thought1 power of memory1 keenness and sureness of glance1 and imaginative force1 the fact that ,bruno had a deeply poetic nature1 fiery1 vivid1 passionate in defence of what seemed to him true1 equally passionate in hatred of what seemed to him false1 and the sources of his strength and weakness alike become clear4 ,the ,italian writings remain1 in spite of their occasional obscurity1 the most brilliant of philosophical works in that language1 while the ,latin works are a monument of learning 7too often misapplied or useless71 of acute reasoning1 and of poetic enthusiasm4 ,,xxi ,sidenote3 ,religion4 ,bruno was far from being what we should now call a ,rationalist2 he felt that cold reason1 mere human logic alone1 could not fathom the deepest nature of things1 which was ,god1 but that this deepest nature of things was apart from conditions of time and space4 ,whatever occurred under these conditions1--whatever fell within the actual world1--he claimed for sense and reason1 i4e4 as a subject of natural explanation1 as accessible in all its aspects to human knowledge4 ,there are thus two very distinct sides to ,bruno's philosophical character3 on the one side he is a forerunner of modern science1 in his love of nature as a whole1 in his desire to understand it1 in his application of purely empirical methods to its analysis4 ,to this side belong his rejection of the orthodox dogmas concerning the ,trinity1 the ,immaculate ,conception1 and the rest1 his theory of an evolution of man1 his idea of a natural history of religions1 his entire rejection of authority however high as an argument for or against a theory or view of nature4 ,his own religious creed was simple1 and he believed it to be the essence of what was true in all the jarring sects that had separated man from man1 nation from nation1 and race from race--the law of love--which springs not from the evil genius of any one race1 but from ,god the father of all1 and is in harmony with universal nature1 which teaches a general love of man1 that we should love our enemies even1 should not remain like brutes or barbarians1 but be transformed into the likeness of ,him who makes ,his sun to rise upon the good and the bad1 and pours the rain of ,his mercies upon the just and the unjust4 ,this is the religion above controversy or dispute1 which ,i observe from the belief of my own mind1 and from the custom of my fatherland and my race4#add ,on the other side1 he had inherited the mysticism of the ,neoplatonist school1 or at least it called out a responsive echo from his mind so soon as he came under its influence4 ,he was full of enthusiasm1 as we shall find1 for the divine--in things1 in us1 in the world1 in the universe--a ,god-intoxicated man far more strikingly than the impassive ,spinoza4 ,it was because the ,copernican theory fitted into his mystical thought of the ,one1 as an identity of the infinitely small1 the point1 and the infinitely great1 the broad1 deep1 immeasurable universe1 that it appeared to him an inspiration of genius4 ,therefore he defended it1 extended it further than its originator dared extend it1 and finally died for it and for all that it meant to him4 ,his belief in natural magic belongs again to this side1 or rather to the influence of the one side of his nature upon the other2 owing to their essential unity in ,god1 natural things have sympathies with one another and with human life1 so that a change in one thing--a stone1 a tree--may indirectly cause a corresponding change in another1 a human being4 ,it was characteristic of him that he sought to give to these beliefs--which1 be it remembered1 were universal in his time--a rational basis1 a connection with his thought-system as a whole4 ,the two sides or standpoints are never far apart in ,bruno3 it is often impossible to say to which a given theory or mood should be attributed1 but in his earlier life the mystical1 in his later the naturalistic1 or rationalist standpoint may be said to have predominated4 ,it is with the more metaphysical attitude that a certain vein of optimism in ,bruno's philosophy is connected1 the familiar conception of evil1 natural or moral1 as necessary for the good of the whole1 like the discords by which a harmony is heightened4 ,no absolute evil1 for the consistent ,neoplatonist1 can possibly exist in a world which flows from the divine and is an outpouring of ,his nature4 ,but ,bruno had little or nothing of the practical optimist in his own character2 whatever he thought to be evil1 he fought against with all his might2 a victim of intolerance1 he had himself no toleration for some points of view--those1 namely1 which he felt might weaken the bonds of civil society and of human brotherhood4 ,such evil teachers1 he writes in the ,sigillus 7ii4 #b4 #ahb71 succeeding time1 and a world wise overlate in its own ill condition1 will exterminate as the tares1 canker-worms1 locust plagues of their age--nay1 as scorpions and vipers4 ,bruno saw only too clearly the evils of the world1 and of his age1 from the greatest of which--tyranny over the soul1 and suppression of mental liberty--he suffered in his own person2 and his life1 as we have seen1 was spent in a ceaseless1 and for the time unavailing1 struggle against them4 ,but he never lost his faith in the ultimate victory of his own philosophy1 based as it was upon his faith in the essential goodness1 justice1 and truth of the eternal source of things4 ,as all things flow from1 so all things tend to return to ,god4 ,philosophy goes further than to teach merely that pain and evil are not absolute facts1 not grounded in the nature of things2 it also frees the believer from the burden they impose3--the practical test of a perfect philosophy is1 when one by the height of his speculation is so far withdrawn from bodily things as hardly to feel pain4 ,and there is greater virtue1 as we believe1 in one who has come to such a point as not to feel pain at all than in another who feels it but resists4 ,he who is more deeply moved by the thought of some other thing does not feel the pangs of death4#ade ,,works ,,of ,,bruno ,,published ,,after #aeibadf #a4 ,summa terminorum metaphysicorum ad capessendum ,logicae et ,philosophiae studium1 ex ,jordani ,bruni ,nolani ,entis descensu manusc4 excerpta2 nunc primum luci commissa2 a ,raphaele ,eglino ,iconio1 ,tigurino3 ,zurich1 #aeie4 ,reprinted in #afji3--,summa ,terminorum ,metaphysicorum1 ,jordani ,bruni ,nolani4 ,accessit eiusdem ,praxis ,descensus seu ,multiplicatio ,entis ex ,manuscripto per ,raphaelum ,eglinum ,iconium ,tigurinum in ,acad4 ,marpurg4 ,profess4 ,theolog4 cum supplemento ,rodolphi ,goclenii ,senioris1 ,marburg1 #afji4adg ,described by the editor1 ,eglin1 who was with ,bruno at ,zurich1 and afterwards became ,professor of ,theology at ,marburg1 as ,bruno's ,metaphysical remains4 ,it represents the fruit of the lectures given by ,bruno at ,zurich in #aeia1adh and is one of the earliest philosophical dictionaries extant4 ,it is on the model of the ,fifth ,book of ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 now known to have been intended by ,aristotle as a separate work1 but differs in its choice and arrangement of the terms of philosophy which are discussed4 ,the first part of the work1 which was published by itself in ,zurich1 may best be described as a handbook to philosophy generally1 the main reference being to ,aristotle's system1 as was natural3 with it ,bruno writes for the most part in agreement4 ,the second part1 however1 which was not published until the ,marburg ,edition 7p4 #gc ff4 of the ,state ,edition71 is an application of the several terms already defined to the ,neoplatonist philosophy3 in its first section 7,de ,deo seu ,mente7 they are applied and illustrated by reference to ,god as the source of the world1 of whom all things are emanations1 in a graduated scale of being2 in the second 7,intellectus seu ,idea7 to the world of ,ideas--,god in the world1 the soul in all things and in everything2 and a third section 7,amor seu pulchritudo7 should have followed1 dealing with ,god as the end and goal of things1 but is awanting4#adi ,the document on the ,predicates of ,god which ,mocenigo presented to the ,court at ,venice was probably the second part of the ,summa1 or perhaps only its first section 7,brunnhofer1 p4 #ajf74 #b4 ,artificium perorandi traditum a ,jordano ,bruno ,nolano ,italo1 communicatum a ,johan4 ,henrico ,alstedio4 ,in gratiam eorum qui eloquentiae vim et rationem cognoscere cupiunt4 ,frankfort1 #afab4 7,also in ,gfrrer1 and ,state ,edition1 vol4 ii4 pt4 #c1 ,no4 #c74--;,a summary of1 or a commentary on1 the spurious ,rhetoric of ,aristotle 7ad ,alexandrum71 with the addition of a second part by ,bruno1 on which he himself lays no great stress1 on elocution or adornment2 he refers his readers1 however1 to the orators themselves for complete instruction4 ,it contains chiefly lists of heads of arguments and of synonyms for rhetorical use4 ,apparently the work is printed from notes of ,bruno's lectures in ,wittenberg 7#aehg71 which came into the hands of the editor1 ,alsted1 in #afaj4 #c4 ,lampas ,triginta ,statuarum4--,first published in the ,state ,edition1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #a-beh1 from ,,mss4 of the ,noroff collection at ,moscow4 ,this is in the hand of ,besler1 ,bruno's pupil and copyist1 and was done at ,padua in the autumn of #aeia1 although ,besler had received the original1 which he copied1 in ,april #aeij at ,helmstadt4 ,another ,,ms4 is in the ,augustan ,library1 and is both more obviously correct and of earlier date than the copy of ,besler 7#aehg72 in all probability the work was dictated by ,bruno at ,wittenberg1 and is that referred to as ,lampas ,cabalistica in the letter of dedication prefixed to the ,de ,specierum ,scrutinio 7,prague1 #aehh71 and as shortly to be published4#aej ,it contains a finished study of philosophy from ,bruno's standpoint1 arranged under thirty and more headings1 ,types1 ,statues and ,images1 ,fields1 etc4 ,under each heading are thirty articles1 conditions1 descriptions1 contemplations4 ,for example1 we have first the two triads--,chaos1 ,orcus1 ,nox2 and ,pater1 ,intellectus ,primus1 ,lux--typifying the lowest and the highest principles of things3 the first three are ,vacuum1 ,potency in ,appetite1 and ,matter2 the second three ,mind or ,reason1 ,understanding or ,soul1 and ,love or ,spirit4 ,at the close of the ,statuae there follows the practical application of them to the scale of ,nature--the outflow of the highest towards the lowest1 the gradual transition from lowest to highest2 an account of the thirty predicates of ,substance and of ,nature in the universal sense2 and a logical or methodological illustration of the uses of the ,art under the headings of ,definition1 ,verification1 ,demonstration4 ,the general purpose of the whole is to give an instrument for discovery 7,invention7 of truth1 after the model of the ,lullian ,art1 just as some of the earlier works 7e4g4 ,de ,umbris7 contain a similar instrument for remembering knowledge acquired4#aea ,unfortunately the work is entirely marred by the artificial distinctions drawn1 and the tying down 7or expansion7 of the ideas treated therein to the thirty fundamental notions and thirty applications of each4 ,thus subjects and predicates are thirty in number each1 and the modes of predication are in classes of fifteen4 ,it is impossible not to agree with ,tocco's verdict1 that ,however fine the analysis employed in distinguishing the subtlest shades of concepts1 however great the number of elevated philosophical thoughts scattered throughout1 expounded with vigour and felicity of imagery1 the tractate as a whole has little value1 just as the ars inventiva itself has little--more fit to blunt than to sharpen the inventive powers4#aeb ,one gladly re-echoes ,bruno's words at the close3 ,itaque gratias deo agentes1 ,artem ,inventivam per triginta statuas perfecimus4 #d4 ,animadversiones circa ,lampaaem ,lullianam 7,state ,edition1 vol4 ii4 pt4 #b74--;,from the ,augustan ,,mss41 dated #acth ,march #aehg4 ,notes dictated in ,wittenberg1 on the ,lullian art as a universal instrument for the discovery of truth4 #e4 ,libri ,physicorum ,aristotelis1 a clariss4 ,dn4 ,d4 ,jordano ,bruno ,nolano explanati4--,from two codices in the ,erlangen ,library1 the second of which is in the hand of ,besler1 and was written1 presumably1 at ,helmstadt4 ,the earlier ,,ms4 in a ,german handwriting points to the commentaries having been dictated by ,bruno during his stay at ,wittenberg4#aec ,the books of ,aristotle treated are the five books of the ,physica1 the ,de generatione et corruptione1 the ,meteorologica1 ,book ,,iv4 ,there is an introduction on the methods of the sciences1 and other matters1 by ,bruno himself2 the remainder follows closely the text of ,aristotle1 except in the fourth and fifth books1 where ,bruno is much less exact4 #f4 ,de ,magia1 et ,theses de ,magia4--,the ,,ms4 of this work is in the ,erlangen ,codex1 by ,besler1 and also in the ,moscow 7,noroff7 collection1 by the same hand2 the former is a copy of the latter1 which was dictated by ,bruno in the early part of #aeij at ,helmstadt4 ,it deals with one of the three divisions of ,magic1 viz4 ,natural or ,physical ,magic 7the others being ,divine1 ,metaphysical or ,supernatural1 and ,mathematical--that of symbols1 numbers1 etc474 ,physical magic is shown to be a natural consequence1 first1 of the fact that the same soul1 the soul of the world1 is in all things1 of which the individual finite soul of each thing is a temporary mode or phase2 hence all things are linked one with another1 through their spiritual identity1 in a bond of sympathy2 secondly1 of the hierarchy of beings--the principle that all finite things are emanations1 in increasing degree of imperfection1 from the ,divine4 ,the ,theses represent a summary of the ,de ,magia1 and in the latter the headings of the former are referred to throughout1 except in two episodes or excursus not strictly connected with natural magic 7on spirit-charms and spirit-analogies73 the work is referred to in the ,de ,minimo1 i4 #c4 #baj 7re the magical influences of bodies newly dead2 the soul everywhere recognises the matter of its own body1 as we have shown in the book on physical magic74 #g4 ,de ,magia ,mathematica4--,merely a collection of excerpts from writers on ,magic--,tritemius1 ,agrippa1 ,pietro ,di ,abano1 the 7,pseudo-7 ,albertus ,magnus4 7,noroff ,,mss4 ,the title is that of the ,italian editors47 #h4 ,de ,rerum ,principiis et ,elementis et ,causis4--7,noroff ,,mss4 ,the writing was begun on the #afth of ,march #aeij1 in ,helmstadt1 by ,besler1 to ,bruno's dictation47 ,it contains the theory of the natural and material elements or principles of things--light and fire1 wind or air1 water or vapour or darkness1 and earth or the dry1 with their forms1 time and place--leaving the metaphysical and the immaterial principles 7spirit and soul7 for consideration elsewhere4 ,it is not of great scientific value4 ,bruno makes use of abstract terms even more readily than ,aristotle 7e4g4 lux seminaliter est ubique1 et in tenebris1 p4 #ead74 ,the chief aim of the work is to illustrate the magical applications of the different elements#aed 7cf4 pp4 #eaf1 #ebe1 etc474 ,its value mainly lies in the light it throws on ,bruno's atomic theory1 and on one or two other minor points of his philosophy--the harmony1 co-ordination1 and sympathy between all natural things1 the doctrines of liberty and necessity1 etc4 #i4 ,de ,medicina ,lulliana1 partim ex mathematicis1 partim ex physicis principiis educta4--,written immediately after the above 7de rerum principiis71 to which it occasionally refers3 merely a collection of abstracts from works of ,lully on medicine1 as a practical application of the system of magic contained in the three previous writings4 ,it is accordingly of the astrological type of medival medicine4 #aj4 ,de ,vinculis in genere4 ,noroff ,,mss4--,a first sketch in ,bruno's own hand1 dating probably from ,frankfort2 and a later1 much more detailed1 in ,besler's1 copied at ,padua4 ,it in a sense completes the tractates on ,magic1 by dealing with attraction in general1 of which the attractions and sympathies of natural and mathematical magic are special cases4 ,as it stands1 however 7for neither sketch is finished3 ,bruno's covers wider ground than ,besler's1 the latter breaks off abruptly before the natural end is reached71 it is a psychological essay on the human passions1 and more especially on human love1 from a purely objective1 matter-of-fact standpoint4 ,in it the most grossly material and the highest spiritual sources of love are placed side by side2 and to love1 including self-love1 are reduced all passions1 all effects1 even hate1 which is an outcome1 a reversion of love4 ,,part ,,ii ,,philosophy ,,of ,,bruno ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,philosophy ,sidenote3 ,aristotle's rejection of mathematical method4 ,sidenote3 ,his treatment of the earlier ,greeks4 ,in the school and the monastery at ,naples ,bruno passed as a matter of course through a training in the ,scholastic ,philosophy4 ,before entering the monastery of ,st4 ,dominic at fifteen years of age he had studied humane letters1 logic1 and dialectic1#aee and had attended1 among other lectures1 a private course by ,theophilus of ,varrano1 an ,augustine monk and distinguished ,aristotelian4 ,from him1 probably1 ,bruno received an impetus towards the study of ,aristotle in the original works1 if not also in the original tongue1 which stood him in admirable stead when he came later to attack the foundations of the vulgar philosophy4 ,he was familiar at first hand with all the main writings of ,aristotle4#aef ,he had read1 too1 and cites1 most of the earlier commentators--,adrastus and ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 ,porphyry1 ,themistius1 ,simplicius1 and ,philoponus#aeg--;as well as the later1 the ,arabians and other ,schoolmen4 ,he had accordingly a more thorough acquaintance with the mind of ,aristotle than any of the latter's staunchest supporters in his time3 the lack of the historic sense prevented him1 however1 from taking a just view of the system as a whole3 it was not the ,aristotle of ,greek philosophy whom he rejected1 and against whom he wielded the powerful weapons of his armoury1 but the ,aristotle of his own day1--a living force with which no one could avoid a reckoning1 the influence of which was no longer for good1 but which formed1 as ,bruno felt1 a barrier against the progressive thought and spirit of the time4 ,in the introductory letter to the ,figuratio ,arist4 ,phys4 ,auditus1 ,bruno gave three reasons for undertaking the work3#aeh--7a7 that he might not appear1 like so many others1 to be taking up the office of censor without a sufficient knowledge of his subject2 7#b7 that he might present to his opponents the philosophy of ,aristotle as it really was1 for the majority of the ,aristotelians admired it rather from their faith in the man ,aristotle than from discriminate judgment concerning the principles of the philosophy2 7#c7 that he might seem not an audacious caviller against thoughts that were beyond his depth1 but a genuine and legitimate disputant on doctrines that were clear to himself4#aei ,the name of ,aristotle was a charm2 his opinion final not in matters of pure philosophy alone1 but equally in natural theory2 his natural philosophy had been harmonised with scriptural authority1 and was the accepted doctrine of the ,church4 ,the cry which his critic heard had weight behind it3 ,you against ,aristotle--against so many authorities1 so great names8 ,i would rather be in error along with them1 than find truth with you6#afj ,the danger lay not so much in the error of ,aristotle's theory of nature1 or of his metaphysical theories1 as in his authority2 many of the ,peripatetics1 ,bruno says in the ,cena1 grow angry1 and flush and quarrel about ,aristotle1 yet do not understand even the meanings of the titles of his books4#afa ,it was the influence of this authority that ,bruno1 in the interests of true philosophy and science1 set to work to undermine4 ,the charge which he brought against ,aristotle was the same as that which ,bacon afterwards brought--that he attempted to explain nature by logical categories4 ,it is not strange that from impossible1 logical1 and imaginary distinctions quite discordant with the truth of things1 he infers an infinite number of other untruths 7inconvenientia74#afb ,matter is formless only to logical abstraction1 as with ,aristotle1 who is constantly dividing by reason what is indivisible according to nature and truth3#afc a logical intention 7or concept7 is made into a principle 7or element7 of nature4#afd ,however unfair and indeed absurd the charge must appear when ,aristotle is considered in his actual place within the development of philosophy and science1 and however far ,bruno or ,bacon or any of the nature-philosophers of the ,renaissance was from avoiding the use in explanation of similar purely logical or metaphysical conceptions1 it was still a great and necessary step to call attention to the need of observation and experiment upon nature1 and to the value of mathematics as a method of calculating and correlating the phenomena observed4 ,this was a second objection to ,aristotle1 that he despised mathematics1 being too much of a logician 7and stronger in criticism than in argument71 yet1 ,bruno adds1 when he sought to explain any of the more profound facts of nature1 he was often driven by necessity to the repudiated mathematics4 ,many of ,bruno's own mathematical applications savour rather of ,neopythagorean mysticism than of the spirit of modern science1 and his geometry was far from ,euclidean1 but he at least made a serious attempt to account for the building-up of bodies and of the universe on mathematical principles4 ,a third objection1 which again we find in ,bacon1 is as to ,aristotle's treatment of his predecessors4 ,his depreciation of them is condemned in the ,causa3--,of all philosophers ,i do not know one who founds more upon imagination1 or is further removed from nature than he3 and if sometimes what he says is excellent1 we know that it does not spring from his own principles1 but is always a proposition taken from other philosophers4#afe ,in another passage he is described as a dry sophist1 aiming with malicious explanations and frivolous arguments to pervert the opinions of the ancients1 and to oppose the truth1 not so much perhaps through imbecility of intelligence as through the influence of envy and ambition4#aff ,so ,bacon speaks of him as imposing innumerable fictions upon the nature of things at his own will3 being everywhere more anxious as to how one should extricate oneself by an answer1 and how some positive reply in words should be made1 than as to the internal truth of things4#afg ,in particular it was argued that ,aristotle confused the various meanings of the same name with one another3--,he takes the word vacuum in a sense in which no one has ever understood it1 building castles in the air1 and then pulling down his 'vacuum1' but not that of any other who has spoken of a vacuum or made use of the name4 ,so he acts in all other cases1--those for example of 'motion1' 'infinite1' 'matter1' 'form1' 'demonstration1' 'being1' always building on the faith of his own definition1 which gives the name a new sense4#afh ,sidenote3 ,the ,pre-,aristotelians4 ,the close study of ,aristotle himself1 which was one of the greatest results of the ,humanist movement1 had the effect of bringing into greater prominence the earlier ,greek philosophers1 whose doctrines ,aristotle states and criticises in many of his works--notably the ,physics and ,metaphysics4 ,the rediscovery of antiquity included that of ancient philosophy2 and ,bruno's dissatisfaction with ,aristotle led him into greater sympathy with the nature-philosophers whom ,aristotle decried4 ,towards these earlier ,greeks1 as towards other philosophers1 his attitude is wholly that of an ,eclectic3 he does not attempt to appreciate their relative value1 nor to discover any evolution of thought through the successive systems4 ,from each he takes that which agrees or appears to agree with his own philosophy1 and treats it as an anticipation of1 or as an authority for1 the latter4 ,the universal intelligence1 for example1 as the universal efficient cause in nature1 is a doctrine ascribed in the ,causa indiscriminately to the ,pythagoreans1 the ,platonists1 the ,magi1 ,orpheus1 ,empedocles1 and ,plotinus4#afi ,the belief in an infinite ether 7,heraclitus' ,fire7 surrounding the earth1 and containing innumerable worlds within it1 in the ,cena is attributed1 equally without discrimination1 to ,heraclitus1 ,democritus1 ,epicurus1 ,pythagoras1 ,parmenides1 and ,melissus4#agj ,xenophanes represented for ,bruno the static aspect of ,pantheism--the ,absolute ,one as in itself1 apart from all reference to the finite2#aga ,heraclitus its dynamic aspect--the ,absolute as unfolding1 revealing itself1 appearing in and through the finite4#agb ,anaxagoras expressed the relation between the finite individual and the ,one1--,all things are in all things1 for omnipotent1 all-producing divinity pervades the whole1 therefore nothing is so small but that divinity lies concealed in it4#agc ,everything is in everything1 because spirit or soul is in all things1 and therefore out of anything may be produced anything else4#agd ,to ,anaxagoras1 as to ,bruno1 nature was divine4#age ,no special distinction was made by ,bruno between the teaching of ,anaxagoras and that of ,empedocles3 in one passage he attributes to the former the theory of effluxes and influxes of atoms through the pores of bodies1 which really belongs to the latter1#agf and in another suggests that ,empedocles only put in a more abstract way what ,anaxagoras had shown concretely1 that all things are in all4#agg ,sidenote3 ,democritus ,sidenote3 ,lucretius ,with ,leucippus and ,democritus ,bruno might have been expected to claim affinity1 through their common atomism and naturalism3 with two cardinal features of the traditional ,epicureanism he was however in entire disagreement4 ,the one was its admission of the void or vacuum3 it explained the constitution of diverse bodies out of atoms which were all of the same spherical form1 by the different positions and order in which the void and solid parts respectively were arranged1 whereas ,bruno could not imagine the corporeal atoms holding together without a material substance1 extending continuously throughout the universe4#agh ,the other point of contrast was its denial that anything but corporeal matter exists1 with the corollary that forms are merely accidental dispositions of matter3 ,bruno confesses to have been at one time of the same opinion1 but he had been unable wholly to reduce forms to matter1 and therefore was compelled to admit two kinds of substance1 forms or ideas1 and matter or body1 although these again were modes of a still higher unity1 the ,one4#agi ,the deep thought of the learned ,lucretius#ahj early fascinated ,bruno1 and ,lucretius gave the trend not only to much of his philosophy but also to the style of his writing4 ,the ,latin poems were suggested by ,lucretius' ,de rerum natura1 to which they are far inferior1 certainly1 in literary charm2 the philosophical system of the later writer however is not only bolder and grander in itself1 but far more thoroughly worked out into the detail of exposition and of criticism4 ,in the ,italian dialogues also ,lucretius is constantly quoted1--frequently from memory1 as one may judge from the errors made4 ,sidenote3 ,neoplatonism ,sidenote3 ,egyptian theosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,hebrew ,cabala4 ,but in the first reaction against the now barren ,peripatetic philosophy1 the school to which ,bruno turned1 with so many of his fellow-countrymen1 was that which nominally derived from ,aristotle's immediate predecessor4 ,the revival of ,platonism in its secondary form of ,neoplatonism was one of the most marked traits of the time4 ,in connection with the attempt to unite the ,greek and ,latin ,churches in #adch1 a ,greek scholar came from ,constantinople1--one ,georgius ,gemistus 7,gemistus ,plethon71--to the court at ,florence1 and there opened the minds of the ,italians to the beauty of the ,platonic philosophy4 ,its mystical world of ideas charmed all who were embued with the new spirit--romantic1 adventurous1 hopeful1 self-confident4 ,the ,ideas1 it is true1 were materialised and personified in the transition through ,neoplatonism1 and it was as spirits of the stars and worlds1 demons of the earth and sea1 the living souls of plants and stones1 that they appealed to minds fed on the grosser fare of medival superstition4 ,plethon's lectures1 uncritical as they were1 ensured the spread of ,platonism in ,italy4 ,bessarion of ,trebizond1 ,marsilio ,ficino1 who became head of the ,platonist ,academy at ,florence1 and ,pico of ,mirandula followed in his steps4 ,both ,ficino and ,pico are mentioned by ,bruno1 and his knowledge of ,plato1 as of ,plotinus1 ,porphyry1 and other ,neoplatonists1 was derived1 almost certainly1 from ,ficino's translations4 ,the teaching of ,plato was interpreted in the light of1 and confused by admixture with1 the mystical ideas of ,philo and ,plotinus1 of ,porphyry and ,iamblichus1 of the ,jewish ,cabala1 and the mythical sayings of ,egyptian1 ,chaldean1 ,indian1 and ,persian sages4 ,the new world was struggling for light1 and it rushed towards every gleam of brightness1 however feeble4 ,thus in the address to the senate at ,wittenberg before leaving the university1 ,bruno named the foremost of those whom he regarded as ,builders of the ,temple of ,wisdom3 the list begins with the ,chaldeans among the ,egyptians and ,assyrians2 there follow ,zoroaster and the ,magi among the ,persians1 the ,gymnosophists of ,india1 ,orpheus and ,atlas among ,thracians and ,libyans1 ,thales and other wise men among the ,greeks1--and so down to ,paracelsus in ,bruno's own century4 ,the fantastic grouping is characteristic of the uncritical syncretism of this last phase of ,neoplatonism3 ,plethon had conjoined the dogmas of ,plato with those of ,zoroaster1 and had confirmed both by illustrations from ,greek mythology4 ,among the most widely read works were those of ,iamblichus the ,platonist1 who died early in the fourth century1--the ,life of ,pythagoras1 and especially the ,mysteries of the ,egyptians4#aha ,another work1 in many books1 which has not come down to us1 but which penetrated into the literature of the middle ages1 was on the ,perfect ,theology of the ,chaldaeans4 ,to ,iamblichus1 as to ,plotinus1 the ,ideal world was a hierarchy of ,gods1 from the ineffable1 unsearchable ,one1 down1 tier upon tier1 through successive emanations1 to the ,gods that are immanent in the world we know and the things of the world4 ,in the scheme not only do the ,ideas of ,plato1 the ,numbers of ,pythagoras1 the ,forms of ,aristotle1 find a place1 but also all the ,gods of the ,greek mythology1 of the ,egyptian religion1 of the ,babylonian and ,hebrew esoteric cults4 ,the same character is to be found in the writings of the so-called ,hermes or ,mercurius ,trismegistus1 to whom ,bruno constantly appeals4#ahb ,it was partly for their cosmology1 more in accord with modern thought than that of the ,peripatetics and the ,church1 that they were read2 but still more for the support their belief in demonic spirits1 governing the movements of the worlds and of all individual things1 gave to magical and theurgical practices1 which through the slackening of the rule of the ,church were now universal4 ,all stars are called fires by the ,chaldaeans1 writes ,bruno1 animals of fire1 ministers of fire1 innumerable gods1 divine oracles4#ahc ,the ,chaldaeans and the wise ,rabbis endowed the stars with intelligence and feeling4#ahd ,there are some who are by no means thought worthy of a hearing among philosophers1--the ,chaldaeans and ,hebrew sages1 who attribute body to the omnipotent ,god1 calling him 'a consuming fire'3 below ,him were innumerable ,gods1 flames of fire1 and spirits of air1 which were subtle1 active1 mobile bodies3 souls too were spirits--that is1 subtle bodies2 and ,bruno adds1 ,we do not pursue this mode of philosophising1 but are far from despising it1 nor have ever thought that a wise man should think it contemptible4#ahe ,the theology or theosophy of the ,egyptians is praised in the ,spaccio1#ahf--,the magical and divine cult of the ,egyptians1 who saw divinity in all things1 and in all actions 7each manifesting divinity in its own special way72 and knew by means of its forms in the bosom of nature how to secure the benefits they derived from it--as out of the sea and rivers it gives fish1 out of the deserts wild beasts1 and out of mines metals1 out of trees fruits1 and out of certain parts of nature1 certain animals1 certain brutes1 certain plants1 are gifted certain fates1 virtues1 fortunes1 or impressions4 ,divinity in the sea was called ,neptune1 in the sun ,apollo1 in the earth ,ceres1 in the deserts ,diana1 and diversely in each of the other species of things3 as divine ideas1 they were diverse deities in ,nature1 and all were referred to one deity of deities1 one source of ,ideas above ,nature4 ,the passage shows clearly the connection between the revived enthusiasm for the old pagan cults and the new but dark beginnings of independent study of nature1 in ,magic1 ,divination1 ,alchemy1 and ,astrology3 equally close was the connection of both with the revival of ,pantheism1 the conception of nature as a single whole throbbing with one life1 springing from one single source4 ,so of the ,hebrew ,cabala1 ,bruno writes1 its wisdom 7whatever it be in its kind7 derives from the ,egyptians1 among whom ,moses was brought up4 ,in the first place it attributes to the first principle a name ineffable1 from which proceed1 in the second place1 four names1 afterwards resolved into twelve1 these into seventy-two1 these into one hundred and forty-four1 etc41 etc4 ,by each name they name a god1 an angel1 an intelligence1 a power that presides over a species of things1--so the whole of divinity is reduced back to one source1 as all light is brought back to the first1 self-shining light2 and the images in the diverse1 innumerable mirrors1--particular existences1--are referred to one formal1#ahg ideal source4#ahh ,as might be expected1 ,plato himself was best known to the school through one of the least characteristic of his works1 the ,timaeus1 with its fantastic cosmology and demonology1 alongside of which was placed the work of 7the ,pseudo-7 ,timaeus of ,locris1 a later writing1 based upon that of ,plato1 although professing to belong to an earlier date3 next to these in importance came the ,republic1 with the theory of ,ideas4 ,it was from the ,chaldaeans1 ,egyptians1 and ,pythagoreans that ,plato was supposed to have derived his cosmology4 ,it is1 however1 with the system of ,plotinus that ,bruno's earlier theory has the closest affinity3 he passed far beyond that system1 as the following chapters may show1 but many of the ideas that had come down from the master remained throughout part of the basis of ,bruno's thought3 such are1 for example1 the idea of the ,universal ,intelligence1--distinct from the ,one1 the ,highest and ,unknowable ,being1 or ,god1--as the soul of the world and the source of the forms of material things2#ahi the rationes or ideas which are contained in it mould and form all things from the seed onwards3 the seed is a miniature world containing implicitly1 i4e4 in its ratio1 form or soul1 the perfect thing4#aij ,the conception again of the lower1 sensible world1 as an imitation of the higher1 the intelligible1 is derived from ,plotinus1 as is that of the seven grades or steps of emanation from the ,first ,principle to the material world1 which correspond to the seven grades by which the human mind rises from the knowledge of sensible things to that of the ,highest1 the ,good4#aia ,the order of knowledge corresponds step for step with the order of emanation--of creation4 ,most significant of all for the development of ,bruno's philosophy was ,plotinus' conception of an intelligible matter1 which is common to all the different beings and species1 in the intelligible world1 just as brute matter is that which is common to all kinds of corporeal objects4#aib ,again from ,plotinus derives the distinction that the matter underlying the intelligible world is all things and all together3 having in it 7implicitly7 all forms1 there is nothing into which it may change3 whereas the matter of the sensible world becomes all by change in its parts1 becomes at successive moments this and that1 is therefore at all times in diversity1 change1 movement4 ,matter of either kind is never without form1 but all forms are in them in different ways--in the one in the instant of eternity1 in the other in the instants of time2 in the one all at once1 in the other successively1 in the one complicitly1 in the other explicitly4#aic ,the same idea is attributed in the ,de ,immenso 7,book ,v47 to the ,platonists1--that ,god has imbued celestial matter with all forms at once1 but gives them to elemental matter in single moments1 just as he has poured into the nature of the ,gods all ideas once for all1 but instils them into animal nature day by day4 ,and as in the order of minds there is an ultimate principle which is incorruptible1 so in the order of bodies4 ,for the order of bodies follows that of intelligences as a footmark follows the foot1 as a shadow follows the body2 hence whatever order is proved to hold of minds1 the same will be found to hold of bodies4#aid ,it only remained to identify the two kinds of matter1 the divine and the elemental1 the spiritual and the corporeal1 to obtain the pure ,pantheistic naturalism of the middle period of ,bruno's philosophy3 at that stage he was no longer in sympathy with the ,neoplatonist psychology1 and denied the doctrine of a separate intelligence or understanding in man1 an intelligence1 that is1 of different origin from sense1 and therefore of different kind2 he rejected also their view that the imagination which is the source of instinct in animals1 differs from human imagination1 and their assertion of a difference in kind between reason and intellect in man4 ,for ,bruno1 as the order of nature was throughout the same in kind1 constituted of similar elements1 so the order of thought or knowledge was one in kind1 from its lowest phase in sense1 to its highest in the divine ecstasy4 ,in the ,heroici ,furori 7as again in the posthumous ,de ,vinculis in genere7 the ,platonic doctrine of the ascent to the ecstatic vision and love of divine beauty1 from sense-perception and the material feeling for sensible beauty1 is the essential topic throughout3 and in both ,bruno is largely indebted for his symbolism to the ,neoplatonist mystics4 ,sidenote3 ,averroes3--,ibn ,roschd 7#aabf-aaih74 ,the renewed passion for physical science brought another school of philosophy into prominence--the ,arabian4#aie ,the chief commentaries of this school on ,aristotle1 as well as many of their original writings1 were translated and published before the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,their interest being directed rather towards the physical and metaphysical writings of the master1 than towards the logical1 they helped to satisfy and to foster the growing spirit of inquiry1 and at the same time to spread abroad a more exact knowledge of the real ,aristotle than was to be derived from the ,christian commentators1 whose philosophy was much less in sympathy with ,aristotle's than was imagined4 ,the general trend of the ,arabian school in metaphysics was towards a modified ,aristotelianism1 leavened by the ,neoplatonist conception of the essential unity of all being and all thought1 particular things and particular ideas being a free outflow from the ,one1 into which they of necessity return again without affecting its fundamental nature4 ,bruno was familiar with ,avicenna1#aif ,avempace1#aig ,avicebron1#aih ,algazel1#aii and above all ,averroes4 ,avicebron or ,avencebrol was the author of the famous ,fons ,vitae1 the ,source of ,life1 which gained a quite undeserved notoriety for its supposed materialism4 ,bruno did not know it at first hand1 but through quotations in the translated ,arabian writings1#bjj and criticisms in the ,scholastics4 ,accordingly his idea of it is by no means accurate4#bja ,he knew that ,avicebron had spoken of matter as divine1 that he had reduced even the substantial forms of ,aristotle to transitory phases of matter--the stable1 the eternal1 progenetrix1 mother of all things1#bjb and had shown the logical necessity of assuming a matter1 or ground1 out of which corporeal nature on the one hand1 incorporeal or spiritual on the other1 are differentiated4#bjc ,it is clear that this underlying matter was not material in the ordinary sense1 but a unity which in itself was neither corporeal nor spiritual1 yet in its different aspects was both at once4 ,that is a conception which formed one of the main theses in ,bruno's philosophy4 ,directly or indirectly1 he drew from the ,fons ,vitae the thought of a common something which runs through all differences1 which is their basis1 and gives them reality1 which stands to them in the relation of ,aristotle's matter to forms3 under the differences of bodily objects there lies one common matter1 under the differences of spiritual beings another1 and under the differences of these two secondary matters lies a primary matter in which both are one4 ,so too the progress of thought is from the most complex1 or composite1 material bodies1--through the less complex1 the spiritual1--to the highest and simplest1 the ,one4#bjd ,of ,algazel's ,makacid--a resum of the chief philosophical systems1 which were criticised in a second part of the work--a translation was published in #aejf4 ,although an orthodox theologian1 he taught ,bruno that the ,sacred ,books had as their end not so much truth or knowledge about reality as goodness of custom1 the advantage of the civil body1 harmonious living together of peoples1 and practice for the benefit of human intercourse1 maintenance of peace1 increase of republics2#bje in other words1 that the ,bible claimed no authority in regard to matters of historical fact or of natural science1 but contained a revelation of moral or practical rather than of speculative or theoretical truth4#bjf ,for ,averroes1 ,bruno has the highest respect3#bjg he constantly speaks of him as the most subtle and weighty of the ,peripatetics2 ,averroes1 though an ,arab and ignorant of ,greek 7671 is more at home in the ,peripatetic doctrine than any ,greek ,i have read3 and he would have understood it better1 had he not been so devoted to his deity ,aristotle4#bjh ,this blind faith in ,aristotle was the weak spot in ,averroes' armour1 and the cause of many of his subtleties4 ,he could not believe that ,aristotle1 whose knowledge was co-extensive with creation1 could have erred2 rather than deny ,aristotle1 he refused to believe his own senses4#bji ,in philosophical theory there were at least two points of contact between ,bruno and the great ,arabian--one was the doctrine that forms1 i4e4 individual particular objects1 are sent out from and therefore originally contained in matter1 or1 in modern phrase1 that the evolution of natural objects is from within outwards1 not imposed upon nature by an alien and separate creator3#baj the other was the theory of a universal intelligence pervading and illuminating all human minds1 yet remaining one and the same in all1 itself an emanation from the ,divine1 and the lowest in the order of intelligences4#baa ,bruno did not1 however1 speak of it as separate from the finite minds1 but as immanent in them3 nor did he regard it as the only immortal element in man4 ,sidenote3 ,albertus ,magnus4 ,of the ,scholastics proper1 from whom much at least of ,bruno's terminology is derived1 two seem to have influenced him most strongly3--,albert the ,great1 whose interest in natural science entitled him to a place in the temple of wisdom3 ,he had no equal in his time1 and was far superior to ,aristotle1 whose school1 in which he ranked according to the conditions of his age1 was unworthy of him2#bab and ,thomas ,aquinas1 the angelic doctor1 honour and glory of all and every race of theologians and of ,peripatetic philosophers4#bac ,generally speaking1 however1 the ,scholastic is to ,bruno the pedant1 the dabbler in words1 as contrasted with the student of nature or of reality4#bad ,under this condemnation fell two of the greatest innovators upon the ,aristotelian philosophy of his own time1--,ramus1 and ,patrizzi4 ,the great logician was merely a ,french arch-pedant1 who has written ,the ,school upon the ,liberal ,arts1 and the ,animadversions against ,aristotle4 ,we may admit that he understood ,aristotle1 but he understood him badly2 and had he understood him well1 he would perhaps have been minded to make honourable war upon him1 as the judicious ,telesio has done4#bae ,the fashionable philosopher and ,platonist is un altro sterco di pedanti1 an ,italian who has soiled so many quires with his ,discussiones ,peripateticae2 we cannot say he understood ,aristotle1 either well or ill1 but he has read and re-read1 stitched and unstitched1 and compared with a thousand other ,greek authors1 friendly and unfriendly to ,aristotle1 and in the end has undergone great labour1 not only without any profit1 but also with very great disprofit1 so that he who would see into what presumptuous folly and vanity the pedantic habit may plunge a man1 let him look at that book1 before the memory of it is lost4 ,tocco has laid his finger upon the reason for ,bruno's dislike of these moderns1 and it explains his objection to the ,scholastics generally3--it was that they attempted to remodel and reform the ,logic and ,rhetoric of ,aristotle1 the very parts of his work which ,bruno regarded as the most perfect1--and neglected the physical works1 the theory of which had so powerful an authority to back it1 and therefore all the more required the energies of the stronger minds of the time to be directed upon it4#baf ,sidenote3 ,lully1 #abce-acje4 ,one of the medival writers ,bruno associated so closely with himself1 that his indebtedness might easily be exaggerated3 this was ,raymond ,lully1 whose grim figure stands out from the shadowy thirteenth century1--the author of the celebrated ,art of ,reasoning4#bag ,the object of the ,art was to tabulate the primary forms or elements of thought1 and their modes of combination1 from which data1 it was believed1 any process of reasoning1 however complex1 might be carried out1 without greater expenditure of energy than in performing an arithmetical operation with any of the first nine numbers4 ,there was no question of a possible divorce between thought and reality4 ,the result of any such process of rational calculus properly carried out was truth4 ,bruno thought with ,lully that the ultimate ideas within reach of human thought were at the same time substantial elements in reality and that the completest knowledge of reality--short of the ,absolute--was within the power of human reason to achieve4 ,lully included in this rational sphere the dogmas of ,christian theology3 faith was for the many1 who must be driven to believe2 reason for the few1 the wise4 ,lully's method attracted1 and his teaching influenced nearly all the greater minds of the later middle ages1 and of the ,renaissance4 ,they became a source of as bitter contention as the doctrines of ,aristotle himself4 ,bruno speaks of ,lully as almost divine2 ,agrippa1 after being an ardent follower1 came to see the vanity of the system1 and ,bacon called it a method of imposture4 ,at different times ,bruno expounded1 criticised1 and expanded the ,art4 ,he claims#bah to have embellished the method of him whom the best leaders among philosophers admire1 follow1 imitate4 ,duns ,scotus 7,scotigena71 ,nicholas of ,cusa1 ,paracelsus1 ,agrippa1 are named1 unjustly1 as having drawn their chief doctrines from this source3 ,lefevre and ,bouill#bai cited among his most recent followers4 ,the art was taught by some divine genius to a rude uncultured hermit1 and although it seems to issue from one too dense and stupid1 yet it excels the teaching of any famous ,attic orator in this kind1 as a crop of wheat excels one of barley4 ,it seemed to us unfitting that this work1 struggling upwards to the light1 against the envy of oppressing darkness1 should be suffered to perish and be lost4#bbj ,yet ,bruno by no means thought ,lully's exposition perfect4 ,of his own ,lullian work1 the ,de ,compendiosa ,architectura1#bba he says that it suffices for the understanding1 estimating1 and prosecuting of the art of ,lully1 by those who are skilled in the vulgar philosophy4 ,for in it is expressed in one whole1 all that is in ,lully's many ',arts1' in which he always seems to be saying the same thing2 you have there all that is in the ,ars ,brevis1 the ,ars ,magna1 and other books bearing the name of ,arbor ,scientiae1 ,inventionis1 ,artes demonstrativae1 mixtionis principiorum1 ,auditus cabalistici1 or any other of that kind1 in which the poor fellow strove always to express the same thing4 ,it was the dream of universal knowledge that attracted ,bruno and others to ,lullism1 just as the dream of universal power over nature attracted the greater minds of the ,renaissance to the pseudo-science of ,alchemy4 ,the same idea is at the root of both4 ,all things are in all things1 i4e4 the one fundamental nature is in each and every individual thing1 therefore out of any one may be produced any other4 ,so in the idea of any one thing1 the knowledge of all and any others is necessarily contained1 requiring only a proper method for its extraction1 as out of the seed may be brought the great tree4 ,therefore1 to ,bruno1 the hermit ,lully seemed omniscient and almost divine1 his method an inspiration from above4#bbb ,there is little1 however1 to connect ,bruno with the substantive teaching of ,lully1 apart from the method4 ,he explicitly rejects1 for example1 the main contention of ,lully1 that the ,christian dogmas are capable of demonstration by reason4--,those relations 7i4e4 between ,god and man71 which have been revealed to the worshippers of ,christ alone1 are contrary to all reasoning1 philosophy1 other faiths and superstitions1 and allow of no demonstration but of faith only1 in spite of what ,lully in his madness 7delirando7 attempted to do1 in face of the opinion of the great theologians4#bbc ,sidenote3 ,nicolaus ,cusanus4 ,foremost of all1 however1 of the influences which directed ,bruno's thought was that of the ,cardinal ,nicolaus of ,cusa 7,nicholas ,chrypffs74 ,a pre-reformation reformer1 he stands both in theology and philosophy between the old and the new eras1 summing up in his own theory the purest theology and the most refined philosophy of the ,middle ,ages1 yet inevitably pointing forwards to a scientific and religious reform which should transcend both4 ,where1 cried ,bruno in his oration at ,wittenberg1 will you find his equal8 and the greater he is the fewer are they to whom he is accessible4 ,had not the robe of the priest infected his genius it would have been not merely equal to but far superior to that of ,pythagoras4#bbd ,he knew and discerned much1 and is truly one of the most gifted natures that have ever breathed the air of heaven2 but as to the apprehension of truth1 he was like a swimmer in tempestuous waters1 cast now high now low1 he did not see the light continuously1 openly1 clearly2 did not swim as in calm and quiet waters1 but interruptedly1 at intervals1 for he had not cast off all the false principles which he had received from the common doctrine--his starting-point4#bbe ,a sketch of the philosophy of the ,cusan will show in how close a relation ,bruno stands to him1 yet how great is the difference in outcome between the two philosophies4 ,clemens1 whose sympathies are with the orthodox theologian1 does not hesitate to say that this is the real and direct source from which ,bruno drew with both hands1 the philosophy to which he owes many of the main principles of his nature-philosophy1 and which he has to thank for all the essentials of teaching said to be peculiar to himself2 and ,falckenberg is equally inclined to underrate the originality of the ,italian in preference to the ,german philosopher4 ,the outset of ,cusanus' philosophy is from a theory of knowledge which he held from ,platonist traditions3--,knowledge is posterior both in time and in value to ,being1 or ,reality1 of which it is at best a copy or a sign1 hence ,reality can never be wholly comprehended by it4 ,every human assertion is at best a conjecture1 a hypothesis or approach to truth1 but never the absolute truth itself4 ,only in the ,divine spirit are thought and reality one2 the ,divine thought is at the same time creative1 human only reflective1 imitative1 thus the ,ultimate ,being is and must remain incomprehensible for human minds4 ,so ,bruno also taught4 ,the ,cusan did not1 however1 reject on this account all human knowledge4 ,on the contrary1 reason approximates ever more and more closely to the ,divine mind1 as a polygon approaches more and more to the form of a circle when the number of its sides is increased2 as it never becomes an actual circle1 so the ,divine reason may be known ever more and more truly through human reason1 but never quite truly4 ,it is the knowledge of this our essential ignorance of the ,divine that brings us nearest to it4#bbf ,thus although from one point of view all that is best in human experience may be attributed to the ,divine nature in a higher form 7positive theology71 from another every predicate1 even the highest1 may be denied of it 7negative theology71 or from still a third standpoint 7mystical theology71 contrary predicates equally hold or do not hold of the ,divine4 ,this coincidence of contraries1 suggested perhaps by the tradition of ,heraclitus and ,empedocles1 was in the ,cusan a principle of knowledge merely4 ,the ,divine was at once the greatest and the least2 greatest because we could not imagine it added to1 for it was the all2 least because1 being truly existent1 we could not imagine anything taken away from it4 ,it is owing to the limits of human thought1 therefore1 that ,god is at once greatest and least1 equal and unequal1 many and one2 ,god ,himself is free from all contradiction1 the apparent contraries of our understanding are in ,him one and the same4 ,so1 to our imagination1 the infinite circle coincides with the infinite straight line1 and a top spinning with its fastest movement appears to stand still4 ,bruno extols the greatness of this discovery--,considering it physically1 mathematically1 morally1 one sees that the philosopher who saw into the coincidence of contraries made a discovery of the highest importance1 and that the magician who knows to seek it where it is is no feeble practician4#bbg ,yet1 although he made use of the same geometrical illustrations1 and believed himself to be substantially following ,cusanus1 his theory was widely different4 ,the coincidence springs in ,bruno1 not from the limitations of the human mind1 but from the fulness of the ,divine nature4 ,it is not in ,god as the transcendent unknowable ,being that the coincidence inheres1 but in the infinite universe as one with ,god1 which is in itself at once the greatest and the least1 the maximum and the minimum4 ,since nature is permeated by ,god1 in everything1 in the least of things1 is ,god the greatest2 the least is the greatest1 has in it the nature of the whole1 and so1 too1 the greatest is the least4 ,in ,bruno it is a pantheistic1 in the ,cusan a theistic1 doctrine4 ,the same conception occurs again in its different meanings1 when both compare ,god to an infinite circle in which centre and circumference are one2 in ,cusanus it is to our knowledge that ,he so appears1 in ,bruno ,he really is infinite1 and is with ,his whole nature at any point or centre1 as well as in the whole1 the circumference4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,trinity4 ,with the ,cusan the threefold nature of the ,highest ,being is deduced as a necessity of ,reason3 it is 7#a7 unity eternal2 7#b7 sameness or equality eternal2 and 7#c7 the union of unity and equality4 ,as there cannot be three eternal and highest beings1 these three are necessarily one--the ,unity 7the ,father7 produces or begets from itself the same 7the ,son71 and out of both springs their union 7the ,holy ,ghost71 yet each of these in the ,one is one and the same4#bbh ,in the universe1 the created world1 there is also a ,trinity1 since it is a copy or reflection of the ,divine4 7#a7 ,possibility or ,matter1 the unlimited1 indeterminate1 but capable of being limited and determined1 corresponds to the unity of the eternal2 7#b7 ,actuality1 or ,form1 the limiting or determining something1 that which limits1 corresponds to the sameness or equality of the ,eternal2 and 7#c7 the unifying movement by which the possible receives actuality1 matter receives form1 implying a spirit of union1 of ,love1 corresponds to the ,absolute ,union1 the ,holy ,ghost4#bbi ,at a later stage of his philosophy1 however1 the ,cusan gave a second deduction of the ,trinity4#bcj ,god is both ,absolute ,possibility1 ,absolute ,power or ,potency 7the ,creative ,word1 the ,son71 and the union of both in ,absolute ,reality2 yet these are merely different aspects or points of view of the ,eternal ,being4 ,again1 ,god is the identity of knowing1 or intellect1 the knowable or intelligible 7the ,word71 and love1 as the inter-relation of each with each1 the striving of the knowing after the knowable1 its highest good4#bca ,bruno also adopts the ,trinity of ,possibility or ,matter1 ,potency or ,form1 and ,reality1 but it is applied at once to ,god and to ,nature as two sides of the same thing4 ,as the ,divine potency is infinite1 so is nature1 its expression1 infinite2 matter and form do not in their origin stand opposed to one another1 as if separated from one another1 any more than power and possibility are separate in ,god2 all that can be is realised2 matter has in itself all possible forms1 and produces these out of itself in the successive moments of time2 the universe is eternal1 therefore1 in order that the infinite power may in it be realised4 ,in all these respects ,bruno transforms the orthodox ,cusanus' conception of a created and finite world2 although nowhere perhaps has the idea of a creation been more skilfully woven into a profound philosophical system than in the ,cardinal's quaint dialogues4 ,the ,cusan does not attempt the impossible1 to account for the fact of creation--,god comprehends 7or contains7 all things1 for all things are in ,him1 and ,he unfolds all things out of ,himself1 for in all things ,he lives2 but the essence and the process of the comprehension and the unfolding are unknowable by us1 just as we can never understand how chance comes to be united with necessity 7creation7 in the world4 ,it is to this incomprehensible partnership that the imperfections of created things are attributed4 ,in its reality the universe is finite1 limited2 in its possibility 7i4e4 its idea7 it is infinite1 but only privatively infinite--that is1 ,god could still call a more perfect universe into existence than it has actually pleased ,him to do4 ,only ,he1 as the ,absolute ,greatest1 is infinite in the full negative sense1 i4e4 that which can neither be nor be thought greater than it is4 ,here ,bruno's theory is in complete contrast with that of the ,cusan4 ,there are1 however1 many consequences that both alike have drawn1 as that no two things in the universe are wholly and in all respects alike 7the identity of indiscernibles72 each thing expresses the nature of the whole in a special way1 but all things may be arranged in graduated scales from the lowest to the highest1 or from any one to any other1 i4e4 there are no absolute differences1 only differences of degree4 ,nor are there absolute centres in the universe1 or in any of the worlds1 nor perfect figures--thus there are no perfect circles described1 e4g4 by the planets1 in nature4 ,a further corollary was that the whole is mirrored in each of the parts1 as each particular thing partakes of the soul or creative force of all2 each does not1 however1 mirror or reflect the ,divine nature with the same adequacy as every other2 some do so more perfectly than others1 man most perfectly of all4#bcb ,cusanus did not definitely accept the suggestion of a soul of the universe1 analogous in its relation to the world to the soul of man in the body2 still less did he identify it with ,god1 as ,bruno tended more and more to do4 ,hence he escaped the fantastical consequences of the belief in ,universal ,animism1 which were drawn without reserve by the ,renaissance writers--the consequence1 e4g4 that if one soul1 one nature1 pervades all things1 and is the life of all things1 then out of each may be produced any other--out of lead1 gold1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 the four elements at least were different forms of the same fundamental being1 and might be produced each out of the other2 and1 in common with ,bruno1 ,cusanus held the pre-,aristotelian belief in ,atomism3--there cannot be division of anything1 cube or surface1 or line--ad infinitum2 ultimately there must in each kind be a minimum1#bcc an atom1 beyond which we cannot in fact go1 although to thought it may be still further divisible2 so there is in every figure1 in every kind of thing1 a definite number of atoms4 ,it was partly this thought1 partly also the mystical value from time immemorial given to the different numbers and geometrical figures1 that led both ,cusanus and ,bruno to look to mathematics and geometry for the true method or organon of natural science4 ,number is the natural and fruitful principle of the understanding's activity2 irrational beings do not number4 ,but number is nothing but the unfolding of the understanding4 ,without it the understanding would have none of the results to which it attains4444 ,nothing can exist before number1 for all that goes beyond the simplest unity is in its fashion a composite1 and1 therefore1 without number is unthinkable1 for multitude1 difference1 and relation of parts arise from number4#bcd ,in both again human knowledge proceeds inversely as creation 7or emanation7 from number1 the many1 back through successive grades of simplicity to the one highest1 most simple1 ,god1 in whom are all things complicitly 7without number74 ,what appears to us as after another1 successive1 is by no means after in ,thy ,thought1 which is eternity itself4 ,the single thought1 which is ,thy word1 embraces 7complicat7 all and each in itself1 ,thy single word cannot be manifold1 opposite1 changeable4444 ,in the eternity in which ,thou thinkest1 coincides all the after another of time1 with the now of eternity4 ,there is1 therefore1 no past nor future where future and past coincide with the present4#bce ,the merely logical understanding1 that which is based upon sense and requires sense-images for its material1 is inadequate to this highest knowledge1 gives approximation merely1 and we are thrown back upon mystical intuition on the one hand1 reasoned faith on the other1 for our insight into the true nature of the ,one and the ,all4#bcf ,sidenote3 ,agrippa of ,nettesheim4 ,other influences which gave direction to ,bruno's genius belong rather to physical science and pseudo-science than to philosophical theory4 ,cornelius ,agrippa of ,nettesheim 7#adhg-aece71 the scholarly adventurer1 the ,faust who acquired all the knowledge and most of the arts of his time1 wrote a compendium and justification 7from ,neoplatonist philosophy7 of magical practices1#bcg and at the close of his life the great declamation on the uncertainty and vanity of all sciences and arts1#bch--;a plea for the simple life and the simple gospel4 ,the ,de occulta philosophia is the chief source from which ,bruno drew the fantastical lore of the ,de ,monade4#bci ,the satires upon ,asinity1 as the chief human virtue1 in the ,spaccio and the ,cabala1 directed as they are against blind faith without works or wisdom1 found their occasion at least in ,agrippa's praise of the ,ass 7in the ,de ,vanitate7 as the mouthpiece of ,god in the story of ,balaam1 and the bearer of ,christ in the ,new ,testament history4 ,sidenote3 ,paracelsus4 ,sidenote3 ,cardanus4 ,sidenote3 ,telesio4 ,paracelsus#bdj proposed a reform of medicine on ,neoplatonist principles1 attacking the ,galenian doctrine of the ,four ,humours1 which was based on the four elements of the ,aristotelians 7the warm and the cold1 the moist and the dry74 ,his own more natural theory made salt1 sulphur1 and mercury the 7chemical7 elements of all things--those which in living organisms were vivified and directed by an inner spirit 7e4g4 the ,archaeus in man71 a direct emanation from the soul of the universe4 ,through their common constitution1 and the spirit that infused all things alike1 there was a subtle1 mysterious sympathy between the microcosm and the macrocosm1 the individual body and the universe1 and it was by the study of the relations 7magical1 astrological1 and the rest7 between the stars and the things of earth1 between the different metals and the body of man1 that ,paracelsus proposed to reform the art of medicine4 ,bruno1 in the ,causa1#bda praises ,paracelsus for his philosophical treatment of medicine1 that he did not rest content with the three chemical principles alone for explanation of the different vital phenomena1 but sought the true principle of life everywhere in a spirit or soul4 ,he is one of the builders of the temple of wisdom1--ad miraculum medicus4#bdb ,in his magical writings and in the ,de ,monade1 ,bruno is largely indebted for materials to ,paracelsus4 ,the same general tendency1 the desire for a return to nature and to sense-observation as opposed to the authority of ,aristotle1 and to the cult of logical or grammatical subtleties1 is found also in ,cardan4#bdc ,in his work there is the same mixture of mathematics and physical science with theology1 magic1 and ,neoplatonism1 and to him ,bruno owes many of his superstitions4 ,the more profound ,telesio also 7who before ,bruno made honourable war upon ,aristotle7#bdd attempted1 independently of all authority1 from sense-knowledge and induction alone1 to penetrate the mysteries of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,copernicus4 ,only one name remains with which that of ,bruno is indelibly associated--that of ,copernicus1 whose ,de orbium coelestium ,revolutionibus was published in #aedc4 ,it was his theory of the solar system1 coinciding as it seemed with that of the most ancient philosophers1 that gave the decisive trend to ,bruno's thought1 holding him fast to the one all-important fact that the earth is not the centre of the universe but one of its humblest members4 ,without the solid arguments of ,copernicus1 ,bruno's superb conception of the cosmic system would have remained a dream1 an intuition of genius1 rather than a well-grounded forecast of modern scientific discovery4 ,there is more understanding1 said ,bruno1 in two of his chapters than in the whole philosophy of nature of ,aristotle and all the ,peripatetics4#bde ,grave1 thoughtful1 careful1 and mature in mind1 not inferior to any of the astronomers that went before him--in natural judgment far superior to ,ptolemy1 ,hipparch1 ,eudoxus1 and all the others that have walked in their footsteps--a height he attained by freeing himself from the prejudices1 not to say blindness1 of the vulgar philosophy4 ,yet he did not get beyond it2 being more a student of mathematics than of nature1 he was unable wholly to uproot all unfitting1 vain principles1 to solve all contrary difficulties1 liberate both himself and others from so many vain inquiries1 and fix their contemplation on things abiding and sure4 ,with all that1 who can sufficiently appraise the greatness of this ,german1 who paid little heed to the foolish multitude1 and stood solid against the torrent of opposing belief4 ,although almost destitute of living reasons for weapons1 he took up those cast-off and rusty fragments that he could get to his hand from antiquity2 repolished them1 brought the pieces together1 mended them1 so that through his arguments--mathematical rather than physical though they were--he made a cause that had been ridiculed1 despised1 neglected1 to be honoured and prized1 to seem more probable than its contrary1 and certainly more suitable and expeditious for calculation4#bdf ,copernicus had put forward the theory as a hypothesis merely1 and had shown how much more simply the different positions of the sun and planets as seen from the earth could be explained by it1 and how much more accurately they could be calculated4 ,in the ,epistle prefixed to his work 7said by ,bruno not to be by ,copernicus himself71 the reader was warned of the folly of taking this hypothesis as true4 ,to ,bruno the contrary of the hypothesis was absurd4 ,bruno did not appreciate the mathematical proofs of ,copernicus1 and constantly spoke of him as too much of a mathematician1 too little of a physicist3 his own mathematical demonstrations were1 however1 much less successful than those of his predecessor4#bdg ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,knowledge#bdh ,it is the object of this chapter to give some account of the speculations on nature and spirit which occupied ,bruno during his first year in ,england1 and which show how hard he was striving to pierce through the shell of medival thought in which his mind was encased4 ,however fiercely he struggled to gain his freedom1 it was impossible that he should do so quite at once4 ,with all his contemporaries1 he was imbued in ,aristotle's ways of thought1 and the problems he set himself to answer were largely determined for him by ,aristotle4 ,the categories with which he wrought1--principle1 cause1 form1 matter1 potency1 act1 subject1 were those of the ,stagirite1 and were open1 therefore1 to the same charge of unfruitfulness4 ,on the other hand1 while the outward form of ,bruno's philosophy1 and to a certain extent its matter also1 were essentially ,aristotelian1 the spirit which infused it all was not so2 the emotion and enthusiasm with which he wrote savoured rather of the fire of ,plato than of the logical mind of his successor2 and throughout1 the new conception of nature and of mind which belongs to modern philosophy was struggling to the light4 ,from his ,platonist masters ,bruno had learned that the ,highest or ,first ,principle was unknowable to man1 being beyond the reach of his senses and of his understanding alike3 a complete systematisation of knowledge was therefore impossible4 ,a philosophy of nature had to seek only for physical 7i4e4 real or immanent7 causes or principles2 these might depend1 indeed1 upon the highest and first principle or cause1 but the dependence was not so close that the knowledge of the former gave us knowledge of the latter3 no single system of knowledge could embrace both4 ,knowing the universe1 we yet knew nothing of the essence or substance of its first cause1 any more than that of the sculptor ,apelles could be inferred from the statue he had made4 ,the things of nature1 although effects of the divine operation1 became the remotest accidents1 when regarded as means to the knowledge of the divine supernatural ,essence4 ,we have still less ground for knowing it than for knowing ,apelles from his finished statues1 for all of these we may see1 and examine1 part by part1 but not the great and infinite effect of the divine potency4#bdi ,the ,first ,principle is1 therefore1 the concern of the moralist and of the theologian1 as revealed to them by the gods1 or declared to them through the inspired knowledge of diviner men and of the prophets4 ,on the other hand1 in the universe we have the infinite image of ,god1 and it is1 therefore1 possible through it to obtain an approximate knowledge of ,him3 the magnificent stars and shining bodies1 which are so many inhabited worlds1 and animate beings or deities1 worlds similar to that which contains ourselves1 must depend1 since they are composite and capable of dissolution1 upon a principle and cause2 and consequently1 by their greatness1 their life and work1 they show forth and preach the majesty of this first principle and cause4#bej ,thus the starting-point of ,bruno's mature philosophy is nature as the vestige or imprint of divinity1 and divinity is considered only as nature itself or as reflected in nature3 the presence of a transcendent principle above and beyond nature is1 indeed1 premised to the discussion of the ,causa1 but it is no longer admitted that its study falls within the philosopher's scope1 nor does it ever hamper or in any way influence the course of the argument4 ,so far from that1 we find1 at the completion of the dialogue1 that we have arrived at an immanent principle or divinity1 which renders the transcendent superfluous4 ,sidenote3 ,principle3 ,cause4 ,the purpose of the ,causa1#bea ,bruno's first purely philosophical work1 was to determine what are the creative and constitutive principles of the natural world1--its efficient cause1 its end1 its form1 its matter1 and its unity2 or1 in other words1 to lay down the foundations of knowledge1 to give an outline-picture of reality the details of which it was left to experience and observation to fill in4 ,bruno begins by laying down certain distinctions1 which1 however1 do not1 in the end1 prove very binding4 ,first1 a principle 7principio7 is that which enters1 intrinsically1 into the constitution of a thing1 while a cause concurs from without in its production2 thus1 matter and form1 which are principles rather than causes1 are the elements of which a thing is composed and into which it is resolved4 ,a cause1 on the other hand1 remains outside of the resultant object--for example1 the efficient1 creating cause1 and the end or final cause for which the thing is ordained4 ,principle is the more general term1 for in ,nature1 not everything that is principle1 is also cause3 the point is principle of the line1 not cause2 the instant1 of the event2 the starting-point1 of the movement2 the premisses1 of the argument4#beb ,god is both principle and cause1 but from different points of view3 ,he is first principle in so far as all things are posterior to him in nature1 duration1 or dignity2 he is first cause in so far as all things are distinguished from him as effect from efficient1 thing produced from producer4 ,the points of view are different1 for not always is the prior and more worthy a cause of that which is posterior and less worthy2 and not always is the cause prior and more worthy than that which is caused4#bec ,there are really two marks of a principle given by ,bruno1 priority in worth1 and internality2 but1 generally1 a principle is that without which a thing could not come into being1 and which if taken away would take away also the being of the thing4 ,to a cause the latter half of this description would not apply1 as it remains outside of the effect4 ,thus ,god as principle is immanent in all things1 and is the higher source from which they proceed4 ,this twofold interpretation of the relation of ,god to nature and to natural things was already inherent in the ,neoplatonic doctrine which formed ,bruno's starting-point1 since ,god as the source of emanation was outside of the emanations themselves1 and was unaffected by them2 on the other hand1 the gradations in the different stages of emanation1 and the possibility of rising from the lowest to the highest1 to the ,one above all1 implied the existence of somewhat of the ,one as a common nature in all4 ,the two points of view were1 however1 held apart1 and the contradiction between them was not consciously perceived1 so that the coincidence of nature between ,god as the source1 and matter as the lowest emanation1 never suggested itself2 on the contrary1 their complete opposition was maintained until ,bruno put forward his theory of the divinity of matter1 which forms the real theme of the ,causa4 ,sidenote3 ,efficient cause of nature4 ,the efficient cause of the natural world is the universal intelligence1 the first and principal faculty of the soul of the world4 ,this intellectus universalis is to natural things as our intellect to the thoughts of our mind1 and ,bruno identifies it with the ,demiurge of the ,platonists1 and the seed-sower of the ,magi1 for it impregnates matter with all forms3 it is an artefice interno1 for it works from within in giving form and figure to matter1 as the seed or root from within sends forth the stem1 the stem the branches1 the branches the formed twigs1 and these the buds2 from within leaves1 flowers1 fruit are formed1 figured1 patterned2 from within again in due time the sap is recalled from leaves and fruit to twigs1 from twigs to branches1 from these to stem1 from stem to root4444 ,but how much greater an artificer is he that works not in any single part of matter alone1 but continually and in all4#bed ,the intellectus is both external and internal to any particular being2 i4e4 it is not a part of any particular existence1 is not exhausted by it1 therefore is so far external to it2 on the other hand1 it does not act upon matter from without1 but from within1#bee the efficient cause is at the same time an inward principle4 ,sidenote3 ,formal cause of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,final cause4 ,the formal cause of nature is the ideal reason2 before the intelligence can produce species or particular things1 can bring them forth from the potentiality of matter into reality1 it must contain them formally1 i4e4 ideally1 in itself1 as the sculptor cannot mould different statues without having first thought out their different forms4#bef ,this ideal reason is the ,idea ante rem of the ,scholastics4 ,the ideas of the intelligence are not1 as such1 the things of nature1 they are the models by which the intellect guides nature in its production of individual things4 ,the final cause which the intellect sets before itself is the perfection of the universe1 i4e4 that all possible forms may have actual existence in the different portions of matter2 from its joy in this end proceeds its ceaseless activity in the production of forms out of matter4#beg ,sidenote3 ,form4 ,among constitutive principles or elements of things1 the intellectus again takes the foremost place as the form2 for1 as we have seen1 it is both extrinsic and intrinsic to the nature of things1 444 the soul is in the body as the pilot in the ship2 in so far as he is moved along with it1 he is part of the ship1 but in so far as he governs and guides it1 he is not a part but a separate agent2 so the soul of the universe1 in so far as it animates and gives form to things1 is intrinsic formal principle2 in so far as it directs and governs1 it is not part1 nor principle1 but cause4#beh ,as external1 the soul of the world is independent of matter1 and untouched by its defects3 it is only the perfections of the lower that are present in the higher being1 and that to a higher degree4 ,as internal it constitutes the soul in all things--down to the very lowest1 although in these it is repressed or latent4 ,this all-presence of soul does not mean1 however1 that each particular thing1 e4g4 a table or garment1 is1 as such1 a living and sensible being1 but only that in everything1 however small or insignificant1 there is a portion or share of spirit1 animating it1 and this1 if it find a properly disposed subject1 may extend itself so as to become plant or animal1 and may receive the limbs of any body whatsoever1 such as is commonly said to be animate4 ,even the smallest material body1 therefore1 has in it the potentiality of life and mind4 ,sidenote3 ,substance4 ,it follows that there are1 strictly speaking1 only two substances1 matter and spirit3 all particular things result from the composition in varying degrees of these two--are therefore mere accidents1 and have no abiding reality4 ,bruno joins issue in this with the ,peripatetics1 to whom the real man1 for example1 is a composite of body and soul1 or the true soul is the perfection or actualisation of the living body1 or is a resultant from a certain harmony of form and of limbs4#bei ,death or dissolution would mean to them the loss of their being2 whereas neither body nor soul need fear death1 for both matter and form are constant abiding principles4#bfj ,this theory of substance and of immortality was regarded by ,bruno as one of the cardinal points of his philosophy1#bfa and one in which he differed most widely from ,aristotle1 as interpreted by him1 and from the ,aristotelians4 ,its statement1 and the criticism of the ,peripatetics1 occur again and again throughout the works1 and he believed the removal from man of the fear of death to be one of the greatest results of his teaching4--,this spirit1 being persistent along with matter--and these being the one and the other indissoluble1 it is impossible that anything should in any respect see corruption or come to death1 in its substance1 although in certain accidents everything changes face1 and passes now into one composition1 now into another1 through now one disposition1 now another1 leaving off or taking up now this now that existence4 ,aristotelians1 ,platonists1 and other sophists have not understood what the substance of things is4 ,in natural things that which they call substance1 apart from matter1 is pure accident4 ,when we know what form really is1 we know what is life and what is death2 and1 the vain and puerile fear of the latter passing from us1 we experience some of that blessedness which our philosophy brings with it1 inasmuch as it lifts the dark veil of foolish sentiment concerning ,orcus and the insatiable ,charon1 that wrests from us or empoisons all that is sweetest in our lives4#bfb ,there is a certain ambiguity in the description of substance4 ,whether is the spiritual unity which is placed over against matter itself substance1 or is it rather the particular souls which are part of it1 and which are thus immortal1 changing only the form of composition into which they enter8 ,in this dialogue it seems ,bruno is speaking only of the world-soul1#bfc but in later works1 especially in the ,spaccio and ,de ,minimo1 the substantiality and immortality of the individual soul are categorically asserted4 ,in the ,causa however1 ,bruno maintains quite clearly the substantiality of the universal soul alone1 the finite individual being merely one of the modes of its determination in matter4#bfd ,having shown that no part of matter is ever entirely without form1 ,bruno leaves aside for the present the question whether all form 7,spirit7 is equally accompanied by matter4 ,the form or world-soul is not more than one1 for all numerical multiplication depends on matter4 ,it is in itself unchanging2 only the objects vary1 the different portions of matter into which it enters3 and although in the object it is the spirit or form which causes the part to differ from the whole1 yet it does not differ in the part or in the whole4 ,there are differences of aspect only1 according as it is regarded as 7a7 subsisting in itself1 or as 7b7 the actuality and perfection of some object1 or as 7c7 referred to different objects with different dispositions4#bfe ,that is1 ,spirit in itself1--the universal ,spirit1--the ,spirit or ,soul of a particular animate being1 the ,spirits or ,souls of a number of different beings 7a system of beings71 these are all the same thing looked at from different points of view4 ,it is the same unique ,spirit which determines the life of the human individual1 the development of the human race as a whole1 and the persistence of the world2 the soul of ,caesar and the spirit of humanity are one with the soul of the universe4 ,the relation of spirit to matter in ,bruno's philosophy is more difficult to understand4 ,spirit is said to be neither external to nor mixed with matter1 nor inherent in it1 but inexistent1 i4e4 associated with or present to it4 ,moreover it is defined and determined by matter1 because having in itself power to realise particular things of innumerable kinds1 it contracts or limits itself to realise a given individual2 and on the other side the potency of matter1 which is indeterminate1 and capable of any form whatsoever1 is determined to one particular kind2 so that the one is cause of the definition and determination of the other4 ,thus particular bodies are modes 7determinations7 of spirit and also of matter4 ,as the universal form1 spirit is all-present throughout the universe1 not however materially or in extension1 but spiritually1 i4e4 intensively4 ,bruno's favourite illustration is that of a voice or utterance--imagine a voice which is wholly in the whole of a room1 and in every part of it2 everywhere it is heard wholly1 as these words which ,i speak are understood wholly by all1 and would be even if there were a thousand present2 and if my voice could reach to all the world1 it would be all in all4#bff ,so the soul is individual1 not as a point is1 but1 analogously to a voice1 or utterance1 filling the universe4 ,it is clear from these passages that the finite soul has no more reality in this phase of ,bruno's pantheism than in ,spinoza's2 not only is the world-soul one as unique1 but it is also one as indivisible--there are no parts of it3 it is wholly in each of the parts of the universe--in each of its realisations4 ,the finite individual1 as this particular soul in this particular body1 is accordingly a mere accident1 and passes away as all accidents do2 its existence is due chiefly to matter1 by the varying dispositions of which the universal form is determined to this or that particular form2 matter is in general the source of all particularity1 all number and measure4 ,the difficulty underlying this attribution of diversity to a matter which is supposed to be1 apart from the form1 undetermined and undifferentiated1 has been referred to above4 ,it is emphasised in the argument to this part of the ,causa given in the introductory epistle1#bfg where matter1 although formless in itself1 is spoken of as consisting in diverse grades of active and passive qualities8 ,bruno seems1 however1 at this time unconscious of the difficulty4 ,certainly from pure matter and pure form1 body and spirit1 standing over against one another1 no start could be made4 ,diversity had to come into the world somehow4 ,sidenote3 ,the deduction of matter4 ,we have not yet solved the problem as to the relation between these two principles themselves--matter and form4 ,bruno confesses to have held at one period the ,epicurean view that matter was the only substance1 the forms being merely accidental dispositions of it2 but on further consideration he was compelled to recognise a formal as well as a material substance4#bfh ,in fact1 however1 both form and matter tend as the philosophy develops to coincide in a higher unity which is at last the ultimate reality4 ,the proof of ,matter is from the analogy between ,nature and ,art4 ,all who have attempted1 said ,bruno1 to distinguish matter from form have made use of the analogy of the arts 7e4g4 the ,pythagoreans1 ,platonists1 ,peripatetics74 ,take some art such as that of the wood-worker2 in all its forms and all its operations it has as subject 7or material7 wood--as the iron-worker has iron2 the tailor1 cloth4 ,all these arts produce each in its own material various pictures1 arrangements1 figures1 none of which is proper or natural to that material4 ,so ,nature1 which art resembles1 must have for its operations a certain matter 7material72 for no agent intending to make something can work without something of which to make it1 or wishing to act can do so without something on which to act2 there is therefore a species of subject or material1 of which and in which nature effectuates its operation1 its work1 and which is by it formed in the many forms presented to the eye of reflection4 ,and as wood by itself has not any artificial form1 but may have any or all through the action of the wood-worker1 so the matter of which we speak1 of itself and in its own nature1 has not any natural form1 but may have any or all through the agent1 the active principle of nature4 ,this natural matter or material is imperceptible1 differing so from the material of art1 because the matter of nature has absolutely no form1 whereas the matter of art is a thing already formed by nature4 ,art can operate only upon the surface of things formed by nature1 as wood1 iron1 stone1 wool1 and similar things2 but nature operates from the centre so to speak1 of its subject1 or matter1 which in itself is wholly devoid of form4 ,the subjects of the arts are many--of nature one2 for those being diversely formed by nature1 are different and various1 while the latter1 not being formed at all1 is entirely indifferent1--every difference and variety being due to the form4#bfi ,as it is absolutely formless1 this matter cannot be perceived by the senses1 which are the media of natural forms1 but only by the eye of reason4 ,as visible matter1 that of art1 remains the same under countless variations of form1--the form of a tree becoming that of a trunk1 of a beam1 of a table1 a chair1 a stool1 a comb1 its nature as wood continuing throughout2 so in nature that which was seed becomes herb2 the herb1 corn in the ear2 the corn1 bread2 the bread1 bile2 bile1 blood2 blood again seed1 an embryo1 a man1 a corpse1 earth1 stone1 or other things1 and so through all natural forms4 ,there must then be one and the same thing which in itself is not stone nor earth1 nor corpse1 nor man1 nor embryo1 nor blood1 nor anything else4#bgj ,so the ,pythagorean ,timaeus#bga inferred1 from the transmutations of the elements one into another1--earth into water1 the dry into the moist1--a tertium quid1 which was neither moist nor dry1 but became subject now of the one1 now of the other nature4 ,otherwise the earth would have gone to nothing and the water come from nothing1 which is impossible4 ,thus nothing is ever annihilated but the accidental1 the exterior1 material form1 both matter and the substantial form1 i4e4 spirit1 being eternal4 ,sidenote3 ,natural forms4 ,the argument has proved that there is a something1 the ,i know not what of ,locke1 which is the substance of all natural things1 natural forms4 ,we have now to see in what relation this substance stands to the forms1 the differences1 which are on its surface4 ,all natural forms dissolve in matter1 and come again in matter1 so that nothing is really constant1 firm1 eternal1 or deserving of the name of a principle1 but matter3 besides that the forms have no existence without matter1 in it they are generated and decay1 from it they issue1 into it are received again2 therefore matter1 which remains always the same and always fruitful1 must be regarded as the only substantial principle1 as that which always is and always abides2 and the forms but as varying dispositions of matter1 which come and go1 cease and are renewed2 therefore they have no claim to be principles4#bgb ,the matter or material of which ,bruno here speaks is what afterwards was called extension1 or the extended substance1 and the natural forms are the various individual shapes or bodies of nature3 both from the transformations of one into the other1 and again from the fact that the particular forms come into being and cease to exist1 it was argued that there must be an underlying something1 material indeed1 but different from all the things we know or see1 indifferently capable of becoming any one of them1 persisting throughout their becoming1 their change1 and their ceasing to exist1--i4e4 a permanent reality4 ,sidenote3 ,matter as potentiality4 ,sidenote3 ,first principle or absolute4 ,matter1 however1 meant not only subject or substrate1 but also potentiality1 or possibility3 and we have to consider it in this light also4 ,everything that exists is therefore possible1 and the possibility of coming into existence1--passive potency1--implies that of bringing into existence--active potentiality or power2 the one is never without the other1 not even in the first principle4 ,thus the first principle is all that which it has the possibility of being--in it reality and possibility are one2 whereas a stone1 e4g4 is not all that it has the possibility of being1 for it is not lime1 nor vase1 nor dust1 nor grass4 ,that which is all that it can be1 the ,absolute1 is also all that any other thing is or can be3 it embraces all being within itself4 ,other things are not thus absolute1 but limited to one reality at a time1 i4e4 one specific and particular existence4 ,they can be more only through succession and change4 ,every possibility and actuality that in the 7first7 principle is as it were complicate1 united1 one1 in other things is explicate1 dispersed1 many4 ,the universe1 which is the great simulacrum and image 7of the first principle7 is--it also--all that which it may be in its kinds and principal members1 as containing all matter1 to which no element of the whole 7the universal7 form can be added1 in which no phase of that form is ever wanting2 but it is not all that which it may be in its differences1 its modes1 properties1 and individuals2 thus it is a mere shadow of the first reality1 and first potency1 and so far in it reality and possibility are not the same absolutely1 that no part of it is all that which it may be3 besides that1 as we have said1 the universe is all that it may be only in explicitness1 dispersion1 distinctness1 whereas its principle is so unitedly and indifferently1 for in it all is all1 and the same1 simply1 without difference or distinction4#bgc ,sidenote3 ,matter and form are one4 ,sidenote3 ,matter or substrate of the spiritual world4 ,bruno works out at considerable length the paradoxes to which this identity of all possibility and all reality in the first principle lead4 ,thus1 in magnitude it is both greatest and least1 and as in magnitude1 so in goodness1 in beauty2 the sun would fitly represent such a principle if it were at the same moment in all parts of the universe1 if its motion were so swift that it was everywhere at once1 and therefore motionless4 ,god1 however1 is not only all that the sun may be1 but also all that everything else may be--potency of all potencies1 reality of all realities1 life of all lives1 soul of all souls1 being of all beings4 ,that which elsewhere is contrary and opposite1 is in ,him one and the same4#bgd ,bruno has brought us back in a curious way to the very first principle which he proposed to exclude from contemplation3 it can be understood1 it is true1 only by negations1 for our intellect cannot measure itself with the immeasurable3 we can form no image or idea of a great that might not be greater4 ,but here follows one of the most vital steps in his philosophy3--,as the absolute possibility1 the first principle becomes itself matter1 and as there is no possibility without an actuality1 present or to come1 the absolute possibility is also absolute reality1 or matter and form coincide in the ,one4#bge ,we approach this conclusion first from the consideration of matter as subject 7substrate74 ,from the changes of one natural substance into others we inferred a universal substrate1 undifferentiated1 which formed at once the basis of the community of nature in things1 and the ground of their difference4#bgf ,but the spiritual and the corporeal worlds1 also1 as distinguished from one another1 imply a common subject or substrate in which they are one or identical4 ,bruno refers1 as we have seen1 to ,plotinus#bgg as having held that distinction and difference imply a common ground or unity1 and that intelligible distinctions are not exempt from this rule4 ,as man qu man is different from lion qu lion1 but in the common nature of animal or of corporeal substance they are one and the same1 so the matter of things corporeal1 as such1 is different from the matter of things incorporeal1 as such3 but from another point of view it is the same matter which in dimensions or extension is corporeal matter1 and which when without dimensions or extension is an incorporeal substance4 ,in things eternal 7spiritual7 there is one matter in one simple realisation1 in things variable 7corporeal7 matter has now one1 now another2 in the former1 it has at one time and all together all that which it can have1 and is all that it may be2 in the latter1 at many times1 on different occasions1 and in succession4 ,the former has all species of figure and dimension1 and because it has all1 it has none3 for that which is so many diverse things1 cannot be any one of them in particular4 ,that which is all must include every particular existence4#bgh ,in it1 absolute potency and absolute actuality1 matter and form1 do not differ at all2 it is the extreme of purity1 simplicity1 individuality1 and unity1 because it is absolutely all4 ,it is individual in the highest sense4 ,being both matter and form1 it is neither3 as matter1 it has all dimensions and none2 as form1 it has all formal existence or qualities and none4 ,the corporeal matter is contracted to this or that dimension1 whereas spiritual matter is free 7absoluta7 of dimensions1 therefore is both above all1 and comprising all4 ,thus matter in itself1 being without dimensions1 is indivisible3 it acquires dimensions according to the nature of the form it receives3 the dimensions under the human form differ from those under the horse form1 and from those under the olive or the myrtle form4 ,but before it can be under any of these forms1 it must have in faculty all their dimensions1 as it has the possibility or potency of receiving all the forms4 ,in itself it includes rather than excludes all dimensions1 because it does not receive them as from without1 but sends them1 brings them forth1 from itself1 as from the womb4#bgi ,in other words1 ,nature1 under one aspect1 is a spiritual unity1 in which are comprised all possible differences1 or all separate existences3 under another it is these many existences themselves1 in each of which1 in succession1 all differences are realised1 all modes come into being3 and finally1 under another aspect1 it is the force which brings forth the separate forms or existences out of the formless1 indeterminate1 undifferentiated unity of being1 or ,god4 ,the two kinds of matter1 or potentiality1 the lower and the higher1 are thus essentially one2 so we reach the notion1 not indeed of the highest and best principle1 as ,bruno is again careful to remind us1 but of the soul of the world1 as reality of all1 and potency of all1 and all in all4 ,thus in the end1 although individuals are innumerable1 all things are one2 and the knowledge of this unity is the goal and limit of all philosophy of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,the unity of spirit and body4 ,sidenote3 ,coincidence of all things in the ,one4 ,this unity1 which embraces all the knowable1 is the subject of the fifth dialogue of the ,causa4 ,the steps by which we have reached it are3--first1 the identification of a common nature1 or substratum in things corporeal1--corporeal matter1 that which is common to all physical existences2 secondly1 the recognition that there must similarly be a corresponding matter1 or common ground of things spiritual2 there also differences exist and demand an identity2 and finally1 corporeal matter and spiritual matter must themselves coincide in ground2 there must exist that which is indifferently either1 or which is the potency of both1 and their subject or substratum4 ,to the objection that to have dimensions is characteristic of matter1 it is answered that each kind of matter has dimensions1 only the latter has them absolutely1 i4e4 it has all indifferently1 and therefore none1 while the other is always contracted to one or other at each instant1 but has all successively4 ,we have seen that at the close of the fourth dialogue ,bruno refers again to the first principle1 unknowable1 or knowable only by faith1 and professes to abstain from any consideration of it4 ,it is quite clear1 however1 that ,bruno could not have said of it anything other than he says of this unity of the corporeal and the spiritual itself4 ,that which is implicitly all reality in such a manner that it is at the same time none of the particular forms of the real1 is all things and none--could not be other than the highest principle4 ,further1 this unity already has the distinction applied formerly to the ,highest ,intelligence1--it is all1 and at the same time it creates all1 in producing the forms out of itself4 ,the unity then is only the world-soul from a special point of view1 or the world-soul is at once the unity of itself and of the corporeal world4#bhj ,this means that of the spiritual and the corporeal worlds each is a unity in itself1 and each only a special aspect of a final unity which embraces both4 ,it is no wonder then that ,schelling found a congenial spirit in ,bruno4 ,the reality of this final matter or unity is moreover higher1 truer1 than that of any of the forms to which it gives birth1 and finally it is divine4 ,little more is wanting to prove the entire superfluity of the theological highest principle4 ,the unity 7or matter7 is by no means an abstract identity1 but a concrete whole1 which contains all differentiation in itself1 and a dynamic being1 which produces1 or realises1 its own modes4 ,determinate1 sensible1 explicate existence is not the highest characteristic 7raggione7 of actuality1 but is a thing consequent1 an effect of the latter2 thus the principal essence of wood1 e4g4 the characteristic of its actuality1 does not consist in its being 'bed'2 but in its being of such a substance and consistency that it may be bed1 bench1 beam1 idol1 or anything formed of wood4 ,nature1 however1 from its material produces all things1 not as art1 by mechanical removal or addition of parts1 but by separation1 birth1 efflux1 as the ,pythagoreans understood1--,bruno adds ,anaxagoras1 ,democritus1 the ,wise ,men of ,babylon1 ,moses6 ,rather1 then1 it contains the forms and includes them1 than is empty of them1 or excludes them2 and matter1 which makes explicit what it contains implicitly1 ought to be called a ,divine thing3 it is the substance of nature4#bha ,thus the ,one is the only ultimate reality2 it is neither matter nor form1 yet both together1--implicitly4 ,and it has no parts1 or all parts1 for all parts coincide in it1 the smallest with the greatest1 in it all particular things coincide with one another1 and all differences4 ,it has all possible existence and is therefore unchangeable1 it has all perfections and therefore is infinitely perfect4 ,sidenote3 ,indifference of all things in the ,infinite4 ,the universe is one1 infinite1 immovable4 ,one is the absolute possibility1 one the reality4 ,one the form or soul1 one matter or body4 ,one the thing1 one the ens4 ,one the greatest and best1 which can not be comprised1 and therefore can neither be ended nor limited1 and even so is infinite and unlimited1 and consequently immovable4 ,it does not move locally1 for there is no place outside of itself1 to which it might transport itself 7for it is the all74 ,of it is no generation1 for there is no other existence which it can desire or expect1 for it has all existence4 ,of it is no corruption1 for there is no other thing to which it can change2 it is everything4 ,it cannot grow less or greater1 for it is infinite2 it cannot be added to1 and it cannot be subtracted from1 for the infinite has no proportional parts4 ,it cannot be subject to mutation in any quality whatever1 nor is there anything contrary to1 or diverse from it1 which may alter it1 for in it all things are in harmony4#bhb ,in it height is not greater than length or depth2 hence by a kind of simile it may be called a sphere4 ,it has no parts1 for a part of the infinite must be infinite1 and if it is infinite it concurs in one with the whole2 hence the universe is one1 infinite1 without parts4 ,within it there is not part greater and part less1 for one part1 however great1 has no greater proportion to the infinite than another1 however small2 and therefore1 in infinite duration1 there is no difference between the hour and the day1 between the day and the year1 between the year and the century1 between the century and the moment2 for moments and hours are not more in number than centuries1 and those bear no less proportion to eternity than these4 ,similarly1 in the immeasurable1 the foot is not different from the yard1 the yard from the mile1 for in proportion to immensity1 the mile is not nearer than the foot4 ,infinite hours are not more than infinite centuries1 infinite feet are not of greater number than infinite miles4#bhc ,thus1 ,bruno frankly draws the conclusion1 which is inherent in all pantheistic thought1 that in the infinite all things are indifferent2 there are no proportional parts thereof--in it one is not greater nor better than another3 ,in comparison1 similitude1 union1 identity with the infinite1 one does not approach nearer by being a man than by being an ant1 by being a star than by being a man4 ,in the infinite these things are indifferent1 and what ,i say of these holds of all other things or particular existences4 ,now if all these particular things in the infinite are not one and another1 are not different1 are not species1 it necessarily follows that they are not number 7i4e4 not distinct7--the universe is again an immovable1 unchangeable one4 ,if in it act does not differ from potency1 then point1 line1 superficies and body do not differ in it 7for each is potency of the other--a line by motion may become a surface1 a surface a body74 ,in the infinite1 then1 point does not differ from body2 since the point is potency of body1 it does not differ from body1 where potency and act are one and the same thing4 ,if point does not differ from body1 centre from circumference1 finite from infinite1 the greatest from the least1 then the universe1 as we have said1 is all centre1 or the centre of the universe is everywhere2 or1 again1 the circumference is everywhere but the centre is nowhere4 ,thus1 not only are the particular existences indifferent in the infinite3 they have also in it no true reality1 i4e4 their existence is a purely relative one4 ,we have now to consider the relation of particular things one to another4 ,it follows from the argument that all things are in all2 each particular thing has the possibility of all reality1 has all reality implicit in itself1 but only one mode is at any particular time realised1 and the life of particular things consists in their constant transmutation from one mode to another4 ,while the universe comprehends all existence and all modes of existence1--of particular things1 each has all existence1 but not all modes of existence1 and cannot actually have all circumstances and accidents1 for many forms are incompatible in the same subject1 either as contraries or as belonging to diverse species4 ,the same individual subject 7supposito7 cannot be under the accidents of horse and of man1 under the dimensions of a plant and of an animal4 ,moreover1 the universe comprehends all existence wholly1 because outside of and beyond infinite existence there is nothing that exists1 for there is no outside or beyond3 of particular things on the other hand1 each comprehends all existence1 but not wholly1 for beyond each are infinite others4 ,but the ens1 substance1 essence of all is one1 which being infinite and unlimited in its substance as in its duration1 in its greatness as in its force1 can neither be called principle nor resultant2 for as everything concurs in its unity and identity1 it is not relative1 but absolute4 ,in the one infinite1 immovable1 which is substance1 ens1 there is multitude1 number2 and number1 as mode of the ens1 differentiates thing from thing2 it does not therefore make the ens to be more than one1 but to be of many modes1 forms1 and figures4 ,hence leaving the logicians to their vain imaginings1 we find that all that makes difference and number is pure accident1 pure figure1 pure complexion2 every creation of whatsoever sort it may be is an alteration1 the substance remaining always the same1 for there is only ,one ,being1 divine1 immortal4#bhd ,sidenote3 ,beauty1 harmony1 permanence of nature4 ,thus all things are in the universe1 the universe in all things2 we in it1 it in us2 and so all concurs in a perfect unity4 ,therefore1 cries ,bruno1 we need not be troubled in spirit1 nor be afraid2 for this unity is one1 stable1 and always abides2 this one is eternal2 every aspect1 every face1 every other thing1 is vanity1 is as nought2 all that is outside of this ,one is nought4 ,these philosophers have found the wisdom that they love1 who have found this unity4 ,wisdom1 truth1 unity1 are the same4 ,all difference in bodies1 difference of formation1 complexion1 figure1 colour1 or other property1 is nothing but a varying aspect of one and the same substance1--an aspect that changes1 moves1 passes away1 of one immovable1 abiding1 and eternal being1 in which are all forms1 figures1 members1 but indistinct and agglomerated1 just as in the seed1 or germ1 the arm is not distinct from the head1 the sinew from the bone1 and the distinction or disglomeration does not produce another and new substance1 but only realises in act and fulfilment certain qualities of the substance1 already present4 ,the coincidence of ,bruno's doctrine with some of ,spinoza's principal positions is striking1 although their terms are different4 ,the indeterminate all-comprising unity of ,bruno is that which was afterwards called by ,spinoza substance2 its two aspects1 material and spiritual--substances with ,bruno1--are attributes in ,spinoza1 and finally1 the innumerable finite and passing modes with both are mere accidents1 and therefore do not determine any change in the one reality itself4 ,in a subsequent chapter other more detailed resemblances will be pointed out in their bearing on the history of ,spinoza's development4 ,sidenote3 ,coincidence of ,contraries4 ,sidenote3 ,signs4 ,the concluding portion of this dialogue and of the work is taken up with the doctrine of the ,coincidence of ,contraries1 which derives from that of the unity and coincidence of all differences1 and which1 although it was undoubtedly contained in his own system1 ,bruno obtained directly from ,nicholas of ,cusa4 ,it is an indirect proof1 from the side of particular things themselves1 of the identity of all in the ,one4 ,the first illustrations are geometrical4#bhe ,the straight line and the circle1 or the straight line and the curve1 are opposites2 but in their elements1 or their minima1 they coincide1 for1 as ,cusanus saw1 there is no difference between the smallest possible arc and the smallest possible chord4 ,again1 in the maximum there is no difference between the infinite circle and the straight line2 the greater a circle is1 the more nearly it approximates to straightness 444 as a line which is greater in magnitude than another approximates more nearly to straightness1 so the greatest of all ought to be superlatively1 more than all1 straight1 so that in the end the infinite straight line is an infinite circle4 ,thus the maximum and the minimum come together in one existence1 as has already been proved1 and both in the maximum and in the minimum1 contraries are one and indifferent4 ,sidenote3 ,verifications4 ,these geometrical illustrations are signs of the identity of contraries1 those which follow are called by ,bruno verifications1#bhf the first of which is taken from the primary qualities of bodies4 ,the element of heat1 its principle1 must be indivisible--it cannot have differences within itself1 and can be neither hot nor cold1 therefore it is an identity of hot and cold4 ,one contrary is the 'principle' or starting-point of the other1 and therefore transmutations are circular1 because there is a substrate1 principle1 term1 continuation and concurrence of both4 ,so minimal warmth and minimal cold are the same4 ,the movement towards cold takes its beginning from the limit of greatest heat 7its principle in another sense74 ,thus not only do the two maxima sometimes concur in resistance1 the two minima in concordance1 but even the maximum and the minimum concur through the succession of transmutations4 ,doctors fear when one is in the best of health2 it is in the height of happiness that the foreseeing are most timid4 ,so also the principle of corruption and of generation is one and the same4 ,the end of decay is the beginning of generation2 corruption is nothing but a generation1 generation a corruption4 ,love is hate1 hate is love in the end2 hatred of the unfitting is love of the fitting1 the love of this the hatred of that4 ,in substance and in root1 therefore1 love and hate1 friendship and strife1 are one and the same thing4 ,poison gives its own antidote1 and the greatest poisons are the best medicines4 ,there is but one potency of two contraries1 because contraries are apprehended by one and the same sense1 therefore belong to the same subject or substrate2 where the principle 7i4e4 the source1 or faculty7 of the knowledge of two objects is the same1 the principle 7i4e4 elementary form7 of their existence is also one4 7,examples are the curved and the plane1 the concave and the convex1 anger and patience1 pride and humility1 miserliness and liberality74 ,in conclusion3--,he who would know the greatest secrets of nature1 let him regard and contemplate the minima and maxima of contraries and opposites4 ,profound magic it is to know how to extract the contrary after having found the point of union4 ,aristotle was striving towards it1 but did not attain it1 said ,bruno2 remaining with his foot in the genus of opposition1 he was so fettered that he could not descend to the species of contrariety 444 but wandered further from the goal at every step1 as when he said that contraries could not co-exist at the same time in the same subject4#bhg ,there is a nave but at the same time a bold realism in this demand of ,bruno's that reality shall correspond even to the simpler unities of thought--unities which after all are mere limitations4 ,it is only because we cannot distinguish in imagination between an infinite circle and a straight line that their identity in actual existence is postulated1 and so the minimal chord and minimal arc coincide to our limited imagination only4 ,admittedly in the case of sense-qualities the argument is from oneness of faculty knowing to oneness of things known4 ,these1 however1 are only1 as we have said1 signs and verifications of a metaphysical truth which is arrived at by other methods4 ,a corresponding passage in the ,de ,minimo#bhh explains more fully the coincidence of contraries in the minimum3--,in the minimum1 the simple1 the monad1 all opposites coincide1 odd and even1 many and few1 finite and infinite2 therefore that which is minimum is also maximum1 and any degree between these4 ,besides the coincidence of contraries in ,god as the monad of monads1 the examples are given of the indifference of all dimensions in the universe1 and the ubiquity of its centre2 the indifference of the radial directions from the centre of a particular sphere2 the indifference of all points in the diurnal rotation of the earth1 so that any point whatever is east1 west1 north1 or south2 the subjective coincidence of concave and convex in the circle 7subjective meaning in the thing itself72 the coincidence of the acute and the obtuse angle in the inclination of one line to another2 that of smallest arc and chord as of greatest arc and chord1 whence it follows that the infinite circle and the infinite straight line1 also the infinite diameter1 area1 and centre are one and the same4 ,lastly1 we have the coincidence of swiftest motion with slowest1 or with rest1 for the absolutely swift 7swift 'simpliciter1' i4e4 in its highest possible manifestation1 without any degree of the contrary1 slowness7 which moves from ,a to ,b1 and from ,b to ,a1 is at once in ,a1 and in ,b1 and in the whole orbit1 therefore1 it stands still4 ,these coincidences are again of two kinds3 some subjective in the modern sense1 e4g4 the coincidences of directions in the globe2 any one may be taken as depth according to the spectator's standpoint2 others are objective1 e4g4 when in ,god the one and the many are said to coincide4 ,according as the stress is laid on one or on the other1 the theory may be regarded as either dualistic 7as ,cusanus' really was7 or as pantheistic4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that it was in the latter sense that ,bruno held the coincidence of contraries4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,infinite ,,universe--,,the ,,mirror ,,of ,,god#bhi ,in the contemplation of the infinite1 writes ,bruno1 man attains his highest good4 ,all things aspire to the end for which they are ordained1 and the more perfect its nature the more nobly and effectively does each aspire4 ,man alone1 however1 as endowed with a twofold nature1 pursues a twofold good1--on the boundary line of eternity and time1 between the archetypal world and the copy1 the intelligible and the sensible1 participating in either substance4#bij ,human effort can find satisfaction in none but the highest and first truth and goodness4 ,neither our intellect nor our will ever rests4 ,it is clear therefore that their end lies not in particular goods or truths which lead us on from one to another and to another1 but in universal good and truth1 outside of and beyond which no good or truth exists4 ,so long as we believe that any truth is left to know1 or any good to gain1 we seek always further truth1 desire always further good4 ,the end of our inquiry1 therefore1 and of our effort cannot be in a truth or in a good that is limited4 ,in each and all is the desire in-born to become all things4 ,such infinite desire implies the existence in reality of that which will satisfy it4 ,if ,universal ,nature or ,spirit is able to satisfy the appetite of each particular nature or mode of itself1 and that of itself as a whole1 then the understanding and desire which are innate1 inseparable from and co-substantial with each and all shall not be in vain1 nor look hopelessly to a false and impossible end4 ,again1 were universal nature and the efficient cause content with finite truth and good1 they would not satisfy the infinite aspiration of particular things4 ,it is true that even the desire for continuance of our present life is not satisfied2 a particular mode of matter cannot realise all forms or ideas at once1 but only in succession and one by one2 it knows and therefore desires only that which is present to it at any given time3 by force of nature1 therefore1 it comes in its ignorance 7which arises from the contraction of the form to this or that particular matter and the limitation of matter by this or that form7 to desire to be always that which it now is4 ,the wise soul1 however1 will not fear death1 will indeed sometimes wish for it1 since there awaits every substance eternity of duration1 immensity of space1 and the realisation of all being4 ,whatever the good be for which a man strives1 let him turn his eyes to the heavens and the worlds2 there is spread before him a picture1 a book1 a mirror1 in which he may behold1 read1 contemplate the imprint 7vestigium71 the law1 and the reflection of the highest good--and with his sensible ears drink in the highest harmony1 and raise himself as by a ladder1 according to the grades of the forms of things1 to the contemplation of another1 the highest world4#bia ,the contemplation of the extended infinite and explicate or unfolded nature is thus only a means by which we may rise to the contemplation of the infinite in itself1 implicate nature1 ,god4 ,it is no frivolous or futile contemplation1 but one most weighty and worthy of the perfect man1 which we pursue1 when we seek the splendour1 the fusion1 and the intercommunication of divinity and of nature not in an ,egyptian1 ,syrian1 ,greek or ,roman individual1 not in food1 drink1 or any ignoble matter1 with the gaping many1 but in the august palace of the all-powerful1 in the immeasurable space of the ,ether1 in the infinite potency of twofold nature1 all-becoming and all-creating4 ,so from the eternal vast and immeasurable effect in visible things1 we comprehend the eternal and the immeasurable majesty and goodness4 ,let us then turn our eyes to the omniform image of the omniform ,god1 and gaze upon the living and mighty reflection of ,him4 ,the three characteristics of the universe as a mirror of ,god which ,bruno sought to drive home to the minds of men were its infinite extent1 the infinite number of its parts1 and its uniformity1 or the similarity of its constituent elements throughout its whole extent4 ,his illustrations and his arguments would in many cases cause a smile if they were put forward seriously at the present day1 but no absurdities can outbalance his enthusiasm1 the readiness and thoroughness of his polemic against ,aristotle and the old cosmology1 and the fertility of imagination by which he is able to look1 and to make others look1 at things from his new1 and therefore1 at first1 confusing point of view4 ,sidenote3 ,the universe infinite4 ,bruno's arguments rest partly on inferences from sense-knowledge1 partly on the principle of sufficient reason4 ,thus the infinity of extent is evidenced1 first1 by the teaching of sense1 in the constant change which our circle of vision undergoes as we move from one place to another4 ,there always appears to be an ultimate limit1 but no sooner do we move than the limit is seen to have been only apparent2 so1 it may be inferred1 could we transfer ourselves with our senses to any of the distant stars1 we should still seem to ourselves to be in the centre of a closed sphere1--the very same appearance which is presented to us on this earth4 ,aristotle's theory of the limitation of space by the ultimate sphere of the heavens was open to objections1 many of which were raised in the early schools4 ,the subtle ,averroes had endeavoured to avoid some of these by the doctrine that beyond this outer sphere is the divine being1 the eternal self-sufficient ,mind4#bib ,but how1 asks ,bruno1 can body be bounded by that which is not body8 ,the divine nature is no less nor in any other manner within the whole than without2 it is neither place nor in place4#bic ,space therefore is always bounded by space1 body by body1 that is1 each is infinite in extent4 ,were divinity that which bounds space1 it would itself be space under another name4#bid ,aristotle's theory implied that the universe as a whole was not in any place or space4 ,the place of each body1 he had said1 is the containing surface of the sphere above it2 the outermost sphere1 therefore1 as there is no other beyond it1 is itself uncontained and without place4 ,the theory implied also the identity of body and space1 and was the ground of ,aristotle's rejection of the vacuum in nature4 ,for a truer conception of ,space1 ,bruno turned to an earlier commentator 7or group of commentators--,philoponus7 on ,aristotle1 who defined it as a continuous physical quantity in three dimensions1 in which the magnitude of bodies is contained1 in nature before and apart from all bodies1 receiving all indifferently1 beyond all conditions of action and passion1 not mixing with things1 impenetrable1 without form or place4#bie ,it is called physical1 because it can not be separated from the existence of natural things4 ,it is itself not contained1 because it equals with its dimensions those of body as the transparency of a crystal has the same dimensions with the crystal itself4 ,neither body nor space can be thought of the one apart from the other4#bif ,granted the infinity of space1 that of matter necessarily follows by an inverse of the principle of sufficient reason3--for there is no reason1 according to ,bruno1 why this small part alone of space1 where our earth is1 should be filled2 the eternal operation is not distinct from the eternal power1 nor could it be the will of ,god to cramp nature1 which is the hand of the all-powerful1 his force1 act1 reason1 word1 voice1 order and will4#big ,there is one matter1 one power1 one space1 one efficient cause1 ,god and ,nature1 everywhere equally1 and everywhere powerful4--,we insult the infinite cause when we say that it may be the cause of a finite effect2 to a finite effect it can have neither the name nor the relation of an efficient4#bih ,the corresponding argument from the capacity of our human imagination to think always of a greater than any given magnitude1 i4e4 its inability to rest short of the infinite1 is expanded elsewhere4 ,our imaginative faculty is the umbra or shadow of nature2 its power1 therefore1 of adding quantity to quantity1 ad infinitum1 must have something in nature to which it corresponds2 nature does not give a faculty for which there is no satisfaction4 ,there is then in truth an infinite universe1 such as our imagination demands4 ,bruno notices the objection that on this theory anything whatever might be said about the universe1 e4g4 that it is infinite man1 since one can imagine a human form filling the universe2 and he replies1 it is infinite man1 or infinite ass1 or infinite tree1 each and all1 since in the infinite all particular things are one and the same4#bii ,sidenote3 ,aristotle4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,the primum mobile4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the elements4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the whole and its parts4 ,the arguments we have traced are3--7#a7 ,what appears to be a limit to our senses always proves to be imaginary1 when we are able to test it1 therefore we may infer that it is imaginary in other cases2 7#b7 the very notion of space1 implying that it has neither form nor place1 means that it is infinite1 limitless2 7#c7 we cannot imagine a portion of space than which there is not another greater1 and so ad infinitum3 but reality cannot fall short of thought1 therefore space is infinite4 ,the arguments of ,aristotle against the infinity of the world are taken up in detail in the second book of the ,de ,immenso4 ,as the controversy1 however important at the time1 has lost much of its interest for us1 we need only give a brief sketch of its main lines4 ,the first argument was drawn from the assumption of an ultimate sphere or primum mobile which moved about the earth as a centre4#cjj ,it was clear that if the universe were infinite the radii of this sphere would be infinitely prolonged1 and therefore the termini of any two given radii at an infinite distance one from another4 ,the motion of the sphere would thus be inconceivable1 for it would require infinite time in which to pass from one point to another4 ,the answer of ,bruno was that the universe as a whole was not moveable at all1 nor had it any centre2 only its parts were moved and each of these had its own relative and finite centre4 ,the apparent motion of the sphere was due to the real movement of the earth about its axis4 ,a similar answer was given to the argument from the movements of bodies according to their elements4 ,as to us on the earth1 the earth appears to be the centre of the universe1 so to the inhabitants of the moon1 the moon will appear to be such4 ,matter rising from the earth to the moon would appear to the inhabitants of the latter to fall4 ,these distinctions were relative to the finite worlds1 but might not be referred to the whole universe4 ,as the earth is one world1 the moon another1 so each has its own centre1 each its own up and down3 nor can these differences be assigned absolutely to the whole and its parts together1 but only relatively to the position and condition of the latter4#cja ,in his third argument ,aristotle sought to prove that infinite body in general was impossible4#cjb ,if the whole is infinite its simple elements must be so also4 ,these must be either of an infinite number of kinds1 different from one another1 or of a finite number of kinds1 or all of the same kind4 ,but the first of the alternatives is impossible on the a priori ground that each element must have a special kind of movement corresponding to it1 and the kinds of movement are actually few in number2 the second and third1 because the movement of the elements should then be infinite1 whereas in the actual universe motion is limited both in centre and circumference4 ,the arguments1 however1 do not apply to ,bruno's theory of the universe4 ,motion is always from one definite point to another2 we do not set out from ,italy in order to go on ad infinitum1 but to go to some definite point4 ,he does not1 as ,epicurus did1 regard all minima as in infinite motion downwards through the universe2 there is no down1 no centre1 no up1 all is simply and generally in flux4 ,it is not the elements that are innumerable in kind1 but the composite bodies1 the stars1 which are constituted by them2 and of these the parts move about their natural body1 as the parts of the earth towards the earth1 and those of the moon toward the moon in their own regions2 all motion is therefore limited1--each world has1 as it were1 margins of its own4 ,the idea that if any of the elements1 as fire or water1 were infinite1 there would be infinite lightness or gravity1 and hence that the universe would move as a whole upwards or downwards1 is equally at fault4 ,to the universe as a whole the terms heavy and light do not apply1 but only to its parts1 the finite and determinate bodies consisting of finite and determinate elements4 ,these elements1 whether they be taken as of one or more kinds1 since they cannot move outside of the universe1 must have finite movements4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,action between the infinite and the finite4 ,the fourth argument#cjc was based upon the impossibility of action between an infinite body and a second body whether finite or infinite4 ,an infinite cannot act upon a finite because the action would necessarily be timeless4 ,were it in time we could then find a finite body which in the same time would produce the same effect2 but there can be no such equality between the finite and the infinite4 ,similarly action between two infinites would occur in infinite time2 in other words1 would not take place at all4 ,the conclusion is that neither fire nor earth nor any of the elements can be infinite in quantity4 ,bruno suggests1 in the first place1#cjd that a change may be produced timelessly2 thus if a body in a large circle cover a certain space in the minimum of time1 a body in a smaller circle will cover a less space in no time1 for nothing can be smaller than the minimum4#cje ,in the second place1 no action of the whole or effect upon the whole exists1 it is only the finite bodies within it1 each with its finite force1 that act upon one another4 ,even if two infinite bodies1 over against one another1 were supposed1 their action would not be of one whole upon another1 but of the parts on the contiguous parts4#cjf ,force is exerted by bodies not intensively but extensively1 because as1 where one part of a body is1 there another is not1 so at the point where one part of the body acts another does not4#cjg ,sidenote3 #e4 ,proportion of parts to whole in the infinite4 ,a difficulty1 not unknown to recent philosophy1 occurred as to the relation of infinites to one another4 ,whatever is an element of the infinite must be infinite also2 hence both earths and suns are infinite in number4 ,but the infinity of the former1 said ,bruno1 is not greater than that of the latter2 nor1 where all are inhabited1 are the inhabitants in greater proportion to the infinite than the stars themselves4#cjh ,each sun is surrounded by several earths or planets1 but the one class is not greater in respect of its infinite than the other4 ,a single sun1 earth1 constellation1 is not really a part of the infinite nor a part in it1 for it can bear no proportion to it4 ,a thousand infinities are not more than two or three1 and even one is not comprehensible by finite numbers4 ,in the innumerable and the immeasurable there is no place for more or less1 few or many1 nor for any distinctions of number or measure4#cji ,the matter of the stars is immeasurable1 and no less immeasurable is that of the fiery type or suns than of the aqueous type or earths4 ,nor does the fact that these infinities are not given to sense disprove their existence1 as ,aristotle had maintained4 ,to imagine there is nothing beyond the sphere which limits our range of sight1 is to be like ,bruno as a child1 when he believed there was nothing beyond ,mount ,vesuvius because there was nothing to strike his senses4#caj ,though each class be infinite1 we have seen that the infinite does not act infinitely1 that is intensively1 but acts finitely1 i4e4 extensively4 ,each individual and species is finite1 but the number of all individuals is infinite1 and infinite are the matter in which they consist and the space in which they move4 ,everywhere1 therefore1 limit and measure are only in the particular and the individual1 which1 compared with the universe1 are nothing4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,figure and body4 ,a further argument was derived from the necessity of figure in body and from the relation of body to space4#caa ,every body is known to us as of a certain and definite figure1 whereas infinite body would necessarily be unfigured4 ,in this case1 said ,bruno1 ,aristotle is confounding body with space1 although he elsewhere separates the two notions4 ,that space is something other than the bodies which fill it1 that it is more than limit or figure1 is evident from the fact that always between any two corporeal surfaces1 between any two atoms1 there is space4 ,nor is space merely an accident of body1 a special quality of it1 as colour is1 for example1 for we cannot think of colour without a body in which it exists1 and when the body is abstracted the colour goes also1 whereas space may be thought of apart from body1 and body1 when removed does not take with it its space4 ,perhaps we should say that space is really the continuous ether or light which penetrates throughout the universe1 and seems to fill space more continuously than wood1 stone1 or iron1 in which there is an admixture of vacuum4 ,must all bodies be figured1 then the figure of the infinite is the sphere4 ,the dimensions of space coincide with those of body1 and the definition given of body as tri-dimensional quantity applies also to space3--there cannot be any body which is not in place1 nor can its dimensions exist without equal dimensions of the containing space4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,the centre of the earth1 etc4 ,a seventh argument1 closely related to some of the others1 is drawn from the old belief in the earth as the centre of gravity1 the heaviest body in the universe1 and in the empyrean as the outermost limit and the lightest body4#cab ,but1 as we have seen1 there is in the universe no centre--as the stars and their inhabitants are heavenly beings to us1 so are we and our earth to them4 ,just as the earth knows no centre or downward direction proper which is away from its own body1 but only a centre of its mass1 a central cavern of its heart1 from which the precious life is diffused through the whole body1 and which we may believe to be the chief seat of the soul2 so there must be in the moon and other bodies a centre which connects all parts1 to which every member contributes1 and which is nourished by all the forces of the living body4 ,the old belief1 therefore1 that if there were inhabitants at the antipodes they would be apt to fall downwards into space1 or that the parts of the moon and its living beings might fall upon our earth1 was absurd1 for the face of the earth always looks upward in the direction of the radii from the centre to the superficies4#cac ,sidenote3 #h4 ,the perfect as the self-limited4 ,the last argument was that drawn from the supposed perfection of the universe4#cad ,aristotle defined the perfect as that which was limited by itself1 not by another4 ,hence the immeasurable would not be perfect1 while the world was perfect because limited by its own terminus4 ,again body does not pass over into any other kind of quantity1 but it is the limit into which the line and the point flow4 ,the first argument1 said ,bruno1 would hold of any fragment of body1 while the second would apply to any animal or member of an animal1 for these also are self-contained and do not pass over into any other kind4 ,perfection has no reference to quantity1 nor to limitation by self1 which is a geometrical determination4#cae ,for this mechanical idea of perfection1 ,bruno substitutes a teleological2 the perfect is that which consists of a number of parts or members1 working together towards the end for which the whole is ordained3 the universe is perfect as adorned by so many worlds1 which are so many deities1 and as that in and to which1 as a unity embracing the perfection of all1 innumerable things perfect in their kind are reduced1 referred1 united4#caf ,sidenote3 ,infinite number of worlds4 ,the infinity of space or ether and of matter being proved1 it follows again1 by the principle of sufficient reason1 that the worlds are innumerable or infinite in number4--,as it is good that the world exists1 and would be bad did it not exist1 so in a similar space1 and where similar causes are1 it is good that there be a world1 and bad should there not be one4 ,if the world is single1 then there is a single1 finite1 particular good1 and infinite wide-spread universal evil4 ,he who is able to produce good1 and does not do so1 without cause1 is evil2 as not to be able is privatively evil1 to be able and to be unwilling would be so positively1 and ,god in regard to the finite effect would be a finitely good cause1 in regard1 however1 to the repression of infinite realisation1 would be infinitely evil4#cag ,perfection does not belong to our world1 our system1 taken by itself1 since there are innumerable other possible worlds which cannot be contained in it4 ,given a man endowed with all human perfections1 the existence of other men subordinate to him is not excluded1 but rather demanded in order that he may fulfil the harmony of his being4 ,so the best1 the first1 of the monads1--which comprises all particular things in itself1--embraces1 in spite of its unity1 innumerable worlds1 without limit1 under its corporeal aspect4 ,one does not suffice1 for the productive mind diffuses itself throughout the whole universe1 wholly in every part1 in equal goodness and power1 and fills the void in order that its great image may be presented throughout the whole4#cah ,nature thus puts forth an infinite mirror of itself and a fitting reflection2 its substance is infinite and its force eternal1 there is an explicit immeasurable1 as ,god is implicitly in the whole and everywhere wholly4#cai ,to the infinite nothing finite bears any proportion1 nor can be a fitting product of it4 ,hence if it communicate itself at all to corporeal things1 or unfold its magnitude in corporeal existences and in multitude1 the reflection of its essence and imprint of its power must be infinite in magnitude and without number4 ,although1 when we consider individuals singly1 under that proximate and immediate respect in which they are particulars1 they must be referred to a finite principle and cause 7since a finite effect demands a finite power71 in the consideration of the universe1 however1 each and all the innumerable existences in immeasurable space point to an infinite first cause4#cbj ,sidenote3 ,argument from ,god to the world4 ,in the simplicity and unity of ,god's being1 all attributes are one1 therefore knowledge1 will1 and power coincide4 ,the consequences of this doctrine ,bruno unfolds in a series of aphorisms or propositions--which are interesting as anticipating ,spinoza's method of proof3#cba--a4 ,the ,divine essence is infinite4 #b4 ,as the measure of being1 so is the measure of power4 #c4 ,as the measure of power1 so is the measure of action4 #d4 ,god is absolutely simple essence or being in which there can be no complexity nor internal diversity4 #e4 ,consequently in him1 being1 power1 action1 volition1 and whatever can be truly attributed to him1 are one and the same4 #f4 ,therefore the will of ,god is above all things1 and can be frustrated neither by himself nor by another4 #g4 ,consequently the ,divine will is not only necessary1 but is necessity itself1 and its opposite is not only impossible but impossibility itself4 #h4 ,in simple essence there cannot be contrariety of any kind1 nor inequality3 will1 therefore1 is not contrary to1 nor unequal to1 power4 #i4 ,necessity and liberty are one1 hence what acts by the necessity of nature acts freely2 it would not act freely at all did it act otherwise than is demanded by necessity and nature1 or by the necessity of nature4#cbb #aj4 ,there is not an infinite power1 unless there be an infinite possible2 i4e4 there is not that which is able to create an infinite unless there be that which is able to be created4 ,what is a power which is impossible of realisation or which is relative to an impossible8 #aa4 ,as there is a world in this space1 so also there is able to be one in any space similar to that which1 were this world removed1 would remain equal to the world4 #ab4 ,there is no ground for denying1 outside the world1 a similar space to that in which the world is1 nor any for regarding it as finite4#cbc #ad4 ,it is better to be than not to be2 it is more worthy to create what is good than not to create it4 ,to posit 7create7 being and truth is incomparably better than to allow not-being or nothing4 #ae4 ,the potency of nature ought not to be frustrated1 nor space remain unfilled for infinite duration1 for then potency would be relative to an impossible4 #af4 ,that infinite potency 7whether extensive or intensive7 should be frustrated of existence means that infinite evil should be actually posited1 as space is actually infinite4 #ag4 ,as this space can receive this world and be adorned thereby1 so also any similar space whatever1 indiscernible from it1 a similar principle being present1 could have received a similar world4#cbd #ai4 ,of ,god and of nature we should think as highly as possible4 #bj4 ,of the greatest things nothing should be rashly asserted which is contrary to sense and reason4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge of ,god4 ,the infinite number of worlds is thus made to depend for its proof upon the identity of power and will1 of will and knowledge1 i4e4 thought1 in ,god4 ,whatever is in the mind of ,god is realised in the universe4 ,before ,god past1 present1 and future are one1 present1 and eternal2#cbe he is unable to change his purpose or to deny himself4 ,what he wills and what he can are one and the same2 nor can he do what he wills not1 for fate is the ,divine will itself4 ,hence1 as he cannot be other than he is1 so nothing can be done by him otherwise than as it is done4 ,the nature of ,god is a simple substance2 however many names be predicated of it1 they signify1 one and all1 the same thing4#cbf ,infinite virtue1 if limited neither by itself nor by another1 acts by the necessity of its own nature1 not by a necessity alien to itself and to its will2 it is itself necessity4 ,the necessity by which it acts1 therefore1 can be frustrated neither from within1 by itself1 nor from without1 by another3 not the former1 for it cannot be both one thing and another1 nor the latter1 because its necessity is the law of all other things4 ,there can be nothing which may prevent this nature1 necessity1 will1 power1 from proceeding according to its whole power1 which is goodness itself1 according to its whole goodness1 which is power itself1 and both are infinite1 and diffuse themselves infinitely4 ,man's liberty of action is expressed imperfectly1 and sometimes in an imperfect object1 is continually being disturbed by passion and ignorance of things2 for if we acted without any disturbance of the will1 or course of thought1 without ignorance1 or passion1 then our action would be determined always towards the better of two opposed ends4 ,before we act we stand between the two ways and deliberate1 and at last determine1 but in uncertainty and perturbedness of spirit2 while ,god1 as in nature most perfect1 acts in the one of two ways that is the most fitting4 ,nor is it an imperfection of nature to be determined in one direction only1 away from that which may lead to error4 ,thus we may not refer the will and action of ,god to a liberty of this kind1 of being equally or unequally disposed to two contradictory volitions or acts--a liberty of indifference--but his liberty is of the kind which is identical with necessity4 ,over it is nothing greater1 in the way of it there is nothing equal1 all things in all and throughout all serve it4 ,god's knowledge is not discursive1 involves no effort4 ,to be in the mind of ,god is to be realised 7species concepta deo est effectio resque74 ,thus as the perfect monad1 he is intrinsically and extrinsically the whole1 sustaining all things4 ,there is on the one side infinite goodness and infinite desire for its realisation1 on the other infinite desire of being realised2 the result must be perfect satisfaction and perfect good4 ,sidenote3 ,abstract ideas4 ,in order to understand how far ,bruno has moved at this1 the final stage of his philosophy1 from the ,neoplatonism of its beginnings1 the ninth chapter of the last book of the ,de ,immenso must be taken into account4#cbg ,it is interesting in view of the relation of ,spinoza to ,bruno1 as well as of the consistency of ,bruno's own thought4 ,in it the existence of abstract ideal types is contended against1--,nowhere is essence apart from existence2--nature is nothing but the virtue that is immanent 7insita7 in things1 and the law by which all things fulfil their course4 ,there is no abstract that subsists in logical reason but not in reality1 no justice by which things are just1 no goodness through which they are good1 wisdom through which they are wise1 nor are deitas and feritas the ground of existence of gods and beasts3 nor is it light by which shining bodies shine1 nor shadow by which folly1 darkness1 fictions1 nonsense come to exist4 ,the student of nature must not suppose form and matter1 light and colour and motion1 to exist separately by themselves because they may be conceived or defined by themselves4 ,there is then no archetypal world to which the ,creator looked in fabricating this of ours1 but nature produces all things from within itself1 without thought or hesitation4 ,study to know where ,nature and ,god are1 for there are the causes of things1 the life of principles1 the source of elements1 the seeds of the things that are to be brought forth1 the typal forms1 active potency producing all things1 444 there is also matter1 the underlying passive potency1 abiding1 present1 ever coming together into one as it were1 for it is not as if a creator came from on high1 to give it order and form from without4 ,matter pours forth all things from its own lap1 ,nature itself is the inward workman1 a living art1 a wondrous virtue which is endowed with mind1 giving realisation to a matter which is its own1 not foreign to itself2 not hesitating1 but producing all things easily out of itself1 as fire shines and burns1 as light spreads without effort through space4444 ,nature is not so miserably endowed as to be excelled by human art1 which is directed by a kind of internal sense1 while several kinds of animals1 guided by their inward mind1 show an innate foresight of a wonderful kind1--ants and the industrious bees1 which have no type or model spread before them4 ,for there is a nature which is more than present to1 which is immanent in things1 remote from none as none is remote from being1 except the false3 and while only the surface of things without changes1 deeper in the heart of all than is each to itself it lives1 the principle of existence1 source of all forms1 444 ,mind1 ,god1 ,being1 ,one1 ,truth1 ,fate1 ,reason1 ,order4#cbh ,natura naturata is thus not a resultant or outcome of natura naturans with ,bruno2 they are one and the same thing under different aspects1 and both are one with ,god1 the living force in things4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle on plurality of worlds4 ,sidenote3 ,perfection4 ,the arguments of ,aristotle against the plurality of worlds are in the seventh book set out one by one1 and controverted from ,bruno's own standpoint1 at times with great fulness and subtlety4 ,it would be unprofitable to enter far into this debate1 where the advantage lay so obviously on one side4 ,we have already seen that ,bruno was able to lay his finger upon the weak spot in ,aristotle's system1 the definitions of space and time4 ,there is no absolute norm of time1 said ,bruno1 whether arithmetical1 geometrical1 or physical2 for in this kind we cannot fix a minimum1 and least of all on ,peripatetic principles2 there is always a less than any given period of time1 hence we cannot lay down any true measure of time1 i4e4 all time is relative to the individual4 ,in any case the daily movement 7of the outermost sphere1 as ,aristotle thought1 but in fact7 of the earth1 is not really circular4 ,there are as many moving agents as there are stars1 as there are souls1 or deities4#cbi ,but if we must assume some one presiding over the infinite number of agents1 we must ascend above all or descend down to the centre of all1 to the absolute being1 present above all and within all 444 more intimate to all things than each is to itself1 not more distant from one than from another1 for it is equally the nearest to all4#ccj ,several of the arguments of ,aristotle were drawn from abstract conceptions of unity and perfection1 and evidently raised interesting problems for the time of ,bruno4 ,they are1 briefly1 that a plurality of worlds would be irrational1 since no reason could be given for one number rather than another1 that it is more in accordance with the perfection of the monad1 that all reality should be massed together in one world1 that the economy of nature does not admit of the multiplication of goods1 that the passive capacity 7matter7 is not equal to the active power 7the form71 that the perfect is by its very nature unique4 ,bruno answers that there is no definite1 but an infinite1 number of worlds1 and that if the former were the case no reason could be put forward why there should be only one1 which in ,bruno's sense of world is no doubt true4 ,as to the monad1 the true monad is that which embraces all number or plurality in itself4 ,we are not compelled to define a number1 we who say that there is an infinite number of worlds2 there no distinction exists of odd or even1 since these are differences of number1 not of the innumerable4 ,nor can ,i think there have ever been philosophers who1 in positing several worlds1 did not posit them also as infinite3 for would not reason1 which demands something further beyond this sensible world1 so also outside of and beyond whatever number of worlds is assumed1 assume again another and another8#cca ,sidenote3 ,one life in all the worlds4 ,that there are more worlds than one is due to the presence everywhere throughout space of the same principle of life1 which everywhere has the same effect2 just as within one of these worlds1 the earth1 we find different species of the same animal--of man1 for example--which cannot be descended from the same parentage4 ,there are men of different colours1 cavemen1 mountain-pygmies1 the guardians of minerals1 the giants of the ,south1 each of which races must have been produced independently in its own place4 ,and finally1 although it is true that nothing can be added to the perfect1 why may not the perfect be multiplicable8 ,though the perfect man is one1 nature may produce several within the same species4 ,everywhere is one soul1 one spirit of the world1 wholly in the whole and in every part of it1 as we find in our lesser world also4 ,this soul 444 7should the kind of place and of element not conflict7 produces all things everywhere2 so that for the generation of some even time is not required4444 ,the infinite universe1 and it only under ,god1 is perfect4 ,nothing finite is so good that it could not be better2 whatever may be better has some degree of evil and defect1 as what is not absolutely bright is not without some signs of obscurity4444 ,therefore the perfect1 absolutely and in itself1 is one1 infinite1 which cannot be greater or better1 and than which nothing can be greater or better4 ,this is one1 everywhere1 the only ,god1 universal nature1 of which nothing can be a perfect image or reflection1 but the infinite4 ,everything finite therefore is imperfect1 every sensible world is imperfect1 as good and evil1 matter and form1 light and darkness1 joy and sadness concur in it1 and all things everywhere are in alteration and movement2 but all of them1 in the infinite1 are as in unity1 truth1 and goodness1 and in this aspect the infinite is rightly called the universe4#ccb ,in the infinite1 as we have learned from the ,causa1 all contraries are one4 ,the universe is perfect1 not because of its quantity1 but because it contains all other things in it4#ccc ,within the limits of their kind small causes can produce small effects with some perfection2 much more effective is that immeasurable and more general cause1 of which nothing stands in the way4 ,it is a harmony of the many in one1 the only corporeal image of the divine mind4 ,the finite1 however1 is imperfect only when taken apart from the whole to which it belongs1 i4e4 evil and defect are appearances only4 ,although in nature not all things are of their best1 and more species than one produce monstrosities1 yet we may not find fault with the great building of the mighty architect1 for even the small1 weak1 and diminutive contributes its part to the nobility of the whole4 ,is a picture most beautiful when it is blazoned all over with gold and purple8 ,does it not shine out best from a dull background8 ,can there be any part which1 in its order and place within the whole body1 is not good1 and the best in the end and in the whole8 ,a harmony in music is better the greater the variety within it of length1 accent1 pause1 and the like4#ccd ,the perfect may be either 7#a7 the perfect absolutely1 or 7#b7 the perfect in its kind4 ,the former again is twofold1 according as it is 7#a7 that which is wholly in the whole and in every part1 or 7#b7 that which is wholly in the whole but not in the part4 ,of these the one is divinity1 the intellect of the universe1 absolute goodness and truth1 the other the immeasurable corporeal reflection of the divine4 ,as within the universe there are many things perfect in their kind1 which it combines in its unity1 containing in itself the perfection of all1 it may in a second sense be called the absolutely perfect4 ,for no one world singly1 nor system of worlds1 nor any number of systems1 can be brought into comparison with ,god1 except indirectly1 through the immeasurable wisdom1 power1 and goodness4 ,nothing is absolutely imperfect or evil1 for the highest nature exists in a certain sense in the meanest and lowest1 as on the palette of a painter colours are thought little of which presently1 unfolded into the scheme of the picture1 shall seem to be1 along with the painter himself1 of chief importance4#cce ,moral evil1 itself1 as we shall find1 has no reality for ,bruno's pantheism4 ,justice and goodness1 not existing as abstract entities1 have their only ground in the divine will1 i4e4 in the course of nature4#ccf ,on the other hand1 it is not in the part1 the detail1 the trivial or minute existence1 that the divine will is most adequately declared1 but in the whole1 its plan and its law4 ,what is best and most glorious1 most beseeming the goodness of ,his nature1 is to be attributed to ,his will4 ,it is impious to seek this in the blood of insects1 in the mummied corpse1 in the foam of the epileptic1 under the shaking feet of murderers1 or in the melancholy mysteries of vile necromancers2#ccg it must be sought rather in the inviolable1 intemerate law of nature1 in the religion of a mind directed duly by that law1 in the splendour of the sun1 in the beauty of the things which are brought forth from this our parent1 after ,his true image1 as expressed bodily in the beauty of those innumerable living things1 which1 in the immeasurable sweep of the one heaven1 shine and live1 have sense and intelligence1 and sing praises to the ,one1 the highest and best4#cch ,,chapter ,,iv ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,living ,,worlds ,we have found that1 according to ,bruno1 the universe is infinite in extent1 and that there are innumerable worlds within it3 it remains to know what are the materials that constitute the universe1 and the moving principles that govern its changes and direct the worlds in their courses4 ,sidenote3 ,uniformity of ,nature4 ,nature1 he said1 is the same in kind1 in its substance1 and in its elements1 throughout its whole extent--a daring conception for a time when the empyrean and all space beyond it were still regarded as the special abode of divinity4 ,he reminded his opponents of his own childish experiences3--when from ,cicala he looked towards ,mount ,vesuvius1 he thought it dark1 gloomy1 bare of trees and flowers2 but when he approached it1 he found it fairer than ,cicala itself1 while now the latter looked bare and dark4#cci ,the ,aristotelians were committing a similar error in judging the distant stars and the firmament to be in reality as they appeared to our eyes1 and in denying the existence of that which was not visible to us4 ,as the philosopher must not believe what cannot be demonstrated by evidence1 so neither must he foolishly despise or find fault with what cannot be disproved by reason4#cdj ,had men1 instead of bending so long over the books of ,aristotle and his commentators1 the nebulosa volumina1 but turned their eyes to the book and light of nature1 they would have formed a far different conception of the constitution of the heavens than that of the eight1 nine1 ten1 or more spheres and innumerable epicycles of the ,ptolemaic system4 ,bruno showed how as we rise from the surface of the earth our horizon becomes wider1 while in detail less vivid1 and he supposed himself to continue the ascension upwards to the surface of the moon4#cda ,a few miles away tree and mountain would not be distinguishable from the rest of the earth1 but we should perceive only a wide circle of light with dark spots1 the appearance of sea and of land respectively4 ,as the distance increased the form of the earth would become more visible while it lost all appearance of opacity1 and the whole would seem continuous light4 ,as we neared the moon1 the earth would come to appear exactly as the moon does to us from the earth4 ,the moon also revolves round its own axis1 and from it1 as with us1 the universe will appear to revolve round it as centre4 ,it had been said that the appearance of the heavenly bodies had always been and continued to be the same1 but ,bruno points to the fact that although a mountain1 when seen from at hand1 changes its face from day to day1 and from season to season1 yet from a distance it seems always the same4#cdb ,it is owing to the distance that the face of the moon appears to us never to change1 although it is certainly subject to as many alterations as the earth itself2 and to the dwellers on the moon the earth will appear equally changeless4 ,the light and shadow seen on the surface of the moon are due to the variety of sea and land in it1 the one reflecting light1 the other absorbing4 ,on the moon1 as on the earth1 ,nature is in continuous change3 for example1 the relative positions of sea and land are ever altering2 but the magnitude of the distance renders these invisible1 and more especially the minuteness and gradual nature of the changes themselves4 ,the lunar spectator will be presented with eclipses of the earth1 and1 according to the position of sea and land1 i4e4 of light and shadow1 with phases of the earth4#cdc ,in the same way ,bruno applied his principle of similarity to show that from distant stars the earth would appear of uniform magnitude and unvarying position1 while in the neighbourhood of other suns it and all the other planets would disappear4 ,as matter is the same in kind throughout the universe1 so it is subject everywhere to the same law of unceasing change3--,the sun in its rising never seeks twice the same point1 all things by stress of the continuous flux are renewed1 nor ever seek again the haunts they have left1 nor is there any part of the earth which does not pass through every region1 and a like force now carries each part in one direction or another1 now drives it away2 and if by chance any one revisit the centre1 it is no longer in the same form1 nor in the same connection 7ordine74#cdd ,not even the whole can ever be twice the same1 since the order and arrangement of its parts are continuously changing4 ,even in things that seem ever to present the same face there is a latent alteration which time will bring to light4 ,there would otherwise be nothing to prevent the whole of ,nature being fixed1 petrified1 as it were1 to all eternity4 ,yet the substance of things--the atom--is unchanging4#cde ,all things are in flow2 the parts of the earth1 seas1 and rivers vary their positions1 by a certain ebbing and flowing order of ,nature4 ,as matter wanders1 flowing in and out1 now here1 now there1 so the forms travel through matter4 ,for there is not any form which1 once occupying a portion of matter1 retains it always1 nor any matter which1 once obtaining a certain form1 maintains it for ever4 ,hence it is that1 matter always taking up one form or another1 and having equal capacity for all1 consequently by virtue of its eternity it must sometimes fall in with that which is able to bind it to itself for ever2 if this were to happen1 all things would be so constituted that there would be no alteration or difference in them4#cdf ,sidenote3 ,the ,ether4 ,the universe to ,bruno is transfused with spirit1 soul or life1 the soul of the universe1 which animates its every part4 ,the seat or place of ,god is the universe1 everywhere the whole immeasurable heaven1 empty space1 of which ,he is the fulness4 ,the material aspect1 or1 as ,bruno sometimes seems to say1 the body of this spirit is the ether1 a subtle fluid distinguished from the air we breathe by the absence of moisture4 ,the ether is a purely passive1 non-resisting medium1 permeating the universe1 without quality1 and unimpressionable by force or action2 thus it is penetrated by the heat of any radiating body without diminishing its force4 ,it took the place1 for ,bruno1 of the mythical ,fifth ,essence1 which had so long fed the dreams of philosophers--,divine yet corporeal1 material yet without matter1 a form without privation1 conjoining act with potency1 neither heavy nor light1 suffering neither generation1 nor corruption1 nor alteration1 neither increase nor decrease2 beyond which no sensible existence is1 first-born and creatrix of ,nature1 simplest of beings1 all-containing1 most powerful1 most active1 most living1 most perfect of existences1 endowed with life and intelligence1 of its own nature moving circularly1 etc41 etc4--all this is at length proved to have been a most portentous shadow without body4#cdg ,heaven is either empty space1 or it is an ethereal substance1 a very subtle kind of air1 which is the first and most universal occupant of space4#cdh ,again1 the ether is described as a vapour or smoke1 a nebulous matter1 penetrating throughout the depths of the void1 interpenetrating all things and embracing all2 as not entering into movement of its own accord1 for it is but an exhalation of the wind--a kind of continuous vapour such as is contained in the bowels of the earth3 in it is neither heat nor cold nor any similar effect 7passio71 but it is the medium through which these are borne4 ,all these require moisture3 moisture alone can fix light or darkness or combine atoms into a concrete body and prevent their random flight through the air4#cdi ,it has been claimed that in this and other passages ,bruno anticipated the modern theory of the ether2 it must be noted1 however1 that he expressly denies to its parts any kind of motion--it is only the composite body which moves--and that he speaks of this heaven or ether as the soul which is at once immanent in and comprehends the stars1 i4e4 as the soul of the universe4 ,sidenote3 ,moisture4 ,sidenote3 ,earth3 ,fire4 ,of the strictly material elements of the universe1 the most important is moisture or water4 ,it is moisture which gives concreteness and therefore weight to things4 ,nothing has weight which has not been formed into one by the union of innumerable parts under the action of water4#cej ,consistently with this1 ,bruno believed the heaviest bodies1 as the metals1 to be the most solid and concrete1 and therefore to contain most moisture4 ,it is moisture also which1 penetrating through the arteries1 veins1 and bones of the earth1 gives to it both variety of aspect and the power of life4 ,the visible moisture on the earth's surface1 the seas and lakes1 is a mere nothing as compared to that which is diffused through its interior--is but the sweat1 as it were1 of the earth's body4#cea ,bruno's passion for homogeneity led him to understand that in its surface the land under the sea is similar to that above it1 with which the former is continually changing place1 and it is divided up into plains1 mountains1 valleys1 the islands and rocks of the sea being the tops of the mountains3--a remarkable intuition of the truth1 however arrived at4 ,as to the familiar elements1 earth and fire1 ,bruno could neither allow a special place or sphere nor a special direction of movement to either1 as in the ,aristotelian cosmology4 ,the earth was not the centre of the universe1 and there were earths or similar planets everywhere4 ,to the several arguments of the ,peripatetics#ceb for the centrality of the earth1--from the heaviness1 the darkness1 solidity1 composite character of the earth's matter1 and the movements of its parts1 from the idea that contraries shun one another so that the coldest element1 for example1 should be in the centre1 the hottest at the extreme1--,bruno opposed the common-sense answers that his own theory suggested to him4 ,his appeal was always from fictitious order to the evidence of sense and reason4 ,the argument has no longer any interest in itself1 and to pursue it into detail would hardly be edifying2 but so full is it1 so weighty and so vigorous1 that one wonders how even the ,peripatetics failed to be convinced by it4 ,bruno's very errors are interesting4 ,fire for example1 far from being the outermost1 lightest1 subtlest element1 was regarded by him as a body of which the substance1 7light and heat being accidents7 was water mixed with earth2#cec and in general1 he maintained1 no element was ever found in isolation4 ,as to the supposed coldness of the central element1--the earth1--he believed1 again anticipating future discoveries1 that the centre of the earth was not cold1 but hot1 the source of terrestrial warmth2 but the theory loses something of its value1 scientifically1 from the imagined vitality of the planet1 by which it is supported4#ced ,it was natural that the coincidence of contraries should be brought to do duty against the maxim on which the ,aristotelian view was really based--namely1 that contraries tend to rest at the greatest possible distance from one another1 against which ,bruno marshalled a whole army of facts4 ,away from the shadow of the earth there was perhaps no light but that of the sun1 too strong for our eyes1 for the daylight arose from a mixture of the light of the sun and the darkness of the earth2 we could see other colours by it1 for the reason that they were similarly composed--mixtures of light and darkness4 ,the heat of the sun also was only bearable when tempered by the coolness of the earth or other planets4 ,the body of the earth1 great as it is1 can bear this heat only through its swift revolution4 ,as to the objection that if the earth moved we should feel its motion1 ,bruno remarked that when we are carried in a smoothly and continuously moving vehicle1 not striking against any object1 we do not perceive that we are moving1 except by comparison with some object known to us to be fixed4 ,thus sense furnishes its own correction4#cee ,the differences in the distances of the planets from the sun1 as seen from the earth1 are explained much more readily by the assumption that they and the earth itself are moving about the sun1 than by that of the centrality of the earth1 which compelled astronomers to the complicated device of the epicycles4#cef ,the fact that the moon always turns the same face towards the earth disproved the ,ptolemaic theory3 were it on an epicycle1 as was supposed1 this would be impossible4 ,according to the old doctrine1 the earth was fixed immovably in the centre of the universe1 while about it circled the spheres of sun1 planets1 and fixed stars4 ,with ,bruno1 on the other hand1 the centre of the universe is everywhere1 or nowhere1--in other words it is relative to the body on which the spectator is supposed to stand4 ,the principle of continuous change was employed to explain1 among other matters1 the variation of the equinoxes1 which was already known to occur2 but the continuous change was itself accounted for on teleological grounds4--,the motion which causes the poles to tremble1 and the equinoctial and solstitial points to vary irregularly1 is on account of the variations which are always taking place in parts of the earth2 for the frigid zones may not always be frigid1 nor the torrid1 torrid2 all parts must rest and have holiday from each kind of 'affect1' and consequently take up every kind of disposition successively4 444 ,the centre of the earth1 therefore1 and its position relatively to the poles1 will vary4#ceg ,no star ever repeats one day the revolution of the previous1 or any one year that of another4 ,mathematical exactness1 as we have seen1 is never found in the material world3 the earth may not always present the same face to the sun1 so that one pole must at length pass into the place of the other--a change which must occur sensibly and continuously1 and irregularly1 as natural bodies and elements of bodies are naturally in continuous alteration and movement4 ,the same composite body is never in exactly the same state at any two moments1 nor consists of quite the same parts1 for from all sides and everywhere there is1 necessarily1 an unceasing influx and efflux of elementary bodies4#ceh ,the stars and planets are compared to a flock of birds1 which float hither and thither in the clear ether1 guided only by their desires4#cei ,never does the flock present precisely the same appearance twice4 ,in nature the law is vicissitude and succession1 so that each thing may in actual fact come to be all things4#cfj ,sidenote3 ,earths and ,suns4 ,sidenote3 ,comets4 ,all the stars consist of the same elements1 since water cannot subsist without earth1 nor fire without water2 but in some stars the aqueous element predominates 7planets71 in others the igneous 7suns74 ,from sameness of appearance and of effects 7accidents7 we may infer sameness of substance4 ,it is clear therefore to ,bruno that moon1 planets1 stars1 are all of precisely the same substance as the earth4 ,it is unnecessary to point out by how long a period this brilliant philosophical faith preceded the slower if surer march of science4 ,the great worlds of the universe are of two kinds--the suns1 in which fire is the predominating element1 and from which light is diffused2 and the earths or planets1 in which water predominates and which reflects light4 ,to the first class belong the so-called fixed stars1 from which our sun would appear no larger and no brighter than they appear to us2 to the second belong the moon1 ,mercury1 and other planets1 all in one and the same ethereal space1 suspended in free air and balanced by their own weight as is our earth4 ,in all are seas and woods1 rivers1 men1 cattle1 reptiles1 birds1 fishes1 as on the earth1 and in all the same continuous changes occur4#cfa ,no one is in the centre of the universe rather than another1 for about all equally extends immeasurable space with its innumerable stars4 ,of these first bodies one kind could not exist without the other1 for it is by the concourse of contraries and opposites that nature provides for movement1 life1 and growth in things4 ,about each of the scintillating stars1 or suns1 which we see1 there must circle planets which are for the most part invisible to us1 but which may become visible4#cfb ,in the same way1 both on account of the smallness of their bodies1 and especially on that of the less intensity of reflected light in comparison with light of original force1 the planets which are about our fixed star1 the sun1 would not be seen from any of the others4 ,the discovery in the last half-century of what is almost certainly a satellite of ,sirius confirms in this also ,bruno's anticipation of nature4 ,another of these was his theory of comets1#cfc which he held to be of the same nature as planets1 and to move in similar orbits4 ,he believed also that there were other solar planets which never appeared to us because their position in the heavens precluded their reflecting any of the sun's rays to us3--a belief to which the reported eclipses of the sun by occult bodies has given some support4 ,the shape of the comet1 with its appendages1 was only apparent1 ,bruno said1 and was due to the angle made by the light reflected from its surface4 ,in another reference1 however1 he compares it with the oblique reflection of light from a mirror1 or from the surface of water2 it is the watery matter1 the vapours which are drawn out by the warmth of the sun1 that give the unusual reflection4#cfd ,this shows how nearly he approached the modern theory4 ,in the true spirit of the ,renaissance1 however1 he appealed to the authority of the ancients1 of ,aeschylus and ,hipparchus of ,chios1 who1 according to ,aristotle1 regarded the comets as planets4#cfe ,the comets of the sixteenth century1#cff so far as observed1 went wholly against the received view that their orbits must lie within the sphere of the moon1 and proved that the substance of bodies beyond that sphere was the same as the elementary substance of the earth1 as well as that there was penetrable space beyond4 ,both of these to ,bruno were important consequences4 ,still greater1 however1 was their importance for humanity1 in removing the grounds of the terror which comets and other heavenly wonders had hitherto inspired4 ,there are some1 said ,bruno1 who rest their faith in a virtue above and beyond nature1 saying that ,god1 who is above nature1 creates these appearances in the heavens in order to signify something to us3 as if those were not better1 nay the very best1 signs of divinity which arise in the ordinary course of nature2 among which are those of which we speak1 for they also are not apart from this order1 although their order is hidden from us4 ,to account for the many appearances which seemed to conflict with his new view of the universe1 ,bruno had recourse to several slight experiments and analogies of daily observation such as a schoolmaster might employ at the present day before his class1#cfg but by which even a man of ,kepler's intelligence refused then to be convinced2 at least he would not openly profess his conviction4 ,among other fruitful suggestions which ,bruno makes is that the sun may perhaps turn on its own axis1 and again that it may contain vapour and earth4#cfh ,he had a curious theory that the heat of the sun is only directed outward from the surface1 not inwards2 that this is the general course of radiation2 and that it leaves an inner surface of the sun cold1 on which solar animals live2 finally that meteors are animals expelled from the sun6 ,so always the fruitful idea is accompanied by the absurd4 ,from the principle of the identity of nature it follows that bodies which are remote from us are the same in kind with those that are with us and near us2 nothing may be denied of the former which is affirmed of the latter1 and vice versa4 ,there can be no doubt1 therefore1 of their similar composition and similar parts4 ,thus if here on the earth we nowhere see fire subsisting without earth1 nowhere earth without water or fire1 while their composites are both contained in and penetrated by air and void1 then the same is necessarily the case in the upper world also2 neither sense nor reason compels us to assert or suspect otherwise4#cfi ,bruno has grasped1 however confusedly1 the idea that each individual1 each being in the universe1 is as it were an epitome of the universe itself2 that each therefore stands in a peculiar relation to it1 differing from it only in the proportion in which the elements are composed into unity4 ,it is impossible not to see in this idea the germ of the most important development of ,leibniz' philosophy1 whatever the source may have been through which it came to the latter4 ,it is true that here1 at least1 ,bruno's conception appears much less spiritual than that of his successor1 inasmuch as he is thinking rather of the actual physical elements which go to make up a body 7and in which all bodies are similar to one another74 ,on the other hand1 the formation of the body is1 in his view1 the work of the soul1 and it is in the last resort the identity of the universal soul of nature in all its members that brings each of these into correspondence with all others4 ,it is true1 also1 that ,bruno has no definite explanation of what constitutes an individual1 and his readers are exposed to the dilemma either of regarding the physical atoms as themselves beseelt1--a view which ,bruno nowhere sanctions1--or1 on the other hand1 of accepting a dualism of spirit 7the soul of the universe or ,god7 and matter 7the material atoms1 moisture1 fire1 and ether74 ,yet the tenour of ,bruno's philosophy is wholly opposed to such a dualism4 ,as a corollary of this theory1 ,bruno suggested an explanation of what has been called spontaneous generation1 supported1 however1 by tales of the credulous rather than by actual observation4 ,dust that has been heated by the sun1 as soon as moisture falls upon it1 becomes a frog1 the whole substance of dung goes into worms or flies1 the body of a horse will turn into wasps1 the provident bee rises from the body of an ox6#cgj ,as each thing is in its inner nature identical with every other1 so it may1 and in the natural course does1 become every other1 as we have learned from the ,italian works4 ,nevertheless1 the outward appearances of things do not cease to be different from one another4 ,that is more latent in one subject which is more unfolded in the remainder4 ,the subject of all is one 7monas71 and all things are in truth one1 although in individuals they seem to be many4 ,sidenote3 ,movements of bodies2 their soul-principle4 ,the movements of the earth and of other free-moving bodies are always attributed by ,bruno to an internal principle or soul4 ,movement from without could only take place through direct contact1 and the liquid air or ether is too light to move these heavy bodies4#cga ,it is taking things by the wrong end to say that the loadstone attracts the iron1 the amber the straw1 the sun the sunflower4 ,in the iron there is a kind of sense1 awakened by a spiritual 7i4e4 a subtly material7 virtue diffused from the loadstone1 444 and generally everything that desires and has intelligence moves towards the thing desired1 converts itself into it as far as possible1 beginning with the wish to be in the same place4 ,by the same principle are explained the phenomena of gravity1 which is defined as impulse towards the place of preservation1 such as the earth is to the stone that has formed part of it2 its opposite1 levity1 is impulse away from the contrary or the injurious4 ,gravity and levity are nothing but the impulse of parts to their place1 where they may either move or be at rest1 or to a place through which it is necessary for them to go 7in the circular movement of all material things74 ,thus the motions of the heavy and the light are merely relative movements2 the same kind of motion does not belong always to the same kind of substance or element4#cgb ,the movement of the stars is determined not by considerations of place only1 but also by the necessity that bodies of one kind are under of deriving sustenance from those of another1--the suns from the earths and the earths from the suns4 ,it is through the soul that their needs are felt1 and the soul directs their movements as does the human soul those of the human body4 ,there are1 however1 no fixed limits to their movements3 they are governed only by the convenience of life1 as perceived by the sense and mind1 which are inborn in each4 ,by this fantastic principle ,bruno explained what he thought to be the fact1 that all heavenly bodies whatsoever are in movement2 or perhaps we should say he inferred the fact from the principle3--which was first in the order of his thought it would be impossible to know4 ,like most of his contemporaries he looked upon the conception of a soul in all things with peculiar reverence-- ,porgimus haec paucis1 vulgus procul esto prophanum1 ,ne liceat laico sacrum conscendere montem4 ,the method by which ,bruno sought to know the nature of the souls of the worlds is one which the course of modern philosophy has rendered familiar to us in other connections4 ,it rests upon the argument from the part to the whole4 ,whatever we find in a part of the world belongs1 in a higher sense 7sublimius71 to the whole1 and must be attributed to it4 ,all the capacities of each part are attributed to the whole--that is1 their perfections and activities1 not the qualities they possess as parts1 and as less than the whole in any respect4 ,thus the hindrances to which lesser individuals are exposed1 the necessity of taking in and giving out matter as their forms change1 exist in the greater individual in a minimal degree4 ,but in all parts of the earth ,bruno found signs of life1 sensation1 and even intelligence4 ,stones of different kinds were universally believed to have a kind of sensibility and instinct3 to move of their own accord1 attract other bodies to themselves1 act upon our human spirits and senses4 ,the phenomena of animal instinct were a constant object of interest to ,bruno1 who saw in them the expression of a deeper intelligence than the merely human4 ,it is true the observations on which he built may not always have been exact2 but that does not detract from the value of his principle4 ,thus the porcupine 7istrix7 moved his admiration because of its careful storing up of a stock of darts in its back1 with which to protect its life2 it could1 with unerring aim1 cast one at its enemy1 hearing1 it is said1 with its skin2 and its precision far surpassed all that the cunning of man1 with his many instruments1 could do4 ,with perfect skill it threw its darts1 yet sparingly1 so that no part of its body was ever defenceless1 the spirit directing all its actions from one centre1 to which1 from every part of the body1 report was made6 ,with how much higher reason will the star be endowed1 of the body of which animals are made1 by whose spirit they flourish8 ,so the earth from one centre directs all its actions and those of its parts2 it never errs1 neither it nor any of the worlds which dwell in the immeasurable ether4#cgc ,bruno rejected#cgd the popular notion that the behaviour of ants1 spiders1 and other animals does not spring from their proper foresight and artifice1 but from divine1 unerring intelligence acting upon them from without1 giving them those thrusts 7spinte7 which are called natural instincts--a term which he regarded as meaningless4 ,is this 'natural instinct' sense or intellect8 ,if the former1 is it internal or external8 ,clearly it is not external2 but if internal1 where is the internal sense from which they could have their foresight1 their arts and artifices1 their precautions1 expeditions1 to meet various conditions1 both present and future8 ,there must be some proximate principle1 i4e4 a form of intelligence peculiar to each animal1 which determines its actions4 ,the divine and universal intelligence is merely the principle that gives it intelligence1 through which it understands4#cge ,the action of animals of a given kind were supposed to be after one perfect model1 and to be undeliberate4 ,bruno therefore placed their intelligence higher than that of man1 nearer the level of that of the world-souls4 ,the swallow makes its nest1 the ants their cave1 the spiders their web or nets1 in one way only1 than which they could not make them more admirably or suitably4444 ,who knows whether the spirit of man is rising upwards1 that of others moving downwards8 ,at least it is to be referred to a defect of light and divine force that men hesitate and deliberate in all that belongs to the means of life1 the modes of worship and defence1 for if all knew perfectly1 all would be governed in the best1 and consequently in one way only4 ,it is1 then1 on the analogy of these supposed higher1 unerring faculties of animals that ,bruno considers the souls of the worlds to think and act4 ,they have perfect freedom1 since their life and soul are their own1 not borrowed1 as ours4 ,thus as we breathe1 see1 sleep1 without labour or anxiety1 and while our soul performs the function of life1 the vital humours and spirits continually circulate1 so these1 the chief members of the world1 divine animals1 have no need to undergo any anxious toil1 for all things with them are done for the best4 ,their fixed aim of life defines for them certain determinate orbits1 in which they move freely by the force of that soul which is much more certainly present in these high1 perfect1 divine bodies than in us1 of more ignoble condition1 who draw from them spirit and body1 come forth living out of their bosom1 are nourished by them1 and at length are dissolved and received back into them4#cgf ,it is to the internal spirit also that the spherical form of the worlds is due4 ,the so-called mountains of the earth do not in the least detract from its spherical form4 ,bruno anticipated modern science in his discovery or intuition that the real mountains are not those we are accustomed to call such1 but immense tracts of country1--the whole of ,france1 for example4 ,i find the whole country of ,france to be one mountain1 which rises gradually from the ,north ,sea to ,auvergne1 where is its summit1 marked on the west by the ,pyrenees1 where the ,garonne flows1 on the east by the ,rhone1 on the south by the ,mediterranean ,sea4#cgg ,the whole earth is1 however1 as smooth in reality as is to us the pumice stone1 which to the ant seems furrowed with mountains and valleys4 ,it is on teleological grounds that ,bruno accounts for this sphericity4 ,composite things are preserved through the harmony and union of their parts1 while decay arises from dissolution4 ,but such harmony and union are best secured by the spherical form3 towards this form1 then1 every soul aspires in the moulding of its body4 ,the most perfect animals1 the stars1 having fewer limitations1 have the greater advantages2 being almost independent1 free1 self-sufficient1 they are most closely united in themselves1 i4e4 tend most nearly to the purely spherical form4#cgh ,however perfect they are1 the stars are yet of mortal stuff4 ,you may say if you will that the worlds change and decay in old age1 or that the earth seems to grow grey with years1 and that all the great animals of the universe perish like the small1 for they change1 decay1 dissolve4 ,matter1 weary of old forms1 eagerly snatches after new1 for it desires to become all things1 and to resemble1 as far as may be1 all being4 ,the efflux and influx of atomic matter into the great bodies is continuous1 and this is the only kind of motion which is unceasing4#cgi ,as the conflux of native matter is greater1 so the bodies grow more and more1 and increase up to a certain limit1 on touching which they grow weary and become subject to a contrary order2 as about the seed atoms are gathered and added continuously until the body and its limbs reach their maturity1 when the same parts are cast out from the centre1 and the breaking up of the composite is presented to our eyes4 ,hence there are atoms innumerable roaming through the void1 while infinite changes succeed one another in bodies4 ,those in one region receive the atoms repulsed from another3 there is no danger of their straying infinitely without reaching a goal1 for everywhere are great bodies to receive what is expelled from other stars4 ,composite as the worlds are1--capable1 therefore1 of dissolution and destruction1--yet1 as ,timaeus had suggested1 the power and providence of the divine purpose may maintain them eternally as they are4 ,,chapter ,v#chj ,,the ,,last ,,and ,,the ,,least ,,things3 ,,atoms ,,and ,,soul-,,monads ,the reaction against ,aristotelianism had1 as one of its results1 a renascence of the atomic theory of ,democritus and ,lucretius2 and one of the earliest adherents of the renovated doctrine was ,bruno4 ,although a complete presentation of the theory was not given until his later works1 the ,de ,minimo and the ,articuli adv4 ,mathematicos1 appeared1 yet already in the ,italian dialogues there were frequent references to it4 ,in the ,cena1#cha for example1 it is said that in the physical division of a finite body infinite progress is impossible1 and1 as we shall afterwards find1 in ,bruno there is no distinction between physical and mathematical division4 ,again1 in the ,cena an animistic atomism is suggested1 which presents a curious anticipation of some of ,leibniz' characteristic views4 ,it is more than probable1 as all things partake of life1 that many or innumerable individuals live not only in us1 but in all composite things2 when anything dies1 as is said1 we must believe it to be not death1 but change only2 the accidental composition or concord ceases1 the things that enter into it remaining always immortal2 and this is truer of those things we call spiritual than of those we call corporeal or material4#chb ,thus every body or organism1 for all bodies are organisms to ,bruno1 is itself constituted by other living beings1 the atoms--living atoms--being alike the origin and the end of all4 ,so ,leibniz wrote3--,every living body has a presiding entelechy1 which is the soul in the animal2 but the members of this living body are full of other living beings--plants1 animals1--each of which1 again1 has its entelechy or presiding soul4#chc ,in the ,infinito ,bruno refers to the continuous changes of all composite bodies as arising from the ceaseless flux of atoms out of and into each body1 even the greater animals1 the stars and planets1 sending out particles1 which wander through the universe from one to another4#chd ,again1 when discussing the four elements1 he ascribes to water the power of holding together the atoms of earth1 or the dry4 ,if from the earth all water were to be removed1 so that there remained purely dry matter1 this remainder would necessarily be an incoherent1 rare1 loose substance1 easy to be dispersed through the air1 in the form of innumerable discontinuous bodies2 for while the air or ether makes a continuum1 that which makes a coherent continuum is water or moisture4#che ,these indivisible prime bodies1 of which the worlds are originally composed1 are spoken of as flying throughout space from world to world1 in infinite movement1 entering now into this1 now into that composition4#chf ,finally1 in the ,spaccio1 we are reminded that every trifle1 however worthless1 is of value in the order of the whole1 the universe1 for great things are composed of little1 little things of the least1 and these of the individuals 7or indivisibles7 or minima4#chg ,in its main outlines1 accordingly1 ,bruno's atomic theory was already formed in his mind when he wrote his earlier philosophical works1 and even some of his peculiar applications of it had already suggested themselves4 ,it is hardly possible1 therefore1 to find any very marked development in this regard between the ,london and the ,frankfort periods4 ,there is elaboration and completion rather than development in any definite direction2#chh and1 as we have seen1 the writing of the larger works1 containing the developed system1 was projected in ,london1 and even carried out to a certain extent before ,bruno left ,england4#chi ,in the ,acrotismus1 which occupies a middle place between the two periods1 the doctrine is equally in evidence1 in reference both to the atoms and to the continuous ether in which they move4 ,there is a limit to the division of nature--an indivisible something2 the division of nature arrives at ultimate minimal parts1 unapproachable by human instruments4 ,of these minimal bodies every sensible body is composed1 and such a body1 resolved into its minima1 can retain no semblance of complexity2 for these are the first bodies out of which all others are made1 and which are1 in the truest sense1 the matter of all things that have corporeal existence4 ,resolved into these parts1 stone has no look of stone1 flesh of flesh1 bone of bone2 in their elements1 bone1 stone1 and flesh do not differ1 but only when formed out of these1 compounded1 compacted1 and arranged in diverse manners1 do flesh1 stone1 and bone and other things become different one from another4#cij ,and ,bruno describes how1 between the heavenly bodies1 there is a substance1 ingenerable and incorruptible1 the immeasurable air1 a kind of spiritual body--the ether4#cia ,sidenote3 ,object of ,de ,minimo4 ,sidenote3 ,atomism a metaphysical doctrine4 ,its full extension1 however1 the theory receives in the ,de ,minimo1 where the atom1 or corporeal unity1 is not the sole minimum discussed4 ,the full title of the work is3--,on the threefold minimum1 and measure1 being the principles of the three speculative sciences and of many practical arts4 ,we find nowhere any distinct statement as to what ,bruno meant by the threefold minimum1 and the three speculative sciences to which its several members refer4 ,it was supposed that the minima were 7#a7 the monad or unity which is the unit of number1 7#b7 the point1 which is the unit of the line1 and 7#c7 the atom1 which is the unit of body4 ,but arithmetic and geometry can hardly be called speculative sciences1 and ,tocco has shown that ,bruno had in view the triad of ,god1 the soul and the atom--the three kinds of simple substance1 each immortal and indestructible3--,god as the supreme and most simple unity1 ,monad of ,monads2 soul as that which lives in each composite being and holds in unity the atoms which from time to time enter into its composition2 and the atom1 the most simple of material substances1 in the sum of which1 with their containing ether1 the material universe consists4 ,had ,bruno carried out his subdivision of the speculative sciences1 he would probably have referred ,god1 as the substance of all reality1 to a speculative theology1 of ,neoplatonist type2 soul as the simple substance of animate beings to metaphysics proper2 and the atoms1 the substance of body1 to a speculative physics1 dealing with the metaphysical presuppositions of the general theory of nature1 which was set forth in the ,de ,immenso4 ,the scheme1 however1 was never fully carried out1#cib the times being not yet ripe for the complete separation of the speculative and the experimental or observational sciences4 ,in referring the atomic theory to metaphysics1 ,bruno showed a true instinct1 for while in one sense atomism is a scientific hypothesis capable of furnishing laws which explain the interaction of bodies1--the corpuscular theory1--and as such has proved its value by the brilliant developments of recent years1 on the other hand1 it is also a presupposition of knowledge1 a ground of the possibility of our knowledge of body1 and therefore has its place in speculative theory1 or metaphysics1 in the widest sense4 ,both points of view are presented in ,bruno's doctrine1 but that from which he starts is the epistemological1 following in this the guidance of ,nicholas of ,cusa4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge implies the atom4 ,sidenote3 ,relativity of minimum4 ,knowledge is measurement1 and all measure implies a minimum in each kind of being4 ,were it possible to subdivide anything ad infinitum1 the half would be potentially equal to the whole1 and measurement frustrated4 ,there must be a limit to division1 an ultimate part1 which itself has no parts1 and which is the substance of the composition into which it enters1 the composition on the other hand being an accident of this minimum4 ,as it is primarily a condition of measurement1 the minimum differs in the different spheres of measure or knowledge to which the category of quantity applies4 ,in magnitudes of one or two dimensions it is the point1 in bodies the atom1 in numbers the monad or unity4 ,thus number is accident of the monad1 monad is the essence of number1 as composition is accident of the atom1 atom is essence of the composite4 ,again1 the sensible minimum must be far greater than the natural or real minimum1 for in so far as minimum is qualified by sensible1 it is implied that the minimum is not absolutely such1 but is a composite4 ,the minimum of taste1 touch1 etc41 must possess certain qualities1 by which it has relation to sense1 and these can derive only from some form of composition4 ,in their primary form the minima of nature must be without difference2 therefore that some are sensible1 others not1 must be due to some addition in the former4#cic ,thus each species of existence1 as light1 moisture1 vital force1#cid has its own minimum1 and the minimum is relative in this sense also1 that there are different kinds of existence not resolvable one into another3 the absolute minimum would be ,god1 who is also the absolute maximum4 ,the relative minimum1 accordingly1 is determined either by the thought and design of the observer1 or by the species of existence to which the subject belongs2 nature has set limits1 both lower and upper1 within which the individual of any species must stay1 or cease to belong to that species4 ,accordingly1 what one regards as great and composite1 another may take as first and minimum3 the unit of one science may be analysed in another into further elements4 ,pythagoras in his philosophy started with the monad and numbers2 ,plato with atoms1 lines and surfaces2 ,empedocles with the four elements2 the physicians with the four humours1 and so on2 but the ,pythagorean monad is prior to the placed monad 7the atom71 ,plato's matter of bodies to the qualified bodies of ,empedocles1 the four simple bodies of ,empedocles to the four first combinations of these1 the four humours4 ,so to the universe the whole solar system1 the sun and all its planets1 may be a simple unit4#cie ,here ,bruno suggests two principles for the classification and systematising of the sciences1 to which it would have been well had he himself and his successors faithfully adhered4 ,the one is1 that the modes of measurement1 i4e4 the methods and laws of the sciences1 must differ for the different kinds of existence studied3 that a biological law1 for example1 cannot be adopted as an explanation of mental phenomena1 nor the atomic theory account for the phenomena of life4 ,on the other hand there are orders of existence1 according to the complexity of the subjects involved4 ,if we regard the science which deals with the more concrete subject as higher1 then each higher science 7e4g4 psychology7 must take for granted the principles and results of each lower science 7biology1 physics1 mathematics71--each must adopt and retain a unit for itself1 which it has not further to analyse4 ,sidenote3 ,the minima in the classification of sciences4 ,in the same way the minima offer a ground for the distinction of the more abstract sciences one from another4 ,the term individual nature 7atoma natura7 may1 according to ,bruno1 have one of several uses4 ,it may be applied either negatively or privatively1 and if negatively1 then either accidentally or substantially4 ,his instance of the accidental use is a voice or sound1 which expands spherically1 is wholly wherever it is1 i4e4 the full content of the sound is heard1 wherever its influence extends1 not a part here1 a part there1 although the intensity may vary in degree4 ,of the substantial use examples are the spirit1 which is wholly in the whole body of man1 or that spirit which is in the whole extent of the life of the earth1 by whose life we live and in which we have our being1 or1 above this substantial nature or individual soul1 that of the universe1 and supreme above all1 the mind of minds1 ,god1 one spirit completely filling all things4#cif ,the atom-nature is privatively so-called1 when it is the element and substance of a magnitude which is the same in kind with it1 and may be reduced to it1 and it is distinguished from the atom negatively so-called1 because it is not divisible1 either in genus or in species1 either per se or per accidens4 ,examples are1 7#a7 in discrete quantities3--unity to the mathematician1 the universal proposition to the logician1 the syllable to the grammarian2 and 7#b7 in continuous quantities1 varying with the species of continuum3--the minimal pain1 sweetness1 colour1 light1 triangle1 circle1 straight line1 curve2 in duration1 the instant2 in place1 the minimal space2 in length and breadth1 the point2 in body1 the least and first body4 ,sidenote3 ,minimum as substance4 ,in the second place1 the atom or minimum is also a metaphysical ,greek3 pou st2 not only is it the last result of analysis1 but it is also the permanent substance of being1 and again it contains all being in itself--it is essence of being4 ,thus such an individual nature never comes into existence by way of generation1 nor passes out of it by way of corruption or dissolution2 only per accidens may we say that it now is1 now is not4#cig ,certain of them1 however1 the souls1 deities1 ,god1 are in their intrinsic nature eternal1 immortal1 indissoluble4 ,of these it was ,bruno's intention to treat at large in a ,metaphysics and a ,de ,anima which he purposed to write if ,god granted him time4#cih ,unfortunately1 it was willed otherwise4 ,nothing that becomes1 changes1 decays1 is real 7ens74 ,it is by meditating on this perpetual unity of nature1 by conforming ourselves1 and preserving ourselves in likeness to it1 that we come to partake in the life of the gods1 and to deserve the name of substance4 ,that which time1 movement1 fate bring to us is nought2 for while they are1 they are not4 ,let us then1 cries ,bruno1 supply the mind with material1 in the contemplation of the minimum1 through which it may exalt itself to the maximum4#cii ,since the real minimum1 whether atom or soul1 is immortal and indestructible1 we know1 as ,pythagoras saw1 that there is no death1 but only transition2 death is a dissolution which can occur only to the composite1 for the composite is never substance1 but is always adventitious4 ,otherwise we should be changing our substance every moment with the continuous influx of atoms into our bodies4 ,only by the individual substance of the soul are we that which we are2 about it as a centre1 which is everywhere in its whole being 7ubique totum71 the disgregation and aggregation of atoms takes place4 ,according to a law of the soul-world1 all bodies and forces tend to the spherical form2 ,god1 as monad of monads1 is the perfect or infinite sphere1 of which the centre is at once nowhere and everywhere2 and in ,him 7as in all minima1 simple substances1 monads7 all opposites coincide1 the many and the few1 finite and infinite2 therefore that which is minimum is also maximum1 or anything between these1 each is all things1 the greatest and the whole4#djj ,therefore1 if contemplation is to follow in the footsteps of nature1 it must begin1 continue1 and end with the minimum4#dja ,in other words1 the minimum in each sphere of being contains implicitly in itself the whole reality of that sphere4 ,the minimum is its substance1 not merely the ultimate of analysis1 but the actual source1 the dynamic origin of reality1 as ,god is implicitly the whole universe and also the source of the universe as it actually exists4 ,it is because the minimum is all reality1 is the maximum1 that the knowledge of it gives us that of the whole4 ,sidenote3 ,uniqueness of all things4 ,sidenote3 ,sense and knowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,relativity4 ,sidenote3 ,judgment based upon sensation4 ,in the third place the atomic theory offers an explanation of the uniqueness of each natural existence1 which ,bruno's philosophical theory already assumed4 ,the ever moving atoms present a mechanism by which the infinite diversity and infinite succession of change in things may be brought about4 ,the appearance of similarity1 exactness1 etc41 is1 as we have found1 an illusion4 ,mathematically exact figures or bodies--a true circle1 for example--are unattainable by sense1 even if they exist in nature2 but they do not exist in nature4 ,sense is the primary faculty1 through which the material of all others must pass1 so that what has not entered through that window of the soul cannot be known at all4 ,but a single point out of place on the circumference of a circle makes it cease to be a true circle1 and our sense-apprehension is necessarily so confused and indistinct that we cannot distinguish between the true and the false1 where truth depends upon so inappreciable a difference4 ,moreover sense-knowledge is relative to the knowing subject1 or to the subject's position with regard to the object4 ,what to the eye of one is too large is to another too small2 a sound which is pleasant to one ear is not so to another2 the food which to the hungry man tastes sweet1 to the full man is nauseous2 the ape to the ape is beautiful1 but to the man is of laughter-inspiring ugliness4 ,hence the circumspect will not say this has a good odour1 taste1 sound1 this has a beautiful appearance1 but will add to me1 now1 sometimes4 ,nothing is good or evil1 pleasant or painful1 beautiful or ugly1 simply and absolutely2 but the same objects in relation to individual subjects receive from the senses contrary denominations1 as they in fact produce contrary effects4 ,in deciding what is to be called good or bad1 honourable or base1 nature and custom have been the chief agents1 and alterations have issued from the slow rise and victory of different opinions4 ,among the ,druids and ,magi certain things were performed publicly at sacrifices which now1 even when committed in privacy1 are regarded as execrable1 and are so by way of law1 and in the present condition of affairs4 ,philosophy1 as it teaches to abstract from particulars1 to bring the nature and condition of things as far as possible under an absolute judgment1 must define differently the useful and good in an absolute sense1 from the useful and good as contracted to the human species4 ,objectively there is no definitely good or definitely evil1 definitely true or definitely false1 so that from one point of view we may say that all things are good2 from another that all things are evil2 from a third that nothing is good or evil1 as neither of the contraries is true2 from a fourth that all things are both good and evil1 as each of the contraries is true4 ,no sense deceives or is deceived3 each judges of its proper object according to its own measure4 ,there is no higher tribunal to which to refer its object1 nor can reason judge of colour any more than can the ear2 sensible truth does not follow any general or universal rule1 but one which is particular1 mutable1 and variable4 ,in the working of an external sense there may be different degrees of perfection or defect1 but not of truth or falsity1 which consist in the reference of the subject and predicate to one another4 ,the faculty by which we judge this or that to be true colour or light1 and distinguish from apparent colour or light1 is not in the eye4 ,to affirm that man is an animal1 we must know both man and animal1 know that animal nature is in man1 and other things which1 as means or circumstances1 concur directly or indirectly in this knowledge4 ,external sense can apprehend only one species or image of the object2 from the colour and figure to pass to its name1 its truth1 its difference from other objects1 belongs to a more inward faculty4 ,yet the latter is always based upon sense2--a deaf man can neither imagine nor dream of sounds which he has never heard1 nor a blind man of colours and figures which he has never seen4#djb ,this digression on the relativity of knowledge1 and on the different functions of sense and reason1 in which ,bruno follows partly the teaching of ,lucretius1 partly the ,peripatetic doctrine of knowledge1 shows that even if a true or perfectly exact geometrical figure existed in nature1 none of the faculties with which we are endowed could apprehend it1 since it is not given by external sense4#djc ,sidenote3 ,no exactness or similarity in composites4 ,but in the second place#djd reason tells us that no true circle1 or other figure1 is possible in nature3 for there is in nature no similarity except in the atoms2 a true circle would imply the equality of all lines from the centre1 but no two lines in nature are entirely and in all respects equal to one another4 ,the circle or part of a circle which appears most perfect to us--the rainbow--is an illusion of the senses1 due to the reflection of the light of the sun from the clouds2 so the circles made by a stone falling into water cannot be perfect1 for this would mean that the stone itself is perfectly spherical1 that the water is everywhere of the same density1 that no wind is playing upon its surface4 ,sound is not equally diffused owing to differences in the density and rarity of the air1 nor is the horizon ever a perfect circle1 owing to differences of clearness in different directions4 ,object and faculty alike are in continuous change2 all natural things are continually altering their form or changing their position2 therefore although they seem to sense to remain fixed for a time1 we know that this is impossible1 from the nature of things4#dje ,whatsoever falls in the scope of sense-perception1 even the distant sphere and stars1 we judge to consist of the same elements1 therefore to be subject equally to perpetual variability and vicissitude4 ,thus--the atoms alone being simple1 and remaining ever the same--no composite thing can be the same for one moment even1 as each is being altered continually in all parts and on all sides by the efflux and influx of innumerable atoms4#djf ,hence nothing is perfectly straight1 nothing perfectly circular among composites1 nothing absolutely solid but the atoms1 nothing absolutely void but the spaces between them4 ,the facet of a diamond appears to be a perfect plane1 perfectly compact1 yet in reality it is rough and porous4#djg ,in matter no two lines or figures are entirely equal1 nor can the same figure be repeated twice4#djh ,no man is twice of the same weight1 the very instruments by which we measure and weigh things are themselves in constant change1 and the flux of atoms is never equal1 but now denser1 now rarer4 ,in general no two things are of the same weight1 length1 sound1 or number1 nor are two motions or parts of motion ever the same4 ,to say that ten trees are equal to ten others is to speak merely from a logical point of view1 for in fact each is one in a peculiar and special sense4#dji ,equality is only in those things which are permanent and the same2 changing bodies are unequal to themselves at any two instants4#daj ,nothing variable or composite consists at two moments of time wholly of the same parts and the same order of parts1 since the efflux and influx of atoms is continuous1 and therefore not even from the primary integrating parts will you be able to name a thing as the same twice4#daa ,number itself is not an absolute1 but a relative determination3 it does not touch the nature of the thing itself4 ,nature has no difference of number1 as we have1 of odd and even1 tens and hundreds2 nor do the gods1 spirits1 or other rational beings define the numbers and measures of objects by the same series of terms4 ,both numbers and the methods of numbering are as diverse as are the fingers1 heads1 and mental equipment of the numberers4 ,that which fits in with the numbers of nature will therefore never fit in with our numbers4 ,thus ten horses and ten men1 although determined arithmetically by one and the same number1 are in nature1 or physically1 wholly unequal to one another4#dab ,sidenote3 ,the atoms4 ,sidenote3 ,time and space4 ,in order that men's minds may be better disposed for the reception of truth1 it is necessary first to demolish the foundations of error2#dac ,bruno accordingly sets himself to disprove the infinite divisibility of the continuum4#dad ,it was the common belief that there were no limits set to the dividing power of either nature or art1 so that1 however small a part might be arrived at1 it was possible to divide it into yet smaller parts1 on the analogy of the division of a fraction into tens of thousands of parts4 ,bruno denied this analogy to be justifiable1 as in the latter case we are concerned not with division but with multiplication or addition1 not with a continuum1 but with discrete quantities1 and it was part of his general theory that the addition of discretes might be carried on ad infinitum2 the inverse process he denied4 ,he thus held opinions directly contrary to those of ,aristotle1 with whom the mass of the universe was finite1 limited by its enclosing sphere1 the parts of the universe unlimited4 ,aristotle had an upper but not a lower limit2 ,bruno a lower but not an upper4 ,so time and space1 which ,aristotle had treated as finite in duration or extent1 but as infinitely divisible1 like the universe itself1 are regarded by ,bruno as unlimited in their dimensions1 but as consisting of discrete minimal parts4 ,in every point of duration is beginning without end1 and end without beginning2 it is the centre of two infinities4 ,therefore the whole of duration is one infinite instant1 both beginning and end1 as immeasurable space is an infinite minimum or centre4 ,the beginning and source of all errors1 both in physics and in mathematics1 is the resolution of the continuous in infinitum4 ,to us it is clear that the resolution both of nature and of true art1 which does not advance beyond nature1 descends from a finite magnitude and number to the atom1 but that there is no limit to the extension of things either in nature or in thought1 except in regard to the form of particular species4 ,everywhere and always we find the minimum1 the maximum nowhere and never4 ,the maximum and minimum1 however1 may in one sense coincide1 so that we know the maximum to be everywhere1 since from what has been said it is evident that the maximum consists in the minimum and the minimum in the maximum1 as in the many is the one1 in the one the many4 ,yet reason and nature may more readily separate the minimum from the maximum than the maximum from the minimum4 ,therefore the immeasurable universe is nothing but centre everywhere2 eternity nothing but a moment always2 immeasurable body an atom2 immeasurable plane a point2 immeasurable space the receptacle of a point or atom4#dae ,the chief source of error on the part of the ,peripatetics was their failure to distinguish between the minimum as a part1 and the minimum a terminus or limit4 ,hence their idea that no combination of physical minima would give a magnitude1 since two or more would touch one another with their whole surface1 i4e4 would coincide3--otherwise the minimum would have parts1 a part of each touching the other1 and a part not touching4 ,on their theory it would follow that magnitudes do not consist of parts1 or at least not of elementary parts4 ,this is inconsistent with nature1 for existing magnitudes must have been built up out of nature's elements1 and with art1 for art can measure only on the assumption of first parts4 ,it is true that what is posited as first part in one operation may be the last result in another1 for the minimum1 as we have seen1 is a relative conception1 but some first part is always assumed in any operation4 ,and as the operation of art is not infinite1 so neither is there infinite subordination of parts4#daf ,when two minima touch one another1 they do not do so with their whole body1 or any part of it1 but one with its terminus or limit may touch several others2 no body touches another with the whole of itself or a part1 but with either the whole or the part of its limiting surface4 ,the terminus of a thing is therefore no part of it1 and by implication not a minimal part4 ,hence there are two kinds of minima concerned--that of the touching body1 or part1 and the minimum of that by which the contact is effected1 the terminus4#dag ,the atom1 which is the minimal sphere1 touches in the absolutely minimal point1 the smallest terminus4 ,other spheres do not touch in a point simply1 but in more than one1 or in a plane circle4#dah ,by adding limit to limit we never obtain a magnitude2 the terminus is no part1 and therefore if in contact it would touch with its whole self1 so that magnitude is not made up of termini1 whether points1 atoms1 lines1 or surfaces which are termini2 and this was the false ground on which the ,aristotelians denied the possibility of the atom4 ,it remained to ask if the termini were infinite1 since the atoms were not2 but it was clear that their number was determined by that of the atoms4 ,for two limits do not touch one another3--,they do not cohere or make a quantum1 but through them others in contact with one another make a contiguum or continuum4#dai ,it may be added that if the parts of a divisible body were infinite in number1 the parts of the whole would be equalled by the parts of the half1 for in the infinite there can be no greater and less4 ,in the infinite1 as we have seen above1 there is no difference between palms1 digits1 miles1 between units and thousands1 nor in the infinite time that has elapsed are there more months than years1 more years than centuries4 ,if any one set of these were less than the others it would be finite1 and if one finite number may be applied to the whole1 then the whole is finite4#dbj ,the force of the ,achilles dilemma was derived from the false idea that the minimum of one kind had some relation to that of another kind1 e4g4 that of time to that of motion1 that of impulsive force to that of the motion produced4 ,a thing of one kind does not define or measure a thing of another1 and the duration of one does not compare in the same sense with the duration of another4 ,parts of different things are only equivocally called parts1 and minima are minima only according to their proper 7and diverse7 definitions2 therefore one is not measured by another1 except in a rough way1 for practical purposes4#dba ,sidenote3 ,the vacuum4 ,atoms spherical4 ,as the atoms come into contact with one another1 not in all points of their surface1 but in a definite number1 it follows that there is a space between them1 in the interstices2 it was this thought which led ,democritus to posit a vacuum4#dbb ,the figure of the corporeal minimum must be spherical1 for any mass which has projections can always be thought of as smaller1 when these projections have been removed2 and nature itself suggests this1 by the gradual rounding off of substances through time1 and the apparent roundness and smoothness of rough and jagged bodies when the observer is at a distance4#dbc ,diversity of forms of composite bodies results easily from spherical atoms1 through differences in situation and order1 differing amounts of vacuum and solid2 but a simple vacuum with solid bodies is not sufficient1--there must be a certain matter through which the latter cohere together4#dbd ,although all other determinations may be abstracted from1 figure at least must be predicated of the atoms2 quantity cannot be asserted of that which is thought to be unfigured4 ,these determinations of the minimum1 though not given to sense1 may nevertheless be made object of thought1 by analogy or inference from the combinations of sensible minima in larger composites1 the same forms of aggregation being repeated in the higher which occur in the lower forms4#dbe ,from the consideration of mathematical figures as consisting of minima1 ,bruno attempted both to remodel and to simplify the existing mathematical theory1 and1 unfortunately fell foul of the new analytical mathematics1 the theory of rationals and of approximations1 which at that time was receiving marked extensions1 and which has since justified itself so completely by results4 ,it is true he did not entirely reject it1 but he regarded it as merely an artifice for rough practical measurements4 ,the true measure is always the minimum1 inferred by analogy from the combinations of greater parts1 which are perceived by sense4 ,thus the minimal circle1 after the atom itself1 consists of seven minima1 the minimal triangle of three1 and the minimal square of four1 and as each figure increases not by the addition of one atom merely1 but by a number determined by the original number of atoms in the figure1 it follows that no one figure is ever equal to another4 ,thus the second triangle is of six minima1 the second square of nine1 the second circle of nineteen4 ,the squaring of the circle is therefore impossible1#dbf although it may be approximately reached through the ultimate coincidence of arc and chord1 by which the circle becomes equal to a polygon with an infinite number of sides4#dbg ,this1 however1 is only an approximation of sense1 which fails to observe the infinitesimal differences that are caused by the existence of a few atoms1 more or less1 in a figure4 ,they are visible to the eye of reason1 which comprehends that no two figures in nature are ever exactly equal4 ,in exact geometry the number of one species of figure has nothing in common with that of another4 ,it is clear1 however1 that even on his own ground ,bruno was in error in this regard2 for example1 the seventh triangle and the fifth square are each composed of thirty-six minima4#dbh ,but it is hardly necessary to take seriously his teaching in this respect4 ,he was wholly governed by the belief in the infinite diversity of nature1 and the absolute incommensurability of any member of one species of beings with one of a different species4 ,since a definite minimum exists1 it is not possible either in reality or in thought for a square to be equalled by a circle1 nor even a square by a pentagon1 a triangle by a square1 nor in fine any species of figure by a figure of another species2 for difference in the number of sides implies also difference in the order and number of parts4 ,as figures in this respect are as numbers1 and one species of number cannot be equalled by another either 'formally' or fundamentally 7i4e4 either in idea or in fact71 we can never make an equilateral figure of any kind equal to one of another by first parts4#dbi ,where this transformation is apparently carried out1 as where a cube of wax is moulded to another figure1 the result is due to the varying degrees of density in the different parts of the material2 no solid parts are added or subtracted1 but the disposition and extent of the pores or vacua are altered4 ,but no argument can be drawn from this rough method1 for the principles of practice are different from those of science4#dcj ,the latter principles are then applied boldly to geometrical science3 thus it is shown that an angle1 although it may be multiplied indefinitely1 can be divided only into two parts2 all its lines1 it is understood1 consisting of fila or rows of atoms2#dca that the circle has not an infinite number of radii1 for from the circumference to the centre only six such lines can be drawn2#dcb that not every line can be divided into two equal parts1 for the physical line or filum may1 naturally1 consist of an odd number of atoms2#dcc in any case geometrical bisection can at best be a near approximation1--though the two halves be apparently equal1 they may really differ by many atoms4 ,on this basis1 in the fourth and fifth books of the ,de ,minimo1 ,bruno offers a simplification of the geometry of ,euclid4 ,as nature itself is the highest unification of the manifold1 and the monad is the unity and essence of all number1 so we are taught to pass from the infinite forms and images of art to the definite forms of nature1 which the mind in harmony with nature grasps in a few forms1 while the first mind has at once the potentiality and the reality of all particular things in the 7simple7 monad4#dcd ,in accordance with the method of simplification suggested by this doctrine1 ,bruno sets himself to show that the greater part of ,euclid may be intuitively presented in three complicated figures1 named respectively the ,atrium ,appollinis1 ,atrium ,palladis1 and ,atrium ,veneris4 ,he hoped that by this means1 if not always1 for the most part at any rate1 without further explanation1 the demonstration and the very evidence of the thing might be presented to the senses of all1 without numbers1--not after the partial method of others1 who in considering a statue take now the foot1 now the eyes1 now the forehead1 now other parts separately1--but explaining all in each and each in all4#dce ,it is no part of the purpose of this book to go at length into the mathematics of ,bruno1 which unfortunately have not yet met with a competent exposition4 ,apart from the difficulty of the matter itself1 the poetical form and setting of his theorems is an additional stumbling-block in the way of understanding4 ,bruno was put to many shifts in order to give a poetical colouring to the most prosaic of subjects4 ,we have gone thus fully into the detail of ,bruno's atomic theory1 more so perhaps than its intrinsic value seems to demand1 because this aspect of his doctrine is the most important philosophically1 and has exercised the greatest influence upon the course of speculation4 ,it also provides most clearly an exemplification of the return which was made1 or thought to be made1 by the ,renaissance to the older pre-,aristotelian philosophy and science4 ,the rejection by ,aristotle and his scholastic followers of the atomic theory of ,leucippus and ,democritus had been based upon the identification of space and body4 ,the possibility of a vacuum in the corporeal world was denied1 on the ground that discreteness was inconsistent with the continuity which was felt to be a necessary condition of space4 ,accordingly1 the reintroduction of the atom was possible only in one of two ways--either by the distinction between body and space1 or by the application of the atomic constitution of body to space itself4 ,the former and truer solution was not open to ,bruno4 ,his time was still too much under the domination of ,peripatetic thought for him to be able to take the important step of critically separating these two notions4 ,the latter way1 therefore1 was that which he followed4 ,hence the curious attempt to remodel mathematical theory on the basis of the atom1 which we have described above1 and the reduction of mathematical certainty to an illusion of sense4 ,figure is to be found only in the combinations of atoms2 and owing to the spherical form of the atom1 the infinite number of them existing in any body which is presented to sense1 and the space which lies between their surfaces1 mathematical equality and exactness are impossible4 ,neither straight line1 therefore1 nor perfect circle are to be found in reality4 ,mathematics1 which should be based upon1 or which presupposes1 continuity1 is confounded with physics1 which presupposes the analysis of body into discrete1 impenetrable atoms4 ,physical atomism finds its justification in the experienced fact of resistance1 which is the primary quality of body as perceived by our senses4 ,in mathematical space1 on the other hand1 we abstract from all qualities except that of dimension only4 ,resistance would be inexplicable were it possible to proceed ad infinitum in dividing matter2 it implies an ultimate irreducible and indestructible unit1 whether we regard this unit as a centre of force or as an inert substance merely4 ,the same influence of ,aristotelian thought led ,bruno to posit a subtle matter1 the ,ether1 as filling up the interstices between the atoms4 ,space and body having been identified1 it was seen that a vacuum was inconsistent with the nature of things4 ,the ,aristotelian plenum was reintroduced in this form1 that there might be some reality where the discrete atoms were not4 ,the bolder step of asserting the fact1 and indeed1 the necessity of a vacuum as a presupposition of knowledge of the material world1 was not taken until there appeared the work of ,gassendi1 by whom the final blow was given to the old conception of body and space1 and through whom the critical separation of the one from the other was first rendered possible4 ,it is curious that ,bruno did not think of applying to the continuous ether any geometrical measure2 had he done so1 he would have understood the value of the new theory of infinitesimals and irrationals which he opposed so strongly4 ,again1 had he carried out more fully the distinction which he draws between the atom and the terminus or limit1 the same result would have followed4 ,pure geometry is the geometry of the limit2 for the limit is not only between atom and atom1 or body and body1 but also between atom and vacuum or ether4 ,in this sense it is both continuous and figured1 the compatibility of which qualities ,bruno had denied2 the continuous is measured1 not by making it discrete1 but by making the number1 the measure1 fluid or continuous4 ,sidenote3 ,metaphysical atomism4 ,lasswitz has shown that there are in ,bruno's theory three distinct aspects1 not1 however1 clearly separated one from another1 of the atomic hypothesis3 they may be named severally the metaphysical1 the physical1 and the critical aspects4 ,from the metaphysical point of view the atom is the ultimately simple1 indeterminate substance of things2 its conception results from the effort to find the real substance which is outside of1 and unaffected by1 the change and decay apparent on the surface of things1 but felt to be unreal4 ,simplicity1 unity1 substance1 is that which is sought1 an abiding somewhat underlying the flux of the universe1 which is regarded as an illusory appearance to sense4 ,from this aspect it is that the identity of minimum and maximum1 of the least with the greatest1 is to be explained4 ,number1 plurality1 and diversity no longer apply to the absolutely simple3 all are determinations of human and finite origin which are here no longer valid4 ,in the simple all contraries coincide1 for the very reason that it has no determinations in itself2 even the highest qualities which men would attribute to ,god1 for example1--justice and goodness1--are improperly predicated of him1 for as in him the greatest and the least coincide1 so do goodness and evil and all other contrary qualities4 ,in this respect ,bruno was following closely in the footsteps of ,nicolaus of ,cusa4 ,sidenote3 ,physical ,atomism4 ,sidenote3 ,critical ,atomism4 ,from the second point of view1 that of physical atomism1 the atom is nothing more than a hypothesis to explain the constitution and qualities of nature as we experience it4 ,we seek to account for the differences in material bodies and in their ways of acting upon one another by the interaction of ultimate elements of which the nature and laws may be variously interpreted4 ,of this point of view also there are traces in ,bruno1 although for it he had least regard4 ,he does not attempt1 for example1 to apply the theory of the atoms to explain the four elements which had come down from ,aristotle4 ,he leaves them practically intact1 and we have seen that they form a standing difficulty in the way of a consistent theory4 ,the earth alone is atomic in its nature2 water1 air1 and fire seem alike fluid and continuous in quality1 but wherein their difference from one another consists he was unable1 or did not care1 to make clear4 ,perhaps1 if we take his view at its best1 we should say that all three represent strata1 varying in density1 of the one fluid and all-pervading ether4 ,had he worked out this conception1 which was evidently present1 on occasions1 to his mind1 he would have given an example of what is meant by physical atomism4 ,but this was left for another century to fulfil4 ,from the third or critical point of view1 which inquires into the presuppositions or the possibility of knowledge1 ,bruno may be regarded as being1 to some extent1 a forerunner of ,kant1 in the stress he lays upon the relation of the minimum to measure or knowledge1 and in his doctrine of the relativity of the conception of the minimum4 ,the minimum1 instead of a last of division1 becomes a first of composition--a ground which we must necessarily assume in order to account for the experienced fact of composition4 ,to know a composite is to measure it1 and measurement implies the minimum or first part1 without which quantity in any form cannot be explained4 ,as the comparison of numbers with one another1 their determination as greater or less1 is only possible on the assumption of a unit1 a common measure to which each may be referred1 so the comparison of bodies with one another1 as to quantity and quality alike1 demands a corporeal minimum1 to which their differences must be reduced4 ,this relation to knowledge carries with it the relativity of the minimum according to the subject-matter with which the knower is for the time being concerned4 ,if all knowledge is of the same type1 then in each application of it--each subdivision of knowledge as a whole--there is presupposed the corresponding minimum4 ,that which is least in one sphere may be greatest in another2 that which is element of one science may be that which another seeks to analyse into lesser constituents4 ,the celestial body1 which is a highly complex combination of elements1 may be the unit of astronomical science4 ,the phrase1 which is the unit of the rhetorician1 is analysed by the logician and the grammarian into terms and words2 these are analysed by another science into syllables and letters2 these by the mathematician into lines and points4 ,thus every science has its own 7relative7 minimum4 ,only one minimum is absolutely so named1--,god as the monad of monads4 ,it is to be noted that the relativity of the monad is dependent upon the origin of its conception1 in the conditions of knowledge2 it is because quantity is universal that a minimum is necessary1 and it is because quantity differs in kind1 in each subject of knowledge1--because it is1 in scholastic phrase1 equivocally applied in the different cases1--that the minima differ from one another4 ,the minimal number is no measure of the minimal body nor of the geometrical figure1 and the numbers which are in use among men are not those which may be employed by other and higher rational beings4 ,thus1 even number itself is a relative determination2 ten horses1 said ,bruno1 are not really equal to ten men1 but only conventionally4 ,the ancient atomism upon which ,bruno founded his theory was1 at any rate in its traditional rendering1 frankly materialistic4 ,it admitted nothing but atoms and the void1 all things else being dependent upon the composition of atoms1 which itself1 and all that results from it1 is merely an appearance to sense1 without corresponding reality in nature4 ,all physical operations were explained by mechanical arrangement and movement of the atoms4 ,the method which was pursued thus unscientifically1 without consciousness of the extent of its validity1 modern atomic theory has followed scientifically1 with full comprehension of its bearings1 and perhaps without due consideration of its limits4 ,bruno tells us that he had at one time been an adherent of ,democritus' atomic theory1 but on reflection had been unable to rest satisfied with his materialistic account of the nature of things4 ,in this case also he showed himself unable to get rid of the ties which bound all the thought of his time--even that thought which most believed itself to be free4 ,aristotle's distinction of form and matter in nature1 of pure activity and pure passivity1 had still sufficient influence to render even in ,bruno's time a purely mechanical treatment of nature an impossibility4 ,the opposing school1 the ,neo-,platonism which attracted so many minds of that period1 because of its supposed inconsistency with ,aristotle's system1 was itself an offshoot1 to some extent1 of that system1 and was still less scientific in its tendency4 ,mysticism1 of which it was partly a cause and partly an effect1 lent its weight also against any mechanical interpretation of nature4 ,thus even while apparently governed by scientific aspiration1 ,bruno gives a teleological scheme of the universe which renders any scientific explanation of it impossible4 ,not only1 as we have seen1 is the ether identified with the first substance1 spirit1 or soul of the universe1 but also the greater and lesser organic bodies are governed each by its individual soul1 which is somehow distinguished from the universal spirit1 and within each of these is an infinite number of smaller living bodies4 ,in other words1 the atoms themselves are animated virtually1 if not actually4 ,this animistic interpretation is in direct conflict with the mechanical interpretation which science has followed1 and which it must continue to follow if it is to produce any result4 ,thus1 motion and the changes of composition that derive from motion are explained not by the mechanical impact of atoms and bodies upon one another1 but by the action of the intrinsic soul in each being1 which causes the motion of the body1 in accordance with its need and desire of self-preservation4 ,all motion1 even the slightest1 is thus explained by a final cause4 ,in the whole universe also1 the constantly occurring changes and transformations are due to a similar final cause--the need for each thing to become explicitly that which it already is implicitly1 i4e4 the whole of reality4 ,it required once more a critical separation of the spheres of validity of the respective conceptions of nature and spirit1 such as ,kant attempted1 before full scope could be given to mechanical interpretation on the one side1 and teleology restricted to the domain of spirit only on the other4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,practical ,,philosophy ,,of ,,bruno ,the distinctively ethical teaching of ,bruno is contained in the two dialogues--the ,spaccio della ,bestia ,trionfante1 and the ,heroici ,furori4 ,the latter describes the struggles and aspirations of the heroic or generous human soul in its pursuit of the infinitely beautiful and good--its efforts towards union with the divine source of all things4 ,to this more constructive work1 in which moral philosophy was to be treated according to the inward light with which the divine sun of intelligence had irradiated the soul of the writer1 the ,spaccio was to form an introduction4 ,it seemed well to begin with a kind of prelude1 after the manner of musicians2 to draw some dim and confused lines1 as painters do2 to lay deep bases and dark foundations1 as do the great builders2 and this end seemed best achieved by putting down in number and in order all the primary forms of morality which are the capital virtues and vices4#dcf ,the ,spaccio1 with its shorter appendage1 the ,cabala del ,cavallo ,pegaseo1 contained a bitter attack upon the prevalent forms of ,christian religion2 it especially attacked the doctrine of the all-sufficiency of faith1 which1 interpreted as it then was1 might stand as the formula of mediaeval corruption and stagnation2 and it was upon this dialogue1 almost solely1 that the reputation ,bruno long enjoyed--that of being an atheist--was based4 ,it is therefore well to remember the introductory nature of the work4 ,had not atheism been frequently synonymous with unorthodoxy1 the ,heroic ,enthusiasms would have shown on how shallow a foundation the charge rested1 for that dialogue breathes the purest religious emotion and aspiration4 ,bruno had1 however1 a premonition of the fate that was to befall his memory4 ,he protested1 perhaps with a touch of sarcasm1 that nothing in his work was said assertively1--that he had no wish either directly or indirectly to strike at the truth1 to send a shaft against anything that was honourable1 useful1 natural1 and1 consequently1 divine4#dcg ,his own religion was that which had its beginning1 its growth1 and its continuance in the raising of the dead1 making whole the sick1 and giving of one's goods2 and not that in the spirit of which the goods of others were seized1 the whole maimed1 and the living put to death4#dch ,the conclusions of the ,spaccio were not therefore to be regarded as presenting a finished system1 but as mere suggestions1 to be tested when the music should be given in concert1 the picture finished1 the roof put on the building4 ,on the other hand1 it is clear also that in the ,spaccio ,bruno intended to present a popular moral philosophy1 or to point out the degree of virtue which might be attained without the influence of the divine afflatus described in the ,enthusiasms4 ,as in the philosophy of ,aristotle before ,bruno1 and in that of ,spinoza after him1 the perfection of this customary morality formed at the same time the ante-chamber through which alone entrance was to be gained into the inner chamber of divine love4 ,this is the real meaning that underlies the bizarre and at times extravagant humour of the dialogue3 it points out the purification to which the human soul must submit before it can become a fitting vessel for the divine enthusiasm4 ,sidenote3 ,faith and works4 ,before a purer morality can be taught to any avail1 there must exist a desire for it in the minds of those to whom it shall be revealed4 ,in the way of ,bruno's proposed reformation there stood the attitude of the ,church and of the religious orders towards faith and towards works respectively4 ,faith meant merely professed belief in1 or acceptance of1 their doctrines1 and conformity with their practices--blind acceptance and unreasoning conformity--in contrast with which an earthly life that was simply moral was held to be of no value towards the blessed life hereafter4 ,under the influence of this spirit the worst vices were practised1 condoned1 and pardoned1 even in ,bishops and ,cardinals1 not to speak of the ordinary priests and monks4 ,it is only as embodying this conception that ,bruno attacked the ,church4 ,thus ,jupiter1 in the ,spaccio1 complains that his powers are decaying3--,i have not vigour enough to pit myself against certain half-men1 and ,i must1 to my great chagrin1 leave the world to run its course as chance and fortune direct4 ,i am like the old lion of sop--the ass kicked it with impunity1 the ape played tricks upon it1 the pig came and rubbed its dusty paunch upon it1 as if it were some lifeless log4 ,my noble oracles1 fanes1 and altars are thrown down1 and most unworthily desecrated2 while altars and statues are raised there to some whom ,i am ashamed to name1 for they are worse than our satyrs1 fauns1 and other half-beasts1 viler than the crocodiles of ,egypt2 for these at least showed some mark of divinity when magically guided1 but those are quite the scum of the earth4#dci ,bruno is ironically contrasting the ,christian ideal1 as he interprets it1 with that of the ,greeks and ,egyptians4 ,the former is that of a being only half-human1 half-free2 on one side of his nature he is reduced to the level of the beast1 the ass1 the bearer of burdens1 unquestioning1 faithful4 ,again1 one of the constellations1 the ,corona ,borealis1 is to be left in the heavens1 escaping the general fate1#ddj until the time when it shall be given in reward to the invincible arm that shall bring peace1 the long-desired1 to a miserable1 long-suffering ,europe1 cutting down the many heads of that worse than ,lernean monster that is scattering its fateful poison of manifold heresy1 and sending it through every portion of her veins4#dda ,to this decision of ,jupiter1 ,momus1 the critic and wit of the assembly1 adds that it would be enough if a certain sect of pedants could be rooted out1 who1 doing no good themselves1 as the divine and natural law bade1 yet thought themselves1 and desired to be thought by others1 pious and pleasing to the gods2 they said that to do good was good1 to do evil1 evil2 but that men gained grace and favour with the gods1 not through the good that they did1 but through hoping and believing in accordance with their catechism4 ,as if the gods1 said ,mercury1 were anxious about nothing but their own vainglory1 cared nothing for the injury caused to human society4 ,and they defame us1 ,momus continued1 by calling this an institution of heaven1 decrying effects or fruits2 while all the time they are doing no work themselves1 but living on the works of others1 who instituted temples1 chapels1 hospices1 hospitals1 colleges1 universities1 for quite other men than they4 ,these others1 even if they are not perfect1 will not1 like their usurpers1 be perverse and pernicious to the world2 they will be useful to the state1 skilled in speculative science1 studious of morality1 fanning zeal and enthusiasm for doing good to one another1 and maintaining the common weal for which all laws are ordained4 ,the usurpers are worse than grubs1 caterpillars1 or destroying locusts1 and should be exterminated accordingly4#ddb ,how is it possible1 we read elsewhere1 that men should regard that as the highest type of religion which holds behaviour1 the doing of good deeds1 to be unimportant1 or even to be vice and error2 or pretends that the gods do not care for good deeds--that through such1 however great they are1 men are not justified8#ddc ,this creed was a disease that ran through a man's nature and poisoned it for ever4 ,when one turned from any other profession or faith to this1 his liberality was exchanged for avarice1 mildness for insolence1 humility for pride2 formerly open handed with his own goods1 he now became a robber and usurper of those of others2 a good man became a hypocrite2 a sincere one1 cunningly evil2 a simple one1 malicious2 he who was once conscious of his own defects became the most arrogant of men2 he who was ready to do any good action1 to learn any new knowledge1 became prone to every kind of ignorance and ribaldry2 he who had merely the makings of a rogue became the worst possible of men4#ddd ,miracle-working was the universal means by which the supremacy of faith was maintained4 ,momus therefore proposed to send ,orion upon the earth4 ,he can do miracles--can walk upon the waves of the sea without sinking or wetting his feet2 let us send him among men to make them believe everything we would have them believe--that black is white1 that the human intellect is blind where it thinks itself to see best2 that what to reason appears excellent1 good1 best1 is vile1 wicked1 evil in the extreme2 that nature is a strumpet1 the law of nature a ribaldry2 that nature and divinity cannot work together for one and the same good end2 that the justice of the one is not subordinate to that of the other1 but that they are as contrary as darkness and light4#dde ,sidenote3 ,asinity4 ,the attitude of mind which formed the ideal of the ,church for its members ,bruno typified frequently enough1 as we have seen1 by the ,ass1 after ,cusanus' ,docta ,ignorantia and ,agrippa's praise of ,asinity in his work on ,the ,vanity of all ,sciences4 ,but they were in earnest3 ,bruno bitterly ironical4 ,in his ,cabala ,asinity is given the two places left vacant in the heavens by the council of the gods in the ,spaccio3 the place of ,ursa ,major is taken by ,asinity in the abstract1 that of ,eridanus by ,asinity in the concrete4 ,the whole work is in praise of the pure goodness1 royal sincerity1 magnificent majesty of ignorance1 learned foolishness1 divine ,asinity4#ddf ,asinity is in the sphere of practice as submission to authority in that of speculation1 or pedantry in that of teaching4 ,against all of these ,bruno casts the shafts of his irony1 now broad and heavy1 now fine1 light and piercing4#ddg ,the list of virtues which ,bruno gives as adorning the soul of the renovated man does not present any novelty1 except perhaps in the order assigned to the different virtues4#ddh ,along with each mythical figure of the constellations he names the various vices that are expelled1 and into the place of which the virtues come4 ,the ,bear1 the highest constellation in the heavens1 is replaced by ,truth1 the ,dragon by ,prudence1 ,cepheus by ,sophia1 or ,wisdom4 ,the following table shows some of the virtues which occupy the different posts vacated by the mythical beings of the heavens1 and their contrary vices4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- _/,constellation4_/ _/,virtue4_/ _/,vices4_/ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a4 ,ursa ,truth ,deformity1 ,falsity1 ,defect1 ,impossibility1 ,contingency1 ,hypocrisy1 ,imposture1 ,felony4 #b4 ,ursa ,major ,the place is left left vacant1 to be filled in the satire of the ,cabala by ,asinity in the abstract4 #c4 ,draco ,prudence4 ,cunning1 ,craftiness1 ,malice1 ,stupidity1 ,inertia1 ,imprudence4 7,envy74#ddi #d4 ,cepheus ,wisdom4 ,sophistry1 ,ignorance 7of evil disposition71 foolish ,faith 7,hardness74 #e4 ,bootes ,law4 ,prevarication1 ,crime1 7,arctophylax7 ,excess1 ,exorbitance1 7,inconstancy74 #f4 ,corona ,judgment4 ,iniquity4 ,borealis #g4 ,hercules ,courage4 ,ferocity1 ,fury1 ,cruelty4 ,slackness1 ,debility1 ,pusillanimity 7,violence74 #h4 ,lyra ,mnemosyne1 and ,ignorance1 ,inertia1 the ,nine ,bestiality 7,conspiracy74 ,muses1 her daughters1--the branches of knowledge4 #i4 ,cygnus ,repentance4 ,self-love1 ,uncleanness1 ,filthiness1 ,immodesty1 ,wantonness4 #aj4 ,cassiopeia ,simplicity4 ,boastfulness on the one side1 ,dissimulation on the other 7,vanity74 #aa4 ,perseus ,diligence or ,torpor1 ,idleness1 ,inertia1 ,solicitude4 ,foolish ,occupation1 ,perturbation1 ,vain solicitude4 #ab4 ,triptolemus ,humanity or ,misanthropy1 ,envy1 ,philanthropy4 ,malignity4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,there follow as virtues3--,sagacity1 judicious election or choice1 affability1 magnanimity 7,aquila72 divine enthusiasm or rapture 7,pegasus72 hopefulness1 faith and sincerity 7the ,triangle72 virtuous emulation1 tolerance1 sociability 7and friendship--the ,pleiades72 love 7peace and friendship--,gemini72 conversion or emendation1 heroic generosity 7or magnanimity1 again--,leo72 continence1 equity 7and justice--,libra72 sincerity 7observance of promises--,scorpio72 contemplation1 the love of solitude 7freedom of mind71 temperance 7,aquarius72 just reserve and taciturnity1 tranquillity of mind1 industry1 prudent fear1 vigilance for the state1 kindliness1 liberality1 judicious sagacity 7,hydra72 divine magic 7and soothsaying71 abstinence 7the ,cup671 the divine parable 7the sacred mystery1--,chiron72 sincere piety and wise religion 7the ,altar72 honour1 glory1 and1 finally1 health1 security and repose1 as the due reward of the virtues1 and remuneration for zealous work and endurance4#dej ,it will be seen that the list is redundant1 and it is more so in the text1 where several virtues are usually given under each head4 ,several of the names do not denote virtues in the ordinary sense 7e4g4 knowledge of magic1 ability to interpret the divine parables73 they are merely qualities which it is desirable for the good man to have4 ,others refer to qualities which could not be acquired by any one destitute of them 7e4g4 hope1 love1 piety71 while others represent rather the outcome of the virtuous life than any one of its constituent elements1 e4g4 ,knowledge1 ,divine ,enthusiasm1 ,contemplation1 ,honour4 ,there remain the familiar virtues of ,greek philosophy3--,courage2 prudence and sagacity2 temperance 7continence and abstinence72 wisdom 7or the love of truth72 justice1 including submission to law1 active justice or judgment1 and equity2 sincerity1 with truthfulness1 simplicity1 faith1 the observance of promises2 sociability and friendliness1 with humanity1 affability1 tolerance1 kindliness2 liberality2 magnanimity and heroic generosity2 tranquillity or gentleness4 ,more modern are the virtues of solicitude1 diligence or industry1 of emulation1 and of love of solitude1 or ,monachism4 ,there is accordingly nothing of value to be derived for systematic ethics from this or from any other work of ,bruno4 ,it is in the digressions from the main argument that his philosophy of practical life is revealed4#dea ,sidenote3 ,peace and liberty4 ,sidenote3 ,law ,sidenote3 ,judgment4 ,the two things which seemed to ,bruno for his time the most desirable were peace and freedom--freedom alike of thought and of speech4 ,the characteristics of the ,church which he consistently condemned were on the one hand its violence1 the dissension and strife it stirred up1 on the other its tyranny over mind and tongue4 ,hence the aim of the moral life1 from the lower plane on which we stand in the ,spaccio1 is to secure the prosperity of the state1 the peaceful common life of its members1 and the avoidance of all interference with the individual1 except where the positive end1 security1 appears endangered4 ,of the nine muses1 the daughters of ,mnemosyne1#deb ,ethica is at once the last born and the most worthy4 ,her task is to institute religions1 to establish ceremonies1 to posit laws1 to execute judgments1 with prudence1 sagacity1 readiness1 and generous philanthropy2 to approve1 confirm1 preserve1 defend whatever is well instituted1 established1 posited1 executed2 adapting1 as far as may be1 both passions and actions to the worship of the gods1 and the common life of men4--,the function of ,law1 the daughter of wisdom1 is to prevent the powerful from making undue use of their pre-eminence and strength1 and in other respects vigorously to protect the common life and civil intercourse of men4#dec ,the powerful are to be sustained by the weak1 the feeble are not to be oppressed by the strong1 tyrants are to be deposed1 just governors and kings ordained and confirmed1 republics fostered2 violence shall not tread reason under foot1 ignorance not despise knowledge1 the poor shall be aided by the rich1 virtues and studies necessary or useful to the community be promoted1 advanced1 maintained4 ,no one is to be put into a place of power that is not superior in merits1 by force of virtue and talent1 either in himself1 which is rare and almost impossible1 or through communication with and counsel of others1 which is due1 ordinary and necessary4 ,the two hands by which any law is strong to bind are justice and possibility1 one moderated by the other1 for although many things are possible that are not just1 nothing is just that is not possible4 ,whether it come from heaven or from the earth1 no institution or law ought to be approved or accepted which does not tend to the highest end1 viz4 the direction of our minds and reform of our natures so that they produce fruits necessary or useful for human intercourse4#ded ,judgment shall make a scale of virtues and of crimes1 the greatest in either class being that which affects the ,republic as a whole2 next that which affects other individuals than the agent2 a crime committed between two who are in accord is hardly a crime1 while there is no crime if the fault remains in the individual--does not proceed to bad example or to bad deed4 ,repentance is to be approved by it1 but not set upon the same level as innocence2#dee belief and opinion1 but not placed so high as deeds and work2 confession and admission of fault1 but not as correction and abstention4 ,it shall not place one who to no purpose mortifies the flesh on a level with one who bridles his spirit1 nor compare one who is a useless solitary with another who is in profitable intercourse#def with his fellows1 nor applaud so highly one who1 perhaps unnecessarily1 subdues his desires1 as another1 who refrains from evil-speaking and from evil-doing2 not make so great a triumph over one who has healed a base1 useless cripple1 worth little if any more when whole than maimed1 as over another who has liberated his fatherland1 or reformed a mind diseased4#deg ,the ,roman people was the type of the best-governed state1 more bridled and restrained from the vices of incivility and barbarity1 more refined and willing for generous undertakings than any other2 and as their law and religion were1 so were their customs and deeds1 so their honour and happiness4 ,how different from the pedants of the ,church1 who flourish throughout ,europe3 while saluting with peace they bring wherever they enter in the sword of division1 and the fire of dispersion2 taking son from father1 neighbour from neighbour1 citizen from fatherland1 and causing other divorces more abhorrent and contrary to all nature and law2 calling themselves ministers of one who raises the dead and heals the sick1 they more than all others on the earth are maimers of the sound1 and slayers of the living1 not so much with fire and sword1 as with the tongue of malice4#deh ,sidenote3 ,the scales4 ,under the ,scales1 ,bruno describes some of the reforms he believes necessary3 in courts1 offices and honours are for the future to go by merit2 in republics1 the just are to preside1 the wealthy to contribute1 the learned to teach1 the prudent to guide1 the brave to fight1 those that have judgment to counsel1 those that have authority to command2 in states1 the scales represent the keeping of contracts of peace1 confederations1 leagues1 the careful weighing of action beforehand2 in individuals the weighing of what each wishes with what he knows1 of what he knows with what he can1 of what he wishes1 knows1 and can with what he ought2 of what he wishes1 knows1 can1 and ought1 with what he is1 does1 has1 and expects4#dei ,sidenote3 ,sincerity4 ,underlying this cult of humanity one cannot but feel the robust naturalism of the ,renaissance1 which in ,bruno's mind is apart altogether from the mystical exclusive intellectualism of his more characteristic philosophy4 ,it is with man as a natural being1 living out his earthly life1 and gathering such fruits as may be of kindliness and love from his fellow-creatures1 that the practical philosophy is concerned4 ,the religion attacked was one that struck at the root of this human love1 and made of earth a purgatory for the sake of the uncertain life to come4 ,hence the emphasis laid on sincerity1 faithfulness1 or truthfulness1 as high among the virtues4 ,without it every contract is uncertain and doubtful1 all intercourse is dissolved1 all social life at an end4 ,bruno is as rigid as ,kant in regard to the keeping of faith2 even promises made to the wicked may not be broken4 ,it was a law of some ,jew or ,saracen1 brutal and barbarian1 not of civilised and heroic ,greek or ,roman1 that sometimes1 and with certain kinds of people1 faith might be pledged for individual gain1 and for an opportunity of deception1 making it the servant of tyranny and treachery4#dfj ,the antipathy of ,bruno towards the ,jews is to be explained by the same principle of social life and progress2 it is not1 as ,lagarde supposes1#dfa an offspring of his hatred towards the ,church1 regarded as a direct descendant of ,judaism4 ,so far as it is not an expression of an unreasoning anti-,semitic wave of feeling1 such as occasionally overwhelms some of the ,european peoples1 it may have had three grounds3 the reputed avarice of the ,jew3#dfb his exclusiveness1 unsociability2--a race always base1 servile1 mercenary1 solitary1 incommunicative1 shunning intercourse with the ,gentiles1 whom they brutally despise1 and by whom in their turn1 and with good reason1 they are contemned3#dfc--or his religion1 which appeared to ,bruno a corruption of the nobler ,egyptian religion4 ,thus in ,spaccio#dfd the punishment of the children for the sins of the fathers is said to be found only among ,barbarians1 and first among the ,jews1 a race so pestilent1 leprous1 and generally pernicious that it should be effaced from the earth4#dfe ,sidenote3 ,temperance4 ,temperance1 as a virtue1 is rather the peace of mind that goes with civilisation--urbanity--than the more physical virtue3 its opposites are intemperance1 excess1 asperity1 savagery1 barbarity4 ,it is through intemperance in sensual and in intellectual passions that families1 republics1 civil societies1 the world1 are dissolved1 disordered1 destroyed1 swallowed up4#dff ,again1 ,bruno's unorthodox standpoint with regard to the vows of chastity and of celibacy taken by nuns and priests is part of a healthy reaction towards naturalism from the false sentiment which condemned as unholy whatever pertained to the natural man4 ,the place of ,virgo is taken by chastity1 continence1 modesty1 shame2 the contrasting vices being lust1 incontinence1 shamelessness4 ,it is through these1 ,bruno adds1 that virginity becomes a virtue4 ,in itself it is neither virtue nor vice1 implies no goodness1 dignity1 or merit1 and when it resists the command of nature it becomes a wrong1 an impotence1 a folly1 madness express2 while if it is in compliance with some urgent reason1 it is called continence1 and has the essence of virtue1 because it participates in that courage and contempt for pleasure which is not vain or worthless1 but benefits human intercourse and brings honourable satisfaction to others4#dfg ,the laws of the wise do not forbid love1 but irrational love2 the sycophancies of the foolish prescribe1 without reason1 limits to reason1 and condemn the law of nature2 the most corrupt of them call it corrupt1 because by it they are not raised above nature to become heroic spirits1 but are depraved1 contrary to nature and below all worth1 to become brutes4#dfh ,sidenote3 ,the ,golden ,age4 ,in the third dialogue of the ,spaccio is a digression on ,otium1 ,idleness1 and the ,golden ,age1 which had been brought into popularity by the pastoral poem of ,tasso1 the ,aminta1 and its imitators 7e4g4 ,guarini in the ,pastor ,fido74 ,otium presses its claim to a place in the heavens as being more truly a virtue than solicitude or strenuous effort1 to which the place of ,perseus had been given4 ,its chief argument is that through it the golden age had been instituted and maintained1 by the law of idleness which is the law of nature1 while it was through solicitude1 with its following of vainglory1 contempt of others1 violence1 oppression1 torment1 fear1 and death1 that the age had departed4 ,all praise the fair age of gold1 when ,i kept minds quiet and peaceful1 safe from this virtuous goddess of yours4 ,for their bodies1 hunger was sufficient sauce to make a delicious and satisfying repast out of acorns1 apples1 chestnuts1 peaches1 and roots1 which benign nature administered at a time when such food was the best nourishment for them1 gave them most pleasure1 and kept them longest in life1 which the many artificial sauces that industry and zeal have discovered cannot do4#dfi ,industry had introduced property1 and divided up not only the earth1 which is given to all its children1 but also the sea1 and perhaps the air as well2 so that instead of sufficiency for all there is too much for some and too little for others4 ,it had introduced an unnatural inequality1 and confused together peoples whom nature had intended to live apart1 with the consequence that the vices of one race were being implanted upon those of others4 ,the right of the stronger had taken the place of the law of nature1 violence that of the peace of nature1 which are the law and peace of ,god4 ,o bella et de l'oro ,non gia perche di latte ,sen corse il fiume1 et still mele il bosco4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ma 'n primavera eterna ,ch' hora s' accende et verna ,rise di luce1 et di sereno il cielo1 ,ne porto peregrino ,o' guerra1 o merce a' l' altrui lidi il pino4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ma legge aurea et felice ,che natura scolpi4 ,s' ei piace1 ei lice#dgj ,bruno was no imperialist4 ,nature seemed to him to have fixed definite boundaries to the extension of the different races1 by which the special genius of each was kept pure4 ,in the ,cena 7#abf4 #i7 ,tiphys and his successors 7,columbus1 ,vespucci1 and others are meant1 although not named7 are said to have discovered means of disturbing the peace of peoples1 violating the natural trend of the genius of countries1 confounding what foreseeing nature had distinguished1 doubling1 through commerce1 evil feelings1 adding the vices of one race to those of another1 propagating new incitements1 instruments1 methods of tyranny and assassination1 which in time1 by the natural vicissitude of things1 would recoil upon our own heads4#dga ,it was really1 he thought1 for the advantage of men themselves that the world-regions should be kept as distinct in their usages and customs as they are physically distinct by the natural divisions of mountains and tracts of sea4 ,from region to region1 vice and the poison of perverse laws and religions1 the materials of discord and extermination1 were propagated and disseminated to the suffocation of every good fruit2 there were no advantages which could compare with these evils4#dgb ,it should be remembered that the colonists of the day were the ,spaniards1 with the corruption and cruelty of whose rule ,italians were only too familiar2 and their misdeeds were far greater in the new world4 ,sidenote3 ,progress4 ,sidenote3 ,evolution4 ,sidenote3 ,man and the animals4 ,the age of gold1 however1 of idleness1 and peaceful happiness1 was far from ,bruno's ideal2 the reply of ,momus to ,otium showed that it had not made men virtuous in the golden age any more than the brutes were virtuous now--that men were perhaps originally more stupid than many of the latter2 but in their emulation of divine actions and their attempts to satisfy spiritual desires1 difficulties had arisen and needs sprung up2 through these their minds were sharpened1 industries had been discovered1 arts invented2 and so from day to day out of the depth of the human intellect necessity brought forth new and marvellous inventions4#dgc ,thus more and more they advance1 through pressing and earnest occupation1 from the bestial nature1 and approximate more and more nearly to the divine4 ,that injustice and vice increase along with industries is only a corollary of the increase of justice and of virtue4 ,if oxen or apes had as much virtue and spirit as man1 they would have the same apprehensions1 the same passions1 and the same vices4 ,so in men those that have in them somewhat of the pig nature1 or of the ass or ox nature1 are certainly less wicked1 not infected by so criminal vices as more highly developed men might be2 but they are not for that more virtuous1 unless the brutes also are more virtuous than men1 being infected with fewer vices4#dgd ,in this generous conception of human progress1 and of its spur--solicitude1 necessity1 pain--,bruno is quite at one with modern theories of human evolution2 it can hardly be said1 however1 that he anticipated the evolution theory so far as it involves an identity of origin for human beings and lower animals4 ,the idea that different human beings express different animal types was not a new one4 ,it means in ,bruno that such men have animal souls1 but this is not because their bodies have reverted to the animal type4 ,it is the soul that moulds the body and gives1 in these cases1 the animal expression to the face--the look of wolf1 or bear1 or fox1 or serpent4 ,there is no question of a physical continuity between animal and man1 but there is a psychical continuity1 since a soul which is that of an animal in one generation may become that of a man in another4#dge ,a much nearer approach to the evolution-theory is to be found in the ,cabala1#dgf where it is said that if a serpent could have its head moulded into that of a man1 its tongue widened1 its shoulders broadened1 arms and hands branching out from it1 and1 where the tail now is1 a pair of legs1 it would think1 look1 breathe1 speak1 work1 and walk just as a man does1 for it would be nothing but a man4 ,or if the reverse process occurred1 in a man 7involution71 in place of talking he would hiss1 in place of walking he would creep1 in place of building a palace he would hollow out a hiding-place for himself4 ,this is not1 however1 because the body of the one had been transformed into that of the other animal1 function following structure2 the soul with all its qualities is unchanged--it is one and the same in both2 the differences are only in the power of expression4 ,a serpent or any other animal might have a higher intelligence than man1 yet remain inferior to him through poverty of instruments4 ,if man had not hands1 but two feet in their stead1 however high his intelligence1 family and social life would have been no more enduring with him than with the horse1 the deer1 or the pig2 it would only have exposed him to greater danger and more certain ruin2 and1 in consequence1 there would have been none of the institutions of doctrine1 the inventions of discipline1 the congregations of citizens1 the raising of edifices and other things that represent human greatness and excellence1 and make man the invincible superior over all other species4 ,all this is referred not so much to his mind as to his hand1 the organ of organs4#dgg ,it is in the development of the hand1 also1 that modern anthropology has sought one of the chief conditions of human development4 ,it is clear1 however1 that in these theories there are two positions not distinctly separated3 one that the soul gives form to the body1 the other that all difference comes from the body1 the soul remaining apart1 and in its essence untouched by the changes its body undergoes4 ,we shall have to return to this question in the following chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,riches and poverty4 ,sidenote3 ,avarice4 ,sidenote3 ,fortune4 ,another digression occurs under ,hercules1#dgh where ,riches1 ,poverty1 and ,fortune contend for the place of honour that is finally given to ,courage or ,fortitude4 ,such personifications of the virtues had been familiarised in ,italian philosophy by ,petrarca 7,remedium utriusque fortunae71 but ,bruno refers back to ,crantor's discussion of the relative value for the soul of ,riches and other goods4#dgi ,in our dialogue ,riches is decided to be neither good nor bad in itself2 it may be indifferently either1 according to its possessor3 therefore it is to incur neither disgrace nor honour1 neither be condemned to ,hades1 nor raised up to ,heaven1 but to wander from place to place4 ,it shall be found by no one who has not first repented of his good mind and healthy brain2 he must give up1 according to ,momus1 all thought of prudence1 not trusting in ,heaven1 regarding not justice or injustice1 honour or shame1 calm or storm1 but committing all to chance4 ,as a general rule ,riches are to go to the most insensate1 the most foolish1 careless1 silly--to beware of the wise as of fire4 ,poverty1 on the other hand 7in inferior or corporeal goods71 may be conjoined with riches in goods of the mind1 as riches in inferior goods may never be1 for no one that is wise or wishes to gain knowledge can ever achieve great things by their means4 ,to philosophy ,riches are an impediment1 while ,poverty offers it a safe and easy road4 ,he will be great who in poverty is rich because he is content2 and he is a slave who in riches is poor because he has not enough4 ,not he that has little but he that desires much is really poor4 ,the friends of ,poverty are open1 the enemies of ,riches are secret2 the poor man by repressing desire may rival ,jove in happiness2 the rich1 ever spreading more and more widely the nets of cupidity1 is plunged more and more into depths of misery4 ,avarice is the dark side1 the shadow1 of both ,riches and ,poverty1 ever fleeing ,poverty and pursuing ,riches1 but ever eluded by the latter1 and ever caught by the former2 far from ,poverty in reality1 she is ever close by it in imagination2 it is this darkness or shadow that make ,poverty and ,riches alike to be evil4 ,one may be poor in virtue of affect 7feeling1 emotion7 as well as in virtue of effect 7actual1 material want74 ,fortune also is rejected1 in spite of her claim to be absolutely just2 as all things are ultimately or really one1 no part of the world1 she claims1 should be treated as more worthy or unworthy than another1 and fortune regards all equally1 or does not respect any particular person more than another1 which is really justice6 ,sidenote3 ,courage4 ,sidenote3 ,simplicity4 ,sidenote3 ,self-consciousness4 ,to the place for which these have striven succeeds ,fortitude1 the servant of the higher virtues3 ,constant and brave must be he that administers judgment1 with prudence1 by the law1 and according to truth4 ,he shall be guided by the book in which is the catalogue of the things the brave man ought not to fear1 viz43 those which do not make him worse1 as hunger1 nakedness1 thirst1 pain1 poverty1 solitude1 persecution1 death2 and that of other things which1 as they make him worse1 must be avoided at all cost1--gross ignorance1 injustice1 infidelity1 lying1 avarice1 and the rest4#dhj ,beside ,fortitude may be placed ,simplicity1#dha between the vicious extremes of ,boastfulness on the one hand and ,dissimulation on the other1 the latter being the less hateful of the two3 sometimes even the gods must make use of it1 and to escape envy1 reproach1 outrage1 ,prudence is wont to cover ,truth with her vestments4 ,simplicity is pleasing to the gods1 for it has in a manner the likeness of the divine countenance1 being always the same and unconscious of itself4 ,that which reflects upon or is conscious of itself1 makes itself in a sense to be many1 to be other and other1 becoming both object and faculty1 the knowing and the knowable1 whereas in the act of intelligence many things concur in one4 ,the most simple intelligence does not know itself1 by reflection1 because it is absolute1 pure light3 and again it alone knows itself1 negatively1 for it cannot be hidden4#dhb ,sidenote3 ,solicitude4 ,sidenote3 ,truth4 ,the transition from ordinary morality1--the virtue of the everyday life of human society1--to the divine aspiration of the heroic soul1 is to be found in the virtue of ,solicitude1 and the primary triad of ,truth1 ,prudence1 and ,wisdom4 ,on the feet of ,solicitude 7,diligence1 ,endurance7 are the winged sandals of the divine impetus1 through which she leaves beneath her the vulgar good1 and contemns the soft caresses of pleasures1 that1 like insidious sirens1 try to delay her in the pursuit of the works she seeks4 ,on labour and fatigue she nurses the generous mind1--enables it not only to subdue itself1 but to attain the highest state--that of not feeling fatigue1 or pain1 when fatigue or pain must be undergone4 ,in noble work fatigue is pleasure and not fatigue to itself1 but in other than in such work or virtuous activity1 it is not pleasure to itself1 but intolerable fatigue4 ,be with me ,solicitude concludes1 generous1 heroic1 anxious ,fear1 stimulate me that ,i do not perish from the number of the illustrious before ,i perish from that of the living4 ,before torpor or death take from me my hands1 grant that the glory of my works may not be in their power to take4 ,anxiety1 grant that the roof be finished before the rain come3 that the windows be whole before the winds of treacherous and unquiet winter blow4 ,memory of a well-spent life1 thou shalt make old age and death destroy my soul before they disturb it4 ,fear of losing the glory acquired in my life shall make old age and death not bitter to me1 but dear and desirable4 ,the end which this strenuous virtue seeks is that of the intellectual triad placed in the highest part of the heavens by the gods1--,truth1 ,prudence and ,wisdom1 which in reality are one and the same4#dhc ,truth is the unity which stands above the all of things1 and the goodness which is pre-eminent over all things1 for being1 goodness1 and truth are one3--in other words1 it is the ,eleatic ,one1--the implicit universe1--of the metaphysical works4#dhd ,it is before things as cause and principle1 and things have dependence upon it3 it is in things1 as their substance1 and through it things subsist3 it is after things1 for through it things are known without error4 ,these three aspects represent metaphysical1 physical1 and logical truth respectively4 ,what is presented to our senses and may be grasped by our intelligence1 is not the highest truth1 but only the figure1 image1 resplendence1 or appearance of it4 ,prudence also is both above and in us4 ,it is above as ,providence1 when it is also truth itself1 and there ,liberty1 ,necessity1 ,essence1 ,entity1 all are one1 the ,absolute4 ,in us ,prudence is the virtue of the consultative and deliberative faculty1--it is a principal form of reason dealing with the universal and the particular1#dhe has for its maid-servant dialectics1 and for guide acquired wisdom1 vulgarly called metaphysics1 which deals with the universals of all things that fall within human knowledge4#dhf ,so too ,wisdom1 ,sophia1 is at once supra-mundane1--when it is one with ,providence itself1 light and eye in one1--and mundane1 inferior1 not truth itself1 wisdom itself1 but participant in truth and in wisdom1--an eye that is illuminated by a foreign light4 ,the first is invisible1 infigurable1 incomprehensible2 the second is figured in the heavens1 reflected in finite minds1 communicated by words4 ,the earthly or inferior forms1 however1 as ,bruno makes clear1 are of value only for the sake of the higher unity1 to attain which is the real end of the philosophic life4 ,he who pretends to know what he does not know1 says ,wisdom1 is a wanton ,sophist3 he who denies knowing what he knows1 is ungrateful to the ,active ,intelligence1 insults truth1 and outrages me1 as do all those who seek me--not for myself1 or for the supreme virtue and love of that divinity which is above every ,jupiter and every heaven1--but either to sell me for money1 honour1 or other gain1 or to be known rather than to know1 or to detract from and be able to destroy the happiness of others4444 ,they that seek me for love of the supreme and first truth are wise1 and therefore blessed4#dhg ,bruno's ,summum ,bonum is therefore knowledge1 an intellectual comprehension of the ,all of things1 as it is in the supreme ,unity or source of the world4 ,it is for the sake of this end of the few1 the wise1 that the many1 the vulgar1 and foolish1 are to be kept at peace1 in harmony with one another1 following obediently their higher guides in religion or in the state4 ,there is not in ,bruno any more than in ,spinoza any sense of the infinite worth1 or the infinite pitifulness of man as an earth-born creature of hopes and fears1 creeping towards the light1 with the clogging darkness behind1 groping in childish terror and childish trust1 for the hand of a loving1 human ,god4 ,therefore1 although he lived in the midst of the ,reformation1 its true meaning passed him by4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,higher ,,life ,we now turn to the higher moral life1 which is at the same time the religious life1 of the heroic soul in its struggle towards perfection4 ,this perfection consists in comprehension of the world as infinitely perfect1 in the union with ,god as the source from which the world flows1 the spirit in which it lives1 and in the ,love of ,god as at once infinite beauty and infinite goodness4 ,we have seen that there are to ,bruno1 as to ,plato and to ,aristotle1 two classes of men1 the vulgar and the heroic1#dhh the lower or subject1 and the upper or ruling classes3 as in each of us there are two principles1 a higher1 intellect or reason or mind1 and a lower1 sense and sensual passion4 ,the danger is as great to the world when the lower class attempts to usurp the place of the higher1 as it is to the individual soul when passion overwhelms reason4 ,the spread of pedantry1 in the universities and in the churches1 greater in his time and more menacing to human progress than it had ever been1 was an illustration to ,bruno's eye of the results ensuing when lower minds tampered with divine knowledge4#dhi ,the heroic soul is raised by the divine spirit within it out of the turmoil of the constant change and vicissitude1 to which the vulgar soul is1 in common with all living things1 subjected4 ,the beginning1 middle1 and end1 birth1 growth1 and perfection of all earthly things are from contraries1 through contraries1 in contraries1 and to contraries2 and where there is contrariety1 there is also action1 reaction1 movement1 diversity1 multitude1 order1 degrees1 succession1 change4 ,there is never any pleasure1 we read elsewhere1 without some bitterness2--nay1 if there were not the bitter in things1 there would not be the pleasurable1 for fatigue makes us to find pleasure in repose1 separation causes us to find joy in union1 and so everywhere we find that one contrary is the reason of another being desired and pleasing3#dij and so it is with pain4 ,none1 therefore1 are ever satisfied with their state1 except the unfeeling or the foolish who have no knowledge of their own ill1 but enjoy the present without fear of the future1 can find rest in what is1 and have no feeling or desire for what might be3 in short have no sense of contrariety1 which is figured by the tree of the knowledge of good and evil4#dia ,ignorance is the mother of sensual happiness and joy2 hence the heroic love 7in its beginning7 is a torment1 for it does not rest in the present1 as does sensual love1 but feels ambition1 emulation1 suspicious fear for the future1 the absent1 the contrary4 ,yet the wise man is neither happy nor miserable1--knowing that good and evil are alike relative1 alike fading and temporary things1 he is neither dismayed nor elated1 but becomes continent in his inclinations1 and temperate in his pleasures4 ,pleasure is not really pleasure to him1 for he has present to him its ceasing2 pain is not pain1 for he has by force of thought its termination before him3 all mutable things therefore are to him as things that are not4#dib ,owing to the ever-moving cycle of change1 the ordinary soul must of necessity fall back1 in the course of the eternal process of its life1 to the lowest stage1 however high in the scale it may have risen2 but this1 although an evil for it1 does not prejudice the whole1 in which all things work together for good4 ,some few1 however1 may escape this danger1 through becoming united with the eternal ,mind or ,source4#dic ,they then cease to be subject to mutation1--,mind being immutable1--and persist in eternal blessedness and love4 ,for such favoured ones of heaven1 the greatest evils of this life are converted into goods1 correspondingly great4 ,it is suffering that compels the labour and the striving which lead most frequently to the glory of immortal splendour4 ,death in one age makes to live in all others4#did ,sidenote3 ,kinds of furor4 ,there are1 however1 two kinds of furori 7or inspiration74 ,in some there is only blindness1 stupidity1 unreasoning impulse2 others consist in a certain divine abstraction by which some men become better in fact than ordinary men4 ,these again are of two kinds1 for some becoming the habitation of gods or of divine spirits1 say or do miraculous things without themselves or others understanding the reason2 these for the most part are promoted to this state from one of rudeness and ignorance3 the divine sense and spirit enters into them as into a house swept and garnished1 they being void of any spirit or sense of their own4 ,others being more habituated to or skilled in contemplation1 and having innate in them a lucid and intellectual spirit1 are moved by an internal impulse and natural fervour1 with love of divinity1 justice1 truth1 glory2 by the fire of desire1 fanned by the breath of purpose1 they give edge to their senses1 and in the sulphur of the thinking faculty enkindle the light of reason1 by which they see further than ordinary men4 ,these come in the end to speak and operate not as vases or instruments1 but as principal artificers and agents--the first have worth or dignity1 the second are worthy3 or the first are worthy as an ass that carries the sacraments1 the second as a sacred thing4 ,in the first we see divinity in effect--we admire1 adore1 obey it2 in the second we see the excellence of our own humanity4#die ,sidenote3 ,ascent towards union with the divine4 ,the steps towards the highest peak of human excellence are compared1 after ,neoplatonist example1 to the degrees in intensity of light1 as we proceed from darkness1 in which it is entirely absent1 to shadow1 then to the colours in their order from black to white1 next to the brightness diffused from polished or transparent bodies1 the rays outflowing from the sun1 finally to the sun itself1 in which light is most truly and most vividly itself4#dif ,first of all it is needful for the soul to turn to the light1 by act of conversion to present the light of intelligence to its eyes1 so to regain its lost virtue1 to strengthen its sinews1 to terrify and put to rout its enemies1--the lower1 sense-feelings and passions4 ,the conversion seems to arise as by an act of grace from above2 or1 to express this in other words1 the soul or spirit tends towards that with which it has greatest affinity1 as the sun-flower tends towards the sun1 and this affinity in the human soul is ,love4#dig ,the symbol of love is fire1 for love converts the object of love into the lover1 as fire is of all elements the most active1 the most potent to transform others into itself4#dih ,it is the divine in man that makes him or impels him to love ,god as ,he is in reality1 and the goal or aim of that love is to take ,god into himself1 to become one with ,god4 ,no really divine or heroic love can ever rest satisfied in anything but spiritual beauty4 ,for there are three kinds of love1 as there are three kinds of ,platonic rapture--the contemplative1 the practical1 the idle or voluptuous4 ,one from the perception of corporeal form and beauty rises to the thought of the spiritual and divine2 another enjoys the vision of beauty for itself1 and for the grace of the spirit that is reflected in the grace of the body2 while still another enjoys only the material pleasure that beauty provides2 the last is the love of barbarous natures1 incapable of raising themselves to love that which is really worthy of love4#dii ,sidenote3 ,beauty4 ,to the two higher kinds of love correspond the two kinds of beauty--sensible and intelligible4 ,that in the body which calls forth love--its beauty--is a certain spirituality1 which consists not in definite dimensions1 nor in determinate colours or forms1 but in a certain harmony and consonance of members and colours4 ,corporeal beauty is not1 however1 true or permanent beauty1 and therefore cannot call forth true or permanent love4 ,the beauty of bodies is accidental1 shadowy1 and like other qualities is absorbed1 altered1 and decays through the change of the subject-body1 for the latter frequently from beautiful becomes ugly1 without any change taking place in the soul4 ,reason1 however1 apprehends the more truly beautiful by conversion to that which makes beauty in body1 the source of the beauty1 and that is the soul1 which has so moulded and formed it4 ,intellect rises still higher1 sees that while the soul is incomparably beautiful above the beauty of bodily things1 it is not beautiful in itself1 or primitively1 otherwise there could not exist the diversity that is found in souls--some being wise1 lovable1 beautiful1 others foolish1 hateful1 ugly4 ,hence it must rise to that higher intelligence which of itself is beautiful and of itself is good4 ,that is the ,one1 the ,supreme ,captain1 who when presented to the eyes of the thoughts militant1 illuminates them1 encourages1 strengthens1 and leads them to victory in the contempt of every other beauty1 and repudiation of every other good4 ,its presence1 therefore1 is that which enables us to overcome every difficulty and conquer every force4#ejj ,the ,intelligence which is the truest beauty attainable by us1 is not yet ,divinity itself1 but only the highest intelligible species1 or form1 the highest ,idea4 ,divinity itself is the final1 the most perfect object of thought and love1 not attainable in our present state1 in which ,god cannot become object to us1 except through some image4#eja ,no image of the ,divine1 however1 even the most inadequate1 can be abstracted or otherwise derived by the senses1 from corporeal beauty or excellence4 ,such can be formed only by the intellect1 and on such the human intellect feeds1 in this lower world1 until it be allowed to behold with purer eyes the beauty of divinity itself4 ,in a fine simile ,bruno describes how one may come to some mansion1 most exquisitely adorned1 and as he goes about observing now this1 now that1 is pleased and happy1 filled with delight and noble wonder4 ,but if then he sees the living ,lord of these beautiful forms1 of beauty incomparably greater1 he lets go all care or thought of them1 intent wholly on this one1 their source4 ,such is the difference between the earthly state1 when we see the divine beauty in intelligible or abstract forms1 derived from its effects1 its works1 masterpieces1 its shadows and similitudes1 and the perfect state1 when we are allowed to behold it in its real presence4#ejb ,the intelligible species of this conception1 which ,bruno derives from ,neoplatonism1 are simply the ideas of the speculative sciences1 which include1 however1 what would now be called the natural sciences4 ,human ,perfection consists in a form of knowledge1 a system of thought1 by which the knower becomes one with the mind in which this thought-system originated1 the mind of ,god4 ,our knowledge--that is1 our perfection--can never1 however1 be complete1 since the object1 the knowable1 can never be perfectly comprehended4 ,but it may be made complete so far as our vision extends2 and herein lies a saving clause for the ordinary man4 ,few can reach the goal1 but all may run2 it is enough that each do his best possible4 ,the generous spirit prefers to fail nobly in the pursuit of the highest rather than to succeed in inferior and baser enterprises4#ejc ,acteon typifies the human intellect in its pursuit of the divine wisdom and capture of divine beauty4#ejd ,the wild beasts whom he tracks down are the intelligible species or ideal forms1 rarely sought1 and rarely seen by those that seek them4 ,his dogs are the thoughts that issue outwards in search of goodness1 wisdom1 beauty beyond himself4 ,the fate of ,acteon--his death under the fangs of his own hounds--represents how the generous spirit1 coming into the presence of that highest beauty1 is ravished out of itself1 is converted into the very prey which it pursued3 itself is now the prey of its own thoughts1 for it has contracted divinity into itself1 has no longer to seek it outside of itself3 as love converts into the thing loved4#eje ,his death means that he ends his life according to the world of folly1 of sense1 of blindness and of fancy1 only to commence the new intellectual life1 the life of the gods4#ejf ,sidenote3 ,the infinite process4 ,the first step1 however1 in the desire of the infinitely beautiful is but the beginning of an endless series2 the heart goes out on an endless quest1 while the intellect cannot but follow4 ,for the intellect cannot rest in any definite or finite idea or object1 but is driven ever forwards towards the source of all ideas1 the ocean of all truth and goodness4 ,whatever form may be presented to it and comprehended by it1 it judges that there must be a greater above and beyond that4 ,hence it is in constant discourse and movement1 for whatever it possesses is seen to be a measured thing1 and therefore cannot be sufficient in itself1 nor good in itself1 nor beautiful in itself4 ,it is not the universe1 not absolute ,being1 but ,being contracted to this or that nature1 species1 form1 represented to the intellect1 and presented to the mind 7animo74 ,thus always from beauty comprehended1 and therefore measured or limited1--the beautiful by participation1--we progress towards that which is truly beautiful1 beautiful without any limit or margin4#ejg ,on the other hand1#ejh this infinite process is not in vain1 for it is not from imperfect to perfect1 but a circular movement about the degrees of perfection1 in order to arrive at the infinite centre which is neither formed nor form4 ,this paradox ,tansillo 7taking the part of the ,nolan7 refuses to explain4 ,it probably hints at the idea1 as familiar in ,bruno as the infinite process itself1 that in each form or degree of perfection1 the infinite with all its perfection1 is wholly present4 ,it is a centre which is at the same time the circumference4 ,in a subsequent dialogue#eji the object alike of intellectual pursuit and of the heart's desire is described as a positive or perfective infinite4 ,the will cannot rest satisfied with a finite good2 but if there is other good beyond1 desires it1 seeks it1 because1 as the common saying goes1 the acme of one species is the foot and the beginning of the next higher species4 ,the highest good being infinite1 it is communicated infinitely1 but also according to the nature of the things to which it is communicated4 ,neither to the universe1 e4g4 as regards mass and figure1 nor to the intellect1 nor to the heart1 are any definite limits fixed2 yet the intellect and the heart may still become perfect through or by their object1 for that object is not merely a privative infinite#eaj or potentiality1 but a perfective or positive#eaa infinite as being itself actuality and perfection4 ,when the intellect conceives truth1 or light1 the good1 the beautiful1 within the whole capacity of its nature1 and the soul drinks of the divine nectar and of the source of eternal life1 so much as its vessel can hold1 it is seen that the light 7of truth7 extends beyond1 and that the intellect may go on and on1 penetrating more deeply into it4 ,the nectar and the source of living water are infinitely productive2 the soul may quench its thirst in it again and again4#eab ,thus the blessed or perfect life for ,bruno meant a permanent1 continuous absorption of the individual soul in the divine goodness--a permanence or eternity which was also one with the instant of time4 ,there was no greater value at any later moment than at the first union of the soul with its divine object3 the soul was thereby removed1 once for all1 out of the constant flux of things1 the incessant renewal and rebirth of the soul throughout the ages1 and lifted up into the calm of the eternal and immutable4 ,sidenote3 ,soul and body4 ,even the heroic soul1 however1 is1 as other souls1 on the border line between corporeal and incorporeal nature2 in part it tends to rise towards the upper world1 in part inclines towards the lower world4 ,if sense ascends to imagination1 imagination to reason1 reason to intellect1 intellect to mind1 then the soul is wholly converted into ,god1 and its dwelling-place is the intelligible world4 ,in the contrary direction it descends through conversion to the sensible world1 by way of intellect1 reason1 imagination1 sense1 and the vegetative faculty4 ,mind 7the highest faculty in ,bruno's psychology3--the intuitive perception of unity with the supreme ideal world7 is oppressed by its conjunction with the more material faculties of the soul2 knowing of a higher state to which the soul might rise1 it despises the present in favour of the future4 ,if a brute had sense of the difference between its condition and that of man1 and between the baseness of its state and the nobility of that of man1 to which it did not feel it impossible to rise1 it would prefer death which should put it on the way to that state1 to life which held it fast in its present one4 ,so the soul1 compelled by its loftier thoughts1 as if dead to the body1 aspires upwards4 ,although living in the body1 it vegetates there as dead--is present in it so far as animation is concerned1 but absent from it in its proper action4#eac ,thus the heroic soul1 although present in the body1 is absent from it with the better part of itself1 and unites itself in an indissoluble bond with divine things4 ,it feels neither love nor hatred of mortal things1 considering itself too great to be the slave and servant of its body3 the latter it regards simply as a prison-house within which its liberty is closed in2 a snare that holds its wings entangled2 a chain that binds its hands2 fetters that hold its feet fast2 a veil that bewilders its vision4 ,yet it is neither slave1 nor captive1 nor entangled1 nor chained1 nor held fast1 bound nor blind1 for the body cannot tyrannise over it further than itself allows4 ,it has spirit allotted to it proportionally to its nearness to divinity1 since the corporeal world and matter are subject to divinity and nature4 ,so it may make itself strong against fortune1 magnanimous against injustice1 bold in face of poverty1 disease1 and persecution4#ead ,sidenote3 ,the soul4 ,sidenote3 ,distraction of the body4 ,the soul of man1 in ,bruno's psychology1 as in ,aristotle's1 performs a double function3--the one is to vivify and actuate the body1 and the other to contemplate the higher world4 ,it has a receptive faculty towards the spiritual1 an active faculty towards the corporeal4 ,body is as dead1 a thing privative towards the soul1 which is its life and perfection1 and the soul is as dead1 a thing privative to the higher illuminating intelligence from which its intellect derives both its tendency or nature1 and its actual form1 its realisation4#eae ,the soul is not locally in the body1 but is related to it as intrinsic form1 and as extrinsic giver of form3 moulding the members1 and giving shape to the composite result from within and from without4 ,body is in soul1 soul in mind1 and mind either is1 or is in ,god1 as ,plotinus said4#eaf ,the dualism of nature and divinity1 of corporeal and spiritual1 intellect and sense1 permeates the ethical as it permeates the earlier philosophical thought of ,bruno3 nowhere is the ,neoplatonist effort to overcome the dualism inherent both in ,plato and in ,aristotle less effective than here4 ,thus the body remains--in spite of the continuity seemingly maintained between the highest and the lowest of the emanations from the supreme1 or the identity asserted between sense1 imagination1 reason1 intellect1--the chief hindrance to the aspiration of the soul4 ,for the body is in continual movement1 change1 alteration1 and its faculties are conditioned by its inherent nature1 its operations by its faculties4 ,how then can immobility1 subsistence1 entity1 truth1 be understood by that which is always different from itself1 always acting and becoming in different ways8 ,what truth1 what representation can be depicted or impressed when the pupils of the eyes are dispersed into water1 the water into vapour1 the vapour into flame1 the flame into air--that into other things and again other1 the object of sense and sense-knowledge passing endlessly through the infinite cycle of changes8 ,thought and passion take their character from their object1 or the sense-data on which they are based3 but that which has always before it now one thing now another1 now in one way now in another1 must necessarily be quite blind in regard to that beauty which is always one1 and in one manner1 which is unity itself1 entity1 identity4#eag ,into the very life of the generous soul there enter1 accordingly1 the contrarieties by which on a lower plane the soul is governed3--the skilfulness and art of nature cause it to faint with desire for that which destroys it1 to be content in the midst of torment1 to be tormented in the midst of all content4 ,for nothing derives from principles of peace1 but everything from contrary principles1 through the victory and dominance of one side of the contrariety4 ,there is no pleasure of generation on one side without the pain of corruption on the other2 and the things that are becoming and those that are decaying are conjoined in one and the same composite being4 ,the sense of joy and the sense of sorrow go ever together2 it is called joy rather than sorrow if the former predominates and has greater force to solicit the sense4#eah ,the life in death of the more divine soul is only an extreme instance3--it is the death of lovers from an extreme of joy1 the ,cabalist mors osculi1 and is at the same time eternal life1 such as man may have potentially1 in disposition1 in this world1 but actually1 in effect1 in eternity alone4#eai ,again it is the contrast of infinite desire and finite power3--the weakness of the human mind which is intent on its divine enterprise1 and suddenly is engulfed in the abyss of incomprehensible excellence4 ,sense and imagination are confused and absorbed1 the soul can neither go forward nor backward1 nor know where to turn1 but loses its being just as a drop of water vanishes in the sea1 or a little vapour thins out and loses its proper substance in the spacious immeasurable air4#ebj ,sidenote3 ,intelligence and love4 ,as the height of our intelligence1 so is the depth of our love or passion2 the higher1 i4e4 the more comprehensive1 the object of knowledge1 the more absorbed become feelings and emotions in its contemplation4#eba ,the most complete absorption is that of the heroic mind in its infinite and all-comprehensive object4 ,that is not perfect divine heroic love which feels the spur or the bridle1 or regret or grief for any other love2 but that which is entirely without sense or feeling of other passions4 ,it is so deep in its delight that nothing can displease or divert it or cause it to stumble in the least1 and this is to reach the highest blessedness in our present state--to have pleasure without any sense of pain4#ebb ,the loss of sense is caused by the absorption of the whole being in virtue1 in the truly good1 and in felicity4 ,regulus1 ,lucretia1 ,socrates1 ,anaxarchus1 ,scaevola1 ,cocles1 are instanced as noble human beings who had no feeling or sense of the greatest tortures1 or what would be such to baser human natures4#ebc ,a keener joy1 or fear1 or hope1 faith1 or indignation1 or contempt1 turns the mind away from any present1 less vivid1 passion4 ,one who is more deeply moved by the sight of some other thing1 does not suffer the pangs of death4 ,the truly wise and virtuous man1 not feeling pain1 is perfectly happy1 so far as the present life admits1 at least in the eye of reason4 ,sidenote3 ,aspiration4 ,in its aspiration the soul need not go beyond itself1 need only enter into the depths of its own mind 7mens72 for this it is unnecessary to open the eyes wide upon the heavens1 to raise aloft the hands1 to wend one's way to the temple1 to intone to the ears of idols1 that one may best be heard2 rather we should enter into the innermost heart of ourselves1 for ,god is near to us1 with us1 within us1 more truly than we are in ourselves2 being soul of souls1 life of lives1 essence of essences4 ,divinity is not more nor less present in the other worlds than in our own or in ourselves4#ebd ,therefore the heroic soul withdraws from the many1 neither hating them nor seeking to be like them1 associating only with those whom it may make better1 or who may make it better2 but aiming ever to be self-sufficient in its own wisdom4 ,the soul must come to the point when it no longer regards but despises fatigue1 and the more the contest of passions and vices rages within1 the struggle of vicious enemies without1 the more it must aspire and rise1 and pass1 with one breath 7if it may be7 over this mountain of difficulty4 ,here there is no need for other arms or shield than the grandeur of an invincible mind1 the endurance of a spirit which maintains the even tenor of its life1 proceeds from knowledge1 and is regulated by the art of speculating upon things high and low1 divine and human1 in which its highest good consists4#ebe ,sidenote3 ,love of ,god4 ,to the love in the human soul there corresponds love in the divine nature1 because love is of the essence of divinity4 ,it precedes1 in the mythology of the ancients1 all the other gods4 ,hence there is a natural instinct or tendency of all things towards the beautiful and good4 ,love is that by virtue of which all things are produced1 which is in all things1 and is the vigour of all things2 by its guidance souls rise to contemplation1 by the power of flight it inspires1 the difficulties of nature are overcome1 and men become united with ,god4#ebf ,to see ,god is to be seen by ,god2 to be heard by divinity is to hear the voice of divinity2 to be favoured by its grace is the same thing as offering oneself to it4 ,the divine potency that is wholly in everything does not offer nor withdraw itself except through the conversion of the other1 its object1 to it1 or aversion from it4#ebg ,to love ,god is to be loved by ,god4 ,it is only through love1 again1 that we can approach the inmost nature of ,god2 we cannot reason or even think of the divine without detracting from it rather than adding to its glory4#ebh ,to think of ,god is to limit ,him1 and1 therefore1 as we have seen1 every conception of ,him is inadequate3 the deepest1 the highest knowledge of divine things is by way of negation1 never by affirmation4 ,for the divine beauty and divine goodness can never fall within our understanding 7our conceptual knowledge71 but are ever beyond and beyond in absolute incomprehensibility4 ,no finite intelligence ever perceives the substance of divinity1 but always its similitude1 its image2 even the highest intelligences are1 in the language of the schools1 not formally1 but only denominatively1 gods1 or divine1--divinity and the divine beauty remaining one and exalted above all things4#ebi ,being itself eternal1 unchangeable1 the divine truth reveals itself to the few to whom it is revealed--not as in the physical sciences1 which are acquired by the natural light of sense and reason1 proceeding from the known to the unknown1 in successive stages1 but--suddenly and at one stroke4 ,there is no need of expense of time1 laborious study1 active inquiry1 to secure it2 but it enters into us as readily as the solar light is present1 without lapse of time to him who turns to it1 and lays himself open to receive it4#ecj ,when the soul is thus wholly turned to ,god--to the ,idea of ,ideas--the mind is lifted up to the unity above essence1 and becomes all love1 all simplicity and unity4 ,the soul is permeated at once with the desire or love of the divine beauty in itself1 without similitude1 figure1 image1 or form--a desire or love which is its own realisation4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,positive ,,religions ,,and ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,philosophy ,the hostility which the ,italian and some of the ,latin writings of ,bruno showed towards the positive religions of his day1 alike the ,catholic1 the ,reformed1 the ,jewish1 and the ,mahomedan1 had two grounds3 his belief that religious or sectarian strife was the chief cause of the evils of war and civil discord that were rife throughout ,europe1 and the fact that one and all of these ,churches claimed the right of limiting thought as well as of dictating practice1 and in their exercise of this right formed an unendurable barrier in the way of human progress4 ,of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 to which all his life ,bruno belonged in spirit if not in outward conformity1 he never expressly denied any of the essential doctrines1 as he maintained before the ,inquisition at ,venice4 ,on the other hand1 he admitted that he had occasionally made indirect criticism of these doctrines1 speaking or writing philosophically1 not theologically4 ,to the doctrine of the ,trinity1 for example1 he had given a rationalist1 half-mystical interpretation1 seeing in it a figure or metaphor of the coincidence in ,god of the three highest principles--,mind 7the ,father71 ,intellect 7the word1 the ,son71 and ,love1 the creating1 vivifying force of the ,universe 7the ,comforter or ,holy ,spirit74 ,it is quite clear that he did not accept as philosophically true the distinction of ,persons1 or the special divinity of ,christ4 ,only once1 perhaps1 does he write seriously of ,christ as the ,son of ,god1 and that in one of the posthumous works1 the ,lampas ,triginta ,statuarum4#eca ,charity is the most perfect and consummate harmony1 by which the soul in us becomes so harmonious in itself that it is attuned both to ,god and to all men equally1 not only to friends but even to enemies2 to this perfection we are drawn1 impelled1 invited by the ,son of the almighty ,god1 to raise us up to the likeness of the ,father1 'who maketh ,his sun to rise upon good and evil1 and sends ,his rain upon the just and the unjust1' uplifting us from the savage condition of life common to brutes and to the uncivilised1 who love their friends and neighbours1 but hate strangers and enemies4 ,on the other hand1 this very law is elsewhere spoken of as coming not from the evil spirit or genius of any one race1 but from ,god1 the ,father of all1 as being in harmony with universal nature1 and as teaching a general philanthropy2 that we should love our very enemies1 not be like brutes and barbarians1 but transform ourselves after the image of ,him who makes ,his sun to rise upon good and evil1 and makes the rain of ,his mercies to fall upon just and unjust4 ,this is the religion which ,i observe1 as beyond all controversy1 and above all disputation1 both from the conviction of my mind1 and in accordance with the custom of my fatherland and race4#ecb ,what ,bruno rejected in ,christianity was the whole mass of doctrine which suggested a miraculous or supernatural interference with the order of nature1 for the benefit either of a particular person1 or of a particular race4 ,that is the nerve1 for example1 of his satire upon the popular idea of ,providence in the ,spaccio4#ecc ,there ,mercury1 on one of his visits to ,sophia1 relates a number of things he has to see carried out1 by the order of ,providence1 about the little hamlet of ,cicala4 ,they are none of the cleanest--the number of melons that are to ripen in ,franzino's garden and that are not to be gathered till over-ripe1 of jujubes that are to be picked from ,giovanni ,bruno's tree1 that are to fall to the earth1 or that are to be eaten by worms2 how ,vasta1 in curling the hair on her temples1 is to overheat the iron and burn fifty-seven of them1 but is not to scorch her head--and so on4 ,these unpleasant details1 however1 are only a prelude to a philosophical conception of the divine action4 ,god1 it is said1 does not provide for this and that individual as occasion arises4#ecd ,he does all things without deliberation1 anxiety1 or perplexity3 provides for innumerable species and an infinite number of individuals1 not in any order of succession1 but at once and all together3 ,he is not like a finite agent1 doing things one by one1 with many acts1 an infinite number of acts for an infinite number of things1 but does everything1 past1 present1 and future1 with one simple and unique act4#ece ,so the knowledge of ,god is simple1 containing implicitly in itself all things that are or happen in the extended universe 7the explicate unity74 ,it is only to our confused vision that this divine government does not appear just and holy4 ,mercury advises ,sophia to put more strength and warmth into her prayers1 for to the mind of the infinite the small is as important as the great6 ,the least things are just as much a care to the gods as the principal things1 for the greatest and chiefest cannot subsist without the least and lowliest4 ,the minutest trifle in the order of the universe is important1 for great things are composed of little1 little things of least things1 and these of atoms and minima4#ecf ,the act of the divine knowledge is the substance of all things3 all are therefore known1 ordained1 foreseen4 ,divine knowledge is not as human1 which comes after things1 but is before and in all things1 and if it were not so1 things could not be causes or agents1 either proximate or secondary4#ecg ,thus the order of nature is fixed and eternal1 ordained and foreknown from all time4 ,we have seen that ,bruno rejected the superstitious idea that comets and other heavenly wonders had a supernatural meaning2 and that he found the truest signs of divinity in the orderly course of nature4#ech ,miracles he explained either through imposture or through sympathetic magic4 ,along with these he rejected also what may be called the morbid side of medival ,christianity--its constant dwelling upon the physical1 sensational aspects of ,christ's life1 sufferings1 and death1#eci its appeal to the hysterical in man4 ,against a religion of incoherent personal emotion and brute ignorance1 he would set one of humane love and of reasoned knowledge4 ,the chief value of the ,new ,testament1 in his eyes1 was its preaching of the ,gospel law of mutual love1 which the tyranny of ,rome had violated4#edj ,the religion to which he gave his adherence was that which raised the dead1 healed the sick1 gave to the poor2 not the contrary form to which the ,inquisition had brought the ,church in ,catholic lands4 ,sidenote3 ,man and ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,bible1--not science but morality its aim4 ,with great boldness ,bruno drew from his conception of the ,infinite the consequence that there can be no action of the finite upon the infinite1 no change or effect in ,god produced through man4 ,a practical corollary of this was the argument for freedom of thought4 ,the virtue of ,judgment1 in the ,spaccio1 has entrusted to it the defence of the true law1 and the removal of unjust or false laws1 dictated by enmity to the peace and happiness of the human commonwealth4 ,it shall kindle and fan the appetite for glory in the human breast1 as the only sure stimulus for inciting men to the heroic deeds that increase1 maintain1 or strengthen republics4 ,but it shall not pay heed to what men imagine or think1 provided their words and deeds do not corrupt the peace of the realm4 ,deeds are its only concern1 and it has to judge the tree1 not by the fineness1 but by the goodness of its fruits4 ,heaven is not interested in any way in what does not interest man2 it is moved and angered1 not by anything done1 said1 or thought by men1 except in so far as the welfare of republics is endangered4 ,gods would not be gods if they were either pleased or displeased1 grieved or delighted1 by what men did or thought2 they would be more needy than men1 would be as dependent on men as men are on themselves for utility and profit4#eda ,the gods are beyond all passion3 they have active anger and pleasure only1 not passive4 ,therefore they do not threaten punishment or promise reward for good or evil that results in them1 but for that committed on peoples and in the human societies which they foster by their divine laws and statutes1 since human laws do not suffice4 ,the gods do not seek the reverence1 fear1 love1 worship1 or respect of men1 for any other end or utility than that of men themselves4 ,glory cannot be added to the gods from without2 they have made their laws not to receive glory but to communicate glory to men4 ,the sole sphere of justice is the moral actions of men with regard to other men2 inward sins are sins only so far as they have outward effect1 and inward justice is not justice without outward practice4#edb ,in the ,cena ,bruno had already made practical use of this principle in maintaining that the ,scriptures teach not science1 but an ideal of conduct1 and therefore that any argument from them as to the actual constitution of the world is devoid of compelling force1 while1 on the other side1 no scientific theory or hypothesis can be ruled out simply because it is contradicted by any statement in the ,scriptures4 ,they were written1 not in the service of our intellect to instruct us in philosophy1 but for the grace of our mind and heart1 ordaining by their laws what should be our behaviour in the moral life4 ,the ,scriptures were written in the language and adapted to the intelligence of the vulgar1 the people of the time4 ,a historian making use of words which the ordinary man could not understand1 would be absurd2 and still more so would be one who desired to give to a whole people a law and model of life1 if he were to employ terms which he alone or very few could understand1 and should waste time over matters indifferent to the end for which the laws were ordained4 ,for this reason ,alghazel said that the function of the books of the law was not so much to probe the truth of things1 or speculation1 as to promote good customs1 and to provide for the welfare of republics and of humanity4 ,to use the terms of science where there is no need1 is to ask that the vulgar1 the foolish many1 from whom only conduct is required1 shall have a special comprehension1--to ask that the hand shall have the eye1 whereas it is not made by nature to see1 but to work1 and to obey the eye4#edc ,the revelation of the ,scriptures is accordingly reduced to that of a moral ideal1 to be enforced upon the ordinary man by the threat of future punishment and promise of future reward2 but it is an ideal which the wise man would acquire by the light of reason alone1 and which he would pursue for its own sake4 ,on the other hand1 the ceremonies and worship of the ,church were never attacked by ,bruno1 nor did he ever place himself in open hostility to it2 while he submitted1 formally at least1 to the rites of the ,protestant churches in ,geneva and ,helmstadt4 ,the grounds of this outward conformity may have been various3 ,bruno had no interest in speculative theology1 and probably kept an open mind towards the prevailing dogmas and the ceremonies that symbolised the truths contained in them4 ,he believed with ,pomponazzi1 and others after him1 that religion is a good thing for the many1 the foolish and ignorant of the world1 while knowledge or philosophy takes its place with the wise4 ,the former must be governed by laws which they have blindly to obey1 hence the supernatural sanction required2 the latter pursue the true good without this stimulus1 by virtue of reason4 ,but for the sake of the many1 the few must conform in outward practice with the religion of their state4#edd ,brunnhofer goes so far as to see in this the idea of ,lessing1 that religion is a means whereby men are gradually educated upwards to a true knowledge of ,god1--leading them from the state of darkness and savagery to that of moral behaviour1 at which point only the full light of science and philosophy takes the place of religion4#ede ,there was a religion1 however1 for the few as well as for the many1 for the wholly civilised as well as for the semi-barbarians of ,europe1--the philosophical religion of the ,heroici ,furori4 ,another reason for his conformity was that ,bruno regarded the historical religions as allegories1 or metaphors1 of truth4 ,not that it was for every one to say what was metaphorical merely1 what truth or fact3 in the hands of ,jews1 ,christians1 and ,mahomedans1 and the many sects of each1 the same ,scripture met with as many interpretations as the number of the sects4#edf ,the interpretation of the divine words1 uttered by inspired prophet or poet1--for the divine inspiration was not given at one place or one time only1--was again the work of the wise few4 ,sidenote3 ,egyptian religion3 ,animism4 ,bruno's own leaning was towards ,rationalism1--as in his interpretation of the ,trinity1 of ,creation1 of the ,incarnation1 of ,immortality1 of ,providence4#edg ,in this he was only following ,lully and ,nicolaus of ,cusa1 who also demonstrated some of the deepest of ,christian doctrines1 interpreted in their own way4 ,yet ,bruno was by no means a thorough ,rationalist3 there remained always a sphere within which ,faith only was available1 to which neither reason nor intellect could penetrate4 ,we remember that he ridiculed ,lully for attempting to demonstrate some of the particular doctrines which are revealed to the worshippers of ,christ 7,christicoli7 alone1 are contrary to all reason1 philosophy1 other faiths or superstitions1 and are capable of no demonstration1 but admit of faith only4#edh ,it is improbable that any ironical meaning should be read into the words2 for the distinction between faith and knowledge or science1 between theological and philosophical discussion1 between the supernatural light and the light of nature or reason1 occurs again and again1 not only in ,bruno's replies to the ,inquisitors of ,venice1 but in the published works4 ,here and there he deprecates the taking of his statements1 should they conflict with or tend to weaken the accepted faith1 as assertively made1 and claims1 like ,copernicus1 the right of arguing for any thesis which is more in harmony with our sense and reason1 or at least less out of harmony with them than the contradictory thesis1 however high the authority of the latter may be4#edi ,discreet theologians would fix no limit to natural reasonings1 however far these went1 provided they did not determine against the divine authority1 but subordinated themselves to it4#eej ,even the ,heroici ,furori disclaims any supernatural reasoning or revelation4 ,if there is another order1 above the natural1 which either destroys or corrects the latter1 ,i believe in it1 and may not dispute about it1 for ,i do not reason in any other than a natural spirit4 ,he is dealing with ,philosophy1 not ,theology4#eea ,in other words1 ,bruno refuses to dogmatise1 just as he condemns dogmatism in others2 philosophy or science should be allowed to pursue its own course1 irrespective of religion1 and untrammelled by the ,church1 so long as it does not attack the authority of the ,church1 and thereby weaken the forces that make for peace and harmony among men4#eeb ,short of that1 entire freedom of thought should be allowed4 ,sometimes it might be well that the wise and heroic1 as well as the others1 should submit and humble the light of reason received from ,god1 the mark of divinity hidden in the substance of our nature1 if some higher light forbid or warn4 ,but1--,in matters of philosophy at least1 by whose free altars ,i have taken refuge from the threatening waves1 ,i shall listen only to those doctors who bid us not close the eyes but open them as widely as we may4#eec ,it has been suggested that ,bruno1 like many others who were unstable in the ,church1 made use of the subterfuge of the twofold truth2#eed in other words1 that he professed to disbelieve theologically what he accepted as philosophical truth3 or that he held one and the same proposition to be true to sense and reason1 i4e4 to harmonise with all other natural knowledge1 and yet to be false to faith1 i4e4 inconsistent with revealed truth4 ,but no theologian denied more strenuously than ,bruno1 in spite of occasional lapses1 the possibility of two kinds of truth4 ,there were indeed two kinds of evidence3 one from the light of our own senses and rational inference1 such as we require in speculative sciences1 in the arts1 and in practical life1 where true and false1 good and evil1 are apprehended by human reason and natural light2 the other1 from light of a foreign1 namely1 a divine source4 ,for as ,god neither deceives nor is deceived1 and is not envious1 but good in the highest degree--is indeed truth and goodness itself2 so1 when he speaks to us of occult things1 of mysteries1 it must be evident that everything he proposes for our belief is true1 and that everything he proposes for our doing is good4 ,but ,god is also the ,author of nature1 of our senses1 of our eyes1 and of that truth and evidence which is in them and according to them2 truth does not contradict truth1 goodness is not opposed to goodness4 ,the word of ,god that is spread through the parts of nature1 ,his hand and instrument1--for ,nature is either ,god himself1 or the divine force manifest in things1--is not opposed to the word of ,god1 from whatever other part or principle it springs4#eee ,there could be no clearer assertion of the right of philosophy and science to pursue their own way in the discovery of truth4 ,nothing revealed from above can conflict with truth acquired by the discursive1 slow-moving human reason1 nor on the other hand can any real truth arrived at by science ever contradict the pure1 genuinely-revealed1 word of ,god4 ,the sphere of faith is separated from that of reason2 faith follows the authority of revelation1 is an infallible certainty equal to1 if not greater than1 that of sense-knowledge and the intuition of first principles4 ,revealed truths are outside the sphere of sense and reason1 not1 however1 as opposed or contrary to the truths belonging to that sphere1 but as above them4 ,while philosophical faith enables us to act according to reason and human nature1 guiding us by principles innate in ourselves1 to the perfection of our natural condition1 theological faith leads us by supernatural principles to a supernatural end1 to become formed in the likeness and in the knowledge of ,god4#eef ,neither must we call to the bar of reason what is above reason1 summon before our tribunal cases of eternity1#eeg nor on the other hand must faith be allowed to prejudice the discovery of truth by natural methods3 if so1 it becomes a danger and a snare4#eeh ,bruno was therefore a ,rationalist only in a limited sense3 while he claimed for the philosopher entire freedom of interpretation of religious dogmas or legends1 the interpretation was to be governed not by the facts of ordinary knowledge1 but by the mystical intuition of divine truth1 given1 in inspired moments1 to the heroic soul4 ,there were two types of rationalism in mediaeval philosophy--that of ,averroes1 which sought to supplant the positive religions by a religion of philosophy1 and that of ,scotus ,erigena1 which aimed at upholding popular faiths while allowing the philosopher freedom of thought in interpreting the doctrines these faiths involved4 ,bruno's rationalism is clearly of the second type1 although personally he disliked all prevailing religions for the reasons already given4#eei ,all positive religions expressed for him one and the same truth1 some more1 some less adequately1--that the supreme end of human activity is the union of the soul with ,god1 whereby it becomes one with ,god and is raised above the sphere of sense and reason1 above nature1 out of the ordinary cycle of human life and human death4 ,that which of all others most nearly approached his ideal was the half-mythical religion of the ,egyptians1 from whom indeed he believed the later religions1 as well as the earlier philosophies1 to have been inspired4 ,the ,egyptian worship of the gods in the form of living animals was symbolic of the truth that ,god is in all things3 ,animals and plants1 says ,jupiter in the ,spaccio1 are living effects of nature1 and nature is nothing but ,god in things4 ,diverse things represent diverse deities1 and diverse powers4#efj ,god is in all things1 but not fully expressed in each1 in some more1 in some less excellently1 in some one divine attribute or power predominates1 in some another4 ,thus the viper or the scorpion represents ,mars1 the cock or the lion the ,sun1 because of their greater affinity1 respectively1 with these deities1 or rather with the divine powers which the deities embody4 ,for as divinity is communicated in a divine scale downwards to nature1 so from the light that is reflected in natural things we may rise to the divine life that is above them4 ,it was on these sympathies between animals1 plants1 metals1 on the one hand1 and the various attributes of divinity on the other1 that genuine magic and divination depended4 ,the ,magi ascended by the same scale of nature to the highest divinity1 by which that divinity itself descended to the least of things1 in its self-communication4 ,their ceremonies were not vain imaginations1 but living voices that reached the very ears of the gods4 ,these wise men knew ,god to be in things1 divinity to be latent in nature1 acting in and scintillating diversely from diverse subjects1 and making them to participate in itself1 as in its being1 life1 and intelligence4#efa ,of ,jupiter1 ,venus1 and the rest is said what ,bruno no doubt thought of ,christ1 and other founders of religion1 that they had been mortal human beings4 ,what men adored was not ,jupiter1 as a divine being1 but divinity1 as expressed in ,jupiter3 in this or that man were worshipped the name and symbol of a divinity which in their birth communicated itself to men1 and with their death was thought to have completed its work and to have returned to heaven4#efb ,but divinity is communicated not only through these divinely chosen human vessels1 but through earth1 and sun1 and moon1 the planets1 the stars1 and all that is in them3 one divinity under innumerable names1 according to the innumerable modes in which it is diffused4 ,endlessly varied also are the methods by which it must be sought1 under conditions appropriate to each thing1 while it must be honoured and worshipped with endlessly different rites1 because the kinds of favour we seek to obtain from it are beyond number4 ,later religions had transformed for the worse what to the ,egyptians was merely a fable or metaphor1 by which a mystery above the reach of sense was expressed1 or presented to the mind in a sign or symbol4#efc ,sidenote3 ,the finite and the infinite4 ,how ,bruno understood the relation of the finite human soul to the divine mind1 or to the soul of the universe1 it is not easy to determine1 and it is doubtful whether he ever made it clear to himself4 ,men1 as natural beings1 enter into the determinate order of ,nature1 which1 as we have seen1 is the divine power that moves matter to life4 ,this divine power is the soul in all things1 everywhere one mundane spirit1 wholly in the whole and in every part of it1 producing all things in each according to the conditions of matter1 time1 and place4 ,men1 for example1 are not descended from one parent only1 but have come to life in the ordinary course of nature1 in different places and at different times2 hence the difference between the races4#efd ,we have seen that ,bruno also reverts repeatedly to the idea that various men present in their expressions various animal characters1 which are an index to their inward nature1 and at the same time point to a transition from a previous or towards a future state4#efe ,and again it was shown how animals differed from men not necessarily in degree or quality of mind1 but only in the outward organism through which alone the mind could express itself4 ,it is clear then that man should have no higher place than any other animal1 should stand no nearer ,god than they2 yet in a sense he does1 for the human state appears to be the only one from which the soul may raise itself out of the incessant flow of earthly vicissitude1 and enjoy the calm of eternal intellectual union with ,god4#eff ,the soul of any animal 7or plant87 may in time1 however1 take the body of a man1 when this outlet is given to it1 just as that of a man1 should he refuse his opportunity1 may sink back1 and indeed must sink back1 to the animal state1 in the never-ceasing cycle of change4 ,but what precisely is this soul that passes from one body to another1 perhaps from one star to another8 ,in one passage we read that as in corporeal matter the body of the ass does not differ from that of the man1 so in spiritual matter the soul of the ass remains the same as that of the man2 the soul of either is not different from that which is in all things1 i4e4 the soul of the universe4#efg ,we should then have to assume that it is matter1 not the form or soul1 that differentiates individuals4 ,according to the differences of the organised bodies are the souls that are in them2 or1 it is one and the same soul which constitutes the vital and cognitive principle in different animal bodies1 and in different worlds or stars4 ,the individual human and animal souls would be merely modes of the one earth-soul1 just as the different star-souls would be merely modes of the one soul of the universe1 the first and highest emanation of divinity4 ,the immortality of the individual soul would mean accordingly its reabsorption1 at the close of its bodily life1 into the eternal2 but it would be impossible then to ascribe any continuity or identity to the souls of two beings which succeed each other in nature4 ,this impersonal immortality is that which is most prominent in the ,italian dialogues2 it gives place1 so far as prominence is concerned1 to quite another standpoint in the later ,latin works4 ,thus we find in the ,causa the comparison of the presence of the spiritual in matter to that of a voice in a room3 it is wholly in the room and in every part of the room1 yet it is only one utterance that is so heard in the different parts4#efh ,it might be added that the different degrees of perfection or of divinity in different things would correspond exactly with the differences in the intensity1 vividness1 of the sound in nearer and more distant parts of the room4 ,as matter itself is ultimately one with spirit1#efi the outcome of this theory is an extreme ,pantheism2 especially as in the ,causa the transcendent ,unity1 elsewhere distinguished from the soul of the universe1 is disregarded4 ,divinity constitutes both existence and essence of all things1 and all things are ultimately one--,god1 in whom individual beings have their reality1 and in whom each is one with all other beings4 ,we have not to look for divinity at a distance from us1 for we have it with us1 more truly intimate to us than we are to ourselves2 and so with all other finite things4#egj ,it has been shown also that death from this standpoint is merely the dissolution of a composite thing into its immortal elements1 spirit and matter2#ega death is a change of accidents to the substance 7i4e4 of qualities1 conditions71 never a change of substance itself4#egb ,not only we1 but all other substances1 spiritual and corporeal alike1 are beyond reach of death2 but as all substances are ultimately one1 this does not mean a peculiar1 personal immortality for each of us as separate beings4 ,sidenote3 ,optimism4 ,it follows also from this aspect of ,bruno's philosophy1 that as all things are divine1 so all are good4 ,the forms of all living things--men1 animals1 metals1 even those of deformed creatures--are beautiful and perfect in heaven 7i4e4 sub specie aeternitatis74#egc ,all things being subordinated to the will of the best1 everything is good1 and tends towards good2 the contrary is only apparent when we refuse to look beyond the present1 as the beauty of a building is not manifest to one who sees only a part of it1 a stone1 a piece of cement1 a partition wall1 but is clearest to one who can see the whole1 and is able to compare part with part4#egd ,sidenote3 ,the worth of the finite individual4 ,but there is another aspect of ,bruno's theory of the relation of the finite individual soul to the universal spirit1 according to which every finite thing has an infinite worth from the very fact of its existence as a member1 or part of the universe4 ,it is in this phase1 later in time than the other1 but never completely dissociated from it1 that the real contribution of ,bruno to the history of philosophy appears4 ,it is foreshadowed in the ,heroici ,furori1#ege where the pursuit of an infinite object by a finite intelligence is justified from the infinite potentiality of the latter1 as eternal and unlimited in its capacity for delight and blessedness4 ,the infinite desire is itself a pledge of its fulfilment in an eternal life4#egf ,the individual1 finite as it is1 must realise in itself the whole nature of the universe to which it belongs2 each thing1 each substance or monad1 realises in the course of its life all other possible existences4 ,each takes on successively all possible forms1 just as at every moment all possible forms are actually realised in the universe as a whole4 ,each thing1 and every part of each1 present to us the similitude1 the image of the universe4 ,it is precisely the thought which afterwards loomed so largely in the philosophy of ,leibniz1 that each monad is a mirror of the universe4 ,the transmigration of the earlier philosophy appears in a far nobler light in this phase4 ,the soul of man does not change in itself as it passes through its innumerable forms2 now it is endowed with the instruments or members of the human body2 anon it will take up the members of another body2 for the soul which has now the bodily organs of a horse there await the bodily members of a man and of all other kinds of being1 in regular series1 or in confused order2 the death of the present members has no bearing upon the future life and its innumerable forms4 ,the soul would not suffer if this were known to it2 the wise soul does not fear death1 sometimes desires it1 and goes to meet it4 ,before every substance lies eternity for duration1 immensity for place1 omniformity for realisation4#egg ,the soul is not limited to the earth alone1 but has the infinite worlds before it1 for its dwelling-place4 ,it is owing to this individual 7indivisible1 therefore unchanging7 substance--the soul--that we are what we are2 about it as a centre there occur in each life continuous massing and unmassing of corporeal atoms1 through which the changes of form are brought about4 ,by birth and growth the spirit-architect expands into this mass of which we consist1 spreading outwards from the heart4 ,thither again it withdraws1 winding up the threads of its web1 retiring by the same path along which it advanced1 passing out by the same gate through which it entered4 ,birth is expansion of the centre1 life consistency of the sphere1 death contraction to the centre4 ,it is the soul that gathers about it1 groups and vivifies the atom-mass2 and the strongest argument for its immortality is that it cannot be of less value1 of inferior condition1 than the atoms themselves of which it avails itself to its own ends1 and which are in their nature imperishable4#egh ,each soul exists apart in its own unity and individuality2 the soul of the universe does not impart anything of itself to the souls of its members4#egi ,the hierarchy of souls is not a scale of beings within beings1 but a multitude of realities1 co-existent to all eternity1 the ,monas ,monadum at their head1 representing perfectly1 completely1 at every moment 7i4e4 timelessly71 the reality of all the others1 yet separable from them4 ,of the others that is higher which knows more perfectly1 and in closer unity--that is1 more adequately--the universe to which it belongs4 ,thus there is the daemon or soul which is wholly in the whole extent of the life of the earth1 by the life of which we live1 and in the being of which we are2 above it is the individual soul or substantial nature which is in the wider extent of the solar system to which the earth belongs2 above it again the soul of the whole system of the universe2 and highest of all the mind of minds--,god1 the one spirit filling all things wholly4#ehj ,so in the ,lampas the ,intellectus primus is said to be separable from particular finite intelligences4 ,it does not belong to their substance3 it works in them1 but not as a part of them4 ,it does not gradually leave the being to which it has presented itself when that begins to decay1 but simply ceases to operate1 just as it comes also suddenly to each1 if at all4#eha ,it follows that each of the lower monads is so far imperfect that it is never at any one time all that it has the possibility of being2 the eternal essence of humanity1 for example1 the truth of humanity1 its ideal1 is realised not in any one individual1 but only in the species as a whole1#ehb and this is true of the perfection of every other species4 ,but ,bruno's optimism surmounts this difficulty4 ,the evil1 the imperfection1 is so only to the individual1 and in that particular phase of its life4 ,each thing has a double tendency and a double striving--to remain in the state in which it is1 and to press beyond that to realise new forms4 ,but each thing has in itself the nature of the whole--is therefore in its inmost nature perfect4 ,it is imperfect only in its explicit nature--on its outward side4 ,the striving after new life is due to the felt conflict1 or want of harmony1 between what it has in it to become--its inner self--and what it has actually become1 the limited form in which it appears4 ,on the one hand evil is necessary for good1 for were the imperfections not felt1 there would be no striving after perfection2 all defect and sin consist merely in privation1 in the non-realisation of possible qualities4 ,it would not be well were evil non-existent1 for it makes for the necessity of good1 since if evil were removed the desire of good would also cease4#ehc ,in its whole life1 however1 the soul will realise all good1 and therefore is only per accidens imperfect4 ,on the other hand1 however mean in itself at any moment1 it is a necessary part of the whole1 and therefore1 relatively to the whole it is good4 ,if we look to the order of the universe it will appear that every action and effect is good by way of necessity1 for even the things which appear the most trifling and sordid are parts of greater and more noble things1 as the formless are parts of the formed1 the least are necessary elements of the great1 the great of the greatest2 and as the less cannot subsist without the least1 so neither can the greatest without the great4 ,all beings1 therefore1 of whatsoever nature1 are good1 if they are rightly considered1 not less good than greater things1 if we take into account the fact that the goodness of the whole depends on the goodness of its parts4#ehd ,every part1 every individual in the universe1 differs from every other2 each has its own inalienable individuality by which it stands out from all others and is itself4 ,so far was this principle carried by ,bruno that1 as we have seen1 he denied that any body could ever occupy the same place twice2 the planets moved not in circles or regular paths1 but ever in spiral course1 so that at each moment their places were other than at any prior or later moment4 ,no two circles1 no two lines in nature1 were ever exactly equal2 hence there was never a perfect circle nor a perfectly straight line4 ,the principle is not at all an epistemological one4 ,it does not mean that we could not distinguish between two precisely equal things1 but that two such things could not exist1 not even in the minutest forms of nature1 since the infinite variety of the infinite all must reflect at every moment the infinite1 eternally realised1 thought of the ,one ,mind4 ,sidenote3 ,god in nature4 ,there are accordingly three aspects of ,god in ,bruno's philosophy--three different standpoints from which ,he may be approached4 ,the first is that of natural religion--,god in ,nature4 ,nature is the omniform image of the omniform ,god--,his great living semblance 7simulacrum74#ehe ,its order reveals the mind from which it springs--the stars declare the glory of the majesty of ,god and the works of ,his hands4 ,thence we are uplifted to the infinite cause of the infinite effect4#ehf ,nature is ,god in things1#ehg ,his infinite mirror1 the explicate1 unfolded1 extended1 immeasurable world1 and ,he is implicitly everywhere in the whole4#ehh ,there is1 however1 no argument from the world to ,god's existence4 ,from the first the infinite power and goodness are assumed1 and the universe1 in ,bruno's thought1 is simply a broad general revelation of what each one of us may find in himself4#ehi ,sidenote3 ,god in us4 ,the form which the cosmological argument takes in ,bruno is that as individual things1 taken singly1 must be referred each to a finite principle and cause1 a finite effect implying a finite power2 so from the point of view of the universe of things1 the innumerable individuals in immeasurable space must be referred to an infinite first cause4 ,but to our thought the universe is only an inciting cause2 we cannot know ,god or anything of ,god's nature from it further than an architect or sculptor can be known from one or all of his works4 ,the beauty and majesty of external nature leads us to aspire to ,god1 its source2 but a nearer spring of knowledge is in ourselves4 ,we are led to regard divinity not as without us1 separate or distant from us1 but as within ourselves 7since it is everywhere wholly71 for it is more intimate to us than we can be to ourselves1 since it is the substantiating and most essential centre of all essences and of all being4#eij ,it is from these two aspects of his philosophy1 the identifying of nature with ,god1 and the identifying of the true being of each of us with ,god1 that ,bruno has been described as a ,pantheist4 ,so far1 however1 as this term implies the identity of the individual things with each other1 the conception that all things are one1 not in the sense of forming a unity of differents1 but in the sense of an indifference or uniformity of all1 the term ,pantheism would give a very false impression of ,bruno's religious belief4 ,it is neither the ,pantheism which reduces all to a lifeless one1 in which all differences are merged1 nor that which breaks up the one into a many in which all differences are lost2 but the ,pantheism of a living1 self-manifesting ,one1 which is throughout eternity unfolding itself in the diverse units of the world--a pantheism not different from that of any of the higher religions4 ,sidenote3 ,god in ,himself4 ,neither in nature1 however1 nor in ourselves1 in the soul of man1 is the whole being of ,god to be found4 ,could we indeed see the substance1 the truth of ourselves1 could our eye in seeing itself see all things1 as the eye of ,god in seeing other things sees itself1--then it would be possible to understand all things and to create all things1 for we should then in reality be ,god4 ,we never penetrate to the deep-lying individual in ourselves1 but see only the accidents1 the externals2 as we never see our own eye1 but only its reflection from a mirror1 so our intellect cannot see itself in itself1 nor anything else in itself1 but always some external form1 semblance1 image1 figure1 sign4#eia ,the truth of things--,god--everywhere eludes our sense and our reason1 our discursive intelligence4 ,it is revealed1 as we have seen1 only to our intuitive1 comprehensive glance--a sudden insight for which reason only prepares the way4 ,yet even this insight1 comprehension1 is not comprehending4 ,we are brought1 perhaps1 through it into contact and into harmony with ,him1 but ,he is never1 even to intuition1 knowable4 ,to be known would mean to be comprehended1 limited1 and therefore finite4 ,first1 then1 ,god1 the ,monad1 or ,mind1 is the true1 innermost nature of things2 in themselves things are in motion1 in matter1 dependent1 defective1 are rather non-entia than entia1 for as from not-being they become1 so from being they may cease to be2 hence they truly exist only where they cannot cease to be1 i4e4 in the first cause and unfailing principle1 which has power to bring them forth when it will4 ,therefore they are more truly in the ,monad itself1 and consequently are more truly known in it1 in simplicity and togetherness1 where all things are one in an ineffable sense1 without distinction1 distribution1 or number4#eib ,god is the source of the determinations1 the forms of all things4 ,the first measure is ,mind itself3 for all measure receives its denomination from mind#eic 7mensura1 mens74 ,one is mind1 everywhere wholly1 giving measure to all things2 one intellect1 giving order to all things2 one love1 producing harmony between all things4#eid ,the first section of the ,praxis ,descensus sums up the relation1 the meaning of creation1 thus3#eie--;,god is the universal substance1 being1 by which all things are2 essence1 the soul of all essence1 by which whatever is1 is2 more intimate in every being than its form or its nature2 for as nature is the ground of the being of each thing1 so the deeper ground of the nature of each thing is ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,theism4 ,in the second place1 the order and life of things has its source in ,god1 as the ,monas ordinatrix2 the whole order of nature1 both as it is simultaneously1 as it has been1 and as it shall be1 lies complicitly1 grasped in one thought1 and realised in one act1 in his ,mind4 ,what immutable substance wills1 it wills immutably1 i4e4 it wills necessarily1 not as determined by an alien will1 which enforces the necessity1 but of its own will2 this necessity is far from being contrary to liberty2 liberty itself1 will1 and necessity are one and the same 7in ,god74#eif ,divine necessity differs from natural causation1 the sequence of causes and effects1 in that in nature the causes1 will1 and knowledge may be frustrated1 the effect averted2 but divine necessity is necessity in all respects--to will1 to know1 to act1 are one4 ,in the third place1 ,god is above and beyond both natural things and their order in the universe as a whole4 ,in the later works1 it is no longer as a mystical being--inaccessible1 because wholly abstract1 empty of content1 the sublimated unity of things--that ,god is posited4 ,the ,neoplatonism of the earlier works1 although remaining in the language and even in much of the thoughts of the later1 has been overcome in fact4#eig ,god is indeed transcendent1 beyond the world1 but ,he is so only as comprehending the world in ,himself1 its source1 its truth--yet more than the source of things or of their order4 ,in all other things we may distinguish between existence and essence 7i4e4 the fact of their being1 their historical presence in the world1 and their nature1 through which they are what they are72 in ,god alone these are one or indistinguishable4#eih ,god and things differ by a greater difference than substance and accident--i4e4 things are not accidents1 or modes of ,god4 ,they differ from one another by their special differentiae1 but resemble in other respects4 ,god differs1 not as marked off1 limited by them1 but as containing them all in essence1 presence1 power and eternity4#eii ,he is not apart from things1 but in them2 in them not as comprehended or contained by them1 but as comprehending and containing them1 and as the essential basis of all things1 the centre of the universal life and substance4#fjj ,he is all things in all1 because ,he gives existence to all2 ,he is none of them1 because above all1 transcending each and all in essence1 nobility and power4#fja ,he comprises all things1 not as excluded and1 as it were1 looking upon them from apart and from above1 for ,he is also comprised by all things4 ,he is comprised also not as included1 contained1 repressed within alien limits1 for ,he also comprises all things4 ,he is therefore within all things1 as ,he who gives essence to all things2 and is the basis of all being1 the heart and source of all life4 ,he comprises all things1 as excelling them1 governing1 moving1 disposing1 limiting--,himself unlimited4#fjb ,hence1 also1 as we saw1 ,he is nameless2 names are for distinguishing1 defining1 separating from other things1 but ,he is above all difference1 otherness1 diversity1 multitude#fjc2 or again1 all names1 all predicates1 attributes1 are equally true of ,him1 because ,he comprises all in ,himself4 ,it is in this sense that ,he is ,monad of ,monads1 entity of entities1 in whom are all things1 who is in none1 not even in ,himself1 because ,he is indivisible1 and is simplicity itself4#fjd ,bruno's philosophical religion is in the end a theism1 but theism of a purely intellectual or rationalist type4 ,the natural world is after all nothing over against ,god who subsists in absolute simplicity--as ,mind2 in absolute immobility1 changelessness--as ,intellect 7the ,world of ,ideas72 in absolute perfection1 self-sufficiency1 and self-satisfaction--as ,love1 or ,holy ,spirit4 ,over against this self-contained ,trinity1 the changing and passing world is a non-ens3 as it changes not1 neither can it know change3 to know change would be a change in itself--its knowledge is as immutable1 as simple as itself4 ,although we see things come into being that before were not1 and the world itself1 as is believed1 was produced out of nothing--a new thing1 yet from this change and novelty of effects1 no change in ,his action or power can be inferred1 for ,he exists above all motion and all vicissitude1 an unchanging agent in eternity2 not as artificers1 or material principles1 moved by changing dispositions to new willing1 new faculty1 new effects1 but from the instant of eternity1 above time and above change1 ,he creates all that which becomes in time1 in change1 in motion1 in vicissitude4 ,before and above time and motion there is not always time and motion1 but there we find divinity1 immutable and invariable4 ,he has from eternity willed that to be which now is4 ,there liberty makes necessity1 necessity attests liberty4#fje ,past is not past to it 7the ,first ,intelligence71 nor future future1 but the whole of eternity is present to it as one whole1 all together1 in its completeness4#fjf ,seldom1 even in recent idealist philosophy1 has the ,world of ,ideas maintained its hold so powerfully over a mind whose whole trend was towards a naturalistic interpretation of things4 ,the religious instinct dominates to the last ,bruno's thought2 these passages are from the very latest of his works4 ,each and all of his speculations on nature1 on its elements1 its individuals1 its general laws1 bring him back to the all-embracing ,mind1 in which nature has its source1 but which nature by no means exhausts4 ,so his speculations on the nature of man1 on the moral life1 on the inspiration of the artist and of the generous human soul1 the hunter after truth1 point again to a thought1 a world above nature1 revealed neither capriciously nor yet to the natural faculties of the seeker1 but to a divinely implanted power of intuitive insight4 ,it was an attempt1 more consistent perhaps and more thorough than any other has been1 to combine the independence and freedom and worth of individual souls1 of the finite many1 in one thought with the absolute unity1 necessity1 eternity of ,god4 ,and this1 after all1 is the one aim philosophy has to achieve4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,bruno ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,perhaps no philosopher of equal originality and strength has had so little apparent influence upon contemporary or later thought as ,bruno4 ,his name hardly occurs in any of the writers of his own or the following century2 when it does occur1 it is mentioned only that the author may make sufficiently clear the discrepancy between the actual or reputed views of ,bruno and those of himself4 ,yet it is easy to underestimate the influence his writings and his personality exercised2 neither in ,france1 in ,england1 nor in ,germany could his prolonged stay have failed to rouse1 in some at least of his hearers1 sympathy with his lofty conception of the universe and of man's destiny2 through them ,bruno's books must have passed into the hands of many philosophers1 both before and after they were placed upon the ,index ,expurgatorius in #afjc4 ,a natural consequence of this public ban would be that ,bruno was no longer quoted or referred to as an authority2 but all thinkers of sceptical or liberal tendency would at least be eager to read his works when the opportunity offered itself4 ,owing to the great scarcity of the copies and their increasing costliness1 this would become a chance less and less frequent as time went on4 ,even so1 however1 one may trace how his ideas filtered through many minds and helped to determine the course of modern philosophy1 of which ,bruno has as high claims as either ,bacon or ,descartes to be named the founder4 ,sidenote3 ,antidicsonus4 ,sidenote3 ,thomas ,watson4 ,in ,english writers the only contemporary notices of ,bruno which have been found are in two small works on mnemonics1--one by a professed opponent of ,bruno's friend1 ,alexander ,dicson1 the other by the poet ,thomas ,watson4 ,the former1 the ,anti-dicsonus of a certain ,cambridge scholar1 ,g4 ,p41 of date #aehd1 was dedicated to ,thomas ,moffat or ,moufet1 a well-known philosopher and doctor of medicine1 from whom support was hoped against the ,dicson ,school4 ,of this school ,bruno1 who was then in ,england1 must have been regarded as a member4 ,the author is a follower of ,ramus1 and ridicules the art of memory which consists in locis et umbris and its self-parading memoriographs1 such as ,metrodorus1 ,rosselius1 the ,nolan1 and ,dicson2 these are the reefs and whirlpools in which the purer science of memory would have been wholly destroyed1 had she not clung to her faith in the ,rameans as a pillar of refuge4 ,it is an interesting note1 for it shows that ,bruno's antipathy to ,ramus was returned by ,ramus' followers1--an antipathy so difficult to understand when we remember that both were reformers in philosophy1 and that both zealously attacked ,aristotle4 ,the work against which ,g4 ,p4 writes is ,alexander ,dicson's ,de ,umbra rationis et iudicii1 sive de memoriae virtute ,prosopopoeia1 dedicated to the ,earl of ,leicester 7#aehc74 ,there can be no doubt that it is based upon ,bruno's ,de ,umbris ,idearum 7#aehb71 with which it agrees both in substance and in metaphysical basis4 ,dicson1 as already pointed out1 was one of ,bruno's mouthpieces in an ,italian dialogue4 ,here at least is an avenue for influence from ,bruno upon ,english thought4 ,unfortunately ,dicson's work is not of great value1 and1 with the man himself1 has long been forgotten4 ,but ,g4 ,p4's reliance upon ,moffat's support to repel the attacks of ,scepsius1#fjg and the wrath and violence towards me of the whole school of ,dicson1 shows that on the side1 at any rate1 of his mnemonic doctrine ,bruno's teaching had not fallen on wholly barren soil4 ,again1 he is spoken of with respect1 if not quite with admiration1 in ,thomas ,watson's dedication of his ,compendium ,memoriae ,localis 7n4 d41 but probably #aehe7 to ,henry ,nol1 ,queen ,elizabeth's courtier4 ,i very much fear if my little work 7nugae meae7 is compared with the mystical and deeply learned ,sigilli of the ,nolan1 or with the ,umbra artificiosa of ,dicson1 it may bring more infamy to its author than utility to the reader4 ,the scholarly poet1 terse and brilliant ,latinist1 could hardly have felt in harmony with the passionate but confused thought1 the virile but unscholarly style of ,bruno2 yet the art of memory he professes in this compendium is no other than that of ,bruno and of ,dicson1 and the ,memoriographs1 whom ,g4 ,p4 attacks4 ,sidenote3 ,bacon4 ,if we turn to ,bacon1 who was in ,london while ,bruno was with ,mauvissire1 already in high favour with the ,queen1 and at home in the society of ,burghley1 ,leicester1 ,walsingham1 and ,sidney1 we find entire neglect of ,bruno's philosophy4 ,only in one passage1 perhaps1 does ,bacon mention ,bruno's name2 it is in the introduction to the ,historia ,naturalis et ,experimentalis4#fjh ,after a list of the philosophers of ,greece1 and the remark that all these made up at their pleasure feigned accounts 7or plots7 of worlds1 as of fables1 and recited1 published these fables of theirs--some more consistent certainly and probable1 others harder of belief1 he adds that among the moderns1 through the instruction of schools and colleges1 the imagination is kept within stricter bounds1 yet men have not ceased imagining4 ,patrizzi1 ,talesio1 ,bruno1 ,severin of ,denmark1 ,gilbert of ,england1 ,campanella1 have tried the stage1 acted new plays which were neither marked by applauding favour of the public1 nor by brilliancy of plot4 ,the names are those of men with whom it is no shame for ,bruno to stand side by side2 and one and all are instances of ,bacon's incapacity for grasping the true direction in which the thought of his time was flowing2 but the mere mention of ,bruno in such a context implies that his works were still read1 and that they were estimated at a high value by the lovers of philosophy4 ,there are1 however1 many points of contact between ,bacon and ,bruno1 suggesting an influence1 indirect if not direct1 of the latter upon the former4 ,bacon was perfectly at home in ,italian literature1 and it is unlikely that he omitted to read ,bruno's dialogues4 ,two casual but significant proofs that he did so are1 the legend related of ,mount ,athos and of ,olympus1 that men had written in the ashes of the sacrifices offered upon their summits1 and had returned the following year to find the ashes and the writing undisturbed1 the inference being that the summits of these mountains were in a region of perpetual calm2#fji and the suggestion that the movements of the heavenly bodies may be in spiral lines instead of in perfect circles4#faj ,the latter especially is a characteristic thought of ,bruno4 ,bacon1 like ,bruno1 was a believer in a purified natural magic1 the handmaid of metaphysics1 because of its broad ways and wider dominion over nature4#faa ,they are united in their admiration for the ,book of ,job as a compendium of natural philosophy4 ,bacon writes that if we take that small book of ,job and diligently work through it1 we shall find it full1 and1 as it were1 pregnant with the mysteries of natural philosophy4#fab ,both recur with conviction to the saying of ,solomon that there is nothing new under the sun4 ,as to novelty1 there is no one who has thoroughly imbibed letters and philosophy1 but has had it impressed on his heart that there is nothing new upon the earth4#fac ,deeper harmonies1 if not more suggestive1 exist between the two reformers of philosophy than these4 ,one is the argument against authority1 against general agreement1 against antiquity of belief1 as grounds or reasons for belief1 and the special application of this argument to undermine the hold of the ,aristotelian philosophy upon the minds of men4 ,it is the old age of the world and the fulness of years that are to be regarded as its true antiquity4 ,for that age1 with respect to us ancient and older1 with respect to the world itself was new and younger4 ,as we expect greater knowledge and maturer judgment from an old man than from a young1 so from our own age we should expect 7if it knew its strength1 and were willing to make trial and to put it forth7 far greater things than from old times1 etc4#fad ,so faith and religion are to be kept apart from investigation1 science1 or philosophy1 although the latter does not on that account carry us away from ,god2 the one shows the will1 the other 7natural philosophy7 the power of ,god4#fae ,to faith are to be given the things that are of faith1 to philosophy the things that are of philosophy4#faf ,it was on the same ground also--the use of other than natural principles to explain natural phenomena--that both ,bruno and ,bacon condemned the physical works of ,aristotle4 ,he corrupted natural philosophy with his dialectics--gave the human soul1 the noblest of substances1 a genus from words of second intention2 settled the business of the dense and the rare1 through which bodies occupy greater or less dimensions or spaces1 by the feigned distinction between act and potency2 asserted a unique and proper movement of each body1 being more concerned for an answer one might make in a discussion and to have something positive in words1 than for the inward truth of things1 as is best shown by a comparison of his philosophy with the others celebrated among the ,greeks4 ,and ,bacon1 like ,bruno and other innovators of the day1 goes back to ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus and ,democritus1 ,parmenides1 ,empedocles1 ,heraclitus1 whose principles have something of natural philosophy1 and savour of the nature of things--experience1 bodily existence1 whereas the physics of ,aristotle1 for the most part1 sound of nothing but dialectical terms4#fag ,sidenote3 ,method4 ,sidenote3 ,omnia animata4 ,the false straining after simplicity of explanation1 the tendency to seek for similarities rather than differences1 to expect order on the surface rather than at the root of things1 is condemned as vigorously by ,bruno as by ,bacon1 although not placed in the forefront of the theory of method1 as it is by the latter writer4 ,one of the ,idols of the ,tribe was--the tendency to suppose greater order and equality in things than is actually to be found2 although in nature many things are monodica 7i4e4 monadica1 unique71 and full of imparity1 yet the mind feigns parallels1 correspondences1 relations which are not4 ,hence the erroneous idea1 e4g4 that 'in the heavens all things move in perfect circles1' rejecting utterly spiral lines and dracones 7except for the name73 hence the element of fire and its sphere were introduced to constitute a quaternio with the other three that were actually perceived by sense1 etc4#fah ,these things were condemned also1 and for the same reason1 by ,bruno1 who1 however1 went further1 and insisted on the uniqueness of every individual existence in the universe4 ,again ,bacon retained 7without1 however1 giving it a place in his philosophy7 the scholastic distinction between divine or angelic1 intuitive1 knowledge1 and the acquired piecemeal knowledge of man4 ,god1 the inditer and worker of forms1 and perhaps angels and 7higher7 intelligences1 know forms immediately by affirmation1 and from the beginning of their contemplation4 ,but that is certainly above men to whom it is conceded only to advance in the beginning by negatives1 to come to rest in the last place only1 in affirmatives1 after exclusion of every kind4#fai ,in ,bruno the same distinction is drawn1 but it is made also within human knowledge1 the intuitive knowledge of the heroic mind being the same in kind as that of the higher intelligences1 and only different from that of ,god in that it does not create what it intuits4 ,so the scholastic distinction of natura naturans as the form or immanent principle of things1 and natura naturata as the sum of things actually existing1 the outward expression in matter of the activity of the form--a distinction which1 in ,bruno1 is transcended by the identification of one with the other1 as two aspects of a higher unity--also reappears in ,bacon's theory of form4 ,however different the form of ,bacon may have seemed to himself from the scholastic form1 it is still the immanent cause of the properties of the body to which it belongs1 or in which it adheres1 and as such is actually named by ,bacon the natura naturans4#fbj ,so with ,bacon1 as with ,bruno1 ,campanella1 and ,telesius1 all things are endowed with life1 with sensation1 with soul1 which is the inward principle of their external movements4 ,he ridiculed ,gilbert1 who first suggested a scientific explanation of magnetism and electricity1 and put forward on his own account as a theory of electrical attraction that friction excites the appetite of bodies for contact1 which appetite does not like air much1 but prefers something else which is tangible4 ,the phenomena of chemical affinity and the like were also explained1 precisely as ,campanella or ,cardan would account for them1 by the delight in mutual contact1 i4e4 by an inherent sensibility1 and desire or striving of like towards like4#fba ,in both ,bacon and ,bruno1 also1 this universal animism is combined with an atomistic theory of mechanical nature1 and with the belief that no physical phenomenon is understood until it can be expressed in mathematical terms3 the more our inquiry inclines to simple natures1 the plainer and clearer shall things become2 for we shall have to deal with the simple instead of the manifold1 the computable instead of the surd1 the definite and certain instead of the vague1--as in the elements of letters1 and the notes of harmonies1 and an inquiry is best conducted when the physical is defined by the mathematical4#fbb ,the last result of analysis is not1 with either ,bacon or ,bruno1 the atom of the ,epicurean physics1 viz4 an immutable substance floating in empty space2 but ,bacon's particulae verae are much more confusedly thought out than the ,italian's theory--of a subtle ethereal matter diffused throughout the universe1 and of the denser atoms which are in constant motion within it4 ,there is1 however1 the same perpetual flux and reflux in matter with ,bacon as with ,bruno4#fbc ,in the last resort1 ,bacon took refuge in a hope of future explanation--always1 however1 by simple1 positive1 computable factors--regarding atoms and void1 as on a par with materia prima1 human abstractions1 entirely unfruitful1 not light-bringing anticipations of nature4 ,in regard to the relation between the human understanding and nature1 both had absolute convictions of the power of the former1 directed by the rules of experience and limited by the data of sensation1 to comprehend the latter2 but while ,bruno saw in the negative limits of the understanding a positive hint of a reality beyond1 the more careful ,bacon saw only a further ground for falling back from reason upon faith4 ,thus the incapacity of the mind to rest in any finite space1 without thinking of a space beyond that and beyond1 or of imagining a body than which none could be greater1 was proof to ,bruno that space itself was infinite1 and that body or matter was immeasurable1 i4e4 infinite in extent and in quantity4 ,bacon also makes use of this impossibility in the human intellect of resting1 acquiescing1 at any point as a finality4 ,it must ever pass beyond--but it is in vain4 ,thus it is unthinkable that there should be any extreme or outermost rim to the world1 our mind always of necessity thinks there may be something beyond3 nor can we think how eternity could have flowed down to this day3 the distinction between an infinity a parte ante and an infinity a parte post cannot be maintained1 for it would follow that one infinite is greater than another1 and that an infinite is used up1 and declines into a finite4 ,similar is the subtlety about lines always divisible 7however small parts we take71 from the impotency of thought4#fbd ,but the conclusion drawn is simply the positivist one1 that such endless questioning after the unknowable is profitless and absurd4 ,the one sees in it a metaphysical or cosmological argument--infinite capacity for knowing implies an infinite to be known1 as infinite or endless desire implies an infinite or limitless good3 the other a methodological argument against attempting to fly when we are born to creep4 ,in two other cases ,bacon rejected the work of ,bruno1 and rightly1 viz4 in regard to the ,art of ,lully1 and the ,art of ,memory2 and it is possible that he may have had ,bruno in his mind in writing both passages4 ,some men1 rather ostentatious than learned1 have laboured about a certain method not deserving the name of a true method1 as being rather a kind of imposture1 which may nevertheless have proved acceptable to some triflers4 ,such was the ,art of ,lully1 simply a massed collection of technical terms4 ,this kind of collection resembles an old broker's shop1 where many fragments of things are to be found1 but nothing of any value4#fbe ,again1 there exists certainly some kind of art 7of memory71 but we are convinced that better precepts for confirming and extending the memory might be laid down than are contained in this art1 and also that the practice of the art might be made better than as it has been received4 ,as now managed1 it is but barren and useless4#fbf ,sidenote3 ,kepler4 ,on the ,continent it was rather the cosmological theories of ,bruno that attracted attention2 and there1 no less than in ,england1 every suspicion of sympathy with the heretic was avoided4 ,only ,kepler had the courage to complain 7as a letter of ,martin ,hasdal to ,galilei tells7 that ,galilei had omitted to make praiseful mention of ,bruno in his ,nuntius ,sidereus4#fbg ,galilei1 a thorough diplomatist1 would hardly have gone so far3#fbh yet in the metaphysical basis of his theory of the universe1 and in his theory of knowledge1 he only elaborates ideas already suggested by ,bruno4#fbi ,but ,kepler1 fearless before men1 shrank from the thought of the infinite world in which ,bruno found a glorious freedom for the play of his mind4 ,kepler could not1 and did not1 give up his enclosing sphere of fixed stars1 shutting in the solar system as comfortably as the orange-skin its seeds1 not accepting the giddy hypothesis of ,bruno that each of the stars is itself a sun1 with a solar system of its own1 and that beyond and beyond1 in endless series1 are other suns and other worlds4#fcj ,even ,vanini the unfortunate1 if light-headed1 sceptic1 who in #afai1 at ,toulouse1 met with a fate similar to that of ,bruno1 but more horrible1 mentions the latter only by indication in his earlier work1--the ,amphitheatre of the ,eternal ,providence 7p4 #cei7--,nonnulli semiphilosophi novi have said that beyond the last sphere of the heavens there is an infinite created universe1 as if from ,god no finite action could proceed4#fca ,sidenote3 ,descartes4 ,of the philosophers who represent the main line of development of modern thought on the ,continent in the seventeenth century1--,descartes1 ,gassendi1 ,spinoza1 ,leibniz1--there is not one who has not been accused of having borrowed his chief doctrines1 without acknowledgment1 from the ,italian philosopher4 ,bishop ,huet#fcb described ,bruno as the antesignanus of the ,cartesian philosophy1 and pointed to the ,de ,immenso et innumerabilibus as containing indications of almost all its ideas4 ,the charge is of course absurd so far as ,descartes' characteristic philosophy is concerned--the ideas by which he created a revolution in modern thought4 ,bruno indeed begged men to throw over all prejudices1 all traditional beliefs1 before entering upon the study of nature3 he agreed with ,descartes therefore in rejecting wholly every authority but that of man's own reason1 in demanding complete freedom of thought1 not only from outward1 but also from inward1 subjective fetters4 ,most nearly he approaches the ,cartesian doubt in the preface to the ,articuli adv4 ,mathematicos4#fcc ,as to the liberal arts1 so far from me is the custom or institution of believing masters or parents1 or even the common sense which 7by its own account7 often and in many ways is proved to deceive us and lead us astray1 that ,i never settle anything in philosophy rashly or without reason2 but what is thought perfectly certain and evident1 whenever and wherever it has been brought into controversy1 is as doubtful to me as things that are thought too difficult of belief1 or too absurd4 ,but this is still very far from the universal doubt of ,descartes1--doubt1 not of this or that particular opinion or belief1 but of all possible beliefs4 ,bruno's aim was knowledge1 to add to or correct the sum of general opinion as to the world as a whole1 as to man's relation to it and to ,god2 ,descartes' was certainty1 to find a basis from which a system of thought might be built up de novo1 and from which at the same time a secure ground for morality and religion might be derived4 ,the doubt was nothing without the certainty to which it led1--the certainty of self-consciousness1--which1 as it has been said1 is only the other side1 the positive expression of the universal doubt itself4 ,on the other hand1 in the subsequent steps of the ,cartesian philosophy1--the arguments on the nature of ,god1 and the relation of the infinite to the finite substances1--many touches suggest the influence of ,bruno's comprehensive attempt to combine a philosophical pantheism with a scientific atomism4 ,it is unlikely that ,descartes should have been ignorant of a writer well known to ,mersenne and ,huet4 ,the former#fcd would have excused ,bruno had he been content to philosophise upon a point1 an atom1 or on unity1--but because he attacked the ,christian religion1 it is reasonable to decry him as one of the most wicked men the earth has ever produced6 ,certainly the fact that ,descartes nowhere mentions the guilty philosopher is of no importance in deciding as to the influence of the latter upon him4#fce ,sidenote3 ,gassendi #aeib-afee4 ,it was only natural that ,gassendi's critics should have placed him in a close relation to the ,nolan4 ,there is no improbability in the idea that ,gassendi was attracted to the latter as an opponent of the ,aristotelian philosophy1 against which he himself had already written in his youth--although no part of the work was published until #afbd4fcf ,both also approached the reform of natural philosophy from the same standpoint1 that of sense-experience1 and both arrived at an atomic theory of the ultimate constitution of nature4 ,bruno1 before ,gassendi1 had attempted to place the ethical teaching of ,epicurus in a fairer light than popular prejudice allowed1 but while ,gassendi followed ,epicurus in his atomism only too strictly1 ,bruno was much more independent1 and advanced much nearer to the modern view4 ,so in his general theory of the system of the world1 ,gassendi stops half-way--with the conception of a limited matter1 but in an endless space1 of a beginning for the world1 but in an endless time1 of a plurality of worlds with the earth as centre of our system3 here also it is ,bruno that is the more advanced1 and the more daring thinker2--yet1 from the respect with which ,gassendi writes of ,copernicus1 it is clear that his sympathies were with the new hypothesis4 ,it may be added that although ,gassendi rejected the notion of a world-soul1 in the ordinary sense1 as distinct from ,god1 and that of souls of the individual worlds1 or of stones1 etc41 yet he too was fain to explain the attraction of the magnet for the iron1 of the earth for the stone1 of atom for atom1 by an influence passing from the one to the other1 by which the one became aware of the other's existence1 and was impelled towards it1 i4e4 by a kind of sense1 or feeling1 a soul1 which was at the same time the principle of movement4 ,sidenote3 ,spinoza4 ,it is1 however1 on the development of ,spinoza's#fcg thought that the most direct influence of ,bruno can be shown4 ,sigwart#fch and ,avenarius#fci have proved that in preparing the short treatise on ,god1 ,man1 and his ,blessedness1 ,spinoza must have had the ,causa and ,infinito of ,bruno almost before his eyes4 ,the treatise consists of several parts which are more or less independent of one another1 and which represent tentative approaches towards the finished ,ethics2 but it differs from the ,ethics in the far greater prominence of the mystical1 ,neoplatonist element4 ,pollock suggests that it may have been his free-thinking teacher ,dr4 ,van den ,ende who introduced ,spinoza to ,bruno's writings3 there is no external evidence of the acquaintanceship1 but that1 it is needless to say1 is of slight importance4 ,spinoza certainly read ,italian1 and he practised in other cases the same neglect of authorities1 of whose substance he was making use3 it was indeed the custom of the time--there were few who followed ,burton's example4 ,there are certain general resemblances between the finished philosophies of the two authors1 so far as ,bruno can be said to have a finished philosophy4 ,the first principle of both is the unity out of which all things spring1 to which all return1 and in which all have their true nature1 or highest reality1--a unity with which both identify nature and spirit alike1 and which is for both ,god4 ,god is accordingly beyond the reach of all human knowledge2 determination is negation1 limit1 by which the infinite is untouched4 ,all attributes in ,god are one only1 or none2 thought is one with extension1 love with intelligence2 yet in strictness ,god is neither thought nor extension1 intelligence nor love1 or he is these in another than our human meaning4 ,so far as this central thought is concerned1 it is ,bruno that is the deeper thinker4 ,in him the ,one is not a dead negation1 in which real things are absorbed to the loss of all their reality and life1 as it is with ,spinoza3 rather it is a living fountain1 gushing forth in the infinite streams of living beings3 the whole of nature is the expression of its own inward being4 ,the ,one is in process2 the whole1 in which this process results1 is a harmony every member of which has its own independent reality and worth1 over against all others1 as a manifestation of divinity4 ,the life of the one is that of its members2 all are necessary to it1 as it to them4 ,carrire#fdj indeed places ,bruno above ,spinoza as having found in the one a self-consciousness1 a subject infinite in that it knows itself and all things in itself1 preserving all things1 as necessary to its external enjoyment and love2 while ,spinoza is still within the bonds of substance--in ,god there is neither understanding nor will1 in ,him all difference vanishes1 the modes are an illusion4 ,so the ,spinozistic parallelism between thought and matter finds its counterpart in ,bruno1 with whom all that is thought1 all that is possible1 is also real1 or actual1 i4e4 has extended or material existence4 ,it is true that this conception is much more precisely expressed in ,spinoza1 with his clean-cut distinction between the world of body and the world of mind or ideas1 to which the possible belongs1 but it was a distinction which he could not consistently uphold2 on the other hand1 the universal animism1 the doctrine that to every material thing or event there corresponds a spiritual reality or process1 which is only the other side of the parallelism of soul and body1 is more clearly and vigorously defended by the earlier philosopher4 ,the natural and the spiritual1 matter and form1 are not two principles1 or elements which combine to produce a given result1 or which harmonise with one another3 they are one and the same thing1 and their truth is their life1 their soul1 their thought4 ,bruno was in earnest with his animism1 as his confident belief in magical correlations showed4#fda ,from their principles both derived a conviction of the necessity#fdb and of the goodness of all things1 but it is ,bruno rather than ,spinoza who attempted to reconcile individual liberty with determinism in the universe as a whole1 and individual moral responsibility with the necessary goodness of the all4 ,the corresponding relativity of evil1 the fallacy of fortune or chance 7as anything but uncertainty of the finite mind71 were already asserted by ,bruno1 and his ideas as to the relation between the religion of the ,church1 or the teaching of the ,bible1 and the investigations of science1 are precisely those which ,spinoza adopts4 ,sidenote3 ,the short tractate4 ,sidenote3 ,ratio4 ,in the ,de ,deo seu ,homine1 however1 the correspondences are much greater and more definite between ,spinoza and ,bruno1 showing that the former passed through a phase of ,neoplatonism1 in which his pantheism was much less formal or abstract than it afterwards became4 ,thus the predicates applied in the ,ethics to ,god are applied here to nature1 as by ,bruno also3--,nature is infinite in the sense of without limits or bounds1 containing no parts in itself1 and therefore not a whole over against other wholes2 there cannot be two infinites1 or boundless worlds4#fdc ,the parallelism between outward nature and the thought or understanding of ,god is also more after ,bruno's mode of expression 7ch4 ii4 #aa1 #ai74 ,neither substance nor qualities can be in the infinite understanding of ,god1 which are not formaliter in nature 7#a7 because of the infinite power of ,god--there is no cause or ground in ,him why ,he should create one thing rather than another1 hence ,he creates all2 7#b7 because of the simplicity of ,his will2 7#c7 because ,he cannot refrain from doing what is good4 ,the thesis1 and the first and third of the arguments by which it is supported1 are all verbally close to ,bruno's argument in the ,infinito and in the ,de ,immenso4 ,so the effort of all finite things after self-conservation1#fdd and their consequent movement1 are explained not mechanically1 through the action of one material thing upon another1 but rather spiritually1 through the unity of nature in which all share4 ,thus even that possibility of an action of thought upon matter 7extension7 is allowed1 which in the ,ethics is1 formally at least1 denied4 ,in the ,tractate also there is more emphasis laid upon the goodness of ,god1 as the source of the infinite world of finite beings1 whereas in the ,ethics a logical1 mechanical necessity takes its place4 ,it is in the second1 more mystical and ethical part1 of the treatise1 however1 that the influence of the ,nolan philosopher is most apparent1 and here it is the ,summa ,terminorum or ,heroici ,furori that seems to have formed the direct or indirect source of many of the conceptions--such1 for example1 as the distinction between ,ratio and ,intellectus4 ,ratio is discursive thought1 building up knowledge by successive steps2 ,intellectus intuitive thought1 direct and simultaneous perception of the whole of the object--the only adequate or complete form of knowledge1 for which reasoning is merely a preparation in us4 ,our knowledge of ,god1 so far as it is possible at all1 is of the second type3 we cannot know ,him as he is1 through ,his effects1 ,his creation3 it is only the few to whom ,he reveals ,himself that can know ,him as ,he is1 by direct contact with ,him4 ,yet this revelation is constantly open to all men2 for each and all ,god is1 always1 intimately present1 more intimately than each is to himself4#fde ,other ideas which ,sigwart has found common to the ,short ,tractate and the writings of ,bruno1 are those of the ,love of ,god as springing from the knowledge of ,god2 the correspondence between the degrees or stages of love and those of knowledge2 the inability of our minds to rest in a finite object or finite good1 the constant pressure onwards towards other and other objects2 the contrast between sensible love and intellectual love2 ,god as the highest1 most complete object1 the knowledge of ,him above and embracing in itself all other knowledge1 making the knower one with his object1 transforming him into ,god himself2 the divine ,harmony in the soul which ensues2 the love of ,god which is man's highest blessedness1 which is wholly disinterested1 and blind to all earthly good or beautiful things2 love which is unlimited in its possibility1 as its object is infinite3 with this limitless possibility of ,love is the idea of immortality connected2 but ,bruno deduces from the immortality of man the possibility of a love which increases infinitely2 while for ,spinoza1 on the contrary1 the infinitely increasing love of ,god is a ground of proof for immortality4#fdf ,when there is added to these many instances of doctrines in ,spinoza's earlier work which were later modified in the direction of greater rigidity and mechanical systematisation1 the fact that the ,tractate embraces two tentative dialogues1 in one of which ,spinoza is represented by a ,theophilus 7as ,bruno in so many of his dialogues is represented71 it is impossible not to feel convinced that ,spinoza for a period of his life at least was a follower of ,bruno4 ,it is true that many of these ideas are not the property of ,bruno alone1 but of the school of ,neoplatonism of which he like ,spinoza was at any rate a partial adherent1 but nowhere else than in ,bruno is to be found the same collocation of these ideas as occur in this tractate of ,spinoza4 ,it is an open question whether the movement of the latter away from the ,italian's philosophy was entirely a progressive1 and not in some respects a retrograde movement4 ,sidenote3 ,leibniz4 ,at first sight it might seem much more natural to connect ,leibniz with ,bruno1 because of the obvious correspondence of many of their fundamental ideas3--their analysis of the universe into a system of independent realities1 each differing from every other--each mirroring the universe in itself from its own individual point of view2 each therefore in a sense containing or comprising the all in itself1 as each is again a necessary constituent of the all4 ,in place of ,spinoza's dead world1 we find in ,leibniz1 as in ,bruno1 finite things in constant flow1 constant change1 each passing necessarily through every phase through which any other has passed--representing the universe as it is in time1 as well as the universe as it is at any moment in actual existence2 each experiencing1 in other words1 the life1 the process1 as well as the quality1 the being of the all4 ,everything that is1 is necessarily1 everything that occurs1 occurs necessarily1 in ,bruno because the whole flows out from the thought of ,god1 as ,god thinks it 7i4e4 in the relations in which it stands in the one all-embracing thought of ,god72 in ,leibniz1 because of the will of ,god1 who in ,his goodness has chosen the best of all ideal systems1 within which each thing or event has its necessary place4 ,in both1 all things are1 from the point of view of the whole1 good3--in ,bruno because in ,god truth and goodness1 will and understanding1 are one2 in ,leibniz because of the will of ,god1 which has chosen for the best3 evil is finitude1 or again is ignorance1 an error of standpoint4 ,in both freedom and necessity are one1 because the necessity belongs to ,god's own nature2 ,he wills out of ,himself1 undetermined1 uninfluenced from without1 and this is freedom4 ,in both1 as we have seen1 the principle of sufficient reason is a ground both for the infinite number and infinite variety of the finite beings in the universe1 and for the impossibility that two should exist which are exactly identical one with another4 ,were it known that ,leibniz had studied ,bruno before his system was formed1 we might almost say that he had chosen that aspect of the ,nolan philosophy which with ,spinoza had been disregarded1 viz4 the aspect in which all rights are given to the finite individual1 and to the world of finite beings1 as each representing the infinite1 containing the infinite in itself1 and1 so far as possibility goes1 each of infinite divine worth4 ,whereas just that side which appealed to ,spinoza would have failed to touch ,leibniz--the side in which ,god appears as one with the universe1 not as beyond or outside of it1 but as immanent in the whole1 and present in the fulness of ,his nature to each and every member of the whole4 ,philosophically ,leibniz' mission was to develop the ,cartesian doctrine of the three substances--,god1 finite spirit1 and body--in a direction which identified the first and third with the second1 broke up the unity of ,god into the immeasurable many of the monad spirits1 and its infinity into indefiniteness4 ,the ,god of ,leibniz1 even as the highest of the monads1 is separate from1 apart from1 the other monads--a finite along with other finites4 ,so each of the ordinary monads is a world by itself1 shut up within itself1 with no windows from which it can look out upon the world1 and really be affected by what is passing without it4 ,there is no without--each is1 in a word1 ,god1 and so far as it is concerned there may be no other being in existence4 ,bruno1 on the contrary1 was fully conscious--at times--of the necessity of holding the balance between the infinite unity of ,god and the finite units or realities1 which are the expression1 the manifestation1 the self-revelation of the one4 ,why this revelation8 he does not indeed ask2 but given it as actual1 he finds the reconciliation in it at once of the necessity of the whole and the liberty of the unit1 the goodness of the all and the moral frailty of the individual4#fdg ,interesting as this speculative comparison of the two philosophies may be1 there is not1 however1 even the slightest ground for attributing any direct historical influence of ,bruno upon ,leibniz4 ,if influence occurred at all--which is doubtful--it was through ,spinoza or some of the minor philosophical writings of the time4 ,lacroze 7in a letter of #agcg7 accused ,leibniz of having drawn his whole system from ,bruno's book ,de ,maximo et ,minimo 7sic673 he added that he had told ,leibniz this fact himself1 both by word of mouth and in writing1 and that the reason why so few had noticed it was that the philosophical writings of ,bruno were obscure and repellent4 ,the same suggestion has been repeatedly made since--more especially as regards the name ,monad1 which ,leibniz1 after much searching and deliberation1 gave to his real unities from #afif onwards4#fdh ,brunnhofer goes so far as to see both the ideas and the main formulas of ,leibniz in ,bruno--the monad-doctrines1 monads as living mirrors of the universe1 as fulgurations of ,god1 the ,pre-established ,harmony--the future as involved in the present1 the present is pregnant with the future1--the phenomenality of sense-objects--,god as the highest monad1 etc4 ,he argues that ,leibniz derived his idea that the monads have no windows by which anything can enter or depart from casual remarks by ,bruno as to the windows of the soul1 the gates of the senses by which images enter in1 or the chinks and holes by which we gaze outwards upon the world4 ,the coup de grce was given to this legend1 for so we must call it1 by ,ludwig ,stein in his ,leibniz und ,spinoza4#fdi ,he showed that ,leibniz was already in full possession of the idea of the monad at least ten years before he found the most fitting expression for it1 and that after #afif he used the word ,monad always as the distinctive badge or typical name for his substances or forces2 that before #agjj he knew of ,bruno only one of the ,lullian works 7the ,de ,arte ,combinatori1 v4 ,dutens1 ii4 #cfg71 and perhaps the mathematical articles 7adv4 ,mathematicos1 ib4 iii4 #adg74 ,apart from these works1 which could have no reference to his own philosophy1 he was acquainted with ,bruno only by hearsay1 as a reputed forerunner of ,descartes2 even as librarian of the ,brunswick ,library1 although some of ,bruno's works were in his guardianship1 he is not likely to have read them until his attention was called to them by their alleged resemblance to his own theory4 ,and then1 as we learn from the letter to ,lacroze 7#aath ,april #agjh71fej he hardly appreciated them at their true value--,mr4 ,toland has not spoken to me of the ,specchio 7i4e4 ,spaccio1 an error that does not show much familiarity with ,bruno7 della ,bestia trionfante of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,i think ,i have seen the book at some time1 and that it is against the ,pope4 ,i have two works of his on the ,infinite1 one in ,latin1 the other in ,italian4 ,the author is not wanting in genius1 but is not very profound 7ne manque pas d'esprit1 mais il n'est pas trop profond74 ,elsewhere he speaks of ,bruno only as believing in innumerable worlds with ,leucippus and ,democritus1 and as having been burnt1 not1 as he believes1 on account of his book the ,de ,immenso1 but for other opinions4#fea ,there is therefore little reason to suppose that ,leibniz had great interest in ,bruno1 or that he had read his works so carefully as to have derived any sustenance or advancement for his philosophy from them4 ,stein has in any case shown that the term ,monad came to ,leibniz1 not from ,bruno at all1 but from the younger ,van ,helmont1 in whose theory it plays almost as important a part as in ,leibniz--although the difference between the two ,monads was greater than the resemblance4#feb ,meanwhile literature in ,france and ,england had not lost sight of ,bruno4#fec ,in #afcc there was published in the former a play1 ,boniface et le ,pdant1 which has been described as a refined and ,gallicised imitation of the ,candelaio2 in its turn it suggested1 perhaps1 the ,pdant ,jou of ,cyrano de ,bergerac1 and some of the pedant-scenes in ,molire4#fed ,in #afcd in ,england a masque by ,thomas ,carew--the ,coelum ,britannicum--was played in ,english by ,charles ,i41 which was based1 partly at least1 upon the ,spaccio1 with ,charles ,i4 in the place of ,truth4#fee ,sidenote3 ,bayle4 ,sidenote3 ,budgell4 ,sidenote3 ,toland4 ,pierre ,bayle1 by the article in his ,dictionnaire ,historique et ,critique 7#afig71 which had a very wide influence1 probably damned ,bruno's reputation for a century4 ,the article on ,spinoza also did the same service for the ,dutch philosopher1 with whom1 indeed1 ,bayle joined ,bruno1 as having held the same abominable doctrine of atheism4 ,he had no real knowledge of ,bruno1 the biography is frivolous and inexact1 and the philosophy--a garbled version--is reported on hearsay4#fef ,it was ,bayle's authority which stamped ,bruno with the sarcastic description of a knight errant in philosophy1 which has sometimes been spoken of as a happy touch of ,hegel's invention1 but really dates back to one ,lionardo ,nicodemo 7#afhc71 who described ,bruno as playing the part of a wandering knight 7i4e4 a travelling scholastic71 now here1 now there1 at different universities in ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,italy1 with shield pendant1 and lance in rest1 challenging the ,aristotelians to learned combat4#feg ,in ,england the same aspersion upon ,bruno's name was stereotyped by an article in the ,spectator of ,may #bg1 #agab 7one of ,budgell's74 ,the writer1 however1 had the fairness1 which ,bayle had not1 to read ,bruno's ,spaccio before making reflections upon it4 ,contrary to his expectations1 for ,bruno was a professed atheist1 with a design to depreciate religion1 he found very little danger in it4 ,this did not prevent him from taking ,bruno as a text for a would-be humorous disquisition on ,atheism4 ,it was ,john ,toland1#feh the poor denizen of ,grub ,street1 and once famous1 or infamous1 author of ,christianity not ,mysterious1 who in ,england first paid ,bruno something of the respect he deserved4 ,his championship was not1 perhaps1 of the most discerning or of the most valuable1 but it was honest4 ,a copy of the ,spaccio had come into his possession1--one which he believed to be the only one then in existence1--and as a result of his reading he claimed ,bruno as the founder of free thought4 ,he had studied the sayings on ,divine ,magic in that work1 and had fastened on the fact that ,bruno regarded magic as nothing but a more recondite1 non-vulgar1 although perfectly natural wisdom4 ,this was certainly true2 but ,toland added1 ,so he sometimes calls the eternal vicissitude of material forms ,transmigration1 which was at least misleading4 ,among his manuscripts ,toland left an account of ,giordano ,bruno's ,book of the ,universe 7,de l' ,infinito71 along with a translation of the introductory epistle4#fei ,and somewhat earlier1 in #agac1 a translation of the ,spaccio was made into ,english by ,w4 ,morehead1#ffj who may have been one of ,toland's brethren1 as the ,quarterly ,reviewer suggests4 ,toland himself was1 however1 believed to be the author4 ,he had visited ,lacroze at ,berlin in #agjf1 and had defended the ,nolan against that virulent searcher-out of atheists1 deists1 pantheists1 and the like miscreants and libertines4 ,to a fellow-enthusiast in ,germany 7,baron ,hohendorf7 ,toland wrote three years later1 giving the proofs of ,bruno's punishment1 with a translation of ,schopp's account1 and stating his belief as to ,bruno's real doctrine 7viz4 free-thinking74#ffa ,the author1 he wrote1 gives full play to his spirit1 which is always diverting1 but at the same time very powerful2 he is often diffuse1 but never wearisome4 ,in a very small space he has expounded a complete system of natural religion1 the theory of ancient cosmography1 history1 comparison and refutation of different opinions1 besides many curious observations on diverse subjects4 ,but the author abounds in pleasantries1 and in satirical traits3 he is impious in a sovereign degree1 and does not always keep himself within the limits of allegory4 ,and so ,bruno1 like ,spinoza in this also1 went down to posterity as a worthless1 impious atheist1 one of the reputed authors of the mythical work ,de ,tribus ,impostoribus1 which no one had ever seen1 but in which the three founders of the great religions of the world were attacked as conscious cheats6 ,so far was the world as yet from understanding the martyr for truth and for the religion of thought4 ,it was from ,germany that the reaction came4 ,the story of the restoration of ,bruno's name 7his ,ehrenrettung7 has been told by ,bartholmss1 and needs but a very brief sketch here4 ,heumann#ffb repudiated ,lacroze's description of him as an atheist and forerunner of ,spinoza's pantheism1 describing him as a martyr for the ,lutheran faith and as an eclectic in philosophy4 ,brucker#ffc--without the historical sense1 but a painstaking and learned1 if diffuse1 analyst1 judging all philosophies by the standard of orthodox ,protestantism and the ,leibnizian philosophy--yet sympathised with ,bruno1 described him as an eclectic1 combining ideas of the ,eleatics with those of ,democritus and ,epicurus1 ,copernicus and ,pythagoras1 not an impostor1 but an intellectual enthusiast--cum ratione insanivit4 ,throughout the remaining part of the century a number of monographs appeared1 by ,jordan1 ,christiani1 ,kindervater2 with1 on the contra side1 ,lessman and ,lauckhard4 ,adelung thought ,bruno worthy of a place in his ,history of ,human ,folly 7#aghe74 ,in the same year 7#aghe7 appeared ,f4 ,h4 ,jacobi's ,letters on ,spinoza's ,philosophy1 which contained a restoration at one stroke of both ,bruno and ,spinoza to their place among the great names of the history of thought4#ffd ,this fine thinker--if not great thinker--penetrated by the beauty and calm of ,spinoza's pantheism1 saw in ,bruno a true forerunner4 ,bruno had taken up the substance of the ancient philosophy1 transformed it into flesh and blood1 was wholly permeated by its spirit1 without ceasing to be himself4 ,naturally it was in the ,causa that ,jacobi found the greatest affinity with ,spinoza1 as in it the starting-point of ,bruno is from the ,one1 the ,highest1 which is at the same time the ,all--the universe1 the unity of the ,one and ,many1 of ,spirit and ,nature4 ,jakobi's friend1 ,hamann1 the ,wizard of the ,north1 the mystical critic of ,kantianism1 went a step further than ,jakobi himself2 ,bruno's principle of the coincidence of opposites1 he said1 was of more value to him than all the ,kantian criticism4 ,in the pantheistic or monistic side of ,bruno's philosophy he found sympathy with his own revolt against the excessive intellectualism and rationalism which seemed to him to be the chief danger of the ,kantian philosophy4#ffe ,goethe also was carried away by the flowing tide of enthusiasm1 and1 indeed1 his own philosophical conception had much affinity with that of the ,nolan1 although in their inner natures the two men differed toto coelo4#fff ,buhle--first in his ,comment on the ,rise and ,progress of ,pantheism 7#agij71 afterwards in his learned and careful ,history of ,philosophy#ffg--placed ,bruno amongst the highest of pantheistic writers4 ,even ,tennemann#ffg grows eloquent over the brilliant effort of ,bruno1 by which he almost achieved a philosophy of the ,absolute two centuries before ,schelling and ,hegel4#ffh ,fulleborn is more cautious and critical1 but in his ,contributions to the ,history of ,philosophy he gives analyses and extracts from several of ,bruno's works4#ffi ,schelling himself1 as is clear from the dialogue which he wrote bearing ,bruno's name1 regarded the ,italian as nearest to himself among his forerunners in the philosophy of the absolute4 ,there is obviously a close analogy between the two2 and ,schelling may be said to take1 with regard to the course of philosophy after him1 the same place which ,bruno took as regards the lines of development in the philosophy of the seventeenth century4 ,both had a wider view1 and perhaps a deeper insight1 than their successors1 while lacking the power of strenuous thought necessary to carry out their views into the completeness of a philosophical system4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether ,schelling knew much more of ,bruno than ,jakobi's essay and his abstract of the ,causa had to tell4 ,hegel took a much less enthusiastic view of ,bruno's philosophy than did his contemporary and sometime partner--to place ,bruno on a level with ,spinoza was to give him a higher reputation than he deserved3 his doctrine was a mere re-echo of the ,alexandrine4 ,yet ,hegel1 too1 saw something to admire in this ,bacchantic spirit1 revelling in the discovery of its oneness with the ,idea1 and with all other beings1 with the all of nature which is an externalisation of spirit4 ,it was under the influence of ,hegel or of the ,hegelian philosophy that the first really complete and satisfactory studies of ,bruno appeared3--,christian ,bartholmss' ,jordano ,bruno1#fgj and ,moritz ,carrire's ,philosophische ,weltanschauung der ,reformationszeit4#fga ,the quick and generous enthusiasm of the first1 the wide philosophic comprehension of the second have probably done more to attract public attention to the forgotten ,nolan1 and to guarantee him a permanent place in the history of philosophy1 than any other writings about him4 ,since their time the literature upon ,bruno has steadily increased1 and with it has grown the comprehension of and sympathy with the man as well as with the idea he so fearlessly proclaimed1 and so strenuously defended4 ,it is no part of the purpose of this work to parallel ,bruno with any of the more modern philosophers4 ,it is foolhardy to say1 for example1 as ,brunnhofer does1 that ,schopenhauer alone reaches the same height of literary style in modern philosophy1 although the ,nolan leaves the ,frankfort philosopher far behind him through the strength of his philosophical conception of the universe1 which holds its own against pessimism and optimism alike4#fgb ,it is foolhardy1 and it is misleading1 to place him in comparison with philosophers who have nearly three centuries of thought1 of social1 industrial1 and literary growth1 between him and them4 ,like all the philosophers whom a touch of poetical imagination has redeemed1 ,bruno stands more or less alone1 and he overtops all the others of his century4 ,none of the ordinary rubrics of historical terminology in philosophy apply to him1 not even that of ,eclectic4 ,he is far more than that4 ,his philosophy1 as perhaps these pages have shown1 bears the stamp of individuality1 the individuality of a strong mind1 fed with nearly all the knowledge1 and all the out-reaching guesses at truth of its own time1 and of the times that had gone before1 striving to turn this difficult mass into nourishment for itself1 and to transmit the achievement to others4 ,he was an eclectic1 just as every great thinker is an eclectic1 but it is the bricks merely1 not the style of architecture1 that he has borrowed from others4 ,he never founded a school1 not merely because the circumstances of his life1 and the fate of his writings1 precluded him from being widely known or studied in any country1 but also because his philosophy was too much a thing of himself to be readily attractive to many of his hearers or readers4 ,yet it has been a force making for the progress of thought and of liberty1 and it is still an active force4 ,human nature has not yet lost the tendency to rest calmly in its habit of believing1 to shut itself up in its finite world1 refusing either to look abroad1 or to look at itself from an external point of view2 it is still apt to think geocentrically1 to take its molehills for mountains1 while underlooking1 if the term may be allowed1 the real mountains that are before it1 to hold doggedly to one contrary1 reject utterly the other1 whereas the truth always lies in their unity4 ,to these recurring foibles of humanity1 and more especially1 perhaps1 of philosophic humanity1 the fresh and vigorous writings of the ,dominican monk and martyr of the sixteenth century will ever form a healthy counterpoise4 ,,additional ,,notes #a4 ,to p4 #e and p4 #bg1 ,bruno's upbringing4--,in the ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cfb4 #cd1 ,burchio1 the ,aristotelian pedant of the dialogue1 addresses ,fracastorio in the following polite terms3--,you would be more learned than ,aristotle--you1 a beast1 a poor devil1 a beggar1 a wretch1 fed on bread of millet1 perishing of hunger1 begotten of a tailor1 born of a washer-woman1 nephew to ,cecco the cobbler1 figol di ,momo1 postiglion de le puttane1 brother to ,lazarus that makes shoes for asses6 ,it is almost incredible that any one should have taken these words as biographical or rather auto-biographical4 ,they are in the mouth of a pedant and enemy3 they are addressed not to the ,bruno-character of the dialogue 7,philotheo71 but to ,fracastorio1 who temporarily takes his place as a well-trained disciple4 ,yet ,lagarde1 that amazing editor1 gravely wonders whether the ,dominicans did not know that their novice had been postiglion de le puttane1 or whether they were glad to forget it when they saw the pure and attractive young face6 7v4 ,lagarde's edition of the ,italian works1 pp4 #ghi1 #gih74 #b4 ,to p4 #aj4 ,the ,arian heresy4--,before the ,venetian tribunal ,bruno explained his position with regard to the ,arian heresy thus3--,i showed the opinion of ,arius to be less dangerous than it was generally held to be1 because generally it is understood that ,arius meant to say that the ,word was the first creation of the ,father1 and ,i declared that ,arius said the ,word was neither ,creator nor ,creation1 but intermediary between the ,creator and the ,creation1 as the word is intermediary between the speaker and what is spoken1 and therefore it is said to be first-born before all creatures2 through it1 not out of it1 have all things been created4444 7,doc4 xi4 ,bert4 i4 p4 #djc74 #c4 ,to p4 #cc4 ,sidney and ,greville4--,greville had been a schoolmate of ,sidney at ,shrewsbury1 but proceeded to ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 while ,sidney went to ,christ ,church at ,oxford2 afterwards they were constant friends at ,court4 ,when ,sidney went to ,heidelberg in #aegg1 the ,queen would not allow the handsome ,greville to accompany him1 nor would she let either go with ,drake to the ,west ,indies in #aehe1 and ,greville was kept at home from ,leicester's ,expedition to the ,low ,countries1 in which poor ,sidney met with a heroic death 7,oct4 #ag1 #aehf74 ,in a letter of #aehf1 ,greville describes ,sidney as that prince of gentlemen3 writing to ,douglas after ,sidney's death1 he says that the name of ,sidney's friendship has carried him above his own worth4 ,the epitaph ,greville wrote for himself is familiar1 but will bear repetition3--,fulke ,greville1 ,servant to ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,councillor to ,king ,james1 and friend to ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,trophaeum ,peccati4 #d4 ,to p4 #ce4 ,vautrollier and ,bruno4--,vautrollier traded in ,scotland as early as #aehj as a bookseller3 he had already enjoyed the patronage of ,king ,james1 and was even encouraged to return with a printing press1 which he did in #aehd4 ,thereafter he published in both ,london and ,edinburgh till #aehg4 ,on the other hand some of ,bruno's works were printed in #aehe1 so that the theory of ,vautrollier's flight to ,scotland owing to his being the printer of ,bruno's works1 falls through4 ,the business in ,london was carried on during his absence by his wife1 and the troubles out of which ,mr4 ,randolph helped him were quite unconnected with ,bruno1 and may have arisen from his printing of ,john ,knox's ,history of the ,reformation in ,scotland1 which ,archbishop ,whitgift suppressed4 ,the letter to ,mr4 ,randolph is in ,l',espine's ,treatise of ,apostasy1 #aehg 7,vautrollier3 ,london74 #e4 ,to p4 #ea4 ,mordentius4--,fabrizio ,mordente of ,salerno was a mathematician of the sixteenth century1 of whom only two works are known to have existed1--one published in #aeig1 the other written in conjunction with his brother ,gaspar in #aeia4 ,he was the inventor of an eight-point compasses of which ,bruno writes in the second of the ,mordentius dialogues1 and on which he bestows apparently extravagant praise4 ,the peculiarity of the invention1 as far as one can discover1 consisted in the introduction of four runners1 two on either limb of the compasses1 and secured by screws2 but there seems to have been no gradation of the compasses1 and it is difficult to perceive any great value in the novelty1 without that essential addition4 ,the first of the two dialogues suggests a possible origin for some of ,bruno's ideas on atomic geometry1 as we find1 attributed to ,mordentius1 two ideas that were applied to some purpose in ,bruno's own mathematical works4 ,they are 7#a7 that of the measurement of inappreciable subdivisions of continuous quantities by integration1 and 7#b7 that of the impossibility of infinite division1 the continuous being composed of discrete minima1 beyond which no division can go1 and the minima 7like the maxima7 being relative1 differing in different subjects1 so that1 for example1 what in astronomy is a minimal quantity may in geodesy be greater than the diameter of the earth4 ,,index ,absolute1 first principle or1 #aff ,agrippa of ,nettesheim1 ,cornelius1 #adh1 #adi2 ,de occulta philosophia1 #aca1 #adi2 ,de ,vanitate ,scientiarum1 #adi1 #beg ,alasco1 ,prince1 of ,poland1 #bc ,algerio1 ,pomponio1 #d ,alsted1 ,john ,henry1 ,artificium perorandi1 #aad ,anaxagoras1 #abf ,animism1 #cje2 universal1 #adg ,antidicsonus1 #cf1 #cbd ,aquinas1 ,st4 ,thomas1 #i1 #hj1 #acg ,areopagus1 literary society1 #bg ,aretino1 ,pietro1 ,cortegiana of1 #ai ,arian heresy1 the1 #ceg ,aristotle1 ,de ,anima1 #af1 #aeh1 #aei2 criticism of1 #ej1 #abc2 ,organon1 #ec1 #ee2 ,topics1 #ee2 ,metaphysics1 #aac1 #abe2 ,rhetoric1 #aad1 #ach2 ,physics1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abb1 #abe1 #bcf2 ,de generatione et corruptione1 #aaf2 ,meteorologica1 #aaf2 ,bruno's acquaintance with1 #aba-bc2 rejection of mathematical method1 #abc2 treatment of predecessors1 #abd2 ,logic1 #ach2 theory of limitation of space1 #ahc2 on finitude of world1 #ahe1 #ahf2 on plurality of worlds1 #aig ,asinity1 #beg ,aspiration1 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,medicina ,lulliana1 #aag1 #aci2 ,de ,vinculis in genere1 #aag1 #acd1 #bff2 ,acrotismus1 #ahj1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bbf ,budgell1 ,eustace1 in ,spectator1 #cdh ,buhle1 ,history of ,philosophy1 #ceb ,burton1 ,robert1 ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 #cdg ,cabala1 ,hebrew1 #acj1 #aca ,camden's ,elizabeth1 #bd ,cardanus1 #aej ,carrire1 ,moritz1 #cci ,cause of nature1 efficient1 #aeg1 #ahd2 formal1 #aeh2 final1 #aeh ,change1 ceaseless1 #bje1 #baj1 #bba ,christianity1 attack on1 #bbe ,cicala1 ,mount1 #e1 #g ,clemens1 ,f4 ,j4 #adb1 #bff ,coincidence of all things in ,one1 #agb1 #agf2 of contraries1 #agf1 #agi1 #bji2 verifications of1 #agg-gi ,comets1 ,bruno's theory of1 #bab ,commerce1 the evils of1 #bfi ,company of ,st4 ,john the ,beheaded1 #ie1 #if ,contarini1 ,venetian procurator1 report of1 #hd ,continuum not divisible1 #bcg ,copernicanism1 a heresy1 #hi2 influence of1 on ,bruno1 #aaj ,copernicus1 #aej-eb2 ,de orbium coelestium ,revolutionibus1 #aej ,culpepper1 ,warden of ,new ,college1 #bf 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three1 #bbg2 in the classification of the sciences1 #bbi ,minimum1 relativity of1 #bbg2 as substance1 #bcj2 indestructible1 #bca2 mathematics of the1 #bda ,miracles and deceit1 #beg ,mirror of ,god1 #ahb ,mocenigo1 ,giovanni1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge ,moisture1 a material element1 #bjg ,mordente1 ,fabrizio1 #ea1 #ceh ,morehead1 ,w41 #ci1 #cdi ,morosini1 ,andrea1 #ga ,mystical and naturalistic attitude compared #aaj1 #aaa ,naples1 ,bruno at1 #h1 #aba2 cloister at1 #i ,nature as one and many1 #afi2 permanence of beauty1 harmony1 #age2 uniformity of1 #bjc2 and spirit1 #bea ,necessity and liberty1 #aie ,neoplatonist school1 #abg1 #abh2 mysticism of the1 #aaj1 #acd ,nicodemo1 ,lionardo1 #cdh ,nicolaus of ,cusa1 #ada1 #agf2 sketch of his philosophy1 #adb-dh2 ,de ,docta ,ignorantia1 #adc1 #ade1 #beg2 and ,bruno compared1 #add1 #adf2 ,alchoran1 #ade2 ,de ,ludo globi1 #adg2 ,de ,idiota1 #adi2 ,de ,conjecturis1 #adh2 ,de ,visione ,dei1 #adh2 ,de ,venatione ,sapienti1 #adh ,nigidius1 ,petrus1 #ea ,nola1 #c1 #d1 #g ,object of ,de ,minimo1 #bbf ,ovid1 ,metamorphoses1 #ii ,oxford and ,aristotle1 #ba1 #bb2 ,bruno's impressions of1 #be ,padua1 #ab1 #fi ,paracelsus1 #adi1 #aej2 ad miraculum medicus1 #aej ,paris1 #ah ,perfection1 abstract conception of1 #aih2 plurality and1 #aii2 nature of1 #bja2 progress and1 #bhe ,peripatetic philosophy1 theses against1 #di2 criticism of theory1 #di ,philosophy1 practical test of a perfect1 #aab2 ,bruno's--,matter and spirit1 #aei2 necessity and liberty1 #aie2 similarity in composites1 #bcd2 time and space1 #bcg2 part and limit1 #bci2 peace and liberty1 #bfa2 sincerity1 #bfd2 temperance1 #bfe2 evolution1 #bgj2 avarice1 #bgb2 fortune1 #bgb2 courage1 #bgc2 simplicity1 #bgc2 solicitude1 #bgd2 beauty1 #bha1 #bhc2 love1 #bha1 #bij ,pius ,v41 ,pope1 #ci ,plato1 ,timus1 #aca2 ,republic1 #aca ,platonism1 ,platonists1 #abh1 #acc ,plethon4 ,see ,gemistus1 ,georgius ,plotinus1 #acb1 #acc2 ,enneads1 #acb1 #afh ,pognisi1 ,giordano ,bruno1 #if ,prague1 #ei ,pre-,aristotelians1 the1 #abe ,predicates of ,god1 #aad2 of substance and nature1 #aae ,primum mobile1 the1 #ahe ,principle3 cause1 #aee2 first or absolute1 #aff ,process1 the infinite1 #bhd ,progress1 human1 #bfi2 and perfection1 #bhe ,prudence1 the virtue of deliberative faculty1 #bge ,quarterly ,review1 #bg1 #cd1 #cdh ,ramus1 ,petrus1 ,dialectic of1 #af1 #cbd ,ratio or discursive thought1 #cda ,rationalism in ,bruno1 #cja2 medival1 #cje ,reality of things1 timeless1 #cba ,reuchlin1 ,johann1 ,de arte cabbalistica1 #aca ,riches and poverty1 #bga ,riehl1 ,giordano ,bruno1 #fi ,roche1 ,la1 ,memoirs of ,literature1 #id ,roman people1 ,bruno on1 #bfc ,rome1 ,bruno at1 #aj2 tribunal at1 #ia ,rudolph ,,ii41 #ei ,savolina1 ,fraulissa1 mother of ,bruno1 #c ,schelling1 #ceb ,scholastics1 the1 #acg ,schopenhauer1 #ced ,schopp1 ,gaspar1 #dj1 #id2 letter on ,bruno's death1 #ib1 #cej ,self-consciousness1 #bgc ,sense-knowledge1 relativity of1 #bcb ,shakespeare1 #cd1 #ce ,sidney1 ,sir ,philip1 #ab1 #bg1 #ca1 #cb1 #ce1 #ei1 #ceg ,sigwart1 #c1 #eb1 #fc-fe1 #fg1 #hf1 #ccg1 #cdj1 #cdb ,soul1 the goods of the1 #bga2 the body1 #bhf2 functions of the1 #bhf2 hierarchy of1 #cac ,soul-principle in bodies1 #baf1 #bbd ,spagnolo1 ,alfonso1 #dh ,spenser1 ,edmund1 ,cantos on ,mutability1 #cc2 ,frie ,queen1 #cc ,spinoza on ,bible interpretation1 #ajh2 and ,bruno1 #agf1 #ccg-dc2 ,de ,deo seu ,homine1 #cdj1 #cdb2 ,ethics1 #cda ,spirit and matter1 #afa2 unity of1 and body1 #agj ,stars1 souls of the1 #bag ,stein1 ,ludwig1 #cdf ,superstition and natural law1 #g ,tansillo1 affection of ,bruno for1 #e2 quoted1 #bhc ,tasso1 ,aminta1 #cf1 #bfh ,telesio1 ,de natura rerum1 #aej ,temple of ,wisdom1 the1 #eg2 builders of1 #abh ,tennemann1 ,wilhelm ,g41 #ceb ,theism in ,bruno1 #cai ,theophilus of ,varrano1 #aba ,tiraboschi1 ,girolamo1 historian1 #ajg ,tocco1 ,felice1 ,conferenza1 #ij2 ,le ,opere ,latine de ,g4 ,bruno1 #aad1 #bbe2 criticism of ,lampas ,triginta ,statuarum1 #aae2 ,le ,opere ,inedite di ,g4 ,bruno1 #aae1 #aaf2 ,le ,fonti piu recenti1 #ach1 #adi ,toland1 ,john1 #ch1 #id1 #cdi ,trinity1 rejection of the1 #aji2 ,cusanus' proof of the1 #ade2 interpretation of the1 #bid1 #bie ,trismegistus1 ,mercurius or ,hermes1 #abi ,truth1 philosophical and theological1 #gf2 the implicit universe1 #bgd1 #bge2 the twofold1 #cjc ,universe1 infinite in extent1 #ahb1 #ahc2 perfection of the1 #aij ,vacuum1 the1 #bdj ,vanini1 ,lucilio1 burnt as a heretic at ,toulouse1 #ag1 #ccd ,vautrollier1 bookseller1 #cd1 #ceh ,venice1 works published at1 #aa2 tribunal at1 #gc1 #bid1 #ceg2 relation between1 and the ,pope1 #he ,verifications of coincidence1 #agg ,vico1 ,marquis of1 #ab ,virtues1 table of the1 #bei ,wagner in ,bruno's ,opere ,italiane1 #hi ,waldensian persecution1 #h ,watson1 ,thomas1 ,compendium ,memori ,localis1 #cf1 #cbe2 translation of ,tasso's ,aminta1 #cf ,whole and its parts1 the1 #ahf ,williams1 ,l41 #da ,wisdom reviewed1 #bge ,wittenberg1 ,bruno at1 #ea1 #eb2 works published at1 #ed1 #ee2 lectures at1 #aad2 notes dictated at1 #aae ,wittmann1 ,archiv fr ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 #ace1 #acf ,works1 ,marburg edition1 #aac2 ,state edition1 #aac-aae2 published during imprisonment and posthumously1 #aac-aag2 ,noroff collection1 #aaf1 #aag ,worlds1 innumerable1 #aia1 #aid2 decay of1 #bba ,zurich1 ,bruno at1 #fd2 work published at1 #aac ,,the ,,end ,printed by _/,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,,limited_/1 ,edinburgh ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,brunnhofer1 p4 #cba1 ,appendix4 ,footnote #b3 ,sigwart1 i4 p4 #aah 7note #e74 ,footnote #c3 ,berti1 ,vita di ,s4 ,b41 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #d3 ,bartholmss1 vol4 i4 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #e3 ,lagarde1 #deb4 #bc4 ,footnote #f3 ,v4 additional note4 ,footnote #g3 ,lagarde1 ,op4 ,ital41 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #h3 i4e4 ,heightening of normal powers4 ,footnote #i3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #ahd4 ,footnote #aj3 ,on ,bruno's family v4 ,fiorentino1 in the ,giornale de la ,domenica 7,naples71 for ,jan4 #bi1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #aa3 ,de ,magia1 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 ,op4 #dcj1 #dca4 ,footnote #ab3 ,de ,immenso1 v4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #abj4 ,footnote #ac3 ,de ,immenso1 iii4 7i4 #a4 #cac74 ,footnote #ad3 ,ct4 the punning line ,domini canes evangelium latrantur per totum orbem4 ,footnote #ae3 ,berti1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #af3 ,cf4 ,spaccio de la ,bestia1 ,lag4 p4 #eeb1 #a4 ,footnote #ag3 ,venetian ,documents1 ,no4 #h4 ,footnote #ah3 ,docs4 #h and #ac4 ,footnote #ai3 ,vide additional note4 ,footnote #bj3 ,doc4 #a 7,berti1 p4 #cgh74 ,footnote #ba3 ,tasso came about the same time1 to be repulsed as plague-stricken from the gates4 ,footnote #bb3 ,doc4 #i4 ,berti1 p4 #cic 7a line is omitted in the #bnd ,edition74 ,footnote #bc3 ,lag4 #adg4 #ba4 ,footnote #bd3 ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi was at this time teaching philosophy in one of the monasteries in ,venice1 but ,bruno does not seem to have met him4 ,footnote #be3 ,sig4 ,sig4 7,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #aia74 ,footnote #bf3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #adc4 #dj4 ,footnote #bg3 ,doc4 #i4 ,footnote #bh3 ,giordano ,bruno ,genve 7#aegi71 par ,thophil ,dufour3 v4 ,berti1 pp4 #ddi ff4 ,footnote #bi3 ,from the ,register of the ,council4 ,footnote #cj3 ,register of ,consistory1 #aegg-aegi4 ,footnote #ca3 ,bartholmss1 i4 pp4 #fb1 #fc 7with note74 ,footnote #cb3 ,vide ,de ,umbris 7,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #a4 p4 #fe1 cf4 p4 #hg74 ,footnote #cc3 ,brunnhofer's ,giordano ,bruno1 etc41 p4 #be4 ,footnote #cd3 ,introd4 to ,de ,umbris4 ,footnote #ce3 ,bartholmss1 ,i4 #gd4 ,footnote #cf3 ,vide ,acrot4 ,camoer4 ,epistle to the ,rector of the ,university 7,filesac474 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #ef1 #eg4 ,footnote #cg3 ,artificium ,arist4 ,lull4 ,ram4 #afae4 ,footnote #ch3 ,cf4 ,orat4 ,consol4 7i4 #a4 #cb74 ,footnote #ci3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 pp4 #gf-h4 ,footnote #dj3 ,cena1 ,l4 #agf1 #cg ff4 ,footnote #da3 ,teulet ,papers1 ii4 p4 #egj 7,may #af1 #aehc74 ,footnote #db3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #fic4 ,footnote #dc3 ,camden's ,elizabeth4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the ,,ms4 of ,dido1 which was acted by ,christ ,church men1 is still preserved in the library of ,christ ,church4 ,footnote #de3 ,lag4 p4 #abj ff4 ,footnote #df3 ,l4 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #dg3 #aedf-afbh4 ,studied at ,university ,college2 ,president of ,st4 ,john's1 #aegb-g2 ,dean of ,christ ,church 7to #aehd72 afterwards ,archbishop of ,york3 ,one of a proper person 7such people1 ceteris paribus and sometimes ceteris imparibus1 were preferred by the ,queen7 and an excellent preacher--7,fuller1 quoted in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog47 ,footnote #dh3 ,warden of ,new1 #aegc-ii2 ,dean of ,chichester1 #aegg4 ,footnote #di3 ,vide ,trig4 ,sigilli1 ,dedication4 ,footnote #ej3 ,vide add4 note4 ,footnote #ea3 ,doc4 #i1 ,berta1 p4 #cje4 ,castelnuovo1 in casa del qual non faceva altro se non che stava per il suo gentilhomo4 ,footnote #eb3 ,preface1 ,l4 #cje4 ,footnote #ec3 ,lag4 #bfd1 #bj4 ,footnote #ed3 ,l4 #adc4 ,footnote #ee3 ,l4 #bbf4 #be ff4 ,footnote #ef3 ,mauvissire's successor was nominated in ,nov4 #aehd1 although he did not leave until a year later4 ,footnote #eg3 ,vide add4 note4 ,footnote #eh3 ,first pointed out1 ,i believe1 by ,mr4 ,whittaker in ,essays and ,notices1 #ahie 7v4 the note to ,giordano ,bruno1 p4 #id74 ,footnote #ei3 ,cf4 the ,quarterly ,review1 ,oct4 #aijb4 ,the references are ,tschischwitz3 ,shakespeare-,forschungen--,hamlet1 #ahfh2 ,w4 ,knig1 ,shakespeare-,jahrbuch1 xi42 ,frith's ,giordano ,bruno2 on the other side ,beyersdorff1 ,giordano ,bruno und ,shakespeare 7#ahhi72 ,furness in the ,new ,variorum ,shakespeare4 ,footnote #fj3 ,vide add4 note4 ,footnote #fa3 ,lag4 #bbc4 #d4 ,footnote #fb3 ,vide infra1 part ii4 ch4 #i4 ,footnote #fc3 ,in the ,aminta4 ,footnote #fd3 ,sigillus is really a diminutive of ,signum in ,bruno's view2 ,seal therefore means much the same as ,sign4 ,footnote #fe3 ,venezia on the title-page4 ,footnote #ff3 ,again ,venetia4 ,the ,introduction is translated in ,a collection of several pieces1 by ,mr4 ,john ,toland1 #b vols41 ,london1 #agbf4 ,footnote #fg3 ,parigi4 ,translated1 except for the introductory letter to ,sidney1 in ,sp4 dalla ,best4 ,triom41 or the ,expulsion of the ,triumphant ,beast1 ,london1 #agac2 attributed to ,w4 ,morehead4 ,the ,spaccio was in its outward form1 no doubt1 suggested by ,lucian's ,parliament of the ,gods4 ,fiorentino has pointed out that ,niccolo ,franco had made use of a similar idea in a dialogue published in #aeci1 in which he described a journey to heaven1 where he was at first refused admittance2 he had a parley with the ,gods1 until1 with the aid of ,momus1 he obtained permission to enter1 conversed with ,jupiter1 received some favours1 and returned4 ,franco was impaled in #aefe by ,pope ,pius ,v41 hence perhaps the absence of his name in ,bruno4 ,perhaps the idea of the ,spaccio was also determined by a prophecy of the ,bohemian ,cipriano ,leowicz 7,on the more signal great conjunctions of the planets1 #aefd71 that about the beginning of ,april #aehd would occur a reunion of almost all the planets in the sign of ,aries1 and it should be the last in that sign4 ,it was inferred that the ,christian religion would also come to an end then4 ,this would agree with the reason given above for ,bruno's preface1 viz4 that he was leaving ,england in #aehd1 ,mauvissire's term having expired4 ,footnote #fh3 ,lag4 #dag4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ib4 #djh4 ,footnote #gj3 ,parigi is on the title page4 ,footnote #ga3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #c1 #bcg4 ,footnote #gb3 ,also ,parigi4 ,translated in ,the ,heroic ,enthusiasts1 an ,ethical ,poem1 by ,l4 ,williams1 ,london1 #ahhg4 7,the ,argument or ,summary1 and the ,apology of ,bruno1 are omitted47 ,footnote #gc3 ,lag4 #abc4 #c4 ,cf4 ,her4 ,fur4 #gdg4 #ai--le belle et gratiose ,ninfe del ,padre ,tamesi1 #gdi4 #dj1 ,leggiadre ,nimphe1 ch'a le' herbose ,sponde del ,tamesi gentil fatte ,soggiorno1 and #gec4 #aj4 ,footnote #gd3 ,lag4 #add4 #aj4 ,footnote #ge3 ,lag4 #djf4 #ag 7,spaccio74 ,footnote #gf3 ,lag4 #bib4 ,footnote #gg3 #eba4 #bg ff4 ,footnote #gh3 #eea4 #ch1 #ebb4 #bc1 #eej4 #b1 #dij4 #c4 ,footnote #gi3 ,salisbury ,papers1 iii4 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #hj3 ,doc4 #i4 ,footnote #ha3 ,doc4 #ag4 ,berti1 p4 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,footnote #hb3 ,landseck's ,bruno4 ,footnote #hc3 ,vide ,op4 ,lat4 vol4 iii4 ,introd4 p4 xxxix4 ,footnote #hd3 ,centum et ,viginti ,articuli ,de ,natura et ,mundo1 adv4 ,peripateticos1 ,paris1 #aehf2 and ,j4 ,b4 ,n4 ,camoeracensis ,acrotismus1 etc4 ,wittenberg1 #aehh4 ,camoeracensis qualifies ,bruni1--of the ,college of ,cambray4 ,acrotismus is barbarous ,latinising of ,greek3 ,akroasis4 ,footnote #he3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #fc4 ,footnote #hf3 i4 #a4 #fe4 ,footnote #hg3 ,ib4 #fh1 #fi4 ,footnote #hh3 ,figuratio ,aristotelici ,physici ,auditus1 ,paris1 #aehf4 ,dialogi ,duo de ,fabricii ,mordentis ,salernitani prope divina adinventione ad perfectam cosmimetrae praxim1 ,paris1 #aehf4 ,vide add4 note4 ,footnote #hi3 ,doc4 #i4 ,footnote #ij3 ,eglin1 a pupil of ,bruno1 was ,professor of ,theology at ,marburg in #afjg 7,brunnhofer1 p4 #fj74 ,footnote #ia3 ,sigwart4 ,the university has since been united with that of ,halle1 the seat being at the latter place4 ,footnote #ib3 ,de ,specierum ,scrutinio et ,lampade ,combinatoria ,raimundi ,lulli1 the omniscient and almost divine hermit doctor4 ,prague1 #aehh4 ,footnote #ic3 ,krell was imprisoned1 and put to death ten years later4 ,footnote #id3 ,vide ,spaccio1 ,lag4 #eaf4 #aa1 and #eec4 #ba ff4 ,footnote #ie3 ,de ,specierum ,scrutinio1 vide supra1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #if3 ,published #aehi1 ,helmstadt4 ,footnote #ig3 ,bk4 iv4 ch4 #aj4 ,footnote #ih3 ,cf4 ,frith's ,bruno1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #ii3 ,vide ,brunnhofer and ,sigwart4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,censor's ,register3 ,frankfort ,archives4 ,footnote #aja3 ,sigwart1 and ,op4 ,lat4 vol4 iii4 introd4 p4 xxix4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,bassus ,catalogue of ,frankfort ,books from #aefd-aeib1 printed #aeib 7,sigwart74 ,footnote #ajc3 ,doc4 #f 7,ciotto's evidence74 ,footnote #ajd3 ,doc4 #h 7,bruno's own statements74 ,footnote #aje3 ,sigwart1 ,kl4 ,schriften1 i4 p4 #cjb4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,vide ,op4 ,lat41 vol i41 introd4 p4 xx4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,bertano described him as lecturing at ,padua to some ,german scholars 7,doc4 #g74 ,on ,besler1 and ,bruno's connection with him1 v4 ,stlzle1 ,archiv f4 ,geschichte d4 ,phil41 iii4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,riehl1 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,footnote #aji3 ,doc4 #ae1 ,morosini's evidence4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,doc4 #ag 7,bruno74 ,cf4 #af 7,ciotto re-examined71 and #i 7,bruno74 ,footnote #aaa3 ,doc4 #aj4 ,footnote #aab3 ,ambassador in ,paris during ,bruno's first visit 7#aehb74 ,footnote #aac3 ,the ,nuncio was sometimes represented by his auditor1 the ,patriarch by his vicar4 ,footnote #aad3 i4e4 orthodox1 right-thinking4 ,footnote #aae3 ,bruno refers to the ,pythagorean doctrine1 quoting the neid1 vi4 #gbd ff43 ,principio coelum 444 mens agitat molem4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,de ,monade 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #dae74 ,footnote #aag3 ,doc4 #ag4 ,footnote #aah3 ,doc4 #bd4 ,venetian ,state ,archives4 ,footnote #aai3 ,doc4 #be4 ,state ,archives4 ,footnote #abj3 ,docs4 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #aba3 ,roman ,documents1 ,,iii4 ,footnote #abb3 ,it must not be left out of mind that documents have occasionally been tampered with1 and statements put into the mouths of witnesses which are in substance false1 as ,fiorentino hints concerning these reports of ,bruno's trial4 ,but there is no special reason for doubt here4 ,footnote #abc3 ,it is officially stated that there are no further documents4 ,footnote #abd3 ,wagner's introduction to ,bruno's ,opere ,italiane1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #abe3 ,conferenza1 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #abf3 ,for the part of this letter relative to ,bruno1 v4 ,bartholmss 7with ,french translation71 ,berti and ,frith4 ,footnote #abg3 ,the letter was translated into ,english by ,la ,roche1 ,memoirs of ,literature1 vol4 ii41 and by ,toland1 ,misc4 ,works1 vol4 i4 ,schopp refers to ,bruno's death in a work published in #afaa 7i4e4 several years before the letter itself was published7 as having occurred ten years earlier 7,berti1 p4 #aj74 ,footnote #abh3 ,berti1 p4 #cbf1 n4 #a4 ,footnote #abi3 ,pognisi1 ,giordano ,bruno e l',archivio di ,san ,giovanni ,decollato1 ,torino1 #ahia1 and vol4 iii4 of ,op4 ,lat4 introd4 ,footnote #acj3 ,metam4 xv4 ,footnote #aca3 ,cf4 ,her4 ,fur4 #fbc4 #bj ff4 ,footnote #acb3 ,lag4 #efd4 #be4 ,footnote #acc3 ,e4g4 cf4 ,de ,umbris1 p4 #aj ff41 and ,magia ,math41 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #e4 #ejf4 ,footnote #acd3 ,lag4 #ada4 #e4 ,footnote #ace3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #abe4 #ab ff4 ,footnote #acf3 ,juvenal1 i4 #c4 #cjj4 ,footnote #acg3 ,lag4 #abi4 #g4 ,footnote #ach3 ,lag4 #cah4 #e4 ,footnote #aci3 ,lag4 #fai4 #bj4 ,cf4 also #gjj4 #be1 #gag4 #ci4 ,footnote #adj3 ,lag4 #gah4 #bf4 ,footnote #ada3 ,lag4 #bbc4 #ad ff41 cf4 #bdb4 #ce1 and ,de ,minimo1 bk4 iii4 #a4 ,footnote #adb3 ,de ,minimo1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c1 #ace4 ,footnote #adc3 ,in his ,de ,orbitis ,planetarum1 #ahja1 ,hegel demonstrated that the number of planets could not exceed seven4 ,before it appeared1 ,piazzi had discovered ,ceres4 ,footnote #add3 ,art4 ,adv4 ,math4 ,epist4 ,ded4 7i4 #c4 #d74 ,footnote #ade3 ,sig4 ,sig4 7ii4 #b4 #aib47 ,footnote #adf3 ,works published during ,bruno's imprisonment1 and posthumously4 ,footnote #adg3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 vol4 i4 pt4 #d4 ,also in ,gfrrer4 ,footnote #adh3 ,cf4 p4 #fg1 l4 #aa4 ,footnote #adi3 ,brunnhofer 7p4 #ha7 suggests that the first part contains the exoteric1 the second the esoteric teaching of ,bruno4 ,but as ,tocco 7,opere ,latine di ,g4 ,b41 p4 #acf7 rightly points out1 some such knowledge of ,aristotelian terms as that in ,part i4 would form a necessary preliminary to the study of philosophy in ,bruno's time4 ,he makes use of the ,aristotelian terms to express ideas quite different from those of ,aristotle4 ,footnote #aej3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #ccc4 ,footnote #aea3 ,vide ,tocco1 ,opere ,inedite di ,g4 ,b4 ,napoli1 #ahia4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #aec3 ,vide ,op4 ,lat4 iii41 ,introduction by ,vitelli2 but according to ,stlzle 7,archiv fr ,gesch4 d4 ,phil4 iii4 #ahij7 and ,tocco 7,op4 ,ined41 p4 #ii7 they belong to the first stay in ,paris4 ,the latter adds that they may have been repeated in ,wittenberg4 ,footnote #aed3 ,under the heading ,time 7de tempore7 there is a short treatise on ,astrology4 ,footnote #aee3 ,doc4 #h3 the words suggest a special training in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,philosophy1 and ,rhetoric1--not the whole ,trivium and ,quadrivium of the ordinary education of the day1 as ,berti supposes4 ,footnote #aef3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #fa2 ii4 #c2 i4 #d4 #ci1 #fe1 #fi2 i4 #a4 #bef1 etc4 ,footnote #aeg3 i4 #d4 #ba2 i4 #a4 #bbc2 i4 #a4 #bca4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,a compendium of ,aristotle's ,physics4 ,footnote #aei3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #aca ff4 ,footnote #afj3 7,de ,immenso1 iii4 #c71 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #cdj4 ,footnote #afa3 ,lag4 #aca4 ,footnote #afb3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #acc4 ,footnote #afc3 ,lag4 #bci4 ,footnote #afd3 ,ib4 #beb4 ,cf4 ,bacon's ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #ed3--;,aristotle1 who altogether enslaved his natural ,philosophy to his ,logic1 and so rendered it nearly useless and contentious1 7vide infra1 ch4 #i74 ,footnote #afe3 ,lag4 #bef4 ,footnote #aff3 ,ib4 #bhj4 ,footnote #afg3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #fb4 ,footnote #afh3 7,de l' ,infinito71 ,lag4 #cbd4 ,footnote #afi3 ,lag4 #bca4 ,footnote #agj3 ,ib4 #ahc4 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #bhb1 #bhh4 ,footnote #aga3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #if1 #c4 #bf1 #c4 #bga2 i4 #a4 #bia2 i4 #c4 #bf2 iii4 #gj1 etc4 ,footnote #agb3 ,lag4 #bhb4 ,footnote #agc3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #aif1 and 7,her4 ,fur47 ,lag4 #gbb4 #ce4 ,footnote #agd3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #bcg4 #i4 ,cf4 ,her4 ,fur4 ,lag4 #gbb4 #ce4 ,footnote #age3 ,lag4 #bef4 #be1 #bgc4 #be4 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #cgg4 ,footnote #agf3 i4 #a4 #bgb4 ,footnote #agg3 i4 #b4 #adh4 ,footnote #agh3 i4 #c4 #adj4 ,footnote #agi3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bdg4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #afi4 ,footnote #aha3 ,cf4 ,her4 ,fur41 ,lag4 #fcf4 ,if not by ,iamblichus1 this work issued certainly from his school1 to which ,julian the ,apostate belonged4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,e4g4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #cgf4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,op4 cit4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #dji4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,lag4 #ecb4 ,footnote #ahg3 i4e4 creative or original4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,spaccio1 ,lag4 #ecc4 ,bruno was probably acquainted with the ,de arte cabbalistica 7#aeag7 of ,reuchlin the ,platonist1 and with ,pico of ,mirandula's ,cabalistarum selectiora obscurioraque dogmata4 ,of the ,cabala itself the first part 7,creation7 was published in ,hebrew at ,mantua #aefb1 a translation into ,latin at ,basle #aehg3 the second part1 ,the ,book of ,splendour1 ,hebrew1 #aefj1 a translation1 not1 as it seems1 until the following century4 ,it is unlikely that ,bruno read ,hebrew1 although he makes use of ,hebrew letters among his symbols4 ,but there were many writings on the ,cabala from which he could have derived his idea of their teaching--e4g4 ,agrippa's ,occulta ,philosophia1 to which he was indebted for much of the ,de ,monade4 ,the ,cabala 7i4e4 traditional teaching7 is a collection of dogmas made about the ninth and thirteenth centuries2 it was certainly influenced by ,neoplatonism1 and contained the interpretation of creation as emanation in graduated series of beings from the one supreme ,being1 of the ,logos or ,divine ,word as intermediary between the ,supreme and the lower beings 7viz1 the material world and all sensible objects73 the elements of the ,logos are the ,sephiroth1 the ten numbers of ,pythagoras1 corresponding to the chief virtues or qualities2 next to these are the ideas or forms1 then the world-souls1 and last of all material things4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bca4 ,footnote #aij3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #aif4 ,footnote #aia3 ,ib4 ii4 i4 #dh4 ,footnote #aib3 ,plotinus1 ,enneads1 ii4 #d4 #d2 cf4 ,bruno's ,causa1 ,lag4 #bfg4 ,footnote #aic3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bga2 cf4 ,plot4 ,enn4 ii4 #d4 #c4 ,footnote #aid3 i4 #b4 #aag4 ,footnote #aie3 ,vide ,munk1 ,mlanges de ,philosophie juive et ,arabe1 ,paris1 #aehi2 and ,dictionnaire des sciences ,philosophiques1 ,paris1 #ahdd-eb4 ,footnote #aif3 ,ibn ,sina1 #ihj-ajcg _/,a4,d4_/2 cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #deh1 #dge4 ,footnote #aig3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #bbc1 called by ,bruno ,hispanus1 but really an ,arabian1 ,ibn ,badja1--d4 #aach4 ,footnote #aih3 ,a ,jew1 ,ibn ,gebirol1 fl4 #ajej4 ,footnote #aii3 ,al ,ghazzali1 #ajei-aaaa _/,a4,d4_/ ,footnote #bjj3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #fif4 ,footnote #bja3 ,vide ,wittman1 ,giord4 ,bruno's ,beziehungen zu ,avencebrol in the ,archiv fr ,geschichte der ,phil4 #ac4 #b 7#aijj74 ,footnote #bjb3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bec2 cf4 #bdf1 and ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #fif4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bfe4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,cf4 ,wittman1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #bje3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #agj4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,her4 ,fur4 ,lag4 #gdb4 ,algazel is connected with ,averroes by ,bruno in another argument against authority1--that the mere habit of and familiarity with a given belief does not authorise its truth1 for those who from boyhood and youth are accustomed to eat poison1 come to such a state that it is transformed into a sweet and good nourishment for them1 and on the contrary they come to abhor what is really good and pleasant according to common nature4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,a ,latin translation of ,averroes' ,commentaries was published in #adgb1 and one of his criticisms of ,algazel 7,destructio destructionis7 in #adig and in #aebg4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bga1 and ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #daa4 ,footnote #bji3 i4 #a4 #cgj4 ,footnote #baj3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bga3 on ,averroes cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #bba1 #bbd1 #ccg1 #cch1 etc4 ,footnote #baa3 ,her4 ,fur4 ,lag4 #fgg4 ,footnote #bab3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #af4 ,albertus lived from #aaic to #abhj ,a4,d4 ,there are frequent references to the spurious writings attributed to him1 in ,bruno's ,de ,magia ,mathematica1 etc4 ,footnote #bac3 i4 #b4 #dae4 ,cf4 ,sig4 ,sig4 ii4 #b4 #aij1 for a reputed miracle related of ,saint ,thomas4 ,footnote #bad3 ,cf4 the ridicule in ,lag4 #cfa and #efc4 ,footnote #bae3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bdf4 ,footnote #baf3 ,tocco1 ,fonti piu recenti1 etc41 p4 #ech4 ,footnote #bag3 ,besides the several works on the ,art of ,reasoning1 ,lully had written also on theology and on medicine1 and ,bruno1 in his 7posthumous7 ,medicina ,lulliana1 gave a compendium of the latter group of writings4 ,footnote #bah3 ,de ,lampade ,combinatoria1 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #bcd4 ,footnote #bai3 ,faber ,stapulensis 7c4 #aejj71 and ,carolus ,bovillus 7c4 #adgj-aeec74 ,both were rather followers of ,cusanus4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #bdb4 ,footnote #bba3 ii4 #b4 #fa4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #cbi1 #c4 #big4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,de ,comp4 ,arch4 ii4 #b4 #db4 ,footnote #bbd3 i4 #a4 #ag4 ,on ,cusanus v4 ,falckenberg1 ,grundzge der ,philosophie des ,nicolaus ,cusanus1 #ahhj1 ,uebinger1 ,philosophie des ,n4 ,c41 #ahhj1 and ,gotteslehre des ,n4 ,c41 #ahhh1 ,f4 ,j4 ,clemens1 ,giord4 ,bruno und ,nikolaus von ,cusa1 #ahdg1 ,scharpff1 ,des ,n4 von ,c4 wichstigste ,schriften1 #ahfb4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cdh4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,cf4 ,cusanus' ,de docta ignorantia4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,spaccio1 ,lag4 #dbj4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,de docta ignorantia1 i4 #g4 ,alchoran1 ii4 #g1 #h4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,doct4 ignor4 ii4 #g4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,de ,possest4 ,footnote #bca3 ,alchoran1 ii4 #f4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,cusanus1 ,de ,ludo globi1 bk4 i4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,cusanus1 ,de ,idiota1 iii4 7,de ,mente1 #i74 ,footnote #bcd3 ,cusanus1 ,de ,conjecturis1 i4 #d4 ,footnote #bce3 ,id4 ,de ,visione ,dei1 #aj4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,id4 ,de ,venatione ,sapientiae4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,de occulta philosophia4 ,footnote #bch3 ,de ,vanitate ,scientiarum4 ,footnote #bci3 ,tocco4 ,fonti piu recenti1 etc4 p4 #ecd4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,theophrastus ,bombastes von ,hohenheim1 #adic-aeda4 ,footnote #bda3 ,lag4 #bdg4 ,footnote #bdb3 i4 #a4 #ag4 ,in the ,sig4 ,sig4 ii4 #b4 #aha1 he is put forward as an example of the value of the life of solitude3--,paracelsus1 who glories more in the title of hermit than in that of doctor or master1 became a leader and author among physicians1 second to none--a reference to the title of ,eremita1 which ,paracelsus took1 however1 from his birthplace ,einsiedeln1 and to his well known and strongly expressed contempt for the learning of books4 ,footnote #bdc3 #aeja-aegf _/,a4,d4_/ ,footnote #bdd3 ,the first two books of the ,de natura rerum were published in #aefe4 ,footnote #bde3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #ag4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #abd4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,bruno praises and gives long extracts from ,copernicus in the ,de ,immenso1 bk4 iii4 ch4 #i4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,de la ,causa1 etc4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,lag4 #bbi4 ,footnote #bej3 ,lag4 #bbi4 ,footnote #bea3 ,de la ,causa1 principio et uno1 #aehd4 ,footnote #beb3 ,lag4 #bcj4 ,footnote #bec3 ,ib4 ,the terms correspond to ,aristotle's ,greek3 arch and ,greek3 aition1 respectively2 no clear distinction was drawn between their meanings by ,aristotle1 however4 ,bruno's aim is to contrast the inwardly active1 immanent principle of life and of movement with the transient1 outwardly active cause1 and to interpret nature1 as a whole1 as the manifestation of some such inward principle1 rather than as a mechanical system to which the impulse was given from without4 ,footnote #bed3 ,lag4 #bca4 #ch4 ,the ,intellectus is identified also with the ,pythagorean world-mover 7,verg4 ,aeneid1 vi4 #gbf72 the ,world's ,eye of the ,orphic ,poems2 the distinguisher of ,empedocles2 the ,father and ,progenitor of all things of ,plotinus4 ,footnote #bee3 ,lag4 #bcb4 #bd4 ,footnote #bef3 ,lag4 #bcb4 #cc ff4 ,footnote #beg3 ,on ,perfection1 vide infra1 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #beh3 ,lag4 #bcc4 #bg4 ,cf4 ,arist4 ,de ,anima1 ii4 #a4 ,footnote #bei3 ,cf4 ,arist4 ,de ,anima1 ii4 ch4 #a and #b4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,lag4 #bch4 #cd4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,cf4 ,lucretius4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,lag4 #bjb4 #dj4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,cf4 e4g4 #bch4 #ab1 when the form or soul is said to be one in all things1 and differences are said to arise from the dispositions of matter4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,vide infra1 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,lag4 #bdj4 #bh4 ,footnote #bff3 ,lag4 #bdb4 #g4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,epist4 ,prom41 ,lag4 #bjc4 #ai4 ,when he wrote the ,de ,minimo the question had at least presented itself to ,bruno as requiring solution3 vide bk4 iv4 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #bgd74 ,individual differences are referred to two possible sources--the different compositions of the forms or ideal types1 and the varied dispositions of matter2 and it is suggested that the latter of these may derive from the former4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,lag4 #bdf4 #cg4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,lag4 #bdh4 #ag4 ,the apparent conflict between this and the preceding pages will resolve itself below4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,lag4 #bdi4 #ce4 ,footnote #bga3 ,pseudo-,timaeus1 #id ,a4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,lag4 #bec4 #aa4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,lag4 #beg1 #beh4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,lag4 #beh-bfj4 ,footnote #bge3 ,lag4 #bfa4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,lag4 #bff4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,supra1 ch4 i4 ,cf4 ,plotinus1 ,ennead1 ii4 #d4 #d4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,lag4 #bfi4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,lag4 #bfh-bga4 ,bruno refers here to ,averroes1 and especially to ,plotinus1 v4 ch4 i4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,compare the ambiguity in ,spinoza's definition of mind in relation to body4 ,footnote #bha3 ,lag4 #bgc1 #bgd4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,lag4 #bgg4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,lag4 #bgh4 #d4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,lag4 pp4 #bgh-bha4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,lag4 #bhe4 #ce4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,lag4 #bhh4 #e4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,lag4 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #adg4 #a4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,de ,immenso3 de l' ,infinito3 ,acrotismus1 etc4 ,footnote #bij3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #bia3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #bib3 ,de ,immenso1 bk4 i4 ch4 #f4 ,footnote #bic3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bbb4 ,footnote #bid3 ,p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #bie3 ,p4 #bca4 ,footnote #bif3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bcb4 ,on ,space1 cf4 ,acrot4 ,art4 #ca1 #cc-cg 7,vacuum1 ,ether1 etc471 and ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cfe4 ,footnote #big3 ,p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #bih3 ,p4 #bce4 ,footnote #bii3 ,cf4 ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cbb4 #a ff4 for the argument4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #b42 cf4 ,infinito1 ,dial4 v41 ,lag4 #chg4 ,footnote #cja3 ,de ,imm4 i4 #a4 #bfd2 cf4 ,inf4 #cib4 #ae4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #d 7#bfg ff474 ,footnote #cjc3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #f4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,ch4 #g4 7p4 #bgh72 cf4 ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cce ff4 ,footnote #cje3 ,vide infra1 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,ib4 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #h 7p4 #bhc72 cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #baf1 and ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cdd ff4 #cch4 ,footnote #cji3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #caj3 ,p4 #bhe4 ,footnote #caa3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #aj4 p4 #bic4 ,footnote #cab3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #aa4 ,footnote #cac3 ,p4 #cjj ff4 ,footnote #cad3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #ab4 #cjb ff4 ,footnote #cae3 ,bk4 ii4 ch4 #ac4 ,footnote #caf3 ,cf4 also infra1 p4 #aii ff4 ,footnote #cag3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 i4 ch4 #aj4 pp4 #bce-h2 cf4 ,infinito1 #cab f41 #caf4 ,bruno does not use the term principle of sufficient reason3 his principle is the inverse of that of ,leibniz--whatever has not a sufficient reason for existing is necessarily non-existent1--,bruno's being that whatever has not a sufficient reason for non-existence 7i4e4 whatever is possible7 necessarily exists4 ,footnote #cah3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 i4 ch4 #aa4 p4 #bci2 ,infin4 #cad f4 ,footnote #cai3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 i4 ch4 #aa4 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,ib4 ,schol4 ch4 #aa4 pp4 #bda1 #bdb4 ,footnote #cba3 ,p4 #bdb ff4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,cf4 ,infinito1 ,lag4 #caf4 #ba4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,no4 #ac states that the worlds could not interfere with one another1 since space is infinite4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,no4 #ah denies that the perfection of the world in one space should either add to or detract from the perfection of another world in other space or render it less necessary4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,bk4 i4 ch4 #ab4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,p4 #bde4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,op4 ,lat4 vol4 i4 pt4 #b4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,ib41 ch4 x4 p4 #cab ff4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,p4 #bfj4 ,on ,time cf4 ,acrot41 ,arts4 #ch-dj4 ,footnote #cca3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,p4 #cji ff4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,p4 #caa4 ,footnote #cce3 ,p4 #cab4 ,cf4 ,fiorentino's ,telesio1 p4 #he4 ,on ,perfection1 and the ,perfection of the ,universe1 cf4 ,bruno's ,acrot41 ,arts4 #ag and #ea4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,cf4 ,spinoza4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,allusions to practices of the ,black ,art4 ,footnote #cch3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #cci3 ,de ,immenso1 iii4 ch4 #a4 7p4 #cac ff474 ,footnote #cdj3 ,p4 #cag4 ,footnote #cda3 ,bk4 iii4 ch4 #b4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,ch4 #d4 p4 #cda ff4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,so ,bruno explained the phases of the moon4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,bk4 vi4 ch4 #ag4 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #cde3 ,ch4 #ah4 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,ib4 p4 #bbj4 ,if the flow of change were arrested at any one point in ,nature1 it would ultimately be arrested throughout the whole4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,bk4 iv4 ch4 #a4 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #f74 ,footnote #cdh3 ,p4 #g4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,p4 #h4 ,footnote #cej3 ,p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #cea3 ,after ,empedocles4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 iii4 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #cec3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #cec4 ,footnote #ced3 ,p4 #ced4 ,footnote #cee3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 p4 #cbi4 ,footnote #cef3 ,the saying of ,king ,alfonso in this regard is worth repetition1--that had he been consulted at the creation of the world he would have spared the ,maker some absurdities4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a44 #cfj4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,p4 #cfb1 cf4 supra4 ,footnote #cei3 ,p4 #cfi 7ch4 #g7-- ,promptius utque magis quvis pernice volucrum ,versum quaque meent1 immensumque aera findant ,intima nempe animae vis concitat illa1 etc4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 iv4 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,ch4 #h 7p4 #db f474 ,footnote #cfc3 ,ch4 #d1 ,schol4 cf4 bk4 iv4 ch4 #ac 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #fg74 ,footnote #cfd3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 vi4 ch4 #ai4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #cff3 #aeca1 #aecb1 #aegb1 #aegg1 #aehe4 7,bk4 v4 chs4 #i and #ac47 ,footnote #cfg3 ,e4g4 ,de ,imm4 bk4 iv4 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,ib4 ch4 #g4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 v4 ch4 #b 7p4 #aai74 ,footnote #cgj3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #cga3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #ahc4 #cj4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,lag4 #ahd4 #ce2 ,acrot4 ,art4 #fh2 ,infinito1 #cgj4 #bi1 #cge4 #f1 #cij4 #cd2 ,acrot4 ,art4 #hj 7i4 #a4 #ahi71 etc4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 v4 ch4 #a4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #ahe4 #d4 ,footnote #cge3 ,cabala1 p4 #ehg4 #bc ff4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,on movements of suns and earths1 as determined by the soul1 and the need of mutual sustenance1 cf4 ,acrot4 ,arts4 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #gb4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,cf4 ,cena1 ,lag4 #aff4 #cb1 where it is suggested that the ,alps and ,pyrenees once formed the summit of a very high mountain1 gradually broken up1 through continuous geological changes1 into the lesser forms we now call mountains4 ,so the whole of ,britain is a mountain1 rising up out of the sea2 its summit is the highest point1 ,scotland4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,de ,imm4 bk4 iv4 ch4 #ah4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,cf4 ,infinito1 ,lag4 #cea4 #cj1 on the gradual changes of the earth's surface1 which ,bruno infers are present1 although imperceptible1 in other stars also4 ,cf4 ib4 #ccb4 #ae1 and ,de ,imm41 bks4 iv4 and vi42 ,acrot4 ,arts4 #dh and #gd4 ,in ,inf4 #cec4 #cj1 rocks1 lakes1 rivers1 springs1 etc41 are compared to the different members or organs of the human body3 the accidents or disturbances of them1--clouds1 rain1 snow1 etc41--to the diseases of the human body4 ,footnote #chj3 ,acrotismus3 ,de ,minimo4 ,footnote #cha3 ,lag4 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #chb3 ,lag4 #afd4 #ah4 ,footnote #chc3 ,monadology1 #gj4 ,cf4 also #fd1 #ff1 #fg-fi4 ,footnote #chd3 ,lag4 #ccb4 ,footnote #che3 ,lag4 #ceg4 #aj2 cf4 #ccd4 #bd1 #cei4 #ac1 #cic4 #e1 and ,her4 ,fur4 #gch4 #ag4 ,footnote #chf3 ,lag4 #cfg4 #ab1 #cge4 #cg4 ,footnote #chg3 ,lag4 #dee4 #cg4 ,footnote #chh3 ,contrast ,tocco1 ,opere ,latine di ,g4,b41 part #e4 ,footnote #chi3 ,fiorentino's ,preface to ,op4 ,lat4 vol4 i4 p4 xxviii4 ,footnote #cij3 ,acrot4 ,cam4 ,art4 #db1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #cia3 ,acrot4 ,cam4 ,art4 #fe4 ,footnote #cib3 ,vide ,de ,min4 p4 #baa 7bk4 ii4 ch4 #f74 ,footnote #cic3 ,de ,min4 bk4 i4 ch4 #i4 ,footnote #cid3 ,ib4 ,schol4 7p4 #agj74 ,footnote #cie3 ,ch4 #aj4 ,footnote #cif3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #cig3 ,this thought recurs in ,leibniz4 ,footnote #cih3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 pp4 #bji-baa4 ,footnote #cii3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #djj3 ,p4 #adg4 #a4 ,footnote #dja3 ,p4 #adi4 #c4 ,footnote #djb3 ,de ,min4 bk4 ii4 ch4 #c1 pp4 #aia ff4 ,footnote #djc3 ,p4 #aie4 #bj4 ,footnote #djd3 ,ch4 #d4 ,footnote #dje3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #aii4 #ae4 ,footnote #djf3 ,p4 #bjj4 #bj4 ,footnote #djg3 ,p4 #bjj4 #bh1 #bja4 #d2 cf4 #bbc4 #aa4 ,footnote #djh3 ,de ,min4 bk4 ii4 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #dji3 ,p4 #bjc4 #bg4 ,footnote #daj3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #bjg4 #e 7cf4 p4 #cjb1 bk4 v4 ch4 #b74 ,footnote #daa3 ,p4 #bjh4 #i4 ,footnote #dab3 ,p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #dac3 ,de ,min4 bk4 i4 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #dad3 ,arist4 ,phys4 ,z4 #a4 #bca1 a #bc4 ,footnote #dae3 ,de ,min4 p4 #aec4 #bb ff4 ,footnote #daf3 ,p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #dag3 ,de ,min4 ,p4 #agc4 #i2 cf4 #agc4 #g1 #ahj4 ,footnote #dah3 ,p4 #afj4 ,footnote #dai3 ,p4 #afa4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,p4 #afb4 ,footnote #dba3 ,de ,min4 i4 ch4 #h4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,ch4 #aa4 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,ch4 #ab4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,ch4 #b4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,de ,min4 i4 ch4 #ad4 p4 #ahd4 #bc4 ,footnote #dbf3 ii1 ch4 #h4 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #dbg3 iii4 ch4 #ab4 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,lasswitz1 p4 #bf1 note1 where it is said the eighth triangle and the sixth circle are equal4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #bag4 #i4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,pp4 #bai1 #bba4 ,footnote #dca3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 p4 #bdc 7bk4 iii4 ch4 #c74 ,footnote #dcb3 ,p4 #bde 7bk4 iii4 ch4 #d471 cf4 p4 #cbc 7bk4 v4 c4 #i71 #cbd4 7c4 #aj74 ,footnote #dcc3 ,p4 #cjf 7bk4 v4 ch4 #e474 ,footnote #dcd3 ,p4 #bgj4 #ad4 ,footnote #dce3 ,cf4 ,art4 adv4 ,math4 ii4 ,the figures there are slightly different1 and named ,figurae ,mentis1 ,intellectus1 ,amoris4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,lag4 #djg4 #be4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,lag4 p4 #djg4 #g4 ,footnote #dch3 ,p4 #djf4 #bi4 ,footnote #dci3 ,lag4 #dbg4 #ai4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,the constellations as typifying vices were to be expelled from the heavens and replaced by the personified virtues4 ,footnote #dda3 ,lag4 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,lag4 p4 #ddf4 #a ff41 cf4 #ddg4 ,questa fetida ,sporcaria del mondo1 and #dfg4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,p4 #dfb4 #cj4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,p4 #dfh4 #be4 ,footnote #dde3 ,lag4 p4 #edc4 #ce ff41 cf4 #edd4 #bj1 #edf4 #af1 and esp4 #eed4 #ac ff4 7,chiron the ,centaur71 for other references to the ,church and its beliefs4 ,bruno could not have written the last passage while retaining any shred of genuine belief in the divinity of ,christ4 v4 also #ecd4 #cb4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,cabala1 p4 #efe4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,cf4 the poem in the ,cabala1 p4 #efd4 #be1 ,o' ,sant' ,asinita1 and ,cena1 ,lag4 #adg4 #ba 7the ,ark of ,noah71 etc4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,the lists given in the argument are not quite the same as those in the body of the work1 and both differ to some extent from the list of vices which is put in the mouth of ,jupiter at the beginning1 p4 #dci4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,from ,lag4 p4 #dci4 ,footnote #dej3 ,cf4 also p4 #dhh4 ,another list of virtues is in the eulogium on ,julius in the ,oratio ,consolatoria 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #dg ff474 ,there also the constellations typify different virtues4 ,footnote #dea3 ,in the ,de ,lamp4 ,comb41 are two lists of virtues and vices1 after ,lully2 with each virtue are given the two vicious extremes1 in ,aristotelian fashion4 7,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #beg74 ,footnote #deb3 ,lag4 #dhi4 #ah 7,sub ,lyra74 ,they are ,arithmetica1 ,geometria1 ,musica1 ,logica1 ,poesia1 ,astrologia1 ,physica1 ,metaphysica1 ,ethica4 ,footnote #dec3 ,lag4 p4 #dfa4 #aa ff4 ,footnote #ded3 ,pp4 #dfa1 #dfb4 ,footnote #dee3 ,in contrast with ,st4 ,luke #ae4 #g4 ,footnote #def3 ,reading conversation for conservation4 ,footnote #deg3 ,lag4 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe4 ,footnote #deh3 ,lag4 pp4 #dfe1 #dff4 ,footnote #dei3 ,p4 #ebg4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,pp4 #ebj1 #eba4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #gid4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,compare the picture of ,avarice in ,spaccio1 pp4 #dgg1 #dgh1 with ,shakespeare's ,shylock4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,cabala1 p4 #egf4 #ca4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,p4 #ejj4 #dj4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,cf4 p4 #ece4 #d1 and #eda4 #ce1--;,escremento de l' ,egitto1 which may not mean more than outgrowth or offshoot of ,egypt1 although it has been interpreted otherwise4 ,footnote #dff3 ,p4 #edb4 #ah4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,spaccio1 p4 #ebf4 #aa2 ,clemens' translation 7op4 cit4 p4 #agb7 gives this saying an unnecessarily sinister meaning4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,de ,vinculis in genere 7,op4 ,lat4 iii4 p4 #fig4 #bf74 ,footnote #dfi3 ,lag4 p4 #ejc4 #bj4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,from ,tasso's ,aminta1 act i4 sub fin4--,bruno hardly ever mentions the authors of the poems in his ethical works1 so that the layman in literature has great difficulty in knowing which1 if any1 are his own4 ,thus ,rixner and ,siber translate the above1 and give it as ,bruno's 7op4 cit4 p4 #bcj74 ,in the fourth line ,bruno reads ,e 'n for ,ma 'n4 ,footnote #dga3 ,cf4 ,infinito1 p4 #cih4 #af4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,cf4 ,de ,imm4 vii4 #af 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 p4 #bgh74 ,footnote #dgc3 ,lag4 p4 #ejg4 #f4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,p4 #ejg4 #ad4 ,footnote #dge3 ,vide infra1 ch4 vii41 re transmigration4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,lag4 p4 #ehf4 #aa4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,lag4 p4 #ehf4 #ce ff4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,ib4 p4 #dfi4 #g4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,sextus ,math4 xi4 #ea-eh4 ,crantor was one of the ,old ,academy1 and wrote a commentary on the ,timaeus1 as well as some ethical works1 of which that ,on ,mourning seems to have been most in vogue4 ,the goods of the soul were placed in the following order of merit by him3--,virtue1 ,health1 ,pleasure1 ,riches4--,vide ,zeller1 ii4 #fif4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,lag4 p4 #dhg1 #dhh4 ,footnote #dha3 ,p4 #dib 7,cassiopoeia74 ,footnote #dhb3 ,p4 #dic4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,vide ,lag4 pp4 #deg ff4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,vide supra1 ch4 #b4 and cf4 ,cabala1 ,lag4 #egh4 #ce4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,a reminiscence of ,aristotle's ,greek3 phronsis4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,lag4 #deh4 #dei4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,lag4 #dei4 #dfj4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,there is a mingling1 in ,bruno's use of this word1 of meanings derived from ,greek3 hrs1 and from ,plato's ,greek3 ers4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,lag4 #gag4 #ci ff4 ,footnote #dij3 ,lag4 #fcd4 #d4 ,footnote #dia3 #fcd4 #bb4 ,footnote #dib3 ,lag4 #fce4 ,footnote #dic3 #fdi1 #fej4 ,footnote #did3 #fbf1 #bj f4 ,footnote #die3 ,lag4 #fci4 #bb ff42 cf4 ,sig4 ,sig4 #dh1 for the first kind of furor 7,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #aia74 ,footnote #dif3 ,lag4 #fgb4 #a4 ,footnote #dig3 ,cf4 the ,sonnet on p4 #fca3-- ,amor per cui tant' alto il ver discerno1 ,ch' apre le porte di diamante nere1 ,per gl' occhi entra il mio nume1 et per vedere ,nasce1 vive1 si nutre1 ha regno eterno1 ,fa scorger--quant' ha 'l ciel1 terr' et inferno4 ,footnote #dih3 ,lag4 #fbh4 #ah4 ,footnote #dii3 ,lag4 #fci4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,lag4 #fgb4 #bi4 ,footnote #eja3 #fdf4 #b ff4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,lag4 #fdf1 #fdg4 ,footnote #ejc3 #fdg4 #cd ff42 cf4 the ,sonnet 7,tansillo's7 on p4 #fdh3-- ,poi che spiegat' ho' l' ali al bel desio1 ,quanto piu sott' il pie l' aria mi scorgo1 ,piu le veloci penne al vento porgo1 ,et spreggio il mondo1 et vers' il ciel m' invio4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fendi sicur le nubi1 et muor contento2 ,s' il ciel si illustre morte ne destina4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,alle selve i mastini e i' veltri slaccia ,il grovan ,atteon1 etc41 p4 #fea4 ,footnote #eje3 ,lag4 #fea1 #feb4 ,footnote #ejf3 #fec4 #f4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,lag4 #fed1 #fee4 ,footnote #ejh3 #feh4 #af4 ,footnote #eji3 #gca4 #i ff4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,e4g4 darkness is privatively infinite1 although it has a limit in light1 a positive something4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,e4g4 light is positively infinite2 its limit--darkness--is privation4 ,footnote #eab3 ,lag4 #gca4 ,footnote #eac3 ,lag4 #ffb1 #ffc4 ,footnote #ead3 #gja4 #cj ff4 ,footnote #eae3 ,lag4 #gcb4 #bc2 the terms correspond to ,greek3 dynamis and ,greek3 energeia1 or ,greek3 hyl and ,greek3 eidos1 respectively4 ,footnote #eaf3 #fdg4 #g4 ,footnote #eag3 ,lag4 #gdd4 #a ff4 ,footnote #eah3 #fif4 #bd2 cf4 #fha4 #bb4 ,footnote #eai3 #gje4 #ce4 ,footnote #ebj3 #gaf4 #ad4 ,footnote #eba3 ,lag4 #ffc4 #cf2 cf4 #fff4 #e4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,p4 #fhj4 #b ff4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,cf4 also ,sigillus ,sigillorum 7ii4 #b4 #aib71 where ,polemon and ,laurentius are added to the above list4 ,the highest kind of contraction or concentration is the subject1 viz4 that which is proper to philosophers4 ,cf4 also ,de ,vinculis in genere 7vol4 iii4 p4 #feg74 ,diogenes the ,cynic and ,epicurus are placed side by side as having held that they had attained the highest good in this life possible to man1 when they could keep the mind free from pain1 fear1 anger1 or other melancholy passions and preserve it in a certain heroic delight4 ,by this contempt of the ignoble things in this life1 viz4 those subject to change1 they protested that they had attained1 even in this mortal body1 to a life similar to that of the gods4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,lag4 #gjj4 #ce2 cf4 #fha4 #ai4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,p4 #gjj4 #ad1 #gja4 #d ff42 cf4 also #gaj4 #aa4 ,the divine beauty excludes the possibility of our loving in its stead any other object4 ,also #gac4 #cj4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,op4 ,lat41 ii4 #b4 #aie4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,lag4 #gjd4 #aj4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,lag4 #fii4 #c4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,p4 #gdb4 #bd2 cf4 also #gbc4 #bh and #gbd4 #ag4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,lag4 #gda4 #ad4 ,footnote #eca3 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #aeh4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #d 7,letter to ,rudolph ,,ii41 prefixed to the ,art4 adv4 ,math474 ,footnote #ecc3 ,lag4 #deb4 #c ff4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,cf4 ,lucretius1 ii4 #ajic ff4 ,footnote #ece3 ,lag4 #ded4 #f4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,lag4 #dee4 #ce4 ,cf4 ,de ,immenso1 ii4 #ac4 #caj1 #caa4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,lag4 #def4 #g4 ,footnote #ech3 ,cf4 the mockery of ,momus in the ,spaccio 7sub ,orion1 ,lag4 p4 #edc74 ,footnote #eci3 ,sig4 ,sig4 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #aij4 ,footnote #edj3 ,orat4 ,consol4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #ea2 cf4 i4 #c4 #d4 ,footnote #eda3 ,cf4 ,lucretius1 ii4 #fdf3 ,omnis enim per se divom natura necessest1 etc4 ,footnote #edb3 ,lag4 #dfc4 #dfd4 ,footnote #edc3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #afi4 #ag ff42 cf4 ,spinoza1 ,tractatus ,theologico politicus1 esp4 ch4 #ad and #ae1 and preface1 #bd3 ,scripturam rationem absolute liberam relinquere et nihil cum philosophia commune habere4 ,footnote #edd3 ,cf4 what is said of the danger of preaching determinism to the many1 in ,inf41 ,lag41 #cag4 #aa1 and ,her4 ,fur41 ,lag4 #fai4 #bj4 ,footnote #ede3 ,giordano ,bruno's1 ,weltanschauung1 etc41 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 ,footnote #edf3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #aga1 #agb4 ,footnote #edg3 ,vide ,berti1 ,docs4 xi4 and xii4 ,footnote #edh3 ,comp4 ,arch4 art4 ,lull41 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #db4 ,footnote #edi3 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #b4 #gh 7preface to ,triginta ,sigilli72 cf4 i4 #a4 #hb 7,acrotismus71 and the ,spaccio 7supra1 p4 #bec74 ,footnote #eej3 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bfg4 #g4 ,footnote #eea3 ,lag4 #fic4 #bb4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,cf4 the passage in the ,infinito referred to above1 ,lag4 #cag4 #aa4 ,footnote #eec3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #f4 ,footnote #eed3 ,e4g4 by ,sigwart4 ,cf4 supra1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #eee3 ,summa1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #ajj1 #aja 7sub4 ,evidentia74 ,footnote #eef3 ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ii1 sub ,fides4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,ib4 s4 ,auctoritas2 cf4 ,causa1 ,lag4 #bga4 #dj4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,e4g4 ,inf4 ,lag4 #cgh4 #af4 ,footnote #eei3 ,cf4 ,tocco1 ,conferenza1 p4 #ej ff4 ,footnote #efj3 ,lag4 #ebi ff4 ,footnote #efa3 ,spaccio1 ,lag4 p4 #ecj4 ,footnote #efb3 ,spaccio1 #eca4 ,footnote #efc3 ,de ,immenso1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #agb4 ,footnote #efd3 ,de ,immenso1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #bhd f43 ,every land produces all kinds of animals1 as is clear from inaccessible islands1 nor was there one first wolf1 or lion1 or bull1 from which all wolves1 lions1 and cattle are descended and transported to these islands1 but at every part the earth from the beginning has given all things1 etc4 ,footnote #efe3 ,cf4 ,spaccio1 ,lag4 #daa4 #i2 ,her4 ,fur4 #ffb4 #bb2 ,cantus ,circaeus 7,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #a72 ,de ,minimo 7i4 #c4 #bjg72 ,de ,monade 7i4 #b4 #cbg71 and iii4 #bfa1 #fec4 ,footnote #eff3 ,cf4 ,plato's ,phaedrus1 #fa4 ,footnote #efg3 ,cabala1 ,lag4 #ehd4 ,footnote #efh3 ,lag4 #bdb4 #c4 ,footnote #efi3 ,causa1 ,dial4 #d2 esp4 ,lag4 #bfe1 #ch ff4 ,footnote #egj3 ,cena1 ,lag4 #abh4 #e2 cf4 ,spaccio1 #ecc4 #af1 #eci4 #b1 and ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #adf4 ,footnote #ega3 ,lag4 #afd4 #ah ff4 ,footnote #egb3 ,lag4 #bjb4 #ci ff41 #bch4 #bg ff41 #cjc4 #ag1 #cag4 #g1 #dji4 #ac1 #edg4 #af2 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #adb4 ,footnote #egc3 ,de ,umbris 7ii4 #a4 #df74 ,footnote #egd3 ,inf4 #cjc4 #ba4 ,footnote #ege3 ,lag4 #ff4 #g4 ,footnote #egf3 ,cf4 ,bartholmss 7vol4 i4 p4 #abd71 who refers to ,cardan and ,campanella as offering a similar proof of immortality4 ,footnote #egg3 ,de ,imm41 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #bje4 ,footnote #egh3 ,de ,minimo1 bk4 i4 7i4 #c4 #adc74 ,there also it is said that the transformations are not fortuitous1 but depend on the character of the life that has been lived1 as ,pythagoras and the ,platonists taught4 ,footnote #egi3 ,bruno inclines to this view only in one of his latest works1 the ,lampas 7vol4 iii4 #ei71 but it is clearly implied in the ,de ,minimo4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,de ,minimo1 ii4 ch4 #f 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #bjh ff474 ,cf4 i4 #b4 #hj3 ,the seats of the blessed are the stars2 the seat of the gods is the ether or heavens2 for the stars ,i call gods in a secondary sense2 the seat of ,god is the universe1 everywhere1 the whole immeasurable heaven--empty space1 of which he is the fulness4 ,for ,bruno's ,demonology1 vide i4 #b4 #fa 7,de ,immenso1 iv4 #aa71 and i4 #b4 #cii 7,de ,monade74 ,footnote #eha3 ,lampas1 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #dh2 cf4 ,her4 ,fur4 ,lag4 #gda4 #ae4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,her4 ,fur4 ,lag4 #gba4 #cc4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,lampas1 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #ba2 cf4 #bc4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,ib4 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #bje4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #ea2 i4 #a4 #fh4 ,footnote #ehg3 i4 #b4 #aea4 ,footnote #ehh3 i4 #a4 #bda4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,de ,immenso1 bk4 i4 ch4 #aj-ac4 ,footnote #eij3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a4 #fh1 etc4 ,footnote #eia3 ,cf4 ,op4 ,lat4 ii4 #c4 #ij 7,de ,imag4 ,comp474 ,intellect is here used in a general sense1 not in the special one of intuitive thought4 ,footnote #eib3 ,summa1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #aag4 ,it does not imply their formal identity4 ,footnote #eic3 ,art4 adv4 ,math4 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #af4 ,footnote #eid3 i4 #b4 #cdf4 ,footnote #eie3 i4 #d4 #gc4 ,footnote #eif3 i4 #d4 #ie4 ,footnote #eig3 ,for ,bruno's revolt against the mystical in ,neoplatonism1 cf4 ,de ,imm4 v4 #a4 #a 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #b4 #aah71 and cf4 viii4 p4 #bih ff4 #cac2 ,de ,mon41 p4 #daj4 ,footnote #eih3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #gi4 ,footnote #eii3 ,ib4 #hc4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,ib4 #he4 ,footnote #fja3 ,ib4 #hf4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 p4 #ii4 ,god is not1 however1 passively comprised3 cf4 iii4 #eji 7,de rerum princip473 ,mens eminentius tota in toto ita ut etiam sit tota extra totum et supra totum1 etc4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #db 7,lampas71 cf4 i4 #d4 #he1 #hf4 ,footnote #fjd3 i4 #c4 #adf1 #adg 7,de ,min47 ,footnote #fje3 ,summa1 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #d4 #ic1 #ie4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,lampas1 ,op4 ,lat4 iii4 #de4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,scepsius1 behind whose authority ,dicson shelters1 is1 according to ,g4 ,p41 ,dicson himself4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,ellis and ,spedding1 ii4 #ac4 ,footnote #fji3 ,historia ,ventorum1 ,ellis and ,spedding1 ii1 p4 #ea2 cf4 ,nov4 ,org4 ii4 #ab4 ,the source of the ,mount ,athos legend is certainly ,aristotle's ,problemata 7xxvi4 #ci71 while that for ,olympus is either ,solinus1 or more probably ,bruno1 in the ,cena de le ,cenere 7,lag4 #afg4 #ac74 ,bruno1 on his part1 refers to ,alexander of ,aphrodisias2 it is not to be found1 however1 in ,alexander's commentary upon the ,meteorologica 7,e4 and ,s4 refer to ,ideler1 i4 #adh74 ,footnote #faj3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 aph4 #de4 ,footnote #faa3 ,ib4 ii4 #i4 ,footnote #fab3 ,de ,augm4 i4 p4 #dff2 cf4 ,bruno's ,cena1 ,lag4 #agg4 #bg4 ,elsewhere1 however1 ,bacon condemns the habit of some of the moderns1 who have attempted to base natural philosophy upon the first chapter of ,genesis and the ,book of ,job1 and other sacred scriptures4--,nov4 ,org4 i4 ax4 #fe4 ,footnote #fac3 ,de ,augm4 i4 #dgi1 and ,bruno1 passim4 ,footnote #fad3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 ax4 #hd2 cf4 #gg 7the argument ex consensu71 and ,de ,augm4 i4 p4 #deh4 ,in their note ,e4 and ,s4 refer to ,esdras1 c4 #ad1 v4 #aj3 the world has lost its youth1 and the times begin to wax old2 and to ,casmann's ,problemata ,marina 7#aeif71 as well as to ,bruno's ,cena 7#aehd74 ,footnote #fae3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #hi4 ,footnote #faf3 ,ib4 i4 #fe4 ,footnote #fag3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #fc2 cf4 also #ga4 ,footnote #fah3 ,ib4 i4 #de4 ,footnote #fai3 ,nov4 ,org4 ii4 #ae4 ,it was a scholastic distinction2 ,e4 and ,s4 illustrate it from ,thomas ,aquinas' ,summa ,theologiae1 ,ima1 q4 #de 7,e4 and ,s4 i4 p4 #bei74 ,footnote #fbj3 ,ib4 ii4 #a4 ,footnote #fba3 ,e4g4 ib4 i4 #ff1 where are added the appetite a thing has to return to its natural dimension or extension 7viz4 ,elasticity71 the appetite to conjugate with masses of its own kind1 as the dense to the sphere of the earth1 the rare to the sphere of the sky4 ,these are described as really physical kinds of motion1 not1 as ,aristotle's are1 logical and scholastical4 ,cf4 the ,natural ,history1 ,e4 and ,s4 ii4 #fjj1 #fjb2 and ,bruno1 supra4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,nov4 ,org4 ii4 #h4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,vide ,bacon's ,essay on the ,vicissitude of ,things2 and for his ,atomism1 the ,historia ,densi et ,rari 7,e4 and ,s4 vol4 ii471 and ,cogit4 de ,natura ,rerum 7ib4 vol4 iii474 ,footnote #fbd3 ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #dh4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,de ,augm4 vi4 ch4 #b4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,ib4 v4 ch4 #e4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,berti1 ,vita di ,g4 ,b4 p4 #i4 ,footnote #fbh3 ,vide ,cay von ,brockdorff1 ,galilei's ,philosophische ,mission 7,vierteljahrschrift fr ,wiss4 ,philos4 und ,sociol41 #aijb74 ,footnote #fbi3 ,vide the ,discorsi3 and cf4 the truculent ,brunnhofer3 ,galileo1 der ,bruno ,zugleich ausbeutete und ignorirte 7op4 cit41 p4 #fi74 ,footnote #fcj3 ,vide ,sigwart1 ,kleine ,schriften1 vol4 i41 on ,kepler3 he refers to ,opera1 i4 p4 #fhh1 and vi4 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #fca3 ,fiorentino1 in ,bruno1 ,op4 ,lat41 vol4 i4 p4 xix4 ,the full title of ,vanini's work is1 ,amphitheatrum aeternae providentiae divino-magicum1 christiano-physicum1 necnon astrologo-catholicum1 adversus veteres philosophos1 ,atheos1 ,epicureos1 ,peripateticos et ,stoicos4 ,auctore ,julio ,csare ,vanino1 ,philosopho1 ,theologo1 ae ,juris utriusque ,doctor4 ,lugduni1 #afae4 ,with his remark compare ,campanella1 ,quidam ,nolanus 7,metaphys4 ii4 #a4 #e74 ,footnote #fcb3 ,censura ,philosophiae ,cartesianae1 #afhi4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,op4 ,lat4 i4 #c4 #d4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,contre l'impit des dsistes1 athes et libertins de ce temps 7#afbd1 p4 #bbi1 #bcd1 etc474 ,footnote #fce3 ,vide ,bartholmss1 i4 pp4 #beg1 #bei4 ,descartes1 like ,galilei1 was careful not to prejudice himself in the eyes of the ,church4 ,for ,gassendi1 v4 ,gentzken1 ,hist4 ,phil41 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,exercitationes paradoxicae adversus ,aristoteleos4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,cf4 ,brunnhofer1 p4 xix3 ,the longer ,i consider the question1 the more probable it appears to me that ,spinoza would have been impossible1 historically1 if ,bruno had had time to develop the rich fulness of his ideas in a systematic form4 ,cf4 p4 #ha1 where1 however1 he lays too much stress on verbal analogies between ,bruno's ,summa and the ,ethica of ,spinoza4 ,footnote #fch3 ,spinoza's ,neuentdeckter ,tractat von ,gott1 dem ,menschen1 und dessen ,glckseligkeit1 ,gotha1 #ahff1 and his translation of this1 ,kurzer ,tractat1 with introduction and notes4 ,tbingen1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #fci3 ,die ,beiden ,ersten ,phasen des ,spinozischen ,pantheismus4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,moritz ,carrire1 ,weltanschauung der ,reformationszeit1 p4 #dgj4 ,footnote #fda3 ,cf4 ,tocco1 ,conferenza1 p4 #ae2 ,sigwart1 ,neuentdeckter ,tractat1 pp4 #aaj-aac4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,e4g4 ,bruno's ,acrot4 7,op4 ,lat4 i4 #a1 #ajh74 ,footnote #fdc3 ,short ,tractate1 ch4 i4 #i1 and ,bruno's ,causa1 ,dial4 v4 ,sigwart1 ,neuent4 ,tract41 pp4 #aae1 #aaf4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,il desio di conservarsi of ,bruno4 ,pollock 7,spinoza1 p4 #aji7 refers to ,descartes1 ,prin4 ,phil4 #b1 chs4 #cg and #dc1 and ,spinoza's ,cog4 ,met4 7pt4 i4 ch4 #f1 #i71 where the effort is the thing itself1 whereas in the essay it is providence1 i4e4 ,god4 ,cf4 part i41 ch4 #e1 with ,ethica1 iii4 #f and #g4 ,footnote #fde3 ,sigwart1 ,neuent4 ,tract41 pp4 #abj-abd4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,ib4 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,cf4 ,carrire4 ,op4 cit4 p4 #dga ff4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,thesauri ,epistolici la ,croziani1 #agdf2 ,hansch1 ,prin4 ,philos4 ,leibn41 #agbh2 ,thes4 ix41 xxxi41 lxxi4 ,cf4 ,steffens1 ,clemens1 ,dhring1 ,brunnhofer1 op4 cit41 and also in ,g4,b4's ,lehre vom ,kleinsten1 als die ,quelle der pr-establirten ,harmonie von ,leibniz1 #ahij2 also ,tocco1 etc4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,leibnizschen ,philosophie 7#ahij71 v4 pp4 #aig ff4 ,footnote #fej3 ,in ,dutens1 v4 #dib2 cf4 also a letter of #ast ,may 7p4 #dic74 ,footnote #fea3 ,in ,dutens1 v4 #che 7,june #agab71 and v4 #cfi4 ,footnote #feb3 ,it appears that the term ,monas ,monadum used by ,bruno of ,god does not occur in ,leibniz at all4 ,footnote #fec3 ,in ,burton's ,anatomy of ,melancholy 7#afba7 ,brunus appears with ,copernicus as author of some prodigious tenent or paradox of the earth's motion1 of infinite worlds in an infinite waste 7vol4 i4 p4 #aa of ,shilleto's edition74 ,in the ,digression on ,air1 the ,cena is referred to 7ii4 p4 #df71--the changes of sea and land1 the fixed stars as suns with planets about them1 the air of the heavens as identical with that of the earth1 the infinite worlds in an infinite ether 7ib4 #dg1 #eg1 #fb74 ,bruno1 infelix ,brunus as ,kepler had called him1 is classed with atheistical writers in a later part of the work 7vol4 iii4 p4 #ddg74 ,footnote #fed3 ,bartholmss1 i4 pp4 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,footnote #fee3 ,vide ,quarterly ,review1 ,october #aijb3 ,giordano ,bruno in ,england1 and the biography of ,carew in ,encycl4 ,britan4 7by ,r4 ,adamson74 ,footnote #fef3 ,cf4 ,bartholmss1 i4 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #feg3 ,vide ,rixner und ,siber1 op4 cit4 heft v4 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #feh3 ,janius ,junius ,toland 7#affi-agbb72 v4 ,leslie ,stephen's ,english ,thought1 etc41 vol4 i4 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #fei3 ,vide ,collection of several pieces of ,mr4 ,john ,toland1 with some memoirs of his life and writings1 ,london 7#agbf71 vol4 i4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,according to the ,british ,museum ,catalogue4 ,no name is on the title page of the work--,spaccio1 etc41 or the ,expulsion of the ,triumphant ,beast4 ,to the chequered history of this title and its various interpretations may be added a modern instance from the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography1 sub ,vautrollier3 ,bruno's ,last ,tromp6 ,footnote #ffa3 ,vide ,toland's ,miscellaneous ,works1 ,london 7#agdg71 vol4 i4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,acta ,philosophorum 7#agae ff471 parts iii4 ix4 xi4 xv41 cf4 ,zimmermann in ,mus4 ,helvet4 ,t4 v4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,kurze ,fragen aus der ,phil4 ,hist4 7#agcf71 and ,hist4 ,crit4 7#agdb-agdd74 ,footnote #ffd3 ,cf4 his ,werke1 t4 iv4 pt4 #b4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,cf4 ,carrire1 op4 cit4 p4 #dge4 ,footnote #fff3 ,brunnhofer has suggested an active influence of ,bruno upon ,goethe--v4 ,gthe--,jahrbuch 7#ahhf71 ,gthe's ,bildkraft 7#ahij71 ,leipzig2 also ,carrire1 p4 #dhg4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,geschichte des neueren ,philosophie1 #f vols41 ,gttingen 7#ahjj-ahje71 vol4 #b4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,history of ,philosophy1 #aa vols4 7#agih-ahai71 vol4 #i1 pp4 #cgb-dbi4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,beitrge1 vii4 #d and xi4 #a4 ,footnote #fgj3 #b vols41 ,paris1 #ahdf1 #ahdg4 ,footnote #fga3 ,stuttgart1 #ahdg1 pp4 #cfe-did4 #bnd edition1 enlarged1 ,leipzig1 #ahhg1 #b vols4 ,both of the above works were preceded by a translation into ,italian 7by ,florence ,waddington7 of ,schelling's ,dialogue1 with an introduction by ,terenzio ,mamiani 7on ,bruno71 ,firenze1 #ahde2 #bnd edition1 #ahei4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,op4 cit41 ,vorrede1 xi4 ,a bibliography of the more recent works on ,bruno is given at the beginning of this volume4