,,herbals ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,evolution ,a ,,chapter ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,botany #adgj-afgj ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,manager ,illustration ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street ,london3 ,,william ,,wesley ,,son1 #bh1 ,,essex ,,street1 ,,strand ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all rights reserved ,illustration3 ,,leonhard ,,fuchs 7#aeja-aeff74 ,engraving by ,speckle in ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,,herbals ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,evolution ,a ,,chapter ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,botany #adgj-afgj ,,by ,,agnes ,,arber 7,,mrs4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,newell ,,arber7 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,,fellow ,,of ,,newnham ,,college1 ,,cambridge ,,and ,,of ,,university ,,college1 ,,london ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiab ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press ,,to ,,my ,,father ,h4 ,r4 ,,robertson 8,wherefore it maye please your 444 gentlenes to take these my labours in good worthe1 not according unto their unworthines1 but accordinge unto my good mind and will1 offering and gevinge them unto you40 ,,william ,,turner',s ,herbal1 #aefh4 ,,preface ,to add a volume such as the present to the existing multitude of books about books calls for some apology4 ,my excuse must be that many of the best herbals1 especially the earlier ones1 are not easily accessible1 and after experiencing keen delight from them myself1 ,i have felt that some account of these works1 in connection with reproductions of typical illustrations1 might be of interest to others4 ,in the words of ,henry ,lyte1 the translator of ,dodoens1 8,i thinke it sufficient for any1 whom reason may satisfie1 by way of answeare to alleage this action and sententious position3 ,bonum1 quo communius1 eo melius et prstantius3 a good thing the more common it is1 the better it is40 ,the main object of the present book is to trace in outline the evolution of the printed herbal in ,europe between the years #adgj and #afgj1 primarily from a botanical1 and secondarily from an artistic standpoint4 ,the medical aspect1 which could only be dealt with satisfactorily by a specialist in that science1 ,i have practically left untouched1 as also the gardening literature of the period4 ,bibliographical information is not given in detail1 except in so far as it subserves the main objects of the book4 ,even within these limitations1 the present account is far from being an exhaustive monograph4 ,it aims merely at presenting a general sketch of the history of the herbal during a period of two hundred years4 ,the titles of the principal botanical works1 which were published between #adgj and #afgj1 are given in ,appendix ,i4 ,the book is founded mainly upon a study of the herbals themselves4 ,my attention was first directed to these works by reading a copy of ,lyte's translation of ,dodoens' ,herbal1 which happened to come into my hands in #ahid1 and at once aroused my interest in the subject4 ,i have also drawn freely upon the historical and critical literature dealing with the period under consideration1 to which full references will be found in ,appendix ,,ii4 ,the materials for this work have chiefly been obtained in the ,printed ,books ,department of the ,british ,museum1 but ,i have also made use of a number of other libraries4 ,i owe many thanks to ,prof4 ,seward1 ,f4,r4,s41 who suggested that ,i should undertake this book1 and gave me special facilities for the study of the fine collection of old botanical works in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge4 ,in addition ,i must record my gratitude to the ,university ,librarian1 ,mr ,f4 ,j4 ,h4 ,jenkinson1 ,m4,a41 and ,mr ,c4 ,e4 ,sayle1 ,m4,a41 of the ,cambridge ,university ,library1 and also to ,dr ,stapf1 ,keeper of the ,kew ,herbarium and ,library4 ,by the kindness of ,dr ,norman ,moore1 ,harveian ,librarian to the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 ,i have had access to that splendid library1 and my best thanks are due to him1 and to the ,assistant-,librarian1 ,mr ,barlow4 ,to the latter ,i am especially indebted for information on bibliographical points4 ,i have also to thank ,mr ,knapman of the ,pharmaceutical ,society1 ,dr ,molhuizen1 ,keeper of the ,manuscripts1 ,university ,library1 ,leyden1 and the ,librarian of the ,teyler ,institute1 ,haarlem1 for giving me opportunities for examining the books under their charge4 ,the great majority of the illustrations are reproduced from photographs taken directly from the originals by ,mr ,w4 ,tams of ,cambridge1 to whom ,i am greatly indebted for the skill and care with which he has overcome the difficulties incidental to photographing from old books1 the pages of which are so often wrinkled1 discoloured or worm-eaten4 ,for the use of ,plate ,,xviii1 which appeared in ,leonardo da ,vinci's ,note-,books1 ,i am under obligations to the author1 ,mr ,edward ,mc,curdy1 ,m4,a41 and to ,messrs ,duckworth ,co4 ,text-figs4 #g1 #ah1 #gg1 #gh and #aab are reproduced by the courtesy of the ,council of the ,bibliographical ,society1 from papers by the late ,dr ,payne1 to which the references will be found in ,appendix ,,ii1 while1 for the use of ,text-fig4 #ajh1 ,i am indebted to the ,royal ,numismatic ,society4 ,for permission to utilise the modern facsimile of the famous ,dioscorides manuscript of ,juliana ,anicia1 from which ,plates ,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,xv are derived1 ,i have to thank ,prof4 ,dr ,josef ,ritter von ,karabacek1 of the k4 k4 ,hofbibliothek at ,vienna4 ,in connection with the portraits of herbalists here reproduced1 ,i wish to acknowledge the generous assistance which ,i have received from ,sir ,sidney ,colvin1 formerly ,keeper of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum4 ,i would also record my thanks to ,mr ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard1 ,secretary of the ,bibliographical ,society1 ,prof4 ,killermann of ,regensburg1 ,signorina ,adelaide ,marchi of ,florence1 ,mr ,c4 ,d4 ,sherborn of the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history7 and ,dr ,b4 ,daydon ,jackson1 ,general ,secretary of the ,linnean ,society1 all of whom have kindly given me information of great value4 ,for help in the translation of certain ,german and ,latin texts1 ,i am indebted to ,mr ,e4 ,g4 ,tucker1 ,b4,a41 ,mr ,f4 ,a4 ,scholfield1 ,m4,a41 and to my brother1 ,mr ,d4 ,s4 ,robertson1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,i wish1 further1 to express my gratitude to my father for advice and suggestions4 ,without his help1 ,i should scarcely have felt myself competent to discuss the subject from the artistic standpoint4 ,to my husband1 also1 ,i owe many thanks for assistance in various directions1 more particularly in criticising the manuscript1 and in seeing the volume through the press4 ,i am indebted to my sister1 ,miss ,janet ,robertson1 for the cover1 the design for which is based upon a wood-cut in the ,ortus ,sanitatis of #adia4 ,a book of this kind1 in the preparation of which many previous works have been laid under contribution1 is doubtless open to a certain criticism which ,william ,turner1 8the ,father of ,british ,botany10 anticipated in the case of his own writings4 ,i think ,i cannot do better than proffer my excuse in the very words of this sixteenth-century herbalist3 8,for some of them will saye1 seynge that ,i graunte that ,i have gathered this booke of so manye writers1 that ,i offer unto you an heape of other mennis laboures1 and nothinge of myne owne1444 ,to whom ,i aunswere1 that if the honye that the bees gather out of so manye floure of herbes1 shrubbes1 and trees1 that are growing in other mennis medowes1 feldes and closes3 maye justelye be called the bees honye3444 ,so maye ,i call it that ,i have learned and gathered of manye good autoures 444 my booke40 ,,agnes ,,arber4 ,,balfour ,,laboratory1 ,,cambridge1 #bfth ,july1 #aiab4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,botany #a4 ,introductory #a #b4 ,aristotelian ,botany #b #c4 ,medicinal ,botany #f ,,ii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,printed ,,herbals 7,,fifteenth ,,century7 #a4 ,the ,encyclopdia of ,bartholomus ,anglicus and #8,the ,book of ,nature' #aj #b4 ,the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius ,platonicus #aa #c4 ,the ,latin #8,herbarius' #af #d4 ,the ,german #8,herbarius' and related ,works #ah #e4 ,the #8,hortus ,sanitatis' #be ,,iii4 ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,england #a4 ,the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius ,platonicus #ce #b4 ,banckes' ,herbal #ch #c4 #8,the ,grete ,herball' #dj ,,iv4 ,,the ,,botanical ,,renaissance ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,and ,,seventeenth ,,centuries #a4 ,the ,herbal in ,germany #dg #b4 ,the ,herbal in the ,low ,countries #gj #c4 ,the ,herbal in ,italy #gi #d4 ,the ,herbal in ,switzerland #ij #e4 ,the ,herbal in ,france #ih #f4 ,the ,herbal in ,england #ajj #g4 ,the ,revival of ,aristotelian ,botany #aaf ,v4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,plant ,,description #aai ,,vi4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,plant ,,classification #acd ,,vii4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,botanical ,,illustration #aed ,,viii4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,signatures1 ,,and ,,astrological ,,botany #bjd ,,ix4 ,,conclusions #bba ,,appendix ,i ,a ,chronological ,list of the ,principal ,herbals and ,related ,botanical ,works published between #adgj and #afgj #bbg ,,appendix ,,ii ,a ,list1 in ,alphabetical ,order1 of the ,principal ,critical and ,historical ,works dealing with the ,subjects discussed in this ,book #bda ,,index #bdg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,frontispiece ,leonhard ,fuchs 7#aeja-aeff7 ,engraving by ,speckle in ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb ,,plates ,,plate ,face page ,i4 8,sonchos0 ,dioscorides4 ,codex ,anici ,julian4 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced #d ,,ii4 8,stratiotes0 ,dioscorides4 ,codex ,anici ,julian4 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced #h ,,iii4 ,wood-cut of ,plants ,konrad von ,megenberg4 ,das pch der natur4 #adge4 ,reduced #aj ,,iv4 8,orbicularis0 ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici4 8 #adhd4 7,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary7 #ab ,v4 8,mandragora0 ,mandrake ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici4 8 #adhd4 7,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary7 #cd ,,vi4 ,joachim ,camerarius1 the younger 7#aecd-aeih7 ,engraving by ,bartholomus ,kilian4 ,probably between #afej and #agjj4 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum #fh ,,vii4 ,charles de l'cluse 7#aebf-afji7 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge #gd ,,viii4 ,mathias de l',obel 7#aech-afaf7 ,engraving by ,franois ,dellarame4 #afae4 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum #gh ,,ix4 ,fabio ,colonna 7#aefg-afej7 ,ekphrasis4 #afjf #hh ,x4 ,konrad ,gesner 7#aeaf-aefe7 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge #ib ,,xi4 ,gaspard ,bauhin 7#aefj-afbd7 ,theatrum ,anatomicum4 #afje #id ,,xii4 ,john ,gerard 7#aede-afjg7 ,the ,herball4 #afcf #ajh ,,xiii4 ,john ,parkinson 7#aefg-afej7 ,theatrum botanicum4 #afdj #aad ,,xiv4 ,andrea ,cesalpino 7#aeai-afjc7 ,drawn by ,g4 ,zocchi and engraved by ,f4 ,allegrini1 #agfe1 after an old portrait in the ,museum of the ,botanic ,garden at ,pisa4 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge #aaf ,,xv4 8,phasiolos0 ,bean ,dioscorides4 ,codex ,anici ,julian4 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced #aed ,,xvi4 8,dracontea0 ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici4 8 #adhd4 7,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary7 #aef ,,xvii4 ,study of ,aquilegia vulgaris ,l41 ,columbine ,albrecht ,drer1 #aebf4 ,drawing in the ,albertina1 ,vienna4 ,reduced #afh ,,xviii4 ,study of ,ornithogalum umbellatum ,l41 ,star of ,bethlehem1 and other plants ,leonardo da ,vinci4 #adeb-aeai4 ,drawing in the ,royal ,library1 ,windsor4 ,reduced #agj ,,xix4 8,crocus ,byzantinus0 and 8,crocus ,montanus hispan40 ,part of a plate from ,crispian de ,passe4 ,hortus ,floridus4 #afad #bjb ,,xx4 8,cervaria fmina0 ,thurneisser4 ,historia sive ,descriptio ,plantarum4 #aehg #baf ,,xxi4 ,nicholas ,culpeper 7#afaf-afed7 ,a ,physicall ,directory4 #afdi4 ,engraving by ,cross #bah ,,figures ,,in ,,the ,,text#a ,the initial letters1 which will be found at the beginning of each chapter1 are taken from ,pierre ,belon's #8,les ,observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses mmorables1 trouves en ,grece1 ,asie1 ,jude1 ,egypte1 ,arabie1 et autres pays estranges1 444 ,imprim ,paris par ,benoist ,prvost4' #aeec4 ,,text-,,fig4 ,,page #a4 8,plantago0 ,plantain ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd #ab #b4 8,artemisia0 ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd #ac #c4 8,lilium0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd #ad #d4 8,aristolochia longa0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd #ae #e4 8,serpentaria0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd #af #f4 8,brionia0 ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #ag #g4 8,acorus0 ,iris ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe #bc #h4 8,leopardus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #be #i4 8,daucus0 ,carrot ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #bf #aj4 8,passer0 ,sparrow ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #bg #aa4 8,pavo0 ,peacock ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #bg #ab4 8,arbor vel lignum vite paradisi0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #bh #ac4 8,narcissus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #bi #ad4 8,bauser vel ,bausor0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #cj #ae4 8,panis0 ,bread ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #ca #af4 8,ambra0 ,amber ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #cb #ag4 8,unicornus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #cc #ah4 ,a ,herbalist's ,garden ,le ,jardin de ,sant1 8 #aeci #cd #ai4 ,wood-cut of ,plants ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 ,liber de proprietatibus rerum1 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 8 #adie4 ,reduced #cg #bj4 8,yvery0 ,ivory ,the ,grete ,herball1 #aebi #db #ba4 8,nenufar0 ,waterlily ,the ,grete ,herball1 #aebi #dd #bb4 8,walwurtz mnnlin0 ,symphytum1 ,comfrey ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced #dh #bc4 8,helleborus ,niger0 ,helleborus viridis ,l41 ,green ,hellebore ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced #di #bd4 8,synnaw0 ,alchemilla1 ,ladies' ,mantle ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ii4 #aeca4 ,reduced #ea #be4 8,caryophyllata0 ,geum1 ,avens ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 iii4 #aedj4 ,reduced #eb #bf4 ,hieronymus ,bock or ,tragus 7#adih-aeed7 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aeea #ec #bg4 8,erdberen0 ,fragaria1 ,strawberry ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf #ed #bh4 8,pimpernuss0 ,pistacia1 ,pistachio-nut ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf #ef #bi4 8,tribulus aquaticus0 ,trapa natans ,l41 ,bull-nut ,bock1 ,de stirpium1 #aeeb #eg #cj4 8,brassic quartum genus0 ,cabbage ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #ei #ca4 8,polygonatum latifolium0 ,solomon's ,seal ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #fa #cb4 8,cucumis turcicus0 ,cucurbita maxima ,duch41 ,giant ,pumpkin ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #fc #cc4 8,erdpffel0 ,ranunculus ficaria ,l41 ,lesser ,celandine ,rhodion1 ,kreutterbch1 #aecc #fe #cd4 8,ocimoides fruticosum0 ,silene fruticosa ,l4 ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh #fg #ce4 8,palma0 ,seedlings of ,phnix dactylifera ,l41 ,date ,palm ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh #fi #cf4 ,rembert ,dodoens 7#aeag-aehe7 ,a ,niewe ,herball4 ,translated by ,lyte1 #aegh #ga #cg4 8,capparis0 ,capparis ovata ,l4 ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc #gc #ch4 8,anemone trifolia0 ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc #ge #ci4 8,lacryma ,iob0 ,coix lachryma-,jobi ,l41 ,job's ,tears de l'cluse1 ,rariorum 444 per ,hispanias1 #aegf #gg #dj4 ,pierandrea ,mattioli 7#aeja-aegg7 ,engraving by ,philippe ,galle1 ,virorum ,doctorum ,effigies1 ,antwerp1 #aegb #hj #da4 8,pyra0 ,pyrus communis ,l41 ,pear ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj #ha #db4 8,avena0 ,oats ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj #hb #dc4 8,trifolium acetosum0 ,oxalis ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced #hc #dd4 8,malus0 ,pyrus malus ,l41 ,apple ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced #hd #de4 8,arbor ,malenconico0 or 8,arbor tristis0 ,tree of ,sorrow ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe #hf #df4 8,apocynum0 ,colonna1 ,phytobasanos1 #aeib #hg #dg4 8,kalli0 ,salicornia1 ,glasswort ,prospero ,alpino1 ,de plantis gypti1 #aeib #hi #dh4 8,lachryma ,iob0 ,coix lachryma-,jobi ,l41 ,job's ,tears ,simler1 ,vita ,conradi ,gesneri1 #aeff #ia #di4 8,solanum tuberosum esculentum0 ,potato ,bauhin1 ,prodromos1 #afbj #ie #ej4 ,jacques d',alchamps 7#aeac-aehh7 ,wood-cut1 circa #afjj1 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum4 ,enlarged #ig #ea4 8,ornithogalum magnum0 d',alchamps1 ,historia generalis plantarum1 #aehf #ii #eb4 8,tabaco0 ,nicotiana1 ,tobacco ,monardes1 ,joyfull newes out of the newe founde worlde1 #aehj #aje #ec4 8,reubarbe0 ,centaurea rhaponticum ,l4 ,lyte1 ,a ,niewe ,herball1 #aegh #ajg #ed4 8,the breede of ,barnakles0 ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig #aaa #ee4 8,barberry0 ,berberis ,part of a large wood-cut from ,parkinson1 ,paradisus ,terrestris1 #afbi #aad #ef4 8,cardamomum0 787 ,solanum dulcamara ,l41 ,bittersweet ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #aba #eg4 8,pionia0 ,peony ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #abc #eh4 8,petasites0 ,butterbur ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #abf #ei4 8,sedum majus0 de l'cluse1 ,rariorum per ,hispanias1 #aegf #abh #fj4 8,battata ,virginiana0 ,solanum tuberosum ,l41 ,potato ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig #abi #fa4 8,rose ,ribwoorte0 an abnormal ,plantain ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig #aca #fb4 8,beta ,cretica semine aculeato0 ,bauhin1 ,prodromos1 #afbj #acb #fc4 8,carui0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #ace #fd4 8,buglossa0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #acg #fe4 8,nenufar0 ,waterlily ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #aci #ff4 8,nenuphar0 ,nympha alba ,l41 ,white ,waterlily ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced #ada #fg4 8,gele ,plompen0 ,nuphar luteum ,sm41 ,yellow ,waterlily de l',obel1 ,kruydtbck1 #aeha #adb #fh4 8,ninfea0 ,waterlily ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe #add #fi4 8,tussilago0 ,tussilago farfara ,l41 ,coltsfoot ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #adg #gj4 8,plantago major0 ,plantain ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #adi #ga4 8,altha ,thuringica0 ,lavatera thuringiaca ,l4 ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh #aej #gb4 8,pulsatilla0 ,anemone pulsatilla ,l41 ,pasque-flower ,camerarius1 ,de plantis ,epitome ,matthioli1 #aehf #aeb #gc4 8,brionia0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd #aeh #gd4 8,ireos vel ,iris0 ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #aei #ge4 8,capillus ,veneris0 ,maidenhair ,fern ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #afj #gf4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii #afa #gg4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe #afc #gh4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe #afd #gi4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #afe #hj4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #aff #ha4 8,botris0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia #afg #hb4 8,asarum0 ,asarabacca ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced #afi #hc4 8,kuchenschell0 ,anemone pulsatilla ,l41 ,pasque-flower ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced #aga #hd4 8,lappa0 ,arctium1 ,burdock ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aeca4 ,reduced #agc #he4 8,scolopendria0 ,hart's-tongue ,fern ,rhodion1 ,kreutterbch1 #aecc #agd #hf4 8,dipsacus albus0 ,teasle ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #agf #hg4 8,apios0 ,lathyrus tuberosus ,l41 ,earth-nut ,pea ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #agh #hh4 8,arum0 ,arum maculatum ,l41 ,wild ,arum ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #agi #hi4 ,the ,draughtsmen and ,engraver employed by ,leonhard ,fuchs ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced #aha #ij4 8,wintergrn0 ,pyrola1 ,wintergreen ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf #ahb #ia4 8,rautten0 ,botrychium1 ,moonwort ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf #ahc #ib4 8,castanum nuss0 ,castanea1 ,chestnut ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf #ahd #ic4 8,fungi0 ,toadstools ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,reduced #ahe #id4 8,rosaceum0 ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,reduced #ahf #ie4 8,suber primus0 ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced #ahg #if4 8,tragorchis0 ,orchis hircina ,l41 ,lizard ,orchis ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc #ahh #ig4 8,aconitum luteum minus0 ,eranthis hiemalis ,l41 ,winter ,aconite ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc #ahi #ih4 8,draco arbor0 ,dracna1 ,dragon ,tree de l'cluse1 ,rariorum 444 per ,hispanias1 #aegf #aia #ii4 8,cyclaminus0 ,camerarius1 ,de plantis ,epitome 444 ,matthioli1 #aehf #aib #ajj4 8,rosa ,hierichuntica0 ,anastatica hierochuntica ,l41 ,rose of ,jericho ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh #aic #aja4 8,piper ,nigrum0 ,pepper d',alchamps1 ,historia generalis plantarum1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aehg #aid #ajb4 8,cedrus0 ,cedar ,belon1 ,de arboribus1 #aeec #aie #ajc4 8,lentisco del ,peru0 ,pistacia lentiscus ,l41 ,mastic ,tree ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe #aig #ajd4 8,mala ,aurantia ,chinensia0 ,orange ,aldrovandi1 ,dendrologia1 #affg4 ,reduced #aih #aje4 8,chondrilla0 ,colonna1 ,phytobasanos1 #aeib #bja #ajf4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,blankaart1 ,neder-landschen ,herbarius1 #afih #bjc #ajg4 ,the ,male ,mandrake ,brunfels1 ,contrafayt ,kreterbuch1 ,ander ,teyl1 #aecg #bje #ajh4 ,theophrastus von ,hohenheim1 called ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda7 ,from a medal1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,f4 ,w4 ,weber1 ,appendix ,,ii #bjf #aji4 ,herbs of the ,scorpion ,porta1 ,phytognomonica1 #aeia #bji #aaj4 ,lunar ,herbs ,porta1 ,phytognomonica1 #aeia #bac #aaa4 ,astrological ,diagram relating to the gathering of 8,cervaria fmina0 ,thurneisser1 ,historia sive ,descriptio ,plantarum1 #aehg #bag #aab4 ,wood-cut from the ,title-page of the ,grete ,herball1 #aebf4 ,reduced #bbc #aac4 ,a ,herbalist's ,garden and ,store-room ,das ,kreterbch oder ,herbarius4 ,printed by ,heinrich ,stayner1 ,augsburg1 #aecd #bbe ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,botany #a4 ,,introductory4 ,in the present book1 the special subject treated is the evolution of the printed herbal1 between the years #adgj and #afgj1 but it is impossible to arrive at clear ideas on this subject without some knowledge of the earlier stages in the history of ,botany4 ,the first chapter will therefore be devoted to the briefest possible sketch of the progress of ,botany before the invention of printing1 in order that the position occupied by the ,herbal in the history of the science may be realised in its true perspective4 ,from the very beginning of its existence1 the study of plants has been approached from two widely separated standpoints--the philosophical and the utilitarian4 ,regarded from the first point of view1 ,botany stands on its own merits1 as an integral branch of natural philosophy1 whereas1 from the second1 it is merely a by-product of medicine or agriculture4 ,this distinction1 however1 is a somewhat arbitrary one2 the more philosophical of botanists have not disdained at times to consider the uses of herbs1 and those who entered upon the subject1 with a purely medical intention1 have often become students of plant life for its own sake4 ,at different periods in the evolution of the science1 one or other aspect has predominated1 but from classical times onwards1 it is possible to trace the development of these two distinct lines of inquiry1 which have sometimes converged1 but more often pursued parallel and unconnected paths4 ,botany as a branch of philosophy may be said to have owed its inception to the wonderful mental activity of the finest period of ,greek culture4 ,it was at this time that the nature and life of plants first came definitely within the scope of inquiry and speculation4 #b4 ,,aristotelian ,,botany4 ,aristotle1 ,plato's pupil1 concerned himself with the whole field of science1 and his influence1 especially during the ,middle ,ages1 had a most profound effect on ,european thought4 ,the greater part of his botanical writings1 which belong to the fourth century before ,christ1 are unfortunately lost1 but1 from such fragments as remain1 it is clear that his interest in plants was of an abstract nature4 ,he held that all living bodies1 those of plants as well as of animals1 are organs of the soul1 through which they exist4 ,it was broad1 general speculations1 such as these1 which chiefly attracted him4 ,he asks why a grain of corn gives rise in its turn to a grain of corn and not to an olive1 thus raising a plexus of problems1 which1 despite the progress of modern science1 still baffle the acutest thinkers of the present day4 ,aristotle bequeathed his library to his pupil ,theophrastus1 whom he named as his successor4 ,theophrastus was well fitted to carry on the traditions of the school1 since he had1 in earlier years1 studied under ,plato himself4 ,he produced a #8,history of ,plants' in which ,botany is treated in a somewhat more concrete and definite fashion than is the case in ,aristotle's writings4 ,theophrastus mentions about #dej plants1 whereas the number of species in ,greece known at the present day is at least #cjjj4 ,his descriptions1 with few exceptions1 are meagre1 and the identification of the plants to which they refer is a matter of extreme difficulty4 ,in various points of observation1 ,theophrastus was in advance of his time4 ,he noticed1 for instance1 the distinction between centripetal and centrifugal inflorescences--a distinction which does not seem to have again attracted the attention of botanists until the sixteenth century4 ,he was interested in the germination of seeds1 and was aware1 though somewhat dimly1 of the essential differences between the seedling of the ,bean and that of the ,wheat4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 knowledge of ,aristotelian botany was brought into western ,europe at two different periods1--the ninth and the thirteenth centuries4 ,in the ninth century of the ,christian era1 ,rhabanus ,magnentius ,maurus1 a ,german writer1 compiled an encyclopdia which contained information about plants1 indirectly derived from the writings of ,theophrastus4 ,rhabanus actually based his work upon the writings of ,isidor of ,seville1 who lived in the sixth and seventh centuries--,isidor having obtained his botanical data from ,pliny1 whose knowledge of plants was in turn borrowed from ,theophrastus4 ,the renewal of ,aristotelian learning in the thirteenth century was derived less directly from classical writings than was the case with the earlier revival4 ,from the time of ,alexander onwards1 various ,greek schools had been founded in ,syria4 ,these schools were largely concerned with the teachings of ,aristotle1 which were thence handed on into ,persia1 ,arabia and other countries4 ,the ,arabs translated the ,syriac versions of ,greek writers into their own language1 and their physicians and philosophers kept alive the knowledge of science during the dark ages when ,greece and ,rome had ceased to be the homes of learning1 and while culture was still in its infancy in ,germany1 ,france and ,england4 ,the ,arabic translations of classical writings were eventually rendered into ,latin1 or even sometimes into ,greek again1 and in this guise found their way to western ,europe4 ,amongst other books1 which suffered these successive metamorphoses1 was the pseudo-,aristotelian botany of ,nicolaus of ,damascus1 which has acquired importance in the annals of western science1 because it formed the basis of the botanical work of ,albertus ,magnus4 ,albert of ,bollstadt 7#aaic-abhj71 ,bishop of ,ratisbon1 was a famous scholastic philosopher4 ,he was esteemed one of the most learned men of his age1 and was called 8,albertus ,magnus0 during his life-time1 the title being conferred on him by the unanimous consent of the schools4 ,the 8,angelic ,doctor10 ,st ,thomas ,aquinas1 became one of his pupils4 ,according to legendary lore the name of ,albertus would have been unknown in science1 but for divine intervention1 which miraculously affected his career4 ,as a boy1 tradition says that he was singularly lacking in intelligence1 so much so that it was feared that he would be compelled to abandon the hope of entering monastic life1 since he seemed incapable even of the limited acquirements necessary4 ,however1 one night1 the ,blessed ,virgin1 touched by his fervour and piety1 appeared before him in glory1 and asked whether he would rather excel in philosophy or in theology4 ,albertus without hesitation chose philosophy4 ,the ,virgin granted his desire1 but1 being inwardly wounded at his choice1 she added that1 because he had preferred profane to divine knowledge1 he should sink back1 before the end of his life1 into his pristine state of stupidity4 ,according to the legend1 this came to pass4 ,three years before his death he was suddenly struck down1 in the presence of his students1 and never regained his mental powers4 ,the botanical work of ,albertus forms only a small fraction of his writings1 but it is with that part alone that we are here concerned4 ,as already mentioned1 his knowledge of botany was based upon a medival ,latin work1 which he reverenced as ,aristotle's1 but which is now attributed to ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 who was1 however1 a follower of ,aristotle and ,theophrastus4 ,although ,albertus undoubtedly drew his botanical inspiration from this book1 a large proportion of his writings on the subject were original4 ,the ideas of ,albertus were in many ways curiously advanced1 especially in the suggestions which he gives as to the classification of plants1 and in his observations of detailed structure in certain flowers4 ,we shall return to his writings in future chapters dealing with these subjects4 ,it will suffice now to mention his remarkable instinct for morphology1 in which he was probably unsurpassed during the next four hundred years4 ,he points out1 for instance1 that1 in the vine1 a tendril sometimes occurs in place of a bunch of grapes1 and from this he concludes that the tendril is to be interpreted as a bunch of grapes incompletely developed4 ,he distinguishes also between thorns and prickles1 and realises that the former are stem structures1 and the latter merely surface organs4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i #8,sonchos' ,dioscorides1 ,codex ,anici ,julian1 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced4 ,albertus seems to have had a fine scorn for that branch of the science now known as ,systematic ,botany4 ,he considered that to catalogue all the species was too vast and detailed a task1 and one altogether unsuited to the philosopher4 ,however1 in his ,sixth ,book he so far unbends as to give descriptions of a number of plants4 ,as regards abstract problems1 the views of ,albertus on plant life may be summed up as follows4 ,the plant is a living being1 and its life principle is the vegetable soul1 whose function is limited to nourishment1 growth and reproduction--feeling1 desire1 sleep1 and sexuality1 properly so called1 being unknown in the plant world4 ,albertus was troubled by many subtle problems connected with the souls of plants1 such questions1 for instance1 as whether in the case of the material union of two individuals1 such as the ivy and its supporting tree1 their souls also united4 ,like ,theophrastus1 and other early writers1 ,albertus held the theory that species were mutable1 and illustrated this view by pointing out that cultivated plants might run wild and become degenerate1 while wild plants might be domesticated4 ,some of his ideas1 however1 on the possibility of changes from one species to another1 were quite baseless4 ,he stated1 for instance1 that1 if a wood of oak or beech were razed to the ground1 an actual transformation took place1 aspens and poplars springing up in place of the previously existing trees4 ,the temperate tone of the remarks made by ,albertus on the medical virtues of plants contrasts favourably with the puerilities of many later writers4 ,much of the criticism from which he has suffered at various times has been1 in reality1 directed against a book called #8,de virtutibus herbarum1' the authorship of which was quite erroneously attributed to him4 ,we shall refer to this work again in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,after the time of ,albertus1 no great student of ,aristotelian botany arose before ,andrea ,cesalpino1 whose writings1 which belong to the end of the sixteenth century1 will be considered in a later chapter4 ,the work of ,cesalpino had great qualities1 but1 curiously enough1 it had little influence on the science of his time4 ,he may be regarded as perhaps the last important representative of ,aristotelian botany4 #c4 ,,medicinal ,,botany4 ,with the ,revival of ,learning1 the speculative botany of the ancients began to lose its hold upon thinking men4 ,this may be attributed to the curious lack of vitality1 and the absence of the power of active development1 manifested in this aspect of the subject since its initiation at the hands of ,aristotle4 ,it had proved comparatively barren1 because1 though the minds which engaged in it were among the finest that have ever been concerned with the science1 the basis of observed fact was inadequate in quality and quantity to sustain the philosophical superstructure built upon it4 ,it might have been supposed a priori that accurate observation of natural phenomena needed a less highly evolved type of mind than that required to cope with metaphysical considerations1 and hence that1 in the development of any science1 the epoch of observation would have preceded the epoch of speculation4 ,in actual fact1 however1 the reverse appears to have been the case4 ,the power of scientific observation seems to have lagged many centuries behind the power of reasoning1 and to have reached its maturity at least two thousand years later4 ,aristotle and ,theophrastus arrived by the subtlest mental processes at a certain attitude towards the universe1 and at certain ideas concerning the nature of things4 ,they attempted a direct advance in scientific thought by extending these conceptions to include the plant world4 ,it was an heroic effort1 but one which could not ultimately form a basis for continued progress1 because1 in its inception1 preconceived ideas had come first1 and the facts of ,nature second4 ,it seems to be almost a law of thought1 that it is the indirect advances which in the end prove to be the most fertile4 ,the progress of a science1 like that of a sailing boat1 more often proceeds by means of 8tacking0 than by following a direct course4 ,in the case of botany1 the path which was destined to lead furthest in the end was the apparently unpromising one of medicine4 ,various plants from very early times had been used as healing agents1 and it became necessary to study them in detail1 simply in order to discriminate the kinds employed for different purposes4 ,it was from this purely utilitarian beginning that systematic botany for the most part originated4 ,as we shall show in later chapters1 nearly all the herbalists whose work is discussed in the present volume were medical men4 ,the necessity for some means of recognising accurately the individual species of medicinal plants led in time to a sounder and more exact knowledge of their morphology than had ever been acquired under the influence of thinkers such as ,albertus ,magnus1 who regarded with some contempt the idea of becoming acquainted in detail with the countless forms of plant life4 ,the mass of observations relating to herbs and flowers1 accumulated during a period of many centuries1 largely for medicinal purposes1 is to-day serving as the basis for far-reaching biological theories1 which could never have arisen without such a foundation4 ,it is not systematic botany alone that we owe in the first instance to medicine4 ,nehemiah ,grew 7#afda-agab71 one of the founders of the science of plant anatomy1 was led to embark upon this subject because his anatomical studies as a physician suggested to him that plants1 like animals1 probably possessed an internal structure worthy of investigation1 since they were the work of the same ,creator4 ,in ,ancient ,greece there was considerable traffic in medicinal plants4 ,the herbalists#b and druggists#c who made a regular business of collecting1 preparing and selling them1 do not appear however to have been held in good repute4 ,lucian makes ,hercules address sculapius as 8a root-digger and a wandering quack#d40 ,the herbalists seem to have attempted to keep their business select by fencing it about with all manner of superstitions1 most of which have for their moral that herb-collecting is too dangerous an occupation for the uninitiated4 ,theophrastus draws attention to the absurdity of some of the root-diggers' directions for gathering medicinal plants4 ,for instance he quotes with ridicule the idea that the ,peony should be gathered at night1 since1 if the fruit is collected in the daytime1 and a wood-pecker happens to witness the act1 the eyes of the herbalist are endangered4 ,he also points out that it is folly to suppose that an offering of a honey-cake must be made when ,iris ftidissima is rooted up1 or to believe that if an eagle comes near when ,hellebore is being collected1 anyone who is engaged in the work is fated to die within the year4 ,the herbalists' knowledge of plants must have been in the first place transmitted from generation to generation entirely by word of mouth1 but as time went on1 written records began to replace the oral tradition4 ,the earliest extant ,european work dealing with medicinal plants is the famous ,materia ,medica of ,dioscorides1 which was accepted as an almost infallible authority as late as the ,renaissance period4 ,dioscorides ,anazarbeus was a medical man who probably flourished in the first century of the ,christian era1 in the time of ,nero and ,vespasian4 ,tradition has1 however1 sometimes assigned to him the post of physician to ,antony and ,cleopatra4 ,his native land was ,asia ,minor1 but he appears to have travelled widely4 ,in his ,materia ,medica he described about five hundred plants1 with some attempt at an orderly scheme1 though1 naturally1 the result is seldom successful when judged by our modern standards of classification4 ,the actual descriptions of the plants are very slight1 and it is only those with particularly salient characteristics which can be recognised with any ease4 ,careful research on the part of later writers has however led to the identification of a number of the plants to which he refers4 ,there is a famous manuscript of ,dioscorides at ,vienna1 which is said to have been copied at the expense of ,juliana ,anicia1 the daughter of the ,emperor ,flavius ,anicius1 about the end of the fifth1 or the beginning of the sixth century4 ,the character of the script settles the age within narrow limits4 ,juliana lived into the reign of ,justinian1 and was renowned for her ardent ,christian faith1 and for the churches which she built4 ,the manuscript which bears her name is illustrated by a number of drawings1 which are in some cases remarkably beautiful1 and very naturalistic4 ,a facsimile reproduction of this manuscript was published in #aijf1 and it is thus rendered accessible to students4 ,examples of the figures are shown on a reduced scale in ,plates ,i1 ,,ii and ,,xv4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii #8,stratiotes' ,dioscorides1 ,codex ,anici ,julian1 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced4 ,the botanists of the ,renaissance devoted a great deal of time and energy to the consideration of the writings of ,dioscorides4 ,the chief of the many commentators who dealt with the subject were ,matthiolus1 ,ruellius and ,amatus ,lusitanus1 and a discussion of the botany of ,dioscorides formed an integral part of almost every sixteenth-century herbal4 ,one of the contemporaries of ,dioscorides1 ,gaius ,plinius ,secundus1 commonly called the ,elder ,pliny1 should perhaps be mentioned at this point1 although he was not a physician1 nor does he deserve the name of a philosopher4 ,in the course of his #8,natural ,history1' which is an encyclopdic account of the knowledge of his time1 he treats of the vegetable world4 ,he refers to a far larger number of plants than ,dioscorides1 probably because the latter confined himself to those which were of importance from a medicinal point of view1 whereas ,pliny mentioned indiscriminately any plant to which he found a reference in any previous book4 ,pliny's work was chiefly of the nature of a compilation1 and indeed it would scarcely be reasonable to expect much original observation of nature from a man who was so devoted to books that it was recorded of him that he considered even a walk to be a waste of time6 ,the writings of the classical authors1 especially ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides1 dominated ,european botany completely until1 in the sixteenth century1 other influences began to make themselves felt4 ,as we shall see in the following chapter1 the earliest printed herbals adhered closely to the classical tradition4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,earliest ,,printed ,,herbals 7,,fifteenth ,,century7 #a4 ,,the ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,bartholom,,us ,,anglicus ,,and #8,,the ,,book ,,of ,,nature4' ,after the invention of printing1 a very active period of book production followed1 during which many works1 which had previously passed a more or less lengthy existence in manuscript1 were put into circulation in print1 contemporaneously with books actually written at the time4 ,the result is that a number of the 8incunabula10 as printed books of the fifteenth century are technically called1 are far more ancient1 as regards the matter which they contain1 than the date of their publication would seem to suggest4 ,this characteristic is illustrated in the ,encyclopdia of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 and in ,konrad von ,megenberg's #8,das pch der natur1' which were perhaps the earliest printed books containing strictly botanical information4 ,the former work1 which was first printed about #adgj1 was compiled by a monk1 sometimes called ,bartholomew de ,glanville1 who flourished in the thirteenth century4 ,the title by which it is generally known is #8,liber de proprietatibus rerum4' ,one of the sections of which it is composed is concerned with an account of a large number of trees and herbs1 arranged in alphabetical order1 and is chiefly occupied with their medicinal properties4 ,it also includes some theoretical considerations about plants1 on ,aristotelian lines4 ,an ,english translation1 which was printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde before the end of the fifteenth century1 is interesting as containing the very primitive botanical wood-cut reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii ,wood-cut of ,plants ,konrad von ,megenberg1 ,das pch der natur1 #adge4 ,reduced4 #8,das pch der natur' is slightly later as regards the date of publication1 having been printed by ,hanns ,bmler at ,augsburg in #adge4 ,it seems to have been very popular1 for it passed through six or seven editions before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,a very large number of manuscripts of #8,the ,book of ,nature' exist1 as many as eighteen being preserved in the ,vienna ,library and seventeen at ,munich4 ,the text is a compilation from old ,latin writings1 and is said to have been translated into ,german as early as #acdi4 ,the portion dealing with plants consists of an account of the virtues of eighty-nine herbs with their ,latin and ,german names4 ,the chief interest of the work1 from our present point of view1 lies in the fact that it contains the earliest known botanical wood engraving 7,plate ,,iii74 ,we shall return to this subject in ,chapter ,,vii4 #b4 ,,the ,,herbarium ,,of ,,apuleius ,,platonicus4 ,another very early book based on classical writings1 especially those of ,dioscorides and ,pliny1 was the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius ,platonicus4 ,this little ,latin work is among the earliest to which the term 8,herbal0 is generally applied4 ,a herbal has been defined as a book containing the names and descriptions of herbs1 or of plants in general1 with their properties and virtues4 ,the word is believed to have been derived from a medival ,latin adjective 8herbalis10 the substantive 8liber0 being understood4 ,it is thus exactly comparable in origin with the word 8manual0 in the sense of a hand-book4 ,four early printed editions of the ,herbal of ,apuleius ,platonicus are known1 all of which appear to have been based on different manuscripts4 ,the earliest was published in ,rome late in the fifteenth century1 from a manuscript discovered by ,joh4 ,philippus de ,lignamine1 physician to ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 ,nothing is definitely known concerning the author1 but it is conjectured that he was a native of ,africa1 and that his book may date from the fifth century1 or possibly even the fourth4 ,the work undoubtedly had a career of many centuries in manuscript before it was printed4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #a3 8,plantago0 ,plantain ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd4 ,various extant manuscripts of the ,herbarium are illustrated with coloured drawings of the crudest description1 which are found on comparison to be identical in many different examples1 and to have been reproduced1 in a degraded form1 when the book was printed4 ,the original figures1 from which the drawings in the different manuscripts were copied1 must date back to very early times4 ,they probably represent1 as ,dr ,payne has pointed out1 a school of botanical draughtsmanship derived from late ,roman art4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv #8,orbicularis' ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd4 ,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary4 ,these illustrations1 some of which are reproduced in ,plates ,,iv1 ,v and ,,xvi1 and ,text-figs4 #a and #b1 will be discussed in greater detail in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,one of their peculiarities is that1 if a herb has the power of healing the bite or sting of any animal1 that animal is drawn with the plant on the same block4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #b4 8,artemisia0 ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd4 ,soon after the appearance in ,italy of the earliest printed editions of the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus1 three works of great importance were published at ,mainz in ,germany4 ,these were the ,latin #8,herbarius' 7#adhd71 the ,german #8,herbarius' 7#adhe71 and derived from the latter1 the #8,hortus ,sanitatis' 7#adia74 ,the ,latin and the ,german ,herbarius1 together with the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus1 may be regarded as the doyens amongst printed herbals4 ,all three seem to have been largely based upon pre-existing manuscripts1 representing a tradition of great antiquity4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #c4 8,lilium0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd4 ,the various forms of the ,latin and ,german ,herbarius1 and of the ,hortus ,sanitatis are described under many titles1 and the unravelling of the various editions is a matter of great difficulty4 ,in the fifteenth century1 before copyright existed1 as soon as a popular work was published1 pirated editions and translations sprang into existence4 ,in the case of the ,german ,herbarius1 a new edition was printed at ,augsburg only a few months after the appearance of the original at ,mainz4 ,some such editions were dated1 and some undated1 and the sources from which they were derived were seldom acknowledged4 ,the passage of the earliest printed books through the press was naturally extremely slow1 as compared with the rapid production of the present day4 ,the result was that the printer had leisure to make occasional alterations1 so that different copies belonging actually to the same edition sometimes show slight variations4 ,the bibliographer has thus to deal with an additional element of confusion4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #d4 8,aristolochia longa0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd4 ,as far as the works now under consideration are concerned1 however1 much of the obscurity has been removed by the late ,dr ,payne1 to whom we owe a very lucid memoir on the various editions of the ,latin and ,german ,herbarius and the ,hortus ,sanitatis1 based in part upon the researches of ,dr ,ludwig ,choulant4 ,free use has been made of his account in the present chapter4 #c4 ,,the ,,latin ,,herbarius4 ,the work to which we may refer for convenience as the ,latin ,herbarius is also known under many other titles--#8,herbarius in ,latino1' #8,aggregator de ,simplicibus1' #8,herbarius ,moguntinus1' #8,herbarius ,patavinus1' etc4 ,it was originally printed at ,mainz by ,peter ,schffer in #adhd1 in the form of a small quarto4 ,it is interesting to recall that the earliest specimen of printing from movable type known to exist was produced in the same town thirty years before4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #e4 8,serpentaria0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd4 ,other early editions and translations of the ,herbarius appeared in ,bavaria1 the ,low ,countries1 ,italy1 and probably also in ,france4 ,the work1 like most of the early herbals1 was anonymous1 and was a compilation from medival writers1 and from certain classical and ,arabian authors4 ,it seems to have no connection with the ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 which is nowhere cited4 ,the majority of the authorities quoted wrote before #acjj ,a4,d4 and no author is mentioned who might not have been known to a writer about the middle of the fourteenth century1 that is to say1 at least a hundred years before the ,herbarius was published4 ,it is quite possible that the work was not written at the time it was printed1 but may have had a previous career in manuscript4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #f4 8,brionia0 ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,the wood-blocks of the first ,german edition are bold and decorative1 but as a rule show little attempt at realism 7,text-figs4 #c1 #d1 #e and #gc74 ,a different and better set of figures were used in ,italy to illustrate the text 7,text-figs4 #f1 #eg1 #fe1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf74 ,the authorship of this version of the ,herbarius is sometimes erroneously attributed to ,arnold de ,nova ,villa1 a physician of the thirteenth century1 a mistake which arose through the conspicuous citation of his name in the preface to the ,venetian editions4 ,the descriptions and figures of the herbs are arranged alphabetically4 ,all the plants discussed were natives of ,germany or in cultivation there1 and the object of the work seems to have been to help the reader to the use of cheap and easily obtained remedies1 in cases of illness or accident4 #d4 ,,the ,,german ,,herbarius ,,and ,,related ,,works4 ,of even greater importance than the ,latin ,herbarius is the ,german ,herbarius or #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch1' sometimes also called the ,german ,ortus ,sanitatis1 or the ,smaller ,ortus4 ,this folio1 which was the foundation of the later works called ,hortus 7or ,ortus7 ,sanitatis1 appeared at ,mainz1 also from the printing press of ,peter ,schffer in #adhe1 the year following the publication of the ,latin ,herbarius4 ,it has been mistakenly regarded by some authors as a mere translation of the latter4 ,however1 the two books are neither the same in the text nor in the illustrations4 ,the ,german ,herbarius appears to be an independent work except as regards the third part of the book--the index of drugs according to their uses--which may owe something to the ,latin ,herbarius4 ,it seems from the preface that the originator of the book was a rich man1 who had travelled in the east1 and that the medical portion was compiled under his direction by a physician4 ,the latter was probably ,dr ,johann von ,cube1 who was town physician of ,frankfort at the end of the fifteenth century4 ,the preface to the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch begins with the words1 8,offt und vil habe ich by mir selbst betracht die wundersam werck des schepfers der natuer40 ,similar words are found in all the different ,german editions1 and in the later ,hortus ,sanitatis they are translated into ,latin4 ,the preface reveals so clearly and so delightfully the spirit in which the work was undertaken that it seems worth while to translate it almost in extenso4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to grasp the medical ideas characteristic of the earlier herbals1 such as those presented in the preface which follows1 unless one understands the special terminology1 in which the 8four elements0 and the 8four principles0 or 8natures0 play a great part4 ,the ideas expressed by these terms had begun to dominate medical and physiological notions five or six hundred years before the birth of ,christ1 and they held their own for a period of more than two thousand years4 ,as an instance of their constant occurrence in literature we may recall ,sir ,toby's remark in #8,twelfth ,night1' 8,do not our lives consist of the four elements80 ,in ,aristotle's time these conceptions must have been already quite familiar to his pupils4 ,like1 his predecessors he distinguished four elements1 ,fire1 ,water1 ,earth and ,air1 and to these he added a fifth--the ,ether4 ,in the four elements1 the four principles are combined in pairs--fire being characterised by heat and dryness1 air by heat and moisture1 water by cold and moisture1 and earth by cold and dryness4 ,according to ,aristotle1 heat and cold are active1 while dryness and moisture are passive in their nature4 ,by the 8temperament0 of a man is understood the balance or proportion maintained between these conflicting tendencies4 ,the particular 8virtues0 of each plant1 in other words the power of restoring lost health or 8temperament10 are determined by the 8principles0 which it contains1 and the proportions in which these occur4 ,with this introduction we may pass on to the preface of the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch#e3 8,many a time and oft have ,i contemplated inwardly the wondrous works of the ,creator of the universe3 how in the beginning ,he formed the heavens and adorned them with goodly1 shining stars1 to which ,he gave power and might to influence everything under heaven4 ,also how ,he afterwards formed the four elements3 fire1 hot and dry--air1 hot and moist--water1 cold and moist--earth1 dry and cold--and gave to each a nature of its own2 and how after this the same ,great ,master of ,nature made and formed herbs of many sorts and animals of all kinds1 and last of all ,man1 the noblest of all created things4 ,thereupon ,i thought on the wondrous order which the ,creator gave these same creatures of ,his1 so that everything which has its being under heaven receives it from the stars1 and keeps it by their help4 ,i considered further how that in everything which arises1 grows1 lives or soars in the four elements named1 be it metal1 stone1 herb or animal1 the four natures of the elements1 heat1 cold1 moistness and dryness are mingled4 ,it is also to be noted that the four natures in question are also mixed and blended in the human body in a measure and temperament suitable to the life and nature of man4 ,while man keeps within this measure1 proportion or temperament1 he is strong and healthy1 but as soon as he steps or falls beyond the temperament or measure of the four natures1 which happens when heat takes the upper hand and strives to stifle cold1 or1 on the contrary1 when cold begins to suppress heat1 or man becomes full of cold moisture1 or again is deprived of the due measure of moisture1 he falls of necessity into sickness1 and draws nigh unto death4 ,there are many causes of disturbances1 such as ,i have mentioned1 in the measure of the four elements which is essential to man's health and life4 ,in some cases it is the poisonous and hidden influence of the heavens acting against man's nature1 for from this arise impurity and poisoning of the air2 in other cases the food and drink are unsuitable1 or suitable but not taken in the right quantities1 or at the right time4 ,of a truth ,i would as soon count thee the leaves on the trees1 or the grains of sand in the sea1 as the things which are the causes of a relapse from the temperament of the four natures1 and a beginning of man's sickness4 ,it is for this reason that so many thousands and thousands of perils and dangers beset man4 ,he is not fully sure of his health or his life for one moment4 ,while considering these matters1 ,i also remembered how the ,creator of ,nature1 ,who has placed us amid such dangers1 has mercifully provided us with a remedy1 that is with all kinds of herbs1 animals and other created things to which ,he has given power and might to restore1 produce1 give and temper the four natures mentioned above4 ,one herb is heating1 another is cooling1 each after the degree of its nature and complexion4 ,in the same manner many other created things on the earth and in the water preserve man's life1 through the ,creator of ,nature4 ,by virtue of these herbs and created things the sick man may recover the temperament of the four elements and the health of his body4 ,since1 then1 man can have no greater nor nobler treasure on earth than bodily health1 ,i came to the conclusion that ,i could not perform any more honourable1 useful or holy work or labour than to compile a book in which should be contained the virtue and nature of many herbs and other created things1 together with their true colours and form1 for the help of all the world and the common good4 ,thereupon ,i caused this praiseworthy work to be begun by a ,master learned in physic1 who1 at my request1 gathered into a book the virtue and nature of many herbs out of the acknowledged masters of physic1 ,galen1 ,avicenna1 ,serapio1 ,dioscorides1 ,pandectarius1 ,platearius and others4 ,but when1 in the process of the work1 ,i turned to the drawing and depicting of the herbs1 ,i marked that there are many precious herbs which do not grow here in these ,german lands1 so that ,i could not draw them with their true colours and form1 except from hearsay4 ,therefore ,i left unfinished the work which ,i had begun1 and laid aside my pen1 until such time as ,i had received grace and dispensation to visit the ,holy ,sepulchre1 and also ,mount ,sinai1 where the body of the ,blessed ,virgin1 ,saint ,catherine1 rests in peace4 ,then1 in order that the noble work ,i had begun and left incomplete should not come to nought1 and also that my journey should benefit not my soul alone1 but the whole world1 ,i took with me a painter ready of wit1 and cunning and subtle of hand4 ,and so we journeyed from ,germany through ,italy1 ,istria1 and then by way of ,slavonia or the ,windisch land1 ,croatia1 ,albania1 ,dalmatia1 ,greece1 ,corfu1 ,morea1 ,candia1 ,rhodes and ,cyprus to the ,promised ,land and the ,holy ,city1 ,jerusalem1 and thence through ,arabia ,minor to ,mount ,sinai1 from ,mount ,sinai towards the ,red ,sea in the direction of ,cairo1 ,babylonia1 and also ,alexandria in ,egypt1 whence ,i returned to ,candia4 ,in wandering through these kingdoms and lands1 ,i diligently sought after the herbs there1 and had them depicted and drawn1 with their true colour and form4 ,and after ,i had1 by ,god's grace1 returned to ,germany and home1 the great love which ,i bore this work impelled me to finish it1 and now1 with the help of ,god1 it is accomplished4 ,and this book is called in ,latin1 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 and in ,german1 gart d'gesuntheyt#f4 ,in this garden are to be found the power and virtues of #dce plants and other created things1 which serve for the health of man1 and are commonly used in apothecaries' shops for medicine4 ,of these1 about #cej appear here as they are1 with their true colours and form4 ,and1 so that it might be useful to all the world1 learned and unlearned1 ,i had it compiled in the ,german tongue4 99 99 99 99 99 99 8,now fare forth into all lands1 thou noble and beautiful ,garden1 thou delight of the healthy1 thou comfort and life of the sick4 ,there is no man living who can fully declare thy use and thy fruit4 ,i thank ,thee1 ,o ,creator of heaven and earth1 ,who hast given power to the plants1 and other created things contained in this book1 that ,thou hast granted me the grace to reveal this treasure1 which until now has lain buried and hid from the sight of common men4 ,to ,thee be glory and honour1 now and for ever4 ,amen40 ,passing from the preface to the botanical part of the ,german ,herbarius1 we find that it is divided into chapters1 each of which deals with a herb1 except in a comparatively small number of cases in which an animal1 or a substance useful to man such as butter or lime1 forms the subject4 ,the chapters are arranged in alphabetical order4 ,the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch represents a notable advance upon the ,latin ,herbarius in the matter of the figures4 ,its publication1 according to ,dr ,payne1 8forms an important land-mark in the history of botanical illustration1 and marks perhaps the greatest single step ever made in that art40 ,this estimate seems to the present writer to be somewhat exaggerated1 but it must at least be conceded that the figures in question are1 on the whole1 drawn with greater freedom and realism than those of the ,latin ,herbarius1 and are often remarkably beautiful 7,text-figs4 #g1 #gg1 #gh74 ,the most attractive is perhaps that of the ,dodder climbing on a plant with flowers and pods 7,text-fig4 #gg71 which is drawn in a masterly fashion4 ,these wood-cuts form the basis of nearly all botanical illustrations for the next half-century1 being copied and recopied from book to book4 ,no work which excelled1 or even equalled them was produced until a new period of botanical illustration began with the ,herbal of ,brunfels1 published in #aecj4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #g4 8,acorus0 ,iris ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe4 ,the ,german ,herbarius was much copied and translated into other languages1 the original set of figures being1 as a rule1 reproduced on a smaller scale4 ,according to ,dr ,payne1 the earliest ,french edition called #8,arbolayre' 7derived from the ,latin1 herbolarium7 is now an exceedingly rare book4 ,it is said to differ little from the original except in the fact that the ,french translator declined to believe the myth that the ,mandrake root has human form4 ,another early ,french herbal1 very similar to the ,arbolayre1 was published under the name of #8,le ,grant ,herbier4' ,the origin of the text of this book has been the subject of some discussion4 ,choulant regarded it as derived from the ,ortus ,sanitatis1 but an ,italian authority1 ,signor ,giulio ,camus1 has discovered two fifteenth-century manuscripts in the ,biblioteca ,estense at ,modena1 which have thrown a different light on the subject4 ,one of these is the work commonly called #8,circa instans1' while the other is a version of the ,grant ,herbier2 on comparing the two1 ,signor ,camus concluded that the ,french manuscript was obviously derived from ,circa instans4 ,a version of the latter1 differing somewhat from the ,modena manuscript1 was printed at ,ferrara in #adhh1 and other editions appeared later4 ,the figures which illustrate the ,grant ,herbier seem to have been derived from those of the ,ortus ,sanitatis rather than those of the ,herbarius4 ,the work is of special interest to ,british botanists1 since it was translated into ,english and published1 in #aebf1 as the #8,grete ,herball1' a book which will be discussed at length in the following chapter4 ,another work1 which appeared with reduced copies of the familiar illustrations from the ,german ,herbarius1 was the #8,liber de arte distillandi de ,simplicibus' of ,hieronymus ,braunschweig 7#aejj74 ,in this book1 the method of distilling herbs1 in order to make use of their virtues1 was described in considerable detail1 with drawings of the apparatus employed4 #e4 ,,the ,,hortus ,,sanitatis4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #h4 8,leopardus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the third of the fundamental botanical works1 produced at ,mainz towards the close of the fifteenth century1 was the #8,hortus1' or as it is more commonly called #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' printed by ,jacob ,meydenbach in #adia4 ,it is in part a modified ,latin translation of the ,german ,herbarius1 but it is not merely this1 for it contains treatises on animals1 birds1 fishes and stones1 which are almost unrepresented in the ,herbarius4 ,nearly one-third of the figures of herbs are new4 ,the rest are copied on a reduced scale from the ,german ,herbarius1 and the drawing1 which is by no means improved1 often shows that the copyist did not fully understand the nature of the object he was attempting to portray4 ,as an example of a wood-cut1 which has lost much of its character in copying1 we may take the ,dodder 7cf4 ,text-figs4 #hj and #gg74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #i4 8,daucus0 ,carrot ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the ,ortus ,sanitatis is very rich in pictures4 ,the first edition opens with a full-page wood-cut1 modified from that at the beginning of the ,german ,herbarius1 and representing a group of figures1 who appear to be engaged in discussing some medical or botanical problem4 ,before the treatise on ,animals1 there is another large engraving of three figures with a number of beasts at their feet1 and before that on ,birds1 there is a lively picture with an architectural background1 showing a scene which swarms with innumerable birds of all kinds1 whose peculiarities are apparently being discussed by two savants in the foreground4 ,the treatise on ,fishes begins with a landscape with water1 enlivened by shipping4 ,there are two figures in the foreground1 and in the water1 fishes1 crabs and mythical monsters such as mermen1 are seen disporting themselves4 ,before the treatise on ,stones1 there is a very spirited scene representing a number of figures in a jeweller's shop1 and two large wood-cuts of doctors and their patients illustrate the medical portion with which the book concludes4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aj4 8,passer0 ,sparrow ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aa4 8,pavo0 ,peacock ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ab4 8,arbor vel lignum vite paradisi0 ,tree of ,paradise ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the treatise on ,plants is considerably modified from the ,german ,herbarius1 and the virtues of the herbs described are dealt with at greater length4 ,the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus is more than once quoted1 though not by name4 ,a number of new illustrations are added1 some of which are highly imaginative4 ,the ,tree of ,life 7,text-fig4 #ab7 and the ,tree of ,knowledge are dealt with amongst other botanical objects1 a woman-headed serpent being introduced in the first case1 and ,adam and ,eve in the second4 ,there is a beautiful description of the virtues of the ,tree of ,life1 in which we read that he who should eat of the fruit 8should be clothed with blessed immortality1 and should not be fatigued with infirmity1 or anxiety1 or lassitude1 or weariness of trouble40 ,the engraving which is named ,narcissus 7,text-fig4 #ac7 has diminutive figures emerging from the flowers1 like a transformation scene at a pantomime6 ,it is probably1 however1 intended to represent the conversion of the beautiful youth1 ,narcissus1 into a flower4 ,apart from these mythological subjects1 there are a number of very curious engravings4 ,a tree called 8,bausor10 for instance1 which was believed to exhale a narcotic poison1 like the fabulous ,upas tree1 has two men lying beneath its shade1 apparently in the sleep of death 7,text-fig4 #ad74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ac4 8,narcissus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ad4 8,bauser vel ,bausor0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,among the herbs1 substances such as starch1 vinegar1 cheese1 soap1 etc41 are included1 and as these do not lend themselves to direct representation1 they become the excuse for a delightful set of genre pictures4 8,wine0 is illustrated by a man gazing at a glass2 8,bread10 by a housewife with loaves on the table before her 7,text-fig4 #ae72 8,water10 by a fountain2 8,honey10 by a boy who seems to be extracting it from the comb2 and 8,milk10 by a woman milking a cow4 ,the picture which appears under the heading of ,amber shows great ingenuity 7,text-fig4 #af74 ,the writer points out that this substance1 according to some authors1 is the fruit or gum of a tree growing by the sea1 while according to others it is produced by a fish or by sea foam4 ,in order to represent all these possibilities1 the figure shows the sea1 indicated in a conventional fashion1 with a tree growing out of it1 and a fish swimming in it4 ,the writer of the ,ortus ,sanitatis1 on the other hand1 holds the opinion that ,amber is generated under the sea1 after the manner of the ,fungi which arise on land4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ae4 8,panis0 ,bread ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the treatises on animals and fishes are full of pictures of mythical creatures1 such as a unicorn being caressed by a lady as though it were a little dog 7,text-fig4 #ag71 recalling the 8,lady and ,unicorn0 tapestry in the ,muse ,cluny--a fight between a man and hydras--the phnix in the flames--and a harpy with its claws in a man's body4 ,other monsters which are figured include a dragon1 the ,basilisk1 ,pegasus1 and a bird with a long neck which is tied in an ornamental knot4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #af4 8,ambra0 ,amber ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,later ,latin editions of the ,ortus ,sanitatis were printed in ,germany and ,italy1 and translations were also popular4 ,the part of the book dealing with animals and stones was produced in ,german under the name of #8,gart der ,gesuntheit2 zu ,latin ,ortus ,sanitatis1' so as to form a supplement to the ,german ,herbarius1 which dealt1 as we have seen1 almost exclusively with herbs4 ,no really complete translation of the ,hortus was ever published1 except that printed by ,antoine ,vrard in ,paris about the year #aejj1 under the title1 #8,ortus sanitatis translate de latin en francois4' ,henry ,,vii was one of ,vrard's patrons1 and in the account books of ,john ,heron1 ,treasurer of the ,chamber1 which are preserved at the ,record ,office1 there is an entry 7#aeja-b7 which runs1 8,item to ,anthony ,vrard for two bokes called the gardyn of helth 444 #f40 ,this refers to a copy1 in two parts1 of ,vrard's translation of the ,ortus ,sanitatis1 which is still preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ag4 8,unicornus0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the complete ,ortus ,sanitatis made its appearance for the last time as #8,le ,jardin de ,sant1' printed by ,philippe le ,noir about #aeci1 and sold in ,paris1 8a lenseigne de la ,rose blanche couronnee40 ,text-fig4 #ah1 taken from this book1 shows how the artist of the period represented a 8,garden of ,health40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ah4 ,a ,herbalist's ,garden ,le ,jardin de ,sant1 8 #aeci4 ,the title-pages of the early herbals were often decorated with such pictures4 ,a more ambitious example is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #aac4 ,in this case the apothecary's store-room is also depicted1 and a housewife is portrayed1 laying fragrant herbs among linen4 ,the small garden scene on the title-page of the #8,grete ,herball' 7#aebf7 is of special interest1 since it includes representations of the male and female ,mandrake 7,text-fig4 #aab74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v #8,mandragora' ,mandrake ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd4 ,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,england #a4 ,,the ,,herbarium ,,of ,,apuleius ,,platonicus4 ,concerning the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus1 a few remarks have been already made4 ,this herbal was perhaps the first through which any kind of systematic knowledge of medicinal plants was brought into ,britain4 ,for this reason it may be mentioned here1 although manuscript herbals do not1 strictly1 come within our province4 ,in the ,bodleian ,library there is an ,anglo-,saxon translation of the work1 which is said to have been made for ,king ,alfred4 ,another ,anglo-,saxon manuscript of later date1 probably transcribed between ,a4,d4 #ajjj and the ,norman ,conquest1 has been rendered into modern ,english by ,dr ,cockayne4 ,the classical and ,anglo-,saxon plant-names are given in the herbal1 and1 although there is scarcely any attempt at description1 the localities where the plants may be found are sometimes mentioned4 ,the greater part of the manuscript is concerned with the virtues of herbs4 ,the plants were regarded in this1 as in most early works1 merely as 8simples10 that is1 the simple constituents of compound medicines4 ,hieronymus ,bock in #aeea described his herbal as being an account of 8die ,einfache erd ,gewchs1 ,simplicia genant#g40 ,the term 8simple10 now almost obsolete1 was a household word in earlier times1 when most remedies were manufactured at home in the still-room4 ,the expression of ,jaques in #8,as ,you ,like ,it'--8a melancholy of mine own1 compounded of many simples1 extracted from many objects0--would not have seemed in the least far-fetched to an audience of that day4 ,it is interesting that1 although the word 8simple10 used in this sense1 has vanished from our common speech1 its antithesis 8compound0 has held its place in the language of pharmacy4 ,the southern source of the ,herbal of ,apuleius is suggested by the fact that the origin of the healing art is attributed to sculapius and ,chiron4 ,we are told1 also1 that the ,wormwoods were discovered by ,diana1 who 8delivered their powers and leechdom to ,chiron1 the centaur1 who first from these worts set forth a leechdom40 ,the ,lily-of-the-,valley1 on the other hand1 is said to have been found by ,apollo and given by him 8to sculapius1 the leech40 ,many of the accounts of the virtues of the plants are of the nature of spells or charms rather than of medical recipes4 ,for instance it is recommended that 8if any propose a journey1 then let him take to him in hand this wort artemisia1 444 then he will not feel much toil in his journey40 ,as is usually the case in the older herbals1 the proper mode of uprooting the ,mandrake is described with much gusto4 8,this wort 444 is mickle and illustrious of aspect1 and it is beneficial4 ,thou shalt in this manner take it1 when thou comest to it1 then thou understandest it by this1 that it shineth at night altogether like a lamp4 ,when first thou seest its head1 then inscribe thou it instantly with iron1 lest it fly from thee2 its virtue is so mickle and so famous1 that it will immediately flee from an unclean man1 when he cometh to it2 hence as we before said1 do thou inscribe it with iron1 and so shalt thou delve about it1 as that thou touch it not with the iron1 but thou shalt earnestly with an ivory staff delve the earth4 ,and when thou seest its hands and its feet1 then tie thou it up4 ,then take the other end and tie it to a dog's neck1 so that the hound be hungry2 next cast meat before him1 so that he may not reach it1 except he jerk up the wort with him4 ,of this wort it is said1 that it hath so mickle might1 that what thing soever tuggeth it up1 that it shall soon in the same manner be deceived4 ,therefore1 as soon as thou see that it be jerked up1 and have possession of it1 take it immediately in hand1 and twist it1 and wring the ooze out of its leaves into a glass ampulla40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ai4 ,wood-cut of ,plants ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 ,liber de proprietatibus rerum1 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 8 #adie4 ,reduced4 ,the writer of the herbal evidently fully accepted the mythical notion that the ,mandrake was furnished with human limbs4 ,plate ,v shows how this plant was depicted in an early printed edition of the ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 but much more spirited and sensational treatments of the same subject are to be found in some of the manuscripts dealing with herbs4 ,sixteenth-century representations are shown in ,text-figs4 #ajg and #aab4 ,the earliest ,english printed book containing information of a definitely botanical character is probably the translation of the #8,liber de proprietatibus rerum' of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 which was printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,this has been briefly mentioned in the last chapter 7pp4 #aj and #aa7 and a wood-cut from it is shown in ,text-fig4 #ai4 #b4 ,,banckes' ,,herbal4 ,the first book printed in ,england1 which can really be called a herbal1 is an anonymous quarto volume1 without illustrations1 published in #aebe4 ,the title-page runs1 8,here begynneth a newe mater1 the whiche sheweth and treateth of ye vertues and proprytes of herbes1 the whiche is called an ,herball40 ,on the last page we find the words 8,imprynted by me ,rycharde ,banckes1 dwellynge in ,london1 a lytel fro ye ,stockes in ye ,pultry40 ,i have not been able to satisfy myself that this work is directly derived from any pre-existing book1 and it seems possible that it may really have some claim to originality4 ,dr ,payne suggests that it is probably an abridgement of some medival ,english manuscript on herbs4 ,it is certainly quite a different work from the much more famous ,grete ,herball1 printed in the succeeding year1 and1 although there are no figures1 it is in some ways a better book4 ,distinctly less space1 in proportion1 is devoted to the virtues of the plants1 and1 on the whole1 more botanical information is given4 ,for instance1 under the heading 8,capillus veneris10 we find the following description3 8,this herbe is called ,mayden heere or waterworte4 ,this herbe hathe leves lyke to ,ferne1 but the leves be smaller1 and it groweth on walles and stones1 and in ye myddes of ye lefe is as it were blacke heere40 ,the ,grete ,herball1 on the other hand1 vouchsafes only the meagre information1 8,capillus veneris is an herbe so named06 ,in cases where the virtues of the herbs are not strictly medicinal1 they are described in ,banckes' herbal with more than a touch of poetry4 ,rosemary has perhaps the most charming list of attributes1 some of which are worth quoting4 ,the reader is directed to 8take the flowres and make powder therof and bynde it to the ryght arme in a lynen clothe1 and it shall make the lyght and mery4444 ,also take the flowres and put them in a chest amonge youre clothes or amonge bokes and moughtes shall not hurte them4444 ,also boyle the leves in whyte wyne and wasshe thy face therwith 444 thou shall have a fayre face4 ,also put the leves under thy beddes heed1 and thou shalbe delyvered of all evyll dremes4444 ,also take the leves and put them into a vessel of wyne 444 yf thou sell that wyne1 thou shall have good lucke and spede in the sale4444 ,also make the a box of the wood and smell to it and it shall preserne preserve thy youthe4 ,also put therof in thy doores or in thy howse and thou shalbe without daunger of ,adders and other venymous serpentes4 ,also make the a barell therof and drynke thou of the drynke that standeth therin and thou nedes to fere no poyson that shall hurte ye1 and yf thou set it in thy garden kepe it honestly for it is moche profytable40 ,the popularity of ,banckes' ,herbal is attested by the fact that a large number of editions appeared from different presses1 although their identity has been obscured by the various names under which they were published4 ,to consider these editions in detail is a task for the bibliographer rather than the botanist1 and it will not be attempted here4 ,we may1 however1 mention a few typical examples4 ,in #aeej1 a book was printed by 8,jhon kynge0 with the title #8,a litle ,herball of the properties of ,herbes newly amended and corrected1 wyth certayn ,additions at the ende of the boke1 declaring what ,herbes hath influence of certain ,sterres and constellations1 wherby maye be chosen the best and most lucky tymes and dayes of their ministracion1 according to the ,moone beyng in the signes of heaven1 the which is daily appointed in the ,almanacke1 made and gathered in the yeare of our ,lorde ,god4 ,,mdl the ,,xii daye of ,february1 by ,anthony ,askham1 ,physycyon4' ,this work1 which is generally called ,askham's ,herbal1 is directly derived from ,banckes' ,herbal1 with the addition of some astrological lore4 ,the book known as ,cary's or ,copland's ,herbal1 which was probably first published about the same time as ,askham's ,herbal1 is simply a later edition of the herbal of ,rycharde ,banckes1 and another closely similar edition with an almost identical title was published by ,kynge4 ,another version of the same work1 undated1 and printed by ,robert ,wyer1 appeared under an even more deceptive title--#8,a newe ,herball of ,macer1 ,translated out of ,laten in to ,englysshe4' ,there was1 as a matter of fact1 a certain milius ,macer1 a contemporary of ,virgil and ,ovid1 who wrote about plants in ,latin verse1 and there is also a herbal which was first printed in the fifteenth century1 and which is known by the name of #8,macer ,floridus de viribus herbarum4' ,macer ,floridus or milius ,macer is supposed to have been the pseudonym of a physician whose real name was ,odo4 #8,de viribus herbarum' deals with seventy-seven plants in alphabetical order1 and describes their virtues in medival ,latin verse1 which is believed to date back to the tenth century4 ,it is illustrated with wood-cuts which are apparently copied from those of the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch4 ,there seems to be no justification whatever for the use of ,macer's name on the title-page of #8,a newe ,herball of ,macer4' ,except for some slight verbal differences1 it is identical with ,banckes' herbal of #aebe4 ,another closely similar edition1 also undated1 was published under the name of #8,macers ,herbal4 ,practysd by ,doctor ,lynacro4' ,macer's name was probably merely borrowed in each case1 in order to give the books a well-sounding title1 and thus to increase the chances of sale4 #c4 ,,the ,,grete ,,herball4 ,among the earlier ,english herbals1 the greater reputation belongs1 not to ,banckes' ,herbal in any of its forms1 but to the #8,grete ,herball' printed by ,peter ,treveris in #aebf1 and again in #aebi4 ,this was admittedly a translation from the ,french1 namely from the work known as #8,le ,grant ,herbier1' whose origin we have discussed on p4 #bd4 ,in the preface and supplement1 however1 it also shows some indebtedness to the ,ortus ,sanitatis4 ,the figures in the ,grete ,herball are degraded copies of the series which first appeared in the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch 7see ,text-figs4 #bj and #ba74 ,the introduction to the ,grete ,herball1 though it is less nave and charming than the corresponding part of the ,german ,herbarius1 may yet be quoted1 in part1 as giving a very lucid idea of the utilitarian point of view of the herbalist of the period1 and also as bringing home to the reader the immense influence of the theory of the four elements3 8,consyderynge the grete goodnesse of almyghty god creatour of heven and erthe1 and al thynge therin comprehended to whom be eternall laude and prays1 etc4 ,consyderynge the cours and nature of the foure elementes and qualytees where to ye nature of man is inclyned1 out of the whiche elementes issueth dyvers qualytees infyrmytees and dyseases in the corporate body of man1 but god of his goodnesse that is creatour of all thynges hath ordeyned for mankynde 7whiche he hath created to his owne lykenesse7 for the grete and tender love1 which he hath unto hym to whom all thinges erthely he hath ordeyned to be obeysant1 for the sustentacyon and helthe of his lovynge creature mankynde whiche is onely made egally of the foure elementes and qualitees of the same1 and whan any of these foure habounde or hath more domynacyon1 the one than the other it constrayneth ye body of man to grete infyrmytees or dyseases1 for the whiche ye eternall god hath gyven of his haboundante grace1 vertues in all maner of herbes to cure and heale all maner of sekenesses or infyrmytes to hym befallyng thrugh the influent course of the foure elementes beforesayd1 and of the corrupcyons and ye venymous ayres contrarye ye helthe of man4 ,also of onholsam meates or drynkes1 or holsam meates or drynkes taken ontemperatly whiche be called surfetes that brengeth a man sone to grete dyseases or sekenesse1 whiche dyseases ben of nombre and ompossyble to be rehersed1 and fortune as well in vilages where as nother surgeons nor phisicians be dwellyng nygh by many a myle1 as it dooth in good townes where they be redy at hande4 ,wherfore brotherly love compelleth me to wryte thrugh ye gyftes of the holy gost shewynge and enformynge how man may be holpen with grene herbes of the gardyn and wedys of ye feldys as well as by costly receptes of the potycarys prepayred40 ,the conclusion of the whole matter1 which is set forth immediately before the index1 is in these words3 8,o ye worthy reders or practicyens to whome this noble volume is present ,i beseche yow take intellygence and beholde ye workes and operacyons of almyghty god which hath endewed his symple creature mankynde with the graces of ye holy goost to have parfyte knowlege and understandynge of the vertue of all maner of herbes and trees in this booke comprehendyd40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bj4 8,yvery0 ,ivory ,the ,grete ,herball1 #aebi4 ,from a twentieth-century point of view1 the ,grete ,herball contains much that is curious1 especially in relation to medical matters4 ,bathing was evidently regarded as a strange fad4 ,we learn1 on the authority of ,galen1 that 8many folke that hath bathed them in colde water have dyed or they came home40 ,water drinking seems to have been thought almost equally pernicious1 for we are told1 8mayster ,isaac sayth that it is unpossyble for them that drynketh overmoche water in theyr youth to come to ye aege that god ordeyned them40 ,a period when men were more prone than they are to-day to settle their differences by the use of their own strong right arms is reflected in the various remedies proposed for such afflictions as 8blackenesse or brusinge comynge of strypes1 specyally yf they be in the face40 ,turning to less concrete ailments1 it is rather striking to find what a large number of prescriptions against melancholy are considered necessary4 ,for instance1 8,to make folke mery at ye table10 one is recommended to 8take foure leves and foure rotes of vervayn in wyne1 than spryncle the wyne all about the hous where the eatynge is and they shall be all mery40 ,the smoke of ,aristolochia 8maketh the pacyent mery mervaylously10 and also 8dryveth all devyllsshnesse and all trouble out of ye house40 ,bugloss and ,mugwort are also recommended to produce merriment1 and it is suggested that the lesser ,mugwort should be laid under the door of the house1 for1 if this is done1 8man nor womann can not anoy in that hous#h40 ,the number of specifics proposed as a cure for baldness is somewhat surprising1 when one remembers that this condition is often attributed to the nervous stress and strain of modern life6 ,hair-dyes and stains for the nails also receive their share of attention4 ,very remarkable powers were ascribed to products of the ocean1 such as coral and pearls4 ,the former is described as being 8a maner of stony substaunce that is founde in partyes of the see1 and specyally in holowe1 and cavy hylles that ben in ye see1 and groweth as a maner of a glewy humour1 and cleveth to the stones40 ,the writer mentions that 8some say that the reed corall kepeth the hous that it is in fro lyghtnynge1 thondre1 and tempest40 ,pearls were regarded as of great value in medicine1 and1 for weakness of the heart1 the patient is recommended to 8,take the powdre of perles with sugre of roses10 which suggests a remedy worthy of a poet6 ,many travellers' tales are incorporated in the herbal2 we find1 for instance1 a most thrilling description of the lodestone4 8,lapis magnetis is the adamant stone that draweth yren4 ,it 444 is founde in the brymmes of the occyan see4 ,and there be hylles of it1 and these hylles drawe ye shyppes that have nayles of yren to them1 and breke the shyppes up drawynge of the nayles out40 ,this description is illustrated by a picture of a rocky pinnacle and a ship going to pieces2 one man is already in the water1 and two others are on the point of losing their lives4 ,many of the remedies for different ailments strike the modern reader as being violent in a terrifying degree1 and adapted to a more robust age than the present2 they incline one to echo the words1 8,there were giants in the earth in those days40 ,but apparently the sixteenth century held an exactly corresponding view of its predecessors1 for under the heading of 8whyte elebore0 we read1 8,in olde tyme it was commely used in medycyns as we use squamony4 ,for the body of man was stronger than it is now1 and myght better endure the vyolence of elebore1 for man is weyker at this time of nature40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ba4 8,nenufar0 ,waterlily ,the ,grete ,herball1 #aebi4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that both ,christianity and ,greek mythology find a place in the ,grete ,herball4 ,the discovery of ,artemisia and its virtues is attributed to ,diana and the ,centaurs1 but in the event of being bitten by a mad dog1 the sufferer is recommended to appeal to the ,virgin ,mary before employing any remedy4 8,as sone as ye be byten go to the chyrche1 and make thy offrynge to our lady1 and pray here to helpe and heale thee4 ,than rubbe ye sore with a newe clothe10 etc4 ,quite a number of medicines enumerated in the ,grete ,herball still hold their own in modern practice4 ,liquorice is recommended for coughs2 laudanum1 henbane1 opium and lettuces as narcotics2 olive oil and slaked lime for scalds2 cuttle-fish bone for whitening the teeth1 and borax and rose water for the complexion4 ,this book throws an interesting light on the early names of ,british plants4 ,the ,primrose is called 8,prymerolles0 or 8saynt peterworte40 ,the 8devylles bytte0 is said to be 8so called by cause the rote is blacke and semeth that it is iagged with bytynge1 and some say that the devyll had envy at the vertue therof and bete the rote so for to have destroyed it40 ,duckweed is called 8,lentylles of the water0 or 8frogges fote10 while ,cuckoo-pint is known by the picturesque name of 8prestes hode10 and ,wood-sorrel is called 8,alleluya0 or 8cukowes meate40 ,one of the most noticeable features of the herbal is the exposure of methods of 8faking0 drugs1 for the protection of the public1 8to eschew ye frawde of them that selleth it40 ,this is a great step in advance from the days of the old ,greek herbalists1 when secrecy was part of the stock-in-trade of a druggist1 and1 as we have pointed out in a previous chapter1 the credulous public was warned off by threats of the miraculous and fearful ills1 which would follow any unskilled meddling with the subject4 ,another work1 which was illustrated with the same figures as those of the ,grete ,herball1 was #8,the vertuose boke of ,distillacyon of the waters of all maner of ,herbes1' which appeared in #aebg4 ,this was a translation by ,laurence ,andrew from the #8,liber de arte distillandi' of ,hieronymus ,braunschweig1 to which we have already referred4 ,it was almost entirely occupied with an account of methods of distillation1 but occasionally there is a picturesque touch of description4 ,for example1 in speaking of the ,mistletoe1 the author says1 8,this herbe hath a longe slender lefe nother full grene1 nor ful yelowe1 and bereth a small whyte berye40 ,the book was printed 8in the flete strete by me ,laurens ,andrewe1 in the sygne of the golden ,crosse40 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,botanical ,,renaissance ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,and ,,seventeenth ,,centuries #a4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,germany4 ,in his ,history of ,botany1 ,kurt ,sprengel first used the honoured title1 8,the ,german ,fathers of ,botany10 to describe a group of herbalists--,brunfels1 ,bock1 ,fuchs and ,cordus--whose work belongs principally to the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,the earliest of these was ,otto ,brunfels ,otho ,brunfelsius1 who is said to have been born in #adfd4 ,his surname is derived from the fact that his father1 who was a cooper1 came from ,schloss ,brunfels1 near ,mainz4 ,when ,otto grew up1 he became a ,carthusian monk4 ,we do not know how long his monastic career lasted1 but eventually his health appears to have broken down1 and1 at the same time1 his faith in the ,roman ,catholic ,church was undermined by the acquaintance which he began to make with protestant doctrines4 ,he fled from the monastery1 and took up his abode in ,strasburg1 where he was for nine years headmaster of the grammar school4 ,he wrote various theological works1 but ultimately turned his attention to medicine1 and1 before his death in #aecd1 he had become town physician at ,bern4 ,as evidence of his medical studies we have his fine herbal1 which is still full of interest1 whereas his other works1 which he probably regarded as much more serious contributions1 have fallen into oblivion4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bb4 8,walwurtz mnnlin0 ,symphytum1 ,comfrey ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bc4 8,helleborus ,niger0 ,helleborus viridis ,l41 ,green ,hellebore ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced4 ,a new era in the history of the herbal may be said to date from the year #aecj1 when the first part of ,brunfels' work1 the #8,herbarum viv eicones1' was published by ,schott of ,strasburg4 ,in this book1 with its beautiful and naturalistic illustrations1 there is1 as the title indicates1 a real return to nature2 the plants are represented as they are1 and not in the conventionalised aspect which had become traditional in the earlier herbals1 through successive copying by one artist from another1 without reference to the plants themselves4 ,the blocks for the #8,herbarum viv eicones' were executed by ,hans ,weiditz1 who was probably also the draughtsman4 ,examples are shown in ,text-figs4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #hb1 #hc and #hd4 ,the illustrations of ,brunfels' herbal are incomparably better than the text1 which is very poor1 and largely borrowed from previous writers4 ,brunfels' knowledge of botany was chiefly derived from the study of certain ,italian authors1 ,manardus and others1 who spent their time in trying to identify the plants they saw growing around them with those described by ,dioscorides4 ,this was by no means unreasonable in their case1 since it was the plants of the ,mediterranean region that ,dioscorides had enumerated4 ,when1 however1 ,brunfels attempted to employ the same methods in his examination of the flora of the ,strasburg district1 and the left bank of the ,rhine1 many difficulties and discrepancies arose4 ,he had no understanding of the geographical distribution of plants1 and did not realise that different regions have dissimilar floras4 ,it is curious that this should have been so1 when we remember that ,theophrastus1 more than eighteen hundred years earlier1 had clearly pointed out that the provinces of ,asia have each their own characteristic plants1 and that some1 which occur in one region1 are absent from another4 ,hieronymus ,bock1 who in his ,latin writings called himself ,tragus 7,text-fig4 #bf71 was a contemporary of ,brunfels1 though his botanical work was somewhat later in date4 ,he was born in #adih1 and destined by his parents for the cloister4 ,but he proved to have no vocation for the monastic life1 and1 having passed through a university course1 he obtained1 by favour of the ,count ,palatine ,ludwig1 the post of school teacher at ,zweibrcken1 and overseer of the ,count's garden4 ,after his patron's death he removed to ,hornbach1 where he preached the gospel1 and also had an extensive medical practice1 devoting his spare time to botany4 ,but he got into some trouble1 apparently owing to his protestantism1 and was obliged to leave ,hornbach4 ,he was in serious straits until ,count ,philip of ,nassau1 whom he had previously cured of a severe illness1 gave him shelter and support in his own castle4 ,he was eventually able to return to ,hornbach1 where he filled the office of preacher until his death in #aeed4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bd4 8,synnaw0 ,alchemilla1 ,ladies' ,mantle ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aeca4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #be4 8,caryophyllata0 ,geum1 ,avens ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #aedj4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bf4 ,hieronymus ,bock or ,tragus1 #adih-aeed ,engraving by ,david ,kandel4 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aeea4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bg4 8,erdberen0 ,fragaria1 ,strawberry ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf4 ,bock's great work is the #8,new ,kreutterbuch1' a herbal which first appeared in #aeci1 printed at ,strasburg by ,wendel ,rihel4 ,in subsequent editions the title was abbreviated to #8,kreuter ,bch4' ,the first edition was without illustrations1 but a second1 containing many wood-cuts1 followed in #aedf4 ,the majority of the figures are said to have been copied on a reduced scale from those in ,fuchs' magnificent herbal1 which appeared in #aedb1 between the first and second editions of ,bock's work4 ,fuchs' figures must have been used with great discretion1 for the plagiarism is often not obvious 7see ,text-figs4 #bg1 #ij1 #ia74 ,a considerable number of the figures are new1 being drawn and engraved by ,david ,kandel1 whose initials appear on the portrait of ,bock1 reproduced in ,text-fig4 #bf4 ,the wood-cuts of trees in the third part of the book are particularly noticeable 7see ,text-figs4 #bh and #ib7 and are often made more interesting by the introduction of figures of men and animals4 ,bock's chief claim to remembrance1 however1 does not lie in his figures1 but in his descriptions1 which were a great advance on those previously published4 ,he was careful also to note the mode of occurrence and localities of the plants mentioned1 and in this feature his work showed some approach to a flora in the modern sense of the word4 ,bock seems to have been a keen collector1 although hampered by ill-health1 and a great point in his favour is that he described only those plants which had come under his own personal observation4 ,the ,royal ,fern 7,osmunda7 was traditionally supposed to bear seed upon ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 though ferns were generally believed at that time to have no organs of fructification4 ,to test this statement1 ,bock four times spent the night in the forest4 ,he found 8small black seed like poppy seed10 in spite of the fact that he 8used no charm1 incantation or magic character10 but went upon his search without superstition4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bh4 8,pimpernuss0 ,pistacia1 ,pistachio-nut ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #bi4 8,tribulus aquaticus0 ,trapa natans ,l41 ,bull-nut ,bock1 ,de stirpium1 #aeeb4 ,bock's freedom from the credulity which permeated the work of so many of the early botanists is one of his most remarkable characteristics4 ,his chapters on ,verbena and ,artemisia reflect clearly the independence of his thought4 ,he points out that the former plant is collected rather for purposes of magic than for medicine1 and he can hardly contain his scorn at the 8monkey tricks and ceremonies0 connected with the use of the latter4 ,leonhard ,fuchs or ,fuchsius1 the third of the ,fathers of ,german ,botany 7see ,frontispiece71 belonged to the same generation as ,hieronymus ,bock1 though he was a little younger and produced his chief work three years later4 ,he was born in #aeja at ,membdingen in ,bavaria1 and at an early age he became a student of the ,university of ,erfurt1 where he is said to have taken a bachelor's degree in his thirteenth year6 ,after a period of school teaching1 he resumed his studies1 this time at the ,university of ,ingolstadt1 where he devoted himself chiefly to classics1 and became a ,master of ,arts4 ,after this he turned his attention to medicine1 and took a doctor's degree4 ,at ,ingolstadt he came under the influence of ,luther's writings1 which won him over to the reformed faith4 ,fuchs began to practise as a physician at ,munich1 but in #aebf he returned to ,ingolstadt as ,professor of ,medicine4 ,he seems to have been of a restless temperament1 which was probably accentuated by the persecution to which his protestant opinions exposed him4 ,his career for more than forty years consisted of periods of active practice1 alternating with periods of university teaching4 ,in #aece he was appointed to a professorship at ,tbingen1 and1 while he held this post1 he declined a call to the ,university of ,pisa1 and also an invitation to become physician to the ,king of ,denmark4 ,it is clear that1 both as a physician and a teacher1 he was in great demand4 ,he acquired a widespread reputation by his successful treatment of a terrible epidemic disease1 which swept over ,germany in #aebi4 ,a little book of medical instructions and prayers against the plague1 which was published in ,london in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 shows that his fame had extended to ,england4 ,it is entitled1 #8,a worthy practise of the moste learned ,phisition ,maister ,leonerd ,fuchsius1 ,doctor in ,phisicke1 most necessary in this needfull tyme of our visitation1 for the comforte of all good and faythfull people1 both olde and yonge1 both for the sicke and for them that woulde avoyde the daunger of contagion4' ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cj4 8,brassic quartum genus0 ,cabbage ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,in spite of his professional activity1 ,fuchs found time to produce a botanical masterpiece1 which appeared in #aedb from the press of ,isingrin of ,basle1 under the title #8,de historia stirpium4' ,this was a ,latin herbal dealing with about four hundred native ,german1 and one hundred foreign plants1 and was followed in the succeeding year by a ,german edition1 called the #8,new ,kreterbch4' ,of all the botanists of the ,renaissance1 ,fuchs is perhaps the one who deserves most to be held in honour4 ,he is notably superior to his two predecessors in matters calling for scholarship1 such as the critical study of the plant nomenclature of classical authors4 ,his herbal rivals1 or even surpasses1 that of ,brunfels in its illustrations1 and that of ,bock in its ,german text4 ,the letter-press of the ,latin edition is1 on the whole1 inferior to the ,german1 the brief descriptions being often taken word for word from previous writers4 ,the ,latin edition opens1 however1 with a long and most interesting preface1 in singularly pure and fine ,latin4 ,fuchs is keenly indignant at the ignorance of herbs displayed even by medical men4 ,his outburst on this subject may be literally translated as follows3--8,but1 by ,immortal ,god1 is it to be wondered at that kings and princes do not at all regard the pursuit of the investigation of plants1 when even the physicians of our time so shrink from it that it is scarcely possible to find one among a hundred who has an accurate knowledge of even so many as a few plants80 ,that ,fuchs' work was indeed a labour of love is a conviction that must force itself upon everyone who studies his herbal1 and it is further borne out by his own words in the preface--words which bear the stamp of a lively enthusiasm3 8,but there is no reason why ,i should dilate at greater length upon the pleasantness and delight of acquiring knowledge of plants1 since there is no one who does not know that there is nothing in this life pleasanter and more delightful than to wander over woods1 mountains1 plains1 garlanded and adorned with flowerlets and plants of various sorts1 and most elegant to boot1 and to gaze intently upon them4 ,but it increases that pleasure and delight not a little1 if there be added an acquaintance with the virtues and powers of these same plants40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ca4 8,polygonatum latifolium0 ,solomon's ,seal ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,the wood-cuts which illustrate ,fuchs' herbal are of extraordinary beauty 7,text-figs4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #eh1 #gj1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh74 ,some of them gain a special interest as being the first ,european figures of certain ,american plants1 e4g4 ,indian ,corn 7,zea mais ,l47 and the ,great ,pumpkin 7,cucurbita maxima ,duch47 7,text-fig4 #cb74 ,these wood-cuts became familiar in ,england in the second half of the sixteenth century1 being used on a reduced scale 7borrowed from the octavo edition7 in both ,william ,turner's herbal and ,lyte's ,dodoens1 two books which we shall consider a little later4 ,in ,fuchs' great work we are fortunate in possessing1 in addition to the botanical drawings1 a full-length portrait of the author himself1 holding a spray of ,veronica1 on the verso of the title-page 7see ,frontispiece71 and1 at the end of the work1 named portraits1 which are generally supposed to represent the artist who drew the plants from nature1 the draughtsman whose business it was to copy the outline on to the wood1 and the engraver who actually cut the block 7,text-fig4 #hi74 ,it has also been suggested that the first of these is perhaps engaged in colouring a printed sheet4 ,these portraits are powerfully drawn1 and remarkably convincing4 ,it is pleasant to think that we know not merely the names1 but the very features of the men who collaborated to give us what is perhaps the most beautiful herbal ever produced4 ,the influence of ,fuchs' illustrations is more strongly felt in later work than that of his text4 ,the majority of the wood engravings in ,bock's #8,kreuter ,bch' 7#aedf71 ,dodoens' #8,cr deboeck' 7#aeed71 ,turner's #8,new ,herball' 7#aeea-aefh71 ,lyte's #8,niewe ,herball' 7#aegh7 and ,jean ,bauhin's #8,historia plantarum universalis' 7#afea71 are copied from ,fuchs1 or even printed from his actual wood-blocks1 while a number of his figures reappear in the herbals of ,egenolph1 d',alchamps1 ,tabernmontanus1 etc41 and the commentaries of ,ruellius and ,amatus ,lusitanus on ,dioscorides4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cb4 8,cucumis turcicus0 ,cucurbita maxima ,duch41 ,giant ,pumpkin ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,fuchs arranged his work alphabetically1 making no attempt at a natural grouping of the plants1 and his herbal is therefore without importance in the history of plant classification4 ,his influence on methods of plant description was1 however1 considerable1 as is shown by the fact that ,dodoens1 in his #8,cr deboeck1' took ,fuchs' herbal as a model for the order of description of each plant4 ,fuchs' text1 as well as his figures1 may thus be said to have had an effect1 even if an indirect one1 on ,british botany1 since the herbals of ,lyte and of ,gerard are based on the work of ,dodoens1 in which1 as we have just shown1 the influence of ,fuchs is clearly felt4 ,the publisher ,christian ,egenolph of ,frankfort1 though not himself a botanical writer1 must be mentioned at this stage1 because he brought out1 in #aecc1 a set of plant illustrations which became particularly well known 7e4g4 ,text-figs4 #cc and #he74 ,they do not reflect any great credit on ,egenolph1 since they were mostly pirated from ,brunfels4 ,they were not even used to illustrate a new herbal1 but merely a new edition of the old ,german ,herbarius1 enlarged and improved by ,dr ,eucharias ,rhodion1 and issued under the name of #8,kreutterbch von allem ,erdtgewchs4' ,egenolph was evidently a keen man of business1 for he made his figures do duty over and over again4 ,he used them not only as illustrations to the herbal1 but as a separate publication1 without any letter-press1 and also in conjunction with an entirely unrelated text1 such1 for example1 as a ,latin version of ,dioscorides4 ,many later editions of the ,kreutterbch appeared1 and to these a number of figures were added1 chiefly copies1 on a reduced scale1 from those of ,bock1 who had himself made considerable use of the drawings in the octavo edition of ,fuchs' herbal4 ,the editions produced under the auspices of ,adam ,lonicer1 the publisher's son-in-law1 are particularly well known4 ,no other botanical works of the period had a success comparable to that of this long series of books1 of which ,rhodion's #8,kreutterbch' was the prototype4 ,this success was1 however1 achieved in the teeth of much adverse contemporary criticism4 ,fuchs1 in the preface of his #8,historia stirpium' 7#aedb71 referred with unsparing touch to ,egenolph's botanical mistakes4 ,his trenchant indictment may be rendered into ,english as follows--8,among all the herbals which exist to-day1 there are none which have more of the crassest errors than those which ,egenolph1 the printer1 has already published again and again40 ,this statement ,fuchs supports by means of actual examples4 ,it must nevertheless be admitted that1 even if their quality was poor1 the herbals published by ,egenolph and his successors did good service in disseminating some knowledge of the plant world among a very wide public4 ,there is1 in the ,british ,museum1 a beautiful copy of the #aecf edition1 with a binding stamped in gold and bearing the arms of ,mary1 ,duchess of ,suffolk1 daughter of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the duchess may perhaps have inherited a taste for herbals from her father1 for the ,british ,museum also possesses a copy of ,vrard's translation of the #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' which is known to have been purchased by him4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cc4 8,erdpffel0 ,ranunculus ficaria ,l41 ,lesser ,celandine ,rhodion1 ,kreutterbch1 #aecc4 ,among the ,german ,fathers of ,botany1 ,sprengel includes a comparatively little known name1 that of ,valerius ,cordus 7#aeae-aedd71 a man whose actual achievement was small1 but who1 if he had not died so young1 would probably have become one of the most famous of the earlier herbalists4 ,his father1 ,euricius ,cordus1 was a physician1 botanist1 and man of letters1 so ,valerius was brought up in a fortunate environment4 ,at sixteen he graduated at the ,university of ,marburg1 and1 after studying in various towns1 he passed from the position of pupil to that of teacher1 and expounded ,dioscorides at the ,university of ,wittenberg4 ,he travelled widely in search of plants1 and visited many of the savants of the period4 ,he is known to have made a stay at ,tbingen1 and it is highly probable that he became personally acquainted with ,leonhard ,fuchs4 ,cordus had always longed to see1 under their native skies1 the plants about which the ancients had written1 and1 in fulfilment of this dream1 he undertook a long excursion into ,italy4 ,he visited many of the towns1 amongst others ,padua1 ,bologna1 ,florence and ,siena1 travelling partly on foot and partly on horseback1 and generally accompanied by his friend ,hieronymus ,schreiber4 ,the journey was a very trying one to men accustomed to a more northerly climate4 ,wild and difficult country had to be traversed in the height of summer1 and the exposure and fatigue led to a tragic conclusion4 ,cordus was injured by a kick from a horse1 which brought on a fever1 and his companions had great difficulty in getting him as far as ,rome4 ,he rallied1 however1 and his friends were deceived into the belief that he was on the road to recovery4 ,they even thought it safe to leave him1 while they made an excursion to ,naples1 but he did not survive until their return4 ,his fate1 like that of ,keats1 was to see ,rome and die4 ,none of the botanical works of ,valerius ,cordus were published during his life-time1 but his commentaries on ,dioscorides and his #8,historia stirpium' were edited by ,gesner after his death4 ,the great merit of the #8,historia' lies in the vividness of the descriptions4 ,the author seems to have examined the plants for their own sake--not merely in the interest of the arts of healing4 ,cordus did noteworthy service to medicine1 however1 for when he passed through ,nuremberg on his travels he was able to lay before the physicians of that town a collection of medical recipes1 chiefly selected from earlier writings4 ,this work1 which had for some time been in use in ,saxony in manuscript form1 was considered so valuable that1 after it had been examined and tested under the auspices of the town council1 it was published officially as the ,nuremberg #8,dispensatorium1' probably in #aedfi4 ,this is said to be the first work of the nature of a pharmacopia ever published under government authority4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cd4 8,ocimoides fruticosum0 ,silene fruticosa ,l4 ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh4 ,a passing reference may be made at this point to ,jacob ,theodor of ,bergzabern 7#aebj-aeij71 a herbalist whose work was perhaps of no very great importance1 but who is closely connected with the ,german ,fathers of ,botany1 having been the pupil both of ,otto ,brunfels and of ,hieronymus ,bock4 ,in his books he called himself ,tabernmontanus4 ,like the majority of the herbalists1 ,theodor was a medical man1 and his study of botany was a hobby which extended over many years4 ,he projected a herbal1 but was unable for a long time to carry the idea into effect1 being deterred by the cost of the illustrations4 ,this difficulty was eventually overcome1 chiefly through the generosity of ,count ,palatine ,frederick ,,iii1 and of the ,frankfort publisher1 ,nicolaus ,bassus4 ,the herbal first appeared in #aehh1 under the title #8,neuw ,kreuterbuch1' and in #aeij the illustrations were published without any text as the #8,eicones plantarum4' ,the herbal is a large and very finely illustrated work4 ,the figures1 however1 are for the most part not original1 but are reproduced from ,bock1 ,fuchs1 ,dodoens1 ,mattioli1 de l'cluse and de l',obel4 ,this collection of wood-blocks became familiar in ,england a few years later1 when they were acquired by the printer ,john ,norton1 and used to illustrate ,gerard's #8,herball' which appeared in #aeig4 ,there is still another ,german herbalist of the sixteenth century whose work must not be overlooked4 ,this is ,joachim ,camerarius#aj the younger 7,plate ,,vi74 ,his father was a celebrated philologist1 and a friend of ,melanchthon4 ,the son1 who was born in #aecd1 was attracted to botany in his early youth4 ,he studied at ,wittenberg and other universities1 and travelled in ,hungary and ,italy4 ,he spent some time in the latter country1 and took a doctor's degree in medicine at ,bologna4 ,at ,pisa1 he became acquainted with ,andrea ,cesalpino4 ,finally he returned to ,germany1 and settled down at ,nuremberg4 ,here he cultivated a garden which was kept supplied with rare plants by his friends1 and the ,nuremberg merchants4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi ,,joachim ,,camerarius1 the younger 7#aecd-aeih74 ,engraving by ,bartholomus ,kilian1 probably between #afej and #agjj4 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum4 ,camerarius brought out an edition of ,mattioli 7#8,de plantis ,epitome'71 but his chief work was the #8,hortus medicus et philosophicus1' which appeared in #aehh4 ,the illustrations to this book consist partly of drawings by ,gesner1 which the author had bought a few years previously1 and partly of original figures4 ,it is impossible to discriminate with any exactness between the work of the two men4 ,these wood-cuts1 of which ,text-figs4 #cd1 #ce1 #ga and #ajj are examples1 will be discussed more fully in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,from the botanical point of view1 they represent a considerable advance1 since the details of floral structure are often shown on an enlarged scale4 ,camerarius was a good observer1 and his travels furnished him with much information regarding the localities for the plants which he described4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ce4 8,palma0 ,seedlings of ,phnix dactylifera ,l41 ,date ,palm ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh4 #b4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,the ,,low ,,countries4 ,in the sixteenth century1 the ,herbal flourished exceedingly in the ,low ,countries4 ,this was due in part to the zeal and activity of the botanists of the ,netherlands1 but perhaps even more to the munificence1 and love of learning for its own sake1 which distinguished that prince of publishers1 ,christophe ,plantin of ,antwerp4 ,in these qualities he forms a notable contrast to ,egenolph of ,frankfort1 to whose shortcomings we have already drawn attention4 ,plantin's life extended from about #aead to #aehi1 and thus included the central years of that wonderful century4 ,he was a native of ,touraine1 and studied the art of printing at ,caen and other ,french towns4 ,towards #aeej1 he and his wife1 ,jeanne ,rivire1 settled in ,antwerp1 where he worked at book-binding1 and his wife sold linen in a little shop4 ,later1 he returned to the profession of printing1 and his business in this direction gradually developed1 and was eventually transferred to the famous ,maison ,plantin4 ,christophe's reputation grew to such an extent that great efforts were made1 in various quarters1 to tempt him from ,antwerp4 ,the ,duke of ,savoy and ,piedmont1 for instance1 did all he could to persuade him to come to ,turin1 promising him extensive printing works and all necessary funds--but he remained faithful to the city of his adoption4 ,perhaps the most potent factor in his success was his keen judgment of men1 which enabled him so to choose his subordinates that he gathered around him an unrivalled staff4 ,one of ,plantin's daughters married ,jean ,moretus1 her father's chief assistant and successor1 and from him the business descended through eight generations of printers to douard ,jean ,hyacinthe ,moretus1 the last of his race1 from whom1 in #ahgf1 the citizens of ,antwerp purchased the ,maison ,plantin and its contents4 ,the house had remained practically unchanged since the days when ,christophe ,plantin lived and worked there1 and it is now preserved as the ,muse ,plantin-,moretus4 ,it is built round a rectangular courtyard1 and its beauty1 both in proportion and in detail1 is such1 that one feels at once that ,plantin achieved the ambition he expressed in his charming sonnet--#8,le ,bonheur de ce ,monde'--8,avoir une maison commode1 propre et belle40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cf4 ,rembert ,dodoens1 #aeag-aehe ,a ,niewe ,herball1 translated by ,lyte1 #aegh4 ,the pictures1 furniture and hangings1 and not only the very presses1 fonts1 and furnaces for casting the type1 but even the old account books and corrected proof-sheets are still to be seen1 all in their appropriate places4 ,the wage-books are preserved1 showing the weekly earnings of compositors1 engravers and book-binders1 throughout a period of three centuries4 ,in short1 the ,maison ,plantin beggars description1 and a visit there is an infallible recipe for transporting the imagination back to the time of the ,renaissance1 when printing was in its first youth1 and was treated with the reverence due to one of the fine arts4 ,the first ,belgian botanist of world-wide renown was ,rembert ,dodoens or ,dodonus 7,text-fig4 #cf74 ,he was a contemporary of ,plantin1 having been born at ,malines in #aeagaa4 ,he studied at ,louvain1 and visited the universities and medical schools of ,france1 ,italy and ,germany1 eventually qualifying as a doctor4 ,he was successful in his profession1 being physician to the ,emperors ,maximilian ,,ii and ,rudolph ,,ii1 and finally becoming ,professor of ,medicine at ,leyden1 where he died in #aehe4 ,his interest in the medical aspect of botany led him to write a herbal1 and1 in order to illustrate it1 he obtained the use of the wood-blocks which had been employed in the octavo edition of ,fuchs' work4 ,to these a number of new engravings were added4 ,the book was published in ,dutch in the year #aeed by ,vanderloe1 under the title #8,cr deboeck4' ,the text is not a translation of ,fuchs1 as is sometimes supposed1 although ,dodoens took ,fuchs as his model for the order of description of each plant4 ,the method of arrangement is his own1 and he indicates localities and times of flowering in the ,low ,countries1 information which clearly could not have been derived from the earlier writer4 ,almost simultaneously with the first ,dutch edition1 a ,french issue appeared under the title of #8,histoire des ,plantes4' ,the translation was carried out by ,charles de l'cluse1 with whose own work we shall shortly deal4 ,dodoens supervised the production of the book1 and took the opportunity to make some additions4 ,it became known in ,england through ,lyte's translation1 which will be discussed in a later section of this chapter4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #cg4 8,capparis0 ,capparis ovata ,l4 ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc4 ,the last ,dutch edition of the herbal1 for which the author himself was responsible1 was printed by ,vanderloe in #aefc4 ,the publisher then parted with ,fuchs' blocks1 which were probably acquired by the printer of ,lyte's ,dodoens in ,england4 ,this circumstance put great difficulties in the way of ,dodoens' wish to reproduce his herbal in ,latin4 ,however it proved a blessing in disguise1 for he had the good fortune to meet1 in ,christophe ,plantin1 8un homme qui ne reculait devant aucune dpense1 pour donner aux ouvrages qui sortaient de ses presses toute la perfection et le mrite dont ils taient susceptibles40 ,plantin undertook to produce a much modified ,latin translation of the herbal1 and to have new blocks engraved for it1 whilst ,dodoens1 on his side1 engaged to supply the artists with fresh plants1 and to superintend their labours4 ,the work proceeded slowly1 and was published in parts4 ,it was finally completed in #aehc1 and was produced in one volume1 under the name of #8,stirpium histori pemptades sex sive libri triginta4' ,in this work1 by far the larger number of the figures are original 7see ,text-figs4 #cg1 #ch1 #if and #ig72 some1 however1 were borrowed from de l'cluse and de l',obel4 ,this arose from the fact that ,plantin was also the publisher for both these writers1 and as he bore the expense of their blocks1 he had an agreement with the three authors that their illustrations should be treated as common property4 ,a few of ,dodoens' figures were based upon those in the famous manuscript of ,dioscorides1 now at ,vienna 7see pp4 #h1 #he1 #aed74 ,in the #8,pemptades1' the botanist in ,dodoens was more to the fore1 and the physician less in evidence than in his earlier work4 ,it is particularly difficult to appraise with any exactness the services which ,dodoens rendered to botany4 ,between him and his two younger countrymen1 de l'cluse and de l',obel1 there was so intimate a friendship that they freely imparted their observations to one another1 and permitted the use of them1 and also of their figures1 in one another's books4 ,to attempt to ascertain exactly what degree of merit should be attributed to each of the three1 would be a task equally difficult and thankless4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii ,,charles ,,de ,l',,cluse 7#aebf-afji74 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ch4 8,anemone trifolia0 ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc4 ,charles de l'cluse or ,clusius#ab 7,plate ,,vii7 was born at ,arras in the ,french ,netherlands in #aebf2 like ,dodoens1 he passed the closing years of his life at ,leyden4 ,he studied at ,louvain1 and other universities1 including ,montpelier1 where he came under the influence of the botanist1 ,guillaume ,rondelet1 who also numbered d',alchamps1 de l',obel1 ,pierre ,pena and ,jean ,bauhin among his pupils4 ,de l'cluse was an enthusiastic adherent of the reformed faith1 to which he was converted by the influence of ,melanchthon1 and he suffered religious persecution1 which brought even actual martyrdom to some of his relatives4 ,though he did not himself lose his life1 he was deprived of his property1 and1 between poverty and ill-health1 his career seems to have been a melancholy one4 ,he passed a nomad existence1 attached at one time as tutor to some great family1 while1 at others1 he was occupied in writing or translating for ,rondelet1 ,dodoens or ,plantin1 or undertaking precarious employment at the court of ,vienna4 ,the ,university of ,leyden finally appointed him to a professorship4 ,it is interesting to note that he paid more than one visit to ,england1 and that he was intimate with ,sir ,francis ,drake1 who gave him plants from the ,new ,world4 ,de l'cluse had a reputation for versatility scarcely exceeded by that of his contemporary1 the 8,admirable0 ,crichton4 ,he is said to have had a wide knowledge of ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french1 ,german1 ,flemish1 ,spanish1 law1 philosophy1 history1 geography1 zoology1 mineralogy and numismatics1 besides his chosen subject of botany4 ,since his botanical dbut was made as the translator of ,dodoens1 we may with reason look upon him as a disciple of the latter4 ,the first original work de l'cluse produced was an account of the plants which he had observed while on an adventurous expedition to ,spain and ,portugal with two pupils4 ,this was so successful botanically that he brought back two hundred new species4 ,the description of his finds was published by ,plantin in #aegf1 under the title of #8,rariorum aliquot stirpium per ,hispanias observatarum ,historia4' ,wood-blocks were engraved purposely for this book 7see ,text-figs4 #ci1 #ei and #ih71 but1 for the confusion of the bibliographer1 some of them were also used to illustrate ,dodoens' work in the interval while the ,spanish flora of de l'cluse awaited publication4 ,in #aehc appeared our author's second work1 which did the same service for the botany of ,austria and ,hungary as the previous volume had done for the botany of ,spain4 ,these two works1 together with some additional matter1 were republished in #afja as the #8,rariorum plantarum historia4' ,in this book1 the species belonging to the same genus are often brought together1 but1 beyond this1 there is little attempt at systematic arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ci4 8,lacryma ,iob0 ,coix lachryma-,jobi ,l41 ,job's ,tears de l'cluse1 ,rariorum 444 per ,hispanias1 #aegf4 ,de l'cluse was weak in the synthetic faculty1 his strength lying rather in his powers of observation4 ,cuvier reckons that he added more than six hundred to the number of known plants4 ,it is characteristic of his versatile mind1 that his botanical interests were not confined1 like those of most of the early workers1 to flowering plants4 ,a manuscript is preserved in the ,leyden ,library#ac containing more than eighty beautiful water-colour drawings of fungi1 executed under the direction of de l'cluse1 by artists employed by his great friend and patron1 ,baron ,boldizsr de ,batthyny4 ,this gentleman is said to have been so enthusiastic a botanist1 that he set a ,turkish prisoner at liberty1 on the condition that he should obtain plants for him from ,turkey4 ,de l'cluse seems to have been a man of wide friendships1 and his botanical correspondence was very large4 ,he did much for horticulture1 and is called by his friend1 ,marie de ,brimen1 ,princesse de ,chimay1 8le pre de tous les beaux ,jardins de ce pays40 ,he deserves especial gratitude for one benefit of a very practical nature1 namely the introduction of the ,potato into ,germany and ,austria4 ,it is worthy of note that de l'cluse1 unlike the majority of the herbalists1 was not a physician1 and although he laid considerable stress on the properties of plants1 he was not preoccupied with the medical side of the subject4 ,he studied plants for their own sake1 and abandoned the futile effort to identify them with those mentioned by the ancients4 ,the third of the trio of botanists whom we are now considering is ,mathias de l',obel de ,lobel or ,lobelius1 who was born in ,flanders in #aech1 and died in ,england1 at ,highgate1 in #afaf 7,plate ,,viii74 ,he studied at ,montpelier1 under ,guillaume ,rondelet1 who1 finally1 bequeathed to him his botanical manuscripts4 ,here also he became acquainted with a young ,provenal1 ,pierre ,pena1 with whom he afterwards collaborated in botanical work4 ,de l',obel took up medicine as his profession1 and eventually became physician to ,william the ,silent1 a post which he held until the assassination of the ,stadtholder4 ,later on1 he and ,pena came to ,england1 probably to seek a peaceful life under the prosperous sway of ,queen ,elizabeth1 which was so favourable to the arts and sciences4 ,their principal work was dedicated to her1 in terms of hyperbolic praise4 ,de l',obel seems to have been well received in this country1 for he was invited to superintend the medicinal garden at ,hackney1 belonging to ,lord ,zouche1 and he eventually obtained the title of ,botanist to ,james ,i4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii ,,mathias ,,de ,l',,obel 7#aech-afaf74 ,engraving by ,franois ,dellarame1 #afae4 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum4 ,de l',obel's chief botanical work was the #8,stirpium adversaria nova#ad1' published in #aegj1 with ,pena as joint author4 ,pena does not appear to have been a botanist of much importance1 and he eventually quite forsook the subject in favour of medicine4 ,it has been suggested1 however1 that de l',obel was inclined to minimise the value of his colleague's work4 ,the system of classification1 upon which de l',obel's reputation really rests1 is set forth in this book4 ,the main feature of his scheme is that he distinguishes different groups by the peculiarities of their leaves4 ,he is thus led to make a rough separation between the classes which we now call ,dicotyledons and ,monocotyledons4 ,the details of his system will be considered in a later chapter4 ,in #aegf the work was enlarged1 and republished as the #8,plantarum seu ,stirpium ,historia'2 it was also translated into ,flemish1 and appeared under the title of #8,kruydtbck' in #aeha1 dedicated to ,william of ,orange1 and the ,burgomasters and other functionaries of ,antwerp4 ,the blocks 7see ,text-fig4 #fg7 used to illustrate this work were taken from previous books1 especially those of de l'cluse4 ,immediately after the publication of the ,kruydtbck1 ,plantin brought out an album of the engravings it had contained1 which1 although they had been also used to illustrate the herbals of ,dodoens and de l'cluse1 were now grouped according to de l',obel's arrangement1 which was recognised as the best4 #c4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,italy4 ,the ,italian botanists of the ,renaissance devoted themselves chiefly to interpreting the works of the classical writers on ,natural ,history1 and to the identification of the plants to which they referred4 ,this came about quite naturally1 from the fact that the ,mediterranean flora1 which they saw around them1 was actually that with which the writers in question had been1 in their day1 familiar4 ,the botanists of southern ,europe were not compelled1 as were those whose homes lay north of the ,alps1 to distort facts before they could make the plants of their native country fit into the procrustean bed of classical descriptions4 ,one of the chief of the commentators and herbalists of this period was ,pierandrea ,mattioli or ,matthiolus 7,text-fig4 #dj71 who was born at ,siena in #aeja1 and died of the plague in #aegg4 ,we realise something of the frightful extent of this scourge1 when we remember that it claimed as victims no less than three of the small company of ,renaissance botanists1 ,gesner1 ,mattioli and ,zaluzian4 ,leonhard ,fuchs was brought into fame by his successful treatment of one of these epidemics4 ,it should also be recalled that1 while ,gaspard ,bauhin1 one of the best known of the later herbalists1 was practising as a physician at ,basle1 no less than three of these terrible outbreaks occurred in the town4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #dj4 ,pierandrea ,mattioli1 #aeja-aegg ,engraving by ,philippe ,galle4 ,virorum ,doctorum ,effigies1 ,antwerp1 #aegb4 ,mattioli was the son of a doctor1 and his early life was passed in ,venice1 where his father was in practice4 ,he was destined for the law1 but his inherited tastes led him away from jurisprudence to medicine4 ,he practised in several different towns1 and became physician1 successively1 to the ,archduke ,ferdinand1 and to the ,emperor ,maximilian ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #da4 8,pyra0 ,pyrus communis ,l41 ,pear ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #db4 8,avena0 ,oats ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,mattioli's #8,commentarii in sex libros ,pedacii ,dioscoridis1' his chef-d'uvre1 the gradual production and improvement of which occupied his leisure hours throughout his life1 was first published in #aedd4 ,it was translated into many languages and appeared in countless editions4 ,the success of the work was phenomenal1 and it is said that #cb1jjj copies of the earlier editions were sold4 ,the title does not do the book justice1 for it contains1 besides an exposition of ,dioscorides1 a ,natural ,history dealing with all the plants known to ,mattioli4 ,the early editions had small illustrations only 7,text-figs4 #da1 #db1 #ic and #id71 but1 later on1 editions with large and very beautiful figures were published1 such as that which appeared at ,venice in #aefe 7,text-figs4 #dc1 #dd1 #ie74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #dc4 8,trifolium acetosum0 ,oxalis ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced4 ,mattioli's descriptions of the plants with which he deals are not so good as those of some of his contemporaries4 ,he found and recorded a certain number of new plants1 especially from the ,tyrol1 but most of the species1 which he described for the first time1 were not his own discoveries1 but were communicated to him by others4 ,luca ,ghini1 for instance1 had projected a similar work1 but handed over all his material to ,mattioli1 who also placed on record the discoveries made by the physician1 ,wilhelm ,quakelbeen1 who had accompanied the celebrated diplomatist1 ,auger-,gislain ,busbecq1 on a mission to ,turkey4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #dd4 8,malus0 ,pyrus malus ,l41 ,apple ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced4 ,busbecq brought from ,constantinople a wonderful collection of ,greek manuscripts1 including ,juliana ,anicia's copy of the ,materia ,medica of ,dioscorides1 now in the ,vienna ,library 7see pp4 #h and #aed74 ,he discovered this great manuscript in the hands of a ,jew1 who required a hundred ducats for it4 ,this price was almost prohibitive1 but ,busbecq was an enthusiast1 and he successfully urged the ,emperor1 whose representative he was1 8to redeem so illustrious an author from that servitude#ae40 ,his purpose in buying the manuscript seems to have been largely in order to communicate it to ,mattioli1 who would thus be able to make use of it in preparing his ,commentaries on ,dioscorides4 ,the personal character of ,mattioli does not appear to have been a pleasant one4 ,he engaged in numerous controversies with his fellow botanists1 and hurled the most abusive language at those who ventured to criticise him4 ,another ,italian herbalist1 ,castor ,durante1 slightly later in date than ,mattioli1 should perhaps be mentioned here1 not because of the intrinsic value of his work1 but because of its widespread popularity4 ,at least two of his books appeared in many editions and translations4 ,durante was a physician who issued a series of botanical compilations1 bedizened with ,latin verse4 ,the best known of his works is the #8,herbario ,nuovo1' published at ,rome in #aehe 7,text-figs4 #de and #ajc74 ,a second book1 the original version of which is seldom met with1 has survived in the form of a ,german translation1 by ,peter ,uffenbach4 ,the ,german version was named #8,hortulus ,sanitatis4' ,as an illustration of ,durante's charmingly unscientific manner1 we may take the legend of the 8,arbor tristis0 which occurs in both these works4 ,the figure which accompanies it 7,text-fig4 #de7 shows1 beneath the moon and stars1 a drawing of a tree whose trunk has a human form4 ,the description1 as it occurs in the #8,hortulus ,sanitatis1' may be translated as follows3 8,of this tree the ,indians say1 there was once a very beautiful maiden1 daughter of a mighty lord called ,parisataccho4 ,this maiden loved the ,sun1 but the ,sun forsook her because he loved another4 ,so1 being scorned by the ,sun1 she slew herself1 and when her body had been burned1 according to the custom of that land1 this tree sprang from her ashes4 ,and this is the reason why the flowers of this tree shrink so intensely from the ,sun1 and never open in his presence4 ,and thus it is a special delight to see this tree in the night time1 adorned on all sides with its lovely flowers1 since they give forth a delicious perfume1 the like of which is not to be met with in any other plant1 but no sooner does one touch the plant with one's hand than its sweet scent vanishes away4 ,and however beautiful the tree has appeared1 and however sweetly it has bloomed at night1 directly the ,sun rises in the morning it not only fades but all its branches look as though they were withered and dead40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #de4 8,arbor ,malenconico0 or 8,arbor tristis0 ,tree of ,sorrow ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #df4 8,apocynum0 ,colonna1 ,phytobasanos1 #aeib4 ,much more famous than ,durante was ,fabio ,colonna1 or1 as he is more generally called1 ,fabius ,columna 7,plate ,,ix71 who was born at ,naples in #aefg4 ,his father was a well-known littrateur4 ,fabio ,colonna's profession was that of law1 but he was also well acquainted with languages1 music1 mathematics and optics4 ,he tells us in the preface to his principal work that his interest in plants was aroused by his difficulty in obtaining a remedy for epilepsy1 a disease from which he suffered4 ,having tried all sorts of prescriptions without result1 he examined the literature on the subject1 and discovered that most of the writers of his time merely served up the results obtained by the ancients1 often in a very incorrect form4 ,so he went to the fountain head1 ,dioscorides1 and after much research identified ,valerian as being the herb which that writer had recommended against epilepsy1 and succeeded in curing himself by its use4 ,this experience convinced ,colonna that the knowledge of the identity of the plants described by the ancients was in a most unsatisfactory condition1 and he set himself to produce a work which should remedy this state of things4 ,this book was published in #aeib1 under the name of #8,phytobasanos1' which embodies a quaint conceit after the fashion of the time4 ,the title is a compound ,greek word meaning 8plant torture10 and was apparently employed by ,colonna to explain that he had subjected the plants to ordeal by torture1 in order to wrest from them the secret of their identity4 ,but it must be confessed that ,colonna himself is by no means free from error1 as regards the names which he assigns to them4 ,the great feature of the #8,phytobasanos1' however1 is the excellence of the descriptions and figures4 ,the latter are famous as being the first etchings on copper used to illustrate a botanical work 7,text-figs4 #df and #aje74 ,they were an advance on all previous plant drawings1 except the work of ,gesner and ,camerarius1 in giving1 in many cases1 detailed analyses of the flowers and fruit as well as habit drawings4 ,we owe to ,colonna also the technical use of the word 8petal10 which he suggested as a descriptive term for the coloured floral leaves#af4 ,by means of his wide scientific correspondence1 ,colonna kept in touch with many of the naturalists of his time1 notably with de l'cluse and ,gaspard ,bauhin4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix ,,fabio ,,colonna 7#aefg-afej74 ,ekphrasis1 #afjf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #dg4 8,kalli0 ,salicornia1 ,glasswort ,prospero ,alpino1 ,de plantis gypti1 #aeib4 ,a passing reference may be made here to a book which is rather of the nature of a local flora than a herbal1 entitled #8,prosperi ,alpini de plantis gypti1' which was published at ,venice in #aeib4 ,it contains a number of wood-cuts1 which appear to be original4 ,the one reproduced 7,text-fig4 #dg7 represents ,salicornia1 the ,glasswort4 ,the author was a doctor who went to ,egypt with the ,venetian consul1 ,giorgio ,emo1 and had opportunities of collecting plants there4 ,he is said to have been the first ,european writer to mention the ,coffee plant1 which he saw growing at ,cairo4 ,prospero ,alpino eventually became ,professor of ,botany at ,padua1 and enriched the botanical garden of that town with ,egyptian plants4 #d4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,switzerland4 ,among the many scientific men1 whose names are associated with ,switzerland1 one of the most renowned is ,konrad ,gesner 7,plate ,x71 who was born at ,zurich in #aeaf1 the son of a poor furrier4 ,his taste for botany was due1 in the first instance1 to the influence of his uncle1 a protestant preacher4 ,konrad went to ,france to study medicine1 but in ,paris1 the richness of the libraries1 and the delight of associating with learned men1 tempted him away from his special subject into a course of omnivorous reading4 ,after an interval of school teaching at ,zurich1 he betook himself to ,basle1 where he entered more methodically upon the study of medicine1 at the same time attempting to support himself by working at a ,latin dictionary4 ,however1 after a short period of student life1 he found the expense too great1 and was obliged to abandon it1 and to take a post as teacher of classics in ,lausanne4 ,he had received assistance at different times from his native town1 which again came to his help at this juncture1 and generously allotted to him a 8,reisestipendium10 for the continuance of his medical studies4 ,he indeed owed much to ,zurich1 for1 after taking his doctorate1 he was appointed first to the professorship of ,philosophy there1 and then to that of ,natural ,history1 which he held until he died of the plague in his forty-ninth year4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #dh4 8,lachryma ,iob0 ,coix lachryma-,jobi ,l41 ,job's ,tears ,simler1 ,vita ,conradi ,gesneri1 #aeff4 ,gesner's most remarkable characteristic was his versatility and encyclopdic knowledge2 he has been called the ,pliny of his time4 ,his work on bibliographical and linguistic subjects was of importance1 and he also wrote on medicine1 mineralogy1 zoology and botany4 ,the botanical works published during his life were not of great importance1 but1 at the time of his death1 he had already prepared a large part of the material for a general history of plants1 which was intended as a companion work to his famous #8,historia ,animalium4' ,in order to illustrate it1 he had collected #aejj drawings of plants1 the majority original1 though some were founded on previous wood-cuts1 especially those of ,fuchs4 ,the undertaking was so far advanced that some of the figures had been drawn upon the wood1 and certain blocks had even been engraved4 ,the whole collection1 and the manuscripts1 he bequeathed for publication to his friend ,caspar ,wolf4 ,wolf seems to have made an honest effort to carry out ,gesner's wishes1 and he succeeded in publishing a few of the wood-cuts1 as an appendix to ,simler's #8,vita ,conradi ,gesneri' 7e4g4 ,text-fig4 #dh74 ,unfortunately he was hampered by weak health1 and the task1 as a whole1 proved beyond his powers4 ,he sold everything to ,joachim ,camerarius the younger1 with the proviso that the purchaser should make himself responsible for the publication4 ,camerarius failed to fulfil the spirit of this obligation4 ,it is true that he brought a large number of ,gesner's figures before the public1 but he did this only by the indirect method of using them1 among his own drawings1 to illustrate an edition of ,mattioli1 and a book of his own4 ,finally1 about a hundred and fifty years after the death of ,camerarius1 ,gesner's drawings and blocks came into the possession of the eighteenth-century botanist and bibliographer1 ,christoph ,jacob ,trew1 who published them1 thus giving ,gesner his due so far as was possible at that late date4 ,such blocks as were in good condition were printed directly1 and1 from the drawings1 a number of copper engravings were made1 coloured like the originals4 ,the drawings were of unequal merit1 some of them being on a very small scale and lacking in clearness4 ,in one point1 however1 ,gesner shows a marked advance on the methods of his contemporaries--namely in giving detailed1 analysed studies of flower and fruit structure1 as well as a drawing showing the habit of the plant4 ,it must not be forgotten that1 even in ,trew's edition1 it is impossible to discriminate with certainty between the work of ,gesner and that of ,camerarius4 ,unfortunately1 we have no knowledge of the text of ,gesner's manuscript1 but his letters make it clear that his interest in botany was thoroughly scientific4 ,if his work were extant1 he would probably shine as a discoverer of new species1 especially among alpines1 for his figures indicate that he was acquainted with a number of plants which de l'cluse1 ,gaspard ,bauhin and others were the first to describe4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x ,,konrad ,,gesner 7#aeaf-aefe74 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge4 ,among ,gesner's numerous scientific correspondents was ,jean ,bauhin1 a brilliant young man1 twenty-five years his junior4 ,their acquaintance began when ,bauhin was only eighteen1 but1 in spite of his friend's youth1 ,gesner consulted him in botanical difficulties1 describing him as 8eruditissimus et ornatissimus juvenis40 ,jean ,bauhin was the son of a ,french doctor1 a native of ,amiens1 who had been converted to protestantism by reading the ,latin translation of the ,new ,testament prepared by ,erasmus4 ,in consequence of his change of faith1 he was subjected to religious persecution1 which he avoided by retreating to ,switzerland1 where his sons ,jean and ,gaspard were born4 ,the medical tradition seems to have been remarkably strong in the family4 ,both ,jean and ,gaspard became doctors--,gaspard1 whose sons also entered the profession1 being1 in fact1 the second of six generations of physicians4 ,for two hundred years1 an unbroken succession of members of the family were medical men4 ,after ,jean ,bauhin had studied for a time at the ,university of ,basle1 he went to ,tbingen1 where he learned botany from ,leonhard ,fuchs4 ,from ,tbingen he proceeded to ,zurich1 and accompanied ,gesner on some journeys in the ,alps4 ,after further travel on his own account1 and a period at the ,university of ,montpelier1 he reached ,lyons1 where he came in contact with d',alchamps1 who engaged him to assist with the #8,histoire des plantes4' ,bauhin began to occupy himself with this work1 but his protestantism proved a stumbling-block to his life there1 and he was obliged to quit ,france4 ,jean ,bauhin's chief botanical work1 the #8,histoire universelle des plantes1' was a most ambitious undertaking1 which he did not live to see published4 ,however1 his son-in-law ,cherler1 a physician of ,basle1 who had helped him in preparing it1 brought out a preliminary sketch of it in #afai1 and1 in #afej and #afea1 the magnum opus itself was published1 under the name of #8,historia plantarum universalis4' ,this book is a compilation from all sources1 and includes descriptions of #ejjj plants4 ,the figures1 of which there are more than #cejj1 are small and badly executed4 ,a large proportion of them are ultimately derived from those of ,fuchs4 ,jean ,bauhin's more famous brother1 ,gaspard or ,caspar 7,plate ,,xi71 was born in #aefj1 and was thus the younger by nineteen years4 ,gaspard studied at ,basle1 ,padua1 ,montpelier1 ,paris and ,tbingen4 ,he also travelled in ,italy1 making observations upon the flora1 and becoming acquainted with scientific men4 ,unfortunately he missed being a pupil of ,leonhard ,fuchs1 since his sojourn at ,tbingen took place some years after the death of the famous herbalist1 who had been his brother's teacher4 ,the illness and death of his father in #aehb made it necessary for him to settle in ,basle1 where he became ,professor of ,botany and ,anatomy1 and eventually of ,medicine4 ,inspired by the example of his brother1 he conceived the plan of collecting1 in a single work1 all that had been previously written upon plants1 and1 especially1 of drawing up a concordance of all the names given by different authors to the same species4 ,his extensive early travels served as a good preparation for this task1 since he had not only observed and collected widely1 but had established relations with the best botanists in ,europe4 ,he formed a herbarium of about #djjj plants1 including specimens from correspondents in many countries1 even ,egypt and the ,east ,indies4 ,besides study bearing directly on his great project1 he accomplished a considerable amount of critical and editorial work1 which also had its value in relation to his main plan4 ,he produced new editions of ,mattioli's ,commentaries1 and of the herbal of ,tabernmontanus1 and published a criticism of d',alchamps' #8,historia plantarum4' ,there is a marked parallelism between the careers of the ,bauhin brothers1 for ,gaspard's great work underwent much the same vicissitudes as that of ,jean4 ,the main part of ,gaspard's chief work never saw the light at all1 although his son brought out one instalment of it1 many years after his father's death4 ,gaspard was however more fortunate than ,jean1 in that he lived to see the publication of three important preliminary volumes1 as the result of his researches1 and it is on these that his reputation rests4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi ,,gaspard ,,bauhin 7#aefj-afbd74 ,theatrum ,anatomicum1 #afje4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #di4 8,solanum tuberosum esculentum0 ,potato ,bauhin1 ,prodromos1 #afbj4 ,the #8,prodromos theatri botanici' of #afbj consisted of descriptions of #fjj species1 which the author regarded as new1 although several had1 as a matter of fact1 been already described by de l'cluse4 ,figures of about #adj species are given1 two of which are here reproduced 7,text-figs4 #di and #fb74 ,one of these1 the ,potato 7,text-fig4 #di71 still retains the name of ,solanum tuberosum which ,bauhin gave to it4 ,he had previously published a description of this plant in an earlier work1 the #8,phytopinax' of #aeif4 ,in #afbc1 ,gaspard ,bauhin brought out his most important botanical book1 the #8,pinax#ag theatri botanici4' ,by this date1 owing to the number of different names bestowed upon the same plant by different authors1 and the varying identifications of those described by the ancients1 the subject of plant nomenclature had been reduced to a condition of woeful confusion4 ,bauhin's #8,pinax' converted chaos into order1 since it contained the first complete and methodical concordance of the names of plants1 and was so authoritative as to earn for the author the title of 8lgislateur en botanique40 ,the work1 which dealt with about #fjjj plants1 was recognised as pre-eminent for many years4 ,morison criticised the scheme of arrangement on which it was based1 but adopted its nomenclature1 as also did ,ray4 ,tournefort also retained1 as far as possible1 the names of the genera and species used in the #8,pinax4' ,as ,sachs long ago pointed out1 this work is 8the first and for that time a completely exhaustive book of synonyms1 and is still indispensable for the history of individual species--no small praise to be given to a work that is more than #bej years old40 ,gaspard ,bauhin deserves great honour as the first who introduced some degree of order into the chaotic muddle of nomenclature and synonymy4 ,the special merits of his work1 more especially his power of concise and lucid description1 and his faculty for systematic arrangement1 may perhaps be attributed to his ,french blood1 since such qualities are markedly characteristic of ,french scientific writing4 ,it is much to be regretted that the two brothers ,bauhin should have carried on their work independently and separately1 considering that they had in view practically identical objects--objects in which each only achieved a partial success4 ,it seems as if a work of much greater value might have resulted if they had joined forces4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ej4 ,jacques d',alchamps1 #aeac-aehh ,enlarged from wood-cut1 circa #afjj1 ,department of ,prints and ,drawings1 ,british ,museum4 #e4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,france4 ,france 7excluding the ,french ,netherlands7 does not seem1 at first sight1 to have contributed a great deal towards the development of the ,herbal in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 but it must be remembered that ,jean and ,gaspard ,bauhin1 and the publisher1 ,christophe ,plantin1 were ,french by extraction1 though ,switzerland and ,holland were their countries by adoption4 ,most of the important herbals published in other languages were translated into ,french quite early in their history1 sometimes in a modified form1 so that ,france in the sixteenth century was probably by no means backward in botanical knowledge4 ,one such adaptation was #8,l',histoire des ,plantes1' by ,geofroy ,linocier1 which was founded1 in part1 on the works of ,fuchs and ,mattioli4 ,a well-known name among the earlier ,french writers is that of ,jean ,ruel1 or ,joannes ,ruellius1 as he is commonly called 7#adgd-aecg74 ,he was a physician1 and a professor in the ,university of ,paris1 and chiefly devoted himself to the emending and explaining of ,dioscorides4 ,he also wrote a general botanical treatise1 #8,de ,natura ,stirpium1' which first appeared in ,paris in #aecf4 ,this work1 which is without illustrations1 is intended mainly to elucidate the ancient writers4 ,the most famous of the ,french herbalists was ,jacques d',alchamps 7,text-fig4 #ej71 whose magnum opus1 which appeared in #aehf1 formed a compendium of much of the material which had been contributed by the different nations4 ,he was born at ,caen in #aeac1 and after studying medicine at ,montpelier1 entered upon the practice of it at ,lyons1 where he remained until his death in #aehh4 ,d',alchamps' great work is generally called the #8,historia plantarum ,lugdunensis4' ,curiously enough1 the author's name is not mentioned on the title-page4 ,from the preface one would gather that ,johannes ,molinus 7or ,desmoulins7 was the chief author4 ,however1 judging by the way in which the book was quoted by contemporary writers1 there appears to be little doubt that d',alchamps was really responsible for it1 though assisted at different times by ,jean ,bauhin and ,desmoulins4 ,the #8,historia plantarum' had numerous faults1 but it was1 at the time1 the most complete universal flora that existed4 ,it contained about #bgjj figures 7two of which are reproduced in ,text-figs4 #ea and #aja71 but1 both in drawing and wood-cutting1 they show marked inferiority to much of the earlier work4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ea4 8,ornithogalum magnum0 d',alchamps1 ,historia generalis plantarum1 #aehf4 #f4 ,,the ,,herbal ,,in ,,england4 ,the greatest name among ,british herbalists of the ,renaissance period is that of ,william ,turner1 physician and divine1 the 8,father of ,british ,botany40 ,he was a north-countryman1 a native of ,morpeth in ,northumberland1 where he was born probably between #aeaj and #aeae4 ,he received his education at what is now ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,pembroke deserves to be especially held in honour by botanists1 for a hundred years later1 ,nehemiah ,grew1 who was as pre-eminent among ,british botanists of the seventeenth century as ,turner was among those of the sixteenth1 also became a student at this college4 ,like so many of the early botanists1 ,william ,turner was closely associated with the ,reformation4 ,he embraced the views of his friends and instructors at ,cambridge1 ,nicholas ,ridley and ,hugh ,latimer1 and fought for the reformed faith throughout his life1 both with pen and by word of mouth4 ,his caustic wit was also used1 with almost equal vehemence1 to attack the abuses which crept into his own party4 ,a ban was put upon his writings in the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 and for a time he suffered imprisonment1 but1 when ,edward ,,vi came to the throne1 his fortunes improved1 and1 after a long and tedious period of waiting for preferment1 he obtained the ,deanery of ,wells4 ,difficulty in ejecting the previous ,dean caused much delay in obtaining possession of the house1 and ,turner lamented bitterly that1 in the small and crowded temporary lodging1 8i can not go to my booke for ye crying of childer noyse yt is made in my chamber40 ,a clergyman's life must have been full of unwelcome vicissitudes in those days1 if ,turner's career was at all typical4 ,during ,mary's reign he was a fugitive1 and the former ,dean of ,wells was reinstated4 ,however1 when ,elizabeth ascended the throne1 the position was reversed1 and ,turner came back to ,wells1 8the usurper10 as he calls his rival1 being ejected4 ,but his triumph was short-lived1 for in #aefd he was suspended for nonconformity4 ,his controversial methods were violent in the extreme1 and he seems to have been a thorn in the flesh of his superiors4 ,the ,bishop of ,bath and ,wells wrote on one occasion that he was 8much encombred wth mr ,doctor ,turner ,deane of ,welles1 for his undiscrete behavior in the pulpitt3 where he medleth wth all matters1 and unsemelie speaketh of all estates1 more than ys standinge withe discressyon40 ,christian doctrine was by no means the only subject that occupied ,turner's attention4 ,he had taken a medical degree either at ,ferrara or ,bologna1 and1 in the reign of ,edward ,,vi1 he was physician to the ,duke of ,somerset1 the ,protector4 ,he had travelled much in ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,holland and ,germany1 at the periods when his religious opinions excluded him from ,england4 ,one of the great advantages1 which he reaped from his wanderings1 was the opportunity of studying botany at ,bologna under ,luca ,ghini1 who was also the teacher of ,cesalpino4 ,another savant1 with whom he became acquainted on the ,continent1 was ,konrad ,gesner1 whom he visited at ,zurich1 and with whom he maintained a warm friendship4 ,he also corresponded with ,leonhard ,fuchs4 ,turner's earliest botanical work was the #8,libellus de re herbaria novus' 7#aech71 which is the first book in which localities for many of our native ,british plants are placed on record4 ,in #aedh this was followed by another little work1 #8,the names of herbes in ,greke1 ,latin1 ,englishe1 ,duche and ,frenche wyth the commune names that ,herbaries and ,apotecaries use4' ,in the preface to this book1 ,turner tells us that he had projected a ,latin herbal1 and had indeed written it1 but refrained from publishing it because1 when he 8axed the advise of ,phisicianes in thys matter1 their advise was that ,i shoulde cease from settynge out of this boke in latin tyll ,i had sene those places of ,englande1 wherein is moste plentie of herbes1 that ,i might in my herbal declare to the greate honoure#ah of our countre what numbre of sovereine and strang herbes were in ,englande that were not in other nations1 whose counsell ,i have folowed deferryng to set out my herbal in latin1 tyl that ,i have sene the west countrey1 which ,i never sawe yet in al my lyfe1 which countrey of all places of ,england1 as ,i heare say is moste richely replenished wyth all kyndes of straunge and wonderfull workes and giftes of nature1 as are stones1 herbes1 fishes and metalles40 ,he explains that while waiting to complete his herbal1 he has been advised to publish this little book in which he has set forth the names of plants4 ,he adds1 8and because men should not thynke that ,i write of that ,i never sawe1 and that ,poticaries shoulde be excuselesse when as the ryghte herbes are required of them1 ,i have shewed in what places of ,englande1 ,germany1 and ,italy the herbes growe and maye be had for laboure and money40 ,turner's chef-d'uvre was his #8,herball1' published in three instalments1 the first in ,london in #aeea1 the first and second together at ,cologne in #aefb1 during his exile in the reign of ,mary1 and the third part1 together with the preceding1 in #aefh4 ,the title of the first part runs as follows1 #8,a new ,herball1 wherin are conteyned the names of ,herbes 444 with the properties degrees and naturall places of the same1 gathered and made by ,wylliam ,turner1 ,physicion unto the ,duke of ,somersettes ,grace4' ,the figures illustrating the herbal are1 for the most part1 the same as those in the octavo edition of ,fuchs' work1 published in #aede4 ,the dedication of the herbal1 in its completed form1 to ,queen ,elizabeth1 throws some light on ,turner's life1 and incidentally on that illustrious lady herself4 ,the doctor recalls1 with pardonable pride and perhaps a touch of blarney1 an occasion on which the ,princess ,elizabeth1 as she then was1 had conversed with him in ,latin4 8,as for your knowledge in the ,latin tonge10 he writes1 8xviii yeares ago or more1 ,i had in the ,duke of ,somersettes house 7beynge his ,physition at that tyme7 a good tryal thereof1 when as it pleased your grace to speake ,latin unto me3 for although ,i have both in ,england1 lowe and highe ,germanye1 and other places of my longe traveil and pelgrimage1 never spake with any noble or gentle woman1 that spake so wel and so much congrue fyne and pure ,latin1 as your grace did unto me so longe ago40 ,turner defends himself against the insinuation that 8a booke intreatinge onelye of trees1 herbes and wedes1 and shrubbes1 is not a mete present for a prince10 and certainly1 if we accept his account of the state of knowledge at the time1 the need for such a book must have been most urgent4 ,he explains that1 while he was still at ,pembroke ,hall1 ,cambridge1 he endeavoured to learn the names of plants1 but1 8suche was the ignorance in simples at that tyme10 that he could get no information on the subject1 even from physicians4 ,he claims that his herbal has considerable originality--a claim which seems well founded4 ,in his own words--8they that have red the first part of my ,herbal1 and have compared my writinges of plantes with those thinges that ,matthiolus1 ,fuchsius1 ,tragus1 and ,dodoneus wrote in ye firste editiones of their ,herballes1 maye easily perceyve that ,i taught the truthe of certeyne plantes1 which these above named writers either knew not at al1 or ellis erred in them greatlye4444 ,so yt as ,i learned something of them1 so they ether might or did learne somthinge of me agayne1 as their second editions maye testifye4 ,and because ,i would not be lyke unto a cryer yt cryeth a loste horse in the marketh1 and telleth all the markes and tokens that he hath1 and yet never sawe the horse1 nether coulde knowe the horse if he sawe him3 ,i wente into ,italye and into diverse partes of ,germany1 to knowe and se the herbes my selfe40 ,this herbal contains many evidences of ,turner's independence of thought4 ,he fought against what he regarded as superstition in science with the same ardour with which he entered upon religious polemics4 ,the legend of the human form of the ,mandrake receives scant mercy at his hands4 ,as he points out1 8,the rootes which are conterfited and made like litle puppettes and mammettes1 which come to be sold in ,england in boxes1 with heir1 and such forme as a man hath1 are nothyng elles but folishe feined trifles1 and not naturall4 ,for they are so trymmed of crafty theves to mocke the poore people with all1 and to rob them both of theyr wit and theyr money4 ,i have in my tyme at diverse tymes taken up the rootes of ,mandrag out of the grounde1 but ,i never saw any such thyng upon or in them1 as are in and upon the pedlers rootes that are comenly to be solde in boxes40 ,turner was1 however1 by no means the first to dispute the ,mandrake superstition2 in the ,grete ,herball of #aebf it is definitely refuted1 and it is ignored in some works that are of even earlier date4 ,the hoax was long-lived1 for we find ,gerard also exposing it in #aeig4 ,turner had a fine scorn for any superstitious notions he detected in the writings of his contemporaries1 and seems to have been particularly pleased if he could show that in any disputed matter they were wrong1 while the ancients1 for whom he had a great reverence1 were right4 ,for instance he has a great deal to say about a theory1 held by ,mattioli1 in opposition to the opinions of ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides1 that the ,broomrape 7,orobanche7 could kill other plants merely by its baneful presence1 without any physical contact4 ,he declares that this view is against reason1 authority and experience1 and points out that the figure which ,mattioli gives is faulty1 in omitting to show the roots1 which are the real instruments of destruction4 ,he triumphantly concludes1 8,and as touchynge experience1 ,i know that the freshe and yong ,orobanche hath commyng out of the great roote1 many lytle strynges 444 wherewith it taketh holde of the rootes of the herbes that grow next unto it4 ,wherefore ,matthiolus ought not so lyghtly to have defaced the autorite of ,theophrast so ancient and substantiall autor40 ,turner's work is largely occupied with the opinions of early writers1 especially ,dioscorides1 and his respect for their authority is a somewhat curious trait in a character which seems1 in other directions1 to have been so unorthodox4 ,he did not however treat their books as the last word on the subject1 and the third part of his herbal is occupied with plants 8whereof is no mention made nether of ye old ,grecianes nor ,latines40 ,turner's herbal is arranged alphabetically1 and does not show evidence of any interest in the relationships of the plants4 ,it is as individuals1 and essentially as 8simples10 that he regarded them4 ,his descriptions of them were often vividly expressed1 though not markedly original4 ,it must be remembered that botany was not the only science which he studied4 ,he wrote about birds1 and also contributed information about ,english fishes to ,gesner's #8,historia ,animalium4' ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #eb4 8,tabaco0 ,nicotiana1 ,tobacco ,monardes1 ,joyfull newes out of the newe founde worlde1 #bnd ed4 #aehj4 ,before discussing the next herbal which appeared in this country1 we may refer in passing to a botanical book which hardly comes under this heading1 but which is of interest in relation to the history of the time4 ,nicolas ,monardes1 a ,spanish physician1 had published1 in #aefi and #aega1 some account of the plants which had lately been brought to ,europe from the recently discovered ,west ,indies1 and this work was translated into ,english by ,john ,frampton in #aegg1 under the title of #8,joyfull newes out of the newe founde worlde4' ,this book contains a good figure of the ,tobacco plant 7,text-fig4 #eb71 perhaps the first ever published1 and also a long account of its virtues4 ,the reader is told that the ,negroes and ,indians after inhaling tobacco smoke 8doe remaine lightened1 without any wearinesse1 for to laboure again3 and thei dooe this with so greate pleasure1 that although thei bee not wearie1 yet thei are very desirous for to dooe it3 and the thyng is come to so muche effecte1 that their maisters doeth chasten theim for it1 and doe burne the ,tabaco1 because thei should not use it40 ,twenty-seven years after the appearance of the first part of ,turner's herbal1 a translation of ,dodoens' work1 made by ,henry ,lyte1 appeared in ,england4 ,lyte was born about #aebi1 and1 towards the end of the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 he became a student at ,oxford4 ,he was a man of means1 addicted to travel1 and his temperament seems to have been much milder and less revolutionary than that of his predecessor ,turner4 ,he did not perhaps add very greatly to the knowledge of ,english botany1 but he did a valuable service in introducing ,dodoens' herbal into this country4 ,his book1 which was published in #aegh1 was professedly a translation of the ,french version of ,dodoens' ,cr deboeck of #aeed1 which had been made by de l'cluse in #aeeg4 ,lyte's copy of this work1 with copious manuscript notes1 and1 on the title-page1 the quaint endorsement1 8,henry ,lyte taught me to speake ,englishe10 is preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,this copy proves that ,lyte was no mere mechanical translator1 for the work is annotated and corrected with great care1 references to de l',obel and ,turner being introduced4 ,the title of ,lyte's book is as follows3 #8,a ,niewe ,herball or ,historie of ,plantes3 wherin is contayned the whole discourse and perfect description of all sortes of ,herbes and ,plantes3 their divers and sundry kindes3 their straunge ,figures1 ,fashions1 and ,shapes3 their ,names1 ,natures1 ,operations1 and ,vertues3 and that not onely of those which are here growyng in this our ,countrie of ,englande1 but of all others also of forrayne ,realmes1 commonly used in ,physicke4 ,first set foorth in the ,doutche or ,almaigne tongue1 by that learned ,d4 ,rembert ,dodoens1 ,physition to the ,emperour3 ,and nowe first translated out of ,french into ,english1 by ,henry ,lyte ,esquyer4' ,the illustrations used in the book were the same as those which had appeared in the translation by de l'cluse1 and were for the most part copies of those in the octavo edition of ,fuchs' herbal1 with some additional blocks1 which had been cut specially for ,dodoens4 ,the result is that many of the same figures occur both in ,turner and in ,lyte4 ,there are said to be #hgj figures in ,lyte's herbal1 of which about thirty are new4 ,of the latter ,centaurea rhaponticum is an example 7,text-fig4 #ec74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ec4 8,reubarbe0 ,centaurea rhaponticum ,l4 ,lyte1 ,a ,niewe ,herball1 #aegh4 ,lyte occasionally adds a criticism of his own in a different type from that used in the main body of the text4 ,at the beginning of the book1 there is a long set of doggerel verses 8in commendation of this worke10 which imply that ,rembert ,dodoens himself made additions to the ,english translation4 ,the most important stanza is the following3-- 8,great was his toyle1 whiche first this worke dyd frame4 ,and so was his1 whiche ventred to translate it1 ,for when he had full finisht all the same1 ,he minded not to adde1 nor to abate it4 ,but what he founde1 he ment whole to relate it4 ,till ,rembert he1 did sende additions store4 ,for to augment ,lytes travell past before40 ,we now come to ,john ,gerard#ai 7,plate ,,xii71 the best known of all the ,english herbalists1 but who1 it must be confessed1 scarcely deserves the fame which has fallen to his share4 ,gerard1 a native of ,cheshire1 was a 8,master in ,chirurgerie10 but was better known as a remarkably successful gardener4 ,for twenty years he supervised the gardens belonging to ,lord ,burleigh in the ,strand1 and at ,theobalds in ,hertfordshire1 besides having himself a famous garden in ,holborn1 then the most fashionable district of ,london4 ,in #aeif he published a list of the plants which he cultivated in ,holborn1 which is interesting as being the first complete catalogue ever published of the contents of a single garden4 ,gerard's reputation rests however on a much larger work1 #8,the ,herball or ,generall ,historie of ,plantes1' printed by ,john ,norton in #aeig1 but the manner in which this book originated does the author little credit4 ,it seems that ,norton1 the publisher1 had commissioned a certain ,dr ,priest to translate ,dodoens' final work1 the #8,pemptades' of #aehc1 into ,english1 but ,priest died before the work was finished4 ,gerard simply adopted ,priest's translation1 completed it1 and published it as his own1 merely altering the arrangement from that of ,dodoens to that of de l',obel4 ,he adds insult to injury by gratuitously remarking1 in an address to the reader at the beginning of the herbal1 that 8,doctor ,priest1 one of our ,london ,colledge1 hath 7as ,i heard7 translated the last edition of ,dodonus1 which meant to publish the same2 but being prevented by death1 his translation likewise perished40 ,after the manner of the period1 the herbal is embellished with a number of prefatory letters1 in one of which1 written by ,stephen ,bredwell1 a statement occurs which is so inconsistent with ,gerard's own remarks that he certainly committed an oversight in allowing it to stand6 ,in ,bredwell's words--8,d4 ,priest for his translation of so much as ,dodonus1 hath hereby left a tombe for his honorable sepulture4 ,master ,gerard comming last1 but not the least1 hath many waies accommodated the whole worke unto our ,english nation40 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii ,,john ,,gerard 7#aede-afjg74 ,the ,herball1 #afcf4 ,the #8,herball' is a massive volume1 in clear ,roman type1 contrasting markedly with the black letter used in the works of ,turner and ,lyte1 and giving the book a much more modern appearance4 ,it contains about #ahjj wood-cuts1 nearly all from blocks used by ,tabernmontanus in his #8,eicones' of #aeij1 which ,norton obtained from ,frankfort2 less than one per cent4 are original4 ,there is an illustration representing the ,virginian ,potato1 which appears to be new1 and is perhaps the first figure of this plant ever published 7,text-fig4 #fj74 ,gerard did not know enough about botany to couple the wood-blocks of ,tabernmontanus with their appropriate descriptions1 and de l',obel was requested by the printer to correct the author's blunders4 ,this he did1 according to his own account1 in very many places1 but yet not so many as he wished1 since ,gerard became impatient1 and summarily stopped the process of emendation1 on the ground that de l',obel had forgotten his ,english4 ,after this episode1 the relations between the two botanists seem1 not unnaturally1 to have become somewhat strained4 ,gerard evidently aimed at conveying information in simple language1 for in one place1 where he speaks of a preparation being 8squirted0 into the eyes1 he apologises for the colloquialism1 explaining that he does not wish 8to be over eloquent among gentlewomen1 unto whom especially my works are most necessary40 ,the value of ,gerard's work must inevitably be at a discount1 when we realise that it is impossible1 from internal evidence1 to accept him as a credible witness4 ,his oft-quoted account of the 8,goose tree10 8,barnakle tree10 or the 8tree bearing ,geese10 removes what little respect one may have felt for him as a scientist1 not so much because he held an absurd belief1 which was widely accepted at the time1 but rather because he went out of his way to state that it was confirmed by his own observations6 ,he gives a figure to illustrate the origin of the ,geese 7,text-fig4 #ed71 which is not1 however1 original4 ,gerard relates how trees1 actually bearing shells which open and hatch out barnacle geese1 occur in the 8,orchades#bj10 but he states that on this point he has no first-hand knowledge4 ,he proceeds1 however1 to remark1 8,but what our eies have seene1 and hands have touched1 we shall declare4 ,there is a small ,ilande in ,lancashire called the ,pile of ,foulders1 wherein are found the broken peeces of old and brused ships1 some whereof have beene cast thither by shipwracke1 and also the trunks or bodies with the branches of old and rotten trees1 cast up there likewise3 wheron is found a certaine spume or froth1 that in time breedeth unto certaine shels1 in shape like those of the muskle1 but sharper pointed1 and of a whitish colour2 wherein is conteined a thing in forme like a lace of silke finely woven1 as it were togither1 of a whitish colour2 one ende whereof is fastned unto the inside of the shell1 even as the fish of ,oisters and ,muskles are2 the other ende is made fast unto the belly of a rude masse or lumpe1 which in time commeth to the shape and forme of a ,bird3 when it is perfectly formed1 the shel gapeth open1 and the first thing that appeereth is the foresaid lace or string2 next come the legs of the ,birde hanging out2 and as it groweth greater1 it openeth the shell by degrees1 till at length it is all come foorth1 and hangeth onely by the bill2 in short space after it commeth to full maturitie1 and falleth into the sea1 where it gathereth feathers1 and groweth to a foule1 bigger then a ,mallard1 and lesser than a ,goose40 ,the fable of the ,goose ,tree was rejected in the later editions of ,gerard's #8,herball1' published after the author's death4 ,it reappears1 however1 late in the seventeenth century1 in the #8,historia ,naturalis' of ,john ,jonston4 ,the legend is of respectable antiquity1 being found in various early chronicles4 ,sebastian ,muenster1 for example1 in his #8,cosmographia#ba1' printed at ,basle in #aede1 refers to it as recorded by previous writers1 and figures a tree with pendent fruits1 out of which geese are dropping into a lake or stream4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ed4 8,the breede of ,barnakles0 ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig4 ,hector ,boethius ,boece in his ,scottish ,chronicle gives a quaint account of the origin of geese from driftwood in the sea1 8in the small boris and hollis0 of which 8growis small wormis4 ,first thay schaw thair heid and feit1 and last of all they schaw thair plum is and wyngis4 ,finally quhen thay ar cumyn to the iust mesure and quantite of geis1 thay fle in the aire1 as othir fowlis dois#bb40 ,it is rather surprising to find that ,william ,turner was a believer in the same myth1 although1 unlike ,gerard1 he took great pains to satisfy himself of the truth of the story1 which he seems to have approached with quite an open mind4 ,his account is as follows3-- 8,when after a certain time the firwood masts or planks or yard-arms of a ship have rotted on the sea1 then fungi1 as it were1 break out upon them first1 in which in course of time one may discern evident forms of birds1 which afterwards are clothed with feathers1 and at last become alive and fly4 ,now lest this should seem fabulous to anyone1 besides the common evidence of all the long-shore men of ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland1 that renowned historian ,gyraldus1 444 bears witness that the generation of the ,bernicles is none other than this4 ,but inasmuch as it seemed hardly safe to trust the vulgar and by reason of the rarity of the thing ,i did not quite credit ,gyraldus1 444 ,i took counsel of a certain man1 whose upright conduct1 often proved by me1 had justified my trust1 a theologian by profession and an ,irishman by birth1 ,octavian by name1 whether he thought ,gyraldus worthy of belief in this affair4 ,who1 taking oath upon the very ,gospel which he taught1 answered that what ,gyraldus had reported of the generation of this bird was absolutely true1 and that with his own eyes he had beholden young1 as yet but rudely formed1 and also handled them1 and1 if ,i were to stay in ,london for a month or two1 that he would take care that some growing chicks should be brought in to me#bc40 ,the ,goose ,tree is also figured by de l',obel and d',alchamps1 but it is refreshing to find that ,colonna in his #8,phytobasanos' 7#aeib7 flatly denies the truth of the legend4 ,the importance of ,gerard's #8,herball' in the history of botany is chiefly due to an improved edition1 brought out by ,thomas ,johnson in #afcc1 thirty-six years after the work was originally published4 ,johnson was an apothecary in ,london1 and cultivated a physic garden on ,snow ,hill4 ,his first botanical work was a short account of the plants collected by members of the ,apothecaries' ,company on an excursion in ,kent4 ,this is of interest as being the earliest memoir of the kind published in ,england4 ,later on1 descriptions of botanical tours in the west of ,england1 and in ,wales1 appeared from his pen4 ,but it is as the editor of ,gerard that he is chiefly remembered4 ,he greatly enlarged the #8,herball1' and illustrated it with ,plantin's wood-cuts4 ,his edition contained an account of no less than #bhej plants4 ,johnson also corrected numerous errors1 and the whole work1 transformed by him1 rose to a much higher grade of value4 ,it was reprinted1 without alteration1 in #afcf4 ,when the ,civil ,wars broke out1 ,johnson1 who is said to have been a man of great personal courage1 joined the ,royalists4 ,he took an active part in the defence of ,basing ,house1 and received a shot wound during the siege1 from which he died4 ,john ,parkinson 7#aefg-afej7 may be regarded as the last ,british herbalist1 of the period we are considering1 whose work was of any great interest from the botanical point of view4 ,his portrait is shown in ,plate ,,xiii4 ,like ,gerard and ,johnson1 he cultivated a famous garden in ,london4 ,in these days of bricks and mortar1 it is hard to realise that gardens of such importance flourished in ,holborn1 ,snow ,hill1 and ,long ,acre respectively4 ,another important ,london garden of the period was that at ,lambeth1 belonging to ,john ,tradescant1 gardener to ,charles ,i4 ,parkinson became apothecary to ,james ,i and botanist to ,charles ,i4 ,the earlier of the two books1 by which he is remembered1 was rather of the nature of a gardening work than of a herbal4 ,it appeared in #afbi under the title1 #8,paradisi in ,sole ,paradisus ,terrestris4 ,a ,garden of all sorts of pleasant flowers which our ,english ayre will permitt to be noursed up 444 together ,with the right orderinge planting and preserving of them and their uses and vertues4' ,it has lately become accessible in the form of a facsimile reprint4 ,the words 8,paradisi in ,sole0 form a pun upon the author's name1 and may be translated 8,of park-in-sun40 ,the book was dedicated to ,queen ,henrietta ,maria1 with the prayer that she will accept 8this speaking ,garden40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ee4 8,barberry0 ,berberis ,part of a large wood-cut1 ,parkinson1 ,paradisus ,terrestris1 #afbi4 ,the preface to this work is entirely at variance with the idea that scientific knowledge has only been gradually acquired by the human race4 ,in ,parkinson's words3--8,god1 the ,creator of ,heaven and ,earth1 at the beginning when he created ,adam1 inspired him with the knowledge of all naturall things 7which successively descended to ,noah afterwardes1 and to his ,posterity73 for1 as he was able to give names to all the living ,creatures1 according to their severall natures2 so no doubt but hee had also the knowledge1 both what ,herbes and ,fruits were fit1 eyther for ,meate or ,medicine1 for ,use or for ,delight40 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii ,,john ,,parkinson 7#aefg-afej74 ,theatrum botanicum1 #afdj4 ,elaborate directions for the planting and treatment of a garden precede an account of a large number of plants cultivated at that time1 with some mention of their uses4 ,the book is illustrated with full-page wood engravings of no great merit1 in each of which a number of different plants are represented 7,text-fig4 #ee is taken from part of one illustration74 ,the figures are partly original and partly copied from the books of de l'cluse1 de l',obel and others4 ,in #afdj1 ,parkinson followed up this work with a much larger volume1 dealing with plants in general1 and called the #8,theatrum botanicum3 ,the ,theater of ,plants4 ,or1 an ,herball of a ,large ,extent4' ,he complains that the publication of the work has been delayed1 partly through the 8disastrous times10 but chiefly through the machinations of 8wretched and perverse men40 ,according to the preface to the #8,paradisus ,terrestris1' the author's original idea was merely to supplement his description of the ,flower ,garden by an account of 8,a ,garden of ,simples40 ,this scheme grew into one of a more extensive and general nature1 but without losing the predominant medical interest1 which would have characterised the work as originally planned4 ,in accordance with this intention1 the virtues of the herbs are dealt with in great detail4 ,parkinson's herbal is in some ways an improvement on that of ,johnson and ,gerard4 ,almost the whole of ,bauhin's #8,pinax' is incorporated1 with the result that the account of the nomenclature of each plant becomes very full and detailed4 ,many of de l',obel's manuscript notes are also inserted4 ,the scheme of classification adopted is1 however1 markedly inferior to that of de l',obel4 ,occasionally1 in spite of his comparatively late date1 ,parkinson displays an imagination that is truly medival4 ,he is eloquent on the subject of that rare and precious commodity1 the horn of the ,unicorn1 which is a cure for many bodily ills4 ,he describes the animal as living 8farre remote from these parts1 and in huge vast ,wildernesses among other most fierce and wilde beasts40 ,he discusses1 also1 the use of the powder of mummies as a medicine1 and his description is enlivened with a picture of an embalmed corpse4 ,the illustrations to the ,theatrum ,botanicum are of no importance1 being chiefly copied from those of ,gerard4 ,the great ,british botanists who follow next upon ,parkinson1 in point of time1 are ,robert ,morison 7b4 #afbj7 and ,john ,ray 7b4 #afbg71 but as their chief works appeared after the close of the period selected for special study in this book 7#adgj-afgj71 and as they were botanists in the modern sense1 rather than herbalists1 we will not attempt any discussion of their writings4 ,while ,morison and ,ray were advancing the subject of ,systematic ,botany1 ,nehemiah ,grew and the ,italian1 ,marcello ,malpighi1 born respectively in #afda and #afbh1 were laying the foundations of the science of ,plant ,anatomy4 ,their work1 also1 is outside the scope of the present book1 and it is only mentioned at this point in order to show that the latter part of the seventeenth century witnessed a considerable revolution in the science4 ,from this period onwards1 with the opening up of new lines of inquiry1 the importance of the herbal steadily declined1 and though books which come under this heading were produced even in the nineteenth century1 the day of their pre-eminence was over4 #g4 ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,aristotelian ,,botany4 ,the subject of ,aristotelian botany scarcely comes within the scope of a book on ,herbals1 but1 at the same time1 it cannot be sharply separated from the botany of the herbalists4 ,it therefore seems desirable to make a brief reference at this point to its chief sixteenth-century exponent1 the ,italian savant1 ,andrea ,cesalpino 7#aeai-afjc71 and to one or two other writers whose point of view was similar4 ,we have already shown that1 in the ,middle ,ages1 ,albertus ,magnus carried on the tradition of ,aristotle and ,theophrastus4 ,at the time of the ,renaissance1 there was again a revival of this aspect of the study1 as well as of the branch with which we are here more immediately concerned1 that1 namely1 which deals with plants from the standpoint of medicine and natural history4 ,cesalpino 7,plate ,,xiv71 it is true1 was largely concerned1 like the herbalists1 with the mere description of plants1 but the fame of his great work1 #8,de plantis libri ,,xvi' 7#aehc71 rests upon the first book1 which contains an account of the theory of botany on ,aristotelian lines4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv ,,andrea ,,cesalpino 7#aeai-afjc74 ,drawn by ,g4 ,zocchi and engraved by ,f4 ,allegrini1 #agfe1 after an old portrait in the ,museum of the ,botanic ,garden at ,pisa4 ,print in the ,botany ,school1 ,cambridge4 ,cesalpino's strength lay in the fact that he took a remarkably broad view of the subject1 and approached it as a trained thinker4 ,he had learned the best lesson ,greek thought had to offer to the scientific worker--the knowledge of how to think4 ,he had1 however1 the defects of his qualities1 and his reverence for the classics led him into an inelastic and over literal acceptance of ,aristotelian conceptions4 ,the chief tangible contribution1 which ,cesalpino made to botanical science1 was his insistence on the prime importance of the organs of fructification4 ,this was the idea on which he chiefly laid stress in his system of classification1 to which we shall return in a later chapter4 ,a botanist who had something in common with ,cesalpino was the ,bohemian author1 ,adam ,zaluziansky von ,zaluzian 7#aeeh-afac74 ,his most important work was the #8,methodi herbari libri tres1' published at ,prague in #aeib4 ,as a herbal it does not rank high1 since ,zaluziansky neither recorded any new plants1 nor gave the ,bohemian localities for those already known4 ,but it opens with a survey of botany in general1 which is of interest as showing an approach to the modern scientific standpoint1 in so far as the author pleads for the treatment of botany as a separate subject1 and not as a mere branch of medicine4 ,his remarks on this point may be translated as follows3--8,it is customary to connect ,medicine with ,botany1 yet scientific treatment demands that we should consider each separately4 ,for the fact is that in every art1 theory must be disconnected and separated from practice1 and the two must be dealt with singly and individually in their proper order before they are united4 ,and for that reason1 in order that ,botany 7which is1 as it were1 a special branch of ,physics7 may form a unit by itself before it can be brought into connection with other sciences1 it must be divided and unyoked from ,medicine40 ,guy de la ,brosse1 a ,french writer of the seventeenth century1 discusses the souls of plants and related topics1 quite in the manner of the ,aristotelian school4 ,in his book #8,de la ,nature1 ,vertu1 et ,utilit des ,plantes1' dedicated to 8,monseigneur le tres-illustre et le tres-reverand ,cardinal ,monseigneur le ,cardinal de ,richelieu10 he treats of variation within single species1 the sensitiveness of plants1 their chemistry and properties1 and many other topics4 ,his work is full of interest1 but a discussion of it would lead us beyond the bounds of our present subject4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,plant ,,description ,probably one of the chief objects1 which the early herbalists had in view in writing their books1 was to enable the reader to identify various medicinal plants4 ,nevertheless1 until well into the sixteenth century1 their drawings were so conventional1 and their descriptions left so much to be desired1 that it must have been an almost impossible task to arrive at the names of plants by their aid alone4 ,the idea which suggests itself is that a knowledge of the actual plants was1 in practice1 transmitted by word of mouth1 and that the herbals were only used as reference books1 to ascertain the reputed qualities of herbs1 with whose appearance the reader was already quite familiar4 ,if this supposition is correct1 it perhaps accounts for the very primitive state in which the art of plant description remained during the earlier period of the botanical renaissance4 ,when we turn to the ,aristotelian school1 we find that the writings of ,theophrastus include certain plant descriptions1 which1 although they seem somewhat rudimentary when judged by modern standards1 are greatly in advance of those contained in the first printed herbals4 ,the medival philosopher1 ,albertus ,magnus1 who1 as we have already pointed out1 was a follower of ,aristotle and ,theophrastus1 also showed marked originality in his descriptions of flowers1 and drew attention to a number of points which appear to have escaped the notice of many more recent writers4 ,for instance1 in describing the flower of the ,borage he distinguished the green calyx1 the corolla with its ligular outgrowths1 the five stamens and the central pistil1 though naturally he failed to understand the function of the latter organs4 ,he observed that1 in the ,lily1 the calyx was absent1 but that the petals themselves showed transitions from green to white4 ,he noticed the early fall of the calyx in the ,poppy1 and its persistence until the ripening of the fruit in the ,rose4 ,on the subject of floral stivation1 his observations were surprisingly advanced4 ,he pointed out that the successive whorls of sepals and petals alternated with one another1 and concluded that this was a device for the better protection of the flower4 ,albertus further classified the various forms of flower under three types3-- #a4 ,bird-form 7e4g4 ,aquilegia1 ,viola and ,lamium74 #b4 ,pyramid- and ,bell-form4 #c4 ,star-form4 ,when we leave the early ,aristotelian botanists1 and turn to those who studied the subject primarily from the medical point of view1 we find a great falling off in the power of description4 ,the accounts of the plants in the ,materia ,medica of ,dioscorides1 for example1 are so brief and meagre that only those with the most marked characteristics can be identified with certainty4 ,the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus1 the earliest work to which the term 8herbal0 is generally applied1 scarcely makes any attempt at describing the plants to which it refers4 ,such a paragraph as the following#bd gives an account of a plant1 which1 compared with most of the other descriptions in the herbal1 may fairly be called precise and full4 8,this wort1 which is named radiolus1 by another name everfern1 is like fern2 and it is produced in stony places1 and in old house steads2 and it has on each leaf two rows of fair spots1 and they shine like gold40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ef4 8,cardamomum0 8 ,solanum dulcamara ,l41 ,bittersweet ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the group of late fifteenth-century herbals which we discussed in ,chapter ,,ii--the ,latin and ,german ,herbarius and the ,hortus ,sanitatis--are alike in giving very brief and inadequate accounts of the characters of the plants enumerated1 although their descriptions often have a certain nave charm4 ,it is scarcely worth while to give actual examples of their methods4 ,it will perhaps suffice to quote a few specimens from the ,english #8,grete ,herball#be1' which is a work of much the same class4 ,the ,wood ,sorrel#bf is dealt with as follows3 8,this herbe groweth in thre places1 and specyally in hedges1 woodes and under walles sydes and hath leves lyke iii leved grasse and hath a soure smell as sorell1 and hath a yelowe flowre40 ,as another example we may cite the ,chicory1 which is described as having 8croked and wrythen stalkes1 and the floure is of ye colour of the skye40 ,of the ,waterlilies1 we receive a still more generalised account3 8,nenufar is an herbe that groweth in water1 and hath large leves and hath a floure in maner of a rose1 the rote thereof is called treumyan and is very bygge4 ,it is of two maners4 ,one is whyte1 and another yelowe40 ,occasionally we meet with a hint of more detailed observation4 ,for instance1 the coloured central flower in the umbel of the ,carrot is mentioned1 though in terms that sound somewhat strange to the modern botanist4 ,we read that it 8hath a large floure and in the myddle therof a lytell reed prycke40 ,it is somewhat remarkable that ,banckes' ,herbal1 though originally published a year earlier than the first edition of the ,grete ,herball1 shows a slight but distinct superiority in the matter of description 7see p4 #ch74 ,perhaps this is to be connected with the fact that ,banckes' ,herbal is without illustrations4 ,but even if we allow that the descriptions in ,banckes' ,herbal occasionally seize on salient features1 it must be admitted that they still leave a great deal to the imagination4 ,as two typical examples1 which are perhaps as good as any in the book1 we may take those of ,tutsan#bg and of ,shepherd's ,purse4 ,of the first the herbalist writes1 8,this herbe hathe leves somdele reed lyke unto ye leves of ,orage4 ,and this herbe hathe senowes on his leves as hath ,plantayne1 and it hathe yelowe floures and bereth blacke berys1 and it groweth in dry woodes40 ,of ,shepherd's ,purse he says1 8,this herbe hathe a small stalke and full of braunches and ragged leves and a whyte flowre4 ,the coddes therof be lyke a purse40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #eg4 8,pionia0 ,peony ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,the #8,herbarum viv eicones' of ,otto ,brunfels 7#aecj7 was the first herbal illustrated with drawings1 which are throughout both beautiful and true to nature4 ,the descriptions1 on the other hand1 are quite unworthy of the figures1 being mostly borrowed from earlier writers4 ,the wonderful excellence of the wood-blocks1 with which the ,german ,fathers of ,botany enriched their books1 was1 in one sense1 an actual hindrance to the development of the art of plant description4 ,since the pencil of the draughtsman could represent every subtlety in the characteristic form of a plant1 the botanist might well be excused for thinking that to take the trouble to set beside the drawing a precise1 verbal description of the plant in question was a work of supererogation4 ,however1 in another sense the draughtsman indirectly helped the cause of scientific accuracy in what1 for want of a better expression1 may be called word-painting4 ,there is no doubt that constant critical examination of the artist's work must have tended to educate the eye of the botanist who supervised his efforts1 and to increase his perception of delicate shades of difference or similarity of form1 which he might never have noticed1 or attempted to express in words1 if the draughtsman had not1 as it were1 lent him his trained eyesight4 ,the next great worker1 ,hieronymus ,bock1 differs from ,brunfels in the comparative unimportance of his contributions to plant illustration1 and the relatively greater value of his text4 ,his descriptions of flowers and fruits are excellent1 and the way in which he indicates the general habit is often masterly4 ,as an example we may quote his description of ,mistletoe plants1 which may be translated as follows3 8,they grow almost in the shape of a cluster1 with many forks and articulations4 ,the whole plant is light green1 the leaves are fleshy1 plump and thick1 larger than those of the ,box4 ,they flower in the beginning of spring1 the flowers are however very small and yellow in colour1 from them develop1 towards autumn1 small1 round white berries very like those on the wild gooseberry4 ,these berries are full inside of white tough lime1 yet each berry has its small black grain1 as if it were the seed1 which however does not grow when sown1 for1 as ,i have said above1 the ,mistletoe only originates and develops on trees4 ,in winter mistel thrushes seek their food from the ,mistletoe1 but in summer they are caught with it1 for bird-lime is commonly made from its bark4 ,thus the ,mistletoes are both beneficial and harmful to birds40 ,in #8,de historia stirpium1' the great ,latin work of ,leonhard ,fuchs1 the plant descriptions are brief and of little importance1 being frequently taken word for word from previous writers4 ,this book1 however1 is notable in possessing a full glossary of the technical terms used1 which is of importance as being the first contribution of the kind to botanical literature4 ,we may translate two examples at random1 to show the style of ,fuchs' definitions3-- 8,stamens are the points apices that shoot forth in the middle of the flower-cup calyx3 so called because they spring out like threads from the inmost bosom of the flower#bh40 8,pappus1 both to the ,greeks and to the ,latins1 is the fluff which falls from flowers or fruits4 ,so also certain woolly hairs which remain on certain plants when they lose their flowers1 and afterwards disappear into the air1 are pappi1 as happens in ,senecio1 ,sonchus and several others40 ,in the ,german edition of ,fuchs' herbal1 the descriptions are remarkably good for their time1 being more methodical than those of ,bock1 though sometimes less lively and picturesque4 ,as an instance of his manner we may cite his account of the ,butterbur1 of which his wood-cut is shown in ,text-fig4 #eh4 8,the flower of ,butterbur10 he writes1 8is the first to appear1 before the plant or leaves4 ,the flower is cluster-shaped1 with many small1 pale pinkish flowerets1 and is like a fine bunch of vine flowers in full bloom to look at4 ,this large cluster-shaped flower has a hollow stalk1 at times a span high2 it withers and decays without fruit together with the stalk4 ,then the round1 gray1 ash-coloured leaves appear1 which are at first like ,coltsfoot1 but afterwards become so large that one leaf will cover a small1 round table4 ,they are light green on one side1 and whitish or gray on the other4 ,each leaf has its own brown1 hairy and hollow stem1 on which it sits like a wide hat or a mushroom turned over4 ,the root grows very thick1 is white and porous inside1 and has a strong1 bitter taste40 ,our ,english herbalist1 ,william ,turner1 is often fresh and effective in his descriptions4 ,he compares the ,dodder 7,cuscuta7 to 8a great red harpe strynge10 and the seed vessels of ,shepherd's ,purse to 8a boyes satchel or litle bagge40 ,of the ,dead ,nettle he says1 8,lamium hath leaves like unto a ,nettel1 but lesse indented about1 and whyter4 ,the downy thynges that are in it like pryckes1 byte not1 ye stalk is four-square1 the floures are whyte1 and have a stronge savor1 and are very like unto litle coules1 or hoodes that stand over bare heades4 ,the sede is blak and groweth about the stalk1 certayn places goyng betwene1 as we se in horehound40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #eh4 8,petasites0 ,butterbur ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,the three great botanists of the ,low ,countries1 ,dodoens1 de l'cluse and de l',obel1 were so closely associated that it is hardly necessary to consider their style of plant description individually4 ,henry ,lyte's well-known herbal of #aegh was a translation of the #8,histoire des ,plantes1' which is itself a version by de l'cluse of the ,dutch herbal of ,dodoens4 ,we may thus fairly illustrate the style of plant description of this school by a quotation from ,lyte1 since it has the advantage of retaining the sixteenth-century flavour1 which is so easily lost in a modern translation4 ,as a typical example we may take a paragraph about the ,storksbill 7,erodium74 ,it will be noticed that it does not represent any great advance upon ,fuchs' work4 8,the first kinde of ,geranion or ,storckes bill1 his leaves are cut and iagged in many peeces1 like to ,crowfoote1 his stalkes be slender1 and parted into sundry braunches1 upon which groweth smal floures somwhat like roses1 or the floures of ,mallowes1 of a light murrey or redde colour3 after them commeth little round heades1 with smal long billes1 like ,nedels1 or like the beakes of ,cranes and ,hearons1 wherein the seede is contayned3 ,the roote is thicke1 round1 shorte1 and knobby1 with certayne small strings hanging by it40 ,in his #8,pemptades' of #aehc1 ,dodoens gave a glossary of botanical terms4 ,his definitions suffer1 however1 from vagueness1 and are not calculated greatly to advance the accurate description of plants4 ,as an example we may take his account of the flower1 which may be translated as follows3-- 8,the flower 77 we call the joy of trees and plants4 ,it is the hope of fruits to come1 for every growing thing1 according to its nature1 produces offspring and fruit after the flower4 ,but flowers have their own special parts40 ,the descriptions from the pen of de l'cluse are characterised by greater fulness and closer attention to flower structure than those of his predecessors4 ,the plant which he calls ,sedum or ,sempervivum majus1 of which his wood-cut is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ei1 is described as being 8a shrub rather than a herb2 occasionally it reaches the height of two cubits #c ft4 and is as thick as the human arm1 with a quantity of twigs as thick as a man's thumb3 these spread out into numerous rays of the thickness of a finger4 ,the ends of these terminate in a kind of circle1 which is formed by numerous leaves pressing inwards all together and overlapping1 just as in ,sedum vulgare majus4 ,these leaves however are fat and full of juice1 and shaped like a tongue1 and slightly serrated round the edge1 with a somewhat astringent flavour2 the whole shrub is coated with a thick1 fleshy1 sappy bark4 ,the outer membrane inclines to a dark colour1 and is speckled as in ,tithymalus characia3 the speckles are simply the remains of leaves which have fallen off4 ,meanwhile a thick pedicel covered with leaves springs out from the top of the larger branches1 and bears1 so to speak1 a thyrsus of many yellow flowers1 scattered about like stars1 pleasant to behold4 ,and when the flowers begin to ripen1 and are running to seed 7the seed is very small71 the pedicel grows slender4 ,but the plant is an evergreen40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ei4 8,sedum majus0 de l'cluse1 ,rariorum 444 per ,hispanias1 #aegf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fj4 8,battata ,virginiana0 ,solanum tuberosum ,l41 ,potato ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig4 ,in ,gerard's #8,herball' of #aeig the descriptions are seldom sufficiently original to be of much interest4 ,we may quote1 however1 his account of the ,potato flower 7,text-fig4 #fj71 then so great a novelty that in his portrait 7,plate ,,xii7 he is represented holding a spray of it in his hand4 ,it has1 he says1 8very faire and pleasant flowers1 made of one entire whole leafe1 which is folded or plaited in such strange sort1 that it seemeth to be a flower made of sixe sundrie small leaves1 which cannot be easily perceived1 except the same be pulled open4 ,the colour whereof it is hard to expresse4 ,the whole flower is of a light purple color1 stripped down the middle of every folde or welt1 with a light shew of yellownes1 as though purple and yellow were mixed togither3 in the middle of the flower thrusteth foorth a thicke fat pointell1 yellow as golde1 with a small sharpe greene pricke or point in the middest thereof40 ,the plant descriptions by ,valerius ,cordus1 which were published after his death1 are among the best produced in the sixteenth century1 but they are too lengthy for quotation here4 ,so far as the period with which we deal in this book is concerned1 the zenith of plant description may be said to be reached in the #8,prodromos' of ,gaspard ,bauhin 7#afbj71 in which a high level of terseness and accuracy is attained4 ,as an example we may translate his description of 8,beta ,cretica semine aculeato10 of which his drawing is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #fb3 8,from a short tapering root1 by no means fibrous1 spring several stalks about #ah inches long3 they straggle over the ground1 and are cylindrical in shape and furrowed1 becoming gradually white near the root with a slight coating of down1 and spreading out into little sprays4 ,the plant has but few leaves1 similar to those of ,beta nigra1 except that they are smaller1 and supplied with long petioles4 ,the flowers are small1 and of a greenish yellow4 ,the fruits one can see growing in large numbers close by the root1 and from that point they spread along the stalk1 at almost every leaf4 ,they are rough and tubercled and separate into three reflexed points4 ,in their cavity1 one grain of the shape of an ,adonis seed is contained2 it is slightly rounded and ends in a point1 and is covered with a double layer of reddish membrane1 the inner one enclosing a white1 farinaceous core40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fa4 8,rose ,ribwoorte0 an abnormal ,plantain ,gerard1 ,the ,herball1 #aeig4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fb4 8,beta ,cretica semine aculeato0 ,bauhin1 ,prodromos1 #afbj4 ,any great advance on ,bauhin's descriptions could hardly be expected during the period which we are discussing1 since it closed before the nature of the essential parts of the flower was really understood4 ,it was not until #afhb that the fact that the stamens are male organs was pointed out in print by ,nehemiah ,grew1 though he himself attributed this discovery to ,sir ,thomas ,millington1 a botanist otherwise unknown4 ,gerard's account of the stamens and stigma of the ,potato as a 8pointell1 yellow as golde1 with a small sharpe greene pricke or point in the middest thereof10 vague as it seems to the twentieth-century botanist1 is by no means to be despised1 when we remember that the writer was handicapped by complete ignorance of the function of the structures which he saw before him4 ,a further hindrance to improvement in plant description was the lack of a methodical terminology4 ,as we have already shown1 both ,fuchs and ,dodoens attempted glossaries of botanical terms1 but these do not seem to have become an integral part of the science4 ,it is a common complaint among non-botanists at the present day1 that the subject has become incomprehensible to the layman1 owing to the excessive use of technical words4 ,there is1 no doubt1 some truth in this statement1 but1 on the other hand1 a study of the writings of the earlier botanists makes it clear that a description of a plant couched in ordinary language--in which the botanical meaning of the terms employed has been subjected to no rigid definition--often breaks down completely on all critical points4 ,it is to ,joachim ,jung and to ,linnus that we owe the foundations of the accurate terminology1 now at the disposal of the botanist when he sets out to describe a new plant4 ,the published work of these two writers belongs1 however1 to the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 and is thus outside the scope of the present volume4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,plant ,,classification ,in the earliest ,european works on natural history--those of the ,aristotelian school--we meet with an attempt to classify the different varieties of plants4 ,it was inevitable that the writers of this school should make such an attempt1 since no mind trained in ,greek philosophy could be content to leave a science in the condition of a mere chaos of isolated descriptions4 ,at first the most obvious distinction1 that of size1 was used as the chief criterion whereby to separate the different groups of the vegetable kingdom4 ,in the #8,history of ,plants' of ,theophrastus1 we find ,trees1 ,shrubs1 ,bushes and ,herbs treated as definite classes1 within which1 cultivated and wild plants are distinguished4 ,other distinctions of lower value are made between evergreen and deciduous1 fruiting and fruitless1 and flowering and flowerless plants4 ,albertus ,magnus1 who kept alive in the ,middle ,ages the spirit of ,aristotelian botany1 was more advanced than ,theophrastus in his method of classification4 ,it is true that he divides the vegetable world into ,trees1 ,shrubs1 ,undershrubs1 ,bushes1 ,herbs and ,fungi1 but at the same time he points out that this is an arbitrary scheme1 since these groups cannot always be distinguished from one another1 and also because the same plant may belong to different classes at different periods of its life4 ,a study of the writings of ,albertus reveals the fact that he had in mind1 though he did not clearly state it1 a much more highly evolved system1 which may be diagrammatically represented as follows4 ,the modern equivalents of his different groups are shown in square brackets3-- ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fc4 8,carui0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,i4 ,leafless plants ,cryptogams in part4 ,,ii4 ,leafy plants ,phanerogams and certain ,cryptogams4 #a4 ,corticate plants ,monocotyledons4 #b4 ,tunicate plants ,dicotyledons4 7a7 ,herbaceous4 7b7 ,woody4 ,the word tunicate in the above table is used for the plants which ,albertus describes as growing 8ex ligneis tunicis40 ,it seems clear from this expression that he realised that there was an anatomical distinction between ,dicotyledons and ,monocotyledons4 ,considering how much ,albertus had achieved1 it is somewhat curious that ,cesalpino1 who represented ,aristotelian botany in the sixteenth1 as ,albertus did in the thirteenth century1 should have produced so inadequate a system as his own contribution to the subject4 ,we owe to him one marked advance1 the recognition1 namely1 of the importance of the seed4 ,on the whole1 however1 his classification savours too much of having been thought out in the study1 and it suffers by comparison with other systems of about the same period1 such as those of de l',obel and ,bauhin1 which were arrived at rather by instinct1 acting upon observation1 than by a definite and self-conscious intellectual effort4 ,cesalpino makes his main distinction1 on the old ,aristotelian plan1 between ,trees and ,shrubs on the one hand1 and ,undershrubs and ,herbs on the other4 ,he divides the first of these groups into two1 and the second into thirteen classes1 depending chiefly on seed and fruit characters4 ,very few of these classes really represent natural groups1 and the chief of all distinctions among ,flowering ,plants1 that between ,dicotyledons and ,monocotyledons1 which was foreshadowed by ,albertus1 is almost lost to sight4 ,when we turn from the botanical philosophers to the herbalists proper1 we find an altogether different state of affairs4 ,the ,aristotelian botanists were conscious1 from the beginning1 of the philosophic necessity for some form of classification4 ,the medical botanists1 on the other hand1 were only interested in plants as individuals1 and were driven to classify them merely because some sort of arrangement was necessary for convenience in dealing with a large number of kinds4 ,the first ,materia ,medica1 that of ,dioscorides1 shows some attempt at order1 but the arrangement is seldom at all natural4 ,occasionally the author groups together plants which are nearly related1 as when he treats of a number of ,labiates1 or of ,umbellifers successively--but this is rare4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fd4 8,buglossa0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,pliny was not1 strictly speaking1 a medical botanist1 but at the same time he may be mentioned in this connection1 since his interest in plants was essentially utilitarian4 ,like ,theophrastus1 he begins his account of plants with the trees1 but his reason for so doing is profoundly different from that of the ,greek writer1 and illustrates the divergence between what we may call the anthropocentric and the scientific outlook upon the plant world4 ,theophrastus placed trees at the head of the vegetable kingdom1 because he considered their organisation the highest1 and most completely expressive of plant nature2 ,pliny1 on the other hand1 began with trees because of their great value and importance to man4 ,as an example of his ideas of arrangement1 we may mention that he places the ,myrtle and ,laurel side by side1 because the ,laurel takes a corresponding place in triumphs to that accorded to the ,myrtle in ovations6 ,turning to the herbals themselves1 we find that the earliest show no trace of a natural grouping1 the plants being1 as a rule1 arranged alphabetically4 ,this is the case1 for instance1 in the ,latin and ,german ,herbarius1 the ,ortus ,sanitatis and their derivatives1 and even in the herbals of ,brunfels and of ,fuchs in the sixteenth century4 ,in ,bock's herbal1 on the other hand1 the plants are grouped as herbs1 shrubs and trees1 according to the classical scheme4 ,the author evidently made some effort1 within these classes1 to arrange them according to their relationships4 ,in the preface to the third edition he writes--8,i have placed together1 yet kept distinct1 all plants which are related and connected1 or otherwise resemble one another and are compared1 and have given up the former old rule or arrangement according to the ,a4,b4,c4 which is seen in the old herbals4 ,for the arrangement of plants by the ,a4,b4,c4 occasions much disparity and error40 ,although the larger classificatory divisions1 as now understood1 were not recognised by these early workers1 they had at least a dim understanding of the distinction between genera and species4 ,this dates back to ,theophrastus1 who showed1 by grouping together different species of oaks1 figs1 etc41 that he had some conception of a genus4 ,we owe to ,konrad ,gesner the first formulation of the idea that genera should be denoted by substantive names4 ,he was probably the earliest botanist who clearly expounded the distinction between a genus and a species4 ,in one of his letters he writes--8,and we may hold this for certain1 that there are scarcely any plants that constitute a genus which may not be divided into two or more species4 ,the ancients describe one species of ,gentian2 ,i know of ten or more40 ,very little of ,gesner's botanical work was ever published1 and it was left to ,fabio ,colonna to put before the botanical world the true nature of genera4 ,he held most enlightened views on the subject1 and1 in #afaf1 clearly stated in his #8,ekphrasis' that genera should not be based on similarities of leaf form1 since the affinities of plants are indicated not by the leaf1 but by the characters of the flower1 the receptacle1 and1 especially1 the seed#bi4 ,he brought forward instances to show that previous authors had sometimes placed a plant in the wrong genus1 because they only attended to the leaves and ignored the structure of the flower4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fe4 8,nenufar0 ,waterlily ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,in the writings of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the binary system of nomenclature is used with a high degree of consistency1 each species bearing a generic and specific name1 though sometimes a third1 or even a fourth1 descriptive word is added4 ,these extra words are not1 however1 really essential4 ,in the preface to the #8,phytopinax' 7#aeif7 ,bauhin states that1 for the sake of clearness1 he has applied one name to each plant and added also some easily recognisable character#cj4 ,the binomial method was foreshadowed at a very early date1 for in a fifteenth-century manuscript of the old herbal #8,circa instans1' to which we have referred on p4 #bd1 this system prevails to a remarkable extent4 ,when we turn to those general schemes of classification which were evolved by the herbalists of the sixteenth century1 we are at once struck by the great difference existing between the principles on which these schemes are based1 and those at which we have arrived at the present day4 ,to classify plants according to their uses and medicinal properties is obviously the first suggestion that arises1 when the universe is regarded from a simple1 anthropocentric standpoint4 ,in the ,grete ,herball of #aebf we get a ludicrously clear example of this method1 applied to the special case of the ,fungi4 8,fungi ben mussherons4444 ,there be two maners of them1 one maner is deedly and sleeth slayeth them that eateth of them and be called tode stoles1 and the other dooth not40 ,this account of the ,fungi occurs also in the earlier manuscript herbal1 #8,circa instans1' mentioned in the last paragraph4 ,this theory of classification has been shown in more recent times to contain the germ of something more nearly approaching a natural system than one would imagine at first sight4 ,both ,linnus and de ,jussieu have pointed out that related plants have similar properties1 and1 in #ahjd1 ,a4 ,p4 de ,candolle1 in his #8,essai sur les proprits mdicales des ,plantes1 compares avec leurs formes extrieures et leur classification naturelle1' carried the argument much further4 ,he showed that in no less than twenty-one families of flowering plants1 the same medicinal properties were found throughout all the members of the order4 ,this is very remarkable1 when we remember that the state of knowledge at that time was such that de ,candolle was obliged to dismiss a large number of orders with the words 8properties unknown40 ,quite recently the subject of the differentiation of groups of plants according to their chemistry has again come to the fore1 and1 in the future1 chemical characters will probably be numbered among the recognised criteria for use in elaborating schemes of classification4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ff4 8,nenuphar0 ,nympha alba ,l41 ,white ,waterlily ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fg4 8,gele ,plompen0 ,nuphar luteum ,sm41 ,yellow ,waterlily de l',obel1 ,kruydtbck1 #aeha4 ,in the history of botanical classification1 the first advance from the purely utilitarian standpoint was marked by the recognition of the fact that the structure and mode of life of the plants themselves are of importance4 ,in the work of writers such as ,dodoens and d',alchamps1 to take two typical examples1 we find the issues curiously confused by the working of three different principles side by side2 that is to say1 by the simultaneous insistence 7i7 on the habitat1 7ii7 on the 8virtues10 and 7iii7 on the structure1 as affording clues to the systematic position of the plant in question4 ,the herbalist thus erects his scheme on a basis consisting of a confused medley of ecological1 medical1 and morphological principles4 ,an enumeration of the eighteen headings1 under which d',alchamps1 in #aehf1 described the vegetable kingdom1 so far as it was then known1 will show the perplexities which surrounded the first gropings after a natural system4 ,his headings may be translated as follows3-- ,i4 ,of trees which grow wild in woods4 ,,ii4 ,of fruits growing wild in thickets and shrubberies4 ,,iii4 ,of trees which are cultivated in pleasure gardens and orchards4 ,,iv4 ,of cereals and pulse1 and the plants which grow in the field with them4 ,v4 ,of garden herbs and pot herbs4 ,,vi4 ,of umbelliferous plants4 ,,vii4 ,of plants with beautiful flowers4 ,,viii4 ,of fragrant plants4 ,,ix4 ,of plants growing in marshes4 ,x4 ,of plants growing in rough1 rocky1 sandy and sunny places4 ,,xi4 ,of plants growing in shady1 wet1 marshy and fertile places4 ,,xii4 ,of plants growing by the sea1 and in the sea itself4 ,,xiii4 ,of climbing plants4 ,,xiv4 ,of thistles and all spiny and prickly plants4 ,,xv4 ,of plants with bulbs1 and succulent and knotty roots4 ,,xvi4 ,of cathartic plants4 ,,xvii4 ,of poisonous plants4 ,,xviii4 ,of foreign plants4 ,among these eighteen groups1 the only ones which have any pretension to being natural are ,,vi 7,umbellifers7 and ,,xiv 7,thistles71 and these merely approximate roughly to related groups of genera4 ,among the ,umbellifers we meet with ,achillea and other genera which do not really belong to the order1 whilst1 with the ,thistles1 there are grouped other spiny plants1 such as ,astragalus tragacantha1 which1 in a natural system1 would occupy a place remote from the ,composites4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fh4 8,ninfea0 ,waterlily ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe4 ,in spite of the fact that improved systems of classification1 to which we shall shortly refer1 were put forward in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries1 we find that1 as late as #afdj1 ,john ,parkinson in his well known herbal1 divided all the plants then known into seventeen classes or tribes--the sequence in which these classes were placed having1 in most cases1 no meaning at all4 ,a few of his tribes are natural1 but many are valueless as an expression of affinities4 ,as an example we may mention his third class1 8,venemous1 ,sleepy1 and ,hurtfull ,plants1 and their ,counterpoysons10 and his seventeenth1 8,strange and ,outlandish ,plants40 ,in ,parkinson's classification1 we see ,botany reverting once more to the position of a mere hand-maid to ,medicine4 ,in the first book of ,dodoens' #8,pemptades' 7#aehc7 the principles of botany are discussed4 ,the old ,aristotelian classification into ,trees1 ,shrubs1 ,undershrubs and ,herbs is accepted1 but with some reservations4 ,the author points out that an individual plant may1 owing to cultivation1 or from some other cause1 pass from one class into another4 ,he instances ,ricinus1 which is an herbaceous annual with us1 but a tree in other countries#ca4 ,the general scheme of classification1 which ,dodoens propounded1 has much in common with that of d',alchamps1 which we have already outlined4 ,within the larger groups1 he shows a stronger perception of natural grouping than appears in his arrangement of the larger classes themselves4 ,he often grouped together genera which we now regard as members of the same natural order1 and species which we now look upon as belonging to a single genus4 ,for instance he brought together genera belonging respectively to the ,geraniace1 ,hypericace1 ,plantaginace1 ,crucifer1 ,composit1 etc4 ,in some cases1 however1 he was only partially successful1 as in the ,umbellifer1 among which he described ,nigella 7,love-in-a-,mist7 and a couple of ,saxifrages4 ,this example shows how little stress was laid on the flowers and fruit at this time1 from the point of view of classification4 ,the general habit1 and the shape of the leaves were the features that received most attention4 ,resemblances and differences between the forms of the leaves alone must naturally appear to the botanist of the present day to be a very inadequate basis for a general system of classification4 ,nevertheless ,mathias de l',obel worked out a scheme on these lines which had great merit1 and was a considerable advance on previous efforts4 ,he put forward his system in his #8,stirpium adversaria' 7#aegj-ga7 and used it also in his later work4 ,it was thus published much earlier than the very primitive schemes of d',alchamps and ,dodoens to which we have just referred4 ,the best point of his system is that1 by reason of their characteristic differences of leaf structure1 he distinguishes the classes now known to us as ,monocotyledons and ,dicotyledons4 ,he introduces a useful feature in the shape of a synoptic table of species which precedes each more or less natural group of plants4 ,the superiority of his classification to the other arrangements in the field at the time was immediately realised4 ,we have evidence of this in the fact that1 after his #8,kruydtbck' was published1 ,plantin brought out an album of the wood-engravings used in the book1 which1 although they had also appeared as illustrations to the works of ,dodoens and de l'cluse1 were now arranged as in the scheme put forward by de l',obel1 8according to their genus and mutual relationship#cb40 ,there seems little doubt that de l',obel made a more conscious effort than any of his predecessors to arrive at a natural classification1 and that he realised that such a classification would reveal a unity in all living beings4 ,in the preface to his #8,stirpium adversaria nova' of #aegj he writes--8,for thus in an order1 than which nothing more beautiful exists in the heavens or in the mind of a wise man1 things which are far and widely different become1 as it were1 one thing40 ,de l',obel's scheme is not expressed in the clear manner to which we have become accustomed in more modern systems1 because1 in common with other botanists of his time1 he did not1 as a rule1 give names to the groups which we now call orders1 or draw any sharp line of distinction between them4 ,de l',obel's arrangement1 in spite of its good features1 had serious drawbacks4 ,the anomalous ,monocotyledons1 such as ,arum1 ,tamus1 ,aloe and ,ruscus1 are scattered among the ,dicotyledons1 while ,drosera 7the ,sundew7 appears among the ,ferns1 and so on4 ,similarities of leaf form1 which are now regarded merely as instances of 8homoplastic convergence10 are responsible for many curious groupings4 ,for instance in the #8,kruydtbck' we find the ,twayblade 7,listera7 the ,may ,lily 7,maianthemum7 and the ,plantain 7,plantago7 described in succession1 while1 in another part of the book1 various ,clovers 7,trifolium71 ,wood ,sorrel 7,oxalis7 and ,anemone hepatica are grouped together4 ,it is also not surprising that the ,marsh ,marigold 7,caltha71 the ,waterlilies 7,nympha and ,nuphar71 ,limnanthemum and ,frogbit 7,hydrocharis7 should follow one another1 or that de l',obel should have brought together the ,broomrape 7,orobanche71 the ,toothwort 7,lathra71 the ,bird's-nest ,orchid 7,neottia7 and a number of ,fungi4 ,in these latter instances the author has really arrived at genuine biological 7though not morphological7 groups4 ,he has recognised1 on the one hand1 the marked uniformity of the type of leaf characteristic of 8swimming0 water-plants1 and1 on the other hand1 he has observed the leaflessness and absence of green colour1 which are negative features common to so many saprophytes and parasites4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #fi4 8,tussilago0 ,tussilago farfara ,l41 ,coltsfoot ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,the perception of natural affinities among plants which1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 was gradually1 in a dim1 instinctive fashion1 arising in men's minds1 is perhaps best expressed in the work of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 especially in his #8,pinax theatri botanici' 7#afbc74 ,this work is divided into twelve books1 each book being further sub-divided into sections1 comprehending a variable number of genera4 ,neither the books nor the sections have1 as a rule1 any general heading1 but there are certain exceptions4 ,for instance1 ,book ,,ii is called #8de ,bulbosis1' and a section of ,book ,,iv1 including eighteen genera1 is headed #8,umbellifer4' ,some of the sections represent truly natural groups4 ,book ,,iii1 ,section ,,vi1 for example1 consists of ten genera of ,composit1 while ,book ,,iii1 ,section ,,ii includes six ,crucifers4 ,other sections contain plants of more than one family1 but yet show a distinct feeling for relationship4 ,for instance1 ,book ,v1 ,section ,i includes ,solanum1 ,mandragora1 ,hyoscyamus1 ,nicotiana1 ,papaver1 ,hypecoum and ,argemone--that is to say four genera from the ,solanace followed by three from the ,papaverace4 ,the common character which brings them together here is1 no doubt1 their narcotic property1 but1 although no definite line was drawn between the plants belonging to these two widely sundered families1 the order in which they are described shows that their distinctness was recognised4 ,some of ,bauhin's other groups1 however1 which1 like that just discussed1 are distinguished by their properties1 or1 in other words1 by their chemical features1 have no pretension to naturalness from a morphological standpoint4 ,this is the case with the group described in ,book ,,xi1 ,section ,,iii under the name of 8,aromata10 which consists of a heterogeneous assemblage of genera belonging to different orders1 which are only connected by the fact that they all yield spices useful to man4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gj4 8,plantago major0 ,plantain ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ga4 8,altha ,thuringica0 ,lavatera thuringica ,l4 ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh4 ,there is no doubt that1 on the whole1 ,bauhin was markedly successful in recognising affinities within small cycles1 but he broke down on the broader question of the relationships between the groups of genera so constituted4 ,this is1 however1 hardly surprising when we remember how much difference of opinion exists among systematic botanists1 even to-day1 upon the subject of the relations of the orders to one another4 ,like de l',obel1 ,bauhin seems to have believed in the general principle of a progression from the simpler to the more highly developed forms4 ,his application of this principle led him to begin with the ,grasses and to conclude with the ,trees4 ,the question as to which groups among the ,flowering ,plants ,angiosperms are to be considered as relatively primitive1 is still1 at the present day1 an open one1 but it would be generally conceded that ,bauhin's arrangement cannot be accepted4 ,there is little doubt1 from the standpoint of modern botany1 that the ,grasses are a highly specialised group1 while the 8tree habit0 has been adopted independently by many plants belonging to entirely different cycles of affinity1 and thus1 except in rare cases1 it cannot be used as a criterion of relationship4 ,on the subject of the relations of the ,cryptogams 7flowerless plants7 to the ,phanerogams 7flowering plants71 ,bauhin had evidently no clear ideas1 but such could hardly be hoped for in the state of knowledge of that time4 ,we find1 for instance1 the ,ferns1 ,mosses1 ,corals7671 ,fungi1 ,alg1 the ,sundew1 etc41 sandwiched between some ,leguminos1 and a section consisting chiefly of ,thistles4 ,the classification put forward by the ,bohemian botanist1 ,zaluziansky1 in #aeib1 although in its general features no better than that of ,dodoens1 or of d',alchamps1 and certainly less satisfactory than that of de l',obel or the later scheme of ,bauhin1 is an improvement on all of these in one particular1 namely1 that he begins with the ,fungi and deals next with ,mosses4 ,after the ,mosses he describes the ,grasses1 and his classification concludes with the ,trees4 ,he was thus evidently attempting to pass from the simpler to the more complex1 and his arrangement indicates that1 unlike certain other botanists of his time1 he looked upon the ,lower ,cryptogams as comparatively simple and primitive plants4 ,he was not so clear-sighted1 however1 on the subject of the ,ferns1 for he placed them with the ,umbellifer and some ,composit1 no doubt because he was influenced by the form of the leaf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gb4 8,pulsatilla0 ,anemone pulsatilla ,l41 ,pasque-flower ,camerarius1 ,de plantis ,epitome 444 ,matthioli1 #aehf4 ,it is curious that ,cesalpino1 who1 as we have pointed out1 had arrived at the very important principle that the seed and fruit characters were of major value in classification1 yet put forward a system which was distinctly inferior to that of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 although the latter appears to have been guided by no such general principles4 ,probably the reason for this is to be sought in the fact that no system of classification can represent natural affinities1 unless it takes into account the nature of the plant as a whole4 ,it is true that1 compared with the characters of the reproductive organs1 the leaf-form and habit1 owing to their plasticity1 have to be used with great discretion as systematic criteria1 but1 nevertheless1 no system of classification can afford to ignore them entirely4 ,cesalpino based his scheme too exclusively upon seed characters1 to the neglect even of the structure of the flower1 and1 curiously enough1 although he laid so much stress upon the nature of the seed1 he did not grasp the fundamental distinction between the embryos of the ,monocotyledons and the ,dicotyledons1 due to the possession of one1 and two seed-leaves respectively4 ,the chief drawback of his scheme1 however1 was his failure to realise that living organisms are too complex to fall into a classification based on any one feature1 important as that feature may prove to be when used in conjunction with other characters4 ,those herbalists1 on the other hand1 who attacked the problem of the classification of plants without any preconceived1 academic theory1 depended1 one might almost say1 on the glimmerings of common sense for the recognition of affinities4 ,this was no doubt a dim and fitful illumination1 but it was at least less partial than the narrow1 lime-light beam of a rigid theory4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,botanical ,,illustration ,in the art of botanical illustration1 evolution was by no means a simple and straightforward process4 ,we do not find1 in ,europe1 a steady advance from early illustrations of poor quality to later ones of a finer character4 ,on the contrary1 among the earliest extant drawings1 of a definitely botanical intention1 we meet with wonderfully good figures1 free from such features as would be now generally regarded as archaic4 ,the famous ,vienna manuscript of ,dioscorides 7see pp4 #h and #he7 is a remarkable example of the excellence of some of the very early work4 ,it dates back to the end of the fifth1 or the beginning of the sixth century of the ,christian era4 ,it is illustrated with brush drawings on a large scale1 which in many cases are notably naturalistic1 and often quite modern in appearance 7,plates ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,xv74 ,the general habit of the plant is admirably expressed1 and occasionally1 as in the case of the ,bean 7,plate ,,xv71 the characters of the flowers and seed-vessels are well indicated4 ,in this drawing1 also1 the leaves are effectively foreshortened4 ,there are a number of other manuscript herbals in existence1 illustrated with interesting figures4 ,the ,library of the ,university of ,leyden possesses a particularly fine example#cc1 which is ascribed to the seventh century ,a4,d4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv #8,phasiolos' ,bean ,dioscorides1 ,codex ,anici ,julian1 circa ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,reduced4 ,this work contains coloured drawings of exceptional beauty1 which are smaller than those in the ,vienna manuscript1 but quite equally realistic4 ,it is however with the history of botanical figures since the invention of the printing press that we are here more especially concerned4 ,from this epoch onwards1 the history of botanical illustration is intimately bound up with the history of wood-engraving1 until1 at the extreme end of the sixteenth century1 engraving on metal first came into use to illustrate herbals4 ,during the seventeenth century1 metal-engravings and wood-cuts existed side by side1 but wood-engraving gradually declined1 and was in great measure superseded by engraving on metal4 ,the finest period of plant illustration was during the sixteenth century1 when wood-engraving was at its zenith4 ,botanical wood-engravings may be regarded as belonging to two schools1 but it should be understood that the distinction between them is somewhat arbitrary and must not be pressed very far4 ,one of these may perhaps be regarded as representing the last1 decadent expression of that school of late classical art which1 a thousand years earlier1 had given rise to the drawings in the ,vienna manuscript4 ,probably no original wood-cuts of this school were produced after the close of the fifteenth century4 ,in the second phase1 on the other hand1 which culminated1 artistically1 if not scientifically1 in the sixteenth century1 we find a renaissance of the art1 due to a more direct study of nature4 ,the first school1 of which we may take the cuts in the ,roman edition of the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius ,platonicus 78 #adhd7 as typical examples1 has1 as ,dr ,payne has pointed out1 certain very well-marked characteristics4 ,the figures of the plants 7see ,plates ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,xvi1 and ,text-figs4 #a and #b71 which occupy square or oblong spaces1 are very formal and are often represented with complete bilateral symmetry4 ,they show no sign of having been drawn directly from nature1 but look as if they were founded on previous work4 ,they have a decorative rather than a naturalistic appearance2 it seems1 indeed1 as if the principle of decorative symmetry controlled the artist almost against his will4 ,these drawings are somewhat of the nature of diagrams by a draughtsman 8who generalized his knowledge of the object40 ,in ,dr ,payne's own words1 8,such figures1 passing through the hands of a hundred copyists1 became more and more conventional1 till they reached their last and most degraded form in the rude cuts of the ,roman ,herbarium1 which represent not the infancy1 but the old age of art4 ,uncouth as they are1 we may regard them with some respect1 both as being the images of flowers that bloomed many centuries ago1 and also as the last ripple of the receding tide of ,classical ,art40 ,the illustrations of the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius were copied from pre-existing manuscripts1 and the age of the originals is no doubt much greater than that of the printed work4 ,those here reproduced are taken from a copy in the ,british ,museum1 in which the pictures were coloured1 probably at the time when the book was published4 ,colouring of the figures was characteristic of many of the earliest works in which wood-engraving was employed4 ,in cases where uncoloured copies of such books exist1 there are often blank spaces in the wood-cuts1 which were left in order that certain details might afterwards be added in colour4 ,the origin of wood-engraving is closely connected with the early history of playing-card manufacture4 ,playing-cards were at first coloured by means of stencil plates1 and the same method1 very naturally1 came to be employed in connection with the wood-blocks used for book illustration4 ,the engravings in the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius are executed in black1 in very crude outline4 ,at least two colours1 now much faded1 were also employed by means of stencilling4 ,the work was coarsely done1 and the colours only 8register0 very roughly4 ,brown appears to have been used for the animals1 roots and flowers1 and green for the leaves4 ,the drawings show some rather curious mannerisms4 ,for instance1 in the first cut labelled 8,vettonia10 each of the lanceolate leaves is outlined continuously on the one side1 but with a broken line on the other4 ,it has been suggested that the illustrations in the #8,herbarium' are possibly not wood-engravings1 but rude cuts in metal1 excavated after the manner of a wood-block4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi #8,dracontea' ,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici1 8 #adhd4 ,the tint represents colouring1 which was probably contemporary4 ,we have already referred to the imaginative portrait of the ,mandrake 7,plate ,v74 ,figures of the animals whose bites or stings were supposed to be cured by the use of a particular herb1 were often introduced into the drawing1 as in the case of the ,plantain 7,text-fig4 #a7 which is accompanied by a serpent and a scorpion4 ,in this figure the cross-hatching of white lines on black--the simplest possible device from the point of view of the wood-engraver--is employed with good effect4 ,sometimes the essential character of the plant is seized1 but the way in which it is expressed is curiously lacking in a sense of proportion1 as in the case of 8,dracontea0 7,plate ,,xvi71 one of the ,arum family4 ,the figures in the #8,herbarium' are characterised by an excellent trait1 which is common to most of the older herbals1 namely the habit of portraying the plant as a whole1 including its roots4 ,this came about naturally because the root was often of special value from the druggist's point of view4 ,it is to be regretted that1 in modern botanical drawings1 the recognition of the paramount importance of the flower and fruit in classification has led to a comparative neglect of the organs of vegetation1 especially those which exist underground4 ,we now come to a series of illustrations1 which may be regarded as occupying an intermediate position between the classical tradition of the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius1 and the renaissance of botanical drawing1 which took place early in the sixteenth century4 ,these include the illustrations to the #8,book of ,nature1' and to the ,latin and ,german #8,herbarius1' the #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' and their derivatives1 which were discussed in ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii4 #8,das pch der natur' of ,konrad von ,megenberg occupies a unique position in the history of botany1 for it is the first work in which a wood-cut representing plants was used with the definite intention of illustrating the text1 and not merely for a decorative purpose4 ,it was first printed in ,augsburg in #adge1 and is thus several years older than the earliest printed edition of the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius ,platonicus which we have just discussed4 ,the single plant drawing1 which illustrates it1 is probably not of such great antiquity1 however1 as those of the #8,herbarium1' for its appearance suggests that it was probably executed from nature for this book1 and not copied and recopied from one manuscript to another before it was engraved4 ,the illustration in question is a full-page wood-cut1 showing a number of plants1 growing in situ 7,plate ,,iii74 ,several species 7e4g4 ,ranunculus acris1 the ,meadow ,buttercup1 ,viola odorata1 the ,sweet ,violet1 and ,convallaria majalis1 the ,lily-of-the-,valley7 are distinctly recognisable4 ,it is noticeable that1 in two cases in which a rosette of radical leaves is represented1 the centre of the rosette is filled in in black1 upon which the leaf-stalks appear in white4 ,this use of the black background1 which gives a rich and solid effect1 was carried much further in later books1 such as the #8,ortus ,sanitatis4' ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gc4 8,brionia0 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 #adhd4 ,a wood-cut1 somewhat similar in style to that just described1 but more primitive1 occurs in ,trevisa's version of the medival encyclopdia of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 which was printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,it is probably the first botanical figure illustrating an ,english book4 ,it is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gd4 8,ireos vel ,iris0 ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,the illustrations to the ,latin #8,herbarius' or #8,herbarius ,moguntinus1' published at ,mainz in #adhd 7,text-figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #gc71 form the next group of botanical wood-cuts4 ,the figures are much better than those of the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius1 but at the same time they are1 as a rule1 formal and conventional1 and often quite unrecognisable4 ,the want of realism is very conspicuous in such a drawing as that of the ,lily 7,text-fig4 #c71 in which the leaves are represented as if they had no organic continuity with the stem4 ,some of the figures are wonderfully charming1 and in their decorative effect recall the plant designs so often used in the ,middle ,ages to enrich the borders of illuminated manuscripts4 ,this is particularly noticeable in the case of the ,briony 7,text-fig4 #gc74 ,the conventional form of tendril here employed is also seen in other early work1 such as the roof-painting of a ,vine in the ,chapel of ,st ,andrew1 ,canterbury ,cathedral1 and some 8,decorated0 stained glass at ,wells1 both of which are considerably earlier in date than the #8,herbarius ,moguntinus4' ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ge4 8,capillus ,veneris0 ,maidenhair ,fern ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,a more interesting series of figures1 also illustrating the text of the ,latin #8,herbarius1' was published in ,italy a little later4 ,the wood-cuts are believed to be mostly derived from ,german originals4 ,text-figs4 #f1 #eg1 #fe1 #gd1 #ge and #gf are taken from a ,venetian edition of #adii4 ,these drawings are more ambitious than those in the original ,german issue1 and1 on the whole1 the results are more naturalistic4 ,the fern called 8,capillus ,veneris10 which is probably intended for the ,maidenhair1 is represented hanging from rocks over water1 just as it does in ,devonshire caves to-day 7,text-fig4 #ge74 ,another delightful wood-cut1 almost in the ,japanese style1 is that of an ,iris growing at the margin of a stream1 from which a graceful bird is drinking 7,text-fig4 #gd74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gf4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,arnaldus de ,villa ,nova1 ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum1 #adii4 ,in the very symmetrical drawing of the ,peony 7,text-fig4 #eg7 there is an attempt to represent the tuberous roots1 which are indicated in solid black4 ,the no less symmetrical ,waterlily 7,text-fig4 #fe7 is remarkable for its rhizome1 on which the scars of the leaf bases are faithfully represented4 ,this drawing is of interest1 also1 on account of its frank disregard of proportion4 ,the flower stalks are drawn not more than twice as long as the breadth of the leaf6 ,we may1 ,i think1 safely conclude that the draughtsman knew quite well that he was not representing the plant as it was1 and that he intentionally gave a conventional rendering1 which did not profess to be more than an indication of certain distinctive features of the plant4 ,this attitude of the artist to his work1 which is so different from that of the scientific draughtsman of the present day1 is seen with great clearness in many of the drawings in medival manuscripts4 ,for instance1 a plant such as the ,houseleek may be represented growing on the roof of a house--the plant being about three times the size of the building4 ,no one would imagine that the artist was under the delusion that these proportions held good in nature4 ,the little house was merely introduced in order to convey graphic information as to the habitat of the plant concerned1 and the scale on which it was depicted was simply a matter of convenience4 ,before an art can be appreciated1 its conventions must be accepted4 ,it would be as absurd to quarrel with the illustrations we have just described1 on account of their lack of proportion1 as to condemn grand opera because1 in real life1 men and women do not converse in song4 ,the idea of naturalistic drawings1 in which the size of the parts should be shown in their true relations1 was of comparatively late growth4 ,in #adhe1 the year following the first appearance of the ,latin #8,herbarius1' the very important work known as the ,german #8,herbarius1' or #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch1' made its appearance at ,mainz4 ,as we pointed out in ,chapter ,,ii1 its illustrations1 which are executed on a large scale1 are often of remarkable beauty4 ,dr ,payne considered some of them comparable to those of ,brunfels in fidelity of drawing1 though very inferior in wood-cutting4 ,they are distinctly more realistic than even those of the ,venetian edition of the ,latin #8,herbarius1' to which we have just referred4 ,it is interesting1 for instance1 to compare the drawings of the ,dodder 7,text-figs4 #gf and #gg7 in the two works4 ,other excellent drawings are those of the ,winter ,cherry 7,text-fig4 #gh71 ,iris 7,text-fig4 #g71 ,lily1 ,chicory1 ,comfrey and ,peony4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gg4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gh4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 ,mainz1 #adhe4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #gi4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,a pirated second edition of the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch' appeared at ,augsburg only a few months after the publication of the first at ,mainz4 ,the figures1 which are roughly copied from those of the original edition1 are very inferior to them4 ,in fact1 the ,mainz wood-cuts of #adhe excel those of all subsequent issues4 ,in the #8,ortus ,sanitatis' of #adia1 about two-thirds of the drawings of plants are copied from the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch4' ,they are often much spoiled in the process1 and it is evident that the copyist frequently failed to grasp the intention of the original artist4 ,the wood-cut of the ,dodder 7,text-fig4 #hj71 for instance1 is lamentably inferior to that in the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch' 7,text-fig4 #gg74 ,there is often a tendency1 in the later work1 to make the figures occupy the space in a more decorative fashion2 for instance1 where the stalk in the original drawing is simply cut across obliquely at the base1 we find in the #8,ortus ,sanitatis' that its pointed end is continued into a conventional flourish 7cf4 the figures of the ,winter ,cherry in the two works1 ,text-figs4 #gh and #gi74 ,among the original figures many1 as we have already indicated1 represent purely mythical subjects 7e4g4 ,text-figs4 #ac and #ag74 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hj4 8,cuscuta0 ,dodder ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,the use of a black background1 against which the stalks and leaves form a contrast in white1 which we noticed in the #8,book of ,nature1' is carried further in the #8,ortus ,sanitatis4' ,this is shown particularly well in the ,tree of ,paradise 7,text-fig4 #ab7 and also in ,text-figs4 #aj and #ha4 ,no consistent method is followed in the coarse shading which is employed4 ,in some cases there seems to have been an attempt at the convention1 used so successfully by the ,japanese1 of darkening the underside of the leaf1 but1 sometimes1 in the same figure1 certain leaves are treated in this way1 and others not4 ,in some of the genre pictures1 ,noah's ,ark trees are introduced1 with crowns consisting entirely of parallel horizontal lines1 decreasing in length from below upwards1 so as to give a triangular form4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ha4 8,botris0 ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,mainz1 #adia4 ,an edition of the #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' which was published in ,venice in #aeaa1 is illustrated in great part with wood-cuts based on the original figures4 ,they have1 however1 a very different appearance1 since a great deal of shading is introduced1 and in some cases parallel lines are laid in with considerable dexterity4 #8,the ,grete ,herball' and a number of works of the early sixteenth century derived from the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch1' the #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' and similar sources1 are of no importance in the history of botanical illustration1 since scarcely any of their figures are original4 ,the oft-repeated set of wood-cuts1 ultimately derived from the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch1' were also used to illustrate ,hieronymus ,braunschweig's ,distillation ,book 7,liber de arte distillandi de ,simplicibus1 #aejj74 ,that the conventional figures of the period did not satisfy the botanist is shown by some interesting remarks by ,hieronymus at the conclusion of his work4 ,he tells the reader that he must attend to the text rather than the figures1 8for the figures are nothing more than a feast for the eyes1 and for the information of those who cannot read or write#cd40 ,during the first three decades of the sixteenth century1 the art of botanical illustration was practically in abeyance in ,europe4 ,such books as were published were chiefly supplied with mere copies of older wood-cuts4 ,but1 in #aecj1 an entirely new era was inaugurated with the appearance of ,brunfels' great work1 the #8,herbarum viv eicones1' in which a number of plants native to ,germany1 or commonly cultivated there1 were drawn with a beauty and fidelity which have rarely been surpassed 7,text-figs4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #ff1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd74 ,it is interesting to recall that the date #aecj is often taken1 in the study of other arts 7e4g4 stained glass71 as the limit of the 8,gothic0 period1 and the beginning of the 8,renaissance40 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii ,study of ,aquilegia vulgaris ,l41 ,columbine ,albrecht ,drer1 #aebf4 ,drawing in the ,albertina1 ,vienna4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hb4 8,asarum0 ,asarabacca ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced4 ,brunfels' illustrations represent a notable advance on any previous botanical wood-cuts1 so much so1 indeed1 that the suddenness of the improvement seems to call for some special explanation4 ,on taking a broader view of the subject1 we find that1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 there was a marked advance in all the branches of book illustration1 and not merely in the botanical side with which we are here concerned4 ,this impetus seems to have been due to the fact that many of the best artists1 above all ,albrecht ,drer1 began at that period to draw for wood-engraving1 whereas in the fifteenth century the ablest men had shown a tendency to despise the craft and to hold aloof from it4 ,the engravings in ,brunfels' herbal and the fine books which succeeded it1 should not be considered as if they were an isolated manifestation1 but should be viewed in relation to other contemporary and even earlier plant drawings1 which were not intended for book illustrations4 ,some of the most remarkable are those by ,albrecht ,drer1 which were produced before the appearance of ,brunfels' herbal1 during the first thirty years of the sixteenth century4 ,in each of his coloured drawings of sods of turf1 known as 8das grosse ,rasenstck10 and 8das kleine ,rasenstck10 a tangled group of growing plants is portrayed exactly as it occurred in nature1 with a marvellous combination of artistic charm and scientific accuracy4 ,prof4 ,killermann has been at pains to identify the genus and species of almost every plant represented1 and has described the drawings as 8das erste ,denkmal der ,pflanzenkologie40 ,in #aebf1 ,drer carried out a beautiful series of plant drawings1 among the most famous of which are those of the ,columbine1 and the ,greater ,celandine4 ,the former is reproduced on a small scale in ,plate ,,xvii2 it is scarcely possible to imagine a more perfect 8habit drawing0 of a plant4 ,in ,italy1 ,leonardo da ,vinci's exquisite studies of plants1 of which ,plate ,,xviii is an example1 must also have pointed the way to a better era of herbal illustration4 ,in his work1 the artistic interest predominates over the botanical to a greater extent than is the case with ,drer's drawings4 ,it is strange to think that numerous editions of the #8,ortus ,sanitatis' and similar books1 with their crude and primitive wood-cuts1 should have been published while such an artist as ,leonardo da ,vinci was at the zenith of his powers4 ,if internal evidence alone were available1 it might plausibly be maintained that the engravings in the #8,ortus ,sanitatis' and the drawings of ,leonardo da ,vinci were centuries apart4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii ,study of ,ornithogalum umbellatum ,l41 ,star of ,bethlehem1 and other plants ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #adeb-aeai4 ,drawing in the ,royal ,library1 ,windsor4 ,we are thus led to the conclusion that1 though the engravings in ,brunfels' herbal are separated from previous botanical figures by an almost impassable gulf1 they should not be regarded as a sudden and inexplicable development4 ,the art of naturalistic plant drawing had arrived independently at what was perhaps its high-water mark of excellence1 but it is in ,brunfels' great work that we find it1 for the first time1 applied to the illustration of a botanical book4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hc4 8,kuchenschell0 ,anemone pulsatilla ,l41 ,pasque-flower ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aecj4 ,reduced4 ,the illustrations in ,brunfels' herbal were engraved1 and probably drawn also1 by ,hans ,weiditz1 or ,guiditius1 some of whose work has been ascribed to ,albrecht ,drer4 ,the title #8,herbarum viv eicones'--#8,living ,pictures of ,plants'--indicates the most distinctive feature of the book1 namely that the artist went direct to nature1 instead of regarding the plant world through the eyes of previous draughtsmen4 ,this characteristic is best appreciated on comparing ,brunfels' figures with those of his predecessors4 ,his picture of the ,waterlily 7,text-fig4 #ff71 for example1 contrasts notably with that of the same subject from the ,venetian #8,herbarius' 7,text-fig4 #fe74 ,in the former the artist has caught the exact look of the leaves and stalks1 buoyed up by the water4 ,throughout the work1 the drawing seems to be of a slightly higher quality than the actual engraving2 the lines are1 to use the technical term1 occasionally somewhat 8rotten0 or even broken4 ,in one respect the welcome reaction from the conventional and generalised early drawings went almost too far4 ,many of ,brunfels' wood-cuts were done from imperfect specimens1 in which1 for example1 the leaves had withered or had been damaged by insects4 ,this is clearly shown in ,text-fig4 #hd4 ,the artist's ambition was evidently limited to representing the specimen he had before him1 whether it was typical or not4 ,the notion had not then been grasped that the ideal botanical drawing avoids the peculiarities of any individual specimen1 and seeks to portray the characters really typical of the species4 ,these characters can sometimes only be arrived at by a comparison of numerous specimens4 ,from the figures here reproduced a good idea of the style of ,weiditz can be obtained4 ,his line is usually firm and broad1 and but little shading is employed4 ,the chief merit of the drawings lies in their crisp and virile outlines4 ,regarded from the point of view of decorative book illustration1 the beautiful drawings of the period under consideration sometimes failed to reach the standard set by earlier work4 ,the very strong1 black1 velvety line of many of the fifteenth-century wood-engravings1 and the occasional use of solid black backgrounds 7cf4 ,text-fig4 #ha7 give a great sense of richness1 especially in combination with the black letter type1 with which they harmonise so admirably4 ,a page bearing such illustrations is often more satisfying to the eye than one in which the desire to express the subtleties of plant form1 in realistic fashion1 has led to the use of a more delicate line4 ,however1 the primary object of the herbal illustrations was1 after all1 a scientific and not a decorative one1 and1 from this point of view1 the gain in realism more than compensates for the loss in the harmonious balance of black and white4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hd4 8,lappa0 ,arctium1 ,burdock ,brunfels1 ,herbarum viv eicones1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aeca4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #he4 8,scolopendria0 ,hart's-tongue ,fern ,rhodion1 ,kreutterbch1 #aecc4 ,our chronological survey of the chief botanical wood-cuts brings us next to those published by ,egenolph in #aecc1 to illustrate ,rhodion's #8,kreutterbch4' ,these have sometimes been regarded as of considerable importance1 almost comparable1 in fact1 with those of ,brunfels4 ,a careful examination of these wood-engravings leads1 however1 to the conclusion that practically all the chief figures in ,egenolph's book have been copied from those of ,brunfels1 but on a smaller scale1 and reversed4 ,it is true that the style of engraving is different1 and that1 as ,hatton has pointed out1 ,egenolph's flowing1 easy1 almost brush-like line is very distinct from that of ,weiditz4 ,but the fact of the plagiarism remains4 ,the two figures here reproduced--the ,lesser ,celandine 7,text-fig4 #cc7 and the ,hart's-tongue ,fern 7,text-fig4 #he7--;are reduced copies from ,brunfels4 ,it is interesting to notice that1 as the third part of ,brunfels' great work had not appeared when ,egenolph's book was published1 the latter must have been at a loss for figures of the plants which ,brunfels had reserved for his third volume4 ,we find that in the case of one such plant1 the ,asparagus1 he solved the problem by going back to the old familiar wood-cut which had done duty in the #8,ortus ,sanitatis' and the #8,herbarius zu ,teutsch4' ,in the third volume of ,brunfels' herbal 7which appeared after his death7 there is a small figure1 that of 8,auricula muris10 which differs conspicuously in style from the other engravings1 and which appears to represent a case in which the tables were turned1 and a figure was borrowed from ,egenolph4 ,in his later books1 ,egenolph used wood-cuts pirated from those of ,fuchs and ,bock1 which we must now consider4 ,in the work of ,leonhard ,fuchs 7,frontispiece7 plant drawing1 as an art1 may be said to have reached its culminating point4 ,it is true that1 at a later period1 when the botanical importance of the detailed structure of the flower and fruit was recognised1 figures were produced which conveyed exacter and more copious information on these points than did those of ,fuchs4 ,nevertheless1 at least in the opinion of the present writer1 the illustrations to ,fuchs' herbals 7#8,de historia stirpium1' #aedb1 and #8,new ,kreterbch1' #aedc7 represent the high-water mark of that type of botanical drawing which seeks to express the individual character and habit of each species1 treating the plant broadly as a whole1 and not laying more stress upon the reproductive than the vegetative organs4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hf4 8,dipsacus albus0 ,teasle ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,fuchs' figures are on so large a scale that the plant frequently had to be represented as curved1 in order to fit it into the folio page4 ,the illustrations here reproduced 7,text-figs4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #eh1 #fi1 #gj1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh7 do not give an entirely just idea of their beauty1 since the line employed in the original is so thin that it is ill-adapted to the reduction necessary here4 ,if the drawings have any fault1 it is perhaps to be found in the somewhat blank and unfinished look1 occasionally produced when unshaded outline drawings are used on so large a scale4 ,this is the case for instance in the figure of the ,aloe4 ,it may be that ,fuchs had in mind the possibility that the purchaser might wish to colour the work1 and to fill in a certain amount of detail for himself4 ,the existing copies of this and other old herbals often have the figures painted1 generally in a distressingly crude and heavy fashion4 ,the colouring in many cases appears to have been done at a very early date4 ,in the octavo edition of ,fuchs' herbal published in #aede1 small versions of the large wood-cuts appeared4 ,it is perhaps invidious to draw distinctions between the work of ,fuchs and that of ,brunfels1 since they are both of such exquisite quality4 ,however1 merely as an expression of personal opinion1 the present writer must confess to feeling that there is a finer sense of power and freedom of handling about the illustrations in ,fuchs' herbal than those of ,brunfels4 ,sometimes in ,fuchs' figures a wonderfully decorative spirit is shown1 as in the case of the ,earth-nut ,pea 7,text-fig4 #hg7 which fills the rectangular space almost in the manner of an 8all-over0 wall-paper pattern4 ,it must not be forgotten1 when discussing wood-cuts1 that the artist1 who drew upon the block for the engraver1 was working under peculiar conditions4 ,it was impossible for him to be unmindful of the boundaries of the block1 when these took the form1 as it were1 of miniature precipices under his hand4 ,these boundaries marked out the exact limit of space which the figure could occupy4 ,it is not surprising1 under these circumstances1 that the artist who drew upon the block should often seem to have been obsessed by its rectangularity1 and should have accommodated his drawing to its form in a way that was unnecessary and far from realistic1 though sometimes very decorative4 ,this is exemplified in the figure of the ,earth-nut ,pea1 to which we have just referred and also in ,text-figs4 #da1 #dd1 #fb1 #ib1 #ie1 #aja1 etc4 ,the writer has been told by an artist accustomed1 in former years1 to draw upon the wood for the engraver1 that to avoid a rectangular effect required a distinct effort of will4 ,at the present day1 when photographic methods of reproduction are almost exclusively used1 the artist is no longer oppressively conscious of the exact outline of the space which his figure will occupy4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hg4 8,apios0 ,lathyrus tuberosus ,l41 ,earth-nut ,pea ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hh4 8,arum0 ,arum maculatum ,l41 ,wild ,arum ,fuchs1 ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,the figures here reproduced show how great a variety of subjects were successfully dealt with in ,fuchs' work4 ,the ,cabbage 7,text-fig4 #cj7 is realised in a way that brings home to us the intrinsic beauty of this somewhat prosaic subject4 ,in the ,wild ,arum 7,text-fig4 #hh7 the fruit and a dissection of the inflorescence are represented1 so that1 botanically1 the drawing reaches a high level4 ,fuchs' wood-cuts are nearly all original1 but that of the ,white ,waterlily appears to have been founded upon ,brunfels' figure4 ,we have so far spoken1 for the sake of brevity1 as if ,fuchs actually executed the figures himself4 ,this1 however1 was not the case4 ,he employed two draughtsmen1 ,heinrich ,fllmaurer1 who drew the plants from nature1 and ,albrecht ,meyer1 who copied the drawings on to the wood1 and also an engraver1 ,veit ,rdolf ,speckle1 who actually cut the blocks4 ,fuchs evidently delighted to honour his colleagues1 for at the end of the book there are portraits of all three at work 7,text-fig4 #hi74 ,the artist is drawing a plant with a brush fixed in a quill4 ,the drawing and painting of flowers is sometimes dismissed almost contemptuously1 as though it were a humble art in which an inferior artist1 incapable of the more exacting work of drawing 8from the life10 might be able to excel4 ,the falsity of this view is shown by the fact that the greatest of flower painters have generally been men who also did admirable figure work4 ,fantin-,latour is a striking modern instance1 and one has but to glance at the studies of ,leonardo da ,vinci 7e4g4 ,plate ,,xviii7 and ,albrecht ,drer 7e4g4 ,plate ,,xvii7 to feel that the finest plant drawings can only be produced by a master hand1 capable of achieving success on more ambitious lines4 ,the wood-engravings in ,fuchs' herbal are a case in point4 ,the portraits which also illustrate the book 7,frontispiece and ,text-fig4 #hi7 show that the talents of the artists whom he employed were not confined to plant drawing1 but were also strong in the direction of vigorous and able portraiture4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #hi4 ,the ,draughtsmen and the ,engraver employed by ,leonhard ,fuchs ,de historia stirpium1 #aedb4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ij4 8,wintergrn0 ,pyrola1 ,wintergreen ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf4 ,fuchs' gratitude to his assistants is expressed in the preface to #8,de historia stirpium1' where he makes some remarks upon the illustrations1 which may be translated as follows3-- 8,as far as concerns the pictures themselves1 each of which is positively delineated according to the features and likeness of the living plants1 we have taken peculiar care that they should be most perfect1 and1 moreover1 we have devoted the greatest diligence to secure that every plant should be depicted with its own roots1 stalks1 leaves1 flowers1 seeds and fruits4 ,furthermore we have purposely and deliberately avoided the obliteration of the natural form of the plants by shadows1 and other less necessary things1 by which the delineators sometimes try to win artistic glory3 and we have not allowed the craftsmen so to indulge their whims as to cause the drawing not to correspond accurately to the truth4 ,vitus ,rudolphus ,specklin1 by far the best engraver of ,strasburg1 has admirably copied the wonderful industry of the draughtsmen1 and has with such excellent craft expressed in his engraving the features of each drawing1 that he seems to have contended with the draughtsman for glory and victory40 ,how dull and colourless the phrases of modern scientific writers appear1 beside the hot-blooded1 arrogant enthusiasm of the sixteenth century6 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ia4 8,rautten0 ,botrychium1 ,moonwort ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ib4 8,castanum nuss0 ,castanea1 ,chestnut ,bock1 ,kreuter ,bch1 #aedf4 ,fuchs' wood-cuts were extensively pirated1 especially those on a reduced scale1 which were published in his edition of #aede4 ,as we have mentioned on p4 #ee1 ,hieronymus ,bock or ,tragus undoubtedly made use of them in the second edition of his #8,kreuter ,bch' 7#aedf7 which was the next important1 illustrated botanical work to appear after ,fuchs' herbal4 ,an examination of the wood-cuts in ,bock's herbal seems1 however1 to show that his illustrations have more claim to originality than is often supposed4 ,the figures of ,wintergreen 7,text-fig4 #ij71 ,moonwort 7,text-fig4 #ia71 and ,strawberry 7,text-fig4 #bg71 here reproduced1 are markedly different from those of ,fuchs1 although1 in the case of the first1 ,fuchs' wood-cut may have been used to some extent4 ,the artist employed by ,bock1 as he himself tells us1 was ,david ,kandel1 a young lad1 the son of a burgher of ,strasburg4 ,his drawings are often of interest1 apart from their botanical aspect4 ,for instance1 the picture of an ,oak tree includes1 appropriately enough1 a swine-herd with his swine1 the ,chestnut tree gives occasion for a hedgehog 7,text-fig4 #ib7 and1 in another case1 a monkey and several rabbits are introduced1 one of the latter holding a shield bearing the artist's initials4 ,the wood-cut of ,trapa1 the ,bull-nut 7,text-fig4 #bi71 is a highly imaginative production which clearly shows that neither the artist nor the author had ever seen the plant in question4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ic4 8,fungi0 ,toadstools ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,reduced4 ,in general character1 ,bock's illustrations are neater and more conventional than those of ,brunfels or ,fuchs4 ,the crowns of the trees are often made practically square so as to fit the block 7,text-fig4 #ib74 ,the figures in earlier works1 such as the #8,ortus ,sanitatis1' are recalled in ,kandel's disregard of the proportion between the size of the tree1 and that of the leaves and fruits4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #id4 8,rosaceum0 ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefj4 ,reduced4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ie4 8,suber ,primus0 ,mattioli1 ,commentarii1 #aefe4 ,reduced4 ,in point of time1 the illustrations to the early editions of ,mattioli's ,commentaries on the ,six ,books of ,dioscorides follow fairly closely on those of ,fuchs1 but they are extremely different in style 7,text-figs4 #da1 #db1 #ic1 #id74 ,details such as the veins and hairs of the leaves are often elaborately worked out1 while shading is much used1 a considerable mastery of parallel lines being shown4 ,the general effect is occasionally somewhat flat and dull4 ,some of the drawings suggest that they may have been done from dried plants1 and in others the treatment is over-crowded4 ,but1 in spite of these defects1 they form a markedly individual contribution1 which is of great importance in the history of botanical illustration4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #if4 8,tragorchis0 ,orchis hircina ,l41 ,lizard ,orchis ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ig4 8,aconitum luteum minus0 ,eranthis hiemalis ,l41 ,winter ,aconite ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 #aehc4 ,numerous editions of ,mattioli's work appeared in various languages4 ,in its earlier form the book had only small figures 7e4g4 ,text-figs4 #da1 #db1 #ic1 #id71 but in some later editions1 notably that which appeared at ,venice in #aefe1 there are large illustrations which are reproduced on a reduced scale in ,text-figs4 #dc1 #dd1 #ie4 ,these wood-cuts resemble the smaller ones in character1 but are more decorative in effect1 and often remarkably fine4 ,whereas in the work of ,brunfels and ,fuchs1 the beautiful line of a single stalk is often the key-note of the whole drawing1 in the work of ,mattioli1 the eye most frequently finds its satisfaction in the rich massing of foliage1 fruit and flowers1 suggestive of southern luxuriance4 ,many of his figures would require little modification to form the basis of a tapestry pattern4 ,another remarkable group of wood-engravings consists of those published by ,plantin in connection with the work of the three ,low ,country herbalists1 ,dodoens1 de l'cluse and de l',obel4 ,in the original edition of ,dodoens' herbal 7#8,cr deboeck1' published by ,vanderloe in #aeed71 more than half the illustrations were taken from ,fuchs' octavo edition of #aede4 ,but eventually1 as we have pointed out in ,chapter ,,iv1 ,vanderloe parted with ,fuchs' blocks4 ,after this1 ,plantin took over the publication of ,dodoens' books1 and in his final collected works 7#8,stirpium histori pemptades sex1' #aehc7 the majority of the illustrations were original1 and were carried out under the author's eye 7,text-figs4 #cg1 #ch1 #if1 #ig74 ,a few 7namely those marked in the ,pemptades1 8,ex ,codice ,csareo07 are copied from ,juliana ,anicia's manuscript of ,dioscorides to which we have more than once referred4 ,some are also borrowed from the works of de l'cluse and de l',obel1 since ,plantin was publisher to all three botanists1 and the wood-blocks engraved for them were regarded as1 to some extent1 forming a common stock4 ,in fact it is often difficult to decide to which author any given figure originally belonged4 ,this difficulty is enhanced by the fact that some were actually made for one and then used for another1 before the work for which they had been originally destined was published4 ,there is little to be said about de l',obel's figures1 which partook of the character of the rest of the wood-cuts for which ,plantin made himself responsible4 ,the ,yellow ,waterlily 7,text-fig4 #fg7 is given here as an example4 ,the wood-cuts illustrating the comparatively small books of de l'cluse are perhaps the most interesting of the figures associated with this trio of botanists4 ,the ,dragon ,tree 7,text-fig4 #ih71 8,sedum majus0 7,text-fig4 #ei7 and ,job's ,tears 7,text-fig4 #ci7 are examples from his book on the plants of ,spain1 which appeared in #aegf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ih4 8,draco arbor0 ,dracna1 ,dragon ,tree de l'cluse1 ,rariorum 444 per ,hispanias1 #aegf4 ,the popularity of the large collection of blocks got together by the publishing house of ,plantin is shown by the frequency with which they were copied4 ,dr ,b4 ,daydon ,jackson has pointed out that the wood-cut of the ,clematis1 which first appeared in ,dodoens' #8,pemptades' of #aehc1 reappears1 either in identical form1 or more or less accurately copied1 in works by de l',obel1 de l'cluse1 ,gerard1 ,parkinson1 ,jean ,bauhin1 ,chabrus and ,petiver4 ,the actual blocks themselves appear to have been used for the last time when ,johnson's edition of ,gerard's herbal made its final appearance in ,london in #afcf4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ii4 8,cyclaminus0 ,camerarius1 ,de plantis ,epitome 444 ,matthioli1 #aehf4 ,another school of plant illustration is represented in the work of ,gesner and ,camerarius4 ,as we mentioned on p4 #ib1 ,gesner's drawings were not published during his life-time1 but some of them were eventually produced by ,camerarius1 with the addition of figures of his own1 to illustrate his #8,epitome ,matthioli' of #aehf 7,text-figs4 #gb and #ii7 and also his later work4 ,in #agea1 ,c4 ,j4 ,trew published a collection of ,gesner's drawings1 many of which had never been seen before2 but even then1 it proved impossible to separate the work of the two botanists with any completeness1 since ,gesner's drawings and blocks had passed through the hands of ,camerarius1 who had incorporated his own with them4 ,a few wood-cuts however1 which appeared as an appendix to ,simler's ,life of ,gesner1 are undoubtedly ,gesner's own work4 ,one of these is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajj4 8,rosa ,hierichuntica0 ,anastatica hierochuntica ,l41 ,rose of ,jericho ,camerarius1 ,hortus medicus1 #aehh4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aja4 8,piper ,nigrum0 ,pepper d',alchamps ,historia generalis plantarum1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aehg4 ,professor ,treviranus1 whose work on the use of wood-engravings as botanical illustrations is so well known1 considered that some of the drawings published by ,camerarius in connection with his last work 7#8,hortus medicus et philosophicus1' #aehh7 were among the best ever produced4 ,examples are shown in ,text-figs4 #cd1 #ce1 #ga1 #ajj4 ,treviranus pointed out that one of their great merits lay in the selection of good1 typical specimens as models4 ,these figures are very much more botanical than those of any previous author2 in fact--as ,hatton has pointed out in #8,the ,craftsman's ,plant-,book'--they are beginning to become too botanical for the artist6 ,camerarius often gives detailed analyses of the flowers and fruit on an enlarged scale 7,text-fig4 #ii74 ,among the illustrations here reproduced will be seen one 7,text-fig4 #ajj7 in which the seedling of the ,rose of ,jericho is drawn side by side with the mature plant1 and another 7,text-fig4 #ce7 in which the structure of a germinating ,date is shown with great clearness4 ,this interest in seedlings gives a modern touch to the work of ,camerarius4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajb4 8,cedrus0 ,cedar ,belon1 ,de arboribus1 #aeec4 ,a number of wood-blocks were cut at ,lyons to illustrate d',alchamps' great work1 the #8,historia generalis plantarum1' #aehf-g4 ,many of these figures were taken from the herbals of ,fuchs1 ,mattioli and ,dodoens1 but they were often embellished with representations of insects1 and detached leaves and flowers1 scattered over the block with no apparent object except to fill the space4 ,this peculiarity1 which is shown in the engraving of ,ornithogalum reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ea1 appears also in the illustrations of a book on ,simples1 by ,joannes ,mesua1 published in ,venice in #aeha4 ,in certain other wood-cuts in d',alchamps' herbal1 solid black is used in an effective fashion4 ,this is the case for instance in ,text-fig4 #aja1 which is also interesting since two of the leaves bear the initials 8,m0 and 8,h10 which were possibly those of the artist4 ,among less important botanical wood-engravings of the sixteenth century we may mention those in the works of ,pierre ,belon1 such as #8,de arboribus' 7#aeec74 ,in this book there are some graceful wood-cuts of trees1 one of which is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ajb4 ,the initial letters used in the present volume are taken from another of ,belon's books#ce4 ,some specimens of the quaint little illustrations to ,castor ,durantes #8,herbario ,nuovo' of #aehe are shown in ,text-figs4 #de1 #fh and #ajc4 ,it is interesting to compare his drawing of the ,waterlily 7,text-fig4 #fh7 with those of the ,venetian edition of the ,latin #8,herbarius' of #adii 7,text-fig4 #fe71 #8,the ,grete ,herball' 7,text-fig4 #ba71 ,brunfels' #8,herbarum viv eicones' of #aecj 7,text-fig4 #ff7 and de l',obel's #8,kruydtbck' of #aeha 7,text-fig4 #fg74 ,the engravings in ,porta's #8,phytognomonica' 7#aehh7 and in ,prospero ,alpino's little book on ,egyptian plants 7#aeib7 are of good quality4 ,some curious examples of the former1 which will be discussed at greater length in the next chapter1 are shown in ,text-figs4 #aji and #aaj1 and the ,glasswort1 one of the best wood-cuts among the latter1 is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #dg4 ,passing on to the seventeenth century1 we find that the #8,prodromos' of ,gaspard ,bauhin 7#afbj7 contains a number of original illustrations1 but they are not very remarkable1 and often have rather the appearance of having been drawn from pressed specimens4 ,two examples of these wood-cuts will be found in ,text-figs4 #di and #fb4 ,the former is interesting as being an early representation of the ,potato4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajc4 8,lentisco del ,peru0 ,pistacia lentiscus ,l41 ,mastic ,tree ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe4 ,parkinson's #8,paradisus ,terrestris' of #afbi contains a considerable proportion of original figures1 besides others borrowed from previous writers4 ,the engravings were made in ,england by ,switzer4 ,they are poor in quality1 and the innovation of representing a number of species in one large wood-cut is not very successful4 ,text-fig4 #ee shows a twig of ,barberry1 which is but a single item in one of these large illustrations4 ,among still later wood-engravings1 we may mention the large1 rather coarse cuts in ,aldrovandi's #8,dendrologia' of #affg1 one of which1 the figure of the ,orange1 or 8,mala ,aurantia ,chinensia10 is reproduced in ,text-fig4 #ajd1 on a greatly reduced scale4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajd4 8,mala ,aurantia ,chinensia0 ,orange ,aldrovandi1 ,dendrologia1 #affg4 ,reduced4 ,in the present chapter no attempt has been made to discuss the illustrations of those herbals 7e4g4 the works of ,turner1 ,tabernmontanus1 ,gerard1 etc47 in which most of the wood-cuts are copied from previous books4 ,in the majority of such cases1 the source of the figures has already been indicated in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,this brief review of the history of botanical wood-cuts leads us to the conclusion that between #aecj and #afcj1 that is to say during the hundred years when the herbal was at its zenith1 the number of sets of wood-engravings which were pre-eminent--either on account of their intrinsic qualities1 or because they were repeatedly copied from book to book--was strictly limited4 ,we might almost say that there were only five collections of wood-cuts of plants of really first-rate importance--those1 namely1 of ,brunfels1 ,fuchs1 ,mattioli1 and ,plantin1 with those of ,gesner and ,camerarius1 all of which were published in the sixty years between #aecj and #aeij4 ,the wood-blocks of the two botanists last mentioned cannot be considered apart from one another2 from the scientific point of view they show a marked advance1 in the introduction of enlarged sketches of the flowers and fruit1 in addition to the habit drawings4 ,plantin's set included those blocks which were engraved for the herbals of de l',obel1 de l'cluse1 and the later works of ,dodoens4 ,at the close of the sixteenth century1 wood cutting on the ,continent was distinctly on the wane1 and had begun to be superseded by engraving on metal4 ,the earliest botanical work1 in which copper-plate etchings were used as illustrations1 is said to be ,fabio ,colonna's #8,phytobasanos' of #aeib4 ,these etchings1 two of which are shown in ,text-figs4 #df and #aje1 are on a small scale1 but are extremely beautiful and accurate4 ,the details of the flowers and fruit are often shown separately1 the figures1 in this respect1 being comparable with those of ,gesner and ,camerarius1 though1 owing to their small size1 they do not convey so much botanical information4 ,in a later book of ,colonna's1 the #8,ekphrasis1' analyses of the floral parts are given in even greater detail than in the #8,phytobasanos4' ,colonna expressly mentions that he used wild plants as models wherever possible1 because cultivation is apt to produce alterations in the form4 ,the decorative border1 surrounding each of the figures reproduced1 was not printed from the copper4 ,in the seventeenth century1 a large number of botanical books1 illustrated by means of copper-plates1 were produced4 ,the majority of these were published late in the century1 and thus scarcely come within our purview4 ,a few of the earlier ones may1 however1 be referred to at this point4 ,in #afaa ,paul ,renaulme's #8,specimen ,histori ,plantarum' was published in ,paris1 but though this work was illustrated with good copper-plates1 the effect was somewhat spoilt by the transparency of the paper4 ,two years later appeared the #8,hortus ,eystettensis1' by ,basil ,besler1 an apothecary of ,nuremberg4 ,it is a large work with enormous illustrations1 mostly of mediocre quality4 ,in the succeeding year1 #afad1 a book was published which has been described1 probably with justice1 as containing some of the best copper-plate figures of plants ever produced4 ,this was the #8,hortus ,floridus' of ,crispian de ,passe1 a member of a famous family of engravers4 ,like ,parkinson's #8,paradisus ,terrestris1' into which some of the figures are copied1 it is more of the nature of a garden book than a herbal4 ,in #afae an ,english edition of ,crispian de ,passe's work was published at ,utrecht1 under the title of #8,a ,garden of ,flowers4' ,the plates are the same as those in the original work4 ,the artist is particularly successful with the bulbous and tuberous plants1 the cultivation of which has long been such a specialty of ,holland4 ,plate ,,xix is a characteristic example1 but only part of the original picture is here reproduced4 ,the soil on which the plants grow is often shown1 and the horizon is placed very low1 so that they stand up against the sky4 ,this convention seems to have been characteristic1 not only of the plant drawings of the ,dutch artists1 but also of their landscapes4 ,in the paintings of ,cuyp and ,paul ,potter1 the sky-line is sometimes so low that it is seen between the legs of the cows and horses4 ,this treatment was no doubt suggested by life in a flat country1 but it was carried to such an extreme that the artist's eye-level must have been almost on the ground6 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aje4 8,chondrilla0 ,colonna1 ,phytobasanos1 #aeib4 ,the purchaser of #8,the ,garden of ,flowers' receives detailed directions for the painting of the figures1 which he is expected to carry out himself4 ,the book is divided into four parts1 appropriate to the four seasons1 and each part is preceded by an encouraging verse intended to keep alive the owner's enthusiasm for his task4 ,the stanza at the beginning of the last section seems to show some anxiety on the part of the author1 lest the reader should have begun to weary over the lengthy occupation of colouring the plates4 ,it reads as follows3-- 8,if hethertoe 7my frende7 you have1 ,performde the taske in hand3 ,with ioy proceede1 this last will be ,the best1 when all is scande40 ,as we have already mentioned1 it is not our intention to deal with the books published in the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,we may1 however1 for the sake of completeness1 mention two or three examples in order to show the kind of work that was then being done4 ,paolo ,boccone's #8,icones et ,descriptiones' of #afgd was illustrated with copper-plates1 some of which were remarkably subtle and delicate1 while others were rather carelessly executed4 ,among slightly later works1 we may refer to a quaint little ,dutch herbal by ,stephen ,blankaart1 and to the #8,paradisus ,batavus' of ,paul ,hermann1 both of which belong to the last decade of the century4 ,the latter1 which is an 8,elzevir0 with very good copper-plates1 was published after the author's death1 and dedicated1 by his widow1 to ,henry ,compton1 ,bishop of ,london4 ,in the plates which illustrate ,blankaart's herbal1 a landscape and figures are often introduced to form a background1 and the low horizon1 to which we referred in speaking of the #8,hortus ,floridus1' is a very conspicuous feature4 ,the picture of the ,winter ,cherry is here reproduced as an example 7,text-fig4 #ajf74 ,as showing the complete revolution in the style of plant illustration in two hundred years1 it is interesting to compare this drawing with that of the same subject in the ,german #8,herbarius' of #adhe 7,text-fig4 #gh74 ,it must be confessed that the fifteenth-century wood-cut1 though far less detailed and painstaking1 seizes the general character of the plant in a way that the seventeenth-century copper-plate somewhat misses4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix #8,crocus ,byzantinus' and #8,crocus ,montanus hispan4' ,part of a plate from ,crispian de ,passe1 ,hortus ,floridus1 #afad4 ,etching and engraving on metal are well adapted to very delicate and detailed work1 but from the point of view of book-illustration1 wood-engraving is generally more effective4 ,in the latter the lines are raised1 and the method of printing is thus exactly the same as in the case of type1 while in the former the process is reversed and the lines are incised4 ,as a result1 there is a harmony about a book illustrated with wood-cuts which cannot1 in the nature of things1 be attained1 when such different processes as printing from raised type1 and from incised metal1 are brought together in the same volume4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajf4 8,alkekengi0 ,physalis1 ,winter ,cherry ,blankaart1 ,neder-landschen ,herbarius1 #afih4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,signatures ,,and ,,astrological ,,botany ,during the preceding chapters1 we have restricted our discussion to those writings which may be credited with having taken some part1 however slight1 in advancing the knowledge of plants4 ,we have1 as it were1 confined our attention to the main stream of botanical progress1 and its tributaries4 ,but before concluding1 it may be well to call to mind the existence of more than one backwater1 connected indeed with the main channel1 but leading nowhere4 ,the subject of the superstitions1 with which herb collecting has been hedged about at different periods1 is far too wide to be dealt with in detail in the present book4 ,we have referred in earlier chapters to the observances with which the ,greek herb-gatherers surrounded their calling 7p4 #g7 and to the mysterious dangers which are described in the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius as attending the uprooting of the ,mandrake 7p4 #cf74 ,there is comparatively little reference to such matters in the works of the ,german ,fathers of ,botany or those of the greatest of their successors2 indeed1 as we have previously mentioned 7pp4 #ee-eh1 #ajc1 #ajd71 ,bock's famous #8,kreuter ,bch' and ,william ,turner's herbal contain definite refutations of various superstitions4 ,contemporaneously1 however1 with the fine series of herbals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 there appeared a succession of books about plants1 which had as their subjects one or both of two topics--the 8doctrine of signatures10 and 8astrological botany40 ,these works cannot be said to have furthered the science to any appreciable extent1 but they have considerable interest1 rather on account of the curious light which they throw upon the attitude of mind of their writers 7and presumably their readers also7 than from any intrinsic merit4 ,one of these authors1 in his preface1 speaks of the 8,notions0 and 8,observations0 contained in his work1 8most of which ,i am confident are true1 and if there be any that are not so1 yet they are pleasant40 ,the excuse that the 8,notions10 cherished by the botanical mystics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 were 8pleasant10 even if untrue1 may perhaps be offered in extenuation of the very brief discussion of their salient points1 which we propose to undertake in the present chapter4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajg4 ,mandrake ,brunfels1 ,contrafayt ,kreterbuch1 ,ander ,teyl1 #aecg4 ,the most famous of those mystical writers who turned their attention to botany was undoubtedly ,philippus ,aureolus ,theophrastus ,bombastus of ,hohenheim1 better known by the name of ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda74 ,his portrait is shown in ,text-fig4 #ajh4 ,he was a doctor1 as his father had been before him1 and in #aebg he became professor at ,basle4 ,here he gave great offence by lecturing in the vulgar tongue1 burning the writings of ,avicenna and ,galen1 and interpreting his own works instead of those of the ancients4 ,his disregard of cherished traditions1 and his personal peculiarities led to difficulties with his colleagues1 and he only held his post for a very short time4 ,for the rest of his life he was a wanderer on the face of the earth1 and he died in comparative poverty at ,salzburg in #aeda4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #ajh4 ,theophrastus von ,hohenheim1 called ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda7 ,from a medal1 see ,f4 ,p4 ,weber1 ,appendix ,,ii4 ,the character and writings of ,paracelsus are full of the strangest contradictions4 ,browning's poem perhaps gives a better idea of his career than any prose account aiming at historical accuracy4 ,his life was so strange that the imagination of a poet is needed to revitalise it for us to-day4 ,his almost incredible boastfulness is the main characteristic that everyone remembers--the word 8bombast0 being1 in all probability1 coined from his name4 ,in one of his works1 after contemptuously dismissing all the great physicians who had preceded him--,galen1 ,avicenna and others--he remarks1 8,i shall be the ,monarch and mine shall the monarchy be#cf40 ,the conclusion that he was something of a quack can hardly be avoided1 but at the same time it must be confessed that his writings were occasionally illumined with real scientific insight1 and that he infused new life into chemistry and medicine4 ,paracelsus' actual knowledge of botany appears to have been meagre1 for not more than a couple of dozen plant names are found in his works4 ,to understand his views on the properties of plants it is necessary to turn for a moment to his chemical theories4 ,he regarded 8sulphur10 8salt10 and 8mercury0 as the three fundamental principles of all bodies4 ,the sense in which he uses these terms is symbolic1 and thus differs entirely from that in which they are employed to-day4 8,sulphur0 appears to embody the ideas of change1 combustibility1 volatilisation and growth2 8salt10 those of stability and non-inflammability2 8mercury10 that of fluidity4 ,the 8virtues0 of plants depend1 according to ,paracelsus1 upon the proportions in which they contain these three principles4 ,the medicinal properties of plants are thus the outcome of qualities that are not obvious at sight4 ,how1 then1 is the physician to be guided in selecting herbal remedies to cure the several ailments of his patients8 ,the answer to this question given by ,paracelsus is summed up in what is known as the ,doctrine of ,signatures4 ,according to this doctrine1 many medicinal herbs are stamped1 as it were1 with some clear indication of their uses4 ,this may perhaps be best understood by means of a quotation from ,paracelsus himself 7in the words of a seventeenth-century ,english translation74 8,i have oft-times declared1 how by the outward shapes and qualities of things we may know their inward ,vertues1 which ,god hath put in them for the good of man4 ,so in ,st ,johns wort1 we may take notice of the form of the leaves and flowers1 the porosity of the leaves1 the ,veins4 #a4 ,the porositie or holes in the leaves1 signifie to us1 that this herb helps both inward and outward holes or cuts in the skin4444 #b4 ,the flowers of ,saint ,johns wort1 when they are putrified they are like blood2 which teacheth us1 that this herb is good for wounds1 to close them and fill them up0 etc4 ,it is sometimes held that the real originator of the theory of signatures1 in any approximation to a scientific form1 was ,giambattista ,porta1 who was probably born at ,naples shortly before the death of ,paracelsus4 ,he wrote a book about human physiognomy1 in which he endeavoured to find1 in the bodily form of man1 indications as to his character and spiritual qualities4 ,this study suggested to him the idea that the inner qualities1 and the healing powers of the herbs might also be revealed by external signs1 and thus led to his famous work1 the #8,phytognomonica1' which was first published at ,naples in #aehh4 ,porta developed his theory in detail1 and pushed it to great lengths4 ,he supposed1 for example1 that long-lived plants would lengthen a man's life1 while short-lived plants would abbreviate it4 ,he held that herbs with a yellow sap would cure jaundice1 while those whose surface was rough to the touch would heal those diseases that destroy the natural smoothness of the skin4 ,the resemblance of certain plants to certain animals opened to ,porta a vast field of dogmatism on a basis of conjecture4 ,plants with flowers shaped like butterflies would1 he supposed1 cure the bites of insects1 while those whose roots or fruits had a jointed appearance1 and thus remotely suggested a scorpion1 must necessarily be sovereign remedies for the sting of that creature4 ,porta also detected many obscure points of resemblance between the flowers and fruits of certain plants1 and the limbs and organs of certain animals4 ,in such cases of resemblance he held that an investigation of the temperament of the animal in question would determine what kind of disease the plant was intended to cure4 ,it will be recognised from these examples that the doctrine of signatures was remarkably elastic1 and was not fettered by any rigid consistency4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aji4 ,herbs of the ,scorpion ,porta1 ,phytognomonica1 #aeia4 ,the illustrations of the #8,phytognomonica' are of great interest as interpreting ,porta's point of view4 ,the part of man's body which is healed by a particular herb1 or the animal whose bites or stings can be cured by it1 are represented in the same wood-cut as the herb4 ,for example1 the back view of a human head with a thick crop of hair is introduced into the block with the ,maidenhair ,fern1 which is an ancient specific for baldness2 a ,pomegranate with its seeds exposed1 and a plant of 8,toothwort10 with its hard1 white scale-leaves1 are represented in the same figure as a set of human teeth2 a drawing of a scorpion accompanies some pictures of plants with articulated seed-vessels 7,text-fig4 #aji7 and an adder's head is introduced below the drawing of the plant known as the 8,adder's tongue40 ,it would serve little purpose to deal in detail with the various exponents of the doctrine of signatures1 such1 for example1 as ,johann ,popp1 who in #afbe published a herbal written from this standpoint1 and containing also some astrological botany4 ,we will only now refer to one of the later champions of the signatures of plants1 an ,english herbalist of the seventeenth century1 who made the subject peculiarly his own4 ,this was ,william ,cole#cg1 a ,fellow of ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 who lived and botanised at ,putney in ,surrey4 ,he seems to have been a person of much character1 and his vigorous arguments would often be very telling1 were it possible to admit the soundness of his premisses4 ,william ,cole carried the doctrine of signatures to as extreme a point as can well be imagined4 ,his account of the ,walnut1 from his work #8,adam in ,eden1' #afeg1 may be quoted as an illustration3 8,wall-nuts have the perfect ,signature of the ,head3 ,the outer husk or green ,covering1 represent the ,pericranium1 or outward skin of the skull1 whereon the hair groweth1 and therefore salt made of those husks or barks1 are exceeding good for wounds in the head4 ,the inner wooddy shell hath the ,signature of the ,skull1 and the little yellow skin1 or ,peel1 that covereth the ,kernell of the hard ,meninga and ,pia-mater1 which are the thin scarfes that envelope the brain4 ,the ,kernel hath the very figure of the ,brain1 and therefore it is very profitable for the ,brain1 and resists poysons2 ,for if the ,kernel be bruised1 and moystned with the quintessence of ,wine1 and laid upon the ,crown of the ,head1 it comforts the brain and head mightily40 ,in ,cole's writings we meet with instances of a curious confusion of thought1 which characterised the doctrine of signatures4 ,the signature in some cases represents an animal injurious to man1 and is taken to denote that the plant in question will cure its bites or stings4 ,for instance1 8,that ,plant that is called ,adders tongue1 because the stalke of it represents one1 is a soveraigne wound ,herbe to cure the biting of an ,adder40 ,in other cases1 the signature represents one of the organs of the human body1 and indicates that the plant will cure diseases of that organ4 ,for example1 8,heart ,trefoyle is so called1 not onely because the ,leafe is ,triangular like the ,heart of a ,man1 but also because each ,leafe containes the perfect ,icon of an ,heart1 and that in its proper colour1 viz4 a flesh colour4 ,it defendeth the ,heart against the noisome vapour of the ,spleen40 ,cole seems to have possessed a philosophic mind1 and to have endeavoured to follow his theories to their logical conclusion4 ,he was much exercised because a large proportion of the plants with undoubted medicinal virtues have no obvious signatures4 ,he concluded that a certain number were endowed with signatures1 in order to set man on the right track in his search for herbal remedies2 the remainder were purposely left blank1 in order to encourage his skill and resource in discovering their properties for himself4 ,a further ingenious argument is that a number of plants are left without signatures1 because if all were signed1 8the rarity of it1 which is the delight1 would be taken away by too much harping upon one string40 ,our author was evidently a keen and enthusiastic collector of herbs4 ,in his book #8,the ,art of ,simpling' 7#afef7 he complains bitterly that physicians leave the gathering of herbs to the apothecaries1 and the latter 8rely commonly upon the words of the silly ,hearb-women1 who many times bring them ,quid for ,quo1 then which nothing can be more sad40 ,another strong supporter in this country of the doctrine of signatures was the astrological botanist1 ,robert ,turner4 ,he definitely states that 8,god hath imprinted upon the ,plants1 ,herbs1 and ,flowers1 as it were in ,hieroglyphicks1 the very signature of their ,vertues40 ,it is interesting to find that the doctrine of signatures was repudiated by the best of the sixteenth-century herbalists4 ,dodoens1 for instance1 wrote in #aehc that 8the doctrine of the ,signatures of ,plants has received the authority of no ancient writer who is held in any esteem3 moreover it is so changeable and uncertain that1 as far as science or learning is concerned1 it seems absolutely unworthy of acceptance#ch40 ,a later writer1 ,guy de la ,brosse1 criticised the theory very acutely1 pointing out that it was quite easy to imagine any resemblance between a plant and an animal that happened to be convenient4 8,c'est comme des nues10 he writes1 8que l'on fait ressembler tout ce que la fantaisie se represente1 une ,gru1 une ,grenoille1 un homme1 une armee1 et autres semblables visions#ci40 ,both ,paracelsus and ,porta deprecate the use of foreign drugs1 on the ground that in the country where a disease arises1 there nature produces means to overcome it4 ,this idea is one which constantly recurs in the herbals4 ,in #affd ,robert ,turner wrote1 8,for what ,climate soever is subject to any particular ,disease1 in the same ,place there grows a ,cure40 ,there is ample evidence of the survival of this theory even in the nineteenth century2 for instance1 in the preface to ,thomas ,green's #8,universal ,herbal' of #ahaf we find the remark1 8,nature has1 in this country1 as well as in all others1 provided1 in the herbs of its own growth1 the remedies for the several diseases to which it is most subject40 ,the notion persists indeed to the present day2 there is a widespread belief among children1 for example1 that ,docks always grow in the neighbourhood of ,stinging ,nettles1 in order to provide a cure in situ6 ,whether this view contains any grain of truth or not1 it certainly deserves our gratitude1 since it led to ,dr ,maclagan's discovery of ,salicin as a cure for rheumatic fever4 ,on the ground that in the case of malarial diseases 8the poisons which cause them and the remedy which cures them are naturally produced under similar climatic conditions10 ,maclagan sought and found1 in the bark of the ,willow1 which inhabits low-lying1 damp situations1 this drug1 which has proved so valuable in the treatment of rheumatism#dj4 ,the doctrine of signatures is not the only piece of botanical mysticism associated with the name of ,paracelsus4 ,he was also a firm believer in the influence of the heavenly bodies upon the vegetable world1 or1 in other words1 in botanical astrology4 ,he considered that each plant was under the influence of some particular star1 and that it was this influence which drew the plant out of the earth when the seed germinated4 ,he held each plant to be a terrestrial star1 and each star1 a spiritualised plant4 ,giambattista ,porta also believed in a relation between certain plants and corresponding stars or planets4 ,a figure in his #8,phytognomonica' here reproduced 7,text-fig4 #aaj7 shows a number of 8lunar plants40 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aaj4 ,lunar ,herbs ,porta1 ,phytognomonica1 #aeia4 ,in order to appreciate the attitude in which ,paracelsus and his followers approached the subject of the relation between plants and stars1 it is necessary to realise the position which ,astrology had come to occupy in the ,middle ,ages#da4 ,it was in ancient ,babylon that this pseudo-science mainly took its rise4 ,here the five planets which we now call ,jupiter1 ,venus1 ,saturn1 ,mars and ,mercury1 and also the ,sun and ,moon1 were identified1 in certain senses1 with seven great ,gods4 ,the movements of these heavenly bodies were supposed to represent in symbolic fashion the deeds of these ,gods4 ,it was thought possible to interpret the movements and relative positions of the planets and the sun and moon1 in a way that threw light upon the fate of mankind1 in so far as it depended upon the ,gods in question4 ,some centuries before the ,christian era1 ,babylonian astrology began to influence the nations farther to the ,west4 ,in ,greece1 the subject took a more personal turn and it was believed that the fate1 not only of nations but of individuals1 was determined in the skies1 and could be foretold from the position of the planets at the time of a man's birth4 ,at a later period1 speculation on the subject was carried further and further1 until finally not only men1 but all animals1 vegetables and minerals were associated1 either with particular planets1 or with the constellations of the ,zodiac4 ,that a belief in the influence of the moon upon plants dates back to very early times in western ,europe1 is shown by the statement1 in ,pliny's #8,natural ,history1' that the ,druids in ,britain gathered the ,mistletoe for medical purposes1 with many rites and ceremonies1 when the moon was six days old4 ,to trace the history of astrology in detail is altogether beyond our province1 but1 as an example of its universal acceptance1 we may recall the reference to the supreme influence of the stars in the preface of the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch of #adhe 7see p4 #ai74 ,astrological ideas were familiar in ,elizabethan ,england1 and are reflected in many passages in ,shakespeare's plays1 never perhaps more charmingly than in ,beatrice's laughing words--8there was a star danced1 and under that ,i was born40 ,paracelsus1 though his name is so well known in this connection1 was by no means the first writer on botanical astrology4 ,a book called #8,de virtutibus herbarum1' erroneously attributed to ,albertus ,magnus1 had a wide circulation from early times1 being first printed in the fifteenth century4 ,it was translated into many languages1 one ,english version appearing about #aefj under the title #8,the boke of secretes of ,albartus ,magnus1 of the vertues of ,herbes1 stones and certaine beastes4' ,it does not contain very much information about plants1 being mostly occupied with animals and minerals1 but there are very definite references to astrology4 ,for instance we are told that if the ,marigold 8be gathered1 the ,sunne beynge in the sygne ,leo1 in ,august1 and be wrapped in the leafe of a ,laurell1 or baye tree1 and a wolves tothe be added therto1 no man shal be able to have a word to speake agaynst the bearer therof1 but woordes of peace40 ,concerning the ,plantain we read1 8,the rote of this herbe is mervalous good agaynst the payne of the headde1 because the signe of the ,ramme is supposed to be the house of the planete ,mars1 which is the head of the whole worlde40 ,the herbal of ,bartholomus ,carrichter 7#aege71 in which the plants are arranged according to the signs of the ,zodiac1 is considerably more complete and elaborate than the book to which we have just referred4 ,it seems however impossible to discover the principle1 if any1 which guided the author in connecting any given herb with one sign of the ,zodiac rather than another4 ,much stress is laid in this herbal on the hour at which the herbs ought to be gathered1 great importance being ascribed to the state of the moon at the time4 ,we are reminded of a passage in #8,the ,merchant of ,venice' where ,jessica says of a bright moonlight evening-- 8,in such a night ,medea gather'd the enchanted herbs ,that did renew old son40 ,this aspect of the subject is emphasised in a curious little book published in #aega1 ,nicolaus ,winckler's #8,chronica herbarum1' which is an astrological calendar giving information as to the appropriate times for gathering different roots and herbs4 ,almost contemporaneously with ,carrichter's #8,kreutterbch1' the first part of a work on astrological botany was published by ,leonhardt ,thurneisser zum ,thurn4 ,this writer1 who was possessed of undoubted talent1 was also an adventurer and charlatan of the first order4 ,he was born at ,basle in #aecj4 ,he learned his father's craft1 that of a goldsmith1 and is said to have also helped a local doctor to collect and prepare herbs1 and to have been employed to read aloud to him from the works of ,paracelsus4 ,his career in ,basle came to an untimely end1 for he seems to have tried to retaliate on some customers who treated him badly1 by selling them gilded lead as a substitute for gold1 and consequently had to flee the country when the fraud was discovered4 ,he travelled widely1 making an especial study of mining4 ,he had an adventurous and varied life1 sometimes in poverty and obscurity1 sometimes in wealth and renown4 ,during ,thurneisser's most influential period he lived in ,berlin1 practising medicine1 making amulets1 talismans1 and secret remedies which yielded large profits4 ,he also published astrological calendars1 cast nativities1 and supplemented his income by the practice of usury4 ,at this time he owned a printing press1 and employed a large staff which included artists and engravers4 ,later on1 he was pursued by a succession of misfortunes1 including accusations of magic and witchcraft1 which compelled him to leave ,germany4 ,little is known of the latter part of his life2 he died in the last decade of the sixteenth century4 ,leonhardt ,thurneisser projected a great botanical work in ten books4 ,the first was published in ,berlin in #aegh1 but the others never appeared4 ,the title was #8,historia unnd ,beschreibung ,influentischer1 ,elementischer und ,natrlicher ,wirckungen1 ,aller fremden unnd heimischen ,erdgewechssen4' ,a ,latin version of this book1 under the name1 #8,historia sive descriptio plantarum1' was published in the same year4 ,this first instalment deals only with the ,umbellifers1 which were regarded as under the dominion of the ,sun and ,mars4 ,the nomenclature and the figures are not clear enough to allow individual species to be recognised4 ,each is drawn in an ellipse surrounded by an ornamental border1 which contains mystical inscriptions denoting the properties of the plant 7e4g4 ,plate ,,xx74 ,in some cases diagrams are given1 showing the conjunction of the stars under which the herb should be gathered 7,text-fig4 #aaa74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx #8,cervaria fomina' ,thurneisser1 ,historia sive descriptio plantarum1 #aehg4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aaa4 ,astrological ,diagram relating to the gathering of 8,cervaria fmina0 ,thurneisser1 ,historia sive ,descriptio ,plantarum1 #aehg4 ,after the manner of the ancients1 ,thurneisser describes plants1 according to their qualities1 as either male or female4 ,he also adds a third class1 typified by a child1 to symbolise those whose qualities are feeble4 ,it may perhaps be worth while to translate here a few sentences of the first chapter of the #8,historia#db1' to show how far such writers as ,leonhardt ,thurneisser had departed from the pursuit of the subject upon legitimate lines4 ,when discussing the planting of roots and herbs and the gathering of seeds1 he declares that 8it is absolutely essential that these operations should be performed so as to correspond with the stations and positions of the planets and heavenly bodies1 to whose control diseases are properly subject4 ,and against disease we have to employ herbs1 with due regard of course to the sex1 whichever it be1 of human beings2 and so herbs intended to benefit the male sex should be procured when the ,sun or ,moon is in some male sign of the ,zodiac1 e4g4 ,sagittarius or ,aquarius1 or if this is impossible1 at least when they are in ,leo4 ,similarly herbs intended to benefit women should be gathered under some female sign1 ,virgo1 of course1 or1 if that is impossible1 in ,taurus or ,cancer40 ,in the seventeenth century1 ,england became strongly infected with astrological botany4 ,the most notorious exponent of the subject was ,nicholas ,culpeper 7#afaf-afed71 who1 about #afdj1 set up as an astrologer and physician in ,spitalfields4 ,his portrait is reproduced in ,plate ,,xxi4 ,he created great indignation among the medical profession by publishing1 under the name of #8,a ,physicall ,directory1' an unauthorised ,english translation of the ,pharmacopia1 which had been issued by the ,college of ,physicians4 ,that ,culpeper was unpopular with orthodox medical practitioners is hardly surprising1 when we consider the way in which he speaks of them in this book1 as 8a company of proud1 insulting1 domineering ,doctors1 whose wits were born above five hundred years before themselves40 ,he goes on to ask--8,is it handsom and wel-beseeming a ,common-wealth to see a ,doctor ride in ,state1 in ,plush with a footcloath1 and not a grain of ,wit but what was in print before he was born80 ,many editions of the #8,physicall ,directory' were issued under different names4 ,as #8,the ,english ,physician enlarged1' it enjoyed great popularity1 and was reprinted as late as the nineteenth century4 ,the edition of #afec is described on the title-page as 8,being an ,astrologo-,physical ,discourse of the ,vulgar ,herbs of this ,nation3 ,containing a ,compleat ,method of ,physick1 whereby a man may preserve his ,body in ,health2 or ,cure himself1 being ,sick1 for three pence ,charge1 with such things only as grow in ,england1 they being most fit for ,english ,bodies40 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi ,,nicholas ,,culpeper 7#afaf-afed74 ,a ,physicall ,directory1 #afdi4 ,engraving by ,cross4 ,culpeper describes certain herbs as being under the dominion of the sun1 the moon1 or a planet1 and others as under a planet and also one of the constellations of the ,zodiac4 ,his reasons for connecting a particular herb with a particular heavenly body are curiously inconsequent4 ,he states1 for example1 that 8,wormwood is an ,herb of ,mars1 444 ,i prove it thus2 ,what delights in ,martial places1 is a ,martial ,herb2 but ,wormwood delights in ,martial places 7for about ,forges and ,iron ,works you may gather a ,cart load of it7 ,ergo it is a ,martial ,herb40 ,the author explains that each disease is caused by a planet4 ,one way of curing the ailment is by the use of herbs belonging to an opposing planet--e4g4 diseases produced by ,jupiter are healed by the herbs of ,mercury4 ,on the other hand1 the illness may be cured 8by sympathy10 that is by the use of herbs belonging to the planet which is responsible for the disease4 ,culpeper indulges in a strange maze of similar reasons to justify the use of ,wormwood for affections of the eyes4 8,the ,eyes are under the ,luminaries2 the right ,eye of a ,man1 and the left ,eye of a ,woman the ,sun claims ,dominion over3 ,the left ,eye of a ,man1 and the right ,eye of a ,woman1 are the priviledg of the ,moon1 ,wormwood an ,herb of ,mars cures both#dc2 what belongs to the ,sun by ,sympathy1 because he is exalted in his ,house2 but what belongs to the ,moon by ,antipathy1 becaus he hath his ,fal in hers40 ,it is somewhat surprising to find that1 in his preface1 ,culpeper claims that he surpasses all his predecessors in being alone guided by reason1 whereas all previous writers are 8as full of nonsense and contradictions as an ,egg is ful of meat40 ,culpeper met with considerable opposition and criticism from his contemporaries4 ,shortly after his death1 ,william ,cole in his #8,art of ,simpling' wrote scornfully of astrological botanists1 8,amongst which ,master ,culpeper 7a man now dead1 and therefore ,i shall speak of him as modestly as ,i can1 for were he alive ,i should be more plain with him7 was a great ,stickler2 ,and he1 forsooth1 judgeth all men unfit to be ,physitians1 who are not ,artists in ,astrology1 as if he and some other ,figure-flingers his companions1 had been the onely ,physitians in ,england1 whereas for ought ,i can gather1 either by his ,books1 or learne from the report of others1 he was a man very ignorant in the forme of ,simples40 ,it is interesting to notice that ,cole1 though he seems to the modern reader very credulous on the subject of the signatures of plants1 was completely sceptical as to the association of astrology and botany4 ,the main argument by which he tries to discredit it is an ingenious one4 ,the knowledge of herbs is1 he says1 8a subject as antient as the ,creation 7as the ,scriptures witnesse7 yea more antient then the ,sunne1 or ,moon1 or ,starres1 they being created on the fourth day1 whereas ,plants were the third4 ,thus did ,god even at first confute the folly of those ,astrologers1 who goe about to maintaine that all vegitables in their growth1 are enslaved to a necessary and unavoidable dependance on the influences of the ,starres2 ,whereas ,plants were1 even when ,planets were not40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,conclusions ,a ,general review of the subjects discussed in the foregoing chapters brings home to us several results of some interest4 ,perhaps the most obvious of these is the incalculable debt which ,botany owes to ,medicine4 ,an overwhelming majority of the herbalists were physicians1 who were led to the study of botany on account of its connection with the arts of healing4 ,as we have already pointed out1 medicine gave the original impulse1 not only to ,systematic ,botany1 but also to the study of the ,anatomy of ,plants4 ,however1 as the evolution of the herbal proceeded1 we have shown that botany rose from being a mere hand-maid of medicine to a position of comparative independence4 ,this is well exemplified in the history of plant classification4 ,when the early medical botanists attempted any arrangement of their material1 it was on a purely utilitarian basis2 the herbs were merely classified according to the qualities which made them of value to man4 ,but as the science grew1 the need of a more systematic classification began to make itself felt1 and in some of the works published in the latter half of the period we are considering1 there is a distinct1 if only partially successful1 attempt to group the plants according to the affinities which they present when considered in themselves1 and not in relation to man4 ,the ideal of a natural system in the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 in which each plant should find its inevitable place1 must have been clear for instance to de l',obel1 when he wrote in the #8,adversaria1' of 8an order1 than which nothing more beautiful exists in the heavens1 or in the mind of a wise man#dd40 ,second only to the debt of botany to medicine is its debt to certain branches of the fine arts1 more especially wood-engraving4 ,the draughtsman and engraver not only disseminated the knowledge of plants1 but their work must often have revealed to the botanist features which had escaped his less highly educated and subtle eye4 ,as we have already pointed out1 the art of plant description lagged conspicuously behind that of plant illustration4 ,the vague and crude1 but often picturesque1 accounts1 given by the early herbalists of the plants which they observed1 contrast curiously with the technically accurate1 but colourless and impersonal descriptions from the pens of modern botanists4 ,the rapid rise of botany1 in the two centuries which we have reviewed1 must have been greatly stimulated by the cosmopolitanism of the savants of the renaissance4 ,periods of study at a succession of different universities1 and wide ,european travel1 including visits to scientific men of various countries1 seem to have formed part of the recognised equipment of the botanical student4 ,possibly the zeal for travel was not altogether spontaneous1 but was artificially stimulated by the religious disturbances so common at the period of the ,reformation and later1 which often drove into exile the adherents of the ,reformed ,faith1 among whom many botanists were numbered4 ,this is exemplified in the cases of ,william ,turner1 ,charles de l'cluse1 and the ,bauhins4 ,it is interesting to notice that1 in the works of the best herbalists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 such for instance as ,bock1 ,turner1 ,dodoens and ,gaspard ,bauhin1 we find1 comparatively speaking1 little belief in any kind of superstition connected with plants1 such as the doctrine of signatures1 or astrology4 ,a number of books dealing with such topics appeared during the period we have considered1 but their writers form a class apart1 and must not be confused with the herbalists proper1 whose attitude was1 on the whole1 marked by a healthy scepticism which was in advance of their time4 ,it would1 naturally1 be far from true to say that they were all quite free from superstition1 but1 considering the intellectual atmosphere of the period1 their enlightenment was quite remarkable4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aab4 ,wood-cut from the title-page of the ,grete ,herball1 #aebf4 ,reduced4 ,when we come to consider the origin of the herbal1 we find that it is impossible to assign any date for its beginning4 ,in manuscript form1 herbals have existed from very early times1 but1 in the present book1 those prior to the invention of printing have been scarcely touched upon4 ,our subject has been limited to the most active life-period of the printed herbal1 which may be reckoned as beginning in the last quarter of the fifteenth century1 with the #8,book of ,nature1' the #8,herbarium' of ,apuleius1 and the ,latin and ,german #8,herbarius4' ,when this active period ended is less easily decided1 but in some senses it may fairly be taken as covering only the comparatively short space of two hundred years4 ,there are1 of course1 a very large number of later herbals1 belonging to the end of the seventeenth1 the eighteenth1 and even the nineteenth and twentieth centuries1 but their importance in the history of botany appears to the present writer to be relatively small1 and hence1 in this volume1 attention has been almost entirely confined to works which appeared before #afgj4 ,after this period1 botany rapidly became more scientific2 the discovery of the function of the stamens1 which was first announced in #afhb1 marking a very definite step in advance4 ,as time went on1 the herbal1 with its characteristic mixture of medical and botanical lore1 gave way before the exclusively medical pharmacopia on the one hand1 and the exclusively botanical flora on the other4 ,as the use of home-made remedies declined1 and the chemist's shop took the place of the housewife's herb-garden and still-room1 the practical value of the herbal diminished almost to vanishing point4 ,the best epoch in the history of the herbal1 from the point of view of book-illustration1 is confined within much narrower limits than the two centuries we have been considering4 ,the suggestion has been made1 and seems thoroughly justified1 that the finest period should be reckoned as falling between #aecj and #afad1 that is1 between the wood-cuts of ,hans ,weiditz in ,brunfels' #8,herbarum viv eicones1' and the copper-plates of ,crispian de ,passe in the #8,hortus ,floridus4' ,this good period thus lasted less than one hundred years1 and belongs chiefly to the sixteenth century4 ,from the artistic point of view1 its zenith is perhaps reached in the wood-engravings which illustrate ,fuchs' great work1 #8,de historia stirpium' 7#aedb71 though1 from a more strictly scientific standpoint1 the drawings by ,camerarius and ,gesner1 which appeared in #aehf and #aehh1 may be said to bear the palm4 ,illustration3 ,text-fig4 #aac4 ,a ,herbalist's ,garden and ,store-room ,das ,kreterbch oder ,herbarius4 ,printed by ,heinrich ,stayner1 ,augsburg1 #aecd4 ,as far as the text is concerned1 the culmination of the botanical works of the period under consideration may be regarded as foreshadowed in the #8,stirpium ,adversaria ,nova' of ,pena and de l',obel 7#aegj-ga7 and attained in the #8,prodromos' 7#afbj7 and the #8,pinax' 7#afbc7 of ,gaspard ,bauhin4 ,in the works of the latter author1 classification1 nomenclature and description reach their high-water mark1 though it is to de l',obel1 and to his precursor1 ,bock1 one of the 8,german ,fathers of ,botany10 that we owe the first definite efforts after a natural system4 ,it is pleasant to remember that ,jean ,bauhin1 to whom his younger brother ,gaspard probably owed his first botanical inspiration1 was a pupil of ,leonhard ,fuchs at ,tbingen1 so that the latter has a double claim to be associated with the results of the 8herbal period0 at its best4 ,we began this book with a portrait of ,leonhard ,fuchs1 and we may well conclude with his name--that of the greatest and most typical of sixteenth-century herbalists4 ,,appendix ,i ,a ,,chronological ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,herbals ,,and ,,related ,,botanical ,,works ,,published ,,between #adgj ,,and #afgj4 ,this list1 which is intended for the botanist rather than the bibliographer1 is far from being exhaustive1 especially as regards works published in the seventeenth century4 ,in most cases reference is made to first editions only4 ,subsequent editions and translations1 though often numerous and important1 are usually not cited unless special mention has been made of them in the text4 ,in cases where such editions are quoted1 their titles are placed beneath that of the first edition 7i4e4 under the date of the first edition74 ,independent works by the same author are1 however1 arranged chronologically1 so that1 in this list1 all the works of any given author are not placed together1 but must be looked for under their respective dates4 ,these dates can generally be ascertained by reference to the text4 ,the author's name1 or1 in the case of anonymous works1 the title most commonly used1 is printed in heavy type4 ,all the works enumerated have been examined personally by the author1 except those of which the dates are marked with an asterisk4 8 #adgj ,bartholomus ,anglicus ,glanville1 ,bartholomew de4 ,liber de proprietatibus rerum4 ,begins3 ,incipit prohemium de proprietatibus rerum fratris bartholomei anglici de ordine fratrum minorum4 8 ,cologne1 8 #adgj4 ,a general work containing one section dealing with plants4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,liber de proprietatibus rerum4 8 ,westminster1 8 #adie4 ,a translation by ,trevisa printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde4 #adge ,konrad von ,megenberg ,cnrat4 ,begins3 ,hye nach volget das pch der natur4444 ,hanns ,bmler4 ,augsburg1 -#ge #adge4 ,a general work containing a section dealing with plants4 #adgh ,albertus ,magnus erroneously attributed to4 ,liber aggregations seu liber secretorum ,alberti magni de virtutibus herbarum 444 7,colophon37 per ,johannem de ,annunciata de ,augusta4 #adgh4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,de virtutibus herbarum4 ,de virtutibus lapidum4 ,de virtutibus animalium et mirabilibus mundi4 ,thomas ,laisne1 ,rouen4 8 #aejj4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the boke of secretes of ,albartus ,magnus1 of the vertues of ,herbes1 stones and certaine beastes4 ,also a boke of the same author1 of the marvaylous thinges of the world4444 ,london4 ,wyllyam ,copland4 8 #aefj4 8 #adhd ,apuleius ,platonicus4 ,begins3 ,incipit ,herbarium ,apulei ,platonici ad ,marcum ,agrippam4 ,j4 ,p4 de ,lignamine4 ,rome1 8 #adhd4 #adhd ,the ,latin ,herbarius referred to by various authors as ,herbarius in ,latino1 ,aggregator de ,simplicibus1 ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 ,herbarius ,patavinus1 etc44 ,herbarius ,magunti impressus4 ,peter ,schffer4 ,mainz4 #adhd4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,begins3 ,dye prologhe de oversetters uyt den latyn in dyetsche4 ,veldener1 ,kuilenborg4 #adhd4 ,a ,flemish translation4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,begins3 ,incipit ,tractatus de virtutibus herbarum4 7,colophon37 ,impressum ,venetiis per ,simonem ,papiensem dictum ,bivilaquam4444 #adii4 ,sometimes called #8,herbarius ,arnoldi de nova villa ,avicenna4' #adhe ,the ,german ,herbarius referred to by various authors as the ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 the ,german ,ortus ,sanitatis1 the smaller ,ortus1 ,johann von ,cube's ,herbal1 etc44 ,begins3 ,offt und vil habe ich4 ,peter ,schffer4 ,mencz1 #adhe4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,begins3 ,offt und vil hab ich4 ,sorg4 ,augspurg1 #adhe4 #adia ,ortus ,sanitatis ,hortus ,sanitatis4 ,prohemium begins3 ,omnipotentis eternique dei4444 7,colophon37 ,jacobus ,meydenbach4 ,moguntia1 #adia4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 7,colophon37 ,impressum ,venetiis per ,bernardinum ,benalium3 ,et ,joannem de ,cereto de ,tridino alias ,tacuinum4 #aeaa4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,ortus sanitatis translate de latin en francois4 ,anthoine ,vrard4 ,paris1 n4d4 8 #aeja4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,le jardin de sante translate de latin en francoys nouvellement ,imprim a ,paris4 ,on les vend a ,paris en la rue sainct ,jacques a lenseigne de la ,rose blanche couronnee4 7,colophon37 ,imprim a ,paris par ,philippe le noir4 8 #aeci4 8 #aejj ,macer1 milius ,odo4 ,macer floridus ,de viribus herbarum4 8 ,paris1 8 #aejj circa4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,herbarum varias qui vis cognoscere vires ,macer adest3 disce quo duce doct' eris4 7,colophon37 ,impressus ,parisius per ,magistrum ,johannem ,seurre4 ,pro ,magistro ,petro ,bacquelier4 #aejf4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,les fleurs du livre des vertus des herbes1 compos jadis en vers ,latins par ,macer ,floride3444 ,le tout mis en ,franois par ,m4 ,lucas ,tremblay1 ,parisien4444 ,rouen4 ,martin et ,honor ,mallard4 #aehh4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,de viribus herbarum 444 secundum codices manuscriptos 444 recensuit 444 ,ludovicus ,choulant4444 ,lipsiae1 #ahcb4 #aejj ,braunschweig1 ,hieronymus ,jerome of ,brunswick4 ,liber de arte distillandi4 de ,simplicibus4 ,johannes ,greninger4 ,strassburg1 #aejj4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the vertuose boke of ,distyllacyon of the waters of all maner of ,herbes 444 ,laurens ,andrewe4 ,london1 #adbg #aebg4 #aeaf ,ruellius1 ,johannes ,ruel1 ,jean4 ,pedacii ,dioscoridis ,anazarbei de medicinali materia libri quinque4444 ,impressum est in 444 ,parrhisiorum ,gymnasio 444 in officina ,henrici ,stephani4 #aeaf4 #aeag ,czerny1 ,johann ,johannes ,niger de ,praga4 ,knieha lekarska kteraz slowe herbarz 7 ,arzneibuch1 welches heisst ,herbarium7 ,hieronymus ,hltzel4 ,nrnberg1 #aeag994 #aebe ,herball4 ,here begynneth a newe mater1 the whiche sheweth and treateth of ye vertues and proprytes of herbes1 the whiche is called an ,herball4 ,rycharde ,banckes4 ,london1 #aebe4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,macers ,herbal4 ,practysyd by ,docter ,lynacro4 ,robert ,wyer4 n4d4 ,london1 8 #aecj4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,a new ,herball of ,macer1 ,translated out of ,laten in to ,englysshe4 ,robert ,wyer4 in saint ,martyns paryshe 444 besyde ,charynge ,crosse4 n4d4 ,london4 8 #aece4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,a boke of the propreties of ,herbes called an herball1 wherunto is added the tyme ye herbes1 ,floures and ,sedes shoulde be gathered 444 by ,w4 ,c4#de ,wyllyam ,copland4 n4d4 ,london4 #aeej4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,a litle ,herball of the properties of ,herbes 444 wyth certayne ,additions at the ende of the boke1 declaring what ,herbes hath influence of certain ,sterres4444 ,anthony ,askham1 ,physycyon4 ,jhon ,kynge4 ,london1 #aeej4 ,before #aebf ,grand ,herbier4 ,le grand ,herbier en ,francoys3 contenant les qualites1 vertus et proprits des herbes1 arbres1 gommes4444 ,pierre ,sergent4 ,paris1 n4d4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the grete herball whiche geveth parfyt knowlege and understandyng of all maner of herbes and there gracyous vertues4444 7,colophon37 ,peter ,treveris4 ,london1 #aebf4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the grete herball 444 7,colophon37 ,imprynted at ,london 444 by me ,peter ,treveris4444 #aebi4 #aebi ,theophrastus4 ,theophrasti de historia1 et causis plantarum1 ,libri ,quindecim4 ,theodoro ,gaza interprete 444 7,colophon37 ,excussum ,luteci1 in dibus ,christiani ,wechel4444 #aebi4 #aecj ,brunfelsius1 ,otho ,brunfels1 ,otto von4 ,herbarum viv eicones444 ,argentorati apud ,joannem ,schottum4 #aecj1 #aeca1 #aecf4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,contrafayt ,kreterbch 444 z ,strasszburg bey ,hans ,schotten4 #aecb1 #aecg4 #aecc ,rhodion1 ,d4 ,eucharius4 ,kreutterbch 444 ,anfenglich von ,doctor ,johan ,cuba zusamen bracht1 jetzt widerum new ,corrigirt 444 ,mit warer ,abconterfeitung aller ,kreuter4 ,zu ,franckfurt am ,meyn1 ,bei ,christian ,egenolph4 #aecc4 ,a large number of editions of this work appeared1 edited by ,dorstenius1 ,lonicer and others4 #aecf ,amatus ,lusitanus ,castello ,branco1 ,j4 ,r4 de4 ,index ,dioscoridis 444 ,excudebat ,antverpi ,vidua ,martini ,csaris4 #aecf4 ,ruellius1 ,johannes ,ruel1 ,jean4 ,de ,natura stirpium libri tres4 ,parisiis4 #aecf4 #aech ,turner1 ,william4 ,libellus de re herbaria novus1 in quo herbarum aliquot nomina greca1 latina1 et ,anglica habes1 una cum nominibus officinarum4444 ,londini apud ,joannem ,byddellum4 #aech4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,libellus de re herbaria novus 444 reprinted in facsimile1 with notes1 modern names1 and a life of the author1 by ,benjamin ,daydon ,jackson4 ,london1 #ahgg4 #aeci ,tragus1 ,hieronymus ,bock1 ,hieronymus4 ,new ,kreutterbuch von underscheydt1 wrckung und namen der kreutter1 444 gedruckt zu ,strassburg1 durch ,wendel ,rihel4 #aeci994 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,kreuter ,bch4 ,wendel ,rihel4 ,strasburg1 #aedf4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,de stirpium1 maxime earum1 qu in ,germania nostra nascuntur 444 nunc in ,latinam conversi1 ,interprete ,davide ,kybero 444 7,colophon37 ,argentorati ,excudebat ,wendelinus ,rihelius 444 #aeeb4 #aedb ,fuchsius1 ,leonhardus ,fuchs1 ,leonhard4 ,de historia stirpium444 ,basile1 in officina ,isingriniana4444 #aedb4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,new ,kreterbch4 ,michael ,isingrin4 ,basell1 #aedc4 ----- 7,another ,edition74 ,leonharti ,fuchsii medici1 primi de stirpium historia commentariorum tomi viv imagines1 in exiguam 444 formam contract4444 ,isingrin4 ,basile1 #aede4 ,gesnerus1 ,conradus ,gesner1 ,konrad4 ,catalogus plantarum ,latin1 graec1 ,germanic1 et ,gallic4444 ,tiguri apud ,christoph4 ,froschouerum1 #aedb4 #aedd ,matthiolus1 ,petrus ,andreas ,mattioli1 ,pierandrea4 ,di ,pedacio ,dioscoride ,anazarbeo libri cinque della historia et materia medicinale tradotta in lingua volgare italiana4444 ,venetia1 per ,nicolo de ,bascarina da ,pavone di ,brescia1 #aedd994 ---- ,commentarii1 in libros sex ,pedacii ,dioscoridis ,anazarbei1 de medica materia4444 ,venetiis 444 apud ,vincentium ,valgrisium4 #aeed4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,commentarii in sex libros ,pedacii ,dioscoridis ,anazarbei de ,medica materia1 444 ,venetiis1 ,ex ,officina ,valgrisiana4 #aefe4 #aedh ,turner1 ,william4 ,the names of herbes in ,greke1 ,latin1 ,englishe ,duche and ,frenche wyth the commune names that ,herbaries and ,apotecaries use4 ,john ,day and ,wyllyam ,setes4 ,london1 #aedh4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the ,names of ,herbes1 ,a4,d4 #aedh4 ,edited by ,james ,britten4 ,london1 #ahha4 #aeea ,turner1 ,william4 ,a new ,herball4 ,steven ,mierdman4 ,london1 #aeea4 ---- ,the seconde parte of ,vuilliam ,turners herball4 ,arnold ,birckman4 ,collen1 #aefb4 ---- ,the first and seconde partes of the ,herbal of ,william ,turner 444 with the ,third parte1 lately gathered4444 ,arnold ,birckman4 ,collen4 #aefh4 #aeec ,amatus1 ,lusitanus ,castello ,branco1 ,j4 ,r4 de4 ,in ,dioscoridis ,anazarbei de medica materia libros quinque enarrationes 444 ,venetiis1 #aeec4 7,colophon37 apud ,gualterum scotum4 ,bellonius1 ,petrus ,belon1 ,pierre4 ,de arboribus coniferis1 resiniferis1 aliis quoque nonnullis sempiterna fronde virentibus1 444 ,parisiis ,apud ,gulielmum ,cavellat1 444 #aeec4 ---- ,les ,observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses mmorables1 trouves en ,grece1 ,asie1 ,jude1 ,egypte1 ,arabie1 et autres pays estrades1 444 7,colophon37 ,imprim ,paris par ,benoist ,prvost4444 #aeec4 #aeed ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,cr deboeck4 7,colophon37 ,ghedruckt ,tantwerpen by ,jan vander ,loe4444 #aeed4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,histoire des plantes1444 ,nouvellement traduite 444 en ,franois par ,charles de scluse4 ,jean ,lo4 ,anvers4 #aeeg4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a copy of this book1 annotated in manuscript by ,henry ,lyte4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,a ,nievve ,herball1 or ,historie of ,plantes3444 nowe first translated out of ,french into ,english1 by ,henry ,lyte ,esquyer4 ,at ,london by me ,gerard ,dewes4444 #aegh4 #aeei ,maranta1 ,bartholomus4 ,methodi cognoscendorum simplicium libri tres4 ,venetiis1 ,ex officina ,erasmiana ,vincentii4 ,valgrisii1 #aeei4 #aefa ,cordus1 ,valerius4 ,in hoc volumine continentur ,valerii ,cordi 444 ,annotationes in ,pedacii ,dioscoridis 444 de ,medica materia 444 eiusdem ,val4 ,cordi histori stirpium lib4 ,,iiii4444 ,omnia 444 ,conr4 ,gesneri 444 collecta1 et prfationibus illustrata4 7,colophon37 ,argentorati excudebat ,josias ,rihelius4 #aefa4 #aefe ,mizaldus1 ,antonius ,mizauld1 ,antoine4 ,alexikepus1 seu auxiliaris hortus1 444 ,luteti1 ,apud ,federicum ,morellum4444 #aefe4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,artztgarten4 444 neuwlich verteutschet durch ,georgen ,benisch von ,bartfeld 444 zu ,basel bey ,peter ,perna4 #aege4 #aeff ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,frumentorum1 leguminum1 palustrium et aquatilium herbarum 444 historia4 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aeffdf4 #aefh ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,florum1 et coronariarum odoratarumque nonnullarum herbarum historia1 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aefh4 #aefi ,monardes1 ,nicolas4 ,dos libros1 el uno que trata de todas las cosas que traen de nuestras ,indias ,occidentales 444 ,impressos en ,sevilla en casa de ,hernando ,diaz4444 #aefi4 ---- ,segunda parte del libro1 de las cosas que se traen de nuestras ,indias ,occidentales4444 ,en ,sevilla ,en casa ,alonso ,escrivano4 #aega4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,joyfull newes out of the newe founde worlde1 wherein is declared the rare and singuler vertues of diverse 444 ,hearbes4444 ,englished by ,john ,frampton4 ,london1 ,w4 ,norton1 #aegg4 #aegj ,bombast von ,hohenheim 7,paracelsus74 ,ettliche ,tractatus des hocherfarnen unnd bermbtesten ,philippi ,theophrasti ,paracelsi4444 ,i4 ,von ,natrlichen dingen4 ,,ii4 ,beschreibung etilcher kretter4 ,,iii4 ,von ,metallen4 ,,iv4 ,von ,mineralen4 ,v4 ,von ,edlen ,gesteinen4 ,strassburg4 ,christian ,mllers ,erben4 #aegj4 #aegj-aega ,lobelius1 ,mathias de l',obel or de ,lobel1 ,mathias and ,pena1 ,petrus ,pena1 ,pierre4 ,stirpium adversaria nova4 ,londini4 #aegj4 7,colophon37 ,londini1 #aega4 444 excudebat prelum ,thom ,purftii4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,nova stirpium adversaria1 444 ,antverpi ,apud ,christophorum ,plantinum4 #aegf4 7,colophon37 ,londini1 excudebat prelum ,thom ,purftii4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,plantarum seu stirpium historia1 444 ,cui annexum est ,adversariorum volumen4 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aegf4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,kruydtbck4 ,t',antwerpen4 ,by ,christoffel ,plantyn4 #aeha4 #aega ,matthiolus1 ,petrus ,andreas ,mattioli1 ,pierandrea4 ,compendium ,de ,plantis omnibus1 444 de quibus scripsit suis in commentariis in ,dioscoridem editis4444 ,accessit prterea ad calcem ,opusculum de itinere1 quo ,verona in ,baldum montem ,plantarum refertissimum itur 444 ,francisco ,calceolario 444 ,venetiis1 ,in ,officina ,valgrisiana4 #aega4 ,winckler1 ,nicolaus4 ,chronica herbarum1 florum1 seminum1 444 ,august ,vindelicorum in officina ,typographica ,michalis ,mangeri4 #aega4 #aegd ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,purgantium aliarumque eo facientum1 tum et ,radicum1 ,convolvulorum ac deleteriarum herbarum histori libri iiii4 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini1 #aegd4 #aege ,carrichter1 ,bartholomus4 ,kreutterbch 444 ,gedruckt z ,strassburg 444 bey ,christian ,mller4 #aege4 #aegf ,clusus1 ,carolus l'cluse or l',escluse1 ,charles de4 ,caroli ,clusii atrebat4 ,rariorum aliquot stirpium per ,hispanias observatarum ,historia1444 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini1 444 #aegf4 #aegh ,thurneisserus1 ,leonhardus ,thurneisser zum ,thum1 ,leonhardt4 ,historia sive descriptio plantarum4444 7,colophon37 ,berlini ,excudebat ,michael ,hentzske4 #aegh4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,historia unnd ,beschreibung ,influentischer1 ,elementischer und ,natrlicher ,wirckungen1 ,aller fremden unnd ,heimischen ,erdgewechssen4444 7,colophon37 ,gedruckt zu ,berlin1 bey ,michael ,hentzsken4 #aegh4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,historia sive descriptio plantarum4444 ,coloni ,agrippin1 apud ,joannem ,gymnicum1444 #aehg4 #aehj ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,historia vitis vinique3 et stirpium nonnullarum aliarum4 ,coloni ,apud ,maternum ,cholinum4 #aehj4 #aeha ,lobelius1 ,mathias de l',obel or de ,lobel1 ,mathias4 ,plantarum seu stirpium icones4 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aeha4 ,the figures of ,clusus1 ,lobelius and ,dodonus arranged according to the scheme of ,lobelius4 #aehb-aehc ,rauwolff1 ,leonhard4 ,leonharti ,rauwolfen1444 ,aigentliche beschreibung der ,raiss1 so er vor diser zeit gegen ,auffgang inn die ,morgenlnder1444 7,colophon37 ,getruckt z ,laugingen1 durch ,leonhart ,reinmichel4 #aehb1 #aehc4 ,this is a book of travel1 but the fourth part1 which has a separate title-page1 dated #aehc1 contains a number of wood-cuts of foreign plants4 #aehc ,csalpinus1 ,andreas ,cesalpino1 ,andrea4 ,de plantis libri xvi4444 ,florenti1 ,apud ,georgium ,marescottum4 #aehc4 ,clusius1 ,carolus l'cluse or l',escluse1 ,charles de4 ,car4 ,clusii atrebatis ,rariorum aliquot ,stirpium1 per ,pannoniam1 ,austriam1 et vicinas 444 ,historia 444 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aehc4 ,dodonus1 ,rembertus ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,stirpium histori pemptades sex sive libri ,,xxx4 ,antverpi1 ,ex officina ,christophori ,plantini4 #aehc4 #aehd ,linocier1 ,geofroy4 ,l'histoire des plantes1 traduicte de latin en franois3 444 ,paris1 ,chez ,charles ,mac4444 #aehd4 #aehe ,durante1 ,castor4 ,herbario ,nuovo4444 ,roma1 ,per ,iacomo ,bericchia1 e ,iacomo ,turnierii1 #aehe4 #aehf ,matthiolus1 ,petrus ,andreas ,mattioli1 ,pierandrea4 ,de plantis ,epitome utilissima 444 aucta et locupletata1 ,d4 ,joachimo ,camerario1 444 accessit1 444 liber singularis de itinere 444 in ,baldum montem 444 auctore ,francisco ,calceolario ,francofurti ad ,moenum4 #aehf4 #aehf-aehg ,dalechampius1 ,jacobus d',alchamps or ,dalchamps1 ,jacques4 ,historia generalis plantarum1444 ,lugduni1 apud ,gulielmum ,rovillium4 #aehf1 #aehg4 #aehh ,camerarius1 ,joachim4 ,hortus medicus et philosophicus3 444 ,francofurti ad ,mnum4 #aehh4 ---- ,icones accurate 444 delineat prcipuarum stirpium1 quarum descriptiones tam in ,horto4444 ,impressum ,francofurti ad ,mnum4 #aehh4 ,these figures are generally bound up with the #8,hortus medicus4' ,porta1 ,johannes ,baptista ,porta1 ,giambattista4 ,phytognomonica4444 ,neapoli1 ,apud ,horatium ,saluianum4 #aehh4 #aehh-aeia ,theodorus1 ,jacobus ,theodor1 ,jacob1 or ,tabernmontanus1 ,jacobus ,theodorus4 ,neuw ,kreuterbuch1 444 ,nicolaus ,bassus ,franckfurt am ,mayn4 #aehh1 #aeia4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,eicones plantarum seu stirpium4 ,nicolaus ,bassus1 ,francofurti ad ,moenum1 #aeij4 ,this edition contains the figures only4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,neuw vollkommentlich ,kreuterbuch1444 gemehret1 ,durch ,casparum ,bauhinum4444 ,franckfurt am ,mayn1 ,durch ,nicolaum ,hoffman1 ,in verlegung ,johannis ,bassi und ,johann ,dreutels4 #afac4 #aeij ,matthiolus1 ,petrus ,andreas ,mattioli1 ,pierandrea4 ,kreuterbuch 444 gemehrt und gefertigt durch ,joachimum ,camerarium1 444 ,frankfurt a_/,m41 gedruckt bei ,johann ,feyerabend4 #aeij994 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,kreutterbuch 444 gemehret1 unnd verfertigt1 ,durch ,joachimum ,camerarium 444 ,gedruckt zu ,franckfurt am ,mayn4 #afjj4 #aeib ,alpinus1 ,prosper ,alpino1 ,prospero4 ,de plantis gypti4444 ,venetiis 444 ,apud ,franciscum de ,franciscis ,senensem4 #aeib4 ,columna1 ,fabius ,colonna1 ,fabio4 sive plantarum aliquot historia 444 ,ex ,officina ,horatii ,saluiani4 ,neapoli1 #aeib4 ,apud ,io4 ,jacobum ,carlinum1 et ,antonium ,pacem4 ,zaluzian1 ,adam ,zaluziansky von4 ,methodi herbari1 libri tres4 ,prag1 in officina ,georgii ,dacziceni4 #aeib4 #aeif ,bauhinus1 ,caspar ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 seu enumeratio plantarum4444 ,basile1 per ,sebastianum ,henricpetri4 #aeif4 #aeig ,gerard1 ,john ,gerarde1 ,john4 ,the ,herball or ,generall ,historie of ,plantes4444 ,imprinted at ,london by ,john ,norton4 #aeig4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the ,herball or ,generall ,historie of ,plantes4444 ,very much ,enlarged and ,amended by ,thomas ,johnson ,citizen and ,apothecarye of ,london4 ,london1 ,printed by ,adam ,islip1 ,joice ,norton and ,richard ,whitakers4 #afcc4 ,reprinted #afcf4 #afja ,bauhinus1 ,caspar ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 ,animadversiones in historiam generalem plantarum ,lugduni editam4444 ,francoforti1 ,excudebat ,melchior ,hartmann1 ,impensis ,nicolai ,bassi 444 #afja4 ,clusius1 ,carolus l'cluse or l',escluse1 ,charles de4 ,caroli ,clusii atrebatis1 444 rariorum plantarum historia4444 ,antverpi ,ex officina ,plantiniana ,apud ,joannem ,moretum4 #afja4 #afjf ,columna1 ,fabius ,colonna1 ,fabio4 ,minus cognitarum stirpium aliquot1 4444 ,rom4 ,apud ,guilielmum ,facciottum4 #afjf4 ,pars altera4 ,rom4 ,apud ,jacobum ,mascardum4 #afaf4 ,spigelius1 ,adrianus4 ,isagoges in rem herbariam ,libri ,duo4444 ,patavii1 ,apud ,paulum ,meiettum4 ,ex ,typographia ,laurentii ,pasquati4 #afjf4 #afji ,durante1 ,castor4 ,hortulus ,sanitatis1 ,das ist1 ,ein 444 ,ghrtlin der ,gesundtheit 444 in unsere hoch ,teutsche ,sprach versetzt1 ,durch ,petrum ,uffenbachium1 444 ,getruckt zu ,franckfort am ,myn1 durch ,nicolaum ,hoffmann4444 #afji4 #afaa ,renealmus1 ,paulus ,reneaulme1 ,paul4 ,specimen ,histori ,plantarum4 ,parisiis1 ,apud ,hadrianum ,beys 444 #afaa4 #afac ,beslerus1 ,basilius ,besler1 ,basil4 ,hortus ,eystettensis 444 ,eichstadt4 #afac4 #afad ,passus1 ,crispian ,passe1 ,crispin de or ,crispian de4 ,hortus floridus 444 ,extant ,arnhemii ,apud ,ioannem ,ianssonium 444 #afad4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,a ,garden of ,flowers4444 ,printed at ,utrecht ,by ,salomon de ,roy4 #afae4 #afaf ,olorinus1 ,johannes ,sommer1 ,johann1 aus ,zwickau4 ,centuria ,herbarum ,mirabilium ,das ist3 ,hundert ,wunderkruter4444 ,magdeburgk1 ,bey ,levin ,braunss4444 #afaf4 ---- ,centuria ,arborum ,mirabilium ,das ist3 ,hundert ,wunderbume4444 ,magdeburgk1 ,bey ,levin ,braunss4444 #afaf4 #afai ,bauhinus1 ,joannes ,bauhin1 ,jean and ,cherlerus1 ,j4 ,h4 ,cherler1 ,j4 ,h44 ,j4 ,b4 444 et ,j4 ,h4 ,c4 444 histori plantarum generalis 444 prodromus4444 ,ebroduni1 ,ex ,typographia ,societatis ,caldorian4 #afai4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,historia plantarum universalis 444 ,quam recensuit et auxit 444 ,chabrus 444 publici fecit1 ,fr4 ,lud4 a ,graffenried4444 ,ebroduni1 #afej1 #ea4 #afbj ,bauhinus1 ,caspar ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 ,theatri botanici4444 ,francofurti ad ,mnum1 ,typis ,pauli ,jacobi1 impensis ,joannis ,treudelii4 #afbj4 #afbc ,bauhinus1 ,caspar ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 theatri botanici4444 ,basile ,helvet4 ,sumptibus et typis ,ludovici ,regis4 #afbc4 #afbe ,popp1 ,johann ,poppe1 ,johann4 ,kruter ,buch 444 nach rechter art der ,signaturen der himlischen ,einfliessung nicht allein beschrieben1 444 ,leipzig1 ,in ,verlegung ,zachari ,schrers1 und ,matthi ,gtzen 444 #afbe4 #afbh ,brosse1 ,guy de la4 ,de la nature1 vertu1 et utilit des plantes4444 ,a ,paris1 ,chez ,rollin ,baragnes 444 #afbh4 #afbi ,johnson1 ,thomas4 ,descriptio itineris plantarum investigationis 444 in agrum ,cantianum4444 7,london1 #afbi4799 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,descriptio ,itineris ,plantarum 444 in ,agrum ,cantianum 444 et ,enumeratio ,plantarum in ,ericeto ,hampstediano locisque vicinis ,crescentium4444 ,excudebat1 ,tho4 ,cotes4 ,london #afcb4 ,parkinson1 ,john4 ,paradisi in ,sole ,paradisus ,terrestris4 ,a ,garden of all sorts of pleasant flowers which our ,english ayre will permitt to be noursed up3444 7,colophon37 ,london1 ,printed by ,humfrey ,lownes and ,robert ,young at the signe of the ,starre on ,bread-street hill4 #afbi4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,paradisi in ,sole ,paradisus ,terrestris444 ,faithfully ,reprinted from the ,edition of #afbi4 ,methuen ,co4 ,london1 #aijd4 #afca ,donati1 ,antonio4 ,trattato de semplici1 444 in ,venetia1 444 ,appresso ,pietro ,maria ,bertano4 #afca4 #afcd ,johnson1 ,thomas4 ,mercurius ,botanicus3 444 ,londini1 ,excudebat ,thom4 ,cotes4 #afcd4 #afdj ,parkinson1 ,john4 ,theatrum botanicum3 ,the ,theater of ,plants4 ,or1 an ,herball of a ,large ,extent4444 ,london1 ,printed by ,tho4 ,cotes4 #afdj4 #afdi ,culpeper1 ,nicholas4 ,a ,physicall ,directory or ,a translation of the ,london ,dispensatory ,made by the ,colledge of ,physicians in ,london 444 with many hundred additions4444 ,london1 ,printed for ,peter ,cole 444 #afdi4 ---- 7,another ,edition74 ,the ,english ,physitian enlarged4444 ,london1 ,printed by ,peter ,cole 444 #afec4 #afej ,how1 ,william4 ,phytologia ,britannica1 natales exhibens ,indigenarum ,stirpium sponte ,emergentium4 ,londoni1 ,typis ,ric4 ,cotes1 ,impensis1 ,octaviani ,pulleyn4 #afej4 #afef ,bombast von ,hohenheim ,paracelsus4 ,paracelsus his ,dispensatory and ,chirurgery4444 ,faithfully ,englished1 by ,w4 ,d41 ,london3 ,printed by ,t4 ,m4 for ,philip ,chetwind4444 #afef4 ,cole1 ,william ,coles1 ,william4 ,the ,art of ,simpling4 ,london1 ,printed by ,j4 ,g4 for ,nath3 ,brook4 #afef4 #afeg ,cole1 ,william ,coles1 ,william4 ,adam in ,eden3 or1 ,natures ,paradise4444 ,london1 ,printed by ,j4 ,streater1 for ,nathaniel ,brooke4444 #afeg4 #afeh ,bauhinus1 ,caspar ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 ,caspari ,bauhini 444 ,theatri botanici sive histori plantarum 444 liber primus editus opera et cura ,io4 ,casp4 ,bauhini4 ,basile4 ,apud ,joannem ,knig4 #afeh4 #afei ,lovell1 ,robert4 1 sive ,enchiridion botanicum1 or a compleat ,herball4444 ,oxford1 ,printed by ,william ,hall1 for ,ric4 ,davis4444 #afei4 #affb ,jonstonus1 ,johannes ,jonston or ,johnstone1 ,john4 ,dendrographias ,sive ,histori ,naturalis de ,arboribus et ,fruticibus 444 libri decem4444 ,francofurti ad ,moenum4 ,typis ,hieronymi ,polichii4 ,sumptibus ,hredum ,matthi ,meriani4 #affb4 #affd ,turner1 ,robert4 4 ,the ,brittish ,physician3 or1 ,the ,nature and ,vertues of ,english ,plants4 ,london1 ,printed by ,r4 ,wood for ,nath4 ,brook4 #affd4 #afff ,chabrus1 ,dominicus4 ,stirpium icones et sciagraphia4444 ,genev1 ,typis ,phil4 ,gamoneti et ,iac4 de la ,pierre4 #afff4 #affg ,aldrovandus1 ,ulysses ,aldrovandi1 ,ulisse4 ,ulyssis ,aldrovandi 444 ,dendrologi naturalis scilicet arborum histori libri duo4444 ,bononi typis ,jo4 ,baptistae ,ferronii4 #affg4 #afgj ,nylandt1 ,petrus4 ,de ,nederlandtse ,herbarius of ,kruydt-,boeck1 444 t',amsterdam1 voor ,marcus ,doornick1 444 #afgj4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,a ,,list1 ,,in ,,alphabetical ,,order1 ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,critical ,,and ,,historical ,,works ,,dealing ,,with ,,the ,,subjects ,,discussed ,,in ,,this ,,book4 ,albertus ,magnus4 ,see ,fellner1 ,s42 ,meyer1 ,e4 and ,jessen1 ,c42 ,pouchet1 ,f4 ,a4 ,alcock1 ,randal ,h4 ,botanical ,names for ,english ,readers4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,amherst1 the ,hon4 ,alicia ,the ,hon4 ,mrs ,evelyn ,cecil4 ,bibliography of ,works on ,gardening4 ,reprinted from the ,second ,edition of #8,a ,history of ,gardening in ,england4' ,london1 #ahig4 ,apuleius ,platonicus4 ,see ,cockayne1 ,o42 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 7#aijc74 ,arber1 ,a4 ,see ,robertson1 ,a4 ,avoine1 ,p4 ,j4 d'4 ,see ,morren1 ,c4 ,bauhin1 ,gaspard4 ,see ,hess1 ,j4 ,w4 ,blades1 ,w4 ,the ,plantin ,museum4 ,macmillan's ,magazine4 ,vol4 #ch1 p4 #bhb4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahgh4 ,breitkopf1 ,j4 ,g4 ,i4 ,versuch den ,ursprung der ,spielkarten1444 und den ,anfang der ,holzschneidekunst in ,europa zu erforschen4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahja4 ,britten1 ,james4 ,the ,names of ,herbes1 by ,william ,turner1 ,a4,d4 #aedh4 ,edited by ,james ,britten4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,busbecq1 ,a4-,g4 ,see ,kickx1 ,j4 ,camerarius1 ,j4 ,see ,irmisch1 ,t4 ,h4 ,camus1 ,giulio4 ,l',opera ,salernitana #8,circa ,instans' ed il testo primitivo del #8,grant ,herbier en ,francoys4' ,memorie della ,regia ,accademia di ,scienze1 ,lettere ed ,arti in ,modena4 ,ser4 ,,ii4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,mem4 della ,sezione di ,lettere1 p4 #di4 #ahhf4 ,choulant1 ,ludwig4 ,botanische und anatomische ,abbildungen des ,mittelalters4 ,archiv fr die zeichnenden ,knste4 ,jahrg4 ,,iii4 p4 #ahh4 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 ,choulant1 ,ludwig4 ,handbuch der ,bcherkunde fr die aeltere ,medicin4 ,leipzig1 #ahbh4 ,choulant1 ,ludwig4 ,macer ,floridus de viribus herbarum 444 secundum codices manuscriptos 444 recensuit 444 ,ludovicus ,choulant4444 ,lipsiae1 #ahcb4 ,clusius1 ,carolus4 ,see ,istvnffi1 ,gy4 de2 ,legr1 ,ludovic2 ,roze1 ,e42 ,morren1 ,e4 ,cockayne1 ,o4 ,leechdoms1 ,wortcunning1 and ,starcraft of ,early ,england4 ,chronicles and ,memorials of ,great ,britain and ,ireland during the ,middle ,ages4 ,rolls ,series1 ,vol4 ,i4 #ahfd4 ,translation of ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus4 ,colvin1 ,sir ,sidney4 ,early ,engraving and ,engravers in ,england #aede-afie4 ,london1 #aije4 ,conrad von ,megenberg4 ,see ,pfeiffer1 ,fr4 ,copinger1 ,w4 ,a4 ,supplement to ,hain's ,repertorium ,bibliographicum4 ,london1 #ahie1 #ahih1 #aijb4 ,cordus1 ,v4 ,see ,irmisch1 ,t4 ,h4 ,czerny1 ,j4 ,see ,maiwald1 ,v4 ,daubeny1 ,charles4 ,lectures on ,roman ,husbandry4 ,oxford1 #aheg4 ,degeorge1 ,lon4 ,la ,maison ,plantin ,anvers4 ,deuxime dition4 ,bruxelles1 #ahgh4 ,dioscorides4 ,codex ,anici ,julian picturis illustratus1 nunc ,vindobonensis ,med4 ,gr4 ,i4 phototypice editus4 ,moderante ,josepho de ,karabacek4 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 #aijf4 ,dodoens1 ,rembert4 ,see ,dodonus1 ,rembertus4 ,dodonus1 ,rembertus4 ,see ,meerbeck1 ,p4 ,j4 van2 ,morren1 ,c4 and d',avoine1 ,p4 ,j4 ,duff1 ,e4 ,gordon4 ,early ,printed ,books4 ,books about ,books1 edited by ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,fellner1 ,stephan4 ,albertus ,magnus als ,botaniker4 ,jahres-,ber4 des kais4 kn4 ,ober-,gymnasiums zu den ,schotten in ,wien4 ,wien1 #ahha4 ,gerard1 ,j4 ,see ,jackson1 ,b4 ,d4 ,gesner1 ,konrad4 ,see ,jardine1 ,sir ,w42 ,simler1 ,josias2 ,trew1 ,c4 ,j4 ,giacosa1 ,piero4 ,magistri ,salernitani nondum editi4 ,catalogo ragionato della esposizione di storia della medicina aperta in ,torino nel #ahih4 ,torino1 #aija4 ,in #b parts1 text and atlas4 ,green1 ,e4 ,l4 ,landmarks of ,botanical ,history4 ,a study of ,certain ,epochs in the ,development of the science of ,botany4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,prior to #aefb ,a4,d4 ,smithsonian ,misc4 ,coll4 ,no4 #ahgj4 ,pt4 of ,vol4 #ed1 ,washington1 #aiji4 ,hain1 ,ludwig4 ,repertorium ,bibliographicum4 ,stuttgart1 ,tbingen and ,paris1 #ahbf1 #ahbg1 #ahca1 #ahch4 ,haller1 ,albertus von ,haller1 ,albrecht von4 ,bibliotheca botanica4 ,tiguri1 #agga1 #aggb4 ,hartmann1 ,franz4 ,the ,life of ,philippus ,theophrastus ,bombast of ,hohenheim known by the name of ,paracelsus4 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,hatton1 ,richard ,g4 ,the ,craftsman's ,plant-,book4 ,london1 #aiji4 ,henslow1 ,g4 ,medical ,works of the ,fourteenth ,century together with a ,list of ,plants ,recorded in ,contemporary ,writings1 with their ,identifications4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,hess1 ,j4 ,w4 ,kaspar ,bauhin's1 444 ,leben und ,charakter4 ,basel1 #ahfj4 ,irmisch1 ,t4 ,h4 ,ueber einige ,botaniker des #af4 ,jahrhunderts4 ff4 ,prfung des f4 ,schwartzburg4 ,gymnasiums zu ,sondershausen4 ,sondershausen1 #ahfb4 ,this memoir includes an account of ,valerius ,cordus and ,joachim ,camerarius the younger4 ,istvnffi1 ,gy4 de4 ,caroli ,clusii ,atrebatis ,icones ,fungorum in ,pannonis ,observatorum sive ,codex ,clusii ,lugduno ,batavensis 444 cura et sumptibus ,dris ,gy4 de ,istvnffi4 ,budapestini1 #ahih-aijj4 ,the part issued in #aijj includes a biography4 ,jackson1 ,b4 ,daydon4 ,a ,catalogue of ,plants cultivated in the ,garden of ,john ,gerard1 in the years #aeif-aeii4 ,edited 444 by ,b4 ,d4 ,jackson4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,this work includes a life of ,gerard4 ,jackson1 ,b4 ,daydon4 ,guide to the ,literature of ,botany4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,jackson1 ,b4 ,daydon4 ,libellus de re herbaria novus1 by ,william ,turner1 originally published in #aech1 reprinted in facsimile1 with notes1 modern names1 and a life of the author by ,b4 ,d4 ,j4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,jackson1 ,b4 ,daydon4 ,the ,history of ,botanic ,illustration4 ,trans4 ,hertfordshire ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xii4 p4 #ade1 #aijf 7for #aijc-aije74 ,jackson1 ,j41 and ,chatto1 ,w4 ,a4 ,a treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,jardine1 ,sir ,w4 ,the ,naturalist's ,library4 ,edited by ,sir ,william ,jardine4 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,memoir of ,gesner4 ,edinburgh1 #ahdc4 ,kickx1 ,j4 ,esquisses sur les ouvrages de quelques anciens naturalistes belges4 ,bull1 de l'acad4 royale des sciences et belles-lettres de ,bruxelles4 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #bjb1 #ahch4 ,this memoir deals with ,auger-,gislain ,busbecq4 ,killermann1 ,seb4 ,zur ersten ,einfhrung amerikanischer ,pflanzen im #af4 ,jahrhundert4 ,naturwissenschaftliche ,wochenschrift4 ,neue ,folge1 ,bd4 ,,viii4 p4 #aic1 #aiji4 ,killermann1 ,seb4 ,a4 ,drers ,pflanzen- und ,tierzeichnungen und ihre ,bedeutung fr die ,naturgeschichte4 ,studien zur deutschen ,kunstgeschichte4 #aai4 ,heft4 ,strassburg1 #aiaj4 ,konrad von ,megenberg4 ,see ,pfeiffer1 ,fr4 l'cluse or l',escluse1 ,charles de4 ,see ,clusius1 ,carolus4 ,legr1 ,ludovic4 ,la ,botanique en ,provence au ,,xvie sicle4 ,pierre ,pena et ,mathias de ,lobel4 ,marseille1 #ahii4 ,louis ,anguillara1 ,pierre ,belon1 ,charles de l',escluse1 ,antoine ,constantin4 ,marseille1 #aija4 ,l',obel or ,lobel1 ,mathias de4 ,see ,lobelius1 ,mathias4 ,lobelius1 ,mathias4 ,see ,morren1 ,e4 ,macer ,floridus4 ,see ,choulant1 ,ludwig4 ,macfarlane1 ,john4 ,antoine ,vrard4 ,bibliographical ,society4 ,illustrated ,monographs1 ,no4 #g4 ,london1 #aijj for #ahii4 ,maiwald1 ,v4 ,geschichte der ,botanik in ,bhmen4 ,wien und ,leipzig1 #aijd4 ,this book contains an account of the work of ,czerny and ,zaluziansky4 ,meerbeeck1 ,p4 ,j4 van4 ,recherches historiques et critiques sur la vie et les ouvrages de ,rembert ,dodoens 7,dodonus74 ,malines1 #ahda4 ,meyer1 ,e4 ,h4 ,f4 ,geschichte der ,botanik4 ,knigsberg1 #ahed-aheg4 ,the standard work on the history of botany to the end of the #afth century4 ,meyer1 ,e4 ,h4 ,f41 and ,jessen1 ,c4 ,alberti ,magni ex ordine prdicatorum de vegetabilibus libri ,,vii1 444 editionem criticam ab ,ernesto ,meyero coeptam absolvit ,carolus ,jessen4 ,berolini1 #ahfg4 ,morren1 ,e4 ,charles de l',escluse1 sa vie et ses uvres1 #aebf-afji4 ,lige1 #ahge4 ,there are some original notes in a review of this work by ,b4 ,d4 ,jackson1 ,journal of ,botany1 ,vol4 ,,xiii4 7,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,,iv47 #ahge1 p4 #cde4 ,morren1 ,e4 ,matthias de l',obel1 sa vie et ses uvres1 #aech-afaf4 ,extrait du ,bull4 de la ,fd4 des ,soc4 d'hort4 de ,belgique4 ,lige1 #ahge4 ,morren1 ,c41 et d',avoine1 ,p4 ,j4 loge de ,rembert ,dodoens1 444 suivi de la ,concordance des espces vgtales dcrites et figures par ,rembert ,dodoens avec les noms que ,linn et les auteurs modernes leur ont donns4 ,malines1 #ahej4 ,muther1 ,richard4 ,die deutsche ,bcherillustration der ,gothik und ,frhrenaissance 7#adfj-aecj74 ,mnchen und ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 ,netter1 ,william4 ,see ,peters1 ,hermann4 ,paracelsus4 ,see ,hartmann1 ,franz2 ,strunz1 ,franz2 ,weber1 ,f4 ,p4 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,english ,herbals4 ,trans4 ,bibl4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #abj1 #aijh 7for #aijf-aijh7 summary of a paper4 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,english ,herbals4 ,trans4 ,bibl4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #bii1 #aiab 7for #aiaj-aiaa74 ,this article is a reprint of the earlier paper of the same title1 with figures4 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,old ,herbals3 ,german and ,italian4 ,the ,magazine of ,art4 ,vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #cfb1 #ahhe4 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,on the #8,herbarius' and #8,hortus ,sanitatis4' ,trans4 ,bibl4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #fc1 #aijc 7for #aijj-aijb74 ,peters1 ,hermann4 ,pictorial ,history of ,ancient ,pharmacy 444 ,translated by ,dr ,william ,netter4 ,chicago1 #ahhi4 ,pfeiffer1 ,franz4 ,das ,buch der ,natur von ,konrad von ,megenberg 444 herausgegeben von ,dr ,franz ,pfeiffer4 ,stuttgart1 #ahfa4 ,pitton ,tournefort1 ,josephus4 ,institutiones rei herbari4 ,ed4 altera4 ,tomus primus4 ,parisiis1 #agjj4 ,pp4 #a-ge of this work are concerned with the history of botany4 ,plantin1 ,c4 ,see ,blades1 ,w42 ,degeorge1 ,l42 ,rooses1 ,m4 ,pouchet1 ,f4 ,a4 ,histoire des sciences naturelles au moyen ge ou ,albert le ,grand et son poque1 considrs comme point de dpart de l'cole exprimentale4 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,pritzel1 ,g4 ,a4 ,thesaurus literatur botanic 444 editionem novam reformatam4444 ,lipsiae1 #ahgb4 ,pulteney1 ,richard4 ,historical and ,biographical ,sketches of the ,progress of ,botany in ,england1 from its ,origin to the ,introduction of the ,linnean ,system4 ,london1 #agij4 ,robertson1 ,a4 ,arber1 ,a44 ,english ,herbals4 ,popular ,science ,monthly4 ,vol4 ,,lxv4 p4 #fe1 #aijd4 ,rooses1 ,max4 ,christophe ,plantin imprimeur anversois4 #bnd ed4 ,anvers1 #ahij4 ,roth1 ,f4 ,w4 ,e4 ,jacob ,theodor aus ,bergzabern1 genannt ,tabernmontanus4 ,botanische ,zeitung4 ,jahrg4 #eg1 ,abth ,i4 p4 #aje1 #ahii4 ,roze1 ,ernest4 ,charles de l',escluse d',arras le propagateur de la pomme de terre au xvie sicle4 ,sa biographie et sa correspondance4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,sachs1 ,julius von4 ,history of ,botany #aecj-ahfj4 ,transl4 by ,h4 ,e4 ,f4 ,garnsey4 ,oxford1 #ahij4 ,schelenz1 ,hermann4 ,geschichte der ,pharmazie4 ,berlin1 #aijd4 ,simler1 ,josias4 ,vita 444 ,conradi ,gesneri 444 ,tiguri excudebat ,froschouerus4 #aeff4 ,sprengel1 ,k4 ,p4 ,j4 ,geschichte der ,botanik4 ,altenburg und ,leipzig4 #ahag1 #ah4 ,sprengel1 ,k4 ,p4 ,j4 ,theophrast's ,naturgeschichte der ,gewchse4 ,uebersetzt und erlutert von ,k4 ,sprengel4 ,altona1 #ahbb4 ,strunz1 ,franz4 ,theophrastus ,paracelsus4 ,das ,buch ,paragranum4 ,herausgegeben und eingeleitet von ,d4 phil4 ,franz ,strunz4 ,leipzig1 #aijc4 ,tabernmontanus1 ,jacobus ,theodorus4 ,see ,theodor1 ,jacob4 ,theodor1 ,jacob4 ,see ,roth1 ,f4 ,w4 ,e4 ,theophrastus4 ,see ,sprengel1 ,k4 ,p4 ,j4 ,treviranus1 ,l4 ,c4 ,die ,anwendung des ,holzschnittes zur bildlichen ,darstellung von ,pflanzen4 ,leipzig1 #ahee4 ,trew1 ,c4 ,j4 ,librorum botanicorum catalogi duo4444 ,norimberg ,stanno ,fleischmanniano4 #ageb4 ,trew1 ,c4 ,j4 ,opera botanica per duo saecula desiderata 444 ex bibliotheca ,d4 ,christophori ,jacobi ,trew4 ,norimberg impensis ,jo4 ,mich4 ,seligmanni4 ,typis ,jo4 ,josephi ,fleischmanni1 #agea4 ,turner1 ,william4 ,see ,britten1 ,james2 ,jackson1 ,b4 ,d4 ,vrard1 ,a4 ,see ,macfarlane1 ,j4 ,weber1 ,f4 ,p4 ,a ,portrait ,medal of ,paracelsus on his ,death in #aeda4 ,reprinted from the ,numismatic ,chronicle4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4 #crd ser41 pp4 #fj-ga4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,winckler1 ,emil4 ,geschichte der ,botanik4 ,frankfurt a4 ,m4 #ahed4 ,wootton1 ,a4 ,c4 ,chronicles of ,pharmacy4 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,zaluziansky1 ,a4 ,see ,maiwald1 ,v4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the dates refer1 in each case1 to the particular edition from which the figures have been copied1 which is not always the first4 ,for fuller titles and dates of first editions1 see ,appendix ,i4 #b root-diggers4 #c drug-sellers4 #d ,lucian1 #8,dialogues of the ,gods1' ,,xiii4 #e ,translated from the second 7,augsburg7 edition of #adhe4 #f ,garden of health4 #g 8,the individual herbs of the earth1 called simples40 #h ,the expression in the ,french original is1 8homme ne femme ne pourra nuire en ceste maison40 #i ,various dates are given by different authors for the first edition of the #8,dispensatorium1' but #aedf seems to be the best attested4 ,i have not seen any edition prior to #aeih4 #aj ,the name ,kammermeister or ,camerarius was adopted by ,joachim ,camerarius the elder1 in place of the family name of ,liebhard4 #aa ,there has been some uncertainty about this date1 but ,meerbeck 7see ,appendix ,,ii7 seems to have proved that #aeag is correct4 #ab ,the fullest and most correct form of his name is probably 8,jules-,charles de l',escluse40 #ac ,university ,library1 ,leyden1 ,department of ,manuscripts1 ,codex ,no4 #cjc4 #ad ,according to ,legr1 the word 8,adversaria0 is equivalent to 8livre-journal10 i4e4 day-book in the commercial sense4 #ae 8quem ego emptum cupivissem1 sed me deterruit pretium3 nam centum ducatis indicabatur1 summa csarei non mei marsupii4 ,ego instare non desinam donec csarem impulero ut tam prclarum autorem ex ill servitute redimat40 ,epist4 ,,iv4 p4 #cib4 ,quoted by ,kickx1 ,bull4 ,acad4 roy4 ,bruxelles1 ,vol4 v4 p4 #bjb1 #ahch4 #af #8,ekphrasis1' #afaf1 pp4 #bde etc4 #ag a chart or register4 #ah ,the n is inverted in the original1 no doubt a misprint4 #ai ,the spelling 8,gerarde0 on the title-page of #8,the ,herball' is believed to be an error4 ,see #8,a ,catalogue of ,plants cultivated in the garden of ,john ,gerard1' edited by ,b4 ,d4 ,jackson1 ,london1 #ahgf4 #bj ,orkney ,islands4 #ba p4 xlv4 #bb ,hector ,boethius1 #8,heir beginnis the hystory and croniklis of ,scotland4444 ,translatit laitly in our vulgar and commoun langage1 be maister ,johne ,bellenden4444 ,and ,imprentit in ,edinburgh1 be me ,thomas ,davidson' #aecf 7,cap4 ,,xiv4 of the #8,cosmographie'74 #bc #8,turner on ,birds3 444 first published by ,doctor ,william ,turner1 #aedd4' ,edited by ,a4 ,h4 ,evans1 ,cambridge1 p4 #bg1 #aijc4 ,the original passage will be found in ,avium prcipuarum4444 ,per ,dn4 ,guilielmum ,turnerum1 444 ,coloni excudebat ,ioan4 ,gymnicus1 #aedd4 #bd ,quoted from ,dr ,o4 ,cockayne's translation of an ,anglo-,saxon manuscript of the eleventh century4 ,see ,appendix ,,ii4 #be ,the descriptions here quoted are from the edition of #aebi4 #bf ,the expression 8yelowe flowre0 is an indication of the ,continental origin of the ,grete ,herball4 ,the plant intended is obviously not our ,british ,oxalis acetosella ,l42 it may possibly be ,o4 corniculata ,l4 #bg ,hypericum androsmum ,l4 #bh ,stamen warp or thread4 #bi #8,minus cognitarum stirpium 444 4' #afaf4 ,pars altera1 ,cap4 ,,xxvii4 p4 #fb 8tam in hac1 quam in aliis plantis1 non enim ex foliis1 sed ex flore1 seminisque1 conceptaculo1 et ipso potius semine1 plantarum affinitatem dijudicamus40 #cj 8plerisque nomen imposuimus1 perspicuitatis gratia1 cuius nomine communiter nota aliqua qu quolibet in planta observari potest1 nomini addita40 #ca 8,transit etiam in arborem in quibusdam regionibus ,ricinus1 alibi annua stirps40 #cb 8uti ,d4 ,mathia ,lobelio444singul videlicet congeneres ac sibi mutuo affines1 digest sunt40 ,dedication to #8,plantarum seu stirpium icones1' #aeha4 #cc ,codex ,vossianus ,latinus in ,quarto ,no4 #i4 #cd 8wan die figuren nit anders synd dann ein ougenweid und ein an zeigung geben ist die weder schriben noch lesen kndent40 #ce ,pierre ,belon1 ,les ,observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses mmorables4444 ,paris1 #aeec4 #cf 8,ich wirdt ,monarcha1 unnd mein wird die ,monarchey sein40 ,vorrede in dem ,buch ,paragranum4 ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 #8,das ,buch ,paragranum1' ,herausgegeben 444 von ,dr phil4 ,fr4 ,strunz1 ,leipzig1 #aijc4 #cg ,the name of this botanist is spelt 8,coles0 on the title-pages of his works1 but the spelling 8,cole0 appears to be more correct4 #ch 8,doctrina ver de signaturis stirpium1 nullo alicuius stimationis veterum testimonium accepit3 deinde tam fluxa et incerta est1 ut pro scientia aut doctrina nullatenus habenda videatur40 #8,pemptades1' ,book ,i4 ,cap4 ,,xi4 #aehc4 #ci #8,de la nature1 vertu1 et utilit des plantes1' p4 #bgh1 #afbh4 #dj ,maclagan1 ,t4 ,j4 #8,influenza and ,salicin1' ,the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,vol4 ,,xxxi4 p4 #ccg1 #ahib4 #da ,see article on #8,astrology1' ,the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 eleventh edn4 ,cambridge1 #aiaj4 #db ,the edition of #aehg was used in making this translation4 #dc ,printed 8hoth0 in the edition of #afec from which these quotations are taken4 #dd 8,sic enim ordine1 quo nihil pulchrius in clo1 aut in ,sapientis animo14440 #de ,the initials 8,w4 ,c40 may refer either to ,william ,copland or to ,walter ,cary4 #df ,e4 ,h4 ,f4 ,meyer 7,geschichte der ,botanik1 ,vol4 #d1 #aheg1 p4 #cdd7 refers to an edition of this work published in #aefe1 but ,i have not been able to verify this date4 ,,index ,achillea1 #add ,adam in ,eden of ,cole1 #baj ,adder's-tongue ,fern1 #baj1 #baa 8,adversaria10 ,definition of the word1 #gh milius ,macer1 #dj sculapius1 #g1 #cf ,aggregator de ,simplicibus1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin ,albartus ,magnus1 see ,albertus ,magnus ,albert1 ,bishop of ,ratisbon1 see ,albertus ,magnus ,albert of ,bollstadt1 see ,albertus ,magnus ,albertus ,magnus1 #c-e1 #g1 #aaf1 #aai1 #abj1 #acd-acf ,albertus ,magnus1 ,work erroneously attributed to1 #e1 #bae ,aldrovandi1 ,u41 #aih ,alchamps1 ,j4 d'1 #gd1 #ic1 #ig-ii1 #aab1 #adc1 #ade1 #aea1 #aif ,alfred1 ,king1 #ce ,alg1 #aea 8,alleluya01 #de ,aloe1 #adf1 #agg ,alpino1 ,prospero1 #hh-ij1 #aif1 #aig ,alpinus1 ,p41 see ,alpino1 ,p4 ,amatus ,lusitanus1 #i1 #fb ,amber1 #cj1 #ca ,american plants1 described by ,monardes1 #ajd-ajf ,american plants1 figured by ,fuchs1 #fb ,anatomy of ,plants1 #g1 #aaf1 #bba ,andrew1 ,l41 #de1 #df ,andrewe1 ,l41 see ,andrew1 ,l4 ,anemone hepatica1 #adf ,angiosperms1 #aea ,annotationes 444 ,dioscoridis of ,cordus1 #ff ,antony 7,marcus ,antonius71 #h ,antwerp1 ,printing at1 #gj-gb ,apollo1 #cf ,apothecaries' ,company1 ,a botanical excursion of the1 #aac ,apuleius ,platonicus1 #aa-ab ,apuleius ,platonicus1 ,the ,herbarium of1 #aa-ae1 #af1 #bh1 #ce-cg1 #aee-aeg1 #aei1 #bjd1 #bbc ,aquilegia1 #abj ,arab physicians1 #c ,arbolayre1 #bd 8,arbor tristis01 #he1 #hf ,arboribus1 ,de of ,belon1 #aif ,argemone1 #adh ,aristolochia1 #dc ,aristotelian botany1 #b-e1 #aaf-aah ,aristotle1 #b-d1 #f1 #ai1 #aaf1 #aai ,arnaldus1 see ,arnold de ,nova ,villa ,arnold de ,nova ,villa1 #ag1 #ah ,art of ,simpling1 ,the of ,cole1 #baa1 #bai ,artemisia 7,wormwood or ,mugwort71 #cf1 #dc1 #de1 #eg1 #eh1 #bai ,arum1 #adf1 #aeg1 #ahj ,askham1 ,anthony1 #ci ,askham's ,herbal1 #ci1 #dj ,asparagus1 #age ,aspen1 #e ,astragalus tragacantha1 #add ,astrology1 #bad ,astrology1 ,botanical1 #ci1 #bab-bbj ,augsburg1 ,books printed at1 #aa1 #ad1 #ai1 #aeg1 #afe 8,auricula muris01 #age ,avicenna1 #ba1 #bjf1 #bjg ,bmler1 ,h41 #aa ,banckes1 ,r41 #ch1 #dj ,banckes' ,herbal1 #ch-dj1 #abb ,barberry1 #aig 8,barnakle ,tree01 #aji-aac ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 #aj1 #aa1 #ch1 #aeh ,bartholomew de ,glanville1 see ,bartholomus ,anglicus ,basilisk1 #cb ,basing ,house1 ,siege of1 #aac ,basle1 ,books printed at1 #fj1 #aaj ,basle1 ,university of1 #ij1 #ic1 #id ,bassus1 ,n41 #fh ,batthyny1 ,baron ,boldizsr de1 #gg1 #gh ,bauhin1 ,caspar1 see ,bauhin1 ,gaspard ,bauhin1 ,gaspard1 #hj1 #hh1 #ic1 #id-if1 #ih1 #aae1 #acj-acb1 #acf1 #aci1 #adj1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbf ,bauhin1 ,jean1 #gd1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #ih1 #ii1 #aib1 #bbb1 #bbf ,bauhinus1 see ,bauhin 8,bausor01 #bi ,bay ,tree1 #bae ,bean1 #c1 #aed ,beech1 #e ,bellonius1 ,p41 see ,belon1 ,p4 ,belon1 ,p41 #aif 8,bernicles10 ,gyraldus and ,octavian on1 #aab ,besler1 ,b41 #bjj 8,beta ,cretica semine aculeato01 #acj 8,beta nigra01 #acj ,bird's-nest ,orchid1 #adh ,blankaart1 ,s41 #bjb ,boccone1 ,p41 #bjb ,bock1 ,h4 7,tragus1 ,h471 #ce1 #dg1 #ej-eh1 #fj1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #ajc1 #abd1 #abe1 #ach1 #age1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bbb1 #bbf ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford1 #ce ,boece1 ,h41 see ,boethius1 ,h4 ,boethius1 ,h41 #aaa1 #aab ,boke of ,secretes of ,albartus ,magnus1 ,the1 #bae ,bologna1 ,university of1 #fh1 #aja ,bombastus von ,hohenheim1 see ,paracelsus ,book of ,nature1 ,the1 of ,konrad von ,megenberg1 #aj1 #aa1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afg1 #bbc ,borage1 #abj ,braunschweig1 ,hieronymus1 #bd1 #de1 #df1 #afh ,bredwell1 ,s41 #aji ,brimen1 ,marie de1 #gh ,british ,museum1 ,the1 #cc1 #fe1 #ajf ,broomrape1 #ajd1 #adh ,brosse1 ,g4 de la1 #aag1 #aah1 #bab ,brunfels1 ,o41 #bb1 #dg-ej1 #fj1 #fd1 #fg1 #abb1 #abd1 #ach1 #afb1 #afh-agd1 #age1 #agg1 #ahj1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aii ,brunfelsius1 ,o41 see ,brunfels1 ,o4 ,bugloss1 #dc ,bull-nut1 #ahe ,burleigh1 ,lord1 #ajh ,busbecq1 ,a4 ,g41 #hd1 #he ,butterbur1 #abe ,buttercup1 ,meadow1 #aeh ,cabbage1 #ahj ,csalpinus1 ,a41 see ,cesalpino1 ,a4 ,caltha1 #adf ,camerarius1 ,j41 the younger1 #fh1 #fi1 #hh1 #ib1 #aib-aif1 #aii1 #bbd ,camus1 ,g41 #bd ,candolle1 ,a4 ,p4 de1 #adj 8,capillus ,veneris01 #ch1 #afa ,carrichter1 ,b41 #bae ,carrot1 #abb ,cary1 ,w41 #ci ,cary's ,herbal1 #ci ,celandine1 ,the ,greater1 #agj ,celandine1 ,the ,lesser1 #age ,centaurea rhaponticum1 #ajg ,centaurs1 #de ,cesalpino1 ,a41 #e1 #fh1 #aja1 #aaf-aag1 #acf1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec ,chabrus1 ,d41 #aib ,cherler1 ,j4 ,h41 #ic ,chestnut ,tree1 #ahe ,chicory1 #abb1 #afe ,chimay1 ,princesse de1 #gh ,chiron1 #cf ,choulant1 ,dr ,l41 #ae1 #bd ,chronica herbarum of ,winckler1 #bae ,circa instans1 #bd1 #adj ,clematis1 #aia ,cleopatra1 #h ,clover1 #adf ,clusius1 ,c41 see l'cluse1 ,c4 de ,cockayne1 ,dr ,o41 #ce ,codex ,anici ,julian1 see ,dioscorides ,codex ,vossianus1 ,leyden ,library1 #aed ,coffee plant1 #ij ,cole1 ,w41 #baj-baa1 #bai1 #bbj ,coles1 ,w41 see ,cole1 ,w4 ,cologne1 ,books printed at1 #ajb ,colonna1 ,f41 #hf-hh1 #aab1 #aac1 #ach1 #aci1 #aii ,columbine1 #agj ,columna1 ,f41 see ,colonna1 ,f4 ,comfrey1 #afe ,commentarii 444 ,dioscoridis of ,mattioli1 #ha-he1 #id1 #ahf-aij ,composites 7,composit71 #add1 #ade1 #aea ,compton1 ,h41 ,bishop of ,london1 #bjb ,convallaria majalis 7,lily-of-the-,valley71 #cf1 #aeh ,copland1 ,w41 #ci ,copland's ,herbal1 #ci1 #dj ,coral1 #dc1 #aea ,cordus1 ,e41 #fe ,cordus1 ,v41 #dg1 #fe-fg1 #acj ,cosmographia of ,sebastian ,muenster1 #aaj ,craftsman's ,plant-,book1 ,the1 of ,hatton1 #aie 8,crowfoote01 #abg ,crucifer1 #ade ,crdeboeck of ,dodoens1 #fb1 #gb1 #ajf1 #aij ,cryptogams1 #ace1 #aea ,cuba1 ,dr ,j4 von1 see ,cube1 ,dr ,j4 von ,cube1 ,dr ,j4 von1 #ah ,cube's ,herbal1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,german ,cuckoo-pint1 #de ,cucurbita maxima1 #fb 8,cukowes ,meate01 #de ,culpeper1 ,n41 #bah-bbj ,cuscuta 7,dodder71 #bb1 #abe1 #afb ,cuvier1 ,g4 ,l4 ,c4 ,f4 ,d41 #gf ,cuyp1 ,a41 #bjj ,dalechampius1 ,j41 see ,alchamps1 ,j4 d' ,dalchamps1 ,j41 see ,alchamps1 ,j4 d' ,date seedling1 #aif ,dead ,nettle1 #abe ,dendrologia of ,aldrovandi1 #aih ,desmoulins1 ,j41 #ih1 #ii 8,devylles ,bytte01 #de ,diana1 #cf1 #de ,dicotyledons1 #gi1 #ace1 #acf1 #ade1 #adf1 #aec ,dioscorides1 #h-i1 #aa1 #ba1 #ej1 #fb1 #fd1 #ff1 #gd1 #hb1 #he1 #hh1 #ih1 #ajd1 #abj1 #acf ,dioscorides1 the ,vienna manuscript of 7,codex ,anici ,julian71 #h1 #he1 #aed1 #aee1 #aij ,dispensatorium1 ,the ,nuremberg1 #ff ,distillation ,book of ,hieronymus ,braunschweig1 #de1 #df1 #afh ,dodder1 #bb1 #abe1 #afb ,dodoens1 ,r41 #fd1 #fh1 #gb-gd1 #gf1 #gi1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji1 #abe1 #abg1 #acc1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #aij1 #aif1 #aii1 #baa1 #bbb ,dodonus1 ,r41 see ,dodoens1 ,r4 8,dracontea01 #aeg ,dragon ,tree1 #aij ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 #gf ,drosera 7,sundew71 #adf1 #aea ,duckweed1 #de ,durante1 ,c41 #he1 #hf1 #aif ,drer1 ,a41 #afi1 #agj1 #ahj ,earth-nut ,pea1 #agg ,edward ,,vi1 ,king1 #ajj1 #aja ,egenolph1 ,c41 #fb1 #fd-fe1 #gj1 #agd1 #age ,eicones plantarum of ,theodor 7,tabernmontanus71 #fh1 #aji ,ekphrasis of ,colonna1 #hh1 #ach1 #aci1 #aii 8,elebore101 see ,hellebore 8,elements10 ,the four1 #ai1 #bj1 #da ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 #gh1 #ajj1 #ajb ,emo1 ,g41 #ij ,encyclopdia of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 #aj1 #aa1 #ch1 #aeh1 #aei ,english ,physician enlarged1 ,the1 of ,culpeper1 #bah ,epitome 444 ,matthioli of ,camerarius1 #fh1 #aic ,erasmus1 ,d41 #ic ,erfurt1 ,university of1 #eh ,erodium1 #abg 8,everfern01 #abj ,fantin-,latour1 ,h41 #ahj 8,father of ,british ,botany1 ,the01 #ajj ,ferdinand1 ,archduke1 #ha ,fern1 #ch1 #ee1 #adf1 #aea ,fern1 ,royal1 #ee ,ferrara1 ,books printed at1 #bd ,ferrara1 ,university of1 #aja ,flavius ,anicius1 ,the ,emperor1 #h 8,flower1 ,the10 ,dodoens' definition of1 #abg ,frankfort1 ,books published at1 #fd1 #fh ,frederick ,,iii1 ,count ,palatine1 #fh ,frogbit1 #adh 8,frogges ,fote01 #de ,fuchs1 ,l41 #dg1 #ee1 #eh-fd1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb1 #hj1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #abd1 #abe1 #acc1 #ach1 #age-ahe1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aif1 #aii1 #bbd1 #bbf ,fuchsius1 ,l41 see ,fuchs1 ,l4 ,fllmaurer1 ,h41 #ahj ,fungi1 #ca1 #gg1 #acd1 #adj1 #adh ,gaius ,plinius ,secundus1 see ,pliny1 the ,elder ,galen1 #ba1 #db1 #bjf1 #bjg ,garden1 ,botanical1 at ,padua1 #ij ,garden at ,hackney1 ,lord ,zouche's1 #gh ,garden at ,nuremberg1 ,camerarius'1 #fh ,garden in ,holborn1 ,gerard's1 #ajh1 #aac ,garden in ,long ,acre1 ,parkinson's1 #aac ,garden on ,snow ,hill1 ,johnson's1 #aac ,gardens1 ,lord ,burleigh's1 #ajh ,gardyn of helth1 #cc ,gart der ,gesuntheit1 #cb ,gart d'gesuntheyt1 #ba ,gentian1 #ach 8,genus10 meaning of the term1 #ach-adj ,geraniace1 #ade 8,geranion01 #abg ,gerard1 ,j41 #fd1 #fh1 #ajc1 #ajh-aaj1 #aac1 #aaf1 #acj1 #aib1 #aii ,gerarde1 ,j41 see ,gerard1 ,j4 ,german ,fathers of ,botany1 ,the1 #dg1 #eh1 #fe1 #fg1 #abb1 #bjd ,gesner1 ,k41 #fh1 #hj1 #hh1 #ij-ic1 #aja1 #ajd1 #ach1 #aib1 #aic1 #aii1 #bbd ,ghini1 ,l41 #hd1 #aja ,glasswort1 #ij1 #aig 8,goose ,tree01 #aji-aac ,grant ,herbier1 ,le1 #bd1 #dj ,grasses1 #aea ,green1 ,t41 #bab ,grete ,herball1 ,the1 #bd1 #cd1 #ch1 #dj-de1 #ajc1 #aba1 #abb1 #adj1 #afh1 #aif ,grew1 ,n41 #g1 #ajj1 #aaf1 #acb ,guiditius1 ,h41 see ,weiditz1 ,,ii4 ,gyraldus on 8,bernicles01 #aab ,hackney1 ,lord ,zouche's garden at1 #gh ,harpy1 #cb ,hart's-tongue ,fern1 #age ,hatton1 ,r4 ,g41 #agd1 #aid 8,heart ,trefoyle01 #baa ,hellebore 78,elebore071 #h1 #dd ,henbane 7,hyoscyamus71 #de1 #adh ,henrietta ,maria1 ,queen1 #aad ,henry ,,vii1 ,king1 #cc1 #fe ,henry ,,viii1 ,king1 #ajj1 #ajf 8,herbal10 ,definition of the term1 #aa ,herball1 ,the ,grete1 #bd1 #cd1 #ch1 #dj-de1 #ajc1 #aba1 #abb1 #adj1 #afh1 #aif ,herball1 ,the1 of ,gerard1 #fd1 #fh1 #ajh-aaj1 #aac1 #acj ,herbario ,nuovo of ,durante1 #he1 #aif ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,platonicus1 #aa-ac1 #ad1 #af1 #bh1 #ce-cg1 #abj1 #aee-aeg1 #aei1 #bjd1 #bbc ,herbarius in ,latino1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin ,herbarius ,moguntinus1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin ,herbarius ,patavinus1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin ,herbarius1 ,the ,german1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #ah-bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bh1 #dj1 #da1 #fd1 #abj1 #ach1 #aeg1 #afb-afe1 #aff1 #afh1 #age1 #bjb1 #bad1 #bbc ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af-ah1 #bb1 #abj1 #ach1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #bbc ,herbarius1 ,the ,latin1 ,venetian edition called ,arnold de ,villa ,nova's herbal1 #ag1 #ah1 #afa1 #afb1 #agb1 #aif ,herbarius zu ,teutsch1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,german ,herbarum viv eicones of ,brunfels1 #bb1 #ej1 #abb1 #afh-agb1 #aif1 #bbd ,herbier1 ,le ,grant1 #bd1 #dj ,hercules1 #g ,here begynneth a newe mater1 see ,banckes' ,herbal ,hermann1 ,p41 #bjb ,heron1 ,j41 #cc ,histoire des plantes1 ,l'1 of ,linocier1 #ih ,histoire des plantes of ,dodoens and de l'cluse1 #gb1 #abg ,histoire universelle des plantes of ,jean ,bauhin1 #ic ,historia animalium of ,gesner1 #ia1 #ajd ,historia 444 ,erdgewechssen of ,thurneisser1 #baf ,historia generalis plantarum of d',alchamps1 #fb1 #id1 #ih-ii1 #adc1 #aif ,historia naturalis of ,jonston1 #aaj ,historia plantarum ,lugdunensis1 see ,historia generalis plantarum of d',alchamps ,historia 444 plantarum of ,thurneisser1 #baf-bah ,historia plantarum universalis of ,jean ,bauhin and ,cherler1 #fb1 #ic ,historia stirpium1 ,de1 of ,fuchs1 #ee1 #eh-fd1 #abd1 #abe1 #age-ahc1 #ahe1 #bbd ,historia stirpium of ,cordus1 #ff ,history of ,plants of ,theophrastus1 #b ,hohenheim1 von1 see ,paracelsus ,holborn1 ,gerard's garden in1 #ajh1 #aac ,hortulus ,sanitatis of ,durante1 #he ,hortus ,eystettensis of ,besler1 #bjj ,hortus ,floridus of de ,passe1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bbd ,hortus medicus et philosophicus of ,camerarius1 #fh1 #fi1 #aid ,hortus ,sanitatis1 see ,ortus ,sanitatis ,hydra1 #ca ,hydrocharis1 #adh ,hyoscyamus 7,henbane71 #de1 #adh ,hypecoum1 #adh ,hypericace1 #ade ,hystory croniklis of ,scotland of ,boethius1 #aaa1 #aab ,icones et ,descriptions of ,boccone1 #bjb 8,incunabula01 #aj ,indian ,corn1 #fb ,inflorescences1 ,theophrastus on1 #b ,ingolstadt1 ,university of1 #eh ,iris1 #afa1 #afe ,iris ftidissima1 #h ,isaac ,judus1 #db ,isengrin1 ,m41 see ,isingrin1 ,m4 ,isidor of ,seville1 #c ,isingrin1 ,m41 #fj ,ivy1 #e ,jackson1 ,dr ,b4 ,daydon1 #aia ,james ,i1 #gh ,jardin de ,sant1 ,le1 #cc ,jerome of ,brunswick1 see ,braunschweig1 ,hieronymus ,job's ,tears1 #aij ,johnson1 ,t41 #aac1 #aib ,jonston1 ,j41 #aaj ,joyfull newes of ,monardes1 #aje-ajf ,juliana ,anicia1 #h ,juliana ,anicia's ,manuscript of ,dioscorides1 see ,dioscorides ,jung1 ,j41 #acc ,jussieu1 ,a4 ,l4 de1 #adj ,justinian1 #h ,kammermeister1 see ,camerarius ,kandel1 ,d41 #ee1 #ahe1 #ahf ,killermann1 ,prof4 ,s41 #agj ,konrad von ,megenberg1 #aj1 #aeg ,kreuterbuch1 ,neuw1 of ,tabernmontanus1 see ,kreuterbuch1 ,neuw1 of ,theodor ,kreuterbuch1 ,neuw1 of ,theodor1 #fb1 #fh ,kreuter ,bch of ,bock1 #ee-eh1 #fb1 #ach1 #ahd-ahf1 #bjd ,kreutterbuch1 ,new1 of ,bock1 #ee ,kreutterbch of ,carrichter1 #bae ,kreutterbch of ,rhodion1 #fd1 #agd ,kruydtbck of de l',obel1 #gi1 #adf1 #aif ,kynge1 ,j41 #ci1 #dj ,labiates1 #acf ,lambeth1 ,tradescant's garden at1 #aac ,lamium1 #abj1 #abe ,lathra 7,toothwort71 #adh1 #bji ,latimer1 ,h41 #ajj ,laurel1 #ach1 #bae l'cluse1 ,c41 de #fh1 #gb1 #gd-gh1 #gi1 #hh1 #ic1 #ie1 #ajf1 #aae1 #abe1 #abg1 #adf1 #aij1 #aib1 #aii1 #bbb ,legr1 ,l41 #gh ,leguminos1 #aea le ,noir1 ,philippe1 #cc 8,lentylles of the water01 #de l',escluse1 ,c4 de1 see l'cluse1 ,c4 de ,leyden1 ,university of1 #gb1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #aed ,libellus de re herbaria of ,turner1 #aja1 #ajb ,liber de arte distillandi of ,hieronymus ,braunschweig1 #bd1 #de1 #df1 #afh ,liber de proprietatibus rerum of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 #aj1 #aa1 #ch ,liebhard1 see ,camerarius ,lignamine1 ,j4 ,p4 de1 #aa ,lily1 #abj1 #aei ,lily-of-the-,valley1 #cf1 #aeh ,limnanthemum1 #adf1 #adg ,linnus1 #acc1 #adj ,linocier1 ,g41 #ih ,listera1 #adf ,litle ,herball of the properties of ,herbes1 ,a #ci l',obel1 ,m4 de #fh1 #gd1 #gh-gi1 #ajf1 #aji1 #aab1 #aae1 #abe1 #acf1 #ade1 #adf1 #aea1 #aij1 #aib1 #aii1 #bbb1 #bbf ,lobel1 ,m4 de1 see l',obel1 ,m4 de ,lobelius1 ,m41 see l',obel1 ,m4 de ,lodestone1 #dc1 #dd ,lo1 ,j41 see ,vanderloe1 ,j4 ,london1 ,books published at1 #df1 #ajb ,long ,acre1 ,parkinson's garden in1 #aac ,lonicer1 ,a41 #fd ,louvain1 ,university of1 #gb1 #gd ,love-in-a-,mist1 #ade ,lucian1 #g ,ludwig1 ,count ,palatine1 #ej ,luther1 ,martin1 #eh ,lyte1 ,h41 #gb1 #gc1 #ajf-ajh1 #abe1 #abg ,macer1 ,a newe ,herball of1 #dj ,macer1 milius1 #dj ,macer ,floridus1 #dj ,maclagan1 ,dr ,t4 ,j41 #bab ,maianthemum1 #adf ,maidenhair ,fern1 #ch1 #afa ,mainz1 ,books printed at1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #be1 #aei1 #afe ,maison ,plantin1 #gj-gb 8,mala ,aurantia ,chinensia01 #aih 8,mallowes01 #abg ,malpighi1 ,m41 #aaf ,manardus1 ,j41 #ej 8,mandrag10 see ,mandrake ,mandragora1 see ,mandrake ,mandrake 7,mandragora71 #bd1 #cd1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #ajc1 #adh1 #aef1 #bjd ,marburg1 ,university of1 #fe ,marsh ,marigold1 #adf ,mary1 ,duchess of ,suffolk1 #fe ,mary1 ,queen1 #ajj1 #ajb ,materia ,medica of ,dioscorides1 #h1 #abj1 #acf ,matthiolus1 ,p4 ,a41 see ,mattioli1 ,p4 ,a4 ,mattioli1 ,p4 ,a41 #i1 #fh1 #gi-he1 #ib1 #ih1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ahf-aij1 #aif1 #aii ,maximilian ,,ii1 ,the ,emperor1 #gb1 #ha ,may ,lily1 #adf 8,mayden heere01 #ch ,melanchthon1 ,p41 #fh1 #ge ,mesua1 ,j41 #aif ,methodi herbari of ,zaluziansky1 #aag ,meydenbach1 ,j41 #be ,meyer1 ,a41 #ahj ,millington1 ,sir ,t41 #acb ,mistletoe1 #df1 #abd1 #bad ,modena ,library1 #bd ,molinus1 ,j41 see ,desmoulins1 ,j4 ,monardes1 ,n41 #ajd-ajf ,monocotyledons1 #gi1 #ace1 #ade1 #aec ,montpelier1 ,university of1 #gd1 #gh1 #ic1 #id ,moonwort1 #ahe ,moretus1 ,e4 ,j4 ,h41 #gj ,moretus1 ,j41 #gj ,morison1 ,r41 #if1 #aaf ,mosses1 #aea ,muenster1 ,sebastian1 #aaj ,mugwort1 see ,artemisia ,munich ,library1 ,the1 #aa ,muse ,cluny1 #ca ,muse ,plantin-,moretus1 #gj 8,mussherons01 #adj ,myrtle1 #ach ,narcissus1 #bi ,natura stirpium1 ,de1 of ,ruel1 #ih ,natural ,history of ,pliny1 #i1 #bad ,nature1 ,vertu et ,utilit des ,plantes1 ,de la1 of de la ,brosse1 #aah 8,nenufar01 #abb ,neottia1 #adh ,nero1 #h ,neuw ,kreuterbuch of ,tabernmontanus1 see ,neuw ,kreuterbuch of ,theodor ,neuw ,kreuterbuch of ,theodor1 #fb1 #fh ,new ,herball1 ,a1 of ,turner1 #fb1 #ajb-ajd ,neuw ,kreterbch of ,fuchs1 #fj-fd1 #age ,neuw ,kretterbuch of ,bock1 #ee ,newe ,herball of ,macer1 ,a1 #dj ,nicolaus ,damascenus1 #c1 #d ,nicotiana 7,tobacco71 #aje1 #ajf1 #adh ,niewe ,herball1 ,a1 of ,lyte1 #fb1 #fd1 #gb1 #gc1 #ajf-ajh1 #abe1 #abf ,nigella1 #ade ,norton1 ,j41 #fh1 #ajh1 #aji ,nuphar1 #adf ,nuremberg ,dispensatorium1 ,the1 #ff ,nuremberg1 ,garden of ,camerarius at1 #fh ,nympha1 #adf ,oak1 #e1 #ach ,observations de plusieurs singularites1 ,les1 of ,belon1 #aif ,octavian on 8,bernicles01 #aab ,odo1 #dj 8,orage01 #abb ,orange1 #aih ,orchid1 ,bird's-nest1 #adh ,ornithogalum1 #aif ,orobanche1 #ajd1 #adh ,ortus ,sanitatis1 #ad1 #ae1 #ah1 #bd1 #be-cc1 #dj1 #abj1 #ach1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afe-afh1 #agj1 #age1 #ahf ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,the ,german1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,german ,ortus ,sanitatis1 ,the ,smaller1 see ,herbarius1 ,the ,german ,osmunda1 #ee ,oxalis1 #aba1 #adf ,padua1 ,botanical ,garden at1 #ij ,padua1 ,university of1 #ij1 #id ,pandectarius1 #ba ,papaver1 #adh ,papaverace1 #adh 8,pappus10 ,fuchs' definition of1 #abd-abe ,paracelsus1 #bje-bjh1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad ,paradisus ,batavus of ,hermann1 #bjb ,paradisus ,terrestris of ,parkinson1 #aac-aae1 #aig1 #bjj ,paris1 ,books published at1 #cc1 #ih ,paris1 ,university of1 #ij1 #id1 #ih ,parkinson1 ,j41 #aac-aaf1 #add1 #aib1 #aig1 #bjj ,payne1 ,dr ,j4 ,f41 #ab1 #ae1 #bb1 #bd1 #ch1 #aee1 #aef1 #afb ,pearls1 #dc ,pegasus1 #cb ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc ,pemptades1 see ,stirpium 444 pemptades sex of ,dodoens ,pena1 ,p41 #gd1 #gh1 #gi ,peony1 #g1 #afa1 #afe 8,petal10 ,introduction of term1 #hh ,petiver1 ,j41 #aib ,phanerogams1 #ace1 #aea ,pharmacopia1 ,culpeper's translation of the1 #bah ,pharmacopia1 ,the first government1 #fg ,philip1 ,count of ,nassau1 #ec ,phnix1 #ca ,physicall ,directory1 ,a1 of ,culpeper1 #bah ,phytobasanos of ,colonna1 #hh1 #aac1 #aii ,phytognomonica of ,porta1 #aif1 #bjh-baj ,phytopinax of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 #if1 #adj ,pinax theatri botanici of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 #if1 #aae1 #adh-aea1 #bbd ,pisa1 ,university of1 #eh ,pitton ,tournefort1 ,j41 #if ,plague1 ,the1 #eh1 #hj1 #ij ,plant ,anatomy1 #g1 #aaf1 #bba ,plantaginace1 #ade ,plantago 7,plantain71 #abb1 #adf1 #aeg ,plantain1 #abb1 #adf1 #aeg ,plantarum seu stirpium historia of de l',obel1 #gi ,plantin1 ,c41 #gj-gd1 #gi1 #ih1 #aac1 #adf1 #aij1 #aia1 #aii ,plantis gypti1 ,de1 of ,alpino1 #hh-ij1 #aif1 #aig ,plantis1 ,de1 of ,cesalpino1 #aag ,platearius1 #ba ,plato1 #b ,playing-card manufacture1 #aef ,pliny1 the ,elder1 #c1 #i1 #aa1 #acg1 #ach1 #bad ,pomegranate1 #bji ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv1 #aa ,poplar1 #e ,poppy1 #abj ,porta1 ,j4 ,b41 #aif1 #bjh-baj1 #bab ,potato1 #ie1 #aji1 #acj1 #acb1 #aig ,potter1 ,paul1 #bjj ,prague1 ,books published at1 #aag 8,prestes ,hode01 #de ,priest1 ,dr #ajh1 #aji ,primrose1 #de 8,principles10 ,the four1 #ai 8,principles10 ,the three1 according1 to ,paracelsus1 #bjg ,prodromos theatri botanici of ,gaspard ,bauhin1 #ie1 #acj1 #aig1 #bbd ,proprietatibus rerum1 ,liber de1 of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 #aj1 #aa1 #ch1 #aeh1 #aei 8,prymerolles01 #de ,pch der natur1 ,das1 of ,konrad von ,megenberg1 see ,book of ,nature1 ,the ,pumpkin1 ,the ,great1 #fb ,quakelbeen1 ,w41 #hd 8,radiolus01 #abj ,ranunculus acris1 #aeh ,rariorum plantarum historia of de l'cluse1 #gf ,rariorum 444 stirpium per ,hispanias of de l'cluse1 #gf ,ray1 ,j41 #if1 #aaf ,renaulme1 ,p41 #bjj ,rhabanus ,magnentius ,maurus1 #c ,rhodion1 ,e41 #fd1 #agd ,richelieu1 ,cardinal1 #aah ,ricinus1 #ade ,ridley1 ,n41 #ajj ,rihel1 ,w41 #ee ,rivire1 ,j41 #gj ,rome1 ,books printed at1 #aa1 #he ,rondelet1 ,g4 #gd1 #gf1 #gh ,rose1 #dc1 #abj ,rose of ,jericho1 #aif ,rosemary1 #ch1 #ci ,royal ,fern1 #ee ,rudolph ,,ii1 ,the ,emperor1 #gb ,ruel1 ,j41 #i1 #fb1 #ih ,ruellius1 ,j41 see ,ruel1 ,j4 ,ruscus1 #adf ,sachs1 ,j4 von1 #if ,saint ,catherine1 #ba ,saint ,john's ,wort1 #bjg ,saint ,thomas ,aquinas1 #c ,salicin1 #bab ,salicornia 7,glasswort71 #ij1 #aig ,savoy and ,piedmont1 ,duke of1 #gj ,saxifrage1 #ade 8,saynt ,peterworte01 #de ,schffer1 ,p41 #af1 #ah ,schott1 ,j41 #ej ,schreiber1 ,h41 #ff 8,sedum majus01 #abg-acj1 #aij 8,sedum vulgare majus01 #abh 8,sempervivum majus01 #abg-acj ,senecio1 #abe ,serapio1 #ba ,shepherd's ,purse1 #abb1 #abe 8,signatures10 ,doctrine of1 #bjg-bab ,simler1 ,j41 #ib1 #aic 8,simples01 #ce1 #cf1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aif1 #bbj ,simpling1 ,the ,art of1 of ,cole1 #baa1 #bai ,sixtus ,,iv1 ,pope1 #aa ,snow ,hill1 ,johnson's garden on1 #aac ,solanace1 #adh ,solanum1 #ie1 #adh ,somerset1 ,duke of1 #aja1 #ajb ,sonchus1 #abe ,specimen ,histori ,plantarum of ,renaulme1 #bjj ,speckle1 ,v4 ,r41 #ahj1 #ahc ,specklin1 ,v4 ,r41 see ,speckle1 ,v4 ,r4 ,sprengel1 ,k4 ,p4 ,j41 #dg1 #fe 8,squamony01 #dd ,stamens1 ,fuchs' definition of1 #abd ,stamens1 ,function of1 #acb-acc1 #bbd ,stirpium adversaria nova of de l',obel1 ,m4 and ,pena1 ,p41 #gh1 #ade1 #adf1 #bbb1 #bbd ,stirpium 444 pemptades sex of ,dodoens1 #gd1 #abg1 #ade1 #aij1 #aia ,storksbill1 #abg ,strand1 ,lord ,burleigh's garden in the1 #ajh ,strasburg1 ,books printed at1 #ej1 #ee ,strawberry1 #ahe ,sundew1 #adf1 #aea ,switzer1 ,a4 #aig 8,tabaco10 see ,tobacco ,tabernmontanus1 ,j4 ,t41 see ,theodor1 ,j4 ,tamus1 #adf ,tendrils1 ,conventionalised representations of1 #afj ,theatrum botanicum of ,parkinson1 #aae1 #add ,theobalds1 ,lord ,burleigh's garden at1 #ajh ,theodor1 ,j4 7,tabernmontanus71 #fg1 #fh1 #aji1 #aii ,theophrastus1 #b-c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #i1 #ej1 #ajd1 #aaf1 #aai1 #acd1 #acg ,theophrastus ,bombastus von ,hohenheim1 see ,paracelsus ,thistles1 #adc1 #aea ,thurneisser zum ,thurn1 ,l41 #baf-bah 8,tithymalus characia01 #abi ,tobacco1 ,early record of use of1 #aje-ajf ,toothwort 7,lathra71 #adh1 #bji ,tournefort1 ,j4 ,pitton1 #if ,tradescant1 ,j41 #aac ,tragus1 ,h41 see ,bock1 ,h4 ,trapa1 #ahe 8,tree bearing ,geese01 #aji-aac 8,tree of ,knowledge01 #bh 8,tree of ,life01 #bh1 #bi 8,tree of ,paradise01 #afg 8,tree of ,sorrow01 #he-hf ,treveris1 ,p41 #dj ,treviranus1 ,l4 ,c41 #aid ,trevisa's translation of the ,encyclopdia of ,bartholomus ,anglicus1 #aa1 #ch1 #aeh1 #aei ,trew1 ,c4 ,j41 #ib1 #aic ,trifolium1 #adf ,tbingen1 ,university of1 #eh1 #ff1 #ic1 #id1 #bbf ,turner1 ,r41 #baa1 #bab ,turner1 ,w41 #fb1 #ajj-ajd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aab1 #abe1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bbb ,tutsan1 #abb ,twayblade1 #adf ,type1 ,movable1 #af ,uffenbach1 ,p41 #he ,umbellifers1 #acf1 #add1 #ade1 #adh1 #aea1 #baf ,unicorn1 #ca1 #aae ,universal ,herbal of ,green1 #bab ,upas tree1 #bi ,utrecht1 ,books published at1 #bjj ,valerian1 #hh ,vanderloe1 ,j41 #gb1 #aij ,venice1 ,books published at1 #hc1 #ij1 #afa1 #afh1 #ahh1 #aif ,vrard1 ,a41 #cc1 #fe ,verbena 78,vervayn071 #dc1 #eg ,veronica1 #fb ,vertuose boke of ,distillacyon1 ,the1 of ,hieronymus ,braunschweig1 #de1 #df 8,vervayn0 7,verbena71 #dc1 #eg ,vespasian1 #h 8,vettonia01 #aef ,vienna ,library 7,k4 k4 ,hofbibliothek71 #h1 #aa1 #gd1 #he ,vienna ,manuscript of ,dioscorides1 see ,dioscorides ,vinci1 ,leonardo da1 #agj1 #ahj ,vine1 #d1 #afj ,viola1 #abj ,viola odorata1 #aeh ,violet1 ,the ,sweet1 #aeh ,viribus herbarum1 ,de1 of ,macer ,floridus1 #dj ,virtutibus herbarum1 ,de1 erroneously attributed to ,albertus ,magnus1 #e1 #bae ,vita ,conradi ,gesneri of ,simler1 #ib1 #aic ,walnut1 #baj ,waterlily1 #abb1 #adf1 #afb1 #agb1 #ahj1 #aij1 #aif 8,waterworte01 #ch ,weiditz1 ,h41 #ej1 #aga1 #agb1 #agd1 #bbd ,wheat1 #c ,william the ,silent1 #gh1 #gi ,willow1 #bab ,winckler1 ,n41 #bae ,winter ,cherry1 #afe1 #aff1 #bjb ,wintergreen1 #ahe ,wittenberg1 ,university of1 #ff1 #fh ,wolf1 ,c41 #ib ,wood-sorrel1 #de1 #aba ,worde1 ,wynkyn de1 #aa1 #ch ,wormwood1 see ,artemisia ,worthy practise of 444 ,leonerd ,fuchsius1 ,a1 #eh ,wyer1 ,r41 #dj ,zaluziansky von ,zaluzian1 ,a41 #hj1 #aag1 #aea ,zea mais1 #fb ,zouche1 ,lord1 #gh ,zurich1 ,university of1 #ij1 #aja ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4