,transcriber's ,notes ,when italics were used in the original book1 the corresponding text has been surrounded by underscores1 and when boldface text was use1 the corresponding text has been surrounded by equal signs4 ,in two instances1 the letter ,n has been printed with a macron above it4 ,this has been represented as ,n4 ,superscripted letters have been preceded by and when multiple letters are superscripted they have been surrounded by 4 ,subscripted letters and numbers have been preceded by and surrounded by 4 ,fractions have been separated from whole numbers preceding them with a dash such that #a-a_/b represents one and one half4 ,the letters represented as ,h4_/,w4,e4 were originally printed with the ,h4 directly above the other two letters4 ,some presumed printer's errors have been corrected4 ,these are listed in a second transcriber's note at the end of the text4 ,,the ,,connoisseur',s ,,library ,,general ,,editor3 ,,cyril ,,davenport ,,glass ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,,enamelled ,,goblet ,,venetian ,,or ,,franco-,,syrian4 ,,circa #acjj1 ,a4,d4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,glass ,,by ,,edward ,,dillon1 ,m4,a4 ,illustration3 ,the ,connoisseur's ,library ,,new ,,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,london3 ,,methuen ,,and ,,co4 #aijg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface ,it is now nearly thirty years since the late ,mr4 ,nesbitt wrote the introduction to the catalogue of the glass at ,south ,kensington4 ,some years previously the description of the glass in the ,slade collection had been intrusted to the same gentleman4 ,since that time many works treating of special departments of the history of glass have been published in ,france1 in ,germany1 and in ,italy4 ,much fresh light has been thrown upon the primitive glass of the ,egyptians2 our knowledge of the glass of both the ,near and the ,far ,east has been revolutionised2 abundant fresh material has been provided for the history of ,byzantine glass1 and the wanderings of the glass-workers from ,l',altare and ,murano have been traced in full detail4 ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 in his ,old ,english ,glasses1 has exhaustively told the story of our native glass from the documentary side1 and has described with the minutest detail the wine-glasses of the eighteenth century4 ,apart1 however1 from the introductory chapters of the last work1 ,i know of no attempt of recent years to give a general account of the history of glass--using that term in the narrower sense--as viewed from the artistic side4 ,we have at hand in the ,british ,museum a collection of glass that has no rival elsewhere2 only second to it is the collection at ,south ,kensington4 ,it is in these collections that the history of glass must be studied4 ,i have from time to time in the following pages called attention to the most remarkable examples4 ,i hope that what ,i have said may assist the student in threading his way through what is a rather complicated history4 ,my best thanks are due to ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 who has charge of the glass in the ,british ,museum1 for the facilities that he has afforded me in the photographing of the examples in his department2 not less to ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,skinner1 director of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 for similar facilities at ,south ,kensington4 ,i am indebted to ,professor ,church for much valuable information and for some hitherto unpublished analyses of glass2 to ,lord ,rothschild and to ,mr4 ,vincent ,robinson1 ,c4,i4,e41 for photographs of examples of glass in their collections2 finally1 to ,signor ,ongania1 of ,venice1 for permission to reproduce from ,passini's great work on the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's some photographs of the glass there preserved4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface1 v ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations1 ix ,,selected ,,bibliography ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,glass1 xxii ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,bibliographical ,,list1 xxviii ,,chapter ,i4 ,introduction1 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,primitive ,glass of the ,egyptians and ,syrians1 #ah ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,later ,greek ,glass and the ,moulded and ,cast ,glass of the ,roman ,empire1 #dc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,blown ,glass of the ,roman ,empire1 #ei ,,chapter ,v4 ,early ,christian ,glass1 ,byzantine ,glass1 and the ,glass of the ,middle ,ages in the ,east and the ,west1 #hi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,glass from ,anglo-,saxon and ,frankish ,tombs4 ,the so-called ,hedwig ,glasses1 #ajg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,medival ,treatises on ,glass1 #aah ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,glass of the ,later ,middle ,ages in ,western ,europe1 #acb ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,enamelled ,glass of the ,saracens1 #add ,,chapter ,x4 ,the ,enamelled ,glass of the ,saracens 7continued71 #afa ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,glass of ,venice--,the ,origins--,beads1 #agd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,enamelled ,venetian ,glass of the ,fifteenth ,century1 #aib ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,varieties of ,venetian ,glass--,early ,literature1 #bjj ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the ,french ,glass of the ,renaissance1 #bbj ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,the ,renaissance ,glass of the ,spanish ,netherlands and of ,spain1 #bdj ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,glass of ,germany4 ,the ,green ,glass of the ,rhine and the ,netherlands--,enamelled ,glass1 #bea ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,the ,glass of ,germany 7continued74 ,german ,cut and ,engraved ,glass--,the ,ruby ,glass of ,kunckel--,milch ,glass1 #bgf ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,dutch ,glass of the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries1 #bid ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,english ,glass of the ,sixteenth and ,seventeenth ,centuries1 #bii ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,english ,glass of the ,eighteenth ,century1 #cba ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,century ,glass of ,persia1 ,india1 and ,china1 #ccg ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,contemporary ,glass1 #cef ,,index1 #cfa ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,i4 ,,syrian ,,or ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,enamelled ,beaker of slightly greenish glass with a few elongated bubbles4 7,h4 #g-a_/b in47 ,the ,virgin and ,child enthroned between conventional lilies2 on either side an angel holding a tall candle2 beyond1 the figures of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,above1 an inscription in ,gothic characters--,d,n,,ia ,,mater ,,regis ,,altissimi ,,ora ,p ,,pa4 ,from the ,adrian ,hope collection4 ,end of thirteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7,frontispiece47 ,,ii4 ,,unguentaria ,,of ,,primitive ,,glass4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,from ,gurob1 near ,illahun1 ,upper ,egypt4 7,h4 #d in47 ,decoration of palm-pattern formed by double drag1 on a sard-coloured translucent ground4 ,nineteenth ,dynasty4 7#b7 ,amphora-shaped vase4 7,h4 #e-c_/h in47 ,pattern formed by simple drag1 on opaque red ground4 ,the body apparently turned on wheel4 ,handles of green transparent glass4 ,said to come from the ,ionian ,islands4 7#c7 ,small ,jug of ,oenocho shape4 7,h4 #e-a_/b in47 ,palm pattern formed by double drag1 on dark blue1 nearly opaque ground4 ,provenance uncertain4 ,from the ,slade collection4 7,to face p4 #bb47 ,,iii4 ,,egyptian ,,glass ,,pastes4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,scarab of dark blue paste with white veins imitating lapis lazuli4 7,l4 #c-a_/b in47 ,from ,thebes4 ,later ,empire4 7#b7 ,vase for cosmetics1 in shape of column with papyrus capital4 7,h4 #c-c_/d in47 ,slade collection4 7#c7 ,plaque of #8fused mosaic4' 7,l4 #c-a_/d in41 about #c_/h in4 in thickness47 ,from the cemetery at ,denderah4 ,ptolemaic period4 7,to face p4 #cb47 ,,iv4 7#a7 ,small bottle 7#8lachrymatory'74 7,h4 #c in47 ,glass of various colours arranged in wavy lines1 and now in part iridescent4 ,probably from a ,greco-,roman tomb4 ,slade collection4 7#b7 ,bowl of thin white glass1 finished on the lathe4 7,diam4 #c-c_/d in47 ,probably from a late ,greek tomb4 7#c7 ,spherical vase of pale blue transparent glass4 7,h4 #c-c_/h in47 ,the mark of the two parts of the mould into which the glass was blown is visible4 ,decoration of dolphins1 fishes1 etc41 on bands4 ,probably ,roman1 first century ,a4,d4 ,slade collection4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 all in ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #de47 ,v4 ,,two ,,bowls ,,of ,,millefiori ,,roman ,,glass4 ,probably ,roman1 first century ,a4,d4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,madrepore pattern1 in dark purple ground4 7,diam4 #e in47 7#b7 ,breccia pattern1 in purple ground with white scrolls4 ,from the ,durand collection4 7,diam4 #e-a_/d in47 7,to face p4 #ej47 ,,vi4 7#a7 ,beaker with oval bosses1 formed by blowing into a mould with apertures4 7,h4 #e in47 ,clear white glass4 ,said to have come from ,constantinople4 ,greco-,roman1 first century ,a4,d4 7#b7 ,tall-necked flask of pale green transparent glass4 7,h4 #f-c_/d in47 ,maze-like pattern1 formed by blowing into mould4 ,greco-,roman4 ,from ,melos4 7#c7 ,small octagonal pyx1 or case for cosmetics4 7,h4 #f-a_/d in47 ,white opaque glass 7but probably originally transparent72 blown into mould4 ,from ,sidon4 ,probably first century ,b4,c4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 all in ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #ef47 ,,vii4 ,,sepulchral ,,glass ,,from ,,the ,,syrian ,,coast 7said to come from ,mount ,carmel74 ,probably about first century ,b4,c4 ,pale green glass1 with iridescence4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,vase for cosmetics in shape of double column4 7,h4 #e-a_/d in47 7#b7 ,vase with six handles4 7,h4 #d-a_/d in47 7#c7 ,vase with handles and stringings of cobalt-blue4 7,h4 #h in47 7,to face p4 #fj47 ,,viii4 ,,bowl ,,of ,,olive-,,green ,,glass1 carved in high 7detached7 relief4 ,mounted on metal stand and with metal rim4 ,deep red by transmitted light4 ,subject--,the ,madness of ,lycurgus4 ,probably ,roman1 about third or fourth century ,a4,d4 ,from the collection of ,lord ,rothschild4 7,to face p4 #gc47 ,,ix4 ,,roman ,,glass ,,from ,,graves ,,in ,,britain4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,jug of pale olive glass1 with iridescence4 7,h4 #h-c_/h in47 ,from ,colchester4 7#b7 ,vase of olive-green glass1 with two handles1 each ending in quilled attachments4 7,h4 #i in47 ,from ,bayford1 near ,sittingbourne4 7,to face p4 #hf47 ,x4 ,,gilt ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,cemeteries4 ,fifth century ,a4,d4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,part of a bowl1 the sides ornamented with small medallions of gilt glass4 ,subjects--,adam and ,eve1 ,sacrifice of ,isaac1 ,jonas1 the ,three ,children1 ,daniel1 etc4 7,max4 dimension1 #f-a_/b in47 ,found near the ,church of ,st4 ,severinus1 ,cologne4 7#b7 ,disc from base of bowl4 7,diam4 #c-c_/d in47 ,below1 ,christ1 between ,timothy and ,hippolytus2 above1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,sixtus1 and ,st4 ,laurence1 standing between torque columns4 7#c7 ,portraits of ,bride and ,bridegroom--,orfitus and ,constantia2 with figure of ,hercules and congratulatory inscription4 7,diam4 #d in47 7,to face p4 #ia47 ,,xi4 ,,byzantine ,,glass1 from the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice4 7,reproduced from ,passini1 ,tesoro di ,s4 ,marco47 7#a7 #8,balance-pan' lamp of clear glass for suspension4 ,on the silver rim1 an invocation to ,st4 ,pantaleone by the ,bishop of ,iberia4 7,diam4 #aj-a_/b in47 7#b7 ,ellipsoid lamp1 for suspension4 ,common glass1 carved in high relief with shells1 fishes1 etc4 ,silver rim1 with cloisons for jewels and sockets for candles4 7,chief diam4 #h in47 7#c7 ,paten1 or more likely #8balance-pan' lamp4 ,greenish glass1 incised with a series of concentric rings4 7,diam4 #g in47 7,to face p4 #if47 ,,xii4 ,,cantharus-,,shaped ,,vase of sky-blue1 bubbly glass4 7,h4 #f-a_/d in47 ,probably a chalice4 ,circa fifth century ,a4,d4 ,found at ,amiens4 ,from the ,pourtals collection4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #ih47 ,,xiii4 ,,byzantine ,,or ,,early ,,saracenic ,,glass1 from the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice4 7,reproduced from ,passini1 ,tesoro di ,s4 ,marco47 ,pear-shaped vase1 set with #8false' metal spout and handle1 to resemble an ampulla4 ,carved in low relief1 in imitation of rock-crystal--design of two sheep-like animals amid conventional foliage4 7,glass alone #d in4 in ,h47 7,to face p4 #aja47 ,,xiv4 ,,byzantine ,,or ,,late ,,roman ,,glass1 from the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice4 7,reproduced from ,passini1 ,tesoro di ,s4 ,marco47 ,situla of greenish glass1 carved in high 7detached7 relief with a hunting scene4 ,below1 a raised grating1 supported on rods of glass 7diatretum work74 ,h4 #aa in4 7,to face p4 #ajb47 ,,xv4 ,,glass ,,beads4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,cylindrical beads with white and yellow pellets3 7i7 ,blue glass with satyr-like mask2 7ii7 opaque greenish glass4 ,probably from ,cyprus4 ,greek or ,phnician4 7#b7 ,two ,chevron beads4 ,provenance uncertain4 ,slade collection4 7#c7 ,three chains of beads1 from ,frankish tombs in the ,rhine-,moselle district4 7,to face p4 #ajh47 ,,xvi4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,glass4 ,prunted ,beaker of olive-green glass4 7,h4 #aa-a_/h in47 ,from burial-mound1 ,taplow4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #aaa47 ,,xvii4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,glass4 7#a7 ,conical cup of pale green glass1 with applied threadings4 7,h4 #aj-a_/d in47 ,from ,kempston1 ,bedfordshire4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,drinking-cup of olive-green glass4 7,h4 #h-a_/b in47 ,from ,faversham1 ,kent4 ,british ,museum 7,gibbs ,bequest74 7,to face p4 #aab47 ,,xviii4 ,,hedwig ,,glass 7so-called74 ,two views of a cup of nearly colourless glass 7,h4 about #d in471 carved in relief with lion1 griffin1 and shield4 ,german or ,oriental2 thirteenth century1 or perhaps earlier4 ,now mounted on ,gothic metal stand1 which is not shown4 ,germanic ,museum1 ,nuremberg4 7,to face p4 #aad47 ,,xix4 ,,medi,,val ,,glass ,,furnace4 ,reproduction of a coloured miniature from a manuscript1 written probably in #ajbc1 of ,rabanus ,maurus 7,de ,originibus ,rerum71 preserved in the library at ,monte ,cassino4 7,to face p4 #abd47 ,,xx4 ,,german ,,glass1 ,,fourteenth ,,and ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,dark bluish-green glass1 from the ,germanic ,museum1 ,nuremberg4 7#a7 ,prunted cup for holding relics4 7#b7 ,wax cover to above1 with seal of the ,abbey to which it belonged4 7,to face p4 #acg47 ,,xxi4 ,do4 do4 7#a7 ,small cup with pap-shaped prunts4 7#b7 ,cup with conical cover1 containing relics4 7,to face p4 #acg47 ,,xxii4 ,,saracenic ,,glass4 ,pilgrim bottle2 brownish1 amber-coloured thick glass1 enamelled and gilt4 7,h4 about #h in47 ,on the flattened back a rose-wheel design4 ,long preserved at ,wrzburg2 said to come from ,mesopotamia4 ,circa #acjj ,a4,d4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #aec47 ,,xxiii4 ,,saracenic ,,glass4 ,tall-necked bottle2 decorated with enamelled and gilt medallions1 ,chinese phnix1 etc4 7,h4 #ag-a_/b in47 ,the inscription has been read #8,glory to our ,lord the ,sultan1 the wise1 the just1 the warrior ,king4' ,bought in ,cairo4 ,circa #acjj ,a4,d4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,myers ,bequest74 7,to face p4 #aed47 ,,xxiv4 ,,saracenic ,,glass4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,small lamp of clear white glass1 a little decayed on surface4 7,h4 #h-a_/d in47 ,enamels of white1 red1 and yellow with gold1 sparingly applied--horsemen with falcons2 gold frieze on rim and foot4 ,stated to have come from a ,christian monastery in ,syria4 ,late thirteenth or early fourteenth century4 ,myers ,bequest4 7#b7 ,vessel for oil4 ,probably to be suspended in a large mosque lamp 7lantern74 7,h4 #f-a_/b in47 ,pale greenish-blue glass1 with remains of the gilding that formerly covered it4 7,to face p4 #aef47 ,,xxv4 ,,saracenic ,,glass4 ,beaker enamelled with frieze of three polo-players1 between two bands with inscription in ,arabic1 both in praise of #8our ,lord the ,sultan' 7without date or proper name74 ,about #acjj4 ,the silver-gilt foot and cover are probably ,augsburg work of the early sixteenth century4 ,from a reproduction in water-colours of the original in the ,grne ,gewlbe1 ,dresden4 7,to face p4 #afb47 ,,xxvi4 ,,saracenic ,,glass4 ,mosque lamp 7,h4 #af in47 from ,cairo4 ,clear white glass with many bubbles4 ,eight handles for suspension4 ,design of lotus-blossom1 etc41 outlined in opaque red1 and the interstices filled with translucent blue enamel4 ,early fourteenth century4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,myers ,bequest74 7,to face p4 #afh47 ,,xxvii4 7#a7 ,,drinking-,,cup 7,diam4 #e-a_/b in47 of honey-coloured glass4 ,in centre1 enamelled figure of #8the angel who serves the wine to the faithful4' ,angel's wings and surrounding band1 gold upon a lavender-blue ground4 ,persian in style1 but according to ,m4 ,schefer1 possibly made at ,ermenas and enamelled at ,aleppo4 ,probably fifteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,,hollow ,,sphere of honey-coloured enamelled glass4 7,diam4 #d in47 ,ornament of chain of mosque lamp4 ,provenance unknown1 but probably from ,northern ,syria4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #agb47 ,,xxviii4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,the ,aldrevandini ,beaker4 7,h4 #e-a_/h in47 ,thin clear glass with black specks1 enamelled with three shields bearing the arms of ,south ,german towns3 7#a7 ,three stag-horns in fesse1 azure2 7#b7 argent1 three keys in fesse1 gules2 7#c7 per fesse argent and sable1 in chief a bar4 ,between1 apple-green leaves outlined in white4 ,some enamelling also inside4 ,inscription in ,gothic letters4 ,about #acjj ,a4,d4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #agi47 ,,xxix4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,the ,berovieri ,cup4 7,h4 c4 #h-a_/b in47 ,coppa ,nuziale 7marriage cup7 of deep-blue glass1 enamelled and gilt4 ,the heads of bride and bridegroom in medallions4 ,between1 7#a7 a procession of knights and ladies approaching a fountain2 7#b7 bathing in fountain4 ,attributed to ,angelo ,berovieri4 ,about #addj4 ,museo ,civico1 ,venice4 7,to face p4 #aid47 ,,xxx4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 7#a7 ,lamp for suspension1 enamelled with studs of white on coloured ground4 7,h4 #aa in47 ,shield with stemma of ,tiepolo family4 ,early sixteenth century4 ,museo ,civico1 ,venice4 7#b7 ,stemless cup of thin clear glass4 7,h4 #e-a_/b in47 ,decorated with scrolls1 lions1 and birds1 in #8painted' enamel4 ,about #adej4 ,dug up while excavating the foundations of the new ,campanile4 ,museo ,civico1 ,venice4 7,to face p4 #aii47 ,,xxxi4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,flower-vase4 7,h4 #aa in47 ,transparent1 colourless glass1 slightly greyish1 with tendency to deliquescence on surface3 threading and studs of cobalt-blue4 ,probably sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7,slade1 ex ,bernal collection47 7,to face p4 #bjj47 ,,xxxii4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,spherical vase 7,h41 with #8made-up' foot1 #i-a_/b in47 of opaque white glass1 decorated with gilt scrolls and bosses and a pair of rudely drawn mermaids4 ,sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7,slade1 ex ,d',azeglio collection47 7,to face p4 #bjc47 ,,xxxiii4 ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,pilgrim's bottle4 7,h4 #f-a_/b in47 ,design 7,cupid fishing1 and ,venus and ,anchises7 painted in blue on opaque white 7lattimo7 ground4 ,early sixteenth century4 ,museo ,civico1 ,venice4 7,to face p4 #bjd47 ,,xxxiv4 ,,venetian ,,glass1 enamelled and gilt4 ,early sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,plate of thin glass4 7,diam4 #g in47 ,in centre a shield with oak tree1 green and gold on blue ground4 78 ,rovere arms47 ,round margin a ring of delicate pattern in powder gold4 ,early sixteenth century4 7,slade collection47 7#b7 ,tazza of thin glass4 7,diam4 #f in47 ,coat of arms in lozenge in centre1 surrounded by ring with flowers in oval medallions--apple-green1 dull red1 blue and yellow enamels4 ,powder gold band round margin4 7,slade1 ex ,bernal collection47 7,to face p4 #bad47 ,,xxxv4 ,,french ,,glass ,,of ,,renaissance4 ,british ,museum4 7,slade collection47 7#a7 ,statuette of ,louis ,,xiii4 or ,,xiv4 7,h4 #d-a_/d in47 ,opaque white glass with coloured enamels4 ,probably made at ,nevers4 ,seventeenth century4 7#b7 ,statuette of man with muff4 7,h4 of figure1 #e in47 ,opaque white1 porcelain-like glass1 on a copper base4 ,on stand of white ,dresden china1 partly gilt4 7#c7 ,small burette 7,h4 #e in47 of dark greenish-blue transparent glass2 the body and neck splashed with green1 white1 and red enamels4 ,gilt berry-like bosses on body4 ,probably sixteenth century4 7,to face p4 #bcc47 ,,xxxvi4 ,,spanish ,,glass4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,vase of pale bottle-green glass2 four handles with quilled edges4 7,h4 #f-a_/b in47 ,from the ,south of ,spain4 ,sixteenth or seventeenth century4 7#b7 ,jug of white transparent glass 7,h4 #h-a_/b in471 made at ,s4 ,ildefonso4 7#c7 ,vase of transparent glass1 slightly greenish4 7,h4 #f in47 ,two handles with quilled edges4 ,from the ,south of ,spain4 ,sixteenth or seventeenth century4 7,to face p4 #bde47 ,,xxxvii4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,roemer of green glass2 berry prunts on waist2 the foot built up of glass stringing4 ,circa #afjj4 ,germanic ,museum1 ,nuremberg4 7,to face p4 #bed47 ,,xxxviii4 ,,german ,,glass ,,furnace4 ,sixteenth century4 ,from ,agricola1 ,de ,re ,metallica1 ,basle1 #aeef4 7,to face p4 #bfj47 ,,xxxix4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,willkomm ,humpen1 enamelled in colours with the ,reichs-adler4 ,on the wings1 as recorded by an inscription on the back1 the arms of the various members of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,dated #afef4 ,greenish glass2 below margin1 a ring of #8powdered' gold1 between beading of white and blue enamel4 ,british ,museum 7,henderson ,bequest74 7,to face p4 #bfd47 ,,xl4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,beaker of clear white glass4 7,h4 #e-a_/b in47 ,enamelled with double eagle1 white and blue1 with yellow beaks and claws2 at the back a sprig of lily-of-the-valley4 ,dated #aeif4 ,from the ,bernal collection4 7#b7 ,jug of pale purple glass 7,h4 #h in47 with pewter lid4 ,enamelled with a white dog pursuing a red stag and fox4 ,in addition green1 blue1 and yellow enamels4 ,dated #aeie4 ,from the ,slade collection4 7,to face p4 #bfg47 ,,xli4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,willkomm ,humpen4 ,enamelled in colours with hunting scene1 the game being driven into net4 ,about #afjj4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #bfh47 ,,xlii4 ,,german ,,glass4 ,covered beaker of clear white glass4 7,h4 with cover #f-c_/d in47 ,engraved with design of amorini dancing among vines4 ,the metal knob of cover is enamelled and gilt1 and on the interior button are enamelled the arms of the ,archbishop of ,trves1 with the following inscription3--,joan ,hugo ,d4,g4 ,arc4 ,trev4 ,,pr4 ,,el4 ,,ep4 ,,sp4 ,early eighteenth century4 7,to face p4 #bhc47 ,,xliii4 ,,dutch ,,glass4 ,beaker in the form of a roemer4 7,h4 #i in47 ,on the bowl1 in medallions1 heads symbolising the four seasons1 scratched with the diamond4 ,the waist1 decorated with berry prunts1 showing remains of gilding4 ,on this part is scratched 7in ,english7 #8,august the #ahth1 #affc1' and the letters ,h4_/,w4,e4 between bay branches4 ,on the foot a landscape with hunting scene4 ,british ,museum4 7,to face p4 #bif47 ,,xliv4 ,,english ,,wine-,,glasses4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,wine-glass1 early eighteenth century4 7,h4 #h-c_/d in47 ,the hollow knop of the moulded stem is decorated with prunts and encloses a sixpence of ,queen ,anne 7dated #agjg74 7#b7 ,jacobite wine-glass with opaque twisted stem4 7,h4 #g-c_/d in47 ,on the bowl is engraved a portrait of the ,young ,pretender1 inscribed #8,cognoscunt me mei'2 at the back are the words ,premium ,virtutis under a crown4 7#c7 ,jacobite wine-glass with air-twisted stem4 ,round the bowl are engraved the words #8,immortal ,memory'2 above1 a band of vine-leaves1 and below1 fleurs-de-lis and roses4 ,presented by ,mr4 ,a4 ,hartshorne4 7,to face p4 #cbg47 ,,xlv4 ,,english ,,flint ,,glass4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,standing cup and cover 7,h4 #ab in47 on square1 stepped foot4 ,carved in relief with gadroons descending spirally4 ,end of eighteenth century4 ,presented by ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,lennard4 7#b7 ,bowl standing on square base4 7,h4 #h-a_/b in47 ,the whole of the surface facetted2 the under surface of the foot cut into square compartments4 ,end of eighteenth century4 ,presented by ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,lennard4 7,to face p4 #ccb47 ,,xlvi4 ,,persian ,,glass4 ,tall-necked vase of colourless glass2 body shaped in a mould2 appliqu stringings on foot4 ,taken from a tomb at ,baku4 ,vincent ,robinson collection4 7,to face p4 #cch47 ,,xlvii4 ,,persian ,,glass4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,seventeenth or eighteenth century4 7#a7 ,tall-necked1 pear-shaped vase1 the surface spirally ribbed1 of deep blue transparent glass4 7,h4 #aa in47 7#b7 ,cruet-shaped vase of clear white glass4 7,h4 #i in47 ,from the ,richard collection4 7#c7 ,perfume sprinkler1 with curved neck and barnacle-shaped lip4 ,blue transparent glass1 the surface spirally ribbed4 7,h4 #ab in47 7,to face p4 #cdj47 ,,xlviii4 ,,indian ,,glass4 ,indian ,museum4 ,vase or basin with wide-spreading lip4 7,h4 #e-c_/d in47 ,milky1 semi-transparent glass2 the ground gilt1 surrounding white flowers1 with pistils of red enamel4 ,provenance unknown4 7,delhi district87 7,to face p4 #cdc47 ,,xlix4 ,,chinese ,,glass4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,bowl of mottled green glass with purple markings1 imitating jade4 7,h4 #b-g_/h in47 ,eighteenth century4 ,from the ,bernal collection4 7#b7 ,spindle-shaped vase of orange1 #8tortoise-shell' glass4 7,h4 #g-a_/b in47 ,the stopper of silver1 inlaid with ,chinese characters2 the base ,european4 7#c7 ,small tripod vase of mottled yellow glass1 in form of incense-burner4 7,h4 #c-c_/d in47 ,eighteenth century4 7,to face p4 #cej47 ,,selected ,,bibliography ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,glass ,,agricola 7,,georg73 ,de ,re ,metallica 7last chapter of work74 ,basle1 #aeef4 ,,appert 7,l47 ,,et ,,henrivaux3 ,verre et ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,appert 7,l473 ,notes sur les verres des ,vitraux ,anciens4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,,bapst 7,a473 ,chinesische ,glasarbeiten2 ,zeitschrift fr ,bildende ,kunst1 #ahhe4 ,,bate 7,,percy73 ,english ,table-,glass4 ,no date4 7#aijd87 ,,biringuccio 7,v473 ,de la ,pirotechnia4 ,venice1 #aedj4 ,,blancourt 7,,haudicquer ,,de73 ,l',art de la ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #afig4 ,,bontemps 7,g473-- ,guide du ,verrier4 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,expos des moyens employs pour la fabrication des ,verres ,filigrans4 #ahde4 ,,bordoni3 ,l',arte ,vetraria in ,altare4 ,savona1 #ahhd4 ,,bosc ,d',,antic 7,p473 ,mmoires sur l',art de la ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #aghj4 ,,boutellier 7,l',,abb73 ,histoire des ,gentilshommes ,verriers de ,nevers4 ,,brent 7,,john73 #8,on ,chevron ,beads4' ,archologia1 vol4 xlv4 ,,brinckmann 7,,justus73 ,various ,catalogues1 etc41 of the ,hamburg ,museum4 ,,bucher 7,b473 ,die ,glassammlung des ,k4,k4 ,oesterreich4 ,museum4 ,vienna1 #ahhh4 ,,bushell 7,s4 ,w473-- ,oriental ,ceramic ,art4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii4 7,south ,kensington ,art ,handbooks74 #aijf4 ,,busselin 7,d473 ,les ,clbres ,verreries de ,venise4 ,venice1 #ahdf4 ,,cecchetti3-- ,delle ,origini dell' ,arte ,vetraria ,muranese4 ,r4 ,institute ,veneto1 #ahgb4 ,monographie dell' ,arte ,vetraria4 ,venice1 #ahgd4 ,,czihak 7,e4 ,,von73 ,schlesische ,glser4 ,breslau1 #ahia4 ,,dalton 7,o4 ,m473-- ,catalogue of ,early ,christian ,antiquities in the ,british ,museum--,cemetery ,glasses4 #aija4 #8,gilded ,glass of ,catacombs4' ,archological ,journal1 #aija4 ,,deville 7,a473 ,histoire de l',art de la ,verrerie dans l',antiquit4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,,dobbs 7,h4 ,c473 #8,glass-blowers of ,north-west ,provinces4' ,journal of ,indian ,art1 vol4 vii4 ,,eraclius3 see ,,heraclius4 ,,fillon 7,b473 ,l',art de ,terre chez les ,poitevins4 ,niort1 #ahfd4 ,,fioravanti 7,l473 ,dello ,specchio di ,scienza ,universale1 ,bk4 vii4 cap4 #bi4 ,venice1 #aefg4 ,,fourcaud 7,l4 ,,de73 mile ,gall4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,,fowler 7,j473 #8,on the ,process of ,decay in ,glass4' ,archologia1 vol4 xlvi4 ,,franks 7,,sir ,a4 ,w473-- ,guide to ,glass ,room in ,british ,museum1 #ahhh4 ,art ,treasures of ,united ,kingdom4 ,vitreous ,art4 #aheh4 ,,friedrich 7,c473 ,die ,altdeutschen ,glser4 ,nrnberg1 #ahhd4 ,,froehner 7,w473 ,la ,verrerie ,antique4 ,collection ,charvet1 #ahgi4 ,,garnier 7,e473-- ,histoire de la ,verrerie et de l'maillerie4 ,tours1 #ahhf4 ,spitzer ,catalogue1 vol4 iii4 #8,la ,verrerie4' ,,garrucci 7,p4 ,r473-- ,storia dell' ,arte ,christiana1 vol4 iii4 #ahgf4 ,vetri ornati di ,figure in ,oro4 #aheh and #ahfd4 ,,garzoni 7,t473 ,piazza ,universale di tutte le professioni del ,mondo4 ,discorso lxiv4 ,venice1 #aehe4 ,,gerspach3 ,l',art de la ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,,griffith 7,f473 ,egypt ,exploration ,fund4 ,tanis1 ,part ii4 #ahhh4 ,,hallen 7,,rev4 ,a473 #8,glass-making in ,sussex1 etc4' ,scottish ,antiquary1 #ahic4 ,,hartshorne 7,,albert73 ,old ,english ,glasses4 #ahig4 ,,havard 7,h473 ,les ,arts de l',ameublement4 ,la ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,heraclius or ,,eraclius3 ,de ,artibus et ,coloribus ,romanorum4 ,eitelberger von ,edelberg3 ,quellenschriften fr ,kunstgeschichte1 vol4 iv4 ,,hirth 7,f473 ,chinesische ,studien2 ,zur ,geschichte des ,glases in ,china4 ,leipsic1 #ahij4 ,and other papers4 ,d',,holbach 7,,baron783 ,art de la ,verrerie1 de ,neri1 ,merret et ,kunckel4 ,paris1 #ageb4 ,d',,hondt 7,p473 ,l',art de la ,verrerie4 ,lige1 #ahia4 ,,houdoy 7,j473 ,verrerie la faon de ,venise4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,,kunckel 7,j473 ,ars ,vitraria ,experimentalis4 #afgi4 ,,labarte 7,j473-- ,la ,collection ,debruge ,dumnil4 ,paris1 #ahdg4 ,histoire des ,arts ,industriels1 vol4 iv4 ,paris1 #ahff4 ,,lacroix 7,p473 ,les ,arts au ,moyen ge et l'poque de la ,renaissance4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,,lane-,,poole 7,s473-- ,the ,art of the ,saracens in ,egypt4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,arabic ,glass ,weights in ,british ,museum4 #ahia4 ,,layard 7,,sir ,a4 ,h473 ,nineveh and its ,remains4 #ahec4 ,,lazari 7,v473 ,notizia delle ,opere d',arte della ,raccolta ,correr4 ,venice1 #ahei4 ,,lobmeyr 7,l473 ,die ,glas-industrie4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgd4 ,,loysel 7,c473 ,essai sur la ,verrerie4 ,paris1 #ahjj4 7,written earlier47 ,,mathesius3 ,sarepta oder ,bergpostil 7,sermon xv474 ,nrnberg1 #aefb4 ,,merret 7,c473 ,the ,art of ,glass of ,neri translated into ,english4 ,london1 #affb4 ,,milanesi 7,g473 ,tre ,trattatelli dell' ,arte del ,vetro per ,mosaici4 7,fifteenth century ,,mss47 #ahfd4 ,,minutoli 7,h4 ,,de73 ,ueber der ,anfertigung der farbigen ,glser bei den ,rmern4 ,berlin1 #ahcf4 ,,molinier 7,e473 ,la ,peinture sous ,verre4 ,spitzer ,catalogue1 vol4 iii4 ,,naples3 ,description of ,museo ,borbonico4 ,glass1 vols4 v41 xi41 and xv4 ,,neri 7,a473 ,l',arte ,vetraria4 #afab4 ,,nesbitt 7,a473-- ,catalogue of ,slade ,collection of ,glass4 ,privately printed1 #ahga4 ,catalogue of ,glass ,vessels in ,south ,kensington ,museum1 #ahgh4 ,glass 7,south ,kensington ,art ,handbooks71 #ahge4 #8,opus ,sectile in ,glass4' ,archologia1 vol4 xlv4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article #8,glass4' #ahgi4 ,,owen 7,h473 ,ceramic ,art in ,bristol 7chapter on ,bristol ,glass74 #ahgc4 ,,passini 7,a473 ,il ,tesoro di ,san ,marco4 ,venice1 #ahhf4 ,,peligot 7,m4 ,e473 ,la ,verre1 ,histoire et ,fabrication4 #ahgf4 ,,pellat 7,,apsley73-- ,curiosities of ,glass-making4 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,memoir on the ,origin1 etc41 of ,glass-making4 ,london1 #ahba4 ,,pelletier3 ,les ,verriers du ,lyonnais4 #ahhg4 ,,petrie 7,,flinders73-- ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club2 ,introduction to ,catalogue of ,egyptian ,exhibition1 #ahie4 ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,egypt ,exploration ,fund4 #ahid4 ,,pinchart 7,a473 ,les ,fabriques des ,verres de ,venise1 d',anvers et de ,bruxelles au ,,xvie4 et au ,,xviie4 sicles4 ,bulletins des ,commissions ,royales4 ,bruxelles1 #ahhb4 ,,plinius ,,secundus 7,,caius73 ,historia ,naturalis1 ,bk4 xxxvi4 caps4 #dd-dg4 ,,porter 7,g4 ,r473 #8,glass and ,porcelain4' ,lardner's ,cabinet ,encyclopdia4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,,powell 7,h4 ,j473-- ,principles of ,glass-making4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article #8,glass4' #aijb4 ,,read 7,c4 ,h473-- #8,glass in ,south ,saxon ,graves4' ,archologia1 vol4 lv4 #8,on a ,saracenic ,goblet of ,enamelled ,glass4' ,archologia1 vol4 lviii4 ,,ria,o 7,j4 ,f473 ,industrial ,arts in ,spain1 ,part ii4 7,south ,kensington ,handbooks74 #ahgi4 ,,santi 7,m473 ,origini dell' ,arte ,vetraria in ,venezia e ,murano4 ,,sauzay 7,a473-- ,la ,verrerie depuis les ,temps les plus reculs4 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,,sauzay 7,a473-- ,marvels of ,glass-making4 7,translation of above47 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,,schebek 7,e473 ,bhmens ,glasindustrie und ,glashandel4 ,prague1 #ahgh4 ,,schmoranz 7,g473 ,old ,oriental ,gilt and ,enamelled ,vessels4 ,german and ,english ,editions4 ,vienna and ,london1 #ahii4 ,,schuermans 7,h473 ,the ,wanderings of the ,muranese and ,altarist ,glass-workers4 ,eleven ,letters4 ,bulletins des ,commissions ,royales4 ,bruxelles1 #ahhc-ahia4 ,spitzer ,catalogue4 ,see ,,garnier and ,,molinier4 ,,theophilus3 ,diversarum ,artium ,schedula4 ,eitelberger von ,edelberg4 ,quellenschriften fr ,kunstgeschichte1 vol4 viii4 ,vienna1 #ahgd4 ,,ure 7,a473 ,dictionary of ,arts1 article #8,glass4' #ahec4 ,,vopel 7,h473 ,die ,altchristlichen ,goldglser4 ,freiberg1 #ahii4 ,,zanetti 7,v473-- ,monographia della ,vetraria ,veneziana4 ,venice1 #ahgc4 ,museo ,civico di ,murano2 ,guida di ,murano4 ,venice1 #ahff4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,preceding ,,list ,egyptian1 etc4 ,griffith1 ,layard1 ,petrie4 ,greco-,roman and ,roman4 ,deville1 ,froehner1 ,fowler1 ,minutoli1 ,naples ,museum1 ,nesbitt1 ,pliny4 ,early ,christian1 ,byzantine1 ,anglo-,saxon1 etc4 ,brent1 ,dalton1 ,garrucci1 ,heraclius1 ,passini1 ,read1 ,theophilus1 ,vopel4 ,saracenic and ,perso-,indian4 ,lane-,poole1 ,dobbs1 ,read1 ,schmoranz4 ,venetian 7,murano and ,altare74 ,biringuccio1 ,bontemps1 ,bordoni1 ,busselin1 ,cecchetti1 ,fioravanti1 ,garzoni1 ,houdoy1 ,labarte1 ,lazari1 ,neri1 ,pinchart1 ,santi1 ,schuermans1 ,zanetti4 ,french and ,spanish4 ,boutellier1 ,fillon1 ,fourcaud1 ,gamier1 ,gerspach1 ,pelletier1 ,riao4 ,german4 ,agricola1 ,brinckmann1 ,von ,czihak1 ,friedrich1 ,kunckel1 ,lobmeyr1 ,mathesius1 ,schebek4 ,english4 ,bate1 ,hallen1 ,hartshorne1 ,merret1 ,owen1 ,pellat4 ,chinese4 ,bapst1 ,bushell1 ,hirth4 ,technical4 ,appert1 ,blancourt1 ,bontemps1 ,bosc d',antic1 ,d',holbach1 ,kunckel1 ,lobmeyr1 ,loysel1 ,merret1 ,neri1 ,peligot1 ,pellat1 ,porter1 ,powell1 ,ure4 ,general and historical4 ,brinckmann1 ,franks1 ,garnier1 ,gerspach1 ,havard1 ,labarte1 ,lacroix1 ,nesbitt1 ,sauzay4 ,,glass ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,glass is a substance in so many ways connected with the conveniences and amenities of our daily life1 and the word calls up so many varied associations1 that ,i must here at the very beginning make clear with what a comparatively small proportion of the manifold applications of the substance ,i have to deal4 ,in the first place1 this is an art history1 so that with methods of manufacture and practical uses we are only concerned so far as they may influence or help to explain points of artistic interest4 ,again1 even on the artistic side1 it is not with every branch of the varied applications of glass that we shall be occupied in this work4 ,by an anomaly of the ,english language1 whose vocabulary for matters connected with the arts is so strangely deficient1 we have come to understand by the term #8glass1' when used without further explanation1 what is called in the trade #8hollow ware1' the verrerie of the ,french2 in other words--vessels of glass4 ,the term may also be extended to include various minor applications of the material--beads1 small ornaments1 etc41 what the ,french call verroterie4 ,but the application of glass to windows1 especially when coloured and stained glass is in question1 to say nothing of work in mosaic1 is usually1 although not always1 held to lie outside this narrower connotation of the word4 ,now it happens that for us this restriction is in every way convenient4 ,for though the material basis is the same1 it is evident that both the artist who works in mosaic and the designer of stained windows are concerned1 each in his department1 with artistic problems only incidentally connected with the material in which they work4 ,in other words1 the art element in both these crafts only becomes prominent at a stage when the actual preparation of the glass is completed4 ,it is1 however1 certainly a pity that there is no ,english word which would not only clearly connote the class of objects with which ,i have here to deal1 but which would at the same time distinctly comprise nothing beyond4 ,i have now explained the somewhat restricted and artificial sense of the word glass that ,i propose to accept in this work4 ,but for a moment let us pass to the other extreme1 and going beyond the ordinary connotation of the term include in it the glazes of pottery--the word #8glaze' is in its origin the same as glass--as well as the many forms of enamel4 ,in all these cases we are dealing with substances of similar composition4 ,they may all probably be traced back to a common origin1 so that from an evolutionary point of view we have here an instance of the development of the complex and varied from the simple and single4 ,looking at the question in another way1 the art of the enameller1 using the term in a restricted sense1 may be held to be subsidiary both to that of the potter and of the glass-worker2 while many of the problems that arise in treating of the glazes of fictile wares--questions as to fusibility1 or as to the colours employed and the changes of these colours during the firing--turn up again in the manufacture of glass4 ,we shall see that experience gained in following the processes of one art may serve to throw light upon the difficulties and problems of the other4 ,historically the connection between glass and pottery is not so close4 ,in some degree the prevalence of one art has tended to oust the other1 or to relegate it to an inferior position4 ,the ,greeks1 who carried the potter's art to such perfection1 knew little about glass--it was long an exotic substance for them4 ,the ,romans1 on the other hand1 who in the first centuries of our era first fully appreciated and developed the capacities of glass1 produced little pottery of artistic interest4 ,in the sixteenth century1 in ,umbria and ,tuscany1 where the finest majolica was made1 we hear nothing of the manufacture of glass1 while on the other hand the fayence of ,venice1 at this time pre-occupied with her glass1 was of subsidiary importance4 ,if we turn to the home of porcelain1 in ,china glass has always held a subordinate position1 while in ,japan it was until recent days practically unknown4 ,were a comparison to be made between the development of the various minor arts1 it would be difficult to find a wider contrast than that between the history of porcelain and that of glass4 ,the knowledge of porcelain was confined for nearly a thousand years to ,china1 the country where it was first made1 and where it was slowly brought to perfection4 ,let loose1 as it were1 in the ,west early in the eighteenth century1 it had then a short period of glory1 but before the end of the century the art had already fallen upon evil days4 ,the manufacture of glass1 on the other hand1 had long been carried on in ,egypt1 and perhaps in other ,eastern lands1 by a primitive process1 although it only became an article of general use after the discovery of the blowing-iron4 ,when and where this discovery was made we do not know--perhaps somewhere in ,syria or ,mesopotamia1 in the third or second century before ,christ4 ,the art of blowing glass was known1 no doubt1 if not fully developed1 at the time when the kingdoms of the ,ptolemies and of the ,seleucid fell under the rule of the ,romans4 ,by them it was before long brought to perfection and carried into every corner of the ,west1 so that by the second or third century of our era the production of glass in ,europe was probably greater than at any subsequent time1 at least until quite recent days4 ,nor was the art of glass-making completely extinguished by #8the advance of the barbarians4' ,indeed1 some of the ,germanic tribes not impossibly brought with them a knowledge of the process not only of preparing but also of blowing glass1 picked up on their journeyings through ,east ,europe1 or perhaps even learned in ,western ,asia4 ,this was an instance of the passage to the ,north and ,west of the arts of civilisation1 by what we may call the back-road of ,europe1 in opposition to the high-roads that led directly from ,italy by way of the ,rhone and the ,rhine4 ,but in the ,west the manufacture1 though continuously carried on in many spots1 was after the fall of the ,western ,empire relegated to the woods1--for nearly a thousand years little glass was produced of any artistic interest4 ,indeed1 but few examples of this forest or green glass of the ,middle ,ages have survived to our time4 ,during all this long interval1 in one direction only1 in the ,west1 was any advance made4 ,within this period falls the great development of stained glass3 we must turn to the glorious windows of the cathedrals of ,france and other ,western lands1 to see what the glass-workers of the time were capable of producing4 ,in the ,east1 on the other hand1 in the lands ruled from ,constantinople or influenced by ,byzantine civilisation1 what we know of the glass of the early ,middle ,ages is almost confined to the mosaic coverings of the walls of the contemporary churches4 ,but just as distinctly as the glass in the windows of the ,gothic churches1 this mosaic work1 for the reason we have already given1 falls outside our limits4 ,it was not till the end of the twelfth century that any important advance was made in our narrower department of #8hollow ware4' ,among the many beautiful things made during that glorious season of artistic production that had its start about this time in ,egypt 7or perhaps1 rather1 in the lands between the ,persian ,gulf and the ,mediterranean7--except it be the inlaid metal work--there is nothing that now interests us so much as the enamelled glass1 the beautiful ware that culminated in the magnificent ,cairene mosque lamps of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,the art of enamelling on glass passed over to ,venice in the fifteenth century1 perhaps earlier1 and there in the next century the manufacture of the famous cristallo was finally achieved1 and complete mastery was obtained in the working of this pure white glass4 ,a fresh start was now given to the industry in the north by means of the ,venetian glass-workers1 who were sought for in every country to teach their new methods4 ,in ,germany alone did some of the traditions of the old forest-workers of #8green-glass' survive4 ,by the end of the seventeenth century the ,german glass1 in some respects to be regarded as a compromise between the old and new1 had become the most important in ,europe4 ,for a hundred years the products of #8the mountain fringe of ,bohemia' held the premier position1 but towards the end of the eighteenth century this place was taken by the facetted flint-glass of ,england4 ,it is certainly remarkable that it is only of quite recent years that any such prominent position could be claimed for ,france1 which heretofore had been content to follow in the wake first of ,venice and then of ,germany and of ,england4 ,at the present day1 however1 this at least may be said--that ,france is almost the only country where any really artistic work in glass1 apart from the reproduction of old patterns and old methods1 is being produced4 ,this hasty sketch of the history of glass-making will help us to understand why it is that in following the development of the art in so many lands1 and for a period of more than three thousand years1 there is no need to linger for any time except at a few of the more important tapes4 ,indeed such a procedure is forced upon us1 for much of the road is quite barren1 other parts are unexplored1 while for whole stages we pass through prosaic districts where we find little of artistic merit to detain us4 ,the periods1 then1 of real importance in the history of glass1 either from the cultur-historisch or from a purely artistic point of view1 are separated by long intervals1 during which little of interest was produced4 ,the primitive glass of ,egypt1 the varied productions of the first centuries of the ,roman ,empire1 the enamelled glass of the ,saracens1 and the ,venetian glass of the ,renaissance--this exhausts all that we find either of commanding historic interest or of superlative artistic merit4 ,what follows--the ,german and the ,netherlandish glass of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--is still of some importance under both these heads4 ,i can hardly say so much of the ,english glass of the eighteenth century2 but this glass must not be neglected--it is ,english1 and it is highly prized by many enthusiastic collectors4 ,it will be seen that there is a long gap between the first and second of our critical periods--between the beginning of the primitive ,egyptian and the earliest ,roman glass4 ,this gap will be filled1 in some measure1 by some account of the rare surviving specimens of glass that can claim an ,assyrian origin1 of the glass pastes of the ,mycenan age1 and of the few examples of glass that can be strictly classed as ,greek of the classical age4 ,so again of the second long hiatus--the interval of nearly a thousand years between the period of the ,roman glass and that of the ,saracens1--this may be partly filled by the few scanty pieces that have come down to us from ,sassanian and ,byzantine times4 ,to this period belongs also the glass of the ,germanic tribes of northern ,europe1 above all that of our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors4 ,some notice must also be taken of a few districts situated on bypaths1 of the glass from countries that lie away from the main centres of production--these latter centres1 ,i may note1 until comparatively recent times are mostly to be found in close connection with the basin of the ,mediterranean4 ,to these outlying districts we must finally turn to examine the glass of ,persia1 of ,india1 and above all the glass of ,china4 ,an interesting chapter1 nay1 a separate work1 might be devoted to the classification and history of a class of objects of which the manufacture has been carried on continuously and with few changes from the time of the ,middle ,empire in ,egypt--of beads1 ,i mean1 and other allied applications of glass1 included in the ,french term verroterie4 ,but1 however great the claims to attention of such objects1 their interest is rather archological than artistic1 and it will be sufficient to treat of them incidentally along with the1 for us1 more important class of #8hollow ware' produced with the aid of the glass-blower's tube4 ,,properties ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,glass ,christopher ,merret1 our earliest ,english writer on glass1 sets down the properties of the material under twenty-six heads1 #8by which we may easily differentiate it from all other bodies4' ,from these ,i will select some four or five which will be sufficient for our purpose4 ,thus1 of glass1 he says3 #8',tis a concrete of salt and sand or stones4 ',tis artificial4 ,it melts in a strong fire4 ,when melted 'tis tenacious and sticks together4444 ,when melted it cleaves to iron1 etc4 ',tis ductile whilst red-hot1 and fashionable into any form1 but not malleable1 and it may be blown into a hollowness' 7,art of ,glass1 #affb74 ,here we have briefly expressed the real differenti of glass4 ,it is rather by these properties than by any virtue of transparency or of definite chemical composition that glass is to be distinguished from all other bodies2 and it is only by duly taking advantage of these properties that the preparation of a vessel of glass is rendered possible4 ,in passing from a liquid to a solid state there intervenes a viscous stage when the glass may be gathered at the end of an iron rod2 the ductile1 tenacious mass may now be drawn out into long threads1 whose length and fineness are only limited by the difficulty of maintaining the requisite temperature4 ,again1 if the rod upon which the mass is gathered is hollow1 the glass may be blown out into a vesicle or bulb1 the starting-point from which an endless variety of objects1 bottles1 cups1 tubes1 or even flat sheets of glass1 may be subsequently formed4 ,until advantage was taken of this remarkable property of glass--its capability1 ,i mean1 of being blown out into a hollow vesicle when in a viscid condition--the art of the glass-maker was in a primitive stage4 ,we may compare the glass prepared without the aid of the blowing-tube--that of the ancient ,egyptians1 for instance--to the pottery made by hand before the invention of the potter's wheel4 ,in dealing with the practical side of our subject--the materials from which glass is made1 how these materials are first fritted and then fused together1 and how the fused mass is subsequently dealt with--the best plan will be to approach the questions in each case from the point of view of the time and country4 ,but as1 on the one hand1 for classical times1 our sources of information for these practical details are but scanty1 and as1 on the other1 ,i am not concerned with the industrial developments of the nineteenth century1 it will be well to postpone any fuller treatment of such matters until ,i come to speak of the glass of late ,medival and ,renaissance times4 ,i shall then be able to make use of contemporary accounts which will throw light on the processes of manufacture4 ,a few preliminary notes on the chemical and physical properties of glass may1 however1 not be out of place4 ,glass1 ,merret tells us1 is #8a concrete of salt and sand or stones4' ,this1 in modern scientific language1 we should express by saying that it is a combination of silica with an alkali4 ,but these substances alone are not enough4 ,you cannot make a glass fit for practical use from a pure quartz sand with the addition of nothing else than a salt of potash or soda4 ,such a glass--a simple alkaline silicate--would indeed be transparent1 but it would be difficult to work and very fragile4 ,in all cases there is need of a second base1 and this1 to speak generally1 should be either lime or oxide of lead4 ,the latter base we may for the present neglect2 speaking generally1 it is the presence of lime that gives the working qualities and the requisite toughness4 ,these1 then1 are the essential materials for the preparation of glass4 ,other substances may be present2 alumina1 for example1 or one or other of the oxides of iron1 but as a rule the presence of these latter bases is not desired--the glass would be better without them4 ,putting aside1 then1 for the present the glass in which lead is a constituent1 as well as that in which the soda is replaced by potash1 it is remarkable how little difference of composition we find in examples of glass of the most divergent origin4 ,let us compare the composition of a ,roman #8lachrymatory' with that of a piece of modern ,english plate-glass4 ,in a hundred parts we find-- ,silica4 ,soda4 ,lime4 ,iron ,oxide4 ,alumina4 ,roman lachrymatory #gae #afe #h #a #b ,english ,plate-glass #gb #ag #f #b #b ,these examples are indeed two extreme terms of a long but continuous series4 ,a sample of ,saracenic glass of the fourteenth or of ,venetian glass of the sixteenth century1 would yield on analysis much the same result4#a ,this1 then1 may be regarded as the normal composition of such glass as ,i shall have to deal with in this history4 ,the main question has generally been--,how can the sand or silica1 the premier element in glass1 be best converted into a substance which shall in external aspect resemble as closely as possible the native rock crystal 7itself pure silica71 but which at the same time shall be not only fusible1 but after fusing pass on cooling through a plastic condition when it may be expanded into a vesicle and otherwise worked up into various shapes8 ,long practical experience has shown that this can be best effected by adding to the sand materials containing both soda and lime1 and as far as possible nothing beyond these bases4 ,a glass thus compounded we may take as our normal type1 but1 as ,i have said1 the soda may in certain cases be replaced by potash and the lime by lead oxide4 ,silica in any case is the essential element in glass1 and in any normal glass there may be present from #fj to #ge per cent4 ,if1 however1 the bases with which it is combined have a high combining number--and this is especially the case with lead--the percentage of silica may fall below the former figure4 ,thus1 in a bottle glass with #ab per cent4 of iron oxide and alumina#b the proportion is reduced to #ed per cent41 and in a flint glass with #dc per cent4 of lead oxide there is only #de per cent4 of silica4 ,it was once the fashion among ,english writers on glass to classify the substance under the heads of crown-glass1 bottle-glass1 broad-glass1 plate-glass1 flint-glass1 etc42 but such a classification1 not very logical in itself1 would be of no use to us4#c ,glass1 of course1 varies in optical properties1 in hardness1 and in fusibility1 but ,i do not think that any useful classification could be based directly on these properties4 ,but there is one distinction of the greatest importance technically and geographically1 and this is between the glass of maritime countries in which the alkali is soda1 and that of inland and forest districts where the soda is replaced by potash4 ,in the first group1 by far the most important--,i have indeed regarded such glass as the normal type--may1 it would seem1 be placed not only the #8primitive' glass of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 but probably all the glass of the ,romans4 ,to it belongs also the glass of the ,saracens and the greater part of the artistic glass of the ,renaissance1 including the ,venetian glass1 although in this last the soda is often in part replaced by an appreciable quantity of potash4 ,the potash group1 on the other hand1 includes the old voirre fougre of the ,french and the wald-glas of the ,germans4 ,in addition1 almost the whole of the glass of higher quality made in later days in ,germany and in the ,bohemian borderlands belongs essentially to this last class4 ,finally1 it may be mentioned that in the case of the abnormal family where the lime is replaced by oxide of lead1 the alkali is invariably potash4 ,of this family our ,english flint-glass is the most important member4 ,with regard to the hardness of glass1 ,merret mentions as the thirteenth property possessed by that substance1 #8that it only receives sculpture or cutting from a ,diamond or ,emery stone4' ,but such a statement would be likely to give an exaggerated idea of the hardness of glass4 ,if we take the scale of hardness used by the mineralogist1 it will be found that there are few kinds of glass that do not fall between the fifth and sixth divisions of that scale4 ,in other words1 it would be difficult to find a specimen of glass on which a crystal of apatite 7phosphate of lime7 would make any impression1 whereas all glass in ordinary use is readily scratched by felspar4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some kinds of ,bohemian glass may equal the latter mineral in hardness2 it is indeed a common statement that certain ,bohemian or ,german #8combustion-tubes' will strike fire with steel4 ,on the other hand1 the presence of lead tends to make a soft glass2 our cut flint is perceptibly softer than common window-glass1 and perhaps the most important defect of the paste used to imitate precious stones--such paste may contain as much as #ej per cent4 of lead oxide--is to be found in its comparative softness4 ,at the same time1 the greater the amount of lead in a glass1 the greater its dispersive power on the light that passes through it4 ,hence the brilliancy and fire of flint-glass1 and still more of artificial gems4 ,apart from the varieties containing lead1 samples of glass differ little in weight2 the specific gravity may range between #bd and #bh4 ,that of flint-glass1 on the other hand1 varies from #c to #ch2 indeed in some optical glasses containing a large percentage of lead1 and again in the paste used for false jewellery1 the specific gravity may be as high as #de or even #e4 ,the high melting-point1 or more definitely the high softening-point1 of certain kinds of ,bohemian and ,german glass1 makes them invaluable in the laboratory of the chemist4 ,on the other hand1 the ready fusibility of glass containing lead was1 as we shall see1 one of the causes that promoted the adoption of such a glass in our furnaces4 ,thus we find that the potash-lime glass of ,bohemia1 containing a high percentage of silica1 excels in hardness and resistance to heat2 on the other hand1 the various kinds of glass containing lead are soft and easily fusible1 and at the same time they combine a high specific gravity with a wide dispersive power4 ,what we may call the maritime or soda-lime glass takes an intermediate place in all these respects4 ,this is indeed an additional reason for regarding this great family of #8,mediterranean' glass as the normal type4 ,the two essential elements1 then1 required by the glass-maker are1 in the first place1 silica1 and secondly an alkali1 in each case as pure as possible1 and in a convenient form for mixing and fusing together4 ,i do not propose here to do more than indicate the source of these materials4 ,the silica has at all times been derived either from solid quartz1 whether in the form of rock crystal or of the white pebbles from the beds of ,alpine rivers1 or more often from sand obtained either by excavation or from the seashore4 ,in the case of the alkali1 the maritime people of the ,south extracted their soda1 for the most part1 from the ashes of certain plants growing in salt marshes near the sea4 ,most of these maritime plants belong to the natural order of the ,chenopodiace1 the goose-foot or spinach tribe1 and we find among them various species of ,salsola1 ,chenopodium1 ,salicornia1 etc4 ,these plants were all included in old days under the vague name of kali4 ,the roughly lixiviated ashes exported from ,spain were known in the trade as barilla2 those from the ,levant as roquetta4#d ,in other instances the impure alkaline carbonates were found ready at hand--as in the case of the natron deposits not far from ,cairo4 ,in the ,north the principal source of soda was till recent days the varech or kelp1 cast up on the west coast of ,france and of ,scotland4 ,the inland folk1 on the other hand1 had to find the alkali for their glass in the ashes of plants4 ,this #8potash' was obtained by lixiviating the ashes of various trees and bushes--in ,germany the ashes of beechwood1 in ,france those of the bracken or fougre1 were most in favour4 ,the quality of the glass depended in great measure upon the care taken in the preparation of the soda or potash4 ,but the more impure ashes had this advantage3 the amount of lime1 to say nothing of the iron oxide and alumina1 that they contained1 rendered unnecessary in many cases the addition of any further basic material2 even the comparatively pure ,spanish barilla contained as much as seven per cent4 of lime4 ,in other cases that base had to be added1 generally in the form of a more or less impure limestone4 ,of the furnaces and of the various operations that come into play in the preparation of the glass ,i shall treat as the occasion arises in the following chapters4 ,as1 however1 in this book we are--at least after the #8primitive glass' has been dealt with in the next chapter--almost exclusively concerned with vessels of #8hollow ware' made by a blowing process1 it may be well to indicate1 in this introductory chapter1 the nature of this process1 and to give the names of the principal tools used4 ,these implements--apart from quite modern improvements with which ,i am not concerned here--are of the simplest nature1 and have undergone little change during the last five hundred years--perhaps ,i might say since the days of the ,romans4 ,the molten glass is collected on the extremity of the blowing-iron to form a #8gathering4' ,this gathering1 while still in a soft condition1 is rolled upon the #8marver' into a cylindrical mass4 ,by blowing down the tube this mass is now distended to form a hollow pear-shaped vesicle1 for which it will be convenient to adopt the ,french term paraison4 ,it is from this paraison that a start is made to form by a #8spinning' or #8flashing' process a sheet of broad or crown glass2 again1 the vesicle may be made to assume a cylindrical shape1 and then opened out to form larger sheets of glass2 or finally--and this is for us the most important--by holding the blowing-iron to which the bulb of glass is attached in a vertical position 7or sometimes by swinging it over the workman's head71 and then by shaping it by means of certain simple tools1 the paraison is started on the course by which it will finally be converted into a bottle or into a bowl-shaped vessel4 ,i will here only dwell on one point4 ,it is evident that so long as the glass is attached to the blowing-iron1 although a simple bulb-shaped vessel may be formed1 there is so far no means of shaping or finishing the upper portion4 ,before this can be done the further extremity of the paraison must be attached by means of a small gathering of molten glass to a light tapering rod of iron1 the #8punto' or #8pontil4' ,the vessel--for so the paraison may now be called--is at this stage removed from the blowing-iron4 ,this is done by #8wetting it off' by means of a rod of moistened iron4 ,the glass vessel1 now attached by its base to the pontil1 is reheated1 and the further treatment taken in hand by a workman seated on a stool with long projecting arms1 on which 7or on the knee of the workman7 the pontil is rotated4 ,the shaping is chiefly done by an iron instrument called the #8procello1' or spring-tool1 formed like a pair of sugar-tongs by two blades connected by an elastic bow4 ,finally1 the edges are finished off by shears and scissors of various forms1 which cut the hot glass as if it were a piece of soft leather4 ,the now finished vessel is removed from the pontil by wetting the point of attachment1 and is taken to the annealing oven4 ,in this very summary account of the processes involved in making1 say1 a flask of simple shape1 ,i have only dwelt upon such instruments and methods as have for several centuries been in general use4 ,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,glass ,before ending this preliminary chapter1 a few words may be said of the changes that take place in glass in the course of time from the action of the surrounding medium4#e ,these changes are in the main due to the moisture and carbonic acid contained either in the soil or in the atmosphere4 ,perhaps what is most striking in this action is on the one hand the apparently capricious and irregular way in which the glass is attacked1 and on the other the great beauty of the iridescent effects that so often accompany the process of decay4 ,as to the apparent irregularity in the progress of the superficial decay1 it would seem that1 apart from differences in the chemical composition of the glass1 much depends upon the preservation of the original smooth #8epidermis4' ,once this is impaired1 whether by accidental scratches or by the growth of fungus or lichen1 the carbonic acid or the ammonia salts contained in the air or soil find1 in the presence of moisture1 a secure lodgment1 and the work of decay proceeds rapidly4 ,thus in the case of the little flasks of primitive glass of which ,i shall have to speak in the next chapter1 in one example it may be found that the smooth skin of the glass has for more than three thousand years remained absolutely intact1 while in another specimen from a neighbouring tomb the glass not only on the surface1 but far into the interior1 has taken on a talc-like or porcelainous consistency1 and the brilliant colours have for the most part disappeared4 ,there is no need to enter into the details of the chemical processes involved in this process of decay4 ,suffice to say that the action is one of the same nature as that which has played so important a part in the geological changes of the earth's surface1 especially in the disintegration of the granitic rocks4 ,it depends upon the power possessed by carbonic acid1 in the presence of moisture1 of decomposing the silicates of the alkalis4 ,the soluble carbonate of soda or of potash thus formed is then quickly washed out from the surface of the glass4 ,there remains1 in the form either of iridescent scales or of an opaque pearly crust1 a layer consisting not perhaps of pure silica1 but of an acid silicate of lime1 alumina1 or lead as the case may be4 ,now a piece of clear glass may appear to the eye to be devoid of internal structure4 ,but the #8metal' has1 we know1 in every case been subjected during the manufacture to a complicated series of involutions and doublings1 to say nothing of the subsequent inflation if the glass has been subjected to a blowing process4 ,when decay sets in--something similar may at times be seen in the case of a piece of wrought iron--this complicated formation is in part revealed1 for it is evident that upon it the lines taken by the decay are in a measure dependent4 ,on blown glass especially1 the disintegration of the surface tends to result in a scaly formation resembling that of the shell of an oyster4 ,as a result of the decomposition of light in its passage through these fine superficial films1 and of the partial reflection from the back of the scales at various depths1 we get those unsurpassed iridescent effects that we associate above all with the glass of the ,romans4 ,that these brilliant hues are dependent entirely upon the physical structure is well shown by the total disappearance of the colours when the surface of a piece of iridescent glass is moistened1 as well as by their reappearance when the glass is again dried4 ,lead of glass is much less liable to such changes1 but where in such glass decay has once set in1 the whole mass may be converted into a white horny substance4 ,in other cases the surface of a piece of clear white glass will become gradually filled with a series of minute intersecting fissures1 which in time may penetrate the whole mass4 ,when this change has been fully developed we get a true crackle-glass1 not to be confounded with the frosted glass of ,venice mentioned in ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,this fissuring of the glass-mass in its various stages may be traced in many of the specimens of ,venetian1 ,netherlandish1 and ,english glass at ,south ,kensington4 ,when fully developed the effect is at times very beautiful4 ,the tints of coloured glass may1 it would seem1 change in the course of time4 ,colourless glass also1 from which the greenish shades derived from protoxide of iron have been removed by the addition of binoxide of manganese1 is above all liable to assume in the course of time a purple tint under the action of sunlight4 ,again1 if sulphur be present in glass1 as is the case where sulphate of soda has been employed as a source of the alkali1 the soda salt may be reduced by any protoxide of iron that is present4 ,the sulphide of sodium and the sesqui-oxide of iron thus gradually formed will both of them tend to give a yellowish tint to the glass4#f ,changes of this nature may occasionally have come about in the stained glass of the windows of our ,gothic churches--the flesh-tints1 which we know were produced in early days by manganese1 may in the course of time have become of a more pronounced purple hue4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,primitive ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,egyptians ,,and ,,syrians ,from a technical point of view the history of glass might be divided into three periods--periods1 it is true1 of very unequal length and relative importance4 ,the first of these1 one more especially of archological interest1 would include all the glass made before the discovery of the process of forming a vesicle by blowing through a hollow tube4 ,nearly all the glass that finds its way into our collections would be classed in the second period2 this would extend from the beginning of our era to the end of the eighteenth century4 ,in the course of these long centuries1 the work of the glass-maker has of course been influenced by the varying schools and fashions of different ages and countries1 but technically there is no great advance to be noted in the work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when compared with that of the early days of the ,roman ,empire2 and this is still more true if we consider merely the materials employed1 their preparation1 and the methods of their fusion4 ,but before the end of the eighteenth century a great change had set in4 ,the manufacture of glass in ,england and ,france had become an important industry1 and we enter upon the third or industrial period4 ,with the general advance in mechanical processes that is so characteristic of the time1 the old methods of the working of glass were swept aside1 so that before the middle of the last century1 whatever of interest was to be found in the manufacture and in its results depended upon anything rather than upon the artistic qualities of the glass made4 ,now1 as ,i have said1 the characteristic and dominant quality of glass is to be found in its capability of being blown into vessels of varying shape when in a viscous and semi-fluid state4 ,all glass then1 made at a time when advantage had not yet been taken of that essential property of the material1 we may class together in a primitive group4 ,this line of demarcation is as important1 to return to a comparison ,i have already made1 as that between hand-moulded pottery and that thrown on the potter's wheel4 ,the objects made in the earlier period by primitive processes were mostly small1 and their merit depended chiefly upon the brilliancy and the skilful juxtaposition of a few simple colours--they may for the most part be classed as verroterie4 ,it has long been acknowledged that it is from ,egypt that our earliest specimens of glass have come4 ,but until quite recently the greatest misconceptions have prevailed as to the age and the methods of preparation of ,egyptian glass4 ,misled by an erroneous interpretation of what are probably representations of metallurgical processes1 on the walls of ,twelfth ,dynasty tombs at ,beni ,hassan and elsewhere1 it was inferred that the art of blowing glass was known to the ,egyptians at least as long ago as the days of the ,middle ,empire2 by others the art was carried back to a still earlier period4 ,we now have almost full assurance that glass in a true sense was practically unknown to the ,egyptians before the time of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty 7say between #afjj and #aejj ,b4,c471#g and that for at least a thousand years after that period all that was made was produced by a primitive process in which the blowing-iron found no part4 ,we have1 unfortunately1 up to the present time absolutely no evidence to show in what country or at what date this new process--,i mean the blowing of a vesicle of glass--first came into use4 ,there is1 as we shall see1 some reason to look for it rather in ,western ,asia than in ,egypt1 but the important point to bear in mind is that it was only after the introduction of this process of blowing1 first to ,alexandria and then to the ,rome of the early empire1 that the employment of glass for objects of daily use became in any way general4 ,glass1 indeed1 in these early days1 whether in ,egypt or in the ,greek world of the ,mycenan age1 was something very different from what we now understand by the term4 ,we must #8think away' a great deal of the modern connotation of the word4 ,we must1 above all1 think of the material in connection with the native precious or semi-precious stones that it more or less resembled1 and which were used along with it for decorative purposes4 ,we do not know the ,egyptian name for glass1 but probably1 like the ,greeks1 they divided all the hard stony bodies used in the arts into such as were #8dug up'--natural products1 that is1 which they found ready at hand--and such as had been artificially prepared1 and above all previously melted 7the on the one hand1 and the on the other74 ,if1 as ,i have said1 there is little evidence for the existence of glass in ,egypt before the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 it is quite otherwise with regard to a very similar substance1 identical almost in chemical composition--one whose history can be traced much further back4 ,on beads of clear rock crystal1 dating from the ,first ,dynasty1 and it would seem from an even earlier period in some cases1 we find a coating of turquoise blue transparent glaze#h--the very glaze1 in fact1 that has given a prevailing tint to the vast series of smaller objects of ,egyptian art that we see in the cases of our museums4 ,a similar colour1 ,i may observe1 continued in favour in ,mohammedan times1 and indeed gives a dominant note to ,oriental art in contrast to the ochry tints of yellow1 red1 and brown prevalent in the ,west4 ,the ,egyptians soon learned to apply this blue glaze--essentially a silicate of soda and copper--to the surface of other natural stones1 and above all to a fritty porous earthenware1 the so-called ,egyptian porcelain4 ,such an alkaline glaze1 indeed1 will only adhere to a porous base of this kind1 with which it becomes united on firing1 by a chemical reaction1 or at least by the solution in it of some of the silicates of alumina and lime in the clay4 ,this glaze differs essentially from those used on true porcelain--these last are almost of the same composition as the ground they cover--but1 as in the case of the glazes on porcelain1 so the materials of the ,egyptian glazes were probably first incorporated together in a partially fused frit which was then ground and mixed with water to form a soup-like #8slip1' into which the object to be glazed was dipped4 ,there have been brought from ,egypt a few rare objects carved out of a blue frit 7probably similar to that used in the preparation of glazes71 for which a very early date has been claimed4 ,but such a frit is no true glass4 ,the ,egyptians had from the earliest periods been adepts in the carving of native minerals and rocks1 and evidently found great pleasure in the strange markings and contrasts of colour found on their polished surfaces4 ,already in pre-dynastic times they availed themselves of their native granites1 porphyries and conglomerates2 from these materials they manufactured those large1 carefully turned vases of which so many have lately been brought from ,egypt4 ,for smaller objects--jewellery1 beads1 and inlay of various descriptions--they had command of a wide scale of colours--reds and tawny yellows from jasper1 purple from the amethyst1 greens from root of emerald and from a special kind of felspar1 and blue from the turquoise and 7at a very early period7 from the lapis lazuli4 ,but the stones to which they had recourse for their favourite blues and greens were rare1 and they were therefore the more ready to find a cheaper substitute in glass4 ,again1 in ,egypt1 no stone was in greater favour than the native alabaster1#i with its bands and zig-zag lines of transparent crystals in an opaque base of a warm milky hue4 ,but there was no play of colour in this latter substance1 and its very softness restricted the uses to which it could be put4 ,in glass they found a substance hard enough to allow of more delicate forms1 and on it chevrons of yellow and white could be traced upon a nearly opaque ground of turquoise or dark blue4 ,some such origin in native stones we may perhaps find for the decorative motives of the little vases1 variously known as phial1 unguentaria1 alabastra1 which were in such favour not only with the ,egyptians1 but perhaps even more so among the inhabitants of the islands and coasts of the ,mediterranean1 during a period of at least a thousand years4 ,it is indeed these little vases that are the most characteristic product of the first period of glass-making4 ,it is not too much to say that the little we know of the processes of these early ,egyptian glass-makers is derived from notices on the subject scattered through the memoirs in which ,dr4 ,flinders ,petrie has described the results of his excavations1 more especially from the report issued in #ahid1 on his discoveries at ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,in the introduction to the catalogue of the ,egyptian ,exhibition held at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #ahie1 ,dr4 ,petrie has summed up our knowledge on this subject4 ,i will quote the description of the method by which1 according to him1 these alabastra were made4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,,small ,,vases ,,of 8,,primitive0 ,,glass #a4 ,,egyptian1 ,,nineteenth ,,dynasty4 #b4 ,,probably ,,from ,,greek ,,islands4 #c4 ,,nochoe1 ,,from ,,the ,,slade ,,collection4 #8,a metal rod of the size of the intended interior of the neck1 and rather conical1 was coated at the end with a ball of sand held together by cloth and string4 ,this was covered with glass1 probably by winding a thread of glass round it1 as large beads of this age are thus made4 ,the vase could then be reheated as often as needed for working by holding it in a furnace1 the metal rod forming a handle1 and the sand inside the vase preventing its collapse4 ,threads of coloured glass could then be wound round it and incorporated by rolling2 the wavy pattern was produced by dragging the surface in different directions1 the foot was pressed into shape by pincers1 the brim was formed1 and the handles were put on4 ,lastly1 on cooling1 the metal rod would contract and come loose from the neck1 and after it was withdrawn the sand could be rubbed out from the body of the vase4' ,the wavy decoration thus obtained was of two types3 7i7 formed simply by a succession of crescent-shape curves1 or 7ii7 by means of a double drag1 the pattern assumed a form like a frond of palm leaves1 or still more like these leaves plaited into a basket4 7,cf4 ,pl4 ,,ii47 ,the number of these little vases that can be definitely attributed to the ,eighteenth ,dynasty 7say about the sixteenth or fifteenth century ,b4,c47 is small1 but it is worthy of note that for brilliancy of colour and for purity of the glassy paste1 the early examples are unsurpassed in later times4 ,this is certainly a remarkable fact1 especially if we are to regard the art as a new one4 ,i cannot enter here into the evidence that would seem to point to a foreign origin for this early ,egyptian glass--it will be enough to mention the conquests of ,thothmes ,,iii4 in ,syria1 and the close relation of his successor1 ,akhenaten1 the #8heretic king1' with ,syria and ,babylonia1 as shown by his marriage1 and by the famous ,tell-el-,amarna tablets4 ,as bearing on this question ,i may refer to certain paintings on a tomb of this age at ,drag ,aboul ,neggah1 near ,thebes 7reproduced in the ,revue ,archologique1 #ahie1 ,pl4 #ae71 which represent the unloading of a foreign trading-vessel4 ,we can distinguish here the merchants offering certain objects of value to an ,egyptian official2 among these are certain striped vases which have been doubtfully recognised as of glass4 ,in the hieroglyphics accompanying wall paintings of this period we more than once find that vessels of rock crystal and lapis lazuli are mentioned1 as well as blocks of uncut stones1 and neither by the hieroglyphics used nor by the representation of the objects would it be easy to distinguish the latter material from lumps of glass4 ,again1 ,syrian workmen are known to have been employed at this time in ,egypt1 and nowhere would this be more likely than in the immediate neighbourhood of the palace of the king at ,tell-el-,amarna1 where the glass-works described by ,dr4 ,petrie were situated4 ,all this1 however1 is mere conjecture1 while as an argument for the native origin of ,egyptian glass we have the indisputable fact that the manufacture was carried on in the new town established by ,akhenaten at ,tell-el-,amarna 7circa #adej-adjj ,b4,c474 ,this is made clear by the discoveries of ,dr4 ,petrie in the winter of #ahia-ib4 ,among the waste-heaps of some important glass factories he has found enough material to put it beyond doubt that glass was there prepared from its raw constituents4 ,first1 with regard to the frits1 the essential preliminary stage in the manufacture of glass3 as ,i have said1 some such half-fused material must have been long in use by the ,egyptians in the preparation of their blue glazes4 ,complete freedom from iron was attained in this case 7just as in after days by the ,venetians7 by the employment of crushed pebbles of white quartz as the source of the silica4 ,these pebbles served also for the floor of the furnace1 and they were doubtless more easily crushed after being thus used for some time4 ,the fritting-pans1 to judge from some large fragments of frit that turned up1 were shallow bowls some ten inches across4 ,these pans were1 it would seem1 supported for firing by cylindrical jars resembling the seggars of porcelain works4 ,the shape and size of the crucibles in which the frit was subsequently melted may be inferred from some masses of glass found in the rubbish4 ,these masses had been allowed to cool in the melting-pot1 and the presence of frothy and worthless matter at the top was a proof that the glass was not merely remelted in them1 but prepared on the spot from the above-mentioned frit4 ,the glass was left to solidify in the crucible1 and when cold1 the crucible1 as well as the scum at the top1 was chipped away1 leaving a clear lump of good glass4 ,dr4 ,petrie thinks that this glass was not remelted as a whole for subsequent working1 but that lumps of suitable size were chipped off1 and these1 being heated to softness1 #8were then laid on a flat surface and rolled by a bar worked diagonally across them2 444 the marks of this diagonal rolling are seen on the finished rolls4' ,the rods thus produced were now drawn out to form a cane1 or1 if previously rolled flat1 a thin ribbon4 ,beads were formed by winding these canes or threads of glass round a wire1 or rather round a fine rod of hammered bronze1 for wire-drawing was an invention of a much later date2 such rods have indeed been found with the unfinished beads still on them4 ,similar canes of glass were doubtless worked in to the sides of the little vases to form the banded and chevron decoration which ,i have already described4 ,the silica for this glass was derived1 as we have seen1 from quartz pebbles1 but we have no information as to the source of the other important constituent1 the alkali4 ,it is known1 however1 that the glass of the ancients was essentially a soda-glass1 made for the most part in maritime regions4 ,again1 the possibility of obtaining an abundant supply of fuel has always been an important element in the selection of localities for glass-works4 ,now in the neighbourhood of ,thebes fuel must always have been scarce and dear1 and it is uncertain whether there was any source of soda near at hand4 ,we may perhaps regard the glass-works of ,tell-el-,amarna as due in the main to the caprice of that eccentric sovereign ,akhenaten4 ,they were probably started at his orders to supply the demand for the new material then coming into favour at his court4 ,in so far as the making of glass ever became an industry in ,egypt1 we must look rather to the neighbourhood of the ,delta for its development4 ,there at least fuel would be more abundant1 and there a supply of soda was at hand in the ashes of marine plants1 even if the natron of the adjacent salt lakes was not yet used for the purpose4#aj ,but until a much later date1 glass was always a somewhat rare substance in ,egypt1 and was1 it would seem1 never produced on a large scale4 ,i must now say something as to the source of the colours with which the ,egyptians stained their glass4 ,in the absence of any satisfactory analyses1 we are strangely in the dark on this interesting question4#aa ,but everything points to the predominance of copper as a colouring material at an early period1 so much so that we may perhaps consider--and this is a suggestion that has indeed been already made by a ,french writer--that the invention of glazes in the first place1 and then that of glass1 were offshoots of the metallurgy of copper1 and that these industries may therefore be especially connected with the copper age4 ,in any case1 it was in all probability not1 as in later days1 a more or less transparent and colourless glass1 but rather one of a pale or dark blue colour1 that at the commencement formed the basis to which a decoration of other colours was added4 ,the famous blue of the ,egyptians1 of which we hear from ,vitruvius and other later writers1 was essentially a silicate of soda1 lime1 and copper4 ,it should be borne in mind that without the presence of the first two bases--the lime and the soda--a good copper blue in glass or glaze cannot be obtained4 ,indeed in the case of porcelain and fayence1 the blues obtained from copper have always been confined to various shades of turquoise1 as in the well-known glazes and enamels of the ,chinese and the ,french1 and even these turquoise blues1 always1 as we have said1 containing lime and soda as well as copper1 have only been produced with great difficulty4 ,the mastery of a complete series of copper blues1 ranging through every shade from a blue-black to a pale greenish turquoise1 we may thus regard as a special triumph of the old ,egyptians4 ,at one period a darker shade has been in favour1 at another a paler hue1 according as the lapis lazuli on the one hand1 or the turquoise or green felspar on the other1 was taken as the standard of excellence1 so that the shade of colour of the glaze on a scarab or a bead may at times throw some light on its date4 ,distinct shades of green1 apart from greenish blue1 were much less in favour with the ,egyptians1 nor did they ever attain to the brilliant tints of the malachite4 ,a green glass1 generally comparatively transparent1 was indeed at times obtained when a certain amount of iron was present in the materials employed2 but this was merely an accidental modification of the blue4 ,the pale tint of the green felspar was also imitated in an opaque glass used for inlaying4 ,for their reds the ,egyptians were content to imitate the colour of the jasper1 and here again they had recourse to copper2 the transparent ruby tints of the medival workmen1 whether obtained from copper or gold1 were unknown to them4 ,their opaque red glass owed its colour to the presence1 in large quantities1 of the basic oxide of copper4 ,in later specimens as much as #ae or even #bj per cent4 has been found2 some tin seems to be always present1 giving an opaque enamel-like appearance to the ,egyptian red--perhaps the colour was prepared directly from bronze4 ,we often find this red paste oxidised on the surface2 the coating of green carbonate then gives it the appearance of a richly patinated bronze1 the blood-red body only showing when the specimen has been chipped4 ,it is an interesting point that in early times the use of this red glass appears to have been confined to inlaid work--that is to say1 it was never worked up with glass of other colours4 ,this was1 no doubt1 for a practical reason3 during the elaborate processes of patting1 shaping1 and reheating involved in the old system of working1 the materials must have been exposed to a strong oxidising influence1 and the basic red glass would thereby have lost its fine colour2 it would also1 perhaps1 have injuriously affected the neighbouring colours4 ,some such difficulties in the working together of glasses of various colours may have influenced the ,egyptians in adhering to their old system of inlays1 employing1 that is1 small pieces1 separately cast or cut out in the cold from slabs of glass of various colours4 ,in such inlays the red paste was freely used from early times4 ,on the other hand1 ,i do not think that this fine copper red has ever been found on a glass vase of ,egyptian provenance4 ,on a few rare examples of later date 7note especially two alabastra in the ,slade collection1 ,nos4 #ae and #ce7 we find indeed an opaque red combined with other colours1 and in one case it forms the base 7,plate ,,ii474 ,this red paste is of a peculiar spotty consistence1 and ,i am inclined to think that the colouring matter in these examples is rather iron than copper4 ,in later days the ,egyptians made use of another tint1 a fine orange4 ,this colour1 indeed1 would seem to be the only addition to their palette during a period of more than fifteen hundred years4 ,the purple tint derived from oxide of manganese was known from very early times2 the colour has been found in the glazes of the ,first ,dynasty4 ,it was1 however1 rarely used by the ,egyptians for colouring glass4 ,in some of the little vases from the ,greek islands and elsewhere it has1 however1 been employed to form a zigzag of the usual type upon an opaque white ground4 ,if we so rarely find this amethyst purple combined with other colours1 this is probably for a reason of a similar nature to that dwelt upon in the case of the copper red4 ,next to the two shades of blue1 the colour most frequently found on ,egyptian glass is a yellow1 at times of a full mustard tint1 but more often of a paler hue4 ,feather-like curved chevrons of this colour1 combined with turquoise and opaque white on a deep blue ground1 constitute indeed the normal type of decoration in a whole series of these little vases4 ,i can find no record of any analysis of this yellow colour1 but we may well compare it with the fine yellow glazes of the ,chinese where the colour is derived from a mixture of an ochry earth with an oxide of antimony4 ,there is no doubt that this last metal was known to the ,egyptians2 it was used at an early period by the women to darken the outline of their eyes4#ab ,what has been said of the colours used by the ,egyptians applies equally to the whole series of this primitive glass1 indeed to a large extent to the glass of the ,romans as well4 ,it will form1 ,i hope1 a solid introduction to the subject generally4 ,the little vases or unguentaria--by far the most important objects in this division of our subject--occur in ,egypt in two forms4 ,first1 the true columnar kohl-pots1 spreading out at the top in the form of a lotus capital4 ,secondly1 globular jars with a pair of small handles3 these jars are sometimes flattened at the sides so as to pass into the shape of a pilgrim's flask4 ,in a little vase of this latter form in the ,british ,museum the paste is of a deep1 somewhat translucent1 brownish red 7,plate ,,ii471 and this colour passes in other examples into a rich transparent honey-red or hyacinth tint4 ,the colour in both cases is1 ,i think1 derived from iron4 ,of quite exceptional interest is the little vase in the ,british ,museum1 bearing the prnomen of ,thothmes ,,iii41 painted in yellowish enamel round the shoulder4 ,i say painted1 for in this case the decoration is simply applied to the surface1 and not incorporated into the glass1 thus forestalling the later processes of enamelling upon glass4 ,the vase in question is somewhat rudely formed2 it is of an opaque paste of a remarkably fine turquoise hue1 and the sides are decorated with three conventional trees also in yellow enamel4 ,this vase has been regarded as the earliest dated specimen of true glass that is so far known to us4#ac ,the ,british ,museum has lately acquired a curious vessel of glass1 five inches in height1 somewhat of the shape of a ,greek crater4 ,the wavy1 dragged decoration on a pale slaty ground calls to mind certain early vases of wood or stone painted with a similar design4 ,this vase1 together with a cup of azure blue transparent paste1 comes probably from the tomb of ,amenophis ,,ii4 ,another little vase in the same collection1 of aryballos outline1 has been shaped apparently by the lathe--so accurate is the form--from a mass of opaque turquoise paste of frit-like nature4#ad ,it was in the tombs of ,amenophis ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 in the ,valley of the ,kings1 near ,thebes1 that the unique series of glass vases1 now in the ,cairo ,museum1 was found 7excavations of #ahih-ii74 ,on more than one of these is a cartouche1 a rectangle of deep blue1 containing the royal name1 #8inlaid'#ae in several colours4 ,one comparatively large vase 7several of them are as much as eight inches in height7 is decorated by three rosettes in low relief4 ,the twelve petals are of blue1 green1 and red 7the latter colour quite superficial7 on a white ground4 ,still more remarkable is a vase with galloping horses and negroes2 in this case the design is apparently inlaid on the interior1 and only seen through the transparent body4 ,the little pots for cosmetics1 in the shape of truncated cones1 are usually made of a turquoise-glazed fayence4 ,those of glass are very rare2 one in the ,british ,museum is decorated on a nearly black base with splashes of white enamel2 this enamel is now suffering from some kind of efflorescence and is falling off in scales4 ,on another fragment in the ,glass-,room we find yellow and white splashes on a black ground4 ,this splashed ware is characteristic1 ,i think1 of the later dynasties--the twentieth and the twenty-first4 ,we are reminded by it of a similar application of enamel colours to glass that was much in favour in ,france in the seventeenth century4 ,apart from these little vases1 the glass found in ,egypt is confined to pieces for inlay and to beads or other small objects of verroterie4 ,for the inlay the glass was rolled into slabs and cut out in the desired shape1 the surface also being often carved in low relief3 in later times the separate pieces were usually cast in open moulds4 ,beside the colours commonly used in the decoration of the vases1 we find also an imitation of the pale green felspar1 and the use of a red paste is1 as ,i have said1 more frequent4 ,the individual pieces of the inlaid designs--they generally represent hieroglyphics1 and are inserted into a basis of wood--are sometimes of a considerable size2 some kneeling figures of a late period1 found near ,tanis1 are as much as four inches in height4 ,mr4 ,griffith found here1 among the ruins of houses dating from early ,ptolemaic times1 some traces of glass-works1 which allow us to supplement in a measure what we know of the manufacture in more remote periods4 ,it may be remarked1 however1 that on the one hand no vases of the old chevron type were discovered--and this is true1 ,i think1 of all the finds of glass from later deposits in ,egypt--nor on the other hand1 as far as ,i am aware1 have any specimens of blown glass been found even among ,ptolemaic remains4 ,at ,tanis were found many small moulds of terra-cotta and limestone into which the molten glass was run--so1 at least1 says ,mr4 ,griffith 7,egyptian ,exploration ,fund4 ,tell ,nebeshah4 #ahhh74 ,in earlier times1 at any rate1 the process seems rather to have been to press down into the moulds little pellets of glass in a pasty state4 ,in the ,glass-,room at the ,british ,museum may be seen an interesting collection of this later glass of ,ptolemaic or perhaps ,roman date1 found at ,denderah4 ,there are many fragments of glass paste destined probably to be fitted into hollows cut in a wooden plaque1 the intervening surface being covered with gilt gesso4 ,here1 as at ,tanis1 the colours are practically the same as those found in the ,eighteenth ,dynasty glass1 with the addition only of the orange-yellow tint to which ,i have already referred4 ,it is in the centre of these wooden plaques that what are perhaps the largest pieces of ,egyptian glass known to us are found4 ,these are the scarabi of opaque blue glass1 at times so closely resembling lapis lazuli that their true nature has been in dispute4 ,even the white marblings and spots of the native stone are imitated2 indeed1 in one specimen in the collection of ,mr4 ,hilton ,price1 the little grains of pyrites in the stone1 so much admired by the ancients1 have been imitated by paillettes of gold scattered in the paste4 7,cf4 the passage from ,theophrastus quoted below1 p4 #ce47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,glass #a4 ,,scarab ,,of ,,glass ,,paste ,,imitating ,,lapis ,,lazuli4 ,,twenty-,,second ,,dynasty #b4 ,,flask ,,for ,,cosmetics1 ,,in ,,shape ,,of ,,column ,,with ,,papyrus ,,capital #c4 ,,plaque ,,of 8,,fused ,,mosaic0 ,,for ,,inlay2 ,,from ,,denderah1 ,,ptolemaic ,,period ,but the ,egyptians made use also of other processes partaking of the nature both of inlay and mosaic4 ,taking advantage of the fact that pieces of glass when softened by heat adhere to one another--they are in fact in this condition as #8sticky' as partially melted sugar--they formed a mosaic of small rods of glass2 these were heated to a plastic condition1 and if desired drawn out to reduce the dimension of the design2 when cold1 transverse sections were cut1 on each of which the pattern appeared4 ,in other cases the design was excavated on the surface of the glass1 the coloured paste pressed into the hollows when in a soft condition1 and the whole plaque finally reheated so as to form a homogeneous mass4 ,some such process1 at least1 must have been adopted in the preparation of the large slabs1 generally with a ground of deep blue glass1 of which a fine series may be seen in the ,egyptian department of the ,british ,museum4 ,elaborate work of this kind dates for the most part from ,ptolemaic and even ,roman times4 ,similar processes we shall come across again1 in the case of the millefiori glass and the inlaid wall-plates of the ,romans4 ,it is but a comparatively small number of the little glass vases with chevron patterns in our collections that have come from ,egypt2 up to the present time1 however1 no trace of their manufacture has been found in any other country2 and although we cannot attribute so early a date as the ,eighteenth ,dynasty of ,egypt to any of the little glass jugs and amphor found in ,greek and ,etruscan tombs1 this #8,mediterranean' glass is in every respect subsidiary to the ,egyptian series4 ,,glass ,,in ,,the ,,mycen,,an ,,age ,it would1 indeed1 be quite beside the mark to make a separate division for the glass of the ,greeks1 who for one reason or another appear never to have found much attraction in the material4 ,this would at least seem to have been the case in ,greece itself during the great centuries of ,greek art1 for nearly all the specimens of glass that we have from tombs of that time have been brought from more or less outlying lands1 from ,southern ,italy1 ,sardinia or ,etruria1 above all from the islands of ,rhodes and ,cyprus1 where the older culture long survived1 and where ,phnician and ,egyptian influences were strong4 ,such a statement1 however1 would not hold for the so-called ,mycenan ,age4 ,at that time glass was indeed a rare material brought by ,phnician merchants from ,egypt1 perhaps from ,syria also4 ,in some cases this imported glass may have been remelted and worked up again2 it was certainly highly prized4#af ,perhaps the most striking instance of the application of glass to decorative purposes in ,greece itself at this period1 is to be found in the famous frieze discovered by ,schliemann in the vestibule of the men's hall at ,tiryns4 ,the pattern1 carved in low relief upon the alabaster slabs1 was heightened by studs of blue glass fixed into these slabs at intervals4 ,some of the roundels of this glass1 forming the centre of rosettes1 are as much as three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,we have the authority of ,virchow for stating that this is a soda-lime glass1 coloured by copper--an analysis showed no trace of cobalt4 ,on the other hand1 cobalt has been found by ,german chemists in beads of an otherwise similar composition from ,mycen and from the bee-hive tombs of ,attica4 ,now the question has arisen3 ,is this glass inlay to be identified with the kyanos which1 as ,homer tells us1 formed the frieze or cornice 77 round the bronze walls in the palace of ,alkinoos8 ,helbig1 writing before the discovery of the frieze at ,tiryns1 maintained that the poet's kyanos was of a glassy nature4 ,he tells us 7,das ,homerische ,epos1 pp4 #gi seq41 quoted in ,schliemann's ,tiryns7--#8,this kyanos must be identified not with blue steel1 but with 7#ast7 the later --lapis lazuli2 7#bnd7 with the blue colour obtained by pulverising this stone1 and finally with the artificial imitation of this stone or of ultramarine4 ,the classical passage is in ,theophrastus 7,on ,stones1 #ee74 ,this author distinguishes between the natural 77 and the artificial 77 kyanos4 ,that by the first lapis lazuli is intended appears from an another passage 7 #ci71 where the gold dust distinctive of the lapis lazuli is cited as the peculiarity of the natural kyanos4444 ,theophrastus continues--8,there are three kinds of kyanos1 the ,egyptian1 the ,scythian1 and the ,cyprian4 ,the best for the darker colour is the ,egyptian1 for the lighter1 the ,scythian4 ,the ,egyptian is artificially prepared1 and those that write about the kings tell us which king first1 to imitate natural kyanos1 melted the prepared kyanos 7 71 and they allege that1 among other things1 from ,phnicia came a tribute of kyanos1 partly natural and partly burnt 7 740' ,helbig goes on to identify the unfired kyanos with the copper ore of ,cyprus--the blue carbonate which the ,phnicians brought to the ,pharaohs1 and which was the main source of copper for the ,eastern ,mediterranean4#ag ,at ,mycen itself little glass has been found--some minute tubular beads1 decomposed externally but with a core of blue glass 7pronounced by ,landerer to contain lead and cobalt71 and a few beads of clear glass4 ,in the bee-hive tombs of ,attica1 especially at ,spata1 were found a number of small objects of glass1 cast1 says ,m4 ,tsountas1 in moulds of granite and basalt which have been discovered on the spot4 ,indeed in all these tombs1 next to the beads1 the commonest examples of glass are the little rosettes and plaques cast in a mould with a design in low relief2 these rosettes are often pierced with holes and were probably sewn on to the dresses of the women4 ,the surface1 and sometimes the whole body1 is decomposed1 presenting a white silvery glimmer1 and this appearance ,landerer considers to be characteristic of the presence of lead in the glass4 ,at ,vaphio we hear of fragments of glass #8goblets' being found1 decorated with spirals of black1 chestnut1 and yellow 7,tsountas and ,manatt1 ,the ,mycenan ,age1 #ahig74 ,if these are to be identified with our chevron vases1 it is1 as far as ,i know1 the only mention of their occurrence on the mainland of ,greece at this time4 ,but it is from the ,greco-,phnician tombs of ,cyprus and ,rhodes that the greatest quantity of this primitive glass 7chiefly in the form of unguentaria7 has been obtained2 again from ,greco-,etruscan tombs in ,tuscany1 from what may be called ,greco-,oscan tombs in ,southern ,italy1 and even from ,greco-,scythian tombs in ,southern ,russia--from1 in fact1 nearly all the lands visited by ,phnician traders4 ,how widely spread was the acquaintance with these little vases we may infer from the imitations of the chevron pattern on coloured pottery found in ,melos4 ,a similar decoration has been found on ,lydian pottery from tumuli near ,sardis1 and even1 it is claimed1 upon prehistoric pottery brought from the ,nilghery ,hills in ,southern ,india4 ,these little vases now take characteristic ,greek shapes4 ,the columnar kohl-pots are replaced by alabastra1 very similar in form4 ,even more common in later tombs are the little amphor1 sometimes pointed at the base1 at others ending in a rounded knob2 a jug-shaped form like the ,greek oinochoe is also common4 ,in some cases--in specimens of ,egyptian origin very frequently--the surface of the glass is entirely unchanged4 ,but when the decay of the surface has once set in1 we generally find that the decomposition has eaten deeply into the substance of the glass 7see above1 p4 #af74 ,in such cases it often happens that the blue colour has been entirely removed1 and the vase has assumed the appearance of a dull1 whitish pottery4 ,i will now briefly mention a few abnormal types of decoration4 ,on some little amphor from ,southern ,italy the chevrons are of a manganese purple on a white translucent ground--this colour appears never to be combined with the more frequent blues and yellows4 ,i have already noted that the use of red is very rare2 where it appears1 the technique of the vase appears to be different--the surface has probably been ground or turned on a lathe4 ,a beautiful alabastron in the ,slade collection1 with red ground decorated with turquoise and yellow chevrons1 should be specially noticed4 7,see also ,pl ,,ii1 #b47 ,how much these little vases were valued appears from the stands of gold 7decorated with applied spirals of an early type7 on which they were sometimes placed in the tombs4 ,m4 ,reinach mentions some instances from ,crimean tombs1 where chevron vases of the usual type have been found attached by a fine chain of gold to the bracelet worn by the deceased 7,tolstoi and ,kondakof1 ,antiquits de la ,russie ,mridionale1 #ahia74 ,the little bottles that we see in the hand of the recumbent effigy on ,phnician sarcophagi1 are probably to be identified with our glass vases2 we have an instance of this on the well-known female figure in the ,palermo ,museum 7figured by ,perrot and ,chipiez and elsewhere74 ,,later ,,survivals ,,of ,,the ,,primitive ,,glass ,there are in the ,british ,museum some little glass amphor from ,camirus and ,ialysus in ,rhodes1 and others from ,amathia and ,salamis in ,cyprus1 on which the chevron bands are not incorporated into the glass base1 but laid on the surface as in later enamelled ware4 ,the chevrons in such cases cannot have been #8dragged' by the old ingenious plan2 they must have been elaborately applied one by one4 ,we may recognise probably in such cases the survival of an old method of decoration after the technical process by which it was produced had been lost4 ,the glass itself1 too1 is of a late type--transparent and hastily formed4 ,i think that the date of some of these #8scamped' chevron vases may be later than is generally thought4 ,the beads and other objects of verroterie from the ,cyprian and ,rhodian tombs differ much from those found in the ,mycenan sepulchres of ,continental ,greece4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum some large beads of perfectly clear glass from ,ialysus in ,rhodes#ah2 these are probably of ,asiatic origin4 ,we must also range with this #8primitive' glass the large beads--if beads they are to be called--in the form of satyr-like masks1 so widely spread through ,mediterranean lands 7,pl4 ,,xv41 #a71 as well as those of irregular shape that so closely resemble the old #8bull's eye' sweetmeats1 built up of interlacing bands of various colours4 ,indeed the technique of the manufacture of these beads was probably very similar to that of those handmade #8lollipops1' for in spite of its lower fusing-point1 and of its solubility in water1 there are many points of resemblance between sugar in a state of semi-fusion and glass in a similar condition4#ai ,what little ,i have to say of the rare specimens of glass of a more advanced type found in ,greek tombs1 ,i will postpone to the next chapter4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,glass ,,of ,,western ,,asia ,the civilisation of the inhabitants of the ,euphrates valley reaches probably as far back as that of the ,egyptians4 ,its influence has extended at various times from the ,balkan peninsula to the borders of ,india1 including ,persia on the one hand1 and on the other the kingdoms that grew up in ,syria1 and among the primitive races of ,asia ,minor4 ,now1 if we are to judge by the contents of our museums1 all these lands1 at least up to the time of the conquest of ,alexander1 may be passed over as of no concern to the writer of a history of glass4 ,if1 however1 we allow ourselves to be influenced by less material evidence1 we shall find that a good case may be made out for the early existence of glass in these lands4 ,but before discussing this evidence1 ,i would impress upon the reader how much the survival of objects of glass depends upon the habit of burying in tombs1 and their discovery upon the systematic exploration of these tombs4 ,compared with ,egypt1 how little has been accomplished in this way in these ,western ,asiatic countries6 ,i have already noticed the coincidence of the sudden development of the manufacture of glass in ,egypt with the first close contact1 at the period of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 of the ,egyptians with races already affected by ,babylonian culture2 and we must remember that the glass made within a few years of this first contact was never surpassed in later times4 ,nor must we overlook the classical tradition concerning the invention of glass handed down to us by ,pliny and other writers4 ,according to this tradition1 glass was first made by ,phnician traders on the coast of ,syria4 ,here1 at any rate1 the three great requisites for the manufacture were at hand--a pure silica in the convenient form of a white sand1 alkali either from the ashes of marine plants or from adjacent salt deposits1 and finally1 an abundant supply of fuel4 ,and yet1 for the present1 all that can be said is that we must associate all the early glass that has been found in other countries than ,egypt with the trading peoples of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 whether ,pelasgians1 ,carians1 or ,phnicians4 ,to a similar source we may refer the rare glass beads found in tombs of the bronze period in ,western ,europe1 as well perhaps as the scanty specimens of glass that have come from ,assyria and ,persia4 ,to these last we will now turn4 ,of glass of undoubted ,assyrian origin1 by far the most important example known to us is the little barrel-shaped vase with stunted handles found so many years ago by the late ,sir ,henry ,layard in the ruins of ,kouyunjik4 ,this little vessel1 after many vicissitudes1 has found its way into the ,british ,museum4 ,it is three and a quarter inches in height1 and is formed of a glass that is perfectly white and nearly transparent2 it still remains1 indeed1 our earliest example of such glass4 ,the date is fixed to the latter part of the seventh century ,b4,c41 by an inscription cut in cuneiform characters containing the name of ,sargon1 together with his titles as king of ,assyria2 on it is also engraved the figure of a lion4 ,layard speaks of this vase as being shaped and hollowed on a turner's lathe after being #8blown in one solid piece' 7,nineveh and ,babylon1 #ahec7--;a curious expression for one who interested himself so much in the manufacture of glass6 ,we may1 perhaps1 regard it as having been carved like an object of rock crystal out of a solid piece of glass4 ,we know of nothing like it from ,egypt1 but then the ,egyptians had no love for transparent1 colourless materials2 from an early time1 as we have seen1 they had covered their beads of rock crystal with a blue glaze 7cf4 p4 #bj74 ,here ,i may add that the other specimens of glass discovered by ,layard at ,nineveh have no claim to so early a date4 ,among them1 however1 were two bowls of great interest1 formed of a vetro di trina or #8lace glass1' with very fine meshes4 ,these are now in the ,assyrian ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,some almost identical bowls from the late ,greek tombs of ,canosa1 in ,southern ,italy1 may be seen in the ,glass-,room in the same ,museum4 ,the ,assyrians and the ,babylonians before them were1 we know1 from an early date past masters in the manufacture of coloured glazes4 ,the turquoise blue glaze of their pottery and wall tiles has been handed down in these lands apparently without a break1 through ,persian and ,sassanian times to their later ,arab masters4 ,in the ,louvre are some slabs of a translucent glass of a fine turquoise tint1 about three inches square1 and three-quarters of an inch in thickness1 which were found in ,babylonia1 associated apparently with objects of great age4 ,such masses of glass paste were perhaps manufactured as articles of commerce to be employed afterwards in the preparation of glazes4#bj ,apart from these examples1 the glass brought from ,western ,asia is of the usual later ,phnician or ,roman type--#8lachrymatories' and bowls mostly of greenish glass4 ,it is not till we come to ,sassanian times that we can find any distinctive features1 and the rare specimens dating from that period will best be treated in a later chapter along with the contemporary ,byzantine glass4 ,i may mention finally that there are one or two passages in our ,greek classics that may point to the use of glass by the ,persians in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,for instance1 among other hardships suffered by the ,athenian embassy to the great king--so we are told ironically by ,aristophanes in his ,acharnians--they were forced to drink from vessels of gold and from cups of glass1 or1 may be1 of rock crystal 7 74 ,we know of no glass other than that of ,roman type from the ,bible lands1 using that expression in the narrower sense1 nor in the whole literature of the ,hebrews is there1 as far as ,i know1 any definite reference to glass4 ,the word ,zechuchoth1 which occurs in a passage of ,job 7xxviii4 #ag71 is translated in the ,vulgate by vitrum1 but like the ,greek 1 it may as well refer to rock crystal1 or any other hard transparent substance4 ,there is1 however1 a passage in ,jeremiah 7ii4 #bb7 which is really of more interest to us4 ,it begins1 #8,for though thou wash thee with nitre and take thee much soap4' ,from this passage we learn at least that the natron of the salt lakes was in early days applied to practical ends4 ,this was one step to its application to the manufacture of glass4 ,since then the soap-boiler has often been the ally of the glass-maker4 ,i have thought it well to bring together these few facts and theories bearing upon the early knowledge and use of glass in ,western ,asia1 for could its early existence in these lands be once definitely established1 we should be better able to fill up a gap in our history1 and it would perhaps be then possible to solve that obscure problem--,when and where was the great step taken and the blowing-tube first made use of for the production of a vesicle or paraison of glass8 ,at the present day1 in some of the villages around ,hebron1 glass is still made by very primitive processes4 ,thence come the many-coloured bangles of glass1 dear to the ,arab women of ,palestine and ,egypt2 some of these have found their way into collections of ,egyptian antiquities1 so closely do they resemble the old wares4 ,this glass is carried by ,arab and ,jewish pedlars as far1 it is said1 as the ,soudan4 ,here1 indeed1 we have an industry that may well be regarded as a survival from very early days4#ba ,on the other hand1 some two thousand years ago1 as we learn from the evidence of the tombs1 blown glass of an advanced type1 colourless and transparent1 was a common article in daily use1 not only on the ,syrian coast1 but at ,nazareth and other ,galilean towns 7see below1 ,chap4 ,,iv472 and yet1 as far as ,i know1 there is not a single allusion to glass or glass-making in any of our four ,gospels4#bb ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,later ,,greek ,,glass ,,and ,,the ,,moulded ,,and ,,cast ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,so far1 all the glass with which we have come in contact has belonged without exception to one family2 small objects1 generally brightly coloured--beads1 ornaments of various kinds and shapes1 and1 above all1 little vases decorated with chevron bands2 all these things belong rather to what in a general way may be classed as jewellery1 objects of personal decoration4 ,of the one essential application of glass1 as we understand the term1 we have not so far found a single undoubted example--its application1 ,i mean1 to vessels intended to hold wine or water4 ,this was to come a little later1 and to come with a rush1 as it were2 for by the first century of our era1 glass had already taken a position at least as important as at any subsequent time in our history4 ,i am speaking of glass1 of course1 in the narrow sense of the word1 especially as a receptacle for liquids1 for wine in the first place4 ,from this time onward this is the predominant service to which the material has been put1 and1 indeed1 at no time was its relation to wine-drinking more intimate than among the ,romans of the early empire4 ,it is certainly strange that in spite of our comparatively intimate acquaintance with the ways of life of the ,greeks during the time that intervened between the conquests of ,alexander and the period of their absorption in the ,roman ,empire1 we should be in possession of no evidence1 documentary or material1 that would throw light on this1 for us1 most important of all questions3 ,where was it1 and at what time1 that the great discovery was made--the art of blowing glass8 ,for it was thanks to this discovery that the material came for the first time to take an important place among the art products and even the industries of the day4 ,this is a point that cannot be too often or too strongly impressed upon the reader4 ,the glass vessels of the ancients rarely bear any inscription1 and there is little1 as a rule1 in the decoration that can give occupation to the antiquary4 ,classical glass has therefore been comparatively neglected1 except when of superlative merit2 the record of its provenance has generally been lost3 in continental museums it has either found a back place on the shelves of the ,greek and ,roman collections1 or it has been handed over en masse to other departments4 ,we thus find crowded together in the same case delicately turned bowls from ,greek tombs1 cinerary urns from ,gaul or ,britain1 and examples of the rudely carved and engraved glass of the third and fourth centuries4 ,such little evidence as there is1 especially a few passages in ,roman writers1 would point to ,alexandria1 above all other towns1 as the principal home of the glass industry in the first centuries before our era4 ,we know1 however1 of no find of blown glass in ,egypt1 previous to later ,roman or ,coptic times4 ,the ,ptolemaic glass found at ,tanis and elsewhere differs1 as we have seen1 little from the old type2 and even at what is probably a later period we have found the same old type of glass in use at ,denderah for inlaying 7see above1 p4 #cb74 ,it was not the ,egyptians themselves that favoured the new process--by them the new glass was doubtless rejected as something exotic and unholy4 ,the ,greeks1 on the other hand1 seem never to have taken any interest in the material--the #8fused stone1' as they called it1 was at the best but a poor substitute for the native minerals that it imitated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv #a4 ,,flask ,,with 8,,peacock0 ,,design ,,greco-,,roman #b4 ,,bowl1 ,,finished ,,on ,,lathe1 ,,showing ,,iridescence ,,greco-,,roman #c4 ,,bowl ,,of ,,thin ,,glass1 ,,blown ,,into ,,mould ,,roman ,perhaps after all there is an element of truth in the prevalent ,roman tradition1 and we should not be far wrong in giving the credit for the introduction of the new system of manufacture to the glass-makers of ,sidon or of some other of the ,phnician coast towns4 ,i have already pointed out that the ,greeks had at first no separate word for glass4 ,herodotus speaks of ear-ornaments made of #8melted stone' 7 74 ,plato1 in the ,timus1 thinks it necessary to explain that he uses the word in the same sense4 ,in the treasure-lists of temples1 of the early part of the fourth century1 where the same word is used1 the reference is apparently to vessels of glass4 ,we hear1 too1 of seals of glass 7 7 in similar inscriptions of the same date4 ,the word ultimately became the equivalent of the ,latin vitrum4 ,in any case1 it is from ,greek tombs of the ,hellenistic period that we obtain our earliest specimens of glass1 other than the small articles of verroterie that formed the exclusive subject-matter of the last chapter4 ,there have been preserved a few rare bowls of transparent glass1 sometimes quite colourless1 or more often stained with blue or with a honey-like tint resembling that of the hyacinth or the sard4 ,these bowls are distinguished by the purity of their outline2 they have apparently been finished on a lathe1 but whether the glass was originally simply cast1 or1 as is possible1 blown into a mould1 it is impossible to say4 ,the only ornament consists in one or more incised lines near the margin4 ,a few of these bowls have been obtained in ,athens1 others come from tombs in the south of ,italy1--we have unfortunately no means of fixing the date in either case4 ,it is rather from the refinement of their curves and the restraint in the decoration that we are led to class them as pre-,roman4 ,but it is from the glass found in the tombs of ,canosa that we can form the best idea of what the ,greeks of ,ptolemaic times were capable in this direction1 and we are fortunate in having in ,london a remarkable series of glass vessels from these tombs4 ,canusium was one of the few cities of ,apulia that preserved much of its ,greek culture as well as the partial use of the ,greek language well into the time of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the beautiful specimens in the ,glass-,room in the ,british ,museum1 some of them so thoroughly ,hellenic in character1 are referred to the first century of our era1 but in general character and feeling1 as well as in their shapes1 they reflect the art of an earlier period4 ,a bowl of pure white glass--the sharp outlines1 especially of the solid handles1 show that it was finished by a cutting tool--is of a form 7the of the ,greeks7 well known both in pottery and metal ware4 ,the two graceful bowls1 decorated in gold with an exquisite design of acanthus leaves1 combined with a small plant with tendrils1 both radiating from a central flower1 even in their present condition1 perhaps surpass in beauty any other known example of ancient glass4 ,from the technical side1 the marvellous skill with which the two shells of glass of which these bowls are built up1 are fitted together1 should be carefully noted4 ,it will be observed that the inner shell projects considerably beyond the outer one1 and that the latter at the line of junction has been apparently levelled down by subsequent grinding4 ,how far the two layers have been soldered together by subsequent firing1 it would be difficult to say4 ,between the two shells1 the gold leaf that forms the base of the decoration has been applied4 ,we are reminded 7but longo intervallo1 not only artistically but technically also7 both of the so-called cemetery glass of later date1 and of the #8doubled glasses' made in the eighteenth century in ,bohemia4 ,scarcely less remarkable are the other examples of glass from ,canosa exhibited in the same case4 ,here may be seen two bowls built up with coils of little rods1 each rod containing an opaque white string in the centre of a clear base2 these1 as ,i have mentioned1 are identical with the bowls1 now in the ,assyrian ,department1 brought back by ,layard from ,nineveh4 ,in addition to these varied types of glass there were found in the same tombs some large dishes of millefiori ware1 and finally a large flat bowl of white glass with a somewhat rude pattern cut with the wheel1 and with a row of spurs projecting from near the edge4 ,this1 as will be seen further on1 is a method of decoration more common at a time of artistic decline1 in the third and fourth centuries4 ,quite ,greek in character are the strange little unguent pots that come from ,cyprus4 ,on the cup-like overlapping lid of one in the ,british ,museum may be seen outlined in black1 apparently between two layers of glass1 a little cupid bearing a bunch of grapes4 ,although many of these little pots have lately been found in ,cyprus1 it is only in a few cases that the design on the lid1 so truly ,greek in style1 has been preserved4 ,there is some reason to believe that when the use of the blowing-tube was first introduced it was applied as a supplement to a moulding process4 ,the hollow vesicle of glass--the paraison1 to use the old ,french word--was blown into a more or less hemispherical mould1 and the irregularities of the resulting bowl were then removed by grinding on a wheel4 ,at any rate1 during what we may call the ,alexandrian period1 a bowl of simple outline1 whether shallow or deep1 is the characteristic form4 ,in the case of certain dishes in the shape of a boat1 the wheel has played a still more important part4 ,for the personal adornment of their women the ,greeks continued to make a variety of small objects of glass1 more or less on the old lines4 ,we find1 too1 intaglios engraved on glass of various and often most exquisite tints at least as early as the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,in the preparation of these pastes the greatest attention was paid to the exact imitation of precious stones4 ,at a somewhat later date1 in the second century ,b4,c41 cameos in high relief cast in glass pastes of various colours came into vogue4 ,the #8mother' design was modelled in clay1 and upon this matrix the mould in which the glass was to be cast was formed4 ,these early glass cameos are compared by the late ,dr4 ,murray to the circular1 moulded reliefs on the black pottery of this period1 and he points out that they apparently preceded the large reliefs engraved on stones of the onyx family which were so much in favour a little later 7,greek ,archology1 p4 #afj74 ,it must be borne in mind that neither in the case of cameo or intaglio could the paste copy be made directly from the original stone4 ,the paste gem1 thus moulded1 was often carefully finished by hand4 ,,early ,,roman ,,glass ,in the absence of any continuous series of glass vessels that can be classed as ,greek1 it would seem somewhat of a contradiction to say that the artistic glass of the ,romans was founded upon examples distinctly ,greek in outline and decoration4 ,and yet there can be no doubt that in the earlier period1 at any rate1 the source of inspiration of the ,roman glass-maker was the same as that of the contemporary potter or bronze-worker4 ,at the time when objects of glass were first brought to ,italy in the ships of the ,greek traders1 we may be certain that the places where this glass was made--whether these be sought at ,alexandria or at one or more of the cities of the ,phnician coast--had been completely ,hellenised4 ,again1 the new material found its way in through towns which1 if not ,greek speaking1 were thoroughly ,greek in culture1 through ,cum--in the neighbourhood of this city glass was probably first made in ,italy--and through the semi-,greek towns of ,apulia4 ,but in one important respect this ,greek glass differed from the contemporary bronze and pottery4 ,it was to the ,greeks a new art with few old traditions1 and these not of ,hellenic origin4 ,in the first century before ,christ the industry was only beginning to be of any importance4 ,it thus came about that in a greater degree than perhaps any other branch of ancient art1 the manufacture of glass may be regarded as an art essentially ,roman4 ,this fact may help to account for the extreme poverty of the material for its history and methods of manufacture to be found in ,roman writers4 ,there were in this case no ,greek authorities for these writers to fall back upon4 ,compare the meagre and confused narrative of ,pliny in the brief section that he devotes to glass with his detailed1 and in a measure scholarly1 accounts in other departments of the arts where he could borrow from earlier ,greek technical treatises4 ,the glass that we know as ,roman was made for a period of about four hundred years4 ,it was manufactured at one time or another in nearly every country into which the ,romans penetrated1 from ,syria and ,mesopotamia on the one hand1 to ,spain and ,britain on the other4 ,it has even been found in the tombs of tribes that the ,romans never subdued1 as in ,denmark and ,sweden4 ,there is scarcely an application of glass known in ,europe in the eighteenth century that was not known also to the ,romans1 and they were masters of the various processes by which glass may be decorated4 ,,millefiori ,,glass ,m4 ,froehner1 in his introduction to the catalogue of the ,charvet collection1 has divided ,roman glass into as many as fifteen classes4 ,some of these divisions are perhaps rather arbitrary1 and very little success has attended any attempt made by him or by other writers on the subject to classify the vast material on a geographical basis1 still less to trace the history of its development4 ,there is1 however1 one division of classical glass--we can hardly call it ,roman1 although most of the finer specimens may be traced back to ,rome or to the tombs of ,central and ,southern ,italy--which forms in some degree a transition from our primitive family to the true blown glass of imperial times4 ,this is the so-called ,millefiori ,glass4 ,we have1 doubtless1 in this a development of the #8fused mosaics' of the ,egyptians1 worked out on a larger scale1 and employed for other objects than flat slabs and fragments for inlay4 ,in the millefiori bowls of ,greco-,roman times we can distinguish two predominant types3 the madrepore design in the first place1 which closely imitates the pattern on a polished slab of coralline limestone1 with the addition that the ground is of a deep translucent green or of a purple of subdued tone4 ,in this class may be placed such exceptional pieces as the bowl from ,crete1 in the ,british ,museum2 here we have rosettes of yellow1 green1 and red upon an opaque ground of a rich blue4 ,the second type is equally characteristic1 but more difficult to describe4 ,short1 loosely rolled scrolls of an opaque white float in a more or less transparent base1 interspersed with a few quadrangular masses of gilt glass4 ,it would be difficult to say what natural substance is imitated in this case--perhaps some kind of fossiliferous lumachella marble1 which may have been in vogue at one time at ,alexandria4 ,we may be quite sure that the ,roman glass-workers would not have failed to imitate the famous ,murrhine vases1 which seem to have been originally carved from a natural stone1 and it is among the millefiori glasses that such imitations may probably be looked for4 ,these millefiori bowls are evidently built up with more or less spirally arranged fragments of glass mosaic1#bc the individual pieces having been probably cut from a cane of glass1 itself formed by a combination of minute rods1 as in the case of the ,egyptian #8fused mosaics4' ,these pieces were arranged in the mould in a coil1 starting from the centre1 but how far1 if at all1 during the subsequent partial fusion1 they were subjected to any blowing operation1 is a moot point4 ,in any case1 the final effect is the result of an elaborate process of cutting on the wheel and subsequent polishing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v ,,roman ,,millefiori ,,glass ,,bowls1 ,,imitating ,,native ,,stones ,in this millefiori glass the sections of the canes are arranged with a studied irregularity 7so as1 in a measure1 to mask the spiral arrangement71 and a further variety is given by setting up many of them obliquely to the surface4 ,on the other hand we can seldom1 perhaps never1 find any trace of the distortion1 which would inevitably be caused by the subsequent use of the blowing-tube4 ,in other cases1 the individual fragments may be built up of irregular longitudinal bands1 so as to give the general effect of an agate breccia1 as in a fine bowl at ,south ,kensington4 ,when the contorted bands are continuous we have another important type1 founded apparently upon the endless varieties of banded agate and other native stones that have been formed by slow deposition in the hollows of rocks4 ,one variety imitates amethystine quartz1 but here1 as elsewhere1 rich combinations of colour1 which can have no prototype among natural stones1 are often introduced4 ,we have an exceptionally beautiful example of this in certain cigar-shaped alabastra1 said to have come from ,sidon4 ,meandering bands of emerald green1 powdered with gold1 are divided by lines of white and deep blue4 ,good examples of this #8peacock' decoration may be found in the ,british ,museum1 at ,south ,kensington1 and in the ,grau collection4#bd ,allied to these1 and still more rare1 are the little globular bottles with bands of green and gold1 of which there are exquisite specimens in both our great ,museums4 ,in the ,etruscan ,museum of ,gregory ,,xvi4 in the ,vatican1 the millefiori glass is well represented by a series of bowls from ,greek and ,etruscan tombs4 ,there is a choice collection of fragments of millefiori and banded glass in the ,british ,museum1#be and a still larger one in the ,industrial ,museum at ,vienna4 ,a broken fragment of glass will indeed often tell us more than a complete vase4 ,we can1 for example1 see from it whether the pattern passes continuously through the whole thickness of the glass1 or whether it has been inlaid1 or perhaps pressed into the surface when hot4 ,in one case we have a process that reminds us of mosaic work2 in the other there is some approach to a champlev enamel1 only with a base of glass instead of metal4 ,in some rare examples we find the glass inlay surrounded by a fine ribbon of gold1 suggesting the cloisonn enamels of the ,byzantine jeweller4 ,there is a minute example of this delicate work in the ,slade collection 7,catalogue1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #d74 ,,colours ,,of ,,roman ,,glass ,it is evident that the ,romans had at their command a full gamut of colours1 both transparent and opaque1 obtained from iron1 copper1 manganese1 and antimony--the same metals1 in fact1 as the ,egyptians made use of4 ,but their deep transparent blue they probably obtained1 in most cases1 from cobalt1 a metal unknown to the latter people4#bf ,there was one great deficiency1 however1 in their palette4 ,they were never able to obtain a transparent red4 ,the ruby red derived from copper or from gold was known to the early medival alchemists1 but no undoubted instance of the use of this valuable colour has been observed in glass of the classical period4#bg ,the nearest approach to a transparent red is to be found in the honey and brown-red tints resembling the sard and the hyacinth2 colours such as these are derived chiefly from iron1 and may pass1 on the one hand1 into a pale yellow1 and on the other into various shades of olive-green4 ,the opaque red glass containing a large percentage of the basic oxide of copper and also some oxide of tin1#bh was much admired by the ,romans2 it was probably the vitrum hmatinon of ,pliny4 ,in the ,grau collection is a head of ,neptune in this material1 of considerable artistic merit2 to this head the oxidation of the surface has given the appearance of a finely patinated bronze4 ,,wall ,,decoration ,,of ,,glass ,before going on to speak of the blown glass of the ,romans1 it will be well to say something of another application of glass that found favour among them at one time4 ,this consisted in the decoration of the surface of walls1 and in a few rare cases of pavements1 by slabs of glass of various colours4#bi ,we may1 perhaps1 trace a double origin for this use of the material4 ,on the one hand1 it but carried out more fully the decoration of wall surfaces by rosettes and other patterns1 both of glass and of glazed pottery1 a plan often adopted by the ,egyptians4 ,this style was imitated with the little plaques of glass inlay1 of which so many fragments have been found among the vineyards in the neighbourhood of ,rome4#cj ,on the other hand1 slabs of glass were used to imitate the veneer of porphyry and other marbles1 so much in use in ,rome in the first and second centuries4 ,the two favourite stones1 the red ,egyptian porphyry with white spots and the green ,serpentino from the ,taygetus range with large1 whitish crystals of felspar1 were admirably imitated in slabs of glass often of large size2 of these many important specimens may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,this method of decoration must have been introduced at ,rome at a comparatively early date1 if we are to accept the usual interpretation of the passage where ,pliny describes the application of glass to the exterior of the theatre built by ,scaurus at the beginning of the first century before ,christ4 ,the best known examples of this glass veneering come from the ruins of a building some four miles to the north of ,rome1 generally known as the ,villa of ,lucius ,verus2 there are many fine pieces from this source in our museums4 ,in private houses this veneering of glass was above all in favour for the bath-chamber4 #8,vitro absconditur camera' says ,seneca1 instancing this practice as a sign of the advancing luxury of the age4 ,in the earlier methods each slab or tile is built up of pieces of glass of geometrical outline2 in rarer cases the adjacent pieces have been fused together or again pressed into a base of glass by a plan similar to that formerly used in ,egypt4 ,but when the individual pieces of glass have been cut into shapes and then fitted together to form the design1 we have the opus sectile of the ,romans4 ,we are here dealing with something nearly approaching in character to a true mosaic1 and therefore outside the limits we have given ourselves4 ,but it is impossible to pass over without mention the marvellous examples of this class of work which covered the walls of the basilica erected at ,rome by ,junius ,bassus1 consul in the year #cag4 ,although this building no longer exists1 important remains of the opus sectile which once covered its walls are preserved in a private palace at ,rome1 and some smaller compartments may be seen in the ,church of ,st4 ,antonio ,abbate on the ,esquiline4 ,these have been described in a paper read by the late ,mr4 ,nesbitt before the ,society of ,antiquaries 7,archologia1 vol4 xlv42 see especially the coloured plate ,,xviii474 ,the main subjects1 indeed1 and the ground are executed chiefly in coloured marbles1 but for us the most interesting part is the band representing embroidery below the large picture of ,hylas and the ,nymphs4 ,this frieze of small figures is formed entirely of glass1 and it will be noticed that in this part both the subject and the treatment are ,egyptian4 ,we have here the copy of a wall-hanging--probably of one of the heavy embroidered tapetia ,alexandrina4 ,it must be borne in mind that although this work was nearly contemporary with the ,christian mosaics of the time of ,constantine1 the designs must1 in part at least1 have been copied from some earlier composition4 ,the frieze of figures indeed takes us back to the ,egyptian renaissance of ,hadrian's time4 ,the glass of which the larger plaques of this ,roman veneer were made was probably poured out upon an even surface1 rolled while hot1 and at times1 but not always1 subsequently polished4 ,it may be regarded as a primitive form of what the ,french call verre coul1 a term which includes our modern plate-glass4 ,the thick heavy glass that the ,romans used for their slit-like windows belongs to the same class2 it is well known that slabs of considerable size have been found in position at ,pompeii1 but we are not concerned here with this purely practical application of the material4#ca ,the employment of glass for mirrors1 although known to the ancients1 was1 if we may judge from the few specimens that have survived1 only practised on a very small scale4 ,pliny says that the ,sidonians had applied glass to this purpose1 but he speaks of it rather as a curiosity than as a matter of practical importance4 ,some little circular mirrors of convex glass1 about an inch and a half in diameter1 have lately been found in ,greek or ,greco-,roman tombs at ,arsinoe in ,egypt4 ,there is one in the ,muse ,guimet at ,paris1 set in a silver frame with a ring as if for suspension from a necklace4 ,i do not know the exact nature of the metallic backing 7it is merely described as tam71 but this is still quite brilliant4 ,m4 ,garnier mentions two mirrors mounted in wood from a tomb at ,saqqarah2 others of watch-glass shape1 set in frames of lead1 have been found in ,roman tombs at ,ratisbon4 ,,moulded ,,glass ,two quite distinct applications of glass fall under this head4 ,when the glass paste1 in a fluid or semi-fluid condition1 is pressed into a mould1 we have a simple process for making either imitations of cameos and intaglios cut in precious stones1 or again small articles of verroterie in no way differing from those produced by the peoples of the ,eastern ,mediterranean from an early period4 ,most of the work executed in this way in ,roman times has little claim to artistic merit or originality4 ,masks and busts thus prepared were afterwards applied to the decoration of other objects--furniture1 or even metal ware#cb--or they were fused on to the sides of vessels of blown glass4 ,much attention was given to the imitation of precious stones4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a remarkable series of medallions and plaques in a paste made in imitation of lapis lazuli1 the sapphirus of the ancients4 ,the colouring matter in this case would appear to be the famous ,egyptian blue1 which was certainly known to the ,romans 7see p4 #bg74 ,in one example at least we can see that the coloured paste only formed a coating upon a base of ordinary glass1 and this would point to the former being a material of some value4 ,the large plaque of this blue paste1 inscribed ,,bono ,,eventui1 seems to have been finished with the tool1 but we cannot look upon it as throughout a work of the sculptor4 ,heads of the ,medusa or of ,jupiter1 viewed in full front so as to fill the roundel1 are the commonest type4 ,the dark paste in which some small portrait heads in the ,british ,museum are cast is probably an imitation of the rare black sard4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,,beaker ,,with ,,oval ,,bosses ,,greco-,,roman ,,flask ,,with ,,maze-,,like ,,pattern ,,from ,,melos ,,pyx ,,for ,,cosmetics ,,from ,,sidon ,i have now to speak of another class of moulded glass1 of what is1 in fact1 a true #8hollow ware1' made by blowing a vesicle of glass into a mould4 ,this is the first time that we unmistakably come across the use of the blowing-tube4 ,in the case of glass it is practically impossible to use a mould in the shaping of a hollow vessel without some such method of forcing the viscid material into its place by pressure from the inside4 ,i think1 therefore1 that it is not unlikely that it was in connection with some system of moulding that the blowing-tube was first introduced4 ,thus combined1 the process calls for less manipulative skill than is required in the shaping of the free paraison by the glass-blower4 ,moulded #8hollow ware' was produced at a comparatively early date in the ,east4 ,unfortunately we have no means of determining whether the glass-blowers of ,sidon were acquainted with the process before the first century ,b4,c4 ,by that date1 at least1 the little flasks1 unguentaria or what not1 blown into moulds1 had completely displaced the primitive chevron bottles that had so long been in favour4 ,these moulded flasks are shaped in imitation of various fruits--dates1 bunches of grapes1 pomegranates--again the double scallop shell was a favourite pattern2 more rarely we find the head of a man or a woman1 especially of a negro4 ,the glass is of various colours1 but a rich honey tint is the commonest4 ,another frequent type1 especially to be connected with the towns of the ,phnician coast1 is to be found in the little bottles1 generally with eight panels round the body1 on which are impressed various implements connected with the sacrifice1 or at other times ,bacchic emblems or musical instruments4 ,in one or two cases the reliefs on these flasks have been thought to have reference to the ,jewish worship4 ,these little octagonal bottles have been found in various parts of the eastern basin of the ,mediterranean1 as well as on the north shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,the glass of which they are made tends to decompose to a white porcelain-like mass1 without further injury to the surface1 a fact which would point to its containing a certain amount of lead and perhaps of tin4 ,here1 for the first time in the history of glass1 we come across the name of the manufacturer--we can hardly say the artist4 ,it is1 indeed1 as might be expected1 to the moulded ware that we are indebted for the most important of the scanty inscriptions that have been found on ,roman glass2 of these ,i shall have something to say on a future page4 ,such inscriptions in relief are above all prominent on the only other type of moulded glass which ,i can find space to mention4 ,i refer to the cylindrical cups of thin greenish glass1 which were apparently given as prizes for victory in various contests1 or which perhaps merely served as mementoes of the occasion4 ,among the most interesting of this class is a series of glasses of which the best examples have been found in ,england2 these are surrounded by double or triple zones1 showing in relief chariot-races or combats of gladiators4 ,all are of late date1 and are of no merit as works of art4 ,on one1 exceptionally perfect1 found near ,colchester1 and now in the ,british ,museum1 above the two bands of reliefs showing the rival chariots rounding the critical point at the extremity of the spina1 the inscription ,,crescens ,,ave--,,hierax ,,vale would seem to celebrate the victory of the first-named charioteer1 but it may perhaps only express the hopes of ,crescens' backer4 ,the moulded hollow glass of the ,romans often calls to mind the red ,samian pottery decorated with reliefs1 to which it is1 however1 as a whole inferior in artistic merit4 ,the material does not lend itself well to elaborate designs1 and one misses the crisp outlines given to glass by the cutting-tool4 ,there is generally an air as of a cheap and second-hand copy1 which gives a very modern aspect to many of these moulded pieces1 and this is above all the case when the glass is transparent4#cc ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,blown ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,it is after all in the development of the art of blowing glass that the principal merit of the glass-workers1 in the age immediately preceding our era1 is to be found4 ,by this method the real capabilities of the material1 both practical and artistic1 were first disclosed4 ,the art was probably first practised on the ,phnician coast1 perhaps at ,sidon1 not long after the time of ,alexander4 ,beside the moulded flasks of which ,i have spoken above1 there are others of plain globular form1 with simple short necks1 which we may perhaps look upon as among the earliest work of the ,phnician glass-blowers4 ,some of these are little more than spherical vesicles of the glass as it came from the blowing-tube4 ,with these are associated certain plain spheres of thin glass of various colours1 which may have been used as balls by jugglers1 as mentioned in a passage in one of ,seneca's letters4 ,but the balls of cool glass1 mentioned by other writers1 held in their hands by ladies in summer1 must surely have been solid1 like the spheres of rock crystal put to a similar use by the ,japanese4 ,the next step was to give the bulb of glass a #8kick' at the base1 and to prolong the neck2 we have then the type of the so-called lachrymatories1 perhaps the commonest and best known form of classical glass4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum an important collection of blown glass vessels which have been found in ,syrian tombs4 ,the actual provenance is here1 as indeed in the case of so many other finds of glass1 very difficult to ascertain4 ,some of the pieces are said to come from the neighbourhood of ,nazareth1 but the majority were probably found nearer to the coast1 not far from ,sidon and ,tyre4 ,the forms are on the whole classical1 but ,oriental influences may be seen in some cases1 as in the double unguentaria which resemble certain ,egyptian kohl-pots 7,plate ,,vii474 ,the apparent abundance of this ,syrian glass1 and the clear1 nearly colourless material1 point to a time rather after than before our era4 ,we know that soon after the middle of the first century1 all the various forms and applications that we associate with the blown glass of the ,romans were in general use in ,italy4 ,the proof of this lies in the vast collection of ancient glass in the museum at ,naples4 ,there were some years ago in this collection more than eight thousand pieces of glass1 and it is constantly being added to4 ,by far the greater part of this glass comes from ,pompeii4 ,now that town was destroyed in the year #gi ,a4,d41 and it had sixteen years previously suffered so seriously from an earthquake that little glass can have survived2 we are thus able to fix within exceptionally narrow limits the date of most of the glass discovered in the ruins4 ,apart from a few elaborate examples extracted from the tombs--some of these may well be of an earlier date--we find a vast series of vessels adapted to various domestic purposes1 but more especially to uses connected with the storing and drinking of wine4 ,these are for the most part made of a transparent and often colourless blown glass4 ,by this time1 then1 the art of the glass-blower must have been fully developed in ,southern ,italy4 ,the ,pompeian glass has been well preserved by the thick bed of dry ashes1 and has suffered little from surface decomposition4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,,sepulchral ,,glass ,,from ,,the ,,syrian ,,coast ,,first ,,century ,b4,c4 ,,to ,,first ,,century ,a4,d4 ,from a few scattered references in ,roman writers we can in a measure trace the rapid change in the position of glass at ,rome1 say between the latter days of the ,republic and the end of the reign of ,augustus4 ,cicero mentions glass as an article of merchandise brought from ,egypt1 together with paper and linen4 ,strabo1 writing under the rule of ,augustus1 says that at ,rome every day new processes were invented for colouring glass and for simplifying its manufacture1 so that #8a successful imitation of crystal may now be made so cheaply that a drinking-glass with its stand can be sold for a copper coin' 7xvi4 #be74 ,it is not1 however1 from ,italy1 or even from ,mediterranean lands1 that the greater part of the ,roman glass in our collections comes1 and this is especially the case if we confine ourselves to the #8hollow ware'--the true blown glass with which we are at present concerned4 ,already in ,pliny's time the new industry had spread to ,spain and ,gaul1 where1 before long1 favoured no doubt by the cheapness of the fuel and of the raw materials1 important centres of manufacture must have sprung up4 ,we learn from ,strabo that not long before his time the ,britons obtained what little glass they used--this was confined1 indeed1 to articles of verroterie--from the ,continent4 ,but though we have no direct evidence on this point1 there can be little doubt but that glass-works were established at least by the second century in the southern parts of ,england1 and that1 to give one example1 the large globular and quadrangular urns of greenish glass were made at glass-works not far from the tombs in which they are found4 ,indeed1 the bulk of this northern glass is of a sepulchral character4 ,the large size and the graceful shapes of the well-known cinerary urns argue a complete mastery of the technical processes1 and point to works on an extensive scale where large glass pots must have been in use4 ,these spherical urns owe their preservation for the most part to the fact that they were enclosed in #8coffins' of lead or stone4 ,the somewhat prosaic and ungainly square bottles that often replace them must have been blown into a mould of some kind4 ,little or no trace of local influence can be found in the shapes or the material of the glass made in the second1 third1 and fourth centuries in ,gaul1 in ,britain1 or on the ,rhine4 ,in the ,glass-,room in the ,british ,museum1 the large vessels of blown glass are chiefly of ,gallic origin2 the most important come from a collection made many years ago in the south-east of ,france4 ,they may be compared with the ,roman glass found in ,britain exhibited in the ,central ,saloon4 ,on the whole1 these large glass urns are characteristic of the northern and western provinces4 ,while they appear to be unknown in ,greece and in the ,east1 in the ,roman columbaria they form a very small proportion of the urns ranged in the niches and along the shelves4 ,the gigantic cinerary urns from ,kentish cemeteries are only rivalled in size by some of the ,pompeian glass at ,naples4 ,among the glass from cemeteries in ,southern ,britain in the ,british ,museum are many jugs and bottles of quaint and original form1 and others which for grace and purity of outline it would be difficult to rival elsewhere 7,plate ,,ix474 ,notice especially the handles1 and above all the insertion of the lower end of these handles into the side of the vessel4 ,it is the neglect of attention to this point that so often gives an impression of weakness to the handles of modern ware1 whether of pottery or of glass4 ,but here the ribbed handle terminates in spreading lines that clasp the flank of the jug like the claws of a bird of prey2 ,i do not know of any happier or simpler application of the viscous material4 ,at times the central rib of the handle is prolonged into a wing-like flange descending nearly to the base of the vase1 or may be ending in a long trail of glass worked by the pucella into quills or teeth4 ,a greater variety of forms is naturally found in glass made for domestic use than in specimens destined for the tomb4 ,it is this variety that gives a special interest to the collection at ,naples4 ,m4 ,froehner has described nearly thirty different forms of glass vessels 7,collection ,charvet1 pp4 #gf-hj71 and has attempted to apply to each of them the distinctive classical name1 both ,greek and ,latin4 ,but many of these terms are rather names of ,greek fictile ware than of ,roman glass1 and as to the remainder1 it is rather to the ,byzantine scholiasts of later times than to writers of a good period1 where allusions to glass are rare and vague1 that resource has been had4 ,the richest mines for information of this kind are the works of ,petronius and ,athenus--this last author gives a list of a hundred varieties of drinking-vessels4 ,but in both cases it is of vessels of silver or of pottery rather than of glass that the writer is generally thinking4 ,as a rule1 the shapes and methods of decoration of ,roman glass follow a line of their own1 dependent on the #8habits' of the material4 ,it is1 however1 easy to recognise forms derived from pottery1 and even from bronze1 in any large collection of ,roman glass4 ,just as the so-called ,samian ware is imitated in the moulded glass bowls1 so we find that a class of pottery1 common in ,england1 in which the soft clay has been pressed in1 perhaps with the fingers1 to form on the sides vertical trough-like depressions1 has been closely imitated in blown glass--such rounded depressions are easily given to the paraison by means of a blunt piece of wood4 ,again1 the decoration of white slip1 equally common on ,romano-,british fictile ware1 is imitated by means of #8trailed stringings' on glass1 if indeed in this case the imitation is not in some measure the other way--from glass to pottery4 ,perhaps the most characteristic decoration of the earlier transparent glass is given by a series of parallel ribs4 ,this #8pillar moulding' may be formed on the surface in various ways--by stringings partly melted on to the surface1 or by the use of a mould at one period in the development of the paraison4 ,a graceful type of these little ribbed or gadrooned bowls--amber coloured1 or again white with blue ribs--has been found over and over again in pre-,roman tombs on both sides of the ,alps2 these bowls are often seen in the museums of ,switzerland and ,north ,italy4 ,apart from beads and small objects of verroterie1 they appear to be the earliest articles of glass exported to the ,celtic tribes of these districts1 but nothing is known as to their place of origin4 ,in other cases such ribs or stringings1 bending round the body in a more or less gentle spiral1 form a very happy scheme of ornament4 ,the decoration by trailed stringings--necessarily a rapid process1 by which happy effects are sometimes attained almost by accident--may be regarded as a genuinely vitreous process4 ,it is often combined with fringes and toothings impressed--on the margin of the handles above all--by the rapid and skilful use of the pincers4 ,the commonest1 and probably the oldest1 application is as a more or less closely coiled stringing round the neck of the bottle or jug2 this is convenient for handling1 and gives the appearance at least of additional strength4 ,the stringings on the later forms tend to hang loose upon the surface1 sometimes taking the form of hastily written characters4#cd ,the cords and threadings may often be of a different colour from the vessel upon which they are applied--they may be reduced to knots or mere drops applied here and there4 ,in such cases we have an apparent approach to decoration by enamel4 ,but the form of ornament that we are now dealing with is applied directly to the soft paraison or to the still unfinished vessel1 and the glass of which the stringings are formed is probably of the same composition as that on which it is superimposed4 ,so of the splashed or mottled ware4 ,we have here real splashes of a liquid material applied to the paraison while still on the blowing-tube4 ,when the neck was subsequently shaped1 these circular markings were drawn out into ellipsoid forms1 showing that this part of the vessel was made at a later period4 ,it is instructive to compare this result of the work of the blowing-tube with the patterns on the millefiori bowls4 ,in these latter patterns we find no trace of subsequent distortion--a proof that the glass of which they form part has never passed through the stage of a paraison or vesicle4#ce ,,enamelling ,,on ,,glass ,i now for the first time have to treat of the decoration of glass by enamel painting4 ,it may be as well here to explain that in a true enamel1 as the term is used in ceramic and vitreous art1 the coloured decoration is applied to the glassy surface 7either glaze or glass body7 in the form of a pigment worked up with water or other liquid4 ,such enamel paints are composed1 in later times at least1 of a base of silicate of lead 7the flux71 coloured by various metallic oxides4 ,it is essential that these enamels should be more fusible than the body on which they are painted1 so that when subjected to the heat of the muffle-fire they may be completely fused1 while the glass or glaze on which they rest is not more than superficially softened4 ,such enamel decoration1 whether on porcelain or on glass1 may vary from a mere wash of colour on the one hand1 of which it is sometimes difficult to say whether it has ever been subjected to the heat of the muffle-fire1 to a true vitreous covering on the other1 where the various colours stand out in relief like so many jewels4 ,i may say at once that the ,romans1 as far as we know1 never attained to any great success in this method of decoration4 ,its full development was reserved for the ,saracens of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,this is indeed the one important advance made in the artistic manipulation of glass since #8the palmy days of ,rome4' ,not but that the ,romans1 and probably to some extent the ,phnicians and the ,alexandrian ,greeks before them1 did not draw and paint upon their glass2 but if we may judge from the rare and fragmentary examples that have survived1 they were unable to obtain much decorative effect by this means2 again1 the very poverty and the paint-like quality of such enamels as they used1 have doubtless in many cases led to their total disappearance from the surface of the glass4#cf ,the painting on the cup-like lids of the little bowls from ,cyprus ,i have already mentioned4 ,on a few fragments of thin glass from ,egypt1 draped figures have been painted in opaque colours4 ,perhaps the nearest approach to an effective use of enamel colours may be seen on two little cups found in graves of the fourth century at ,varpelev1 in ,denmark4 ,these ,scandinavian tombs have yielded many interesting pieces of glass1 as well as some bronze vessels--possibly booty brought home from marauding expeditions4 ,the designs on these cups 7they are illustrated in the ,proceedings of the ,copenhagen ,antiquarian ,society1 #ahfa7 are thus described by ,mr4 ,nesbitt3 #8,on the larger one are a lion and a bull1 on the lesser two birds with grapes4444 ,the colours are vitrified and slightly in relief--green1 blue1 and brown may be distinguished4' 7,slade ,catalogue1 p4 xvi4 ,see also some account of glass from these and other ,scandinavian tombs in ,montelius and ,reinach1 ,les temps prhistoriques en ,sude47 ,but the most important and the best preserved example of enamelling on glass is to be found in a small bowl1 probably of the third or fourth century1 preserved in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice4 ,to this important collection ,i shall have more than once to return4#cg ,the little bowl in question--something over three inches in height--is of a translucent glass of a winy or purplish colour4 ,the seven larger medallions that surround the body are filled with mythological subjects in a fairly good classical style2 the pale buff-coloured figures on a black ground imitate an onyx cameo4 ,each medallion is surrounded by a circle of rosettes of brilliant colours--blue1 red1 purple1 and white4 ,the angular spaces are filled by smaller medallions1 each containing a head1 and the remaining ground is occupied by a tracery of gold4 ,according to the ,canonico ,passini1 this decoration is in very slight relief1 and is executed in what can scarcely be regarded as a true vitrified enamel4 ,the bowl has been mounted at a later time in a light setting of silver gilt with elegant winged handles4 ,but what is more curious1 at some time previous to the addition of the mounting1 a band of white ornament1 resembling cufic letters1 but apparently illegible1 has been painted round the inside just below the rim1 and again outside the base4 ,much of this later ornament has been abraded1 although the original decoration is well preserved1 and ,i think that this fact is an argument in favour of the earlier work being after all of the nature of a true enamel fixed by fire4 ,i describe this bowl here as ,i cannot see any trace of ,byzantine influence in the purely classical medallions4#ch ,finally1 on a few of the gilt catacomb glasses1 of which ,i shall speak shortly1 a little coloured enamel is sparingly applied here and there1 especially in the draperies4 ,,engraved ,,and ,,sculptured ,,glass ,there remains one large division of ,roman glass which ,i have purposely left to the last4 ,in this are comprised the engraved and sculptured pieces1 the bulk of which belong to a late time2 indeed we may pass from work of this kind to glass that is purely ,byzantine in character without any violent transition4 ,but to return for a moment to examples taken from quite the other end of the series1 we have seen that the glass bowls that are associated with ,alexandrian-,greek and early ,roman times are mostly finished by a cutting-tool on some kind of lathe4 ,in the case of the bowl of white glass from ,canosa in the ,british ,museum1 closely imitating in form the well-known scyphos of the ,greek potter1 the handles are apparently carved out of a solid mass 7cf4 p4 #df72 a very similar bowl in the ,charvet collection1 said to have come from ,cum1 is illustrated by ,froehner4 ,still more interesting is the large shallow bowl or dish of white glass in our national collection2 this is again from a tomb at ,canosa4 ,a ring of some twenty spurs1 each about half an inch in height1 arises from the outer margin2 these spurs are carved apparently out of the solid glass4 ,a large rosette cut in low relief1 representing a full-blown lotus flower1 covers nearly the whole of the surface4 ,with this work we may compare the rosettes1 much more rudely carved1 it is true1 on the base of some very similar bowls of late date from the ,rhine country4 ,of quite a different character is the carving on those earlier vessels of which we may take the well-known ,portland vase as a type4 ,here the delicate sculpture in low relief takes us back to the cameos of the ,hellenistic ,greeks1 which1 as we have seen1 were often executed in a glass paste4 ,but few specimens of work of this kind have come down to us--some half-dozen in all--and of these only two are perfect4 ,the body of these vases is formed by two or more superimposed layers of glass1 of which the outer one1 generally of an opaque white1 is ground away by the wheel of the engraver1 leaving a design in low relief upon a basis of blue or other colour4 ,the most famous example of this class is1 without doubt1 the ,barberini or ,portland vase1 a two-handled urn found towards the end of the sixteenth century in a marble sarcophagus at the ,monte del ,grano1 a lofty tumulus some three miles to the south-east of ,rome4 ,whether the tomb from which the urn was extracted was that of the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus1 who was killed in the year #bbe1 is not of much consequence1 for the vase itself is certainly of an earlier date4 ,the figures in this case stand out upon a dark blue ground--we need not dwell upon the interpretation of the subject4 ,as ,wedgwood long ago pointed out1 a rich and almost pictorial effect is given by cutting down the white layer in places nearly1 but not quite1 to the blue base which then shows through a film of the slightly translucent white paste--an effect1 by the way1 that is almost lost in the imitations of this vase made in the opaque ,wedgwood ware4 ,a curious point about this vase is the fact that the decoration is continued over the circular base on which it stands4 ,this medallion-like space is filled by the bust of a youth with a ,phrygian cap wrapped in voluminous drapery4 ,there is some doubt1 however1 whether this medallion is of so early a date as the rest of the vase4#ci ,almost identical with the ,portland vase in technique and material is the amphora of onyx glass1 carved as a cameo in low relief1 which was found in #ahcg in a tomb on the ,strada dei ,sepolcri at ,pompeii4 ,in this case we have a limit--a terminus ad quem--for the date1 the middle1 that is to say1 of the first century of our era4 ,but the work may well be of a somewhat earlier time than this4 ,the decoration is distinctly ,alexandrian in character4 ,notice especially the band at the lower part with the sheep feeding under trees--in this we are at once carried back to the pastoral poetry of ,sicily4 ,it will be observed that the vintage scenes with the little naked #8putti' are placed under the handles1 while the place of honour is reserved for the beautiful design of vine-branches1 masks1 and birds4 ,the highly developed technical skill required1 especially in the preliminary blowing and #8casing' of the glass1 is1 however1 an argument against throwing back too far the date of vases of this class4 ,some fragments of another vase of a similar character were found at ,pompeii at a later date2 the pieces after passing through various hands are now in the ,british ,museum1 where they have been united to form 7with extensive gaps7 an nocho or jug1 known as the ,auldjo vase1 from the former owner of most of the fragments2 in this case the decoration of the parts preserved consists chiefly of vine and ivy leaves4 ,there are at ,naples many fragments of onyx glass equal in beauty and skill of execution to these well-known vases4 ,among these1 the half of a patera decorated1 on a dark blue ground1 with a mask surrounded by the leaves of the ,oriental plane1 is of exceptional merit4 ,in other cases the parts in relief seem to have been cast separately and fixed on to the surface1 a technical process of quite another nature4 ,in all these examples the work of the artist follows closely on the lines of the carver of cameos--especially of those cameos where advantage is taken of the parallel layers of the natural stone1 as in the case of the sardonyx and of the niccolo2 it is for this reason that ,i have described the material of our ,barberini and similar vases as onyx glass4 ,but there was another and purer variety of quartz that was coming more and more into favour during the third and fourth centuries4 ,from this time onward all through the early ,middle ,ages1 if we are to judge from the treasures preserved in ,christian churches1 to nothing was more value attached than to vases and cups of rock crystal1 often of imposing dimensions1 carved in shallow or deep relief4 ,when once the process of making a clear colourless glass was mastered1 this natural crystal could be very closely imitated in a material which was more easily worked4 ,the carvings on the great majority of the examples of rock crystal that have come down to us--for example1 the vases in the ,louvre from the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 and those still preserved in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's--are of a distinctly ,byzantine1 if not rather of a ,sassanian or even ,saracenic character1 and this style is reflected upon much of the #8crystal' glass which is so often confused with the harder stone4#dj ,the ,romans of the fourth century were great masters of the art of cutting hard stones4 ,along with a general decline in taste and artistic invention1 there was some advance in the direction of what we should now call applied science1 and this is exemplified in the nature of the #8metal' and in the method of carving of the later ,roman glass4 ,in the case of this later engraved glass1 the lapidary's wheel was applied at times to produce a rough design by a series of burr-like marks1 or again the pattern was built up of a number of shallow1 mostly oval depressions2 in other examples the glass was deeply undercut1 so that the designs appear to float round the vessel1 to which indeed they are only attached by small rods not easily visible4 ,of the last kind is the work that may conveniently be called diatretum1 although it is by no means certain that the diatretarii1 mentioned by ,ulpian and others1 were necessarily workers in glass1 seeing that carvings of this description1 whether in metal1 in hard stones1 or in our material1 were equally in favour at this time4 ,we have1 unfortunately1 no complete example of this undercut work easily accessible in our public collections4 ,a fragment1 however1 in the ,british ,museum throws much light upon the process of manufacture4 ,on this piece there remains a portion of the outer frame in the form of a few letters that have formed part of an inscription2 most of these letters1 however1 have been broken away1 and we are thus enabled to see the base of the rods that supported them4 ,the sharp angles of these little rods1 and the marks on the surface of the glass1 point unmistakably to the use of a cutting-tool1 nor is there1 ,i think1 any trace of soldering at the base of the rods4 ,we must turn again to the marvellous collection of late classical and medival objects that has been so long preserved in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice for the most complete specimen of this undercut glass4 ,here will be found a situla1 or bucket-shaped vessel1 of slightly greenish glass1 about eleven inches in height 7,plate ,,xiv474 ,on the upper zone is a hunting scene with two horsemen1 treated with a certain energy that calls to mind some of the ,byzantine and even ,sassanian work of the fourth and fifth centuries4 ,below we have a raised network1 or rather grating--for the motive seems to be taken from a grille of iron or bronze--formed of four rows1 each built up of fifteen tangential circles bound together at the points of contact4 ,about half of these circles are more or less broken1 and neither on the ground nor on the supporting rods thus disclosed was ,i able on close examination to discover any of those marks of a cutting-tool so prominent on the ,british ,museum fragment4 ,indeed it is very possible that this late example may be built up of separately cast pieces soldered on to the base4 ,the famous cup of diatretum glass found near ,strassburg was destroyed during the bombardment of that city in #ahgj2 it bore an imperfect inscription in raised letters1 which has been interpreted as referring to the ,emperor ,maximianus ,herculius1 the partner of ,constantine in the empire1 who put an end to his life in #caj4 ,in this case a network of red glass and an inscription of green glass were superimposed upon a nearly colourless ground4 ,so in another cup preserved in the ,palazzo ,trivulzio at ,milan1 the inscription ,,bibe ,,vivas ,,multos ,,annos is again in green glass1 but the network is here blue4 ,where the detached decoration is of a different colour from the base1 the original vase must have been of an onyx glass formed by a #8casing' process and of considerable thickness1 unless1 indeed1 we are to regard the lettering and the network in such cases as formed separately and attached to the base by the little rods4 ,perhaps the finest example of a vas diatretum is the bowl found in a stone sarcophagus at ,worms1 of which the fragments are now divided between the museums of ,bonn and ,mainz4 ,in the former museum may also be seen a tall amphora-shaped vase 7some twenty inches in height71 with ,bacchic scenes carved in low relief1 which was found in the same coffin4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii ,,bowl ,,of ,,olive-,,green ,,glass1 ,,on ,,metal ,,stand ,,late ,,roman ,the oviform bowl belonging to ,lord ,rothschild is carved in an olive-green glass1 which appears of a deep red by transmitted light4 ,it is surrounded by five figures in what is practically complete relief2 the subject represented appears to be the #8,madness of ,lycurgus4' ,the arms and the draperies of these figures are connected to the base by little rods as in the previous examples1 but to judge from certain cavities in the interior corresponding to the principal external bossages1 the glass was originally cast in a mould4#da ,the often-quoted expression of ,martial1 #8,surrentin leve toreumata rot1' written before the end of the first century1 can hardly refer to this undercut work1 which seems to be all of a much later date1 nor is it even certain that the words refer to objects carved in glass rather than in rock crystal and agate4 ,the word toreumata is used in connection with silver and even of earthenware4 ,so the calices and toreumata ,nili of the same writer 7xi4 #ab7 seem from the context to be rather carved in some precious stone4 ,the following lines1 however1 are headed #8,calices ,vitrei'3 #8,adspicis ingenium ,nili1 quibus addere plura ,dum cupit1 ah quoties perdidit auctor opus6' ,,martial1 xiv4 #aac4 ,in some other references to glass in ,martial's ,epigrams it is mentioned as a cheap material1 and contrasted with gold or rock crystal4 ,as a rule1 however1 this late ,roman glass was cut in very low relief4 ,the design was often given by the juxtaposition of a number of ovoid depressions and furrows scooped in a perfunctory fashion by means of a lapidary's wheel of some size4#db ,at times this wheel was applied so as to make a rough burr on the surface2 on the other hand but little use was made of the simple engraved line that we find on the ,german glass of the seventeenth century4 ,the designs on this later engraved glass are almost without exception of the most wretched description2 any interest they may have is archological1 and dependent upon the subject treated4 ,many pieces1 especially in the form of shallow bowls1 have been found in tombs of the third and fourth centuries in the ,rhine district1 especially around ,cologne4 ,some of these bear inscriptions in often very faulty ,greek1 but ,i do not think that this is a reason for inferring that they are not of local manufacture4#dc ,on one cup from ,cologne the creation of man by ,prometheus is represented1 but the majority of the subjects are of a more or less ,bacchanalian or even of an erotic character4 ,it has been attempted to connect these with the tabern1 the roadside inns--places of no good repute in those days--and even to find representations of these hostelries in certain tall and evidently secular buildings engraved on them4 ,still more curious are the spherical ampull on which a panoramic landscape is roughly scratched2 in every case the scene represented is the coast-line from the bay of ,bai to ,pozzuoli1 the names of the various temples and palaces being indicated by inscriptions4 7,see ,froehner1 p4 #if47 ,most of this engraved glass dates from a time when ,christianity was widely diffused1 but we rarely find on it subjects connected with the new religion4 ,it would seem that the associations connected with the glass thus decorated were not such as would recommend it for ,christian use4 ,the early fathers protested against all such elaborate and vain arts4 #8,the pretentious and useless vainglory of the engravers on vessels of glass may well cause those who use them to tremble1 and such work should be exterminated by our good institutions1'--so wrote ,clement of ,alexandria early in the third century 7quoted by ,m4 ,gerspach1 p4 #di74 ,there is little to say from the artistic side for the few specimens of engraved ,christian glass that have come down to us2 their aim is purely didactic and for edification4 ,the wheel was sometimes employed by the ,romans to form a simple pattern by means of a series of polished ovoid depressions2 when these are placed close together1 the effect somewhat resembles that of our modern facetted glass4 ,the resemblance is still more close when the surface is cut with a series of intersecting diagonal furrows1 as on the spherical bottle at ,south ,kensington1 illustrated by ,mr4 ,nesbitt in his catalogue4 ,i have now run through the principal varieties of ,roman glass1 and the order in which ,i have arranged the different classes--the inlaid and millefiori first1 then the moulded1 the blown1 and finally1 the cut and engraved glass--is in a measure a chronological one1 following roughly the order in which these various methods of working and styles of decoration succeeded one another1 or rather were dominant1 in successive ages4 ,i will end this chapter with a few notes concerning the methods of preparation and the geographical distribution of ,roman glass4 ,as far as contemporary evidence goes1 all our information on the first head is derived from the brief and very unsatisfactory statements of ,pliny4 ,there is1 however1 every reason to believe that there were few important changes in the construction of the furnaces1 or in the preparation of the materials1 during the time that intervened between1 say1 the fourth century of our era and the period in the ,middle ,ages with regard to which we have further sources of information4 ,that is to say1 we may regard the comparatively adequate account of the manufacture of glass given by the monk ,theophilus1 and by the pseudo-,heraclius1#dd as on the whole applicable to ,roman times4 ,even at the present day at ,murano1 and doubtless at other glass-works little affected by modern industrial processes1 much of the old method of working and many of the old terms remain almost unchanged4 ,to give but one example3--when the workman is preparing the half-liquid gathering or ball of glass at the end of his blowing-tube1 previous to inflating it with his breath to form the paraison or vesicle1 he trundles the viscous mass upon a slab of iron which rests on the ground beside his furnace4 ,this iron slab is known as the #8marver'--there are similar names for it in other ,european languages--and it is always understood that the plate in question was formerly made of marble4 ,so1 no doubt1 it may have been at some remote period1 but we find that the pseudo-,heraclius1 describing in the twelfth century or thereabouts the manufacture of glass1 speaks of this same plate as #8tabula ferri qu marmor vocatur4' ,perhaps we should have to go back to the stone slab on which the ,egyptian glass was rolled to find the origin of this #8marver4'#de ,we must now see what can be made out of the somewhat rambling account of the origin and manufacture of glass given by ,pliny at the end of his thirty-sixth book 7cap4 #dd-dg74 ,pliny regarded glass as a ,syrian invention4 ,for many centuries1 he tells us1 the sole source of the principal constituent was a small tract of sand thrown up by the sea at a spot on the ,phnician coast near the town of ,ptolemais1 where the river ,belus#df flows into the ,mediterranean4 ,with this sand the natives mixed the nitrum1 imported oversea in cakes1#dg and thereby for the first time formed glass4 ,according to ,pliny1 these ,phnicians were astute and ingenious craftsmen1 and they1 in time1 took to adding to their glass-pots the #8magnes lapis1 which1 it is asserted1 draws to it the melted glass like iron4' ,this is a statement most characteristic of ,pliny4 ,the magnes lapis--magnetic iron-ore or loadstone--is the last substance in the world any one would think of adding to glass4 ,but we know that the ancients knew of two kinds of black stone1 for one of which they used the masculine form magnes--this was the loadstone--for the other the female form magnesia2#dh and this magnesia1 at any rate at a somewhat later period1 can be undoubtedly identified with the black oxide of manganese 7,mn,o#b71 a substance known of old as the #8soap of glass1' from its power of removing the green colour derived from iron4 ,now we have seen that pure white glass1 #8cleansed' probably by this method1 had only comparatively lately been introduced into ,italy1 and some confused account of the new discovery had probably reached ,pliny's ears4 #8,in the same way1' he continues1 #8they took to adding to the fused mass shining pebbles1 then shells and sandy concretions 7fossiles aren74' ,in these #8fossils' we may1 perhaps1 recognise the source from which was obtained the lime1 an essential constituent of glass4 ,passing over some obscure references to the nitre of ,ophir and the copper of ,cyprus1 ,pliny goes on to say that the whole is melted #8like bronze1' in closely grouped furnaces1 and that a blackish mass of fatty aspect is obtained4 ,this we must regard as a preliminary frit1 for we are told that the mass is melted again in the glass-house1 where the requisite colouring matter is added to it4 #8,so the work was carried on of old in the famous glass-works of ,sidon4444 ,at times the glass was shaped by blowing1 or again it was abraded by the wheel1 or carved in the manner of silver4444 ,such was the ancient way of making glass4 ,at the present day in ,italy also1 by the mouth of the river ,vulturnus1 for a space of six miles between ,cum and ,liternum1 a white and most soft sand is collected1 which is pounded both in mortar and mill2 it is then mixed with three parts of nitrum1#di by weight or by measure1 and after melting is transferred to other furnaces4 ,in these the substance1 now known as ammonitrum1 is melted and then cast into cakes4 ,these cakes are again fused to obtain pure glass and cakes of white glass4' ,pliny1 in this confused account1 where we have apparently materials from different sources imperfectly welded together1 appears to contrast an older method of manufacture1 practised formerly at ,sidon1 whose glass-works he seems to refer to as things of the past1 with the newer processes now in use in ,italy4 ,it will be noted that in both cases a preliminary frit was prepared1 although the term ammonitrum1 a word of ,greek origin1 is applied to this frit in the latter case only4 #8,already1' says ,pliny1 #8the new art of melting sand with soda 7literally 8of tempering sand07 has spread through ,gaul and ,spain4' ,he then goes on to tell1 but with an expression of incredulity quite unusual with him1 the story of the discovery of a malleable glass4 ,according to this tale 7in its earliest form71 ,tiberius ordered the workshop of the man who so tempered glass that it became flexible1 to be pulled down1 lest the value of bronze1 silver1 and gold should be depreciated4 ,this story was the delight of the renaissance writers on glass4 ,with regard to the more amplified and tragic version usually quoted from ,petronius1 we must remember that the remarks put by that writer into the mouth of ,trimalchio are not always to be taken seriously4 ,in later days a similar tale was told of a ,french inventor--in this ,richelieu takes the place of ,tiberius4 ,after mentioning the calices pteroti1 the costly #8winged cups' of ,nero1 ,pliny gives some account 7quite out of its proper place1 by the way7 of obsidian1 a black stone much resembling glass1 which was shaped not only into various dishes for use at the table1 but also into figures of some size--statues of the divine ,augustus1 for instance1 for that monarch much prized the material4 ,vitrum hmatinum1 #8a red opaque glass1' is passed over rapidly4 #8,white glass is made also1 and murrhine and glass resembling the hyacinth and the sapphire and glass of all other colours4#ej ,there is no substance easier to work or to which brighter colours can be given4 ,the highest place must1 however1 be accorded to the white transparent glass which much resembles crystal2 for drinking1 it has driven out vessels of gold and silver4' ,this passage is of the greatest importance4 ,we see that a pure white glass was still1 even in ,pliny's time1 something noticeable4 ,this was1 as we shall see1 again the case at the time of the ,renaissance1 when it was the aim of the glass-makers1 all over ,western ,europe1 to imitate the ,vetro di cristallo of the ,venetians4 ,it will be noticed that ,pliny makes no mention of the method of preparation of the alkali used in making glass 7in #8tempering the sand1' as he puts it74 ,from the context it would seem that the nitrum was always of the same nature as that brought by the mariners to the ,phnician coast--this is1 however1 very unlikely4 ,nor have we any information about the arrangement of the furnaces4 ,these glass houses were1 however1 well known to the beggars and loungers of the time--we hear of them as places of resort in cold weather for those who had no other way of warming themselves4 ,in the ,greek ,anthology 7,no4 #cbc71 of all places in the world1 there is a fragment by one ,mesomedes1 a contemporary and favourite of ,hadrian1 giving an account of a visit to a glass-house4 ,just at the point where the little poem breaks off1 the workman is described as placing the molten mass between the blades of the pincers or shears4 ,strabo tells us that when he was at ,alexandria--he was there1 we know1 in the early part of the reign of ,augustus 7circa #bd ,b4,c47--he was assured by the glass-workers 77 that their #8many-coloured and sumptuous glass' could not be made without the addition of a certain glassy earth which was only found in ,egypt1 a story which points to the jealousy of foreign competition on the part of these craftsmen4 ,so on the ,phnician coast he hears from some of the wonderful qualities of the ,sidonian sand1 while others tell him that one sand is as good as another4 ,strabo goes on to speak of the improvements made #8quite lately' in the clear crystal glass of which the manufacture had not long since been established at ,rome4 ,compare with this the account of ,pliny2 in view of his certainly rather vague statements1 we should hardly have looked for this cristallo in ,italy at so early a date4 ,but it is neither from ,italy nor from the countries bordering the ,eastern ,mediterranean that the most important supply of ,roman glass has been obtained4 ,putting aside objects of quite local provenance1 it will be found that in the museums of ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 by far the larger part of the glass exhibited--and this is above all the case with the blown glass--has been found within the limits of the ancient ,gallia4 ,spain1 contrary to what we might have expected1 has yielded little ,roman glass of any artistic merit1 partly perhaps for want of systematic search4 ,but there are few districts in ,france or in the west of ,germany where the exploration of ,roman cemeteries has not yielded a plentiful crop4 ,if we travel northward from the estuary of the ,rhone by way of ,arles and ,nismes to ,avignon1 ,valence1 and ,lyons1 then across by the country on either side of the ,jura to the valley of the ,rhine1 and follow that river by ,strassburg to ,cologne1 we pass for the whole way through a district especially rich in ,roman glass4 ,and this is what might well be looked for4 ,the third and fourth centuries--a little earlier or a little later1 according to locality--are above all the great centuries for the prevalent use of glass1 and it was during this period that the central tract of country that included the two great metropolitan cities of ,arles and ,trves began to take the prominent place that it maintained throughout the early ,middle ,ages4 ,even our ,english glass of this time1 so much of which comes from districts to the north and the south of the estuary of the ,thames1 may be brought commercially at least into connection with the wealthy provinces of ,northern and ,eastern ,gaul4 ,it was from these provinces that glass was first imported1 and from them1 no doubt1 the glass-workers passed over to ,britain4 ,in the case of the rich collection of ,roman glass in the ,british ,museum1 the backbone1 as it were1 is formed by the specimens excavated from tombs in the neighbourhood of the lower ,rhone valley--from ,vaison1 near ,vaucluse 7the ,comarmond collection71 from ,apt1 and from ,alais4 ,at ,arles1 in that district of tombs1 the ,aliscamps1 which furnished ,dante with a well-known image1 beneath the ,christian sarcophagi 7in these1 too1 not a little glass has been found71 the earlier ,roman tombs lie on the bed-rock4 ,from these tombs numberless urns of glass1 in cases of lead or stone1 have been taken1 as well as many examples of glass of rare and exceptional shapes--among others what is apparently an alembic for use in distillation4 ,some of these vessels contain a red liquid which may represent at least the wine with which they were originally filled 7,froehner1 p4 #aji74 ,in this town of ,arles1 too1 in the suburb of ,trinquetailles1 there were probably extensive glass-works1 as we may infer from the quantity of vitrified paste there found 7,quicherat1 ,revue ,archologique1 xxviii474 ,to pass to the ,roman cemeteries of ,lyons3 in the museum of that town are some curious masses of blue frit taken lately from a tomb on the ,fourvire1 which call to mind the fritted cobalt or smalt exported in modern times from the ,saxon mines4 ,we have in the ,british ,museum many pieces of glass from older explorations at the adjacent suburb of ,st4 ,irne4 ,there is in the ,lyons ,museum a sepulchral stele of much interest found in this very district2 it is to the memory of a certain ,julius ,alexander1 a citizen of ,carthage1 a craftsman in the art of glass 7opifici artis vitre74 ,this ,punic glass-blower left behind him children and grandchildren1 who doubtless followed his trade4 ,we must not infer too much from a single instance2 we know1 however1 from other sources1#ea that there was a large influx into ,gaul at this time of ,semitic people1 chiefly of a humble status1 craftsmen and small merchants1 and that they found their way in above all by the valley of the ,rhone4 ,these ubiquitous traders are generally referred to as ,syrians1 and ,i think it likely that the glass trade1 not only in the south of ,gaul but further afield1 may have been in great measure in the hands of ,orientals of this class4 ,this would be especially true of the manufacture and hawking about of small objects of verroterie1#eb and again of glass pastes containing lead4 ,but perhaps also the preparation of the more ambitious and artistic kinds of glass was in the same hands1 leaving only the common ware to the native workmen2 in that case the distinction so important in later days between the cristallo and the #8forest-glass' may have had its prototype in ,roman times4 ,it should be borne in mind that these ,semitic craftsmen would for the most part speak ,greek rather than ,latin1 an important point that ,i have not space to develop here4 ,as we pass to ,northern ,gaul we find examples of a glass of a pronounced greenish tint more and more predominating--bulky urns1 square and spherical1 and jugs with #8claw' handles4 ,all of these forms we are familiar with in ,england4 ,the museums of ,amiens and ,boulogne are especially rich in this glass1 and in ,paris the local finds are well represented in the ,muse ,carnavalet4 ,on the other hand1 in the glass of the ,rhine district1 including of course the ,moselle1 we have a return to the more varied types that we met with in the south4 ,trves was the northern rival of ,arles2 it formed the centre of a rich district1 including ,lorraine on the one hand and the ,rhine provinces on the other1 where the manufacture of glass by the third century became an important industry4 ,and this district has for us a special interest1 for here more than anywhere else we have some evidence to show that the industry was carried on without interruption throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,the museums of ,trves1 of ,cologne and of ,bonn1 are above all rich in ,roman glass1 and the ,german archologists have endeavoured--and this has hardly been attempted elsewhere--to arrange this glass in a chronological sequence4 ,they think that they can distinguish the following stages in the industry3--#a4 ,up to #ej ,a4,d4 glass was a rarity in the north1 but the millefiori and marbled glass of the south was imported to some extent4 #b4 ,after the middle of the first century1 glass-works were established for the manufacture of large urns and smaller vessels of a #8,natur-glas1' bluish rather than greenish in tint4 #c4 ,in the time of ,hadrian 7#aag-acj ,a4,d47 a pure white glass was introduced2 this was more liable to decay than the older bluish glass4 #d4 ,the period of the greatest development was about #bjj ,a4,d4 ,many kinds of decoration were in fashion1 as zig-zag threadings on coloured glass4 #e4 ,after #bej ,a4,d4 ,this was the time of the glass with the ,frontinus stamp4#ec ,the prevailing tint is a strong green1 no longer bluish2 the decoration is given chiefly by engraving and cutting2 ,christian subjects begin to appear4 ,to this period also belongs glass decorated with coloured medallions of glass paste4 ,i give this scheme of classification under all reserve2 the interlarding of a period of white glass between two stages of #8green glass' may perhaps be open to criticism1 but at all events it is a step in the right direction4 ,it must be borne in mind that this ,rhenish glass belongs to the same ,romano-,celtic family as that found in ,france1 but1 as in the latter country1 the ,celtic element is scarcely perceptible4 ,the art was an entirely new one1 and there was no earlier tradition to influence the work as in the case of the contemporary pottery1 armour1 or sculpture4 ,it so happens that the ,roman glass of ,gaul has been most carefully studied in a district far away from the route that we have been following4 ,in ,western ,france the researches of ,m4 ,benjamin ,fillon 7,l',art de la terre chez les ,poitevins1 #ahfd1 and other works7 have brought to light the remains of old glass-works4 ,these appear to have been generally situated far from the main centres1 and they were often associated with potteries4 ,it would even seem that glass was at one time more in favour and perhaps cheaper than earthenware4 ,a curious point is the number of localities in ,poitou and ,la ,vende which bear names such as ,la ,verrerie and ,verrire2 at as many as seven places with names of this class1 ,m4 ,fillon claims to have found the remains of ,gallo-,roman glass-works4 ,these do not appear to have been established before the time of ,trajan1 and it is to the age of the ,antonines in the second century that the more important examples of glass are to be attributed4 ,of somewhat later date than this1 however1 are the fifty pieces of white glass from the villa and tomb of a femme-artiste at ,st4 ,mdard-des-,prs4 ,this was ,m4 ,fillon's most important find2 some of the vases contained various coloured substances and resins1 and they were closed by stoppers of wood or by sheaths of bronze4#ed ,the ,british ,museum has lately acquired a large collection of ,gallo-,roman glass formed by ,m4 ,moret4 ,among this glass--it comes chiefly from late ,gallic cemeteries in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 as from ,corbeil and ,conflans 7,confluentia71 and also from the ,rheims district--may be seen beakers with circular feet and wide-mouthed cups with rounded bases4#ee ,to one of these a fantastic decoration has been given by a contorted streak of blood-like tint in the midst of the glass--caused by the perhaps accidental presence of a fragment of copper-oxide2 we have here at any rate one of the earliest instances of the use of this valuable pigment to obtain a transparent red4 ,notice1 too1 the large receptacle cast in the form of a fish2 similar vessels have been found at ,arles1 and they have been brought into connection with the well-known ,christian symbol of the 4 ,,roman ,,glass ,,in ,,britain ,there does not seem to be any example of a vessel of glass from a pre-,roman tomb in ,britain4 ,the little ribbed bowls that have been found in ,celtic tombs further south did not apparently reach our country4 ,the and the mentioned by ,strabo in an involved passage as among the imports into ,britain1 we must interpret as beads of glass and amber4 ,from that time until the eighth century1 when the ,venerable ,bede wrote his history1 we have not a word of documentary evidence bearing upon the question of glass in our country4 ,nor have we any definite evidence1 apart from a few lumps of glass that may have had their origin in an accidental fire1 that any glass-works existed in ,england during this long interval1--no evidence1 that is to say1 apart from that based upon the large amount of ,roman glass found in ,england and the size of many of the specimens4 ,the ,english glass1 however1 in no way differs from that taken from ,roman tombs in the north of ,france4 ,i have mentioned already the most noticeable types--the large urns1 both spherical and quadrangular1 the graceful jugs and vases with ribbed handles1 and the little bowls of thin moulded glass with scenes taken from the circus4 ,it is perhaps remarkable that the art of the enameller on metal1 which we know at this time had been brought to a great perfection in ,britain1#ef appears in no way to have influenced the glass-blower1 and it would seem that in ,britain glass vessels have been rarely found together with specimens of champlev enamel4#eg ,most of the finer examples of native ,roman glass in our museums have been excavated from cemeteries adjacent to the lower ,thames valley1 around ,colchester and other stations to the north1 but above all on the southern bank1 in the district lying between the mouth of the ,medway and the ,isle of ,thanet4 ,in this neighbourhood1 in the flat land between ,sittingbourne and ,faversham1 were situated what were probably the most extensive potteries of ,britain1 and it is hereabouts if anywhere in ,england that we might look for traces of glass-works of ,roman date4 ,as we go further west and further north1 glass1 large examples at any rate1 becomes comparatively rare1 and this is true even of the neighbourhood of such important stations as ,york and ,cirencester4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix ,,roman ,,glass ,,from ,,british ,,graves ,in the case of the glass of the ancients1 the material is so vast1 so varied1 and spread over so wide an area1 that a concentrated treatment of the subject1 as this must needs be1 is rendered very difficult4 ,much that is both interesting and important must be omitted or only briefly alluded to2 and this must be my excuse for making little more than a passing mention of the inscriptions found at times on this glass4 ,these inscriptions fall into two classes3--#a4 ,a propitiatory sentence or expression of well-wishing addressed1 it would seem1 to the person to whom the piece is presented2 of such we have already given some examples4 #b4 ,the name of the maker4 ,with few exceptions these inscriptions are confined to glass that has been blown into a mould1 and this for practical reasons which will be obvious4 ,the signature of ,ennion may be read in many cases on little vases or bottles found in ,italy1 in ,cyprus1 and in the ,crimea4 ,ennion worked probably at ,sidon or at ,tyre and quite possibly as far back as the third century ,b4,c4 ,the words #8,let the buyer remember1' which he sometimes added to his name1 were perhaps intended to accentuate the signature4 ,the glass-blowers of ,sidon seem to have been proud of their native town2 along with their signature its name generally appears on the #8thumb-piece' of the handle3 that of ,irenus is in each case accompanied by the head of an emperor in relief--,augustus or perhaps ,caligula4 ,artas1 whose signature has been found more often than any other1 gives his name both in ,latin and ,greek--,,artas ,,sidon-- 4 ,let us now pass to examples of a later date that are characteristically and distinctly ,roman4 ,what can be more so than the large quadrangular bottles1 on the base of which so many inscriptions have been found8 ,here1 as on the contemporary pottery1 the reference is generally to the owner of the works whose name is accompanied sometimes by the word patrimonium4 ,but the inscription is often reduced to four letters placed in the angles--letters that have been a standing puzzle to antiquaries4 ,many pieces of glass bearing the stamp of ,firmus1 of ,hilarus1 or again of ,hylas--contracted or in the genitive case--have been found not only in ,italy 7as in the neighbourhood of ,perugia71 but also in the ,cologne district4 ,on the other hand1 the signature of ,frontinus is above all frequent on a series of barrel-shaped glass vessels of a late date1 which come from various places in the north of ,france1 more especially from ,picardy2 but the signature is found in the ,rhine country also4 ,the firm seems to have been as important and its outturn as widespread as that of the ,bonhomme family of ,lige in the seventeenth century4 ,several examples of the ,frontinus signature in various forms are given by ,m4 ,froehner4#eh ,it is a curious fact that in no case1 as far as ,i am aware1 has the custom of the manufacturer adding his name to the glass made by him become general in later times4 ,the practical difficulties in the case of blown glass may be a sufficient reason for this4 ,perhaps the most important exception may be found in the stamps of makers' names on wine-bottles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,let me in one final word accentuate what seems to me the commanding point of interest in this rich and varied series--the glass of the ,romans4 ,we have in it the one branch of ,roman art that was not dominated by ,greek influence and traditions2 it was an art which1 although essentially developed under the ,roman rule1 had its origin in ,semitic lands4 ,as an industry ,i cannot help thinking that it spread along with that interpenetration of ,hellenised ,syrians that played so important a part in the propagation of ,christianity and other ,oriental cults through the west of ,europe4 ,,chapter ,v ,,early ,,christian ,,glass1 ,,byzantine ,,glass1 ,,and ,,the ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,in ,,the ,,east ,,and ,,the ,,west4 ,the vague and indefinite use of the terms #8,byzantine ,period' and #8,byzantine ,art' has been the cause of much confusion in many branches of history1 and nowhere more than in the history of architecture4 ,were ,i treating of the latter art ,i should prefer to use the term in its narrower sense1 confining it within definite limits of time and space4 ,with the minor arts1 however--illuminated manuscripts1 ivories1 and metal ware--the case is different4 ,here the term ,byzantine may often be conveniently applied to cover a very wide field2 so in the case of glass1 the rare specimens that come to us from widely scattered sources find1 for a long period1 a common centre1 as it were1 in ,constantinople4 ,after the end of the third century the ,east begins once more to assert itself4 ,the spread of the ,christian religion1 the transference of the capital of the empire to ,constantinople1 and again the advance of the barbaric tribes1 were all important factors in this movement4 ,as far as our northern lands are concerned1 the importance of this last factor as an orientalising influence has perhaps not been sufficiently recognised4 ,we think of this advance chiefly as a descent of ,germanic tribes from the north upon ,italy4 ,but this last movement was only a side issue--the general progress was from ,east to ,west4 ,we know now that for whatever culture these tribes brought with them at the time of their advance1 they were at least as much indebted to the early civilisations of ,western ,asia as to that of ,greece and ,rome4 ,it was only with the fringe of this latter civilisation1 and that comparatively lately1 that they had come into contact4 ,in a measure we may look upon the influence of what we call classical civilisation as merely a temporary interruption1 a breaking in upon the old established route by which the peoples1 and still more the produce1 of the ,east reached ,western ,europe4 ,this is what gives that ,oriental nuance1 often so difficult to define1 to so much of our ,western ,european art of the early ,middle ,ages1#ei up to the time when the ,roman culture1 under the lead of the ,western ,church1 asserted itself once more4 ,so in the somewhat miscellaneous assortment of glass from many lands1 and often of uncertain date1 that we treat of in this chapter1 it is this new wave of ,oriental influence working upon the now decadent ,roman types which gives in some measure a common note to objects otherwise so divergent4 ,in another way the spread of the new religion had an even more direct and practical bearing on our subject-matter4 ,if between the fourth and thirteenth century--between the later ,gallo-,roman glass and the enamelled glass of the ,saracens--there is in our collections a gap representing nearly a thousand years1 only sparingly filled up by a few rare examples1 the immediate cause is to be found in the abandonment of the practice of cremation1 and of the habit of burying objects of value with the deceased4 ,fortunately for us1 however1 there was at first one important exception to this rule1 and to this exception we owe the survival of so many specimens of a family of glass which is essentially both ,christian and ,roman1 a family which should therefore rightly find its place at the commencement of the present chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x ,,gilt ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,cemeteries #a4 ,,from ,,cologne4 #b ,,and #c4 ,,from ,,rome ,the ,,gilt ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,cemeteries is1 indeed1 strictly ,roman1 both in provenance and in its artistic and technical relationships4 ,the essential character of this early ,christian glass depends upon the inclusion of a foil of thin gold between two plates of glass united by fusion4 ,this is the principle of the decoration of the two bowls from ,canosa that ,i have already described1 and1 indeed1 in the technical difficulties overcome1 and still more in artistic merit1 these bowls far excel any later work of this class4 ,as it is1 the interest of these vetri a fondi d'oro1 as the ,italians call them1 depends rather upon the fact that they constitute one of the earliest records of the art of the primitive ,church1 than upon any especial merit they may possess as examples of glass4#fj ,it is now well known that nearly all these little discs of glass have formed the base of tazza-shaped bowls1 or of cups of conical form4 ,most of them have been extracted from the plaster in which they were embedded at the sides of the loculi1 where in the passages of the catacombs the corpses were deposited4 ,there is also a class of smaller medallions or studs1 covered with thick lenticular glass1 which were inserted round the body of a glass cup2 in a few rare examples1 chiefly from ,cologne1 the medallions remain in their original position on the cup 7,pl4 ,x474 ,these studs are sometimes of blue glass1 and we are then reminded of a style of decoration in use in earlier times--blue bosses or ribs1 appliqus or fused into the body of the bowl4 ,apart from a few remarkable specimens found beneath some of the old churches of ,cologne1 as at ,st4 ,ursula and ,st4 ,severinus1 these gilt glasses come almost exclusively from the catacombs of ,rome4 ,the ,roman collections naturally contain the most numerous specimens2 in the ,british ,museum1 however1 may be seen an important and typical series1 illustrating most of the points of interest4 ,in the preparation of these vetri a fondi d'oro1 the gold leaf was laid down upon the glass with some gum or varnish2 the superfluous gold was then scraped away1 and the internal lines of the draperies accentuated with a sharp metallic point2 a covering of glass was then superimposed4 ,so far all are agreed2 but as to the actual process by which the two sheets of glass were united1 there is some difference of opinion4 ,the problem had already appealed to ,heraclius1 the writer of some barbarous hexameters treating ,de ,coloribus et ,artibus ,romanorum4 ,heraclius was probably a monk living at ,rome1 perhaps about the end of the tenth century4 ,the fifth of his little didactic poems is inscribed #8,de fialis auro decoratis4' ,in this he tells us how he produced some small cups of pure glass1 smeared them with gum with a brush1 and then proceeded to lay down on them leaves of gold4 ,on the gold leaf1 when dry1 he inscribed birds1 men1 lions1 as it pleased his fancy4 #8,finally1' says ,heraclius1 #8,i fitted over the surface1 glass rendered thin by a skilful blast of the fire2 but when the glass had yielded equally to the heat1 it united itself admirably to the phials as a thin sheet4'#fa ,theophilus1 writing a few generations later1 probably in ,germany1 knew nothing of this cemetery glass4 ,he describes1 however1 the process by which the ,byzantine ,greeks made their gold mosaics by sprinkling a layer of powdered glass over the gold leaf covering the surface of the tesser2 this coating was then fused on4 ,but this was an enameller's process1 and the coating must have consisted of a somewhat fusible glass1 perhaps containing lead4 ,the ,greeks employed1 he tells us1 a similar process in decorating their glass cups4 ,signor ,andrea ,rioda1 the art director of the ,impresa ,venezia-,murano1 tells me that in the case of some clever imitations of fondi d'oro made by his firm1 the gold leaf was fixed upon a thickish sheet of glass1 a thinner sheet was then placed over it1 and the whole heated to the softening-point4 ,a third method has been adopted in the preparation of some experimental imitations made by ,mr4 ,westlake3 that gentleman soldered together the two sheets of glass round the edges only1 by means of a flux4 ,in the general treatment of the figure1 and in the choice of the subject1 we are reminded in the case of this cemetery glass of the reliefs upon contemporary ,christian sarcophagi--that is to say of the more rudely executed of these reliefs4 ,but among these fondi d'oro there is a small class of portrait heads1 highly finished by means of a sort of pointill or stipple process1 which are of a somewhat superior artistic merit4 ,in these circular medallions--miniatures1 we might call them#fb--the large eyes1 the small mouth1 and a peculiar affable but sad and #8worn-out' expression1 remind us of the portrait heads on late mummy cases brought from the ,fayum4 ,these highly finished miniatures are probably of somewhat earlier date than the typical glass from the catacombs4 ,we find occasionally in this cemetery glass a sparing use of coloured enamels1 above all on the draperies4#fc ,in others the outlines1 it would seem1 were cut into the glass and filled up with coloured pastes1 a process of great technical interest2 ,i have not1 however1 myself seen an example of such work4 ,a few rare pieces with ,jewish symbols have been found1 but not in any case1 ,i think1 from ,jewish cemeteries4 ,we see the scrolls of the law lying on the aron1 and the seven-branched candlestick4 ,i have already pointed out that at this time in ,rome the working of glass was very probably to some extent in the hands of ,jews and ,judaising ,christians4#fd ,the cemetery glass dates1 it would seem1 from the fourth and from the first half of the fifth century1 but some of the finer pieces may be a little older4 ,the disasters of the fifth century and the rapid decline of ,rome after the time of ,honorius help to explain the total extinction of this genre soon after the latter period4 ,apart from these gilt medallions1 the examples of glass that may be classed as early ,christian present no special feature4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a series of cameo medallions1 some of hmatinum and others of sapphire-blue glass paste4 ,in these the treatment of the figures--the ,virgin and ,child and ,st4 ,george 7or possibly ,st4 ,theodore7 are the favourite subjects--is quite ,byzantine in character4 ,in the ,vatican ,museum1 among many other such medallions1 are some cast from the same moulds as our ,english examples4 ,the little pendeloques of stamped glass remind one of the late ,roman and ,saracenic glass weights found in ,egypt2 they have formed probably parts of a necklace1 or they may have been attached to drapery4 ,the early ,christian engraved glass is of more importance1 but it in no way differs in technique from that carved with pagan subjects2 some of the vases may possibly have served as chalices for use in the service of the ,eucharist4 ,in the ,british ,museum is a conical cup from ,cologne2 the figures are roughly cut with the wheel1 and the subjects from the ,old and ,new ,testaments are the same as those found on contemporary sarcophagi4 ,the design on the ,podgoriza bowl1#fe perhaps the finest example of early ,christian engraving on glass1 shows the influence of the northern barbarians2 there is a ,viking air about some of the subjects4 ,notice especially the ship from which ,jonah is being thrown1 and the gaping monsters in the sea1 more like dragons than whales4 7,see ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans's paper in ,archologia1 vol4 xlviii47 ,as ,i have already said1 the gap which exists between the later ,roman and the great school of enamelled ,saracenic glass of the thirteenth century can only be filled by a few scattered examples from widely distant sources4 ,the tombs now fail us1 and we are thrown back for the most part upon the treasures and relics preserved in the churches of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,such objects represent but one aspect of the glass produced at the time3 they reflect above all the skill now acquired in staining glass so as to imitate precious stones4 ,we shall see later that there has been preserved an interesting literary record bearing especially on such imitations4 ,the alchemists now begin to come into touch with the glass-workers--a connection that has been maintained even to quite recent times4 ,the ,jews1 too1 were early occupied with the manufacture of coloured pastes1 and their interest in the subject has continued1 as we know1 up to the present day4 ,it would be impossible to neglect the importance of ,constantinople when treating of the art of the early medival--the so-called dark ages4 ,but so far as glass1 in our narrower sense of the word1 is concerned1 there is little that can be definitely attributed to that city4 ,for us1 however1 the interest of the ,greek ,empire lies in the fact that we have in it a common middle term with which to correlate the art of the ,copts in ,egypt1 of the ,sassanians in ,persia1 and at a later time1 in some measure1 that of the early ,saracen dynasties and even of the ,anglo-,saxons and the ,franks in the north4 ,at two widely separated periods the influence of ,constantinople has been more directly felt4 ,the first centres round ,justinian in the sixth century2 we are brought at that time into relation with the ,copts and the ,sassanian rulers of ,persia4 ,the other is the time of the great revival of ,byzantine power in the tenth century1 when1 chiefly through alliances with the emperors of the ,saxon house1 the renewed art of the ,greeks spread through ,germany and even reached1 not for the first time indeed1 the shores of ,england4 ,the great work1 no doubt1 of the ,byzantines in the domain of glass is to be found in the manufacture of the mosaics with which they lined the walls of their churches1 and when we hear that glass was made at ,thessalonica1 and again that one of the gates of the capital was named after the adjacent glass-works1 it is of this branch of the art that we must first think4#ff ,byzantine artists travelled to ,cordova on the one hand1 and to ,damascus on the other1 to work in mosaic for ,mohammedan masters2 we find them1 too1 at ,rome1 at ,ravenna1 and at ,aachen4 ,no doubt these musivi took with them1 at first at least1 the materials with which they built up their pictures4 ,for the use of coloured glass in the windows of churches1 we may probably find a similar origin4 ,in ,justinian's great church glass was not used for mosaics only2 there were windows filled with stained glass1 some of which may even now be in place4 ,in the seventh century we hear of ,greek workmen summoned to ,france for such work1 just as from ,merovingian ,france1 as ,bede tells us1 ,benedict ,biscop obtained1 a little later1 skilled craftsmen to make the glass for his new church at ,monk ,wearmouth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi ,,hanging ,,lamps ,,of ,,sculptured ,,glass ,,byzantine4 ,,from ,,treasury ,,of ,,st4 ,,mark',s ,in the ode that ,paul the ,silentiary wrote for the opening ceremony at ,st4 ,sophia 7#efc ,a4,d471 he speaks of silver discs1 hanging from chains and pierced to receive vessels of #8fire-wrought' glass1 shaped like the butt of a spear 77 7,lethaby's ,santa ,sophia1 p4 #ej seq474#fg ,we have here in these lamps what is probably the first mention of a new use for our material--one which became before long1 for a time1 the dominant one4 ,in the #8spear-butt' shaped lamps of ,st4 ,sophia we may see the prototypes of the conical oil-cups of the ,saracens4 ,glass1 however1 was never held in great honour in the ceremonies of the ,christian ,church4 ,chalices and patens of glass are indeed mentioned in the ,liber ,pontificalis as in use at the end of the second century3 ,st4 ,jerome writes of #8the ,lord's blood being borne in a vessel of glass1' and some early miracles have reference to the making good of glass that had been broken4 ,of a ninth-century saint we are told that his ,eucharistic vessels were first of wood1 then of glass1 and finally of pewter6 ,in later times the use of so fragile a material fell out of use1 and was even forbidden by the ,church4 ,in shape it would seem that these early chalices resembled the ,greek cantharus4 ,of this form is what is perhaps the oldest example of a metal chalice that has survived--the cup found at ,gourdon1 now in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,we have1 or rather had1 another example of this type in the golden chalice inlaid with jewels which was formerly preserved at ,monza4 ,in fact1 this form is especially characteristic of early ,byzantine art2 we see such vases represented over and over again on marble reliefs and mosaics4 ,now in the ,british ,museum there are two vases1 distinctly of this cantharus shape2 they are of blue1 somewhat bubbly glass1 with fluted body3 one which is perfect was found at ,amiens 7,plate ,,xii472 the other1 from the ,slade collection1 has lost its handles4 ,these vases may well date from the sixth century1 and they may very probably have served as chalices4 ,let us now turn to some of the rare specimens of early glass to be found in the treasuries of churches1 chiefly in the north of ,italy4 ,at ,rome1 in the church of ,st4 ,anastasia1 is a bowl of opaque glass1 with ornaments in relief1 mounted on a metal foot4 ,this claims to be the chalice used by ,st4 ,jerome4 ,more famous is the sacro catino preserved in the cathedral of ,st4 ,lorenzo at ,genoa4 ,there is no reason to doubt the story that this bowl fell to the share of a ,genoese when the town of ,csarea was sacked by the ,crusaders in the year #aaja4 ,it seems to have suffered no diminution in sanctity from a want of uniformity in the tradition as to its earlier history4#fh ,the sacro catino is a shallow hexagonal bowl with feet and handles2 the slight ornaments on the surface are finished with a tool4 ,it was carried off to ,paris during the revolutionary war1 and then discovered to be not an emerald1 as had been always maintained1 but a piece of admirably tinted glass1 containing1 however1 a few air-bubbles4 ,the bowl was broken before its return to ,genoa1 and the pieces are now united by a filigree mounting of gold4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,,vase ,,of ,,blue ,,glass1 ,,probably ,a ,,chalice ,,about ,,fifth ,,century1 ,a4,d4 ,it is claimed for the famous treasures preserved in the royal basilica at ,monza1 that they date from the time of ,theodolinda1 ,queen of the ,lombards 7#ehi-fbe ,a4,d474 ,among them is a cup of a deep blue material which is stated to be a sapphire4 ,it is almost three inches in diameter1 and ,mr4 ,nesbitt1 who examined it1 failed to discover any air-bubbles4 ,if1 however1 as is probable1 this cup is of glass1 it gives evidence of the technical skill of the craftsman who made it4 ,in the same treasury are a number of little flasks in which were preserved the oil exuding from the bodies of martyrs--whether these flasks came originally from ,rome or from ,palestine1 ,i am unable to say4 ,in any case they closely resemble certain little bottles said to be of ,coptic origin1 found in ,upper ,egypt4 ,there are some very similar flasks1 claiming to date from the sixth century1 in the treasury of ,st4 ,croix at ,poitiers4 ,but it is to the treasury of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice that we must go to find what is by far the largest collection of ,byzantine glass in existence4 ,the tradition that refers this collection as a whole to the time of the fourth crusade1 when in the year #abjd ,constantinople was subjected to a systematic pillage by the combined forces of the ,venetians and the ,franks1 is doubtless in the main true4 ,but long before this the ,venetians had been in close commercial relations with the ,greek capital4 ,the nucleus of the ,pala ,d',oro1 undoubtedly a ,byzantine work1 dates from the last years of the tenth century4 ,on the other hand1 there are some objects in the treasury of considerably later date than the twelfth century4 ,as the little that we know of the glass of the ,byzantines is mainly founded upon this collection1 ,i will extract from ,passini's great work#fi a complete list of the examples of glass that it contains4 ,i4 ,among a series of ten chalices of which the metal mountings bear inscriptions in ,greek relating to the consecration of the holy wine1 is a hemispherical cup of common glass1 some #e inches in height1 studded with conical points1 and another of clear glass with an arcading in low relief 7xxxi4 #gf and #gg74 ,in the same series is a bowl of green glass1 decorated with four quaint animals rudely carved in low relief 7xlv4 #ii74 ,,ii4 ,among a set of so-called chalices1 without inscriptions or symbols1 we find--#ast1 ,a vase of plain blown glass of greyish colour1 #g-a_/b inches in height2 it is without ornament1 but is richly mounted in filigree and jewels 7l4 #aaf74 #bnd1 ,a bowl of plain glass1 some #f inches in height2 at the base is a series of circular button-like projections with a stud in the centre of each 7xlii4 #hg74 #crd1 ,a cup of clear glass 7some #f in4 high72 the surface is decorated by a series of shield-like projections similar to those on the last 7xl4 #gi74 #dth1 ,another cup of coarse glass 7#e in4 high7 is not illustrated in ,passini's work4 ,,iii4 ,among a series of so-called patens of various materials we find four of glass--#ast1 ,a plate-like paten of greenish glass 7#g in4 diam471 the outside incised with a number of small circular depressions 7xlix4 #aji74 #bnd1 ,a paten of milky-white semi-transparent glass with shaped margin 7#i in4 diam472 not illustrated4 #crd1 ,an unmounted shallow dish or bowl of plain glass 7#ad in4 diam47 shaped like the pan of a balance2 eight ringed discs1 standing out in relief from the surface1 surround a central circular shield2 between are facetted1 pointed projections#gj 7lix4 #aaj;a7 7,plate ,,xi4 #c74 #dth1 ,a smaller pan-like paten or hanging lamp similar to the above 7#aj in4 diam47 is not illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii ,,glass ,,vessel ,,carved ,,in ,,low ,,relief ,,and ,,mounted ,,as ,a #8,,false' ,,ewer ,,probably ,,early ,,saracenic ,,iv4 ,lamps--#ast1 ,a vessel in the shape of a balance-pan1 mounted as a lamp1 and hung by three chains 7liv4 #abe74 ,we are reminded by this of the lamps that hung in ,st4 ,sophia1 as described by ,paul the ,silentiary 7p4 #ig74 ,the decoration of discs and facetted points is almost identical with ,,iii4 #c4 ,the inscription in ,greek on the silver rim maybe rendered3 #8 ,saint ,pantaleone1 help your slave ,zachariah1 ,archbishop of ,iberia6 ,amen6' ,this connection with ,iberia 7,georgia7 is of the greatest interest as bearing upon the origin of this family of glass 7,plate ,,xi4 #a74 #bnd1 ,a bucket-shaped lamp of plain glass hanging from three chains 7hgt4 #f in47 7liv4 #abd74 #crd1 ,an ellipsoid hanging lamp of common glass 7chief diam4 #h in474 ,on the exterior1 projecting in high relief1 are carved shells1 fishes1 and other animals4 ,from the silver rim project six cloisons which formerly held jewels2 one alone remains1 an oval paste of opaque blue4 ,above project eight little cylindrical sockets1 as if to contain candles 7liv4 #abc74 ,v4 ,amphora-shaped vessels--#ast1 ,a cylindrical vase of common glass1 with rich mounting 7total height1 #bj in47 7xxxvi4 #fe74 #bnd1 ,a pear-shaped vase1 set with a false metal spout to resemble an ampulla or cruet2 the mounting is of ,oriental character4 ,the glass is carved with a design containing two long-horned rams among a conventional leaf pattern 7the glass alone #d in4 high7 7li4 #aae7 7,plate ,,xiii474 #crd1 ,an unmounted vase of common glass1 with handles 7#aj in4 diam474 #dth1 ,an unmounted conical vase of common glass with conical neck1 carved in low relief with three conventionalised four-legged monsters with tendril-like limbs and bodies 7hgt4 #e in47 7xl4 #hj74ga ,,vi4 ,situl1 or bucket-shaped vases1 #ast1 ,a situla of clear glass of a violet tint4 ,the design--somewhat rudely cut with a wheel--consists of a series of figures1 with pastoral and ,bacchic emblems4 ,the decoration is similar in style to the engraved work found on some late ,roman glass from the ,rhine district 7hgt4 #h in47 7liii4 #aba74 #bnd1 ,the famous situla that ,i have already described when treating of the diatretum glass 7p4 #gb74 ,the ,canonico ,passini thinks that the rings of glass have been fitted on subsequently1 and that is the impression that ,i formed when examining the vase 7hgt4 ,,ii in47 7liii4 #abb74 7,plate ,,xiv47 ,,vii4 ,the vase enamelled with classical medallions which has already been described in connection with the enamelled glass of the ,romans 7p4 #ff74 ,although1 as ,i have said1 the figures are purely classical in style1 yet the scroll-work reminds one of the decoration on ,coptic bowls and fragments brought from ,egypt 7xl4 #gh1 and xli4 #hb74 ,,viii4 ,there remains the turquoise basin1 richly mounted in gold and gems1 presented in #adgb by the ,shah of ,persia to the ,signoria of ,venice4 ,the only ornament is a conventionalised hare carved in low relief on each of the five compartments that divide the sides4 ,on the base is a brief dedication in ,arabic to ,allah4 ,as to the material of this vase1 all ,i can say is that it is carved2 this is seen by the light reflected on the somewhat unctuous surface2 it is therefore not porcelain or other ceramic ware1 as some have thought4 ,the slightly waxy lustre is in favour of its being a natural stone of the turquoise order4 ,some1 however1 have held this dish to be of a glass paste1 on the ground of the minute bubbles on the translucent edge2 but the existence of these bubbles is denied by others1 and ,i myself failed to discover them 7hgt4 ,,ii in47 7liii4 #abb74 ,i have dwelt in some detail on this little-known ,byzantine glass at ,st4 ,mark's1 for it is1 as a group1 of unique interest for our history1 throwing light on so many obscure problems4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv ,,situla ,,of ,,late ,,roman ,,or ,,byzantine ,,glass ,,diatretum ,,work ,we may obtain some slight hints as to the commoner kinds of glass in use by the ,byzantine ,greeks from the illustrations of contemporary manuscripts4 ,i will give an instance of frequent occurrence4 ,the ,evangelist who on the opening page is represented seated at his desk engaged in writing his gospel1 dips his pen into a little flask of clear glass1 of cylindrical body and straight neck4 ,this is a simple form1 easily turned out by the blowing-tube1 without the use of the pontil4 ,we may trace it all through the ,middle ,ages1 and a flask very similar in shape is still used in the laboratory of the chemist4 ,apart from the more or less conventional rendering of the human figure--and this is what we usually think of in connection with ,byzantine painting--we find two tendencies in the minor arts of the time2 one classical1 carrying on the old ,greco-,roman tradition1 the other ,oriental in motive and feeling4 ,for more than three hundred years the frontiers of the ,roman and ,sassanian empires were continually fluctuating1 and in this border region1 which included ,armenia1 ,georgia1 ,western ,persia1 and the upper waters of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates1 there were at this time many flourishing centres of industry4 ,it was probably in some of these lands1 rather than in ,constantinople itself1 that we may look for the home of the school of carving in rock crystal and in glass that we associate vaguely with the ,lower ,empire4#gb ,nor did the ,arab conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries make at once any great changes in the arts of these districts4 ,it was through these lands probably that so many ,oriental motives filtered through to the west1 not only to ,constantinople1 but to the north and west coasts of the ,black ,sea also1 and thence through ,poland and ,hungary to ,germany4 ,nowhere is this ,oriental influence better seen than in the vases of rock crystal and other hard stones preserved in the treasuries of our ,western churches1 nor can we separate these vases from the even rarer objects carved in glass4 ,the carving on the so-called ,hedwig glasses is1 as we shall see1 executed in an allied if somewhat degenerate style2 some of these glasses can be traced back to the borderlands of ,poland4 ,of the glass in use among the ,persians and the other subjects of the ,sassanian empire 7which lasted from the end of the third to the beginning of the seventh century7 we know practically nothing4 ,doubtless many examples of ,sassanian glass have been turned up during the gigantic explorations around ,nineveh1 ,babylon1 and ,susa1 but till quite lately little attention has been paid to objects of so comparatively late a date4 ,in the ,louvre are some fragments of glass lately brought from ,susa4 ,one piece calls for mention here4 ,this is a large fragment of thick clear glass which has formed the half of a shallow circular dish1 about fourteen inches in diameter4 ,there are some eight or nine shallow circular depressions cut out from the sides1 with a stud rising in counter-relief from the centre of each4 ,we are at once reminded of certain #8balance-pan' hanging lamps in the treasury at ,venice--in fact1 this fragment from ,susa must have formed part of a vessel almost identical with these4 ,but our one undoubted example of ,sassanian glass forms part of a bowl now in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,this famous vessel was long preserved in the treasury of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,denis2 as in the case of an enamelled cup preserved at ,chartres1 it was claimed for it that it had been a present from ,harun-ar-,rashid to ,charlemagne4 ,the body of this bowl consists of a framework of gold1 the openings of which are filled with rosettes of rock crystal and glass4 ,the central medallion of rock crystal is carved to represent a king seated on his throne2 for this reason the vessel was formerly known as the #8,cup of ,solomon4' ,the seated king has1 however1 now been identified as ,khosroes ,,ii4 7,kosrou ,parviz71 one of the last of the ,sassanian monarchs 7#eij-fbh74 ,the rosettes of glass and the lozenges between them are white1 emerald-green1 and purple1 and the colours are still brilliant4 ,m4 de ,longperier1 who first identified the subject of the central medallion1 has brought forward passages from early ,arab writers in which mention is made of glass drinking-cups in use in the court of the ,sassanian kings4 ,the question1 however1 of the origin of the enamelled glass of the ,saracens--one of the most burning ones in the history of glass--receives no light from this quarter4 ,nor is the problem much advanced if we turn to ,egypt to study the interesting middle period between the first introduction of ,christianity and the ,mohammedan conquest4 ,it is only quite lately that the exploration of ,coptic tombs has thrown some quite unexpected light on the culture of these long-neglected centuries4 ,not a little glass has been found1 chiefly in fragments1 and of these the date can only be inferred from the style of the decoration4 ,the use of thin opaque #8painted' enamels1 quite different from the brilliant jewel-like enamels of the ,saracens1 seems to have been much in vogue in ,egypt at this time4 ,what has been found is not very accessible so far1 nor has much been done in the way of classification4 ,a small collection1 derived chiefly1 ,i think1 from the excavations at ,achmin in ,upper ,egypt1 has lately been purchased by the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7from ,m4 ,richard74 ,the little bottles of various simple shapes call to mind those preserved in the treasuries of certain ,european churches 7see above1 p4 #ii74 ,one slim spindle-shaped vessel reminds one a little of the vase with ,greek inscription found in the ,south-,saxon cemetery near ,worthing 7p4 #ajg74 ,among the fragments is one delicately painted in thin enamels in ,egypto-,roman manner--we see a flying bird and the stalks and seed-vessels of the lotus2 others are decorated with entrelacs of ,byzantine character1 also in a thin opaque enamel2 but on the majority of these fragments the subject and the design are thoroughly ,saracenic4 ,some ribbed bowls 7in shape identical with those from the later ,celtic tombs of ,north ,italy7 have been added lately to the ,british ,museum collection2 they come from ,upper ,egypt2 the scroll-like decoration in a manganese brown enamel is of distinctly ,byzantine character4 ,though these ribbed bowls may possibly be of later date1 they at any rate carry on the tradition of pre-,arab times4 ,those who have visited the natron lakes of ,lower ,egypt 7three days' journey to the south-west of ,cairo71 declare that there is evidence that the brine and the saline deposits have been worked more or less continuously from ,roman times4 ,the natron is still extracted from the lakes by the fellahin in the dry season4 ,the impure sub-carbonate of soda forms a cake beneath the coating of common salt1 and lies also upon the ground around4 ,near the village of ,zakook fragments have been found that point to the existence of glass-works in former days--this is indeed probably the site of the town of ,nitria4 ,a ,french traveller of the eighteenth century speaks of seeing near here #8trois verreries abandonnes' 7,voyages en gypte par le ,sieur ,granger1 #agde74 ,indeed the ruins of three conical buildings are still to be seen2 the stones are fused on the edges1 and plentiful scori of common green glass lie around4 ,some of the enamelled lamps of ,saracenic style1 now so much prized by collectors1 may perhaps have come from monasteries in this neighbourhood4 ,there are besides these a few lamps 7as that from ,siti ,mariam1 reproduced in the late ,mr4 ,butler's ,coptic ,churches of ,egypt7 which are of quite a distinct character4 ,these lamps are set round with blue bosses and little plaques2 there is1 however1 no ground for attributing any great antiquity to such work4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,glass ,,from ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,and ,,frankish ,,tombs4 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,hedwig ,,glasses ,we must now turn to the ,germanic tribes of the north4 ,thanks to the late conversion of these tribes to ,christianity1 we have in the objects found in their graves a comparatively rich store of information1 up to as late a date as the sixth and seventh centuries4 ,a few rare specimens of glass of an essentially ,byzantine character have been found in these pagan cemeteries4 ,the most remarkable1 perhaps1 is the tall1 somewhat spindle-shaped vase discovered in #ahid in a ,south-,saxon cemetery at the foot of the ,south ,downs1 some five miles to the west of ,worthing4#gc ,the design which encircles the body of this vase has been engraved somewhat summarily with the wheel2 we see a hound pursuing two hares--formal fern-like fronds rise between4 ,the ,greek inscription round the top in large letters is similarly cut2 the expression may be regarded as equivalent to the ,latin ,utere feliciter--#8,may the draught do you good6' ,in this little vase we have perhaps the latest example of classical glass of sepulchral origin4 ,the glass of our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors must be considered in connection with that found in the graves of kindred tribes on the ,continent4 ,of these1 the most important are the ,frankish people who dwelt for some time before their conversion to ,christianity in the district between the ,rhine and the ,ardennes4 ,it is here1 more especially in the middle valley of the ,meuse1 about ,namur and ,lige1 that the most important finds have been made2 the more elaborate examples1 at any rate1 of this ,franko-,saxon#gd glass were possibly manufactured in this district4 ,now the importance for us of this glass from pagan cemeteries lies in the fact that in it we have the latest important and independent group of glass of which anything is known1 until we come to the ,saracenic enamelled ware of the thirteenth century4 ,in ,england1 indeed1 the gap extends to a much later period2 but in the case of ,western ,germany there is some reason to believe that the ,frankish fashions and traditions of glass-making were carried on without any break during the ,middle ,ages--that1 in fact1 in this early medival glass may be found a link between the glass of ,roman times and that in use in the ,rhine district up to the time when the influence of the ,renaissance first asserted itself4 ,in ,southern and ,western ,france1 on the other hand1 although the glass-workers may in places have carried on the old workings1 what they made was of no artistic importance4 ,we have in this case nothing equivalent to the outcome of the renewed interest taken in the material by the northern chieftains--the verre fougre was a product of the woods and heaths4 ,the ,oriental influence--the distinguishing feature in all the glass of which ,i have treated in the last chapter--is not so pronounced in the glass of the ,franko-,saxon peoples as in their jewellery and metal-work4 ,in these we find the mark of influences that had their source in the ,east at two if not three widely separated periods4 ,as for the earliest of these1 it is not only pre-,roman but probably pre-,hellenic3 its relations are rather with ,asiatic than classical lands4 ,the brooches and buckles inlaid with garnets1 and the quaint animal forms with which the metal designs are built up1 take us back perhaps to an earlier ,asiatic civilisation which is best represented in the ,persia of ,achmenid times4#ge ,the second of these periods of ,oriental influence is to be associated with the introduction of the ,christian religion4 ,again1 at a still later time some of the older ,oriental motives crept in in a modified form with the pagan ,danes and even with the ,normans4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv #a4 ,,beads ,,with ,,appliqu ,,decoration ,,greek ,,or ,,ph,,nician4 ,,about ,,sixth ,,century4 ,b4,c4 #b4 ,,chevron ,,beads1 ,,formed ,,from ,,solid ,,rods ,,probably ,,venetian #c1 #d #e4 ,,miscellaneous ,,beads1 ,,from ,,frankish ,,and ,,other ,,tombs ,,in ,,rhine ,,and ,,moselle ,,district ,,early ,,medi,,val ,as far as glass is concerned1 it is in the beads that we see most clearly the return to the older fashions4 ,of these ,franko-,saxon beads the ,british ,museum has a great store1 not only from ,english graves but from those of the ,franks and other ,germanic tribes on the ,continent4 ,now these beads differ entirely from those found in ,celtic and ,roman tombs4 ,of these last1 the dominant type--and we must confine ourselves to this--is of a turquoise or deep blue1 generally more or less transparent1 and they are often longitudinally ribbed4 ,in a collection of ,germanic beads1 on the other hand1 the prevailing colours are red and yellow1 of ochry tints2 they are almost invariably quite opaque1 and the patterns are mostly built up on the surface in a way that reminds us of the primitive glass of the ,eastern ,mediterranean 7,plate ,,xv4 #c74 ,a herring-bone pattern of fine lines is very characteristic1 and the delicacy of the designs on some of the beads from ,allemanic graves in ,switzerland and elsewhere rivals that of the highly finished work of the ,egyptians4 ,of this early ,germanic glass generally1 we may say that the greatest interest lies in the types that depart most from the ,roman glass which preceded it1 and on which it is of course as a whole founded4 ,in some cases the northern influence is only seen in a certain barbaric magnificence--as in the examples from ,germanic graves in ,italy1 lately added to the collection in the ,glass ,room at the ,british ,museum4 ,here we see for the first time the drinking-horn of the north2 this fine specimen1 trumpet-ended and fluted with long gadroons1 is of a deep blue glass wound round with white threads4 ,of similar origin is the rhyton1 of moulded glass of a rich amber colour1 which lies beside it4 ,it may be noted that this form too1 in spite of its classical associations1 was originally1 as the name implies1 derived from the horn of some animal4 ,it is not impossible that these vessels were made by local ,italian glass-workers to the order of the barbarians1 on the occasion of the burial of one of their leaders4 ,these are1 however1 only local accidental finds4 ,with the glass used by1 or at least buried with the bodies of1 our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors during the two centuries that followed their arrival in ,england1 we have a fairly intimate acquaintance2 as ,i have said1 it differs little from the contemporary or in some cases rather earlier ,frankish glass of the ,rhine1 ,moselle1 and ,meuse districts4 ,that glass was made in the south of ,britain in ,roman times there is every reason to believe1 and we look in ,kent for the most probable place for its manufacture1 somewhere1 perhaps1 not far from the estuary of the ,medway 7cf4 p4 #hf74 ,it is the ,kentish graves again that have yielded the largest quantity of ,anglo-,saxon glass1 as well as the greatest varieties of forms4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that specimens of what is the most remarkable and characteristic type of ,anglo-,saxon glass have been found in many other parts of the country4 ,i refer of course to the horns and conical cups decorated with long pendulous lobes or #8prunts4' ,these drinking-cups have been found1 apart from the ,kentish examples1 in ,durham1 ,gloucestershire1 ,hampshire1 ,cambridgeshire1 and in the upper ,thames valley4 ,individual prunts 7these #8thorned bosses' are more substantial than the thin surrounding glass7 have occasionally turned up in excavations in ,london and elsewhere4 ,abroad1 precisely similar vessels have been taken from ,frankish graves in the ,rhine provinces4 ,it is more remarkable that several cups so ornamented have been found in ,illyria1 in the ,narenta ,valley4 ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans traces these #8thorn-bossed beakers' to the graves of ,ostrogothic chiefs1 and thinks that their fragility may be taken as a proof of local manufacture 7,archologia1 vol4 xlviii4 pp4 #ge-hd74 ,on the other hand1 the high technical skill required in the blowing of such glasses has led most antiquaries to regard our ,english examples as of ,continental origin1 not improbably from the ,rhine or ,meuse country4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi ,,prunted ,,beaker1 ,,from ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,burial ,,mound ,,taplow ,mr4 ,hartshorne 7,old ,english ,glasses1 p4 #aai7 has attempted to reconstitute the steps by which these #8thorn-bossed beakers' were made4 ,he thinks that after the vessel had been blown from a #8gathering1' lumps of molten glass were applied one by one to the sides4 #8,the hot liquid metal acting upon the thin cooled sides of the object caused it to give way successively at the points of attachment under renewed pressure by blowing4 ,the concavities thus formed extended into the bodies of the prunts1 the projecting points of which1 being seized by the pucella1 were rapidly drawn forward to a tail and attached to the outside of the glass lower down1' ,this1 of course1 was before the vessel had been removed from the blowing-iron1 and ,mr4 ,hartshorne finds in this fact a reason for the prunts in this early glass always drooping downwards1 while the somewhat similar stachelnuppen1 or #8blobs1' on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century ,german glasses1 added as they were after the transference of the vessel to the pontil1 invariably point upwards4 #8,the whole of the pendant lobes1' continues ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 #8having been thus put on and quilled and ornamented1 as some examples show1 the pontil was attached to the base1 the blowing-iron wetted off the other end1 and the closed bulb being softened at the mouth of the pot1 presently became an open cup2 the mouth of the glass was now sheared1 widened1 and finished1 the stringing of the upper end of the vase usually forming part of the final operation4' ,the tall conical cup of olive-green glass in the ,british ,museum1 found a few years ago with so many fine specimens of ,anglo-,saxon metal-work and inlaid jewellery1 in a tumulus opened by ,mr4 ,grenfell1 at ,taplow on the ,thames1 may be taken as an example in which these processes may be followed 7,pl4 ,,xvi474 ,the quilling or toothing along the side of the prunts is very similar to that often seen at the point of attachment of the handle on ,roman vases4#gf ,now these prunted beakers are of interest for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 we cannot find any ,roman prototype for the long drooping tears of glass4 ,again1 the fact of the wide distribution of almost identical pieces would point to the necessity of throwing back the date of origin for some considerable time4 ,but at what point in their wanderings did these ,germanic tribes acquire this remarkable skill in the handling of glass8 ,the fact that these processes were known to the ,ostrogoths in the fifth or sixth century makes an ,oriental origin for this system of decoration not unlikely4 ,in any case1 this type of prunted surface seems to have had a special attraction for the ,germanic peoples1 for we can hardly doubt that from these old thorn-bossed beakers and horns1 by continuous tradition1 the stachelnuppen on the krautstrunk and the roemer of the sixteenth century were derived4 ,much more numerous in the ,anglo-,saxon tombs are--#ast1 the little bottles of simple form often stringed spirally round the neck 7or in other cases the stringing may be applied to form rude gadroons and other patterns on the body72 and #bnd1 the small wide-mouthed and footless cups1 often of bell-like section4 ,these were held in the palm of the hand while drinking1 as we may see in contemporary manuscripts and perhaps in the ,bayeux tapestry4#gg ,they are true tumblers in the original sense of the word1 in that they have no foot and will not stand upright4 ,a very similar form is common in ,merovingian graves4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii ,,drinking ,,cups ,,from ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,graves ,the tall1 conical1 trumpet-shaped cups are often carefully made and of considerable artistic merit 7,plate ,,xvii472 the sides are sometimes gadrooned and fluted1 and threadings of glass of various colours are applied to them4 ,on a fine specimen found in the cemetery of the ,south ,saxons near ,worthing1 the stringing has been #8dragged' to form graceful festoons or chevrons1 calling to mind the patterns on the primitive glass of the ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,the simpler forms--the little bottles and cups--may well have been made in some of our southern counties1 perhaps in the very glass-houses abandoned by the ,romans2 at any rate in ,kent1 the ,jutish graves from which so much of this glass has been derived are1 as ,i have said1 intimately associated with the earlier ,romano-,british cemeteries4 ,on the other hand1 for the north of ,england1 we have the distinct statement made by ,bede1 in his ,historia ,ecclesiastica1 that at the end of the seventh century the glass-workers who were brought over from ,gaul taught to the natives not only the making of glass for windows1 but also of glass #8for the lamps in use in the church1 and for vessels for other various and not ignoble uses4' ,so again a little later1 in the middle of the eighth century1 ,cuthbert of ,jarrow1 writing this time to the ,bishop of ,mainz1 says3 #8,if you have any man in your diocese who is skilful in the making of glass1 ,i pray you send him to me1 444 seeing that of that art we are ignorant and without resource4' ,that at this later period ,cuthbert should have had to send all the way to ,mainz is1 ,i think1 a point of some significance4 ,the ensuing centuries are the most barren in the whole history of glass4 ,we know that in ,france the glass-workers returned to the woods to manufacture in large quantities the verre fougre--common glass for domestic use1 which does not seem to have come into any close relation with the artistic movements of the time4 ,here before long all interest was centred in the manufacture of stained glass for the windows of the churches1 and this art became of supreme importance with the rapid development of the new architecture in the twelfth century4 ,whether we in ,england at so early a date manufactured glass to any extent on either of these lines is1 ,i am afraid1 still a disputed point4 ,it was in ,germany1 and especially in the intermediate tract that for a time existed as an independent kingdom--in ,lotharingia1 ,i mean--that the old traditions seem to have held their ground most firmly4 ,to ,germany from time to time during the ,middle ,ages came new waves of influence from the ,east1 by various and sometimes very circuitous paths1--in ,charlemagne's time by way of ,ravenna and ,rome1 more directly from ,constantinople in the tenth century1 when ,otto the ,great married his son to the grand-daughter of the ,greek ,emperor4 ,about the same time we hear of ,greek craftsmen at work in ,german monasteries1 as at ,reichenau on the lower ,lake of ,constance1 where1 by the way1 a great slab of bluish-green glass1 traditionally of ,byzantine origin1 is still preserved4#gh ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii ,,glass ,,cup1 ,,carved ,,in ,,high ,,relief ,,german ,,or ,,oriental4 ,,twelfth ,,or ,,thirteenth ,,century ,but it was probably by more remote paths1 through ,poland and other ,slavonic lands to the east1#gi that the designs on the only specimens of medival glass still existing in ,germany that show distinctly oriental motives#hj--;if indeed the glasses are not themselves ,oriental--found their way westward4 ,i refer to the rare carved goblets1 about which so much has been written in ,germany4 ,the glass of these little cylindrical cups--they vary in height from three to five inches--is of a yellowish-green or brownish tint1 at times indeed nearly colourless2 it contains many bubbles4 ,these so-called ,hedwig glasses are carved in high relief on the outside3 as many as nine examples have been described by ,von ,czihak 7,schlesische ,glser1 p4 #ahd seq471 but of these only two can in any way be brought into connection with ,st4 ,hedwig4#ha ,the carving upon these glasses is deeply cut1 but excessively rude4 ,they bear the mark of a large coarse wheel1 applied for the most part in two directions more or less at right angles to one another1 and little attempt has been made to round off the edges and angles4 ,we see in the decoration--figures of lions1 griffins or eagles1 as well as formal leaf-like patterns--motives that are essentially ,oriental2 indeed we are taken back rather to the ,persia of ,sassanian times than to ,constantinople4 ,what is above all noticeable is the extreme degeneracy of these motives2 on some examples1 as on the ,halberstadt glass1 the design has become a meaningless pattern4 ,this1 as in the case of other similar breakings up of design1#hb would point to the copying and recopying by a semi-barbarous people of a subject the original significance of which had been lost4 ,in any case1 we may see in these little beakers the last examples of a dying art4 ,some of them may be traced back1 on the ground of their mounting1 to the fourteenth1 perhaps to the thirteenth1 century1 but the glasses themselves may well be considerably older4 ,the important point to remember is that during the later ,middle ,ages the carving of glass was quite unknown in ,europe1 and that the art of employing the lapidary's wheel as a cutting instrument appears to have been lost4 ,indeed we do not meet with carved glass again in any form until the beginning of the seventeenth century1 and then the rapid development of the art by the ,lehmanns and the ,schwanharts at ,prague is acknowledged to have depended upon technical processes learned from ,italian carvers of rock crystal4 ,i will now enumerate the most characteristic of these carved glasses1 basing my description in part upon the careful account given by ,von ,czihak in his ,schlesische ,glser4 #a4 ,in the ,museum of ,silesian ,antiquities at ,breslau4 ,the design consists of a vase1 surmounted by a crescent and star2 on either side heraldic lions1 each surmounted by a small three-cornered shield1 beyond them a conventionalised tree2 the whole most rudely cut4 7,figured by ,von ,czihak47 #b4 ,in the treasury of the ,cathedral at ,cracow4 ,lions and shields as above1 and eagle #8displayed4' ,it is claimed for these two glasses that they were used by ,st4 ,hedwig4 #c4 ,in the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg4 ,two lions #8passant' in the same direction2 small shields as above and a griffin 7,plate ,,xviii474 #d4 ,in the ,rijks ,museum at ,amsterdam4 ,eagle #8displayed1' two lions and triangular shields4 ,this glass was formerly an heirloom in the ,nassau-,orange family4 ,on the base is engraved #8,alsz diesz glas war alt tausend ,jahr1 es ,pfalzgraff ,ludwig ,philipszen ,werehret war--#afdc4' 7,figured by ,hartshorne and by ,garnier47 ,the above four examples closely resemble one another2 in each case the design is relieved upon a scalloped back1 something like the linen-fold of late ,gothic wood-panelling4 #e4 ,in the ,cathedral treasury at ,minden4 ,the glass is of a pale honey tint4 ,the design is formed of a lion with a shield containing a triangle1 an eagle displayed and a #8tree of life1' somewhat similar to that on ,no4 #a4 ,the elements of the design are arranged stiffly with a wide field between4 7,figured by ,von ,czihak47 #f4 ,formerly in the ,cathedral at ,halberstadt1 now in ,berlin1 in private hands4 ,of greenish glass1 only three and a half inches in height4 ,design--two lions and triangular shield4 #g4 ,in the ,cathedral ,treasury at ,halberstadt4 ,the design on this little glass has degenerated into a meaningless juxtaposition of bosses1 bars1 and fretted bands4 7,figured by ,von ,czihak47 ,this appears to exhaust the list of these little carved glass beakers4 ,there is nothing in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's that can distinctly be classed with them2 on the other hand1 the #8voirre taille d'un esgle1 d'un griffon et d'une double couronne1' mentioned in the inventory of the possessions of ,charles the ,bold of ,burgundy1 may well have been a cup of this class 7,laborde1 ,les ,ducs de ,bourgogne1 ii4 ,no4 #bgec74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,medi,,val ,,treatises ,,on ,,glass ,in a general way1 it may be said of the ,oriental glass that penetrated into ,europe in the early ,middle ,ages1 that the type is given by carvings in rock crystal4 ,we can point to no example of sculptured glass that can be compared to the magnificent vases carved out of that mineral that we may see in the ,louvre or in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,i should be inclined to place the district where this branch of glyptic art flourished1 whether we consider works of rock crystal or of glass1 somewhere in what may be called ,upper ,western ,asia--in ,armenia1 ,georgia1 or ,western ,persia--and to refer many of the extant examples to a date rather before than after the ,arab conquest4 ,but all this1 of course1 is pure conjecture4 ,of quite another type was the glass made1 it would seem without interruption during all this period1 in various parts of ,syria4 ,the industry appears by this time to have passed in great measure into the hands of the ,jews4 ,benjamin of ,tudela in the twelfth century found ,jewish glass-makers at ,antioch and at ,tyre4 ,it was they1 apparently1 who carried on the old traditions in the manufacture of artificial pastes1 coloured to imitate precious stones4 ,the fusible glass containing lead of which such pastes were made had indeed been from an early date associated with the ,jews--#8,vitrum plumbeum1 ,judum scilicet1' says ,heraclius4 ,the demand for such work must have increased immensely with the prevailing fashion of incrusting reliquaries1 the covers of books1 and various personal ornaments with large coloured jewels1 real or false 7generally the latter71 cut en cabochon4 ,it is chiefly in connection with such work that there arose a curious literature1 if that term may be used for the barbarous treatises in question4 ,already in ,roman times we hear of writings that describe the manufacture of artificial gems3 ,pliny says that he purposely abstains from mentioning the names of these works--he would not help to spread so objectionable an industry4 ,but at that time and even later it was in ,egypt that treatises of the kind chiefly originated4 ,the mysteries of glass-making were there early associated with more dangerous arts4 ,it is mainly to writers on magic--white or even black--and to those on alchemy that we must turn to find the earliest examples of those strange recipes for the manufacture1 and especially the colouring1 of glass1 of which ,i shall have more to say later on4 ,this connection between the arts of the glass-maker and of the alchemist arose from many causes1 some of them obscure4 ,for example1 the vessels used in the experiments of the alchemists were from an early date made of glass4 ,again1 the strange changes of colour observed when glass was stained by copper or by gold were regarded as steps to the great discovery itself4 ,so that from the days of the ,ptolemies in ,egypt1 if not from an earlier date1 down to the time of the ,german alchemists and ,rosicrucians of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 we find along with the grotesque and cryptic formulas for the preparation of gold an almost continuous chain of recipes1 equally absurd for the most part1 for the colouring of glass4 ,in addition to this1 many of these treatises1 although professing to deal with the general problem of the transmutation of matter1 are in reality concerned with the more practical questions of making plausible imitations of gold1 silver1 and precious stones--they are1 in fact1 handbooks for the fraudulent goldsmith4 ,this is especially the case with the earliest example of the class that has come down to us1 the famous papyrus of ,leyden1 which alone has survived the destruction that the ,roman law again and again attempted to enforce in the case of all books of magic4 ,m4 ,berthelot1 whom ,i follow for these early writers1#hc calls this papyrus the working notes of an #8artisan faussaire et d'un magicien charlatan4' ,this little work1 found long ago at ,thebes1 is a ,greek manuscript of the third century2 it contains1 however1 little or nothing about glass1 and is of interest merely as an early specimen of this class of composition4 ,other ,greek treatises of a similar character1 which are either lost or survive only in extracts or translations1 are attributed to ,zosimus1 a writer of the third century1 who had a section on glass2 to ,synesius1 a ,cyrenaic bishop 7#djj ,a4,d471 married1 and half a pagan2 and to ,olympiodorus1 a priest of ,isis1 who in the sixth century kept up some of the ,hellenic traditions4 ,the late ,byzantine scholiasts drew up summaries of these treatises and of many others2 an important manuscript of this class at ,venice gives a list of fifty-two such works4 ,but these ,byzantine summaries are of little value to us2 all grip of fact is completely lost in the mystical jargon of the school4 ,of much greater interest are the many series of practical formulas written in ,latin1 beginning with the ,compositiones ad ,tingenda1 known to us from a manuscript of the eighth century4 ,here we find a section upon the colouring of artificial stones1 their gilding and polishing1 and upon the colouring of glass generally--how it is rendered milky by means of tin1 red by cinnabar 7871 by litharge 7871 and by a substance called calcocecaumenon1 the latter word doubtless a corruption of the ,greek equivalent of the s stum1 or burnt bronze1 the well-known medival source of an opaque red4 ,further on recipes are given for other colours to be applied as varnishes4 ,there is also a chapter on the making of glass and some summary account of glass-furnaces1 interesting solely as the earliest example of the many such descriptions that have come down to us4 ,in fact1 all these writers copied one from the other1 summarising or amplifying4 ,the same recipes1 more or less intelligently expressed1 turn up again and again3 we can trace them in ,theophilus1 and even in such comparatively modern writers as ,neri and ,kunckel4 ,a later treatise1 the ,mapp clavicula 7ninth or tenth century71 follows closely upon the ,compositiones4 ,as regards glass1 we find headings--for that is unfortunately all that remains of this section--on unbreakable glass1 on the soldering of glass1 on the art of tracing trees and fruits of all kinds upon a flask1 on an indelible manner of painting on glass1 and finally1 three sections on the fabrication of pearls4 ,i have already discussed one of the recipes of ,heraclius 7or ,eraclius7 when describing the cemetery glasses4 ,all that we know of this writer is that he was a monk1 and that he probably wrote in ,rome1 not later than the tenth century4 ,the twenty-one little sections that make up his two books are written in hexameters1 and treat of ,the ,colours and ,arts of the ,romans4 ,a third and much larger book in prose1 that is found in some manuscripts1 is of a considerably later date and of quite a different nature4#hd ,i will now briefly summarise what the true ,heraclius has to say about glass in his two metrical books4 ,in the third section we are told that earthenware may be glazed with a preparation of pounded ,roman glass1 mixed with water and gum and then carefully refired4 ,the fourth section--,de ,sculptur ,vitri--describes a method by which glass may be first softened by smearing it with a mixture of fat worms and vinegar1 sprinkled over with the blood of a fasting goat that had been fed with ivy2 the glass may then be cut with a hard stone called pirites4 ,this association of goat's blood and ivy occurs more than once in the old recipes2 for these strange ingredients there may have been originally a cryptic interpretation1 but we should perhaps rather take the pretended necessity of their employment as a sign that the art of cutting glass had been lost4 ,then in section v4 follows the account of the writer's attempt at imitating the gilt glass of the catacombs1 which ,i have already analysed 7p4 #ib74 ,the description of the manner of cutting 7secari7 the cristallum in section xii4 is more practical2 we are told of a plate of lead mounted on iron1 over which a certain hard powder is sprinkled4 ,but here1 too1 the virtue of goat's blood is not forgotten2 by its means the diamond may be made to yield to iron4 ,in section xiv4 a process is described by which ,roman glass may be melted and cast into moulds of chalk to form #8fair shining gems4' ,heraclius has been called an ignorant quack1 but he well represents the views of his time4 ,compared with him1 ,theophilus1 who wrote in the north of ,germany some hundred or two hundred years later1 seems almost a modern4 ,more important to us than any of these ,western sources of information before the time of ,theophilus1 are certain ,syriac manuscripts preserved in the ,british ,museum and at ,cambridge4 ,for our knowledge of the contents of these ,i am again indebted to ,m4 ,berthelot 7,la ,chimie au ,moyen ,age1 vol4 ii474 ,in the sixth and seventh centuries ,syria had taken a commanding position1 both commercially and artistically4 ,the trade between the west and the east1 when not interrupted by the wars between the ,greeks and the ,sassanians1 passed through ,antioch1 and after the ,arab conquest the seat of the ,caliphs was for a time at ,damascus1 a ,syrian town4 ,in the history of glass1 from the very earliest times down to the ,middle ,ages1 ,syria1 as represented by the coast towns at least1 has vied with ,egypt for the premier position2 the two countries have always been closely connected1 and at more than one time they were under the same ruler4 ,when we come to study the glorious ,saracenic glass of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 we shall find that ,syria has perhaps a better claim than ,egypt to be regarded as the original seat of the manufacture4 ,these ,syriac and ,arabo-,syriac manuscripts 7the later sections are chiefly in ,arabic7 form part of the material from which the ,arabs learned the arts of the ,greeks4 ,they claim for the most part to be translations from ,greek1 above all ,alexandrian ,greek1 writers1 from ,zosimus and especially from the pseudo-,democritus4 ,they deal with alchemy1 that is to say with #8applied chemistry' and the subsidiary arts4 ,there is1 perhaps1 more of local knowledge and practical experience in them than appears at first sight1 or than ,m4 ,berthelot seems to allow3 it was the fashion then to sail under the colours of the great men of old4 ,beside some scattered references to the subject in other places1 we find in the thirteenth section of the second part of the ,british ,museum manuscript a chapter devoted entirely to glass--it can hardly be earlier than the ninth century4 ,to make glass1 we are told1 add ten parts of alkali to ten of sand1 grill the mixture in an oven till it is #8clean as pure wool4' ,here we have the preliminary fritting described4 ,heat in a crucible till the substance can be drawn out like gum1 #8then make of it what you will--cups1 bottles1 boxes--as the ,lord may permit4' ,if the vessels thus made tend to split during the manufacture1 #8lay upon them a thread of melted glass4 ,shape the head and other parts1 then put back the vessels in the furnace to reheat1 and withdraw them gradually that is to say1 anneal the glass carefully as a final process4444 ,if you wish the glass to be white1 throw in some female magnesia i4e4 oxide of manganese1 see p4 #gg1 if blue1 add four mithgals of burnt antimony4' ,the method of #8cleansing' glass by means of manganese had doubtless been handed down from ,roman times1 and the #8burnt antimony' is probably to be interpreted as a roasted ore of cobalt4 ,for producing other colours1 mention is made of various substances1 but ,i am unable to give any reasonable interpretation of this part2 we hear of tin1 lead1 and borax--the preparation of a fusible enamel would seem to be implied4 ,finally1 we are told--#8,do what is to be done1 according to the will of the ,lord ,sabaoth6' ,there follows on this what is perhaps the earliest extant description of a glass furnace4 #8,the furnace of the glass-makers should have six compartments1 of which three are disposed in stories one above the other4444 ,the lower compartment should be deep1 in it is the fire2 that of the middle story has an opening in front of the central chambers--these last should be equal1 disposed on the sides and not in the centre 7871 so that the fire from below may rise towards the central region where the glass is and heat and melt the materials4 ,the upper compartment1 which is vaulted1 is arranged so as uniformly to roof over the middle story2 it is used to cool the vessels after their manufacture4'#he ,we have also the description of a smaller furnace1 which is perhaps that in which the more fusible glass for enamels and minor objects of verroterie was melted4 ,finally1 an oven with a floor of brick-earth is mentioned1 for fritting the sand and alkali4 ,in spite of much that is obscure in this description1 we can trace in it the general type of furnace which1 doubtless handed down from ,roman times1 has survived in places with few important changes to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix ,,medi,,val ,,glass ,,furnace ,,from ,,an ,,illuminated ,,manuscript ,,of ,,rabanus ,,maurus ,and here ,i may call attention to a contemporary drawing of a medival glass furnace--a source of information as unique as it is unexpected4 ,this is to be found in a manuscript of an encyclopdic work1 ,de ,originibus ,rerum1 compiled by ,rabanus ,maurus1 one of the earliest of the schoolmen4 ,rabanus lived in the ,benedictine monastery of ,fulda1 in the first half of the ninth century4 ,the manuscript in question1 which is attributed to the year #ajbc1 has been carefully reproduced by the monks of ,monte ,cassino where it is preserved4 ,the full-paged miniature is to be found in a chapter headed ,de ,vitro2 ,i can1 however1 discover nothing in the text that throws any light on our subject4 ,in the illustration we see to the left a nearly naked workman who holds a mass of some green material1 perhaps the frit2 another man is blowing through a tube what is probably meant for the unfinished cup2 to the left a chalice-like vessel1 perhaps the model1 is depicted4 ,notice1 too1 in the pediment of the roof 7probably to be regarded as the annealing oven7 a cup with a knob for stem1 and hemispherical foot4 ,cups of a similar form1 apparently in these cases of metal1 are found in other illustrations of the manuscript 7,plate ,,xix474 ,m4 ,berthelot has reproduced in his earlier work 7,la ,chimie des ,anciens7 several rough pen-sketches of the apparatus used by the medival alchemists1 taken from the ,st4 ,mark's manuscript mentioned above4 ,these drawings help us in a measure to understand the important place taken by glass vessels of various forms in the researches of these early experimental workers4 ,still more interesting are the illustrations in the ,syriac manuscript from which ,i have just quoted2 in these1 the modern chemist may recognise many familiar forms4 ,the glass vessels have chiefly reference to processes of distillation4 ,the most important is the alembic1 a form easily made2 the neck of a long pendulous paraison has only to be heated on one side near the base1 when it falls over of itself to assume the well-known shape4 ,we see also flasks1 standing in water or sand baths1 within which various substances are digesting2 in other cases the contents are volatilising into the turban-shaped aludels placed above them4#hf ,but in all this strange literature1 which1 starting from the banks of the ,nile in the first centuries of our era1 spread over the ,byzantine empire and was so eagerly absorbed by the first ,arab conquerors1 the interest in glass is only of a secondary nature1--the great question was the transmutation of matter and the consequent preparation of gold4 ,glass1 as ,i have said1 was of importance chiefly as a means to that end4 ,it was far otherwise with the writer whose work we must now examine4 ,theophilus1 the author of the ,schedula ,diversarum ,artium1 was1 it would seem1 a monk in the monastery of ,helmershausen1 not far from ,paderborn1 in the old ,saxon land4 ,the earliest manuscript of his work probably dates from the twelfth century2 it is preserved in the famous library at ,wolfenbttel4 ,the treatise itself may perhaps be referred to the end of the eleventh or to the beginning of the next century2 but in spite of this early date the style of the book is modern compared with the medival compilations we have lately been considering4 ,that the ,german monk ,rugerus1 or ,rogherus1 should have assumed the ,greek name ,theophilus is itself a significant fact4 ,he was1 it would seem1 a hard-working goldsmith and a #8skilled artificer' in many branches of the arts4 ,he drew his inspiration from the ,byzantine ,east on the one hand1 and on the other from the younger civilisation that was beginning to centre in the new kingdom that was growing up in and around the ,isle de ,france4 ,to these sources we must perhaps add the older ,cluniac tradition3 from ,tuscan artists also he had something to learn4#hg #8,theophilus1 an humble priest1 servant of the servants of ,god1 addresses his words to all who desire by the practical work of their hands and by the pleasing meditation of what is new1 to put aside and trample under foot all sloth of mind and wandering of spirit4444' ,in this book they will find #8all that ,greece possesses in the way of divers colours and mixtures1 all that ,tuscany knows of the working of enamels electrorum operositate or of niello nigellum1 all that ,arabia has to show of works ductile1 fusible1 or chased1 all the many vases and sculptured gems and ivory that ,italy adorns with gold1 all that ,france prizes in costly variety of windows1 all that in gold1 silver1 copper and iron or in subtle working of wood and stone is extolled by inventive sollers ,germany4' ,we are here in a healthy northern atmosphere1 far removed from the shuffling statements and ambiguous formulas of the oriental alchemists4#hh ,the second book of the ,schedula is concerned exclusively with glass1 but most of the thirty-one sections deal with the preparation of stained glass for windows4 ,in a curious passage to be found in the prologue of this book1 ,theophilus tells us that he has #8approached the atrium of the ,holy ,wisdom ,agi ,sophi and beheld the cellula adorned with every variety of divers colours1 showing the nature and use of each4'#hi ,the first chapter treats of the construction of the glass furnace1 and enters at once into practical details4 ,a ,german writer 7,a4 ,friedrich1 ,alt-,deutsche ,glser7 has illustrated the furnaces of ,theophilus by means of a diagram1 and attempts to show how they differ from those described by the pseudo-,heraclius4 ,all we can say is1 that while the furnace of the later writer consisted distinctly of three parts--the main furnace with the glass pots in the centre1 the fritting oven on one side1 and the annealing oven on the other--in the earlier type of ,theophilus there is no separate building for the fritting1 which1 it would seem1 was done on the roof of the main furnace4 ,in both cases the ovens form a compact group1 heated by one fire4 ,in the earlier furnace there were as many as eight pots1 with corresponding openings1 but these pots were probably much smaller than those of the thirteenth-century oven4 ,we must now turn to the materials from which1 according to ,theophilus1 the glass was prepared4 ,beechwood logs are dried and burned1 and the ashes are carefully collected so as to be free from earth4 ,two parts of these ashes are mixed with one part of clean sand4#ij ,the mixture is roasted on an upper hearth and stirred with an iron trowel1 so that it may not liquefy1 for the space of a night and day4 ,note here that the ashes of the beechwood are used directly without any previous lixiviation2 such ashes would contain1 besides some alumina1 more or less lime and silica1 and these substances would pass into the glass4 ,the glass pots are conical in form1 curved inwards round the mouth1 and they have a small lip4 ,they are filled with the frit in the evening1 and for the whole night a fire of dried logs is kept burning4 ,there follows what is probably our earliest account of the process by which the gathering on the blowing-iron is converted either into a sheet of glass or into a hollow glass vessel4 ,in the first case the fistula or blowing-iron is dipped into the molten metal and turned round so that a mass of glass gathers on it4 ,you blow gently through the tube1 beating the glass at times against a flat stone that stands by the furnace4#ia ,you heat again the end of the long vesicle of glass1 and with a piece of wood open out the aperture which now appears at the extremity to the full width of the glass tube4 ,we have here a somewhat primitive method of forming a cylindrical manchon4 ,the cylinder is now reheated in what is apparently a separate oven--the dilating oven2 it is slit lengthways and opened out with an iron forceps and a piece of wood4 ,when the glass has been smoothed out into sheets it is taken to the annealing oven1 where the sheets are ranged on end against the wall and gradually cooled4 ,it is somewhat of a surprise to find this #8cylinder process' for making a sheet of glass described by ,theophilus1 while not a word is said of the older process of #8flashing' or #8spinning4' ,there is some reason to believe that the knowledge of the former process was never lost in ,germany4 ,it was1 however1 only in the seventeenth or eighteenth century that the preparation of crown glass by means of cylinders came into general use in other parts of ,europe4 ,theophilus proceeds in the tenth section to describe how a vase of glass is prepared1 and we have here again our earliest description of the process by which the gathering on the blowing-iron is manipulated so as this time to become a hollow vessel4 ,in this case1 he tells us1 after blowing out your gathering of glass1 instead of making an opening at the further end as in the case of the preparation of cylinders1 you separate the bulb from the rod with a stick of moistened wood1 and make the rod adhere to the lower end of the glass4#ib ,after reheating the glass1 you now1 with a piece of wood1 widen and shape as you desire the opening where the tube was first attached4 ,the foot is then shaped and hollowed4 7,if this foot is to be regarded as a separate piece1 it is not quite clear how it is attached to the vessel47 ,the handles are fastened on by means of a string of glass taken from the pot with a slender rod of iron1 and by similar means the surface may finally be decorated with threadings of glass4 ,theophilus then describes how a simple flask with a long neck may be prepared by swinging the bulb over your head1 and then1 as it cools1 letting it hang down from the end of the tube2 the vessel is then separated by a piece of moist wood2 in this case no second rod is needed4 ,no mention is made of the use of shears for cutting the semi-molten glass2 they are replaced in a measure by shaping tools of wood4 ,in the twelfth section we are told of the remains of glass mosaics of various colours found in old pagan buildings1 and how from these little cubes enamels are made to be set in gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,in like manner it is by means of fragments of divers little vessels 7vascula7--sapphire1 purple1 or green--that the ,french colour the costly glass so admired in their windows4 ,this is a statement of no little interest4 ,section xiii4 treats of the manner in which the ,greeks decorate the glass cups made from #8sapphire stones' with gold and silver leaf1 covering the foil with a layer of very fusible colourless enamel4 ,the passage is obscure1 and ,i can only say in passing that ,i do not think that the process described can be identified with that adopted by the makers of the ,roman cemetery glass4 ,in the next section is described the ,greek method of decorating glass vessels with the same colours--green1 red1 and white--that are used in the cloisonn enamels 7electra74 ,with these colours laid on pretty thickly1 as well as with a preparation of gold1 ground in a mill1 they paint birds and beasts or little rosettes and knots in circles4#ic ,the ,greeks make also bowls of purple and light blue1 and flasks with longish necks1 twisting around them threads of white glass1 of which too the handles are made4 ,it may be inferred from these two sections that ,theophilus probably regarded all the artistically coloured and enamelled vessels of his time as of ,byzantine origin4 ,he knows nothing about the constituents of the fusible enamels4 ,the pseudo-,heraclius1 on the other hand1 has a chapter 7viii47 telling how glass is made from lead 7calcined previously to a powder7 and how such glass is coloured4 ,in another section the same writer refers to the #8plumbeum vitrum ,judum scilicet1' which is ground on a slab and used as an enamel to paint on glass4 ,most of the remaining sections of ,theophilus's second book are concerned with the preparation of coloured glass for windows1 but the last of all1 #8,on ,rings1'#id describes carefully a method of making articles of verroterie with a small furnace and little crucibles4 ,lead is here mentioned casually as a constituent of the glass1 and this1 ,i think1 is the only reference to this substance to be found in ,theophilus's chapter on glass4 ,here as elsewhere we may note that the word sapphirus is used as the equivalent of a blue glass paste 7coloured probably by cobalt71 and that it is referred to as a material that is at hand already prepared4 ,such cakes or slabs appear to have been an article of commerce from a period of remote antiquity4 ,something not unlike them has been found in ,babylonian excavations 7p4 #dj74 ,similar cakes of coloured glass are still exported to ,china from the ,bohemian glassworks4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,middle ,,ages ,,in ,,western ,,europe ,one of the chief glories of the later ,middle ,ages in ,western ,europe is undoubtedly to be found in the stained glass windows of the churches4 ,theophilus early in the twelfth century had already made himself master of this art1 which he regarded as essentially a ,french one4 ,the preparation of these vitraux involved a knowledge of the process either of spinning the molten paraison or of opening out the cylinder of glass1 both comparatively late developments of the art of glass-blowing4 ,in the staining of the glass we know from extant specimens what splendid results were obtained4 ,the composition of the window-glass of the thirteenth century is in some ways remarkable4 ,it contained as much as from #h to #aj per cent4 of alumina1 which we must regard as replacing in a measure the silica1 for this constituent falls to as low as #ef per cent41 and we can hardly otherwise account for the high percentage of the other bases--#ad per cent4 of lime1 #ag per cent4 of potash1 and often #c or #d per cent4 of iron4 ,the result was a tough1 somewhat horny glass1 hard to work in consequence of the short duration of the viscous stage during the cooling4 ,this was one reason for the smallness of the gatherings1 and the modest dimensions of the resultant discs4 ,on the other hand1 such glass resists the action of the atmosphere better than any made nowadays1 and the large amount of potash present probably promoted the brilliancy of the colours4 ,from the earliest times the blue colouring was given by cobalt1 and this was never of a richer and purer tint than in the twelfth century2 already in the thirteenth copper was added to correct a tendency to purple4 ,the famous ruby red1 which became rarer after the thirteenth century until in the seventeenth the secret was entirely lost1 was produced by the partial reduction of a small quantity of suboxide of copper1 but in this case the colour is only developed on reheating the glass4 ,the more purplish tint given by a somewhat similar treatment with gold was not known to the medival glass-maker4#ie ,manganese was of course the source of the purple--the colour was used for flesh-tints in the twelfth century6 ,the green was made by a mixture of the s ustum or copper scale with a native oxide of iron1 the latter often known as ferretto--of this the best came from ,spain4 ,finally1 the yellow was given either by the sesqui-oxide of iron kept well oxidised by the presence of bin-oxide of manganese1 or 7where the surroundings favoured a reducing action7 by a mixture of sulphur and some sooty material which probably yielded an alkaline sulphide4 ,but in the older glass the yellow colour was never very brilliant2 at a later time a fine yellow was obtained by a cementation process from silver1 which was applied as a chloride or a sulphide to the surface of the glass4 ,if ,i trespass beyond my limits to give this rapid summary of what is known of the colours of medival window-glass1 it is because much of it will be found applicable to the contemporary ,oriental enamelled ware and to the later ,venetian glass4 ,in view of the high technical skill thus shown in the colouring and working of the material1 nothing is more remarkable than the almost total absence from our collections of any glass1 using that word in the narrower sense1 that we can classify as ,gothic4 ,we know1 indeed1 that during these centuries much glass was made in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy4 ,but for one reason or another the material was not in favour for objects that had any claim to be regarded as works of art4 ,and yet during all this time the few rare specimens of sculptured glass brought from ,constantinople1 or of enamelled glass from ,egypt and ,damascus1 were highly prized1 and it might well be thought that the skill and knowledge to rival these examples were not wanting in the ,west4 ,such was not the case1 however2 the monasteries had ceased to be centres of practical art industry1#if and the glass-makers had retired from the towns to the depths of the forests1 where under the patronage of the local seigneur they built their glass-houses1 moving on from one spot to another as the fuel became scarce4 ,on the condition of delivering yearly to their feudal lord a specified number of vessels1 these glass masters appear to have been freed from further imposts1 and indeed they soon began to claim special privileges4 ,in ,france some of these grants or contracts have been preserved in local archives1 and in them we have a source of information lacking in other ,western countries4 ,perhaps the most significant of these patents is that granted in #acch to a certain ,guionet4 ,the ,dauphin of the ,viennois conceded to this matre de verrerie the right of taking wood when it suited him from parts of the forest of ,chamborant1 on condition that the said ,guionet should furnish him yearly1 for the use of the prince's household1 with the following pieces of glass3--#bdj beakers with feet1 known as hanaps2 #add amphor1 #dcb urinalia1 #add large basins1 #gb plates1 #gb plates without borders1 #add pots1 #add water vessels1 #fj gottefles1 #ab salt-cellars1 #bdj lamps1 #gb chandeliers1 #ab large cups1 #ab small barils1 #f large vessels for transporting wine1 and one nef4 ,this was certainly an ample yearly supply even for a princely household4 ,the practical1 not to say homely1 nature of most of the objects requisitioned is obvious4 ,the gottefle1 we should add1 has been thought to correspond with the later ,german gutraf2 it was in that case a vase with a long twisted neck1 sometimes double1 like a ,persian sprinkler2 it was perhaps used for oil4#ig ,the nef1 no doubt1 was an imitation in glass of the well-known centre-pieces of silver in the form of a ship4 ,the little baril is a form handed down from ,roman times4 ,in ,provence1 as early as the year #acaf1 we find mention in the inventory of the property of the ,countess ,mahaut ,d',artois of #8,grant plant de pots de voirre et de voirres d',aubigny et de ,provence et d'autres pas et de diverses couleurs et bocaux et bariz' 7,hartshorne1 p4 #hh74 ,we see by this how little ground there is for giving the credit of the introduction of the manufacture of glass into ,france to ,king ,ren4 ,we shall find1 however1 later on1 that this great patron of the arts was one of the earliest to take an interest in the ,venetian glass of the early renaissance1 and to bring the ,italian workmen into ,france4 ,the word verre1 or in the earlier form voirre or vouarre1 was used vaguely in ,france even in medival times for any cup from which wine was drunk4 ,this usage alone might be brought forward as a proof of the general prevalence of glass vessels at an early time4 ,modern ,french writers on glass cannot always escape the awkward expression #8un verre de verre4' ,in ,england1 where the use of the word glass in this sense probably came in somewhat later1 we find more than once in inventories of the fourteenth century the quaint combination1 #8un verre de glass4' ,in ,france1 however1 the more frequent expression was #8un verre de fougre1' literally #8a glass of bracken1' and we have here a double metonymy4 ,this association of bracken and glass may be frequently noticed in the old ,french writers4 ,long after the introduction of the cristallo from ,italy1 there were many in ,france who preferred to drink from the old greenish glass2 like the ,germans of to-day1 they declared that the wine tasted better4 ,even ,boileau1 late in the seventeenth century1 talks of a man holding #8un verre de vin qui rit dans la fougre4' ,we see then what an important place bracken1 feucheria ad faciendum vitrum1 played in the old glass-works of ,france4 ,now glass made from fern-ashes must of necessity be of a very inferior quality1 more so probably than that made from the beechwood ashes used from of old in ,germany4 ,the passage to the new methods would here be much more revolutionary than in the case of the latter country4 ,this consideration may help to explain the fact that while the manufacture of potash glass survived and adapted itself to the new methods in ,germany1 it became in time quite extinct in ,france4 ,the chronicles and romances of the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries have been carefully searched by ,french scholars to find references to glass4 ,some ambiguity arises from the vague use of the word verre1 to which ,i have already referred4 ,but when ,joinville tells us how the ,comte d',eu1 in a moment of expansion1 #8dressait sa bible le long de nostre table et nous brissoit nos pots et nos vouerres1' we can probably accept the latter vessels as verres de verre4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx ,,german ,,late ,,medi,,val ,,glass #a4 ,,prunted ,,cup ,,for ,,holding ,,relics #b4 ,,wax ,,cover ,,to ,,the ,,same1 ,,with ,,seal ,in the royal inventories of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 above all in those of ,charles ,v4 and of his brothers the ,dukes of ,anjou1 ,berry1 and ,burgundy1 where there is any mention of vessels of glass1 it is almost without exception of verre de ,damas or of verre la faon de ,damas that we hear4 ,quite an exception is the goblet de voirre blanc de ,flandre1 garny d'argent1 that we find in an inventory of the possessions of ,charles ,v41 taken in #acgi4 ,notwithstanding this1 it is evident that the ,french kings at this time took much interest in the manufacture of glass4 ,when hunting in the forests around ,paris1 they would turn aside to visit the furnace of one of these local makers of verre de fougre who already claimed the privileges of gentlemen4 ,thus early in the reign of ,charles ,,vi4 we find an entry of a payment #8pour don fait par lui aux voirriers1 prs de la forest de ,chevreuse1 o le roy estait alez veoir faire les voirres4' ,this was at the beginning of the fifteenth century2 later on1 as we shall see1 both ,king ,ren and ,louis ,,xi4 were patrons of the glass-makers2 and yet it is doubtful if we have in our collections any examples of ,french glass which can be attributed to as early a period as the reign even of the latter king4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi ,,german ,,late ,,medi,,val ,,glass #a4 ,,cup ,,with ,,prunts #b4 ,,cup ,,with ,,conical ,,cover1 ,,for ,,relics ,of glass made in ,germany before1 say1 the end of the fifteenth century1 we know even less than of the contemporary production in ,france4 ,theophilus1 it is true1 tells us of the manufacture of sheets of glass from cylindrical manchons1 and this was probably until the seventeenth century a specially ,german process2 he describes1 too1 the manufacture of blown glass of simple forms4 ,but from his time1 or at least from the time of the pseudo-,heraclius a little later1 to that of ,georg ,agricola in the sixteenth century1 when we find the glass industry taking an important place in many parts of ,germany1 there is little direct evidence on the subject to bring forward4#ih ,apart1 however1 from a few insignificant little bottles1 used as reliquaries 7,plates ,,xx4 and ,,xxi471 nothing survives from this time4 ,on the other hand1 when in the fifteenth century we come again upon evidences of contemporary glass in ,germany and ,holland1 as above all in the pictures of the early ,netherlandish and of the ,cologne schools1 we find a distinct form of goblet already established1 the prototype1 it would seem1 of a famous shape that was able to hold its own at the time of the invasion of ,italian glass in the sixteenth century4 ,there is nothing in ,france1 still less in ,england1 corresponding to the rmer and its various kindred forms4 ,in one application of glass the ,germans appear early to have acquired some skill4 ,we may perhaps regard the thirteenth century as the time when the use of glass for mirrors of any size first became general2 this may account for the frequent references to them in the literature of the time4 ,as far back as #abej1 the great ,dominican encyclopdist1 ,vincent de ,beauvais1 states that the best mirrors are made from glass and lead 7ex vitro et plumbo74 ,a spiegel-glas is mentioned by a ,german writer as early as the end of the twelfth century1 and by the end of the next century the mirror provided a frequent metaphor for the poets of the time4 ,thus ,dante1 in two passages in the ,divina ,commedia1 speaks of #8a leaded mirror4' ,in the ,paradiso 7ii4 #hi7 ,beatrice declares that the rays of the sun are reflected from the moon-- #8,come color torna per vetro ,lo qual diretro a s piombo nasconde'2 and in the twenty-third book of the ,inferno 7#be-bf7 ,virgil says to the poet1 #8,s'io fossi d'impiombato vetro--,i should not more quickly receive your image than now my mind receives your thoughts4' ,this double reference would seem to point to a recent discovery that had attracted ,dante's attention4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it would appear that although the ,german mirror-makers had to import the clear crystalline #8metal' from ,venice1 the ,venetians attempted in vain to make mirrors on the ,german system4 ,the difficulty1 perhaps1 was to prepare flat and even sheets of glass of any size1 and this difficulty the ,germans may have surmounted by means of the cylinder process described by ,theophilus4 ,the ,nuremberg mirrors1 however1 so famous at a later time1 were of a different type4 ,they were of spherical outline1 cut directly from the paraison of the glass-blower2 into this paraison a mixture of #8piombo1 stagno1 marchesita d'argento e tartaro' had been introduced before the vesicle was quite cool--so at least a contemporary ,italian writer asserts4 ,such mirrors were set in painted wooden frames with broad margins4 ,an example of one of these may perhaps be seen in ,jan van ,eyck's famous interior in the ,national ,gallery4 ,if now we turn to ,england1 the record is even more meagre4 ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 who has industriously brought together every reference he could find to glass#ii in this country during the ,middle ,ages1 is fain to confess that he cannot point to a single example of what is undoubtedly ,english glass made between the ,norman ,conquest and the time of our ,tudor kings4 ,references to its use in contemporary writers are much rarer than in ,france4 ,the cuppa vitrea1 which in #abdd ,henry ,,iii4 sent to his goldsmith1 ,edward of ,westminster1 directing him to remove the glass foot1 to replace it by one of silver1 and to mount the whole in silver-gilt1 was probably of ,oriental origin2 nor can we even claim for certain as ,english the two humbler vessels belonging at a later time to his son1 ,edward ,i4#ajj ,as to the three #8verrers' of ,colchester who paid taxes about the year #acjj1 the distinction between vitrier and verrier does not seem to have been as sharp then as it is now2 they may well have been makers of glass windows4 ,it is more significant to find in ,henry ,,iii4's day a ,laurence ,vitrearius holding land at ,chiddingfold in ,surrey1 still in the time of ,elizabeth a centre for the manufacture of the native glass made of fern-ash and sand4 ,again1 ,william le ,verir of the same place is mentioned in a deed of #acja4 ,but perhaps the strongest case is that of ,john ,glasewrythe of ,staffordshire1 who in #achj had a grant of house and land at ,shuerwode1 ,kirdford1#aja and there made #8brodeglass and vessel'--that is to say1 window-glass and hollow ware 7,nesbitt1 ,south ,kensington ,catalogue1 and ,hartshorne1 p4 #acb1 etc474 ,i reserve what ,i have to say of the medival glass of ,italy--of the early ,altarists and ,muranists--until ,i have described the enamelled ,saracenic glass which in some measure influenced it4 ,but before turning again to the ,east1 ,i must not omit to mention certain applications of glass that found favour in ,western ,europe during the later ,middle ,ages2 indeed1 apart from the coloured windows1 such objects constitute the only genre of glass that can distinctly be classed as ,gothic4 ,i group together here various devices by means of which a design or pattern was applied to the back of a small sheet of glass--in gold for the most part1 but other colours were sometimes used4 ,the plaque thus decorated was either fixed into a piece of furniture1 or simply backed with some impervious material4 ,in this somewhat indefinite group is included1 on the one hand1 what is in fact a kind of thin mosaic2 on the other1 something that passed into the variety of painted glass known in later times as verre glomis4 ,what distinguishes all this class of decoration is that neither the colour nor the backing is fixed by any furnace process--it is scarcely to be regarded as an art du feu1 and thus lies somewhat outside our subject4 ,of the so-called ,cosmati mosaics1 where the little triangular pieces of glass are inlaid in marble or wood1 we have a good example in the thirteenth-century shrine of the ,confessor in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,at the same period a more elaborate means of decoration was obtained by painting the backs of little plaques of glass with gold and colours1 and fixing them on the panels of pulpits1 on the frames of the painted reredos1 or even on secular furniture4 ,i have seen examples of church furniture thus decorated at ,aachen and in the ,norman churches of ,southern ,italy--a pulpit at ,bitonto in ,apulia is a remarkable example4 ,but we need not go far to find a still finer specimen of such work3 the ,gothic framework of the retabulum that formerly was placed in front of the high altar in ,westminster ,abbey#ajb is decorated with bosses of glass paste cut or cast en cabochon1 with casts of antique gems1 and1 above all1 with little plaques of blue and purple glass backed with silver foil4 ,on the upper surface of these glass plaques a design in gold1 consisting of small medallions with animals and twining branches1 stands out in low relief4 ,the pattern1 says ,viollet-,le ,duc 7,dictionnaire du ,mobilier franais1 i4 #cch71 was first painted on the glass with a mixture of red ochre1 wax and turpentine1 and over this1 before it was dry1 gold leaf was laid1 the gold adhering only to the soft ground4 ,the effect of this external decoration is heightened by the shadow which it throws upon the silver foil beneath4 ,in other examples1 the pattern is painted in various colours under the glass1 and a leaf of gold1 pasted beneath the more or less transparent pigments1 shows through here and there4 ,in all these instances the crude colour of the gold is lowered in places by coatings of varnish4 ,but plates of glass1 somewhat similarly decorated1 may play an even more important part in the decoration of the backs of altars1 especially on the spandrels in the lower arcades of the reredos4 ,the decoration now becomes pictorial1 and is often most carefully executed4 ,or1 again1 such a little glass picture may be detached and mounted in a frame to form a pax or baiser-de-paix1 a bijou reliquary1 or other small devotional object4 ,in such cases the gold is applied to the back of the glass by weak gum1 and the design traced with a pointed instrument somewhat in the manner of the catacomb glasses4 ,the effect may be heightened in various ways by additional touches of pigment on the draperies1 or by a glazing of colour for the flesh-tints2 the colours are worked up with a resinous body1 and silver foil in little plates and spangles is added in places2 finally1 over the back is laid a piece of tinfoil1 and this is folded over the edges 7,m4 ,alfred ,andr1 quoted by ,m4 ,molinier1 ,spitzer ,catalogue1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ed74 ,the back of the plate is generally found to be protected by a kind of pitchy varnish2 to fix this some application of heat was doubtless necessary1 but in no case1 ,i think1 is the gold design in this late medival work enclosed between pieces of glass which have been subsequently fused together4#ajc ,we are here concerned only with the ,gothic examples of this class of work1 and of these the majority appear to come from the north of ,italy--they are probably of ,milanese or ,venetian origin4 ,there is often in these early ,italian plaques a coloured backing under the gold1 generally of a bright red1 but sometimes of green or black1 and this backing shows through in places4 ,in the case of a very beautiful example formerly in the ,spitzer collection1 the design was drawn upon the central portion of a plate of flashed glass2 although this medallion is only #e-a_/b inches in diameter1 there is a distinct boss in the centre4 ,that such a defective piece should have been chosen for this delicate work would go to prove the rarity of sheets of glass with even surface at this time4 ,in later days more colour was used in the decoration1 but such work as the magnificent baiser-de-paix in the ,louvre1 which came from the chapel of the order of the ,st4 ,esprit1 does not fall within our present limit of time4 ,the late ,marquis ,emanuele ,d',azeglio devoted himself to collecting specimens of gilt and painted glass of all ages and countries4 ,this collection1 unique of its kind1 he bequeathed to his native town of ,turin1 where it is now exhibited in the ,museo ,civico4 ,in some of the earlier pieces1 especially on one of ,byzantine character--perhaps ,muranese work of the end of the thirteenth century--the gold is laid down upon glass of very irregular thickness4 ,there are a few examples of ,gothic work of this character in the ,british ,museum1 at ,south ,kensington1 and in the collection of ,mr4 ,salting4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,saracens ,i have here to deal with a singularly restricted family of glass--that made in the ,saracenic ,east during the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries4 ,this enamelled glass is important for more than one reason4 ,it is undoubtedly1 as a group1 the most magnificent and decorative that we meet with in the whole course of our history4 ,technically1 again1 the interest of the group is supreme1 for this application of solid enamels1 translucent or transparent1 to the surface of glass1 was a new departure1 and it preceded1 as far as we know1 the use of any material of the kind in the decoration of porcelain and fayence4 ,the ,romans and the ,byzantine ,greeks1 it is true1 decorated their glass at times with thin washes of opaque paints1 but we have no definite proof that they ever applied fusible lead enamels in this way4 ,there is every reason to believe that this method of decoration was not in any general use in the ,east before the thirteenth century4 ,but if we are still quite in the dark as to the origin of the art1 it may be some consolation to remember that barely thirty years ago the few rare pieces of ,saracenic glass that had reached us were classed as ,venetian4 ,it is only quite lately that this important ware has met with due recognition4 ,no doubt much of the sculptured and engraved glass1 that we have for convenience of arrangement dwelt upon in the last chapter1 is of ,saracenic origin2 ,i do not1 however1 remember any instance of an ,arabic inscription being found on such vessels1 but on the deeply carved vases of rock crystal that seem to have formed the models that these engraved glasses closely followed1 in more than one case tall cufic characters form part of the decoration4 ,i will only point to the magnificent crystal vase which bears the name of an early ,fatimi caliph 7#ige-iif ,a4,d471 preserved in the treasury of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,apart from that in daily use among the people1 we may1 however1 look upon the glass made during the first four or five centuries of ,arab domination as on the whole following in the wake of the carvings in hard stone1 above all in rock crystal1 then so much in vogue4 ,during the whole of this period the ,saracens had hardly developed any well characterised art of their own3 they followed in this1 as in so many other matters1 the traditions of the countries in which they dwelt4 ,at this period their art was at best but a mingling of ,byzantine and ,sassanian elements4 ,but before the end of the twelfth century a great change had come about1 and during the course of the next century there had arisen a definite style--one that has remained ever since the type of what we know as ,saracenic art4 ,it would be impossible to dissociate this change from that which took place in the ,west about the same time4 ,but the ,gothic art that sprung up in the land of the ,franks was but one phase of a continuous evolution1 while the wonderful outburst that had in the main its centre in ,cairo1 became either locally stereotyped or shared the decay and neglect that overtook other branches of ,mussulman civilisation4 ,so far as the art of glass is concerned1 we may note in the thirteenth century a strange contrast between the ,east and the ,west4 ,for while in both lands the material was applied essentially to supply a scheme of colour in decoration1 in the ,west its use was restricted to the stained glass in the windows of churches2 in the ,east the source of colour was obtained from translucent enamels applied to the surface of glass lamps and vases4 ,the ,saracens1 in the stained glass of their windows1 merely followed in the old ,byzantine lines2 the pierced framework of plaster1 filled in with fragments of coloured glass1 is but a development of the marble chassis of the ,romans and the later ,greeks4 ,in the ,west1 on the other hand1 the art of building up pictures by means of segments of glass was rapidly developed1 while the #8hollow ware1' the verrerie in daily use1 had1 as we have seen1 received little attention1 and it was reserved to the few precious pieces of enamelled glass brought from the ,holy ,land to find a place along with the plate and jewellery in the inventories of princes4 ,the fabulous wealth accumulated by the ,fatimi caliphs of ,egypt 7#ijh-aaga ,a4,d47 became proverbial in later days4 ,makrisi1 writing about the year #adjj1 quotes from an older writer the description of the treasure-house of the ,khalifah ,mustansir ,billah4 ,this building was sacked and burned with all its contents during a military riot between ,turkish and ,soudanese troops in #ajfb4 ,here among the vast accumulation of ,oriental wealth were1 it is stated1 many thousand vases of rock crystal and others of sardonyx4 ,we hear also at this time 7but not in the list of these treasures7 of glass mirrors in filigree frames1 and of vessels of glass ornamented with figures and foliage4 ,how the decoration in this last case was given we are not told1 but the reference is probably to carvings in relief3 at any rate it would1 ,i think1 be an anachronism to look for enamelled glass in this connection4 ,there is1 however1 one application of glass that we can definitely associate with these heretic caliphs1 but this is scarcely an artistic one4 ,the little coin-like discs of glass stamped with an inscription in ,arabic had their prototypes in ,roman times2 a few rare examples have been found with the heads of ,roman emperors and letterings in ,latin4 ,among the ,saracens these coin-like discs continued in use as late as the fifteenth century4 ,in all cases1 ,i think1 they come from ,egypt4 ,the glass discs of the ,fatimi period are1 however1 the most abundant and these are of special interest1 as they bear the name of the ruler1 while those of the later ,memlook times have only private inscriptions4 ,the glass varies from an amber tone to a dark bottle-green1 but many are quite opaque and of a purplish black4 ,as these little discs are of uniform weights1 corresponding to parts and multiples of the gold dinar and the silver dirhem1 they were at one time regarded as coins2 they are now1 however1 recognised as weights1 but essentially weights for weighing coins4 ,indeed a contemporary ,arab writer 7#ihe ,a4,d47 distinctly states that in his day in ,egypt they used money weights of glass2 and an ,arab traveller of the time mentions incidentally that such weights have this advantage1 that they cannot be readily increased or decreased4 ,the inscription occupies generally the whole surface1 but a few of them bear a rough design--a #8seal of ,solomon' or a rosette4 ,larger weights of glass are rare1 but some of a cylindrical form weighing more than a pound may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,in ,dr4 ,petrie's ,egyptian collection at ,university ,college is a large mass of black glass with a solid ring handle1 the whole some four inches in height4 ,this is probably a weight1 but its date is uncertain4 ,on the whole1 the art of the ,fatimi caliphs who had their capital at ,cairo 7,misr7 was still under ,byzantine influence4 ,the change of style that we have dwelt upon is rather to be associated with the ,kurdish and ,turkish ,emirs1 who1 ruling first in ,upper ,syria and ,mesopotamia1 finally overwhelmed the effeminate and heretic ,fatimi dynasty4 ,to find the country where the new style arose we must look not to ,egypt1 but to the tract of land lying along the frontier of the ,byzantine and ,sassanian empires1 from ,tabriz to the north1 by ,mosul to ,bagdad and ,bassorah4 ,the old ,persian and ,sassanian elements here doubtless prevailed over the ,byzantine tradition2 but the word ,persian must not be applied to the new art1 for the ,turkish element was perhaps as important as the ,iranian4 ,it was under the ,memlook sultans1 almost all of them ,turks by birth1 that the great mosques that gave to medival ,cairo its special cachet were erected4 ,as for the artists themselves1 though a few may have come from the ,persian borderland1 they were1 for the most part1 of the old stock of the land1 and many were doubtless ,christians4 ,in the towns of the ,syrian coast1 the change of mastership did not interfere with the work of the glass furnaces4 ,we have seen in the ,syriac manuscripts how fragments of ,arabic are interlarded with the old indigenous dialect in passages treating upon the manufacture of glass4 ,around ,hebron the manufacture of glass on primitive lines was carried on through the ,middle ,ages3 a ,german pilgrim of the fifteenth century speaks of the many furnaces in which the #8black glass' was melted3 the industry is indeed even now not extinct4 ,there is one form of early ,arab glass which we may perhaps associate with this centre4 ,certain long nail-shaped bottles1 square in section and pointed at the base1 have sometimes been classed with the old primitive glass of ,egypt and ,phnicia1 on the ground probably of the #8dragged' decoration of white on a black base found on some of them4 ,but ,franks was undoubtedly right in attributing these elongated flasks--they are sometimes of considerable size--to ,saracenic times4#ajd ,william of ,tyre says that the glass of his native town was exported to all countries1 and ,benjamin of ,tudela1 the ,spanish ,rabbi1 praises the beauty of the glass vases there made4 ,there were1 he tells us1 four hundred ,jewish glass-makers and shipowners in ,tyre1 and in other cities of the coast the glass industry was in the hands of the ,jews4 ,this was about the middle of the twelfth century4 ,the ,jews long before that time had1 it would seem1 a monopoly of glass made with lead4 ,it was to them1 then1 that the first enamellers must have gone for their materials4 ,an ,arab writer distinguishes among the exports from ,sour 7,tyre7 both objects of verroterie and glass vessels worked on the wheel4#aje ,of the glass-works of ,tripoli1 one of the last towns held by the ,franks1 ,i shall have something to say in a future chapter4 ,just as in the case of the glass found in ,egyptian and in early ,greek tombs1 so now with the enamelled glass of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 we are once more brought face to face with the question as to where it was made--in ,syria or in ,egypt4 ,syria was at this time again under rulers who had their capital in ,egypt2 there are indeed few important periods in ,egyptian history when this has not been the case4 ,alexandria1 it is true1 had fallen from its old position1#ajf but it is distinctly recorded that glass was made in the fourteenth century at ,mansourah1 the recently founded #8town of victory1' above ,damietta4 ,at many places in ,upper ,egypt1 especially at ,achmin1 fragments1 most of them1 but not all1 to be referred to ,saracenic times1 have been found4 ,but on the whole the evidence for a ,syrian origin for this enamelled ware is much stronger1--,i say the origin1 because it is just in the case of those rare pieces to which an early date can be ascribed that we can be certain of an ,asiatic provenance4 ,the enamelled glass of the ,saracens forms1 as ,i have said1 a compact group4 ,the specimens that we have of it are all1 or nearly all1 handsome pieces1 worthy1 apart from their archological interest1 of a conspicuous place in our museums or on the shelves of the most fastidious amateur4 ,their number is strictly limited--indeed ,herr ,schmoranz has drawn up a careful list which claims to contain every known example4#ajg ,thanks in great measure to the researches of this expert1 we are able now to make a rough general division of this glass into two classes3-- #ast4 ,vases1 goblets1 and basins of many forms1 brought for the most part from ,syria4 ,the bulk of the enamelled glass in this division appears to date from the thirteenth century4 ,several famous pieces have for centuries been preserved in the treasuries of ,western churches4 ,for these it is claimed that they have been brought back from the ,holy ,land by crusaders and pilgrims--filled1 some of them1 with earth taken from ,bethlehem or other holy spots4 #bnd4 ,lamps1 obtained almost without exception from mosques in ,cairo4 ,these lamps belong1 as a class1 to the fourteenth century4 ,only of recent years has much attention been given to them2 they were almost unknown to the older collectors4#ajh ,the supply appears1 however1 to be already exhausted4 ,the decoration on these lamps is on the whole more broadly treated1 with less detail and finish1 than that found on the vases and goblets of our first class4 ,the glass itself is in all cases remarkable for the number of minute bubbles contained in it2 in some of the lamps these bubbles are so numerous that the material is barely to be classed as transparent4 ,in colour the glass varies from a pronounced bottle-green to an amber tint2 it is more rarely of a greyish white4 ,the size of many of the lamps and bowls must have necessitated the use of large melting-pots as well as considerable skill in blowing and manipulation4 ,the irregular form so often to be observed in both lamps and vases is more likely to be the result of a partial collapse during the melting on of the enamels1 than of any defect in the original piece as it came from the glass-blower's hands4 ,in composition1 to judge from the analysis of a fragment of a ,cairene lamp made by ,dr4 ,linke of ,vienna 7,schmoranz1 p4 #db71 this ,saracenic glass is essentially a normal soda-lime silicate with #fi per cent4 of silica1 #aed per cent4 of alkali1 and #hf per cent4 of lime1 thus far resembling the ordinary ,roman type4 ,the specimen examined1 however1 contained in addition to the lime as much as #d per cent4 of magnesia4 ,as ,dr4 ,linke points out1 the presence of this last base would hinder the complete fluidity of the glass in the pots and make it difficult to get rid of the bubbles4 ,but whether the presence of this earth in a single specimen is in itself sufficient to prove the non-,egyptian origin of these lamps as a class is another question4 ,the fact that nearly one per cent4 of manganese was found in this glass is of interest1 as it shows that some attempt had been made to #8cleanse' the metal4 ,as regards the enamels on this ,saracenic glass1 we find that1 with one important exception1 they resemble generally in composition and character those employed at a later date by the ,chinese in the decoration of their porcelain#aji--we have a readily fusible flux containing much lead coloured by various metallic oxides4 ,the opaque red is given by oxide of iron1 the green by oxide of copper1 and the yellow by antimonic acid4 ,the presence of this last substance is of interest3 ,dr4 ,percy found antimony in the glaze of ,assyrian bricks1 and ,i have taken for granted that it is the source of the yellow in the primitive glass of ,egypt4 ,the opaque colours1 including the white1 are probably produced by the addition of a little oxide of tin to the flux2 ,dr4 ,linke1 however1 does not seem to have found that metal in his analysis4 ,it is when we come to the blue1 the dominant colour in this scheme of decoration1 that a surprise awaits us4 ,this colour1 we should almost have taken for granted1 would be derived from cobalt1 for it is now recognised that at this time the use of that substance in the painting of earthenware 7under the glaze7 was prevalent in ,western ,asia4 ,dr4 ,linke1 however1 declares #8that even the most subtle re-agents failed to discover any trace' of either cobalt or copper in the blue enamel4 ,for the grounds upon which he was able to attribute the origin of this fine blue to minute fragments of lapis lazuli1 only partially dissolved in the flux1 we must refer to the ,german chemist's report4 ,now as ultramarine1 the colouring matter of this mineral1 contains a considerable amount of sulphur1 some of it in an unoxidised state1 it could not be used in combination with a flux containing lead1 and indeed an analysis of the blue enamel proved it to be essentially of the same composition as the glass of the lamps2 it contained1 however1 as much as #bd per cent of alkali1 and this excess would ensure a slightly greater fusibility4 ,it will be observed that the thick blue enamel on this ,saracenic glass has considerable translucency as seen by transmitted light1 but that the surface is always dull4 ,in the ,british ,museum is an admirably executed imitation of one of these mosque lamps1 made as long ago as #ahfg by ,m4 ,brocard of ,paris4 ,the blue1 in this case cobalt1 differs little in hue from that on the old lamps that stand beside it4 ,it is1 however1 somewhat cruder in effect1 and the surface is quite glassy4#aaj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii ,,flask ,,of ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,probably ,,syrian ,,or ,,mesopotamian4 ,,about #acjj ,a4,d4 ,i come now to the scheme of decoration of this ,saracenic glass4 ,the important point to bear in mind is that the gold has for the most part disappeared from the surface4 ,this gilding1 however1 played originally a most important part in the decoration4 ,the fine lines of opaque red now so prominent were originally drawn with a free hand upon a detailed pattern of gold1 with the object of accentuating the design4 ,this gold brocading1 when it is preserved1 is of great beauty1 especially that found upon the older pieces4 ,examine carefully the tall-necked bottle in the ,slade collection3 the body is covered with a fine arabesque of red lines1 the pattern being made up of long-necked birds among foliage1 and this appears poor in effect compared with the bands of rich enamel on the shoulder and neck4 ,the effect1 however1 was very different at first when these dull red lines were carried over a rich ground of gold1 of which traces only now remain here and there4 ,the gold1 then1 was applied first--at an early stage in the development of this family of glass it was perhaps the only decoration2 the outline was then accentuated by means of red lines1 and the coloured enamels then laid on in thick masses4 ,we cannot say whether the colours were all melted on at one firing1 for we know nothing in this case of the practical arrangements of the muffle-stove4 ,on the exquisitely enamelled bottle from ,wrzburg in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,xxii471 perhaps technically the most superb specimen of this class of decoration that has come down to us1 the pinkish tint of the red and the manner in which it is gradated into the white1 call to mind the use of the rouge d'or on ,chinese porcelain of the eighteenth century2 the green also of the conventional foliage is here shaded into the opaque white4 ,the blue ground of the central medallion is of a brilliant turquoise1 quite unapproached in other examples2 the surface1 however1 of this blue enamel is in this case glassy and quite unlike the dead surface that we see on the mosque lamps4 ,are we to regard this opaque turquoise enamel as also based upon lapis lazuli1 or rather as a soda-copper silicate8 ,as to the motives of the enamelled decoration--if figure subjects are absent from the mosque lamps1 they are of frequent occurrence on the bottles and goblets3 there we have polo-players and falconers mounted on horses1 yellow1 pink1 and white2 seated figures drinking and feasting or playing on musical instruments--always the same jovial1 round-faced type2 in only one instance have ,i noticed an elderly man with a beard4 ,we sometimes find a frieze with dogs chasing stags and hares1 or it may be a row of conventional lions4 ,birds are still more frequent--flying geese1 as in the background of the hunting scenes1 or long-necked herons forming part of the ornamental design of the field4 ,certain quaint little fishes with big heads and long fins1 always of the same form1 are not uncommon on the vases and cups2 they are sometimes arranged herring-bone fashion2 in one case1 indeed1 these little fishes are found on a mosque lamp4 ,but the more conspicuous part of the decoration is formed by bands of tall cufic#aaa letters and by flowers1 more or less schematised4 ,apart from a fleur-de-lis1 which occurs chiefly in medallions1 the most important flower is the ,oriental lotus4 ,this flower as it appears relieved on a blue ground in the later mosque lamps is identical in drawing with the lotus that we see so frequently in ,indian and ,chinese art4 ,it is often combined with what at first sight appears to be another flower1 treated en rosette1 with an involucre of six oval and six triangular petals1 and an indication of a seed-vessel in the centre2 but this again may perhaps be only the same lotus-flower seen full-face4 ,in some cases1 as on certain mosque lamps1 these flowers1 broadly treated1 form the sole decoration2 but more often the floral design passes into the formal schematised patterns so characteristic of ,arab art at this time4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii ,,saracenic ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,thirteenth ,,century ,the medallions that interrupt the broad bands are an essential part of the decoration2 they are filled sometimes with inscriptions1 generally in this case in the nashki or running script1 or more often with certain badges1 which are of much interest in connection with the heraldry1 if it can be so called1 of the day4 ,these badges are derived from the most divergent sources3 there is one simple design that resembles the cartouche of an old ,egyptian king--it has even been read as #8,lord of the ,upper and ,lower ,country' 7a good example may be found on a bottle at ,south ,kensington74 ,another badge takes the form of a strange bird with long tail-feathers1 undoubtedly derived from the imperial phnix of ,china2 any hesitation as to the origin of this design is removed on observing in the field certain little curly clouds1 an essentially ,chinese motive4 ,a sword1 a pair of polo-sticks1 or still more often a cup1 charged upon a fesse or band which divides the medallion1 are badges of more local origin4 ,the same may probably be said of the eagle variously displayed1 which in one example1 in the ,british ,museum1 occurs exceptionally upon an ovoid shield4 ,in some cases the ,memlook sultans and emirs adopted #8canting badges' based upon their ,turki names2 as1 for example1 the well-known duck of the ,sultan ,kelaoun4 ,the identification1 however1 of the owner1 or the date of a vase or lamp from these badges alone1 is1 in the absence of an inscription1 a somewhat hazardous proceeding4 ,it is a curious fact that we have only two instances of a signature of an artist in all this series of enamelled glass4 ,on a lamp from the ,mannheim collection1 now1 ,i think1 belonging to ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 an inscription in running characters on the foot has been read3 #8,work of the poor slave ,ali1 son of ,mohammed ,ar ,ramaki 7871 ,god protect him' 7,schmoranz1 p4 #fg74 ,it is the same ,ali1 apparently1 who signs his name on another lamp described by ,artin ,pasha4 ,i should say at once that these mosque lamps are more properly of the nature of lanterns--the lamp itself was suspended inside them4 ,i do not know1 however1 of any example of these little internal lamps in our ,european collections1 unless it be one of gilt green glass now at ,south ,kensington 7,plate ,,xxiv4 #b74 ,this lamp1 however1 is somewhat large for the position assigned to it1 and it certainly resembles those sometimes found in ,coptic churches4 ,these large lamps or lanterns were suspended by chains from the roof or from the arcades of the mosque4 ,from the ,sultan ,hassan mosque alone have come twenty-one glass lamps1 now in the ,arab ,museum at ,cairo1 and there are others from the same source in our home collections4 ,the effect in the mosque when these lamps were all lighted must have rivalled the illumination of ,st4 ,sophia1 described by ,paul the ,silentiary 7p4 #ig74 ,we must not forget another essential part of the ,arab lamp3 this is the little sphere from which the smaller chains that pass to the handles of the lamp radiate4 ,in private houses--for the general arrangement is the same in them--this globe may be replaced by an ostrich egg4 ,in the mosques these spheres are of metal or of glass2 we have only two specimens of the latter material in ,european collections--one of amber-yellow glass in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,xxvii4 #b71 a second1 larger and ovoid in shape1 at ,south ,kensington4 ,there are three others1 one of blue glass1 in the ,arab ,museum at ,cairo4 ,a similar method of suspending the lamps was in use in ,byzantine churches1 and something of the sort may still be seen in ,st4 ,mark's4 ,in the pictures of the ,venetian painters of the later fifteenth century--of ,bellini1 and ,cima1 and ,carpaccio--the lamps1 of a strictly ,oriental or ,byzantine type1 that hang from the niches that form the background to their enthroned ,madonnas1 well illustrate this arrangement4#aab ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv ,,small ,,mosque ,,lamp ,,of ,,clear ,,white ,,glass ,,probably ,,syrian1 ,,fourteenth ,,century ,,oil ,,vessel1 ,,probably ,,for ,,suspension ,,in ,,enamelled ,,lamp ,,saracenic1 ,,fourteenth ,,century ,it may be said generally of the ,saracenic enamelled glass as of the unadorned glass of the ,byzantines that preceded it1 that the lamp in one shape or another is the master form--no longer the wine-cup1 as among the ,romans4 ,it would be an interesting study1 were the thing possible1 to trace the steps by which the later arrangement of an outer lantern of glass grew out of the simpler ,byzantine or ,sassanian prototype4 ,but it must be remembered that these gorgeous mosque lamps or lanterns are quite a specialised form2 they are only found1 as far as we know1 in ,egypt and ,syria1 and they belong essentially to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,the typical ,oriental glass lamp is of quite a different type--a little cup in the shape of a truncated cone1 from four to six inches in height4 ,this is a form that is generally in use in the ,east at the present day4 ,such a vessel constitutes the essential part both of the street lanterns 7the conical cup in this case passes through an aperture in the base7 and of the coronas of lights by which the larger rooms are illuminated4 ,in the latter case the cups pass through apertures in a ring or disc of wood or metal1 which is itself suspended1 often from an ostrich egg1 in the way already described4 ,the little vessels are filled halfway up with water1 upon which the oil floats2 the wick passes up through a tube which is fixed at the bottom in various ways4 ,i have before me a cup of this description brought from an old house in ,cairo2 it is of very thin1 tough1 greenish glass2 the #8kick' at the bottom is pushed deeply in and is open at the apex4 ,this opening has been sealed up with some hard pitchy substance1 into which the little glass tube 7of later date apparently7 that carries the wick has been fixed4 ,in another type of these cup or beaker lamps the base ends in a blunt point which is prolonged by one or more knops1 so as to resemble the stem of a wine-glass without the foot4#aac ,this is the form that1 as ,i have already mentioned1 is so often represented1 suspended from the roof in the altar-pieces of the ,venetian painters4 ,such lamps are generally elaborately mounted in metal4 ,but the other form1 the truncated cone 7the #8spear-butt' of ,paul the ,silentiary71 was in use in ,italy at an earlier date4 ,in the chapel of the ,arena at ,padua is a careful wall-painting of an elaborate compound corona or lantern built up with hoops of metal to resemble a large bird-cage4 ,the little lamps of plain glass fitted into this framework are of two shapes2 one resembles the truncated-cone cup just described1 while the other may be compared to a mosque lamp with the foot removed and the body prolonged to a point4 ,i do not know if this painting is contemporary with the famous frescoes of ,giotto that cover the adjacent walls1 but to judge from the ,gothic framework that surrounds it1 it cannot well be later than the fourteenth century4 ,this conical cup1 then1 was widely employed in the later ,middle ,ages for suspended lamps4 ,it had quite replaced the balance-pan form of lamp support of early ,byzantine days1 some specimens of which1 preserved in ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 we have already described3 such pans1 we should add1 probably supported little standing lamps1 more or less of the well-known classical form4 ,but both these and the conical cups may possibly at times have held candles1 an essentially ,oriental means of illumination4#aad ,we must now return to our enamelled glass1 and consider a remarkable series of little beakers very similar in size and outline to the lamps of truncated conical form that we have been dwelling upon4 ,many of these have now passed1 from the treasuries of churches and convents in which they had been long preserved1 into various local museums4 ,round more than one of them a legend has grown up--the very names by which they are known are picturesque and suggestive--,st4 ,hedwig's beaker1 the glass of ,charlemagne1 the goblet of the ,eight ,priests1 and nearer home the famous ,luck of ,eden ,hall4 ,such cups are to be found from the confines of ,poland to our own rude border country2 indeed1 the enamelled beakers of this simple form have1 for one reason or another1 been chiefly preserved in northern lands3 of late years1 however1 a few further examples have been brought from ,syria and ,egypt4 ,no doubt the general tradition that these cups have been carried back from the ,holy ,land by crusaders and pilgrims is well founded4 ,it is possible that some of them may1 like the carved glasses1 have travelled by northern routes rather than by the ,mediterranean4 ,we see1 it is true1 a beaker of somewhat similar form in the hands of the wine-bibbers1 in the illustrations to the manuscripts of contemporary poets1 and even pictured on our enamelled glasses themselves4#aae ,there is1 however1 one point to be noted in many of the beakers in our collections1 that makes it difficult to believe that they have ever been actually used as wine-cups4 ,i refer to the remarkable construction of the base4 ,this point had been overlooked by previous writers on the subject1 even by ,schmoranz in his great work4 ,it was first pointed out by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read in a paper read before the ,society of ,antiquaries 7,archologia1 vol4 lviii4 p4 #bag74 ,to use ,mr4 ,read's words in speaking of one of these vessels3 #8,the goblet is provided with a foot-rim that has been separately made and fixed on the base4 ,the bottom of the vessel has been pushed up inwards1 in the fashion to be found in a champagne bottle1 but it has a peculiar feature in that the actual centre1 the apex of the cone thus formed1 is reflected downwards1 apparently leaving a small hole through the bottom of the glass which is only closed by the fixing on of the added foot4 ,this feature appears to be common in these ,oriental goblets1 and as far as my experience goes1 is not found in any of ,european make4' ,such an arrangement would surely have one practical disadvantage if the cup had been used as a drinking-vessel--the liquid would lodge between the false bottom and the foot1 so that it would be almost impossible to clean out the cup1 and this is a point that would especially appeal to a ,mohammedan4 ,on the other hand1 this open #8kick' would be admirably adapted to the introduction of a wick#aaf if the vessel before the soldering on of the ring at the base had been used as a lamp4 ,i should myself be inclined to think that the little cups in question1 sold perhaps by ,jewish dealers at ,aleppo or at one of the ,syrian ports to wandering pilgrims before their return from the ,holy ,land1 were never intended for any practical use4 ,the peculiarity of the form may have been a result of the prevailing use to which such vessels were put in their own country1 or at least a survival of such a use4 ,i should add1 that for such a suggestion--it is nothing more--,i am alone responsible4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,saracens--continued ,i will now pass in review some of the more famous specimens of ,saracenic glass4 ,of the #8,goblet of the ,eight ,priests1' now in the museum at ,douai 7figured in ,gerspach1 p4 #ajg71 we have an earlier record than in other cases4 ,it was bequeathed by one ,marguerite ,mallet1 early in the fourteenth century1 along with other property1 for the endowment of that number of chantry priests4 ,the case of cuir bouilli in which the goblet is preserved is a remarkable specimen of the ,french art of that time4 ,the inscription on this cup is unfortunately now illegible4 ,for the #8,glass of ,charlemagne1' which has passed from the treasury of an abbey near ,chartres to the museum of that town1 it is claimed that it was presented by ,harun-ar-,rashid to the great ,emperor4 ,m4 ,schefer many years ago made this cup the starting-point of a special memoir1 in which he collected a mass of information from ,arab sources4 ,this essay may perhaps be regarded as the earliest example of any intelligent interest in this class of ,oriental glass4 ,the #8,luck of ,eden ,hall1' long preserved in the home of the ,musgrave family1 has acquired a certain factitious celebrity from a legend that has served as the theme of more than one ballad1 none1 however1 of any great antiquity4#aag ,like the ,douai cup1 it is preserved in a leathern case--in this instance not of earlier date than the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,the #8,luck' is figured in ,lysons's ,magna ,britannia1 vol4 iv4 ,these three goblets form a compact group4 ,in all of them the decoration is simple1 consisting chiefly of interlaced bands or straps forming geometrical patterns4 ,there are no figures of men or animals1 and the colouring is for the most part confined to blue and gold4 ,we may1 perhaps1 attribute these glasses to the beginning rather than the end of the thirteenth century4 ,probably of as early a date is the goblet preserved at ,breslau 7there is a photograph of it in ,von ,czihak's ,schlesische ,glser74 ,here there is no ornament apart from some fine arabesques of gold4 ,this cup has long been associated with ,st4 ,hedwig1 but it must not be confused with other so-called #8,hedwig glasses1' which1 as we have seen1 are carved in the manner of rock crystal4 ,i now come to a more elaborately enamelled group1 in the decoration of which the human figure plays an important part4 ,in the ,grne ,gewlbe at ,dresden are two beakers or hanaps of this class1 set in rich silver-gilt mountings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,round one of these cylindrical beakers runs a spirited frieze1 with polo-players1 mounted on brown1 white1 and yellow horses2 above is a cufic inscription in gold on a blue ground 7,plate ,,xxv474 ,on the other beaker1 probably the earlier of the two1 we see a group of brilliantly clad turbaned figures seated by a flowing stream--the water is navely rendered by a meandering line of blue enamel2 the background is formed by a flight of aquatic birds4 ,on both these glasses1 beside the usual gamut of colours--gold1 blue1 red1 green1 yellow1 and opaque white--we find some mixed brownish tints4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv ,,saracenic ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,circa #acjj4 ,,german ,,metal ,,mounting ,,of ,,sixteenth ,,century ,somewhat taller than these ,dresden hanaps is the beaker at ,wilhelmshhe 7it is some nine inches in height74 ,the decoration--an al fresco wine-party with musicians--calls to mind one of the groups of figures on the ,wrzburg flask4 ,somewhat similar is the beaker preserved in the picture gallery at ,cassel1 but the enamels on this are distinctly poorer4 ,a beautiful beaker of this class came to the ,british ,museum with the ,waddesdon collection4 ,it stands upon a ,french-,gothic mounting of the fourteenth century4 ,we see a prince seated on his throne1 with attendants on either side4 ,the glass is colourless and clear1 and among the enamels a palish green1 applied as a thin wash1 should be noted4#aah ,since then another goblet of this class has been acquired by the ,british ,museum4 ,this cup is said to have been dug up in the neighbourhood of ,aleppo4 ,the glass is much decayed1 in this forming an exception to the other goblets of the class4 ,the design includes two conventional palm-trees1 whose trunks are built up of a series of nodes4#aai ,on a goblet from ,coptos1 in the same collection1 a number of little fish in grisaille or dull red constitute the sole decoration4 ,there is a fragment of glass similarly decorated at ,south ,kensington1 which came1 ,i think1 from ,achmin4 ,we find the same little fishes again on a cup of glass1 described as a godet l'huile1 lately added to the ,louvre collection4 ,these examples practically exhaust the list of the lamp-shaped goblets of undoubted ,oriental origin4 ,but it would be impossible at this point to pass over the absolutely unique cup from the ,adrian ,hope collection1 decorated with a seated figure of the ,virgin4 ,this goblet is now in the ,british ,museum1 and it is there described as ,venetian of the thirteenth century 7,plate ,i474 ,the glass1 somewhat thick and slightly greenish in hue1 with a few drawn bubbles1 in no way differs from that of the beakers already described4#abj ,so of the shape and of the quality and colours of the enamel4 ,the slight #8kick1' however1 at the base is normal3 that is to say1 there is no aperture 7see above1 p4 #aei72 the cup1 therefore1 needs no rim or stand4 ,as regards the decoration1 we find1 in addition to the usual colours1 an inscription in ,gothic lettering1 now quite black1 but originally executed in silver4 ,i shall return to this cup in the next chapter4 ,i mention it here as ,i am inclined to find for it an ,oriental provenance4 ,i have dwelt at perhaps disproportionate length on this special type of goblet4 ,we have here1 however1 a group from a historical point of view1 of exceptional interest4 ,a small damaged goblet of cylindrical shape at ,south ,kensington forms a transition to the group of larger beakers4 ,it bears a series of medallions of blue enamel containing a curious design--a bird of prey seizing a duck4 ,the cylindrical goblets with projecting collars do not present any special point for remark4 ,there is some reason for regarding the quaint little flasks1 with narrow swelling necks1 as an early type4 ,there are two of this class at ,south ,kensington2 in both cases the glass is much decomposed4 ,better preserved is the little bottle with the red eagle figured in ,schmoranz 7,plate vii472 the evidence1 however1 for the early date 7#abag7 given to it is not quite conclusive4 ,it is not known at what time the large pilgrim's bottle in the ,domschatz of ,st4 ,stephan at ,vienna was brought from the ,holy ,land 7,schmoranz1 ,plate iv474 ,much of the surface is left undecorated1 and the glass is whitened by the chalky earth with which it is still filled4 ,this earth is reputed to have come from ,bethlehem1 and to be stained with the blood of the ,holy ,innocents4 ,the main design of musicians1 seated beneath a conventional tree beside a stream 7represented by a blue meander71 calls to mind the decoration of one of the ,dresden beakers4 ,near in style to this flask is the quaintly shaped pilgrim's bottle in the ,british ,museum1 that was long in the possession of a noble family at ,wrzburg4 ,i have already spoken of the superlative quality of the enamel on this remarkable example of ,saracenic glass4 ,in the cathedral at ,vienna is another enamelled vase 7,schmoranz1 ,plate xiii474 ,this graceful amphora-shaped vessel follows exactly on the lines of the water jars of earthenware still in use on the coasts of the ,mediterranean4 ,the blood-stained earth that it once contained is gone1 but the seal of attestation remains--strong evidence that the bottle was purchased at ,bethlehem by the ,german pilgrim who brought it home4 ,the blue is of a poor greyish tint1 and the enamels on the whole low in tone1 but the interlaced geometrical design is not the less decorative4 ,the little jug 7,schmoranz1 ,pl4 xxx47 now in the hands of one of the ,rothschild family in ,paris1 was purchased at the ,hamilton sale for #bgcj2 in the catalogue it was described as a specimen of ,venetian glass6 ,the enamels are brilliant and well preserved--polo-players1 mounted on horses of various colours1 surround the body4 ,a curious feature is a collar of wood round the base of the neck1 kept in place by a series of claw-shaped projections4 ,the larger bottles with tall necks form a class by themselves2 they are often remarkable for the delicacy of the decoration4 ,on the neck of a tall and richly enamelled example in the museum at ,vienna 7,schmoranz1 ,pls4 vi4 and vii47 we find a distinctly ,chinese motive3--in addition to the well-known phnix may be seen a curious development of the cloud pattern1 in the shape of four many-coloured bars4 ,there is a fine example of these long-necked bottles at ,south ,kensington and another in the ,british ,museum4 ,the first is remarkable in combining on the same piece motives from many sources--the ,chinese phnix1 the so-called ,egyptian hieroglyph1 together with birds and animals in many styles 7,plate ,,xxiii474 ,the bowls and dishes form a more miscellaneous group4 ,these we may regard as essentially #8table ware4' ,in ,persian manuscripts--in the illustrations to ,hariri's tales1 for instance--we see such vessels piled up with fruits and cakes4 ,the shallow plate belonging to ,lord ,rothschild is perhaps the oldest example of this class in our collections4 ,the medallions1 skilfully filled with groups of lions attacking deer and with other similar subjects1 are distinctly ,byzantine1 or some would say ,sassanian1 in character4 ,an interest of another kind may be found in a pair of dishes1 one bowl-shaped1 the other in the form of a tazza mounted on a tall foot1 which have long stood side by side in the ,cluny ,museum at ,paris4 ,these are undoubtedly specimens of enamelled ,saracenic glass1 both probably dating from the fourteenth century1 the bowl1 however1 somewhat earlier than the tazza4 ,this latter vessel is decorated with a gold arabesque combined with the thick translucent blue enamel and the red lines so characteristic of ,saracenic glass4 ,a label1 however1 still proclaims this tazza to be #8,style ,arabo-,venitien1 ,,xvme sicle4' ,on the other hand1 no less an authority than ,labarte 7,histoire des ,arts ,industriels1 iv4 p4 #edf71 it is true as long ago as #ahfd1 found in this tazza an example of one of the processes of enamelling described by ,theophilus1 and on this ground deliberately declared it to be a ,byzantine work4 ,on the basis of a vague inscription found on the companion piece--the deep bowl--a whole theory of the ,egyptian or ,byzantine-,egyptian origin of this enamelled glass has been built up by a ,german writer 7,carl ,friedrich1 ,die ,alt-,deutschen ,glser74 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a large deep bowl with a gigantic cufic inscription in blue1 overlaid with scrolls of white enamel4 ,the coarsely executed but effective decoration calls to mind that on some of the ,cairene mosque lamps4 ,this bowl is known to have come from ,damietta1 and it may perhaps supply an argument for those who find the origin of some of the enamelled glass in the neighbouring town of ,mansourah1 where glass-works are known to have existed 7,lane-,poole1 ,arab ,art1 p4 #bji74 ,we have finally a class of high-footed bowls with lids2 of these1 unfortunately1 no undamaged example is known2 the nearest approach is perhaps the bowl with a perfect lid but defective foot in the ,british ,museum4 ,the decoration in this case is of great interest4 ,the medallions in the field1 with fleurs-de-lis1 ,chinese phnixes1 and quaint monster-sphinxes and griffins1 should be especially noted4 ,,mosque ,,lamps ,i now come to the ,mosque ,lamps1 and here a more numerous family has to be dealt with4 ,in those instances where the lamps can be traced back to well-known buildings in ,cairo1 or again when they bear the names of ,memlook sultans or of great officers of their court1 a date can generally be assigned without much hesitation4 ,a small lamp in the ,arab ,museum at ,cairo1 decorated with red lines--apart from this there are only a few jewel-like spots of enamel--bears a dedication which may be referred to either the beginning or the end of the thirteenth century2 in either case this lamp is probably the earliest known to us 7,schmoranz1 ,pl4 ,,xv474 ,next in order come those bearing the name of the ,sultan ,malek ,nasir 7the successor of ,kalaoun71 whose long reign extended 7with some interruptions7 from #abic to #acda4 ,on these lamps the polychrome decoration is already fully developed3 along with them must be placed those bearing the name of several of this sultan's emirs4 ,to the reign of the ,sultan ,baybars ,,ii4 7#acji-acaj7aba probably belongs the beautiful lamp of deep cobalt blue glass that ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan obtained from the ,mannheim collection4 ,there is only one other example1 as far as ,i know1 of enamelling on a dark blue ground1--a lamp of nearly the same date formerly belonging to ,m4 ,goupil4#abb ,the only specimen apparently in our ,english collections of a lamp of so early a date is the beautifully enamelled example at ,south ,kensington 7,myers bequest71 the inscription on which probably refers to the same ,baybars4 ,by far the greater number of these lamps date from the latter half of the fourteenth century4 ,we have seen that the famous mosque built by ,sultan ,hassan 7#acdg-fa7 has provided numerous examples to our collections4 ,in these we already find less delicacy and detail in the decoration1 but the broad and effective treatment is well suited to the position in which these lamps were placed1 suspended as they were from the arcades of spacious mosques4 ,the period of decline that set in after this time is usually associated with the advance of ,timur 7,tamerlane74 ,when in the year #adjj ,damascus was taken by that ruthless conqueror1 we are told that he transplanted to his new capital of ,samarkand whole regiments of skilled ,syrian artisans1 and among these the glass-workers are definitely mentioned4 ,others of these men may have fled to ,egypt2 in any case the art lingered on in that country for another hundred years4 ,according to ,schmoranz1 the latest known example of this school of ,oriental enamelled glass is a lamp from the mosque of ,kat ,bey 7#adfg-adie71 now in the ,arab ,museum at ,cairo4 ,in this specimen we see the art in the lowest stage of decay4#abc ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi ,,mosque ,,lamp ,,from ,,cairo ,,fourteenth ,,century ,the rise and fall of this great school of enamellers on glass covers but a brief period--a glorious interlude in the long story of the glass-workers of ,egypt and ,syria4 ,in the latter country after this time1 they appear in a measure to have fallen back upon the older and more primitive methods1 handed down1 perhaps1 from the days of ,phnician and ,egyptian domination4 ,i have already spoken more than once of the still existing glass-works near ,hebron on the high plateau to the west of the ,dead ,sea4 ,there remain1 however1 to be mentioned one or two mosque lamps which depart from the normal type4 ,in the lamp 7now at ,south ,kensington71 apparently of green jade-like glass1 which was brought with so many others from ,cairo by the late ,captain ,myers1 the effect is obtained by a wash of green translucent enamel over the whole of the inner surface4 ,the outside is covered with an effective but somewhat summary decoration in gold and red lines1 without further enamelling4 ,the ,sultan named in the laudatory inscription may be either ,sultan ,hassan or his father ,nasir4 ,another exceptional lamp now in the museum at ,cairo is well illustrated in ,schmoranz's great work 7,pl4 xi474 ,this is a smallish lamp of green cloudy glass2 the whole of the body and neck1 except a plain band at the top1 is worked into shallow1 wavy ribs4 ,it bears no enamel1 but on the surface there are traces of the gilding that formerly covered it3 this lamp came from a mosque built in #acfc4 ,at ,south ,kensington are two small lamps of colourless glass of somewhat abnormal form without decoration of any kind4 ,i must finally mention the charming little lamp from the ,myers collection 7now at ,south ,kensington7 which1 it is stated1 was found in a ,christian monastery in ,syria 7,plate ,,xxxiv4 #a74 ,the thin clear glass1 with pearly patina1 the graceful1 vase-like form1 and1 above all1 the sparingly applied but quite exceptional decoration1 in which the human figure finds a place1 distinguish this lamp from the ordinary ,cairene type4 ,in this case the treatment of the figures1 which1 as ,i have said1 are never found on true mosque lamps1 closely resembles that on the inlaid metal-ware made at ,mosul in the thirteenth century4#abd ,and this carries us back to the question of the origin of this enamelled glass1 and we are brought face to face with quite a number of interesting problems which can only be indicated here4 ,that the application of enamels to glass by the ,saracens was prior to the use of similar materials on porcelain by the ,chinese1 ,i have already mentioned4 ,it is1 indeed1 not impossible that this method of decoration may have been suggested to the ,chinese potters by specimens of the ,saracenic glass which1 as we now know1 found their way to ,china at an early date4 ,the use of enamels of very similar constitution on metals had1 however1 been known in certain parts of ,europe since the first century of our era if not earlier1 and the cloisonn enamels of the ,byzantines had long been famous4 ,in this connection1 too1 we must not forget the vitrum plumbeum with which the ,syrian ,jews manufactured artificial gems4 ,it is to materials of this kind1 true lead-fluxed enamels1 that we must look for the origin of the decoration on ,saracenic glass1 rather than to the paint-like colours occasionally used by the ,romans and ,byzantines4 ,we may safely associate the apparently sudden appearance of this richly decorated enamelled glass with the change that came over the other arts of the ,saracens about this time1 and ,dr4 ,lane-,poole is probably right in connecting this change with the rise of the ,kurdish and ,tartar families who played so important a part in the history of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 7,art of the ,saracens1 p4 #abg seq474 ,nur-ed-din1 who ruled at ,damascus and ,aleppo in the twelfth century1 came from the stock of the ,beni ,zenky1 who adorned their coinage with figure subjects taken from both ,byzantine and ,persian sources4 ,his successor1 the great ,saladin1 came of the ,ayubi stock that had ruled in ,mesopotamia4 ,both families brought with them the traditions of ,sassanian art and a complete freedom from the religious scruples of the earlier ,semitic rulers4 ,a little later the great ,monghol invasion of ,genghis ,khan1 who founded a new dynasty in ,persia1 opened the way to other influences1 this time from the ,far ,east4 ,during all this period1 the civilisation of the ,frankish ,west was fighting its way into ,palestine and ,northern ,syria4 ,it would be difficult to find a parallel case in history--a case1 ,i mean1 of as many exotic influences as were now brought to bear upon ,syria and ,egypt1 at work at the same time and in the same country4 ,in both lands one result was an outburst of artistic splendour4 ,this1 in the first country1 came to a premature end with ,timur's devastating campaign4 ,in ,egypt this glorious period lasted somewhat longer2 but already in the fifteenth century the ,memlook sultans had returned to the stricter rule of the faith1 and by the next century1 when after a period of turmoil ,egypt fell under ,turkish rule1 the short-lived art of enamelling on glass was already extinct4 ,how completely this was so we may learn from an interesting document discovered some time since by the late ,m4 ,yriarte in the ,venetian archives--amid the inexhaustible store now preserved in the old convent behind the ,frari ,church 7,la ,vie d'un ,patricien de ,venise au ,,xvime ,sicle1 p4 #adg seq474 ,in the year #aefi1 ,marc ,antonio ,barbaro--that type of a ,venetian noble1 the liberal patron of artists and writers--was ambassador at ,constantinople4 ,the document in question is a despatch addressed by him to the ,venetian senate2 on it he has drawn in outline two designs for lamps--one a somewhat depressed version of our old mosque type1 the other what ,m4 ,yriarte calls a #8godet-lampe' of elongated form1--in fact1 a version of our #8spear-butt' or cup-lamp suitable for fitting into a wooden or metal frame4 ,barbaro urges the senate to see to the execution at ,murano1 with the greatest care1 of as many as nine hundred pieces after these designs1 for the demand came from no less a person than the ,grand ,vizier himself4 ,there is no reference1 in the order for these lamps1 to any enamelling3 those that are not plain 7schietti7 are to be decorated in the ,venetian way 7a reticelli74#abe ,the old form was1 however1 kept up in those beautiful mosque lamps of fayence1 ,rhodian or ,damascan in style1 of which we have a few rare examples in our museums2 these1 ,i think1 were made in the days of ,turkish rule1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,i shall return in a subsequent chapter to the later glass of the ,mohammedans--that of ,persia and of ,india--glass that was for the most part influenced by ,venetian models1 in part even made by ,venetian workmen3 it would be hardly possible to treat of this glass before we have said something of its ,european prototype4 ,we know practically nothing of any medival ,saracenic glass other than the enamelled ware of ,syria and ,egypt4 ,the little bowl of amber-yellow glass in the ,british ,museum1 enamelled with the figure of an angel1 was considered by ,franks to be ,persian ware of the fifteenth century 7,plate ,,xxvii4 #a74 ,with it we may compare the already mentioned sphere from a lamp-chain in the same collection which is of very similar glass4 ,the decoration of the first object is distinctly ,persian1 but its origin may be sought1 perhaps1 in the ,tabriz district or even further north in ,georgia1 rather than in the more southern and eastern districts where1 under ,venetian influence1 a glass industry sprang up in later days4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii ,,drinking ,,bowl ,,persian ,,or ,,syrian4 ,,fifteenth ,,or ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,spherical ,,ornament ,,for ,,attachment ,,to ,,chain ,,suspending ,,mosque ,,lamp ,,persian ,,or ,,syrian4 ,,probably ,,fifteenth ,,century ,a few fragments of glass have been brought from excavations made on the site of the old city of ,rh1 or ,rhages1 which was destroyed by ,hulaku ,khan in #abej4 ,but there is little to be found among these that has any bearing upon the interesting question of a medival ,persian glass industry1 nor do ,i think that the evidence of so early a date for all these fragments is by any means conclusive4 ,in the rubbish-heaps of ,fostat or ,old ,cairo1 which1 like those of ,rh1 have yielded so many interesting potsherds that throw light on the early history of pottery1 many pieces of glass have been found1 among them some fragments of bracelets4 ,these are of two types1 in one case of the primitive ,hebron character1 in the other built up of twisted rods of reticelli glass1--these last may undoubtedly be referred to ,venice4 ,for the rest1 these ,fostat fragments point to a local manufacture of somewhat rough glass of brilliant hues1 but the enamelled glass of which we have treated in this chapter is1 as far as ,i have had opportunity of judging1 conspicuous by its absence4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,glass ,,of ,,venice--,,the ,,origins--,,beads ,before taking up the subject of ,venetian glass1 it will be well to say something of another early ,italian centre of the industry4 ,it is only of recent years that the important part played in the sixteenth century by the glass-workers from ,l',altare1 in spreading the new methods through ,france and the low countries1 has been made manifest4 ,l',,altare is a little ,ligurian town1 situated a few miles to the north of ,savona4 ,it belonged in the ,middle ,ages to the ,marquis of ,montferrat1 and the relation of that family both with ,france and with the ,east should not be forgotten in this connection4 ,according to the local tradition1 the glass industry was established as far back as the eleventh century by a body of immigrants from ,normandy1 and a ,french origin has been found for the names of the families employed in the glass-works4#abf ,at a later date1 probably in the fourteenth century1 other workmen came from ,murano1 so that when by the end of the fifteenth century the skilled glass-workers of ,l',altare began to seek employment in foreign countries1 they became the principal agency by which the newer methods of the ,venetians were introduced into ,northern ,europe4 ,these ,altarists must indeed have been a thorn in the side of their ,muranese rivals1 for1 abandoning the stringent regulations by which the ,venetian government sought to hinder the emigration of their glass-workers1 at ,l',altare the self-elected consuls of the craft farmed out their men to foreign states and towns1 receiving a substantial payment in return4#abg ,i do not know of any specimens of glass1 either of medival or renaissance date1 that can be attributed with certainty to the town4 ,at the present day1 however1 ,l',altare is an active centre of the glass industry4 ,signor ,bordoni gives a list of thirteen old families--he himself belongs to one of them--who still carry on the craft4 ,these houses have agencies all over ,northern ,italy and even in ,south ,america4 ,glass has been made at ,venice1 or more strictly at ,murano1 for at least seven hundred years2 but what we especially think of as ,venetian glass--the graceful vessels of endless variety of form1 thin and diaphanous1 in which the skill of the glass-blower attains its most complete expression--these were the produce of a comparatively short period1 of the sixteenth century above all4 ,during the last fifty or sixty years of the preceding century the ,venetians in their enamelled glass were able to give expression to the spirit of the quattro-cento1 but of the glass that was made before that time practically nothing is known4 ,after the end of the sixteenth1 or at latest the middle of the next century1 the art enters into a period of gradual decline1 which continued until the partial revival of our own day4 ,but before that decline had set in1 ,venetian glass-workers had spread over ,western ,europe1 and had revolutionised the art of glass-making4 ,the history of modern glass begins with that of the ,venetian cristallo in the sixteenth century4 ,it is to the ,venetian archives that one must turn for information if the attempt be made to trace the early history of the glass industry of that city1 and these archives have been explored by a succession of native inquirers4#abh ,for the earlier periods the negative evidence is of some importance4 ,there is no reference of any kind to the manufacture of glass before the thirteenth century1#abi although by this time a great part of the interior of ,st4 ,mark's had been covered with mosaics4 ,like the enamels of the ,pala ,d',oro1 we may probably look upon the earlier ,venetian mosaics as of ,byzantine origin4 ,after the capture of ,constantinople in #abjd1 the ,venetians obtained a firmer grip upon the trade of the ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,their factories had long been established on the coast of ,syria4 #8,when ,sidon fell1' says ,mr4 ,horatio ,f4 ,brown1 #8the ,venetians received from ,baldwin1 ,king of ,jerusalem1 in return for their assistance1 a market-place1 a district1 and a church4 ,this was in fact the nucleus of a colony living under special treaty capitulations' 7,cambridge ,renaissance1 vol4 i474 ,this happened early in the twelfth century4 ,i shall have something to say later on concerning the relations of the ,venetians with the ,latin principalities of ,northern ,syria towards the end of the next century1 when the republic engaged to pay the #8dhime' for the broken glass that they exported4 ,it was during this period1 and under such influences1 that the manufacture of glass was established in the republic4#acj ,early in the thirteenth century there is evidence of the existence of a guild of glass-blowers4 ,in #abbd1 twenty-nine members of the ,ars ,friolaria were fined for breaking the rules of the trade4 ,in #abfh1 the chronicler ,martius da ,cavale tells us1 the maestri vitrai ,muranesi1 on the accession of the ,doge ,lorenzo ,tiepolo1 bore in procession #8ricche girlande di perle 444 e guastade ed oricanni ed altrettali vetrami gentili'3 water-bottles and scent-flasks and other such graceful objects of glass4 ,in #abgi we hear of ,german pedlars at ,venice--,todeschi qui portant vitra ad dorsum--but each man was only permitted to carry off ten lire worth of glass at a time4 ,meantime1 as in other medival towns1 the question of allowing dangerous trades to be carried on within the city bounds became a pressing one at ,venice4 ,the newly constituted ,maggior ,consiglio--it was soon after the famous firmata--issued a decree #8quod fornaces de vitro in quibus laborantur laboraria vitrea' should be all destroyed within the state and see of the ,rivo ,alto4 ,but this apparently was found to be too extreme a measure1 for in the next year the decree was modified so as to allow of the manufacture of small objects 7,verixelli--the ,french verroterie7 in little furnaces 7fornelli7 under certain conditions1 and this modified regulation remained in force until the eighteenth century4 ,the privileged position of ,murano1 which lay outside the see of ,venice1 was thus firmly established4 ,about this time1 too1 we hear of furnaces worked by expatriated ,venetians at ,treviso1 ,ferrara1 ,padua1 and ,bologna1 where factories had been already established1 sometimes under treaty with ,venice4 ,it will be remembered that as yet the republic had no territory on the mainland of ,italy4 ,there have been some differences of opinion as to what kind of glass was produced at this time in ,venice--in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 ,i mean4 ,without prejudging the question as to whether anything in the nature of enamelled glass was yet known1 we have evidence for the following statements3--that the preparation of various descriptions of beads constituted at that time1 as indeed it has ever since1 the main staple of the industry2 that in the second place1 the blowing of hollow ware for general use already gave occupation to a separate guild of workmen2 and that finally the members of both these guilds1 together with the makers of the rui--the little panes of thick green glass 7similar to our #8bull's eyes'7 still to be seen in the windows of many old palaces in ,venice--were devoting themselves to perfecting certain new discoveries4 ,these related above all to the manufacture of mirrors of glass1 backed with lead1 of which ,i have already said something4 ,again1 the making of lenses1 the oglarii di vitro or lapides ad legendum1 now became a distinct industry4 ,it was at this time 7for instance in the year #acjj7 that we find the ,cristallai di ,cristallo di ,rocca complaining of the competition of the glass-makers4 ,these carvers and polishers of rock crystal were already established as an important guild in ,venice2 they looked upon the glass-workers as intruders4 ,on the other hand1 the efforts of the latter to imitate the nobler material had no doubt an important bearing on the development of ,venetian glass1 for it was as a consequence of their success in making an absolutely white transparent #8metal' that the ,venetian glass-makers first acquired a ,european fame4 ,it was this cristallo di ,venezia that revolutionised at a later time the glass of ,europe4 ,at an early date1 in spite of edicts forbidding its sale to the ,todeschi1 the unworked material1 en masse1 found its way into ,germany1 there to be worked up after remelting4 ,already in the fourteenth century the water-power of ,alpine streams had been applied to the grinding and polishing of glass1 as1 for example1 at ,cortina d',ampezzo in the ,italian ,tyrol4 ,the glass-makers at the same time1 or a little later1 came into competition with the carvers of jasper and agate1 which stones they imitated by means of ingenious combinations of coloured glass 7smalti74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii ,,venetian ,,glass4 ,,the ,,aldrevandini ,,beaker ,,circa #acjj1 ,a4,d4 ,so far there is no evidence that the newly developed art of enamelling on glass had passed from the ,syrian coast to the ,lagoons4 ,the ,venetian glass-makers were still working on other lines1 and with other aims4 ,in view1 however1 of the close commercial intercourse of the ,venetians with the coast cities of ,syria1#aca we may well imagine that some attempts were made to imitate the brilliant enamels of the ,east4 ,but the successful handling of these colours was not a matter to be easily learned4 ,there were as yet no handbooks to teach the composition of the coloured fluxes1 to say nothing of the various devices and #8wrinkles' to be mastered before the enamels could be successfully applied to the surface of the glass4 ,in the ,aldrevandini beaker in the ,british ,museum we may perhaps see an attempt to overcome these difficulties4 ,the #8metal' itself is here quite of a ,venetian type1 thin and absolutely white1 although disfigured by the black specks so characteristic of early ,venetian glass4 ,there is no trace of ,oriental influence in the decoration2 the three heater-shaped shields have charges--keys1 antlers1 and fesses--that have been traced back to certain ,swabian towns1 but the inscription in ,gothic letters-- ,,magister ,,aldrevandin' ,,me ,,feci--points to a ,venetian origin4 ,on the ground of the heraldry and of the inscription1 a date of about the year #acjj may be ascribed to this goblet4 ,the enamels1 it should be noted1 are of the poorest description2 all the well-known ,saracenic colours are imitated1 it is true1 but with a striking want of success4 ,compare with this goblet the cup from the ,hope collection that stands near it in the ,glass ,room4 ,the glass is thicker than in the last example1 it is of a slightly greenish tint1 and contains a few elongated bubbles4 ,the decoration is in its way masterly3 on either side of a throne on which is seated the ,virgin with the ,child in her lap1 stands an angel holding a tall candle2 beyond are the figures of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,as to the style of the decoration1 it is to my mind distinctly ,western2 the figures might be taken from a ,french missal of the thirteenth century4 ,the ,arte ,francisca was no doubt coming into favour in ,venice at this time1 but even in the fourteenth century it was regarded as something exotic1 and ,i doubt if it was as yet practised by ,venetian craftsmen who1 in the minor arts1 long adhered to ,byzantine models4 ,when we come to examine the technique of the enamels1 we are at once struck with their resemblance to those on the ,saracenic glass of the period4 ,we have here the work of one who was master of his craft2 above all1 the quality of the blue enamel should be noted and compared with that on the ,aldrevandini goblet4 ,i think1 then1 that both the glass and enamel of this cup are the work of ,syrian craftsmen1 possibly working at ,venice1 but more probably at the court of one of the ,frankish princes who held fiefs in ,syria during the thirteenth century1--at that of ,bohemond ,,vi4 possibly1 prince of ,antioch and ,count of ,tripoli1 or of his son ,bohemond ,,vii41 who celebrated his marriage with a noble lady from ,champagne only a few years before his expulsion by the ,saracens4 ,it was in #abgg1 under the rule of the former1 that the treaty was drawn up that contains the often-quoted--and misquoted--words1 #8,et si ,venitien trait verre briz de la vile1 il est tenuz de payer le dhime4' ,what is more likely than that such a goblet may have been made by some ,jewish or perhaps ,christian glass-worker for a nobleman of this thoroughly ,french court8#acb ,such an origin may help to account for the fact1 otherwise somewhat difficult to explain1 that this goblet is a unique example of its class4 ,if the ,venetians of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were complete masters of the art of enamel1 how comes it that no other example of the art at all comparable in excellence to this glass has come down to us8 ,no one1 ,i think1 now believes in the ,venetian origin of the hanap de voirre en faon de ,damas1 of the glass vessels de l'ouvrage de ,damas1 or peintes la morisque mentioned in the inventories of the ,french princes of the fourteenth century4 ,these were evidently decorated in an ,oriental style4 ,we must also remember that before the end of the thirteenth century the ,christian rulers were finally driven out of ,syria2 there was therefore only a brief period during which such a goblet decorated with ,christian motives could have been made in the ,east4 ,when some century and a half later the ,venetians began freely to decorate their glass with enamels1 we note an entire change both in the colours and in the nature of the fluxes used4 ,to this point ,i shall return later on1 but ,i may call attention here to the almost total absence of ,oriental influence in the designs found on the ,venetian enamelled glass of the fifteenth century4 ,this is the more remarkable when we remember that at this time as regards other arts--their inlaid metal-ware and the stamped leather of their bookbindings1 to give but two instances--not only is this influence strong1 but we know that ,oriental craftsmen were at work at ,venice4 ,i think that one simple explanation may be given of this apparent anomaly1 namely1 that by the time the ,italians took to the practice of enamelling their glass1 that art was practically extinct in the ,east4 ,it was during the course of the fourteenth century apparently that the glass-workers organised themselves into separate guilds or arti1 governed by the rules set out on the ,matricola or ,mariegola4 ,it is from these matricole that the little we know of the ,venetian glass of this time is derived4#acc ,the glass-workers now obtained many important privileges1 and the town of ,murano was granted a considerable measure of self-government2 but it was not till the year #adde that these rights were fully established4 ,each arte was governed by an elected guastoldo1 assisted by three superintendents1 to whom it fell among other duties to bring the petitions and complaints of the glass-workers before the ,great and the ,lesser ,council at ,venice4 ,not the least important duty of the guastoldo and his lieutenants or compagni was the periodical selection of the proof-pieces--the prove--to be made by the apprentices of the various arti before they could claim rank as masters4 ,these tasks were inscribed in the ,mariegole1 and from them ,signor ,cecchetti1 in his often-quoted paper1 has extracted many examples4 ,to give an instance3 the ,maestri di ,rulli 7,rui1 small window-panes7 had among other things to make #8due occhi di bo1' an early instance of the term #8bull's eyes4' ,but the technical terms employed in most cases render the interpretation very difficult4 ,some of the strange-shaped vases in our collections may not improbably be examples of such proof-pieces4 ,after this time the working year--the period during which the furnaces were kept constantly alight--was confined to nine months2 this was afterwards prolonged to forty-four weeks4 ,there was1 however1 plenty of work to do during the summer vacation1 which ended on ,october #a1 for the furnaces had now to be repaired if not rebuilt4 ,the number of separate arti or guilds appears to have varied1 and it was not till the fifteenth century perhaps that the divisions that were maintained until the last days of the republic were finally established4 ,but at an early date the fialai and cristallai were separated from the specchiai or mirror-makers on the one hand1 and on the other from the perlai--the bead-makers1 more especially the makers of the #8canes' and pastes for beads2 a fourth guild1 too1 was already established for the stazioneri1 or retail vendors of glass4 ,at a later date the perlai were separated into two guilds1 of which one included the makers of conterie1 the ordinary beads of commerce1 while the other comprised1 besides the makers of the canne for the large beads1 those who prepared enamels in cakes for exportation4 ,when we call to mind that1 apart from these latter purely ,muranese guilds1 whose members were chiefly concerned with the preparation of the materials1 the actual makers of the beads lived for the most part under separate organisation at ,venice1 it will be evident what an important part the bead industry has played in that city4 ,the government probably encouraged the subdivision of labour1 which made it more difficult for single workmen to establish glass-works in foreign countries4 ,in fact1 the manufacture and export of beads have at all times formed the very backbone of the ,venetian glass industry4 ,we cannot trace this trade further back than the beginning of the fourteenth century--by means1 that is1 of definite documentary evidence--but by that time a fleet of galleys was yearly despatched1 on the one hand to the ,black ,sea1 on the other to ,flanders and the ,thames2 subsidiary centres for distribution were established at the principal ports1 and these beads already form an important element in the cargo4 ,unlike the larger articles of blown glass1 the strings of beads were in every way convenient articles of commerce1 easily packed and easily valued and counted4 ,so much was this the case that the name conterie#acd 7compare our word #8counters'7 was early adopted as a general term for the commoner kinds of beads4 ,our ,english tongue is above all poor in words that can be used in the description of works of art4 ,for apt expressions with which to indicate specialities of manufacture1 varieties of shape or shades of colour1 recourse must continually be had1 however unwillingly on the part of the writer1 to the ,french language4 ,but in one case1 at least1 we have our revenge4 ,we possess in the word #8bead'#ace a convenient term1 of which the exact equivalent1 strangely enough1 exists in no other language4 ,nothing can be more inconvenient and more likely to lead to misconception than the use of the word #8pearl1' or #8false pearl1' in this general sense1 and yet no term more definite has been found in either the ,french or the ,german language4 ,in ,italian the use of the term conterie is confined to certain classes of beads4 ,the only fault1 from our point of view1 to be found with our ,english word is that it may be applied to objects made of other materials than glass4 ,a term of very similar origin--#8paternosters'--was formerly employed for a certain class of large beads in ,france and ,italy1 but the use of it has never become general4 ,we have seen that towards the end of the thirteenth century the cristallai di cristallo di rocca fell foul of the glass-workers of ,murano1 and induced the authorities to forbid the imitation of their work in the inferior material4 ,not the least important of the productions of these workers in rock crystal and other hard stones were the beads for use in the rosaries 7to use a word of later introduction7--the paternostri4 ,we know1 too1 that some such prohibition as that referred to was revoked in #aeaj2 and the ground for this change of policy is found in the fact that for some time the ,germans had been in the habit of carrying to their own country the #8canes'#acf of glass1 which they there cut and polished to form paternostri4 ,these beads1 re-imported into ,venice1 found their way ultimately to all parts of the world4 ,the ,venetians1 we must remember1 at an early date1 long before they had acquired territory on the mainland1 had established factories at ,treviso1 at ,belluno1 and along the upper course of the river ,piave4 ,it is probable that advantage was taken of the abundant water-power to establish in these towns mills for the grinding and cutting of their glass4 ,this industry1 forbidden for a time at ,murano1 may have been carried on in a more or less clandestine manner4#acg ,it was through this country1 too1 that the ,german traders passed1 and a link between the trans-,alpine and the ,italian glass industries was thus early formed4 ,the starting-point in the manufacture of beads is a rod or cane of glass3 according as this cane is hollow or solid1 the manufacture is carried on by radically distinct methods4 ,in the case of the hollow cane or tube1 we start from a #8gathering' at the end of the blowing-iron2 this gathering is slightly inflated to form an incipient paraison1 and a rod of iron is attached to the further extremity4 ,this rod is seized by a boy--the tirador--who runs with it at full speed so as to elongate the glass as much as possible before it has time to cool2 the thin tube1 or canna1 thus formed may1 it is said1 be as much as #aej feet in length4 ,this tube1 broken into rods of convenient lengths1 then passes into the hands of another set of workmen1 living for the most part in ,venice4 ,the rods are now carefully sorted1 as to size1 by women--the cernatrici--and handed over to the cutter1 who1 seated at a bench1 cuts off equal lengths by passing the rod between a blade or chisel held in the hand1 and a similar tool fixed in the bench1 the size of the fragments being regulated by means of the scontro1 a semi-cylindrical block of steel4 ,if the object was to manufacture the little cylindrical bugles or jais1 the bead--if so it may be called--is now completed4 ,but in the case of a normal bead1 the edges had now to be rounded4 ,with this object the aperture of the little tubes had first to be filled with some infusible substance2 this was done by rolling them in the hand with a finely ground mixture of lime and charcoal4 ,they were now placed along with a quantity of sand in a tubular iron receptacle1 which was rotated over the furnace4#ach ,by this means the angular edges were rounded off4 ,the beads were then sifted from the sand and shaken up in a bag to remove the material with which the tubes had been plugged2 finally they were sorted into various sizes by means of a sieve1 and1 in the case of spherical beads1 those of irregular shape were eliminated by rolling them on an inclined table4 ,it only remained for the lustratori to give them a final polish by shaking them up in a sack with bran4 ,this was the process adopted for the smaller beads--the conterie--which1 before packing1 were threaded on a string by girls4 ,the larger perle1 such as the perle a rosette1 or chevron beads1 of which ,i shall speak presently1 had to be ground into shape on the wheel4 ,any ornament or design that appears on these beads depended of course upon the constitution of the original canna4 ,this was often built up of a succession of layers of various colours1 obtained by dipping the first gathering into one or more pots of coloured glass1 before drawing it out to form a tube4 ,beads made by this process belong strictly to the class of blown glass4 ,the other system which we will now describe takes us back to the old primitive methods of glass-working4 ,in this case we start from a solid rod of glass1 which is manipulated in the hand of the workman somewhat like a stick of sealing-wax4 ,seated at a table1 he melts the extremity of the canna in the flame1 directed away from him by means of a blow-pipe1 and twists the thread of viscid glass around a small rod of iron4#aci ,by this or similar methods1 not only beads but various small objects of verroterie are formed4 ,the surface of these may be subsequently decorated by means of appliqu studs and stringings of various coloured glass1 or again1 the half-fused substance may be pressed into little moulds4 ,the spun-glass also1 so much admired a few years since1 is made from rods of glass melted in the flame of the table blow-pipe4 ,this is the process of the suppialume1 in which the ,venetian workmen acquired such skill in later days4 ,it cannot be traced further back than the end of the fifteenth century1 and its invention is associated with a certain ,andrea ,vidaore4 ,the guild of the suppialumi was only finally constituted in #afdh4 ,if this process was really only introduced at so comparatively late a date1 we have here a curious instance of a reversion to an old technique1 for it is impossible to overlook the points of resemblance between it and the manner in which the ancient ,egyptians built up their beads4#adj ,it must be noted that the practical difference between the beads made by the suppialumi and those formed from hollow tubes1 is not one of size4 ,large or small beads may be formed by either process4 ,it is1 rather1 that in the first case the ornament is superficial--it is something added to the surface of the bead4 ,on the other hand1 in beads made from hollow tubes1 the design1 though limited in variety1 is carried through the whole bead4 ,this is a distinction much appreciated by native connoisseurs in ,central ,africa and elsewhere4 ,among the beads made from hollow tubes there is one type1 generally of commanding size1 which may perhaps claim some attention4 ,i refer to the great ,chevron ,beads1 the ,perle a rosette of the ,italians1 propos of the origin and date of which a not insignificant literature has accumulated4 ,i treat of them here1 as in by far the larger number of instances1 if not in all cases1 these beads can be undoubtedly recognised as of ,venetian manufacture4 ,these chevron beads have been made from canes built up of concentric layers of coloured glass4 ,they have attracted exceptional attention from the fact that examples have been found in so many widely separated parts of the world1 and from their possessing1 in some cases1 apparently well founded claims to great age4 ,the arrangement and the succession of the colours in the glass is in every case practically identical4 ,the canes from which they were formed have been built up of three main concentric layers1 externally a deep cobalt blue1 then an opaque brick red1 and in the centre a tube of pale green transparent glass2 these main layers are divided by thinner ones of opaque white glass1 and the dividing surfaces have been worked into a series of chevrons or zig-zags 7these chevrons are in all cases1 ,i think1 twelve in number7 so as to present a star-like pattern on a cross section4 ,the only variations on this general type are as follows3 the chevrons are1 in a few cases1 dragged laterally so as to resemble the teeth of a circular saw2 the central tube of transparent glass is sometimes divided by a zig-zag layer of opaque white2 and1 very rarely1 the external layer is green instead of blue4 ,in shape and size1 however1 these chevron beads show wide divergences3 in length they may vary from two and a half inches to as little as a third of an inch1 and the diameter1 though generally less1 is in a few cases greater1 than the length4 ,the extremities in some of the larger and presumably older specimens are facetted1 that is to say1 ground down to a pyramidal form4 ,what1 however1 we may call the normal type1 is of a cylindrical shape with rounded ends 7,plate ,,xv4 #b74 ,these perle a rosette are at the present day made at ,murano for the ,african market4 ,when in the spring of #aijc ,i visited the glass-works of the #8,venice and ,murano ,company1' ,i was shown by ,signor ,andrea ,rioda specimens both of these beads and of the canes from which they are prepared2 the company was at that time executing a large order from a ,french firm1 for the ,congo4 ,this work1 however1 is not generally undertaken by the firms that make the ordinary conterie1 for these large beads have to be separately ground and polished on a wheel--an important point1 as we shall see4 ,they have been made at ,murano1 the local tradition affirms1 from time without memory4 ,quite recently1 in the immediate neighbourhood of ,treviso1 a deposit of these chevron beads has been discovered in a bank beside an open field2 #8bushel loads' of fragments were extracted1 but not a single perfect bead4 ,they were without exception broken fragments1 not improbably #8wasters1' thrown aside possibly by those who were employed in grinding them4 ,treviso1 ,i may note1 is a town of mills and swift-flowing streams--in fact1 the nearest point to ,venice where abundant water-power could be found4 ,unfortunately no light so far has been thrown upon the age of this curious deposit4#ada ,in general aspect1 in the scheme of colour especially1 there is something unmistakably ,african about these chevron beads4 ,to say nothing of their exceptional size1 they have little in common with any other type of polychrome bead1 whether ,egyptian1 classical1 or from ,teutonic graves4 ,i may at once say that ,i consider these perle a rosette as essentially of ,venetian origin1 and made1 above all1 for the ,african market4 ,how the industry arose1 and whether the ,venetians in this instance as in other cases took the place of earlier ,byzantine or ,syrian glass-workers1 there is nothing to show4 ,we know that the ,alexandrians of ,greek and ,roman times1 like the ,phnicians before them1 traded with the native races of ,central ,africa4 ,these beads have certainly been found in ,egypt1#adb especially in ,upper ,egypt and ,nubia2 it is even said that some of the ,soudanese tribes have succeeded in making passable imitations of them4 ,it must be remembered that the ,venetians1 at least in later times1 did not trade directly with inland and barbarous races4 ,their business was to deliver their merchandise at certain seaport towns where they had factories or agencies4 ,the goods then fell into the hands of local merchants who distributed them by caravans or sent them on coastways in their ships4 ,so the ,arab traders of ,egypt1 reshipping the ,venetian wares at ,suez or other ports of the ,red ,sea1 would carry them in their dhows to ,zanzibar or ,india2 and so again in later days the merchants of ,amsterdam and ,london1 who held at times vast stores of ,venetian beads1 distributed them in ,dutch or ,english ships to the very extremities of the world4 ,the trade in beads was very active in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,at the present day1 in the warehouses of ,bevis ,marks and ,houndsditch1 there is probably accumulated a larger stock of beads than in ,venice itself4 ,so far we are on firm ground1 nor is there anything surprising when we are told that the large chevron beads have been found in ,central ,africa1#adc in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 and even in ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,but when we hear of examples being taken from ,red ,indian grave-mounds and even from ancient ,peruvian tombs1 we feel some need of hesitation before accepting the statement4 ,so of the specimens found in ,england1 many of them are water-worn and have an air of the remotest antiquity3 they have been extracted from wells1 from river-beds1 and1 it is stated1 from ,anglo-,saxon graves4 ,i may mention that these chevron beads early attracted the attention of ,english antiquaries4 ,dr4 ,stukeley1 who had several in his possession1 brings them up in his disquisition on ,druidical remains1 and ,bishop ,gibson1 as far back as the beginning of the eighteenth century1 figures them in his edition of ,camden's ,britannia4 ,gibson mentions that when he was opening a grave 7presumably ,anglo-,saxon7 at ,ash1 a worthy friend by way of jest placed one of these glain nidr or #8serpent's eggs' among the genuine ancient beads4 ,i will not say with regard to this attempt at mystification--ex uno disce omnes2 but the story suggests an attitude of caution in the case of other similar finds4 ,i cannot discuss this thorny question here1 and must refer those interested in such subjects as the ,glain ,nidr or #8,adder ,beads of the ,druids1' or again1 the ,breton ,ouef rouge du ,serpent ,marin1 to the exhaustive paper by the late ,mr4 ,john ,brent in the forty-fifth volume of ,archologia4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,enamelled ,,venetian ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,in the fourteenth century1 as we have seen1 the ,venetian galleys brought glass ware to the ports of ,england and the ,netherlands4 ,m4 de ,laborde 7,les ,ducs de ,bourgogne7 found in the archives of ,lille an order for payment1 signed by ,duke ,philip of ,burgundy1 #8pour seze voirres et une escuelle de voirre1 des voirriers que les gales de ,venise ont avan apportez en nostre pays de ,flandres--quatre franc4' ,this is dated from ,paris1 #acid4 ,even after making every allowance for the larger purchasing power of money in those days1 the seventeen vessels of glass bought by a royal prince for four francs cannot have been of exceptional quality4 ,again1 in the year #acii1 ,richard ,,ii41 shortly before his deposition1 granted permission to certain traders to sell1 on the decks of the ,venetian galleys lately arrived in the port of ,london1 their cargo of small glass vessels and earthenware plates 7,calendar of ,state ,papers--,venetian1 #ahii-aijj74 ,here again there is nothing to suggest any high artistic value in the glass offered for sale4 ,as we have seen1 with the possible exception of two goblets in the ,british ,museum1 there does not exist a single example of glass of an earlier date than the fifteenth century1 which can definitely claim to be of ,venetian origin4 ,the quattro-cento glass of ,venice1#add for the most part decorated with enamel and gilding1 may be conveniently arranged in accordance with the nature of the enamels that cover it4 ,i will take first a class in which the enamel plays but a subordinate part4 ,the clear white glass1 somewhat thick and heavy compared with later examples1 is often ornamented with appliqu bosses of coloured glass2 such glass is sparingly decorated with opaque enamels1 and this decoration takes the form of little beads or studs1 at times combined with an imbricated pattern in gold4 ,we sometimes meet with large bowls on low feet 7a form of drageoir or sweetmeat dish7 which are so decorated4 ,there is1 however1 no finer example of this style of ornament than the standing beaker with cover in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 #cfb74 ,the general outline and the obliquely curved gadroons of this magnificent cup were no doubt suggested by some piece of late ,gothic silver-plate4 ,on the flat-headed knob that surmounts the cover are the half obliterated remains of a coat of arms1 but otherwise the enamelling is confined to some sparely applied studding and filleting4 ,there is a covered goblet of the same class in the ,waddesdon collection remarkable for an inscription in some ,south-,slavonic dialect1 scratched with a diamond on the foot4 ,the blue and purple bosses round the body of these beakers partake somewhat of the nature of prunts4 ,another class of fifteenth-century enamelled glass calls to mind in the manner of its decoration the contemporary enamelled copper ware of ,venice 7maux peints74 ,indeed1 in some examples where the enamel is spread over the whole field and subsequently decorated with other colours1 there is little to indicate that such a vessel has a basis of glass rather than of metal4 ,this is the case with the beautiful goblet covered with pale turquoise blue enamel in the ,waddesdon ,room in the ,british ,museum4 ,the decoration is given by an elaborate imbrication of white1 red1 and gold2 the well-drawn male and female figures1 in lozenge-shaped medallions1 closely resemble certain woodcuts in ,venetian books of the fifteenth century4 ,if1 as is probable1 this cup is not much later in date than the year #adej1 we have in it one of the earliest examples in glass of the complete goblet or wine-glass form1 with bowl1 stem1 and foot4#ade ,the outline of the bowl should be noticed3 the double curve1 tending somewhat inwards at the top1 is characteristic of these quattro-cento glasses2 here again the form is doubtless derived from silver-plate4 ,these opaque solid enamels are1 however1 more frequently applied here and there upon a basis of transparent coloured glass4 ,for the ground a deep cobalt blue was most in favour1 but a rich leafy green and other colours also occur at times4 ,the opaque enamels are laid on thickly in masses2 upon these again details are painted by further touches of colour4 ,perhaps the most famous example of this class is the ,coppa ,nuziale in the ,museo ,civico at ,venice 7,plate ,,xxix474 ,this cup1 in outline somewhat like a ,greek crater1 with simple massive foot and stem1 is of deep blue glass2 it is some eight or nine inches in height4 ,on one side we have a procession of knights and ladies on horseback2 on the other side the company are seen bathing in an open fountain4 ,between are medallions with male and female heads--presumably the bride and bridegroom4 ,the costume would point rather to the first than to the second half of the fifteenth century4 ,there is not much prominent colour apart from the green of the grass and the trees2 the horses and the flesh-tints are rendered by white enamels1 and gilding1 of course1 is freely used2 here and there we see a little pale blue enamel4 ,this coppa is traditionally assigned to ,angelo ,berovieri1 the greatest name among the ,venetian glass-workers of the fifteenth century4 ,to him indeed the introduction1 or at least the perfection1 of the process of enamelling on glass is generally attributed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix ,,marriage ,,cup ,,by ,,berovieri ,,venetian1 ,,fifteenth ,,century ,in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 #cfc7 is another ,coppa ,nuziale1 on which the style of the decoration closely follows that of the ,berovieri cup4 ,we have the same deep blue ground and the same treatment of the solid opaque enamels2 the bowl1 however1 in this case is cylindrical4 ,on one side we see a ,cupid seated on a two-headed swan1 conducting a triumphal car2 on the other1 ,venus enthroned in another car is preceded by a figure--presumably ,hymen--bearing a torch2 in front a centaur is grasping the hand of a man in full armour4#adf ,the bright green enamel by which on these cups the grass and the conventional trees are rendered1 is perhaps the most characteristic colour of this quattro-cento ware4 ,note also on the wide-spreading foot the manner in which the gold is applied3 in the use of this metal1 if in nothing else1 the ,venetians surpassed their ,saracenic predecessors4 ,here we have an early instance of gilding sem or broken up into minute irregular fragments4 ,the gold appears to be incorporated with the glass2 it must have been laid on at an early stage1 for it lies scattered in detached fragments1 and this is undoubtedly caused by the dragging of the glass1 while still soft1 during the process of manufacture4 ,this manner of applying gold was used with great effect by the ,venetians during the finest period--before and after #aejj4 ,notice especially a little cup of thin white glass in the ,british ,museum1 on which the decoration is confined to a delicate powdering of gold of this nature4 ,of the application of enamels of this class to a deep green ground1 there is no finer example than the standing cup from the ,debruge and ,soltykoff collections 7,slade1 #cfa74 ,this1 too1 is without doubt a ,coppa ,nuziale1 and in the heads in the two medallions we may again recognise the bride and bridegroom4 ,on a scroll by the latter head we read1 ,,amor ,,vol ,,fee--#8,love needs faith4' ,the quaint head-dress of the woman calls to mind certain figures in ,carpaccio's pictures of contemporary ,venetian life4 ,in the enamelled cups of this class the technical imperfections of the deep-coloured glass ground should be noticed4 ,this is seen above all in the irregular outline of the margin4 ,we have here a class of imperfection of quite a different nature from the tendency to collapse so often seen in large pieces of ,saracenic glass4 ,in the case of the ,venetian glass the unevenness appears to arise from the imperfect fluidity of the metal when in the hands of the blower4 ,the date of this enamelled glass is fairly well fixed by the style in which the figure subjects are treated4 ,the processions--the trionfi--are but rudely executed reproductions of those found on fifteenth-century marriage coffers1 the heads in the medallions we meet with again on the contemporary mezza-majolica4 ,both may be seen in the woodcuts of the earliest printed books4 ,we find the source of the gadroons and imbricated patterns in the repouss forms given by the ,venetians to their enamelled copper-ware4 ,there is somewhat more difficulty in determining the date of another class of ,venetian enamelled glass4 ,i refer to that on which the opaque enamels are painted with a brush upon a ground of thin colourless glass4 ,in this decoration1 especially in the conventional foliage1 the drag of the brush loaded with the thin1 somewhat intractable pigment1 may often be clearly traced4 ,there are some early examples of these #8painted' enamels which we may regard as the prototypes of a style of decoration on glass which soon obtained almost a monopoly among enamelled wares4 ,we see the same technique and the same opaque colours on the ,french glass of the sixteenth century1 and the faults are exaggerated and the palette even heavier in the case of the ,german glass of a still later time4 ,we must seek the origin of this school in the ,italian painters on majolica2 on the other hand1 in the eighteenth century the methods of the enamellers on glass no doubt influenced the decorators of porcelain both in ,germany and elsewhere4 ,and here ,i may say that certain important technical difficulties1 that must always have hampered the use of true transparent enamels on glass1 have scarcely received the attention that they deserve4 ,i mean the relations of the enamels1 as regards the softening-point and rate of contraction on cooling1 to the ground on which they rest4 ,the question here is very similar to that which presents itself in the case of porcelain4 ,our present problem is1 however1 somewhat simpler1 for with the latter material we have not only to consider the relation of the enamels to the glaze on which they lie 7this takes1 indeed1 the place of our glass ground71 but in addition the relation of the glaze itself to the porcelain body beneath must not be neglected4 ,the first condition for the successful application of an enamel is that it should be more fusible than the glass to which it is applied2 not only that1 but at the temperature at which the enamel fuses1 the glass must still maintain its rigidity1 otherwise the vessel on coming from the enameller's stove will not preserve its original symmetry4 ,it has been already suggested that the partial collapse so often observed in the large ,cairene lamps may probably be explained in this way4 ,on the other hand1 if the surface of the glass is not to some degree softened1 there will be no intimate connection between it and the enamel1 and the latter will be likely to scale off before long4 ,this tendency will be increased if there is much difference in the rate or amount of contraction between the two materials4 ,difficulties of this kind long hindered the employment of certain fluxes and colours--that of cobalt1 for instance1 combined with a transparent flux4 ,such obstacles may1 however1 be surmounted in a measure1 and the process simplified by employing 7in place of a transparent lead flux7 an opaque white1 stanniferous enamel merely stained1 in cases only externally1 by a little colouring material4 ,this apparently was the plan universally adopted by the ,venetians in the fifteenth century1 and it is here that their experience of the use of a similar enamel on copper may have served them4 ,one cannot but marvel at the technical dexterity so early acquired1 and1 alas6 so soon lost by the ,saracens1 in the application of enamels to glass4 ,the means by which they avoided the use of a lead flux in the case of their famous translucent blue1 is above all worthy of admiration 7see above1 ,chapter ,x474 ,certain defects which we note in the glass to which the ,venetians applied their thick enamels may have been inseparably bound up with the use of these same enamels1 and the impossibility of overcoming these defects may have been one of the causes of their abandonment and of the general adoption in their place of the painted decoration--mere thin skins of colour--which they were now able to apply to their white cristallo1 the typical glass of ,venice4 ,after the commencement of the sixteenth century1 indeed1 the use of the solid enamels was almost confined to beadings and subsidiary ornament sparingly applied4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx ,,venetian ,,glass #a4 ,,enamelled ,,lamp4 ,,early ,,sixteenth ,,century #b4 ,,enamelled ,,glass ,,cup4 ,,found ,,in ,,excavations ,,for ,,campanile4 ,,fifteenth ,,century ,to return after this long digression to our class of thinly painted enamels4 ,we find that the use of these painted colours came in at quite an early date4 ,i will take as typical examples a pair of goblets or wine-glasses in the ,british ,museum1 one from the ,slade collection 7,no4 #cia71 the other presented by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,these are both conical cups of simple outline1 of which the bowl passes directly into the spreading foot4 ,the edge of this foot is turned over to form a sort of ring on the upper margin4 ,in fact1 these goblets may be taken as representatives of one of the earliest types of that long series of wine-glasses that we shall come across again and again in later days4 ,on the first of these cups we see two figures on horseback1 one waving a banner and the other holding a flag2 the costume points to the end of the fifteenth century4 ,this is a detail of some importance1 for as a rule the decoration of this class of enamelled glass is confined to foliage1 scrolls1 and classically treated figures of sirens or satyrs4 ,almost identical in shape1 and decorated in a similar manner1 is a little goblet1 or rather fragment of a goblet1 lately dug up in the ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice during the excavations for the foundations of the new ,campanile4 7,plate ,,xxx4 #b74 ,this little glass1 between four and five inches in height1 is of a thinnish clear metal1 decorated with scrolls of a somewhat ,gothic character1 indicated by lines of opaque white2 the other enamels are green1 an opaque red1 a rich yellow1 and a deep as well as a turquoise blue1 the latter laid on thickly4 ,this goblet may perhaps be referred to the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,a still finer example of these #8painted' enamels is to be found in a very beautiful ewer now in the ,louvre4 ,the colours are laid on with a brush as in the previous specimens1 but as we often find in later examples--and this applies equally to the ,french and ,german enamelled glass--the opaque red is here replaced by a poor brown4 ,within a large medallion is seen a herald riding on a griffin2 the ground is covered by scale patterns and scrolls of many colours4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,varieties ,,of ,,venetian ,,glass--,,early ,,literature ,the history of modern glass begins1 as ,i have said1 with the famous ,venetian cristallo of the sixteenth century4 ,many other varieties were made at this time1 but it was the absolutely colourless and transparent glass1 capable of being blown to extreme thinness and then worked into every variety of form1 that above all established the ,european reputation of the ,murano glass-workers4 ,before long1 in nearly every country of ,western ,europe1 the old methods of working were falling into disuse2 and by the aid of skilled workmen who were tempted away from ,murano1 or1 failing that1 were hired from the rival glass furnaces of ,l',altare1 the attempt was made to imitate this clear white glass of ,venice4 ,we have1 then1 in this cristallo the typical glass of ,venice1 and here more than in any other group1 whether of earlier or of later date1 we find a family of glass of which the artistic merit depends directly upon the skill of the glass-blower1 rather than on that of the enameller or engraver4 ,in the simpler and earlier specimens1 an undeniable charm is derived from the extreme tenuity of the material--there is an evanescent and almost ghostly air about the #8diaphanous1 pellucid1 dainty body'#adg of not a few of these glasses4 ,although entirely free from any positive colour1 there is often a certain tendency to greyness in the metal1 and this is increased to a misty cloudiness when the surface has been attacked by atmospheric influence1 as is not unfrequently the case with glasses that have been long exposed to our damp ,english climate4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi ,,venetian ,,glass ,,flower-,,vase ,,of ,,colourless ,,glass ,,with ,,blue ,,threading ,,and ,,studs ,there is little change or development to be observed in the glass of this character made at ,murano during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 nor is it always safe to regard contorted shapes and elaborate decorations as necessarily a sign of a late origin4 ,this caution is confirmed by an often quoted passage from ,sabellico1 the learned librarian of ,st4 ,mark's and historian of ,venice2 it is from a ,latin work1 ,de ,situ ,venet ,urbis1 written about #adie4 ,we can form from it some idea of the wonderful variety of the outturn from the ,murano glass-works at that time1 and of the elaborate shapes that were already given to the vessels4 ,when we pass1 says ,sabellico1 from ,venice to the suburb of ,murano1 we are struck by the grandeur and size of the buildings2 it appears from afar as a city1 extending for a mile in length4 ,the island owes its chief renown to its glass-works4 ,it was a famous discovery to make glass that should vie with crystal in clearness4 ,since then the nimble wit of the workmen and the never-resting care to find something new have led them to apply to the material a thousand various colours and shapes without number4 ,hence the calices1 the flasks1 the canthari1 the ewers1 the candelabra1 the animals of every race1 the horns1 the beads 7segmenta71 the bracelets1 etc4 etc4 ,so far ,sabellico--the good man is1 ,i am afraid1 more concerned with his latinity than with the matter in hand3 but this is a weakness that he shares with more than one writer of this time4 ,he goes on to speak of the #8,murrhine vases' made at ,murano1 of which the only fault is their cheapness2 all these marvels had the ,venetian galleys brought before the eyes of the nations1 so that1 wondrous to say1 by familiarity they had become as things base and common4 ,in the means adopted by the ,venetians to adorn their cristallo we are at times taken back to ,roman methods4 ,the handles1 often of blue glass1 and the stringings and frillings that surround the body are applied hastily but skilfully by the light hand of the workman4 ,this kind of ornament reached its completest development in the tall beakers and vases with handles that took the form of wing-like excrescences4 ,these #8winged beakers' were afterwards copied and the forms exaggerated in ,germany and in the ,netherlands1 where they were held to be especially characteristic of the now fashionable glass of ,venice4 ,it is certainly remarkable how little this ,muranese glass as a whole reflects the glorious ,venetian art of the cinquecento4 ,apart from some of the earlier enamelled and gilt examples and from the simpler forms of the pure thin cristallo1 we can find among it little that is quite satisfactory from an artistic point of view4 ,much even of the sixteenth-century glass is merely fantastic1 and appeals only to childish tastes4 ,the bulk of it was probably made for foreign markets1 for the dull northern barbarian1 whose attention had to be caught by something new and extravagant4 ,little heed is paid to this more elaborately decorated glass by the great contemporary painters4 ,in fact1 ,i can find no example of it in their works4 ,when glass is introduced1 it is invariably of the simplest description4 ,in the big altar-pieces of ,giovanni ,bellini1 of ,cima1 or of ,carpaccio1 the glass lamps that hang from the roof are in the form of little conical cups of plain outline4 ,amid all the elaborate staffage of ,crivelli's pictures1 the lily on the table or ledge beside the ,virgin stands in a little cylindrical beaker of glass1 for all the world like a modern tumbler4#adh ,so in the next century we may search in vain in the pictures of ,titian or of ,veronese for elaborate examples of ,venetian glass4 ,in the banquet scenes of the latter painter1 the wine indeed is served from graceful decanters with tall necks and globular bodies1 and is drunk from tazza-shaped goblets of glass1#adi but on the credenza or buffet at the side1 the gold and silver plate is never relieved by examples of our material4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii ,,venetian ,,glass ,,opaque ,,white ,,with ,,gilt ,,scrolls4 ,,early ,,sixteenth ,,century ,a curious account of a banquet given at ,mantua1 on the occasion of the marriage of the ,marquis1 is quoted by ,mr4 ,nesbitt from a contemporary writer4 ,there was1 we are told1 on this occasion such a display of #8diversi bicchieri1 carrafe1 e giarre ed altri bellissimi vasi di cristallo di ,venezia1 che credo vi fussero concorse tutte le botteghe di ,morano6' ,and there was need of this store1 he adds1 seeing that after they had drunk1 the guests proceeded to break the glasses they held in their hands #8per segno di grande allegrezza4'#aej ,we are reminded of the feast described by ,joinville1 though in that case the glasses were swept off the table by the well-aimed ,bible of one of the guests 7see p4 #acf74 ,i shall now have to pass in rapid review the principal varieties and applications of the glass made at ,murano in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,the ,frosted or ,crackle ,glass is perhaps the simplest modification of the pure cristallo4 ,to produce this1 the paraison is plunged rapidly into cold water1 and after reheating to the necessary degree1 but not beyond1 it is worked into the desired form4 ,a similar effect is at times produced by rolling the molten paraison upon fragments of crushed glass4 ,i have spoken in the introductory chapter of certain rare cases where a minute fissuring has been set up in the substance of the glass4 ,this true crackle is probably in all cases the result of a subsequent structural change4 ,latticinio1 ,lattisuol1 or ,lattimo are names given by the ,venetians to a milk-white opaque glass4 ,white enamels were freely used in the fifteenth century1 but the earliest known specimen of ,venetian glass1 the whole body of which is rendered opaque by the presence of oxide of tin 7calcina di stagno7--the vetro bianco di smalto of the early writers#aea--;can hardly be older than the beginning of the next century4 ,the spherical vase 7,slade1 #djb7 formerly in the possession of the ,marquis ,d',azeglio1 is an exceptionally beautiful example of this milk-white glass 7,plate ,,xxxii474 ,the gilt scrolls harmonise well with the slightly warmish ground1 and were it not for the rudely executed mermaids on either side1 an ,eastern origin might well have been sought for this quite exceptional piece2 in fact1 ,i do not know of any other specimen of undoubted ,venetian glass so distinctly ,persian in character4 ,in the ,museo ,civico at ,venice is a flask 7circa #aecj7 of this lattimo glass1 about five inches in height1 decorated in blue1 with allegorical subjects4 ,although somewhat rudely executed1 the painting is masterly in style1 and may be compared to that on the best contemporary majolica 7,plate ,,xxxiii474 ,at a first glance this little vase might be taken for an example of ,medici porcelain1 and indeed we must bear in mind that all through the sixteenth century attempts were being made in ,venice to imitate the porcelain of the ,far ,east1 more especially the plain white and the blue and white wares which were already arriving at ,venice in considerable quantity4 ,this lattimo glass came much into favour for a second time early in the eighteenth century2 it was at that time often decorated in colours in a pseudo-,japanese style4 ,this later milk-white glass is once more closely associated with the attempts then again made at ,venice1 as in so many other countries1 to imitate the porcelain of ,china and ,japan4 ,this had indeed1 before the end of the previous century1 been in a measure accomplished in ,france by means of a soft paste1 in the composition of which a glass-like frit played an important part4 ,at a still later time this lattimo glass was even painted in monochrome1 in imitation of our early printed ,worcester porcelain6 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii ,,pilgrim',s ,,bottle2 ,,design ,,in ,,blue ,,on ,,lattimo ,,glass ,,venetian1 ,,early ,,sixteenth ,,century ,closely based upon this latticinio--for the threads in a vast majority of cases are of an opaque white--is the famous ,vetro di ,trina or lace-glass4 ,at the beginning of the last century the art of making this net-work decoration appears to have almost died out1 but in the thirties and forties it was revived by ,domenico ,bussolin1 and when later on more interest began to be taken in the ,murano glass1 it was to this vetro a reticelli that at first most attention was given4 ,the details of the manufacture were described and illustrated by the well-known director of the ,choisy glass-works1 ,m4 ,bontemps 7,expos des moyens employs pour la fabrication des verres filigranes1 #ahde74 ,there is1 however1 a simpler and perhaps easier application of these bands of lattimo1 in which they are applied in a series of festoons to the surface4 ,in this case the opaque white enamel appears to have been laid on to the paraison at an early stage and dragged into crescent-shaped waves1 so as to resemble closely the decoration of the little flasks of coloured glass from ,egyptian and early ,greek tombs--to those later examples more especially1 from ,rhodes and ,cyprus1 on which the colours are only applied to the surface 7p4 #cg71 the resemblance in technique is very close4 ,there are many interesting specimens of this festooned latticinio in the ,british ,museum4 ,in the case of the little biberon 7,slade1 ,no4 #fbh7 the festoons are worked into a palm pattern1 identical with that often found on the little primitive vases4 ,i shall not attempt to follow in detail the manner of preparation of the true vetro di trina1--suffice to say that it is built up of a number of juxtaposed rods2 these rods are arranged perpendicularly1 side by side1 so as to form a hollow cylinder1 and into the midst a small vesicle of molten glass is inserted2 to this the rods adhere1 and the whole mass is then worked into the desired form4 ,the rods themselves--they are similar to the canne supplied to the suppialume workers 7p4 #ahg7--may be either of opaque or clear glass1 or they may be formed of elaborate combinations of the two 7canelle a ritorto o merlate72 the most complicated patterns are thus obtained4 ,when two series of these rods are arranged to cross one another at an angle1 we get a reticulated pattern1 and within the reticelli thus formed a bubble of air may be caught up4 ,there is1 indeed1 little opportunity for finding in this kind of work any free play for the decorative feeling of the artist1 and the result of all these ingenious combinations of crossings and interlacings is only too often to give a tame and machine-made air to the finished vase or tazza4 ,the ,opalised ,glass1 the ,calcedonio#aeb of the ,venetians1 is obtained by adding the same materials as in the case of the latticinio1 but in very small proportions3 it stands to the latter as weak milk and water to pure milk4 ,in practice1 ,i believe1 the opalescence is often given by the addition of phosphate of lime in the form of bone-ash1 sometimes1 perhaps1 by arsenious acid4#aec ,pale blue by reflected light1 it takes various orange and yellow tints when the light is transmitted through it4 ,such a vessel as the cylindrical goblet and cover of thick calcedonio in the ,waddesdon ,room at the ,british ,museum1 with a design in high relief representing the ,triumph of ,neptune1 must have been cast in a mould4 ,we now come to certain varieties of glass which were much admired at one time1 but are now little in favour4 ,the aim1 it would seem1 in this class1 as in the case of the old ,roman prototype1 was to imitate various kinds of precious stones and marbles4 ,but the ,venetians showed here little of the restraint of their classical predecessors1 so that on the whole the colours1 where not crude1 are huddled together in muddy compounds4 ,an opaque red glass resembling jasper was probably known at ,murano as early as the fourteenth century4 ,in an inventory of the property of the ,duke of ,anjou 7circa #acfj7 there is mention of a #8pichier de voirre vermeil semblable a ,jaspe4' ,so in the next century1 ,charles the ,bold possessed #8,ung hanap de ,jaspe garni d'or1 uvre de ,venise'--to judge from the expression used this beaker was also of glass4#aed ,already in a ,milanese manuscript of #addc 7described below7 there is a formula given for making schmelz by means of a mixture of certain salts of silver1 iron1 and copper1 and before the end of the century we have ,sabellico's complaint that the modern murrhine glass was becoming far too common 7see page #bja72 so that1 on the whole1 this family of marbled glass is1 perhaps1 as old as any other ,venetian glass of which we have specimens4 ,the examples1 however1 that have survived appear to be mostly of a somewhat later date4 ,we find imitations of both classes of the ,roman millefiori--the tints1 however1 are generally crudely matched--and especially several varieties of marbled glass with contorted veins of many colours4 ,the schmelz par excellence of the ,venetians 7the ,german name would seem to point to a northern origin7 is an irregularly veined and mottled mass1 a somewhat unpleasant combination of bluish-green and purple tints1 calling to mind certain kinds of slag--indeed it may have originally been made in imitation of some such substance4 ,there are a few exceptionally fine early examples of this schmelz at ,south ,kensington4 ,notice above all the spherical vase from the ,castellani collection with cinquecento mountings and serpent handles of copper gilt2 the greenish-yellow and pale blue tints are in this case harmoniously blended4 ,to judge from the form of the bowl and stem1 the cup of finely marbled schmelz at ,hertford ,house cannot be dated much later than #aejj4 ,in this case1 and probably in others also1 the marblings are only on the surface2 the interior is of a uniform greyish-green colour4 ,of scarcely less importance is the splashed ware for which we can again find a ,roman if not an ,egyptian prototype4 ,the splashes of enamel of various colours must have been scattered over the paraison at an early stage1 for they have had to follow the changes of form given to the surface in the shaping of the vessel3 we see them stretched out at the neck on the little burette in the ,slade collection 7,no4 #ghc74 ,this splashed glass was much admired by the ,french and successfully imitated by them4 ,something should be said of the painted ,venetian glass of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,i say #8painted1' for such it is in general effect1 although the pigments have probably in most cases been subjected to some kind of firing4 ,the very poverty and dulness of the colours are indeed a proof of this2 the artist's palette has been subjected to the exigencies of the enameller's muffle4 ,we find landscapes with classical figures and amorini painted on the lower surface of bowls and rondelles 7tondi74 ,in the ,dutuit collection1 now housed in the ,petit ,palais at ,paris1 is a circular dish some fifteen inches in diameter1 painted on the under surface1 so as to be viewed through the glass2 the subject1 a dance of cupids1 is treated in an exceptionally fine style and can scarcely be later than the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,in many cases these designs have been added to ,venetian glass by non-,venetian1 sometimes by northern hands4 ,this kind of painting or enamelling is1 however1 very subject to injury by use1 and doubtless for this reason it is sometimes protected by a second sheet of glass4 ,we have in such painted dishes a variety of the so-called verre glomis to which reference has already more than once been made4 ,the ,venetians at times drew designs on their glass with a diamond4 ,there are some examples of this in a good cinquecento style in the ,slade collection2 but this work was confined to the pure scratched line1 and even shading was not much used4 ,it was not till the eighteenth century that they began to copy the later ,german methods of deep engraving and cutting with the wheel4 ,the ,british ,museum has lately acquired a square plaque of clear thick glass2 at the back1 in deep intaglio1 is the portrait of a ,doge1 who1 on the ground of the letters ,a4 ,g4 on either side of the head1 may be identified with ,andrea ,gritti 7#aebc-aech74aee ,the late ,m4 ,piot has extracted from a fifteenth-century treatise on architecture by ,antonio ,averlini a dialogue between two artists upon some curious applications of glass4 ,we hear of cristallino plaques with figures carved on the lower surface1 so as apparently to stand out in relief--a description which would apply well enough to this piastra4 ,there is no more troubled story in the history of glass-making than that of the manufacture of ,,mirrors at ,murano from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century4 ,we have seen in the early days1 when these mirrors were backed with lead 7p4 #ach71 that the ,germans had already become experts in this department4 ,more than once in the ,venetian archives there are references to the secret methods of these ,todeschi4 ,in a petition of #aejc there is mention of a plan for making good and perfect mirrors1 a precious secret unknown except to certain ,germans4 ,it is impossible to resist the suspicion that there is here a reference to the cylinder process1 which1 as we have seen1 was already known to ,theophilus 7p4 #abi72 by this process it would have been possible to produce a fairly large and comparatively flat sheet of glass4 ,the ,venetians1 on the other hand1 probably continued to a late period to use the old method of #8spinning' or #8flashing4'#aef ,it was only after the middle of the sixteenth century that the mirror-makers1 the specchiai1 formed themselves into a separate corporation2 but in this guild were included1 it would seem1 the makers of the so-called mirrors of steel4#aeg ,thus we find that in #aegd1 one ,francesco ,zamberlan1 who only two years before had taken out a patent for his #8specchi d'acciaio1' was admitted to the new guild on the ground of his special knowledge4 ,those engaged in the polishing--the lustratura and spianatura--of both materials1 glass and metal1 were also members of the guild4 ,for us the interest in these mirrors lies rather in the framing4 ,we find the new corporation early engaged in quarrels with the painters and with the workers in tarsia1 mother-of-pearl1 and coral 7i miniatori1 i marangoni1 e muschieri71 who found employment in decorating the frames4 ,for a time1 no doubt1 the ,venetian mirrors held their own1 but before the end of the seventeenth century the ,french1 thanks to the energy of ,colbert1 had not only learned all their secrets1 but by an entirely new method--namely by a process of casting or founding1 and subsequent rolling and polishing of the glass plates--were able to meet the demand for the large mirrors that were now regarded as indispensable in a ,louis-,quatorze salon4 ,but these #8glaces de ,st4 ,gobain' are of an entirely different nature from the exquisitely framed little lustri with which we are now concerned4 ,unfortunately1 as far as ,i know1 there are no characteristic specimens of these cinquecento mirrors--at least of those in which glass forms an important element in the frame as well--in any of our public collections4 ,for fine examples of such work we must go to the ,louvre or the ,htel de ,cluny4 ,it will be noticed that the margin of the glass is invariably bevelled1 thus forming a transition to the elaborate framing4 ,these cinquecento ,italian mirrors were extensively copied1 and this at an early date1 both in ,france and at ,nuremberg4 ,in spite of the heroic efforts made by the authorities in the late seventeenth and in the following century to introduce the new methods of working glass at ,murano1 the ,venetians failed to maintain their position4 ,it was only in the more conservative ,eastern markets that the demand for their mirrors was kept up2 even to-day1 in ,syria or in ,persia1 these ,italian glasses may not unfrequently be seen in private houses and even in mosques4 ,another characteristic application of the glass of ,murano was to the elaborate chandeliers that formed so important a part in the decoration of the reception-rooms of a ,venetian palace in the seventeenth century4 ,in these the metal framework is completely hidden by a thick foliage1 as it were1 of glass--frequently of the opalescent calcedonio--amid which the tall wax candles spring up here and there4 ,m4 ,gerspach extols the decorative value of these chandeliers3--#8,le soir1 le lustre de ,venise allum est un rayonnement harmonieux sans reflets discordants2 le jour1 stalactite cisele1 il gaye l'appartement comme une note claire et joyeuse' 7,la ,verrerie1 p4 #agc74 ,in the eighteenth century the contorted forms1 imitating leaves and flowers1 were replaced by pendent discs of colourless crystal1 cut1 polished1 and often facetted4 ,of these later chandeliers there is a splendid series1 whether of ,venetian origin or not ,i do not know1 at ,hertford ,house4 ,such chandeliers were known in ,england in the eighteenth century as #8lustres4'#aeh ,they are above all numerous in ,german palaces1 and most of the glass is probably of ,german or ,flemish origin4 ,but of the earlier type ,i cannot find a single example in any of our public museums4#aei ,the manufacture1 however1 has been revived at ,murano1 and chandeliers of this class1 with no claims to antiquity1 may often be seen in private houses both at home and abroad4 ,the spread of electric lighting has given a stimulus to work of this kind1 for the corolla-shaped shades that so often accompany our incandescent lamps have1 in most cases1 obviously been modelled upon the glass of the old ,venetian chandeliers4 ,the glass-workers of ,murano were a conservative body2 their work was based upon secret processes and rule-of-thumb formulas4 ,the elaborate division into different arti or corporations1 each governed by its separate mariegola1 made it excessively difficult to introduce any radical changes into the methods of work4 ,it is quite pathetic to observe the efforts of the comparatively enlightened governing body1 the conservatori alle arti1 who in the last years of the republic attempted to introduce the new processes that were revolutionising the glass industry in the north of ,europe4 ,we find reports signed by great names--,morosini and others--recommending the introduction of ,english machinery1 and drawing up plans for the cultivation of the ,salsola soda on the islands of the lagoons4 ,little attention apparently was given to the artistic side by these reformers4 ,one of the last names in the long list of the ,murano glass-makers is that of ,giuseppe ,briati1 famous for the purity of his cristallo2 he excelled1 too1 in the designing and the execution of the vetro di trina1 and ,lazari declares that much of the #8lace glass' in our collections attributed to the cinquecento belongs rather to him or to his school4#afj ,briati in #agci was allowed to set up a furnace in ,venice itself for the preparation of his cristallo1 the first time for more than four hundred years that such a permission had been granted4 ,it is of this ,briati that we are told that his glass found a place on the credenza or buffet at the public banquets of the ,doge1 beside the gold and silver plate4 ,this would appear to have been an innovation 7see above1 p4 #bjc7 introduced with the special aim of encouraging the declining industry4 ,an exception was again made in favour of one ,giorgio ,barbaria1 who so late as #agij1 in the parish of the ,gesuiti1 manufactured bottles by a new ,english method4 ,but as a ,french writer somewhat navely puts it--#8ce genre ne prte gure la fantaisie4' ,before this time the ,venetians had yielded to the new fashion of the day1 and were making cut and engraved glass more or less after ,german or ,bohemian models4 ,of this class were the trionfi di tavola--trophies of glass for the decoration of the dinner-table--as well as the gigantic chandeliers known as #8ciocche4' ,to such productions the artistic work of the time appears to have been confined4 ,of the first there is a fine specimen from the ,casa ,morosini set out in the centre of one of the rooms in the ,museo ,civico at ,venice4 ,i have already mentioned the chandeliers of cut glass4 ,they played an important part in a rococo interior4 ,after the occupation of ,venice by the ,french in #agig1 the ,directory attempted unsuccessfully to transplant the manufacture of beads 7marguerites7 to ,paris4 ,it is significant that they regarded this as the most important part of the glass industry4 ,the corporations or arti were finally abolished in #ahjf4 ,during the ensuing thirty years the manufacture of glass was at the lowest ebb4 ,there was1 however1 a first revival about #ahch1 which is associated with the name of ,bussolin4 ,but it was the energy and skill of a lawyer from ,vicenza1 ,antonio ,salviati1 with the financial assistance of certain ,english enthusiasts for the art1 ,sir ,henry ,layard and ,sir ,william ,drake1 in the first place1 that led1 not long after the middle of the century1 to the furnaces of ,murano again turning out something beyond window-glass and beads4 ,from the technical side ,venetian glass belongs essentially to the ,mediterranean family--the art was possibly learned in the first instance from the ,byzantine ,greeks4 ,but it is probably as a consequence of their intercourse with the coast of ,syria1 the old home of glass1 that the ,venetians acquired at so early a date a pre-eminent position as glass-workers4 ,like that of their predecessors1 theirs was essentially a soda glass4 ,what distinguished it was1 above all1 its total freedom from colour2 the ,venetians were the first1 at least since ,roman times1 to make an absolutely clear white glass4 ,this result they obtained not only by care in the selection of their materials1 especially in the source of the silica1 but also by an early mastery of the use of manganese1 #8the glass-maker's soap4' ,the ,venetian glass excelled again in its working qualities1 in the extreme ductility which it maintained through a wide range of temperature4 ,this property was in a measure due to the large quantity of alkali which entered into its composition4 ,on the other hand1 this excess of soda has led at times to a rapid tarnishing of the surface1 visible above all in our damp climate4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv ,,venetian ,,glass ,,about #aejj #a4 ,,plate1 ,,enamelled ,,and ,,gilt--,,arms ,,of ,,della ,,rovere ,,family #b4 ,,tazza1 ,,enamelled ,,with ,,coat ,,of ,,arms ,but it is to the works of the contemporary ,italian writers that we had better turn for information on these practical points4 ,these are of two classes3--#ast1 ,works of some literary pretension which contain chapters on the glass of ,murano for the information of the general public4 #bnd1 ,technical treatises1 consisting for the most part of formulas for the use of the glass-maker4 ,to the first class belong ,fioravanti's remarks on mirrors1 which we have already quoted4 ,biringuccio1 the ,sienese1 in his treatise on les arts du feu 7,de la ,pirotechnia1 ,venice1 #aedj71 has a chapter on glass 7,bk4 ,,ii4 cap4 xiii474 ,he tells us that the ,venetians made glass from the ashes of chali1 an herb that grows in ,syria and also near ,magalone1 in the south of ,france 7the lagoons of ,maguelonne1 near ,cette74 ,in the place of this chali the ashes of fern or of the mysterious duznea may be used4 ,one part of the lixiviated ash is mixed with two of the cogoli1 the clear white pebbles found in the bed of certain streams4 ,to these materials a small amount of manganese is added1 and the whole melted in a reverberatory furnace to form a substance known as fritta1 already a kind of glass1 but #8mal purgata4' ,the glass furnace is then described in some detail3 it is made to hold eight crucibles 7conconi71 each three-quarters of a braccio 7say fifteen inches7 in height4 ,these conconi are made with terra di ,valencia1 and are first well dried and annealed over the fritting-hearth4 ,we are told how1 after melting in these pots1 the viscous substance is collected at the end of a hollow rod of iron1 turned and returned upon the marver to unite the mass together1 and then by blowing down the tube extended to form a vesicle4 ,this #8vescicha' is now whirled round the head of the workman to lengthen it1 or it may be pressed into a mould of bronze 7#8in un cavo di bronzo'74 ,it is now transferred to another rod of iron 7the pontella1 though the word is not used71 worked up in various ways1 and cut with shears4 ,the handles and feet are added1 and the vessel may be decorated by enamelling or otherwise4#afa ,la ,piazza ,universale di tutte le professioni del ,mondo1 by ,tommaso ,garzoni of ,bagnacavallo1 was1 to judge from the numerous editions issued1 a very popular work in its day4 ,the copy before me1 not by any means the first edition1 is dated ,venice1 #aehe4 ,it contains a chapter entitled #8,de ,vetrari1 o ,biccherari1 ,occhialari e ,fenestrari4' ,the superiority of the glass of ,murano1 #8luogo amenissimo e delitiosissimo presso a ,venetia1' he attributes to the saltness of the water1 to the absence of dust1 so detrimental to the work1 and to the abundant supply of wood which gives a most beautiful and clear flame4 ,besides1 it is only at ,murano that they know how to prepare the soda with which the beautiful cristallo is made4 ,that made from the herb ugnea 7cf4 the duznea of ,biringuccio7 or from fern1 produces a yellow and brittle glass1--the inferiority of the potash glass is here indirectly indicated4 ,among the long list of the vessels made at ,murano we find zuccarini a reticelli or a ritortoli1 interesting as an early mention of lace glass4 ,the word zuccarino1 literally a basin for sweets1 is used as a general name for covered bowls or dishes4 ,we then have the account 7already quoted7 of the preparation of latticinio1 and also of a glass made up of fragments of canne of various colours1 a kind of millefiori1 in fact4 ,there is1 he tells us1 nothing imaginable in the world that these ,muranese cannot make with glass--castles even with towers1 bastions1 walls1 and cannon4 #8,come nell' ,ascensa di ,venetia talvolta s' vista1' he continues4 ,this refers1 ,i think1 to the display of masterpieces of glass in the procession on ,ascension ,day4 ,garzoni1 we must remember1 is in this book in the first place concerned with the various trades and professions of his time1 and he takes us next to the occhiolari1 the makers of spectacles1 who ply their trade in the ,merceria1 and finally to the ,finestrari or ,vetriari1 who with marvellous rapidity fit into frames of lead #8certi occhi di vetro' made at ,murano4 ,we see from this that the old bull's-eye glass was still in general use4 ,i must now1 in conclusion1 say something of the other class of writers1 those who1 without any literary pretensions1 claim to disclose the secret processes and formulas of the glass-workers4 ,these men are the successors of ,theophilus and of the compilers of the early alchemistic treatises of which ,i have spoken in a previous chapter4 ,it is noticeable that not one of these men1 as far as we know1 was a ,venetian2 indeed in every case1 if the writer is not a ,florentine himself1 it is from ,florentine libraries and archives that his works have been extracted4 ,cennini was essentially a writer of this class1 but in his ,trattato della ,pittura there are only a few casual references to glass4 ,the three little treatises found by ,gaetano ,milanesi in the ,florentine archives1 and published by him in #ahfd1 are chiefly concerned with the preparation of glass for mosaics4 ,they may probably be attributed to the first half of the fifteenth century1 and we thus have in the recipes which fill these books the earliest documentary evidence for the composition of ,venetian glass4 ,i will quote from the first of these little works a section 7xxiii47 which treats of #8the placing of glass on the surface of glass4' ,the writer1 it should be noted1 is concerned with the preparation of the piastre or slabs from which were cut the little cubes for mosaic work2 this question of the various ways in which a leaf of gold may be included between two sheets of glass is one which has already interested us4 #8 ,the glass to be about as thin as an eye-glass4 ,cut the leaves of the gold to the length of the glass1 and put the gold upon the glass with white of egg2 then place above this gold the other upper glass1 and dry the whole4 ,then put them in the small ovens 7fornelli71 and let them be on a level so as not to slope1 in order that the glass may not run4 ,when they have become red-hot1 load them with an iron so that they may grow together and unite4 ,then place them over the arch of the fornacetta 7probably the fritting-oven71 and let them cool little by little4' ,the next section treats of the preparation of lattimo bianco by calcining four parts of tin and two parts of lead1 and then mixing the resulting powder with ten parts of ,syrian soda4 ,but as is the case with all the treatises of this class1 the majority of the sections are concerned with the preparation of the various ingredients by means of which glass may be coloured--the colori da ismalti4 ,the green and opaque red are both obtained from copper-scale1 the purple and crimson from various mixtures of manganese#afb 7so spelt in the text71 and the yellow either from iron-scale or from a mixture of resin and tartar4 ,as for the fine blue--the zaffiro--it should be noted that the pigment employed is described as azurro da vetro1#afc probably a preparation of cobalt--similar to what in later times was known as smalt--which the glass-workers obtained ready-made from ,germany4 ,in the early sections of the third of these little treatises#afd the preparation of the soda is described in some detail4 ,much importance appears to be attached to the frit1 for the third section is headed #8,questa si la pratica di fare la fritta1 ci li pane del cristallino4 ,nota ed impara4' ,in the composition of this frit there enters not only soda and the white pebbles from the ,tecino1 but a considerable amount of gromma or tartar1 a substance containing potash1 and perhaps lime also4 ,the preparation of #8calcedonio in tutta perfezione' is next described1 and ,i may note that the presence in it of salts of iron and copper1 to say nothing of silver1 mercury1 and azurro1 would point to some variegated mixture resembling the schmelz of later days rather than to the opalescent glass to which this name was subsequently given 7cf4 p4 #bjf74 ,of greater importance than any of these little treatises is the work that ,antonio ,neri published in #afab4 ,in fact1 having regard to the influence of this book on future writers on the subject1 especially upon those who sought to make glass by ,venetian methods in ,england and elsewhere1 it may without doubt be given the premier place as the most important work that has ever appeared on the preparation of glass4 ,we know very little of the author except that he was born in ,florence towards the end of the sixteenth century1 that he was a priest1 and that he spent some time at ,antwerp1 where it would seem that his attention was first directed towards the manufacture of glass4 ,when1 after the death of the ,grand ,duke ,ferdinand in #afji1 the manufacture of the soft-paste ,medici porcelain was abandoned1 we are told that in its place glass-works were established at ,pisa1 and with these works we may perhaps connect ,neri's little treatise4 ,i have1 however1 already gone over most of the ground covered by this book in my quotations from ,biringuccio and others1 and ,i will postpone the consideration of what little further is to be gleaned from it until ,i come1 in the account of our ,english glass1 to speak of the translation of ,neri's book made by ,merret in #affb4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,french ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,in the history of ,european glass the culminating point is perhaps reached in the ,venetian glass of the first half of the sixteenth century--,i am speaking1 of course1 from the artistic point of view4 ,for a century or more after this time our history is concerned with little else than the spread of the ,italian methods of manufacture and decoration over the west of ,europe4 ,after the middle of the seventeenth century the interest becomes more and more centred in the technical and economical improvements in the manufacture4 ,the invention of plate-glass by the ,french1 in ,england the use of coal instead of wood in the glass-furnace1 and the adoption of a heavy fusible type of glass containing lead 7an indirect consequence1 perhaps1 of this change of fuel7--these are the really notable points in the history of the first century of industrial advance4 ,after the middle of the eighteenth century ,england takes a more and more important position1 and the prominent question was the production of a glass of high technical excellence at a greatly reduced price4 ,preoccupied as we were at that time with the absorbing interest of this industrial revolution1 less attention was given in this country to the artistic side in the manufacture of glass4 ,in the sixteenth century the interest of our subject centres in the story of the emigration of skilled glass-workers from ,venice and from ,l',altare1 and in the more or less complete replacement of the old methods1 as these ,italians found their way into nearly every corner of ,western ,europe4 ,it was technically the victory of the carefully prepared cristallo over the old medival verre de fougre or wald-glas4 ,from another point of view the revolution was but one phase in the spread of the ,italian renaissance4 ,in fact1 in one respect it was distinctly a renaissance1 for the glass of ,venice in composition differed little from that made during the ,roman domination3 it belonged essentially to the great ,mediterranean family of soda-lime glass1 prepared1 if not from sea-weed1 at least from maritime herbs4 ,on the other hand1 the indigenous glass which the cristallo replaced was almost without exception of forest origin1 a potash glass made from the roughly lixiviated ashes of beechwood or bracken4 ,i have said that these ,italian glass-workers carried their new methods all through ,western ,europe1 but1 as we shall see1 their permanent influence was not the same in each case4 ,in ,germany it was in a measure but a passing fashion--neither the ,italian designs nor the ,italian methods of manufacture ever became prevalent4 ,the wald-glas1 in an improved form certainly1 held its own1 and indeed before the end of the next century was threatening the supremacy of its ,venetian rival4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 the victory was in a manner complete2 the old verre de fougre1 it is true1 long survived1 but in an acknowledged position of inferiority4 ,in the ,netherlands the case was more complicated2 for while on the one hand at ,antwerp and at ,lige the typical ,venetian cristallo was more successfully imitated than elsewhere out of ,italy1 on the other hand1 in many places in the ,low ,countries1 the old green glass continued to be made1 and the old shapes1 above all the essentially ,teutonic roemer1 never fell out of favour4 ,it so happens indeed that for the best renderings of examples of both these schools of glass we must go to the works of the ,dutch and ,flemish painters1 rather than to the contemporary pictures of either ,germany or ,italy4 ,this is an interesting point about which ,i shall have something more to say later on4 ,as regards ,spain1 the ,italian influence became on the whole predominant1 but here the question is complicated by the existence1 in ,catalonia at least1 of a school of enamelled glass of which the ,venetian origin is by no means certain1 and this school was already well developed before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,finally1 in the case of our own country1 the ,venetian emigrants who came for the most part by way of the ,low ,countries1 had soon to divide the hitherto almost free field with glass-workers from ,normandy and ,lorraine4 ,it is only of late years that the full significance of this emigration of glass-workers from ,murano and from ,l',altare has been recognised4 ,a distinguished ,belgian antiquary1 ,m4 ,schuermans1 ,president of the ,cour d',appel at ,lige1 about the year #ahhj--;following in this in the steps of his countryman the late ,m4 ,alexandre ,pinchart1 and in a measure also in those of ,m4 ,houdoy 7,verrerie la faon de ,venise1 ,paris1 #ahgc7--;began a systematic investigation of the subject1 and during a period of ten years1 from #ahhc to #ahib1 contributed to the pages of a learned periodical published at ,brussels 7,bulletin des ,commissions ,royales de l',art et de l',industrie7 a series of letters--for so ,m4 ,schuermans modestly called them1 though they were in fact so many treatises1 extending some of them to more than a hundred pages--packed full with the results of his researches4 ,one of the most curious sources of information ,m4 ,schuermans found in the reports sent from the ,venetian embassies and agencies in ,france and elsewhere to the ,council of ,ten at ,venice4 ,it was not the least important duty of the diplomatic agents of the ,republic to trace out the fugitive ,muranese glass-workers1 to endeavour to induce them1 by threats or promises1 to return to their homes1 and if unsuccessful in this1 to denounce them to the authorities in ,venice1 who might then proceed to throw into prison the unhappy families of these recalcitrant workmen4 ,in extreme cases there are hints of more drastic measures in dealing with the traitors themselves--for so they were regarded--but ,i do not think that any instance of assassination has been definitely made out for the time of which we are now speaking4 ,it is certainly strange that the only known cases of such judicial murders occurred at ,vienna as late as the eighteenth century4 ,the story was told long ago by ,daru in his ,histoire de ,venise 7,pices ,justificatives71 and ,i do not know that it has ever been refuted4 ,not that these extreme measures were at all times carried out with equal energy4 ,at times1 for political or other reasons1 little restraint appears to have been put upon the wandering forth of the ,muranese glass-workers2 while at others the ,council of ,ten seems to have regarded the question as one of the utmost moment1 aroused perhaps by reports that seemed to prove that the glass monopoly of the state was endangered4 ,this was the case at the end of the fifteenth century1 again towards the middle of the seventeenth1 and more especially at the end of that century1 when the ,venetians began to find their industry seriously threatened by their ,german rivals4 ,in the sixteenth century1 as a contemporary writer puts it1 #8,tous les rois et princes dsiraient et affectaient avoir en leurs royaumes cette science'3 that is to say1 the knowledge of the methods of preparing the true cristallo4 ,to obtain this knowledge from ,murano was difficult and even dangerous4 ,what wonder1 then1 that recourse was had to the ,consuls of the glass-workers' guild at ,l',altare8 ,these officials seem to have been always ready to negotiate for the supply to foreign princes1 or even to private individuals--if the requisite payment was forthcoming--of one or more of their skilled gentleman glass-workers4#afe ,but in this case1 too1 a keen eye was kept upon these men3 they were bound by the strictest oaths to practise their craft1 when in foreign lands1 with the greatest secrecy2 above all they were forbidden to take any apprentices from the people among whom they were working4 ,in ,france1 where so many of these ,altarists settled1 these restrictions were the cause of constant friction1 but so successfully were they as a rule enforced1 that we find that1 in the case of more than one centre of the new industry1 it was necessary during a period of at least a century to have recourse from time to time to the original source at ,l',altare1 to replace the ,italian workmen who had died or wandered off to other towns4 ,for like their rivals from ,murano1 these ,altarists were always on the move4 ,we are reminded in this of the wandering porcelain #8arcanists' of the eighteenth century1 who carried from one ,german court to another the secrets of their craft4 ,to give but a single example2 ,m4 ,schuermans has traced one of these gentilshommes de verre in migrations that led him successively to ,london1 ,lige1 ,maestricht1 ,rouen1 and ,paris4 ,in what respect1 if in any1 did the glass manufactured by these #8licensed' craftsmen from ,l',altare1 differ from that made by their rivals the #8outlaws' from ,murano8 ,this is a question that we are not in a position to answer4 ,that there was some difference in style of working1 and not merely in the technical excellence of the glass1 would seem to be proved by the expression #8 la faon d',altare1' or #8ad uso d',altare1' so often applied to it4 ,there is no doubt that the glass made #8 la faon de ,venise' was1 on the whole1 regarded as of greater excellence1 and that in the impossibility of obtaining workmen from ,murano1 the resort to the ,consuls at ,l',altare was in a measure a pis aller4 ,we must not1 however1 as has sometimes been done1 look upon the craftsmen from the latter town as incapable of producing anything of artistic merit4 ,on the contrary1 they not only turned out a true cristallo1 but much of the enamelled glass that was so successfully made in ,france in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries came in all probability from furnaces worked by ,altarists4 ,in fact1 our ignorance on this point affords an excellent example of a difficulty that is met with again and again in this history of ours1--the difficulty1 ,i mean1 of controlling our literary material by means of the scanty examples of glass that have come down to us4 ,it would require a large shelf in a library to hold all the bulky volumes dealing with the history of ,french glass that have of late years been published1 works that are due above all to the local patriotism and the industry of provincial investigators4 ,for books of this kind1 the fashion was set as long ago as #ahfd by ,m4 ,benjamin ,fillon in his ,l',art du ,verre chez les ,poitevins4 ,since then have appeared not mere brochures1 but in many cases portly volumes tracing the history of the manufacture in ,normandy1 ,picardy1 ,lorraine1 ,nevers1 ,lyons1 and ,provence4 ,m4 ,schuermans has devoted to ,france a long letter1 chiefly concerned with the settlements of ,altarist workmen 7op4 cit41 vol4 xxxi474 ,and yet not only are specimens of glass1 undoubtedly ,french1 of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries comparatively rare1 but in very few cases can anything more than a guess be made as to the provinces to which these specimens are to be attributed4 ,such attributions indeed1 when attempted1 have for the most part had to be based either upon the armorial bearings forming part of the enamelled decoration1 or again upon the localities where the glasses have been found--and these are criteria that fail in most cases4 ,among the many anomalies that we encounter in the course of this inquiry--and surely in no kindred branch of art history are so many met with--there is nothing more surprising than the numerous important #8developments' of glass of one kind or another1 for which we may search in vain a rational explanation--unless1 indeed1 it is the corresponding fact of the unexplained barrenness of certain periods and countries where such poverty would have been the least expected4 ,one source of this apparent caprice in the presence or absence of glass of artistic merit at times and at places where the contrary might have been looked for1 may be found1 perhaps1 in the fact that although1 since ,roman days at all events1 the making of glass has always been an important industry1 it is an industry that has only incidentally come into connection with the sthetic movements of the time4#aff ,some such explanation may perhaps be given for the comparatively subordinate place taken by ,france in the history of artistic glass1 at least until quite recent days4 ,in one department of the vitreous arts the ,french occupied no doubt for a time the premier place--the stained glass of their cathedrals is acknowledged to be the finest in ,europe4 ,but in our branch of the manufacture1 a branch for which1 curiously enough1 the ,french alone have provided a name--la verrerie--that nation has never occupied a prominent position4 ,since ,roman times1 the first place as producers of glass vessels of artistic importance has been held in succession by ,byzantine ,greeks1 by ,saracens1 by ,venetians1 by ,germans1 and for a moment by the ,english4 ,it is only quite of late1 since the commencement of the last quarter of the nineteenth century in fact1 that any claim for such a position could be made for the ,french4 ,and yet1 in spite of this1 the literature of that special subdivision of the arts du feu with which we are here concerned is especially a ,french one1 and this is true not only for the technical and industrial side of the subject1 but for the artistic and historical in an even greater degree4 ,i have spoken of the determined way in which these wandering ,italians kept themselves apart from the native workmen1 so that the secrets of their craft were preserved through more than one generation4 ,in time1 however1 in ,france at any rate1 not a few of these ,italian craftsmen became sedentary1 and not the least curious result of the recent researches by ,french and ,belgian archivistes has been to show how certain well-known families of glass-makers from ,l',altare settled down in various parts of ,france1 where their representatives may now be found1 many of them still engaged in the same work4 ,so that1 thanks to these investigations1 the ,saroldi of ,l',altare have been provided with distant cousins in the ,sarode family of ,poitou2 in similar manner the ,ferri are represented by the ,ferry of ,provence1 great glass-masters at the present day2 the ,massari by the ,massary of ,lorraine2 and the ,bormioli by the ,bormiolles of ,normandy and the ,nivernais4 ,all these four families were admitted long since to the noblesse of ,france#afg 7,schuermans1 ,letter ,,xi41 #ahib74 ,it is difficult to form any definite idea of the nature of the craft secrets of these ,italians4 ,it can hardly have related to the more obvious materials employed1 for as early as #aeee 7and it was only about the year #aedh that the great emigration of the ,altarists began7 the ,oriental soda1 the rocchetta of ,neri1 which was brought by ,venetian galleys from ,alexandria1 had in ,france been already displaced by the ,spanish soda or barilla1 a material that has held its place until recent times4 ,this barilla was made from the famous soda plant1 the ,salsola sativa1 which1 we are told1 was grown from seed in various parts of the province of ,murcia1 and exported from the adjacent port of ,alicante4 ,so again the quartz pebbles from the bed of the ,ticino1 so highly prized by the early ,venetian glass-makers1 were early replaced by the pure white sand of taples4#afh ,there is1 however1 in this connection1 one point worth notice4 ,it is impossible to prepare a workable glass from quartz and alkali alone2 the presence of a certain quantity of lime is essential4 ,now in the forest glass--the verre de fougre--sufficient lime 7or equivalent bases7 is provided by the impurities in the crude potash employed2 but this is no longer the case when the more carefully prepared ,oriental or ,spanish soda takes its place3 it is now necessary to supply additional lime4 ,it is not impossible that the secret of the shrewd ,italians may have lain in this direction4 ,when speaking of the medival glass of ,france1 ,i have brought forward some evidence to show that1 by the fourteenth century at least1 vessels of glass must have been produced in large quantities for domestic use4 ,this of course was1 without exception1 verre de fougre1 essentially the glass of the people1 which for long was little influenced by the new ,italian methods4 ,it was this glass chiefly that was hawked round the country by itinerant vendors4 ,their cry was well known in ,paris--#8,gentils verres1 verres jolis-- deux liards les verres de pierre6' ,others1 as in old days at ,rome 7see the quotation from ,martial on p4 #hb1 note71 collected broken glass to the cry of #8,chambrires1 regardez-y6--,voirre cassez1 ,voirre cassez6'#afi ,bernard ,palissy1 writing towards the end of the sixteenth century1 gives but a mean idea not only of the hawkers1 but of the makers of glass in his day3--#8,je te prie1 considre un peu les verres qui1 pour avoir est trop communs entre les hommes1 sont devenuz un prix si vil que la plupart de ceux qui les font vivent plus mchaniquement que ne font les crocheteurs de ,paris 444 et ces verres sont venduz et criez1 par les villages1 par ceux mmes qui crient les vieux chapeaux et les vieilles ferrailles' 7quoted by ,gerspach1 p4 #aic74 ,it was only when the secrets of the pure cristallo and the application of enamels were introduced from ,italy that glass began to take a more honourable position in ,france4 ,we cannot safely trace back the foreign influence to an earlier date than the middle of the fifteenth century1 and it was not brought into full play till just a century later4 ,the name of ,ren1 #8king of ,sicily and ,jerusalem1' and ruler under various titles in ,provence1 ,anjou1 and ,lorraine1 was at one time a name to conjure with in matters connected with art and literature1 above all in the south of ,france4 ,of late years there has been a tendency to strip this much harassed king of many of his claims to distinction as a patron of the arts4 ,there seems1 however1 every reason to connect his name with the introduction of the finer sorts of glass into ,france1 not1 of course1 of the industry as a whole1 though even this was at one time claimed for ,ren4 ,there is evidence to show that as early as #addc a member of the ,ferro family#agj of ,l',altare was working for him at ,goult1 in ,provence4 ,this would be the earliest instance known to us of ,italian glass-workers in ,france4 ,king ,ren1 we are told1 presented to his nephew ,louis ,,xi4 some pieces of glass #8molt variols et bien peincts4' ,but we can hardly refer to so early a date the beaker of enameled glass formerly preserved at ,aix1 painted inside with the kneeling figure of the ,magdalen by the side of her ,master1 so arranged that the former was only visible when the cup had been drained2 so that1 as the inscription quaintly expressed it3-- #8,qui bien boira ,dieu verra ,qui boira tout d'une haleine ,verra ,dieu et la ,madelaine4' ,it was but a few years later1 in #addh1 that the famous charter of which a nearly contemporary copy has fortunately been preserved1 was granted to certain glass-workers in ,lorraine by ,jean de ,calabre1 governor of that duchy in place of his father1 ,king ,ren4 ,in this document we have early evidence of the claim of the glass-workers to the rights of gentlemen4#aga ,full recognition is given to the #8plusieurs beaux droitz1 libertez1 franchises et prrogatives1 et dont eulx et leurs prdcesseurs ayant joui et us de tous temps passez et est tenus et rputez en telle franchise comme chevaliers estimez et gens nobles dudit duchi de ,lorrainne4' ,then follows a list of all these privileges1 not the least important being the exemption from #8toutes tailles1 aydes1 subsides1 d'ost1 de giste et de chevaulchies quelconques4' ,this is by no means the earliest ,french document in which the claim to some kind of nobility is made for the profession4 ,as far back as the later thirteenth century1 in the reign of ,philippe le ,bel1 the glass-workers of ,champagne claimed similar rights1 basing their pretensions on certain edicts of ,constantine and on others found in the ,theodosian ,code6 ,charles ,,vi41 whose interest in the manufacture of glass has been already referred to 7p4 #acg71 in his ,lettres ,royales of #acii1 granted important rights to the glass-makers1 #8 cause de la noblesse du dict mestier4' ,these privileges1 however1 were confined to those whose ancestors had followed the craft for several generations4 ,but for all this1 these poor #8gentilshommes de verre' never obtained that complete recognition in ,france that had always been granted to their brother craftsmen at ,venice and ,l',altare1 and their claims at times exposed them to ridicule4 ,there is an often-quoted epigram1 directed against one of their number 7it is probably by ,franois ,maynard1 a follower of ,ronsard71 which well expresses the popular feeling with regard to their position-- #8,votre noblesse est mince2 ,car ce n'est pas d'un prince1 ,daphnis1 que vous sortez4 ,gentilhomme de verre1 ,si vous tombez terre1 ,adieu vos qualits4' ,the question of these gentilshommes verriers was fully discussed by the late ,m4 ,garnier in his book upon glass 7,la ,verrerie1 p4 #agd seq471 and he quotes passages from contemporary documents to show both the extent of the claims and the ambiguous position actually held by these needy gentry in the eighteenth century4 ,at that time they were still always referred to as gentilshommes1 and they vindicated their social status by fighting duels among themselves4 ,their position1 however1 was often very wretched1 less so1 indeed1 in ,normandy than in ,lorraine1 where the competition of the ,germans was so keen4 ,it is a significant fact that at the ,revolution they as a body joined the party of the migrs1 and actually petitioned ,m4 ,d',artois to enrol them in a special corps4 ,one point is clear3 the profession of glass-worker was at all times in ,france open to the nobility1 and this1 of course1 was not the case with other crafts and trades4 ,this long digression upon the position of the glass-workers in ,france was started by certain expressions in the charter granted to the glass-makers of ,lorraine by the son of ,king ,ren4 ,not a little interest attaches to the production of this eastern district2 its history1 as concerns glass1 differs from that of the more essentially ,french provinces4#agb ,here the ,italians1 whether from ,murano or ,l',altare1 appear to have had little influence4 ,in ,lorraine1 as in the lower ,rhine country and in the bishopric of ,lige--closely related districts--the making of glass had probably been carried on continuously from ,roman times4 ,in the ,ardennes1 and especially in the forests of ,argonnes and in the ,vosges1 the manufacture early took on a purely industrial character4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century it was claimed by the glass-makers of the last district that they supplied ,switzerland1 the ,low ,countries1 and ,england with glass2 and we shall see later on that it was from glass-workers from ,lorraine1 more definitely from the western ,vosges1 that we in ,england learned so much in the later sixteenth century4 ,these ,lorrainers owed their chief fame to their skill in making window-panes and mirrors1 and the old tradition may be held to be still carried on in the great glass-works at ,baccarat1 near ,lunville4 ,i have no space to follow the working of the new methods in ,poitou and in the south1 but a few words may be said of the glass-houses established at ,,nevers in the sixteenth century4 ,at that time the dukedom of the ,nivernais was held by the ,gonzaga family of ,mantua1 who had already acquired the marquisate of ,montferrat1 upon which the town of ,l',altare was dependent4 ,louis of ,gonzaga1 who died in #aeie1 was as a patron of the arts quite abreast of his time1 and we may note that besides his possessions in ,france and ,italy he held much land in ,flanders and the ,lige country1 and that he was married to a princess of the house of ,cleves4 ,the old town of ,nevers became for a time an artistic centre of some importance4 ,in the handsome renaissance palace built in part by this said ,louis 7his arms are to be seen carved in bold relief on the walls71 there is now gathered together an important collection of the enamelled fayence for which the town is famous1 and also a few examples of the local glass1 but none of this last is1 ,i think1 of so early a date as the sixteenth century4 ,altarists had doubtless come to ,nevers before the time of the ,duke ,louis1 but it was during his rule that the ,saroldo family settled here1 a family famous especially for their skill in the use of glass enamels4 ,to the ,saroldo succeeded the ,ponta family2 and in the seventeenth century ,jean ,castellano came from ,lige3 in addition to these ,altarists1 ,venetian workmen were employed at times4 ,it is1 indeed1 a noticeable fact that here in the very centre of ,france these glass-works should1 for something like two hundred years1 have been dependent upon ,italian workmen4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv ,,french ,,glass ,,of ,,renaissance #a4 ,,statuette ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,,coloured ,,enamels #b4 ,,man ,,with ,,muff4 ,,on ,,stand ,,of ,,dresden ,,porcelain #c4 ,,burette ,,of ,,splashed ,,glass ,the glass of ,nevers acquired some general renown in the seventeenth century4 ,thomas ,corneille1 the younger brother of the great dramatist1 calls the town a #8petit ,murane de ,venise1' and praises the #8varit des divers ouvrages de verre qui s'y font et qu'on transporte dans toutes les provinces de la ,france4' ,in this case--quite exceptionally as regards ,france--we can associate a special genre or application of glass--a somewhat trifling one1 to be sure--with the local glass-houses4 ,in the already mentioned museum in the ,ducal ,palace may be seen some of these #8gentillesses a'mail propres orner les cabinets1 les chemines et les armoires4' ,here may be found landscape scenes with cows and shepherdesses built up of fragments of glass of various colours1--these childish compositions are apparently executed with the blow-pipe4 ,we are told in the journal of ,jean ,hroard1 the physician to ,louis ,,xiii41 that when that king was a child he amused himself with certain #8petits chiens de verre et autres animaux faits ,nevers4' ,among the scanty specimens of ,french glass in the ,british ,museum are some quaint little figures1 about four inches in height1 built up of coloured glass enamels4 ,we see there a little statuette of ,louis ,,xiv4 strutting along attired as a ,roman emperor2 there is another of ,st4 ,james the ,apostle4 ,these characteristic examples of verroterie may very plausibly be referred to the glass-blowers of ,nevers at the end of the seventeenth century#agc 7,plate ,,xxxv4 #a74 ,the province of ,,normandy has played a not unimportant part in the history of glass4 ,it was from the ,norman duchy and from ,brittany1 according to the tradition preserved at ,l',altare1 that the glass-workers wandered forth in the tenth or eleventh century to find a more peaceable home at ,l',altare1 in the mountains above the ,ligurian coast4 ,as early as the year #acjb we hear of the famous glass-house at ,la ,haye1 in the forest of ,lyons1 near ,rouen4 ,this is in a charter which mentions incidentally the bracken1 the #8feucheriam ad faciendum vitrum'--for all this early glass was1 as ,i have said1 verre de fougre--which was to be cut only at specified times4 ,it was here1 about the year #accj1 that ,philippe de ,cacqueray is said to have first made the plasts de verre1 otherwise known as verre de ,france1#agd for long the most important product of the ,norman glass-houses4 ,these plasts were indeed merely small sheets of glass1 with a thickening or #8bull's-eye' in the centre2 they were made by the familiar #8spinning' process1 which1 however1 must surely have been known before the fourteenth century4 ,in any case this verre de ,france was widely exported at a later time1 and much of it must have found its way into ,england4#age ,it would appear that the gentlemen of the grosses verreries where this window-glass was made1 held their heads above those of petites verreries which turned out only #8hollow ware1' and this fact would point to the outcome of the latter works not being of a very superior kind4 ,if1 however1 we may judge from the examples reproduced by ,m4 ,gerspach 7,l',art de la ,verrerie1 figs4 #ajd-aac7 from the collection of ,m4 le ,breton1 who has done for ,norman glass what ,m4 ,fillon has done for that of ,poitou1 the table-ware made in ,normandy during the seventeenth century possessed no little artistic merit1 and what is more1 it had a cachet of its own4 ,in the seventeenth century1 however1 the history of glass in ,france centres round the manufacture of plate-glass by the new process of coulage or casting4 ,after the middle of the century a demand arose in ,france for large sheets of clear glass1 not so much for windows1 it would seem1 as for the tall mirrors that were now coming into fashion1 and again for the portires of the #8glass-coaches' of the nobility4 ,colbert1 the great minister of the early and glorious days of ,louis ,,xiv41 was in despair because the large panes of glass suitable for these purposes had to be obtained from ,venice or from ,nuremberg4 ,after an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony of ,muranese workmen in ,paris1 ,colbert had recourse to a ,norman family of glass-makers1 the ,de ,nhou1 who had lately succeeded the ,de ,cacqueray at ,tourlaville1 near ,cherbourg4 ,it was in #afge that ,louis ,lucas de ,nhou was put in charge of the royal glass-works at ,paris1 where he perfected his great discovery of the method of casting glass4 ,he was able to turn out sheets of unprecedented size by a process in which the #8metal' was poured upon frames1 spread out evenly by rollers1 and subsequently polished4 ,the ,manufacture ,royale des ,glaces was removed in #afic to the ,chteau de ,st4 ,gobain1 not far from ,laon4 ,the ,st4 ,gobain works have for two hundred years held a pre-eminent position in ,europe for the manufacture of plate-glass4 ,this subject of plate-glass is indeed a little outside our limits3 for the student of the architecture and the decorative arts of the eighteenth century it is1 however1 one of no little importance4 ,i have been able to do little more than select a few examples that have seemed to me of especial interest from the well-filled records of the ,french glass-workers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 and many important centres have been passed over without comment1--,nantes1 for instance1 frequented above all by the ,altarists2 and ,poitou1 the source1 according to ,m4 ,fillon1 of many of the finest extant examples of ,french enamelled glass4 ,in both these districts members of the ,saroldo family settled--in ,brittany they were prominent for over two centuries4 ,in ,paris1 or rather in the ,isle de ,france1 the glass-works of ,st4 ,germain-en-,laye were for a time under direct royal patronage4 ,it was there1 soon after #aeeb1 that ,teseo ,mutio made for ,henri ,,ii4 #8verres1 myroirs et canons4'#agf ,although the king pronounced ,mutio's work to be equal to that of the ,venetians1 these glass-houses had but a short life4 ,in #afjd a special commission was appointed in ,paris to deal with the difficulty that arose from the obstinate refusal of the ,altarists to teach the ,french apprentices the secrets of their craft4 ,it was proposed to get over this obstacle by the naturalisation of the ,italians1 but to judge from the continued importation of fresh batches of foreigners1 this measure had but little practical result4 ,but what examples1 it may be asked1 can we point to that would throw light on the nature of the glass made during these centuries by this succession of ,italians1 to say nothing of the production of the native gentilshommes8 ,nowhere in ,france1 as far as ,i know1 is there to be found anything in the nature of a representative collection to illustrate the history of native glass4 ,the nearest approach is no doubt to be discovered in the scattered examples in the ,louvre1 and above all in the ,htel de ,cluny1 where there are many curious specimens of the ,french enamelled glass of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,it is to the ,venetian enamelled glass of the fifteenth century1 to the goblets of the coppa nuziale class1 that we must go back to find the prototype of what is by far the most interesting family of ,french glass4 ,in ,france these verres pied1 enamelled with portrait-heads or symbolical figures1 continued in vogue well into the seventeenth century1 long after the fashion for such work had passed away at ,venice4 ,the enamelling itself on this ,french glass is not remarkable for brilliancy1 but there is often some native verve in the treatment of the figures1 and a true ,gallic ring about the mottoes and verses that accompany them4 ,of these #8devises1 souhaits1 proverbes1 ddicaces1 vers et maximes1' we may distinguish two classes3 in the one case they are of a more or less gallant character1 or contain personal references2 in the other a religious sentiment or a pious quotation is found1 generally of such a nature as to suggest that the original owner belonged to the reformed church4 ,it is sometimes difficult nowadays to seize the connection between the device and the subject which it accompanies4 ,thus on a fine stemless goblet in the ,muse de ,cluny we see three halberdiers standing as on sentry duty2 the accompanying motto1 #8,en la sueur de ton visaige tu mangeras le pain1' has been interpreted as referring to the hard life of the soldier4 ,of a more gallant character are the figures and devices on a goblet of yellow enamelled glass in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 ,no4 #hbd74 ,a gentleman in the costume of the time of ,henri ,,ii4 offers a flower to a lady with the remark1 #8,,je ,,suis ,a ,,vovs4' ,the latter--she holds a padlocked heart in her hand--replies #8,m ,,cuer ,,av,s4' ,in addition to these figures we see a goat 7bouc7 drinking from a vase1 and this we may connect with the inscription that encircles the bowl--#8,,je ,,svis ,a ,,vovs ,,jehan ,,boucau ,,et ,,antoynete ,,bouc4' ,this is doubtless a marriage cup1 and the name ,boucau points1 it is said1 to a ,provenal origin4 ,as in our country1 though in a somewhat less degree1 the ,gothic feeling in design lingered long in ,france1 at least in the more remote provinces4 ,an enamelled glass basin1 preserved in the museum at ,rennes 7figured by ,m4 ,gerspach1 p4 #aii71 bears round the margin in large ,gothic letters the words--,,prion ,,dieu ,,qui ,,nous ,,pardon #aeig4 ,on the ground of the style of decoration1 to say nothing of the lettering1 this bowl might well1 in the absence of the date1 have been referred to the fifteenth century4 ,perhaps the oldest example that has been preserved of this ,french enamelled glass is the tazza in the ,cluny ,museum1 with the arms of ,louis ,,xii4 and ,anne of ,brittany4 ,this cup must date from the early years of the sixteenth century4 ,there is one variety of enamelled glass1 ,venetian in its origin1 which we in ,england generally associate with ,france1 although there are scant references to it in the ,french authors who have described the glass of their country4 ,i refer to the #8splashed' glass1 an old method of decoration indeed1 for we have found something very like it on certain little unguent vases of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,in the present case the enamels--red1 yellow1 blue1 and white--lie in oval masses on the surface1 reminding one in some cases of the sections of the pebbles on a piece of polished pudding-stone4 ,how these enamels were splashed on to the unfinished paraison has been already described 7p4 #fd74 ,i may add that the little barrel-shaped flask 7the barillet or bariz of the old writers7 to which this decoration is sometimes applied1 is a characteristic ,french form4 ,among the ,french glass in the ,british ,museum may be seen some little scent-bottles or burettes of moulded glass1 decorated with fleurs-de-lis in relief4 ,these are generally attributed to a certain ,bernard ,perrot of ,orleans1 to whom1 in #affb1 extensive privileges were granted by ,colbert4 ,we are told by a contemporary writer 7,abraham du ,pradel1 ,livre ,commode1 #afia7 that this ,perrot imitated agates and gems as well as the porcelain of ,china1 and that he cast his glass into moulds to obtain bas-reliefs and other ornaments4 ,this early reference to the copying of porcelain by means of opaque white glass is of some interest4 ,i do not know what precise source has been found for the little cups of this milky glass of which there are some examples among the ,french glass in the ,british ,museum--they are painted with a rudely executed floral decoration of a somewhat ,oriental type--but they may without doubt be connected with one of the many attempts made at this time or somewhat later to imitate the porcelain of the ,far ,east4 ,this opaque white ,french glass should be compared with a very similar ware made at ,barcelona1 of which something will be said in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,renaissance ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,spanish ,,netherlands ,,and ,,of ,,spain ,before going on to speak of the glass made in ,spain1 it will be well to say a few words of that made in the ,spanish ,netherlands during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,here1 as might be expected from the course of trade1 the ,venetian influence was early felt1 and before long became predominant4 ,in the northern provinces1 on the other hand1 the old ,teutonic traditions1 both as to form and material1 continued on the whole unchanged to a much later period1 so that the glass of the ,united ,provinces will be best dealt with in connection with that of ,germany4 ,already in the fourteenth century the ,venetian galleys brought the glass of ,murano to the ,flemish ports4 ,in some cases this glass was held worthy of being mounted in silver4 ,a goblet and an aiguire are mentioned in an inventory of #acgi as the property of ,charles ,v4 of ,france4 ,these pieces are indeed described as #8voirres blants de ,flandre'3 it is1 however1 very probable that they came in the first place from ,venice4 ,as early as #aeda ,venetian glass-workers were settled at ,antwerp1 but1 as in ,france1 the great invasion took place shortly after the middle of the century4 ,it must be borne in mind that what we know of the wanderings of these gentilshommes de verre from ,venice and from ,l',altare is derived almost exclusively from the researches of ,belgian antiquaries and archivistes4 ,in the already quoted works of ,houday1 of ,pinchart1 and above all in the earlier and later letters of the ,belgian judge1 the ,president ,schuermans1 we have a wealth of information4 ,m4 ,schuermans has traced these ,italian glass-workers to ,antwerp1 to ,brussels1 to ,namur1 to ,lige1 ,maestricht and ,huy1 and in the northern provinces to ,bois-le-,duc1 ,middelburg1 ,haarlem1 and ,amsterdam4 ,there was a great rivalry between the ,muranese1 who on the whole predominated at ,antwerp1 and the ,altarists1 whom we find for the most part at ,lige3 these were the two most important centres4 ,the ,low ,countries indeed became before long a second home to these ,italians1 whence they wandered out again to ,france1 ,england1 and ,spain4 ,while at ,antwerp the true ,venetian cristallo was imported free of duty1 the imitations of that glass1 the voirre de cristal1 la faschion de ,venise1 made over the ,french frontier at ,mzires or in ,germany1 and often difficult to distinguish from the originals1 were strictly excluded1 and these fiscal regulations were enforced by the most tyrannical measures4 ,the case is well put by ,mr4 ,hartshorne3 #8,there were1' he says1 #8in the ,low ,countries in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 real ,venetian glasses imported from ,venice1 ,venetian glasses legally made in the ,low ,countries1 those illegally made1 and foreign imitations of ,venetian glass' 7,old ,english ,glasses1 p4 #ci74 ,apart from these varieties of cristallo glass1 the old verre de fougre doubtless continued to be manufactured4 ,before the end of the sixteenth century1 the glass-houses of ,antwerp where glass la faon de ,venise was made had acquired a ,european reputation4 ,they stood quite apart from the other furnaces in ,france or in the ,netherlands where ,italians were employed4 ,lodovico ,guicciardini1 the historian of the ,netherlands1 speaks as early as #aefg of the #8vassella di vetro alla ,veneziana' made in ,antwerp1 and in the later editions of his work 7,descrizione di ,tutti ,paesi ,bassi7 some further details are given4 ,the testimony of another ,florentine1 ,neri1 from whose little book on glass ,i have already quoted1 is still stronger4 ,it was at ,antwerp1 he tells us1 not at ,venice1 that he had studied the processes of glass-making4 ,if ,antwerp thus early held a commanding position in ,spanish ,flanders1 in the ,walloon country the glass-houses of ,lige in the course of the seventeenth century grew to a position of even greater importance4 ,this was due above all to the enterprise of the great firm of the ,de ,bonhommes1 who before the end of the century had almost a monopoly of the glass trade in those parts3 they even established subsidiary works beyond the frontier in such places as ,verdun4 ,they were one of the first on the ,continent to see the importance of the new ,english flint-glass2 at all events it is recorded that as early as #afhj they made flint-glass l',anglaise1#agg and were thus able to withstand the ,bohemian#agh competition which at that time was carrying everything before it4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the ,bohemian engraved glass was copied in both the ,walloon and ,flemish parts of what is now ,belgium4 ,indeed when the latter district fell under ,austrian rule early in the eighteenth century1 there was naturally a tendency to encourage ,bohemian methods of decoration4 ,specimens of this engraved glass may be seen in the museums of many ,belgian towns1 but ,i have seen nothing to equal1 in spirit and high finish1 the contemporary engraved glass of the ,united ,provinces4 ,as for the earlier cristallo made at ,antwerp1 say from #aeej to #afej1 the difficulty is to distinguish1 in the case of the specimens that have survived1 the local work from that imported from ,venice1 and we have evidence that even at the time the native experts could not always do so4#agi ,i must in conclusion just say one word about a source of information for the sixteenth and seventeenth century glass of the ,low ,countries which is for the most part wanting in the case of other countries4 ,we have seen how little can be learned from the works of contemporary ,venetian painters1 of the famous glass of ,murano 7p4 #bjb74 ,but in the north it is quite otherwise2 not only in the pictures of the still-life painters1 but in genre scenes1 and sometimes even in paintings of a devotional character1 we meet with carefully drawn examples of glass4 ,it thus happens that the works of the ,flemish and ,dutch painters of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries throw a great deal of light upon the kinds of glass to be found both in the village alehouses and on the buffets of the wealthy4 ,we can take note of the competition of the old heavy ,teutonic forms with the ,italian cristallo1 a competition which continued in force during all this period4 ,it is1 however1 from a work of the ,cologne school1 from a picture of the early sixteenth century1 now in the ,louvre1 representing the ,last ,supper1#ahj that ,i will take my first example4 ,here on the table we see a decanter with tall neck1 delicately gadrooned1 of distinctly ,venetian type4 ,the drinking-glasses also are apparently of cristallo of the well-known fifteenth-century form1 without stem or knop4 ,the cup of ,christ alone has a cover4 ,but there are also on the table several cups or beakers of a deep green glass1 studded with small bosses--#8prunted' glass1 in fact1 of a pure ,teutonic type4 ,these two families of glass may be traced1 often side by side1 in much later works--in the pictures of the ,flemish and ,dutch schools of the seventeenth century4 ,in the paintings of the former school1 however1 a clear white glass soon becomes prevalent even in humble surroundings4 ,in the cabaret scenes of ,teniers1 the peasant drinks his beer from a tall hexagonal glass of thick whitish metal4 ,the wine is kept in spherical long-necked flasks--a very old type which we have often met with in our history--a plug of rolled paper taking the place of a cork2 it is drunk from wide-mouthed conical glasses of thin white metal4 ,similar glasses appear indeed in the pictures of the ,dutch painters 7as in more than one painting by ,metsu and ,de ,hooghe in the ,national ,gallery74 ,but in ,holland1 in the seventeenth century1 the dark green or almost black prunted goblets of roemer type were apparently held in even greater estimation4 ,in the famous terrace scene of ,jan ,steen 7,national ,gallery1 ,no4 #adba71 the wine1 which is kept in a large pear-shaped glass vessel with a stopper of wood1 is drunk from a small graceful roemer4 ,in ,j4 van de ,velde's still-life in the same collection 7,no4 #abee7 we see again a magnificent roemer1 of very dark glass1 with prunted stem and threaded foot1 half filled with ,rhenish wine4#aha ,but if we turn again to the ,flemish painters of this later time1 we find that when in rich interiors they introduce specimens of glass among other objets de vertu1 this glass is always of a ,venetian type4 ,there is one such painter1 a follower of ,jan ,brueghel apparently1 who loves to introduce among a wealth of plate and jewellery1 piled on tables and shelves and even on the floor1 the most elaborate specimens of the fine cristallo of ,venice1 proving in what esteem this glass was then held in the ,spanish ,netherlands4 ,i might give many further examples1 but enough has been said to show that as in the case of porcelain1 of fayence and of plate1 so for the history of glass1 a mine of information may be found in the genre and other pictures of the ,netherlandish school4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi ,,spanish ,,glass ,,seventeenth ,,or ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,spanish ,,glass ,in the case of ,france we have seen how vast is the amount of documentary evidence concerning the glass of the renaissance1 and how comparatively scanty on the other hand the in every way more satisfactory evidence to be drawn from the examination of existing specimens4 ,now in the case of ,spanish glass these conditions are in some measure reversed4 ,we here find the documentary evidence almost entirely wanting1 but we in ,england1 at any rate1 have in the ,british ,museum1 and more especially at ,south ,kensington1 fairly extensive collections of glass from the ,peninsula4 ,i will not say that most of the examples are of any great artistic1 still less of technical merit4 ,far too many pieces in the latter collection are but sorry imitations of debased ,french and ,english models of the eighteenth century1 and even later times4 ,but as we shall see1 not a few types1 earlier in style if not in actual date1 may be distinguished1 and these have a distinct local flavour4 ,this is the case above all with a class of rudely executed vessels that are found in the south of ,spain--in ,murcia1 ,andalucia1 and ,granada4 ,the metal itself is of a primitive type1 of various shades of green and bluish-green4 ,indeed1 one of the points of interest in this ,south ,spanish glass is to be found in the fact that it is essentially a glass of the people3 it is a survival from medival times1 and it thus throws light upon the long extinct verre de fougre or wald-glas that was made all over the west of ,europe before the introduction of the ,venetian cristallo4 ,not that this ,spanish glass is necessarily of the inland or potash family2 we are here in a ,mediterranean country1 and the alkali has probably been found in the native soda-holding barilla4 ,the shapes taken by this rude glass of the south of ,spain often resemble those found in the local pottery2 one is reminded at times of the graceful water-jars that are indeed common to nearly all the ,mediterranean coast4 ,a ,moorish origin has been found for some of these forms1 but we may perhaps go further back and call them ,byzantine4 ,the most characteristic shape is a vase with spherical body and with a tall expanding neck in the form of a truncated cone2 neck and body are united by a series of handles1 often eight or more in number 7,plate ,,xxxvi474 ,now not only these handles1 with their upper and lower attachments worked while hot by the pincers into toothed and crested forms1 but the whole of the appliqu ornaments of the vessel--the threadings and the rude floral reliefs--take one back to a very old plan of decoration4 ,this was a style much in favour in later ,roman times--it is one that is perhaps per se the most characteristic and natural of all methods of treating the surface of glass4 ,a similar many-handled vase is a common type among the peasant pottery of the same districts of ,southern ,spain2 on this we find the same ring of handles1 while the appliqu threadings and rosettes of the glass are replaced by a similarly applied slip ornament4 ,this pottery is still manufactured for local use1 but ,i do not know whether any of the rude green glass is produced at the present day4 ,we have little or no information about the glass made in ,spain during the ,moorish domination4 ,there is a vague tradition that the manufacture was carried on in ,murcia and ,andalucia1 and ,al ,makari1 the historian1 states on the authority of an author of the thirteenth century1 that ,almeria was famous for its vessels of glass as well as for those of iron and copper4#ahb ,it is the district lying inland1 some distance to the north of ,almeria1 that has long1 probably from ,moorish times1 been the centre of the glass industry of the south of ,spain2--this is especially true of ,pinar de la ,vidriera and of ,castril de la ,pea4 ,at this latter town1 ,don ,juan ,riao tells us1 glass has been made from time without memory1 and indeed is still made there4 #8,a gallery one mile long which exists at the entry of the town from which sand has been extracted for this manufacture1 gives an idea of the antiquity of this industry' 7,industrial ,arts of ,spain1 p4 #bcb74 ,there is only one other centre of the manufacture of glass in ,spain that need detain us4 ,this lies in the coast district of ,catalonia1 above all around ,barcelona2 for this town we have direct evidence of the manufacture as far back as the early part of the fourteenth century4#ahc ,at this time the ,catalan mariners were the boldest and the most skilful in the whole ,mediterranean1 and active rivals of the ,venetians in the ports of the ,levant4 ,now there is one variety of enamelled glass formerly attributed to ,venice1 which1 as is at present generally acknowledged1 has its origin in the ,peninsula3 much of it was made at ,barcelona4 ,the prevailing note of the enamel on this glass is a very beautiful apple-green1 of two tints1 one passing into yellow4 ,this colour is sometimes found alone1 at others associated with a few touches of other enamels--a lavender blue1 for instance1 but these other colours are of no great brilliancy4 ,the green much resembles that found on the enamelled glass of the ,saracens1 where1 however1 this colour was always sparingly applied4 ,the patterns on the ,catalan glass are generally of a formal floral character1 often built up of sprigs radiating from a centre4 ,but technically the most noticeable point in this enamel is the method of its application4 ,as in the case of the ,saracenic glass1 it is laid on with a loaded brush2 it lies in thick semi-transparent masses on the surface4 ,as a result we have a rich and jewel-like effect that we may look for in vain in the flat opaque painting that we see on so many ,european wares4 ,there are several pieces of this glass in the ,british ,museum1 but the most beautiful example that ,i have seen is in the ,museo ,civico at ,venice4 ,this is a little flask lately acquired from the ,maglione collection at ,naples2 the dominant green enamel is here relieved by some yellowish foliage and by red and white birds4 ,i do not think that any existing example of this green enamelled glass could be safely referred to an earlier date than the end of the fifteenth century4 ,but it is not improbable that the ,catalans learned the use of these enamels not from the ,venetians1 but directly from ,saracenic or ,jewish glass-workers in some of the ports of the ,levant4 ,such a distant source for this decoration1 which is indeed somewhat ,oriental in character1 ,i think more probable than a local one in ,spain1 for we have no evidence that the ,moors1 when they held the ,peninsula1 ever practised the art of enamelling glass1 nor indeed were the ,catalans1 after very early times1 ever brought much into contact with their ,mohammedan neighbours3 their main dealings were with the ,levant4 ,that the glass of ,barcelona was widely known and held in some repute before the end of the fifteenth century1 the following notices go far to prove4 ,as early as #adia--so it is stated in a contemporary ,latin manuscript--glass vessels of various shapes1 resembling those made at ,venice1 were exported to ,rome from ,barcelona4 ,again1 when ,philippe le ,beau passed through the latter town in #aejc1 we are told that he went #8en dehors de la ville veoire ung four ou faict voires de cristallin trs beaus' 7,schuermans1 ,bulletin xxix4 p4 #ach seq474 ,finally1 ,ferdinand of ,aragon1 about the same time1 is reported to have sent to ,queen ,isabella a present of #bgd pieces of glass manufactured in ,barcelona4 ,that this glass must have been possessed of some artistic merit we may infer from the fact that the ,queen presented several pieces to the ,capella de los ,reyes at ,granada4 ,these we may perhaps identify with the vasi di vedro seen among the treasures of this chapel a few years later by the ,venetian ambassador 7,andrea ,navagero1 ,viaggio in ,spagna et in ,francia74 ,m4 ,gerspach1 ,i may add1 calls attention to an inventory drawn up during the reign of ,philip ,,ii41 in which1 under the heading of bidrios de ,barcelona1 #aai pieces of glass of various forms are catalogued2 among other things--and this is a point of great interest--mention is made of some enamelled lamps4 ,at a much later date1 not before the eighteenth century probably1 a good deal of opaque white glass1 in imitation of porcelain1 was made at ,barcelona4 ,at ,south ,kensington may be seen a series of quadrangular flasks of this material with bevelled edges1 about six inches in height4 ,these flasks--they probably served to hold essences and spirits--are somewhat rudely painted with floral designs in bright primitive colours--red1 blue1 and yellow4 ,both in ,india and ,persia we come across examples of glass decorated with #8painted' enamels1 almost identical in shape and size with these ,spanish bottles4 ,not only these1 but some of the sherbet-jugs and coffee-cups of this milky glass1 that are still often found in many parts of the ,east1 may well have come from this district4 ,it will be remembered1 however1 that a very similar ware was made about the same time both in ,france and at ,venice4 ,other towns in ,catalonia1 as ,cervell1 ,almatret1 and above all ,matar1 became famous for their glass in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,there is more than one record of distinguished foreign princes who were conducted in royal galleys to visit the glass-works of this last town4 ,m4 ,schuermans has discovered the names of more than twenty ,italians from ,l',altare or from ,venice1 who found their way to ,spain1 in some cases by way of ,flanders4 ,at ,lisbon1 too1 in the seventeenth century1 there were many foreign glass-makers1 ,muranese1 ,altarists1 and ,flemings4 ,at ,cadalso1 in the province of ,toledo1 glass-furnaces were at work as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century2 indeed they are said at that time to have supplied the whole kingdom of ,castile4 ,at these works1 at a somewhat later time1 the ,italian influence became very strong1 and no doubt many ,muranese or ,altarists were employed4 ,before the end of the seventeenth century1 the general decline so noticeable in all the industries of ,spain spread1 it would seem1 to the glass-works4 ,workmen were now obtained chiefly from the ,low ,countries1 and in addition much glass was imported by sea from ,antwerp4 ,to how low a state the glass industry had fallen at this time may be inferred from the fact that orders for #8,mexico and the ,indies' had to be executed abroad4 ,in the next century1 when ,spain had lost her ,flemish possessions1 their place as a source of glass-ware was taken by ,france4 ,philip ,v41 about the year #agbj1 founded a royal glass manufactory near his summer palace of ,la ,granja de ,s4 ,ildefonso1 and workmen were gathered together from all sources--there were ,germans and ,swedes as well as ,frenchmen4 ,these works were above all established1 in rivalry to ,st4 ,gobain 7p4 #bce71 for the preparation of large mirrors of plate-glass1 but all sorts of #8hollow ware' were also produced there4 ,this later ,spanish glass1 made to royal order1 is1 however1 utterly devoid of any interest1 and it need not detain us4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,glass ,,of ,,germany ,the ,green ,glass of the ,rhine and the ,netherlands--,enamelled ,glass ,it is as a matter of practical convenience that ,i have chosen not to make a separate division for the #8green glass' of the ,dutch of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,not that ,holland was in any way dependent on ,germany in this matter1 but in the case of this1 the first of the three main divisions of ,german glass of which ,i have to treat in this and the following chapters--the plain or prunted green glass--the produce of the two countries is very similar4 ,our second group--the family of enamelled glass1 so important in ,germany--is scarcely represented at all in ,holland4 ,on the other hand1 in the case of our third group1 the ,dutch struck out a line of their own4 ,i shall therefore treat of the engraved glass of ,holland in a subsequent chapter4 ,it is remarkable how little is known of the nature of the glass made in ,germany before the first half of the sixteenth century1 when the ,italian influence began to make itself felt4 ,a few insignificant little bowls and some small flasks that have served as reliquaries have been preserved in the treasuries of ,german churches 7,plate ,,xxi471 but for our principal source of information we are dependent upon contemporary pictures4 ,here1 however1 we soon discover that it is rather to works of the early ,netherlandish school that we must turn for information1 and that even from this source practically nothing is to be gleaned until about the second quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,what is then found is not of much note1 small tumbler-like vessels for the most part1 of thick greenish glass decorated with threadings or studs1 the latter more or less of the nature of prunts4 ,there is1 however1 one fifteenth-century form which is of some interest3 the metal-mounted wooden cups of mazer-like form1 in use at that time appear to have been copied in glass2 these may be recognised by their peculiar stunted and sometimes coiled handles4#ahd ,these somewhat primitive vessels of the fifteenth century are of interest as leading the way to the first important division of ,german glass1 the #8,green ,glass' of ,western ,germany and the ,netherlands4#ahe ,it is worthy of note that this family of glass1 essentially of local origin not only as regards the nature of the metal but also in respect of the shape and the method of decoration1 only reached its full development in the course of the sixteenth century1 at a time when the new cristallo was being made by ,italian workmen in the same district4 ,there must have been something like a conscious reaction in favour of the native forms and materials4 ,as to the pronounced green colour1 we know that this was held to enhance the flavour of the wine drunk from the glass2 as far back as the early sixteenth century1 iron and copper scale were purposely added to supplement the pale tint given by the iron contained in the impure native potash 7,mathesius1 ,sarepta1 cxciv474 ,in the decoration of this green glass recourse was had to the old methods of threading1 but above all to the more or less circular projections or bosses of varied forms that are found scattered over the sides4 ,these are technically known as #8prunts'--the nuppen of the ,germans4 ,we have had something to say of one special form of these protuberances when describing the glass of the ,anglo-,saxons4#ahf ,these prunts fall into two groups3 the stechel-nuppen or thorned prunts1 of which the old ,franco-,saxon form is an extreme type2 and the beeren-nuppen or berry prunts1 derived possibly in the first case from the moulded reliefs of bunches of grapes that we find so often on ,roman glass4 ,a third group might perhaps be made for another classical form where the projections take the shape of a medallion--a head stamped on the surface of the prunt while it is still soft4 ,these nuppen had a practical use1--so ,mathesius1 a contemporary writer1 tells us4#ahg ,they were to prevent the glass from slipping between the fingers of the drinker4 ,with a similar object--for the insertion of the fingers in this case--these prunts are sometimes reversed1 forming deep pits in the sides of the vessel4 ,there is a late example of this form at ,south ,kensington and another in the ,british ,museum4 ,the stechel-nuppen may assume less aggressive forms2 the points may be smoothed down while the metal is soft1 and we then have merely a series of disc-like thickenings on the sides of the glass4 ,by this means1 as in the more refined ,dutch roemer of the seventeenth century1 effects of great beauty1 due to the varying transparency of the glass1 were obtained4 ,in colour this ,rhenish glass may vary from a greenish-blue to a pale bottle-green1 or again to a deep1 almost black1 tint of olive-green or violet4 ,it is from glass of this description that the pale-coloured wines of the country have been drunk1 perhaps without break1 from late ,roman times4 ,this it is1 as well as the fact that it has never been decorated with enamel1 and rarely1 in ,germany at least1 by the wheel or with the diamond1 that has given to the green prunted glass of this family a position apart4 ,i have called this glass ,rhenish1 inasmuch as the centre of the manufacture seems to have been around ,cologne1 whence some of it found its way down the river to the ,low ,countries1 along with the wine that was drunk from it2 but much green glass was1 we know1 made also in the ,netherlands4 ,from the cultur-historisch point of view1 perhaps the most striking claim to attention of this family of ,german glass lies in the fact that here we come across the one original and artistic form of wine-glass that has been developed in modern times--apart1 that is1 from the stemmed glass of ,italian origin1 about which there will be a good deal to say in a future chapter4 ,the typical roemer--for this of course is the glass of which ,i am speaking--consists of three parts3 a bowl of ovoid outline1 shaped like the flower of a tulip2 a hollow cylindrical stem1 studded with mulberry-like prunts 7often flattened out to discs72 and a hollow conical foot1 formed by coiling a rope of glass round a core of wood 7,plate ,,xxxvii474 ,here we have the roemer in the fully developed form of the seventeenth century1 as we see it in fact in the still-life pictures of the ,dutch painters of the time1 or again--this time in actual use--in the marksmen's banquets 7schuttersmaaltyd7 of ,van der ,helst and ,frans ,hals4 ,in the earlier forms1 however1 the foot is either entirely missing or is present only as a zig-zag or toothed ring of glass applied to the base of the stem4 ,in these early examples again the broad hollow stem is not divided from the bowl by a diaphragm of glass1 but forms an integral part of the cup4#ahh ,on the other hand1 before the end of the seventeenth century the cylindrical stem was more and more encroached upon by the spun-foot1 while the coiled threading with which in earlier days the conical foot was entirely built up was1 in late examples1 twisted round a glass support so as to become a mere ornament#ahi 7,czihak1 ,schlesische ,glser1 pp4 #ge seq41 and ,hartshorne1 ,english ,glasses1 pp4 #ff seq474 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii ,,roemer ,,of ,,german ,,green ,,glass ,,about #afjj1 ,a4,d4 ,of the ,rhenish green glass1 the only other forms that ,i shall mention are the upright barrel-shaped beaker covered with prunts of various forms1 in which the ,mai-trank1 a kind of #8cup1' was brewed1 and finally the ,krautstrunk or cabbage-stalk1 a tall cylindrical glass bristling with formidable thorny prunts4 ,mathesius1 who is responsible for the picturesque name1 already in the seventeenth century calls the ,krautstrunk an old form4 ,the form is indeed noticeable1 for among this family of green glass it is the only important instance of the cylindrical shape so much in favour for the enamelled ware4 ,the green glass as a group is very poorly represented in our ,london museums2 as ,i have said1 it can best be studied in the works of the ,dutch painters4 ,the handsome roemer in ,jan van de ,velde's still-life piece 7,national ,gallery1 ,no4 #abee7 may be taken as a typical example4 ,,venetian ,,influence ,,in ,,germany ,we must now turn again to the glass of ,venice1 and consider how far and in what direction its influence can be traced upon that made in the north4 ,this much we know--that in the fifteenth century1 and perhaps earlier1 the ,venetian glass was largely imported into ,germany1 and this not only on the backs of hawkers1 for the large ,venetian firms had agencies in many ,german cities4#aij ,there were at that time depts of the ,venetian merchants at such comparatively remote places as the ,silesian towns of ,grlitz and ,breslau1 and early in the fifteenth century the ,italian glass was sold in the market-place of ,vienna4 ,at this time1 however1 we are unable to trace any influence these importations may have had upon the local ,german glass--of this last1 indeed1 practically nothing is known4 ,it would seem that it was not until the sixteenth century was well advanced that any attempt was made in ,germany to compete with the ,venetian cristallo4 ,like the medival glass of ,france and ,england1 the earlier ,german glass was doubtless a mere household ware1 of all descriptions the least likely to be preserved4 ,it was in ,southern ,germany--in ,switzerland and ,swabia1 and still more in the wealthy towns of ,augsburg1 ,regensburg1 and ,nuremberg--that the ,italian influence1 in the matter of glass as in the other departments of the arts1 was most strongly felt4 ,as early as #aeca the town council of ,nuremberg granted a subsidy to promote the introduction of the ,venetian methods of making glass4 ,we are told that ,augustin ,hirschvogel 7d4 #aefj71 a member of the well-known family of glass-stainers1 some of whom we shall meet again before long1 was interested in the question1 and1 according to one account1 he learned the secrets of the art at ,murano4 ,in any case1 there exist specimens of what is undoubtedly ,german glass1 decorated with coats-of-arms of local families1 both the shapes and the enamelling of which carry us back to the ,venetian enamelled glass of the early sixteenth century4 ,good examples of this ware may be found in the richly enamelled pilgrims' flasks1 of which there are examples in the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg and in the ,british ,museum4 ,in such specimens the ,italian influence is seen not only in the beadings and the gilding1 but in the nature of the metal itself4 ,how strong this southern influence was in these parts in the second half of the sixteenth century we may see in the work of the contemporary goldsmiths4 ,in the case of glass1 however1 the purely ,italian forms seem to have been early abandoned1 and the same may be said of the style of the enamels employed in the decoration4 ,of a later time than these ,south ,german examples of enamelled ware are the even more definite copies of the sixteenth-century glass of ,venice that were made in the neighbourhood of ,cologne4 ,here we have deliberate imitations of the ,italian models--tall-stemmed glasses of thin cristallo with wide-winged handles1 the latter often of deep blue metal4 ,there is a row of these flgel-glser1 as the ,germans call them1 arranged on an upper shelf in the ,british ,museum2 some of these may perhaps be referred to the glass-house at ,dessau1 where ,italians were employed between #afgi and #afhf1 but as a whole such glasses must be of a somewhat earlier date than this4 ,in any case1 we must regard these flgel-glser as exotic growths1 which lie quite apart from the two great ,german groups of the seventeenth century--,i mean1 of course1 the enamelled and the engraved glass4 ,in fact1 the real influence of the new cristallo of ,venice was exerted in another direction4 ,people who had seen this clear white glass were no longer content with the thick heavy metal of varying hues of green1 blue1 and yellow1 often full of bubbles and defects4 ,already early in the sixteenth century in various parts of ,germany attempts were made to introduce the ,venetian methods of working1 above all the ,venetian materials4 ,now the ,germans of that day were a practical people1 already well ahead in many of the technical arts1 above all in those relating to mining1 to the smelting of metals1 and to the arts du feu generally4 ,after a moment of hesitation1 instead of merely copying the formulas that they learned from the ,italians1 they adapted them to the conditions of their own country1 and thus were soon able1 in the central mountain districts among a population of miners and woodmen1 to establish a glass industry quite independent of foreign aid4 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 and still more in ,england1 up to the end of the seventeenth century1 whatever glass of artistic character was produced was made for the most part by foreign workmen1 and to some extent with foreign materials4 ,perhaps the most striking instance of the independent line taken by the ,german glass-workers may be found in the continued use of potash made from the beechwoods of their forests1 and with this alkali they were soon able to produce a glass as brilliant and colourless as the soda-made cristallo of the south4 ,so far we have only got to the fringe of our subject2 for the green glass of the ,rhine and ,holland can in no way be regarded as characteristic of ,german glass as a whole4 ,such glass ,i would rather class as ,lotharingian1 using that term for that central land that is neither ,french nor quite ,german4 ,in so doing ,i am of course treading on delicate ground2 but ,i am prepared to maintain that it is rather in a heavily enamelled willkomm-humpen of plain cylindrical form from ,saxony or ,franconia than in a prunted roemer of green glass that we have a really characteristic type of the glass of ,germany4 ,and this brings us to the question1 to how much of this ,central ,german glass the term ,bohemian may be fairly applied8 ,this at least may be safely said1 that the expression #8,german glass from the ,bohemian frontier' would cover nearly the whole of it4 ,what it is essential to remember is that with the exception of a small section of the engraved glass we have little to do with ,prague and the ,czecs of the central plateau of ,bohemia4 ,as a whole this glass was made by ,german-speaking people dwelling on either side of the mountains which gird ,bohemia to the north-east1 the north-west1 and the south-west1 and divide that kingdom from ,silesia1 from ,saxony1 and from ,bavaria respectively4 ,of all these districts it may be said that wherever the pines and beeches of the wooded slopes provided both fuel for the furnaces and 7from their ashes7 the indispensable potash1 wherever1 too1 from the hillsides a pure white sand could be extracted1 and finally1 wherever in the mountain streams a source of power for cutting the wood or grinding the glass was at hand1 there a glass furnace would sooner or later be established4 ,starting from the gorge of the ,elbe above ,dresden1 to the east a complicated system of mountains covers the frontiers of ,bohemia and ,silesia4 ,in the valleys that run down on either side glass has been made from the fourteenth century1 if not before4 ,it must not be forgotten that until it was seized by ,frederick the ,great in the eighteenth century ,silesia had long been a dependence of the crown of ,bohemia4#aia ,to the west1 beyond the gorge of the ,elbe1 the high plateau of ,misnia falls abruptly on the ,bohemian side1 forming the ,erzgebirge4 ,although for the glass of this district1 the classical land of mining and metallurgy1 we have no modern work to fall back upon1 yet in the sixteenth century it produced two important writers on metallurgy and mining--,georg ,agricola1 the learned professor of chemistry1 and the ,lutheran divine ,mathesius4 ,both of these writers have something to say upon the contemporary processes of glass-making4 ,at the western extremity of the ,erzgebirge1 on the one hand the ,fichtelgebirge forms a link joining those mountains to the ,thringer ,wald--these are both essentially ,german forest districts where much glass was made2 on the other hand the ,bhmer ,wald runs south-east to the ,danube4 ,on the southern slopes of the latter range was made much of the glass that supplied the rich ,franconian and ,bavarian cities4 ,and the mention of these towns brings us to this difficult question3 ,how far was the enamelling and the engraving of the finer specimens carried out in the mountain valleys where the glass was made1 and how far in the workshops of the cities to which the undecorated glass had been transported8 ,for the northern districts at least ,herr von ,czihak has brought forward much evidence to show that the artists in the local towns carried back to the mountain furnaces1 to be there fired1 the glass that they had painted with enamel colours1 and that even the finer kinds of engraving were done in the upland villages where water-power was abundant4 ,this was certainly the case in later days in the famous centre of glass-engraving that grew up at ,warmbrunn1 in the ,hirschberg district of ,silesia4 ,on the other hand much glass was1 it would seem1 enamelled in ,dresden1 and in the south the finer work both of the enameller and the glass-engraver was probably executed in the studio of the artist--at ,nuremberg1 for instance1 or in other ,franconian or ,swabian towns4 ,for the ,german glass of the sixteenth century we have fortunately the two already mentioned contemporary writers1 both of them ,saxons by birth--,georg ,agricola and ,johann ,mathesius4 ,agricola1 it is true1 #8the founder of the sciences of mineralogy and metallurgy1' in his famous work ,de ,re ,metallica1#aib devotes only a few pages at the end of his last chapter to the subject of glass2 but here may be found the first accurate drawing of a glass furnace that has come down to us4 ,agricola mentions that he had passed two years at ,venice1 and had seen much of the glass-working when there4#aic ,indeed1 what he says of the materials1 of the source of the alkali above all1 seems to have relation to the ,italian rather than to the ,german glass4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii ,,german ,,glass ,,furnace ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,,from ,,agricola ,but this is not the case with the furnaces1 which he describes and illustrates4 ,agricola distinguishes three separate ovens3 the fritting oven2 the main oven1 where the glass is melted in pots2 and an annealing oven for slowly cooling the glass4 ,these ovens1 however1 may be combined in various ways in smaller works1 reducing the number to two or even to one4 ,the fritting oven is a detached building of beehive shape1 which is also used for annealing the pots4 ,the main oven1 eight feet in height and ten feet in diameter1 is of a similar outline4 ,the wood is burned on the floor of a lower chamber1 without any grating of firebars2 the flame passes through into an upper chamber1 around which are arranged eight pots1 each two feet in height1 with a working-hole in front of each pot4 ,from the back of this chamber a passage opens which conveys the heated gases to the quadrangular annealing oven4 ,surely so much information has rarely been compressed into one print as we find in the main illustration to this part of ,agricola's text 7,plate ,,xxxviii474 ,here at one working-hole 7fenestrella7 we see a workman gathering the glass at the end of his fistula or blowing-iron1 another is shaping the gathering upon the marver at his foot1 a third is vigorously blowing the paraison to the required size1 and a fourth is swinging another round his head4 ,on the ground lie scattered moulds of various forms1 and here1 too1 we may discover the forceps 7pucella7 used in shaping the glass4 ,to the right1 in the foreground1 lies a large wooden case closely packed with glass vessels of various shapes3 we can distinguish1 ,i think1 bottles1 alembics1 and some prunted cylinders1 which may well be the ,krautstrnke of ,mathesius4 ,above1 to the right1 the itinerant hawker marches off with a fresh supply of glass of all shapes arranged in an open-work crate strapped on his back4 ,finally1 to the left1 in a little office1 the master discusses business with a customer over a foaming glass of beer--this last a truly ,german trait4 ,our other source of information for the ,german glass of the sixteenth century is found1 of all places in the world1 in a collection of so-called sermons written by the friend1 table-companion1 and biographer of ,luther--,johann ,mathesius 7#aejd-aefe74 ,mathesius1 after leaving ,wittenberg1 settled as pastor at ,joachimsthal1 a famous mining centre on the southern slopes of the ,erzgebirge4 ,these ,sermons for ,miners#aid are a strange mixture of what to us seem fantastic analogies drawn from the ,bible1 with matter of an eminently practical nature relating to the crafts and occupations of his audience4 ,the title of his fifteenth sermon will give some idea of how he treats the subject3--#8,of glass and the making of glass1 and passages where it is mentioned in the ,holy ,writings1 and how we may thereby call to mind both the fragility of our present bodies and the clearness and brilliancy of our bodies in the future state4' ,a careful perusal of what both these writers have to say on the manufacture of glass leaves the general impression that in the first half of the sixteenth century ,germany had not made much progress in that art4 ,it is to ,venice1 in the first place1 and then to ,antwerp1 that ,mathesius turns for brilliant examples4 ,at ,murano1 he tells us1 they can actually make panes of glass #8through which from one's room one can see all that is passing in the street4' ,so too1 he says1 it is in that town and in ,antwerp that is made the finest schmelzglas of all colours used by the goldsmith--above all the mysterious ritzkel4#aie #8,now1' says ,mathesius1 #8we come to the ,german glass-houses4 ,some have their own sand1 others pound white quartz and pebbles4 ,they make use of the ashes of oak1 maple1 beech1 and pine2 the ashes of the fir and of the willow turn out good work1 but from their fatty nature yield glass that is not so white4 ,native salt is added also to the sand and ashes1 but the ,polish rock-salt is more advantageous4 ,many buy up broken glass and make with it the best work4'#aif ,if you wish1 continues ,mathesius1 to obtain white and pure glass1 it is essential to use only well dried wood1 for green wood makes the glass opaque and blackish4 ,the metal should be cooled more than once and remelted1 the glass-gall being carefully skimmed off each time4 ,if you propose to make fair and pure glass1 #8neither bubbly1 feathery1 cloudy1 dull1 stony1 or gritty1' prepare your frit carefully by rabbling and turning over the mixture of sand1 potash1 and salt on the floor of the first furnace1 in the same way as metallic ores are treated #8when they are roasted by the valuable new process4' 7,whatever this may have been1 it was an illustration that would appeal to his audience of miners47 ,when the mixture begins to sinter together1 the stuff should be shovelled into cold water4 ,the frit thus prepared is then placed in the melting-pots and gradually heated4 ,there then follows a careful account of the various processes involved in the blowing and shaping of the vessel3 of this ,i will only remark that there is no mention in it of the use of the shears for trimming the rough edges of the glass--technically an important point4 ,,enamelling ,,on ,,german ,,glass ,we are now able to form some idea of the processes by which glass was made in ,central ,germany about the middle of the sixteenth century1 and when we come to examine the glass itself by the aid of extant examples1 it will be found that this is indeed the date from which the start must be made1 for there are few pieces in our collections that can claim a greater antiquity4 ,it was apparently not long before this time that the ,germans began to apply enamels to their drinking-vessels whether of glass or pottery4 ,mathesius 7#aefb7 speaks of enamelling as a new art4 #8,the ready wit of man1' he says1 #8is always finding something new2 some have on the white glass painted all kinds of pictures and mottoes1 and burnt them in1 in the annealing oven1#aig as we find the 8counterfeits0 of great men and their arms painted upon the panes that are set in our windows4' ,this is an important passage which confirms what we might otherwise be led to infer--namely1 that the origin of the enamelling that we find on the beakers of the ,german renaissance must be sought1 not in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century enamelled glass of ,venice1 but rather in the new method of colouring window-glass that was at this time spreading all over ,germany4 ,i refer to the highly finished pictures1 painted in enamel colours on white glass and subsequently burned in1 which were now replacing1 especially for secular use1 the true lead-mounted stained glass of the old church windows4 ,it was an easy step to apply this method of decoration to the cylindrical surfaces of the great tankards and goblets from which the ,german people drank their beer4 ,now it is not in ,northern or ,central ,germany that we find the best specimens of these enamelled #8quarries4' ,the finest examples come from the south1 from ,nuremberg1 from ,swabia1 and above all from ,switzerland1 at that time the home of a distinguished school of glass painters4 ,and the same may be said of the glasses1 though this is a point that has been somewhat neglected until quite lately4 ,both the willkomm-humpen and the pass-glser--the broad and narrow cylinders--found in ,swiss and ,bavarian collections are1 as a rule1 much more carefully decorated than the quaint but rude glasses of what we must vaguely call the central district4 ,unfortunately we have no means of more definitely determining the place of origin of the latter class of beakers2 in fact it may be said generally of the glass made on both sides of the mountains that encircle ,bohemia1 that there is little to distinguish the productions of the different centres1 however far apart they may lie4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxix ,,german ,,glass4 ,,willkomm ,,humpen4 ,,enamelled ,,with ,,the ,,eagle ,,of ,,empire ,,seventeenth ,,century ,now it is not too much to affirm that1 as a whole1 the enamelling on ,german glass is in every way bad4 ,the colours are opaque2 when not crude they are muddy and dull4 ,it is almost too high praise of them to say that they look as if they had been painted on in oil-colours4 ,take1 for example1 an average adler-humpen1 such a one as the big beaker in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 ,no4 #hce74 ,a mustardy yellow1 that takes the place of the gilding that is absent in the main painting1 is predominant2 there is then an opaque blue1 crude and unpleasant1 and a dull maroon1 which--and this is universally the case on these glasses--is the nearest approach we get to red4 ,apart from these colours we find only browns and drabs of undecided tints4 ,so much for the main decoration2 but if we now look carefully we find round the neck something that takes us back to ,venice--a delicate scale pattern of fine powdered gold1 and above this a line of beading with little pearls of various colours4 ,this band of exotic ornament is seldom absent1 at least in the earlier specimens4#aih ,there is no need to say much of the shapes of these enamelled glasses1 for they are almost invariably of a more or less cylindrical form1 with a foot of the simplest character2 covered glasses are comparatively rare4 ,they may be divided for our purpose into the broader beakers 7often with curved sides and sometimes of great capacity7 on the one hand1 and on the other the narrower straight-sided tall cylinders4 ,much ingenuity has been devoted by ,german writers to the identification of the names by which these glasses were known in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 and they have attempted to distinguish between the spechter1 the brderlein1 the ,krautstrunk1 the pass-glas1 the humpen and the willkomm4 ,on the other hand1 the term wiederkomm or vidrecome1 given by so many ,english and ,french writers to the large broad forms1 is unknown in ,germany1 so that ,i think the expression may be definitely abandoned and replaced by the word humpen or willkomm humpen4 ,narren-glser--fools' glasses--says ,mathesius1 would be a better name for these huge beakers that a man can hardly lift4 ,the tall1 narrow cylindrical form1 when divided by horizontal lines1 is known as a pass-glas4 ,the spechter of ,mathesius has been identified with a glass of this shape1 sometimes decorated with square nail-headed studs4 ,these spechter came from the ,spessart forest district 7west of ,wrzburg71 and they form1 as it were1 a link between the prunted green glass of the ,rhine and the enamelled beakers of ,central ,germany4 ,there is a small group of enamelled glass of very uncertain origin which claims attention here4 ,we are concerned with certain little ewers1 either of colourless or more often of deep cobalt-blue glass2 they are generally mounted in metal1 but the handle is always of glass4 ,there are several examples of these ewers in the ,british ,museum1 many of which bear dates ranging from #aegg to #afah4 ,the cobalt-blue glass has1 by ,dr4 ,brinckmann1 been traced back to the glass-houses of ,neudeck ,platten1 on the ,saxon-,bohemian frontier4 ,in the treatment1 however1 of the enamels on these little jugs1 we are reminded of some of the work executed by the ,altarists in ,france4 ,the enamelling is of a somewhat more pleasing character than that which we find on the big beakers2 white1 yellow1 green1 and red are applied without shading4 ,a favourite subject is a stag-hunt or the coursing of a hare1 and at the side is often found a graceful lily of the valley#aii 7,plate ,,xl4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl ,,enamelled ,,beaker ,,german1 ,,about #afjj ,,enamelled ,,jug ,,with ,,pewter ,,lid ,,german1 ,,end ,,of ,,sixteenth ,,century ,to return to our broad cylindrical glasses--the huge humpen and the smaller kanne1 both of which indeed sometimes take the form of a barrel or a truncated cone--it is usual1 on the basis of the decoration1 to divide these beakers into the following classes3-- #a4 ,the ,reichs-adler ,humpen4 ,on these1 the double-headed eagle1 displayed1 with imperial crown1 occupies nearly the whole surface of the glass4 ,a big crucifix covers the breast of the bird1 though this is replaced in some examples by the ball of empire4 ,the arms of the seven electors and of the forty-eight members of the ,heilige ,rmische ,reich are arranged in a definite order along the outstretched wing feathers#bjj7,plate ,,xxxix474 #b4 ,the ,kur-frsten ,humpen4 ,here1 on the upper zone1 the emperor on horseback rides in front of the three spiritual electors--the four lay princes follow below4 ,in other cases the kaiser sits on his throne1 with the electors on either side4#bja #c4 ,the ,fichtelgebirge glasses1 on which a mountain landscape is rudely indicated4 ,none of these glasses can be attributed to an earlier date than the second half of the seventeenth century4 ,a good example in the ,british ,museum shows the ,ochsenkopf1 one of the highest peaks of the district1 as well as the four rivers that issue from its slopes4 ,a padlock hanging by a gold chain over the mountain points to the treasures therein contained3 as an often-repeated inscription says3--,an ,eisen1 ,erz und ,holz1 thut mann viel von ihm ziehen4 ,many of these beakers1 and perhaps others of a similar character1 may be referred to the glass-houses of ,bischofsgrn1 which are situated at the foot of the ,ochsenkopf4 ,in spite of the crudity of the enamels and the rudeness of the design1 it is impossible to deny that there is a certain attraction in the intensely ,german character of the decoration on these three groups of glasses1 which thus form a class by themselves4 ,they smack of the soil and of the simple ,german folk who made them4 ,the earliest example known1 an adler-humpen1 is dated #aedg1 and differs little in the quality of the enamel from the later specimens1 which range down to the beginning of the eighteenth century4#bjb ,there are in the ,british ,museum two remarkable tankards which1 though they do not fall under any of the above divisions1 may well be mentioned here4 ,on one we see an elaborate hunting scene3 in the centre the net is spread and the game is being driven in by dogs and beaters 7,plate ,,xli474 ,on the other is a strangely crude representation of the ,last ,supper1 in the arrangement of which1 however1 ,leonardo's famous design may still be traced4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli ,,german ,,glass4 ,,willkomm ,,humpen4 ,,enamelled ,,with ,,hunting ,,scenes ,,about #afjj1 ,a4,d4 ,before treating of the big glasses painted at ,dresden and of those of the ,south ,german school1 ,i may well say something of the second class of cylindrical vessels1 of which the most important sub-division is formed by the pass-glser1 the tall narrow beakers divided by stringings of glass or by enamelled rings into a series of zones4 ,these glasses played an important part in the drinking contests of the time4 ,it would seem--to judge from the lengthy verses1 commencing and ending in all cases with the word vivat1 found on many of them--that it was required of the drinker to swallow at one draught the liquid contents of each zone1 neither more nor less4 ,at other times the drinking was apparently regulated by the dealing of cards4 ,there is a remarkable example of the typical pass-glas at ,south ,kensington3 it is divided into twelve zones by quilled threadings of glass4 ,the simple decoration of hearts1 roses1 and wreaths1 as well as the long inscription1 is painted in white enamel4 ,a somewhat later group of enamelled glasses may be traced to ,dresden1 to the ,hof-kellerei of the ,saxon electors1 whose arms these glasses bear4 ,the painting on them1 though of no great artistic merit1 is somewhat less rude1 more #8urbane1' in fact1 than that on the previous examples4 ,they form1 indeed1 a transition to the carefully executed ,nuremberg glasses4 ,there are several examples of these ,saxon beakers in the ,british ,museum4 ,a fine covered willkomm 7,slade1 ,no4 #hdc7 bears the portrait of the elector ,john ,george as well as of the four ,saxon dukes1 all booted and spurred1 and with plumed hats on their heads4 ,this beaker is dated #afef1 the year of the elector's death4 ,another1 a pass-glas 7,slade1 ,no4 #hdg71 has the arms and initials of ,augustus the ,strong1 king of ,poland 7#afig-agcc72 the four zones into which this glass is divided1 each holding about half a pint1 are indicated by numerals1 calling to mind1 says ,mr4 ,nesbitt1 the peg tankards of the sixteenth century4 ,another example1 dated #afeh1 also from the ,slade collection 7,no4 #hea71 a goblet with the arms of the elector of ,saxony1 encircled by the garter1 is remarkable for the glass being externally striped with opaque white bands in obvious imitation of the vetro di trina4 ,there is a somewhat obscure reference to ,german glass so decorated in the often-quoted sermon of ,mathesius1 and of this passage much has been made by ,german writers4#bjc ,i doubt whether the imitation was in any case more than superficial1 and ,i do not think that1 at least before the middle of the seventeenth century1 any example of ,german glass can be pointed to which is really built up with rods as in the case of the true ,venetian lace glass4 ,there is a large class of painted beakers on which the decoration has reference to the occupation of the original owner1 and among these the zunft-becher1 the guild or corporation glasses1 hold an important place4 ,these glasses date1 without exception1 from a comparatively late time1 when among the upper classes the new engraved crystal glass had taken the place of the enamelled ware2 already by the end of the seventeenth century the latter had come to be regarded as somewhat bourgeois in character4 ,however that may be1 these humpen bearing the arms of the guilds and quaint representations of the trades and industries are among the most interesting of their class4 ,many of these ,innungs glser are still preserved in the halls of the trade guilds4 ,herr von ,czihak mentions several instances of this in ,breslau and other ,silesian towns4 ,in ,southern ,germany the ,venetian influence was not only more early felt1 but1 what is of greater importance1 it continued in play for a longer time1 being continually renewed by fresh importations of the ,italian glass4 ,the art-loving dukes of ,bavaria1 ,albrecht ,v4 and his successor ,wilhelm ,v41 in the second half of the sixteenth century1 did much to promote the manufacture of glass on improved methods4 ,strangely enough1 however1 we find that it was from ,antwerp1 not from ,italy1 that the assistance came in the first case2 and it was to compete with ,italian glass imported from ,venice by way of ,antwerp that ,bernhart ,schwarz1 a glass-maker of the latter town1 erected a furnace--at ,landshut1 on the ,isar4 ,scarpaggiato1 the ,venetian1 who came later1 was engaged1 in the first place1 to make window-glass and mirrors4 ,he is stated1 however1 to have been a master of the art of making vasi a reticelli and a ritorti of both white and coloured glass4 ,at ,hall1 near ,innsbruck1 some remarkable imitations of ,venetian glass were made in the third quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,in the ,imperial ,museum at ,vienna there are many specimens of this ,tyrolese glass1 much of it scratched with the diamond and heavily gilt4 ,there may be seen a goblet made by the art-loving ,archduke ,ferdinand1 the husband of ,philippine ,welser4 ,as ,i have already said1 it was in the towns of ,south ,germany--,swabian and ,ducal ,bavarian--as well as in ,switzerland1 that the new art of painting window-glass with enamel colours was carried to the highest perfection1 and we can trace the influence of this school of painters upon the decoration of the enamelled beakers preserved in the museums of ,zrich1 ,munich1 ,augsburg1 and other ,south ,german and ,swiss cities4 ,but it is to the ,franconian ,nuremberg1 which1 though further to the north1 fell under the same influences1 that we must turn to find the most brilliant work of this southern school4 ,here we come upon the family of the ,hirschvogels1 so many of whom during the course of the seventeenth century were famed as designers of glass for windows1 and we have evidence from documents that have been preserved that the younger members at least of the family painted on drinking-glasses with enamel colours 7,friedrich1 ,alt-,deutsche ,glser1 p4 #aeg74 ,it is chiefly on the ground of the coats-of-arms found on a few examples that we are enabled to attribute to ,nuremberg artists a variety of enamelled glass which differs in many respects from the heavily painted humpen and pass glasses of which ,i have been speaking4 ,in the ,british ,museum may be seen certain tall cylindrical beakers which may be taken as examples of this ,south ,german glass4 ,the metal is colourless but somewhat grey1 and1 as in the northern glasses1 a delicate scale pattern of gold with scattered pearls of enamel forms a ring below the upper margin4 ,but now we find the gold used freely in the rest of the decoration also1 replacing the coarse yellow enamel of the northern beakers4 ,the colours are purer and more effectively combined1 and we see among them a green of good quality4 ,in the case of the two beakers from the ,slade collection in the ,british ,museum1 the figure of ,jacob ,praun on one glass1 on the other that of his wife1 stand detached in the field2 there is no other decoration apart from the heraldic bearings of this ,nuremberg family 7these are on the other side of the glass7 and the above-mentioned gold band4 ,i may add that the ,nuremberg enamellers showed a superlative skill in the treatment of these elaborate coats-of-arms backed with fluttering mantlings4 ,of the larger humpen and pass glasses painted with allegorical or sometimes comic subjects1 we have no good examples in our ,english collections4 ,a beaker in the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg1 showing the ten ages of man in as many compartments1 is an exceptionally good example of such work4 ,the drawing and composition of the subjects on these larger ,south ,german glasses are carefully carried out--the colouring1 however1 is generally poor2 in the later examples1 indeed1 it tends to pass over to the monochrome or grisaille class1 of which ,i must say a word before finishing with these enamelled wares4 ,the school of grisaille painters on drinking-glasses1 founded towards the middle of the seventeenth century by ,johann ,schaper1 is in many ways closely associated with the contemporary engravers on glass4 ,like the latter1 the grisaille painters followed the pseudo-classical1 the #8,italianising' style1 rather than the old ,german traditions4 ,schaper1 who came from ,harburg on the ,elbe1 settled in ,nuremberg in #afdj1 and died there in #afgj4 ,his manner of work1 founded on copper-plate engravings1 was much admired at the time1 and he is in the next century mentioned among the famous artists of ,nuremberg by ,doppelmayr in his ,nachricht von den ,nrnbergischen ,knstlern4 ,schaper1 he says1 #8auf die ,trinkglser 444 gar delicat mahlte1' burning in his work afterwards so successfully that he surpassed all his contemporaries4 ,he painted--round the sides of small tumblers and wine-glasses1 for the most part--landscapes1 figures1 and heraldic bearings1 either in black or a warm sepia1 signing his work with his initials4 ,there are some small examples of the glass enamelled by him at ,south ,kensington4 ,the large goblet in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 ,no4 #hfj71 painted with a cavalry combat1 is of a considerably later date1 but it shows that ,schaper's influence continued into the eighteenth century2 in this case1 however1 the grisaille is heightened in places by touches of colour4 ,the tall pass-glass 7,slade1 ,no4 #hei71 painted with an elaborate procession celebrating the birth of a ,bavarian prince1 belongs1 on the other hand1 to quite another school4 ,it is dated #affb1 and ,schaper's influence had probably not reached ,munich by that time4 ,,painted ,,and ,,gilt ,,glass ,before passing on to the many-sided subject of engraved and cut glass1 a word must be said of certain applications to glass of painting and gilding which were much in favour in ,germany in the seventeenth century4 ,i have here to deal with a miscellaneous class of objects2 indeed the chief connecting-link between them is the fact that the decoration is in no case fixed by fire4 ,single sheets of glass may be simply painted at the back1 and #8fixed' by means of a transparent varnish4 ,such plates1 painted with ,biblical or allegorical subjects1 may be seen let into the panels of the elaborately carved and inlaid cabinets of the time4 ,it cannot be said that the effect of this pausch glas ,malerei1 as it is sometimes called in ,germany1 is very satisfactory4 ,it is indeed merely a debased variety of what used to be known in ,france as verre glomis2 the term fix peint has also been used for work of this kind4 ,the gilding that was so plentifully applied to the ,german engraved glass of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was fixed by a #8cold' process1 by simply attaching the gold-leaf by means of a varnish4 ,for the most part it is only when applied to the sunk part of an incavo decoration that this gilding has survived4 ,the gilding1 however1 has been more effectually preserved in the case of another cold process which came into vogue before the end of the seventeenth century1 and rapidly spread from ,bohemia1 or perhaps rather from ,silesia1 to various parts of ,germany4 ,in the case of these zwischen glser we are taken back to an old process1 already known to the ,alexandrian ,greeks4 ,the plan adopted in no way differs in principle from that made use of in the decoration of the beautiful bowls from ,canosa1 now in the ,british ,museum 7see p4 #df74bjd ,very inferior to these in artistic merit are the little footless tumblers1 with designs in gold1 often hunting scenes1 which seem to have been made on both sides of the ,silesian-,bohemian frontier before the end of the seventeenth century4 ,these are built up of two glasses1 both somewhat tapering and both cut into an equal number of perpendicular sides1 so that when the smaller of the two was inserted into the interior of the larger the glasses fitted exactly1 and could not rotate one upon the other4 ,the inner glass being somewhat the taller1 we find the ring of junction1 which is generally concealed by a band of gold1 about half an inch or so below the top of the glass4 ,the edges are so exactly bevelled that this line of junction is barely perceptible even to the touch4 ,before fitting the two glasses together1 the inner one had been coated on the outside with gold-leaf1 and the design carefully engraved on the gold with a steel point2 while on the inside of the outer glass a coating of old linseed oil or of varnish had been smeared4 ,i should add that a medallion of ruby glass1 variously ornamented1 is usually found at the bottom of these tumblers inserted between the two layers of glass1 or sometimes replacing the base of the outer cylinder4 ,these glasses will not stand warm liquids3 an example in the ,british ,museum is disfigured by some large flattened blisters1 probably the result of heat4#bje ,glasses built up in this manner may of course be decorated in other ways2 the gold-leaf1 for instance1 may be replaced by silver foil4 ,kunckel1 of ruby-glass fame1 describes a method in which the inner glass is plainly gilt1 while the outer one is painted on the inside in imitation of precious marbles 7,ars ,vitraria ,experimentalis1 #afgi74 ,i have seen examples of this manner of decoration in ,german museums4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,glass ,,of ,,germany--continued ,german ,cut and ,engraved ,glass--,the ,ruby ,glass of ,kunckel--,milch ,glass ,i have still to describe the origin and development of a method of decorating the surface which forms1 ,i may almost say1 the last main division in the artistic history of glass4 ,for when ,i come in subsequent chapters to treat of ,dutch and ,english glass--and with this my task practically closes--it will be found that this glass falls almost entirely under the head1 and is in a general way an outcome1 of the engraved or cut glass of ,germany4 ,here at the beginning ,i am confronted with a difficulty of a class only too often met with when treating of the technique of the minor arts--the difficulty of finding in our language suitable words to express1 without danger of misconception and confusion1 the practical details of the matter in hand4 ,i have now to deal with the methods by which the surface of glass may be cut1 polished1 scraped1 or eaten away1 so as to form an artistic design4 ,this1 ,i may say at once1 can be effected by any one of the following methods3-- #a4 ,by scratching with a diamond4 ,i can find no other word2 the term #8engraving' is vague and ambiguous2 to use the word #8etching' is still worse1 for though the result resembles in a measure the etched line on copper1 this expression should be reserved for the process by which the surface is eaten away 7the ,german tzen7 by acid4 #b4 ,by removing the surface by means of a small revolving wheel1 or more rarely1 of a cutting-tool1 with the aid of emery or other hard powdered stone4 ,the term #8engraving' may well be used here1 if it is understood in the sense in which we speak of an #8engraved gem1' for small hard stones have been cut in this way from ancient times4 #c4 ,when1 however1 by means of a large wheel1 the surface is deeply cut away1 we may better use the words #8cutting' or #8carving4' ,the grinding down of the surface and subsequent polishing1 as in the case of glass cut into facets1 would fall into this division4 ,it is1 however1 often difficult to say which of these terms--engraving1 cutting1 or grinding--it is preferable to use2 nor is the use of the ,german words #8schleifen' and #8schneiden' much more definite4 #d4 ,by exposing parts of the surface to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid1 the only acid that will attack glass4 ,this process may well be called etching4 ,we have already spoken of the use of the diamond by the ,venetians for scratching lace-like designs upon the surface of their thin glass1 so unsuitable for other forms of engraving4 ,the diamond point was early used in a similar way in ,germany4 ,mathesius1 after speaking of the imitations of the vetro di trina1 made in his day in ,silesia1 proceeds to say that it is also the practice to draw 7reissen7 #8auf die schnen und glatten ,venedischen gleser mit demand diamond allerley laubwerck und schne zge4' ,this decoration with the diamond point was carried to great perfection in ,silesia4 ,herr von ,czihak has reproduced in his work on the glass of that country 7p4 #abb7 two tall cylinders of this #8gerissene glas' 7so it is called in contemporary inventories71 which cannot be later than the sixteenth century4 ,so1 again1 much of the glass of cristallo type made at ,hall in the ,tyrol was thus decorated4 ,but this process of drawing designs with a diamond point on the surface of glass required the sure hand of an artist2 there was no room for any #8pentimenti'--moreover1 the result was not effective4#bjf ,before long1 in ,germany at least1 except here and there by amateurs1 it came to be used merely as supplementary to the newly introduced processes of cutting1 engraving1 and polishing--that is to say1 to the combination of methods concisely indicated by the ,germans as schliff und schnitt4 ,this was1 indeed1 a return to a very old treatment of the material much in favour in later ,roman times4 ,we have recognised in the so-called ,hedwig glasses the last efforts of an art already extinct in the ,west and decadent in the ,east2 but we have no link with which to connect these rude1 deeply carved goblets with the engraved glass of the ,german renaissance4 ,the ,germans were1 indeed1 familiar with the processes employed in polishing the surfaces of hard stones1 especially of their native agates 7as in the ,hunsrck district74 ,this they effected in early days by rubbing on a board1 the schleif-platte1 and already by the middle of the fifteenth century by means of a grindstone 7schleif-stein7 turned by water-power4 ,there is1 however1 no evidence to connect this industry with the new art of engraving glass1 which arose1 it would seem1 full-fledged at ,prague and at ,nuremberg just before the commencement of the seventeenth century4#bjg ,there is1 indeed1 every reason to accept the origin of this art given by contemporary writers--that it was learned from the ,italian carvers of rock crystal1 who in the last years of the sixteenth century were working for the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii41 that moody recluse and most unsatisfactory ruler1 who was1 however1 an eager and industrious inquirer into all the new arts and sciences of the day4 ,this essentially cinquecento art of carving in rock crystal had been before this time carried to great perfection in the north of ,italy4 ,the most famous master was ,valerio ,belli 7#adgi-aedf71 called ,vicentino1 from his birthplace4 ,the finest work of this school is to be found in the caskets built up with plates of rock-crystal delicately carved in shallow intaglio4#bjh ,other artists carved in the round bowls and vases in the form of shells or other shapes1 suggested1 in the first place1 by the outline of the original mass of crystal4 ,if these men were in any way indebted to ,greek artists from ,constantinople or elsewhere1 it can only have been for the knowledge of the mechanical processes1 for there is no trace of ,byzantine influence in their art4 ,to judge by surviving examples1 it was in the main the work carved in the round that found favour at the court of ,rudolph ,,ii4 ,we hear especially of two craftsmen from ,milan1 ,girolamo and ,caspare ,miseroni1 who worked for that prince4 ,as what we know of the early history of cutting and engraving on glass in ,germany is chiefly derived from ,sandrart's famous work on the lives of ,german artists1 ,i will here translate1 with considerable abbreviations in places1 what he says on this subject 7,teutsche ,academie1 ,nrnberg1 #afge1 ,part ,,ii4 book iii4 chap4 xxiv474--,it was during the reign of the most worthy ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 that the art of cutting glass was rediscovered and made public by ,caspar ,lehmann1 ,cammer-,edelstein und ,glas-,schneider to his majesty4 ,the emperor rewarded him richly for his discovery1 and in the year #afji1 at ,prague1 granted him certain privileges in a diploma which has been preserved3--#8,let all men know that our privy-precious-stone and glass-cutter ,caspar ,lehmann has informed us1 that now some years since1 with great strivings1 with busy reflection1 and not trifling cost1 he discovered the art and practice of glass-cutting4 ,and let it be known that the same ,c4 ,l4 shall have full liberty to carry on his art and work free and without let2 and that no one1 whoever he be1 shall1 without his consent1 practise or deal in such art or work4 ,and we request all the ,electors1 ,princes1 etc4 etc41 of the ,empire to punish any infraction of this privilege with a fine of twenty marks of gold of true alloy4' ,lehmann1 indeed1 continues ,sandrart1 well deserved these privileges4 ,both he and his comrade ,zacharias ,belzer 7they were both friends of ,hans von ,achen and ,paul von ,vianen1 and for the most part they were lodged at court in one apartment7 executed such excellent and artistic works in crystal and glass 7some of which are still preserved in the ,imperial ,schatzkammer and also in the palace of the ,elector at ,munich7 that they command the admiration of all connoisseurs4#bji ,george ,schwanhart the elder1 says ,sandrart1 was the son of ,johann1 a skilful cabinet-maker and armourer1 who made1 among other things1 exceptionally beautiful inlaid work of mother-of-pearl4 ,george1 who in his youth had learned cabinet-making and other arts from his father1 acquired from the above-mentioned ,lehmann a thorough acquaintance with the new art of glass-cutting4 ,so much was he loved by ,lehmann on account of his ingenious parts that the latter1 before his death1 bequeathed to him his privileges and rights as well as other property4#baj ,schwanhart1 after this time1 further cultivated the art and much advanced it by various inventions1 especially by the new #8smooth or polished cutting' 7hellen oder blancken schneiden74 ,his industry and skill obtained for him the praise and love of emperor1 kings1 and princes1 as well as of all those who cultivated the arts and sciences4 ,the late ,emperor 7,ferdinand ,,iii41 #afcg-afeh7 continued these privileges to his sons1 ,henry and ,george the younger1 and gave to both of them appointments at court4 ,now although1 continues ,sandrart1 these artists had brought to perfection the art of glass-cutting as far as it depended upon judgment and drawing1 yet in consequence of the too powerful and clumsy machinery made use of by them1 even they were unable to give grace and charm to their work4 ,when we consider the big heavy wheels that they were fain to employ--turned by those still flourishing weeds1 their loutish assistants--we may well marvel at the work they turned out4 ,since that time the discovery of more convenient and efficient tools has brought it about that nowadays the art of glass-cutting is no longer a strenuous task1 but rather a pastime4 ,so that with intelligence and industry all the charm and softness of nature1 whether trees1 landscapes1 animals1 or portraits1 may be by this art expressed4 ,and yet these glass-cutters of to-day1 with all their advantages1 might obtain from their patrons still greater praise1 were they to devote themselves more to the practice of drawing and to travelling about instead of marrying early and1 as a consequence1 having to work in the kitchen4#baa ,henry ,schwanhart--,i am still dependent upon ,sandrart--who with his brother ,george inherited his father's privileges1 has not only distinguished himself as a philosopher and a poet1 but has carried the art of glass-cutting to greater perfection4 ,he has succeeded in tracing on glass1 landscapes and complete views of towns--the city of ,nuremberg above all--in correct proportion and cunningly retiring perspective1 as in a painted picture4 ,nay1 with his subtle wit he has done what before was held to be an impossibility1 he has discovered an acid 7corrosiv7 of such a nature that the hardest crystalline glass yields to it1 and like metals and stones1 suffers itself to be corroded and eaten into4#bab ,he has quite lately given a complete proof of his skill in this art by etching all kinds of ornamental designs and inscriptions with the greatest neatness and precision4 ,he has engraved1 too1 the human figure both nude and draped1 and has brought it1 as well as all kinds of animals and flowers1 into high relief 7in erheben zehr hoch gebracht74#bac ,so far ,sandrart1 who was a contemporary of the younger ,schwanhart1 and ,i think that this long extract will give the reader some idea of the high esteem in which the art of engraving on glass was held at that time1 as well as of the relation of the glass-engravers to the workers in other branches of art4 ,the works of the ,schwanharts are now1 ,i believe1 only to be identified in the case of certain examples of engraved glass in the ,museum at ,hamburg4 ,here may be seen a roemer1 signed #8,g4 ,s4 #affj4' ,the delicately engraved landscape on this glass1 where the work of the diamond and that of the finest wheel are skilfully combined1 would point to this being probably the work of the younger of the two ,georges4 ,that even before the end of the sixteenth century there were engravers of glass in other parts of ,germany1 above all in ,silesia1 is very probable1 but there can be no doubt that it was the connection of ,lehmann and of the ,schwanharts with the ,imperial ,court that first brought this style of decoration into favour with people in high station4 ,in fact1 for some time this engraved glass was made for the most part to the order of wealthy patrons4 ,besides those named by ,sandrart1 the ,archbishop-,elector of ,mainz and the ,bishops of ,wrzburg and ,bamberg are mentioned as patrons of the new art1 and large prices were given for fine specimens of engraving4#bad ,one immediate consequence of the new fashion was to cause a demand for an absolutely clear white glass1 and this led to such improvements in the manufacture that the glass of ,silesia and ,bohemia was soon recognised as the best in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlii ,,engraved ,,beaker4 ,,the ,,cover ,,with ,,enamelled ,,metal ,,knob ,,german1 ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century ,from other sources we hear that ,george ,schwanhart the elder had three daughters1 ,sophia1 ,maria1 and ,suzanna1 who devoted themselves to the engraving on glass of flowers and ornaments1 and especially of those examples of calligraphy then so much in fashion4 ,sandrart1 most ungallantly1 fails to mention these ladies1 who were his contemporaries4 ,many other names of engravers on glass have been handed down to us1#bae but ,i will only mention ,hermann ,schwinger 7#afdj-hc71 who was also a wood-carver and engraver on copper4 ,we have in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 ,no4 #hhc7 a tall cup of thin white glass elaborately engraved with a ,bacchic subject4 ,below1 scratched by the diamond in small characters1 may be read #8,herman ,schwinger1 cristall schnider zu ,nrnberg4' ,there has been much discussion as to the nature of the improvements effected by the ,schwanharts in the glass-cutting machinery4 ,but before the end of the seventeenth century the arrangement of the wheels and the division of labour were probably on the whole established much in the manner that we find in local works in ,bohemia at the present day4 ,in a general way we may say that there has always been a distinction between the mechanical processes of grinding and polishing and the more delicate and artistic work of the engraver4 ,in the latter case the work is done by pressing the glass against the edge of a minute copper wheel4 ,on the other hand1 the glass is ground down on a wheel of iron from three to eighteen inches in diameter1 it is smoothed upon a stone wheel and finally polished upon one of wood1 with the assistance in each case of suitable abrading mediums1 whether emery1 quartz sand1 tripoli1 or putty-powder4 ,as early as the seventeenth century these glas-schleifer were divided into several more or less independent groups4 ,the eckigrber did the coarser work4 ,it fell to them1 in the first place1 to remove all irregularities on the surface of the glass--for example1 the rough projections left on the foot where the pontil had been attached--and more especially to make the cross cuttings required to form the facets1 which at a later time were so much in vogue4 ,the kugler were another class of workmen1 who prepared the shallow circular or oval pits which play so important a part in the decoration4 ,the work of the actual engraver belongs more to the domain of art4 ,the cutting in this case is effected by a little wheel of copper from a quarter inch to an inch in diameter1 revolving rapidly at the end of a horizontal spindle1 moved by a treadle4 ,these little copper wheels are of various forms1 and not the least part of the skill of the artist lies in the selection of the form most suitable for the work in hand4 ,the decision as to the depth of the engraved line1 and again as to which part should be polished and which left dull depends also upon his judgment4 ,his difficulties are increased by the fact that he is unable to follow the progress of the work in hand1 for not only has he to press the glass against the under surface of the wheel1 but the part of the surface on which he is working remains covered by the emery or other abrading material employed 7,von ,czihak1 pp4 #acf-aci74 ,it will be noticed that as a rule the incised parts are left unpolished and dull as they come from the wheel1 and that the polishing is reserved for the little circular depressions1 the kugeln1 which then show out like jewels cut en cabochon4 ,we are apt to associate this engraved glass with ,bohemia1 but to say nothing of the highly finished and artistic work done at ,nuremberg and ,regensburg1 it is probable that in no other district has the engraving and cutting of glass become so much a distinct industry as in the ,silesian valleys that descend from the highest peaks of the ,riesengebirge towards the town of ,hirschberg4 ,as early as the commencement of the seventeenth century we come across an ,italian engraver on rock crystal in the service of the ,freiherr von ,schaffgotsch at ,schloss ,kynast1 and at the same spot towards the end of the century1 in the employ of the same family1 we find ,friedrich ,winter1 who has the credit of being the first in this district to apply water-power to the cutting and polishing of glass4 ,soon after this time there are many complaints of the decadence and vulgarisation of the art4 ,thus in #agjh a writer in a commercial paper complains that the engraved glass1 which formerly was only to be found on the table of people of quality1 had now become #8dirt-cheap1' and that the art of the glass-cutter was brought into contempt by the hawkers of glasses who scoured nearly the whole of ,europe with their engraved wares4 ,whole chestsful of these commoner glasses1 the writer says1 were sent to ,spain1 and found there a good market 7quoted by ,von ,czihak1 p4 #abi74 ,sandrart1 it will be remembered1 some years before this1 had uttered a protest against the stimpler--the bungling1 ignorant workmen--who were ruining the art1 and now we find the same expression used in the diploma of the monopoly that was granted to the above-mentioned ,winter in #afhg by ,count ,christoph ,leopold of ,silesia4 ,thanks in a measure to the energy of ,winter and to the support given to him1 the little town of ,warmbrunn soon became known all through ,germany as well for its cut glass as for the warm springs to which it owed its name4 ,as in other parts of ,silesia1 the glass industry1 after the separation from ,bohemia1 suffered from the fiscal regulations of the new ,prussian rgime4 ,frederick the ,great took an interest in the manufacture of glass1 but this was shown rather in the encouragement and patronage accorded to the new glass-works that had been established nearer to his capital4 ,on the other side of the mountains also1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 some of the great ,bohemian landholders were active in promoting the manufacture of glass on their estates4 ,of the ,kinsky family and the town of ,steinschnau 7even to-day a great centre of the glass industry71 we hear something in the curious account of his life left by a wandering glass-cutter1 one ,kreybich1 who was born in that town in #affb4 ,kreybich1 who had mastered the arts both of enamelling and engraving glass1 carried his wares on his barrow all over ,southern ,germany4 ,in his later journeys he pushed forward as far as ,poland and ,russia4 ,as early as #afhh he is found in ,london1 where1 in spite of the competition of many new glass-furnaces 7these1 he confesses1 turned out better metal than that which he had with him71 he found a good demand for his engraved glass4 ,when the wandering retailers of glass--we can hardly call them hawkers--returned to renew their supplies1 then1 says ,kreybich1 there was an eager demand from the glass-houses1 and no less from the glass-cutters1 the kugler1 and the polishers4 ,but not a few of these wandering glassmen carried1 it would seem1 their engraving-wheel and their tools with them1 and engraved on the spot the arms or the initials of the purchasers of their glasses4 ,we may indeed regard the first half of the eighteenth century as the most flourishing period of the glass industry in ,bohemia and ,silesia4 ,at the end of that time the ,bohemian town of ,haida--at the present day the centre of more than one branch of the glass manufacture--rose to importance1 thanks to the fostering care of ,count ,kinsky4 ,but the industrial and commercial element now came more and more to prevail4 ,enterprising manufacturers like ,franz ,weidlich of ,steinschnau exported to ,spain and ,portugal1 and others supplied the ,eastern market as far as the ,indies with glass summarily decorated with #8little wreaths cut with a small copper wheel with the aid of emery4' ,this ,eastern trade passed through ,vienna1 and meeting with every encouragement from ,maria ,theresa and from ,joseph ,,ii41 soon undermined the time-honoured monopoly of the ,venetians in the ,levant and in ,persia4 ,with the ,western market it was otherwise4 ,the ,german glass had to reach the ,peninsula by way of the ,flemish ports1 ,antwerp and ,ostend4 ,what we have known as the ,spanish ,netherlands were now in ,austrian hands1 and the new government was eager to promote the local industries4 ,the energetic firm of the ,bonhommes 7see p4 #bdb71 long established at ,lige and other neighbouring towns1 competed successfully first with the ,german and then with the ,english glass-makers1 just as formerly they had competed with the ,italians1 adopting in turn the methods of each4#baf ,but in addition to cutting or engraving with a wheel and scratching with a diamond1 there is a third method by which the surface of glass may be removed4 ,this is by means of hydrofluoric acid1 the only re-agent by which glass is rapidly attacked4 ,the discovery of this acid is usually ascribed to ,scheele1 the ,swedish chemist 7born #agdb71 and a date as late as #agga is given to the discovery4 ,but there is no doubt that the special virtues of the fumes that are given off when fluor-spar is heated in sulphuric acid were known before this time4#bag ,we have seen how ,sandrart1 writing before #afge1 mentions that his contemporary ,henry ,schwanhart engraved glass by means of a #8corrosiv1' and the statement is repeated with picturesque details by ,doppelmayr4 ,by covering part of the glass with a varnish and exposing the rest to these acid fumes1 ,schwanhart produced a smooth pattern on a dead ground4 ,certain calligraphic inscriptions on plates of glass1 preserved in ,german museums1#bah were probably engraved in this way1 but at the time the process did not come into general use4 ,at a much later period hydrofluoric acid has been largely employed in ,england and elsewhere for engraving on glass4 ,still more recently this method has given way to the sand-blast4 ,these are both1 however1 purely industrial processes that have little to do with art4 ,we have seen how close was the relation in early medival times between the quest of the alchemist and the art of the glass-maker--that part of the art above all that was concerned with the production of coloured pastes4 ,so again at the end of the seventeenth century1 when the search for the philosopher's stone1 the universal medicine and other such nostrums1 had again come into vogue in ,germany1 the glass-maker's craft is once more found in close relation with these ambiguous researches4 ,this intimate connection is well illustrated in the history of ,johann ,kunckel1 a man whose career in more than one aspect reminds us of that of ,bttger1 the discoverer of the secret of making porcelain4 ,bttger may indeed be regarded as ,kunckel's successor at ,meissen and ,dresden1 for both for a time held official positions as alchemist or arcanist at the ,saxon court4#bai ,kunckel was born in #afch 7or perhaps somewhat sooner7 in the duchy of ,schleswig4 ,at an early age we find him in the service of the ,saxon ,elector engaged in the search for the philosopher's stone4 ,he lectured1 too1 on chemistry at ,wittenberg before a numerous audience4 ,after the year #afgg he entered the service of ,frederick ,william1 the ,grosse ,churfrst4 ,it was at ,berlin about this time that his researches upon the transformation of matter led him to make inquiries into the colouring of glass1 above all into the mysterious process by which glass could be stained of a crimson or purple tint by means of gold4 ,that such a colour could be thus obtained had long been a tradition among the alchemists4 ,in the old books the secret was dangled before the eyes of the student without being fully explained4 ,the ,saracens were probably acquainted with it2 ,agricola mentions the ritzle1 the #8aurum quo tingitur vitrum rubro colore1' and ,neri refers to the red tint derived from gold4#bbj ,not a little of the mystery that so long surrounded this ruby colour had its origin1 no doubt1 in the following facts3--#a4 ,the full tint is only to be got when an extremely minute quantity of gold is present4 #b4 ,the colour is not developed until the glass is reheated2 on first cooling the metal is nearly colourless4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out how both these properties of the gold pigment must have appealed to the imagination of the alchemists1 and have furnished them with arguments in favour of their transformation theories4 ,here1 then1 we have one explanation of the interest taken by these early inquirers in the processes of the glass-maker4 ,in #afgi ,kunckel published his ,ars ,vitraria ,experimentalis1 a work which is indeed merely a retranslation into ,german of ,merret's edition of ,neri 7see p4 #bai71 with supplementary notes4#bba ,not that ,kunckel here fully discloses the secret of his famous ruby glass--he draws back at the last moment4 ,orschall1 however1 his rival1 a man of whom we are told that #8he took to polygamy and other irregularities1 and died in a monastery in ,poland1' in his famous tractate ,sol sine ,veste1 first printed in #afhd1 is somewhat more explicit4 ,a propos of his experiments with certain #8handsome vases in the style of porcelain1' he tells us that the milkiness of the glass with which the ,oriental porcelain was imitated was only developed on reheating1 and the same1 he mentions1 is the case with the ruby colour of the glass containing gold4#bbb ,kunckel was settled by the ,great ,elector on the ,pfauen-,insel1 near ,potsdam1 and it was in the glass-houses already erected on the island that1 surrounded with the greatest secrecy1 he first made his famous ruby glass4 ,after a time1 however1 constrained by what he calls #8die lderliche ,verkrmerung des ,rubin-,flusses1' otherwise by lack of gold1 he passed over to the service of the ,swedish king4 ,he died at ,stockholm as ,baron ,lwenstjern in #agjb4 ,kunckel's name has become attached to certain large ewers and beakers of ruby glass4 ,he made1 too1 glass of a deep emerald tint1 but specimens of this are rare4 ,some of his glasses--and these are perhaps the oldest--are carved in high relief2 others are blown with great technical skill4 ,large sums were given at the time for examples of his work4 ,the vases of blown glass took on classical forms1 and were set in scroll mountings of silver gilt4 ,but these mounted pieces are for the most part of later date than ,kunckel's time1 for glass of this kind was made at ,zechlin and other places near ,berlin up to the middle of the eighteenth century and perhaps later4 ,a tankard of ruby glass in the ,british ,museum 7,slade1 ,no4 #hfi7 bears the cipher of ,frederick ,i4 7#agja-agac72 in the same collection is another fine example 7,slade1 ,no4 #hfh71 a graceful ewer1 set in a rococo silver-gilt mounting4#bbc ,among other specimens of this ruby glass in ,lord ,rothschild's collection is a tumbler-shaped beaker1 #8frosted' on the outside4 ,as in the case of the porcelain made at a later time in ,berlin1 the ,prussian glass as a whole is distinguished by its technical excellence and1 compared at least to the bulk of the contemporary work1 by a certain severity of form and decoration4 ,much opaque white glass was made in ,germany1 as in other countries1 in the first years of the eighteenth century4 ,by this means it was hoped to find an equivalent for the ,oriental porcelain1 which had not yet been successfully imitated4 ,at ,south ,kensington may be seen a covered beaker of this milch-glas elaborately painted with a baroque design2 more often1 however1 the decoration on such ware is in a pseudo-,chinese style4 ,von ,czihak has extracted from the contemporary work of a certain ,kundmann1 a learned doctor and dilettante1 a recipe for making this glass with human bones2 this formula1 the author states1 he obtained from ,kunckel 7,rariora ,natur et ,artis4 ,breslau1 #agcg74 ,kundmann claims for this glass1 prepared from bones found in heathen burial-urns1 that it surpassed in whiteness the best porcelain4 ,on one of his glasses preserved in the museum at ,breslau1 there is a quaint ,latin inscription4 ,you are asked to offer a libation to those poor heathens for whom1 after suffering both on the field of battle and in the furnace of the glass-maker1 the pains of hell are reserved4 ,kundmann had too1 in his cabinet1 some little glasses on which were engraved the tobacco-plant and other designs relating to smoking4 ,these1 he declared1 were prepared solely from sand and tobacco ash 7,schlesische ,glser1 p4 #fb74 ,there is one important branch of the ,bohemian-,silesian glass industry1 of which before ending a word must be said4 ,this is the manufacture of beads and other kinds of verroterie1 as well as of glass pastes for artificial jewellery4 ,paternoster ,kgelchen were probably made from an early date3 the art may have been learned from wandering ,venetians4 ,in ,bohemia1 ,betel-,htten 7#8bead furnaces'7 are mentioned early in the seventeenth century4 ,at ,winterberg1 of eight glass-furnaces four are so described4 ,here we have the very word 7,betel1 from ,bete1 a prayer7 from which we have formed our term #8bead4' ,but nothing quite equivalent to this last convenient word ever came into use in ,germany4 ,from the word ,paternoster-,kugel1 when at a later time the demand came rather for beads for personal ornament or for export1 the ,germans passed to the ambiguous expression ,perlen or ,glas-,perlen4 ,the manufacture of the more elaborate forms of beads by means of the blow-pipe--the suppialume process of the ,venetians--spread slowly in the north4 ,doppelmayr 7op4 cit41 p4 #bbf7 states that the use of #8a little copper pipe fixed over a burning lamp' for making small objects of glass was first taught at ,nuremberg by one ,abraham ,fino1 who came from ,amsterdam in #afcj4 ,the ,dutch1 he says1 had been taught the art by a ,venetian4 ,kunckel1 on the ,pfauen-,insel1 was occupied in making beads for exportation to ,west ,africa by the newly founded ,brandenburg ,african ,company4 ,in the early years of the eighteenth century the competition with ,venice was keen1 but in this branch the ,italians seem to have held their own4 ,not so1 however1 in the kindred industry1 the manufacture of glass pastes for artificial jewellery4 ,before the middle of the century1 certain districts in ,northern ,bohemia obtained almost a monopoly in this art4 ,these #8,bohemian stones' were made first at ,turnau1 by the ,fischer brothers4 ,this was early in the century2 by #aghf there were1 it is said1 #ddc master-workmen in the district thus employed4 ,after that time the first place was held by the rival town of ,steinschnau1 to this day the centre of the industry 7,lobmeyr1 ,die ,glas ,industrie1 #ahgd1 p4 #ace74 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,dutch ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,centuries ,in ,holland the ,war of ,independence does not seem to have interfered with the work of the glass furnaces already established in several of the towns by ,altarists or ,venetians4 ,m4 ,schuermans1 who has devoted a section of one of his letters to ,holland 7op4 cit41 vol4 xxix4 pp4 #adg-ff71 finds traces of the ,italians at ,bois-le-,duc1 ,middelburg1 ,haarlem1 and ,amsterdam4 ,but by the beginning of the seventeenth century there were already at ,amsterdam glass-houses managed by ,dutchmen4 ,m4 ,henri ,havard has found in the registers of the ,states-,general mention of two ,dutch glass-makers who obtained at this time a privilege for fifteen years to make #8glasses for ,rhine wine in the shape of roemers as well as beer glasses' by certain new processes 7,oud ,holland1 i4 #ahb74 ,for a time there was an active rivalry between the glass-makers of ,amsterdam and ,antwerp3 at a later period the enterprising ,lige family of the ,bonhommes obtained a footing in several ,dutch towns4 ,but1 as ,i have already said1 the #8green glass' of the ,rhine 7not always necessarily green or even coloured7 was from early times in favour in ,holland1 if indeed we are not to regard it as indigenous in the country4 ,at a later period there is no doubt that most of the finer specimens were made there4 ,it is glasses of this class1 roemers in the first place1 but also tall #8flutes1' that we see so often in the works of the ,dutch painters of the seventeenth century4 ,those of a ,venetian type1 on the other hand1 though by no means absent1 are much rarer than in the contemporary paintings of the ,flemish school4 ,the ,dutch seem above all to have esteemed the ruimer or roemer2 on glasses of this shape the finest engraving and diamond-scratching were expended1 and it was these glasses that they selected to mount on tall silver stands of elaborate workmanship4 ,there are the bekerschroeven 7beaker-screws71 which may at times be seen on the buffet in a seventeenth-century ,dutch interior4 ,there are several fine examples of these trophy-like arrangements in the ,rijks ,museum at ,amsterdam4 ,for us1 seeing that we must confine ourselves to points of real artistic interest or historical significance1 the glass made by the ,dutch in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is of importance mainly under these two aspects3 #a4 ,that here the art of engraving1 or rather scratching1 with the diamond was carried to greater perfection than in any other country4 #b4 ,that starting from the close of the seventeenth century1 the forms and methods of construction of the ,dutch drinking-glasses 7apart from the roemer7 first greatly influenced1 and then in turn were influenced by1 our ,english glasses4 ,as in ,germany1 where the ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii4 learned the art1 drawing with the diamond on glass was in ,holland practised as an elegant accomplishment by people in good position1 and above all by ladies4 ,indeed we are here brought into contact with a cultured literary set1 a coterie of which the members held a higher social1 and perhaps intellectual1 position than we can allow to the majority of the great painters of the day whose names are better known to us4 ,typical frequenters of this circle were the three sisters1 daughters of ,roemer ,vischer1 who were immortalised in the songs of ,huyghens1 ,cats1 and ,hooft 7,don ,henriques de ,castro1 #8,een en ander over ,glasgravure1' ,oud ,holland1 i4 #bhf2 see also ,hartshorne1 p4 #dh74 ,a still more famous literary lady was ,anna ,maria van ,schurman1 who among so many other accomplishments had1 as ,cats has recorded1 mastered the art #8met een diamant op het glas gheestigh to schrijven4'#bbd ,several good examples of the work of these ladies1 which took the form for the most part of mottoes engraved with scrolls and flourishes on the bowls of roemers1 are preserved in the ,rijks ,museum3 some of these have been admirably reproduced by ,mr4 ,hartshorne in his work on ,english glasses4#bbe ,another interesting class of diamond-scratched ,dutch glass is well represented in the ,british ,museum4 ,here we find portraits of contemporary celebrities1 of members of the house of ,orange in many cases1 together with coats-of-arms1 scratched on the bowls of wine-glasses--either conical glasses of ,venetian forms or tall narrow #8flutes4' ,sometimes1 indeed1 designs of this character are found on winged glasses of purely ,venetian type4 ,mr4 ,nesbitt was of opinion that these were made in ,venice 7,slade ,catalogue1 ,no4 #hia71 but we now know1 thanks to ,m4 ,schuermans' researches1 that such glasses may well have been produced at this time in the north4 ,the similarity in form of the bulbs or knops on the stems of all the glasses of this series should be noted3 in no case is there any trace of cutting with the wheel on this part1 still less of any facetting4 ,on a thin funnel-shaped glass 7,slade1 ,no4 #hhi7 we have on one side the arms of ,england and ,orange-,nassau impaled1 on the other is a portrait of a lady in the costume of the middle of the seventeenth century1 doubtless the #8counterfeit' of ,mary1 ,princess of ,orange1 the daughter of ,charles ,i4 ,it is to her that we must refer the inscription in ,gothic letters1 #8,het ,welvaren ,van ,de ,princes4' ,in these ,dutch glasses scratched with the diamond may be found perhaps the earliest instances of glasses #8that have been made to speak4' ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii ,,beaker ,,with ,,the ,,four ,,seasons ,,in ,,medallions ,,design ,,scratched ,,with ,,diamond4 ,,dated #affc4 ,,probably ,,netherlandish ,of quite another nature were the elaborate compositions engraved for the most part with the wheel upon plates of glass4 ,it was to work of this kind that ,gerard ,dou was brought up by his father--himself #8a glass-worker and writer on glass1' and subsequently master of the glass-makers' guild at ,leyden4 ,the younger ,dou was apprenticed to one ,dolendo1 who is described as #8a right good plate-etcher1' before he entered the studio of ,rembrandt 7,martin1 ,gerard ,dou1 pp4 #bh-bi74 ,there came into fashion in ,holland in the next century a method of engraving on glass1 if engraving it can be called1 of quite a different nature4 ,this is the stipple or dotted method1 the stip of the ,dutch1 by which a design of the utmost delicacy--a mere breath1 as it were--is made to appear on the surface of the glass4 ,when examined with a glass the decoration is seen to be built up of minute dots as in a stipple engraving1#bbf differing from the latter1 however1 in this1 that in the case of the work on the glass1 the lights are given by the dots and the clear untouched ground represents the shadow4 ,one of the earliest masters1 if not the inventor of this method1 was ,frans ,greenwood1 who appears indeed to have worked with the wheel also4 ,greenwood--his name would point to an ,english extraction--was born at ,rotterdam in #afhj1 and the latest date found on his engraved work is #agdc4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a wine-glass with a ,bacchic subject1 a highly finished example of this pointill process1 signed #8,f4 ,greenwood ft4' ,in the eighteenth century this stippling on glass was practised by painters of some note4 ,thus there are two glasses in the ,rijks ,museum 7dated #agej and #agea7 both stippled with portrait heads1 which bear the signature of ,aart ,schouman1 a portrait-painter of repute at the time4 ,but the greatest master of the art was ,wolf1 an eccentric genius who lived at the ,hague4 ,we know little of him except that he married in #aghg1 and died young in #ahjh4 ,glasses stippled with graceful designs by this master1 somewhat in the manner of ,bartolozzi1 are perhaps less rare than those of ,greenwood or ,schouman4 ,some of his engravings are found upon goblets of flint glass with facetted stems1 of ,english make1 probably4 ,on an example of his work in the ,british ,museum a graceful female figure bears a scroll with the words1 #8,werken van het genootschap4 ,k4,w4,d4,a4,v4' ,the tradition of ,wolf was carried on by ,daniel ,henriques de ,castro1 who died as late as #ahfb4 ,the son of the latter artist1 in an article on the subject in the first volume of ,oud ,holland1 has collected some traditions bearing on the methods of execution of this now lost process4 ,the author relates how he had come across an old man who had watched ,wolf while at work on one of his glasses2 according to his report1 his only tools were an etching-needle and a small hammer4 ,this is a matter of some importance1 as both the late ,mr4 ,nesbitt and ,mr4 ,hartshorne appear to have taken it for granted that this delicate film-like engraving was produced1 in part at least1 by means of acid4 ,but the two processes can hardly have been combined1 and the effect is quite unlike that produced when the surface of glass is eaten away by hydrofluoric acid4 ,it would1 indeed1 be quite impossible to produce such delicate work by any etching process of this latter kind4#bbg ,i shall have something to say of the ,dutch wine-glasses of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when ,i come to speak of the ,english glasses that were in a measure founded on them4 ,suffice to mention that already1 before the end of the seventeenth century1 we find on these glasses the welted foot and the baluster stem moulded and uncut1 enclosing one or more #8tears'--forms that somewhat later passed over to ,england4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,english ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,and ,,seventeenth ,,centuries ,in an ,english work treating of glass1 or rather of certain descriptions of glass1 and that chiefly from the artistic point of view1 what position in the book and what relative amount of space should be given to the glass of ,england8 ,the position is1 indeed1 readily defined1 for our country has but slight claims to recognition as a producer of artistic glass until the commencement of the eighteenth century--indeed we may perhaps say until that century was well advanced4 ,the consideration1 then1 of the glass of this country must be kept back until that of all the other ,european ,states--,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and the ,netherlands--that have at one time or another produced glass of artistic importance has been dealt with4 ,as to the relative importance of our ,english glass and the amount of space to be allotted to it1 this is a question difficult to answer4 ,for a moment1 no doubt1 towards the end of the eighteenth century1 it held the premier place in ,europe1 on the ground1 above all1 of the excellence of the material4 ,advantage was taken of certain exceptional qualities in the ,english flint or lead glass to produce a deeply cut1 facetted ware1 solid and brilliant1 something undoubtedly sui generis and suitable to its place on the sideboard1 or on the well-polished mahogany table when the cloth was removed4 ,the flashing fire of the lights cast back from the skilfully arranged facets of the decanters and glasses1 combined with the softer reflections from the silver plate to give an undeniable charm and an individual stamp to these late ,georgian dinner-tables4 ,this play of lights has appealed to1 and has been not unsuccessfully reproduced by1 more than one painter of the present day4 ,but this facetted ware1 the one glory of our ,english glass1 came late into vogue1 at a time when the prevailing fashions allowed little room for any freedom of treatment1 so that it is only rarely that we can find any merit in the forms and decorations of individual examples4 ,it is1 however1 to a somewhat earlier period that the modern enthusiast turns4 ,his interest lies in the air-twisted stems1 the folded feet1 and the bell-shaped bowls of the drinking-glasses of the eighteenth century4 ,now these1 though made of flint glass1 belong mostly to a time before full advantage had been taken of the dispersive power of that material upon the rays of light4 ,here the question may well be asked--putting aside all matter of historical or sentimental interest--what can we say of these endless rows of glasses1 classified and sub-classified on the ground of variety of stem or bowl1 as objects of art8 ,but this is a point upon which ,i should prefer not to deliver a definite judgment2 ,i have said enough to indicate my personal standpoint4 ,i can only refer the reader to the copiously illustrated work of ,mr4 ,hartshorne on ,english glass1 of which the larger part is occupied with this branch of the subject4#bbh ,it may be said that the history of ,english glass divides itself into two periods4 ,for the first we have abundant documentary evidence--patents for new processes and petitions for or against these patents1 to say nothing of notices in contemporary journals and memoirs--but against this an almost total absence of examples of the glass actually made4 ,this period extends from the early days of ,elizabeth almost to the end of the seventeenth century4 ,in the second period1 on the other hand--and this includes nearly the whole of the eighteenth century--the documentary evidence almost completely fails us2 but in its place a fairly rich material harvest is available--the wine-glass1 above all1 so dear to the collector1 now asserts itself4 ,when at the beginning of the reign of ,elizabeth1 or even a little earlier1 a few rays of light begin to be thrown upon the glass made in ,england1 we find the industry centred in a district on the borders of ,surrey and ,sussex3 we are here at the western extremity of the great forest of the ,weald1 that was a little later to become for a time the home of an important iron industry4 ,here the raw materials and the fuel were at hand4 ,fuel from the oaks and beeches1 and from trees of smaller growth2 the silica from the #8,hastings sands1' selected from spots where the beds were tolerably free from iron2 and finally the alkali1 for the most part from the ashes of the bracken that then as now grew so abundantly in the glades of the woods4 ,for this old ,english glass1 like that of ,france1 was essentially a verre fougre1#bbi made in districts remote from towns4 ,at a somewhat later time the glass-workers were indeed forbidden to set up their furnaces within twenty-two miles of ,london1 seven miles of ,guildford1 or within four miles #8of the foot of the hills called the ,sussex downs4' ,the little village of ,chiddingfold1 just within the boundary of ,surrey1 may perhaps lay claim to be the original #8metropolis of ,english glass1' and a line measured from ,hindhead to ,petworth passes close to the various places--,loxwood1 ,kirdford1 ,fernfold1 ,wisboro' ,green--where we know that furnaces were already established early in the sixteenth century4 ,i have already referred to this district when speaking of the ,english glass of medival times 7see p4 #aci74 ,fragments of green glass have been found on the site of a glass-house at ,chiddingfold4 ,in the ,museum at ,lewes are two bulbous flasks with long necks of this green ,weald-glass4 ,there was another centre of the glass industry in ,east ,sussex1 in the country to the north of ,hastings4 ,in a medival document concerning ,beckley1 in this district1 the name ,glassye ,borough occurs4 ,at these woodland glass-houses1 for many generations1 the wandering pedlars1 the #8glass-men1' had been wont to renew the stock of #8vrynells1 bottles1 bowles1 cuppis to drinck and such lyke1' that they hawked along the country-side4 ,you may send1 says ,thomas ,charnock in his ,breviary of ,philosophy 7#aeeg71 to ,chiddingfold1 to the #8glassemaker1' #8,and desire him in most humble wise ,to blow thee a glass after thy devise4' ,that is to say1 that the glass-blower1 as we have seen in other cases1 worked from the patterns provided by his customers4 ,camden says of the ,sussex glass that in his time it was only used #8of the common sort4' ,possibly the ,sussex glass-blowers made quarrels and bull's-eyes for windows also2#bcj this1 however1 was an industry that centred rather in ,london1 especially in ,southwark4 ,now it was above all the demand for larger and better made panes for use in the new mansions with spacious windows--the #8glass houses' of the proverb about throwing stones--that were now springing up on every side1 that gave the most powerful impulse to the introduction of the newer methods of working glass that had already taken root in ,france and in the ,low ,countries4 ,it must be remembered that in the preparation of the stained glass for church windows large pieces were not required4 ,considerable artistic skill in this branch would be quite compatible with a very primitive method of blowing and #8flashing' the glass4 ,at this time the new industry--the making of large sheets of broad-glass1 that is to say--was centred in ,lorraine1 in the country stretching from the ,vosges to the ,ardennes2 in a lesser degree in ,normandy4 ,it is uncertain in what the superiority of the #8verre en tables quarres' made by the ,lorrainers consisted2 there is no positive proof that they had as yet adopted the ,german cylinder process 7see pp4 #abi and #bcd note71 though this is in every way probable4 ,the ,french glass-workers who came to ,england belonged1 for the most part1 to the old noble families4 ,we find in our ,english documents some of the very names--,hennezel1 for instance--that occur in the famous ,charte des verriers granted by ,john of ,calabria1 son of ,king ,ren1 in the year #addh 7see p4 #bcj74bca ,when these foreigners are mentioned in our ,english documents they are invariably described as gentlemen or esquires4 ,we must remember that in the sixteenth century ,antwerp held a commercial position something like that taken later by ,amsterdam and ,london3 the town was1 above all1 the centre of the glass trade4 ,it is not surprising then to find that it was through the medium of an ,antwerp merchant1 one ,jean ,carr1 that the ,french glass-makers were now introduced into ,england4#bcb ,carr1 in association with a certain ,briot1 brought over both ,normans and ,lorrainers1 and the quarrels and disputes that soon broke out appear to have had their origin in the fact that the men to whom the first patents were granted were not practical workers themselves1 and that they were therefore dependent on others4#bcc ,in any case1 before the year #aegj1 gentlemen of ,lorraine bearing the well-known names of ,hennezel1 ,du ,thisac1 and ,le ,houx1 as well1 probably1 as representatives of the ,le ,vaillant and other ,norman families1 were making glass in more than one spot in the ,weald as well as in ,london4 ,but these proud1 hot-headed foreigners do not seem to have been popular in ,sussex4 ,there were frequent petitions against the destruction of the woods to supply the fuel for their glass-houses1 and we hear of an attempt made to rob the #8outlandish men' that made glass near ,petworth and to burn their houses4 ,before #aegf1 then1 the ,lorrainers were already in search of forests where they could work without hindrance2 they began that long peregrination that took them by way of the ,hampshire woods to the ,forest of ,dean1 and finally to ,stourbridge and ,newcastle4#bcd ,some remains of a glass-house at ,buckholt ,wood1 on the line of the old ,roman road between ,salisbury and ,winchester1 had long attracted the attention of antiquaries before a satisfactory explanation of their origin could be found4 ,large quantities of broken window-glass1 as well as fragments of glass of many other kinds1 including some of distinctly ,venetian type1 had at times been dug up4 ,these remains1 doubtless1 represent a store of #8cullet' or old broken glass destined to be remelted1 and therefore not necessarily all of it made on the spot4 ,fragments1 too1 of the glass-pots were found1 of a greyish-white clay not of local origin4 ,it is only quite recently that with these discoveries have been associated certain entries in the registries of the ,walloon ,church at ,southampton 7these were published a few years ago by the ,huguenot ,society74 ,among those admitted to the ,lord's ,supper1 in the years #aegf to #aegi1 we find the names of members of the ,du ,thisac1 ,hennezel1 and ,le ,houx families1 all ,lorrainers1 as well as that of ,pierre ,vaillant1 a ,norman4 ,these communicants are described in the registry as #8,ouvriers de verre a la verriere de boute haut' 7elsewhere spelt ,bocquehaut71 a fairly good ,french rendering of the word ,buckholt4 ,it is not every day that one comes across so neat and conclusive an instance of documentary research supplementing and completing the work of the #8men of the spade4' ,but here again1 in spite of the attraction of the not far distant ,walloon ,church1 the ,lorrainers made but a short stay4 ,in #aeii one #8,abraham ,tysack1 son of a frenchman at the glasse-house1' was baptized at ,newent1 in the ,forest of ,dean1 where1 at any rate1 there can have been no deficiency of fuel4 ,but the wanderers made apparently no long stay in the district1 for we find that some at least of the number after a few years settled at ,stourbridge1 in ,worcestershire4 ,the famous clay of this district1 still unsurpassed as a material for the glass-pots1 was1 it would seem1 already worked along with the beds of coal which this clay underlies4 ,here1 at ,king's ,swinford1 in #afab1 the name of ,tyzack occurs in local records1 and a little later1 at ,old ,swinford1 those of ,henzey and ,tittery4 ,in this neighbourhood some members of these families at length settled down1 maintaining close relations with certain of their relatives who pushed on as far as ,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,at this last town1 in #afag1 a ,henzey was fain to enter the service of ,sir ,robert ,mansell1 who was already bringing the principal glass-workers of ,england within the net of his monopoly4 ,i have dwelt on the wanderings of these ,lorrainers1 who were above all makers of window-glass1 as to them rather than to the ,venetians is due1 ,i think1 the definite establishment of a glass industry in ,england4 ,for it must be borne in mind that the principal stimulus came from the demand for better and larger panes for the windows of the new renaissance houses1--somewhat later1 perhaps1 for the windows of #8glass-coaches' also4 ,already early in the sixteenth century not a few examples of ,venetian and1 perhaps1 even of ,oriental glass1 may have found their way into the houses of the wealthy4 ,but we must regard as quite exceptional--the result1 probably1 of some passing whim of the king--the collection of #cga pieces of glass that were in #aedb in the possession of ,henry ,,viii4 ,these are described under the head of #8,glasses and sundry other things of erthe' in an inventory of certain valuable effects in the ,palace at ,westminster 7,archological ,journal1 vol4 xviii41 #ahfa74 ,among them there is mention of flagons1 basins1 ewers1 standing-cups1 cruses1 layers1 spice-plates1 and even forks and spoons of glass4 ,many of these pieces are described as #8jasper-colour'--these were probably of a kind of schmelz--and there is frequent reference in the list to #8blue glass' and #8glass of many colours4' ,a #8layer' with the initials #8,h and ,a engraven on the cover1' as well as a cup with #8,quene ,annes sipher engraven on it1' had doubtless belonged to ,anne ,boleyn4 ,the following items are of some interest3-- #8,one thicke glasse of christall with a case of lether lined with crymson vellat4' #8,three aulter ,candlestickes of glasse4' #8,oone ,holly-water stocke of glasse with a bayle4' #8,twelve bottles of glasse with oone cover to them all wrought with diaper work white4' ,by this last expression are we to understand some kind of vetro di trina8 ,finally1 #8,one rounde ,loking ,glass sett in a frame of wood1 vj cornered1 painted under glass with the armes of ,ingland1 ,spayne1 and ,castile' carries us back to the days when ,catherine of ,aragon was queen4 ,of this method of decorating the frames of mirrors with inlay of glass painted on the inner surface ,i have already spoken4 ,i would again refer the reader to the mirror in the ,arnolfini ,van ,eyck at the ,national ,gallery4#bce ,the earliest notice that we have of ,venetian glass-workers in ,england carries us back to the year #aeej1 and it takes a form that is characteristic of the times4 ,this is a petition to the ,council of ,ten1 that has been found among the ,venetian state papers4 ,it is signed by no less than eight ,muranese glass-workers1 imprisoned in the ,tower of ,london3 they declare that they are threatened with the gibbet if they fail to work out their contract4 ,these poor men were indeed between the devil and the deep sea2 for did they delay their return to their homes they were liable1 by a newly issued edict1 to a long term in the ,venetian galleys4 ,it was only by the personal intervention of the young king that some arrangement was finally made that allowed of these ,muranese glass-workers returning unmolested after working off part of their contract4 ,one of these men indeed elected to remain behind1 but he before long made his way to the ,low ,countries1 and this first influx of ,venetian workmen seems to have led to little as far as ,english glass was concerned4 ,cornelius de ,lannoy1 from whom ,cecil hoped so much1 was perhaps as much an alchemist and a universal schemer as a worker in glass4 ,he was set to work at ,somerset ,house in #aefd1 but with little result1 it would seem4 ,he attributed his failure to the clumsiness of the ,english workmen and to the want of a suitable clay for his glass-pots4 ,it is to ,jacopo ,verzelini1 a man evidently of some energy and resource1 that we must give the credit of first successfully making the ,venetian cristallo in ,england4 ,when in #aege he obtained a patent #8for the makinge of all manner of counterfayt ,venyse drinkinge glasses' 7but not1 it would appear1 of glass for windows71 he was already established in ,london4 ,stow1 writing a little later1 says3 #8,the first making of ,venise glasses in ,england began at the ,crotchet ,friars1 about the beginning of the reign of ,q4 ,elizabeth1 by one ,jacob ,vessaline an ,italian4' ,the ,friars ,hall1 he tells us1 #8was made a glasse-house1 wherein was made glasse of divers sorts to drincken4' ,it was in this same hall probably that the unhappy craftsmen of ,edward ,,vi4's time had been set to work4 ,verzelini1 like other glass-workers of the period1 reached ,england1 it appears1 by way of ,antwerp4 ,at any rate he was married to a lady of that town1 of good family1 who bore him twelve children4 ,this we know from the monumental brass to his memory that may still be seen in the little church of ,down in ,kent1 where in the year #afjf he was buried4 ,we see1 then1 that before the death of ,elizabeth the making of both hollow ware and window-glass by the new methods was firmly established in ,london and in the provinces4 ,great complaints had already arisen of #8the making of glass by strangers and outlandish men1' and we hear of #8the timber and woods spoiled by the glass-houses4'#bcf ,the same difficulty arose as in ,france4 ,it was argued that the foreigner should be required to take native apprentices4 ,but there is evidence that as late as the first quarter of the seventeenth century1 the making of the better kinds of glass1 the #8,christalline ,morana ,glass1' was still in the hands of ,italians4 ,this we have seen was for long the case in ,france as well4 ,but we in ,england were in a measure dependent upon the foreigner for our window-glass also1 this time upon the ,lorrainer4 ,of glass made in ,england during ,elizabeth's reign ,i can point to a goblet now in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is dated #aehf1 and bears an inscription in capitals of somewhat ,gothic character--,,in 3 ,,god 3 ,,is 3 ,,al 3 ,,mi 3 ,,trust4 ,the glass is engraved with the diamond1 and is decorated with stringings of white enamel4#bcg ,the plain cylindrical glass tankard in the ,gold ,room is remarkable only for the silver-gilt mounting and for the arms of ,cecil on the cover4#bch ,we have seen that early in the seventeenth century the ,french gentilshommes de verre were firmly established at ,stourbridge and at ,newcastle4 ,now by this time the outcry against the destruction of our ,english forests1 the source of the timber for the navy1 was becoming general4 ,it was directed against the iron-smelters in the first place1 and then against the makers of glass1 above all against foreigners4 #8,it were the less evil1' says a proclamation of #afae1 #8to reduce the times into the ancient manner of drinking in stone and of lattice windows than to suffer the loss of such a treasure4' ,it was in the ,stourbridge district that ,bub ,dudley#bci and others were occupied at this very time with the problem of smelting iron by means of pit-coal4 ,with them was probably associated ,thomas ,percivall1 to whom more than to any one else is to be given the credit of the first successful employment of coal in the glass-furnace4 ,others were working on the same lines4 ,to ,sir ,william ,slingsby and his associates a licence was issued in #afaj1 but this was a very general document1 vaguely worded4 ,more precise was the patent granted the next year to ,sir ,edward ,zouche1 ,thomas ,percivall1 and others4 ,it was under this patent that the process was perfected1 probably at the glass-house at ,lambeth1 under the charge of ,percivall4 ,only a few years later1 in #afaf1 ,english coal was brought into use at the glass-works of ,st4 ,sever1 near ,rouen1 very likely through the mediation of one of the ,norman glass-workers settled in ,england4 ,there were many difficulties to be overcome before this pit-coal could be used with success4 ,greater care had to be taken in the selection of the materials for the pots--perhaps without the ,stourbridge clay success would not have been attained--and it was found to be necessary to #8close the pots1' that is to say1 to use a covered crucible so as to protect the glass from the smoky1 sulphurous gases given off by the coal4 ,the credit of the invention of these closed pots1 with the mouth at the side facing the opening of the furnace1 is also to be given to ,percivall4 ,i dwell on these practical details for a special reason4 ,in the first place1 the use of coal and the consequent change in the form of the crucibles mark the beginning of ,english glass as a distinct genre4 ,again1 this change is closely connected with a further and still more important step--the use of lead as an essential constituent in a new kind of #8metal1' the famous ,english flint-glass of later days4 ,it is these two novelties that form our contribution to the technique of glass-making4 ,not that ,i can find any proof that lead-glass was made in ,england at so early a date4 ,but on the one hand the use of a covered pot rendered it more difficult1 at that time at least1 thoroughly to melt the contents1 and therefore favoured the use of a more fusible mixture2 on the other1 in the case of a glass containing lead1 it is above all essential to protect the #8metal' from the fire4 ,the history of the progress of glass-making in ,england from the early days of ,elizabeth to the outbreak of the ,civil ,war in the next century1 is chiefly concerned with the licences and patents granted to a succession of ,english and foreign #8adventurers4'#bdj ,no doubt there were many abuses in this system2 but it is impossible to overlook the fact that the ,cecils and the other advisers of the ,queen were enabled by such means to encourage the foundation of many industries1 and this chiefly by the help of foreigners4 ,for at the beginning of ,elizabeth's reign we had fallen sadly behind in the matter of the industrial arts4 ,not only ,france and ,italy1 but ,germany too and the ,netherlands1 had much to teach us4 ,already1 however1 before the death of the ,queen and still more in the next reign1 there arose1 as ,i have said1 a great popular outcry against the monopolists1 and this feeling of indignation found an echo in more than one of ,james's parliaments4 ,it is the more strange1 therefore1 to find that it was during this reign that the whole glass industry of the country fell for the first and last time into the hands of one man4 ,but this was no other than ,sir ,robert ,mansell1 ,admiral of the ,fleet1 a man of exceptional energy and a born fighter1 one who had in early life had more than one brush with the ,spaniards4 ,king ,james1 when approached on the subject of ,mansell's glass monopoly1 marvelled that #8,robin ,mansell being a seaman1 whereby he hath got so much honour1 should fall from water to tamper with fire4' ,the first we hear of ,mansell in this connection is in the year #afae1 when we find him associated with ,sir ,edward ,zouche1 ,thelwell1 ,percivall1 and others in a patent for making glass with sea-coal4 ,but before this he had probably for some time been interested in certain ,london glass-works4 ,and now before two years had elapsed he had bought out all his partners#bda and commenced his reign as #8glass-king4' ,this monopoly1 in spite of frequently renewed opposition1 ,mansell succeeded in maintaining up to the time of his death in the days of the ,protectorate4 ,he hunted down the local glass-houses where wood1 now forbidden by law1 was still employed4 ,he granted licences to some of the ,lorrainers working at ,stourbridge and elsewhere1 while--as at ,newcastle1 where he had glass-works under his direct management--he took others of these foreigners into his employ4 ,in ,london1 on the other hand1 at the glass-furnaces of ,winchester ,house1 which he now took over1 ,sir ,robert employed ,italians4 ,we here come into contact with another and not less interesting man1 ,james ,howell1 like his master ,mansell1 a ,welshman4#bdb ,howell was in #afah #8steward of the glasse-house' in ,southwark1 but he was glad to change this position for that of traveller for ,mansell in ,spain and ,italy2 for1 so he writes to his father1 #8,i should in a short time have melted away to nothing among these hot ,venetians4' ,his duties were now to obtain workmen from ,italy1 and the raw materials1 especially the #8barillia1' from ,spain4 ,in the following year he brought over one of the famous ,miotti family from ,middelburg1 and not long afterwards we find him writing from ,alicante an interesting account of the #8,barillia1 a strange kind of vegetable that grows nowhere upon the surface of the ,earth1 in that perfection as here4' #8,the ,venetians have it hence1' he continues1 and he proceeds to give a detailed account of the method of preparation 7,book ,i4 section ,i4 xxv474 ,howell's letters from ,venice are most interesting1 and have provided many #8elegant extracts' for later writers4 ,for instance1 there is a passage in which he speaks of #8lasses and glasses1' and of the brittleness that beauty shares with the mirrors of ,venice#bdc--the rest of the passage is1 however1 rather too outspoken for our present taste4 ,the contention between ,mansell and the anti-monopolists was above all warm about the year #afbc1 on the occasion of the renewal of his patent for another fifteen years1 and the #8,new ,patent1' the #8,reasons against the same1' ,mansell's #8,defence' and his #8,motives and ,reasons1' and finally the #8,answer' to this last1 followed in quick succession4 ,all these documents and pamphlets are reproduced by ,mr4 ,hartshorne2 they form indeed an important source of information for the history of ,english glass4 ,from them we learn that ,mansell1 after many failures elsewhere and the expenditure of many thousand pounds1 first at ,newcastle successfully made window-glass with the native coal2 that the clay for the pots was at the commencement brought from ,staffordshire1 but that as the ,english clay proved unsatisfactory1 he obtained a better material at infinite cost #8from beyond ,roan in ,france1' and finally from #8,spawe in ,germany4' ,at the time he was writing he indeed protests that he had already sunk #bd1jjj in his ventures4 ,the precise position of ,mansell after the expiration in #afch of the second term of his patent is somewhat obscure1 but he seems to have steered well among the troubles of the time and to have maintained his monopoly4 ,at the period in question1 he tells us he was producing #8,ordinary ,drinking ,glasses' for wine and for beer at four shillings and half a crown a dozen respectively1 as well as mortar-glasses#bdd at one-and-fourpence a dozen4 ,he was at the same time making beer and wine glasses of crystal 7these were from two to three times as dear as the last71 beside looking-glasses and spectacle-glass plates in rivalry with the ,venetians2 finally1 with ,english materials1 window-glass and #8green-glasses4' ,there is nothing in all this1 or indeed in any of these patents and petitions1 to point to the existence of lead-glass at this time4 ,the use of barilla1 ,i may add1 is incompatible with the preparation of a lead-glass2 in such a glass it is essential that the alkali should be potash4 ,on the whole1 during the long period of the ,mansell monopoly 7from #afae to1 say1 #afee7 little progress appears to have been made in the manufacture of glass1 but of course we must make allowance for the times of civil strife that filled the latter part of this period4 ,after the ,restoration the issue of patents began again4 ,everything points at this time to a renewal of interest in ,venetian glass4 ,when1 however1 in #affc the ,duke of ,buckingham obtained his licence1 his claim was based upon the improvements he had made in the looking-glass plates and in the plates for the glass-coaches4 ,as in ,france1 sheets of large size and good material were now in demand for both purposes4 ,it was somewhat later1 it would seem1 that he turned his attention to making hollow ware in the ,venetian fashion4 ,although nitre1 a salt of potash1#bde played an important part in the glass made by the duke1 there is no proof that any use was made of red lead or of litharge4 ,evelyn1 who in #afgc visited the duke's #8,italian glass-house at ,greenwich where glasse was blown of finer metal than that of ,murano at ,venice1' says nothing about such substances being employed4 ,but in spite of this progress in the home industry1 the importation of chests of glass from ,venice was at its height in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,this we see from the correspondence of a ,london glass merchant1 one ,john ,greene 7#affg-afgb71 with a ,venetian firm1 which has fortunately been preserved4#bdf ,along with these letters were found the #8office copies' of the patterns which ,greene sent out to ,venice as a guide to the glass-blowers4 ,here we have mention of #8clouded calsedonia glasses' for beer1 claret1 and sack1 #8creuits with or without feet1 brandj tumblers1' and #8glasse floure potts4' ,not the least interesting item is the #8,rhenish wine glasse1' which is illustrated by a typical roemer with prunts on the stem1 almost our only evidence of the use of these goblets in ,england4 ,greene advises his ,venetian correspondent that the looking-glasses and the coach-glasses are to be packed at the bottom of the cases to escape if possible the search of the custom-house officials4 ,what especially strikes one in examining the patterns of the drinking-glasses1 which form the bulk of the orders 7,hartshorne1 ,plates #cj-cb71 is the fact that the stem or shank1 so important a part of the eighteenth-century glass1 is not yet developed2 the conical bowl is separated from the foot by a simple or fluted bulb1 or sometimes by two such bulbs or knops4 ,but this ,venetian trade had now seen its best days2 there are some hints of a falling off in ,greene's last two letters 7#afga-afgb74 ,on the other hand1 during all this period the enterprising glass firms of the ,netherlands kept up a close intercourse with ,england4 ,as early as #affb a patent for making various kinds of glass was obtained by one ,john ,colenet1 whom ,mr4 ,hartshorne has very plausibly claimed as a member of the great glass-making family of ,ghent and ,namur1 the ,de ,colnets1 so often mentioned in the letters of ,m4 ,schuermans4 ,a few years later the tables were turned1 for now the ,de ,colnet firm was fain to engage an ,englishman to produce #8verre l',angleterre4' ,in #afhj the great rival firm of ,lige1 the ,de ,bonhommes1 according to a document quoted by ,m4 ,schuermans 7,letter vii471 was already making #8flint-glass l',anglaise4' ,now this statement brings me face to face with what is the great crux in the history of ,english glass--the question1 namely1 when and where lead-glass was first applied to the manufacture of hollow ware4 ,but first ,i must say a word of a little book published in #affb4 ,this is the already-mentioned translation by ,christopher ,merret of the ,arte ,vetraria of ,antonio ,neri 7see p4 #g74 ,merret1 who was a man well abreast of the science of his day and an early1 if not an original1 member of the newly founded ,royal ,society1 has supplemented ,neri's series of recipes with certain #8,observations' of his own4 ,here may be found some curious information concerning the materials used in the manufacture of the cristallo1 for it is with this glass that the author is chiefly concerned4 ,merret does not appear to have had much acquaintance with the glass made in ,england in his day4 ,for the practical details of the furnace and for the processes of glass-blowing he takes us back to ,agricola4 ,both ,neri and his translator are indeed for the most part occupied with the nature and preparation of the materials1 and with the various methods by which glass may be coloured4#bdg ,neri1 like all the old writers1 knew of the merits of lead-glass in the preparation of pastes for the manufacture of artificial gems2 in his sixty-first section he tells us3 #8,glass of lead1 known to few in this art1 as to colour is the finest and noblest glass at this day made in the furnace4 ,for in this glass the colours imitate the ,oriental gems1 which cannot be done in crystal4 ,but unless diligence be used all sorts of pots will be broken1 and the metal will run into the furnace4' ,upon this passage ,merret observes3 #8,glass of ,lead6 ',tis a thing unpractised in our furnaces1 and the reason is because of the exceeding brittleness thereof4' ,lead1 he continues1 is indeed the principal ingredient in the glaze of the potter1 #8and could this glass be made as tough as ,crystalline1 'twould far surpass it in the glory and beauty of its colours4' ,thus we see1 with ,merret as with ,neri1 the great merit of lead-glass is the capacity possessed by it of bringing out the colours of metallic oxides4 ,they still regard the material from the medival point of view4 ,the bad working qualities of this glass of which ,merret complains may very probably have been due to the fact that1 starting from the basis of their cristallo1 the glass-workers continued to use the soda-holding barilla instead of employing a potash salt4 ,the ,venetians in the preparation of their cristallo laid great stress on the hard white pebbles1 the cogoli1 from the bed of the ,po or of the ,ticino2 these they regarded as an essential constituent of a good glass4 ,we in ,england1 during the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 succeeded in replacing these pebbles by our native flints2 and this ,english flint-glass1#bdh properly so-called1 early acquired a good reputation on the ,continent4 ,the ingenious ,mr4 ,john ,houghton1 writing in #afhc 7,letters for the ,improvement of ,husbandry and ,trade71 after speaking of our dependence upon the ,venetians some years since1 goes on to say3 #8,now by the fashion of using glasses in coaches and other good means we easily enough serve our neighbours4' ,in #afhb he tells us there were exported from ,england two thousand five hundred and seventy-two drinking-glasses1 besides some looking-glasses and #8window chests4' ,this confirms what ,i have said of the date when ,english flint-glass became well known in the ,low ,countries4 ,now it is generally taken for granted that by this time the term flint-glass had come to mean lead-glass4 ,certainly soon after the beginning of the next century lead-glass was already recognised as essentially a substance of ,english origin2 but1 as ,i have said1 there is unfortunately not a word of evidence1 documentary or otherwise1 to show when or where this glass was first made1 nor is it possible1 ,i think1 to point to any example of this lead-glass to which an earlier date than the first or second decade of the eighteenth century can be attributed4 ,indeed everything points to the ,english flint-glass of the last quarter of the seventeenth century being a form of the ,venetian cristallo4 ,in any case it is essential to bear in mind that both in chemical composition and in physical properties no two things could be more unlike than the cristallo on which the early flint-glass1 properly so called1 was founded1 and the lead-glass which afterwards usurped the name4#bdi ,the one is a typical soda-lime1 the other an equally definite potash-lead glass1 and the materials had to be sought for from entirely different sources4 ,the above-mentioned ,mr4 ,john ,houghton1 who every week1 in the commercial paper edited by him1 published an article on some technical or scientific subject1 in the spring of #afif devoted a series of these #8leaders' to the subject of glass4 ,after some general reflections on the substance1 when we are told1 among other things1 that #8,vitrification is the last mutation of bodies of which ,nature is capable and from which there is no going back1' in his issue of ,may #b he takes up the main subject4 #8,according to my information1' he tells us1 #8we are of late greatly improved in the art of ,glass-making4 ,for ,i remember the time when the ,duke of ,buckingham first encouraged glass-plates1 and ,mr4 ,ravenscroft first made ,flint-glass4#bej ,since then we have mended our ,window-glass and outdo all abroad4 ,and what e'er may be said against ,stock-,jobbery1 yet it has been the ,means to raise great ,summs of ,money to improve this ,art4' ,again1 on ,may #af we are given a carefully classified list of ninety glass-houses existing in ,england4 ,of these1 twenty-four were in ,london1 nine at ,bristol1 seventeen at ,stourbridge1 and eleven at ,newcastle4 ,these glass-houses he divides into those for looking-glass plates1 for bottles and for #8,flint1 ,green1 and ,ordinary4' ,now the rational inference from all this seems to me to be that ,houghton1 who was in a position to know1 knew nothing about lead-glass4 ,the flint-glass houses are classed together with the #8green' and #8ordinary1' and flint-glass for him was glass made from flints4 ,so1 as we have seen1 ,haudicquer de ,blancourt1 writing in ,france a few years earlier1 knew nothing of lead-glass other than that used for objects of verroterie4 ,it is at least evident that if our own glass-makers had mastered the art before the end of the century1 the secret was well kept4#bea ,but before proceeding further1 it may be well to form some definite idea of the composition of lead-glass and of the physical properties that led to its replacing in great measure the soda-lime glass of ,venetian type4 ,in the first place1 as ,i have said1 it is essential that the alkali in this glass 7in the manufacture of hollow ware1 at least7 should be potash1 and it was1 perhaps1 the fact that the lead was at first used along with soda that so long delayed the production of a #8metal' suitable for the manufacture of blown-glass4 ,again1 the potash in the case of lead-glass must be something quite different from the impure material employed for the old green glass2 this crude alkali contained1 among other bases1 a large percentage of lime4 ,saltpetre appears to have been used in the first place1 and then a more carefully lixiviated form of vegetable ashes known as pearl-ash4 ,the amount of lead oxide may vary from #bh to #dj per cent41 and the specific gravity of the resultant glass from #bh to #cf4 ,the great merit of lead-glass lies in its absolute transparency and brilliancy1 combined with a certain darkness in the shadows4 ,this brilliancy and fire1 it is well to point out1 are only indirectly dependent upon the refractive power exercised by the glass upon the rays of light that pass through it2 in this respect lead-glass differs little from rock crystal or from the ,venetian cristallo4 ,but one quality it has which distinguishes it from all other kinds of glass as well as from nearly all transparent natural stones1 the diamond1 of course1 excepted4 ,this is the power possessed by it of dispersing the rays of white light3 the elements of which this light is composed in passing through lead-glass are bent aside in different degrees1 so that the issuing ray is broken up into its component colours4 ,this it is that gives fire1 but this fire is only fully brought out by means of facetted or angular surfaces4 ,on this point--the distinction between refraction and dispersion--a good deal of confusion exists4 ,the following table1 which ,i borrow from a little book on gems by ,professor ,church1 may help to clear up this point3-- ,refractive ,index4 ,comparative ,dispersing ,power4 ,diamond1 #bge #dd ,flint-glass1 #aeg #cf ,rock-crystal1 #aee #ad ,plate and crown glass1 #aeb #ae ,we here see that lead-glass or flint-glass has little greater refractive power on light than rock crystal or the ordinary plate and crown glass of commerce which belongs to the same family as the cristallo of the ,venetians4 ,in dispersive power1 on the other hand1 it stands apart from both these substances and rivals the diamond in scattering the component rays of white light4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,english ,,glass ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,we may probably regard the reign of ,william ,,iii4 as the turning-point in the history of our ,english glass as in so many other of our minor arts4 ,it is to that period that one must assign the first beginnings of our modern industrial life1#beb and it is in the ,dutch influence1 at that time so dominant1 that the principal stimulus is to be found4 ,of the window and mirror glass of the period a most interesting series is preserved at ,hampton ,court4 ,many of the panes of the windows facing the garden faades of the palace are strongly tinged with purple1 a result of the process by which the colourless protoxide of manganese is reconverted into the purple bin-oxide under the influence of sunlight4 ,placed between the windows in ,william ,,iii4's state bedroom are some curious mirrors with frames ornamented with appliqu plates of deep blue glass carved into patterns and monograms4 ,observe1 too1 a charming mirror of the same period over the fireplace in this room4 ,it is1 however1 still difficult to point to surviving examples to illustrate the vessels of ,english glass made about this period4 ,certain covered bowls 7such as that reproduced by ,mr4 ,hartshorne on p4 #bch of his great work7 may date back to the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the same author gives an illustration of a fine posset-pot with quilled handles1 preserved at ,chastleton4 ,this bowl1 decorated with roses1 masks1 and berry-like prunts1 may be as old as ,charles ,,ii4's reign4 ,when one calls to mind the picturesque pottery--the slip-ware--that was made at the time1 it would seem not unlikely that in the local glass-houses something similar may have been attempted in glass4 ,we have1 of course1 plenty of glass wine-bottles1 a few of which may date as far back as the reign of ,charles ,i4 ,these bottles are mostly of a black impure glass and of a globular form1 squat and compressed at the sides1 reminding one of the leather botel from which our word bottle is derived4 ,similar bottles are found in the ,low ,countries1 and they may often be seen in ,dutch pictures4 ,the introduction of the practice of bottling wine1 as far as ,england is concerned1 is generally connected with ,sir ,kenelm ,digby1 that universal genius who1 in the reign of ,charles ,i41 was occupied with so many branches of the arts4 ,drinking-bottles of this description1 dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 are often dug up while excavating the foundations of houses4 ,an extensive collection1 chiefly of local origin1 may be seen in the ,guildhall ,museum1 and ,mr4 ,hilton ,price has a representative series derived also from excavations in the city4 ,the surface of these bottles is often covered with an iridescent scale giving them an appearance of great age4 ,a circular stamp bearing the maker's name is sometimes found on the shoulder1 but these stamped bottles are in all cases1 ,i think1 of later date4 ,there is a small collection of these stamps in the ,british ,museum4 ,i have already pointed out that during the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 the prevalent form of the drinking-glass was still of the old ,venetian type4 ,the stem was almost non-existent2 it was at best represented by a spherical bulb connecting the two cones--the upper one often truncated1 the lower very shallow--that formed respectively the bowl and the foot4 ,in the ,spanish ,netherlands1 before the end of the century1 another form became prevalent3 the stem now assumes more or less a baluster form1 divided from the bowl by a distinct shoulder2 the knop of this stem is often hollow1 and generally duplicated4 ,in some cases a silver coin is found lying loose in this hollow bulb4 ,such a form we may perhaps regard as the starting-point for the vast and varied series of ,english drinking-glasses which constitutes the principal element in a collection of ,english glass4 ,since the drinking-glass forms so important a part in the history of our native glass1 perhaps it may be well to turn for a moment to consider the process by which a vessel of this sort is made1 the more so as we are told by a high practical authority that in the manufacture of a wine-glass every principle of glass-blowing is illustrated 7,h4 ,j4 ,powell1 ,principles of ,glass-making1 #ahhc74 ,wine-glasses1 says ,mr4 ,powell1 may have either a #8straw shank or stem' pulled out from the substance of the bowl itself1 or more often a #8stuck shank' made from a separate piece of glass subsequently added to the bowl2 again1 the foot may be either blown or cast4 ,i will take as an example a wine-glass with a #8straw shank' and a blown foot4 #8,the glass for the bowl is first gathered and blown to the required shape4 ,upon the centre of the base of the bowl1 which is still attached to the blow-pipe1 a small quantity of molten glass is skilfully dropped from the end of a working rod the pontil4 ,part of the added glass is formed into a small button by the grip of the spring tool procello1 and the residue is pulled out into the stem4 ,in the meantime a smaller bulb has been blown and its extremity fixed to the end of the stem from which the button has previously been removed4 ,the smaller bulb is severed in the midst and the cup-shaped remnant adhering to the stem is reheated1 opened by the insertion of one point of the spring tool1 and by rapid rotation thrown out into a disc or foot by the agency of centrifugal force4' ,the pontil is now attached to the foot by means of a seal of molten glass1 and the upper bulb 7the future bowl of the glass7 #8wetted off' from the blowing-tube by the application of a moistened iron4 ,the glass1 held by the pontil attached to the foot1 is completed by reheating the severed edges of what is now the bowl1 cutting them even with the shears and rounding them by a second exposure to the fire4 ,the now completed wine-glass is finally separated from the pontil by a jerk and taken to the annealing oven4 ,a rough edge remaining where the pontil was attached is at the present day invariably smoothed by grinding2 not so1 however1 in the case of the older glasses1 and this is a point to be noted by the collector4 ,in ,germany and ,bohemia the rough edge of the bowl after shearing is ground even on the wheel instead of being rounded off in the furnace1 and foreign-made glasses may be often distinguished by their more angular rim4 ,we shall now be in a better position to attack that extensive and complicated series1 the drinking-glasses of the eighteenth century4 ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 who in his ,old ,english ,glasses#bec has treated the subject in great detail1 mentions incidentally that he has made more than a thousand full-sized outlines of glasses that have passed through his hands4 ,we must be content1 then1 to accept the classification of such an authority1 although some of the divisions may seem a little arbitrary to one who has no claim to be an expert4 ,thus out of sixteen families of ,english eighteenth-century glass there are only two that contain any objects other than drinking-glasses in the narrower sense of the word2 again1 four or five of the groups are based chiefly upon the liquor--wine1 beer1 mead1 mumm1 syllabub1 cider1 cordial water1 or punch--that these glasses were presumably made to contain4 ,in a division of glasses from this latter point of view ,i shall only mention three heads which alone seem to me of sufficient importance to merit separate treatment--wine-glasses1 glasses for ale and beer1 and glasses for cordial waters--and even these1 though varying in size1 pass through the same series of shapes in bowl and stem4 ,again1 a cross division may be made distinguishing the ruder and somewhat more solid household and tavern glasses from those destined for the table of the wealthy4 ,the main lines1 however1 of the classification of these drinking-glasses must be based upon the form of the bowl and upon the outline and construction of the stem4 ,but first a word may be said of the relation of our eighteenth-century glasses to their predecessors and contemporaries on the ,continent4 ,on the whole1 one may conclude that the new forms and methods of decoration grew up in ,holland1 in the ,spanish ,netherlands1 or again in the ,lige district1 towards the end of the seventeenth century1 when the old ,italian influence was giving way to processes and schemes of decoration that had their origin in ,germany and ,bohemia4 ,the methods of the great firms of the ,bonhommes and the ,de ,colnets were above all eclectic2 the opaque-twisted stems of their glasses were essentially of ,venetian origin1 the engraved bowl had its prototype in ,germany1 and the material finally--the #8metal'--before long was ,english4 ,in the case of the ,english glasses that followed in the same lines1 the greatest care seems to have been given to the metal employed2 next to that1 the construction of the stem and the outline of the bowl received attention2 on the other hand1 the engraving on the bowl1 compared to the contemporary work in ,germany and the ,netherlands1 was for the most part of a summary1 not to say rude character4 ,as for the foot1 the margin was generally slightly #8welted' or folded over from above1 so that the glass stands only on the rim2 by this the solidity of the foot is at the same time increased4#bed ,otherwise the only variation of importance in the shape of the foot depends upon its greater or less flatness2 in the earlier glasses the central part generally rises up to form a dome1 upon which rests the base of the stem4 ,the square bases with plinth-like steps belong to a much later time and are generally associated with facetted ware4 ,it may be noted that the glasses of the eighteenth century stand on the whole on a relatively wider foot than those now made4 ,the first point of importance in considering the stem is to distinguish those that are drawn--these are the #8straw-shanks1' formed of the same piece of metal as the bowl--from the #8stuck-shanks' that are made of a separate piece of glass4 ,the latter form by far the larger class4 ,as regards the outline1 the stem may be either a plain rod or cylinder1 or again of baluster shape--this last but a modification of the double knops that constitute the whole shank of some seventeenth-century glasses4 ,in other cases the stem is marked by spiral lines in relief--that is to say1 it is #8rib-twisted1' or1 finally1 it may be cut into flat facets4 ,but perhaps the most important division of the stems of our ,english glasses is that based upon the nature of the spiral lines of greater or less complexity so generally found in the interior of the cylinder of glass4 ,these lines may be formed either by strings or bands of opaque white1 or more rarely of coloured glass1 or again by empty threads formed by drawing out a bubble of air4 ,these are the opaque-twisted and the air-twisted stems respectively4 ,if now we turn to the outline of the main division of the glass1 the bowl1 this has been made the basis of a division that classes these bowls as straight-sided1 waisted1 bell-shaped1 and finally1 bowls with a curve resembling either the ogee or the double ogee of the architect4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliv ,,english ,,wine ,,glasses ,,eighteenth ,,century #a4 ,,with ,,sixpence ,,of ,,queen ,,anne ,,within ,,the ,,hollow ,,knop #b4 ,,engraved ,,with ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,pretender ,,and ,,jacobite ,,motto #c4 ,,the ,,ulster 8,,immortal ,,memory0 ,,glass ,the air-drawn stem1 if not an ,english invention1 was certainly brought to great perfection here at an early period4 ,we must seek the origin of this device in the large #8blows1' often of very irregular shape1 that fill the knop or bulb on the stems of earlier glasses4#bee ,this #8blow' is sometimes prolonged into a sort of tail which passes down nearly to the foot4 ,in other cases we find several smaller #8tears' in the same bulb1 formed1 it appears1 by puncturing1 while it is still soft1 the little mass of glass destined to form the bulb1 and then covering it with a second gathering4 ,these air-beaded stems are mostly of ,low ,country origin2 but they are of interest to us1 as we may probably regard them as the starting-point of the air-twists which are formed by drawing out and twisting the original spherical mass1 containing one or more of these bubbles or tears4 ,it may be mentioned that in a general way a loose1 widely spaced spiral is characteristic of the earlier glasses1 while the tightly twisted stems are only found on late examples4 ,this applies also to the spirals on the rib-twisted stems of plain glass4 ,there is another point that should not be overlooked3 this is that the twist on eighteenth-century glasses always descends from right to left1 while in modern imitations the reverse direction is generally taken4 ,perhaps the earliest type of ,english glass is one with a waisted bowl1 engraved with a full-blown rose1 and supported on a rib-twisted stem2 but those on stems loosely air-twisted may sometimes be as old4 ,there is a glass in the ,british ,museum with a bell-shaped bowl engraved with a rose1 a pink1 and a third flower of undetermined species2 this we may take as a good type of the earlier drinking-glass4 ,the bowl is divided from the air-twisted stem by a hollow bulb containing a sixpence of ,charles ,,ii4 dated #afgi4 ,it will be noted how closely the berry-like stamps on the bulb resemble the prunts on the stem of a roemer2 they occur again on the already mentioned posset-cup from ,chastleton4 ,such decoration may1 perhaps1 be regarded as characteristic of the ,english glass of the end of the seventeenth century4 ,the opaque-twisted stem formed1 on the same system as the ,venetian vetro di trina1 from rods containing threads of opaque white glass or latticinio1 is on the other hand not a specially ,english type4 ,such stems were in great favour in the ,low ,countries and in the north of ,france1 and it is even possible that the rods of glass from which our ,english examples are formed may have been imported from ,venice or from the ,netherlands4#bef ,the white lines are sometimes combined with air-twists to form complicated patterns4 ,the glasses with straight-sided bowls may1 on the whole1 be attributed to an early period1 and together with the contemporary bell-shaped glasses they constitute an essentially ,english class4 ,those again with the so-called ogee bowls are especially associated with the ,bristol glass-houses4 ,glasses with bowls of this outline form nearly one-third of the extensive collection of ,mr4 ,singer1 which was formed for the most part1 as ,i have already mentioned1 in the neighbourhood of that town4 ,i now turn to the engraved designs that are found upon the bowls of most of these eighteenth-century glasses4 ,there is not much to be said for the inventive powers or for the technical skill shown by the engraver4 ,indeed1 considering the general low level of the engraved work1 there is some temptation to find a ,dutch or ,flemish origin for any specimen of engraving that shows superior technical or artistic qualities2 and there is little doubt that in the case of the earlier pieces at least1 such an attribution would be justified4#beg ,the design that we find most frequently on our eighteenth-century glasses is a rose branch with1 on the opposite side1 a butterfly4 ,this motive is found on the bell-shaped bowls of early glasses with air-twisted stems4 ,with certain modifications it continued long in use4 ,the rose1 with the change of fashion after the middle of the century1 became more naturalistic1 and the butterfly often takes the form of a moth4 ,other designs have reference to the beverage destined to be drunk from the glass3 for wine-glasses1 bunches of grapes and vine-leaves 7often accompanied by a humming-bird72 ears of barley for beer-glasses2 and in the few rare cases where an apple-tree forms part of the design1 we may associate the glass with cider4 ,the popular cries--#8,no ,excise1' or #8,wilkes and ,liberty' and #8,no4 #de'--which are sometimes found on glasses towards the middle of the century1#beh remind us of the new fashion that came in about that time of finding in the decoration of pottery or other ware an opportunity for political propaganda1 and for the glorification of the hero of the day4 ,there was not much to be done in this way on the restricted space at command on the bowls of our glasses2 towards the end of the century1 however1 naval emblems are frequently to be found1 and the ,nelson glasses form a group by themselves4 ,but of all the glasses that are thus #8made to speak1' to use the expression of the great ,napoleon1 who had strong opinions as to the advantages of this method of political rclame1 the most interesting class is formed by the treasured ,jacobite glasses1 bearing mottoes and emblems of a more or less cryptic character1 or1 more rarely1 portraits of the young or the old ,pretender engraved on the bowl4#bei ,the extraordinary fascination exercised over some minds by what ,george ,borrow used to call #8,charlie-over-the-waterism1' is nowhere better exhibited than in the almost devotional tone with which this subject is approached by more than one of our authorities4 ,the more important of these glasses1 especially the large ones with drawn stems1 and those with baluster or rather double-knopped stems1 are probably of foreign origin2 at all events they were engraved in the north of ,france or in the ,low ,countries4 ,of the rare examples with the head of the young ,pretender surrounded by a wreath of laurels1 there are very few specimens in our public museums3 ,i can only call to mind a small glass from the ,schreiber collection at ,south ,kensington and one or two examples lately presented to the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,xliv474 ,the most frequent emblem is the rose with two buds1 traditionally1 ,i believe1 regarded as symbolical of ,james ,,ii4 with his son and grandson1 although to one not in the inner circle of the cause the relation of the equipoised buds to the central flower would seem rather to point to the old ,pretender and his two sons ,charles ,edward and ,henry4#bfj ,as to the inscriptions on these glasses1 we find in one instance four stanzas from the ,jacobite version of #8,god save the ,king' engraved on the bowl4 ,but in most cases the allusion to the cause is of a more disguised character4 ,the commonest of all is the single word #8,,fiat1' the motto of the ,jacobite society known as the ,cycle1 which flourished in the west of ,england during the greater part of the eighteenth century4 ,i may note that among the ,jacobite glasses treasured up in many an old house in the west and north of ,england1 one rarely comes across any example that cannot be classed more or less accurately as a wine-glass4 ,quite exceptional is the decanter engraved with a circular compass-card pointing to a star1 between oak leaves and roses 7,hartshorne1 ,plate #fd74 ,this decanter is one of a pair preserved1 along with as many as eleven of the above mentioned #8,fiat' glasses1 in the early ,jacobean house at ,chastleton1 on the borders of ,oxfordshire and ,worcestershire4#bfa ,here also are many other pieces of old ,english glass to more than one of which ,i have already referred4 ,although the history of ,english glass during the eighteenth century--it would be more accurate perhaps to say from about #afgj to #aggj--tends always to fall back upon the drinking-glass1 yet during that time the material was applied also to the manufacture of many other objects4 ,we find in the earlier records frequent reference to large vessels of glass1 blown or cast2 this was indeed the case as far back as the time when ,chiddingfold was the centre of glass-making4 ,a favourite form at the end of the seventeenth century--but here again a drinking-glass--was the #8yard1' an exaggerated outgrowth of the ,venetian or ,low ,country #8flute4' ,thus ,evelyn1 describing the ceremonies on the occasion of the proclamation of ,james ,,ii41 says that at ,bromley the king's health was #8drunk in a flint glasse of a yard long4' ,some time before this1 in #affi1 on the occasion of a visit to the glass-house at ,blackfriars1 the same writer mentions the #8singing glasses' that he there had made for him1 and which #8make an echo to the voice 444' but #8were so thin that the very breath broke one or two of them4' ,at a later time trumpets were made of glass1 and some of these have survived4 ,but few examples1 however1 of what may be called miscellaneous glass of an earlier date than the seventies of the eighteenth century have been preserved4 ,it was about this time that a great change must have come over the manufacture1 though on this point we have strangely little direct information4 ,this period1 we know1 was a critical one in the history of the minor arts both in ,england and in ,france4 ,in the latter country1 the simpler and more classical style associated with the reign of ,louis ,,xvi4 replaced the more unrestrained forms of the ,louis ,quinze period some years before the death of the latter king4 ,in ,england we see the new shapes first in the work of the silversmith about the year #aggj1 and soon after they are well represented in the ,chelsea-,derby porcelain4 ,in the case of glass this change is above all to be associated with the increased use of facetting4 ,flat facets divided by obtuse angles may indeed be found at times on the stems and shoulders of drinking-glasses almost from the commencement of the century4 ,but now these facets take a purely geometrical form4 ,the dishes and basins of the time simply bristle with sharp-pointed pyramids1 so that these heavy1 solid vessels can scarcely be lifted with impunity4 ,now for the first time full advantage was taken of the power possessed by the heavy lead-glass of dispersing the rays of light1 for only by the use of these facets was the full fire of the glass developed4 ,this is indeed--so at least it seems to me--the one really important period in the history of ,english glass4 ,it was not long after this time1 towards the end of the century1 that use was for the first time made of machinery for driving the grinding-wheels4 ,the glass1 whose general outline had been previously determined in the mould1 was now quickly channelled with intersecting furrows4 ,there is at ,south ,kensington a small collection of the earlier facetted glass1 presented by ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,lennard1 which contains some pieces of real artistic merit4 ,this was the period when the square plinth-like base was in fashion--not perhaps in itself a very desirable form4 ,in the ,lennard collection are two carved cups with these square feet3 the bowl in each case is surrounded by deeply cut gadroons curving as they descend2 on other parts the usual facets are found 7,plate ,,xlv4 #a74 ,there is a fine sculpturesque feeling about the treatment of these standing cups that carries one back to far earlier days--in fact ,i know of no other specimens of ,english glass where such full advantage has been taken of the qualities of the material1 and this without any abuse or exaggeration4#bfb ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv ,,standing ,,cup1 ,,with ,,cover1 ,,on ,,square ,,foot ,,english1 ,,end ,,of ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,bowl ,,on ,,square ,,foot ,,english1 ,,end ,,of ,,eighteenth ,,century ,but for the most part--above all after the end of the century--the facetting runs wild2 sometimes it covers the whole surface1 and even where there are no facets the ground is marked out by rectangular divisions4 ,the decoration as a whole is mechanically executed4 ,but even this machine-made work is better than the cheap imitations of later days produced by pressing the glass into moulds of metal4 ,the cutting1 or rather the grinding1 of the glass was effected on a cast-iron wheel4 ,a number of these wheels were fixed on a horizontal shaft2 a workman seated in front of each held the glass against the revolving face4 ,the actual abrading in such a case is done by the gritty particles of the sand1 which mixed with water falls in a continuous stream from the hopper above4 ,after smoothing on a stone wheel1 the surface was polished on a wheel or #8lap' of willow-wood 7or sometimes of lead71 first by means of pumice or rotten stone and then with putty powder4 ,engraving1 in the ,bohemian or ,german sense1 held a subordinate position1 and when made use of1 for the better sort of work at least1 foreigners were generally employed4 ,the outlines were then cut by minute copper wheels with the aid of finely pulverised emery powder mixed with oil1 as in the case of the ,german glass4#bfc ,as ,i have said1 it was above all this facetted ware--#8l'article ,anglais1 solide et comfortable mais sans lgance1' as a ,french writer calls it--that spread the renown of ,english glass through the length and breadth of ,europe4 ,at that time the famous ,english flint-glass was made by mixing three parts of pure sand1 well washed and burned 7from ,alum ,bay1 ,lynn1 or ,reigate71 with two parts of red lead or litharge and one part of carbonate of potash4 ,a small fraction of saltpetre and a little oxide of manganese were subsequently added to cleanse the metal4 ,the potash1 up to the middle of the last century1 was introduced in the form of pearl-ash imported from ,canada or ,russia1 and the litharge came from the refineries where silver was extracted from the native lead4 ,in fusing the glass1 great importance was attached to the quick melting of the materials at the full heat of the furnace1 and to the subsequent rapid working of the pot4 ,our ,english glass industry was nearly ruined by the enormous excise duties1 collected on the most arbitrary and artificial system1 to which it was subjected both before and after the close of the great war4 ,when on the repeal of these taxes the industry #8rose from its ashes1' it was conducted on a purely commercial basis4 ,i have already called attention to the important part played by ,bristol in the manufacture of glass during the eighteenth century4 ,that town obtained at this time a unique distinction in the history of ,english glass1 as the one spot where a distinct kind of ware--a special genre--was made4 ,it cannot be precisely stated when the opaque white glass decorated with enamel colours was first made at ,bristol2 what record we have does not take us further back than the latter half of the eighteenth century4 ,this glass was apparently very brittle1 and would not stand heat1 a fact which may account for the few examples that have survived4 ,in general character the ,bristol lattimo closely resembles the other imitations of porcelain made with glass1 which were so much in vogue at the beginning of the century4 ,i have already mentioned the opaque white glass of ,orleans1 of ,barcelona1 and of ,venice4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,owen has collected at the end of his excellent work on ,bristol porcelain 7,two ,centuries of ,ceramic ,art in ,bristol1 #ahgc7 some curious information about this glass1 from the account-book of a local enameller1 one ,edkins4 ,the ledger in question contains entries from #agfb to #aghg4 ,according to an analysis made by ,professor ,church1 the opaque ,bristol glass contains an exceptionally large quantity of lead--as much as #dd per cent41 it would seem--and1 what is certainly remarkable1 less than one per cent4 of tin4 ,it is to this substance1 however1 seeing that neither phosphate of lime nor arsenic#bfd is present1 that we must attribute its opacity4 ,mr4 ,owen thinks that in whiteness and in softness of texture this ,bristol ware exceeds all other opaque glasses of the kind1 and comes nearer than any of them in aspect to the soft-paste porcelain of the day4 ,according to the papers left by the above-mentioned ,edkins1 the better kinds--these were above all tea-poys1 enamel-painted in the manner of the contemporary ,bristol porcelain--were decorated in the usual way with coloured fluxes melted on in the muffle-stove4 ,but the common articles #8were simply painted with oil colours mixed with a desiccator and dried hard by artificial heat4'#bfe ,in the ,schreiber collection at ,south ,kensington may be seen a pair of candlesticks with twisted stems made of this white opaque ,bristol glass4 ,they are well painted with flowers and butterflies on a white chalky ground4 ,at a later time some passable imitations of ,venetian glass decorated with white threads in a ruby ground were made at ,bristol1 as well as bottles splashed with purple1 black1 and white1 after the manner of a ,french and ,venetian ware of the seventeenth century that has already been described4 ,the glass-works at ,nailsea1 nine miles south-west of ,bristol1 were established in #aghh and survived to the middle of the last century4 ,to the earlier years of these works may be attributed some jugs of yellowish-green glass1 with large splashes of white1 that turn up at times in the west of ,england4 ,james ,tassie 7born #agce71 the ,glasgow stonemason1 applied the experience he had gained in the modelling of portrait heads in wax to the reproduction of antique gems in coloured pastes4 ,the bright colours of these compare unfavourably with the delicate hues of the glass intaglios that have come down from classical times4 ,but ,tassie1 both ,james and his nephew ,william1 also made portrait medallions of a comparatively large size1 using a nearly opaque glass paste or frit1 more or less resembling porcelain4 ,this paste was formed1 it is said1 of #8a finely powdered glass and finely powdered pigments1 annealed by being placed in a reverbatory furnace4' ,this is a substance of some interest to us1 and we may perhaps find in it points of resemblance to the #8pte de verre' employed lately by ,m4 ,henri ,cros 7see ,chap4 ,,xxii474 ,i can only mention one other local variety of glass4 ,in ,ireland1 towards the end of the eighteenth century1 more than one attempt was made to encourage the manufacture4 ,some large fruit-dishes of heavy cut-glass1 and others in the form of open baskets adorned with festoons1 have been traced back to glass-houses established at ,waterford about the year #aghj4 ,this glass is distinguished by a more or less faint blue tinge derived from a minute quantity of cobalt in the #8metal4' ,the gilding that was largely applied to these vessels was burned in by means of borax1 and where the gold has come away the surface of the glass is rough and pitted4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,glass ,,of ,,persia1 ,,india1 ,,and ,,china ,i shall now devote a short chapter to the glass made in ,asia1 that is to say in ,persia1 in ,india1 and in ,china1 in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,this later ,asiatic glass1 though so thoroughly ,oriental in character1 can as a whole scarcely be regarded as a product of strictly indigenous growth1 for in nearly all cases the technique of the manufacture1 in some indeed the materials and even the #8metal' itself1 can be traced back to ,europe4 ,it is for this reason that ,i have reserved its treatment to this late stage4 ,we are fortunate in possessing in the ,oriental galleries at ,south ,kensington1 as well as in the ,british ,museum1 a comparatively rich series of examples of this later ,oriental glass1 not a few of them of great beauty and interest4 ,as a class it can probably be studied nowhere so well as in ,london4 ,the ,chinese glass of the eighteenth century is above all of interest to us1 for upon it more than upon anything else is based the only new departure in the treatment of the material that the nineteenth century can lay claim to--the #8,new ,glass1' ,i mean1 that has taken so important a place of late among the minor art products of ,france4 ,it is therefore not altogether illogical that this glass of the ,far ,east should find a place in our history between the ,english glass of the eighteenth century and that now being made in ,france4 ,the glorious enamelled glass of the ,saracens1 of which ,i have given some account in a former chapter1 was already a thing of the past before the end of the fifteenth century4 ,this was at least the case in ,syria and ,egypt1 where alone the art as we know it had flourished4 ,i have attributed this sudden decline1 as regards the first country1 to the invasion of ,timur early in the century4 ,on this occasion a whole army of craftsmen was transferred1 it is said1 from ,damascus to ,timur's new capital at ,samarkand4 ,in ,egypt the narrow-minded fanaticism of the later ,memlk ,sultans and the troubles that preceded the ,turkish conquest were doubtless factors in the artistic decline4 ,as far as the ,mohammedan ,east is concerned1 there is thus an obscure period in our history extending to the end of the sixteenth century for which there is little or nothing to show4 ,glass of some sort doubtless continued to be made in ,syria1 and perhaps in ,egypt1 but little that is distinctive or of artistic interest was produced4 ,when we again come upon specimens of ,oriental glass1 it is no longer in the ,mediterranean countries but in ,persia1 and to a less extent in ,northern ,india1 that we find them4 ,not only so1 but the glass that we now have to deal with is of an entirely different character4 ,with a few rare exceptions1 the thick jewel-like enamels of the ,syro-,egyptian school are now as much a thing of the past as the carved glass of a still earlier time4 ,the ,,persian ,,glass of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is1 as a whole1 thin and transparent1 either simply blown or in part moulded4 ,in spite of the purely ,oriental character of the outlines of this glass1 the influence of ,venetian methods in the preparation and modes of working is in most cases apparent4 ,as ,i have said1 it would be out of the question to treat of this later ,oriental glass1 little of which is probably earlier than the seventeenth century1 before we had acquired some knowledge of the renaissance glass of ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvi ,,glass ,of ,,persian ,,type1 ,,from ,a ,,tomb ,,at ,,baku ,,vincent ,,robinson ,,collection ,whether ,timur or his successors succeeded in establishing the ,syrian glass industry in the ,khanates of ,turkestan we do not know4 ,there is a vague tradition that in the fifteenth century the glass of ,samarkand was the finest in the ,east4 ,it is1 however1 to a much later time that the earliest specimens of what ,i may call the ,veneto-,persian family of glass belong--to the time of the ,sufi dynasty in ,persia and to that of the ,moguls in ,northern ,india4 ,of ,persian glass there indeed still exist a few rare examples which may perhaps date from an earlier time4 ,i have already referred 7p4 #agb7 to the little drinking-bowl of honey-coloured glass in the ,british ,museum decorated with enamels of good quality--turquoise1 red and white 7,plate ,,xxvii4 #a74 ,the figure of an angel upon it is thoroughly ,persian in character2 not only in the enamels1 but in the horny quality of the honey-coloured metal1 this little bowl closely resembles the spherical lamp ornament mentioned on p4 #aef1 that has very properly been placed beside it on the shelf of the ,museum4 ,among the few pieces of later ,oriental glass in the ,slade collection is a small covered bowl1 probably of ,persian origin1 with a formal design of iris and other flowers4 ,in spite of the somewhat modern air of this bowl1 due perhaps to the solid and rather crude gilding1 the thick1 semi-transparent enamels1 blue and pale green1 take us back to the earlier ,saracenic work4 ,but such examples are quite exceptional4 ,as a rule1 on the glass brought back from ,persia--there is quite a large collection at ,south ,kensington and a few choice pieces in the ,british ,museum--the enamelling1 if present at all1 is of the poorest description--it belongs essentially to our #8painted' class4 ,this enamelled decoration1 as on some little bottles at ,south ,kensington1 appears to be but a rude imitation of the floral patterns that we see1 for example1 on the lacquered bindings of ,persian books4 ,on the other hand1 the tall-necked flasks of thin glass--scent-sprinklers and wine-bottles--give proof of considerable manipulative skill 7,plate ,,xlvii474 ,to judge by the patterns in low relief on the sides1 many of these vases1 in spite of the thinness of the glass1 must have been blown into a mould4 ,the tall neck ends either in a flat-spreading lip or is bent over into that characteristic ,persian form--not unlike the head of a bird with large beak--of which we may see an imitation or at least a kindred shape in certain ,venetian double-necked cruets4 ,at one time a fashion prevailed of fitting into the interior of these thin flasks elaborate bouquets of flowers built up with coloured enamels of opaque glass1 a somewhat childish fancy1 reflecting the weaker side of later ,persian art4 ,of more interest is the ruder glass1 often decorated with a profusion of appliqu strips1 quilled and worked up with the pincers4 ,in such examples we are strikingly reminded both of a class of peasant glass from the ,south of ,spain1 and again of the late ,roman glass from the ,rhine and other districts4 ,on the other hand1 certain bowls and vases of deep blue glass1 decorated with floral designs in a solid gilding1 have an almost unpleasantly modern air4 ,a pair of vases so decorated1 now in the ,british ,museum1 came1 however1 from the ,strawberry ,hill collection1 and they may well date from the early eighteenth century4 ,finally1 ,i will mention a remarkable variety of glass worked generally into the form of tall1 thin-necked flasks2 within the greenish transparent metal float irregular masses of an opaque deep red4 ,we have here1 in fact1 the elements of which the famous ,chinese glazes--the flamb and the sang-de-buf--are made up4 ,as in these glazes1 so in this case in the glass1 the effect doubtless depends on the partial reduction of the incorporated copper-oxide4 ,i should add that engraved glass seems never to have found much favour with the ,persians4 ,on the few specimens that we have in our collections--they are decorated with birds and flowers rudely ground on the wheel--the work is of the poorest description4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvii ,,glass ,,made ,,in ,,persia ,,seventeenth ,,or ,,eighteenth ,,century ,i have so far taken it for granted that the bulk of this glass is of comparatively modern origin1 and ,i have found confirmation for this opinion in the close relation of so much of it to the glass made at ,murano in the seventeenth century4 ,still more definite evidence is1 however1 at hand1 as the following passage from the travels of ,sir ,john ,chardin will show4#bff #8,there are ,glass-,houses all over ,persia1 but most of the ,glass is full of ,flaws and ,bladders and is ,greyish from the account doubtless that the ,fire lasts but three or four days1 and that their ,deremne as they call it1 which is a sort of ,broom1 which they use to make it1 does not bear heat so well as ours4 ,the ,glass of ,chiras is the finest in the ,country2 that of ,ispahan on the contrary is the sorriest1 because it is only glass melted again4 ,they make it commonly in ,spring4 ,they do not understand to ,silver their ,glass over1 therefore their ,glass ,looking-glasses are brought from ,venise1 as also their sash glasses glaces de chssis and their pretty ,snuff-,bottles4 ,moreover1 the ,art of ,glass-making was brought into ,persia within these last four score ,years4 ,a ,beggarly and ,covetous ,italian taught it at ,chiras for the sum of fifty ,crowns4 ,had ,i not been informed of the matter1 ,i should have thought that they had been beholded to the ,portuguese for their ,skill in so noble and so useful an ,art4 ,i ought not to forget to acquaint you with the ,persian ,art of ,sowing ,glass together very ingeniously1 444 for provided the ,pieces be not smaller than one's ,nail1 they sow them together with ,wyre and rub the seam over with a little white ,lead or with calcined ,lime1 mixed with ,white of ,egg1 which hinders the water from soaking thro4 ,among their ,sentences there is a goodly one relating to the ingenious piece of work just mentioned3 ,if broken glass be restored again1 how much more may ,man be restored again after his ,dissolution in the ,grave8' ,closely connected with this ,persian glass is the deep amber or honey-coloured glass1 said to have been made in the island of ,,rhodes4 ,a small collection of rudely executed bottles1 pilgrims' flasks and bowls1 obtained in that island and in ,cyprus1 may be seen at ,south ,kensington2 they are there ascribed to the sixteenth century1 ,i do not know on what grounds4 ,these little vessels are all of the simplest shapes1 such as could be formed directly from the paraison at the end of the blowing-iron1 without removing the glass to the pontil4 ,some small hand-grenades of greenish black or of opaque jasper glass in the ,british ,museum1 come for the most part from ,cyprus4 ,i may here say a word of the glass still in use in the ,mohammedan ,east4 ,at the present day the glass-works at ,hebron1 which ,i have already more than once mentioned1 supply most of the common native glass in use both in ,egypt and ,syria#bfg--of that of ,european origin there is no need to speak4 ,edward ,lane describes the small conical lamps of thin glass #8having a little tube at the bottom in which is stuck a wick twisted round a piece of straw4' ,this is an old type of lamp that ,i have dwelt upon in a former chapter4 ,perhaps the most interesting form of glass vessel now in use in ,cairo and ,damascus is the covered sherbet-jug or bowl--the ,kulleh4 ,i have before me an example from ,cairo made of a nearly opaque white glass1 decorated with floral designs rudely painted on and perhaps not fired4 ,where this glass is made ,i do not know4 ,we may perhaps regard the ware as a survival of the lattimo of the early eighteenth century 7cf4 ,lane1 ,modern ,egyptians1 #ahdb1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbd74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii ,,basin1 ,,enamelled ,,with ,,white ,,flowers ,,on ,,gold ,,ground ,,indian1 ,,seventeenth ,,or ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,,indian ,,glass4--,the classical writers had a tradition that the best glass in the world was made in ,india1 thanks above all to the use of a pure rock crystal in the manufacture4 ,there are some vague references to glass in the later ,sanscrit literature1 and in one of the older1 but not the oldest1 of the ,hindu books1 a distinction is made between a vessel of glass and one made of crystal4 ,but it would be useless to search in the ,hindustan of to-day for any examples of so early a date4 ,apart from a few beads which may be assigned to ,buddhist times1#bfh ,i can point to no examples of ,indian glass of earlier date than the ,mogul dynasty4 ,it is to that period--hardly1 indeed1 before the later seventeenth century--that we must attribute certain remarkable examples of glass1 found for the most part in ,delhi1 which are now in the ,indian ,department at ,south ,kensington4 ,there may be seen an example of enamelled glass of great beauty 7,plate ,,xlviii474 ,this is a vase of somewhat milky glass with spreading mouth1 some eleven inches in diameter2 it is described as a washing-basin2 the gilt ground is sem with little white flowers1 each with a red pistil4 ,of no less interest are the two hookah-bases of engraved white glass4 ,on these the technique of the engraved work--but not the ,oriental design of conventional flowers--much resembles that of the ,bohemian cut-glass2 there are no incised lines1 and the oval depressions representing the leaves are carefully polished4 ,unlike the engraved glass of ,persia1 the work shows signs of a complete mastery of the process4 ,it will be noticed that in the case of one of these vessels the clear cristallo is unchanged1 while in the other the glass is1 as it were1 frosted1 apparently by the incipient decay of the surface4 ,in the same case may be seen some tall vases of thin white glass1 of a type very similar to the ,persian sprinklers4 ,these also come from ,northern ,india4 ,it would be useless to search for an early native origin for work of this kind4 ,were it1 however1 possible to find in ,india any glass that we could connect with the ,turki ,khanates of ,bokhara and ,samarkand1 the old homes of the ,mogul family1 we should thereby be provided with a connecting link that would not unlikely carry us back to the ,syrian enamelled glass of the fourteenth century 7see above1 p4 #afh74 ,but nothing of the kind1 as far as ,i know1 has so far turned up in ,hindustan4 ,on the whole1 this ,mogul glass1 in spite of the exceptional artistic and technical qualities of the specimens just described1 belongs to that bastard school of ,saracenic art that is prevalent generally in the north of ,india4 ,its artistic parentage may probably be traced back to ,venice by way of ,persia4 ,equally ,persian in character are the four-sided bottles painted with figures and flowers1 somewhat in the style of the ,cashmiri lacquer4 ,a remarkable series of little flasks of this character1 formerly in the ,marryat collection1 may be seen in the ,indian ,department at ,south ,kensington1 where1 however1 they are described as #8,indo-,dutch4' ,it is certainly disappointing to find in ,india such a total absence of native glass with any claim to antiquity4 ,but some consolation may be derived from the discovery--for discovery it may be called--made not many years ago1 that in more than one part of ,hindustan1 native craftsmen were turning out vessels of glass by a strangely primitive method4 ,sir ,purdon ,clarke1 who has always had at heart the maintenance of the native industries of the country on the old lines1 tells me that this modern ,indian glass was first noticed at ,calcutta1 and with some difficulty traced to ,patna4 ,here1 by the most primitive methods1 the native workmen were turning out among other things imitations of ,european lamp-glasses4 ,the furnace consisted of a series of elaborate passages hidden beneath a heap of ashes4 ,these chambers were originally formed by a scaffolding of cardboard frames which1 when the arrangement was completed1 were set on fire4 ,somewhat more ambitious are the furnaces which ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,dobbs found in use in the neighbourhood of ,benares and ,lucknow 7,journal of ,indian ,art1 vol4 vii474 ,the material here employed was either imported or #8country' glass1 but we are not told how the latter was prepared4 ,the little circular ovens1 less than five feet in height1 are rudely built up of clay2 there are two cylindrical chambers back to back1 each of two stories1 but of the four compartments thus formed three are devoted to the gradual cooling of the wares4 ,it seems doubtful whether in these furnaces the glass is ever thoroughly melted1 and though use is certainly made1 in a primitive way1 of the blowing-tube1 the method of working resembles rather the treatment of a piece of iron in the blacksmith's forge4 ,the glass is constantly reheated and patted and pressed4#bfi ,we are1 indeed1 reminded of the preparation of the ,egyptian glass of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 as interpreted by ,dr4 ,petrie 7cf4 p4 #bb74 ,how far the ,indian glass-maker in his methods of work is carrying on an old native tradition1 or how far he is merely adapting what he has learned from ,persian or ,european glass-blowers to the exigencies of his surroundings1 ,i must leave an open question4 ,i think1 however1 that in nearly all cases his starting-point is either with a mass of imported #8metal1' or with fragments of broken glass4 ,in the ,indian ,department at ,south ,kensington may be seen a most remarkable collection of this native glass1 obtained in part from ,patna and in part from ,hoshiarpur1 in the ,punjab4#bgj ,this glass is of the greatest interest and should be closely examined4 ,it is for the most part of various shades of blue and green1 but these shades seem to be due to copper rather than to iron2 at least we do not meet with the well-known olive greens derived from the latter metal4 ,but the most striking peculiarity--the charm1 ,i may say--of this glass is due to the presence of minute bubbles1 so numerous and closely packed that the glass is little better than translucent4 ,to the presence of these bubbles is also due the peculiar waxy aspect of the surface1 and this with the irregular outline lends to this simple ware a plastic appearance as if moulded by the hand4 ,some use is made also of an opaque yellow glass1 and among the examples from ,patna are some decorated with bands of lattimo4 ,the shapes call for no special comment3 ,i will only point to certain curious little scorpion-shaped scent-bottles with twisted tails1 and to the large torque bangles1 as worthy of notice4 ,of greater interest is the primitive arrangement for distilling--a combination of aludel and alembic that calls to mind the illustrations to the ,syriac manuscripts that ,i have mentioned in a former chapter4 ,perhaps the principal charm of this native ,indian glass arises from the violent contrast that it affords to the impeccable cristallo and to the flint-glass that have tyrannised over us so long in ,europe4 ,it is beginning at length to dawn upon us that there are other qualities than absolute transparency and absence of colour to be looked for in our material1 and it is the attempt to bring these qualities into prominence that has led to the development in ,france within the last few years of quite a new treatment of glass4 ,,glass ,,in ,,china4#bga--,there are frequent references in ,chinese literature to a substance called liu-li1 which the best authorities tell us may be regarded as a more or less opaque variety of glass4 ,this liu-li is1 in the old books1 always closely associated with rock crystal and jade1 and was1 indeed1 like these stones1 classed among the #8seven precious things'2 we also find it described as #8thousand year old ice4' ,when towards the end of the first century of our era an attempt was made by the emperors of the ,han dynasty to establish commercial relations with the ,roman ,west1 this liu-li was one of the substances most sought after4 ,the ,chinese of this time were1 it would seem1 acquainted with the ,roman ,empire1 but probably only with the eastern provinces4 ,the ,ta-tsin of their early writers has been identified by ,dr4 ,hirth with ,syria1 and its capital ,antu with ,antioch3 in these parts at that time they would have had no difficulty in obtaining the glass that they were in search of4 ,it is indeed not impossible that it may have been this new and exotic material that first turned their attention to the glazing of their pottery1 for it is doubtful if they were acquainted with the process before this time4 ,again1 in the fifth century some merchants who visited ,north-west ,india are said to have learned there the secrets of glass-making1 and on their return to ,china to have produced liu-li of all colours by the smelting of various minerals4 ,once more1 in the thirteenth century1 we hear of glass being made by the melting together of certain stones and drugs1 and the word po-li--the name given generally to transparent glass1 in opposition to the more or less opaque liu-li--is now used for the first time4 ,on the other hand1 in the annals of the ,sui dynasty 7#eha-fag7 we are told that ,china had long lost the art of making glass1 but that a high official of the court succeeded at that time in fashioning vessels of green porcelain that could not be distinguished from liu-li 7,bushell1 ,chinese ,ceramic ,art1 p4 #bj74 ,the inference that we must draw from these contradictory statements is probably that1 in spite of many assertions to the contrary1#bgb the art of glass-making was never thoroughly acclimatised in ,china till much later times4 ,and this conclusion is confirmed by the total absence in our collections of any examples of glass of native manufacture that can be referred to a date earlier than the eighteenth century4#bgc ,for although we know that after the return of ,marco ,polo both the ,venetians and ,genoese found in ,china a market for their beads1 if not for more important objects of glass1 and that early in the fifteenth century specimens of ,saracenic enamelled glass found their way to the ,chinese ports1 the evidence that any true glass was at that time made in ,china is of the vaguest character4#bgd ,when we come to the eighteenth century we are on firmer ground4 ,before the end of the seventeenth century glass-works had been established under the superintendence of the ,jesuit missionaries1 within the precincts of the ,imperial ,palace at ,pekin4 ,at a later time1 not long after the accession of ,kien-lung 7#agce-agie71 we hear of a famous glass-worker1 one ,hu4#bge ,this ,hu was a craftsman in the ,imperial glass-works1 and there made both #8a clear glass of greenish tint with an embossed decoration executed in coloured glass1 and an opaque white glass which was either engraved with etched designs or decorated in colours' 7,bushell1 ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 p4 #djj74 ,it is a significant fact that though the emperor much admired the glass of ,hu1 his first thought was to have it imitated in porcelain1 the more noble material4 ,let us now turn to the specimens of ,chinese glass that we find in our museums4 ,what is probably the largest and most representative collection in ,europe is now in the ,museum of ,industrial ,art at ,berlin4 ,here are more than four hundred examples brought together by the care of ,herr von ,brandt1 formerly ,german minister at ,pekin4#bgf ,smaller but representative collections of ,chinese glass may be seen both at ,south ,kensington and in the ,british ,museum4 ,on a few of these pieces is found the date-mark--the nien-hao--of the reigning emperor engraved on the base4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 the earliest mark so found is that of ,yung-,ching 7#agbb-agce71 on a vase in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,the name of ,kia-,king 7#agie-ahba7 has also been noted1 but by far the most frequent mark is that of ,kien-lung 7#agce-agie71 of whom ,i have already spoken in connection with ,hu of #8the ancient moon4' ,probably most of our finest specimens of ,chinese glass date from the second half of the eighteenth century1 and to that period we may no doubt refer a series of magnificent examples of blown glass at ,south ,kensington4 ,these large pieces1 of such excellent metal and showing so complete a command of technique1 may probably be regarded1 in spite of the ,arabic inscriptions found on one or two of them1 as a result of the teaching of the ,jesuit missionaries2 they were perhaps made by remelting imported glass4 ,notice especially the huge bowl or flower-pot with scalloped edge1 built up1 by some sort of #8casing' process1 of two layers of glass1 the inner1 nearly opaque1 of pale blue1 the outer1 dark blue and transparent4 ,this bowl bears the date-mark of ,kien-lung and is a triumph of technical skill4 ,not less remarkable are the two large vases of deep purple glass1 bearing on the sides and necks large medallions with ,arabic inscriptions in relief on a ground apparently chipped with a tool4#bgg ,of even greater interest are the two covered bowls of transparent cobalt glass with a quaint design built up of the smooth ,chinese dragon or salamander and of the character for #8long life4' ,the part not engraved is curiously wrinkled or pitted1 so as to form a sort of epidermis on the surface--by what means ,i do not know4 ,the ,chinese succeeded in making a yellow glass of a fine deep tint2 a variety of this with opaque spots--the #8rice-grain' structure--is apparently much prized4 ,of the mottled red and yellow glass1 made it would seem in imitation of tortoise-shell1 there are many examples in our collections4 ,we are reminded by it of some of the effects of the flamb glazes2 the prevailing colour given to this glass is1 however1 of an orange rather than a blood-red tint 7,pl4 ,,xlix4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix ,,chinese ,,glass ,,eighteenth ,,century ,but in spite of these early technical triumphs1 blown glass has always remained something of an exotic in ,china4 ,to the ,chinese mind1 glass--a material never held in much esteem--is above all a substance to be employed in the imitation of precious marbles and gems4 ,lacking itself all classical and literary associations1 glass can only find a reflected honour from these more noble substances4 ,with this object in view1 the skilled ,chinese craftsmen were soon able to produce the most marvellous tours de force1 and indeed to develop an entirely new treatment of the material--a method of handling which1 at all events since the best ,roman times1 had been elsewhere completely neglected4 ,their aim above all was the imitation of jade3 half-molten masses of glass1 of two or more colours1 were worked up and dragged through one another2 the glass was then carved into the old traditional forms4 ,objects of the native stone were thus imitated with the most marvellous accuracy4 ,this was a process much resembling that adopted by the ,alexandrian ,greeks and the ,romans for one class of their agate glass bodies2 but the ,chinese showed greater restraint in the blending of the colours1 and were at greater pains to imitate closely the natural stones4 ,as ,i have said1 the forms taken by this glass follow those into which the ,chinese had been wont from time immemorial to carve their jade1 their agates1 and their milky chalcedonies2 but we may note that their carvings in rock crystal were not copied in glass4 ,besides the little tripod bowls and cups with archaic designs in relief1 natural objects were imitated1 fruits and flowers especially--the opening calix of the lotus1 the #8,buddha's hand' citron1 or again the almond-shaped peach1 symbol of long life4 ,we must now turn to the little glass snuff-bottles1 in the decoration of which the ,chinese carried their original methods to the highest perfection4 ,we have indeed in these the only form of ,chinese glass that has found any favour with ,european collectors4 ,the lid of these snuff-bottles is often of another material--metal1 coral1 or carved lac--and to it is attached the little ivory spoon with which the snuff is extracted4 ,i may point out that little flasks of similar shape1 made generally of porcelain1 the yao-ping or medicine-bottles1 have long been in use in ,china for pills1 rare drugs1 and eye-medicines4 ,these yao-ping1 whether for medicines or for snuff1 were often carved out of various stones--the moss-agate and the red and white carnelian were special favourites--and it was above all these many-coloured varieties of the quartz family that were copied in glass1 in the first place probably by the above-mentioned ,hu4 ,the infinite variety in the technique and in the decoration of these little flasks--this may be seen in any large collection1 such as that formed by ,mr4 ,salting#bgh--;is at first overwhelming1 but most of them will fall under one or other of the following classes3-- #a4 ,snuff-bottles imitating a natural stone1 as amianthus1 malachite1 or chalcedony1 formed by the simple interpenetration of masses of glass of different colours4 ,such bottles are generally not carved on the surface4 #b4 ,those of the nature of an onyx1 built up by the superposition of two or more layers of glass of different colours1 the under surface being exposed in places by the carving away of the upper layers as in a cameo4 ,we thus get a carnelian red or a deep blue design on a milky white ground4 ,in other cases a jade-green passes by gradation through a pink layer to a pure white4 ,such an arrangement may be skilfully made use of to obtain a blend of colours on the petals of a lotus or other flower4 #c4 ,in this class the superficial colours do not enclose the whole core1 but lie scattered on the surface4 ,by this means green1 red1 blue1 and yellow patches1 all standing on the same level1 may be made use of in the design4 ,in such work we may see the climax of the ,chinese technique in this genre1 and the result has apparently been brought about by placing these patches of coloured paste on the sides of the mould before the introduction of the core of plain glass4 ,though this is technically a triumph of ingenuity1 the flasks thus decorated are by no means the most beautiful of the series4 ,besides these1 many other methods of decoration may at times be found on these snuff-bottles2 we see elaborate designs painted in enamel on the interior1 showing through the transparent glass1 or again an opaque paste resembling porcelain may be decorated with colours on the surface4 ,avanturine glass is probably of late introduction1 but spangles 7of reduced copper7 are sometimes made to appear locally in the clear glass as a golden cloud4#bgi ,we know little of the source or of the composition of the glass used by the ,chinese4 ,some of it was made in ,pekin1 but the province of ,shantung seems to have long been the centre of the glass manufacture4#bhj ,here were made the little bricks of coloured glass 7four inches by twelve and two inches in thickness7--the ,po-li-chuan--which were sold to the glass-workers and enamellers in ,pekin and elsewhere4 ,these glass bricks were at one time imitated in ,bohemia with the special object of supplying the ,chinese markets--the imitations were known in the trade as pomana4 ,as to the materials from which the native glass was made1 there is little or no available information4 ,we are told incidentally that it was compounded by fusing a certain rock with saltpetre4#bha ,this statement1 and the fact of the use of imported #8metal' from ,bohemia1 make it probable that the glass belongs on the whole to the potash family4 ,so again1 the ,chinese have long been acquainted with lead fluxes and enamels1 and it was doubtless this experience that enabled them to command such a surprising range of colours in the glasses with which they built up their little snuff-bottles4 ,we shall then probably not be wrong in regarding the glass of these bottles as of the potash-lead family4#bhb ,finally1 we may say of this ,chinese glass that it can lay claim to a prominent and distinct place in any general history such as this1 on the ground not only of the originality of its technique1 but also because of the influence which1 as ,i have already pointed out1 it has had of late years upon the #8new glass' of ,france4 ,the position of ,,japan with regard to glass is a unique one4 ,it is perhaps the only country that in past or present times has taken an important place in the world of art where the use of glass1 whether for practical or sthetic purposes1 has remained almost absolutely unknown4 ,i make this statement1 of course1 of the country as it was before the late revolution4 ,nowadays the art of glass-making1 like other ,western arts1 is practised with some success1 but without1 ,i think1 any original developments which would call for notice4 ,the name they have for glass--bidoro--is evidently derived from the ,spanish vidrio1 or the ,portuguese vidro4 ,but the ,japanese never appear to have taken even that sporadic interest in the material that they showed for other exotic productions that at times filtered in from the ,west4 ,what ,i have said applies to feudal and recent times4 ,if1 however1 one goes back to the period that preceded the dawn of ,japanese history1 one finds that plain beads of clear glass1 both blue and white1 have been discovered in the dolmen tombs4#bhc ,examples of these beads may be seen in the ,gowland collection in the ,british ,museum4 ,again1 in the famous ,shoso ,in ,treasury at ,nara are two vessels of glass3--7#a7 a shallow bowl of transparent green glass1 carved in relief with a design of fishes and water-plants2 7#b7 a cup of white glass1 carefully executed1 the surface carved with a diaper pattern made up of shallow hexagonal hollows4 ,there is no reason to doubt the well-authenticated record that these glass bowls were deposited with the rest of the collection by the ,emperor ,shomu in the year #gef of our era4 ,there are in the same ,shoso ,in1 and in other ,imperial collections among objects dating from this time1 examples of metal ware and of silk brocade that show evidence of a ,western ,asiatic1 probably ,sassanian1 origin4 ,these and other objects that are undoubtedly of an exotic origin may perhaps many of them have been presents from the ,chinese emperors on the occasion of embassies from ,japan4 ,it is certainly a fact that in the previous century the sons and retainers of the last ,sassanian ruler of ,persia had fled before the ,arab invaders and taken refuge with the ,chinese court1 bringing with them such treasure as they had been able to save from the general wreck4 ,this fact may give a hint as to the origin of the ,shoso ,in glass4 ,at any rate1 in ,china at this period there is no evidence of any skill in glass-working4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,contemporary ,,glass ,the history of glass in the nineteenth century is mainly concerned with improvements in mechanical processes1 by means of which it is now possible to turn out a perfectly clear white glass in large quantities at greatly reduced cost4 ,meantime little heed has been given to the artistic merit of individual pieces4 ,in fact1 thanks in no small measure to one widely applied mechanical #8improvement1' the process namely of pressing into a mould1 the highly trained skill of the glass-blower has been less and less called into play1 so that now a complaint is heard1 both in ,england and in ,france1 of the difficulty of finding workmen thoroughly masters of the art4 ,the last stage1 indeed1 in the decline of our ,english cut-glass was reached when #8passable imitations' of the facetted work were turned out by this #8pressing' process4 ,and yet from time to time attempts have been made on the one hand to give fresh life to old methods of work and schemes of decoration1 on the other to develop the application of the material along new or previously little explored paths4 ,of what has been effected in ,venice in the first of these directions something has already been said4 ,in ,england1 and we may add in ,germany also 7at ,berlin1 for instance1 and at ,ehrenfeld1 near ,cologne71 these attempts have for the most part taken the direction of revivals1 as when by the skilful use of the blowing-iron table-glass has been produced of graceful but rather fantastic outlines and with more or less reminiscence of ,venetian prototypes4 ,i need not dwell upon such efforts1 as nothing in the way of a school has been founded4 ,it is indeed noticeable that both in ,germany and in ,england1 in the case of the more expensive table-glass that we now see in the shop windows1 the decoration1 such as it is1 has continued to be sought rather in processes of cutting and engraving on the old lines4 ,various fantastic methods of surface decoration have indeed found favour at times4 ,an artificial iridescence has been given to the surface by certain chemical agencies--perhaps the most elaborate instance of such decoration may be found in the #8favrile' glass of ,messrs4 ,tiffany1 the well-known goldsmiths of ,new ,york4 ,but as a rule1 the facility with which the desired result may be obtained at little expense by means of modern chemical and mechanical processes has led1 in the case of glass1 to that want of reticence and restraint and to that habit of resting content with the peu prs--the passable imitation--that are characteristic of so much of the modern art productions that fill the show-cases of exhibitions4 ,somewhat greater interest may be found in certain applications of glass that have come to the front in ,france of recent years4 ,here at all events there is a public that takes some interest in the contemporary products of the decorative arts4 ,in the yearly ,salons1 beside the pictures and the sculpture1 these minor arts--jewellery1 metal-work1 fayence and glass--find a prominent place and a critical or enthusiastic public4 ,it is1 however1 only within the last few years that objects of glass have taken an important place among these exhibits1 and that this is so is above all due to two men who1 with considerable artistic talents1 combine great energy and both scientific and technical knowledge--these are mile ,gall and ,henri ,cros4 ,already many years ago the art of enamelling on glass had been successfully revived in ,france--witness the reproduction of a ,saracenic mosque lamp made by ,m4 ,p4 ,brocard as far back as #ahfg4bhd ,but since that time glass1 as a material capable of artistic applications1 has been attacked upon new lines4 ,when speaking of the glass of the ,chinese1 ,i have more than once pointed to the influence that the work of these people has apparently had upon certain new developments in ,france4 ,something of the sort--in the way1 ,i mean1 of treating glass as if it were a stone of varied colours1 carnelian or onyx--was indeed attempted here in ,england as long ago as #ahgh1 in the case of the cameo glass of ,webb of ,stourbridge4 ,contemporary with him1 ,eugne ,rousseau was working in ,france with his verres doubls et tripls4 ,but these strange new methods of treating glass are above all associated with mile ,gall1 who at ,nancy 7where he was born in #ahdf7 has built up something like a school4 ,the material was attacked by him1 as it were from every side4 ,advantage was taken of the facility with which1 by means of powerful machinery1 glass can now be rapidly cut into any desired shape4 ,as in the case of the decoration of the modern porcelain of ,svres and other places1 a source of more than one heat-resisting colour has been found in chromium1 and even such rare elements as thallium and iridium have been experimented with4 ,by the skilful application of reducing and oxidising flames1 local variations of colour are brought about1 and 7in this unconsciously following the ,indian glass that ,i spoke of in the last chapter7 the possibilities of artistic effect to be found in the presence of numberless minute bubbles have not been neglected4 ,the ,chinese have been surpassed in the strange pitted forms--in some cases recalling cork or other kinds of bark--that the surface of the glass has been made to assume4 ,but above all1 in the varied markings1 in the mouchetage and the arborescent forms1 that loom out from the interior of the glassy mass1 ,m4 ,gall has outdistanced all his predecessors4 ,lately he has introduced pieces of metallic foil1 or again crystalline masses of amianthus or mica1 into the body of his glass2 or again insects1 realistically rendered in enamel--dragon-flies are a great favourite--are seen caught up within the mass4 ,both ,gall and others have made frequent use of an incrustation process by which fragments of glass are worked into the surface of a soft paste--but this was a means of decoration known in ,egypt in the days of the ,ptolemies4 ,endless gradations of colour are obtained by laying or #8soldering on' successive thin layers of glass until the desired effect is obtained4 ,to some such process are also due1 it would seem1 the delicate shades seen in the ,tiffany glass4 ,finally1 by the use of rapidly revolving boring-tools--some of them worked on a vertical axis--the hardest ,bohemian glass may be quickly brought to the desired form4 ,apart from the yearly exhibitions1 examples of the glass of the ,nancy school may be seen in ,paris at the ,luxembourg and at the cole des ,arts et ,mtiers4 ,it cannot1 however1 be said that the general effect of this glass is1 as a rule1 either brilliant or decorative4 ,m4 ,gall himself is something of a poet--of the symboliste school1 ,i should judge4 ,what it is that he aims at expressing by means of this often sombre glass cannot indeed be better presented than in his own words3--#8,mist and dews half shroud and half reveal the fine veinings and splashings in a grey jade-crystal vase4 ,a thick flushing of rose-tinted glass is carved into a chimera-like flower1 half influorescent1 half smiling1 half weary1 half orchid1 half pansy4 ,a beetle drags its slow length over the rust of the lichens4 ,side by side with flesh-tints and carnations we see bold touches of coral pink4 ,a pale gleam steals through the dull maze of iridium4 ,vegetable shadows grin at us4 ,phantoms of bloom are dimly seen4 ,a fossil shell engraved beneath the fragile work contains the glass-worker's signature4'--7,quoted by ,h4 ,frantz1 ,magazine of ,art1 vol4 xx4 p4 #bfi47 ,of quite another nature is the pte de verre1 a substance somewhat of the nature of a glass frit1 which has been made use of by the ,french sculptor1 ,m4 ,henri ,cros1 in the modelling of polychrome reliefs and friezes4 ,i say #8modelling1' for this strange material can apparently be worked like wax or plaster at one stage of its preparation4 ,when cold it is of so tough a nature that a nail may be driven into it4 ,at the entrance of the new hall of ,sculpture at the ,luxembourg may be seen a relief of this pte de verre forming the back of a fountain4 ,as a material it lies perhaps a little remote from the class of objects with which we have been occupied in this book4 ,i mention it here as an example of the success which in ,france of late years has attended the attempt to take advantage of the new appliances and materials that1 thanks to recent scientific discoveries1 lie at the command of the artist and craftsman4 ,here1 as in the case of the potter's art1 not only have old-world processes--those of the ,far ,east above all--been revived1 but a constant endeavour is being made to strike out in new directions4 ,,index ,achmin1 glass from1 #aje1 #afc ,agricola1 ,de ,re ,metallica1 #bfj-bfb ,air-drawn stem1 #cbf-cbg ,alabaster1 imitation of1 in glass1 by ,egyptians1 #bb ,alabastra1 see ,unguentaria4 ,alchemists and glass in ,germany1 #bhh ,alchemy1 early medival works on1 #aai-abd ,aldrevandini beaker1 #agi ,alembics of medival alchemists1 #abe ,alembics and aludels of modern ,indian glass1 #cdf ,alexandria1 importance in history of glass1 #dd ,alexandria1 glass of medival time1 #adi note ,alkali1 source of1 #ab-ac ,almeria1 glass made near1 #bdf-bdg ,l',altare1 #agd-age ,l',altare versus ,murano1 #bbd ,l',altare1 glass-workers from1 in ,france1 #bbc-bbd ,altarist families settled in ,france1 #bbg ,altarists1 difficulties with1 in ,france1 #bcf ,altarists in ,netherlands1 #bdj-bda ,aludels of medival alchemists1 #abe ,alumina in glass1 effect of excess of1 #acb ,ammonitrum1 #gh ,amsterdam1 glass-houses at1 #bid ,analyses of glass1 #i1 #bf1 #ec note1 #aea1 #cce1 #cec note ,anglo-,saxon glass1 #ajg-aac ,anglo-,saxon glass1 where found1 #aaj-aaa ,anglo-,saxon #8prunted' beakers1 #aaj-aaa ,anglo-,saxon drinking-cups1 #aab-aac ,anne ,boleyn1 glass with her initials1 #cjf ,anthology1 ,greek1 poem on glass-furnace1 #hj ,antimony as source of yellow in primitive glass1 #bi ,antwerp1 glass made at1 #bda-bdb1 #bfb ,antwerp1 medival glass found near1 #beb note ,antwerp1 metropolis for glass1 #cjc #8,arena' at ,padua2 lamps in fresco1 #aeh ,aristophanes1 possible mention of glass in1 #da ,arles1 ,roman glass from1 #ha-hb ,ascension ,day1 display of glass at ,venice1 #baf1 #bfa note ,asiatic influence in ,europe1 #hi-ij ,assyrian glass1 #ci-dj ,d',azeglio1 ,marquis ,emanuele1 his collection of painted glass1 #adb-adc ,azurro da vetro1 #bah ,babylonia1 turquoise-glass slabs from1 #dj-da #8,balance-pan' lamp-stands1 #ig note1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aeh ,barbaro1 ,venetian ambassador to the ,porte1 #aga ,barcelona1 glass of1 #bdg-bdi ,barcelona1 opaque white glass1 #bdi ,barilla1 term explained1 #ac ,barilla1 how prepared1 #bbg ,barilla1 ,howell's account of1 #cab ,barillet1 or ,baril1 ,french form1 #acd1 #bch ,bavaria1 ,dukes of1 introduce ,venetians1 #bgj-bga ,bead1 origin of ,english word1 convenience of term1 #ahd ,beads of early ,egyptian ,dynasties1 #bj ,beads from tombs of ,mycenan age1 #ce ,beads from early ,rhodian tombs1 #ch ,beads in form of satyr masks1 #ch ,beads from ,frankish and ,germanic tombs1 #aji ,beads1 guilds at ,venice and ,murano1 #ahc ,beads1 early distribution from ,venice1 #ahc1 #aij ,beads1 ,venetian1 grinding by water-power1 #ahe ,beads1 process of manufacture1 #ahe-ahg ,beads1 process of manufacture from hollow cane1 #ahe-ahf ,beads1 process of manufacture from solid rod1 #ahf-ahg ,beads1 stores in ,london and ,amsterdam1 #ahi ,beads made at ,nuremberg2 at ,amsterdam1 #bib ,beads1 ,bohemian industry1 #bib-bic ,beads from ,india1 #cdc ,beads1 see also ,chevron beads4 ,bede on glass-workers brought from ,gaul1 #aac ,bekerschroeven1 or #8,beaker screws1' #bie ,berovieri1 his enamelled cup1 #aid-aie ,berthelot1 ,m41 on chemistry of ,middle ,ages1 #abj-abe ,bidoro1 ,japanese name for glass1 #ced ,biringuccio on ,venetian glass1 #bae ,blancourt1 de1 ,art of ,glass1 #caf note1 #cai ,blowing of glass1 #g-h1 #ad ,blowing of glass1 importance of discovery of process1 #ai ,blowing of glass1 probable origin in ,western ,asia1 #db ,blowing of glass1 when and where discovered1 #dd1 #ei ,blowing of glass1 at first supplementary to moulding1 #dg ,blowing of glass1 first described by ,theophilus1 #abh-acj ,blowing-iron1 how used1 #ad ,blown glass unknown in ,ancient ,egypt1 #ai-bj ,blown glass1 when first made1 #bj ,blown glass1 early simple forms1 #ei ,blue colours in ,egyptian glass1 #bf-bg ,bohemia1 engraved glass of1 #bhf ,bohemian frontier1 ,german glass from1 #beh-bfj ,bohemian frontier glass where made1 #beh-bfj ,bohemian glass1 properties of1 #aa ,bohemian glass1 imitated in ,belgium1 #bdb ,bohemian glass1 use of term1 #beh-bfj ,bohemian glass1 exported to ,east1 #bhg-bhh ,bohemian glass beads1 #bib-bic ,bohemian glass1 pastes for false jewels1 #bic ,bones1 glass from human1 #bia-bib ,bonhomme1 de1 firm1 #bdb1 #bhg ,bonhomme1 de1 at ,amsterdam1 #bid ,bonhomme1 de1 make flint glass1 #cae ,bracken1 ashes used for making glass1 #acf ,briati1 ,venetian glass-worker1 #bab-bac ,bristol1 glass made at1 #ccd-ccf ,bristol1 enamelling on glass1 #cce ,bristol1 wine-glasses made at1 #cbd note1 #cbh note ,bristol1 opaque white glass1 #ccd-cce ,britain1 ,roman glass in1 #fa1 #ha1 #he-hg ,brocard1 ,m4 ,p41 imitation of ,saracenic glass1 #aeb1 #cec ,broken glass1 hawkers of1 #hb note1 #bbh ,buckholt ,wood1 glass furnace at1 #cjd-cje ,buckingham1 ,duke of1 his glass-houses1 #cad1 #cah ,bushell1 ,dr41 on glass in ,china1 #cdg note1 #cdh note ,byzantine art1 term1 how used1 #hi ,byzantine glass in ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 #ii-ajb ,byzantine glass from ,egypt1 #aje1 #adi ,byzantine glass from ,south-,saxon cemetery1 #ajg ,byzantine glass in illuminated ,,mss41 #ajb-ajc ,byzantine glass medallions1 #id ,byzantine influence in medival ,germany1 #aad ,byzantine mosaic workers1 #if ,byzantine stained glass windows1 #if-ig ,calcedonio of ,venetians1 #bjf ,calcedonio used in two senses1 #bjf note ,calcedonio1 preparation of1 #bah-bai ,cameos and intaglios of late ,greek glass1 #dg-dh ,canosa1 glass from tombs at1 #de-df1 #fh ,carr1 ,jean1 #cjc-cjd ,carving of glass unknown in later ,middle ,ages1 #aaf ,catalonia1 glass made in1 #bdg-bdi ,catalonia1 green enamels on glass1 #bdg ,catalonia1 relation of enamels to ,saracenic1 #bdh ,cemetery glass1 #ij-ie ,cemetery glass1 where found1 #ia ,cemetery glass1 how made1 #ib-ic ,cemetery glass1 enamelling on1 #ic-id ,cemetery glass1 ,jewish symbols1 #id ,cemetery glass1 stipple process1 #ic ,chalices1 early1 of glass1 #id-ie1 #ig-ih ,chalices1 early forms and materials1 #ig-ih ,champlev enamel in ,britain1 #hf ,chandeliers of ,venetian glass1 #baa-bab ,changes of colour in glass1 #ag ,chardin1 ,sir ,john1 on ,persian glass1 #cda-cdb ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france1 interest in glass-workers1 #acg1 #bcj ,charnock on ,chiddingfold glass1 #cjb ,chastleton1 glass at1 #cba-cbb1 #cca ,chevron beads1 how made1 #ahh ,chevron beads1 structure described1 #ahh ,chevron beads1 still made at ,venice1 #ahi ,chevron beads1 found at ,treviso1 #ahi ,chevron beads1 where found1 #aij-aia ,chiddingfold1 early glass manufacture1 #aci1 #cja-cjb ,china1 relations with ,roman empire1 #cdg ,china1 glass in1 #cdg-ced ,china1 glass authorities1 #cdg note ,china1 glass1 ,jesuits make glass1 #cdh-cdi ,chinese glass1 #cdg-ced ,chinese glass1 date-marks on1 #cdi ,chinese glass1 the ,von ,brandt collection1 #cdi ,chinese glass1 at ,south ,kensington1 #cdi-cej ,chinese glass1 technical triumphs1 #cej ,chinese glass1 original methods1 #cej-cea ,chinese glass1 native stones imitated1 #cea ,chinese glass1 snuff-bottles1 #cea-ceb ,chinese glass1 snuff-bottles1 varieties of technique1 #ceb ,chinese glass1 composition1 #cec ,chinese glass1 made in ,shantung1 #cec ,chinese glass1 where made1 #cec ,chinese glass1 snuff-bottles1 analyses of1 #cec note ,chinese glass1 relation to contemporary ,french glass1 #ced ,chinese motives on ,saracenic glass1 #aee ,chinese porcelain1 enamelling on1 #agj ,christian subjects on engraved ,roman glass1 #ge1 #id ,church1 ,professor1 analyses of glass1 #cce1 #cec note #8,claw' handles on ,roman glass1 #fb1 #hc ,cluny ,museum1 ,saracenic glass1 #aff ,coal1 use of1 for glass furnace1 #cji-caj ,coal1 involves #8closed pots1' #caj ,cobalt in ,venetian glass1 #bah ,cobalt blue of medival 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,venice1 #bjj ,cristallo1 how decorated1 #bja-bjb ,cristallo1 in pictures of ,venetians1 #bjb-bjc ,cristallo1 glasses broken at feasts1 #bjc ,cristallo1 replaces verre de fougre1 #bbj-bba ,cristallo1 spread over ,western ,europe1 #bbj-bbb ,cristallo1 in ,low ,countries1 #bda ,cristallo1 in ,germany1 #bef-beh ,cros1 ,henri1 his pte de verre1 #cei-cfj ,crotchet ,friars1 glass made at1 #cjh ,cuthbert on glass-workers brought from ,mainz1 #aac #8,cylinder-process' described by ,theophilus1 #abh-abi #8,cylinder-process'1 used for mirror-glass1 #bji1 #baj note #8,cylinder-process'1 used by ,lorrainers1 #cjc ,cyprus1 primitive glass from1 #cf1 #cg-ch ,cyprus1 enamelled glass from1 #dg ,czihak1 ,von1 ,schlesische ,glser1 #bei note ,damas1 verre de1 #acf ,damas1 faon de1 #aha ,dante on glass mirrors1 #ach ,decay of glass1 #ae-ag ,decay of glass1 apparent capricious action1 #ae-af ,decay of glass1 chemical process involved1 #af ,decay of glass1 follows internal structure1 #af ,decay of glass1 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,etching on glass by acid1 #bgg1 #bha-bhb ,evelyn1 ,john1 on ,english glass1 #cad1 #cca ,facetted ,english glass1 #ccb-ccc ,facetting1 how made1 #ccb ,facetting1 when first in fashion1 #ccb ,fatimi caliphs1 their engraved rock crystal1 #ade1 #adf ,fatimi caliphs1 glass coin-like discs1 #adf-adg ,favrile glass1 #ceg1 #cei ,fern ashes1 used for making glass1 #acf ,fiala1 word1 how used by ,dante1 #agf note #8,fiat' or ,jacobite glasses1 #ccj-cca ,fichtelgebirge glasses1 #bfg-bfh ,fillon1 ,benjamin1 on glass in ,western ,france1 #hd-he #8,flashing' or #8spinning' to form a disc of glass1 #ad ,flemish school1 glass in pictures of1 #bdd ,flints1 early use in ,english glass1 #cag ,flint-glass1 l',anglaise1 #bdb ,flint-glass1 beauty of ,english1 #bii-cjj ,flint-glass requires #8closed pots1' #caj ,flint-glass1 when first made1 #cad-cai ,flint-glass1 composition1 #cai ,flint-glass1 optical qualities1 #cbj ,flint-glass1 materials used1 #ccd ,flgel-glser1 #beg #8,flutes1' ,dutch1 diamond-scratched1 #bif #8,forest glass1' see #8,verre de ,fougre4' ,fostat or ,old ,cairo1 fragments of glass from1 #agc ,frankish glass from the ,meuse valley1 #ajg-ajh ,frankish princes in ,syrian coast towns1 #agf-ahj ,franko-,saxon glass1 #ajg-ajh ,french glass of ,renaissance1 #bbj-bci ,french glass1 advance of cristallo1 #bbj-bbc ,french glass1 ,altarists1 #bbc-bbd ,french glass1 rarity of1 #bbe ,french glass1 literature1 #bbe ,french glass1 hawkers of glass1 street cries1 #bbh ,french glass1 claims to nobility1 #bcj-bca ,french glass1 local glass-works1 #bcb-bcd1 #bcf1 #bch ,french glass1 plate-glass1 #bce ,french glass1 inscriptions on1 #bcg-bch ,french glass1 enamelled glass1 #bcg-bch ,french glass1 opaque white glass1 #bci ,french medival glass vessels1 #acd-ace ,friolaro1 meaning of term1 #agf note ,frit-ware of early ,egyptians1 #ba ,frontinus1 his name found on ,gaulish glass1 #hh ,frosted or crackle glass of ,venice1 #bjc ,gall1 mile1 his glass1 #ceh-cei ,garzoni on ,venetian glass1 #bae-baf ,gaul1 ,roman glass in1 #ha-he ,gentilshommes de verre1 #bcj-bca ,german medival glass1 #acg ,german medival glass mirrors1 #ach ,german glass1 #bea-bic ,german glass1 medival forms1 #bea-beb ,german glass1 green glass1 #beb-bee ,german glass1 ,venetian influence1 #bee-beh ,german glass1 rivalry to ,venice1 #beh ,german glass1 from ,bohemian frontier1 #beh-bfj ,german glass1 glass furnaces1 #bfa1 #bfc ,german glass1 how made1 #bfc ,german glass1 enamelling on1 #bfd-bgc ,german glass1 origin of enamelling1 #bfd-bfe ,german glass1 poorness of enamels1 #bfe ,german glass1 names of various glasses1 #bff ,german glass1 ,south ,german glass1 #bgj-bgc ,german glass1 painted and gilt glass1 #bgc-bge ,german glass1 cut and engraved glass1 #bgf-bhh ,german glass1 cut and engraved1 introduced from ,italy1 #bgi ,german glass1 machinery for engraving1 #bha1 #bhc-bhd ,german glass1 engraving1 division of work1 #bha ,german glass1 ruby glass1 #bhi-bid ,german glass1 opaque white glass1 #bia ,german glass beads1 #bib-bic ,gilding on ,saracenic glass1 #aec ,gilding on ,venetian glass1 #aie ,gilding on ,german glass1 #bgd-bge ,gilt glass of cemeteries1 #ij-ie ,glaze1 relation to glass1 #b ,glaze1 early use of1 in ,egypt1 #bj-ba ,glaze1 applied to stone or fritty base by ,egyptians1 #ba #8,goblet of ,charlemagne1' #afa #8,goblet of the ,eight ,priests1' #afa ,gold1 ruby glass coloured by1 #bhi-bij ,gottefle1 nature of vessel so called1 #ace ,graal1 ,holy1 #ih note ,grau collection of glass1 #ea1 #ec ,greek glass1 of ,mycenan age1 #cc-cf ,greek glass1 bowls moulded and turned1 #de1 #dg ,greek glass1 intaglios and cameos1 #dg-dh ,greeks1 glass little appreciated by1 #cc-cd1 #dd ,greeks1 vague use of name for glass1 #de #8,green ,glass' of ,rhine and ,netherlands1 #beb-bee #8,green ,glass'1 colour specially added1 #beb ,greene1 ,john1 orders glass from ,venice1 #cad-cae ,greenwood1 engraver by stip process1 #big ,grisaille painting of ,schaper1 #bgb-bgc ,grne ,gewlbe1 ,saracenic enamelled glass in1 #afb ,hmatinon of ,pliny1 #ec1 #gi1 #id ,hall1 near ,innsbruck1 glass made at1 #bga ,hampton ,court1 window and mirror glass1 #cba ,hardness of glass1 #aa ,hartshorne1 ,mr4 ,albert1 ,old ,english ,glasses1 #cbd note ,hartshorne1 quoted1 #aaa ,hartshorne1 on ,english drinking-glasses1 #cbd ,hebrew literature1 doubtful mention of glass in1 #da ,hebron1 glass made near1 #db1 #cdb ,hebron1 glass-works in ,middle ,ages1 #adh #8,hedwig glasses1' so-called1 #aad-aag ,hedwig1 patron saint of ,silesia1 #aae note ,helbig quoted on term ,kyanos1 #cd-ce ,henry ,,viii41 his collection of glass1 #cjf ,heraclius or ,eraclius1 #aba ,heraclius on gilt glass1 #ib ,heraclius1 his treatise on ,arts of ,romans1 #aba-abb ,heraclius1 on carving of glass1 #aba-abb ,heraclius1 ,pseudo1 #aba ,heraclius1 his glass furnace1 #abg ,heraclius1 on glass of lead1 #acj-aca ,hirshvogel family1 #bef1 #bga ,holy ,graal1 #ih note ,hope collection1 enamelled beaker from1 in the ,british ,museum1 #afc-afd1 #agi-ahj ,houghton1 ,john1 on ,english glass1 #cag-cai ,howell1 ,james1 ,epistol ,ho-,elian1 #cab ,hu1 the glass made by1 at ,pekin1 #cdi ,humpen1 cylindrical beaker1 #bff-bfh ,hydrofluoric acid1 used for etching glass in seventeenth century1 #bha-bhb ,hydrofluoric acid1 glass etched by1 #bhg-bhh ,indian glass1 #cdc-cdg ,indian glass1 no early glass known1 #cdc ,indian glass1 engraved glass of ,mogul times1 #cdc ,indian glass1 enamelled glass of ,mogul times1 #cdc ,indian glass1 contemporary native glass1 #cdd-cdf ,indian glass1 how made1 #cde ,indian glass1 the furnaces1 #cde ,indian glass1 its artistic qualities1 #cdf ,industrial period in history of glass1 #ah ,inlay of glass1 ,roman1 #ec-ee ,inlay of glass1 ,gothic1 #adj-adb ,inlay of glass1 on church furniture1 #adj-ada ,inscriptions on ,syrian glass1 #eh ,inscriptions on ,roman glass1 #eh1 #hg-hh ,inscriptions on ,french glass1 #bcg-bch ,inscriptions on ,english glass1 #cbi-ccj ,intaglios and cameos of late ,greek glass1 #dg-dh ,ireland1 glass made in1 #ccf ,iridescence of glass1 #af-ag ,iron oxides1 colours derived from1 #ag ,jacobite glasses1 #cbi-ccj ,japan1 practically no native glass1 #ced ,japan1 glass from ,dolmen tombs1 #ced note ,japan1 glass in ,shoso ,in treasury1 #ced-cee ,japan1 ,sassanian influence1 #cee ,japan1 glass from prehistoric tombs1 #cee ,jasper-glass of ,venetians1 #bjg ,jeremiah on the manufacture of soap1 #da ,jewish glass-makers in ,syria1 #aah1 #adh ,jewish pedlars of glass1 #hb note ,jewish symbols on cemetery glass1 #id ,junius ,bassus1 the opus sectile in his ,basilica1 #ed-ee ,kent1 ,north1 ,roman glass from1 #hf ,kent1 ,north1 glass from ,jutish tombs1 #aaj1 #aac ,khosrau1 ,nassiri1 travels of1 #adi note ,khosroes1 bowl of1 #ajd-aje ,kinsky family and the ,bohemian glass industry1 #bhf ,kouyunjik1 glass from1 in ,british ,museum1 #ci-dj ,krautstrunk1 a ,german form of beaker1 #bee1 #bfb ,kreybich1 wandering glass-hawker1 #bhf ,kugler1 a class of engravers on glass1 #bhd ,kundmann's glass from bone and tobacco ash1 #bib ,kunckel1 ,johann1 #bhh-bia ,kur-frsten ,humpen1 #bfg ,kyanos1 probably blue glass1 #cd-ce ,lace glass1 #dj1 #df1 #bje-bjf ,lace glass1 how far made in ,germany1 #bfi-bgj ,lamp1 master form in ,saracenic glass1 #aef-aeg ,lamp1 conical cup1 the typical form in glass1 #aeg ,lamp1 ,saracenic1 wick1 how fixed1 #aeg1 #cdb ,lamps of ,st4 ,sophia1 #ig ,lamps in ,venetian pictures1 how suspended1 #aef ,lannoy1 ,cornelius de1 #cjg ,lapis lazuli1 imitation of1 in glass1 #bb1 #cb1 #ce1 #ef ,lapis lazuli1 enamel on ,saracenic glass1 #aeb ,latticinio or ,lattimo1 #bjc-bje ,latticinio imitating porcelain1 #bjd-bje ,latticinio1 festooned1 #bje ,latticinio1 recipe for preparation1 #bag ,lattimo1 see ,latticinio4 ,lattisuol1 see ,latticinio4 ,lead1 amount in flint-glass1 #cai ,lead-glass made by ,jews1 #aah1 #aca ,lead-glass1 ,neri and ,merret on1 #caf-cag ,lead-glass1 see also ,flint-glass4 ,lehmann1 ,caspar1 engraver on glass1 #bgi-bhj ,lennard collection1 glass from1 #ccb ,liao1 ,chinese name for glass1 #cec note ,lige1 glass made at1 #bdb1 #cae ,lily of the ,valley1 on enamelled glasses1 #bfg ,lime1 importance in composition of glass1 #h-i1 #bbg-bbh ,literature of glass1 essentially ,french1 #bbf ,liu-li1 old ,chinese name for glass1 #cdg ,lorraine1 charter granted to glass-workers1 #bcj ,lorraine1 importance in history of glass1 #bca-bcb ,lorraine1 tables quarres of1 #bcd note1 #cjc ,lorrainers in ,england1 #cjc-cje ,lorrainers driven from ,sussex1 #cjd ,lorrainers1 their wanderings1 #cjd-cje ,lotus decoration on ,saracenic glass1 #aed #8,luck of ,eden ,hall1' #afa-afb #8,lustre' and lustro1 #bab note ,lyons1 ,roman glass from1 #hb ,magic1 early medival works on1 #aai ,magnesia in ,pliny means manganese1 #gg note ,magnesia in ,saracenic glass1 #aea ,malleable glass1 #gh-gi ,manganese in glass1 changes of colour1 #ag ,manganese purple in primitive glass1 #bh-bi ,manganese in ,roman glass1 #gg ,manganese and ,magnese1 #bah note ,mansell1 ,sir ,robert1 #caa ,mansell1 ,sir ,robert1 his patents1 #cje1 #caa-cad ,mansourah1 glass made at1 #adi1 #afg ,mapp clavicula1 notices on glass1 #aba ,mariegole1 rules of ,venetian glass-workers' guilds1 #aha-ahb ,martial on ,roman glass1 #gc-gd1 #hb note ,mathesius quoted1 #bec1 #bfb1 #bfd ,mathesius1 ,sermons for ,miners1 #bfb-bfc ,matricole1 rules of glass-workers' guilds in ,venice1 #aha-ahb ,mazer-like forms in glass1 #beb ,medival treatises on alchemy1 etc41 #aai-abd ,medival glass1 rarity of1 #acc-acd ,memlook ,sultans1 art of1 #adg-adh ,merret1 ,art of ,glass quoted1 #g ,merret1 on properties of glass1 #g ,merret1 on glass of lead1 #caf-cag ,mesomedes on glass-houses1 #hj ,milanesi1 treatises on preparation of glass1 #bag ,milch-glas1 #bia ,millefiori glass of ,romans1 #di-eb ,millefiori glass1 ,madrepore patterns1 #di ,millefiori glass1 relation to ,egyptian #8fused-mosaics1' #di ,millefiori glass1 how built up1 #ej-ea ,millefiori glass1 peacock patterns1 #ea ,millefiori glass1 agate patterns1 #ea ,millefiori glass of ,venetians1 #bjg ,mirror of ,catherine of ,arragon1 #cjf ,mirrors of glass from ,roman tombs1 #ee-ef ,mirror of glass in ,middle ,ages1 #ach-aci ,mirror ,venetian1 #bji-baa ,mirrors1 ,venetian1 imitated by ,germans1 #bji ,mirrors1 ,venetian1 frames of1 #baj ,mirrors1 ,venetian1 of #8steel1' #baj note ,mirrors1 ,venetian1 exported to ,east1 #baa ,mirrors of plate-glass1 #baj1 #bce-bcf ,monza1 glass in treasury1 #ii ,mosaic-workers from ,constantinople1 #if ,moret collection in ,british ,museum1 #he ,moselle district--,roman glass1 #hc ,mosque lamps or lanterns1 #aee-aef ,mosque lamps suspended from spheres1 #aef ,mosque lamps from ,sultan ,hassan mosque1 #aef1 #afh ,mosque lamps from ,cairo1 #afg-afi ,mosque lamps inscription on1 #afg-afi ,mosque lamps abnormal types1 #afi-agj ,mosque lamps made in ,venice for the ,turks1 #aga-agb ,moulded glass of ,phnicians and ,romans1 #ef-eh ,munich ,schatzkammer1 glass in1 #bhj ,murano1 furnaces stopped in late summer1 #ahb ,murano1 the guilds1 how organised1 #ahb-ahc ,murano1 description of1 #bja1 #baf ,mycenan age1 glass of1 #cc-cg ,mycenan glass from bee-hive tombs1 #ce-cf ,nailsea glass-works1 #ccf ,natron as a source for soda in glass1 #ac1 #bf1 #gg ,natron ,lakes of ,lower ,egypt1 #ajf ,neri1 ,antonio1 his ,arte ,vetraria1 #bai ,neri1 various translations of1 #bhi ,neri1 upon glass of lead1 #caf-cag ,nesbitt1 ,mr41 catalogues by1 #ea note ,netherlands1 glass of1 #bdj-bdd ,netherlandish glass1 medival forms1 #beb ,netherlandish school1 glass in pictures of1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bea-beb ,nevers1 glass made at1 #bcb-bcd ,new ,testament1 allusion to glass in1 #db note ,nineveh1 glass from1 #ci-dj ,nobility1 claims to1 by glass-workers1 #bcj-bca ,norman versus ,lorraine glass1 #bcd note ,normandy1 glass made in1 #bcd-bce ,normandy1 glass-workers from1 in ,england1 #cjd-cje ,nuppen or #8,prunts1' #bec ,nuremberg mirrors1 #ach-aci ,nuremberg1 ,venetian glass imitated1 #bef ,nuremberg1 enamelled glass of1 #bga-bgb ,ochsenkopf humpen1 #bfh ,onyx glass1 ,greco-,roman1 #fh-gj ,opus sectile as wall-covering1 #ed-ee ,oriental influence1 in ,europe1 #hi-ij ,oriental influence1 on ,germanic jewellery1 #ajg-ajh ,oriental influence1 on ,medival ,german glass1 #aad-aag ,orleans1 glass made at1 #bch-bci ,orschall's ,sol sine veste1 #bij #8,painted' enamels on ,venetian glass1 #bjh #8,painted' enamels on ,german glass1 #bgc-bgd ,palissy on cheapness of glass1 #bbh ,paraison1 term explained1 #ad ,papyrus of ,leiden1 #abj ,pass-glas1 narrow cylinder1 #bfi ,passini1 on the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's1 #ajj note ,pte de ,verre of ,henri ,cros1 #cei-cfj ,patents and licences to #8adventurers1' #caa-cad ,paternoster ,kugel1 #bib ,paternosters1 a kind of bead1 #ahd ,paul the ,silentiary quoted1 #ig ,pax1 ,gothic1 how painted at back1 #ada-adb ,percivall1 ,thomas1 #cji1 #caj1 #caa ,perle a rosette1 see ,chevron beads4 ,persian glass1 #agb1 #cch-cdb ,persian glass1 rarity before seventeenth century1 #agb ,persian glass1 ,venetian origin1 #cch-cda ,persian glass1 earlier examples1 #cci ,persian glass1 enamelling on1 #cci ,persian glass1 shapes of blown glass1 #cci-cdj ,persian glass1 engraved glass1 #cdj-cda ,persian glass1 ,chardin quoted1 #cda-cdb ,petrie1 ,dr4 ,flinders1 on manufacture of glass in ,egypt1 #bb-bc1 #bd-be ,phnician coast towns1 early moulded glass1 #eg-eh ,phnician glass-makers1 ,pliny on1 #gf-gh ,physical properties of glass1 #aj-ab ,pictures of old masters1 glass in1 #bjb-bjc1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bea-beb1 #bed-bee #8,pillar moulding' on early ,roman glass1 #fc #8,pillar moulding' on ,byzantine glass from ,egypt1 #ajf ,plate-glass1 #baj ,plate-glass1 ,french invention1 #bce ,pliny on preparation of glass1 #gf-gi ,pliny on magnes lapis and magnesia1 #gg ,podgoriza bowl1 #ie ,pointill engraving on glass1 #big-bih ,poitou1 ,roman glass found in1 #hd-he ,po-li1 ,chinese name for glass1 #cdg ,pompeii1 glass from1 #fj1 #fi-gj ,pontil or punto1 #ad ,porcelain1 relation to glass in history1 #c ,porcelain1 imitated by lattimo glass1 #bje-bjf1 #bci1 #bdi1 #bij1 #bia1 #ccd ,portland or ,barberini vase1 #fh-fi ,potash used for inland glass1 #aa1 #acf ,potash1 source of1 #ac ,potash1 glass maintained in ,germany1 #beg-beh ,pottery1 relation to glass in history1 #b-c ,pretender1 the1 his head on wine-glasses1 #ccj ,primitive glass1 #ah-db ,primitive glass1 restricted use of1 #bj ,primitive glass1 ,greek and ,egyptian names1 #bj ,primitive glass1 of ,egyptians imitates native stones1 #ba-bb ,primitive glass1 late survivals1 #cg-ch ,primitive period in history of glass1 #ah ,procello or #8spring-tool1' #ae #8,prunted' beakers1 of ,anglo-,saxons and other ,germanic tribes1 #aaj-aab #8,prunted' beakers1 how made1 #aaa #8,prunted' beakers1 found in ,illyria1 #aaa #8,prunts1' on ,german glasses1 #bec #8,prunts1' restriction of term1 #bec note #8,prunts1' practical use of1 #bec note ,rabanus1 ,maurus1 glass furnace in ,,ms4 of1 #abd-be ,ravenscroft1 his flint-glass1 #cah ,red colours in ,egyptian glass1 #bg-bh ,red opaque glass confined in ,egypt to inlays1 #bh ,reichenau1 ,byzantine glass on island of1 #aad ,reichs-adler ,humpen1 #bfg ,ren1 ,king1 patron of glass-makers1 #ace1 #bbi ,retabulum from ,westminster ,abbey1 #ada ,reticelli1 vetro a1 #bje-bjf ,rhages or ,rh1 fragments of glass from1 #agc ,rhodes1 primitive glass from1 #cf1 #cg-ch ,rhodes1 glass from1 #cdb ,riao1 ,don ,juan1 on ,spanish glass1 #bdf1 #bdg ,rib-twisted stem1 #cbf ,rings 7,annuli7 of glass1 #aca ,rock-crystal1 glazed by ,egyptians1 #bj ,rock-crystal1 carvings in1 #gj ,rock-crystal1 ,byzantine school of carving1 #ajc-ajd1 #aah ,rock-crystal1 carvings from ,western ,asia1 #aah ,rock-crystal1 engraved by ,saracens1 #ade-adf ,rock-crystal1 ,italian engravers on1 #bgi ,roemer1 how built up1 #bed-bee ,roemer1 a form exceptional in ,england1 #cae ,roemer1 in pictures of ,dutch school1 #bdd ,roemer-shaped goblets1 #bed-bee ,roemer ,vischer1 his three daughters1 #bie ,roman glass1 #dh-hh ,roman glass1 the earliest ,hellenistic in character1 #dh ,roman glass1 in the main not dependent on ,greece1 #dh-di ,roman glass1 ,millefiori glass1 #di-eb ,roman glass1 colours of1 #eb ,roman glass1 glass in floor-mosaics1 #ec note ,roman glass1 wall decoration1 #ec-ed ,roman glass1 ,opus sectile in glass1 #ed-ee ,roman glass1 window-glass1 how made1 #ee ,roman glass1 mirrors1 #ee-ef ,roman glass1 coloured pastes1 ,lapis lazuli1 #ef ,roman glass1 moulded glass1 #ef-eh ,roman glass1 moulded #8hollow-ware1' #eg-eh ,roman glass1 from ,britain1 blown into moulds1 #eh ,roman glass1 blown into silver casing1 #eh note ,roman glass1 spread of manufacture1 #fj-fa ,roman glass1 in ,britain1 #fa1 #ha1 #hf-hg ,roman glass1 cinerary urns1 #fa ,roman glass1 early spread in ,gaul and ,spain1 #fa1 #gh ,roman glass1 relation of shapes to pottery1 #fc ,roman glass1 stringings and threadings1 #fd ,roman glass1 enamelled glass1 #fe-fg1 #ajb ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 #fg-ge ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 from ,canosa1 #fh ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 onyx or cameo carved1 #fh-gj ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 #8,diatretum' carved1 #ga-gc ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 late carvings in low relief1 #gd-ge ,roman glass1 engraved and sculptured1 engraved by wheel1 #gd-ge ,roman glass1 method of preparation1 #gf ,roman glass1 ,pliny quoted1 #gf-gi ,roman glass1 first made near ,cum1 #gh ,roman glass1 glass-houses1 #hj ,roman glass1 in ,gaul1 #ha-he ,roman glass1 abundance in ,eastern and ,north-eastern ,gaul1 #ha ,roman glass1 in ,west ,german ,museums1 #hc-hd ,roman glass1 chronological classification1 #hc-hd ,roman glass1 in ,western ,gaul1 #hd-he ,roman glass1 inscriptions on1 #hg-hh ,roquetta1 term explained1 #ac ,rothschild1 ,lord1 carved cup of ,roman glass1 #gc ,ruby-red1 perhaps known to ,ancients1 #eb ,ruby-red1 in medival window-glass1 #acc ,ruby glass of ,kunckel1 #bhi-bia ,ruby glass examples of1 #bia ,rudolph ,,ii4 patronises carving of rock-crystal1 #bgh-bgi ,rui or rulli1 small window-panes1 #ahb ,ruimer or roemer of ,dutch1 #bie ,sabellico on ,venetian glass1 #bja ,sacro catino of ,genoa1 #ih-ii ,saladin brings new influence to ,egypt1 #aga ,salviati1 #bad1 #bbg note ,samarkand1 glass-makers transported to1 #afh ,samarkand1 description of glass of1 #cci ,sandrart on engraving of glass1 #bgi-bhb #8,sapphirus' altar of ,st4 ,david's1 #ih note ,sapphirus1 term used for blue glass paste1 #aca ,sapphirus1 see ,lapis lazuli4 ,st4 ,anastasia1 ,rome1 glass bowl at1 #ih ,st4 ,gobain1 plate-glass of1 #baj1 #bce ,st4 ,ildefonso1 royal glass-works1 #bej ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 enamelled ,roman glass1 #ff-fg ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 ,diatretum glass1 #ga-gc ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 description of glass in1 #ii-ajb ,st4 ,sophia1 lamps and windows1 #if-ig ,saracenic art1 revolution in twelfth century1 #agj-aga ,saracenic art1 influence of ,mongol invasion1 #aga ,saracenic carved glass1 earlier than enamelled1 #add-adf ,saracenic enamelled glass1 where made1 #adi ,saracenic enamelled glass1 nature of #8metal1' #aej-aea ,saracenic enamelled glass1 composition of1 #aea ,saracenic enamelled glass1 magnesia in1 #aea ,saracenic enamelled glass1 nature of enamels1 #aea ,saracenic enamelled glass1 use of ,lapis lazuli1 #aeb ,saracenic enamelled glass1 use of gold in decoration1 #aec ,saracenic enamelled glass1 motives of decoration1 #aed-aee ,saracenic enamelled glass1 #8canting badges' of ,sultans1 #aee ,saracenic enamelled glass1 ,chinese motives in decoration1 #aee ,saracenic enamelled glass1 signatures of artist1 #aee ,saracenic enamelled glass1 forms of lamps1 #aeg ,saracenic enamelled glass1 wick of lamps1 how fixed1 #aeg ,saracenic enamelled glass1 beakers of lamp-like form1 #aeh-afj ,saracenic enamelled glass1 construction of base of beakers1 #aei ,saracenic enamelled glass1 famous beakers1 #afa-afd ,saracenic enamelled glass1 vessels filled with holy earth1 #afd-afe ,saracenic enamelled glass1 long-necked bottles1 #afe-aff ,saracenic enamelled glass1 bowls and dishes1 #aff-afg ,saracenic enamelled glass1 mosque lamps1 #afg-afi ,saracenic enamelled glass1 decline of1 #afh-afi ,saracenic enamelled glass1 origin of art1 #agj ,saracenic enamelled glass1 found in ,china1 #cdh ,sargon1 glass engraved with name of1 #dj ,saroldo family at ,nevers1 #bcc ,sassanian glass1 #ajd-aje ,sassanian influence in ,japan1 #cee ,scarpaggiato making glass in ,bavaria1 #bga ,schaper1 ,johann1 painter on glass1 #bgb-bgc ,schmelz glass of the ,venetians1 #bjg-bjh1 #bah-bai ,schmoranz1 ,g41 work on ,saracenic glass1 #aej note ,schuermans1 ,judge1 #bbb1 #bda ,schurman1 ,anna ,maria van1 #bie ,schwanhart family1 engravers on glass1 #bhj-bhc1 #bhh ,schwinger1 ,hermann1 engraver on glass1 #bhc ,shantung1 glass made in1 #cec ,sherbet-jugs of opaque white glass1 #cdb-cdc ,sidon1 ,pre-,roman glass1 #eg1 #ei1 #gh ,sidon1 inscription on glass from1 #hg ,sidon1 ,venetians at1 #agf ,signatures of makers on ,roman and ,phnician glass1 #hg-hh ,signatures1 rarely found on glass1 #hh ,signatures on ,saracenic enamelled glass1 #aee ,silesia1 engraved glass of1 #bhe ,silica1 amount of1 in glass1 #i-aj ,singer1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,webb1 his collection of glasses1 #cbd note1 #cbh #8,singing glasses1' #cca ,slade collection1 catalogue of1 #ea note ,slavonic tombs1 no glass in1 #aad note ,snuff-bottles1 ,chinese1 #cea-ceb ,soap-making1 its relation to glass1 #da-db #8,soap of glass' 7manganese71 #gg ,soda1 the normal alkali of glass1 #i-aj ,soda1 or maritime group of glass1 #aj-aa ,soda1 source of1 #ab-ac ,soda1 in ,venetian glass1 #bad ,south-,saxon ,cemetery1 ,byzantine glass from1 #ajg ,southwark1 early glass-houses1 #cjb1 #cab ,spanish glass1 #bde-bej ,spanish glass1 green glass of south1 #bde-bdf ,spanish glass1 literature1 #bdf note ,spanish glass1 ,catalonia1 #bdg-bdi ,spanish glass1 ,altarists and ,muranists1 #bdi-bej ,spanish glass1 decline in eighteenth century1 #bej ,spanish ,netherlands1 glass of1 #bdj-bdd #8,spear-butt' shaped lamps1 #ig #8,spear-butt'1 in use in ,italy1 #aeh ,spechter1 cylindrical beaker1 #bff ,specific gravity of glass1 #ab ,spessart forest1 glass from1 #bff ,spheres in connection with suspended mosque lamps1 #aef-agb #8,spinning' or #8flashing' to form a disc of glass1 #ae ,splashed decoration on ,egyptian cosmetic pots1 #ca ,splashed decoration on ,roman glass1 #fd ,splashed decoration on ,venetian glass1 #bjh ,splashed decoration on ,french ,renaissance glass1 #bch ,splashed decoration on glass made at ,bristol1 #cce-ccf ,stained glass windows1 of ,st4 ,sophia1 #if ,stained glass1 ,french1 composition of1 #aca ,stained glass how coloured1 #acb-acc ,steinschnau1 glass industry1 #bhf1 #bic ,stimpler1 bungling workman1 #bha1 #bhe ,stip engraving of ,dutch1 #big-bih ,strabo on ,roman glass1 #fj-fa1 #hj ,strabo on glass of ,alexandria and ,syria1 #hj ,sulphur in glass1 changes of colour1 #ag ,suppialume process1 #ahg ,susa1 glass from1 #da note ,susa1 ,sassanian or ,byzantine glass from1 #ajd ,sussex glass-work1 #aci-adj1 #cja-cjb ,switzerland1 glass painters of1 #bfc-bfd ,synesius1 treatise on alchemy1 #abj ,syria1 glass early made in1 #ch-ci1 #dd-de ,syria1 importance in history of glass1 #abb-abc ,syria1 glass made during ,frankish occupation in coast towns1 #ahj-aha ,syrian glass of ,middle ,ages1 #aah1 #adh-adi ,syrian glass-workers in ,gaul and ,rome1 #hb-hc ,syrian tombs1 glass from1 #ei-fj ,syrian treatises on alchemy1 etc41 #abb-abd ,syrian manufacture of glass vessels1 #abc-abd ,syrian glass-furnace described1 #abd ,tassie1 ,james1 his glass paste1 #ccf ,tell-el-,amarna1 glass from1 #bb1 #bc-be ,theophilus1 his ,schedula ,diversarum ,artium1 #abf-acj ,theophilus on gilt glass1 #ib-ic ,theophilus1 his glass furnace1 #abg-abh ,theophilus1 materials for glass-making1 #abh ,theophilus1 blowing of glass1 #abh-abi ,theophilus1 the #8cylinder process1' #abh-abi ,theophilus on enamelling of glass vessels1 #acj ,theophrastus on the word ,kyanos1 #ce ,tiffany1 ,messrs41 favrile glass1 #ceg1 #cei ,timur or ,tamerlane1 his conquest1 #afh ,timur transplants glass-workers1 #cch ,tobacco ash1 glass from1 #bib ,treviso1 discovery of chevron beads1 #ahi ,trionfi di ,tavola1 #bac ,turkish element in later ,saracenic art1 #adg-adh ,tyre1 glass-works in ,middle ,ages1 #adh-adi ,tiryns1 glass inlay in alabaster slabs1 #cd ,ultramarine1 source of blue in ,saracenic enamels1 #aeb ,unguentaria or ,phial of primitive glass1 #bb1 #bc1 #bi-cj1 #cc1 #cf-cg ,unguentaria1 wavy decoration of1 #bc ,unguentaria1 inscriptions on ,egyptian1 #cj-ca ,unguentaria from tombs in ,southern ,italy and ,greek islands1 #cf-cg ,unguentaria from ,crimean tombs1 #cg ,uranium1 opal glass from1 #bjf note ,urinalia of glass1 #acd1 #aci note ,varpelev1 enamelled glass from tombs at1 #ff ,veneer of glass used by ,romans1 #eb-ed ,venetian glass1 #agd-bai ,venetian glass1 made for ,turks1 #aga-agb ,venetian glass1 sources of information1 #agf note ,venetian glass1 early mention of1 #agg ,venetian glass1 ,german pedlars1 #agg ,venetian glass1 manufacture forbidden in ,venice1 #agg ,venetian glass1 early manufacture of beads1 window-glass1 and spectacles1 #agh ,venetian glass1 ,germans export glass1 #agh-ahd ,venetian glass1 competition with crystal-cutters1 #agh-agi1 #ahd ,venetian glass1 early commerce with ,syrian ports1 #agi ,venetian glass1 early enamelled glass1 #agi ,venetian glass1 little ,oriental influence in fifteenth century1 #aha ,venetian glass1 ,muranese and ,venetian guilds1 #ahc ,venetian glass1 manufacture of beads1 #ahe-ahg ,venetian glass1 exported to ,england and ,low ,countries1 #aib ,venetian enamelled glass of fifteenth century1 #aib-aii ,venetian enamelled glass imitates enamels on copper1 #aic ,venetian enamelled glass1 sem gilding1 #aie ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 #bjj-bjb ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 varieties of1 #bjc-bji ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo plaque engraved in intaglio1 #bji ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo mirrors1 #bji-baa ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo chandeliers1 #baa-bab ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 attempts to check decline1 #bab-bac ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 cut and engraved1 #bac ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 revival of nineteenth century1 #bac-bad ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 special qualities of1 #bad ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 literature of1 #bad-bai ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 preparation1 #bae1 #bag-bai ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 early practical treatises1 #bag ,venetian glass in ,western ,europe1 #bbj-bbc ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 early importation to ,germany1 #bef ,venetian glass1 ,cristallo1 importation into ,england1 #cad-cae ,venetian glass-workers1 restrictions on emigration1 #bbb-bbc ,venetian glass-workers1 in ,netherlands1 #bdj-bda ,venetian glass-workers1 in ,england1 #cjg-cjh ,venetian school1 suspended lamps in pictures of1 #aef ,venetian school1 glass in pictures of1 #bjb-bjc ,verre or voirre1 use of the ,french word1 #ace-acf ,verre de fougre1 #bba1 #bcd ,verre de fougre1 in medival times1 #aac-aad ,verre de fougre1 in ,france1 #acd-ace1 #acf ,verrerie1 term explained1 #a ,verroterie1 term explained1 #a1 #ai ,verzelini1 ,jacopo1 #cjg-cjh ,vetro di trina from ,nineveh1 #dj ,vetro di trina from ,canosa1 #df1 #ej note ,vetro di trina of ,murano1 #bje-bjf ,vienna1 ,saracenic enamelled glass in cathedral1 #afd-afe ,vienna1 ,schatzkammer1 glass from1 in ,museum1 #bhj ,waddesdon collection1 glass in1 #afc1 #aic1 #bjf1 #beb note ,walloon ,church at ,southampton1 #cjd-cje ,warmbrunn in ,silesia1 glass engraving1 #bhe-bhf ,waterford1 glass-houses at1 #ccf ,webb of ,stourbridge1 his cameo glass1 #ceh ,weights for coins in glass1 #adf-adg ,westminster retabulum1 inlay of glass1 #ada ,willkomm humpen1 #bff ,windows of ,french churches1 composition and colours1 #acb-acc ,wine1 when first bottled1 #cbb ,wine-bottles1 early ,english1 #cbb ,wine-bottles1 stamps on1 #cbb ,wine-glasses1 see ,drinking-glasses4 ,winter1 ,friedrich1 ,silesian glass engraver1 #bhe ,wolf1 engraver by stip process1 #big-bih #8,wrzburg' flask in ,british ,museum1 enamels on1 #aec ,yard1 a form of drinking-glass1 #cca ,yellow from antimony in primitive glass1 #bi ,yellow1 source of1 in medival window-glass1 #acc ,zozimus1 treatise on alchemy1 #abj ,zunft-becher or guild glasses1 #bgj ,zwischen glser1 #bgd-bge ,printed by ,t4 and ,a4 ,,constable1 ,printers to ,his ,majesty at the ,edinburgh ,university ,press ----- ,footnote #a3 ,it would be quite beside the mark to search for a chemical formula to express such a combination of silica1 soda1 and lime4 ,i have little doubt that one of the causes of this remarkable uniformity of composition is to be looked for in the very fact that such a mixture is not a definite silicate1 and is therefore the less likely to assume a stony or crystalline structure on cooling4 ,footnote #b3 ,the alumina here is probably not to be regarded as a base1 but rather as taking the place of the silica4 ,hence the exceptionally low percentage of the latter4 ,footnote #c3 ,it had its origin in great measure in the arbitrary regulations laid down by the fiscal authorities at the beginning of the last century4 ,this side of the subject is well treated in the article on glass in the original edition of the ,penny ,cyclopdia4 ,footnote #d3 ,in the ,museum at ,kew may be seen specimens of ,spanish barilla made from the ,halogeton sativa1 as well as large crude cakes of roquetta from ,aden and ,bagdad prepared from the ,suda fruticosa and the ,salsola kali respectively4 ,footnote #e3 #8,the ,processes of ,decay in ,glass' is the subject of an elaborate paper by ,mr4 ,james ,fowler1 to be found in the forty-sixth volume of ,archologia4 ,footnote #f3 ,good instances of both these changes may be observed in the windows and chandeliers of the ,galerie des ,glaces at ,versailles4 ,footnote #g3 ,i know at least of no example of a vessel or bead of glass of an earlier date4 ,that the molten material of the glazes--known from the earliest period--may even in very early times have been rolled into slabs and subsequently cut up into pieces for inlay-work1 would seem to be proved by a fragment of a wooden box1 bearing the name of a king of the ,first ,dynasty1 found by ,m4 ,amlineau on the site of ,abydos4 ,this box 7it is now in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 where it was pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,bell7 is decorated with small triangular plaques of what is apparently a blue translucent glass1 with an uneven but undecomposed surface4 ,footnote #h3 ,it should be borne in mind that colourless rock crystal was at all times #8taboo' to the ,egyptians1 and this fact may partly account for the absence of clear white glass in ,egypt4 ,footnote #i3 ,in most cases1 ,i think1 the comparatively hard arragonite1 the carbonate1 and not the sulphate of lime that we know by that name4 ,footnote #aj3 ,there is1 however1 some reason to believe not only that the salt lakes of the ,delta were exploited at a very early date1 but that the natron1 an impure carbonate of soda1 may well have been exported thence by an old caravan route1 perhaps even in pre-dynastic times4 ,footnote #aa3 ,professor ,buckman1 in a paper in the ,archological ,journal so long ago as #ahea gives some valuable analyses of ancient glass1 the main result of which is to show the absence of lead and the general use of copper as a source of blue1 in pre-,roman times at least4 ,in many of these older analyses1 as in those made by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 there always remains an element of doubt1 not so much as to the accuracy of the chemist's work1 but as to the provenance of the specimen that he is examining4 ,professor ,buckman dwells upon the light that properly conducted analyses would throw upon the origin and classification of the glass of the ancients4 ,he does not1 unfortunately1 distinguish the nature of the alkali1 whether soda or potash1 in his own analyses4 ,little work of this kind has been accomplished in the fifty years that have since elapsed4 ,footnote #ab3 ,antimony has been found in the glaze of ,assyrian bricks1 as well as in the yellow enamel of medival ,saracenic glass4 ,the ,egyptian name was mestem1 whence the word stibium 7antimony71 but other minerals such as galena1 hmatite1 and pyrolusite 7oxide of manganese71 have also been found in their kohl-pots2 at one time indeed1 during the early empire1 a copper-green was in fashion for painting the angles of the eyes4 ,i may mention that in the twisted rods--of a comparatively late date1 however--that fitted into these kohl-pots1 we have some of the earliest examples of a transparent white glass4 ,footnote #ac3 ,this1 however1 is not quite certain1 for the prnomen of ,thothmes ,,iii4--,men-cheper-,ra--was assumed1 ,i am informed1 by one of the priest kings of the ,twenty-second ,dynasty4 ,indeed1 the technique in this case would point rather to a late than an early period4 ,footnote #ad3 ,i had proposed to include this example and the two little vases previously described among my coloured illustrations4 ,i have1 however1 not been able to obtain the requisite permission from the keeper of the ,egyptian ,department4 ,footnote #ae3 ,this is the expression used in the official catalogue of the ,museum1 from which ,i borrow this description4 ,footnote #af3 ,glass-workers' moulds have been found at ,mycen1 and it has been claimed for this glass that it was made as well as melted on the spot4 ,but that1 ,i think1 is unlikely4 ,footnote #ag3 ,all this bears out what ,i have said above upon the relation of the earliest glass to the metallurgy of copper1 and the probability that the earliest glass was a blue glass 7p4 #bf74 ,footnote #ah3 ,it is a remarkable fact that somewhat similar beads1 of clear1 colourless1 facetted glass1 evidently of great age1 have lately been brought from ,west ,africa4 7,see a paper by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read in ,man1 ,may #aije47 ,footnote #ai3 ,such a comparison may indeed be made in the case of the bulk of the #8primitive' glass of which we treat in this chapter1 and may help to accentuate the difference between it and the blown glass of later days4 ,footnote #bj3 ,some fragments of a conical vessel of clear thin glass1 evidently formed by the blowing-tube1 have lately been found by ,m4 de ,morgan at ,susa4 ,they are said to bear a cuneiform inscription of the time of the ,achmenid4 ,these fragments are now in the ,louvre1 but considerable doubt exists as to the nature of the markings4 ,the glass certainly resembles suspiciously that used by the ,arabs for their small hanging lamps4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see ,chapter ,,xxi4 for some further account of this glass4 ,footnote #bb3 ,on the other hand1 in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians and in the ,epistle of ,james1 there are references to mirrors that may have been of glass4 ,again1 in ,revelation we find #8a sea of glass like unto crystal' 7iv4 #f71 and what is more important1 glass in other passages 7xxi4 #ah and #ba7 is referred to as #8pure' and #8transparent' 7the words in the original being 1 1 and 74 ,in view of the question1 discussed below1 of the date when clear glass came into general use1 this contrast between the ,gospels and the1 on the whole1 later books is of some interest4 ,footnote #bc3 ,this arrangement in spiral coils is very characteristic of the glass of this period1 though it is generally only to be seen on close examination4 ,we have noticed it in the case of the #8lace-glass' from ,canosa4 ,it may give us some clue as to the method of manufacture4 ,footnote #bd3 ,this collection1 which contains many fine examples of ancient glass1 has been bought en bloc by ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 and is likely to follow the still more famous ,charvet collection 7so carefully described in ,m4 ,froehner's great work71 and to find its way to ,america4 ,footnote #be3 ,the basis of this collection was formed by ,mr4 ,nesbitt many years ago2 it was presented to the ,museum1 in #ahhg1 by his brother-in-law1 the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,mr4 ,nesbitt was the compiler of the catalogues both of the ,slade collection 7privately printed1 #ahga7 and of the glass at ,south ,kensington 7#ahgh7--magnificently illustrated works1 but now in a measure out of date4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the evidence1 however1 on this point is very conflicting4 ,footnote #bg3 ,the pale rosy tint seen in a few rare specimens of classical glass1 as in some pieces lately brought from ,egypt1 ,i should rather attribute to a skilful use of manganese4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the presence of tin in this glass which ,i have already mentioned in speaking of its ,egyptian prototype 7p4 #bg71 has been confirmed by analyses made at ,svres by ,m4 ,salvtat4 ,i do not know whether the researches of this chemist into the composition of the glass of the ancients have ever been published4 ,footnote #bi3 ,in the ,roman floor mosaics the tesser are almost invariably of stone1 but occasionally fragments of glass are found1 as in the famous #8,mosaic of the ,philosophers' in the museum at ,cologne4 ,here the ground is built up of a smeltz-like greenish glass4 ,footnote #cj3 ,we may compare this use of glass with the kyanos studs of the ,mycenan period1 or again with the blue glass inlaid between the volutes of the capitals in the temple of ,minerva ,polias at ,athens1 described long ago by ,hamilton4 ,footnote #ca3 ,in the glass coffin from the ,temple collection in the ,british ,museum we have an example of the use of such glass on a comparatively large scale4 ,footnote #cb3 ,mr4 ,kennard has a plaque of clear white glass1 some six inches in length1 with the bust of a faun in high relief4 ,this plaque is pierced on either side1 as if for fixing upon some object of furniture4 ,footnote #cc3 ,we may regard the little ovoid vase in the ,british ,museum1 made by blowing a thin vesicle of deep blue glass into a casing of silver1 pierced by oval apertures1 as an example of moulded glass where the mould has not been removed4 ,if the silver casing were stripped off1 we should have a good imitation of #8prunted' glass2 not that this is to be taken as a model of the way in which these prunts were made 7see below1 p4 #aaj74 ,footnote #cd3 ,how far the so-called diatretum work is based upon such appliqu or added portions of glass is a much disputed point4 ,mr4 ,nesbitt appears to have regarded all such work as so formed 7,catalogue1 ,slade ,collection1 pp4 xiv4-xv471 and the imitations now made at ,murano are certainly built up in this way2 not so1 however1 some of the genuine ancient pieces1 ,i think4 7,see below1 p4 #ga47 ,footnote #ce3 ,the ,egyptians1 too1 as we have seen1 sometimes decorated their glass with similar splashes1 but we never find that these are distorted4 ,footnote #cf3 ,there are many allusions to the painting of glass1 in some cases merely by varnishes1 in the early medival treatises on glass 7see ,chap4 ,,vii474 ,some of these recipes1 as we shall see1 may have been handed down from classical times4 ,footnote #cg3 ,the contents have been described by the late ,canonico ,passini1 in a magnificent work published by ,ongania of ,venice1 in which nearly every piece of importance is reproduced in colour or by photography4 ,footnote #ch3 ,there is among the ,roman glass in the museum at ,cologne a shallow bowl about a foot in diameter1 painted on the back1 as in the later verre glomis1 with a female head4 ,the colours--black1 red1 and white--are but slightly burnt in1 and therefore much decomposed4 ,footnote #ci3 ,this part is stated to be a distinct piece cemented on to the bottom of the vessel4 ,so at least says ,mr4 ,apsley ,pellatt in his ,curiosities of ,glass-making1 writing1 ,i think1 before the vase was broken4 ,in the same book will be found a careful account of the process of #8casing' as now practised4 ,it was probably by some such plan1 in the case of the ,portland vase1 that the paraison of blue glass was blown into the previously prepared vessel of opaque white4 ,footnote #dj3 ,i shall return to this sculptured work when treating of ,byzantine glass in the next chapter4 ,footnote #da3 ,by the courtesy of ,lord ,rothschild ,i have had an opportunity of examining this wonderful cup4 ,it is undoubtedly carved from one piece of glass4 ,the spirited execution would seem to point to a date hardly much later than the beginning of the third century4 ,the internal depressions were made perhaps with the object of lighting up the external figures4 ,the glass by transmitted light is of a fiery red1 tending to purple1 but the figure of ,lycurgus is exceptionally of a fine amethystine tint4 ,i think that in both cases the colour is probably due to a skilful use of manganese4 ,footnote #db3 ,the abrading material employed along with the wheel was probably in most cases corundum or emery 7the adamas of the ancients7 in a powdered form2 not the diamond1 which was excessively rare1 nor the emerald1 as is sometimes stated4 ,this last stone is not only much rarer than corundum1 but it is also not so hard4 ,footnote #dc3 ,compare what is said below on p4 #hb of ,greek-speaking ,syrian artisans4 ,footnote #dd3 ,for some account of what these writers tell us about glass1 see below1 ,chap4 ,,vii4 ,footnote #de3 ,theophilus1 however1 writing a century earlier than the pseudo-,heraclius1 appears to speak of the marver as a slab of stone 7see below1 ,chap4 ,,vii474 ,footnote #df3 ,the sand of this river as a material for the manufacture of glass is already mentioned by ,theophrastus1 a pupil of ,aristotle4 ,footnote #dg3 ,glebas nitri4 ,this is doubtless the natron 7impure carbonate of soda7 exported from the ,egyptian natron lakes1 which have been worked from a very early period--a substance that must not be confused with our nitre 7nitrate of potash72 as ,i have said1 the glass of the ancients is essentially a soda glass4 ,the natron was probably first exported for the use of the soap-makers4 ,footnote #dh3 ,this again must not be confused with the white earth1 which we now know under that name1 a substance unknown to the ancients4 ,footnote #di3 ,by this is probably meant three parts in twelve or ten1 i4e4 #be or #cj per cent4 of the whole4 ,footnote #ej3 ,great care must be exercised in translating the names of the precious stones and marbles mentioned by ,greek and ,roman writers4 ,these names are used in the vaguest way1 which hardly ever corresponds to the modern meaning4 ,footnote #ea3 ,among others1 from the early history of the ,christian ,church in these parts4 ,footnote #eb3 ,at ,rome1 too1 there is some reason to think that the working of glass--the minor departments of that art1 at least--was long in the hands of ,syrian or other ,semitic immigrants4 ,martial's itinerant hawker from the ,transtevere1 who bartered his sulphur matches for broken glass1 we may perhaps think of as a ,jew 7,book #a41 ,epigram4 #db74 ,footnote #ec3 ,see p4 #hh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,compare with these the bottle from ,cologne in the ,british ,museum containing a hardened mass of some yellow substance1 and closed by a decayed cork partly covered by a corroded bronze capsule 7,slade ,catalogue1 ,no4 #bge74 ,footnote #ee3 ,both these forms are found in ,anglo-,saxon and ,frankish graves4 ,it will be remembered that in ,france there was no sudden break in the ,roman culture on the appearance of the ,germanic invaders1 as was the case in ,england4 ,footnote #ef3 ,philostratus describes the process by which the #8barbarians of the ocean' spread colours upon heated bronze so as to form a hard enduring decoration4 ,he was of the household of ,julia ,domna1 and ,m4 ,froehner suggests that he may have heard of these enamels from one of the officers of the army of ,septimius ,severus4 ,footnote #eg3 ,the famous enamelled bowl1 however1 found in a ,roman tomb of the time of ,hadrian1 at ,bartlow1 ,essex1 was accompanied by a cinerary vase and other examples of glass4 ,see ,archologia1 vol4 xxvi4 ,footnote #eh3 ,the chapter dealing with these marks1 together with that on the geographical distribution1 forms the most valuable part of ,m4 ,froehner's already quoted work on ancient glass4 ,footnote #ei3 ,so when some of our leading archologists saw at first in the discoveries of ,schliemann at ,mycen and ,troy the work of wandering tribes of the fifth and sixth centuries1 they were unconsciously arguing in favour of this often renewed ,oriental influence4 ,footnote #fj3 ,the glass from the catacombs has long attracted notice1 with the result that many more or less clever forgeries1 dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 have to be reckoned with4 ,these fondi d'oro are most completely illustrated by ,garucci in the third volume of the ,jesuit father's great work1 the ,storia dell' ,arte ,christiana 7#ahgf71 as well as in an earlier work 7#aheh and #ahfd71 especially devoted to ,christian glass4 ,the most scholarly treatment of the subject is to be found in the little work of ,dr4 ,hermann ,vopel1 ,die ,alt-,christlichen ,goldglser 7#ahii74 ,for an excellent summary of what is known on the subject1 see also the catalogue of the early ,christian ,antiquities in the ,british ,museum1 by ,mr4 ,o4 ,m4 ,dalton1 and the same writer's paper in the ,archological ,journal 7#aija74 ,footnote #fa3 #8444 quo facto desuper ipsas ,armavi vitrum docto flatu tenuatum ,ignis2 sed post quam pariter sensere calorem ,se vitrum fialis tenuatum junxit honeste4' ,these lines1 which describe the critical process by which the superficial layer of glass was applied1 are unfortunately somewhat obscure4 ,if ,i have translated them aright1 the process did not differ much from that now adopted at ,murano4 ,heraclius is here probably copying an older recipe4 ,footnote #fb3 ,there is a good example1 a bearded man1 in the ,glass ,room at the ,british ,museum4 ,some clever imitations were made in the eighteenth century4 ,footnote #fc3 ,as examples of this1 note the gladiator glass and the ,anatoli ,gaudens portrait from the ,tyskiewitz collection4 ,this last example1 of quite exceptional merit1 has been recently acquired by the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #fd3 ,i am inclined to connect the cemetery glass as a whole with the ,judaising ,christians of the old narrow school1 who had long been settled in ,rome near to the ,porta ,capena and in the ,transteverine quarters1 not far1 that is to say1 from the principal cemeteries4 ,footnote #fe3 ,formerly in the ,basilewski collection1 now1 ,i think1 in the ,hermitage1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,this cup1 which is also of interest for the inscriptions on it in a local dialect of debased ,latin1 was found near the site of ,doclea1 to the north of the ,lake of ,scutari4 ,footnote #ff3 ,in the ,theodosian code1 however1 we find1 among the craftsmen who are freed from personal taxes1 ,vitrearii1 vasa vitrea conflantes4 ,footnote #fg3 ,a disc of this description1 pierced to receive glass cups1 is apparently an earlier form than the well-known corona1 the polycandela1 so long in use in ,christian churches4 ,the hanging disc1 like so many things ,roman and ,byzantine1 would seem to have survived among the ,saracens2 something like it may still be found in old ,arab houses in ,cairo4 ,elsewhere ,paul1 speaking of the single lights in ,st4 ,sophia1 describes them as silver vessels1 like a balance-pan--in the centre of each rests a cup of #8well burning oil4' ,this passage1 ,i think1 throws some light on certain #8balance-pan' dishes of rock crystal and glass1 preserved in ,st4 ,mark's treasury at ,venice 7see below1 p4 #aja74 ,footnote #fh3 ,its relation to the ,queen of ,sheba we may dismiss4 ,the other two uses that have been assigned to this bowl may be reconciled1 if we accept one of the earliest forms of the tradition of the ,holy ,graal4 7,i follow here the account given by the late ,mr4 ,thomas ,arnold in an article by him in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica47 ,according to this tradition1 ,joseph of ,arimathea1 at the time of the ,crucifixion1 proceeded first to the upper room where the ,last ,supper had been celebrated and found there the shallow bowl that had held the ,paschal ,lamb4 ,taking this vessel with him1 and returning to the scene of the ,crucifixion1 he received in it drops of blood from the side of our ,lord4 ,the double service of the bowl is the essence of this tradition4 ,mr4 ,arnold1 propos of the traditionary connection of the ,holy ,graal with ,glastonbury1 quotes from ,malmesbury a statement that in his day an altar called #8sapphirus1' which had been brought from ,palestine to ,st4 ,davids1 had been re-discovered4 ,this may well have been a slab of glass similar to that still preserved at ,reichenau4 ,i have been unable to find any further reference to this #8sapphirus' altar4 ,footnote #fi3 ,il ,tesoro di ,san ,marco illustrato da ,antonio ,passini1 ,canonico della ,marciana4 ,published by ,ferd4 ,ongania1 ,venice1 #ahhf4 ,as in both the text and the plates of this work the glass is mixed up with objects of rock crystal and other materials1 ,i give a reference to the plates on which vessels of glass are reproduced4 ,footnote #gj3 ,this dish should probably rather find a place among the hanging lamps of the next section4 ,there are others of these so-called chalices and patens of which the original use is very problematical4 ,footnote #ga3 ,this vase has been classed by ,von ,czihak with the so-called ,hedwig glasses 7see below1 p4 #aae72 the resemblance1 however1 to the ,german glasses is small4 ,footnote #gb3 ,note in this connection the inscription on the mounting of the lamp of carved glass 7,,iv4 #a in our list7 in ,st4 ,mark's treasury1 referring to a bishop of ,iberia1 the modern ,georgia4 ,not until the reign of ,justinian was the ,roman empire extended to the east coast of the ,euxine--to ,lazica and ,colchis4 ,footnote #gc3 ,the contents of these graves have been described in a paper read before the ,society of ,antiquaries by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read 7,archologia1 vol4 lv474 ,footnote #gd3 ,i use the term ,saxon here to include also the ,angles and ,jutes4 ,footnote #ge3 ,in this widely spread class of jewellery1 both true enamel and glass are conspicuous by their general absence4 ,footnote #gf3 ,i have seen1 in the collection of ,mr4 ,kennard1 the lower part of a vase of thickish clear green glass1 from an ,anglo-,saxon tomb4 ,on this the tails of the well-formed prunts sweep downwards diagonally2 on the head of each is a rosette ,such a form one may perhaps connect with the #8hroden ealo woege1' the #8twisted ale-cups' of ,beowulf's poem 7cf4 ,hartshorne1 p4 #bd74 ,footnote #gg3 ,note in this tapestry1 in more than one feast scene1 the swaggering action with which the guests raise the drinking-horns1 either to drink from the larger end or to let the liquid pass into the mouth from the pointed extremity4 ,footnote #gh3 ,in the sacristy of the church at ,mittelzell1 where ,i recently had an opportunity of examining it4 ,this is an irregular oblong slab1 about twenty inches in length1 weighing about thirty pounds4 ,one surface is nearly even1 as if the molten glass had been poured out upon a table4 ,footnote #gi3 ,the ,slavonic tribes before their conversion do not appear to have had any knowledge of glass2 it is not found in any of their tombs to the east of the ,elbe4 ,footnote #hj3 ,apart from a few examples of enamelled glass of ,saracenic origin preserved in church treasuries2 these probably came in somewhat later4 ,footnote #ha3 ,there are1 beside these1 five other glasses that may be connected with this saint1 but these are of a different character4 ,hedwig was the wife of a ,silesian prince who lived in the early part of the thirteenth century4 ,on the occasion of a misunderstanding with her husband1 arising from the lady's refusal to drink anything but water at her meals1 the difficulty was surmounted by a miracle4 ,st4 ,hedwig was canonised in #abeg1 and was soon recognised as the landes patronin both of ,silesia and ,poland4 ,footnote #hb3 ,for example1 on ,gallic and ,british coins derived from ,greek types1 or again on some ,english porcelain where an ,oriental design has been unintelligently copied4 ,footnote #hc3 ,les ,origines de l',alchimie1 #ahhe2 ,la ,chimie des ,anciens et du ,moyen ,age1 #ahhi2 ,la ,chimie au ,moyen ,age1 #ahic4 ,footnote #hd3 ,this ,i shall refer to later on as the pseudo-,heraclius2 it contains several sections treating on the manufacture of glass1 and forms a valuable commentary on the decidedly earlier treatise of ,theophilus4 ,footnote #he3 ,compare with this account the furnace now used in ,northern ,india described in ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,footnote #hf3 ,at ,south ,kensington1 in the ,indian section1 may be seen some native distilling apparatus of glass1 which follows very closely in the line of these old ,syrian drawings4 ,footnote #hg3 ,for the relation of ,theophilus to his predecessor1 ,bishop ,meinhart of ,paderborn1 and to the ,greek influence still prevailing in ,germany1 see the ,introduction by ,albert ,ilg to his edition of this treatise in the ,quellenschriften fr ,kunstgeschichte1 vol4 vii42 ,vienna1 #ahgd4 ,footnote #hh3 ,much of this latter sort1 however1 was to be greedily absorbed in ,germany at a later date4 ,footnote #hi3 ,are we to take this acquaintance with the ,agia ,sophia in a material as well as a symbolical sense8 ,does ,theophilus in this passage claim to have visited ,constantinople8 ,footnote #ij3 ,not long after this a ,german poet writes to this effect-- #8,gott hat erschaffen manchen ,mann ,der ,glas aus ,asche machen kann ,und dass kan schpfen wie er will4' ,footnote #ia3 ,this is1 of course1 the #8marver1' not yet of iron as in the thirteenth-century writer 7cf4 p4 #gf74 ,footnote #ib3 ,from the expression used1 #8quam fistulam1' etc41 it would seem that the identical hollow tube was used again and not replaced by a simple rod--the pontil2 but perhaps this is merely a slip on the part of ,theophilus4 ,footnote #ic3 ,the literal statement is that #8the painted gold figures are covered with the clear fusible glass of which we have already spoken'2 over this again the coloured designs are painted--a curious and elaborate process4 ,we must1 however1 remember that although ,theophilus may have seen specimens of ,byzantine enamelled glass1 he can have had little opportunity of learning how they were made4 ,footnote #id3 ,there annuli probably included also bracelets or bangles of glass4 ,we may perhaps compare them to those still worn by ,arab women4 ,margaret1 ,countess of ,flanders1 had in #abeb a casket full of glass rings4 ,footnote #ie3 ,yet in ,france much of the old glass was sacrificed at the ,revolution in order to extract the gold4 ,see ,appert1 ,les ,vitraux ,anciens1 for the composition and colour of medival window-glass4 ,footnote #if3 ,early in the eleventh century1 a saintly ,german bishop1 ,bernard of ,hildesheim1 is said to have made for himself a chalice of glass1 and a few years later a bishop of ,auxerre founded three prebendal seats1 one for a painter1 one for a goldsmith1 and a third for a glass-worker 7vitrier--probably a maker of glass windows74 ,we must not1 then1 be surprised at the acquaintance with the practical arts shown by the monk ,rugerus 7,theophilus74 ,footnote #ig3 ,m4 ,schuermans1 however1 brings forward passages to show that in early days the term was applied to a small flask carried about the person4 ,footnote #ih3 ,what little we have comes mostly from the ,venetian archives4 ,we hear already in the fourteenth century of ,german hawkers of glass1 and of the skill of the ,germans in making glass mirrors4 ,footnote #ii3 ,to hollow ware1 that is to say4 ,stained glass for windows1 of which examples still survive1 was made in ,england in the fifteenth century1 and probably even earlier4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,compare with these the four hundred and thirty-two urinalia supplied to the ,dauphin of the ,viennois for a year's consumption4 ,glass1 it would appear from an epigram of ,martial1 was put to a similar use by the ,romans4 ,footnote #aja3 ,the village of ,kirdford is situated about four miles to the north of ,petworth4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,it stood for long against the wall of the ,south ,ambulatory4 ,as in this position the paintings appeared to be suffering from the damp1 it has lately been removed to the ,jerusalem ,chamber4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,a fifteenth-century plaque at ,south ,kensington is possibly an exception4 ,here the gold leaf lies between two sheets of glass1 the lower one of considerable thickness1 but how these sheets are united ,i cannot say4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,in shape they resemble the little bottles in which attar of roses is still sold in ,oriental bazaars1 and this resemblance may give a hint as to their original use4 ,footnote #aje3 ,schefer1 ,relation des voyages de ,nassiri ,khosrau7#ajce-ajdb ,a4,d471 pp4 #db and #df4 ,the information from ,arab writers collected in the notes to this work must not be confused with what ,khosrau himself says4 ,there is1 however1 one important reference to our material in the text3--we are told that glass1 transparent and pure as the emerald1 was sold in ,cairo by the weight4 ,this was in ,fatimi times4 ,there may1 perhaps1 have been some confusion with the glass weights themselves1 of which we have spoken above4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,we may find1 perhaps1 what is the last reference to ,alexandria in connection with glass in #8the most precious vase1 ,alexandrini generis1' that the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 7d4 #ajbd ,a4,d47 presented to the ,abbot of ,cluny4 ,this was probably an example of sculptured glass1 which may have come to ,henry through his relationship with the ,byzantine emperors4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,gustav ,schmoranz1 ,old ,oriental ,gilt and ,enamelled ,glass ,vessels1 #ahii4 ,one hundred and forty glass lamps are accounted for1 of which number exactly half are now in the ,museum of ,arab ,art at ,cairo4 ,the remaining pieces--goblets1 bottles1 etc4--only amount to forty-four1 but these are nearly all in ,european museums or private collections4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,there was only one1 for instance1 in the ,slade collection4 ,there are now seven in the ,british ,museum and nine at ,south ,kensington1 without counting the smaller specimens4 ,footnote #aji3 ,for the important bearing of this point1 see my book on ,porcelain in this series4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,note that the use of cobalt as an overglaze enamel on ,chinese porcelain did not come in until the seventeenth century1 and that this enamel at first gave more trouble than any other4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,i use this term for the writing with tall perpendicular strokes1 although much of it1 ,i understand1 should not strictly bear the name4 ,footnote #aab3 ,a good example may be seen in a large picture of the ,circumcision by ,marco ,marziale in the ,national ,gallery4 ,footnote #aac3 ,glass lamp-cups of this form are still made in ,india2 ,mr4 ,forrest1 ex-,director of ,records at the ,india ,office1 has shown me a specimen brought from ,gujerat4 ,glass lamps of a similar construction seem to have been in use in bedrooms in ,germany in the fifteenth century2 they may be seen in contemporary pictures4 ,footnote #aad3 ,the magnificent specimen of enamelled glass with geometrical decoration1 which belonged to the late ,baron ,alphonse de ,rothschild1 figured in ,schmoranz's work as a lantern1 is1 of course1 a stand for a candle4 ,it resembles in every respect1 except material1 the well-known cylindrical candle-stands of inlaid bronze4 ,footnote #aae3 ,a good example of the first is reproduced by ,m4 ,gerspach 7,l',art de la ,verrerie1 p4 #ajj7 from a manuscript of the famous story-teller ,hariri4 ,for an instance of the second1 see the side subjects on the ,wrzburg flask in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,the construction1 indeed1 closely resembles that of the ,cairo cup-lamp described above4 ,footnote #aag3 ,the oldest of these ballads only dates back to the time of the ,duke of ,wharton1 at the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,the #8wicked ,duke1' it is said1 when in his cups would toss the #8,luck' into the air and catch it in his hand4 ,footnote #aah3 ,this is the goblet figured in ,schmoranz1 p4 #bi4 ,it belonged at the time1 he tells us1 to an unknown collector1 who gave #afjj for it at ,christie's in #ahha4 ,footnote #aai3 ,illustrated in ,archologia1 vol4 lviii41 where it forms the starting-point of the paper by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 that ,i have quoted from above4 ,footnote #abj3 ,in this respect differing from the other cup in this collection to which the same date and origin are ascribed4 ,i refer to the ,aldrevandini goblet1 with the armorial shields1 described in the next chapter4 ,the glass of this cup is already quite of a ,venetian type1 approaching to a true cristallo4 ,footnote #aba3 ,he reigned during the temporary deposition of ,malek ,nasir4 ,footnote #abb3 ,this lamp also has1 ,i think1 passed into the ,pierpont ,morgan collection4 ,footnote #abc3 ,the badge of a sword is very frequent upon these later lamps1 but it can hardly in all cases refer to the same sultan or emir4 ,footnote #abd3 ,the only other lamp1 as far as ,i know1 that has been obtained from ,syria1 is one from ,damascus1 presented to the ,british ,museum by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,this in no way differs from the ordinary type except in the enamelled decoration at the base of the handles4 ,a lamp of quite normal description at ,south ,kensington has also been attributed1 but very doubtfully1 to the same ,syrian town4 ,footnote #abe3 ,the words on the document as ,i read them are #8parte schietti et parte rediselli4' ,the ambassador at the same time sends an order for window-glass to be used in the new palace that ,ali ,pasha is building2 and finally1 for #8uno di quelli ferali fenali8 over fano di salla grande'--probably some kind of chandelier4 ,footnote #abf3 ,we should have looked rather for some trace of ,oriental influence4 ,freeman 7,historical ,geography1 p4 #bdj7 speaks of the marquisate as #8a feudal state1 whose rulers had in various ways a singular connection with the ,east4 ,as ,marquesses of ,montferrat they claimed the crown of ,jerusalem and had worn the crown of ,thessalonica4' ,again1 early in the fourteenth century the marquisate passed to a branch of the imperial house of ,palologus4 ,footnote #abg3 ,the ,consolato dell' ,arte was yearly elected on ,christmas ,day amid great festivities4 ,in the statutes of the ,arte ,vitrea1 drawn up or revised in #adie1 we have apparently the earliest documentary evidence for these glass-works4 ,these statutes are given in full in ,bordoni's ,l',arte ,vetraria in ,altare1 ,savona1 #ahhd4 ,footnote #abh3 ,the results are perhaps best summed up in the memoir contributed in #ahgb by ,cecchetti to the ,reale ,instituto ,veneto4 ,see also the ,monographia della ,vetraria ,veneziana1 the combined work of ,zanetti1 ,cecchetti1 and others1 drawn up upon the occasion of the ,viennese ,exhibition of #ahgc4 ,vicenzo ,zanetti1 in his account of the ,museo ,civico at ,murano1 gives a list of more than three hundred works 7including manuscripts1 drawings1 and pamphlets7 treating upon ,venetian glass4 ,footnote #abi3 ,a possible exception has been found in a document of the year #ajij1 in which a certain citizen adds the word fiolarius to his name4 ,this word1 which in the ,venetian tongue generally takes the form friolaro1 is of some importance to us4 ,in ,dante the word fiala is used for a wine-bottle3 #8il vin della sua fiala1' ,par4 x4 #hh4 ,footnote #acj3 ,as early as #aage it is mentioned that the ,venetians had certain privileges in the ,daciones de ,vitro at ,tyre4 ,footnote #aca3 ,ayas1 ,tripoli1 ,tyre1 and ,acre remained under ,frankish rule during the greater part of the thirteenth century4 ,acre1 the last to fall1 was taken by the ,saracens in #abia4 ,footnote #acb3 ,my point is that in this beautiful cup the scheme of decoration is essentially ,french1 while the technique of both glass and enamels points to a ,saracenic place of origin4 ,footnote #acc3 ,they have been analysed by ,cecchetti in the paper quoted above4 ,footnote #acd3 ,this word was the source of much embarrassment to ,merret1 the translator of ,neri's little manual on glass1 of which ,i shall have more to say further on4 ,quite regardless of the context1 he throughout his translation rendered the words #8canne di conterie'--that is to say1 the glass rods from which the beads were made--as #8rails for counting houses'6 ,footnote #ace3 ,the term #8bead' was early transferred from the #8bid' or prayer to the small spherical bodies strung on a cord by which these prayers were counted1 and before the end of the fourteenth century the word was already used in a secular sense also4 ,footnote #acf3 ,these canne are described as #8de vero vetro commun1 ,christallini et colorade de diversi sorti4' ,footnote #acg3 ,note in this connection the recent discovery of #8chevron' beads at ,treviso1 referred to below4 ,footnote #ach3 ,something like the apparatus used for roasting coffee1 it would seem4 ,i do not attempt to give any explanation of the two rival processes--a spiedo 7on a broach or spit7 and a ferracia4 ,that attempted by ,mr4 ,nesbitt 7,south ,kensington ,glass1 p4 civ47 is not satisfactory4 ,footnote #aci3 ,it is not1 ,i think1 generally known that beads were made in the east of ,london1 early in the last century1 by this process--by dropping off the glass upon a revolving spit or rod of iron 7,hartshorne1 p4 #ajf74 ,footnote #adj3 ,according to ,dr4 ,petrie's interpretation 7see above1 ,chapter ,,ii474 ,it is difficult to understand how the elaborate beads found in ,etruscan and ,greek tombs--those with satyr masks especially--were built up without the use of the blow-pipe4 ,footnote #ada3 ,now preserved in the local museum at ,treviso1 where ,i lately had an opportunity of examining them4 ,nothing was found with them except a few small rods of coloured glass4 ,it has been suggested that this was a contraband store1 at some time destroyed by fire2 but the fragments are in no case fused together4 ,this parti-coloured glass1 we may note1 would be of little value for #8cullet1' and defective beads would therefore be thrown away4 ,footnote #adb3 ,a fine specimen has found its way into the collection of ,egyptian antiquities in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #adc3 ,the term #8,aggri' should1 perhaps1 be reserved for large beads1 of which the colours extend right through the mass1 but the term is not very definitely used in the ,african trade4 ,footnote #add3 ,some of this enamelled glass no doubt dates from the early years of the next century4 ,on the other hand1 some of the thin white glass of capricious forms described in the next chapter may have been made before the year #aejj4 ,apart from the generally vague ground of shape and style of decoration1 there is no means of fixing the date of ,venetian glass1 so that in the absence of costumed figures or of coats of arms we are often very much in the dark on this point4 ,footnote #ade3 ,i have seen1 however1 in a fourteenth-century manuscript1 glasses with well developed stems carefully depicted4 ,footnote #adf3 ,it was on the strength of the armour borne by this figure that ,m4 ,labarte attributed this cup to the early part of the fifteenth century4 ,i may note that this goblet1 as well as the one of green glass mentioned below1 was bought in ,italy for a small sum by ,m4 ,debruge ,dumnil1 one of the earliest systematic collectors of ,venetian glass4 ,the elaborate catalogue of his collection1 made very shortly after his death in #ahdg1 by his son-in-law ,jules ,labarte1 is a valuable record of the ,italian art of the ,renaissance4 ,footnote #adg3 ,james ,howell1 ,epistol ,ho-elian4 ,footnote #adh3 ,this vessel appears to be sometimes filled1 not with water1 but with moist sand or earth4 ,footnote #adi3 ,in the ,louvre1 the nymph of ,giorgione's #8,fte ,champtre' holds a jug of glass of graceful form over the well to the left1 and in ,titian's #8,supper at ,emmaus' in the same gallery1 the twisting lines that surround a decanter with tall neck and handles1 suggest a decoration with latticinio4 ,footnote #aej3 ,the quotation is from the ,appendix to ,vicenzo ,cervio's ,il ,trinciante1 ,venice1 #aeic4 ,footnote #aea3 #8,ma quando particolarmente se voglion' far vetri bianchi di smalto vi s'aggiunge calcina di stagno e questo si chiama latticinio del quale si fanno opere diverse sopra i vasi di christallo' 7,garzoni1 ,piazza ,universale1 #aehe1 p4 #eej74 ,footnote #aeb3 ,but in the earlier writers this name is given rather to the imitations of agate--what was afterwards known as schmelz 7cf4 p4 #bah74 ,footnote #aec3 ,a similar effect is obtained nowadays by means of a salt of uranium1 but as is so often the case in the modern handling of old decorative systems1 the opalescence is generally overdone4 ,footnote #aed3 ,laborde1 ,les maux au ,louvre1 ,part ,,ii4 ,no4 #dih1 and the same author's ,les ,ducs de ,bourgogne 7,archives of ,lille74 ,footnote #aee3 ,in the museum at ,murano is1 or was1 a similar plaque thus described by ,zanetti1 #8,una grossa piastra col busto incavato del ,doge ,andrea ,gritti fra le initiali ,a4 ,g42 secolo ,,xvi4' 7,il ,museo ,civico-,vetrario di ,murano1 #ahha74 ,footnote #aef3 ,by the eighteenth century1 however1 they had adopted the ,german system4 ,the ,president ,de ,brosses1 in one of the admirable letters that he wrote from ,italy 7#agci71 when describing the manufacture of mirrors at ,murano1 gives a vivid account of the cylinder process4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,not really steel1 of course1 but a kind of speculum metal containing about one part of tin to two of copper4 ,fioravanti1 in his ,specchio di ,scientia ,universale1 tells us that this acciaio was made of equal parts of brass and tin4 ,he contrasts the ,german and ,italian methods of preparation of glass mirrors1 giving the preference to the former4 ,fioravanti then speaks of the interest taken in these mirrors--not by women only--and after balancing the pros and cons1 he concludes that1 on the whole--#8gli specchi son' mala cosa nelle case4' ,footnote #aeh3 ,a word that must not be confused with the term luse or lustro1 applied by the ,venetians to a mirror4 ,footnote #aei3 ,there is a magnificent chandelier of this class in the drawing-room of ,mr4 ,beaumont's house in ,piccadilly4 ,it dates probably from the early years of the eighteenth century4 ,footnote #afj3 #8,notizia delle opere d'arte4' ,i quote at second-hand1 as ,i have not been able to find a copy of this work4 ,footnote #afa3 ,the learned ,cardanus1 physician1 mathematician1 and astrologer1 has a section on glass both in his ,de ,subtilitate 7#aeea7 and in the somewhat later ,de ,varietate ,rerum4 ,he is often quoted as an authority on the subject by contemporary and later writers1 but in spite of many quaint and ingenious reflections ,i can find little of practical value in his remarks4 ,footnote #afb3 ,not to be confounded1 says the writer1 with the stone known as ,magnese1 found #8nella ,magna' 7,allemania or ,germany74 #8,quite other are the virtues of this stone magnetic oxide of iron8 when placed under your pillow1 444' but for the context ,i must refer the reader to the sixty-ninth section of the original work4 ,footnote #afc3 ,in the fourth section of the second treatise the author speaks of #8azurro della ,magna del quale si tinge il vetro4' ,there is also a section at the end of the first book on the preparation of azurro fine from pietro d'azurro ultramarino1 but ,i do not think that this has anything to do with the colouring of glass1 as it is associated with recipes for dyeing grey hair of a blonde colour and for preparing the acqua virgine by which the face is rendered beautiful4 ,it is difficult to understand what relation the ,acqua di ,philoseophy 7sic--there are several sections so headed at the end of the treatise7 has with the preparation of glass4 ,but all these old formulists are only too ready to run off at a tangent to discuss questions of alchemy4 ,footnote #afd3 ,in spite of what ,milanesi says in his introduction1 ,i strongly suspect this third treatise to be of a later date than the others2 the whole tone of it seems to smack more of the cinquecento than of the previous century4 ,at the same time it is inferior to the two preceding treatises in practical knowledge--indeed it contains much nonsense4 ,footnote #afe3 ,see above1 p4 #agd1 for an account of ,l',altare4 ,footnote #aff3 ,but much the same might be said of the potter's art2 in this case1 however1 the artistic history is far more continuous and inter-connected than in the case of glass4 ,footnote #afg3 ,it is not less interesting to hear1 in a letter 7dated #aegb7 from the governor of ,poitou1 of #8,fabian ,salviate1 escuyer1 gentilhomme de ,myrane1 pas de ,venize1 venuz lui et sa famille1 en ce pas de ,poictou pour praticquer l'art de la ,verrerie4' ,cf4 p4 #bad4 ,but this is perhaps an accidental coincidence4 ,footnote #afh3 ,this bed of sand extends eastward through the forest of ,fontainebleau1 and at the present day it is this sand of ,fontainebleau that the glass-makers of ,murano1 when they can afford it1 use in preference to all other sources of silica4 ,footnote #afi3 ,truguet1 ,les ,cris de ,paris--no date1 but soon after #afjj4 ,verre de pierre we may compare to our expression #8flint' or #8pebble glass4' ,it has been altered to verre de bire by a recent ,french writer on glass1 who quotes the cry6 ,footnote #agj3 ,it was a ,ferro who1 as far back as the fourteenth century1 taught the glass-workers at ,l',altare the ,venetian methods of making glass4 ,the glass industry of ,provence has at the present day been almost monopolized by the ,french branch of this family4 ,footnote #aga3 ,in the west also1 ,ren1 who we must remember was head of the house of ,anjou1 in consideration of the #8gentilesse et noblesse qui est l'ouvrage de verrerie1 et que aussi c'est le bien du pays et de la chose publique1' granted permission for the foundation of glass-works among the forests of ,la ,vende1 with rights of cutting wood #8au lieu le moins dommaigeable' 7,gerspach1 p4 #aif74 ,footnote #agb3 ,at this time--in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century--,lorraine was not yet an integral part of ,france4 ,it formed part of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 while its trade connections were rather with the ,netherlands and with ,italy4 ,see below for the distinction between ,verres de ,france and ,verres de ,lorraine4 ,footnote #agc3 ,the ,abb ,boutellier has made a special study of the ,nivernais glass1 but ,i have not had an opportunity of seeing his ,histoire des ,gentilshommes verriers et de la ,verrerie de ,nevers4 ,footnote #agd3 ,in distinction from the ,verre en tables quarres made in ,lorraine4 ,i am unable to say whether the latter was at so early a date made by the cylinder process1 but the square shape renders this very likely4 ,footnote #age3 ,among the documents relating to glass1 collected by the ,baron ,davillier1 was the report of the commission of inquiry appointed by ,philip ,,ii4 at the time 7about #aefj7 when it was proposed to glaze the many thousand windows of the ,escurial4 ,samples were sent from the glass-works of ,spain1 ,burgundy1 ,lorraine1 and ,normandy4 ,the ,norman glass was declared to be the purest4 7,quoted by ,gerspach1 p4 #cjd47 ,footnote #agf3 ,these canons1 ,i think1 correspond to the ,italian canni1 the glass rods from which beads were made4 ,we hear of these canons being supplied to the ,pternostriers1 who take the place in ,france of the ,suppialumi of ,venice4 ,footnote #agg3 ,it seems to me1 however1 very doubtful whether flint-glass was at this time necessarily glass of lead4 ,i return to the point in the chapter on ,english glass4 ,footnote #agh3 ,i use the term ,bohemian1 here as elsewhere1 for brevity's sake4 ,the more correct expression would be--the frontier lands of ,germany and ,bohemia4 ,this will be made clear in the following chapter4 ,footnote #agi3 ,so in the important collection of the ,muse des ,arts ,dcoratifs at ,brussels1 especially strong in examples of #8winged' beakers1 little attempt is made to separate the ,venetian from the home-made specimens4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,attributed to the painter known as #8,the ,master of the ,death of the ,virgin4' ,in other works of this painter1 who was working during the first thirty or forty years of the sixteenth century1 we find examples of cristallo of large size and advanced technique4 ,footnote #aha3 ,i do not know why this essentially ,teutonic form is described in the official catalogue as a #8,venetian green glass goblet4' ,footnote #ahb3 ,riao1 ,the ,industrial ,arts of ,spain4 ,the little that we know1 on the documentary side1 of ,spanish glass is derived for the most part from this work1 one of the ,south ,kensington handbooks4 ,this may be supplemented by the information collected shortly before his death by the ,baron ,charles ,davillier1 which has filtered out through various channels2 some of it may be found in ,m4 ,gerspach's work on glass 7pp4 #ajj-aje74 ,m4 ,schuermans also has not forgotten ,spain in his records of the wandering ,italian glass-makers 7,bulletin xxix41 pp4 #acc-adg74 ,footnote #ahc3 ,in #acbd the glass-makers were ordered to remove their furnaces from the inside of the town 7,riao1 p4 #bcd74 ,footnote #ahd3 ,a surviving vessel of this shape1 as well as some examples taken from pictures by ,bouts and by the so-called ,mostaert1 is illustrated by ,mr4 ,hartshorne 7,old ,english ,glasses1 p4 #fd74 ,other similar bowls were to be found in the ,thewald collection 7dispersed at ,cologne1 ,october #aijc73 in ,germany such vessels are known as halbe ,wurzelbecher4 ,the form was imitated also at ,venice1 as we may see in a bowl1 in this case duplicated1 in the ,waddesdon ,room in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,quite a number of little vessels of this dark green glass1 ornamented with prunts and quillings of various forms1 have been dredged up from the ,scheldt at ,antwerp1 or found in the excavation of new docks4 ,they may be studied in the museum now established in the ,steen4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,the term prunt should perhaps be restricted to those cases where the #8blob' is sufficiently large and hot to melt away the subjacent glass4 ,when this is not the case1 unless we adopt the ,german word ,warze or wart1 the term #8stud' applies better4 ,if again the #8blob' of hot glass is merely dropped on the surface it may be termed a #8tear4' ,footnote #ahg3 ,every art1 he says1 must adapt itself to the country where it is practised2 and so we ,germans have set all kinds of knobs and rings on our glasses1 so that they may be somewhat stronger and more lasting1 and be more easily held in the hands of fuddled and clumsy folk 7#8von vollen und ungeschicklichen ,leuten'74 ,this quotation is from one of the ,lutheran pastor's #8sermons' on glass 7see below1 p4 #bfb74 ,mathesius lived in what has been called #8the classical age of ,german thirst1' and was ever ready to gird at the failings of his contemporaries in this respect4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,the seventeenth-century roemer has been revived in ,germany of late1 and at ,ehrenfeld1 near ,cologne1 this form1 as well as other old models1 is skilfully if somewhat mechanically copied in both bottle-green and bluish-green glass4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,this later arrangement is well seen in a still-life piece in the ,jones collection1 signed #8,j4 ,w4 ,preyer1 #ahed4' ,compare the carefully painted roemer in this picture--the solid foot wound round with a thin stringing--with the seventeenth-century glass in the picture by ,jan van de ,velde referred to below4 ,footnote #aij3 ,already in the fifteenth century the vitra ,veneciana are distinguished from the ,vitrum silvestrum sive montanum1 otherwise wald-glas4 ,footnote #aia3 ,for this district we have in the excellent work of ,e4 von ,czihak--,schlesische ,glser1 ,breslau1 #ahia--;a better source of information than is available for any other of the glass-making centres of ,germany or ,bohemia4 ,footnote #aib3 ,published by ,froben at ,ble in #aeef2 the dedication1 however1 is dated #aeea4 ,footnote #aic3 ,so ,agricola states in the very last paragraph of his book4 ,as this passage seems to have been sometimes misinterpreted1 ,i will quote it in full from the original ,latin edition4 ,he mentions the various shapes that glass may be made to assume1 and continues3-- #8,qualia opera multa praeclara et admiranda cum quondam biennio agerem ,venetiis contemplatus sum2 in primis ver anniversariis diebus festis ascensionis domenicae cm venalia essent apportata ,murano2 ubi vitrariae officinae omnium celeberrimae sunt3 quas vidi cum alis1 tum maxime cum certis de causis ,andream ,naugerium in aedibus1 quas ibi habebat1 uno cum ,francisco ,asulano convenerim4' ,from this passage it would appear that there was a great sale of ,muranese glass in ,venice on the feast of the ,ascension 7cf4 above1 p4 #baf74 ,is this ,naugerius1 at whose house at ,murano ,agricola visited1 to be identified with the famous poet and orator ,andrea ,navagero1 from whose travels in ,spain ,i have quoted on page #bdi8 ,footnote #aid3 ,sarepta oder ,bergpostil1 ,nrnberg1 #aefb4 ,footnote #aie3 ,in a contemporary vocabulary ritzle is interpreted as #8aurum quo tingitur vitrum rubro colore4' ,in a passage on ,venetian glass in his early work1 ,de ,natur ,fossilium 7#aedf71 ,agricola speaks of the use of gold to colour glass of the ruddy colour of the carbuncle4 ,footnote #aif3 ,i quote this passage1 as it is much more to the point as regards ,german glass than what is to be found in ,agricola1 who gives us rather his theories as to the materials used by the ,venetians to make their cristallo4 ,footnote #aig3 ,a separate muffle-stove for this purpose was1 it would thus appear1 not yet available4 ,footnote #aih3 ,this part of the decoration we may indeed regard as a survival of the ,venetian influence that was dominant in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,of this ,i have already spoken4 ,footnote #aii3 ,this flower1 the ,mai-glcklein1 is frequently seen on ,german enamelled glass1 and is the more conspicuous as it is almost the only flower realistically treated4 ,i may note that ,m4 ,schuermans would appear to regard the presence of these tiges de muguet1 executed in enamel1 as essentially a sign of ,low ,country origin2 they are1 however1 frequently accompanied by inscriptions in ,german4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,notice to the heraldic right of the birds' heads a shield bearing a cross and the inscription ,potestat zu ,rom4 ,footnote #bja3 ,on a small humpen1 or rather kanne1 of this class in the ,british ,museum1 dated #afaa1 we find only three secular electors--those of ,saxony1 the ,palatinate1 and ,brandenburg2 the place of the fourth 7,bohemia7 is occupied by the imperial eagle4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,herr von ,czihak mentions that he has seen in the museum of ,freiberg1 in ,saxony1 a covered humpen1 painted in oil-colours1 protected apparently with some kind of lacquer4 ,the glass is dark green1 and the ,gothic character both of the metal cover and of the painting points to a date not later than #aejj4 ,the subject1 according to a quaint inscription1 has relation to #8,eneaspius der ,babst' 7the ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 #adeh-adfd71 and to the #8,roemischer ,kaiser ,friderich der dritt' 7,schlesische ,glser1 p4 #aja74 ,footnote #bjc3 ,what ,mathesius states is1 #8,the white i4e4 colourless glasses have now become common over which white threads of white colour are carried2 these glasses are made in ,silesia4' ,herr von ,czihak 7p4 #if7 says that he has seen many such glasses of somewhat rude make in that province4 ,it will be remembered that some of the vetro di trina made at ,murano is also only superficially decorated4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,on the other hand1 the technique of the cemetery glasses differs essentially1 as in these the two plates of glass are fused together1 on the edges at least 7p4 #ib74 ,footnote #bje3 ,we often find similar defects developed on glass lenses4 ,to ensure achromatism and accuracy of definition these lenses are built up of two layers1 one of crown1 the other of flint glass1 cemented together by a varnish4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,this art was carried to the highest perfection in ,holland by a group of cultured amateurs in the seventeenth century 7see p4 #bie74 ,footnote #bjg3 ,we hear1 it is true1 of water-wheels for grinding glass at ,schwbisch ,grund1 in ,bavaria1 in the second half of the sixteenth century4 ,in these mills large beads 7perhaps we may think of the chevron beads from ,murano in this connection7 were ground for exportation to the ,indies by way of ,antwerp 7,von ,czihak1 p4 #abe74 ,i may note that there is no reference to the cutting of glass in either ,agricola or ,mathesius4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,it is interesting to compare with this work the carving--identical in technique--on reliquaries of rock crystal of ,carlovingian date4 ,of these a remarkable example may be seen in the ,medival ,room in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #bji3 ,the ,schatzkammer at ,munich is rich in examples of carved rock crystal of this period1 but ,i can find few examples of carved glass in it4 ,in the ,imperial ,museum in ,vienna may be seen a superb series carved in both materials--the finest of these come from the ,schatzkammer4 ,footnote #baj3 ,lehmann died in #afbb1 and the elder ,george ,schwanhart in #affg4 ,footnote #baa3 ,compare with this the complaints1 made at this time or a little later1 of the artistic and social decadence of the glass-engravers in ,bohemia and ,silesia 7p4 #bhe74 ,footnote #bab3 ,on the early use of hydrofluoric acid ,i shall have something to say a little further on4 ,footnote #bac3 ,this is rendered in the ,latin edition #8inque illarum exaltatione ad magnum ascendit gradum4' ,it should1 perhaps1 be translated #8to a high pitch of excellence4' ,footnote #bad3 ,there is an exquisitely engraved covered beaker of this period at ,south ,kensington bearing the arms of the ,elector of ,trves 7,plate ,,xlii474 ,footnote #bae3 ,especially by ,doppelmayr in his ,historische ,nachricht von der ,nrnbergischen ,mathematicis und ,knstlern1 ,nrnberg1 #agcj4 ,a pretentious work1 written in the ,frenchified ,german of the day1 and very inferior as an authority to ,sandrart4 ,footnote #baf3 ,it was here that was first developed that hybrid type of drinking-glass which passed over to ,england early in the eighteenth century4 ,in these glasses the engraved bowl carries us back to ,germany1 and the air or opaque twisted stem to the vetro di trina of ,venice4 ,footnote #bag3 ,quite early in the eighteenth century we find an account of a process by which a gas possessing the property of attacking glass may be made by steeping the #8hesphorus' or #8,bohemian emerald' in spirits of nitre4 ,as we are told that this #8hesphorus' when heated emits a green light1 we may safely identify it with fluor-spar 7fluoride of calcium74 ,footnote #bah3 ,a circular plaque of this character1 with a pious inscription1 in the ,germanic ,museum at ,nuremberg1 has been ascribed to ,henry ,schwanhart4 ,it is dated #afhf 7reproduced by ,gerspach1 p4 #bff74 ,footnote #bai3 ,we must remember that at this time little distinction was drawn between the researches of the chemist and the alchemist4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,the ruby glass of our old ,gothic churches was1 however1 without exception obtained from copper4 ,but the belief that it contained gold led in ,france to the destruction of much of this glass at the time of the ,revolution4 ,footnote #bba3 ,this book may be best consulted in the ,french translation1 said to be by the ,baron ,d',holbach 7,paris1 #ageb74 ,here we have in its final form the little book of ,neri1 which has passed through the translator's crucible as many as four times--from ,italian to ,english1 then to ,latin1 to ,german1 and finally to ,french4 ,for there was1 too1 an ,amsterdam edition in ,latin 7#affh7 which came between the ,english and ,kunckel's version4 ,but1 unlike the gold of the alchemist1 the work really increased in value during these transformations4 ,several curious treatises1 in the manner of the time1 half alchemistic1 half scientific1 are to be found at the end of the ,french translation1 including a rendering into ,french of ,orschall's ,sol sine ,veste4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,the somewhat obscure relations of these two men1 ,kunckel and ,orschall1 with ,cassius1 the reputed discoverer of the purple that goes by his name 7as well as with the son of the latter71 is explained by ,beckmann 7,history of ,inventions1 vol4 i4 p4 #abf74 ,footnote #bbc3 ,if in the case of the bottle of ruby glass1 with the arms of ,saxony and the initials ,j4 ,g41 also from the ,slade collection 7,no4 #hgj71 these letters are to be referred to the ,elector ,john ,george 7#afef-hj71 ,kunckel must have perfected his invention at an early date4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,there is a portrait of her in the ,national ,gallery by ,jan ,lievens4 ,see1 for some account of her strange life1 the note in the ,official ,catalogue 7p4 #cje74 ,another supposed portrait of this lady in the same collection is by ,gerard ,dou4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,the #8,beaker with the seasons' in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,xliii47 is an example of the more elaborate work of these ,dutch designers with the diamond4 ,for though the inscription on this glass is in ,english1 the decoration is undoubtedly by a member of the school of ,roemer ,vischer4 ,the beaker is dated #affc4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,strictly speaking1 the marks on the surface of the glass are rather of the nature of short scratches or dashes than true dots4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,for this ,wolf's glass1 as it is called in ,holland1 see the catalogue of the ,rijks ,museum4 ,in this ,museum1 too1 a portrait of ,greenwood may be found4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,a more recent work--the ,english ,table ,glasses1 by ,mr4 ,percy ,bate--is concerned with little else than a minute classification of these wine-glasses4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,one of the early ,lorrainers 7see below7 speaks of the native glass of ,england as made from fougre et ronces4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,but it is recorded that a ,chiddingfold glass-maker 7 propos of the introduction of ,lorrainers7 confessed that he could not make window-glass--only #8mortars1 bottles1 and orinaux4' ,i cannot accept the explanation of the last word as #8water globes placed in front of rushlights' 7see ,sussex ,glass1 by ,charles ,dawson1 ,antiquary1 #aije72 like the vrynells mentioned above1 it came through the ,french from the medival ,latin urinalia4 ,compare the list of objects given on p4 #acd4 ,footnote #bca3 ,according to the ,rev4 ,a4 ,w4 ,c4 ,hallen 7,scottish ,antiquary1 #ahic7 there were four noble stocks of glass-makers in ,lorraine4 ,these were the families of ,hennezel 7which claimed a ,bohemian descent71 of ,thietry1 of ,du ,thisac1 and of ,le ,houx4 ,so in ,normandy we find the names of ,de ,bongar1 ,de ,caquery1 ,le ,vaillant1 and ,de ,brossard4 ,representatives of nearly all these families appear to have come to ,england before the end of the sixteenth century1 and their names1 often strangely corrupted1 have been unearthed from parish registers and other documents in many parts of ,england4 ,the ,lorrainers1 at least1 seem to have been all of them ,calvinists4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,there had been an earlier unsuccessful attempt at introducing ,italian methods1 of which ,i shall have to speak shortly4 ,the ,frenchmen do not seem to have come into contact with ,verzelini1 who was at the time making ,venetian glass in ,london 7see below74 ,footnote #bcc3 ,we may1 however1 probably identify the ,antwerp merchant1 ,jean ,carr1 with the #8,john ,carry1 ,mr of ye ,glashouse1' who was buried at ,alford1 in ,surrey1 in #aegb4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,the history of their wanderings has been pieced together chiefly through the researches of ,mr4 ,glazebrook 7see his privately printed ,collections for the ,genealogy of the noble families of ,de ,hennezel1 etc41 #ahgg72 of ,mr4 ,hallen in the ,scottish ,antiquary1 #ahic2 and of ,mr4 ,holmes in the ,antiquary1 #ahid4 ,footnote #bce3 ,it is just possible1 remembering the many exchanges of presents between ,henry and ,francis1 that a part at least of this collection may have had some connection with the #8quatre cens beaux verres de ,venise gentillisez des plus jolies gayetez que verriers sauroient inventer1' which were in #aecb in the possession of ,robertez1 treasurer to the ,french king 7,nesbitt1 ,south ,kensington ,catalogue1 p4 clix74 ,footnote #bcf3 ,for example1 in an abortive act brought into the ,house in #aehe1 but not passed4 ,quoted by ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,a goblet of similar character1 with the date #aehd1 was not long since smashed to pieces while on view at a saleroom4 ,like the goblet mentioned in the text1 this glass was attributed to ,verzelini4 ,footnote #bch3 ,as to the other specimens of ,elizabethan glass mentioned by ,mr4 ,hartshorne--the chalice-like cup belonging to ,mr4 ,woodruff and the tazza now at ,windsor--they have doubtless been long in ,england1 but there is nothing to prove their ,english make4 ,they are both essentially of forms borrowed from the goldsmith1 and like the glass dish in the ,williams ,library at ,gordon ,square1 they may well have come from ,henry ,,viii4's collection4 ,footnote #bci3 ,although the ,metallum ,martis or ,iron made from ,pitt-coale was not printed till #affe1 ,dudley had experimented with coal some time before #afai4 ,as early as #afab1 in a treatise entitled ,metallica1 ,simon ,sturtevant1 who had already taken out a patent for making iron with pit-coal1 states that #8very lately' green glass for windows1 of good quality1 had been melted with that material at ,winchester ,house1 ,southwark4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,the most important of these documents are given in full in the ,appendix to ,mr4 ,hartshorne's ,english ,glasses4 ,footnote #bda3 ,on the other hand1 ,howell in a letter dated ,march #ah1 #afah1 quoted in part below1 speaks of ,mansell as working his patent with #8,my ,lord of ,pembroke and divers others of the prime ,lords of the ,court4' ,he had1 it would seem1 replaced the early adventurers and schemers by men of wealth and of influence at court4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,beside the passages quoted above there are many references to glass1 including an interesting account of ,murano1 to be found in his ,epistol ,ho-,elian4 ,howell edited these early letters of his while confined 7for debt1 it would seem7 in the prison of the ,fleet1 at the time of the ,civil ,war4 ,we may note among other things a reference to a #8curious sea-chest of glass1' and again we hear of a lady writing to ,murano for #8a complete cupboard of true crystall glass4' ,footnote #bdc3 ,he got this comparison1 doubtless1 and a good many other stories that we find in his ,venetian letters1 from ,garzoni's ,piazza ,universale1 or from ,fioravanti's ,specchio1 books most popular at that time1 from which ,i have already quoted when speaking of the glass of ,murano4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,these are little cylindrical vessels for burning tallow4 ,the name survives as an equivalent to a night-light4 ,footnote #bde3 ,i am not sure1 however1 that when at this time the word nitre is found we are always justified in understanding by it saltpetre or nitrate of potash4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,greene-,morelli ,correspondence1 ,sloane ,,mss4 ,mr4 ,hartshorne has reproduced eight of these letters 7,english ,glasses1 ,appendix xxix471 and has devoted three plates to the reproductions of ,greene's patterns4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,the same may be said of the treatise on ,the ,art of ,glass by ,haudicquet de ,blancourt1 of which the ,english translation appeared in #afii4 ,there is little or no advance on ,merret in this book1 and nothing is said of the application of lead-glass to hollow ware4 ,an interesting plate showing the implements used by the glass-blower may1 however1 be found here4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,the term originally corresponded to the verre pierres of the ,french4 ,it was used in opposition to the #8green glass' or verre de fougre1 in the preparation of which sand was used4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the confusion is increased by the fact that on the ,continent the term #8cristal' was now transferred to the lead-glass4 ,footnote #bej3 ,this was the ,ravenscroft who took out a patent in #afgd1 and together with an ,altarist1 a ,de ,costa 7the sole representative of that ,ligurian town1 says ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 that we meet with in ,english records71 made glass from calcined flints1 nitre1 and borax4 ,there is certainly no question of lead in this case4 ,footnote #bea3 ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 ,i should add1 while acknowledging that there is no definite allusion to the use of lead in any document of the seventeenth century1 traces an indirect reference to it in a patent taken out by one ,tilson as early as #affc2 in this document1 however1 ,i can find nothing pointing in that direction4 ,footnote #beb3 ,the new financial methods are well illustrated in the quotation from ,houghton on p4 #cah4 ,footnote #bec3 ,in this work there are more than a hundred quarto pages devoted to the eighteenth-century drinking-glasses4 ,perhaps of greater interest to the #8average man' is the information given in the final chapter concerning the liquids drunk from these glasses1 to say nothing of the apt quotations from old letters throwing light on the social habits of the time to be found in the notes4 ,another vast series of eighteenth-century glasses1 more than seven hundred in number1 ,i believe1 has been collected by ,mr4 ,j4 ,webb ,singer1 chiefly in the neighbourhood of ,bristol4 ,these are well illustrated in a paper by ,mr4 ,e4 ,wynn ,penny in the ,burlington ,magazine 7,sept4 and ,nov4 #aijc74 ,footnote #bed3 ,in the earlier pre-renaissance glasses1 the foot was folded over from below upwards4 ,it was the ,venetians who first introduced the downward fold of the welted base4 ,footnote #bee3 ,this drawn-out #8blow1' or inverted tear1 is often found in the stems of the solid tavern glass of the first half of the eighteenth century 7,hartshorne1 p4 #bfe74 ,footnote #bef3 ,mr4 ,hartshorne1 however1 thinks that our ,english workmen1 especially at ,bristol1 were capable of turning out opaque-twisted stems as good as1 if not better than1 those made in ,holland4 ,on the other hand1 the stems with interlacing ruby and white threads1 so characteristic of the latter country1 never form part of typical ,english glasses4 ,footnote #beg3 ,the famous ,royal ,oak glass1 with the portrait of ,charles ,,ii41 now belonging to ,mr4 ,festing 7,hartshorne1 ,plate #bi71 is certainly a case in point1 whatever may be the origin of the glass itself4 ,but this goblet is scratched with a diamond4 ,footnote #beh3 ,the latter inscription refers of course to the famous forty-fifth number of ,wilkes's ,north ,briton 7,april #agfc74 ,the #8,no ,excise' may be associated with the successful agitation against ,walpole's bill in #agcc-cd1 or perhaps rather with later protests of the same nature4 ,footnote #bei3 ,for these glasses see especially the twenty-fourth chapter of ,mr4 ,hartshorne's often-quoted work1 not neglecting the most interesting notes4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,it must be remembered that #8,james ,,iii4' did not die until #agff2 his #8reign' of sixty-five years exceeded that of any other ,english prince4 ,although most of these ,jacobite glasses date from a period rather after than before #8the '#de' there was still a long interval during which the attribution ,i have suggested would be justified4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,this house has remained in the hands of the same family since the time it was built by ,walter ,jones1 in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,this period of ,english glass is not represented in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is well illustrated in the collection of ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,jerningham1 and there are some fine examples among the more miscellaneous glass of ,mr4 ,fitz,henry now 7#aijf7 on view at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,i have purposely gone to older works for these technical details1 that is to say1 to works written before the general introduction of modern mechanical processes2 for example1 to ,apsley ,pellat's ,curiosities of ,glass-making1 and to the treatise on glass by ,porter in ,lardner's series 7#ahcb74 ,for the materials used in ,england in the eighteenth century see ,dossie's ,handmaid of the ,arts1 #bnd edition1 #agfd4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,this is the more strange1 as in all the recipes of the time for making the white enamel1 even in one relating apparently to this very ,bristol glass1 arsenic plays an important part4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,dossie1 in his ,handmaid of the ,arts1 #bnd ed41 #agfd1 tells us that at that time much white opaque glass1 in imitation of porcelain1 was made near ,london4 ,the glass1 he states1 was rendered opaque by tin1 by antimony1 or by arsenic4 ,much of this material was doubtless employed for enamelling on metal4 ,footnote #bff3 ,chardin was a ,french dealer in precious stones who supplied the ,shah with ,european jewels4 ,the materials for the account of ,persia from which the extract given in the text is taken1 were collected during a voyage in that country in the years #afga and #afgb4 ,chardin1 who was of an old ,protestant family1 settled later on in ,england and was knighted by ,charles ,,ii4 ,i quote from the ,english translation of #agbd1 checking it by the contemporary ,french edition4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,at ,vienna1 in the ,museum for ,art and ,industry1 there is a small collection of glass from ,hebron4 ,besides the bangles of opaque glass which belong to the old primitive family1 there are some small vessels of a deep amber-coloured glass similar to that brought from ,rhodes1 and finally a few vases of ,persian type of a bluish-green metal2 among the last group may be found some lamps with glass tubes similar to those mentioned in the text4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,the miscellaneous beads1 found chiefly in the neighbourhood of ,benares and ,cawnpore1 are associated for the most part with ,buddhist remains of the time of the ,gupta dynasty1 which reigned in ,northern ,india shortly before our era1 but very few of these beads are of glass4 ,of great interest are the spindle-shaped beads1 decorated with intersecting lines of enamel--black1 grey1 or white--on a ground of quartz1 or sometimes of carnelian4 ,a series of these beads may be seen in the #8,gallery of ,religions' in the ,british ,museum4 ,they are described by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,r4 ,rivett-,carnac in the ,journal of ,indian ,art1 vol4 ix4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,at the ,indian ,exhibition held at ,earl's ,court a few years ago1 some of these ,indian glass-makers were at work in a little hut1 and here the native processes could be watched4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,through the kindness of ,mr4 ,forrest1 ex-,director of ,records at the ,india ,office1 ,i have been enabled to examine a collection of small glass vessels obtained by him in the ,kaira district of ,guzerat4 ,among them ,i noticed some graceful little cruet-shaped ewers of a pale pinkish glass--the colour apparently obtained from gold--and also some glass lamps of rounded conical form similar to those used in ,cairo4 ,footnote #bga3 ,my chief authorities for the early history of ,chinese glass are the works of ,dr4 ,hirth1 especially a paper on the subject in his ,chinesische ,studien1 and some casual remarks in ,dr4 ,bushell's ,oriental ,ceramic ,art4 ,i have at the last moment been able to add a few notes to what ,i have written1 based on the chapter on glass in ,dr4 ,bushell's ,chinese ,art4 ,june #aijf4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,thus we have the statements of the missionaries ,ricci and ,du ,halde1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries respectively1 that the ,chinese made glass4 ,as far back as the twelfth century1 the ,arab writer ,edrisi speaks of glass-workers in the ,chinese town of ,djan-ku1 wherever that may be4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,dr4 ,bushell1 however1 thinks that there is evidence that in the fifth century glass of ,indo-,scythian origin reached ,northern ,china by way of the great trade route through ,chinese ,turkestan4 ,about the same time it was brought from the ,west1 by the sea route1 to the southern capital 7the modern ,nanking74 ,the manufacture was at that time established in both ,north and ,south ,china1 and #8has been carried on with indifferent success ever since' 7,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fj-fa74 ,footnote #bgd3 ,the very absence of native enamelled glass might indeed be used as an argument against the otherwise plausible theory that it was from the ,saracenic glass that the ,chinese first learned how to enamel their porcelain with fusible colours over the glaze4 ,see on this point my book on ,porcelain in this series1 p4 #hg4 ,dr4 ,bushell mentions #8the recent discovery in mosques of the western provinces of ,china of a number of hanging lamps of characteristic shape1 enamelled in colours1' with ,arabic motives and script4 ,some of these have been taken to ,america4 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #bge3 ,hu succeeded in splitting up the character with which his simple name was written into the two ideographs ,ku and ,yueh1 and thereupon adopted the more imposing title #8,chamber of the ,ancient ,moon4' ,footnote #bgf3 ,this collection is described in the ,zeitschrift fr ,bildende ,kunst1 vol4 xx41 in an article on ,chinese glass by ,herr ,a4 ,bapst4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,dr4 ,bushell hints that such inscriptions may in cases have been added by modern curio-dealers in ,pekin1 as a bait to ,european collectors4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,as arranged now at ,south ,kensington1 the carved glass may be compared with the companion series in agate and other stones4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,dossie1 in his ,handmaid of the ,arts 7#bnd ed41 #agfd71 declares that there was at the time he was writing a great demand in ,china for #8the brown ,venetian glass with gold-spangles1 called the ,philosopher's ,stone4' ,footnote #bhj3 ,the making of glass is still an important industry at ,poshan1 where the native quartz-rock is melted with saltpetre4 ,window-glass1 bottles1 and lanterns are made1 and the clear glass is exported in the form of long rods tied up in bundles4 ,williamson's ,journeys in ,north ,china1 vol4 i4 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #bha3 ,see1 for confirmation of this1 the previous note4 ,in ,china to-day the word liao has replaced the older names for glass4 ,for the better kinds of work the ,shantung glass is worked up at ,pekin--this is the ,ching liao4 ,bushell1 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,i have to thank ,professor ,church for the results of an analysis of a snuff-bottle #8like nearly white jade or milk-quartz faintly greenish4' ,it contained lead-oxide1 #dhc per cent42 potash1 #hh per cent42 soda1 #aa per cent42 and silica1 #dae per cent4 ,we have here a remarkably pure potash-lead glass1 for only #jb per cent1 of alumina and iron oxide was found4 ,the specific gravity of this specimen was #ch2 that of another bottle of clear strong green glass was #cg4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,in some of the ,imperial tombs of the sixth and seventh centuries of our era glass jars have been found4 ,one of these is described as of white glass ornamented with round knobs4 ,in the grave of the ,emperor ,nintoku 7fifth century7 were found fragments of blue and white glass4 ,it is very unlikely that any of this glass was made in ,japan4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,now in the ,british ,museum2 it is referred to on p4 #aeb4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,dashes used to represent duplicated entries in the ,index have been replaced by the text they represent4 ,some presumed printer's errors have been corrected4 ,in particular1 punctuation has been normalized4 ,spelling in the ,index has been corrected to match the spelling in the main text4 ,additional corrections are listed below with the text as printed 7top7 and the corrected text 7bottom73 might have have been might have been 7p4 #bee7 of that of ,european origin three is no need to speak of that of ,european origin there is no need to speak 7p4 #cdb7 ,lorraine was was not yet ,lorraine was not yet 7,footnote #agb7