,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 --,obvious print and punctuation errors were corrected4 --,bold text has been rendered with equal signs3 bold text4 --,because of the fairy amount of tables1 it is recommended the use of a monospaced font4 ,,mechanical ,,devices ,,in ,,the ,,home by ,,edith ,,allen1 ,m4 ,a4 ,assistant ,editor1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,formerly ,specialist in ,home ,economics in ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college1 ,university of ,texas1 and ,oklahoma ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college ,illustration3 ,,logo ,,the ,,manual ,,arts ,,press ,,peoria1 ,,illinois ,copyright #aibb ,edith ,allen #ab;,c#bb ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,preface ,in writing this book1 my aim has been 7#a7 to give information which will guide householders in selecting and installing the best cooking and heating devices1 and in using them with the greatest economy of fuel and safety against accidents2 7#b7 to explain the construction of lighting fixtures and how to determine the amount of light for health needed in various places2 7#c7 to explain the principles of cooling2 7#d7 to show how to make small repairs which save plumbers' bills2 7#e7 to guide in the choice and care of laundry appliances and cooking utensils2 7#f7 to familiarize women with the construction of electric1 acetylene and gas plants and engines1 and 7#g7 to furnish tables of measure often needed for reference4 ,there is a lack of material of this type which is non-technical enough for the use of home economics students and housewives4 ,the material which ,i have organized applies directly to the appliances with which women work and is of a nature to fill their need in this field4 ,the book is designed as a text for senior-high school and junior-college classes1 as well as for the needs of home-demonstration agents1 housewives and other women4 ,,edith ,,allen ,,acknowledgments ,the author is particularly indebted in the preparation of this book to ,john ,g4 ,thompson1 professor of economics1 ,university of ,illinois2 ,j4 ,k4 ,t4 ,ekblaw1 instructor of farm mechanics1 ,university of ,illinois1 and editor of ,farm ,power2 ,andrey ,a4 ,potter1 professor of steam and gas engineering1 ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college2 ,j4 ,m4 ,bryant1 professor of electrical engineering1 ,university of ,texas2 ,harrison ,e4 ,howe1 ,national ,council of ,research2 ,miss ,minna ,c4 ,denton1 home economics specialist1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture2 ,miss ,marie ,dallas1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,f4 ,f4 ,good1 instructor in applied physics1 ,teachers' ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york4 ,the following is a list of companies furnishing illustrations1 data and other information3 ,american ,blower ,company4 ,american ,ironing ,machine ,co4 ,american ,lava ,co4 ,american ,radiator ,co4 ,american ,stove ,co4 ,automatic ,electric ,washer ,co4 ,baltimore ,gas ,appliance ,co4 ,bates ,edmonds ,motor ,co4 ,bissel's ,carpet ,sweeper ,co4 ,blake ,mfg4 ,co4 ,c4 ,brown ,mfg4 ,co4 ,b4 ,bryan ,co4 ,central ,construction ,supply ,co4 ,central ,oil ,gas ,stove ,co4 ,chambers ,fireless ,cooker ,stove ,co4 ,geo4 ,m4 ,clark ,co4 ,cleveland ,metal ,products ,co4 ,coleman ,lamp ,co4 ,consolidated ,gas1 ,electric ,light and ,power ,co4 ,cyphers ,incubator ,co4 ,dangler ,stove ,co4 ,davis ,acetylene ,co4 ,the ,de,laval ,separator ,co4 ,delco ,motor ,co4 ,the ,deming ,co4 ,detroit ,heating ,lighting ,co4 ,detroit ,stove ,works4 ,detroit ,vapor ,stove ,co4 ,a4 ,b4 ,dick ,co4 ,w4 ,s4 ,dickey ,clay ,mfg4 ,co4 ,the ,durham ,mfg4 ,co4 ,eagle ,generator ,co4 ,fuller1 ,warren ,co4 ,general ,electric ,co4 ,hammond ,typewriter ,co4 ,hart ,crouse ,co4 ,herrick ,refrigerator ,co4 ,huenfield ,co4 ,humphrey ,co4 ,hurley ,machine ,co4 ,kalamazoo ,stove ,co4 ,kewanee ,water ,supply ,co4 ,klau-,van ,pietersom-,dunlap4 ,landers1 ,frary1 ,clark ,co4 ,laundryette ,mfg4 ,co4 ,manning1 ,bowman ,co4 ,mantle ,lamp ,co4 of ,america4 ,h4 ,g4 ,mc,fadden ,co4 ,the ,monitor ,stove ,co4 ,national ,electric ,supply ,co4 ,northwestern ,steel ,iron ,works4 ,pacific ,flush ,tank ,co4 ,potomac ,power ,lighting ,co4 ,rathbone1 ,sard ,co4 ,reliable ,stove ,co4 ,remnert ,mfg4 ,co4 ,rhinelander ,refrigerator ,co4 ,ringen ,stove ,co4 ,rochester ,rotary ,washer ,co4 ,rochester ,stamping ,co4 ,sears1 ,roebuck ,co4 ,sharples ,separator ,co4 ,singer ,sewing ,machine ,co4 ,l4 ,c4 ,smith ,bros4 ,typewriting ,company4 ,standard ,oil ,co4 ,edward ,l4 ,stock4 ,thatcher ,furnace ,co4 ,the ,torrington ,co4 ,toledo ,cooker ,co4 ,trenton ,potteries ,co4 ,united ,electric ,co4 ,united ,pump ,power ,co4 ,united ,states ,dept4 of ,agriculture4 ,united ,states ,radiator ,co4 ,voss ,bros4 ,mfg4 ,co4 ,walker ,bros4 ,co4 ,welsbach ,co4 ,western ,electric ,co4 ,white ,frost ,refrigerator ,co4 ,white ,mop and ,wringer ,co4 ,wilcox ,gibbs ,sewing ,machine ,co4 ,the ,yale ,towne ,mfg4 ,co4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,part ,i4 ,,cooking ,,stoves ,,chapter ,i4 ,,wood ,,and ,,coal ,,stoves #ae #a4 ,air supply of fire4 #b4 ,the grate4 #c4 ,drafts or dampers4 #d4 ,starting the fire4 #e4 ,keeping a fire4 #f4 ,heating the oven4 #g4 ,ashes4 #h4 ,ash chutes4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,gas ,,stoves #bc #i4 ,burners4 #aj4 ,simmerers4 #aa4 ,air mixer4 #ab4 ,regulating the gas4 #ac4 ,lighting the stove4 #ad4 ,cleaning the stove4 #ae4 ,accidents with gas stove4 #af4 ,pilot light4 #ag4 ,pilot for top burners4 #ah4 ,gas-stove lighter4 #ai4 ,amount of gas used4 #bj4 ,cold-process gasoline gas stoves4 #ba4 ,acetylene stoves4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,oil ,,stoves #ca #bb4 ,purpose of oil stoves4 #bc4 ,mechanical parts of kerosene stove4 #bd4 ,the burner4 #be4 ,the chimney4 #bf4 ,lighting the stove4 #bg4 ,management of the flame4 #bh4 ,adjustment and care of the stove4 #bi4 ,when the stoves gives trouble4 #cj4 ,construction of gasoline stoves4 #ca4 ,to light the stove4 #cb4 ,filling the gasoline stove4 #cc4 ,when a burner blazes and cannot be controlled4 #cd4 ,changing fuel in vapor stoves4 #ce4 ,operation of vapor stoves4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,electric ,,stoves #db #cf4 ,heating unit of electric stove4 #cg4 ,wiring of stoves4 #ch4 ,operation of electric stoves4 #ci4 ,care of electric stoves4 #dj4 ,utensils for electric stoves4 #da4 ,detachable cooking devices4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,alcohol1 ,,acetylene1 ,,and ,,canned ,,heat #dg #db4 ,alcohol stoves4 #dc4 ,vapor stoves4 #dd4 ,wickless stoves4 #de4 ,canned heat4 #df4 ,acetylene gas stoves4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fireless ,,and ,,steam ,,cookers #ej #dg4 ,the fireless cooker4 #dh4 ,the stones of fireless cookers4 #di4 ,heating the stones4 #ej4 ,care of the cooker4 #ea4 ,other devices belonging to cookers4 #eb4 ,directions for using the cooker4 #ec4 ,time of cooking food4 #ed4 ,gas cookers4 #ee4 ,steam cookers4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,heating ,,devices ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,warm-,,air ,,furnaces #eg #ef4 ,principle upon which a furnace works4 #eg4 ,the stove part4 #eh4 ,the cold-air shaft4 #ei4 ,hot-air pipes4 #fj4 ,location of the furnace4 #fa4 ,air4 #fb4 ,pipeless furnaces4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,hot-,,water ,,system ,,of ,,heating #fd #fc4 ,equipment for hot-water heat4 #fd4 ,heating unit4 #fe4 ,the management of the fire4 #ff4 ,the pipes4 #fg4 ,expansion tank4 #fh4 ,water4 #fi4 ,radiators4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,steam-,,heating ,,systems #fi #gj4 ,equipment for steam heat4 #ga4 ,steam gages4 #gb4 ,safety valve4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fireplaces ,,and ,,heating ,,stoves #gd #gc4 ,construction of fireplace4 #gd4 ,management of fireplace4 #ge4 ,operating heating stoves4 #gf4 ,care of the stove4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,gas1 ,,electric ,,and ,,kerosene ,,heaters #gg #gg4 ,kinds of gas heaters4 #gh4 ,bunsen burner and asbestos-back heater4 #gi4 ,lighting gas stoves4 #hj4 ,care of gas stoves4 #ha4 ,illuminating flame and bright metal reflector heaters4 #hb4 ,gas radiator heaters4 #hc4 ,management of gas radiator4 #hd4 ,kerosene heaters4 #he4 ,electric heaters4 #hf4 ,acetylene heaters4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,lighting ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,electric ,,lights #hb #hg4 ,kinds of electric lamps in use4 #hh4 ,electrical measurements4 #hi4 ,carbon lamps4 #ij4 ,mazda or tungsten lamps4 #ia4 ,selecting lamps for a room4 #ib4 ,effect of color schemes upon illumination4 #ic4 ,distribution of light4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,gas ,,light #hh #id4 ,construction of mantles4 #ie4 ,care of mantles4 #if4 ,fixtures for burning gas4 #ig4 ,adjustment4 #ih4 ,care of lamps4 #ii4 ,lighting a gas light4 #ajj4 ,cold-process gasoline gas4 #aja4 ,acetylene lamps4 #ajb4 ,care of burners of acetylene lamps4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,kerosene ,,lamps #ic #ajc4 ,construction of kerosene lamps4 #ajd4 ,management of kerosene lamps4 #aje4 ,lighting a kerosene lamp4 #ajf4 ,to extinguish a lamp4 #ajg4 ,care of lamps4 #ajh4 ,kerosene mantle lamps4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,alcohol ,,and ,,gasoline ,,lamps #if #aji4 ,classification of lamps4 #aaj4 ,gravity lamps4 #aaa4 ,lighting the gravity lamp4 #aab4 ,pressure lamps4 #aac4 ,gasoline lamps with wicks4 #aad4 ,alcohol lamps with wicks4 #aae4 ,lighting alcohol or gasoline lamps4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,cooling ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,refrigerators #ajj #aaf4 ,principles of refrigeration4 #aag4 ,the construction of refrigerators4 #aah4 ,lining refrigerators4 #aai4 ,insulation of refrigerators4 #abj4 ,circulation in refrigerators4 #aba4 ,drip from melting ice4 #abb4 ,arrangement of food in the ice box4 #abc4 ,filling and care of the ice box4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,iceless ,,refrigerators2 ,,water ,,coolers #aje #abd4 ,comparative efficiency of iceless refrigerators4 #abe4 ,iceless refrigerator4 #abf4 ,small cooler4 #abg4 ,covered pail4 #abh4 ,unglazed earthenware4 #abi4 ,cooling with running water4 #acj4 ,refrigerating plants4 #aca4 ,water coolers4 #acb4 ,care of water coolers4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,fans ,,and ,,ventilators #aaj #acc4 ,selecting a fan4 #acd4 ,the construction of the fan in common use4 #ace4 ,ventilator4 ,,part ,v4 ,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,sewage ,,disposal ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,pumps ,,and ,,water ,,filters #aab #acf4 ,suction pumps4 #acg4 ,care of pumps4 #ach4 ,force pumps4 #aci4 ,compressed-air pumps4 #adj4 ,water filters4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,pressure ,,tanks2 ,,plumbing ,,fixtures #aag #ada4 ,pressure tanks4 #adb4 ,construction of the pressure tank4 #adc4 ,care of pressure tanks4 #add4 ,hot-water kitchen tank4 #ade4 ,instantaneous water heaters4 #adf4 ,heaters for tanks4 #adg4 ,the elevated water tank4 #adh4 ,faucets4 #adi4 ,valves4 #aej4 ,overflows4 #aea4 ,traps for bath tubs and basins4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,cesspools1 ,,septic ,,tanks ,,and ,,city ,,sewer ,,systems #abd #aeb4 ,releative value of cesspool and septic tank4 #aec4 ,construction of the septic tank4 #aed4 ,the size of tank4 #aee4 ,disposal of waste in cities4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,water ,,closets #abh #aef4 ,construction of water closets4 #aeg4 ,siphoning the trap4 #aeh4 ,the flushing tank4 #aei4 ,repairing the flushing tank4 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,laundry ,,equipment ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,washing ,,machines #acb #afj4 ,kinds of washing machines4 #afa4 ,suction machines4 #afb4 ,cylinder washers4 #afc4 ,rotary washers4 #afd4 ,machine with an oscillating washing device4 #afe4 ,oscillating washers4 #aff4 ,locomotive washer4 #afg4 ,centrifugal washer4 #afh4 ,care of washers4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,wringers #ach #afi4 ,roller wringer4 #agj4 ,care of wringers4 #aga4 ,centrifugal wringer or drier4 #agb4 ,care of the machine4 #agc4 ,combination washer and wringer4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,mangles ,,and ,,irons #ada #agd4 ,construction of mangles4 #age4 ,cold mangles4 #agf4 ,heated mangles4 #agg4 ,care and use of mangles4 #agh4 ,flat1 or sadirons4 #agi4 ,charcoal irons4 #ahj4 ,electric irons4 #aha4 ,gas irons4 #ahb4 ,acetylene irons4 #ahc4 ,alcohol irons4 #ahd4 ,gasoline irons4 ,,part ,,vii4 ,,house-,,cleaning ,,equipment ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,vacuum ,,cleaners ,,and ,,cleaning ,,tools #adg #ahe4 ,principle upon which vacuum cleaners work4 #ahf4 ,different kinds of vacuum cleaners4 #ahg4 ,nozzle of vacuum cleaner4 #ahh4 ,cautions in using vacuum cleaners4 #ahi4 ,difference between hand and power cleaners4 #aij4 ,carpet sweeper4 #aia4 ,mop wringers4 ,,part ,,viii4 ,,devices ,,for ,,preparation ,,and ,,conservation ,,of ,,food ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,pots1 ,,pans ,,and ,,other ,,devices #aee #aib4 ,materials from which ,utensils are made4 #aic4 ,aluminum alloy4 #aid4 ,cast-iron utensils4 #aie4 ,earthenware4 #aif4 ,aluminum and graniteware4 #aig4 ,mixing spoons4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,parers1 ,,seeders1 ,,grinders1 ,,slicers1 ,,etc4 #aei #aih4 ,fruit and vegetable parers and knives4 #aii4 ,parers which grate off skins4 #bjj4 ,seeders and ,stoners4 #bja4 ,cherry stoner4 #bjb4 ,grinders4 #bjc4 ,choppers or meat grinders4 #bjd4 ,choppers4 #bje4 ,slicers4 #bjf4 ,lard and fruit presses1 sausage stuffers4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,mixers1 ,,beaters ,,and ,,churns2 ,,coffee ,,pots #afe #bjg4 ,use of mixers1 beaters and churns4 #bjh4 ,care of these devices4 #bji4 ,freezers4 #baj4 ,care of freezers4 #baa4 ,churns4 #bab4 ,drip coffee pots4 #bac4 ,percolator coffee pots4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,dish-,,washers1 ,,canners ,,and ,,dryers #agj #bad4 ,dish dryer4 #bae4 ,cleaning silver4 #baf4 ,canners4 #bag4 ,water seal4 #bah4 ,pressure canners4 #bai4 ,use of the canner4 #bbj4 ,dryers4 #bba4 ,care of dryers4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,separators ,,and ,,emulsifiers #agh #bbb4 ,cream separators4 #bbc4 ,different types of separators4 #bbd4 ,washing the machine4 #bbe4 ,oiling4 #bbf4 ,whey separator4 #bbg4 ,emulsifier4 ,,part ,,ix4 ,,sundry ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,dumbwaiters ,,and ,,other ,,house ,,furnishings #ahc #bbh4 ,dumbwaiters and window adjustments4 #bbi4 ,check valves4 #bcj4 ,door fastener4 #bca4 ,window shades4 #bcb4 ,hinges4 #bcc4 ,sliding doors4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,sewing ,,machines #ahf #bcd4 ,different types of sewing machines4 #bce4 ,lock-stitch sewing machine4 #bcf4 ,feed plate4 #bcg4 ,bobbins4 #bch4 ,shuttle bobbins4 #bci4 ,chain-stitch machine4 #bdj4 ,cautions for all machines4 #bda4 ,general instructions4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,automobiles #aib #bdb4 ,starting the motor4 #bdc4 ,driving the automobile4 #bdd4 ,care of car4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,lawn ,,mowers2 ,,incubators #aie #bde4 ,operation and care of lawn mowers4 #bdf4 ,storing mowers4 #bdg4 ,scissors and shears4 #bdh4 ,principles upon which incubator works4 #bdi4 ,the body of the incubator4 #bej4 ,incubators heated by a lamp4 #bea4 ,the wick4 #beb4 ,thermostat4 #bec4 ,the thermometer4 #bed4 ,operation of incubator4 #bee4 ,egg tester4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,typewriters #bjb #bef4 ,construction of typewriter4 #beg4 ,special features of typewriter4 #beh4 ,interchangeable-type typewriters4 #bei4 ,care of typewriters4 #bfj4 ,the hectograph4 #bfa4 ,mimeograph and multigraph4 ,,part ,x4 ,,motors1 ,,fuels ,,and ,,gas ,,plants ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,treadles ,,and ,,water ,,motors #bji #bfb4 ,definition of motor4 #bfc4 ,the treadle4 #bfd4 ,water motors4 #bfe4 ,selecting a water motor4 #bff4 ,two types of water motors4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,engines2 ,,motors ,,and ,,batteries2 ,,fuels #bab #bfg4 ,gasoline engines4 #bfh4 ,figuring speed of pulleys4 #bfi4 ,operating the engine4 #bgj4 ,points in caring for engine4 #bga4 ,generating electricity for homes4 #bgb4 ,batteries4 #bgc4 ,liquid batteries4 #bgd4 ,a dry-cell battery4 #bge4 ,storage batteries4 #bgf4 ,some uses for electric motors4 #bgg4 ,definition tables4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,gas ,,plants #bbj #bgh4 ,gasoline gas plants4 #bgi4 ,acetylene-gas plant4 #bhj4 ,directions for operating acetylene plant4 #bha4 ,cautions to be observed in using acetylene gas4 #bhb4 ,compressed gases and oils4 ,,part ,,xi4 ,,measuring ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,scales ,,for ,,weighing #bbe #bhc4 ,equal-arm balances4 #bhd4 ,unequal-arm balances4 #bhe4 ,spring scales4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,devices ,,for ,,measuring ,,volume #bbg #bhf4 ,graduate and measuring cup4 #bhg4 ,tablespoons4 #bhh4 ,teaspoons4 #bhi4 ,standard measuring spoons4 #bij4 ,liquid and cooking measures4 #bia4 ,dry measures4 #bib4 ,cubic1 square and linear measures4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,gas1 ,,water ,,and ,,electric ,,meters #bcj #bic4 ,different kinds of meters4 #bid4 ,construction of a gas meter4 #bie4 ,reading the gas meter4 #bif4 ,water meters4 #big4 ,prepayment meters4 #bih4 ,the electric meter4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,thermometers ,,and ,,thermostats #bcc #bii4 ,mercury thermometers4 #cjj4 ,oven thermometer4 #cja4 ,maximum thermometers4 #cjb4 ,thermostats4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,hydrometers ,,and ,,barometers #bcg #cjc4 ,hydrometer4 #cjd4 ,hygroscopes4 #cje4 ,barometers4 ,,part ,i ,,cooking ,,stoves ,,chapter ,i ,,wood ,,and ,,coal ,,stoves ,a brief explanation of stoves is given in this chapter to help the woman with a new stove or with an old one which she does not understand so that she may manage it without wasting fuel and nervous energy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,cross-section of cooking stove4 ,cooking stoves 7,fig4 #a7 were invented as a convenient means for holding pots and pans in close proximity to the fire4 ,they include a device for regulating the supply of air to the burning fuel4 #a4 ,air ,supply for ,fire4 ,a proper amount of air must be supplied to the fuel to produce a hot fire4 ,a smoky or yellow flame indicates a lack of sufficient air to produce complete combustion of the fuel4 ,smoke is unburnt fuel4 ,a smoky fire does not produce as much heat as one which burns with a blue or almost colorless flame4 ,it is usually not the fault of the fuel1 but the way it is being used that causes a smoky fire4 #b4 ,the ,grate4 ,cooking stoves may be constructed for burning either wood or coal4 ,in both cases1 the operation is similar1 except that more air should be passing thru the stove while wood is being burnt4 ,for burning coal1 the grate should be less open in order to prevent the coal from falling thru4 ,some modern stoves are made with double grates4 ,these may be turned so that the more open part of them is used for supporting the wood1 and the less open part for coal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a-;a4 ,grate4 ,these grates are usually reversed by a stove shaker4 7,fig4 #a-;a shows a detailed drawing of a grate47 ,the housekeeper must understand how this is done in order to avoid reversing them when she shakes down the ashes4 ,two difficulties arise in reversing the grate when the stove is filled with fuel4 ,the coal may be wasted by falling thru the part intended for wood1 or pieces of fuel may fall between the parts so that they cannot be moved4 ,when this happens1 it is best to let the fire go out1 take out the fuel1 adjust the grates as they should be and rebuild the fire4 #c4 ,drafts or ,dampers4 ,there are from three to six dampers on a stove 7,figs4 #a and #b71 as follows3 #a7 ,the draft below the fire box1 found on all stoves1 is to let in air to the burning fire4 #b7 ,the draft above the fire box1 not found on all stoves1 when slightly opened1 lets in air which completes the combustion of the gases arising from the top of the fire4 ,when opened too wide1 it checks the burning of the fire4 #c7 ,the oven damper1 found on all cook stoves1 is placed at the point where the flame naturally enters the stove pipe4 ,when this damper is closed1 the flame must go around the oven instead of directly up the chimney4 ,to see the oven damper1 take off the lid nearest the stove pipe and watch the direction of the flame4 ,the handle to the oven damper may be at the side of the pipe on top of the stove or at the front of the stove under the top near the reservoir4 ,closing this damper causes the hot gases from the fire to go back over the top of the stove down behind the oven1 turn under the oven and come up the chimney4 ,good stoves are constructed so that the hot gases come in contact with every part of the oven4 ,this makes a longer journey for the gases1 but1 if the drafts in the front of the stove and chimney are properly adjusted1 the gases will make the circuit without forming soot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,drafts and dampers in stove-pipe4 #d7 ,a damper in the stove pipe 7,fig4 #b7 for letting air from the room into the pipe serves to check the burning of the fire by taking the place of the draft thru the stove4 #e7 ,a damper1 or shutter1 found in the pipe or chimney of most stoves1 when closed1 checks the draft up the chimney1 and1 when open1 lets it pass freely4 #f7 ,the reservoir damper1 found on some stoves having reservoirs1 lets the hot gases pass next to the reservoir when open and prevents this when closed4 #d4 ,starting the ,fire4 ,if the stove has a reversible grate1 see that it is adjusted to suit the fuel before building the fire2 then adjust the drafts4 ,open the draft below the fire box1 the oven damper1 and the shutter in the chimney2 close the draft above the fire box1 and the draft which lets air from the room into the pipe1 so that the air may pass up thru the fire box and directly up the chimney4 ,some chimneys produce such strong drafts that the shutter in the chimney has to be kept closed most of the time1 even when starting the fire4 ,after the fuel has become ignited1 the draft below the fire may be partly closed so that it burns less rapidly4 ,if the fire is to be used for heating water or food on top of the stove1 it is now ready for use4 ,if it is still burning too rapidly1 the draft may be entirely closed1 or the shutter in the chimney partly closed4 ,if at any time the stove smokes1 the shutter or drafts above the fire may be closed too much and should be opened enough to let all the smoke pass4 ,adding too much fuel at one time and not spreading it in a thin layer over the entire surface of the fire may cause the stove to smoke4 #e4 ,keeping a ,fire4 ,if1 after a fire has been used1 it is wanted for use later1 close the draft below the fire box1 open the one above the fire box1 or1 if there chances to be no draft here1 tilt the lids on the stove to let in the air2 close the shutter in the chimney and open the draft in the pipe that lets in air from the room4 ,with the drafts so adjusted1 the fire should keep a long time1 as it will burn very slowly4 #f4 ,heating the ,oven4 ,when baking is to be done1 wait until the fire is well started2 then close the oven damper4 ,the eveness of heat in the oven depends upon the even distribution of the hot gases below and on the sides of it4 ,this is provided for in the manufacture of the stove itself4 ,the heat in the oven may be regulated by the intensity of the heat from the fire as well as by the damper4 ,whenever a cooler oven is wanted1 the flame may be permitted to go directly up the chimney4 ,since hot air is always seeking a higher level than cold air1 opening the oven door cools the oven1 but it will not prevent food set on the bottom of the oven from burning on the bottom4 ,in a closed oven1 the greatest degree of heat is at the top1 excepting sometimes the surface of the bottom of the oven4 ,many stoves require the placing of a thin grating on the bottom of the oven to prevent food from burning on the bottom4 ,if food does not brown sufficiently on the bottom1 remove the grating so that the dish comes in closer contact with the heating unit4 ,the insulation of the oven door helps to hold heat in the oven1 but the amount lost here is so small that many housekeepers prefer the convenience of the glass door1 which1 in turn1 saves heat by doing away with the necessity of opening the oven door to watch the cooking food4 ,some housewives adjust the dampers for heating the oven and then never change them4 ,they heat the kitchen in summer more than is necessary and use more fuel than they need for cooking4 ,it has been estimated that where the careful manager of a stove uses one pound of fuel1 the careless manager uses three and a half pounds4 ,one experiment station estimated that the household coal range is used on an average of six hours a day1 and1 if used carefully1 seven pounds of coal is consumed4 ,careless management1 then1 makes the waste of coal quite an item in the course of a year1 as it is not unusual for the careless manager to use twenty-four pounds of coal per six-hour day4 ,there is always some soot formed1 even in the best-managed stoves1 and the flame often carries ashes with it4 ,these in time fill the narrow space about the oven and cut off or check the passage of the hot gases about the oven4 ,when this happens and the oven damper is closed1 the stove will smoke and not bake well4 ,no stove should be allowed to get in this condition4 ,the housewife can watch the accumulation of ashes in the stove and remove them before they become one-fourth inch thick4 ,if this is not done1 the oven will not heat well and some parts may be considerably cooler than others4 #g4 ,ashes4 ,ashes allowed to accumulate in the fire box will cause the lining of the stove to burn out4 ,ashes will also interfere with the heating of the rest of the stove4 ,to lengthen the life of a stove1 keep the ash pan empty4 ,if a full pan of ashes becomes hot1 it will keep the grate of the stove so hot that it will warp and burn out1 and sometimes cause the oven to warp4 ,if a housewife tries to build a fresh fire in a stove with a full ash pan1 she will have to wait for the ashes to become heated thru before she can get satisfactory use of the oven4 ,she will be unable to regulate the temperature of the oven if it becomes too hot4 ,it is a great waste of fuel to heat a large pan full of ashes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,ash chute4 #h4 ,ash ,chutes4 ,in some modern houses1 there are ash chutes which carry the ashes directly from the kitchen stove to a receptacle in the basement 7,fig4 #c74 ,these have to be installed with care4 ,if there is a draft of air which cannot be regulated from the basement up thru the fire box1 the fire will burn too fast4 ,there should be a damper to regulate drafts here4 ,an ash chute saves much dirt in the kitchen4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,gas ,,stoves ,the gas stove is the simplest stove made4 ,it consists of a burner or burners of different shapes mounted on a suitable frame4 ,the best example of a gas burner is a pipe with holes punched in it1 where the gas flows out and is set on fire4 ,this pipe may be coiled into a circle and make a round burner1 or the holes may all come at the end1 which is arranged to spread the gas into a disc shape4 #i4 ,burners4 ,stoves are usually made with different sizes of burners4 ,one manufacturer states that the gas stoves made by his firm consume per top burner per hour fourteen to eighteen feet of gas1 and the oven burners consume eighteen to twenty feet when the gas is turned on full4 ,simmerers consume much less than this4 #aj4 ,simmerers4 ,every gas range should have a simmerer on it4 ,this is a small burner1 usually about an inch in diameter4 ,after a large kettle full of food has been heated to boiling1 this burner may keep it simmering for hours1 using very little gas4 ,this burner will keep small kettles of food boiling4 #aa4 ,air ,mixer4 ,gas escaping from any pipe will burn1 but it will burn with a yellow flame4 ,to make gas burn with a blue flame--that is1 to secure complete combustion--air must be mixed with it4 ,this is done in the air mixer 7,fig4 #d74 ,the blue flame is desirable for cooking because it is hotter than the yellow flame and does not blacken the cooking utensils4 ,gas passes thru the air mixer before entering the burner4 ,sometimes the air inlet is only a hole put in the under side of the pipe4 ,the opening for entrance of air is shielded so that the gas will not escape from the mixer1 but will go on into the burner4 ,a gas pipe looks about half an inch in diameter1 but the stream of gas which is allowed to flow into the burner is very small1 in some cases being about the diameter of a darning needle4 ,the opening for air is so large1 that a person's finger may be put into it4 ,too much air interferes with the burning of the gas2 in fact1 there can be so much air mixed with gas that it will not burn4 ,the air mixer regulates the amount of air which flows into the pipe4 ,once this is adjusted for the kind of gas to be used1 it seldom needs to be changed4 ,the air shutter has to be changed1 however1 if the gas pressure varies markedly from time to time4 ,readjustment may be required if the stove is moved and connected with a different supply of gas4 ,when adjusting the mixer for high pressure1 artificial or natural gas1 close the shutter until the flame will not blow away from the cone1 but will burn with a blue1 almost colorless1 flame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,part of gas stove showing air mixers4 #ab4 ,regulating the ,gas4 ,the amount of gas which passes into the stove is also regulated1 first1 by adjustment of the size of the small opening thru which the gas must flow4 ,once this is adjusted1 it does not need to be changed so long as the gas comes from the same source4 ,second1 the flow of gas is regulated by the lever valve4 ,as the valve is turned1 the flow of gas is restricted so that it flows less swiftly4 ,the size of the stream of gas going into the stove always looks the same regardless of its speed4 ,when the rate is not so fast1 the fire burns lower because less gas comes to it during every unit of time4 #ac4 ,lighting the ,stove4 ,light the top burners by first striking a match1 and then turning on the burner so that there will be an unrestricted flow of gas4 ,count three before applying the match4 ,this gives time for the burner to fill with gas4 ,if the match goes out1 shut off the gas and try again4 ,if it burns back into the air hole1 also turn off the gas and begin again4 ,probably the match was applied too soon4 ,gas stoves get out of order because of carelessness in lighting them4 ,the force of the explosions caused in burning back loosens connections and may disturb the adjustment of the mixer and valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,cleaning gas stove4 #ad4 ,cleaning the ,stove4 ,housekeepers should keep their gas stoves clean4 ,dirt interferes with the passage of the gas thru the burners4 ,gas stoves should be cleaned thoroly once a month4 ,scrub the burners with a stiff brush 7,fig4 #e71 and wash all greasy parts with soap and water4 ,if the holes should be clogged1 remove the stoppage with a wire hair-pin 7,fig4 #f74 ,clean the drip sheet every day1 or as often as it becomes soiled4 7,fig4 #d47 #ae4 ,accidents with ,gas ,stove4 ,accidents with gas stoves are the result of mismanagement4 ,the odor of gas in a room indicates a leak in the gas fixtures1 such as stoves or pipes4 ,when such an odor is noticed1 open windows and extinguish all fires in the room or building4 ,next search for the leak4 ,it may be due to an open valve4 ,see that these are all shut tight4 ,if no valves are open1 send for a plumber who looks after gas fixtures4 ,leave the windows open and do not carry lighted matches or lamps into the room until the leak has been stopped4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,cleaning burner of gas stove4 ,many accidents happen at the time the oven is being lighted4 ,sometimes gas escapes into a closed oven1 so that its odor is not noticed in the kitchen4 ,this gas catches fire or explodes when the oven burner is lighted1 blowing the oven door open or off the hinges1 flashing out of the oven1 and burning any person near the stove4 ,to avoid such accidents1 always open the oven and broiler doors a few minutes before lighting the oven4 ,fig4 #g shows construction of gas-stove oven4 ,if any odor of gas is noticed on opening the doors1 fan this out4 ,leave the oven and broiler doors open a while after extinguishing the fire and removing the cooked food4 ,gas may get into the oven at the time the flame is extinguished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,gas ovens4 #af4 ,pilot ,light4 ,most stoves are constructed so that there is a pilot light for the oven4 ,always use it when lighting the oven4 ,it is put there for the safety of those using the stove4 ,there is no need for alarm when a pilot burns back1 no matter how much noise it makes1 since so little gas flows thru the opening4 ,one of the functions of a pilot light is to prevent people from being burnt in case of an explosion in the oven4 ,for this reason1 they should be at the side of the stove4 ,if the pilot burns back1 close it2 wait a minute1 and then try lighting it again4 ,the regular burners of the stove should not burn back if properly lighted by the pilot4 ,be careful to see that every part of the oven burner becomes lighted4 ,turn the burners on full while lighting them4 ,after they are once lighted1 turn them as low as desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,pilot light for gas stove4 #ag4 ,pilot for ,top ,burners4 ,a pilot made for top burners 7,fig4 #h7 burns continuously with a very tiny flame4 ,its purpose is to save gas1 patience1 dirt and matches4 ,the saving comes because the housekeeper can so easily re-light the burners that she will turn them out whenever she is not needing the fire4 ,sometimes when the gas pressure is low1 the pilot light will go out4 ,it can be re-lighted by pressing the valve as for lighting the burners and touching a match to it4 ,if the pilot goes out1 the odor of gas will be noticed in the kitchen until it is re-lighted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,top view of gas stove1 showing lighter4 #ah4 ,gas-,stove ,lighter4 ,there are two kinds of gas-stove lighters4 ,these differ from the pilot in that they do not burn constantly4 ,one of these is so constructed that it is first necessary to apply a match to any one of the top burners4 ,the other burners can then be lighted by opening the valve in the regular manner and pressing down on the lighter knob4 ,as soon as pressure on the lighter knob is removed1 the gas supply to the lighter is automatically cut off 7,fig4 #i74 ,the other lighter is made of metal which gives sparks easily when subjected to friction4 ,the lighter is held over the stove1 the gas turned on and the friction produced by rubbing one part of the lighter across the other1 making a spark which ignites the gas4 #ai4 ,amount of ,gas ,used4 ,it is claimed that #a1jjj feet of illuminating gas produce as much heat as #ej or #fj pounds of anthracite coal or #d-a_/b gallons of kerosene oil4 7,see table on page #bai47 ,the difference in gas bills1 due to management of gas stoves1 is considerable4 ,it is very easy for one woman to use three times as much gas as another in doing the same amount of work4 ,some women do not realize when they are wasting gas4 ,water boils in an uncovered vessel at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 and no amount of heat applied to it will make it any hotter4 ,when a pot of food has reached the boiling point1 a smaller flame will keep it boiling4 ,turn the gas as low as it may be safely turned and still keep the pot boiling1 and the food will cook as rapidly as when the gas is turned on full4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,single top burner and valve4 ,gas is a safe fuel in most hands2 it saves the housekeeper much labor because it makes so little dirt4 ,when properly managed1 it is the cheapest fuel to be had at the present time4 #bj4 ,cold-,process ,gasoline ,gas ,stoves4 ,cold-process gasoline stoves require a burner fitted with valves in which the gas orifice can be enlarged or diminished4 ,the best of these for using cold-process gasoline gas can be adjusted by a turn of the finger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj-;a4 ,oven burner4 ,the adjustment of the valve is to compensate for the neglect upon the part of users of these plants4 ,very frequently they will allow the supply of gasoline in the carburetor to run nearly out before they replenish it1 in which case the gas comes to the burners in a thinner quality1 and in order to provide the same volume of heat1 it is necessary to adjust the burner valves and throw a larger stream of gas into the burner4 ,they are sometimes fitted with burners having side-sawed caps 7,figs4 #aj and #aj-;a74 ,these seem to expose the burning gas to the air in a way to make it burn better than in other burners built for gas forced into them by greater pressure than is this gas4 ,the opening for air must be adjusted from time to time so as to keep the proportion of gas and air such that it will produce a blue flame4 #ba4 ,acetylene ,stoves4 ,stoves for the burning of acetylene are similar in construction to gas stoves4 ,the acetylene furnishes a satisfactory and economical light1 it is not an economical fuel when compared with kerosene1 gas1 wood or coal4 ,for this reason1 it is not much used4 ,it requires two and three-tenths units of acetylene gas to equal one unit of natural gas for heating4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,oil ,,stoves ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,parts of oil stove burner4 #bb4 ,purpose of ,oil ,stoves4 ,oil stoves are designed for the comfort of the woman who cannot have a gas or an electric stove4 ,they consist of tank1 feed pipe and burners 7,figs4 #aa-;a and #aa-;b74 ,as they are portable1 they can be moved to a summer kitchen or sheltered back porch on hot summer days4 ,oil stoves are not fool-proof and should never be used by those who are afraid of them and who do not understand them4 ,manufacturers have done much to make accidents avoidable1 and they send detailed instructions with each stove4 ,these should be followed exactly4 #bc4 ,mechanical ,parts of ,kerosene ,stove4 ,the kerosene oil stove consists of a tank of oil with a pipe leading to a hollow ring-like cup below the burner 7,a1 ,fig4 #aa74 ,when the burner is lighted1 the oil passes down this pipe into the ring1 where it becomes heated and is vaporized4 ,as the vapor rises1 it is mixed with air and burns with a blue flame4 ,the small holes in the chimney of the burner and at the base of the burner are to admit air4 ,they must be kept open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa-;a4 ,large oil stove with oven4 ,if the burner is dirty or not properly adjusted1 the right amount of air may not reach the vaporized oil to mix with it and the stove will burn with a yellow flame1 making soot and smoke4 #bd4 ,the ,burner4 ,the burner consists of a chimney1 a wick or ring of asbestos1 a valve or a lever1 and a ring-like cup at the base of the burner4 ,there are three distinct types of burners known as long chimney1 short chimney and wickless4 ,the wickless stoves are equipped with a ring of asbestos which serves the purpose of a wick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa-;b4 ,oil stove without oven4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,oil stove burner1 showing fire close to utensil4 ,the burners on one oil stove are usually all alike4 ,the burners on various makes differ4 ,those in which the flame comes nearest the kettle or cooking food produce the most heat for cooking 7,fig4 #ab74 ,those with the blaze farther away from the food seem to be easier for the excitable woman to manage 7,fig4 #ac74 #be4 ,the ,chimney4 ,kerosene stoves are furnished with metal chimneys4 ,a device for mixing air with the burning fuel forms a part of short chimneys 7,b1 ,fig4 #aa74 ,the chimney must set on the burner properly1 or the stove will not burn with a blue flame4 ,after lighting a burner1 give the chimney a turn or two to make sure that it is in place4 ,there is usually a groove into which it fits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,burner for oil stove4 #bf4 ,lighting the ,stove4 ,when lighting a stove1 turn the valve which permits the oil to flow 7,c1 ,fig4 #aa7 into the cup below the burner1 or lower the lighter into the oil4 ,wait a moment1 if need be1 for the wick or ring to become saturated with oil4 ,raise the chimney and touch the lighted match to the ring or wick at several places4 7,fig4 #ad1 and ,fig4 #aa1 also1 show the position of the chimney and wick for lighting47 ,lower the chimney1 seeing that it fits back into place4 ,adjust the wick to the proper height to get a blue flame 7,fig4 #ae74 ,do not turn very high at first1 for1 while the stove is becoming heated1 the flame burns higher and higher1 and may begin to smoke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,lighting oil stove4 #bg4 ,management of the ,flame4 ,turn the flame no higher than is needed to keep the pot boiling4 ,some stoves do not burn well when turned very low4 ,do not have the flame so high or so low that it gives off smoke or gas4 ,when turning out the fire1 be sure to turn the wick clear down1 or turn the valve or lever 7,fig4 #ab7 to the point indicated as out on stoves which lift the ring above the oil4 ,if this precaution is not taken1 most stoves leak oil when not in use1 because the wick or rings carry oil to the upper part of the burner where it spreads over the stove4 #bh4 ,adjustment and ,care of the ,stove4 ,to prevent trouble with uneven flames1 set the stove perfectly level1 particularly the wickless one4 ,keep the tank filled1 but not too full4 ,stoves are made so that it is difficult to fill them too full4 ,an oil stove cannot explode unless gas has formed in some part1 like the tank1 and becomes ignited by heat or a spark4 ,gas is more likely to collect in the tank when it is almost empty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,different types of flames4 ,when the tank is removed for filling1 any gas forming passes out into the room and mixes with so much air that it is harmless4 ,if it is filled before the oil burns out of the pipe above the level of the burners1 no gas will be formed4 ,stoves must be kept clean4 ,a clean stove means one with a clean framework1 clean burners1 clean chimney1 clean oil and a clean wick or ring4 ,if a stove has not been in use for some time1 replace the old wick with a fresh one 7,fig4 #af74 ,clean the stove by wiping off all the parts with a cloth4 ,keep the charred edges of the wick trimmed level4 ,the wick with a crust of char on top does not burn well4 ,use a match or small stick in removing the char4 ,light the wick to see if it is even4 ,if any point burns with a yellow flame1 trim this place until the wick burns even4 ,the tank can easily and quickly be lifted off modern oil stoves4 ,do not refill near a lighted stove4 #bi4 ,when the ,stove ,gives ,trouble4 ,in case the stove begins to blaze and cannot be controlled by the valves1 remove the tank and carry it to some safe place where the kerosene in it cannot catch fire4 ,when this is done1 there is less than a pint of oil left in most stoves1 and this will soon burn out without doing much harm1 if clothing and water are kept away from the blaze4 ,open windows and doors to let out gases and smoke4 ,if necessary1 move the stove away from walls or furniture4 ,do not attempt to smother out the flame4 ,there is too much danger of clothing catching fire when this is done4 ,it is far safer to let the small amount of oil left in the stove burn up4 ,oil stoves cannot explode when the tank is removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,inserting new wick4 ,as soon as the oil has burnt out of the pipes and the wicks are burning with a dull glow1 extinguish the smoldering fire on the wicks by patting them with the blade of a knife or a piece of woolen cloth4 ,if a burner has been blazing beyond control1 remove the chimney4 ,brush out any soot which has formed4 ,examine the burner1 taking it apart1 if possible4 ,blazing may come from wicks not fitting1 or from their getting so short that the screw on the lever fails to move them up or down4 ,the ring in wickless stoves may not be thick enough1 or they may have slipped out of place1 or become broken4 ,replace with new wicks or rings4 ,notice if any part of the burner shows evidence of melting4 ,if it does1 do not use this burner until inspected and mended by an expert4 ,if the lever has become worn so that it fails to work1 it must be replaced or a new burner put on the stove4 #cj4 ,construction of ,gasoline ,stoves4 ,the gasoline stoves consist of a burner and an oil tank connected by a pipe 7,fig4 #ag74 ,the tank is elevated for the purpose of forcing the gasoline into the burner4 ,the pipe may be any length4 ,the danger from a gasoline stove comes from the fact that gasoline vaporizes at a low temperature4 ,if the tank becomes heated1 producing gas1 and then becomes mixed with the proper proportion of air1 it may explode if it comes in contact with a spark4 7,fig4 #ag-;a is an illustration of the cross-section of the ,red ,star gasoline or vapor stove4 ,see page #ch47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,simple gasoline burner4 ,from the pipe to the burner is a very small opening1 so that a stream of gasoline little larger than the diameter of a needle flows into the burner proper1 when the valve is open4 ,the valve may be partly closed so that the stream will not flow so fast4 ,below the burner is a small cup4 ,when the stove is cold1 the gasoline flowing into the burner collects here4 #ca4 ,to ,light the ,stove4 ,the way to light the stove is to turn on the gasoline until it fills the cup below the burner4 ,when this is full1 close the valve4 ,set this gasoline on fire4 ,as it burns1 it will heat the burner4 ,the burner is heated so that when more gasoline is turned on1 this heat will change the gasoline to gas4 ,if the burner is not hot enough to do this1 the gasoline flowing from the pipe will flow down into the cup and the stove will burn with a smoky flame which becomes higher and higher and looks very alarming4 ,when this happens1 the valve should be closed1 and the fire permitted to burn all the gasoline which has collected in the cup4 ,this may be sufficient to heat the burner4 ,test after the fire has gone out1 by lighting a match1 turning on the gasoline and touching the lighted match to the burner4 ,if all right1 it will burn with a blue flame2 if not1 it will burn with a yellow flame4 ,if the yellow flame is noticed1 turn out the fire by closing the valve1 and let the burner get cold before attempting again to light it4 ,see that the burner has not become clogged with soot or dirt4 ,then proceed to re-light the stove4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag-;a4 ,cross-section of gasoline stove showing burner4 ,air must be mixed with the gasoline to make it burn with a blue flame4 ,the air enters the burner through the same tube that the gasoline flows into the cups when the burner is cold4 ,in the burner are small holes for the escape of the gas mixed with air1 and here the blue flame should appear1 and nowhere else4 ,if it appears elsewhere1 the burner is not working properly4 ,sometimes the gas ignites at the point where the air is mixed with it4 ,the fire should then be turned out and the stove re-lighted immediately4 ,if the little holes where the flames should be1 or if any other part of the stove is clogged with soot1 it will not burn as it should4 ,it must be cleaned4 ,a dirty gasoline stove is dangerous4 #cb4 ,filling the ,gasoline ,stove4 ,never get oil on the tank or any part of the stove while filling it4 ,if oil is spilled1 wipe it up before igniting the stove4 ,do not fill the tank when the stove is lighted or when there is a fire anywhere near the tank4 ,if the fire has been burning1 close all the valves and wait until it goes out before opening the tank4 ,close the valve from tank to pipe before filling4 ,fill the tank and cover it before lighting the stove again4 ,keep the tank filled4 ,as soon as the indicator1 which is attached to a cork which floats on top of the gasoline1 shows that the oil is low1 turn out the fire and refill the tank4 ,do not fill the tank to overflowing4 ,gases from the stove can only get into the tank when it is empty and while there is gasoline in the pipe to feed the stove4 ,gasoline gas is very inflammable and will cause an explosion if it becomes ignited4 ,the tanks from gasoline stoves cannot be removed1 as all the joints must be tight to prevent the escape of gasoline fumes as well as the oil itself4 ,the opening to the tank must never be left uncovered1 except for the few minutes while the tank is being filled4 ,the greatest care is required in using a gasoline stove2 in fact1 they are so dangerous1 that they should not be highly recommended for household use4 ,the description and care of them are given here because some persons persist in using them when they desire a quick1 hot fire in cases where fuel gas is not available4 #cc4 ,when a ,burner ,blazes and ,cannot ,be ,controlled4 ,when a gasoline stove burner blazes and cannot be controlled1 first close the valve leading from the tank into the pipe4 ,there will then be little gasoline to burn1 and no gases can get back into the tank4 ,keep clothing and water away from the blaze4 ,remember that the stove is set on a metal frame which is not inflammable4 ,shield walls and other objects so that the burner may blaze high without doing damage4 ,clothing catches fire easily1 but the metal stove will not be consumed4 ,if the valves are shut1 the blaze will cease when the gasoline has burnt out of the burner and pipe4 ,if the gasoline continues to flow out of the burner in spite of turning the valve and there is a danger of its spreading to the floor or table1 set a shallow pan under the stove to catch the gasoline4 ,it can burn in this way with considerable safety4 ,do not attempt to carry a burning stove4 ,simply protect floor1 walls and furniture from catching fire1 and let the gasoline burn4 #cd4 ,changing ,fuel in ,vapor ,stoves4 ,there are some stoves which are interchangeable1 in that they may be adjusted to burn kerosene1 gasoline or distillate4 ,these are of the type called vapor because they change the oil to gas before it is ignited4 ,a change from one kind of fuel to another should never be made without thoroly cleaning the stove and adjusting it to the fuel that is to be used4 #ce4 ,operation of ,vapor ,stoves4 ,it is safest to use kerosene in these stoves4 ,distillate is a name given to a different mineral oil product from kerosene or gasoline4 ,to work well1 these burners must be kept clean4 7,fig4 #ag-;a47 ,the operation of the stove is simple4 ,put enough fuel1 such as alcohol1 into a burner to heat it hot enough to change the oil to be used to gas and ignite it4 ,after the burner has heated for three or four minutes1 turn on the fuel valve in the pipe which leads from the tank to the burner4 ,the fuel will light from the burning alcohol already in the burner4 ,adjust the height of the flame by valve1 which regulates the amount of fuel flowing into the burner4 ,if anything boils over1 put out the fire4 ,close the valve4 ,remove the parts of the burner4 ,clean and wipe them dry4 ,replace the parts of the burner1 and1 if not cool1 turn on the fuel and light4 ,if cool1 heat as for first lighting1 and turn on the fuel4 ,extinguish the fire by closing the valve which stops the flow of oil to the burner4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,electric ,,stoves ,electric stoves consist of frame1 heating unit and switches to regulate the flow of current4 ,some are equipped with oven1 thermometers and special utensils 7,fig4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,stove equipped with utensils4 #cf4 ,heating ,unit of ,electric ,stove4 ,the heating unit consists of coils of wire or a plate of metal thru which the current flows1 meeting resistance and producing heat4 ,if the current flowed freely thru the wires1 little heat would be generated 7,figs4 #ai and #bj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,heating unit of electric stove4 #cg4 ,wiring of ,stoves4 ,it is advocated that a separate circuit of heavy wire be put into all houses where current is used for purposes other than lighting1 to provide for cooking and power connections4 ,too heavy loading of wires with electric appliances causes the burning of fuses and sometimes damages the electric system4 ,find out how much current the wiring of the house will carry before attaching new devices4 ,there is danger of fire if too much current is allowed to pass over a wire of too small size4 #ch4 ,operation of ,electric ,stoves4 ,many stoves are equipped with a switch which permits different amounts of current to pass thru the stove according to the way the device is set4 ,at one point it gives low heat2 another1 medium1 and a third1 high heat1 and1 lastly1 no heat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,heating unit of electric stove4 ,the cooking of food on an open burner should be started with high heat turned on so that the food may cook quickly4 ,if a large amount of food is cooking1 there will be so much radiation from the vessel that it may require all the current to keep it cooking4 ,after food has started cooking1 the switch can be turned to medium1 and1 later1 to low1 depending upon the amount of food and the temperature desired4 ,low will keep an ordinary pan of water boiling1 once it has started4 ,a few minutes before the food is to be removed from the open burner1 the current should be turned off1 as the heat in the stove will continue the cooking for several minutes4 ,from tests of electric stoves1 it appears that in most of them the food will continue to cook after the switch is turned off for about the same number of minutes that it requires to raise the heating unit to a temperature sufficient to boil water in a small shallow pan4 ,a housekeeper who is using electricity for cooking can soon learn how long the open burners and oven of her stove will keep food cooking after the current is turned off1 and by putting this information to use1 she can save many dollars in a year4 #ci4 ,care of ,electric ,stoves4 ,when thru with a stove1 always turn off the current4 ,great care should be taken that the stoves do not become overheated4 ,this shortens the life of the stove4 ,sudden cooling of the coils of wire caused by liquids spilling on them1 and corrosion of the wires caused by dampness1 wear out stoves faster than need be4 ,do not wash or brush dirt from burners having open coils of wire4 ,burn all dirt from the burners4 #dj4 ,utensils for ,electric ,stoves4 ,the most economical use of electricity can be secured with utensils built around the heating units 7,figs4 #bj and #ba71 and the next most economical use with utensils built especially to fit the heating units4 ,this means that there would be a heating unit for each utensil1 or size of utensil1 and the expense of equipment would be considerable4 ,also1 more care would be needed in washing the utensils and in preventing them from becoming bent4 ,such facts must be considered in choosing between stoves with special devices and those on which any pan may be set4 ,after installing an electric stove1 start with new utensils because they will not blacken on an electric stove1 and so can be washed with the other dishes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,utensil with heating unit4 ,when ordinary household utensils are used1 they should be of such shape that they stand flat1 as they also should on a coal range4 ,the most economical use of heat is secured when the area of heat is smaller than the area of the bottom of the kettle and is concentrated on the utensil4 ,care should be taken when stoves are installed1 that they are properly grounded so that they cannot burn any one4 ,a light bulb is attached to some stoves so that when the current is on the light burns1 and when it is off1 the light goes out4 ,such a light should be on all large stoves4 #da4 ,detachable ,cooking ,devices4 ,cooking and heating devices should have larger wires than those for lighting alone4 ,consequently1 the attachment of a heating device in a common light socket may cause burning out of fuses or other damage4 ,one danger in using detachable electric devices occurs in not turning off the current when the stove is not in use1 thus permitting it to become overheated4 ,this shortens the life of the stove4 ,any tendency of a stove or other electric device to give people a shock when being used should be taken as a warning to have the device examined by an expert and the trouble corrected4 ,have the wires repaired as soon as the insulation breaks or burns off4 ,uninsulated wires1 such as cables and cords1 are unsafe4 ,,chapter ,v ,,alcohol1 ,,acetylene1 ,,and ,,canned ,,heat #db4 ,alcohol ,stoves4 ,alcohol stoves are made only in small sizes for light housekeeping4 ,there are three general types of these--those which burn with a wick1 those which generate gas1 and those which permit the alcohol to burn off of the top surface of the container4 ,alcohol does not produce much smoke in burning1 even when no provision is made for mixing air with it4 ,the ordinary alcohol lamp1 having a wick1 may be used as a heating stove4 ,stoves with wicks draw the alcohol up by capillary attraction to the point of ignition1 and the metal jacket about the wick prevents the fire burning back into the bowl containing the alcohol4 ,the char from the top of the wick must be brushed off from time to time4 ,no other care is needed for these stoves or lamps4 ,some of them are provided with devices for checking the burning of the alcohol in order to regulate the heat4 ,this is desirable since a small flame of alcohol produces much heat4 ,extinguish the fire by covering the wick with a metal cup4 #dc4 ,vapor ,stoves4 ,alcohol vapor stoves which generate gas hold the alcohol in a tank slightly raised above the level of the burner4 ,a pipe leads from this to the burner1 where a small stream of alcohol is permitted to enter when the valve is open4 ,when starting these stoves1 the valve is first opened and enough alcohol allowed to flow out to fill a cup which is below the burner4 ,this generally holds about a tablespoonful of alcohol4 ,when the cup is full1 the valve is closed and the alcohol in the cup ignited4 ,this heats the burner enough to vaporize the alcohol4 ,when the burner is heated1 open the valve and ignite the gas4 ,if all the alcohol is not vaporized1 the burner has not been heated hot enough4 ,close the valve until all the alcohol in the cup is burnt4 #dd4 ,wickless ,stoves4 ,wickless alcohol stoves are used commonly on chafing dishes4 ,the burner of one type consists of a metal dish packed with a porous material which is non-inflammable1 but a good conductor of liquids by capillary attraction1 and the top is covered over by a wire screen4 ,the alcohol is poured into the dish4 ,the packing and screen prevent air from entering the bowl with sufficient rapidity to let the fire burn below the screen so the flame stays above it1 burning off any alcohol which is conducted to the surface4 ,the only possible way to control these stoves is by a device which can cut off air4 ,one of these is a plate-like device with a handle4 ,this fits over the stove and only that portion of the top burns which is exposed to air through the hole in the plate4 ,making the hole larger or smaller makes the burning surface larger or smaller4 ,to extinguish the fire1 cover the entire top with a solid plate to cut off all air4 #de4 ,canned ,heat4 ,canned heat is alcohol combined with other substances into a cake about the consistency of hard soap4 ,the cover to the can is used to extinguish the fire4 ,it should not be fitted into the top of the can until the flame has been extinguished for two or three seconds4 ,then it should be fitted on as tight as possible to prevent waste alcohol by vaporization4 #df4 ,acetylene ,gas ,stoves4 ,by adjustment of the amount of air that enters the burner1 acetylene may be burnt in a gas stove4 ,usually a cap is placed over the air hole while the gas is being ignited4 ,this is removed as soon as the gas is lighted1 so that it will burn with a blue flame4 ,the use of the cap prevents burning back4 ,it is best1 however1 to use stoves especially designed for burning acetylene4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,fireless ,,and ,,steam ,,cookers #dg4 ,the ,fireless ,cooker4 ,the fireless cooker is a box or can having a diameter somewhat larger than that of the largest vessel to be placed in it4 ,the space left around the vessel is packed with some insulating material to keep in the heat 7,fig4 #bb74 ,in home-made cookers1 this material may be hay1 feathers1 pillows1 shredded newspapers1 wood shavings or sawdust4 ,in commercially-made cookers1 it is felt1 asbestos wool1 cork1 or other insulating material4 ,because most insulating material will not stay in place and readily absorbs moisture and odors1 some kind of lining is put between it and the vessel holding the food4 ,this makes a little nest1 into which the vessel fits4 ,in the better made cookers1 this lining is made of metal1 and the seams are water-tight4 ,the steam from the cooking food is absorbed by the insulating material if this lining is not impervious to water4 ,enameled or earthen linings1 if well glazed1 would also serve this purpose as long as they did not chip or crack4 ,the cover1 as well as the sides1 of the fireless cooker has to be padded with the insulating material4 ,the cover must also fit well so that the steam and heat will not escape thru cracks between it and the body of the cooker4 #dh4 ,the ,stones of ,fireless ,cookers4 ,the stones for fireless cookers are usually made of soapstone or some composite which will absorb considerable heat4 ,they should be slightly smaller in diameter than the nest4 ,they can only be used with safety in cookers which are metal-lined and insulated with material which will not ignite at a low temperature4 ,stones should not be put in home-made cookers which are not insulated with asbestos or other fireproof material4 ,hot stones can be used with safety in any of the commercial cookers which come fitted with them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,section of fireless cooker4 ,the temperature in a fireless cooker is below boiling most of the time4 ,it is1 therefore1 a device for simmering food1 and should be used for cooking meats1 fruits1 vegetables and cereal dishes which require or are improved by long1 slow cooking4 ,since the food has to be shut in a fireless cooker to keep in the heat1 fireless cookery is a method of steaming of food4 ,for this reason1 it has a slightly different flavor from food baked in the oven1 much as fried food differs from roasted food4 ,hot stones 7,fig4 #bb7 are put in most fireless cookers4 ,the heat from these brown the food and give to the otherwise steamed food a flavor similar to that developed in baking1 roasting and frying4 #di4 ,heating the ,stones4 ,moisture given off by the cooking food is absorbed by the stones4 ,they must be dried or heated very slowly to prevent this moisture from cracking them4 ,when the stones have been removed from the cooker1 wash them1 because they absorb odors from the food4 ,keep them in some warm1 dry place while they are not in use1 such as in the warming oven of the cook stove or on a radiator4 ,when wanted for use1 they will then be dry enough to be placed over the gas-stove burner if it is not turned too high at first4 ,drying thus saves time when the stones are needed4 #ej4 ,care of the ,cooker4 ,the cooker should be left open to air while not in use4 ,as soon as the food and stones are removed from it1 the moisture should be wiped out and the inside washed with soap and water1 wiped dry and left to air4 ,such care is needed to prevent the cooker from taking on the odor of dishes previously cooked and transmitting some of them to those cooked later4 #ea4 ,other ,devices ,belonging to ,cookers4 ,in most commercial cookers there are wire devices to raise the dishes of food from the stone 7,fig4 #bc74 ,this prevents scorching and boiling over when the stones are heated very hot4 ,these devices are also used to hold a hot stone above the food to make a brown crust on it4 ,some cookers are furnished with valves1 permitting the escape of steam when it becomes too abundant4 ,the pressure of the steam automatically opens the valve4 ,this device insures the cooking of certain vegetables1 cereals or doughs without their becoming too soggy to be palatable 7,a1 ,fig4 #bc74 #eb4 ,directions for ,using the ,cooker4 ,put the stones on to heat4 ,prepare the food as for cooking in any other way4 ,then heat it1 either in the oven or on top of the stove4 ,it is preferable to heat the food in the same vessel in which it is to be cooked in the fireless cooker4 ,transferring food to a cold vessel entails a loss of heat1 since the first vessel is already heated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,devices for fireless cooker4 ,when the stones and food are hot1 place the stone in the bottom of the cooker4 ,put in any asbestos mats or other devices which are needed to protect the food4 ,the stone should be hot enough to respond to the test for flat irons4 ,it should make the snappy noise of a good hot iron when the finger is moistened and touched to it4 ,place the food in the cooker4 ,place another stone above the utensil if it is desirable to have the food brown on top4 ,close the fireless cooker1 and let it stand until ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,gas cookers4 #ec4 ,time of ,cooking ,food4 ,six hours or over night should be allowed for the cooking of cereals4 ,stews should be given two to three hours' time for cooking4 ,large roasts and hams require five to six hours4 ,it is sometimes necessary1 when they are large1 to remove them and heat the food and the stones on the stove once during the process of cooking4 ,dumplings and angel cakes cook well in a fireless cooker4 ,so do all dried peas and beans4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,steam cooker4 ,it is profitable to cook foods requiring more than forty minutes' heating in a fireless cooker4 ,the heating unit is a part of some cookers4 ,electric cookers1 instead of being furnished with stones to be put inside the nest1 have a heating unit and plate for holding heat in the cooker4 ,cold food may be put into this cooker1 the current turned on1 and the heating and cooking all be done inside the cooker4 ,the electric oven which is well insulated answers the purpose of a fireless cooker when the current is disconnected4 ,either a thermometer1 which the housewife may watch1 or thermostat1 which controls the current1 must be attached to electric cookers to prevent burning the food or injuring the cooker with too much heat4 #ed4 ,gas ,cookers4 ,since heated air rises1 special cookers in the form of insulated caps are made to put over dishes of food heated on gas burners 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the inside of the cap must be kept clean4 ,get the dishes hot with the cap suspended over the food1 but leaving about an inch space for the escape of gases from the heating unit4 ,as soon as the food and cap have been sufficiently heated over the fire1 turn off the gas and lower the cap so that it will retain the heat4 ,after the cooker has been used1 it should be wiped out clean2 otherwise it will retain some of the odors of the cooked food4 #ee4 ,steam ,cookers4 ,there are several steam cookers in use in homes4 ,the simplest of these is a covered pan which has a perforated bottom1 which is set over another pan 7,a1 ,fig4 #be71 in which water is placed for forming steam4 ,one of the difficulties of this cooker is that the water in the lower pan cannot be watched and may boil dry4 ,on the more improved cookers a whistling device 7,b1 ,fig4 #be7 is attached to the pan1 and when the water becomes low and steam ceases to flow through it1 air begins to come in1 and the device makes a whistling noise4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,i #a4 ,what is smoke8 ,under what conditions is the greatest amount of heat for cooking or other household purposes produced from fuel8 #b4 ,how is an oven made to heat evenly8 #c4 ,explain the purpose of each draft and damper on a stove4 #d4 ,observe the amount of fuel used in a coal stove from day to day4 ,make the same kind of observation for a gas or electric stove4 ,how was the stove managed when the least fuel was used8 #e4 ,describe the construction of a gas stove4 ,find the vent thru which the gas enters the burner4 ,is this large or small8 #f4 ,where is the air regulator8 ,for what is it used8 #g4 ,what has happened when the gas in a burner burns back8 #h4 ,how should a kerosene stove be regulated8 ,how should it be cared for8 #i4 ,what precautions should you take against fire from kerosene and gasoline stoves8 #aj4 ,describe the heating unit of an electric stove4 #aa4 ,how may electric current be saved in the operation of an electric stove8 #ab4 ,how does a fireless cooker cook food8 #ac4 ,how may one determine when it is economical to use a fireless cooker8 ,,part ,,ii ,,heating ,,devices ,,chapter ,,vii ,,warm-,,air ,,furnaces #ef4 ,principle ,upon ,which a ,furnace ,works4 ,the success of warm-air heating depends on a natural circulation of air thruout all the rooms which are to be heated4 ,the air is the vehicle of transmission of the heat from the fire to the rooms to be warmed4 ,a warm-air furnace is simply a large stove encased in a sheet-metal jacket 7,figs4 #bf and #bg74 ,the jacket is usually insulated with asbestos1 since the stove is set in the basement where radiation of heat is not desired4 ,the air entering the casing is warmed by the stove4 ,as the air is warmed1 it expands and becomes lighter1 so rises to the top of the furnace2 from here it is conducted to the rooms above4 ,the warm air which has passed upward must be replaced by cooler air entering at the bottom of the jacket4 ,in the rooms above1 there must be outlets for the cold air1 already in them1 so that it may be replaced by the incoming warm air4 ,cold-air shafts from the floor leading downward serve as outlets4 ,sometimes they return the cooled air to the base of the furnace jacket4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,warm-air furnace4 #eg4 ,the ,stove ,part4 ,the stove part of the hot-air furnace consists of a fire pot supported above a place where the ashes may fall and a chimney to carry off smoke4 ,the draft below the grate in the fire pot lets in air which is essential to the proper burning of the fuel4 ,in this respect1 it is similar to a cook stove4 ,a draft above the fire when opened a little lets in air which aids in the complete combustion of the gases given off by the fuel4 ,burning these gases adds to the amount of heat secured from the fuel4 ,opening the draft wider checks the burning of the fire4 ,there should be a damper in the smoke pipe4 ,when this is closed1 it checks the draft up the chimney4 ,this is needed because some chimneys often draw up air too fast to make the fire burn well4 ,when checking the fire1 close the draft below1 open the one above the fire box1 and close the one in the pipe4 ,to make the fire burn fast1 open the draft below1 close the one above the fire box1 and open the one in the pipe4 ,remember that a fire will not burn well if there is too much draft4 ,adjust the drafts until the fire burns with a clear1 bright flame without giving off smoke4 ,after a fire is built1 the manner of adding fuel makes a difference in the efficiency of the furnace4 ,when using coal1 add it in rather small amounts1 spreading it in a layer over the entire fire4 ,do not make this layer so thick that the fire smokes4 ,the fuel will not burn with a clear flame if the fire is being smothered4 ,much fuel is wasted by ignorant and careless management of furnaces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,circulation of warm air4 #eh4 ,the ,cold-,air ,shaft4 ,it is through a cold-air shaft that the cooler air comes into the furnace4 ,some furnaces have this built so that it draws the cooling air from the rooms above down into the furnace to be heated again4 ,this is an economical arrangement4 ,some others draw fresh air from out of doors into the furnace1 letting the cold air from the rooms above drain into the cellar and out of doors4 ,this is more expensive1 as the air to be heated is usually colder1 but it has the advantage of helping ventilate the rooms by bringing a constant supply of fresh air4 ,the cold-air shaft leading from out of doors should have the outer end covered with wire mesh1 and a cloth which should be washed or renewed often4 ,never sweep dirt down a register or cold-air shaft4 ,it comes back into the room in time4 ,dust the registers occasionally4 ,in older heating systems1 there was but one large cold-air shaft to drain the cold air from the rooms above4 ,in more modern houses1 a cold-air shaft is placed in every room that may be shut off from the others4 ,this does away with the old difficulty of heating a closed room1 for it is as important that the colder air gets out as that the warm air gets in4 #ei4 ,hot-,air ,pipes4 ,the hot-air pipes lead from the top of the jacket about the furnace to the floor above4 ,in most houses1 one pipe goes to each room4 ,this is unnecessary if the rooms are not closed off1 but if they are1 they need the pipe entering the room4 ,to economize with heat and regulate the amount of air passing up these pipes1 there must be a shutter in them1 near the furnace1 as well as in the register4 ,this shutter is placed near the furnace so that no heat passes into the pipe when not wanted in the room to which it leads4 ,this saves waste in radiation from the pipe in the cellar4 ,when a room is not in use1 close this damper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,pipeless furnace4 ,since warmed air will continue to travel upward so long as it stays warmer than the air above1 it is important that the pipes have a continuous rise thruout their entire length1 the in some parts the rise may have to be only very slight4 ,the shorter the pipes1 the better1 for there will be less loss of heat from radiation on the way to the rooms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,one-room1 hot-air heater4 #fj4 ,location of the ,furnace4 ,a central location for the furnace is best because the pipes may be shorter1 and this makes possible a greater elevation per foot of each pipe1 so that the air can flow thru it faster4 ,a central location also permits a uniform distribution of pipes about the furnace1 which1 in turn1 produces a more even flow of air to all the rooms4 ,the air from the hot register rises to the top of the room1 or1 if the way is open1 to the top of the house4 ,here it spreads over the upper area4 ,as it cools or is displaced by still hotter air1 it falls4 ,when it reaches the floor1 it flows down the cold-air shaft in the floor4 ,if the cold-air shaft is not in the floor1 there may be a layer of colder air there so the room will not be comfortable4 #fa4 ,air4 ,there is a constant change of air in all houses1 due to opening of doors and the fact that walls are not air-tight4 ,this may not be enough for comfort4 ,if a room is not heating well1 it has been found that opening the window to change the air in the room1 even when the outside air is very cold1 helps in the circulation of air in the room1 and so with the warming of it4 ,it is difficult to warm a room filled with stagnant air4 #fb4 ,pipeless ,furnaces4 ,the pipeless furnace works on the same principle as the one with pipes 7,fig4 #bh74 ,one large opening above the furnace lets the heat in to some central room1 and from here it circulates into all other rooms not closed off from the central room4 ,the cold-air shaft may be around the opening for heated air4 ,stoves encased in a metal jacket that operate like hot-air furnaces 7,fig4 #bi7 are used in heating one-room schoolhouses and other small public buildings4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,hot-,,water ,,system ,,of ,,heating #fc4 ,equipment for ,hot-,water ,heat4 ,the hot-water system of heating a house consists of a boiler in the basement or below the level of the lowest radiator4 ,this boiler is designed to heat water as it circulates through coils over the fire 7,fig4 #cj74 ,from the boiler1 pipes lead to radiators and an expansion tank1 and return pipes bring the cold water back to the bottom of the boiler 7,fig4 #ca74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,garland furnace with hot-water boiler4 ,the heat from the furnace fire causes the water to circulate through this system of boiler1 pipes1 radiators and tank1 due to the fact that hot water is lighter than cold water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,hot-water heating system4 #fd4 ,heating ,unit4 ,the heating unit of a hot-water system is like any stove consisting of a fire pot and grate4 ,some are adjustable so that different kinds of fuel may be used4 ,a gas burner is sometimes placed in the fire pot and used for heating a furnace1 but this is one of the most wasteful ways of using gas4 ,a real gas furnace is much more economical4 ,the fire and heat from the fire circulate around the coils containing the water4 ,if the coils are not constantly kept full of water1 they will be injured by the heat4 #fe4 ,the ,management of the ,fire4 ,when burning coal1 spread the coal all over the surface of the fire in a thin layer so as not to smother it and thus make it burn with a smoky flame4 ,keep the ashes cleaned out from underneath the fire and around the fire pot4 ,clean the flues every forty-eight hours4 ,soot on the coils is more effective than asbestos would be in keeping heat from penetrating to the water4 ,regulate the fire with the drafts4 ,open the one below the fire box to let in air to aid combustion4 ,open the one found in most furnace doors a very little4 ,this aids in the combustion of gases1 thus making more economical use of the fuel1 while opening it wider checks the burning of the fire4 ,broken and warped doors and drafts let in too much air and destroy the efficiency of the heater4 ,open the chimney damper1 shown in ,fig4 #b1 ,sec4 #c1 admitting air to check the draft4 ,close the chimney or pipe damper of the type of cook stove shown in ,fig4 #b1 ,sec4 #c1 to check the draft up the chimney4 #ff4 ,the ,pipes4 ,the pipe carrying the hot water from the boiler out to the heating system leads to the expansion tank1 the sometimes separate pipes lead from the boiler to a radiator4 ,insulate each pipe1 except the part in the room to be heated1 with asbestos or some other covering1 to keep the heat in it4 ,keep the pipes full of water4 ,when they are installed1 see that they are put in so that they gradually rise upward4 ,if they dip downward at any point1 air will collect at these places and check the circulation of hot water thru pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,expansion tank4 #fg4 ,expansion ,tank4 ,the expansion tank 7,a1 ,fig4 #ca1 and ,fig4 #cb71 placed somewhat higher than the top of the highest radiator1 is fitted with an overflow1 for water expands as it is heated4 ,if the expansion tank is closed so that the overflow pipe will not open except under pressure after the air in the tank has become compressed by the expansion of the water1 a higher temperature in the pipes may be reached1 but such a furnace must be given more careful attention than one with an open expansion tank4 ,learn to know the parts of a heating system and how they operate before trying to manage it4 #fh4 ,water4 ,fill the boiler and radiators full of water1 and add enough more to partly fill the expansion tank4 ,from time to time1 note the height of water in the tank1 to know if more must be added4 ,do not add water when unnecessary1 as fresh water tends to rust pipes faster than water from which the carbon dioxide and air have been exhausted4 ,to note the height of water1 read the gage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,vents for radiators4 ,if there is much sediment in the water used1 this must be drawn off from the bottom of the boiler to prevent its accumulating there4 ,when this is done1 fresh water must be added to replace the water drawn off4 ,loss of water from evaporation must also be replaced4 ,no water should be put into the system except to replace such loss4 ,do not draw the water out of the system1 and refill it from time to time4 ,the practice of changing the water in the furnace rusts it more than keeping the same water in it all the time4 #fi4 ,radiators4 ,radiators 7,b1 ,fig4 #ca7 are made of rather complicated coils of pipe1 so often an accumulation of air lodges in them4 ,this interferes with the circulation of the water and the radiator does not get hot4 ,there usually is a vent 7,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #cc7 attached to each radiator to let out air which collects there4 ,if a radiator does not heat well1 open the air vent until the air ceases to flow from it and water comes2 then close it4 ,valves should be placed at places where cold water collects in bad plumbing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,radiators under floor4 ,in very cold weather1 do not entirely shut off the valve of the pipe leading to any radiator1 as the circulation of a little warm water is needed to keep it from freezing4 ,radiators may be placed under the floor 7,fig4 #cd7 when so desired4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,steam-,,heating ,,systems ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,steam furnace4 #gj4 ,equipment for ,steam ,heat4 ,a steam-heating system consists of a boiler1 a fire pot1 pipes from the boiler leading to the radiators1 and radiators 7,fig4 #ce74 ,on some systems1 return pipes are provided to carry condensed steam or water back to the lower part of the boiler4 ,a safety valve 7,fig4 #cf7 is attached to steam-heating systems instead of an expansion tank4 ,this keeps the pressure of the steam in the boiler from becoming too great1 and thereby prevents an explosion4 ,the pressure gage 7,b1 ,fig4 #ce7 must be set1 and1 when set1 should only be changed by a person understanding it4 ,build and manage the fire for a steam boiler the same as for any stove or furnace4 ,keep water in the boiler at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 so steam may form1 for without it1 the radiators will not be heated4 ,small valves are attached to most steam radiators4 ,their purpose is to let out air1 which accumulates in the radiator4 ,as soon as the steam begins to come into the radiator1 it forces the air out of the valve4 ,when it reaches the valve1 the heat in the steam causes part of the valve to expand and close the outlet1 which is small4 ,when the radiator is hot1 steam should not escape1 provided the valves are in good working order4 ,there is a gage 7,fig4 #cg7 furnished with each boiler which shows how much water is in it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,safety valve4 ,keep enough water in the boiler to come within certain lines on the indicator4 ,the top of one of these lines is usually six or eight inches from the top of the boiler4 ,there is always some variation in the amount of water in steam furnaces on account of the formation and condensation of the steam in pipes and radiators4 ,see that the boiler is never empty1 but do not put in fresh water except when necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,water gage for steam plant4 ,the space above the water in the boiler is left for steam4 ,the loss of water from a boiler in good working order is thru the air valves in the radiators4 ,if the furnace is properly managed1 very little water should be lost during the course of a year1 so there is little need for adding water4 ,some furnaces have two pipes to the radiators4 ,when steam is shut off from a radiator1 the valve leading to the pipe which carries off the water from condensed steam must be closed1 also1 to prevent the pressure of the steam in the boiler from forcing water from the boiler up this pipe4 ,this may happen because the pipe draining the water from the radiators enters the furnace near the bottom of the boiler4 ,the steam being retained in the furnace presses down on the water and so may force water up the drain pipe1 if it is not closed1 instead of raising the safety valve4 ,carelessness of this kind may work much damage1 for by this means all the water from the furnace can be forced up into the radiators1 leaving the boiler empty4 ,this makes it important that every woman should understand the steam-heating system in her home4 ,some steam-heating systems have a check valve in the pipe which returns water to the boiler4 ,this valve permits water to flow thru it in but one direction2 that is1 toward the boiler4 ,this prevents a rush of water from the boiler to the radiators4 ,steam furnaces1 also1 are often equipped with another safety-valve device1 which is a plug of metal which melts at a rather low temperature and is placed in the boiler directly over the fire4 ,if the water line in the boiler falls low1 this plug melts and steam from the boiler puts out the fire1 thus saving the furnace from damage4 ,however1 melting out the plug makes much work both in replacing the plug and in cleaning the fire box to rebuild the fire1 so that it should not be depended upon to regulate the heat in the boiler4 ,knocking in steam radiators occurs most often in those systems using the inlet steam pipe for the return of the water which has formed as a result of condensation4 ,it is caused by water accumulating at some point and the steam coming up the pipe1 violently forcing it back into the radiator4 ,this only reaches a danger point in systems which do not have pipes of the proper size1 or when the pipes do not slope gradually downward1 so that all the water may flow back to the furnace4 ,on cold days1 there will be some knocking in a steam radiator when it is being heated in the morning4 ,a two-pipe system1 while it is somewhat more expensive1 is less subject to this trouble4 #ga4 ,steam ,gages4 ,steam gages 7,b1 ,fig4 #ce7 are devices for indicating the pressure of steam within an inclosure4 ,they are a kind of spring balance4 ,when the pressure of the steam increases1 it pushes up on the spring1 and this turns the hand of the indicator1 which shows the number of pounds of pressure that the steam is exerting on the inside of the boiler or container4 #gb4 ,safety ,valve4 ,a safety valve 7,fig4 #cf and ,a1 ,fig4 #ch7 consists of a small opening to a boiler over which is a weight4 ,when steam is developed until it makes enough pressure on the inside of the valve to raise this weight1 some of the steam escapes1 thus lowering the pressure on the inside until the weight falls back into place4 ,never let anything interfere with the action of safety valves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,heating plant showing safety valve4 ,most safety valves have the weight attached to a lever which has a movable weight on it so that the position of the weight on the lever makes a difference in the number of pounds of pressure required to open the valve4 ,by means of this device1 the temperature of the inside of the boiler can be kept at one heat or another as desired1 since this temperature increases or decreases with the pressure under which the steam is held4 ,thus1 fifteen pounds pressure means a different temperature from ten pounds pressure4 ,be sure to adjust the weight for the temperature desired4 ,pushing the weight toward the valve lessens the amount of pressure needed to open the valve4 ,there is usually a steam gage on boilers to indicate the temperature and pounds of pressure inside4 ,when the indicator reaches the point desired1 the safety valve may be set so that all steam in excess of the desired amount will escape4 ,when this is done1 the temperature will be held constant in the boiler so long as a good fire under it is maintained4 ,,chapter ,x ,,fireplaces ,,and ,,heating ,,stoves #gc4 ,construction of ,fireplace4 ,fireplaces are an enlargement in the base of a chimney where fire is built4 ,the upper part of the fireplace is sloped forward1 and1 in some cases1 a damper is placed in the chimney to regulate the flow of air upward4 ,the damper should not be so constructed that it will close entirely1 for if it did1 the smoke would come into the room4 ,the fire in the fireplace burns best when the fuel is put in a grate or on andirons so that air can get under it and be drawn thru it by the draft of the chimney4 ,a steady draft makes the combustion of the fuel complete and thus prevents smoking4 ,the hearth is made of fireproof material and should be wide enough to catch all sparks flying from the fire4 ,a screen is often needed for safety from fire4 ,do not pile reserved fuel or put rugs on the hearth4 ,fireplaces and chimneys should be built of fireproof brick1 stone or concrete4 ,have them examined once a year for cracks1 as these make them unsafe4 ,the walls of the chimney and the fireplace should be thick enough to prevent danger from fire4 #gd4 ,management of ,fireplace4 ,the management of a fireplace is very simple4 ,the draft up the chimney should be properly regulated so that the fire does not smoke4 ,sparks and bits of fuel should not be drawn up the chimney4 ,the fire should be built so that it is not smothered4 ,air should circulate thru the fuel4 ,keep the ashes cleared away4 ,there are some fireplaces which are intended to heat rooms after the manner of hot-air furnaces4 ,the heat and smoke from the fire pass upward thru a metal heater1 encased by an air chamber4 ,much of the heat passes thru the metal1 warming the air in the chamber4 ,this warmed air passes thru pipes and registers into the rooms1 while the smoke finds its way to the chimney4 ,to complete the circulation of air1 the cold air from the floor passes into the air chamber near the floor at the sides of the fireplace4 ,sometimes fresh air from the outside of the building is mixed with the air in the chamber4 ,if there is an opening in the floor of the fireplace1 a damper should be put in this opening to regulate the flow of air4 ,the heater in a fireplace must be kept free from soot and ashes4 ,if the metal is covered with soot1 heat will not readily pass thru it1 and the soot will collect moisture and cause rusting4 ,one way to keep the heater clean is to regulate the draft up the chimney so that ashes and bits of burning fuel are not drawn into it4 ,also1 the fire should be kept burning with a clear 7not smoky7 blaze4 ,soot is unburnt fuel4 #ge4 ,operating ,heating ,stoves4 ,a stove is a device for holding the fuel and for permitting the heat to pass readily into the room4 ,in the stove there is space below the fire for collecting ashes4 ,there is an opening for fresh air to enter below the fuel1 to aid combustion1 and a damper above to act as a check draft when open1 a chimney to carry off smoke1 and one or two dampers in the chimney to regulate the draft4 ,when a fire is being built1 close the draft over the fire box and open the one below2 open the damper in the chimney--this allows the free passage of the air up the chimney4 #gf4 ,care of the ,stove4 ,do not permit a large bed of ashes to accumulate in the bottom of a stove4 ,a thin layer of ashes must be kept in the bottom of some wood stoves to keep the fire away from the metal bottom4 ,the polish or finish of the stove is a matter of taste4 ,some stoves are made of iron1 which does not need blacking2 some must be blacked4 ,blacking keeps them from rusting4 ,all must be kept free from dust and dirt1 as this accumulates moisture and causes the stove to rust4 ,letting the stove get red hot warps it4 ,it should not be permitted to get so hot4 ,the grate 7,fig4 #c7 in stoves holds the fuel so that air can flow up thru it4 ,if the grate is clogged with ashes1 this cannot happen4 ,the grate should be shaken to make the ashes drop thru4 ,a clean grate is important to the complete combustion of the fuel4 ,shaking after glowing coals begin to fall is a waste of fuel4 ,when an attempt to shake the grate is made1 it may suddenly refuse to move4 ,in this case1 something may have lodged between its parts1 or it may have been shaken from its proper position4 ,shaking the stove too hard may displace the grate4 ,the common remedy for a displaced grate is to let the fire go out1 remove all ashes and cinders1 and readjust the grate4 ,some kinds of soft coal form clinkers1 and these catch in the grate4 ,in burning fuel that makes clinkers1 shake the ashes from the fire several times a day4 ,remove all accumulations in the fire box daily4 ,clinkers are made from substances which melt and recombine1 forming a different material which is quite hard and does not burn4 ,constant attention to the fire prevents clinkers from forming in large masses4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,gas1 ,,electric ,,and ,,kerosene ,,heaters #gg4 ,kinds of ,gas ,heaters4 ,there are several types of gas heaters--those using an illuminating flame and reflector1 those fitted with a ,bunsen burner and an asbestos back1 and those heating water in a device like a radiator4 ,the last two burn with a blue flame4 ,all gas stoves ought to be fitted with a flue for discharging the products of combustion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,gas heater showing air mixer4 #gh4 ,bunsen ,burner and ,asbestos-,back ,heater4 ,the burner is a long pipe punctured with holes extending across the stove4 ,there is an opening for mixing of air with the gas at the point where this pipe enters the stove1 and a valve to regulate the flow of gas 7,fig4 #ci74 #gi4 ,lighting ,gas ,stoves4 ,to light the stove1 open the valve1 count three1 and apply a lighted match to the burner4 ,counting three gives time for the pipe to fill with gas1 so that the fire will not flash back and burn in the air mixer4 #hj4 ,care of ,gas ,stoves4 ,the only care that this stove needs is to keep it polished so that it will not rust4 ,keep the burner clean of dust and soot4 ,be sure that the valve is entirely closed when the gas is turned off1 and that the pipes fit tight at all connections so that gas cannot leak into the room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,reflector gas heater4 #ha4 ,illuminating ,flame and ,bright ,metal ,reflector ,heaters4 ,these heaters are used with manufactured gas4 ,they burn with an illuminating flame since there is no device for mixing air with the gas as it enters the stove4 ,the bright metal reflector not only makes an attractive stove1 but reflects the heat out into the room4 ,some stoves are made with tips of aluminum or other non-corrosive metal over the openings in the burner 7,fig4 #dj74 ,gas logs are a type of gas heaters used in fireplaces 7,fig4 #da74 #hb4 ,gas ,radiator ,heaters4 ,gas radiators 7,fig4 #db7 are another type of gas heater4 ,the radiator is a coil of pipe4 ,the heating unit is below the coil and works like any other ,bunsen burner4 ,a small amount of water is kept in the pipes4 ,there is a device attached to the radiator to automatically adjust the height of the gas fire 7,a1 ,fig4 #db74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,gas logs4 #hc4 ,management of ,gas ,radiator4 ,put enough water in the radiator or coil of pipe to fill it to the depth of one inch4 ,keep this amount of water in it at all times4 ,light a match1 turn on the valve which lets gas flow into the burner1 wait for it to fill with gas1 and touch the match to the burner4 ,most of these heaters are fitted with thermostats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,gas radiators4 ,in about thirty minutes after lighting the gas1 the water will have formed enough steam inside the radiator to automatically turn the valve lowering the gas flame4 ,if the steam pressure falls low1 the thermostat will permit more gas to flow into the radiator by automatically opening the valve4 ,there is a safety valve attached to the side of the radiator which opens if the automatic device fails to close off the gas before the steam pressure inside becomes too great4 #hd4 ,kerosene ,heaters4 ,kerosene heating stoves have burners like those used on kerosene cook stoves4 7,see ,chapter ,,iii47 ,surrounding1 or about1 the burner is a jacketed air space4 ,here air is heated and rises to the upper part of the room while fresh air from the lower part of the room is drawn thru the jacket4 ,some heat is also given off by radiation4 ,fig4 #dc shows a picture of an oil heater4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,oil heater4 ,the burners of these stoves should be cared for the same way as the ones on cooking stoves4 ,the stove should be kept polished and free from dust4 ,this prevents it from rusting4 ,wipe off any kerosene which may accumulate on the outside1 for it makes an unpleasant odor4 ,take care in moving kerosene stoves not to jar the chimney or other parts of the burner out of place2 otherwise the stove will smoke4 ,when the stove is lighted1 turn the burner quite low4 ,the flame will become higher as the parts of the stove become heated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,electric heater4 #he4 ,electric ,heaters4 ,the electric heaters 7,fig4 #dd7 are composed of one or more coils of wire thru which the electric current flows with difficulty4 ,this heats the coils so hot that they glow4 ,a reflector throws the heat out into the room4 ,the coil and reflector are attached to a pedestal4 ,they are desirable for use in rooms which are not quite warm enough4 ,care must be taken to avoid getting an electric shock from electric heaters1 as from any other electrical appliances4 ,if the stove seems to be out of order1 have it put in order before using4 ,take care not to touch a water pipe or gas pipe at the same time when touching the heater in the bathroom1 as there is a possibility of getting a shock4 #hf4 ,acetylene ,heaters4 ,acetylene heaters are similar to the ,bunsen burner and asbestos-back gas heaters4 ,they are provided also with copper side reflectors4 ,they are used only in localities where gas or electricity cannot be had4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,ii #a4 ,what are the essentials in heating a house with a hot-air furnace8 #b4 ,how does the pipeless furnace differ from the other types8 #c4 ,explain the circulation of water thru a hot-water heating system4 #d4 ,what is the purpose of the expansion tank8 ,where should it be located8 #e4 ,describe a steam-heating system4 #f4 ,what care should be taken in managing a steam-heating system8 #g4 ,what precautions should be taken when using an electric heater8 ,,part ,,iii ,,lighting ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xii ,,electric ,,lights #hg4 ,kinds of ,electric ,lamps in ,use4 ,the electric lamps on the market now are either tungsten 7also called ,mazda7 or metallized carbon 7called gem carbon7 lamps4 ,of all lighting appliances1 electric lamps and systems are most easily cared for4 ,if properly selected1 they make an excellent light from the standpoint of hygiene4 ,it is important for every one to know enough about lighting to be able to select proper kinds and sizes of lamps4 #hh4 ,electrical ,measurements4 ,a volt is the unit of electric pressure which compares with the pound as the unit of water pressure4 ,an ampere is the unit of electricity flowing thru a wire which compares to the gallon as the unit of water per minute flowing thru a pipe4 ,a watt is the unit of electrical power4 ,it is determined by multiplying the volts by the amperes4 ,a kilowatt equals #ajjj watts4 ,a kilowatt hour equals #ajjj watt-hours4 ,a watt-hour is the amount of energy needed by a device which uses one watt and is operated for one hour4 ,for example1 a #be-watt lamp uses #be watts1 and if it is operated one hour1 it uses #be-watt hours of electricity4 ,the cost of burning an electric lamp is the number of watts marked on the lamp multiplied by the hours the lamp is burned1 and then translated into kilowatt hours and multiplied by the price per kilowatt hour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,direct light4 #hi4 ,carbon ,lamps4 ,few carbon lamps are being made now1 but they may still be obtained in some stores4 ,the carbon lamp can be distinguished from ,mazda lamps 7,fig4 #de7 by the appearance of the filament4 ,the carbon lamp gives about #j4dj candles of light per watt of electricity consumed4 ,carbon lamps burn1 making a yellow or reddish light1 and consume fully twice as much current as ,mazda lamps of the same candle power4 #ij4 ,mazda or ,tungsten ,lamps4 ,tungsten lamps are the ones in common use4 ,they give #j4hj to #a4jj candle of light to one watt of electricity used4 ,they have a filament of tungsten and may now be used in any position4 ,less electricity is required to bring tungsten to a glowing white heat than other materials used in lamps4 ,to compare the brightness of two lamps1 do not look at the filament1 but hold pieces of white material like paper at an equal distance from each lamp and compare the brightness of the surfaces2 or put an opaque object in front of the light and let a shadow be cast on another object4 ,the brighter light will cast a heavier shadow4 ,when substituting a new tungsten lamp for a carbon lamp1 select one about one-half the number of watts1 unless more light is wanted4 ,in houses1 it is a common practice to substitute a #dj-watt ,mazda for a #ej-watt gem carbon lamp1 thus saving ten watts per hour and getting more light4 #ia4 ,selecting ,lamps for a ,room4 ,there are so many possibilities for the use of electricity in lighting a house1 that it becomes a fine art4 ,when buying lights for a room1 consider 7#a7 the size of the room1 7#b7 the use of the room1 and 7#c7 the color of walls1 floors1 ceilings1 furnishings and decorations4 ,for lighting purposes1 lamps may be obtained ranging from #aj or less to more than #ajj-;candle power4 ,there are colored1 transparent and frosted globes4 ,there are reflectors and shades of various colors and patterns4 ,to obtain the same degree of illumination1 smaller lamps are needed in small rooms than in large ones4 #ib4 ,effect of ,color ,schemes ,upon ,illumination4 ,the color of the walls and furnishings makes a difference in the candle power required to give a certain amount of light4 ,those colors which absorb the most light require the higher candle power1 and those reflecting the highest per cent of light require the lower candle power4 ,the frosted globes absorb some light1 they diffuse the rest of it4 ,they dispense with the annoyance of glare from lamps1 and are useful in places where the full intensity of the lamps is not required4 ,the light absorbed by different colors varies considerably1 as shown by the accompanying table3 ,,table ,,showing ,,absorption ,,of ,,light ,,percentage ,,of ,,light ,,color ,,absorbed ,white #cj ,chrome yellow #ch ,orange #ej ,clean pine wood #ee ,yellow paper #fj ,yellow paint 7clean7 #fj ,light pink paper #fd ,dirty pine wood #hj ,dirty yellow paint #hj ,emerald green paper #hb ,dark brown paper #hg ,vermilion paper #hh ,blue green paper #hh ,cobalt green paper #hh ,deep chocolate paper #if #ic4 ,distribution of ,light4 ,light in rooms for general use should be distributed as evenly as possible thruout the entire room4 ,avoid excessive contrasts of brightness and darkness4 ,have the lamps shaded to diffuse the light so that no one need look directly at the filament4 ,when working by a light1 do not put the lamp very close to the material1 as this produces too strong contrasts of light and dark1 or1 when reading1 it produces too much reflection from the white parts of the paper1 which is trying on the eyes4 ,direct lighting means that the rays from the lamp go directly into the room 7,fig4 #de74 ,indirect lighting means that the rays are all directed toward a reflecting surface such as the ceiling 7,fig4 #df74 ,from here they are reflected1 giving an even amount of light to other parts of the room4 ,when directed toward the ceiling1 they make it the brightest part of the room4 ,a semi-indirect light avoids this difficulty 7,fig4 #dg74 ,in diffused lighting1 the lamp is covered1 as by frosting1 so that the rays of light are broken up and so scattered that no direct ray shines into the eyes1 and there is no bright spot of light in the room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,indirect light4 ,when costs must be limited1 certain decorative effects must be weighed for their value1 some being more expensive than others4 ,city lighting plants can provide current for any number of lamps in a house if it is properly wired4 ,if more lamps are attached than the wiring will carry1 and all are turned on1 the fuses will burn out4 ,electric plants for private homes 7see ,sec4 #bga7 usually furnish current of a different voltage from city electric plants1 so special equipment and lamps must be used with small plants4 ,inquire of the company who installed the wiring or electric system1 how many lights and other devices can be attached and for what voltage they should be made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,semi-indirect light4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,gas ,,light ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,mantles4 #id4 ,construction of ,mantles4 ,a mantle is a device made of thread saturated with some fireproof material like a mixture of thorium and cerium which will glow1 giving off a white light when heated hot4 ,the mantle 7,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #dh7 is placed over the burners of lamps using liquid or gaseous fuel4 ,the gas is mixed with air so that it burns with a blue flame4 ,the blue flame gives off little light1 but it does not smoke and is much hotter than a yellow flame4 ,when a mantle is placed over the blue flame1 it is heated with less fuel consumption than is required to make a yellow illuminating flame4 ,the light from the glow of the mantle is steadier and whiter than the light from an open flame1 so that it is more hygienic4 ,mantles are made in different patterns so that they may be used on upright and inverted burners4 ,the inverted mantle throws more light downward than an upright mantle4 ,this is advantageous in lighting a room1 for most of the light is wanted in the lower part of the room4 ,mantles can be used on lamps burning gas1 kerosene1 gasoline1 alcohol and acetylene if the burners are made to produce a blue flame4 7,see ,figs4 #dh and #eb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh-;a4 ,adjusting gas light4 #ie4 ,care of ,mantles4 ,strong jars and drafts will break mantles1 for they are very fragile4 ,the explosion caused by burning back when the lamp is being lighted is most destructive to mantles4 ,to save mantles1 wait until the lamp has filled with gas before touching the lighted match to it4 #if4 ,fixtures for ,burning ,gas4 ,gas will burn just as it escapes from a pipe4 ,the flame of burning gas is yellow and makes considerable light4 ,in order to secure more light for the amount of gas burned1 put a tip on the end of the pipe1 with a long1 narrow slit in the top to spread the flame4 ,these are usually lava tips4 ,natural gas gives very little light when burned in an open flame4 ,always burn it in mantle lamps4 ,its heating value is #ajjj ,b4,t4,u4 per cubic foot4 ,when burned in a well-adjusted mantle lamp1 natural gas will give about #ae candle hours per cubic foot4 ,the heating value of manufactured gas is rated at #fjj ,b4,t4,u4 per cubic foot4 ,it makes a fair light when used in an open flame burner4 ,the yellow flame of burning gas makes considerable smoke1 even when carefully adjusted4 ,it gives four times as much light and no smoke when it is burned in a good mantle lamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,bunsen burner for gas light4 ,in the special burner of the mantle lamp1 the gas is mixed with air so that it will burn with a blue flame 7,fig4 #di74 ,a blue flame is not good for lighting1 but when a mantle is placed over the flame1 it becomes heated1 glowing hot4 ,since the mantle is made of a material which gives off a white glow1 it lights the room with a steady light which is far better than the flickering light of the open flame 7,fig4 #dh-;a74 #ig4 ,adjustment4 ,see that the ports thru which air is drawn into the lamp are open as wide as needed to give a clear1 smokeless flame without firing back4 ,some lamps are fitted with a screw beside the cocks to regulate the amount of gas flowing into the lamp4 ,it should be adjusted so that no more gas flows into the lamp than is needed to get as bright a glow as possible from the mantle4 ,regulate the gas flow by closing the valve attached to this screw until the mantle decreases perceptibly in brightness1 and then slowly opening it until the mantle becomes bright4 ,gas companies often adjust lamps for their customers4 #ih4 ,care of ,lamps4 ,clean the burners if they become sooted4 ,replace mantles if they are broken4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,open-flame acetylene burner4 #ii4 ,lighting a ,gas ,light4 ,when lighting a lamp1 turn on the gas1 count three1 and then light the lamp4 ,counting three gives time for the burner to fill with gas and prevents burning back with an explosion4 ,mantles are very delicate and easily broken by jars or strong drafts4 ,burning back may break the mantle4 ,burning back means that the gas ignites at the opening where it should be mixing with the air instead of at the tip of the burner4 ,this happens when the lamp is lighted before it becomes filled with gas1 or when there is too much air mixed with the gas4 #ajj4 ,cold-,process ,gasoline ,gas4 ,it is more economical to use cold-process gasoline gas with a mantle lamp than an open-flame burner for lighting4 ,be sure to use the burners made especially for this kind of gas4 ,the lamps are managed like all others4 #aja4 ,acetylene ,lamps4 ,open-flame burners are used for acetylene gas because no mantle burner has been constructed which will operate reliably with this rich gas4 ,acetylene gas gives about ten times as much light per cubic foot as manufactured gas burned in an open flame4 ,the burners require little care4 ,sometimes the holes in burners become stopped1 and they should be cleaned out with a fine pointed instrument like a needle4 ,when they do not work well1 it pays to replace the old tips with new ones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej-;a4 ,showing electric lighting device for acetylene burner4 ,acetylene gas burners are constructed so that a very fine spray of gas strikes another fine spray1 which1 when ignited1 makes a broad flame4 ,this flame1 which is almost white1 gives off light4 ,the burners appear as illustrated in ,fig4 #ej4 #ajb4 ,care of ,burners of ,acetylene ,lamps4 ,keep the two holes open4 ,clean them with a large needle4 ,see that there are no leaks about the burners or pipes4 ,if these are found1 fill with white lead or some similar substance1 and tighten connections4 ,if this does not suffice1 the trouble should be referred to a plumber4 ,fig4 #ej-;a shows an acetylene burner4 ,acetylene lamp mantles can be used only with acetylene which is under high pressure4 ,therefore1 they cannot be used with all plants4 ,the special burner for mixing air with the acetylene to make it burn with a blue flame must be used with the mantle4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,kerosene ,,lamps #ajc4 ,construction of ,kerosene ,lamps4 ,a kerosene lamp consists of a bowl1 a burner1 a wick and a chimney4 ,in the ordinary lamp1 the bowl for holding the oil is placed below the burner 7,fig4 #ea74 ,the wick carries the oil from the bowl into the burner by capillary attraction--one end being in the oil and the other in the burner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,lamps and lamp chimneys4 ,the burner1 which has holes in it to let in air1 holds the wick so that only the oil reaching the top burns4 ,the area and shape of the flame depends upon the form of the top surface of the wick4 ,the glass chimney is used to cause an air current thru the burner and to protect the flame from outside drafts4 ,a screw moves the wick thru the burner4 ,if the wick is too small1 the fire may burn back thru the burner and ignite the oil in the bowl4 ,it is important that a wick fit the burner4 ,if the chimney is too short or broken1 the lamp will smoke 7,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ea74 #ajd4 ,management of ,kerosene ,lamps4 ,when the lamp smokes1 it is wasting fuel4 ,smoke is incompletely burnt fuel4 ,the oil in the lamp should be clean4 ,it should never be mixed with gasoline or other more explosive oils4 ,fill the bowl each day the lamp is used to within one-half inch of the top4 ,a full bowl helps to make a safe lamp4 ,put the chimney on the lamp so that it fits in its holder4 ,keep it clean and bright4 ,keep the wick clean and trimmed evenly4 ,see that it entirely fills the opening thru the burner4 ,this prevents the fire from burning back down the burner and igniting the oil in the bowl4 ,oil will not pass up a wick which fits too tight4 ,do not cut a wick to trim it1 but keep the charred part scraped or brushed off even with the top of the slit in the burner4 ,a burnt match is useful for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,mantle for kerosene lamp4 #aje4 ,lighting a ,kerosene ,lamp4 ,when lighting a lamp1 be sure it is in order and that any openings to the bowl are closed4 ,lift the chimney1 turn the screw to raise the wick about one-eighth inch above the slit4 ,touch a lighted match to the wick1 adjust the chimney1 and1 lastly1 move the wick up or down until it burns clear and bright without smoking4 ,after the burner becomes warm1 the flame may grow higher and smoke4 ,do not leave a newly-lighted lamp unwatched4 ,after the lamp is heated and adjusted1 it should burn with a flame of even height4 #ajf4 ,to ,extinguish a ,lamp4 ,turn the wick down until it is slightly below the top of the slit4 ,do not turn too far4 ,it will then go out of itself1 or a slight puff of air will extinguish it4 ,this is safer and will smoke the chimney less than attempting to blow out the full flame4 #ajg4 ,care of ,lamps4 ,keep the inside and outside of bowl and chimney clean4 ,wipe all soot from the burners4 ,trim the wick each day the lamp is used4 ,fill the bowl with oil to within one-half inch of the top4 ,get new wicks when the old ones become dirty4 #ajh4 ,kerosene ,mantle ,lamps4 ,kerosene mantle lamps 7,fig4 #eb7 give three to four times as much light per unit of oil as the ordinary kerosene lamp4 ,many mantle lamps on the market are unreliable4 ,care1 therefore1 should be taken to give the lamp a trial before investing so as to be sure to get a good one4 ,the care and lighting of mantle lamps differ so much that the directions must be furnished by the manufacturer and should be followed with exactness4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,alcohol ,,and ,,gasoline ,,lamps #aji4 ,classification of ,lamps4 ,since the principle of operation is the same for most alcohol and gasoline lamps1 they will be considered together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,gasoline or alcohol lamp4 ,these lamps may be divided into two classes--gravity lamps and pneumatic1 or pressure1 lamps4 #aaj4 ,gravity ,lamps4 ,gravity lamps have the tank elevated above the burner so that the force of gravity brings the fluid to the burner4 ,it is usually a little to one side of the burner so that it cannot become heated by it4 ,a pipe from the tank leads downward and either over the chimney or under the burner1 where it will be heated by the flame of the lamp4 ,when heated1 it changes the gasoline or the alcohol to gas4 ,the pipe carries the gas on to a point where it is mixed with air before it flows into the burner 7,fig4 #ec74 #aaa4 ,lighting the ,gravity ,lamp4 ,in order to light these lamps1 the generator must first be heated so as to make the gas4 ,after this has once been done1 the heat of the lamp keeps the generator hot4 ,as soon as the gas is formed1 light the lamp4 ,these lamps are furnished with mantles4 ,the flame is blue and1 consequently1 gives out very little light1 but much heat4 ,the mantle covering the flame is heated to glowing white heat and gives off much light of a white color4 #aab4 ,pressure ,lamps4 ,pressure lamps 7,figs4 #ed and #ee7 have a strong tank which holds air and fuel1 whether alcohol or gasoline4 ,air is pumped into the tank so that it presses on the fuel with force enough to push the fuel up the pipe leading from the bottom of the tank to the generator4 ,the air cannot get into the pipe so long as there is fuel which is heavier than air in the tank1 because the pipe which leads to the burner starts from the bottom of the tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,details of gasoline lamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,pneumatic gasoline lamp4 ,the generator for changing the liquid fuel to gas is placed between the burners of the lamp1 of which there are usually two4 ,after the generator has been heated1 the lighted lamps keep the generator hot4 ,the gas being very light1 continues to rise4 ,it passes thru a place where it is mixed with air1 and goes on into the burner1 where it is ignited4 ,if the lamp burns low1 more air must be pumped into the tank to force up the gasoline or alcohol4 ,when all the fluid has been burned1 the lamp will go out1 since1 then1 only the air which is under pressure in the tank will be coming into the burner4 ,extinguish the lamp by turning off the supply of fuel to the generator4 ,to light these lamps1 first heat the generator1 as directed for the particular lamp in use1 and then light the burners4 ,detailed directions cannot be given here1 as they differ with different lamps4 #aac4 ,gasoline ,lamps with ,wicks4 ,there are some gasoline lamps made with wicks which help conduct the oil into the burner1 where it is changed to gas by the heat from the lamp1 mixed with air and burned in a mantle4 ,the flame1 from a mixture of alcohol or gasoline and air1 is blue and gives off little light1 but much heat4 ,it is used with a mantle4 #aad4 ,alcohol ,lamps with ,wicks4 ,the wick of one type of alcohol lamp conducts the alcohol up thru a round tube which it completely fills4 ,the tube prevents the fire from burning down into the bowl of the lamp4 ,alcohol makes a very hot and almost smokeless flame1 even when little air is present4 ,the mantle is put over the flame1 and1 when heated1 gives a good light4 ,other ordinary fuels cannot be used on so simple a lamp because they would smoke the mantle4 #aae4 ,lighting ,alcohol or ,gasoline ,lamps4 ,heat the conducting pipe at the point where the fuel is to be changed to gas4 7,directions for this come with each lamp1 and they differ considerably47 ,after being heated sufficiently1 the valve leading to the burner is opened and the burner lighted with a match or torch4 ,use clean gasoline for these lamps1 unmixed with water or other substances4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,iii #a4 ,are there any differences in the electric light globes on the market8 ,if so1 in what ways do they differ8 ,how do these differences affect the lighting power of the globes8 #b4 ,what influence has the size and decoration of the room on the brilliancy of light from a given lamp8 #c4 ,how should the light in a living-room be distributed8 #d4 ,what are the differences in direct1 semi-direct and indirect lighting8 #e4 ,what is the purpose of a mantle for a gas or kerosene lamp8 #f4 ,what is the difference in burners to be used with and without mantles8 #g4 ,how is the light from a lamp measured8 #h4 ,which lamp gives the greatest candle power of light for the amount of fuel used--the one with or the one without a mantle8 ,,part ,,iv ,,cooling ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,refrigerators #aaf4 ,principles of ,refrigeration4 ,refrigerators 7,fig4 #ef7 are designed to prevent the rapid spoiling of food by keeping it too cool for the rapid growth of bacteria4 ,they vary considerably in their efficiency1 according to their construction and to the way in which they are managed4 ,to preserve food and to save ice1 the housewife must understand her refrigerator1 and she must choose a good one4 ,there is as much difference in the efficiency with which housewives manage their refrigerators as there are differences in refrigerators4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,refrigerator4 ,a series of experiments were conducted with a number of different makes of refrigerators4 ,when the outside temperature was between #hj and #ij degrees ,fahrenheit1 and when the refrigerators were kept full of ice1 it was found that the temperatures in different refrigerators varied between #de and #fj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,when the refrigerators were only partly full of ice1 their temperatures rose several degrees4 ,the refrigerators which held a temperature of #de degrees when filled with ice1 or with #ajj pounds1 used #be pounds of ice each in three days1 while in the same three days1 the ones which could maintain only a temperature as low as #fe degrees1 used #ej pounds each4 ,the warmer the inside of a refrigerator1 the faster the ice melts4 ,in general1 a refrigerator which maintains a low temperature is cheapest to operate4 ,the refrigerator should be kept full of ice exposed so that it comes in contact with the air circulating within the refrigerator4 ,the refrigerator which does not hold a low temperature will not only use more ice1 but be less efficient in keeping food4 #aag4 ,the ,construction of ,refrigerators4 ,the construction of a refrigerator should be such that it may be kept clean4 ,there should be no cracks and corners to catch dirt and make breeding places for molds and bacteria4 #aah4 ,lining ,refrigerators4 ,the best linings for refrigerators are porcelain1 porcelain enamel1 or glass for the more expensive ones1 and galvanized iron or zinc for the less expensive ones4 ,the shelves are usually made of heavy wire or of bent metal4 ,the latter should be constructed so that they can be thoroly cleaned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,diagram showing circulation in a refrigerator4 #aai4 ,insulation of ,refrigerators4 ,the more complete the insulation of a refrigerator1 the more efficient it will be4 ,different kinds of material1 as well as dead-air spaces1 are used for this purpose4 ,the top1 as well as the bottom1 must be insulated4 ,materials which are likely to crack or settle down and leave uninsulated spaces should not be used4 ,because sawdust settles1 it is not satisfactory4 ,there are felts1 papers and other materials which are good4 ,if the refrigerator is not water-tight and the insulating material absorbs water1 it will lose its efficiency for insulation4 #abj4 ,circulation in ,refrigerators4 ,the better the circulation in a refrigerator1 the more efficient it will be4 ,the air in the refrigerator must be free to circulate over the ice4 ,as it cools1 it should drop to the bottom of the ice box4 ,when it warms1 it will rise and be displaced by fresh falling cold air4 ,it should be free to rise to the top of the refrigerator and from there pass into the ice chamber and over the ice to be cooled again 7,fig4 #eg74 ,when the ice always melts unevenly and in the same relative place--that is1 more on the side or bottom--it indicates poor circulation in the refrigerator4 #aba4 ,drip from ,melting ,ice4 ,there should be a pan under the ice to catch the drip from the melting ice1 and a drip pipe to carry it out of the refrigerator 7,fig4 #eg74 ,if the drip pipe passes into a pan set under the refrigerator1 the pan should be emptied so that it will not overflow4 ,the water in the pan should not be allowed to become stagnant4 ,if this pipe passes to a drain1 it should not be attached to the drain1 but drip into it4 ,the small amount of fresh air passing up the drip pipe from the room is advantageous4 ,because some air does flow thru here1 the drip pipe and the drain pipe must be clean and free from gases and odors4 ,the drip pipe should be straight and free from places in which dirt may collect4 ,it must be removable1 so that it can be cleaned4 ,the doors of the refrigerator must shut so tightly that frost or dew will not form about their edges on a hot day4 #abb4 ,arrangement of ,food in the ,ice ,box4 ,ice boxes are usually cooler at the bottom than at the top4 ,do not put food in the ice chamber because this necessitates opening the door and wastes ice4 ,do not put papers or flat boxes on the shelves which will interfere with the circulation of air in the refrigerator4 #abc4 ,filling and ,care of the ,ice ,box4 ,the housewife must open the doors of the ice box as seldom as possible1 and close them quickly4 ,do not cut off the circulation of air from the ice by wrapping it in a blanket or newspapers4 ,it cannot do its work then4 ,the ice box is kept cold by the gradual melting of the ice4 ,the ice melts fastest as the temperature of the ice box rises4 ,covering the ice may keep it from melting1 but it will also allow the refrigerator to get warm1 and so1 whatever is gained in saving ice at first1 will be lost at the higher temperature and in cooling the box again4 ,steady melting does the most good4 ,the shelves and drain pipe should be removable1 and these and the refrigerator should be washed and thoroly scalded once in every two weeks4 ,there is a saving in planning to open the refrigerator as little as possible4 ,the filling of the ice box with a large piece of ice two or three times a week1 rather than with a small piece every day1 is more economical4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,iceless ,,refrigerators2 ,,water ,,coolers #abd4 ,comparative ,efficiency of ,iceless ,refrigerators4 ,in some localities1 where it is difficult to get ice often enough to pay for having a refrigerator1 other devices have to be depended upon for keeping food cool4 ,except when cold running water can be used in coolers1 they do not take the place of refrigerators1 because they cannot maintain the low temperature of a good refrigerator4 ,as a rule1 the best of the makeshifts are about on a par with the poorer refrigerators4 ,they are very useful in emergencies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,iceless refrigerator4 #abe4 ,iceless ,refrigerator4 ,one of these devices is called the iceless refrigerator 7,fig4 #eh74 ,it depends upon the evaporation of water to make it cool4 ,water will evaporate sufficiently fast to cool a refrigerator enough to be of value only in a dry1 hot1 breezy place4 ,under the most ideal condition1 an iceless refrigerator may hold as low a temperature as #fe degrees ,fahrenheit1 when the thermometer is registering above #ij degrees4 ,this refrigerator consists of a cloth-covered frame and a device for keeping the cloth moistened with fresh water4 ,since wind or a good circulation of air helps in the evaporation of water1 the iceless refrigerator must be placed where breezes may reach it1 and it should be anchored so that it will not blow away4 ,an iceless refrigerator may be made from a rectangular frame of wood1 to which heavy canton flannel is buttoned or tacked4 ,on the top of this should be placed a pan of water with strips of cloth extending from the water to the covering of the frame4 ,this will conduct the water from the pan out onto the cloth4 ,the number of strips of cloth regulate the rapidity with which the water is carried to the sides of the refrigerator4 ,the food is set inside 7,fig4 #eh47 ,the refrigerator should be placed in a shady spot where the breezes can strike it4 ,iceless refrigerators must be kept clean1 and the covering of cloth should be washed occasionally4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,device for cooling food4 ,some iceless refrigerators are enclosed in a chimney-like closet built on the house1 the cold air coming in at the bottom and being drawn upward by the natural draft of the chimney-like structures4 ,this draft hastens the evaporation of the water4 ,such refrigerators are expensive and less satisfactory than ice ones4 #abf4 ,small ,cooler4 ,a few things may be kept cool1 like a bottle of milk and a small dish of butter1 by setting them in a shallow pan of water and covering them with a flannel cloth which comes down into the water and so remains moist 7,fig4 #ei74 ,the evaporation of the water from the flannel cools the food somewhat below the temperature of the surrounding air4 #abg4 ,covered ,pail4 ,another device is a metal pail 7,fig4 #fj7 covered with a heavy layer of cloth and a pan set on top of the cover4 ,into the pan is put some water and strips of cloth to conduct out the water4 ,this may be hung in the kitchen window if it is shaded4 ,the cover and the strips must be secured so that they will not blow off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,covered pail for cooling food4 #abh4 ,unglazed ,earthenware4 ,unglazed earthenware pitchers and jugs make excellent water coolers4 ,the water is put in them1 and1 as the container is porous1 a small amount filters thru the earthenware1 and1 as it reaches the surface and air1 it evaporates1 cooling the remaining water4 #abi4 ,cooling with ,running ,water4 ,a very little stream of water from a faucet will cool the baby's milk and keep it from souring4 ,the bottle should be set in a pan of water which is constantly renewed by the small stream running from the faucet4 7,fig4 #fa47 ,this method of cooling should be used only in homes supplied with water from a spring or in an emergency4 ,under most circumstances1 it is too extravagant a method of keeping food to be recommended4 ,in cities it should be prohibited because it might cause too great a drain on the city water supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,cooling with running water4 ,a larger device used for cooling milk is a tank of running water 7,figs4 #fa-;a-b74 ,the water flowing thru this tank commonly flows into another tank used for the watering of stock4 ,cans with inverted covers like those illustrated are waterproof1 because the air is caught inside them so that it cannot get out for the water to replace it4 ,it does not require a large stream of water to renew that in the tank and keep it cool4 ,the efficiency of this device depends entirely upon having a supply of cold water available4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa-;a4 ,cross-section of cooling tank4 #acj4 ,refrigerating ,plants4 ,refrigerating plants are sometimes installed in private dwellings4 ,these consist of a motor and a machine for compressing gas1 a chamber which is to be cooled1 and sometimes coils of pipe containing brine4 ,when the gas--for example1 ammonia or carbon dioxide--is compressed1 it heats the pump which compresses it4 ,that is1 when a liquid or gas is being compressed1 it gives up heat4 ,when a liquid or gas expands1 it takes heat from somewhere4 ,in refrigerating plants1 the expanding gas is made to take the heat either directly from the refrigerator or storeroom1 or from brine which is then used for cooling the refrigerator or room4 ,refrigerating plants require the same care as pumps1 motors and refrigerators4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa-;b4 ,cooling tank4 #aca4 ,water ,coolers4 ,since ice is not always pure1 it is necessary to use cooling devices which do not permit it to come into direct contact with the water4 ,one type of water cooler consists of a can set in an ice box with a pipe leading to the outside so that the box does not have to be opened every time that water is wanted 7,fig4 #fb74 ,this can should be made so that it may be removed1 washed and scalded4 ,another cooler consists of a tank or water bottle placed on the outside of a refrigerator or box of ice with a pipe leading thru the refrigerator or box of ice 7,fig4 #fc74 ,the water flowing thru the pipe is cooled4 ,the pipe ends at the outside of the ice box with a faucet to let out the water4 ,this cooler cools only the water flowing into the pipe instead of the entire tank of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,water cooler containing water tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,sectional view of water cooler4 #acb4 ,care of ,water ,coolers4 ,put only clean1 pure water into the coolers1 and keep them clean by flushing them out occasionally with boiling water4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,fans ,,and ,,ventilators #acc4 ,selecting a ,fan4 ,with the coming of electricity into the home1 fans have become practical home devices4 ,do not buy a fan or other electrical device without ascertaining whether the current is direct or alternating1 and what voltage is needed to run it4 ,most city homes are now supplied with current ranging between #aje and #aae volts1 so most fans are made for that4 ,fans will run on a small wire like that used for lighting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,blower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,stationary fan4 #acd4 ,the ,construction of the ,fan in ,common ,use4 ,a motor turns the fan4 ,there is a regulator on some fans1 so that they can be run at different rates of speed4 ,oil cups are important parts of fans4 ,when a new fan is purchased1 these cups are full of oil4 ,the oil will last for many months1 but if an old fan heats and sparks while being run1 have an electrician examine it to see if all the parts are in order and there is a supply of oil4 ,figs4 #fd1 #fe and #ff show types of fans in common use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,movable electric fan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,stove ventilator4 #ace4 ,ventilator4 ,a hood 7,fig4 #fg7 with a pipe leading into the chimney1 placed over a cook stove1 will conduct hot air and steam up the chimney4 ,this is due to the fact that warm air rises and cold air comes in to take its place4 ,an open skylight over a cook stove1 also1 makes an excellent ventilator and cooling device for kitchens4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,iv #a4 ,how may refrigerators be judged for efficiency8 #b4 ,what are the essentials of a good refrigerator8 #c4 ,how is an iceless refrigerator cooled8 ,under what conditions is it useful8 #d4 ,what may be the matter with an electric fan when it heats and sparks8 ,,part ,v ,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,sewage ,,disposal4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,pumps ,,and ,,water ,,filters #acf4 ,suction ,pumps4 ,a pump is a device for lifting water4 ,the pumps in common use work on the principle that water which is under the pressure of air will rise to fill a vacuum or a partial vacuum4 ,the pump is composed of a combination of valves and a piston for forcing the air out of the pipe to allow the water from below to be forced into it4 ,a valve catches the water as it starts to flow back4 ,the weight of the water holds the valve closed4 ,an outlet above the piston permits the water to flow into a tank or sink when the piston is again lifted to make a new vacuum and draw more water 7,fig4 #fh74 #acg4 ,care of ,pumps4 ,the leather or material forming the piston must be kept moist1 or it will shrink and leak4 ,when it becomes worn and old1 it must be renewed4 ,it is not a difficult task to put new packing on a small suction pump4 ,to do this1 remove the pin attaching the piston to the handle4 ,lift out the piston1 unscrew the bolt which holds the leather packing in place2 put on the new packing1 and replace the bolt1 piston and pin4 ,always pump with a regular1 even stroke--a jerky one tends to wear the working parts of the pump4 ,the cylinder and pipe containing water must not be allowed to freeze4 ,there is usually a plug in the pipe which may be removed to let out the water when there is danger of freezing4 ,a cracked cylinder or pipe will leak air and not raise water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,suction pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,force pump4 ,keep the bearings for the handle well oiled4 ,when the pump gets old1 the cylinder becomes worn and leaks4 ,it can sometimes be replaced with a new cylinder1 or more packing must be put on the piston4 #ach4 ,force ,pumps4 ,force pumps are used on deep wells and in forcing water into storage tanks4 ,they should be kept oiled2 they should be operated with an even stroke1 and the packing in them should be renewed if they leak air4 ,in force pumps1 the valves differ in their arrangement from suction pumps 7,fig4 #fi74 #aci4 ,compressed-,air ,pumps4 ,compressed-air pumps consist of a tank for storing the compressed air--a pump to force air into the tank and cylinders equipped with valves4 ,these act automatically4 ,whenever an outlet pipe is opened1 the extra pressure of air from the storage tank raises the water from the well or cistern 7,fig4 #gj74 ,air should be kept in the pressure tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,compressed-air pump system4 ,when this arrangement is used1 open and close faucets slowly1 not with a jerk4 ,fig4 #gj-;a shows plumbing where such a system is used4 #adj4 ,water ,filters4 ,water filters are devices for straining minute particles out of water4 ,they are made of sand1 charcoal or porcelain1 kisselguhr and other materials4 ,they are without value unless they are kept clean4 ,a dirty filter is worse than none4 ,almost the only way to clean them is to sterilize them or put new material in them4 ,only with expert care can filters be made effective for removing disease germs4 ,a dirty filter may prove a menace4 ,filters are valuable for removing coarse dirt from the water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj-;a4 ,system of plumbing with compressed-air tank4 ,filters on faucets should be cleaned or renewed every day4 ,large filters for rain water should be renewed every few months4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,pressure ,,tanks2 ,,plumbing ,,fixtures #ada4 ,pressure ,tanks4 ,a pressure tank is a device for storing water under pressure4 ,it is usually placed in the basement of dwelling houses4 #adb4 ,construction of the ,pressure ,tank4 ,the tank is tight and strong1 so that it will hold air and water under pressure4 ,the tank originally has some air in it4 ,when the water is pumped in1 the air not being able to escape1 is compressed4 ,when there is a chance for water to escape from the tank which is connected to water pipes1 the pressure of the compressed air on the water forces it to upstairs rooms and other points4 ,to this tank is attached a pressure gage which indicates the amount of pressure2 or1 in other words1 the amount of water in the tank1 for when the water gets low1 the pressure is reduced unless the air has escaped4 ,a glass gage shows the height of water4 ,provision is made to let some air into the tank1 for otherwise it may in time be all forced out of the tank or absorbed by the water4 ,the water in a pressure tank may be used to pump water from a cistern into another tank4 #adc4 ,care of ,pressure ,tanks4 ,a pressure tank must not be pumped up to the extent that the pressure becomes greater than the strength of the tank4 ,a safety valve is used in controlling the pressure4 #add4 ,hot-,water ,kitchen ,tank4 ,a force pump is generally used for pumping water into kitchen tanks1 except when water from another tank1 such as a city reservoir1 flows into it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,instantaneous water heater4 #ade4 ,instantaneous ,water ,heaters4 ,the instantaneous water heater 7,fig4 #ga7 is a device which heats water on its way to the outlet4 ,it is composed of a heating unit and piping connected to the outlet pipes4 ,in this type of heater1 the pipes must always be kept full of water1 and some device should be attached 7,fig4 #gb7 to the heater which will lower the heat as soon as1 or before1 the water reaches boiling temperature4 ,this will prevent steam from forming1 which might injure the system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,device for heating water automatically4 #adf4 ,heaters for ,tanks4 ,hot water is lighter than cold4 ,a pipe from the bottom of the tank leads into the heater1 passes thru the heating coils and up into the top of the tank 7,figs4 #gc and #gd74 ,water from the tank circulates thru this pipe as the hot water rises and the cold water falls in the tank4 ,as the heater is located on a level with the bottom of the tank1 cold water seeking this level flows into the pipe and becomes heated 7,fig4 #gf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,force pump and boiler4 ,a booster is a device which keeps the water hot up to the faucet 7,fig4 #ge74 ,if there is a pilot on a gas water heater1 be sure to use it4 ,the burners should be cared for in the same way as on other heaters using the same fuel4 ,keep the tank full of water and the water free to circulate thru the pipes4 ,air-tight tanks may become so hot that steam is formed in large amounts4 ,tanks which are not connected with city water pipes may be fitted with safety valves which open when the pressure of steam inside the tank reaches a certain point1 which is below the danger point4 ,should the pipes or tank freeze1 do not start the fire in the heater1 but thaw the pipes with applications of hot water or other means until the water can circulate in them4 ,electric heaters are usually incased in a waterproof covering and put in the center of the tank4 ,small electric heaters are in use for heating a glass or other small amount of water4 ,these are called immersion heaters4 #adg4 ,the ,elevated ,water ,tank4 ,in rural homes1 water is sometimes stored in an elevated tank4 ,this is usually placed in the attic4 ,it is frequently filled by means of a force pump connected with a windmill or gasoline engine4 ,if there is no overflow to this tank1 which there should be1 it must be watched when being filled to prevent it from overflowing4 ,it may be fitted with an automatic device similar to those used on the expansion tanks of hot-water furnaces or tanks to water closets for regulating the inflow of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,water heater and tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,booster for hot water4 #adh4 ,faucets4 ,faucets are made in different patterns1 but they need practically the same care 7,fig4 #gg74 ,the leather1 or rubber1 washer in a faucet must be renewed when it leaks4 ,to renew the washer1 unscrew the cap from the faucet4 ,remove the valve4 ,take off the ring of packing4 ,replace with a new ring1 and put the faucet together again4 ,the only tools needed for this repair work are a wrench and a screwdriver4 ,shut off the water from the pipe to the faucet before beginning to repair a leaking faucet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,water tank and heater4 #adi4 ,valves4 ,valves are constructed much like faucets4 ,they1 too1 sometimes need repacking4 ,follow the directions for repacking of faucet 7,fig4 #gh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,faucet showing parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,radiator valve4 #aej4 ,overflows4 ,keep overflows clean4 ,when the plug and overflow are combined1 as they sometimes are1 lift out the cylinder forming the plug and overflow and wash it4 ,when it fails to hold water in the tub or basin1 it may need a new washer on the lower part4 ,this may be replaced very easily4 ,fig4 #gi shows one type of overflow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,cross-section of overflow on bath-tub4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,plumber's pump4 ,it is more difficult to keep other overflows clean4 ,they may be flushed or cleaned with a brush attached to a wire4 #aea4 ,traps for ,bath ,tubs and ,basins4 ,dirt and slime collects in traps4 ,clean them frequently4 ,always leave clean water in the traps of bathroom fixtures and sinks4 ,only matter quickly soluble in water should pass into drain pipes4 ,keep matches1 hair1 sweepings1 rags1 fruit skins and stones out of the fixtures4 ,if the drain from a basin1 sink or tub fails to carry away the water1 the stoppage may be removed with a small plumber's pump 7,fig4 #hj74 ,this is a small rubber cone-like device which is placed over the outlet to the drain and moved up and down so that it sucks air1 water and whatever may be movable up the pipe4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,cesspools1 ,,septic ,,tanks ,,and ,,city ,,sewer ,,systems #aeb4 ,relative ,value of ,cesspool and ,septic ,tank4 ,sewer pipes for private water systems usually drain into cesspools or septic tanks 7,figs4 #ha1 and #ha-;a74 ,the waste goes thru a process of decomposition before passing out into the soil4 ,sewage should both liquify and oxidize before entering into the soil4 ,oxidation purifies liquid sewage so that it is not contaminating4 ,if oxidation is not brought about in the cesspool or septic tank1 sewage1 which is fresh1 should be run onto the surface of the ground where the air and bacteria for oxidation can be found4 ,cesspools are not as good as septic tanks because there is not the surety of sewage being oxidized in them1 as there is in the septic tank4 ,they lack oxidizing chambers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,septic tank and tile4 ,unoxidized liquid sewage being in a condition to flow readily thru the earth1 is more dangerous than fresh sewage because it is more likely to seep into wells4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha-;a4 ,septic tank4 #aec4 ,construction of the ,septic ,tank4 ,the septic tank is composed of two chambers--one the liquefying chamber and the other the oxidizing chamber4 ,both are water-tight 7,fig4 #hb74 ,the fresh sewage comes into the liquefying chamber thru a pipe placed near the top of the tank4 ,here it stands and liquefies1 which is a process of decomposition4 ,the solids fall to the bottom as they come into this chamber1 and the liquid formed rises to the top and flows into the oxidizing chamber 7,b1 ,fig4 #hb71 when it reaches a point a little below the height of the inlet pipe4 ,it either does this by flowing over a partition or thru a pipe leading from one compartment to the other4 ,the second compartment is usually slightly smaller than the first4 ,here the sewage is held until the process of oxidation takes place1 which renders it less dangerous4 ,when the sewage in the second chamber reaches a certain height1 it siphons out into a tile which distributes it over a plot of ground 7,fig4 #ha74 ,various kinds of siphons are used1 the important feature of them being that they are constructed so that they drain the tank often enough to remove the oxidized sewage and not so often as to remove it before it has become oxidized4 #aed4 ,the ,size of ,tank4 ,because the liquid must be drained from the tank at certain intervals1 it is important that the size of the tank be adapted to the amount of waste it will receive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,details of septic tank4 ,septic tanks are kept warm by the heat generated in the oxidizing process1 which is simply slow burning of the waste1 so that they rarely freeze in winter4 ,run waste water from the kitchen sink and laundry tubs into a catch basin to collect the grease from the water1 as grease or oil on the surface of the sewage of a tank will stop the action of the microbes in the tank by smothering them4 ,when too much grease does get into it1 the tank must be thoroly cleaned4 ,do not use lye1 chloride of lime1 carbolic acid and other chemicals in drains and septic tanks4 ,disinfectants of this type put into pipes leading to a septic tank will kill the useful bacteria which decompose the sewage4 ,use clear boiling water to clean the pipes4 ,this will be cooled by the time it reaches the tank so that it will not kill the useful bacteria4 ,insoluble mineral matter gradually accumulates in septic tanks1 so that they must be cleaned once every few years4 ,care will postpone the times for cleaning4 ,do not wash vegetables with much earth adhering to them in sinks leading to cesspools or septic tanks4 ,shake or rinse off the dirt before washing them4 #aee4 ,disposal of ,waste in ,cities4 ,in some cities1 householders are required by law to have catch basins connected to their sewer systems to remove leaves and dirt from storm water and grease from kitchen sinks and laundry tubs4 ,the laws of other cities forbid the use of catch basins1 but urge householders to help care for the city sewer system by not putting grease into sewer pipes4 ,strong chemicals should not be put into the pipes4 ,use only boiling water in cleaning pipes4 ,do not wash vegetables on which there is much loose dirt in sinks4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,water ,,closets #aef4 ,construction of ,water ,closets4 ,the water closet is a device for the disposal of excrement4 ,the closet includes a tank of water for flushing the waste from the bowl to the sewer or waste pipe4 ,between the bowl and the waste pipe is a device called a trap which holds water and seals the end of the waste pipe so that gases from the sewer or the septic tank cannot come into the house4 7,fig4 #hc-;a47 ,the bowl of the newer models of water closets have the trap as a part of the bowl1 which saves joints and connections likely to catch dirt and stop up the trap 7,fig4 #hc74 ,the water coming from the flushing tank is carried around the bowl so that it is flushed clean by the swift-flowing water4 ,when the water reaches the bottom of the bowl1 it rushes upward a few inches before it can turn downward to the waste pipe4 ,this it does while flowing rapidly and cleansing the bowl2 when the tank empties1 water collects in the bowl to the level1 where it can flow down the waste pipe 7,fig4 #hc74 ,as soon as all the water above this level has gone down the pipe1 the remainder stays in the bowl1 forming the seal until the next time the bowl is flushed4 ,fig4 #hc-;a shows two kinds of traps4 ,if water flows at too rapid a rate thru the trap of the bowl1 as in cases when there is too much pressure on the water or the tank is set too high so that gravity gives it too much force1 or if an excessive suction is produced in the drain pipe1 all the water may run out of the bowl1 leaving the trap unsealed4 ,the remedy for this is a change in the flushing tank or in its position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,section of water closet4 #aeg4 ,siphoning the ,trap4 ,if rags or shreds of material are dropped into the bowl and lodge in the trap1 only a part of them going over into the waste pipe1 they may siphon the water1 sealing the trap1 over into the waste pipe4 ,there was more difficulty of this sort with traps of older models than with the newer types4 ,always leave clean water in the trap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc-;a4 ,types of traps4 #aeh4 ,the ,flushing ,tank4 ,the flushing tank 7,fig4 #hd7 is a reservoir to hold sufficient water to cleanse the bowl4 ,in one type of tank1 water is retained in the tank by a plug held in place by the weight of the water in the tank4 ,by a lever on the outside of the tank1 this plug is lifted when the bowl is to be flushed1 and it stays open until all the water flows out of the tank4 ,when the water has all left the tank1 the plug falls back into the hole and fresh water flowing into the tank holds it in place1 as there is nothing in the pipe below to make it float upward4 ,working at the same time with the plug is a valve in the water supply pipe1 attached to a large hollow float4 ,the valve opens as the water flows out of the tank1 and closes as the tank is filled4 ,this valve is operated by the float floating on the surface of the water4 ,as the water flows out of the tank1 the float falls1 opening the valve and letting in water4 ,as the tank fills1 the float rises to the top of the tank and shuts off the valve4 ,if the float catches so that it fails to rise and fall1 or becomes disconnected from the valve1 it will not operate the valve4 ,there is an overflow pipe in the tank which carries off all water rising above a certain level in the tank4 ,this prevents the tank from overflowing when the valve fails to turn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,diagram of flushing tank4 #aei4 ,repairing the ,flushing ,tank4 ,when the water continues to flow into the tank1 take off the cover of the tank and examine the valve and ball to see why they are not working properly4 ,if disconnected or caught1 remedy the trouble4 ,if the plug fails to stop the flow of water out of the tank1 water will also continue to flow into the tank4 ,to remedy this temporarily1 push the plug down over the outlet and also note the reason why it has not fallen back automatically4 ,if worn1 it may have to be replaced with a new one4 ,there should be a valve to close the pipe to the tank4 ,with this valve1 much water can be saved in time of trouble1 and greater convenience may be had in remedying difficulties with the devices inside the tank4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,v #a4 ,how does a pump lift water from a well8 #b4 ,how do pumps differ in construction8 #c4 ,what care should be given a pump8 #d4 ,when is a water filter useful8 ,when dangerous8 #e4 ,what is a pressure tank8 ,how does it operate8 #f4 ,describe two kinds of water heaters4 ,what precautions should be taken with each kind of heater8 #g4 ,describe a water faucet4 ,try to replace an old washer with a new one4 #h4 ,have you ever cleaned the overflow to a tub or basin8 ,should they be cleaned8 #i4 ,what are traps8 ,what may cause them to fail to work8 #aj4 ,how would you select a good trap8 ,how would you clean it8 #aa4 ,describe the construction of a septic tank4 ,what is the action that takes place in a septic tank8 ,what care should be given to it8 #ab4 ,examine the tank to a water closet4 ,how does it operate8 ,,part ,,vi ,,laundry ,,equipment4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,washing ,,machines #afj4 ,kinds of ,washing ,machines4 ,washing machines are tools to help remove dirt from clothes either by friction or by forcing water thru them4 ,they are known by such names as suction1 cylinder1 rotary1 oscillating1 locomotive and centrifugal machines4 ,these names are used differently by various authorities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,washer to place in boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,another type of washer for boiler4 ,washing machines may be attached to any kind of motor1 or they may be manipulated by hand4 #afa4 ,suction ,machines4 ,the suction machines are made to force water thru the clothes 7,figs4 #he and #hf74 ,some are operated by hand1 some by mechanical power1 and some are funnel-shaped devices to be placed in boilers4 ,hand or mechanical suction machines have cones or funnels which are pushed down onto the clothes and then suddenly lifted1 causing suction which draws out the dirt previously loosened by the moisture and pressure4 ,mechanical devices attached to the top are sometimes used to raise and lower the funnels 7,figs4 #hg and #hg-;a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,suction washer4 ,the suction washers for use in boilers are placed funnel side down4 ,by means of these1 the steam forming in the bottom of the boiler forces the water thru the clothes4 ,distribute the clothes evenly about the washer4 ,fill the boiler with water and add shaved soap4 ,when set over a fire1 the steam forming at the bottom raises the water in the funnel to the top and pushes it out thru the clothes1 or raises the funnel and makes it beat upon the clothes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg-;a4 ,washing machine4 ,other machines combine the two methods of washing--forcing water thru clothes and rubbing them at the same time4 #afb4 ,cylinder ,washers4 ,cylinder washers contain a perforated barrel-like device1 into which the clothes are placed 7,fig4 #hh74 ,this cylinder has cleats on the inside to raise the clothes as the cylinder turns and drop them when they reach the highest point in it1 back into the water1 thus pounding water thru them and rubbing them against the side of the cylinder as they are raised4 ,this is the type used in most laundries4 ,a cylinder turned by an electric motor is made which can be placed in the stationary wash tub in small apartments4 ,the tub then serves as the outer part of the washing machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,cylinder washer4 #afc4 ,rotary ,washers4 ,in the rotary1 or milk-stool1 type of washer1 sometimes called ,dolly 7,fig4 #hi71 the stool-like contrivance which presses against the clothes must be turned half-way around in one direction1 and then back the other way1 to prevent twisting1 tearing or otherwise injuring the clothes4 ,the clothes are thus rubbed against the corrugated sides and bottom of the machine1 and thru the water4 ,never put too many clothes in this type of machine because too tight packing causes the machine to tear them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,rotary washer4 #afd4 ,machine with an ,oscillating ,washing ,device4 ,this washer contains an oscillating device for rubbing the clothes over the corrugated bottom4 ,the rubbing device is also corrugated and is put on top of the clothes and moved backward and forward1 thus rubbing them between two wash-boards 7,fig4 #ij74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,oscillating washing machine4 #afe4 ,oscillating ,washers4 ,oscillating washers have corrugated bottoms4 ,the clothes are put into the machine with the wash water4 ,the washer rocks1 throwing the clothes backward and forward thru the water1 loosening and squeezing out the dirt4 ,this washer works easiest when the machine is well filled with water4 #aff4 ,locomotive ,washer4 ,the locomotive washer 7,fig4 #ia7 slides backward and forward1 thus churning the water and clothes4 ,it is operated only by power4 ,a heating unit1 usually gas1 in the base of the machine keeps the water hot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,locomotive washing machine4 #afg4 ,centrifugal ,washer4 ,a centrifugal washer 7,fig4 #ia-;a7 contains a perforated basket which whirls in the water contained in the machine4 ,the clothes are placed in the basket1 rolled into bundles4 ,the rapid whirling thru the water removes the dirt from the clothes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia-;a4 ,centrifugal washing machine4 #afh4 ,care of ,washers4 ,the bearings and other motor parts of a washing machine should be kept oiled4 ,keep belts tight4 ,run the machine about ten minutes each while the clothes are in the first wash water and the two sudsy waters1 and five minutes each for the hot and the cold rinse waters4 ,blueing had better be done in a tub4 ,wooden machines must dry out occasionally1 or else they get slimy4 ,do not let them get dry enough to crack4 ,air the machines after use4 ,cover them when not in use to keep them clean4 ,when a gasoline engine is used in operating a washing machine1 it must be set so that the belt will pull straight on the pulley wheel of the machine4 ,the belt should be tight enough to prevent slipping4 ,stationary washers are set to avoid such troubles1 but those which are moved from place to place must be adjusted by the operator4 ,the pulleys must be adjusted to turn at the number of revolutions per minute directed for the washer used4 ,this usually does not exceed #aej revolutions of the motor wheel per minute4 ,water motors must receive more than #be pounds of water pressure to operate a washing machine4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,wringers #afi4 ,roller ,wringer4 ,the kind of wringer in most general use is the one made of two rollers rotating in opposite directions1 the clothes being drawn in between the two by friction1 and the water pressed out4 7,see ,fig4 #hh47 ,the rollers in modern wringers are made of a composition of rubber4 ,they are adjusted so that they may be brought close together or moved apart4 ,when wringing thin articles1 the rollers should be set close together1 and when wringing heavy articles1 they should be set far apart4 ,this adjustment of the wringer helps to do better work and save wear and tear on clothing and wringer4 #agj4 ,care of ,wringers4 ,the bearings should be kept oiled1 but oil must be kept off the rollers1 as it rots them4 ,keep the rollers washed clean4 ,soap and water will remove the dirt which collects on them4 ,if this does not clean them1 wipe the rollers in a weak solution of ammonia4 ,if the rollers get badly stained1 wipe them with a cloth dipped in kerosene4 ,wash this off immediately1 as kerosene dissolves the rubber as well as the dirt4 ,never leave a wringer with the pressure on the rollers when not in use4 ,the pressure is either adjusted by thumb-screws or by a clamp4 ,loosen these when thru with the wringer4 #aga4 ,centrifugal ,wringer1 or ,dryer4 ,the centrifugal wringer1 or dryer1 consists of a tub1 inside of which is a smaller tub with perforated sides4 ,there is a drain at the bottom of the outside tub4 ,the wringer is attached to a device for making the inside tub turn rapidly4 ,the power used is either hand or machine 7,fig4 #ib74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,washer and dryer4 ,the rapid turning of the inner tub for three minutes throws the clothing and water in them to the outside of the revolving center4 ,this tub being perforated1 lets the water thru while retaining the clothing4 ,thus1 the clothes are wrung as dry as in a wringer of the roller type4 ,if the machine is turned a longer time1 the clothes can be wrung entirely dry4 #agb4 ,care of the ,machine4 ,when loading centrifugal wringers1 put the heavy pieces at the bottom of the basket4 ,put articles in basket in bunches1 and pack fairly tight4 ,do not have loose ends hanging out4 ,fold sleeves into garments4 ,load the basket full if there are clothes enough4 ,a cover helps to hold the clothes in place4 ,load so that it runs even and does not wobble4 ,never hold your hand on the extractor after it has started4 #agc4 ,combination ,washer and ,wringer4 ,the centrifugal washer and wringer combined is built so that the basket can be lowered into a tub of water4 ,the clothes rotating in water are washed4 ,after this is accomplished1 the cylinder is raised1 and1 when rotated1 serves as a wringer of the centrifugal type4 ,load the washer with fewer clothes than for wringing4 ,roll each garment into a bunch before putting it into the washer4 ,centrifugal wringers are used also as dry-cleaning machines4 ,for this use1 they should be operated out of doors and at a slower speed than when water is used4 ,friction heats gasoline1 causing it to evaporate rapidly4 ,the friction between clothing1 tub and gasoline when turned at a high speed may produce a spark which will ignite the gasoline4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,mangles ,,and ,,irons #agd4 ,construction of ,mangles4 ,mangles are made of rollers rotating in the same direction1 one moving faster than the other1 set close together so that they press the clothes smooth1 or they consist of one roller rotating over a stationary surface called a shoe 7,fig4 #ic74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,mangle4 #age4 ,cold ,mangles4 ,when no heater is attached to the shoe or one roller1 the mangle is a cold mangle4 ,it smoothes clothes1 but does not do as good work as a heated mangle4 ,there is almost nothing about mangles to get out of order4 ,the only caution necessary is to keep the bearings oiled1 have guards so as not to catch hands in the power machines1 and loosen the roller so that it is not pressed onto any surface when not in use4 #agf4 ,heated ,mangles4 ,the heated mangles have the heat applied to one of the rollers or to the shoe4 ,they may be used cold4 ,the heat may come from gasoline1 gas1 electricity or kerosene4 ,the management of the heating unit is the same as for a stove using any of these fuels4 ,the same care should be taken of the burners as of stove burners4 #agg4 ,care and ,use of ,mangles4 7#a7 ,have the clothes damp before putting them thru the mangle4 7#b7 ,protect the mangle from dust at all times4 7#c7 ,see that belts are properly adjusted on mangles4 7#d7 ,the covering put on mangle rollers must be of even thickness1 or they will not do good work4 7#e7 ,do not mangle starched garments1 or those on which are many or large buttons4 7#f7 ,wax the steel roller while it is warm1 and wipe it clean with a cloth 7,fig4 #id74 7#g7 ,always remove pressure when not using mangles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,waxing roller of mangle4 #agh4 ,flat1 or ,sadirons4 ,irons are of two kinds--those which must be heated on a stove1 and the self-heating ones4 ,the weight of the iron governs the amount of heat it will absorb1 and this is the amount that it will give up in ironing4 ,heat is needed to dry clothes1 and as the cloth can be smoothed best when damp1 but will wrinkle again unless dried while smooth1 heat is essential to the ironing process4 ,the weight of the iron helps in the smoothing process4 ,the heavy irons do the best grade of work1 but are harder to manipulate4 ,the most satisfactory iron for a woman of average strength to manage weighs six to eight pounds4 ,the following points should be remembered in using the iron3 7#a7 ,rub rusty irons with bees'-wax or paraffine and wipe with a cloth4 7#b7 ,wash irons frequently1 and rub with sand soap1 ,dutch cleanser1 ashes or salt to polish them4 7#c7 ,rinse in boiling water and wipe dry4 ,warm on the stove and rub with bees'-wax1 and set away4 7#d7 ,before using1 wipe with a cloth4 7#e7 ,do not wash electric irons--rub with wax or paraffine4 ,wipe off with a clean cloth4 7#f7 ,it has been found by tests that the time required in heating the self-heating iron usually equals the time required for the iron to cool after the heating has been stopped1 but that an iron cools faster on wet1 heavy cloth than on thin1 dry cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,parts of electric iron4 #agi4 ,charcoal ,irons4 ,charcoal is no longer used for heating irons4 ,it makes too much dirt4 ,difficulty is found1 also1 in keeping charcoal irons at a constant temperature4 #ahj4 ,electric ,irons4 ,an electric iron 7,fig4 #ie7 is made up of a heavy nickel-plated base1 a block of iron which holds the heat1 and a heating unit of small wires1 or a plate1 thru which the current passes1 meeting resistance4 ,since resistance against the flow of an electric current produces heat1 the iron is heated4 ,it has a handle and shell covering the heating unit to protect the hand and prevent loss of heat thru the top4 ,getting electric irons too hot injures the heating unit1 as electricity can heat metals so hot that they melt4 ,excessive heat may disconnect the circuit by burning the wires in the iron1 or it may melt the metal so as to form a short circuit4 ,always follow exactly the directions for connecting and disconnecting the iron with the current4 ,some say disconnect at the plug between iron and cord1 or others the plug placed near the socket 7,fig4 #ie-;a74 ,the weakest part in irons is likely to be in the attachment plug4 ,when connecting the plug to the iron1 be sure to get it back in place each time4 ,a plug that does not fit well into place may cause sparking and develop sufficient heat to burn off the insulation from the cord1 if not the fuses of the system to which the iron is attached4 ,never attach an iron to a lighting system without making sure that the iron is made to be operated on the voltage of the current to which is is connected4 ,if it is not the same1 attaching the iron may either burn out the fuses of the lighting system1 or ruin the iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie-;a4 ,connecting plug for electric attachment4 ,operate the iron at a good temperature for ironing1 and take care to keep it from getting hotter than is required4 #aha4 ,gas ,irons4 ,gas irons are attached to a tube leading from a gas pipe4 ,there is a burner inside the iron which is generally a straight rod with perforations in it for the escape of the mixture of gas and air4 ,the air mixes with the gas at a point near where the gas pipe enters the iron4 ,the principle of heating an iron is the same as the heating of a gas stove 7,fig4 #if74 ,the burner in the iron is lighted1 and as soon as it has heated the iron1 the ironing can proceed4 ,the only difficulties encountered in using this kind of an iron are that a quick1 jerky stroke may blow out the flame1 and if the work is being done in a drafty place1 the iron may not heat evenly4 ,these difficulties can be overcome1 however4 ,the person using the iron can learn to use a stroke which will be rapid and still not put out the flame4 ,the ironing board may be protected from drafts4 ,a gas iron is safe and practical4 ,it is easily controlled by the valve admitting the gas4 #ahb4 ,acetylene ,irons4 ,acetylene irons are similar to gas irons1 the difference in them being in the construction of the burner4 #ahc4 ,alcohol ,irons4 ,alcohol irons have a tank attached to them which holds about a half pint of alcohol4 ,this iron is similar to the gasoline iron shown in ,fig4 #ig4 ,some alcohol is turned into the iron1 and then the valve is closed4 ,this alcohol is lighted with a match and used to heat the generator in the iron so that it will be hot enough to change the alcohol into vapor4 ,as soon as this is done1 the alcohol is again turned on and lighted4 ,the burners in these irons should be kept free from dirt4 ,like gas irons1 they should be used with a stroke which will not put out the fire4 ,they cannot be operated in a strong draft4 ,the heat in them can be regulated by the valve which controls the flow of alcohol4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,gas iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,alcohol iron4 #ahd4 ,gasoline ,irons4 ,there are two kinds of gasoline irons4 ,in one the tank is a part of the iron 7,fig4 #ig71 and in the other the tank is many feet away1 where the gasoline is changed to gas by a cold-process gasoline gas machine and connected with the iron by a flexible tube4 ,these latter operate like other gas irons4 ,gasoline irons with the tank attached are operated the same as alcohol irons4 ,the danger in these irons comes in the tanks becoming overheated4 ,alcohol is used first to heat the generator because it will not smoke the iron4 ,the gasoline1 when lighted1 should burn with a blue flame4 ,the tank should be one which has been tested to stand a high gas pressure1 as the gasoline in the tank may become heated and vaporize4 ,the gas so formed must not escape into the room1 where it might be ignited by a spark4 ,if not allowed to escape1 it exerts considerable pressure inside the tank4 ,if the pressure becomes too great1 it will break the tank1 escape and ignite from the flame in the iron4 ,the opening for filling must always be kept closed when the iron is in use4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,vi #a4 ,explain the construction of various types of washing machines4 ,what are the advantages of each8 #b4 ,what care should a roller wringer receive8 #c4 ,how does a centrifugal wringer dry clothes8 #d4 ,how does a mangle differ from a wringer8 #e4 ,what is the difference in care that should be given to a plain flat iron and an electric iron8 ,,part ,,vii ,,house-,,cleaning ,,equipment ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,vacuum ,,cleaners ,,and ,,cleaning ,,tools #ahe4 ,principle ,upon ,which ,vacuum ,cleaner ,works4 ,the principle of a vacuum cleaner is that1 thru suction1 dust and dirt are drawn from the floor or other surfaces into some container4 ,if the power of the cleaner is sufficient1 it may pick up anything--but cleaners having a moderate amount of power are somewhat more discriminating4 ,they do1 however1 remove the fine1 greasy dirt that brooms1 brushes and carpet sweepers fail to get4 ,the coarser dirt and ravelings may be taken up by a carpet sweeper1 with a brush1 or picked up by hand4 ,the brush is combined with the cleaner in many machines 7,fig4 #ih74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,brush and vacuum cleaner combined4 #ahf4 ,different ,kinds of ,vacuum ,cleaners4 ,there are cleaners with bellows1 pumps or fans to draw in air and dirt4 ,the ones with bellows in them work on the principle of a bellows which is reversed so that when the air is drawn in1 it brings the dirt with it4 ,the other kind works with a fan which draws or sucks air from the floor thru a nozzle into the machine4 ,in the machine1 the dust is filtered out of the air and collected in a pan4 ,the machines with fans in them are mostly power machines1 as the fan must revolve very rapidly4 ,the hand machines are mostly of the pump and bellows types4 ,some are combined with the carpet sweeper1 making two machines in one4 ,with this device once going over the floor is sufficient for removing both coarse and fine dirt4 ,the hand machines do not have as much power of suction as the power machines1 but they do very satisfactory work4 ,they are more effective than a carpet sweeper in removing dirt1 but they do not get as much of it as the stationary cleaner4 ,removing the sharp grit from rugs and carpets lengthens the life of them so that the more grit a cleaner can remove without tearing the carpet1 the more valuable it is4 ,when the pump type is being used1 the piston is drawn up1 drawing with it air and the dirt which is present at the point from which the air comes4 ,a cloth filters out the dust4 ,the air escapes from the machine before the piston is lowered to draw in more air and dirt4 ,if this were not true1 the dust would be forced back as the piston was lowered4 #ahg4 ,nozzle of ,vacuum ,cleaner4 ,the nozzle1 or point of entry of air into the machine1 is an important part of a vacuum cleaner4 ,this is constructed so that it fits the surface from which the dirt is to be drawn1 insuring the drawing up of dust as well as air4 ,the dirt is drawn from only a few square inches of surface at one time4 ,the thoroness and rapidity with which the dirt is removed depends upon the strength of the suction or the power of the machine4 ,thus1 hand machines may have to be moved over a surface several times if it is very dirty in order to get all the dirt4 ,plain solid nozzles work best on carpets and other surfaces of similar kind4 ,they are not effective on hard floors1 but this is not essential1 as dirt can easily be removed from smooth surfaces with a brush4 #ahh4 ,cautions in ,using ,vacuum ,cleaners4 ,the difficulties to be met with in vacuum cleaners are leaks4 ,first of all1 the machine must be fitted together perfectly2 if not1 the dust drawn into the machine escapes into the air of the room instead of into the collection pan or chamber4 ,machines are made air-tight1 but to be cleaned1 they must be taken apart4 ,in putting them together1 the housekeeper must take pains to fit them together perfectly4 ,never neglect to empty the dust chamber4 ,keep the machine properly oiled4 ,a punctured bellows or a leaky dust strainer will cause dust to escape after being drawn into the machine4 ,these have to be remedied with new parts4 ,some machines leak because of improper manipulation1 such as a too-fast or too-jerky motion in operating them4 ,the directions for each machine tell how to use it--such directions cannot be given here because they differ so much4 ,when the pan has become over-full of dirt1 the machine will necessarily throw out dust as well as air4 ,letting the machine get over-full of dust may ruin the machine by making some part leak continuously4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,electric vacuum cleaner4 #ahi4 ,difference ,between ,hand and ,power ,cleaners4 ,power machines differ from hand ones in that they are run by motor power 7,figs4 #ii and #ii-;a74 ,they may have larger collecting chambers and may be stationary in the cellar and connected to the rooms by long pipes 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,they must likewise not be over-full of dust4 ,they must be kept properly adjusted4 ,as the operation of the mechanism shakes the machine1 it may loosen screws and nuts1 so they must be kept tightened4 ,the motor must also be kept in order4 ,the motors used for vacuum cleaners are the same as those used on other power devices4 ,they may be small electric motors1 forming a part of the machine1 or large motors which operate several machines4 ,in any case1 they must be given the same care as any other motor of the same type4 7,see ,chapter ,,xxxviii47 ,if they become overheated1 they will not work well4 ,they must be kept lubricated to avoid friction1 and they must be kept properly adjusted4 ,fig4 #ajj-;a shows a number of different attachments for vacuum cleaners4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii-;a4 ,electric vacuum cleaner1 showing parts4 #aij4 ,carpet ,sweeper4 ,a carpet sweeper is a combination of brush and dust pan4 ,the advantage of this device is that the dust is gathered into the machine as the brush rotates1 due to the action of the wheels on which the machine moves4 ,the dust is collected into pans at each side of the brush2 these are covered so that the dust does not fly into the air as much as otherwise would be the case 7,fig4 #aja74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,stationary vacuum cleaner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj-;a4 ,nozzles for vacuum cleaner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,section of carpet sweeper4 ,oil the sweeper regularly about once a month by putting one drop of oil on the ball bearing on the hub of each wheel4 ,failure to oil carpet sweepers causes them to wear out quickly1 to squeak1 and to run hard4 ,more oil than is needed only gathers dust and gums the sweeper4 ,empty the sweeper 7,fig4 #ajb7 each time it is used1 even during the sweeping if necessary4 ,don't fill it to overflowing4 ,always open the pans by pressing on the dump levers1 not by taking hold of the pans4 ,don't let the brush get tangled with hair1 ravelings1 etc4 ,take it out occasionally and clean it 7,figs4 #ajc and #ajc-;a74 ,cut along between the spiral rows of bristles with a sharp knife or shears1 and the ravelings and hairs can be picked or combed out easily without injuring the brush 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,never try to pull them off whole4 ,also remove any accumulation of dirt or ravelings which catch in the wheels or bearings4 ,don't let dirt collect in any part of the machine4 ,keep it clean4 ,good sweepers work best without extreme pressure on the handle4 ,never put oil1 water or any liquid on the bristles4 ,don't keep a sweeper on a warm-air register--it takes the life out of the bristles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,emptying sweeper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,releasing brush in sweeper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc-;a4 ,details of construction of carpet sweeper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,cut ravelings from brush4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,mop wringer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,another type of mop wringer4 #aia4 ,mop ,wringers4 ,there are two kinds of mop wringers to attach to pails4 ,one is made of two flat surfaces which1 when pressed together with the mop between 7,fig4 #aje71 squeeze the water out of it1 and the other is made of two wringer rollers which1 when brought together by a lever after the mop is put between them1 rotate as the mop is pulled upward and wring out the water 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,vii #a4 ,how do vacuum cleaners pick up dust8 #b4 ,describe some type of vacuum cleaner4 #c4 ,what care should be given a vacuum cleaner8 #d4 ,tell how to clean a carpet sweeper4 ,,part ,,viii ,,devices ,,for ,,preparation ,,and ,,conservation ,,of ,,food ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,pots1 ,,pans1 ,,and ,,other ,,devices #aib4 ,materials from ,which ,utensils ,are ,made4 ,since there is considerable choice in utensils made from different materials1 the housekeeper may like to know something about these materials and about their care1 and the effect of acids and alkalis upon them4 ,russia iron is one of the older materials for pots and pans1 and it still holds a place in cookery1 for it makes bread1 loaf cake and cooky pans1 which give to the food a thin1 brown crust1 due1 undoubtedly1 to the way in which it conducts heat4 7,see tables on page #aeh47 ,tinned metal1 which is well tempered1 also1 gives a thin1 brown crust to layer cakes and pies4 ,it makes good bread1 loaf cake and cooky pans4 ,most of the cheap tin of today is iron-coated with very little tin4 ,it does good work1 but utensils made of it cannot be kept as well polished and as attractive in appearance as more heavily-tinned ones4 ,sheet iron1 heavy steel and cast iron make the most popular frying pans4 ,the heavy iron1 holding heat as it does1 makes a desirable brown coating on most foods without the danger of burning experienced with frying pans of other materials4 ,this is due to specific heat and conductivity of the metal4 ,sheet-iron frying pans are useful in cooking foods which are wanted on short notice4 ,the small-sized ones are most in use4 #aic4 ,aluminum ,alloy4 ,satisfactory frying pans are made from aluminum alloyed with other metal and cast4 ,real aluminum frying pans warp4 ,they do not brown the food as well as materials that conduct heat less rapidly4 #aid4 ,cast-,iron ,utensils4 ,heavy cast iron finds special favor in the making of pot roasts1 bread sticks and popovers4 ,it browns the roast and makes a thick crust on bread sticks and popovers4 ,all iron or tin utensils give better service as they become tempered with use4 ,they must be kept dry in order to prevent rust4 ,do not use them for cooking acid foods4 ,granite1 cast aluminum and ,russia iron are the popular and satisfactory materials for roasting pans4 #aie4 ,earthenware4 ,for casseroles and bean pots1 earthenware is a favorite material1 the heavy glass gives equally good results4 ,these materials are fitted for long1 slow baking of food4 ,they hold heat and conduct it to the food in such a way as to produce results which are difficult to duplicate with utensils of other materials4 #aif4 ,aluminum and ,graniteware4 ,stew pans are proving satisfactory when made of aluminum and of high-grade graniteware4 ,an assortment of pans and double boilers containing utensils of each material gives the best results1 as the granite is most desirable for cooking some acid and very salty food1 while aluminum is light and satisfactory for preparing other dishes4 ,never let food stand in aluminum or granite dishes after being cooked4 ,high-grade graniteware is not as readily affected by acids as the low1 cheap grade4 ,enameled ware1 which is roughened by a dilute solution of vinegar1 is likely to contain substances injurious to health4 ,ink will not stain good enameled ware4 ,graniteware1 like glass and earthenware1 makes a heavy crust on the dishes being baked in them4 ,graniteware is metal1 coated with a sort of glass4 ,it must be treated like glass4 ,it cracks when dropped4 ,never set it on a hot stove when empty or cold1 as the heat of the stove will crack it as it will glass4 ,when hot1 do not set it on a cold marble or a metal table top1 as sudden changes in temperature will crack it4 ,with proper care1 granite and enameled ware give good service4 ,graniteware is proving desirable for making utensils for use on electric stoves1 the conductivity of the glass coating being so low1 that it conducts the heat to the top of the pan slowly so the food in it gets to cooking quicker than in utensils made of most of the other materials4 ,aluminum is easily dented and warped by extreme heat4 ,it is attacked by some strong acids and strong solutions of salt1 soda and fruit juices4 ,aluminum may be hardened by the addition of six to seven per cent of copper so that it can be cast into utensils4 ,great care must be used not to use cleaning powders which contain strong alkalis for cleaning aluminum ware4 ,it has light weight1 and1 when polished1 is very attractive4 ,with proper handling1 it gives good service4 #aig4 ,mixing ,spoons4 ,the wooden mixing spoon gives best results1 as it does not mar the utensils1 and the handle does not become as hot as metal4 ,hard maple or orange wood cut in a plain design makes the best spoon4 ,acids do not attack it4 ,plated silver or solid nickel spoons come next in usefulness4 ,softer metals wear off too fast to be satisfactory4 ,nickel is a most desirable material for household utensils1 but is very expensive4 ,it is not in common use in this country4 ,,table ,,showing ,,conductivity ,,and ,,specific ,,heat ,,of ,,metals ,,metal ,,conductivity ,,specific ,,heat ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,silver #a4jj #j4jeei ,copper 4#gd 4#jibc ,aluminum 4#dh 4#bjbb ,tin 4#ae 4#jeji ,iron 4#ab 4#ajih ,glass 4#jjag ,silicon 4#aei at #aj ,c4 4#bjbi at #bcb ,c4 ,nickel 4#ajhd ,tungsten 4#jce ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,parers1 ,,seeders1 ,,grinders1 ,,slicers1 ,,etc4 #aih4 ,fruit and ,vegetable ,parers with ,knives4 ,parers of the type with a knife have a fork-like device on which the fruit or vegetable is held while a knife blade1 attached to a shaft governed by a spring1 is pressed against the fruit or vegetable so that it cuts off a thin layer of the surface4 ,both the fruit and the knife are caused to rotate so that the whole surface of the sphere-like object will be covered by the blade of the knife during one or more revolutions of the wheel which operates them 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,the knife is guarded so that it cuts only a thin layer from the outer surface of the fruit or vegetable4 ,after the knife has made the complete journey over the surface1 a device attached to the machine pushes the object from the fork so that a new one may be put in its place4 ,parers are quite complicated devices1 but they have been perfected so that they are not clumsy1 and some can core apples1 stone peaches and slice the fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,parer4 ,keep this type of machine dry so that it will not rust4 ,do not put it into water4 ,wipe off the blade of the knife and the fork when thru paring1 so that the acid of the fruit will not discolor them and dull the knife4 ,keep the other parts dry and oiled4 ,in time the spring governing the knife becomes weak and the machine will not do good work4 ,this spring can be replaced on some machines4 ,parers are usually made of cheap material so that a new machine costs less than the repairs4 #aii4 ,parers ,which ,grate ,off ,skins4 ,another type of parer is a grater-like device4 ,this is used in larger establishments than the ordinary home1 but is useful where there is much canning of hard fruits or vegetables to be done at home4 ,it consists of a container1 the inside of which is rough like a grater4 ,the vegetables or apples are put into the container with water enough to float and separate them1 and the whole is agitated so that the vegetables coming against the sides have the outer surface removed or grated off4 ,the water acts as the medium for moving the vegetables and for removing the bits of skin from the sides of the parer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,cherry stoner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,grinder4 ,keep this parer clean by scrubbing the inside with a stiff brush and rinsing well with water after using4 ,keep in a dry place4 #bjj4 ,seeders and ,stoners4 ,seeders and stoners are constructed to punch out the seeds which are contained in cherries1 grapes1 raisins1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,parts of ,corona grinder4 #bja4 ,cherry ,stoner4 ,a simple cherry stoner 7,fig4 #ajh7 consists of a small platform with a rod slightly smaller in diameter than a cherry stone4 ,the cherry is put on an inclined plane so that it rolls over the hole4 ,the cherry usually stays on the rod until this rod is lifted2 then it passes between two guards which pushes the cherry off on another incline1 where it rolls into a pan 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,there are several makes of stoners1 but most of them work on this principle1 whether the rod is lifted by hand or moved by a crank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,parts of ,universal grinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,vegetable slicer4 #bjb4 ,grinders4 ,grinders are of two principal types--the roller and the burr4 ,coffee and other hand mills are of the burr type 7,figs4 #aji and #aaj74 ,the food passing between these rough surfaces is ground to a fine powder as one is turned on the other4 #bjc4 ,choppers or ,meat ,grinders4 ,choppers or meat grinders1 as they are sometimes called1 consist of a spiral channel1 thru which the food is pushed along4 ,knives are placed in the sides of some machines to chop the food as it passes1 while in others the knives are only at the outlet4 ,keep the fingers out of the hopper when the chopper is being operated4 ,keep the machine clean and dry when not in use 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,universal vegetable slicer4 #bjd4 ,choppers4 ,choppers have been made which really chop the food without crushing it1 but these machines are so clumsy and noisy1 that they have not come into common household use4 ,they consist of chopping knives which are raised and lowered by levers and a crank4 #bje4 ,slicers4 ,slicers vary in design4 ,the following illustrations 7,figs4 #aab and #aac7 show two different types4 ,care must be taken to guard the fingers when using slicers4 ,wash the knives and keep them dry when not in use4 ,a soiled knife gets dull faster than a clean1 dry one4 #bjf4 ,lard and ,fruit ,presses2 ,sausage ,stuffers4 ,presses and stuffers are of two types--the one which depends on the weight exerted on a long lever1 and the other which depends on a screw to press the substances4 ,the screw forces a flat board or surface down upon the food as it is turned4 ,more pressure for the size of the device can be secured with the screw than is practical with a weight on the long arm of a lever 7,fig4 #aad74 ,the stuffer is like a press1 except that the food is forced out one hole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,lard and fruit press4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,mixers1 ,,beaters ,,and ,,churns2 ,,coffee ,,pots #bjg4 ,use of ,mixers1 ,beaters and ,churns4 ,mixers1 beaters and churns are all devices for agitating or stirring food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,parts of bread mixer4 ,the simpler ones of these devices depend upon the motion of the hand 7,fig4 #aae71 while others have their velocity increased by means of cog wheels4 ,the turning of the large wheel turns the small wheel as many times as number of cogs on the small wheel is contained in the number on the large wheel 7see ,fig4 #aaf74 ,to get even more speed or to apply the power at a different angle1 a series of wheels are sometimes used4 ,a few mixers1 like the bread mixer1 are simply machines which take the hands out of the food1 thus tending to a higher degree of sanitation1 and a change in the motion which may not be so tiring as kneading4 ,they do not increase the speed of mixing4 ,bread made in a mixer has a somewhat different texture than bread kneaded by hand1 but this does not change its nutritive value4 #bjh4 ,care of ,these ,devices4 ,the principal care needed by these devices is that they be kept clean and the cog wheels dry4 ,very little oil should be used1 as it would tend to get it into the food4 ,sometimes the rivet holding a wheel needs to be tightened1 as1 for example1 when one becomes so loose that the wheel slips cogs4 ,if it is too tight1 the wheel may bind and work hard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,view showing internal arrangement of cake mixer4 #bji4 ,freezers4 ,the freezer is a mixer in a can which is in turn set in a freezing mixture of ice and salt4 ,freezing can be done without stirring the cream4 ,this makes a cream filled with crystals1 while if stirred1 it will be smooth and velvety because it freezes more evenly4 ,the rapidity of freezing and the proportion of the ice and salt affect the fineness of the grain of the frozen dish4 ,a freezer is designed not only to stir the food1 but to scrape it from the sides of the can4 ,that which freezes first must be stirred into the middle of the can2 otherwise1 it would form a hard frozen layer of cream on the sides1 leaving the middle unfrozen1 and interfere with the turning of the paddle or beater4 ,in the bottom of the outside bucket1 holding the ice and salt1 is a socket into which the pivot on the bottom of the can fits4 ,the can turns on this pivot in the direction opposite to which the paddle is turning4 ,some freezers are made so that the can stays stationary4 ,the function of the pivot is then to hold the can in the center of the pail so that the paddle will be in the proper position to turn easily4 #baj4 ,care of ,freezers4 ,the pail of wood should not be stored in a very dry place when not in use4 ,the can and paddle must be kept clean and dry so that they will not rust4 ,the bearings and wheels which turn the paddle and can must be kept dry and oiled4 ,there is a hole in the upper part of the tub or pail in which the can sets1 and this should be kept open as it is placed slightly below the level of the top of the can so as to drain off any water from the melting ice which otherwise might get into the can and make the food salty4 ,some freezers have another hole at the bottom of the tub4 ,this should be kept closed while food is being frozen4 ,it is useful to drain off the water from the tub when the freezer is to be repacked or emptied4 ,it should not be opened at any other time4 #baa4 ,churns4 ,churning can be done with almost any device which agitates the cream1 but the churns which are simplest are most easily cleaned and least wasteful of butter4 ,they are barrels or other containers which revolve or swing backward and forward4 ,keep churns clean and well aired so they will not give up odors and flavors to the butter4 ,after a churn has been used1 rinse it with cold water and then wash it in hot water1 to which washing soda has been added4 ,lastly1 rinse with scalding water4 ,leave open to air when not in use1 but protect from dust and dirt4 #bab4 ,drip ,coffee ,pots4 ,drip coffee is made in a funnel or a cup-shaped device which is suspended in a coffee pot 7,fig4 #aag74 ,this is made either of cloth or perforated metal4 ,the coffee is pulverized and packed into the funnel4 ,cold water is poured on top of the coffee and slowly filters thru it1 extracting flavoring substances4 ,the water is heated after it has filtered thru the coffee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,drip funnel in percolator4 #bac4 ,percolator ,coffee ,pots4 ,a coffee percolator is a device put in a coffee pot to hold the ground coffee above the water and pump some of the water to the top of the pot so that it can seep back down thru the ground coffee 7,fig4 #aah74 ,a perforated cup with a perforated cover holds the coffee4 ,thru the center of this cup passes a small tube to the top of the pot4 ,at the bottom of the tube is a flat plate with turned-down edges or other device which supports the pipe and rests on the bottom of the pot4 ,a small amount of water gets under this and into the pipe4 ,the heat in the stove turns the water next the bottom to steam1 and this steam1 in escaping1 forces the water in the pipe to the top of the pot1 and raises the device slightly so that more water flows under it and into the pipe1 and again steam is formed and more water forced to the top of the pot4 7,see ,sec4 #afa1 ,suction ,washers47 ,after being forced out of the top of the pipe1 the water falls in a spray on the cover of the cup and seeps down thru the coffee back into the main part of the coffee pot4 ,the pumping devices in percolators may differ somewhat in design1 but the working principle is the same--that steam is lighter than water and can be generated in amounts which will force water up thru the central tube4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,percolator4 ,coffee grounds must not be allowed to get into the small tube1 for they will hinder the flow of the water4 ,the holes in the cup and cover must be kept open4 ,there is less waste in using finely-ground coffee than the coarsely-ground in percolators4 ,a small tube brush is needed for cleaning percolators4 ,the coffee must not be ground so fine that it will sift thru the perforations in the cup4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,dish-,,washers1 ,,canners ,,and ,,dryers ,the dish-washers 7,fig4 #aai7 have found a place in hotels and large establishments1 they are still in the experimental stage for general household use4 ,small machines on the market1 patterned after the hotel type1 are giving good results for home use4 ,when using these machines1 place the dishes in them in the manner directed and use as much water as is called for4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,dish-washer4 ,some dish washers work on the plan of revolving the dishes in the water1 some in forcing the water over the dishes1 and others by agitation of both dishes and water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai-;a4 ,small dish-washer for household use4 ,keep the pan washed clean4 ,keep all bearings properly oiled4 ,have the machine dry when not in use4 ,there is least breakage in the washers which hold the dishes stationary 7,figs4 #aai1-;a1-b and-c74 ,one type of dish-washer has no motor2 the force of the running water washes the dishes4 ,this can only be used where the water supply is abundant and under considerable pressure4 ,the washers equipped with paddles for throwing the water over the dishes use about a dishpanful of water for washing the dishes1 and as much more for scalding and rinsing them4 ,when well scalded in the dish-washer1 the dishes will dry if the cover to the washer is left open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai-;b4 ,walker dish-washer4 #bad4 ,dish ,dryer4 ,there is a number of dish dryers on the market which hold the dishes separate from each other4 ,into these dryers1 boiling hot water is poured1 over the dishes4 ,there is provision for the water being drained away immediately1 and the heat it imparts to the dishes dries them4 7,fig4 #aai-;c47 #bae4 ,cleaning ,silver4 ,silver can be cleaned in an aluminum pan filled with water and soda4 ,there are silver cleaners which are merely aluminum pans with which come directions for proportioning the soda and the water4 ,a mixture of salt and baking soda is sometimes used1 combined with a piece of zinc in an aluminum pan4 ,the salt1 soda1 zinc and silver are put into the aluminum pan and set on the stove4 ,the action of the salt and soda on the metals produces an electrolytic action which brightens the silver4 ,do not use this method of cleaning on gray or colored silver4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai-;c4 ,tray for holding dishes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,water bath canner4 #baf4 ,canners4 ,canners are devices for sterilizing fruit and other food which is being canned4 ,the wash-boiler type consists of a boiler or kettle with a rack in the bottom to raise the jars an inch or so from its bottom to prevent the cracking of the jars4 ,it has a cover to keep the heat uniform4 ,the water in the canner must entirely cover the jar4 ,this is usually called a water bath1 as the jars must be completely submerged in the water 7,figs4 #abj and #abj-;a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj-;a4 ,small canning outfit4 #bag4 ,water ,seal4 ,water-seal canners are like the water-bath canners1 except that the cover has a flange on it1 the depth of the boiler1 and about two inches from the sides of it4 ,this makes a jacket of water between the flange and sides of the canner4 ,this causes the temperature inside to rise about two degrees above the ordinary temperature of boiling water4 ,food can be sterilized in a little shorter time in this canner than in the ordinary water bath4 ,it is as important that the water entirely cover the jar in this canner as in the water bath4 #bah4 ,pressure ,canners4 ,pressure canners are made very strong and have covers which fit tight1 making it possible to raise the temperature in them considerably above the boiling temperature of water1 so the food may be sterilized in a very short time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,pressure canner showing pet cock4 ,the pressure canner has either a rack or a perforated pail on the inside to raise the jars from the bottom as in other canners4 ,it is also fitted with a steam gage which registers the pounds of pressure in the canner4 ,five to fifteen pounds pressure is used for canning4 ,the amount of pressure needed and the time of sterilizing depends on the organism present4 ,a higher pressure is an indication of a higher temperature in the canner4 ,after the jars are filled and put in the canner1 the cover is fastened down tight by thumb-screws4 ,there is a pet cock which is kept open when the canner is first heating1 to let the air be forced out by the first steam which forms4 ,as soon as the steam begins to escape1 the pet cock is closed and the temperature inside of the canner begins to rise above the temperature of boiling water 7,fig4 #aba74 ,on the canner is a safety valve which is set so that the instant a certain number of pounds of pressure is reached1 it is lifted up by the steam4 ,some of the steam then escapes1 thus preventing the pressure in the canner becoming so great that there is danger of its exploding4 #bai4 ,use of the ,canner4 ,water is put into the canner to reach to the bottom of the rack4 ,the jars are filled according to canning directions and are set in the canner4 ,when the jars are in1 the cover is adjusted to the canner and screwed on tight so that no steam will escape between the cover and the canner4 ,the pet cock is left open until steam begins to escape thru it as the canner is heating on the stove4 ,when steam begins to come1 the pet cock should be closed1 and the steam-gage hand then begins to turn1 indicating that the pressure in the canner is rising4 ,when the steam-gage reaches the point desired1 the safety valve is adjusted so that the steam will escape should the pressure continue to rise4 ,until the operator knows where to set the weight to the safety valve1 leave it well out to the end of the rod until the pressure in the canner has reached the desired point4 ,then move the weight to the point on the arm of the valve which will just keep in the steam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,device for sealing tin can4 ,be sure the cover is properly adjusted4 ,be sure to exhaust the air from the canner before closing the pet cock4 ,keep the fire so that the desired pressure will be maintained without the escape of steam from the safety valve4 ,when steam escapes from the canner thru the pet cock at a rapid rate1 it may cause liquid to flow out of the jars4 ,be certain to let the canner cool until the indicator on the steam-gage has reached zero before opening the canner4 ,when the indicator points to zero1 open the pet cock4 ,if a heavy stream of steam starts to escape from it1 close it again and wait a few minutes longer4 ,test again by opening the pet cock2 if a very little stream of steam escapes1 leave the pet cock open and wait until steam has stopped escaping from it4 ,now loosen the screws holding the cover in place4 ,partially loosen each screw4 ,when this is done1 fully loosen all and lift off the cover4 ,these precautions are taken to prevent the operator from being burned by steam or getting hurt by the cover being lifted by the steam4 ,it also prevents the breaking of glass jars due to sudden pressure changes4 ,never let the canner cool so long before the pet cock is opened that air will rush into it1 due to the vacuum which is sure to form when the steam is cooled if the pet cock is not opened4 ,such a condition may break the jars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,dryer4 ,tin cans are sealed with a device 7,fig4 #abb7 which folds the edge of the cover over the top of the can so tightly it will not leak4 #bbj4 ,dryers4 ,dryers are devices to hold the food being dried in a thin layer so that the air can be circulated thru it freely4 ,sometimes they are devised to direct currents of air thru the drying material4 ,if the air is heated1 the drying is hastened 7,fig4 #abc74 ,a sieve on which food is spread hung above the stove is a simple drying device and one of the most practical for home use4 ,the heat currents rising from the stove pass thru this and dry the food4 ,many dryers are constructed on this same principle1 having a heating unit below and trays of food above4 ,these trays have to be shifted from time to time1 as the moisture from the lower ones rises with the heat to the upper trays1 thus retarding their drying4 ,the top trays1 if too numerous1 are useless on this account4 ,two or three seem to be all that can be used with advantage at one time in home dryers1 the some machines are made with many more4 ,another type of dryer has a fan device in it which forces the air thru at a faster rate than would be accomplished by heat alone4 ,such air should pass thru a strainer4 ,ordinary air1 even when drawn from a clean room1 carries much dust with it1 and if the dust is not strained out previously1 it is strained out by the food4 ,this injures the quality of the product4 ,large commercial dryers provide such a strainer4 #bba4 ,care of ,dryers4 ,dryers should be kept clean4 ,they should not be heated enough to cook the food4 ,set them in a dry1 airy place4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,separators ,,and ,,emulsifiers #bbb4 ,cream ,separators4 ,a cream separator is a device for separating cream from milk4 ,separation can be done best while the milk is still warm 7,fig4 #abd74 ,separators should be set in a bright1 dry1 airy place free from dust and dirt4 ,near the separator should be a convenient place for airing and sunning the tin parts which come in contact with the milk4 ,the base for the separator should be solid enough so that it will not shake while the machine is being operated4 ,if set on a wooden floor1 see that the boards are nailed in place1 and if the floor is thin1 put heavy strips to cover several boards across it4 ,fasten the strips firmly to the floor and set the separator on them4 ,when the machine is set up1 be sure that it is set level4 #bbc4 ,different ,types of ,separators4 ,there are two types of separators--one which contains discs of metal 7,fig4 #abe71 and the other which depends upon a cylinder in which the milk rotates 7,fig4 #abd7 for the separation of the cream from the skim milk4 ,fig4 #abf shows a sectional view of the ,de,laval separator4 ,cream is lighter than milk1 and when milk and cream are whirled rapidly1 the milk1 being heavier1 flies to the outside of the container1 and the cream stays near the center4 ,two pails whirled rapidly made the first separator ever used1 but that was clumsy and impractical4 ,modern separators consist of a pan which holds the milk1 and which lets it flow in a stream into the portion of the machine which is being whirled rapidly by the turning of the wheel at the side4 ,there is a place in the rotating part which lets the cream flow from the center into one container1 and the milk flow from the outside to another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,cream separator4 ,the parts of the machine must be fitted together properly2 otherwise1 it will fail to do good work4 ,always turn the wheel at the speed indicated for the machine with discs4 ,if there is no speed indicated1 turn as fast as needed for good separation of milk and cream4 ,take care not to drop and dent any of the tin parts4 ,adjust for the density desired for the cream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,discs in ,de,laval cream separator4 #bbd4 ,washing the ,machine4 ,as soon as milk has been skimmed with the separator1 pour some water into the bowl and run it thru the separator the same as the milk4 ,wash the bowl and other parts in hot water in which washing soda has been dissolved4 ,rinse in clear water1 and then scald with boiling water4 ,once a week give it a more thoro washing1 scrubbing all parts with a brush4 ,sun the parts when not in use4 #bbe4 ,oiling4 ,the mechanical parts which whirl the separator should be kept oiled4 ,in oiling1 follow the directions which come with the machine4 ,use a good grade of oil4 #bbf4 ,whey ,separator4 ,a whey separator is a machine very much similar to a milk and cream separator4 ,it is used in homes where much cheese is manufactured4 ,it should be given the same care as other separators4 ,an homogenizer is a device used to give whole milk a consistency which is much like cream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,sectional view of separator4 #bbg4 ,emulsifier4 ,the emulsifier is a device for combining dried whole milk with water1 or dried skim milk with water and butter fat so that they make a reconstructed milk of almost the same composition as new milk4 ,an emulsifier is of interest to the woman who lives in the city4 ,emulsifiers are used in large institutions4 ,some have been installed in settlement houses and public schools4 ,they might be owned by communities where people might use a large amount of dried milk4 ,in the emulsifier1 the milk1 water and sweet butter are warmed4 ,after this1 they pass thru a device looking much like a separator1 but which mixes the ingredients together instead of separating them4 ,from the mixer the milk passes over a cooling device1 and is ready for use4 ,this machine should be kept clean1 and the parts which come in contact with the milk scalded out with hot water after being rinsed with cold water4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,viii #a4 ,what metals would you select for a pan to use when a thin crust is wanted8 ,what materials produce thick crusts8 #b4 ,for what purposes would you choose aluminum8 ,granite8 ,cast iron8 ,glass8 ,earthenware8 ,on what basis would you make a choice of utensils8 ,why wouldn't glass make a good ice-cream freezer8 #c4 ,what are the essentials of good parers1 slicers and corers8 #d4 ,what kind of dish washers are proving the most helpful8 #e4 ,describe a silver-cleaning device4 ,does the use of such devices harm the silverware8 #f4 ,what is a water-bath canner8 ,how would you make one8 #g4 ,what may cause glass jars in pressure cookers to break8 #h4 ,how may the breakage be prevented8 #i4 ,explain the ways in which cream may be separated from milk4 #aj4 ,how do separators help8 ,,part ,,ix ,,sundry ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,dumbwaiters ,,and ,,other ,,house ,,furnishings #bbh4 ,dumbwaiters and ,window ,adjustments4 ,dumbwaiters and elevators are used in homes where the kitchen is on a different floor from the dining-room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,spring pulley for windows4 ,the simplest ones are a set of shelves counterbalanced by weights4 ,when the elevator is raised1 the weights drop down1 and when it is lowered1 the weights rise4 ,window weights hung over a pulley in the top of the window sash work on the same principle as dumbwaiters--the weights help in raising the window4 ,the only care needed is to replace the rope when worn4 ,another window pulley is made of metal like that in a clock spring 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the spring is drawn out when the window is lowered1 and the weight of the window is just enough to hold it1 so very little force is needed to raise the window1 as the spring is pulling on it1 too4 #bbi4 ,check ,valves4 ,check valves are made to prevent doors from slamming4 ,they are used in offices and public buildings1 and1 occasionally1 in homes 7,fig4 #abh74 ,one kind contains glycerine and castor oil1 which move from one compartment to another as the door is opened and slowly flow back as a spring pulls the door shut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,check valve4 ,the other kind is operated by compressed air and a spring4 ,the air causes the steady action of the door stop4 ,another type of pneumatic hinge is attached to a door which is hung so that it would naturally swing shut4 ,when the door is opened1 the air is exhausted from part of the hinge4 ,after it has been opened1 the slow equalization of the air inside the door stop and outside allows the door to close slowly without slamming4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,door holder4 #bcj4 ,door ,fastener4 ,a door fastener 7,fig4 #abi7 is a small device which has a strong spring on the inside4 ,when the spring is released1 it pushes down on a rod which is capped with rubber4 ,when down1 this comes in contact with the floor and holds the door in place4 ,to change the position of the door1 a small lever is used to lift the rod and compress the spring1 thus releasing the door stop from contact with the floor4 #bca4 ,window ,shades4 ,window shades are equipped with a spring in one end of the roller to aid in raising it4 ,at the end of the spring is a flat bar which is held in position by the bracket on which the shade is hung4 ,small catches hold the curtain when it is at the desired position 7,fig4 #acj74 ,if the spring becomes weak1 draw the curtain down4 ,this compresses the spring4 ,stop so that the clamps always fall into place to hold it4 ,then remove the curtain from the brackets and roll it up by hand4 ,place it back on the brackets4 ,it can then be raised or lowered as wanted1 and will work with more power4 ,take care when doing this not to wind the spring so tight that it will draw the curtain clear around the roller1 thus letting the spring unwind or breaking the spring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,spring in curtain roller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,hinge4 #bcb4 ,hinges4 ,there are some hinges which should be of interest to women4 ,these are the ones for doors which swing only one way1 and for those which swing both out and in 7,fig4 #aca74 #bcc4 ,sliding ,doors4 ,when sliding doors slip off the slide1 they may be replaced4 ,they are hung like a barn door4 ,there is a metal track above the door between the walls4 ,the door is hung on this track by pulleys which slide along the track4 ,sometimes1 by accident1 these pulleys are slipped from the track4 ,the door then must be lifted so that the pulley can be set back on the track4 ,usually the door needs to be lifted but a fraction of an inch and then pushed a little to one side or the other to get the pulley into place4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,sewing ,,machines ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,lock-stitch machine4 #a4 ,bed ,slide #b4 ,presser ,foot #c4 ,presser ,foot ,thumb ,screw #d4 ,needle ,clamp #e4 ,needle ,clamp ,thumb ,screw #f4 ,needle ,bar ,thread ,guide #g4 ,needle ,bar ,bushing #h4 ,thread ,cutter #i4 ,face ,plate ,thumb ,screw #aj4 ,slack ,thread ,regulator #aa4 ,tension ,spring #ab4 ,tension ,regulating ,thumb ,nut #ac4 ,tension ,discs #ad4 ,thread ,take-up ,spring #ae4 ,thread ,guide #af4 ,presser ,bar ,lifter #ag4 ,face ,plate #ah4 ,pressure ,regulating ,thumb ,screw #ai4 ,presser ,bar #bj4 ,thread ,take-up ,lever #ba4 ,thread ,guide #bb4 ,arm #bc4 ,spool ,pin #bd4 ,bobbin ,winder ,stop ,latch #be4 ,belt ,cover #bf4 ,bobbin ,winder ,thread ,guide #bg4 ,balance ,wheel #bh4 ,bobbin ,winder ,pulley #bi4 ,bobbin ,winder ,spindle #cj4 ,bobbin ,winder ,worm ,wheel #ca4 ,stitch ,regulating ,thumb ,screw #cb4 ,bed #cc4 ,throat ,plate #cd4 ,feed ,plate #bcd4 ,different ,types of ,sewing ,machines4 ,there are two types of sewing machines in use--the chain-stitch and the lock-stitch4 ,sewing machines are made to run by hand1 foot or mechanical motor power4 ,this makes no difference in design or care of the stitching part of the machine4 ,motor and foot power run the machine faster than hand power4 ,the treadle of the foot-power machines swings on pivots4 ,these should be kept oiled and clean from lint and thread4 ,the large and the small wheels for the belt should be oiled at the axle4 #bce4 ,lock-,stitch ,sewing ,machine4 ,a lock-stitch sewing machine 7,figs4 #acb and #acc7 consists of shafts and wheels which move the needle1 feed plate and bobbin4 ,the top thread is guided from spool to needle thru a tension so that only the needed amount passes forward each time the needle is raised after the thread has caught in the cloth4 ,when there is a difference in the size of the thread used on the machine1 the tension must be adjusted to fit the thread1 unless the tension is automatic4 ,if the tension is not properly adjusted or the machine threaded properly1 the thread will either break1 tangle at the needle point1 or draw the top thread tighter than the bottom one 7,fig4 #acd74 ,a longer stitch is needed for coarse thread than for fine thread4 #bcf4 ,feed ,plate4 ,a device below the needle called the feed plate 7,no4 #cd1 ,fig4 #acb7 shoves the cloth faster or slower under the needle1 according to its adjustment1 thus making a longer or shorter stitch4 ,this device is a rough plate which moves backward each time the needle is raised1 and forward again when the needle comes down4 ,while moving backward1 the rough surface moves the cloth1 but it drops slightly below the level of the table as it moves back into place1 so does not affect the cloth4 ,for short stitches1 it moves with a short stroke1 and for long stitches1 with a long stroke4 ,if the feed plate becomes gummed with lint and oil1 the machine will not make even stitches and may fail to move the cloth4 ,sometimes it will fail to stitch4 ,improper threading may break the needle thread4 ,too tight a tension may break it4 ,too coarse thread for the size of the needle may break the needle4 ,a bent1 blunt pointed or incorrectly set needle may break4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,under part of machine using a vibrating shuttle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,diagrams showing proper tension4 #bcg4 ,bobbins4 ,there are two styles of bobbins used on lock-stitch sewing machines--the shuttle bobbin 7,fig4 #ace7 and the round bobbin 7,fig4 #acf71 depending on the particular type of machine used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,shuttle bobbin4 #bch4 ,shuttle ,bobbins4 ,in shuttle bobbins1 there is a long iron spool on which the thread is wound4 ,this is put into the bobbin with the twist in the direction indicated in the book of directions for the machine being used1 and the thread is drawn thru the slits and holes in the bobbin which govern the tension of the lower thread 7see ,fig4 #ace74 ,put the shuttle into place and draw the thread up over the feed plate 7,fig4 #acg74 ,the machine moves the shuttle backward and forward1 and as this happens1 the needle is timed to drop down1 leaving a loop of thread in such a position that the bobbin passes thru it4 ,in rising1 the needle pulls the loop up tight1 and as it has passed thru the cloth1 this cloth comes in between the thread from the bobbin on the under side and the thread from the spool on the upper side1 which have been interlocked by the bobbin having passed thru the loop of thread from the spool as the needle carried it down below the cloth4 ,this is called the lock-stitch 7,fig4 #acd74 ,the spool bobbins also pass thru the loop left after the needle has passed downward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,spool bobbin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,pulling up bobbin thread4 #bci4 ,chain-,stitch ,machine4 ,in the chain-stitch machine 7,fig4 #ach71 the shaft turns a device which draws a loop of thread thru each foregoing loop1 thus making a stitch similar to crocheting1 but having the cloth interlocked with the stitch4 ,the needle carries the thread and makes it tight or loose as needed4 ,the feed plate carries the cloth under the needle4 ,there is a tension to govern the thread4 ,as a single thread is used in making this stitch1 no bobbin is used4 ,the tension must be tight enough to draw the loop of thread about the cloth1 or else the thread will tangle4 #bdj4 ,cautions for ,all ,machines4 ,machines should be kept well oiled1 and they must be kept free from thread and lint1 for these are the things which give trouble in machines4 ,never try to draw the cloth under the needle any faster than it is pushed along by the feed plate under the presser foot4 ,pulling on the cloth bends the needle from the exact path which it should follow4 ,move the treadle with a smooth1 even motion--a jerky motion wears out operator and machine4 ,use only the best sewing-machine oil4 ,poor oil gums the parts of the machine4 ,clean the machine every day it is in use4 ,take care to set the needle in its proper position1 and fasten it firmly in place4 #bda4 ,general ,instructions4 ,thread the machine exactly according to instructions4 ,if not properly threaded1 it will fail to stitch--the thread will tangle4 ,if the bobbin is not properly threaded1 it will not have the proper tension1 and the machine cannot sew as it should4 ,the bobbin thread will break if it is not properly threaded thru the bobbin case4 ,it will also break if the bobbin tension is too tight 7,no4 #ad1 ,fig4 #ach74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,chain-stitch machine4 #a4 ,cloth ,plate #b4 ,presser ,foot #c4 ,needle-,bar ,nut #d4 ,needle-,bar #e4 ,needle-,bar ,screw #f4 ,foot ,bar #g4 ,lever #h4 ,liftee #i4 ,take ,up #aj4 ,embroidery ,spring #aa4 ,pull ,off #ab4 ,spool-,pin #ac4 ,spool-,pin ,holder #ad4 ,automatic ,tension #ae4 ,tension ,rod #af4 ,ball ,stud #ag4 ,lever ,stud #ah4 ,connecting ,rod #ai4 ,small ,wheel #bj4 ,belt #ba4 ,shaft #bb4 ,frame #bc4 ,stitch ,regulator #bd4 ,cap #be4 ,looper #bf4 ,link #bg4 ,feed ,bar #bh4 ,feed ,surface ,always regulate the stitch and the size of needle for each size and kind of thread used4 ,a table for this usually comes with each machine1 or is often stamped on the machine4 ,select the thread suitable to the material4 ,the number of a needle is marked on the shank4 ,needles made for one kind of machine will not always work on another4 ,an automatic tension should not be changed or meddled with4 ,some tensions must be adjusted to the thread4 ,follow directions coming with the machine for adjusting tensions4 ,remove any thread which has become entangled in the mechanism of the machine4 ,never use a bent needle4 ,a bent needle drops stitches on a chain-stitch machine4 ,soaping the needle helps it to go thru goods difficult to penetrate4 ,when a machine runs hard1 it needs oil or has become gummed up with poor oil4 ,when gummed1 clean with kerosene oil4 ,thread or ravelings wound about the axles of the wheels also makes the machine run hard4 ,learn to use the attachments of your machine--take care that they do not become bent4 ,the lock-stitch does not rip easily4 ,the ends of the thread of chain stitches should be carefully fastened4 ,if started from the end where the seam was completed1 the loop stitch may be easily unraveled and thus save time when mistakes are made in sewing or when garments are being made over4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,automobiles ,no lengthy treatise on automobiles can be given here1 but a few facts of general information are well in order4 ,each car has its special features1 but the basic principles of operation and control are the same for all makes4 ,let us consider1 first1 the control of the machine on the road4 #bdb4 ,starting the ,motor4 ,open the throttle from one-fourth to one-third way1 to permit entry of plenty of gas into the motor4 ,set the time control about as far down as the throttle4 ,turn on the ignition switch and turn the motor with the starter4 ,a cold motor may demand use of the choker before starting1 but1 again1 too free use of the choker floods the carburetor with a rich1 non-explosive mixture which can be removed only by use of the starter4 ,should the motor flood too easily1 or should it take too much choking1 have the carburetor readjusted4 ,common mistakes in starting the motor are 7#a7 too free use of the starter1 which is injurious to the battery2 7#b7 starting with the timer set too far down1 causing back-fire4 ,occasionally1 a novice attempts to start a car with the gears set and the brakes on4 ,with the motor started and running smoothly1 shift the gears into low and take off the brake4 ,let the clutch back gently to prevent the car from starting with a jerk4 ,in shifting gears1 the throttle should be kept down to prevent the motor from racing upon releasing the clutch4 7#c7 ,a common mistake is the attempt to shift gears with the clutch not entirely released4 7#d7 ,still another error is the failure to release the brake on starting1 resulting in everything from a stalled motor to a stripped gear4 ,a difficult place to start a car is when stalled on a hill4 ,this is done by holding the machine with the foot brake1 throttling the motor with the hand lever1 and slowly releasing brake and engaging clutch simultaneously4 #bdc4 ,driving the ,automobile4 ,in driving1 many things should be observed4 ,the oil pressure gauge or indicator should be noted from time to time to see that the motor bearings are getting proper lubrication4 ,the speed of the motor should be such that the battery is being charged rather than discharged1 as is likewise shown by an indicator on the dash4 ,this is especially important when using lights at night4 ,keep timer lever in correct place to prevent overheating4 ,the general rule for driving is--keep to the right side of the road1 the only possible exception being when passing a vehicle going in the same direction2 then go around on the left4 ,stop before crossing railroad tracks1 and drive slowly when approaching cross roads4 ,in turning corners to the left1 make the turn beyond the center of the cross road4 ,do not use brakes against the motor--release the clutch4 ,do not use the brake too forcibly2 it will cause injury to rear tires and skidding4 ,on slippery roads1 make it a rule to use chains and drive slowly4 #bdd4 ,care of ,car4 ,under this heading1 a few general rules may be given4 ,do not persist in running a machine when out of order4 ,never drive when the lubrication system is working imperfectly4 ,lack of cylinder oil will ruin a motor in a short time4 ,make it a rule to look at oil gauge before starting4 ,care of the battery consists largely in keeping it charged and filled to the proper level with distilled water4 ,tires should be kept inflated at all times4 ,in case of trouble1 never run on a flat tire1 as it will soon be worthless under such treatment4 ,never drive a machine while out of order--stop and have repairs or adjustments made4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,lawn ,,mowers2 ,,incubators #bde4 ,operation and ,care of ,lawn ,mowers4 ,the wheels of the lawn mower permit it both to move easily over the ground and turn the knives which cut the grass 7,fig4 #aci74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,lawn mower4 ,this means that they must be kept well oiled to work easily--that the shaft of the wheel must not become wrapped with grass1 weeds1 string or wire4 ,most machines are made adjustable1 and the knives are set to allow them to pass close enough to the plate at the bottom of the mower to clip the grass as if the machine were a pair of scissors4 ,keep the knives properly adjusted in relation to this plate4 ,do not let them come so close that they touch the plate but very lightly1 nor be so uneven that one end cuts grass1 while the other misses the plate so far that it will not cut4 ,if the knives are kept properly adjusted and the mower is not abused by trying to cut wires1 stones1 or by being stored where it becomes rusty1 it will seldom need sharpening4 ,keep all bolts tight4 #bdf4 ,storing ,mowers4 ,when storing for the winter1 grease the knives with a heavy coat of unsalted lard1 or cover them with some other protective material4 #bdg4 ,scissors and ,shears4 ,in popular language1 there is no distinction made between scissors and shears4 ,technically defined1 scissors are less than six inches in length4 ,any similar cutting device of greater length is called shears4 ,both are devices used for cutting cloth1 paper1 pruning trees1 and many other purposes4 ,they consist of two knives riveted together at some point between the handle and the point of the blade4 ,the two blades are so adjusted that as the open scissors are closed1 they touch lightly as they pass each other until the tip is reached4 ,when the scissors are closed1 the blades should touch only at rivet and tip4 ,scissors not so adjusted will not cut well1 even the the blades are very sharp4 ,dropping scissors often bends the blades4 ,blades may be straightened as well as sharpened1 and thus make good metal scissors like new4 #bdh4 ,principles ,upon ,which ,incubator ,works4 ,a device for hatching chickens is called an incubator4 ,in order to hatch chickens1 the incubator must keep an average temperature of #ajb-a_/b degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the thermometer should be placed in the center of the tray and on a level with the top of the eggs4 ,the temperature of #ajb-a_/b degrees ,fahrenheit must not vary greatly during the incubation of eggs4 ,the incubator must also permit of suitable ventilation and control of the moisture in the eggs4 ,there are incubators heated with hot water and others with hot air4 ,the air or water in those commonly used in homes is heated with a kerosene lamp4 ,the device consists of a heating unit1 a regulator or thermostat which1 acting upon a valve or damper1 regulates the admission of heat into the insulated box containing the trays of eggs1 ventilators and a thermometer 7,fig4 #adj74 #bdi4 ,the ,body of the ,incubator4 ,the box-like body of a good incubator is set on strong legs which raise it to a convenient height4 ,the trays slide into the box on cleats about two or three inches from the bottom of the body4 ,they fit so that a slit about two inches wide is left between for the chickens to drop down under the tray as they hatch4 ,usually this is near the door4 ,if the door is furnished with a glass to admit light1 the chickens are attracted toward light and fall thru the slit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,incubator4 ,the walls of the incubator are usually double so that air can be let in without making a draft4 ,dampers in the side of the machine regulate the admission of air4 ,ventilation both regulates the amount of air circulating in the incubator and the amount of moisture4 ,air from a damp room keeps the eggs moist4 ,air from a dry room dries them4 #bej4 ,incubators ,heated by a ,lamp4 ,choose a lamp which holds enough oil to last for twenty-four hours4 ,good lamps are usually made of metal and as plain as possible 7,fig4 #ada74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,incubator lamp4 ,the burner furnished with them is an ordinary lamp burner carrying a straight1 flat wick4 ,metal chimneys are used1 there being enough mica in one side to permit the flame to be seen4 ,the chimney extends into a metal chamber containing the hot-water pipes1 or into a chamber thru which air is taken and heated by the chimney4 ,the fumes from the burning oil pass out into the room and not into the incubator4 ,the heated air passes thru ducts into the incubator4 ,these are often constructed of wood4 #bea4 ,the ,wick4 ,the wick most generally found practical is the cotton wick1 such as is used in ordinary lamps4 ,it should be kept clean and renewed often4 ,the lamp should be kept filled regularly4 ,the wick must always be kept trimmed even1 to prevent smoking4 ,incubators heated by electricity have the heating unit placed either above or below the trays of eggs4 ,the current is controlled by a thermostat4 #beb4 ,thermostat4 ,the thermostat also raises the damper over the top of the lamp and air heater 7,fig4 #adb71 when the incubator reaches the temperature for which it is set1 and lowers it when the temperature falls4 ,when the damper is lifted1 the heated air passes out into the room and not into the incubator4 ,as soon as the incubator cools below this temperature1 the thermostat contracts1 letting the damper drop in place to retain the heat and direct it into the incubator4 ,the thermostat works the same when a gas flame is used instead of a lamp4 ,in electrical machines1 the thermostat operates the switch1 admitting much1 little or no current1 as is needed to maintain #ajb degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,thermostat for incubator4 #bec4 ,the ,thermometer4 ,a thermometer is placed in the incubator to guide the operator in regulating the temperature4 ,it guides him in adjusting the thermostat and the heating device2 that is1 it shows him when to turn the wick of the lamp up or down4 ,lamps should never be turned high enough to smoke4 ,smoke and gas in the room are likely to get into the incubator and harm the growing chicks4 #bed4 ,operation of ,incubator4 ,set the incubator level2 it is constructed to work on the level4 ,heated air rises--if the incubator is not level1 the highest point will get most of the heat4 ,it should be set in a dry room or dry cellar1 which is well ventilated and well lighted4 ,there should be no artificial heat in the room which is not regular4 ,an uneven temperature gives difficulty in managing the heating of the incubator4 ,the room should be free from dust4 ,adjust the incubator and run it for two or three days to see that it is operating at a constant temperature before putting in the eggs4 ,use only the best grade of oil1 and use the same kind of oil all thru one hatch4 ,change in oil may necessitate a change in regulators which is not safe while the eggs are in the incubators4 ,start the incubator with a good1 clear1 high flame in the lamp1 so that it can be turned lower as the germs in the eggs begin to grow and generate heat4 ,start the incubator at #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and by the second day1 it will reach the temperature of #ajb degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,egg tester4 ,violent fluctuations of temperature in the incubator are dangerous and should be avoided4 ,accuracy in reading temperatures and in adjusting the thermostat and ventilators is essential4 ,fill the lamp and turn the eggs regularly4 ,cleanliness is important4 ,disinfect the incubator between hatches1 and air it well4 ,cresol soap and water make a good disinfectant for incubators4 ,turn and handle eggs with clean hands4 ,to know whether the incubator has the proper amount of moisture supplied1 weigh the trays before filling1 weigh after filling4 ,at the end of the fifth day1 weigh tray and eggs again1 subtract the tray weight1 which is constant1 from the weight of the whole1 and note the difference between this weight and the original weight of the eggs4 ,if #ajj eggs have lost #h4ch ounces1 or #d4ag per cent of their weight1 the moisture is correct4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,appearance of eggs when put in egg tester4 ,if they have lost too much weight1 give more moisture or less ventilation1 but1 remember1 that pure air is essential to incubators1 so do not shut off ventilation entirely4 ,if not enough weight is lost1 open the ventilators1 and1 if necessary1 for the next hatch1 place the incubator in a drier place4 #bee4 ,egg ,tester4 ,an egg tester is a device for looking thru eggs to ascertain whether or not they are good4 ,it consists of some device to keep all bright light away from the eyes except a few bright rays shining thru the egg4 ,the hole should be about an inch long and three-fourths of an inch wide4 ,a metal chimney with one such opening in the side used in a darkened room serves as an egg tester4 ,a large piece of cardboard tacked over a sunny basement window is sometimes used1 the hole being cut in the cardboard 7,fig4 #adc74 ,hold the egg between the finger and thumb before the opening4 ,look at the egg as the light shines thru it4 ,fig4 #add shows how good and bad eggs look when viewed in egg tester4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,typewriters ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,typewriter1 ,l4 ,c4 ,smith4 #bef4 ,construction of ,typewriter4 ,the typewriter is a machine for printing letters 7,fig4 #ade74 ,the letters making the imprint are attached to shafts which can each swing to one point4 ,care should be taken to strike one key at a time1 as they are all made to reach the same point1 and contact with each other may cause bent shafts4 ,if a shaft becomes bent1 the letter attached to it will not swing to the desired point1 so will be out of alignment1 or will fail to leave a mark1 since the imprint is made on a roller and the letter hits only the nearest part of the surface4 ,the shaft may have one1 two or three letters on it4 ,this is made possible by the use of the shift key which raises or lowers the framework to which the roller is attached1 so that when the machine is in normal position1 one set of type on the keys will be imprinted1 and1 upon the holding down of a shift key and simultaneously striking a letter1 another set of type will make the imprint4 ,on some typewriters there are two shift keys1 allowing three sets of characters to be used4 ,the motion of the keys turns a small wheel which shoves the roller from right to left1 and1 also1 turns the spools of ribbons so that a new bit of ribbon comes under the letter each time a key is struck4 ,if the ribbon did not move1 the letters would soon cut a hole thru it4 ,this ribbon carries the ink which reproduces the imprint of the letter4 ,when the end of a ribbon is reached1 most machines reverse its direction so that it again winds onto the spool from which it has just unwound4 ,on other machines1 it is necessary to release the bar which controls the spools to reverse the winding of the ribbon4 #beg4 ,special ,features of ,typewriter4 ,learn how to use the attachments on the typewriter to get the greatest service from it4 ,if a machine is equipped with tabulating keys1 much time is saved by using them for the indentations instead of working the space bar until the desired place is reached1 or by using both hands to release the carriage and move it to its desired place4 ,some machines are equipped with a key marked ribbon key4 ,this key1 when pressed1 lowers the ribbon so that no impression from it is made on the paper4 ,when the ribbon is removed1 stencils may be cut with the letters for mimeographic work4 ,these are only two examples4 ,there are many automatic aids on each make of machine4 #beh4 ,interchangeable-,type ,typewriters4 ,on these machines1 the type is not placed at the end of a shaft1 but the complete set of letters is put on a semi-circular plate which is attached to a wheel which brings the desired letter to the point wanted when the key is pressed 7,fig4 #adf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,hammond interchangeable typewriter4 ,the change of type can be made very easily so that with the proper semi-circular plate any one of several languages may be written on this kind of typewriter regardless of the characters used to represent the letters4 ,charts of the keyboard are furnished with each set of letters to guide the operator in writing4 ,this machine requires the same general care as other typewriters4 #bei4 ,care of ,typewriters4 #a7 ,read the directions for cleaning and oiling the machine4 ,keep them for future reference4 #b7 ,do not attempt to take the machine apart4 ,only readjust parts for which such directions are given4 #c7 ,use only the best grade of typewriter oil1 and oil only where indicated4 ,the average machine does not require oiling oftener than from ten to fourteen days4 #d7 ,brush the entire machine each day before using4 ,this prevents the accumulation of oil and dust1 which retards the free action of the machine1 and rusts or clogs the bearings and other parts4 #e7 ,use a stiff brush to clean the type4 ,if the type has become gummed with ink from lack of care1 moisten the brush with alcohol or gasoline1 and brush it until clean4 ,avoid cleaning the type with a sharp instrument1 if possible1 as it mars the edges4 ,however1 in case of the letters having an enclosed parts1 such as c1 d1 e1 b1 g1 p1 a1 s1 c1 q1 it may require the careful removal of the deposit with a pin4 ,after this treatment1 the type should be well brushed4 ,keep machine covered when not in use4 ,with proper care1 a machine should stay in good order indefinitely4 ,if1 in any way1 any part of a machine is out of adjustment1 have an expert readjust it4 #bfj4 ,the ,hectograph4 ,the hectograph is one of the simplest devices for obtaining duplicate copies of written work 7,fig4 #adg74 ,it is a sheet like heavy paper or pad of jelly-like substance on which a reversed copy of the writing can be made and from which copies can be taken4 ,the original copy is written with hectograph ink on smooth paper by hand1 or on a typewriter1 and allowed to dry4 ,this copy is placed face downward on the hectograph pad1 which has been moistened and rubbed to insure the contact at all places4 ,it is allowed to remain here for three or four minutes4 ,more time is required in cold weather1 as the absorption of ink by the pad is slower4 ,the paper is then removed1 leaving a reversed impression on the hectograph plate4 ,copies are then made by placing dry paper on the impression and removing them instantly4 ,twenty copies may be taken4 ,the plate should be washed in lukewarm water immediately after use4 ,the hectograph plate should be about the temperature of an ordinary room2 chilled plates produce faint prints4 ,never use cold water on the plate4 ,keep pen flowing freely when writing the original copy1 by wiping it frequently4 ,keep the hectograph covered when not in use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,hectograph4 #bfa4 ,mimeograph and ,multigraph4 ,the mimeograph 7,fig4 #adh7 is a more complicated device for reproducing duplicates than the hectograph1 but more copies may be made at faster speed on this machine and the stencils may be saved for making more copies later4 ,a stencil 7tissue paper1 usually blue1 fastened to a sheet of equal size waxed cardboard7 is cut by a typewriter4 ,this is done by removing the ribbon and allowing only the outline of the type to cut thru the tissue which has been saturated with ,dermax1 a liquid wax which is brushed over the surface of the waxed paper1 and the tissue paper carefully smoothed out upon it4 ,some stencil paper or waxed sheets do not require this treatment of ,dermax2 instead a tissue or silk sheet is placed under the stencil paper4 ,when the desired wording is cut1 the cardboard is torn off at the perforated line1 leaving the four holes which attach the stencil to the roller of the mimeograph machine4 ,first see that the pad on the machine is well inked1 and then fasten the stencil to the pins at the top of the roller and with bar at the bottom1 seeing that it is smooth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,mimeograph4 ,set the adjustment which indicates the number of copies turned out1 so that it is not necessary to count them while printing4 7,full directions are printed on this adjustment47 ,place the paper on the feed board1 far enough down for the sheets to come in contact with the rollers which feed them in1 and turn the handle4 ,if the proportion of space at top is greater or less than desired1 set the attachment for regulating the space4 ,full directions are printed on each attachment of most machines4 ,see that the ink tank which is located inside the cylinder is kept full of the best ink4 ,ink the pad by pushing the brush across the inside of the perforated cylinder4 ,multigraphs differ from mimeographs in that they print the copy from type instead of thru a stencil4 ,the type is set in a cylinder that is covered by an inked ribbon4 ,manuscripts printed by a multigraph look more like typewriting than those printed by a mimeograph4 ,when turning out less than a thousand copies1 the mimeograph will be found more economical on account of the small amount of time required in preparing the stencil4 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,,ix #a4 ,by what means are dumbwaiters operated8 #b4 ,can you see any relation between the construction of door stops and force pumps8 #c4 ,what is the power for rolling up a window shade8 #d4 ,what does lock-stitch look like8 ,how does chain-stitch differ from lock-stitch8 #e4 ,in what way do lock-stitch machines differ from chain-stitch machines8 #f4 ,what are the advantages of each8 ,what are the disadvantages8 #g4 ,what is the tension8 ,how is it adjusted8 ,how is the length of stitch adjusted8 #i4 ,in what ways is an automobile engine like the gasoline engine and the electric motor used in rural homes for operating household machinery8 #aj4 ,what is the shape of the knives on a lawn mower that makes it cut the same as a pair of scissors8 #aa4 ,what may be the reasons for scissors not cutting as they should8 #ab4 ,what are the essential features of a good incubator8 #ac4 ,what is a thermostat8 ,how does it work8 ,are thermostats of any use to the housewife on any other device than the incubator8 #ad4 ,what mechanical factors are embodied in a typewriter8 ,find the pulley1 the levers1 the springs1 etc4 #ae4 ,what are the differences in a hectograph1 a mimeograph and multigraph8 ,,part ,x ,,motors1 ,,fuels1 ,,and ,,gas ,,plants ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,treadles ,,and ,,water ,,motors #bfb4 ,definition of ,motor4 ,a motor is a device for utilizing the power stored in gasoline1 electricity or elevated water for doing work4 ,the structure of the motor depends upon the source of its power1 as does its name4 ,besides the motor1 there is a treadle1 or foot-power motor1 used in the home4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,water motor4 #bfc4 ,the ,treadle4 ,the treadle is a small platform1 which rocks on two pivots4 ,as the treadle is rocked1 it moves a rod attached to its outer edge1 upward and downward4 ,this rod is then attached to a wheel a short distance from the hub1 so that the upward and downward motion of the shaft turns the wheel4 ,when a belt is attached to the wheel1 it will run a sewing machine or other small device4 #bfd4 ,water ,motors4 ,water motors are commonly used in the household on washing machines and pumps 7,figs4 #adi and #adi-;a47 ,at least twenty-five pounds of water pressure is required to run an average-size washer4 ,more pressure is advantageous4 ,the motor may be1 and often is1 attached to tanks in which water is held under pressure1 and used to pump water from a cistern or well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi-;a4 ,reliable water motor4 #bfe4 ,selecting a ,water ,motor4 ,before purchasing any device to be operated by a water motor1 ascertain how much water pressure you have available4 ,under enough pressure1 the water from a faucet will give power enough to a small-sized water motor to run a washing machine1 sewing machine or small feed grinders4 ,these motors are usually less than one-half horse power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,sectional view of water motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej-;a4 ,water motor assembled and in parts4 #bff4 ,two ,types of ,water ,motors4 ,one type of water motor is made up of a piston and valves in a cylinder 7,fig4 #aej74 ,the water pushes the piston to a certain point when a valve opens and lets out the water4 ,the piston then moves backward until it automatically opens another valve1 letting in more water1 which1 in turn1 pushes the piston forward and again to the point where the first valve opens4 ,the motion of the piston must be strong enough to do the work4 ,about twenty-five pounds of water pressure is required in moving the piston forward when attached to a machine which might be operated by hand by a woman4 ,another type of water motor consists of cups or fans on the rim of a wheel4 ,as the water flows over the wheel1 it pushes it around1 thus giving it power to do work provided there is enough pressure behind the water 7,fig4 #aej-;a74 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,engines2 ,,motors ,,and ,,batteries2 ,,fuels #bfg4 ,gasoline ,engines4 ,a gasoline engine 7,fig4 #aea7 should be operated out of doors or in a well-ventilated room1 except in cases where the exhaust pipe is carried thru the wall of the building to the outside4 ,the fumes may cause illness1 or even death1 to any one staying in the room4 ,a gasoline engine should be mounted on a substantial base of concrete or heavy timbers1 or on a well-built truck1 and should be put in good order before the woman or girl begins to use it4 ,the engine must be level4 ,if more than one device is attached to it1 be sure to use the right pulleys on the engine and the machine to be operated4 ,an engine is usually equipped with pulleys of two or more sizes4 ,the size of the wheel on the washing machine or vacuum cleaner must be of a size to make the desired number of revolutions per minute4 #bfh4 ,figuring ,speed of ,pulleys4 ,for example1 if the speed of the engine is #dbe revolutions per minute and the diameter of the pulley on the engine is #ab inches1 and the machine is to be run at #aej revolutions per minute1 have a pulley on the machine of a diameter which equals #dbe times #ab1 or #e1ajj divided by #aej1 or #cd inches4 ,it would be more convenient to have a smaller pulley on this machine4 ,since there is a smaller wheel on the engine which1 we will say1 is #f inches in diameter1 put the belt on the smaller wheel1 and then a wheel only #ag inches in diameter will be needed on the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,sectional view of gasoline engine4 #bfi4 ,operating the ,engine4 ,one person should be responsible for the care of an engine4 ,starting the engine is usually too heavy work for most women4 ,since a man usually starts a gas engine which the women are to use1 it is more important that they know how to stop the engine and to recognize when it is not running properly4 ,a cold engine can be started easier if warmed with hot water4 ,running an engine which is out of order may damage it seriously4 ,have some one show you how to operate your engine4 ,stop it when not running properly4 #bgj4 ,points in ,caring for ,engine4 ,the following are points to keep in mind when operating an internal combustion engine3 #a7 ,black smoke issuing from the exhaust pipe means there is not enough air in proportion to fuel4 #b7 ,when an engine misses more explosions than it should1 or backfires1 the cause is likely to be too much air in the fuel4 #c7 ,if the mixture of fuel and air is in the proper proportion1 but there is too little of it1 the engine will have no power4 #d7 ,premature ignition may be caused by deposition of carbon or soot on the walls of the cylinder2 the compression being too high for the fuel used2 overheating of the piston1 or exhaust valve1 or of some poorly-jacketed part4 #e7 ,using too much or a poor quality of lubricating oil1 or a mixture too rich in fuel1 causes deposition of carbon on the cylinder4 #f7 ,the use of too much cylinder oil is indicated by a blue smoke issuing from the exhaust4 #g7 ,pre-ignition1 or a bearing out of order1 or the engine not being securely fastened to its foundation1 causes pounding4 #h7 ,too much water in the oil used for fuel causes white smoke to issue from the exhaust pipe4 ,this may be caused by a leaky jacket on gasoline engines4 #i7 ,stop the engine by shutting off the supply of fuel4 ,open the switch to the ignition system4 ,close the lubricators and oil cups1 and turn off the jacket water4 #aj7 ,in cold weather1 drain off the jacket water to prevent freezing4 #aa7 ,always leave the engine clean and in order to start again4 #ab7 ,for safety1 belts and wheels should be boxed in wherever possible4 ,fig4 #aea should be studied closely for a better understanding of the engine4 #bga4 ,generating ,electricity for ,homes4 ,water motors1 kerosene1 gas and gasoline engines are the sources of power commonly used to generate electricity for private homes4 ,a device for generating electricity is called a dynamo 7,fig4 #aeb74 ,the electricity generated is either used directly while the engine is running1 or it is stored in storage batteries4 ,from here it is conducted thru wires and used for lighting1 heating and turning motors to do work4 #bgb4 ,batteries4 ,batteries are used mainly where a small amount of current is needed1 as on oil or gasoline engines1 to make the spark to ignite the gasoline or oil1 and in lighting gas and acetylene lamps1 and for some door bells4 ,there are several kinds of batteries1 as liquid1 dry-cell and storage4 #bgc4 ,liquid ,batteries4 ,in liquid batteries1 electric current is generated by means of direct chemical action between an acid and two other substances1 one more easily attacked by the acid than the other 7,fig4 #aec71 such as zinc and copper4 ,this forms a simple cell1 one form of primary battery4 ,when the chemicals and metals in a primary battery are exhausted1 they can be replaced with new metal or solution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,electric generator4 #bgd4 ,a ,dry-,cell ,battery4 ,a dry-cell is another form of battery4 ,in these1 the moisture of the acid substance is absorbed by some material like plaster-of-,paris flour or blotting paper1 so that it can act on the metals or carbon in the cell and still make a cell easily transportable4 ,the absorbed moisture in dry cells slowly evaporates1 and then they become worthless4 ,these batteries are usually thrown away after they have been used and have ceased to generate electricity4 #bge4 ,storage ,batteries4 ,storage batteries differ from primary batteries in that current must be supplied to them from some outside source1 such as a dynamo4 ,they can be recharged again after the current in them has been used 7,fig4 #aed74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,primary battery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,storage battery4 ,the engines for private homes where a light plant is used are adjusted to charge batteries at the proper rate--but the owner should charge these batteries at regular intervals4 ,they can be charged only by direct current4 ,never allow the storage battery to run down to a voltage lower than #a4ae per cell4 ,this reading is taken from the voltmeter supplied with the plant4 ,storage batteries should be tested by a hydrometer for the specific gravity of the electrolyte or liquids in them4 ,instructions for this and for correcting the specific gravity accompany the plant4 ,take care to preserve them4 ,dynamos for home use are almost automatic4 ,run the dynamo to renew the batteries when using electric irons or other devices calling for more current than the lighting fixtures4 ,each plant is designed to carry a certain load of equipment4 ,exceeding this1 damages the plant4 ,place electric motors and dynamos in a dry1 cool1 clean place4 #bgf4 ,some ,uses for ,electric ,motors4 ,motors are now used on sewing machines1 washing machines1 dish washers1 vacuum cleaners1 wringers1 fans1 refrigerating systems1 pumps1 grinders1 freezers1 churns and separators4 ,they are made either for direct or alternating current4 ,when purchasing a motor1 be sure to designate the type of current with which it is to be used4 ,select motors of the right size to operate the machine4 ,it costs more to operate a large motor on a small device than a small motor4 #bgg4 ,definition ,tables4 ,a ,british thermal unit is the amount of heat required to warm one pound of water one degree ,fahrenheit4 ,the flash point of an oil is that temperature at which it will form an inflammable vapor4 ,the accompanying table shows amount of heat generated from a number of sources4 ,the total heat in a gallon of kerosene is greater than that in a gallon of gasoline because the kerosene is heavier than the gasoline4 ,a gallon of gasoline will give on an average but about five-sixths as much total heat as a gallon of kerosene4 ,this is approximately true1 whether the heaviest grades of kerosene are compared with the heaviest grades of gasoline1 or the lightest grade of kerosene is compared with the lightest grade of gasoline4 ,distillate is the refuse left from the distillation of petroleum4 ,the flash point of kerosene may be between #gj and #aej degrees ,fahrenheit1 depending upon the grade4 ,for illuminating purposes1 do not use kerosene with the flash point lower than #abj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the flash point of gasoline is #aj to #bj degrees ,fahrenheit2 that is1 gasoline will form an imflammable vapor at temperatures as low as this4 ,between #fj and #gj per cent of the common fuels are utilized in the generation of steam for heating purposes4 ,,table ,,showing ,,generation ,,of ,,heat ,,amount ,,fuel ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 ---------------------------------------- ------- #a lb4 ,anthracite coal #ac1bjj-ac1ijj #a lb4 ,bituminous coal #ab1jjj-ae1jjj #a lb4 ,lignite coal #h1ejj-aa1djj #a lb4 ,wood #h1bjj- #i1bjj #a cu4 ft4 ,natural gas #ijj- #a1jjj #a cu4 ft4 ,illuminating gas #ejj- #fjj #a lb4 ,kerosene #ah1jjj #a lb4 ,alcohol #ab1jjj #a lb4 ,gasoline #ai1jjj #a ,k4,w4-hr4 ,electricity #c1djj ---------------------------------------- --- ,one pound ice in being melted will absorb #add ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,gas ,,plants #bgh4 ,gasoline-,gas ,plants4 ,gasoline-gas plants are devices for generating gas from gasoline4 ,the gas is a mixture of air and gasoline vapor4 ,it is made by air being forced thru gasoline4 ,there are small plants which can be installed in private homes 7,fig4 #aee74 ,gasoline vaporizes at ordinary temperature4 ,the vapor or gas produced can be used for heating1 lighting and running gas engines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,gasoline gas plant4 ,one gallon of gasoline1 when entirely vaporized1 produces about thirty-two cubic feet of gas4 ,its heating power depends upon the character of the gasoline utilized and the temperature at which it is kept during vaporization4 ,the plant is a device for forcing air thru the gasoline to make it vaporize as fast as wanted4 ,combined with the carburetor is a storage tank for the gas4 ,a weight1 or water motor1 furnishes the power most commonly used in forcing the air thru the gasoline and forms a part of the plant4 ,air cannot flow thru the gasoline when the storage tank is full of gas so that the power is only in operation when the gas is being used or the tank is not quite full4 #bgi4 ,acetylene-,gas ,plant4 ,acetylene is often used in rural homes when gas or electricity are not available4 ,the operation of the plant often has to be attended to by a member of the family4 ,a capable woman can do this1 but she must be careful and must thoroly understand the plant 7,fig4 #aef74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,acetylene gas plant4 ,the materials used in making acetylene are calcium carbide and water4 ,calcium carbide 7,a1 ,fig4 #aef7 is made from lime and coke fused together in an electrical furnace4 ,it must be kept stored in a dry place4 ,the plants for making acetylene are inexpensive enough to be installed in individual homes of moderate means4 ,calcium carbide for making the gas can be transported without difficulty4 ,there are two types of machines4 ,in one the water drips on the carbide2 in the other1 the more common type1 the carbide is dropped into the water4 ,as soon as the carbide touches the water1 it gives off acetylene gas4 ,the gas is caught in and fills a bell above the water4 ,as it fills the bell1 it raises it1 and when the bell reaches a certain height1 it trips a lever to the door which lets in the carbide and closes it4 ,when the gas is used1 the bell goes down and1 passing the lever1 opens the door to let in a small amount of carbide4 ,improvements have been made in the plants and in installing them until there is less danger from explosions than formerly4 ,great care should be taken in operating them to avoid accidents4 ,since the gas is highly explosive1 fire1 lighted lamps and cigars must be kept away from the vicinity of all acetylene plants4 ,only one person should take the care of the plant1 the others should understand how4 #bhj4 ,directions for ,operating ,acetylene ,plant4 #a7 ,charge by daylight--remove all residuum1 and fill with fresh water before adding any carbide4 #b7 ,follow exact directions for the machine used in the order directed4 #bha4 ,cautions to ,be ,observed in ,using ,acetylene ,gas4 #a7 ,do not apply a light to any opening that is not equipped with a regular acetylene burner tip4 #b7 ,see that any workman repairing a generator first removes carbide and drains all water out1 and disconnects it from piping and removes it to the open air1 where he then fills all compartments with water to force out gas before using soldering irons4 #c7 ,an open light should never be permitted nearer than ten feet from the generator4 ,the generator should never be nearer than fifteen to twenty feet from furnace or stove4 ,do not hunt for gas leaks with a flame or light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,pressure tank for gas4 #d7 ,do not use any artificial light except electric light when cleaning or repairing generator1 or carry a lighted pipe or other fire about it1 even when empty4 #e7 ,if water in any chamber should freeze1 do not attempt to thaw it with anything but hot water4 #f7 ,keep the motor oiled4 ,oil once in six months4 #bhb4 ,compressed ,gases and ,oils4 ,gases1 such as ,blau gas1 ,pintsch gas1 and prestolite gas which is compressed acetylene gas1 are compressed in strong tanks and sold for use in lighting and light housekeeping4 ,gasoline and alcohol also are occasionally stored in very strong tanks under enough pressure to make them flow thru very small pipes to the point where they are wanted for use4 ,these are frequently used for lighting isolated public buildings1 such as rural schoolhouses4 ,as the gas or oil is used1 the pressure diminishes4 ,there is usually a pump attached to the tank to pump in air in order to keep up the pressure4 ,the pump is similar to a bicycle pump 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,,questions ,,for ,,part ,x #a4 ,what is the difference between the treadle and a motor-power machine8 #b4 ,how is power secured from water in a water motor8 ,or what is the source of power utilized by a water motor8 #c4 ,how do you determine the size of pulleys to use on the gasoline engine and on the device it is to operate8 #d4 ,what are some indications that a gasoline engine or automobile motor is not running properly8 #e4 ,what are the kinds of batteries1 and to what uses is each best suited8 #f4 ,do batteries need care8 ,if so1 what care8 #g4 ,how is acetylene gas made8 ,describe the device for making it4 #h4 ,how is gas for household use made from gasoline8 ,,part ,,xi ,,measuring ,,devices ,,chapter ,,xl ,,scales ,,for ,,weighing #bhc4 ,equal-,arm ,balances4 ,scales are devices for determining the weight of objects4 ,balances--one form of scales--are made of two arms of equal lengths and supplied with discs of metal of a known weight to be placed on one arm of the balance while the material to be weighed is put on the other4 ,when the two arms are in equilibrium1 the weight of the material is equal to the weight of the metal4 ,since the weight of the metal is known1 or can be determined1 by adding together the weights of the discs used1 the weight of the material is known to be the same4 #bhd4 ,unequal-,arm ,balances4 ,equal-arm balances are not convenient for weighing large objects4 ,for this reason1 scales are made with one arm of the balance much longer than the other4 ,the metal discs are then marked with the weight of the material on the short arm which they can balance when placed on the long arm4 ,this is the usual form of counter and household balances4 ,on these scales is also a weight which slides along the arm and is used to determine weights smaller than five or ten pounds4 ,the arm of the balance is1 therefore1 marked at the point where this weight will balance certain amounts of material1 such as half ounces1 ounces and pounds4 #bhe4 ,spring ,scales4 ,spring scales depend on the action of a spring1 to which an indicating pointer is attached4 ,when there is no weight on the spring1 the place to which the indicator points is marked zero4 ,when these scales are manufactured1 a pound weight is placed so that it pulls on the spring and the indicator is pulled down to another place1 and this is marked one4 ,scales are thus marked for the number of pounds they are to weigh4 ,the spaces between the pounds marked are divided into equal divisions1 such as sixteenths which indicates ounces4 ,these scales cannot be relied on for accuracy1 for springs stretch or become weaker as they are used4 ,avoirdupois is the weight in common use for marketing1 while many tables for calculating dietaries are in the metric system4 ,the housewife can have her balances corrected for weighing by the city or county sealer of weights and measures so that she can ascertain whether or not her food purchases are correctly weighed4 ,,table ,,of ,,weights ,,avoirdupois ,,metric #af oz4--#a pound #a milligram--#a_/ajjj 4#jja gram #ajj lb4--#a hundred-weight #a centigram--#a_/ajj 4#ja gram #bjjj lbs4--#a ton #a decigram--#a_/aj 4#a gram #j4jce oz4--#a gram 7,metric system7 ,gram--#a gram ,dekagram--#aj grams ,,apothecaries ,hectogram--#ajj grams #bg-aa_/cb grams--#a dram ,kilogram--#ajjj grams #af drams--#a oz4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,devices ,,for ,,measuring ,,volume #bhf4 ,graduate and ,measuring ,cup4 ,graduate holding up to four fluid ounces is helpful to use to check up liquids bought in bottles4 ,the standard measuring cup referred to in modern cook books holds half a pint of liquid4 ,it also holds about sixteen level tablespoonfuls of dry material such as sugar4 ,the divisions on glass cups are less likely to be accurate than on metal ones1 as the bottom may be thick or thin unless carefully made4 ,in selecting a cup1 see that the bottom section is equal to the other sections4 #a cup #b gills #a_/b pint #af tablespoons #dh teaspoons #h fluid ounces4 #a cup is also #a_/d of a quart and about #d_/ag of a liter4 #bhg4 ,tablespoons4 ,tablespoons vary in size4 ,the size chosen for measuring is the one in most common use and holds about three level teaspoonfuls of material like sugar or flour4 #a tablespoon #d drams of liquid #c teaspoons4 #d tablespoons #a_/d cup #b fluid ounces4 #bhh4 ,teaspoons4 ,teaspoons vary in size1 but the spoon in common use is the one understood as the measure in cookery4 ,it holds about one and one-third fluid drams4 #bhi4 ,standard ,measuring ,spoons4 ,standard measuring spoons in sets can be purchased at a very moderate price4 ,they are particularly valuable for checking the capacity of the spoons more commonly used4 #bij4 ,liquid and ,cooking ,measures4 #a teaspoonful #a-a_/c fluid drams #c teaspoonfuls #a tablespoonful #d drams #b tablespoonfuls #a fluid ounce #a_/b cup #a gill #b gills #a cupful #h fluid ounces #af tablespoonfuls #a cupful #b cupfuls #a pint #b pints #a quart #d cupfuls #d quarts #a gallon #d4bc cupfuls #a liter #ajjj cubic centimeters #a liter #a4jf liquid quarts liter #ca-a_/b gallons #a barrel #a milliliter one-thousandth 74#jja7 liter #a centiliter one-hundredth 74#ja7 liter #a deciliter one-tenth 74#a7 liter ,liter #a liter #a dekaliter ten 7#aj7 liters #a hectoliter one hundred 7#ajj7 liters #a kiloliter #a thousand 7#ajjj7 liters #bia4 ,dry ,measures4 ,it is wise for a housewife to have a set of dry measures1 consisting of a pint1 quart1 gallon1 peck and half-bushel measure4 ,a quart or gallon liquid measure is not equal to the dry one4 ,it holds less4 ,the diameter of dry measures should be as follows3 ,,diameters ,,of ,,dry ,,measures ,,measure ,,diameter #a pint #d inches #a quart #e-c_/h inches #b quarts #f-e_/h inches #a_/b peck #h-a_/b inches #a peck #aj-g_/h inches #a bushel #ac-c_/d inches 99,these diameters allow for proper heaping4 ,,dry ,,measure99 #b pints #a quart #h quarts #a peck #d pecks #a bushel #a sack of flour #bd-a_/b1 #di or #ih pounds #d #di-pound sacks of flour #a barrel #a barrel of flour usually #aif pounds #fj pounds of potatoes usually #a bushel 99,state laws differ somewhat regarding the number of pounds in a bushel of various fruits and vegetables4 #bib4 ,cubic1 ,square and ,linear ,measure4 ,,cubic ,,measure #agbh cubic inches #a cubic foot #bg cubic feet #a cubic yard #abh cubic feet #a cord ,,square ,,measure #add square inches #a square foot #i square feet #a square yard #cj-a_/d square yards #a square rod #afj square rods #a acre #fdj acres #a square mile ,,linear ,,measure #ab inches #a foot #c feet #a yard #ebhj feet #a mile #ci4bg inches #a meter ,,metric ,,measures ,millimeter one-thousandth 74#jja7 meter ,centimeter one-hundredth 74#ja7 meter ,decimeter one-tenth 74#a7 meter ,unitemeter #a meter ,dekameter ten 7#aj7 meters ,hectometer one hundred 7#ajj7 meters ,kilometer #a thousand 7#ajjj7 meters ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,gas1 ,,water1 ,,and ,,electric ,,meters #bic4 ,different ,kinds of ,meters4 ,the housewife has need to be familiar with three kinds of meters--water1 gas and electric4 ,these are devices for measuring water1 gas or electric current4 #bid4 ,construction of a ,gas ,meter4 ,the interior of one type of gas meter 7,fig4 #aeh7 is somewhat like a water wheel--the pressure of the gas pushes the wheel around4 ,every time a compartment full of gas passes a certain point1 the gas flows out and the flange on the wheel trips a lever which moves the hand of the dial ahead1 thus counting the emptying of the compartment4 ,the gas in the compartment back of this then moves to this place4 ,the emptied compartment is filled with more gas as it passes the inlet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,gas meter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,water meter4 #bie4 ,reading the ,gas ,meter4 ,a gas meter is a device for measuring the number of cubic feet of gas which flows thru a pipe4 ,small dials with the numbers from one to ten and a hand for an indicator show the number of single feet1 tens of feet1 and thousands of feet1 which have passed thru the meter4 ,the reading on any date is the total amount of gas which has passed thru4 ,to tell how much has passed thru the meter during any period of time1 take the reading of the meter on the first date1 as indicated in ,fig4 #aeh1 and then take the reading on the later date and subtract reading one from reading two--the resulting figure is the amount of gas passing thru the meter between these two dates4 ,when buying gas1 always keep the readings of meters at the time when the gas man takes them4 ,gas meters often register more or less gas than is actually consumed4 ,gas companies are allowed a variation or tolerance of one per cent fast or slow1 to two per cent fast or slow4 ,gas is paid for at a stated rate per thousand feet in most places4 #bif4 ,water ,meters4 ,the water meter 7,fig4 #aei7 is a device for measuring the number of gallons or cubic feet of water which pass thru a pipe4 ,the reading of the meter indicates the total amount of water which has passed thru the pipe since the meter was installed4 ,water is paid for1 unless purchased at a flat rate1 at so many cents a thousand gallons or thousand cubic feet4 ,one cubic foot is called in commercial transactions #g-a_/b gallons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,electric meter4 #big4 ,prepayment ,meters4 ,prepayment meters are devices which will permit a certain amount of gas or water1 as the case may be1 to pass thru a pipe1 and after this amount is used up1 the pipe is automatically closed so that no more flows until more money is put into the meter4 ,the weight of the coin works the valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj-;a4 ,electric meter showing different readings4 #bih4 ,the ,electric ,meter4 ,electricity is usually purchased by the kilowatt hour1 and measured by the watt-hour meter 7,fig4 #afj74 ,this measures the current passing thru it1 and the number of kilowatt-hours is shown by the indicators on the little dials4 ,start from left and read the number on the dial1 such as in the illustration1 #c hundreds #d tens #i units1 making #cdi kilowatt-hours2 the total kilowatt-hours used since the meter was installed4 ,to find the number used between two dates1 take the reading of the meter on the first date and subtract it from the reading on the second date4 ,the difference is the amount used during the period4 ,good business women keep records of the readings of their meters4 ,care must be taken to read the meter correctly4 ,the hand next higher than the one below may read too high4 ,the higher hand may1 if out of alignment1 pass the figure when the lower hand approaches the ninth point in its dial1 this causing the person to read the figures one1 ten1 hundred or thousand units too much4 7,fig4 #afj-;a47 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,thermometers ,,and ,,thermostats #bii4 ,mercury ,thermometers4 ,there are two kinds of thermometers in use--the ,fahrenheit and the ,centigrade4 ,since the thermometer is used now in cooking1 the housewife often has to meet the problem of translating temperatures from one to the other4 ,the centigrade thermometer is marked on the assumption that the temperatures of boiling water and freezing water are constantly the same4 ,the boiling point is marked #ajj1 and the freezing point #j4 ,the space in between is marked into even divisions and numbered #a to #ii4 ,the ,fahrenheit thermometer was made on the assumption that a mixture of ice and salt was the coldest temperature that could be reached1 so this temperature of a certain proportion of ice and salt was marked zero4 ,the hundred point was given to what was supposed to be the normal body temperature4 ,the intervening spaces were marked into equal divisions1 and these divisions were carried below #j degree and above #ajj degrees4 ,the boiling temperature of water came at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the freezing point at #cb degrees4 ,this makes #ahj degrees difference between thawing and freezing and boiling4 ,so #ajj degrees ,centigrade equal #ahj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,therefore1 #a degree ,centigrade equals #i_/e degrees ,fahrenheit1 and #a degree ,fahrenheit equals #e_/i degree ,centigrade4 ,for example1 if #dj degrees ,centigrade is to be translated into ,fahrenheit degrees1 first multiply #dj by #i #cfj1 then divide by #e #gb1 and add #cb1 because #j degree ,centigrade is the same as #cb degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the result is #ajd degrees ,fahrenheit equal #dj degrees ,centigrade4 ,if #da degrees ,fahrenheit is to be translated into ,centigrade degrees1 first subtract #cb from #da #i1 then multiply by #e #de1 and divide by #i1 and the result is #e degrees ,centigrade #da degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,fig4 #afa is a diagram showing relative readings of ,fahrenheit and ,centigrade thermometers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,comparison of ,centigrade and ,fahrenheit4 #cjj4 ,oven ,thermometer4 ,some oven thermometers depend on the expansion of metal to indicate the temperature4 ,a hand on the clock-like face of these indicators shows the degree of heat4 ,few of these give the actual temperature1 but they do indicate a slow1 a moderate and a hot oven4 #cja4 ,maximum ,thermometers4 ,a maximum thermometer is one in which the mercury rises to register the maximum amount of heat to which it has been subjected4 ,it stays at this height when the temperature falls1 until it is shaken back4 ,it is sometimes used in ovens to ascertain the temperature they have reached before the oven door is opened4 ,,table ,,of ,,temperatures ,,useful ,,to ,,housekeepers ,,oven ,,temperatures ,,fah4 ,,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,slow oven #bej-cej #aba-agg ,moderate #cej-djj #agg-bjd ,hot or quick #djj-dej #bjd-bcb ,very hot #dej-eej #bcb-bhg ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,syrups ,,fah4 ,,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,thin #bai- #ajd- ,medium--fondant #bcf-bdj #aac-aae ,thick--fudge -#bdj #aae- ,heavy--taffy -#cjj #adi- ,clear brittle -#caj #aej- ,carmel almond and nut brittle -#cae #aeg- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,miscellaneous ,,fah4 ,,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,incubators #ajc #ci4d ,body temperature #ih-ii #cg ,room temperature -#hf #bj-cj ,refrigerator temperature #dd-ei #e-ae ,churning #eb-fb #aa-ag ,growth of bacteria retarded #ce-gj ,growth of bacteria most rapid #gj-ajj ,most bacteria are killed #bab ,downward1 markedly4 ,growth of bacteria retarded #de ---------------------------------------- --------------- #cjb4 ,thermostats4 ,thermostats are devices which open or close valves or dampers in order to keep rooms1 boilers1 ovens1 incubators1 etc41 at an even temperature4 ,all metals expand on being heated1 and contract on being cooled4 ,some expand more than others4 ,two materials which expand at different rates are frequently used in making thermostats4 ,any certain temperature causes a given piece of metal to expand to a certain size1 or to contract on cooling to a different size4 ,some thermostats are made of a straight rod of metal like copper which expands more than iron when heated4 ,the rod is so placed that when cool it will allow fuel like gas or oil to pass thru a pipe1 and when heated1 it will expand enough to close the pipe1 shutting off the fuel4 ,they are placed so that they close the pipe at the temperature desired for an oven or supply of hot water4 ,other thermostats are more complicated1 as the expanding metal moves a series of levers4 ,these thermostats are used to regulate dampers on coal and wood furnaces1 when they are placed in the rooms to be heated4 ,they are often used on other devices1 such as incubators4 ,still others control an electric current4 ,when the metal expands1 it closes the circuit1 causing the electricity to do the work desired4 ,when it contracts1 it opens the circuit4 ,thermostats can be set to do work at different temperatures4 ,these are sometimes attached to clocks which1 with a device similar to the alarm1 will change the indicator of the thermostat so as to set it from one temperature to another at a stated time for which the clock is set and turn it back at another hour4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,hydrometers ,,and ,,barometers #cjc4 ,hydrometer4 ,a hydrometer is used in gaging the density of liquid4 ,this instrument consists of a closed glass tube which is enlarged at the lower end and filled with some heavy material like mercury or shot1 to keep it in an upright position when in liquids4 ,the tube or stem contains a paper on which divisions called degrees are marked4 ,the #j mark is usually the point reached by the surface of distilled water when the hydrometer is placed in this liquid4 ,the less the density of the liquid1 the lower the hydrometer sinks1 for it displaces an amount of liquid equal to its own weight4 ,the density of the liquid then can be determined by observing the mark to which it sinks4 ,specific-gravity hydrometers used in the household show the ratio of the weight of a given volume of liquid to the weight of the same volume of water at a definite temperature4 ,arbitrary scale hydrometers are used to indicate the concentration or strength of syrup1 brines or milk4 ,these are defined as lactometers and ,baume hydrometers4 ,a brine hydrometer is called a saltometer1 and a syrup gage a sacchrometer4 ,a jellometer1 especially for making jelly1 is sometimes used instead of a sacchrometer4 ,the scale on this tells how much sugar to use in proportion to the amount of solids in the fruit juice without having to refer to a table4 ,some hydrometers are constant-volume hydrometers1 and on these weights are placed always1 to sink the hydrometer to the same depth in the liquid4 ,,tables ,,for ,,brix ,,and ,,balling ,,hydrometers ,,when ,,used ,,at #bj ,c499 ,,sugar ,,to ,a ,,quart ,,of ,,fruit ,,juice ,,to ,,make ,,reading ,,on ,,the ,,jelly ,,hydrometer ---------------------------------------- ,degrees ,pounds ,ounces ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #e4 #h4 #e4e #i4 #f4j #i4f #f4e #aj4g #g4j #aa4f #g4e #ab4d #h4j #ac4b #h4e #ad4a #i4j #ae4j #i4e #ae4h #aj4j #a4 #g4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 99,when the reading for the fruit juice is determined the table shows how much sugar is used for juice of that specific gravity4 ,,table ,,showing ,,amount ,,of ,,sugar ,,per ,,gallon ,,reading ,,on ,,the ,,sugar ,,to ,a ,,gallon ,,of ,,water ,,hydrometer ---------------------------------------- ,degrees ,pounds ,ounces ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #j4 #j4j #e4 #g4j #aj4 #ad4h #ae4 #a4 #g4e #bj4 #a4 #ad4ge #be4 #b4 #ab4e #cj4 #c4 #i4j #ce4 #d4 #g4ge #dj4 #e4 #h4ge #de4 #f4 #ac4jj #ej4 #h4 #e4be #ee4 #aj4 #d4jj #fj4 #ab4 #h4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,in the second table the readings show the specific gravity of the syrup1 and from that may be ascertained the proportion of sugar to a gallon of water in it4 ,a #bej cc4 cylinder1 or other tall vessel deep enough to float the sacchrometer1 is suitable for making the measurements4 ,be sure to have the eye on the level of the liquid when making the readings4 ,if no sugar is in the water1 the reading on the hydrometer will be near zero4 ,if there is sugar in the proportion of seven ounces to a gallon of water1 the reading will be at the line marked #e4 ,,syrups ,,for ,,canning ,berries --#cj degrees1 or #c-a_/b pounds of sugar to #a gallon of water ,sweet cherries--#cj degrees ,sour cherries --#dj degrees ,peaches --#cj to #dj degrees ,pears --#bj to #cj degrees ,plums --#dj degrees ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,barometer4 #cjd4 ,hygroscopes4 ,hygroscopes are devices for measuring humidity4 ,forty-five to sixty per cent humidity is desirable in a house4 ,this means forty-five to sixty per cent as much water as the air is capable of taking up at room temperature4 ,cold air is usually dryer than warmer air because cold air cannot take up as much humidity as warm air4 ,this is analogous to the fact that warm water will dissolve more of some salts or of sugar than cold water4 #cje4 ,barometers4 ,barometers 7,fig4 #afb7 are devices which show changes in pressure and currents of air4 ,changes in the barometer usually indicate changes in the weather1 and thus they are of interest to all persons4 ,a decided fall in the mercury of a barometer usually precedes foul weather1 while a rise indicates the approach of fair weather4 ,when the pressure is low in any locality1 air begins to rush toward that point as it would to fill a vacuum4 ,so a fall in the barometer precedes the coming of a high wind or a rainstorm4 ,a rise in the barometer precedes a calm1 and since most rain is accompanied with wind1 the calm is a time of fair weather4 ,,index ,a ,absorption of heat and light1 #hd1 #he1 #ajh ,acetylene1 #cj1 #di1 #ha1 #ia1 #ib1 #ade1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc ,acids1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei1 #baf ,acre1 #bbi ,adjustment of burners1 stove1 #bd1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #da1 #di1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,air1 for circulation1 #eg1 #gf1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaa1 #aih dead or stagnant1 #fc1 #ajb for combustion1 #af1 #bi1 #ca1 #ch1 #ci1 #dh1 #ff1 #hh1 #ic1 #bad for evaporation1 #aje1 #agf1 #bbj1 #bba for heating1 #ai1 #ee1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #gc1 #ge1 #gi in radiator1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj mixer1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #cc1 #gg1 #if1 #add moisture1 #bci for pressure1 #ig1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #age1 #agf1 #ahd shaft1 #eg whistling1 #ef ,alcohol1 #dg1 #dh1 #hi1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ade1 #bbc ,alkalies1 #aee1 #aeg ,alternating current1 #aaj ,aluminum1 #gh1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aga1 #agb ,ammonia1 #ajh1 #ach ,ampere1 #hb ,andiron1 #gd ,anthracite coal1 #bai ,asbestos1 #cb1 #ff1 #gg1 #ha ,ash chute1 #bb ,ashes1 #bj1 #eg1 #ff1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf ,automobile1 #aib ,b ,back-fire1 #aib1 #bad ,bacteria1 #ajj1 #aja1 #abg ,balances1 #bbe ,balling hydrometer1 #bch ,barometer1 #bci1 #bdj ,barrel1 #afg1 #bbh1 #bbi ,basin1 catch1 #abg ,battery1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #bae1 #baf ,baume hydrometer1 #bcg ,bearing1 #aeb ,beater1 #afe ,bell for storing gases1 #bbb ,bellows1 #adh1 #adi ,belts1 #acf1 #acg1 #ada1 #ahf1 #bae ,bituminous coal1 #bai ,blau gas1 #bbc ,bobbin1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi ,boiler1 #fd1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #acb1 #acc1 #aef ,booster1 #aai ,bracket1 curtain1 #ahe ,brine for cooling1 #ajh ,british thermal unit1 #bah1 #bai ,brix hydrometer1 #bch ,broiler1 #bf ,brush1 #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb ,bunsen burner1 #gg1 #gh1 #ha ,burner1 #dh1 #if1 #aai1 #ada1 #ade1 #aih gas1 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #bi1 #gg1 #gh1 #hh1 #ia1 #add kerosene1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #hj1 #id ,burning back1 #bg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia ,burr grinder1 #afb ,bushel1 #bbh1 #bbi ,c ,calcium carbide1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc ,candle power1 #hd1 #hi1 #ia1 #ie ,canned heat1 #dh ,canner1 #agb1 #agc ,can sealer1 #age ,capillary attraction1 #dg1 #dh1 #ic1 #ajf ,carbolic acid1 #abf ,carbon1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #bad ,carbon dioxide1 #fg1 #ajh ,carburetor1 #bi1 #aib1 #bbj ,carpet sweeper1 #adg1 #adh1 #aej ,cast aluminum1 #aef ,cast iron1 #aee1 #aef ,catch basin1 #abg ,centigrade thermometer1 #bcc1 #bcd ,centigram1 #bbf ,centimeter1 #bbh1 #bbi ,centiliter1 #bbh ,centrifugal dryer1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj force1 #aci washer1 #ace1 #acf ,cerium1 #hh ,cesspool1 #abd ,charcoal filter1 #aad ,chain stitch1 #ahf ,cherry stoner1 #afa1 #afb ,check valve1 #ga1 #ahc ,chimney1 #ah1 #ca1 #cc1 #eg1 #ei1 #gd1 #ge1 #hj1 #ic1 #id1 #aaa ,chloride of lime1 #abf ,choker1 #aib ,chopper1 #afb1 #afc ,churns1 #afe1 #afg1 #bce ,cistern1 #aad ,clamp1 #ach ,cleaning1 #be1 #ce1 #abg1 #agb ,cleaning equipment1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aec ,clinkers1 #gf ,clock1 #bcf ,clutch1 #aib ,coal1 #bj1 #bh1 #ff1 #gf ,coffee mill1 #afb pot1 #afg1 #afh ,cog wheels1 #afe ,coils1 #fd1 #gh1 #hj ,coke1 #bbb ,cold-process gasoline-gas1 #bi1 #ia1 #ade ,color and illumination1 #hd ,compressed-air pump1 #aac1 #aae1 #aag ,combustion1 #af1 #ag1 #bc1 #bd1 #eh1 #ff1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg ,conductivity of materials1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh ,contraction of materials1 #bce ,cookers1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee1 #ef ,coolers1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji ,copper1 #aeh1 #baf1 #bcf ,crank1 #afc ,cream separator1 #agh1 #agi ,cubic measure1 #bbi ,cup1 measuring1 #bbg1 #bbh ,current1 electric1 #db1 #df1 #hj1 #hc1 #hf1 #aaj1 #adc1 #add1 #bae1 #bah1 #bcb ,curtain roller1 #ahe ,cylinder1 #aab1 #aac1 #baa washer1 #acc ,d ,dampers1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #eh1 #fa1 #ff1 #gd1 #ge1 #aig1 #aih1 #bce1 #bcf ,decomposition of sewage1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg ,degree1 #bcc1 #bcd ,dekagram1 #bbf ,dekaliter1 #bbh ,dekameter1 #bbi ,dermax1 #bjf ,density of liquids1 #bcg ,direct current1 #aaj ,direct lighting1 #he ,dish-washer1 #agj1 #aga ,disinfectant1 #abf1 #bjj ,distillate1 #dj1 #bah ,dolly washer1 #acd ,doors1 #ajc1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bae ,drafts1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #gd ,drain1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #abb1 #ach ,dram1 #bbf1 #bbh ,drip pipe1 #ajb1 #ajc ,drip sheet1 #be ,dryer1 #aga1 #agf ,dry-cleaning equipment1 #adj ,dry-cell battery1 #bae1 #baf ,dulling of edges1 #aei1 #afc ,dumbwaiters1 #ahc ,dust1 #gf1 #gh1 #hj1 #adh1 #aej ,dynamo1 #bae1 #baf ,e ,earthenware1 #ajg1 #aef ,egg tester1 #bja ,electric appliances1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #ha heating1 #db1 #dc1 #hj1 #aai measurements1 #dc1 #hb1 #bcj1 #bcb ,electric motors1 #bag ,electricity1 #bae1 #bai ,electrolyte1 #bag ,enameled ware1 #aeg ,engine1 gasoline1 #acg1 #bab ,evaporation1 #fg1 #aje1 #ajf1 #adj ,exhaust pipe1 #bab1 #bad ,expansion of materials1 #ajh1 #bcd1 #bce tank1 #ff1 #fg1 #abj valve1 #gj ,explosions1 prevented1 #be1 #ce1 #cg1 #ci1 #fi utilized1 #aib1 #bad1 #bbb ,extractor1 #aci ,f ,fahrenheit thermometer1 #bcc1 #bcd ,fan1 #aaj1 #adh1 #agg ,fastener1 door1 #ahd ,faucet1 #aji1 #aad1 #aaf1 #aai1 #abj1 #abb ,feed plate1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bjg ,filament for lamp1 #hc ,filter1 water1 #aad1 #aaf1 #afh ,fire1 #ah1 #ai1 #cd1 #da1 #ff1 #ge ,fireless cooker1 #ej1 #ea ,fireplace1 #gd1 #ge ,fire-pot1 #bj1 #eg1 #eh1 #fe1 #gf ,flame1 #bc1 #ce1 #ch ,flame1 blue1 #ca1 #ch1 #di1 #if illuminating1 #gg1 #gh1 #hh1 #hi1 #ic1 #id ,flash point1 #bah ,flat-iron1 #adb ,float for flushing tank1 #abi1 #acj ,flue1 #ff1 #gg ,force pump1 #aac1 #aag1 #aai ,freezer1 #aff1 #afg ,freezing1 #fh1 #aab1 #abf1 #aff1 #bcc ,friction1 danger from1 #adj ,fuel1 #af1 #eh1 #fe1 #gf1 #hh1 #aai economical use of1 #ai1 #bj1 #bh1 #ei1 #ff ,funnel1 #acc1 #afg1 #afh ,furnace1 #eg1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #ge1 #bbb ,fuses1 #dc1 #df1 #hf1 #add ,g ,gage1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #gc1 #aag ,gage1 steam1 #gb1 #agc ,gallon1 #bbh ,gas1 #bf1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #eh1 #hh1 #ajh1 #aib1 #aii1 #bad1 #bae1 #bai1 #bba1 #bcj burners1 #gg1 #gi1 #ij1 #add consumption1 #bc1 #bh1 #bi1 #ff formation1 #if1 #ig1 #ih kinds of1 #bi1 #ia1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbc ,gasoline1 #hi1 #ig1 #ii1 #adj1 #bai1 #bbc burner1 #cg1 #if engine1 #aai1 #acg1 #bab1 #bae ,gasoline-gas1 #bi1 #cg1 #ia1 #bbj ,gears1 #aib ,generation of heat and gas1 #bai1 #bbj ,generator1 #if1 #ig1 #ade1 #bbc ,gill1 #bbg1 #bbh ,glass utensils1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh ,graduate1 #bbg ,gram1 #bbf ,granite ware1 #aef1 #aeg ,grate1 #af1 #eh1 #fe1 #gd1 #gf ,grater1 #afj ,gravity lamp1 #if ,gravity1 specific1 #bag1 #bcg1 #bci ,grinder1 #aei1 #afb ,h ,heat1 #bi1 #dh1 #hi1 #aef1 #aeh1 #bah production of1 #db1 #adj1 #adc1 #bjj1 #bai use of1 #de1 #ej1 #eg1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj1 #adj1 #adc1 #agf ,heater1 #fe1 #gg1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #aah1 #aai1 #ace1 #ada1 #adc1 #aif1 #aig ,hectograph1 #bje1 #bjf ,hectoliter1 #bbh ,hectometer1 #bbi ,hinge1 #ahd1 #ahe ,homogenizer1 #ahj ,horse power1 #baj ,hot-water furnace1 #fd ,hot-water tank1 #aag ,humidity1 #bci ,hundred-weight1 #bbf ,hydrometer1 #bag1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci ,hygroscope1 #bci ,i ,ice1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aff1 #bai ,iceless refrigerator1 #aje1 #ajf ,incubator1 #aif1 #bja1 #bce adjustment of1 #aii ,ignition of gas1 #adj1 #bad1 #bae ,illumination1 #bh1 #gg1 #gh1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hh1 #bah1 #bai ,inch1 #bbh1 #bbi ,ink1 #bje1 #bjh ,insulation1 #ai1 #df1 #ej1 #ee1 #eg1 #ff1 #ajb ,iron1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #bcf ,ironing board1 #add ,irons1 #adb1 #add1 #ade1 #adf ,j ,jars1 fruit1 #agf ,jellometer1 #bcg ,jugs1 #ajg ,k ,kerosene lamps1 #ic1 #ie oil1 #bh1 #ach1 #bai stoves1 #ca1 #gi1 #hj ,kisselguhr filter1 #aad ,keyboard1 #bjb1 #bjd ,kilogram1 #bbf ,kiloliter1 #bbh ,kilometer1 #bbi ,kilowatt1 #hb1 #bcb ,kneading machine1 #afe ,knives1 #aei1 #afc1 #aif ,knocking1 cause of1 #ga1 #bad ,l ,lard press1 #afc ,lamp1 adjusting burners1 #hi1 #ij1 #ic1 #id electric1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #hg gas or oil1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #aif1 #aih1 #aii1 #bae ,laundry tubs1 #abg ,lawn mower1 #aie ,lava tip1 #hi ,leather1 preventing shrinking of1 #aab ,lever1 #gb1 #aed1 #afc1 #aij1 #bcf ,light1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #ih ,lights1 #hb1 #hh1 #ih ,lighters1 #bh1 #ia1 #bae ,lighting1 lamps1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #ie stoves1 #be1 #bg1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #ch1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,lighting plants1 #hf1 #aad ,lime1 #bba ,lining refrigerator1 #aja ,lignite coal1 #bai ,liquify1 sewage1 #abd1 #abe ,liquids1 #bcg ,liter1 #bbg1 #bbh ,locomotive washer1 #ace ,logs1 gas1 #gh ,lock-stitch1 #ahf1 #ahh ,lubrication1 #aic ,m ,mangles1 #ada ,mantles for lamps1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ie1 #ih ,manufactured gas1 #gh1 #hi1 #ia ,maximum thermometers1 #bcd ,mazda lamps1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd ,measurements1 #bbe ,melting ice1 #ajc ,metal1 conductivity of1 #aef1 #aeh ,meter1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcb ,microbes1 septic1 #abf ,mile1 #bbi ,milligram1 #bbf ,milliliter1 #bbh ,millimeter1 #bbf ,mimeograph1 #bjf ,mixer1 #afe ,moisture1 #bjj1 #bci ,mop wringer1 #aed ,motor1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #acc1 #aej1 #ahf1 #aib1 #bji care of1 #bad1 #bag water1 #acg1 #bji1 #baj1 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