,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?or4 ,,outl9es ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,e?ics ,,= ,,engli% ,,read]s4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,political ,,economy4 ,?ird ,edition4 #hvo4 #ads4 net4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,politics4 #hvo4 #ads4 net4 ,,philosophy3 ,,its ,,scope ,,& ,,relations4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,e?ics ,,( ,,gre51 ,,sp5c]1 ,,& ,,m>t9eau4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,european ,,polity4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,,miscellane\s ,,essays ,,& ,,addresses4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,kant ,,& ,,o!r ,,philosophical ,,lectures ,,& ,,essays4 #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,,h5ry ,,sidgwick3 ,a ,memoir4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 & ,e4 ,m4 ,s4 ,) ,portraits4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,london4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,e?ics 1 1 2--,,plato4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,e?ics ,,by ,,h5ry ,,sidgwick ,,sometime ,,knightbridge ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,moral ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cambridge ,,sev5? ,,edition ,london ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,new ,,york3 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aijg ,! ,"r ( ,translation is res]v$4 ,fir/ ,edition #ahgd4 ,second ,edition #ahgg4 ,?ird ,edition #ahhd4 ,f\r? ,edition #ahij4 ,fif? ,edition #ahic4 ,six? ,edition #aija4 ,sev5? ,edition #aijg4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition ,9 (f]+ to ! public a new book ^u a subject s trite z ,e?ics1 x seems desirable to indicate cle>ly at ! outset its plan & purpose4 ,its di/9ctive *>act]i/ics may be fir/ giv5 negatively4 ,x is n1 9 ! ma91 metaphysical or psy*ological3 at ! same "t x is n dogmatic or directly practical3 x does n deal1 except by way ( illu/ration1 ) ! hi/ory ( e?ical ?\ght3 9 a s5se x might be said to be n ev5 critical1 s9ce x is only q incid5tally t x (f]s any criticism ( ! sy/ems ( individual morali/s4 ,x claims to be an exam9ation1 at once expository & critical1 ( ! diff]5t me?ods ( obta9+ reason$ convictions z to :at ought to be done :i* are to be f\nd--ei!r explicit or implicit--9 ! moral consci\sness ( mank9d g5]ally3 & :i*1 f "t to "t1 h be5 develop$1 ei!r s+ly or 9 comb9ation1 by individual ?9k]s1 & work$ up into ! sy/ems n[ hi/orical4 ,i h avoid$ ! inquiry into ! ,orig9 ( ! ,moral ,faculty--:i* has p]haps occupi$ a disproportionate am\nt ( ! att5tion ( mod]n morali/s--by ! simple assumption 7:i* seems to be made implicitly 9 all e?ical reason+7 t !re is some?+#a "u any giv5 circum/ances :i* x is "r or reasonable to d1 & t ?is may be kn[n4 ,if x be admitt$ t we n[ h ! faculty ( kn[+ ?is1 x appe>s to me t ! inve/igation ( ! hi/orical antec$5ts ( ?is cognition1 & ( its relation to o!r elem5ts ( ! m9d1 no m prop]ly belongs to ,e?ics ?an ! correspond+ que/ions z to ! cognition ( ,space belong to ,geometry4#b ,i make1 h[ev]1 no fur!r assumption z to ! nature ( ! object ( e?ical k3 & h5ce my treatise is n dogmatic3 all ! diff]5t me?ods develop$ 9 x are exp\nd$ & criticis$ f a neutral position1 & z imp>tially z possible4 ,& ?us1 ?\gh my treatm5t ( ! subject is1 9 a s5se1 m practical ?an t ( _m morali/s1 s9ce ,i am occupi$ f fir/ to la/ 9 consid]+ h[ conclusions are to be rationally rea*$ 9 ! famili> matt] ( our common daily life & actual practice2 /ill1 my imm$iate object--to inv]t ,ari/otle's phrase--is n ,practice b ,k4 ,i h ?\ght t ! pr$om9ance 9 ! m9ds ( morali/s ( a desire to edify has imp$$ ! real progress ( e?ical sci5ce3 & t ?is w\ld be b5efit$ by an application to x ( ! same dis9t]e/$ curiosity to :i* we *iefly owe ! great discov]ies ( physics4 ,x is 9 ?is _s t ,i h endeav\r$ to compose ! pres5t "w3 & ) ?is view ,i h desir$ to conc5trate ! read]'s att5tion1 f fir/ to la/1 n on ! practical results to :i* our me?ods lead1 b on ! me?ods !mselves4 ,i h wi%$ to put aside tempor>ily ! urg5t ne$ :i* we all feel ( f9d+ & adopt+ ! true me?od ( det]m9+ :at we ought to d2 & to consid] simply :at conclusions w be rationally rea*$ if we />t ) c]ta9 e?ical premises1 & ) :at degree ( c]ta9ty & precision4 ,i ought to m5tion t *apt] iv4 ( ,book i4 has be5 repr9t$ 7) consid]able modifications7 f ! ,contempor>y ,review1 9 :i* x orig9ally appe>$ z an article on 8,pleasure & ,desire40 ,& ,i _c conclude )\t a tribute ( ?anks to my fri5d ,mr4 ,v5n1 to ^: k9dness 9 accept+ ! some:at labori\s task ( read+ & criticis+ my "w1 bo? be=e & dur+ its passage ?r\gh ! press1 ,i am indebt$ = sev]al improvem5ts 9 my exposition4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,second ,,edition ,9 prep>+ ?is "w = ! second edition1 ,i h f\nd x desirable to make num]\s alt]ations & additions4 ,inde$ ! ext5t :i* ^! h rea*$ is s consid]able1 t ,i h ?\ght x well to publi% !m 9 a sep>ate =m1 = ! use ( pur*as]s ( my fir/ edition4 ,on "o or two po9ts ,i h to ackn[l$ge a c]ta9 *ange ( view2 :i* is p>tly at lea/ due to criticism4 ,= in/ance1 9 *ap4 iv4 ( ,book i4 7on 8,pleasure & ,desire071 :i* has be5 a good deal criticis$ by ,pr(4 ,ba9 & o!rs1 al?\gh ,i /ill reta9 my =m] op9ion on ! psy*ological "q at issue1 ,i h be5 l$ to take a diff]5t view ( ! relation ( ?is "q to ,e?ics2 & 9 fact #a ( ?is *apt] z x at pres5t /&s directly contradicts ! correspond+ passage 9 ! =m] edition4 ,s aga91 z reg>ds ! foll[+ *apt]1 on #8,free-,w1' ?\gh ,i h n exactly f\nd t ! comm5ts :i* x has call$ =? h remov$ my difficulties 9 deal+ ) ?is "t-hon\r$ problem1 ,i h become conv9c$ t ,i ought n to h crudely obtrud$ ^! difficulties on ! read]1 :ile pr(ess$ly exclud+ ! consid]ation ( !m f my subject4 ,9 ! pres5t edition !re=e ,i h c>efully limit$ myself to expla9+ & ju/ify+ ! view t ,i take ( ! practical aspect ( ! "q4 ,i h fur!r be5 l$1 ?r\gh /udy ( ! ,!ory ( ,evolution 9 its application to practice1 to atta* some:at m importance to ?is !ory ?an ,i _h previ\sly done2 & also 9 sev]al passages ( ,books iii4 & iv4 to sub/itute #8well-be+' = #8happ9ess1' 9 my exposition ( t implicit ref]5ce to "s fur!r end & /&>d :i* reflection on ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se cont9ually br+s into view4 ,?is latt] *ange h[ev] 7z ,i expla9 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ,book iii47 is n ultimately f\nd to h any practical effect4 ,i h also modifi$ my view ( #8objective rightness1' z ! read] w see by comp>+ ,book i4 *ap4 i4 #c ) ! correspond+ passage 9 ! =m] edition2 b "h aga9 ! alt]ation has no mat]ial importance4 ,9 my exposition ( ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple 7,book iv4 *ap4 i47 ,i h %ort5$ ! cumbr\s phrase #8greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]' by omitt+--z its au?or ultimately advis$--! la/ f\r words4 ,& f9ally1 ,i h yield$ z f> z ,i c\ld to ! objections t h be5 /rongly urg$ aga9/ ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! treatise4 ,! ma9 discussion !re9 conta9$ /ill seems to me indisp5sable to ! complet5ess ( ! "w2 b ,i h endeav\r$ to give ! *apt] a new aspect by alt]+ its comm5cem5t1 & omitt+ mo/ ( ! conclud+ p>agraph4 ,! great] "p1 h[ev]1 ( ! new matt] 9 ?is edition is m]ely explanatory & supplem5t>y4 ,i h endeav\r$ to give a full] & cle>] acc\nt ( my views on any po9ts on :i* ,i ei!r h myself se5 !m to be ambigu\sly or inadequately express$1 or h f\nd by exp]i5ce t !y 7 liable to be misund]/ood4 ,?us 9 ,book i4 *ap4 ii4 ,i h tri$ to furni% a r m in/ructive acc\nt ?an my fir/ edition conta9$ ( ! mutual relations ( ,e?ics & ,politics4 ,aga91 ev5 be=e ! appe>ance ( ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph5's int]e/+ review 9 ,fras] 7,m>* #ahge71 ,i _h se5 ! desirability ( expla9+ fur!r my g5]al view ( ! #8,practical ,reason1' & ( ! fundam5tal notion signifi$ by ! t]ms #8"r1' #8ought1' etc4 ,) ?is object ,i h entirely rewritt5 *ap4 iii4 ( ,book i41 & made consid]able *anges 9 *ap4 i4 ,else:]e1 z 9 *aps4 vi4 & ix4 ( ,book i41 & *ap4 vi4 ( ,book ii41 ,i h alt]$ *iefly 9 ord] to make my expositions m cle> & symmetrical4 ,?is is p>tly ! case ) ! consid]able *anges t ,i h made 9 ! fir/ ?ree *apt]s ( ,book iii42 b ,i h also tri$ to obviate ! objections br\ght by ,pr(essor ,cald]wood#c aga9/ ! fir/ ( ^! *apt]s4 ,! ma9 "p ( ?is ,book 7*aps4 iv4-xii47 has be5 b slightly alt]$2 b 9 *ap4 xiii4 7on #8,philosophical ,intuitionism'71 :i* has be5 sugge/ively criticis$ by m ?an "o writ]1 ,i h ?\ght x exp$i5t to give a m direct /atem5t ( my own op9ions2 in/ead ( conf9+ myself 7z ,i did 9 ! fir/ edition7 to comm5ts on ^? ( o!r morali/s4 ,*ap4 xiv4 aga9 has be5 consid]ably modifi$2 *iefly 9 ord] to introduce into x ! sub/ance ( c]ta9 portions ( an article on #8,h$onism & ,ultimate ,good1' :i* ,i publi%$ 9 ,m9d 7,no4 #e74 ,9 ,book iv4 ! *anges 7besides ^? above m5tion$7 h be5 inconsid]able2 & h be5 *iefly made 9 ord] to remove a misconception :i* ,i %all pres5tly notice1 z to my g5]al attitude t[>ds ! ?ree ,me?ods :i* ,i am pr9cipally occupi$ 9 exam9+4 ,9 revis+ my "w1 ,i h endeav\r$ to pr(it z mu* z possible by all ! criticisms on x t h be5 br\ght to my notice1 :e!r public or private4#d ,i h frequ5tly def]r$ to objections1 ev5 :5 !y appe>$ to me uns\nd1 if ,i ?\ght ,i c\ld avoid controv]sy by alt]ations to :i* ,i 0 myself indiff]5t4 ,:]e ,i h be5 unable to make ! *anges requir$1 ,i h usually repli$1 9 ! text or ! notes1 to su* criticisms z h appe>$ to me plausible1 or 9 any way in/ructive4 ,9 s do+1 ,i h sometimes ref]r$ by "n to oppon5ts1 :]e ,i ?\ght t1 f _! recognis$ position z tea*]s ( ! subject1 ?is w\ld give a di/9ct addition ( int]e/ to ! discussion2 b ,i h be5 c>eful to omit su* ref]5ce :]e exp]i5ce has %[n t x w\ld be likely to cause (f5ce4 ,! book is already m controv]sial ?an ,i c\ld wi%2 & ,i h !re=e avoid$ encumb]+ x ) any polemics ( purely p]sonal int]e/4 ,= ?is reason ,i h g5]ally left unnotic$ su* criticisms z h be5 due to m]e misappreh5sions1 aga9/ :i* ,i ?\ght ,i c\ld effectually gu>d 9 ! pres5t edition4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o fundam5tal misund]/&+1 on :i* x seems desirable to say a few words4 ,i f9d t m ?an "o critic has ov]look$ or disreg>d$ ! acc\nt ( ! plan ( my treatise1 giv5 9 ! orig9al preface & 9 #e ( ! introductory *apt]3 & has consequ5tly suppos$ me to be writ+ z an assailant ( two ( ! me?ods :i* ,i *iefly exam9e1 & a def5d] ( ! ?ird4 ,?us "o ( my review]s seems to reg>d ,book iii4 7on ,intuitionism7 z conta9+ m]e ho/ile criticism f ! outside3 ano!r has con/ruct$ an article on ! supposition t my pr9cipal object is ! #8suppression ( ,egoism'3 a ?ird has gone to ! l5g? ( a pamphlet "u ! impression 7app>5tly7 t ! #8ma9 argum5t' ( my treatise is a demon/ration ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism4 ,i am conc]n$ to h caus$ s mu* misdirection ( criticism3 & ,i h c>efully alt]$ 9 ?is edition ! passages :i* ,i p]ceive to h contribut$ to x4 ,! morality t ,i exam9e 9 ,book iii4 is my own morality z mu* z x is any man's3 x is1 z ,i say1 ! #8,morality ( ,common ,s5se1' :i* ,i only attempt to repres5t 9 s f> z ,i %>e x2 ,i only place myself outside x ei!r 7#a7 tempor>ily1 = ! purpose ( imp>tial criticism1 or 7#b7 9 s f> z ,i am =c$ beyond x by a practical consci\sness ( its incomplet5ess4 ,i h c]ta9ly criticis$ ?is morality unsp>+ly3 b ,i conceive myself to h expos$ ) equal unres]ve ! defects & difficulties ( ! h$oni/ic me?od 7cf4 especially *aps4 iii41 iv4 ( ,book ii41 & *ap4 v4 ( ,book iv474 ,& z reg>ds ! two h$oni/ic pr9ciples1 ,i d n hold ! reasonabl5ess ( aim+ at happ9ess g5]ally ) any /rong] conviction ?an ,i d t ( aim+ at "o's own4 ,x 0 no "p ( my plan to call special att5tion to ?is 8,dualism ( ! ,practical ,reason0 z ,i h else:]e call$ x3 b ,i am surpris$ at ! ext5t to :i* my view has p]plex$ ev5 ^? ( my critics :o h und]/ood x4 ,i _h imag9$ t !y w\ld readily trace x to ! s\rce f :i* ,i le>nt x1 ,butl]'s well-kn[n ,s]mons4 ,i hold ) ,butl] t 8,reasonable ,self-love & ,consci5ce are ! two *ief or sup]ior pr9ciples 9 ! nature ( man10 ea* ( :i* we are "u a 8manife/ obligation0 to obey3 & ,i d n 7,i believe7 diff] mat]ially f ,butl] 9 my view ei!r ( reasonable self-love1 or--!ology ap>t--( its relation to consci5ce4 ,nor1 aga91 d ,i diff] f him 9 reg>d+ consci5ce z ess5tially a function ( ! practical ,reason3 8moral precepts10 he says 9 ! ,analogy 7,"p ,,ii4 *ap4 viii471 8are precepts ! reason ( :i* we see40 ,my diff]5ce only beg9s :5 ,i ask myself1 #8,:at among ! precepts ( our common consci5ce d we really see to be ultimately reasonable8' a "q :i* ,butl] does n seem to h s]i\sly put1 & to :i*1 at any rate1 he has giv5 no satisfactory answ]4 ,! answ] t ,i f\nd to x suppli$ ! rational basis t ,i _h long p]ceiv$ to be want+ to ! ,utilit>ianism ( ,b5?am1 reg>d$ z an e?ical doctr9e3 & ?us enabl$ me to transc5d ! commonly receiv$ anti!sis betwe5 ,intuitioni/s & ,utilit>ians4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i did n mean to exclude ! supposition t two or m alt]natives might "u c]ta9 circum/ances be equally "r 7#ahhd74 #b ,?is /atem5t n[ appe>s to me to require a slight modification 7#ahhd74 #c ,cf4 ,m9d1 ,no4 #b4 #d ,among unpubli%$ criticisms ,i ought especially to m5tion ! valuable sugge/ions t ,i h receiv$ f ,mr4 ,c>ve? ,read2 to ^: assi/ance 9 revis+ ! pres5t edition _m ( my corrections are due4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition ,9 ?is ?ird edition ,i h aga9 made ext5sive alt]ations1 & introduc$ a consid]able am\nt ( new matt]4 ,"s ( ^! *anges & additions are due to modifications ( my own e?ical or psy*ological views2 b ,i d n ?9k t any ( ^! are ( great importance 9 relation to ! ma9 subject ( ! treatise4 ,& by f> ! l>ge/ "p ( ! new matt] introduc$ has be5 writt5 ei!r 7#a7 to remove obscurities1 ambiguities1 & m9or inconsi/5cies 9 ! exposition ( my views :i* ! criticisms#e ( o!rs or my own reflection h enabl$ me to discov]2 or 7#b7 to treat z fully z seem$ desirable c]ta9 p>ts or aspects ( ! subject :i* ,i _h ei!r pass$ ov] altoge!r or discuss$ too slightly 9 my previ\s editions1 & on :i* x n[ appe>s to me important to expla9 my op9ions1 ei!r = ! great] complet5ess ( my treatise1--accord+ to my own view ( ! subject1--or = its bett] adaptation to ! pres5t /ate ( e?ical ?\ght 9 ,engl&4 ,! mo/ important *anges ( ! fir/ k9d h be5 made 9 *aps4 i4 & ix4 ( ,book i41 *aps1 i4-iii4 ( ,book ii41 & *aps4 i41 xiii41 & xiv4 ( ,book iii43 "u ! second head ,i may m5tion ! discussions ( ! relation ( intellect to moral action 9 ,book i4 *ap4 iii41 ( volition 9 ,book i4 *ap4 v41 ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa9 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 vi41 ( ! notion ( virtue 9 ! morality ( ,common ,s5se 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 ii41 & ( evolutional e?ics 9 ,book iv4 *ap4 iv4 7*iefly74 ,i may add t all ! important alt]ations & additions h be5 publi%$ 9 a sep>ate =m1 = ! use ( pur*as]s ( my second edition4 ,,footnote3 #e ,i mu/ "h ackn[l$ge ! advantage t ,i h receiv$ f ! rem>ks & que/ions ( my pupils1 & f criticisms privately communicat$ to me by o!rs2 among ^! latt] ,i ought especially to m5tion an in/ructive exam9ation ( my fundam5tal doctr9es by ! ,rev4 ,ha/+s ,ra%dall4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,f\r? ,,edition ,! *ief alt]ations 9 ?is f\r? edition are ! foll[+4 7#a7 ,i h exp&$ ! discussion on ,free ,w 9 ,book i4 *ap4 v4 #c1 to meet ! criticisms ( ,mr4 ,f[l]1 9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,morals1 & ,dr4 ,m>t9eau1 9 8 ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory4 7#b7 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! publication ( ! la/-m5tion$ "w1 ,i h rewritt5 "p ( *ap4 xii4 ( ,book iii41 :i* deals ) ! ,e?ical view ma9ta9$ by ,dr4 ,m>t9eau4 7#c7 ,i h exp&$ ! argum5t 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 xiv41 to meet objections ably urg$ by ,mr4 ,ra%dall 9 ,m9d 7,april #ahhe74 7#d7 ,i h some:at alt]$ ! conclud+ *apt]1 9 consequ5ce ( an important criticism by ,pr(4 v4 ,gizycki 7,vi]teljahrss*rift fr ,wiss5s*aftli*e ,philosophie1 ,jahrg4 iv4 ,heft i47 :i* ,i _h inadv]t5tly ov]look$ 9 prep>+ ! ?ird edition4 ,sev]al pages ( new matt] h ?us be5 introduc$3 = :i*--,i am glad to say--,i h made room by %ort5+ :at seem$ prolix1 omitt+ :at seem$ sup]flu\s1 & relegat+ digressions to notes1 9 o!r p>ts ( ! "w3 s t ! bulk ( ! :ole is n increas$4 ,= ! index :i* =ms a new feature 9 ! pres5t edition ,i am indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,miss ,jones ( ,girton ,college1 ! au?or ( ,elem5ts ( ,logic z a ,sci5ce ( ,propositions4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fif? ,,edition ,su* criticisms ( my ,e?ical op9ions & reason+s z h come "u my notice1 s9ce ! publication ( ! f\r? edition ( ?is treatise1 h *iefly relat$ to my treatm5t ( ! "q ( ,free ,w 9 ,book i4 *ap4 v41 or to ! h$oni/ic view ( ,ultimate ,good1 ma9ta9$ 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 iv4 ,i h accord+ly rewritt5 c]ta9 p>ts ( ^! two *apt]s1 9 ! hope ( mak+ my argum5ts m cle> & conv9c+3 9 ea* case a slight *ange 9 view w be app>5t to a c>eful read] :o comp>es ! pres5t ) ! prec$+ edition3 b 9 nei!r case does ! *ange affect ! ma9 sub/ance ( ! argum5t4 ,alt]ations1 9 "o or two cases n inconsid]able1 h be5 made 9 sev]al o!r *apt]s1 especially ,book i4 *ap4 ii41 & ,book iii4 *aps4 i4 & ii43 b !y h *iefly aim$ at remov+ defects ( exposition1 & d n 7,i ?9k7 9 any case imply any mat]ial *ange ( view4 ,my ?anks are aga9 due to ,miss ,jones1 ( ,girton ,college1 = read+ ?r\gh ! pro(s ( ?is edition & mak+ mo/ useful corrections & sugge/ions3 z well z = revis+ ! index :i* %e k9dly made = ! f\r? edition4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,six? ,,edition ,! revision ( ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics = ?is edition 0 begun by ,pr(essor ,sidgwick & c>ri$ ?r\gh by him up to p4 #bgf1 on :i* ! la/ ( 8 corrections on ! copy 7 made4 ,! latt] portion ( 8 revision 0 done "u ! pressure ( sev]e illness1 ! increase ( :i* prev5t$ him f cont9u+ x beyond ! po9t m5tion$2 & by ! calamity ( 8 dea? ! re/ ( ! book rema9s )\t ! f9al t\*es :i* x might h receiv$ f 8 h&4 ,9 accordance ) 8 wi%1 ,i h se5 pp4 #bgg to #eji ?r\gh ! press un*ang$--except = a few small alt]ations :i* he _h indicat$1 & ! ins]tion on pp4 #deg-dei ( ! conclud+ passage ( ,book iv4 *apt] iii4#f ,su* alt]ations z 7 made by ,pr(essor ,sidgwick 9 ?is edition prior to p4 #bgf w be f\nd *iefly 9 *apt]s i4-v4 & ix4 ( ,book i41 & *apt]s iii4 & vi4 ( ,book ii4 ,! ,app5dix on 8,! ,kantian ,conception ( ,free ,w10 promis$ 9 note #a on p4 #eh ( ?is edition1 is sub/antially a repr9t ( a pap] by ,pr(essor ,sidgwick "u t head+ :i* appe>$ 9 ,m9d1 vol4 xiii4 ,no4 #ea1 & accurately cov]s ! gr\nd indicat$ 9 ! note4 ,!re is "o fur!r matt] ( importance4 ,among ! ,,ms4 mat]ial :i* ,pr(essor ,sidgwick int5d$ to be ref]r$ to1 9 prep>+ ?is edition = ! press1 !re occurs1 z "p ( ! ,,ms4 notes = a lecture1 a brief hi/ory ( ! developm5t 9 8 ?\ght ( ! e?ical view :i* he has set =? 9 ! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,?is1 ?\gh n 9 a f9i%$ condition1 is 9 ess5tials complete & coh]5t1 & s9ce x _c fail to h peculi> value & int]e/ = /ud5ts ( ! book1 x has be5 decid$ to ins]t x "h4 ,su* an arrangem5t seems to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 h>mony ) ! au?or's own proc$ure 9 ! ,preface to ! ,second ,edition2 & 9 ?is way :ile future /ud5ts ( ! ,me?ods w h access to an introductory acc\nt :i* bo? e?ically & hi/orically is ( v exceptional int]e/1 no dislocation ( ! text w be involv$4 ,9 ! acc\nt ref]r$ to ,pr(essor ,sidgwick says3-- 8,my fir/ adhesion to a def9ite ,e?ical sy/em 0 to ! ,utilit>ianism ( ,mill3 ,i f\nd 9 ?is relief f ! app>5tly ext]nal & arbitr>y pressure ( moral rules :i* ,i _h be5 educat$ to obey1 & :i* pres5t$ !mselves to me z to "s ext5t d\btful & confus$2 & sometimes1 ev5 :5 cle>1 z m]ely dogmatic1 unreason$1 incoh]5t4 ,my antagonism to ?is 0 int5sifi$ by ! /udy ( ,:ewell's ,elem5ts ( ,morality :i* 0 prescrib$ = ! /udy ( und]graduates 9 ,tr9ity4 ,x 0 f t book t ,i d]iv$ ! impression--:i* long rema9$ uneffac$--t ,intuitional morali/s 7 hopelessly loose 7z comp>$ to ma!maticians7 9 _! def9itions & axioms4 ,! two elem5ts ( ,mill's view :i* ,i am accu/om$ to di/+ui% z ,psy*ological ,h$onism t ea* man does seek 8 own ,happ9ess & ,e?ical ,h$onism t ea* man ought to seek ! g5]al ,happ9ess bo? attract$ me1 & ,i did n at fir/ p]ceive _! incoh]5ce4 ,psy*ological ,h$onism--! law ( univ]sal pleasure-seek+--attract$ me by its frank naturalness4 ,e?ical ,h$onism1 z exp\nd$ by ,mill1 0 morally inspir+ by its dictate ( read9ess = absolute self-sacrifice4 ,!y appeal$ to diff]5t elem5ts ( my nature1 b !y br\ght ^! into app>5t h>mony3 !y bo? us$ ! same words 8pleasure10 8happ9ess10 & ! p]suasiv5ess ( ,mill's exposition veil$ = a "t ! pr(\nd discrepancy betwe5 ! natural end ( action--private happ9ess1 & ! end ( duty--g5]al happ9ess4 ,or if a d\bt assail$ me z to ! co9cid5ce ( private & g5]al happ9ess1 ,i 0 incl9$ to hold t x ought to be ca/ to ! w9ds by a g5]\s resolution4 ,b a s5se grew ^u me t ?is me?od ( deal+ ) ! conflict betwe5 ,int]e/ & ,duty1 ?\gh p]haps prop] = practice c\ld n be f9al = philosophy4 ,= practical m5 :o d n philosophise1 ! maxim ( subord9at+ self-int]e/1 z commonly conceiv$1 to 8altrui/ic0 impulses & s5tim5ts :i* !y feel to be high] & nobl] is1 ,i d\bt n1 a comm5dable maxim2 b x is surely ! bus9ess ( ,e?ical ,philosophy to f9d & make explicit ! rational gr\nd ( su* action4 ,i !re=e set myself to exam9e me?odically ! relation ( ,int]e/ & ,duty4 ,?is involv$ a c>eful /udy ( ,egoi/ic ,me?od1 to get ! relation ( ,int]e/ & ,duty cle>4 ,let u suppose t my own ,int]e/ is p>am\nt4 ,:at really is my ,int]e/1 h[ f> c acts conducive to x be kn[n1 h[ f> does ! result correspond ) ,duty 7or ,wellbe+ ( ,mank9d78 ,?is inve/igation l$ me to feel v /rongly ?is opposition1 r ?an t :i* ,mill & ! e>li] ,utilit>ians felt betwe5 s-call$ ,intuitions or ,moral ,s5se ,p]ceptions1 & ,h$onism1 :e!r ,epicurean or ,utilit>ian4 ,h5ce ! arrangem5t ( my book--ii41 iii41 iv4 ,book ii4 ,egoism1 ,book iii4 ,intuitionism1 ,book iv4 ,utilit>ianism4 ,! result 0 t ,i conclud$ t no complete solution ( ! conflict betwe5 my happ9ess & ! g5]al happ9ess 0 possible on ! basis ( mundane exp]i5ce4 ,?is conclusion ,i sl[ly & reluctantly accept$--cf4 ,book ii4 *ap4 v41 & la/ *apt] ( treatise ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 is on 8,happ9ess & ,duty10 & ! conclud+ *apt] is on 8,! ,mutual ,relations ( ! ,?ree ,me?ods04 ,?is 0 mo/ important to me4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is p]ception1 moral *oice ( ! g5]al happ9ess or acquiesc5ce 9 self-int]e/ z ultimate1 became practically necess>y4 ,b on :at gr\nd8 ,i put aside ,mill's phrases t su* sacrifice 0 8h]oic03 t x 0 n 8well0 ) me unless ,i 0 9 a disposition to make x4 ,i put to him 9 my m9d ! dilemma3--,ei!r x is = my own happ9ess or x is n4 ,if n1 :y %\ld ,i d x8--,x 0 no use to say t if ,i 0 a moral h]o ,i %\ld h =m$ a habit ( will+ actions b5eficial to o!rs :i* w\ld rema9 9 =ce1 ev5 ) my own pleasure 9 ! o!r scale4 ,i knew t at any rate ,i 0 n ! k9d ( moral h]o :o does ?is )\t reason2 f bl9d habit4 ,nor did ,i ev5 wi% to be t k9d ( h]o3 = x seem$ to me t t k9d ( h]o1 h[ev] admirable1 0 c]ta9ly n a philosoph]4 ,i mu/ someh[ see t x 0 "r = me to sacrifice my happ9ess = ! good ( ! :ole ( :i* ,i am a "p4 ,?us1 9 spite ( my e>ly av]sion to ,intuitional ,e?ics1 d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ,:ewell1 & 9 spite ( my attitude ( disciple%ip to ,mill1 ,i 0 =c$ to recognise ! ne$ ( a fundam5tal e?ical intuition4 ,! utilit>ian me?od--:i* ,i _h le>nt f ,mill--c\ld n1 x seem$ to me1 be made coh]5t & h>moni\s )\t ?is fundam5tal intuition4 ,9 ?is /ate ( m9d ,i read ,kant's ,e?ics aga93 ,i _h be=e read x some:at un9tellig5tly1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,mill's view z to its 8grotesque failure40#g ,i n[ read x m receptively & 0 impress$ ) ! tru? & importance ( its fundam5tal pr9ciple3--,act f a pr9ciple or maxim t y c w to be a univ]sal law--cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 #c ( ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,x ?rew ! 8gold5 rule0 ( ! gospel 78,d unto o!rs z ye w\ld t o!rs %\ld d unto y07 into a =m t comm5d$ itself to my reason4 ,kant's re/+ ( morality on ,fre$om did n inde$ comm5d itself to me1#h ?\gh ,i did n at fir/ see1 :at ,i n[ seem to see cle>ly1 t x involves ! fundam5tal confusion ( us+ 8fre$om0 9 two di/9ct s5ses--8fre$om0 t is realis$ only :5 we d "r1 :5 reason triumphs ov] incl9ation1 & 8fre$om0 t is realis$ equally :5 we *oose to d wrong1 & :i* is app>5tly impli$ 9 ! notion ( ill-des]t4 ,:at comm5d$ itself to me1 9 %ort1 0 ,kant's e?ical pr9ciple r ?an its metaphysical basis4 ,?is ,i briefly expla9 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 #c ( ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,i %all g into x at m l5g? :5 we come to ,kant4 ,t :atev] is "r = me mu/ be "r = all p]sons 9 simil> circum/ances--:i* 0 ! =m 9 :i* ,i accept$ ! ,kantian maxim--seem$ to me c]ta9ly fundam5tal1 c]ta9ly true1 & n )\t practical importance4 ,b ! fundam5tal pr9ciple seem$ to me inadequate = ! con/ruction ( a sy/em ( duties2 & ! m ,i reflect$ on x ! m inadequate x appe>$4 ,on reflection x did n seem to me really to meet ! difficulty :i* _h l$ me f ,mill to ,kant3 x did n settle f9ally ! subord9ation ( ,self-int]e/ to ,duty4 ,= ! ,rational ,egoi/--a man :o _h le>nt f ,hobbes t ,self-pres]vation is ! fir/ law ( ,nature & ,self-int]e/ ! only rational basis ( social morality--& 9 fact1 its actual basis1 s f> z x is effective--su* a ?9k] might accept ! ,kantian pr9ciple & rema9 an ,egoi/4 ,he might say1 8,i q admit t :5 ! pa9ful necessity comes = ano!r man to *oose betwe5 8 own happ9ess & ! g5]al happ9ess1 he mu/ z a reasonable be+ pref] 8 own1 i4e4 x is "r = him to d ?is on my pr9ciple4 ,no d\bt1 z ,i probably d n sympa?ise ) him 9 p>ticul> any m ?an ) o!r p]sons1 ,i z a dis5gag$ spectator %\ld l him to sacrifice himself to ! g5]al good3 b ,i d n expect him to d x1 any m ?an ,i %\ld d x myself 9 8 place40 ,x did n seem to me t ?is reason+ c\ld be effectively confut$4 ,no d\bt x 01 f ! po9t ( view ( ! univ]se1 reasonable to pref] ! great] good to ! less]1 ev5 ?\gh ! less] good 0 ! private happ9ess ( ! ag5t4 ,/ill1 x seem$ to me also und5iably reasonable = ! individual to pref] 8 own4 ,! rationality ( self-reg>d seem$ to me z und5iable z ! rationality ( self-sacrifice4 ,i c\ld n give up ?is conviction1 ?\gh nei!r ( my ma/]s1 nei!r ,kant nor ,mill1 seem$ will+ to admit x3 9 diff]5t ways1 ea* 9 8 own way1 !y refus$ to admit x4 ,i 01 !re=e1 if ,i may s say1 a disciple on ! loose1 9 se>* ( a ma/]--or1 if ! t]m #8ma/]' be too /rong1 at any rate ,i s\ght = sympa?y & support1 9 ! conviction :i* ,i _h atta9$ 9 spite ( ! opposite op9ions ( ! ?9k]s f :om ,i _h le>nt mo/4 ,x 0 at ?is po9t !n t ! influ5ce ( ,butl] came 94 ,= ! /age at :i* ,i _h ?us arriv$ 9 se>* ( an e?ical cre$1 at once l$ me to und]/& ,butl]1 & to f9d ! support & intellectual sympa?y t ,i requir$ 9 8 view4 ,i say to und]/& him1 = hi!rto ,i _h misund]/ood him1 z ,i believe mo/ p !n misund]/ood1 & p]haps /ill misund]/&1 him4 ,he _h be5 pres5t$ to me z an advocate ( ! au?ority ( ,consci5ce2 & 8 argum5t1 put summ>ily1 seem$ to be t because reflection on our impulses %[$ u ,consci5ce claim+ au?ority !re=e we ought to obey x4 ,well1 ,i _h no d\bt t my consci5ce claim$ au?ority1 ?\gh x 0 a m utilit>ian consci5ce ?an ,butl]'s3 =1 ?r\gh all ?is se>* = pr9ciples ,i /ill adh]$ = practical purposes to ! doctr9e ,i _h le>nt f ,mill1 i4e4 ,i /ill held to ! maxim ( aim+ at ! g5]al happ9ess z ! supreme directive rule ( conduct1 & ,i ?\ght ,i c\ld answ] ! objections t ,butl] br\ght aga9/ ?is view 79 ! 8,diss]tation on ,virtue0 at ! end ( ! ,analogy74 ,my difficulty 01 z ,i h said1 t ?is claim ( consci5ce1 :e!r utilit>ian or n1 _h to be h>monis$ ) ! claim ( ,rational ,self-love2 & t ,i vaguely suppos$ ,butl] to avoid or ov]ride ! latt] claim4 ,b read+ him at ?is /age ) m c>e1 ,i f\nd 9 him1 ) pleasure & surprise1 a view v simil> to t :i* _h develop$ itself 9 my own m9d 9 /ruggl+ to assimilate ,mill & ,kant4 ,i f\nd he expressly admitt$ t 8int]e/1 my own happ9ess1 is a manife/ obligation10 & t 8,reasonable ,self-love0 is 8"o ( ! two *ief or sup]ior pr9ciples 9 ! nature ( man04 ,t is1 he recognis$ a 8,dualism ( ! ,gov]n+ ,faculty0--or z ,i pref] to say 8,dualism ( ! ,practical ,reason10 s9ce ! #8au?ority' on :i* ,butl] laid /ress mu/ pres5t itself to my m9d z ! au?ority ( reason1 be=e ,i c admit x4 ,( ?is m pres5tly3 :at ,i n[ wi% to make cle> is t x 0 on ?is side--if ,i may s say--t ,i ent]$ into ,butl]'s sy/em & came "u ! influ5ce ( 8 p[]ful & cauti\s intellect4 ,b ! effect ( 8 influ5ce c>ri$ me a fur!r /ep away f ,mill3 = ,i 0 l$ by x to ab&on ! doctr9e ( ,psy*ological ,h$onism1 & to recognise ! exi/5ce ( #8dis9t]e/$' or #8extra-reg>d+' impulses to action1 impulses n direct$ t[>ds ! ag5t's pleasure cf4 *ap4 iv4 ( ,book i4 ( ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,9 fact z reg>ds :at ,i may call a ,psy*ological basis ( ,e?ics1 ,i f\nd myself mu* m 9 agreem5t ) ,butl] ?an ,mill4 ,& ?is l$ me to reconsid] my relation to ,intuitional ,e?ics4 ,! /r5g? & vehem5ce ( ,butl]'s condemnation ( pure ,utilit>ianism1 9 s cauti\s a writ]1 naturally impress$ me mu*4 ,& ,i _h myself become1 z ,i _h to admit to myself1 an ,intuitioni/ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,= ! supreme rule ( aim+ at ! g5]al happ9ess1 z ,i _h come to see1 mu/ re/ on a fundam5tal moral intuition1 if ,i 0 to recognise x z b9d+ at all4 ,& 9 read+ ! writ+s ( ! e>li] ,engli% ,intuitioni/s1 ,m & ,cl>ke1 ,i f\nd ! axiom ,i requir$ = my ,utilit>ianism ,t a rational ag5t is b\nd to aim at ,univ]sal ,happ9ess1 9 "o =m or ano!r1 hold+ a prom95t place 7cf4 ,hi/ory ( ,e?ics1 pp4 #agb1 #aha74 ,i _h !n1 !oretically z well z practically1 accept$ ?is fundam5tal moral intuition2 & !re 0 also ! ,kantian pr9ciple1 :i* ,i recognis$ z irresi/ibly valid1 ?\gh n adequate to give complete guidance4--,i 0 !n an 8intuitional0 morali/ to ?is ext5t3 & if s1 :y n fur!r8 ,! or?odox morali/s su* z ,:ewell 7!n 9 vogue7 said t !re 0 a :ole intelligible sy/em ( intuitions3 b h[ 7 !y to be le>nt8 ,i c\ld n accept ,butl]'s view z to ! suffici5cy ( a pla9 man's consci5ce3 = x appe>$ to me t pla9 m5 agre$ r v]bally ?an really4 ,9 ?is /ate ( m9d ,i _h to read ,ari/otle aga92 & a light seem$ to dawn ^u me z to ! mean+ & drift ( 8 proc$ure--especially 9 ,books ii41 iii41 iv4 ( ! ,e?ics--7cf4 ,hi/ory ( ,e?ics1 *ap4 ii4 #i1 p4 #eh1 read to end ( section74 ,:at he gave u !re 0 ! ,common ,s5se ,morality ( ,greece1 r$uc$ to consi/5cy by c>eful comp>ison3 giv5 n z some?+ ext]nal to him b z :at 8we0--he & o!rs--?9k1 asc]ta9$ by reflection4 ,& 0 n ?is really ! ,socratic induction1 elicit$ by int]rogation8 ,might ,i n imitate ?is3 d ! same = our morality "h & n[1 9 ! same mann] ( imp>tial reflection on curr5t op9ion8 ,inde$ ought ,i n to d ?is be=e decid+ on ! "q :e!r ,i _h or _h n a sy/em ( moral intuitions8 ,at any rate ! result w\ld be useful1 :atev] conclusion ,i came to4 ,s ?is 0 ! "p ( my book fir/ writt5 7,book iii41 *aps4 i4-xi471 & a c]ta9 imitation ( ,ari/otle's mann] 0 v m>k$ 9 x at fir/1 & ?\gh ,i h tri$ to remove x :]e x seem$ to me affect$ or p$antic1 x /ill rema9s to "s ext5t4 ,b ! result ( ! exam9ation 0 to br+ out ) fre% =ce & vividness ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! maxims ( ,common ,s5se ,morality 7ev5 ! /ronge/ & /ricte/1 e4g4 ,v]acity & ,good ,fai?7 & ! intuitions :i* ,i _h already atta9$1 i4e4 ! ,kantian ,pr9ciple 7( :i* ,i n[ saw ! only c]ta9 elem5t 9 ,ju/ice--8treat simil> cases simil>ly0--to be a p>ticul> application71 & ! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,& ?is latt] 0 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! ,kantian ,pr9ciple4 ,i c]ta9ly c\ld w x to be a univ]sal law t m5 %\ld act 9 su* a way z to promote univ]sal happ9ess2 9 fact x 0 ! only law t x 0 p]fectly cle> to me t ,i c\ld ?us decisively w1 f a univ]sal po9t ( view4 ,i 0 !n a ,utilit>ian aga91 b on an ,intuitional basis4 ,b fur!r1 ! reflection on ,common ,s5se ,morality :i* ,i _h gone ?r\gh1 _h cont9ually br\ght home to me its "* z a sy/em ( rules t5d+ to ! promotion ( g5]al happ9ess 7cf4 ,me?ods ( ,e?ics pp4 #dgj1 #dga74 ,also ! previ\s reflection on h$oni/ic me?od = ,book ii4 _h %[n me its weaknesses4 ,:at 0 !n to be done8 ,! cons]vative attitude to be obs]v$ t[>ds ,common ,s5se is giv5 9 *apt] v4 ( ,book iv43 8,adh]e g5]ally1 deviate & attempt re=m only 9 exceptional cases 9 :i*1--not)/&+ ! r\ghness ( h$oni/ic me?od1--! argum5t aga9/ ,common ,s5se is decisive40 ,9 ?is /ate ( m9d ,i publi%$ my book3 ,i tri$ to say :at ,i _h f\nd3 t ! opposition betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,intuitionism 0 due to a misund]/&+4 ,!re 0 inde$ a fundam5tal opposition betwe5 ! individual's int]e/ & ei!r morality1 :i* ,i c\ld n solve by any me?od ,i _h yet f\nd tru/wor?y1 )\t ! assumption ( ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w3 s f> ,i agre$ ) bo? ,butl] & ,kant4 ,b ,i c\ld f9d no real opposition betwe5 ,intuitionism & ,utilit>ianism4444 ,! ,utilit>ianism ( ,mill & ,b5?am seem$ to me to want a basis3 t basis c\ld only be suppli$ by a fundam5tal intuition2 on ! o!r h& ! be/ exam9ation ,i c\ld make ( ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se %[$ me no cle> & self-evid5t pr9ciples except su* z 7 p]fectly consi/5t ) ,utilit>ianism4 ,/ill1 inve/igation ( ! ,utilit>ian me?od l$ me to see defects 9 x3 ! m]ely empirical exam9ation ( ! consequ5ces ( actions is unsatisfactory2 & be+ ?us consci\s ( ! practical imp]fection 9 _m cases ( ! guidance ( ! ,utilit>ian calculus1 ,i rema9$ anxi\s to treat ) respect1 & make use (1 ! guidance af=d$ by ,common ,s5se 9 ^! cases1 on ! gr\nd ( ! g5]al presumption :i* evolution af=d$ t moral s5tim5ts & op9ions w\ld po9t to conduct conducive to g5]al happ9ess2 ?\gh ,i c\ld n admit ?is presumption z a gr\nd = ov]rul+ a /rong probability ( ! opposite1 d]iv$ f utilit>ian calculations40 ,x only rema9s to m5tion t ! ,table ( ,cont5ts & ! ,index h be5 revis$ 9 accordance ) ! *anges 9 ! text4 ,e4 ,e4 ,,con/ance ,,jones4 ,,girton ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,april #aija4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,cf4 note on p4 #deg1 & ,prefatory ,note to ! ,sev5? ,edition4 #g ,kant's ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciples 7,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik d] ,sitt571 #a1 #b4 ,mill1 ,utilit>ianism1 pp4 #e1 #f #g? edition 7l>ge pr9t71 #ahgi4 #h ,book i4 *ap4 v4 ( ,! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,,prefatory ,,note ,,to ,,! ,,sev5? ,,edition ,?is ,edition is a repr9t ( ! ,six?1 ! only *anges 7besides correction ( a few cl]ical errors7 be+ an alt]ation ( type 9 ! passage :i* occurs on p4 #deg 9 ! ,six? ,edition & pp4 #deg-dei 9 ?is ,edition1 toge!r ) consequ5t *anges 7#a7 9 pag+ & index+1 7#b7 9 ! ref]5ce to ! passage 9 "q 9 ! repr9t$ ,preface to ! ,six? ,edition1 & 7#c7 9 ! ins]tion ( ! note on p4 #deg4 ,e4 ,e4 ,c4 ,j4 ,decemb] #aijf4 ,,cont5ts ,,book ,i ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,,pages #a4 ,e?ics is a dep>tm5t ( ! ,!ory or ,/udy ( ,practice4 #a-b #b4 ,x is ! /udy ( :at ought to be1 s f> z ?is dep5ds ^u ! volunt>y action ( individuals4 #b-d #c4 ,9 decid+ :at !y ought to d1 m5 naturally proce$ on diff]5t pr9ciples1 & by diff]5t me?ods4 #d-f #d4 ,!re are two prima facie rational ,ends1 ,excell5ce or ,p]fection & ,happ9ess3 ( :i* ! latt] at lea/ may be s\ght = oneself or univ]sally4 ,x is also commonly ?\ght t c]ta9 ,rules are prescrib$ )\t ref]5ce to ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,! ,me?ods correspond+ to ^! diff]5t pr9ciples r$uce !mselves 9 ! ma9 to ?ree1 ,egoism1 ,intuitionism1 ,utilit>ianism4 #f-aa #e4 ,^! me?ods we are to exam9e sep>ately1 ab/ract+ !m f ord9>y ?\ght1 :]e we f9d !m 9 confus$ comb9ation1 & develop+ !m z precisely & consi/5tly z possible4 #aa-ad ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,e?ics ,,& ,,politics #a4 ,9 consid]+ ! relation betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics1 we h to di/+ui% betwe5 ,positive ,law & ,ideal ,law4 #ae-ah #b4 ,b at any rate ! prim>y object ( ,e?ics is n to det]m9e :at ought to be done 9 an ideal society3 x !re=e does n necess>ily require z a prelim9>y ! !oretical con/ruction ( su* a society4 #ah-bb ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,e?ical ,,judgm5ts #a4 ,by #8,reasonable' conduct--:e!r morally or prud5tially reasonable--we mean t ( :i* we judge t x #8ought' to be done4 ,su* a judgm5t _c be legitimately int]pret$ z a judgm5t conc]n+ facts1 nor z ref]r+ exclusively to ! means to ult]ior ends3 9 p>ticul>1 ! t]m #8ought1' z us$ 9 moral judgm5ts1 does n m]ely signify t ! p]son judg+ feels a specific emotion3 #bc-bh #b4 nor does x m]ely signify t ! conduct 9 "q is prescrib$ "u p5alties3 #bh-ca #c4 ,! notion express$ by 8ought10 9 its /ricte/ e?ical use is too elem5t>y to admit ( =mal def9ition1 or ( resolution into simpl] notions2 x is assum$ to be objectively valid2 & judgm5ts 9 :i* x is us$ :5 !y relate to ! future conduct ( ! p]son judg+1 are accompani$ by a special k9d ( impulse to action4 #ca-ce #d4 ,?is #8dictate ( reason' is also exemplifi$ by m]ely prud5tial judgm5ts2 & by m]ely hypo!tical imp]atives4 #ce-ch ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,pleasure ,,& ,,desire #a4 ,! psy*ological doctr9e1 t ! object ( ,desire is always ,pleasure1 is liable to collide ) ! view ( ,e?ical judgm5ts j giv53 & 9 any case des]ves c>eful exam9ation4 #ci-db #b4 ,if by 8pleasure0 is meant 8agreeable feel+10 ?is doctr9e is oppos$ to exp]i5ce3 = ?r\gh\t ! :ole scale ( our desires1 f ! highe/ to ! l[e/1 we c di/+ui% impulses direct$ t[>ds o!r ends ?an our own feel+s f ! desire ( pleasure3 #db-ea #c4 z is fur!r %[n by ! occasional conflict betwe5 ! two k9ds ( impulse4 #ea-eb #d4 ,nor c ! doctr9e d]ive any real support f consid]ation ei!r ( ! #8unconsci\s' or ! #8orig9al' aim ( human action4 #eb-ed ,note #ed-ef ,,*apt] ,v ,,free ,,w #a4 ,! ,kantian id5tification ( #8,free' & #8,rational' action is mislead+ f ! ambiguity ( ! t]m #8fre$om4' #eg-ei #b4 ,:51 by def9ition & analysis ( volunt>y action1 ! issue 9 ! ,free ,w ,controv]sy has be5 made cle>1 x appe>s t ! cumulative argum5t = ,det]m9ism is almo/ ov]:elm+3 #ei-fe #c4 /ill x is impossible to me 9 act+ n to reg>d myself z free to d :at ,i judge to be reasonable4 ,h[ev] ! solution ( ! metaphysical "q ( ,free ,w is n important--,!ology ap>t--= sy/ematic ,e?ics g5]ally3 #fe-gj #d4 x seems h[ev] to h a special relation to ! notion ( ,ju/ice3 #ga-gb #e4 ,! practical unimportance ( ! "q ( ,free ,w becomes m cle> if we scrut9ize closely ! range ( volitional effects4#gb-gf ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,e?ical ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,me?ods #a4 ,! ,me?ods indicat$ 9 *ap4 i4 h a prima facie claim to proce$ on reasonable pr9ciples3 o!r pr9ciples seem1 9 s f> z !y c be made precise1 to r$uce !mselves to ^!3 #gg-hj #b4 especially ! pr9ciple ( 8liv+ accord+ to ,nature40 #hj-hc #c4 ,9 %ort1 all v>ieties ( ,me?od may conv5i5tly be class$ "u ?ree heads3 ,intuitionism & ! two k9ds ( ,h$onism1 ,egoi/ic & ,univ]sali/ic4 ,! common confusion betwe5 ! two latt] is easily expla9$1 b mu/ be c>efully gu>d$ aga9/4 #hc-hg ,note #hg-hh ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,egoism ,,& ,,self-,,love #a4 ,to get a cle> idea ( :at is commonly kn[n z ,egoism1 we mu/ di/+ui% & exclude sev]al possible mean+s ( ! t]m3 #hi-ic #b4 & def9e its end z ! greate/ atta9able surplus ( pleasure ov] pa9 = ! ag5t1--pleasures be+ valu$ 9 proportion to _! pleasantness4 #ic-ie ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,intuitionism #a4 ,i apply ! t]m ,intuitional--9 ! n>r[] ( two legitimate s5ses--to di/+ui% a me?od 9 :i* ! rightness ( "s k9ds ( action is assum$ to be kn[n )\t consid]ation ( ult]ior consequ5ces4 #if-ih #b4 ,! common anti!sis betwe5 ,intuitive & ,inductive is inexact1 s9ce ?is me?od does n necess>ily proce$ f ! univ]sal to ! p>ticul>4 ,we may di/+ui% ,p]ceptional ,intuitionism1 accord+ to :i* x is always ! rightness ( "s p>ticul> action t is held to be imm$iately kn[n3 #ih-ajj #c4 ,dogmatic ,intuitionism1 9 :i* ! g5]al rules ( ,common ,s5se are accept$ z axiomatic3 #ajj-aja #d4 ,philosophical ,intuitionism1 :i* attempts to f9d a deep] explanation = ^! curr5t rules4 #aja-ajc ,note #ajc-ajd ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,good #a4 ,ano!r important v>iety ( ,intuitionism is con/itut$ by sub/itut+ = 8"r0 ! wid] notion 8good40 #aje-ajf #b4 ,! common judgm5t t a ?+ is 8good0 does n on reflection appe> to be equival5t to a judgm5t t x is directly or indirectly pleasant4 #ajf-aji #c4 8,good0 8desirable0 or 8reasonably desir$03 z appli$ to conduct1 ! t]m does n convey s def9ite a dictate z 8"r10 & x is n conf9$ to ! /rictly volunt>y4 #aji-aac #d4 ,!re are _m o!r ?+s commonly judg$ to be good3 b reflection %[s t no?+ is ultimately good except "s mode ( human exi/5ce4 #aac-aae ,,book ,,ii ,,egoism ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,& ,,me?od ,,( ,,egoism #a4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism is ! widely accept$ proposition t ! rational end ( conduct = ea* individual is ! ,maximum ( 8 own ,happ9ess or ,pleasure4 #aai-aba #b4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods ( seek+ ?is end3 b we may take z prim>y t :i* proce$s by ,empirical-reflective comp>ison ( pleasures4 #aba-abb ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,empirical ,,h$onism #a4 ,9 ?is me?od x is assum$ t all pleasures s\ght & pa9s %unn$ are comm5surable2 & c be arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 scale ( pref]abl5ess3 #abc-abe #b4 pleasure be+ def9$ z 8feel+ appreh5d$ z desirable by ! s5ti5t individual at ! "t ( feel+ x40 #abe-acj ,note #acj ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,empirical ,,h$onism 7cont9u$7 #a4 ,to get a cle>] view ( ?is me?od1 let u consid] objections t5d+ to %[ its inh]5t impracticability3 z1 fir/1 t 8pleasure z feel+ _c be conceiv$10 & t a 8sum ( pleasures is intr9sically unmean+03 #aca-acd #b4 t transi5t pleasures _c satisfy2 & t ! pr$om9ance ( self-love t5ds to defeat its own end3 #acd-ach #c4 t ! habit ( introspectively comp>+ pleasures is unfav\rable to pleasure3 #ach-adj #d4 t any quantitative comp>ison ( pleasures & pa9s is vague & unc]ta91 ev5 9 ! case ( our own pa/ exp]i5ces3 #adj-add #e4 t x also t5ds to be diff]5t at diff]5t times3 especially ?r\gh v>iations 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! p]son p]=m+ ! comp>ison3 #add-adf #f4 t1 9 fact1 ! suppos$ def9ite comm5surability ( pleasures is an unv]ifiable assumption3 #adf-adg #g4 t !re is a simil> liability to error 9 appropriat+ ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs2 & 9 inf]r+ future pleasures f pa/4 #adg-aej ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,objective ,,h$onism ,,& ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,x may seem t ! judgm5ts ( ,common ,s5se respect+ ! ,s\rces ( ,happ9ess (f] a refuge f ! unc]ta9ties ( ,empirical ,h$onism3 b !re are sev]al fundam5tal defects 9 ?is refuge2 #aea-aec #b4 & ^! judgm5ts :5 closely exam9$ are f\nd to be p]plex+ly inconsi/5t4 #aec-aeh #c4 ,/ill we may d]ive f !m a c]ta9 am\nt ( practical guidance4 #aeh-afa ,,*apt] ,v ,,happ9ess ,,& ,,duty #a4 ,x has be5 ?\ght possible to prove on empirical gr\nds t "o's greate/ happ9ess is always atta9$ by ! p]=mance ( duty4 #afb-afc #b4 ,b no su* complete co9cid5ce seems to result f a consid]ation ei!r ( ! ,legal ,sanctions ( ,duty3 #afc-aff #c4 or ( ! ,social ,sanctions3 #aff-agj #d4 or ( ! ,int]nal ,sanctions3 ev5 if we consid] n m]ely isolat$ acts ( duty1 b a virtu\s life z a :ole4 #agj-age ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,d$uctive ,,h$onism #a4 ,h$oni/ic ,me?od mu/ ultimately re/ on facts ( empirical obs]vation3 b x might become l>gely d$uctive1 ?r\gh sci5tific k ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa93 #agf-ahj #b4 b we h no practically available g5]al !ory ( ^! causes1 ei!r psy*ophysical1 #ahj-aij #c4 or biological4 #aij-aib #d4 ,nor c ! pr9ciple ( #8increas+ life1' or t ( #8aim+ at self-developm5t1' or t ( #8giv+ free play to impulse1' be s def9$ z to af=d u any practical guidance to ! end ( ,egoism1 )\t fall+ back on ! empirical comp>ison ( pleasures & pa9s4 #aib-aie ,,book ,,iii ,,intuitionism ,,*apt] ,i ,,intuitionism #a4 ,! fundam5tal assumption ( ,intuitionism is t we h ! p[] ( see+ cle>ly :at actions are 9 !mselves "r & reasonable4 #aii-bja #b4 ,?\gh _m actions are commonly judg$ to be made bett] or worse ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 motives1 our common judgm5ts ( "r & wrong relate1 /rictly speak+1 to int5tions4 ,"o motive1 inde$1 ! desire to d :at is "r z su*1 has be5 ?\ght an ess5tial condition to "r conduct3 b ! ,intuitional me?od %\ld be treat$ z n involv+ ?is assumption4 #bja-bjg #c4 ,x is c]ta9ly an ess5tial condition t we %\ld n believe ! act to be wrong2 & ?is implies t we %\ld n believe x to be wrong = any simil> p]son 9 simil> circum/ances3 b ?is implication1 ?\gh x may supply a valuable practical rule1 _c furni% a complete crit]ion ( "r conduct4 #bjg-baj #d4 ,! exi/5ce ( app>5t cognitions ( "r conduct1 intuitively obta9$1 z di/9ct f _! validity1 w sc>cely be que/ion$2 & to e/abli% _! validity x is n ne$ful to prove _! #8orig9ality4' #baj-bad #e4 ,bo? p>ticul> & univ]sal intuitions are f\nd 9 our common moral ?\ght3 b x is = ! latt] t ultimate validity is ord9>ily claim$ by intuitional morali/s4 ,we mu/ try1 by reflect+ on ,common ,s5se1 h[ f> we c /ate ^! ,moral ,axioms ) cle>ness & precision4 #bad-baf ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,virtue ,,& ,,duty #a4 ,duties are ,"r acts1 = ! adequate p]=mance ( :i* a moral motive is at lea/ occasionally necess>y4 ,virtu\s conduct includes ! p]=mance ( duties z well z praisewor?y acts t are ?\ght to g beyond /rict duty1 & t may ev5 be beyond ! p[] ( "s to p]=m4 #bag-bba #b4 ,virtues z commonly recognis$1 are manife/$ prim>ily 9 volitions to produce p>ticul> "r effects--:i* mu/ at lea/ be ?\ght by ! ag5t to be n wrong--3 b = ! complet5ess ( "s virtues ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 emotions seems necess>y4 #bba-bbh #c4 ,x may be said t ,moral ,excell5ce1 l ,beauty1 eludes def9ition3 b if ,e?ical ,sci5ce is to be con/itut$1 we mu/ obta9 def9ite ,moral ,axioms4 #bbh-bcj ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,intellectual ,,virtues #a4 ,! common conception ( ,wisdom assumes a h>mony ( ! ends ( diff]5t e?ical me?ods3 all ( :i*--& n "o r ?an ano!r--! wise man is commonly ?\ght to aim at & atta9 z f> z circum/ances admit4 #bca-bcc #b4 ,! ,w is to "s ext5t involv$ 9 =m+ wise decisions3 b m cle>ly 9 act+ on !m--:atev] we may call ! ,virtue ?us manife/$4 #bcc-bcf #c4 ,( m9or intellectual excell5ces1 "s are n /rictly ,virtues3 o!rs are1 su* z ,caution & ,decision1 be+ 9 "p volunt>y4 #bcf-bcg ,note #bcg ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,b5evol5ce #a4 ,! ,maxim ( ,b5evol5ce bids u to "s ext5t cultivate affections1 & conf] happ9ess #bch-bda #b4 on s5ti5t1 *iefly human1 be+s2 especially 9 c]ta9 circum/ances & relations1 9 :i* affections--:i* are h>dly virtues--prompt to k9d s]vices4 ,rules = ! di/ribution ( ,k9dness are ne$$1 #bda-bdf #c4 z claims may conflict2 b cle>ly b9d+ rules _c be obta9$ f ,common ,s5se 9 a def9ite =m2 #bdf-bdg #d4 nor cle> pr9ciples f :i* rules may be d$uc$2 z is se5 :5 we exam9e ! duties to ,k9sm51 z commonly conceiv$3 #bdg-bej #e4 & ! wid] duties ( ,neighb\rhood1 ,citiz5%ip1 ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce2 & ! duties ( cultivat+ ,rev]5ce & ,loyalty3 #bej-bed #f4 & ^? spr++ f ! ,conjugal relation3 #bed-bef #g4 & ^? ( ,fri5d%ip3 #bef-bei #h4 & ^? ( ,gratitude3 & ^? to :i* we are prompt$ by ,pity4 #bei-bfc ,note #bfc ,,*apt] ,v ,,ju/ice #a4 ,ju/ice is especially difficult to def9e4 ,! ,j _c be id5tifi$ ) ! ,legal1 z laws may be unju/4 ,aga91 ! ,ju/ice ( laws does n consi/ m]ely 9 ! abs5ce ( arbitr>y inequality 9 fram+ or adm9i/]+ !m4 #bfd-bfh #b4 ,"o elem5t ( ,ju/ice seems to consi/ 9 ! fulfilm5t ( 7#a7 contracts & def9ite und]/&+s1 & 7#b7 expectations aris+ naturally out ( ! e/abli%$ ord] ( ,society2 b ! duty ( fulfill+ ^! latt] is some:at indef9ite3 #bfh-bga #c4 & ?is social ord] may itself1 f ano!r po9t ( view1 be condemn$ z unju/2 t is1 z tri$ by ! /&>d ( ,ideal ,ju/ice4 ,:at !n is ?is ,/&>d8 ,we seem to f9d v>i\s degrees & =ms ( x4 #bga-bgd #d4 ,"o view ( ,ideal ,law /ates ,fre$om z its absolute ,end3 b ! attempt to con/ruct a sy/em ( law on ?is pr9ciple involves u 9 insup]able difficulties4 #bgd-bgh #e4 ,nor does ! realisation ( ,fre$om satisfy our common conception ( ,ideal ,ju/ice4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is is r #8t ,des]t %\ld be requit$4' #bgh-bhc #f4 ,b ! application ( ?is pr9ciple is aga9 v p]plex+3 :e!r we try to det]m9e ,good ,des]t 7or ! wor? ( s]vices71 #bhc-bij #g4 or ,ill ,des]t1 9 ord] to realise ,crim9al ,ju/ice4 ,!re rema9s too ! difficulty ( reconcil+ ,cons]vative & ,ideal ,ju/ice4 #bij-bid ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,laws ,,& ,,promises #a4 ,! duty ( obey+ ,laws1 ?\gh x may to a great ext5t be includ$ "u ,ju/ice1 /ill requires a sep>ate treatm5t4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 obta9 no cons5sus = any precise def9ition ( x4 #bie-big #b4 ,= we are nei!r agre$ z to :at k9d ( gov]nm5t is ideally legitimate1 #big-bii #c4 nor z to ! crit]ion ( a traditionally legitimate gov]nm5t1 #bii-cja #d4 nor z to ! prop] limits ( gov]nm5tal au?ority4 #cja-cjc #e4 ,! duty ( fulfill+ a promise 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x 0 und]/ood by bo? promis] & promisee is ?\ght to be peculi>ly /r+5t & c]ta9 #cjc-cjd #f4 7x be+ admitt$ t its obligation is relative to ! promisee1 & may be annull$ by him1 & t x _c ov]ride /rict prior obligations74 #cjd-cje #g4 ,b ,common ,s5se seems to d\bt h[ f> a promise is b9d+ :5 x has be5 obta9$ by =ce or fraud3 #cje-cjf #h4 or :5 circum/ances h mat]ially alt]$ s9ce x 0 made--especially if x be a promise to ! dead or abs5t1 f :i* no release c be obta9$1 or if ! p]=mance ( ! promise w be h>mful to ! promisee1 or inflict a disproportionate sacrifice on ! promis]4 #cjf-cjh #i4 ,o!r d\bts arise :5 a promise has be5 misappreh5d$3 & 9 ! peculi> case :]e a prescrib$ =m ( words has be5 us$4 #cjh-caa ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,classification ,,( ,,duties4 ,,tru? #a4 ,i h n adopt$ ! classification ( duties into ,social & ,self-reg>d+3 z x seems inappropriate to ! ,intuitional me?od1 ( :i* ! *>act]i/ic is1 t x lays d[n c]ta9 absolute & indep5d5t rules3 su* z ! rule ( ,tru?4 #cab-cae #b4 ,b ,common ,s5se aft] all sc>cely seems to prescribe tru?-speak+ "u all circum/ances3 nor to decide cle>ly :e!r ! beliefs :i* we are b\nd to make true are ^? directly produc$ by our words or ! imm$iate inf]5ces f ^!4 #cae-cag #c4 ,x is said t ! g5]al all[ance ( ,unv]acity w\ld be suicidal1 z no "o w\ld believe ! falsehood4 ,b ?is argum5t1 ?\gh =cible1 is n decisive2 = 7#a7 ?is result may be 9 special circum/ances desirable1 or 7#b7 we may h reason to expect t x w n occur4 #cag-cai ,note #cai ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,o!r ,,social ,,duties ,,& ,,virtues #a4 ,common op9ion sometimes condemns sweep+ly malevol5t feel+s & volitions3 b ,reflective ,common ,s5se seems to admit "s z legitimate1 det]m9+ ! limits ( ?is admission on utilit>ian gr\nds4 #cbj-cbd #b4 ,o!r maxims ( social duty seem cle>ly subord9ate to ^? already discuss$3 z is illu/rat$ by an exam9ation ( ,lib]ality & o!r cognate notions4 #cbd-cbf ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,self-,,reg>d+ ,,virtues #a4 ,! g5]al duty ( seek+ "o's own happ9ess is commonly recognis$ "u ! notion ( ,prud5ce4 #cbg-cbh #b4 ,?is z specially appli$ to ! control ( bodily appetites is call$ ,temp]ance3 b "u ?is notion a m rigid re/ra9t is sometimes ?\ght to be prescrib$3 ?\gh z to ! pr9ciple ( ?is !re seems no agreem5t4 #cbh-cbi #c4 ,nor is x easy to give a cle> def9ition ( ! maxim ( ,purity--b 9 fact common s5se seems av]se to attempt ?is4 ,we mu/ note1 h[ev]1 t suicide is commonly judg$ to be absolutely wrong4 #cbi-cca ,,*apt] ,x ,,c\rage1 ,,humility1 ,,etc4 #a4 ,! ,duty ( ,c\rage is subord9ate to ^? already discuss$3 & 9 draw+ ! l9e betwe5 ! ,excell5ce ( ,c\rage & ! ,fault ( ,foolh>d9ess we seem =c$ to h rec\rse to consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 #ccb-ccd #b4 ,simil>ly ! maxim ( ,humility seems ei!r cle>ly subord9ate or n cle>ly det]m9ate4 #ccd-ccf ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,review ,,( ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,we h n[ to exam9e ! moral maxims t h be5 def9$1 to asc]ta9 :e!r !y possess ! *>act]i/ics ( sci5tific intuitions4 #ccg-cch #b4 ,we require ( an ,axiom t x %\ld be 7#a7 /at$ 9 cle> & precise t]ms1 7#b7 really self-evid5t1 7#c7 n conflict+ ) any o!r tru?1 7#d7 support$ by an adequate #8cons5sus ( exp]ts4' ,^! *>act]i/ics are n f\nd 9 ! moral maxims ( ,common ,s5se4 #cch-cdc #c4 ,! maxims ( ,wisdom & ,self-control are only self-evid5t 9 s f> z !y are tautological3 #cdc-cde #d4 nor c we /ate any cle>1 absolute1 univ]sally-admitt$ axioms = det]m9+ ! duties ( ! ,affections3 #cde-cdi #e4 & z = ! gr\p ( pr9ciples t 7 extract$ f ! common notion ( ,ju/ice1 we _c def9e ea* s+ly 9 a satisfactory mann]1 /ill less reconcile !m3 #cdi-ceb #f4 & ev5 ! ,duty ( ,good ,fai?1 :5 we consid] ! num]\s qualifications ( x m or less d\btfully admitt$ by ,common ,s5se1 seems m l a subord9ate rule ?an an indep5d5t ,fir/ ,pr9ciple4 ,/ill m is ?is ! case ) ,v]acity3 #ceb-cee #g4 simil>ly ) o!r virtues3 ev5 ! prohibition ( ,suicide1 s f> z rational1 seems to re/ ultimately on utilit>ian gr\nds4 #cee-ceg #h4 ,ev5 ,purity :5 we =ce ourselves to exam9e x rigor\sly yields no cle> indep5d5t pr9ciple4 #ceg-cei #i4 ,! common moral maxims are adequate = practical guidance1 b d n admit ( be+ elevat$ into sci5tific axioms4 #cei-cfa ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,motives ,,or ,,spr+s ,,( ,,action ,,z ,,subjects ,,( ,,moral ,,judgm5t #a4 ,x has be5 held by sev]al morali/s t ! 8,univ]sal ,consci5ce0 judges prim>ily n ( ,rightness ( acts1 b ( ,rank ( ,motives4 #cfb-cfe #b4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we include ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts among ^! motives1 ?is latt] view involves all ! difficulties & p]plexities ( ! =m]1 yet x is p>adoxical to omit ^! s5tim5ts4 #cfe-cfg #c4 ,b ev5 if we leave ^! out1 we /ill f9d v little agreem5t z to ,rank ( ,motives3 & !re is a special difficulty aris+ f complexity ( motive4 ,nor does ,common ,s5se seem to hold t a 8high]0 motive--bel[ ! highe/--is always to be pref]r$ to a 8l[]40 #cfg-cgb ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,philosophical ,,intuitionism #a4 ,! ,philosoph]1 z su*1 attempts to p5etrate b5ea? ! surface ( ,common ,s5se to "s deep] pr9ciples3 #cgc-cgd #b4 b has too (t5 pres5t$ to ! _w1 z ! result ( 8 inve/igation1 tautological propositions & vici\s circles4 #cgd-cgi #c4 ,/ill !re are c]ta9 ab/ract moral pr9ciples ( real importance1 intuitively kn[n2 ?\gh !y are n suffici5t by !mselves to give complete practical guidance4 ,?us we c exhibit a self-evid5t elem5t 9 ! commonly recognis$ pr9ciples ( ,prud5ce1 ,ju/ice1 & ,b5evol5ce4 #cgi-chd #d4 ,?is is confirm$ by a ref]5ce to ,cl>ke's & ,kant's sy/ems3 #chd-chf #e4 & also to ,utilit>ianism3 :i* ne$s = its basis a self-evid5t pr9ciple ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce2 z is %[n by a criticism ( ,mill's 8pro(40 #chf-chi ,note #chi-cij ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,ultimate ,,good #a4 ,! notion ( ,virtue1 z commonly conceiv$1 _c )\t a logical circle be id5tifi$ ) ! notion ( ,ultimate ,good3 #cia-cid #b4 nor is x 9 accordance ) ,common ,s5se to reg>d ,subjective ,rightness ( ,w1 or o!r elem5ts ( ,p]fection1 z con/itut+ ,ultimate ,good4 #cid-cie #c4 ,:at is ultimately good or desirable mu/ be ,desirable ,consci\sness4 #cie-cig #d4 i4e4 ei!r simply ,happ9ess1 or c]ta9 objective relations ( ! ,consci\s ,m9d4 #cih-djj #e4 ,:5 ^! alt]natives are fairly pres5t$1 ,common ,s5se seems dispos$ to *oose ! =m]3 especially z we c n[ expla9 its in/9ctive dis9cl9ation to admit ,pleasure z ultimate end3 :ile ! o!r alt]native leaves u )\t a crit]ion = det]m9+ ! comp>ative value ( diff]5t elem5ts ( #8,good4' #djj-djg ,,book ,,iv ,,utilit>ianism ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,utilit>ianism #a4 ,! e?ical !ory call$ ,utilit>ianism1 or ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism1 is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ,egoi/ic ,h$onism3 & also f any psy*ological !ory z to ! nature & orig9 ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts4 #daa-dac #b4 ,! notion ( #8,greate/ ,happ9ess' has be5 det]m9$ 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 i43 b ! ext5t & mann] ( its application require to be fur!r def9$4 ,are we to include all ,s5ti5t ,be+s8 & is x ,total or ,av]age ,happ9ess t we seek to make a maximum8 ,we also require a supplem5t>y ,pr9ciple = ,di/ribution ( ,happ9ess3 ! pr9ciple ( ,equality is prima facie reasonable4 #dac-dag ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,pro( ,,( ,,utilit>ianism ,common ,s5se dem&s a ,pro( ( ! fir/ ,pr9ciple ( ?is me?od1 m cle>ly ?an 9 ! case ( ,egoism & ,intuitionism4 ,su* a pro(1 address$ to ! ,egoi/ic ,h$oni/1 0 9 fact giv5 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 xiii4 #c3 x exhibit$ ! ess5ce ( ! ,utilit>ian ,pr9ciple z a cle> & c]ta9 moral ,intuition4 ,b x is also important to exam9e its relation to o!r receiv$ maxims4 #dah-dbb ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,utilit>ianism ,,to ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,tak+ z our basis ,hume's exhibition ( ! ,virtues z ,felicific qualities ( "*1 we c trace a complex co9cid5ce betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,common ,s5se4 ,x is n ne$ful--nor does x ev5 help ! argum5t--to %[ ?is co9cid5ce to be p]fect & exact4 #dbc-dbf #b4 ,we may obs]ve1 fir/1 t ,dispositions may (t5 be admir$ 7z g5]ally felicific7 :5 ! special acts t h result$ f !m are infelicific4 ,aga91 ! maxims ( _m virtues are f\nd to conta9 an explicit or implicit ref]5ce to ,duty conceiv$ z already det]m9ate4 ,pass+ ov] ^! to exam9e ! m def9ite among common notions ( ,duty3 #dbf-dcj #c4 we obs]ve1 fir/1 h[ ! rules t prescribe ! di/ribution ( k9dness 9 accordance ) normal prompt+s ( ,family ,affections1 ,fri5d%ip1 ,gratitude1 & ,pity h a firm ,utilit>ian basis3 & h[ ,utilit>ianism is naturally ref]r$ to = an explanation ( ! difficulties t arise 9 attempt+ to def9e ^! rules4 #dcj-dci #d4 ,a simil> result is rea*$ by an exam9ation1 s+ly & toge!r1 ( ! diff]5t elem5ts into :i* we h analys$ ! common notion ( ,ju/ice3 #dci-ddh #e4 & 9 ! case ( o!r virtues4 #ddh-dej #f4 ,purity has be5 ?\ght an exception3 b a c>eful exam9ation ( common op9ions z to ! regulation ( sexual relations exhibits a peculi>ly complex & delicate correspond5ce betwe5 moral s5tim5ts & social utilities4 #dej-dec #g4 ,! hypo!sis t ! ,moral ,s5se is #8unconsci\sly ,utilit>ian' also acc\nts = ! actual diff]5ces 9 diff]5t codes ( ,duty & e/imates ( ,virtue1 ei!r 9 ! same age & c\ntry1 or :5 we comp>e diff]5t ages & c\ntries4 ,x is n ma9ta9$ t p]ception ( rightness has always be5 consci\sly d]iv$ f p]ception ( utility3 a view :i* ! evid5ce ( hi/ory fails to support4 #dec-deg ,on ! ,utilit>ian view1 ! relation betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics is diff]5t = diff]5t p>ts ( ! legal code4 #deg-dei ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,utilit>ianism #a4 ,ought a ,utilit>ian1 !n1 to accept ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se provisionally z a body ( ,utilit>ian doctr9e8 ,n q2 = ev5 accept+ ! !ory t ! ,moral ,s5se is d]iv$ f ,sympa?y1 we c disc]n sev]al causes t mu/ h op]at$ to produce a div]g5ce betwe5 ,common ,s5se & a p]fectly ,utilit>ian code ( morality4 #dfj-dfg #b4 ,at ! same "t x seems idle to try to con/ruct su* a code 9 any o!r way ?an by tak+ ,positive ,morality z our basis4 #dfg-dga #c4 ,if ,g5]al ,happ9ess be ! ultimate end1 x is n reasonable to adopt 8social heal?0 or 8effici5cy0 z ! practically ultimate crit]ion ( morality4 #dga-dgd ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,utilit>ianism 7cont9u$7 #a4 ,x is1 !n1 a ,utilit>ian's duty at once to support g5]ally1 & to rectify 9 detail1 ! morality ( ,common ,s5se3 & ! me?od ( pure empirical ,h$onism seems to be ! only "o t he c at pres5t use 9 ! reason+s t f9ally det]m9e ! nature & ext5t ( ?is rectification4 #dge-dhj #b4 ,8 innovations may be ei!r negative & de/ructive1 or positive & supplem5t>y4 ,!re are c]ta9 important g5]al reasons aga9/ an innovation ( ! =m] k9d1 :i* may1 9 any giv5 case1 easily outweigh ! special argum5ts 9 its fav\r4 #dhj-dhd #c4 ,g5]ally1 a ,utilit>ian 9 recomm5d+1 by example or precept1 a deviation f an e/abli%$ rule ( conduct1 desires 8 innovation to be g5]ally imitat$4 ,b 9 "s cases he may nei!r expect nor desire su* imitation2 ?\gh cases ( ?is k9d are r>e & difficult to det]m9e4 #dhe-dib #d4 ,!re are no simil> difficulties 9 ! way ( modify+ ! ,ideal ( ,moral ,excell5ce--z di/+ui%$ f ! dictates ( ,moral ,duty--9 ord] to r5d] x m p]fectly felicific4 #dib-die ,,conclud+ ,,*apt] ,,! ,,mutual ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,?ree ,,me?ods #a4 ,x is n difficult to comb9e ! ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian me?ods into "o2 b c we reconcile ,egoi/ic & ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism8 #dif-dih #b4 ,9 s f> z ! latt] co9cides ) ,common ,s5se1 we h se5 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 t no complete reconciliation is possible1 on ! basis ( exp]i5ce4 #dih-dii #c4 ,nor does a full] consid]ation ( ,sympa?y1 z a specially ,utilit>ian sanction1 lead u to modify ?is conclusion2 9 spite ( ! importance t is und\bt$ly to be atta*$ to sympa!tic pleasures4 #dii-ejc #d4 ,! ,religi\s ,sanction1 if we c %[ t x is actually atta*$ to ! ,utilit>ian ,code1 is ( c\rse adequate3 #ejc-ejf #e4 b its exi/5ce _c be demon/rat$ by e?ical argum5ts alone4 ,/ill1 )\t ?is or "s simil> assumption1 a fundam5tal contradiction 9 ,e?ics _c be avoid$4 #ejf-eji ,,app5dix ,,on ,,kant',s ,,conception ,,( ,,free ,,w #eaa ,,index #eag ,,book ,i ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction #a4 ,! b\nd>ies ( ! /udy call$ ,e?ics are v>i\sly & (t5 vaguely conceiv$3 b !y w p]haps be suffici5tly def9$1 at ! outset1 = ! purposes ( ! pres5t treatise1 if a #8,me?od ( ,e?ics' is expla9$ to mean any rational proc$ure by :i* we det]m9e :at individual human be+s #8ought'--or :at x is #8"r' = !m--to d1 or to seek to realise by volunt>y action4#i ,by us+ ! ^w 8individual0 ,i provisionally di/+ui% ! /udy ( ,e?ics f t ( ,politics1#aj :i* seeks to det]m9e ! prop] con/itution & ! "r public conduct ( gov]n$ societies3 bo? ,e?ics & ,politics be+1 9 my view1 di/+ui%$ f positive sci5ces by hav+ z _! special & prim>y object to det]m9e :at ought to be1 & n to asc]ta9 :at m]ely is1 has be51 or w be4 ,! /ud5t ( ,e?ics seeks to atta9 sy/ematic & precise g5]al k ( :at ought to be1 & 9 ?is s5se 8 aims & me?ods may prop]ly be t]m$ #8sci5tific'3 b ,i h pref]r$ to call ,e?ics a /udy r ?an a sci5ce1 because x is widely ?\ght t a ,sci5ce mu/ necess>ily h "s dep>tm5t ( actual exi/5ce = its subject-matt]4 ,& 9 fact ! t]m #8,e?ical ,sci5ce' might1 )\t violation ( usage1 d5ote ei!r ! dep>tm5t ( ,psy*ology t deals ) volunt>y action & its spr+s1 & ) moral s5tim5ts & judgm5ts1 z actual ph5om5a ( individual human m9ds2 or ! dep>tm5t ( ,sociology deal+ ) simil> ph5om5a1 z manife/$ by normal memb]s ( ! organis$ gr\ps ( human be+s :i* we call societies4 ,we obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t mo/ p]sons d n pursue ei!r ( ^! /udies m]ely f curiosity1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at actually exi/s1 has exi/$1 or w exi/ 9 "t4 ,!y commonly wi% n only to und]/& human action1 b also to regulate x2 9 ?is view !y apply ! ideas #8good' & #8bad1' #8"r' & #8wrong1' to ! conduct or in/itutions :i* !y describe2 & ?us pass1 z ,i %\ld say1 f ! po9t ( view ( ,psy*ology or ,sociology to t ( ,e?ics or ,politics4 ,my def9ition ( ,e?ics is design$ to m>k cle>ly ! fundam5tal importance ( ?is transition4 ,x is true t ! mutual implication ( ! two k9ds ( /udy--! positive & ! practical--is1 on any !ory1 v close & complete4 ,on any !ory1 our view ( :at ought to be mu/ be l>gely d]iv$1 9 details1 f our appreh5sion ( :at is2 ! means ( realis+ our ideal c only be ?or\ghly le>nt by a c>eful /udy ( actual ph5om5a2 & to any individual ask+ himself #8,:at ought ,i to d or aim at8' x is important to exam9e ! answ]s :i* 8 fell[-m5 h actually giv5 to simil> que/ions4 ,/ill x seems cle> t an attempt to asc]ta9 ! g5]al laws or uni=mities by :i* ! v>ieties ( human conduct1 & ( m5's s5tim5ts & judgm5ts respect+ conduct1 may be expla9$1 is ess5tially diff]5t f an attempt to det]m9e :i* among ^! v>ieties ( conduct is "r & :i* ( ^! div]g5t judgm5ts valid4 ,x is1 !n1 ! sy/ematic consid]ation ( ^! latt] que/ions :i* con/itutes1 9 my view1 ! special & di/9ct aim ( ,e?ics & ,politics4 #b4 ,9 ! language ( ! prec$+ section ,i c\ld n avoid tak+ acc\nt ( two diff]5t =ms 9 :i* ! fundam5tal problem ( ,e?ics is /at$2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 :i* leads1 z we %all pres5tly see1 to r important consequ5ces4 ,e?ics is sometimes consid]$ z an inve/igation ( ! true ,moral laws or rational precepts ( ,conduct2 sometimes z an inquiry into ! nature ( ! ,ultimate ,end ( reasonable human action--! ,good or #8,true ,good' ( man--& ! me?od ( atta9+ x4 ,bo? ^! views are famili>1 & w h to be c>efully consid]$3 b ! =m] seems mo/ prom95t 9 mod]n e?ical ?\ght1 & mo/ easily applicable to mod]n e?ical sy/ems g5]ally4 ,= ! ,good inve/igat$ 9 ,e?ics is limit$ to ,good 9 "s degree atta9able by human ef=t2 accord+ly k ( ! end is s\ght 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at actions are ! "r means to its atta9m5t4 ,?us h[ev] prom95t ! notion ( an ,ultimate ,good--o!r ?an volunt>y action ( any k9d--may be 9 an e?ical sy/em1 & :atev] int]pretation may be giv5 to ?is notion1 we mu/ /ill arrive f9ally1 if x is to be practically useful1 at "s det]m9ation ( precepts or directive rules ( conduct4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! conception ( ,e?ics z ess5tially an inve/igation ( ! #8,ultimate ,good' ( ,man & ! means ( atta9+ x is n univ]sally applicable1 )\t /ra9+1 to ! view ( ,morality :i* we may conv5i5tly di/+ui% z ! ,intuitional view2 accord+ to :i* conduct is held to be "r :5 con=m$ to c]ta9 precepts or pr9ciples ( ,duty1 intuitively kn[n to be unconditionally b9d+4 ,9 ?is view ! conception ( ,ultimate ,good is n necess>ily ( fundam5tal importance 9 ! det]m9ation ( ,"r conduct except on ! assumption t ,"r conduct itself--or ! "* realis$ 9 & develop$ ?r\gh ,"r conduct--is ! sole ,ultimate ,good = man4 ,b ?is assumption is n impli$ 9 ! ,intuitional view ( ,e?ics3 nor w\ld x1 ,i conceive1 accord ) ! moral common s5se ( mod]n ,*ri/ian communities4 ,= we commonly ?9k t ! complete notion ( human ,good or ,well-be+ mu/ include ! atta9m5t ( ,happ9ess z well z ! p]=mance ( ,duty2 ev5 if we hold ) ,butl] t 8! happ9ess ( ! _w is ! conc]n ( ,him :o is ! ,"l & ! ,proprietor ( x10 & t1 accord+ly1 x is n "r = m5 to make _! p]=mance ( ,duty conditional on _! k ( its conduciv5ess to _! ,happ9ess4 ,= ^? :o hold ?is1 :at m5 ought to take z ! practically ultimate end ( _! action & /&>d ( ,"r conduct1 may 9 "s cases h no logical connexion ) ! conception ( ,ultimate ,good = man3 s t1 9 su* cases1 h[ev] indisp5sable ?is latt] conception may be to ! complet5ess ( an e?ical sy/em1 x w\ld /ill n be important = ! me?odical det]m9ation ( ,"r conduct4 ,x is on acc\nt ( ! preval5ce ( ! ,intuitional view j m5tion$1 & ! prom95t place :i* x consequ5tly occupies 9 my discussion1 t 9 def9+ ,e?ics ,i h avoid$ ! t]m #8,art ( ,conduct' :i* "s w\ld reg>d z its m appropriate designation4 ,= ! t]m #8,art'--:5 appli$ to ! cont5ts ( a treatise--seems to signify sy/ematic express k 7z di/+ui%$ f ! implicit k or organis$ habit :i* we call skill7 ( ! "r means to a giv5 end4 ,n[ if we assume t ! rightness ( action dep5ds on its conduciv5ess to "s ult]ior end1 !n no d\bt--:5 ?is end has be5 cle>ly asc]ta9$--! process ( det]m9+ ! "r rules ( conduct = human be+s 9 diff]5t relations & circum/ances w\ld naturally come "u ! notion ( ,art4 ,b on ! view t ! practically ultimate end ( moral action is (t5 ! ,rightness ( ! action itself--or ! ,virtue realis$ 9 & confirm$ by su* action--& t ?is is kn[n intuitively 9 ea* case or class ( cases1 we c h>dly reg>d ! t]m #8,art' z prop]ly applicable to ! sy/ematisation ( su* k4 ,h5ce1 z ,i d n wi% to />t ) any assumption incompatible ) ?is latt] view1 ,i pref] to consid] ,e?ics z ! sci5ce or /udy ( :at is "r or :at ought to be1 s f> z ?is dep5ds ^u ! volunt>y action ( individuals4#aa #c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ?is view ( ! scope ( ,e?ics is accept$1 ! "q arises :y x is commonly tak5 to consi/1 to a great ext5t1 ( psy*ological discussion z to ! #8nature ( ! moral faculty'2 especially z ,i h myself ?\ght x "r to include "s discussion ( ?is k9d 9 ! pres5t treatise4 ,= x does n at fir/ appe> :y ?is %\ld belong to ,e?ics1 any m ?an discussions ab\t ! ma!matical faculty or ! faculty ( s5se-p]ception belong to ma!matics & physics respectively4 ,:y d we n simply />t ) c]ta9 premises1 /at+ :at ought to be done or s\ght1 )\t consid]+ ! faculty by :i* we appreh5d _! tru?8 ,"o answ] is t ! morali/ has a practical aim3 we desire k ( "r conduct 9 ord] to act on x4 ,n[ we _c help believ+ :at we see to be true1 b we c help do+ :at we see to be "r or wise1 & 9 fact (t5 d :at we "k to be wrong or unwise3 ?us we are =c$ to notice ! exi/5ce 9 u ( irrational spr+s ( action1 conflict+ ) our k & prev5t+ its practical realisation3 & ! v imp]fectness ( ! connexion betwe5 our practical judgm5t & our w impels u to seek = m precise k z to ! nature ( t connexion4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,m5 nev] ask1 #8,:y %\ld ,i believe :at ,i see to be true8' b !y frequ5tly ask1 #8,:y %\ld ,i d :at ,i see to be "r8' ,x is easy to reply t ! "q is futile1 s9ce x c\ld only be answ]$ by a ref]5ce to "s o!r recognis$ pr9ciple ( "r conduct1 & ! "q might j z well be ask$ z reg>ds t aga91 & s on4 ,b /ill we d ask ! "q widely & cont9ually1 & !re=e ?is demon/ration ( its futility is n completely satisfactory2 we require besides "s explanation ( its p]si/5cy4 ,"o explanation t may be (f]$ is t1 s9ce we are mov$ to action n by moral judgm5t alone1 b also by desires & incl9ations t op]ate indep5d5tly ( moral judgm5t1 ! answ] :i* we really want to ! "q #8,:y %\ld ,i d x8' is "o :i* does n m]ely prove a c]ta9 action to be "r1 b also /irs 9 u a pr$om9ant incl9ation to d ! action4 ,t ?is explanation is true = "s m9ds 9 "s moods ,i w\ld n d5y4 ,/ill ,i ?9k t :5 a man s]i\sly asks #8:y he %\ld d' any?+1 he commonly assumes 9 himself a det]m9ation to pursue :atev] conduct may be %[n by argum5t to be reasonable1 ev5 ?\gh x be v diff]5t f t to :i* 8 non-rational incl9ations may prompt4 ,& we are g5]ally agre$ t reasonable conduct 9 any case has to be det]m9$ on pr9ciples1 9 apply+ :i* ! ag5t's incl9ation--z x exi/s ap>t f su* det]m9ation--is only "o elem5t among sev]al t h to be consid]$1 & commonly n ! mo/ important elem5t4 ,b :5 we ask :at ^! pr9ciples are1 ! div]sity ( answ]s :i* we f9d manife/ly decl>$ 9 ! sy/ems & fundam5tal =mul ( pr(ess$ morali/s seems to be really pres5t 9 ! common practical reason+ ( m5 g5]ally2 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t :]eas ! philosoph] seeks unity ( pr9ciple1 & consi/5cy ( me?od at ! risk ( p>adox1 ! unphilosophic man is apt to hold diff]5t pr9ciples at once1 & to apply diff]5t me?ods 9 m or less confus$ comb9ation4 ,if ?is be s1 we c (f] ano!r explanation ( ! p]si/5t unsatisfi$ dem& = an ultimate reason1 above notic$4 ,= if !re are diff]5t views ( ! ultimate reasonabl5ess ( conduct1 implicit 9 ! ?\ght ( ord9>y m51 ?\gh n br\ght into cle> relation to ea* o!r1--x is easy to see t any s+le answ] to ! "q #8:y' w n be completely satisfactory1 z x w be giv5 only f "o ( ^! po9ts ( view1 & w always leave room to ask ! "q f "s o!r4 ,i am myself conv9c$ t ?is is ! ma9 explanation ( ! ph5om5on3 & x is on ?is conviction t ! plan ( ! pres5t treatise is bas$4 ,we _c1 ( c\rse1 reg>d z valid reason+s t lead to conflict+ conclusions2 & ,i !re=e assume z a fundam5tal po/ulate ( ,e?ics1 t s f> z two me?ods conflict1 "o or o!r ( !m mu/ be modifi$ or reject$4 ,b ,i ?9k x fundam5tally important to recognise1 at ! outset ( ,e?ical inquiry1 t !re is a div]sity ( me?ods appli$ 9 ord9>y practical ?\ght4 #d4 ,:at !n are ^! diff]5t me?ods8 :at are ! diff]5t practical pr9ciples :i* ! common s5se ( mank9d is prima facie prep>$ to accept z ultimate8 ,"s c>e is ne$$ 9 answ]+ ?is "q3 because we frequ5tly prescribe t ?is or t #8ought' to be done or aim$ at )\t any express ref]5ce to an ult]ior end1 :ile yet su* an end is tacitly presuppos$4 ,x is obvi\s t su* prescriptions are m]ely1 :at ,kant calls !m1 ,hypo!tical ,imp]atives2 !y are n address$ to any "o :o has n fir/ accept$ ! end4 ,= in/ance3 a tea*] ( any art assumes t 8 pupil wants to produce ! product ( ! art1 or to produce x excell5t 9 quality3 he tells him t he ought to hold ! awl1 ! hamm]1 ! bru% diff]5tly4 ,a physician assumes t 8 pati5t wants heal?3 he tells him t he ought to rise e>ly1 to live pla9ly1 to take h>d ex]cise4 ,if ! pati5t delib]ately pref]s ease & good liv+ to heal?1 ! physician's precepts fall to ! gr\nd3 !y are no long] address$ to him4 ,s1 aga91 a man ( ! _w assumes t 8 he>]s wi% to get on 9 society1 :5 he lays d[n rules ( dress1 mann]1 conv]sation1 habits ( life4 ,a simil> view may be plausibly tak5 ( _m rules prescrib+ :at are sometimes call$ 8duties to oneself03 x may be said t !y are giv5 on ! assumption t a man reg>ds 8 own ,happ9ess z an ultimate end3 t if any "o %\ld be s exceptional z to disreg>d x1 he does n come )9 _! scope3 9 %ort1 t ! #8ought' 9 su* =mul is /ill implicitly relative to an optional end4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 seem to me t ?is acc\nt ( ! matt] is exhau/ive4 ,we d n all look ) simple indiff]5ce on a man :o decl9es to take ! "r means to atta9 8 own happ9ess1 on no o!r gr\nd ?an t he does n c>e ab\t happ9ess4 ,mo/ m5 w\ld reg>d su* a refusal z irrational1 ) a c]ta9 disapprobation2 !y w\ld ?us implicitly ass5t to ,butl]'s /atem5t#ab t 8int]e/1 "o's own happ9ess1 is a manife/ obligation40 ,9 o!r words1 !y w\ld ?9k t a man ought to c>e = 8 own happ9ess4 ,! ^w #8ought' ?us us$ is no long] relative3 happ9ess n[ appe>s z an ultimate end1 ! pursuit ( :i*--at lea/ )9 ! limits impos$ by o!r duties--appe>s to be prescrib$ by reason #8categorically1' z ,kant w\ld say1 i4e4 )\t any tacit assumption ( a /ill ult]ior end4 ,& x has be5 widely held by ev5 or?odox morali/s t all morality re/s ultimately on ! basis ( 8reasonable self-love02#ac i4e4 t its rules are ultimately b9d+ on any individual only s f> z x is 8 int]e/ on ! :ole to obs]ve !m4 ,/ill1 common moral op9ion c]ta9ly reg>ds ! duty or virtue ( ,prud5ce z only a "p--& n ! mo/ important "p--( duty or virtue 9 g5]al4 ,common moral op9ion recognises & inculcates o!r fundam5tal rules--e4g4 ^? ( ,ju/ice1 ,good ,fai?1 ,v]acity--:i*1 9 its ord9>y judgm5ts on p>ticul> cases1 x is incl9$ to treat z b9d+ )\t qualification & )\t reg>d to ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,&1 9 ! ord9>y =m ( ! ,intuitional view ( ,e?ics1 ! 8categorical0 prescription ( su* rules is ma9ta9$ explicitly & def9itely1 z a result ( philosophical reflection3 & ! realisation ( ,virtue 9 act--at lea/ 9 ! case ( ! virtues j m5tion$--is held to consi/ 9 /rict & unsw]v+ con=mity to su* rules4 ,on ! o!r h& x is cont5d$ by _m ,utilit>ians t all ! rules ( conduct :i* m5 prescribe to "o ano!r z moral rules are really--?\gh 9 "p unconsci\sly--prescrib$ z means to ! g5]al happ9ess ( mank9d1 or ( ! :ole aggregate ( s5ti5t be+s2 & x is /ill m widely held by ,utilit>ian ?9k]s t su* rules1 h[ev] !y may orig9ate1 are only valid s f> z _! obs]vance is conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,?is cont5tion ,i %all h]eaft] exam9e ) due c>e4 ,"h ,i wi% only to po9t out t1 if ! duty ( aim+ at ! g5]al happ9ess is ?us tak5 to include all o!r duties1 z subord9ate applications ( x1 we seem to be aga9 l$ to ! notion ( ,happ9ess z an ultimate end categorically prescrib$1--only x is n[ ,g5]al ,happ9ess & n ! private happ9ess ( any individual4 ,& ?is is ! view t ,i myself take ( ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple4 ,at ! same "t1 x is n necess>y1 9 ! me?odical inve/igation ( "r conduct1 consid]$ relatively to ! end ei!r ( private or ( g5]al happ9ess1 to assume t ! end itself is det]m9$ or prescrib$ by reason3 we only require to assume1 9 reason+ to cog5t practical conclusions1 t x is adopt$ z ultimate & p>am\nt4 ,= if a man accepts any end z ultimate & p>am\nt1 he accepts implicitly z 8 8me?od ( e?ics0 :atev] process ( reason+ enables him to det]m9e ! actions mo/ conducive to ?is end4#ad ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 to e diff]5ce 9 ! end accept$ at lea/ "s diff]5ce 9 me?od w g5]ally correspond3 if all ! ends :i* m5 are f\nd practically to adopt z ultimate 7subord9at+ ev]y?+ else to ! atta9m5t ( !m "u ! influ5ce ( #8rul+ passions'71 7 tak5 z pr9ciples = :i* ! /ud5t ( ,e?ics is call$ ^u to con/ruct rational me?ods1 8 task w\ld be v complex & ext5sive4 ,b if we conf9e ourselves to su* ends z ! common s5se ( mank9d appe>s to accept z rational ultimate ends1 ! task is r$uc$1 ,i ?9k1 )9 manageable limits2 s9ce ?is crit]ion w exclude at lea/ _m ( ! objects :i* m5 practically seem to reg>d z p>am\nt4 ,?us _m m5 sacrifice heal?1 =tune1 happ9ess1 to ,fame2 b no "o1 s f> z ,i "k1 has delib]ately ma9ta9$ t ,fame is an object :i* x is reasonable = m5 to seek = its own sake4 ,x only comm5ds itself to reflective m9ds ei!r 7#a7 z a s\rce ( ,happ9ess to ! p]son :o ga9s x1 or 7#b7 a sign ( 8 ,excell5ce1 moral or intellectual1 or 7#c7 because x atte/s ! a*ievem5t by him ( "s important b5efit to society1 & at ! same "t /imulates him & o!rs to fur!r a*ievem5t 9 ! future3 & ! conception ( 8b5efit0 w\ld1 :5 exam9$ 9 its turn1 lead u aga9 to ,happ9ess or ,excell5ce ( human nature1--s9ce a man is commonly ?\ght to b5efit o!rs ei!r by mak+ !m happi] or by mak+ !m wis] & m virtu\s4 ,:e!r !re are any ends besides ^! two1 :i* c be reasonably reg>d$ z ultimate1 x w h]eaft]#ae be "p ( our bus9ess to inve/igate3 b we may p]haps say t prima facie ! only two ends :i* h a /rongly & widely support$ claim to be reg>d$ z rational ultimate ends are ! two j m5tion$1 ,happ9ess & ,p]fection or ,excell5ce ( human nature--mean+ "h by #8,excell5ce' n prim>ily sup]iority to o!rs1 b a p>tial realisation (1 or approximation to1 an ideal type ( human ,p]fection4 ,& we mu/ obs]ve t ! adoption ( ! =m] ( ^! ends leads u to two prima facie di/9ct me?ods1 accord+ z x is s\ght to be realis$ univ]sally1 or by ea* individual = himself alone4 ,= ?\gh d\btless a man may (t5 be/ promote 8 own happ9ess by lab\r+ & ab/a9+ = ! sake ( o!rs1 x seems to be impli$ 9 our common notion ( self-sacrifice t actions mo/ conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess d n--9 ?is _w at lea/--always t5d also to ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! ag5t4#af ,& among ^? :o hold t 8happ9ess is our be+'s end & aim0 we seem to f9d a fundam5tal diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ^: happ9ess x is t x is ultimately reasonable to aim at4 ,= to "s x seems t 8! con/antly prop] end ( action on ! "p ( any individual at ! mom5t ( action is 8 real greate/ happ9ess f t mom5t to ! end ( 8 life02#ag :]eas o!rs hold t ! view ( reason is ess5tially univ]sal1 & t x _c be reasonable to take z an ultimate & p>am\nt end ! happ9ess ( any "o individual r ?an t ( any o!r--at any rate if equally des]v+ & susceptible ( x--s t g5]al happ9ess mu/ be ! 8true /&>d ( "r & wrong1 9 ! field ( morals0 no less ?an ( politics4#ah ,x is1 ( c\rse1 possible to adopt an end int]m$iate betwe5 ! two1 & to aim at ! happ9ess ( "s limit$ portion ( mank9d1 su* z "o's family or nation or race3 b any su* limitation seems arbitr>y1 & probably few w\ld ma9ta9 x to be reasonable p] se1 except z ! mo/ practicable way ( aim+ at ! g5]al happ9ess1 or ( indirectly secur+ "o's own4 ,! case seems to be o!rwise ) ,excell5ce or ,p]fection4#ai ,at fir/ sight1 inde$1 ! same alt]natives pres5t !mselves3#bj x seems t ! ,excell5ce aim$ at may be tak5 ei!r individually or univ]sally2 & circum/ances are conceivable 9 :i* a man is n unlikely to ?9k t he c\ld be/ promote ! ,excell5ce ( o!rs by sacrific+ 8 own4 ,b no morali/ :o takes ,excell5ce z an ultimate end has ev] approv$ ( su* sacrifice1 at lea/ s f> z ,moral ,excell5ce is conc]n$2 no "o has ev] direct$ an individual to promote ! virtue ( o!rs except 9 s f> z ?is promotion is compatible )1 or r involv$ 91 ! complete realisation ( ,virtue 9 himself4#ba ,s f>1 !n1 !re seems to be no ne$ ( sep>at+ ! me?od ( det]m9+ "r conduct :i* takes ! ,excell5ce or ,p]fection ( ! individual z ! ultimate aim f t :i* aims at ! ,excell5ce or ,p]fection ( ! human community4 ,& s9ce ,virtue is commonly conceiv$ z ! mo/ valuable elem5t ( human ,excell5ce--& an elem5t ess5tially pref]able to any o!r elem5t t c come into competition ) x z an alt]native = rational *oice--any me?od :i* takes ,p]fection or ,excell5ce ( human nature z ultimate ,end w prima facie co9cide to a great ext5t ) t bas$ on :at ,i call$ ! ,intuitional view3 & ,i h accord+ly decid$ to treat x z a special =m ( ?is latt]4#bb ,! two me?ods :i* take happ9ess z an ultimate end x w be conv5i5t to di/+ui% z ,egoi/ic & ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism3 & z x is ! latt] ( ^!1 z taught by ,b5?am & 8 successors1 t is m g5]ally und]/ood "u ! t]m #8,utilit>ianism1' ,i %all always re/rict t ^w to ?is signification4 ,= ,egoi/ic ,h$onism x is some:at h>d to f9d a s+le p]fectly appropriate t]m4 ,i %all (t5 call ?is simply ,egoism3 b x may sometimes be conv5i5t to call x ,epicureanism3 = ?\gh ?is "n m prop]ly d5otes a p>ticul> hi/orical sy/em1 x has come to be commonly us$ 9 ! wid] s5se 9 :i* ,i wi% to employ x4 #e4 ,! la/ s5t5ce sugge/s "o m explanation1 :i*1 = cle>ness' sake1 x seems desirable to make3 an explanation1 h[ev]1 r ( ! plan & purpose ( ! pres5t treatise ?an ( ! nature & b\nd>ies ( ! subject ( ,e?ics z g5]ally und]/ood4 ,!re are sev]al recognis$ ways ( treat+ ?is subject1 none ( :i* ,i h ?\ght x desirable to adopt4 ,we may />t ) exi/+ sy/ems1 & ei!r /udy !m hi/orically1 trac+ ! *anges 9 ?\ght ?r\gh ! c5turies1 or comp>e & classify !m accord+ to relations ( resemblance1 or criticise _! int]nal coh]5ce4 ,or we may seek to add to ! numb] ( ^! sy/ems3 & claim aft] s _m unsuccessful ef=ts to h at la/ atta9$ ! "o true !ory ( ! subject1 by :i* all o!rs may be te/$4 ,! pres5t book conta9s nei!r ! exposition ( a sy/em nor a natural or critical hi/ory ( sy/ems4 ,i h attempt$ to def9e & unfold n "o ,me?od ( ,e?ics1 b sev]al3 at ! same "t ^! are n "h /udi$ hi/orically1 z me?ods t h actually be5 us$ or propos$ = ! regulation ( practice2 b r z alt]natives betwe5 :i*--s f> z !y _c be reconcil$--! human m9d seems to me necess>ily =c$ to *oose1 :5 x attempts to frame a complete syn!sis ( practical maxims & to act 9 a p]fectly consi/5t mann]4 ,?us1 !y might p]haps be call$ natural me?ods rationalis$2 because m5 commonly seem to guide !mselves by a mixture ( diff]5t me?ods1 m or less disguis$ "u ambiguities ( language4 ,! impulses or pr9ciples f :i* ! diff]5t me?ods take _! rise1 ! diff]5t claims ( diff]5t ends to be rational1 are admitt$1 to "s ext5t1 by all m9ds3 & z along ) ^! claims is felt ! ne$ ( h>monis+ !m--s9ce x is1 z 0 said1 a po/ulate ( ! ,practical ,reason1 t two conflict+ rules ( action _c bo? be reasonable--! result is ord9>ily ei!r a confus$ bl5d+1 or a =c$ & premature reconciliation1 ( diff]5t pr9ciples & me?ods4 ,nor h ! sy/ems fram$ by pr(ess$ morali/s be5 free f simil> defects4 ,! writ]s h usually proce$$ to syn!sis )\t adequate analysis2 ! practical dem& = ! =m] be+ m urg5tly felt ?an ! !oretical ne$ ( ! latt]4 ,= "h z 9 o!r po9ts ! developm5t ( ! !ory ( ,e?ics w\ld seem to be some:at imp$$ by ! prepond]ance ( practical consid]ations2 & p]haps a m complete deta*m5t ( ! !oretical /udy ( "r conduct f its practical application is to be desir$ = ! sake ev5 ( ! latt] itself3 s9ce a treatm5t :i* is a comp\nd betwe5 ! sci5tific & ! hortatory is apt to miss bo? ! results t x w\ld comb9e2 ! mixture is bewild]+ to ! bra9 & n /imulat+ to ! he>t4 ,s aga91 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t "h1 z 9 o!r sci5ces1 x w\ld be an advantage to draw z di/9ct a l9e z possible betwe5 ! kn[n & ! unkn[n2 z ! cle> indication ( an unsolv$ problem is at any rate a /ep to its solution4 ,9 e?ical treatises1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 a cont9ual t5d5cy to ignore & keep out ( sight ! difficulties ( ! subject2 ei!r unconsci\sly1 f a lat5t conviction t ! que/ions :i* ! writ] _c answ] satisfactorily mu/ be que/ions :i* ought n to be ask$2 or consci\sly1 t he may n %ake ! sway ( morality ov] ! m9ds ( 8 read]s4 ,?is la/ well-meant precaution frequ5tly defeats itself3 ! difficulties ?us conceal$ 9 exposition are liable to reappe> 9 controv]sy3 & !n !y appe> n c>efully limit$1 b magnifi$ = polemical purposes4 ,?us we get on ! "o h& vague & hazy reconciliation1 on ! o!r loose & r&om exagg]ation ( discrepancies2 & nei!r process is effective to dispel ! orig9al vagu5ess & ambiguity :i* lurks 9 ! fundam5tal notions ( our common practical reason+s4 ,to elim9ate or r$uce ?is indef9it5ess & confusion is ! sole imm$iate end t ,i h propos$ to myself 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,9 ord] bett] to execute ?is task1 ,i h refra9$ f expressly attempt+ any su* complete & f9al solution ( ! *ief e?ical difficulties & controv]sies z w\ld conv]t ?is exposition ( v>i\s me?ods into ! developm5t ( a h>moni\s sy/em4 ,at ! same "t ,i hope to af=d aid t[>ds ! con/ruction ( su* a sy/em2 because x seems easi] to judge ( ! mutual relations & conflict+ claims ( diff]5t modes ( ?\ght1 aft] an imp>tial & rigor\s inve/igation ( ! conclusions to :i* !y logically lead4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d 9 reflect+ on practical pr9ciples1 t--h[ev] unhesitat+ly !y seem to comm& our ass5t at fir/ sight1 & h[ev] famili> & app>5tly cle> ! notions ( :i* !y are compos$--nev]!less :5 we h c>efully exam9$ ! consequ5ces ( adopt+ !m !y we> a *ang$ & some:at dubi\s aspect4 ,! tru? seems to be t mo/ ( ! practical pr9ciples t h be5 s]i\sly put =w>d are m or less satisfactory to ! common s5se ( mank9d1 s long z !y h ! field to !mselves4 ,!y all f9d a response 9 our nature3 _! fundam5tal assumptions are all su* z we are dispos$ to accept1 & su* z we f9d to gov]n to a c]ta9 ext5t our habitual conduct4 ,:5 ,i am ask$1 8,d y n consid] x ultimately reasonable to seek pleasure & avoid pa9 = y\rself80 8,h y n a moral s5se80 8,d y n intuitively pron\nce "s actions to be "r & o!rs wrong80 8,d y n ackn[l$ge ! g5]al happ9ess to be a p>am\nt end80 ,i answ] #8yes' to all ^! que/ions4 ,my difficulty beg9s :5 ,i h to *oose betwe5 ! diff]5t pr9ciples or inf]5ces drawn f !m4 ,we admit ! necessity1 :5 !y conflict1 ( mak+ ?is *oice1 & t x is irrational to let sometimes "o pr9ciple prevail & sometimes ano!r2 b ! necessity is a pa9ful "o4 ,we _c b hope t all me?ods may ultimately co9cide3 & at any rate1 be=e mak+ our election we may reasonably wi% to h ! complete/ possible k ( ea*4 ,my object1 !n1 9 ! pres5t "w1 is to exp\nd z cle>ly & z fully z my limits w all[ ! diff]5t me?ods ( ,e?ics t ,i f9d implicit 9 our common moral reason+2 to po9t out _! mutual relations2 & :]e !y seem to conflict1 to def9e ! issue z mu* z possible4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is endeav\r ,i am l$ to discuss ! consid]ations :i* %\ld1 9 my op9ion1 be decisive 9 det]m9+ ! adoption ( e?ical fir/ pr9ciples3 b x is n my prim>y aim to e/abli% su* pr9ciples2 nor1 aga91 is x my prim>y aim to supply a set ( practical directions = conduct4 ,i h wi%$ to keep ! read]'s att5tion ?r\gh\t direct$ to ! processes r ?an ! results ( e?ical ?\ght3 & h !re=e nev] /at$ z my own any positive practical conclusions unless by way ( illu/ration3 & h nev] v5tur$ to decide dogmatically any controv]t$ po9ts1 except :]e ! controv]sy seem$ to arise f want ( precision or cle>ness 9 ! def9ition ( pr9ciples1 or want ( consi/5cy 9 reason+4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,! exact relation ( ! t]ms #8"r' & #8:at ought to be' is discuss$ 9 *ap4 iii4 ( ?is ,book4 ,i "h assume t !y may be us$ z conv]tible1 = mo/ purposes4 #aj ,i use #8,politics' 9 :at ,i take to be its mo/ ord9>y signification1 to d5ote ! sci5ce or /udy ( ,"r or ,good ,legislation & ,gov]nm5t4 ,!re is a wid] possible s5se ( ! t]m1 accord+ to :i* x w\ld include ! great] "p ( ,e?ics3 i4e4 if und]/ood to be ! ,!ory ( ,"r ,social ,relations4 ,see *ap4 ii4 #b4 #aa ,! relation ( ! notion ( #8,good' to t ( #8,"r' or #8:at ought to be' w be fur!r consid]$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt] ( ?is ,book 7ix47 #ab ,see ! ,preface to ,butl]'s ,s]mons on ,human ,nature4 #ac ,! phrase is ,butl]'s4 #ad ,see ! la/ p>agraph ( *ap4 iii4 ( ?is ,book4 #ae ,see *ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book1 & ,book iii4 *ap4 xiv4 #af ,= a full discussion ( ?is "q1 see ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 & ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! "w4 #ag ,b5?am1 ,memoirs 7vol4 x4 ( ,b[r+'s edition71 p4 #efj4 #ah ,b5?am aga91 ,memoirs1 p4 #gi4 ,see note at ! end ( ,book i4 *ap4 vi4 ,! ,utilit>ians s9ce ,b5?am h sometimes adopt$ "o1 sometimes ! o!r1 ( ^! two pr9ciples z p>am\nt4 #ai ,i use ! t]ms #8,excell5ce' & #8,p]fection' to d5ote ! same ultimate end reg>d$ 9 some:at diff]5t aspects3 mean+ by ei!r an ideal complex ( m5tal qualities1 ( :i* we admire & approve ! manife/ation 9 human life3 b us+ #8,p]fection' to d5ote ! ideal z su*1 :ile #8,excell5ce' d5otes su* p>tial realisation ( or approximation to ! ideal z we actually f9d 9 human exp]i5ce4 #bj ,x may be said t ev5 m div]g5t views ( ! reasonable end are possible "h ?an 9 ! case ( happ9ess3 = we are n necess>ily limit$ 7z 9 t case7 to ! consid]ation ( s5ti5t be+s3 inanimate ?+s also seem to h a p]fection & excell5ce ( _! own & to be capable ( be+ made bett] or worse 9 _! k9d2 & ?is p]fection1 or "o species ( x1 appe>s to be ! end ( ! ,f9e ,arts4 ,b reflection ,i ?9k %[s t nei!r beauty nor any o!r quality ( inanimate objects c be reg>d$ z good or desirable 9 itself1 out ( relation to ! p]fection or happ9ess ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,cf4 po/1 *ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book4 #ba ,kant r\ndly d5ies t x c be my duty to take ! ,p]fection ( o!rs = my end3 b 8 argum5t is n1 ,i ?9k1 valid4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book iii4 *ap4 iv4 #a4 #bb ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 xiv41 :]e ,i expla9 my reasons = only giv+ a subord9ate place to ! conception ( ,p]fection z ,ultimate ,end4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,e?ics ,,to ,,politics #a4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i h spok5 ( ,e?ics & ,politics z be+ bo? ,practical ,/udies1 includ+ 9 ! scope ( _! inve/igation some:at t lies outside ! sph]e ( positive sci5ces--viz4 ! det]m9ation ( ends to be s\ght1 or rules to be unconditionally obey$4 ,be=e proce$+ fur!r1 x w\ld seem desirable to det]m9e 9 outl9e ! mutual relations ( ^! cognate /udies1 reg>d$ f ! po9t ( view ( ,e?ics4 ,z ,i h def9$ !m1 ,e?ics aims at det]m9+ :at ought to be done by individuals1 :ile ,politics aims at det]m9+ :at ! gov]nm5t ( a /ate or political society ought to d & h[ x ought to be con/itut$1--includ+ "u ! latt] head all que/ions z to ! control ov] gov]nm5t t %\ld be ex]cis$ by ! gov]n$4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem t ,politics1 s conceiv$1 mu/ be a bran* ( ,e?ics4 ,= all ! actions ( gov]nm5t are actions ( individuals1 alone or 9 comb9ation1 & s are all ! actions ( ^? :o1 obey+1 influ5c+1 or p]haps occasionally resi/+ gov]nm5t1 ma9ta9 & f "t to "t modify ! con/itution ( _! /ate3 & x w\ld seem t if prop]ly p]=m$ su* actions mu/ be det]m9$ on e?ical pr9ciples or be capable ( ju/ification by su* pr9ciples4 ,b ?is argum5t is n decisive2 = by simil> reason+ ,e?ics w\ld h to compreh5d all arts1 lib]al & indu/rial4 ,e4g4 x is a ma9 "p ( ! moral duty ( a sea-capta9 & 8 subord9ates to navigate _! %ip prop]ly2 b we d n take ,e?ics to include a /udy ( ! rules ( navigation4 ,x may be repli$ t e man is n a sailor1 b--at lea/ 9 a c\ntry "u popul> gov]nm5t--e citiz5 has important political duties1 :i* he ought to p]=m accord+ to k1 s f> z possible2 b1 simil>ly1 x is an important "p ( e adult's moral duty to take c>e ( 8 heal?1 & x is prov]bial t 8e man at =ty is a fool or 8 own physician02 yet we d n consid] ,e?ics to include ! art ( m$ic9e4 ,! specially important connexion betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics arises 9 a diff]5t way4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t1 by lay+ d[n & en=c+ laws1 to regulate ! outw>d conduct ( ! gov]n$1 n 9 "o dep>tm5t only1 b 9 all _! social relations1 s f> z su* conduct is a prop] subject = co]cive rules4 ,& n only ought ?is regulation to be 9 h>mony ) morality--= obvi\sly p ought n to be compell$ to d :at !y ought n to d--b fur!r1 to an important ext5t ! ,law ( a man's /ate w prop]ly det]m9e ! details ( 8 moral duty1 ev5 beyond ! sph]e ( legal en=cem5t4 ,?us we commonly reg>d x z an individual's moral duty1 "u ! head ( ,ju/ice1 to 8give e man 8 own10 ev5 :5--?r\gh "s accid5t--! o!r p>ty has n ! p[] ( legally en=c+ 8 "r2 b /ill1 9 consid]+ :at is ! o!r's 8own10 we assume him g5]ally to be guid$ by ! law ( 8 /ate2 if t 7 *ang$1 8 moral duty w\ld *ange ) x4 ,simil>ly1 ! mutual moral duties ( husb&s & wives1 & ( *ildr5 & p>5ts1 w v>y 9 detail ) ! v>iations 9 _! legal relations4 ,b :5 we look clos] at ! relation ?us con/itut$ betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics1 we see t a di/9ction has to be tak5 betwe5 actual or ,positive ,law & ,ideal ,law or ,law z x ought to be4 ,x is = ! latt] t ,political ,!ory lays d[n pr9ciples2 b x is ,positive1 n ,ideal1 ,law t prim>ily det]m9es "r conduct = an individual "h & n[1 9 ! mann] j exemplifi$4 ,no d\bt if ,positive & ,ideal ,law appe> to me to div]ge v widely--if 7e4g47 ,i am conv9c$ by political !ory t a fundam5tal *ange 9 ! law ( prop]ty is desirable--?is conviction is likely to influ5ce my view ( my moral duty "u ! exi/+ law2 b ! ext5t ( ?is influ5ce is vague & unc]ta94 ,suppose ,i am a slave-own] 9 a society 9 :i* slav]y is e/abli%$1 & become conv9c$ t private prop]ty 9 human be+s %\ld be aboli%$ by law3 x does n !re=e foll[ t ,i %all reg>d x z my moral duty to set free my slaves at once4 ,i may ?9k imm$iate g5]al abolition ( slav]y n only hopeless1 b ev5 inexp$i5t = ! slaves !mselves1 :o require a gradual education = fre$om3 s t x is bett] = ! pres5t to aim at legal *anges t w\ld cut (f ! wor/ evils ( slav]y1 & mean:ile to set an example ( humane & consid]ate treatm5t ( bondsm54 ,simil> reason+s might be appli$ to ! abolition ( private prop]ty 9 ! in/rum5ts ( production1 or 9 appo9tm5ts to (fices1 civil or ecclesia/ical4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! ext5t to :i* political ideals ought to influ5ce moral duty w\ld seem to dep5d p>tly on ! app>5t remot5ess or ne>ness ( ! prospect ( realis+ ! ideal1 p>tly on its imp]ativ5ess1 or ! exp$i5cy ( imm$iate realisation3 & ! =ce atta*$ to bo? ^! consid]ations is likely to v>y ) ! political me?od adopt$2 s t x belongs to ,politics r ?an ,e?ics to det]m9e !m m precisely4 ,to sum up3 we h to di/+ui% cle>ly betwe5 two que/ions3 7#a7 h[ f> ! det]m9ation ( "r conduct = an individual "h & n[ ought to be influ5c$ by ,positive ,laws1 & o!r comm&s ( ,gov]nm5t z actually e/abli%$2 & 7#b7 h[ f> x ought to be influ5c$ by ,political ,!ory1 z to ! functions & /ructure ( ,gov]nm5t z x ought to be4 ,z reg>ds ! =m]1 x cle>ly belongs to ,e?ics to det]m9e ! gr\nds & limits ( ob$i5ce to ,gov]nm5t2 & also ! g5]al conception ( political duty1 s f> z x goes beyond m]e ob$i5ce--) due recognition ( ! l>ge v>iations due to ! v>y+ political conditions ( diff]5t /ates4 7,a 8good citiz50 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates w reasonably =m a conception ( 8 actual political duty widely div]g5t f t reasonably =m$ by a good citiz5 9 ,russia4#bc7 ,& ?is w be ! prim>y bus9ess ( ,e?ics s f> z x deals ) ! political side ( life4 ,! discussion ( political ideals w only come )9 its purview 9 a m indef9ite & indirect way1 s f> z su* ideals _c b h "s influ5ce on ! det]m9ation ( political duty "u exi/+ conditions4 #b4 ,i h /at$ ! ,relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics--reg>d$ f an e?ical po9t ( view--t seems to me to accord ) ! def9ition ( ! =m] subject adopt$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,"s ?9k]s1 h[ev]1 take a view ( ,e?ical ,!ory :i* involves a relation to ,political ,!ory q diff]5t f t j set =?2 reg>d+ ,!oretical or 8,absolute0 ,e?ics z prop]ly an inve/igation n ( :at ought to be done "h & n[1 b ( :at ought to be ! rules ( behavi\r 9 a society ( ideally p]fect human be+s4 ,?us ! subject-matt] ( our /udy w\ld be d\bly ideal3 z x w\ld n only prescribe :at ought to be done z di/9ct f :at is1 b :at ought to be done 9 a society t itself is n1 b only ought to be4 ,9 ?is view ! conclusions ( ,!oretical or 8,absolute0 ,e?ics w\ld h z indirect & unc]ta9 a relation to ! practical problems ( actual life z ^? ( ,!oretical ,politics3--or ev5 m s1 z 9 sob] political !ory x is commonly only ! gov]nm5t & n ! gov]n$ society t is conceiv$ 9 an ideal condition4 ,/ill ! two /udies are n unlikely to bl5d 9 "o !ory ( ideal social relations2--unless ! ideal society is conceiv$ z hav+ no ne$ ( gov]nm5t1 s t ,politics1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1#bd vani%es altoge!r4 ,^? :o take ?is view#be adduce ! analogy ( ,geometry to %[ t ,e?ics ought to deal ) ideally p]fect human relations1 j z ,geometry treats ( ideally /raight l9es & p]fect circles4 ,b ! irregul> l9es :i* we meet ) 9 exp]i5ce h spatial relations :i* ,geometry does n ignore altoge!r2 x c & does asc]ta9 !m ) a suffici5t degree ( accuracy = practical purposes3 ?\gh ( c\rse !y are m complex ?an ^? ( p]fectly /raight l9es4 ,s 9 ,a/ronomy1 x w\ld be m conv5i5t = purposes ( /udy if ! />s mov$ 9 circles1 z 0 once believ$3 b ! fact t !y move n 9 circles b 9 ellipses1 & ev5 9 imp]fect & p]turb$ ellipses1 does n take !m out ( ! sph]e ( sci5tific inve/igation3 by pati5ce & indu/ry we h le>nt h[ to r$uce to pr9ciples & calculate ev5 ^! m complicat$ motions4 ,x may be useful = purposes ( in/ruction to assume t ! planets move 9 p]fect ellipses3 b :at we want1 z a/ronom]s1 to "k is ! actual motion ( ! />s1 & its causes3 & simil>ly z morali/s we naturally inquire :at ought to be done 9 ! actual _w 9 :i* we live4 ,9 nei!r case c we hope to repres5t 9 our g5]al reason+s ! full complexity ( ! actual consid]ations3 b we endeav\r to approximate to x z closely z possible4 ,x is only s t we really grapple ) ! "q to :i* mank9d g5]ally require an answ]3 #8,:at is a man's duty 9 8 pres5t condition8' ,= x is too p>adoxical to say t ! :ole duty ( man is summ$ up 9 ! ef=t to atta9 an ideal /ate ( social relations2 & unless we say ?is1 we mu/ det]m9e our duties to exi/+ m5 9 view ( exi/+ circum/ances3 & ?is is :at ! /ud5t ( ,e?ics seeks to d 9 a sy/ematic mann]4 ,! inquiry into ! morality ( an ideal society c !re=e be at be/ b a prelim9>y inve/igation1 aft] :i* ! /ep f ! ideal to ! actual1 9 accordance ) reason1 rema9s to be tak54 ,we h to ask1 !n1 h[ f> su* a prelim9>y con/ruction seems desirable4 ,& 9 answ]+ ?is we mu/ di/+ui% ! diff]5t me?ods ( ,e?ics4 ,= x is g5]ally held by ,intuitioni/s t true morality prescribes absolutely :at is 9 itself "r1 "u all social conditions2 at lea/ z f> z det]m9ate duties are conc]n$3 z 7e4g47 t tru? %\ld always be spok5 & promises kept1 & #8,ju/ice be done1 ?\gh ! sky %\ld fall4' ,& s f> z ?is is held x w\ld seem t !re c be no fundam5tal di/9ction drawn1 9 ! det]m9ation ( duty1 betwe5 ! actual /ate ( society & an ideal /ate3 at any rate ! g5]al def9ition ( 7e4g47 ,ju/ice w be ! same = bo?1 no less ?an its absolute /r+5cy4 ,/ill ev5 an extreme ,intuitioni/ w\ld admit t ! details ( ,ju/ice & o!r duties w v>y ) social in/itutions3 & x is a plausible sugge/ion1 t if we c cle>ly contemplate z a patt]n ! 8absolute0 ,ju/ice ( an ideal community1 we %all be bett] able to atta9 ! m]ely 8relative0 ,ju/ice t is alone possible "u exi/+ conditions4 ,h[ f> ?is is s1 we %all be 9 a bett] position to judge :5 we h exam9$ ! def9ition ( ,ju/ice f an ,intuitional po9t ( view4 ,! "q takes a simpl] =m 9 ! case ( ! me?od :i* proposes z an ultimate end1 & supreme /&>d1 ,univ]sal ,happ9ess4#bf ,"h we h m]ely to ask h[ f> a sy/ematic consid]ation ( ! social relations ( an ideally happy gr\p ( human be+s is likely to af=d guidance 9 our ef=ts to promote human happ9ess "h & n[4 ,i %all n at pres5t d5y t ?is task might usefully be includ$ 9 an exhau/ive /udy ( ?is me?od4 ,b x c easily be %[n t x is involv$ 9 s]i\s difficulties4 ,= z 9 ord9>y delib]ation we h to consid] :at is be/ "u c]ta9 conditions ( human life1 int]nal or ext]nal1 s we mu/ d ?is 9 contemplat+ ! ideal society4 ,we require to contemplate n s mu* ! end suppos$ to be atta9$--:i* is simply ! mo/ pleasant consci\sness conceivable1 la/+ z long & z un9t]rupt$ly z possible--b r "s me?od ( realis+ x1 pursu$ by human be+s2 & ^!1 aga91 mu/ be conceiv$ z exi/+ "u conditions n too remote f our own1 s t we c at lea/ endeav\r to imitate !m4 ,& = ?is we mu/ "k h[ f> our pres5t circum/ances are modifiable2 a v difficult "q1 z ! con/ructions :i* h actually be5 made ( su* ideal societies %[4 ,= example1 ! ,republic ( ,plato seems 9 _m respects suffici5tly div]g5t f ! reality1 & yet he contemplates w> z a p]man5t unalt]able fact1 to be provid$ = 9 ! ideal /ate1 & inde$ su* provision seems ! pr$om9ant aim ( 8 con/ruction2 :]eas ! sob]e/ mod]n ,utopia w\ld c]ta9ly include ! suppression ( w>4 ,inde$ ! ideal w (t5 seem to div]ge 9 diametrically opposite directions f ! actual1 accord+ to ! l9e ( imag9$ *ange :i* we happ5 to adopt1 9 our vision>y flight f pres5t evils4 ,= example1 p]man5t m>riage-unions n[ cause "s unhapp9ess1 because conjugal affection is n always p]man5t2 b !y are ?\ght to be necess>y1 p>tly to protect m5 & wom5 f vag>ies ( passion p]nici\s to !mselves1 b *iefly 9 ord] to ! bett] re>+ ( *ildr54 ,n[ x may seem to "s t 9 an ideal /ate ( society we c\ld tru/ m to p>5tal affections1 & require less to control ! natural play ( emotion betwe5 ! sexes1 & t #8,free ,love' is !re=e ! ideal2 :ile o!rs w\ld ma9ta9 t p]man5ce 9 conjugal affection is natural & normal1 & t any exceptions to ?is rule mu/ be suppos$ to disappe> z we approximate to ! ideal4 ,aga91 ! happ9ess enjoy$ 9 our actual society seems mu* dim9i%$ by ! unequal di/ribution ( ! means ( happ9ess1 & ! division ( mank9d into ri* & poor4 ,b we c conceive ?is evil remov$ 9 two q diff]5t ways3 ei!r by an increas$ disposition on ! "p ( ! ri* to r$i/ribute _! %>e1 or by su* social arrangem5ts z w\ld enable ! poor to secure m = !mselves4 ,9 ! "o case ! ideal involves a great ext5sion & sy/ematisation ( ! arbitr>y & casual almsgiv+ t n[ goes on3 9 ! o!r case1 its ext9ction4 ,9 %ort1 x seems t :5 we ab&on ! firm gr\nd ( actual society we h an illimitable cl\dl& surr\nd+ u on all sides1 9 :i* we may con/ruct any v>iety ( patt]n /ates2 b no def9ite ideal to :i* ! actual und5iably approximates1 z ! /raight l9es & circles ( ! actual physical _w approximate to ^? ( sci5tific geometry4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t we c r$uce ?is v>iety by /udy+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( mank9d1 z ?is w enable u to pr$ict to "s ext5t _! future mann] ( exi/5ce4 ,b ev5 s x does n appe> t we %all ga9 mu* def9ite guidance = our pres5t conduct4 ,= let u make ! mo/ fav\rable suppositions t we c1 & su* z so> ev5 above ! confid5ce ( ! mo/ dogmatic ( sci5tific hi/orians4 ,let u assume t ! process ( human hi/ory is a progress ( mank9d t[>ds ev] great] happ9ess4 ,let u assume fur!r t we c n only fix c]ta9 limits )9 :i* ! future social condition ( mank9d mu/ lie1 b ev5 det]m9e 9 detail ! mutual relations ( ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ! future community1 s z to view 9 cle> outl9e ! rules ( behavi\r1 by obs]v+ :i* !y w atta9 ! maximum ( happ9ess4 ,x /ill rema9s q d\btful h[ f> x w\ld be desirable = u to imitate ^! rules 9 ! circum/ances 9 :i* we n[ live4 ,= ?is =ekn[n social ord] is ex hypo!si only pres5t$ z a m advanc$ /age 9 our social progress1 & n z a type or patt]n :i* we ought to make a /ruggle to realise approximately at an e>li] /age4 ,h[ f> x %\ld be tak5 z su* a patt]n1 is a "q :i* w\ld /ill h to be det]m9$1 & 9 ! consid]ation ( x ! effects ( our actions on ! exi/+ g5]ation w\ld aft] all be ! mo/ important elem5t4#bg ,,footnotes3 #bc ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! latt] ought prop]ly to be t]m$ a 8good citiz510 & n r a 8fai?ful subject ( ! ,cz> ( ,russia40 ,b ?is d\bt only illu/rates ! div]g5ce to :i* ,i am draw+ att5tion4 #bd ,sometimes1 z be=e obs]v$1 ,politics appe>s to be us$ 9 a wid] s5se1 to d5ote ! !ory ( ideal social relations1 :e!r conceiv$ to be e/abli%$ ?r\gh gov]nm5tal co]cion or o!rwise4 #be ,9 writ+ ?is section ,i _h prim>ily 9 view ! doctr9e set =? 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ,social ,/atics4 ,z ,mr4 ,sp5c] has re/at$ 8 view & repli$ to my argum5ts 9 8 ,data ( ,e?ics1 x is necess>y = me to po9t out t ! fir/ p>agraph ( ?is section is n direct$ aga9/ su* a view ( #8,absolute' & #8,relative' ,e?ics z is giv5 9 ! lat] treatise--:i* seems to me to diff] mat]ially f ! doctr9e ( ,social ,/atics4 ,9 ,social ,/atics x is ma9ta9$ n m]ely--z 9 ! ,data ( ,e?ics--t ,absolute ,e?ics :i* 8=mulates normal conduct 9 an ideal society0 ought to 8take prec$5ce ( ,relative ,e?ics02 b t ,absolute ,e?ics is ! only k9d ( ,e?ics ) :i* a philosophical morali/ c possibly conc]n himself4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s words3--8,any propos$ sy/em ( morals :i* recognises exi/+ defects1 & c\nt5ances acts made ne$ful by !m1 /&s self-condemn$4444 ,moral law 444 requires z its po/ulate t human be+s be p]fect4 ,! philosophical morali/ treats solely ( ! /raight man 444 %[s 9 :at relation%ip he /&s to o!r /raight m5 444 a problem 9 :i* a crook$ man =ms "o ( ! elem5ts1 is insoluble by him40 ,social ,/atics 7*ap4 i474 ,/ill m def9itely is ,relative ,e?ics exclud$ 9 ! foll[+ passage ( ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! same treatise 7! italics are m9e73--8,x w v likely be urg$ t1 :]eas ! p]fect moral code is confess$ly beyond ! fulfilm5t ( imp]fect m51 "s o!r code is ne$ful = our pres5t guidance 444 to say t ! imp]fect man requires a moral code :i* recognises 8 imp]fection & all[s = x1 seems at fir/ sight reasonable4 ,b x is n really s 444 a sy/em ( morals :i* %all recognise man's pres5t imp]fections & all[ = !m _c be devis$2 & w\ld be useless if x c\ld be devis$40 #bf ,i omit1 = ! pres5t1 ! consid]ation ( ! me?od :i* takes ,p]fection z an ultimate end3 s9ce1 z has be5 be=e obs]v$1 x is h>dly possible to discuss ?is satisfactorily1 9 relation to ! pres5t "q1 until x has be5 some:at m cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ! ord9>y ,intuitional ,me?od4 #bg ,"s fur!r consid]ation ( ?is "q w be f\nd 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,cf4 ,book iv4 *ap4 iv4 #b4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,e?ical ,,judgm5ts #a4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ,i spoke ( actions t we judge to be "r & :at ought to be done z be+ 8reasonable10 or 8rational10 & simil>ly ( ultimate ends z 8prescrib$ by ,reason03 & ,i contra/$ ! motive to action suppli$ by ! recognition ( su* reasonabl5ess ) 8non-rational0 desires & incl9ations4 ,?is mann] ( speak+ is employ$ by writ]s ( diff]5t s*ools1 & seems 9 accordance ) ! common view & language on ! subject4 ,= we commonly ?9k t wrong conduct is ess5tially irrational1 & c be %[n to be s by argum5t2 & ?\gh we d n conceive t x is by reason alone t m5 are influ5c$ to act rightly1 we /ill hold t appeals to ! reason are an ess5tial "p ( all moral p]suasion1 & t "p :i* conc]ns ! morali/ or moral philosoph] z di/9ct f ! prea*] or moral rhetorician4 ,on ! o!r h& x is widely ma9ta9$ t1 z ,hume says1 8,reason1 mean+ ! judgm5t ( tru? & falsehood1 c nev] ( itself be any motive to ! ,w02 & t ! motive to action is 9 all cases "s ,non-rational ,desire1 includ+ "u ?is t]m ! impulses to action giv5 by pres5t pleasure & pa94 ,x seems desirable to exam9e ) "s c>e ! gr\nds ( ?is cont5tion be=e we proce$ any fur!r4 ,let u beg9 by def9+ ! issue rais$ z cle>ly z possible4 ,e "o1 ,i suppose1 has _h exp]i5ce ( :at is meant by ! conflict ( non-rational or irrational desires ) reason3 mo/ ( u 7e4g47 occasionally feel bodily appetite prompt+ u to indulg5ces :i* we judge to be imprud5t1 & ang] prompt+ u to acts :i* we disapprove z unju/ or unk9d4 ,x is :5 ?is conflict occurs t ! desires are said to be irrational1 z impell+ u to volitions oppos$ to our delib]ate judgm5ts2 sometimes we yield to su* s$uctive impulses1 & sometimes n2 & x is p]haps :5 we d n yield t ! impulsive =ce ( su* irrational desires is mo/ def9itely felt1 z we h to ex]t 9 resi/+ !m a volunt>y ef=t some:at analog\s to t involv$ 9 any muscul> ex]tion4 ,(t51 aga91--s9ce we are n always ?9k+ ei!r ( our duty or ( our int]e/1--desires ( ?is k9d take effect 9 volunt>y actions )\t our hav+ judg$ su* actions to be ei!r "r or wrong1 ei!r prud5t or imprud5t2 z 7e4g47 :5 an ord9>y heal?y man eats 8 d9n]4 ,9 su* cases x seems mo/ appropriate to call ! desires 8non-rational0 r ?an 8irrational40 ,nei!r t]m is int5d$ to imply t ! desires spok5 (--or at lea/ ! m important ( !m--are n normally accompani$ by intellectual processes4 ,x is true t "s impulses to action seem to take effect1 z we say 8bl9dly0 or 8in/9ctively10 )\t any def9ite consci\sness ei!r ( ! end at :i* ! action is aim$1 or ( ! means by :i* ! end is to be atta9$3 b ?is1 ,i conceive1 is only ! case ) impulses t d n occupy consci\sness = an appreciable "t1 & ord9>ily d n require any b v famili> & habitual actions = ! atta9m5t ( _! proximate ends4 ,9 all o!r cases--t is1 9 ! case ( ! actions ) :i* we are *iefly conc]n$ 9 e?ical discussion--! result aim$ at1 & "s "p at lea/ ( ! means by :i* x is to be realis$1 are m or less di/9ctly repres5t$ 9 consci\sness1 previ\s to ! volition t initiates ! movem5ts t5d+ to its realisation4 ,h5ce ! resultant =ces ( :at ,i call 8non-rational0 desires1 & ! volitions to :i* !y prompt1 are cont9ually modifi$ by intellectual processes 9 two di/9ct ways2 fir/ by new p]ceptions or repres5tations ( means conducive to ! desir$ ends1 & secondly by new pres5tations or repres5tations ( facts actually exi/+ or 9 prospect--especially m or less probable consequ5ces ( contemplat$ actions--:i* r\se new impulses ( desire & av]sion4 ,! "q1 !n1 is :e!r ! acc\nt j giv5 ( ! influ5ce ( ! intellect on desire & volition is n exhau/ive2 & :e!r ! exp]i5ce :i* is commonly describ$ z a 8conflict ( desire ) reason0 is n m prop]ly conceiv$ z m]ely a conflict among desires & av]sions2 ! sole function ( reason be+ to br+ be=e ! m9d ideas ( actual or possible facts1 :i* modify 9 ! mann] above describ$ ! resultant =ce ( our v>i\s impulses4 ,i hold t ?is is n ! case2 t ! ord9>y moral or prud5tial judgm5ts :i*1 9 ! case ( all or mo/ m9ds1 h "s--?\gh (t5 an inadequate--influ5ce on volition1 _c legitimately be int]pret$ z judgm5ts respect+ ! pres5t or future exi/5ce ( human feel+s or any facts ( ! s5sible _w2 ! fundam5tal notion repres5t$ by ! ^w 8ought0 or 8"r10#bh :i* su* judgm5ts conta9 expressly or by implication1 be+ ess5tially diff]5t f all notions repres5t+ facts ( physical or psy*ical exp]i5ce4 ,! "q is "o on :i* appeal mu/ ultimately be made to ! reflection ( individuals on _! practical judgm5ts & reason+s3 & 9 mak+ ?is appeal x seems mo/ conv5i5t to beg9 by %[+ ! inadequacy ( all attempts to expla9 ! practical judgm5ts or propositions 9 :i* ?is fundam5tal notion is introduc$1 )\t recognis+ its unique "* z above negatively def9$4 ,!re is an elem5t ( tru? 9 su* explanations1 9 s f> z !y br+ into view feel+s :i* und\bt$ly accompany moral or prud5tial judgm5ts1 & :i* ord9>ily h m or less effect 9 det]m9+ ! w to actions judg$ to be "r2 b s f> z !y pr(ess to be int]pretations ( :at su* judgm5ts mean1 !y appe> to me to fail altoge!r4 ,9 consid]+ ?is "q x is important to take sep>ately ! two species ( judgm5ts :i* ,i h di/+ui%$ z 8moral0 & 8prud5tial40 ,bo? k9ds might1 inde$1 be t]m$ 8moral0 9 a wid] s5se2 &1 z we saw1 x is a /rongly support$ op9ion t all valid moral rules h ultimately a prud5tial basis4 ,b 9 ord9>y ?\ght we cle>ly di/+ui% cognitions or judgm5ts ( duty f cognitions or judgm5ts z to :at 8is "r0 or 8ought to be done0 9 view ( ! ag5t's private int]e/ or happ9ess3 & ! dep? ( ! di/9ction w n1 ,i ?9k1 be dim9i%$ by ! clos] exam9ation ( ^! judgm5ts on :i* we are n[ to ent]4 ,?is v di/9ction1 h[ev]1 sugge/s an int]pretation ( ! notion ( rightness :i* d5ies its peculi> significance 9 moral judgm5ts4 ,x is urg$ t 8rightness0 is prop]ly an attribute ( means1 n ( ends3 s t ! attribution ( x m]ely implies t ! act judg$ "r is ! fitte/ or only fit means to ! realisation ( "s end und]/ood if n expressly /at$3 & simil>ly t ! affirmation t any?+ #8ought to be done' is always made ) at lea/ tacit ref]5ce to "s ult]ior end4 ,& ,i grant t ?is is a legitimate int]pretation1 9 respect ( a "p ( ! use ( ei!r t]m 9 ord9>y disc\rse4 ,b x seems cle> 7#a7 t c]ta9 k9ds ( actions--"u ! names ( ,ju/ice1 ,v]acity1 ,good ,fai?1 etc4--are commonly held to be "r unconditionally1 )\t reg>d to ult]ior results3 & 7#b7 t we simil>ly reg>d z 8"r0 ! adoption ( c]ta9 ends--su* z ! common good ( society1 or g5]al happ9ess4 ,9 ei!r ( ^! cases ! int]pretation above sugge/$ seems cle>ly inadmissible4#bi ,we h !re=e to f9d a mean+ = 8"r0 or 8:at ought to be0 o!r ?an ! notion ( fitness to "s ult]ior end4 ,"h we are met by ! sugge/ion t ! judgm5ts or propositions :i* we commonly call moral--9 ! n>r[] s5se--really affirm no m ?an ! exi/5ce ( a specific emotion 9 ! m9d ( ! p]son :o utt]s !m2 t :5 ,i say #8,tru? ought to be spok5' or #8,tru?speak+ is "r1' ,i mean no m ?an t ! idea ( tru?speak+ excites 9 my m9d a feel+ ( approbation or satisfaction4 ,& probably "s degree ( su* emotion1 commonly di/+ui%$ z #8moral s5tim5t1' ord9>ily accompanies moral judgm5ts on real cases4 ,b x is absurd to say t a m]e /atem5t ( my approbation ( tru?-speak+ is prop]ly giv5 9 ! proposition #8,tru? ought to be spok5'2 o!rwise ! fact ( ano!r man's disapprobation might equally be express$ by say+ #8,tru? ought n to be spok5'2 & ?us we %\ld h two coexi/5t facts /at$ 9 two mutually contradictory propositions4 ,?is is s obvi\s1 t we mu/ suppose t ^? :o hold ! view :i* ,i am combat+ d n really int5d to d5y x3 b r to ma9ta9 t ?is subjective fact ( my approbation is all t !re is any gr\nd = /at+1 or p]haps t x is all t any reasonable p]son is prep>$ on reflection to affirm4 ,& no d\bt !re is a l>ge class ( /atem5ts1 9 =m objective1 :i* yet we are n commonly prep>$ to ma9ta9 z m ?an subjective if _! validity is que/ion$4 ,if ,i say t #8! air is sweet1' or #8! food disagreeable1' x w\ld n be exactly true to say t ,i mean no m ?an t ,i l ! "o or dislike ! o!r3 b if my /atem5t is *all5g$1 ,i %all probably cont5t myself ) affirm+ ! exi/5ce ( su* feel+s 9 my own m9d4 ,b !re appe>s to me to be a fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ?is case & t ( moral feel+s4 ,! peculi> emotion ( moral approbation is1 9 my exp]i5ce1 insep>ably b\nd up ) ! conviction1 implicit or explicit1 t ! conduct approv$ is #8really' "r--i4e4 t x _c1 )\t error1 be disapprov$ by any o!r m9d4 ,if ,i give up ?is conviction because o!rs d n %>e x1 or = any o!r reason1 ,i may no d\bt /ill reta9 a s5tim5t prompt+ to ! conduct 9 "q1 or--:at is p]haps m common--a s5tim5t ( repugnance to ! opposite conduct3 b ?is s5tim5t w no long] h ! special quality ( #8moral s5tim5t' /rictly s call$4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is (t5 ov]look$ 9 e?ical discussion3 b any exp]i5ce ( a *ange 9 moral op9ion produc$ by argum5t may af=d an illu/ration ( x4 ,suppose 7e4g47 t any "o habitually influ5c$ by ! s5tim5t ( ,v]acity is conv9c$ t "u c]ta9 peculi> circum/ances 9 :i* he f9ds himself1 speak+ tru? is n "r b wrong4 ,he w probably /ill feel a repugnance aga9/ violat+ ! rule ( tru?speak+3 b x w be a feel+ q diff]5t 9 k9d & degree f t :i* prompt$ him to v]acity z a dep>tm5t ( virtu\s action4 ,we might p]haps call ! "o a #8moral' & ! o!r a #8quasi-moral' s5tim5t4 ,! argum5t j giv5 holds equally aga9/ ! view t approbation or disapprobation is n ! m]e lik+ or av]sion ( an individual = c]ta9 k9ds ( conduct1 b ?is complicat$ by a sympa!tic repres5tation ( simil> lik+s or av]sions felt by o!r human be+s4 ,no d\bt su* sympa?y is a normal concomitant ( moral emotion1 & :5 ! =m] is abs5t !re is mu* great] difficulty 9 ma9ta9+ ! latt]3 ?is1 h[ev]1 is p>tly because our moral beliefs commonly agree ) ^? ( o!r memb]s ( our society1 & on ?is agreem5t dep5ds to an important ext5t our confid5ce 9 ! tru? ( ^! beliefs4#cj ,b if1 z 9 ! case j suppos$1 we are really l$ by argum5t to a new moral belief1 oppos$ n only to our own habitual s5tim5t b also to t ( ! society 9 :i* we live1 we h a crucial exp]im5t prov+ ! exi/5ce 9 u ( moral s5tim5ts z ,i h def9$ !m1 collid+ ) ! repres5t$ sympa?ies ( our fell[-m5 no less ?an ) our own m]e lik+s & av]sions4 ,& ev5 if we imag9e ! sympa?ies oppos$ to our convictions ext5d$ until !y include ^? ( ! :ole human race1 aga9/ :om we imag9e ourselves to /& z ,a?anasius contra mundum2 /ill1 s long z our conviction ( duty is firm1 ! emotion :i* we call moral /&s out 9 imag9ation q di/9ct f ! complex sympa?y oppos$ to x1 h[ev] mu* we ext5d1 complicate & int5sify ! latt]4 #b4 ,s f>1 !n1 f be+ prep>$ to admit t ! proposition #8,x ought to be done' m]ely expresses ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 s5tim5t 9 myself or o!rs1 ,i f9d x /rictly impossible s to reg>d my own moral judgm5ts )\t elim9at+ f ! concomitant s5tim5t ! peculi> quality signifi$ by ! t]m #8moral4' ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r int]pretation ( #8ought1' 9 :i* ! lik+s & av]sions t m5 9 g5]al feel = c]ta9 k9ds ( conduct are consid]$ n z sympa!tically repres5t$ 9 ! emotion ( ! p]son judg+1 & ?us con/itut+ ! moral elem5t 9 x1 b z causes ( pa9 to ! p]son ( :om #8ought' or #8duty' is pr$icat$4 ,on ?is view1 :5 we say t a man #8ought' to d any?+1 or t x is 8 #8duty' to d x1 we mean t he is b\nd "u p5alties to d x2 ! p>ticul> p5alty consid]$ be+ ! pa9 t w accrue to him directly or indirectly f ! dislike ( 8 fell[-creatures4 ,i ?9k t ?is int]pretation expresses a "p ( ! mean+ ) :i* ! words #8ought' & #8duty' are us$ 9 ord9>y ?\ght & disc\rse4 ,= we commonly use ! t]m #8moral obligation' z equival5t to #8duty' & express+ :at is impli$ 9 ! v]b #8ought1' ?us sugge/+ an analogy betwe5 ?is notion & t ( legal obligation2 & 9 ! case ( positive law we _c refuse to recognise ! connexion ( #8obligation' & #8puni%m5t'3 a law _c be prop]ly said to be actually e/abli%$ 9 a society if x is habitually violat$ ) impunity4 ,b a m c>eful reflection on ! relation ( ,law to ,morality1 z ord9>ily conceiv$1 seems to %[ t ?is int]pretation ( #8ought'--?\gh x _c be exclud$--mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! special e?ical use ( ! t]m4 ,= ! ideal di/9ction tak5 9 common ?\ght betwe5 legal & m]ely moral rules seems to lie 9 j ?is connexion ( ! =m] b n ! latt] ) puni%m5t3 we ?9k t !re are "s ?+s :i* a man ought to be compell$ to d1 or =be>1 & o!rs :i* he ought to d or =be> )\t compulsion1 & t ! =m] alone fall prop]ly )9 ! sph]e ( law4 ,no d\bt we also ?9k t 9 _m cases :]e ! compulsion ( law is undesirable1 ! fe> ( moral c5sure & its consequ5ces supplies a normally useful con/ra9t on ! w ( any individual4 ,b x is evid5t t :at we mean :5 we say t a man is 8morally ?\gh n legally b\nd0 to d a ?+ is n m]ely t he 8w be puni%$ by public op9ion if he does n02 = we (t5 jo9 ^! two /atem5ts1 cle>ly di/+ui%+ _! import3 & fur!r 7s9ce public op9ion is kn[n to be em95tly fallible7 !re are _m ?+s :i* we judge m5 #8ought' to d1 :ile p]fectly aw>e t !y w incur no s]i\s social p5alties = omitt+ !m4 ,9 su* cases1 inde$1 x w\ld be commonly said t social disapprobation #8ought' to foll[ on immoral conduct2 & 9 ?is v ass]tion x is cle> t ! t]m #8ought' _c mean t social p5alties are to be fe>$ by ^? :o d n disapprove4 ,aga91 all or mo/ m5 9 :om ! moral consci\sness is /rongly develop$ f9d !mselves f "t to "t 9 conflict ) ! commonly receiv$ morality ( ! society to :i* !y belong3 & ?us--z 0 be=e said--h a crucial exp]i5ce prov+ t duty does n mean to !m :at o!r m5 w disapprove ( !m = n do+4 ,at ! same "t ,i admit1 z inde$ ,i h already sugge/$ 9 #c ( *ap4 i41 t we n unfrequ5tly pass judgm5ts resembl+ moral judgm5ts 9 =m1 & n di/+ui%$ f !m 9 ord9>y ?\ght1 9 cases :]e ! obligation affirm$ is f\nd1 on reflection1 to dep5d on ! exi/5ce ( curr5t op9ions & s5tim5ts z su*4 ,! memb]s ( mod]n civilis$ societies are "u ! sway ( a code ( ,public ,op9ion1 en=c$ by social p5alties1 :i* no reflective p]son obey+ x id5tifies ) ! moral code1 or reg>ds z unconditionally b9d+3 inde$ ! code is manife/ly fluctuat+ & v>iable1 diff]5t at ! same "t 9 diff]5t classes1 pr(essions1 social circles1 ( ! same political community4 ,su* a code always supports to a consid]able ext5t ! commonly receiv$ code ( morality3 & mo/ reflective p]sons ?9k x g5]ally reasonable to con=m to ! dictates ( public op9ion--to ! code ( ,hon\r1 we may say1 9 grav] matt]s1 or ! rules ( ,polit5ess or ,good ,bre$+ 9 light] matt]s--:]ev] ^! dictates d n positively conflict ) morality2 su* con=mity be+ ma9ta9$ ei!r on gr\nds ( private int]e/1 or because x is ?\ght conducive to g5]al happ9ess or wellbe+ to keep z mu* z possible 9 h>mony ) "o's fell[-m54 ,h5ce 9 ! ord9>y ?\ght ( unreflective p]sons ! duties impos$ by social op9ion are (t5 undi/+ui%$ f moral duties3 & inde$ ?is indi/9ctness is almo/ inh]5t 9 ! common mean+ ( _m t]ms4 ,= in/ance1 if we say t a man has be5 #8di%on\r$' by a c[>dly act1 x is n q cle> :e!r we mean t he has incurr$ contempt1 or t he has des]v$ x1 or bo?3 z becomes evid5t :5 we take a case 9 :i* ! ,code ( ,hon\r comes into conflict ) ,morality4 ,if 7e4g47 a man 7 to incur social o/racism any:]e = refus+ a duel on religi\s gr\nds1 "s w\ld say t he 0 #8di%on\r$1' ?\gh he _h act$ rightly1 o!rs t !re c\ld be no real di%on\r 9 a virtu\s act4 ,a simil> ambiguity seems to lurk 9 ! common notion ( #8improp]' or #8incorrect' behavi\r4 ,/ill 9 all su* cases ! ambiguity becomes evid5t on reflection3 & :5 discov]$1 m]ely s]ves to illu/rate fur!r ! di/9ction betwe5 ! notion ( #8"r conduct1' #8duty1' :at we #8ought' or are "u #8moral obligation' to d--:5 ^! t]ms are us$ 9 a /rictly e?ical s5se--& conduct t is m]ely con=m$ to ! /&>d ( curr5t op9ion4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r way ( int]pret+ #8ought' z connot+ p5alties1 :i* is some:at less easy to meet by a crucial psy*ological exp]im5t4 ,! moral imp]ative may be tak5 to be a law ( ,god1 to ! brea* ( :i* ,div9e p5alties are annex$2 & ^!1 no d\bt1 9 a ,*ri/ian society1 are commonly conceiv$ to be adequate & univ]sally applicable4 ,/ill1 x c h>dly be said t ?is belief is %>$ by all ! p]sons ^: conduct is influ5c$ by indep5d5t moral convictions1 occasionally unsupport$ ei!r by ! law or ! public op9ion ( _! community4 ,& ev5 9 ! case ( _m ( ^? :o believe fully 9 ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 ! judgm5t 8,i ought to d ?is0 _c be id5tifi$ ) ! judgm5t 8,god w puni% me if ,i d n02 s9ce ! conviction t ! =m] proposition is true is di/9ctly recognis$ z an important "p ( ! gr\nds = believ+ ! latt]4 ,aga91 :5 ,*ri/ians speak--z !y commonly d--( ! #8ju/ice' 7or o!r moral attributes7 ( ,god1 z exhibit$ 9 puni%+ s9n]s & rew>d+ ! righte\s1 !y obvi\sly imply n m]ely t ,god w ?us puni% & rew>d1 b t x is #8"r'#ca = ,him to d s3 :i*1 ( c\rse1 _c be tak5 to mean t ,he is #8b\nd "u p5alties4' #c4 ,x seems !n t ! notion ( #8ought' or #8moral obligation' z us$ 9 our common moral judgm5ts1 does n m]ely import 7#a7 t !re exi/s 9 ! m9d ( ! p]son judg+ a specific emotion 7:e!r complicat$ or n by sympa!tic repres5tation ( simil> emotions 9 o!r m9ds72 nor 7#b7 t c]ta9 rules ( conduct are support$ by p5alties :i* w foll[ on _! violation 7:e!r su* p5alties result f ! g5]al lik+ or av]sion felt = ! conduct prescrib$ or =bidd51 or f "s o!r s\rce74 ,:at !n1 x may be ask$1 does x import8 ,:at def9ition c we give ( #8ought1' #8"r1' & o!r t]ms express+ ! same fundam5tal notion8 ,to ?is ,i %\ld answ] t ! notion :i* ^! t]ms h 9 common is too elem5t>y to admit ( any =mal def9ition4 ,9 s say+1 ,i d n mean to imply t x belongs to ! 8orig9al con/itution ( ! m9d02 i4e4 t its pres5ce 9 consci\sness is n ! result ( a process ( developm5t4 ,i d n d\bt t ! :ole fabric ( human ?\ght--includ+ ! conceptions t pres5t !mselves z mo/ simple & elem5t>y--has be5 develop$1 ?r\gh a gradual process ( psy*ical *ange1 out ( "s l[] life 9 :i* ?\ght1 prop]ly speak+1 _h no place4 ,b x is n !re=e to be inf]r$1 z reg>ds ?is or any o!r notion1 t x has n really ! simplicity :i* x appe>s to h :5 we n[ reflect ^u x4 ,x is sometimes assum$ t if we c %[ h[ ?\ghts h gr[n up--if we c po9t to ! psy*ical antec$5ts ( :i* !y are ! natural consequ5ts--we may conclude t ! ?\ghts 9 "q are really comp\nds conta9+ _! antec$5ts z lat5t elem5ts4 ,b ,i "k no ju/ification = ?is transf]5ce ( ! conceptions ( *emi/ry to psy*ology2#cb ,i "k no reason = consid]+ psy*ical antec$5ts z really con/itutive ( _! psy*ical consequ5ts1 9 spite ( ! app>5t dissimil>ity betwe5 ! two4 ,9 default ( su* reasons1 a psy*ologi/ mu/ accept z elem5t>y :at introspection c>efully p]=m$ decl>es to be s2 &1 us+ ?is crit]ion1 ,i f9d t ! notion we h be5 exam9+1 z x n[ exi/s 9 our ?\ght1 _c be resolv$ into any m simple notions3 x c only be made cle>] by det]m9+ z precisely z possible its relation to o!r notions ) :i* x is connect$ 9 ord9>y ?\ght1 especially to ^? ) :i* x is liable to be conf\nd$4 ,9 p]=m+ ?is process x is important to note & di/+ui% two diff]5t implications ) :i* ! ^w 8ought0 is us$2 9 ! n>r[e/ e?ical s5se :at we judge #8ought to be' done1 is always ?\ght capable ( be+ br\ght ab\t by ! volition ( any individual to :om ! judgm5t applies4 ,i _c conceive t ,i #8ought' to d any?+ :i* at ! same "t ,i judge t ,i _c d4 ,9 a wid] s5se1 h[ev]1--:i* _c conv5i5tly be disc>d$--,i sometimes judge t ,i #8ought' to "k :at a wis] man w\ld "k1 or feel z a bett] man w\ld feel1 9 my place1 ?\gh ,i may "k t ,i c\ld n directly produce 9 myself su* k or feel+ by any ef=t ( w4 ,9 ?is case ! ^w m]ely implies an ideal or patt]n :i* ,i #8ought'--9 ! /rict] s5se--to seek to imitate z f> z possible4 ,& ?is wid] s5se seems to be t 9 :i* ! ^w is normally us$ 9 ! precepts ( ,art g5]ally1 & 9 political judgm5ts3 :5 ,i judge t ! laws & con/itution ( my c\ntry #8ought to be' o!r ?an !y are1 ,i d n ( c\rse imply t my own or any o!r individual's s+le volition c directly br+ ab\t ! *ange4#cc ,9 ei!r case1 h[ev]1 ,i imply t :at ought to be is a possible object ( k3 i4e4 t :at ,i judge ought to be mu/1 unless ,i am 9 error1 be simil>ly judg$ by all rational be+s :o judge truly ( ! matt]4 ,9 ref]r+ su* judgm5ts to ! #8,reason1' ,i d n mean "h to prejudge ! "q :e!r valid moral judgm5ts are normally atta9$ by a process ( reason+ f univ]sal pr9ciples or axioms1 or by direct intuition ( ! p>ticul> duties ( individuals4 ,x is n uncommonly held t ! moral faculty deals prim>ily ) individual cases z !y arise1 apply+ directly to ea* case ! g5]al notion ( duty1 & decid+ intuitively :at ought to be done by ?is p]son 9 ^! p>ticul> circum/ances4 ,& ,i admit t on ?is view ! appreh5sion ( moral tru? is m analog\s to ,s5se-p]ception ?an to ,rational ,intuition 7z commonly und]/ood73#cd & h5ce ! t]m ,moral ,s5se might seem m appropriate4 ,b ! t]m ,s5se sugge/s a capacity = feel+s :i* may v>y f ,a to ,b )\t ei!r be+ 9 error1 r ?an a faculty ( cognition3#ce & x appe>s to me fundam5tally important to avoid ?is sugge/ion4 ,i h !re=e ?\ght x bett] to use ! t]m ,reason ) ! explanation above giv51 to d5ote ! faculty ( moral cognition3#cf add+1 z a fur!r ju/ification ( ?is use1 t ev5 :5 a moral judgm5t relates prim>ily to "s p>ticul> action we commonly reg>d x z applicable to any o!r action belong+ to a c]ta9 def9able class3 s t ! moral tru? appreh5d$ is implicitly conceiv$ to be intr9sically univ]sal1 ?\gh p>ticul> 9 our fir/ appreh5sion ( x4 ,fur!r1 :5 ,i speak ( ! cognition or judgm5t t #8,x ought to be done'--9 ! /rict] e?ical s5se ( ! t]m ought#cg--;z a #8dictate' or #8precept' ( reason to ! p]sons to :om x relates1 ,i imply t 9 rational be+s z su* ?is cognition gives an impulse or motive to action3 ?\gh 9 human be+s1 ( c\rse1 ?is is only "o motive among o!rs :i* are liable to conflict ) x1 & is n always--p]haps n usually--a pr$om9ant motive4 ,9 fact1 ?is possible conflict ( motives seems to be connot$ by ! t]m #8dictate' or #8imp]ative1' :i* describes ! relation ( ,reason to m]e incl9ations or non-rational impulses by comp>+ x to ! relation betwe5 ! w ( a sup]ior & ! wills ( 8 subord9ates4 ,?is conflict seems also to be impli$ 9 ! t]ms #8ought1' #8duty1' #8moral obligation1' z us$ 9 ord9>y moral disc\rse3 & h5ce ^! t]ms _c be appli$ to ! actions ( rational be+s to :om we _c attribute impulses conflict+ ) reason4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 say ( su* be+s t _! actions are #8reasonable1' or 79 an absolute s5se7 #8"r4' #d4 ,i am aw>e t "s p]sons w be dispos$ to answ] all ! prec$+ argum5t by a simple d5ial t !y c f9d 9 _! consci\sness any su* unconditional or categorical imp]ative z ,i h be5 try+ to exhibit4 ,if ?is is really ! f9al result ( self-exam9ation 9 any case1 !re is no m to be said4 ,i1 at lea/1 d n "k h[ to imp>t ! notion ( moral obligation to any "o :o is entirely devoid ( x4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t _m ( ^? :o give ?is d5ial only mean to d5y t !y h any consci\sness ( moral obligation to actions )\t ref]5ce to _! consequ5ces2 & w\ld n really d5y t !y recognise "s univ]sal end or ends--:e!r x be ! g5]al happ9ess1 or well-be+ o!rwise und]/ood--z t at :i* x is ultimately reasonable to aim1 subord9at+ to its atta9m5t ! gratification ( any p]sonal desires t may conflict ) ?is aim4 ,b 9 ?is view1 z ,i h be=e said1 ! unconditional imp]ative pla9ly comes 9 z reg>ds ! end1 :i* is--explicitly or implicitly--recognis$ z an end at :i* all m5 #8ought' to aim2 & x c h>dly be d5i$ t ! recognition ( an end z ultimately reasonable involves ! recognition ( an obligation to d su* acts z mo/ conduce to ! end4 ,! obligation is n inde$ 8unconditional10 b x does n dep5d on ! exi/5ce ( any non-rational desires or av]sions4 ,& no?+ t has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ section is int5d$ z an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ,intuitionism1 z aga9/ ,utilit>ianism or any o!r me?od t treats moral rules z relative to ,g5]al ,good or ,well-be+4 ,= in/ance1 no?+ t ,i h said is inconsi/5t ) ! view t ,tru?speak+ is only valuable z a means to ! pres]vation ( society3 only if x be admitt$ t x is valuable on ?is gr\nd ,i %\ld say t x is impli$ t ! pres]vation ( society--or "s fur!r end to :i* ?is pres]vation1 aga91 is a means--mu/ be valuable p] se1 & !re=e some?+ at :i* a rational be+1 z su*1 ought to aim4 ,if x be grant$ t we ne$ n look beyond ! pres]vation ( society1 ! prim>y #8dictate ( reason' 9 ?is case w\ld be #8t society ought to be pres]v$'3 b reason w\ld also dictate t tru? ought to be spok51 s f> z tru?speak+ is recognis$ z ! indisp5sable or fitte/ means to ?is end3 & ! notion 8ought0 z us$ 9 ei!r dictate is t :i* ,i h be5 try+ to make cle>4 ,s aga91 ev5 ^? :o hold t moral rules are only obligatory because x is ! individual's int]e/ to con=m to !m--?us reg>d+ !m z a p>ticul> species ( prud5tial rules--d n !reby get rid ( ! #8dictate ( reason1' s f> z !y recognise private int]e/ or happ9ess z an end at :i* x is ultimately reasonable to aim4 ,! conflict ( ,practical ,reason ) irrational desire rema9s an indubitable fact ( our consci\s exp]i5ce1 ev5 if practical reason is int]pret$ to mean m]ely self-reg>d+ ,prud5ce4 ,x is1 inde$1 ma9ta9$ by ,kant & o!rs t x _c prop]ly be said to be a man's duty to promote 8 own happ9ess2 s9ce 8:at e "o inevitably wills _c be br\ght "u ! notion ( duty40 ,b ev5 grant+#ch x to be 9 "s s5se true t a man's volition is always direct$ to ! atta9m5t ( 8 own happ9ess1 x does n foll[ t a man always does :at he believes w be conducive to 8 own greate/ happ9ess4 ,z ,butl] urges1 x is a matt] ( common exp]i5ce t m5 indulge appetite or passion ev5 :51 9 _! own view1 ! indulg5ce is z cle>ly oppos$ to :at !y conceive to be _! int]e/ z x is to :at !y conceive to be _! duty4 ,?us ! notion #8ought'--z express+ ! relation ( rational judgm5t to non-rational impulses--w f9d a place 9 ! practical rules ( any egoi/ic sy/em1 no less ?an 9 ! rules ( ord9>y morality1 und]/ood z prescrib+ duty )\t ref]5ce to ! ag5t's int]e/4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x may be held t ,egoism does n prop]ly reg>d ! ag5t's own greate/ happ9ess z :at he 8ought0 to aim at3 b only z ! ultimate end = ! realisation ( :i* he has1 on ! :ole1 a pr$om9ant desire2 :i* may be tempor>ily ov]come by p>ticul> passions & appetites1 b ord9>ily rega9s its pr$om9ance :5 ^! transi5t impulses h sp5t _! =ce4 ,i q recognise t ?is is a view widely tak5 ( egoi/ic action1 & ,i propose to consid] x 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4#ci ,b ev5 if we disc>d ! belief1 t any end ( action is unconditionally or 8categorically0 prescrib$ by reason1 ! notion #8ought' z above expla9$ is n !reby elim9at$ f our practical reason+s3 x /ill rema9s 9 ! 8hypo!tical imp]ative0 :i* prescribes ! fitte/ means to any end t we may h det]m9$ to aim at4 ,:5 7e4g47 a physician says1 8,if y wi% to be heal?y y ought to rise e>ly10 ?is is n ! same ?+ z say+ 8e>ly ris+ is an indisp5sable condition ( ! atta9m5t ( heal?40 ,?is latt] proposition expresses ! relation ( physiological facts on :i* ! =m] is f\nd$2 b x is n m]ely ?is relation ( facts t ! ^w #8ought' imports3 x also implies ! unreasonabl5ess ( adopt+ an end & refus+ to adopt ! means indisp5sable to its atta9m5t4 ,x may p]haps be argu$ t ?is is n only unreasonable b impossible3 s9ce adoption ( an end means ! prepond]ance ( a desire = x1 & if av]sion to ! indisp5sable means causes !m n to be adopt$ al?\gh recognis$ z indisp5sable1 ! desire = ! end is n prepond]ant & x ceases to be adopt$4 ,b ?is view is due1 9 my op9ion1 to a defective psy*ological analysis4 ,accord+ to my obs]vation ( consci\sness1 ! adoption ( an end z p>am\nt--ei!r absolutely or )9 c]ta9 limits--is q a di/9ct psy*ical ph5om5on f desire3 x is a k9d ( volition1 ?\gh x is1 ( c\rse1 specifically diff]5t f a volition initiat+ a p>ticul> imm$iate action4 ,z a species int]m$iate betwe5 ! two1 we may place resolutions to act 9 a c]ta9 way at "s future "t3 we cont9ually make su* resolutions1 & sometimes :5 ! "t comes = c>ry+ !m out1 we d 9 fact act o!rwise "u ! influ5ce ( passion or m]e habit1 )\t consci\sly cancell+ our previ\s resolve4 ,?is inconsi/5cy ( w our practical reason condemns z irrational1 ev5 ap>t f any judgm5t ( approbation or disapprobation on ei!r volition consid]$ by itself4 ,!re is a simil> inconsi/5cy betwe5 ! adoption ( an end & a g5]al refusal to take :atev] means we may see to be indisp5sable to its atta9m5t3 & if1 :5 ! "t comes1 we d n take su* means :ile yet we d n consci\sly retract our adoption ( ! end1 x c h>dly be d5i$ t we #8ought' 9 consi/5cy to act o!rwise ?an we d4 ,& su* a contradiction z ,i h describ$1 betwe5 a g5]al resolution & a p>ticul> volition1 is surely a matt] ( common exp]i5ce4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! significations ( ! two words is discuss$ lat]4 #bi ,z1 = in/ance1 :5 ,b5?am expla9s 7,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation1 *ap4 i4 i4 note7 t 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple 8/ates ! greate/ happ9ess ( all ^? ^: int]e/ is 9 "q z be+ ! "r & prop] end ( human action10 we _c und]/& him really to mean by ! ^w 8"r0 8conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess10 ?\gh 8 language 9 o!r passages ( ! same *apt] 7 ix4 & x47 w\ld seem to imply ?is2 = ! proposition t x is conducive to g5]al happ9ess to take g5]al happ9ess z an end ( action1 ?\gh n exactly a tautology1 c h>dly s]ve z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( a moral sy/em4 #cj ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 xi4 #a4 #ca #8,ought' is "h inapplicable1 = a reason pres5tly expla9$4 #cb ,9 ,*emi/ry we reg>d ! antec$5ts 7elem5ts7 z /ill exi/+ 9 & con/itut+ ! consequ5t 7comp\nd7 because ! latt] is exactly simil> to ! =m] 9 weight1 & because we c g5]ally cause ?is comp\nd to disappe> & obta9 ! elem5ts 9 its place4 ,b we f9d no?+ at all l ?is 9 ! gr[? ( m5tal ph5om5a3 ! psy*ical consequ5t is 9 no respect exactly simil> to its antec$5ts1 nor c x be resolv$ into !m4 ,i %\ld expla9 t ,i am n "h argu+ ! "q :e!r ! validity ( moral judgm5ts is affect$ by a discov]y ( _! psy*ical antec$5ts4 ,?is "q ,i res]ve = subsequ5t discussion4 ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 #d4 #cc ,i d n ev5 imply t any comb9ation ( individuals c\ld completely realise ! /ate ( political relations :i* ,i conceive #8ought to' exi/4 ,my conception w\ld be futile if x _h no relation to practice3 b x may m]ely del9eate a patt]n to :i* no m ?an an approximation is practically possible4 #cd ,we d n commonly say t p>ticul> physical facts are appreh5d$ by ! ,reason3 we consid] ?is faculty to be conv]sant 9 its discursive op]ation ) ! relation ( judgm5ts or propositions3 & ! intuitive reason 7:i* is "h r 9 "q7 we re/rict to ! appreh5sion ( univ]sal tru?s1 su* z ! axioms ( ,logic & ,ma!matics4 #ce ,by cognition ,i always mean :at "s w\ld r call 8app>5t cognition0--t is1 ,i d n mean to affirm ! validity ( ! cognition1 b only its exi/5ce z a psy*ical fact1 & its claim to be valid4 #cf ,a fur!r ju/ification = ?is ext5d$ use ( ! t]m ,reason w be sugge/$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt] ( ?is ,book 7*ap4 viii4 #c74 #cg ,?is is ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m w always be us$ 9 ! pres5t treatise1 except :]e ! context makes x q cle> t only ! wid] mean+--t ( ! political #8ought'--is applicable4 #ch ,z w be se5 f ! next *apt]1 ,i d n grant ?is4 #ci ,*ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,pleasure ,,& ,,desire #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] ,i h left undet]m9$ ! emotional *>act]i/ics ( ! impulse t prompts u to obey ! dictates ( ,reason4 ,i h done s because ^! seem to be v diff]5t 9 diff]5t m9ds1 & ev5 to v>y mu* & rapidly 9 ! same m9d1 )\t any correspond+ v>iation 9 ! volitional direction ( ! impulse4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! m9d ( a rational ,egoi/ ! rul+ impulse is g5]ally :at ,butl] & ,hut*eson call a 8calm0 or 8cool0 self-love3 :]eas 9 ! man :o takes univ]sal happ9ess z ! end & /&>d ( "r conduct1 ! desire to d :at is judg$ to be reasonable z su* is commonly bl5d$ 9 v>y+ degrees ) sympa?y & philan?ropic en?usiasm4 ,aga91 if "o conceives ! dictat+ ,reason--:atev] its dictates may be--z ext]nal to oneself1 ! cognition ( rightness is accompani$ by a s5tim5t ( ,rev]5ce = ,au?ority2 :i* may by "s be conceiv$ imp]sonally1 b is m commonly reg>d$ z ! au?ority ( a supreme ,p]son1 s t ! s5tim5t bl5ds ) ! affections normally excit$ by p]sons 9 diff]5t relations1 & becomes ,religi\s4 ,?is conception ( ,reason z an ext]nal au?ority1 aga9/ :i* ! self-w rebels1 is (t5 irresi/ibly =c$ on ! reflective m9d3 at o!r times1 h[ev]1 ! id5tity ( ,reason & ,self pres5ts itself z an imm$iate conviction1 & !n ,rev]5ce = ,au?ority passes ov] into ,self-respect2 & ! opposite & ev5 m p[]ful s5tim5t ( ,fre$om is call$ 91 if we consid] ! rational ,self z liable to be enslav$ by ! usurp+ =ce ( s5sual impulses4 ,q diff]5t aga9 are ! emotions ( ,aspiration or ,admiration ar\s$ by ! conception ( ,virtue z an ideal ( ,moral ,beauty4#dj ,o!r phases ( emotion might be m5tion$1 all hav+ ) ^! ! common *>act]i/ic t !y are insep>able f an app>5t cognition--implicit or explicit1 direct or indirect--( rightness 9 ! conduct to :i* !y prompt4 ,!re are1 no d\bt1 important diff]5ces 9 ! moral value & efficacy ( ^! diff]5t emotions1 to :i* ,i %all h]eaft] call att5tion2 b _! prim>y practical effect does n appe> to v>y s long z ! cognition ( rightness rema9s un*ang$4 ,x is !n ) ^! cognitions t ,e?ics1 9 my view1 is prim>ily conc]n$3 its object is to free !m f d\bt & error1 & sy/ematise !m z f> z possible4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o view ( ! feel+s :i* prompt to volunt>y action1 :i* is sometimes ?\ght to cut %ort all controv]sy z to ! pr9ciples on :i* su* action ought to be regulat$4 ,i mean ! view t volition is always det]m9$ by pleasures or pa9s actual or prospective4 ,?is doctr9e--:i* ,i may di/+ui% z ,psy*ological ,h$onism--is (t5 connect$ & n seldom conf\nd$ ) ! me?od ( ,e?ics :i* ,i h call$ ,egoi/ic ,h$onism2 & no d\bt x seems at fir/ sight a natural inf]5ce t if "o end ( action--my own pleasure or abs5ce ( pa9--is def9itely det]m9$ = me by unv>y+ psy*ological laws1 a diff]5t end _c be prescrib$ = me by ,reason4 ,reflection1 h[ev]1 %[s t ?is inf]5ce involves ! unw>rant$ assumption t a man's pleasure & pa9 are det]m9$ indep5d5tly ( 8 moral judgm5ts3 :]eas x is manife/ly possible t our prospect ( pleasure result+ f any c\rse ( conduct may l>gely dep5d on our conception ( x z "r or o!rwise3 & 9 fact ! psy*ological !ory above m5tion$ w\ld require u to suppose t ?is is normally ! case ) consci5ti\s p]sons1 :o habitually act 9 accordance ) _! moral convictions4 ,! connexion ( ! expectation ( pleasure f an act ) ! judgm5t t x is "r may be diff]5t 9 diff]5t cases3 we commonly conceive a truly moral man z "o :o f9ds pleasure 9 do+ :at he judges to be "r because he s judges x3 b1 ev5 :]e moral s5sibility is weak1 expectation ( pleasure f an act may be a necess>y consequ5t ( a judgm5t t x is "r1 ?r\gh a belief 9 ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w someh[ h>monis+ ,virtue & ,self-int]e/4 ,i !re=e conclude t !re is no necess>y connexion betwe5 ! psy*ological proposition t pleasure or abs5ce ( pa9 to myself is always ! actual ultimate end ( my action1 & ! e?ical proposition t my own greate/ happ9ess or pleasure is = me ! "r ultimate end4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be repli$ t if ! =m] proposition be accept$ 9 ! same quantitatively precise =m z ! latt]--if x is admitt$ t ,i mu/ by a law ( my nature always aim at ! greate/ possible pleasure 7or lea/ pa97 to myself--!n at lea/ ,i _c conceive any aim conflict+ ) ?is to be prescrib$ by ,reason4 ,& ?is seems to me und5iable4 ,if1 z ,b5?am#da affirms1 8on ! occasion ( e act he ex]cises1 e human be+ is0 inevitably 8l$ to pursue t l9e ( conduct :i*1 accord+ to 8 view ( ! case1 tak5 by him at ! mom5t1 w be 9 ! highe/ degree contributory to 8 own greate/ happ9ess10#db !n1 to any "o :o kn[s ?is1 x mu/ become inconceivable t ,reason dictates to him to pursue any o!r l9e ( conduct4 ,b at ! same "t1 z x seems to me1 ! proposition t he #8ought' to pursue t l9e ( conduct becomes no less cle>ly incapable ( be+ affirm$ ) any significance4 ,= a psy*ological law inv>iably realis$ 9 my conduct does n admit ( be+ conceiv$ z #8a precept' or #8dictate' ( reason3 ?is latt] mu/ be a rule f :i* ,i am consci\s t x is possible to deviate4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t ! proposition quot$ f ,b5?am w\ld be affirm$ )\t qualification by any ( ! writ]s :o n[ ma9ta9 psy*ological ,h$onism4 ,!y w\ld admit1 ) ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1#dc t m5 (t51 n f m]ely intellectual defici5cies1 b f 8infirmity ( "*1 make _! election = ! ne>] good1 ?\gh !y "k x to be less valuable3 & ?is no less :5 ! *oice is betwe5 two bodily pleasures 444 !y pursue s5sual indulg5ces to ! injury ( heal?1 ?\gh p]fectly aw>e t heal? is ! great] good40#dd ,?is be+ s1 ,egoi/ic ,h$onism becomes a possible e?ical ideal to :i* psy*ological ,h$onism seems to po9t4 ,if x c be %[n t ! ultimate aim ( ea* ( u 9 act+ is always solely "s pleasure 7or abs5ce ( pa97 to himself1 ! demon/ration c]ta9ly sugge/s t ea* ought to seek 8 own greate/ pleasure4#de ,z has be5 said1 no cog5t inf]5ce is possible f ! psy*ological g5]alisation to ! e?ical pr9ciple3 b ! m9d has a natural t5d5cy to pass f ! "o position to ! o!r3 if ! actual ultimate spr+s ( our volition are always our own pleasures & pa9s1 x seems prima facie reasonable to be mov$ by !m 9 proportion to _! pleasantness & pa9fulness1 & !re=e to *oose ! greate/ pleasure or lea/ pa9 on ! :ole4 ,fur!r1 ?is psy*ological doctr9e seems to conflict ) an e?ical view widely held by p]sons ^: moral consci\sness is highly develop$3 viz4 t an act1 to be 9 ! highe/ s5se virtu\s1 mu/ n be done solely = ! sake ( ! att5dant pleasure1 ev5 if t be ! pleasure ( ! moral s5se2 s t if ,i d an act f ! sole desire ( obta9+ ! gl[ ( moral self-approbation :i* ,i believe w att5d its p]=mance1 ! act w n be truly virtu\s4 ,x seems !re=e important to subject psy*ological ,h$onism1 ev5 9 its m indef9ite =m1 to a c>eful exam9ation4 #b4 ,x w be well to beg9 by def9+ m precisely ! "q at issue4 ,fir/1 ,i w conc$e t pleasure is a k9d ( feel+ :i* /imulates ! w to actions t5d+ to su/a9 or produce x1--to su/a9 x1 if actually pres5t1 & to produce x1 if x be only repres5t$ 9 idea--2 & simil>ly pa9 is a k9d ( feel+ :i* /imulates to actions t5d+ to remove or av]t x4#df ,x seems conv5i5t to call ! felt volitional /imulus 9 ! two cases respectively ,desire#dg & ,av]sion2 ?\gh x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! =m] t]m is ord9>ily re/rict$ to ! impulse felt :5 pleasure is n actually pres5t1 b only repres5t$ 9 idea4 ,! "q at issue1 !n1 is n :e!r pleasure1 pres5t or repres5t$1 is normally accompani$ by an impulse to prolong ! actual or realise ! repres5t$ feel+1 & pa9 correspond+ly by av]sion3 b :e!r !re are no desires & av]sions :i* h n pleasures & pa9s = _! objects--no consci\s impulses to produce or av]t results o!r ?an ! ag5t's own feel+s4 ,9 ! treatise to :i* ,i h ref]r$1 ,mill expla9s t 8desir+ a ?+1 & f9d+ x pleasant1 are1 9 ! /rictness ( language1 two modes ( nam+ ! same psy*ological fact40 ,if ?is be ! case1 x is h>d to see h[ ! proposition we are discuss+ requires to be det]m9$ by 8practis$ self-consci\sness & self-obs]vation02 z ! d5ial ( x w\ld involve a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,! tru? is t an ambiguity 9 ! ^w ,pleasure has t5d$ to confuse ! discussion ( ?is "q4#dh ,:5 we speak ( a man do+ some?+ 8at 8 pleasure10 or 8z he pleases10 we usually signify ! m]e fact ( volunt>y *oice3 n necess>ily t ! result aim$ at is "s prospective feel+ ( ! *oos]4 ,n[1 if by 8pleasant0 we m]ely mean t :i* influ5ces *oice1 ex]cises a c]ta9 attractive =ce on ! w1 x is an ass]tion incontrov]tible because tautological1 to say t we desire :at is pleasant--or ev5 t we desire a ?+ 9 proportion z x appe>s pleasant4 ,b if we take 8pleasure0 to d5ote ! k9d ( feel+s1 above def9$1 x becomes a really debateable "q :e!r ! end to :i* our desires are always consci\sly direct$ is ! atta9m5t by ourselves ( su* feel+s4 ,& ?is is :at we mu/ und]/& ,mill to consid] 8s obvi\s1 t x w h>dly be disput$40 ,x is r curi\s to f9d t "o ( ! be/-kn[n ( ,engli% morali/s reg>ds ! exact opposite ( :at ,mill ?9ks s obvi\s1 z be+ n m]ely a univ]sal fact ( our consci\s exp]i5ce1 b ev5 a necess>y tru?4 ,butl]1 z is well kn[n1 di/+ui%es self-love1 or ! impulse t[>ds our own pleasure1 f 8p>ticul> movem5ts t[>ds p>ticul> ext]nal objects--hon\r1 p[]1 ! h>m or good ( ano!r02 ! actions proce$+ f :i* are 8no o!rwise int]e/$ ?an z e action ( e creature mu/ f ! nature ( ! case be2 = no "o c act b f a desire1 or *oice1 or pref]5ce ( 8 own40 ,su* p>ticul> passions or appetites are1 he goes on to say1 8necess>ily presuppos$ by ! v idea ( an int]e/$ pursuit2 s9ce ! v idea ( int]e/ or happ9ess consi/s 9 ?is1 t an appetite or affection enjoys its object40 ,we c\ld n pursue pleasure at all1 unless we _h desires = some?+ else ?an pleasure2 = pleasure consi/s 9 ! satisfaction ( j ^! 8dis9t]e/$0 impulses4 ,butl] has c]ta9ly ov]-/at$ 8 case1#di s f> z my own exp]i5ce goes2 = _m pleasures1--especially ^? ( sight1 he>+ & smell1 toge!r ) _m emotional pleasures1--occur to me )\t any p]ceptible relation to previ\s desires1 & x seems q conceivable t our prim>y desires might be entirely direct$ t[>ds su* pleasures z ^!4 ,b z a matt] ( fact1 x appe>s to me t ?r\gh\t ! :ole scale ( my impulses1 s5sual1 emotional1 & intellectual alike1 ,i c di/+ui% desires ( :i* ! object is some?+ o!r ?an my own pleasure4 ,i w beg9 by tak+ an illu/ration ( ?is f ! impulses commonly plac$ l[e/ 9 ! scale4 ,! appetite ( hung]1 s f> z ,i c obs]ve1 is a direct impulse to ! eat+ ( food4 ,su* eat+ is no d\bt commonly att5d$ ) an agreeable feel+ ( m or less int5sity2 b x _c1 ,i ?9k1 be /rictly said t ?is agreeable feel+ is ! object ( hung]1 & t x is ! repres5tation ( ?is pleasure :i* /imulates ! w ( ! hungry man z su*4 ,( c\rse1 hung] is frequ5tly & naturally accompani$ ) anticipation ( ! pleasure ( eat+3 b c>eful introspection seems to %[ t ! two are by no means insep>able4 ,& ev5 :5 !y occur toge!r ! pleasure seems prop]ly ! object n ( ! prim>y appetite1 b ( a second>y desire :i* c be di/+ui%$ f ! =m]2 s9ce ! g\rm&1 9 :om ?is second>y desire is /rong1 is (t5 prompt$ by x to actions design$ to /imulate hung]1 & (t51 aga91 is l$ to control ! prim>y impulse1 9 ord] to prolong & v>y ! process ( satisfy+ x4 ,inde$ x is s obvi\s t hung] is some?+ diff]5t f ! desire = anticipat$ pleasure1 t "s writ]s h reg>d$ its volitional /imulus 7& t ( desire g5]ally7 z a case ( av]sion f pres5t pa94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 seems to me a di/9ct mi/ake 9 psy*ological classification4 ,no d\bt desire is a /ate ( consci\sness s f> simil> to pa91 t 9 bo? we feel a /imulus prompt+ u to pass f ! pres5t /ate into a diff]5t "o4 ,b av]sion f pa9 is an impulse to get out ( ! pres5t /ate & pass into "s o!r /ate :i* is only negatively repres5t$ z diff]5t f ! pres5t3 :]eas 9 desire z su*1 ! prim>y impulse is t[>ds ! realisation ( "s positive future result4 ,x is true t :5 a /rong desire is1 = any reason1 baulk$ ( its effect 9 caus+ action1 x is g5]ally pa9ful 9 "s degree3 & s a second>y av]sion to ! /ate ( desire is g5]at$1 :i* bl5ds itself ) ! desire & may easily be conf\nd$ ) x4 ,b "h1 aga91 we may di/+ui% ! two impulses by obs]v+ ! diff]5t k9ds ( conduct to :i* !y occasionally prompt3 = ! av]sion to ! pa9 ( ungratifi$ desire1 ?\gh x may act z an additional /imulus t[>ds ! gratification ( ! desire1 may also 7& (t5 does7 prompt u to get rid ( ! pa9 by suppress+ ! desire4 ,! "q :e!r all desire has 9 "s degree ! quality ( pa91 is "o ( psy*ological r ?an e?ical int]e/2#ej s long z x is admitt$ t x is (t5 n pa9ful 9 any degree comp>able to its int5sity z desire1 s t its volitional impulse _c be expla9$ z a case ( av]sion to its own pa9fulness4 ,at ! same "t1 s f> z my exp]i5ce goes1 ,i h no hesitation 9 answ]+ ! "q 9 ! negative4 ,consid] aga9 ! case ( hung]2 ,i c]ta9ly d n f9d hung] z an elem5t ( my normal life at all a pa9ful feel+3 x only becomes pa9ful :5 ,i am 9 ill heal?1 or :5 ! satisfaction ( ! appetite is abnormally delay$4 ,&1 g5]ally speak+1 any desire t is n felt to be ?w>t$ 9 its prim>y impulse to actions t5d+ to its satisfaction1 is n only n itself a pa9ful feel+--ev5 :5 ?is atta9m5t is /ill remote--b is (t5 an elem5t ( a /ate ( consci\sness :i* z a :ole is highly pleasurable4 ,inde$1 ! pleasures af=d$ by ! consci\sness ( eag] activity1 9 :i* desire is an ess5tial elem5t1 con/itute a consid]able item 9 ! total enjoym5t ( life4 ,x is almo/ a commonplace to say t su* pleasures1 :i* we may call g5]ally ! pleasures ( ,pursuit1 are m important ?an ! pleasures ( ,atta9m5t3 & 9 _m cases x is ! prospect ( ! =m] r ?an ( ! latt] t induces u to engage 9 a pursuit4 ,9 su* cases x is peculi>ly easy to di/+ui% ! desire to atta9 ! object pursu$1 f a desire ( ! pleasure ( atta9m5t3 s9ce ! atta9m5t only becomes pleasant 9 prospect because ! pursuit itself /imulates a desire = :at is pursu$4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( any game :i* involves--z mo/ games d--a conte/ = victory4 ,no ord9>y play] be=e ent]+ on su* a conte/1 has any desire = victory 9 x3 inde$ he (t5 f9ds x difficult to imag9e himself d]iv+ gratification f su* victory1 be=e he has actually engag$ 9 ! competition4 ,:at he delib]ately1 be=e ! game beg9s1 desires is n victory1 b ! pleasant excitem5t ( ! /ruggle = x2 only = ! full developm5t ( ?is pleasure a transi5t desire to w9 ! game is g5]ally indisp5sable4 ,?is desire1 :i* does n exi/ at fir/1 is /imulat$ to consid]able int5sity by ! competition itself3 & 9 proportion z x is ?us /imulat$ bo? ! m]e conte/ becomes m pleasurable1 & ! victory1 :i* 0 orig9ally indiff]5t1 comes to af=d a ke5 enjoym5t4 ,! same ph5om5on is exhibit$ 9 ! case ( m important k9ds ( pursuit4 ,?us x (t5 happ5s t a man1 feel+ 8 life languid & devoid ( int]e/s1 beg9s to occupy himself 9 ! prosecution ( "s sci5tific or socially useful "w1 = ! sake n ( ! end b ( ! occupation4 ,at fir/1 v likely1 ! occupation is irksome3 b soon1 z he =esaw1 a desire to atta9 ! end at :i* he aims is /imulat$1 p>tly by sympa?y ) o!r work]s1 p>tly by 8 su/a9$ ex]cise ( volunt>y ef=t direct$ t[>ds x2 s t 8 pursuit1 becom+ eag]1 becomes also a s\rce ( pleasure4 ,"h1 aga91 x is no d\bt true t 9 proportion z 8 desire = ! end gr[s /rong1 ! atta9m5t ( x becomes pleasant 9 prospect3 b x w\ld be a palpable mi/ake to say t ?is prospective pleasure is ! object ( ! desire t causes x4#ea ,:5 we comp>e ^! pleasures ) ^? previ\sly discuss$1 ano!r important obs]vation sugge/s itself4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ?\gh we c\ld di/+ui% appetite1 z x appe>s 9 consci\sness1 f ! desire ( ! pleasure att5d+ ! satisfaction ( appetite1 !re appe>$ to be no incompatibility betwe5 ! two4 ,! fact t a glutton is dom9at$ by ! desire ( ! pleasures ( eat+ 9 no way imp$es ! developm5t 9 him ( ! appetite :i* is a necess>y condition ( ^! pleasures4 ,b :5 we turn to ! pleasures ( pursuit1 we seem to p]ceive ?is incompatibility to a c]ta9 ext5t3 a c]ta9 subord9ation ( self-reg>d seems to be necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 full enjoym5t4 ,a man :o ma9ta9s ?r\gh\t an epicurean mood1 keep+ 8 ma9 consci\s aim p]petually fix$ on 8 own pleasure1 does n cat* ! full _s ( ! *ase2 8 eag]ness nev] gets j ! %>pness ( edge :i* imp>ts to ! pleasure its highe/ ze/4 ,"h comes into view :at we may call ! fundam5tal p>adox ( ,h$onism1 t ! impulse t[>ds pleasure1 if too pr$om9ant1 defeats its own aim4 ,?is effect is n visible1 or at any rate is sc>cely visible1 9 ! case ( passive s5sual pleasures4 ,b ( our active enjoym5ts g5]ally1 :e!r ! activities on :i* !y att5d are class$ z #8bodily' or z #8intellectual' 7z well z ( _m emotional pleasures71 x may c]ta9ly be said t we _c atta9 !m1 at lea/ 9 _! highe/ degree1 s long z we keep our ma9 consci\s aim conc5trat$ ^u !m4 ,x is n only t ! ex]cise ( our faculties is insuffici5tly /imulat$ by ! m]e desire ( ! pleasure att5d+ x1 & requires ! pres5ce ( o!r m objective1 #8extra-reg>d+1' impulses1 9 ord] to be fully develop$3 we may g fur!r & say t ^! o!r impulses mu/ be tempor>ily pr$om9ant & absorb+1 if ! ex]cise & its att5dant gratification are to atta9 _! full scope4 ,_m middle-ag$ ,engli%m5 w\ld ma9ta9 ! view t bus9ess is m agreeable ?an amusem5t2 b !y w\ld h>dly f9d x s if !y transact$ ! bus9ess ) a p]petual consci\s aim at ! att5dant pleasure4 ,simil>ly1 ! pleasures ( ?\ght & /udy c only be enjoy$ 9 ! highe/ degree by ^? :o h an ard\r ( curiosity :i* c>ries ! m9d tempor>ily away f self & its s5sations4 ,9 all k9ds ( ,art1 aga91 ! ex]cise ( ! creative faculty is att5d$ by int5se & exquisite pleasures3 b x w\ld seem t 9 ord] to get !m1 "o mu/ =get !m3 ! g5u9e arti/ at "w seems to h a pr$om9ant & tempor>ily absorb+ desire = ! realisation ( 8 ideal ( beauty4 ,! important case ( ! b5evol5t affections is at fir/ sight some:at m d\btful4 ,on ! "o h& x is ( c\rse true1 t :5 ^? :om we love are pleas$ or pa9$1 we ourselves feel sympa!tic pleasure & pa93 & fur!r1 t ! fl[ ( love or k9dly feel+ is itself highly pleasurable4 ,s t x is at lea/ plausible to int]pret b5evol5t actions z aim+ ultimately at ! atta9m5t ( "o or bo? ( ^! two k9ds ( pleasures1 or at ! av]t+ ( sympa!tic pa9 f ! ag5t4 ,b we may obs]ve1 fir/1 t ! impulse to b5efic5t action produc$ 9 u by sympa?y is (t5 s mu* out ( proportion to any actual consci\sness ( sympa!tic pleasure & pa9 9 ourselves1 t x w\ld be p>adoxical to reg>d ?is latt] z its object4 ,(t5 inde$ we _c b feel t a tale ( actual suff]+ ar\ses 9 u an excitem5t on ! :ole m pleasurable ?an pa9ful1 l ! excitem5t ( witness+ a trag$y2 & yet at ! same "t /irs 9 u an impulse to relieve x1 ev5 :5 ! process ( reliev+ is pa9ful & labori\s & involves v>i\s sacrifices ( our own pleasures4 ,aga91 we may (t5 free ourselves f sympa!tic pa9 mo/ easily by m]ely turn+ our ?\ghts f ! ext]nal suff]+ t causes x3 & we sometimes feel an egoi/ic impulse to d ?is1 :i* we c !n di/+ui% cle>ly f ! prop]ly sympa!tic impulse prompt+ u to relieve ! orig9al suff]+4 ,& f9ally1 ! mu*-comm5d$ pleasures ( b5evol5ce seem to require1 9 ord] to be felt 9 any consid]able degree1 ! pre-exi/5ce ( a desire to d good to o!rs = _! sake & n = our own4 ,z ,hut*eson expla9s1 we may cultivate b5evol5t affection = ! sake ( ! pleasures att5d+ x 7j z ! glutton cultivates appetite71 b we _c produce x at w1 h[ev] /rong may be our desire ( ^! pleasures3 & :5 x exi/s1 ev5 ?\gh x may owe its orig9 to a purely egoi/ic impulse1 x is /ill ess5tially a desire to d good to o!rs = _! sake & n = our own4 ,x _c p]haps be said t ! self-ab&onm5t & self-=getfulness1 :i* seem$ an ess5tial condition ( ! full developm5t ( ! o!r elevat$ impulses be=e notic$1 *>act]ise b5evol5t affection normally & p]man5tly2 z love1 :5 a p[]ful emotion1 seems naturally to involve a desire = reciprocat$ love1 /rong 9 proportion to ! int5sity ( ! emotion2 & ?us ! consci\sness ( self & ( "o's own pleasures & pa9s seems (t5 height5$ by ! v int5sity ( ! affection t b9ds "o to o!rs4 ,/ill we may at lea/ say t ?is self-suppression & absorption ( consci\sness 9 ! ?\ght ( o!r human be+s & _! happ9ess is a common incid5t ( all /rong affections3 & x is said t p]sons :o love int5sely sometimes feel a s5se ( antagonism betwe5 ! egoi/ic & altrui/ic elem5ts ( _! desire1 & an impulse to suppress ! =m]1 :i* occasionally exhibits itself 9 acts ( fanta/ic & extravagant self-sacrifice4 ,if !n reflection on our moral consci\sness seems to %[ t 8! pleasure ( virtue is "o :i* c only be obta9$ on ! express condition ( its n be+ ! object s\ght10#eb we ne$ n di/ru/ ?is result ( obs]vation on acc\nt ( ! abnormal nature ( ! ph5om5on4 ,we h m]ely ano!r illu/ration ( a psy*ological law1 :i*1 z we h se51 is exemplifi$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole range ( our desires4 ,9 ! prompt+s ( ,s5se no less ?an 9 ^? ( ,intellect or ,reason we f9d ! ph5om5on ( /rictly dis9t]e/$ impulse3 base & trivial ext]nal ends may excite desires ( ?is k9d1 z well z ! sublime & ideal3 & !re are pleasures ( ! m]ely animal life :i* c only be obta9$ on condition ( n be+ directly s\ght1 no less ?an ! satisfactions ( a good consci5ce4 #c4 ,s f> ,i h be5 conc]n$ to insi/ on ! felt incompatibility ( #8self-reg>d+' & #8extra-reg>d+' impulses only z a means ( prov+ _! ess5tial di/9ctness4 ,i d n wi% to ov]/ate ?is incompatibility3 ,i believe t mo/ commonly x is v transi5t1 & (t5 only mom5t>y1 & t our greate/ happ9ess--if t be our delib]ate aim--is g5]ally atta9$ by means ( a sort ( alt]nat+ rhy?m ( ! two k9ds ( impulse 9 consci\sness4 ,a man's consci\s desire is1 ,i ?9k1 m (t5 ?an n *iefly extra-reg>d+2 b :]e !re is /rong desire 9 any direction1 !re is commonly ke5 susceptibility to ! correspond+ pleasures2 & ! mo/ devot$ en?usia/ is su/a9$ 9 8 "w by ! recurr5t consci\sness ( su* pleasures4 ,b x is important to po9t out t ! famili> & obvi\s in/ances ( conflict betwe5 self-love & "s extra-reg>d+ impulse are n p>adoxes & illusions to be expla9$ away1 b ph5om5a :i* ! analysis ( our consci\sness 9 its normal /ate1 :5 !re is no su* conflict1 w\ld lead u to expect4 ,if we are cont9ually act+ f impulses ^: imm$iate objects are some?+ o!r ?an our own happ9ess1 x is q natural t we %\ld occasionally yield to su* impulses :5 !y prompt u to an uncomp5sat$ sacrifice ( pleasure4 ,?us a man ( weak self-control1 aft] fa/+ too long1 may easily indulge 8 appetite = food to an ext5t :i* he kn[s to be un:olesome3 & t n because ! pleasure ( eat+ appe>s to him1 ev5 9 ! mom5t ( indulg5ce1 at all wor?y ( consid]ation 9 comp>ison ) ! injury to heal?2 b m]ely because he feels an impulse to eat food1 :i* prevails ov] 8 prud5tial judgm5t4 ,?us1 aga91 m5 h sacrific$ all ! enjoym5ts ( life1 & ev5 life itself1 to obta9 po/hum\s fame3 n f any illusory belief t !y w\ld be someh[ capable ( d]iv+ pleasure f x1 b f a direct desire ( ! future admiration ( o!rs1 & a pref]5ce ( x to _! own pleasure4 ,& s1 aga91 :5 ! sacrifice is made = "s ideal end1 z ,tru?1 or ,fre$om1 or ,religion3 x may be a real sacrifice ( ! individual's happ9ess1 & n m]ely ! pref]5ce ( "o highly ref9$ pleasure 7or ( ! abs5ce ( "o special pa97 to all ! o!r elem5ts ( happ9ess4 ,no d\bt ?is pref]5ce is possible2 a man may feel t ! high & sev]e delight ( s]v+ 8 ideal is a 8pe>l ( great price0 outweigh+ 9 value all o!r pleasures4 ,b he may also feel t ! sacrifice w n repay him1 & yet det]m9e t x %all be made4 ,to sum up3 our consci\s active impulses are s f> f be+ always direct$ t[>ds ! atta9m5t ( pleasure or avoidance ( pa9 = ourselves1 t we c f9d ev]y:]e 9 consci\sness extra-reg>d+ impulses1 direct$ t[>ds some?+ t is n pleasure1 nor relief f pa92 &1 inde$1 a mo/ important "p ( our pleasure dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce ( su* impulses3 :ile on ! o!r h& !y are 9 _m cases s f> incompatible ) ! desire ( our own pleasure t ! two k9ds ( impulse d n easily coexi/ 9 ! same mom5t ( consci\sness2 & m occasionally 7b by no means r>ely7 ! two come into irreconcilable conflict1 & prompt to opposite c\rses ( action4 ,& ?is incompatibility 7?\gh x is important to notice x 9 o!r in/ances7 is no d\bt specially prom95t 9 ! case ( ! impulse t[>ds ! end :i* mo/ m>k$ly competes 9 e?ical controv]sy ) pleasure3 ! love ( virtue = its own sake1 or desire to d :at is "r z su*4 #d4 ,! psy*ological obs]vations on :i* my argum5t is bas$ w n p]haps be directly controv]t$1 at lea/ to su* an ext5t z to involve my ma9 conclusion3 b !re are two l9es ( reason+ by :i* x has be5 attempt$ to weak5 ! =ce ( ?is conclusion )\t directly d5y+ x4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is urg$ t ,pleasure1 ?\gh n ! only consci\s aim ( human action1 is yet always ! result to :i* x is unconsci\sly direct$4 ,! proposition w\ld be difficult to disprove2 s9ce no "o d5ies t pleasure 9 "s degree normally accompanies ! atta9m5t ( a desir$ end3 & :5 once we g beyond ! te/imony ( consci\sness !re seems to be no cle> me?od ( det]m9+ :i* among ! consequ5ces ( any action is ! end at :i* x is aim$4 ,= ! same reason1 h[ev]1 ! proposition is at any rate equally difficult to prove4 ,b ,i %\ld g fur!r1 & ma9ta9 t if we s]i\sly set ourselves to consid] human action on its unconsci\s side1 we c only conceive x z a comb9ation ( movem5ts ( ! p>ts ( a mat]ial organism3 & t if we try to asc]ta9 :at ! #8end' 9 any case ( su* movem5ts is1 x is reasonable to conclude t x is "s mat]ial result1 "s organic condition conducive to ! pres]vation ei!r ( ! individual organism or ( ! race to :i* x belongs4 ,9 fact1 ! doctr9e t pleasure 7or ! abs5ce ( pa97 is ! end ( all human action c nei!r be support$ by ! results ( introspection1 nor by ! results ( ext]nal obs]vation & inf]5ce3 x r seems to be rea*$ by an arbitr>y & illegitimate comb9ation ( ! two4 ,b aga91 x is sometimes said t :atev] be ! case ) our pres5t adult consci\sness1 our orig9al impulses 7 all direct$ t[>ds pleasure#ec or f pa91 & t any impulses o!rwise direct$ are d]iv$ f ^! by 8association ( ideas40 ,i c f9d no evid5ce t ev5 t5ds to prove ?is3 s f> z we c obs]ve ! consci\sness ( *ildr51 ! two elem5ts1 extra-reg>d+ impulse & desire = pleasure1 seem to coexi/ 9 ! same mann] z !y d 9 mature life4 ,9 s f> z !re is any diff]5ce1 x seems to be 9 ! opposite direction2 z ! actions ( *ildr51 be+ m in/9ctive & less reflective1 are m prompt$ by extra-reg>d+ impulse1 & less by consci\s aim at pleasure4 ,no d\bt ! two k9ds ( impulse1 z we trace back ! developm5t ( consci\sness1 gradually become indi/+ui%able3 b ?is obvi\sly does n ju/ify u 9 id5tify+ ) ei!r ( ! two ! m indef9ite impulse out ( :i* bo? h be5 develop$4 ,b ev5 suppos+ x 7 f\nd t our e>lie/ appetites 7 all m]ely appetites = pleasure1 x w\ld h little be>+ on ! pres5t "q4 ,:at ,i am conc]n$ to ma9ta9 is t m5 d n n[ normally desire pleasure alone1 b to an important ext5t o!r ?+s also3 "s 9 p>ticul> hav+ impulses t[>ds virtue1 :i* may & d conflict ) _! consci\s desire = _! own pleasure4 ,to say 9 answ] to ?is t all m5 once desir$ pleasure is1 f an e?ical po9t ( view1 irrelevant3 except on ! assumption t !re is an orig9al type ( man's appetitive nature1 to :i*1 z su*1 x is "r or be/ = him to con=m4 ,b probably no ,h$oni/ w\ld expressly ma9ta9 ?is2 ?\gh su* an assumption1 no d\bt1 is frequ5tly made by writ]s ( ! ,intuitional s*ool4 ,,note4--,"s psy*ologi/s reg>d ,desire z ess5tially pa9ful4 ,?is view seems to me errone\s1 accord+ to ! ord9>y use ( ! t]m3 & ?\gh x does n necess>ily involve ! confusion--aga9/ :i* ,i am *iefly conc]n$ to gu>d 9 ! pres5t *apt]--betwe5 ! volitional /imulus ( desire itself & ! volitional /imulus ( av]sion to desire z pa9ful1 x has "s t5d5cy to cause ?is confusion4 ,x may !re=e be wor? :ile to po9t out t ! diff]5ce ( op9ion betwe5 myself & ! psy*ologi/s 9 "q--( :om ,i select ,dr4 ,ba9 z a lead+ example--dep5ds l>gely1 ?\gh n entirely1 on a diff]5ce ( def9ition4 ,9 *ap4 viii4 ( ! second division ( 8 book on ,! ,emotions & ! ,w1 ,dr4 ,ba9 def9es ,desire z 8t phase ( volition :]e !re is a motive & n ability to act on x10 & gives ! foll[+ illu/ration3-- 8,! inmate ( a small gloomy *amb] conceives to himself ! pleasure ( light & ( an exp&$ prospect3 ! unsatisfy+ ideal urges ! appropriate action = ga9+ ! reality2 he gets up & walks out4 ,suppose n[ t ! same ideal delight comes into ! m9d ( a prison]4 ,unable to fulfil ! prompt+1 he rema9s "u ! solicitation ( ! motive3 & 8 /ate is d5om9at$ crav+1 long+1 appetite1 desire4 ,if all motive impulses c\ld be at once foll[$ up1 desire w\ld h no place 444 !re is a b> 9 ! way ( act+ :i* leads to ! /ate ( conflict & r5d]s desire a m or less pa9ful /ate ( m9d40 ,n[ ,i agree t ,desire is mo/ frequ5tly pa9ful 9 "s degree :5 ! p]son desir+ is inhibit$ f act+ = ! atta9m5t ( ! desir$ object4 ,i d n inde$ ?9k t ev5 "u ^! circum/ances x is always pa9ful1 especially :5 x is accompani$ ) hope4 ,take ! simple case ( hung]4 ,ord9>ily1 :5 ,i am look+ =w>d to d9n] ) a good appetite1 ,i d n f9d hung] pa9ful--unless ,i h fa/$ unusually long--al?\gh cu/om & a reg>d = my dige/ion prev5t me f satisfy+ ! appetite till ! s\p is s]v$4 ,/ill ,i admit t :5 action t5d+ to fruition is exclud$1 desire is v liable to be pa9ful4 ,b x is surely contr>y to usage to re/rict ! t]m ,desire to ?is case4 ,suppose ,dr4 ,ba9's prison] becomes possess$ ( a file1 & sees 8 way to gett+ out ( prison by a long process1 :i* w involve1 among o!r op]ations1 ! fil+ ( c]ta9 b>s4 ,x w\ld surely seem absurd to say t 8 desire f9ally ceases :5 ! op]ation ( fil+ beg9s4 ,no d\bt ! conc5tration ( att5tion on ! complex activities necess>y = ! atta9m5t ( fre$om is likely to cause ! prison] to be s absorb$ by o!r ideas & feel+s t ! desire ( fre$om may tempor>ily cease to be pres5t 9 8 consci\sness4 ,b z ! /imulus on :i* 8 :ole activity ultimately dep5ds is c]ta9ly d]iv$ f ! unrealis$ idea ( fre$om1 ?is idea1 ) ! concomitant feel+ ( desire1 w normally recur at brief int]vals dur+ ! process4 ,simil>ly 9 o!r cases1 :ile x is q true t m5 (t5 "w = a desir$ end )\t consci\sly feel+ desire = ! end1 x w\ld be absurd to say t !y nev] feel desire :ile s work+3 at any rate ?is re/rict$ use ( ! t]m has nev]1 ,i ?9k1 be5 adopt$ by e?ical writ]s 9 treat+ ( ,desire4 ,& 9 "s passages ,dr4 ,ba9 himself seems to adopt a wid] mean+4 ,he says1 = in/ance1 9 ! *apt] f :i* ,i h quot$1 t 8we h a =m ( desire 444 :5 we are work+ = di/ant ends40 ,if1 !n1 x be all[$ t ! feel+ ( ,desire is at any rate sometimes an elem5t ( consci\sness coexi/+ ) a process ( activity direct$ to ! atta9m5t ( ! desir$ object1 or int]v5+ 9 ! brief pauses ( su* a process1 ,i v5ture to ?9k t :5 ! feel+ is obs]v$ "u ^! conditions1 x w n be f\nd 9 accordance ) ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d to describe x z ess5tially pa9ful4 ,take1 z a simple in/ance1 ! case ( a game involv+ bodily ex]cise & a conte/ ( skill4 ,probably _m p]sons :o take "p 9 su* ex]cises = sanit>y or social purposes beg9 )\t any p]ceptible desire to w9 ! game3 & probably z long z !y rema9 ?us indiff]5t ! ex]cise is r t$i\s4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 a consci\s desire to w9 ! game is excit$1 z a consequ5ce ( actions direct$ t[>ds ?is end3 &--9 my exp]i5ce at lea/--9 proportion z ! feel+ gr[s /rong1 ! :ole process becomes m pleasurable4 ,if ?is be admitt$ to be a normal exp]i5ce1 x mu/ surely be also admitt$ t ,desire 9 ?is case is a feel+ 9 :i* introspection does n enable u to detect ! slighte/ quality ( pa94 ,x w\ld be easy to give an indef9ite numb] ( simil> in/ances ( en]getic activity c>ri$ on = an end--:e!r 9 sport or 9 ! s]i\s bus9ess ( life--:]e a ke5 desire = ! atta9m5t ( ! end 9 view is indisp5sable to a real enjoym5t ( ! lab\r requir$ to atta91 & :]e at ! same "t we _c detect any pa9fulness 9 ! desire1 h[ev] mu* we try to sep>ate x 9 introspective analysis f its concomitant feel+4 ,! error t ,i am try+ to remove seems to me p>tly due to ov]look+ ^! cases1 & contemplat+ exclusively cases 9 :i* ,desire is = "s reason or o!r prev5t$ f hav+ its normal effect 9 /imulat+ activity direct$ to ! atta9m5t ( ! desir$ object4 ,p>tly1 h[ev]1 x seems to be due to ! resemblance betwe5 ,desire & ,pa91 to :i* ,i h drawn att5tion 9 ! text ( ?is *apt]1 i4e4 ! unre/fulness :i* is und\bt$ly a *>act]i/ic ( ! /ate ( desire1 &--ord9>ily--( pa94 ,= ! *>act]i/ic ( 8unre/fulness0 requires "s c>e to di/+ui% x f 8uneas9ess10 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ?is latt] t]m signifies "s degree ( pa9fulness4 ,! mi/ake is connect$ ) ! equally errone\s view--:i* ,hobbes controv]ts 9 8 usual =cible /yle--t 8! ,felicity ( ?is life consi/e? 9 ! repose ( a m9d satisfi$02 & x has also "s aff9ity ) ! widespread view--:i* has left its m>k on m ?an "o ,european language--t lab\r1 /r5u\s activity1 is ess5tially pa9ful4 ,on bo? ^! po9ts1 x ought to be said1 !re is d\btless consid]able div]g5ce betwe5 ! exp]i5ces ( diff]5t individuals3 b at any rate among ,engli%m5 ,i conceive t a p]son :o f9ds desire always pa9ful--9 ! s5se 9 :i*1 z ,i h tri$ to %[1 ! ^w is commonly us$ bo? by morali/s & 9 ord9>y disc\rse--is z exceptional a be+ z "o :o f9ds lab\r always pa9ful4 ,,footnotes3 #dj ,! relation ( ! /hetic to ! moral ideal ( conduct w be discuss$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt] 7ix47 ( ?is ,book4 #da ,i "h1 z 9 *ap4 i41 adopt ! exact h$oni/ic int]pretation ( #8happ9ess' :i* ,b5?am has made curr5t4 ,?is seems to me ! mo/ suitable use ( ! t]m2 b ,i aft]w>ds 7,book i4 *ap4 vii4 #a7 take note ( o!r uses4 #db ,con/itutional ,code1 ,introduction1 #b4 #dc ,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 ii4 p4 #ad4 #dd ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph51 :o holds 7,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 p4 #ej7 t 8pa9 & pleasure are ! sole det]m9+ causes ( action10 at ! same "t ?9ks t x 8w be admitt$ on all h&s0 t 8we are n always det]m9$ by a calculation ( pleasure to come40 #de ,or1 m precisely1 #8greate/ surplus ( pleasure ov] pa94' #df ,! qualifications & limitations :i* ?is proposition requires1 be=e x c be accept$ z /rictly true1 d n seem to me important = ! purpose ( ! pres5t argum5t4 ,see ,book ii4 *ap4 ii4 #b4 #dg ,9 ! pres5t treatise #8,desire' is prim>ily reg>d$ z a felt impulse or /imulus to actions t5d+ to ! realisation ( :at is desir$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 /ates ( feel+1 sometimes int5se1 to :i* ! t]m #8desire' is by usage applicable1 9 :i* ?is impulsive quality seems to be abs5t or at lea/ lat5t2 because ! realisation ( ! desir$ result is recognis$ z hopeless1 & has long be5 s recognis$4 ,9 su* cases ! #8desire' 7s-call$7 rema9s 9 consci\sness only z a s5se ( want ( a recognis$ good1 a feel+ no m or o!rwise impulsive ?an ! regretful memory ( pa/ joy4 ,t is1 desire 9 ?is condition may develop a second>y impulse to volunt>y day-dream+1 by :i* a bitt]-sweet imag9>y satisfaction ( ! want is atta9$2 or1 s f> z x is pa9ful1 x may impel to action or ?\ght :i* w br+ ab\t its own ext9ction3 b its prim>y impulse to acts t5d+ to realise ! desir$ result is no long] p]ceptible4 ,) ?is /ate ( m9d --8! desire ( ! mo? = ! />1 ,( ! night = ! morr[0-- ,i am n conc]n$ 9 ! pres5t discussion4 ,i notice x *iefly because "s writ]s 7e4g4 ,dr4 ,ba97 seem to contemplate z ! sole or typical case ( desire1 8:]e !re is a motive & no ability to act ^u x02 ?us expressly exclud+ t condition ( desire 7z ,i use ! t]m7 :i* seems to me ( prim>y importance f an e?ical po9t ( view1 i4e4 :]e action t5d+ to br+ ab\t ! desir$ result is conceiv$ z at once possible4 #dh ,! confusion occurs 9 ! mo/ s+ul> =m 9 ,hobbes1 :o actually id5tifies ,pleasure & ,appetite--8?is motion 9 :i* consi/e? pleasure1 is a solicitation to draw ne> to ! ?+ t please?40 #di ,! same argum5t is put 9 a m gu>d$1 &1 ,i ?9k1 unexceptionable =m by ,hut*eson4 ,x is p]haps m rem>kable t ,hume1 too1 %>es ,butl]'s view :i* he expresses almo/ 9 ! language ( ! fam\s s]mons4 8,!re are10 he says1 8bodily wants or appetites1 ackn[l$g$ by e "o1 :i* necess>ily prec$e all s5sual enjoym5t1 & c>ry u directly to seek possession ( ! object4 ,?us hung] & ?ir/ h eat+ & dr9k+ = _! end3 & f ! gratification ( ^! prim>y appetites arises a pleasure1 :i* may become ! object ( ano!r species ( incl9ation t is second>y & int]e/$40 ,h5ce ,hume f9ds t 8! hypo!sis :i* all[s ( a dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce1 di/9ct f self-love10 is 8con=mable to ! analogy ( nature40 ,see ,enquiry conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals 7,app5dix ,,ii474 #ej ,"s fur!r discussion ( x w be f\nd 9 ! note at ! end ( ! *apt]4 #ea ,pr(essor ,j4 ,s4 ,mack5zie1 9 8 ,manual ( ,e?ics 7#crd edition1 ,book i4 *ap4 ii4 note71 argu+ = ! univ]sal pa9fulness ( desire1 urges t ! s-call$ 8pleasures ( pursuit0 are really pleasures ( 8progressive atta9m5t02 :at causes pleasure be+ ! s]ies ( p>tial atta9m5ts t prec$e ! f9al atta9m5t4 ,!re seems to me mu* tru? 9 ?is view1 z reg>ds "s =ms ( pursuit2 b 9 o!r cases ,i c f9d no?+ des]v+ ! "n 9 ! c\rse ( ! pursuit3 ! prom95t elem5t ( ! pleasure seems to be cle>ly ! reflex ( eag] & hopeful1 p]haps consci\sly skilful1 activity4 ,e4g4 ?is is (t5 ! case 9 ! pursuit ( tru?1 sci5tific or hi/orical4 ,i h sp5t mo/ pleasant h\rs 9 hunt+ = evid5ce 9 fav\r ( a conjecture t _h occurr$ to me z a possible solution ( a difficult hi/orical "q1 )\t any 8progressive atta9m5t0 at all1 z ,i f\nd no evid5ce ( any importance3 b ! pleasure _h none ! less be5 real1 at any rate 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! pursuit4 ,or take ! common exp]i5ce ( de]-/alk+1 or ! /ruggle = victory 9 an ev5ly balanc$ game ( *ess1 or a prolong$ race 9 :i* no competitor ga9s on ! o!rs till ne> ! end4 ,i f9d no?+ l 8progressive atta9m5t0 9 ^! cases4 ,b ev5 grant+ ,mr4 ,mack5zie's view to be m widely applicable ?an ,i ?9k x1 ! "q x deals ) seems to me 9 ! ma9 irrelevant to ! issue t ,i am n[ discuss+3 s9ce x rema9s true t ! pres5ce ( antec$5t desire is an ess5tial condition ( ! pleasures ( atta9m5t--:e!r 8progressive0 or 8cata/rophic0--& t ! desire is n itself p]ceptibly pa9ful4 #eb ,lecky1 ,hi/4 ( ,european ,morals1 ,introduction4 #ec ,i mu/ ask ! read] to di/+ui% c>efully ! "q discuss$ 9 ?is *apt]1 :i* relates to ! objects ( desires & av]sions1 f ! diff]5t "q :e!r ! causes ( ^! impulses are always to be f\nd 9 antec$5t exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa94 ,! be>+ ( ?is latt] "q on ,e?ics1 ?\gh n unimportant1 is manife/ly m indirect ?an t ( ! "q "h dealt )3 & x w be conv5i5t to po/pone x till a lat] /age ( ! discussion4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book ii4 *ap4 vi4 #b1 & ,book iv4 *ap4 iv4 #a4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,free ,,w #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ,i h treat$ fir/ ( rational1 & secondly ( dis9t]e/$ action1 )\t introduc+ ! vex$ "q ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,! difficulties connect$ ) ?is "q h be5 prov$ by long dialectical exp]i5ce to be s great1 t ,i am anxi\s to conf9e !m )9 z /rict limits z ,i c1 & keep z mu* ( my subject z possible free f _! p]turb+ influ5ce4 ,& x appe>s to me t we h no psy*ological w>rant = id5tify+ ,dis9t]e/$ ) ei!r 8,free0 or 8,rational0 action2 :ile to id5tify ,rational & ,free action is at lea/ mislead+1 & t5ds to obscure ! real issue rais$ 9 ! ,free ,w controv]sy4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i h tri$ to %[ t action /rictly dis9t]e/$1 t is1 disreg>dful ( =ese5 balance ( pleasure to ourselves1 is f\nd 9 ! mo/ in/9ctive z well z 9 ! mo/ delib]ate & self-consci\s region ( our volitional exp]i5ce4 ,& rational action1 z ,i conceive x1 rema9s rational1 h[ev] completely ! rationality ( any individual's conduct may be det]m9$ by causes antec$5t or ext]nal to 8 own volition3 s t ! conception ( act+ rationally1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt] b "o1 is n b\nd up ) ! notion ( act+ #8freely1' z ma9ta9$ by ,lib]t>ians g5]ally aga9/ ,det]m9i/s4 ,i say 8,lib]t>ians g5]ally10 because 9 ! /atem5ts made by disciples ( ,kant z to ! connexion ( ,fre$om & ,rationality1 !re appe>s to me to be a confusion betwe5 two mean+s ( ! t]m ,fre$om1 :i* require to be c>efully di/+ui%$ 9 any discussion ( ,free ,w4 ,:5 a disciple ( ,kant#ed says t a man 8is a free ag5t 9 s f> z he acts "u ! guidance ( reason10 ! /atem5t easily w9s ass5t f ord9>y read]s2 s9ce1 z ,:ewell says1 we ord9>ily 8consid] our ,reason z be+ ourselves r ?an our desires & affections4 ,we speak ( ,desire1 ,love1 ,ang]1 z ma/]+ u1 or ( ourselves z controll+ !m4 ,if we decide to pref] "s remote & ab/ract good to imm$iate pleasures1 or to con=m to a rule :i* br+s u pres5t pa9 7:i* decision implies ex]cise ( ,reason71 we m p>ticul>ly consid] su* acts z our own acts40#ee ,i d n1 !re=e1 object on ! score ( usage to ?is application ( ! t]m 8free0 to d5ote volunt>y actions 9 :i* ! s$uctive solicitations ( appetite or passion are successfully resi/$3 & ,i am s5sible ( ! ga9 9 effectiv5ess ( moral p]suasion :i* is obta9$ by ?us enli/+ ! p[]ful s5tim5t ( ,lib]ty on ! side ( ,reason & ,morality4 ,b x is cle> t if we say t a man is a 8free0 ag5t 9 s f> z he acts rationally1 we _c also say--9 ! same s5se--t x is by 8 own 8free0 *oice t he acts irrationally1 :5 he does s act2 & x is ?is latt] proposition :i* ,lib]t>ians g5]ally h be5 conc]n$ to ma9ta94 ,!y h ?\ght x ( fundam5tal importance to %[ ! #8,fre$om' ( ! moral ag5t1 on acc\nt ( ! connexion t !y h held to exi/ betwe5 ,fre$om & ,moral ,responsibility3 & x is obvi\s t ! ,fre$om ?us connect$ ) ,responsibility is n ! ,fre$om t is only manife/$ or realis$ 9 rational action1 b ! ,fre$om to *oose betwe5 "r & wrong :i* is manife/$ or realis$ equally 9 ei!r *oice4 ,n[ x is impli$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian consci\sness ( 8wilful s90 t m5 d delib]ately & kn[+ly *oose to act irrationally4 ,!y d n m]ely pref] self-int]e/ to duty 7= "h is r a conflict ( claims to rationality ?an cle> irrationality72 b 7e4g47 s5sual indulg5ce to heal?1 rev5ge to reputation1 etc41 ?\gh !y "k t su* pref]5ce is oppos$ to _! true int]e/s no less ?an to _! duty4#ef ,h5ce x does n really correspond to our exp]i5ce z a :ole to repres5t ! conflict betwe5 ,reason & passion z a conflict betwe5 #8ourselves' on ! "o h& & a =ce ( nature on ! o!r4 ,we may say1 if we l1 t :5 we yield to passion1 we become #8! slaves ( our desires & appetites'3 b we mu/ at ! same "t admit t our slav]y is self-*os54 ,c we say1 !n1 ( ! wilful wrongdo] t 8 wrong *oice 0 #8free1' 9 ! s5se t he might h *os5 rightly1 n m]ely if ! antec$5ts ( 8 volition1 ext]nal & int]nal1 _h be5 diff]5t1 b suppos+ ^! antec$5ts un*ang$8 ,?is1 ,i conceive1 is ! sub/antial issue rais$ 9 ! ,free ,w controv]sy2 :i* ,i n[ propose briefly to consid]3 s9ce x is widely believ$ to be ( great ,e?ical importance4 #b4 ,we may conv5i5tly beg9 by def9+ m exactly ! notion ( ,volunt>y action1 to :i*1 accord+ to all me?ods ( ,e?ics alike1 ! pr$icates #8"r' & #8:at ought to be done'--9 ! /ricte/ e?ical s5se--are exclusively applicable4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,volunt>y action is di/+ui%$ z #8consci\s' f actions or movem5ts ( ! human organism :i* are #8unconsci\s' or #8me*anical4' ,! p]son ^: organism p]=ms su* movem5ts only becomes aw>e ( !m1 if at all1 aft] !y h be5 p]=m$2 accord+ly !y are n imput$ to him z a p]son1 or judg$ to be morally wrong or imprud5t2 ?\gh !y may sometimes be judg$ to be good or bad 9 respect ( _! consequ5ces1 ) ! implication t !y ought to be enc\rag$ or *eck$ z f> z ?is c be done indirectly by consci\s ef=t4 ,s aga91 9 ! case ( consci\s actions1 ! ag5t is n reg>d$ z morally culpable1 except 9 an indirect way1 = entirely un=ese5 effects ( 8 volunt>y actions4 ,no d\bt :5 a man's action has caus$ "s un=ese5 h>m1 ! popul> moral judgm5t (t5 blames him = c>elessness2 b x w\ld be g5]ally admitt$ by reflective p]sons t 9 su* cases /rictly moral blame only atta*es to ! ag5t 9 an indirect way1 9 s f> z 8 c>elessness is ! result ( "s wilful neglect ( duty4 ,?us ! prop] imm$iate objects ( moral approval or disapproval w\ld seem to be always ! results ( a man's volitions s f> z !y 7 int5d$--i4e4 repres5t$ 9 ?\ght z c]ta9 or probable#eg consequ5ces ( 8 volitions3--or1 m /rictly1 ! volitions !mselves 9 :i* su* results 7 s int5d$1 s9ce we d n consid] t a man is reliev$ f moral blame because 8 wrong int5tion rema9s unrealis$ ?r\gh ext]nal causes4 ,?is view seems at fir/ sight to diff] f ! common op9ion t ! morality ( acts dep5ds on _! #8motives'2 if by motives are und]/ood ! desires t we feel = "s ( ! =ese5 consequ5ces ( our acts4 ,b ,i d n ?9k t ^? :o hold ?is op9ion w\ld d5y t we are blamewor?y = any prohibit$ result :i* we =esaw 9 will+1 :e!r x 0 ! object ( desire or n4 ,no d\bt x is commonly held t acts1 simil> z reg>ds _! =ese5 results1 may be #8bett]' or #8worse'#eh ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 desires or av]sions4 ,/ill s f> z ^! feel+s are n altoge!r "u ! control ( ! w1 ! judgm5t ( #8"r' & #8wrong'--9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ^! t]ms--seems to be n prop]ly applicable to ! feel+s !mselves1 b r to ! ex]tion or omission ( volunt>y ef=t to *eck bad motives & enc\rage good ones1 or to ! consci\s adoption ( an object ( desire z an end to be aim$ at--:i* is a species ( volition4 ,we may conclude !n t judgm5ts ( "r & wrong relate prop]ly to volitions accompani$ ) int5tion--:e!r ! int5d$ consequ5ces be ext]nal1 or "s effects produc$ on ! ag5t's own feel+s or "*4 ,?is excludes f ! scope ( su* judgm5ts ^? consci\s actions :i* are n int5tional1 /rictly speak+2 z :5 sudd5 /rong feel+s ( pleasure & pa9 cause movem5ts :i* we are aw>e ( mak+1 b :i* are n prec$$ by any repres5tation 9 idea ei!r ( ! movem5ts !mselves or ( _! effects4 ,= su* actions1 sometimes di/+ui%$ z #8in/9ctive1' we are only held to be responsible indirectly s f> z any bad consequ5ces ( !m might h be5 prev5t$ by volunt>y ef=ts to =m habits ( m complete self-control4 ,we h to obs]ve fur!r t our common moral judgm5ts recognise an important di/9ction betwe5 impulsive & delib]ate wrongdo+1 condemn+ ! latt] m /rongly ?an ! =m]4 ,! l9e betwe5 ! two _c be %>ply drawn3 b we may def9e #8impulsive' actions z ^? :]e ! connexion betwe5 ! feel+ t prompts & ! action prompt$ is s simple & imm$iate t1 ?\gh int5tion is di/9ctly pres5t1 ! consci\sness ( p]sonal *oice ( ! int5d$ result is evanesc5t4 ,9 delib]ate volitions !re is always a consci\s selection ( ! result z "o ( two or m practical alt]natives4 ,9 ! case1 !n1 ( su* volitions z are pre-em95tly ! objects ( moral condemnation & approbation1 ! psy*ical fact #8volition' seems to include--besides int5tion1 or repres5tation ( ! results ( action--also ! consci\sness ( self z *oos+1 resolv+1 det]m9+ ^! results4 ,& ! "q :i* ,i und]/& to be at issue 9 ! ,free ,w controv]sy may be /at$ ?us3 ,is ! self to :i* ,i ref] my delib]ate volitions a self ( /rictly det]m9ate moral qualities1 a def9ite "* p>tly inh]it$1 p>tly =m$ by my pa/ actions & feel+s1 & by any physical influ5ces t x may h unconsci\sly receiv$2 s t my volunt>y action1 = good or = evil1 is at any mom5t completely caus$ by ! det]m9ate qualities ( ?is "*1 toge!r ) my circum/ances1 or ! ext]nal influ5ces act+ on me at ! mom5t--includ+ "u ?is latt] t]m my pres5t bodily conditions8--or is !re always a possibility ( my *oos+ to act 9 ! mann] t ,i n[ judge to be reasonable & "r1 :atev] my previ\s actions & exp]i5ces may h be58 ,9 ! above que/ions a mat]iali/ w\ld sub/itute #8bra9 & n]v\s sy/em' = #8"*1' & !reby obta9 a cle>] notion2 b ,i h avoid$ us+ t]ms :i* sugge/ mat]iali/ic assumptions1 because ,det]m9ism by no means involves ,mat]ialism4 ,= ! pres5t purpose ! diff]5ce is unimportant4 ,! sub/antial dispute relates to ! complet5ess ( ! causal dep5d5ce ( any volition ^u ! /ate ( ?+s at ! prec$+ in/ant1 :e!r we specify ^! z #8"* & circum/ances1' or #8bra9 & environ+ =ces4'#ei ,on ! ,det]m9i/ side !re is a cumulative argum5t ( great =ce4 ,! belief t ev5ts are det]m9ately relat$ to ! /ate ( ?+s imm$iately prec$+ !m is n[ held by all compet5t ?9k]s 9 respect ( all k9ds ( occurr5ces except human volitions4 ,x has /eadily gr[n bo? int5sively & ext5sively1 bo? 9 cle>ness & c]ta9ty ( conviction & 9 univ]sality ( application1 z ! human m9d has develop$ & human exp]i5ce has be5 sy/ematis$ & enl>g$4 ,/ep by /ep 9 successive dep>tm5ts ( fact conflict+ modes ( ?\ght h rec$$ & fad$1 until at l5g? !y h vani%$ ev]y:]e1 except f ?is my/]i\s citadel ( ,w4 ,ev]y:]e else ! belief is s firmly e/abli%$ t "s decl>e its opposite to be inconceivable3 o!rs ev5 ma9ta9 t x always 0 s4 ,e sci5tific proc$ure assumes x3 ea* success ( sci5ce confirms x4 ,& n only are we f9d+ ev] new pro( t ev5ts are cognisably det]m9$1 b also t ! diff]5t modes ( det]m9ation ( diff]5t k9ds ( ev5ts are fundam5tally id5tical & mutually dep5d5t3 & naturally1 ) ! increas+ conviction ( ! ess5tial unity ( ! cognisable univ]se1 increases ! indisposition to all[ ! exceptional "* claim$ by ,lib]t>ians = ! dep>tm5t ( human action4 ,aga91 :5 we fix our att5tion on human action1 we obs]ve t ! portion ( x :i* is orig9at$ unconsci\sly is admitt$ly det]m9$ by physical causes3 & we f9d t no cle> l9e c be drawn betwe5 acts ( ?is k9d & ^? :i* are consci\s & volunt>y4 ,n only are _m acts ( ! =m] class entirely simil> to ^? ( ! latt]1 except 9 be+ unconsci\s3 b we rem>k fur!r t actions :i* we habitually p]=m cont9ually pass f ! consci\s class into !--:olly or p>tly--unconsci\s3 & ! fur!r we inve/igate1 ! m ! conclusion is =c$ ^u u1 t !re is no k9d ( action orig9at$ by consci\s volition :i* _c also1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 be orig9at$ unconsci\sly4 ,aga91 :5 we look closely at our consci\s acts1 we f9d t 9 respect ( su* ( !m z ,i h *>act]is$ z #8impulsive'--acts done sudd5ly "u ! /imulus ( a mom5t>y s5sation or emotion--our consci\sness c h>dly be said to sugge/ t !y are n completely det]m9$ by ! /r5g? ( ! /imulus & ! /ate ( our previ\sly det]m9$ temp]am5t & "* at ! "t ( its op]ation3 & "h aga91 z 0 be=e obs]v$1 x is difficult to draw a l9e cle>ly sep>at+ ^! actions f ^? 9 :i* ! app>5t consci\sness ( #8free *oice' becomes di/9ct4 ,fur!r1 we always expla9#fj ! volunt>y action ( all m5 except ourselves on ! pr9ciple ( causation by "* & circum/ances4 ,inde$ o!rwise social life w\ld be impossible3 = ! life ( man 9 society involves daily a mass ( m9ute =eca/s ( ! actions ( o!r m51 f\nd$ on exp]i5ce ( mank9d g5]ally1 or ( p>ticul> classes ( m51 or ( individuals2 :o are ?us necess>ily reg>d$ z ?+s hav+ det]m9ate prop]ties1 causes ^: effects are calculable4 ,we inf] g5]ally ! future actions ( ^? :om we "k f _! pa/ actions2 & if our =eca/ turns out 9 any case to be errone\s1 we d n attribute ! discrepancy to ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( ,free ,w1 b to our incomplete acqua9tance ) _! "* & motives4 ,& pass+ f individuals to communities1 :e!r we believe 9 a 8social sci5ce0 or n1 we all admit & take "p 9 discussions ( social ph5om5a 9 :i* ! same pr9ciple is assum$3 & h[ev] we may diff] z to p>ticul> !ories1 we nev] d\bt ! validity ( ! assumption3 & if we f9d any?+ inexplicable 9 hi/ory1 pa/ or pres5t1 x nev] occurs to u to attribute x to an ext5sive ex]cise ( free w 9 a p>ticul> direction4 ,nay1 ev5 z reg>ds our own actions1 h[ev] #8free' we feel ourselves at any mom5t1 h[ev] uncon/ra9$ by pres5t motives & circum/ances & unfett]$ by ! result ( :at we h previ\sly be5 & felt1 our volitional *oice may appe>3 /ill1 :5 x is once well pa/1 & we survey x 9 ! s]ies ( our actions1 its relations ( causation & resemblance to o!r p>ts ( our life appe>1 & we naturally expla9 x z an effect ( our nature1 education1 & circum/ances4 ,nay we ev5 apply ! same conceptions to our future action1 & ! m1 9 proportion z our moral s5tim5ts are develop$3 = ) our s5se ( duty g5]ally increases our s5se ( ! duty ( moral culture1 & our desire ( self-improvem5t3 & ! possibility ( moral self-culture dep5ds on ! assumption t by a pres5t volition we c det]m9e to "s ext5t our actions 9 ! m or less remote future4 ,no d\bt we habitually take at ! same "t ! opposite1 ,lib]t>ian1 view z to our future3 we believe1 = example1 t we are p]fectly able to resi/ h5ce=w>d temptations to :i* we h cont9ually yield$ 9 ! pa/4 ,b x %\ld be obs]v$ t ?is belief is 7z morali/s ( all s*ools admit & ev5 urge7 at any rate to a great ext5t illusory & mislead+4 ,?\gh ,lib]t>ians cont5d t x is possible = u at any mom5t to act 9 a mann] oppos$ to our acquir$ t5d5cies & previ\s cu/oms1--/ill1 !y & ,det]m9i/s alike tea* t x is mu* less easy ?an m5 commonly imag9e to break ! subtle unfelt trammels ( habit4 #c4 ,aga9/ ! =midable array ( cumulative evid5ce (f]$ = ,det]m9ism !re is to be set ! imm$iate affirmation ( consci\sness 9 ! mom5t ( delib]ate action4 ,c]ta9ly :5 ,i h a di/9ct consci\sness ( *oos+ betwe5 alt]natives ( conduct1 "o ( :i* ,i conceive z "r or reasonable1 ,i f9d x impossible n to ?9k t ,i c n[ *oose to d :at ,i s conceive1--suppos+ t !re is no ob/acle to my do+ x o!r ?an ! condition ( my desires & volunt>y habits1--h[ev] /rong may be my incl9ation to act unreasonably1 & h[ev] uni=mly ,i may h yield$ to su* incl9ations 9 ! pa/4#fa ,i recognise t ea* concession to vici\s desire makes ! difficulty ( resi/+ x great] :5 ! desire recurs3 b ! difficulty always seems to rema9 sep>at$ f impossibility by an impassable gulf4 ,i d n d5y t ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d includes cases 9 :i* c]ta9 impulses--su* z av]sion to dea? or extreme pa91 or morbid appetite = alcohol or opium--h rea*$ a po9t ( int5sity at :i* !y h be5 felt z irresi/ibly ov]ma/]+ volunt>y *oice4 ,i ?9k we commonly judge t :5 ?is po9t is rea*$ ! individual ceases to be morally responsible = ! act done "u su* ov]ma/]+ impulse3 b at any rate ! moral problem ?us pres5t$ is v exceptional2 9 ord9>y cases ( yield+ to temptation ?is consci\sness ( ! irresi/ibility ( impulse does n come 94 ,ord9>ily1 h[ev] /rong may be ! ru% ( appetite or ang] t comes ov] me1 x does n pres5t itself z irresi/ible2 &1 if ,i delib]ate at su* a mom5t1 ,i _c reg>d ! m]e =ce ( ! impulse z a reason = do+ :at ,i o!rwise judge to be unreasonable4 ,i c suppose t my conviction ( free *oice may be illusory3 t if ,i knew my own nature ,i might see x to be pr$et]m9$ t1 be+ s con/itut$ & 9 su* circum/ances1 ,i %\ld act on ! occasion 9 "q contr>y to my rational judgm5t4 ,b ,i _c conceive myself see+ ?is1 )\t at ! same "t conceiv+ my :ole conception ( :at ,i n[ call 8my0 action fundam5tally alt]$3 ,i _c conceive t if ,i contemplat$ ! actions ( my organism 9 ?is light ,i %\ld ref] !m to my 8self0--i4e4 to ! m9d s contemplat+--9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i n[ ref] !m4 ,9 ?is conflict ( argum5ts1 x is n surpris+ t ! !oretical "q z to ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w is /ill diff]5tly decid$ by ?9k]s ( repute2 & ,i d n myself wi% at pres5t to pron\nce any decision on x4 ,b ,i ?9k x possible & useful to %[ t ! e?ical importance ( decid+ x "o way or ano!r is liable to be exagg]at$2 & t any "o :o w consid] ! matt] sob]ly & c>efully w f9d ?is importance to be ( a /rictly limit$ k9d4 ,x is *iefly on ! ,lib]t>ian side t ,i f9d a t5d5cy to ! exagg]ation ( :i* ,i h j spok54 ,"s ,lib]t>ian writ]s ma9ta9 t ! conception ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 ali5 z x may be to positive sci5ce1 is yet q indisp5sable to ,e?ics & ,jurisprud5ce2 s9ce 9 judg+ t ,i 8ought0 to d any?+ ,i imply t ,i 8c0 d x1 & simil>ly 9 prais+ or blam+ ! actions ( o!rs ,i imply t !y 8c\ld0 h act$ o!rwise4 ,if a man's actions are m]e l9ks 9 a *a9 ( causation :i*1 z we trace x back1 ultimately c>ries u to ev5ts ant]ior to 8 p]sonal exi/5ce1 he _c1 x is said1 really h ei!r m]it or dem]it2 & if he has n m]it or dem]it1 x is repugnant to ! common moral s5se ( mank9d to rew>d or puni%--ev5 to praise or blame--him4 ,9 consid]+ ?is argum5t1 x w be conv5i5t--= cle>ness ( discussion--to assume 9 ! fir/ in/ance t !re is no d\bt or conflict 9 our view ( :at x is "r to d1 except su* z may be caus$ by ! pres5t "q4 ,x w also be conv5i5t to sep>ate ! discussion ( ! importance ( ,free ,w 9 relation to moral action g5]ally f ! special "q ( its importance 9 relation to puni%+ & rew>d+2 s9ce1 9 ! latt] species ( action1 :at *iefly claims att5tion is n ! pres5t ,fre$om ( ! ag5t1 b ! pa/ ,fre$om ( ! p]son n[ act$ on4 ,z reg>ds action g5]ally1 ! ,det]m9i/ all[s t a man is only morally b\nd to d :at is 89 8 p[]02 b he expla9s 89 8 p[]0 to mean t ! result 9 "q w be produc$ if ! man *oose to produce x4 ,& ?is is1 ,i ?9k1 ! s5se 9 :i* ! proposition 8:at ,i ought to d ,i c d0 is commonly accept$3 x means 8c d if ,i *oose10 n 8c *oose to d40 ,/ill ! "q rema9s 8,c ,i *oose to d :at 9 ord9>y ?\ght ,i judge to be "r to d80 ,"h my own view is t--)9 ! limits above expla9$--,i inevitably conceive t ,i c *oose2 h[ev]1 ,i c suppose myself to reg>d ?is conception z illusory1 & to judge1 inf]r+ ! future f ! pa/1 t ,i c]ta9ly %all n *oose1 & accord+ly t su* *oice is n really possible to me4 ,?is be+ suppos$1 x seems to me und5iable t ?is judgm5t w exclude or weak5 ! op]ation ( ! moral motive 9 ! case ( ! act contemplat$3 ,i ei!r %all n judge x reasonable to *oose to d :at ,i %\ld o!rwise s judge1 or if ,i d pass ! judgm5t1 ,i %all also judge ! conception ( duty appli$ 9 x to be illusory1 no less ?an ! conception ( ,fre$om4 ,s f> ,i conc$e ! ,lib]t>ian cont5tion z to ! demoralis+ effect ( ,det]m9ism1 if held ) a real =ce ( conviction4 ,b ,i ?9k ! cases are r>e 9 :i* x is ev5 on ,det]m9i/ pr9ciples legitimate to conclude x to be c]ta9--& n m]ely highly probable--t ,i %all delib]ately *oose to d :at ,i judge to be unwise4#fb ,ord9>ily ! legitimate inf]5ce f a man's pa/ exp]i5ce1 & f 8 g5]al k ( human nature1 w\ld n g beyond a v /rong probability t he w\ld *oose to d wrong3 & a m]e probability--h[ev] /rong--t ,i %all n w to d "r _c be reg>d$ by me 9 delib]ation z a reason = n will+3#fc :ile x c]ta9ly supplies a rational gr\nd = will+ /rongly--j z a /rong probability ( any o!r evil supplies a rational gr\nd = special ex]tions to avoid x4 ,inde$1 ,i d n see :y a ,lib]t>ian %\ld n--equally ) a ,det]m9i/--accept z valid1 & f9d x in/ructive to contemplate1 ! consid]ations t r5d] x probable t he w n *oose to d "r 9 any p>ticul> circum/ances4 ,9 all ord9>y cases1 !re=e1 x does n seem to me relevant to e?ical delib]ation to det]m9e ! metaphysical validity ( my consci\sness ( fre$om to *oose :atev] ,i may conclude to be reasonable1 unless ! affirmation or negation ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w someh[ modifies my view ( :at x w\ld be reasonable to *oose to d if ,i c\ld s *oose4 ,i d n ?9k t any su* modification ( view c be ma9ta9$1 z reg>ds ! ultimate ends ( rational action :i*1 9 *ap4 i41 ,i took z be+ commonly accept$4 ,if ,happ9ess1 :e!r private or g5]al1 be tak5 z ! ultimate end ( action on a ,lib]t>ian view1 ! adoption ( a ,det]m9i/ view af=ds no gr\nd = reject+ x3 & if ,excell5ce is 9 itself admirable & desirable1 x surely rema9s equally s :e!r any individual's approximation to x is entirely det]m9$ by inh]it$ nature & ext]nal influ5ces or n3--except s f> z ! notion ( ,excell5ce includes t ( ,free ,w4 ,n[ ,free ,w is obvi\sly n includ$ 9 our common ideal ( physical & intellectual p]fection3 & x seems to me also n to be includ$ 9 ! common notions ( ! excell5ces ( "* :i* we call virtues3 ! manife/ations ( c\rage1 temp]ance1 & ju/ice d n become less admirable because we c trace _! antec$5ts 9 a happy balance ( inh]it$ dispositions develop$ by a c>eful education4#fd ,c1 !n1 ! affirmation or negation ( ,free ,w affect our view ( ! fitte/ means = ! atta9m5t ( ei!r end8 ,9 consid]+ ?is we h to di/+ui% betwe5 ! case ( a connexion betwe5 means & end believ$ to exi/ on empirical or o!r sci5tific gr\nds1 & ! case :]e ! belief 9 su* connexion is an inf]5ce f ! belief 9 a moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,accord+ to ! receiv$ view ( ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 ! p]=mance ( ,duty is ! be/ means ( atta9+ ! ag5t's happ9ess l>gely ?r\gh its expect$ consequ5ces 9 ano!r _w1 9 :i* virtue w be rew>d$ & vice puni%$ by ,god3 if1 !n1 ! belief 9 ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w & a future life = m5 is held to dep5d on ! assumption ( ,free ,w1 ?is latt] becomes obvi\sly ( fundam5tal e?ical importance3 n1 inde$1 9 det]m9+ a man's ,duty1 b 9 reconcil+ x ) 8 ,int]e/4 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 is ! ma9 elem5t ( tru? 9 ! view t ! d5ial ( ,free ,w removes motives to ! p]=mance ( ,duty3 & ,i admit ! validity ( ! cont5tion1 s f> z 7#a7 ! c\rse ( action conducive to an individual's ,int]e/ w\ld be ?\ght to div]ge f 8 ,duty1 ap>t f !ological consid]ations1 & 7#b7 9 ! !ological reason+ t removes ?is div]g5ce ,free ,w is an indisp5sable assumption4 ,! =m] po9t w be exam9$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt]2#fe ! latt] x h>dly falls )9 ! scope ( ?is treatise to discuss4#ff ,if we conf9e our att5tion to su* connexion betwe5 means & ends z is sci5tifically cognisable1 x does n appe> t an act n[ delib]at$ on c be less or m a means to any ult]ior end1 because x is pr$et]m9$4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be urg$ t 9 consid]+ h[ we ought to act 9 any case1 we h to take into acc\nt ! probable future actions ( o!rs1 & also ( ourselves2 & t ) reg>d to ^! x is necess>y to decide ! "q ( ,free ,w1 9 ord] t we may "k :e!r ! future is capable ( be+ pr$ict$ f ! pa/4 ,b "h1 aga91 x seems to me t no def9ite practical consequ5ces w\ld logically foll[ f ?is decision4 ,= h[ev] f> we may g 9 admitt+ ,free ,w z a cause1 ! actual op]ation ( :i* may falsify ! mo/ sci5tific =eca/s ( human action1 /ill s9ce x is ex hypo!si an absolutely unkn[n cause1 our recognition ( x _c lead u to modify any su* =eca/s3 at mo/1 x c only affect our reliance on !m4 ,we may illu/rate ?is by an imag9>y extreme case4 ,suppose we 7 someh[ conv9c$ t all ! planets 7 end[$ ) ,free ,w1 & t !y only ma9ta9$ _! p]iodic motions by ! cont9ual ex]cise ( free *oice1 9 resi/ance to /rong c5trifugal or c5tripetal incl9ations4 ,our g5]al confid5ce 9 ! future ( ! sol> sy/em might reasonably be impair$1 ?\gh x is n easy to say h[ mu*2#fg b ! details ( our a/ronomical calculations w\ld be cle>ly unaffect$3 ! free wills c\ld 9 no way be tak5 z an elem5t 9 ! reckon+4 ,& ! case w\ld be simil>1 ,i suppose1 9 ! =eca/ ( human conduct1 if psy*ology & sociology %\ld ev] become exact sci5ces4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 !y are s f> f be+ su* t ?is additional elem5t ( unc]ta9ty c h>dly h ev5 any emotional effect4 ,to sum up3 we may say t1 9 s f> z we reason to any def9ite conclusions z to :at ! future actions ( ourselves or o!rs w be1 we mu/ consid] !m z det]m9$ by unv>y+ laws3 if !y are n completely s det]m9$ our reason+ is pro tanto liable to error3 b no o!r is op5 to u4 ,:ile on ! o!r h&1 :5 we are endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 7on any pr9ciples7 :at *oice x is reasonable to make betwe5 two alt]natives ( pres5t conduct1 ,det]m9i/ conceptions are z irrelevant z !y are 9 ! =m] case inevitable4 ,& f nei!r po9t ( view does x seem practically important1 = ! g5]al regulation ( conduct1 to decide ! metaphysical "q at issue 9 ! ,free-w ,controv]sy3 unless--pass+ f ,e?ics into ,!ology--we re/ ! reconciliation ( ,duty & ,int]e/ on a !ological argum5t t requires ! assumption ( ,free ,w4 #d4 ,s f> ,i h be5 argu+ t ! adoption ( ,det]m9ism w n--except 9 c]ta9 exceptional circum/ances or on c]ta9 !ological assumptions--reasonably modify a man's view ( :at x is "r = him to d or 8 reasons = do+ x4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t--grant+ ! reasons = "r action to rema9 unalt]$--/ill ! motives t prompt to x w be weak5$2 s9ce a man w n feel remorse = 8 actions1 if he reg>ds !m z necess>y results ( causes ant]ior to 8 p]sonal exi/5ce4 ,i admit t s f> z ! s5tim5t ( remorse implies self-blame irremovably fix$ on ! self blam$1 x mu/ t5d to vani% f ! m9d ( a conv9c$ ,det]m9i/4 ,/ill ,i d n see :y ! imag9ation ( a ,det]m9i/ %\ld n be z vivid1 8 sympa?y z ke51 8 love ( goodness z /rong z a ,lib]t>ian's3 & ,i !re=e see no reason :y dislike = 8 own %ortcom+s & = ! mis*iev\s qualities ( 8 "* :i* h caus$ bad actions 9 ! pa/ %\ld n be z effective a spr+ ( moral improvem5t z ! s5tim5t ( remorse w\ld be4 ,= x appe>s to me t m5 9 g5]al take at lea/ z mu* pa9s to cure defects 9 _! circum/ances1 organic defects1 & defects ( intellect--:i* cause !m no remorse--z !y d to cure moral defects2 s f> z !y consid] ! =m] to be no less mis*iev\s & no less removable ?an ! latt]4 ,?is leads me to ! consid]ation ( ! effect ( ,det]m9i/ doctr9es on ! allotm5t ( puni%m5t & rew>d4 ,= x mu/ be admitt$1 ,i ?9k1 t ! common retributive view ( puni%m5t1 & ! ord9>y notions ( 8m]it10 8dem]it10 & 8responsibility10 also involve ! assumption ( ,free ,w3 if ! wrong act1 & ! bad qualities ( "* manife/$ 9 x1 are conceiv$ z ! necess>y effects ( causes antec$5t or ext]nal to ! exi/5ce ( ! ag5t1 ! moral responsibility--9 ! ord9>y s5se--= ! mis*ief caus$ by !m c no long] re/ on him4 ,at ! same "t1 ! ,det]m9i/ c give to ! t]ms 8ill-des]t0 & 8responsibility0 a signification :i* is n only cle> & def9ite1 b1 f an utilit>ian po9t ( view1 ! only suitable mean+4 ,9 ?is view1 if ,i affirm t ,a is responsible = a h>mful act1 ,i mean t x is "r to puni% him = x2 prim>ily1 9 ord] t ! fe> ( puni%m5t may prev5t him & o!rs f committ+ simil> acts 9 future4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two views ( puni%m5t is !oretically v wide4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 :5 ,i come to exam9e 9 detail ! curr5t conception ( ,ju/ice1#fh endeav\r to %[ t ?is admission c h>dly h any practical effect2 s9ce x is practically impossible to be guid$1 ei!r 9 remun]at+ s]vices or 9 puni%+ mis*iev\s acts1 by any o!r consid]ations ?an ^? :i* ! ,det]m9i/ int]pretation ( des]t w\ld include4 ,= in/ance1 ! treatm5t ( legal puni%m5t z det]r5t & re=matory r ?an retributive seems to be =c$ ^u u by ! practical exig5ces ( social ord] & wellbe+--q ap>t f any ,det]m9i/ philosophy4#fi ,moreov]1 z ,i %all h]eaft] %[1 if ! retributive view ( ,puni%m5t be /rictly tak5--ab/ract+ completely f ! prev5tive view--x br+s our conception ( ,ju/ice into conflict ) ,b5evol5ce1 z puni%m5t pres5ts itself z a purely useless evil4 ,simil>ly1 z reg>ds ! s5tim5ts :i* prompt to ! expression ( moral praise & blame--,i admit t 9 ! m9d ( a conv9c$ ,det]m9i/1 ! desire to enc\rage good & prev5t bad conduct mu/ take ! place ( a desire to requite ! "o or ! o!r3 b aga9 ,i see no reason :y ! ,det]m9i/ species ( moral s5tim5ts %\ld n be z effective 9 promot+ virtue & social wellbe+ z ! ,lib]t>ian species4 #e4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( obvi\s practical importance to asc]ta9 h[ f> ! p[] ( ! w 7:e!r metaphysically free or n7 actually ext5ds3 = ?is def9es ! range )9 :i* e?ical judgm5ts are 9 ! /ricte/ s5se applicable4 ,?is inquiry is q indep5d5t ( ! "q ( metaphysical fre$om2 we might /ate x 9 ,det]m9i/ t]ms z an inquiry into ! range ( effects :i* x w\ld be possible to cause by human volition1 provid$ t adequate motives are n want+4 ,^! effects seem to be ma9ly ( ?ree k9ds3 fir/1 *anges 9 ! ext]nal _w consequ5t ^u muscul> contractions2 secondly1 *anges 9 ! tra9 ( ideas & feel+s t con/itutes our consci\s life2 & ?irdly1 *anges 9 ! t5d5cies to act h]eaft] 9 c]ta9 ways "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,i4 ,! mo/ obvi\s & prom95t "p ( ! sph]e ( volitional causation is con/itut$ by su* ev5ts z c be produc$ by muscul> contractions4 ,z reg>ds ^!1 x is sometimes said t x is prop]ly ! muscul> contraction t we w1 & n ! m remote effects2 = ^! require ! concurr5ce ( o!r causes1 & !re=e we c nev] be absolutely c]ta9 t !y w foll[4 ,b no m is x c]ta91 /rictly speak+1 t ! muscul> contraction w foll[1 s9ce our limb may be p>alys$1 etc4 ,! imm$iate consequ5t ( ! volition is "s molecul> *ange 9 ! motor n]ves4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we are n consci\s 9 will+ ( our motor n]ves & _! *anges1--nor inde$ commonly ( ! muscul> contractions t foll[ !m1--x seems a misuse ( t]ms to describe ei!r z ! normal #8object' ( ! m9d 9 will+3 s9ce x is almo/ always "s m remote effect :i* we consci\sly w & int5d4 ,/ill ( almo/ all effects ( our w on ! ext]nal _w "s contraction ( our muscles is an indisp5sable antec$5t2 & :5 t is ov] our "p 9 ! causation is complet$4 ,,ii4 ,we c control to "s ext5t our ?\ghts & feel+s4 ,x w\ld seem1 inde$1 t an important "p ( :at we commonly call #8control ( feel+' comes "u ! head j discuss$4 ,our control ov] our muscles enables u to keep d[n ! expression ( ! feel+ & to resi/ its prompt+s to action3 & z ! giv+ free v5t to a feel+ t5ds1 g5]ally speak+1 to su/a9 & prolong x1 ?is muscul> control am\nts to a c]ta9 p[] ov] ! emotion4 ,b !re is n ! same connexion betwe5 our muscul> sy/em & our ?\ghts3 & yet exp]i5ce %[s t mo/ m5 7?\gh "s1 no d\bt1 mu* m ?an o!rs7 c volunt>ily det]m9e ! direction ( _! ?\ghts1 & pursue at w a giv5 l9e ( m$itation4 ,9 su* cases1 :at is effect$ by ! ef=t ( w seems to be ! conc5tration ( our consci\sness on a "p ( its cont5t1 s t ?is "p gr[s m vivid & cle>1 :ile ! re/ t5ds to become obscure & ultimately to vani%4 ,frequ5tly ?is volunt>y ex]tion is only ne$$ to initiate a tra9 ( ideas1 :i* is aft]w>ds cont9u$ )\t ef=t3 z 9 recall+ a s]ies ( pa/ ev5ts or go+ ?r\gh a famili> tra9 ( reason+4 ,by su* conc5tration we c free ourselves ( _m ?\ghts & feel+s ^u :i* we d n wi% to dwell3 b our p[] to d ?is is v limit$1 & if ! feel+ be /rong & its cause p]si/5t1 x requires a v unusual ef=t ( w to bani% x ?us4 ,,iii4 ,! effect ( volition1 h[ev]1 to :i* ,i especially wi% to direct ! read]'s att5tion is ! alt]ation 9 m5's t5d5cies to future action :i* mu/ be assum$ to be a consequ5ce ( g5]al resolutions z to future conduct1 s f> z !y are effective4 ,ev5 a resolution to d a p>ticul> act--if x is wor? :ile to make x1 z exp]i5ce %[s x to be--mu/ be suppos$ to produce a *ange ( ?is k9d 9 ! p]son :o makes x3 x mu/ someh[ modify 8 pres5t t5d5cies to act 9 a c]ta9 way on a =ese5 future occasion4 ,b x is 9 mak+ g5]al resolutions = future conduct t x is ( mo/ practical importance = u to "k :at is )9 ! p[] ( ! w4 ,let u take an example4 ,a man has be5 9 ! habit ( dr9k+ too mu* br&y nightly3 "o morn+ he resolves t he w d s no m4 ,9 mak+ ?is resolve he acts "u ! belief t by a pres5t volition he c s f> alt] 8 habitual t5d5cy to indulg5ce 9 br&y1 t "s h\rs h5ce he w resi/ ! full =ce ( 8 habitual crav+ = ! /imulant4 ,n[ :e!r ?is belief is well or ill f\nd$ is a diff]5t "q f t usually discuss$ betwe5 ,det]m9i/s & ,lib]t>ians3 at ! same "t ! two que/ions are liable to be confus$4 ,x is sometimes vaguely ?\ght t a belief 9 ,free ,w requires u to ma9ta9 t at any mom5t we c alt] our habits to any ext5t by a suffici5tly /rong ex]tion4 ,& no d\bt mo/ commonly :5 we make su* ef=ts1 we believe at ! mom5t t !y w be completely effectual3 we w to d some?+ h\rs or days h5ce ) ! same confid5ce ) :i* we w to d some?+ imm$iately4 ,b on reflection1 no "o1 ,i ?9k1 w ma9ta9 t 9 su* cases ! future act appe>s to be 9 8 p[] 9 ! same s5se z a *oice ( alt]natives t takes effect imm$iately4 ,n only does cont9ual exp]i5ce %[ u t su* resolutions z to ! future h a limit$ & too frequ5tly an inadequate effect3 b ! common belief is really inconsi/5t ) ! v doctr9e ( ,free ,w t is ?\ght to ju/ify x3 = if by a pres5t volition ,i c fully det]m9e an action t is to take place "s h\rs h5ce1 :5 ! "t comes to d t act ,i %all f9d myself no long] free4 ,we mu/ !re=e accept ! conclusion t ea* su* resolve has only a limit$ effect3 & t we _c "k :5 mak+ x h[ f> ?is effect w exhibit itself 9 ! p]=mance ( ! act resolv$ ^u4 ,at ! same "t x c h>dly be d5i$ t su* resolves sometimes succe$ 9 break+ old habits3 & ev5 :5 !y fail to d ?is1 !y (t5 sub/itute a pa9ful /ruggle = smoo? & easy indulg5ce4 ,h5ce x is reasonable to suppose t !y always produce "s effect 9 ?is direction2 :e!r !y op]ate by caus+ new motives to pres5t !mselves on ! side ( reason1 :5 ! "t ( inn] conflict arrives2 or :e!r !y directly weak5 ! impulsive =ce ( habit 9 ! same mann] z an actual brea* ( cu/om does1 ?\gh 9 an inf]ior degree4#gj ,if ?is acc\nt ( ! range ( volition be accept$1 x w1 ,i tru/1 dispel any l+]+ d\bts :i* ! argum5t ( ! prec$+ section1 z to ! practical unimportance ( ! ,free ,w controv]sy1 may h left 9 ! read]'s m9d4 ,= x may h be5 vaguely ?\ght t :ile on ! ,det]m9i/ !ory x w\ld be wrong1 9 c]ta9 cases1 to p]=m a s+le act ( virtue if we _h no gr\nd = believ+ t we %\ld h]eaft] duly foll[ x up2 on ! assumption ( ,fre$om we %\ld boldly d always :at w\ld be be/ if consi/5tly foll[$ up1 be+ consci\s t su* consi/5cy is 9 our p[]4 ,b ! suppos$ diff]5ce vani%es1 if x be admitt$ t by any ef=t ( resolution at ! pres5t mom5t we c only produce a c]ta9 limit$ effect ^u our t5d5cies to action at "s future "t1 & t imm$iate consci\sness _c tell u t ?is effect w be adequate to ! occasion1 nor inde$ h[ great x w really prove to be4 ,= ! mo/ extreme ,lib]t>ian mu/ !n all[ t be=e pl$g+ ourselves to any future c\rse ( action we ought to e/imate c>efully1 f our exp]i5ce ( ourselves & g5]al k ( human nature1 :at ! probability is ( our keep+ pres5t resolutions 9 ! circum/ances 9 :i* we are likely to be plac$4 ,x is no d\bt morally mo/ important t we %\ld n tranquilly acquiesce 9 any weakness or want ( self-control3 b ! fact rema9s t su* weakness is n curable by a s+le volition3 & :atev] we c d t[>ds cur+ x by any ef=t ( w at any mom5t1 is z cle>ly enjo9$ by reason on ! ,det]m9i/ !ory z x is on ! ,lib]t>ian4 ,on nei!r !ory is x reasonable t we %\ld deceive ourselves z to ! ext5t ( our weakness1 or ignore x 9 ! =eca/ ( our conduct1 or suppose x m easily rem$iable ?an x really is4 ,,footnotes3 #ed ,i h ?\ght x exp$i5t to exclude ! ,kantian conception ( ,free ,w f ! scope ( ! discussion 9 ?is *apt]1 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! confusion m5tion$ 9 ! text2 p>tly because x dep5ds on ! conception ( a causality n subject to "t-conditions1 :i* appe>s to me altoge!r unt5able1 :ile x does n fall )9 ! plan ( ! pres5t treatise to discuss x4 ,b consid]+ ! widespread influ5ce ( ,kantian !ory on curr5t e?ical ?\ght1 ,i h ?\ght x desirable to give a brief discussion ( 8 conception ( ,free ,w 9 an ,app5dix 7,i474 #ee ,elem5ts ( ,morality1 ,book i4 *ap4 ii4 ,at ! same "t1 x is also true--z ,i aft]w>ds say--t we sometimes id5tify ourselves ) passion or appetite 9 consci\s conflict ) reason3 & !n ! rule ( reason is apt to appe> an ext]nal con/ra9t1 & ob$i5ce to x a s]vitude1 if n a slav]y4 #ef ,! difficulty :i* ,socrates & ! ,socratic s*ools _h 9 conceiv+ a man to *oose delib]ately :at he kn[s to be bad = him--a difficulty :i* drives ,ari/otle into real ,det]m9ism 9 8 acc\nt ( purpos$ action1 ev5 :ile he is expressly ma9ta9+ ! 8volunt>9ess0 & 8responsibility0 ( vice--seems to be mu* r$uc$ = ! mod]n m9d by ! di/9ction betwe5 moral & prud5tial judgm5ts1 & ! prima facie conflict betwe5 #8int]e/' & #8duty4' ,be+ ?us famili> ) ! conception ( delib]ate *oice consci\sly oppos$ ei!r to int]e/ or to duty1 we c )\t mu* difficulty conceive ( su* *oice 9 consci\s opposition to bo?4 ,see *ap4 ix4 #c1 ( ?is ,book4 #eg ,x is mo/ conv5i5t to reg>d 8int5tion0 z includ+ n only su* results ( volition z ! ag5t desir$ to realise1 b also any t1 )\t desir+1 he =esaw z c]ta9 or probable4 ,! "q h[ f> we are responsible = all ! =ese5 consequ5ces ( our acts1 or1 9 ! case ( acts prescrib$ by def9ite moral rules1 only = _! results )9 a c]ta9 range1 w be consid]$ :5 we come to exam9e ! ,intuitional ,me?od4 #eh ,9 a subsequ5t *apt] 7*ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book7 ,i %all exam9e m fully ! relation ( ! anti!sis #8"r' & #8wrong' to ! vagu] & wid] anti!sis #8good' & #8bad1' 9 our practical reason+s4 #ei ,x is n uncommon = ,det]m9i/s to conceive ( ea* volition z connect$ by uni=m laws ) our pa/ /ate ( consci\sness4 ,b any uni=mities we might trace among a man's pa/ consci\snesses1 ev5 if we knew !m all1 w\ld yet give u v imp]fect guidance z to 8 future action3 z !re w\ld be left out ( acc\nt-- 7#a7 ,all inborn t5d5cies & susceptibilities1 z yet lat5t or incompletely exhibit$2 7#b7 ,all pa/ physical influ5ces1 ( :i* ! effects _h n be5 p]fectly repres5t$ 9 consci\sness4 #fj ,i d n mean t ?is is ! only view t we take ( ! conduct ( o!rs3 ,i hold 7z w pres5tly appe>7 t 9 judg+ ( _! conduct morally1 we ord9>ily apply ! conception ( ,free ,w4 ,b we d n ord9>ily reg>d x z "o k9d ( causation1 limit+ & c\nt]act+ ! o!r k9d4 #fa ,x is n ! possibility ( m]ely indet]m9ate *oice1 ( an 8arbitr>y freak ( unmotiv$ will+10 ) :i* we are conc]n$ f an e?ical po9t ( view1 b ! possibility ( *oos+ betwe5 rational & irrational motives4 #fb ,i ?9k t 9 mo/ cases :5 a man yields to temptation1 judg+ t x is 8no use try+ to resi/10 he judges 9 semi-consci\s self-sophi/ication1 due to ! influ5ce ( appetite or passion di/urb+ ! process ( reason+4 ,i d n d\bt t ?is self-sophi/ication is likely to take a ,det]m9i/ =m 9 ! m9d ( "o :o has adopt$ ,det]m9ism z a speculative op9ion3 b ,i see no reason = ?9k+ t a ,lib]t>ian is n 9 equal dang] ( self-sophi/ication1 ?\gh 9 8 case x w take a diff]5t =m4 ,e4g4 :]e a ,det]m9i/ w\ld reason 8,i c]ta9ly %all take my usual glass ( br&y to-night1 s !re is no use resolv+ n to take x10 ! ,lib]t>ian's reason+ w\ld be 8,i mean to leave (f t br&y1 b x w be j z easy to leave x (f to-morr[ z to-day2 ,i w !re=e h "o m glass1 & leave x (f to-morr[40 #fc ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a special case 9 :i* ?is probability may be indirectly a reason = n resolv+ to d :at w\ld o!rwise be be/2 i4e4 :]e ?is resolution w\ld only be "r if foll[$ by subsequ5t resolutions4 ,! problem ?us pres5t$ is consid]$ lat]1 pp4 #ge1 #gf4 #fd ,i %\ld admit1 inde$1 t ! ord9>y notion ( m]it becomes inapplicable 7see pp4 #ga1 #gb74 ,b ,i d n see t ,p]fection becomes less an ,end to be aim$ at1 because we cease to reg>d its atta9m5t z m]itori\s4 ,! inapplicability ( ! notion ( #8m]it' to ,div9e action has nev] be5 felt to detract f ! ,p]fection ( ! ,div9e ,nature4 #fe ,see ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 & ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! treatise4 #ff ,i ought1 h[ev]1 to po9t out t an important section ( !ologians :o h held ! belief 9 ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w 9 its int5se/ =m h be5 ,det]m9i/s4 #fg ,9 ord] to det]m9e ?is we %\ld require fir/ to settle ano!r disput$ "q1 z to ! g5]al reasonabl5ess ( our expectation t ! future w resemble ! pa/4 #fh ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 v4 #fi ,?us we f9d x necess>y to puni% neglig5ce1 :5 its effects 7 v grave1 ev5 :5 we _c trace x to wilful disreg>d ( duty2 & to puni% rebellion & assass9ation none ! less al?\gh we "k t !y 7 prompt$ by a s9c]e desire to s]ve ,god or to b5efit mank9d4 #gj ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! same k9d ( *ange is sometimes br\ght ab\t1 )\t volition1 by a p[]ful emotional %ock1 due to extrane\s causes3 & h5ce x might be inf]r$ t 9 all cases x is a p[]ful impression ( an emotional k9d t produces ! effect2 & t ! w is only conc]n$ 9 conc5trat+ our att5tion on ! b5efits to be ga9$ or evils to be avoid$ by ! *ange ( habit1 & s int5sify+ ! impression ( ^!4 ,b ?\gh ?is k9d ( volunt>y contemplation is a useful auxili>y to good resolutions1 x does n seem to be ?is ef=t ( w t con/itutes ! resolution3 we c cle>ly di/+ui% ! two4 ,h5ce ?is ?ird effect ( volition _c be resolv$ into ! second1 b mu/ be /at$ sep>ately4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,e?ical ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,me?ods #a4 ,! results ( ! ?ree prec$+ *apt]s may be briefly /at$ z foll[s3-- ,! aim ( ,e?ics is to sy/ematise & free f error ! app>5t cognitions t mo/ m5 h ( ! rightness or reasonabl5ess ( conduct1 :e!r ! conduct be consid]$ z "r 9 itself1 or z ! means to "s end commonly conceiv$ z ultimately reasonable4#ga ,^! cognitions are normally accompani$ by emotions ( v>i\s k9ds1 kn[n z 8moral s5tim5ts03 b an e?ical judgm5t _c be expla9$ z affirm+ m]ely ! exi/5ce ( su* a s5tim5t3 inde$ x is an ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( a moral feel+ t x is b\nd up ) an app>5t cognition ( some?+ m ?an m]e feel+4 ,su* cognitions1 aga91 ,i h call$ #8dictates1' or #8imp]atives'2 because1 9 s f> z !y relate to conduct on :i* any "o is delib]at+1 !y are accompani$ by a c]ta9 impulse to d ! acts recognis$ z "r1 :i* is liable to conflict ) o!r impulses4 ,provid$ ?is impulse is effective 9 produc+ "r volition1 x is n ( prim>y importance = e?ical purposes to det]m9e ! exact *>act]i/ics ( ! emotional /ates t prec$e su* volitions4 ,& ?is rema9s true ev5 if ! =ce actually op]at+ on 8 w is m]e desire = ! pleasures t he =esees w att5d "r conduct1 or av]sion to ! pa9s t w result f do+ wrong3 ?\gh we obs]ve t 9 ?is case 8 action does n correspond to our common notion ( /rictly virtu\s conduct2 & ?\gh !re seems to be no gr\nd = reg>d+ su* desires & av]sions z ! sole1 or ev5 ! normal1 motives ( human volitions4 ,nor1 aga91 is x g5]ally important to det]m9e :e!r we are always1 metaphysically speak+1 #8free' to d :at we cle>ly see to be "r4 ,:at ,i #8ought' to d1 9 ! /ricte/ use ( ! ^w #8ought1' is always #89 my p[]1' 9 ! s5se t !re is no ob/acle to my do+ x except abs5ce ( adequate motive2 & x is ord9>ily impossible = me1 9 delib]ation1 to reg>d su* abs5ce ( motive z a reason = n do+ :at ,i o!rwise judge to be reasonable4 ,:at !n d we commonly reg>d z valid ultimate reasons = act+ or ab/a9+8 ,?is1 z 0 said1 is ! />t+-po9t = ! discussions ( ! pres5t treatise3 :i* is n prim>ily conc]n$ ) prov+ or disprov+ ! validity ( any su* reasons1 b r ) ! critical exposition ( ! diff]5t #8me?ods'--or rational proc$ures = det]m9+ "r conduct 9 any p>ticul> case--:i* are logically connect$ ) ! diff]5t ultimate reasons widely accept$4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] we f\nd t su* reasons 7 suppli$ by ! notions ( ,happ9ess & ,excell5ce or ,p]fection 7includ+ ,virtue or ,moral ,p]fection z a prom95t elem5t71 reg>d$ z ultimate ends1 & ,duty z prescrib$ by unconditional rules4 ,?is ?reefold diff]5ce 9 ! conception ( ! ultimate reason = conduct corresponds to :at seem ! mo/ fundam5tal di/9ctions t we apply to human exi/5ce2 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! consci\s be+ & ! /ream ( consci\s exp]i5ce1 & ! di/9ction 7)9 ?is latt]7 ( ,action & ,feel+4 ,= ,p]fection is put =w>d z ! ideal goal ( ! developm5t ( a human be+1 consid]$ z a p]man5t entity2 :ile by ,duty1 we mean ! k9d ( ,action t we ?9k ought to be done2 & simil>ly by ,happ9ess or ,pleasure we mean an ultimately desir$ or desirable k9d ( ,feel+4 ,x may seem1 h[ev]1 t ^! notions by no means exhau/ ! li/ ( reasons :i* are widely accept$ z ultimate gr\nds ( action4 ,_m religi\s p]sons ?9k t ! highe/ reason = do+ any?+ is t x is ,god's ,w3 :ile to o!rs #8,self-realisation' or #8,self-developm5t1' & to o!rs1 aga91 #8,life accord+ to nature' appe> ! really ultimate ends4 ,& x is n h>d to und]/& :y conceptions su* z ^! are reg>d$ z supply+ deep] & m completely satisfy+ answ]s to ! fundam5tal "q ( ,e?ics1 ?an ^? be=e nam$3 s9ce !y d n m]ely repres5t #8:at ought to be1' z su*2 !y repres5t x 9 an app>5tly simple relation to :at actually is4 ,god1 ,nature1 ,self1 are ! fundam5tal facts ( exi/5ce2 ! k ( :at w accompli% ,god's ,w1 :at is1 #8accord+ to ,nature1' :at w realise ! true ,self 9 ea* ( u1 w\ld seem to solve ! deepe/ problems ( ,metaphysics z well z ( ,e?ics4 ,b j because ^! notions comb9e ! ideal ) ! actual1 _! prop] sph]e belongs n to ,e?ics z ,i def9e x1 b to ,philosophy--! c5tral & supreme /udy :i* is conc]n$ ) ! relations ( all objects ( k4 ,! introduction ( ^! notions into ,e?ics is liable to br+ ) x a fundam5tal confusion betwe5 8:at is0 & 8:at ought to be10 de/ructive ( all cle>ness 9 e?ical reason+3 & if ?is confusion is avoid$1 ! /rictly e?ical import ( su* notions1 :5 made explicit1 appe>s always to lead u to "o or o!r ( ! me?ods previ\sly di/+ui%$4 ,!re is lea/ dang] ( confusion 9 ! case ( ! !ological conception ( #8,god's ,w'2 s9ce "h ! connexion betwe5 #8:at is' & #8:at ought to be' is p]fectly cle> & explicit4 ,! cont5t ( ,god's ,w we conceive z pres5tly exi/+1 9 idea3 its actualisation is ! end to be aim$ at4 ,!re is inde$ a difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ,god's ,w c fail to be realis$1 :e!r we d "r or wrong3 or h[1 if x _c fail to be realis$ 9 ei!r case1 its realisation c give ! ultimate motive = do+ "r4 ,b ?is difficulty x belongs to ,!ology r ?an ,e?ics to solve4 ,! practical "q is1 assum+ t ,god wills 9 a special s5se :at we ought to d1 h[ we are to asc]ta9 ?is 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,?is mu/ be ei!r by ,revelation or by ,reason1 or by bo? comb9$4 ,if an ext]nal ,revelation is propos$ z ! /&>d1 we are obvi\sly c>ri$ beyond ! range ( our /udy2 on ! o!r h&1 :5 we try to asc]ta9 by reason ! ,div9e ,w1 ! conception seems to pres5t itself z a common =m "u :i* a religi\s m9d is dispos$ to reg>d :atev] me?od ( det]m9+ conduct x appreh5ds to be rational2 s9ce we _c "k any act to be 9 accordance ) ! ,div9e ,w1 :i* we d n also1 by ! same ex]cise ( ?\ght1 "k to be dictat$ by reason4 ,?us1 commonly1 x is ei!r assum$ t ,god desires ! ,happ9ess ( m51 9 :i* case our ef=ts %\ld be conc5trat$ on its production3 or t ,he desires _! ,p]fection1 & t t %\ld be our end3 or t :atev] ,8 end may be 7into :i* p]haps we h no "r to inquire7 ,8 ,laws are imm$iately cognisable1 be+ 9 fact ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ,intuitional ,morality4 ,or p]haps x is expla9$ t ,god's ,w is to be le>nt by exam9+ our own con/itution or t ( ! _w we are 93 s t #8,con=mity to ,god's ,w' seems to resolve itself into #8,self-realisation1' or #8,life accord+ to nature4' ,9 any case1 ?is conception1 h[ev] important x may be 9 supply+ new motives = do+ :at we believe to be "r1 does n--ap>t f ,revelation--sugge/ any special crit]ion ( rightness4 #b4 ,let u pass to consid] ! notions #8,nature1' #8,natural1' #8,con=mity to ,nature4' ,i assume--9 ord] to obta9 a pr9ciple di/9ct f #8,self-realisation1'#gb--t ! #8,nature' to :i* we are to con=m is n ea* "o's own individual nature1 b human nature g5]ally1 consid]$ ei!r ap>t f or 9 relation to its environm5t3 t we are to f9d ! /&>d ( "r conduct 9 a c]ta9 type ( human exi/5ce :i* we c someh[ ab/ract f obs]vation ( actual human life4 ,n[ 9 a c]ta9 s5se e rational man mu/1 ( c\rse1 8con=m to nature02 t is1 9 aim+ at any ends1 he mu/ adapt 8 ef=ts to ! p>ticul> conditions ( 8 exi/5ce1 physical & psy*ical4 ,b if he is to g beyond ?is1 & con=m to #8,nature' 9 ! adoption ( an ultimate end or p>am\nt /&>d ( "r conduct1 x mu/ be on ! basis--if n ( /rictly ,!ological assumptions1 at any rate--( ! m or less def9ite recognition ( ,design exhibit$ 9 ! empirically kn[n _w4 ,if we f9d no design 9 nature1 if ! complex processes ( ! _w kn[n to u ?r\gh exp]i5ce are conceiv$ z an aimless ?\gh ord]ly drift ( *ange1 ! k ( ^! processes & _! laws may inde$ limit ! aims ( rational be+s1 b ,i _c conceive h[ x c det]m9e ! ends ( _! action1 or be a s\rce ( unconditional rules ( duty4 ,& 9 fact ^? :o use #8natural' z an e?ical notion d commonly suppose t by contemplat+ ! actual play ( human impulses1 or ! physical con/itution ( man1 or 8 social relations1 we may f9d pr9ciples = det]m9+ positively & completely ! k9d ( life he 0 design$ to live4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t e attempt ?us to d]ive #8:at ought to be' f #8:at is' palpably fails1 ! mom5t x is fre$ f fundam5tal confusions ( ?\ght4 ,= in/ance1 suppose we seek practical guidance 9 ! conception ( human nature reg>d$ z a sy/em ( impulses & dispositions1 we mu/ obvi\sly give a special precision to ! mean+ ( 8natural02 s9ce 9 a s5se1 z ,butl] obs]ves1 any impulse is natural1 b x is manife/ly idle to bid u foll[ ,nature 9 ?is s5se3 = ! "q ( duty is nev] rais$ except :5 we are consci\s ( a conflict ( impulses1 & wi% to "k :i* to foll[4 ,nor does x help u to say t ! supremacy ( ,reason is ,natural1 z we h />t$ by assum+ t :at ,reason prescribes is con=mity to ,nature1 & ?us our l9e ( ?\ght w\ld become circul>3 ! ,nature t we are to foll[ mu/ be di/+ui%$ f our ,practical ,reason1 if x is to become a guide to x4 ,h[ !n are we to di/+ui% #8natural impulses'--9 ! s5se 9 :i* !y are to guide rational *oice--f ! unnatural8 ,^? :o h occupi$ !mselves ) ?is di/9ction seem g5]ally to h int]pret$ ! ,natural to mean ei!r ! common z oppos$ to ! r>e & exceptional1 or ! orig9al z oppos$ to :at is lat] 9 developm5t2 or1 negatively1 :at is n ! effect ( human volition4 ,b ,i h nev] se5 any gr\nd = assum+ broadly t ,nature abhors ! exceptional1 or pref]s ! e>li] 9 "t to ! lat]2 & :5 we take a retrospective view ( ! hi/ory ( ! human race1 we f9d t "s impulses :i* all admire1 su* z ! love ( k & en?usia/ic philan?ropy1 are bo? r>] & lat] 9 _! appe>ance ?an o!rs :i* all judge to be l[]4 ,aga91 x is obvi\sly unw>rantable to es*ew z unnatural & oppos$ to ! ,div9e design all su* impulses z h be5 produc$ 9 u by ! in/itutions ( society1 or our use ( human arrangem5ts & contrivances1 or t result 9 any way f ! delib]ate action ( our fell[-m53 = ?is 7 arbitr>ily to exclude society & human action f ! scope ( ,nature's purposes4 ,& besides x is cle> t _m impulses s g5]at$ appe> to be ei!r moral or auxili>y to morality & 9 o!r ways b5eficial3 & ?\gh o!rs no d\bt are p]nici\s & mislead+1 x seems t we c only di/+ui% ^! latt] f ! =m] by tak+ note ( _! effects1 & n by any precision t reflection c give to ! notion ( #8natural4' ,if1 aga91 we fall back ^u a m physical view ( our nature & endeav\r to asc]ta9 = :at end our corporeal frame 0 con/ruct$1 we f9d t su* contemplation det]m9es v little4 ,we c inf] f our nutritive sy/em t we are int5d$ to take food1 & simil>ly t we are to ex]cise our v>i\s muscles 9 "s way or o!r1 & our bra9 & organs ( s5se4 ,b ?is c>ries u a v trifl+ way1 = ! practical "q almo/ always is1 n :e!r we are to use our organs or leave !m unus$1 b to :at ext5t or 9 :at mann] we are to use !m3 & x does n appe> t a def9ite answ] to ?is "q c ev] be elicit$1 by a logical process ( inf]5ce1 f obs]vations ( ! human organism1 & ! actual physical life ( m54 ,if1 f9ally1 we consid] man 9 8 social relations--z fa!r1 son1 neighb\r1 citiz5--& endeav\r to det]m9e ! 8natural0 rights & obligations t atta* to su* relations1 we f9d t ! conception #8natural' pres5ts a problem & n a solution4 ,to an unreflective m9d :at is cu/om>y 9 social relations usually appe>s natural2 b no reflective p]son is prep>$ to lay d[n 8con=mity to cu/om0 z a fundam5tal moral pr9ciple3 ! problem1 !n1 is to f9d 9 ! rights & obligations e/abli%$ by cu/om 9 a p>ticul> society at a p>ticul> "t an elem5t t has a b9d+ =ce beyond :at m]e cu/om c give4 ,& ?is problem c only be solv$ by ref]5ce to ! ultimate good ( social exi/5ce--:e!r conceiv$ z happ9ess or z p]fection--or by appeal+ to "s intuitively kn[n pr9ciple ( social duty1 o!r ?an ! pr9ciple ( aim+ at ! happ9ess or p]fection ( society4 ,nor1 aga91 does x help u to adopt ! m mod]n view ( ,nature1 :i* reg>ds ! organic _w z exhibit+1 n an aggregate ( fix$ types1 b a cont9u\s & gradual process ( *ang+ life4 ,= grant+ t ?is #8evolution'--z ! "n implies--is n m]ely a process f old to new1 b a progress f less to m ( c]ta9 def9ite *>act]i/ics2 x is surely absurd to ma9ta9 t we ought !re=e to take ^! *>act]i/ics z ,ultimate ,good1 & make x our :ole endeav\r to accel]ate ! arrival ( an inevitable future4 ,t :atev] is to be w be bett] ?an :at is1 we all hope2 b !re seems to be no m reason = summ>ily id5tify+ #8:at ought to be' ) #8:at c]ta9ly w be1' ?an = f9d+ x 9 #8:at commonly is1' or #8:at orig9ally 04' ,on ! :ole1 x appe>s to me t no def9ition t has ev] be5 (f]$ ( ! ,natural exhibits ?is notion z really capable ( furni%+ an indep5d5t e?ical fir/ pr9ciple4 ,& no "o ma9ta9s t #8natural' l #8beautiful' is a notion t ?\gh indef9able is yet cle>1 be+ d]iv$ f a simple unanalysable impression4 ,h5ce ,i see no way ( extract+ f x a def9ite practical crit]ion ( ! rightness ( actions4 #c4 ,! discussion 9 ! prec$+ section w h %[n t n all ! diff]5t views t are tak5 ( ! ultimate reason = do+ :at is conclud$ to be "r lead to practically diff]5t me?ods ( arriv+ at ?is conclusion4 ,inde$ we f9d t almo/ any me?od may be connect$ ) almo/ any ultimate reason by means ( "s--(t5 plausible--assumption4 ,h5ce arises difficulty 9 ! classification & comp>ison ( e?ical sy/ems2 s9ce !y (t5 appe> to h diff]5t aff9ities accord+ z we consid] ,me?od or ,ultimate ,reason4 ,9 my treatm5t ( ! subject1 diff]5ce ( ,me?od is tak5 z ! p>am\nt consid]ation3 & x is on ?is acc\nt t ,i h treat$ ! view 9 :i* ,p]fection is tak5 to be ! ,ultimate ,end z a v>iety ( ! ,intuitionism :i* det]m9es "r conduct by ref]5ce to axioms ( duty intuitively kn[n2 :ile ,i h made z m>k$ a sep>ation z possible betwe5 ,epicureanism or ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 & ! ,univ]sali/ic or ,b5?amite#gc ,h$onism to :i* ,i propose to re/rict ! t]m ,utilit>ianism4 ,i am aw>e t ^! two latt] me?ods are commonly treat$ z closely connect$3 & x is n difficult to f9d reasons = ?is4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y agree 9 prescrib+ actions z means to an end di/9ct f1 & ly+ outside ! actions2 s t !y bo? lay d[n rules :i* are n absolute b relative1 & only valid if !y conduce to ! end4 ,aga91 ! ultimate end is accord+ to bo? me?ods ! same 9 quality1 i4e4 pleasure2 or1 m /rictly1 ! maximum ( pleasure atta9able1 pa9s be+ subtract$4 ,besides1 x is ( c\rse to a great ext5t true t ! conduct recomm5d$ by ! "o pr9ciple co9cides ) t inculcat$ by ! o!r4 ,?\gh x w\ld seem to be only 9 an ideal polity t #8self-int]e/ well und]/ood' leads to ! p]fect dis*>ge ( all social duties1 /ill1 9 a tol]ably well-ord]$ community x prompts to ! fulfilm5t ( mo/ ( !m1 unless "u v exceptional circum/ances4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 a ,univ]sali/ic ,h$oni/ may reasonably hold t 8 own happ9ess is t portion ( ! univ]sal happ9ess :i* x is mo/ 9 8 p[] to promote1 & :i* !re=e is mo/ especially entru/$ to 8 *>ge4 ,& ! practical bl5d+ ( ! two sy/ems is sure to g beyond _! !oretical co9cid5ce4 ,x is mu* easi] = a man to move 9 a sort ( diagonal betwe5 ,egoi/ic & ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism1 ?an to be practically a consi/5t adh]5t ( ei!r4 ,few m5 are s completely selfi%1 :atev] _! !ory ( morals may be1 z n occasionally to promote ! happ9ess ( o!rs f natural sympa!tic impulse unsupport$ by ,epicurean calculation4 ,& probably /ill few] are s resolutely unselfi% z nev] to f9d 8all m5's good0 9 _! own ) r too ready conviction4 ,fur!r1 f ,b5?am's psy*ological doctr9e1 t e human be+ always does aim at 8 own greate/ app>5t happ9ess1 x seems to foll[ t x is useless to po9t out to a man ! conduct t w\ld conduce to ! g5]al happ9ess1 unless y conv9ce him at ! same "t t x w\ld conduce to 8 own4 ,h5ce on ?is view1 egoi/ic & univ]sali/ic consid]ations mu/ necess>ily be comb9$ 9 any practical treatm5t ( morality3 & ?is be+ s1 x 0 p]haps to be expect$ t ,b5?am#gd or 8 disciples w\ld g fur!r1 & attempt to base on ! ,egoism :i* !y accept z inevitable ! ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism :i* !y approve & inculcate4 ,& accord+ly we f9d t ,j4 ,s4 ,mill does try to e/abli% a logical connexion betwe5 ! psy*ological & e?ical pr9ciples :i* he holds 9 common ) ,b5?am1 & to conv9ce 8 read]s t because ea* man naturally seeks 8 own happ9ess1 !re=e he ought to seek ! happ9ess ( o!r p4#ge ,nev]!less1 x seems to me und5iable t ! practical aff9ity betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,intuitionism is really mu* great] ?an t betwe5 ! two =ms ( ,h$onism4 ,my gr\nds = hold+ ?is w be giv5 at l5g? 9 subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,"h ,i w only obs]ve t _m morali/s :o h ma9ta9$ z practically valid ! judgm5ts ( "r & wrong :i* ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d seems intuitively to enunciate1 h yet reg>d$ ,g5]al ,happ9ess z an end to :i* ! rules ( morality are ! be/ means1 & h held t a k ( ^! rules 0 implant$ by ,nature or reveal$ by ,god = ! atta9m5t ( ?is end4 ,su* a belief implies t1 ?\gh ,i am b\nd to take1 z my ultimate /&>d 9 act+1 con=mity to a rule :i* is = me absolute1 /ill ! natural or ,div9e reason = ! rule laid d[n is ,utilit>ian4 ,on ?is view1 ! me?od ( ,utilit>ianism is c]ta9ly reject$3 ! connexion betwe5 "r action & happ9ess is n asc]ta9$ by a process ( reason+4 ,b we c h>dly say t ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple is altoge!r reject$3 r ! limitations ( ! human reason are suppos$ to prev5t x f appreh5d+ adequately ! real connexion betwe5 ! true pr9ciple & ! "r rules ( conduct4 ,?is connexion1 h[ev]1 has always be5 to a l>ge ext5t recognis$ by all reflective p]sons4 ,inde$1 s cle> is x t 9 mo/ cases ! obs]vance ( ! commonly receiv$ moral rules t5ds to r5d] human life tranquil & happy1 t ev5 morali/s 7z ,:ewell7 :o are mo/ /rongly oppos$ to ,utilit>ianism h1 9 attempt+ to exhibit ! 8necessity0 ( moral rules1 be5 l$ to dwell on utilit>ian consid]ations4 ,& dur+ ! fir/ p]iod ( e?ical controv]sy 9 mod]n ,engl&1 aft] ! audaci\s enunciation ( ,egoism by ,hobbes _h r\s$ 9 real e>ne/ ! se>* = a philosophical basis ( morality1 ,utilit>ianism appe>s 9 fri5dly alliance ) ,intuitionism4 ,x 0 n to sup]s$e b to support ! morality ( ,common ,s5se1 aga9/ ! dang]\s innovations ( ,hobbes1 t ,cumb]l& decl>$ 8! common good#gf ( all ,rationals0 to be ! end to :i* moral rules 7 ! means4 ,we f9d him quot$ ) approval by ,cl>ke1 :o is commonly tak5 to repres5t ,intuitionism 9 an extreme =m4 ,nor does ,%aftesbury1 9 introduc+ ! !ory ( a 8moral s5se10 seem to h dreamt t x c\ld ev] impel u to actions n cle>ly conducive to ! ,good#gf ( ! ,:ole3 & 8 disciple ,hut*eson expressly id5tifi$ its prompt+s ) ^? ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,butl]1 ,i ?9k1 0 our fir/ influ5tial writ] :o dwelt on ! discrepancies betwe5 ,virtue z commonly und]/ood & 8conduct likelie/ to produce an ov]balance ( happ9ess40#gg ,:5 ,hume pres5t$ ,utilit>ianism z a mode ( expla9+ curr5t morality1 x 0 se5 or suspect$ to h a p>tially de/ructive t5d5cy4 ,b x 0 n till ! "t ( ,paley & ,b5?am t x 0 (f]$ z a me?od = det]m9+ conduct1 :i* 0 to ov]rule all traditional precepts & sup]s$e all exi/+ moral s5tim5ts4 ,& ev5 ?is f9al antagonism relates r to !ory & me?od ?an to practical results3 practical conflict1 9 ord9>y human m9ds1 is ma9ly betwe5 ,self-int]e/ & ,social ,duty h[ev] det]m9$4 ,inde$1 f a practical po9t ( view ! pr9ciple ( aim+ at ! 8greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]0 is prima facie m def9itely oppos$ to ,egoism ?an ! ,common-,s5se morality is4 ,= ?is latt] seems to leave a man free to pursue 8 own happ9ess "u c]ta9 def9ite limits & conditions3 :]eas ,utilit>ianism seems to require a m compreh5sive & unceas+ subord9ation ( self-int]e/ to ! common good4 ,& ?us1 z ,mill rem>ks1 ,utilit>ianism is sometimes attack$ f two precisely opposite sides3 f a confusion ) ,egoi/ic ,h$onism x is call$ base & grovell+2 :ile at ! same "t x is m plausibly *>g$ ) sett+ up too high a /&>d ( unselfi%ness & mak+ exagg]at$ dem&s on human nature4 ,a good deal rema9s to be said1 9 ord] to make ! pr9ciple & me?od ( ,utilit>ianism p]fectly cle> & explicit3 b x seems be/ to def] ?is till we come to ! inve/igation ( its details4 ,x w be conv5i5t to take ?is z ! f9al /age ( our exam9ation ( me?ods4 ,= on ! "o h& x is simpl] t ! discussion ( ,egoi/ic %\ld prec$e t ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism2 & on ! o!r1 x seems desirable t we %\ld obta9 9 z exact a =m z possible ! enunciations ( ,intuitive ,morality1 be=e we comp>e ^! ) ! results ( ! m d\btful & difficult calculations ( utilit>ian consequ5ces4 ,9 ! rema9+ *apt]s ( ?is ,book ,i %all endeav\r to remove c]ta9 ambiguities z to ! g5]al nature & relations ( ! o!r two me?ods1 z designat$ respectively by ! t]ms ,egoism & ,intuitionism1 be=e proce$+ to ! full] exam9ation ( !m 9 ,books ii4 & iii4 ,,note4--,i h call$ ! e?ical doctr9e t takes univ]sal happ9ess z ! ultimate end & /&>d ( "r conduct by ! "n ( ,b5?am1 because ! ?9k]s :o h *iefly taught ?is doctr9e 9 ,engl& dur+ ! pres5t c5tury h ref]r$ x to ,b5?am z _! ma/]4 ,& x c]ta9ly seems to me cle>--?\gh ,mr4 ,ba9 7cf4 ,m9d1 ,janu>y #ahhc1 p4 #dh7 appe>s to d\bt x--t ,b5?am adopt$ ?is doctr9e explicitly1 9 its mo/ compreh5sive scope1 at ! e>lie/ /age 9 ! =mation ( 8 op9ions2 nor d ,i ?9k t he ev] consci\sly ab&on$ or qualifi$ x4 ,we f9d him writ+ 9 8 common-place book1 9 #aggc-d 7cf4 ,works1 ,b[r+'s edition1 vol4 x4 p4 #gj71 t ,helvetius _h 8e/abli%$ a /&>d ( rectitude = actions02--! /&>d be+ t 8a sort ( action is a "r "o1 :5 ! t5d5cy ( x is to augm5t ! mass ( happ9ess 9 ! community40 ,& we f9d him writ+ fifty ye>s lat] 7cf4 ,works1 vol4 x4 p4 #gi7 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( 8 e>lie/ view1 9 a passage :i* conta9s no h9t ( lat] diss5t f x3--8,by an e>ly pamphlet ( ,prie/ley's 444 light 0 add$ to ! w>m?4 ,9 ! phrase #8! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]1' ,i !n saw del9eat$1 = ! fir/ "t1 a pla9 z well z a true /&>d = :atev] is "r or wrong 444 9 human conduct1 :e!r 9 ! field ( morals or ( politics40 ,at ! same "t ,i mu/ admit t 9 o!r passages ,b5?am seems no less explicitly to adopt ,egoi/ic ,h$onism z ! me?od ( #8private ,e?ics1' z di/9ct f legislation3 & 9 8 po/hum\s #8,deontology' ! two pr9ciples appe> to be reconcil$ by ! doctr9e1 t x is always ! individual's true int]e/1 ev5 f a purely mundane po9t ( view1 to act 9 ! mann] mo/ conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,?is latt] proposition--:i* ,i reg>d z errone\s--is n1 inde$1 def9itely put =w>d 9 any ( ! treatises publi%$ by ,b5?am 9 8 lifetime1 or completely prep>$ by him = publication3 b x may be inf]r$ f 8 common-place book t he held x 7see 8 ,works1 vol4 x4 pp4 #efj1 #efa74 ,,footnotes3 #ga ,z ,i h be=e said1 ! applicability ( a me?od = det]m9+ "r conduct relatively to an ultimate end--:e!r ,happ9ess or ,p]fection--does n necess>ily dep5d on ! acceptance ( ! end z prescrib$ by reason3 x only requires t x %\ld be 9 "s way adopt$ z ultimate & p>am\nt4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 conf9$ my att5tion 9 ?is treatise to ends :i* are widely accept$ z reasonable3 & ,i %all aft]w>ds endeav\r to exhibit ! self-evid5t practical axioms :i* appe> to me to be impli$ 9 ?is acceptance4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book iii4 *ap4 xiii4 #gb ,! notion ( #8,self-realisation' w be m conv5i5tly exam9$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]3 :]e ,i %all di/+ui% diff]5t int]pretations ( ! t]m #8,egoism1' :i* ,i h tak5 to d5ote "o ( ! ?ree pr9cipal species ( e?ical me?od4 #gc ,see ,note at ! end ( ! *apt]4 #gd ,see ,note at ! end ( ! *apt]4 #ge ,we %all h occasion to consid] ,mill's argum5t on ?is po9t 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book iii4 *ap4 xiii4 #gf ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t nei!r ,cumb]l& nor ,%aftesbury uses ! t]m 8,good0 7sub/antive7 9 a purely & exclusively h$oni/ic s5se4 ,b ,%aftesbury uses x ma9ly 9 ?is s5se3 & ,cumb]l&'s 8,good0 includes ,happ9ess z well z ,p]fection4 #gg ,see ,diss]tation ,,ii4 ,( ! ,nature ( ,virtue app5d$ to ! ,analogy4 ,x may be int]e/+ to notice a gradual *ange 9 ,butl]'s view on ?is important po9t4 ,9 ! fir/ ( 8 ,s]mons on ,human ,nature1 publi%$ "s ye>s be=e ! ,analogy1 he does n notice1 any m ?an ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson1 any possible want ( h>mony betwe5 ,consci5ce & ,b5evol5ce4 ,a note to ,s]mon ,,xii41 h[ev]1 seems to indicate a /age ( transition betwe5 ! view ( ! fir/ ,s]mon & ! view ( ! ,diss]tation4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,egoism ,,& ,,self-,,love #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ,i h us$ ! t]m 8,egoism10 z x is mo/ commonly us$1 to d5ote a sy/em :i* prescribes actions z means to ! end ( ! individual's happ9ess or pleasure4 ,! rul+ motive 9 su* a sy/em is commonly said to be 8self-love40 ,b bo? t]ms admit ( o!r int]pretations1 :i* x w be well to di/+ui% & set aside be=e proce$+ fur!r4 ,= example1 ! t]m 8egoi/ic0 is ord9>ily & n improp]ly appli$ to ! basis on :i* ,hobbes attempt$ to con/ruct morality2 & on :i* alone1 z he held1 ! social ord] c\ld firmly re/1 & escape ! /orms & convulsions ) :i* x seem$ to be m5ac$ f ! vag>ies ( ! un5light5$ consci5ce4 ,b x is n /rictly ! end ( ,egoism z ,i h def9$ x--greate/ atta9able pleasure = ! individual--b r 8self-pres]vation10 :i* det]m9es ! fir/ ( ^? precepts ( rational egoism :i* ,hobbes calls 8,laws ( ,nature10 viz41 8,seek peace & ensue x40 ,& 9 ! developm5t ( 8 sy/em we (t5 f9d t x is ,pres]vation r ?an ,pleasure1 or p]haps a compromise betwe5 ! two1#gh t is tak5 z ! ultimate end & /&>d ( "r conduct4 ,aga91 9 ,sp9oza's view ! pr9ciple ( rational action is necess>ily egoi/ic1 & is 7z ) ,hobbes7 ! impulse ( self-pres]vation4 ,! individual m9d1 says ,sp9oza1 l ev]y?+ else1 /rives s f> z x is able to cont9ue 9 its /ate ( be+3 inde$ ?is ef=t is its v ess5ce4 ,x is true t ! object ( ?is impulse _c be sep>at$ f pleasure or joy2 because pleasure or joy is 8a passion 9 :i* ! s\l passes to high] p]fection40 ,/ill x is n at ,pleasure t ! impulse prim>ily aims1 b at ! m9d's ,p]fection or ,reality3 z we %\ld n[ say1 at ,self-realisation or ,self-developm5t4 ,( ?is1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 ! highe/ =m consi/s 9 a cle> compreh5sion ( all ?+s 9 _! necess>y ord] z modifications ( ! "o ,div9e ,be+1 & t will+ acceptance ( all :i* spr+s f ?is compreh5sion4 ,9 ?is /ate ! m9d is purely active1 )\t any admixture ( passion or passivity3 & ?us its ess5tial nature is realis$ or actualis$ to ! greate/ possible degree4 ,we p]ceive t ?is is ! notion ( ,self-realisation z def9$ n only by b = a philosoph]3 & t x w\ld mean some?+ q diff]5t 9 ! case ( a man ( action--su*1 = example1 z ! reflective dramati/ ( ,g]many introduces exclaim+3 ,i* kann mi* ni*t ,wie s e9 ,wor!ld1 s e9 ,tug5d-,s*wtz] ,an me9em ,will5 wrm51 und ,g$ank5 444 ,w5n i* ni*t wirke mehr1 b9 i* v]ni*tet4#gi ,! arti/1 aga91 (t5 contemplates 8 production ( ! beautiful z a realisation ( self3 & morali/s ( a c]ta9 turn ( m9d1 9 all ages1 h simil>ly reg>d$ ! sacrifice ( incl9ation to duty z ! highe/ =m ( ,self-developm5t2 & held t true self-love prompts u always to obey ! comm&s issu$ by ! gov]n+ pr9ciple--,reason or ,consci5ce--)9 u1 z 9 su* ob$i5ce1 h[ev] pa9ful1 we %all be realis+ our true/ self4 ,we see1 9 %ort1 t ! t]m ,egoism1 s f> z x m]ely implies t ref]5ce is made to self 9 lay+ d[n fir/ pr9ciples ( conduct1 does n really indicate 9 any way ! sub/ance ( su* pr9ciples4 ,= all our impulses1 high & l[1 s5sual & moral alike1 are s f> simil>ly relat$ to self1 t--except :5 two or m impulses come into consci\s conflict--we t5d to id5tify ourselves ) ea* z x arises4 ,?us self-consci\sness may be prom95t 9 yield+ to any impulse3 & egoism1 9 s f> z x m]ely implies su* prom95ce1 is a common =m applicable to all pr9ciples ( action4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t we d n1 prop]ly speak+1 #8develop' or #8realise' self by yield+ to ! impulse :i* happ5s to be pr$om9ant 9 u2 b by ex]cis+1 ea* 9 its due place & prop] degree1 all ! diff]5t faculties1 capacities1 & prop5sities1 ( :i* our nature is made up4 ,b "h !re is an important ambiguity4 ,:at d we mean by #8due proportion & prop] degree'8 ,^! t]ms may imply an ideal1 into con=mity ) :i* ! individual m9d has to be tra9$1 by re/ra9+ "s ( its natural impulses & /r5g!n+ o!rs1 & develop+ its high] faculties r ?an its l[]3 or !y may m]ely ref] to ! orig9al comb9ation & proportion ( t5d5cies 9 ! "* ) :i* ea* is born2 to ?is1 x may be meant1 we ought to adapt z f> z possible ! circum/ances 9 :i* we place ourselves & ! functions :i* we *oose to ex]cise1 9 ord] t we may 8be ourselves10 8live our own life10 etc4 ,accord+ to ! =m] int]pretation rational ,self-developm5t is m]ely ano!r t]m = ! pursuit ( ,p]fection = oneself3 :ile 9 ! latt] s5se x h>dly appe>s t ,self-developm5t 7:5 cle>ly di/+ui%$7 is really put =w>d z an absolute end1 b r z a means to happ9ess2 = suppos+ a man to h inh]it$ prop5sities cle>ly t5d+ to 8 own unhapp9ess1 no "o w\ld recomm5d him to develop ^! z fully z possible1 in/ead ( modify+ or subdu+ !m 9 "s way4 ,:e!r actually ! be/ way ( seek+ happ9ess is to give free play to "o's nature1 we w h]eaft] consid] 9 ! c\rse ( our exam9ation ( ,h$onism4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 ,i conclude t ! notion ( ,self-realisation is to be avoid$ 9 a treatise on e?ical me?od1 on acc\nt ( its indef9it5ess3 & = a simil> reason we mu/ disc>d a common acc\nt ( ,egoism :i* describes its ultimate end z ! #8good' ( ! individual2 = ! t]m #8good' may cov] all possible views ( ! ultimate end ( rational conduct4 ,inde$ x may be said t ,egoism 9 ?is s5se 0 assum$ 9 ! :ole e?ical controv]sy ( anci5t ,greece2 t is1 x 0 assum$ on all sides t a rational individual#hj w\ld make ! pursuit ( 8 own good 8 supreme aim3 ! controv]t$ "q 0 :e!r ?is ,good 0 rightly conceiv$ z ,pleasure or ,virtue1 or any t]tium quid4 ,nor is ! ambiguity remov$ if we foll[ ,ari/otle 9 conf9+ our att5tion to ! ,good atta9able 9 human life1 & call ?is ,well-be+ 774 ,= we may /ill argue ) ! ,/oics1 t virtu\s or excell5t activities & n pleasures are ! elem5ts ( :i* true human ,well-be+ is compos$4 ,inde$ ,ari/otle himself adopts ?is view1 s f> z to det]m9e ! details ( ,well-be+ accord+ly3 ?\gh he does n1 ) ! ,/oics1 reg>d ! pursuit ( ,virtue & t ( ,pleasure z compet+ alt]natives1 hold+ r t ! 8be/ pleasure0 is an insep>able concomitant ( ! mo/ excell5t action4 ,ev5 ! ,engli% t]m ,happ9ess is n free f a simil> ambiguity4#ha ,x seems1 inde$1 to be commonly us$ 9 ,b5?am's way z conv]tible ) ,pleasure1--or r z d5ot+ t ( :i* ! con/itu5ts are pleasures2--& x is 9 ?is s5se t ,i ?9k x mo/ conv5i5t to use x4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 9 ord9>y disc\rse1 ! t]m is r employ$ to d5ote a p>ticul> k9d ( agreeable consci\sness1 :i* is di/+ui%$ f & ev5 contra/$ ) def9ite specific pleasures--su* z ! gratifications ( s5sual appetite or o!r ke5 & vehem5t desires--z be+ at once calm] & m indef9ite3 we may *>act]ise x z ! feel+ :i* accompanies ! normal activity ( a 8heal?y m9d 9 a heal?y body10 & ( :i* specific pleasures seem to be r /imulants ?an elem5ts4 ,sometimes1 aga9--?\gh1 ,i ?9k1 ) a m manife/ div]g5ce f common usage--8happ9ess0 or 8true happ9ess0 is und]/ood 9 a def9itely non-h$oni/ic s5se1 z d5ot+ results o!r ?an agreeable feel+s ( any k9d4#hb #b4 ,to be cle>1 !n1 we mu/ p>ticul>ise z ! object ( ,self-love1 & ,end ( ! me?od :i* ,i h di/+ui%$ z ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 ,pleasure1 tak5 9 its wide/ s5se1 z includ+ e species ( 8delight10 8enjoym5t10 or 8satisfaction02 except s f> z any p>ticul> species may be exclud$ by its incompatibility ) "s great] pleasures1 or z necess>ily involv+ concomitant or subsequ5t pa9s4 ,x is ?us t ,self-love seems to be und]/ood by ,butl]#hc & o!r ,engli% morali/s aft] him2 z a desire ( "o's own pleasure g5]ally1 & ( ! greate/ am\nt ( x obta9able1 f :atev] s\rce x may be obta9$4 ,9 fact1 x is ^u ?is g5]ality & compreh5siv5ess t ! #8au?ority' & #8reasonabl5ess' attribut$ to ,self-love 9 ,butl]'s sy/em are f\nd$4 ,= satisfaction or pleasure ( "s k9d results f gratify+ any impulse2 ?us :5 antagoni/ic impulses compete = ! det]m9ation ( ! ,w1 we are prompt$ by ! desire = pleasure 9 g5]al to comp>e ! pleasures :i* we =esee w respectively att5d ! gratification ( ei!r impulse1 & :5 we h asc]ta9$ :i* set ( pleasures is ! greate/1 ,self-love or ! desire = pleasure 9 g5]al re9=ces ! correspond+ impulse4 ,x is ?us call$ into play :5ev] impulses conflict1 & is !re=e naturally regulative & directive 7z ,butl] argues7 ( o!r spr+s ( action4 ,on ?is view1 s f> z ,self-love op]ates1 we m]ely consid] ! am\nt ( pleasure or satisfaction3 to use ,b5?am's illu/ration1 8quantity ( pleasure be+ equal1 pu%-p9 is z good z poetry40 ,?is position1 h[ev]1 seems to _m (f5sively p>adoxical2 & ,j4 ,s4 ,mill#hd 9 8 developm5t ( ,b5?am's doctr9e ?\ght x desirable to ab&on x & to take into acc\nt diff]5ces 9 quality among pleasures z well z diff]5ces 9 degree4 ,n[ "h we may obs]ve1 fir/1 t x is q consi/5t ) ! view quot$ z ,b5?am's to describe "s k9ds ( pleasure z inf]ior 9 quality to o!rs1 if by #8a pleasure' we mean 7z is (t5 meant7 a :ole /ate ( consci\sness :i* is only p>tly pleasurable2 & /ill m if we take into view subsequ5t /ates4 ,= _m pleasures are n free f pa9 ev5 :ile enjoy$2 & _m m h pa9ful consequ5ces4 ,su* pleasures are1 9 ,b5?am's phrase1 8impure03 & z ! pa9 has to be set (f z a drawback 9 valu+ ! pleasure1 x is 9 accordance ) /rictly quantitative measurem5t ( pleasure to call !m inf]ior 9 k9d4 ,& aga91 we mu/ be c>eful n to conf\nd int5sity ( pleasure ) int5sity ( s5sation3 z a pleasant feel+ may be /rong & absorb+1 & yet n s pleasant z ano!r t is m subtle & delicate4 ,) ^! explanations1 x seems to me t 9 ord] to "w out consi/5tly ! me?od t takes pleasure z ! sole ultimate end ( rational conduct1 ,b5?am's proposition mu/ be accept$1 & all qualitative comp>ison ( pleasures mu/ really resolve itself into quantitative4 ,= all pleasures are und]/ood to be s call$ because !y h a common prop]ty ( pleasantness1 & may !re=e be comp>$ 9 respect ( ?is common prop]ty4 ,if1 !n1 :at we are seek+ is pleasure z su*1 & pleasure alone1 we mu/ evid5tly always pref] ! m pleasant pleasure to ! less pleasant3 no o!r *oice seems reasonable1 unless we are aim+ at some?+ besides pleasure4 ,& (t5 :5 we say t "o k9d ( pleasure is bett] ?an ano!r--z 7e4g47 t ! pleasures ( reciprocat$ affection are sup]ior 9 quality to ! pleasures ( gratifi$ appetite--we mean t !y are m pleasant4 ,no d\bt we may mean some?+ else3 we may mean1 = in/ance1 t !y are nobl] & m elevat$1 al?\gh less pleasant4 ,b !n we are cle>ly introduc+ a non-h$oni/ic gr\nd ( pref]5ce3 & if ?is is done1 ! me?od adopt$ is a p]plex+ mixture ( ,intuitionism & ,h$onism4 ,to sum up3 ,egoism1 if we m]ely und]/& by x a me?od t aims at ,self-realisation1 seems to be a =m into :i* almo/ any e?ical sy/em may be ?r[n1 )\t modify+ its ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,& ev5 :5 fur!r def9$ ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 x is /ill imp]fectly di/+ui%able f ,intuitionism if quality ( pleasures is admitt$ z a consid]ation di/9ct f & ov]rul+ quantity4 ,!re rema9s !n ,pure or ,quantitative ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 :i*1 z a me?od ess5tially di/9ct f all o!rs & widely ma9ta9$ to be rational1 seems to des]ve a detail$ exam9ation4 ,accord+ to ?is ! rational ag5t reg>ds quantity ( consequ5t pleasure & pa9 to himself z alone important 9 *oos+ betwe5 alt]natives ( action2 & seeks always ! greate/ atta9able surplus ( pleasure ov] pa9--:i*1 )\t violation ( usage1 we may designate z 8 #8greate/ happ9ess4' ,x seems to be ?is view & attitude ( m9d :i* is mo/ commonly int5d$ by ! vagu] t]ms #8egoism1' #8egoi/ic'3 & !re=e ,i %all all[ myself to use ^! t]ms 9 ?is m precise signification4 ,,footnotes3 #gh ,?us ! end = :i* an individual is suppos$ to r5\nce ! unlimit$ rights ( ! ,/ate ( ,nature is said 7,levia?an1 *ap4 xiv47 to be 8no?+ else b ! security ( a man's p]son 9 ?is life1 & ! means ( pres]v+ life s z n to be we>y ( x40 #gi ,s*ill]'s ,wall5/e94 #hj ,i %all aft]w>ds try to expla9 h[ x comes ab\t t1 9 mod]n ?\ght1 ! proposition #8,my own ,good is my only reasonable ultimate end' is n a m]e tautology1 ev5 ?\gh we def9e #8,good' z t at :i* x is ultimately reasonable to aim4 ,cf4 po/1 *ap4 ix4 & ,book iii4 *aps4 xiii4 xiv4 #ha ,ari/otle's selection ( to d5ote :at he else:]e calls 8,human0 or 8,practicable0 good1 & ! fact t1 aft] all1 we h no bett] r5d]+ = ?an 8,happ9ess0 or 8,felicity10 has caus$ no little misund]/&+ ( 8 sy/em4 ,?us :5 ,/ew>t 7,philosophy ( ! ,active & ,moral ,p[]s1 ,book ii4 *ap4 ii47 says t 8by _m ( ! be/ ( ! anci5t morali/s 444 ! :ole ( e?ics 0 r$uc$ to ?is "q 444 ,:at is mo/ conducive on ! :ole to our happ9ess80 ! rem>k1 if n exactly false1 is c]ta9 to mislead 8 read]s2 s9ce by ,/ew>t1 z by mo/ ,engli% writ]s1 8,happ9ess0 is def9itely conceiv$ z consi/+ ( 8,pleasures0 or 8,enjoym5ts40 #hb ,?us ,gre5 7,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,book iii4 *ap4 iv4 #bbh7 says1 8,x is ! realisation ( ^? objects 9 :i* we are ma9ly int]e/$1 n ! succession ( enjoym5ts :i* we %all exp]i5ce 9 realis+ !m1 t =ms ! def9ite cont5t ( our idea ( true happ9ess1 s f> z x has su* cont5t at all40 ,cf4 also #bch4 ,x is m rem>kable to f9d ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 7,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 iv47 decl>+ t 8money0--no less ?an 8p[]0 or 8fame0--comes by association ( ideas to be 8a "p ( happ9ess10 an 8+r$i5t 9 ! individual's conception ( happ9ess40 ,b ?is seems to be a m]e loos5ess ( phraseology1 v5ial 9 a treatise aim+ at a popul> /yle2 s9ce ,mill has expressly said t 8by happ9ess is int5d$ pleasure & ! abs5ce ( pa910 & he _c mean t money is ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,9 fact he uses 9 ! same passage--z an alt]native phrase = 8p>ts ( happ9ess0--! phrases 8s\rces ( happ9ess0 & 8s\rces ( pleasure03 & 8 real mean+ is m precisely express$ by ^! latt] t]ms4 ,t is1 ! di/9ction :i* he is really conc]n$ to emphasise is t betwe5 ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* money is valu$ solely z a means ( buy+ o!r ?+s1 & ! /ate ( m9d--su* z ! mis]'s--9 :i* ! m]e consci\sness ( possess+ x gives pleasure1 ap>t f any idea ( sp5d+ x4 #hc ,see ,s]mon ,,xi4 8444 ! cool pr9ciple ( self-love or g5]al desire ( our own happ9ess40 #hd ,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 ii4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,intuitionism #a4 ,i h us$ ! t]m #8,intuitional' to d5ote ! view ( e?ics :i* reg>ds z ! practically ultimate end ( moral actions _! con=mity to c]ta9 rules or dictates#he ( ,duty unconditionally prescrib$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 consid]able ambiguity z to ! exact anti!sis impli$ by ! t]ms #8intuition1' #8intuitive1' & _! cong5]s1 z curr5tly us$ 9 e?ical discussion1 :i* we mu/ n[ endeav\r to remove4 ,writ]s :o ma9ta9 t we h #8intuitive k' ( ! rightness ( actions usually mean t ?is rightness is asc]ta9$ by simply 8look+ at0 ! actions !mselves1 )\t consid]+ _! ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,?is view1 inde$1 c h>dly be ext5d$ to ! :ole range ( duty2 s9ce no morality ev] exi/$ :i* did n consid] ult]ior consequ5ces to "s ext5t4 ,prud5ce or ,=e?\ght has commonly be5 reckon$ a virtue3 & all mod]n li/s ( ,virtues h includ$ ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 :i* aims at ! happ9ess ( o!r human be+s g5]ally1 & !re=e necess>ily takes into consid]ation ev5 remote effects ( actions4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 too1 t x is difficult to draw ! l9e betwe5 an act & its consequ5ces3 z ! effects consequ5t on ea* ( our volitions =m a cont9u\s s]ies ( indef9ite ext5sion1 & we seem to be consci\s ( caus+ all ^! effects1 s f> z at ! mom5t ( volition we =esee !m to be probable4 ,h[ev]1 we f9d t 9 ! common notions ( diff]5t k9ds ( actions1 a l9e is actually drawn betwe5 ! results includ$ 9 ! notion & reg>d$ z =m+ "p ( ! act1 & ^? consid]$ z its consequ5ces4 ,= example1 9 speak+ tru? to a jury1 ,i may possibly =esee t my words1 op]at+ along ) o!r /atem5ts & indications1 w unavoidably lead !m to a wrong conclusion z to ! guilt or innoc5ce ( ! accus$1 z c]ta9ly z ,i =esee t !y w produce a "r impression z to ! p>ticul> matt] ( fact to :i* ,i am te/ify+3 /ill1 we %\ld commonly consid] ! latt] =esight or int5tion to det]m9e ! nature ( ! act z an act ( v]acity1 :ile ! =m] m]ely relates to a consequ5ce4 ,we mu/ und]/& !n t ! disreg>d ( consequ5ces1 :i* ! ,intuitional view is "h tak5 to imply1 only relates to c]ta9 det]m9ate classes ( action 7su* z ,tru?-speak+7 :]e common usage ( t]ms adequately def9es :at ev5ts are to be includ$ 9 ! g5]al notions ( ! acts1 & :at reg>d$ z _! consequ5ces4 ,b aga93 we h to obs]ve t m5 may & d judge remote z well z imm$iate results to be 9 !mselves good1 & su* z we ought to seek to realise1 )\t consid]+ !m 9 relation to ! feel+s ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,i h already assum$ ?is to be ! view ( ^? :o adopt ! g5]al ,p]fection1 z di/9ct f ! ,happ9ess1 ( human society z _! ultimate end2 & x w\ld seem to be ! view ( _m :o conc5trate _! ef=ts on "s m p>ticul> results1 o!r ?an morality1 su* z ! promotion ( ,art or ,k4 ,su* a view1 if expressly di/+ui%$ f ,h$onism1 might prop]ly be class$ z ,intuitional1 b 9 a s5se wid] ?an t def9$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph3 i4e4 x w\ld be meant t ! results 9 "q are judg$ to be good imm$iately1 & n by inf]5ce f exp]i5ce ( ! pleasures :i* !y produce4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to admit a wid] use ( #8,intuition1' z equival5t to #8imm$iate judgm5t z to :at ought to be done or aim$ at4' ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t ! curr5t contra/ betwe5 #8intuitive' or #8a priori' & #8inductive' or #8a po/]iori' morality commonly involves a c]ta9 confusion ( ?\ght4 ,= :at ! #8inductive' morali/ pr(esses to "k by induction1 is commonly n ! same ?+ z :at ! #8intuitive' morali/ pr(esses to "k by intuition4 ,9 ! =m] case x is ! conduciv5ess to pleasure ( c]ta9 k9ds ( action t is me?odically asc]ta9$3 9 ! latt] case1 _! rightness3 !re is !re=e no prop] opposition4 ,if ,h$onism claims to give au?oritative guidance1 ?is c only be 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple t pleasure is ! only reasonable ultimate end ( human action3 & ?is pr9ciple _c be kn[n by induction f exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce c at mo/ tell u t all m5 always d seek pleasure z _! ultimate end 7t x does n support ?is conclusion ,i h already tri$ to %[73 x _c tell u t any "o ought s to seek x4 ,if ?is latt] proposition is legitimately affirm$ 9 respect ei!r ( private or ( g5]al happ9ess1 x mu/ ei!r be imm$iately kn[n to be true1--& !re=e1 we may say1 a moral intuition--or be inf]r$ ultimately f premises :i* include at lea/ "o su* moral intuition2 h5ce ei!r species ( ,h$onism1 reg>d$ f ! po9t ( view prim>ily#hf tak5 9 ?is treatise1 might be legitimately said to be 9 a c]ta9 s5se #8intuitional4' ,x seems1 h[ev]1 to be ! prevail+ op9ion ( ord9>y moral p]sons1 & ( mo/ ( ! writ]s :o h ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( moral intuitions1 t c]ta9 k9ds ( actions are unconditionally prescrib$ )\t reg>d to ult]ior consequ5ces3 & ,i h accord+ly treat$ ?is doctr9e z a di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,intuitional me?od1 dur+ ! ma9#hg "p ( ! detail$ exam9ation ( t me?od :i* ,i attempt 9 ,book iii4 #b4 ,fur!r2 ! common anti!sis betwe5 #8intuitive' & #8inductive' morality is mislead+ 9 ano!r way3 s9ce a morali/ may hold ! rightness ( actions to be cognisable ap>t f ! pleasure produc$ by !m1 :ile yet 8 me?od may be prop]ly call$ ,inductive4 ,= he may hold t1 j z ! g5]alisations ( physical sci5ce re/ on p>ticul> obs]vations1 s 9 e?ics g5]al tru?s c only be rea*$ by induction f judgm5ts or p]ceptions relat+ to ! rightness or wrongness ( p>ticul> acts4 ,= example1 :5 ,socrates is said by ,ari/otle to h appli$ inductive reason+ to e?ical que/ions1 x is ?is k9d ( induction :i* is meant4#hh ,he discov]$1 z we are told1 ! lat5t ignorance ( himself & o!r m53 t is1 t !y us$ g5]al t]ms confid5tly1 )\t be+ able1 :5 call$ ^u1 to expla9 ! mean+ ( ^? t]ms4 ,8 plan = rem$y+ ?is ignorance 0 to "w t[>ds ! true def9ition ( ea* t]m1 by exam9+ & comp>+ diff]5t in/ances ( its application4 ,?us ! def9ition ( ,ju/ice w\ld be s\ght by comp>+ diff]5t actions commonly judg$ to be j1 & fram+ a g5]al proposition t w\ld h>monise ) all ^! p>ticul> judgm5ts4 ,s aga91 9 ! popul> view ( ,consci5ce x seems to be (t5 impli$ t p>ticul> judgm5ts are ! mo/ tru/wor?y4 #8,consci5ce' is ! accept$ popul> t]m = ! faculty ( moral judgm5t1 z appli$ to ! acts & motives ( ! p]son judg+2 & we mo/ commonly ?9k ( ! dictates ( consci5ce z relat+ to p>ticul> actions4 ,?us :5 a man is bidd51 9 any p>ticul> case1 to #8tru/ to 8 consci5ce1' x commonly seems to be meant t he %\ld ex]cise a faculty ( judg+ morally ?is p>ticul> case )\t ref]5ce to g5]al rules1 & ev5 9 opposition to conclusions obta9$ by sy/ematic d$uction f su* rules4 ,& x is on ?is view ( ,consci5ce t ! contempt (t5 express$ = #8,casui/ry' may be mo/ easily ju/ifi$3 = if ! p>ticul> case c be satisfactorily settl$ by consci5ce )\t ref]5ce to g5]al rules1 #8,casui/ry1' :i* consi/s 9 ! application ( g5]al rules to p>ticul> cases1 is at be/ sup]flu\s4 ,b !n1 on ?is view1 we %all h no practical ne$ ( any su* g5]al rules1 or ( sci5tific ,e?ics at all4 ,we may ( c\rse =m g5]al propositions by induction f ^! p>ticul> consci5ti\s judgm5ts1 & arrange !m sy/ematically3 b any int]e/ :i* su* a sy/em may h w be purely speculative4 ,& ?is acc\nts1 p]haps1 = ! indiff]5ce or ho/ility to sy/ematic morality %[n by "s consci5ti\s p]sons4 ,= !y feel t !y c at any rate d )\t x3 & !y fe> t ! cultivation ( x may place ! m9d 9 a wrong attitude 9 relation to practice1 & prove r unfav\rable ?an o!rwise to ! prop] developm5t ( ! practically important faculty manife/$ or ex]cis$ 9 p>ticul> moral judgm5ts4 ,! view above describ$ may be call$1 9 a s5se1 #8ultra-intuitional1' s9ce1 9 its mo/ extreme =m1 x recognises simple imm$iate intuitions alone & disc>ds z sup]flu\s all modes ( reason+ to moral conclusions3 & we may f9d 9 x "o phase or v>iety ( ! ,intuitional me?od1--if we may ext5d ! t]m #8me?od' to include a proc$ure t is complet$ 9 a s+le judgm5t4 #c4 ,b ?\gh probably all moral ag5ts h exp]i5ce ( su* p>ticul> intuitions1 & ?\gh !y con/itute a great "p ( ! moral ph5om5a ( mo/ m9ds1 comp>atively few are s ?or\ghly satisfi$ ) !m1 z n to feel a ne$ ( "s fur!r moral k ev5 f a /rictly practical po9t ( view4 ,= ^! p>ticul> intuitions d n1 to reflective p]sons1 pres5t !mselves z q indubitable & irrefragable3 nor d !y always f9d :5 !y h put an e?ical "q to !mselves ) all s9c]ity1 t !y are consci\s ( cle> imm$iate insight 9 respect ( x4 ,aga91 :5 a man comp>es ! utt]ances ( 8 consci5ce at diff]5t times1 he (t5 f9ds x difficult to make !m altoge!r consi/5t3 ! same conduct w we> a diff]5t moral aspect at "o "t f t :i* x wore at ano!r1 al?\gh our k ( its circum/ances & conditions is n mat]ially *ang$4 ,fur!r1 we become aw>e t ! moral p]ceptions ( diff]5t m9ds1 to all appe>ance equally compet5t to judge1 frequ5tly conflict3 "o condemns :at ano!r approves4 ,9 ?is way s]i\s d\bts are ar\s$ z to ! validity ( ea* man's p>ticul> moral judgm5ts3 & we are l$ to endeav\r to set ^! d\bts at re/ by appeal+ to g5]al rules1 m firmly e/abli%$ on a basis ( common cons5t4 ,& 9 fact1 ?\gh ! view ( consci5ce above discuss$ is "o :i* mu* popul> language seems to sugge/1 x is n t :i* ,*ri/ian & o!r morali/s h usually giv54 ,!y h r repres5t$ ! process ( consci5ce z analog\s to "o ( jural reason+1 su* z is conduct$ 9 a ,c\rt ( ,law4 ,"h we h always a sy/em ( univ]sal rules giv51 & any p>ticul> action has to be br\ght "u "o ( ^! rules be=e x c be pron\nc$ lawful or unlawful4 ,n[ ! rules ( positive law are usually n discov]able by ! individual's reason3 ?is may tea* him t law ought to be obey$1 b :at law is mu/1 9 ! ma91 be communicat$ to him f "s ext]nal au?ority4 ,& ?is is n unfrequ5tly ! case ) ! consci5ti\s reason+ ( ord9>y p]sons :5 any dispute or difficulty =ces !m to reason3 !y h a g5u9e impulse to con=m to ! "r rules ( conduct1 b !y are n consci\s1 9 difficult or d\btful cases1 ( see+ = !mselves :at ^! are3 !y h to inquire ( _! prie/1 or _! sacr$ books1 or p]haps ! common op9ion ( ! society to :i* !y belong4 ,9 s f> z ?is is ! case we _c /rictly call _! me?od ,intuitional4 ,!y foll[ rules g5]ally receiv$1 n intuitively appreh5d$4 ,o!r p]sons1 h[ev] 7or p]haps all to "s ext5t71 d seem to see = !mselves ! tru?#hi & b9d+ness ( all or mo/ ( ^! curr5t rules4 ,!y may /ill put =w>d #8common cons5t' z an argum5t = ! validity ( ^! rules3 b only z support+ ! individual's intuition1 n z a sub/itute = x or z sup]s$+ x4 ,"h !n we h a second ,intuitional ,me?od3 ( :i* ! fundam5tal assumption is t we c disc]n c]ta9 g5]al rules ) really cle> & f9ally valid intuition4 ,x is held t su* g5]al rules are implicit 9 ! moral reason+ ( ord9>y m51 :o appreh5d !m adequately = mo/ practical purposes1 & are able to enunciate !m r\ghly2 b t to /ate !m ) prop] precision requires a special habit ( contemplat+ cle>ly & /eadily ab/ract moral notions4 ,x is held t ! morali/'s function !n is to p]=m ?is process ( ab/ract contemplation1 to arrange ! results z sy/ematically z possible1 & by prop] def9itions & explanations to remove vagu5ess & prev5t conflict4 ,x is su* a sy/em z ?is :i* seems to be g5]ally int5d$ :5 ,intuitive or a priori morality is m5tion$1 & :i* w *iefly occupy u 9 ,book iii4 #d4 ,by philosophic m9ds1 h[ev]1 ! #8,morality ( ,common ,s5se' 7z ,i h v5tur$ to call x71 ev5 :5 made z precise & ord]ly z possible1 is (t5 f\nd unsatisfactory z a sy/em1 al?\gh !y h no disposition to "q its g5]al au?ority4 ,x is f\nd difficult to accept z sci5tific fir/ pr9ciples ! moral g5]alities t we obta9 by reflection on ! ord9>y ?\ght ( mank9d1 ev5 ?\gh we %>e ?is ?\ght4 ,ev5 grant+ t ^! rules c be s def9$ z p]fectly to fit toge!r & cov] ! :ole field ( human conduct1 )\t com+ into conflict & )\t leav+ any practical que/ions unansw]$1--/ill ! result+ code seems an accid5tal aggregate ( precepts1 :i* /&s 9 ne$ ( "s rational syn!sis4 ,9 %ort1 )\t be+ dispos$ to d5y t conduct commonly judg$ to be "r is s1 we may yet require "s deep] explanation :y x is s4 ,f ?is dem& spr+s a ?ird species or phase ( ,intuitionism1 :i*1 :ile accept+ ! morality ( common s5se z 9 ! ma9 s\nd1 /ill attempts to f9d = x a philosophic basis :i* x does n itself (f]3 to get "o or m pr9ciples m absolutely & und5iably true & evid5t1 f :i* ! curr5t rules might be d$uc$1 ei!r j z !y are commonly receiv$ or ) slight modifications & rectifications4#ij ,! ?ree phases ( ,intuitionism j describ$ may be treat$ z ?ree /ages 9 ! =mal developm5t ( ,intuitive ,morality3 we may t]m !m respectively ,p]ceptional1 ,dogmatic1 & ,philosophical4 ,! la/-m5tion$ ,i h only def9$ 9 ! vague/ way3 9 fact1 z yet ,i h pres5t$ x only z a problem1 ( :i* x is impossible to =esee h[ _m solutions may be attempt$3 b x does n seem desirable to inve/igate x fur!r at pres5t1 z x w be m satisfactorily /udi$ aft] exam9+ 9 detail ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se4 ,x mu/ n be ?\ght t ^! ?ree phases are %>ply di/+ui%$ 9 ! moral reason+ ( ord9>y m53 b !n no m is ,intuitionism ( any sort %>ply di/+ui%$ f ei!r species ( ,h$onism4 ,a loose comb9ation or confusion ( me?ods is ! mo/ common type ( actual moral reason+4 ,probably mo/ moral m5 believe t _! moral s5se or in/9ct 9 any case w guide !m fairly "r1 b also t !re are g5]al rules = det]m9+ "r action 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( conduct3 & t = ^! aga9 x is possible to f9d a philosophical explanation1 by :i* !y may be d$uc$ f a small] numb] ( fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,/ill = sy/ematic direction ( conduct1 we require to "k on :at judgm5ts we are to rely z ultimately valid4 ,s f> ,i h be5 ma9ly conc]n$ ) diff]5ces 9 intuitional me?od due to diff]5ce ( g5]ality 9 ! intuitive beliefs recognis$ z ultimately valid4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r class ( diff]5ces aris+ f a v>iation ( view z to ! precise quality imm$iately appreh5d$ 9 ! moral intuition4 ,^! are peculi>ly subtle & difficult to fix 9 cle> & precise language1 & ,i !re=e res]ve !m = a sep>ate *apt]4 ,,note4--,intuitional morali/s h n always tak5 suffici5t c>e 9 exp\nd+ _! sy/em to make cle> :e!r !y reg>d z ultimately valid1 moral judgm5ts on s+le acts1 or g5]al rules prescrib+ p>ticul> k9ds ( acts1 or m univ]sal & fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,= example1 ,dugald ,/ew>t uses ! t]m 8p]ception0 to d5ote ! imm$iate op]ation ( ! moral faculty2 at ! same "t1 9 describ+ :at is ?us p]ceiv$1 he always seems to h 9 view g5]al rules4 ,/ill we c tol]ably well di/+ui% among ,engli% e?ical writ]s ^? :o h conf9$ !mselves ma9ly to ! def9ition & arrangem5t ( ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se1 f ^? :o h aim$ at a m philosophical treatm5t ( ! cont5t ( moral intuition4 ,& we f9d t ! di/9ction corresponds 9 ! ma9 to a diff]5ce ( p]iods3 & t--:at p]haps we %\ld h>dly h expect$--! m philosophical s*ool is ! e>li]4 ,! explanation ( ?is may be p>tly f\nd by ref]r+ to ! doctr9es 9 antagonism to :i*1 9 ! respective p]iods1 ! ,intuitional me?od ass]t$ & develop$ itself4 ,9 ! fir/ p]iod all or?odox morali/s 7 occupi$ 9 refut+ ,hobbism4 ,b ?is sy/em1 ?\gh bas$ on ,mat]ialism & ,egoism1 0 yet int5d$ z e?ically con/ructive4 ,accept+ 9 ! ma9 ! commonly receiv$ rules ( social morality1 x expla9$ !m z ! conditions ( peaceful exi/5ce :i* enlight5$ self-int]e/ direct$ ea* individual to obey2 provid$ only ! social ord] to :i* !y belong$ 0 n m]ely ideal1 b made actual by a /rong gov]nm5t4 ,n[ no d\bt ?is view r5d]s ! !oretical basis ( duty s]i\sly un/able2 /ill1 assum+ a dec5tly good gov]nm5t1 ,hobbism may claim to at once expla9 & e/abli%1 in/ead ( und]m9+1 ! morality ( ,common ,s5se4 ,& !re=e1 ?\gh "s ( ,hobbes' antagoni/s 7z ,cudwor?7 cont5t$ !mselves ) simply reaffirm+ ! absolut5ess ( morality1 ! m ?\ghtful felt t sy/em mu/ be met by sy/em & explanation by explanation1 & t !y mu/ p5etrate beyond ! dogmas ( common s5se to "s m irrefragable c]ta9ty4 ,& s1 :ile ,cumb]l& f\nd ?is deep] basis 9 ! notion ( 8! common good ( all ,rationals0 z an ultimate end1 ,cl>ke s\ght to exhibit ! m fundam5tal ( ! receiv$ rules z axioms ( p]fect self-evid5ce1 necess>ily =c$ ^u ! m9d 9 contemplat+ human be+s & _! relations4 ,cl>ke's results1 h[ev]1 7 n f\nd satisfactory3 & by degrees ! attempt to exhibit morality z a body ( sci5tific tru? fell into discr$it1 & ! disposition to dwell on ! emotional side ( ! moral consci\sness became preval5t4 ,b :5 e?ical discussion ?us pass$ ov] into psy*ological analysis & classification1 ! conception ( ! objectivity ( duty1 on :i* ! au?ority ( moral s5tim5t dep5ds1 fell gradually out ( view3 = example1 we f9d ,hut*eson ask+ :y ! moral s5se %\ld n v>y 9 diff]5t human be+s1 z ! palate does1 )\t dream+ t !re is any p]il to morality 9 admitt+ su* v>iations z legitimate4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! new doctr9e 0 endors$ by ! dread$ "n ( ,hume1 its dang]\s nature1 & ! ne$ ( br++ aga9 into prom95ce ! cognitive elem5t ( moral consci\sness1 7 cle>ly se53 & ?is "w 0 und]tak5 z a "p ( ! g5]al philosophic prote/ ( ! ,scotti% ,s*ool aga9/ ! ,empiricism t _h culm9at$ 9 ,hume4 ,b ?is s*ool claim$ z its *>act]i/ic m]it t x met ,empiricism on its own gr\nd1 & %[$ among ! facts ( psy*ological exp]i5ce :i* ! ,empirici/ pr(ess$ to obs]ve1 ! assumptions :i* he repudiat$4 ,& ?us 9 ,e?ics x 0 l$ r to exp\nd & reaffirm ! morality ( ,common ,s5se1 ?an to (f] any pr(\nd] pr9ciples :i* c\ld n be s easily support$ by an appeal to common exp]i5ce4 ,,footnotes3 #he ,i use ! t]m 8dictates0 to include ! view aft]w>ds m5tion$ 7 #b7 9 :i* ! ultimately valid moral imp]atives are conceiv$ z relat+ to p>ticul> acts4 #hf ,i h expla9$ 9 ! conclud+ p>agraph ( *ap4 iii4 t a diff]5t view ( h$oni/ic sy/ems is admissible4 #hg ,! wid] ( ! two mean+s ( #8,intuition' "h di/+ui%$ is requir$ 9 treat+ ( ,philosophical ,intuitionism4 ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 xiii4 #hh ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ,ari/otle reg>d$ ! g5]al proposition obta9$ by induction z really m c]ta9 7& 9 a high] s5se k7 ?an ! p>ticul>s ?r\gh :i* ! m9d is l$ up to x4 #hi ,/rictly speak+1 ! attributes ( tru? & falsehood only belong =mally to ,rules :5 !y are *ang$ f ! imp]ative mood 78,d ,x07 into ! indicative 78,x ought to be done074 #ij ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t su* pr9ciples w n necess>ily be 8intuitional0 9 ! n>r[] s5se t excludes consequ5ces2 b only 9 ! wid] s5se z be+ self-evid5t pr9ciples relat+ to #8:at ought to be4' ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,good #a4 ,we h hi!rto spok5 ( ! quality ( conduct disc]n$ by our moral faculty z #8rightness1' :i* is ! t]m commonly us$ by ,engli% morali/s4 ,we h reg>d$ ?is t]m1 & its equival5ts 9 ord9>y use1 z imply+ ! exi/5ce ( a dictate or imp]ative ( reason1 :i* prescribes c]ta9 actions ei!r unconditionally1 or ) ref]5ce to "s ult]ior end4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible to take a view ( virtu\s action 9 :i*1 ?\gh ! validity ( moral intuitions is n disput$1 ?is notion ( rule or dictate is at any rate only lat5t or implicit1 ! moral ideal be+ pres5t$ z attractive r ?an imp]ative4 ,su* a view seems to be tak5 :5 ! action to :i* we are morally prompt$1 or ! quality ( "* manife/$ 9 x1 is judg$ to be #8good' 9 itself 7& n m]ely z a means to "s ult]ior ,good74 ,?is1 z 0 be=e notic$1 0 ! fundam5tal e?ical conception 9 ! ,greek s*ools ( ,moral ,philosophy g5]ally2 includ+ ev5 ! ,/oics1 ?\gh _! sy/em1 f ! prom95ce t x gives to ! conception ( ,natural ,law1 =ms a transitional l9k betwe5 anci5t & mod]n e?ics4 ,& ?is hi/orical illu/ration may s]ve to exhibit "o important result ( sub/itut+ ! idea ( #8goodness' = t ( #8rightness' ( conduct1 :i* at fir/ sight might be ?\ght a m]ely v]bal *ange4 ,= ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( anci5t e?ical controv]sy z di/+ui%$ f mod]n may be trac$ to ! employm5t ( a g5]ic notion in/ead ( a specific "o 9 express+ ! common moral judgm5ts on actions4 ,virtue or ,"r action is commonly reg>d$ z only a species ( ! ,good3 & s1 on ?is view ( ! moral intuition1 ! fir/ "q t (f]s itself1 :5 we endeav\r to sy/ematise conduct1 is h[ to det]m9e ! relation ( ?is species ( good to ! re/ ( ! g5us4 ,x 0 on ?is "q t ! ,greek ?9k]s argu$1 f fir/ to la/4 ,_! speculations c sc>cely be und]/ood by u unless ) a c]ta9 ef=t we ?r[ ! quasi-jural notions ( mod]n e?ics aside1 & ask 7z !y did7 n 8,:at is ,duty & :at is its gr\nd80 b 8,:i* ( ! objects t m5 ?9k good is truly ,good or ! ,highe/ ,good80 or1 9 ! m specialis$ =m ( ! "q :i* ! moral intuition introduces1 8,:at is ! relation ( ! k9d ( ,good we call ,virtue1 ! qualities ( conduct & "* :i* m5 comm5d & admire1 to o!r good ?+s80 ,?is1 !n1 is ! fir/ diff]5ce to be notic$ betwe5 ! two =ms ( ! intuitive judgm5t4 ,9 ! recognition ( conduct z #8"r' is involv$ an au?oritative prescription to d x3 b :5 we h judg$ conduct to be good1 x is n yet cle> t we ought to pref] ?is k9d ( good to all o!r good ?+s3 "s /&>d = e/imat+ ! relative values ( diff]5t #8goods' has /ill to be s\ght4 ,i propose1 !n1 to exam9e ! import ( ! notion #8,good' 9 ! :ole range ( its application2--premis+ t1 z x is = ! con/itu5ts ( ,ultimate ,good t we require a /&>d ( comp>ison1 we are n directly conc]n$ ) any?+ t is cle>ly only good z a means to ! atta9m5t ( "s ult]ior end4 ,if1 inde$1 we _h only ?is latt] case to consid]1 x w\ld be plausible to int]pret #8good' )\t ref]5ce to human desire or *oice1 z mean+ m]ely #8fit' or #8adapt$' = ! production ( c]ta9 effects--a good horse = rid+1 a good gun = %oot+1 etc4 ,b z we apply ! notion also to ultimate ends1 we mu/ seek a mean+ = x :i* w cov] bo? applications4 #b4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a simple int]pretation ( ! t]m--:i* is widely ma9ta9$ to be ! true "o--accord+ to :i* ev]y?+ :i* we judge to be good is implicitly conceiv$ z a means to ! end ( pleasure1 ev5 :5 we d n make 9 our judgm5t any explicit ref]5ce to ?is or any o!r ult]ior end4 ,on ?is view1 any comp>ison ( ?+s 9 respect ( _! #8goodness' w\ld seem to be really a comp>ison ( !m z s\rces ( pleasure2 s t any attempt to sy/ematise our intuitions ( goodness1 :e!r 9 conduct & "* or 9 o!r ?+s1 mu/ reasonably lead u /raight to ,h$onism4 ,& no d\bt1 if we consid] ! application ( ! t]m1 outside ! sph]e ( "* & conduct1 to ?+s t are n def9itely reg>d$ z means to ! atta9m5t ( "s ult]ior object ( desire1 we f9d a close correspond5ce betwe5 our appreh5sion ( pleasure d]iv$ f an object1 & our recognition t ! object is 9 itself #8good4' ,! good ?+s ( life are ?+s :i* give pleasure1 :e!r s5sual or emotional3 z good d9n]s1 w9es1 poems1 pictures1 music3 & ?is gives a prima facie support to ! int]pretation ( #8good' z equival5t to #8pleasant4' ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t if we reflect on ! application ( ! t]m to ! cases mo/ analog\s to t ( conduct--i4e4 to :at we may call #8objects ( ta/e'--we %all f9d t ?is int]pretation ( x has n cle>ly ! support ( common s5se4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all[+ t ! judgm5t t any object is good ( its k9d is closely connect$ ) ! appreh5sion ( pleasure d]iv$ f x1 we mu/ obs]ve t x is g5]ally to a specific k9d ( pleasure t ! affirmation ( goodness corresponds2 & t if ! object happ5s to give u pleasure ( a diff]5t k9d1 we d n !re=e call x good--at lea/ )\t qualification4 ,= in/ance1 we %\ld n call a w9e good solely because x 0 v :olesome2 nor a poem on acc\nt ( its moral lessons4 ,& h5ce :5 we come to consid] ! mean+ ( ! t]m #8good' z appli$ to conduct1 !re is no reason1 s f>1 to suppose t x has any ref]5ce or correspond5ce to all ! pleasures t may result f ! conduct4 ,r ! p]ception ( goodness or virtue 9 actions w\ld seem to be analog\s to ! p]ception ( beauty#ia 9 mat]ial ?+s3 :i* is normally accompani$ ) a specific pleasure :i* we call #8/hetic1' b has (t5 no discov]able relation to ! g5]al usefulness or agreeabl5ess ( ! ?+ disc]n$ to be beautiful3 inde$1 we (t5 recognise ?is k9d ( excell5ce 9 ?+s hurtful & dang]\s4 ,b fur!r3 z reg>ds /hetic pleasures1 & ! s\rces ( su* pleasures t we commonly judge to be good1 x is ! receiv$ op9ion t "s p]sons h m & o!rs less #8good ta/e'3 & x is only ! judgm5t ( p]sons ( good ta/e t we recognise z valid 9 respect ( ! real goodness ( ! ?+s enjoy$4 ,we ?9k t ( 8 own pleasure ea* individual is ! f9al judge1 & !re is no appeal f 8 decision1--at lea/ s f> z he is comp>+ pleasures )9 8 actual exp]i5ce2 b ! affirmation ( goodness 9 any object involves ! assumption ( a univ]sally valid /&>d1 :i*1 z we believe1 ! judgm5t ( p]sons to :om we attribute good ta/e approximately repres5ts4 ,& x seems cle> t ! t]m #8good' z appli$ to #8ta/e' does n mean #8pleasant'2 x m]ely imports ! con=mity ( ! /hetic judgm5t s *>act]is$ to ! suppos$ ideal1 deviation f :i* implies error & defect4 ,nor does x appe> to be always ! p]son ( be/ ta/e :o d]ives ! greate/ enjoym5t f any k9d ( good & pleasant ?+s4 ,we are famili> ) ! fact t connoisseurs ( w9es1 pictures1 etc41 (t5 reta9 _! intellectual faculty ( apprais+ ! m]its ( ! objects :i* !y criticise1 & decid+ on _! respective places 9 ! scale ( excell5ce1 ev5 :5 _! susceptibilities to pleasure f ^! objects are comp>atively blunt$ & exhau/$4 ,& m g5]ally we see t fre%ness & fulness ( feel+ by no means g along ) ta/e & judgm5t3 & t a p]son :o possesses ! =m] may d]ive m pleasure f inf]ior objects ?an ano!r may f ! be/4 ,to sum up3 ! g5]al admission t ?+s :i* are call$ #8good' are productive ( pleasure1 & t ! =m] quality is insep>able 9 ?\ght f ! latt]1 does n involve ! inf]5ce t ! common e/imates ( ! goodness ( conduct may be fairly tak5 z e/imates ( ! am\nt ( pleasure result+ f x4 ,= 7#a7 analogy w\ld lead u to conclude t ! attribution ( goodness1 9 ! case ( conduct z ( objects ( ta/e g5]ally1 may correspond n to all ! pleasure t is caus$ by ! conduct1 b to a specific pleasure1 9 ?is case ! contemplative satisfaction :i* ! conduct causes to a dis9t]e/$ spectator3 & 7#b7 x may n excite ev5 ?is specific pleasure g5]ally 9 proportion to its goodness1 b only 7at mo/7 9 p]sons ( good moral ta/e3 & ev5 9 _! case we c di/+ui% ! intellectual appreh5sion ( goodness--:i* involves ! conception ( an ideal objective /&>d--f ! pleasurable emotion :i* commonly accompanies x2 & may suppose ! latt] elem5t ( consci\sness dim9i%$ almo/ indef9itely4 ,f9ally1 :5 we pass f ! adjective to ! sub/antive #8good1' x is at once evid5t t ?is latt] _c be und]/ood z equival5t to #8pleasure' or #8happ9ess' by any p]sons :o affirm--z a significant proposition & n z a m]e tautology--t ! ,pleasure or ,happ9ess ( human be+s is _! ,good or ,ultimate ,good4 ,su* affirmation1 :i* w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be ord9>ily made by ,h$oni/s1 obvi\sly implies t ! mean+ ( ! two t]ms is diff]5t1 h[ev] closely _! d5otation may co9cide4 ,& x does n seem t any fundam5tal diff]5ce ( mean+ is impli$ by ! grammatical v>iation f adjective to sub/antive4 #c4 ,:at !n c we /ate z ! g5]al mean+ ( ! t]m #8good'8 ,%all we say--) ,hobbes1 & _m s9ce ,hobbes--t #8:atsoev] is ! object ( any man's ,desire1 t x is :i* he = 8 "p calle? ,good1 & ! object ( 8 av]sion1 ,evil'8 ,to simplify ! discussion1 we w consid] only :at a man desires = itself--n z a means to an ult]ior result1--& = himself--n b5evol5tly = o!rs3 8 own ,good#ib & ultimate ,good4 ,we h fir/ to meet ! obvi\s objection t a man (t5 desires :at he kn[s is on ! :ole bad = him3 ! pleasure ( dr9k+ *ampagne :i* is sure to disagree ) him1 ! gratification ( rev5ge :5 he kn[s t 8 true int]e/ lies 9 reconciliation4 ,! answ] is t 9 su* cases ! desir$ result is accompani$ or foll[$ by o!r effects :i* :5 !y come excite av]sion /rong] ?an ! desire = ! desir$ effect3 b t ^! bad effects1 ?\gh =e-se5 are n =e-felt3 ! repres5tation ( !m does n adequately modify ! pr$om9ant direction ( desire z a pres5t fact4 ,b1 grant+ ?is1 & fix+ att5tion solely on ! result desir$1 ap>t f its concomitants & consequ5ces--x w\ld /ill seem t :at is desir$ at any "t is1 z su*1 m]ely app>5t ,good1 :i* may n be f\nd good :5 fruition comes1 or at any rate n s good z x appe>$4 ,x may turn out a #8,dead ,sea apple1' m]e du/ & a%es 9 ! eat+3 m (t51 fruition w p>tly correspond to expectation1 b may /ill fall %ort ( x 9 a m>k$ degree4 ,& sometimes--ev5 :ile yield+ to ! desire--we are aw>e ( ! illusor9ess ( ?is expectation ( #8good' :i* ! desire c>ries ) x4 ,i conclude1 !re=e1 t if we are to conceive ( ! elem5ts ( ultimate ,good z capable ( quantitative comp>ison--z we d :5 we speak ( pref]r+ a #8great]' good to a #8less]1'--we _c id5tify ! object ( desire ) #8good' simply1 or #8true good1' b only ) #8app>5t good4' ,b fur!r3 a prud5t man is accu/om$ to suppress1 ) m or less success1 desires = :at he reg>ds z out ( 8 p[] to atta9 by volunt>y action--z f9e wea!r1 p]fect heal?1 great weal? or fame1 etc42 b any success he may h 9 dim9i%+ ! actual int5sity ( su* desires has no effect 9 lead+ him to judge ! objects desir$ less #8good4' ,x w\ld seem !n1 t if we int]pret ! notion #8good' 9 relation to #8desire1' we mu/ id5tify x n ) ! actually desir$1 b r ) ! desirable3--mean+ by #8desirable' n necess>ily #8:at ought to be desir$' b :at w\ld be desir$1 ) /r5g? proportion$ to ! degree ( desirability1 if x 7 judg$ atta9able by volunt>y action1 suppos+ ! desir] to possess a p]fect =eca/1 emotional z well z intellectual1 ( ! /ate ( atta9m5t or fruition4 ,x /ill rema9s possible t ! *oice ( any p>ticul> good1 ?us def9$ z an object ( pursuit1 may be on ! :ole bad1 on acc\nt ( its concomitants & consequ5ces2 ev5 ?\gh ! p>ticul> result :5 atta9$ is n f\nd o!r ?an x 0 imag9$ 9 ! condition ( previ\s desire4 ,if1 !re=e1 9 seek+ a def9ition ( #8ultimate ,good' we mean #8good on ! :ole1' we h--foll[+ ! l9e ( ?\ght ( ! prec$+ p>agraph--to express its relation to ,desire diff]5tly4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h to limit our view to desire :i* becomes practical 9 volition2 z ,i may /ill reg>d z desirable results :i* ,i judge x on ! :ole imprud5t to aim at4 ,b1 ev5 ) ?is limitation1 ! relation ( my #8good on ! :ole' to my desire is v complicat$4 ,= x is n ev5 suffici5t to say t my ,good on ! :ole is :at ,i %\ld actually desire & seek if all ! consequ5ces ( seek+ x c\ld be =ekn[n & adequately realis$ by me 9 imag9ation at ! "t ( mak+ my *oice4 ,no d\bt an equal reg>d = all ! mom5ts ( our consci\s exp]i5ce--s f>1 at lea/1 z ! m]e diff]5ce ( _! position 9 "t is conc]n$--is an ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( rational conduct4 ,b ! m]e fact1 t a man does n aft]w>ds feel = ! consequ5ces ( an action av]sion /rong en\gh to cause him to regret x1 _c be accept$ z a complete pro( t he has act$ = 8 #8good on ! :ole4' ,inde$1 we commonly reckon x among ! wor/ consequ5ces ( "s k9ds ( conduct t !y alt] m5's t5d5cies to desire1 & make !m desire _! less] good m ?an _! great]3 & we ?9k x all ! worse = a man--ev5 9 ?is _w--if he is nev] r\s$ out ( su* a condition & lives till dea? ! life ( a cont5t$ pig1 :5 he might h be5 some?+ bett]4 ,to avoid ?is objection1 x w\ld h to be said t a man's future good on ! :ole is :at he w\ld n[ desire & seek on ! :ole if all ! consequ5ces ( all ! diff]5t l9es ( conduct op5 to him 7 accurately =ese5 & adequately realis$ 9 imag9ation at ! pres5t po9t ( "t4 ,?is hypo!tical composition ( impulsive =ces involves s elaborate & complex a conception1 t x is some:at p>adoxical to say t ?is is :at we commonly mean :5 we talk ( a man's #8good on ! :ole4' ,/ill1 ,i _c d5y t ?is hypo!tical object ( a resultant desire supplies an intelligible & admissible int]pretation ( ! t]ms #8good' 7sub/antive7 & #8desirable1' z giv+ philosophical precision to ! vagu] mean+ ) :i* !y are us$ 9 ord9>y disc\rse3 & x w\ld seem t a calm compreh5sive desire = #8good' conceiv$ some:at 9 ?is way1 ?\gh m vaguely1 is normally produc$ by intellectual comp>ison & exp]i5ce 9 a reflective m9d4 ,! notion ( #8,good' ?us atta9$ has an ideal elem5t3 x is some?+ t is n always actually desir$ & aim$ at by human be+s3 b ! ideal elem5t is entirely int]pretable 9 t]ms ( fact1 actual or hypo!tical1 & does n introduce any judgm5t ( value1 fundam5tally di/9ct f judgm5ts relat+ to exi/5ce2--/ill less any #8dictate ( ,reason4'#ic ,x seems to me1 h[ev]1 m 9 accordance ) common s5se to recognise--z ,butl] does--t ! calm desire = my #8good on ! :ole' is au?oritative2 & !re=e c>ries ) x implicitly a rational dictate to aim at ?is end1 if 9 any case a conflict+ desire urges ! w 9 an opposite direction4 ,/ill we may keep ! notion ( #8dictate' or #8imp]ative' m]ely implicit & lat5t1--z x seems to be 9 ord9>y judgm5ts z to #8my good' & its opposite--by int]pret+ #8ultimate good on ! :ole = me' to mean :at ,i %\ld practically desire if my desires 7 9 h>mony ) reason1 assum+ my own exi/5ce alone to be consid]$4 ,on ?is view1 8ultimate good on ! :ole10 unqualifi$ by ref]5ce to a p>ticul> subject1 mu/ be tak5 to mean :at z a rational be+ ,i %\ld desire & seek to realise1 assum+ myself to h an equal conc]n = all exi/5ce4 ,:5 conduct is judg$ to be #8good' or #8desirable' 9 itself1 indep5d5tly ( its consequ5ces1 x is1 ,i conceive1 ?is latt] po9t ( view t is tak54 ,su* a judgm5t diff]s1 z ,i h said1 f ! judgm5t t conduct is #8"r1' 9 s f> z x does n involve a def9ite precept to p]=m x2 s9ce x /ill leaves x an op5 "q :e!r ?is p>ticul> k9d ( good is ! greate/ good t we c "u ! circum/ances obta94 ,x diff]s fur!r1 z we may n[ obs]ve1 9 s f> z good or excell5t actions are n impli$ to be 9 our p[] 9 ! same /rict s5se z #8"r' actions--any m ?an any o!r good ?+s3 & 9 fact !re are _m excell5ces ( behavi\r :i* we _c atta9 by any ef=t ( w1 at lea/ directly & at ! mom5t3 h5ce we (t5 feel t ! recognition ( goodness 9 ! conduct ( o!rs does n c>ry ) x a cle> precept to d likewise1 b r ! vague desire ,t /irs an imitative w4 ,9 s f> z ?is is ! case ,goodness ( ,conduct becomes an ult]ior end1 ! atta9m5t ( :i* lies outside & beyond ! range ( imm$iate volition4 #d4 ,x rema9s to consid] by :at /&>d ! value ( conduct or "*1#id ?us intuitively judg$ to be good 9 itself1 is to be co-ord9at$ & comp>$ ) t ( o!r good ?+s4 ,i %all n n[ attempt to e/abli% su* a /&>d2 b a little reflection may enable u to limit consid]ably ! range ( comp>ison = :i* x is requir$4 ,= ,i ?9k t if we consid] c>efully su* p]man5t results z are commonly judg$ to be good1 o!r ?an qualities ( human be+s1 we c f9d no?+ t1 on reflection1 appe>s to possess ?is quality ( goodness out ( relation to human exi/5ce1 or at lea/ to "s consci\sness or feel+4#ie ,= example1 we commonly judge "s inanimate objects1 sc5es1 etc4 to be good z possess+ beauty1 & o!rs bad f ugl9ess3 /ill no "o w\ld consid] x rational to aim at ! production ( beauty 9 ext]nal nature1 ap>t f any possible contemplation ( x by human be+s4 ,9 fact :5 beauty is ma9ta9$ to be objective1 x is n commonly meant t x exi/s z beauty out ( relation to any m9d :atsoev]3 b only t !re is "s /&>d ( beauty valid = all m9ds4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t beauty & o!r results commonly judg$ to be good1 ?\gh we d n conceive !m to exi/ out ( relation to human be+s 7or at lea/ m9ds ( "s k9d71 are yet s f> sep>able z ends f ! human be+s on :om _! exi/5ce dep5ds1 t _! realisation may conceivably come into competition ) ! p]fection or happ9ess ( ^! be+s4 ,?us1 ?\gh beautiful ?+s _c be ?\ght wor? produc+ except z possible objects ( contemplation1 /ill a man may devote himself to _! production )\t any consid]ation ( ! p]sons :o are to contemplate !m4 ,simil>ly k is a good :i* _c exi/ except 9 m9ds2 & yet "o may be m int]e/$ 9 ! developm5t ( k ?an 9 its possession by any p>ticul> m9ds2 & may take ! =m] z an ultimate end )\t reg>d+ ! latt]4 ,/ill1 z soon z ! alt]natives are cle>ly appreh5d$1 x w1 ,i ?9k1 be g5]ally held t beauty1 k1 & o!r ideal goods1 z well z all ext]nal mat]ial ?+s1 are only reasonably to be s\ght by m5 9 s f> z !y conduce ei!r 7#a7 to ,happ9ess or 7#b7 to ! ,p]fection or ,excell5ce ( human exi/5ce4 ,i say 8human10 = ?\gh mo/ utilit>ians consid] ! pleasure 7& fre$om f pa97 ( ! inf]ior animals to be includ$ 9 ! ,happ9ess :i* !y take z ! "r & prop] end ( conduct1 no "o seems to cont5d t we ought to aim at p]fect+ brutes1 except z a means to our ends1 or at lea/ z objects ( sci5tific or /hetic contemplation = u4 ,nor1 aga91 c we include1 z a practical end1 ! exi/5ce ( be+s above ! human4 ,we c]ta9ly apply ! idea ( ,good to ! ,div9e ,exi/5ce1 j z we d to ,8 "w1 & inde$ 9 a pre-em95t mann]3 & :5 x is said t 8we %\ld d all ?+s to ! glory ( ,god10 x may seem to be impli$ t ! exi/5ce ( ,god is made bett] by our glorify+ ,him4 ,/ill ?is inf]5ce :5 explicitly drawn appe>s some:at impi\s2 & !ologians g5]ally recoil f x1 & refra9 f us+ ! notion ( a possible addition to ! ,goodness ( ! ,div9e ,exi/5ce z a gr\nd ( human duty4 ,nor c ! influ5ce ( our actions on o!r extra-human intellig5ces besides ! ,div9e be at pres5t made matt] ( sci5tific discussion4 ,i %all !re=e confid5tly lay d[n1 t if !re be any ,good o!r ?an ,happ9ess to be s\ght by man1 z an ultimate practical end1 x c only be ! ,goodness1 ,p]fection1 or ,excell5ce ( ,human ,exi/5ce4 ,h[ f> ?is notion includes m ?an ,virtue1 :at its precise relation to ,pleasure is1 & to :at me?od we %all be logically l$ if we accept x z fundam5tal1 are que/ions :i* we %all m conv5i5tly discuss aft] ! detail$ exam9ation ( ^! two o!r notions1 ,pleasure & ,virtue1 9 :i* we %all be engag$ 9 ! two foll[+ ,books4 ,,footnotes3 #ia ,x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to di/+ui% betwe5 ! ideas ( ,moral ,goodness & ,beauty z appli$ to human actions3 al?\gh !re is mu* aff9ity betwe5 !m1 & !y h frequ5tly be5 id5tifi$1 especially by ! ,greek ?9k]s4 ,no d\bt bo? ! ideas !mselves & ! correspond+ pleasurable emotions1 aris+ on ! contemplation ( conduct1 are (t5 indi/+ui%able3 a noble action affects u l a sc5e1 a picture1 or a /ra9 ( music3 & ! del9eation ( human virtue is an important "p ( ! means :i* ! arti/ has at 8 disposal = produc+ 8 peculi> effects4 ,/ill1 on look+ clos]1 we see n only t !re is mu* good conduct :i* is n beautiful1 or at lea/ does n s5sibly impress u z su*2 b ev5 t c]ta9 k9ds ( crime & wick$ness h a spl5d\r & sublimity ( _! own4 ,= example1 su* a c>e] z ,cs> ,borgia's1 z ,r5an says1 is 8beau comme une tempte1 comme un abme40 ,x is true1 ,i ?9k1 t 9 all su* cases ! beauty dep5ds ^u ! exhibition 9 ! crim9al's conduct ( /rik+ gifts & excell5ces m+l$ ) ! wick$ness3 b x does n seem t we c ab/ract ! latt] )\t impair+ ! /hetic effect4 ,& h5ce ,i conceive1 we h to di/+ui% ! s5se ( beauty 9 conduct f ! s5se ( moral goodness4 #ib ,x w\ld seem t1 accord+ to ! common view ( #8good1' !re are occasions 9 :i* an individual's sacrifice ( 8 own good on ! :ole1 accord+ to ! mo/ rational conception ( x t he c =m1 w\ld app>5tly realise great] good = o!rs4 ,:e!r1 inde$1 su* a sacrifice is ev] really requir$1 & :e!r1 if s1 x is truly reasonable = ! individual to sacrifice 8 own good on ! :ole1 are among ! pr(\nde/ que/ions ( e?ics3 & ,i %all c>efully consid] !m 9 subsequ5t *apt]s 7especially ,book iii4 *ap4 xiv474 ,i "h only desire to avoid any prejudgm5t ( ^! que/ions 9 my def9ition ( #8my own good4' #ic ,z be=e said 7*ap4 iii4 #d71 s f> z my #8good on ! :ole' is adopt$ z an end ( action1 ! notion ( #8ought'--imply+ a dictate or imp]ative ( ,reason--becomes applicable to ! necess>y or fitte/ means to ! atta9m5t ( ! adopt$ end4 #id ,"* is only kn[n to u ?r\gh its manife/ation 9 conduct2 & ,i conceive t 9 our common recognition ( ,virtue z hav+ value 9 itself1 we d n ord9>ily di/+ui% "* f conduct3 we d n raise ! "q :e!r "* is to be valu$ = ! sake ( ! conduct 9 :i* x is manife/$1 or conduct = ! sake ( ! "* t x exhibits & develops4 ,h[ ?is "q %\ld be answ]$ :5 x is rais$ w be m conv5i5tly consid]$ at a lat] /age ( ! discussion4 ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #b1 & *ap4 xiv4 #a4 #ie ,no d\bt !re is a po9t ( view1 sometimes adopt$ ) great e>ne/ness1 f :i* ! :ole univ]se & n m]ely a c]ta9 condition ( rational or s5ti5t be+s is contemplat$ z #8v good'3 j z ! ,creator 9 ,g5esis is describ$ z contemplat+ x4 ,b su* a view c sc>cely be develop$ into a me?od ( ,e?ics4 ,= practical purposes1 we require to conceive "s p>ts ( ! univ]se z at lea/ less good ?an !y might be4 ,& we d n seem to h any gr\nd = draw+ su* a di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t portions ( ! non-s5ti5t univ]se1 consid]$ 9 !mselves & out ( relation to consci\s or s5ti5t be+s4 ,,book ,,ii ,,egoi/ic ,,h$onism ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,& ,,me?od ,,( ,,egoism #a4 ,! object ( ! pres5t ,book is to exam9e ! me?od ( det]m9+ reasonable conduct :i* has be5 already def9$ 9 outl9e "u ! "n ( ,egoism3 tak+ ?is t]m z equival5t to ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 & z imply+ ! adoption ( 8 own greate/ happ9ess z ! ultimate end ( ea* individual's actions4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ?is ought to be includ$ among receiv$ 8me?ods ( ,e?ics02 s9ce !re are /rong gr\nds = hold+ t a sy/em ( morality1 satisfactory to ! moral consci\sness ( mank9d 9 g5]al1 _c be con/ruct$ on ! basis ( simple ,egoism4 ,9 subsequ5t *apt]s#if ,i %all c>efully discuss ^! reasons3 at pres5t x seems suffici5t to po9t to ! wide acceptance ( ! pr9ciple t x is reasonable = a man to act 9 ! mann] mo/ conducive to 8 own happ9ess4 ,we f9d x expressly admitt$ by lead+ repres5tatives bo? ( ,intuitionism & ( t ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism to :i* ,i propose to re/rict ! "n ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,i h already notic$ t ,b5?am1 al?\gh he puts =w>d ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] z ! 8true /&>d ( "r & wrong10 yet reg>ds x z 8"r & prop]0 t ea* individual %\ld aim at 8 own greate/ happ9ess4 ,& ,butl] is equally prep>$ to grant 8t our ideas ( happ9ess & mis]y are ( all our ideas ! ne>e/ & mo/ important to u 444 t1 ?\gh virtue or moral rectitude does inde$ consi/ 9 affection to & pursuit ( :at is "r & good z su*2 yet1 :5 we sit d[n 9 a cool h\r1 we c nei!r ju/ify to ourselves ?is or any o!r pursuit till we are conv9c$ t x w be = our happ9ess1 or at lea/ n contr>y to x40#ig ,& ev5 ,cl>ke#ih--not)/&+ ! emphatic t]ms 9 :i* he has ma9ta9$ t 8,virtue truly des]ves to be *os5 = its own sake & ,vice to be avoid$0--yet admits t x is 8n truly reasonable t m5 by adh]+ to ,virtue %\ld "p ) _! lives1 if !reby !y et]nally depriv$ !mselves ( all possibility ( receiv+ any advantage f t adh]5ce40 ,&1 g5]ally1 9 ! ages ( ,*ri/ian fai?1 x has be5 obvi\s & natural to hold t ! realisation ( virtue is ess5tially an enlight5$ & f>-see+ pursuit ( ,happ9ess = ! ag5t4 ,nor has ?is doctr9e be5 held only by p]sons ( a cold & calculat+ turn ( m9d3 we f9d x urg$ ) emphasis by s *ivalr\s & high-m9d$ a prea*] z ,bi%op ,b]keley4 ,no d\bt ?is is only "o side or elem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian view3 ! opposite doctr9e1 t an action done f motives ( self-int]e/ is n prop]ly virtu\s1 has cont9ually ass]t$ itself z ei!r op5ly conflict+ or 9 "s mann] reconcil$ ) ! =m]4 ,/ill ! =m]1 ?\gh less ref9$ & elevat$1 seems to h be5 ! common] view4 ,inde$1 x is h>dly go+ too f> to say t common s5se assumes t #8int]e/$' actions1 t5d+ to promote ! ag5t's happ9ess1 are prima facie reasonable3 & t ! onus prob&i lies ) ^? :o ma9ta9 t dis9t]e/$ conduct1 z su*1 is reasonable4 ,b1 z has be5 be=e said1 9 ! common notions ( #8int]e/1' #8happ9ess1' etc41 !re is a c]ta9 am\nt ( vagu5ess & ambiguity3 s t 9 ord] to fit ^! t]ms = ! purposes ( sci5tific discussion1 we mu/1 :ile reta9+ ! ma9 "p ( _! signification1 endeav\r to make x m precise4 ,9 my judgm5t ?is result is atta9$ if by #8greate/ possible ,happ9ess' we und]/& ! greate/ atta9able surplus ( pleasure ov] pa92 ! two t]ms be+ us$1 ) equally compreh5sive mean+s1 to include respectively all k9ds ( agreeable & disagreeable feel+s4 ,fur!r1 if ?is quantitative def9ition ( ! end be accept$1 consi/5cy requires t pleasures %\ld be s\ght 9 proportion to _! pleasantness2 & !re=e ! less pleasant consci\sness mu/ n be pref]r$ to ! m pleasant1 on ! gr\nd ( any o!r qualities t x may possess4 ,! di/9ctions ( quality t ,mill & o!rs urge may /ill be admitt$ z gr\nds ( pref]5ce1 b only 9 s f> z !y c be resolv$ into di/9ctions ( quantity4 ,?is is ! type to :i* ! practical reason+ t is commonly call$ #8,egoi/ic' t5ds to con=m1 :5 we rigor\sly exclude all ambiguities & inconsi/5cies3 & x is only 9 ?is m precise =m t x seems wor? :ile to subject su* reason+ to a detail$ exam9ation4 ,we mu/ !re=e und]/& by an ,egoi/ a man :o :5 two or m c\rses ( action are op5 to him1 asc]ta9s z accurately z he c ! am\nts ( pleasure & pa9 t are likely to result f ea*1 & *ooses ! "o :i* he ?9ks w yield him ! greate/ surplus ( pleasure ov] pa94 #b4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be po9t$ out t ! adoption ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,egoism1 z j expla9$1 by no means necess>ily implies ! ord9>y empirical me?od ( seek+ "o's own pleasure or happ9ess4 ,a man may aim at ! greate/ happ9ess )9 8 rea*1 & yet n attempt to asc]ta9 empirically :at am\nt ( pleasure & pa9 is likely to att5d any giv5 c\rse ( action2 believ+ t he has "s sur]1 d$uctive me?od = det]m9+ ! conduct :i* w make him mo/ happy 9 ! long-run4 ,he may believe ?is on gr\nds ( ,positive ,religion1 because ,god has promis$ happ9ess z a rew>d = ob$i5ce to c]ta9 def9ite comm&s3 or on gr\nds ( ,natural ,religion1 because ,god be+ j & b5evol5t mu/ h s ord]$ ! _w t ,happ9ess w 9 ! long-run be di/ribut$ 9 proportion to ,virtue4 ,x is 7e4g47 by a comb9ation ( bo? ^! argum5ts t ,paley connects ! ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism t he adopts z a me?od = det]m9+ duties1 ) ! ,egoism :i* seems to him self-evid5t z a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( rational conduct4 ,or aga91 a man may connect virtue ) happ9ess by a process ( a priori reason+1 purely e?ical2 z ,ari/otle seems to d by ! assumption t ! #8be/' activity w be always att5d$ by ! greate/ pleasure z its insep>able concomitant2 #8be/' be+ det]m9$ by a ref]5ce to moral intuition1 or to ! common moral op9ions ( m5 g5]ally1 or ( well-br$ & well-educat$ m54 ,or ! d$uction by :i* ,maximum ,pleasure is inf]r$ to be ! result ( a p>ticul> k9d ( action may be psy*ological or physiological3 we may h "s g5]al !ory z to ! connexion ( pleasure ) "s o!r physical or psy*ical fact1 accord+ to :i* we c d$uce ! am\nt ( pleasure t w att5d any p>ticul> k9d ( behavi\r3 z 7e4g47 x is widely held t a p]fectly heal?y & h>moni\s ex]cise ( our diff]5t bodily & m5tal functions is ! c\rse ( life mo/ conducive to pleasure 9 ! long-run4 ,9 ?is latt] case1 ?\gh accept+ unres]v$ly ! ,h$oni/ic pr9ciple1 we %all n be call$ ^u to e/imate & comp>e p>ticul> pleasures1 b r to def9e ! notions ( #8p]fect heal?' & #8h>mony ( functions' & consid] h[ ^! ends may be atta9$4 ,/ill ^? :o advocate su* d$uctive me?ods commonly appeal to ord9>y exp]i5ce1 at lea/ z supply+ confirmation or v]ification2 & admit t ! pleasantness & pa9fulness ( pleasures & pa9s are only directly kn[n to ! individual :o exp]i5ces !m4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t--at any rate--! obvi\s me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism is t :i* we may call ,empirical-reflective3 & x is ?is ,i conceive t is commonly us$ 9 egoi/ic delib]ation4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 to exam9e ?is me?od 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 to asc]ta9 cle>ly ! assumptions :i* x involves1 & e/imate ! exactness ( its results4 ,,footnotes3 #if ,see *ap4 iii4 #b1 & *ap4 v4 ( ?is ,book4 #ig ,butl]1 ,s]m4 xi4 #ih ,boyle ,lectures 7#agje74 ,prop4 i4 p4 #aaf4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,empirical ,,h$onism #a4 ,! fir/ & mo/ fundam5tal assumption1 involv$ n only 9 ! empirical me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 b 9 ! v conception ( #8,greate/ ,happ9ess' z an end ( action1 is ! comm5surability ( ,pleasures & ,pa9s4 ,by ?is ,i mean t we mu/ assume ! pleasures s\ght & ! pa9s %unn$ to h det]m9ate quantitative relations to ea* o!r2 = o!rwise !y _c be conceiv$ z possible elem5ts ( a total :i* we are to seek to make z great z possible4 ,x is n absolutely necess>y to exclude ! supposition t !re are "s k9ds ( pleasure s mu* m pleasant ?an o!rs1 t ! smalle/ conceivable am\nt ( ! =m] w\ld outweigh ! greate/ conceivable am\nt ( ! latt]2 s9ce1 if ?is 7 asc]ta9$ to be ! case1 ! only result w\ld be t any h$oni/ic calculation involv+ pleasures ( ! =m] class might be simplifi$ by treat+ ^? ( ! latt] class z practically non-exi/5t4#ii ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t 9 all ord9>y prud5tial reason+1 at any rate1 ! assumption is implicitly made t all ! pleasures & pa9s t man c exp]i5ce be> a f9ite ratio to ea* o!r 9 respect ( pleasantness & its opposite4 ,s f> z ?is ratio c be made def9ite ! ,int5sity ( a pleasure 7or pa97 c be balanc$ aga9/ its ,duration3#ajj = if we conceive "o pleasure 7or pa971 f9ite 9 duration1 to be int5sively great] ?an ano!r 9 "s def9ite ratio1 x seems to be impli$ 9 ?is conception t ! latt] if cont9u\sly increas$ 9 ext5t--)\t *ange 9 its int5sity--w\ld at a c]ta9 po9t j balance ! =m] 9 am\nt4 ,if pleasures1 !n1 c be arrang$ 9 a scale1 z great] or less 9 "s f9ite degree2 we are l$ to ! assumption ( a h$oni/ic z]o1 or p]fectly neutral feel+1 z a po9t f :i* ! positive quantity ( pleasures may be measur$4 ,& ?is latt] assumption em]ges /ill m cle>ly :5 we consid] ! comp>ison & balanc+ ( pleasures ) pa9s1 :i* ,h$onism necess>ily involves4 ,= pa9 mu/ be reckon$ z ! negative quantity ( pleasure1 to be balanc$ aga9/ & subtract$ f ! positive 9 e/imat+ happ9ess on ! :ole2 we mu/ !re=e conceive1 z at lea/ ideally possible1 a po9t ( transition 9 consci\sness at :i* we pass f ! positive to ! negative4 ,x is n absolutely necess>y to assume t ?is /rictly indiff]5t or neutral feel+ ev] actually occurs4 ,/ill exp]i5ce seems to %[ t a /ate at any rate v ne>ly approximat+ to x is ev5 common3 & we c]ta9ly exp]i5ce cont9ual transitions f pleasure to pa9 & vice v]sa1 & ?us 7unless we conceive all su* transitions to be abrupt7 we mu/ exi/ at lea/ mom5t>ily 9 ?is neutral /ate4 ,9 :at ,i h j said1 ,i h by implication d5i$ ! p>adox ( ,epicurus#aja t ! /ate ( pa9lessness is equival5t to ! highe/ possible pleasure2 s t if we c obta9 absolute fre$om f pa91 ! goal ( ,h$onism is rea*$1 aft] :i* we may v>y1 b _c increase1 our pleasure4 ,?is doctr9e is oppos$ to common s5se & common exp]i5ce4 ,b x w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be equally errone\s1 on ! o!r h&1 to reg>d ?is neutral feel+--h$oni/ic z]o1 z ,i h call$ x--z ! normal condition ( our consci\sness1 out ( :i* we occasionally s9k into pa91 & occasionally rise into pleasure4 ,nature has n be5 s nigg>dly to man z ?is3 s long z heal? is reta9$1 & pa9 & irksome toil bani%$1 ! m]e p]=mance ( ! ord9>y habitual functions ( life is1 accord+ to my exp]i5ce1 a frequ5t s\rce ( mod]ate pleasures1 alt]nat+ rapidly ) /ates ne>ly or q indiff]5t4 ,?us we may v5ture to say t ! #8apa?y' :i* s l>ge a proportion ( ,greek morali/s 9 ! po/-,ari/otelian p]iod reg>d$ z ! ideal /ate ( exi/5ce1 0 n really conceiv$ by !m z 8)\t "o pleasure & )\t "o pa902 b r z a /ate ( placid intellectual contemplation1 :i* 9 philosophic m9ds might easily rea* a high degree ( pleasure4 #b4 ,we h yet to give to ! notions ( pleasure & pa9 ! precision requir$ = quantitative comp>ison4 ,9 deal+ ) ?is po9t1 & 9 ! re/ ( ! h$oni/ic discussion1 x w be conv5i5t = ! mo/ "p to speak ( pleasure only1 assum+ t pa9 may be reg>d$ z ! negative quantity ( pleasure1 & t accord+ly any /atem5ts made ) respect to pleasure may be at once appli$1 by obvi\s *anges ( phrase1 to pa94 ,! equival5t phrase = ,pleasure1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c]1#ajb is 8a feel+ :i* we seek to br+ into consci\sness & reta9 !re02 & simil>ly1 ,mr4 ,ba9 says t 8pleasure & pa91 9 ! actual or real exp]i5ce1 are to be held z id5tical ) motive p[]40 ,b--grant+ t pleasures normally excite desire--x /ill does n seem to me t ,i judge pleasures to be great] & less exactly 9 proportion z !y /imulate ! w to actions t5d+ to su/a9 !m4 ,( c\rse nei!r ,mr4 ,ba9 nor ,mr4 ,sp5c] mu/ be und]/ood to lay d[n t all pleasures :5 actually felt actually /imulate to ex]tion ( "s k9d2 s9ce ?is is obvi\sly n true ( ! pleasures ( repose1 a w>m ba?1 etc4 ,! /imulus mu/ 9 su* cases be und]/ood to be lat5t & pot5tial2 only becom+ actual :5 action is requir$ to prev5t ! cessation or dim9ution ( ! pleasure4 ,?us a man enjoy+ re/ aft] fatigue is vaguely consci\s ( a /rong cl++ to 8 actual condition1 & ( a lat5t read9ess to resi/ any impulse to *ange x4 ,fur!r1 ! /imulus ( mod]ate pleasures & pa9s may become unfelt ?r\gh habitual repression4 ,= in/ance1 9 a habitually temp]ate man ! /imulus to prolong ! pleasure ( eat+ or dr9k+ usually ceases be=e ! pleasure ceases3 x is only occasionally t he feels ! ne$ ( controll+ an impulse to eat or dr9k up to ! po9t ( satiety4 ,s aga91 a protract$ pa9 ( mod]ate int5sity & free f al>m--su* z a dull prolong$ too?a*e--seems sometimes to lose its felt /imulus to action )\t los+ its "* z pa94 ,"h aga9 ! /imulus may be prop]ly conceiv$ z lat5t3 s9ce if ask$ :e!r we %\ld l to get rid ( ev5 a mild too?a*e1 we %\ld c]ta9ly answ] yes4 ,b ev5 if we conf9e our att5tion to cases :]e ! /imulus is palpable & /rong1 ,mr4 ,ba9's id5tification ( 8pleasure & pa90 ) motive p[] does n appe> to me to accord exactly ) our common empirical judgm5ts4 ,he himself contra/s ! 8disproportionate /ra9 ( active p[]s 9 "o direction10 to :i* 8any sudd5 & great delight may give rise10 ) ! 8prop] frame ( m9d "u delight10 :i* is 8to inspire no endeav\rs except :at ! *>m ( ! mom5t ju/ifies40#ajc ,& he else:]e expla9s t 8our pleasurable emotions are all liable to deta9 ! m9d unduly10 ?r\gh ! 8atmosph]e ( excitem5t0 ) :i* !y are surr\nd$1 c>ry+ ! m9d 8beyond ! e/imate ( pleasure & pa91 to ! /ate nam$ #8passion1'0 9 :i* a man is n 8mov$ solely by ! /rict value ( ! pleasure10 b also by 8! engross+ p[] ( ! excitem5t40#ajd ,x is true t 9 su* cases ,mr4 ,ba9 seems to hold t ^! 8di/urbances & anomalies ( ! w sc>cely beg9 to tell 9 ! actual feel+10#aje b x seems to me cle> t excit+ pleasures are liable to ex]cise1 ev5 :5 actually felt1 a volitional /imulus out ( proportion to _! int5sity z pleasures2 & ,mr4 ,ba9 himself seems to recognise ?is 9 a passage :]e he says t 8acute pleasures & pa9s /imulate ! w p]haps m /rongly ?an an equival5t /imulation ( ! massive k9d40#ajf ,i also f9d t "s feel+s :i* /imulate /rongly to _! own removal are ei!r n pa9ful at all or only slightly pa9ful3--e4g4 ord9>ily ! s5sation ( be+ tickl$4 ,if ?is be s1 x is obvi\sly inexact to def9e pleasure1 = purposes ( measurem5t1 z ! k9d ( feel+ t we seek to reta9 9 consci\sness4 ,%all we !n say t !re is a measurable quality ( feel+ express$ by ! ^w 8pleasure10 :i* is indep5d5t ( its relation to volition1 & /rictly undef9able f its simplicity8--l ! quality ( feel+ express$ by 8sweet10 ( :i* also we are consci\s 9 v>y+ degrees ( int5sity4 ,?is seems to be ! view ( "s writ]s3 b1 = my own "p1 :5 ,i reflect on ! notion ( pleasure1--us+ ! t]m 9 ! compreh5sive s5se :i* ,i h adopt$1 to include ! mo/ ref9$ & subtle intellectual & emotional gratifications1 no less ?an ! co>s] & m def9ite s5sual enjoym5ts1--! only common quality t ,i c f9d 9 ! feel+s s designat$ seems to be t relation to desire & volition express$ by ! g5]al t]m 8desirable10 9 ! s5se previ\sly expla9$4 ,i propose !re=e to def9e ,pleasure--:5 we are consid]+ its 8/rict value0 = purposes ( quantitative comp>ison--z a feel+ :i*1 :5 exp]i5c$ by intellig5t be+s1 is at lea/ implicitly appreh5d$ z desirable or--9 cases ( comp>ison--pref]able4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a new "q comes into view4 ,:5 ,i /at$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 z a fundam5tal assumption ( ,h$onism1 t x is reasonable to pref] pleasures 9 proportion to _! int5sity1 & n to all[ ?is gr\nd ( pref]5ce to be outweigh$ by any m]ely qualitative diff]5ce1 ,i impli$ t ! pref]5ce ( pleasures on gr\nds ( quality z oppos$ to quantity--z #8high]' or #8nobl]'--is actually possible3 & inde$ su* non-h$oni/ic pref]5ce is commonly ?\ght to be ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,b if we take ! def9ition ( pleasure j giv5--t x is ! k9d ( feel+ :i* we appreh5d to be desirable or pref]able--x seems to be a contradiction 9 t]ms to say t ! less pleasant feel+ c ev] be ?\ght pref]able to ! m pleasant4 ,?is contradiction may be avoid$ z foll[s4 ,x w be g5]ally admitt$ t ! pleasantness ( a feel+ is only directly cognisable by ! individual :o feels x at ! "t ( feel+ x4 ,?us1 ?\gh 7z ,i %all pres5tly argue71 9 s f> z any e/imate ( pleasantness involves comp>ison ) feel+s only repres5t$ 9 idea1 x is liable to be errone\s ?r\gh imp]fections 9 ! repres5tation--/ill1 no "o is 9 a position to controv]t ! pref]5ce ( ! s5ti5t individual1 s f> z ! quality ( ! pres5t feel+ alone is conc]n$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we judge ( ! pref]able quality 7z #8elevation' or #8ref9em5t'7 ( a /ate ( consci\sness z di/9ct f its pleasantness1#ajg we seem to appeal to "s common /&>d :i* o!rs c apply z well z ! s5ti5t individual4 ,h5ce ,i %\ld conclude t :5 "o k9d ( pleasure is judg$ to be qualitatively sup]ior to ano!r1 al?\gh less pleasant1 x is n really ! feel+ itself t is pref]r$1 b some?+ 9 ! m5tal or physical conditions or relations "u :i* x arises1 reg>d$ z cognisable objects ( our common ?\ght4 ,= c]ta9ly if ,i 9 ?\ght di/+ui% any feel+ f all its conditions & concomitants--& also f all its effects on ! subsequ5t feel+s ( ! same individual or ( o!rs--& contemplate x m]ely z ! transi5t feel+ ( a s+le subject2 x seems to me impossible to f9d 9 x any o!r pref]able quality ?an t :i* we call its pleasantness1 ! degree ( :i* is only cognisable directly by ! s5ti5t individual4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t if ?is def9ition ( pleasure be accept$1 & if1 z be=e propos$1 #8,ultimate ,good' be tak5 z equival5t to #8:at is ultimately desirable1' ! fundam5tal proposition ( e?ical ,h$onism has *iefly a negative significance2 = ! /atem5t t #8,pleasure is ! ,ultimate ,good' w only mean t no?+ is ultimately desirable except desirable feel+1 appreh5d$ z desirable by ! s5ti5t individual at ! "t ( feel+ x4 ,?is be+ s1 x may be urg$ aga9/ ! def9ition t x c\ld n be accept$ by a morali/ ( /oical turn1 :o :ile recognis+ pleasure z a fact refus$ to recognise x z 9 any degree ultimately desirable4 ,b ,i ?9k su* a morali/ ought to admit an impli$ judgm5t t a feel+ is p] se desirable to be insep>ably connect$ ) its recognition z pleasure2 :ile hold+ t s\nd philosophy %[s ! illusor9ess ( su* judgm5ts4 ,?is1 9 fact1 seems to h be5 sub/antially ! view ( ! ,/oic s*ool4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ,i conceive t ! pref]5ce :i* pure ,h$onism reg>ds z ultimately rational1 %\ld be def9$ z ! pref]5ce ( feel+ valu$ m]ely z feel+1 accord+ to ! e/imate implicitly or explicitly made by ! s5ti5t individual at ! "t ( feel+ x2 )\t any reg>d to ! conditions & relations "u :i* x arises4 ,accord+ly we may /ate z ! fundam5tal assumption ( :at ,i h call$ ,quantitative ,h$onism1--impli$ 9 ! adoption ( 8greate/ surplus ( pleasure ov] pa90 z ! ultimate end1--t all pleasures & pa9s1 e/imat$ m]ely z feel+s1 h = ! s5ti5t individual cognisable degrees ( desirability1 positive or negative2 obs]v+ fur!r1 t ! empirical me?od ( ,h$onism c only be appli$ s f> z we assume t ^! degrees ( desirability are def9itely giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,!re is "o m assumption ( a fundam5tal k9d1 :i* is n p]haps involv$ 9 ! acceptance ( ! ,h$oni/ic calculus consid]$ z purely !oretical1 b is c]ta9ly impli$ if x be put =w>d z a practical me?od = det]m9+ "r conduct3 ! assumption1 namely1 t we c by =esight & calculation increase our pleasures & decrease our pa9s4 ,x may p]haps be ?\ght p$antic to /ate x =mally3 & 9 fact no "o w d5y t ! conditions ^u :i* our pleasures & pa9s dep5d are to "s ext5t cognisable by u & )9 our own control4 ,b1 z we %all see1 x has be5 ma9ta9$ t ! practice ( ,h$oni/ic obs]vation & calculation has an inevitable t5d5cy to decrease our pleasures g5]ally1 or ! mo/ important ( !m3 s t x becomes a "q :e!r we c ga9 our greate/ happ9ess by seek+ x1 or at any rate by try+ to seek x ) sci5tific exactness4 ,,note4--,x is sometimes ?\ght to be a necess>y assumption ( ,h$oni/s t a surplus ( pleasure ov] pa9 is actually atta9able by human be+s3 a proposition :i* an extreme pessimi/ w\ld d5y4 ,b ! conclusion t life is always on ! :ole pa9ful w\ld n prove x to be unreasonable = a man to aim ultimately at m9imis+ pa91 if ?is is /ill admitt$ to be possible2 ?\gh x w\ld1 no d\bt1 r5d] imm$iate suicide1 by "s pa9less process1 ! only reasonable c\rse = a p]fect egoi/--unless he look$ =w>d to ano!r life4 ,,footnotes3 #ii ,we f9d x sometimes ass]t$ by p]sons ( en?usia/ic & passionate temp]am5t1 t !re are feel+s s exquisitely delightful1 t "o mom5t ( _! rapture is pref]able to an et]nity ( agreeable consci\sness ( an inf]ior k9d4 ,^! ass]tions1 h[ev]1 are p]haps consci\sly hyp]bolical1 & n int5d$ to be tak5 z sci5tific /atem5ts3 b 9 ! case ( pa91 x has be5 delib]ately ma9ta9$ by a ?\ghtful & subtle writ]1 ) a view to important practical conclusions1 t 8torture0 s extreme z to be 8incomm5surable ) mod]ate pa90 is an actual fact ( exp]i5ce4 7,see 8,a ,*apt] 9 ! ,e?ics ( ,pa910 by ! late ,edmund ,gurney1 9 a volume ( essays entitl$ ,t]tium ,quid47 ,?is doctr9e1 h[ev]1 does n correspond to my own exp]i5ce2 nor does x appe> to me to be support$ by ! common s5se ( mank9d3--at lea/ ,i d n f9d1 9 ! practical =e?\ght ( p]sons not$ = caution1 any recognition ( ! dang] ( agony su* t1 9 ord] to avoid ! smalle/ extra risk ( x1 ! greate/ conceivable am\nt ( mod]ate pa9 %\ld reasonably be incurr$4 #ajj ,b5?am gives f\r qualities ( any pleasure or pa9 7tak5 s+ly7 z important = purposes ( ,h$oni/ic calculation3 7#a7 ,int5sity1 7#b7 ,duration1 7#c7 ,c]ta9ty1 7#d7 ,proximity4 ,if we assume 7z above argu$7 t ,int5sity mu/ be comm5surable ) ,duration1 ! influ5ce ( ! o!r qualities on ! comp>ative value ( pleasures & pa9s is n difficult to det]m9e3 = we are accu/om$ to e/imate ! value ( *ances num]ically1 & by ?is me?od we c tell exactly 79 s f> z ! degree ( unc]ta9ty c be exactly det]m9$7 h[ mu* ! d\btfulness ( a pleasure detracts f its value3 & proximity is a prop]ty :i* x is reasonable to disreg>d except 9 s f> z x dim9i%es unc]ta9ty4 ,= my feel+s a ye> h5ce %\ld be j z important to me z my feel+s next m9ute1 if only ,i c\ld make an equally sure =eca/ ( !m4 ,inde$ ?is equal & imp>tial conc]n = all p>ts ( "o's consci\s life is p]haps ! mo/ prom95t elem5t 9 ! common notion ( ! rational--z oppos$ to ! m]ely impulsive--pursuit ( pleasure4 #aja ,cf4 ,cic4 de ,f94 ,book i4 *ap4 xi4 #ch4 #ajb ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ,"p ii4 *ap4 ix4 #abe4 #ajc ,! ,emotions & ! ,w1 #crd ,edition1 p4 #cib4 #ajd ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce1 ,book iv4 *ap4 iv4 #d4 #aje ,ibid4 ,book iv4 *ap4 v4 #d4 #ajf ,ibid4 ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 #h4 #ajg ,x 0 be=e obs]v$ t by say+ t "o pleasure is sup]ior 9 quality to ano!r we may mean t x is pref]able :5 consid]$ m]ely z pleasant3 9 :i* case diff]5ce 9 k9d resolves itself into diff]5ce 9 degree4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,empirical ,,h$onism--,cont9u$ #a4 ,let1 !n1 pleasure be def9$ z feel+ :i* ! s5ti5t individual at ! "t ( feel+ x implicitly or explicitly appreh5ds to be desirable2--desirable1 t is1 :5 consid]$ m]ely z feel+1 & n 9 respect ( its objective conditions or consequ5ces1 or ( any facts t come directly )9 ! cognisance & judgm5t ( o!rs besides ! s5ti5t individual4 ,& let x be provisionally assum$ t feel+s g5]ally c be comp>$ f ?is po9t ( view1 ) suffici5t def9it5ess = practical purposes1 & empirically kn[n to be m or less pleasant 9 "s def9ite degree4 ,!n ! empirical-reflective me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism w be1 to repres5t be=eh& ! diff]5t s]ies ( feel+s t our k ( physical & psy*ical causes leads u to expect f ! diff]5t l9es ( conduct t lie op5 to u2 judge :i* s]ies1 z ?us repres5t$1 appe>s on ! :ole pref]able1 tak+ all probabilities into acc\nt2 & adopt ! correspond+ l9e ( conduct4 ,x may be object$ t ! calculation is too complex = practice2 s9ce any complete =eca/ ( ! future w\ld involve a va/ numb] ( cont+5cies ( v>y+ degrees ( probability1 & to calculate ! ,h$oni/ic value ( ea* ( ^! *ances ( feel+ w\ld be int]m9able4 ,/ill we may p]haps r$uce ! calculation )9 manageable limits1 )\t s]i\s loss ( accuracy1 by disc>d+ all manife/ly imprud5t conduct1 & neglect+ ! less probable & less important cont+5cies2 z we d 9 "s ( ! arts t h m def9ite ends1 su* z /rategy & m$ic9e4 ,= if ! g5]al 9 ord]+ a m>*1 or ! physician 9 recomm5d+ a *ange ( abode1 took into consid]ation all ! circum/ances t 7 at all relevant to ! end s\ght1 _! calculations w\ld become impracticable2 accord+ly !y conf9e !mselves to ! mo/ important2 & we may deal simil>ly ) ! ,h$oni/ic art ( life4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 objections urg$ aga9/ ! ,h$oni/ic me?od :i* g mu* deep]2 & by "s writ]s are press$ to ! extreme ( reject+ ! me?od altoge!r4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ^! objections seems to be ! mo/ conv5i5t way ( obta9+ a cle> view1 bo? ( ! me?od itself & ( ! results t may reasonably be expect$ f x4 ,i %\ld1 h[ev]1 po9t out t we are n[ only conc]n$ ) :at may be call$ intr9sic objections to ,egoi/ic ,h$onism2 argum5ts1 t is1 aga9/ ! possibility ( obta9+ by x ! results at :i* x aims4 ,we are n n[ to consid] :e!r x is reasonable = an individual to take 8 own happ9ess z 8 ultimate end2 or h[ f> ! rules ( action d$uc$ f ! adoption ( ?is end1 & f ! actual conditions ( ! individual's exi/5ce1 w co9cide ) curr5t op9ions z to :at is "r4 ,^! que/ions1 accord+ to ! plan ( my "w1 are po/pon$ = future consid]ation3#ajh our sole conc]n at pres5t is ) objections t5d+ to %[ ! intr9sic impracticability ( ,h$onism z a rational me?od4 ,we are met1 9 ! fir/ place1 by an objection :i*1 if valid at all1 mu/ be admitt$ to be decisive4 ,x has be5 affirm$#aji by ,gre5 t 8pleasure z feel+1 9 di/9ction f its conditions t are n feel+s1 _c be conceiv$40 ,if s1 ,rational ,h$onism w\ld c]ta9ly be impossible3 b ! proposition seems equally oppos$ to common s5se1 & to ! univ]sal assumption ( empirical psy*ologi/s2 :o1 9 inve/igat+ elaborately & sy/ematically ! conditions1 m5tal & physical1 ( pleasure & pa91 necess>ily assume t ^! feel+s c be di/+ui%$ 9 ?\ght f _! 8conditions :i* are n feel+s40 ,i also f9d t ! writ] himself f :om ,i h quot$1 9 a lat] treatise1#aaj conducts long argum5ts respect+ pleasure :i* are only intelligible if ! di/9ction betwe5 pleasure & its conditions is ?or\ghly grasp$ & /eadily contemplat$4 ,inde$ he c>ries a di/9ction ( ?is k9d to an extreme po9t ( subtlety2 z he requires u to di/+ui% ! 8self-satisfaction s\ght 9 all desire t am\nts to w0 f ! 8pleasure0 t 8!re is 9 all self-satisfaction if atta9$03 :]eas o!r morali/s reg>d self-satisfaction z a species ( pleasure4#aaa ,to ma9ta9 t we c di/+ui% pleasure f self-satisfaction1 & _c di/+ui% x f its conditions1 seems to me too viol5t a p>adox to ne$ refutation4 ,x is possible t ,gre5 may only mean t pleasure _c be ?\ght to exi/ ap>t f conditions :i* are n feel+s1 & t x necess>ily v>ies ) any v>iation 9 its conditions4 ,! /atem5t ?us int]pret$ ,i d n d5y3 b x is q irrelevant to ! "q :e!r pleasure c be e/imat$ sep>ately f its conditions1 or :e!r pleasures receiv$ "u diff]5t conditions c be quantitatively comp>$4 ,i _c h ! pleasure ( witness+ a trag$y or ! pleasure ( witness+ a f>ce1 )\t hav+ along ) ei!r a complex ( innum]able ?\ghts & images1 v div]se 9 quality 9 ! two cases3 b ?is does n prev5t me f decid+ confid5tly :e!r ! trag$y or ! f>ce w af=d me mo/ pleasure on ! :ole4 ,i pass to ano!r objection made by ! same writ] to ! ,h$oni/ic conception ( ! supreme end ( action z 8! greate/ possible sum ( pleasures40 7,x %\ld be 8! greate/ possible surplus ( pleasure ov] pa903 b ! diff]5ce is unimportant = ! pres5t argum5t47 ,! phrase1 he says1 is 8intr9sically unmean+03 b 8 ju/ification = ?is /atem5t appe>s to be diff]5t 9 diff]5t treatises4 ,at fir/ he boldly affirm$ t 8pleasant feel+s are n quantities t c be add$10#aab app>5tly because 8ea* is ov] be=e ! o!r beg9s40 ,! latt] /atem5t1 h[ev]1 is equally true ( ! p>ts ( "t3 b x w\ld be obvi\sly absurd to say t h\rs1 days1 ye>s are 8n quantities t c be add$40 ,possibly ?is consid]ation occurr$ to ,gre5 be=e writ+ ! ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics3 at any rate 9 ! latt] treatise he admits t /ates 8( pleasant feel+0 c be add$ toge!r 9 8?\ght10 only d5y+ t !y c be add$ 89 enjoym5t or imag9ation ( enjoym5t40#aac ,b ?is conc$es all t is requir$ = ! ,h$oni/ic valuation ( future feel+s2 no ,h$oni/ ev] suppos$ t ! happ9ess he aims at mak+ z great z possible 0 some?+ to be enjoy$ all at once1 or ev] want$ to imag9e x z s enjoy$4 ,& unless ! transi5cy ( pleasure dim9i%es its pleasantness--a po9t :i* ,i w pres5tly consid]--,i _c see t ! possibility ( realis+ ! ,h$oni/ic end is at all affect$ by ! necessity ( realis+ x 9 successive p>ts4 ,gre51 9 ano!r passage1#aad appe>s to lay d[n t 8an end0 :i* is 8to s]ve ! purpose ( a crit]ion0 mu/ 8enable u to di/+ui% actions t br+ m5 ne>] to x f ^? :i* d n40 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld only be ! case if by an 8end0 is necess>ily meant a goal or consummation1 :i*1 aft] gradually draw+ ne>] to x1 we rea* all at once3 b ?is is n1 ,i conceive1 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is ord9>ily und]/ood by e?ical writ]s3 & c]ta9ly all t ,i mean by x is an object ( rational aim--:e!r atta9$ 9 successive p>ts or n--:i* is n s\ght z a means to ! atta9m5t ( any ult]ior object1 b = itself4 ,& s long z any "o's prospective balance ( pleasure ov] pa9 admits ( be+ made great] or less by imm$iate action 9 "o way or ano!r1#aae !re seems no reason :y #8,maximum ,happ9ess' %\ld n provide z s]viceable a crit]ion ( conduct z any #8*ief good' capable ( be+ possess$ all at once1 or 9 "s way indep5d5t ( ! condition ( "t4 #b4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x be ma9ta9$1 t ! consci\sness ( ! transi5cy ( pleasure ei!r makes x less pleasant at ! "t or causes a subsequ5t pa91 & t ! delib]ate & sy/ematic pursuit ( pleasure t5ds to int5sify ?is consci\sness2 ! proposition1 if borne out by exp]i5ce1 w\ld c]ta9ly con/itute a relevant objection to ! me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,& ?is view w\ld seem to be 9 ! m9d ( ! writ] above quot$ 7?\gh x is n[h]e cle>ly put =w>d73 s9ce he affirms t x is 8impossible t self-satisfaction %\ld be f\nd 9 any succession ( pleasures02#aaf z self-satisfaction be+ 8satisfaction = a self t abides & contemplates itself z abid+0 mu/ be at lea/ relatively p]man5t3#aag & x is1 ,i suppose1 impli$ t ! disappo9tm5t ( ! ,h$oni/1 :o fails to f9d self-satisfaction :]e he seeks = x1 is att5d$ ) pa9 or loss ( pleasure4#aah ,if ?is be s1 & if ! self-satisfaction ?us miss$ c be obta9$ by ! resolute adoption ( "s o!r pr9ciple ( action1 x w\ld c]ta9ly seem t ! sy/ematic pursuit ( pleasure is 9 "s dang] ( defeat+ itself3 x is !re=e important to consid] c>efully h[ f> ?is is really ! case4 ,s f> z my own exp]i5ce goes1 x does n appe> to me t ! m]e transi5cy ( pleasures is a s]i\s s\rce ( discont5t1 s long z "o has a fair prospect ( hav+ z valuable pleasures 9 ! future z 9 ! pa/--or ev5 s long z ! life be=e "o has any sub/antial am\nt ( pleasure to (f]4 ,b ,i d n d\bt t an important elem5t ( happ9ess1 = all or mo/ m51 is d]iv$ f ! consci\sness ( possess+ 8relatively p]man5t0 s\rces ( pleasure--:e!r ext]nal1 z weal?1 social position1 family1 fri5ds2 or int]nal1 z k1 culture1 /rong & lively int]e/ 9 ! wellbe+ ( fairly prosp]\s p]sons or in/itutions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n1 9 my op9ion1 con/itute an objection to ,h$onism3 x r seems obvi\s1 f ! h$oni/ic po9t ( view1 t 8z soon z intellig5ce discov]s t !re are fix$ objects1 p]man5t s\rces ( pleasure1 & l>ge gr\ps ( endur+ int]e/s1 :i* yield a v>iety ( recurr+ enjoym5ts1 ! rational w1 pref]r+ ! great] to ! less1 w unfail+ly devote its en]gies to ! pursuit ( ^!40#aai ,x may be repli$ t if ^! p]man5t s\rces ( pleasure are consci\sly s\ght m]ely z a means to ! h$oni/ic end1 !y w n af=d ! happ9ess = :i* !y are s\ght4 ,) ?is ,i to "s ext5t agree2 b ,i ?9k t if ! normal complexity ( our impulses be duly tak5 into acc\nt1 ?is /atem5t w be f\nd n to militate aga9/ ! adoption ( ,h$onism1 b m]ely to signalise a dang] aga9/ :i* ! ,h$oni/ has to gu>d4 ,9 a previ\s *apt]#abj ,i h1 aft] ,butl]1 laid /ress on ! diff]5ce betwe5 impulses t are1 /rictly speak+1 direct$ t[>ds pleasure1 & #8extra-reg>d+' impulses :i* d n aim at pleasure1--?\gh mu*1 p]haps mo/1 ( our pleasure consi/s 9 ! gratification ( ^! latt]1 & !re=e dep5ds ^u _! exi/5ce4 ,i !re argu$ t 9 _m cases ! two k9ds ( impulse are s f> incompatible t !y d n easily coexi/ 9 ! same mom5t ( consci\sness4 ,i add$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! ord9>y condition ( our activity ! incompatibility is only mom5t>y1 & does n prev5t a real h>mony f be+ atta9$ by a sort ( alt]nat+ rhy?m ( ! two impulses 9 consci\sness4 ,/ill x seems und5iable t ?is h>mony is liable to be di/urb$2 & t :ile on ! "o h& individuals may & d sacrifice _! greate/ app>5t happ9ess to ! gratification ( "s imp]i\s p>ticul> desire1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 self-love is liable to engross ! m9d to a degree incompatible ) a heal?y & vigor\s outfl[ ( ^? #8dis9t]e/$' impulses t[>ds p>ticul> objects1 ! pre-exi/5ce ( :i* is necess>y to ! atta9m5t1 9 any high degree1 ( ! happ9ess at :i* self-love aims4 ,i %\ld n1 h[ev]1 inf] f ?is t ! pursuit ( pleasure is necess>ily self-defeat+ & futile2 b m]ely t ! pr9ciple ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 :5 appli$ ) a due k ( ! laws ( human nature1 is practically self-limit+2 i4e4 t a rational me?od ( atta9+ ! end at :i* x aims requires t we %\ld to "s ext5t put x out ( sight & n directly aim at x4 ,i h be=e spok5 ( ?is conclusion z ! #8,fundam5tal ,p>adox ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism'2 b ?\gh x pres5ts itself z a p>adox1 !re does n seem to be any difficulty 9 its practical realisation1 :5 once ! dang] indicat$ is cle>ly se54 ,= x is an exp]i5ce only too common among m51 9 :atev] pursuit !y may be engag$1 t !y let ! orig9al object & goal ( _! ef=ts pass out ( view1 & come to reg>d ! means to ?is end z ends 9 !mselves3 s t !y at la/ ev5 sacrifice ! orig9al end to ! atta9m5t ( :at is only second>ily & d]ivatively desirable4 ,& if x be ?us easy & common to =get ! end 9 ! means ov]mu*1 !re seems no reason :y x %\ld be difficult to d x to ! ext5t t ,rational ,egoism prescribes3 &1 9 fact1 x seems to be cont9ually done by ord9>y p]sons 9 ! case ( amusem5ts & pa/imes ( all k9ds4 ,x is true t1 z our desires _c ord9>ily be produc$ by an ef=t ( w--?\gh !y c to "s ext5t be repress$ by x--if we />t$ ) no impulse except ! desire ( pleasure1 x might seem difficult to execute ! practical p>adox ( atta9+ pleasure by aim+ at some?+ else4 ,yet ev5 9 ?is hypo!tical case ! difficulty is less ?an x appe>s4 ,= ! reaction ( our activities ^u our emotional nature is su* t we may commonly br+ ourselves to take an int]e/ 9 any end by conc5trat+ our ef=ts ^u its atta9m5t4 ,s t1 ev5 suppos+ a man to beg9 ) absolute indiff]5ce to ev]y?+ except 8 own pleasure1 x does n foll[ t if he 7 conv9c$ t ! possession ( o!r desires & impulses 7 necess>y to ! atta9m5t ( ! greate/ possible pleasure1 he c\ld n succe$ 9 produc+ ^!4 ,b ?is supposition is nev] actually realis$4 ,e man1 :5 he comm5ces ! task ( sy/ematis+ 8 conduct1 :e!r on egoi/ic pr9ciples or any o!r1 is consci\s ( a numb] ( diff]5t impulses & t5d5cies )9 him1 o!r ?an ! m]e desire = pleasure1 :i* urge 8 w 9 p>ticul> directions1 to ! atta9m5t ( p>ticul> results3 s t he has only to place himself "u c]ta9 ext]nal influ5ces1 & ^! desires & impulses w beg9 to op]ate )\t any ef=t ( w4 ,x is sometimes ?\ght1 h[ev]1 t !re is an important class ( ref9$ & elevat$ impulses ) :i* ! supremacy ( self-love is 9 a peculi> way incompatible1 su* z ! love ( virtue1 or p]sonal affection1 or ! religi\s impulse to love & obey ,god4 ,b at any rate 9 ! common view ( ^! impulses1 ?is difficulty does n seem to be recognis$4 ,none ( ! s*ool ( morali/s t foll[$ ,%aftesbury 9 cont5d+ t x is a man's true int]e/ to fo/] 9 himself /rictly dis9t]e/$ social affections1 has not$ any inh]5t incompatibility betwe5 ! exi/5ce ( ^! affections & ! supremacy ( rational self-love4 ,& simil>ly ,*ri/ian prea*]s :o h comm5d$ ! religi\s life z really ! happie/1 h n ?\ght g5u9e religion irreconcilable ) ! conviction t ea* man's own happ9ess is 8 mo/ ne> & intimate conc]n4 ,o!r p]sons1 h[ev]1 seem to c>ry ! religi\s consci\sness & ! feel+ ( human affection to a high] /age ( ref9em5t1 at :i* a /rict] dis9t]e/$ness is exact$4 ,!y ma9ta9 t ! ess5ce ( ei!r feel+1 9 its be/ =m1 is absolute self-r5unciation & self-sacrifice4 ,& c]ta9ly ^! seem incompatible ) self-love1 h[ev] cauti\sly self-limit+4 ,a man _c bo? wi% to secure 8 own happ9ess & be will+ to lose x4 ,& yet h[ if will+ness to lose x is ! true means ( secur+ x8 ,c self-love n m]ely r$uce indirectly its prom95ce 9 consci\sness1 b directly & unres]v$ly annihilate itself8 ,?is emotional feat does n seem to me possible3 & !re=e ,i mu/ admit t a man :o embraces ! pr9ciple ( ,rational ,egoism cuts himself (f f ! special pleasure t att5ds ?is absolute sacrifice & abnegation ( self4 ,b h[ev] exquisite ?is may be1 ! pit* ( emotional exaltation & ref9em5t necess>y to atta9 x is comp>atively s r>e1 t x is sc>cely includ$ 9 m5's common e/imate ( happ9ess4 ,i d n !re=e ?9k t an important objection to ,rational ,egoism c be bas$ ^u its incompatibility ) ?is p>ticul> consci\sness3 nor t ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d really su/a9s ! view t ! desire ( "o's own happ9ess1 if accept$ z supreme & regulative1 inevitably defeats its own aim ?r\gh ! consequ5t dim9ution & desiccation ( ! impulses & emotional capacities necess>y to ! atta9m5t ( happ9ess 9 a high degree2 ?\gh x c]ta9ly %[s a s]i\s & subtle dang] 9 ?is direction4 #c4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r way 9 :i* ! habit ( m9d necess>ily result+ f ! cont9ual practice ( h$oni/ic comp>ison is sometimes ?\ght to be unfav\rable to ! atta9m5t ( ! h$oni/ic end3 f a suppos$ incompatibility betwe5 ! habit ( reflectively obs]v+ & exam9+ pleasure1 & ! capacity = exp]i5c+ pleasure 9 normal fulness & int5sity4 ,& x c]ta9ly seems important to consid] :at effect ! cont9ual att5tion to our pleasures1 9 ord] to obs]ve _! diff]5t degrees1 is likely to h on ^! feel+s !mselves4 ,! inquiry at fir/ sight seems to lead to irreconcilable contradiction 9 our view ( pleasure4 ,= if pleasure only exi/s z x is felt1 ! m consci\s we are ( x1 ! m pleasure we h3 & x w\ld seem t ! m our att5tion is direct$ t[>ds x1 ! m fully we %all be consci\s ( x4 ,on ! o!r h& ,hamilton's /atem5t t 8k & feel+0 7cognition & pleasure or pa97 are always 89 a c]ta9 inv]se proportion to ea* o!r10 corresponds prima facie to our common exp]i5ce3 = ! purely cognitive elem5t ( consci\sness seems to be nei!r pleasurable nor pa9ful1 s t ! m our consci\sness is occupi$ ) cognition1 ! less room !re seems to be = feel+4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 re/s on ! assumption t ! total int5sity ( our consci\sness is a con/ant quantity2 s t :5 "o elem5t ( x positively increases1 ! re/ mu/ positively--z well z relatively--dim9i%4 ,& x does n appe> to me t exp]i5ce gives u any valid gr\nd = mak+ ?is g5]al assumption3 x r seems t at c]ta9 times 9 our life intellect & feel+ are simultane\sly feeble2 s t ! same m5tal excitem5t may int5sify bo? simultane\sly4 ,/ill x seems to be a fact t any v p[]ful feel+1 rea*+ to ! full int5sity ( :i* our consci\sness is normally capable1 is commonly dim9i%$ by a contemporane\s /roke ( cognitive ef=t3 h5ce x is a g5]al difficulty 9 ! way ( exact obs]vation ( our emotions t ! object cognis$ seems to %r9k & dw9dle 9 proportion z ! cognitive reg>d gr[s ke5 & eag]4 ,h[ !n are we to reconcile ?is ) ! proposition fir/ laid d[n1 t pleasure only exi/s z we are consci\s ( x8 ,! answ] seems to be t ! m]e consci\sness ( a pres5t feel+--ap>t f any di/9ct repres5tative elem5ts--_c dim9i% ! feel+ ( :i* x is an indisp5sable & insep>able condition3 b 9 introspective cognition we g beyond ! pres5t feel+1 comp>+ & classify+ x ) rememb]$ or imag9$ feel+s2 & ! ef=t ( repres5t+ & comp>+ ^! o!r feel+s t5ds to decrease ! m]e pres5tative consci\sness ( ! actual pleasure4 ,i conclude1 !n1 t !re is a real dang] ( dim9i%+ pleasure by ! attempt to obs]ve & e/imate x4 ,b ! dang] seems only to arise 9 ! case ( v int5se pleasures1 & only if ! attempt is made at ! mom5t ( actual enjoym5t2 & s9ce ! mo/ delightful p]iods ( life h frequ5tly recurr+ int]vals ( ne>ly neutral feel+1 9 :i* ! pleasures imm$iately pa/ may be comp>$ & e/imat$ )\t any su* detrim5t1 ,i d n reg>d ! objection f\nd$ on ?is dang] z p>ticul>ly important4 #d4 ,m s]i\s1 9 my op9ion1 are ! objections urg$ aga9/ ! possibility ( p]=m+1 ) def9ite & tru/wor?y results1 ! compreh5sive & me?odical comp>ison ( pleasures & pa9s :i* ! adoption ( ! ,h$oni/ic /&>d involves4 ,i _c inde$ d\bt t m5 habitually comp>e pleasures & pa9s 9 respect ( _! int5sity3 t 7e4g47 :5 we pass f "o /ate ( consci\sness to ano!r1 or :5 9 any way we are l$ to recall a /ate long pa/1 we (t5 unhesitat+ly decl>e ! pres5t /ate to be m or less pleasant ?an ! pa/3 or t we decl>e "s pleasant exp]i5ces to h be5 #8wor?1' & o!rs #8n wor?1' ! tr\ble x took to obta9 !m1 or ! pa9 t foll[$ !m4 ,b1 grant+ ?is1 x may /ill be ma9ta9$ 7#a7 t ?is comp>ison z ord9>ily made is bo? occasional & v r\gh1 & t x c nev] be ext5d$ z sy/ematic ,h$onism requires1 nor appli$1 ) any accuracy1 to all possible /ates h[ev] diff]+ 9 quality2 & 7#b7 t z commonly practis$ x is liable to illusion1 ( :i* we c nev] measure ! precise am\nt1 :ile we are cont9ually =c$ to recognise its exi/5ce4 ,?is illusion 0 ev5 urg$ by ,plato z a gr\nd = di/ru/+ ! app>5t affirmation ( consci\sness 9 respect ( pres5t pleasure4 ,plato ?\ght t ! app>5t int5sity ( ! co>s] bodily pleasures 0 illusory2 because ^! /ates ( consci\sness1 be+ prec$$ by pa91 7 really only /ates ( relief f pa91 & s prop]ly neutral1 nei!r pleasant nor pa9ful--examples ( :at ,i h call$ ! h$oni/ic z]o--only appe>+ pleasant f contra/ ) ! prec$+ pa94 ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 x has be5 answ]$1 t 9 e/imat+ pleasure !re is no conceivable appeal f ! imm$iate decision ( consci\sness3 t "h ! ,ph5om5al is ! ,real--!re is no o!r real t we c di/+ui% f x4 ,& ?is seems to me true1 9 s f> z we are conc]n$ only ) ! pres5t /ate4 ,b !n--ap>t f ! difficulty j notic$ ( obs]v+ a pleasure :ile x is felt )\t !reby dim9i%+ x--x is obvi\s t 9 any e/imate ( its int5sity we are necess>ily comp>+ x ) "s o!r /ate4 ,& ?is latt] mu/ g5]ally be a repres5tation1 n an actual feel+3 = ?\gh we c sometimes exp]i5ce two or p]haps m pleasures at once1 we are r>ely 9 su* cases able to comp>e !m satisfactorily3 = ei!r ! causes ( ! two mutually int]f]e1 s t nei!r rea*es its normal degree ( int5sity2 or1 m (t51 ! two bl5d into "o /ate ( pleasant consci\sness ! elem5ts ( :i* we _c e/imate sep>ately4 ,b if x is !re=e inevitable t "o t]m at lea/ 9 our comp>ison %\ld be an imag9$ pleasure1 we see t !re is a possibility ( error 9 any su* comp>ison2 = ! imag9$ feel+ may n adequately repres5t ! pleasantness ( ! correspond+ actual feel+4 ,& 9 ! egoi/ic comp>ison1 ! validity ( :i* we are n[ discuss+1 ! objects prim>ily to be comp>$ are all repres5t$ elem5ts ( consci\sness3 = we are desir+ to *oose betwe5 two or m possible c\rses ( conduct1 & !re=e to =eca/ future feel+s4 ,let u !n exam9e m closely ! mann] 9 :i* ?is comp>ison is ord9>ily p]=m$1 t we may see :at positive gr\nds we h = mi/ru/+ x4 ,9 e/imat+ = practical purposes ! value ( diff]5t pleasures op5 to u1 we commonly tru/ mo/ to our prospective imag9ation3 we project ourselves into ! future1 & imag9e :at su* & su* a pleasure w am\nt to "u hypo!tical conditions4 ,?is imag9ation1 s f> z x involves consci\s inf]5ce1 seems to be *iefly det]m9$ by our own exp]i5ce ( pa/ pleasures1 :i* are usually recall$ g5]ically1 or 9 l>ge aggregates1 ?\gh sometimes p>ticul> in/ances ( important s+le pleasures occur to u z def9itely rememb]$3 b p>tly1 too1 we are influ5c$ by ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs sympa!tically appropriat$3 & "h aga9 we sometimes def9itely ref] to p>ticul> exp]i5ces :i* h be5 communicat$ to u by individuals1 & sometimes to ! traditional g5]alisations :i* are ?\ght to repres5t ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ,n[ x does n seem t su* a process z ?is is likely to be free f error3 &1 inde$1 no "o pret5ds t x is4 ,9 fact !re is sc>cely any po9t ^u :i* moralis]s h dwelt ) m emphasis ?an ?is1 t man's =eca/ ( pleasure is cont9ually errone\s4 ,ea* ( u frequ5tly recognises 8 own mi/akes3 & ea* /ill m (t5 attributes to o!rs errors unse5 by !mselves1 aris+ ei!r f mis9t]pretation ( _! own exp]i5ce1 or f ignorance or neglect ( t ( o!rs4 ,h[ !n are ^! errors to be elim9at$8 ,! obvi\s answ] is t we mu/ sub/itute = ! in/9ctive1 l>gely implicit1 inf]5ce j describ$ a m sci5tific process ( reason+3 by d$uc+ ! probable degree ( our future pleasure or pa9 9 any giv5 circum/ances f inductive g5]alisations bas$ on a suffici5t numb] ( c>eful obs]vations ( our own & o!rs' exp]i5ce4 ,we h !n to ask1 fir/1 h[ f> c ea* ( u e/imate accurately 8 own pa/ exp]i5ce ( pleasures & pa9s8 secondly1 h[ f> c ?is k ( ! pa/ enable him to =eca/1 ) any c]ta9ty1 ! greate/ happ9ess )9 8 rea* 9 ! future8 ?irdly1 h[ f> c he appropriate1 = ! purposes ( su* =eca/s1 ! pa/ exp]i5ce ( o!rs8 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ ( ^! que/ions1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t x is n suffici5t to "k g5]ally t we d]ive pleasures & pa9s f su* & su* s\rces2 we require to "k approximately ! positive or negative degree ( ea* feel+2 unless we c =m "s quantitative e/imate ( !m1 x is futile to try to atta9 our greate/ possible happ9ess--at lea/ by an empirical me?od4 ,we h !re=e to comp>e quantitatively ea* pleasure z x occurs1 or z recall$ 9 imag9ation1 ) o!r imag9$ pleasures3 & ! "q is1 h[ f> su* comp>isons c be reg>d$ z tru/wor?y4 ,n[ = my own "p1 :5 ,i reflect on my pleasures & pa9s1 & endeav\r to comp>e !m 9 respect ( int5sity1 x is only to a v limit$ ext5t t ,i c obta9 cle> & def9ite results f su* comp>isons1 ev5 tak+ ea* sep>ately 9 its simple/ =m3--:e!r ! comp>ison is made at ! mom5t ( exp]i5c+ "o ( ! pleasures1 or betwe5 two /ates ( consci\sness recall$ 9 imag9ation4 ,?is is true ev5 :5 ,i comp>e feel+s ( ! same k9d3 & ! vagu5ess & unc]ta9ty increases1 9 proportion z ! feel+s diff] 9 k9d4 ,let u beg9 ) s5sual gratifications1 :i* are ?\ght to be especially def9ite & palpable4 ,suppose ,i am enjoy+ a good d9n]3 if ,i ask myself :e!r "o k9d ( di% or w9e gives me m pleasure ?an ano!r1 sometimes ,i c decide1 b v (t5 n4 ,s if ,i reflect ^u two modes ( bodily ex]cise t ,i may h tak53 if "o has be5 9 a m>k$ degree agreeable or t$i\s1 ,i take note ( x naturally2 b x is n natural to me to g fur!r ?an ?is 9 judg+ ( _! pleasurabl5ess or pa9fulness1 & ! attempt to d s does n seem to lead to any cle> affirmation4 ,& simil>ly ( intellectual ex]cises & /ates ( consci\sness pr$om9antly emotional3 ev5 :5 ! causes & quality ( ! feel+s comp>$ are simil>1 x is only :5 ! diff]5ces 9 pleasantness are great1 t h$oni/ic comp>ison seems to yield any def9ite result4 ,b :5 ,i try to arrange 9 a scale pleasures diff]+ 9 k9d2 to comp>e 7e4g47 lab\r ) re/1 excitem5t ) tranquillity1 intellectual ex]cise ) emotional effusion1 ! pleasure ( sci5tific appreh5sion ) t ( b5efic5t action1 ! delight ( social expansion ) ! delight ( /hetic reception2 my judgm5t wav]s & fluctuates f> m1 & 9 ! majority ( cases ,i _c give any confid5t decision4 ,& if ?is is ! case ) :at ,b5?am calls #8pure'--i4e4 pa9less--pleasures1 x is /ill m true ( ^? ev5 common] /ates ( consci\sness1 :]e a c]ta9 am\nt ( pa9 or discom=t is mix$ ) pleasure1 al?\gh ! latt] prepond]ates4 ,if x is h>d to say :i* ( two diff]5t /ates ( cont5tm5t 0 ! great] pleasure1 x seems /ill h>d] to comp>e a /ate ( placid satisfaction ) "o ( eag] b hopeful susp5se1 or ) triumphant conque/ ( pa9ful ob/acles4 ,& p]haps x is /ill m difficult to comp>e pure pleasures ) pure pa9s1 & to say h[ mu* ( ! "o k9d ( feel+ we consid] to be exactly balanc$ by a giv5 am\nt ( ! o!r :5 !y d n occur simultane\sly3 :ile an e/imate ( simultane\s feel+s is1 z we h se51 g5]ally unsatisfactory f ! mutual int]f]5ce ( _! respective causes4 #e4 ,b aga91 if ^! judgm5ts are n cle> & def9ite1 /ill less are !y consi/5t4 ,i d n n[ mean t "o man's e/imate ( ! value ( any k9d ( pleasures diff]s f ano!r's3 = we h assum$ ea* s5ti5t individual to be ! f9al judge ( ! pleasantness & pa9fulness ( 8 own feel+s1 & !re=e ?is k9d ( discrepancy does n affect ! validity ( ! judgm5ts1 & creates no difficulty until any "o tries to appropriate ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs4 ,b ,i mean t ea* individual's judgm5t ( ! comp>ative value ( 8 own pleasures is apt to be diff]5t at diff]5t times1 ?\gh x relates to ! same pa/ exp]i5ces2 & t ?is v>iation is a legitimate gr\nd = di/ru/+ ! validity ( any p>ticul> comp>ison4 ,! causes ( ?is v>iation seem to be p>tly due to ! nature ( ! repres5t$ feel+1 & p>tly to ! g5]al /ate ( ! m9d at ! "t ( mak+ ! repres5tation4 ,to beg9 ) ! =m]3 we f9d t diff]5t k9ds ( pa/ pleasures & pa9s d n equally admit ( be+ reviv$ 9 imag9ation4 ,?us1 g5]ally speak+1 our m emotional & m repres5tative pa9s are m easily reviv$ ?an ! m s5sational & pres5tative3 = example1 x is at ?is mom5t mu* m easy = me to imag9e ! discom=t ( expectancy :i* prec$$ a pa/ sea-sickness ?an ! pa9 ( ! actual nausea3 al?\gh ,i inf]--f ! recollection ( judgm5ts pass$ at ! "t--t ! =m] pa9 0 trifl+ comp>$ ) ! latt]4 ,to ?is cause x seems due t pa/ h>d%ips1 toils1 & anxieties (t5 appe> pleasurable :5 we look back ^u !m1 aft] "s int]val2 = ! excitem5t1 ! height5$ s5se ( life t accompani$ ! pa9ful /ruggle1 w\ld h be5 pleasurable if tak5 by itself2 & x is ?is t we recall r ?an ! pa94 ,9 e/imat+ pleasures ! o!r cause ( v>iation is m conspicu\s2 we are consci\s ( *anges occasional or p]iodic 9 our e/imate ( !m1 dep5d+ ^u *anges 9 our m5tal or bodily condition4 ,e4g4 x is a matt] ( common rem>k ) respect to ! gratifications ( appetite t we _c e/imate !m adequately 9 ! /ate ( satiety1 & t we are apt to exagg]ate !m 9 ! /ate ( desire4 7,i d n d5y t int5sity ( antec$5t desire int5sifies ! pleasure ( fruition2 s t ?is pleasure n only appe>s1 z ,plato ?\ght1 b actually is great] ow+ to ! /r5g? ( ! desire t has prec$$4 ,/ill x is a matt] ( common exp]i5ce t pleasures :i* h be5 int5sely desir$ are (t5 f\nd to disappo9t expectation47 ,!re seem to be no special /ates ( av]sion1 det]m9$ by bodily causes1 & relat$ to c]ta9 pa9s z our appetites to _! correspond5t pleasures2 b mo/ p]sons are liable to be ?r[n by ! prospect ( c]ta9 pa9s into ! /ate ( passionate av]sion :i* we call fe>1 & to be !reby l$ to e/imate su* pa9s z worse ?an !y w\ld be judg$ to be 9 a calm] mood4 ,fur!r1 :5 feel+ any k9d ( pa9 or uneas9ess we seem liable to und]rate pa9 ( a v dissimil> k9d3 ?us 9 dang] we value repose1 ov]look+ its ennui1 :ile ! t$ium ( security makes u imag9e ! m+l$ excitem5t ( pa/ dang] z almo/ purely pleasurable4 ,& aga9 :5 we are absorb$ 9 any p>ticul> pleasant activity1 ! pleasures att5d+ dissimil> activities are apt to be contemn$3 !y appe> co>se or ?91 z ! case may be3 & ?is con/itutes a fundam5tal objection to not+ ! exact degree ( a pleasure at ! "t ( exp]i5c+ x4 ,! eag] desire1 :i* (t5 seems an indisp5sable elem5t ( ! :ole /ate ( pleasurable activity1 g5]ally involves a simil> bias3 inde$ any /rong excitem5t1 9 :i* our ?\ght is conc5trat$ on a s+le result or gr\p ( results--:e!r x be ! excitem5t ( av]sion1 fe>1 hope1 or susp5se--t5ds to make u inappreciative ( ali5 pleasures & pa9s alike4 ,&1 speak+ m g5]ally1 we _c imag9e z v int5se a pleasure ( a k9d t at ! "t ( imag9+ x we are incapable ( exp]i5c+3 z 7e4g47 ! pleasures ( intellectual or bodily ex]cise at ! close ( a we>y+ day2 or any emotional pleasure :5 our susceptibility to ! special emotion is tempor>ily exhau/$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n easy to gu>d aga9/ error1 z philosoph]s h (t5 ?\ght1 by mak+ our e/imate 9 a cool & passionless /ate4 ,= !re are _m pleasures :i* require prec$5t desire1 & ev5 en?usiasm & highly wr\ght excitem5t1 9 ord] to be exp]i5c$ 9 _! full int5sity2 & x is n likely t we %\ld appreciate ^! adequately 9 a /ate ( p]fect tranquillity4 #f4 ,^! consid]ations make cle>] ! ext5t ( ! assumptions ( ,empirical ,quantitative ,h$onism1 /at$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]3 viz4 7#a7 t our pleasures & pa9s h ea* a def9ite degree1 & 7#b7 t ?is degree is empirically cognisable4 ,fir/ly1 if pleasure only exi/s z x is felt1 ! belief t e pleasure & pa9 has a def9ite int5sive quantity or degree mu/ rema9 an a priori assumption1 incapable ( positive empirical v]ification4 ,= ! pleasure c only h ! degree z comp>$ ) o!r feel+s1 ( ! same or "s diff]5t k9d2 b1 g5]ally speak+1 s9ce ?is comp>ison c only be made 9 imag9ation1 x c only yield ! hypo!tical result t if c]ta9 feel+s c\ld be felt toge!r1 precisely z !y h be5 felt sep>ately1 "o w\ld be f\nd m desirable ?an ! o!r 9 "s def9ite ratio4 ,if1 !n1 we are ask$ :at gr\nd we h = reg>d+ ?is imag9>y result z a valid repres5tation ( reality1 we _c say m ?an t ! belief 9 its g5]al validity is irresi/ibly sugge/$ 9 reflection on exp]i5ce1 & rema9s at any rate uncontradict$ by exp]i5ce4 ,b secondly1 grant+ t ea* ( our pleasures & pa9s has really a def9ite degree ( pleasantness or pa9fulness1 ! "q /ill rema9s :e!r we h any means ( accurately measur+ ^! degrees4 ,is !re any reason to suppose t ! m9d is ev] 9 su* a /ate z to be a p]fectly neutral & col\rless m$ium = imag9+ all k9ds ( pleasures8 ,exp]i5ce c]ta9ly %[s u ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( moods 9 :i* we h an app>5t bias = or aga9/ a p>ticul> k9d ( feel+4 ,is x n probable t !re is always "s bias ( ?is k9d8 t we are always m 9 tune = "s pleasures1 m s5sitive to "s pa9s1 ?an we are to o!rs8 ,x mu/1 ,i ?9k1 be admitt$ t ! exact cognition ( ! place ( ea* k9d ( feel+ 9 a scale ( desirability1 measur$ positively & negatively f a z]o ( p]fect indiff]5ce1 is at be/ an ideal to :i* we c nev] tell h[ closely we approximate4 ,/ill 9 ! v>iations ( our judgm5t & ! disappo9tm5t ( our expectations we h exp]i5ce ( errors ( :i* we c trace ! causes & all[ = !m1 at lea/ r\ghly2 correct+ 9 ?\ght ! defects ( imag9ation4 ,& s9ce :at we require = practical guidance is to e/imate n individual pa/ exp]i5ces1 b ! value ( a k9d ( pleasure or pa91 z obta9$ "u c]ta9 circum/ances or conditions2 we c to "s ext5t dim9i% ! *ance ( error 9 ?is e/imate by mak+ a numb] ( obs]vations & imag9ative comp>isons1 at diff]5t times & 9 diff]5t moods4 ,9 s f> z ^! agree we may legitimately feel an increas$ confid5ce 9 ! result3 & 9 s f> z !y diff]1 we c at lea/ r$uce our possible error by /rik+ an av]age ( ! diff]5t e/imates4 ,x w be evid5t1 h[ev]1 t su* a me?od z ?is _c be expect$ to yield m ?an a r\gh approximation to ! suppos$ tru?4 #g4 ,we mu/ conclude !n t our e/imate ( ! h$oni/ic value ( any pa/ pleasure or pa91 is liable to an am\nt ( error :i* we _c calculate exactly2 because ! repres5t$ pleasantness ( diff]5t feel+s fluctuates & v>ies indef9itely ) *anges 9 ! actual condition ( ! repres5t+ m9d4 ,we h n[ to obs]ve t1 = simil> reasons1 ev5 suppos+ we c\ld adequately all[ =1 & s exclude1 ?is s\rce ( error 9 our comp>ison ( pa/ pleasures1 x is liable to intrude aga9 9 argu+ f ! pa/ to ! future4 ,= our capacity = p>ticul> pleasures may be ab\t to *ange1 or may h actually *ang$ s9ce ! exp]i5ces t =m ! data ( our calculation4 ,we may h rea*$ ! po9t ( satiety 9 respect ( "s ( our pa/ pleasures1 or o!rwise lo/ our susceptibility to !m1 ow+ to lat5t *anges 9 our con/itution3 or we may h increas$ our susceptibility to pa9s inevitably connect$ ) !m3 or alt]$ conditions ( life may h g5]at$ 9 u new desires & av]sions1 & giv5 relative importance to new s\rces ( happ9ess4 ,or any or all ( ^! *anges may be expect$ to occur1 be=e ! completion ( ! c\rse ( conduct ^u :i* we are n[ decid+4 ,! mo/ c>eful e/imate ( a girl's pleasures 7suppos+ a girl gift$ ) ! abnormal habit ( reflection t w\ld be necess>y7 w\ld n mu* pr(it a "y woman3 & ! h$oni/ic calculations ( y\? require modification z we advance 9 ye>s4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t no "o1 9 mak+ su* a =eca/1 c or does rely entirely on 8 own exp]i5ce3 :5 endeav\r+ to e/imate ! probable effect ^u 8 happ9ess ( new circum/ances & influ5ces1 untri$ rules ( conduct & fa%ions ( life1 he always argues p>tly f ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs4 ,?is is1 ,i ?9k1 g5]ally true3 b by includ+ inf]5ces f o!r m5's exp]i5ce we inevitably introduce a new possibility ( error2 = su* inf]5ce proce$s on ! assumption ( a simil>ity ( nature among human be+s1 :i* is nev] exactly true1 :ile we c nev] exactly "k h[ mu* x falls %ort ( ! tru?2 ?\gh we h suffici5t evid5ce ( ! /rik+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! feel+s produc$ 9 diff]5t m5 by simil> causes1 to conv9ce u t ! assumption w\ld 9 _m cases be :olly mislead+4 ,on ?is gr\nd ,plato's reason = claim+ t ! life ( ! ,philosoph] has m pleasure ?an t ( ! ,s5suali/ is palpably inadequate4 ,! philosoph]1 he argues1 has tri$ bo? k9ds ( pleasure1 s5sual z well z intellectual1 & pref]s ! delights ( philosophic life2 ! s5suali/ ought !re=e to tru/ 8 decision & foll[ 8 example4 ,b :o c tell t ! philosoph]'s con/itution is n su* z to r5d] ! enjoym5ts ( ! s5ses1 9 8 case1 comp>atively feeble8 :ile on ! o!r h& ! s5suali/'s m9d may n be able to atta9 m ?an a ?9 %ad[ ( ! philosoph]'s delight4 ,& s1 g5]ally speak+1 if we are to be guid$ by ano!r's exp]i5ce1 we require to be conv9c$ n only t he is g5]ally accurate 9 obs]v+1 analys+1 & comp>+ 8 s5sations1 b also t 8 relative susceptibility to ! diff]5t k9ds ( pleasure & pa9 9 "q co9cides ) our own4 ,if he is unpractis$ 9 introspective obs]vation1 x is possible t he may mi/ake ev5 ! ext]nal conditions ( 8 own happ9ess2 & s ! communication ( 8 exp]i5ce may be altoge!r mislead+4 ,b h[ev] accurately he has analys$ & det]m9$ ! causes ( 8 feel+s1 t simil> causes w\ld produce simil> effects 9 u mu/ always be unc]ta94 ,& ! unc]ta9ty is increas$ indef9itely if our advis] has to recall 9 memory out ( a di/ant pa/ "s ( ! pleasures or pa9s to be comp>$4 ,?us 9 ! ev]-r5ew$ controv]sy betwe5 ,age & ,y\?1 wisdom is n aft] all s cle>ly on ! side ( matur] c\nsels z x seems to be at fir/ sight4 ,:5 a y\? is w>n$ by 8 s5ior to ab/a9 f "s pleasure1 on ! gr\nd ( prud5ce1 because x is n wor? ! possible pleasures t mu/ be sacrific$ = x & ! future pa9s t x w entail2 x is difficult = him to "k h[ f> ! eld] man c recall--ev5 if he c\ld once feel--! full rapture ( ! delight t he is ask+ ! y\ng] to r5\nce4 ,& fur!r1 ?is s\rce ( error besets u 9 a m ext5d$ & m subtle mann] ?an has yet be5 notic$4 ,= our sympa!tic appreh5sion ( ali5 exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa9 has be5 s cont9ually ex]cis$1 9 s _m ways1 dur+ ! :ole ( our life1 bo? by actual obs]vation & oral communication ) o!r human be+s1 & ?r\gh books & o!r modes ( symbolic sugge/ion2 t x is impossible to say h[ f> x has unconsci\sly bl5d$ ) our own exp]i5ce1 s z to col\r & modify x :5 repres5t$ 9 memory4 ,?us we may easily ov]look ! discrepancy betwe5 our own exp]i5ce & t ( o!rs1 9 respect ( ! importance ( c]ta9 s\rces ( pleasure & pa91 if no sudd5 & /rik+ disappo9tm5t ( expectations =ces x on our notice4 ,only ) consid]able c>e & att5tion c sympa!tic p]sons sep>ate _! own real likes & dislikes f ^? ( _! associates3 & we c nev] tell :e!r ?is sep>ation has be5 completely effect$4 ,b aga93 ! practical inf]5ce f ! pa/ to ! future is fur!r complicat$ by ! fact t we c alt] ourselves4 ,= x may be t our pa/ exp]i5ce has be5 greatly affect$ by our be+ n prop]ly attun$ to c]ta9 pleasures1 z 7e4g47 ^? ( art1 or /udy1 or muscul> ex]cise1 or society1 or b5efic5t action2 or n duly h>d5$ aga9/ c]ta9 s\rces ( pa91 su* z toil1 or anxiety1 or ab/95ce f luxuries3 & !re may be )9 our p[] "s process ( tra9+ or h>d5+ ourselves :i* may pr(\ndly modify our susceptibilities4 ,& ?is consid]ation is especially important1--& at ! same "t especially difficult to deal )1--:5 we attempt to appropriate ! exp]i5ce ( ano!r4 ,= we may f9d t he e/imates highly pleasures :i* we n only h nev] exp]i5c$ at all1 b _c possibly exp]i5ce )\t a consid]able alt]ation ( our nature4 ,= example1 ! pleasures ( ! religi\s life1 ! raptures ( pray] & praise & ! devotion ( ! s\l to ,god1 are commonly ?\ght to require ,conv]sion or complete *ange ( nature be=e !y c be exp]i5c$4 ,& 9 ! same way ! sacrifice ( s5sual incl9ation to duty is disagreeable to ! non-moral man :5 he at fir/ attempts x1 b af=ds to ! truly virtu\s man a deep & /rong delight4 ,& simil>ly almo/ all ! m ref9$ intellectual & emotional pleasures require tra9+ & culture 9 ord] to be enjoy$2 & s9ce ?is tra9+ does n always succe$ 9 produc+ any consid]able degree ( susceptibility1 x may always be a matt] ( d\bt = "o f :om x w\ld require ! sacrifice ( o!r pleasures1 :e!r su* sacrifice is wor? mak+4 ,! =ego+ consid]ations mu/1 ,i ?9k1 s]i\sly r$uce our confid5ce 9 :at ,i h call$ ! ,empirical-reflective me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,i d n conclude t we %\ld reject x altoge!r3 ,i am consci\s t1 9 spite ( all ! difficulties t ,i h urg$1 ,i cont9ue to make comp>isons betwe5 pleasures & pa9s ) practical reliance on _! results4 ,b ,i conclude t x w\ld be at lea/ highly desirable1 ) a view to ! sy/ematic direction ( conduct1 to control & supplem5t ! results ( su* comp>isons by ! assi/ance ( "s o!r me?od3 if we c f9d any on :i* we see reason to rely4 ,,footnotes3 #ajh ,see *ap4 v4 ( ?is ,book1 *ap4 xiv4 ( ,book iii41 & ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! treatise4 #aji ,see ,gre5's ,introduction to vol4 ii4 ( ,hume's ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 #g4 ,! /atem5t is sub/antially repeat$ 9 ! same writ]'s ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics4 #aaj ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 #aeh4 #aaa ,e4g4 ,butl]1 ,s]mon xi4 says1 8,e man ha? a desire = 8 own happ9ess 444 ! object desir$ is our own happ9ess1 enjoym5t1 satisfaction40 #aab ,introduction to ,hume1 l4c4 #aac ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 #bba4 #aad ,ibid4 #cei4 #aae ,?is ,gre5 9 sev]al passages seems expressly to admit e4g4 7 #ccb7 he says t c]ta9 measures 8ne$$ 9 ord] to supply conditions fav\rable to good "*1 t5d also to make life m pleasant on ! :ole03 &1 else:]e1 t 8x is easy to %[ t an ov]balance ( pa9 w\ld result to ^? capable ( be+ affect$ by x0 f ! neglect ( c]ta9 duties4 #aaf ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 #agf4 #aag ,op4 cit4 #bcb4 #aah ,i _c /ate ?is positively1 because--z ,i h said--,gre5 expressly di/+ui%es self-satisfaction f pleasure1 & does n expressly affirm t its abs5ce is att5d$ by pa94 #aai ,sully1 ,pessimism1 *ap4 xi4 p4 #bhb4 #abj ,book i4 *ap4 iv4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,objective ,,h$onism ,,& ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,be=e we exam9e ^? me?ods ( seek+ "o's own happ9ess :i* are m remote f ! empirical1 x w be well to consid] h[ f> we may reasonably avoid ! difficulties & unc]ta9ties ( ! me?od ( reflective comp>ison1 by rely+ on ! curr5t op9ions & accept$ e/imates ( ! value ( diff]5t objects commonly s\ght z s\rces ( pleasure4 ,x c]ta9ly seems m natural to m51 at lea/ 9 ! ma9 plan & ord]+ ( _! lives1 to seek & consci\sly e/imate ! objective conditions & s\rces ( happ9ess1 r ?an happ9ess itself2 & x may plausibly be said t by rely+ on su* e/imates ( objects we avoid ! difficulties t beset ! introspective me?od ( comp>+ feel+s3 & t ! common op9ions z to ! value ( diff]5t s\rces ( pleasure express ! net result ( ! comb9$ exp]i5ce ( mank9d f g5]ation to g5]ation3 9 :i* ! div]g5ces due to ! limitations ( ea* individual's exp]i5ce1 & to ! diff]5tly t+$ moods 9 :i* diff]5t e/imates h be5 tak51 h balanc$ & neutralis$ ea* o!r & s disappe>$4 ,i d n wi% to und]value ! guidance ( common s5se 9 our pursuit ( happ9ess4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t :5 we consid] ^! common op9ions z premises = ! d$uctions ( sy/ematic egoism1 !y mu/ be admitt$ to be op5 to ! foll[+ grave objections4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,common ,s5se gives u only1 at ! be/1 an e/imate true = an av]age or typical human be+3 &1 z we h already se51 x is probable t any p>ticul> individual w be m or less div]g5t f ?is type4 ,9 any case1 !re=e1 ea* p]son w h to correct ! e/imate ( common op9ion by ! results ( 8 own exp]i5ce 9 ord] to obta9 f x tru/wor?y guidance = 8 own conduct3 & ?is process ( correction1 x w\ld seem1 mu/ be involv$ 9 all ! difficulties f :i* we are try+ to escape4 ,b1 secondly1 ! exp]i5ce ( ! mass ( mank9d is conf9$ )9 limits too n>r[ = its results to be ( mu* avail 9 ! pres5t inquiry4 ,! majority ( human be+s sp5d mo/ ( _! "t 9 lab\r+ to av]t />vation & sev]e bodily discom=t3 & ! brief leisure t rema9s to !m1 aft] supply+ ! bodily ne$s ( food1 sleep1 etc41 is sp5t 9 ways det]m9$ r by impulse1 r\t9e1 & habit1 ?an by a delib]ate e/imate ( probable pleasure4 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t ! common s5se to :i* we h "h to ref] c only be t ( a m9ority ( comp>atively ri* & leisur$ p]sons4 ,b aga91 we _c tell t ! mass ( mank9d1 or any section ( ! mass1 is n g5]ally & normally "u ! influ5ce ( "s ( ! causes ( mal-obs]vation previ\sly notic$4 ,we avoid ! 8idols ( ! cave0 by tru/+ ,common ,s5se1 b :at is to gu>d u aga9/ ! 8idols ( ! tribe08 ,moreov]1 ! common e/imate ( diff]5t s\rces ( happ9ess seems to involve all ! confusion ( ideas & po9ts ( view1 :i* 9 def9+ ! empirical me?od ( ,h$onism we h tak5 "s pa9s to elim9ate4 ,9 ! fir/ place x does n di/+ui% betwe5 objects ( natural desire & s\rces ( exp]i5c$ pleasure4 ,n[ we h se5 7,book i4 *ap4 iv47 t ^! two are n exactly co9cid5t--inde$ we f9d num]\s examples ( m5 :o cont9ue n only to feel b to indulge desires1 ! gratification ( :i* !y "k by ample exp]i5ce to be att5d$ ) m pa9 ?an pleasure4 ,& !re=e ! curr5t e/imate ( ! desirability ( objects ( pursuit _c be tak5 to express simply m5's exp]i5ce ( pleasure & pa93 = m5 are apt to ?9k desirable :at !y /rongly desire1 :e!r or n !y h f\nd x conducive to happ9ess on ! :ole3 & s ! common op9ion w t5d to repres5t a compromise betwe5 ! av]age =ce ( desires & ! av]age exp]i5ce ( ! consequ5ces ( gratify+ !m4 ,we mu/ all[ aga9 = ! int]m+l+ ( moral ) purely h$oni/ic pref]5ces 9 ! e/imate ( common s5se4 ,= ev5 :5 m5 def9itely expect great] happ9ess f ! c\rse ( conduct :i* !y *oose ?an f any o!r1 x is (t5 because !y ?9k x ! "r1 or m excell5t1 or m noble c\rse2 mak+1 m or less unconsci\sly1 ! assumption 7:i* we %all pres5tly h to consid]7 t ! morally be/ action w prove to be also ! mo/ conducive to ! ag5t's happ9ess4 ,& a simil> assumption seems to be made--)\t adequate w>rant--z reg>ds m]ely /hetic pref]5ces4 ,aga91 ! introduction ( ! moral & /hetic po9ts ( view sugge/s ! foll[+ d\bt3--,are we to be guid$ by ! pref]5ces :i* m5 av[1 or by ^? :i* _! actions w\ld lead u to inf]8 ,on ! "o h&1 we _c d\bt t m5 (t51 f weakness ( "*1 fail to seek :at !y s9c]ely believe w give !m mo/ pleasure 9 ! long-run3 on ! o!r h&1 z a g5u9e pref]5ce = virtu\s or ref9$ pleasure is a m>k ( g5u9e virtue or ref9$ ta/e1 m5 :o d n really feel su* pref]5ce are unconsci\sly or consci\sly influ5c$ by a desire to ga9 cr$it = x1 & _! express e/imate ( pleasures is ?us modifi$ & col\r$4 #b4 ,b1 ev5 if we _h no d\bt on g5]al gr\nds t ,common ,s5se w\ld prove our be/ guide 9 ! pursuit ( happ9ess1 we %\ld /ill be p]plex$ by f9d+ its utt]ances on ?is topic v defici5t 9 cle>ness & consi/5cy4 ,i d n m]ely mean t !y are diff]5t 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries--t we might expla9 z due to v>iations 9 ! g5]al conditions ( human life--3 b t s]i\s conflicts & ambiguities are f\nd if we consid] only ! curr5t common s5se ( our own age & c\ntry4 ,we c make a li/ ( s\rces ( happ9ess app>5tly recomm5d$ by an ov]:elm+ cons5sus ( curr5t op9ion3 z heal?1 weal?1 fri5d%ip & family affections1 fame & social position1 p[]1 int]e/+ & cong5ial occupation & amusem5t1--includ+ ! gratification1 9 "s =m1 ( ! love ( k1 & ( ^? ref9$1 p>tly s5sual1 p>tly emotional1 susceptibilities :i* we call /hetic4#aba ,b if we inquire into ! relative value ( ^! objects ( common pursuit1 we seem to get no cle> answ] f ,common ,s5se--unless1 p]haps1 x w\ld be g5]ally agre$ t heal? ought to be p>am\nt to all o!r second>y ends3 ?\gh ev5 on ?is po9t we c\ld n inf] g5]al agreem5t f obs]vation ( ! actual conduct ( mank9d4 ,nay1 ev5 z reg>ds ! positive e/imate ( ^! s\rces ( happ9ess1 we f9d on clos] exam9ation t ! suppos$ cons5sus is mu* less cle> ?an x seem$ at fir/4 ,n only are !re num]\s & important bodies ( dissid5ts f ! curr5t op9ions3 b ! v same majority1 ! same ,common ,s5se ( ,mank9d t ma9ta9s ^! op9ions1 is f\nd 9 a s+ul> & unexpect$ mann] to welcome & approve ! p>adoxes ( ^! dissid5ts4 ,m5 %[ a really />tl+ read9ess to admit t ! e/imates ( happ9ess :i* guide !m 9 _! ord9>y habits & pursuits are errone\s & illusory2 & t f "t to "t ! veil is1 z x 71 lift$1 & ! error & illusion made manife/4 ,=1 fir/1 m5 seem to atta* great value to ! ample gratification ( bodily appetites & ne$s3 ! weal?i] "p ( mank9d sp5d a consid]able am\nt ( money & =e?\ght ^u ! means ( satisfy+ ^! 9 a luxuri\s mann]3 & ?\gh !y d n (t5 delib]ately sacrifice heal? to ?is gratification--common s5se condemns t z irrational--/ill "o may say t !y are habitually c\rage\s 9 press+ =w>d to ! v v]ge ( ?is imprud5ce4 ,& yet ! same p are fond ( say+ t 8hung] is ! be/ sauce10 & t 8temp]ance & lab\r w make pla9 food m delightful ?an ! mo/ exquisite products ( ! cul9>y art40 ,& !y (t5 argue ) p]fect s9c]ity t ! ri* h really no advantage1 or sc>cely any advantage1 ov] ! comp>atively poor1 9 respect ( ^! pleasures2 = habit soon r5d]s ! m luxuri\s provision = ! satisfaction ( _! acquir$ ne$s no m pleasant to ! ri* ?an ! appeas+ ( 8 m primitive appetites is to ! poor man4 ,& ! same argum5t is (t5 ext5d$ to all ! mat]ial com=ts t weal? c pur*ase4 ,x is (t5 cont5d$ t habit at once r5d]s u indiff]5t to ^! :ile !y are enjoy$1 & yet unable to disp5se ) !m )\t annoyance3 s t ! pleasures ( ! m]ely animal life are no great] to ! ri* ?an to ! poor1 b only m insecure4 ,& f ?is !re is b a %ort /ep to ! conclusion1 t weal?1 9 ! pursuit ( :i* mo/ m5 agree 9 conc5trat+ _! ef=ts1 & on ! atta9m5t ( :i* all congratulate ea* o!r1--weal?1 = :i* s _m risk _! heal?1 %ort5 _! lives1 r$uce _! enjoym5ts ( dome/ic life1 & sacrifice ! m ref9$ pleasures ( curiosity & art1--is really a v d\btful ga91 9 ! majority ( cases2 because ! c>es & anxieties :i* x entails balance1 = mo/ m51 ! slight advantage ( ! luxuries :i* x pur*ases4#abb ,& simil>ly1 al?\gh social rank & /atus is1 9 ,engl&1 an object ( passionate pursuit1 yet x is cont9ually said1 ) g5]al approval1 t x is ( no intr9sic value z a means ( happ9ess2 t ?\gh ! process ( asc5d+ f a l[] grade to a high] is p]haps g5]ally agreeable1 & ! process ( desc5d+ f a high] to a l[] c]ta9ly pa9ful1 yet p]man5t exi/5ce on ! l(ti] level is no m pleasant ?an on ! humbl]2 t happ9ess is to be f\nd z easily 9 a cottage z 9 a palace 7if n1 inde$1 m easily 9 ! cottage73 & s =?4 ,/ill m trite are ! commonplaces z to ! empt9ess & vanity ( ! satisfaction to be d]iv$ f ,fame & ,reputation4 ,! case ( po/hum\s fame1 inde$1 is a /rik+ in/ance ( ! g5]al proposition be=e laid d[n1 t ! commonly accept$ ends ( action are det]m9$ p>tly by ! av]age =ce ( desires t are n direct$ t[>ds pleasure1 nor con=m$ to exp]i5ces ( pleasure4 ,= po/hum\s fame seems to rank pretty high among ! objects t common op9ion reg>ds z good or desirable = ! individual3 & ! pursuit ( x is n ord9>ily /igmatis$ z contr>y to prud5ce1 ev5 if x leads a man to sacrifice o!r important s\rces ( happ9ess to a result ( :i* he nev] expects to be actually consci\s4 ,yet ! slighte/ reflection %[s su* a pursuit to be prima facie irrational1#abc f an egoi/ic po9t ( view2 & e moralis] has f\nd ?is an obvi\s & popul> topic4 ,! actual consci\sness ( pres5t fame is no d\bt v delightful to mo/ p]sons3 /ill ! moralis] does n f9d x difficult to ma9ta9 t ev5 ?is is att5d$ ) su* c\nt]balanc+ disadvantages z r5d] its h$oni/ic value v d\btful4 ,aga91 ! curr5t e/imate ( ! desirability ( ,p[] is tol]ably high1 & p]haps ! m closely & analytically we exam9e ! actual motives ( m51 ! m widespread & pr$om9ant its pursuit w appe>3 = _m m5 seem to seek weal?1 k1 ev5 reputation1 z a means to ! atta9m5t ( p[]1 r ?an = _! own sakes or ) a view to o!r pleasures4 ,& yet m5 ass5t will+ly :5 !y are told t ! pursuit ( p[]1 z ( fame1 is prompt$ by a va9 ambition1 nev] satisfi$1 b only r5d]$ m uneasy by su* success z is possible = x3 t ! anxieties :i* att5d n only ! pursuit b ! possession ( p[]1 & ! jeal\sies & dang]s insep>able f ! latt]1 f> outweigh its pleasures4 ,society ( "s sort no "o c d5y to be necess>y to human happ9ess3 b /ill ! k9d & degree ( social int]c\rse :i* is actually s\ght by ! m weal?y & leisur$ portion ( ! community1 ) no little exp5diture ( "t1 tr\ble1 & means1 is (t5 decl>$ to yield a mo/ ?9 & meagre result ( pleasure4 ,we f9d1 no d\bt1 great agreem5t among mod]n moralis]s z to ! importance ( ! ex]cise ( ! dome/ic affections z a means ( happ9ess3 & ?is c]ta9ly seems to h a prom95t place 9 ! plan ( life ( ! majority ( mank9d4 ,& yet x may fairly be d\bt$ :e!r m5 9 g5]al d value dome/ic life v highly1 ap>t f ! gratification ( sexual passion4 ,c]ta9ly :5ev] any "p ( civilis$ society is 9 su* a /ate t m5 c freely indulge ?is passion & at ! same "t avoid ! burd5 ( a family1 )\t any s]i\s fe> ( social disapprobation1 celibacy t5ds to become common3 x has ev5 become s common z to excite ! grave anxiety ( legislators4 ,& ?\gh su* conduct has always be5 disapprov$ by common s5se1 x seems to be r condemn$ z anti-social ?an z imprud5t4 ,?us our exam9ation %[s great in/ability & unc]ta9ty 9 ! mo/ decisive judgm5ts ( common s5se2 s9ce1 z ,i h said1 bodily com=t & luxury1 weal?1 fame1 p[]1 society are ! objects :i* common op9ion seems mo/ cle>ly & confid5tly to recomm5d z s\rces ( pleasure4 ,= ?\gh ! pleasures d]iv$ f ,art & ! contemplation ( ! beautiful 9 ,nature1 & ^? ( curiosity & ! ex]cise ( ! intellect g5]ally1 are highly prais$1 x is difficult to =mulate a 8common op9ion0 9 respect ( !m1 s9ce ! high e/imates (t5 set ^u !m seem to express ! real exp]i5ce ( only small m9orities4 ,& ?\gh ^! h p]suad$ ! mass ( mank9d1 or t portion ( x :i* is possess$ ( leisure1 to let ,culture be reg>d$ z an important s\rce ( happ9ess2 !y c sc>cely be said to h produc$ any g5]ally accept$ op9ion z to its importance 9 comp>ison ) ! o!r s\rces be=e m5tion$1 ! pleasures ( :i* are m g5u9ely appreciat$ by ! majority2 /ill less z to ! relative value ( diff]5t elem5ts ( ?is culture4 ,b ev5 suppos+ ! cons5sus1 9 respect ( s\rces ( happ9ess1 7 f> m complete & cle> ?an imp>tial reflection seems to %[1 its value w\ld /ill be consid]ably impair$ by ! diss5t ( important m9orities1 :i* we h n yet notic$4 ,= example1 _m religi\s p]sons reg>d all mundane pleasures z mean & trifl+2 s full ( vanity & empt9ess t ! eag] pursuit ( !m is only possible ?r\gh ev]-r5ew$ illusion1 lead+ to ev]-repeat$ disappo9tm5t4 ,& ?is view is %>$ by n a few reflective p]sons :o h no religi\s bias3 z is evid5t f ! num]\s adh]5ts t ,pessimism has won 9 rec5t times4 ,inde$ a some:at simil> judgm5t1 on ! value ( ! ord9>y objects ( human pursuit1 has be5 pass$ by _m philosoph]s :o h n be5 pessimi/s3 & :5 we consid] t x is ! philosoph]'s especial bus9ess to reflect ) c>e & precision on ! facts ( consci\sness1 we %all hesitate1 9 any dispute betwe5 philosoph]s & ! mass ( mank9d1 to let our conclusion be det]m9$ by m]ely c\nt+ heads4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z has be5 already obs]v$1 ! philosoph]'s susceptibilities & capacities ( feel+ d n fairly repres5t ^? ( humanity 9 g5]al3 & h5ce if he v5tures to erect ! results ( 8 individual exp]i5ce into a univ]sal /&>d1 he is likely to ov]rate "s pleasures & und]rate o!rs4 ,p]haps ! mo/ conv9c+ illu/rations ( ?is are furni%$ by ?9k]s n ( ! ideali/ or transc5d5tal type1 b pr(ess$ ,h$oni/s1 su* z ,epicurus & ,hobbes4 ,we _c accept z fair expressions ( ! ord9>y exp]i5ce ( ! human race ei!r ,epicurus's id5tification ( pa9lessness ) ! highe/ degree ( pleasure1 or ,hobbes's assev]ation t ! gratifications ( curiosity 8f> exce$ 9 int5sity all c>nal delights40 ,?us we seem to be 9 ?is dilemma3 ! mass ( mank9d1 to ^: common op9ion we are naturally ref]r$ = ca?olically au?oritative beliefs respect+ ! conditions ( happ9ess1 are defici5t 9 ! faculty or ! habit ( obs]v+ & record+ _! exp]i5ce3 & usually1 9 proportion z a man is1 by nature & practice1 a bett] obs]v]1 ! ph5om5a t he has to obs]ve are m & m div]g5t f ! ord9>y type4 #c4 ,on ! :ole1 x mu/1 ,i ?9k1 be admitt$ t ! ,h$oni/ic me?od _c be fre$ f inexactness & unc]ta9ty by appeal+ to ! judgm5ts ( common s5se respect+ ! s\rces ( happ9ess4 ,at ! same "t ,i w\ld n exagg]ate ! difficulty ( comb9+ ^! into a tol]ably coh]5t body ( probable doctr9e1 n useless = practical guidance4 ,= fir/1 x mu/ be obs]v$1 t x is only occasionally & to a limit$ ext5t t ^! commonly comm5d$ s\rces ( happ9ess come into competition ) "o ano!r & are pres5t$ z alt]natives4 ,= example1 ! pursuit ( weal? (t5 leads also to p[] 7besides ! p[] t lies 9 weal?7 & to reputation3 & aga91 ^! objects ( desire c usually be be/ atta9$--z f> z x is 9 our p[] to atta9 !m at all--by employm5t :i* 9 itself gives ! pleasure t normally att5ds en]getic ex]cise ( "o's be/ faculties3 & ?is cong5ial employm5t is n incompatible ) adequate ex]cise ( ! affections1 social & dome/ic2 nor ) cultivat$ amusem5t 7:i* mu/ always be c>efully limit$ 9 am\nt if x is to be really amus+74 ,& no "o d\bts t to c>ry ei!r employm5t or amusem5t to a degree t injures heal? involves g5]ally a sacrifice ( happ9ess1 no less ?an ov]-indulg5ce 9 s5sual gratifications4 ,& z = ! philosophical or quasi-philosophical p>adoxes z to ! illusor9ess ( s5sual enjoym5ts1 weal?1 p[]1 fame1 etc41 we may expla9 ! widespread acceptance :i* ^! f9d by admitt+ a c]ta9 g5]al t5d5cy to exagg]ation 9 ! common e/imates ( su* objects ( desire1 :i* f "t to "t causes a reaction & an equally excessive tempor>y depreciation ( !m4 ,z we saw 7*ap4 iii47 x is natural = m5 to value too highly ! abs5t pleasures = :i* !y hope & long3 p[] & fame1 = example1 are c]ta9ly att5d$ ) anxieties & disgu/s :i* are n =ese5 :5 !y are repres5t$ 9 long+ imag9ation3 yet x may /ill be true t !y br+ to mo/ m5 a cle> balance ( happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,x seems cle>1 aga91 t luxury adds less to ! ord9>y enjoym5t ( life ?an mo/ m5 /ruggl+ ) p5ury suppose3 !re are special delights att5d+ ! h>d-e>n$ meal1 & ! r>ely-recurr+ amusem5t1 :i* mu/ be weigh$ aga9/ ! pr(us] pleasures t ! ri* c comm&3 s t we may fairly conclude t increase ( happ9ess is v f> f keep+ pace ) increase ( weal?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we take into acc\nt all ! pleasures ( ,culture1 ,p[]1 ,fame1 & ,b5efic5ce1 & /ill m ! security t weal? gives aga9/ ! pa9s ( privation & ! anxieties ( p5ury--= ! own] himself & ^? :om he loves--we c h>dly d\bt t increase ( weal? br+s on ! av]age "s increase ( happ9ess3 at lea/ until a man rea*es an income beyond t ( ! great majority 9 any actual community4 ,?us on ! :ole x w\ld seem to be a reasonable conclusion t1 :ile x is extravagant to affirm t happ9ess is 8equally di/ribut$ ?r\gh all ranks & call+s10 x is yet m equally di/ribut$ ?an ! aspect ( m5's ext]nal circum/ances w\ld lead u to inf]3 especially consid]+ ! importance ( ! pleasures t att5d ! ex]cise ( ! affections4 ,aga91 common s5se is q prep>$ to recognise t !re are p]sons ( peculi> temp]am5t to :om ! ord9>y pleasures ( life are really q trifl+ 9 comp>ison ) m ref9$ enjoym5ts3 & also t m5 g5]ally are liable to fall1 = c]ta9 p]iods1 "u ! sway ( absorb+ impulses1 :i* take !m out ( ! range )9 :i* ! judgm5ts ( common s5se are ev5 broadly & g5]ally valid4 ,no "o 7e4g47 expects a lov] to c>e mu* = any?+ except ! enjoym5ts ( love2 nor consid]s t an en?usia/ sacrifices happ9ess 9 mak+ ev]y?+ give way to 8 hobby4 ,9 fact we may say t common s5se sc>cely claims to provide m ?an r indef9ite g5]al rules1 :i* no prud5t man %\ld neglect )\t giv+ himself a reason = do+ s4 ,su* reasons may ei!r be drawn f "o's k ( "s peculi>ities 9 "o's nature1 or f ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs :om "o has gr\nd = believ+ to be m l oneself ?an ! av]age ( mank9d are4 ,/ill1 z we saw1 !re is consid]able risk ( error 9 ?us appropriat+ ! special exp]i5ce ( o!r individuals3 &1 9 %ort1 x does n appe> t by any process ( ?is k9d1--ei!r by appeal+ to ! common op9ion ( ! _m1 or to t ( cultivat$ p]sons1 or to t ( ^? :om we judge mo/ to resemble ourselves1--we c hope to solve ) precision or c]ta9ty ! problems ( egoi/ic conduct4 ,! "q !n rema9s1 :e!r any g5]al !ory c be atta9$ ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa9 s c]ta9 & practically applicable t we may by its aid rise above ! ambiguities & inconsi/5cies ( common or sect>ian op9ion1 no less ?an ! %ortcom+s ( ! empirical-reflective me?od1 & e/abli% ! ,h$oni/ic art ( life on a ?or\ghly sci5tific basis4 ,to ! consid]ation ( ?is "q ,i %all proce$ 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is book3 b be=e ent]+ ^u x1 ,i wi% to exam9e c>efully a common belief z to ! means ( atta9+ happ9ess :i*--?\gh x h>dly claims to re/ ^u a sci5tific basis--is yet g5]ally conceiv$ by ^? :o hold x to h a high] degree ( c]ta9ty ?an mo/ ( ! curr5t op9ions t we h be5 exam9+4 ,?is is ! belief t a man w atta9 ! greate/ happ9ess op5 to him by ! p]=mance ( 8 ,duty z commonly recognis$ & prescrib$--except s f> z he may deviate f ?is /&>d 9 ob$i5ce to a tru] conception ( ! conduct by :i* univ]sal good is to be realis$ or promot$4#abd ,! special importance ( ?is op9ion to a writ] on ,morals r5d]s x desirable to res]ve our discussion ( x = a sep>ate *apt]4 ,,footnotes3 #aba ,! consid]ation ( ! importance ( ,morality z a s\rce ( happ9ess is res]v$ = ! next *apt]4 #abb ,x is /rik+ to f9d ! au?or ( ! ,weal? ( ,nations1 ! f\nd] ( a long l9e ( plutologi/s :o are commonly believ$ to exalt ! mat]ial means ( happ9ess above all o!r1 decl>+ t 8weal? & greatness are m]e tr9kets ( frivol\s utility10 & t 89 ease ( body & peace ( m9d1 all ! diff]5t ranks ( life are ne>ly ^u a level1 & ! begg> :o suns himself by ! side ( ! highway possesses t security :i* k+s are fight+ =40 ,adam ,smi?1 ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 ,"p iv4 *ap4 i4 #abc ,no d\bt su* a pursuit may be ju/ifi$ to self-love by dwell+ on ! pleasures ( hope & anticipation :i* att5d x4 ,b ?is is obvi\sly an aft]-?\ght4 ,x is n = ! sake ( ^! orig9ally t po/hum\s fame is s\ght by him :om x spurs 8,to scorn delights & live labori\s days40 #abd ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] ,i h n ent]$ into any p>ticul> consid]ation ( ! case 9 :i* ! individual's consci5ce is def9itely 9 conflict ) ! g5]al moral consci\sness ( 8 age & c\ntry3 because1 ?\gh x is commonly held to be a man's duty always to obey ! dictates ( 8 own consci5ce1 ev5 at ! risk ( error1 x c h>dly be said to be a curr5t op9ion t he w always atta9 ! greate/ happ9ess op5 to him by con=m+ to ! dictates ( 8 consci5ce ev5 :5 x conflicts ) receiv$ morality4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,happ9ess ,,& ,,duty #a4 ,! belief 9 ! connexion ( ,happ9ess ) ,duty is "o to :i* we f9d a g5]al t5d5cy among civilis$ m51 at lea/ aft] a c]ta9 /age 9 civilisation has be5 rea*$4 ,b x is d\btful :e!r x w\ld be affirm$1 among ourselves1 z a g5]alisation f exp]i5ce1 & n r z a matt] ( direct ,div9e ,revelation1 or an inevitable inf]5ce f ! belief t ! _w is gov]n$ by a p]fectly ,good & ,omnipot5t ,be+4 ,to exam9e ?or\ghly ! validity ( ! latt] belief is "o ( ! mo/ important tasks t human reason c attempt3 b involv+ z x does an exhau/ive inquiry into ! evid5ces ( ,natural & ,reveal$ ,religion1 x c\ld h>dly be includ$ )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t treatise4#abe ,"h1 !n1 ,i %all only consid] ! co9cid5ce ( ,duty & ,happ9ess 9 s f> z x is ma9ta9$ by argum5ts drawn f exp]i5ce & suppos$ to be realis$ 9 our pres5t e>?ly life4 ,p]haps1 z s re/rict$1 ! co9cid5ce c h>dly be said to be 8curr5tly believ$03 inde$ x may be sugge/$ t ! opposite belief is impli$ 9 ! g5]al admission ( ! necessity ( rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future /ate1 9 ord] to exhibit & realise completely ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,b reflection w %[ t ?is implication is n necess>y2 = x is possible to hold t ev5 "h virtue is always rew>d$ & vice puni%$1 s f> z to make ! virtu\s c\rse ( action always ! mo/ prud5t2 :ile yet ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts are n suffici5t to satisfy our s5se ( ju/ice4 ,admitt+ t ! virtu\s man is (t5 plac$ on e>? 9 circum/ances s adv]se t 8 life is n z happy z t ( _m less virtu\s2 x is /ill possible to ma9ta9 t by virtue he w ga9 ! maximum ( happ9ess t c be ga9$ "u ^! circum/ances1 all appe>ances to ! contr>y not)/&+4 ,& ?is view has c]ta9ly be5 held by morali/s ( reputation on gr\nds drawn f actual exp]i5ce ( human life2 & seems (t5 to be confid5tly put =w>d on simil> gr\nds by popul> prea*]s & moralis]s4 ,x appe>s !re=e desirable to subject ?is op9ion to a c>eful & imp>tial exam9ation4 ,9 conduct+ ?is exam9ation1 at ! pres5t /age ( our inquiry1 we %all h to use ! receiv$ notions ( ,duty )\t fur!r def9ition or analysis3 b x is commonly assum$ by ^? ^: view we are to exam9e t ^! conceptions--z !y are f\nd 9 ! moral consci\sness ( ord9>y well-mean+ p]sons--are at lea/ approximately valid & tru/wor?y2 & ! prec$+ *apt]s w h fully %[n t ! g5]alisations ( ,h$onism mu/ be e/abli%$1 if at all1 by l>ge consid]ations & decisive prepond]ances1 & t x w\ld be idle 9 consid]+ a "q ( ?is k9d to take acc\nt ( slight diff]5ces1 & to pret5d to weigh 9 our m5tal scales comp>atively small portions ( happ9ess4#abf #b4 ,accept+1 !n1 ! common division#abg ( duties into self-reg>d+ & social1 x may be conc$$ t z f> z ! fir/ are conc]n$ ! view t we are exam9+ is n likely to provoke any controv]sy3 = by #8duties t[>ds oneself' are commonly meant acts t t5d directly or indirectly to promote "o's happ9ess4 ,we may !re=e conf9e our att5tion to ! social dep>tm5t ( ,duty1 & consid] :e!r by obs]v+ ! moral rules t prescribe c]ta9 modes ( behavi\r t[>ds o!rs we %all always t5d to secure ! greate/ balance ( happ9ess to ourselves4 ,"h x w be conv5i5t to adopt ) "s modification ! t]m9ology ( ,b5?am2 & to reg>d ! pleasures consequ5t on con=mity to moral rules1 & ! pa9s consequ5t on _! violation1 z ! #8sanctions' ( ^! rules4 ,^! #8sanctions' we may classify z ,ext]nal & ,int]nal4 ,! =m] class w include bo? #8,legal ,sanctions1' or p5alties inflict$ by ! au?ority1 direct or indirect1 ( ! sov]eign2 & #8,social ,sanctions1' :i* are ei!r ! pleasures t may be expect$ f ! approval & goodwill ( our fell[-m5 g5]ally1 & ! s]vices t !y w be prompt$ to r5d] bo? by ?is goodwill & by _! appreciation ( ! usefulness ( good conduct1 or ! annoyance & losses t are to be fe>$ f _! di/ru/ & dislike4 ,! int]nal sanctions ( duty--s f> z x div]ges f ! conduct :i* self-int]e/ ap>t f morality w\ld dictate--w lie 9 ! pleasurable emotion att5d+ virtu\s action1 or 9 ! abs5ce ( remorse1 or w result m indirectly f "s effect on ! m5tal con/itution ( ! ag5t produc$ by ! ma9t5ance ( virtu\s dispositions & habits4 ,?is classification is important = our pres5t purpose1 *iefly because ! sy/ems ( rules to :i* ^! diff]5t sanctions are respectively atta*$ may be mutually conflict+4 ,! ,positive ,morality ( any community und]goes developm5t1 & is ?us subject to *anges :i* affect ! consci5ces ( ! few be=e !y are accept$ by ! _m2 s t ! rules at any "t su/a9$ by ! /ronge/ social sanctions may n only fall %ort (1 b ev5 cla% )1 ! intuitions ( ^? memb]s ( ! community :o h mo/ moral insight4 ,= simil> reasons ,law & ,positive ,morality may be at v>iance1 9 details4 ,= ?\gh a law c\ld n long exi/1 :i* x 0 univ]sally ?\ght wrong to obey2 !re may easily be laws comm&+ conduct t is consid]$ immoral by "s m or less enlight5$ fraction ( ! community1 especially by "s sect or p>ty t has a public op9ion ( its own3 & any individual may be s mu* m closely connect$ ) ?is fraction ?an ) ! re/ ( ! community1 t ! social sanction may 9 8 case practically op]ate aga9/ ! legal4 ,?is conflict ( sanctions is ( great importance 9 consid]+ :e!r ^! sanctions1 z at pres5t capable ( be+ =ese51 are suffici5t 9 all cases to det]m9e a rational egoi/ to ! p]=mance ( social duty3 = ! m /ress we lay on ei!r ! legal or ! social sanctions ( moral conduct1 ! great] difficulty we %all h 9 prov+ ! co9cid5ce ( duty & self-int]e/ 9 ! exceptional cases 9 :i* we f9d ^! sanctions array$ aga9/ :at we conceive to be duty4 ,b ev5 if we put ^! cases out ( sight1 x /ill seems cle> t ! ext]nal sanctions ( morality alone are n always suffici5t to r5d] immoral conduct also imprud5t4 ,we mu/ inde$ admit t 9 an ev5 tol]ably well-ord]$ society--i4e4 9 an ord9>y civilis$ community 9 its normal condition--all s]i\s op5 violation ( law is contr>y to prud5ce1 unless x is an incid5t 9 a successful process ( viol5t revolution3 & fur!r1 t viol5t revolutions w\ld v r>ely--p]haps nev]--be made by a comb9ation ( p]sons1 all p]fectly "u ! control ( enlight5$ self-love2 on acc\nt ( ! g5]al & widespread de/ruction ( security & ( o!r means ( happ9ess :i* su* di/urbances inevitably involve4 ,/ill1 s long z actual human be+s are n all rational egoi/s1 su* times ( disord] w be liable to occur3 & we _c say t "u exi/+ circum/ances x is a cle> univ]sal precept ( ,rational ,self-love t a man %\ld 8seek peace & ensue x02 s9ce ! di/urbance ( political ord] may (f] to a cool & skilful p]son1 :o has ! art ( fi%+ 9 tr\bl$ wat]s1 opportunities ( ga9+ weal?1 fame1 & p[]1 f> beyond :at he c\ld hope = 9 peaceful times4 ,9 %ort1 ?\gh we may admit t a society compos$ entirely ( rational egoi/s w\ld1 :5 once organis$1 t5d to rema9 9 a /able & ord]ly condition1 x does n foll[ t any individual rational egoi/ w always be on ! side ( ord] 9 any exi/+ community4#abh ,b at any rate1 9 ! mo/ ord]ly societies ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 ! adm9i/ration ( law & ju/ice is nev] 9 s p]fect a /ate z to r5d] secret crimes always acts ( folly1 on ! score ( ! legal p5alties atta*$ to !m4 ,= h[ev] mu* ^! may outweigh ! advantages ( crime1 cases mu/ inevitably occur 9 :i* ! risk ( discov]y is s small1 t on a sob] calculation ! almo/ c]ta9 ga9 w m ?an comp5sate = ! slight *ance ( ! p5alty4 ,& f9ally1 9 no community is ! law actually 9 s p]fect a /ate t !re are n c]ta9 k9ds ( flagrantly anti-social conduct :i* slip ?r\gh its me%es & escape legal p5alties altoge!r1 or incur only su* legal p5alties z are outweigh$ by ! pr(it ( law-break+4 #c4 ,let u proce$1 !n1 to consid] h[ f> ! social sanction 9 su* cases supplies ! defects ( ! legal4 ,no d\bt ! hope ( praise & lik+ & s]vices f "o's fell[-m51 & ! fe> ( =feit+ ^! & incurr+ in/ead av]sion1 refusal ( aid1 & social exclusion1 are consid]ations (t5 important en\gh to det]m9e ! rational egoi/ to law-obs]vance1 ev5 9 default ( adequate legal p5alties4 ,/ill ^! sanctions are liable to fail j :]e ! legal p5alties are defective2 social no less ?an legal p5alties are evad$ by secret crimes2 & 9 cases ( crim9al revolution>y viol5ce1 ! efficacy ( ! social sanction is apt to be s]i\sly impair$ by ! p>ty _s enli/$ on ! side ( ! crim9al4 ,= x has to be obs]v$ t ! =ce ( ! social sanction dim9i%es v rapidly1 9 proportion to ! numb] ( dissid5ts f ! common op9ion t aw>ds x4 ,disapprobation t is at once int5se & q univ]sal w\ld be s sev]e a p5alty z p]haps to outweigh any imag9able advantages2 s9ce x seems impossible = a human be+ to live happily1 :atev] o!r goods he may enjoy1 )\t ! k9dly reg>ds ( "s ( 8 fell[s3 & s1 9 contemplat+ ! conv5tional portrait ( ! tyrant1 :o is repres5t$ z necess>ily suspici\s ( ^? ne>e/ him1 ev5 ( ! memb]s ( 8 own family1 we feel prep>$ to admit t su* a life mu/ involve ! extreme ( unhapp9ess4 ,b :5 we turn to contemplate ! actual tyrannical usurp]s1 wick$ /atesm51 successful lead]s ( unw>rant$ rebellion1 &1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! great crim9als ^: position raises !m out ( ! rea* ( legal p5alties1 x does n appe> t ! moral odium "u :i* !y lie mu/ necess>ily c\nt = mu* 9 an egoi/ic calculation ( ! ga9 & loss result+ f _! conduct4 ,= ?is dise/eem is only express$ by a portion ( ! community3 & its utt]ance is (t5 dr[n$ 9 ! l\d-voic$ applause ( ! multitude ^: admiration is l>gely indep5d5t ( moral consid]ations4 ,nor are !re want+ philosoph]s & hi/orians ^: judgm5t manife/s a simil> indep5d5ce4 ,x seems1 !n1 impossible to affirm t ! ext]nal sanctions ( m5's legal duties w always be suffici5t to id5tify duty ) int]e/4 ,& a correspond+ ass]tion w\ld be /ill m unw>rant$ 9 respect ( moral duties n includ$ )9 ! sph]e ( ,law4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,i am fully s5sible ( ! =ce ( :at may be call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,reciprocity1 by :i* c]ta9 utilit>ians h endeav\r$ to prove ! co9cid5ce ( any individual's int]e/ ) 8 social duties4 ,virtues 7!y say7 are qualities ei!r useful or directly agreeable to o!rs3 ?us !y ei!r increase ! m>ket value ( ! virtu\s man's s]vices1 & cause o!rs to pur*ase !m at a high] rate & to allot to him m dignifi$ & int]e/+ functions2 or !y dispose m5 to please him1 bo? out ( gratitude & 9 ord] to enjoy ! pleasures ( 8 society 9 return3 & aga9--s9ce man is an imitative animal--! exhibition ( ^! qualities is naturally rew>d$ by a reciprocal manife/ation ( !m on ! "p ( o!rs1 ?r\gh ! m]e influ5ce ( example4 ,i d n d\bt t ! prospect ( ^! advantages is an adequate motive = cultivat+ _m virtues & avoid+ mu* vice4 ,?us on su* gr\nds a rational egoi/ w g5]ally be /rict & punctual 9 ! fulfilm5t ( all 8 engagem5ts1 & tru?ful 9 8 ass]tions1 9 ord] to w9 ! confid5ce ( o!r m52 & he w be zeal\s & indu/ri\s 9 8 "w1 9 ord] to obta9 gradually m important & !re=e m hon\rable & lucrative employm5t2 & he w control su* ( 8 passions & appetites z are likely to int]f]e ) 8 effici5cy2 & w n exhibit viol5t ang] or use unnecess>y h>%ness ev5 t[>ds s]vants & subord9ates2 & t[>ds 8 equals & sup]iors 9 rank he w be g5]ally polite & complaisant & good-hum\r$1 & prompt to %[ !m all su* k9dness z co/s b little 9 proportion to ! pleasure x gives4 ,/ill1 reflection seems to %[ t ! conduct recomm5d$ by ?is l9e ( reason+ does n really co9cide ) moral duty4 ,=1 fir/1 :at "o requires = social success is t "o %\ld appe>1 r ?an be1 useful to o!rs3 & h5ce ?is motive w n re/ra9 "o f do+ secret h>m to o!rs1 or ev5 f act+ op5ly 9 a way t is really h>mful1 ?\gh n p]ceiv$ to be s4 ,& aga91 a man is n useful to o!rs by 8 virtue only1 b sometimes r by 8 vice2 or m (t5 by a c]ta9 admixture ( unscrupul\sness ) 8 good & useful qualities4 ,& fur!r1 morality prescribes ! p]=mance ( duties equally t[>ds all1 & t we %\ld ab/a9 z f> z possible f h>m+ any3 b on ! pr9ciple ( ,reciprocity we %\ld exhibit our useful qualities *iefly t[>ds ! ri* & p[]ful1 & ab/a9 f injur+ ^? :o c retaliate2 :ile we may reasonably omit our duties to ! poor & feeble1 if we f9d a mat]ial advantage 9 s do+1 unless !y are able to excite ! sympa?y ( p]sons :o c h>m u4 ,moreov]1 "s vices 7z = example1 _m k9ds ( s5suality & extravagant luxury7 d n inflict any imm$iate or obvi\s injury on any individual1 ?\gh !y t5d 9 ! long-run to impair ! g5]al happ9ess3 h5ce few p]sons f9d !mselves /rongly mov$ to *eck or puni% ?is k9d ( mis*ief4 ,d\btless 9 ! la/-m5tion$ cases ! m]e disrepute inevitably atta*+ to op5 immorality is an important consid]ation4 ,b ,i d n ?9k t ?is w be s]i\sly ma9ta9$ to be suffici5t always to turn ! scales ( prud5ce aga9/ vice--at lea/ by any "o :o has duly analys$ ! turbid & fluctuat+ /reams ( social op9ion ^u :i* ! good or ill repute ( individuals ma9ly dep5ds1 & consid]$ ! conflict+ & div]g5t elem5ts t !y conta94 ,_m morali/s h notic$ ! discrepancy 9 mod]n ,europe betwe5 ! ,law ( ,hon\r 7or ! m important rules ma9ta9$ by ! social sanction ( polite p]sons7 & ! morality pr(ess$ 9 society at l>ge4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 by no means ! only in/ance ( a special code1 div]g5t 9 c]ta9 po9ts f ! moral rules g5]ally accept$ 9 ! community :]e x exi/s4 ,mo/ religi\s sects & p>ties1 & probably ! majority ( trades & pr(essions1 exhibit ?is ph5om5on 9 "s degree4 ,i d n mean m]ely t special rules ( behavi\r are impos$ ^u memb]s ( ea* pr(ession1 correspond+ to _! special social functions & relations3 ,i mean t a peculi> moral op9ion is apt to gr[ up1 conflict+ to a c]ta9 ext5t ) ! op9ion ( ! g5]al public4 ,! mo/ /rik+ "p ( ?is div]g5ce consi/s g5]ally 9 ! approval or excusal ( practices disapprov$ by ! curr5t morality3 z 7e4g47 lic5ce among soldi]s1 brib]y among politicians 9 c]ta9 ages & c\ntries1 unv]acity ( v>i\s degrees among prie/s & advocates1 fraud 9 diff]5t =ms among tradesm54 ,9 su* cases !re are g5]ally /rong natural inducem5ts to disobey ! /rict] rule 79 fact x w\ld seem to be to ! cont9ual pressure ( ^! inducem5ts t ! relaxation ( ! rule has be5 due73 :ile at ! same "t ! social sanction is weak5$ to su* an ext5t t x is sometimes h>d to say :e!r x outweighs a simil> =ce on ! o!r side4 ,= a man :o1 "u ^! circum/ances1 con=ms to ! /rict] rule1 if he does n actually meet ) contempt & av]sion f ^? ( 8 call+1 is at lea/ liable to be call$ ecc5tric & fanta/ic3 & ?is is /ill m ! case if by su* con=mity he =egoes advantages n only to himself b to 8 relatives or fri5ds or p>ty4 ,v (t5 ?is pr(essional or sect>ian excusal ( immorality ( :i* we are speak+ is n s cle> & explicit z to am\nt to ! e/abli%m5t ( a rule1 conflict+ ) ! g5]ally receiv$ rule3 b is /ill suffici5t to weak5 indef9itely ! social sanction 9 fav\r ( ! latt]4 ,&1 ap>t f ^! special div]g5ces1 we may say g5]ally t 9 mo/ civilis$ societies !re are two diff]5t degrees ( positive morality1 bo? ma9ta9$ 9 "s sort by common cons5t2 a /rict] code be+ publicly taught & av[$1 :ile a lax] set ( rules is privately admitt$ z ! only code :i* c be support$ by social sanctions ( any great =ce4 ,by refus+ to con=m to ! /rict] code a man is (t5 n liable to incur exclusion f social int]c\rse1 or any mat]ial h9drance to pr(essional advancem5t1 or ev5 s]i\s dislike on ! "p ( any ( ! p]sons ^: society he w mo/ naturally seek2 & "u su* circum/ances ! m]e loss ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( reputation is n likely to be felt z a v grave evil1 except by p]sons peculi>ly s5sitive to ! pleasures & pa9s ( reputation4 ,& !re w\ld seem to be _m m5 ^: happ9ess does n dep5d on ! approbation or disapprobation ( ! morali/--& ( mank9d 9 g5]al 9 s f> z !y support ! morali/--to su* an ext5t z to make x prud5t = !m to pur*ase ?is praise by any great sacrifice ( o!r goods4 #d4 ,we mu/ conclude1 !n1 t if ! conduct prescrib$ to ! individual by ! av[$ly accept$ morality ( ! community ( :i* he is a memb]1 c be %[n to co9cide ) t to :i* ,rational ,self-love w\ld prompt1 x mu/ be1 9 _m cases1 solely or *iefly on ! score ( ! int]nal sanctions4 ,9 consid]+ ! =ce ( ^! sanctions1 ,i %all elim9ate ^? pleasures & pa9s :i* lie 9 ! anticipation ( rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future life3 = z we are n[ suppos+ ! calculations ( ,rational ,egoism to be p]=m$ )\t tak+ into acc\nt any feel+s t are beyond ! range ( exp]i5ce1 x w be m consi/5t to exclude also ! pleasurable or pa9ful anticipations ( su* feel+s4 ,let u1 !n1 contemplate by itself ! satisfaction t att5ds ! p]=mance ( duty z su* 7)\t tak+ into consid]ation any ult]ior consequ5ces71 & ! pa9 t foll[s on its violation4 ,aft] ! discussions ( ! two prec$+ *apt]s ,i %all n ( c\rse attempt to weigh exactly ^! pleasures & pa9s aga9/ o!rs2 b ,i see no empirical gr\nds = believ+ t su* feel+s are always suffici5tly int5se to turn ! balance ( prospective happ9ess 9 fav\r ( morality4 ,?is w h>dly be d5i$ if ! "q is rais$ 9 respect ( isolat$ acts ( duty4 ,let u take an extreme case1 :i* is yet q )9 ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 ,! call ( duty has (t5 impell$ a soldi] or o!r public s]vant1 or ! adh]5t ( a p]secut$ religion1 to face c]ta9 & pa9ful dea?1 "u circum/ances :]e x might be avoid$ ) little or no loss ev5 ( reputation4 ,to prove su* conduct always reasonable f an egoi/ic po9t ( view1 we h to assume t1 9 all cases :]e su* a duty c\ld exi/ & be recognis$1 ! m]e pa9#abi t w\ld foll[ on evasion ( duty w\ld be s great z to r5d] ! :ole rema9d] ( life h$oni/ically wor?less4 ,surely su* an assumption w\ld be p>adoxical & extravagant4 ,no?+ t we "k ( ! majority ( p]sons 9 any society w\ld lead u to conclude t _! moral feel+s tak5 alone =m s prepond]ant an elem5t ( _! happ9ess4 ,& a simil> conclusion seems irresi/ible ev5 9 m ord9>y cases1 :]e a man is call$ on to give up1 = virtue's sake1 n life1 b a consid]able %>e ( ! ord9>y s\rces ( human happ9ess4 ,c we say t all1 or ev5 mo/1 m5 are s con/itut$ t ! satisfactions ( a good consci5ce are c]ta9 to repay !m = su* sacrifices1 or t ! pa9 & loss involv$ 9 !m w\ld c]ta9ly be outweigh$ by ! remorse t w\ld foll[ ! refusal to make !m8#acj ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 s mu* z ?is has sc>cely ev] be5 expressly ma9ta9$4 ,:at ,plato 9 8 ,republic & o!r writ]s on ! same side h r tri$ to prove1 is n t at any p>ticul> mom5t duty w be1 to e "o on :om x may devolve1 productive ( m happ9ess ?an any o!r c\rse ( conduct2 b r t x is e "o's int]e/ on ! :ole to *oose ! life ( ! virtu\s man4 ,b ev5 ?is x is v difficult ev5 to r5d] probable3 z w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 if we exam9e ! l9es ( reason+ by :i* x is commonly support$4 ,to beg9 ) ,plato's argum5t4 ,he repres5ts ! s\l ( ! virtu\s man z a well-ord]$ polity ( impulses1 9 :i* e passion & appetite is duly ob$i5t to ! rightful sov]eignty ( reason1 & op]ates only )9 ! limits laid d[n by ! latt]4 ,he !n contra/s ! tranquil peace ( su* a m9d ) ! disord] ( "o :]e a succession ( bas] impulses1 or "s rul+ passion1 lords x ov] reason3 & asks :i* is ! happie/1 ev5 ap>t f ext]nal rew>ds & puni%m5ts4 ,b we may grant all t ,plato claims1 & yet be no fur!r advanc$ t[>ds ! solution ( ! "q be=e u4 ,= "h ! issue does n lie betwe5 ,reason & ,passion1 b r--9 ,butl]'s language--betwe5 ,rational ,self-love & ,consci5ce4 ,we are suppos+ ! ,egoi/ to h all 8 impulses "u control1 & are only ask+ h[ ?is control is to be ex]cis$4 ,n[ we h se5 t ! regulation & organisation ( life be/ calculat$ to atta9 ! end ( self-int]e/ appe>s prima facie div]g5t at c]ta9 po9ts f t to :i* m5 9 g5]al are prompt$ by a s5se ( duty4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 ,plato's position x has to be %[n t ?is appe>ance is false2 & t a sy/em ( self-gov]nm5t1 :i* "u c]ta9 circum/ances leads u to pa91 loss1 & dea?1 is /ill t :i* self-int]e/ requires4 ,x c sc>cely be said t our nature is su* t only ?is anti-egoi/ic k9d ( regulation is possible2 t ! *oice lies betwe5 ?is & none at all4 ,x is easy to imag9e a rational egoi/1 /rictly controll+ ea* ( 8 passions & impulses--includ+ 8 social s5tim5ts--)9 su* limits t its indulg5ce %\ld n involve ! sacrifice ( "s great] gratification3 & exp]i5ce seems to %[ u _m examples ( p]sons :o at lea/ approximate z closely to ?is type z any "o else does to ! ideal ( ! or?odox morali/4 ,h5ce if ! regulation ( ,consci5ce be demon/rably ! be/ means to ! individual's happ9ess1 x mu/ be because ! ord] kept by ,self-love involves a sacrifice ( pleasure on ! :ole1 z comp>$ ) ! ord] kept by ,consci5ce4 ,& if ?is is ! case1 x w\ld seem t x c only be on acc\nt ( ! special emotional pleasure att5d+ ! satisfaction ( ! moral s5tim5ts1 or special pa9 or loss ( happ9ess consequ5t on _! repression & violation4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we proce$ fur!r1 a fundam5tal difficulty mu/ be remov$ :i* has probably "s "t s9ce sugge/$ itself to ! read]4 ,if a man ?9ks x reasonable to seek 8 own int]e/1 x is cle> t he _c himself disapprove ( any conduct t comes "u ?is pr9ciple or approve ( ! opposite4 ,& h5ce x may appe> t ! pleasures & pa9s ( consci5ce _c ent] into ! calculation :e!r a c]ta9 c\rse ( conduct is or is n 9 accordance ) ,rational ,egoism1 because !y _c atta* !mselves 9 ! egoi/'s m9d to any modes ( action :i* h n be5 already decid$1 on o!r gr\nds1 to be reasonable or ! rev]se4 ,& ?is is to a c]ta9 ext5t true2 b we mu/ "h recur to ! di/9ction 7indicat$ 9 ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 #a7 betwe5 ! g5]al impulse to d :at we believe to be reasonable1 & special s5tim5ts ( lik+ or av]sion = special k9ds ( conduct1 indep5d5t ( _! reasonabl5ess4 ,9 ! moral s5tim5ts z !y exi/ 9 ord9>y m51 ^! two k9ds ( feel+ are indi/+ui%ably bl5d$2 because x is commonly believ$ t ! rules ( conduct to :i* ! common moral s5tim5ts are atta*$ are 9 "s way or o!r reasonable4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 conceive ! two sep>at$3 & 9 fact1 z 0 be=e said1 we h exp]i5ce ( su* sep>ation :5ev] a man is l$ by a process ( ?\ght to adopt a diff]5t view ( morality f t 9 :i* he has be5 tra9$2 = 9 su* a case !re w always rema9 9 8 m9d "s quasi-moral lik+s & av]sions1 no long] su/a9$ by 8 delib]ate judgm5t ( "r & wrong4 ,& ?us !re is e reason to believe t mo/ m51 h[ev] firmly !y might adopt ! pr9ciples ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 w\ld /ill feel s5tim5ts prompt+ to ! p]=mance ( social duty1 z commonly recognis$ 9 _! society1 indep5d5tly ( any conclusion t ! actions prompt$ by su* s5tim5ts 7 reasonable & "r4 ,= su* s5tim5ts w\ld always be p[]fully support$ by ! sympa?y ( o!rs1 & _! expressions ( praise & blame1 lik+ & av]sion3 & s9ce x is agre$ t ! conduct commonly recognis$ z virtu\s is g5]ally co9cid5t ) t :i* enlight5$ self-love w\ld dictate1 a rational egoi/'s habits ( conduct w be su* z naturally to fo/] ^! 7= him7 #8quasi-moral' feel+s4 ,! "q !re=e arises--n :e!r ! egoi/ %\ld *]i% & indulge ^! s5tim5ts up to a c]ta9 po9t1 :i* all w\ld admit--b :e!r he c consi/5tly enc\rage !m to gr[ to su* a pit* t !y w always prevail ov] ! /ronge/ oppos+ consid]ations2 or1 to put x o!rwise1 :e!r prud5ce requires him to give !m ! re9 & let !m c>ry him :i!r !y w4 ,we h already se5 gr\nd = believ+ t ,rational ,self-love w be/ atta9 its end by limit+ its consci\s op]ation & all[+ free play to dis9t]e/$ impulses3 c we accept ! fur!r p>adox t x is reasonable = x to abdicate altoge!r its supremacy ov] "s ( ^! impulses8 ,on a c>eful consid]ation ( ! matt]1 x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 t ?is abdication ( self-love is n really a possible occurr5ce 9 ! m9d ( a sane p]son1 :o /ill reg>ds 8 own int]e/ z ! reasonable ultimate end ( 8 actions4 ,su* a man may1 no d\bt1 resolve t he w devote himself unres]v$ly to ! practice ( virtue1 )\t any p>ticul> consid]ation ( :at appe>s to him to be 8 int]e/3 he may p]=m a s]ies ( acts 9 accordance ) ?is resolution1 & ^! may gradually =m 9 him /rong habitual t5d5cies to acts ( a simil> k9d4 ,b x does n seem t ^! habits ( virtue c ev] become s /rong z to ga9 irresi/ible control ov] a sane & reasonable w4 ,:5 ! occasion comes on :i* virtue dem&s f su* a man an extreme sacrifice--! imprud5ce ( :i* mu/ =ce itself ^u 8 notice1 h[ev] little he may be 9 ! habit ( weigh+ 8 own pleasures & pa9s--he mu/ always be able to delib]ate afre%1 & to act 7z f> z ! control ( 8 w ext5ds7 )\t ref]5ce to 8 pa/ actions4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t1 ?\gh an egoi/ reta9+ 8 belief 9 rational egoism _c ?us ab&on 8 w to ! sway ( moral en?usiasm1 /ill1 suppos+ x possible = him to *ange 8 conviction & pref] duty to int]e/1--or suppos+ we comp>e him ) ano!r man :o makes ?is *oice1--we %all f9d t a ga9 9 happ9ess on ! :ole results f ?is pref]5ce4 ,x may be held t ! pleasurable emotions att5dant ^u su* virtu\s or quasi-virtu\s habits z are compatible ) adhesion to egoi/ic pr9ciples are s inf]ior to ! raptures t att5d ! unres]v$ & passionate surr5d] ( ! s\l to virtue1 t x is really a man's int]e/--ev5 ) a view to ! pres5t life only--to obta91 if he c1 ! convictions t r5d] ?is surr5d] possible2 al?\gh "u c]ta9 circum/ances x mu/ necess>ily lead him to act 9 a mann] :i*1 consid]$ by itself1 w\ld be und\bt$ly imprud5t4 ,?is is c]ta9ly a t5able proposition1 & ,i am q dispos$ to ?9k x true ( p]sons ) specially ref9$ moral s5sibilities4 ,b--?\gh f ! imp]fections ( ! h$oni/ic calculus ! proposition _c 9 any case be conclusively disprov$--x seems1 z ,i h said1 to be oppos$ to ! broad results ( exp]i5ce1 s f> z ! great majority ( mank9d are conc]n$4 ,obs]vation w\ld lead me to suppose t mo/ m5 are s con/itut$ z to feel f> m ke5ly pleasures 7& pa9s7 aris+ f "s o!r s\rce ?an ! consci5ce2 ei!r f ! gratifications ( s5se1 or f ! possession ( p[] & fame1 or f /rong human affections1 or f ! pursuit ( sci5ce1 art1 etc42 s t 9 _m cases p]haps n ev5 e>ly tra9+ c\ld h succe$$ 9 giv+ to ! moral feel+s ! requisite pr$om9ance3 & c]ta9ly :]e ?is tra9+ has be5 want+1 x seems highly improbable t a m]e *ange ( e?ical conviction c\ld develop _! moral susceptibilities s f> z to make x cle>ly _! e>?ly int]e/ to resolve on fac+ all sacrifices = ! fulfilm5t ( duty4 ,to sum up3 al?\gh ! p]=mance ( duties t[>ds o!rs & ! ex]cise ( social virtue seem to be g5]ally ! be/ means to ! atta9m5t ( ! individual's happ9ess1 & x is easy to exhibit ?is co9cid5ce betwe5 ,virtue & ,happ9ess rhetorically & popul>ly2 /ill1 :5 we c>efully analyse & e/imate ! consequ5ces ( ,virtue to ! virtu\s ag5t1 x appe>s improbable t ?is co9cid5ce is complete & univ]sal4 ,we may conceive ! co9cid5ce becom+ p]fect 9 a ,utopia :]e m5 7 z mu* 9 accord on moral z !y are n[ on ma!matical que/ions1 :]e ,law 0 9 p]fect h>mony ) ,moral ,op9ion1 & all (f5ces 7 discov]$ & duly puni%$3 or we may conceive ! same result atta9$ by int5sify+ ! moral s5tim5ts ( all memb]s ( ! community1 )\t any ext]nal *anges 7:i* inde$ w\ld !n be unnecess>y74 ,b j 9 proportion z exi/+ societies & exi/+ m5 fall %ort ( ?is ideal1 rules ( conduct bas$ on ! pr9ciples ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism seem liable to div]ge f ^? :i* mo/ m5 are accu/om$ to recognise z prescrib$ by ,duty & ,virtue4 ,,footnotes3 #abe ,su* discussion ( ! "q z seem$ desirable 9 a "w l ?is w be f\nd 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! treatise4 #abf ,= a simil> reason ,i %all "h treat ! notions ( #8,duty' & #8,virtu\s action' z practically co9cid5t2 res]v+ = future discussion ! div]g5ces betwe5 ! two :i* reflection on ! common usage ( ! t]ms appe>s to indicate4 ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #abg ,:atev] modifications ( ?is division may aft]w>ds appe> to be necess>y 7cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #a1 & *ap4 vii4 #a7 w n1 ,i ?9k1 t5d to invalidate ! conclusions ( ! pres5t *apt]4 #abh ,i d n "h consid] ! case ( revolutioni/s aim+ s9c]ely at ! g5]al wellbe+2 s9ce ! morality ( su* revolutions w g5]ally be s dubi\s1 t ^! cases _c furni% any cle> argum5t on ei!r side ( ! "q "h discuss$4 #abi ,"u ! notion ( #8moral pa9' 7or pleasure7 ,i int5d to include1 9 ?is argum5t1 all pa9 7or pleasure7 t is due to sympa?y ) ! feel+s ( o!rs4 ,x is n conv5i5t to ent]1 at ?is /age ( ! discussion1 into a full discussion ( ! relation ( ,sympa?y to ,moral ,s5sibility2 b ,i may say t x seems to me c]ta91 on ! "o h&1 t ^! two emotional susceptibilities are actually di/9ct 9 mo/ m9ds1 :atev] !y may h be5 orig9ally2 & on ! o!r h& t sympa!tic & /rictly moral feel+s are almo/ inextricably bl5d$ 9 ! ord9>y moral consci\sness3 s t1 = ! purposes ( ! pres5t argum5t x is n ( fundam5tal importance to draw a di/9ction betwe5 !m4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 ?\ght x desirable to und]take a fur!r exam9ation ( sympa?y--z ! int]nal sanction on :i* ,utilit>ians specially lay /ress--9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ?is treatise3 to :i*1 accord+ly1 ! read] may ref]4 #acj ,a /rik+ confirmation ( ?is is furni%$ by ^? ,*ri/ian writ]s ( ! la/ c5tury :o treat ! moral unbeliev] z a fool :o sacrifices 8 happ9ess bo? "h & h]eaft]4 ,^! m5 71 = ! mo/ "p1 e>ne/ly engag$ 9 ! practice ( virtue1 & yet ?is practice _h n made !m love virtue s mu* z to pref] x1 ev5 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 to ! s5sual & o!r enjoym5ts t x excludes4 ,x seems !n absurd to suppose t1 9 ! case ( p]sons :o h n develop$ & /r5g!n$ by habit _! virtu\s impulses1 ! pa9 t might aft]w>ds result f resi/+ ! call ( duty w\ld always be suffici5t to neutralise all o!r s\rces ( pleasure4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,d$uctive ,,h$onism #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we h se5 reason to conclude t1 :ile ob$i5ce to recognis$ rules ( duty t5ds1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 to promote ! happ9ess ( ! ag5t1 !re are yet no adequate empirical gr\nds = reg>d+ ! p]=mance ( duty z a univ]sal or infallible means to ! atta9m5t ( ?is end4 ,ev51 h[ev]1 if x 7 o!rwise1 ev5 if x 7 demon/rably reasonable = ! egoi/ to *oose duty at all co/s "u all circum/ances1 ! sy/ematic endeav\r to realise ?is pr9ciple w\ld n--accord+ to common notions ( morality--solve or sup]s$e ! problem ( det]m9+ ! "r me?od = seek+ happ9ess4 ,= ! receiv$ moral code all[s )9 limits ! pursuit ( our own happ9ess1 & ev5 seems to reg>d x z morally prescrib$2#aca & /ill m emphatically inculcates ! promotion ( ! happ9ess ( o!r individuals1 ) :om we are 9 v>i\s ways specially connect$3 s t1 "u ei!r head1 ! que/ions t we h be=e consid]$ z to ! det]m9ation & measurem5t ( ! elem5ts ( happ9ess w\ld /ill require "s k9d ( answ]4 ,x rema9s to ask h[ f> a sci5tific inve/igation ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa9 c assi/ u 9 deal+ ) ?is practical problem4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t = decid+ :i* ( two c\rses ( action is pref]able on h$oni/ic gr\nds1 we require n only to measure pa9s & pleasures ( diff]5t k9ds1 b also to asc]ta9 h[ !y may be produc$ or av]t$4 ,9 mo/ important prud5tial decisions1 complex *a9s ( consequ5ces are =ese5 z int]v5+ betwe5 ! volition we are imm$iately to initiate & ! feel+s :i* con/itute ! ultimate end ( our ef=ts2 & ! degree ( accuracy ) :i* we =eca/ ea* l9k ( ^! *a9s obvi\sly dep5ds ^u our k1 implicit or explicit1 ( ! relations ( cause & effect among v>i\s natural ph5om5a4 ,b if we suppose ! diff]5t elem5ts & imm$iate s\rces ( happ9ess to h be5 duly asc]ta9$ & valu$1 ! inve/igation ( ! conditions ( production ( ea* h>dly belongs to a g5]al treatise on ! me?od ( e?ics2 b r to "s "o or o!r ( ! special arts subord9ate to ! g5]al art ( conduct4 ,( ^! subord9ate arts "s h a m or less sci5tific basis1 :ile o!rs are 9 a m]ely empirical /age2 ?us if we h decid$ h[ f> heal? is to be s\ght1 x belongs to ! sy/ematic art ( hygi5e1 bas$ on physiological sci5ce1 to furni% a detail$ plan ( seek+ x2 s f>1 on ! o!r h&1 z we aim at p[] or weal? or dome/ic happ9ess1 su* in/ruction z ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs c give w be *iefly obta9$ 9 an unsy/ematic =m1 ei!r f advice relative to our own special circum/ances1 or f acc\nts ( success & failure 9 analog\s situations4 ,9 ei!r case ! exposition ( su* special arts does n appe> to come )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t treatise2 nor c\ld x help u 9 deal+ ) ! difficulties ( measur+ pleasures & pa9s :i* we h consid]$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght t a k ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa9 may c>ry u beyond ! det]m9ation ( ! means ( ga9+ p>ticul> k9ds ( pleasure & avoid+ p>ticul> k9ds ( pa92 & enable u to sub/itute "s d$uctive me?od ( evalu+ ! elem5ts ( happ9ess = ! empirical-reflective me?od ( :i* we h se5 ! defects4#acb ,a h$oni/ic me?od1 inde$1 t w\ld disp5se altoge!r ) direct e/imates ( ! pleasurable & pa9ful consequ5ces ( actions is almo/ z inconceivable z a me?od ( a/ronomy t w\ld disp5se ) obs]vations ( ! />s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 conceivable t by induction f cases 9 :i* empirical measurem5t is easy we may obta9 g5]alisations t w give u m tru/wor?y guidance ?an su* measurem5t c d 9 complicat$ cases2 we may be able to asc]ta9 "s g5]al psy*ical or physical concomitant or antec$5t ( pleasure & pa91 m easy to recognise1 =esee1 measure1 & produce or av]t 9 su* cases1 ?an pleasure & pa9 !mselves4 ,i am will+ to hope t ?is refuge f ! difficulties ( ,empirical ,h$onism may "s "t or o!r be op5 to u3 b ,i _c p]ceive t x is at pres5t available4 ,!re is at pres5t1 s f> z ,i c judge1 no satisfactorily e/abli%$ g5]al !ory ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa92 & su* !ories z h ga9$ a c]ta9 degree ( acceptance1 z p>tially true or probable1 are manife/ly n adapt$ = ! practical application t we "h require4 ,! *ief difficulty ( f9d+ a univ]sally applicable !ory ( ! causes ( pleasures & pa9s is easily expla9$4 ,pleasures & pa9s may be assum$ to h univ]sally--l o!r psy*ical facts--c]ta9 c]ebral n]ve-processes1 specifically unkn[n1 z _! insep>able concomitants3 accord+ly1 we may seek _! causes ei!r 9 antec$5t physical or antec$5t psy*ical facts4 ,b 9 "o important class ( cases ! *ief cognisable antec$5ts are obvi\sly ( ! =m] k9d1 :ile 9 ano!r important class !y are obvi\sly ( ! latt] k9d3 ! difficulty is to e/abli% any !ory equally applicable to bo? classes1 or to br+ ! results ( ! two l9es ( inquiry "u a s+le g5]alisation )\t palpably unsupport$ hypo!ses4 ,9 ! case ( pleasures & pa9s--especially pa9s--connect$ ) s5sation ! mo/ important cognisable antec$5ts are cle>ly physical4 ,i d n d5y t1 :5 ! pa9 is =ese51 ! attitude ( m9d 9 :i* x is met may mat]ially influ5ce its magnitude3 inde$1 9 ! hypnotic condition ( ! bra91 ! feel+ ( pa9 may be app>5tly altoge!r prev5t$ by an antec$5t belief t x w n be felt4 ,/ill 9 ! ma91 "u ord9>y conditions1 ! pa9s ( s5sation--probably ! int5se/ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( mo/ p]sons--invade & int]rupt our psy*ical life f )\t2 & x w\ld be idle to look = ! *ief causes ( _! int5sity or quality among antec$5t psy*ical facts4 ,?is is n equally true ( ! mo/ prom95t pleasures ( s5se3 s9ce antec$5t desire1 if n an absolutely indisp5sable condition ( su* pleasures1 seems at any rate necess>y to _! atta9+ a high degree ( int5sity4 ,/ill ! *ief causes ( ^! desires !mselves are cle>ly physical /ates & processes--n m]ely neural--9 ! organism ( ! s5ti5t individual3 & ?is is also true ( a m indef9ite k9d ( pleasure1 :i* is an important elem5t ( ord9>y human happ9ess1--! 8well-feel+0 t accompanies & is a sign ( physical well-be+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we inve/igate ! causes ( ! pleasures & pa9s t belong to intellectual ex]cises or ! play ( p]sonal affections1--or ( ! pleasures 7& to "s ext5t pa9s7 t belong to ! contemplation ( beauty 7or its opposite7 9 art or nature1--no physiological !ory c c>ry u f>1 ow+ to our ignorance ( ! neural processes t accompany or antec$e ^! feel+s4 ,?is is my g5]al conclusion3 ! gr\nds = :i* ,i propose to illu/rate & expla9 fur!r 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 seem to be q beyond my limits to attempt any?+ l an exhau/ive discussion ( ei!r psy*ological or physiological !ories ( ! causes ( pleasure & pa94 ,i %all conf9e myself to c]ta9 lead+ g5]alisations1 :i* seem to h a special int]e/ = /ud5ts ( e?ics2 ei!r because e?ical motives h _h a %>e 9 caus+ _! acceptance2 or because--?\gh inadequately gr\nd$ z g5]al !ories--!y appe> to h a p>tial & limit$ value = practical guidance4 #b4 ,let u beg9 by consid]+ a !ory1 prim>ily psy*ological1 :i* has at lea/ ! m]it ( antiquity--z x is admitt$ly d]iv$ f ,ari/otle1#acc--;& is1 9 "s =m or o!r1 /ill curr5t4#acd ,x is t express$ by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton#ace 9 ! foll[+ propositions3 8,pleasure is ! reflex ( ! spontane\s & unimp$$ ex]tion ( a p[] ( ^: en]gy we are consci\s3 pa91 a reflex ( ! ov]/ra9$ or repress$ ex]tion ( su* a p[]40 ,! phrases sugge/ active z ord9>ily di/+ui%$ f passive /ates2 b ,hamilton expla9s t 8en]gy0 & simil> t]ms 8are to be und]/ood to d5ote indiff]5tly all ! processes ( our high] & l[] life ( :i* we are consci\s10--on ! gr\nd t consci\sness itself implies m ?an a m]e passivity ( ! subject4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ! !ory is evid5tly fram$ prim>ily to suit ! pleasures & pa9s t belong to ! intellectual life z su*1 & is only appli$ by a some:at viol5t /ra9+ to an important class among ! pleasures & pa9s t belong to man's animal life4 ,= ,hamilton expla9s 8 t]ms 7a7 8spontane\s0 & 7b7 8unimp$$0 to imply respectively 7a7 abs5ce ( 8=cible repression0 or 8=cible /imulation0 ( ! p[] ex]cis$1 & 7b7 abs5ce ( *ecks or h9drances on ! "p ( ! object ab\t :i* x is conv]sant4 ,b ^! t]ms seem to h no cle> psy*ical import 9 application to organic s5sations ( ! k9d ord9>ily call$ passive4 ,e4g4 ! feel+s & vague repres5tations ( bodily processes :i* con/itute ! consci\sness ( a too?a*e are z free f consci\s repression or /imulation z ^? :i* con/itute ! consci\sness t accompanies a w>m ba?3--except s f> z ! m]e pres5ce ( pa9 implies con/ra9t1 s9ce we exp]i5ce x unwill+ly1 & ! m]e pres5ce ( pleasure implies ! opposite3 b 9 ?is s5se con/ra9t & its opposite are *>act]i/ics ( ! effects to be expla9$1 & _c !re=e be reg>d$ z _! causes4 ,inde$1 ! e?ical int]e/ & value ( ! !ory appe>s to me to lie 9 its v "o-sid$ness4 ,x t5ds to correct a vulg> error 9 ! e/imate ( pleasure1 by direct+ att5tion /rongly to ! importance ( a class ( pleasures :i* ord9>y pleasure-seek+ probably und]values1--! pleasures t specially belong to a life fill$ ) /r5u\s activity1 :e!r purely intellectual1 or practical & p>tly physical4#acf ,9 ! same way x effectively dispels ! popul> inadv]t5ce ( reg>d+ lab\r z normally pa9ful because "s lab\r is s1 & because ! pleasures connect$ ) relief f toil--! pleasures ( repose & play--are 9 ! exp]i5ce ( mo/ p]sons m /rik+ ?an ! pleasures ( /r5u\s activity4 ,at ! same "t1 ev5 if we limit ! !ory to ! pleasures & pa9s imm$iately connect$ ) volunt>y activity--intellectual or physical--x seems to me devoid n only ( def9ite guidance1 b also ( adequate !oretical precision4 ,= x seems to imply t ! ex]cise ( our p[]s is always made less pleasant by ! pres5ce ( imp$im5ts2 b ?is is obvi\sly n true ei!r ( ma9ly intellectual or ma9ly physical activities4 ,"s ob/acles und5iably increase pleasure by draw+ out =ce & skill to ov]come !m1 z is cle>ly %[n 9 ! case ( games & sports3 & ev5 if we und]/& pa9-caus+ imp$im5ts to be only su* h9drances z repress & dim9i% action1 ,i d n f9d t ! !ory is support$ by exp]i5ce1 except s f> z ! repression causes ! specific discom=t ( unsatisfi$ desire4 ,e4g4 ,i f9d ent]ta9m5t r ?an discom=t 9 try+ to make out objects 9 a dim light1 or ! mean+ ( a spee* 9 a /range language1 provid$ t failure does n int]f]e ) ! atta9m5t ( any end to :i* ,i atta* importance4 ,x is a fundam5tal defect 9 ,hamilton's !ory1 ev5 9 its m limit$ application1 t x ignores ! teleological "* ( normal human activity4 ,?is defect is avoid$ 9 a modification ( ! !ory t a rec5t writ] has adopt$4 8,! anti!sis10 says ,mr4 ,/\t1#acg 8betwe5 pleasure & pa9 is co9cid5t ) ! anti!sis betwe5 free & imp$$ progress t[>ds an end4 ,unimp$$ progress is pleasant 9 proportion to ! int5sity & complexity ( m5tal excitem5t4 ,an activity :i* is 444 ?w>t$ & ret>d$ 444 is pa9ful 9 proportion to its int5sity & complexity & to ! degree ( ! h9drance40 ,mr4 ,/\t admits ! difficulty ( apply+ ?is pr9ciple ( explanation to ! pleasures & pa9s ( s5se3#ach &--unlike ,hamilton--he expressly recognises t 8a /ruggle ) difficulties :i* is n too prolong$ or too int5se may enhance ! pleasure ( success out ( all proportion to its own pa9fulness40 ,b ?is qualification seems to r5d] ! propositions fir/ laid d[n unimportant f our pres5t practical po9t ( view1 :atev] may be _! !oretical value4 ,i ?9k1 too1 t ! importance ( antec$5t desire1 z a condition ( ! pleasures & pa9s att5dant on volunt>y activities1 %\ld be m expressly recognis$4 ,:5 desire is /rong1 hopeful ef=t to ov]come difficulties 9 ! way ( fruition t5ds to be proportionally pleasurable--ap>t f actual success--:ile disappo9tm5t or ! fe> ( disappo9tm5t simil>ly t5ds to be pa9ful3 b :5 desire is n /rong1 ! %ock ( ?w>t$ activity & unfulfill$ expectation may be r agreeable ?an o!rwise4 ,?us1 suppose ,i take a walk = pleasure1 int5d+ to rea* a neighb\r+ village1 & f9d an unexpect$ flood cross+ my road2 if ,i h no /rong motive = arriv+ at ! village1 ! surprise & consequ5t *ange 9 ! plan ( my walk w probably be on ! :ole a pleasurable incid5t4 ,! importance ( eag] desire z a condition ( pleasure is notewor?y f an e?ical po9t ( view3 z x gives ! psy*ological basis = ! famili> precept to repress--) a view to private happ9ess--desires = ends t are ei!r unatta9able or incompatible ) ! c\rse ( life :i* prud5ce m>ks out2 & = ! some:at less trite maxim ( enc\rag+ & develop+ desires t prompt 9 ! same direction z rational *oice4 ,suppose n[ we drop ! dubi\s t]m 8unimp$$0--reta9+ ,hamilton's idea ( 8ov]/ra9$ or repress$ ex]tion0 z ! condition ( pa9--& at ! same "t pass+ to a physical po9t ( view1 mean by 8activity0 ! activity ( an organ4 ,we ?us rea* :at is sub/antially ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e1 t pa9s are ! psy*ical concomitants ( excessive or defici5t actions ( organs1 :ile pleasures are ! concomitants ( m$ium activities4#aci ,9 consid]+ ?is !ory x w be conv5i5t to take pa9s & pleasures sep>ately3 z x is obvi\sly bas$ prim>ily on exp]i5ces ( pa9 r ?an ( pleasure1--especially ( ! pa9s ( s5se to :i* ,hamilton's !ory seem$ palpably inapplicable4 ,in/ances are abundant 9 :i* pa9 is obvi\sly caus$ by excessive /imulation ( n]ves4 ,?us :5 we gradually increase ! int5sity ( s5sible heat1 pressure1 muscul> ef=t1 we enc\nt] pa9 at a c]ta9 po9t ( ! increase2 8deaf5+0 s\nds are highly disagreeable2 & to confront a tropical sun ) unprotect$ eyeballs w\ld soon become torture4 ,"s pa9s1 aga91 z ,sp5c] po9ts out1 arise f ! excessive actions ( organs ^: normal actions yield no feel+s3 z :5 ! dige/ive app>atus is ov]tax$4 ,/ill 9 none ( ^! cases does x seem cle> t pa9 sup]v5es ?r\gh a m]e int5sification 9 degree ( ! action ( ! organ 9 "q2 & n r ?r\gh "s *ange 9 ! k9d ( action--"s in*oate dis9tegration or disorganisation4 ,& ?is latt] cause--r ?an m]e quantity ( /imulation--is /rongly sugge/$ by a consid]ation ( ! pa9s due to w\nds & diseases1 & ev5 ( ! transi5t dige/ive discom=ts :i* arise f an improp] k9d r ?an an improp] quantity ( food4 ,& a simil> explanation seems to me mo/ probable 9 ! case ( pa9s :i*1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 arise f 8defici5t0 action4 ,he speaks ( ^! z 8discom=ts or crav+s02 b1 z ,i h be=e po9t$ out1#adj bodily appetites & o!r desires may be /rongly-felt impulses to action )\t be+ appreciably pa9ful3 &1 9 my exp]i5ce1 :5 !y become decid$ly pa9ful1 "s di/urbance t5d+ to d]angem5t may be presum$ ei!r 9 ! organ prim>ily conc]n$ or 9 ! organism z a :ole4 ,?us hung]1 9 my exp]i5ce1 may be extremely ke5 )\t be+ appreciably pa9ful3 & :5 ,i f9d x pa9ful1 exp]i5ce leads me to expect a tempor>ily r$uc$ p[] ( assimilation1 indicat+ "s disorganisation 9 ! dige/ive app>atus4#ada ,9 any case1 empirical evid5ce supports 8excessive action0 ( an organ z a cause ( pa9 f> m cle>ly ?an 8defici5t action40 ,inde$ a consid]ation ( ?is evid5ce has l$ "s psy*ologi/s to adopt ! g5]alisation#adb t !re is no quality ( s5sation absolutely pleasant or unpleasant1 b t e k9d ( s5sation z x gr[s 9 int5sity beg9s at a c]ta9 po9t to be pleasurable1 & cont9ues su* up to a c]ta9 fur!r po9t at :i* x passes rapidly ?r\gh indiff]5ce into pa94 ,my own exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 fails to support ?is g5]alisation4 ,i agree ) ,gurney#adc t 8( _m ta/es & od\rs ! fa9te/ possible sugge/ion is disagreeable02 :ile o!r feel+s result+ f /imulation ( s5se-organs appe> to rema9 highly pleasurable at ! highe/ degree ( /imulation :i* ! actual conditions ( physical life appe> to all[4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 :e!r we conceive ! n]v\s action ( :i* pa9 is an imm$iate consequ5t or concomitant z m]ely excessive 9 quantity1 or 9 "s way discordant or disorganis$ 9 quality1 x is obvi\s t nei!r explanation c furni% u ) any important practical guidance3 s9ce we h no g5]al means ( asc]ta9+1 indep5d5tly ( our exp]i5ce ( pa9 itself1 :at n]v\s actions are excessive or disorganis$3 & ! cases :]e we h su* means d n pres5t any practical problems :i* ! !ory enables u to solve4 ,no "o d\bts t w\nds & diseases are to be avoid$ "u all ord9>y circum/ances3 & 9 ! exceptional circum/ances 9 :i* we may be mov$ to *oose !m z ! lea/ ( sev]al evils1 ! exacte/ k ( _! precise op]ation 9 caus+ pa9 is n likely to assi/ our *oice4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1--turn+ f pa9 to pleasure1--t ! g5]alisation :i* we h be5 consid]+ at any rate gives u a psy*ophysical basis = ! anci5t maxim ( 8avoid+ excess0 9 ! pursuit ( pleasure4 ,b we h to obs]ve t ! practical ne$ ( ?is maxim is l>gely due to ! qualifications :i* ! psy*ophysical g5]alisation requires to make x true4 ,?us x is especially ne$$ 9 ! important cases 9 :i* ov]-/imulation is foll[$ by pa9 n at once b aft] an int]val ( v>y+ l5g?4 ,e4g4 alcoholic dr9k+1 to _m1 rema9s pleasurable at ! "t up to ! po9t ( excess at :i* ! bra9 c no long] p]=m its functions3 x is 8next morn+0 t ! pa9 comes1 or p]haps--9 ! case ( 8well-season$0 top]s--n till aft] _m ye>s ( habitual excess4 ,x %\ld be not$ also t x is n always ! organ ( :i* ! ex]cise gives pleasure t also1 ?r\gh ov]-ex]cise1 causes ! pa9 ( excess4 ,?us :5 we are tempt$ to eat too mu*1 ! s$uctive pleasure is ma9ly due to ! n]ves ( ta/e :i* are n ov]tax$2 ! pa9s come f ! organs ( dige/ion1 ^: fa9t1 vague pleasures alone w\ld h>dly tempt ! voluptu>y to excess4 ,9 ! case ( dang]\s m5tal excitem5ts ! p5alty on excess is usually /ill m indirect4 ,on ! :ole1 grant+ t pleasure l virtue resides some:]e 9 ! mean1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is proposition gives no practical directions = atta9+ x4 ,= fir/1 grant+ t bo? excessive & defici5t activities ( organs cause pa91 ! "q /ill rema9s--z ,sp5c] himself says--,:at det]m9es 9 any case ! l[] & ! high] limits )9 :i* action is pleasurable8 ,sp5c]'s answ] to ?is "q ,i w consid] pres5tly4 ,b !re is a "q no less obvi\s to :i* he does n expressly adv]t1 viz4 :y among ! normal activities ( our physical organs1 t h c\nt]p>ts 9 consci\sness1 "s only are pleasurable 9 any appreciable degree1 :ile _m if n mo/ are ne>ly or q indiff]5t4 ,x seems und5iable 7e4g47 t :ile ta/es & smells are mo/ly ei!r agreeable or disagreeable1 mo/ s5sations ( t\* & _m ( sight & s\nd are n appreciably#add ei!r2 & t1 9 ! daily r\t9e ( heal?y life1 eat+ & dr9k+ are ord9>ily pleasant1 :ile dress+ & undress+1 walk+ & muscul> movem5ts g5]ally are practically indiff]5t4 ,x does n seem t an adequate explanation c be f\nd 9 ! op]ation ( habit4#ade ,x is no d\bt true t actions ?r\gh frequ5t uni=m repetition t5d to become automatic & lose _! consci\s c\nt]p>ts1 & h$onic indiff]5ce c]ta9ly seems 9 "s cases to be a /age ?r\gh :i* su* actions pass on ! way to unconsci\sness4 ,?us ev5 a bus9ess walk 9 a /range t[n is normally pleasant ?r\gh ! novelty ( ! sights3 b a simil> walk 9 ! t[n :]e "o lives is ord9>ily indiff]5t1 or ne>ly s2 :ile if "o's att5tion is /rongly absorb$ by ! bus9ess1 x may be p]=m$ to a great ext5t unconsci\sly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! op]ations ( habit (t5 h ! opposite effect ( mak+ activities pleasant :i* 7 at fir/ indiff]5t or ev5 disagreeable3 z 9 ! case ( acquir$ ta/es1 physical or intellectual4 ,inde$ su* exp]i5ces h long be5--,i ?9k1 q legitimately--us$ by morali/s z an enc\ragem5t to irksome duties1 on ! gr\nd t _! irksom5ess w be transi5t1 ?r\gh ! op]ation ( habit1 :ile ! ga9 ( _! p]=mance w be p]man5t4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 inde$1 reg>ds su* exp]i5ces z s important t he v5tures to base on !m ! pr$iction t 8pleasure w ev5tually accompany e mode ( action dem&$ by social conditions40 ,?is1 h[ev]1 seems unduly optimi/ic1 9 view n only ( ! fir/-m5tion$ t5d5cy ( habit to h$onic indiff]5ce1 b also ( a ?ird t5d5cy to r5d] actions1 at fir/ indiff]5t or ev5 pleasant1 gradually m irksome4 ,?us our intellect gradually we>ies ( monoton\s activities1 & ! ennui may sometimes become int5se3 s aga9 ! reli% ( a k9d ( diet at fir/ agreeable may turn ?r\gh monotony into disgu/4 ,"s q diff]5t explanation mu/ !re=e be s\ght = ! v>y+ degrees 9 :i* pleasure accompanies normal activities4 ,c we f9d ?is 9 a sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s1 develop$ by ,mr4 ,grant ,all51#adf t ! pleasurabl5ess ( normal organic activities dep5ds on _! int]mitt5ce1 & t 8! am\nt ( pleasure is probably 444 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! natural frequ5cy ( excitation0 ( ! n]ve-fibres involv$8 ,?is !ory c]ta9ly f9ds "s support 9 ! fact t ! s5sual pleasures g5]ally recognis$ z greate/ are ^? att5d+ ! activities ( organs :i* are normally left unex]cis$ = consid]able int]vals4 ,/ill1 !re are _m facts t x does n expla9--e4g4 ! great diff]5ces 9 ! pleasures obta9able at any giv5 "t by diff]5t /imulations ( ! same s5se2 ! ph5om5on express$ 9 ! prov]bial phrase 8,l'apptit vi5t en mangeant02 & ! fact t ! ex]cise ( ! visual organs aft] app>5tly dreamless sleep does n give appreciably ke5] pleasure ?an x does at ord9>y times4 ,x w\ld seem t we mu/ seek = "s special cause ( ! pleasurable effect ( int]mitt5ce 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,& ?is _c be m]ely ! great] int5sity ( ! n]v\s action t takes place :5 long-unex]cis$ & well-n\ri%$ n]ve-c5tres are /imulat$3 = :y1 if t 7 ! explanation1 %\ld ! normal consci\sness ( full n]v\s activity1 gradually atta9$--z :5 we are 9 full sw+ ( en]getic unwe>i$ "w ( a r\t9e k9d--be (t5 ne>ly or q indiff]5t8 ,among ! v>i\s compet+ hypo!ses (f]$ at ?is po9t ( our inquiry--no "o ( :i*1 ,i believe1 has atta9$ any?+ l g5]al acceptance z cov]+ ! :ole gr\nd--,i select = discussion "o t has special e?ical int]e/4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1#adg ! organic process accompani$ by pleasure is to be conceiv$ z a 8re/oration ( equilibrium0 aft] 8di/urbance03 s t ! abs5ce ( appreciable pleasure 9 ! case ( c]ta9 normal activities is expla9$ by ! abs5ce ( antec$5t di/urbance4 ,?is view is obvi\sly applicable to c]ta9 classes ( pleasures :i*1 ?\gh by no means r>e are incid5tal 9 a normal life3--! pleasure ( relief aft] physical pa91 or aft] ! /ra9 ( great anxiety1 & ! pleasure ( repose aft] unusual ex]tions1 intellectual or muscul>4 ,b :5 we attempt to apply x to s5sational pleasures g5]ally1 ! indef9it5ess ( ! notion ( 8equilibrium10 z appli$ to ! processes ( a liv+ organism1 becomes manife/4 ,= our physical life consi/s ( a s]ies ( *anges1 = ! mo/ "p p]iodically recurr5t ) slight modification aft] %ort int]vals3 & x is difficult to see :y we %\ld atta* ! idea ( 8di/urbance0 or 8re/oration ( equilibrium0 to any "o among ^! normal processes r ?an any o!r3--e4g4 x is difficult to see :y ! condition ( hav+ exp5d$ en]gy %\ld be reg>d$ z a dep>ture f equilibrium any m ?an ! condition ( hav+ j tak5 9 nutrim5t4 ,9 fact1 to r5d] ! hypo!sis we are consid]+ at all applicable to normal pleasures ( s5se1 we h to pass f ! physiological to ! psy*ological po9t ( view1 & take note ( ! psy*ical /ate ( desire1 z a consci\sly unre/ful condition1 ( :i* ! ess5ce is a felt impulse to pass out ( ?is /ate t[>ds ! atta9m5t ( ! desir$ object4 ,our hypo!sis1 !n1 may take ?is unre/ful consci\sness z a sign ( :at1 f a physiological po9t ( view1 is 8di/urbance ( equilibrium10 & simil>ly1 ! satisfaction ( desire may be tak5 to be1 physiologically1 a re/oration ( equilibrium4 ,on ?is assumption1 ! !ory becomes und5iably applicable to ^? gratifications ( s5sual appetite :i* =m ! mo/ prom95t elem5t ( ! pleasures ( s5se1 z popul>ly conceiv$4 ,n[ we h already not$ t by a wide-spread confusion ( ?\ght1 desire has (t5 be5 reg>d$ z a species ( pa94 ,accord+ly1 ! !ory t we are consid]+ 0 orig9ally prompt$ by ! e?ical motive ( depreciat+ ! vulg>ly ov]valu$ pleasures ( satisfi$ bodily appetite1 by lay+ /ress on _! insep>able connexion ) antec$5t pa94 ,! depreciation1 h[ev]1 fails s f> z ! appetite :i* is a necess>y antec$5t condition ( ! pleasure is--?\gh an unre/ful /ate--n appreciably pa9ful4#adh ,9 any case1 admitt+ ! physical c\nt]p>t ( consci\s desire to be a #8di/urbance ( equilibrium1' or an effect & sign ( su* di/urbance1 ! !ory seems op5 to obvi\s objections1 if x is ext5d$ to cov] ! :ole range ( ! pleasures ( s5se4 ,= consci\s desire is c]ta9ly n a necess>y condition ( exp]i5c+ ! simple pleasures ( ! special s5ses3 normally no s5se ( want has prec$$ ! exp]i5ce ( pleasant sights1 s\nds1 od\rs1 flav\rs1 or ( ! m important pleasures1 m complex 9 _! psy*ical conditions1 :i* we call /hetic4 ,no d\bt 9 special cases antec$5t privation may produce a consci\s want ( ^! latt] pleasures :i* may increase _! int5sity :5 !y are at l5g? atta9$3 or ev5 )\t any felt privation1 ! prospect ( enjoy+ su* pleasures may produce a ke5 desire = ! enjoym5t1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a 8di/urbance ( equilibrium0 no less plausibly ?an a bodily appetite4 ,b x w\ld be q unw>rantable !re=e to suppose a simil> di/urbance1 ?\gh unfelt1 9 ! ord9>y cases :]e pleasures ( ?is k9d are exp]i5c$ )\t any antec$5t consci\sness ( desire or want4 ,i h p]haps said en\gh to support my g5]al conclusion t psy*ophysical speculation z to ! causes ( pleasure & pa9 does n at pres5t af=d a basis = a d$uctive me?od ( practical ,h$onism4 ,b1 be=e pass+ f ?is topic1 ,i may rem>k t ! difficulties 9 ! way ( any su* !ory seem especially great 9 ! case ( ! complex pleasures :i* we di/+ui% z 8/hetic40 ,all w\ld agree t /hetic gratification1 :5 at all high1 dep5ds on a subtle h>mony ( diff]5t elem5ts 9 a complex /ate ( consci\sness2 & t ! pleasure result+ f su* h>moni\s comb9ation is indef9itely great] ?an ! sum ( ! simpl] pleasures :i* ! uncomb9$ elem5ts w\ld yield4 ,b ev5 ^? :o e/imate mo/ highly ! success t has s f> be5 atta9$ 9 discov]+ ! conditions ( ?is h>mony1 9 ! case ( any p>ticul> art1 w\ld admit t m]e con=mity to ! conditions ?us asc]ta9$ _c secure ! production ( /hetic pleasure 9 any consid]able degree4 ,h[ev] subtly we /ate 9 g5]al t]ms ! objective relations ( elem5ts 9 a delightful "w ( art1 on :i* its delight seems to dep5d1 we mu/ always feel t x w\ld be possible to produce out ( simil> elem5ts a "w correspond+ to our g5]al description :i* w\ld give no delight at all2 ! t\* t gives delight dep5ds ^u an in/9ct = :i* no d$uctive reason+ c supply a sub/itute4 ,?is is true1 ev5 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! wide div]g5ces t we actually f9d 9 ! /hetic s5sibilities ( individuals3 /ill less1 !re=e1 is x ne$ful to argue t1 f ! po9t ( view ( an individual seek+ 8 own greate/ happ9ess1 none b a ma9ly inductive & empirical me?od ( e/imat+ /hetic pleasures c be made available4 #c4 ,i n[ pass to consid] a !ory :i* may be di/+ui%$ f ^? discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ section z be+ biological r ?an psy*ophysical3 s9ce x directs att5tion n to ! actual pres5t *>act]i/ics ( ! organic /ates or *anges ( :i* pleasures & pa9s are ! concomitants or imm$iate consequ5ts1 b to _! relations to ! life ( ! organism z a :ole4 ,i mean ! !ory t 8pa9s are ! correlatives ( actions injuri\s to ! organism1 :ile pleasures are ! correlatives ( acts conducive to its welf>e40 ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 f :om ! above propositions are quot$1#adi subsequ5tly expla9s 8injuri\s0 & 8conducive to welf>e0 to mean respectively 8t5d+ to decrease or loss ( life10 & 8t5d+ to cont9uance or increase ( life03 b 9 8 d$uction by :i* ! above conclusion is summ>ily e/abli%$1 8injuri\s0 & 8b5eficial0 are us$ z equival5t simply to 8de/ructive0 & 8pres]vative0 ( organic life3 & x w be m conv5i5t to take ! t]ms fir/ 9 ?is simpl] signification4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s argum5t is z foll[s3-- 8,if we sub/itute = ! ^w ,pleasure ! equival5t phrase--a feel+ :i* we seek to br+ into consci\sness & reta9 !re2 & if we sub/itute = ! ^w ,pa9 ! equival5t phrase--a feel+ :i* we seek to get out ( consci\sness & to keep out2 we see at once t1 if ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* a creature endeav\rs to ma9ta9 are ! correlatives ( injuri\s actions1 & if ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* x endeav\rs to expel are ! correlatives ( b5eficial actions1 x mu/ quickly disappe> ?r\gh p]si/5ce 9 ! injuri\s & avoidance ( ! b5eficial4 ,9 o!r words1 ^? races ( be+s only c h surviv$ 9 :i*1 on ! av]age1 agreeable or desir$ feel+s w5t along ) activities conducive to ! ma9t5ance ( life1 :ile disagreeable & habitually-avoid$ feel+s w5t along ) activities directly or indirectly de/ructive ( life2 & !re mu/ ev] h be51 o!r ?+s equal1 ! mo/ num]\s & long-cont9u$ survivals among races 9 :i* ^! adju/m5ts ( feel+s to actions 7 ! be/1 t5d+ ev] to br+ ab\t p]fect adju/m5t40 ,n[ ,i am n conc]n$ to d5y ! value ( ?is summ>y d$uction = c]ta9 purposes4 ,b x c easily be %[n to be inadequate to af=d a basis = a d$uctive me?od ( seek+ maximum happ9ess = ! individual1 by sub/itut+ ,pres]vation = ,pleasure z ! end directly aim$ at4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] only affirms ! conclusion to be true1 z he r vaguely says1 8on ! av]age03 & x is obvi\s t ?\gh ! t5d5cy to f9d injuri\s acts pleasant or pres]vative acts pa9ful mu/ be a disadvantage to any species ( animal 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 x may--if exi/+ only to a limit$ ext5t--be outweigh$ by o!r advantages1 s t ! organism 9 :i* x exi/s may survive 9 spite ( x4 ,?is1 ,i say1 is obvi\s a priori3 & common exp]i5ce1 z ,mr4 ,sp5c] admits1 %[s 89 _m conspicu\s ways0 t ?is has be5 actually ! case ) civilis$ man dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( hi/ory t we "k3 ow+ to ! *anges caus$ by ! c\rse ( civilisation1 8!re has aris5 & mu/ long cont9ue a deep & involv$ d]angem5t ( ! natural connexions betwe5 pleasures & b5eficial actions & betwe5 pa9s & detrim5tal actions40 ,?is seems to be 9 itself a suffici5t objection to f\nd+ a d$uctive me?od ( ,h$onism on ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s g5]al conclusion4 ,x is1 inde$1 notori\s t civilis$ m5 take pleasure 9 v>i\s =ms ( unheal?y conduct & f9d con=mity to ! rules ( heal? irksome2 & x is also important to note t !y may be1 & actually are1 susceptible ( ke5 pleasure f acts & processes t h no mat]ial t5d5cy to pres]ve life4 ,nor is !re any difficulty 9 expla9+ ?is on ! 8evolution hypo!sis02 s9ce we _c argue a priori f ?is hypo!sis t ! developm5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em 9 human be+s may n br+ ) x int5se susceptibilities to pleasure f non-pres]vative processes1 if only ! pres]vation ( ! individuals 9 :om su* susceptibilities are develop$ is o!rwise adequately provid$ =4 ,n[ ?is latt] supposition is obvi\sly realis$ 9 ! case ( p]sons ( leisure 9 civilis$ society2 ^: ne$s ( food1 clo?+1 %elt]1 etc41 are abundantly suppli$ ?r\gh ! complex social habit :i* we call ! in/itution ( private prop]ty3 & ,i "k no empirical gr\nd = suppos+ t a cultivat$ man t5ds1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ke5 & v>i$ pleasure :i* he seeks & enjoys1 to live long] ?an a man :o goes ?r\gh a comp>atively dull r\nd ( monoton\s r\t9e activity1 int]sp]s$ by slightly pleasurable int]vals ( repose & play4 #d4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! individual is n likely to obta9 a maximum ( ,pleasure by aim+ m]ely at ,pres]vation1 x rema9s to consid] :e!r 8quantity ( life0 w s]ve any bett]4 ,n[ x is ( c\rse true t s f> z n]v\s action is att5d$ by consci\sness pleasurable 9 quality1 ! m !re is ( x1 ! happi] we %all be4 ,b ev5 if we assume t ! m int5se & full life is 8on ! av]age0 ! happi]1 x by no means foll[s t we %all ga9 maximum pleasure by aim+ m]ely at int5sity ( consci\sness3 = we exp]i5ce int5se pa9s ev5 m indubitably ?an int5se pleasures1 & 9 ^? 8full tides ( s\l10 9 :i* we seem to be mo/ alive1 pa9ful consci\sness may be mix$ 9 almo/ any proportion4 ,& fur!r we (t5 exp]i5ce excitem5t ne>ly or q neutral 9 quality 7i4e4 n di/9ctly pleasurable or pa9ful71 :i* rea*es a great pit* ( int5sity1 z 9 ! case ( labori\s /ruggles ) difficulties1 & p]plex+ conflicts ( :i* ! issue is d\btful4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be repli$ t 8quantity ( life0 mu/ be tak5 to imply n m]ely int5sity ( consci\sness1 b multiplicity & v>iety--a h>moni\s & _m-sid$ developm5t ( human nature4 ,& exp]i5ce c]ta9ly seems to support ! view t m5 lose happ9ess by all[+ "s ( _! faculties or capacities to be )]$ & dw>f$ = want ( ex]cise1 & ?us n leav+ !mselves suffici5t v>iety ( feel+s or activities3 especially z reg>ds ! bodily organs1 x w be agre$ t ! due ex]cise ( mo/1 if n all1 is indisp5sable to ! heal? ( ! organism2 & fur!r1 t ! heal? ma9ta9$ by ?is balance ( functions is a m important s\rce ( ! individual's happ9ess ?an ! unheal?y ov]-ex]cise ( any "o organ c be4 ,/ill1 x w\ld appe> t ! h>mony ( functions necess>y to heal? is a v ela/ic "o1 & admits ( a v wide m>g9 ( v>iation1 z f> z ! organs "u volunt>y control are conc]n$4 ,a man 7e4g47 :o ex]cises 8 bra9 alone w probably be ill 9 consequ5ce3 b he may ex]cise 8 bra9 mu* & 8 legs little1 or vice v]sa1 )\t any morbid results4 ,&1 9 ! same way1 we _c lay d[n ! proposition1 t a v>i$ & _m-sid$ life is ! happie/1 ) z mu* precision z w\ld be necess>y if x 7 to be accept$ z a basis = d$uctive ,h$onism4 ,= x seems to be also l>gely true1 on ! o!r side1 t ! m we come to ex]cise any faculty ) su/a9$ & prolong$ conc5tration1 ! m pleasure we d]ive f su* ex]cise1 up to ! po9t at :i* x becomes we>isome1 or turns into a semi-me*anical r\t9e :i* r5d]s consci\sness dull & languid4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 important = our happ9ess t we %\ld keep )9 ?is limit3 b we _c fix x precisely 9 any p>ticul> case )\t special exp]i5ce3 especially z !re seems always to be a c]ta9 am\nt ( we>9ess & t$ium :i* mu/ be resi/$ & ov]come1 if we w\ld br+ our faculties into full play1 & obta9 ! full enjoym5t ( our lab\r4 ,& simil>ly 9 respect ( passive emotional consci\sness3 if too mu* sam5ess ( feel+ results 9 languor1 too mu* v>iety inevitably involves %all[ness4 ,! po9t :]e conc5tration ought to /op1 & :]e dissipation beg9s1 v>ies f man to man1 & mu/1 x w\ld seem1 be decid$ by ! specific exp]i5ce ( individuals4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r & simpl] way 9 :i* ! maxim ( #8giv+ free developm5t to "o's nature' may be und]/ood3 i4e4 9 ! s5se ( yield+ to spontane\s impulses1 in/ead ( endeav\r+ to gov]n ^! by elaborate =eca/s ( consequ5ces3 a sci5tific ju/ification = ?is c\rse be+ f\nd 9 ! !ory t spontane\s or in/9ctive impulses really repres5t ! effects ( previ\s exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa9 on ! organism 9 :i* !y appe>1 or its ance/ors4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 x has be5 ma9ta9$ t 9 complicat$ problems ( conduct1 exp]i5ce w 8enable ! con/itution to e/imate ! respective am\nts ( pleasure & pa9 consequ5t ^u ea* alt]native10 :]e x is 8impossible = ! intellect0 to d ?is3 & 8w fur!r cause ! organism in/9ctively to %un t c\rse :i* produces on ! :ole mo/ suff]+40#aej ,t !re is an important elem5t ( tru? 9 ?is cont5tion ,i w\ld n d5y4 ,b any broad conclusion t non-rational incl9ation is a bett] guide ?an reason to ! individual's happ9ess w\ld be q unw>rant$ by any?+ t we "k or c plausibly conjecture respect+ biological evolution4 ,=--ov]look+ ! effect ( natural selection to fo/] impulses t5d+ to ! pres]vation ( ! race r ?an ! pleasure ( ! individual1 & grant+ t e s5ti5t organism t5ds to adapt itself to its environm5t1 9 su* a mann] z to acquire in/9cts ( "s value 9 guid+ x to pleasure & away f pa9--x by no means foll[s t 9 ! human organism "o p>ticul> k9d ( adaptation1 t :i* proce$s by unconsci\s modification ( in/9ct1 is to be pref]r$ to t o!r k9d ( adaptation :i* is br\ght ab\t by consci\s comp>ison & inf]5ce4 ,x r seems cle>1 t ?is proposition c only be ju/ifi$ by a comp>ison ( ! consequ5ces ( yield+ to in/9ctive impulses ) ! consequ5ces ( controll+ !m by calculations ( result+ pleasure & pa94 ,b x w h>dly be ma9ta9$ t 9 ! majority ( cle> in/ances :]e non-rational impulse conflicts ) rational =eca/1 a subsequ5t calculation ( consequ5ces appe>s to ju/ify ! =m]2 ! ass]tion w\ld be 9 too flagrant conflict ) ! common s5se & common exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ,h5ce1 h[ev] true x may be t 9 c]ta9 cases in/9ct is on ! :ole a saf] guide ?an prud5tial calculation1 x w\ld /ill seem t we c only asc]ta9 ^! cases by c>eful reflection on exp]i5ce3 we _c det]m9e ! limits to :i* prud5tial calculation may prud5tly be c>ri$1 except by ?is v calculation itself4 ,we seem1 !n1 =c$ to conclude t !re is no sci5tific %ort-cut to ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! "r means to ! individual's happ9ess3 e attempt to f9d a #8high priori road' to ?is goal br+s u back inevitably to ! empirical me?od4 ,= in/ead ( a cle> pr9ciple univ]sally valid1 we only get at be/ a vague & g5]al rule1 bas$ on consid]ations :i* x is important n to ov]look1 b ! relative value ( :i* we c only e/imate by c>eful obs]vation & comp>ison ( individual exp]i5ce4 ,:atev] unc]ta9ty besets ^! processes mu/ necess>ily ext5d to all our reason+s ab\t happ9ess4 ,i h no wi% to exagg]ate ^! unc]ta9ties1 feel+ t we mu/ all cont9ue to seek happ9ess = ourselves & = o!rs1 9 :atev] obscurity we may h to grope aft] x3 b !re is no?+ ga9$ by und]rat+ !m1 & x is idle to argue z if !y did n exi/4 ,,footnotes3 #aca 8,x %\ld seem t a due conc]n ab\t our own int]e/ or happ9ess1 & a reasonable endeav\r to secure & promote x1 444 is virtue1 & ! contr>y behavi\r faulty & blamable40 ,butl] 79 ! ,diss]tation ,( ! ,nature ( ,virtue app5d$ to ! ,analogy74 #acb ,?is view is sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s /atem5t--9 a lett] to ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 publi%$ 9 ,mr4 ,ba9's ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce2 & p>tially repr9t$ 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ,data ( ,e?ics1 *ap4 iv4 #ba--t 8x is ! bus9ess ( moral sci5ce to d$uce1 f ! laws ( life & ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 :at k9ds ( actions necess>ily t5d to produce happ9ess1 & :at k9ds to produce unhapp9ess10 & t :5 x has done ?is1 8its d$uctions are to be recognis$ z laws ( conduct2 & are to be con=m$ to irrespective ( a direct e/imate ( happ9ess or mis]y40 ,i ought1 h[ev]1 to say t ,mr4 ,sp5c] has made x cle> 9 8 late/ treatise t ! only cog5t d$uctions ( ?is k9d :i* he conceives to be possible relate to ! behavi\r n ( m5 "h & n[1 b ( ideal m5 liv+ 9 an ideal society1 & liv+ "u conditions s unlike ^? ( actual humanity t all _! actions produce 8pleasure unalloy$ ) pa9 any:]e0 7,data ( ,e?ics1 #aja74 ,! laws ( conduct 9 ?is ,utopia con/itute1 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s view1 ! subject-matt] ( 8,absolute ,e?ics02 :i* he di/+ui%es f ! 8,relative ,e?ics0 t conc]ns itself ) ! conduct ( ! imp]fect m5 :o live "u ! pres5t imp]fect social conditions1 & ( :i* ! me?od is1 z he admits1 to a great ext5t 8necess>ily empirical0 7,data ( ,e?ics1 #ajh74 ,h[ f> su* a sy/em z ,mr4 ,sp5c] calls ,absolute ,e?ics c be rationally con/ruct$1 & h[ f> its con/ruction w\ld be practically useful1 ,i %all consid] 9 a lat] "p ( ?is treatise 7,book iv4 *ap4 iv471 :5 ,i come to deal ) ! me?od ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism3 at pres5t ,i am only conc]n$ ) ! "q h[ f> any d$uctive ,e?ics is capable ( furni%+ practical guidance to an individual seek+ 8 own greate/ happ9ess "h & n[4 #acc ,ari/otle's !ory is1 briefly1 t e normal s5se-p]ception or rational activity has its correspond5t pleasure1 & t ! mo/ p]fect is ! mo/ pleasant3 ! mo/ p]fect 9 ! case ( any faculty be+ ! ex]cise ( ! faculty 9 good condition on ! be/ object4 ,! pleasure foll[s ! activity imm$iately1 giv+ x a k9d ( f9i%1 8l ! bloom ( y\?40 ,pleasures v>y 9 k9d1 z ! activities t con/itute life v>y3 ! be/ pleasures are ^? ( ! philosophic life4 #acd ,see ,b\illi]1 ,du plaisir et de la d\leur1 *ap4 iii42 ,l4 ,dumont1 ,?orie sci5tifique de la s5sibilit1 *ap4 iii42 z well z ,/\t1 ,analytic ,psy*ology1 *ap4 xii4--to :i* ,i ref] lat]4 #ace ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 vol4 ii4 ,lect4 xlii4 #acf ,9 ,ari/otle's exposition ( ?is !ory--:i* ) him is only a !ory ( pleasure--! e?ical motive ( exhibit+ ! philosophic life z pref]able to t ( ! s5suali/1 9 respect ( ! pleasures x af=ds1 is q unmi/akable4 #acg ,analytic ,psy*ology1 *ap4 xii4 #b4 #ach ,! physiological !ory :i* ,mr4 ,/\t puts =w>d1 z at once correspond5t & supplem5t>y to 8 psy*ological g5]alisation1 w be notic$ lat]4 #aci ,psy*ology1 *ap4 ix4 #abh4 #adj ,book i4 *ap4 iv4 #ada ,x may be add$ t 9 ! case ( emotional pa9s & pleasures1 ! notion ( quantitative diff]5ce betwe5 ! c]ebral n]ve-processes1 antec$5t respectively to ! "o & ! o!r1 seems altoge!r unw>rantable3 ! pa9s ( %ame1 disappo9t$ ambition1 w\nd$ love1 d n appe> to be di/+ui%able f ! pleasures ( fame1 success1 reciprocat$ affection1 by any diff]5ce ( int5sity 9 ! impressions or ideas accompani$ by ! pleasures & pa9s respectively4 #adb ,see ,wundt1 ,grundzge d] physiologis*5 ,psy*ologie1 *ap4 x4 #adc ,p[] ( ,s\nd1 *ap4 i4 #b4 #add ,i say 8appreciably0 because ! controv]t$ psy*ological "q :e!r !re are any /rictly neutral or indiff]5t modifications ( consci\sness seems to me unimportant f a practical po9t ( view4 ,see ,sully1 ,human ,m9d1 *ap4 xiii4 #b4 #ade ,see ,/\t1 ,analytic ,psy*ology1 l4c4 #adf ,physiological /hetics1 *ap4 ii4 #adg ,see ,/\t1 ,analytic ,psy*ology1 *ap4 xii4 #d4 #adh ,see ,book i4 *ap4 iv4 ,note4 #adi ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 #abe1 & ,data ( ,e?ics1 #cc4 #aej ,! quotations are f ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ,social ,/atics1 *ap4 iv43 b ,i %\ld expla9 t 9 ! passage quot$ ,mr4 ,sp5c] is n writ+ f ! po9t ( view ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,,book ,,iii ,,intuitionism ,,*apt] ,i ,,intuitionism #a4 ,! ef=t to exam9e1 closely b q neutrally1 ! sy/em ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 ) :i* we h be5 engag$ 9 ! la/ ,book1 may n improbably h produc$ on ! read]'s m9d a c]ta9 av]sion to ! pr9ciple & me?od exam9$1 ev5 ?\gh 7l myself7 he may f9d x difficult n to admit ! #8au?ority' ( self-love1 or ! #8rationality' ( seek+ "o's own individual happ9ess4 ,9 consid]+ #8enlight5$ self-int]e/' z supply+ a prima facie t5able pr9ciple = ! sy/ematisation ( conduct1 ,i h giv5 no expression to ?is s5tim5t ( av]sion1 be+ anxi\s to asc]ta9 ) sci5tific imp>tiality ! results to :i* ?is pr9ciple logically leads4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we seem to f9d on c>eful exam9ation ( ,egoism 7z work$ out on a /rictly empirical basis7 t ! common precepts ( duty1 :i* we are tra9$ to reg>d z sacr$1 mu/ be to ! egoi/ rules to :i* x is only g5]ally speak+ & = ! mo/ "p reasonable to con=m1 b :i* "u special circum/ances mu/ be decisively ignor$ & brok51--! (f5ce :i* ,egoism 9 ! ab/ract gives to our sympa!tic & social nature adds =ce to ! recoil f x caus$ by ! p]ception ( its occasional practical conflict ) common notions ( duty4 ,b fur!r1 we are accu/om$ to expect f ,morality cle> & decisive precepts or c\nsels3 & su* rules z c be laid d[n = seek+ ! individual's greate/ happ9ess _c b appe> want+ 9 ^! qualities4 ,a dubi\s guidance to an ignoble end appe>s to be all t ! calculus ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism has to (f]4 ,& x is by appeal+ to ! sup]ior c]ta9ty ) :i* ! dictates ( ,consci5ce or ! ,moral ,faculty are issu$1 t ,butl] ma9ta9s ! practical supremacy ( ,consci5ce ov] ,self-love1 9 spite ( 8 admission 79 ! passage be=e quot$#aea7 ( !oretical priority 9 ! claims ( ! latt]4#aeb ,a man kn[s c]ta9ly1 he says1 :at he ought to d3 b he does n c]ta9ly "k :at w lead to 8 happ9ess4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,butl] appe>s to me fairly to repres5t ! common moral s5se ( ord9>y mank9d1 9 our own age no less ?an 9 84 ,! moral judgm5ts t m5 habitually pass on "o ano!r 9 ord9>y disc\rse imply = ! mo/ "p t duty is usually n a difficult ?+ = an ord9>y man to "k1 ?\gh v>i\s s$uctive impulses may make x difficult = him to d x4 ,& 9 su* maxims z t duty %\ld be p]=m$ #8advi5ne que p\rra1' t tru? %\ld be spok5 )\t reg>d to consequ5ces1 t ju/ice %\ld be done #8?\gh ! sky %\ld fall1' x is impli$ t we h ! p[] ( see+ cle>ly t c]ta9 k9ds ( actions are "r & reasonable 9 !mselves1 ap>t f _! consequ5ces2--or r ) a m]ely p>tial consid]ation ( consequ5ces1 f :i* o!r consequ5ces admitt$ to be possibly good or bad are def9itely exclud$4#aec ,& su* a p[] is claim$ = ! human m9d by mo/ ( ! writ]s :o h ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( moral intuitions2 ,i h !re=e ?\ght myself ju/ifi$ 9 treat+ ?is claim z *>act]i/ic ( ! me?od :i* ,i di/+ui% z ,intuitional4 ,at ! same "t1 z ,i h be=e obs]v$1 !re is a wid] s5se 9 :i* ! t]m #8intuitional' might be legitimately appli$ to ei!r ,egoi/ic or ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism2 s f> z ei!r sy/em lays d[n z a fir/ pr9ciple--:i* if kn[n at all mu/ be intuitively kn[n--t happ9ess is ! only rational ultimate end ( action4 ,to ?is mean+ ,i %all recur 9 ! conclud+ *apt]s 7xiii4 & xiv47 ( ?is ,book2 9 :i* ,i %all discuss m fully ! intuitive "* ( ^! h$oni/ic pr9ciples4 ,b s9ce ! adoption ( ?is wid] mean+ w\ld n lead u to a di/9ct e?ical me?od1 ,i h ?\ght x be/1 9 ! detail$ discussion ( ,intuitionism :i* occupies ! fir/ elev5 *apt]s ( ?is ,book1 to conf9e myself z f> z possible to ,moral ,intuition und]/ood 9 ! n>r[] s5se above def9$4 #b4 ,"h1 p]haps1 x may be said t 9 ?us def9+ ,intuitionism ,i h omitt$ its mo/ fundam5tal *>act]i/ic2 t ! ,intuitioni/ prop]ly speak+--9 contra/ ) ! ,utilit>ian--does n judge actions by an ext]nal /&>d at all2 t true morality1 9 8 view1 is n conc]n$ ) outw>d actions z su*1 b ) ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* acts are done--9 %ort ) 8int5tions0 & 8motives40#aed ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ?is objection is p>tly due to a misund]/&+4 ,morali/s ( all s*ools1 ,i conceive1 w\ld agree t ! moral judgm5ts :i* we pass on actions relate prim>ily to int5tional actions reg>d$ z int5tional4 ,9 o!r words1 :at we judge to be #8wrong'--9 ! /ricte/ e?ical s5se--is n any "p ( ! actual effects1 z su*1 ( ! muscul> movem5ts imm$iately caus$ by ! ag5t's volition1 b ! effects :i* he =esaw 9 will+ ! act2 or1 m /rictly1 8 volition or *oice ( realis+ ! effects z =ese54#aee ,:5 ,i speak !re=e ( acts1 ,i mu/ be und]/ood to mean--unless ! contr>y is /at$--acts presum$ to be int5tional & judg$ z su*3 on ?is po9t ,i d n ?9k t any dispute ne$ arise4 ,! case ( motives is diff]5t & requires c>eful discussion4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! di/9ction betwe5 8motive0 & 8int5tion0 9 ord9>y language is n v precise3 s9ce we apply ! t]m 8motive0 to =ese5 consequ5ces ( an act1 s f> z !y are conceiv$ to be objects ( desire to ! ag5t1 or to ! desire ( su* consequ5ces3 & :5 we speak ( ! int5tion ( an act we usually1 no d\bt1 h desir$ consequ5ces 9 view4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t = purposes ( exact moral or jural discussion1 x is be/ to include "u ! t]m #8int5tion' all ! consequ5ces ( an act t are =ese5 z c]ta9 or probable2 s9ce x w be admitt$ t we _c evade responsibility = any =ese5 bad consequ5ces ( our acts by ! plea t we felt no desire = !m1 ei!r = _! own sake or z means to ult]ior ends3#aef su* undesir$ accompanim5ts ( ! desir$ results ( our volitions are cle>ly *os5 or will$ by u4 ,h5ce ! int5tion ( an act may be judg$ to be wrong1 :ile ! motive is recognis$ z good2 z :5 a man commits p]jury to save a p>5t's or a b5efactor's life4 ,su* judgm5ts are1 9 fact1 cont9ually pass$ 9 common moral disc\rse4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t an act _c be "r1 ev5 :5 ! int5tion is su* z duty w\ld prescribe1 if x be done f a bad motive3 t--to take a case sugge/$ by ,b5?am--a man :o prosecutes f malice a p]son :om he believes to be guilty1 does n really act rightly2 =1 ?\gh x may be 8 duty to prosecute1 he ought n to d x f malice4 ,x is d\btless true t x is our duty to get rid ( bad motives if we c2 s t a man's int5tion _c be :olly "r1 unless x includes ! repression1 s f> z possible1 ( a motive kn[n to be bad4 ,b no "o1 ,i ?9k1 w cont5d t we c always suppress entirely a /rong emotion2 & su* suppression w be especially difficult if we are to d ! act to :i* ! wrong impulse prompts2 :ile yet1 if t act be cle>ly a duty :i* no "o else c s prop]ly p]=m1 x w\ld be absurd to say t we ought to omit x because we _c altoge!r exclude an objectionable motive4 ,x is sometimes said t1 ?\gh we may n be able 9 do+ our duty to exclude a bad motive altoge!r f our m9ds1 x is /ill possible to refuse to act f x4 ,b ,i ?9k t ?is is only possible s f> z ! details ( action to :i* a "r motive w\ld prompt diff] to "s ext5t f ^? to :i* a wrong motive w\ld prompt4 ,no d\bt ?is is (t5 ! case3--?us1 9 ,b5?am's example1 a malevol5t prosecutor may be prompt$ to take unfair advantage ( 8 enemy1 or cause him ne$less pa9 by /udi$ insults2 & x is obvi\sly possible = him--& 8 duty--to resi/ su* prompt+s4 ,b s f> z precisely ! same action is prompt$ by two diff]5t motives1 bo? pres5t 9 my consci\sness1 ,i am n consci\s ( any p[] to cause ?is action to be det]m9$ by "o ( ! two motives to ! exclusion ( ! o!r4 ,9 o!r words1 :ile a man c resolve to aim at any end :i* he conceives z a possible result ( 8 volunt>y action1 he _c simultane\sly resolve n to aim at any o!r end :i* he believes w be promot$ by ! same action2 & if t o!r end be an object ( desire to him1 he _c1 :ile aim+ at x1 refuse to act f ?is desire4#aeg ,on ! :ole1 !n1 ,i conclude 7#a7 t :ile _m actions are commonly judg$ to be made bett] or worse by ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( c]ta9 motives1 our judgm5ts ( "r & wrong /rictly speak+ relate to int5tions1 z di/+ui%$ f motives2#aeh & 7#b7 t :ile int5tions affect+ ! ag5t's own feel+s & "* are morally prescrib$ no less ?an int5tions to produce c]ta9 ext]nal effects1 /ill1 ! latt] =m ! prim>y--?\gh n ! sole--cont5t ( ! ma9 prescriptions ( duty1 z commonly affirm$ & und]/ood3 b ! ext5t to :i* ?is is ! case1 w become m cle> z we proce$4 ,x has inde$ be5 ma9ta9$ by morali/s ( influ5ce t ! moral value ( our conduct dep5ds ^u ! degree to :i* we are actuat$ by ! "o motive :i* !y reg>d z truly moral3 viz4 ! desire or free *oice#aei ( do+ :at is "r z su*1 realis+ duty or virtue = duty or virtue's sake3#afj & t a p]fectly good act mu/ be done entirely f ?is motive4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t x is difficult to comb9e ?is view--:i* ,i may conv5i5tly di/+ui% z ,/oical--) ! belief1 :i* mod]n or?odox morali/s h usually be5 conc]n$ to ma9ta91 t x is always a man's true int]e/ to act virtu\sly4 ,i d n mean t a man :o holds ?is belief mu/ necess>ily be an egoi/3 b x seems to me impossible = him to exclude f 8 motives a reg>d = 8 own int]e/1 :ile yet believ+ t x w be promot$ by ! act :i* he is will+4 ,if1 !re=e1 we hold t ?is self-reg>d impairs ! moral value ( an act o!rwise virtu\s1 & at ! same "t hold t virtue is always conducive to ! virtu\s ag5t's int]e/1 we seem driv5 to ! conclusion t k ( ! true relation betwe5 virtue & happ9ess is an insup]able ob/acle to ! atta9m5t ( moral p]fection4 ,i _c accept ?is p>adox3 & 9 subsequ5t *apt]s ,i %all try to %[ t ! ,/oical view ( moral goodness is n on ! :ole su/a9$ by a compreh5sive survey & comp>ison ( common moral judgm5ts3 s9ce 9 "s cases acts appe> to h ! quality ( virtue ev5 m /rik+ly :5 p]=m$ f "s motive o!r ?an ! love ( virtue z su*4 ,= ! pres5t ,i wi% r to po9t out t ! doctr9e above /at$ is diametrically oppos$ to ! view t ! univ]sal or normal motives ( human action are ei!r p>ticul> desires ( pleasure or av]sions to pa9 = ! ag5t himself1 or ! m g5]al reg>d to 8 happ9ess on ! :ole :i* ,i t]m ,self-love2 t x also excludes ! less extreme doctr9e t duties may be to "s ext5t prop]ly done f su* self-reg>d+ motives2 & t "o or o!r ( ^! positions has frequ5tly be5 held by writ]s :o h expressly adopt$ an ,intuitional me?od ( ,e?ics4 ,= in/ance1 we f9d ,locke lay+ d[n1 )\t res]ve or qualification1 t 8good & evil are no?+ b pleasure & pa91 or t :i* occasions or procures pleasure or pa9 to u30#afa s t 8x w\ld be utt]ly 9 va9 to suppose a rule set to ! free actions ( man1 )\t annex+ x to "s rew>d or puni%m5t to det]m9e 8 w40 ,on ! o!r h&1 he expresses1 ) no less emphasis1 ! conviction t 8f self-evid5t propositions1 by necess>y consequ5ces1 z inconte/able z ^? 9 ma!matics1 ! measures ( "r & wrong might be made out10#afb s t 8morality might be plac$ among ! sci5ces capable ( demon/ration40 ,! comb9ation ( ^! two doctr9es gives u ! view t moral rules are ess5tially laws ( ,god1 :i* m5 are impell$ to obey1 solely or ma9ly1 f fe> or hope ( div9e puni%m5ts or rew>ds2 & "s su* view z ?is seems to be widely accept$1 by pla9 m5 )\t v ref9$ moral s5sibilities4 ,z an example1 aga91 ( ?9k]s :o1 :ile recognis+ 9 human nature a dis9t]e/$ reg>d = duty or virtue z su*1 /ill consid] t self-love is a prop] & legitimate motive to "r conduct1 we may ref] to ,butl] & 8 disciples4 ,butl] reg>ds 8reasonable self-love0 z n m]ely a normal motive to human action1 b z be+--no less ?an consci5ce--a 8*ief or sup]ior pr9ciple 9 ! nature ( man02 s t an action 8becomes unsuitable0 to ?is nature1 if ! pr9ciple ( self-love be violat$4 ,accord+ly ! aim ( 8 tea*+ is n to induce m5 to *oose duty r ?an int]e/1 b to conv9ce !m t !re is no inconsi/5cy betwe5 ! two2 t self-love & consci5ce lead 8to "o & ! same c\rse ( life40 ,?is int]m$iate doctr9e appe>s to me to be m 9 h>mony ) ! common s5se ( mank9d on ! :ole ?an ei!r ( ! extreme views be=e contra/$4 ,b ,i d n conceive t any "o ( ! ?ree positions is inconsi/5t ) fundam5tal assumptions ( ! ,intuitional me?od4 ,ev5 ^? :o hold t human be+s _c reasonably be expect$ to con=m to moral rules dis9t]e/$ly1 or f any o!r motive ?an t suppli$ by ! sanctions div9ely atta*$ to !m1 /ill commonly conceive ,god z supreme ,reason1 ^: laws mu/ be ess5tially reasonable3 & s f> z su* laws are held to be cognisable by ! #8light ( nature'--s t morality1 z ,locke says1 may be plac$ among demon/rative sci5ces--! me?od ( det]m9+ !m w be none ! less intuitional because x is comb9$ ) ! belief t ,god w rew>d _! obs]vance & puni% _! violation4 ,on ! o!r h& ^? :o hold t reg>d = duty z duty is an indisp5sable condition ( act+ rightly1 w\ld g5]ally admit t act+ rightly is n adequately def9$ z act+ f a pure desire to act rightly2 t ?\gh1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 a man :o s9c]ely desires & int5ds to act rightly does all he c1 & completely fulfils duty1 /ill su* a man may h a wrong judgm5t z to ! p>ticul>s ( 8 duty1 & !re=e1 9 ano!r s5se1 may act wrongly4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 x is evid5t t1 ev5 on ! view t ! desire or resolution to fulfil duty z su* is ess5tial to "r action1 a di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( rightness is requir$2 :i* we may express by say+ t an act is--on ?is view--8=mally0#afc "r1 if ! ag5t 9 will+ is mov$ by pure desire to fulfil duty or *ooses duty = duty's sake2 8mat]ially0 "r1 if he int5ds ! "r p>ticul> effects4 ,?is di/9ction be+ tak51 x becomes pla9 t !re is no reason :y ! same pr9ciples & me?od = det]m9+ mat]ial rightness1 or rightness ( p>ticul> effects1 %\ld n be adopt$ by ?9k]s :o diff] mo/ widely on ! "q ( =mal rightness2 & x is1 obvi\sly1 ) mat]ial rightness t ! "w ( ! sy/ematic morali/ is ma9ly conc]n$4 #c4 ,! t]m #8=mal rightness1' z above us$1 imply+ a desire or *oice ( ! act z "r1 implies also a belief t x is s4 ,b ! latt] condition may exi/ )\t ! =m]3 ,i _c p]=m an act f pure love ( duty )\t believ+ x to be "r3 b ,i c believe x to be "r & yet d x f "s o!r motive4 ,& !re seems to be m agreem5t among morali/s :o adopt ! ,intuitional ,me?od z to ! moral indisp5sability ( su* a belief1 ?an we h f\nd ) respect to ! "q ( motive3 at lea/1 x w\ld1 ,i conceive1 be univ]sally held t no act c be absolutely "r1 :atev] its ext]nal aspect & relations1 :i* is believ$ by ! ag5t to be wrong4#afd ,su* an act we may call 8subjectively0 wrong1 ev5 ?\gh 8objectively0 "r4 ,x may /ill be ask$ :e!r x is bett] 9 any p>ticul> case t a man %\ld d :at he mi/ak5ly believes to be 8 duty1 or :at really is 8 duty 9 ! p>ticul> circum/ances--consid]$ ap>t f 8 mi/ak5 belief--& w\ld be completely "r if he c\ld only ?9k s4 ,! "q is r subtle & p]plex+ to ,common ,s5se3 x is !re=e wor? :ile to po9t out t x c h only a limit$ & subord9ate practical application4 ,= no "o1 9 consid]+ :at he ought himself to d 9 any p>ticul> case1 c di/+ui% :at he believes to be "r f :at really is s3 ! necessity = a practical *oice betwe5 #8subjective' & #8objective' rightness c only pres5t itself 9 respect ( ! conduct ( ano!r p]son :om x is 9 our p[] to influ5ce4 ,if ano!r is ab\t to d :at we ?9k wrong :ile he ?9ks x "r1 & we _c alt] 8 belief b c br+ o!r motives to be> on him t may ov]balance 8 s5se ( duty1 x becomes necess>y to decide :e!r we ought ?us to tempt him to realise :at we believe to be objectively "r aga9/ 8 own convictions4 ,i ?9k t ! moral s5se ( mank9d w\ld pron\nce aga9/ su* temptation1--?us reg>d+ ! ,subjective rightness ( an action z m important ?an ! ,objective1--unless ! evil ( ! act prompt$ by a mi/ak5 s5se ( duty appe>$ to be v grave4#afe ,b h[ev] ess5tial x may be t a moral ag5t %\ld d :at he believes to be "r1 ?is condition ( "r conduct is too simple to admit ( sy/ematic developm5t3 x is1 !re=e1 cle> t ! details ( our inve/igation mu/ relate ma9ly to #8objective' rightness4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o practical rule ( "s value1 to be obta9$ by m]ely reflect+ on ! g5]al notion ( rightness1#aff z commonly conceiv$4 ,9 a previ\s *apt]#afg ,i endeav\r$ to make ?is notion cle>] by say+ t #8:at ,i judge to be "r mu/1 unless ,i am 9 error1 be judg$ to be s by all rational be+s :o judge truly ( ! matt]4' ,?is /atem5t does n imply t :at is judg$ to be "r = "o man mu/ necess>ily be judg$ s = ano!r3 #8objective' rightness may v>y f ,a to ,b no less ?an ! #8objective' facts ( _! nature & circum/ances v>y4 ,!re seems1 h[ev]1 to be ?is diff]5ce betwe5 our conceptions ( e?ical & physical objectivity respectively3 t we commonly refuse to admit 9 ! case ( ! =m]--:at exp]i5ce compels u to admit z reg>ds ! latt]--v>iations = :i* we c discov] no rational explanation4 ,9 ! v>iety ( coexi/5t physical facts we f9d an accid5tal or arbitr>y elem5t 9 :i* we h to acquiesce1 z we _c conceive x to be exclud$ by any ext5sion ( our k ( physical causation4 ,if we ask1 = example1 :y any portion ( space empirically kn[n to u conta9s m matt] ?an any simil> adjac5t portion1 physical sci5ce c only answ] by /at+ 7along ) c]ta9 laws ( *ange7 "s antec$5t position ( ! p>ts ( matt] :i* ne$s explanation no less ?an ! pres5t2 & h[ev] f> back we c>ry our asc]ta9m5t ( su* antec$5t positions1 ! "o ) :i* we leave (f seems z arbitr>y z t ) :i* we />t$4 ,b )9 ! range ( our cognitions ( "r & wrong1 x w be g5]ally agre$ t we _c admit a simil> unexpla9$ v>iation4 ,we _c judge an action to be "r = ,a & wrong = ,b1 unless we c f9d 9 ! natures or circum/ances ( ! two "s diff]5ce :i* we c reg>d z a reasonable gr\nd = diff]5ce 9 _! duties4 ,if !re=e ,i judge any action to be "r = myself1 ,i implicitly judge x to be "r = any o!r p]son ^: nature & circum/ances d n diff] f my own 9 "s important respects4 ,n[ by mak+ ?is latt] judgm5t explicit1 we may protect ourselves aga9/ ! dang] :i* besets ! consci5ce1 ( be+ w>p$ & p]v]t$ by /rong desire1 s t we too easily ?9k t we ought to d :at we v mu* wi% to d4 ,= if we ask ourselves :e!r we believe t any simil> p]son 9 simil> circum/ances ought to p]=m ! contemplat$ action1 ! "q w (t5 disp]se ! false appe>ance ( rightness :i* our /rong incl9ation has giv5 to x4 ,we see t we %\ld n ?9k x "r = ano!r1 & !re=e t x _c be "r = u4 ,inde$ ?is te/ ( ! rightness ( our volitions is s g5]ally effective1 t ,kant seems to h held t all p>ticul> rules ( duty c be d$uc$ f ! "o fundam5tal rule 8,act z if ! maxim ( ?y action 7 to become by ?y w a univ]sal law ( nature40#afh ,b ?is appe>s to me an error analog\s to t ( suppos+ t ,=mal ,logic supplies a complete crit]ion ( tru?4 ,i %\ld agree t a volition :i* does n /& ?is te/#afi is to be condemn$2 b ,i hold t a volition :i* does /& x may aft] all be wrong4 ,= ,i conceive t all 7or almo/ all7 p]sons :o act consci5ti\sly c\ld s9c]ely w ! maxims on :i* !y act to be univ]sally adopt$3 :ile at ! same "t we cont9ually f9d su* p]sons 9 ?or\ghly consci5ti\s disagreem5t z to :at ea* ought to d 9 a giv5 set ( circum/ances4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 to say t all su* p]sons act rightly--9 ! objective s5se--because _! maxims all con=m to ,kant's fundam5tal rule1 w\ld oblit]ate altoge!r ! di/9ction betwe5 subjective & objective rightness2 x w\ld am\nt to affirm+ t :atev] any "o ?9ks "r is s1 unless he is 9 error z to ! facts ( ! case to :i* 8 judgm5t applies4 ,b su* an affirmation is 9 flagrant conflict ) common s5se2 & w\ld r5d] ! con/ruction ( a sci5tific code ( morality futile3 z ! v object ( su* a code is to supply a /&>d = rectify+ m5's div]g5t op9ions4 ,we may conclude !n t ! moral judgm5ts :i* ! pres5t me?od attempts to sy/ematise are prim>ily & = ! mo/ "p intuitions ( ! rightness or goodness 7or ! rev]se7 ( p>ticul> k9ds ( ext]nal effects ( human volition1 presum$ to be int5d$ by ! ag5t1 b consid]$ indep5d5tly ( ! ag5t's own view z to ! rightness or wrongness ( 8 int5tion2 ?\gh ! quality ( motives1 z di/9ct f int5tions1 has also to be tak5 into acc\nt4 #d4 ,b ! "q may be rais$1 :e!r x is legitimate to take = grant$ 7z ,i h hi!rto be5 do+7 ! exi/5ce ( su* intuitions8 ,&1 no d\bt1 !re are p]sons :o delib]ately d5y t reflection enables !m to discov] any su* ph5om5on 9 _! consci\s exp]i5ce z ! judgm5t or app>5t p]ception t an act is 9 itself "r or good1 9 any o!r s5se ?an t ( be+ ! "r or fit means to ! atta9m5t ( "s ult]ior end4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t su* d5ials are commonly recognis$ z p>adoxical1 & oppos$ to ! common exp]i5ce ( civilis$ m53--at any rate if ! psy*ological "q1 z to ! exi/5ce ( su* moral judgm5ts or app>5t p]ceptions ( moral qualities1 is c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! e?ical "q z to _! validity1 & f :at we may call ! #8psy*ogonical' "q z to _! orig94 ,! fir/ & second ( ^! que/ions are sometimes conf\nd$1 ow+ to an ambiguity 9 ! use ( ! t]m 8intuition02 :i* has sometimes be5 und]/ood to imply t ! judgm5t or app>5t p]ception s designat$ is true4 ,i wi% !re=e to say expressly1 t by call+ any affirmation z to ! rightness or wrongness ( actions 8intuitive10 ,i d n mean to prejudge ! "q z to its ultimate validity1 :5 philosophically consid]$3 ,i only mean t its tru? is app>5tly kn[n imm$iately1 & n z ! result ( reason+4 ,i admit ! possibility t any su* 8intuition0 may turn out to h an elem5t ( error1 :i* subsequ5t reflection & comp>ison may enable u to correct2 j z _m app>5t p]ceptions ?r\gh ! organ ( vision are f\nd to be p>tially illusory & mislead+3 inde$ ! sequel w %[ t ,i hold ?is to be to an important ext5t ! case ) moral intuitions commonly s call$4 ,! "q z to ! validity ( moral intuitions be+ ?us sep>at$ f ! simple "q #8:e!r !y actually exi/1' x becomes obvi\s t ! latt] c only be decid$ = ea* p]son by direct introspection or reflection4 ,x mu/ n !re=e be suppos$ t its decision is a simple matt]1 introspection be+ always infallible3 on ! contr>y1 exp]i5ce leads me to reg>d m5 z (t5 liable to conf\nd ) moral intuitions o!r /ates or acts ( m9d ess5tially diff]5t f !m1--bl9d impulses to c]ta9 k9ds ( action or vague s5tim5ts ( pref]5ce = !m1 or conclusions f rapid & half-unconsci\s processes ( reason+1 or curr5t op9ions to :i* famili>ity has giv5 an illusory air ( self-evid5ce4 ,b any errors ( ?is k9d1 due to c>eless or sup]ficial reflection1 c only be cur$ by m c>eful reflection4 ,?is may inde$ be mu* aid$ by communication ) o!r m9ds2 x may also be aid$1 9 a subord9ate way1 by an inquiry into ! antec$5ts ( ! app>5t intuition1 :i* may sugge/ to ! reflective m9d s\rces ( error to :i* a sup]ficial view ( x is liable4 ,/ill ! "q :e!r a c]ta9 judgm5t pres5ts itself to ! reflective m9d z intuitively kn[n _c be decid$ by any inquiry into its antec$5ts or causes4#agj ,x is1 h[ev]1 /ill possible to hold t an inquiry into ! ,orig9 ( moral intuitions mu/ be decisive 9 det]m9+ _! ,validity4 ,& 9 fact x has be5 (t5 assum$1 bo? by ,intuitioni/s & _! oppon5ts1 t if our moral faculty c be %[n to be #8d]iv$' or #8develop$' out ( o!r pre-exi/5t elem5ts ( m9d or consci\sness1 a reason is !reby giv5 = di/ru/+ x2 :ile if1 on ! o!r h&1 x c be %[n to h exi/$ 9 ! human m9d f its orig91 its tru/wor?9ess is !reby e/abli%$4 ,ei!r assumption appe>s to me devoid ( f\ndation4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,i c see no gr\nd = suppos+ t a faculty ?us d]iv$1 is1 z su*1 m liable to error ?an if its exi/5ce 9 ! individual possess+ x _h be5 diff]5tly caus$3#aga to put x o!rwise1 ,i _c see h[ ! m]e asc]ta9m5t t c]ta9 app>5tly self-evid5t judgm5ts h be5 caus$ 9 kn[n & det]m9ate ways1 c be 9 itself a valid gr\nd = di/ru/+ ?is class ( app>5t cognitions4 ,i _c ev5 admit t ^? :o affirm ! tru? ( su* judgm5ts are b\nd to %[ 9 _! causes a t5d5cy to make !m true3 inde$ ! acceptance ( any su* onus prob&i w\ld seem to me to r5d] ! atta9m5t ( philosophical c]titude impossible4 ,= ! premises ( ! requir$ demon/ration mu/ consi/ ( caus$ beliefs1 :i* z hav+ be5 caus$ w equally /& 9 ne$ ( be+ prov$ true1 & s on ad inf9itum3 unless x be held t we c f9d among ! premises ( our reason+s c]ta9 app>5tly self-evid5t judgm5ts :i* h _h no antec$5t causes1 & t ^! are !re=e to be accept$ z valid )\t pro(4 ,b su* an ass]tion w\ld be an extravagant p>adox3 &1 if x be admitt$ t all beliefs are equally 9 ! position ( be+ effects ( antec$5t causes1 x seems evid5t t ?is *>act]i/ic alone _c s]ve to invalidate any ( !m4 ,i hold1 !re=e1 t ! onus prob&i mu/ be ?r[n ! o!r way3 ^? :o dispute ! validity ( moral or o!r intuitions on ! gr\nd ( _! d]ivation mu/ be requir$ to %[1 n m]ely t !y are ! effects ( c]ta9 causes1 b t ^! causes are ( a k9d t t5d to produce invalid beliefs4 ,n[ x is n1 ,i conceive1 possible to prove by any !ory ( ! d]ivation ( ! moral faculty t ! fundam5tal e?ical conceptions #8"r' or #8:at ought to be done1' #8good' or #8:at x is reasonable to desire & seek1' are invalid1 & t consequ5tly all propositions ( ! =m #8,x is "r' or #8good' are untru/wor?y3 = su* e?ical propositions1 relat+ z !y d to matt] fundam5tally diff]5t f t ) :i* physical sci5ce or psy*ology deals1 _c be inconsi/5t ) any physical or psy*ological conclusions4 ,!y c only be %[n to involve error by be+ %[n to contradict ea* o!r3 & su* a demon/ration _c lead u cog5tly to ! sweep+ conclusion t all are false4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be possible to prove t "s e?ical beliefs h be5 caus$ 9 su* a way z to make x probable t !y are :olly or p>tially errone\s3 & x w h]eaft] be important to consid] h[ f> any ,e?ical intuitions1 :i* we f9d ourselves dispos$ to accept z valid1 are op5 to attack on su* psy*ogonical gr\nds4 ,at pres5t ,i am only conc]n$ to ma9ta9 t no g5]al demon/ration ( ! d]iv$ness or develop$ness ( our moral faculty c supply an adequate reason = di/ru/+ x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we h be5 once l$ to di/ru/ our moral faculty on o!r gr\nds--z 7e4g47 f ! want ( cle>ness & consi/5cy 9 ! moral judgm5ts ( ! same individual1 & ! discrepancies betwe5 ! judgm5ts ( diff]5t individuals--x seems to me equally cle> t our confid5ce 9 su* judgm5ts _c prop]ly be re-e/abli%$ by a demon/ration ( _! #8orig9ality4' ,i see no reason to believe t ! #8orig9al' elem5t ( our moral cognition c be asc]ta9$2 b if x c\ld1 ,i see no reason to hold t x w\ld be especially free f error4 #e4 ,h[ !n c we hope to elim9ate error f our moral intuitions8 ,"o answ] to ?is "q 0 briefly sugge/$ 9 a previ\s *apt] :]e ! diff]5t phases ( ! ,intuitional ,me?od 7 discuss$4 ,x 0 !re said t 9 ord] to settle ! d\bts aris+ f ! unc]ta9ties & discrepancies t are f\nd :5 we comp>e our judgm5ts on p>ticul> cases1 reflective p]sons naturally appeal to g5]al rules or =mul3 & x is to su* g5]al =mul t ,intuitional ,morali/s commonly attribute ultimate c]ta9ty & validity4 ,& c]ta9ly !re are obvi\s s\rces ( error 9 our judgm5ts respect+ concrete duty :i* seem to be abs5t :5 we consid] ! ab/ract notions ( diff]5t k9ds ( conduct2 s9ce 9 any concrete case ! complexity ( circum/ances necess>ily increases ! difficulty ( judg+1 & our p]sonal int]e/s or habitual sympa?ies are liable to di/urb ! cle>ness ( our moral disc]nm5t4 ,fur!r1 we mu/ obs]ve t mo/ ( u feel ! ne$ ( su* =mul n only to correct1 b also to supplem5t1 our intuitions respect+ p>ticul> concrete duties4 ,only exceptionally confid5t p]sons f9d t !y always seem to see cle>ly :at ought to be done 9 any case t comes be=e !m4 ,mo/ ( u1 h[ev] unhesitat+ly we may affirm rightness & wrongness 9 ord9>y matt]s ( conduct1 yet n unfrequ5tly meet ) cases :]e our unreason$ judgm5t fails u2 & :]e we c\ld no m decide ! moral issue rais$ )\t appeal+ to "s g5]al =mula1 ?an we c\ld decide a disput$ legal claim )\t ref]5ce to ! positive law t deals ) ! matt]4 ,& su* =mul are n difficult to f9d3 x only requires a little reflection & obs]vation ( m5's moral disc\rse to make a collection ( su* g5]al rules1 z to ! validity ( :i* !re w\ld be app>5t agreem5t at lea/ among moral p]sons ( our own age & civilisation1 & :i* w\ld cov] ) approximate complet5ess ! :ole ( human conduct4 ,su* a collection1 reg>d$ z a code impos$ on an individual by ! public op9ion ( ! community to :i* he belongs1 we h call$ ! ,positive ,morality ( ! community3 b :5 reg>d$ z a body ( moral tru?1 w>rant$ to be su* by ! cons5sus ( mank9d1--or at lea/ ( t portion ( mank9d :i* comb9es adequate intellectual enlight5m5t ) a s]i\s conc]n = morality--x is m significantly t]m$ ! morality ( ,common ,s5se4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we try to apply ^! curr5tly accept$ pr9ciples1 we f9d t ! notions compos+ !m are (t5 defici5t 9 cle>ness & precision4 ,= in/ance1 we %\ld all agree 9 recognis+ ,ju/ice & ,v]acity z important virtues2 & we %all probably all accept ! g5]al maxims1 t #8we ought to give e man 8 own' & t #8we ought to speak ! tru?'3 b :5 we ask 7#a7 :e!r primog5iture is j1 or ! dis5d[m5t ( corporations1 or ! det]m9ation ( ! value ( s]vices by competition1 or 7#b7 :e!r & h[ f> false /atem5ts may be all[$ 9 spee*es ( advocates1 or 9 religi\s c]emonials1 or :5 made to enemies or robb]s1 or 9 def5ce ( lawful secrets1 we d n f9d t ^! or any o!r curr5t maxims enable u to give cle> & unhesitat+ decisions4 ,& yet su* p>ticul> que/ions are1 aft] all1 ^? to :i* we naturally expect answ]s f ! morali/4 ,= we /udy ,e?ics1 z ,ari/otle says1 = ! sake ( ,practice3 & 9 practice we are conc]n$ ) p>ticul>s4 ,h5ce x seems t if ! =mul ( ,intuitive ,morality are really to s]ve z sci5tific axioms1 & to be available 9 cle> & cog5t demon/rations1 !y mu/ fir/ be rais$--by an ef=t ( reflection :i* ord9>y p]sons w n make--to a high] degree ( precision ?an atta*es to !m 9 ! common ?\ght & disc\rse ( mank9d 9 g5]al4 ,we h1 9 fact1 to take up ! attempt t ,socrates initiat$1 & endeav\r to def9e satisfactorily ! g5]al notions ( duty & virtue :i* we all 9 common use = aw>d+ approbation or disapprobation to conduct4 ,?is is ! task ^u :i* we %all be engag$ 9 ! n9e *apt]s t foll[4 ,i mu/ beg ! read] to be> 9 m9d t ?r\gh\t ^! *apt]s ,i am n try+ to prove or disprove ,intuitionism1 b m]ely by reflection on ! common morality :i* ,i & my read] %>e1 & to :i* appeal is s (t5 made 9 moral disputes1 to obta9 z explicit1 exact1 & coh]5t a /atem5t z possible ( its fundam5tal rules4 ,,footnotes3 #aea ,see p4 #aai4 #aeb ,x may seem1 he admits1 t 8s9ce int]e/1 "o's own happ9ess1 is a manife/ obligation10 9 any case 9 :i* virtu\s action appe>s to be n conducive to ! ag5t's int]e/1 he w\ld be 8"u two contr>y obligations1 i4e4 "u none at all4 ,b10 he urges1 8! obligation on ! side ( int]e/ really does n rema94 ,= ! natural au?ority ( ! pr9ciple ( reflection or consci5ce is an obligation 444 ! mo/ c]ta9 & kn[n3 :]eas ! contr>y obligation c at ! utmo/ appe> no m ?an probable3 s9ce no man c be c]ta9 9 any circum/ances t vice is 8 int]e/ 9 ! pres5t _w1 mu* less c he be c]ta9 aga9/ ano!r3 & ?us ! c]ta9 obligation w\ld entirely sup]s$e & de/roy ! unc]ta9 "o40--7,preface to ,butl]'s ,s]mons47 #aec ,i h be=e obs]v$ 7,book i4 *ap4 viii4 #a7 t 9 ! common notion ( an act we include a c]ta9 portion ( ! :ole s]ies ( *anges p>tly caus$ by ! volition :i* initiat$ ! s-call$ act4 #aed ,"s w\ld add 8"*0 & 8disposition40 ,b s9ce *>act]s & disposition n only _c be kn[n directly b c only be def9itely conceiv$ by ref]5ce to ! volitions & feel+s 9 :i* !y are manife/$1 x does n seem to me possible to reg>d !m z ! prim>y objects ( intuitive moral judgm5ts4 ,see *ap4 ii4 #b ( ?is ,book4 #aee ,no d\bt we hold a man responsible = un9t5d$ bad consequ5ces ( 8 acts or omissions1 :5 !y are su* z he might ) ord9>y c>e h =ese52 /ill1 z ,i h be=e said 7p4 #fj71 we admit on reflection t moral blame only atta*es to su* c>eless acts or omissions indirectly1 9 s f> z ! c>elessness is ! result ( "s previ\s wilful neglect ( duty4 #aef ,i ?9k t common usage1 :5 c>efully consid]$1 w be f\nd to admit ?is def9ition4 ,suppose a nihili/ bl[s up a railway tra9 conta9+ an emp]or & o!r p]sons3 x w no d\bt be held correct to say simply t 8 int5tion 0 to kill ! emp]or2 b x w\ld be ?\ght absurd to say t he #8did n int5d' to kill ! o!r p]sons1 ?\gh he may h _h no desire to kill !m & may h reg>d$ _! dea? z a lam5table incid5t 9 ! execution ( 8 revolution>y plans4 #aeg ,a fur!r s\rce ( confusion betwe5 8int5tion0 & 8motive0 arises f ! diff]5t po9ts ( view f :i* ei!r may be judg$4 ,?us an act may be "o ( a s]ies :i* ! ag5t purposes to d = ! atta9m5t ( a c]ta9 end3 & our moral judgm5t ( x may be v diff]5t1 accord+ z we judge ! int5tion ( ! p>ticul> act1 or ! g5]al int5tion ( ! s]ies reg>d$ z a :ole4 ,ei!r po9t ( view is legitimate1 & bo? are (t5 requir$2 = we commonly recognise t1 ( ! s]ies ( acts :i* a man does to atta9 7e4g47 any end ( ambition1 "s may be "r or all[able1 :ile o!rs are wrong2 :ile ! g5]al int5tion to atta9 ! end by wrong means1 if necess>y1 z well z "r-- 8,get place & weal?1 if possible ) grace2 ,if n1 by any means get weal? & place0-- is cle>ly a wrong int5tion4 ,s aga91 9 judg+ a motive to be good or bad1 we may ei!r consid] x simply 9 itself1 or 9 connexion ) o!r balanc+ & controll+ motives--ei!r actually pres5t along ) x1 or abs5t :5 !y ought to be pres5t4 ,?us 9 ! above case we d n commonly ?9k ! desire = weal? or rank bad 9 itself2 b we ?9k x bad z ! sole motive ( a /atesman's public c>e]4 ,x is easy to see t "o or o!r ( ^! diff]5t di/9ctions is apt to bl5d ) & confuse ! simple di/9ction betwe5 int5tion & motive4 #aeh ,! view t moral judgm5ts relate prim>ily or mo/ prop]ly to motives w be m fully discuss$ 9 *ap4 xii4 ( ?is ,book4 #aei ,i use ^! alt]native t]ms 9 ord] to avoid ! ,free ,w ,controv]sy4 #afj ,_m religi\s p]sons w\ld probably say t ! motive ( ob$i5ce or love to ,god 0 ! highe/4 ,b ^? :o take ?is view w\ld g5]ally say t ob$i5ce & love are due to ,god z a ,moral ,be+1 possess+ ! attributes ( ,inf9ite ,wisdom & ,goodness1 & n o!rwise3 & if s1 ^! religi\s motives w\ld seem to be sub/antially id5tical ) reg>d = duty & love ( virtue1 ?\gh modifi$ & complicat$ by ! addition ( emotions belong+ to relations betwe5 p]sons4 #afa ,locke's ,essay1 ,,ii4 c4 #bh1 #e1 #f4 #afb ,ibid4 ,,iv4 c4 #c1 #ah4 #afc ,i d n myself usually employ ! anti!sis ( ,=m & ,matt] 9 philosophical exposition1 z x appe>s to me op5 to ! *>ge ( obscurity & ambiguity4 ,9 ! pres5t case we may int]pret 8=mal rightness0 z d5ot+ at once a univ]sal & ess5tial1 & a subjective or int]nal condition ( ! rightness ( actions4 #afd ,x is n1 ,i conceive1 commonly held to be indisp5sable1 9 ord] to con/itute an act completely "r1 t a belief t x is "r %\ld be actually pres5t 9 ! ag5t's m9d3 x might be completely "r1 al?\gh ! ag5t nev] actually rais$ ! "q ( its rightness or wrongness4 ,see p4 #bbe4 #afe ,! decision w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 usually be rea*$ by weigh+ bad consequ5ces to ! ag5t's "* aga9/ bad consequ5ces ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,9 extreme cases ! latt] consid]ation w\ld c]ta9ly prevail 9 ! view ( common s5se4 ,?us we %\ld g5]ally approve a /atesman :o cru%$ a dang]\s rebellion by work+ on ! fe> or cupidity ( a lead+ rebel :o 0 rebell+ on consci5ti\s gr\nds4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book iv4 *ap4 iii4 #c4 #aff ,! anti!sis ( #8subjective' & #8objective' _c be appli$ to ! condition ( "r conduct consid]$ 9 ?is p>agraph3 = ?is =mal condition is at once subjective & objective2 be+1 z ,i argue1 involv$ 9 our common notion ( "r conduct1 x is1 !re=e1 necess>ily judg$ by u to be ( really univ]sal application3 &1 ?\gh x does n secure complete objective rightness1 x is an important protection aga9/ objective wrongness4 #afg ,cf4 ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 #c4 #afh ,see ! ,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik d] ,sitt5 7pp4 #bfi-bgc1 ,h>t5/e92 ,abbott's transl4 #ahgi pp4 #ed-fa74 ,"h ,kant fir/ says1 8,!re is !re=e b "o categorical imp]ative1 namely1 ?is3 ,act only on t maxim :]eby ?\ can/ at ! same "t w t x %\ld become a univ]sal law4 ,n[1 if all imp]atives ( duty c be d$uc$ f ?is "o imp]ative z f _! pr9ciple 444 we %all at lea/ be able to %[ :at we und]/& by duty & :at ?is notion means40 ,he !n demon/rates ! application ( ! pr9ciple to f\r cases1 select$ z repres5tative ( 8! _m actual duties02 & cont9ues3 8if n[ we att5d to ourselves on occasion ( any transgression ( duty1 we %all f9d t we 9 fact d n w t our maxim %\ld be a univ]sal law1 = t is impossible = u0 4443 !n1 summ+ up ! conclusion ( ?is "p ( 8 argum5t1 he says1 8we h exhibit$ cle>ly & def9itely = e practical application ! cont5t ( ! categorical imp]ative :i* mu/ conta9 ! pr9ciple ( all duty1 if !re is su* a ?+ at all40 #afi ,i d n mean t ,i am prep>$ to accept ,kant's fundam5tal maxim1 9 ! precise =m 9 :i* he has /at$ x3 b ! qualifications :i* x seems to me to require w be m conv5i5tly expla9$ lat]4 #agj ,see ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 p4 #cb4 #aga ,i _c d\bt t e "o ( our cognitive faculties1--9 %ort ! human m9d z a :ole1--has be5 d]iv$ & develop$1 ?r\gh a gradual process ( physical *ange1 out ( "s l[] life 9 :i* cognition1 prop]ly speak+1 _h no place4 ,on ?is view1 ! di/9ction betwe5 #8orig9al' & #8d]iv$' r$uces itself to t betwe5 #8prior' & #8po/]ior' 9 developm5t3 & ! fact t ! moral faculty appe>s some:at lat] 9 ! process ( evolution ?an o!r faculties c h>dly be reg>d$ z an argum5t aga9/ ! validity ( moral intuition2 especially s9ce ?is process is commonly conceiv$ to be homog5e\s ?r\gh\t4 ,inde$ su* a l9e ( reason+ w\ld be suicidal2 z ! cognition t ! moral faculty is develop$ is c]ta9ly lat] 9 developm5t ?an moral cognition1 & w\ld !re=e1 by ?is reason+1 be less tru/wor?y4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,virtue ,,& ,,duty #a4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we attempt to def9e p>ticul> virtues or dep>tm5ts ( duty1 x w be well to exam9e fur!r ! notions ( ,duty & ,virtue 9 g5]al1 & ! relations betwe5 ! two1 z we f9d !m implicitly conceiv$ by ! common s5se ( mank9d1 :i* we are endeav\r+ to express4 ,hi!rto ,i h tak5 ,duty to be broadly conv]tible ) ,"r conduct3 ,i h notic$1 h[ev]1 t ! =m] t]m--l 8ought0 & 8moral obligation0--implies at lea/ ! pot5tial pres5ce ( motives prompt+ to wrong conduct2 & is !re=e n applicable to be+s to :om no su* conflict ( motives c be attribut$4 ,?us ,god is n conceiv$ z p]=m+ duties1 ?\gh ,he is conceiv$ z realis+ ,ju/ice & o!r k9ds ( ,rightness 9 action4 ,= a simil> reason1 we d n commonly apply ! t]m #8duty' to "r actions--h[ev] necess>y & important--:5 we are s /rongly impell$ to !m by non-moral incl9ations t no moral impulse is conceiv$ to be necess>y = _! p]=mance4 ,?us we d n say g5]ally t x is a duty to eat & dr9k en\gh3 ?\gh we d (t5 say ?is to invalids :o h lo/ _! appetite4 ,we %\ld !re=e p]haps keep mo/ close to usage if we def9$ ,duties z #8^? ,"r actions or ab/95ces1 = ! adequate accompli%m5t ( :i* a moral impulse is conceiv$ to be at lea/ occasionally necess>y4' ,b z ?is l9e ( di/9ction is vague1 & cont9ually v>y+1 ,i %all n ?9k x necess>y to draw att5tion to x 9 ! detail$ discussion ( duties3 x seems suffici5t to po9t out t we %all be *iefly conc]n$ ) su* "r conduct z comes )9 ! def9ition j sugge/$4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t !re is ano!r implication 9 ! t]m 8duty0 :i* ,i h s f> ov]look$1 b :i* its d]ivation--& t ( ! equival5t t]m #8obligation'--pla9ly indicates3 viz4 t x is 8due0 or ow$ to "s "o4 ,b ,i ?9k t "h ! d]ivation does n gov]n ! e/abli%$ usage3 r1 x is commonly recognis$ t duties ow$ to p]sons1 or 8relative0 duties1 are only "o species1 & t "s duties--z 7e4g47 ,tru?-speak+--h no su* relativity4 ,no d\bt x is possible to view any duty z relative to ! p]son or p]sons imm$iately affect$ by its p]=mance2 b x is n usual to d ?is :]e ! imm$iate effects are h>mful--z :]e tru?-speak+ causes a physically injuri\s %ock to ! p]son address$--3 & ?\gh x may /ill be conceiv$ to be ultimately good = society1 & s 8due0 to ! community or to humanity at l>ge1 t tru? %\ld ev5 9 ?is case be spok51 ?is conception h>dly belongs to ! intuitional view t #8tru? %\ld be spok5 reg>dless ( consequ5ces4' ,aga91 x may be ?\ght by religi\s p]sons t ! p]=mance ( duties is ow$ n to ! human or o!r liv+ be+s affect$ by !m1 b to ,god z ! au?or ( ! moral law4 ,& ,i c]ta9ly w\ld n d5y t our common conception ( duty involves an impli$ relation ( an individual w to a univ]sal w conceiv$ z p]fectly rational3 b ,i am n prep>$ to affirm t ?is implication is necess>y1 & an adequate discussion ( ! difficulties involv$ 9 x w\ld lead to metaphysical controv]sies :i* ,i am desir\s ( avoid+4 ,i propose1 !re=e1 9 ?is exposition ( ! ,intuitional me?od1 to ab/ract f ?is relation ( ,duty g5]ally to a ,div9e ,w3 &1 = reasons p>tly simil>1 to leave out ( consid]ation ! p>ticul> 8duties to ,god0 :i* ,intuitioni/s h (t5 di/+ui%$ & classifi$4 ,our view ( ! g5]al rules ( 8duty to man0 7or to o!r animals7--s f> z su* rules are held to be cognisable by moral intuition--w1 ,i conceive1 rema9 ! same1 :e!r or n we reg>d su* rules z impos$ by a ,supreme ,rational ,w3 s9ce 9 any case !y w be su* z we hold x rational = all m5 to obey1 & !re=e su* z a ,supreme ,reason w\ld impose4 ,i %all n !re=e treat ! t]m 8,duty0 z imply+ necess>ily a relation ei!r to a univ]sal ,impon5t or to ! individuals prim>ily affect$ by ! p]=mance ( duties3 b %all use x z equival5t g5]ally to ,"r conduct1 :ile practically conc5trat+ att5tion on acts & ab/95ces = :i* a moral impulse is ?\ght to be m or less requir$4 ,! notion ( ,virtue pres5ts m complexity & difficulty1 & requires to be discuss$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,we may beg9 by notic+ t !re seem to be "s p>ticul> virtues 7su* z ,g5]osity7 :i* may be realis$ 9 acts objectively--?\gh n subjectively--wrong1 f want ( insight into _! consequ5ces3 & ev5 "s 7su* z ,c\rage7 :i* may be exhibit$ 9 wrong acts t are kn[n by ! ag5t to be su*4 ,b ?\gh ! contemplation ( su* acts excites 9 u a quasi-moral admiration1 9 ! latt] case we c]ta9ly %\ld n call !m virtu\s1 & x is d\btful :e!r we %\ld d s 9 ! =m] case1 if we 7 us+ ! t]m /rictly4 ,x w !re=e involve no mat]ial deviation f usage1 if we limit ! t]m 8,virtue0 to qualities exhibit$ 9 "r conduct3#agb accord+ly ,i propose to adopt ?is limitation 9 subsequ5t discussions4 ,h[ f>1 !n1 are we to reg>d ! sph]es ( ,duty & ,virtue 7?us def9$7 z co-ext5sive8 ,to a great ext5t !y und\bt$ly are s1 9 ! common application ( ! t]ms1 b n altoge!r3 s9ce 9 its common use ea* t]m seems to include some?+ exclud$ f ! o!r4 ,we %\ld sc>cely say t x 0 virtu\s--"u ord9>y circum/ances--to pay "o's debts1 or give "o's *ildr5 a dec5t education1 or keep "o's ag$ p>5ts f />v+2 ^! be+ duties :i* mo/ m5 p]=m1 & only bad m5 neglect4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are acts ( high & noble virtue :i* we commonly reg>d z go+ beyond ! /rict duty ( ! ag5t2 s9ce1 :ile we praise _! p]=mance1 we d n condemn _! non-p]=mance4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a difficulty seems to arise2 = we %\ld n d5y t x is1 9 "s s5se1 a man's /rict duty to d :atev] action he judges mo/ excell5t1 s f> z x is 9 8 p[]4 ,b c we say t x is z mu* 9 a man's p[] to realise ,virtue z x is to fulfil ,duty8#agc ,to "s ext5t1 no d\bt1 we %\ld say ?is3 no quality ( conduct is ev] call$ a virtue unless x is ?\ght to be to "s ext5t imm$iately atta9able at w by all ord9>y p]sons1 :5 circum/ances give opportunity = its manife/ation4 ,9 fact ! l9e betwe5 virtues & o!r excell5ces ( behavi\r is commonly drawn by ?is *>act]i/ic ( volunt>9ess2--an excell5ce :i* we ?9k no ef=t ( w c\ld at once enable u to exhibit 9 any appreciable degree is call$ a gift1 grace1 or tal5t1 b n prop]ly a virtue4 ,writ]s l ,hume1#agd :o oblit]ate ?is l9e1 div]ge manife/ly f common s5se4 ,/ill ,i reg>d x z manife/ly p>adoxical to ma9ta9 t x is 9 ! p[] ( any "o at any "t to realise virtue 9 ! highe/ =m or degree2 7e4g47 no "o w\ld affirm t any ord9>y man c at w exhibit ! highe/ degree ( c\rage 9 ! s5se 9 :i* c\rage is a virtue--:5 occasion arises4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t we c di/+ui% a m>g9 ( virtu\s conduct1 :i* may be beyond ! /rict duty ( any individual z be+ beyond 8 p[]4 ,c we !n1 exclud+ ?is m>g91 say t virtu\s conduct1 s f> z x is 9 a man's p[]1 co9cides completely ) 8 duty8 ,c]ta9ly we %\ld agree t a truly moral man _c say to himself1 8,?is is ! be/ ?+ on ! :ole = me to d1 b yet x is n my duty to d x ?\gh x is 9 my p[]03 ?is w\ld c]ta9ly seem to common s5se an immoral p>adox4#age ,& yet !re seem to be acts & ab/95ces :i* we praise z virtu\s1 )\t impos+ !m z duties ^u all :o are able to d !m2 z = a ri* man to live v pla9ly & devote 8 income to works ( public b5efic5ce4 ,p]haps we may h>monise ^! inconsi/5t views by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! que/ions #8:at a man ought to d or =be>' & #8:at o!r m5 ought to blame him = n do+ or =be>+'3 & recognis+ t ! /&>d normally appli$ 9 deal+ ) ! latt] "q is lax] ?an w\ld be "r 9 deal+ ) ! =m]4 ,b h[ is ?is d\ble /&>d to be expla9$8 ,we may p>tly expla9 x by ! diff]5t degrees ( our k 9 ! two cases3 !re are _m acts & =be>ances ( :i* we _c lay d[n def9itely t !y ought to be done or =borne1 unless we h ! complete k ( circum/ances :i* a man commonly possesses only 9 8 own case1 & n 9 t ( o!r m54 ,?us ,i may easily assure myself t ,i ought to subscribe to a giv5 hospital3 b ,i _c judge :e!r my neighb\r ought to subscribe1 z ,i d n "k ! details ( 8 income & ! claims :i* he is b\nd to satisfy4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t ?is explanation is always applicable3 ,i ?9k t !re are n a few cases 9 :i* we refra9 f blam+ o!rs = ! omission ( acts :i* we d n d\bt t we 9 _! place %\ld h ?\ght x our duty to p]=m4 ,9 su* cases ! l9e seems drawn by a m or less consci\s consid]ation ( :at m5 ord9>ily d1 & by a social in/9ct z to ! practical effects ( express$ moral approbation & disapprobation3 we ?9k t moral progress w on ! :ole be be/ promot$ by our prais+ acts t are above ! level ( ord9>y practice1 & conf9+ our c5sure--at lea/ if precise & p>ticul>--to acts t fall cle>ly bel[ ?is /&>d4 ,b a /&>d s det]m9$ mu/ be inevitably vague1 & t5d+ to v>y z ! av]age level ( morality v>ies 9 any community1 or section ( a community3 inde$ x is ! aim ( prea*]s & tea*]s ( morality to raise x cont9ually4 ,h5ce x is n conv5i5t to use x 9 draw+ a !oretical l9e betwe5 ,virtue & ,duty3 & ,i h !re=e ?\ght x be/ to employ ! t]ms s t virtu\s conduct may include ! p]=mance ( duty z well z :atev] good actions may be commonly ?\ght to g beyond duty2 ?\gh recognis+ t ,virtue 9 its ord9>y use is mo/ conspicu\sly manife/$ 9 ! latt]4 #b4 ,s f> ,i h be5 consid]+ ! t]m #8,virtu\s' z appli$ to conduct4 ,b bo? ?is g5]al t]m1 & ! names connot+ p>ticul> virtues--8j10 8lib]al10 8brave10 etc4--are appli$ to p]sons z well z to _! acts3 & ! "q may be rais$ :i* application is mo/ appropriate or prim>y4 ,"h reflection1 ,i ?9k1 %[s t ^! attributes are n ?\ght by u to belong to acts consid]$ ap>t f _! ag5ts3 s t ,virtue seems to be prim>ily a quality ( ! s\l or m9d1 conceiv$ z p]man5t 9 comp>ison ) ! transi5t acts & feel+s 9 :i* x is manife/$4 ,z s conceiv$ x is widely held to be a possession wor? aim+ at = its own sake2 to be1 9 fact1 a "p ( t ,p]fection ( man :i* is by "s reg>d$ z ! sole ,ultimate ,good4 ,?is view ,i %all consid] 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4#agf ,mean:ile x may be obs]v$ t ,virtues1 l o!r habits & dispositions1 ?\gh reg>d$ z comp>atively p]man5t attributes ( ! m9d1 are yet attributes ( :i* we c only =m def9ite notions by conceiv+ ! p>ticul> transi5t ph5om5a 9 :i* !y are manife/$4 ,if !n we ask 9 :at ph5om5a ,virtu\s "* is manife/$1 ! obvi\s answ] is t x is manife/$ 9 volunt>y actions1 s f> z int5tional2 or1 m briefly1 9 volitions4 ,& _m1 p]haps mo/1 morali/s w\ld give ?is z a complete answ]4 ,if !y are n prep>$ to affirm ) ,kant t a good w is ! only absolute & unconditional ,good1 !y w at any rate agree ) ,butl] t 8! object ( ! moral faculty is actions1 compreh5d+ "u t "n active or practical pr9ciples3 ^? pr9ciples f :i* m5 w\ld act if occasions & circum/ances gave !m p[]40 ,& if x be urg$ t m ?an ?is is includ$ 7e4g47 9 ! ,*ri/ian conception ( ! ,virtue ( ,*>ity1 ! 8love ( our neighb\r10 !y w expla9 ) ,kant t by ?is love we mu/ n und]/& ! emotion ( affection1 b m]ely ! resolution to b5efit1 :i* alone has 8true moral wor?40 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t ! complete exclusion ( an emotional elem5t f ! conception ( ,virtue w\ld be really 9 h>mony ) ! common s5se ( mank9d4 ,i ?9k t 9 our common moral judgm5ts c]ta9 k9ds ( virtu\s actions are held to be at any rate adorn$ & made bett] by ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 emotions 9 ! virtu\s ag5t3 ?\gh no d\bt ! elem5t ( volition is ! m important & indisp5sable4 ,?us ! ,virtue ( ,*a/ity or ,purity1 9 its highe/ =m1 seems to include m ?an a m]e settl$ resolution to ab/a9 f unlawful lu/2 x includes "s s5tim5t ( repugnance to impurity4 ,aga91 we recognise t b5efits :i* spr+ f affection & are lov+ly be/[$ are m acceptable to ! recipi5ts ?an ^? conf]r$ )\t affection1 9 ! ta/e ( :i* !re is admitt$ly some?+ h>% & dry3 h5ce1 9 a c]ta9 way1 ! affection1 if practical & /eady1 seems a high] excell5ce ?an ! m]e b5efic5t disposition ( ! w1 z result+ 9 m excell5t acts4 ,9 ! case ( ,gratitude ev5 ! rigidity ( ,kant#agg seems to relax1 & to admit an elem5t ( emotion z indisp5sable to ! virtue3 & !re are v>i\s o!r notions1 su* z ,loyalty & ,patriotism1 :i* x is difficult--)\t p>adox--ei!r to exclude f a li/ ( virtues or to introduce /ripp$ b>e ( all emotional elem5ts4 ,a consid]ation ( ! cases la/ m5tion$ w lead u to conclude t1 9 ! view ( ,common ,s5se1 ! "q 7rais$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]71 :e!r an act is virtu\s 9 proportion z x 0 done f reg>d = duty or virtue1 mu/ be answ]$ 9 ! negative3 = ! degree 9 :i* an act des]ves praise z c\rage\s1 loyal1 or patriotic does n seem to be r$uc$ by its be+ %[n t ! pr$om9ant motive to ! act 0 natural affection & n love ( virtue z su*4 ,inde$ 9 "s cases ,i ?9k x cle> t we commonly attribute virtue to conduct :]e reg>d = duty or virtue is n consci\sly pres5t at all3 z 9 ! case ( a h]oic act ( c\rage--let u say1 9 sav+ a fell[-creature f dea?--"u an impulse ( spontane\s sympa?y4 ,s aga91 :5 we praise a man z 8g5u9ely humble0 we c]ta9ly d n imply t he is consci\s ( fulfill+ a duty--/ill less t he is consci\s ( exhibit+ a virtue--by be+ humble4 ,x fur!r appe>s to me t 9 ! case ( _m important virtues we d n commonly consid] ! ultimate spr+ ( action--:e!r x be "s emotional impulse or ! rational *oice ( duty z duty--9 attribut+ a p>ticul> virtue to p>ticul> p]sons3 :at we reg>d z indisp5sable is m]ely a settl$ resolve to w a c]ta9 k9d ( ext]nal effects4 ,?us we call a man v]aci\s if 8 spee* exhibits1 9 a notewor?y degree1 a settl$ endeav\r to produce 9 ! m9ds ( o!rs impressions exactly correspond5t to ! facts1 :atev] 8 motive may be = s do+3 :e!r he is mov$1 solely or ma9ly1 by a reg>d = virtue1 or a s5se ( ! degradation ( falsehood1 or a conviction t tru?-speak+ is 9 ! long run ! be/ policy1 or a sympa!tic av]sion to ! inconv5i5ces :i* mislead+ /atem5ts cause to o!r p4 ,i d n mean t we reg>d ^! motives z ( equal moral value3 b t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( any "o or o!r ( !m is n impli$ 9 our attribution ( ! virtue ( v]acity4 ,simil>ly we attribute ,ju/ice1 if a man has a settl$ habit ( weigh+ div]se claims & fulfill+ !m 9 ! ratio ( _! importance2 ,good ,fai? if he has a settl$ habit ( /rictly keep+ express or tacit engagem5ts3 & s =?4 ,ev5 :]e we cle>ly take motives into acc\nt1 9 judg+ ( ! degree ( virtue x is (t5 r ! =ce ( s$uctive motives resi/$ ?an ! p>ticul> nature ( ! prevail+ spr+s ( action :i* we consid]4 ,?us we c]ta9ly ?9k virtue has be5 manife/$ 9 a high] degree 9 j or v]aci\s conduct1 :5 ! ag5t _h /rong temptations to be unju/ or unv]aci\s2 & 9 ! same way !re are c]ta9 dispositions or habits t5d+ to good conduct :i* are call$ virtues :5 !re are p[]ful s$uctive motives op]at+ & n o!rwise2 e4g4 :5 we attribute ! virtue ( temp]ance to a man :o eats & dr9ks a prop] am\nt1 x is because we also attribute to him appetites prompt+ to excess4 ,at ! same "t ,i admit t ,common ,s5se seems liable to "s p]plexity z to ! relation ( virtue to ! moral ef=t requir$ = resi/+ unvirtu\s impulses4 ,on ! "o h& a g5]al ass5t w\ld be giv5 to ! proposition t virtue is especially drawn out & exhibit$ 9 a successful conflict ) natural incl9ation3 & p]haps ev5 to ! m extreme /atem5t t !re is no virtue#agh 9 do+ :at "o likes4 ,on ! o!r h& we %\ld surely agree ) ,ari/otle t ,virtue is imp]fect s long z ! ag5t _c d ! virtu\s action )\t a conflict ( impulses2 s9ce x is f a wrong b5t ( natural impulse t we f9d x h>d to d :at is be/1 & x seems absurd to say t ! m we cure ourselves ( ?is wrong b5t1 ! less virtu\s we gr[4 ,p]haps we may solve ! difficulty by recognis+ t our common idea ( ,virtue includes two di/9ct elem5ts1 ! "o be+ ! mo/ p]fect ideal ( moral excell5ce t we are able to conceive = human be+s1 :ile ! o!r is manife/$ 9 ! ef=t ( imp]fect m5 to atta9 ?is ideal4 ,?us 9 proportion z a man comes to l any p>ticul> k9d ( good conduct & to d x )\t moral ef=t1 we %all n say t 8 conduct becomes less virtu\s b r m 9 con=mity ) a true moral ideal2 :ile at ! same "t we %all recognise t 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( 8 life he has less room to exhibit t o!r k9d ( virtue :i* is manife/$ 9 resi/ance to s$uctive impulses1 & 9 ! en]getic /riv+ ( ! w to get ne>] to ideal p]fection4 ,s f> ,i h be5 consid]+ ! manife/ation ( virtue 9 emotions & volitions1 & h n expressly adv]t$ to ! intellectual conditions ( virtu\s acts3 ?\gh 9 speak+ ( su* acts x is ( c\rse impli$ t ! volition is accompani$ ) an intellectual repres5tation ( ! p>ticul> effects will$4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 impli$ t 9 will+ su* effects we mu/ necess>ily ?9k ( !m z "r or good3 & ,i d n myself ?9k t1 9 ! view ( common s5se1 ?is is an indisp5sable condition ( ! virtu\sness ( an act2 = x seems t "s k9ds ( virtu\s acts may be done s entirely )\t delib]ation t no moral judgm5t 0 pass$ on !m by ! ag5t4 ,?is might be ! case1 = in/ance1 ) an act ( h]oic c\rage1 prompt$ by an impulse ( sympa?y ) a fell[-creature 9 sudd5 p]il4 ,b x is1 ,i conceive1 cle>ly necess>y t su* an act %\ld n be ev5 vaguely ?\ght to be bad4 ,z ,i h already said1 x is m d\btful h[ f> an act :i* is conceiv$ by ! ag5t to be good1 b :i* is really bad1 is ev] judg$ by common s5se to be virtu\s#agi3 b if we agree to re/rict ! t]m to acts :i* we reg>d z "r1 x is aga9 obvi\s t ! realisation ( virtue may n be 9 ! p[] ( any giv5 p]son at any giv5 "t1 ?r\gh lack ( ! requisite intellectual conditions4#ahj ,to sum up ! results ( a r complicat$ discussion3 ,i consid] ,virtue z a quality manife/$ 9 ! p]=mance ( duty 7or good acts go+ beyond /rict duty73 x is inde$ prim>ily attribut$ to ! m9d or "* ( ! ag5t2 b x is only kn[n to u ?r\gh its manife/ations 9 feel+s & acts4 ,accord+ly1 9 endeav\r+ to make precise our conceptions ( ! p>ticul> virtues1 we h to exam9e ! /ates ( consci\sness 9 :i* !y are manife/$4 ,exam9+ ^!1 we f9d t ! elem5t ( volition is prim>ily important1 & 9 "s cases almo/ ( sole importance1 b yet t ! elem5t ( emotion _c be altoge!r disc>d$ )\t palpable div]g5ce f common s5se4 ,aga91 conc5trat+ our att5tion on ! volitional elem5t1 we f9d t 9 mo/ cases :at we reg>d z manife/ations ( virtue are ! volitions to produce c]ta9 p>ticul> effects2 ! g5]al det]m9ation to d "r z "r1 duty = duty's sake1 is inde$ ?\ght to be ( fundam5tal importance z a g5]ally necess>y spr+ ( virtu\s action2 b x is n ?\ght to be an indisp5sable condition ( ! exi/5ce ( virtue 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,simil>ly 9 consid]+ ! emotional elem5t1 ?\gh an ard5t love ( virtue or av]sion to vice g5]ally is a valuable /imulus to virtu\s conduct1 x is n a univ]sally necess>y condition ( x3 & 9 ! case ( "s acts ! pres5ce ( o!r emotions--su* z k9d affection--makes ! acts bett] ?an if !y 7 done f a purely moral motive4 ,su* emotions1 h[ev]1 _c be comm&$ at w3 & ?is is also true ( ! k ( :at ought to be done 9 any p>ticul> case1--:i*1 if we re/rict ! t]m #8virtu\s' to "r acts1 is obvi\sly requir$ to r5d] conduct p]fectly virtu\s4 ,= ^! & o!r reasons ,i consid] t ?\gh ,virtue is di/+ui%$ by u f o!r excell5ces by ! *>act]i/ic ( volunt>9ess--x mu/ be to "s ext5t capable ( be+ realis$ at w :5 occasion arises--?is volunt>9ess atta*es to x only 9 a c]ta9 degree2 & t1 ?\gh a man c always d 8 ,duty if he kn[s x1 he _c always realise virtue 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t ev5 :5 x is beyond our p[] to realise virtue imm$iately at w1 we recognise a duty ( cultivat+ x & seek+ to develop x3 & ?is duty ( cultivation ext5ds to all virtu\s habits or dispositions 9 :i* we are f\nd to be defici5t1 s f> z we c ?us increase our t5d5cy to d ! correspond+ acts 9 future2 h[ev] completely su* acts may on ea* occasion be )9 ! control ( ! w4 ,x is true t = acts ( ?is latt] k9d1 s f> z !y are p]fectly delib]ate1 we d n seem to ne$ any special virtu\s habits2 if only we h k ( :at is "r & be/ to be done1 toge!r ) a suffici5tly /rong wi% to d x4#aha ,b1 9 ord] to fulfil our duties ?or\ghly1 we are oblig$ to act dur+ "p ( our lives sudd5ly & )\t delib]ation3 on su* occasions !re is no room = moral reason+1 & sometimes n ev5 = explicit moral judgm5t2 s t 9 ord] to act virtu\sly1 we require su* p>ticul> habits & dispositions z are d5ot$ by ! names ( ! special virtues3 & x is a duty to fo/] & develop ^! 9 :atev] way exp]i5ce %[s ?is to be possible4 ,! complicat$ relation ( virtue to duty1 z above det]m9$1 mu/ be borne 9 m9d ?r\gh\t ! discussion ( ! p>ticul> virtues1 to :i* ,i %all proce$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,b1 z we h se51 ! ma9 "p ( ! manife/ation ( virtue 9 conduct consi/s 9 volunt>y actions1 :i* x is )9 ! p[] ( any individual to d--s f> z !y are recognis$ by him z "r1--& :i* !re=e come )9 our def9ition ( ,duty1 z above laid d[n2 x w n !re=e be necess>y1 dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ensu+ discussion1 to di/+ui% betwe5 pr9ciples ( virtu\s conduct & pr9ciples ( duty2 s9ce ! def9itions ( ! two w co9cide4 #c4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a rem>k is necess>y1 :i* to "s ext5t qualifies :at 0 said 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 :]e ,i *>act]is$ ! common notions ( p>ticul> virtues--ju/ice1 etc4--z too vague to furni% exact det]m9ations ( ! actions enjo9$ "u !m4 ,i !re assum$ t rules ( duty ought to admit ( precise def9ition 9 a univ]sal =m3 & ?is assumption naturally belongs to ! ord9>y or jural view ( ,e?ics z conc]n$ ) a moral code3 s9ce we %\ld agree t if obligations are impos$ on any "o he ought at lea/ to "k :at !y are1 & t a law indef9itely drawn mu/ be a bad law4 ,b s f> z we contemplate virtue z some?+ t goes beyond /rict duty & is n always capable ( be+ realis$ at w1 ?is assumption is n s cle>ly appropriate3 s9ce f ?is po9t ( view we naturally comp>e excell5ce ( conduct ) beauty 9 ! products ( ! ,f9e ,arts4 ,( su* products we commonly say1 t ?\gh rules & def9ite prescriptions may d mu*1 !y c nev] d all2 t ! highe/ excell5ce is always due to an in/9ct or tact t _c be r$uc$ to def9ite =mul4 ,we c describe ! beautiful products :5 !y are produc$1 & to "s ext5t classify _! beauties1 giv+ names to ea*2 b we _c prescribe any c]ta9 me?od = produc+ ea* k9d ( beauty4 ,s1 x may be said1 /&s ! case ) virtues3 & h5ce ! attempt to /ate an explicit maxim1 by apply+ :i* we may be sure ( produc+ virtu\s acts ( any k9d1 mu/ fail3 we c only give a g5]al acc\nt ( ! virtue--a description1 n a def9ition--& leave x to tra9$ insight to f9d 9 any p>ticul> circum/ances ! act t w be/ realise x4 ,on ?is view1 :i* ,i may di/+ui% z /hetic ,intuitionism1 ,i %all h some?+ to say h]eaft]4#ahb ,b ,i conceive t our prim>y bus9ess is to exam9e ! l>g] claims ( ^? ,rational or ,jural ,intuitioni/s1 :o ma9ta9 t ,e?ics admits ( exact & sci5tific treatm5t1 hav+ = its fir/ pr9ciples ! g5]al rules ( :i* we h spok51 or ! mo/ fundam5tal ( !m3 & :o ?us hold out to u a hope ( gett+ rid ( ! fluctuations & discrepancies ( op9ion1 9 :i* we acquiesce 9 /hetic discussions1 b :i* t5d to endang] s]i\sly ! au?ority ( e?ical beliefs4 ,& we _c1 ,i ?9k1 decide on ! validity ( su* claims )\t exam9+ 9 detail ! propositions :i* h be5 put =w>d z e?ical axioms1 & see+ h[ f> !y prove to be cle> & explicit1 or h[ f> o!rs may be sugge/$ pres5t+ ^! qualities4 ,= x w\ld n be ma9ta9$1 at lea/ by ! m judici\s ?9k]s ( ?is s*ool1 t su* axioms are always to be f\nd ) prop] exactness ( =m by m]e obs]vation ( ! common moral reason+s ( m52 b r t !y are at lea/ impli$ 9 ^! reason+s1 & t :5 made explicit _! tru? is self-evid5t1 & mu/ be accept$ at once by an intellig5t & unbiass$ m9d4 ,j z "s ma!matical axioms are n & _c be kn[n to ! multitude1 z _! c]ta9ty _c be se5 except by m9ds c>efully prep>$1--b yet1 :5 _! t]ms are prop]ly und]/ood1 ! p]ception ( _! absolute tru? is imm$iate & irresi/ible4 ,simil>ly1 if we are n able to claim = a propos$ moral axiom1 9 its precise =m1 an explicit & actual ass5t ( 8orbis t]r>um10 x may /ill be a tru? :i* m5 be=e vaguely appreh5d$1 & :i* !y w n[ unhesitat+ly admit4 ,9 ?is inquiry x is n ( great importance 9 :at ord] we take ! virtues4 ,we are n to exam9e ! sy/em ( any p>ticul> morali/1 b ! ,morality 7z x 0 call$7 ( ,common ,s5se2 & ! discussion ( ! g5]al notions ( ,duty & ,virtue1 9 :i* we h be5 engag$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 w h %[n incid5tally ! great difficulty ( elicit+ f ,common ,s5se any cle> pr9ciple ( classification ( ! p>ticul> duties & virtues4 ,h5ce ,i h ?\ght x be/ to res]ve :at ,i h to say on ! subject ( classification till a lat] p]iod ( ! discussion2 & 9 ! fir/ place to take ! matt] to be inve/igat$ q empirically1 z we f9d x 9 ! common ?\ght express$ 9 ! common language ( mank9d4 ,! sy/ems ( morali/s commonly attempt to give "s def9ite arrangem5t to ?is crude mat]ial3 b 9 s f> z !y are sy/ematic !y g5]ally seem =c$ to transc5d ,common ,s5se1 & def9e :at x has left d\btful2 z ,i %all h]eaft] try to %[4 ,= ! pres5t1 !n1 x seems be/1 9 ?is empirical inve/igation1 to take ! virtues r 9 ! ord] ( _! importance2 &1 z !re are "s t seem to h a special compreh5siv5ess ( range1 & to include "u !m1 9 a mann]1 all or mo/ ( ! o!rs1 x w be conv5i5t to beg9 ) ^!4 ,( ^! ,wisdom is p]haps ! mo/ obvi\s3 9 ! next *apt]1 !re=e1 ,i propose to exam9e our common conceptions ( ,wisdom1 & c]ta9 o!r cognate or connect$ virtues or excell5ces4 ,,footnotes3 #agb ,x is m conv5i5t1 = ! purpose ( exp\nd+ ! morality ( common s5se1 to und]/& by ,virtue a quality exhibit$ 9 "r conduct2 = !n we c use ! common notions ( ! p>ticul> virtues z heads = ! classification ( ! mo/ important k9ds or aspects ( "r conduct z g5]ally recognis$4 ,& ,i ?9k t ?is employm5t ( ! t]m is z mu* 9 accordance ) ord9>y usage z any o!r equally precise use w\ld be4 #agc ,9 ,book i4 *ap4 v4 #c ,i h expla9$ ! s5se 9 :i* ,det]m9i/s no less ?an ,lib]t>ians hold t x is 9 a man's p[] to d 8 duty4 #agd ,cf4 ,inquiry conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals1 ,app5dix iv4 #age ,if ! phrase 9 ! text 7 us$ by a moral p]son1 ) a s9c]e & pr$om9ant desire to d 8 duty1 x mu/1 ,i conceive1 be us$ 9 "o ( two s5ses3 ei!r 7#a7 half-ironically1 9 recognition ( a cu/om>y /&>d ( virtu\s conduct :i* ! speak] is n prep>$ expressly to dispute1 b :i* he does n really adopt z valid--z :5 we say t x w\ld be virtu\s to read a new book1 he> a s]mon1 pay a visit1 etc42 or 7#b7 x might be us$ loosely to mean t su* & su* conduct w\ld be be/ if ! speak] 7 diff]5tly con/itut$4 #agf ,*ap4 xiv4 ( ?is ,book4 #agg ,cf4 ,met4 ,anf4 d4 ,tug5dlehre1 #cc3 8diese ,tug5d1 wel*e mit ,innigkeit d] wohlwoll5d5 ,ges9nung zuglei* ,zrtli*keit des ,wohlwoll5s v]b9det40 #agh ,or no 8m]it03--b s f> z ?is latt] notion is precisely appli$1 x w be m appropriately consid]$ 9 *4 v4 ( ?is ,book 7on ,ju/ice74 #agi ,i h be=e said t decid$ly wrong acts are frequ5tly consid]$ to exhibit 9 a high degree ! t5d5cies :i*1 :5 exhibit$ 9 "r acts1 we call p>ticul> virtues--g5]osity1 c\rage1 patriotism1 etc43 & ?is is especially true ( acts bad ?r\gh ignorance4 #ahj ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 is a conclusion :i* common s5se on ! :ole accepts3 ?\gh ,i note a consid]able reluctance to accept x2 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n %[n 9 ! attribution ( virtue to p]sons :o d cle>ly wrong acts1 b r 9 an ef=t to expla9 _! ignorance z caus$ by "s previ\s wilful wrongdo+4 ,we try to p]suade ourselves t if 7e4g47 ,torquemada did n "k t x 0 wrong to torture h]etics1 he might h kn[n if he _h n wilfully neglect$ means ( enlight5m5t3 b !re are _m cases 9 :i* ?is k9d ( explanation is unsupport$ by facts1 & ,i see no gr\nd = accept+ x z g5]ally true4 #aha ,h5ce ! ,socratic doctr9e t #8all virtue is k'2 on ! assumption t a rational be+ mu/ necess>ily wi% = :at is good4 #ahb ,see *ap4 xiv4 #a ( ?is ,book4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,wisdom ,,& ,,self-,,control #a4 ,wisdom 0 always plac$ by ! ,greek philosoph]s fir/ 9 ! li/ ( virtues1 & reg>d$ z 9 a mann] compreh5d+ all ! o!rs3 9 fact 9 ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools ! notion ( ! ,sage or ideally ,wise man 77 0 regul>ly employ$ to exhibit 9 a concrete =m ! rules ( life laid d[n by ea* sy/em4 ,9 common ,greek usage1 h[ev]1 ! t]m j m5tion$ w\ld signify excell5ce 9 purely speculative sci5ce1 no less ?an practical wisdom#ahc3 & ! ,engli% t]m ,wisdom has1 to "s ext5t1 ! same ambiguity4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 *iefly us$ 9 ref]5ce to practice3 & ev5 :5 appli$ to ! region ( pure speculation sugge/s especially su* intellectual gifts & habits z lead to s\nd practical conclusions3 namely1 compreh5siv5ess ( view1 ! habit ( att5d+ imp>tially to a numb] ( div]se consid]ations difficult to e/imate exactly1 & good judgm5t z to ! relative importance ( ea*4 ,at any rate1 x is only ,practical ,wisdom :i* we commonly class among ,virtues1 z di/+ui%$ f purely intellectual excell5ces4 ,h[ !n %all we def9e ,practical ,wisdom8 ,! mo/ obvi\s "p ( its mean+ is a t5d5cy to disc]n1 9 ! conduct ( life g5]ally1 ! be/ means to ! atta9m5t ( any ends t ! natural play ( human motives may lead u to seek3 z contra/$ ) te*nical skill1 or ! faculty ( select+ ! be/ means to giv5 ends 9 a c]ta9 limit$ & special dep>tm5t ( human action4 ,su* skill 9 ! special arts is p>tly communicable by means ( def9ite rules1 & p>tly a matt] ( tact or in/9ct1 dep5d+ some:at on natural gifts & pr$ispositions1 b to a great ext5t acquir$ by ex]cise & imitation2 & simil>ly practical ,wisdom1 if und]/ood to be ,skill 9 ! ,art ( ,life1 w\ld involve a c]ta9 am\nt ( sci5tific k1 ! portions ( diff]5t sci5ces be>+ directly on human action1 toge!r ) empirical rules relat+ to ! same subject-matt]2 & also ! tact or tra9$ in/9ct j m5tion$1 :i* w\ld ev5 be m prom95t "h1 on acc\nt ( ! extreme complexity ( ! subject-matt]4 ,b x does n appe> f ?is analysis :y ?is skill %\ld be reg>d$ z a virtue3 & reflection w %[ t we d n ord9>ily mean by wisdom m]ely ! faculty ( f9d+ ! be/ means to any ends3 = we %\ld n call ! mo/ accompli%$ sw9dl] wise2 :]eas we %\ld n hesitate to attribute to him clev]ness1 +5uity1 & o!r purely intellectual excell5ces4 ,s aga9 we apply ! t]m 8worldly-wise0 to a man :o skilfully *ooses ! be/ means to ! end ( ambition2 b we %\ld n call su* a man #8wise' )\t qualification4 ,wisdom1 9 %ort1 appe>s to me to imply "r judgm5t 9 respect ( ends z well z means4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a subtle "q arises4 ,= ! assumption on :i* ?is treatise proce$s is t !re are sev]al ultimate ends ( action1 :i* all claim to be rational ends1 su* z e man ought to adopt4 ,h5ce1 if ,wisdom implies "r judgm5t z to ends1 x is cle> t a p]son :o reg>ds "s "o end z ! sole "r or rational ultimate end w n consid] a man wise :o adopts any o!r ultimate end4 ,c we say !n t 9 ! common use ( ! ^w ,wisdom any "o ultimate end is di/9ctly impli$ to ! exclusion ( o!rs8 ,x may be sugge/$1 p]haps1 t 9 ! moral view ( ,common ,s5se :i* we are n[ try+ to make cle>1 s9ce ,wisdom itself is prescrib$ or comm5d$ z a quality ( conduct intuitively disc]n$ to be "r or good1 ! ultimate end :i* ! wise man pref]s mu/ be j ?is atta9m5t ( rightness or goodness 9 conduct g5]ally2 r ?an pleasure = himself or o!rs1 or any o!r ult]ior end4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! case ( ?is notion x is impossible to c>ry out t analysis ( ord9>y practical reason+ into sev]al di/9ct me?ods1 ea* admitt+ & ne$+ sep>ate developm5t1 ^u :i* ! plan ( ?is treatise is f\nd$4 ,=1 z we saw1 x is *>act]i/ic ( ,common ,s5se to assume co9cid5ce or h>mony among ^! diff]5t compet+ me?ods4 ,& h5ce1 :ile z reg>ds mo/ p>ticul> virtues & duties1 ! ex]cise ( moral judgm5t 9 ord9>y m5 is prima facie indep5d5t ( h$oni/ic calculations1 & occasionally 9 app>5t conflict ) _! results1--s t ! reconciliation ( ! diff]5t proc$ures pres5ts itself z a problem to be solv$--9 ! compreh5sive notion ( ,wisdom ! antagonism is lat5t4 ,common ,s5se seems to mean by a ,wise man1 a man :o atta9s at once all ! diff]5t rational ends2 :o by conduct 9 p]fect con=mity ) ! true moral code atta9s ! greate/ happ9ess possible bo? = himself & = mank9d 7or t portion ( mank9d to :i* 8 ef=ts are necess>ily re/rict$74 ,b if we f9d ?is h>mony unatta9able1--if1 = example1 ,rational ,egoism seems to lead to conduct oppos$ to ! true int]e/s ( mank9d 9 g5]al1 & we ask :e!r we are to call ,wise ! man :o seeks1 or him :o sacrifices1 8 private int]e/s1--,common ,s5se gives no cle> reply4 #b4 ,let u n[ return to ! "q :e!r ,wisdom1 z exhibit$ 9 "r judgm5t z to ends1 is 9 any degree atta9able at w1 & s1 accord+ to our def9ition1 a ,virtue4 ,at fir/ sight1 ! p]ception ( ! "r end may seem n to be volunt>y any m ?an ! cognition ( any o!r k9d ( tru?2 & ?\gh 9 mo/ cases ! atta9m5t ( tru? requires volunt>y ef=t1 /ill we d n g5]ally ?9k x possible = any man1 by ?is alone1 to atta9 ev5 approximately ! "r solution ( a difficult intellectual problem4 ,x is (t5 said1 h[ev]1 t ! cognition ( ,moral tru? dep5ds l>gely ^u ! #8he>t1' t is1 ^u a c]ta9 condition ( our desires & o!r emotions3 & x w\ld seem to be on ?is view t ,wisdom is reg>d$ z a ,virtue2 & we may admit x z su*1 accord+ to ! def9ition be=e giv51 s f> z ?is condition ( feel+ is atta9able at w4 ,/ill1 on clos] scrut9y1 !re h>dly seems to be agreem5t z to ! "r emotional conditions ( ! cognition ( ends3 z "s w\ld say t pray] or ard5t aspiration produc$ ! mo/ fav\rable /ate1 :ile o!rs w\ld urge t emotional excitem5t is likely to p]turb ! judgm5t1 & w\ld say t we ne$ = "r appreh5sion r tranquillity ( feel+3 & "s w\ld cont5d t a complete suppression ( selfi% impulses 0 ! ess5tial condition1 :ile o!rs w\ld reg>d ?is z *im]ical & impossible1 or1 if possible1 a pla9 misdirection ( ef=t4 ,on ^! po9ts we _c decide 9 ! "n ( ,common ,s5se3 b x w\ld be g5]ally agre$ t !re are c]ta9 viol5t passions & s5sual appetites :i* are kn[n to be liable to p]v]t moral appreh5sions1 & t ^! are to "s ext5t "u ! control ( ! ,w2 s t a man :o ex]cises moral ef=t to resi/ _! influ5ce1 :5 he wi%es to decide on ends ( action1 may be said to be s f> volunt>ily wise4 ,& ?is applies to "s ext5t ev5 to t o!r function ( ,wisdom1 fir/ discuss$1 :i* consi/s 9 ! selection ( ! be/ means to ! atta9m5t ( giv5 ends4 ,= exp]i5ce seems to %[ t our insight 9 practical matt]s is liable to be p]v]t$ by desire & fe>1 & t ?is p]v]sion may be prev5t$ by an ef=t ( self-control3 s t unwisdom1 ev5 "h1 is at lea/ n altoge!r involunt>y4 ,?us 9 a dispute :i* may lead to a qu>rel1 ,i may be entirely unable to %[ =esight & skill 9 ma9ta9+ my "r 9 su* a mann] z to avoid ne$less exasp]ation1 & s f> may be unable to conduct ! dispute wisely3 b x is always 9 my p[]1 be=e tak+ ea* important /ep1 to r$uce ! influ5ce ( ang] or w\nd$ am\r propre on my decisions1 & ,i may avoid mu* unwisdom 9 ?is way4 ,& x is to be obs]v$ t volition has a m important "p to play 9 develop+ or protect+ our insight into ! "r conduct ( life1 ?an x has 9 respect ( ! te*nical skill to :i* we comp>$ ,practical ,wisdom2 9 proportion z ! reason+s 9 :i* ,practical ,wisdom is exhibit$ are less cle> & exact1 & ! conclusions inevitably m unc]ta94 ,= desire & fe> c\ld h>dly make "o g wrong 9 an ari?metical calculation2 b 9 e/imat+ a balance ( complicat$ practical probabilities x is m difficult to resi/ ! influ5ce ( /rong incl9ation3 & x w\ld seem to be a m or less def9ite consci\sness ( ! cont9ual ne$ ( su* resi/ance1 :i* leads u to reg>d ,wisdom z a ,virtue4 ,we may say !n t ,practical ,wisdom1 s f> z x is a virtue1 involves a habit ( resi/ance to desires & fe>s :i* is commonly di/+ui%$ z ,self-control4 ,b suppose a man has det]m9$ ) full insight ! c\rse ( conduct t x is reasonable = him to adopt "u any giv5 circum/ances1 ! "q /ill rema9s :e!r he w c]ta9ly adopt x4 ,n[ ,i h>dly ?9k t ,common ,s5se consid]s ! *oice1 z di/9ct f ! cognition1 ( "r ends to belong to ,wisdom2 & yet we %\ld sc>cely call a man wise :o delib]ately *ose to d :at he knew to be contr>y to reason4 ,! tru? seems to be t ! notion ( su* a *oice1 ?\gh ! mod]n m9d admits x z possible1#ahd is some:at unfamili> 9 comp>ison ) ei!r 7#a7 impulsive irrationality1 or 7#b7 mi/ak5 *oice ( bad = good4 ,9 ! la/ case1 if ! mi/ake is entirely involunt>y1 ! *oice has1 ( c\rse1 no subjective wrongness3 (t51 h[ev]1 ! mi/ak5 conclusion is caus$ by a p]v]t+ influ5ce ( desire or fe> ( :i* ! ag5t is obscurely consci\s1 & :i* might be resi/$ & dispell$ by an ef=t ( w4 ,z s caus$1 ! mi/ake falls "u ! head ( culpable unwisdom1 due to want ( self-control simil> 9 k9d--?\gh n 9 degree--to t :i* is exhibit$ 9 ! r>] ph5om5on ( a man delib]ately *oos+ to d :at he kn[s to be bad = him4 ,! case ( impulsive wrongdo+ is some:at diff]5t4 ,x is cle> t a resolution made aft] delib]ation1 9 accordance ) our view ( :at is "r1 %\ld n be ab&on$ or modifi$ except delib]ately--at lea/ if "t = fre% delib]ation be all[$--3 & ! self-control requir$ to resi/ impulses prompt+ to su* ab&onm5t or modification--:i* we may p]haps call ,firmness1--is an indisp5sable auxili>y to ,wisdom4 ,b ! gu/s ( impulse t ! v>y+ occasions ( life ar\se sometimes take effect s rapidly t ! resolution to :i* !y run c\nt] is n actually recall$ at ! "t3 & 9 ?is case ! self-control or firmness requir$ to prev5t unreasonable action seems to be n atta9able at w1 :5 x is mo/ want$4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 cultivate ?is important habit by grav+ our resolves deep] 9 ! mom5ts ( delib]ation t cont9ually int]v5e among ! mom5ts ( impulsive action4 #c4 ,9 exam9+ ! functions ( ,wisdom1 o!r subord9ate excell5ces come into view1 :i* are p>tly includ$ 9 our ideal conception ( ,wisdom1 & p>tly auxili>y or supplem5t>y4 ,"s ( ^!1 h[ev]1 no "o w\ld exactly call virtues3 su* z ,sagacity 9 select+ ! really important po9ts amid a cr[d ( o!rs1 ,acut5ess 9 see+ aids or ob/acles t lie some:at hidd54 ,+5uity 9 devis+ subtle or complicat$ means to our ends1 & o!r cognate qualities m or less vaguely def9$ & nam$4 ,we _c be acute1 or +5i\s1 or sagaci\s :5 we please1 ?\gh we may become m s by practice4 ,! same may be said ( ,caution1 s f> z ,caution implies tak+ into due acc\nt mat]ial circum/ances unfav\rable to our wi%es & aims3 = by no ef=t ( w c we c]ta9ly see :at circum/ances are mat]ial2 we c only look /eadily & compreh5sively4 ,! t]m #8,caution1' h[ev]1 may also be legitimately appli$ to a species ( ,self-control :i* we %all prop]ly reg>d z a ,virtue3 viz4 ! t5d5cy to delib]ate :5ev] & s long z delib]ation is judg$ to be requir$1 ev5 ?\gh p[]ful impulses urge u to imm$iate action4#ahe ,&1 9 anti!sis to ,caution1 we may notice z ano!r m9or virtue ! quality call$ ,decision1 s f> z we mean by ,decision ! habit ( resi/+ an irrational impulse to :i* m5 are liable1 ( cont9u+ to "s ext5t 9 ! delib]ative attitude :5 !y "k t delib]ation is no long] exp$i5t1 & t !y ought to be act+4 #8,decision1' h[ev]1 is (t5 appli$ 7l #8,caution'7 to d5ote solely or *iefly a m]ely intellectual excell5ce2 viz4 ! t5d5cy to judge rightly z to ! "t = clos+ delib]ation4 ,i conclude !n t s f> z su* qualities z ^? :i* ,i h di/+ui%$ z ,caution1 & ,decision1 are recognis$ z ,virtues & n m]ely z intellectual excell5ces1 x is because !y are1 9 fact1 species ( ,self-control2 i4e4 because !y involve volunt>y adoption ( & adhesion to rational judgm5ts z to conduct1 9 spite ( c]ta9 irrational motives prompt+ 9 an opposite direction4 ,n[ x may seem at fir/ sight t if we suppose p]fect correctness ( judgm5t comb9$ ) p]fect self-control1 ! result w be a p]fect p]=mance ( duty 9 all dep>tm5ts2 & ! realisation ( p]fect ,virtue1 except s f> z ?is involves ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 special emotions n to be comm&$ at w4#ahf ,& no d\bt a p]fectly wise & self-controll$ man _c be conceiv$ z break+ or neglect+ any moral rule4 ,b x is important to obs]ve t ev5 s9c]e & s+le-m9d$ ef=ts to realise :at we see to be "r may v>y 9 int5sity2 & t !re=e ! t5d5cy to manife/ a high degree ( int5sity 9 su* ef=ts is prop]ly prais$ z ,en]gy1 if ! quality be purely volitional2 or "u "s su* "n z ,zeal or ,moral ,ard\r1 if ! volitional en]gy be ref]r$ to int5sity ( emotion1 & yet n connect$ ) any emotion m special ?an ! g5]al love ( :at is ,"r or ,good4 ,,note4--,x is to be obs]v$ t 9 ! discussions ( ?is *apt] ! "q at issue betwe5 ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian ,e?ics is n yet rea*$4 ,=1 grant+ t we c elicit by reflection cle> rules ( duty "u ! heads ( ,wisdom1 ,caution & ,decision1 ! rules are obvi\sly n indep5d5t2 !y presuppose an intellectual judgm5t o!rwise obta9$1 or capable ( be+ obta9$1 z to :at is "r or exp$i5t to d4 ,,footnotes3 #ahc ,inde$ ,ari/otle1 :o /ood alone among ! s*ools sprung f ,socrates 9 di/+ui%+ %>ply #8!oretic' f #8practical' wisdom1 re/ricts ! t]m to ! =m]1 & uses ano!r ^w 77 to d5ote ! latt]4 #ahd ,i h already adv]t$ to ! diff]5ce betwe5 anci5t & mod]n ?\ght 9 ?is respect4 ,cf4 ante1 ,book i4 *ap4 v4 #a1 p4 #ei1 note4 #ahe ,x may be obs]v$ t !re is ano!r mean+ aga9 9 :i* ! t]m #8,caution' is sometimes us$4 ,s9ce ( ! v>i\s means :i* we may use to ga9 any end1 "s are m & "s less c]ta92 & "s are dang]\s--t is1 involve a *ance ( consequ5ces ei!r antagoni/ic to our pursuit1 or on diff]5t gr\nds to be avoid$--:ile o!rs are free f su* dang]2 #8,caution' is (t5 us$ to d5ote ! temp] ( m9d :i* incl9es to ! m c]ta9 & less dang]\s means4 ,9 ?is s5se1 9 s f> z ! *ance 9 ea* case ( w9n+ ! end1 & ! value ( ! end z comp>$ ) o!r ends1 & z weigh$ aga9/ ! detrim5t :i* its pursuit may entail1 c be precisely e/imat$1 ! limits ( ! duty ( ,caution may obvi\sly be det]m9$ )\t difficulty4 #ahf ,see p4 #bbc1 & #b ( ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,b5evol5ce #a4 ,we h se5 t ! virtue ( ,practical ,wisdom compreh5ds all o!rs1 s f> z virtu\s conduct 9 ea* dep>tm5t necess>ily results f a cle> k & *oice ( ! true ultimate end or ends ( action1 & ( ! be/ means to ! atta9m5t ( su* end or ends4#ahg ,f ?is po9t ( view1 we may consid] ! names ( ! special virtues z d5ot+ special dep>tm5ts ( ?is k2 :i* x is n[ our bus9ess to exam9e m closely4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we contemplate ^!1 we disc]n t !re are o!r virtues1 :i*1 9 diff]5t ways1 may be reg>d$ z no less compreh5sive ?an ,wisdom4 ,especially 9 mod]n times1 s9ce ! revival ( indep5d5t e?ical speculation1 !re h always be5 ?9k]s :o h ma9ta9$1 9 "s =m1 ! view t ,b5evol5ce is a supreme & ar*itectonic virtue1 compreh5d+ & summ+ up all ! o!rs1 & fitt$ to regulate !m & det]m9e _! prop] limits & mutual relations4#ahh ,?is widely support$ claim to supremacy seems an adequate reason = giv+ to ,b5evol5ce ! fir/ place aft] ,wisdom1 9 our exam9ation ( ! commonly receiv$ maxims ( ,duty & ,virtue4 ,! g5]al maxim ( ,b5evol5ce w\ld be commonly said to be1 8t we ought to love all our fell[-m510 or 8all our fell[-creatures03 b1 z we h already se51 !re is "s d\bt among morali/s z to ! precise mean+ ( ! t]m 8love10 9 ?is connexion3 s9ce1 accord+ to ,kant & o!rs1 :at is morally prescrib$ z ! ,duty ( ,b5evol5ce is n /rictly ! affection ( love or k9dness1 s f> z ?is conta9s an emotional elem5t1 b only ! det]m9ation ( ! w to seek ! good or happ9ess ( o!rs4 ,& ,i agree t x _c be a /rict duty to feel an emotion1 s f> z x is n directly )9 ! p[] ( ! ,w to produce x at any giv5 "t4 ,/ill 7z ,i h said7 x seems to me t ?is emotional elem5t is includ$ 9 our common notion ( ,*>ity or ,philan?ropy1 reg>d$ z a ,virtue3 & ,i ?9k x p>adoxical#ahi to d5y t x raises ! m]e b5efic5t disposition ( ! w to a high] degree ( excell5ce1 & r5d]s its effects bett]4 ,if ?is be s1 x w be a duty to cultivate ! affection s f> z x is possible to d s3 & inde$ ?is w\ld seem 7no less ?an ! p]man5t disposition to d good7 to be a normal effect ( repeat$ b5efic5t resolves & actions3 s9ce1 z has (t5 be5 obs]v$1 a b5efit t5ds to excite love 9 ! ag5t t[>ds ! recipi5t ( ! b5efit1 no less ?an 9 ! recipi5t t[>ds ! ag5t4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ?is effect is less c]ta9 ?an ! production ( ! b5evol5t disposition2 & t "s m5 are naturally s unattractive to o!rs t ! latt] c feel no affection1 ?\gh !y may ent]ta9 b5evol5t dispositions1 t[>ds ! =m]4 ,at any rate1 x w\ld seem to be a duty g5]ally1 & till we f9d ! ef=t fruitless1 to cultivate k9d affections t[>ds ^? :om we ought to b5efit2 n only by do+ k9d actions1 b by plac+ ourselves "u any natural influ5ces :i* exp]i5ce %[s to h a t5d5cy to produce affection4 ,b we h /ill to asc]ta9 m p>ticul>ly ! nature ( ! actions 9 :i* ?is affection or disposition ( w is %[n4 ,!y are describ$ popul>ly z #8do+ good4' ,n[ we h be=e#aij notic$ t ! notion #8good1' 9 ord9>y ?\ght1 includes1 undi/+ui%$ & !re=e unh>monis$1 ! diff]5t conceptions t m5 =m ( ! ultimate end ( rational action4 ,x foll[s t !re is a correspond+ ambiguity 9 ! phrase #8do+ good'3 s9ce1 ?\gh _m w\ld unhesitat+ly take x to mean ! promotion ( ,happ9ess1 !re are o!rs :o1 hold+ t ,p]fection & n ,happ9ess is ! true ultimate ,good1 consi/5tly ma9ta9 t ! real way to #8d good' to p is to increase _! virtue or aid _! progress t[>ds ,p]fection4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 ev5 among anti-,epicurean morali/s1 "s--su* z ,kant--:o take an opposite view1 & argue t my neighb\r's ,virtue or ,p]fection _c be an end to me1 because x dep5ds ^u ! free ex]cise ( 8 own volition1 :i* ,i _c help or h9d]4 ,b on ! same gr\nds x might equally well be argu$ t ,i _c cultivate ,virtue 9 myself1 b only practise x f mom5t to mom5t3 :]eas ev5 ,kant does n d5y t we c cultivate virtu\s dispositions 9 ourselves1 & t 9 o!r ways ?an by ! p]=mance ( virtu\s acts3 & ,common ,s5se always assumes ?is to be possible & prescribes x z a duty4 ,& surely x is equally und5iable t we c cultivate virtue 9 o!rs3 & inde$ su* cultivation is cle>ly ! object n only ( education1 b ( a l>ge "p ( social action1 especially ( our expression ( praise & blame4 ,& if ,virtue is an ultimate end = ourselves1 to be s\ght = its own sake1 b5evol5ce mu/ lead u to d :at is possible to obta9 x = our neighb\r4 ,& inde$ we see t 9 ! case ( int5se individual affection1 ! fri5d or lov] g5]ally longs t ! belov$ %\ld be excell5t & admirable z well z happy3 p]haps1 h[ev]1 ?is is because love involves pref]5ce1 & ! lov] desires t ! belov$ %\ld be really wor?y ( pref]5ce z well z actually pref]r$ by him1 z o!rwise !re is a conflict betwe5 ,love & ,reason4 ,on ! :ole !n1 ,i d n f9d1 9 ! common view ( :at ,b5evol5ce bids u promote = o!rs1 any cle> selection indicat$ betwe5 ! diff]5t & possibly conflict+ elem5ts ( ,good z commonly conceiv$4 ,b we may say1 ,i ?9k1 t ! promotion ( ,happ9ess is practically ! *ief "p ( :at ,common ,s5se consid]s to be prescrib$ z ! ext]nal duty ( ,b5evol5ce3 & = cle>ness' sake we w conf9e our att5tion to ?is 9 ! rema9d] ( ! discussion4#aia ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t by happ9ess we are n to und]/& simply ! gratification ( ! actual desires ( o!rs1 = m5 too (t5 desire :at w\ld t5d to _! unhapp9ess 9 ! long run3 b ! greate/ possible am\nt ( pleasure or satisfaction = !m on ! :ole--9 %ort1 su* happ9ess z 0 tak5 to be ! rational end = ea* individual 9 ! sy/em ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,x is ?is t ,rational ,b5evol5ce bids u provide = o!rs2 & if "o :o loves is l$ f affectionate sympa?y ) ! long+s ( ! belov$ to gratify ^? long+s believ+ t ! gratification w be att5d$ ) an ov]plus ( pa9ful consequ5ces1 we commonly say t su* affection is weak & fooli%4 #b4 ,x rema9s to ask t[>ds :om ?is disposition or affection is to be ma9ta9$1 & to :at ext5t4 ,&1 fir/ly1 x is n q cle> :e!r we owe b5evol5ce to m5 alone1 or to o!r animals also4 ,t is1 !re is a g5]al agreem5t t we ought to treat all animals ) k9dness1 s f> z to avoid caus+ !m unnecess>y pa92 b x is que/ion$ :e!r ?is is directly due to s5ti5t be+s z su*1 or m]ely prescrib$ z a means ( cultivat+ k9dly dispositions t[>ds m54 ,intuitional morali/s ( repute h ma9ta9$ ?is latt] view3 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ,common ,s5se is dispos$ to reg>d ?is z a h>d-he>t$ p>adox1 & to hold ) ,b5?am t ! pa9 ( animals is p] se to be avoid$4 ,pass+ to consid] h[ our b5evol5ce ought to be di/ribut$ among our fell[-m51 we may conv5i5tly make cle> ! ,intuitional view by contra/+ x ) t ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,= ,utilit>ianism is sometimes said to resolve all virtue into univ]sal & imp>tial ,b5evol5ce3 x does n1 h[ev]1 prescribe t we %\ld love all m5 equally1 b t we %\ld aim at ,happ9ess g5]ally z our ultimate end1 & s consid] ! happ9ess ( any "o individual z equally important ) ! equal happ9ess ( any o!r1 z an elem5t ( ?is total2 & %\ld di/ribute our k9dness s z to make ?is total z great z possible1 9 :atev] way ?is result may be atta9$4 ,practically ( c\rse ! di/ribution ( any individual's s]vices w1 ev5 on ?is view1 be unequal3 z ea* man w obvi\sly promote ! g5]al happ9ess be/ by r5d]+ s]vices to a limit$ numb]1 & to "s m ?an o!rs3 b ! inequality1 on ! ,utilit>ian !ory1 is second>y & d]ivative4 ,common ,s5se1 h[ev]1 seems r to reg>d x z imm$iately c]ta9 )\t any su* d$uction t we owe special dues ( k9dness to ^? :o /& 9 special relations to u4 ,! "q !n is1 on :at pr9ciples1 :5 any case ( d\bt or app>5t conflict ( duties arises1 we are to det]m9e ! nature & ext5t ( ! special claims to affection & k9d s]vices :i* arise out ( ^! p>ticul> relations ( human be+s4 ,are problems ( ?is k9d to be solv$ by consid]+ :i* c\rse ( conduct is on ! :ole mo/ conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess1 or c we f9d indep5d5t & self-evid5t pr9ciples suffici5tly cle> & precise to furni% practical guidance 9 su* cases8 ,! diff]5t answ]s giv5 to ?is fundam5tal "q w obvi\sly con/itute ! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian me?ods2 s f> z ! #8good' :i* ! b5evol5t man desires & seeks to conf] on o!rs is und]/ood to be ,happ9ess4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we come to inve/igate ?is "q we are met ) a difficulty 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! subject1 :i*1 l mo/ difficulties ( classification1 des]ves att5tive consid]ation1 z x dep5ds ^u important *>act]i/ics ( ! matt] t has to be arrang$4 ,9 a n>r[] s5se ( ! t]m1 ,b5evol5ce is n unfrequ5tly di/+ui%$ f--& ev5 contra/$ )--,ju/ice2 we may ( c\rse ex]cise bo? t[>ds ! same p]sons1 b we commonly assume t ! special function ( ,b5evol5ce beg9s :]e ,ju/ice ends2 & x is r ) ?is special function t we are conc]n$ 9 consid]+ claims to affection1 & to k9d s]vices normally prompt$ by affection4 ,at ! same "t1 if we consid] ^! s]vices z /rictly due to p]sons 9 c]ta9 relations1 ! moral notion "u :i* ^! duties are pres5t$ to u is n easily di/+ui%able f t ( ,ju/ice2 :ile yet ^! duties c h>dly be )drawn f ! sph]e ( ,b5evol5ce 9 ! n>r[e/ s5se4 ,x is sometimes giv5 z a di/9ction betwe5 ,ju/ice & ,b5evol5ce1 t ! s]vices :i* ,ju/ice prescribes c be claim$ z a "r by _! recipi5t1 :ile ,b5evol5ce is ess5tially uncon/ra9$3 b we c]ta9ly ?9k 7e4g47 t p>5ts h a "r to filial affection & to ! s]vices t naturally spr+ f x4 ,x is fur!r said t ! duties ( ,affection are ess5tially indef9ite1 :ile ^? we classify "u ! head ( ,ju/ice are precisely def9$3 & no d\bt ?is is p>tly true4 ,we n only f9d x h>d to say exactly h[ mu* a son owes 8 p>5ts1 b we are ev5 reluctant#aib to inve/igate ?is3 we d n ?9k t he ought to ask = a precise measure ( 8 duty1 9 ord] t he may d j s mu* & no m2 :ile a great "p ( ,ju/ice consi/s 9 ! obs]vance ( /at$ agreem5ts & precise rules4 ,at ! same "t x is difficult to ma9ta9 ?is di/9ction z a gr\nd ( classification2 = ! duties ( ,affection are admitt$ly liable to come into competition ) ea* o!r1 & ) o!r duties2 & :5 ?is app>5t conflict ( duties occurs1 we manife/ly ne$ z precise a def9ition z possible ( ! conflict+ obligations1 9 ord] to make a reasonable *oice among ! alt]natives ( conduct pres5t$ to u4 ,accord+ly 9 ! foll[+ *apt] 7 #b7 ,i %all %[ h[ ?is competition ( claims r5d]s our common notion ( ,ju/ice applicable to ^! no less ?an to o!r duties3 mean:ile1 x seems prop] to treat "h sep>ately ( all duties t arise out ( relations :]e affection normally exi/s1 & :]e x ought to be cultivat$1 & :]e its abs5ce is deplor$ if n blam$4 ,= all are agre$ t !re are su* duties1 ! non-p]=mance ( :i* is a gr\nd = c5sure1 beyond ! obligations impos$ by law1 or aris+ out ( specific contract1 :i* w come "u a diff]5t head4 ,beyond ^! duties1 aga91 !re seems to be a region ( p]=mance :]e ! s]vices r5d]$ _c prop]ly be claim$ z ( debt1 & blame is n felt to be due = non-p]=mance3 & ) reg>d to ?is region1 too1--:i* cle>ly belongs to ,b5evol5ce z contra/$ ) ,ju/ice--!re is "s difficulty 9 /at+ ! view ( ,common ,s5se morality4 ,!re are two que/ions to be consid]$4 ,we h to ask1 fir/ly1 :e!r s]vices r5d]$ f affection1 ov] & above :at /rict ,duty is ?\ght to require1 are to be deem$ ,virtu\s2 & secondly1 :e!r ! affection itself is to be consid]$ wor?y ( admiration z a moral excell5ce1 & !re=e a m5tal condition t we %\ld /rive to atta94 ,i ?9k t ,common ,s5se cle>ly reg>ds z virtu\s ! disposition to r5d] sub/antial positive s]vices to m5 at l>ge1 & promote _! well-be+1--:e!r su* a disposition spr+s out ( natural k9dl9ess ( feel+ t[>ds human be+s g5]ally1 or :e!r x is m]ely ! result ( moral ef=t & resolve--provid$ x is accompani$ by an adequate degree ( intellectual enlight5m5t4#aic ,& ! same may be said ( ! less compreh5sive affection t impels m5 to promote ! well-be+ ( ! community ( :i* !y are memb]s2 & aga9 ( ! affection t normally t5ds to accompany ! recognition ( rightful rule or lead]%ip 9 o!rs4 ,9 "s ages & c\ntries ,patriotism & ,loyalty h be5 reg>d$ z almo/ supreme among ! virtues2 & ev5 n[ ,common ,s5se gives !m a high place4 ,b :5 we pass to m re/rict$1 &1 ord9>ily m int5se1 affections1 su* z ^? :i* we feel = relations & fri5ds1 x becomes m difficult to det]m9e :e!r !y are to be consid]$ z moral excell5ces & cultivat$ z su*4 ,fir/1 to avoid confusion1 we mu/ rem>k t ,love is n m]ely a desire to d good to ! object belov$1 al?\gh x always involves su* a desire4 ,x is prim>ily a pleasurable emotion1 :i* seems to dep5d ^u a c]ta9 s5se ( union ) ano!r p]son1 & x includes1 besides ! b5evol5t impulse1 a desire ( ! society ( ! belov$3 & ?is elem5t may pr$om9ate ov] ! =m]1 & ev5 conflict ) x1 s t ! true int]e/s ( ! belov$ may be sacrific$4 ,9 ?is case we call ! affection selfi%1 & d n praise x at all1 b r blame4 ,if n[ we ask :e!r int5se ,love = an individual1 consid]$ m]ely z a b5evol5t impulse1 is 9 itself a moral excell5ce1 x is difficult to extract a v def9ite answ] f ,common ,s5se3 b ,i ?9k x incl9es on ! :ole to ! negative4 ,we are no d\bt g5]ally incl9$ to admire any k9d ( conspicu\sly #8altrui/ic' conduct & any =m ( int5se love1 h[ev] re/rict$ 9 its scope2 yet x h>dly seems t ! susceptibility to su* individualis$ b5evol5t emotions is exactly reg>d$ z an ess5tial elem5t ( moral ,p]fection1 :i* we ought to /rive aft] & cultivate l o!r moral excell5ces2 we seem1 9 fact1 to d\bt :e!r su* ef=t is desirable 9 ?is case1 at lea/ beyond ! po9t up to :i* su* affection is ?\ght to be requir$ = ! p]=mance ( recognis$ duties4 ,aga91 we ?9k x natural & desirable t--z g5]ally speak+ ea* p]son feels /rong affection = only a few individuals1--9 8 ef=ts to promote directly ! well-be+ ( o!rs he %\ld1 to a great ext5t1 foll[ ! prompt+s ( su* re/rict$ affection3 b we are h>dly prep>$ to recomm5d t he %\ld r5d] s]vices to special individuals beyond :at he is b\nd to r5d]1 & su* z are ! natural expression ( an eag] & ov]fl[+ affection1 )\t hav+ any su* affection to express3 al?\gh1 z 0 be=e said1 9 c]ta9 intimate relations we d n approve ( ! limits ( duty be+ too exactly measur$4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 ,i conclude t--:ile we praise & admire en?usia/ic ,b5evol5ce & ,patriotism1 & are t\*$ & *>m$ by ! spontane\s lavi% outfl[ ( ,gratitude1 ,fri5d%ip1 & ! dome/ic affections--/ill :at *iefly conc]ns u z morali/s1 "u ! pres5t head1 is ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! "r rules ( di/ribution ( s]vices & k9d acts1 9 s f> z we consid] ! r5d]+ ( ^! to be morally obligatory4 ,= provid$ a man fulfils ^! duties 7& obs]ves ! o!r recognis$ rules ( morality7 ,common ,s5se is n prep>$ to say h[ f> x is "r or good t he %\ld sacrifice any o!r noble & wor?y aim--su* z ! cultivation ( k or any ( ! f9e arts--to ! claims ( philan?ropy or p]sonal affection3 !re seem to be no g5]ally accept$ 8intuitional0 pr9ciples = det]m9+ su* a *oice ( alt]natives4#aid #c4 ,:at !n are ! duties t we owe to our fell[-m5--s f> z !y d n seem to come "u ! head ( ,ju/ice m prop]ly ?an ,b5evol5ce8 ,p]haps ! m]e enum]ation ( !m is n difficult4 ,we %\ld all agree t ea* ( u is b\nd to %[ k9dness to 8 p>5ts & sp\se & *ildr51 & to o!r k9sm5 9 a less degree3 & to ^? :o h r5d]$ s]vices to him1 & any o!rs :om he may h admitt$ to 8 intimacy & call$ fri5ds3 & to neighb\rs & to fell[-c\ntrym5 m ?an o!rs3 & p]haps we may say to ^? ( our own race m ?an to black or yell[ m51 & g5]ally to human be+s 9 proportion to _! aff9ity to ourselves4 ,& to our c\ntry z a corporate :ole we believe ourselves to owe ! greate/ sacrifices :5 occasion calls 7b 9 a l[] /age ( civilisation ?is debt is ?\ght to be due r to "o's k+ or *ief73 & a simil> obligation seems to be recognis$1 ?\gh less def9itely & 9 a less degree1 z reg>ds m9or corporations ( :i* we are memb]s4 ,& to all m5 ) :om we may be br\ght into relation we are held to owe slight s]vices1 & su* z may be r5d]$ )\t inconv5i5ce3 b ^? :o are 9 di/ress or urg5t ne$ h a claim on u = special k9dness4 ,^! are g5]ally recognis$ claims3 b we f9d consid]able difficulty & div]g5ce1 :5 we attempt to det]m9e m precisely _! ext5t & relative obligation3 & ! div]g5ce becomes indef9itely great] :5 we comp>e ! cu/oms & common op9ions n[ exi/+ among ourselves 9 respect ( su* claims1 ) ^? ( o!r ages & c\ntries4 ,= example1 9 e>li] ages ( society a peculi> sacr$ness 0 atta*$ to ! tie ( hospitality1 & claims aris+ out ( x 7 consid]$ peculi>ly /r+5t3 b ?is has *ang$ z hospitality 9 ! progress ( civilisation has become a luxury r ?an a necess>y1 & we d n ?9k t we owe mu* to a man because we h ask$ him to d9n]4 ,or aga9 we may take an in/ance :]e ! alt]ation is p]haps actually go+ on--! claims ( k9dr$ 9 respect ( beque/4 ,we %\ld n[ commonly ?9k t a man ought usually to leave 8 prop]ty to 8 *ildr53 b t if he has no *ildr5 we ?9k he may d :at he likes ) x1 unless any ( 8 bro!rs or si/]s are 9 pov]ty1 9 :i* case compassion seems to bl5d ) & invigorate ! evanesc5t claim ( consangu9ity4 ,b 9 an age n long pa/ a *ildless man 0 held to be morally b\nd to leave 8 money to 8 collat]al relatives3 & ?us we are naturally l$ to conjecture t 9 ! n di/ant future1 any simil> obligation to *ildr5--unless !y are 9 want or unless _! education is n complet$--may h vani%$ out ( m5's m9ds4 ,a simil> *ange might be trac$ 9 ! commonly recognis$ duty ( *ildr5 to p>5ts4 ,x may h[ev] be urg$ t ?is v>iation ( cu/om is no ob/acle to ! def9ition ( duty1 because we may lay d[n t ! cu/oms ( any society ought to be obey$ s long z !y are e/abli%$1 j z ! laws ought1 al?\gh bo? cu/oms & laws may be *ang$ f "t to "t4 ,& no d\bt x is g5]ally exp$i5t to con=m to e/abli%$ cu/oms3 /ill1 on reflection1 we see t x _c be laid d[n z an absolute duty4 ,= ! cases ( ,cu/om & ,law are n simil>3 z 9 e progressive community !re is a regul> & settl$ mode ( abrogat+ laws t are f\nd bad3 b cu/oms _c be ?us =mally aboli%$1 & we only get rid ( !m ?r\gh ! refusal ( private individuals to obey !m2 & !re=e x mu/ be sometimes "r to d ?is1 if "s cu/oms are vexati\s & p]nici\s1 z we frequ5tly judge ^? ( antique & ali5 communities to be4 ,& if we say t cu/oms %\ld g5]ally be obey$1 b t !y may be disobey$ :5 !y rea* a c]ta9 degree ( inexp$i5cy1 our me?od seems to resolve itself into ,utilit>ianism3 = we _c reasonably re/ ! g5]al obligation ^u "o pr9ciple1 & det]m9e its limits & exceptions by ano!r4 ,if ! duties above enum]at$ c be ref]r$ to indep5d5t & self-evid5t pr9ciples1 ! limits ( ea* mu/ be implicitly giv5 9 ! intuition t reveals ! pr9ciple4 #d4 ,9 ord] !n to asc]ta9 h[ f> we possess su* pr9ciples1 let u exam9e 9 m detail :at ,common ,s5se seems to affirm 9 respect ( ^! duties4 ,!y seem to range !mselves "u f\r heads4 ,!re are 7#a7 duties aris+ out ( comp>atively p]man5t relation%ips n volunt>ily *os51 su* z ,k9dr$ & 9 mo/ cases ,citiz5%ip & ,neighb\rhood3 7#b7 ^? ( simil> relation%ips volunt>ily contract$1 su* z ,fri5d%ip3 7#c7 ^? t spr+ f special s]vices receiv$1 or ,duties ( ,gratitude3 & 7#d7 ^? t seem due to special ne$1 or ,duties ( ,pity4 ,?is classification is1 ,i ?9k1 conv5i5t = discussion3 b ,i _c pr(ess t x cle>ly & completely avoids cross divisions2 s9ce1 = example1 ! pr9ciple ( ,gratitude is (t5 appeal$ to z supply+ ! rationale = ! duties ow$ by *ildr5 to p>5ts4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we come ^u a mat]ial disagreem5t & difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! maxim ( ?is species ( duty4 ,x w\ld be agre$ t *ildr5 owe to _! p>5ts respect & k9dness g5]ally1 & assi/ance 9 case ( infirmity or any special ne$3 b x seems d\btful h[ f> ?is is held by ,common ,s5se to be due on acc\nt ( ! relation%ip alone1 or on acc\nt ( s]vices r5d]$ dur+ infancy1 & h[ f> x is due to cruel or neglectful p>5ts4 ,mo/ p]haps w\ld say1 "h & 9 o!r cases1 t m]e ne>ness ( blood con/itut$ a c]ta9 claim3 b !y w\ld f9d x h>d to agree ^u its exact =ce4#aie ,b1 ap>t f ?is1 !re seems great diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :at is due f *ildr5 to p>5ts :o h p]=m$ _! duty2 z1 = example1 h[ f> ob$i5ce is due f a *ild :o is no long] 9 its p>5ts' gu>dian%ip or dep5d5t on !m = support3--:e!r 7e4g47 a son or a daught] is b\nd n to oppose a p>5t's wi%es 9 m>ry+ or *oos+ a pr(ession4 ,practically we f9d t p>5tal control is great] 9 ! case ( p]sons :o c enri* _! *ildr5 by te/am5t3 /ill we c h>dly take ?is into consid]ation 9 det]m9+ ! ideal ( filial duty3 = to ?is1 :atev] x may be1 ! *ild is ?\ght to be absolutely b\nd1 & n z a quidproquo 9 anticipation ( future b5efits3 & _m w\ld hold t a p>5t _h no moral "r to dis9h]it a *ild1 except z a p5alty = a transgression ( duty4 ,& ?is leads to :at we may conv5i5tly exam9e next1 ! duty ( p>5ts to *ildr54 ,?is too we might p>tly classify "u a diff]5t head1 viz4 t ( duties aris+ out ( special ne$s3 = no d\bt *ildr5 are naturally objects ( compassion1 on acc\nt ( _! helplessness1 to o!rs besides _! p>5ts4 ,b on ! latt] !y h a claim ( a diff]5t k9d1 spr++ f ! univ]sally recognis$ duty ( n caus+ pa9 or any h>m to o!r human be+s1 directly or indirectly1 except 9 ! way ( des]v$ puni%m5t3 = ! p>5t1 be+ ! cause ( ! *ild's exi/+ 9 a helpless condition1 w\ld be indirectly ! cause ( ! suff]+ & dea? t w\ld result to x if neglect$4 ,/ill ?is does n seem an adequate explanation ( p>5tal duty1 z recognis$ by ,common ,s5se4 ,= we commonly blame a p>5t :o leaves 8 *ildr5 entirely to ! c>e ( o!rs1 ev5 if he makes ample provision = _! be+ n\ri%$ & tra9$ up to ! "t at :i* !y c support !mselves by _! own lab\r4 ,we ?9k t he owes !m affection 7z f> z ?is c be said to be a duty7 & ! t5d] & wat*ful c>e t naturally spr+s f affection3 &1 if he c af=d x1 some:at m ?an ! necess>y m9imum ( food1 clo?+1 & education4 ,/ill x does n seem cle> h[ f> beyond ?is he is b\nd to g4 ,x is easy to say broadly t he ought to promote 8 *ildr5's happ9ess by all means 9 8 p[]3 & no d\bt x is natural = a good p>5t to f9d 8 own be/ happ9ess 9 8 *ildr5's1 & we are dispos$ to blame any "o :o m>k$ly pref]s 8 own int]e/ to !irs3 /ill x seems unreasonable t he %\ld pur*ase a small increase ( _! happ9ess by a great sacrifice ( 8 own3 & moreov] !re are o!r wor?y & noble ends :i* may 7& d7 come into competition ) ?is4 ,to take in/ances ( actual occurr5ce3 "o p>5t is l$ to give up "s important & valuable "w1 :i* p]haps no "o else c or w d1 9 ord] to leave 8 *ildr5 a little m weal?3 ano!r br+s !m to ! v]ge ( />vation 9 ord] to p]fect an inv5tion or prosecute sci5tific rese>*es4 ,we seem to condemn ei!r extreme3 yet :at cle> & accept$ pr9ciple c be /at$ = det]m9+ ! true mean8 ,aga91 z we h se51 "s ?9k t a p>5t has no "r to bequea? 8 inh]itance away f 8 *ildr51 unless !y h be5 undutiful3 & 9 "s /ates ?is is ev5 =bidd5 by law4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 hold t *ildr5 z su* h no claims to _! p>5ts' weal?3 b only if !re is a tacit und]/&+ t !y w succe$ to x1 or1 at any rate1 if !y h be5 re>$ 9 su* habits ( life & social relations z w r5d] x difficult & pa9ful = !m to live )\t inh]it$ weal?4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to g 9 detail ?r\gh all ! degrees ( consangu9ity1 z x is cle> t our conception ( ! mutual duties ( k9sm5 becomes vagu] z ! k9%ip becomes m remote4 ,among *ildr5 ( ! same p>5ts1 br\ght up toge!r1 affection ( m or less /r5g? gr[s up s naturally & commonly1 t we reg>d ^? :o feel no affection = _! bro!rs & si/]s ) a c]ta9 av]sion & moral contempt1 z some:at inhuman3 & we ?9k t 9 any case ! s]vices & k9d acts :i* naturally spr+ f affection ought to be r5d]$ to "s ext5t2 b ! ext5t seems q undef9$4 ,& ev5 t[>ds remot] k9sm5 we ?9k t a c]ta9 fl[ ( k9dly feel+ w att5d ! repres5tation ( consangu9ity 9 m5 ( good dispositions4 ,"s inde$ /ill ?9k t c\s9s h a moral "r to a man's inh]itance 9 default ( ne>] heirs1 & to assi/ance 9 any ne$2 b x seems equally common to hold t !y c at mo/ claim to be select$ cet]is p>ibus z ! recipi5ts ( b\nty1 & t an unpromis+ c\s9 %\ld n be pref]r$ to a promis+ /rang]4 #e4 ,i h plac$ ,neighb\rhood along ) ,k9dr$ among ! relations out ( :i* a c]ta9 claim = mutual s]vices is ?\ght to spr+4 ,h[ev]1 no "o p]haps w\ld say t m]e local juxtaposition is 9 itself a gr\nd ( duties3 x seems r t neighb\rs naturally feel m sympa?y ) "o ano!r ?an ) /rang]s1 z ! tie ( common humanity is /r5g!n$ ev5 by su* conjunction & mutual association z m]e neighb\rhood 7)\t co-op]ation or fri5d%ip7 may involve1 & a man 9 :om ?is effect is n produc$ is ?\ght m or less inhuman4 ,& s 9 l>ge t[ns :]e ?is mutual sympa?y does n s naturally gr[ up 7= all ! t[nsm5 are 9 a s5se neighb\rs1 & "o _c easily sympa?ise ) ea* individual 9 a multitude71 ! tie ( neighb\rhood is felt to be relax$1 & neighb\r only claims f neighb\r1 z ! ne>e/ man1 :at "o man may claim f ano!r4 ,= !re are "s s]vices1 slight 9 ord9>y times b great] 9 ! case ( exceptional ne$1 :i* any man is ?\ght to h a "r to ask f any o!r3 s t a comp>atively trifl+ circum/ance may easily give a special direction to ?is g5]al claim1 & make x seem reasonable t ! s]vice %\ld be ask$ f "o p]son r ?an ano!r4 ,?us any degree ( k9%ip seems to h ?is effect 7s9ce ! repres5tation ( ?is t5ds to produce a feel+ ( union & consequ5t sympa?y71 & s ev5 ! fact ( belong+ to ! same prov9ce1 z creat+ a slight probability ( community ( orig92 & aga9 simil>ities ( v>i\s k9ds1 z "o sympa?ises m easily ) "o's l1 & s p]sons naturally seek aid 9 di/ress f ^? ( ! same age1 or sex1 or rank1 or pr(ession4 ,! duty ( neighb\rhood seems !re=e only a p>ticul> application ( ! duty ( g5]al b5evol5ce or humanity4 ,& ! claim ( fell[-c\ntrym5 is ( ! same k9d3 t is1 if !y are tak5 z individuals2 = "o's relation to "o's c\ntry z a :ole is ?\ght to be ( a diff]5t k9d1 & to involve mu* m /r+5t obligations4 ,/ill ! duties ( ,patriotism are difficult to =mulate4 ,= ! m]e ob$i5ce to ! laws ( a c\ntry :i* morality requires f all its inhabitants seems to come "u ano!r head3 & ali5s are equally b\nd to ?is4 ,& 9 ! case ( mo/ social functions :i* m5 und]take1 patriotism is at lea/ n a prom95t nor indisp5sable motive3 = !y und]take !m prim>ily = ! sake ( paym5t2 & hav+ und]tak5 !m1 are b\nd by ,ju/ice & ,good ,fai? to p]=m !m adequately4 ,h[ev]1 if any ( ! functions ( ,gov]nm5t are unpaid1 we consid] t m5 exhibit patriotism 9 p]=m+ !m3 = ?\gh x is plausible to say t !y get _! paym5t 9 social di/9ction1 /ill on reflection ?is view does n appe> to be q appropriate2 s9ce social di/9ction is int5d$ to express feel+s ( hon\r & respect1 & we _c prop]ly r5d] ^! z "p ( a b>ga91 b only z a tribute paid to virtue or excell5ce ( "s k9d4 ,b h[ f> any individual is b\nd to und]take su* functions is n q cle>3 & ! "q seems g5]ally decid$ by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy1--except 9 s f> z duties ( ?is k9d devolve1 legally or con/itutionally1 ^u all ! citiz5s 9 a free c\ntry1 z is ord9>ily ! case to "s ext5t4 ,among ^! ! duty ( fight+ ! national enemies is prom95t 9 _m c\ntries3 & ev5 :]e ?is function has become a sal>i$ & volunt>ily adopt$ pr(ession1 x is (t5 felt to be 9 a special s5se ! #8s]vice ( "o's c\ntry1' & we ?9k x at lea/ desirable & be/ t x %\ld be p]=m$ ) feel+s ( patriotism3 z we f9d x some:at degrad+ & repulsive t a man %\ld slaught] 8 fell[-m5 = hire4 ,& 9 great crises ( national exi/5ce ! affection ( ,patriotism is naturally int5sifi$3 & ev5 9 ord9>y times we praise a man :o r5d]s s]vices to 8 c\ntry ov] & above ! common duties ( citiz5%ip4 ,b :e!r a citiz5 is at any "t morally b\nd to m ?an c]ta9 legally or con/itutionally det]m9$ duties1 does n seem to be cle>3 nor1 aga91 is !re g5]al agreem5t on ! "q :e!r by volunt>y expatriation#aif he c rightfully relieve himself ( all moral obligations to ! community 9 :i* he 0 born4 ,nor1 f9ally1 does !re seem to be any cons5sus z to :at ea* man owes to 8 fell[-m51 z su*4 ,! ,utilit>ian doctr9e1 z we h se51 is t ea* man ought to consid] ! happ9ess ( any o!r z !oretically ( equal importance ) 8 own1 & only ( less importance practically1 9 s f> z he is bett] able to realise ! latt]4 ,& x seems to me difficult to say decid$ly t ?is is n ! pr9ciple ( g5]al ,b5evol5ce1 z recognis$ by ! common s5se ( mank9d4 ,b x mu/ be admitt$ t !re is also curr5t a l[] & n>r[] e/imate ( ! s]vices t we are held to be /rictly b\nd to r5d] to our fell[-m5 g5]ally4 ,?is l[] view seems to recognise 7#a7--;z 0 be=e notic$--a negative duty to ab/a9 f caus+ pa9 or h>m to any ( our fell[-m51 except 9 ! way ( des]v$ puni%m5t2 to :i* we may add1 z an imm$iate coroll>y1 ! duty ( mak+ rep>ation = any h>m t we may h done !m3#aig & 7#b7 a positive duty to r5d]1 :5 occasion (f]s1 su* s]vices z require ei!r no sacrifice on our "p1 or at lea/ "o v mu* less 9 importance ?an ! s]vice r5d]$4 ,fur!r1 a g5]al obligation ( be+ #8useful to society' by "s k9d ( sy/ematic "w is vaguely recognis$2 ri* p]sons :o are manife/ drones incur "s degree ( c5sure f ! majority ( ?\ghtful p]sons4 ,beyond ?is some:at indef9ite limit ( ,duty ext5ds ! ,virtue ( ,b5evol5ce )\t limit3 = excess is n ?\ght to be possible 9 do+ good to o!rs1 nor 9 ! disposition to d x1 unless x leads u to neglect def9ite duties4 ,"u ! notion ( ,b5evol5ce z j def9$1 ! m9or rules ( ,g5tl5ess1 ,polit5ess1 ,c\rtesy1 etc4 may be br\ght1 9 s f> z !y prescribe ! expression ( g5]al goodwill & ab/95ce f any?+ t may cause pa9 to o!rs 9 conv]sation & social demean\r4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 an important "p ( ,polit5ess :i* x may be well to notice & discuss sep>ately2 ! duty1 namely1 ( %[+ m>ks ( ,rev]5ce to ^? to :om !y are prop]ly due4 ,rev]5ce we may def9e z ! feel+ :i* accompanies ! recognition ( ,sup]iority or ,wor? 9 o!rs4 ,x does n seem to be necess>ily 9 itself b5evol5t1 ?\gh (t5 accompani$ by "s degree ( love4 ,b its e?ical *>act]i/ics seem analog\s to ^? ( b5evol5t affection1 9 s f> z1 :ile x is n a feel+ directly "u ! control ( ! w1 we yet expect x "u c]ta9 circum/ances & morally dislike its abs5ce1 & p]haps commonly consid] ! expression ( x to be sometimes a duty1 ev5 :5 ! feel+ itself is abs5t4 ,/ill1 z to ?is latt] duty ( express+ rev]5ce1 !re seems to be great div]g5ce ( op9ion4 ,= ! feel+ seems to be naturally excit$ by all k9ds ( sup]iority1--n m]ely moral & intellectual excell5ces1 b also sup]iorities ( rank & position3 & inde$ 9 ! common behavi\r ( m5 x is to ! latt] t x is m regul>ly & =mally r5d]$4 ,& yet1 aga91 x is commonly said t ,rev]5ce is m prop]ly due to ! =m]1 z be+ m real & intr9sic sup]iorities3 & _m ?9k t to %[ any rev]5ce to m5 ( rank & position r ?an to o!rs is s]vile & degrad+3 & "s ev5 dislike ! m>ks ( respect :i* 9 mo/ c\ntries are exact$ by (ficial sup]iors f _! subord9ates1 say+ t ob$i5ce legally def9$ is all t is prop]ly ow$ 9 ?is relation4 ,a m s]i\s difficulty ( a some:at simil> k9d arises :5 we consid] h[ f> x is a duty to cultivate ! affection ( ,loyalty3 mean+ by ?is t]m--:i* is us$ 9 v>i\s s5ses--! affection t is normally felt by a well-dispos$ s]vant or (ficial subord9ate t[>ds a good ma/] or (ficial sup]ior4 ,on ! "o h& x is widely ?\ght t ! duties ( ob$i5ce :i* belong to ^! relations w be bett] p]=m$ if affection ent]s into ! motive1 no less ?an ! duties ( ! family relations3 b 9 ! =m] case x seems to be a t5able view t ! habits ( ord]l9ess & good fai?--ungrudg+ ob$i5ce to law & ungrudg+ fulfilm5t ( contract--w ord9>ily suffice1 )\t p]sonal affection2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a disposition to obey sup]iors1 beyond ! limits ( _! legal or contractual rights to issue comm&s1 may easily be mis*iev\s 9 its effects1 if ! sup]iors are ill-dispos$4 ,9 ! case ( a wise & good sup]ior x is1 inde$1 cle>ly advantage\s t inf]iors %\ld be dispos$ to obey beyond ^! limits2 b x is n !re=e cle> t ?is disposition is "o :i* x %\ld be made a duty to cultivate beyond ! degree 9 :i* x results spontane\sly f a s5se ( ! sup]ior's goodness & wisdom4 ,nor d ,i ?9k t any decid$ enunciation ( duty on ?is po9t c be extract$ f ,common ,s5se4 #f4 ,we h next to consid] ! duties ( ,affection t arise out ( relation%ips volunt>ily assum$4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important is ! ,conjugal ,relation4 ,& "h we may beg9 by ask+ :e!r x be ! duty ( human be+s g5]ally to ent] into ?is relation4 ,x is no d\bt normal to d s1 & mo/ p]sons are prompt$ to x by /rong desires3 b 9 s f> z x c be said to be prescrib$ by ,common ,s5se1 x does n seem an indep5d5t duty1 b d]ivative f & subord9ate to ! g5]al maxims ( ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce4#aih ,& 9 all mod]n civilis$ societies1 law & cu/om leave ! conjugal union p]fectly optional3 b ! conditions "u :i* x may be =m$1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t ! mutual rights & duties aris+ out ( x1 are c>efully laid d[n by law2 & x is widely ?\ght t ?is dep>tm5t ( law m ?an o!rs ought to be gov]n$ by indep5d5t moral pr9ciples1 & to protect1 z x 71 by an out] b>ri]1 ! k9d ( relation :i* morality prescribes4 ,if we ask :at ^! pr9ciples are1 ,common ,s5se--9 mod]n ,european communities--seems to answ] t ! m>riage union ought to be 7#a7 exclusively monogamic1 7#b7 at lea/ design$ to be p]man5t1 & 7#c7 n )9 c]ta9 degrees ( consangu9ity4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t any ( ^! propositions c on reflection be ma9ta9$ to be self-evid5t4 ,ev5 aga9/ ince/ we seem to h r an int5se s5tim5t ?an a cle> intuition2 & x is g5]ally recognis$ t ! prohibition ( all b monogamic unions c only be rationally ma9ta9$ on utilit>ian gr\nds4#aii ,z reg>ds ! p]man5ce ( ! m>riage-contract all w\ld no d\bt agree t fidelity is admirable 9 all affections1 & especially 9 s close & intimate a relation z ! conjugal3 b we _c tell a priori h[ f> x is possible to prev5t decay ( love 9 all cases3 & x is c]ta9ly n self-evid5t t ! conjugal relation ought to be ma9ta9$ :5 love has ceas$2 nor t if ! p>ties h sep>at$ by mutual cons5t !y ought to be prohibit$ f =m+ fre% unions4 ,9 s f> z we are conv9c$ ( ! rightness ( ?is regulation1 x is always1 ,i ?9k1 f a consid]ation ( ! g5]ally mis*iev\s consequ5ces t w\ld ensue if x 7 relax$4 ,fur!r1 9 consid]+ ! evils on ! opposite side we are l$ to see t !re is no little diff]5ce ( op9ion among moral p]sons z to ! k9d ( feel+ :i* is morally indisp5sable to ?is relation4 ,= "s w\ld say t m>riage )\t int5se & exclusive affection is degrad+ ev5 ?\gh sanction$ by law3 :ile o!rs w\ld consid] ?is a m]e matt] ( ta/e1 or at lea/ ( prud5ce1 provid$ !re 0 no mutual deception3 & betwe5 ^! two views we might ins]t sev]al diff]5t %ades ( op9ion4 ,nor1 aga91 is !re agreem5t z to ! ext]nal duties aris+ out ( ! relation%ip4 ,= all w\ld lay d[n conjugal fidelity1 & mutual assi/ance 7accord+ to ! cu/om>y division ( lab\r betwe5 m5 & wom5--unless ?is %\ld be modifi$ by mutual agreem5t74 ,b beyond ?is we f9d div]g5ce3 = "s /ate t 8! m>riage contract b9ds ea* p>ty1 :5ev] individual gratification is conc]n$1 to pref] ! happ9ess ( ! o!r p>ty to its own#bjj03 :ile o!rs w\ld say t ?is degree ( unselfi%ness is c]ta9ly admirable1 b z a m]e matt] ( duty x is en\gh if ea* consid]s ! o!r's happ9ess equally ) 8 7or h]7 own4 ,& z to ! p[]s & lib]ties t ought to be all[$ to ! wife1 & ! ob$i5ce due f h] to ! husb&--,i ne$ sc>cely at ! pres5t "t 7#ahgd7 wa/e space 9 prov+ t !re is no cons5sus ( moral op9ion4 #g4 ,! conjugal relation is1 9 its orig91 ( free *oice1 b :5 x has once be5 =m$1 ! duties ( affection t arise out ( x are commonly ?\ght to be analog\s to ^? aris+ out ( relations ( consangu9ity4 ,x !re=e holds an int]m$iate position betwe5 ^! latt]1 & ord9>y fri5d%ips1 p>tn]%ips1 & associations1 :i* m5 are equally free to make & to dissolve4 ,n[ mo/ associations t m5 =m are = c]ta9 def9ite ends1 det]m9$ by express contract or tacit und]/&+3 accord+ly ! duty aris+ out ( !m is m]ely t ( fidelity to su* contract or und]/&+1 :i* w be consid]$ lat] "u ! heads ( ,ju/ice & ,good ,fai?4 ,b ?is does n seem to be ! case ) :at 9 a /rict s5se ( ! t]m are call$ ,fri5d%ips#bja3 = al?\gh ,fri5d%ip frequ5tly arises among p]sons associat$ = o!r ends1 yet ! relation is always conceiv$ to h its end 9 itself1 & to be =m$ prim>ily = ! developm5t ( mutual affection betwe5 ! fri5ds1 & ! pleasure :i* att5ds ?is4 ,/ill1 x is ?\ght t :5 su* an affection has once be5 =m$ x creates mutual duties :i* did n previ\sly exi/3 we h !re=e to inquire h[ f> ?is is ! case1 & on :at pr9ciples ^! c be det]m9$4 ,n[ "h a new k9d ( difficulty has to be add$ to ^? :i* we h already f\nd 9 attempt+ to =mulate ,common ,s5se4 ,= we f9d "s :o say t1 z x is ess5tial to ,fri5d%ip t ! mutual k9dly feel+1 & ! s]vices spr++ f x1 %\ld be spontane\s & un=c$1 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r %\ld be impos$ z a duty2 &1 9 %ort1 t ?is dep>tm5t ( life %\ld be f5c$ f ! intrusion ( moral precepts1 & left to ! free play ( natural in/9ct4 ,& ?is doctr9e all w\ld p]haps admit to a c]ta9 ext5t3 z1 inde$1 we h accept$ x ) reg>d to all ! deep] fl[ & f9] expression ( feel+ ev5 9 ! dome/ic relations3 = x seem$ p$antic & futile to prescribe rules = ?is1 or ev5 7?\gh we naturally admire & praise any n ungraceful exhibition ( int5se & g5u9e affection7 to del9eate an ideal ( excell5ce = all to aim at4 ,/ill1 !re seem$ to be an important sph]e ( /rict duty--h[ev] h>d to def9e--9 ! relations ( *ildr5 to p>5ts1 etc41 & ev5 9 ! case ( fri5d%ip x seems contr>y to common s5se to recognise no su* sph]e2 z x n unfrequ5tly occurs to u to judge t "o fri5d has behav$ wrongly to ano!r1 & to speak z if !re 7 a cle>ly cognisable code ( behavi\r 9 su* relations4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 we may say t all cle> cases ( wrong conduct t[>ds fri5ds come "u ! g5]al =mula ( brea* ( und]/&+4 ,fri5ds n unfrequ5tly make def9ite promises ( s]vice1 b we ne$ n consid] ^!1 z _! violation is prohibit$ by a diff]5t & cle>] moral rule4 ,b fur!r1 z all love is und]/ood to include#bjb a desire = ! happ9ess ( its object1 ! pr(ession ( fri5d%ip seems to b9d "o to seek ?is happ9ess to an ext5t proportionate to su* pr(ession4 ,n[ common b5evol5ce 7cf4 ante1 #e7 prescribes at lea/ t we %\ld r5d] to o!r m5 su* s]vices z we c r5d] )\t any sacrifice1 or ) a sacrifice s trifl+ z to be q out ( proportion to ! s]vice r5d]$4 ,& s9ce ! pr(ession ( fri5d%ip--?\gh ! t]m is us$ to include affections ( v>i\s degree--mu/ imply a great] int]e/ 9 "o's fri5d's happ9ess ?an 9 t ( m5 9 g5]al1 x mu/ ann\nce a will+ness to make m or less consid]able sacrifices = him1 if occasion (f]s4 ,if !n we decl9e to make su* sacrifices1 we d wrong by fail+ to fulfil natural & legitimate expectations4 ,s f> !re seems no s\rce ( difficulty except ! indef9it5ess inevitably aris+ f ! wide range ( mean+s cov]$ by ! t]m ,fri5d%ip4 ,b fur!r que/ions arise 9 consequ5ce ( ! *anges ( feel+ to :i* human nature is liable3 fir/1 :e!r x is our duty to resi/ su* *anges z mu* z we c2 & secondly1 :e!r if ?is ef=t fails1 & love dim9i%es or dep>ts1 we ought /ill to ma9ta9 a disposition to r5d] s]vices correspond+ to our pa/ affection4 ,& on ^! po9ts !re does n seem to be agreem5t among moral & ref9$ p]sons4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 x is natural to u to admire fidelity 9 fri5d%ip & /ability ( affections1 & we commonly reg>d ^! z mo/ important excell5ces ( "*3 & s x seems /range if we are n to aim at ^! z at all o!r excell5ces1 z none m naturally /ir u to imitation4 ,& h5ce _m w\ld be prep>$ to lay d[n t we ought n to )draw affection once giv51 unless ! fri5d behaves ill3 :ile "s w\ld say t ev5 9 ?is case we ought n to break ! fri5d%ip unless ! crime is v great4 ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 we feel t su* affection z is produc$ by delib]ate ef=t ( w is b a poor sub/itute = t :i* spr+s spontane\sly1 & mo/ ref9$ p]sons w\ld reject su* a boon3 :ile1 aga91 to conceal ! *ange ( feel+ seems ins9c]e & hypocritical4 ,b z = s]vices1 a ref9$ p]son w\ld n accept su* f a =m] fri5d :o no long] loves him3 unless 9 extreme ne$1 :5 any k9d ( tie is1 z x 71 invigorat$ by ! already /rong claim :i* common humanity gives ea* man ^u all o!rs4 ,p]haps1 !re=e1 !re _c be a duty to (f] su* s]vices 9 any case1 :5 ! ne$ is n extreme4 ,?\gh ?is inf]5ce is n q cle>3 = 9 relations ( affection we (t5 praise "o p>ty = (f]+ :at we r blame ! o!r = accept+4 ,b x seems t delicate que/ions ( ?is k9d are m naturally ref]r$ to canons ( good ta/e & ref9$ feel+ ?an ( morality prop]3 or at lea/ only includ$ 9 ! scope ( morality 9 s f> z we h a g5]al duty to cultivate good ta/e & ref9em5t ( feel+1 l o!r excell5ces4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 we may say t ! *ief difficulties 9 det]m9+ ! moral obligations ( fri5d%ip arise 7#a7 f ! indef9it5ess ( ! tacit und]/&+ impli$ 9 ! relation1 & 7#b7 f ! disagreem5t :i* we f9d z to ! ext5t to :i* ,fidelity is a positive duty4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ! latt] difficulty is especially prom95t 9 respect ( ^? intimacies betwe5 p]sons ( diff]5t sex :i* prec$e & prep>e ! way = m>riage4 #h4 ,i pass n[ to ! ?ird head1 ,gratitude4 ,x has be5 already obs]v$ t ! obligation ( *ildr5 to p>5ts is sometimes bas$ ^u ?is3 & 9 o!r affectionate relation%ips x commonly bl5ds ) & mu* /r5g!ns ! claims t are ?\ght to arise out ( ! relations !mselves2 ?\gh none ( ! duties t we h discuss$ seem ref]able entirely to gratitude4 ,b :]e gratitude is due1 ! obligation is especially cle> & simple4 ,inde$ ! duty ( requit+ b5efits seems to be recognis$ :]ev] morality ext5ds2 & ,intuitioni/s h ju/ly po9t$ to ?is recognition z an in/ance ( a truly univ]sal intuition4 ,/ill1 ?\gh ! g5]al =ce ( ! obligation is n op5 to d\bt 7except ( ! sweep+ & ab/ract k9d ) :i* we h n "h to deal71 its nature & ext5t are by no means equally cle>4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x may be ask$ :e!r we are only b\nd to repay s]vices1 or :e!r we owe ! special affection call$ ,gratitude2 :i* seems g5]ally to comb9e k9dly feel+ & eag]ness to requite ) "s sort ( emotional recognition ( sup]iority1 z ! giv] ( b5efits is 9 a position ( sup]iority to ! receiv]4 ,on ! "o h& we seem to ?9k t1 9 s f> z any affection c possibly be a duty1 k9dly feel+ t[>ds b5efactors mu/ be su*3 & yet to p]sons ( a c]ta9 temp]am5t ?is feel+ is (t5 peculi>ly h>d to atta91 ow+ to _! dislike ( ! position ( inf]iority2 & ?is aga9 we consid] a "r feel+ to a c]ta9 ext5t1 & call x #8indep5d5ce' or #8prop] pride'2 b ?is feel+ & ! effusion ( gratitude d n easily mix1 & ! morali/ f9ds x difficult to recomm5d a prop] comb9ation ( ! two4 ,p]haps x makes a great diff]5ce :e!r ! s]vice be lov+ly done3 z 9 ?is case x seems inhuman t !re %\ld be no response ( affection3 :]eas if ! b5efit be coldly giv51 ! m]e recognition ( ! obligation & settl$ disposition to repay x seem to suffice4 ,& #8indep5d5ce' alone w\ld prompt a man to repay ! b5efit 9 ord] to escape f ! burd5 ( obligation4 ,b x seems d\btful :e!r 9 any case we are morally satisfi$ ) ?is z ! sole motive4 ,x is p>tly ?is impati5ce ( obligation :i* makes a man desir\s ( giv+ z requital m ?an he has receiv$2 = o!rwise 8 b5efactor has /ill ! sup]iority ( hav+ tak5 ! initiative4 ,b also ! wor?i] motive ( affection urges u 9 ! same direction3 & "h1 z 9 o!r affectionate s]vices1 we d n l too exact a measure ( duty2 a c]ta9 excess fall+ %ort ( extravagance seems to be :at we admire & praise4 ,9 s f>1 h[ev]1 z conflict ( claims makes x ne$ful to be exact1 we ?9k p]haps t an equal return is :at ! duty ( gratitude requires1 or r will+ness to make su* a return1 if x be requir$1 & if x is 9 our p[] to make x )\t neglect+ prior claims4 ,= we d n ?9k x obligatory to requite s]vices 9 all cases1 ev5 if x be 9 our p[] to d s1 if ! b5efactor appe> to be suffici5tly suppli$ ) ! means ( happ9ess3 b if he ei!r dem& x or obvi\sly /& 9 ne$ ( x1 we ?9k x ungrateful n to make an equal return4 ,b :5 we try to def9e ?is notion ( #8equal return1' obscurity & div]g5ce beg94 ,= 7ap>t f ! difficulty ( comp>+ diff]5t k9ds ( s]vices :]e we _c make repaym5t 9 k9d7 ,equality has two di/9ct mean+s1 accord+ z we consid] ! ef=t made by ! b5efactor1 or ! s]vice r5d]$ to ! b5efit$4 ,n[ p]haps if ei!r ( ^! be great1 ! gratitude is naturally /rong3 = ! appreh5sion ( great e>ne/ness 9 ano!r to s]ve u t5ds to draw f u a proportionate response ( affection3 & any great pleasure or relief f pa9 naturally produces a correspond+ emotion ( ?ankfulness to ! man :o has volunt>ily caus$ ?is1 ev5 ?\gh 8 ef=t may h be5 slight4 ,& h5ce x has be5 sugge/$1 t 9 proportion+ ! dues ( gratitude we ought to take :i*ev] ( ! two consid]ations w give ! highe/ e/imate4 ,b ?is does n seem 9 accordance ) ,common ,s5se3 = ! b5efit may be altoge!r unacceptable1 & x is h>d to b9d u to repay 9 full e well-meant blund]+ ef=t to s]ve u2 ?\gh we feel vaguely t "s return %\ld be made ev5 = ?is4 ,& ?\gh x is m plausible to say t we ought to requite an accept$ s]vice )\t weigh+ ! am\nt ( our b5efactor's sacrifice1 /ill :5 we take extreme cases ! rule seems n to be valid3 e4g4 if a poor man sees a ri* "o dr[n+ & pulls him out ( ! wat]1 we d n ?9k t ! latt] is b\nd to give z a rew>d :at he w\ld h be5 will+ to give = 8 life4 ,/ill1 we %\ld ?9k him nigg>dly if he only gave 8 pres]v] half-a-cr[n3 :i* might1 h[ev]1 be pr(use repaym5t = ! co/ ( ! ex]tion4 ,some?+ betwe5 ! two seems to suit our moral ta/e3 b ,i f9d no cle> accept$ pr9ciple ^u :i* ! am\nt c be decid$4 ,! la/ claim to be consid]$ is t ( ,special ,ne$4 ,?is has be5 sub/antially /at$ already1 9 inve/igat+ ! obligation ( ,g5]al ,b5evol5ce or ,common ,humanity4 ,= x 0 said t we owe to all m5 su* s]vices z we c r5d] by a sacrifice or ef=t small 9 comp>ison ) ! s]vice3 & h5ce1 9 proportion z ! ne$s ( o!r m5 pres5t !mselves z urg5t1 we recognise ! duty ( reliev+ !m out ( our sup]fluity4 ,b ,i h ?\ght x "r to notice ! duty sep>ately1 because we are commonly prompt$ to fulfil x by ! specific emotion ( ,pity or ,compassion4 ,"h1 aga91 !re seems a d\bt h[ f> x is good to fo/] & enc\rage ?is emotion--z di/9ct f ! practical habit ( r5d]+ prompt aid & succ\r 9 di/ress1 :5ev] su* succ\r is judg$ to be "r4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! emotional impulse t5ds to make ! action ( reliev+ ne$ n only easi] to ! ag5t1 b m graceful & pleas+3 on ! o!r h&1 x is g5]ally recognis$ t mi/ak5 pity is m likely to lead u a/ray ?an--e4g4--mi/ak5 gratitude3 z x is m liable to int]f]e dang]\sly ) ! infliction ( p5alties requir$ = ! ma9t5ance ( social ord]1 or ) ! op]ation ( motives to indu/ry & ?rift1 necess>y = economic well-be+4 ,& :5--to gu>d aga9/ ! la/-m5tion$ dang]--we try to def9e ! ext]nal duty ( reliev+ want1 we f9d ourselves face to face ) :at is no m]e problem ( ! closet1 b a s]i\s practical p]plexity to mo/ moral p]sons at ! pres5t day4 ,= _m ask :e!r x is n our duty to refra9 f all sup]flu\s indulg5ces1 until we h remov$ ! mis]y & want t exi/ ar\nd u1 z f> z !y are removable by money4 ,& 9 answ]+ ?is "q ,common ,s5se seems to be inevitably l$ to a consid]ation ( ! economic consequ5ces ( attempt+--ei!r by taxation & public exp5diture1 or by ! volunt>y gifts ( private p]sons--to provide a suffici5t income = all ne$y memb]s ( ! community2 & is ?us gradually br\ght to sub/itute = ! ,intuitional me?od ( deal+ ) problems ( ?is k9d a diff]5t proc$ure1 hav+ at lea/ mu* aff9ity ) ! ,utilit>ian me?od4#bjc ,9 conclusion1 !n1 we mu/ admit t :ile we f9d a numb] ( broad & m or less indef9ite rules unhesitat+ly laid d[n by ,common ,s5se 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( duty1 x is difficult or impossible to extract f !m1 s f> z !y are commonly accept$1 any cle> & precise pr9ciples = det]m9+ ! ext5t ( ! duty 9 any case4 ,& yet1 z we saw1 su* p>ticul> pr9ciples ( di/ribution ( ! s]vices to :i* good-w prompts seem to be requir$ = ! p]fection ( practice no less ?an = !oretical complet5ess2 9 s f> z ! duties :i* we h be5 consid]+ are liable to come into app>5t conflict ) ea* o!r & ) o!r prescriptions ( ! moral code4 ,9 reply x may p]haps be cont5d$ t if we are seek+ exactness 9 ! det]m9ation ( duty1 we h begun by exam9+ ! wrong notion3 t1 9 %ort1 we ought to h exam9$ ,ju/ice r ?an ,b5evol5ce4 ,x may be admitt$ t we _c f9d z mu* exactness z we sometimes practically ne$1 by m]ely consid]+ ! common conceptions ( ! duties to :i* m5 are prompt$ by natural affections2 b x may /ill be ma9ta9$ t we %all at any rate f9d su* exactness adequately provid$ = "u ! head ( ,ju/ice4 ,?is cont5tion ,i w proce$ to exam9e 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,note4--,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d ?r\gh\t ! discussion c>ri$ on 9 ?is & ! next six *apt]s t :at we are prim>ily endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 is n true morality b ! morality ( ,common ,s5se3 s t if any moral proposition is admitt$ to be p>adoxical1 ! admission excludes x1--n z be+ necess>ily false1 b z be+ n :at ,common ,s5se holds4 ,,footnotes3 #ahg ,! qualifications :i* ?is proposition requires h be5 already notic$1 & w be fur!r illu/rat$ z we proce$4 #ahh ,! phase ( ?is view mo/ curr5t at pres5t w\ld seem to be ,utilit>ianism1 ! pr9ciples & me?od ( :i* w be m fully discuss$ h]eaft]3 b 9 "s =m or degree x has be5 held by _m ^: aff9ities are r ) ! ,intuitional s*ool4 #ahi ,see note at end ( *apt]4 #aij ,cf4 ,book i4 *aps4 vii4 ix4 #aia ,a fur!r reason = s do+ w appe> 9 ! sequel2 :5 we come to survey ! g5]al relation ( ,virtue to ,happ9ess1 z ! result ( t detail$ exam9ation ( ! p>ticul> virtues :i* =ms ! ma9 subject ( ! pres5t book4 ,cf4 po/1 *ap4 xiv4 ( ?is ,book4 #aib ,?is reluctance1 h[ev]1 seems l>gely due to ! fact t ?is precise measure ( duty is mo/ frequ5tly dem&$ :5 ! issue lies betwe5 ,duty & ,self-int]e/4 #aic ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! m ! b5evol5t impulse is comb9$ ) ! habit ( consid]+ ! complex consequ5ces ( diff]5t c\rses ( action t may be pres5t$ z alt]natives1 & comp>+ ! am\nts ( happ9ess to o!rs respectively result+ f !m1 ! m good1 cet]is p>ibus1 is likely to be caus$ by x on ! :ole4 ,& s f> z !re seems to be a c]ta9 natural incompatibility betwe5 ?is habit ( calculation & comp>ison & ! spontane\s f]v\r ( k9dly impulse1 ,common ,s5se is some:at puzzl$ :i* to pref]2 & takes refuge 9 an ideal t transc5ds ?is incompatibility & includes ! two4 #aid ,?is "q w be fur!r discuss$ 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ?is ,book 7*ap4 xiv474 #aie ,x may be said t a *ild owes gratitude to ! au?ors ( its exi/5ce4 ,b life alone1 ap>t f any provision = mak+ life happy1 seems a boon ( d\btful value1 & "o t sc>cely excites gratitude :5 x 0 n conf]r$ f any reg>d = ! recipi5t4 #aif ,9 #ahfh x 0 affirm$1 9 an ,act pass$ by ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t 8! "r ( expatriation is a natural & inh]5t "r ( all p40 ,i d n "k h[ f> ?is w\ld be tak5 to imply t a man has a moral "r to leave 8 c\ntry :5ev] he f9ds x conv5i5t--provid$ no claims except ^? ( ,patriotism reta9 him !re4 ,b if x 0 int5d$ to imply ?is1 ,i ?9k ! /atem5t w\ld n be accept$ 9 ,europe )\t important limitations3 ?\gh ,i _c /ate any g5]ally accept$ pr9ciple f :i* su* limitations c\ld be cle>ly d$uc$4 #aig ,h[ f> we are b\nd to make rep>ation :5 ! h>m is involunt>y1 & su* z c\ld n h be5 prev5t$ by ord9>y c>e on our "p1 is n cle>3 b x w be conv5i5t to def] ! consid]ation ( ?is till ! next *apt] 7 #e73 z ! :ole ( ?is dep>tm5t ( duty is m commonly plac$ "u ! head ( ,ju/ice4 #aih ,i raise ?is "q1 because if ! rule ( #8liv+ accord+ to ,nature' 7 really adopt$ z a fir/ pr9ciple1 9 any ord9>y mean+ ( ! t]m #8nature1' x w\ld c]ta9ly seem to be ! duty ( all normal human be+s to ent] into conjugal relations3 b j ?is in/ance seems to %[ t ! pr9ciple is n accept$ by ,common ,s5se4 ,see ,book i4 *ap4 vi4 #b4 #aii ,! moral necessity ( prohibit+ polygamy is sometimes put =w>d z an imm$iate inf]5ce f ! equality ( ! numb]s ( ! two sexes4 ,?is argum5t1 h[ev]1 seems to require ! assumption t all m5 & wom5 ought to m>ry3 b ?is sc>cely any "o w expressly affirm3 & actually consid]able numb]s rema9 unm>ri$1 & !re is no reason to believe t 9 c\ntries :]e polygamy is all[$1 paucity ( supply has ev] made x practically difficult = any man to f9d a mate4 #bjj ,cf4 ,wayl&1 ,elem5ts ( ,moral ,sci5ce1 ,book ii4 "p ii4 class #b1 #b4 #bja ,i use ! t]m "h to imply a mutual affection m int5se ?an ! k9dly feel+ :i* a moral man desires to f9d t[>ds all p]sons ) :om he is br\ght into cont9ual social relations1 ?r\gh bus9ess or o!rwise4 #bjb ,x 0 be=e obs]v$ t ?is is only "o--& n always ! mo/ prom95t--elem5t ( ! :ole emotional /ate :i* we call love4 #bjc ,see ,book iv4 *ap4 iii4 #c4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,ju/ice #a4 ,we h se5 t 9 del9eat+ ! outl9e ( duty1 z intuitively recognis$1 we h to attempt to give to common t]ms a def9ite & precise mean+4 ,?is process ( def9ition always requires "s reflection & c>e1 & is sometimes "o ( consid]able difficulty4 ,b !re is no case :]e ! difficulty is great]1 or ! result m disput$1 ?an :5 we try to def9e ,ju/ice4 ,be=e mak+ ! attempt1 x may be z well to rem9d ! read] :at x is t we h to d4 ,we h n to inquire into ! d]ivation ( ! notion ( ,ju/ice1 z we are n n[ /udy+ ! hi/ory ( our e?ical ?\ght1 b its actual condition4 ,nor c we pr(ess to furni% a def9ition :i* w correspond to e "p ( ! common usage ( ! t]m2 = _m p]sons are und\bt$ly vague & loose 9 _! application ( curr5t moral notions4 ,b x is an assumption ( ! ,intuitional me?od#bjd t ! t]m #8ju/ice' d5otes a quality :i* x is ultimately desirable to realise 9 ! conduct & social relations ( m52 & t a def9ition may be giv5 ( ?is :i* w be accept$ by all compet5t judges z pres5t+1 9 a cle> & explicit =m1 :at !y h always meant by ! t]m1 ?\gh p]haps implicitly & vaguely4 ,9 seek+ su* a def9ition we may1 s to speak1 clip ! ragg$ edge ( common usage1 b we mu/ n make excision ( any consid]able portion4#bje ,p]haps ! fir/ po9t t /rikes u :5 we reflect ^u our notion ( ,ju/ice is its connexion ) ,law4 ,!re is no d\bt t j conduct is to a great ext5t det]m9$ by ,law1 & 9 c]ta9 applications ! two t]ms seem int]*angeable4 ,?us we speak indiff]5tly ( #8,law ,c\rts' & #8,c\rts ( ,ju/ice1' & :5 a private citiz5 dem&s ,ju/ice1 or 8 j rights1 he commonly means to dem& t ,law %\ld be c>ri$ into effect4 ,/ill reflection %[s t we d n mean by ,ju/ice m]ely con=mity to ,law4 ,=1 fir/1 we d n always call ! violators ( law unju/1 b only ( "s ,laws3 n1 = example1 duelli/s or gambl]s4 ,& secondly1 we (t5 judge t ,law z x exi/s does n completely realise ,ju/ice2 our notion ( ,ju/ice furni%es a /&>d ) :i* we comp>e actual laws1 & pron\nce !m j or unju/4 ,&1 ?irdly1 !re is a "p ( j conduct :i* lies outside ! sph]e ev5 ( ,law z x ought to be2 = example1 we ?9k t a fa!r may be j or unju/ to 8 *ildr5 9 matt]s :]e ! law leaves 7& ought to leave7 him free4 ,we mu/ !n di/+ui% ,ju/ice f :at has be5 call$ ! virtue or duty ( ,ord]1 or ,law-obs]vance3 & p]haps1 if we exam9e ! po9ts ( div]g5ce j m5tion$1 we %all be l$ to ! true def9ition ( ,ju/ice4 ,let u !re=e fir/ ask1 ,( :at k9d ( laws is ! obs]vance g5]ally ?\ght to be a realisation ( ,ju/ice8 ,9 mo/ cases !y might be describ$ z laws :i* def9e & secure ! int]e/s ( assignable individuals4 ,b ?is description is n complete1 z ,ju/ice is admitt$ly conc]n$ 9 ! apportionm5t ( adequate puni%m5t to ea* (f5d]2 ?\gh we %\ld n say t a man _h an int]e/ 9 ! adequacy ( 8 puni%m5t4 ,let u say1 !n1 t ! laws 9 :i* ,ju/ice is or ought to be realis$1 are laws :i* di/ribute & allot to individuals ei!r objects ( desire1 lib]ties & privileges1 or burd5s & re/ra9ts1 or ev5 pa9s z su*4 ,^! latt]1 h[ev]1 are only allott$ by law to p]sons :o h brok5 o!r laws4 ,& z all law is en=c$ by p5alties1 we see h[ ! adm9i/ration ( law g5]ally may be view$ z ! adm9i/ration ( ,ju/ice1 9 accordance ) ?is def9ition3 n because all laws are prim>ily & 9 _! fir/ int5tion di/ributive1 b because ! execution ( law g5]ally involves ! due allotm5t ( pa9s & losses & re/ra9ts to ! p]sons :o violate x4 ,or1 m precisely1 we %\ld say t ?is legal di/ribution ought to realise ,ju/ice1 = we h se5 t x may fail to d s4 ,we h next to ask1 !re=e1 ,:at conditions mu/ laws fulfil 9 ord] t !y may be j 9 _! di/ributive effects8 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x may seem t we are transgress+ ! limit :i* divides ,e?ics f ,politics3 = ,e?ics is prim>ily conc]n$ ) ! rules :i* ought to gov]n ! private conduct ( individuals2 & x is commonly ?\ght t private p]sons ought to obey ev5 laws t !y reg>d z unju/1 if e/abli%$ by lawful au?ority4 ,/ill1 ?is is d\bt$ 9 ! case ( laws t seem extremely unju/3 z 7e4g47 ! ,fugitive ,slave law 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates be=e ! rebellion4 ,at any rate x seems desirable t we %\ld "h digress some:at into political discussion2 p>tly 9 ord] to elucidate ! notion ( ,ju/ice1 :i* seems to be ess5tially ! same 9 bo? regions1 & p>tly because x is ( great practical importance to individuals1 9 regulat+ private conduct beyond ! range ( ,law-obs]vance1 to "k :e!r ! laws & e/abli%$ ord] ( ! society 9 :i* !y live are j or unju/4 ,n[ p]haps ! mo/ obvi\s & commonly recognis$ *>act]i/ic ( j laws is t !y are ,equal3 & 9 "s dep>tm5ts ( legislation1 at lea/1 ! common notion ( ,ju/ice seems to be exhau/ively express$ by t ( ,equality4 ,x is commonly ?\ght1 = example1 t a sy/em ( taxation w\ld be p]fectly j if x impos$ exactly equal burd5s ^u all3#bjf & ?\gh ?is notion ( #8equal burd5' is itself some:at difficult to def9e ) ! precision requir$ = practical application1 /ill we may say t ,ju/ice "h is ?\ght to resolve itself into a k9d ( equality4 ,h[ev]1 we _c affirm g5]ally t all laws ought to affect all p]sons equally1 = ?is w\ld leave no place = any laws allott+ special privileges & burd5s to special classes ( ! community2 b we d n ?9k all su* laws necess>ily unju/3 e4g4 we ?9k x n unju/ t only p]sons appo9t$ 9 a c]ta9 way %\ld %>e 9 legislation1 & t m5 %\ld be =c$ to fight = _! c\ntry b n wom54 ,h5ce "s h said t ! only s5se 9 :i* ju/ice requires a law to be equal is t its execution mu/ affect equally all ! individuals belong+ to any ( ! classes specifi$ 9 ! law4 ,& no d\bt ?is rule excludes a v real k9d ( inju/ice3 x is ( ! highe/ importance t judges & adm9i/rators %\ld nev] be p]suad$ by money or o!rwise to %[ #8respect ( p]sons4' ,s mu* equality1 h[ev]1 is involv$ 9 ! v notion ( a law1 if x be c\*$ 9 g5]al t]ms3 & x is pla9 t laws may be equally execut$ & yet unju/3 = example1 we %\ld consid] a law unju/ :i* compell$ only r$-hair$ m5 to s]ve 9 ! army1 ev5 ?\gh x 7 appli$ ) ! /ricte/ imp>tiality to all r$-hair$ m54 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude1 t1 9 lay+ d[n ! law no less ?an 9 c>ry+ x out1 all inequality#bjg affect+ ! int]e/s ( individuals :i* appe>s arbitr>y1 & = :i* no suffici5t reason c be giv51 is held to be unju/4 ,b we h /ill to ask1 :at k9d ( reasons = inequality ,ju/ice admits & f :at g5]al pr9ciple 7or pr9ciples7 all su* reasons are to be d$uc$8 #b4 ,p]haps we %all f9d x easi] to answ] ?is "q1 if we exam9e ! notion ( ,ju/ice z appli$ to t "p ( private conduct :i* lies beyond ! sph]e ( law4 ,"h1 aga91 we may obs]ve t ! notion ( ,ju/ice always involves allotm5t ( some?+ consid]$ z advantage\s or disadvantage\s3 :e!r x be money or o!r mat]ial means ( happ9ess2 or praise1 or affection1 or o!r immat]ial good1 or "s m]it$ pa9 or loss4 ,h5ce ,i %\ld answ] ! "q rais$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] 7 #c71 z to ! classification ( ! duties !re discuss$ "u ! heads ( ,ju/ice & ,b5evol5ce respectively1 by say+ t ! fulfilm5t ( any duty ( ! affections1 consid]$ by itself1 does n exemplify ,ju/ice3 b t :5 we come to comp>e ! obligations aris+ out ( diff]5t affectionate relations1 & to consid] ! "r allotm5t ( love & k9d s]vices1 ! notion ( ,ju/ice becomes applicable4 ,9 ord] to arrange ?is allotm5t prop]ly we h to inquire :at is ,j4 ,:at !n d we mean by a j man 9 matt]s :]e law-obs]vance does n ent]8 ,x is natural to reply t we mean an imp>tial man1 "o :o seeks ) equal c>e to satisfy all claims :i* he recognises z valid & does n let himself be unduly influ5c$ by p]sonal pref]5ces4 ,& ?is seems an adequate acc\nt ( ! virtue ( ju/ice s f> z we consid] x m]ely subjectively1 & indep5d5tly ( ! intellectual insight requir$ = ! realisation ( objective ju/ice 9 action3 if we neglect to give due consid]ation to any claim :i* we reg>d z reasonable1 our action _c be j 9 int5tion4 ,?is def9ition suffices to exclude wilful inju/ice3 b x is obvi\s t x does n give u a suffici5t crit]ion ( j acts1 any m ?an ! abs5ce ( arbitr>y inequality 0 f\nd to be a suffici5t crit]ion ( j laws4#bjh ,we want to "k :at are reasonable claims4 ,well1 ( ^! ! mo/ important--ap>t f ! claims discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]--seems to be t result+ f contract4 ,?is is to a c]ta9 ext5t en=c$ by law3 b x is cle> to u t a j man w keep engagem5ts g5]ally1 ev5 :5 !re may be no legal p5alty atta*$ to _! violation4 ,! exact def9ition ( ?is duty1 & its commonly admitt$ qualifications1 w be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]3 b ( its g5]al b9d+ness ,common ,s5se has no d\bt4 ,fur!r1 we include "u ! idea ( b9d+ engagem5ts n m]ely v]bal promises1 b also :at are call$ #8impli$ contracts' or #8tacit und]/&+s4' ,b ?is latt] t]m is a difficult "o to keep precise3 &1 9 fact1 is (t5 us$ to include n only ! case :]e ,a has 9 "s way positively impli$ a pl$ge to ,b1 b also ! case :]e ,b has c]ta9 expectations ( :i* ,a is aw>e4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! obligation is n s cle>3 = x w\ld h>dly be said t a man is b\nd to dispel all errone\s expectations t he may "k to be =m$ respect+ 8 conduct1 at ! risk ( be+ requir$ to fulfil !m4 ,/ill1 if ! expectation 0 su* z mo/ p]sons w\ld =m "u ! circum/ances1 !re seems to be "s sort ( moral obligation to fulfil x1 if x does n conflict ) o!r duties1 ?\gh ! obligation seems less def9ite & /r+5t ?an t aris+ out ( contract4 ,inde$ ,i ?9k we may say t ,ju/ice is g5]ally1 ?\gh some:at vaguely1 held to prescribe ! fulfilm5t ( all su* expectations 7( s]vices1 etc47 z arise naturally & normally out ( ! relations1 volunt>y or involunt>y1 9 :i* we /& t[>ds o!r human be+s4 ,b ! discussions 9 ! prec$+ *apt] h %[n ! difficulty ( def9+ ev5 ^? duties ( ?is k9d :i*1 9 an indef9ite =m1 seem$ c]ta9 & indisputable3 :ile o!rs are only def9$ by cu/oms :i* to reflection appe> arbitr>y4 ,& ?\gh :ile ^! cu/oms p]si/1 ! expectations spr++ f !m are 9 a c]ta9 s5se natural1 s t a j man seems to be "u a k9d ( obligation to fulfil !m1 ?is obligation _c be reg>d$ z cle> or complete1 = two reasons t 7 giv5 9 ! la/ *apt]2 fir/1 because cu/oms are cont9ually v>y+1 & z long z any "o is 9 a /ate ( v>iation1 gr[+ or decay+1 ! validity ( ! cu/om>y claim is obvi\sly d\btful2 & secondly1 because x does n seem "r t an irrational & inexp$i5t cu/om %\ld la/ = ev]1 & yet x c only be aboli%$ by be+ 8m hon\r$ 9 ! brea* ?an 9 ! obs]vance40 ,?is l9e ( reflection !re=e has l&$ u 9 a real p]plexity respect+ ! dep>tm5t ( duty :i* we are at pres5t exam9+4 ,ju/ice is some?+ t we conceive to be intr9sically capable ( p]fectly def9ite det]m9ation3 a scrupul\sly j man1 we ?9k1 mu/ be v exact & precise 9 8 conduct4 ,b :5 we consid] t "p ( ,ju/ice :i* consi/s 9 satisfy+ su* natural & cu/om>y claims z arise indep5d5tly ( contract1 x seems impossible to e/imate ^! claims ) any exactness4 ,! attempt to map out ! region ( ,ju/ice reveals to u a sort ( m>g9 or dim bord]l&1 t5ant$ by expectations :i* are n q claims & ) reg>d to :i* we d n feel sure :e!r ,ju/ice does or does n require u to satisfy !m4 ,= ! ord9>y actions ( m5 proce$ on ! expectation t ! future w resemble ! pa/3 h5ce x seems natural to expect t any p>ticul> man w d z o!rs d 9 simil> circum/ances1 &1 /ill m1 t he w cont9ue to d :atev] he has hi!rto be5 9 ! habit ( do+2 accord+ly 8 fell[-m5 are incl9$ to ?9k !mselves wrong$ by 8 sudd5ly omitt+ any cu/om>y or habitual act1 if ! omission causes !m loss or inconv5i5ce4#bji ,on ! o!r h&1 if a man has giv5 no pl$ge to ma9ta9 a cu/om or habit1 x seems h>d t he %\ld be b\nd by ! unw>rant$ expectations ( o!rs4 ,9 ?is p]plexity1 common s5se (t5 appe>s to decide diff]5tly cases simil> 9 all respects1 except 9 ! quantity ( disappo9tm5t caus$ by ! *ange4 ,= in/ance1 if a poor man 7 to leave "o tradesman & deal ) ano!r because ! fir/ _h turn$ ,quak]1 we %\ld h>dly call x an act ( inju/ice1 h[ev] unreasonable we might ?9k x3 b if a ri* c\ntry g5tleman 7 to act simil>ly t[>ds a poor neighb\r1 _m p]sons w\ld say t x 0 unju/ p]secution4 ,! difficulty j po9t$ out ext5ds equally to ! duties ( k9dness--ev5 to ! specially /r+5t & sacr$ duties ( ! dome/ic affections & gratitude--discuss$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]4 ,we _c get any new pr9ciple = settl+ any conflict t may pres5t itself among su* duties1 by ask+ #8:at ,ju/ice requires ( u'3 ! application ( ! notion ( ,ju/ice only leads u to view ! problem 9 a new aspect z a "q ( ! "r di/ribution ( k9d s]vices--x does n help u to solve x4 ,_h we cle> & precise intuitive pr9ciples = det]m9+ ! claims 7e4g47 ( p>5ts on *ildr51 *ildr5 on p>5ts1 b5efactors on ! recipi5ts ( _! b5efits1 we might say exactly at :at po9t or to :at ext5t ! satisfaction ( "o ( ^! claims ought 9 ju/ice to be po/pon$ to ! satisfaction ( ano!r1 or to any wor?y aim ( a diff]5t k9d3 b ,i "k no me?od ( det]m9+ a problem ( ?is k9d :i* is n ei!r implicitly utilit>ian1 or arbitr>ily dogmatic1 & unsupport$ by ,common ,s5se4 #c4 ,if n[ we turn aga9 to ! political "q1 f :i* we div]g$1 we see t we h obta9$ f ! prec$+ discussion "o ( ! crit]ia ( ! ju/ice ( laws :i* we 7 seek+--viz4 t !y mu/ avoid runn+ c\nt] to natural & normal expectations--3 b we see at ! same "t t ! crit]ion _c be made def9ite 9 its application to private conduct1 & x is easy to %[ t !re is ! same indef9it5ess & consequ5t difficulty 9 apply+ x to legislation4 ,= ,law itself is a ma9 s\rce ( natural expectations2 &1 s9ce 9 ord9>y times ! alt]ations 9 law are v small 9 proportion to ! am\nt unalt]$1 !re is always a natural expectation t ! exi/+ laws w be ma9ta9$3 & al?\gh ?is is1 ( c\rse1 an indef9ite & unc]ta9 expectation 9 a society l ours1 :]e laws are cont9ually be+ alt]$ by lawful au?ority1 x is suffici5t = p 9 g5]al to rely ^u 9 arrang+ _! conc]ns1 inve/+ _! money1 *oos+ _! place ( abode1 _! trade & pr(ession1 etc4 ,h5ce :5 su* expectations are disappo9t$ by a *ange 9 ! law1 ! disappo9t$ p]sons compla9 ( inju/ice1 & x is to "s ext5t admitt$ t ju/ice requires t !y %\ld be comp5sat$ = ! loss ?us incurr$4 ,b su* expectations are ( all degrees ( def9it5ess & importance1 & g5]ally ext5d m widely z !y decrease 9 value1 l ! ripples made by ?r[+ a /one into a pond1 s t x is practically impossible to comp5sate !m all3 at ! same "t1 ,i "k no intuitive pr9ciple by :i* we c\ld sep>ate valid claims f invalid1 & di/+ui% inju/ice f simple h>d%ip4#baj ,b ev5 if ?is difficulty 7 ov]come fur!r reflection mu/1 ,i ?9k1 %[ t ! crit]ion above giv5 is incomplete or imp]fectly /at$3 o!rwise x w\ld appe> t no old law c\ld be unju/1 s9ce laws t h exi/$ = a long "t mu/ create correspond+ expectations4 ,b ?is is contr>y to ,common ,s5se3 z we are cont9ually becom+ conv9c$ t old laws are unju/ 7e4g4 laws e/abli%+ slav]y73 inde$1 ?is cont9ually recurr+ conviction seems to be "o ( ! great s\rces ( *ange 9 ! laws ( a progressive society4 ,p]haps we may say t !re are natural expectations :i* gr[ up f o!r elem5ts ( ! social ord]1 indep5d5t ( & s possibly conflict+ ) laws3 & t we call rules unju/ :i* g c\nt] to ^!4 ,?us e4g4 primog5iture appe>s to _m unju/1 because all ! l&[n]'s *ildr5 are br\ght up 9 equally luxuri\s habits1 & %>e equally ! pat]nal c>e & exp5diture1 & s ! inequality ( inh]itance seems p>adoxical & h>%4 ,/ill1 we _c expla9 e case 9 ?is way3 = example1 ! conviction t slav]y is unju/ c h>dly be trac$ to any?+ 9 ! e/abli%$ ord] ( ! slave-hold+ society1 b seems to arise 9 a diff]5t way4 ,! tru? is1 ?is notion ( #8natural expectations' is worse ?an indef9ite3 ! ambiguity ( ! t]m conceals a fundam5tal conflict ( ideas1 :i* appe>s m pr(\nd & f>-rea*+ 9 its consequ5ces ! m we exam9e x4 ,= ! ^w #8natural1' z us$ 9 ?is connexion1 cov]s & conceals ! :ole *asm betwe5 ! actual & ! ideal--:at is & :at ought to be4 ,z we be=e notic$1#baa ! t]m seems1 z ord9>ily us$1 to conta9 ! di/9ct ideas ( 7#a7 ! common z oppos$ to ! exceptional1 & 7#b7 ! orig9al or primitive z contra/$ ) ! result ( lat] conv5tions & in/itutions4 ,b x is also us$ to signify1 9 m or less indef9ite comb9ation ) "o or o!r ( ^! mean+s1 #8:at w\ld exi/ 9 an ideal /ate ( society4' ,& x is easy to see h[ ^! diff]5t mean+s h be5 bl5d$ & conf\nd$4 ,= s9ce by #8,nature' m5 h really meant ,god1 or ,god view$ 9 a p>ticul> aspect--,god1 we may say1 z kn[n to u 9 exp]i5ce--:5 !y h come to conceive a bett] /ate ( ?+s ?an t :i* actually exi/s1 !y h n only reg>d$ ?is ideal /ate z really exhibit+ ! ,div9e purposes m ?an ! actual1 & z be+ s f> m #8natural'3 b !y h gone fur!r1 & suppos$ m or less def9itely t ?is ideal /ate ( ?+s mu/ be :at ,god orig9ally creat$1 & t ! defects recognisable 9 :at n[ exi/s mu/ be due to ! det]iorat+ action ( m54 ,b if we dismiss ?is latt] view1 z unsupport$ by hi/orical evid5ce1 we recognise m pla9ly ! contra/ & conflict betwe5 ! o!r two mean+s ( #8natural1' & ! correspond+ discrepancy betwe5 ! two elem5ts ( ! common notion ( ,ju/ice4 ,=1 f "o po9t ( view1 we are dispos$ to ?9k t ! cu/om>y di/ribution ( rights1 goods1 & privileges1 z well z burd5s & pa9s1 is natural & j1 & t ?is ought to be ma9ta9$ by law1 z x usually is3 :ile1 f ano!r po9t ( view1 we seem to recognise an ideal sy/em ( rules ( di/ribution :i* ought to exi/1 b p]haps h nev] yet exi/$1 & we consid] laws to be j 9 proportion z !y con=m to ?is ideal4 ,x is ! reconciliation betwe5 ^! two views :i* is ! *ief problem ( political ,ju/ice4#bab ,on :at pr9ciples1 !n1 is ! ideal to be det]m9$8 ,?is is1 9 fact1 ! "q :i* has be5 *iefly 9 view f ! outset ( ! *apt]2 b we c\ld n satisfactorily discuss x until we _h di/+ui%$ ! two elem5ts ( ,ju/ice1 z commonly conceiv$--"o cons]vative ( law & cu/om1 & ! o!r t5d+ to re=m !m4 ,x is on ?is latt] t we %all n[ conc5trate our att5tion4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we exam9e ?is ideal1 z x seems to %[ itself 9 ! m9ds ( diff]5t m5 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 we obs]ve v>i\s =ms ( x1 :i* x is important to di/+ui%4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x mu/ be notic$ t an ideal con/itution ( society may be conceiv$ & s\ght ) _m o!r ends 9 view besides ! "r di/ribution ( good & evil among ! individuals t compose x3 z 7e4g47 ) a view to conque/ & success 9 w>1 or to ! developm5t ( indu/ry & comm]ce1 or to ! highe/ possible cultivation ( ! arts & sci5ces4 ,b any su* political ideal z ?is is beyond ! range ( our pres5t consid]ation1 z x is n con/ruct$ on ! basis ( our common notion ( ,ju/ice4 ,our pres5t "q is1 ,are !re any cle> pr9ciples f :i* we may "w out an ideally j di/ribution ( rights & privileges1 burd5s & pa9s1 among human be+s z su*8 ,!re is a wide-spread view1 t 9 ord] to make society j c]ta9 ,natural ,rights %\ld be conc$$ to all memb]s ( ! community1 & t positive law %\ld at lea/ embody & protect ^!1 :atev] o!r regulations x may conta93 b x is difficult to f9d 9 ,common ,s5se any def9ite agreem5t 9 ! enum]ation ( ^! ,natural ,rights1 /ill less any cle> pr9ciples f :i* !y c be sy/ematically d$uc$4 #d4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o mode ( sy/ematis+ ^! ,rights & br++ !m "u "o pr9ciple1 :i* has be5 ma9ta9$ by influ5tial ?9k]s2 & :i*1 ?\gh n[ p]haps some:at antiquat$1 is /ill suffici5tly curr5t to des]ve c>eful exam9ation4 ,x has be5 held t ,fre$om f int]f]5ce is really ! :ole ( :at human be+s1 orig9ally & ap>t f contracts1 c be /rictly said to owe to ea* o!r3 at any rate1 t ! protection ( ?is ,fre$om 7includ+ ! en=cem5t ( ,free ,contract7 is ! sole prop] aim ( ,law1 i4e4 ( ^? rules ( mutual behavi\r :i* are ma9ta9$ by p5alties inflict$ "u ! au?ority ( ,gov]nm5t4 ,all natural ,rights1 on ?is view1 may be summ$ up 9 ! ,"r to ,fre$om2 s t ! complete & univ]sal e/abli%m5t ( ?is ,"r w\ld be ! complete realisation ( ,ju/ice1--! ,equality at :i* ,ju/ice is ?\ght to aim be+ int]pret$ z ,equality ( ,fre$om4 ,n[ :5 ,i contemplate ?is z an ab/ract =mula1 ?\gh ,i _c say t x is self-evid5t to me z ! true fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,ideal ,law1 ,i admit t x comm5ds itself mu* to my m9d2 & ,i might p]haps p]suade myself t x is ow+ to ! defect ( my faculty ( moral 7or jural7 intuition t ,i fail to see its self-evid5ce4 ,b :5 ,i endeav\r to br+ x into clos] relation to ! actual circum/ances ( human society1 x soon comes to we> a diff]5t aspect4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x seems obvi\sly ne$ful to limit ! ext5t ( its application4 ,= x involves ! negative pr9ciple t no "o %\ld be co]c$ = 8 own good alone2 b no "o w\ld gravely argue t ?is ought to be appli$ to ! case ( *ildr51 or ( idiots1 or insane p]sons4 ,b if s1 c we "k a priori t x ought to be appli$ to all sane adults8 s9ce ! above-m5tion$ exceptions are commonly ju/ifi$ on ! gr\nd t *ildr51 etc41 w manife/ly be bett] (f if !y are =c$ to d & ab/a9 z o!rs ?9k be/ = !m2 & x is1 at lea/1 n intuitively c]ta9 t ! same argum5t does n apply to ! majority ( mank9d 9 ! pres5t /ate ( _! intellectual progress4 ,inde$1 x is (t5 conc$$ by ! advocates ( ?is pr9ciple t x does n hold ev5 9 respect ( adults 9 a l[ /ate ( civilisation4 ,b if s1 :at crit]ion c be giv5 = its application1 except t x mu/ be appli$ :]ev] human be+s are suffici5tly intellig5t to provide = !mselves bett] ?an o!rs w\ld provide = !m8 & ?us ! pr9ciple w\ld pres5t itself n z absolute1 b m]ely a subord9ate application ( ! wid] pr9ciple ( aim+ at ! g5]al happ9ess or well-be+ ( mank9d4 ,b1 aga91 ! t]m ,fre$om is ambigu\s4 ,if we int]pret x /rictly1 z mean+ ,fre$om ( ,action alone1 ! pr9ciple seems to all[ any am\nt ( mutual annoyance except con/ra9t4 ,b obvi\sly no "o w\ld be satisfi$ ) su* ,fre$om z ?is4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we include 9 ! idea abs5ce ( pa9 & annoyance inflict$ by o!rs1 x becomes at once evid5t t we _c prohibit all su* annoyances )\t re/ra9+ fre$om ( action to a degree t w\ld be intol]able2 s9ce !re is sc>cely any gratification ( a man's natural impulses :i* may n cause "s annoyance to o!rs4 ,h5ce 9 di/+ui%+ ! mutual annoyances t ought to be all[$ f ^? t mu/ be prohibit$ we seem =c$ to balance ! evils ( con/ra9t aga9/ pa9 & loss ( a diff]5t k9d3 :ile if we admit ! ,utilit>ian crit]ion s f>1 x is difficult to ma9ta9 t annoyance to individuals is nev] to be p]mitt$ 9 ord] to atta9 any positive good result1 b only to prev5t m s]i\s annoyance4 ,?irdly1 9 ord] to r5d] a social con/ruction possible on ?is basis1 we mu/ assume t ! "r to ,fre$om includes ! "r to limit "o's fre$om by contract2 & t su* contracts1 if !y are really volunt>y & n obta9$ by fraud or =ce1 & if !y d n violate ! fre$om ( o!rs1 are to be en=c$ by legal p5alties4 ,b ,i _c see t en=cem5t ( ,contracts is /rictly includ$ 9 ! notion ( realis+ ,fre$om2 = a man seems to be mo/ completely free :5 no "o ( 8 volitions is all[$ to h any effect 9 caus+ ! ext]nal co]cion ( any o!r4 ,if1 aga91 ?is "r ( limit+ ,fre$om is itself unlimit$1 a man might ?us freely contract himself out ( fre$om into slav]y1 s t ! pr9ciple ( fre$om w\ld turn out suicidal2 & yet to d$uce f ?is pr9ciple a limit$ "r ( limit+ fre$om by contract seems cle>ly impossible4#bac ,b if x be difficult to def9e fre$om z an ideal to be realis$ 9 ! m]ely p]sonal relations ( human be+s1 ! difficulty is increas$ :5 we consid] ! relation ( m5 to ! mat]ial means ( life & happ9ess4 ,= x is commonly ?\ght t ! individual's "r to ,fre$om includes ! "r ( appropriat+ mat]ial ?+s4 ,b1 if ,fre$om be und]/ood /rictly1 ,i d n see t x implies m ?an 8 "r to non-int]f]5ce :ile actually us+ su* ?+s z c only be us$ by "o p]son at once3 ! "r to prev5t o!rs f us+ at any future "t any?+ t an individual has once seiz$ seems an int]f]5ce ) ! free action ( o!rs beyond :at is ne$$ to secure ! fre$om1 /rictly speak+1 ( ! appropriator4 ,x may p]haps be said t a man1 9 appropriat+ a p>ticul> ?+1 does n int]f]e ) ! fre$om ( o!rs1 because ! re/ ( ! _w is /ill op5 to !m4 ,b o!rs may want j :at he has appropriat$3 & !y may n be able to f9d any?+ s good at all1 or at lea/ )\t mu* lab\r & se>*2 = _m ( ! in/rum5ts & mat]ials ( com=table liv+ are limit$ 9 quantity4 ,?is argum5t applies especially to prop]ty 9 l&3 & x is to be obs]v$ t1 9 ?is case1 !re is a fur!r difficulty 9 det]m9+ h[ mu* a man is to be all[$ to appropriate by #8fir/ occupation4' ,if x be said t a man is to be und]/ood to occupy :at he is able to use1 ! answ] is obvi\s t ! use ( l& by any individual may v>y almo/ indef9itely 9 ext5t1 :ile dim9i%+ proportionally 9 int5sity4 ,= in/ance1 x w\ld surely be a p>adoxical d$uction f ! pr9ciple ( ,fre$om to ma9ta9 t an individual _h a "r to exclude o!rs f pa/ur+ %eep on any "p ( ! l& ov] :i* 8 hunt+ exp$itions c\ld ext5d4#bad ,b if s c x be cle> t a %eph]d has su* a "r aga9/ "o :o wi%es to till ! l&1 or t "o :o is us+ ! surface has a "r to exclude a w\ld-be m9]8 ,i d n see h[ ! d$uction is to be made out4 ,aga91 x may be disput$ :e!r ! "r ( ,prop]ty1 z ?us d]iv$1 is to include ! "r ( controll+ ! disposal ( "o's possessions aft] dea?4 ,= ?is to mo/ p]sons seems naturally b\nd up ) own]%ip3 yet x is p>adoxical to say t we int]f]e ) a man's fre$om ( action by any?+ t we may d aft] 8 dea? to :at he own$ dur+ 8 life3 & juri/s h (t5 treat$ ?is "r z purely conv5tional & n !re=e includ$ 9 #8natural law4' ,o!r difficulties might be rais$3 b we ne$ n pursue !m1 = if ,fre$om be tak5 simply to mean t "o man's actions are to be z little z possible re/ra9$ by o!rs1 x is obvi\sly m fully realis$ )\t appropriation4 ,& if x be said t x includes1 beside ?is1 facility & security 9 ! gratification ( desires1 & t x is ,fre$om 9 ?is s5se t we ?9k %\ld be equally di/ribut$1 & t ?is _c be realis$ )\t appropriation2 !n x may be repli$1 t 9 a society :]e ne>ly all mat]ial ?+s are already appropriat$1 ?is k9d ( ,fre$om is n & _c be equally di/ribut$4 ,a man born into su* a society1 )\t inh]itance1 is n only f> less free ?an ^? :o possess prop]ty1 b he is less free ?an if !re _h be5 no appropriation4 ,x may be said#bae t1 hav+ fre$om ( contract1 he w give 8 s]vices 9 ex*ange = ! means ( satisfy+ 8 wants2 & t ?is ex*ange mu/ necess>ily give him m ?an he c\ld h got if he _h be5 plac$ 9 ! _w by himself2 t1 9 fact1 any human society always r5d]s ! "p ( ! e>? t x inhabits m capable ( af=d+ gratification ( desires to ea* & all ( its lat]-born memb]s ?an x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,b h[ev] true ?is may be z a g5]al rule1 x is obvi\sly n s 9 all cases3 z m5 are sometimes unable to sell _! s]vices at all1 & (t5 c only obta9 9 ex*ange = !m an insuffici5t subsi/5ce4 ,&1 ev5 grant+ x to be true1 x does n prove t society1 by appropriation1 has n int]f]$ ) ! natural fre$om ( its poor] memb]s3 b only t x comp5sates !m = su* int]f]5ce1 & t ! comp5sation is adequate3 & x mu/ be evid5t t if comp5sation 9 ! =m ( mat]ial commodities c be ju/ly giv5 = an encroa*m5t on ,fre$om1 ! realisation ( ,fre$om _c be ! "o ultimate end ( di/ributive ,ju/ice4 #e4 ,x seems1 !n1 t ?\gh ,fre$om is an object ( ke5 & g5]al desire1 & an important s\rce ( happ9ess1 bo? 9 itself & indirectly f ! satisfaction ( natural impulses :i* x all[s1 ! attempt to make x ! fundam5tal notion ( !oretical ,jurisprud5ce is att5d$ ) insup]able difficulties3 & t ev5 ! ,natural ,rights :i* x claims to cov] _c be br\ght "u x except 9 a v =c$ & arbitr>y mann]4#baf ,b fur!r1 ev5 if ?is 7 o!rwise1 an equal di/ribution ( ,fre$om does n seem to exhau/ our notion ( ,ju/ice4 ,ideal ,ju/ice1 z we commonly conceive x1 seems to dem& t n only ,fre$om b all o!r b5efits & burd5s %\ld be di/ribut$1 if n equally1 at any rate ju/ly1--,ju/ice 9 di/ribution be+ reg>d$ z n id5tical ) ,equality1 b m]ely exclusive ( arbitr>y inequality4 ,h[1 !n1 %all we f9d ! pr9ciple ( ?is highe/ & mo/ compreh5sive ideal8 ,we %all be l$ to x1 ,i ?9k1 by ref]r+ aga9 to "o ( ! gr\nds ( obligation to r5d] s]vices1 :i* 0 notic$ 9 ! la/ *apt]3 ! claim ( ,gratitude4 ,x !re appe>$ t we h n only a natural impulse to requite b5efits1 b also a conviction t su* requital is a duty1 & its omission blamewor?y1 to "s ext5t at lea/2 ?\gh we f9d x difficult to def9e ! ext5t4 ,n[ x seems t :5 we1 s to say1 univ]salise ?is impulse & conviction1 we get ! elem5t 9 ! common view ( ,ju/ice1 :i* we are n[ try+ to def9e4 ,= if we take ! proposition #8t good done to any individual ought to be requit$ by him1' & leave out ! relation to ! individual 9 ei!r t]m ( ! proposition1 we seem to h an equally /rong conviction ( ! tru? ( ! m g5]al /atem5t #8t good de$s ought to be requit$4'#bag ,& if we take into consid]ation all ! diff]5t k9ds & degrees ( s]vices1 ^u ! mutual ex*ange ( :i* society is bas$1 we get ! proposition #8t m5 ought to be rew>d$ 9 proportion to _! des]ts4' ,& ?is w\ld be commonly held to be ! true & simple pr9ciple ( di/ribution 9 any case :]e !re are no claims aris+ f ,contract or ,cu/om to modify its op]ation4 ,= example1 x w\ld be admitt$ t--if !re has be5 no previ\s arrangem5t--! pr(its ( any "w or ent]prise %\ld be divid$ among ^? :o h contribut$ to its success 9 proportion to ! wor? ( _! s]vices4 ,& x may be obs]v$1 t "s ?9k]s ma9ta9 ! proposition discuss$ 9 ! previ\s section--t ,law ought to aim at secur+ ! greate/ possible ,fre$om = ea* individual--n z absolute & axiomatic1 b z d]ivative f ! pr9ciple t ,des]t ought to be requit$2 on ! gr\nd t ! be/ way ( provid+ = ! requital ( ,des]t is to leave m5 z free z possible to ex]t !mselves = ! satisfaction ( _! own desires1 & s to w9 ea* 8 own requital4 ,& ?is seems to be really ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! ,"r ( ,prop]ty is re/$1 :5 x is ju/ifi$ by ! proposition t #8e "o has an exclusive "r to ! produce ( 8 lab\r4' ,= on reflection x is se5 t no lab\r really #8produces' any mat]ial ?+1 b only adds to its value3 & we d n ?9k t a man c acquire a "r to a mat]ial ?+ belong+ to ano!r1 by sp5d+ 8 lab\r on x--ev5 if he does s 9 ! bona fide belief t x is 8 own prop]ty--b only to adequate comp5sation = 8 lab\r2 ?is1 !re=e1 is :at ! proposition j quot$ mu/ mean4 ,! pr9ciple is1 inde$1 sometimes /ret*$ to expla9 ! orig9al "r ( prop]ty 9 mat]ials1 z be+ 9 a s5se #8produc$' 7i4e4 f\nd7 by _! fir/ discov]]2#bah b "h aga91 reflection %[s t ,common ,s5se does n grant ?is 7z a moral "r7 absolutely1 b only 9 s f> z x appe>s to be n m ?an adequate comp5sation = ! discov]]'s tr\ble4 ,= example1 we %\ld n consid] t ! fir/ f9d] ( a l>ge un9habit$ region _h a moral "r to appropriate ! :ole ( x4 ,h5ce ?is ju/ification ( ! "r ( prop]ty ref]s u ultimately to ! pr9ciple #8t e man ought to receive adequate requital = 8 lab\r4' ,s1 aga91 :5 we speak ( ! _w z ju/ly gov]n$ by ,god1 we seem to mean t1 if we c\ld "k ! :ole ( human exi/5ce1 we %\ld f9d t happ9ess is di/ribut$ among m5 accord+ to _! des]ts4 ,& ,div9e ,ju/ice is ?\ght to be a patt]n :i* ,human ,ju/ice is to imitate z f> z ! conditions ( human society all[4 ,?is k9d ( ,ju/ice1 z has be5 said1 seems l ,gratitude univ]salis$3 & ! same pr9ciple appli$ to puni%m5t may simil>ly be reg>d$ z ,res5tm5t univ]salis$2 ?\gh ! p>allel is incomplete1 if we are consid]+ ! pres5t /ate ( our moral conceptions4 ,hi/ory %[s u a "t 9 :i* x 0 ?\ght n only z natural1 b z cle>ly "r & incumb5t on a man1 to requite injuries z to repay b5efits3 b z moral reflection develop$ 9 ,europe ?is notion 0 repudiat$1 s t ,plato taught t x c\ld nev] be "r really to h>m any "o1 h[ev] he may h h>m$ u4 ,& ?is is ! accept$ doctr9e 9 ,*ri/ian societies1 z reg>ds requital by individuals ( p]sonal wrongs4 ,b 9 its univ]salis$ =m ! old conviction /ill l+]s 9 ! popul> view ( ,crim9al ,ju/ice3 x seems /ill to be widely held t ,ju/ice requires pa9 to be inflict$ on a man :o has done wrong1 ev5 if no b5efit result ei!r to him or to o!rs f ! pa94 ,p]sonally1 ,i am s f> f hold+ ?is view t ,i h an in/9ctive & /rong moral av]sion to x3 & ,i hesitate to attribute x to ,common ,s5se1 s9ce ,i ?9k t x is gradually pass+ away f ! moral consci\sness ( educat$ p]sons 9 ! mo/ advanc$ communities3 b ,i ?9k x is /ill p]haps ! m ord9>y view4 ,?is1 !n1 is "o elem5t ( :at ,ari/otle calls ,corrective ,ju/ice1 :i* is embodi$ 9 crim9al law4 ,x mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! pr9ciple ( ,rep>ation1 on :i* legal aw>ds ( damages are bas$4 ,we h already notic$ ?is z a simple d$uction f ! maxim ( g5]al ,b5evol5ce1 :i* =bids u to d h>m to our fell[-creatures3 = if we h h>m$ !m1 we c yet approximately obey ! maxim by giv+ comp5sation = ! h>m4 ,?\gh "h ! "q arises :e!r we are b\nd to make rep>ation = h>m t has be5 q blamelessly caus$3 & x is n easy to answ] x decisively4#bai ,on ! :ole1 ,i ?9k we %\ld condemn a man :o did n (f] "s rep>ation = any s]i\s injury caus$ by him to ano!r--ev5 if q involunt>ily caus$1 & )\t neglig5ce3 b p]haps we reg>d ?is r z a duty ( ,b5evol5ce--aris+ out ( ! g5]al sympa?y t ea* ought to h = o!rs1 int5sifi$ by ?is special occasion--?an z a duty ( /rict ,ju/ice4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we limit ! requirem5t ( ,rep>ation1 "u ! head ( /rict ,ju/ice1 to cases 9 :i* ! mis*ief repair$ is due to acts or omissions 9 "s degree culpable1 a difficulty arises f ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! moral view ( culpability1 & t :i* social security requires4 ,( ?is ,i w speak pres5tly4#bbj ,9 any case !re is n[#bba no dang] ( confusion or collision betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( ,rep>ative & t ( ,retributive ,ju/ice1 z ! "o is manife/ly conc]n$ ) ! claims ( ! injur$ p>ty1 & ! o!r ) ! des]ts ( ! wrongdo]3 ?\gh 9 ! actual adm9i/ration ( ,law ! obligation ( pay+ comp5sation = wrong may sometimes be treat$ z a suffici5t puni%m5t = ! wrongdo]4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we turn aga9 to ! o!r bran* ( ,retributive ,ju/ice1 :i* is conc]n$ ) ! rew>d ( s]vices1 we f9d ano!r notion1 :i* ,i w call ,fitness1 (t5 bl5d$ indi/+ui%ably#bbb ) ! notion ( ,des]t1 & s ne$+ to be c>efully sep>at$ f x2 & :5 ! di/9ction has be5 made1 we see t ! two are liable to come into collision4 ,i d n feel sure t ! pr9ciple ( #8di/ribution accord+ to ,fitness' is f\nd1 /rictly speak+1 9 ! analysis ( ! ord9>y notion ( ,ju/ice3 b x c]ta9ly ent]s into our common conception ( ! ideal or p]fectly rational ord] ( society1 z reg>ds ! di/ribution bo? ( in/rum5ts & functions1 & 7to "s ext5t at lea/7 ( o!r s\rces ( happ9ess4 ,we c]ta9ly ?9k x reasonable t in/rum5ts %\ld be giv5 to ^? :o c use !m be/1 & functions allott$ to ^? :o are mo/ compet5t to p]=m !m3 b ^! may n be ^? :o h r5d]$ mo/ s]vices 9 ! pa/4 ,& aga91 we ?9k x reasonable t p>ticul> mat]ial means ( enjoym5t %\ld fall to ! lot ( ^? :o are susceptible ( ! respective k9ds ( pleasure2 z no "o w\ld ?9k ( allott+ pictures to a bl9d man1 or r>e w9es to "o :o _h no ta/e3 h5ce we %\ld probably ?9k x fitt+ t arti/s %\ld h l>g] %>es ?an me*anics 9 ! social di/ribution ( weal?1 ?\gh !y may be by no means m des]v+4 ,?us ! notions ( ,des]t & ,fitness appe> at lea/ occasionally conflict+2 b p]haps1 z ,i h sugge/$1 ,fitness %\ld r be reg>d$ z a utilit>ian pr9ciple ( di/ribution1 inevitably limit+ ! realisation ( :at is ab/ractly j1 ?an z a "p ( ! int]pretation ( ,ju/ice prop]3 & x is ) ! latt] t we are at pres5t conc]n$4 ,at any rate x is ! ,requital ( ,des]t t con/itutes ! *ief elem5t ( ,ideal ,ju/ice1 9 s f> z ?is imports some?+ m ?an m]e ,equality & ,imp>tiality4 ,let u !n exam9e m closely :]e9 ,des]t consi/s2 & we w beg9 ) ,good ,des]t or ,m]it1 z be+ ( ! mo/ fundam5tal & p]man5t importance2 = we may hope t crime & its puni%m5t w decrease & gradually disappe> z ! _w improves1 b ! "r or be/ di/ribution ( ! means ( wellbe+ is an object t we mu/ always be /riv+ to realise4 #f4 ,& fir/1 ! "q :i* we _h to consid] 9 def9+ ,gratitude aga9 recurs3 :e!r1 namely1 we are to apportion ! rew>d to ! ef=t made1 or to ! results atta9$4 ,= x may be said t ! actual utility ( any s]vice mu/ dep5d mu* ^u fav\rable circum/ances & =tunate accid5ts1 n due to any des]t ( ! ag5t3 or aga91 may be due to p[]s & skills :i* 7 connate1 or h be5 develop$ by fav\rable conditions ( life1 or by good education1 & :y %\ld we rew>d him = ^!8 7= ! la/-m5tion$ we ought r to rew>d ^? :o h educat$ him74 ,& c]ta9ly x is only 9 s f> z moral excell5ces are exhibit$ 9 human a*ievem5ts t !y are commonly ?\ght to be su* z ,god w rew>d4 ,b by draw+ ?is l9e we d n yet get rid ( ! difficulty4 ,= x may /ill be said t good actions are due entirely1 or to a great ext5t1 to good dispositions & habits1 & t ^! are p>tly inh]it$ & p>tly due to ! c>e ( p>5ts & tea*]s2 s t 9 rew>d+ ^! we are rew>d+ ! results ( natural & accid5tal advantages1 & x is unreasonable to di/+ui% ^! f o!rs1 su* z skill & k1 & to say t x is ev5 ideally j to rew>d ! "o & n ! o!r4 ,%all we say1 !n1 t ! rew>d %\ld be proportionate to ! am\nt ( volunt>y ef=t = a good end8 ,b ,det]m9i/s w say t ev5 ?is is ultimately ! effect ( causes extrane\s to ! man's self4 ,on ! ,det]m9i/ view1 !n1 x w\ld seem to be ideally j 7if any?+ is s7 t all m5 %\ld enjoy equal am\nts ( happ9ess3 = !re seems to be no ju/ice 9 mak+ ,a happi] ?an ,b1 m]ely because circum/ances beyond 8 own control h fir/ made him bett]4 ,b :y %\ld we n1 in/ead ( #8all m51' say #8all s5ti5t be+s'8 = :y %\ld m5 h m happ9ess ?an any o!r animal8 ,b ?us ! pursuit ( ideal ju/ice seems to conduct u to su* a precipice ( p>adox t ,common ,s5se is likely to ab&on x4 ,at any rate ! ord9>y idea ( ,des]t has ?us altoge!r vani%$4#bbc ,& ?us we seem to be l$ to ! conclusion :i* ,i anticipat$ 9 ,book i4 *ap4 v43 t 9 ?is "o dep>tm5t ( our moral consci\sness ! idea ( ,free ,w seems involv$ 9 a peculi> way 9 ! moral ideas ( ,common ,s5se1 s9ce if x is elim9at$ ! important notions ( ,des]t or ,m]it & ,ju/ice require mat]ial modification4#bbd ,at ! same "t1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,det]m9i/ & ,lib]t>ian ,ju/ice c h>dly h any practical effect4 ,= 9 any case x does n seem possible to sep>ate 9 practice t "p ( a man's a*ievem5t :i* is due /rictly to 8 free *oice f t "p :i* is due to ! orig9al gift ( nature & to fav\r+ circum/ances3#bbe s t we mu/ necess>ily leave to provid5ce ! realisation ( :at we conceive z ! !oretical ideal ( ,ju/ice1 & cont5t ourselves ) try+ to rew>d volunt>y actions 9 proportion to ! wor? ( ! s]vices int5tionally r5d]$ by !m4 ,if1 !n1 we take z ! pr9ciple ( ideal ju/ice1 s f> z ?is c be practically aim$ at 9 human society1 ! requital ( volunt>y s]vices 9 proportion to _! wor?1 x rema9s to consid] on :at pr9ciple or pr9ciples ! comp>ative wor? ( diff]5t s]vices is to be rationally e/imat$4 ,!re is no d\bt t we commonly assume su* an e/imate to be possible2 = we cont9ually speak ( ! #8fair' or #8prop]' price ( any k9d ( s]vices z some?+ g5]ally kn[n1 & condemn ! dem& = m ?an ?is z extortionate4 ,x may be said t ! notion ( ,fairness or ,equity :i* we ord9>ily apply 9 su* judgm5ts is to be di/+ui%$ f t ( ,ju/ice2 ,equity be+ 9 fact (t5 contra/$ ) /rict ,ju/ice1 & conceiv$ z capable ( com+ into collision ) x4 ,& ?is is p>tly true3 b ,i ?9k ! wid] & no less usual s5se ( ! t]m ,ju/ice1 9 :i* x includes ,equity or ,fairness1 is ! only "o t c be conv5i5tly adopt$ 9 an e?ical treatise3 = 9 any case :]e ,equity comes into conflict ) /rict ju/ice1 its dictates are held to be 9 a high] s5se j1 & :at ought to be ultimately c>ri$ into effect 9 ! case consid]$--?\gh n1 p]haps1 by ! adm9i/rators ( law4 ,i treat ,equity1 !re=e1 z a species ( ,ju/ice2 ?\gh not+ t ! =m] t]m is m ord9>ily us$ 9 cases :]e ! def9it5ess atta9able is recognis$ z some:at less ?an 9 ord9>y cases ( rightful claims aris+ out ( law or contract4 ,on :at pr9ciple1 !n1 c we det]m9e ! 8fair0 or 8equitable0 price ( s]vices8 ,:5 we exam9e ! common judgm5ts ( practical p]sons 9 :i* ?is judgm5t occurs1 we f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t ! #8fair' 9 su* cases is asc]ta9$ by a ref]5ce to analogy & cu/om1 & t any s]vice is consid]$ to be #8fairly wor?' :at is usually giv5 = s]vices ( ! k9d4 ,h5ce ?is elem5t ( ! notion ( ,ju/ice may seem1 aft] all1 to resolve itself into t discuss$ 9 #b3 & 9 "s /ates ( society x c]ta9ly appe>s t ! paym5t to be giv5 = s]vices is z completely fix$ by usage z any o!r cu/om>y duty1 s t x w\ld be a cle> disappo9tm5t ( normal expectation to deviate f ?is usage4 ,b probably no "o 9 a mod]n civilis$ community w\ld ma9ta9 9 its full bread? ?is id5tification ( ! ,j ) ! ,usual price ( s]vices3 & s f> z ! judgm5ts ( practical p]sons may seem to imply ?is1 ,i ?9k x mu/ be admitt$ t !y are sup]ficial or m]ely inadv]t5t1 & ignore ! e/abli%$ mode ( det]m9+ ! m>ket prices ( commodities by free competition ( produc]s & trad]s4 ,= :]e su* competition op]ates ! m>ket value rises & falls1 & is diff]5t at diff]5t places & times2 s t no prop]ly in/ruct$ p]son c expect any fixity 9 x1 or compla9 ( inju/ice m]ely on acc\nt ( ! v>iations 9 x4 ,c we !n say t #8m>ket value' 7z det]m9$ by free competition7 corresponds to our notion ( :at is ideally j8 ,?is is a "q ( mu* int]e/1 because ?is is obvi\sly ! mode ( det]m9+ ! remun]ation ( s]vices t w\ld be univ]sal 9 a society con/ruct$ on ! pr9ciple previ\sly discuss$1 ( secur+ ! greate/ possible ,fre$om to all memb]s ( ! community4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ?is1 :i* we may call ! ,individuali/ic ,ideal1 is ! type to :i* mod]n civilis$ communities h1 until lately1 be5 t5d+ to approximate3 & x is !re=e v important to "k :e!r x is "o :i* completely satisfies ! dem&s ( morality2 & :e!r ,fre$om1 if n an absolute end or ,fir/ ,pr9ciple ( ab/ract ,ju/ice1 is /ill to be s\ght z ! be/ means to ! realisation ( a j social ord] by ! g5]al requital ( ,des]t4 ,at fir/ sight x seems plausible to urge t ! #8m>ket value' repres5ts ! e/imate set ^u any?+ by mank9d g5]ally1 & !re=e gives u exactly t #8common s5se' judgm5t respect+ value :i* we are n[ try+ to f9d4 ,b on exam9ation x seems likely t ! majority ( m5 are n prop]ly qualifi$ to decide on ! value ( _m important k9ds ( s]vices1 f imp]fect k ( _! nature & effects2 s t1 z f> z ^! are conc]n$1 ! true judgm5t w n be repres5t$ 9 ! m>ket-place4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ?+s :i* a man is g5]ally able to e/imate1 x may be manife/ 9 a p>ticul> case t he is ignorant ( ! real utility ( :at he ex*anges2 & 9 ?is case ! #8free' contract h>dly seems to be fair3 ?\gh if ! ignorance 0 n caus$ by ! o!r p>ty to ! ex*ange1 ,common ,s5se is h>dly prep>$ to condemn ! latt] z unju/ = tak+ advantage ( x4 ,= in/ance1 if a man has discov]$ by a legitimate use ( geological k & skill t !re is probably a valuable m9e on l& own$ by a /rang]1 reasonable p]sons w\ld n blame him = conceal+ 8 discov]y until he _h b\ght ! m9e at its m>ket value3 yet x c\ld n be said t ! sell] got :at x 0 really wor?4 ,9 fact ,common ,s5se is r p]plex$ on ?is po9t3 & ! rationale ( ! conclusion at :i* x arrives1 mu/1 ,i conceive1 be s\ght 9 economic consid]ations1 :i* take u q beyond ! analysis ( ! common notion ( ,ju/ice4#bbf ,aga91 !re are social s]vices recognis$ z highly important :i* g5]ally speak+ h no price 9 any m>ket1 on acc\nt ( ! indirectness & unc]ta9ty ( _! practical utility3 z1 = in/ance1 sci5tific discov]ies4 ,! ext5t to :i* any giv5 discov]y w aid indu/rial inv5tion is s unc]ta91 t ev5 if ! secret ( x c\ld be conv5i5tly kept1 x w\ld n usually be pr(itable to buy x4 ,b ev5 if we conf9e our att5tion to products & s]vices g5]ally m>ketable1 & to b>ga9s ?or\ghly und]/ood on bo? sides1 !re are /ill s]i\s difficulties 9 ! way ( id5tify+ ! notions ( #8free' & #8fair' ex*ange4 ,?us1 :]e an individual1 or comb9ation ( individuals1 has ! monopoly ( a c]ta9 k9d ( s]vices1 ! m>ket-price ( ! aggregate ( su* s]vices c "u c]ta9 conditions be increas$ by dim9i%+ _! total am\nt2 b x w\ld seem absurd to say t ! social ,des]t ( ^? r5d]+ ! s]vices is !reby increas$1 & a pla9 man has grave d\bts :e!r ! price ?us atta9$ is fair4 ,/ill less is x ?\ght fair to take advantage ( ! transi5t monopoly produc$ by em]g5cy3 ?us1 if ,i saw ,crsus dr[n+ & no "o ne>1 x w\ld n be held fair 9 me to refuse to save him except at ! price ( half 8 weal?4 ,b if s1 c x be fair = any class ( p]sons to ga9 competitively by ! unfav\rable economic situation ( ano!r class ) :i* !y deal8 ,& if we admit t x w\ld be unfair1 :]e are we to draw ! l9e8 ,= any increase ( ! numb]s ( a class r5d]s its situation = b>ga9+ less fav\rable3 s9ce ! m>ket price ( diff]5t s]vices dep5ds p>tly ^u ! ease or difficulty ( procur+ !m--z ,political ,economi/s say1 #8on ! relation betwe5 ! supply ( s]vices & ! dem& = !m'--& x does n seem t any individual's social ,des]t c prop]ly be less5$ m]ely by ! increas$ numb] or will+ness ( o!rs r5d]+ ! same s]vices4 ,nor1 inde$1 does x seem t x c be decreas$ by 8 own will+ness1 = x is /range to rew>d a man less because he is zeal\s & eag] 9 ! p]=mance ( 8 function2 yet 9 b>ga9+ ! less will+ always has ! advantage4 ,&1 f9ally1 x h>dly appe>s t ! social wor? ( a man's s]vice is necess>ily increas$ by ! fact t 8 s]vice is r5d]$ to ^? :o c pay lavi%ly2 b 8 rew>d is c]ta9ly likely to be great] f ?is cause4 ,su* consid]ations z ^! h l$ "s political ?9k]s to hold t ,ju/ice requires a mode ( di/ribut+ paym5t = s]vices1 entirely diff]5t f t at pres5t effect$ by free competition3 & t all lab\r]s ought to be paid accord+ to ! intr9sic value ( _! lab\r z e/imat$ by enlight5$ & compet5t judges4 ,if ! ,sociali/ic ,ideal--z we may p]haps call x--c\ld be realis$ )\t c\nt]-balanc+ evils1 x w\ld c]ta9ly seem to give a ne>] approximation to :at we conceive z ,div9e ,ju/ice ?an ! pres5t /ate ( society af=ds4 ,b ?is supposes t we h f\nd ! rational me?od ( det]m9+ value3 :i*1 h[ev]1 is /ill to seek4 ,%all we say t ^! judges are to take ! value ( a s]vice z proportionate to ! am\nt ( happ9ess produc$ by x8 ,if s1 ! calculation is1 ( c\rse1 expos$ to all ! difficulties ( ! h$oni/ic me?od discuss$ 9 ,book ii43 b suppos+ ^! c be ov]come1 x is /ill h>d to say h[ we are to comp>e ! value ( diff]5t s]vices t mu/ necess>ily be comb9$ to produce happy life4 ,= example1 h[ %all we comp>e ! respective values ( necess>ies & luxuries8 = we may be m s5sible ( ! enjoym5t d]iv$ f ! latt]1 b we c\ld n h ?is at all )\t ! =m]4 ,&1 aga91 :5 diff]5t k9ds ( lab\r co-op]ate 9 ! same production1 h[ are we to e/imate _! relative values8 = ev5 if all m]e unskill$ lab\r may be br\ght to a common /&>d1 ?is seems almo/ impossible 9 ! case ( diff]5t k9ds ( skill4 ,= h[ %all we comp>e ! lab\r ( design ) t ( a*ievem5t8 or ! sup]vision ( ! :ole ) ! execution ( details8 or ! lab\r ( actually produc+ ) t ( educat+ produc]s8 or ! s]vice ( ! savant :o discov]s a new pr9ciple1 ) t ( ! inv5tor :o applies x8 ,i d n see h[ ^! que/ions1 or ! difficulties notic$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 c be met by any analysis ( our common notion ( ,ju/ice4 ,to deal ) su* po9ts at all satisfactorily we h1 ,i conceive1 to adopt q a diff]5t l9e ( reason+3 we h to ask1 n :at s]vices ( a c]ta9 k9d are intr9sically wor?1 b :at rew>d c procure !m & :e!r ! re/ ( society ga9 by ! s]vices m ?an ! equival5t rew>d4 ,we h1 9 %ort1 to give up z impracticable ! con/ruction ( an ideally j social ord]1#bbg 9 :i* all s]vices are rew>d$ 9 exact proportion to _! intr9sic value4 ,&1 = simil> reasons1 we seem =c$ to conclude1 m g5]ally1 t x is impossible to obta9 cle> premises = a reason$ me?od ( det]m9+ exactly diff]5t am\nts ( ,good ,des]t4 ,inde$1 p]haps1 ,common ,s5se sc>cely holds su* a me?od to be possible3 = ?\gh x consid]s ,ideal ,ju/ice to consi/ 9 rew>d+ ,des]t1 x reg>ds z ,utopian any g5]al attempt to realise ?is ideal 9 ! social di/ribution ( ! means ( happ9ess4 ,9 ! actual /ate ( society x is only )9 a v limit$ range t any endeav\r is made to rew>d ,good ,des]t4 ,p>5ts attempt ?is to "s ext5t 9 deal+ ) _! *ildr51 & ! ,/ate 9 rew>d+ rem>kable public s]vices r5d]$ by /atesm51 soldi]s1 etc43 b reflection on ^! cases w %[ h[ v r\gh & imp]fect are ! /&>ds us$ 9 decid+ ! am\nt due4 ,& ord9>ily ! only k9d ( ,ju/ice :i* we try to realise is t :i* consi/s 9 ! fulfilm5t ( contracts & def9ite expectations2 leav+ ! g5]al fairness ( ,di/ribution by ,b>ga9+ to take c>e ( itself4 #g4 ,:5 we pass to consid] ! case ( ,crim9al ,ju/ice1 we f9d1 9 ! fir/ place1 difficulties correspond+ to ^? :i* we h already notic$4 ,we f9d1 to beg91 a simil> implication & p>tial confusion ( ! ideas ( ,law & ,ju/ice4 ,=1 z 0 said1 by #8br++ a man to ,ju/ice' we commonly mean #8inflict+ legal puni%m5t' on him3 & we ?9k x "r t nei!r m nor less ?an ! p5alty prescrib$ by law %\ld be execut$1 ev5 ?\gh we may reg>d ! legal scale ( puni%m5t z unju/4 ,at ! same "t1 we h no su* p]plexity 9 respect ( *anges 9 ! law z occurs 9 ! case ( ,civil ,ju/ice2 = we d n ?9k t a man c acquire1 by cu/om1 prescriptive rights to ov]-l5i5t puni%m5t1 z he is ?\ght to d to an unequal di/ribution ( lib]ties & privileges4 ,if n[ we inve/igate ! ideal ( ,crim9al ,ju/ice1 z intuitively det]m9$1 we c]ta9ly f9d t 9 s f> z puni%m5t is n reg>d$ z m]ely prev5tive1#bbh x is commonly ?\ght t x ought to be proportion$ to ! gravity ( crime4#bbi ,/ill1 :5 we endeav\r to make ! me?od ( apportionm5t p]fectly rational & precise1 ! difficulties seem at lea/ z great z 9 ! case ( ,good ,des]t4 ,=1 fir/1 ! assumption ( ,free ,w seems necess>ily to come 9 "h also2 s9ce if a man's bad de$s are entirely caus$ by nature & circum/ances1 x c]ta9ly appe>s1 z ,rob]t ,ow5 urg$1 t he does n prop]ly des]ve to be puni%$ = !m2 ,ju/ice w\ld r seem to require u to try to alt] ! conditions "u :i* he acts4 ,& we actually d puni% delib]ate (f5ces m ?an impulsive1 p]haps z imply+ a m free *oice ( evil4 ,aga91 we ?9k t (f5ces committ$ by p]sons :o h _h no moral tra9+1 or a p]v]t$ tra9+1 are really less crim9al2 at ! same "t x is commonly agre$ t m5 c h>dly remit puni%m5t on ?is acc\nt4 ,aga9 ! gravity--f a moral po9t ( view--( a crime seems to be at lea/ mu* r$uc$1 if ! motive be laudable1 z :5 a man kills a villa9 ^: crimes elude legal puni%m5t1 or heads a hopeless rebellion = ! good ( 8 c\ntry3 /ill x w\ld be p>adoxical to affirm t we ought to r$uce puni%m5t proportionally3 ,common ,s5se w\ld hold t--:atev] ,god may d--m5 mu/1 g5]ally speak+1 inflict sev]e puni%m5t = any gravely mis*iev\s act =bidd5 by law :i* has be5 int5tionally done1 ev5 ?\gh x may h be5 prompt$ by a good motive4 ,b ev5 if we neglect ! motive1 & take ! int5tion only into acc\nt1 x is n easy to /ate cle> pr9ciples = det]m9+ ! gravity ( crimes4 ,= sometimes1 z 9 ! case ( ! patriotic rebel1 ! int5tion ( ! crim9al is to d :at is "r & good3 & 9 _m cases1 ?\gh he kn[s t he is do+ wrong1 he does n int5d to cause any actual h>m to any s5ti5t be+2 z :5 a ?ief takes :at he ?9ks w n be miss$4 ,aga91 we d n commonly ?9k t a crime is r5d]$ less grave by be+ kept p]fectly secret2 & yet a great "p ( ! h>m done by a crime is ! #8second>y evil' 7z ,b5?am calls x7 ( ! al>m & insecurity :i* x causes2 & ?is "p is cut (f by complete secrecy4 ,x may be repli$ t ?is latt] difficulty is n a practical "o2 because we are n call$ ^u to puni% a crime until x has be5 discov]$1 & !n ! second>y evil has be5 caus$1 & is all ! great] because ( ! previ\s secrecy4 ,b x rema9s true t x 0 n design$ = discov]y2 & !re=e t ?is "p ( ! evil caus$ by ! crime 0 n int5d$ by ! crim9al4 ,& if we say t ! he9\sness ( ! crime dep5ds on ! loss ( happ9ess t w\ld g5]ally be caus$ by su* acts if !y 7 all[$ to g unpuni%$1 & t we mu/ suppose ! crim9al to be aw>e ( ?is2 we seem to be endeav\r+ to =ce a utilit>ian !ory into an intuitional =m by means ( a legal fiction4 ,we h hi!rto spok5 ( int5tional wrong-do+3 b positive law aw>ds puni%m5t also = h>m t is due to ra%ness or neglig5ce2 & ! ju/ification ( ?is involves u 9 fur!r difficulties4 ,"s juri/s seem to reg>d ra%ness & neglig5ce z positive /ates ( m9d1 9 :i* ! ag5t consci\sly refuses ! att5tion or reflection :i* he kn[s he ought to give2 & no d\bt ?is sort ( wilful recklessness does sometimes occur1 & seems z prop]ly puni%able z if ! result+ h>m _h be5 positively int5d$4 ,b ! law z actually adm9i/]$ does n require evid5ce t ?is 0 ! ag5t's /ate ( m9d 7:i* inde$ 9 mo/ cases x w\ld be impossible to give73 b is cont5t ) pro( t ! h>m might h be5 prev5t$ by su* c>e z an av]age man w\ld h %[n "u ! circum/ances4 ,& mo/ commonly by #8c>elessness' we simply mean a purely negative psy*ological fact1 i4e4 t ! ag5t did n p]=m c]ta9 processes ( obs]vation or reflection2 x is !re=e at ! "t /rictly involunt>y1 & s sc>cely seems to involve ill-des]t4 ,x may be said p]haps t ?\gh ! pres5t c>elessness is n blamewor?y1 ! pa/ neglect to cultivate habits ( c>e is s4 ,b 9 _m individual in/ances we _c reasonably inf] ev5 ?is pa/ neglect2 & 9 su* cases ! utilit>ian !ory ( puni%m5t1 :i* reg>ds x z a means ( prev5t+ simil> h>mful acts 9 ! future1 seems alone applicable4 ,simil> difficulties arise1 z 0 be=e h9t$ 7p4 #bhb71 9 det]m9+ ! limits )9 :i* ,rep>ation is due2 t is1 on ! view t x is n incumb5t on u to make comp5sation = all h>m caus$ by our muscul> actions1 b only = h>m :i*--if n int5tional--0 due to our ra%ness or neglig5ce4 ,! results ( ?is exam9ation ( ,ju/ice may be summ$ up z foll[s4 ,! prom95t elem5t 9 ,ju/ice z ord9>ily conceiv$ is a k9d ( ,equality3 t is1 ,imp>tiality 9 ! obs]vance or en=cem5t ( c]ta9 g5]al rules allott+ good or evil to individuals4 ,b :5 we h cle>ly di/+ui%$ ?is elem5t1 we see t ! def9ition ( ! virtue requir$ = practical guidance is left obvi\sly incomplete4 ,inquir+ fur!r = ! "r g5]al pr9ciples ( di/ribution1 we f9d t our common notion ( ,ju/ice includes--besides ! pr9ciple ( ,rep>ation = injury--two q di/9ct & div]g5t elem5ts4 ,! "o1 :i* we may call ,cons]vative ,ju/ice1 is realis$ 7#a7 9 ! obs]vance ( ,law & ,contracts & def9ite und]/&+s1 & 9 ! en=cem5t ( su* p5alties = ! violation ( ^! z h be5 legally det]m9$ & ann\nc$2 & 7#b7 9 ! fulfilm5t ( natural & normal expectations4 ,?is latt] obligation1 h[ev]1 is ( a some:at indef9ite k9d4 ,b ! o!r elem5t1 :i* we h call$ ,ideal ,ju/ice1 is /ill m difficult to def9e2 = !re seem to be two q di/9ct conceptions ( x1 embodi$ respectively 9 :at we h call$ ! ,individuali/ic & ! ,sociali/ic ,ideals ( a political community4 ,! fir/ ( ^! takes ! realisation ( ,fre$om z ! ultimate end & /&>d ( "r social relations3 b on exam9+ x clos] we f9d t ! notion ( ,fre$om w n give a practicable basis = social con/ruction )\t c]ta9 arbitr>y#bcj def9itions & limitations3 & ev5 if we admit ^!1 /ill a society 9 :i* ,fre$om is realis$ z f> z is feasible does n completely suit our s5se ( ,ju/ice4 ,prima facie1 ?is is m satisfi$ by ! ,sociali/ic ,ideal ( ,di/ribution1 f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple ( requit+ ,des]t3 b :5 we try to make ?is pr9ciple precise1 we f9d ourselves aga9 involv$ 9 grave difficulties2 & simil> p]plexities beset ! work+ out ( rules ( ,crim9al ,ju/ice on ! same pr9ciple4 ,,footnotes3 #bjd ,h[ f> an indep5d5t pr9ciple ( ,ju/ice is requir$ = ! ,utilit>ian me?od w be h]eaft] consid]$4 7,book iv4 *ap4 i47 #bje ,ari/otle1 9 exp\nd+ ! virtue ( 1 :i* corresponds to our ,ju/ice1 notices t ! ^w has two mean+s2 9 ! wid] ( :i* x includes 9 a mann] all ,virtue1 or at any rate ! social side or aspect ( ,virtue g5]ally4 ,! ^w #8,ju/ice' does n appe> to be us$ 9 ,engli% 9 ?is compreh5sive mann] 7except occasionally 9 religi\s writ+s1 f ! influ5ce ( ! ,greek ^w z us$ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t73 al?\gh ! v]b 8to ju/ify0 seems to h ?is wid? ( mean+2 = :5 ,i say t "o is 8ju/ifi$0 9 do+ s & s1 ,i mean no m ?an t su* conduct is "r = him4 ,9 ! pres5t discussion1 at any rate1 ,i h conf9$ myself to ! m precise signification ( ! t]m4 #bjf ,i ought to say t1 9 my view1 ?is only applies to taxes 9 ! n>r[] s5se 9 :i* !y are di/+ui%$ f paym5ts = s]vices receiv$ by individuals f ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 ! case ( ^! latt]1 ,i conceive t ,ju/ice is r held to lie 9 duly proportion+ paym5t to am\nt ( s]vice receiv$4 ,"s p]sons h held t all paym5ts made to ,gov]nm5t ought to be det]m9$ on ?is pr9ciple3 & ?is view seems to me to be consi/5t ) ! individuali/ic ideal ( political ord]1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly exam9e3 b1 z ,i h else:]e tri$ to %[ 7,pr9c4 ( ,pol4 ,econ4 ,book iii4 *ap4 viii471 !re is an important dep>tm5t ( ,gov]nm5tal exp5diture to :i* ?is pr9ciple is n applicable4 #bjg ,x may be well to notice a case 9 :i* ! v equality ( application1 :i* is1 z has be5 said1 impli$ 9 ! m]e idea ( a law c\*$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 is felt to be unju/4 ,?is is ! case :]e ! words ( a /atute1 ei!r f be+ c>elessly drawn1 or on acc\nt ( ! inevitable defects ( ev5 ! mo/ precise t]m9ology1 include 7or exclude7 p]sons & circum/ances :i* are cle>ly n includ$ 9 7or exclud$ f7 ! real int5t & purpose ( ! law4 ,9 ?is case a p>ticul> decision1 /rictly 9 accordance ) a law :i* g5]ally consid]$ is j1 may cause extreme inju/ice3 & s ! diff]5ce betwe5 actual ,law & ,ju/ice is %>ply br\ght out4 ,/ill we _c 9 ?is way obta9 pr9ciples = judg+ g5]ally ( ! ju/ice ( laws4 #bjh ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t we _c ev5 say1 9 treat+ ( ! private conduct ( individuals1 t all arbitr>y inequality is recognis$ z unju/3 x w\ld n be commonly ?\ght unju/ 9 a ri* ba*elor ) no ne> relatives to leave ! bulk ( 8 prop]ty 9 provid+ p5sions exclusively = indig5t r$-hair$ m51 h[ev] unreasonable & caprici\s ! *oice might appe>4 #bji ,x may be obs]v$ t sometimes claims g5]at$ 9 ?is way h legal validity2 z :5 a "r ( way is e/abli%$ )\t express p]mission ( ! l&[n]1 m]ely by 8 cont9u$ indulg5ce4 #baj ,?is is ! case ev51 z ,i say1 :5 laws are alt]$ lawfully3 /ill m aft] any exceptional crisis at :i* !re has occurr$ a rupture ( political ord]3 = !n ! legal claims aris+ out ( ! new ord] :i* is ?us root$ 9 disord] conflict ) ^? previ\sly e/abli%$ 9 a mann] :i* admits ( no !oretical solution3 x c only be settl$ by a r\gh practical compromise4 ,see next *apt]1 #c4 #baa ,book i4 *ap4 vi4 #b4 #bab ,x is *>act]i/ic ( an unprogressive society t 9 x ^! two po9ts ( view are indi/+ui%able2 ! ,jural ,ideal absolutely co9cides ) ! ,cu/om>y1 & social p]fection is imag9$ to consi/ 9 ! p]fect obs]vance ( a traditional sy/em ( rules4 #bac ,?is "q1 h[ f> ! conception ( ,fre$om involves unlimit$ "r to limit ,fre$om by free contract1 w meet u aga9 9 ! next *apt]1 :5 we consid] ! g5]al duty ( ob$i5ce to ,law4 #bad ,x has (t5 be5 urg$ z a ju/ification = expropriat+ savages f ! l& ( new colonies t tribes ( hunt]s h really no moral "r to prop]ty 9 ! soil ov] :i* !y hunt4 #bae ,?is is ! argum5t us$ by optimi/ic political economi/s su* z ,ba/iat4 #baf ,! fur!r consid]ation ( ,political ,fre$om1 ) :i* we %all be occupi$ 9 ! next *apt]1 w af=d additional illu/rations ( ! difficulties involv$ 9 ! notion4 #bag ,if ! view giv5 9 ! text be s\nd1 x illu/rates v /rik+ly ! diff]5ce betwe5 natural in/9cts & moral intuitions4 ,= ! impulse to requite a s]vice is1 on its emotional side1 q diff]5t f t :i* prompts u to claim ! fruits ( our lab\r1 or 8a fair day's wages = a fair day's "w40 ,/ill1 our appreh5sion ( ! duty ( ,gratitude seems capable ( be+ subsum$ "u ! m g5]al intuition #8t des]t ought to be requit$4' #bah ,x c]ta9ly requires a consid]able /ra9 to br+ ! #8"r ( ,fir/ ,discov]y' "u ! notion ( #8"r to ! produce ( "o's lab\r4' ,h5ce ,locke & o!rs h f\nd x necess>y to suppose1 z ! ultimate ju/ification ( ! =m] "r1 #8a tacit cons5t' ( mank9d 9 g5]al t all ?+s previ\sly unappropriat$ %all belong to ! fir/ appropriator4 ,b ?is mu/ be admitt$ to be a r desp]ate device ( e?ico-political con/ruction3 on acc\nt ( ! fatal facility ) :i* x may be us$ to ju/ify almo/ any arbitr>9ess 9 positive law4 #bai ,! read] w f9d an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! p]plexity ( ,common ,s5se on ?is po9t 9 ,mr4 ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes1 ,junior's1 book on ,! ,common ,law1 *ap4 iii41 :]e ! au?or gives a p5etrat+ discussion ( ! /ruggle1 9 ! developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( torts 9 ,engli% ,law1 betwe5 two oppos+ views3 7#a7 t 8! risk ( a man's conduct is ?r[n ^u him z ! result ( "s moral %ort-com+10 & 7#b7 t 8a man acts at 8 p]il always1 & :olly irrespective ( ! /ate ( 8 consci\sness ^u ! matt]40 ,! =m] is ! view t has 9 ! ma9 prevail$ 9 ,engli% ,law2 & ?is seems to me c]ta9ly 9 h>mony ) ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d1 s f> z legal liability is conc]n$2 b ,i d n ?9k t ! case is equally cle> z reg>ds moral obligation4 #bbj ,cf4 po/1 pp4 #bib-c4 ,x may be add$ t !re is (t5 a fur!r difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( comp5sation due3 = ?is frequ5tly involves a comp>ison ( ?+s ess5tially disp>ate1 & !re are "s k9ds ( h>m :i* x seems impossible to comp5sate4 #bba ,9 ! e>li] /age ( moral developm5t1 ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 retribution inflict$ on ! wrongdo] 0 reg>d$ z ! normal mode ( rep>ation to ! p]son injur$4 ,b ?is view is contr>y to ! moral ,common ,s5se ( ,*ri/ian ,societies4 #bbb ,i ?9k ! t]m 8m]it0 (t5 bl5ds ! two notions1 z :5 we speak ( 8promotion by m]it40 ,by morali/s1 h[ev]1 8m]it0 is g5]ally us$ z exactly equival5t to :at ,i h call$ 8des]t40 #bbc ,! only t5able ,det]m9i/ int]pretation ( ,des]t is1 9 my op9ion1 ! ,utilit>ian3 accord+ to :i*1 :5 a man is said to des]ve rew>d = any s]vices to society1 ! mean+ is t x is exp$i5t to rew>d him1 9 ord] t he & o!rs may be induc$ to r5d] simil> s]vices by ! expectation ( simil> rew>ds4 ,cf4 po/1 ,book iv4 *ap4 iii4 #d4 #bbd ,p]haps we may p>tly attribute to ! difficulties above discuss$1 t ! notion ( ,des]t has sometimes dropp$ out ( ! ideal ( ,utopian recon/ructors ( society1 & #8,equality ( ,happ9ess' has seem$ to be ! only end4 ,ju/ice1 x has be5 ?\ght1 prescribes simply t ea* %\ld h an equal %>e ( happ9ess1 z f> z happ9ess dep5ds on ! action ( o!rs4 ,b !re seems to be mu* difficulty 9 work+ ?is out3 = 7ap>t f ! consid]ations ( ,fitness above m5tion$7 equal happ9ess is n to be atta9$ by equal di/ribution ( objects ( desire4 ,= "s require m & "s less to be equally happy4 ,h5ce1 x seems1 we mu/ take diff]5ces ( ne$s into consid]ation4 ,b if m]ely m5tal ne$s are includ$ 7z seems reasonable7 we %\ld h to give less to *e]ful1 cont5t$1 self-sacrific+ p ?an to ^? :o are naturally moody & exigeant1 z ! =m] c be made happy ) less4 ,& ?is is too p>adoxical to recomm5d itself to ,common ,s5se4 #bbe ,no d\bt1 x w\ld be possible to remove1 to "s ext5t1 ! inequalities t are attributable to circum/ances1 by br++ ! be/ education )9 ! rea* ( all classes1 s t all *ildr5 might h an equal opportunity ( be+ select$ & tra9$ = any functions = :i* !y seem$ to be fit3 & ?is seems to be prescrib$ by ideal ju/ice1 9 s f> z x removes or mitigates arbitr>y inequality4 ,accord+ly 9 ^? ideal recon/ructions ( society1 9 :i* we may expect to f9d m5's notions ( ab/ract ju/ice exhibit$1 su* an in/itution z ?is has g5]ally f\nd a place4 ,/ill1 !re w be mu* natural inequality :i* we _c remove or ev5 e/imate4 #bbf ,cf4 po/1 ,book iv4 *ap4 iii4 #d4 #bbg ,x is n p]haps necess>y t ,i %\ld "h enl>ge on ! practical ob/acles 9 ! way ( any attempt to realise su* an ideal sy/em4 #bbh ,i h already express$ my op9ion t ?is ,utilit>ian view ( puni%m5t is gradually t5d+ to prevail2 b ,i d n ?9k t x has yet prevail$4 #bbi ,( c\rse ^? :o hold t ! ess5ce ( ,ju/ice consi/s 9 secur+ ext]nal ,fre$om among ! memb]s ( a community1 & t puni%m5t is only ju/ifi$ z a means to ?is end1 naturally ?9k t 9 aw>d+ puni%m5t we ought to consid] m]ely its efficacy z su* means4 ,b ?is c sc>cely be put =w>d z an int]pretation ( ! common notion ( ,j ,puni%m5t4 #bcj ,by #8arbitr>y' ,i mean su* def9itions & limitations z de/roy ! self-evid5ce ( ! pr9ciple2 &1 :5 closely exam9$1 lead u to reg>d x z subord9ate4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,laws ,,& ,,promises #a4 ,9 ! discussion ( ,ju/ice ! moral obligations ( ob$i5ce to ,law & obs]vance ( ,contract h be5 includ$1 & h1 inde$1 appe>$ to be ! mo/ def9ite "p ( ! complex sy/em ( private duties commonly includ$ "u t t]m4 ,at ! same "t1 z we h se51 !re are "s laws1 ! violation ( :i* does n int]f]e ) ! rights ( o!rs1 & !re=e has n ! *>act]i/ics ( an act ( ,inju/ice4 ,:ile aga91 ! duty ( ,fidelity to promises is also commonly conceiv$ z indep5d5t ( any injury t might be done to ! promisee by break+ x3 = 7e4g47 m5 ord9>ily judge t promises to ! dead1 ?\gh !y are beyond ! rea* ( injury1 ought to be kept3 inde$1 "s w\ld reg>d !m z ev5 m sacr$ ?an promises made to ! liv+4 ,x seems !re=e desirable to exam9e ! propositions #8t ,law ought to be obey$' & #8t promises ought to be kept1' consid]$ z indep5d5t pr9ciples4 ,to beg9 ) ! =m]3 h[ are we to asc]ta9 :at ! ,law is :i*1 z is commonly ?\ght1 we are morally b\nd to obey1 z su*8 ,x is pla9 t we _c "h di/+ui% ,legal f o!r rules by consid]+ ! sanctions actually atta*$ to !m1 z we _h occasion to d 9 a previ\s *apt]4#bca ,= comm&s issu$ by rebels & usurp]s are held to h z su* no g5]al b9d+ness1 ?\gh !y may be en=c$ by judicial p5alties2 x w\ld be g5]ally agre$ t s f> z x is our duty to obey su* comm&s ?is is solely 9 ord] to avoid ! great] evils :i* might result to ourselves & o!rs f our disob$i5ce2 & t ! ext5t ( su* a duty mu/ be det]m9$ by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 ,nor1 aga91 c we say t all comm&s ev5 ( a legitimate sov]eign are to be reg>d$ z ,laws 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m mu/ be tak5 9 ! proposition t #8laws ought to be obey$'3 s9ce we all recognise t a rightful sov]eign may comm& 8 subjects to d :at is wrong1 & t x is !n _! duty to disobey him4 ,x seems !re=e t = our pres5t purpose we mu/ def9e ,laws to be ,rules ( ,conduct laid d[n by a ,rightful ,au?ority1 comm&+ )9 ! limits ( its au?ority4 ,!re are !re=e two que/ions to be settl$1 if ! proposition t laws ought to be obey$ is to furni% practical guidance3 7#a7 h[ we are to di/+ui% ! ,rightful ,lawmak]--:e!r individual or body1 & 7#b7 h[ we are to asc]ta9 ! limits ( ?is lawmak]'s au?ority4 ,! que/ions %\ld be di/+ui%$2 b1 z we %all see1 !y c only be p>tially sep>at$4 ,beg9n+ ) ! fir/ "q1 we may assume t ! au?ority to make laws resides 9 "s liv+ man or m54 ,no d\bt 9 "s societies1 at "s /ages ( _! developm5t1 ! :ole or a "p ( ! code ( laws habitually obs]v$1 or at lea/ recognis$ z b9d+1 has be5 believ$ to be ( div9e or semi-div9e in/itution2 or p]haps f m]e antiquity to possess a sanctity sup]ior to t ( any liv+ au?ority1 s z to be n legitimately alt]able4 ,b we h>dly f9d ?is view 9 ! ,common ,s5se ( civilis$ ,europe1 ^u :i* we are n[ reflect+3 at any rate 9 our societies !re is n ?\ght to be any portion ( ! def9ite prescriptions ( positive law :i*1 9 virtue ( its orig91 is beyond ! rea* ( alt]ation by any liv+ au?ority4 ,:]e !n is ?is au?ority to be f\nd8 ,9 ! answ]s commonly giv5 to ?is "q1 ! conflict betwe5 ! ,ideal & ! ,traditional or ,cu/om>y1 :i* has p]plex$ u 9 seek+ ! def9ition ( ,ju/ice1 meets u aga9 9 an ev5 m complicat$ =m4 ,= n only d "s say t ob$i5ce is always due to ! traditionally legitimate au?ority 9 any c\ntry1 :ile o!rs ma9ta9 t an au?ority con/itut$ 9 accordance ) c]ta9 ab/ract pr9ciples is ess5tially legitimate1 & t a nation has a "r to claim t su* an au?ority %all be e/abli%$1 ev5 at ! risk ( civil /rife & blood%$3 b (t51 too1 ! au?ority actually e/abli%$ is n ev5 traditionally legitimate4 ,s t we h to di/+ui% ?ree claims to au?ority1 ea* ( :i* may come into conflict ) ei!r ( ! o!r two3 7#a7 t ( ! ,gov]nm5t held to be ideally or ab/ractly "r1 & su* z ought to be e/abli%$3 7#b7 t ( ! ,gov]nm5t de jure1 accord+ to ! con/itutional traditions 9 any giv5 c\ntry3 & 7#c7 t ( ! de facto ,gov]nm5t4 #b4 ,let u beg9 by consid]+ ! ,ideal4 ,"h ,i d n propose to consid] all views z to ! "r con/itution ( supreme au?ority :i* speculative ?9k]s h put =w>d2 b only su* z h a prima facie claim to express ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d on ! subject4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important1 & ! mo/ widely urg$ & admitt$1 is ! pr9ciple t ! ,sov]eign 9 any community c only be rightly con/itut$ by ! ,cons5t ( ! ,subjects4 ,?is1 z 0 notic$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 is involv$ 9 ! adoption ( ,fre$om z ! ultimate end ( political ord]3 if no "o orig9ally owes any?+ to ano!r except non-int]f]5ce1 he cle>ly ought only to be plac$ 9 ! relation ( ,subject to ,sov]eign by 8 own cons5t4 ,& ?us1 9 ord] to reconcile ! orig9al "r ( ,fre$om ) ! actual duty ( ,law-obs]vance1 "s supposition ( a social compact appe>s necess>y2 by means ( :i* ,ob$i5ce to ,law becomes m]ely a special application ( ! duty ( keep+ compacts4 ,9 :at way1 !n1 are ! t]ms ( ?is fundam5tal compact to be kn[n8 ,no "o n[ ma9ta9s ! old view t ! transition f ! #8natural' to ! #8political' /ate actually took place by means ( an 8orig9al contract10 :i* conf]r$ indelible legitimacy on "s p>ticul> =m ( social organisation4 ,%all we say1 !n1 t a man by rema9+ a memb] ( a community ent]s into a #8tacit und]tak+' to obey ! laws & o!r comm&s impos$ by ! au?ority g5]ally recognis$ z lawful 9 t community8 ,9 ?is way h[ev] ! ,ideal lapses into ! ,cu/om>y3 & ! mo/ unlimit$ despotism1 if e/abli%$ & traditional1 might claim to re/ on free cons5t z well z any o!r =m ( gov]nm5t3 s t ! pr9ciple ( ab/ract ,fre$om w\ld lead to ! ju/ification ( ! mo/ unqualifi$ concrete tyranny & s]vitude2 & ?us our !ory w\ld end by rivet+ m5's *a9s "u pret5ce ( exalt+ _! fre$om4 ,if to avoid ?is result1 we suppose t c]ta9 #8,natural ,rights' are inali5able--or tacitly res]v$ 9 ! tacit compact--& t laws are n /rictly legitimate :i* deprive a man ( ^!1 we are aga9 met by ! difficulty ( d$uc+ ^! inali5able rights f any cle> & g5]ally accept$ pr9ciples4 ,= in/ance1 z we h se51 a widely accept$ op9ion is t all su* rights may be summ$ up 9 ! notion ( ,fre$om2 b we h also se5 t ?is pr9ciple is ambigu\s1 & especially t ! "r ( private prop]ty z commonly recognis$ _c be cle>ly d$uc$ f x2 & if s x w\ld c]ta9ly be mo/ p>adoxical to ma9ta9 t no gov]nm5t c legitimately claim ob$i5ce = any comm&s except su* z c>ry out ! pr9ciple ( protect+ f int]f]5ce ! ,fre$om ( ! individuals gov]n$4 ,x has be5 ?\ght t we c avoid ?is difficulty by con/itut+ ! supreme organ ( gov]nm5t s t any law laid d[n by x w always be a law to :i* e p]son call$ on to obey x w h cons5t$ p]sonally or by 8 repres5tatives3 & t a gov]nm5t s con/itut$1 9 :i*--to adopt ,r\sseau's phrase--e "o 8obeys himself alone10 w completely reconcile fre$om & ord]4 ,b h[ is ?is result to be atta9$8 ,r\sseau held t x c\ld be atta9$ by pure direct democracy1 ea* individual subord9at+ 8 private w to ! 8g5]al w0 ( ! sov]eign p ( :i* all are equally memb]s4 ,b ?is 8g5]al w0 mu/ be practically ! w ( ! majority3 & x is p>adoxical to affirm t ! fre$om & natural rights ( a diss5ti5t m9ority are effectively protect$ by e/abli%+ ! condition t ! oppressors mu/ exce$ ! oppress$ 9 numb]4 ,aga91 if ! pr9ciple be absolute x ought to apply to all human be+s alike3 & if to avoid ?is absurdity we exclude *ildr51 an arbitr>y l9e has to be drawn3 & ! exclusion ( wom51 :i* ev5 ^? :o reg>d ! suffrage z a natural "r are (t5 dispos$ to ma9ta91 seems altoge!r indef5sible4 ,& to suppose--z "s h done--t ! ideal ( 8obey+ oneself alone0 c be ev5 approximately realis$ by ,repres5tative ,democracy1 is ev5 m pat5tly absurd4 ,= a ,repres5tative assembly is normally *os5 only by a "p ( ! nation1 & ea* law is approv$ only by a "p ( ! assembly3 & x w\ld be ridicul\s to say t a man has ass5t$ to a law pass$ by a m]e majority ( an assembly aga9/ "o memb] ( :i* he has vot$4 ,b1 aga91 to lay d[n absolutely t ! laws ( any community ought to express ! w ( ! majority ( its memb]s seems incompatible ) ! view s vigor\sly ma9ta9$ by ,socrates & 8 mo/ fam\s disciples1 t laws ought to be made by p :o und]/& law-mak+4 ,= ?\gh ! majority ( a repres5tative assembly 9 a p>ticul> c\ntry at a p>ticul> "t may be m fit to make laws = _! c\ntry ?an any set ( exp]ts o!rwise select$1 x is c]ta9ly n self-evid5t t ?is w be univ]sally ! case4 ,yet surely ! ,socratic proposition 7:i* is m]ely a special application ( ! pr9ciple notic$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! prec$+ *apt]1 #8t function %\ld be allott$ to ! fitte/'7 has z mu* claim to be consid]$ a prim>y intuition z ! "o t we h be5 discuss+4 ,inde$1 ! secul> controv]sy betwe5 ,ari/ocracy & ,democracy seems ultimately r$ucible to a conflict betwe5 ^? two pr9ciples3 a conflict ( :i* x is impossible to f9d a solution1 s long z ! argum5t rema9s 9 ! a priori region4 #c4 ,h[ev]1 to discuss ?is exhau/ively w\ld c>ry u too f> beyond ! range ( ,e?ics prop]3 b we may p]haps conclude t x is impossible to elicit f ,common ,s5se any cle> & c]ta9 intuitions z to ! pr9ciples on :i* an ideal con/itution %\ld be con/ruct$4 ,& !re is an equal want ( agreem5t z to ! intr9sic lawfulness ( introduc+ su* a con/itution 9 violation ( ! traditional & e/abli%$ ord] 9 any community4 ,= "s ?9k t a nation has a natural "r to a gov]nm5t approximately con=m$ to ! ideal1 & t ?is "r may be ma9ta9$ by =ce 9 ! la/ resort4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 hold t1 ?\gh ! ideal polity may rightly be put =w>d & comm5d$1 & e means us$ to promote its realisation :i* ! e/abli%$ gov]nm5t 9 any c\ntry p]mits1--/ill1 rebellion c nev] be ju/ifiable = ?is purpose alone4 ,:ile o!rs1--p]haps ! majority1--w\ld decide ! "q on gr\nds ( exp$i5cy1 balanc+ ! advantages ( improvem5t aga9/ ! evils ( disord]4 ,b fur!r1 z we saw1 x is n s easy to say :at ! e/abli%$ gov]nm5t is4 ,= sometimes an au?ority decl>$ by law to be illegitimate issues ord9ances & controls ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,! "q !n arises1 h[ f> ob$i5ce is due to su* an au?ority4 ,all are agre$ t usurpation ought to be resi/$2 b z to ! "r behavi\r t[>ds an e/abli%$ gov]nm5t :i* has sprung f a successful usurpation1 !re is a great diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,"s ?9k t x %\ld be reg>d$ z legitimate1 z soon z x is firmly e/abli%$3 o!rs t x ought to be obey$ at once1 b "u prote/1 ) ! purpose ( r5ew+ ! conflict on a fav\rable opportunity3 o!rs ?9k t ?is latt] is ! "r attitude at fir/1 b t a usurp+ gov]nm5t1 :5 firmly e/abli%$1 loses its illegitimacy gradually1 & t x becomes1 aft] a :ile1 z crim9al to rebel aga9/ x z x 0 orig9ally to e/abli% x4 ,& ?is la/ seems1 on ! :ole1 ! view ( ,common ,s5se2 b ! po9t at :i* ! metamorphosis is ?\ght to take place c h>dly be det]m9$ o!rwise ?an by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 ,b aga91 x is only 9 ! case ( an absolute gov]nm5t1 :]e cu/om>y ob$i5ce is unconditionally due to "o or m p]sons1 t ! fundam5tal difficulties ( asc]ta9+ ! legitimacy ( au?ority are ( ! simple k9d j discuss$4 ,9 a con/itutionally gov]n$ /ate num]\s o!r moral disagreem5ts arise4 ,=1 9 su* a /ate1 :ile x is ( c\rse held t ! sov]eign is morally b\nd to con=m to ! con/itution1#bcb x is /ill disput$ :e!r ! subjects' obligation to ob$i5ce is prop]ly conceiv$ z conditional ^u ?is con=mity3 & :e!r !y h ! moral "r 7#a7 to refuse ob$i5ce to an uncon/itutional comm&2 & 7#b7 ev5 to inflict on ! sov]eign ! p5alty ( rebellion = violat+ ! con/itution4 ,aga91 9 det]m9+ :at ! con/itutional obligations really are we f9d mu* p]plexity & disagreem5t1 n m]ely z to ! exact asc]ta9m5t ( ! relevant hi/orical facts b z to ! pr9ciples on :i* ^! facts ought to be treat$4 ,= ! v>i\s limitations ( sov]eign au?ority compris$ 9 ! con/itution h (t5 be5 orig9ally concessions extort$ by fe> f a sov]eign previ\sly absolute2 & x is d\bt$ h[ f> su* concessions are morally b9d+ on ! sov]eign f :om !y 7 wre/$1 & /ill m h[ f> !y are b9d+ on succe$+ sov]eigns4 ,or1 vice v]s1 a p may h all[$ lib]ties once ex]cis$ to fall into disuse2 & x is d\bt$ :e!r x reta9s ! "r ( reclaim+ !m4 ,&1 g5]ally1 :5 a con/itutional rule has to be elicit$ f a comp>ison ( prec$5ts1 x is op5 to dispute :e!r a p>ticul> act ( ei!r p>ty %\ld be reg>d$ z a con/itutive prec$5t or z an illegitimate encroa*m5t4 ,& h5ce we f9d t1 9 con/itutional c\ntries1 m5's view ( :at _! con/itution traditionally is has (t5 be5 greatly influ5c$ by _! view ( :at x ideally ought to be3 9 fact1 ! two que/ions h r>ely be5 kept q di/9ct4 #d4 ,b ev5 9 cases :]e we c asc]ta9 cle>ly to :at au?ority ob$i5ce is prop]ly due1 fur!r difficulties are liable to arise :5 we attempt to def9e ! limits ( su* ob$i5ce4 ,= 9 mod]n society1 z we h se51 all admit t any au?ority ought to be disobey$ :i* comm&s immoral acts2 b ?is is "o ( ^? tautological propositions1 s common 9 popul> morality1 :i* convey no real in=mation2 ! "q is1 :at acts !re are :i* d n cease to be immoral :5 !y h be5 comm&$ by a rightful au?ority4 ,!re seems to be no cle> pr9ciple ^u :i* ^! c be det]m9$4 ,x has sometimes be5 said t ! ,law _c ov]ride def9ite duties2 b ! obligation ( fidelity to contract is peculi>ly def9ite1 & yet we d n consid] x "r to fulfil a contract ( :i* a law1 pass$ subsequ5tly to ! mak+ ( ! contract1 has =bidd5 ! execution4 ,&1 9 fact1 we d n f9d any practical agreem5t on ?is "q1 among p]sons :o w\ld n consci\sly accept ! utilit>ian me?od ( decid+ x by a balance ( conflict+ exp$i5ces4 ,= "s w\ld say t ! duties ( ! dome/ic relations mu/ yield to ! duty ( law-obs]vance1 & t 7e4g47 a son ought n to aid a p>5t actively or passively 9 escap+ ! puni%m5t ( crime3 :ile o!rs w\ld consid] ?is rule too inhuman to be laid d[n1 & o!rs w\ld draw ! l9e betwe5 assi/ance & connivance4 ,& simil>ly1 :5 a rightly con/itut$ gov]nm5t comm&s acts unju/ & oppressive to o!rs2 ,common ,s5se recoils f say+ ei!r t all su* comm&s ought to be obey$ or t all ought to be disobey$2 b--ap>t f utilit>ian consid]ations--,i c f9d no cle> accept$ pr9ciple = di/+ui%+ ^? unju/ comm&s ( a legitimate gov]nm5t :i* ought to be obey$ f ^? :i* ought n to be obey$4 ,aga91 "s juri/s hold t we are n /rictly b\nd to obey laws1 :5 !y comm& :at is n o!rwise a duty1 or =bid :at is n o!rwise a s92 on ! gr\nd t 9 ! case ( duties prescrib$ only by positive laws1 ! alt]natives ( obey+ or submitt+ to ! p5alty are morally op5 to u4#bcc ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 ?9k ?is pr9ciple too lax2 & c]ta9ly if a widespread pref]5ce ( p5alty to ob$i5ce 7 %[n 9 ! case ( any p>ticul> law1 ! legislation 9 "q w\ld be ?\ght to h fail$4 ,nor1 on ! o!r h&1 does !re seem to be any agreem5t z to :e!r "o is b\nd to submit to unju/ p5alties4 ,s9ce1 !n1 on all ^! po9ts !re is f\nd to be s mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion1 x seems idle to ma9ta9 t !re is any cle> & precise axiom or fir/ pr9ciple ( ,ord]1 intuitively se5 to be true by ! common reason & consci5ce ( mank9d4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a vague g5]al habit ( ob$i5ce to laws z su* 7ev5 if bad laws71 :i* may fairly claim ! univ]sal cons5sus ( civilis$ society3 b :5 we try to /ate any explicit pr9ciple correspond+ to ?is g5]al habit1 ! cons5sus seems to ab&on u1 & we are inevitably drawn into controv]sies :i* seem to admit ( no solution except t (f]$ by ! utilit>ian me?od4#bcd #e4 ,we h next to treat ( ,good ,fai?1 or ,fidelity to ,promises2 :i* x is natural to consid] 9 ?is place1 because1 z has be5 se51 ! ,duty ( ,law-obs]vance has by "s ?9k]s be5 bas$ ^u a prior duty ( fulfill+ a contract4 ,! ,social ,contract h[ev]1 z above exam9$1 seems at be/ m]ely a conv5i5t fiction1 a logical artifice1 by :i* ! mutual jural relations ( ! memb]s ( a civilis$ community may be neatly express$3 & 9 /at+ ! e?ical pr9ciples ( ,common ,s5se1 su* a fiction w\ld seem to be out ( place4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be all[$ t !re has frequ5tly be5 a close hi/orical connection betwe5 ! ,duty ( ,law-obs]vance & ! duty ( ,good ,fai?4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a consid]able am\nt ( ,con/itutional ,law at lea/1 9 c]ta9 ages & c\ntries1 has be5 e/abli%$ or confirm$ by compacts expressly made betwe5 diff]5t sections ( ! community2 :o agree t = ! future gov]nm5t %all be c>ri$ on accord+ to c]ta9 rules4 ,! duty ( obs]v+ ^! rules ?us pres5ts itself z a ,duty ( ,fidelity to compact4 ,yet m is ?is ! case1 :5 ! "q is "o ( impos+ n a law1 b a law-giv]2 ^: au?ority is /r5g!n$ by ! exaction ( an oa? ( allegiance f 8 subjects g5]ally or a repres5tative portion ( !m4 ,/ill1 ev5 9 su* cases1 x c only be by a palpable fiction t ! mass ( ! citiz5s c be reg>d$ z b\nd by an engagem5t :i* only a few ( !m h actually tak54 ,we may beg9 our exam9ation ( ! duty ( ,keep+ ,promises by notic+ t "s morali/s h classifi$ or ev5 id5tifi$ x ) ,v]acity4 ,f "o po9t ( view !re c]ta9ly seems to be an analogy betwe5 ! two2 z we fulfil ! obligations ( ,v]acity & ,good ,fai? alike by effect+ a correspond5ce betwe5 words & facts--9 ! "o case by mak+ fact correspond ) /atem5t1 & 9 ! o!r by mak+ /atem5t correspond ) fact4 ,b ! analogy is obvi\sly sup]ficial & imp]fect2 = we are n b\nd to make our actions correspond ) our ass]tions g5]ally1 b only ) our promises4 ,if ,i m]ely ass]t my int5tion ( ab/a9+ f alcohol = a ye>1 & !n aft] a week take "s1 ,i am 7at wor/7 ridicul$ z inconsi/5t3 b if ,i h pl$g$ myself to ab/a91 ,i am blam$ z untru/wor?y4 ,?us ! ess5tial elem5t ( ! ,duty ( ,good ,fai? seems to be n con=mity to my own /atem5t1 b to expectations t ,i h int5tionally rais$ 9 o!rs4 ,on ?is view1 h[ev]1 ! "q arises :e!r1 :5 a promise has be5 und]/ood 9 a s5se n int5d$ by ! promis]1 he is b\nd to satisfy expectations :i* he did n volunt>ily create4 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 cle> to ,common ,s5se t he is s b\nd 9 "s cases1 if ! expectation 0 natural & su* z mo/ m5 w\ld =m "u ! circum/ances3 b ?is w\ld seem to be "o ( ! m or less indef9ite duties ( ,ju/ice1 & n prop]ly ( ,good ,fai?1 z !re has n be51 /rictly speak+1 any promise at all4 ,! normal effect ( language is to convey ! speak]'s mean+ to ! p]son address$ 7"h ! promis]'s to ! promisee71 & we always suppose ?is to h tak5 place :5 we speak ( a promise4 ,if ?r\gh any accid5t ?is normal effect is miss$1 we may say t !re is no promise1 or n a p]fect promise4 ,! moral obligation1 !n1 ( a promise is p]fectly con/itut$ :5 x is und]/ood by bo? p>ties 9 ! same s5se4 ,& by ! t]m #8promise' we include n words only1 b all signs & ev5 tacit und]/&+s n expressly signifi$ 9 any way1 if su* cle>ly =m a "p ( ! engagem5t4 ,! promis] is b\nd to p]=m :at bo? he & ! promisee und]/ood to be und]tak54 #f4 ,is1 !n1 ?is obligation intuitively se5 to be indep5d5t & c]ta98 ,x is (t5 said to be s3 & p]haps we may say t x seems s to unreflective common s5se4 ,b reflection seems at lea/ to disclose a consid]able numb] ( qualifications ( ! pr9ciple2 "s cle> & precise1 :ile o!rs are m or less indef9ite4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\ghtful p]sons w\ld commonly admit t ! obligation ( a promise is relative to ! promisee1 & may be annull$ by him4 ,& !re=e if ! promisee be dead1 or o!rwise inaccessible & incapable ( grant+ release1 !re is con/itut$ an exceptional case1 ( :i* ! solution pres5ts "s difficulty4#bce ,secondly1 a promise to d an immoral act is held n to be b9d+1 because ! prior obligation n to d ! act is p>am\nt2 j z 9 law a contract to d :at a man is n legally free to d1 is invalid3 o!rwise "o c\ld evade any moral obligation by promis+ n to fulfil x1 :i* is cle>ly absurd4#bcf ,& ! same pr9ciple is ( c\rse applicable to immoral omissions or =be>ances to act3 "h h[ev]1 a c]ta9 difficulty arises f ! necessity ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 diff]5t k9ds or degrees ( obligator9ess 9 duties2 s9ce x is cle> t a promise may sometimes make x obligatory to ab/a9 f do+ :at x w\ld o!rwise h be5 a duty to d4 ,?us x becomes my duty n to give money to a m]itori\s hospital if ,i h promis$ all ,i c sp>e to an undes]v+ fri5d2 ?\gh ap>t f ! promise x might h be5 my duty to pref] ! hospital to ! fri5d4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 already se5 ! difficulty ( def9+ ! limits ( /rict duty 9 _m cases3 ?us 7e4g47 x might be d\bt$ h[ f> ! promise ( aid to a fri5d ought to ov]ride ! duty ( giv+ "o's *ildr5 a good education4 ,! ext5t1 !re=e1 to :i* ! obligation ( a promise ov]rides prior obligations becomes practically some:at obscure4 #g4 ,fur!r qualifications ( ! duty ( fidelity to promises1 ! consid]ation ( :i* is involv$ 9 m difficulty & dispute1 are sugge/$ :5 we exam9e m closely ! conditions "u :i* promises are made1 & ! consequ5ces ( execut+ !m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is mu* disput$ h[ f> promises obta9$ by #8fraud or =ce' are b9d+4 ,z reg>ds fraud1 if ! promise 0 und]/ood to be conditional on ! tru? ( a /atem5t :i* is f\nd to be false1 x is ( c\rse n b9d+1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ,i orig9ally laid d[n4 ,b a promise may be made 9 consequ5ce ( su* a fraudul5t /atem5t1 & yet made q unconditionally4 ,ev5 s1 if x 7 cle>ly und]/ood t x w\ld n h be5 made b = ! false /atem5t1#bcg probably mo/ p]sons w\ld reg>d x z n b9d+4 ,b ! false /atem5t may be only "o consid]ation among o!rs1 & x may be ( any degree ( weight2 & x seems d\btful :e!r we %\ld feel ju/ifi$ 9 break+ a promise1 because a s+le fraudul5t /atem5t _h be5 a "p ( ! inducem5t to make x3 /ill m if !re has be5 no explicit ass]tion1 b only a sugge/ion ( :at is false3 or no falsehood at all1 /at$ or sugge/$1 b only a concealm5t ( mat]ial circum/ances4 ,we may obs]ve t c]ta9 k9ds ( concealm5t are treat$ z legitimate by our law3 9 mo/ contracts ( sale1 = example1 ! law adopts ! pr9ciple ( #8caveat emptor1' & does n refuse to en=ce ! contract because ! sell] did n disclose defects 9 ! article sold1 unless by "s words or acts he produc$ ! belief t x 0 free f su* defects4 ,/ill1 ?is does n settle ! moral "q h[ f> a promise is b9d+ if any mat]ial concealm5t is %[n to h be5 us$ to obta9 x4 ,we h also to consid] ! case 9 :i* an errone\s impression has n be5 wilfully produc$1 b 0 ei!r %>$ by ! promisee or produc$ 9 "s way un9t5tionally4 ,p]haps 9 ?is la/ case mo/ w\ld say t ! b9d+ness ( ! promise is n affect$1 unless x 0 expressly conditional4 ,b on all ^! po9ts ,common ,s5se seems d\btful3 & some:at simil> difficulties pres5t !mselves :5 we endeav\r to def9e ! obligation ( promises p>tly obta9$ by "s degree ( illegal viol5ce & intimidation4 #h4 ,b1 secondly1 ev5 if a promise has be5 made q freely & fairly1 circum/ances may alt] s mu* be=e ! "t comes to fulfil x1 t ! effects ( keep+ x may be q o!r ?an ^? :i* 7 =ese5 :5 x 0 made4 ,9 su* a case probably all w\ld agree t ! promisee ought to release ! promis]4 ,b if he decl9es to d ?is1 x seems difficult to decide h[ f> ! latt] is b\nd4 ,"s w\ld say t he is 9 all cases3 :ile o!rs w\ld consid] t a consid]able alt]ation ( circum/ances remov$ ! obligation--p]haps add+ t all engagem5ts mu/ be und]/ood to be tak5 subject to a g5]al und]/&+ t !y are only b9d+ if mat]ial circum/ances rema9 sub/antially ! same4 ,b su* a pr9ciple v mu* impairs ! !oretical def9it5ess ( ! duty4 ,?is difficulty assumes a new aspect :5 we consid] ! case already notic$1 ( promises made to ^? :o are n[ dead or tempor>ily out ( ! rea* ( communications4 ,= !n !re is no means ( obta9+ release f ! promise1 :ile at ! same "t its p]=mance may be really oppos$ to ! wi%es--or :at w\ld h be5 ! wi%es--( bo? p>ties4 ,! difficulty is sometimes conceal$ by say+ t x is our duty to c>ry out ! #8int5tion' ( ! promise4 ,= z s us$ ! ^w ,int5tion is1 9 common p>lance1 ambigu\s3 x may ei!r mean ! signification :i* ! promisee atta*$ to ! t]ms employ$1 z di/9ct f any o!r signification :i* ! common usage ( words might admit3 or x may include ult]ior consequ5ces ( ! p]=mance ( ! promise1 :i* he _h 9 view 9 exact+ x4 ,n[ we d n commonly ?9k t ! promis] is conc]n$ ) ! latt]4 ,he c]ta9ly has n pl$g$ himself to aim g5]ally at ! end :i* ! promisee has 9 view1 b only s f> z "s p>ticul> means are conc]n$3 & if he consid]s ^! means n conducive to ! end1 he is n !reby absolv$ f 8 promise1 "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,b 9 ! case suppos$1 :5 circum/ances h mat]ially *ang$1 & ! promise does n admit ( revision1 probably mo/ p]sons w\ld say t we ought to take into consid]ation ! ult]ior wi%es ( ! promisee1 & c>ry out :at we s9c]ely ?9k w\ld h be5 8 int5tion4 ,b ! obligation ?us becomes v vague3 s9ce x is difficult to tell f a man's wi%es "u "o set ( circum/ances :at he w\ld h desir$ "u circum/ances v>y+ f ^! 9 a complex mann]3 & practically ?is view ( ! obligation ( a promise g5]ally leads to great div]g5ce ( op9ion4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ t "s hold t ev5 9 su* a case ! obligation ought to be int]pret$ /rictly3 :ile o!rs g to ! o!r extreme1 & ma9ta9 t x ceases altoge!r4 ,b aga91 x 0 said t a promise _c abrogate a prior obligation2 &1 z a p>ticul> application ( ?is rule1 x w\ld be g5]ally agre$ t no promise c make x "r to inflict h>m on any "o4 ,on fur!r consid]ation1 h[ev]1 x appe>s d\btful h[ f> ! p]sons betwe5 :om ! promise pass$ are includ$ 9 ! scope ( ?is re/riction4 ,=1 fir/1 x does n seem to be commonly held t a man is z /rictly b\nd n to injure himself z he is to avoid h>m+ o!rs2 & s x is sc>cely ?\ght t a promise is n b9d+ because x 0 a fooli% "o1 & w entail an am\nt ( pa9 or burd5 on ! promis] out ( proportion to ! good done to ! promisee4 ,/ill1 if we take an extreme case1 :]e ! sacrifice is v disproportionate to ! ga91 _m consci5ti\s p]sons w\ld ?9k t ! promise ought r to be brok5 ?an kept4 ,&1 secondly1 a diff]5t "q arises :5 we consid] ! possibility ( injur+ ! promisee by fulfill+ ! promise4 ,= :5 x is said to be wrong to d h>m to any "o1 we d n commonly mean only :at he ?9ks h>m1 b :at really is s1 ?\gh he may ?9k x a b5efit2 = x seems cle>ly a crime = me to give any "o :at ,i "k to be poison1 ev5 ?\gh he may be /ubbornly conv9c$ t x is :olesome food4 ,b n[ suppose t ,i h promis$ ,a to d some?+1 :i*1 be=e ,i fulfil ! promise1 ,i see reason to reg>d z likely to injure him4 ,! circum/ances may be precisely ! same1 & only my view ( !m h *ang$4 ,if ,a takes a diff]5t view & calls on me to fulfil ! promise1 is x "r to obey him8 ,surely no "o w\ld say ?is 9 an extreme case1 su* z t ( ! poison4 ,b if ! rule does n hold = an extreme case1 :]e c we draw ! l9e8 at :at po9t ought ,i to give up my judgm5t to ,a1 unless my own conviction is weak5$8 ,common ,s5se seems to give no cle> answ]4 #i4 ,i h laid d[n t a promise is b9d+ 9 s f> z x is und]/ood on bo? sides simil>ly3 & su* an und]/&+ is ord9>ily atta9$ ) suffici5t cle>ness1 z f> z ! appreh5sion ( express words or signs is conc]n$4 ,/ill1 ev5 "h obscurity & misappreh5sion sometimes occur2 & 9 ! case ( ! tacit und]/&+s ) :i* promises are (t5 complicat$1 a lack ( def9ite agreem5t is n improbable4 ,x becomes1 !re=e1 ( practical importance to decide ! "q previ\sly rais$3 ,:at duty re/s on ! promis] ( satisfy+ expectations :i* he did n int5d to create8 ,i call$ ?is a duty n s mu* ( ,good ,fai? z ( ,ju/ice1 :i* prescribes ! fulfilm5t ( normal expectations4 ,h[ !n %all we det]m9e :at ^! are8 ,! me?od by :i* we commonly asc]ta9 !m seems to be ! foll[+4 ,we =m ! conception ( an av]age or normal man1 & consid] :at expectations he w\ld =m "u ! circum/ances1 inf]r+ ?is f ! beliefs & expectations :i* m5 g5]ally ent]ta9 "u simil> circum/ances4 ,we ref]1 !re=e1 to ! cu/om>y use ( language1 & cu/om>y tacit und]/&+s curr5t among p]sons 9 ! p>ticul> relations 9 :i* promis] & promisee /&4 ,su* cu/om>y int]pretations & und]/&+s are ( c\rse n obligatory ^u p]sons ent]+ into an engagem5t3 b !y con/itute a /&>d :i* we ?9k we may presume to be kn[n to all m51 & to be accept$ by !m1 except 9 s = z x is explicitly reject$4 ,if "o ( ! p>ties to an engagem5t has deviat$ f ?is common /&>d )\t giv+ express notice1 we ?9k x "r t he %\ld suff] any loss t may result f ! misund]/&+4 ,?is crit]ion !n is g5]ally applicable3 b if cu/om is ambigu\s or %ift+ x _c be appli$2 & !n ! j claims ( ! p>ties become a problem1 ! solution ( :i* is v difficult1 if n /rictly indet]m9ate4 ,s f> we h suppos$ t ! promis] c *oose 8 own words1 & t if ! promisee f9ds !m ambigu\s he c get !m modifi$1 or 7:at comes to ! same ?+7 expla9$1 by ! promis]4 ,b we h n[ to obs]ve t 9 ! case ( promises made to ! community1 z a condition ( obta9+ "s (fice or emolum5t1 a c]ta9 unalt]able =m ( words has to be us$ if ! promise is made at all4 ,"h ! difficulties ( moral int]pretation are mu* increas$4 ,x may be said1 inde$1 t ! promise ought to be int]pret$ 9 ! s5se 9 :i* its t]ms are und]/ood by ! community3 &1 no d\bt1 if _! usage is q uni=m & unambigu\s1 ?is rule ( int]pretation is suffici5tly obvi\s & simple4 ,b s9ce words are (t5 us$ 9 diff]5t ways by diff]5t memb]s ( ! same society1 & especially ) diff]5t degrees ( /rictness & laxity1 x (t5 happ5s t a promise to ! community _c /rictly be said to be und]/ood 9 any "o s5se3 ! "q !re=e arises1 :e!r ! promis] is b\nd to keep x 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x w be mo/ commonly int]pret$1 or :e!r he may select any ( its possible mean+s4 ,& if ! =mula is "o ( "s antiquity1 x is fur!r que/ion$1 :e!r x ought to be int]pret$ 9 ! s5se :i* its words w\ld n[ g5]ally be>1 or 9 t :i* !y bore :5 x 0 drawn up2 or1 if !y 7 !n ambigu\s1 9 ! s5se :i* appe>s to h be5 atta*$ to !m by ! gov]nm5t t impos$ ! promise4 ,on all ^! po9ts x is difficult to elicit any cle> view f ,common ,s5se4 ,& ! difficulty is increas$ by ! fact t !re are usually /rong inducem5ts to make ^! =mal engagem5ts1 :i* cause ev5 tol]ably consci5ti\s p]sons to take !m 9 a /ra9$ & unnatural s5se4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done cont9ually by _m p]sons1 a new g5]al und]/&+ gr[s up z to ! mean+ ( ! engagem5ts3 sometimes !y come to be reg>d$ z #8m]e =ms1' or1 if !y d n rea* ?is po9t ( degradation1 !y are at lea/ und]/ood 9 a s5se diff]+ indef9itely f _! orig9al "o4 ,! "q !n arises1 h[ f> ?is process ( gradual illegitimate relaxation or p]v]sion c modify ! moral obligation ( ! promise = a ?or\ghly consci5ti\s p]son4 ,x seems cle> t :5 ! process is complete1 we are "r 9 adopt+ ! new und]/&+ z f> z ,good ,fai? is conc]n$1 ev5 if x palpably conflicts ) ! natural mean+ ( language2 al?\gh x is always desirable 9 su* cases t ! =m ( ! promise %\ld be *ang$ to correspond ) ! *ang$ sub/ance4 ,b :51 z is ord9>ily ! case1 ! process is incomplete1 s9ce a portion ( ! community und]/&s ! engagem5t 9 ! orig9al /rict s5se1 ! obligation becomes difficult to det]m9e1 & ! judgm5ts ( consci5ti\s p]sons respect+ x become div]g5t & p]plex$4 ,to sum up ! results ( ! discussion3 x appe>s t a cle> cons5sus c only be claim$ = ! pr9ciple t a promise1 express or tacit1 is b9d+1 if a numb] ( conditions are fulfill$3 viz4 if ! promis] has a cle> belief z to ! s5se 9 :i* x 0 und]/ood by ! promisee1 & if ! latt] is /ill 9 a position to grant release f x1 b unwill+ to d s1 if x 0 n obta9$ by =ce or fraud1 if x does n conflict ) def9ite prior obligations1 if we d n believe t its fulfilm5t w be h>mful to ! promisee1 or w inflict a disproportionate sacrifice on ! promis]1 & if circum/ances h n mat]ially *ang$ s9ce x 0 made4 ,if any ( ^! conditions fails1 ! cons5sus seems to become evanesc5t1 & ! common moral p]ceptions ( ?\ghtful p]sons fall into obscurity & disagreem5t4 ,,footnotes3 #bca ,cf4 ante1 ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 #b4 #bcb ,x is p]haps h>dly necess>y t ,i %\ld "h notice ! ,hobbi/ doctr9e1 reviv$ 9 a modifi$ =m by ,au/91 t 8! p[] ( ! sov]eign is incapable ( legal limitation40 ,= no "o n[ ma9ta9s pure ,hobbism3 & ,au/9 is z f> z possible f mean+ t !re _c be an express or tacit und]/&+ betwe5 ,sov]eign & ,subjects1 ! violation ( :i* by ! =m] may make x morally "r = ! latt] to rebel4 ,9 fact1 z us$ by him1 ,hobbes' doctr9e r$uces itself to ! r unimportant proposition t a sov]eign w n be puni%$ = uncon/itutional conduct ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( 8 own law-c\rts1 s long z he rema9s sov]eign4 ,i may take ?is opportunity ( obs]v+ t ,au/9's def9ition ( ,law is manife/ly unsuit$ = our pres5t purpose3 s9ce a law1 9 8 view1 is n a comm& t ought to be obey$1 b a comm& = ! violation ( :i* we may expect a p>ticul> k9d ( puni%m5t4 #bcc ,cf4 ,black/one1 ,introduction1 #b4 8,9 relation to ^? laws :i* enjo9 only positive duties1 & =bid only su* ?+s z are n mala 9 se1 b mala prohibita m]ely1 )\t any int]mixture ( moral guilt1 annex+ a p5alty to non-compliance1 "h ,i appreh5d consci5ce is no fur!r conc]n$1 ?an by direct+ a submission to ! p5alty 9 case ( our brea* ( ^? laws 444 ! alt]native is (f]$ to e man1 #8ei!r ab/a9 f ?is or submit to su* a p5alty4'0 #bcd ,into ! e?ical difficulties peculi> to ,int]national ,law1 ,i h n ?\ght x wor? :ile to ent]4 #bce ,v[s to ,god con/itute ano!r exception3 & x is ?\ght by _m t if ^! are b9d+1 !re mu/ be "s way 9 :i* ,god c be und]/ood to grant release f !m4 ,b ?is x is beyond my prov9ce to discuss4 #bcf ,! case is some:at diff]5t :5 ! act has become immoral aft] ! promise 0 made3 /ill1 "h also1 ! prior duty ( ab/a9+ f x w\ld be univ]sally held to prevail4 #bcg ,:at is "h said ( a #8/atem5t' may be ext5d$ to any mode ( produc+ a false impression4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,duties--,,v]acity #a4 ,x may easily seem t :5 we h discuss$ ,b5evol5ce1 ,ju/ice1 & ! obs]vance ( ,law & ,contract1 we h includ$ 9 our view ! :ole sph]e ( social duty1 & t :atev] o!r maxims we f9d accept$ by ,common ,s5se mu/ be subord9ate to ! pr9ciples :i* we h be5 try+ to def9e4 ,= :atev] we owe def9itely to our fell[-m51 besides ! obs]vance ( special contracts1 & ( positive laws1 seems--at lea/ by a slight ext5sion ( common usage--to be naturally includ$ "u ,ju/ice3 :ile ! m indef9ite obligations :i* we recognise seem to correspond to ! goodwill :i* we ?9k ought to exi/ among all memb]s ( ! human family1 toge!r ) ! /rong] affections appropriate to special relations & circum/ances4 ,& h5ce x may be ?\ght t ! be/ way ( treat+ ! subject w\ld h be5 to divide ,duty g5]ally into ,social & ,self-reg>d+1 & aga9 to subdivide ! =m] bran* into ! heads :i* ,i h discuss$ "o by "o2 aft]w>ds add+ su* m9or details ( duty z h obta9$ special names & di/9ct recognition4 ,& ?is is p]haps ! prop] place to expla9 :y ,i did n adopt ?is c\rse4 ,! division ( duties into ,social & ,self-reg>d+1 ?\gh obvi\s1 & acceptable en\gh z a r\gh prima facie classification1 does n on clos] exam9ation seem exactly appropriate to ! ,intuitional ,me?od4 ,= ^! titles naturally sugge/ t ! happ9ess or well-be+1 ( ! ag5t or ( o!rs1 is always ! end & f9al det]m9ant ( "r action3 :]eas ! ,intuitional doctr9e is1 t at lea/ c]ta9 k9ds ( conduct are prescrib$ absolutely1 )\t ref]5ce to _! ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,& if a m g5]al mean+ be giv5 to ! t]ms1 & by ,social duties we und]/& ^? :i* consi/ 9 ! production ( c]ta9 effects ^u o!rs1 :ile 9 ! ,self-reg>d+ we aim at produc+ c]ta9 effects ^u ourselves1 ! division is /ill an unsuitable "o4 ,= ^! consequ5ces are n cle>ly recognis$ 9 ! enunciation ( common rules ( morality3 & 9 _m cases we produce m>k$ effects bo? on ourselves & on o!rs1 & x is n easy to say :i* 79 ! view ( ,common ,s5se7 are mo/ important3 & aga91 ?is pr9ciple ( division w\ld sometimes make x necess>y to cut 9 two ! class ( duties prescrib$ "u "s common notion2 z ! same rule may gov]n bo? our social & our solit>y conduct4 ,take1 = example1 ! acts morally prescrib$ "u ! head ( ,c\rage4 ,x seems cle> t ! prom95ce giv5 to ?is ,virtue 9 hi/oric sy/ems ( morality has be5 due to ! great social importance t mu/ always atta* to x1 s long z communities ( m5 are cont9ually call$ ^u to fight = _! exi/5ce & well-be+3 b /ill ! quality ( brav]y is ! same ess5tially1 :e!r x be exhibit$ = selfi% or social ends4 ,x is no d\bt true t :5 we exam9e ) a view to def9ition ! k9ds ( conduct comm5d$ or prescrib$ 9 any li/ ( ,virtues commonly recognis$1 we f9d1 to a great ext5t1 t ! maxims we obta9 are cle>ly n absolute & indep5d5t3 t ! quality d5ot$ by our t]m is admitt$ly only praisewor?y 9 s f> z x promotes individual or g5]al welf>e1 & becomes blamewor?y--?\gh rema9+ 9 o!r respects ! same--:5 x op]ates adv]sely to ^! ends4 ,we h already notic$ ?is result 9 "o or two in/ances1 & x w be illu/rat$ at l5g? 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,b ?\gh ?is is ! case to a great ext5t1 x is1 = our pres5t purpose1 ( special importance to note !--real or app>5t--exceptions to ! rule2 because !y are specially *>act]i/ic ( ! me?od t we call ,intuitionism4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ^! exceptions is ,v]acity3 & ! aff9ity 9 c]ta9 respects ( ?is duty--9 spite ( fundam5tal diff]5ces--to ! duty ( ,good ,fai? or ,fidelity to ,promises r5d]s x conv5i5t to exam9e ! two 9 imm$iate succession4 ,"u ei!r head a c]ta9 correspond5ce betwe5 words & facts is prescrib$3 & h5ce ! que/ions t arise :5 we try to make ! maxims precise are some:at simil> 9 bo? cases4 ,= example1 j z ! duty ( ,good ,fai? did n lie 9 con=m+ our acts to ! admissible mean+ ( c]ta9 words1#bch b to ! mean+ :i* we knew to be put on !m by ! promisee2 s ! duty ( ,tru?speak+ is n to utt] words :i* might1 accord+ to common usage1 produce 9 o!r m9ds beliefs correspond+ to our own1 b words :i* we believe w h ?is effect on ! p]sons :om we address4 ,& ?is is usually a v simple matt]1 z ! natural effect ( language is to convey our beliefs to o!r m51 & we commonly "k q well :e!r we are do+ ?is or n4 ,a c]ta9 difficulty arises1 z 9 ! case ( promises1 f ! use ( set =ms impos$ ei!r by law or by cu/om2 to :i* mo/ ( ! discussion ( ! simil> difficulty 9 ! prec$+ *apt] applies ) obvi\s modifications4 ,9 ! case ( =mul impos$ by law--su* 7e4g47 z decl>ations ( religi\s belief--x is d\btful :e!r we may und]/& ! t]ms 9 any s5se :i* !y commonly be>1 or are to take !m 9 ! s5se int5d$ by ! ,legislature t impos$ !m2 & aga91 a difficulty is creat$ by ! gradual degradation or p]v]sion ( _! mean+1 :i* results f ! /rong inducem5ts (f]$ = _! g5]al acceptance2 = ?us !y are cont9ually /ra9$ & /ret*$ until a new g5]al und]/&+ seems gradually to gr[ up z to ! mean+ ( c]ta9 phrases2 & x is cont9ually disput$ :e!r we may v]aci\sly use ! phrases 9 ?is new signification4 ,a simil> process cont9ually alt]s ! mean+ ( conv5tional expressions curr5t 9 polite society4 ,:5 a man decl>es t he #8has great pleasure 9 accept+' a vexati\s invitation1 or is #8! ob$i5t s]vant' ( "o :om he reg>ds z an inf]ior1 he uses phrases :i* 7 probably once deceptive4 ,if !y are s no long]1 ,common ,s5se condemns z ov]-scrupul\s ! refusal to use !m :]e x is cu/om>y to d s4 ,b ,common ,s5se seems d\btful & p]plex$ :]e ! process ( degradation is incomplete1 & !re are /ill p]sons :o may be deceiv$3 z 9 ! use ( ! reply t "o is #8n at home' to an inconv5i5t visitor f ! c\ntry4 ,h[ev]1 ap>t f ! use ( conv5tional phrases1 ! rule #8to speak ! tru?' is n g5]ally difficult ( application 9 conduct4 ,& _m morali/s h reg>d$ ?is1 f its simplicity & def9it5ess1 z a q unexceptionable in/ance ( an e?ical axiom4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t pati5t reflection w %[ t ?is view is n really confirm$ by ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d4 #b4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x does n seem cle>ly agre$ :e!r ,v]acity is an absolute & indep5d5t duty1 or a special application ( "s high] pr9ciple4 ,we f9d 7e4g47 t ,kant reg>ds x z a duty ow$ to oneself to speak ! tru?1 because #8a lie is an ab&onm5t or1 z x 71 annihilation ( ! dignity ( man4' ,& ?is seems to be ! view 9 :i* ly+ is prohibit$ by ! code ( hon\r1 except t x is n ?\ght 7by m5 ( hon\r z su*7 t ! dignity ( man is impair$ by any ly+3 b only t ly+ = selfi% ends1 especially "u ! influ5ce ( fe>1 is mean & base4 ,9 fact !re seems to be circum/ances "u :i* ! code ( hon\r prescribes ly+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x may be said to be pla9ly div]g5t f ! morality ( ,common ,s5se4 ,/ill1 ! latt] does n seem to decide cle>ly :e!r tru?-speak+ is absolutely a duty1 ne$+ no fur!r ju/ification3 or :e!r x is m]ely a g5]al "r ( ea* man to h tru? spok5 to him by 8 fell[s1 :i* "r h[ev] may be =feit$ or susp5d$ "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,j z ea* man is ?\ght to h a natural "r to p]sonal security g5]ally1 b n if he is himself attempt+ to injure o!rs 9 life & prop]ty3 s if we may ev5 kill 9 def5ce ( ourselves & o!rs1 x seems /range if we may n lie1 if ly+ w def5d u bett] aga9/ a palpable invasion ( our rights3 & ,common ,s5se does n seem to prohibit ?is decisively4 ,& aga91 j z ! ord]ly & sy/ematic slaught] :i* we call w> is ?\ght p]fectly "r "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 ?\gh pa9ful & revolt+3 s 9 ! ^w-conte/s ( ! law-c\rts1 ! lawy] is commonly held to be ju/ifi$ 9 untru?fulness )9 /rict rules & limits3 = an advocate is ?\ght to be ov]-scrupul\s :o refuses to say :at he kn[s to be false1 if he is in/ruct$ to say x4#bci ,aga91 :]e deception is design$ to b5efit ! p]son deceiv$1 ,common ,s5se seems to conc$e t x may sometimes be "r3 = example1 mo/ p]sons w\ld n hesitate to speak falsely to an invalid1 if ?is seem$ ! only way ( conceal+ facts t might produce a dang]\s %ock3 nor d ,i p]ceive t any "o %r9ks f tell+ fictions to *ildr51 on matt]s ^u :i* x is ?\ght well t !y %\ld n "k ! tru?4 ,b if ! lawfulness ( b5evol5t deception 9 any case be admitt$1 ,i d n see h[ we c decide :5 & h[ f> x is admissible1 except by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy2 t is1 by weigh+ ! ga9 ( any p>ticul> deception aga9/ ! imp]ilm5t ( mutual confid5ce involv$ 9 all violation ( tru?4 ,! mu* argu$ "q ( religi\s deception 7#8pi\s fraud'7 naturally sugge/s itself "h4 ,x seems cle>1 h[ev]1 t ,common ,s5se n[ pron\nces aga9/ ! broad rule1 t falsehoods may rightly be told 9 ! int]e/s ( religion4 ,b !re is a subtl] =m 9 :i* ! same pr9ciple is /ill ma9ta9$ by moral p]sons4 ,x is sometimes said t ! mo/ important tru?s ( religion _c be convey$ into ! m9ds ( ord9>y m51 except by be+ enclos$1 z x 71 9 a %ell ( fiction2 s t by relat+ su* fictions z if !y 7 facts1 we are really p]=m+ an act ( sub/antial v]acity4#bdj ,reflect+ ^u ?is argum5t1 we see t x is n aft] all s cle> :]e9 ,v]acity consi/s4 ,= f ! beliefs imm$iately communicat$ by any set ( affirmations inf]5ces are naturally drawn1 & we may cle>ly =esee t !y w be drawn4 ,& ?\gh commonly we int5d t bo? ! beliefs imm$iately communicat$ & ! inf]5ces drawn f !m %\ld be true1 & a p]son :o always aims at ?is is prais$ z c&id & s9c]e3 /ill we f9d relaxation ( ! rule prescrib+ ?is int5tion claim$ 9 two diff]5t ways by at lea/ respectable sections ( op9ion4 ,= fir/1 z 0 j n[ obs]v$1 x is sometimes held t if a conclusion is true & important1 & _c be satisfactorily communicat$ o!rwise1 we may lead ! m9d ( ! he>] to x by means ( fictiti\s premises4 ,b ! exact rev]se ( ?is is p]haps a common] view3 viz4 t x is only an absolute duty to make our actual affirmations true3 = x is said t ?\gh ! ideal condition ( human conv]se involves p]fect s9c]ity & c&\r1 & we ought to rejoice 9 exhibit+ ^! virtues :]e we c1 /ill 9 our actual _w concealm5t is frequ5tly necess>y to ! well-be+ ( society1 & may be legitimately effect$ by any means %ort ( actual falsehood4 ,?us x is n uncommonly said t 9 def5ce ( a secret we may n inde$ lie1#bda i4e4 produce directly beliefs contr>y to fact2 b we may 8turn a "q aside10 i4e4 produce indirectly1 by natural inf]5ce f our answ]1 a negatively false belief2 or 8?r[ ! inquir] on a wrong sc5t10 i4e4 produce simil>ly a positively false belief4 ,^! two me?ods ( concealm5t are kn[n respectively z suppressio v]i & sugge/io falsi1 & _m ?9k !m legitimate "u c]ta9 circum/ances3 :ile o!rs say t if deception is to be practis$ at all1 x is m]e =malism to object to any "o mode ( effect+ x m ?an ano!r4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 reflection seems to %[ t ! rule ( ,v]acity1 z commonly accept$1 _c be elevat$ into a def9ite moral axiom3 = !re is no real agreem5t z to h[ f> we are b\nd to imp>t true beliefs to o!rs3 & :ile x is contr>y to ,common ,s5se to exact absolute c&\r "u all circum/ances1 we yet f9d no self-evid5t second>y pr9ciple1 cle>ly def9+ :5 x is n to be exact$4 #c4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o me?od ( exhibit+ a priori ! absolute duty ( ,tru?1 :i* we mu/ n ov]look2 z1 if x be valid1 x w\ld seem t ! exceptions & qualifications above m5tion$ h be5 only admitt$ by ,common ,s5se f inadv]t5ce & %all[ness ( ?\ght4 ,x is said t if x 7 once g5]ally und]/ood t lies 7 ju/ifiable "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 x w\ld imm$iately become q useless to tell ! lies1 because no "o w\ld believe !m2 & t ! morali/ _c lay d[n a rule :i*1 if g5]ally accept$1 w\ld be suicidal4 ,to ?is !re seem to be ?ree answ]s4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is n necess>ily an evil t m5's confid5ce 9 ea* o!r's ass]tions %\ld1 "u c]ta9 peculi> circum/ances1 be impair$ or de/roy$3 x may ev5 be ! v result :i* we %\ld mo/ desire to produce3 e4g4 x is obvi\sly a mo/ effective protection = legitimate secrets t x %\ld be univ]sally und]/ood & expect$ t ^? :o ask que/ions :i* !y h no "r to ask w h lies told !m3 nor1 aga91 %\ld we be re/ra9$ f pron\nc+ x lawful to meet deceit ) deceit1 m]ely by ! fe> ( impair+ ! security :i* rogues n[ d]ive f ! v]acity ( hone/ m54 ,no d\bt ! ultimate result ( g5]al unv]acity "u ! circum/ances w\ld be a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* su* falsehoods w\ld no long] be told3 b unless ?is ultimate result is undesirable1 ! prospect ( x does n con/itute a reason :y ! falsehoods %\ld n be told s long z !y are useful4 ,b1 secondly1 s9ce ! beliefs ( m5 9 g5]al are n =m$ purely on rational gr\nds1 exp]i5ce %[s t unv]acity may long rema9 p>tially effective "u circum/ances :]e x is g5]ally und]/ood to be legitimate4 ,we see ?is 9 ! case ( ! law-c\rts4 ,= ?\gh jurym5 are p]fectly aw>e t x is consid]$ ! duty ( an advocate to /ate z plausibly z possible :atev] he has be5 in/ruct$ to say on behalf ( any crim9al he may def5d1 /ill a skilful plead] may (t5 produce an impression t he s9c]ely believes 8 cli5t to be innoc5t3 & x rema9s a "q ( casui/ry h[ f> ?is k9d ( hypocrisy is ju/ifiable4 ,b1 f9ally1 x _c be assum$ z c]ta9 t x is nev] "r to act ^u a maxim ( :i* ! univ]sal application w\ld be an und\bt$ evil4 ,?is assumption may seem to be involv$ 9 :at 0 previ\sly admitt$ z an e?ical axiom1 t :at is "r = me mu/ be "r = #8all p]sons "u simil> conditions4'#bdb ,b reflection w %[ t !re is a special case )9 ! range ( ! axiom 9 :i* its application is necess>ily self-limit+1 & excludes ! practical univ]sality :i* ! axiom appe>s to sugge/3 i4e4 :]e ! ag5t's conditions include 7#a7 ! k t 8 maxim is n univ]sally accept$1 & 7#b7 a reason$ conviction t 8 act w n t5d to make x s1 to any important ext5t4 ,= 9 ?is case ! axiom w practically only mean t x w be "r = all p]sons to d z ! ag5t does1 if !y are s9c]ely conv9c$ t ! act w n be widely imitat$2 & ?is conviction mu/ vani% if x is widely imitat$4 ,x c h>dly be said t ^! conditions are impossible3 & if !y are possible1 ! axiom t we are discuss+ c only s]ve1 9 its pres5t application1 to direct our att5tion to an important dang] ( unv]acity1 :i* con/itutes a /rong--b n =mally conclusive--utilit>ian gr\nd = speak+ ! tru?4#bdc ,,note4--,mr4 ,/eph5 7,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 *ap4 v4 #cc7 expla9s ! exceptions to ! rule ( tru?-speak+ z foll[s3-- 8,! rule1 #8,lie n1' is ! ext]nal rule1 & corresponds approximately to ! int]nal rule1 #8,be tru/wor?y4' ,cases occur :]e ! rules div]ge1 & 9 su* cases x is ! int]nal rule :i* is morally approv$4 ,tru?fulness is ! rule because 9 ! va/ majority ( cases we tru/ a man 9 s f> z he speaks ! tru?2 9 ! exceptional cases1 ! mutual confid5ce w\ld be violat$ :5 ! tru?1 n :5 ! lie1 is spok540 ,?is explanation seems to me = sev]al reasons inadequate4 7#a7 ,if we may sometimes lie to def5d ! life or secrets ( o!rs1 x is p>adoxical to say t we may n d s to def5d our own2 b a falsehood 9 self-def5ce obvi\sly _c be ju/ifi$ z an application ( ! maxim 8be tru/wor?y40 7#b7 ,ev5 :5 ! falsehood is 9 legitimate def5ce ( o!rs aga9/ attacks1 we _c say t ! speak] manife/s 8tru/wor?9ess0 )\t qualification2 = ! deceiv$ assailant tru/s 8 v]acity1 o!rwise he w\ld n be deceiv$3 ! "q !re=e is "u :at circum/ances ! confid5ce ( ,a t ,i %all speak ! tru? may legitimately be disappo9t$ 9 ord] n to disappo9t ! confid5ce ( ,b t ,i %all def5d 8 life & hon\r4 ,?is "q ,mr4 ,/eph5's explanation does n 9 any way aid u to answ]4 ,! g5]al "q rais$ by ,mr4 ,/eph51 z to ! value ( 8int]nal rules10 express$ 9 ! =m 8,be ?is10 9 contra/ to ext]nal rules1 express$ 9 ! =m 8,d ?is10 w be dealt ) 9 a subsequ5t *apt] 7xiv4 #a74 ,,footnotes3 #bch ,! case :]e set =ms are us$ be+ ! exceptio probans regulam4 #bci ,x c h>dly be said t ! advocate m]ely reports ! false affirmations ( o!rs3 s9ce ! :ole =ce ( 8 plead+ dep5ds ^u 8 adopt+ !m & work+ !m up into a view ( ! case :i*1 = ! "t at lea/1 he appe>s to hold4 #bdj ,e4g4 c]ta9 religi\s p]sons hold--or held 9 #ahgc--t x is "r solemnly to affirm a belief t ,god creat$ ! _w 9 #f days & re/$ on ! #g?1 mean+ t #a 3 #f is ! div9ely ord]$ proportion betwe5 re/ & lab\r4 #bda ,cf4 ,:ewell1 ,elem5ts ( ,morality1 ,book ii4 *ap4 xv4 #bii4 #bdb ,cf4 *ap4 i4 #c ( ?is ,book4 #bdc ,see ,book iv4 *ap4 v4 #c = a fur!r discussion ( ?is axiom4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,o!r ,,social ,,duties ,,& ,,virtues #a4 ,:5 we proce$ to inquire h[ f> ! m9or social duties & virtues recognis$ by ,common ,s5se appe> on exam9ation to be any?+ m ?an special applications ( ! ,b5evol5ce--g5]al or p>ticul>--discuss$ 9 *ap4 iv41 ! dep>tm5t ( duty :i* mo/ prom95tly claims our att5tion1 is t :i* deals ) ! exi/5ce1 & det]m9es ! legitimacy1 ( feel+s anti!tical to ! b5evol5t4 ,= x seems t malevol5t affections are z natural to man z ! b5evol5t3 n inde$ 9 ! same s5se--= man t5ds to h normally "s k9dly feel+ = any fell[-man1 :5 !re is no special cause op]at+ to make him love or hate1 7?\gh ?is t5d5cy is obscur$ 9 ! l[] /ages ( social developm5t by ! habitual ho/ility betwe5 /range tribes & races72 b /ill su* special causes ( malevol5t feel+ cont9ually occur1 &1 9 ! ma91 exemplify a psy*ological law analog\s to t by :i* ! gr[? ( b5evol5t feel+s is expla9$4 ,= j z we are apt to love ^? :o are ! cause ( pleasure to u :e!r by volunt>y b5efits or o!rwise3 s by /rict analogy we naturally dislike ^? :o h done u h>m1 ei!r consci\sly f malevol5ce or m]e selfi%ness1 or ev5 unconsci\sly1 z :5 ano!r man is an ob/acle to our atta9m5t ( a mu*-desir$ end4 ,?us we naturally feel ill-w to a rival :o deprives u ( an object ( competition3 & s 9 p]sons 9 :om ! desire ( sup]iority is /rong1 a c]ta9 dislike ( any "o :o is m successful or prosp]\s ?an !mselves is easily ar\s$3 & ?is envy1 h[ev] repulsive to our moral s5se1 seems z natural z any o!r malevol5t emotion4 ,& x is to be obs]v$ t ea* ( ! elem5ts into :i* we c analyse malevol5t affection f9ds its exact c\nt]p>t 9 ! analysis ( ! b5evol5t3 z ! =m] includes a dislike ( ! pres5ce ( its object & a desire to inflict pa9 on x1 & also a capacity ( d]iv+ pleasure f ! pa9 ?us inflict$4#bdd ,if n[ we ask h[ f> indulg5ce ( malevol5t emotions is "r & prop]1 ! answ] ( ,common ,s5se is n easy to =mulate4 ,= "s w\ld say broadly t !y ought to be repress$ altoge!r or z f> z possible4 ,& no d\bt we blame all envy 7?\gh sometimes to exclude x altoge!r requires a magnanimity :i* we praise73 & we reg>d z virtues or natural excell5ces ! good-hum\r :i* prev5ts "o f feel+ ev5 pa9 to a mat]ial ext5t--n to say res5tm5t--f trifl+ annoyances inflict$ by o!rs1 ! meekness :i* does n res5t ev5 grav] injuries1 ! mildness & g5tl5ess :i* refra9 f retaliat+ !m1 & ! placability :i* accords =giv5ess rapidly & easily4 ,we are ev5 accu/om$ to praise ! m]cy :i* sp>es ev5 des]v$ puni%m5t3 because ?\gh we nev] exactly disapprove ( ! infliction ( des]v$ puni%m5t1 & hold x to be g5]ally a duty ( gov]nm5t--& 9 c]ta9 cases ( private p]sons--to inflict x1 we d n ?9k t ?is duty admits ( no exceptions2 we ?9k t 9 exceptional cases consid]ations n /rictly relevant to ! "q ( ju/ice may be prop]ly reg>d$ z reasons = remitt+ puni%m5t1 & we admire ! sympa!tic nature t eag]ly avails itself ( ^! legitimate occasions = remission4 ,on ! o!r h& ,common ,s5se admits in/9ctive res5tm5t = wrong to be legitimate & prop]3 & ev5 a m su/a9$ & delib]ate malevol5ce is commonly approv$ z virtu\s indignation4 ,! problem1 !n1 is h[ to reconcile ^! div]se approvals4 ,ev5 z reg>ds ext]nal duty1 !re is "s difficulty2 s9ce1 ?\gh x is cle> to common s5se t 9 a well-ord]$ society puni%m5t ( adults ought g5]ally to be inflict$ by gov]nm5t1 & t a private individual wrong$ ought n to 8take ! law into 8 own h&s10--/ill !re are 9 all societies injuries to individuals :i* ! law does n puni% at all or n adequately1 & = :i* effective requital is (t5 possible )\t transgress+ ! limits ( legality2 & !re seems to be no cle> agreem5t z to ! "r mann] ( deal+ ) ^!4 ,= ! ,*ri/ian code is widely ?\ght to prescribe a complete & absolute =giv5ess ( su* (f5ces1 & _m ,*ri/ians h endeav\r$ to c>ry out ?is rule by dismiss+ ! (f5ces z f> z possible f _! m9ds1 or at lea/ all[+ ! memory ( !m to h no effect on _! outw>d conduct4 ,few1 h[ev]1 w\ld d5y t1 s f> z a wrong done to me gives gr\nd = expect+ future mis*ief f ! (f5d] to myself or to o!rs1 ,i am b\nd z a rational be+ to take due precautions aga9/ ?is future mis*ief2 & probably mo/ w\ld admit t su* precautions = ! future1 9 ! case we are consid]+1 may include ! infliction ( puni%m5t = ! pa/1 :]e impunity w\ld give a dang]\s temptation to a repetition ( ! unpuni%$ (f5ce4 ,if we ask1 !re=e1 h[ f> =giv5ess is practically possible1 ! answ] seems admitt$ly to dep5d on two consid]ations3 7#a7 h[ f> ! puni%m5t to :i* res5tm5t prompts is really requir$ 9 ! int]e/s ( society1 & 7#b7 h[ f>1 if s1 x w be adequately inflict$ if ! p]son wrong$ refra9s f inflict+ x4 ,b1 obvi\sly1 s f> z we all[ ! "q to be settl$ by ^! consid]ations we are introduc+ a me?od difficult to di/+ui% f ! ,utilit>ian4 ,& we seem l$ to a simil> result 9 discuss+ ! legitimacy ( malevol5t feel+4 ,"h aga9 we f9d mu* disagreem5t among ?\ghtful p]sons3 = _m w\ld say t ?\gh ! emotion ( ang] is legitimate1 x ought to be direct$ always aga9/ wrong acts z su*1 & n aga9/ ! ag5t3 = ev5 :]e ! ang] may legitimately prompt u to puni% him1 x ought nev] to ov]come our k9dly feel+ t[>ds him4 ,& c]ta9ly if ?is /ate ( m9d is possible1 x seems ! simple/ reconciliation ( ! g5]al maxim ( ,b5evol5ce ) ! admitt$ duty ( inflict+ puni%m5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is urg$1 ) "s reason1 t to reta9 a g5u9e k9dly feel+ t[>ds a man1 :ile we are gratify+ a /rong impulse ( av]sion to 8 acts by inflict+ pa9 on him1 requires a subtle complexity ( emotion too f> out ( ! rea* ( ord9>y m5 to be prescrib$ z a duty3 & t we mu/ all[ z "r & prop] a tempor>y susp5sion ( b5evol5ce t[>ds wrong-do]s until !y h be5 puni%$4 ,"s1 aga91 make a di/9ction betwe5 ,in/9ctive & ,delib]ate ,res5tm5t3 say+ t ! =m] is legitimate 9 s f> z x is requir$ = ! self-def5ce ( individuals & ! repression ( mutual viol5ce1 b t delib]ate res5tm5t is n simil>ly ne$$1 = if we act delib]ately we c act f a bett] motive4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 ?9k t a delib]ate & su/a9$ desire to puni% wrong-do]s is requir$ 9 ! int]e/s ( society1 s9ce ! m]e desire to realise ,ju/ice w n practically be /rong en\gh to repress (f5ces3 & t x is z s]i\s a mi/ake to attempt to sub/itute ! desire ( ,ju/ice = natural res5tm5t z x w\ld be to sub/itute prud5ce = natural appetite 9 eat+ & dr9k+1 or m]e dutifulness = filial affection4#bde ,aga91 a di/9ction may be tak5 betwe5 ! impulse to inflict pa9 & ! desire ( ! antipa!tic pleasure :i* ! ag5t w reap f ?is infliction2 s t1 :ile we approve ! =m] "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 we may /ill reg>d ! latt] z altoge!r inadmissible4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 t a man "u ! influ5ce ( a /rong passion ( res5tm5t c h>dly exclude f 8 m9d altoge!r an anticipation ( ! pleasure t he w feel :5 ! passion is gratifi$2 & if s1 he c h>dly exclude altoge!r ! desire ( ?is gratification4 ,if1 !re=e1 x is important = ! well-be+ ( society t m5 %\ld d]ive he>ty satisfaction f ! puni%m5t ( a nef>i\s crim9al1 x is p]haps go+ too f> to prohibit absolutely ! desire ( ?is satisfaction2 ?\gh we may say t a man ought n to *]i% ?is desire1 & gloat ov] ! anticipat$ pleasure4 ,on ! :ole we may p]haps sum up by say+ t a sup]ficial view ( ! matt] naturally leads u to condemn sweep+ly all malevol5t feel+s & ! acts to :i* !y prompt1 z contr>y to ! g5]al duty ( b5evol5ce3 b t ! common s5se ( reflective p]sons recognises ! necessity ( relax+ ?is rule 9 ! int]e/s ( society3 only x is n cle> z to ! limits or pr9ciples ( ?is relaxation1 ?\gh incl9$ to let x be det]m9$ by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 #b4 ,! rema9+ virtues t are cle>ly & exclusively social1 w be easily se5 to h no indep5d5t maxims2 ! conduct 9 :i* !y are respectively realis$ be+ m]ely ! fulfilm5t1 "u special conditions1 ( ! rules already discuss$4 ,we ne$ n1 !n1 ent] ^u an exhau/ive exam9ation ( ^! m9or virtues--= x is n our object to frame a complete gloss>y ( e?ical t]ms--3 b = illu/ration's sake x may be well to discuss "o or two ( !m2 & ,i w select = exam9ation ,lib]ality ) its cognate notions1 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! prom95ce t x has _h 9 ! e>li] ages ( ?\ght1 & p>tly because ( a c]ta9 complexity 9 ! feel+s ) :i* x is usually reg>d$4 ,consid]$ z a ,virtue1 ,lib]ality seems to be m]ely ,b5evol5ce1 z exhibit$ 9 ! p>ticul> s]vice ( giv+ money1 beyond ! limits ( /rict duty z commonly recognis$3--= 9 s f> z x c be call$ a duty to be lib]al1 x is because 9 ! p]=mance ( ! m or less indef9ite duties enum]at$ 9 *ap4 iv4 we d n l exactness to be s\ght2 a c]ta9 excess is ne$ful if ! duty is to be well done4 ,& p]haps 9 ! case ( ! poor ?is graceful excess is exclud$ by prud5ce3 = ?\gh a poor man might make a great sacrifice 9 a small gift we %\ld call ?is g5]\s b sc>cely lib]al2 ,lib]ality appe>s to require an ext]nal abundance 9 ! gift ev5 m ?an a self-sacrific+ disposition4 ,x seems !re=e to be possible only to ! ri*3 &1 z ,i h h9t$1 9 ! admiration commonly accord$ to x !re seems to be m+l$ an elem5t r /hetic ?an moral4 ,= we are all apt to admire p[]1 & we recognise ! lat5t p[] ( weal? gracefully exhibit$ 9 a c]ta9 degree ( c>eless pr(usion :5 ! object is to give happ9ess to o!rs4 ,inde$ ! vulg> admire ! same c>elessness z manife/$ ev5 9 selfi% luxury4 ,! sph]e ( ,lib]ality1 !n1 lies g5]ally 9 ! fulfilm5t ( ! indef9ite duties ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,b !re is a c]ta9 bord]gr\nd betwe5 ,ju/ice & ,b5evol5ce :]e x is especially %[n2 namely1 9 ! full satisfaction ( all cu/om>y expectations1 ev5 :5 indef9ite & unc]ta92 z 7e4g47 9 ! remun]ation ( s]vices1 9 s f> z ?is is gov]n$ by cu/om2 & ev5 :]e x is left entirely to free contract1 & !re=e naturally det]m9$ by haggl+ & b>ga9+ 7z m>ket value g5]ally71 x is *>act]i/ic ( a lib]al man to avoid ?is haggl+ & to give some:at high] remun]ation ?an ! o!r p>ty might be induc$ to take1 & simil>ly to take = 8 own s]vices a some:at l[] paym5t ?an he might p]suade ! o!r to give4 ,& aga91 s9ce laws & promises & especially tacit und]/&+s are sometimes d\btful & ambigu\s1 a lib]al man w 9 su* cases unhesitat+ly adopt ! int]pretation :i* is lea/ 9 8 own fav\r1 & pay ! mo/ t he c by any fairm9d$ p]son be ?\ght to owe1 & exact ! lea/ t reasonably c be ?\ght to be due to himself3 t is1 if ! m>g9 be1 relatively to 8 res\rces1 n consid]able4#bdf ,& ( a man :o does ! opposite ( all ?is we pr$icate ,meanness2 ?is be+ ! vice anti!tical to ,lib]ality4 ,"h aga9 !re seems no place = ?is p>ticul> vice if ! am\nt at /ake be consid]able2 = !n we ?9k x n mean to exact "o's own rights to ! full1 & worse ?an mean to refuse ano!r :at he ought to h2 9 fact 9 su* cases we ?9k t any indef9it5ess z to rights %\ld be practically remov$ by ! decision ( a judge or arbitrator4 ,! vice ( meanness !n is1 we may say1 b\nd$ on ! side ( vice by inju/ice3 ! mean man is blam$ n = violation ( ,ju/ice1 b1 because he *ooses a trifl+ ga9 to himself r ?an ! avoidance ( disappo9tm5t to o!rs4 ,& "h1 aga91 x %\ld be obs]v$1 an elem5t n /rictly moral is includ$ 9 ! common disapprobation ( meanness4 ,=1 z we h se51 a c]ta9 c>elessness ( money is admir$ z a sign ( p[] & sup]iority3 & ! opposite habit is a symbol ( inf]iority4 ,! mean man !n is apt to be despis$ z hav+ ! bad ta/e to %[ ?is symbol ne$lessly1 pref]r+ a little ga9 to ! respect ( 8 fell[-m54 ,meanness1 h[ev]1 has a wid] sph]e ?an ,lib]ality1 & ref]s n m]ely to ! tak+ or refus+ ( money1 b to tak+ advantages g5]ally3 9 ?is wid] s5se ! opposite virtue is ,g5]osity4 ,9 s f> z ! sph]e ( ,g5]osity co9cides ) t ( ,lib]ality1 ! =m] seems p>tly to transc5d ! latt]1 p>tly to ref] m to feel+s ?an to outw>d acts1 & to imply a complet] triumph ( unselfi% ov] selfi% impulses4 ,9 ! wid] s5se x is /rik+ly exhibit$ 9 conflict & competition ( all k9ds4 ,"h x is sometimes call$ ,*ivalry4 ,reflection %[s u t ! ess5ce ( ?is beautiful virtue is ! realisation ( ,b5evol5ce "u circum/ances :i* make x peculi>ly difficult & !re=e peculi>ly admirable4 ,= ,g5]osity or ,*ivalry t[>ds adv]s>ies or competitors seems to consi/ 9 %[+ z mu* k9dness & reg>d = _! well-be+ z is compatible ) ! ends & conditions ( conflict3 "o prom95t =m ( ?is be+ ! endeav\r to realise ideal ju/ice 9 ^! conditions1 n m]ely by obs]v+ all ! rules & tacit und]/&+s "u :i* ! conflict is conduct$1 b by resign+ ev5 accid5tal advantages4 ,su* resignation1 h[ev]1 is n consid]$ a /rict duty3 nor is !re any agreem5t z to h[ f> x is "r & virtu\s2 = :at "s w\ld praise & approve1 o!rs w\ld reg>d z quixotic & extravagant4 ,to sum up1 we may say t ! t]ms ,lib]ality & ,g5]osity1 s f> z !y are /rictly e?ical1 d5ote ! virtue ( ,b5evol5ce 7p]haps includ+ ,ju/ice to "s ext5t7 z exhibit$ 9 special ways & "u special conditions4 ,& ! exam9ation ( ! o!r m9or social virtues w\ld evid5tly lead to simil> g5]al results3 ?\gh x might n always be easy to agree on _! def9itions4 ,,footnotes3 #bdd ,x is to be obs]v$ t m5 d]ive pleasure f ! pa9s & losses ( o!rs1 9 v>i\s ways1 )\t ! specific emotion :i* ,i di/+ui% z malevol5t affection3 ei!r 7#a7 f ! s5se ( p[] ex]cis$--:i* expla9s mu* ( ! wanton cruelty ( s*oolboys1 despots1 etc4--or 7#b7 f a s5se ( _! own sup]iority or security 9 contra/ ) ! failures & /ruggles ( o!rs1 or 7#c7 ev5 m]ely f ! excitem5t sympa!tically caus$ by ! manife/ation or repres5tation ( any /rong feel+ 9 o!rs2 a real trag$y is int]e/+ 9 ! same way z a fictiti\s "o4 ,b ^! facts1 ?\gh psy*ologically int]e/+1 pres5t no important e?ical problems2 s9ce no "o d\bts t pa9 ought n to be inflict$ f su* motives z ^!4 #bde ,butl] 7,s]mon ,,viii41 ,^u ,res5tm5t7 recognises t delib]ate res5tm5t 8has 9 fact a good influ5ce ^u ! affairs ( ! _w02 ?\gh 8x 7 mu* to be wi%$ t m5 w\ld act f a bett] pr9ciple40 #bdf ,if ! am\nt at /ake is su* z to con/itute a real sacrifice1 ! conduct seems to be m ?an lib]al1 & 7unless blam$ z extravagant7 is r prais$ z g5]\s or highm9d$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,self-,,reg>d+ ,,virtues #a4 ,i conceive t accord+ to ! morality ( ,common ,s5se1 an ultimate h>mony betwe5 7#a7 ,self-int]e/ & 7#b7 ,virtue is assum$ or po/ulat$2 s t ! p]=mance ( duty & cultivation ( ,virtue g5]ally may be reg>d$ z a 8duty to self10 z be+ always conducive to ! ag5t's true int]e/ & well-be+4 ,b fur!r1 ,common ,s5se 79 mod]n ,europe7 recognises a /rict duty ( pres]v+ "o's own life1 ev5 :5 ! prospect life (f]s is "o 9 :i* pa9 prepond]ates ov] pleasure2 x is1 inde$1 held to be "r & praisewor?y to enc\nt] c]ta9 dea? 9 ! p]=mance ( /rict duty1 or = ! pres]vation ( ! life ( ano!r1 or = any v important ga9 to society2 b n m]ely 9 ord] to avoid pa9 to ! ag5t4 ,at ! same "t1 )9 ! limits fix$ by ?is & o!r duties1 ,common ,s5se consid]s1 ,i ?9k1#bdg t x is a duty to seek our own happ9ess1 except 9 s f> z we c promote ! welf>e ( o!rs by sacrific+ x4 ,?is 8due conc]n ab\t our own int]e/ or happ9ess0 may be call$ ! ,duty ( ,prud5ce4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t--s9ce x is less evid5t t m5 d n adequately desire _! own greate/ good1 ?an t _! ef=ts are n suffici5tly well direct$ to its atta9m5t--9 conceiv+ ,prud5ce z a ,virtue or ,excell5ce1 att5tion is (t5 fix$ almo/ exclusively on its intellectual side4 ,?us reg>d$1 ,prud5ce may be said to be m]ely ,wisdom made m def9ite by ! acceptance ( ,self-int]e/ z its sole ultimate end3 ! habit ( calculat+ c>efully ! be/ means to ! atta9m5t ( our own int]e/1 & resi/+ all irrational impulses :i* may t5d to p]turb our calculations or prev5t u f act+ on !m4 #b4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 curr5t notions ( p>ticul> virtues1 :i* might be call$ ,self-reg>d+2 b yet ) respect to :i* x is n q cle> :e!r !y are m]ely p>ticul> applications ( ,prud5ce1 or :e!r !y h indep5d5t maxims4 ,( ^! ,temp]ance1 "o ( ! f\r c>d9al virtues anci5tly recognis$1 seems ! mo/ prom95t4 ,9 its ord9>y use1 ,temp]ance is ! habit ( controll+ ! pr9cipal appetites 7or desires :i* h an imm$iate corporeal cause74 ,! habit ( mod]at+ & controll+ our desires g5]ally is recognis$ by ,common ,s5se z useful & desirable1 b ) less di/9ctness & emphasis4 ,all are agre$ t our appetites ne$ control3 b 9 ord] to e/abli% a maxim ( ,temp]ance1 we h to det]m9e )9 :at limits1 on :at pr9ciple1 & to :at end !y ought to be controll$4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! appetites = food1 dr9k1 sleep1 /imulants1 etc41 no "o d\bts t bodily heal? & vig\r is ! end naturally subs]v$ by _! gratification1 & t ! latt] ought to be *eck$ :5ev] x t5ds to defeat ?is end 7includ+ 9 ! notion ( heal? ! mo/ p]fect condition ( ! m5tal faculties1 s f> z ?is appe>s to dep5d ^u ! g5]al /ate ( ! body74 ,&1 fur!r1 ! indulg5ce ( a bodily appetite is manife/ly imprud5t1 if x involves ! loss ( any great] gratification ( :atev] k9d3 & o!rwise wrong if x int]f]es ) ! p]=mance ( duties2 ?\gh x is p]haps d\btful h[ f> ?is latt] indulg5ce w\ld commonly be condemn$ z #8intemp]ance4' ,"s1 h[ev]1 d$uce f ! obvi\s tru?1 t ! ma9t5ance ( bodily heal? is ! *ief natural end ( ! appetites1 a m rigid rule ( re/ra9t1 & "o t goes beyond prud5ce4 ,!y say t ?is end ought to fix n only ! negative b ! positive limit ( indulg5ce2 t ! pleasure d]iv$ f ! gratification ( appetite %\ld nev] be s\ght p] se 7ev5 :5 x does n impair heal?1 or int]f]e ) duty1 or ) a great] pleasure ( a diff]5t k9d72 b only 9 s f> z su* gratification is positively conducive to heal?4 ,:5 we consid] to :at a m>k$ div]g5ce f ! usual habits ( ! moral ri* ?is pr9ciple w\ld lead1 we might be dispos$ to say t x is cle>ly at v>iance ) ,common ,s5se3 b x (t5 meets ) v]bal ass5t4 ,!re is1 aga91 a ?ird & int]m$iate view :i* accepts ! pr9ciple t ! gratification ( appetite is n to be s\ght = its own sake1 b admits o!r ends z legitimate besides ! m]e ma9t5ance ( heal? & /r5g?3--e4g4 8*e]fulness1 & ! cultivation ( ! social affections40#bdh ,"s su* pr9ciple seems to be m or less consci\sly held by _m p]sons3 h5ce we f9d t solit>y indulg5ce 9 ! pleasures ( ! table is v frequ5tly reg>d$ ) some?+ l moral av]sion3 & t ! banquets :i* are giv5 & enjoy$ by moral p]sons1 are vaguely suppos$ to h = _! end n ! common indulg5ce ( s5sual appetites1 b ! promotion ( conviviality & conv]sational ent]ta9m5t4 ,= x is g5]ally believ$ t ! enjoym5t 9 common ( a luxuri\s meal develops social emotions1 & also /imulates ! faculties ( wit & hum\r & lively colloquy 9 g5]al2 & fea/s :i* are obvi\sly n contriv$ ) a view to su* convivial & colloquial gratifications seem to be condemn$ by ref9$ p]sons4 ,/ill x w\ld be go+ too f> to /ate1 z a maxim support$ by ,common ,s5se 9 respect ( s5sual pleasures g5]ally1 t !y are nev] to be s\ght except !y positively promote ^? ( a high] k9d4 #c4 ,9 ! la/ section we h spok5 *iefly ( ! appetites = food & dr9k4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( ! appetite ( sex t ! regulation morally prescrib$ mo/ cle>ly & def9itely transc5ds t ( m]e prud5ce3 :i* is indicat$ by ! special notion ( ,purity or ,*a/ity4#bdi ,at fir/ sight x may p]haps appe> t ! regulation ( ! sexual appetite prescrib$ by ! receiv$ moral code m]ely conf9es its indulg5ce )9 ! limits ( ! union sanction$ by law3 only t "h1 z ! natural impulse is peculi>ly p[]ful & easily excit$1 x is especially necess>y to prohibit any acts1 int]nal z well z ext]nal1 t t5d ev5 indirectly to ! transgression ( ^! limits4 ,& ?is is to a great ext5t true3 /ill on reflection x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 t our common notion ( purity implies a /&>d indep5d5t ( law2 =1 fir/1 con=mity to ?is does n necess>ily secure purity3 & secondly1 all illegitimate sexual int]c\rse is n ?\ght to be impure1#bej & x is only by inadv]t5ce t ! two notions are sometimes conf\nd$4 ,b x is n v cle> :at ?is /&>d is4 ,= :5 we int]rogate ! moral consci\sness ( mank9d1 we seem to f9d two views1 a /rict] & a lax]1 analog\s to ! two int]pretations ( ,temp]ance la/ notic$4 ,x is agre$ t ! sexual appetite ought nev] to be indulg$ = ! sake ( ! s5sual gratification m]ely1 b z a means to "s high] end3 b "s say t ! propagation ( ! species is ! only legitimate1 z x is obvi\sly ! prim>y natural1 end3 :ile o!rs reg>d ! developm5t ( mutual affection 9 a union design$ to be p]man5t z an end p]fectly admissible & "r4 ,i ne$ n po9t out t ! practical diff]5ce betwe5 ! two views is consid]able2 s t ?is "q is "o :i* x is necess>y to raise & decide4 ,b x may be obs]v$ t any attempt to lay d[n m9ute & detail$ rules on ?is subject seems to be condemn$ by ,common ,s5se z t5d+ to defeat ! end ( purity2 z su* m9ut5ess ( moral legislation invites m5 9 g5]al to ex]cise _! ?\ghts on ?is subject to an ext5t :i* is practically dang]\s4#bea ,i ought to po9t out t ! ,virtue ( ,purity is c]ta9ly n m]ely self-reg>d+1 & is !re=e prop]ly out ( place 9 ?is *apt]3 b ! conv5i5ce ( discuss+ x along ) ,temp]ance has l$ me to take x out ( its natural ord]4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 w\ld g fur!r1 & say t x ought to be treat$ z a di/9ctly social virtue3 = ! propagation & re>+ ( *ildr5 is "o ( ! mo/ important ( social int]e/s3 & !y w\ld ma9ta9 t ,purity m]ely connotes a s5tim5t protective ( ^! important functions1 support+ ! rules :i* we consid] necess>y to secure _! prop] p]=mance4 ,b x seems cle> t1 ?\gh ,common ,s5se und\bt$ly recognises ?is t5d5cy ( ! s5tim5t ( ,purity to ma9ta9 ! be/ possible provision = ! cont9uance ( ! human race1 x /ill does n reg>d t z ! fundam5tal po9t 9 ! def9ition ( ?is rule ( duty1 & ! sole crit]ion 9 decid+ :e!r acts d or d n violate ! rule4 ,!re seem to be no simil> special que/ions ) respect to mo/ o!r desires4 ,we recognise1 no d\bt1 a g5]al duty ( self-control3 b ?is is m]ely z a means to ! end ( act+ rationally 7:atev] our int]pretation ( rational action may be72 x only prescribes t we %\ld yield to no impulse :i* prompts u to act 9 antagonism to ends or rules delib]ately accept$4 ,fur!r1 !re is a c]ta9 t5d5cy among moral p]sons to ! ascetic op9ion t ! gratification ( m]ely s5sual impulse is 9 itself some:at objectionable3 b ?is view does n seem to be tak5 by ,common ,s5se 9 p>ticul> cases2--we d n 7e4g47 commonly condemn ! mo/ int5se enjoym5t ( muscul> ex]cise1 or w>m?1 or ba?+4 ,! only o!r case1 besides t ( ! appetites above discuss$1 9 :i* ! ,common ,s5se ( our age & c\ntry seems to reg>d z "r or admirable ! repression ( natural impulses1 beyond :at ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce w\ld dictate1 is t ( ! prompt+s ( pa9 & fe>4 ,an important in/ance ( ?is is to be f\nd 9 ! be=e-m5tion$ rule prohibit+ suicide absolutely1 ev5 9 face ( ! /ronge/ probability t ! re/ ( a man's life w be bo? mis]able & burd5some to o!rs4 ,b 9 o!r cases also praise is app>5tly be/[$ on endurance ( pa9 & dang]1 beyond :at is conducive to happ9ess2 z we %all h occasion to obs]ve 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,footnotes3 #bdg ,kant argues 7,met4 ,anfangsgr4 d4 ,tug5dlehre1 ,?4 ,i41 iv47 t z e "o 8inevitably wills0 means to promote 8 own happ9ess ?is _c be reg>d$ z a duty4 ,b1 z ,i h be=e urg$ 7,book i4 *ap4 iv4 #a71 a man does n 8inevitably w0 to d :at he believes w be mo/ conducive to 8 own greate/ happ9ess4 ,! view 9 ! text is t ( ,butl] 7,diss]tation ,( ! nature ( ,virtue72 :o admits t 8nature has n giv5 u s s5sible a disapprobation ( imprud5ce & folly z ( falsehood1 inju/ice1 & cruelty02 b po9ts out t su* s5sible disapprobation is = v>i\s reasons less ne$$ 9 ! =m] case4 #bdh ,see ,:ewell's ,elem5ts ( ,morality1 ,book ii4 *ap4 x4 #bdi ,! notion ( ,*a/ity is ne>ly equival5t to t ( ,purity1 only some:at m ext]nal & sup]ficial4 #bej ,9 s f> z m]e illegitimacy ( union is conceiv$ to be directly & specially prohibit$1 & n m]ely f consid]ations ( ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce1 x is reg>d$ z a violation ( ,ord] r ?an ( ,purity4 #bea ,x 0 p>tly ow+ to ! s]i\s ov]sight ( n p]ceiv+ t ,purity itself =bids too m9ute a sy/em ( rules = ! obs]vance ( purity t ! m$ival ,casui/ry fell into disrepute4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,c\rage1 ,,humility1 ,,etc4 #a4 ,besides ! ,virtue ( ,purity1 :i* we f\nd x conv5i5t to discuss 9 ! la/ *apt]1 !re rema9 "o or two prom95t excell5ces ( "* :i* d n seem to be commonly admir$ & inculcat$ ) any di/9ct ref]5ce ei!r to private or to g5]al happ9ess2 & :i*1 ?\gh 9 mo/ cases obvi\sly conducive to "o or o!r ( ^! ends1 sometimes seem to influ5ce conduct 9 a direction at v>iance ) !m4 ,= example1 ,c\rage is a quality :i* excites g5]al admiration1 :e!r x is %[n 9 self-def5ce1 or 9 aid+ o!rs1 or ev5 :5 we d n see any b5efit result+ f ! p>ticul> exhibition ( x4 ,aga91 9 ,*ri/ian societies1 ,humility 7if believ$ s9c]e7 (t5 obta9s unqualifi$ praise1 9 spite ( ! loss t may evid5tly result f a man's und]rat+ 8 own abilities4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 to exam9e h[ f> 9 ei!r case we c elicit a cle> & indep5d5t maxim def9+ ! conduct comm5d$ "u ea* ( ^! notions4 ,to beg9 ) ,c\rage4 ,we g5]ally d5ote by ?is t]m a disposition to face dang] ( any k9d )\t %r9k+4 ,we sometimes also call ^? :o be> pa9 unfl9*+ly c\rage\s3 b ?is quality ( "* we m commonly di/+ui% z ,=titude4 ,n[ x seems pla9 t if we seek = a def9ition ( /rict duty1 z commonly recognis$1 "u ! head ei!r ( ,c\rage or ( ,=titude1 we c f9d none t does n involve a ref]5ce to o!r maxims & ends4 ,= no "o w\ld say t x is our duty to face dang] or to be> avoidable pa9 g5]ally1 b only if x meets u 9 ! c\rse ( duty4#beb ,& ev5 ?is ne$s fur!r qualification3 = z reg>ds su* duties z ^? 7e4g47 ( g5]al ,b5evol5ce1 x w\ld be commonly all[$ t ! ag5t's pa9 & dang] are to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 practically det]m9+ _! ext5t3 x w\ld be held t we are n b\nd to endure any pa9 except = ! prev5tion ( manife/ly great] pa9 to ano!r1 or ! atta9m5t ( a m important am\nt ( positive good3 nor to run any risk1 unless ! *ance ( additional b5efit to be ga9$ = ano!r outweighs ! co/ & *ance ( loss to ourselves if we fail4 ,inde$ x is d\btful :e!r ! common e/imate ( ! duty ( ,b5evol5ce c\ld be said to am\nt q to ?is4#bec ,:51 h[ev]1 we consid] ,c\rage z an ,excell5ce r ?an a duty1 x seems to hold a m indep5d5t position 9 our moral e/imation4 ,& ?is view corresponds m completely ?an ! o!r to ! common application ( ! notion2 z !re are _m acts ( c\rage1 :i* are n altoge!r )9 ! control ( ! ,w1 & !re=e _c be reg>d$ z /rict duties4 ,= 7#a7 dang] is frequ5tly sudd5 & ne$s to be met )\t delib]ation1 s t our mann] ( meet+ x c only be semi-volunt>y4 ,& 7#b7 ?\gh naturally timid p]sons c p]haps ) ef=t control fe> z !y c ang] or appetite1 if "t be all[$ = delib]ation1 & c prev5t x f tak+ effect 9 d]eliction ( duty3 /ill ?is result is n all t is requir$ = ! p]=mance ( su* c\rage\s acts z ne$ m ?an ord9>y en]gy--= ! en]gy ( ! timid virtu\s man is liable to be exhau/$ 9 ! ef=t to control 8 fe>3 e4g4 9 battle he c p]haps /& /ill to be kill$ z well z ! c\rage\s man1 b n *>ge ) ! same impetuosity or /rike ) ! same vig\r & precision4#bed ,s f> !n z ,c\rage is n completely volunt>y1 we h to consid] :e!r x is a desirable quality r ?an :e!r we are /rictly b\nd to exhibit x4 ,& "h !re seems no d\bt t we commonly f9d x morally admirable )\t ref]5ce to any end s]v$ by x1 & :5 ! dang]s :i* call x =? might be avoid$ )\t any d]eliction ( duty4 ,at ! same "t we call a man foolh>dy :o runs unnecess>ily into dang] beyond a c]ta9 degree4 ,:]e !n is ! limit to be fix$8 ,on utilit>ian pr9ciples we %\ld endeav\r to /rike z exact a balance z possible betwe5 ! am\nt ( dang] incurr$ 9 any case & ! probable b5efit ( cultivat+ & develop+ by practice a habit s frequ5tly necess>y = ! due p]=mance ( important duties4 ,?is w obvi\sly give a diff]5t result = diff]5t /ates ( society & diff]5t call+s & pr(essions2 z mo/ p ne$ ?is in/9ctive c\rage less 9 civilis$ societies ?an 9 semi-b>b>\s ones1 & civilians less ?an soldi]s4 ,p]haps ! in/9ctive admiration ( mank9d = acts ( d>+ does n altoge!r obs]ve ?is limit3 b we may say1 ,i ?9k1 t 9 s f> z x attempts to ju/ify itself on reflection1 x is commonly 9 "s su* way z ?is2 & ,common ,s5se does n seem to po9t to any limit dep5d+ on a diff]5t pr9ciple4 #b4 ,z ! ,virtue ( ,c\rage is prom95t 9 ,pagan e?ics1 & 9 ! ,code ( ,hon\r :i* may be reg>d$ z a sort ( survival ( ! pagan view ( morality1 s ,humility especially belongs to ! ideal set be=e mank9d by ,*ri/ianity4 ,! common acc\nt1 h[ev]1 ( ?is virtue is some:at p>adoxical4 ,= x is g5]ally said t ,humility prescribes a l[ op9ion ( our own m]its3 b if our m]its are comp>atively high1 x seems /range to direct u to h a l[ op9ion ( !m4 ,x may be repli$1 t ?\gh our m]its may be high :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( ord9>y m51 !re are always "s to be f\nd sup]ior1 & we c comp>e ourselves ) ^!1 & 9 ! extreme case ) ideal excell5ce1 ( :i* all fall f> %ort2 & t we ought to make ?is k9d ( comp>ison & n ! o!r k9d1 & contemplate our faults--( :i* we %all assur$ly f9d a suffici5cy--& n our m]its4 ,b surely 9 ! mo/ important delib]ations :i* human life (f]s1 9 det]m9+ :at k9d ( "w we %all und]take & to :at social functions we %all aspire1 x is (t5 necess>y t we %\ld comp>e our qualifications c>efully ) ^? ( av]age m51 if we are to decide rightly4 ,& x w\ld seem j z irrational to und]rate ourselves z to ov]rate2 & ?\gh mo/ m5 are m prone to ! latt] mi/ake1 !re are c]ta9ly "s r incl9$ to ! =m]4 ,i ?9k t if we reflect c>efully on ! common judgm5ts 9 :i* ! notion ( ,humility is us$1 we %all f9d t ! quality commonly prais$ "u ?is "n 7:i* is n always us$ eulogi/ically71 is n prop]ly regulative ( ! op9ions we =m ( ourselves--= "h z 9 o!r op9ions we ought to aim at no?+ b ,tru?--b t5ds to ! repression ( two diff]5t s$uctive emotions1 "o entirely self-reg>d+1 ! o!r relat+ to o!rs & p>tly tak+ effect 9 social behavi\r4 ,p>tly1 ! ,virtue ( ,humility is manife/$ 9 repress+ ! emotion ( self-admiration1 :i* spr+s naturally f ! contemplation ( our own m]its1 & z x is highly agreeable1 prompts to su* contemplation4 ,?is admir+ self-complac5cy is g5]ally condemn$3 b n1 ,i ?9k1 by an intuition t claims to be ultimate1 z x is commonly ju/ifi$ by ! reason t su* self-admiration1 ev5 if well-gr\nd$1 t5ds to *eck our progress t[>ds high] virtue4 ,! m]e fact ( our feel+ ?is admiration is ?\ght to be evid5ce t we h n suffici5tly comp>$ ourselves ) our ideal1 or t our ideal is n suffici5tly high3 & x is ?\ght to be indisp5sable to moral progress t we %\ld h a high ideal & %\ld cont9ually contemplate x4 ,at ! same "t1 we obvi\sly ne$ "s c>e 9 ! application ( ?is maxim4 ,= all admit t self-respect is an important auxili>y to "r conduct3 & morali/s cont9ually po9t to ! satisfactions ( a good consci5ce z "p ( ! natural rew>d :i* ,provid5ce has atta*$ to virtue3 yet x is difficult to sep>ate ! gl[ ( self-approbation :i* att5ds ! p]=mance ( a virtu\s action f ! complac5t self-consci\sness :i* ,humility seems to exclude4 ,p]haps we may say t ! feel+ ( self-approbation itself is natural & a legitimate pleasure1 b t if prolong$ & fo/]$ x is liable to imp$e moral progress3 & t :at ,humility prescribes is su* repression ( self-satisfaction z w t5d on ! :ole to promote ?is end4 ,on ?is view ! maxim ( ,humility is cle>ly a dep5d5t "o3 ! end to :i* x is subord9ate is progress 9 ,virtue g5]ally4 ,z = su* pride & self-satisfaction z are bas$ n on our own conduct & its results1 b on ext]nal & accid5tal advantages1 ^! are condemn$ z involv+ a false & absurd view z to ! nature ( real m]it4 ,b we n only take pleasure 9 our own respect & admiration1 b /ill m1 g5]ally speak+1 9 ! respect & admiration ( o!rs4 ,! desire = ?is1 aga91 is held to be to "s ext5t legitimate1 & ev5 a valuable aid to morality3 b z x is a dang]\sly s$uctive impulse1 & frequ5tly acts 9 opposition to duty1 x is felt to /& 9 special ne$ ( self-control4 ,humility1 h[ev]1 does n s mu* consi/ 9 controll+ ?is desire1 z 9 repress+ ! claim = its satisfaction :i* we are naturally dispos$ to make ^u o!rs4 ,we are incl9$ to dem& f o!rs #8tok5s ( respect1' "s ext]nal symbol ( _! recognition ( our elevat$ place 9 ! scale ( human be+s2 & to compla9 if our dem&s are n grant$4 ,su* claims & dem&s ,humility bids u repress4 ,x is ?\ght to be our duty n to exact1 9 _m cases1 ev5 ! expression ( rev]5ce :i* o!rs are /rictly b\nd to pay4 ,& yet "h1 aga91 !re is a limit1 9 ! view ( ,common ,s5se1 at :i* ?is quality ( behavi\r passes ov] into a fault3 = ! omission ( m>ks ( respect#bee is sometimes an insult :i* impulses commonly reg>d$ z legitimate & ev5 virtu\s 7s5se ( ,dignity1 ,self-respect1 ,prop] ,pride1 etc47 prompt u to repel4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k x possible to claim a cons5sus = any =mula = det]m9+ ?is limit4 ,,footnotes3 #beb ,9 ! case ( pa9 :i* _c be avoid$ we consid] t ,=titude w suppress outcries & lam5tations3 ?\gh 9 s f> z ^! relieve ! suff]] )\t annoy+ o!rs1 ! duty seems d\btful4 #bec ,cf4 ante1 *ap4 iv4 #e ( ?is ,book4 #bed ,! above rem>ks apply 9 a less degree to ! 8moral c\rage0 by :i* m5 face ! pa9s & dang]s ( social disapproval 9 ! p]=mance ( :at !y believe to be duty3 = ! adequate accompli%m5t ( su* acts dep5ds less on qualities n )9 ! control ( ! w at any giv5 "t4 #bee ,i d n ref] to cu/om>y m>ks ( respect = (ficials1 ! omission ( :i* w\ld be a brea* ( e/abli%$ ord]2 s9ce ! special political reason = requir+ ^! obvi\sly takes ! "q beyond ! sph]e ( application ( ! ,virtue ( ,humility4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,review ,,( ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,we h n[ conclud$ su* detail$ exam9ation ( ! morality ( ,common ,s5se z1 on ! plan laid d[n 9 *ap4 i4 ( ?is ,book1 x seem$ desirable to und]take4 ,we h n discuss$ all ! t]ms ( our common moral vocabul>y3 b ,i believe t we h omitt$ none t are important ei!r 9 !mselves or relatively to our pres5t inquiry4 ,= ( ^? t rema9 we may fairly say1 t !y manife/ly w n furni% indep5d5t maxims3 = reflection w %[ t ! conduct designat$ by !m is ei!r prescrib$ m]ely z a means to ! p]=mance ( duties already discuss$2 or is really id5tical ) ! :ole or "p ( "s ( ^!1 view$ 9 "s special aspect1 or p]haps specialis$ by ! addition ( "s peculi> circum/ance or condition4 ,let u n[ pause & survey briefly ! process 9 :i* we h be5 engag$1 & ! results :i* we h elicit$4 ,we />t$ ) admitt+ ! po9t ^u ! pro( ( :i* morali/s h (t5 conc5trat$ _! ef=ts1 ! exi/5ce ( app>5tly indep5d5t moral intuitions4 ,x seem$ und5iable t m5 judge "s acts to be "r & wrong 9 !mselves1 )\t consid]ation ( _! t5d5cy to produce happ9ess to ! ag5t or to o!rs3 & inde$ )\t tak+ _! consequ5ces into acc\nt at all1 except 9 s f> z ^! are includ$ 9 ! common notion ( ! act4 ,we saw1 h[ev]1 t 9 s f> z ^! judgm5ts are pass$ 9 p>ticul> cases1 !y seem to involve 7at lea/ = ! m reflective "p ( mank9d7 a ref]5ce ( ! case to "s g5]al rule ( duty3 & t 9 ! frequ5t cases ( d\bt or conflict ( judgm5ts z to ! rightness ( any action1 appeal is commonly made to su* rules or maxims1 z ! ultimately valid pr9ciples ( moral cognition4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to ?r[ ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se into a sci5tific =m1 x seem$ necess>y to obta9 z exact a /atem5t z possible ( ^! g5]ally recognis$ pr9ciples4 ,i did n ?9k t ,i c\ld disp5se myself f ?is task by any summ>y g5]al argum5t1 bas$ on ! unsci5tific "* ( common morality4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! moral op9ions ( ord9>y m5 are 9 _m po9ts loose1 %ift+1 & mutually contradictory1 b x does n foll[ t we may n obta9 f ?is fluid mass ( op9ion1 a deposit ( cle> & precise pr9ciples comm&+ univ]sal acceptance4 ,! "q1 :e!r we c d ?is or n1 seem$ to me "o :i* %\ld n be decid$ a priori )\t a fair trial3 & x is p>tly 9 ord] to prep>e mat]ials = ?is trial t ! survey 9 ! prec$+ eight *apt]s has be5 conduct$4 ,i h endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 imp>tially1 by m]e reflection on our common moral disc\rse1 :at are ! g5]al pr9ciples or maxims1 accord+ to :i* diff]5t k9ds ( conduct are judg$ to be "r & reasonable 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( life4 ,i wi% x to be p>ticul>ly obs]v$1 t ,i h 9 no case introduc$ my own views1 9 s f> z ,i am consci\s ( _! be+ at all peculi> to myself3 my sole object has be5 to make explicit ! impli$ premises ( our common moral reason+4 ,i n[ wi% to subject ! results ( ?is survey to a f9al exam9ation1 9 ord] to decide :e!r ^! g5]al =mul possess ! *>act]i/ics by :i* self-evid5t tru?s are di/+ui%$ f m]e op9ions4 #b4 ,!re seem to be f\r conditions1 ! complete fulfilm5t ( :i* w\ld e/abli% a significant proposition1 app>5tly self-evid5t1 9 ! highe/ degree ( c]ta9ty atta9able3 & :i* mu/ be approximately realis$ by ! premises ( our reason+ 9 any inquiry1 if t reason+ is to lead u cog5tly to tru/wor?y conclusions4 ,i4 ,! t]ms ( ! proposition mu/ be cle> & precise4 ,! rival orig9ators ( mod]n ,me?odology1 ,desc>tes & ,bacon1 vie ) ea* o!r 9 ! /ress t !y lay on ?is po9t3 & ! latt]'s w>n+ aga9/ ! 8notiones male t]m9at0 ( ord9>y ?\ght is peculi>ly ne$$ 9 e?ical discussion4 ,9 fact my *ief bus9ess 9 ! prec$+ survey has be5 to free ! common t]ms ( ,e?ics1 z f> z possible1 f objection on ?is score4 ,,ii4 ,! self-evid5ce ( ! proposition mu/ be asc]ta9$ by c>eful reflection4 ,x is ne$ful to insi/ on ?is1 because mo/ p]sons are liable to conf\nd intuitions1 on ! "o h& ) m]e impressions or impulses1 :i* to c>eful obs]vation d n pres5t !mselves z claim+ to be dictates ( ,reason2 & on ! o!r h&1 ) m]e op9ions1 to :i* ! famili>ity t comes f frequ5t he>+ & repetition (t5 gives a false appe>ance ( self-evid5ce :i* att5tive reflection disp]ses4 ,9 su* cases ! ,c>tesian me?od ( te/+ ! ultimate premises ( our reason+s1 by ask+ ourselves if we cle>ly & di/9ctly appreh5d !m to be true1 may be ( real use2 ?\gh x does n1 z ,desc>tes suppos$1 af=d a complete protection aga9/ error4 ,a rigor\s dem& = self-evid5ce 9 our premises is a valuable protection aga9/ ! mislead+ influ5ce ( our own irrational impulses on our judgm5ts3 :ile at ! same "t x n only di/+ui%es z inadequate ! m]e ext]nal support ( au?ority & tradition1 b also excludes ! m subtle & lat5t effect ( ^! 9 fa%ion+ our m9ds to a facile & unque/ion+ admission ( common b unw>rant$ assumptions4 ,& we may obs]ve t ! application ( ?is te/ is especially ne$$ 9 ,e?ics4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 x _c be d5i$ t any /rong s5tim5t1 h[ev] purely subjective1 is apt to trans=m itself into ! semblance ( an intuition2 & x requires c>eful contemplation to detect ! illusion4 ,:atev] we desire we are apt to pron\nce desirable3 & we are /rongly tempt$ to approve ( :atev] conduct gives u ke5 pleasure4#bef ,& on ! o!r h&1 among ! rules ( conduct to :i* we cu/om>ily con=m1 !re are _m :i* reflection %[s to be really d]iv$ f "s ext]nal au?ority3 s t ev5 if _! obligation be unque/ionable1 !y _c be intuitively asc]ta9$4 ,?is is ( c\rse ! case ) ! ,positive ,law ( ! community to :i* we belong4 ,!re is no d\bt t we ought1--at lea/ g5]ally speak+1--to obey ?is3 b :at x is we _c ( c\rse asc]ta9 by any process ( ab/ract reflection1 b only by consult+ ,reports & ,/atutes4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! s\rces ( k are s def9ite & conspicu\s1 t we are 9 no dang] ( conf\nd+ ! k ga9$ f /udy+ !m ) ! results ( ab/ract contemplation4 ,! case is some:at diff]5t ) ! traditional & cu/om>y rules ( behavi\r :i* exi/ 9 e society1 supplem5t+ ! regulative op]ation ( ,law prop]3 "h x is mu* m difficult to di/+ui% ! rules :i* a moral man is call$ ^u to def9e = himself1 by ! application ( intuitively kn[n pr9ciples1 f ^? z to :i* "s au?ority ext]nal to ! individual is recognis$ z ! f9al arbit]4#beg ,we may illu/rate ?is by ref]r+ to two sy/ems ( rules :i* we h be=e#beh comp>$ ) ,morality2 ! ,law ( ,hon\r1 & ! ,law ( ,fa%ion or ,etiquette4 ,i notic$ t !re is an ambiguity 9 ! common t]ms #8hon\rable' & #8di%on\rable'2 :i* are no d\bt sometimes us$1 l e?ical t]ms1 z imply+ an absolute /&>d4 ,/ill1 :5 we speak ( ! ,code ( ,hon\r we seem to mean rules ( :i* ! exact nature is to be f9ally det]m9$ by an appeal to ! g5]al op9ion ( well-br$ p]sons3 we admit t a man is 9 a s5se #8di%on\r$' :5 ?is op9ion condemns him1 ev5 ?\gh we may ?9k 8 conduct unobjectionable or ev5 intr9sically admirable4#bei ,simil>ly1 :5 we consid] f ! po9t ( view ( reason ! rules ( ,fa%ion or ,etiquette1 "s may seem useful & comm5dable1 "s indiff]5t & arbitr>y1 "s p]haps absurd & burd5some3 b nev]!less we recognise t ! f9al au?ority on matt]s ( ,etiquette is ! cu/om ( polite society2 :i* feels itself "u no obligation ( r$uc+ its rules to rational pr9ciples4 ,yet x mu/ be obs]v$ t ea* individual 9 any society commonly f9ds 9 himself a k n obvi\sly incomplete ( ! rules ( ,hon\r & ,etiquette1 & an impulse to con=m to !m )\t requir+ any fur!r reason = do+ s4 ,ea* (t5 seems to see at a glance :at is hon\rable & polite j z cle>ly z he sees :at is "r3 & x requires "s consid]ation to discov] t 9 ! =m] cases cu/om & op9ion are g5]ally ! f9al au?ority f :i* !re is no appeal4 ,& ev5 9 ! case ( rules reg>d$ z di/9ctly moral1 we c g5]ally f9d an elem5t t seems to u z cle>ly conv5tional z ! codes j m5tion$1 :5 we contemplate ! morality ( o!r m51 ev5 9 our own age & c\ntry4 ,h5ce we may reasonably suspect a simil> elem5t 9 our own moral code3 & mu/ admit ! great importance ( te/+ rigor\sly any rule :i* we f9d t we h a habitual impulse to obey2 to see :e!r x really expresses or c be ref]r$ to a cle> intuition ( rightness4 ,,iii4 ,! propositions accept$ z self-evid5t mu/ be mutually consi/5t4 ,"h1 aga91 x is obvi\s t any collision betwe5 two intuitions is a pro( t !re is error 9 "o or ! o!r1 or 9 bo?4 ,/ill1 we frequ5tly f9d e?ical writ]s treat+ ?is po9t v lightly4 ,!y appe> to reg>d a conflict ( ultimate rules z a difficulty t may be ignor$ or put aside = future solution1 )\t any slur be+ ?r[n on ! sci5tific "* ( ! conflict+ =mul4 ,:]eas su* a collision is absolute pro( t at lea/ "o ( ! =mul ne$s qualification3 & sugge/s a d\bt :e!r ! correctly qualifi$ proposition w pres5t itself ) ! same self-evid5ce z ! simpl] b inadequate "o2 & :e!r we h n mi/ak5 = an ultimate & indep5d5t axiom "o t is really d]ivative & subord9ate4 ,,iv4 ,s9ce x is impli$ 9 ! v notion ( ,tru? t x is ess5tially ! same = all m9ds1 ! d5ial by ano!r ( a proposition t ,i h affirm$ has a t5d5cy to impair my confid5ce 9 its validity4 ,& 9 fact #8univ]sal' or #8g5]al' cons5t has (t5 be5 held to con/itute by itself a suffici5t evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! mo/ important beliefs2 & is practically ! only evid5ce ^u :i* ! great] "p ( mank9d c rely4 ,a proposition accept$ z true ^u ?is gr\nd alone has1 ( c\rse1 nei!r self-evid5ce nor demon/rative evid5ce = ! m9d t s accepts x2 /ill1 ! secure acceptance t we commonly give to ! g5]alisations ( ! empirical sci5ces re/s--ev5 9 ! case ( exp]ts--l>gely on ! belief t o!r exp]ts h se5 = !mselves ! evid5ce = ^! g5]alisations1 & d n mat]ially disagree z to its adequacy4 ,& x w be easily se5 t ! abs5ce ( su* disagreem5t mu/ rema9 an indisp5sable negative condition ( ! c]ta9ty ( our beliefs4 ,= if ,i f9d any ( my judgm5ts1 intuitive or inf]5tial1 9 direct conflict ) a judgm5t ( "s o!r m9d1 !re mu/ be error some:]e3 & if ,i h no m reason to suspect error 9 ! o!r m9d ?an 9 my own1 reflective comp>ison betwe5 ! two judgm5ts necess>ily r$uces me tempor>ily to a /ate ( neutrality4 ,& ?\gh ! total result 9 my m9d is n exactly susp5se ( judgm5t1 b an alt]nation & conflict betwe5 positive affirmation by "o act ( ?\ght & ! neutrality t is ! result ( ano!r1 x is obvi\sly some?+ v diff]5t f sci5tific c]titude4 ,n[ if ! acc\nt giv5 ( ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s be 9 ! ma9 correct1 x seems cle> t1 g5]ally speak+1 its maxims d n fulfil ! conditions j laid d[n4 ,s long z !y are left 9 ! /ate ( some:at vague g5]alities1 z we meet !m 9 ord9>y disc\rse1 we are dispos$ to yield !m unque/ion+ ass5t1 & x may be fairly claim$ t ! ass5t is approximately univ]sal--9 ! s5se t any expression ( diss5t is ecc5tric & p>adoxical4 ,b z soon z we attempt to give !m ! def9it5ess :i* sci5ce requires1 we f9d t we _c d ?is )\t ab&on+ ! univ]sality ( acceptance4 ,we f9d1 9 "s cases1 t alt]natives pres5t !mselves1 betwe5 :i* x is necess>y t we %\ld decide2 b betwe5 :i* we _c pret5d t ,common ,s5se does decide1 & :i* (t5 seem equally or ne>ly equally plausible4 ,9 o!r cases ! moral notion seems to resi/ all ef=ts to obta9 f x a def9ite rule3 9 o!rs x is f\nd to compreh5d elem5ts :i* we h no means ( r$uc+ to a common /&>d1 except by ! application ( ! ,utilit>ian--or "s simil>--me?od4 ,ev5 :]e we seem able to educe f ,common ,s5se a m or less cle> reply to ! que/ions rais$ 9 ! process ( def9ition1 ! pr9ciple t results is qualifi$ 9 s complicat$ a way t its self-evid5ce becomes dubi\s or vani%es altoge!r4 ,& ?us 9 ea* case :at at fir/ seem$ l an intuition turns out to be ei!r ! m]e expression ( a vague impulse1 ne$+ regulation & limitation :i* x _c itself supply1 b :i* mu/ be drawn f "s o!r s\rce3 or a curr5t op9ion1 ! reasonabl5ess ( :i* has /ill to be %[n by a ref]5ce to "s o!r pr9ciple4 ,9 ord] t ?is result may be adequately exhibit$1 ,i mu/ ask ! read] to travel ) me aga9 ?r\gh ! s]ies ( pr9ciples elicit$ f ,common ,s5se 9 ! previ\s *apt]s1 & to exam9e !m f a some:at diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,be=e1 our prim>y aim 0 to asc]ta9 imp>tially :at ! deliv]ances ( ,common ,s5se actually are3 we h n[ to ask h[ f> ^! enunciations c claim to be class$ z ,intuitive ,tru?s4 ,! read] %\ld obs]ve t ?r\gh\t ?is exam9ation a d\ble appeal is made2 on ! "o h& to 8 individual moral consci\sness1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d1 z express$ g5]ally by ! body ( p]sons on ^: moral judgm5t he is prep>$ to rely4 ,i ask him 7#a7 :e!r he c /ate a cle>1 precise1 self-evid5t fir/ pr9ciple1 accord+ to :i* he is prep>$ to judge conduct "u ea* head3 & 7#b7 if s1 :e!r ?is pr9ciple is really t commonly appli$ 9 practice1 by ^? :om he takes to repres5t ,common ,s5se4#bfj #c4 ,if we beg9 by consid]+ ! duty ( act+ wisely1 discuss$ 9 *ap4 iii41 we may seem p]haps to h be=e u an axiom ( und\bt$ self-evid5ce4 ,= act+ wisely appe>$ to mean tak+ ! "r means to ! be/ ends2 i4e4 tak+ ! means :i* ,reason indicates to ! ends :i* ,reason prescribes4 ,& x is evid5t t x mu/ be "r to act reasonably4 ,equally und5iable is ! imm$iate inf]5ce f1 or negative aspect (1 ?is pr9ciple2 t x is wrong to act 9 opposition to rational judgm5t4 ,?is1 tak5 9 connexion ) ! empirical fact ( impulses 9 our m9ds conflict+ ) ,reason1 gives--z ano!r self-evid5t pr9ciple--! maxim ( ,temp]ance or ,self-control 9 its wide/ int]pretation2 i4e4 #8,t reason %\ld nev] give way to ,appetite or ,passion4'#bfa ,& ^! pr9ciples h sometimes be5 en\nc$ ) no little solemnity z answ]+ ! fundam5tal "q ( ,e?ics & supply+ ! basis or summ>y ( a doctr9e ( ,practice4 ,b ?is /atem5t ( pr9ciples turns out to be "o ( ^? /ages1 s provok+ly frequ5t 9 ! c\rse ( e?ical reflection1 :i*1 z f> z practical guidance is conc]n$1 are really brief circuits1 lead+ u back to ! po9t f :i* we />t$4 ,or r1 to prev5t misappreh5sion1 x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! maxims j giv5 may be und]/ood 9 two s5ses3 9 "o s5se !y are c]ta9ly self-evid5t1 b !y are also insignificant3 9 ano!r s5se !y include m or less di/9ctly a direction to an important practical duty1 b z s und]/ood !y lose _! self-evid5ce4 ,= if ! rules ( ,wisdom & ,self-control mean 7#a7 t we ought always to d :at we see to be reasonable1 & 7#b7 t we are n to yield to any impulse urg+ u 9 an opposite direction2 !y simply affirm t x is our duty 7#a7 g5]ally1 & 7#b7 "u special temptations1 to d :at we judge to be our duty2#bfb & convey no in=mation z to ! me?od & pr9ciples by :i* duty is to be det]m9$4 ,b if ^! rules are fur!r und]/ood 7z !y sometimes are und]/ood7 to prescribe ! cultivation ( a habit ( act+ rationally2 t is1 ( ref]r+ ea* act to def9itely conceiv$ pr9ciples & ends1 in/ead ( all[+ x to be det]m9$ by in/9ctive impulses2 !n ,i _c see t ! affirmation ( ?is z an univ]sal & absolute rule ( duty is self-evid5tly true4 ,= :5 ,reason is consid]$ n 9 ! pres5t z actually comm&+1 b z an ,end ( :i* a full] realisation has to be s\ght 9 ! future2 ! po9t ( view f :i* its sov]eignty has to be judg$ is entirely *ang$4 ,! "q is no long] :e!r ! dictates ( ,reason ought always to be obey$1 b :e!r ! dictation ( ,reason is always a ,good2 :e!r any degree ( pr$om9ance ( ,reason ov] m]e ,impulse mu/ necess>ily t5d to ! p]fection ( ! consci\s self ( :i* bo? are elem5ts4 ,& x is surely n self-evid5t t ?is pr$om9ance _c be c>ri$ too f>2 & t ,reason is n r self-limit+1 9 ! k t rational ends are sometimes bett] atta9$ by ^? :o d n directly aim at !m z rational4 ,c]ta9ly ,common ,s5se is incl9$ to hold t 9 _m matt]s in/9ct is a bett] spr+ ( action ?an reason3 ?us x is commonly said t a heal?y appetite is a bett] guide to diet ?an a doctor's prescription3 &1 aga91 t m>riage is bett] und]tak5 z a consequ5ce ( fall+ 9 love ?an 9 execution ( a tranquil & delib]ate design3 & we be=e obs]v$ 7*ap4 iv47 t !re is a c]ta9 excell5ce 9 s]vices spr++ f spontane\s affection :i* does n atta* to simil> acts done f pure s5se ( duty4 ,& 9 ! same way exp]i5ce seems to %[ t _m acts requir+ promptitude & vig\r are likely to be m en]getic & effective1 & t _m acts requir+ tact & delicacy are likely to be m graceful & pleasant to o!rs1 if !y are done n 9 consci\s ob$i5ce to ! dictates ( ,reason b f o!r motives4 ,x is n necess>y "h to decide h[ f> ?is view is true3 x suffices to say t we d n "k intuitively t x is n true to "s ext5t2 we d n "k t !re may n be--to use ,plato's analogy--ov]-gov]nm5t 9 ! individual s\l no less ?an 9 ! /ate4 ,! residuum1 !n1 ( cle> intuition :i* we h s f> obta9$1 is ! insignificant proposition t x is our duty to d :at we judge to be our duty4 #d4 ,let u pass n[ to :at ,i h call$ ! duties ( ! ,affections1 ! rules t prescribe ei!r love itself 9 "s degree1 or ! s]vices t naturally spr+ f x 9 ^? relations :]e x is expect$ & desir$4 ,"h1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! "q h[ f> we are b\nd to r5d] ^! s]vices :5 we d n feel ! affection is answ]$ diff]5tly 9 _m cases by diff]5t p]sons1 & no det]m9ation ( ! limit seems self-evid5t4 ,& simil>ly if we ask :e!r affection itself is a duty2 = on ! "o h& x is at lea/ only p>tially )9 ! control ( ! w1 & 9 s f> z x c be produc$ by volunt>y ef=t1 !re is ?\ght to be some?+ unsatisfactory & unattractive 9 ! result2 & on ! o!r h&1 9 c]ta9 relations x seems to be commonly reg>d$ z a duty4 ,on ^? po9ts ! doctr9e ( ,common ,s5se is r a r\gh compromise betwe5 conflict+ l9es ( ?\ght ?an capable ( be+ d$uc$ f a cle> & univ]sally accept$ pr9ciple4 ,& if we conf9e ourselves to ! special relations :]e ,common ,s5se admits no d\bt z to ! broad moral obligation ( at lea/ r5d]+ su* s]vices z affection naturally prompts1 /ill ! recognis$ rules ( ext]nal duty 9 ^! relations are1 9 ! fir/ place1 want+ 9 def9it5ess & precision3 & secondly1 !y d n1 :5 rigor\sly exam9$1 appe> to be1 or to be ref]able to1 indep5d5t intuitions s f> z ! p>ticul>ity ( ! duties is conc]n$4 ,let u take1 = example1 ! duty ( p>5ts to *ildr54 ,we h no d\bt ab\t ?is duty z a "p ( ! pres5t ord] ( society1 by :i* ! due gr[? & tra9+ ( ! ris+ g5]ation is di/ribut$ among ! adults4 ,b :5 we reflect on ?is arrangem5t itself1 we _c see intuitively t x is ! be/ possible4 ,x may be plausibly ma9ta9$ t *ildr5 w\ld be bett] tra9$1 physically & m5tally1 if !y 7 br\ght up "u ! sup]vision ( physicians & philosoph]s1 9 l>ge in/itutions ma9ta9$ out ( ! g5]al taxes4 ,we _c decide a priori :i* ( ^! alt]natives is pref]able2 we h to ref] to psy*ological & sociological g5]alisations1 obta9$ by empirical /udy ( human nature 9 actual societies4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we consid] ! duty ( p>5ts by itself1 out ( connexion ) ?is social ord]1 x is c]ta9ly n self-evid5t t we owe m to our own *ildr5 ?an to o!rs ^: happ9ess equally dep5ds on our ex]tions4 ,to get ! "q cle>1 let u suppose t ,i am ?r[n ) my family ^u a des]t isl&1 :]e ,i f9d an ab&on$ orphan4 ,is x evid5t t ,i am less b\nd to provide ?is *ild1 z f> z lies 9 my p[]1 ) ! means ( subsi/5ce1 ?an ,i am to provide = my own *ildr58 ,accord+ to "s1 my special duty to ! latt] w\ld arise f ! fact t ,i h br\ght !m into be+3 b1 if s1 x w\ld seem t on ?is pr9ciple ,i h a "r to dim9i% _! happ9ess1 provid$ ,i d n turn x into a negative quantity2 s9ce1 z )\t me !y w\ld n h exi/$ at all1 !y c1 z my *ildr51 h no claim ^u me = m ?an an exi/5ce on ! :ole above z]o 9 respect ( happ9ess4 ,we might ev5 d$uce a p>5tal "r 7s f> z ?is special claim is conc]n$7 to ext+ui% *ildr5 pa9lessly at any po9t ( _! exi/5ce1 if only _! life up to t po9t has be5 on ! :ole wor? hav+2 = h[ c p]sons :o w\ld h _h no life at all b = me fairly compla9 t !y are n all[$ m ?an a c]ta9 quantity8#bfc ,i d n mean to ass]t t ^! doctr9es are ev5 implicitly held by ,common ,s5se3 b m]ely to %[ t "h1 z else:]e1 ! pursuit ( an irrefragable intuition may lead u unaw>e into a ne/ ( p>adoxes4 ,x seems1 !n1 t we _c1 aft] all1 say t ! special duty ( p>5ts to *ildr51 consid]$ by itself1 possesses cle> self-evid5ce3 & x 0 easy to %[ 7cf4 *ap4 iv47 t z recognis$ by ,common ,s5se its limits are indet]m9ate4 ,! rule prescrib+ ! duty ( *ildr5 to p>5ts ne$ n deta9 u2 = to ,common ,s5se x c]ta9ly seems d\btful :e!r ?is is n m]ely a p>ticul> case ( gratitude2 & we c]ta9ly h no cle> intuition ( :at is due to p>5ts :o d n des]ve gratitude4 ,aga91 ! moral relation ( husb& & wife seems to dep5d *iefly ^u contract & def9ite und]/&+4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 usually ?\ght t ,morality1 z well z law prescribes c]ta9 conditions = all connubial contracts3 & 9 our own age & c\ntry x is held t !y %\ld be 7#a7 monogamic & 7#b7 p]man5t4 ,b x seems cle> t nei!r ( ^! op9ions w\ld be ma9ta9$ to be a prim>y intuition4 ,:e!r ^! or any o!r legal regulations ( ! union ( ! sexes c be d$uc$ f "s intuitive pr9ciple ( ,purity1 we w pres5tly consid]3 b z = su* conjugal duties z are n prescrib$ by ,law1 probably no "o at ! pres5t day w\ld ma9ta9 t !re is any su* g5]al agreem5t z to :at ^! are1 z w\ld support ! !ory t !y may be kn[n a priori4#bfd ,if1 !n1 9 ^! dome/ic relations--:]e ! duties ( affection are commonly recognis$ z s imp]ative & important--we c f9d no really indep5d5t & self-evid5t pr9ciples = det]m9+ !m1 ,i ne$ n p]haps sp5d "t 9 %[+ t ! same is ! case 9 respect ( ! less intimate ties 7( k9dr$1 neighb\rhood1 etc47 t b9d u to o!r human be+s4 ,inde$1 ?is 0 made suffici5tly manife/ 9 our previ\s discussion ( ^? o!r duties4 ,no d\bt !re are c]ta9 obligations t[>ds human be+s g5]ally :i* are1 speak+ broadly1 unque/ionable3 z1 = example1 ! negative duty ( ab/a9+ f caus+ pa9 to o!rs aga9/ _! w1 except by way ( des]v$ puni%m5t 7:e!r ?is is to be plac$ "u ! head ( ,ju/ice or ,b5evol5ce72 & ( mak+ rep>ation = any pa9 :i* we may h caus$4 ,/ill1 :5 we consid] ! ext5t ( ^! duties & try to def9e _! limits1--:5 we ask h[ f> we may legitimately cause pa9 to o!r m5 7or o!r s5ti5t be+s7 9 ord] to obta9 happ9ess = ourselves or ?ird p]sons1 or ev5 to conf] a great] good on ! suff]] himself1 if ! pa9 be inflict$ aga9/ 8 w1--we d n seem able to obta9 any cle> & g5]ally accept$ pr9ciple = decid+ ?is po9t1 unless ! ,utilit>ian =mula be admitt$ z su*4 ,aga91 z reg>ds ,rep>ation1 !re is1 z we h se51 a fundam5tal d\bt h[ f> ?is is due = h>m t has be5 involunt>ily caus$4 ,simil>ly1 all admit t we h a g5]al duty ( r5d]+ s]vices to our fell[-m5 & especially to ^? :o are 9 special ne$1 & t we are b\nd to make sacrifices = !m1 :5 ! b5efit t we !reby conf] v decid$ly outweighs ! loss to ourselves2 b :5 we ask h[ f> we are b\nd to give up our own happ9ess 9 ord] to promote t ( our fell[s1 :ile x c h>dly be said t ,common ,s5se di/9ctly accepts ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple1 x yet does n def9itely affirm any o!r4 ,& ev5 ! common pr9ciple ( ,gratitude1 ?\gh its /r+5cy is imm$iately & univ]sally felt1 seems yet ess5tially indet]m9ate3 ow+ to ! unsolv$ "q :e!r ! requital ( a b5efit ought to be proportionate to :at x co/ ! b5efactor1 or to :at x is wor? to ! recipi5t4 #e4 ,:5 we pass to consid] t elem5t ( ,ju/ice :i* pres5t$ itself z ,gratitude univ]salis$1 ! same difficulty recurs 9 a m complicat$ =m4 ,= "h1 too1 we h to ask :e!r ! ,requital ( ,good ,des]t ought to be proportion$ to ! b5efit r5d]$1 or to ! ef=t made to r5d] x4 ,& if we scrut9ise closely ! common moral notion ( ,retributive ,ju/ice1 x appe>s1 /rictly tak51 to imply ! metaphysical doctr9e ( ,free ,w2 s9ce1 accord+ to ?is conception1 ! reasonabl5ess ( rew>d+ m]it is consid]$ solely 9 relation to ! pa/1 )\t reg>d to ! future bad consequ5ces to be expect$ f leav+ m]it )\t enc\ragem5t3 & if e excell5ce 9 any "o's actions or productions seems ref]able ultimately to causes o!r ?an himself1 ! individual's claim to requital1 f ?is po9t ( view1 appe>s to vani%4 ,on ! o!r h& x is obvi\sly p>adoxical 9 e/imat+ ,des]t to omit ! moral excell5ces due to h]$it>y transmission & education3 or ev5 intellectual excell5ces1 s9ce good int5tion )\t =esight is commonly held to con/itute a v imp]fect m]it4 ,ev5 if we cut ?r\gh ?is speculative difficulty by leav+ ! ultimate rew>d ( real ,des]t to ,div9e ,ju/ice1 we /ill seem unable to f9d any cle> pr9ciples = fram+ a scale ( m]it4 ,& mu* ! same may be said1 mutatis mut&is1 ( ! scale ( ,dem]it :i* ,crim9al ,ju/ice seems to require4 ,& ev5 if ^! difficulties 7 ov]come1 we %\ld /ill be only at ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]plexities 9 :i* ! practical det]m9ation ( ,ju/ice on self-evid5t pr9ciples is involv$4 ,= ! exam9ation ( ! cont5ts ( ?is notion1 :i* we conduct$ 9 *ap4 v41 furni%$ u n ) a s+le def9ite pr9ciple1 b ) a :ole sw>m ( pr9ciples1 :i* are un=tunately liable to come into conflict ) ea* o!r2 & ( :i* ev5 ^? t :5 s+ly contemplat$ h ! air ( be+ self-evid5t tru?s1 d n c]ta9ly c>ry ) !m any intuitively asc]ta9able def9ition ( _! mutual b\nd>ies & relations4 ,?us1 = example1 9 con/ruct+ an ideally p]fect di/ribution ( ! means ( happ9ess1 x seems necess>y to take into acc\nt ! notion 7z ,i call$ x7 ( ,fitness1 :i*1 ?\gh (t5 conf\nd$ ) ,des]t1 seems ess5tially di/9ct f x4 ,= ! social #8di/ribu5d' includes n m]ely ! means ( obta9+ pleasurable passive feel+s1 b also functions & in/rum5ts1 :i* are important s\rces ( happ9ess1 b :i* x is obvi\sly reasonable to give to ^? :o c p]=m & use !m4 ,& ev5 z reg>ds ! mat]ial means ( com=t & luxury--weal?1 9 %ort--we d n f9d t ! same am\nt produces ! same result ( happ9ess 9 e case3 & x seems reasonable t ! means ( ref9$ & v>i$ pleasure %\ld be allott$ to ^? :o h ! correspond+ capacities = enjoym5t4#bfe ,& yet ^! may n be ! mo/ des]v+1 s t ?is pr9ciple may cle>ly conflict ) t ( requit+ ,des]t4 ,& ei!r pr9ciple1 z we saw1 is liable to come into collision ) ! widely-accept$ doctr9e t ! prop] ultimate end ( ,law is to secure ! greate/ possible ,fre$om ( action to all memb]s ( ! community3 & t all t any individual1 /rictly speak+1 owes to any o!r is non-int]f]5ce1 except s f> z he has fur!r b\nd himself by free contract4 ,b fur!r1 :5 we come to exam9e ?is pr9ciple 9 its turn1 we f9d t1 9 ord] to be capable at all ( af=d+ a practical basis = social con/ruction1 x ne$s limitations & qualifications :i* make x look less l an indep5d5t pr9ciple ?an a 8middle axiom0 ( ,utilit>ianism2 & t x _c )\t a palpable /ra9 be made to cov] ! mo/ important rights :i* ,positive ,law secures4 ,= example1 ! ju/ification ( p]man5t appropriation is surely r t x supplies ! only adequate motive = lab\r ?an t x1 /rictly speak+1 realises ,fre$om3 nor c ! que/ions t arise 9 det]m9+ ! limits ( ! "r ( prop]ty--su* z :e!r x includes ! "r ( beque/--be settl$ by any d$uctions f ?is suppos$ fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,nor aga91 c ev5 ! en=cem5t ( contracts be fairly said to be a realisation ( ,fre$om2 = a man seems1 /rictly speak+1 fre] :5 no "o ( 8 volitions is all[$ to cause an ext]nal control ( any o!r4 ,& if we disreg>d ?is z a p>adoxical subtlety1 we are met on ! opposite side by ! p]plexity t if ab/ract ,fre$om is consi/5t ) any engagem5t ( future s]vices1 x mu/ on ! same gr\nds be consi/5t ) su* z are p]petual & unqualifi$1 & s ev5 ) actual slav]y4 ,& ?is "q becomes especially important :5 we consid] t ! duty ( obey+ positive laws has by _m be5 reconcil$ ) ! ab/ract "r ( ,fre$om1 by suppos+ a #8tacit compact' or und]/&+ betwe5 ea* individual & ! re/ ( 8 community4 ,?is ,compact1 h[ev]1 seems on exam9ation too cle>ly fictiti\s to be put =w>d z a basis ( moral duty3 z is fur!r evid5t f ! indef9itely v>i\s qualifications & res]vations ) :i* ! #8und]/&+' has by diff]5t ?9k]s be5 suppos$ to be #8und]/ood4' ,h5ce _m :o ma9ta9 ! #8,bir?right ( ,fre$om' consid] t ! only ab/ract$ly ju/ifiable social ord] is "o 9 :i* no laws are impos$ )\t ! express cons5t ( ^? :o are to obey !m4 ,b we f\nd x impossible really to con/ruct society ^u ?is basis3 & su* ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5ts z h actually be5 e/abli%$ only appe> to realise ?is idea by means ( sweep+ limitations & transp>5t fictions4 ,x 0 manife/1 too1 t ! maximum ( :at may be call$ ,con/itutional ,fre$om--i4e4 ! mo/ p]fect con=mity betwe5 ! action ( a gov]nm5t & ! wi%es ( ! majority ( its subjects--ne$ by no means result 9 ! realisation ( ! maximum ( ,civil ,fre$om 9 ! society s gov]n$4 ,b ev5 if we c\ld del9eate to our satisfaction an ideal social ord]1 includ+ an ideal =m ( gov]nm5t1 we h /ill to reconcile ! duty ( realis+ ?is ) ! con=mity due to ! actual ord] ( society4 ,= we h a /rong conviction t positive laws ought1 g5]ally speak+1 to be obey$3 &1 aga91 our notion ( ,ju/ice seem$ to include a g5]al duty ( satisfy+ ! expectations g5]at$ by cu/om & prec$5t4 ,yet if ! actual ord] ( society deviates v mu* f :at we ?9k ought to exi/1 ! duty ( con=m+ to x seems to become obscure & d\btful4 ,& ap>t f ?is we _c say t ,common ,s5se reg>ds x z an axiom t ,laws ought to be obey$4 ,inde$1 all are agre$ t !y ought to be disobey$ :5 !y comm& :at is wrong3 ?\gh we d n seem able to elicit any cle> g5]al view z to :at rema9s wrong aft] x has be5 comm&$ by ! sov]eign4 ,&1 aga91 ! positive laws t ought to be obey$ z su* mu/ be ! comm&s issu$ by a 7morally7 rightful au?ority3 & ?\gh ^! w ord9>ily co9cide ) ! comm&s legally en=c$1 we _c say t ?is is always ! case2 = ! c\rts may be tempor>ily subs]vi5t to a usurp]2 or1 aga91 ! sov]eign hi!rto habitually obey$ may be "o aga9/ :om x has become "r to rebel 7s9ce x is g5]ally admitt$ t ?is is sometimes "r74 ,we require1 !n1 pr9ciples = det]m9+ :5 usurpation becomes legitimate & :5 rebellion is ju/ifiable3 & we d n seem able to elicit ^! f ,common ,s5se--except s f> z x may be fairly said t on ?is :ole subject ,common ,s5se incl9es m to ! ,utilit>ian me?od ?an x does 9 matt]s ( private morality4 ,/ill less c we /ate ! g5]al duty ( satisfy+ #8natural expectations'--i4e4 su* expectations z an av]age man w\ld =m "u giv5 circum/ances--9 ! =m ( a cle> & precise moral axiom4 ,no d\bt a j man w g5]ally satisfy cu/om>y claims3 b x c h>dly be ma9ta9$ t ! m]e exi/5ce ( a cu/om r5d]s x cle>ly obligatory t any "o %\ld con=m to x :o has n already promis$ to d s2 especially s9ce bad cu/oms c only be aboli%$ by individuals v5tur+ to disreg>d !m4 #f4 ,we h /ill to exam9e 7:e!r z a bran* ( ,ju/ice or "u a sep>ate head7 ! duty ( fulfill+ express promises & di/9ct und]/&+s4 ,! peculi> confid5ce :i* morali/s h g5]ally felt 9 ?is pr9ciple is /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ^? endeav\rs to ext5d its scope :i* we h j _h occasion to notice3 & x c]ta9ly seems to surpass 9 simplicity1 c]ta9ty1 & def9it5ess ! moral rules t we h hi!rto discuss$4 ,"h1 !n1 if any:]e1 we seem likely to f9d "o ( ^? e?ical axioms ( :i* we are 9 se>*4 ,n[ we saw t ! notion ( a ,promise requires sev]al qualifications n commonly notic$ to make x precise3 b ?is alone is no reason :y x may n be fitly us$ 9 fram+ a maxim1 :i* :5 enunciat$ & und]/ood w prop]ly claim univ]sal acceptance z self-evid5t4 ,= simil>ly ! un9/ruct$ majority ( mank9d c\ld n def9e a circle z a figure b\nd$ by a l9e ( :i* e po9t is equidi/ant f ! c5tre3 b nev]!less1 :5 ! def9ition is expla9$ to !m1 !y w accept x z express+ ! p]fect type ( t notion ( r\ndness :i* !y h long _h 9 _! m9ds4 ,& ! same pot5tial univ]sality ( acceptance may1 ,i ?9k1 be fairly claim$ = ! propositions t ! promise :i* ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d recognises z b9d+ mu/ be und]/ood by promis] & promisee 9 ! same s5se at ! "t ( promis+1 & t x is relative to ! promisee & capable ( be+ annull$ by him1 & t x _c ov]ride det]m9ate#bff prior obligations4 ,b ! case is diff]5t ) ! o!r qualifications :i* we _h to discuss4 ,:5 once ! "q ( introduc+ ^! has be5 rais$1 we see t ,common ,s5se is cle>ly divid$ z to ! answ]4 ,if we ask 7e4g47 h[ f> our promise is b9d+ if x 0 made 9 consequ5ce ( false /atem5ts1 on :i*1 h[ev]1 x 0 n und]/ood to be conditional2 or if important circum/ances 7 conceal$1 or we 7 9 any way l$ to believe t ! consequ5ces ( keep+ ! promise w\ld be diff]5t f :at !y turn out to be2 or if ! promise 0 giv5 "u compulsion2 or if circum/ances h mat]ially alt]$ s9ce x 0 giv51 & we f9d t ! results ( fulfill+ x w be diff]5t f :at we =esaw :5 we promis$2 or ev5 if x be only our k ( consequ5ces :i* has alt]$1 & we n[ see t fulfilm5t w entail on u a sacrifice out ( proportion to ! b5efit receiv$ by ! promisee2 or p]haps see t x w ev5 be injuri\s to him ?\gh he may n ?9k s2--diff]5t consci5ti\s p]sons w\ld answ] ^! & o!r#bfg que/ions 7bo? g5]ally & 9 p>ticul> cases7 9 diff]5t ways3 & ?\gh we c\ld p]haps obta9 a decid$ majority = "s ( ^! qualifications & aga9/ o!rs1 !re w\ld n 9 any case be a cle> cons5sus ei!r way4 ,&1 moreov]1 ! m]e discussion ( ^! po9ts seems to make x pla9 t ! confid5ce ) :i* ! 8unsophi/icat$ consci5ce0 ass]ts unres]v$ly 8t promises ought to be kept10 is due to inadv]t5ce2 & t :5 ! qualifications to :i* we ref]r$ are fairly consid]$1 ?is confid5ce inevitably *anges into hesitation & p]plexity4 ,x %\ld be add$1 t "s ( ^! qualifications !mselves sugge/ a ref]5ce to ! m compreh5sive pr9ciple ( ,utilit>ianism1 z "o to :i* ?is p>ticul> rule is naturally subord9ate4 ,aga91 reflection ^u ! place ( ?is duty 9 a classifi$ sy/em ( moral obligations t5ds to confirm our di/ru/ ( ! ord9>y enunciations ( ,common ,s5se 9 respect ( x4 ,=1 z 0 se51 ,fidelity to promises is v commonly rank$ ) ,v]acity2 z ?\gh ! m]e fact ( my hav+ said t ,i w\ld d a ?+ 7 ! gr\nd ( my duty to d x4 ,b on reflection we p]ceive t ! obligation mu/ be reg>d$ z cont+5t on ! reliance t ano!r has plac$ on my ass]tion3 t1 9 fact1 ! brea* ( duty is con/itut$ by ! disappo9tm5t ( expectations volunt>ily rais$4 ,& :5 we see ?is we become less dispos$ to ma9ta9 ! absolut5ess ( ! duty3 x seems n[ to dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( h>m done by disappo9t+ expectations2 & we %r9k f say+ t ! promise ought to be kept1 if ! keep+ x w\ld involve an am\nt ( h>m t seems decid$ly to outweigh ?is4 ,! case ( ,v]acity we may dismiss some:at m briefly1 z "h x 0 /ill m easy to %[ t ! common enunciation ( ! unqualifi$ duty ( ,tru?-speak+ is made )\t full consid]ation1 & _c approve itself to ! reflective m9d z an absolute fir/ pr9ciple4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 we f\nd no cle> agreem5t z to ! fundam5tal nature ( ! obligation2 or z to its exact scope1 i4e4 :e!r x is our actual affirmation z und]/ood by ! recipi5t :i* we are b\nd to make correspond5t to fact 7z f> z we c71 or :atev] inf]5ces we =esee t he is likely to draw f ?is1 or bo?4 ,to realise p]fect ,c&\r & ,s9c]ity1 we mu/ aim at bo?3 & we no d\bt admire ! exhibition ( ^! virtues3 b few w ma9ta9 t !y ought to be exhibit$ "u all circum/ances4 ,&1 secondly1 x seems to be admitt$ by ,common ,s5se1 ?\gh vaguely & reluctantly1 t ! pr9ciple1 h[ev] def9$1 is n ( univ]sal application2 at any rate x is n ?\ght to be cle>ly wrong t untru?s %\ld be told to *ildr51 or madm51 or invalids1 or by advocates1 or to enemies or robb]s1 or ev5 to p]sons :o ask que/ions :i* !y h no "r to ask 7if a m]e refusal to answ] w\ld practically reveal an important secret74 ,& :5 we consid] ! limitations g5]ally admitt$1 x seems /ill m pla9 ?an 9 ! la/ case1 t !y are v commonly det]m9$ by utilit>ian reason+s1 implicit or explicit4 #g4 ,if1 !n1 ! prescriptions ( ,ju/ice1 ,good ,fai?1 & ,v]acity1 z laid d[n by ,common ,s5se1 appe> s little capable ( be+ conv]t$ into fir/ pr9ciples ( sci5tific ,e?ics1 x seems sc>cely necess>y to inquire :e!r su* axioms c be extract$ f ! m9or maxims ( social behavi\r1 su* z ! maxim ( ,lib]ality or ! rules re/ra9+ ! ,malevol5t ,affections3 or1 aga91 f su* virtues z ,c\rage & ,humility1 :i* we f\nd x difficult to class z ei!r social or self-reg>d+4 ,inde$1 x 0 made pla9 9 *ap4 viii4 t z reg>ds ! prop] regulation ( res5tm5t1 ,common ,s5se c only be sav$ f inconsi/5cy or hopeless vagu5ess by adopt+ ! #8int]e/ ( society' z ! ultimate /&>d3 & 9 ! same way we _c def9itely di/+ui% ,c\rage f ,foolh>d9ess except by a ref]5ce to ! probable t5d5cy ( ! d>+ act to promote ! wellbe+ ( ! ag5t or ( o!rs1 or to "s def9ite rule ( duty prescrib$ "u "s o!r notion4 ,x is true t among :at are commonly call$ 8duties to self0 we f9d ! duty ( self-pres]vation prescrib$ ) app>5t absolut5ess1--at lea/ s f> z ! sacrifice ( "o's life is n imp]atively requir$ = ! pres]vation ( ! lives ( o!rs1 or = ! atta9m5t ( "s result conceiv$ to be v important to society4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t :5 confront$ ) ! "q ( pres]v+ a life :i* we c =esee w be bo? mis]able & burd5some to o!rs--e4g4 ! life ( a man /rick5 ) a fatal disease :i* precludes ! possibility ( "w ( any k9d1 dur+ ! weeks or mon?s ( agony t rema9 to him1--?\gh ,common ,s5se w\ld /ill d5y ! legitimacy ( suicide1 ev5 "u ^! conditions1 x w\ld also admit ! necessity ( f9d+ reasons = ! d5ial4 ,?is admission w\ld imply t ! univ]sal wrongness ( suicide is at any rate n self-evid5t4 ,& ! reasons t w\ld be f\nd--s f> z !y did n ultimately dep5d ^u premises drawn f ,revelational ,!ology--w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 turn out to be utilit>ian1 9 a broad s5se ( ! t]m3 x w\ld be urg$ t if any exceptions to ! rule prohibit+ suicide 7 all[$1 dang]\s enc\ragem5t w\ld be giv5 to ! suicidal impulse 9 o!r cases 9 :i* suicide w\ld really be a weak & c[>dly d]eliction ( social duty3 x w\ld also probably be urg$ t ! tol]ation ( suicide w\ld facilitate secret murd]s4 ,9 %ort1 ! indep5d5t axiom ( :i* we are 9 se>* seems to disappe> on close exam9ation 9 ?is case no less ?an 9 o!rs4 ,s aga91 reflection seems to %[ t ! duties ( ,temp]ance1 ,self-control1 & o!r cognate virtues1 are only cle> & def9ite 9 s f> z !y are conceiv$ z subord9ate ei!r to ,prud5ce 7z is ord9>ily ! case71 or to ,b5evol5ce or "s def9ite rule ( social duty1 or at lea/ to "s end--su* z #8fur!rance ( moral progress'#bfh--( :i* ! conception involves ! notion ( duty suppos$ to be already det]m9ate4 ,c]ta9ly ! au?ority ( ,common ,s5se _c be fairly claim$ = any re/riction ev5 ( ! bodily appetites = food & dr9k1 t is n ?us subord9at$4 ,9 ! case1 h[ev]1 ( ! sexual appetite1 a special regulation seems to be prescrib$ on "s indep5d5t pr9ciple "u ! notion ( ,purity or ,*a/ity4 ,9 *ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book1 :]e we exam9$ ?is notion1 x appe>$ t ,common ,s5se is n only n explicit1 b actually av]se to explicitness1 on ?is subject4 ,z my aim 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s 0 to give1 above all ?+s1 a fai?ful exposition ( ! morality ( ,common ,s5se1 ,i all[$ my inquiry to be *eck$ by ?is 7z x seem$7 cle>ly recognisable s5tim5t4 ,b :5 x becomes our prim>y object to te/ ! intuitive evid5ce ( ! moral pr9ciples commonly accept$1 x seems necess>y to ov]ride ?is av]sion3 = we c h>dly asc]ta9 :e!r rational conviction is atta9able z to ! acts all[$ & =bidd5 "u ?is notion & its opposite1 )\t subject+ x to ! same close scrut9y t we h endeav\r$ to give to ! o!r lead+ notions ( ,e?ics4 ,"h ! briefe/ acc\nt ( su* a scrut9y w be suffici5t4 ,i am aw>e t 9 giv+ ev5 ?is ,i _c b cause a c]ta9 (f5ce to m9ds tra9$ 9 good moral habits3 b ,i tru/ ,i may claim ! same indulg5ce z is commonly grant$ to ! physiologi/1 :o also has to direct ! /ud5t's att5tion to objects :i* a heal?y m9d is naturally dis9cl9$ to contemplate4 #h4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! conduct :i* ,purity =bids 7= ! pr9ciple is m easily discuss$ 9 its negative aspect78 ,z ! normal & obvi\s end ( sexual int]c\rse is ! propagation ( ! species1 "s h ?\ght t all indulg5ce ( appetite1 except z a means to ?is end1 %\ld be prohibit$4 ,b ?is doctr9e w\ld lead to a re/riction ( conjugal int]c\rse f> too sev]e = ,common ,s5se4 ,%all we say1 !n1 t ,purity =bids su* indulg5ce except "u ! conditions ( conjugal union def9$ by ,law8 ,b ?is answ]1 aga91 fur!r reflection %[s to be unsatisfactory4 ,=1 fir/1 we %\ld n1 on consid]ation1 call a conjugal union impure1 m]ely because ! p>ties _h wilfully omitt$ to fulfil legal conditions1 & _h made a contract :i* ! law decl9$ to en=ce4 ,we might condemn _! conduct1 b we %\ld n apply to x ?is notion4 ,&1 secondly1 we feel t positive law may be unfav\rable to ,purity1 & t 9 fact ,purity1 l ,ju/ice1 is some?+ :i* ! law ought to ma9ta91 b does n always4 ,we h to ask1 !n1 :at k9d ( sexual relations we are to call ess5tially impure1 :e!r c\nt5anc$ or n by ,law & ,cu/om8 ,!re appe> to be no di/9ct pr9ciples1 hav+ any claim to self-evid5ce1 ^u :i* ! "q c be answ]$ s z to comm& g5]al ass5t4 ,x w\ld be difficult ev5 to /ate su* a pr9ciple = det]m9+ ! degree ( consangu9ity betwe5 husb& & wife :i* con/itutes a union ince/u\s2 al?\gh ! av]sion ) :i* su* unions are commonly reg>d$ is a peculi>ly int5se moral s5tim5t2 & ! difficulty becomes indef9itely great] :5 we consid] ! rationale ( prohibit$ degrees ( aff9ity4 ,aga91 probably few w\ld /igmatise a legal polygyn\s connexion z impure1 h[ev] !y might disapprove ( ! law & ( ! /ate ( society 9 :i* su* a law 0 e/abli%$3 b if legal ,polygyny is n impure1 is ,poly&ry1 :5 legal & cu/om>y--z is n unfrequ5tly ! case among ! l[] races ( man--to be s *>act]is$8 & if n1 on :at rational pr9ciple c ! notion be appli$ to in/itutions & conduct8 ,aga91 :]e divorce by mutual cons5t1 ) subsequ5t m>riage1 is legalis$1 we d n call ?is an (f5ce aga9/ ,purity3 & yet if ! pr9ciple ( free *ange be once admitt$1 x seems p>adoxical to di/+ui% purity f impurity m]ely by less rapidity ( transition2#bfi & to condemn z impure ev5 #8,free ,love1' 9 s f> z x is e>ne/ly advocat$ z a means to a complet] h>mony ( s5tim5t betwe5 m5 & wom51 & n to m]e s5sual lic5se4 ,%all we1 !n1 fall back ^u ! pres5ce ( mutual affection 7z di/+ui%$ f m]e appetite7 z con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( pure sexual relations8 ,b ?is1 aga91 :ile too lax f "o po9t ( view1 seems f ano!r too sev]e = ,common ,s5se3 z we d n condemn m>riages )\t affection z impure1 al?\gh we disapprove ( !m z productive ( unhapp9ess4 ,su* m>riages1 inde$1 are sometimes /igmatis$ z 8legalis$ pro/itution10 b ! phrase is felt to be extravagant & p>adoxical2 & x is ev5 d\btful :e!r we d disapprove ( !m "u all circum/ances2 z 7e4g47 9 ! case ( royal alliances4 ,aga91 h[ %all we judge ( su* in/itutions z ^? ( ,plato's ,commonweal?1 e/abli%+ community ( wom5 & *ildr51 b at ! same "t regulat+ sexual indulg5ce ) ! /ricte/ ref]5ce to social ends8 ,our habitual /&>ds seem inapplicable to su* novel circum/ances4 ,! tru? seems to be1 t reflection on ! curr5t sexual morality discov]s to u two di/9ct gr\nds = x3 fir/ & *iefly1 ! ma9t5ance ( a c]ta9 social ord]1 believ$ to be mo/ conducive to ! prosp]\s cont9uance ( ! human race3 &1 secondly1 ! protection ( habits ( feel+ 9 individuals believ$ to be g5]ally mo/ important to _! p]fection or _! happ9ess4 ,we commonly conceive t bo? ^! ends are to be atta9$ by ! same regulations3 & 9 an ideal /ate ( society ?is w\ld p]haps be ! case3 b 9 actual life !re is frequ5tly a p>tial sep>ation & incompatibility betwe5 !m4 ,b fur!r1 if ! repression ( sexual lic5se is prescrib$ m]ely z a means to ^! ends1 x does n seem t we c affirm z self-evid5t t x is always a necess>y means 9 ei!r case3 on ! contr>y1 x seems cle> t su* an affirmation w\ld be unreliable ap>t f empirical confirmation4 ,we _c reasonably be sure1 )\t induction f sociological obs]vations1 t a c]ta9 am\nt ( sexual lic5se w be incompatible ) ! ma9t5ance ( population 9 suffici5t numb]s & good condition4 ,& if we consid] ! matt] 9 its relation to ! individual's p]fection1 x is c]ta9ly cle> t he misses ! highe/ & be/ developm5t ( 8 emotional nature1 if 8 sexual relations are ( a m]ely s5sual k9d3 b we c h>dly "k a priori t ?is l[] k9d ( relation int]f]es ) ! developm5t ( ! high] 7nor inde$ does exp]i5ce seem to %[ t ?is is univ]sally ! case74 ,& ?is latt] l9e ( argum5t has a fur!r difficulty4 ,= ! common op9ion t we h to ju/ify does n m]ely condemn ! l[] k9d ( developm5t 9 comp>ison ) ! high]1 b 9 comp>ison ) none at all4 ,s9ce we d n positively blame a man = rema9+ celibate 7?\gh we p]haps despise him some:at unless ! celibacy is adopt$ z a means to a noble end73 x is difficult to %[ :y we %\ld condemn--9 its be>+ on ! individual's emotional p]fection solely--! imp]fect developm5t af=d$ by m]ely s5sual relations4 #i4 ,mu* m might be said to exhibit ! p]plexities 9 :i* ! attempt to def9e ! rule ( ,purity or ,*a/ity involves u4 ,b ,i d n desire to ext5d ! discussion beyond :at is necess>y = ! completion ( my argum5t4 ,x seems to me t ! conclusion ann\nc$ 9 #b ( ?is *apt] has n[ be5 suffici5tly ju/ifi$4 ,we h exam9$ ! moral notions t pres5t !mselves ) a prima facie claim to furni% indep5d5t & self-evid5t rules ( morality3 & we h 9 ea* case f\nd t f su* regulation ( conduct z ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d really supports1 no proposition c be elicit$ :i*1 :5 fairly contemplat$1 ev5 appe>s to h ! *>act]i/ic ( a sci5tific axiom4 ,x is !re=e sc>cely ne$ful to proce$ to a sy/ematic exam9ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,common ,s5se provides = ! co-ord9ation ( ^! pr9ciples4 ,9 fact1 ?is "q seems to h be5 already discuss$ z f> z is pr(itable3 = ! attempt to def9e ea* pr9ciple s+ly has inevitably l$ u to consid] _! mutual relations3 & x 0 9 ! cases :]e two moral pr9ciples came into collision t we mo/ cle>ly saw ! vagu5ess & inconsi/5cy ) :i* ! b\nd>ies ( ea* are det]m9$ by ,common ,s5se4 ,= example1 ! di/9ction betwe5 p]fectly /r+5t moral obligations1 & su* lax] duties z may be modifi$ by a man's own act1 is (t5 tak53 & x is "o :i*1 z we saw1 is c]ta9ly requir$ 9 =mulat+ ! ,common-,s5se view ( ! effect ( a promise 9 creat+ new obligations3 b x is "o :i* we _c apply ) any practical precision1 because ( ! high degree ( indet]m9at5ess :i* we f9d 9 ! common notions ( duties to :i* ! highe/ degree ( /r+5cy is yet commonly attribut$4 ,x only rema9s to gu>d my argum5t f be+ und]/ood 9 a m sweep+ s5se ?an x has be5 int5d$ or is prop]ly able to be>4 ,no?+ t ,i h said ev5 t5ds to %[ t we h n di/9ct moral impulses1 claim+ au?ority ov] all o!rs1 & prescrib+ or =bidd+ k9ds ( conduct z to :i* !re is a r\gh g5]al agreem5t1 at lea/ among educat$ p]sons ( ! same age & c\ntry4 ,x is only ma9ta9$ t ! objects ( ^! impulses d n admit ( be+ sci5tifically det]m9$ by any reflective analysis ( common s5se4 ,! notions ( ,b5evol5ce1 ,ju/ice1 ,good ,fai?1 ,v]acity1 ,purity1 etc41 are n necess>ily empti$ ( significance = u1 because we h f\nd x impossible to def9e !m ) precision4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! conduct prescrib$ "u ea* notion is suffici5tly cle>3 & ! g5]al rule prescrib+ x does n necess>ily lose its =ce because !re is 9 ea* case a m>g9 ( conduct involv$ 9 obscurity & p]plexity1 or because ! rule does n on exam9ation appe> to be absolute & indep5d5t4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se may /ill be p]fectly adequate to give practical guidance to common p 9 common circum/ances3 b ! attempt to elevate x into a sy/em ( ,intuitional ,e?ics br+s its inevitable imp]fections into prom95ce )\t help+ u to remove !m4#bgj ,,footnotes3 #bef ,h5ce ! practical importance ( ! ,=mal te/ ( ,rightness1 on :i* ,kant insi/s3 cf4 ante1 *ap4 i4 #c ( ?is ,book4 #beg ,! f9al arbit]1 t is1 on ! "q :at ! rule is3 ( c\rse ! moral obligation to con=m to any rule laid d[n by an ext]nal au?ority mu/ re/ on "s pr9ciple :i* ! individual's reason has to apply4 #beh ,cf4 ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 #b4 #bei ,cf4 ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 #b4 #bfj ,x has be5 fairly urg$ t ,i leave ! det]m9ations ( ,common ,s5se v loose & indef9ite3 & if ,i 7 endeav\r+ to br+ out a m positive result f ?is exam9ation1 ,i ought c]ta9ly to h discuss$ fur!r h[ we are to asc]ta9 ! #8exp]ts' on ^: #8cons5sus' we are to rely1 9 ?is or any o!r subject4 ,b my sci5tific conclusions are to s great an ext5t negative1 t ,i ?\ght x h>dly necess>y to ent] ^u ?is discussion4 ,i h be5 c>eful n to exagg]ate ! d\btfulness & inconsi/5cy ( ,common ,s5se3 %\ld x turn out to be m d\btful & inconsi/5t ?an ,i h repres5t$ x1 my argum5t w only be /r5g!n$4 #bfa ,9 *ap4 ix4 ,temp]ance 0 reg>d$ z subord9ate to1 or a special application (1 ,prud5ce or ,self-love moralis$3 because ?is seem$ to be on ! :ole ! view ( ,common ,s5se1 :i* 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ,i h be5 endeav\r+ to foll[ z closely z possible1 bo? 9 /at+ ! pr9ciples educ$ & 9 ! ord] ( _! exposition4 #bfb ,! admission t ^! maxims are self-evid5t mu/ be tak5 subject to ! di/9ction be=e e/abli%$ betwe5 8subjective0 & 8objective0 rightness4 ,x is a necess>y condition ( my act+ rightly t ,i %\ld n d :at ,i judge to be wrong3 b if my judgm5t is mi/ak51 my action 9 accordance ) x w n be 8objectively0 "r4 #bfc ,x may be notic$ t a view v simil> to ?is has (t5 be5 ma9ta9$ 9 consid]+ :at ,god is 9 ju/ice b\nd to d = human be+s 9 consequ5ce ( ! quasi-p>5tal relation 9 :i* ,he /&s to !m4 #bfd ,x is n irrelevant to notice ! rem>kable div]g5ce ( sugge/ions = ! bett] regulation ( m>riage1 to :i* reflective m9ds seem to be l$ :5 !y are once set loose f ! trammels ( tradition & cu/om2 z exhibit$ 9 ! speculations ( philosoph]s 9 all ages--especially ( ^? 7z e4g4 ,plato7 to :om we _c attribute any s5sual or lic5ti\s bias4 #bfe ,= example1 _m seem to hold t weal? is1 r\ghly speak+1 rightly di/ribut$ :5 cultivat$ p]sons h abundance & ! uncultivat$ a b>e subsi/5ce1 s9ce ! =m] are f> m capable ( d]iv+ happ9ess f weal? ?an ! latt]4 #bff ,i ref] lat] 7p4 #cfj7 to ! difficulty be=e notic$ 9 respect ( su* prior obligations z are n /rictly det]m9ate4 #bfg ,i h omitt$ z less important ! special que/ions connect$ ) promises to ! dead or to ! abs5t1 or :]e a =m ( words is prescrib$4 #bfh ,x 0 ?is conception t seem$ to give ! true /&>d ( ,humility1 consid]$ z a purely int]nal duty4 #bfi ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,i am n ask+ = an exact quantitative decision1 b :e!r we c really ?9k t ! decision dep5ds ^u consid]ations ( ?is k9d4 #bgj ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! m positive treatm5t ( ,common-s5se ,morality1 9 its relation to ,utilit>ianism1 to :i* we %all proce$ 9 *ap4 iii4 ( ! foll[+ ,book1 is int5d$ z an indisp5sable supplem5t ( ! negative criticism :i* has j be5 complet$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,motives ,,or ,,spr+s ,,( ,,action ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,subjects ,,( ,,moral ,,judgm5t #a4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is ?ird ,book ,i 0 c>eful to po9t out t motives1 z well z int5tions1 =m "p ( ! subject-matt] ( our common moral judgm5ts3 & inde$ 9 our notion ( #8consci5ti\sness' ! habit ( reflect+ on motives1 & judg+ !m to be good or bad1 is a prom95t elem5t4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 9 ord] to complete our exam9ation ( ! ,intuitional ,me?od1 to consid] ?is comp>ison ( motives1 & asc]ta9 h[ f> x c be made sy/ematic1 & pursu$ to conclusions ( sci5tific value4 ,& ?is seems a conv5i5t place = treat+ ( ?is "p ( ! subject3 s9ce x has be5 ma9ta9$ by an important s*ool ( ,engli% morali/s t ,desires & ,affections r ?an ,acts are ! prop] subjects ( ! e?ical judgm5t3 & x is natural to fall back ^u ?is view :5 sy/ematic reflection on ! morality ( ,common ,s5se has %[n u ! difficulty ( obta9+ a precise & satisfactory det]m9ation ( rightness & wrongness 9 ext]nal conduct4 ,to avoid confusion1 x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! t]m #8motive' is commonly us$ 9 two ways4 ,x is sometimes appli$ to ^? among ! =ese5 consequ5ces ( any act :i* ! ag5t desir$ 9 will+3 & sometimes to ! desire1 or consci\s impulse itself4 ,! two mean+s are 9 a mann] correspond5t1 z1 :]e impulses are diff]5t1 !re mu/ always be "s sort ( diff]5ce 9 _! respective objects4 ,b = our pres5t purpose x is m conv5i5t to take ! latt] mean+3 z x is our own impulsive nature t we h practically to deal )1 9 ! way ( controll+1 resi/+1 indulg+ ! diff]5t impulses2 & !re=e x is ! e?ical value ( ^! t we are prim>ily conc]n$ to e/imate3 & we (t5 f9d t two impulses1 :i* w\ld be plac$ v f> ap>t 9 any psy*ological li/1 are direct$ t[>ds an end mat]ially id5tical1 ?\gh reg>d$ f a diff]5t po9t ( view 9 ea* case4 ,z 7e4g47 bo? appetite & ,rational self-love may impel a man to seek a p>ticul> s5sual gratification2 ?\gh 9 ! latt] case x is reg>d$ "u ! g5]al notion ( pleasure1 & z =m+ "p ( a sum call$ ,happ9ess4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 !n1 ,i %all use ! t]m ,motive to d5ote ! desires ( p>ticul> results1 believ$ to be atta9able z consequ5ces ( our volunt>y acts1 by :i* desires we are /imulat$ to w ^? acts4#bga ,! fir/ po9t to notice 9 consid]+ ! e?ical result ( a compreh5sive comp>ison ( motives is1 t ! issue 9 any int]nal conflict is n usually ?\ght to be betwe5 positively good & bad1 b betwe5 bett] & less good1 m or less e/imable or elevat$ motives4 ,! only k9d ( motive :i* 7if any7 we commonly judge to be intr9sically bad1 ap>t f ! circum/ances "u :i* x op]ates1 is malevol5t affection2 t is1 ! desire1 h[ev] ar\s$1 to inflict pa9 or h>m on "s o!r s5ti5t be+4 ,& reflection %[s 7z we saw 9 *ap4 viii4 ( ?is ,book7 t ,common ,s5se does n pron\nce ev5 ?is k9d ( impulse absolutely bad3 s9ce we commonly recognise ! exi/5ce ( #8legitimate res5tm5t' & #8righte\s indignation'2 & ?\gh morali/s try to di/+ui% betwe5 ang] direct$ #8aga9/ ! act' & #8aga9/ ! ag5t1' & betwe5 ! impulse to inflict pa9 & ! desire ( ! antipa!tic pleasure t ! ag5t w reap f ?is infliction1 x may be fairly d\bt$ :e!r x is )9 ! capacity ( ord9>y human nature to ma9ta9 ^! di/9ctions 9 practice4 ,at any rate !re is no o!r motive except delib]ate malevol5ce :i* ,common ,s5se condemns z absolutely bad4 ,! o!r motives t are commonly spok5 ( 9 #8dyslogi/ic' t]ms seem to be mo/ prop]ly call$ 79 ,b5?am's language7 #8,s$uctive' r ?an bad4 ,t is1 !y prompt to =bidd5 conduct ) conspicu\s =ce & frequ5cy3 b :5 we consid] !m c>efully we f9d t !re are c]ta9 limits1 h[ev] n>r[1 )9 :i* _! op]ation is legitimate4 ,! "q1 !n1 is h[ f> ! intuitive k t our common judgm5ts seem to imply ( ! relative goodness ( diff]5t k9ds ( motives is f\nd on reflection to satisfy ! conditions laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,i h be=e#bgb argu$ t x is incorrect to reg>d ?is comp>ison ( motives z ! normal =m ( our common moral judgm5ts1 nor d ,i see any gr\nd = hold+ x to be ! orig9al =m4 ,i ?9k t 9 ! normal developm5t ( man's moral consci\sness1 bo? 9 ! individual & 9 ! race1 moral judgm5ts are fir/ pass$ on outw>d acts1 & t motives d n come to be def9itely consid]$ till lat]2 j z ext]nal p]ception ( physical objects prec$es introspection4 ,at ! same "t1 9 my view1 x does n !re=e foll[ t ! comp>ison ( motives is n ! f9al & mo/ p]fect =m ( ! moral judgm5t4 ,x might approve itself z su* by ! sy/ematic cle>ness & mutual consi/5cy ( ! results to :i* x l$1 :5 pursu$ by diff]5t ?9k]s indep5d5tly3 & by its fre$om f ! puzzles & difficulties to :i* o!r developm5ts ( ! ,intuitional ,me?od seem to be expos$4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 on exam9ation t1 on ! "o h&1 _m 7if n all7 ( ! difficulties :i* h em]g$ 9 ! prec$+ discussion ( ! commonly receiv$ pr9ciples ( conduct are reproduc$ 9 a diff]5t =m :5 we try to arrange ,motives 9 ord] ( excell5ce3 & on ! o!r h&1 su* a con/ruction pres5ts difficulties peculi> to itself1 & ! attempt to solve ^! exhibits great] & m fundam5tal diff]5ces among ,intuitive morali/s1 z reg>ds ,rank ( ,motive1 ?an we f\nd to exi/ z reg>ds ,rightness ( outw>d acts4 #b4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x has to be decid$ :e!r we are to include 9 our li/ ( motives ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 or impulses t[>ds p>ticul> k9ds ( virtu\s conduct z su*1 e4g4 ,c&\r1 ,v]acity1 ,=titude4 ,x seems unw>rantable to exclude !m1 z su* s5tim5ts are obs]vable z di/9ct & indep5d5t impulses 9 mo/ well-tra9$ m9ds1 & we sometimes recognise _! exi/5ce 9 consid]able int5sity1 z :5 we speak ( a man be+ #8en?usia/ically brave1' or #8int5sely v]aci\s1' or z #8hav+ a passion = ju/ice4' ,at ! same "t _! admission places u 9 ! foll[+ dilemma4 ,ei!r ! objects ( ^! impulses are repres5t$ by ! v notions t we h be5 exam9+--9 :i* case1 aft] we h decid$ t any impulse is bett] ?an its rival1 all ! p]plexities set =? 9 ! previ\s *apt]s w recur1 be=e we c act on our decision2 = :at avails x to recognise ! sup]iority ( ! impulse to d ju/ice1 if we d n "k :at x is j to d8--or if 9 any case ! object :i* a moral s5tim5t prompts u to realise is conceiv$ m simply1 )\t ! qualifications :i* a complete reflection on ,common ,s5se =c$ u to recognise2 !n1 z ! previ\s inve/igation %[s1 we %all c]ta9ly n f9d agreem5t z to ! relation betwe5 ?is & o!r impulses4 ,= example1 a dispute1 :e!r ! impulse to speak ! tru? ought or ought n to be foll[$1 w inevitably arise :5 ,v]acity seems oppos$ ei!r to ! g5]al good1 or to ! int]e/s ( "s p>ticul> p]son2 t is1 :5 x conflicts ) #8p>ticul>' or #8univ]sal' b5evol5ce4 ,hut*eson expressly places ^! latt] impulses 9 a high] rank ?an 8c&\r1 v]acity1 =titude02 res]v+ ! highe/ moral approbation = 8! mo/ ext5sive b5evol5ce0 or 8calm1 /able1 univ]sal goodwill to all40#bgc ,b ?is view1 :i* co9cides practically ) ,utilit>ianism1 w\ld c]ta9ly be disput$ by mo/ ,intuitional morali/s4 ,aga91 "s ( ^! morali/s 7z ,kant7 reg>d all actions z bad--or n good--:i* are n done f pure reg>d = duty or *oice ( ,"r z ,"r3 :ile ,hut*eson1 :o repres5ts ! opposite pole ( ,intuitional ,e?ics1 equally di/+ui%es ! love ( ,virtue z a sep>ate impulse2 b treats x z at once co-ord9ate 9 rank & co9cid5t 9 its effects ) univ]sal ,b5evol5ce4 ,s1 aga91 morali/s div]ge widely 9 e/imat+ ! e?ical value ( ,self-love4 ,= ,butl] seems to reg>d x z "o ( two sup]ior & naturally au?oritative impulses1 ! o!r be+ ,consci5ce3 nay1 9 a passage be=e quot$1 he ev5 conc$es t x w\ld be reasonable = ,consci5ce to yield to x1 if ! two c\ld possibly conflict4 ,o!r morali/s 7& ,butl] else:]e7#bgd appe> to place ,self-love among virtu\s impulses "u ! "n ( ,prud5ce3 ?\gh among ^! !y (t5 rank x r l[1 & w\ld h x yield 9 case ( conflict1 to nobl] virtues4 ,o!rs1 aga91 exclude x f ,virtue altoge!r3 e4g4 ,kant1 9 "o ( 8 treatises1#bge says t ! end ( ,self-love1 "o's own happ9ess1 _c be an end = ! ,moral ,reason2 t ! =ce ( ! reasonable w1 9 :i* ,virtue consi/s1 is always exhibit$ 9 resi/ance to natural egoi/ic impulses4 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau1 ^: sy/em is fram$ on ! basis t ,i am n[ exam9+1 attempts to avoid "s ( ! difficulties j po9t$ out by refus+ to admit ! exi/5ce ( any virtu\s impulses except ! 8pref]5ce = ! sup]ior ( ! compet+ spr+s ( action 9 ea* case0 ( a conflict ( motives4 8,i _c admit10 he says1 8ei!r ! loves ( ,virtues--( c&\r1 v]acity1 =titude--or ! virtues !mselves1 z s _m additional impulses ov] & above ^? f ! conflict ( :i* !y are =m$4 ,i d n confess my fault 9 ord] to be c&id 444 unless ,i am a prig1 ,i nev] ?9k ( c&\r1 z pr$icable1 or go+ to be pr$icable1 ( me at all40#bgf ,i am n1 h[ev]1 sure :e!r ,dr4 ,m>t9eau really means to d5y ! exi/5ce ( p]sons :o act f a consci\s desire to realise an ideal ( ,c&\r or ,=titude1 or :e!r he m]ely means to express disapproval ( su* p]sons3 9 ! =m] s5se 8 /atem5t seems to me a psy*ological p>adox1 9 conflict ) ord9>y exp]i5ce3 9 ! latt] s5se x seems an e?ical p>adox1 af=d+ a /rik+ example ( t div]sity ( judgm5ts z to ! rank ( motives1 to :i* ,i am n[ draw+ att5tion4 #c4 ,b ev5 if we put out ( sight ! ,moral s5tim5ts & ,self-love1 x is /ill sc>cely possible to frame a scale ( motives arrang$ 9 ord] ( m]it1 = :i* we c\ld claim any?+ l a cle> cons5t1 ev5 ( cultivat$ & ?\ghtful p]sons4 ,on "o or two po9ts1 inde$1 we seem to be g5]ally agre$2 e4g4 t ! bodily appetites are inf]ior to ! b5evol5t affections & ! intellectual desires2 & p]haps t impulses t5d+ prim>ily to ! well-be+ ( ! individual are l[] 9 rank ?an ^? :i* we class z extra-reg>d+ or dis9t]e/$4 ,b beyond a few vague /atem5ts ( ?is k9d1 x is v difficult to proce$4 ,= example1 :5 we comp>e p]sonal affections ) ! love ( k or ( beauty1 or ! passion = ! ideal 9 any =m1 mu* d\bt & div]g5ce ( op9ion become manife/4 ,inde$1 we %\ld h>dly agree on ! relative rank ( ! b5evol5t affections tak5 by !mselves2 = "s w\ld pref] ! m int5se1 ?\gh n>r[]1 :ile o!rs w\ld place ! calm] & wid] feel+s 9 ! highe/ rank4 ,or aga91 s9ce ,love1 z we saw1#bgg is a complex emotion1 & commonly includes1 besides ! desire ( ! good or happ9ess ( ! belov$1 a desire = union or intimacy ( "s k9d2 "s w\ld consid] an affection m elevat$ 9 proportion z ! =m] elem5t pr$om9at$1 :ile o!rs w\ld reg>d ! latt] z at lea/ equally ess5tial to ! highe/ k9d ( affection4 ,aga91 we may notice ! love ( ,fame z an important & widely op]ative motive1 :i* w\ld be rank$ v diff]5tly by diff]5t p]sons3 = "s w\ld place ! =m] 8spur t ! cle> _s do? raise0 among ! mo/ elevat$ impulses aft] ! moral s5tim5ts2 :ile o!rs ?9k x degrad+ to dep5d = "o's happ9ess on ! brea? ( popul> fav\r4 ,fur!r1 ! m we contemplate ! actual prompt+s t prec$e any volition1 ! m we seem to f9d complexity ( motive ! rule r ?an ! exception1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( educat$ p]sons3 & f ?is composition ( impulses !re results a fundam5tal p]plexity z to ! pr9ciples on :i* our decision is to be made1 ev5 suppos+ t we h a cle> view ( ! relative wor? ( ! elem5t>y impulses4 ,= ! comp\nd w g5]ally conta9 nobl] & bas] elem5ts1 & we c h>dly get rid ( ! latt]2 s9ce--z ,i h be=e said--?\gh we may frequ5tly suppress & expel a motive by firmly resi/+ x1 x does n seem possible to exclude x if we d ! act to :i* x prompts4 ,suppose1 !n1 t we are impell$ 9 "o direction by a comb9ation ( high & l[ motives1 & 9 ano!r by an impulse t ranks betwe5 ! two 9 ! scale1 h[ %all we decide :i* c\rse to foll[8 ,su* a case is by no means uncommon3 e4g4 an injur$ man may be mov$ by an impulse ( pity to sp>e 8 injur]1 :ile a reg>d = ju/ice & a desire ( rev5ge comb9$ impel him to inflict puni%m5t4 ,or1 aga91 a ,jew ( lib]al views might be re/ra9$ f eat+ pork by a desire n to %ock ! feel+s ( 8 fri5ds1 & might be mov$ to eat x by ! desire to v9dicate true religi\s lib]ty comb9$ ) a lik+ = pork4 ,h[ are we to deal ) su* a case z ?is8 ,= x w h>dly be sugge/$ t we %\ld e/imate ! relative proportions ( ! diff]5t motives & decide accord+ly2--qualitative analysis ( our motives is to "s ext5t possible to u1 b ! quantitative analysis t ?is w\ld require is n 9 our p[]4 ,b ev5 ap>t f ?is difficulty aris+ f complexity ( motives1 ,i ?9k x impossible to assign a def9ite & con/ant e?ical value to ea* diff]5t k9d ( motive1 )\t ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> circum/ances "u :i* x has aris51 ! ext5t ( indulg5ce t x dem&s1 & ! consequ5ces to :i* ?is indulg5ce w\ld lead 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,i may conv5i5tly illu/rate ?is by ref]5ce to ! table1 drawn up by ,dr4 ,m>t9eau1#bgh ( spr+s ( action arrang$ 9 ord] ( m]it4 ,,l[e/4 #a4 ,second>y ,passions3--,c5sori\sness1 ,v9dictiv5ess1 ,suspici\sness4 #b4 ,second>y ,organic ,prop5sions3--,love ( ,ease & ,s5sual ,pleasure4 #c4 ,prim>y ,organic ,prop5sions3--,appetites4 #d4 ,prim>y ,animal ,prop5sion3--,spontane\s ,activity 7unselective74 #e4 ,love ( ,ga9 7reflective d]ivative f ,appetite74 #f4 ,second>y ,affections 7s5tim5tal indulg5ce ( sympa!tic feel+s74 #g4 ,prim>y ,passions3--,antipa?y1 ,fe>1 ,res5tm5t4 #h4 ,causal en]gy3--,love ( ,p[]1 or ,ambition2 ,love ( ,lib]ty4 #i4 ,second>y ,s5tim5ts3--,love ( ,culture4 #aj4 ,prim>y ,s5tim5ts ( ,wond] & ,admiration4 #aa4 ,prim>y ,affections1 ,p>5tal & ,social2 ) 7approximately7 ,g5]osity & ,gratitude4 #ab4 ,prim>y ,affection ( ,compassion4 #ac4 ,prim>y ,s5tim5t ( ,rev]5ce4 ,,highe/4 ,?is scale seems to me op5 to mu* criticism1 bo? f a psy*ological & f an e?ical po9t ( view3#bgi b1 grant+ t x corresponds broadly to ! judgm5ts t m5 commonly pass z to ! diff]5t elevation ( diff]5t motives1 x seems to me 9 ! highe/ degree p>adoxical to lay d[n t ea* class ( motives is always to be pref]r$ to ! class bel[ x1 )\t reg>d to circum/ances & consequ5ces4 ,s f> z x is true t 8! consci5ce says to e "o1 #8,d n eat till y are hungry & /op :5 y are hungry no m1'0 x is n1 ,i v5ture to ?9k1 because a 8regulative "r is cle>ly ve/$ 9 prim>y in/9ctive ne$s1 relatively to _! second>ies10 b because exp]i5ce has %[n t to seek ! gratification ( ! palate ap>t f ! satisfaction ( hung] is g5]ally dang]\s to physical well-be+2 & x is 9 view ( ?is dang] t ! consci5ce op]ates4 ,if we condemn 8a %ip capta910 :o1 8caught 9 a fog (f a lee %ore1 neglects1 ?r\gh indol5ce & love ( ease1 to slack5 spe$ & take cauti\s s\nd+s & op5 8 /eam-:i/le10 x is n because we intuitively disc]n ,fe> to be a high] motive ?an ,love ( ,ease1 b because ! consequ5ces disreg>d$ are judg$ to be indef9itely m important ?an ! gratification obta9$3 if we took a case 9 :i* fe> 0 n simil>ly su/a9$ by prud5ce1 our judgm5t w\ld c]ta9ly be diff]5t4 ,! view ( ,common ,s5se appe>s r to be t mo/ natural impulses h _! prop] sph]es1 )9 :i* !y %\ld be normally op]ative1 & !re=e ! "q :e!r 9 any case a high] motive %\ld yield to a l[] "o _c be answ]$ decisively 9 ! g5]al way 9 :i* ,dr4 ,m>t9eau answ]s x3 ! answ] mu/ dep5d on ! p>ticul> conditions & circum/ances ( ! conflict4 ,we recognise x z possible t a motive :i* we commonly rank z high] may wrongly intrude into ! prop] sph]e ( "o :i* we rank z l[]1 j z ! l[] is liable to encroa* on ! high]2 only s9ce !re is v mu* less dang] ( ! =m] intrusion1 x naturally falls into ! backgr\nd 9 e?ical discussions & exhortations t h a practical aim4 ,! matt] is complicat$ by ! fur!r consid]ation t z ! "* ( a moral ag5t becomes bett]1 ! motives t we rank z 8high]0 t5d to be develop$1 s t _! normal sph]e ( op]ation is enl>g$ at ! exp5se ( ! l[]4 ,h5ce !re are two di/9ct aims 9 moral regulation & culture1 s f> z !y relate to motives3 7#a7 to keep ! 8l[]0 motive )9 ! limits )9 :i* its op]ation is consid]$ to be legitimate & good on ! :ole1 s long z we _c sub/itute = x ! equally effective op]ation ( a high] motive2 & at ! same "t 7#b7 to effect ?is sub/itution ( 8high]0 = 8l[]0 gradually1 z f> z c be done )\t dang]1--up to a limit :i* we _c def9itely fix1 b :i* we c]ta9ly conceive1 = ! mo/ "p1 z fall+ %ort ( complete exclusion ( ! l[] motive4 ,i may illu/rate by ref]5ce to ! passion ( res5tm5t ( :i* ,i be=e spoke4 ,! view ( reflective common s5se is1 ,i ?9k1 t ! malevol5t impulse s designat$1 z long z x is /rictly limit$ to res5tm5t aga9/ wrong & op]ates 9 aid ( ju/ice1 has a legitimate sph]e ( action 9 ! social life ( human be+s z actually con/itut$3 t1 inde$1 its suppression w\ld be gravely mis*iev\s1 unless we c\ld at ! same "t int5sify ! ord9>y man's reg>d = ju/ice or = social well-be+ s t ! total /r5g? ( motives prompt+ to ! puni%m5t ( crime %\ld n be dim9i%$4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 8to be wi%$10 z ,butl] says1 t m5 w\ld repress wrong f ^! high] motives r ?an f passionate res5tm5t2 b we _c hope to effect ?is *ange 9 human be+s g5]ally except by a sl[ & gradual process ( elevation ( "*3 !re=e suppos+ a conflict betwe5 8,compassion10 :i* is highe/ b "o 9 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau's scale1 & 8,res5tm5t10 :i* he places ab\t ! middle1 x is by no means to be laid d[n z a g5]al rule t compassion ought to prevail4 ,we ought r--) ,butl]--to reg>d res5tm5t z a salut>y 8balance to ! weakness ( pity10 :i* w\ld be liable to prev5t ! execution ( ju/ice if res5tm5t 7 exclud$4 ,or we might simil>ly take ! impulse :i* comes l[e/ 7among ^? n condemn$ altoge!r7 9 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau's scale--! 8,love ( ,ease & ,s5sual ,pleasure40 ,no d\bt ?is impulse1 or gr\p ( impulses1 is cont9ually lead+ m5 to %irk or scamp _! /rict duty1 or to fall 9 "s less def9ite way bel[ _! own ideal ( conduct2 h5ce ! attitude habitually ma9ta9$ t[>ds x by prea*]s & practical morali/s is t ( repression4 ,/ill1 common s5se surely recognises t !re are cases 9 :i* ev5 ?is impulse ought to prevail ov] impulses rank$ above x 9 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau's scale2 we (t5 f9d m5 prompt$--say by 8love ( ga90--to %ort5 unduly _! h\rs ( recreation2 & 9 ! case ( a conflict ( motives "u su* circum/ances we %\ld judge x be/ t victory %\ld rema9 on ! side ( ! 8love ( ease & pleasure10 & t ! encroa*m5t ( 8love ( ga90 %\ld be repell$4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t 9 ei!r ( ^! in/ances ! conflict ( motives w\ld rema9 su* z ,i h j describ$3 ,i ?9k t ?\gh ! /ruggle might beg9 z a duel betwe5 res5tm5t & compassion1 or betwe5 love ( ease & love ( ga91 x w\ld n be f\ght out 9 ! li/s s drawn2 s9ce high] motives w\ld inevitably be call$ 9 z ! conflict w5t on1 reg>d = ju/ice & social well-be+ on ! side ( res5tm5t1 reg>d = heal? & ultimate effici5cy = "w on ! side ( love ( ease2 & x w\ld be ! int]v5tion ( ^! high] motives t w\ld decide ! /ruggle1 s f> z x 0 decid$ rightly & z we %\ld approve4 ,?is c]ta9ly is :at w\ld happ5 9 my own case1 if ! suppos$ conflict 7 at all s]i\s & its decision delib]ate2 & ?is con/itutes my f9al reason = hold+ t su* a scale z ,dr4 ,m>t9eau has drawn up1 ( motives arrang$ accord+ to _! moral rank1 c nev] h m ?an a v subord9ate e?ical importance4 ,i admit t x may s]ve to indicate 9 a r\gh & g5]al way ! k9ds ( desires :i* x is ord9>ily be/ to enc\rage & indulge1 9 comp>ison ) o!r k9ds :i* are ord9>ily likely to compete & collide ) !m2 & we might ?us settle summ>ily "s ( ! comp>atively trifl+ conflicts ( motive :i* ! v>y+ & complex play ( ne$s1 habits1 int]e/s1 & _! accompany+ emotions1 cont9ually /irs 9 our daily life4 ,b if a s]i\s "q ( conduct is rais$1 ,i _c conceive myself decid+ x morally by any comp>ison ( motives bel[ ! highe/3 x seems to me t ! "q mu/ inevitably be c>ri$ up = decision into ! c\rt ( :atev] motive we reg>d z supremely regulative3 s t ! comp>ison ultimately decisive w\ld be n betwe5 ! l[] motives prim>ily conflict+1 b betwe5 ! effects ( ! diff]5t l9es ( conduct to :i* ^! l[] motives respectively prompt1 consid]$ 9 relation to :atev] we reg>d z ! ultimate end or ends ( reasonable action4 ,& ?is1 ,i conceive1 w be ! c\rse naturally tak5 by ! moral reflection n only ( utilit>ians1 b ( all :o foll[ ,butl] 9 reg>d+ our passions & prop5sions z =m+ naturally a 8sy/em or con/itution10 9 :i* ! ends ( l[] impulses are subord9ate z means to ! ends ( c]ta9 gov]n+ motives1 or are compreh5d$ z p>ts 9 ^! l>g] ends4 ,,footnotes3 #bga ,9 ,gre5's ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,book ii4 *aps4 i4 & ii4 a peculi> view is tak5 ( 8motives1 ( t k9d by :i* x is ! *>act]i/ic ( moral or human action1 to be det]m9$40 ,su* motives1 x is ma9ta9$1 mu/ be di/+ui%$ f desires 9 ! s5se ( 8m]e solicitations ( :i* a man is consci\s02 !y are 8con/itut$ by ! reaction ( ! man's self ^u ^!1 & its id5tification ( itself ) "o ( !m40 ,9 fact ! 8direction ( ! self-consci\s self to ! realisation ( an object0 :i* ,i %\ld call an act ( w1 is ! ph5om5on to :i* ,gre5 w\ld re/rict ! t]m 8desire 9 t s5se 9 :i* desire is ! pr9ciple & notion ( an imputable human action40 ,! use ( t]ms "h sugge/$ appe>s to me inconv5i5t1 & ! psy*ological analysis impli$ 9 x to a great ext5t errone\s4 ,i admit t 9 c]ta9 simple cases ( *oice1 :]e ! alt]natives sugge/$ are ea* prompt$ by a s+le def9ite desire1 !re is no psy*ological inaccuracy 9 say+ t 9 will+ ! act to :i* he is /imulat$ by any su* desire ! ag5t 8id5tifies himself ) ! desire40 ,b 9 m complex cases ! phrase appe>s to me incorrect1 z oblit]at+ important di/9ctions betwe5 ! two k9ds ( psy*ical ph5om5a :i* are usually & conv5i5tly di/+ui%$ z 8desires0 & volitions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ,i h be=e po9t$ out 7*ap4 i4 #b ( ?is ,book71 x (t5 happ5s t c]ta9 =ese5 consequ5ces ( volition1 :i* z =ese5 are und\bt$ly will$ &--9 a s5se--*os5 by ! ag5ts1 are n objects ( desire to him at all1 b ev5 possibly ( av]sion--av]sion1 ( c\rse1 ov]come by 8 desire ( o!r consequ5ces ( ! same act4 ,9 ! second place1 x is specially important1 f an e?ical po9t ( view1 to notice t1 among ! v>i\s desires or av]sions ar\s$ 9 u by ! complex =ese5 consequ5ces ( a contemplat$ act1 !re are (t5 impulses ) :i* we d n id5tify ourselves1 b :i* we ev5 try to suppress z f> z possible3 ?\gh z x is n possible to suppress !m completely--especially if we d ! act to :i* !y prompt--we _c say t !y d n op]ate z motives4 #bgb ,cf4 ante1 *ap4 i4 #b ( ?is ,book4 #bgc ,hut*eson1 ,sy/em ( ,moral ,philosophy1 ,book i4 *ap4 iv4 #aj4 #bgd ,see ! ,diss]tation ,( ! ,nature ( ,virtue app5d$ to ! ,analogy4 #bge ,! ,metaphysis*e ,anfangsgrnde d] ,tug5dlehre3 b x ought to be obs]v$ t ! e?ical view briefly exp\nd$ 9 ! ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft appe>s to h mu* m aff9ity ) ,butl]'s4 #bgf ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bhd1 #bnd edition4 #bgg ,cf4 ante1 *ap4 iv4 #b ( ?is ,book4 #bgh ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bff4 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau expla9s t ! *ief composite spr+s are ins]t$ 9 _! approximate place1 subject to ! v>iations ( :i* _! composition r5d]s !m susceptible4 #bgi ,?us we might ask :y ! class ( 8passions0 is s /rangely re/rict$1 :y conjugal affection is omitt$1 :e!r wond] c prop]ly be reg>d$ z a def9ite motive1 :e!r 8c5sori\sness0 is prop]ly rank$ ) 8v9dictiv5ess0 z "o ( ! 8l[e/ passions10 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,philosophical ,,intuitionism #a4 ,is !re1 !n1 no possibility ( atta9+1 by a m pr(\nd & discrim9at+ exam9ation ( our common moral ?\ght1 to real e?ical axioms--intuitive propositions ( real cle>ness & c]ta9ty8 ,?is "q leads u to ! exam9ation ( t ?ird phase ( ! intuitive me?od1 :i* 0 call$ ,philosophical ,intuitionism4#bhj ,= we conceive x z ! aim ( a philosoph]1 z su*1 to d some:at m ?an def9e & =mulate ! common moral op9ions ( mank9d4 ,8 function is to tell m5 :at !y ought to ?9k1 r ?an :at !y d ?9k3 he is expect$ to transc5d ,common ,s5se 9 8 premises1 & is all[$ a c]ta9 div]g5ce f ,common ,s5se 9 8 conclusions4 ,x is true t ! limits ( ?is deviation are firmly1 ?\gh indef9itely1 fix$3 ! tru? ( a philosoph]'s premises w always be te/$ by ! acceptability ( 8 conclusions3 if 9 any important po9t he be f\nd 9 flagrant conflict ) common op9ion1 8 me?od is likely to be decl>$ invalid4 ,/ill1 ?\gh he is expect$ to e/abli% & concat5ate at lea/ ! ma9 "p ( ! commonly accept$ moral rules1 he is n necess>ily b\nd to take !m z ! basis on :i* 8 own sy/em is con/ruct$4 ,r1 we %\ld expect t ! hi/ory ( ,moral ,philosophy--s f> at lea/ z ^? :om we may call or?odox ?9k]s are conc]n$--w\ld be a hi/ory ( attempts to enunciate1 9 full bread? & cle>ness1 ^? prim>y intuitions ( ,reason1 by ! sci5tific application ( :i* ! common moral ?\ght ( mank9d may be at once sy/ematis$ & correct$4 ,& ?is is to "s ext5t ! case4 ,b ,moral ,philosophy1 or philosophy z appli$ to ,morality1 has _h o!r tasks to occupy x1 ev5 m pr(\ndly difficult ?an t ( p5etrat+ to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,duty4 ,9 mod]n times especially1 x has admitt$ ! necessity ( demon/rat+ ! h>mony ( ,duty ) ,int]e/2 t is1 ) ! ,happ9ess or ,welf>e ( ! ag5t on :om ! duty 9 ea* case is impos$4 ,x has also und]tak5 to det]m9e ! relation ( ,"r or ,good g5]ally to ! _w ( actual exi/5ce3 a task :i* c\ld h>dly be satisfactorily accompli%$ )\t an adequate explanation ( ! exi/5ce ( ,evil4 ,x has fur!r be5 di/ract$ by que/ions :i*1 9 my view1 are ( psy*ological r ?an e?ical importance1 z to ! #8innat5ess' ( our notions ( ,duty1 & ! orig9 ( ! faculty t furni%es !m4 ,) _! att5tion conc5trat$ on ^! difficult subjects1 ea* ( :i* has be5 mix$ up 9 v>i\s ways ) ! discussion ( fundam5tal moral intuitions1 philosoph]s h too easily be5 l$ to satisfy !mselves ) e?ical =mul :i* implicitly accept ! morality ( ,common ,s5se en bloc1 ignor+ its defects2 & m]ely express a c]ta9 view ( ! relation ( ?is morality to ! individual m9d or to ! univ]se ( actual exi/5ce4 ,p]haps also !y h be5 hamp]$ by ! fe> 7n1 z we h se51 unf\nd$7 ( los+ ! support giv5 by #8g5]al ass5t' if !y set be=e !mselves & _! read]s too rigid a /&>d ( sci5tific precision4 ,/ill1 9 spite ( all ^! drawbacks1 we f9d t philosoph]s h provid$ u ) a consid]able numb] ( compreh5sive moral propositions1 put =w>d z c]ta9 & self-evid5t1 & su* z at fir/ sight may seem well adapt$ to s]ve z ! fir/ pr9ciples ( sci5tific morality4 #b4 ,b "h a ^w ( caution seems requir$1 :i* has be5 some:at anticipat$ 9 e>li] *apt]s1 b on :i* x is p>ticul>ly ne$ful to lay /ress at ?is po9t ( our discussion3 aga9/ a c]ta9 class ( %am-axioms1 :i* are v apt to (f] !mselves to ! m9d t is e>ne/ly seek+ = a philosophical syn!sis ( practical rules1 & to delude ! unw>y ) a tempt+ aspect ( cle> self-evid5ce4 ,^! are pr9ciples :i* appe> c]ta9 & self-evid5t because !y are sub/antially tautological3 because1 :5 exam9$1 !y are f\nd to affirm no m ?an t x is "r to d t :i* is--9 a c]ta9 dep>tm5t ( life1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances & conditions--"r to be done4 ,"o important lesson :i* ! hi/ory ( moral philosophy tea*es is t1 9 ?is region1 ev5 p[]ful intellects are liable to acquiesce 9 tautologies ( ?is k9d2 sometimes exp&$ into circul> reason+s1 sometimes hidd5 9 ! recesses ( an obscure notion1 (t5 ly+ s ne> ! surface t1 :5 once !y h be5 expos$1 x is h>d to und]/& h[ !y c\ld ev] h pres5t$ !mselves z important4 ,let u turn1 = illu/ration's sake1 to ! "t-hon\r$ ,c>d9al ,virtues4 ,if we are told t ! dictates ( ,wisdom & ,temp]ance may be summ$ up 9 cle> & c]ta9 pr9ciples1 & t ^! are respectively1 7#a7 ,x is "r to act rationally1 7#b7 ,x is "r t ! ,l[] p>ts ( our nature %\ld be gov]n$ by ! ,high]1 we d n at fir/ feel t we are n obta9+ valuable in=mation4 ,b :5 we f9d 7cf4 ante1 *ap4 xi4 #c7 t 8act+ rationally0 is m]ely ano!r phrase = 8do+ :at we see to be "r10 &1 aga91 t ! 8high] "p0 ( our nature to :i* ! re/ are to submit is expla9$ to be ,reason1 s t 8act+ temp]ately0 is only 8act+ rationally0 "u ! condition ( special non-rational impulses ne$+ to be resi/$1 ! tautology ( our 8pr9ciples0 is obvi\s4 ,simil>ly :5 we are ask$ to accept z ! pr9ciple ( ,ju/ice 8t we ought to give e man 8 own10 ! def9ition seems plausible--until x appe>s t we _c def9e 88 own0 except z equival5t to 8t :i* x is "r he %\ld h40 ,! def9itions quot$ may be f\nd 9 mod]n writ]s3 b x seems wor?y ( rem>k t ?r\gh\t ! e?ical speculation ( ,greece1#bha su* univ]sal affirmations z are pres5t$ to u conc]n+ ,virtue or ,good conduct seem almo/ always to be propositions :i* c only be def5d$ f ! *>ge ( tautology1 if !y are und]/ood z def9itions ( ! problem to be solv$1 & n z attempts at its solution4 ,= example1 ,plato & ,ari/otle appe> to (f] z con/ructive morali/s ! sci5tific k on e?ical matt]s ( :i* ,socrates proclaim$ ! abs5ce2 k1 t is1 ( ! ,good & ,bad 9 human life4 ,& !y seem to be agre$ t su* ,good z c be realis$ 9 ! concrete life ( m5 & communities is *iefly ,virtue1--or 7z ,ari/otle m precisely puts x7 ! ex]cise ( ,virtue3 s t ! practical "p ( e?ical sci5ce mu/ consi/ ma9ly 9 ! k ( ,virtue4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we ask h[ we are to asc]ta9 ! k9d ( conduct :i* is prop]ly to be call$ ,virtu\s1 x does n seem t ,plato c tell u m ( ea* virtue 9 turn ?an t x consi/s 9 7#a7 ! k ( :at is ,good 9 c]ta9 circum/ances & relations1 & 7#b7 su* a h>mony ( ! diff]5t elem5ts ( man's appetitive nature1 t _! resultant impulse may be always 9 accordance ) ?is k4 ,b x is j ?is k 7or at lea/ its pr9ciples & me?od7 t we are expect+ him to give u3 & to expla9 to u in/ead ! diff]5t exig5cies "u :i* we ne$ x1 9 no way satisfies our expectation4 ,nor1 aga91 does ,ari/otle br+ u mu* ne>] su* k by tell+ u t ! ,good 9 conduct is to be f\nd some:]e betwe5 diff]5t k9ds ( ,bad4 ,?is at be/ only indicates ! :]eab\ts ( ,virtue3 x does n give u a me?od = f9d+ x4 ,on ! ,/oic sy/em1#bhb z con/ruct$ by ,z5o & ,*rysippus1 x is p]haps unfair to pron\nce decisively1 f ! acc\nts giv5 ( x by adv]s>ies l ,plut>*1 & su* semi-intellig5t expositors z ,cic]o1 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 & ,/obu4 ,b1 z f> z we c judge ( x1 we mu/ pron\nce ! exposition ( its g5]al pr9ciples a complicat$ en*a9m5t ( circul> reason+s1 by :i* ! inquir] is cont9ually delud$ ) an app>5t approa* to practical conclusions1 & cont9ually l$ back to ! po9t f :i* he set out4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic =mula ( ,/oicism seems to h be5 t decl>+ #8,life accord+ to ,nature' to be ! ultimate end ( action4 ,! spr+ ( ! motion t su/a9$ ?is life 0 9 ! vegetable creation a m]e unfelt impulse3 9 animals x 0 impulse accompani$ ) s5sation3 9 man x 0 ! direction ( ,reason1 :i* 9 him 0 naturally supreme ov] all m]ely bl9d irrational impulses4 ,:at !n does ,reason direct8 #8,to live accord+ to ,nature' is "o answ]3 & ?us we get ! circul> exposition ( e?ical doctr9e 9 its simple/ =m4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we are told t x is #8,life accord+ to ,virtue'3 :i* leads u into ! circle already notic$ 9 ! ,platonic-,ari/otelian philosophy2 z ,virtue1 by ! ,/oics also1 is only def9$ z k ( ,good & ,bad 9 diff]5t circum/ances & relations4 ,inde$1 ?is latt] circle is giv5 by ! ,/oics m neatly & p]fectly3 = ) ,plato & ,ari/otle ,virtue 0 n ! sole1 b only ! *ief cont5t ( ! notion ,good1 9 its application to human life3 b 9 ! view ( ,/oicism ! two notions are absolutely co9cid5t4 ,! result1 !n1 is t ,virtue is k ( :at is good & ought to be s\ght or *os51 & ( :at is bad & ought to be %unn$ or reject$3 :ile at ! same "t !re is no?+ good or prop]ly *oice-wor?y1 no?+ bad or truly =midable1 except ,virtue & ,vice respectively4 ,b if ,virtue is ?us decl>$ to be a sci5ce t has no object except itself1 ! notion is inevitably empti$ ( all practical cont5t4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to avoid ?is result & to reconcile _! sy/em ) common s5se1 ! ,/oics expla9$ t !re 7 o!r ?+s 9 human life :i* 7 9 a mann] pref]able1 ?\gh n /rictly good1 includ+ 9 ?is class ! prim>y objects ( m5's normal impulses4 ,on :at pr9ciple !n are we to select ^! objects :5 our impulses are conflict+ or ambigu\s8 ,if we c get an answ] to ?is "q1 we %all at l5g? h come to some?+ practical4 ,b "h aga9 ! ,/oic c\ld f9d no o!r g5]al answ] except ei!r t we 7 to *oose :at 0 ,reasonable1 or t we 7 to act 9 accordance ) ,nature3 ea* ( :i* answ]s obvi\sly br+s u back into ! orig9al circle at a diff]5t po9t4#bhc ,9 ,butl]'s use ( ! ,/oic =mula1 ?is circul> reason+ seems to be avoid$3 b x is s only s long z ! intr9sic reasonabl5ess ( "r conduct is ignor$ or suppress$4 ,butl] assumes ) 8 oppon5ts t x is reasonable to live accord+ to ,nature1 & argues t ,consci5ce or ! faculty t imposes moral rules is naturally supreme 9 man4 ,x is !re=e reasonable to obey ,consci5ce4 ,b are ! rules t ,consci5ce lays d[n m]ely kn[n to u z ! dictates ( arbitr>y au?ority1 & n z 9 !mselves reasonable8 ,?is w\ld give a surely dang]\s absolut5ess ( au?ority to ! possibly un5light5$ consci5ce ( any individual3 & ,butl] is mu* too cauti\s to d ?is3 9 fact1 9 m ?an "o passage ( ! ,analogy#bhd he expressly adopts ! doctr9e ( ,cl>ke1 t ! true rules ( morality are ess5tially reasonable4 ,b if ,consci5ce is1 aft] all1 ,reason appli$ to ,practice1 !n ,butl]'s argum5t seems to b5d itself into ! old circle3 #8x is reasonable to live accord+ to ,nature1 & x is natural to live accord+ to ,reason4' ,9 ! next *apt] ,i %all h to call att5tion to ano!r logical circle into :i* we are liable to slide1 if we ref] to ! ,good or ,p]fection1 :e!r ( ! ag5t or ( o!rs1 9 giv+ an acc\nt ( any special virtue2 if we all[ ourselves1 9 expla9+ ,good or ,p]fection1 to use ! g5]al notion ( virtue 7:i* is commonly reg>d$ z an important elem5t ( ei!r74 ,mean:ile ,i h already giv51 p]haps1 m ?an suffici5t illu/ration ( "o ( ! mo/ important dang]s t beset ! /ud5ts ( ,e?ics4 ,9 ! laudable attempt to escape f ! d\btfulness1 disputabl5ess1 & app>5t arbitr>9ess ( curr5t moral op9ions1 he is liable to take refuge 9 pr9ciples t are incontrov]tible b tautological & insignificant4 #c4 ,c we !n1 betwe5 ?is ,scylla & ,*>ybdis ( e?ical inquiry1 avoid+ on ! "o h& doctr9es t m]ely br+ u back to common op9ion ) all its imp]fections1 & on ! o!r h& doctr9es t lead u r\nd 9 a circle1 f9d any way ( obta9+ self-evid5t moral pr9ciples ( real significance8 ,x w\ld be di%e>t5+ to h to reg>d z altoge!r illusory ! /rong in/9ct ( ,common ,s5se t po9ts to ! exi/5ce ( su* pr9ciples1 & ! delib]ate convictions ( ! long l9e ( morali/s :o h enunciat$ !m4 ,at ! same "t1 ! m we ext5d our k ( man & 8 environm5t1 ! m we realise ! va/ v>iety ( human natures & circum/ances t h exi/$ 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 ! less dispos$ we are to believe t !re is any def9ite code ( absolute rules1 applicable to all human be+s )\t exception4 ,& we %all f9d1 ,i ?9k1 t ! tru? lies betwe5 ^! two conclusions4 ,!re are c]ta9 absolute practical pr9ciples1 ! tru? ( :i*1 :5 !y are explicitly /at$1 is manife/2 b !y are ( too ab/ract a nature1 & too univ]sal 9 _! scope1 to enable u to asc]ta9 by imm$iate application ( !m :at we ought to d 9 any p>ticul> case2 p>ticul> duties h /ill to be det]m9$ by "s o!r me?od4 ,"o su* pr9ciple 0 giv5 9 *ap4 i4 #c ( ?is ,book2 :]e ,i po9t$ out t :atev] action any ( u judges to be "r = himself1 he implicitly judges to be "r = all simil> p]sons 9 simil> circum/ances4 ,or1 z we may o!rwise put x1 #8if a k9d ( conduct t is "r 7or wrong7 = me is n "r 7or wrong7 = "s "o else1 x mu/ be on ! gr\nd ( "s diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases1 o!r ?an ! fact t ,i & he are diff]5t p]sons4' ,a correspond+ proposition may be /at$ ) equal tru? 9 respect ( :at ought to be done to--n by--diff]5t individuals4 ,^! pr9ciples h be5 mo/ widely recognis$1 n 9 _! mo/ ab/ract & univ]sal =m1 b 9 _! special application to ! situation ( two 7or m7 individuals simil>ly relat$ to ea* o!r3 z s appli$1 !y appe> 9 :at is popul>ly kn[n z ! ,gold5 ,rule1 #8,d to o!rs z y w\ld h !m d to y4' ,?is =mula is obvi\sly unprecise 9 /atem5t2 = "o might wi% = ano!r's co-op]ation 9 s91 & be will+ to reciprocate x4 ,nor is x ev5 true to say t we ought to d to o!rs only :at we ?9k x "r = !m to d to u2 = no "o w d5y t !re may be diff]5ces 9 ! circum/ances--& ev5 9 ! natures--( two individuals1 ,a & ,b1 :i* w\ld make x wrong = ,a to treat ,b 9 ! way 9 :i* x is "r = ,b to treat ,a4 ,9 %ort ! self-evid5t pr9ciple /rictly /at$ mu/ take "s su* negative =m z ?is2 #8x _c be "r = ,a to treat ,b 9 a mann] 9 :i* x w\ld be wrong = ,b to treat ,a1 m]ely on ! gr\nd t !y are two diff]5t individuals1 & )\t !re be+ any diff]5ce betwe5 ! natures or circum/ances ( ! two :i* c be /at$ z a reasonable gr\nd = diff]5ce ( treatm5t4' ,su* a pr9ciple manife/ly does n give complete guidance--inde$ its effect1 /rictly speak+1 is m]ely to ?r[ a def9ite onus prob&i on ! man :o applies to ano!r a treatm5t ( :i* he w\ld compla9 if appli$ to himself2 b ,common ,s5se has amply recognis$ ! practical importance ( ! maxim3 & its tru?1 s f> z x goes1 appe>s to me self-evid5t4 ,a some:at diff]5t application ( ! same fundam5tal pr9ciple t individuals 9 simil> conditions %\ld be treat$ simil>ly f9ds its sph]e 9 ! ord9>y adm9i/ration ( ,law1 or 7z we say7 ( #8,ju/ice4' ,accord+ly 9 #a ( *ap4 v4 ( ?is ,book ,i drew att5tion to #8imp>tiality 9 ! application ( g5]al rules1' z an important elem5t 9 ! common notion ( ,ju/ice2 inde$1 !re ultimately appe>$ to be no o!r elem5t :i* c\ld be intuitively kn[n ) p]fect cle>ness & c]ta9ty4 ,"h aga9 x mu/ be pla9 t ?is precept ( imp>tiality is insuffici5t = ! complete det]m9ation ( j conduct1 z x does n help u to decide :at k9d ( rules %\ld be ?us imp>tially appli$2 ?\gh all admit ! importance ( exclud+ f gov]nm5t1 & human conduct g5]ally1 all consci\s p>tiality & #8respect ( p]sons4' ,! pr9ciple j discuss$1 :i* seems to be m or less cle>ly impli$ 9 ! common notion ( #8fairness' or #8equity1' is obta9$ by consid]+ ! simil>ity ( ! individuals t make up a ,logical ,:ole or ,g5us4 ,!re are o!rs1 no less important1 :i* em]ge 9 ! consid]ation ( ! simil> p>ts ( a ,ma!matical or ,quantitative ,:ole4 ,su* a ,:ole is pres5t$ 9 ! common notion ( ! ,good--or1 z is sometimes said1 #8good on ! :ole'--( any individual human be+4 ,! proposition #8t "o ought to aim at "o's own good' is sometimes giv5 z ! maxim ( ,rational ,self-love or ,prud5ce3 b z s /at$ x does n cle>ly avoid tautology2 s9ce we may def9e #8good' z #8:at "o ought to aim at4' ,if1 h[ev]1 we say #8"o's good on ! :ole1' ! addition sugge/s a pr9ciple :i*1 :5 explicitly /at$1 is1 at any rate1 n tautological4 ,i h already ref]r$ to ?is pr9ciple#bhe z t #8( imp>tial conc]n = all p>ts ( our consci\s life'3--we might express x concisely by say+ #8t ,h]eaft] z su* is to be reg>d$ nei!r less nor m ?an ,n[4' ,x is n1 ( c\rse1 meant t ! good ( ! pres5t may n reasonably be pref]r$ to t ( ! future on acc\nt ( its great] c]ta9ty3 or aga91 t a week t5 ye>s h5ce may n be m important to u ?an a week n[1 ?r\gh an increase 9 our means or capacities ( happ9ess4 ,all t ! pr9ciple affirms is t ! m]e diff]5ce ( priority & po/]iority 9 "t is n a reasonable gr\nd = hav+ m reg>d to ! consci\sness ( "o mom5t t to t ( ano!r4 ,! =m 9 :i* x practically pres5ts itself to mo/ m5 is #8t a small] pres5t good is n to be pref]r$ to a great] future good' 7all[+ = diff]5ce ( c]ta9ty73 s9ce ,prud5ce is g5]ally ex]cis$ 9 re/ra9+ a pres5t desire 7! object or satisfaction ( :i* we commonly reg>d z pro tanto #8a good'71 on acc\nt ( ! remot] consequ5ces ( gratify+ x4 ,! commone/ view ( ! pr9ciple w\ld no d\bt be t ! pres5t pleasure or happ9ess is reasonably to be =egone ) ! view ( obta9+ great] pleasure or happ9ess h]eaft]3 b ! pr9ciple ne$ n be re/rict$ to a h$oni/ic application2 x is equally applicable to any o!r int]pretation ( #8"o's own good1' 9 :i* good is conceiv$ z a ma!matical :ole1 ( :i* ! integrant p>ts are realis$ 9 diff]5t p>ts or mom5ts ( a lifetime4 ,& !re=e x is p]haps bett] to di/+ui% x "h f ! pr9ciple #8t ,pleasure is ! sole ,ultimate ,good1' :i* does n seem to h any logical connexion ) x4 ,s f> we h only be5 consid]+ ! #8,good on ! ,:ole' ( a s+le individual3 b j z ?is notion is con/ruct$ by comp>ison & integration ( ! diff]5t #8goods' t succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! s]ies ( our consci\s /ates1 s we h =m$ ! notion ( ,univ]sal ,good by comp>ison & integration ( ! goods ( all individual human--or s5ti5t--exi/5ces4 ,& "h aga91 j z 9 ! =m] case1 by consid]+ ! relation ( ! integrant p>ts to ! :ole & to ea* o!r1 ,i obta9 ! self-evid5t pr9ciple t ! good ( any "o individual is ( no m importance1 f ! po9t ( view 7if ,i may say s7 ( ! ,univ]se1 ?an ! good ( any o!r2 unless1 t is1 !re are special gr\nds = believ+ t m good is likely to be realis$ 9 ! "o case ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,& x is evid5t to me t z a rational be+ ,i am b\nd to aim at good g5]ally1--s f> z x is atta9able by my ef=ts1--n m]ely at a p>ticul> "p ( x4 ,f ^! two rational intuitions we may d$uce1 z a necess>y inf]5ce1 ! maxim ( ,b5evol5ce 9 an ab/ract =m3 viz4 t ea* "o is morally b\nd to reg>d ! good ( any o!r individual z mu* z 8 own1 except 9 s f> z he judges x to be less1 :5 imp>tially view$1 or less c]ta9ly kn[able or atta9able by him4 ,i be=e obs]v$ t ! duty ( ,b5evol5ce z recognis$ by common s5se seems to fall some:at %ort ( ?is4 ,b ,i ?9k x may be fairly urg$ 9 explanation ( ?is t practically ea* man1 ev5 ) a view to univ]sal ,good1 ought *iefly to conc]n himself ) promot+ ! good ( a limit$ numb] ( human be+s1 & t g5]ally 9 proportion to ! clos5ess ( _! connexion ) him4 ,i ?9k t a #8pla9 man1' 9 a mod]n civilis$ society1 if 8 consci5ce 7 fairly br\ght to consid] ! hypo!tical "q1 :e!r x w\ld be morally "r = him to seek 8 own happ9ess on any occasion if x involv$ a c]ta9 sacrifice ( ! great] happ9ess ( "s o!r human be+1--)\t any c\nt]balanc+ ga9 to any "o else1--w\ld answ] unhesitat+ly 9 ! negative4 ,i h tri$ to %[ h[ 9 ! pr9ciples ( ,ju/ice1 ,prud5ce1 & ,rational ,b5evol5ce z commonly recognis$ !re is at lea/ a self-evid5t elem5t1 imm$iately cognisable by ab/ract intuition2 dep5d+ 9 ea* case on ! relation :i* individuals & _! p>ticul> ends be> z p>ts to _! :oles1 & to o!r p>ts ( ^! :oles4 ,i reg>d ! appreh5sion1 ) m or less di/9ctness1 ( ^! ab/ract tru?s1 z ! p]man5t basis ( ! common conviction t ! fundam5tal precepts ( morality are ess5tially reasonable4 ,no d\bt ^! pr9ciples are (t5 plac$ side by side ) o!r precepts to :i* cu/om & g5]al cons5t h giv5 a m]ely illusory air ( self-evid5ce3 b ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two k9ds ( maxims appe>s to me to become manife/ by m]ely reflect+ ^u !m4 ,i "k by direct reflection t ! propositions1 #8,i ought to speak ! tru?1' #8,i ought to keep my promises'--h[ev] true !y may be--are n self-evid5t to me2 !y pres5t !mselves z propositions requir+ rational ju/ification ( "s k9d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! propositions1 #8,i ought n to pref] a pres5t less] good to a future great] good1' & #8,i ought n to pref] my own less] good to ! great] good ( ano!r1'#bhf d pres5t !mselves z self-evid5t2 z mu* 7e4g47 z ! ma!matical axiom t #8if equals be add$ to equals ! :oles are equal4' ,x is on acc\nt ( ! fundam5tal & manife/ importance1 9 my view1 ( ! di/9ction above drawn betwe5 7#a7 ! moral maxims :i* reflection %[s n to possess ultimate validity1 & 7#b7 ! moral maxims :i* are or involve g5u9e e?ical axioms1 t ,i refra9$ at ! outset ( ?is inve/igation f ent]+ at l5g? into ! psy*ogonical "q z to ! orig9 ( app>5t moral intuitions4 ,= no psy*ogonical !ory has ev] be5 put =w>d pr(ess+ to discr$it ! propositions t ,i reg>d z really axiomatic1 by %[+ t ! causes :i* produc$ !m 7 su* z _h a t5d5cy to make !m false3 :ile z reg>ds ! =m] class ( maxims1 a psy*ogonical pro( t !y are untru/wor?y :5 tak5 z absolutely & )\t qualification true is 9 my view1 sup]flu\s3 s9ce direct reflection %[s me !y h no claim to be s tak54 ,on ! o!r h&1 s f> z psy*ogonical !ory repres5ts moral rules z1 speak+ broadly & g5]ally1 means to ! ends ( individual & social good or well-be+1 x obvi\sly t5ds to give a g5]al support to ! conclusions to :i* ! prec$+ discussion has br\ght u by a diff]5t me?od3 s9ce x leads u to reg>d o!r moral rules z subord9ate to ! pr9ciples ( ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce4#bhg #d4 ,i %\ld1 h[ev]1 rely less confid5tly on ! conclusions set =? 9 ! prec$+ section1 if !y did n appe> to me to be 9 sub/antial agreem5t--9 spite ( sup]ficial diff]5ces--) ! doctr9es ( ^? morali/s :o h be5 mo/ 9 e>ne/ 9 seek+ among commonly receiv$ moral rules = g5u9e intuitions ( ! ,practical ,reason4 ,i h already po9t$ out#bhh t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,engli% ,e?ics ! e>li] intuitional s*ool %[1 9 ?is respect1 a turn ( ?\ght on ! :ole m philosophical ?an t :i* ! reaction aga9/ ,hume r5d]$ preval5t4 ,among ! writ]s ( ?is s*ool !re is no "o :o %[s m e>ne/ness 9 ! ef=t to p5etrate to really self-evid5t pr9ciples ?an ,cl>ke4#bhi ,accord+ly1 ,i f9d t ,cl>ke lays d[n1 9 respect ( our behavi\r t[>ds our fell[-m51 two fundam5tal 8rules ( righte\sness03#bij ! fir/ ( :i* he t]ms ,equity1 & ! second ,love or ,b5evol5ce4 ,! ,rule ( ,equity he /ates ?us3 8,:atev] ,i judge reasonable or unreasonable t ano!r %\ld d = me3 t by ! same judgm5t ,i decl>e reasonable or unreasonable t ,i %\ld 9 ! l case d = him0#bia--:i* is ( c\rse1 ! #8,gold5 ,rule' precisely /at$4 ,! obligation to 8,univ]sal ,love or ,b5evol5ce0 he exhibits z foll[s3-- 8,if !re be a natural & necess>y diff]5ce betwe5 ,good & ,evil3 & t :i* is ,good is fit & reasonable1 & t :i* is ,evil is unreasonable1 to be done3 & t :i* is ! ,greate/ ,good is always ! mo/ fit & reasonable to be *os53 !n 444 e rational creature ought 9 its sph]e & /ation1 accord+ to its respective p[]s & faculties1 to d all ! ,good x c to its fell[-creatures3 to :i* end1 univ]sal ,love & ,b5evol5ce is pla9ly ! mo/ c]ta91 direct1 & effectual means40#bib ,"h ! m]e /atem5t t a rational ag5t is b\nd to aim at univ]sal good is op5 to ! *>ge ( tautology1 s9ce ,cl>ke def9es #8,good' z 't :i* is fit & reasonable to be done4' ,b ,cl>ke obvi\sly holds t ea* individual #8rational creature' is capable ( receiv+ good 9 a great] or less degree1 su* good be+ an integrant "p ( univ]sal good4 ,?is inde$ is impli$ 9 ! common notion1 :i* he uses1 ( #8do+ ,good to "o's fell[-creatures1' or1 z he o!rwise expresses x1 #8promot+ _! welf>e & happ9ess4' ,& ?us 8 pr9ciple is implicitly :at 0 /at$ above1 t ! good or welf>e ( any "o individual mu/ z su* be an object ( rational aim to any o!r reasonable individual no less ?an 8 own simil> good or welf>e4 7,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! proposition t ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce is ! "r means to ! atta9m5t ( univ]sal good1 is n q self-evid5t2 s9ce ! end may n always be be/ atta9$ by directly aim+ at x4 ,?us ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 l ,rational ,self-,love1 may be self-limit+2 may direct its own p>tial suppression 9 fav\r ( o!r impulses47 ,among lat] morali/s1 ,kant is especially not$ = 8 rig\r 9 sep>at+ ! purely rational elem5t ( ! moral code3 & 8 e?ical view also appe>s to me to co9cide to a consid]able ext5t1 if n completely1 ) t set =? 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,i h already notic$ t 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple ( duty is ! #8=mal' rule ( 8act+ on a maxim t "o c w to be law univ]sal02 :i*1 duly re/rict$1#bic is an imm$iate practical coroll>y f ! pr9ciple t ,i fir/ notic$ 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,& we f9d t :5 he comes to consid] ! ends at :i* virtu\s action is aim$1 ! only really ultimate end :i* he lays d[n is ! object ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce z commonly conceiv$--! happ9ess ( o!r m54#bid ,he reg>ds x z evid5t a priori t ea* man z a rational ag5t is b\nd to aim at ! happ9ess ( o!r m53 inde$1 9 8 view1 x c only be /at$ z a duty = me to seek my own happ9ess s f> z ,i consid] x z a "p ( ! happ9ess ( mank9d 9 g5]al4 ,i disagree ) ! negative side ( ?is /atem5t1 z ,i hold ) ,butl] t 8"o's own happ9ess is a manife/ obligation0 indep5d5tly ( "o's relation to o!r m52 b1 reg>d$ on its positive side1 ,kant's conclusion appe>s to agree to a great ext5t ) ! view ( ! duty ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce t ,i h giv53--?\gh ,i am n altoge!r able to ass5t to ! argum5ts by :i* ,kant arrives at 8 conclusion4#bie #e4 ,i mu/ n[ po9t out--if x has n long be5 app>5t to ! read]--t ! self-evid5t pr9ciples laid d[n 9 #c d n specially belong to ,intuitionism 9 ! re/rict$ s5se :i*1 = cle> di/9ction ( me?ods1 ,i gave to ?is t]m at ! outset ( our inve/igation4 ,! axiom ( ,prud5ce1 z ,i h giv5 x1 is a self-evid5t pr9ciple1 impli$ 9 ,rational ,egoism z commonly accept$4#bif ,aga91 ! axiom ( ,ju/ice or ,equity z above /at$--#8t simil> cases ought to be treat$ simil>ly'--belongs 9 all its applications to ,utilit>ianism z mu* z to any sy/em commonly call$ ,intuitional3 :ile ! axiom ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce is1 9 my view1 requir$ z a rational basis = ! ,utilit>ian sy/em4 ,accord+ly1 ,i f9d t ,i arrive1 9 my se>* = really cle> & c]ta9 e?ical intuitions1 at ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 admit t ! ?9k]s :o 9 rec5t times h taught ?is latt] sy/em1 h n1 = ! mo/ "p1 expressly tri$ to exhibit ! tru? ( _! fir/ pr9ciple by means ( any su* proc$ure z t above giv54 ,/ill1 :5 ,i exam9e ! 8pro(0 ( ! 8pr9ciple ( ,utility0 pres5t$ by ! mo/ p]suasive & probably ! mo/ influ5tial among ,engli% expositors ( ,utilit>ianism1--,j4 ,s4 ,mill1--,i f9d ! ne$ ( "s su* proc$ure to complete ! argum5t v pla9 & palpable4 ,mill beg9s by expla9+#big t ?\gh 8que/ions ( ultimate ends are n am5able0 to 8pro( 9 ! ord9>y & popul> mean+ ( ! t]m10 !re is a 8l>g] mean+ ( ! ^w pro(0 9 :i* !y are am5able to x4 8,! subject10 he says1 is 8)9 ! cognisance ( ! rational faculty4444 ,consid]ations may be pres5t$ capable ( det]m9+ ! intellect to0 accept 8! ,utilit>ian =mula40 ,he subsequ5tly makes cle> t by 8acceptance ( ! ,utilit>ian =mula0 he means ! acceptance1 n ( ! ag5t's own greate/ happ9ess1 b ( 8! greate/ am\nt ( happ9ess altoge!r0 z ! ultimate 8end ( human action0 & 8/&>d ( morality03 to promote :i* is1 9 ! ,utilit>ian view1 ! supreme 8directive rule ( human conduct40 ,!n :5 he comes to give ! 8pro(0--9 ! l>g] s5se be=e expla9$--( ?is rule or =mula1 he (f]s ! foll[+ argum5t4 8,! sole evid5ce x is possible to produce t any?+ is desirable1 is t p d actually desire x4444 ,no reason c be giv5 :y ! g5]al happ9ess is desirable1 except t ea* p]son1 s f> z he believes x to be atta9able1 desires 8 own happ9ess4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 be+ a fact1 we h n only all ! pro( :i* ! case admits (1 b all :i* x is possible to require1 t happ9ess is a good3 t ea* p]son's happ9ess is a good to t p]son1 & ! g5]al happ9ess1 !re=e1 a good to ! aggregate ( p]sons40#bih ,he !n goes on to argue t pleasure1 & pleasure alone1 is :at all m5 actually d desire4 ,n[1 z we h se51 x is z a 8/&>d ( "r & wrong10 or 8directive rule ( conduct10 t ! utilit>ian pr9ciple is put =w>d by ,mill3 h5ce1 9 giv+ z a /atem5t ( ?is pr9ciple t 8! g5]al happ9ess is desirable10 he mu/ be und]/ood to mean 7& 8 :ole treatise %[s t he does mean7 t x is :at ea* individual ought to desire1 or at lea/--9 ! /rict] s5se ( #8ought'--to aim at realis+ 9 action4#bii ,b ?is proposition is n e/abli%$ by ,mill's reason+1 ev5 if we grant t :at is actually desir$ may be legitimately inf]r$ to be 9 ?is s5se desirable4 ,= an aggregate ( actual desires1 ea* direct$ t[>ds a diff]5t "p ( ! g5]al happ9ess1 does n con/itute an actual desire = ! g5]al happ9ess1 exi/+ 9 any individual2 & ,mill w\ld c]ta9ly n cont5d t a desire :i* does n exi/ 9 any individual c possibly exi/ 9 an aggregate ( individuals4 ,!re be+ !re=e no actual desire--s f> z ?is reason+ goes--= ! g5]al happ9ess1 ! proposition t ! g5]al happ9ess is desirable _c be 9 ?is way e/abli%$3 s t !re is a gap 9 ! express$ argum5t1 :i* c1 ,i ?9k1 only be fill$ by "s su* proposition z t :i* ,i h above tri$ to exhibit z ! intuition ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce4 ,utilit>ianism is ?us pres5t$ z ! f9al =m into :i* ,intuitionism t5ds to pass1 :5 ! dem& = really self-evid5t fir/ pr9ciples is rigor\sly press$4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to make ?is transition logically complete1 we require to int]pret #8,univ]sal ,good' z #8,univ]sal ,happ9ess4' ,& ?is int]pretation _c1 9 my view1 be ju/ifi$ by argu+1 z ,mill does1 f ! psy*ological fact t ,happ9ess is ! sole object ( m5's actual desires1 to ! e?ical conclusion t x alone is desirable or good2 because 9 ,book i4 *ap4 iv4 ( ?is treatise ,i h attempt$ to %[ t ,happ9ess or ,pleasure is n ! only object t ea* = himself actually desires4 ,! id5tification ( ,ultimate ,good ) ,happ9ess is prop]ly to be rea*$1 ,i ?9k1 by a m indirect mode ( reason+2 :i* ,i w endeav\r to expla9 9 ! next ,*apt]4 ,,note4--,! great influ5ce at pres5t ex]cis$ by ,kant's tea*+ makes x wor? :ile to /ate briefly ! argum5ts by :i* he attempts to e/abli% ! duty ( promot+ ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 & ! reasons :y ,i am unable to reg>d ^! argum5ts z cog5t4 ,9 "s passages he attempts to exhibit ?is duty z an imm$iate d$uction f 8 fundam5tal =mula--8act f a maxim t ?\ can/ w to be univ]sal law0--:5 consid]$ 9 comb9ation ) ! desire = ! k9d s]vices ( o!rs :i* 7z he assumes7 ! exig5cies ( life mu/ ar\se 9 e man4 ,! maxim1 he says1 8t ea* %\ld be left to take c>e ( himself )\t ei!r aid or int]f]5ce10 is "o t we might inde$ conceive exi/+ z a univ]sal law3 b x w\ld be impossible = u to w x to be su*4 8,a w t resolv$ ?is w\ld be inconsi/5t ) itself1 = _m cases may arise 9 :i* ! individual ?us will+ ne$s ! b5evol5ce & sympa?y ( o!rs0 7,grundlegung1 p4 #ej ,ros5krantz74 ,simil>ly else:]e 7,metaph4 ,anfangsgr4 d4 ,tug5dlehre1 ,e9leit4 #h & #cj7 he expla9s at m l5g? t ! ,self-love :i* necess>ily exi/s 9 e "o involves ! desire ( be+ lov$ by o!rs & receiv+ aid f !m 9 case ( ne$4 ,we ?us necess>ily con/itute ourselves an end = o!rs1 & claim t !y %all contribute to our happ9ess3 & s1 accord+ to ,kant's fundam5tal pr9ciple1 we mu/ recognise ! duty ( mak+ _! happ9ess our end4 ,n[ ,i _c reg>d ?is reason+ z /rictly cog5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 t e man 9 ne$ wi%es = ! aid ( o!rs is an empirical proposition :i* ,kant _c "k a priori4 ,we c c]ta9ly conceive a man 9 :om ! _s ( indep5d5ce & ! di/a/e = incurr+ obligations w\ld be s /rong t he w\ld *oose to endure any privations r ?an receive aid f o!rs4 ,b ev5 grant+ t e "o1 9 ! actual mom5t ( di/ress1 mu/ necess>ily wi% = ! assi/ance ( o!rs2 /ill a /rong man1 aft] balanc+ ! *ances ( life1 may easily ?9k t he & su* z he h m to ga91 on ! :ole1 by ! g5]al adoption ( ! egoi/ic maxim2 b5evol5ce be+ likely to br+ !m m tr\ble ?an pr(it4 ,9 o!r passages1 h[ev]1 ,kant rea*es ! same conclusion by an app>5tly diff]5t l9e ( argum5t4 ,he lays d[n t1 z all action ( rational be+s is done = "s end1 !re mu/ be "s absolute end1 correspond+ to ! absolute rule be=e giv51 t imposes on our maxims ! =m ( univ]sal law4 ,?is absolute end1 prescrib$ by ,reason necess>ily & a priori = all rational be+s z su*1 c be no?+ b ,reason itself1 or ! ,univ]se ( ,rationals2 = :at ! rule inculcates is1 9 fact1 t we %\ld act z rational units 9 a univ]se ( rational be+s 7& !re=e on pr9ciples conceiv$ & embrac$ z univ]sally applicable74 ,or aga91 we may rea* ! same result negatively4 ,= all p>ticul> ends at :i* m5 aim are con/itut$ su* by ! exi/5ce ( impulses direct$ t[>ds "s p>ticul> objects4 ,n[ we _c tell a priori t any "o ( ^! special impulses =ms "p ( ! con/itution ( all m53 & !re=e we _c /ate x z an absolute dictate ( ,reason t we %\ld aim at any su* special object4 ,if1 !n1 we ?us exclude all p>ticul> empirical ends1 !re rema9s only ! pr9ciple t 8all ,rational be+s z su* are ends to ea*03 or1 z ,kant sometimes puts x1 t 8humanity exi/s z an end 9 itself40 ,n[1 says ,kant1 s long z ,i conf9e myself to m]e non-int]f]5ce ) o!rs1 ,i d n positively make ,humanity my end2 my aims rema9 selfi%1 ?\gh re/rict$ by ?is condition ( non-int]f]5ce ) o!rs4 ,my action1 !re=e1 is n truly virtu\s2 = ,virtue is exhibit$ & consi/s 9 ! ef=t to realise ! end ( ,reason 9 opposition to m]e selfi% impulses4 ,!re=e 8! ends ( ! subject1 :i* is itself an end1 mu/ ( necessity be my ends1 if ! repres5tation ( ,humanity z an end 9 itself is to h its full weight ) me0 7,grundlegung1 p4 #ei71 & my action is to be truly rational & virtu\s4 ,"h1 aga91 ,i _c accept ! =m ( ,kant's argum5t4 ,! conception ( 8humanity z an end 9 itself0 is p]plex+3 because by an ,end we commonly mean some?+ to be realis$1 :]eas 8humanity0 is1 z ,kant says1 8a self-subsi/5t end03 moreov]1 !re seems to be a sort ( p>alogism 9 ! d$uction ( ! pr9ciple ( ,b5evol5ce by means ( ?is conception4 ,= ! humanity :i* ,kant ma9ta9s to be an end 9 itself is ,man 7or ! aggregate ( m57 9 s f> z rational4 ,b ! subjective ends ( o!r m51 :i* ,b5evol5ce directs u to take z our own ends1 w\ld seem1 accord+ to ,kant's own view1 to dep5d ^u & correspond to _! non-rational impulses--_! empirical desires & av]sions4 ,x is h>d to see :y1 if man z a rational be+ is an absolute end to o!r rational be+s1 !y mu/ !re=e adopt 8 subjective aims z det]m9$ by 8 non-rational impulses4 ,,footnotes3 #bhj ,cf4 ante1 ,book i4 *ap4 viii4 #d4 #bha ,i am fully s5sible ( ! peculi> int]e/ & value ( ! e?ical ?\ght ( anci5t ,greece4 ,inde$ ?r\gh a l>ge "p ( ! pres5t "w ! influ5ce ( ,plato & ,ari/otle on my treatm5t ( ?is subject has be5 great] ?an t ( any mod]n writ]4 ,b ,i am "h only consid]+ ! value ( ! g5]al pr9ciples = det]m9+ :at ought to be done1 :i* ! anci5t sy/ems pr(ess to supply4 #bhb ,! foll[+ rem>ks apply less to lat] ,/oicism--especially ! ,roman ,/oicism :i* we "k at fir/ h& 9 ! writ+s ( ,s5eca & ,m>cus ,aurelius2 9 :i* ! relation ( ! individual man to ,humanity g5]ally is m prom95t ?an x is 9 ! e>li] =m ( ! sy/em4 #bhc ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t 9 det]m9+ ! p>ticul>s ( ext]nal duty ! ,/oics to "s ext5t us$ ! notion #8nature' 9 a diff]5t way3 !y tri$ to d]ive guidance f ! complex adaptation ( means to ends exhibit$ 9 ! organic _w4 ,b s9ce 9 _! view ! :ole c\rse ( ! ,univ]se 0 bo? p]fect & completely pr$et]m9$1 x 0 impossible = !m to obta9 f any obs]vation ( actual exi/5ce a cle> & consi/5t pr9ciple = pref]r+ & reject+ alt]natives ( conduct3 & 9 fact _! mo/ *>act]i/ic practical precepts %[ a curi\s conflict betwe5 ! t5d5cy to accept :at 0 cu/om>y z #8natural1' & ! t5d5cy to reject :at seem$ arbitr>y z unreasonable4 #bhd ,cf4 ,analogy1 ,"p ii4 *ap4 i4 & *ap4 viii4 #bhe ,cf4 ante1 note to p4 #abd4 #bhf ,to avoid misappreh5sion ,i %\ld /ate t 9 ^! propositions ! consid]ation ( ! diff]5t degrees ( c]ta9ty ( ,pres5t & ,future ,good1 ,own & ,o!rs' ,good respectively1 is suppos$ to h be5 fully tak5 into acc\nt be=e ! future or ali5 ,good is judg$ to be great]4 #bhg ,x may1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght t 9 exhibit+ ?is aspect ( ! morality ( ,common ,s5se1 psy*ogonical !ory leads u to def9e 9 a p>ticul> way ! g5]al notion ( #8good' or #8well-be+1' reg>d$ z a result :i* morality has a demon/rable natural t5d5cy to produce4 ,?is po9t w be consid]$ subsequ5tly 7*ap4 xiv4 #a ( ?is ,book3 & ,book iv4 *ap4 iv474 #bhh ,cf4 ante1 ,book i4 *ap4 viii4 ,note1 pp4 #ajc1 #ajd4 #bhi ,9 draw+ att5tion to ,cl>ke's sy/em1 ,i ought p]haps to rem>k t 8 anxiety to exhibit ! p>allelism betwe5 e?ical & ma!matical tru? 7on :i* ,locke be=e him _h insi/$7 r5d]s 8 g5]al t]m9ology inappropriate1 & occasionally leads him into d[nright extravagances4 ,e4g4 x is pat5tly absurd to say t 8a man :o wilfully acts contr>y to ,ju/ice wills ?+s to be :at !y are n & _c be03 nor are 8,relations & ,proportions0 or 8fitnesses & unfitnesses ( ?+s0 v suitable designations = ! matt] ( moral intuition4 ,b = ! pres5t purpose !re is no reason to dwell on ^! defects4 #bij ,cl>ke's /atem5t ( ! 8,rule ( ,righte\sness ) respect to ourselves0 ,i pass ov]1 because x is1 z he /ates x1 a d]ivative & subord9ate rule4 ,x is t we %\ld pres]ve our be+1 be temp]ate1 indu/ri\s1 etc41 ) a view to ! p]=mance ( ,duty3 :i* ( c\rse supposes ,duty 7i4e4 ! ultimate & absolute rules ( ,duty7 already det]m9$4 ,i may obs]ve t ! reasonabl5ess ( ,prud5ce or ,self-love is only recognis$ by ,cl>ke indirectly2 9 a passage :i* ,i quot$ be=e 7p4 #abj74 #bia ,boyle ,lectures 7#agje71 etc41 pp4 #hf1 #hg4 #bib l4c4 p4 #ib4 #bic ,i ?9k t ,kant1 9 apply+ ?is axiom1 does n take due acc\nt ( c]ta9 re/rictive consid]ations4 ,cf4 *ap4 vii4 #c ( ?is ,book1 & also ,book iv4 *ap4 v4 #c4 #bid ,kant no d\bt gives ! ag5t's own ,p]fection z ano!r absolute end2 b :5 we come to exam9e 8 notion ( p]fection1 we f9d t x is n really det]m9ate )\t ! /atem5t ( o!r ends ( reason1 = ! accompli%m5t ( :i* we are to p]fect ourselves4 ,see ,met4 ,anfangsgr4 d4 ,tug5dlehre1 ,i4 ,!il1 v4 8,! p]fection t belongs to m5 g5]ally 444 c be no?+ else ?an ! cultivation ( "o's p[]1 & also ( "o's w1 to satisfy ! requirem5ts ( duty 9 g5]al40 #bie ,see note at ! end ( ! *apt]4 #bif ,on ! relation ( ,rational ,egoism to ,rational ,b5evol5ce--:i* ,i reg>d z ! pr(\nde/ problem ( ,e?ics--my f9al view is giv5 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is treatise4 #big ,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 i4 pp4 #f1 #g1 & *ap4 ii4 pp4 #af1 #ag4 #bih l4c4 *ap4 iv4 pp4 #eb1 #ec4 #bii ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ,i h ov]look$ a confusion 9 ,mill's m9d betwe5 two possible mean+s ( ! t]m #8desirable1' 7#a7 :at c be desir$ & 7#b7 :at ought to be desir$4 ,i int5d$ to %[ by ! two fir/ s5t5ces ( ?is p>agraph t ,i 0 aw>e ( ?is confusion1 b ?\ght x unnecess>y = my pres5t purpose to discuss x4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,ultimate ,,good #a4 ,at ! outset ( ?is treatise#cjj ,i notic$ t !re are two =ms 9 :i* ! object ( e?ical inquiry is consid]$2 x is sometimes reg>d$ z a ,rule or ,rules ( ,conduct1 #8! ,"r1' sometimes z an end or ends1 #8! ,good4' ,i po9t$ out t 9 ! moral consci\sness ( mod]n ,europe ! two notions are prima facie di/9ct2 s9ce :ile x is commonly ?\ght t ! obligation to obey moral rules is absolute1 x is n commonly held t ! :ole ,good ( man lies 9 su* ob$i5ce2 ?is view1 we may say1 is--vaguely & respectfully b unmi/akably--repudiat$ z a ,/oical p>adox4 ,! ultimate ,good or ,wellbe+ ( man is r reg>d$ z an ult]ior result1 ! connexion ( :i* ) 8 ,"r ,conduct is inde$ commonly held to be c]ta91 b is frequ5tly conceiv$ z sup]natural1 & s beyond ! range ( indep5d5t e?ical speculation4 ,b n[1 if ! conclusions ( ! prec$+ *apt]s are to be tru/$1 x w\ld seem t ! practical det]m9ation ( ,"r ,conduct dep5ds on ! det]m9ation ( ,ultimate ,good4 ,= we h se5 7a7 t mo/ ( ! commonly receiv$ maxims ( ,duty--ev5 ( ^? :i* at fir/ sight appe> absolute & indep5d5t--are f\nd :5 closely exam9$ to conta9 an implicit subord9ation to ! m g5]al pr9ciples ( ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce3 & 7b7 t no pr9ciples except ^!1 & ! =mal pr9ciple ( ,ju/ice or ,equity c be admitt$ z at once intuitively cle> & c]ta92 :ile1 aga91 ^! pr9ciples !mselves1 s f> z !y are self-evid5t1 may be /at$ z precepts to seek 7#a7 "o's own good on ! :ole1 repress+ all s$uctive impulses prompt+ to undue pref]5ce ( p>ticul> goods1 & 7#b7 o!rs' good no less ?an "o's own1 repress+ any undue pref]5ce = "o individual ov] ano!r4 ,?us we are br\ght r\nd aga9 to ! old "q ) :i* e?ical speculation 9 ,europe began1 #8,:at is ! ,ultimate ,good = man8'--?\gh n 9 ! egoi/ic =m 9 :i* ! old "q 0 rais$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we exam9e ! controv]sies to :i* ?is "q orig9ally l$1 we see t ! inve/igation :i* has br\ght u r\nd to x has t5d$ def9itely to exclude "o ( ! answ]s :i* e>ly moral reflection 0 dispos$ to give to x4 ,= to say t #8,g5]al ,good' consi/s solely 9 g5]al ,virtue1--if we mean by ,virtue con=mity to su* prescriptions & prohibitions z make up ! ma9 "p ( ! morality ( ,common ,s5se--w\ld obvi\sly involve u 9 a logical circle2 s9ce we h se5 t ! exact det]m9ation ( ^! prescriptions & prohibitions mu/ dep5d on ! def9ition ( ?is ,g5]al ,good4 ,nor1 ,i conceive1 c ?is argum5t be evad$ by adopt+ ! view ( :at ,i h call$ #8/hetic ,intuitionism' & reg>d+ ,virtues z excell5ces ( conduct cle>ly disc]nible by tra9$ insight1 al?\gh _! nature does n admit ( be+ /at$ 9 def9ite =mul4 ,= our notions ( special virtues d n really become m indep5d5t by becom+ m indef9ite3 !y /ill conta91 ?\gh p]haps m lat5tly1 ! same ref]5ce to #8,good' or #8,wellbe+' z an ultimate /&>d4 ,?is appe>s cle>ly :5 we consid] any virtue 9 relation to ! cognate vice--or at lea/ non-virtue--into :i* x t5ds to pass ov] :5 pu%$ to an extreme1 or exhibit$ "u inappropriate conditions4 ,= example1 ,common ,s5se may seem to reg>d ,lib]ality1 ,frugality1 ,c\rage1 ,placability1 z intr9sically desirable3 b :5 we consid] _! relation respectively to ,pr(usion1 ,meanness1 ,foolh>d9ess1 ,weakness1 we f9d t ,common ,s5se draws ! l9e 9 ea* case n by imm$iate intuition1 b by ref]5ce ei!r to "s def9ite maxim ( duty1 or to ! g5]al notion ( #8,good' or ,wellbe+3 & simil>ly :5 we ask at :at po9t ,c&\r1 ,g5]osity1 ,humility cease to be virtues by becom+ #8excessive4' ,o!r qualities commonly admir$1 su* z ,en]gy1 ,zeal1 ,self-control1 ,?\ghtfulness1 are obvi\sly reg>d$ z virtues only :5 !y are direct$ to good ends4 ,9 %ort1 ! only s-call$ ,virtues :i* c be ?\ght to be ess5tially & always su*1 & incapable ( excess1 are su* qualities z ,wisdom1 ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce1 & 79 a s5se7 ,ju/ice2 ( :i* ! notions manife/ly involve ?is notion ( ,good1 suppos$ already det]m9ate4 ,wisdom is insight into ,good & ! means to ,good2 ,b5evol5ce is exhibit$ 9 ! purposive actions call$ 8do+ ,good03 ,ju/ice 7:5 reg>d$ z ess5tially & always a ,virtue7 lies 9 di/ribut+ ,good 7or evil7 imp>tially accord+ to "r rules4 ,if !n we are ask$ :at is ?is ,good :i* x is excell5t to "k1 to be/[ on o!rs1 to di/ribute imp>tially1 x w\ld be obvi\sly absurd to reply t x is j ?is k1 ^! b5efic5t purposes1 ?is imp>tial di/ribution4 ,nor1 aga91 c ,i p]ceive t ?is difficulty is 9 any way met by reg>d+ ,virtue z a quality ( 8"*0 r ?an ( 8conduct10 & express+ ! moral law 9 ! =m1 8,be ?is10 in/ead ( ! =m 8,d ?is40#cja ,f a practical po9t ( view1 inde$1 ,i fully recognise ! importance ( urg+ t m5 %\ld aim at an ideal ( "*1 & consid] action 9 its effects on "*4 ,b ,i _c inf] f ?is t "* & its elem5ts--faculties1 habits1 or dispositions ( any k9d--are ! con/itu5ts ( ,ultimate ,good4 ,x seems to me t ! opposite is impli$ 9 ! v conception ( a faculty or disposition2 x c only be def9$ z a t5d5cy to act or feel 9 a c]ta9 way "u c]ta9 conditions2 & su* a t5d5cy appe>s to me cle>ly n valuable 9 itself b = ! acts & feel+s 9 :i* x takes effect1 or = ! ult]ior consequ5ces ( ^!1--:i* consequ5ces1 aga91 _c be reg>d$ z ,ultimate ,good1 s long z !y are m]ely conceiv$ z modifications ( faculties1 dispositions1 etc4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,i say t effects on "* are important1 x is a summ>y way ( say+ t by ! laws ( our m5tal con/itution ! pres5t act or feel+ is a cause t5d+ to modify importantly our acts & feel+s 9 ! indef9ite future3 ! comp>atively p]man5t result suppos$ to be produc$ 9 ! m9d or s\l1 be+ a t5d5cy t w %[ itself 9 an indef9ite numb] ( p>ticul> acts & feel+s1 may easily be m important1 9 relation to ! ultimate end1 ?an a s+le act or ! transi5t feel+ ( a s+le mom5t3 b its comp>ative p]man5ce appe>s to me no gr\nd = reg>d+ x z itself a con/itu5t ( ultimate good4 #b4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 ,i h be5 speak+ only ( p>ticul> virtues1 z exhibit$ 9 conduct judg$ to be objectively "r3 & x may be argu$ t ?is is too ext]nal a view ( ! ,virtue t claims to con/itute ,ultimate ,good4 ,x may be said t ! difficulty t ,i h be5 urg+ vani%es if we p5etrate beyond ! p>ticul> virtues to ! root & ess5ce ( virtue 9 g5]al1--! det]m9ation ( ! w to d :atev] is judg$ to be "r & to aim at realis+ :atev] is judg$ to be be/--2 s9ce ?is subjective rightness or goodness ( w1 be+ indep5d5t ( k ( :at is objectively "r or good1 is indep5d5t ( t presupposition ( ,good z already kn[n & det]m9$1 :i* we h se5 to be impli$ 9 ! common conceptions ( virtue z manife/$ 9 outw>d acts4 ,i admit t if subjective rightness or goodness ( ,w is affirm$ to be ! ,ultimate ,good1 ! affirmation does n exactly involve ! logical difficulty t ,i h be5 urg+4 ,none ! less is x fundam5tally oppos$ to ,common ,s5se2 s9ce ! v notion ( subjective rightness or goodness ( w implies an objective /&>d1 :i* x directs u to seek1 b does n pr(ess to supply4 ,x w\ld be a palpable & viol5t p>adox to set be=e ! "r-seek+ m9d no end except ?is "r-seek+ itself1 & to affirm ?is to be ! sole ,ultimate ,good1 d5y+ t any effects ( "r volition c be 9 !mselves good1 except ! subjective rightness ( future volitions1 :e!r ( self or ( o!rs4 ,x is true t no rule c be recognis$1 by any reasonable individual1 z m au?oritative ?an ! rule ( do+ :at he judges to be "r2 =1 9 delib]at+ ) a view to my own imm$iate action1 ,i _c di/+ui% betwe5 do+ :at is objectively "r1 & realis+ my own subjective conception ( rightness4 ,b we are cont9ually =c$ to make ! di/9ction z reg>ds ! actions ( o!rs & to judge t conduct may be objectively wrong ?\gh subjectively "r3 & we cont9ually judge conduct to be objectively wrong because x t5ds to cause pa9 & loss ( happ9ess to o!rs1--ap>t f any effect on ! subjective rightness ( _! volitions4 ,x is z s judg+ t we commonly recognise ! mis*ief & dang] ( fanaticism3--mean+ by a fanatic a man :o resolutely & unsw]v+ly c>ries out 8 own conception ( rightness1 :5 x is a pla9ly mi/ak5 conception4 ,! same result may be rea*$ ev5 )\t suppos+ s palpable a divorce betwe5 subjective & objective rightness ( volition z is impli$ 9 ! notion ( fanaticism4 ,z ,i h already po9t$ out1#cjb ?\gh ! #8dictates ( ,reason' are always to be obey$1 x does n foll[ t #8! dictation ( ,reason'--! pr$om9ance ( consci\sly moral ov] non-moral motives--is to be promot$ )\t limits2 & inde$ ,common ,s5se appe>s to hold t "s ?+s are likely to be bett] done1 if !y are done f o!r motives ?an consci\s ob$i5ce to practical ,reason or ,consci5ce4 ,x ?us becomes a practical "q h[ f> ! dictation ( ,reason1 ! pr$om9ance ( moral *oice & moral ef=t 9 human life1 is a result to be aim$ at3 & ! admission ( ?is "q implies t consci\s rightness ( volition is n ! sole ultimate good4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 we may conclude t nei!r 7#a7 subjective rightness or goodness ( volition1 z di/9ct f objective1 nor 7#b7 virtu\s "*1 except z manife/$ or realis$ 9 virtu\s conduct1 c be reg>d$ z con/itut+ ,ultimate ,good3 :ile1 aga91 we are preclud$ f id5tify+ ,ultimate ,good ) virtu\s conduct1 because our conceptions ( virtu\s conduct1 "u ! diff]5t heads or aspects d5ot$ by ! names ( ! p>ticul> virtues1 h be5 f\nd to presuppose ! prior det]m9ation ( ! notion ( ,good--t ,good :i* virtu\s conduct is conceiv$ z produc+ or promot+ or rightly di/ribut+4 ,& :at has be5 said ( ,virtue1 seems to me /ill m manife/ly true ( ! o!r tal5ts1 gifts1 & graces :i* make up ! common notion ( human excell5ce or ,p]fection4 ,h[ev] imm$iately ! excell5t quality ( su* gifts & skills may be recognis$ & admir$1 reflection %[s t !y are only valuable on acc\nt ( ! good or desirable consci\s life 9 :i* !y are or w be actualis$1 or :i* w be someh[ promot$ by _! ex]cise4 #c4 ,%all we !n say t ,ultimate ,good is ,good or ,desirable consci\s or s5ti5t ,life--( :i* ,virtu\s action is "o elem5t1 b n ! sole con/itu5t8 ,?is seems 9 h>mony ) ,common ,s5se2 & ! fact t p>ticul> virtues & tal5ts & gifts are l>gely valu$ z means to ult]ior good does n necess>ily prev5t u f reg>d+ _! ex]cise z also an elem5t ( ,ultimate ,good3 j z ! fact t physical action1 nutrition1 & repose1 duly proportion$ & comb9$1 are means to ! ma9t5ance ( our animal life1 does n prev5t u f reg>d+ !m z indisp5sable elem5ts ( su* life4 ,/ill x seems difficult to conceive any k9d ( activity or process z bo? means & end1 f precisely ! same po9t ( view & 9 respect ( precisely ! same quality3 & 9 bo? ! cases above m5tion$ x is1 ,i ?9k1 easy to di/+ui% ! aspect 9 :i* ! activities or processes 9 "q are to be reg>d$ z means f t 9 :i* !y are to be reg>d$ z 9 !mselves good or desirable4 ,let u exam9e ?is fir/ 9 ! case ( ! physical processes4 ,x is 9 _! purely physical aspect1 z complex processes ( corporeal *ange1 t !y are means to ! ma9t5ance ( life3 b s long z we conf9e our att5tion to _! corporeal aspect1--reg>d+ !m m]ely z complex movem5ts ( c]ta9 p>ticles ( organis$ matt]--x seems impossible to attribute to ^! movem5ts1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 ei!r goodness or badness4 ,i _c conceive x to be an ultimate end ( rational action to secure t ^! complex movem5ts %\ld be ( "o k9d r ?an ano!r1 or t !y %\ld be cont9u$ = a long] r ?an a %ort] p]iod4 ,9 %ort1 if a c]ta9 quality ( human ,life is t :i* is ultimately desirable1 x mu/ belong to human ,life reg>d$ on its psy*ical side1 or1 briefly1 ,consci\sness4 ,b aga93 x is n all life reg>d$ on its psy*ical side :i* we c judge to be ultimately desirable3 s9ce psy*ical life z kn[n to u includes pa9 z well z pleasure1 & s f> z x is pa9ful x is n desirable4 ,i _c !re=e accept a view ( ! wellbe+ or welf>e ( human be+s--z ( o!r liv+ ?+s--:i* is sugge/$ by curr5t zoological conceptions & app>5tly ma9ta9$ ) m or less def9it5ess by influ5tial writ]s2 accord+ to :i*1 :5 we attribute goodness or badness to ! mann] ( exi/5ce ( any liv+ organism1 we %\ld be und]/ood to attribute to x a t5d5cy ei!r 7#a7 to self-pres]vation1 or 7#b7 to ! pres]vation ( ! community or race to :i* x belongs--s t :at 8,wellbe+0 adds to m]e 8,be+0 is j promise ( future be+4 ,x appe>s to me t ?is doctr9e ne$s only to be di/9ctly contemplat$ 9 ord] to be reject$4 ,if all life 7 z little desirable z "s portions ( x h be51 9 my own exp]i5ce & 9 t 7,i believe7 ( all or mo/ m51 ,i %\ld judge all t5d5cy to ! pres]vation ( x to be unmitigat$ly bad4 ,actually1 no d\bt1 z we g5]ally hold t human life1 ev5 z n[ liv$1 has on ! av]age1 a balance ( happ9ess1 we reg>d :at is pres]vative ( life z g5]ally good1 & :at is de/ructive ( life z bad3 & ,i q admit t a mo/ fundam5tally important "p ( ! function ( morality consi/s 9 ma9ta9+ su* habits & s5tim5ts z are necess>y to ! cont9u$ exi/5ce1 9 full numb]s1 ( a society ( human be+s "u _! actual conditions ( life4 ,b ?is is n because ! m]e exi/5ce ( human organisms1 ev5 if prolong$ to et]nity1 appe>s to me 9 any way desirable2 x is only assum$ to be s because x is suppos$ to be accompani$ by ,consci\sness on ! :ole desirable2 x is !re=e ?is ,desirable ,consci\sness :i* we mu/ reg>d z ultimate ,good4 ,9 ! same way1 s f> z we judge virtu\s activity to be a "p ( ,ultimate ,good1 x is1 ,i conceive1 because ! consci\sness att5d+ x is judg$ to be 9 itself desirable = ! virtu\s ag5t2 ?\gh at ! same "t ?is consid]ation does n adequately repres5t ! importance ( ,virtue to human wellbe+1 s9ce we h to consid] its value z a means z well z its value z an end4 ,we may make ! di/9ction cle>] by consid]+ :e!r ,virtu\s life w\ld rema9 on ! :ole good = ! virtu\s ag5t1 if we suppose x comb9$ ) extreme pa94 ,! affirmative answ] to ?is "q 0 /rongly support$ 9 ,greek philosophical discussion3 b x is a p>adox f :i* a mod]n ?9k] w\ld recoil3 he w\ld h>dly v5ture to ass]t t ! portion ( life sp5t by a m>tyr 9 tortures 0 9 itself desirable1--?\gh x might be 8 duty to suff] ! pa9 ) a view to ! good ( o!rs1 & ev5 8 int]e/ to suff] x ) a view to 8 own ultimate happ9ess4 #d4 ,if !n ,ultimate ,good c only be conceiv$ z ,desirable ,consci\sness--includ+ ! ,consci\sness ( ,virtue z a "p b only z a "p--are we to id5tify ?is notion ) ,happ9ess or ,pleasure1 & say ) ! ,utilit>ians t ,g5]al ,good is g5]al happ9ess8 ,_m w\ld at ?is po9t ( ! discussion reg>d ?is conclusion z inevitable3 to say t all o!r ?+s call$ good are only means to ! end ( mak+ consci\s life bett] or m desirable1 seems to !m ! same z say+ t !y are means to ! end ( happ9ess4 ,b v important di/9ctions rema9 to be consid]$4 ,accord+ to ! view tak5 9 a previ\s *apt]1#cjc 9 affirm+ ,ultimate ,good to be ,happ9ess or ,pleasure1 we imply 7#a7 t no?+ is desirable except desirable feel+s1 & 7#b7 t ! desirability ( ea* feel+ is only directly cognisable by ! s5ti5t individual at ! "t ( feel+ x1 & t !re=e ?is p>ticul> judgm5t ( ! s5ti5t individual mu/ be tak5 z f9al#cjd on ! "q h[ f> ea* elem5t ( feel+ has ! quality ( ,ultimate ,good4 ,n[ no "o1 ,i conceive1 w\ld e/imate 9 any o!r way ! desirability ( feel+ consid]$ m]ely z feel+3 b x may be urg$ t our consci\s exp]i5ce includes besides ,feel+s1 ,cognitions & ,volitions1 & t ! desirability ( ^! mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 & is n to be e/imat$ by ! /&>d above /at$4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t :5 we reflect on a cognition z a transi5t fact ( an individual's psy*ical exp]i5ce1--di/+ui%+ x on ! "o h& f ! feel+ t normally accompanies x1 & on ! o!r h& f t relation ( ! kn[+ m9d to ! object kn[n :i* is impli$ 9 ! t]m 8true0 or 8valid cognition0#cje--;x is se5 to be an elem5t ( consci\sness q neutral 9 respect ( desirability3 & ! same may be said ( ,volitions1 :5 we ab/ract f _! concomitant feel+s1 & _! relation to an objective norm or ideal1 z well z f all _! consequ5ces4 ,x is no d\bt true t 9 ord9>y ?\ght c]ta9 /ates ( consci\sness--su* z ,cognition ( ,tru?1 ,contemplation ( ,beauty1 ,volition to realise ,fre$om or ,virtue--are sometimes judg$ to be pref]able on o!r gr\nds ?an _! pleasantness3 b ! g5]al explanation ( ?is seems to be 7z 0 sugge/$ 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 ii4 #b7 t :at 9 su* cases we really pref] is n ! pres5t consci\sness itself1 b ei!r effects on future consci\sness m or less di/9ctly =ese51 or else some?+ 9 ! objective relations ( ! consci\s be+1 n /rictly includ$ 9 8 pres5t consci\sness4 ,! second ( ^! alt]natives may p]haps be made cle>] by "s illu/rations4 ,a man may pref] ! m5tal /ate ( appreh5d+ tru? to ! /ate ( half-reliance on g5]ally accr$it$ fictions1#cjf :ile recognis+ t ! =m] /ate may be m pa9ful ?an ! latt]1 & indep5d5tly ( any effect :i* he expects ei!r /ate to h ^u 8 subsequ5t consci\sness4 ,"h1 on my view1 ! real object ( pref]5ce is n ! consci\sness ( kn[+ tru?1 consid]$ m]ely z consci\sness1--! elem5t ( pleasure or satisfaction 9 ?is be+ m ?an outweigh$ by ! concomitant pa91--b ! relation betwe5 ! m9d & some?+ else1 :i*1 z ! v notion ( #8tru?' implies1 is :atev] x is indep5d5tly ( our cognition ( x1 & :i* ,i !re=e call objective4 ,?is may become m cle> if we imag9e ourselves le>n+ aft]w>ds t :at we took = tru? is n really su*3 = 9 ?is case we %\ld c]ta9ly feel t our pref]5ce _h be5 mi/ak52 :]eas if our *oice _h really be5 betwe5 two elem5ts ( transi5t consci\sness1 its reasonabl5ess c\ld n be affect$ by any subsequ5t discov]y4 ,simil>ly1 a man may pref] fre$om & p5ury to a life ( luxuri\s s]vitude1 n because ! pleasant consci\sness ( be+ free outweighs 9 prospect all ! com=ts & securities t ! o!r life w\ld af=d1 b because he has a pr$om9ant av]sion to t relation betwe5 8 w & ! w ( ano!r :i* we call slav]y3 or1 aga91 a philosoph] may *oose :at he conceives z #8inn] fre$om'--! consi/5t self-det]m9ation ( ! w--r ?an ! gratifications ( appetite2 ?\gh recognis+ t ! latt] are m desirable1 consid]$ m]ely z transi5t feel+s4 ,9 ei!r case1 he w be l$ to reg>d 8 pref]5ce z mi/ak51 if he be aft]w>ds p]suad$ t 8 conception ( ,fre$om or self-det]m9ation 0 illusory2 t we are all slaves ( circum/ances1 de/9y1 etc4 ,s aga91 ! pref]5ce ( con=mity to ,virtue1 or contemplation ( ,beauty1 to a /ate ( consci\sness recognis$ z m pleasant seems to dep5d on a belief t "o's conception ( ,virtue or ,beauty corresponds to an ideal to "s ext5t objective & valid = all m9ds4 ,ap>t f any consid]ation ( future consequ5ces1 we %\ld g5]ally agree t a man :o sacrific$ happ9ess to an errone\s conception ( ,virtue or ,beauty made a mi/ak5 *oice4 ,/ill1 x may be said t ?is is m]ely a "q ( def9ition3 t we may take #8consci\s life' 9 a wide s5se1 s z to include ! objective relations ( ! consci\s be+ impli$ 9 our notions ( ,virtue1 ,tru?1 ,beauty1 ,fre$om2 & t f ?is po9t ( view we may reg>d cognition ( ,tru?1 contemplation ( ,beauty1 ,free or ,virtu\s action1 z 9 "s measure pref]able alt]natives to ,pleasure or ,happ9ess--ev5 ?\gh we admit t ,happ9ess mu/ be includ$ z a "p ( ,ultimate ,good4 ,9 ?is case ! pr9ciple ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 :i* 0 /at$ 9 ! la/ *apt] z an indubitable intuition ( ! practical ,reason1 w\ld n direct u to ! pursuit ( univ]sal happ9ess alone1 b ( ^! 8ideal goods0 z well1 z ends ultimately desirable = mank9d g5]ally4 #e4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t ?is view ought n to comm5d itself to ! sob] judgm5t ( reflective p]sons4 ,9 ord] to %[ ?is1 ,i mu/ ask ! read] to use ! same tw(old proc$ure t ,i be=e reque/$ him to employ 9 consid]+ ! absolute & indep5d5t validity ( common moral precepts4 ,i appeal fir/ly to 8 intuitive judgm5t aft] due consid]ation ( ! "q :5 fairly plac$ be=e x3 & secondly to a compreh5sive comp>ison ( ! ord9>y judgm5ts ( mank9d4 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ argum5t1 to me at lea/ x seems cle> aft] reflection t ^! objective relations ( ! consci\s subject1 :5 di/+ui%$ f ! consci\sness accompany+ & result+ f !m1 are n ultimately & intr9sically desirable2 any m ?an mat]ial or o!r objects are1 :5 consid]$ ap>t f any relation to consci\s exi/5ce4 ,admitt+ t we h actual exp]i5ce ( su* pref]5ces z h j be5 describ$1 ( :i* ! ultimate object is some?+ t is n m]ely consci\sness3 x /ill seems to me t :5 7to use ,butl]'s phrase7 we 8sit d[n 9 a cool h\r10 we c only ju/ify to ourselves ! importance t we atta* to any ( ^! objects by consid]+ its conduciv5ess1 9 "o way or ano!r1 to ! happ9ess ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,! second argum5t1 t ref]s to ! common s5se ( mank9d1 obvi\sly _c be made completely cog5t2 s9ce1 z above /at$1 sev]al cultivat$ p]sons d habitually judge t k1 art1 etc4--n to speak ( ,virtue--are ends indep5d5tly ( ! pleasure d]iv$ f !m4 ,b we may urge n only t all ^! elem5ts ( 8ideal good0 are productive ( pleasure 9 v>i\s ways2 b also t !y seem to obta9 ! comm5dation ( ,common ,s5se1 r\ghly speak+1 9 proportion to ! degree ( ?is productiv5ess4 ,?is seems obvi\sly true ( ,beauty2 & w h>dly be d5i$ 9 respect ( any k9d ( social ideal3 x is p>adoxical to ma9ta9 t any degree ( ,fre$om1 or any =m ( social ord]1 w\ld /ill be commonly reg>d$ z desirable ev5 if we 7 c]ta9 t x _h no t5d5cy to promote ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,! case ( ,k is r m complex2 b c]ta9ly ,common ,s5se is mo/ impress$ ) ! value ( k1 :5 its #8fruitfulness' has be5 demon/rat$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 aw>e t exp]i5ce has frequ5tly %[n h[ k1 long fruitless1 may become unexpect$ly fruitful1 & h[ light may be %$ on "o "p ( ! field ( k f ano!r app>5tly remote3 & ev5 if any p>ticul> bran* ( sci5tific pursuit c\ld be %[n to be devoid ( ev5 ?is indirect utility1 x w\ld /ill des]ve "s respect on utilit>ian gr\nds2 bo? z furni%+ to ! inquir] ! ref9$ & innoc5t pleasures ( curiosity1 & because ! intellectual disposition :i* x exhibits & su/a9s is likely on ! :ole to produce fruitful k4 ,/ill 9 cases approximat+ to ?is la/1 ,common ,s5se is some:at dispos$ to compla9 ( ! misdirection ( valuable ef=t2 s t ! me$ ( hon\r commonly paid to ,sci5ce seems to be graduat$1 ?\gh p]haps unconsci\sly1 by a tol]ably exact utilit>ian scale4 ,c]ta9ly ! mom5t ! legitimacy ( any bran* ( sci5tific inquiry is s]i\sly disput$1 z 9 ! rec5t case ( vivisection1 ! controv]sy on bo? sides is g5]ally conduct$ on an av[$ly utilit>ian basis4 ,! case ( ,virtue requires special consid]ation3 s9ce ! enc\ragem5t 9 ea* o!r ( virtu\s impulses & dispositions is a ma9 aim ( m5's ord9>y moral disc\rse2 s t ev5 to raise ! "q :e!r ?is enc\ragem5t c g too f> has a p>adoxical air4 ,/ill1 our exp]i5ce includes r>e & exceptional cases 9 :i* ! conc5tration ( ef=t on ! cultivation ( virtue has seem$ to h effects adv]se to g5]al happ9ess1 ?r\gh be+ int5sifi$ to ! po9t ( moral fanaticism1 & s involv+ a neglect ( o!r conditions ( happ9ess4 ,if1 !n1 we admit z actual or possible su* #8infelicific' effects ( ! cultivation ( ,virtue1 ,i ?9k we %all also g5]ally admit t1 9 ! case suppos$1 conduciv5ess to g5]al happ9ess %\ld be ! crit]ion = decid+ h[ f> ! cultivation ( ,virtue %\ld be c>ri$4 ,at ! same "t x mu/ be all[$ t we f9d 9 ,common ,s5se an av]sion to admit ,happ9ess 7:5 expla9$ to mean a sum ( pleasures7 to be ! sole ultimate end & /&>d ( "r conduct4 ,b ?is1 ,i ?9k1 c be fully acc\nt$ = by ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,i4 ,! t]m ,pleasure is n commonly us$ s z to include cle>ly all k9ds ( consci\sness :i* we desire to reta9 or reproduce3 9 ord9>y usage x sugge/s too prom95tly ! co>s] & common] k9ds ( su* feel+s2 & x is difficult ev5 = ^? :o are try+ to use x sci5tifically to free _! m9ds altoge!r f ! associations ( ord9>y usage1 & to mean by ,pleasure only ,desirable ,consci\sness or ,feel+ ( :atev] k9d4 ,aga91 our k ( human life cont9ually sugge/s to u in/ances ( pleasures :i* w inevitably involve z concomitant or consequ5t ei!r a great] am\nt ( pa9 or a loss ( m important pleasures3 & we naturally %r9k f includ+ ev5 hypo!tically 9 our conception ( ultimate good ^!--9 ,b5?am's phrase--8impure0 pleasures2 especially s9ce we h1 9 _m cases1 moral or /hetic in/9cts w>n+ u aga9/ su* pleasures4 ,,ii4 ,we h se5#cjg t _m important pleasures c only be felt on condition ( our exp]i5c+ desires = o!r ?+s ?an pleasure4 ,?us ! v acceptance ( ,pleasure z ! ultimate end ( conduct involves ! practical rule t x is n always to be made ! consci\s end4 ,h5ce1 ev5 if we are consid]+ m]ely ! good ( "o human be+ tak5 alone1 exclud+ f our view all effects ( 8 conduct on o!rs1 /ill ! reluctance ( ,common ,s5se to reg>d pleasure z ! sole ?+ ultimately desirable may be ju/ifi$ by ! consid]ation t human be+s t5d to be less happy if !y are exclusively occupi$ ) ! desire ( p]sonal happ9ess4 ,e4g4 7z 0 be=e %[n7 we %all miss ! valuable pleasures :i* att5d ! ex]cise ( ! b5evol5t affections if we d n exp]i5ce g5u9ely dis9t]e/$ impulses to procure happ9ess = o!rs 7:i* are1 9 fact1 impli$ 9 ! notion ( #8b5evol5t affections'74 ,,iii4 ,b aga91 ,i hold1 z 0 exp\nd$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce is n only ?us g5]ally 9 h>mony ) rational ,self-love1 b also 9 ano!r s5se & indep5d5tly rational3 t is1 ,reason %[s me t if my happ9ess is desirable & a good1 ! equal happ9ess ( any o!r p]son mu/ be equally desirable4 ,n[1 :5 ,happ9ess is spok5 ( z ! sole ultimate good ( man1 ! idea mo/ commonly sugge/$ is t ea* individual is to seek 8 own happ9ess at ! exp5se 7if necess>y7 or1 at any rate1 to ! neglect ( t ( o!rs3 & ?is (f5ds bo? our sympa!tic & our rational reg>d = o!rs' happ9ess4 ,x is1 9 fact1 r ! end ( ,egoi/ic ?an ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism1 to :i* ,common ,s5se feels an av]sion4 ,& c]ta9ly "o's individual happ9ess is1 9 _m respects1 an unsatisfactory m>k = "o's supreme aim1 ap>t f any direct collision into :i* ! exclusive pursuit ( x may br+ u ) rational or sympa!tic ,b5evol5ce4 ,x does n possess ! *>act]i/ics :i*1 z ,ari/otle says1 we 8div9e0 to belong to ,ultimate ,good3 be+ 7s f>1 at lea/1 z x c be empirically =ese57 s n>r[ & limit$1 ( su* necess>ily brief duration1 & s %ift+ & insecure :ile x la/s4 ,b ,univ]sal ,happ9ess1 desirable consci\sness or feel+ = ! innum]able multitude ( s5ti5t be+s1 pres5t & to come1 seems an ,end t satisfies our imag9ation by its va/ness1 & su/a9s our resolution by its comp>ative security4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be said t if we require ! individual to sacrifice 8 own happ9ess to ! great] happ9ess ( o!rs on ! gr\nd t x is reasonable to d s1 we really assign to ! individual a diff]5t ultimate end f t :i* we lay d[n z ! ultimate ,good ( ! univ]se ( s5ti5t be+s3 s9ce we direct him to take1 z ultimate1 ,happ9ess = ! ,univ]se1 b ,con=mity to ,reason = himself4 ,i admit ! sub/antial tru? ( ?is /atem5t1 ?\gh ,i %\ld avoid ! language z t5d+ to obscure ! di/9ction be=e expla9$ betwe5 8obey+ ! dictates0 & 8promot+ ! dictation0 ( reason4 ,b grant+ ! alleg$ diff]5ce1 ,i d n see t x con/itutes an argum5t aga9/ ! view "h ma9ta9$1 s9ce ! individual is ess5tially & fundam5tally diff]5t f ! l>g] :ole--! univ]se ( s5ti5t be+s--( :i* he is consci\s ( be+ a "p2 j because he has a kn[n relation to simil> p>ts ( ! same :ole1 :ile ! :ole itself has no su* relation4 ,i accord+ly see no inconsi/5cy 9 hold+ t :ile x w\ld be reasonable = ! aggregate ( s5ti5t be+s1 if x c\ld act collectively1 to aim at its own happ9ess only z an ultimate end--& w\ld be reasonable = any individual to d ! same1 if he 7 ! only s5ti5t be+ 9 ! univ]se--x may yet be actually reasonable = an individual to sacrifice 8 own ,good or happ9ess = ! great] happ9ess ( o!rs4#cjh ,at ! same "t ,i admit t1 9 ! e>li] age ( e?ical ?\ght :i* ,greek philosophy repres5ts1 m5 sometimes judg$ an act to be #8good' = ! ag5t1 ev5 :ile recognis+ t its consequ5ces w\ld be on ! :ole pa9ful to him1--z 7e4g47 a h]oic ex*ange ( a life full ( happ9ess = a pa9ful dea? at ! call ( duty4 ,i attribute ?is p>tly to a confusion ( ?\ght betwe5 :at x is reasonable = an individual to desire1 :5 he consid]s 8 own exi/5ce alone1 & :at he mu/ recognise z reasonably to be desir$1 :5 he takes ! po9t ( view ( a l>g] :ole3 p>tly1 aga91 to a fai? deeply root$ 9 ! moral consci\sness ( mank9d1 t !re _c be really & ultimately any conflict betwe5 ! two k9ds ( reasonabl5ess4#cji ,b :5 #8,reasonable ,self-love' has be5 cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ,consci5ce1 z x is by ,butl] & 8 foll[]s1 we f9d x is naturally und]/ood to mean desire = "o's own ,happ9ess3 s t 9 fact ! int]pretation ( #8"o's own good1' :i* 0 almo/ peculi> 9 anci5t ?\ght to ! ,cyr5aic & ,epicurean h]esies1 is adopt$ by "s ( ! mo/ or?odox ( mod]n morali/s4 ,inde$ x (t5 does n seem to h occurr$ to ^! latt] t ?is notion c h any o!r int]pretation4#caj ,if1 !n1 :5 any "o hypo!tically conc5trates 8 att5tion on himself1 ,good is naturally & almo/ inevitably conceiv$ to be ,pleasure1 we may reasonably conclude t ! ,good ( any numb] ( simil> be+s1 :atev] _! mutual relations may be1 _c be ess5tially diff]5t 9 quality4 ,,iv4 ,b la/ly1 f ! univ]sal po9t ( view no less ?an f t ( ! individual1 x seems true t ,happ9ess is likely to be bett] atta9$ if ! ext5t to :i* we set ourselves consci\sly to aim at x be c>efully re/rict$4 ,& ?is n only because action is likely to be m effective if our ef=t is tempor>ily conc5trat$ on ! realisation ( m limit$ ends--?\gh ?is is no d\bt an important reason3--b also because ! fulle/ developm5t ( happy life = ea* individual seems to require t he %\ld h o!r ext]nal objects ( int]e/ besides ! happ9ess ( o!r consci\s be+s4 ,& ?us we may conclude t ! pursuit ( ! ideal objects be=e m5tion$1 ,virtue1 ,tru?1 ,fre$om1 ,beauty1 etc41 = _! own sakes1 is indirectly & second>ily1 ?\gh n prim>ily & absolutely1 rational2 on acc\nt n only ( ! happ9ess t w result f _! atta9m5t1 b also ( t :i* spr+s f _! dis9t]e/$ pursuit4 ,:ile yet if we ask = a f9al crit]ion ( ! comp>ative value ( ! diff]5t objects ( m5's en?usia/ic pursuit1 & ( ! limits )9 :i* ea* may legitimately engross ! att5tion ( mank9d1 we %all none ! less conceive x to dep5d ^u ! degree 9 :i* !y respectively conduce to ,happ9ess4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ?is view be reject$1 x rema9s to consid] :e!r we c frame any o!r coh]5t acc\nt ( ,ultimate ,good4 ,if we are n to sy/ematise human activities by tak+ ,univ]sal ,happ9ess z _! common end1 on :at o!r pr9ciples are we to sy/ematise !m8 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ^! pr9ciples mu/ n only enable u to comp>e among !mselves ! values ( ! diff]5t non-h$oni/ic ends :i* we h be5 consid]+1 b mu/ also provide a common /&>d = comp>+ ^! values ) t ( ,happ9ess2 unless we are prep>$ to adopt ! p>adoxical position ( reject+ happ9ess z absolutely valueless4 ,= we h a practical ne$ ( det]m9+ n only :e!r we %\ld pursue ,tru? r ?an ,beauty1 or ,fre$om or "s ideal con/itution ( society r ?an ei!r1 or p]haps des]t all ( ^! = ! life ( wor%ip & religi\s contemplation2 b also h[ f> we %\ld foll[ any ( ^! l9es ( endeav\r1 :5 we =esee among its consequ5ces ! pa9s ( human or o!r s5ti5t be+s1 or ev5 ! loss ( pleasures t might o!rwise h be5 enjoy$ by !m4#caa ,i h fail$ to f9d--& am unable to con/ruct--any sy/ematic answ] to ?is "q t appe>s to me des]v+ ( s]i\s consid]ation3 & h5ce ,i am f9ally l$ to ! conclusion 7:i* at ! close ( ! la/ *apt] seem$ to be premature7 t ! ,intuitional me?od rigor\sly appli$ yields z its f9al result ! doctr9e ( pure ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism1#cab--:i* x is conv5i5t to d5ote by ! s+le ^w1 ,utilit>ianism4 ,,footnotes3 #cjj ,see ,book i4 *ap4 i4 #b4 #cja ,cf4 ,/eph51 ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics1 *ap4 iv4 #af4 #cjb ,*ap4 xi4 #c2 see also *ap4 xii4 #c4 #cjc ,book ii4 *ap4 ii4 #cjd ,f9al1 t is1 s f> z ! quality ( ! pres5t feel+ is conc]n$4 ,i h po9t$ out t s f> z any e/imate ( ! desirability or pleasantness ( a feel+ involves comp>ison ) feel+s only repres5t$ 9 idea1 x is liable to be errone\s ?r\gh imp]fections 9 ! repres5tation4 #cje ,! t]m 8cognition0 )\t qualification m (t5 implies :at is signifi$ by 8true0 or 8valid03 b = ! pres5t purpose x is necess>y to elim9ate ?is implication4 #cjf ,cf4 ,lecky1 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 pp4 #eb seqq4 #cjg ,book i4 *ap4 iv42 cf4 ,book ii4 *ap4 iii4 #cjh ,i ought at ! same "t to say t ,i hold x no less reasonable = an individual to take 8 own happ9ess z 8 ultimate end4 ,?is 8,dualism ( ! ,practical ,reason0 w be fur!r discuss$ 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! treatise4 #cji ,we may illu/rate ?is d\ble explanation by a ref]5ce to "s ( ,plato's ,dialogues1 su* z ! ,gorgias1 :]e ! e?ical argum5t has a s+ul>ly mix$ effect on ! m9d4 ,p>tly1 x seems to u m or less dext]\s sophi/ry1 play+ on a confusion ( ?\ght lat5t 9 ! common notion ( good3 p>tly a noble & /irr+ expression ( a pr(\nd moral fai?4 #caj ,cf4 ,/ew>t1 ,philosophy ( ! ,active & ,moral ,p[]s1 ,book ii4 *ap4 i4 #caa ,! controv]sy on vivisection1 to :i* ,i ref]r$ j n[1 af=ds a good illu/ration ( ! ne$ t ,i am po9t+ out4 ,i d n obs]ve t any "o 9 ?is controv]sy has v5tur$ on ! p>adox t ! pa9 ( s5ti5t be+s is n p] se to be avoid$4 #cab ,i h be=e notic$ 7,book ii4 *ap4 iii4 p4 #acd7 ! metaphysical objection tak5 by c]ta9 writ]s to ! view t ,happ9ess is ,ultimate ,good2 on ! gr\nd t ,happ9ess 7 sum ( pleasures7 c only be realis$ 9 successive p>ts1 :]eas a 8,*ief ,good0 mu/ be 8some?+ ( :i* "s be+ c be conceiv$ 9 possession0--some?+1 t is1 :i* he c h all at once4 ,on consid]+ ?is objection x seem$ to me t1 9 s f> z x is ev5 plausible1 its plausibility dep5ds on ! exact =m ( ! notion #8a ,*ief ,good' 7or #8,summum ,bonum'71 :i* is p]haps inappropriate z appli$ to ,happ9ess4 ,i h !re=e 9 ?is *apt] us$ ! notion ( #8,ultimate ,good'3 z ,i c see no %ad[ ( reason = affirm+ t t :i* is ,good or ,desirable p] se1 & n z a means to "s fur!r end1 mu/ necess>ily be capable ( be+ possess$ all at once4 ,i c und]/& t a man may aspire aft] a ,good ( ?is latt] k9d3 b s long z ,"t is a necess>y =m ( human exi/5ce1 x c h>dly be surpris+ t human good %\ld be subject to ! condition ( be+ realis$ 9 successive p>ts4 ,,book ,,iv ,,utilit>ianism ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,utilit>ianism #a4 ,! t]m ,utilit>ianism is1 at ! pres5t day1 9 common use1 & is suppos$ to designate a doctr9e or me?od ) :i* we are all famili>4 ,b on clos] exam9ation1 x appe>s to be appli$ to sev]al di/9ct !ories1 hav+ no necess>y connexion ) "o ano!r1 & n ev5 ref]r+ to ! same subject-matt]4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 to def9e1 z c>efully z possible1 ! doctr9e t is to be d5ot$ by ! t]m 9 ! pres5t ,book3 at ! same "t di/+ui%+ ?is f o!r doctr9es to :i* usage w\ld all[ ! "n to be appli$1 & indicat+1 s f> z seems necess>y1 its relation to ^!4 ,by ,utilit>ianism is "h meant ! e?ical !ory1 t ! conduct :i*1 "u any giv5 circum/ances1 is objectively "r1 is t :i* w produce ! greate/ am\nt ( happ9ess on ! :ole2 t is1 tak+ into acc\nt all ^: happ9ess is affect$ by ! conduct4 ,x w\ld t5d to cle>ness if we might call ?is pr9ciple1 & ! me?od bas$ ^u x1 by "s su* "n z 8,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism03 & ,i h !re=e sometimes v5tur$ to use ?is t]m1 9 spite ( its cumbr\sness4 ,! fir/ doctr9e f :i* x seems necess>y to di/+ui% ?is1 is ! ,egoi/ic ,h$onism exp\nd$ & discuss$ 9 ,book ii4 ( ?is treatise4 ,! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! propositions 7#a7 t ea* ought to seek 8 own happ9ess1 & 7#b7 t ea* ought to seek ! happ9ess ( all1 is s obvi\s & gl>+1 t in/ead ( dwell+ ^u x we seem r call$ ^u to expla9 h[ ! two ev] came to be conf\nd$1 or 9 any way includ$ "u "o notion4 ,?is "q & ! g5]al relation betwe5 ! two doctr9es 7 briefly discuss$ 9 a =m] *apt]4#cac ,among o!r po9ts x 0 !re notic$ t ! confusion betwe5 ^! two e?ical !ories 0 p>tly assi/$ by ! confusion ) bo? ( ! psy*ological !ory t 9 volunt>y actions e ag5t does1 univ]sally or normally1 seek 8 own individual happ9ess or pleasure4 ,n[ !re seems to be no necess>y connexion betwe5 ?is latt] proposition & any e?ical !ory3 b 9 s f> z !re is a natural t5d5cy to pass f psy*ological to e?ical ,h$onism1 ! transition mu/ be--at lea/ prim>ily--to ! ,egoi/ic phase ( ! latt]4 ,= cle>ly1 f ! fact t e "o actually does seek 8 own happ9ess we _c conclude1 z an imm$iate & obvi\s inf]5ce1 t he ought to seek ! happ9ess ( o!r p4#cad ,nor1 aga91 is ,utilit>ianism1 z an e?ical doctr9e1 necess>ily connect$ ) ! psy*ological !ory t ! moral s5tim5ts are d]iv$1 by 8association ( ideas0 or o!rwise1 f exp]i5ces ( ! non-moral pleasures & pa9s result+ to ! ag5t or to o!rs f diff]5t k9ds ( conduct4 ,an ,intuitioni/ might accept ?is !ory1 s f> z x is capable ( sci5tific pro(1 & /ill hold t ^! moral s5tim5ts1 be+ f\nd 9 our pres5t consci\sness z indep5d5t impulses1 ought to possess ! au?ority t !y seem to claim ov] ! m prim>y desires & av]sions f :i* !y h sprung3 & an ,egoi/ on ! o!r h& might fully admit ! altrui/ic elem5t ( ! d]ivation1 & /ill hold t ^! & all o!r impulses 7includ+ ev5 ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce7 are prop]ly "u ! rule ( ,rational ,self-love3 & t x is really only reasonable to gratify !m 9 s f> z we may expect to f9d our private happ9ess 9 su* gratification4 ,9 %ort1 :at is (t5 call$ ! 8utilit>ian0 !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! moral s5tim5ts _c by itself provide a pro( ( ! e?ical doctr9e to :i* ,i 9 ?is treatise re/rict ! t]m ,utilit>ianism4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 h]eaft] try to %[ t ?is psy*ological !ory has an important ?\gh subord9ate place 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ,e?ical ,utilit>ianism4#cae ,f9ally1 ! doctr9e t ,univ]sal ,happ9ess is ! ultimate /&>d mu/ n be und]/ood to imply t ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce is ! only "r or always be/ motive ( action4 ,=1 z we h be=e obs]v$1 x is n necess>y t ! end :i* gives ! crit]ion ( rightness %\ld always be ! end at :i* we consci\sly aim3 & if exp]i5ce %[s t ! g5]al happ9ess w be m satisfactorily atta9$ if m5 frequ5tly act f o!r motives ?an pure univ]sal philan?ropy1 x is obvi\s t ^! o!r motives are reasonably to be pref]r$ on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples4 #b4 ,let u n[ exam9e ! pr9ciple itself some:at clos]4 ,i h already attempt$ 7,book ii4 *ap4 i47 to r5d] ! notion ( ,greate/ ,happ9ess z cle> & def9ite z possible2 & ! results !re obta9$ are ( c\rse z applicable to ! discussion ( ,univ]sali/ic z to t ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,we %all und]/&1 !n1 t by ,greate/ ,happ9ess is meant ! greate/ possible surplus ( pleasure ov] pa91 ! pa9 be+ conceiv$ z balanc$ aga9/ an equal am\nt ( pleasure1 s t ! two contra/$ am\nts annihilate ea* o!r = purposes ( e?ical calculation4 ,& ( c\rse1 "h z be=e1 ! assumption is involv$ t all pleasures includ$ 9 our calculation are capable ( be+ comp>$ quantitatively ) "o ano!r & ) all pa9s2 t e su* feel+ has a c]ta9 int5sive quantity1 positive or negative 7or1 p]haps1 z]o71 9 respect ( its desirabl5ess1 & t ?is quantity may be to "s ext5t kn[n3 s t ea* may be at lea/ r\ghly weigh$ 9 ideal scales aga9/ any o!r4 ,?is assumption is involv$ 9 ! v notion ( ,maximum ,happ9ess2 z ! attempt to make #8z great z possible' a sum ( elem5ts n quantitatively comm5surable w\ld be a ma!matical absurdity4 ,!re=e :atev] weight is to be atta*$ to ! objections br\ght aga9/ ?is assumption 7:i* 0 discuss$ 9 *ap4 iii4 ( ,book ii47 mu/ ( c\rse tell aga9/ ! pres5t me?od4 ,we h next to consid] :o ! 8all0 are1 ^: happ9ess is to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,are we to ext5d our conc]n to all ! be+s capable ( pleasure & pa9 ^: feel+s are affect$ by our conduct8 or are we to conf9e our view to human happ9ess8 ,! =m] view is ! "o adopt$ by ,b5?am & ,mill1 & 7,i believe7 by ! ,utilit>ian s*ool g5]ally3 & is obvi\sly mo/ 9 accordance ) ! univ]sality t is *>act]i/ic ( _! pr9ciple4 ,x is ! ,good ,univ]sal1 int]pret$ & def9$ z #8happ9ess' or #8pleasure1' at :i* a ,utilit>ian consid]s x 8 duty to aim3 & x seems arbitr>y & unreasonable to exclude f ! end1 z s conceiv$1 any pleasure ( any s5ti5t be+4 ,x may be said t by giv+ ?is ext5sion to ! notion1 we consid]ably increase ! sci5tific difficulties ( ! h$oni/ic comp>ison1 :i* h already be5 po9t$ out 7,book ii4 *ap4 iii473 = if x be difficult to comp>e ! pleasures & pa9s ( o!r m5 accurately ) our own1 a comp>ison ( ei!r ) ! pleasures & pa9s ( brutes is obvi\sly /ill m obscure4 ,/ill1 ! difficulty is at lea/ n great] = ,utilit>ians ?an x is = any o!r morali/s :o recoil f ! p>adox ( disreg>d+ altoge!r ! pleasures & pa9s ( brutes4 ,b ev5 if we limit our att5tion to human be+s1 ! ext5t ( ! subjects ( happ9ess is n yet q det]m9ate4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x may be ask$1 ,h[ f> we are to consid] ! int]e/s ( po/]ity :5 !y seem to conflict ) ^? ( exi/+ human be+s8 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 cle> t ! "t at :i* a man exi/s _c affect ! value ( 8 happ9ess f a univ]sal po9t ( view2 & t ! int]e/s ( po/]ity mu/ conc]n a ,utilit>ian z mu* z ^? ( 8 contempor>ies1 except 9 s f> z ! effect ( 8 actions on po/]ity--& ev5 ! exi/5ce ( human be+s to be affect$--mu/ necess>ily be m unc]ta94 ,b a fur!r "q arises :5 we consid] t we c to "s ext5t influ5ce ! numb] ( future human 7or s5ti5t7 be+s4 ,we h to ask h[1 on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 ?is influ5ce is to be ex]cis$4 ,"h ,i %all assume t1 = human be+s g5]ally1 life on ! av]age yields a positive balance ( pleasure ov] pa94 ,?is has be5 d5i$ by ?\ghtful p]sons3 b ! d5ial seems to me cle>ly oppos$ to ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 z express$ 9 _! commonly accept$ pr9ciples ( action4 ,! great majority ( m51 9 ! great majority ( conditions "u :i* human life is liv$1 c]ta9ly act z if dea? 7 "o ( ! wor/ ( evils1 = !mselves & = ^? :om !y love3 & ! adm9i/ration ( crim9al ju/ice proce$s on a simil> assumption4#caf ,assum+1 !n1 t ! av]age happ9ess ( human be+s is a positive quantity1 x seems cle> t1 suppos+ ! av]age happ9ess enjoy$ rema9s undim9i%$1 ,utilit>ianism directs u to make ! numb] enjoy+ x z great z possible4 ,b if we =esee z possible t an increase 9 numb]s w be accompani$ by a decrease 9 av]age happ9ess or vice v]sa1 a po9t arises :i* has n only nev] be5 =mally notic$1 b :i* seems to h be5 sub/antially ov]look$ by _m ,utilit>ians4 ,= if we take ,utilit>ianism to prescribe1 z ! ultimate end ( action1 happ9ess on ! :ole1 & n any individual's happ9ess1 unless consid]$ z an elem5t ( ! :ole1 x w\ld foll[ t1 if ! additional population enjoy on ! :ole positive happ9ess1 we ought to weigh ! am\nt ( happ9ess ga9$ by ! extra numb] aga9/ ! am\nt lo/ by ! rema9d]4 ,s t1 /rictly conceiv$1 ! po9t up to :i*1 on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 population ought to be enc\rag$ to increase1 is n t at :i* av]age happ9ess is ! greate/ possible1--z appe>s to be (t5 assum$ by political economi/s ( ! s*ool ( ,mal?us--b t at :i* ! product =m$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( p]sons liv+ into ! am\nt ( av]age happ9ess rea*es its maximum4 ,x may be well "h to make a rem>k :i* has a wide application 9 ,utilit>ian discussion4 ,! conclusion j giv5 we>s a c]ta9 air ( absurdity to ! view ( ,common ,s5se2 because its %[ ( exactness is grotesquely incongru\s ) our consci\sness ( ! inevitable inexactness ( all su* calculations 9 actual practice4 ,b1 t our practical ,utilit>ian reason+s mu/ necess>ily be r\gh1 is no reason = n mak+ !m z accurate z ! case admits2 & we %all be m likely to succe$ 9 ?is if we keep be=e our m9d z di/9ctly z possible ! /rict type ( ! calculation t we %\ld h to make1 if all ! relevant consid]ations c\ld be e/imat$ ) ma!matical precision4 ,!re is "o m po9t t rema9s to be notic$4 ,x is evid5t t !re may be _m diff]5t ways ( di/ribut+ ! same quantum ( happ9ess among ! same numb] ( p]sons2 9 ord]1 !re=e1 t ! ,utilit>ian crit]ion ( "r conduct may be z complete z possible1 we ought to "k :i* ( ^! ways is to be pref]r$4 ,?is "q is (t5 ignor$ 9 expositions ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,x has p]haps seem$ some:at idle1 z sugge/+ a purely ab/ract & !oretical p]plexity1 t c\ld h no practical exemplification2 & no d\bt1 if all ! consequ5ces ( actions 7 capable ( be+ e/imat$ & summ$ up ) ma!matical precision1 we %\ld probably nev] f9d ! excess ( pleasure ov] pa9 exactly equal 9 ! case ( two compet+ alt]natives ( conduct4 ,b ! v indef9it5ess ( all h$oni/ic calculations1 :i* 0 suffici5tly %[n 9 ,book ii41 r5d]s x by no means unlikely t !re may be no cognisable diff]5ce betwe5 ! quantities ( happ9ess involv$ 9 two sets ( consequ5ces respectively2 ! m r\gh our e/imates necess>ily are1 ! less likely we %all be to come to any cle> decision betwe5 two app>5tly balanc$ alt]natives4 ,9 all su* cases1 !re=e1 x becomes practically important to ask :e!r any mode ( di/ribut+ a giv5 quantum ( happ9ess is bett] ?an any o!r4 ,n[ ! ,utilit>ian =mula seems to supply no answ] to ?is "q3 at lea/ we h to supplem5t ! pr9ciple ( seek+ ! greate/ happ9ess on ! :ole by "s pr9ciple ( ,j or ,"r di/ribution ( ?is happ9ess4 ,! pr9ciple :i* mo/ ,utilit>ians h ei!r tacitly or expressly adopt$ is t ( pure equality--z giv5 9 ,b5?am's =mula1 8ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 & nobody = m ?an "o40 ,& ?is pr9ciple seems ! only "o :i* does n ne$ a special ju/ification2 =1 z we saw1 x mu/ be reasonable to treat any "o man 9 ! same way z any o!r1 if !re be no reason app>5t = treat+ him diff]5tly4#cag ,,footnotes3 #cac ,book i4 *ap4 vi4 ,x may be wor? :ile to notice1 t 9 ,mill's well-kn[n treatise on ,utilit>ianism ?is confusion1 ?\gh expressly deprecat$1 is to "s ext5t enc\rag$ by ! au?or's treatm5t ( ! subject4 #cad ,i h already criticis$ 7,book iii4 *ap4 xiii47 ! mode 9 :i* ,mill attempts to exhibit ?is inf]5ce4 #cae ,cf4 po/1 *ap4 iv4 #caf ,^? :o held ! opposite op9ion appe> g5]ally to assume t ! appetites & desires :i* are ! ma9spr+ ( ord9>y human action are 9 !mselves pa9ful3 a view entirely contr>y to my own exp]i5ce1 &1 ,i believe1 to ! common exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ,see *ap4 iv4 #b ( ,book i4 ,s f> z _! argum5t is n a developm5t ( ?is psy*ological error1 any plausibility x has seems to me to be obta9$ by dwell+ onesid$ly on ! annoyances & disappo9tm5ts und\bt$ly incid5t to normal human life1 & on ! exceptional suff]+s ( small m9orities ( ! human race1 or p]haps ( mo/ m5 dur+ small portions ( _! lives4 ,! read] :o wi%es to see ! p>adoxical results ( pessimi/ic utilit>ianism s]i\sly work$ out by a ?\ghtful & sugge/ive writ]1 may ref] to ,pr(essor ,macmillan's book on ! ,promotion ( ,g5]al ,happ9ess 7,swan ,sonn5s*e9 & ,co4 #ahij74 ,! au?or consid]s t 8! philosophical _w is pretty equally divid$ betwe5 optimi/s & pessimi/s10 & 8 own judgm5t on ! "q at issue betwe5 ! two s*ools appe>s to be held 9 susp5se4 #cag ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! "q "h is z to ! di/ribution ( ,happ9ess1 n ! means ( happ9ess4 ,if m happ9ess on ! :ole is produc$ by giv+ ! same means ( happ9ess to ,b r ?an to ,a1 x is an obvi\s & incontrov]tible d$uction f ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple t x ought to be giv5 to ,b1 :atev] inequality 9 ! di/ribution ( ! means ( happ9ess ?is may involve4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,pro( ,,( ,,utilit>ianism ,9 ,book ii41 :]e we discuss$ ! me?od ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 we did n take occasion to exam9e any pro( ( its fir/ pr9ciple3 & 9 ! case ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism also1 :at prim>ily conc]ns u is n h[ its pr9ciple is to be prov$ to ^? :o d n accept x1 b :at consequ5ces are logically involv$ 9 its acceptance4 ,at ! same "t x is important to obs]ve t ! pr9ciple ( aim+ at univ]sal happ9ess is m g5]ally felt to require "s pro(1 or at lea/ 7z ,mill puts x7 "s 8consid]ations det]m9+ ! m9d to accept x10 ?an ! pr9ciple ( aim+ at "o's own happ9ess4 ,f ! po9t ( view1 inde$1 ( ab/ract philosophy1 ,i d n see :y ! ,egoi/ic pr9ciple %\ld pass un*all5g$ any m ?an ! ,univ]sali/ic4 ,i d n see :y ! axiom ( ,prud5ce %\ld n be que/ion$1 :5 x conflicts ) pres5t incl9ation1 on a gr\nd simil> to t on :i* ,egoi/s refuse to admit ! axiom ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce4 ,if ! ,utilit>ian has to answ] ! "q1 #8,:y %\ld ,i sacrifice my own happ9ess = ! great] happ9ess ( ano!r8' x mu/ surely be admissible to ask ! ,egoi/1 #8,:y %\ld ,i sacrifice a pres5t pleasure = a great] "o 9 ! future8 ,:y %\ld ,i conc]n myself ab\t my own future feel+s any m ?an ab\t ! feel+s ( o!r p]sons8' ,x und\bt$ly seems to ,common ,s5se p>adoxical to ask = a reason :y "o %\ld seek "o's own happ9ess on ! :ole2 b ,i d n see h[ ! dem& c be repudiat$ z absurd by ^? :o adopt ! views ( ! extreme empirical s*ool ( psy*ologi/s1 al?\gh ^? views are commonly suppos$ to h a close aff9ity ) ,egoi/ic ,h$onism4 ,grant t ! ,ego is m]ely a sy/em ( coh]5t ph5om5a1 t ! p]man5t id5tical #8,i' is n a fact b a fiction1 z ,hume & 8 foll[]s ma9ta92 :y1 !n1 %\ld "o "p ( ! s]ies ( feel+s into :i* ! ,ego is resolv$ be conc]n$ ) ano!r "p ( ! same s]ies1 any m ?an ) any o!r s]ies8 ,h[ev]1 ,i w n press ?is "q n[2 s9ce ,i admit t ,common ,s5se does n ?9k x wor? :ile to supply ! individual ) reasons = seek+ 8 own int]e/4#cah ,reasons = do+ 8 duty--accord+ to ! commonly accept$ /&>d ( duty--are n held to be equally sup]flu\s3 inde$ we f9d t utilit>ian reasons are cont9ually giv5 = "o or o!r ( ! commonly receiv$ rules ( morality4 ,/ill ! fact t c]ta9 rules are commonly receiv$ z b9d+1 ?\gh x does n e/abli% _! self-evid5ce1 r5d]s x g5]ally unnecess>y to prove _! au?ority to ! ,common ,s5se t receives !m3 :ile = ! same reason a ,utilit>ian :o claims to sup]s$e !m by a high] pr9ciple is naturally *all5g$1 by ,intuitioni/s no less ?an by ,egoi/s1 to demon/rate ! legitimacy ( 8 claim4 ,to ?is *all5ge "s ,utilit>ians w\ld reply by say+ t x is impossible to 8prove0 a fir/ pr9ciple2 & ?is is ( c\rse true1 if by pro( we mean a process :i* exhibits ! pr9ciple 9 "q z an inf]5ce f premises ^u :i* x rema9s dep5d5t = its c]ta9ty2 = ^! premises1 & n ! inf]5ce drawn f !m1 w\ld !n be ! real fir/ pr9ciples4 ,nay1 if ,utilit>ianism is to be prov$ to a man :o already holds "s o!r moral pr9ciples1--:e!r he be an ,intuitional morali/1 :o reg>ds z f9al ! pr9ciples ( ,tru?1 ,ju/ice1 ,ob$i5ce to au?ority1 ,purity1 etc41 or an ,egoi/ :o reg>ds 8 own int]e/ z ! ultimately reasonable end ( 8 conduct1--x w\ld seem t ! process mu/ be "o :i* e/abli%es a conclusion actually sup]ior 9 validity to ! premises f :i* x />ts4 ,= ! ,utilit>ian prescriptions ( duty are prima facie 9 conflict1 at c]ta9 po9ts & "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 bo? ) rules :i* ! ,intuitioni/ reg>ds z self-evid5t1 & ) ! dictates ( ,rational ,egoism2 s t ,utilit>ianism1 if accept$ at all1 mu/ be accept$ z ov]rul+ ,intuitionism & ,egoism4 ,at ! same "t1 if ! o!r pr9ciples are n ?r\gh\t tak5 z valid1 ! s-call$ pro( does n seem to be address$ to ! ,intuitioni/ or ,egoi/ at all4 ,h[ %all we deal ) ?is dilemma8 ,h[ is su* a process--cle>ly diff]5t f ord9>y pro(--possible or conceivable8 ,yet !re c]ta9ly seems to be a g5]al dem& = x4 ,p]haps we may say t :at is ne$$ is a l9e ( argum5t :i* on ! "o h& all[s ! validity1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ( ! maxims already accept$1 & on ! o!r h& %[s !m to be n absolutely valid1 b ne$+ to be controll$ & complet$ by "s m compreh5sive pr9ciple4 ,su* a l9e ( argum5t1 address$ to ,egoism1 0 giv5 9 *ap4 xiii4 ( ! =ego+ book4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! applicability ( ?is argum5t dep5ds on ! mann] 9 :i* ! ,egoi/ic fir/ pr9ciple is =mulat$4 ,if ! ,egoi/ /rictly conf9es himself to /at+ 8 conviction t he ought to take 8 own happ9ess or pleasure z 8 ultimate end1 !re seems no op5+ = any l9e ( reason+ to lead him to ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism z a fir/ pr9ciple2#cai x _c be prov$ t ! diff]5ce betwe5 8 own happ9ess & ano!r's happ9ess is n = him all-important4 ,9 ?is case all t ! ,utilit>ian c d is to effect z f> z possible a reconciliation betwe5 ! two pr9ciples1 by exp\nd+ to ! ,egoi/ ! sanctions ( rules d$uc$ f ! ,univ]sali/ic pr9ciple1--i4e4 by po9t+ out ! pleasures & pa9s t may be expect$ to accrue to ! ,egoi/ himself f ! obs]vation & violation respectively ( su* rules4 ,x is obvi\s t su* an exposition has no t5d5cy to make him accept ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] z 8 ultimate end2 b only z a means to ! end ( 8 own happ9ess4 ,x is !re=e totally diff]5t f a pro( 7z above expla9$7 ( ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! ,egoi/ puts =w>d1 implicitly or explicitly1 ! proposition t 8 happ9ess or pleasure is ,good1 n only = him b f ! po9t ( view ( ! ,univ]se1--z 7e4g47 by say+ t #8nature design$ him to seek 8 own happ9ess1'--x !n becomes relevant to po9t out to him t 8 happ9ess _c be a m important "p ( ,good1 tak5 univ]sally1 ?an ! equal happ9ess ( any o!r p]son4 ,& ?us1 />t+ ) 8 own pr9ciple1 he may be br\ght to accept ,univ]sal happ9ess or pleasure z t :i* is absolutely & )\t qualification ,good or ,desirable3 z an end1 !re=e1 to :i* ! action ( a reasonable ag5t z su* ought to be direct$4 ,?is1 x w be rememb]$1 is ! reason+#cbj t ,i us$ 9 *ap4 xiii4 ( ! prec$+ book 9 exhibit+ ! pr9ciple ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce z "o ( ! few ,intuitions :i* /& ! te/ ( rigor\s criticism4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t z address$ to ! ,intuitioni/1 ?is reason+ only %[s ! ,utilit>ian fir/ pr9ciple to be "o moral axiom3 x does n prove t x is sole or supreme4 ,! premises ) :i* ! ,intuitioni/ />ts commonly include o!r =mul held z indep5d5t & self-evid5t4 ,utilit>ianism has !re=e to exhibit itself 9 ! tw(old relation above describ$1 at once negative & positive1 to ^! =mul4 ,! ,utilit>ian mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 endeav\r to %[ to ! ,intuitioni/ t ! pr9ciples ( ,tru?1 ,ju/ice1#b etc4 h only a dep5d5t & subord9ate validity3 argu+ ei!r t ! pr9ciple is really only affirm$ by ,common ,s5se z a g5]al rule admitt+ ( exceptions & qualifications1 z 9 ! case ( ,tru?1 & t we require "s fur!r pr9ciple = sy/ematis+ ^! exceptions & qualifications2 or t ! fundam5tal notion is vague & ne$s fur!r det]m9ation1 z 9 ! case ( ,ju/ice2#cba & fur!r1 t ! diff]5t rules are liable to conflict ) ea* o!r1 & t we require "s high] pr9ciple to decide ! issue ?us rais$2 & aga91 t ! rules are diff]5tly =mulat$ by diff]5t p]sons1 & t ^! diff]5ces admit ( no ,intuitional solution1 :ile !y %[ ! vagu5ess & ambiguity ( ! common moral notions to :i* ! ,intuitioni/ appeals4 ,?is "p ( ! argum5t ,i h p]haps suffici5tly develop$ 9 ! prec$+ book4 ,x rema9s to supplem5t ?is l9e ( reason+ by develop+ ! positive relation t exi/s betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se3 by %[+ h[ ,utilit>ianism su/a9s ! g5]al validity ( ! curr5t moral judgm5ts1 & ?us supplem5ts ! defects :i* reflection f9ds 9 ! intuitive recognition ( _! /r+5cy2 & at ! same "t af=ds a pr9ciple ( syn!sis1 & a me?od = b9d+ ! unconnect$ & occasionally conflict+ pr9ciples ( common moral reason+ into a complete & h>moni\s sy/em4 ,if sy/ematic reflection ^u ! morality ( ,common ,s5se ?us exhibits ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple z t to :i* ,common ,s5se naturally appeals = t fur!r developm5t ( its sy/em :i* ?is same reflection %[s to be necess>y1 ! pro( ( ,utilit>ianism seems z complete z x c be made4 ,& s9ce1 fur!r--ap>t f ! "q ( pro(--x is important 9 consid]+ ! me?od ( ,utilit>ianism to det]m9e exactly its relation to ! commonly receiv$ rules ( morality1 x w be prop] to exam9e ?is relation at "s l5g? 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,,footnotes3 #cah ,! relation ( ,egoi/ic to ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism is fur!r exam9$ 9 ! conclud+ *apt]4 #cai ,x is to be obs]v$ t he may be l$ to x 9 o!r ways ?an t ( argum5t3 i4e4 by appeals to 8 sympa?ies1 or to 8 moral or quasi-moral s5tim5ts4 #cbj ,i ought to rem9d ! read] t ! argum5t 9 *ap4 xiii4 only leads to ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ,utilit>ianism1 if x be admitt$ t ,happ9ess is ! only ?+ ultimately & intr9sically ,good or ,desirable4 ,i aft]w>ds 9 *ap4 xiv4 endeav\r$ to br+ ,common ,s5se to ?is admission4 #cba ,t is1 s f> z we mean by ,ju/ice any?+ m ?an ! simple negation ( arbitr>y inequality4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,relation ,,( ,,utilit>ianism ,,to ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,common ,,s5se #a4 ,x has be5 be=e obs]v$ 7,book i4 *ap4 vi47 t ! two sides ( ! d\ble relation 9 :i* ,utilit>ianism /&s to ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se h be5 respectively prom95t at two diff]5t p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( ,engli% e?ical ?\ght4 ,s9ce ,b5?am we h be5 *iefly famili> ) ! negative or aggressive aspect ( ! ,utilit>ian doctr9e4 ,b :5 ,cumb]l&1 reply+ to ,hobbes1 put =w>d ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! receiv$ moral rules to promote ! 8common ,good#cbb ( all ,rationals0 8 aim 0 simply ,cons]vative3 x nev] occurs to him to consid] :e!r ^! rules z commonly =mulat$ are 9 any way imp]fect1 & :e!r !re are any discrepancies betwe5 su* common moral op9ions & ! conclusions ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce4 ,s 9 ,%aftesbury's sy/em ! 8,moral0 or 8,reflex ,s5se0 is suppos$ to be always pleas$ ) t 8balance0 ( ! affections :i* t5ds to ! good or happ9ess ( ! :ole1 & displeas$ ) ! opposite4 ,9 ,hume's treatise ?is co9cid5ce is drawn out m 9 detail1 & ) a m def9ite ass]tion t ! p]ception ( utility#cbc 7or ! rev]se7 is 9 ea* case ! s\rce ( ! moral lik+s 7or av]sions7 :i* are excit$ 9 u by diff]5t qualities ( human "* & conduct4 ,& we may obs]ve t ! mo/ p5etrat+ among ,hume's contempor>y critics1 ,adam ,smi?1 admits unres]v$ly ! objective co9cid5ce ( ,rightness or ,approv$ness & ,utility3 ?\gh he ma9ta9s1 9 opposition to ,hume1 t 8x is n ! view ( ?is utility or hurtfulness1 :i* is ei!r ! fir/ or ! pr9cipal s\rce ( our approbation or disapprobation40 ,aft] /at+ ,hume's !ory t 8no qualities ( ! m9d are approv$ ( z virtu\s1 b su* z are useful or agreeable ei!r to ! p]son himself or to o!rs1 & no qualities are disapprov$ ( z vici\s b su* z h a contr>y t5d5cy02 he rem>ks t 8,nature seems inde$ to h s happily adju/$ our s5tim5ts ( approbation & disapprobation to ! conv5i5cy bo? ( ! individual & ( ! society1 t aft] ! /ricte/ exam9ation x w be f\nd1 ,i believe1 t ?is is univ]sally ! case40 ,& no "o c read ,hume's ,inquiry into ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,morals )\t be+ conv9c$ ( ?is at lea/1 t if a li/ 7 drawn up ( ! qualities ( "* & conduct t are directly or indirectly productive ( pleasure to ourselves or to o!rs1 x w\ld include all t are commonly kn[n z virtues4 ,:atev] be ! orig9 ( our notion ( moral goodness or excell5ce1 !re is no d\bt t 8,utility0 is a g5]al *>act]i/ic ( ! dispositions to :i* we apply x3 & t1 s f>1 ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se may be truly repres5t$ z at lea/ unconsci\sly ,utilit>ian4 ,b x may /ill be object$1 t ?is co9cid5ce is m]ely g5]al & qualitative1 & t x breaks d[n :5 we attempt to draw x out 9 detail1 ) ! quantitative precision :i* ,b5?am introduc$ into ! discussion4 ,& no d\bt !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! ass]tion t virtue is always productive ( happ9ess1 & ! ass]tion t ! "r action is "u all circum/ances t :i* w produce ! greate/ possible happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ,utilit>ianism is n conc]n$ to prove ! absolute co9cid5ce 9 results ( ! ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian me?ods4 ,inde$1 if x c\ld succe$ 9 prov+ z mu* z ?is1 its success w\ld be almo/ fatal to its practical claims2 z ! adoption ( ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple w\ld !n become a matt] ( complete indiff]5ce4 ,utilit>ians are r call$ ^u to %[ a natural transition f ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se to ,utilit>ianism1 some:at l ! transition 9 special bran*es ( practice f tra9$ in/9ct & empirical rules to ! te*nical me?od t embodies & applies ! conclusions ( sci5ce3 s t ,utilit>ianism may be pres5t$ z ! sci5tifically complete & sy/ematically reflective =m ( t regulation ( conduct1 :i* ?r\gh ! :ole c\rse ( human hi/ory has always t5d$ sub/antially 9 ! same direction4 ,= ?is purpose x is n necess>y to prove t exi/+ moral rules are m conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess ?an any o!rs3 b only to po9t out 9 ea* case "s manife/ felicific t5d5cy :i* !y possess4 ,hume's diss]tation1 h[ev]1 incid5tally exhibits mu* m ?an a simple & g5]al h>mony betwe5 ! moral s5tim5ts ) :i* we commonly reg>d actions & _! =ese5 pleasurable & pa9ful consequ5ces4 ,&1 9 fact1 ! ,utilit>ian argum5t _c be fairly judg$ unless we take fully into acc\nt ! cumulative =ce :i* x d]ives f ! complex "* ( ! co9cid5ce betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,common ,s5se4 ,x may be %[n1 ,i ?9k1 t ! ,utilit>ian e/imate ( consequ5ces n only supports broadly ! curr5t moral rules1 b also su/a9s _! g5]ally receiv$ limitations & qualifications3 t1 aga91 x expla9s anomalies 9 ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se1 :i* f any o!r po9t ( view mu/ seem unsatisfactory to ! reflective intellect2 & moreov]1 :]e ! curr5t =mula is n suffici5tly precise = ! guidance ( conduct1 :ile at ! same "t difficulties & p]plexities arise 9 ! attempt to give x additional precision1 ! ,utilit>ian me?od solves ^! difficulties & p]plexities 9 g5]al accordance ) ! vague in/9cts ( ,common ,s5se1 & is naturally appeal$ to = su* solution 9 ord9>y moral discussions4 ,x may be %[n fur!r1 t x n only supports ! g5]ally receiv$ view ( ! relative importance ( diff]5t duties1 b is also naturally call$ 9 z arbit]1 :]e rules commonly reg>d$ z co-ord9ate come into conflict3 t1 aga91 :5 ! same rule is int]pret$ some:at diff]5tly by diff]5t p]sons1 ea* naturally supports 8 view by urg+ its ,utility1 h[ev] /rongly he may ma9ta9 ! rule to be self-evid5t & kn[n a priori3 t :]e we meet ) m>k$ div]sity ( moral op9ion on any po9t1 9 ! same age & c\ntry1 we commonly f9d manife/ & impressive utilit>ian reasons on bo? sides3 & t f9ally ! rem>kable discrepancies f\nd 9 comp>+ ! moral codes ( diff]5t ages & c\ntries are = ! mo/ "p /rik+ly correlat$ to diff]5ces 9 ! effects ( actions on happ9ess1 or 9 m5's =esight (1 or conc]n =1 su* effects4 ,mo/ ( ^! po9ts are notic$ by ,hume1 ?\gh 9 a some:at casual & fragm5t>y way3 & _m ( !m h be5 incid5tally illu/rat$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! exam9ation ( ,common ,s5se ,morality1 ) :i* we 7 occupi$ 9 ! prec$+ ,book4 ,b consid]+ ! importance ( ! pres5t "q1 x may be well to exhibit 9 sy/ematic detail ! cumulative argum5t :i* has j be5 summ$ up1 ev5 at ! risk ( repeat+ to "s ext5t ! results previ\sly giv54 #b4 ,we may beg9 by reply+ to an objection :i* is frequ5tly urg$ aga9/ ,utilit>ianism4 ,h[1 x is ask$1 if ! true gr\nd ( ! moral goodness or badness ( actions lies 9 _! utility or ! rev]se1 c we expla9 ! broad di/9ction drawn by ,common ,s5se betwe5 ! moral & o!r p>ts ( our nature8 ,:y is ! excell5ce ( ,virtue s /rongly felt to be diff]5t 9 k9d1 n m]ely f ! excell5ce ( a ma*9e1 or a f]tile field1 b also f ! physical beauties & aptitudes1 ! intellectual gifts & tal5ts ( human be+s4 ,i %\ld answ] t--z 0 argu$ 9 an e>li] *apt] 7,book iii4 *ap4 ii47--qualities t are1 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! t]m1 ,virtu\s1 are always su* z we conceive capable ( be+ imm$iately realis$ by volunt>y ef=t1 at lea/ to "s ext5t2 s t ! prom95t ob/acle to virtu\s action is abs5ce ( adequate motive4 ,h5ce we expect t ! judgm5ts ( moral goodness or badness1 pass$ ei!r by ! ag5t himself or by o!rs1 w--by ! fre% motive :i* !y supply on ! side ( virtue--h an imm$iate practical effect 9 caus+ actions to be at lea/ ext]nally virtu\s3 & ! habitual consci\sness ( ?is w acc\nt = almo/ any degree ( diff]5ce betwe5 moral s5tim5ts & ! pleasure & pa9 t we d]ive f ! contemplation ( ei!r extra-human or non-volunt>y utilities & inutilities4 ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 x is repli$1 t among ! t5d5cies to /rictly volunt>y actions !re are _m n commonly reg>d$ z virtu\s1 :i* are yet n only useful b on ! :ole m useful ?an _m virtues4 8,! selfi% in/9ct t leads m5 to accumulate conf]s ultimately m advantage on ! _w ?an ! g5]\s in/9ct t leads m5 to give4444 ,x is sc>cely d\btful t a mode/1 diffid5t1 & retir+ nature1 di/ru/ful ( its own abilities1 & %r9k+ ) humility f conflict1 produces on ! :ole less b5efit to ! _w ?an ! self-ass]tion ( an audaci\s & arrogant nature1 :i* is impell$ to e /ruggle1 & develops e capacity4 ,gratitude has no d\bt done mu* to s(t5 & sweet5 ! int]c\rse ( life1 b ! correspond+ feel+ ( rev5ge 0 = c5turies ! "o bulw>k aga9/ social an>*y1 & is ev5 n[ "o ( ! *ief re/ra9ts to crime4 ,on ! great !atre ( public life1 especially 9 p]iods ( great convulsions :]e passions are fi]cely r\s$1 x is nei!r ! man ( delicate scrupulosity & s9c]e imp>tiality1 nor yet ! s+le-m9d$ religi\s en?usia/1 incapable ( dissimulation or procra/9ation1 :o conf]s mo/ b5efit on ! _w4 ,x is mu* r ! a/ute /atesman1 e>ne/ ab\t 8 ends1 b unscrupul\s ab\t 8 means1 equally free f ! trammels ( consci5ce & f ! bl9dness ( zeal1 :o gov]ns because he p>tly yields to ! passions & ! prejudices ( 8 "t4 ,b 444 x has sc>cely yet be5 cont5d$ t ! delicate consci5ce :i* 9 ^! cases impairs utility con/itutes vice40#cbd ,^! objections are =cibly urg$2 b !y appe> to me n v difficult to answ]1 x be+ always borne 9 m9d t ! pres5t argum5t does n aim at prov+ an exact co9cid5ce betwe5 ,utilit>ian inf]5ces & ! intuitions ( ,common ,s5se1 b r seeks to repres5t ! latt] z in*oately & imp]fectly ,utilit>ian4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ c>efully di/+ui% betwe5 ! recognition ( goodness 9 dispositions1 & ! recognition ( rightness 9 conduct4 ,an act t a ,utilit>ian mu/ condemn z likely to d m h>m ?an good may yet %[ a disposition or t5d5cy t w on ! :ole produce m good ?an h>m4 ,?is is em95tly ! case ) scrupul\sly consci5ti\s acts4 ,h[ev] true x may be t un5light5$ consci5ti\sness has impell$ m5 to fanatical cruelty1 mi/ak5 asceticism1 & o!r infelicific conduct1 ,i suppose no ,intuitioni/ w\ld ma9ta9 t c>efulness 9 con=m+ to accept$ moral rules has n1 on ! :ole1 a t5d5cy to promote happ9ess4 ,x may be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t :5 we p]ceive ! effects ( a disposition g5]ally felicific to be 9 any p>ticul> case adv]se to happ9ess1 we (t5 apply to x1 z s op]at+1 "s t]m ( condemnation3 ?us we speak1 9 ! case above notic$1 ( #8ov]-scrupul\sness' or #8fanaticism4' ,b 9 s f> z we p]ceive t ! same disposition w\ld g5]ally produce good results1 x is n inconsi/5t /ill to reg>d x1 ab/ract+ f ! p>ticul> case1 z a good elem5t ( "*4 ,secondly1 al?\gh1 9 ! view ( a ,utilit>ian1 only ! useful is praisewor?y1 he is n b\nd to ma9ta9 t x is necess>ily wor?y ( praise 9 proportion z x is useful4 ,f a ,utilit>ian po9t ( view1 z has be5 be=e said1 we mu/ mean by call+ a quality #8des]v+ ( praise1' t x is exp$i5t to praise x1 ) a view to its future production3 accord+ly1 9 di/ribut+ our praise ( human qualities1 on utilit>ian pr9ciples1 we h to consid] prim>ily n ! usefulness ( ! quality1 b ! usefulness ( ! praise3 & x is obvi\sly n exp$i5t to enc\rage by praise qualities :i* are likely to be f\nd 9 excess r ?an 9 defect4 ,h5ce 7e4g47 h[ev] necess>y self-love or res5tm5t may be to society1 x is q 9 h>mony ) ,utilit>ianism t !y %\ld n be recognis$ z virtues by ,common ,s5se1 9 s f> z x is reasonably ?\ght t !y w always be f\nd op]at+ ) at lea/ suffici5t int5sity4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t :5 self-love comes into conflict ) impulses se5 to be on ! :ole p]nici\s1 x is prais$ z ,prud5ce3 & t :5 a man seems cle>ly defici5t 9 res5tm5t1 he is c5sur$ = tam5ess3 ?\gh z malevol5t impulses are mu* m obvi\sly productive ( pa9 ?an pleasure1 x is n unnatural t _! occasional utility %\ld be some:at ov]look$4 ,! case ( ,humility & ,diffid5ce may be treat$ 9 a some:at simil> way4 ,z we saw#cbe x is only inadv]t5tly t ,common ,s5se praises ! t5d5cy to und]rate "o's own p[]s3 on reflection x is g5]ally admitt$ t x _c be good to be 9 error on ?is or any o!r po9t4 ,b ! desires ( ,sup]iority & ,e/eem are s /rong 9 mo/ m51 t arrogance & self-ass]tion are bo? mu* common] ?an ! opposite defects1 & at ! same "t are faults peculi>ly disagreeable to o!rs3 s t humility gives u an agreeable surprise1 & h5ce ,common ,s5se is easily l$ to ov]look ! m lat5t & remote bad consequ5ces ( undue self-di/ru/4 ,we may obs]ve fur!r t ! p]plexity :i* we seem$ to f9d 9 ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se1 z to ! relation ( moral excell5ce to moral ef=t1 is satisfactorily expla9$ & remov$ :5 we adopt a ,utilit>ian po9t ( view3 = on ! "o h& x is easy to see h[ c]ta9 acts--su* z k9d s]vices--are likely to be m felicific :5 p]=m$ )\t ef=t1 & f o!r motives ?an reg>d = duty3 :ile on ! o!r h& a p]son :o 9 do+ simil> acts a*ieves a triumph ( duty ov] /rong s$uctive incl9ations1 exhibits !reby a "* :i* we recognise z felicific 9 a m g5]al way1 z t5d+ to a g5]al p]=mance ( duty 9 all dep>tm5ts4 ,s aga91 !re is a simple & obvi\s utilit>ian solution ( ano!r difficulty :i* ,i notic$1 z to ! *oice betwe5 ,subjective & ,objective rightness 9 ! exceptional case 9 :i* alone ! two c be pres5t$ z alt]natives1--i4e4 :5 we are consid]+ :e!r we %all influ5ce ano!r to act contr>y to 8 conviction z to :at is "r4 ,a utilit>ian w\ld decide ! "q by weigh+ ! felicific consequ5ces ( ! p>ticul> "r act aga9/ ! infelicific results to be appreh5d$ h]eaft] f ! moral det]ioration ( ! p]son ^: consci5ti\s convictions 7 ov]borne by o!r motives3 unless ! =m] effects 7 v important he w\ld reasonably reg>d ! dang] to "* z ! great]3 b if ! o!r's mi/ak5 s5se ( duty ?reat5$ to cause a grave disa/]1 he w\ld n hesitate to ov]be> x by any motives :i* x 0 9 8 p[] to apply4 ,& 9 practice ,i ?9k t ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d w\ld come to simil> conclusions by m vague & semi-consci\s reason+ ( ! same k9d4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to =m a precise e/imate ( ! ext5t to :i* ,utilit>ianism agrees or disagrees ) ,common ,s5se1 x seems be/ to exam9e ! m def9ite judgm5ts ( "r & wrong 9 conduct1 "u ! p>ticul> heads repres5t$ by our common notions ( virtues & duties4 ,i may beg9 by po9t+ out once m t s f> z any adequately precise def9itions ( ^! notions are f\nd to involve1 implicitly or explicitly1 ! notion ( #8good' or ( #8"r' suppos$ already det]m9ate1 !y c af=d no gr\nd = oppos+ a ,utilit>ian int]pretation ( ^! fundam5tal conceptions4 ,= example1 we saw ?is to be ! case ) ! *ief ( ! intellectual excell5ces discuss$ 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 iii4 ,wisdom1 z commonly conceiv$1 is n exactly ! faculty ( *oos+ ! "r means to ! end ( univ]sal happ9ess2 r1 z we saw1 its notion involves an uncritical syn!sis ( ! diff]5t ends & pr9ciples t are di/+ui%$ & sep>ately exam9$ 9 ! pres5t treatise4 ,b if its import is n di/9ctly ,utilit>ian1 x is c]ta9ly n any?+ else z di/9ct f ,utilit>ian3 if we c only def9e x z ! faculty or habit ( *oos+ ! "r or be/ means to ! "r or be/ end1 = t v reason our def9ition leaves x q op5 to u to give ! notions #8good' & #8"r' a ,utilit>ian import4 #c4 ,let u !n exam9e fir/ ! gr\p ( virtues & duties discuss$ 9 ,book iii4 *ap4 iv41 "u ! head ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,z reg>ds ! g5]al conception ( ! duty1 !re is1 ,i ?9k1 no div]g5ce t we ne$ consid] betwe5 ! ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian sy/ems4 ,= ?\gh ,b5evol5ce w\ld p]haps be m commonly def9$ z a disposition to promote ! ,good ( "o's fell[-creatures1 r ?an _! ,happ9ess 7z def9itely und]/ood by ,utilit>ians72 /ill1 z ! *ief elem5t 9 ! common notion ( good 7besides happ9ess7 is moral good or ,virtue1#cbf if we c %[ t ! o!r virtues are--speak+ broadly--all qualities conducive to ! happ9ess ( ! ag5t himself or ( o!rs1 x is evid5t t ,b5evol5ce1 :e!r x prompts u to promote ! virtue ( o!rs or _! happ9ess1 w aim directly or indirectly at ! ,utilit>ian end4#cbg ,nor1 fur!r1 does ! compreh5sive range :i* ,utilit>ians give to ,b5evol5ce1 9 /at+ z _! ultimate end ! greate/ happ9ess ( all s5ti5t be+s1 seem to be really oppos$ to ,common ,s5se2 = 9 s f> z c]ta9 ,intuitional morali/s re/rict ! scope ( ! direct duty ( ,b5evol5ce to human be+s1 & reg>d our duties to brute animals z m]ely indirect & d]iv$ 8f ! duty ( ,self-culture10 !y r ?an _! ,utilit>ian oppon5ts appe> p>adoxical4 ,& if1 9 lay+ d[n t ea* ag5t is to consid] all o!r happ9ess z equally important ) 8 own1 ,utilit>ianism seems to g beyond ! /&>d ( duty commonly prescrib$ "u ! head ( ,b5evol5ce1 x yet c sc>cely be said to conflict ) ,common ,s5se on ?is po9t4 ,= ! practical application ( ?is !oretical imp>tiality ( ,utilit>ianism is limit$ by sev]al important consid]ations4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 g5]ally speak+1 ea* man is bett] able to provide = 8 own happ9ess ?an = t ( o!r p]sons1 f 8 m intimate k ( 8 own desires & ne$s1 & 8 great] opportunities ( gratify+ !m4 ,& besides1 x is "u ! /imulus ( self-int]e/ t ! active en]gies ( mo/ m5 are mo/ easily & ?or\ghly drawn out3 & if ?is 7 remov$1 g5]al happ9ess w\ld be dim9i%$ by a s]i\s loss ( ^? means ( happ9ess :i* are obta9$ by lab\r2 & also1 to "s ext5t1 by ! dim9ution ( ! lab\r itself4 ,= ^! reasons x w\ld n "u actual circum/ances promote ! univ]sal happ9ess if ea* man 7 to conc]n himself ) ! happ9ess ( o!rs z mu* z ) 8 own4 ,:ile if ,i consid] ! duty ab/ractly & ideally1 ev5 ,common ,s5se morality seems to bid me 8love my neighb\r z myself40 ,x might inde$ be plausibly object$1 on ! o!r h&1 t "u ! notions ( ,g5]osity1 ,self-sacrifice1 etc41 ,common ,s5se praises 7?\gh x does n prescribe z obligatory7 a suppression ( egoism beyond :at ,utilit>ianism approves3 = we p]haps admire z virtu\s a man :o gives up 8 own happ9ess = ano!r's sake1 ev5 :5 ! happ9ess t he conf]s is cle>ly less ?an t :i* he resigns1 s t !re is a dim9ution ( happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,b 7#a7 x seems v d\btful :e!r we d altoge!r approve su* conduct :5 ! disproportion betwe5 ! sacrifice & ! b5efit is obvi\s & /rik+3 & 7#b7 a spectator is (t5 unable to judge :e!r happ9ess is lo/ on ! :ole1 z 7a7 he _c tell h[ f> he :o makes ! sacrifice is comp5sat$ by sympa!tic & moral pleasure1 & 7b7 ! remot] felicific consequ5ces fl[+ f ! moral effects ( su* a sacrifice on ! ag5t & on o!rs h to be tak5 into acc\nt3 :ile 7#c7 ev5 if !re be a loss 9 ! p>ticul> case1 /ill our admiration ( self-sacrifice w admit ( a c]ta9 ,utilit>ian ju/ification1 because su* conduct %[s a disposition f> above ! av]age 9 its g5]al t5d5cy to promote happ9ess1 & x is p]haps ?is disposition t we admire r ?an ! p>ticul> act4 ,x has be5 said1#cbh h[ev]1 t ! special claims & duties belong+ to special relations1 by :i* ea* man is connect$ ) a few out ( ! :ole numb] ( human be+s1 are expressly ignor$ by ! rigid imp>tiality ( ! ,utilit>ian =mula3 & h5ce t1 ?\gh ,utilit>ianism & ,common ,s5se may agree 9 ! proposition t all "r action is conducive to ! happ9ess ( "s "o or o!r1 & s f> b5efic5t1 /ill !y are irreconcileably div]g5t on ! radical "q ( ! di/ribution ( b5efic5ce4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x seems t ev5 fair-m9d$ oppon5ts h sc>cely und]/ood ! ,utilit>ian position4 ,!y h attack$ ,b5?am's well-kn[n =mula1 8e man to c\nt = "o1 nobody = m ?an "o10 on ! gr\nd t ! g5]al happ9ess w be be/ atta9$ by inequality 9 ! di/ribution ( ea* "o's s]vices4 ,b s f> z x is cle> t x w be be/ atta9$ 9 ?is way1 ,utilit>ianism w necess>ily prescribe ?is way ( aim+ at x2 & ,b5?am's dictum mu/ be und]/ood m]ely z mak+ ! conception ( ! ultimate end precise--lay+ d[n t "o p]son's happ9ess is to be c\nt$ = z mu* z ano!r's 7suppos$ equal 9 degree7 z an elem5t ( ! g5]al happ9ess--n z directly prescrib+ ! rules ( conduct by :i* ?is end w be be/ atta9$4 ,& ! reasons :y x is1 g5]ally speak+1 conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t ea* individual %\ld di/ribute 8 b5efic5ce 9 ! *annels m>k$ out by commonly recognis$ ties & claims1 are tol]ably obvi\s4 ,= fir/1 9 ! *ief relations discuss$ 9 *ap4 iv4 ( ,book iii4--! dome/ic1 & ^? con/itut$ by consangu9ity1 fri5d%ip1 previ\s k9dnesses1 & special ne$s1--! s]vices :i* ,common ,s5se prescribes z duties are commonly prompt$ by natural affection1 :ile at ! same "t !y t5d to develop & su/a9 su* affection4 ,n[ ! subsi/5ce ( b5evol5t affections among human be+s is itself an important means to ! ,utilit>ian end1 because 7z ,%aftesbury & 8 foll[]s =cibly urg$7 ! mo/ int5se & highly valu$ ( our pleasures are d]iv$ f su* affections2 = bo? ! emotion itself is highly pleasurable1 & x imp>ts ?is quality to ! activities :i* x prompts & su/a9s1 & ! happ9ess ?us produc$ is cont9ually enhanc$ by ! sympa!tic e*o ( ! pleasures conf]r$ on o!rs4 ,& aga91 :]e g5u9e affection subsi/s1 ! practical objections to spontane\s b5efic5ce1 :i* 7 be=e notic$1 are mu* dim9i%$ 9 =ce4 ,= su* affection t5ds to be reciprocat$1 & ! k9dnesses :i* are its outcome & expression commonly w9 a requital ( affection3 & 9 s f> z ?is is ! case1 !y h less t5d5cy to weak5 ! spr+s ( activity 9 ! p]son b5efit$2 & may ev5 /r5g!n !m by excit+ o!r s\rces ( en]gy ?an ! egoi/ic--p]sonal affection1 & gratitude1 & ! desire to des]ve love1 & ! desire to imitate b5efic5ce4 ,& h5ce x has be5 (t5 obs]v$ t ! injuri\s effects ( almsgiv+ are at lea/ mu* dim9i%$ if ! alms are be/[$ ) unaffect$ sympa?y & k9dl9ess1 & 9 su* a way z to elicit a g5u9e response ( gratitude4 ,& fur!r1 ! b5efic5ce t spr+s f affection is less likely to be fru/rat$ f defect ( k3 = n only are we p[]fully /imulat$ to /udy ! real conditions ( ! happ9ess ( ^? :om we love1 b also su* /udy is r5d]$ m effective f ! sympa?y :i* naturally accompanies affection4 ,on ^! gr\nds ! ,utilit>ian w evid5tly approve ( ! cultivation ( affection & ! p]=mance ( affectionate s]vices4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t :at we ought to approve is n s mu* affection = special individuals1 b r a feel+ m univ]sal 9 its scope--*>ity1 philan?ropy1 or 7z x has be5 call$7 ! #8,en?usiasm ( ,humanity4' ,& c]ta9ly all special affections t5d occasionally to come into conflict ) ! pr9ciple ( promot+ ! g5]al happ9ess3 & ,utilit>ianism mu/ !re=e prescribe su* a culture ( ! feel+s z w1 s f> z possible1 c\nt]act ?is t5d5cy4 ,b x seems t mo/ p]sons are only capable ( /rong affections t[>ds a few human be+s 9 c]ta9 close relations1 especially ! dome/ic3 & t if ^! 7 suppress$1 :at !y w\ld feel t[>ds _! fell[-creatures g5]ally w\ld be1 z ,ari/otle says1 8b a wat]y k9dness0 & a v feeble c\nt]poise to self-love3 s t su* specialis$ affections z ! pres5t organisation ( society normally produces af=d ! be/ means ( develop+ 9 mo/ p]sons a m ext5d$ b5evol5ce1 to ! degree to :i* !y are capable ( feel+ x4 ,besides1 ea* p]son is = ! mo/ "p1 f limitation ei!r ( p[] or k1 n 9 a position to d mu* good to m ?an a v small numb] ( p]sons2 x !re=e seems1 on ?is gr\nd alone1 desirable t 8 *ief b5evol5t impulses %\ld be correspond+ly limit$4 ,& ?is leads u to consid]1 secondly1 ! reasons :y1 affection ap>t1 x is conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t special claims to s]vices %\ld be commonly recognis$ z atta*+ to special relations2 s z to modify t imp>tiality 9 ! di/ribution ( b5efic5ce :i* ,utilit>ianism prima facie inculcates4 ,= cle>ness' sake x seems be/ to take ?is argum5t sep>ately1 ?\gh x _c easily be divid$ f ! =m] "o1 because ! s]vices 9 "q are (t5 su* z _c s well be r5d]$ )\t affection4 ,9 su* cases1 z we saw1#cbi ,common ,s5se reg>ds ! affection itself z a duty1 9 s f> z x is capable ( be+ cultivat$3 b /ill prescribes ! p]=mance ( ! s]vices ev5 if ! affection be unhappily abs5t4 ,inde$ we may prop]ly consid] ! s]vices to :i* we are commonly prompt$ by ! dome/ic affections1 & also ^? to :i* we are mov$ by gratitude & pity1 z an integral "p ( ! sy/em ( mutual aid by :i* ! normal life & happ9ess ( society is ma9ta9$1 "u exi/+ circum/ances2 be+ an indisp5sable supplem5t to ! /ill m ess5tial s]vices :i* are def9itely prescrib$ by ,law1 or r5d]$ on comm]cial t]ms z a "p ( an express b>ga94 ,z political economi/s h expla9$1 ! means ( happ9ess are imm5sely increas$ by t complex sy/em ( co-op]ation :i* has be5 gradually organis$ among civilis$ m53 & :ile x is ?\ght t "u su* a sy/em x w be g5]ally be/ on ! :ole to let ea* individual ex*ange su* s]vices z he is dispos$ to r5d] = su* return z he c obta9 = !m by free contract1 /ill !re are _m l>ge exceptions to ?is g5]al pr9ciple4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important is con/itut$ by ! case ( *ildr54 ,x is necess>y = ! well-be+ ( mank9d t 9 ea* g5]ation *ildr5 %\ld be produc$ 9 adequate numb]s1 nei!r too _m nor too few2 & t1 z !y _c be left to provide = !mselves1 !y %\ld be adequately n\ri%$ & protect$ dur+ ! p]iod ( infancy2 & fur!r1 t !y %\ld be c>efully tra9$ 9 good habits1 intellectual1 moral1 & physical3 & x is commonly believ$ t ! be/ or ev5 ! only kn[n means ( atta9+ ^! ends 9 ev5 a tol]able degree is af=d$ by ! exi/+ in/itution ( ! ,family1 re/+ z x does on a basis ( legal & moral rules comb9$4 ,= ,law fixes a m9imum ( mutual s]vices & draws ! broad outl9es ( behavi\r = ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! family1 impos+#ccj on ! p>5ts lifelong union & complete mutual fidelity & ! duty ( provid+ = _! *ildr5 ! necess>ies ( life up to a c]ta9 age2 9 return = :i* x gives !m ! control ( _! *ildr5 = ! same p]iod1 & sometimes lays on ! latt] ! burd5 ( support+ _! p>5ts :5 ag$ & de/itute3 s t ,morality1 9 inculcat+ a complet] h>mony ( int]e/s & an ampl] int]*ange ( k9dnesses1 is m]ely fill+ 9 ! outl9es drawn by ,law4 ,we f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 attempt+ to =mulate ! diff]5t dome/ic duties z recognis$ by ,common ,s5se1 t !re seem$ to be 9 mo/ cases a l>ge vague m>g9 ) respect to :i* g5]al agreem5t c\ld n be affirm$1 & :i*1 9 fact1 =ms an ar5a = cont9ual disputes4 ,b we h n[ to obs]ve t x is j ?is m>g9 :i* reveals mo/ cle>ly ! lat5t ,utilit>ianism ( common moral op9ion3 = :5 ! "q is once rais$ z to ! precise mutual duties 7e4g47 ( husb&s & wives1 or ( p>5ts & *ildr51 ea* disputant commonly supports 8 view by a =eca/ ( ! effects on human happ9ess to be expect$ f ! g5]al e/abli%m5t ( any propos$ rule2 ?is seems to be ! /&>d to :i* ! matt] is1 by common cons5t1 ref]r$4 ,simil>ly ! claim to s]vices t arises out ( special ne$ 7:i* natural sympa?y moves u to recognise7 may obvi\sly be re/$ on an utilit>ian basis3 inde$ ! prop] fulfilm5t ( ?is duty seems s important to ! well-be+ ( society1 t x has 9 mod]n civilis$ communities g5]ally be5 br\ght to "s ext5t )9 ! sph]e ( ,gov]nm5tal action4 ,we notic$ t ! ma9 utilit>ian reason :y x is n "r = e ri* man to di/ribute 8 sup]flu\s weal? among ! poor1 is t ! happ9ess ( all is on ! :ole mo/ promot$ by ma9ta9+ 9 adults g5]ally 7except m>ri$ wom571 ! expectation t ea* w be ?r[n on 8 own res\rces = ! supply ( 8 own wants4 ,b if ,i am made aw>e t1 ow+ to a sudd5 calamity t c\ld n h be5 =ese51 ano!r's res\rces are manife/ly inadequate to protect him f pa9 or s]i\s discom=t1 ! case is alt]$2 my !oretical obligation to consid] 8 happ9ess z mu* z my own becomes at once practical2 & ,i am b\nd to make z mu* ef=t to relieve him z w n entail a great] loss ( happ9ess to myself or o!rs4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! calamity is "o :i* might h be5 =ese5 & av]t$ by prop] c>e1 my duty becomes m d\btful3 = !n by reliev+ him ,i seem to be 9 dang] ( enc\rag+ improvid5ce 9 o!rs4 ,9 su* a case a ,utilit>ian has to weigh ?is indirect evil aga9/ ! direct good ( remov+ pa9 & di/ress3 & x is n[ m & m g5]ally recognis$ t ! "q ( provid+ = ! de/itute has to be treat$ z a utilit>ian problem ( :i* ^! are ! elem5ts1--:e!r we are consid]+ ! m9imum t %\ld be secur$ to !m by law1 or ! prop] supplem5t>y action ( private *>ity4 ,pov]ty1 h[ev]1 is n ! only case 9 :i* x is conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t "o man %\ld r5d] unb\ght s]vices to ano!r4 ,9 any condition or call+ a man may f9d himself unable to w>d (f "s evil1 or to realise "s legitimate or wor?y end1 )\t assi/ance ( su* k9d z he _c pur*ase on ! ord9>y comm]cial t]ms2--assi/ance :i*1 on ! "o h&1 w h no bad effect on ! receiv]1 f ! exceptional nature ( ! em]g5cy1 :ile at ! same "t x may n be burd5some to ! giv]4 ,"h1 aga91 "s juri/s h ?\ght t :]e ! s]vice to be r5d]$ is great1 & ! burd5 ( r5d]+ x v slight1 x might prop]ly be made matt] ( legal obligation3 s t 7e4g47 if ,i c\ld save a man f dr[n+ by m]ely hold+ out a h&1 ,i %\ld be legally puni%able if ,i omitt$ ! act4 ,b1 h[ev] ?is may be1 ! moral rule condemn+ ! refusal ( aid 9 su* em]g5cies is obvi\sly conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,fur!r1 besides ^!--s to say--accid5tally unb\ght s]vices1 !re are "s = :i* !re is normally no m>ket-price2 su* z c\nsel & assi/ance 9 ! intimate p]plexities ( life1 :i* "o is only will+ to receive f g5u9e fri5ds4 ,x mu* promotes ! g5]al happ9ess t su* s]vices %\ld be g5]ally r5d]$4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 z well z ?r\gh ! emotional pleasures :i* directly spr+ f x1 we p]ceive ,fri5d%ip to be an important means to ! ,utilit>ian end4 ,at ! same "t we feel t ! *>m ( ,fri5d%ip is lo/ if ! fl[ ( emotion is n spontane\s & un=c$4 ,! comb9ation ( ^! two views seems to be exactly repres5t$ by ! sympa?y t is n q admiration ) :i* ,common ,s5se reg>ds all close & /rong affections2 & ! regret t is n q disapproval ) :i* x contemplates _! decay4 ,9 all cases :]e x is conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t unb\ght s]vices %\ld be r5d]$1 ,gratitude 7if we mean by ?is a settl$ disposition to repay ! b5efit 9 :atev] way "o c on a fitt+ opportunity7 is enjo9$ by ,utilit>ianism no less ?an by ,common ,s5se2 = exp]i5ce w\ld lead u to expect t no k9d ( on]\s s]vices w be adequately r5d]$ unless !re is a g5]al disposition to requite !m4 ,9 fact we may say t a g5]al und]/&+ t all s]vices :i* x is exp$i5t t ,a %\ld r5d] to ,b w be 9 "s way repaid by ,b1 is a natural supplem5t ( ! m def9ite contracts by :i* ! ma9 "p ( ! great social int]*ange ( s]vices is arrang$4 ,inde$ ! "o k9d ( requital m]ges 9 ! o!r1 & no %>p l9e c be drawn betwe5 ! two3 we _c always say di/9ctly :e!r ! requital ( a b5efit is a pure act ( gratitude or ! fulfilm5t ( a tacit und]/&+4#cca ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 difficulty 9 ?is view ( gratitude z analog\s to ! fulfilm5t ( a b>ga94 ,= x may be said t ( ! s]vices peculi> to fri5d%ip dis9t]e/$ness is an indisp5sable *>act]i/ic2 & t 9 all cases b5efits conf]r$ )\t expectation ( rew>d h a peculi> excell5ce1 & are inde$ peculi>ly adapt$ to ar\se gratitude2 b if !y are conf]r$ 9 expectation ( su* gratitude1 !y lose ?is excell5ce2 & yet1 aga91 x w\ld be v difficult to treat z a fri5d "o f :om gratitude 0 n expect$4 ,?is seems1 at fir/ sight1 an inextricable entanglem5t3 b "h1 z 9 o!r cases1 an app>5t e?ical contradiction is f\nd to r$uce itself to a psy*ological complexity4 ,= mo/ ( our actions are done f sev]al diff]5t motives1 ei!r coexi/+ or succe$+ "o ano!r 9 rapid alt]nation3 ?us a man may h a p]fectly dis9t]e/$ desire to b5efit ano!r1 & "o :i* might possibly prevail ov] all conflict+ motives if all hope ( requital 7 cut (f1 & yet x may be well t ?is g5]\s impulse %\ld be su/a9$ by a vague tru/ t requital w n be )held4 ,& 9 fact ! app>5t puzzle really af=ds ano!r illu/ration ( ! lat5t ,utilit>ianism ( ,common ,s5se4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 ,utilit>ianism prescribes t we %\ld r5d] s]vices :5ev] x is conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess to d s1 :i* may (t5 be ! case )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! ga9 to oneself :i* w\ld result f _! requital3 & on ! o!r h&1 s9ce we may inf] f ! actual selfi%ness ( av]age m5 t su* s]vices w\ld n be adequately r5d]$ )\t expectation ( requital1 x is also conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t m5 %\ld recognise a moral obligation to repay !m4 ,we h discuss$ only ! mo/ conspicu\s ( ! duties ( affection3 b x is probably obvi\s t simil> reason+s w\ld apply 9 ! case ( ! o!rs4 ,9 all su* cases !re are ?ree di/9ct l9es ( argum5t :i* t5d to %[ t ! commonly receiv$ view ( special claims & duties aris+ out ( special relations1 ?\gh prima facie oppos$ to ! imp>tial univ]sality ( ! ,utilit>ian pr9ciple1 is really ma9ta9$ by a well-consid]$ application ( t pr9ciple4 ,fir/1 morality is "h 9 a mann] protect+ ! normal *annels & c\rses ( natural b5evol5t affections2 & ! developm5t ( su* affections is ( ! highe/ importance to human happ9ess1 bo? z a direct s\rce ( pleasure1 & z an indisp5sable prep>ation = a m enl>g$ 8altruism40 ,& aga91 ! m]e fact t su* affections are normal1 causes an expectation ( ! s]vices t are _! natural expression2 & ! disappo9tm5t ( su* expectations is inevitably pa9ful4 ,:ile f9ally1 ap>t f ^! consid]ations1 we c %[ 9 ea* case /rong utilit>ian reasons :y1 g5]ally speak+1 s]vices %\ld be r5d]$ to ! p]sons commonly recognis$ z hav+ su* claims r ?an to o!rs4 ,we h to obs]ve1 9 conclusion1 t ! difficulties :i* we f\nd 9 ! way ( det]m9+ by ! ,intuitional me?od ! limits & ! relative importance ( ^! duties are r$uc$ 9 ! ,utilit>ian sy/em1 to difficulties ( h$oni/ic comp>ison4#ccb ,= ea* ( ! prec$+ argum5ts has %[n u diff]5t k9ds ( pleasures ga9$ & pa9s av]t$ by ! fulfilm5t ( ! claims 9 "q4 ,!re are1 fir/1 ^? :i* ! s]vice claim$ w\ld directly promote or av]t3 secondly1 !re is ! pa9 & second>y h>m ( disappo9t$ expectation1 if ! s]vice be n r5d]$3 ?irdly1 we h to reckon ! v>i\s pleasures connect$ ) ! ex]cise ( natural b5evol5t affections1 especially :5 reciprocat$1 includ+ ! indirect effects on ! ag5t's "* ( ma9ta9+ su* affections4 ,all ^! diff]5t pleasures & pa9s comb9e diff]5tly1 & ) almo/ inf9ite v>iation z circum/ances v>y1 into utilit>ian reasons = ea* ( ! claims 9 "q2 none ( ^! reasons be+ absolute & conclusive1 b ea* hav+ its own weight1 :ile liable to be outweigh$ by o!rs4 #d4 ,i pass to consid] ano!r gr\p ( duties1 (t5 contra/$ ) ^? ( ,b5evol5ce1 "u ! compreh5sive notion ( ,ju/ice4 8,t ,ju/ice is useful to society10 says ,hume1 8x w\ld be a sup]flu\s und]tak+ to prove03 :at he endeav\rs to %[ at "s l5g? is 8t public utility is ! sole orig9 ( ,ju/ice03 & ! same "q ( orig9 has occupi$ ! *ief att5tion ( ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4#ccc ,"h1 h[ev]1 we are n s mu* conc]n$ ) ! gr[? ( ! s5tim5t ( ,ju/ice f exp]i5ces ( utility1 z ) ! ,utilit>ian basis ( ! mature notion2 :ile at ! same "t if ! analysis previ\sly giv5 be correct1 ! ,ju/ice t is commonly dem&$ & inculcat$ is some?+ m complex ?an ^! writ]s h recognis$4 ,:at ,hume 7e4g47 means by ,ju/ice is r :at ,i %\ld call ,ord]1 und]/ood 9 its wide/ s5se3 ! obs]vance ( ! actual sy/em ( rules1 :e!r /rictly legal or cu/om>y1 :i* b9d toge!r ! diff]5t memb]s ( any society into an organic :ole1 *eck+ malevol5t or o!rwise injuri\s impulses1 di/ribut+ ! diff]5t objects ( m5's cla%+ desires1 & exact+ su* positive s]vices1 cu/om>y or contractual1 z are commonly recognis$ z matt]s ( debt4 ,& ?\gh !re h r>ely be5 want+ plausible empirical argum5ts = ! revolution>y p>adox quot$ by ,plato1 t 8laws are impos$ 9 ! int]e/ ( rul]s10 x rema9s true t ! g5]al conduciv5ess to social happ9ess ( ! habit ( ,ord] or ,law-obs]vance1 is1 z ,hume says1 too obvi\s to ne$ pro(2 inde$ x is ( su* p>am\nt importance to a community1 t ev5 :]e p>ticul> laws are cle>ly injuri\s x is usually exp$i5t to obs]ve !m1 ap>t f any p5alty :i* _! brea* might entail on ! individual4 ,we saw1 h[ev]1 t ,common ,s5se sometimes bids u refuse ob$i5ce to bad laws1 because 8we ought to obey ,god r ?an m50 7?\gh !re seems to be no cle> intuition z to ! k9d or degree ( badness t ju/ifies resi/ance72 & fur!r all[s u1 9 special em]g5cies1 to violate rules g5]ally good1 = 8necessity has no law10 & 8salus populi suprema lex40 ,^! & simil> common op9ions seem at lea/ to sugge/ t ! limits ( ! duty ( ,law-obs]vance are to be det]m9$ by utilit>ian consid]ations4 ,:ile1 aga91 ! ,utilit>ian view gets rid ( ! difficulties 9 :i* ! attempt to def9e intuitively ! truly legitimate s\rce ( legislative au?ority involv$ u2#ccd at ! same "t t x ju/ifies to "s ext5t ea* ( ! diff]5t views curr5t z to ! intr9sic legitimacy ( gov]nm5ts4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 x f9ds ! moral basis ( any e/abli%$ political ord] prim>ily 9 its effects r ?an its causes2 s t1 g5]ally speak+1 ob$i5ce w seem due to any de facto gov]nm5t t is n gov]n+ v badly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 s f> z laws orig9at+ 9 a p>ticul> way are likely to be 7#a7 bett]1 or 7#b7 m readily obs]v$1 x is a ,utilit>ian duty to aim at introduc+ ?is mode ( orig9ation3 & ?us 9 a c]ta9 /age ( social developm5t x may be "r t 7e4g47 a #8repres5tative sy/em' %\ld be popul>ly dem&$1 or possibly 79 extreme cases7 ev5 introduc$ by =ce3 :ile1 aga91 !re is exp$i5cy 9 ma9ta9+ an anci5t mode ( legislation1 because m5 readily obey su*3 & loyalty to a dispossess$ gov]nm5t may be on ! :ole exp$i5t1 ev5 at ! co/ ( "s tempor>y suff]+ & disord]1 9 ord] t ambiti\s m5 may n f9d usurpation too easy4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 ,utilit>ianism at once supports ! diff]5t reasons commonly put =w>d z absolute1 & also br+s !m !oretically to a common measure1 s t 9 any p>ticul> case we h a pr9ciple ( decision betwe5 conflict+ political argum5ts4 ,z 0 be=e said1 ?is ,law-obs]vance1 9 s f> at lea/ z x affects ! int]e/s ( o!r individuals1 is :at we frequ5tly mean by ,ju/ice4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1#cce t ! notion ( ,ju/ice1 exhau/ively analys$1 includes sev]al di/9ct elem5ts comb9$ 9 a some:at complex mann]3 we h to inquire1 !re=e1 :at lat5t utilities are repres5t$ by ea* ( ^! elem5ts4 ,n[1 fir/1 a con/ant "p ( ! notion1 :i* appe>s 9 x ev5 :5 ! ,j is n di/+ui%$ f ! ,legal1 is imp>tiality or ! negation ( arbitr>y inequality4 ,?is imp>tiality1 z we saw#ccf 7:e!r exhibit$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t or 9 ! adm9i/ration ( laws71 is m]ely a special application ( ! wid] maxim t x _c be "r to treat two p]sons diff]5tly if _! cases are simil> 9 all mat]ial circum/ances4 ,& ,utilit>ianism1 z we saw1 admits ?is maxim no less ?an o!r sy/ems ( ,e?ics4 ,at ! same "t1 ?is negative crit]ion is cle>ly inadequate = ! complete det]m9ation ( :at is j 9 laws1 or 9 conduct g5]ally2 :5 we h admitt$ ?is1 x /ill rema9s to ask1 8,:at are ! inequalities 9 laws1 & 9 ! di/ribution ( pleasures & pa9s outside ! sph]e ( law1 :i* are n arbitr>y & unreasonable8 & to :at g5]al pr9ciples c !y be r$uc$80 ,"h 9 ! fir/ place we may expla91 on utilit>ian pr9ciples1 :y app>5tly arbitr>y inequality 9 a c]ta9 "p ( ! conduct ( individuals#ccg is n reg>d$ z inju/ice or ev5--9 "s cases--z 9 any way c5surable4 ,= fre$om ( action is an important s\rce ( happ9ess to ! ag5ts1 & a socially useful /imulus to _! en]gies3 h5ce x is obvi\sly exp$i5t t a man's free *oice 9 ! di/ribution ( weal? or k9d s]vices %\ld n be re/ra9$ by ! fe> ( legal p5alties1 or ev5 ( social disapprobation1 beyond :at ! int]e/s ( o!rs cle>ly require2 & !re=e1 :5 di/9ctly recognis$ claims are satisfi$1 x is pro tanto exp$i5t t ! m]e pref]5ces ( an individual %\ld be treat$ by o!rs z legitimate gr\nds = inequality 9 ! di/ribution ( 8 prop]ty or s]vices4 ,nay1 z we h be=e se51 x is )9 c]ta9 limits exp$i5t t ea* individual %\ld practically reg>d 8 own unreason$ impulses z reasonable gr\nds ( action3 z 9 ! r5d]+ ( s]vices prompt$ by su* affections z are normally & prop]ly spontane\s & un=c$4 ,pass+ to consid] ! g5]al pr9ciples ^u :i* #8j claims' z commonly recognis$ appe> to be bas$1 we notice t ! gr\nds ( a numb] ( su* claims may be br\ght "u ! g5]al head ( #8normal expectations'2 b t ! /r+5cy ( su* obligations v>ies mu* 9 degree1 accord+ z ! expectations are bas$ ^u def9ite engagem5ts1 or on "s vague mutual und]/&+1 or are m]ely su* z an av]age man w\ld =m f pa/ exp]i5ce ( ! conduct ( o!r m54 ,9 ^! latt] cases ,common ,s5se appe>$ to be some:at p]plex$ z to ! validity ( ! claims4 ,b = ! ,utilit>ian ! difficulty has ceas$ to exi/4 ,he w hold any disappo9tm5t ( expectations to be pro tanto an evil1 b a great] evil 9 proportion to ! previ\s security ( ! expectant individual1 f ! great] %ock ?us giv5 to 8 reliance on ! conduct ( 8 fell[-m5 g5]ally3 & _m times great] 9 proportion z ! expectation is g5]ally recognis$ z normal & reasonable1 z 9 ?is case ! %ock ext5ds to all :o are 9 any way cognisant ( 8 disappo9tm5t4 ,! importance to mank9d ( be+ able to rely on ea* o!r's actions is s great1 t 9 ord9>y cases ( absolutely def9ite engagem5ts !re is sc>cely any advantage t c c\nt]balance ! h>m done by violat+ !m4 ,/ill1 we f\nd#cch t sev]al exceptions & qualifications to ! rule ( ,good ,fai? 7 m or less di/9ctly recognis$ by ,common ,s5se3 & mo/ ( ^! h a utilit>ian basis1 :i* x does n ne$ mu* p5etration to disc]n4 ,to beg91 we may notice t ! sup]ficial view ( ! obligation ( a promise :i* makes x dep5d on ! ass]tion ( ! promis]1 & n1 z ,utilit>ians hold1 on ! expectations produc$ 9 ! promisee1 _c fairly be attribut$ to ,common ,s5se3 :i* c]ta9ly condemns a brea* ( promise mu* m /rongly :5 o!rs h act$ 9 reliance on x1 ?an :5 its obs]vance did n directly conc]n o!rs1 s t its brea* involves = !m only ! indirect evil ( a bad prec$5t1--z :5 a man breaks a pl$ge ( total ab/95ce4 ,we see1 aga91 h[ ! utilit>ian reasons = keep+ a promise are dim9i%$ by a mat]ial *ange ( circum/ances1#cci = 9 t case ! expectations disappo9t$ by break+ x are at lea/ n ^? :i* ! promise orig9ally creat$4 ,x is obvi\s1 too1 t x is a disadvantage to ! community t m5 %\ld be able to rely on ! p]=mance ( promises procur$ by fraud or unlawful =ce1 s f> z enc\ragem5t is !reby giv5 to ! use ( fraud or =ce = ?is end4#cdj ,we saw1 aga91#cda t :5 ! p]=mance w\ld be injuri\s to ! promisee1 ,common ,s5se is dispos$ to admit t its obligation is sup]s$$2 & is at lea/ d\btful :e!r ! promise %\ld be kept1 ev5 :5 x is only ! promis] :o w\ld be injur$1 if ! h>m be extreme2--bo? :i* qualifications are 9 h>mony ) ,utilit>ianism4 ,& simil>ly = ! o!r qualifications & exceptions3 !y all turn out to be z cle>ly utilit>ian1 z ! g5]al utility ( keep+ "o's ^w is pla9 & manife/4 ,b fur!r1 ! exp$i5cy ( satisfy+ normal expectations1 ev5 :5 !y are n bas$ ^u a def9ite contract1 is und5iable2 x w cle>ly conduce to ! tranquillity ( social exi/5ce1 & to ! settl$ & well-adju/$ activity on :i* social happ9ess greatly dep5ds1 t su* expectations %\ld be z little z possible baulk$4 ,& "h ,utilit>ianism relieves u ( ! difficulties :i* beset ! common view ( j conduct z some?+ absolutely precise & def9ite4 ,= 9 ?is vagu] region we _c draw a %>p l9e betwe5 valid & invalid claims2 #8inju/ice' %ades gradually (f into m]e #8h>d%ip4' ,h5ce ! ,utilit>ian view t ! disappo9tm5t ( natural expectations is an evil1 b an evil :i* mu/ sometimes be incurr$ = ! sake ( a great] good1 is t to :i* ,common ,s5se is practically =c$1 ?\gh x is difficult to reconcile x ) ! !oretical absolut5ess ( ,ju/ice 9 ! ,intuitional view ( ,morality4 ,! ga9 ( recognis+ ! relativity ( ?is obligation w be /ill m felt1 :5 we consid] :at ,i di/+ui%$ z ,ideal ,ju/ice1 & exam9e ! g5]al conceptions ( ?is :i* we f9d express$ or lat5t 9 curr5t criticisms ( ! exi/+ ord] ( ,society4 ,we h se5 t !re are two compet+ views ( an ideally j social ord]--or p]haps we may say two extreme types betwe5 :i* ! loos] notions ( ord9>y m5 seem to fluctuate--:i* ,i call$ respectively ,individuali/ic & ,sociali/ic4 ,accord+ to ! =m] view an ideal sy/em ( ,law ought to aim at ,fre$om1 or p]fect mutual non-int]f]5ce ( all ! memb]s ( ! community1 z an absolute end4 ,n[ ! g5]al utilit>ian reasons = leav+ ea* rational adult free to seek happ9ess 9 8 own way are obvi\s & /rik+3 =1 g5]ally speak+1 ea* is be/ qualifi$ to provide = 8 own int]e/s1 s9ce ev5 :5 he does n "k be/ :at !y are & h[ to atta9 !m1 he is at any rate mo/ ke5ly conc]n$ = !m3 & aga91 ! consci\sness ( fre$om & concomitant responsibility increases ! av]age effective activity ( m53 & besides1 ! discom=t ( con/ra9t is directly an evil & pro tanto to be avoid$4 ,/ill1 we saw#cdb t ! attempt to con/ruct a consi/5t code ( laws1 tak+ ,maximum ,fre$om 7in/ead ( ,happ9ess7 z an absolute end1 mu/ lead to />tl+ p>adoxes & insoluble puzzles3 & 9 fact ! practical int]pretation ( ! notion #8,fre$om1' & ! limits )9 :i* its realisation has be5 actually s\ght1 h always--ev5 9 ! free/ societies--be5 m or less consci\sly det]m9$ by consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 ,s t we may fairly say t 9 s f> z ,common ,s5se has adopt$ ! ,individuali/ic ideal 9 politics1 x has always be5 z subord9ate to & limit$ by ! ,utilit>ian fir/ pr9ciple4#cdc ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t :at we commonly dem& or long =1 "u ! "n ( ,ideal ,ju/ice1 is n s mu* ! realisation ( ,fre$om1 z ! di/ribution ( good & evil accord+ to ,des]t3 inde$ x is z a means to ?is latt] end t ,fre$om is (t5 advocat$2 = x is said t if we protect m5 completely f mutual int]f]5ce1 ea* w reap ! good & bad consequ5ces ( 8 own conduct1 & s be happy or unhappy 9 proportion to 8 des]ts4 ,9 p>ticul>1 x has be5 widely held t if a free ex*ange ( weal? & s]vices is all[$1 ea* individual w obta9 f society1 9 money or o!r advantages1 :at 8 s]vices are really wor?4 ,we saw1 h[ev]1 t ! price :i* an individual obta9s "u a sy/em ( p]fect free trade1 = weal? or s]vices ex*ang$ by him1 may = sev]al reasons be n proportion$ to ! social utility ( :at he ex*anges3 & reflective ,common ,s5se seems to admit ?is disproportion z to "s ext5t legitimate1 "u ! influ5ce ( utilit>ian consid]ations correct+ ! unreflective utt]ances ( moral s5tim5ts4 ,to take a p>ticul> case3 if a moral man 7 ask$ h[ f> x is "r to take advantage 9 b>ga9+ ( ano!r's ignorance1 probably 8 fir/ impulse w\ld be to condemn su* a proc$ure altoge!r4 ,b reflection1 ,i ?9k1 w\ld %[ him t su* a c5sure w\ld be too sweep+3 t x w\ld be contr>y to ,common ,s5se to 8blame ,a = hav+1 9 negotiat+ ) a /rang] ,b1 tak5 advantage ( ,b's ignorance ( facts kn[n to himself1 provid$ t ,a's sup]ior k _h be5 obta9$ by a legitimate use ( dilig5ce & =esight1 :i* ,b might h us$ ) equal success4444 ,:at prev5ts u f c5sur+ 9 ?is & simil> cases is1 ,i conceive1 a m or less consci\s appreh5sion ( ! indef9ite loss to ! weal? ( ! community t is likely to result f any effective social re/rictions on ! free pursuit & ex]cise0 ( economic k4 ,& = some:at simil> reasons ( g5]al exp$i5cy1 if ! "q be rais$ :e!r x is fair = a class ( p]sons to ga9 by ! unfav\rable economic situation ( any class ) :i* !y deal1 ,common ,s5se at lea/ hesitates to c5sure su* ga9s--at any rate :5 su* unfav\rable situation is due 8to ! gradual action ( g5]al causes1 = ! exi/5ce ( :i* ! p]sons :o ga9 are n specially responsible40#cdd ,! g5]al pr9ciple ( #8requit+ good des]t1' s f> z ,common ,s5se really accepts x z practically applicable to ! relations ( m5 9 society1 is broadly 9 h>mony ) ,utilit>ianism2 s9ce we obvi\sly enc\rage ! production ( g5]al happ9ess by rew>d+ m5 = felicific conduct2 only ! ,utilit>ian scale ( rew>ds w n be det]m9$ entirely by ! magnitude ( ! s]vices p]=m$1 b p>tly also by ! difficulty ( induc+ m5 to p]=m !m4 ,b ?is latt] elem5t seems to be always tak5 into acc\nt 7?\gh p]haps unconsci\sly7 by ,common ,s5se3 =1 z we h be5 l$ to notice1#cde we d n commonly recognise m]it 9 "r actions1 if !y are su* z m5 are naturally incl9$ to p]=m r too mu* ?an too little4 ,aga91 9 cases :]e ! ,intuitional pr9ciple t ill-des]t lies 9 wrong int5tion conflicts ) ! ,utilit>ian view ( puni%m5t z purely prev5tive1 we f9d t 9 ! actual adm9i/ration ( crim9al ju/ice1 ,common ,s5se is =c$1 h[ev] reluctantly1 into practical agreem5t ) ,utilit>ianism4 ,?us aft] a civil w> x dem&s ! execution ( ! mo/ purely patriotic rebels2 & aft] a railway accid5t x clam\rs = ! sev]e puni%m5t ( un9t5tional neglects1 :i*1 except = _! consequ5ces1 w\ld h be5 reg>d$ z v v5ial4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 any di/ribution ( pleasures & privileges1 or ( pa9s & burd5s1 consid]ations ( des]t d n prop]ly come 9 7i4e4 if ! good or evil to be di/ribut$ h no relation to any conduct on ! "p ( ! p]sons :o are to receive ei!r7--or if x is practically impossible to take su* consid]ations into acc\nt--!n ,common ,s5se seems to fall back on simple equality z ! pr9ciple ( j apportionm5t4#cdf ,& we h se5 t ! ,utilit>ian1 9 ! case suppos$1 w reasonably accept ,equality z ! only mode ( di/ribution t is n arbitr>y2 & x may be obs]v$ t ?is mode ( apportion+ ! means ( happ9ess is likely to produce m happ9ess on ! :ole1 n only because m5 h a dis9t]e/$ av]sion to unreason1 b /ill m because !y h an av]sion to any k9d ( inf]iority to o!rs 7:i* is mu* int5sifi$ :5 ! inf]iority seems unreasonable74 ,?is latt] feel+ is s /rong t x (t5 prevails 9 spite ( obvi\s claims ( des]t2 & x may ev5 be sometimes exp$i5t t x %\ld s prevail4 ,=1 f9ally1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t ,utilit>ianism furni%es u ) a common /&>d to :i* ! diff]5t elem5ts includ$ 9 ! notion ( ,ju/ice may be r$uc$4 ,su* a /&>d is imp]atively requir$3 z ^! diff]5t elem5ts are cont9ually liable to conflict ) ea* o!r4 ,! issue1 = example1 9 practical politics betwe5 ,cons]vatives & ,re=m]s (t5 repres5ts su* a conflict3 ! "q is1 :e!r we ought to d a c]ta9 viol5ce to expectations aris+ naturally out ( ! exi/+ social ord]1 ) ! view ( br++ ab\t a di/ribution ( ! means ( happ9ess m 9 accordance ) ideal ju/ice4 ,"h1 if my analysis ( ! common notion ( ,ju/ice be s\nd1 ! attempt to extract f x a cle> decision ( su* an issue mu/ necess>ily fail3 z ! conflict is1 s to say1 p]man5tly lat5t 9 ! v core ( ,common ,s5se4 ,b ! ,utilit>ian w m]ely use ?is notion ( ,ju/ice z a guide to diff]5t k9ds ( utilities2 & 9 s f> z ^! are incompatible1 he w balance "o set ( advantages aga9/ ! o!r1 & decide accord+ to ! prepond]ance4 #e4 ,! duty ( ,tru?-speak+ is sometimes tak5 z a /rik+ in/ance ( a moral rule n re/+ on a ,utilit>ian basis4 ,b a c>eful /udy ( ! qualifications ) :i* ! common op9ion ( mank9d actually inculcates ?is duty seems to lead u to an opposite result3 = n only is ! g5]al utility ( tru?-speak+ s manife/ z to ne$ no pro(1 b :]ev] ?is utility seems to be abs5t1 or outweigh$ by p>ticul> bad consequ5ces1 we f9d t ,common ,s5se at lea/ hesitates to en=ce ! rule4 ,= example1 if a man be pursu+ crim9al ends1 x is prima facie injuri\s to ! community t he %\ld be aid$ 9 8 pursuit by be+ able to rely on ! ass]tions ( o!rs4 ,"h1 !n1 deception is prima facie legitimate z a protection aga9/ crime3 ?\gh :5 we consid] ! bad effects on habit1 & ?r\gh example1 ( ev5 a s+le act ( unv]acity1 ! case is se5 to be1 on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 d\btful3 & ?is is j ! view ( ,common ,s5se4 ,aga91 ?\gh x is g5]ally a man's int]e/ to "k ! tru?1 !re are exceptional cases 9 :i* x is injuri\s to him--z :5 an invalid he>s bad news--& "h1 too1 ,common ,s5se is dispos$ to susp5d ! rule4 ,aga91 we f\nd x difficult to def9e exactly :]e9 ,v]acity consi/s2 = we may ei!r require tru? 9 ! spok5 words1 or 9 ! inf]5ces :i* ! speak] =esees w be drawn f !m1 or 9 bo?4 ,p]fect ,c&\r1 no d\bt1 w\ld require x 9 bo?3 b 9 ! v>i\s circum/ances :]e ?is seems inexp$i5t1 we (t5 f9d ,common ,s5se at lea/ half-will+ to disp5se ) "o or o!r "p ( ! d\ble obligation4 ,?us we f\nd a respectable s*ool ( ?9k]s ma9ta9+ t a religi\s tru? may prop]ly be communicat$ by means ( a hi/orical fiction3 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! unsuitability ( p]fect frankness to our exi/+ social relations is recognis$ 9 ! common rules ( polit5ess1 :i* impose on u n unfrequ5tly ! necessity ( suppress+ tru?s & sugge/+ falsehoods4 ,i w\ld n say t 9 any ( ^! cases ,common ,s5se pron\nces q decid$ly 9 fav\r ( unv]acity3 b !n nei!r is ,utilit>ianism decid$1 z ! utility ( ma9ta9+ a g5]al habit ( tru?-speak+ is s great1 t x is n easy to prove x to be cle>ly outweigh$ by ev5 /rong special reasons = violat+ ! rule4 ,yet x may be wor? :ile to po9t out h[ ! diff]5t views z to ! legitimacy ( ,malevol5t impulses1 out ( :i* we f\nd x h>d to frame a consi/5t doctr9e = ,common ,s5se1 exactly correspond to diff]5t =eca/s ( ! consequ5ces ( gratify+ su* impulses4 ,prima facie1 ! desire to injure any "o 9 p>ticul> is inconsi/5t ) a delib]ate purpose ( b5efit+ z mu* z possible p 9 g5]al2 accord+ly1 we f9d t :at ,i may call ,sup]ficial ,common ,s5se passes a sweep+ condemnation on su* desires4 ,b a /udy ( ! actual facts ( society %[s t res5tm5t plays an important "p 9 t repression ( injuries :i* is necess>y to social wellbe+2 accord+ly1 ! reflective morali/ %r9ks f exclud+ x altoge!r4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t p]sonal ill-w is a v dang]\s means to ! g5]al happ9ess3 = its direct end is ! exact opposite ( happ9ess2 & ?\gh ! realisation ( ?is end may 9 c]ta9 cases be ! lea/ ( two evils1 /ill ! impulse if enc\rag$ is likely to prompt to ! infliction ( pa9 beyond ! limits ( j puni%m5t1 & to h an injuri\s reaction on ! "* ( ! angry p]son4 ,accord+ly1 ! morali/ is dispos$ to prescribe t indignation be direct$ always aga9/ acts1 & n aga9/ p]sons2 & if indignation s re/rict$ w\ld be effici5t 9 repress+ injuries1 ?is w\ld seem to be ! /ate ( m9d mo/ conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,b x is d\btful :e!r av]age human nature is capable ( ma9ta9+ ?is di/9ction1 & :e!r1 if x c\ld be ma9ta9$1 ! m ref9$ av]sion w\ld by itself be suffici5tly efficaci\s3 accord+ly1 ,common ,s5se hesitates to condemn p]sonal ill-w aga9/ wrong-do]s--ev5 if x includes a desire ( malevol5t satisfaction4 ,f9ally1 x is easy to %[ t ,temp]ance1 ,self-control1 & :at are call$ ! ,self-reg>d+ virtues g5]ally1 are #8useful' to ! individual :o possesses !m3 & if x is n q cle>1 9 ! view ( ,common ,s5se1 to :at end t regulation & gov]nm5t ( appetites & passions1 :i* morali/s h s mu* inculcat$ & admir$1 is to be direct$2 at lea/ !re seems no ob/acle 9 ! way ( our def9+ ?is end z ,happ9ess4 ,& ev5 9 ! ascetic extreme ( ,self-control1 :i* has sometimes l$ to ! repudiation ( s5sual pleasures z radically bad1 we may trace an unconsci\s ,utilit>ianism4 ,= ! ascetic condemnation has always be5 *iefly direct$ aga9/ ^? pleasures1 9 respect ( :i* m5 are especially liable to commit excesses dang]\s to heal?2 & free indulg5ce 9 :i*1 ev5 :5 x keeps cle> ( injury to heal?1 is ?\ght to int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( o!r faculties & susceptibilities :i* are important s\rces ( happ9ess4 #f4 ,an app>5t exception to ?is /atem5t may seem to be con/itut$ 9 ! case ( ! sexual appetite1 by ! regulation prescrib$ "u ! notion ( ,purity or ,*a/ity4 ,& !re is no d\bt t "u ?is head we f9d condemn$1 ) special vehem5ce & sev]ity1 acts ( :i* ! imm$iate effect is pleasure n obvi\sly outweigh$ by subsequ5t pa94 ,b a clos] exam9ation ( ?is exception trans=ms x into an important contribution to ! pres5t argum5t3 z x %[s a specially complex & delicate correspond5ce betwe5 moral s5tim5ts & social utilities4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! peculi> int5sity & delicacy ( ! moral s5tim5ts t gov]n ! relations ( ! sexes are ?or\ghly ju/ifi$ by ! va/ importance to society ( ! end to :i* !y are obvi\sly a means1--! ma9t5ance1 namely1 ( ! p]man5t unions :i* are held to be necess>y = ! prop] re>+ & tra9+ ( *ildr54 ,h5ce ! fir/ & fundam5tal rule 9 ?is dep>tm5t is t :i* directly secures conjugal fidelity3 & ! utilit>ian gr\nds = protect+ m>riage indirectly1 by condemn+ all extra-nuptial int]c\rse ( ! sexes1 are obvi\s3 = to remove ! moral c5sure t re/s on su* int]c\rse w\ld s]i\sly dim9i% m5's motives = incurr+ ! re/ra9ts & burd5s :i* m>riage entails2 & ! y\? ( bo? sexes w\ld =m habits ( feel+ & conduct t5d+ to unfit !m = m>riage2 &1 if su* int]c\rse 7 f]tile1 x w\ld be att5d$ ) t imp]fect c>e ( ! succe$+ g5]ation1 :i* x seems ! object ( p]man5t unions to prev5t2 :ile if x 7 /]ile1 ! future ( ! human race w\ld1 z f> z we c see1 be /ill m pr(\ndly imp]ill$4 ,b1 fur!r1 x is only on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples t we c acc\nt = ! anomal\s diff]5ce :i* ! morality ( ,common ,s5se has always made betwe5 ! two sexes z reg>ds ! simple (f5ce ( un*a/ity4 ,= ! (f5ce is commonly m delib]ate 9 ! man1 :o has ! additional guilt ( solicit+ & p]suad+ ! woman2 9 ! latt]1 aga91 x is f> m (t5 prompt$ by "s motive t we rank high] ?an m]e lu/3 s t1 accord+ to ! ord9>y canons ( intuitional morality1 x ought to be m sev]ely condemn$ 9 ! man4 ,! actual inv]sion ( ?is result c only be ju/ifi$ by tak+ into acc\nt ! great] int]e/ t society has 9 ma9ta9+ a high /&>d ( female *a/ity4 ,= ! degradation ( ?is /&>d mu/ /rike at ! root ( family life1 by impair+ m5's security 9 ! ex]cise ( _! p>5tal affections3 b !re is no correspond+ consequ5ce ( male un*a/ity1 :i* may !re=e prevail to a consid]able ext5t )\t imp]ill+ ! v exi/5ce ( ! family1 ?\gh x impairs its wellbe+4 ,at ! same "t1 ! condemnation ( un*a/ity 9 m5 by ! common moral s5se ( ,*ri/ian c\ntries at ! pres5t day1 is suffici5tly cle> & explicit3 ?\gh we recognise ! exi/5ce ( a lax] code--! morality1 z x is call$1 ( #8! _w'--:i* treats x z indiff]5t1 or v v5ial4 ,b ! v diff]5ce betwe5 ! two codes gives a k9d ( support to ! pres5t argum5t2 z x corresponds to easily expla9$ diff]5ces ( insight into ! consequ5ces ( ma9ta9+ c]ta9 moral sanctions4 ,= p>tly1 x is ?\ght by #8m5 ( ! _w' t m5 _c practically be re/ra9$ f sexual indulg5ce1 at lea/ at ! p]iod ( life :5 ! passions are /ronge/3 & h5ce t x is exp$i5t to tol]ate su* k9d & degree ( illicit sexual int]c\rse z is n directly dang]\s to ! wellbe+ ( families4 ,p>tly1 aga91 x is ma9ta9$ by "s1 9 bold] antagonism to ,common ,s5se1 t ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 limit$ am\nt ( su* int]c\rse 7) a special class ( wom51 c>efully sep>at$1 z at pres5t1 f ! re/ ( society7 is sc>cely a real evil1 & may ev5 be a positive ga9 9 respect ( g5]al happ9ess2 = cont95ce is p]haps some:at dang]\s to heal?1 & 9 any case involves a loss ( pleasure consid]able 9 int5sity2 :ile at ! same "t ! ma9t5ance ( z num]\s a population z is desirable 9 an old society does n require t m ?an a c]ta9 proportion ( ! wom5 9 ea* g5]ation %\ld become mo!rs ( families2 & if "s ( ! surplus make x _! pr(ession to ent] into casual & tempor>y sexual relations ) m51 !re is no necessity t _! lives %\ld comp>e disadvantage\sly 9 respect ( happ9ess ) ^? ( o!r wom5 9 ! less fav\r$ classes ( society4 ,?is view has p]haps a sup]ficial plausibility3 b x ignores ! ess5tial fact t x is only by ! pres5t sev]e en=cem5t aga9/ un*a/e wom5 ( ! p5alties ( social contempt & exclusion1 re/+ on moral disapprobation1 t ! class ( c\rtesans is kept suffici5tly sep>ate f ! re/ ( female society to prev5t ! contagion ( un*a/ity f spread+2 & t ! illicit int]c\rse ( ! sexes is re/ra9$ )9 su* limits z n to int]f]e mat]ially ) ! due developm5t ( ! race4 ,?is consid]ation is suffici5t to decide a ,utilit>ian to support g5]ally ! e/abli%$ rule aga9/ ?is k9d ( conduct1 & !re=e to condemn violations ( ! rule z on ! :ole infelicific1 ev5 ?\gh !y may p]haps appe> to h ?is quality only 9 consequ5ce ( ! moral c5sure atta*$ to !m4#cdg ,fur!r1 ! #8man ( ! _w' ignores ! va/ importance to ! human race ( ma9ta9+ t high] type ( sexual relations :i* is n1 g5]ally speak+1 possible1 except :]e a high value is set ^u *a/ity 9 bo? sexes4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! ,virtue ( ,purity may be reg>d$ z provid+ a necess>y %elt] "u :i* t int5se & elevat$ affection betwe5 ! sexes1 :i* is mo/ conducive bo? to ! happ9ess ( ! individual & to ! wellbe+ ( ! family1 may gr[ & fl\ri%4 ,& 9 ?is way we are able to expla9 :at mu/ h p]plex$ _m reflective m9ds 9 contemplat+ ! common-s5se regulation ( conduct "u ! head ( ,purity3 viz4 t on ! "o h& ! s5tim5t t supports ^! rules is v int5se1 s t ! subjective diff]5ce betwe5 "r & wrong 9 ?is dep>tm5t is m>k$ ) peculi> /r5g?3 :ile on ! o!r h& x is f\nd impossible to give a cle> def9ition ( ! conduct condemn$ "u ?is notion4 ,= ! impulse to be re/ra9$ is s p[]ful & s s5sitive to /imulants ( all k9ds1 t1 9 ord] t ! s5tim5t ( purity may adequately p]=m its protective function1 x is requir$ to be v ke5 & vivid2 & ! av]sion to impurity mu/ ext5d f> beyond ! acts t prim>ily ne$ to be prohibit$1 & include 9 its scope ev]y?+ 79 dress1 language1 social cu/oms1 etc47 :i* may t5d to excite lascivi\s ideas4 ,at ! same "t x is n necess>y t ! l9e betwe5 "r & wrong 9 su* matt]s %\ld be drawn ) !oretical precision3 x is suffici5t = practical purposes if ! ma9 c5tral portion ( ! region ( duty be /rongly illum9at$1 :ile ! m>g9 is left some:at obscure4 ,&1 9 fact1 ! detail$ regulations :i* x is important to society to ma9ta9 dep5d s mu* ^u habit & association ( ideas1 t !y mu/ v>y to a great ext5t f age to age & f c\ntry to c\ntry4 #g4 ,! prec$+ survey has suppli$ u ) sev]al illu/rations ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,utilit>ianism is normally introduc$ z a me?od = decid+ betwe5 diff]5t conflict+ claims1 9 cases :]e common s5se leaves _! relative importance obscure1--z 7e4g47 betwe5 ! diff]5t duties ( ! affections1 & ! diff]5t pr9ciples :i* analysis %[s to be involv$ 9 our common conception ( ,ju/ice--3 & we h also notic$ h[1 :5 a dispute is rais$ z to ! precise scope & def9ition ( any curr5t moral rule1 ! effects ( diff]5t acceptations ( ! rule on g5]al happ9ess or social wellbe+ are commonly reg>d$ z ! ultimate gr\nds on :i* ! dispute is to be decid$4 ,9 fact ^! two argum5ts practically run into "o2 = x is g5]ally a conflict betwe5 maxims t impresses m5 ) ! ne$ ( giv+ ea* a precise def9ition4 ,x may be urg$ t ! consequ5ces to :i* ref]5ce is commonly made 9 su* cases are r effects on #8social wellbe+' ?an on #8g5]al happ9ess' z und]/ood by ,utilit>ians2 & t ! two notions ought n to be id5tifi$4 ,i grant ?is3 b 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! prec$+ ,book ,i h tri$ to %[ t ,common ,s5se is unconsci\sly utilit>ian 9 its practical det]m9ation ( ^? v elem5ts 9 ! notion ( ,ultimate ,good or ,wellbe+ :i* at fir/ sight lea/ admit ( a h$oni/ic int]pretation4 ,we may n[ obs]ve t ?is hypo!sis ( #8,unconsci\s ,utilit>ianism' expla9s ! diff]5t relative importance atta*$ to p>ticul> virtues by diff]5t classes ( human be+s1 & ! diff]5t emphasis ) :i* ! same virtue is inculcat$ on ^! diff]5t classes by mank9d g5]ally4 ,= su* diff]5ces ord9>ily correspond to v>iations--real or app>5t--9 ! ,utilit>ian importance ( ! virtues "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,?us we h notic$ ! great] /ress laid on *a/ity 9 wom5 ?an 9 m53 c\rage1 on ! o!r h&1 is m valu$ 9 ! latt]1 z !y are m call$ ^u to cope en]getically ) sudd5 & sev]e dang]s4 ,& = simil> reasons a soldi] is expect$ to %[ a high] degree ( c\rage ?an 7e4g47 a prie/4 ,aga91 ?\gh we e/eem c&\r & scrupul\s s9c]ity 9 mo/ p]sons1 we sc>cely look = !m 9 a diplomati/ :o has to conceal secrets1 nor d we expect t a tradesman 9 describ+ 8 goods %\ld frankly po9t out _! defects to 8 cu/om]s4 ,f9ally1 :5 we comp>e ! diff]5t moral codes ( diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 we see t ! discrepancies among !m correspond1 at lea/ to a great ext5t1 to diff]5ces ei!r 9 ! actual effects ( actions on happ9ess1 or 9 ! ext5t to :i* su* effects are g5]ally =ese5--or reg>d$ z important--by ! m5 among :om ! codes are ma9ta9$4 ,sev]al in/ances ( ?is h already be5 notic$3 & ! g5]al fact1 :i* has be5 mu* dwelt ^u by ,utilit>ian writ]s1 is also admitt$ & ev5 emphasis$ by _! oppon5ts4 ,?us ,dugald ,/ew>t#cdh lays /ress on ! ext5t to :i* ! moral judgm5ts ( mank9d h be5 modifi$ by 8! div]sity 9 _! physical circum/ances10 ! 8unequal degrees ( civilisation :i* !y h atta9$10 & 8_! unequal measures ( k or ( capacity40 ,he po9ts out1 = in/ance1 t !ft is reg>d$ z a v v5ial (f5ce 9 ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&]s1 because little or no lab\r is !re requir$ to support life2 t ! l5d+ ( money = int]e/ is commonly repreh5d$ 9 societies :]e comm]ce is imp]fectly develop$1 because ! #8usur]' 9 su* communities is commonly 9 ! odi\s position ( wr++ a ga9 out ( ! h>d necessities ( 8 fell[s2 & t :]e ! legal arrangem5ts = puni%+ crime are imp]fect1 private murd] is ei!r ju/ifi$ or reg>d$ v l5i5tly4 ,_m o!r examples might be add$ to ^! if x 7 ne$ful4 ,b ,i conceive t few p]sons :o h /udi$ ! subject w d5y t !re is a c]ta9 degree ( correlation betwe5 ! v>iations 9 ! moral code f age to age1 & ! v>iations 9 ! real or p]ceiv$ effects on g5]al happ9ess ( actions prescrib$ or =bidd5 by ! code4 ,& 9 proportion z ! appreh5sion ( consequ5ces becomes m compreh5sive & exact1 we may trace n only *ange 9 ! moral code h&$ d[n f age to age1 b progress 9 ! direction ( a clos] approximation to a p]fectly enlight5$ ,utilit>ianism4 ,only we mu/ di/9ctly notice ano!r important factor 9 ! progress1 :i* ,/ew>t has n m5tion$3 ! ext5sion1 namely1 ( ! capacity = sympa?y 9 an av]age memb] ( ! community4 ,! imp]fection ( e>li] moral codes is at lea/ z mu* due to defectiv5ess ( sympa?y z ( intellig5ce2 (t51 no d\bt1 ! rud] man did n p]ceive ! effects ( 8 conduct on o!rs2 b (t51 aga91 he p]ceiv$ !m m or less1 b felt little or no conc]n ab\t !m4 ,?us x happ5s t *anges 9 ! consci5ce ( a community (t5 correspond to *anges 9 ! ext5t & degree ( ! s5sitiv5ess ( an av]age memb] ( x to ! feel+s ( o!rs4 ,( ?is ! moral developm5t hi/orically work$ out "u ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/ianity af=ds famili> illu/rations4#cdi ,i am n ma9ta9+ t ?is correlation betwe5 ! developm5t ( curr5t morality & ! *anges 9 ! consequ5ces ( conduct z sympa!tically =eca/1 is p]fect & exact4 ,on ! contr>y1--z ,i %all h occasion to po9t out 9 ! next *apt]--! hi/ory ( morality %[s u _m evid5ces ( :at1 f ! ,utilit>ian po9t ( view1 appe> to be p>tial ab]rations ( ! moral s5se4 ,b ev5 9 ^! in/ances we c (t5 discov] a g]m ( unconsci\s ,utilit>ianism2 ! ab]ration is (t5 only an exagg]ation ( an obvi\sly useful s5tim5t1 or ! ext5sion ( x by mi/ak5 analogy to cases to :i* x does n prop]ly apply1 or p]haps ! survival ( a s5tim5t :i* once 0 useful b has n[ ceas$ to be s4 ,fur!r1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t ,i h c>efully ab/a9$ f ass]t+ t ! p]ception ( ! rightness ( any k9d ( conduct has always--or ev5 ord9>ily--be5 d]iv$ by consci\s inf]5ce f a p]ception ( consequ5t advantages4 ,?is hypo!sis is naturally sugge/$ by su* a survey z ! prec$+2 b ! evid5ce ( hi/ory h>dly seems to me to support x3 s9ce1 z we retrace ! developm5t ( e?ical ?\ght1 ! ,utilit>ian basis ( curr5t morality1 :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to exhibit 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 seems to be r less ?an m di/9ctly appreh5d$ by ! common moral consci\sness4 ,?us 7e4g47 ,ari/otle sees t ! sph]e ( ! ,virtue ( ,c\rage 771 z recognis$ by ! ,common ,s5se ( ,greece1 is re/rict$ to dang]s 9 w>3 & we c n[ expla9 ?is limitation by a ref]5ce to ! utilit>ian importance ( ?is k9d ( c\rage1 at a p]iod ( hi/ory :5 ! individual's happ9ess 0 b\nd up m completely ?an x n[ is ) ! welf>e ( 8 /ate1 :ile ! v exi/5ce ( ! latt] 0 m frequ5tly imp]ill$ by ho/ile invasions3 b ?is explanation lies q beyond ! range ( ,ari/otle's own reflection4 ,! orig9 ( our moral notions & s5tim5ts lies hid 9 ^? obscure regions ( hypo!tical hi/ory :]e conjecture has free scope3 b we d n f9d t1 z our retrospect approa*es ! bord]s ( ?is realm1 ! consci\s connexion 9 m5's m9ds betwe5 accept$ moral rules & =ese5 effects on g5]al happ9ess becomes m cle>ly traceable4 ,! admiration felt by e>ly man = beauties or excell5ces ( "* seems to h be5 z direct & unreflective z 8 admiration ( any o!r beauty3 & ! /r+5cy ( law & cu/om 9 primitive times pres5ts itself z sanction$ by ! evils :i* div9e displeasure w sup]naturally inflict on _! violators1 r ?an by ev5 a rude & vague =eca/ ( ! natural bad consequ5ces ( non-obs]vance4 ,x is !re=e n z ! mode ( regulat+ conduct ) :i* mank9d began1 b r z t to :i* we c n[ see t human developm5t has be5 always t5d+1 z ! adult & n ! g]m9al =m ( ,morality1 t ,utilit>ianism may mo/ reasonably claim ! acceptance ( ,common ,s5se4 99 99 99 99 99 #cej;,if we consid] ! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics f a ,utilit>ian po9t ( view1 ! "q1 :at rules ( conduct = ! gov]n$ %\ld be fix$ by legislators & appli$ by judges1 w be det]m9$ by ! same k9d ( =eca/ ( consequ5ces z w be us$ 9 settl+ all que/ions ( private morality3 we %all endeav\r to e/imate & balance aga9/ ea* o!r ! effects ( su* rules on ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,9 s f>1 h[ev]1 z we divide ! ,utilit>ian !ory ( private conduct f t ( legislation1 & ask :i* is prior1 ! answ] w\ld seem to be diff]5t 9 respect ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! legal code4 #a4 ,to a great ext5t ! rules laid d[n 9 a utilit>ian code ( law w be su* z any man s9c]ely desir\s ( promot+ ! g5]al happ9ess w\ld g5]ally endeav\r to obs]ve1 ev5 if !y 7 n legally b9d+4 ,( ?is k9d is ! rule ( n inflict+ any bodily h>m or gratuit\s annoyance on any "o1 except 9 self-def5ce or z retribution = wrong2 ! rule ( n int]f]+ ) ano!r's pursuit ( ! means ( happ9ess1 or ) 8 enjoym5t ( weal? acquir$ by 8 own lab\r or ! free cons5t ( o!rs2 ! rule ( fulfill+ all engagem5ts freely ent]$ into ) any "o1--at any rate unless ! fulfilm5t 7 h>mful to o!rs1 or mu* m h>mful to oneself ?an b5eficial to him1 or unless !re 7 good gr\nds = suppos+ t ! o!r p>ty w\ld n p]=m 8 %>e ( a bilat]al contract--2 & ! rule ( support+ "o's *ildr5 :ile helpless1 & "o's p>5ts if decrepit1 & ( educat+ "o's *ildr5 suitably to _! future life4 ,z reg>ds su* rules z ^!1 ,utilit>ian ,e?ics seems indep5d5t ( ,politics1 & naturally prior to x2 we fir/ consid] :at conduct is "r = private individuals1 & !n to h[ mu* ( ?is !y c advantage\sly be compell$ by legal p5alties4 #b4 ,!re are o!r rules aga9 :i* x is cle>ly = ! g5]al happ9ess to obs]ve1 if only _! obs]vance is en=c$ on o!rs2 e4g4 ab/95ce f p]sonal retaliation ( injuries1 & a m g5]al & unhesitat+ fulfilm5t ( contracts ?an w\ld p]haps be exp$i5t if !y 7 n legally en=c$4 #c4 ,b aga91 9 ! complete det]m9ation ( ! mutual claims ( memb]s ( society to s]vices & =be>ances1 !re are _m po9ts on :i* ! utilit>ian !ory ( "r private conduct ap>t f law w\ld lead to a consid]able v>iety ( conclusions1 f ! great diff]5ce 9 ! =ce ( ! relevant consid]ations "u diff]5t circum/ances2 :ile at ! same "t uni=mity is ei!r indisp5sable1 to prev5t disputes & disappo9tm5ts1 or at lea/ highly desirable1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 effectively su* rules ( conduct z are g5]ally--?\gh n univ]sally--exp$i5t4 ,"u ?is head w\ld come ! exact] def9ition ( ! limits ( appropriation1--e4g4 z reg>ds prop]ty 9 lit]>y compositions & te*nical inv5tions1--& a l>ge "p ( ! law ( inh]itance1 & ( ! law regulat+ ! family relations4 ,9 su* cases1 9 s f> z !y are capable ( be+ !oretically det]m9$1 ,utilit>ian ,e?ics seems to bl5d ) ,utilit>ian ,politics 9 a r complicat$ way2 s9ce we _c det]m9e ! "r conduct = a private individual 9 any p>ticul> case1 )\t fir/ consid]+ :at rule 7if any7 x w\ld be on ! :ole exp$i5t to ma9ta91 9 ! society ( :i* he is a memb]1 by legal p5alties1 z well z by ! weak] & less def9ite sanctions ( moral op9ion4 ,?is problem1 moreov]1 9 any concrete case is necess>ily fur!r complicat$ by ! consid]ation ( ! delicate mutual relations ( ,positive ,law & ,positive ,morality--z we may call ! actual moral op9ions g5]ally held 9 a giv5 society at a giv5 "t4 ,= on ! "o h& x is dang]\s 9 legislation to advance beyond ,positive ,morality1 by prohibit+ actions 7or inactions7 t are g5]ally approv$ or tol]at$2 on ! o!r h&1 up to ! po9t at :i* ?is dang] becomes s]i\s1 legislation is a mo/ effective in/rum5t = modify+ or int5sify+ public op9ion1 9 ! direction 9 :i* x is desirable t x %\ld progress4 ,leav+ ?is difficult "q ( social dynamics1 we may say t normally 9 a well-organis$ society ! mo/ important & indisp5sable rules ( social behavi\r w be legally en=c$ & ! less important left to be ma9ta9$ by ,positive ,morality4 ,law w con/itute1 z x 71 ! skeleton ( social ord]1 clo!d ^u by ! fle% & blood ( ,morality4 ,,footnotes3 #cbb ,x ought to be obs]v$ t ,cumb]l& does n adopt a h$oni/ic int]pretation ( ,good4 ,/ill1 ,i h foll[$ ,hallam 9 reg>d+ him z ! f\nd] ( ,engli% ,utilit>ianism3 s9ce x seems to h be5 by a gradual & half-unconsci\s process t #8,good' came to h ! def9itely h$oni/ic mean+ :i* x has implicitly 9 ,%aftesbury's sy/em1 & explicitly 9 t ( ,hume4 #cbc ,i %\ld po9t out t ,hume uses 8utility0 9 a n>r[] s5se ?an t :i* ,b5?am gave x1 & "o m 9 accordance ) ! usage ( ord9>y language4 ,he di/+ui%es ! 8useful0 f ! 8imm$iately agreeable03 s t :ile recognis+ 8utility0 z ! ma9 gr\nd ( our moral approbation ( ! m important virtues1 he holds t !re are o!r elem5ts ( p]sonal m]it :i* we approve because !y are 8imm$iately agreeable10 ei!r to ! p]son possess$ ( !m or to o!rs4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 m conv5i5t to use ! ^w 9 ! wid] s5se 9 :i* x has be5 curr5t s9ce ,b5?am4 #cbd ,lecky1 ,hi/4 ( ,eur4 ,mor4 *ap4 i1 pp4 #cg1 #dj seqq4 7#ac? impression74 #cbe ,book iii4 *ap4 x4 #cbf ,book iii4 *ap4 iv4 #a4 #cbg ,x w be se5 t ,i d n "h assume 9 _! full bread? ! conclusions ( *ap4 xiv4 ( ! prec$+ ,book4 #cbh ,cf4 ,j4 ,grote1 ,an ,exam9ation ( ! ,utilit>ian ,philosophy1 *ap4 v4 #cbi ,book iii4 *ap4 iv4 #a4 #ccj ,/rictly speak+1 ( c\rse1 ! ,law ( mod]n /ates does n en=ce ?is1 b only refuses to recognise connubial contracts ( any o!r k9d3 b ! social effect is sub/antially ! same4 #cca ,sometimes su* unb>ga9$ requital is ev5 legally obligatory3 z :5 *ildr5 are b\nd to repay ! c>e sp5t on !m by support+ _! p>5ts 9 decrepitude4 #ccb ,fur!r discussion ( ! me?od ( deal+ ) ^! difficulties1 9 _! utilit>ian =m1 w be f\nd 9 ! two foll[+ *apt]s4 #ccc ,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 v4 #ccd ,cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 vi4 #b1 #c4 #cce ,cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 v4 #ccf ,book iii4 *ap4 xiii4 #c4 #ccg ,cf4 ante1 p4 #bfh note4 #cch ,book iii4 *ap4 vi4 #cci ,cf4 ante1 ,book iii4 *ap4 vi4 #h4 #cdj ,9 ! case ( =ce1 h[ev]1 !re is ! c\nt]balanc+ consid]ation t ! unlawful aggressor may be l$ to inflict worse injury on 8 victim1 if he is unable to rely on ! latt]'s promise4 #cda ,cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 vi4 #h4 #cdb ,book iii4 *ap4 v4 #d4 #cdc ,9 ano!r "w 7,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy1 ,book iii4 *ap4 ii47 ,i h tri$ to %[ t complete laiss] faire1 9 ! organisation ( indu/ry1 t5ds 9 v>i\s ways to fall %ort ( ! mo/ economic production ( weal?4 #cdd ,! quotations are f my ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy1 ,book iii4 *ap4 ix42 :]e ^! que/ions are discuss$ at some:at great] l5g?4 #cde ,cf4 ante1 #b1 & ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #a4 #cdf ,i h be=e obs]v$ t x is q 9 h>mony ) ,utilit>ian pr9ciples to recognise a sph]e ( private conduct )9 :i* ea* individual may di/ribute 8 weal? & k9d s]vices z unequally z he *ooses1 )\t incurr+ c5sure z unju/4 #cdg ,x is obvi\s t s long z ! social sanction is en=c$1 ! lives ( ! wom5 aga9/ :om society ?us issues its ban mu/ t5d to be unhappy f disord] & %ame1 & ! s\rce ( unhapp9ess to o!rs2 & also t ! brea* by m5 ( a recognis$ & necess>y moral rule mu/ t5d to h injuri\s effects on _! moral habits g5]ally4 #cdh ,active & ,moral ,p[]s1 ,book ii4 *ap4 iii4 #cdi ,among def9ite *anges 9 ! curr5t morality ( ! ,grco-,roman civilis$ _w1 :i* are to be attribut$ ma9ly if n entirely to ! ext5sion & int5sification ( sympa?y due to ,*ri/ianity1 ! foll[+ may be especially not$3 7#a7 ! sev]e condemnation & f9al suppression ( ! practice ( expos+ infants2 7#b7 effective abhorr5ce ( ! b>b>ism ( gladiatorial combats2 7#c7 imm$iate moral mitigation ( slav]y1 & a /rong enc\ragem5t ( emancipation2 7#d7 great ext5sion ( ! eleemosyn>y provision made = ! sick & poor4 #cej ,?is passage1 :i* 9 ! second & subsequ5t editions occurr$ 9 *ap4 ii4 ( ,book i41 0 omitt$ by ,pr(essor ,sidgwick f t *apt] 9 ! six? edition1 ) ! int5tion ( incorporat+ x 9 ,book iv41 :i* he did n live to revise4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,utilit>ianism #a4 ,if ! view ma9ta9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] z to ! g5]al ,utilit>ian basis ( ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se may be reg>d$ z suffici5tly e/abli%$1 we are n[ 9 a position to consid] m closely to :at me?od ( det]m9+ "r conduct ! acceptance ( ,utilit>ianism w practically lead4 ,! mo/ obvi\s me?od1 ( c\rse1 is t ( ,empirical ,h$onism1 discuss$ 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 iii42 accord+ to :i* we h 9 ea* case to comp>e all ! pleasures & pa9s t c be =ese5 z probable results ( ! diff]5t alt]natives ( conduct pres5t$ to u1 & to adopt ! alt]native :i* seems likely to lead to ! greate/ happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,9 ,book ii41 h[ev]1 x appe>$ t ev5 ! m re/rict$ application ( ?is me?od1 :i* we !re _h to consid]1 0 involv$ 9 mu* p]plexity & unc]ta9ty4 ,ev5 :5 an individual is only occupi$ 9 =eca/+ 8 own pleasures1 x seems difficult or impossible = him to avoid errors ( consid]able magnitude2 :e!r 9 accurately comp>+ ! pleasantness ( 8 own pa/ feel+s1 z repres5t$ 9 memory1 or 9 appropriat+ ! exp]i5ce ( o!rs1 or 9 argu+ f ! pa/ to ! future4 ,& ^! difficulties are obvi\sly mu* increas$ :5 we h to take into acc\nt all ! effects ( our actions on all ! s5ti5t be+s :o may be affect$ by !m4 ,at ! same "t1 9 ,book ii4 we c\ld n f9d any satisfactory sub/itute = ?is me?od ( empirical comp>ison4 ,x did n appe> reasonable to take refuge 9 ! uncriticis$ beliefs ( m5 9 g5]al z to ! s\rces ( happ9ess3 inde$1 x seem$ impossible to extract any adequately cle> & def9ite cons5sus ( op9ion f ! confus$ & v>y+ utt]ances ( ,common ,s5se on ?is subject4 ,nor aga9 c\ld x be %[n t ! individual w\ld be m likely to atta9 ! greate/ happ9ess op5 to him by practically conf9+ 8 ef=ts to ! realisation ( any sci5tifically asc]ta9able physical or psy*ical conditions ( happ9ess3 nor did x seem possible to inf] on empirical gr\nds t ! desir$ result w\ld be secur$ by con=mity to ! accept$ pr9ciples ( morality4 ,b :5 we consid] ^! latt] 9 relation1 n to ! happ9ess ( ! individual1 b to t ( human 7or s5ti5t7 be+s g5]ally1 x is cle> f ! prec$+ *apt] t ! "q ( h>mony betwe5 ,h$onism & ,intuitionism pres5ts prima facie an entirely diff]5t aspect4 ,inde$ f ! consid]ations t we h j survey$ x is b a %ort & easy /ep to ! conclusion t 9 ! ,morality ( ,common ,s5se we h ready to h& a body ( ,utilit>ian doctr9e2 t ! 8rules ( morality = ! multitude0 are to be reg>d$ z 8positive beliefs ( mank9d z to ! effects ( actions on _! happ9ess10#cea s t ! app>5t fir/ pr9ciples ( ,common ,s5se may be accept$ z ! 8middle axioms0 ( ,utilit>ian me?od2 direct ref]5ce be+ only made to utilit>ian consid]ations1 9 ord] to settle po9ts ^u :i* ! v]dict ( ,common ,s5se is f\nd to be obscure & conflict+4 ,on ?is view ! traditional controv]sy betwe5 ! advocates ( ,virtue & ! advocates ( ,happ9ess w\ld seem to be at l5g? h>moni\sly settl$4 ,& ! argum5ts = ?is view :i* h be5 already put =w>d c]ta9ly receive support f ! hypo!sis1 n[ widely accept$1 t ! moral s5tim5ts are ultimately d]iv$1 by a complex & gradual process1 f exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa94 ,! hypo!sis1 9 a summ>y =m1 w\ld seem to be ?is2 7#a7 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ea* memb] ( ! human community ! pa9 or al>m caus$ to him by actions ( himself & ( o!rs t5ds by association to excite 9 him a dislike ( su* actions1 & a simil> ?\gh feebl] effect is produc$ by 8 p]ception ( pa9 or dang] caus$ to o!rs ) :om he is connect$ by blood1 or by community ( int]e/1 or any special tie ( sympa?y3 7#b7 exp]i5ce also t5ds m indirectly to produce 9 him s5tim5ts re/ra9+ him f actions pa9ful or al>m+ to o!rs1 ?r\gh 8 dread ( _! res5tm5t & its consequ5ces1--especially dread ( 8 *ief's ang]1 &1 :]e religi\s influ5ce has become /rong1 ( ! ang] ( sup]natural be+s3 7#c7 ) ^! latt] feel+s bl5ds a sympa!tic av]sion to ! pa9 ( o!r m5 g5]ally1 :i*--at fir/ comp>atively feeble--t5ds to gr[ 9 =ce z morality develops4 ,9 ! same way exp]i5ces ( pleasure & gratitude1 & desire ( ! goodwill ( o!rs & its consequ5ces1 t5d to produce lik+ = actions t are p]ceiv$ to cause pleasure to self or to o!rs4 ,! simil> av]sions & lik+s t are ?us produc$ 9 ! majority ( ! memb]s ( any society1 ?r\gh ! g5]al simil>ity ( _! natures & conditions1 t5d to become m simil> ?r\gh communication & imitation1--! desire ( ea* to reta9 ! goodwill ( o!rs op]at+ to repress individual div]g5cies4 ,?us common lik+s = conduct t affects pleasurably ! community g5]ally or "s "p ( x1 & common dislikes = conduct caus+ pa9 & al>m1 come to be gradually develop$2 !y are transmitt$ f g5]ation to g5]ation1 p>tly p]haps by physical inh]itance1 b *iefly by tradition f p>5ts to *ildr51 & imitation ( adults by ! "y2 9 ?is way _! orig9 becomes obscur$1 & !y f9ally appe> z :at are call$ ! moral s5tim5ts4 ,?is !ory does n1 9 my view1 acc\nt adequately = ! actual results ( ! faculty ( moral judgm5t & reason+1 s f> z ,i c exam9e !m by reflection on my own moral consci\sness3 = ?is1 z ,i h be=e said1 does n yield any app>5t intuitions t /& ! te/ ( rigor\s exam9ation except su* z1 f _! ab/ract & g5]al "*1 h no cognisable relation to p>ticul> exp]i5ces ( any k9d4#ceb ,b t ! !ory gives a p>tially true explanation ( ! hi/orical orig9 ( p>ticul> moral s5tim5ts & habits & commonly accept$ rules1 ,i see no reason to d\bt2 & ?us reg>d$ x seems to supplem5t ! argum5ts ( ! prec$+ *apt] t t5d to exhibit ! morality ( common s5se z unconsci\sly or #8in/9ctively' utilit>ian4 ,b x is "o ?+ to hold t ! curr5t morality expresses1 p>tly consci\sly b to a l>g] ext5t unconsci\sly1 ! results ( human exp]i5ce z to ! effects ( actions3 x is q ano!r ?+ to accept ?is morality en bloc1 s f> z x is cle> & def9ite1 z ! be/ guidance we c get to ! atta9m5t ( maximum g5]al happ9ess4 ,h[ev] attractive ?is simple reconciliation ( ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian me?ods may be1 x is n1 ,i ?9k1 really w>rant$ by ! evid5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i hold t 9 a complete view ( ! developm5t ( ! moral s5se a m prom95t place %\ld be giv5 to ! effect ( sympa?y ) ! impulses t prompt to actions1 z well z ) ! feel+s t result f !m4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ,adam ,smi?#cec assigns to ?is op]ation ( sympa?y1--! e*o 7z x 77 ( ea* ag5t's passion 9 ! brea/ ( unconc]n$ spectators1--! fir/ place 9 det]m9+ our approval & disapproval ( actions#ced2 sympa?y ) ! effect ( conduct on o!rs he treats z a m]ely second>y factor1 correct+ & qualify+ ! =m]4 ,)\t go+ s f> z ?is1 ,i ?9k t !re are c]ta9ly _m cases :]e ! result+ moral consci\sness w\ld seem to indicate a balance or compromise betwe5 ! two k9ds ( sympa?y2 & ! compromise may easily be _m degrees remov$ f ! rule :i* ,utilit>ianism w\ld prescribe4 ,= ?\gh ! passions & o!r active impulses are d\btless !mselves influ5c$1 no less ?an ! moral s5tim5ts1 by exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa92 /ill ?is influ5ce is n suffici5t to make !m at all tru/wor?y guides to g5]al1 any m ?an to individual1 happ9ess--z "s ( our moral s5tim5ts !mselves emphatically ann\nce4 ,b ev5 if we consid] our common moral s5tim5ts z entirely due--directly or indirectly--to ! accumulat$ & transmitt$ exp]i5ces ( prim>y & sympa!tic pa9s & pleasures2 x is obvi\s t ! degree ( accuracy ) :i* s5tim5ts ?us produc$ w guide u to ! promotion ( g5]al happ9ess mu/ l>gely dep5d ^u ! degree ( accuracy ) :i* ! :ole sum ( pleasurable & pa9ful consequ5ces1 result+ f any c\rse ( action1 has be5 repres5t$ 9 ! consci\sness ( an av]age memb] ( ! community4 ,& x is se5 at a glance t ?is repres5tation has always be5 liable to errors ( great magnitude1 f causes t 7 p>tly notic$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 :5 we 7 consid]+ ! progress ( morality4 ,we h to all[1 fir/1 = limitation ( sympa?y2 s9ce 9 e age & c\ntry ! sympa?y ( an av]age man ) o!r s5ti5t be+s1 & ev5 8 egoi/ic reg>d = _! lik+s & av]sions1 has be5 mu* m limit$ ?an ! influ5ce ( 8 actions on ! feel+s ( o!rs4 ,we mu/ all[ fur!r = limitation ( intellig5ce3 = 9 all ages ord9>y m5 h _h a v inadequate k ( natural sequ5ces2 s t su* indirect consequ5ces ( conduct z h be5 felt h be5 frequ5tly trac$ to wrong causes1 & be5 met by wrong moral rem$ies1 ow+ to imp]fect appreh5sion ( ! relation ( means to ends4 ,aga91 :]e ! habit ( ob$i5ce to au?ority & respect = rank has become /rong1 we mu/ all[ = ! possibly p]v]t+ influ5ce ( a desire to w9 ! fav\r or av]t ! ang] ( sup]iors4 ,& simil>ly we mu/ all[ aga9 = ! influ5ces ( false religions2 & also = ! possibility t ! s5sibilities ( religi\s tea*]s h influ5c$ ! code ( duty accept$ by _! foll[]s1 9 po9ts :]e ^! s5sibilities 7 n normal & repres5tative1 b exceptional & idiosyncratic4#cee ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ suppose t ^! deflect+ influ5ces h be5 m or less limit$ & c\nt]act$ by ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 9 pa/ ages among diff]5t human races & communities2 s9ce1 s f> z any moral habit or s5tim5t 0 unfav\rable to ! pres]vation ( ! social organism1 x w\ld be a disadvantage 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & w\ld !re=e t5d to p]i% ) ! community t adh]$ to x4 ,b we h no reason to suppose t ?is =ce w\ld be adequate to keep positive morality always 9 con=mity ) a ,utilit>ian ideal4 ,= 7#a7 imp]fect morality w\ld be only "o disadvantage among _m1 & n1 ,i conceive1 ! mo/ important1 unless ! imp]fection 7 extreme1--especially 9 ! e>li] /ages ( social & moral developm5t1 9 :i* ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 0 mo/ op]ative3 & 7#b7 a morality p]fectly pres]vative ( a human community might /ill be imp]fectly felicific1 & s require consid]able improvem5t f a ,utilit>ian po9t ( view4#cef ,fur!r1 analogy w\ld lead u to expect t h[ev] completely adapt$ ! moral in/9cts ( a community may be at "s p>ticul> "t to its conditions ( exi/5ce1 any rapid *ange ( circum/ances w\ld t5d to d]ange ! adaptation1 f survival ( in/9cts =m]ly useful1 :i* ?r\gh ?is *ange become useless or p]nici\s4 ,& inde$1 ap>t f any app>5t *anges 9 ext]nal circum/ances1 x might result f ! op]ation ( "s law ( human developm5t1 t ! mo/ completely organis$ exp]i5ce ( human happ9ess 9 ! pa/ w\ld guide u b imp]fectly to ! "r means ( mak+ x a maximum 9 ! future4 ,= example1 a slight decrease 9 ! av]age /r5g? ( "s common impulse might r5d] ! traditional rules & s5tim5ts1 t regulate ?is impulse1 infelicific on ! :ole4 ,& if1 :5 we turn f ^! ab/ract consid]ations to hi/ory1 & exam9e ! actual morality ( o!r ages & c\ntries1 we und\bt$ly f9d t1 consid]$ z an in/rum5t = produc+ g5]al happ9ess1 x cont9ually seems to exhibit palpable imp]fections1--!re is surely a /rong presumption t !re are simil> imp]fections to be discov]$ 9 our own moral code1 ?\gh habit & famili>ity prev5t !m f be+ obvi\s4 ,f9ally1 we mu/ n ov]look ! fact t ! div]g5ces :i* we f9d :5 we comp>e ! moralities ( diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 exi/ to "s ext5t side by side 9 ! morality ( any "o society at any giv5 "t4 ,x has already be5 obs]v$ t :5ev] div]g5t op9ions are ent]ta9$ by a m9ority s l>ge1 t we _c fairly reg>d ! dogma ( ! majority z ! pla9 utt]ance ( ,common ,s5se1 an appeal is necess>ily made to "s high] pr9ciple1 & v commonly to ,utilit>ianism4 ,b a small] m9ority ?an ?is1 p>ticul>ly if compos$ ( p]sons ( enlight5m5t & special acqua9tance ) ! effects ( ! conduct judg$1 may reasonably inspire u ) di/ru/ ( ,common ,s5se3 j z 9 ! m te*nical p>ts ( practice we pref] ! judgm5t ( a few tra9$ exp]ts to ! in/9cts ( ! vulg>4 ,yet aga91 a contemplation ( ^! div]g5t codes & _! relation to ! diff]5t circum/ances 9 :i* m5 live1 sugge/s t ,common-,s5se morality is really only adapt$ = ord9>y m5 9 ord9>y circum/ances--al?\gh x may /ill be exp$i5t t ^! ord9>y p]sons %\ld reg>d x z absolutely & univ]sally prescrib$1 s9ce any o!r view ( x may dang]\sly weak5 its hold ov] _! m9ds4 ,s f> z ?is is ! case we mu/ use ! ,utilit>ian me?od to asc]ta9 h[ f> p]sons 9 special circum/ances require a morality m specially adapt$ to !m ?an ,common ,s5se is will+ to conc$e3 & also h[ f> m5 ( peculi> physical or m5tal con/itution ought to be exempt$ f ord9>y rules1 z has sometimes be5 claim$ = m5 ( g5ius1 or m5 ( int5sely emotional nature1 or m5 gift$ ) m ?an usual prud5ce & self-control4 ,fur!r1 x is important to notice1 t besides ! l>ge am\nt ( div]g5ce t exi/s betwe5 ! moral in/9cts ( diff]5t classes & individuals1 !re is (t5 a palpable discrepancy betwe5 ! moral in/9cts ( any class or individual1 & su* ,utilit>ian reason+s z _! untra9$ intellects are 9 ! habit ( conduct+4 ,!re are _m ?+s 9 conduct :i* _m p ?9k "r b n exp$i5t1 or at lea/ :i* !y w\ld n ?9k exp$i5t if !y _h n fir/ judg$ !m to be "r2 9 s f> z !y reason f exp]i5ce only1 _! conclusions z to :at conduces to ! g5]al happ9ess are oppos$ to _! moral intuitions4 ,x may be said t ?is results g5]ally f a ha/y & sup]ficial consid]ation ( exp$i5cy2 & t ! discrepancy w\ld disappe> aft] a deep] & complet] exam9ation ( ! consequ5ces ( actions4 ,& ,i d n d5y t ?is w\ld (t5 turn out to be ! case3 b z we _c tell a priori h[ f> x w\ld be s1 ?is only con/itutes a fur!r argum5t = a compreh5sive & sy/ematic application ( a purely ,utilit>ian me?od4 ,we mu/ conclude1 !n1 t we _c take ! moral rules ( ,common ,s5se z express+ ! cons5sus ( compet5t judges1 up to ! pres5t "t1 z to ! k9d ( conduct :i* is likely to produce ! greate/ am\nt ( happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,x w\ld r seem t x is ! unavoidable duty ( a sy/ematic ,utilit>ianism to make a ?or\gh revision ( ^! rules1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 h[ f> ! causes previ\sly enum]at$ 7& p]haps o!rs7 h actually op]at$ to produce a div]g5ce betwe5 ,common ,s5se & a p]fectly ,utilit>ian code ( morality4 #b4 ,b 9 ?us /at+ ! problem we are assum+ t ! latt] t]m ( ?is comp>ison c be satisfactorily def9$ & suffici5tly develop$2 t we c frame ) adequate precision a sy/em ( rules1 con/itut+ ! true moral code = human be+s z d$uc$ f ,utilit>ian pr9ciples4 ,& ?is seems to h be5 commonly assum$ by ! s*ool ^: me?od we are n[ exam9+4 ,b :5 we set ourselves 9 e>ne/ to ! con/ruction ( su* a sy/em1 we f9d x beset ) s]i\s difficulties4 ,=1 pass+ ov] ! unc]ta9ties involv$ 9 h$oni/ic comp>ison g5]ally1 let u suppose t ! quantum ( happ9ess t w result f ! e/abli%m5t ( any plan ( behavi\r among human be+s c be asc]ta9$ ) suffici5t exactness = practical purposes--ev5 :5 ! plan is z yet con/ruct$ 9 imag9ation alone4 ,x /ill has to be ask$1 ,:at is ! nature ( ! human be+ = :om we are to con/ruct ?is hypo!tical s*eme ( conduct8 ,= humanity is n some?+ t exhibits ! same prop]ties always & ev]y:]e3 :e!r we consid] ! intellect ( man or 8 feel+s1 or 8 physical condition & circum/ances1 we f9d !m s diff]5t 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 t x seems prima facie absurd to lay d[n a set ( ideal ,utilit>ian rules = mank9d g5]ally4 ,x may be said t ^! diff]5ces aft] all relate *iefly to details2 & t !re is 9 any case suffici5t uni=mity 9 ! nature & circum/ances ( human life always & ev]y:]e to r5d] possible an outl9e s*eme ( ideal behavi\r = mank9d at l>ge4 ,b x mu/ be answ]$1 t x is ) details t we are n[ pr9cipally conc]n$2 = ! previ\s discussion has suffici5tly %[n t ! conduct approv$ by ,common ,s5se has a g5]al resemblance to t :i* ,utilit>ianism w\ld prescribe2 b we wi% to asc]ta9 m exactly h[ f> ! resemblance ext5ds1 & ) :at delicacy & precision ! curr5t moral rules are adapt$ to ! actual ne$s & conditions ( human life4 ,suppose1 !n1 t we contract ! scope ( inve/igation1 & only endeav\r to asc]ta9 ! rules appropriate to m5 z we "k !m1 9 our own age & c\ntry4 ,we are imm$iately met ) a dilemma3 ! m5 :om we "k are be+s :o accept m or less def9itely a c]ta9 moral code3 if we take !m z !y are 9 ?is respect1 we c h>dly at ! same "t conceive !m z be+s = :om a code is yet to be con/ruct$ de novo3 if1 on ! o!r h&1 we take an actual man--let u say1 an av]age ,engli%man--& ab/ract 8 morality1 :at rema9s is an entity s purely hypo!tical1 t x is n cle> :at practical purpose c be s]v$ by con/ruct+ a sy/em ( moral rules = ! community ( su* be+s4 ,c\ld we inde$ assume t ! sci5tific d$uction ( su* a sy/em w\ld ensure its g5]al acceptance2 c\ld we reasonably expect to conv]t all mank9d at once to ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 or ev5 all educat$ & reflective mank9d1 s t all prea*]s & tea*]s %\ld take univ]sal happ9ess z ! goal ( _! ef=ts z unque/ion+ly z physicians take ! heal? ( ! individual body2 & c\ld we be sure t m5's moral habits & s5tim5ts w\ld adju/ !mselves at once & )\t any wa/e ( =ce to ^! *ang$ rules3--!n p]haps 9 fram+ ! ,utilit>ian code we might fairly leave exi/+ morality out ( acc\nt4 ,b ,i _c ?9k t we are w>rant$ 9 mak+ ^! suppositions2 ,i ?9k we h to take ! moral habits1 impulses1 & ta/es ( m5 z a mat]ial giv5 u to "w ^u no less ?an ! re/ ( _! nature1 & z some?+ :i*1 z x only p>tly results f reason+ 9 ! pa/1 s c only be p>tially modifi$ by any reason+ :i* we c n[ apply to x4 ,x seems !re=e cle> t ! solution ( ! hypo!tical ,utilit>ian problem ( con/ruct+ an ideal morality = m5 conceiv$ to be 9 o!r respects z exp]i5ce %[s !m to be1 b ) _! actual morality ab/ract$1 w n give u ! result :i* we practically require4 ,x w p]haps be said1 8,no d\bt su* an ideal ,utilit>ian morality c only be gradually1 & p]haps aft] all imp]fectly1 introduc$2 b /ill x w be useful to "w x out z a patt]n to :i* we may approximate40 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 x may n be really possible to approximate to x3 s9ce any p>ticul> exi/+ moral rule1 ?\gh n ! ideally be/ ev5 = su* be+s z exi/+ m5 "u ! exi/+ circum/ances1 may yet be ! be/ t !y c be got to obey3 s t x w\ld be futile to propose any o!r1 or ev5 h>mful1 z x might t5d to impair old moral habits )\t effectively replac+ !m by new ones4 ,& secondly1 ! endeav\r gradually to approximate to a morality con/ruct$ on ! supposition t ! non-moral "p ( exi/+ human nature rema9s un*ang$1 may lead u wrong3 because ! /ate ( m5's k & intellectual faculties1 & ! range ( _! sympa?ies1 & ! direction & /r5g? ( _! prevail+ impulses1 & _! relations to ! ext]nal _w & to ea* o!r1 are cont9ually be+ alt]$1 & su* alt]ation is to "s ext5t "u our control & may be felicific 9 a high degree3 & any mat]ial modifications 9 important elem5ts & conditions ( human life may require correspond+ *anges 9 e/abli%$ moral rules & s5tim5ts1 9 ord] t ! greate/ possible happ9ess may be atta9$ by ! human be+ ^: life is ?us modifi$4 ,9 %ort1 ! con/ruction ( a ,utilit>ian code1 reg>d$ z an ideal t[>ds :i* we are to progress1 is met by a second dilemma3--,! nature ( man & ! conditions ( 8 life _c usefully be assum$ to be con/ant1 unless we are conf9+ our att5tion to ! pres5t or proximate future2 :ile aga91 if we are consid]+ !m 9 ! pres5t or proximate future1 we mu/ take into acc\nt m5's actual moral habits & s5tim5ts1 z a "p ( _! nature n mat]ially m modifiable ?an ! re/4 ,nor1 aga91 c ,i agree ) ,mr4 ,sp5c]#ceg 9 ?9k+ t x is possible to solve ! problems ( practical e?ics by con/ruct+ ! f9al p]fect =m ( society1 t[>ds :i* ! process ( human hi/ory is t5d+2 & det]m9+ ! rules ( mutual behavi\r :i* ought to be1 & w be1 obs]v$ by ! memb]s ( ?is p]fect society4 ,=1 fir/ly1 grant+ t we c conceive z possible a human community :i* is f a utilit>ian po9t ( view p]fect2 & grant+ also ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s def9ition ( ?is p]fection--viz4 t ! volunt>y actions ( all ! memb]s cause 8pleasure unalloy$ by pa9 any:]e0 to all :o are affect$ by !m#ceh--2 x /ill seems to me q impossible to =eca/ ! natures & relations ( ! p]sons compos+ su* a community1 ) suffici5t cle>ness & c]ta9ty to enable u to def9e ev5 9 outl9e _! moral code4 ,& secondly1 ev5 if x 7 o!rwise1 ev5 if we c\ld con/ruct sci5tifically ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ideal morality1 ,i d n ?9k su* a con/ruction w\ld be ( mu* avail 9 solv+ ! practical problems ( actual humanity4 ,= a society 9 :i*--to take "o po9t only--!re is no su* ?+ z puni%m5t1 is necess>ily a society ) its ess5tial /ructure s unlike our own1 t x w\ld be idle to attempt any close imitation ( its rules ( behavi\r4 ,x might possibly be be/ = u to con=m approximately to "s ( ^! rules2 b ?is we c\ld only "k by exam9+ ea* p>ticul> rule 9 detail2 we c\ld h no g5]al gr\nds = conclud+ t x w\ld be be/ = u to con=m to !m z f> z possible4 ,= ev5 suppos+ t ?is ideal society is ultimately to be realis$1 x mu/ at any rate be sep>at$ f u by a consid]able int]val ( evolution2 h5ce x is n unlikely t ! be/ way ( progress+ t[>ds x w be "s o!r ?an ! app>5tly directe/ way1 & t we %all rea* x m easily if we beg9 by mov+ away f x4 ,:e!r ?is is s or n1 & to :at ext5t1 c only be kn[n by c>efully exam9+ ! effects ( conduct on actual human be+s1 & inf]r+ its probable effects on ! human be+s :om we may expect to exi/ 9 ! proximate future4 #c4 ,o!r ?9k]s ( ! evolutioni/ s*ool sugge/ t ! difficulties ( ,utilit>ian me?od might be avoid$1 9 a way m simple ?an ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s1 by adopt+1 z ! practically ultimate end & crit]ion ( morality1 8heal?0 or 8effici5cy0 ( ! social organism1 in/ead ( happ9ess4 ,?is view is ma9ta9$1 = in/ance1 9 ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph5's ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics2#cei & des]ves c>eful exam9ation4 ,z ,i und]/& ,mr4 ,/eph51 he means by 8heal?0 t /ate ( ! social organism :i* t5ds to its pres]vation "u ! conditions ( its exi/5ce1 z !y are kn[n or capable ( be+ pr$ict$2 & he means ! same by 8effici5cy02--s9ce ! "w = :i*1 9 8 view1 ! social organism has to be 8effici5t0 is simply ! "w ( liv+1 ! function ( 8go+ on40 ,i say ?is because 8effici5cy0 might be und]/ood to imply "s #8task ( humanity' :i* ! social organism has to execute1 beyond ! task ( m]ely liv+2 & simil>ly 8heal?0 might be tak5 to mean a /ate t5d+ to ! pres]vation n ( exi/5ce m]ely1 b ( desirable exi/5ce--desirability be+ int]pret$ 9 "s non-h$oni/ic mann]3 & 9 ?is case an exam9ation ( ei!r t]m w\ld lead u aga9 ov] ! gr\nd trav]s$ 9 ! discussion on ,ultimate ,good 79 *ap4 xiv4 ( ! prec$+ ,book74#cfj ,b ,i d n und]/& t any su* implications 7 9 ,mr4 ,/eph5's m9d2 & !y c]ta9ly w\ld n be 9 h>mony ) ! g5]al drift ( 8 argum5t4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 is :e!r1 if ,g5]al ,happ9ess be admitt$ to be ! really ultimate end 9 a sy/em ( morality1 x is nev]!less reasonable to take ,pres]vation ( ! social organism z ! practically ultimate 8sci5tific crit]ion0 ( moral rules4 ,my reasons = answ]+ ?is "q 9 ! negative are two-fold4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,i "k no adequate gr\nds = suppos+ t if we aim exclusively at ! pres]vation ( ! social organism we %all secure ! maximum atta9able happ9ess ( its individual memb]s3 inde$1 s f> z ,i "k1 ( two social /ates :i* equally t5d to be pres]v$ "o may be indef9itely happi] ?an ! o!r4 ,z has be5 be=e obs]v$#cfa a l>ge "p ( ! pleasures :i* cultivat$ p]sons value mo/ highly--/hetic pleasures--are d]iv$ f acts & processes t h no mat]ial t5d5cy to pres]ve ! individual's life3#cfb & ! /atem5t rema9s true if we sub/itute ! social organism = ! individual4 ,& ,i may add t mu* ref9$ morality is conc]n$ ) ! prev5tion ( pa9s :i* h no demon/rable t5d5cy to ! de/ruction ( ! individual or ( society4 ,h5ce1 :ile ,i q admit t ! ma9t5ance ( pres]vative habits & s5tim5ts is ! mo/ indisp5sable function ( utilit>ian morality--& p]haps almo/ its sole function 9 ! e>li] /ages ( moral developm5t1 :5 to live at all 0 a difficult task = human communities--,i d n !re=e ?9k x reasonable t we %\ld be cont5t ) ! m]e secur+ ( exi/5ce = humanity g5]ally1 & %\ld conf9e our ef=ts to promot+ ! increase ( ?is security1 in/ead ( seek+ to make ! secur$ exi/5ce m desirable4 ,b1 secondly1 ,i d n see on :at gr\nds ,mr4 ,/eph5 holds t ! crit]ion ( #8t5d5cy to ! pres]vation ( ! social organism' is necess>ily capable ( be+ appli$ ) great] precision ?an t ( #8t5d5cy to g5]al happ9ess1' ev5 s f> z ! two ends are co9cid5t3 & t ! =m] 8satisfies ! conditions ( a sci5tific crit]ion40 ,i %\ld admit t ?is w\ld probably be ! case1 if ! ,sociology t we "k 7 a sci5ce actually con/ruct$1 & n m]ely ! sket* ( a possible future sci5ce3 b ,mr4 ,/eph5 has himself told u t sociology at pres5t 8consi/s ( no?+ m ?an a collection ( unv]ifi$ guesses & vague g5]alisations1 disguis$ "u a m or less pret5ti\s app>atus ( quasi-sci5tific t]m9ology40 ,?is language is /rong] ?an ,i %\ld h v5tur$ to use2 b ,i agree g5]ally ) ! view t x expresses2 & x appe>s to me difficult = a writ] :o holds ?is view to ma9ta9 t ! conception ( 8social heal?10 reg>d$ z a crit]ion & /&>d ( "r conduct1 is 9 any important degree m 8sci5tific0 ?an ! conception ( 8g5]al happ9ess40 ,hold+ ?is e/imate ( ! pres5t condition ( ,sociology1 ,i consid] t1 f ! utilit>ian po9t ( view1 !re are equally decisive reasons aga9/ ! adoption ( any su* notion z 8developm5t0 ( ! social organism--in/ead ( m]e pres]vation--z ! practically ultimate end & crit]ion ( morality4 ,on ! "o h&1 if by 8developm5t0 is meant an increase 9 8effici5cy0 or pres]vative qualities1 ?is notion is only an optimi/ic specialisation ( t j discuss$ 7involv+ !--,i fe>--unw>rant$ assumption t ! social organism t5ds to become cont9ually m effici5t72 s t no fre% argum5ts ne$ be urg$ aga9/ x4 ,if1 h[ev]1 some?+ diff]5t is meant by developm5t--z 7e4g47 a disciple ( ,mr4 ,sp5c] might mean an increase 9 8def9ite coh]5t het]og5eity10 :e!r or n su* increase 0 pres]vative--!n ,i "k no sci5tific gr\nds = conclud+ t we %all be/ promote g5]al happ9ess by conc5trat+ our ef=ts on ! atta9m5t ( ?is increase4 ,i d n affirm x to be impossible t e increase 9 ! def9ite coh]5t het]og5eity ( a society ( human be+s may be accompani$ or foll[$ by an increase 9 ! aggregate happ9ess ( ! memb]s ( ! society3 b ,i d n p]ceive t ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 or any "o else1 has ev5 attempt$ to furni% ! k9d ( pro( :i* ?is proposition requires4#cfc ,to sum up3 ,i hold t ! utilit>ian1 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k1 _c possibly con/ruct a morality de novo ei!r = man z he is 7ab/ract+ 8 morality71 or = man z he ought to be & w be4 ,he mu/ />t1 speak+ broadly1 ) ! exi/+ social ord]1 & ! exi/+ morality z a "p ( t ord]3 & 9 decid+ ! "q :e!r any div]g5ce f ?is code is to be recomm5d$1 mu/ consid] *iefly ! imm$iate consequ5ces ( su* div]g5ce1 ^u a society 9 :i* su* a code is conceiv$ g5]ally to subsi/4 ,no d\bt a ?\ghtful & well-in/ruct$ ,utilit>ian may see dimly a c]ta9 way ahead1 & 8 attitude t[>ds exi/+ morality may be to "s ext5t modifi$ by :at he sees4 ,he may disc]n 9 ! future c]ta9 evils imp5d+1 :i* c only be effectually w>d$ (f by ! adoption ( new & m /r+5t views ( duty 9 c]ta9 dep>tm5ts3 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 he may see a prospect ( social *anges :i* w r5d] a relaxation ( o!r p>ts ( ! moral code exp$i5t or inevitable4 ,b if he keeps )9 ! limits t sep>ate sci5tific prevision f fanciful ,utopian conjecture1 ! =m ( society to :i* 8 practical conclusions relate w be "o v>y+ b little f ! actual1 ) its actually e/abli%$ code ( moral rules & cu/om>y judgm5ts conc]n+ virtue & vice4 ,,footnotes3 #cea ,cf4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,utilit>ianism1 *ap4 ii4 ,mill1 h[ev]1 only affirms t ! 8rules ( morality = ! multitude0 are to be accept$ by ! philosoph] provisionally1 until he has got some?+ bett]4 #ceb ,i ref] to ! ab/ract pr9ciples ( ,prud5ce1 ,ju/ice1 & ,rational ,b5evol5ce z def9$ 9 *ap4 xiii4 ( ! prec$+ ,book4 #cec ,!ory ( ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 ,book i4 #ced ,?is op]ation ( sympa?y is /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9 ! p5al codes ( primitive communities1 bo? by ! mildness ( ! puni%m5ts inflict$ = homicide1 & by ! />tl+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! p5alties allott$ to ! same crime accord+ z ! crim9al 0 tak5 9 ! act or n4 8,x is curi\s to obs]ve10 says ,sir ,h4 ,ma9e 7,anci5t ,law1 *ap4 x471 8h[ completely ! m5 ( primitive times 7 p]suad$ t ! impulses ( ! injur$ p]son 7 ! prop] measure ( ! v5geance he 0 entitl$ to exact1 & h[ lit]ally !y imitat$ ! probable rise & fall ( 8 passions 9 fix+ ! scale ( puni%m5t40 ,& ev5 9 m civilis$ societies !re is a v common feel+ ( unc]ta9ty z to ! propriety ( inflict+ puni%m5t = crimes committ$ long ago1 :i* seems traceable to ! same s\rce4 #cee ,no d\bt ?is influ5ce is conf9$ )9 /rict limits3 no au?ority c p]man5tly impose on m5 regulations flagrantly infelicific3 & ! mo/ practically orig9ative ( religi\s tea*]s h produc$ _! effect *iefly by giv+ new =ce & vividness to s5tim5ts already exi/+ 7& recognis$ z prop]ly au?oritive7 9 ! society ^u :i* !y act$4 ,/ill1 x might h made a great diff]5ce to ! human race if 7e4g47 ,mohamm$ _h be5 fond ( w9e1 & indiff]5t to wom54 #cef ,on ?is po9t ,i %all h occasion to speak fur!r 9 ! next section4 #ceg ,i ref] especially to ! views put =w>d by ,mr4 ,sp5c] 9 ! conclud+ *apt]s ( 8 ,data ( ,e?ics4 #ceh ,?is def9ition1 h[ev]1 does n seem to me admissible1 f a utilit>ian po9t ( view3 s9ce a society 9 ?is s5se p]fect might n realise ! maximum ( possible happ9ess2 x might /ill be capable ( a mat]ial increase ( happ9ess ?r\gh pleasures involv+ a slight alloy ( pa91 su* z ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s view ( p]fection w\ld exclude4 #cei ,see especially *ap4 ix4 ,p>s4 #ab-ae4 #cfj ,x is obvi\s t if #8desirability1' 9 ! above def9ition1 7 int]pret$ h$oni/ically1 ! t]m 8heal?0 w\ld m]ely give u a new "n = ! g5]al problem ( utilit>ian morality2 n a new sugge/ion = its solution4 ,i ought to say t ! notions ( 8social welf>e0 or 8wellbe+0 are else:]e us$ by ,mr4 ,/eph51 9 ! place ( ^? "h quot$1 b ,i d n ?9k t he means by !m any m ?an :at ,i und]/& him to mean by 8heal?0 or 8effici5cy0--i4e4 t /ate ( ! social organism :i* t5ds to its pres]vation "u ! conditions ( its exi/5ce4 #cfa ,book ii4 *ap4 vi4 #c4 #cfb ,i d n mean to ass]t t #8play' 9 "s =m is n necess>y = physical heal?3 b !re is a long /ep f ! enc\ragem5t ( play1 s f> z salut>y1 to ! promotion ( social culture4 #cfc ,x may be obs]v$ t ! increas$ het]og5eity :i* ! developm5t ( mod]n indu/ry has br\ght ) x1 9 ! =m ( a specialisation ( indu/rial functions :i* t5ds to r5d] ! lives ( individual work]s n>r[ & monoton\s1 has usually be5 reg>d$ by philan?ropi/s z s]i\sly infelicific2 & z ne$+ to be c\nt]act$ by a g5]al diffusion ( ! intellectual culture n[ enjoy$ by ! few--:i*1 if realis$1 w\ld t5d pro tanto to make ! lives ( diff]5t classes 9 ! community less het]og5e\s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,utilit>ianism--,cont9u$ #a4 ,if1 !n1 we are to reg>d ! morality ( ,common ,s5se z a ma*9]y ( rules1 habits1 & s5tim5ts1 r\ghly & g5]ally b n precisely or completely adapt$ to ! production ( ! greate/ possible happ9ess = s5ti5t be+s g5]ally2 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 we h to accept x z ! actually e/abli%$ ma*9]y = atta9+ ?is end1 :i* we _c replace at once by any o!r1 b c only gradually modify2 x rema9s to consid] ! practical effects ( ! complex & balanc$ relation 9 :i* a sci5tific ,utilit>ian ?us seems to /& to ! ,positive ,morality ( 8 age & c\ntry4 ,g5]ally speak+1 he w cle>ly con=m to x1 & endeav\r to promote its developm5t 9 o!rs4 ,=1 ?\gh ! imp]fection t we f9d 9 all ! actual conditions ( human exi/5ce--we may ev5 say 9 ! univ]se at l>ge z judg$ f a human po9t ( view--is ultimately f\nd ev5 9 ,morality itself1 9 s f> z ?is is contemplat$ z ,positive2 /ill1 practically1 we are mu* less conc]n$ ) correct+ & improv+ ?an we are ) realis+ & en=c+ x4 ,! ,utilit>ian mu/ repudiate altoge!r t temp] ( rebellion aga9/ ! e/abli%$ morality1 z some?+ purely ext]nal & conv5tional1 into :i* ! reflective m9d is always apt to fall :5 x is fir/ conv9c$ t ! e/abli%$ rules are n intr9sically reasonable4 ,he mu/1 ( c\rse1 also repudiate z sup]/iti\s t awe ( x z an absolute or ,div9e ,code :i* ,intuitional morali/s inculcate4#cfd ,/ill1 he w naturally contemplate x ) rev]5ce & wond]1 z a m>vell\s product ( nature1 ! result ( long c5turies ( gr[?1 %[+ 9 _m p>ts ! same f9e adaptation ( means to complex exig5cies z ! mo/ elaborate /ructures ( physical organisms exhibit3 he w h&le x ) respectful delicacy z a me*anism1 con/ruct$ ( ! fluid elem5t ( op9ions & dispositions1 by ! indisp5sable aid ( :i* ! actual quantum ( human happ9ess is cont9ually be+ produc$2 a me*anism :i* no #8politicians or philosoph]s' c\ld create1 yet )\t :i* ! h>d] & co>s] ma*9]y ( ,positive ,law c\ld n be p]man5tly ma9ta9$1 & ! life ( man w\ld become--z ,hobbes =cibly expresses x--8solit>y1 poor1 na/y1 bruti%1 & %ort40 ,/ill1 z ?is actual moral ord] is admitt$ly imp]fect1 x w be ! ,utilit>ian's duty to aid 9 improv+ x2 j z ! mo/ ord]ly1 law-abid+ memb] ( a mod]n civilis$ society includes ! re=m ( laws 9 8 conception ( political duty4 ,we h !re=e to consid] by :at me?od he w asc]ta9 ! p>ticul> modifications ( positive morality :i* x w\ld be practically exp$i5t to attempt to introduce1 at any giv5 "t & place4 ,"h our inve/igation seems1 aft] all1 to leave ,empirical ,h$onism z ! only me?od ord9>ily applicable = ! ultimate decision ( su* problems--at lea/ until ! sci5ce ( ,sociology %all h be5 really con/ruct$4 ,i d n mean t ! rudim5ts ( ,sociological k :i* we n[ possess are ( no practical value3 = c]ta9ly *anges 9 morality might be sugge/$--& h actually be5 propos$ by p]sons s]i\sly conc]n$ to b5efit _! fell[-creatures--:i* ev5 our pres5t imp]fect k w\ld lead u to reg>d z dang]\s to ! v exi/5ce ( ! social organism4 ,b su* *anges = ! mo/ "p involve *anges 9 positive law z well3 s9ce mo/ ( ! rules ( :i* ! obs]vance is fundam5tally important = ! pres]vation ( an organis$ community are ei!r directly or indirectly ma9ta9$ by legal sanctions3 & x w\ld be go+ too f> beyond ! l9e :i*1 9 my view1 sep>ates e?ics f politics1 to discuss *anges ( ?is k9d 9 ! pres5t book4 ,! rules ) :i* we h prim>ily to deal1 9 consid]+ ! utilit>ian me?od ( det]m9+ private duty1 are rules support$ by m]ely moral sanctions2 & ! "q ( ma9ta9+ or modify+ su* rules conc]ns1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! well-be+ r ?an ! v exi/5ce ( human society4 ,! consid]ation ( ?is "q1 !re=e1 f a utilit>ian po9t ( view1 resolves itself into a comp>ison betwe5 ! total am\nts ( pleasure & pa9 t may be expect$ to result respectively f ma9ta9+ any giv5 rule z at pres5t e/abli%$1 & f endeav\r+ to introduce t :i* is propos$ 9 its /ead4 ,t ?is comp>ison mu/ g5]ally be ( a r\gh & unc]ta9 k9d1 we h already se52 & x is highly important to be> ?is 9 m9d2 b yet we seem unable to f9d any sub/itute = x4 ,x is n meant1 ( c\rse1 t ea* individual is left to 8 own unassi/$ judgm5t 9 deal+ ) su* que/ions3 !re is a mass ( traditional exp]i5ce1 :i* ea* individual imbibes orally or f books1 z to ! effects ( conduct ^u happ9ess2 b ! great =mul 9 :i* ?is exp]i5ce is transmitt$ are1 = ! mo/ "p1 s indef9ite1 ! prop] range ( _! application s unc]ta91 & ! obs]vation & induction on :i* !y are f\nd$ s uncritical1 t !y /& 9 cont9ual ne$ ( fur!r empirical v]ification2 especially z reg>ds _! applicability to any p>ticul> case4 ,x is p]haps n surpris+ t "s ?9k]s#cfe ( ! ,utilit>ian s*ool %\ld consid] t ! task ( h$oni/ic calculation :i* is ?us set be=e ! utilit>ian morali/ is too ext5sive3 & %\ld propose to simplify x by m>k+ (f a 8l>ge sph]e ( individual option & self-guidance10 to :i* 8e?ical dictation0 does n apply4 ,i %\ld q admit t x is cle>ly exp$i5t to draw a divid+ l9e ( ?is k9d3 b x appe>s to me t !re is no simple g5]al me?od ( draw+ x2 t x c only be drawn by c>eful utilit>ian calculation appli$ ) v>y+ results to ! v>i\s relations & circum/ances ( human life4 ,to attempt ! requir$ division by means ( any su* g5]al =mula z t #8! individual is n responsible to society = t "p ( 8 conduct :i* conc]ns himself alone & o!rs only ) _! free & undeceiv$ cons5t'#cff seems to me practically futile3 s9ce1 ow+ to ! complex enlacem5ts ( int]e/ & sympa?y t connect ! memb]s ( a civilis$ community1 almo/ any mat]ial loss ( happ9ess by any "o individual is likely to affect "s o!rs )\t _! cons5t to "s n inconsid]able ext5t4 ,& ,i d n see h[ x is f a utilit>ian po9t ( view ju/ifiable to say broadly ) ,j4 ,s4 ,mill t su* second>y injury to o!rs1 if m]ely 8con/ructive or presumptive10 is to be disreg>d$ 9 view ( ! advantages ( all[+ free developm5t to individuality2 = if ! injury fe>$ is great1 & ! presumption t x w occur is %[n by exp]i5ce to be /rong1 ! def9ite risk ( evil f ! )drawal ( ! moral sanction mu/1 ,i conceive1 outweigh ! indef9ite possibility ( loss ?r\gh ! repression ( individuality 9 "o p>ticul> direction4#cfg ,b fur!r3 ev5 suppos+ t we c\ld m>k (f ! 8sph]e ( individual option & self-guidance0 by "s simple & sweep+ =mula1 /ill )9 ?is sph]e ! individual1 if he wi%es to guide himself reasonably on utilit>ian pr9ciples1 mu/ take "s acc\nt ( all important effects ( 8 actions on ! happ9ess ( o!rs2 & if he does ?is me?odically1 he mu/1 ,i conceive1 use ! empirical me?od :i* we h exam9$ 9 ,book ii4 ,&--to prev5t any undue al>m at ?is prospect--we may obs]ve t e s5sible man is commonly suppos$ to det]m9e at lea/ a l>ge "p ( 8 conduct by :at is sub/antially ?is me?od2 x is assum$ t1 )9 ! limits :i* morality lays d[n1 he w try to get z mu* happ9ess z he c = himself & = o!r human be+s1 accord+ to ! relations 9 :i* !y /& to him1 by comb9+ 9 "s way 8 own exp]i5ce ) t ( o!r m5 z to ! felicific & infelicific effects ( actions4 ,& x is actually 9 ?is way t ea* man usually delib]ates 7e4g47 :at pr(ession to *oose = himself1 or :at mode ( education = 8 *ildr51 :e!r to aim at m>riage or rema9 s+le1 :e!r to settle 9 t[n or c\ntry1 9 ,engl& or abroad1 etc4 ,no d\bt !re are1 z we saw1#cfh o!r ends besides ,happ9ess1 su* z ,k1 ,beauty1 etc41 commonly recognis$ z unque/ionably desirable1 & !re=e l>gely pursu$ )\t consid]ation ( ult]ior consequ5ces3 b :5 ! pursuit ( any ( ^! ends involves an app>5t sacrifice ( happ9ess 9 o!r ways1 ! practical "q :e!r "u ^! circum/ances su* pursuit ought to be ma9ta9$ or ab&on$ seems always decid$ by an application1 h[ev] r\gh1 ( ! me?od ( pure empirical ,h$onism4 ,& 9 say+ t ?is mu/ be ! me?od ( ! ,utilit>ian morali/1 ,i only mean t no o!r c normally be appli$ 9 r$uc+ to a common measure ! div]se elem5ts ( ! problems ) :i* he has to deal4 ,( c\rse1 9 det]m9+ ! nature & importance ( ea* ( ^! div]se consid]ations1 ! utilit>ian art ( morality w lay v>i\s sci5ces "u contribution4 ,?us1 = example1 x w le>n f ,political ,economy :at effects a g5]al c5sure ( usur]s1 or ! ord9>y comm5dation ( lib]ality 9 almsgiv+1 is likely to h on ! weal? ( ! community2 x w le>n f ! physiologi/ ! probable consequ5ces to heal? ( a g5]al ab/95ce f alcoholic liquors or any o!r re/ra9t on appetite propos$ 9 ! "n ( ,temp]ance2 x w le>n f ! exp]ts 9 any sci5ce h[ f> k is likely to be promot$ by inve/igations (f5sive to any preval5t moral or religi\s s5tim5t4 ,b h[ f> ! increase ( weal? or ( k1 or ev5 ! improvem5t ( heal?1 %\ld "u any circum/ances be subord9at$ to o!r consid]ations1 ,i "k no sci5tific me?od ( det]m9+ o!r ?an t ( empirical ,h$onism4 ,nor1 z ,i h said1 does x seem to me t any o!r me?od has ev] be5 appli$ or s\ght by ! common s5se ( mank9d1 = regulat+ ! pursuit ( :at our old] morali/s call$ #8,natural ,good1'--i4e4 ( all t is intr9sically desirable except ,virtue or ,morality1 )9 ! limits fix$ by ! latt]2 ! ,utilit>ian "h only p]=ms some:at m consi/5tly & sy/ematically ?an ord9>y m5 ! reason+ processes :i* are commonly admitt$ to be appropriate to ! que/ions t ?is pursuit raises4 ,8 di/9ctive *>act]i/ic1 z a ,utilit>ian1 is t he has to apply ! same me?od to ! criticism & correction ( ! limit+ morality itself4 ,! p>ticul>s ( ?is criticism w obvi\sly v>y almo/ indef9itely ) ! v>iations 9 human nature & circum/ances3 ,i "h only propose to discuss ! g5]al po9ts ( view :i* a ,utilit>ian critic mu/ take1 9 ord] t no important class ( relevant consid]ations may be omitt$4 #b4 ,let u fir/ recall ! di/9ction previ\sly notic$#cfi betwe5 duty z commonly conceiv$1--t to :i* a man is b\nd or oblig$--1 & praisewor?y or excell5t conduct2 s9ce1 9 consid]+ ! relation ( ,utilit>ianism to ! moral judgm5ts ( ,common ,s5se1 x w be conv5i5t to beg9 ) ! =m] elem5t ( curr5t morality1 z ! m important & indisp5sable2 i4e4 ) ! ensemble ( rules impos$ by common op9ion 9 any society1 :i* =m a k9d ( unwritt5 legislation1 supplem5t>y to ,law prop]1 & en=c$ by ! p5alties ( social disfav\r & contempt4 ,?is legislation1 z x does n emanate f a def9ite body ( p]sons act+ 9 a corporate capacity1 _c be alt]$ by any =mal delib]ations & resolutions ( ! p]sons on ^: cons5sus x re/s2 any *ange 9 x mu/ !re=e result f ! private action ( individuals1 :e!r det]m9$ by ,utilit>ian consid]ations or o!rwise4 ,z we %all pres5tly see1 ! practical ,utilit>ian problem is liable to be complicat$ by ! conflict & div]g5ce :i* is f\nd to "s ext5t 9 all societies betwe5 ! moral op9ions ( diff]5t sections ( ! community3 b x w be conv5i5t to conf9e our att5tion 9 ! fir/ in/ance to ! case ( rules ( duty cle>ly support$ by #8common cons5t4' ,let u suppose !n t aft] consid]+ ! consequ5ces ( any su* rule1 a ,utilit>ian comes to ! conclusion t a diff]5t rule w\ld be m conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess1 if simil>ly e/abli%$ 9 a society rema9+ 9 o!r respects ! same z at pres5t--or 9 "o slightly diff]5t 79 s f> z our =eca/ ( social *anges c be made suffici5tly cle> to furni% any basis = practice74 ,& fir/ we w suppose t ?is new rule diff]s f ! old "o n only positively b negatively2 t x does n m]ely g beyond & include x1 b actually conflicts ) x4 ,be=e he c decide t x is "r = him 7i4e4 conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess7 to support ! new rule aga9/ ! old1 by example & precept1 he ought to e/imate ! =ce ( c]ta9 disadvantages necess>ily att5dant ^u su* innovations1 :i* may conv5i5tly be arrang$ "u ! foll[+ heads4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z 8 own happ9ess & t ( o!rs connect$ ) him =m a "p ( ! univ]sal end at :i* he aims1 he mu/ consid] ! importance to himself & !m ( ! p5alties ( social disapprobation :i* he w incur3 tak+ into acc\nt1 besides ! imm$iate pa9 ( ?is disapprobation1 its indirect effect 9 dim9i%+ 8 p[] ( s]v+ society & promot+ ! g5]al happ9ess 9 o!r ways4 ,! prospect ( su* pa9 & loss is1 ( c\rse1 n decisive aga9/ ! innovation2 s9ce x mu/ to "s ext5t be reg>d$ z ! regul> price t has to be paid = ! advantage ( ?is k9d ( re=m 9 curr5t morality4 ,b "h1 z 9 _m ,utilit>ian calculations1 ev]y?+ dep5ds on ! quantity ( ! effects produc$2 :i* 9 ! case suppos$ may v>y v mu*1 f slight di/ru/ & disfav\r to sev]e condemnation & social exclusion4 ,x (t5 seems t by attempt+ *ange prematurely an innovator may incur ! sev]e/ =m ( ! moral p5alty1 :]eas if he _h wait$ a few ye>s he w\ld h be5 let (f ) ! milde/4 ,= ! hold :i* a moral rule has ov] ! g5]al m9d commonly beg9s to decay f ! "t t x is se5 to be oppos$ to ! calculations ( exp$i5cy3 & x may be bett] = ! community z well z = ! individual t x %\ld n be op5ly attack$1 until ?is process ( decay has rea*$ a c]ta9 po9t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( m importance to po9t out c]ta9 g5]al reasons = d\bt+ :e!r an app>5t improvem5t w really h a b5eficial effect on o!rs4 ,x is possible t ! new rule1 ?\gh x w\ld be m felicific ?an ! old "o1 if x c\ld get itself equally e/abli%$1 may be n s likely to be adopt$1 or if adopt$1 n s likely to be obey$1 by ! mass ( ! community 9 :i* x is propos$ to innovate4 ,x may be too subtle & ref9$1 or too complex & elaborate3 x may require a great] intellectual developm5t1 or a high] degree ( self-control1 ?an is to be f\nd 9 an av]age memb] ( ! community1 or an exceptional quality or balance ( feel+s4 ,nor c x be said 9 reply1 t by ! hypo!sis ! innovator's example mu/ be good to :atev] ext5t x op]ates1 s9ce pro tanto x t5ds to sub/itute a bett] rule = a worse4 ,= exp]i5ce seems to %[ t an example ( ?is k9d is m likely to be pot5t negatively ?an positively2 t "h1 z else:]e 9 human affairs1 x is easi] to pull d[n ?an to build up2 easi] to weak5 or de/roy ! re/ra9+ =ce t a moral rule1 habitually & g5]ally obey$1 has ov] m5's m9ds1 ?an to sub/itute = x a new re/ra9+ habit1 n simil>ly su/a9$ by tradition & cu/om4 ,h5ce ! effect ( an example intr9sically good may be on ! :ole bad1 because its de/ructive op]ation proves to be m vigor\s ?an its con/ructive4 ,& aga91 su* de/ructive effect mu/ be consid]$ n only 9 respect ( ! p>ticul> rule violat$1 b ( all o!r rules4 ,= j z ! break+ ( any positive law has an inevitable t5d5cy to enc\rage lawlessness g5]ally1 s ! violation ( any g5]ally recognis$ moral rule seems to give a c]ta9 aid to ! =ces t are always t5d+ t[>ds moral an>*y 9 any society4 ,nor mu/ we neglect ! reaction :i* any brea* ) cu/om>y morality w h on ! ag5t's own m9d4 ,= ! regulative habits & s5tim5ts :i* ea* man has receiv$ by inh]itance or tra9+ con/itute an important =ce impell+ 8 w1 9 ! ma91 to conduct su* z 8 reason w\ld dictate2 a natural auxili>y1 z x 71 to ,reason 9 its conflict ) s$uctive passions & appetites2 & x may be practically dang]\s to impair ! /r5g? ( ^! auxili>ies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld seem t ! habit ( act+ rationally is ! be/ ( all habits1 & t x ought to be ! aim ( a reasonable be+ to br+ all 8 impulses & s5tim5ts into m & m p]fect h>mony ) ,reason4 ,& inde$ :5 a man has e>ne/ly accept$ any moral pr9ciple1 ^? ( 8 pre-exi/+ regulative habits & s5tim5ts t are n 9 h>mony ) ?is pr9ciple t5d naturally to decay & disappe>2 & x w\ld p]haps be sc>cely wor? :ile to take !m into acc\nt1 except = ! support t !y d]ive f ! sympa?y ( o!rs4 ,b ?is la/ is a consid]ation ( great importance4 ,= ! moral impulses ( ea* individual commonly draw a l>ge "p ( _! effective =ce f ! sympa?y ( o!r human be+s4 ,i d n m]ely mean t ! pleasures & pa9s :i* ea* d]ives sympa!tically f ! moral lik+s & av]sions ( o!rs are important z motives to felicific conduct no less ?an z elem5ts ( ! individual's happ9ess3 ,i mean fur!r t ! direct sympa!tic e*o 9 ea* man ( ! judgm5ts & s5tim5ts ( o!rs conc]n+ conduct su/a9s 8 own simil> judgm5ts & s5tim5ts4 ,?r\gh ?is tw(old op]ation ( sympa?y x becomes practically mu* easi] = mo/ m5 to con=m to a moral rule e/abli%$ 9 ! society to :i* !y belong ?an to "o made by !mselves4 ,& any act by :i* a man weak5s ! effect on himself ( ?is g5]al moral sympa?y t5ds pro tanto to make ! p]=mance ( duty m difficult = him4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we h to take into acc\nt--besides ! intr9sic ga9 ( ! p>ticul> *ange--! g5]al advantage ( (f]+ to mank9d a /rik+ example ( consi/5t ,utilit>ianism2 s9ce1 9 ?is case z 9 o!rs1 a man gives a /rong] pro( ( g5u9e conviction by conduct 9 opposition to public op9ion ?an he c by con=mity4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t ?is effect may be produc$1 x is almo/ necess>y t ! non-con=mity %\ld n promote ! innovator's p]sonal conv5i5ce2 = 9 t case x w almo/ c]ta9ly be attribut$ to egoi/ic motives1 h[ev] plausible ! ,utilit>ian d$uction ( its rightness may seem4 ,! exact =ce ( ^! v>i\s consid]ations w diff] indef9itely 9 diff]5t cases2 & x does n seem pr(itable to attempt any g5]al e/imate ( !m3 b on ! :ole1 x w\ld seem t ! g5]al argum5ts :i* we h notic$ con/itute an important rational *eck ^u su* ,utilit>ian innovations on ,common-,s5se morality z are ( ! negative or de/ructive k9d4 ,if n[ we consid] su* innovations z are m]ely positive & supplem5t>y1 & consi/ 9 add+ a new rule to ^? already e/abli%$ by ,common ,s5se2 x w appe> t !re is really no collision ( me?ods1 s f> z ! ,utilit>ian's own obs]vance ( ! new rule is conc]n$4 ,=1 z e su* rule is1 ex hypo!si1 believ$ by him to be conducive to ! common good1 he is m]ely giv+ a special & /rict] int]pretation to ! g5]al duty ( ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce1 :]e ,common ,s5se leaves x loose & indet]m9ate4 ,h5ce ! re/ra9+ consid]ations above enum]at$ d n apply to ?is case4 ,& :atev] x is "r = him to d himself1 x is obvi\sly "r = him to approve & recomm5d to o!r p]sons 9 simil> circum/ances4 ,b x is a diff]5t "q :e!r he ought to seek to impose 8 new rule on o!rs1 by express condemnation ( all :o are n prep>$ to adopt x2 z ?is involves n only ! imm$iate evil ( ! annoyance giv5 to o!rs1 b also ! fur!r dang] ( weak5+ ! g5]al good effect ( 8 moral example1 ?r\gh ! reaction provok$ by ?is aggressive attitude4 ,on ?is po9t 8 decision w l>gely dep5d on ! prospect1 z f> z he c e/imate x1 t 8 innovation w meet ) support & sympa?y f o!rs4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t a great "p ( ! re=m 9 popul> morality1 :i* a consi/5t ,utilit>ian w try to introduce1 w probably lie n s mu* 9 e/abli%+ new rules 7:e!r conflict+ ) ! old or m]ely supplem5t>y7 z 9 en=c+ old ones4 ,= !re is always a consid]able "p ( morality 9 ! condition ( receiv+ =mal respect & acceptance1 :ile yet x is n really su/a9$ by any effective =ce ( public op9ion3 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! moralities ( any two societies is (t5 m /rik+ly exhibit$ 9 ! diff]5t emphasis atta*$ to v>i\s portions ( ! moral code 9 ea*1 ?an 9 disagreem5t z to ! rules :i* ! code %\ld include4 ,9 ! case we are consid]+1 x is *iefly conduct :i* %[s a want ( compreh5sive sympa?y or ( public _s1 to :i* ! ,utilit>ian w desire to atta* a sev]] condemnation ?an is at pres5t direct$ aga9/ x4 ,!re is mu* conduct ( ?is sort1 ( :i* ! imm$iate effect is to give obvi\s pleasure to individuals1 :ile ! f> great] am\nt ( h>m t x m remotely & indirectly causes is b dimly recognis$ by ,common ,s5se4 ,su* conduct1 !re=e1 ev5 :5 x is all[$ to be wrong1 is v mildly treat$ by common op9ion2 especially :5 x is prompt$ by "s impulse n self-reg>d+4 ,/ill1 9 all su* cases1 we d n require ! promulgation ( any new moral doctr9e1 b m]ely a brac+ & %>p5+ ( ! moral s5tim5ts ( society1 to br+ !m into h>mony ) ! great] compreh5siv5ess ( view & ! m imp>tial conc]n = human happ9ess :i* *>act]ise ! ,utilit>ian sy/em4 #c4 ,we h hi!rto suppos$ t ! innovator is endeav\r+ to introduce a new rule ( conduct1 n = himself only1 b = o!rs also1 z m conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess ?an ! rule recognis$ by ,common ,s5se4 ,x may p]haps be ?\ght t ?is is n ! issue mo/ commonly rais$ betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,common ,s5se3 b r :e!r exceptions %\ld be all[$ to rules :i* bo? sides accept z g5]ally valid4 ,= no "o d\bts t x is1 g5]ally speak+1 conducive to ! common happ9ess t m5 %\ld be v]aci\s1 fai?ful to promises1 ob$i5t to law1 dispos$ to satisfy ! normal expectations ( o!rs1 hav+ _! malevol5t impulses & _! s5sual appetites "u /rict control3 b x is ?\ght t an exclusive reg>d to pleasurable & pa9ful consequ5ces w\ld frequ5tly admit exceptions to rules :i* ,common ,s5se imposes z absolute4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ t ! admission ( an exception on g5]al gr\nds is m]ely ! e/abli%m5t ( a m complex & delicate rule1 in/ead ( "o t is broad] & simpl]2 = if x is conducive to ! g5]al good t su* an exception be admitt$ 9 "o case1 x w be equally s 9 all simil> cases4 ,suppose 7e4g47 t a ,utilit>ian ?9ks x on g5]al gr\nds "r to answ] falsely a "q z to ! mann] 9 :i* he has vot$ at a political election :]e ! vot+ is by secret ballot4 ,8 reasons w probably be t ! ,utilit>ian prohibition ( falsehood is bas$ on 7#a7 ! h>m done by mislead+ p>ticul> individuals1 & 7#b7 ! t5d5cy ( false /atem5ts to dim9i% ! mutual confid5ce t m5 ought to h 9 ea* o!r's ass]tions3 & t 9 ?is exceptional case x is 7#a7 exp$i5t t ! que/ion] %\ld be misl$2 :ile 7#b71 9 s f> z ! falsehood t5ds to produce a g5]al di/ru/ ( all ass]tions z to ! mann] 9 :i* a man has vot$1 x only fur!rs ! end = :i* vot+ has be5 made secret4 ,x is evid5t1 t if ^! reasons are valid = any p]son1 !y are valid = all p]sons2 9 fact1 t !y e/abli% ! exp$i5cy ( a new g5]al rule 9 respect ( tru? & falsehood1 m complicat$ ?an ! old "o2 a rule :i* ! ,utilit>ian1 z su*1 %\ld desire to be univ]sally obey$4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 "s k9ds ( moral innovation :i*1 f ! nature ( ! case1 are n likely to occur frequ5tly2 z :]e ,utilit>ian reason+ leads a man to take "p 9 a political revolution1 or to support a public measure 9 opposition to :at ,common ,s5se reg>ds z ,ju/ice or ,good ,fai?4 ,/ill1 9 su* cases a rational ,utilit>ian w usually proce$ on g5]al pr9ciples1 :i* he w\ld desire all p]sons 9 simil> circum/ances to c>ry into effect4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 to consid] ano!r k9d ( exceptions1 diff]+ fundam5tally f ?is1 :i* ,utilit>ianism seems to admit2 :]e ! ag5t does n ?9k x exp$i5t t ! rule on :i* he himself acts %\ld be univ]sally adopt$1 & yet ma9ta9s t 8 individual act is "r1 z produc+ a great] balance ( pleasure ov] pa9 ?an any o!r conduct op5 to him w\ld produce4 ,n[ we _c fairly argue t1 because a l>ge aggregate ( acts w\ld cause m h>m ?an good1 !re=e any s+le act ( ! k9d w produce ?is effect4 ,x may ev5 be a /ra9+ ( language to say t x has a t5d5cy to produce x3 no "o 7e4g47 w\ld say t because an army walk+ ov] a bridge w\ld break x d[n1 !re=e ! cross+ ( a s+le travell] has a t5d5cy to de/roy x4 ,& j z a prud5t physician 9 giv+ rules ( diet recomm5ds an occasional deviation f !m1 z m conducive to ! heal? ( ! body ?an absolute regul>ity2 s !re may be rules ( social behavi\r ( :i* ! g5]al obs]vance is necess>y to ! well-be+ ( ! community1 :ile yet a c]ta9 am\nt ( non-obs]vance is r advantage\s ?an o!rwise4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we seem br\ght into conflict ) ,kant's fundam5tal pr9ciple1 t a "r action mu/ be "o ( :i* ! ag5t c\ld 8w ! maxim to be law univ]sal40#cgj ,b1 z 0 be=e#cga notic$ 9 ! p>ticul> case ( v]acity1 we mu/ admit an application ( ?is pr9ciple1 :i* importantly modifies its practical =ce3 we mu/ admit ! case :]e ! belief t ! action 9 "q w n be widely imitat$ is an ess5tial qualification ( ! maxim :i* ! ,kantian pr9ciple is appli$ to te/4 ,= ?is pr9ciple1--at lea/ s f> z ,i h accept$ x z self-evid5t--means no m ?an t an act1 if "r = any individual1 mu/ be "r on g5]al gr\nds1 & !re=e = "s class ( p]sons2 x !re=e _c prev5t u f def9+ ?is class by ! above-m5tion$ *>act]i/ic ( believ+ t ! act w rema9 an exceptional "o4 ,( c\rse if ?is belief turns out to be errone\s1 s]i\s h>m may possibly result2 b ?is is no m ?an may be said ( _m o!r ,utilit>ian d$uctions4 ,nor is x difficult to f9d in/ances ( conduct :i* ,common ,s5se holds to be legitimate solely on ! gr\nd t we h no fe> ( its be+ too widely imitat$4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( ,celibacy4 ,a univ]sal refusal to propagate ! human species w\ld be ! greate/ ( conceivable crimes f a ,utilit>ian po9t ( view2--t is1 accord+ to ! commonly accept$ belief 9 ! sup]iority ( human happ9ess to t ( o!r animals2--& h5ce ! pr9ciple 9 "q1 appli$ )\t ! qualification above giv51 w\ld make x a crime 9 any "o to *oose celibacy z ! /ate mo/ conducive to 8 own happ9ess4 ,b ,common ,s5se 79 ! pres5t age at lea/7 reg>ds su* pref]5ce z )9 ! limits ( "r conduct2 because !re is no fe> t population w n be suffici5tly kept up1 z 9 fact ! t5d5cy to propagate is ?\ght to exi/ r 9 excess ?an o!rwise4 ,9 ?is case x is a non-moral impulse on ! av]age /r5g? ( :i* we ?9k we may reckon3 b !re does n appe> to be any =mal or univ]sal reason :y ! same proc$ure %\ld n be appli$ by ,utilit>ians to an actually exi/+ moral s5tim5t4 ,! result w\ld be a discrepancy ( a peculi> k9d betwe5 ,utilit>ianism & ,common-,s5se morality2 z ! v firmness ) :i* ! latt] is e/abli%$ w\ld be ! ,utilit>ian gr\nd = reliev+ ! individual ( its obligations4 ,we are suppos$ to see t g5]al happ9ess w be enhanc$ 7j z ! excell5ce ( a metrical composition is7 by a slight admixture ( irregul>ity along ) a g5]al obs]vance ( receiv$ rules2 & h5ce to ju/ify ! irregul> conduct ( a few individuals1 on ! gr\nd t ! supply ( regul> conduct f o!r memb]s ( ! community may reasonably be expect$ to be adequate4 ,x does n seem to me t ?is reason+ c be %[n to be necess>ily uns\nd1 z appli$ to human society z at pres5t con/itut$3 b ! cases 9 :i* x c\ld really be ?\ght to be applicable1 by any "o s9c]ely desir\s ( promot+ ! g5]al happ9ess1 mu/ c]ta9ly be r>e4 ,= x %\ld be obs]v$ t x makes a fundam5tal diff]5ce :e!r ! s5tim5t 9 mank9d g5]ally1 on :i* we rely to su/a9 suffici5tly a g5]al rule :ile admitt+ exceptions !reto1 is moral or non-moral2 because a moral s5tim5t is insep>able f ! conviction t ! conduct to :i* x prompts is objectively "r--i4e4 "r :e!r or n x is ?\ght or felt to be s--= oneself & all simil> p]sons 9 simil> circum/ances2 x _c !re=e coexi/ ) approval ( ! contr>y conduct 9 any "o case1 unless ?is case is di/+ui%$ by "s mat]ial diff]5ce o!r ?an ! m]e non-exi/5ce 9 ! ag5t ( ! ord9>y moral s5tim5t aga9/ 8 conduct4 ,?us1 assum+ t g5]al unv]acity & g5]al celibacy w\ld bo? be evils ( ! wor/ k9d1 we may /ill all reg>d x z legitimate = m5 9 g5]al to rema9 celibate if !y l1 on acc\nt ( ! /r5g? ( ! natural s5tim5ts prompt+ to m>riage1 because ! exi/5ce ( ^! s5tim5ts 9 ord9>y human be+s is n affect$ by ! univ]sal recognition ( ! legitimacy ( celibacy3 b we _c simil>ly all reg>d x z legitimate = m5 to tell lies if !y l1 h[ev] /rong ! actually exi/+ s5tim5t aga9/ ly+ may be1 because z soon z ?is legitimacy is g5]ally recognis$ ! s5tim5t mu/ be expect$ to decay & vani%4 ,if !re=e we 7 all enlight5$ ,utilit>ians1 x w\ld be impossible = any "o to ju/ify himself 9 mak+ false /atem5ts :ile admitt+ x to be inexp$i5t = p]sons simil>ly condition$ to make !m2 z he w\ld h no gr\nd = believ+ t p]sons simil>ly condition$ w\ld act diff]5tly f himself4 ,! case1 no d\bt1 is diff]5t 9 society z actually con/itut$2 x is conceivable t ! practically effective morality 9 su* a society1 re/+ on a basis indep5d5t ( utilit>ian or any o!r reason+s1 may n be mat]ially affect$ by ! p>ticul> act or express$ op9ion ( a p>ticul> individual3 b ! circum/ances are1 ,i conceive1 v r>e1 9 :i* a really consci5ti\s p]son c\ld feel s sure ( ?is z to conclude t by approv+ a p>ticul> violation ( a rule1 ( :i* ! g5]al 7?\gh n univ]sal7 obs]vance is pla9ly exp$i5t1 he w n probably d h>m on ! :ole4 ,especially z all ! objections to innovation1 notic$ 9 ! previ\s section1 apply ) increas$ =ce if ! innovator does n ev5 claim to be introduc+ a new & bett] g5]al rule4 ,x appe>s to me1 !re=e1 t ! cases 9 :i* practical d\bts are likely to arise1 z to :e!r exceptions %\ld be p]mitt$ f ord9>y rules on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 w mo/ly be ^? :i* ,i discuss$ 9 ! fir/ p>agraph ( ?is section3 :]e ! exceptions are n claim$ = a few individuals1 on ! m]e gr\nd ( _! probable fewness1 b ei!r = p]sons g5]ally "u exceptional circum/ances1 or = a class ( p]sons def9$ by exceptional qualities ( intellect1 temp]am5t1 or "*4 ,9 su* cases ! ,utilit>ian may h no d\bt t 9 a community consi/+ g5]ally ( enlight5$ ,utilit>ians1 ^! gr\nds = exceptional e?ical treatm5t w\ld be reg>d$ z valid2 /ill he may1 z ,i h said1 d\bt :e!r ! m ref9$ & complicat$ rule :i* recognises su* exceptions is adapt$ = ! community 9 :i* he is actually liv+2 & :e!r ! attempt to introduce x is n likely to d m h>m by weak5+ curr5t morality ?an good by improv+ its quality4 ,suppos+ su* a d\bt to arise1 ei!r 9 a case ( ?is k9d1 or 9 "o ( ! r>e cases discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 x becomes necess>y t ! ,utilit>ian %\ld consid] c>efully ! ext5t to :i* 8 advice or example are likely to influ5ce p]sons to :om !y w\ld be dang]\s3 & x is evid5t t ! result ( ?is consid]ation may dep5d l>gely on ! degree ( publicity :i* he gives to ei!r advice or example4 ,?us1 on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 x may be "r to d & privately recomm5d1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 :at x w\ld n be "r to advocate op5ly2 x may be "r to tea* op5ly to "o set ( p]sons :at x w\ld be wrong to tea* to o!rs2 x may be conceivably "r to d1 if x c be done ) comp>ative secrecy1 :at x w\ld be wrong to d 9 ! face ( ! _w2 & ev51 if p]fect secrecy c be reasonably expect$1 :at x w\ld be wrong to recomm5d by private advice or example4 ,^! conclusions are all ( a p>adoxical "*3#cgb !re is no d\bt t ! moral consci\sness ( a pla9 man broadly repudiates ! g5]al notion ( an esot]ic morality1 diff]+ f t popul>ly taught2 & x w\ld be commonly agre$ t an action :i* w\ld be bad if done op5ly is n r5d]$ good by secrecy4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t !re are /rong utilit>ian reasons = ma9ta9+ g5]ally ?is latt] common op9ion2 = x is obvi\sly advantage\s1 g5]ally speak+1 t acts :i* x is exp$i5t to repress by social disapprobation %\ld become kn[n1 z o!rwise ! disapprobation _c op]ate2 s t x seems inexp$i5t to support by any moral enc\ragem5t ! natural disposition ( m5 9 g5]al to conceal _! wrong do+s2 besides t ! concealm5t w\ld 9 mo/ cases h importantly injuri\s effects on ! ag5t's habits ( v]acity4 ,?us ! ,utilit>ian conclusion1 c>efully /at$1 w\ld seem to be ?is2 t ! op9ion t secrecy may r5d] an action "r :i* w\ld n o!rwise be s %\ld itself be kept comp>atively secret2 & simil>ly x seems exp$i5t t ! doctr9e t esot]ic morality is exp$i5t %\ld itself be kept esot]ic4 ,or if ?is concealm5t be difficult to ma9ta91 x may be desirable t ,common ,s5se %\ld repudiate ! doctr9es :i* x is exp$i5t to conf9e to an enlight5$ few4 ,& ?us a ,utilit>ian may reasonably desire1 on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 t "s ( 8 conclusions %\ld be reject$ by mank9d g5]ally2 or ev5 t ! vulg> %\ld keep alo( f 8 sy/em z a :ole1 9 s f> z ! inevitable indef9it5ess & complexity ( its calculations r5d] x likely to lead to bad results 9 _! h&s4 ,( c\rse1 z ,i h said1 9 an ideal community ( enlight5$ ,utilit>ians ?is sw>m ( p]plexities & p>adoxes w\ld vani%2 z 9 su* a society no "o c h any gr\nd = believ+ t o!r p]sons w act on moral pr9ciples diff]5t f ^? :i* he adopts4 ,& any enlight5$ ,utilit>ian mu/ ( c\rse desire ?is consummation2 z all conflict ( moral op9ion mu/ pro tanto be reg>d$ z an evil1 z t5d+ to impair ! =ce ( morality g5]ally 9 its resi/ance to s$uctive impulses4 ,/ill su* conflict may be a necess>y evil 9 ! actual condition ( civilis$ communities1 9 :i* !re are s _m diff]5t degrees ( intellectual & moral developm5t4 ,we h ?us be5 l$ to ! discussion ( ! "q :i* we res]v$ 9 ! la/ section2 viz4 h[ ,utilit>ianism %\ld deal ) ! fact ( div]g5t moral op9ions held simultane\sly by diff]5t memb]s ( ! same society4 ,= x has become pla9 t ?\gh two diff]5t k9ds ( conduct _c bo? be "r "u ! same circum/ances1 two contradictory op9ions z to ! rightness ( conduct may possibly bo? be exp$i5t2 x may conduce mo/ to ! g5]al happ9ess t ,a %\ld d a c]ta9 act1 & at ! same "t t ,b1 ,c1 ,d %\ld blame x4 ,! ,utilit>ian ( c\rse _c really jo9 9 ! disapproval1 b he may ?9k x exp$i5t to leave x un%ak52 & at ! same "t may ?9k x "r1 if plac$ 9 ! suppos$ circum/ances1 to d ! act t is g5]ally disapprov$4 ,& s g5]ally x may be be/ on ! :ole t !re %\ld be conflict+ codes ( morality 9 a giv5 society at a c]ta9 /age ( its developm5t4 ,&1 z ,i h already h9t$1 ! same g5]al reason+1 f ! probable orig9 ( ! moral s5se & its flexible adju/m5t to ! v>y+ conditions ( human life1 :i* furni%$ a presumption t ,common-,s5se morality is r\ghly co9cid5t ) ! ,utilit>ian code prop] = m5 z n[ con/itut$1 may be appli$ 9 fav\r ( ^! div]g5t codes also3 x may be said t ^!1 too1 =m "p ( ! complex adju/m5t ( man to 8 circum/ances1 & t !y are ne$$ to supplem5t & qualify ! morality ( ,common ,s5se4 ,h[ev] p>adoxical ?is doctr9e may appe>1 we c f9d cases :]e x seems to be implicitly accept$ by ,common ,s5se2 or at lea/ :]e x is requir$ to make ,common ,s5se consi/5t ) itself4 ,let u consid]1 = example1 ! common moral judgm5ts conc]n+ rebellions4 ,x is commonly ?\ght1 on ! "o h&1 t ^! abrupt brea*es ( ord] are sometimes morally necess>y2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t !y ought always to be vigor\sly resi/$1 & 9 case ( failure puni%$ by extreme p5alties inflict$ at lea/ on ! r+-lead]s2 = o!rwise !y w\ld be attempt$ "u circum/ances :]e !re 0 no suffici5t ju/ification = !m3 b x seems evid5t t1 9 ! actual condition ( m5's moral s5tim5ts1 ?is vigor\s repression requires ! support ( a /rong body ( op9ion condemn+ ! rebels z wrong1 & n m]ely z mi/ak5 9 _! calculations ( ! *ances ( success4 ,= simil> reasons x may possibly be exp$i5t on ! :ole t c]ta9 special relaxations ( c]ta9 moral rules %\ld cont9ue to exi/ 9 c]ta9 pr(essions & sections ( society1 :ile at ! same "t !y cont9ue to be disapprov$ by ! re/ ( ! society4 ,! evils1 h[ev]1 :i* mu/ spr+ f ?is p]man5t conflict ( op9ion are s grave1 t an enlight5$ ,utilit>ian w probably 9 mo/ cases attempt to remove x2 by ei!r op5ly ma9ta9+ ! ne$ ( a relaxation ( ! ord9>y moral rule "u ! special circum/ances 9 "q2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 endeav\r+ to get ! ord9>y rule recognis$ & en=c$ by all consci5ti\s p]sons 9 t section ( society :]e its brea* has become habitual4 ,& ( ^! two c\rses x seems likely t he w 9 mo/ cases adopt ! latt]2 s9ce su* rules are mo/ commonly f\nd on exam9ation to h be5 relax$ r = ! conv5i5ce ( individuals1 ?an 9 ! int]e/ ( ! community at l>ge4 #d4 ,f9ally1 let u consid] ! g5]al relation ( ,utilit>ianism to t "p ( common morality :i* ext5ds beyond ! range ( /rict duty2 t is1 to ! ,ideal ( "* & conduct :i* 9 any community at any giv5 "t is commonly admir$ & prais$ z ! sum ( ,excell5ces or ,p]fections4 ,to beg91 x mu/ be all[$ t ?is di/9ction betwe5 ,excell5ce & ,/rict ,duty does n seem prop]ly admissible 9 ,utilit>ianism--except s f> z "s excell5ces are only p>tially & indirectly )9 ! control ( ! w1 & we require to di/+ui% ! realisation ( ^! 9 conduct f ! p]=mance ( ,duty prop]1 :i* is always some?+ t c be done at any mom5t4 ,= a ,utilit>ian mu/ hold t x is always wrong = a man kn[+ly to d any?+ o!r ?an :at he believes to be mo/ conducive to ,univ]sal ,happ9ess4 ,/ill1 x seems practically exp$i5t1--& !re=e indirectly reasonable on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples1--to reta91 9 judg+ ev5 ! /rictly volunt>y conduct ( o!rs1 ! di/9ction betwe5 a "p t is praisewor?y & admirable & a "p t is m]ely "r3 because x is natural to u to comp>e any individual's "* or conduct1 n ) our highe/ ideal--,utilit>ian or o!rwise--b ) a c]ta9 av]age /&>d & to admire :at rises above ! /&>d2 & x seems ultimately conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess t su* natural s5tim5ts ( admiration %\ld be enc\rag$ & develop$4 ,= human nature seems to require ! d\ble /imulus ( praise & blame f o!rs1 9 ord] to ! be/ p]=mance ( duty t x c at pres5t atta93 s t ! #8social sanction' w\ld be less effective if x became purely p5al4 ,inde$1 s9ce ! pa9s ( remorse & disapprobation are 9 !mselves to be avoid$1 x is pla9 t ! ,utilit>ian con/ruction ( a ,jural morality is ess5tially self-limit+2 t is1 x prescribes its own avoidance ( any dep>tm5t ( conduct 9 :i* ! addition t c be made to happ9ess ?r\gh ! en=cem5t ( rules su/a9$ by social p5alties appe>s d\btful or inconsid]able4 ,9 su* dep>tm5ts1 h[ev]1 ! /hetic phase ( morality may /ill reasonably f9d a place2 we may prop]ly admire & praise :]e x w\ld be inexp$i5t to judge & condemn4 ,we may conclude1 !n1 t x is reasonable = a ,utilit>ian to praise any conduct m felicific 9 its t5d5cy ?an :at an av]age man w\ld d "u ! giv5 circum/ances3--be+ aw>e ( c\rse t ! limit d[n to :i* praise wor?9ess ext5ds mu/ be relative to ! p>ticul> /ate ( moral progress rea*$ by mank9d g5]ally 9 8 age & c\ntry2 & t x is desirable to make cont9ual ef=ts to elevate ?is /&>d4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,utilit>ian w praise ! ,dispositions or p]man5t qualities ( "* ( :i* felicific conduct is conceiv$ to be ! result1 & ! ,motives t are conceiv$ to prompt to x :5 x w\ld be a cle> ga9 to ! g5]al happ9ess t ^! %\ld become m frequ5t3 &1 z we h se51#cgc he may )\t inconsi/5cy admire ! ,disposition or ,motive if x is ( a k9d :i* x is g5]ally desirable to enc\rage1 ev5 :ile he disapproves ( ! conduct to :i* x has l$ 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,pass+ n[ to comp>e ! cont5ts ( ! ,utilit>ian ,ideal ( "* ) ! virtues & o!r excell5ces recognis$ by ,common ,s5se1 we may obs]ve1 fir/1 t g5]al co9cid5ce betwe5 ! two on :i* ,hume & o!rs h insi/$4 ,no quality has ev] be5 prais$ z excell5t by mank9d g5]ally :i* _c be %[n to h "s m>k$ felicific effect1 & to be )9 prop] limits obvi\sly conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,/ill1 x does n foll[ t su* qualities are always fo/]$ & enc\rag$ by society 9 ! proportion :i* a ,utilit>ian w\ld desire3 9 fact1 x is a common obs]vation to make1 9 contemplat+ ! morality ( societies o!r ?an our own1 t "s useful qualities are unduly neglect$1 :ile o!rs are ov]-priz$ & ev5 admir$ :5 !y exi/ 9 su* excess z to become1 on ! :ole1 infelicific4 ,! consi/5t ,utilit>ian may !re=e f9d x necess>y to rectify ! preval5t moral ideal 9 important p>ticul>s4 ,& "h x sc>cely seems t he w f9d any su* ,utilit>ian re/rictions on innovation1 z appe>$ to exi/ 9 ! case ( commonly receiv$ rules ( duty4 ,= ! ,common-,s5se notions ( ! diff]5t excell5ces ( conduct 7consid]$ z ext5d+ beyond ! range ( /rict duty7 are g5]ally s vague z to (f] at lea/ no def9ite resi/ance to a ,utilit>ian int]pretation ( _! scope3 by tea*+ & act+ ^u su* an int]pretation a man is 9 no dang] ( be+ br\ght into infelicific discord ) ,common ,s5se3 especially s9ce ! ideal ( moral excell5ce seems to v>y )9 ! limits ( ! same community to a mu* great] ext5t ?an ! code ( /rict duty4 ,= example1 a man :o 9 an age :5 excessive asceticism is prais$1 sets an example ( enjoy+ h>mless bodily pleasures1 or :o 9 circles :]e useless d>+ is admir$1 pref]s to exhibit & comm5d caution & discretion1 at ! wor/ misses "s praise t he might o!rwise h e>n$1 & is ?\ght a little dull or unaspir+3 he does n come into any pat5t conflict ) common op9ion4 ,p]haps we may say g5]ally t an enlight5$ ,utilit>ian is likely to lay less /ress on ! cultivation ( ^? negative virtues1 t5d5cies to re/rict & refra91 :i* are prom95t 9 ! ,common-,s5se ideal ( "*2 & to set m value 9 comp>ison on ^? qualities ( m9d :i* are ! direct s\rce ( positive pleasure to ! ag5t or to o!rs--"s ( :i* ,common ,s5se sc>cely recognises z excell5ces3 /ill1 he w n c>ry ?is innovation to su* a pit* z to incur g5]al condemnation4 ,= no enlight5$ ,utilit>ian c ignore ! fundam5tal importance ( ! re/rictive & repressive virtues1 or ?9k t !y are suffici5tly develop$ 9 ord9>y m5 at ! pres5t "t1 s t !y may prop]ly be exclud$ f moral admiration2 ?\gh he may hold t !y h be5 too prom95t1 to ! neglect ( o!r valuable qualities1 9 ! common conception ( moral ,p]fection4 ,nay1 we may ev5 v5ture to say t1 "u mo/ circum/ances1 a man :o e>ne/ly & successfully endeav\rs to realise ! ,utilit>ian ,ideal1 h[ev] he may deviate f ! commonly-receiv$ type ( a p]fect "*1 is likely to w9 suffici5t recognition & praise f ,common ,s5se4 ,=1 :e!r x be true or n t ! :ole ( morality has sprung f ! root ( sympa?y1 x is c]ta9 t self-love & sympa?y comb9$ are suffici5tly /rong 9 av]age m5 to dispose !m to grateful admiration ( any exceptional ef=ts to promote ! common good1 ev5 ?\gh ^! ef=ts may take a some:at novel =m4 ,to any exhibition ( m ext5d$ sympa?y or m f]v5t public _s ?an is ord9>ily %[n1 & any attempt to develop ^! equalities 9 o!rs1 ,common ,s5se is r>ely unresponsive2 provid$1 ( c\rse1 t ^! impulses are accompani$ ) adequate k ( actual circum/ances & insight into ! relation ( means to ends1 & t !y d n run c\nt] to any recognis$ rules ( duty4#cgd ,& x seems to be pr9cipally 9 ?is direction t ! rec5t spread ( ,utilit>ianism has positively modifi$ ! ideal ( our society1 & is likely to modify x fur!r 9 ! future4 ,h5ce ! /ress :i* ,utilit>ians are apt to lay on social & political activity ( all k9ds1 & ! t5d5cy :i* ,utilit>ian e?ics h always %[n to pass ov] into politics4 ,= "o :o values conduct 9 proportion to its felicific consequ5ces1 w naturally set a high] e/imate on effective b5efic5ce 9 public affairs ?an on ! pure/ manife/ation ( virtue 9 ! details ( private life3 :ile on ! o!r h& an ,intuitioni/ 7?\gh no d\bt vaguely recognis+ t a man ought to d all ! good he c 9 public affairs7 /ill commonly holds t virtue may be z fully & z admirably exhibit$ on a small z on a l>ge scale4 ,a s9c]e ,utilit>ian1 !re=e1 is likely to be an eag] politician3 b on :at pr9ciples 8 political action ought to be det]m9$1 x sc>cely lies )9 ! scope ( ?is treatise to inve/igate4 ,,footnotes3 #cfd ,i d n mean t ?is s5tim5t is 9 my view incompatible ) ,utilit>ianism2 ,i mean t x mu/ n atta* itself to any subord9ate rules ( conduct1 b only to ! supreme pr9ciple ( act+ ) imp>tial conc]n = all elem5ts ( g5]al happ9ess4 #cfe ,= example1 ,mr4 ,ba9 9 ,m9d 7,jan4 #ahhc1 pp4 #dh1 #di74 #cff ,?is s5t5ce is n an exact quotation1 b a summ>y ( ! doctr9e set =? by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 9 8 treatise ,on ,lib]ty 7,introduction74 #cfg ,see ,mill ,on ,lib]ty1 *ap4 iv4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ,mill's doctr9e is c]ta9ly oppos$ to common s5se3 s9ce 7e4g47 x w\ld exclude f c5sure almo/ all =ms ( sexual immorality committ$ by unm>ri$ & indep5d5t adults4 #cfh ,cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 xiv4 #cfi ,cf4 especially ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #cgj ,cf4 ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 & *ap4 xiii4 #cga ,book iii4 *ap4 vii4 #c4 #cgb ,9 p>ticul> cases1 h[ev]1 !y seem to be admitt$ by ,common ,s5se to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,= example1 x w\ld be commonly ?\ght wrong to express 9 public spee*es di/urb+ religi\s or political op9ions :i* may be legitimately publi%$ 9 books4 #cgc ,cf4 *ap4 iii4 #b ( ?is ,book4 #cgd ,we h se5 t a ,utilit>ian may sometimes h to ov]ride ^! rules2 b !n ! case falls "u ! head discuss$ 9 ! previ\s section4 ,,conclud+ ,,*apt] ,,! ,,mutual ,,relations ,,( ,,! ,,?ree ,,me?ods #a4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ! treatise ( :i* ! f9al *apt] has n[ be5 rea*$1 we h be5 employ$ 9 exam9+ ?ree me?ods ( det]m9+ "r conduct1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p f\nd m or less vaguely comb9$ 9 ! practical reason+s ( ord9>y m51 b :i* x has be5 my aim to develop z sep>ately z possible4 ,a complete syn!sis ( ^! diff]5t me?ods is n attempt$ 9 ! pres5t "w3 at ! same "t x w\ld h>dly be satisfactory to conclude ! analysis ( !m )\t "s discussion ( _! mutual relations4 ,inde$ we h already f\nd x exp$i5t to d ?is to a consid]able ext5t1 9 ! c\rse ( our exam9ation ( ! sep>ate me?ods4 ,?us1 9 ! pres5t & prec$+ ,books we h directly or indirectly gone ?r\gh a pretty full exam9ation ( ! mutual relations ( ! ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian me?ods4 ,we h f\nd t ! common anti!sis betwe5 ,intuitioni/s & ,utilit>ians mu/ be entirely disc>d$3 s9ce su* ab/ract moral pr9ciples z we c admit to be really self-evid5t are n only n incompatible ) a ,utilit>ian sy/em1 b ev5 seem requir$ to furni% a rational basis = su* a sy/em4 ,?us we h se5 t ! ess5ce ( ,ju/ice or ,equity 79 s f> z x is cle> & c]ta971 is t diff]5t individuals are n to be treat$ diff]5tly1 except on gr\nds ( univ]sal application2 & t su* gr\nds1 aga91 are suppli$ by ! pr9ciple ( ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce1 t sets be=e ea* man ! happ9ess ( all o!rs z an object ( pursuit no less wor?y ?an 8 own2 :ile o!r "t-hon\r$ virtues seem to be fitly expla9$ z special manife/ations ( imp>tial b5evol5ce "u v>i\s circum/ances ( human life1 or else z habits & dispositions indisp5sable to ! ma9t5ance ( prud5t or b5efic5t behavi\r "u ! s$uctive =ce ( v>i\s non-rational impulses4 ,& al?\gh !re are o!r rules :i* our common moral s5se :5 fir/ int]rogat$ seems to enunciate z absolutely b9d+2 x has appe>$ t c>eful & sy/ematic reflection on ?is v ,common ,s5se1 z express$ 9 ! habitual moral judgm5ts ( ord9>y m51 results 9 exhibit+ ! real subord9ation ( ^! rules to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples above giv54 ,!n1 fur!r1 ?is me?od ( sy/ematis+ p>ticul> virtues & duties receives v /rong support f a comp>ative /udy ( ! hi/ory ( morality2 z ! v>iations 9 ! moral codes ( diff]5t societies at diff]5t /ages correspond1 9 a great measure1 to diff]5ces 9 ! actual or believ$ t5d5cies ( c]ta9 k9ds ( conduct to promote ! g5]al happ9ess ( diff]5t portions ( ! human race3 :ile1 aga91 ! mo/ probable conjectures z to ! pre-hi/oric condition & orig9al d]ivation ( ! moral faculty seem to be entirely 9 h>mony ) ?is view4 ,no d\bt1 ev5 if ?is syn!sis ( me?ods be completely accept$1 !re w rema9 "s discrepancy 9 details betwe5 our p>ticul> moral s5tim5ts & unreason$ judgm5ts on ! "o h&1 & ! app>5t results ( special utilit>ian calculations on ! o!r2 & we may (t5 h "s practical difficulty 9 balanc+ ! latt] aga9/ ! m g5]al utilit>ian reasons = obey+ ! =m]3 b !re seems to be no long] any !oretical p]plexity z to ! pr9ciples = det]m9+ social duty4 ,x rema9s = u to consid] ! relation ( ! two species ( ,h$onism :i* we h di/+ui%$ z ,univ]sali/ic & ,egoi/ic4 ,9 *ap4 ii4 ( ?is ,book we h discuss$ ! rational process 7call$ by a /ret* ( language #8pro('7 by :i* "o :o holds x reasonable to aim at 8 own greate/ happ9ess may be det]m9$ to take ,univ]sal ,happ9ess in/ead1 z 8 ultimate /&>d ( "r conduct4 ,we h se51 h[ev]1 t ! application ( ?is process requires t ! ,egoi/ %\ld affirm1 implicitly or explicitly1 t 8 own greate/ happ9ess is n m]ely ! rational ultimate end = himself1 b a "p ( ,univ]sal ,good3 & he may avoid ! pro( ( ,utilit>ianism by decl9+ to affirm ?is4 ,x w\ld be contr>y to ,common ,s5se to d5y t ! di/9ction betwe5 any "o individual & any o!r is real & fundam5tal1 & t consequ5tly 8,i0 am conc]n$ ) ! quality ( my exi/5ce z an individual 9 a s5se1 fundam5tally important1 9 :i* ,i am n conc]n$ ) ! quality ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r individuals3 & ?is be+ s1 ,i d n see h[ x c be prov$ t ?is di/9ction is n to be tak5 z fundam5tal 9 det]m9+ ! ultimate end ( rational action = an individual4 ,& x may be obs]v$ t mo/ ,utilit>ians1 h[ev] anxi\s !y h be5 to conv9ce m5 ( ! reasonabl5ess ( aim+ at happ9ess g5]ally1 h n commonly s\ght to atta9 ?is result by any logical transition f ! ,egoi/ic to ! ,univ]sali/ic pr9ciple4 ,!y h reli$ almo/ entirely on ! ,sanctions ( ,utilit>ian rules2 t is1 on ! pleasures ga9$ or pa9s avoid$ by ! individual con=m+ to !m4 ,inde$1 if an ,egoi/ rema9s imp]vi\s to :at we h call$ ,pro(1 ! only way ( rationally induc+ him to aim at ! happ9ess ( all1 is to %[ him t 8 own greate/ happ9ess c be be/ atta9$ by s do+4 ,& fur!r1 ev5 if a man admits ! self-evid5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 he may /ill hold t 8 own happ9ess is an end :i* x is irrational = him to sacrifice to any o!r2 & t !re=e a h>mony betwe5 ! maxim ( ,prud5ce & ! maxim ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce mu/ be someh[ demon/rat$1 if morality is to be made completely rational4 ,?is latt] view1 inde$ 7z ,i h be=e said71 appe>s to me1 on ! :ole1 ! view ( ,common ,s5se3 & x is t :i* ,i myself hold4 ,x ?us becomes ne$ful to exam9e h[ f> & 9 :at way ! requir$ demon/ration c be effect$4 #b4 ,n[1 9 s f> z ,utilit>ian morality co9cides ) t ( ,common ,s5se--z we h se5 t x does 9 ! ma9--?is inve/igation has be5 p>tly p]=m$ 9 *ap4 v4 ( ,book ii4 ,x !re appe>$ t :ile 9 any tol]able /ate ( society ! p]=mance ( duties t[>ds o!rs & ! ex]cise ( social virtues seem g5]ally likely to co9cide ) ! atta9m5t ( ! greate/ possible happ9ess 9 ! long run = ! virtu\s ag5t1 /ill ! univ]sality & complet5ess ( ?is co9cid5ce are at lea/ incapable ( empirical pro(3 & t1 inde$1 ! m c>efully we analyse & e/imate ! diff]5t sanctions--,legal1 ,social1 & ,consci5ti\s--consid]$ z op]at+ "u ! actual conditions ( human life1 ! m difficult x seems to believe t !y c be always adequate to produce ?is co9cid5ce4 ,! natural effect ( ?is argum5t ^u a conv9c$ ,utilit>ian is m]ely to make him anxi\s to alt] ! actual conditions ( human life3 & x w\ld c]ta9ly be a mo/ valuable contribution to ! actual happ9ess ( mank9d1 if we c\ld s improve ! adju/m5t ( ! ma*9e ( ,law 9 any society1 & s /imulate & direct ! common aw>ds ( praise & blame1 & s develop & tra9 ! moral s5se ( ! memb]s ( ! community1 z to r5d] x cle>ly prud5t = e individual to promote z mu* z possible ! g5]al good4 ,h[ev]1 we are n n[ consid]+ :at a consi/5t ,utilit>ian w try to effect = ! future1 b :at a consi/5t ,egoi/ is to d 9 ! pres5t4 ,& x mu/ be admitt$ t1 z ?+s are1 :atev] diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 ,utilit>ian morality & t ( ,common ,s5se is ( su* a k9d z to r5d] ! co9cid5ce ) ,egoism /ill m improbable 9 ! case ( ! =m]4 ,= we h se5 t ,utilit>ianism is m rigid ?an ,common ,s5se 9 exact+ ! sacrifice ( ! ag5t's private int]e/s :]e !y are incompatible ) ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]3 & ( c\rse 9 s f> z ! ,utilit>ian's pr9ciples br+ him into conflict ) any ( ! commonly accept$ rules ( morality1 ! :ole =ce ( ! ,social ,sanction op]ates to det] him f :at he conceives to be 8 duty4 #c4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 writ]s ( ! ,utilit>ian s*ool#cge :o seem to ma9ta9 or imply1 t by due contemplation ( ! p>am\nt importance ( ,sympa?y z an elem5t ( human happ9ess we %all be l$ to see ! co9cid5ce ( ! good ( ea* ) ! good ( all4 ,9 oppos+ ?is view1 ,i am z f> z possible f any wi% to depreciate ! value ( sympa?y z a s\rce ( happ9ess ev5 to human be+s z at pres5t con/itut$4 ,inde$ ,i am ( op9ion t its pleasures & pa9s really con/itute a great "p ( t int]nal rew>d ( social virtue1 & puni%m5t ( social misconduct1 :i* 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 ,i r\ghly set d[n z due to ! moral s5tim5ts4 ,=1 9 fact1 ?\gh ,i c to "s ext5t di/+ui% sympa!tic f /rictly moral feel+s 9 introspective analysis ( my own consci\sness1 ,i _c say precisely 9 :at proportion ^! two elem5ts are comb9$4 ,= in/ance3 ,i seem able to di/+ui% ! 8s5se ( ! ignobility ( ,egoism0 ( :i* ,i h be=e spok5--:i*1 9 my view1 is ! normal emotional concomitant or expression ( ! moral intuition t ! ,good ( ! :ole is reasonably to be pref]r$ to ! ,good ( a "p--f ! j> ( sympa!tic discom=t :i* att5ds ! consci\s *oice ( my own pleasure at ! exp5se ( pa9 or loss to o!rs2 b ,i f9d x impossible to det]m9e :at =ce ! =m] s5tim5t w\ld h if actually sep>at$ f ! latt]1 & ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ! two k9ds ( feel+ are v v>i\sly comb9$ 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,p]haps1 inde$1 we may trace a g5]al law ( v>iation 9 ! relative proportion ( ^! two elem5ts z exhibit$ 9 ! developm5t ( ! moral consci\sness bo? 9 ! race & 9 individuals2 = x seems t at a c]ta9 /age ( ?is developm5t ! m9d is m susceptible to emotions connect$ ) ab/ract moral ideas & rules pres5t$ z absolute2 :ile aft] em]g+ f ?is /age & be=e ent]+ x ! feel+s t belong to p]sonal relations are /rong]4#cgf ,c]ta9ly 9 a ,utilit>ian's m9d sympa?y t5ds to become a prom95t elem5t ( all in/9ctive moral feel+s t ref] to social conduct2 z 9 8 view ! rational basis ( ! moral impulse mu/ ultimately lie 9 "s pleasure won or pa9 sav$ = himself or = o!rs2 s t he nev] has to sacrifice himself to an ,imp]sonal ,law1 b always = "s be+ or be+s ) :om he has at lea/ "s degree ( fell[-feel+4 ,b besides admitt+ ! actual importance ( sympa!tic pleasures to ! majority ( mank9d1 ,i %\ld g fur!r & ma9ta9 t1 on empirical gr\nds alone1 enlight5$ self-int]e/ w\ld direct mo/ m5 to fo/] & develop _! sympa!tic susceptibilities to a great] ext5t ?an is n[ commonly atta9$4 ,! effectiv5ess ( ,butl]'s fam\s argum5t aga9/ ! vulg> anti!sis betwe5 ,self-love & ,b5evol5ce is und5iable3 & x seems sc>cely extravagant to say t1 amid all ! pr(use wa/e ( ! means ( happ9ess :i* m5 commit1 !re is no imprud5ce m flagrant ?an t ( ,selfi%ness 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m1--t excessive conc5tration ( att5tion on ! individual's own happ9ess :i* r5d]s x impossible = him to feel any /rong int]e/ 9 ! pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs4 ,! p]petual prom95ce ( self t h5ce results t5ds to deprive all enjoym5ts ( _! ke5ness & ze/1 & produce rapid satiety & ennui3 ! selfi% man misses ! s5se ( elevation & enl>gem5t giv5 by wide int]e/s2 he misses ! m secure & s]5e satisfaction t att5ds cont9ually on activities direct$ t[>ds ends m /able 9 prospect ?an an individual's happ9ess c be2 he misses ! peculi> ri* sweetness1 dep5d+ ^u a sort ( complex rev]b]ation ( sympa?y1 :i* is always f\nd 9 s]vices r5d]$ to ^? :om we love & :o are grateful4 ,he is made to feel 9 a ?\s& v>i\s ways1 accord+ to ! degree ( ref9em5t :i* 8 nature has atta9$1 ! discord betwe5 ! rhy?ms ( 8 own life & ( t l>g] life ( :i* 8 own is b an insignificant fraction4 ,b all[+#cgg all ?is1 x yet seems to me z c]ta9 z any conclusion arriv$ at by h$oni/ic comp>ison c be1 t ! utmo/ developm5t ( sympa?y1 int5sive & ext5sive1 :i* is n[ possible to any b a v few exceptional p]sons1 w\ld n cause a p]fect co9cid5ce betwe5 ,utilit>ian duty & self-int]e/4 ,"h x seems to me t :at 0 said 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 v4 #d1 to %[ ! insuffici5cy ( ! ,consci5ti\s ,sanction1 applies equally1 mutatis mut&is1 to ,sympa?y4 ,suppose a man f9ds t a reg>d = ! g5]al good--,utilit>ian ,duty--dem&s f him a sacrifice1 or extreme risk1 ( life4 ,!re are p]haps "o or two human be+s s de> to him t ! rema9d] ( a life sav$ by sacrific+ _! happ9ess to 8 own w\ld be wor?less to him f an egoi/ic po9t ( view4 ,b x is d\btful :e!r _m m51 8sitt+ d[n 9 a cool h\r0 to make ! e/imate1 w\ld affirm ev5 ?is3 & ( c\rse t p>ticul> portion ( ! g5]al happ9ess1 = :i* "o is call$ ^u to sacrifice "o's own1 may easily be ! happ9ess ( p]sons n especially de> to "o4 ,b aga91 f ?is normal limitation ( our ke5e/ & /ronge/ sympa?y to a v small circle ( human be+s1 x results t ! v developm5t ( sympa?y may op]ate to increase ! weight ?r[n into ! scale aga9/ ,utilit>ian duty4 ,!re are v few p]sons1 h[ev] /rongly & widely sympa!tic1 :o are s con/itut$ z to feel = ! pleasures & pa9s ( mank9d g5]ally a degree ( sympa?y at all comm5surate ) _! conc]n = wife or *ildr51 or lov]1 or intimate fri5d3 & if any tra9+ ( ! affections is at pres5t possible :i* w\ld mat]ially alt] ?is proportion 9 ! g5]al di/ribution ( our sympa?y1 x sc>cely seems t su* a tra9+ is to be recomm5d$ z on ! :ole felicific4#cgh ,& ?us :5 ,utilit>ian ,duty calls on u to sacrifice n only our own pleasures b ! happ9ess ( ^? we love to ! g5]al good1 ! v sanction on :i* ,utilit>ianism mo/ relies mu/ act p[]fully 9 opposition to its precepts4 ,b ev5 ap>t f ^! exceptional cases--:i* are yet suffici5t to decide ! ab/ract "q--x seems t ! c\rse ( conduct by :i* a man w\ld mo/ fully reap ! rew>ds ( sympa?y 7s f> z !y are empirically asc]ta9able7 w (t5 be v diff]5t f t to :i* a s9c]e desire to promote ! g5]al happ9ess w\ld direct him4 ,= ! relief ( di/ress & calamity is an important "p ( ,utilit>ian duty3 b z ! /ate ( ! p]son reliev$ is on ! :ole pa9ful1 x w\ld appe> t sympa?y "u ^! circum/ances mu/ be a s\rce ( pa9 r ?an pleasure1 9 proportion to its int5sity4 ,x is probably true1 z a g5]al rule1 t 9 ! relief ( di/ress o!r elem5ts ( ! complex pleasure ( b5evol5ce decid$ly outweigh ?is sympa!tic pa93--= ! effusion ( pity is itself pleasurable1 & we commonly feel m ke5ly t amelioration ( ! suff]]'s /ate :i* is due to our ex]tions ?an we d 8 pa9 o!rwise caus$1 & !re is fur!r ! pleasure t we d]ive f 8 gratitude1 & ! pleasure t is ! normal reflex ( activity direct$ "u a /rong impulse t[>ds a p]man5tly valu$ end4 ,/ill1 :5 ! di/ress is bitt] & cont9u$1 & su* z we c only p>tially mitigate by all our ef=ts1 ! philan?ropi/'s sympa!tic discom=t mu/ necess>ily be consid]able2 & ! "w ( combat+ mis]y1 ?\gh n devoid ( elevat$ happ9ess1 w be mu* less happy on ! :ole ?an _m o!r =ms ( activity2 :ile yet x may be to j ?is "w t ,duty seems to summon u4 ,or aga91 a man may f9d t he c be/ promote ! g5]al happ9ess by work+ 9 comp>ative solitude = ends t he nev] hopes to see realis$1 or by work+ *iefly among & = p]sons = :om he _c feel mu* affection1 or by do+ :at mu/ ali5ate or grieve ^? :om he loves be/1 or mu/ make x necess>y = him to disp5se ) ! mo/ intimate ( human ties4 ,9 %ort1 !re seem to be numb]less ways 9 :i* ! dictates ( t ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 :i* z a ,utilit>ian he is b\nd absolutely to obey1 may conflict ) t indulg5ce ( k9d affections :i* ,%aftesbury & 8 foll[]s s p]suasively exhibit z its own rew>d4 #d4 ,x seems1 !n1 t we mu/ conclude1 f ! argum5ts giv5 9 ,book ii4 *ap4 v41 supplem5t$ by ! discussion 9 ! prec$+ section1 t ! insep>able connexion betwe5 ,utilit>ian ,duty & ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! individual :o con=ms to x _c be satisfactorily demon/rat$ on empirical gr\nds4 ,h5ce ano!r section ( ! ,utilit>ian s*ool has pref]r$ to ?r[ ! weight ( ,duty on ! ,religi\s ,sanction3 & ?is proc$ure has be5 p>tly adopt$ by "s ( ^? :o h *iefly dwelt on sympa?y z a motive4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! ,utilit>ian ,code is conceiv$ z ! ,law ( ,god1 :o is to be reg>d$ z hav+ comm&$ m5 to promote ! g5]al happ9ess1 & z hav+ ann\nc$ an int5tion ( rew>d+ ^? :o obey ,8 comm&s & puni%+ ! disob$i5t4 ,x is cle> t if we feel conv9c$ t an ,omnipot5t ,be+ has1 9 :atev] way1 signifi$ su* comm&s & ann\ncem5ts1 a rational egoi/ c want no fur!r inducem5t to frame 8 life on ,utilit>ian pr9ciples4 ,x only rema9s to consid] h[ ?is conviction is atta9$4 ,?is is commonly ?\ght to be ei!r by sup]natural ,revelation1 or by ! natural ex]cise ( ,reason1 or 9 bo? ways4 ,z reg>ds ! =m] x is to be obs]v$ t--) a few exceptions--! morali/s :o hold t ,god has disclos$ ,8 law ei!r to special individuals 9 pa/ ages :o h left a writt5 record ( :at 0 reveal$ to !m1 or to a p]man5t succession ( p]sons appo9t$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 or to religi\s p]sons g5]ally 9 "s sup]natural way1 d n consid] t x is ! ,utilit>ian ,code t has ?us be5 reveal$1 b r ! rules ( ,common-,s5se morality ) "s special modifications & additions4 ,/ill1 z ,mill has urg$1 9 s f> z ,utilit>ianism is m rigor\s ?an ,common ,s5se 9 exact+ ! sacrifice ( ! individual's happ9ess to t ( mank9d g5]ally1 x is /rictly 9 accordance ) ! mo/ *>act]i/ic tea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 unnecess>y to discuss ! precise relation ( diff]5t ,revelational ,codes to ,utilit>ianism1 z x w\ld be go+ beyond our prov9ce to inve/igate ! gr\nds on :i* a ,div9e orig9 has be5 attribut$ to !m4 ,9 s f>1 h[ev]1 z a k ( ,god's law is believ$ to be atta9able by ! ,reason1 ,e?ics & ,!ology seem to be s closely connect$ t we _c %>ply sep>ate _! prov9ces4 ,=1 z we saw1#cgi x has be5 widely ma9ta9$1 t ! relation ( moral rules to a ,div9e ,lawgiv] is implicitly cognis$ 9 ! act ( ?\ght by :i* we disc]n ^! rules to be b9d+4 ,& no d\bt ! t]ms 7su* z #8moral obligation'71 :i* we commonly use 9 speak+ ( ^! rules1 are naturally sugge/ive ( ,legal ,sanctions & s ( a ,sov]eign by :om ^! are ann\nc$ & en=c$4 ,inde$ _m ?9k]s s9ce ,locke h refus$ to admit any o!r mean+ 9 ! t]ms ,"r1 ,duty1 etc41 except t ( a rule impos$ by a lawgiv]4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 seems oppos$ to ,common ,s5se2 z may be1 p]haps1 mo/ easily %[n#chj by po9t+ out t ! ,div9e ,lawgiv] is ,himself conceiv$ z a ,moral ,ag5t2 i4e4 z prescrib+ :at is "r1 & design+ :at is good4 ,x is cle> t 9 ?is conception at lea/ ! notions #8"r' & #8good' are us$ absolutely1 )\t any ref]5ce to a sup]ior lawgiv]2 & t !y are "h us$ 9 a s5se n ess5tially diff]5t f t :i* !y ord9>ily be> seems to be affirm$ by ! cons5sus ( religi\s p]sons4 ,/ill1 ?\gh ,common ,s5se does n reg>d moral rules z be+ m]ely ! m&ates ( an ,omnipot5t ,be+ :o w rew>d & puni% m5 accord+ z !y obey or violate !m2 x c]ta9ly holds t ?is is a true ?\gh p>tial view ( !m1 & p]haps t x may be intuitively appreh5d$4 ,if !n reflection leads u to conclude t ! p>ticul> moral pr9ciples ( ,common ,s5se are to be sy/ematis$ z subord9ate to t pre-em95tly c]ta9 & irrefragable intuition :i* /&s z ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ,utilit>ianism2 !n1 ( c\rse1 x w be ! ,utilit>ian ,code to :i* we %all believe ! ,div9e ,sanctions to be atta*$4 ,or1 aga91 we may argue ?us4 ,if--z all !ologians agree--we are to conceive ,god z act+ = "s end1 we mu/ conceive t end to be ,univ]sal ,good1 &1 if ,utilit>ians are "r1 ,univ]sal ,happ9ess3 & we _c suppose t 9 a _w morally gov]n$ x c be prud5t = any man to act 9 consci\s opposition to :at we believe to be ! ,div9e ,design4 ,h5ce if 9 any case aft] calculat+ ! consequ5ces ( two alt]natives ( conduct we *oose t :i* seems likely to be less conducive to ,happ9ess g5]ally1 we %all be act+ 9 a mann] = :i* we _c b expect to suff]4 ,to ?is x has be5 object$1 t obs]vation ( ! actual _w %[s u t ! happ9ess ( s5ti5t be+s is s imp]fectly atta9$ 9 x1 & ) s l>ge an int]mixture ( pa9 & mis]y1 t we _c really conceive ,univ]sal ,happ9ess to be ,god's end1 unless we admit t ,he is n ,omnipot5t4 ,& no d\bt ! ass]tion t ,god is omnipot5t w require to be und]/ood ) "s limitation2 b p]haps ) no great] limitation ?an has always be5 implicitly admitt$ by ?\ghtful !ologians4 ,= ^! seem always to h all[$ t "s ?+s are impossible to ,god3 z1 = example1 to *ange ! pa/4 ,& p]haps if our k ( ! ,univ]se 7 complete1 we might disc]n ! quantum ( happ9ess ultimately atta9$ 9 x to be z great z c\ld be atta9$ )\t ! accompli%m5t ( :at we %\ld !n see to be j z inconceivable & absurd z *ang+ ! pa/4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a view :i* x belongs r to ! !ologian to develop4 ,i %\ld r urge t !re does n seem to be any o!r ( ! ord9>y int]pretations ( ,good accord+ to :i* x w\ld appe> to be m completely realis$ 9 ! actual univ]se4 ,= ! wond]ful p]fections ( "w t we admire 9 ! physical _w are yet ev]y:]e m+l$ ) imp]fection1 & subject to de/ruction & decay3 & simil>ly 9 ! _w ( human conduct ,virtue is at lea/ z mu* balanc$ by ,vice z ,happ9ess is by mis]y4#cha ,s t1 if ! e?ical reason+ t l$ u to int]pret ,ultimate ,good z ,happ9ess is s\nd1 !re seems no argum5t f ,natural ,!ology to set aga9/ x4 #e4 ,if1 !n1 we may assume ! exi/5ce ( su* a ,be+1 z ,god1 by ! cons5sus ( !ologians1 is conceiv$ to be1 x seems t ,utilit>ians may legitimately inf] ! exi/5ce ( ,div9e sanctions to ! code ( social duty z con/ruct$ on a ,utilit>ian basis2 & su* sanctions w\ld1 ( c\rse1 suffice to make x always e "o's int]e/ to promote univ]sal happ9ess to ! be/ ( 8 k4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 desirable1 be=e we conclude1 to exam9e c>efully ! validity ( ?is assumption1 9 s f> z x is support$ on e?ical gr\nds alone4 ,= by ! result ( su* an exam9ation w be det]m9$1 z we n[ see1 ! v important "q :e!r e?ical sci5ce c be con/ruct$ on an indep5d5t basis2 or :e!r x is =c$ to borr[ a fundam5tal & indisp5sable premiss f ,!ology or "s simil> s\rce4#chb ,9 ord] fairly to p]=m ?is exam9ation1 let u reflect ^u ! cle>e/ & mo/ c]ta9 ( our moral intuitions4 ,i f9d t ,i und\bt$ly seem to p]ceive1 z cle>ly & c]ta9ly z ,i see any axiom 9 ,ari?metic or ,geometry1 t x is #8"r' & #8reasonable' = me to treat o!rs z ,i %\ld ?9k t ,i myself ought to be treat$ "u simil> conditions1 & to d :at ,i believe to be ultimately conducive to univ]sal ,good or ,happ9ess4 ,b ,i _c f9d insep>ably connect$ ) ?is conviction1 & simil>ly atta9able by m]e reflective intuition1 any cognition t !re actually is a ,supreme ,be+ :o w adequately#chc rew>d me = obey+ ^! rules ( duty1 or puni% me = violat+ !m4#chd ,or1--omitt+ ! /rictly !ological elem5t ( ! proposition1--,i may say t ,i d n f9d 9 my moral consci\sness any intuition1 claim+ to be cle> & c]ta91 t ! p]=mance ( duty w be adequately rew>d$ & its violation puni%$4 ,i feel inde$ a desire1 app>5tly insep>able f ! moral s5tim5ts1 t ?is result may be realis$ n only 9 my own case b univ]sally2 b ! m]e exi/5ce ( ! desire w\ld n g f> to e/abli% ! probability ( its fulfilm5t1 consid]+ ! l>ge proportion ( human desires t exp]i5ce %[s to be doom$ to disappo9tm5t4 ,i also judge t 9 a c]ta9 s5se ?is result ought to be realis$3 9 ?is judgm5t1 h[ev]1 #8ought' is n us$ 9 a /rictly e?ical mean+2 x only expresses ! vital ne$ t our ,practical ,reason feels ( prov+ or po/ulat+ ?is connexion ( ,virtue & self-int]e/1 if x is to be made consi/5t ) itself4 ,= ! negation ( ! connexion mu/ =ce u to admit an ultimate & fundam5tal contradiction 9 our app>5t intuitions ( :at is ,reasonable 9 conduct2 & f ?is admission x w\ld seem to foll[ t ! app>5tly intuitive op]ation ( ! ,practical ,reason1 manife/$ 9 ^! contradictory judgm5ts1 is aft] all illusory4 ,i d n mean t if we gave up ! hope ( atta9+ a practical solution ( ?is fundam5tal contradiction1 ?r\gh any legitimately obta9$ conclusion or po/ulate z to ! moral ord] ( ! _w1 x w\ld become reasonable = u to ab&on morality altoge!r3 b x w\ld seem necess>y to ab&on ! idea ( rationalis+ x completely4 ,we %\ld d\btless /ill1 n only f self-int]e/1 b also ?r\gh sympa?y & s5tim5ts protective ( social wellbe+1 imp>t$ by education & su/a9$ by communication ) o!r m51 feel a desire = ! g5]al obs]vance ( rules conducive to g5]al happ9ess2 & practical reason w\ld /ill impel u decisively to ! p]=mance ( duty 9 ! m ord9>y cases 9 :i* :at is recognis$ z duty is 9 h>mony ) self-int]e/ prop]ly und]/ood4 ,b 9 ! r>] cases ( a recognis$ conflict betwe5 self-int]e/ & duty1 practical reason1 be+ divid$ aga9/ itself1 w\ld cease to be a motive on ei!r side2 ! conflict w\ld h to be decid$ by ! comp>ative prepond]ance ( "o or o!r ( two gr\ps ( non-rational impulses4 ,if !n ! reconciliation ( duty & self-int]e/ is to be reg>d$ z a hypo!sis logically necess>y to avoid a fundam5tal contradiction 9 "o *ief dep>tm5t ( our ?\ght1 x rema9s to ask h[ f> ?is necessity con/itutes a suffici5t reason = accept+ ?is hypo!sis4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a pr(\ndly difficult & controv]t$ "q1 ! discussion ( :i* belongs r to a treatise on ,g5]al ,philosophy ?an to a "w on ! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics3 z x c\ld n be satisfactorily answ]$1 )\t a g5]al exam9ation ( ! crit]ia ( true & false beliefs4 ,^? :o hold t ! edifice ( physical sci5ce is really con/ruct$ ( conclusions logically inf]r$ f self-evid5t premises1 may reasonably dem& t any practical judgm5ts claim+ philosophic c]ta9ty %\ld be bas$ on an equally firm f\ndation4 ,if on ! o!r h& we f9d t 9 our suppos$ k ( ! _w ( nature propositions are commonly tak5 to be univ]sally true1 :i* yet seem to re/ on no o!r gr\nds ?an t we h a /rong disposition to accept !m1 & t !y are indisp5sable to ! sy/ematic coh]5ce ( our beliefs1--x w be m difficult to reject a simil>ly support$ assumption 9 e?ics1 )\t op5+ ! door to univ]sal scepticism4 ,,footnotes3 #cge ,see ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's treatise on ,utilit>ianism 7*ap4 iii4 passim73 :]e1 h[ev]1 ! argum5t is n easy to foll[1 f a confusion betwe5 ?ree diff]5t objects ( inquiry3 7#a7 ! actual effect ( sympa?y 9 induc+ con=mity to ! rules ( ,utilit>ian e?ics1 7#b7 ! effect 9 ?is direction :i* x is likely to h 9 ! future1 7#c7 ! value ( sympa!tic pleasures & pa9s z e/imat$ by an enlight5$ ,egoi/4 ,! fir/ & ?ird ( ^! que/ions ,mill did n cle>ly sep>ate1 ow+ to 8 psy*ological doctr9e t ea* "o's own pleasure is ! sole object ( 8 desires4 ,b if my refutation ( ?is doctr9e 7,book i4 *ap4 iv4 #c7 is valid1 we h to di/+ui% two ways 9 :i* sympa?y op]ates3 x g5]ates sympa!tic pleasures & pa9s1 :i* h to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! calculations ( ,egoi/ic ,h$onism2 b x also may cause impulses to altrui/ic action1 ( :i* ! =ce is q out ( proportion to ! sympa!tic pleasure 7or relief f pa97 :i* su* action seems likely to secure to ! ag5t4 ,s t ev5 if ! av]age man ev] %\ld rea* su* a pit* ( sympa!tic developm5t1 z nev] to feel prompt$ to sacrifice ! g5]al good to 8 own1 /ill ?is w n prove t x is egoi/ically reasonable = him to behave 9 ?is way4 #cgf ,i d n mean to imply t ! process ( *ange is m]ely circul>4 ,9 ! e>li] p]iod sympa?y is n>r[]1 simpl]1 & m pres5tative2 9 ! lat] x is m ext5sive1 complex1 & repres5tative4 #cgg ,i d n1 h[ev]1 ?9k t we are ju/ifi$ 9 /at+ z univ]sally true :at has be5 admitt$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph4 ,"s few ?or\ghly selfi% p]sons appe> at lea/ to be happi] ?an mo/ ( ! unselfi%2 & !re are o!r exceptional natures ^: *ief happ9ess seems to be d]iv$ f activity1 dis9t]e/$ inde$1 b direct$ t[>ds o!r ends ?an human happ9ess4 #cgh ,see *ap4 iii4 #c ( ?is ,book1 pp4 #dcb-cc4 #cgi ,see ,book iii4 *ap4 i4 #b3 also ,book iii4 *ap4 ii4 #a4 #chj ,cf4 ,book i4 *ap4 iii4 #b4 #cha ,x may p]haps be said t ?is comp>ison has no =ce = ,lib]t>ians1 :o consid] ! ess5ce ( ,virtue to lie 9 free *oice4 ,b to say t any free *oice is virtu\s w\ld be a p>adox f :i* mo/ ,lib]t>ians--admitt+ t ,evil may be freely *os5 no less ?an ,good--w\ld recoil4 ,x mu/ !re=e be ,free *oice ( good t is conceiv$ to realise ! div9e end3 & if s1 ! argum5ts = ! utilit>ian int]pretation ( ,good--?us freely *os5--w\ld /ill be applicable mutatis mut&is3 & if s1 ! argum5ts = reg>d+ rules ( utilit>ian duty z div9ely sanction$ w\ld be simil>ly applicable4 #chb ,x is n necess>y1 if we are simply consid]+ ,e?ics z a possible indep5d5t sci5ce1 to ?r[ ! fundam5tal premiss ( :i* we are n[ exam9+ ! validity into a ,!i/ic =m4 ,nor does x seem always to h tak5 t =m 9 ! support :i* ,positive ,religion has giv5 to ,morality4 ,9 ! ,buddhi/ cre$ ?is notion ( ! rew>ds insep>ably atta*+ to "r conduct seems to h be5 develop$ 9 a f> m elaborate & sy/ematic mann] ?an x has 9 any phase ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,b1 z conceiv$ by enlight5$ ,buddhi/s1 ^! rew>ds are n di/ribut$ by ! volition ( a ,supreme ,p]son1 b by ! natural op]ation ( an imp]sonal ,law4 #chc ,x may be well to rem9d ! read] t by #8adequate' is "h meant #8suffici5t to make x ! ag5t's int]e/ to promote univ]sal good'2 n necess>ily #8proportional to ,des]t4' #chd ,i _c fall back on ! res\rce ( ?9k+ myself "u a moral necessity to reg>d all my duties z if !y 7 comm&m5ts ( ,god1 al?\gh n entitl$ to hold speculatively t any su* ,supreme ,be+ really exi/s4 ,i am s f> f feel+ b\nd to believe = purposes ( practice :at ,i see no gr\nd = hold+ z a speculative tru?1 t ,i _c ev5 conceive ! /ate ( m9d :i* ^! words seem to describe1 except z a mom5t>y half-wilful irrationality1 committ$ 9 a viol5t access ( philosophic despair4 ,,app5dix ,,! ,,kantian ,,conception ,,( ,,free ,,w ,repr9t$1 ) "s omissions1 f ,,m9d1 #ahhh1 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 ,no4 #ea4 ,my aim is to %[ t1 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,kant's exposition ( 8 doctr9e1 two ess5tially diff]5t conceptions are express$ by ! same ^w fre$om2 :ile yet ,kant does n appe> to be consci\s ( any v>iation 9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,9 ! "o s5se1 ,fre$om ,rationality1 s t a man is free 9 proportion z he acts 9 accordance ) ,reason4 ,i d n 9 ! lea/ object to ?is use ( ! t]m ,fre$om1 on acc\nt ( its deviation f ord9>y usage4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i ?9k x has mu* support 9 m5's natural expression ( ord9>y moral exp]i5ce 9 disc\rse4 ,9 ! conflict t is cont9ually go+ on 9 all ( u1 betwe5 non-rational impulses & :at we recognise z dictates ( practical reason1 we are 9 ! habit ( id5tify+ ourselves ) ! latt] r ?an ) ! =m]3 z ,:ewell says1 8we speak ( ,desire1 ,love1 ,ang]1 z ma/]+ u1 & ( ourselves z controll+ !m0--we cont9ually call m5 8slaves0 ( appetite or passion1 :]eas no "o 0 ev] call$ a slave ( reason4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! t]m ,fre$om _h n already be5 appropriat$ by morali/s to ano!r mean+--if x 7 m]ely a "q ( tak+ x f ord9>y disc\rse & /amp+ x ) great] precision = purposes ( e?ical discussion--,i %\ld make no objection to ! /atem5t t 8a man is a free ag5t 9 proportion z he acts rationally40 ,b1 :at ,engli% def5d]s ( man's free ag5cy h g5]ally be5 conc]n$ to ma9ta91 is t 8man has a fre$om ( *oice betwe5 good & evil10 :i* is realis$ or manife/$ :5 he delib]ately *ooses evil j z mu* z :5 he delib]ately *ooses good2 & x is cle> t if we say t a man is a free ag5t 9 proportion z he acts rationally1 we _c also say1 9 ! same s5se ( ! t]m1 t x is by 8 free *oice t he acts irrationally :5 he does s act4 ,! notions ( ,fre$om mu/ be admitt$ to be fundam5tally diff]5t 9 ! two /atem5ts3 & ?\gh usage might fairly all[ ! ^w ,fre$om to repres5t ei!r notion1 if only "o or o!r ( ! above-m5tion$ propositions 7 affirm$1 to use x to repres5t bo?1 9 affirm+ bo? propositions1 is obvi\sly inconv5i5t2 & x implies a confusion ( ?\ght s to use x1 )\t po9t+ out ! diff]5ce ( mean+4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 ! next ?+ is to %[ t ,kant does use ! t]m 9 ?is d\ble way4 ,9 argu+ ?is1 x w be conv5i5t to h names = :at we admit to be two di/9ct ideas4 ,accord+ly1 ! k9d ( fre$om :i* ,i fir/ m5tion$--:i* a man is said to manife/ m 9 proportion z he acts m "u ! guidance ( reason--%all be ref]r$ to z #8,good' or #8,rational ,fre$om1' & ! fre$om t is manife/$ 9 *oos+ betwe5 good & evil %all be call$ #8,neutral' or #8,moral ,fre$om4'#che ,b be=e ,i proce$ to ! diff]5t passages ( ,kant's exposition 9 :i* #8,good ,fre$om' & #8,neutral ,fre$om' respectively occur1 x seems desirable to di/+ui% ?is latt] f a wid] notion ) :i* x may possibly be conf\nd$1 & :i* x w\ld be cle>ly wrong to attribute to ,kant4 ,i mean ! 8p[] ( act+ )\t a motive10 :i* ,reid & o!r writ]s1 on :at us$ to be call$ ! ,lib]t>ian side1 h ?\ght x necess>y to claim4 8,if a man c\ld n act )\t a motive10 says ,reid1 8he c\ld h no p[]0--t is1 9 ,reid's mean+1 no free ag5cy--8at all40 ,?is conception ( ,fre$om--:i* ,i may conv5i5tly di/+ui% z #8,caprici\s ,fre$om'--is1 z ,i said1 c]ta9ly n ,kantian3 n only does he expressly repudiate x1 b n[h]e--s f> z ,i "k--does he unconsci\sly introduce x4 ,inde$ x is incompatible ) any & e "p ( 8 explanation ( human volition3 ! orig9ality & int]e/ ( 8 def5ce ( ,neutral ,fre$om--! p[] ( *oice betwe5 good & evil--lies 9 its complete avoidance ( ,caprici\s ,fre$om or ! p[] ( act+ )\t a motive 9 any p>ticul> volition4 ,?is di/9ction helps me to und]/& h[ x is t _m intellig5t read]s h fail$ to see 9 ,kant's exposition ! two ,fre$oms--,good or ,rational ,fre$om & ,neutral or ,moral ,fre$om--:i* ,i f9d 9 ,kant4 ,!y h _! view fix$ on ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,rational or ,moral ,fre$om1 :i* ,kant ma9ta9s1 & ! ,fre$om ( ,caprice1 :i* he und\bt$ly repudiates3 & are ?us l$ to ov]look ) him ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,fre$om t we realise or manife/ 9 proportion z we d "r1 & ! ,fre$om t is realis$ or manife/$ equally 9 *oos+ ei!r "r or wrong4 ,:5 we h once put completely out ( view ! ,fre$om ( ,caprice1 ! p[] ( act+ )\t a motive1 or aga9/ ! /ronge/ motive :5 ! competition is among m]ely natural or non-rational desires or av]sions1--:5 we h agre$ to exclude ?is1 & to conc5trate att5tion on ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,good ,fre$om & ,neutral ,fre$om--,i v5ture to ?9k t no "o c avoid see+ ea* memb] ( ?is latt] anti!sis 9 ,kant4 ,x w be easily und]/ood t1 z he does n himself di/+ui% ! two conceptions1 x is naturally impossible = ! mo/ c>eful read] always to tell :i* is to be und]/ood2 b !re are _m passages :]e 8 argum5t unmi/akably requires ! "o1 & _m o!r passages :]e x unmi/akably requires ! o!r4 ,speak+ broadly1 ,i may say t1 :]ev] ,kant has to connect ! notion ( ,fre$om ) t ( ,moral ,responsibility or moral imputation1 he1 l all o!r morali/s :o h ma9ta9$ ,free ,w 9 ?is connexion1 means 7*iefly1 b n solely7 ,neutral ,fre$om--,fre$om exhibit$ 9 *oos+ wrong z mu* z 9 *oos+ "r4 ,inde$1 9 su* passages x is ) ! ,fre$om ( ! wrong-*oos] t he is prim>ily conc]n$3 s9ce x is ! wrong-*oos] t he especially wi%es to prev5t f %ift+ 8 responsibility on to causes beyond 8 control4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 :at he has to prove is ! possibility ( dis9t]e/$ ob$i5ce to ,law z su*1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( s5sible impulses1 :5 he seeks to exhibit ! indep5d5ce ( ,reason 9 influ5c+ *oice1 !n 9 _m ?\gh n all 8 /atem5ts he explicitly id5tifies ,fre$om ) ?is indep5d5ce ( ,reason1 & ?us cle>ly implies ! proposition t a man is free 9 proportion z he acts rationally4 ,z an example ( ! fir/ k9d1 ,i w take ! passage t[>ds ! close ( *ap4 iii4 ( ! 8,analytic ( ,practical ,reason10#chf :]e he treats1 9 its be>+ on ,moral ,responsibility1 8 peculi> metaphysical doctr9e ( a d\ble k9d ( causation 9 human actions4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 e su* action1 reg>d$ z a ph5om5on det]m9$ 9 "t1 mu/ be ?\ght z a necess>y result ( det]m9+ causes 9 antec$5t "t--o!rwise its exi/5ce w\ld be inconceivable--b x may be also reg>d$ 9 relation to ! ag5t consid]$ z a ?+-9-himself1 z ! 8nom5on0 ( :i* ! action is a ph5om5on3 & ! conception ( ,fre$om may be appli$ to ! ag5t s consid]$ 9 relation to 8 ph5om5a4 ,= s9ce 8 exi/5ce z a nom5on is n subject to "t-conditions1 no?+ 9 ?is nom5al exi/5ce comes "u ! pr9ciple ( det]m9ation by antec$5t causes3 h5ce1 z ,kant says1 89 ?is 8 exi/5ce no?+ is antec$5t to ! det]m9ation ( 8 w1 b e action 444 ev5 ! :ole s]ies ( 8 exi/5ce z a s5sible be+1 is 9 ! consci\sness ( 8 sup]s5sible exi/5ce no?+ b ! result ( 8 causality z a nom5on40 ,?is is ! well-kn[n metaphysical solution ( ! difficulty ( reconcil+ ,free ,w ) ! ,univ]sality ( physical causation3 ,i am n n[ conc]n$ to criticise x1--my po9t is t if we accept ?is view ( ,fre$om at all1 x mu/ obvi\sly be ,neutral ,fre$om3 x mu/ express ! relation ( a nom5on t manife/s itself z a sc\ndrel to a s]ies ( bad volitions1 9 :i* ! moral law is violat$1 no less ?an ! relation ( a nom5on t manife/s itself z a sa9t to good or rational volitions1 9 :i* ! moral law or categorical imp]ative is obey$4 ,&1 z ,i be=e said1 ,kant 9 ?is passage--be+ especially conc]n$ to expla9 ! possibility ( moral imputation1 & ju/ify ! judicial s5t5ces ( consci5ce--especially takes z 8 illu/rations nom5a t exhibit bad ph5om5a4 ,! "q he expressly raises is 8,h[ a man :o commits a !ft0 c 8be call$ q free0 at ! mom5t ( committ+ x8 & answ]s t x is 9 virtue ( 8 8transc5d5tal fre$om0 t 8! rational be+ c ju/ly say ( e unlawful action t he p]=ms t he c\ld v well h left x undone10 al?\gh z ph5om5on x is det]m9$ by antec$5ts1 & s necess>y2 8= x1 ) all ! pa/ :i* det]m9es x1 belongs to ! "o s+le ph5om5on ( 8 "* :i* he makes = himself1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* he imputes to himself0 ! bad actions t result necess>ily f 8 bad "* tak5 9 conjunction ) o!r causes4 ,h5ce1 h[ev] he may acc\nt = 8 error f bad habits :i* he has all[$ to gr[ on him1 :atev] art he may use to pa9t to himself an unlawful act he rememb]s z some?+ 9 :i* he 0 c>ri$ away by ! /ream ( physical necessity1 ?is _c protect him f self-reproa*3--n ev5 if he h %[n depravity s e>ly t he may reasonably be ?\ght to h be5 born 9 a morally hopeless condition--he w /ill be rightly judg$1 & w judge himself 8j z responsible z any o!r man03 s9ce 9 relation to 8 nom5al self 8 life z a :ole1 f fir/ to la/1 is to be reg>d$ z a s+le ph5om5on result+ f an absolutely free *oice4 ,i ne$ n lab\r ?is po9t fur!r2 x is evid5t t ! necessities ( ,kant's metaphysical explanation ( moral responsibility make him express ) peculi> emphasis & fulness ! notion ( :at ,i h call$ ,neutral ,fre$om1 a k9d ( causality manife/$ 9 bad & irrational volitions no less ?an 9 ! good & rational4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is no less easy to f9d passages 9 :i* ! t]m ,fre$om seems to me mo/ di/9ctly to /& = ,good or ,rational ,fre$om4 ,inde$1 su* passages are1 ,i ?9k1 m frequ5t ?an ^? 9 :i* ! o!r mean+ is pla9ly requir$4 ,?us he tells u t 8a free w mu/ f9d its pr9ciple ( det]m9ation 9 ! moral #8,law1'0#chg & t 8fre$om1 ^: causality c be det]m9$ only by ! law1 consi/s j 9 ?is1 t x re/ricts all incl9ations by ! condition ( ob$i5ce to pure law40#chh ,:]eas1 9 ! argum5t previ\sly exam9$1 8 :ole ef=t 0 to prove t ! nom5on or sup]s5sible be+1 ( :i* ea* volition is a ph5om5on1 ex]cises 8free causality0 9 unlawful acts1 he tells u else:]e1 9 ! same treatise1 t ! 8sup]s5sible nature0 ( rational be+s1 :o h also a 8s5sible nature10 is _! 8exi/5ce accord+ to laws :i* are indep5d5t ( e empirical condition1 & !re=e belong to ! autonomy ( pure practical reason40#chi ,simil>ly1 9 an e>li] "w1 he expla9s t 8s9ce ! conception ( causality involves t ( laws 444 ?\gh fre$om is n a prop]ty ( ! w dep5d+ on physical laws1 yet x is n = t reason lawless2 on ! contr>y1 x mu/ be a causality accord+ to immutable laws1 b ( a peculi> k9d2 o!rwise1 a free w w\ld be a *imra 7,und+740#cij ,& ?is immutable law ( ! 8free0 or 8autonom\s0 w is1 z he goes on to say1 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( morality1 8s t a free w & a w subject to moral laws are "o & ! same40 ,i h quot$ ?is la/ phrase1 n because x cle>ly exhibits ! notion ( ,rational ,fre$om1--on ! contr>y1 x r %[s h[ easily ?is notion may be conf\nd$ ) ! o!r4 ,a w subject to its own moral laws may mean a w t1 s f> z free1 con=ms to ^! laws2 b x also may be conceiv$ z capable ( freely disobey+ ^! laws--ex]cis+ ,neutral ,fre$om4 ,b :5 ,fre$om is said to be a 8causality accord+ to immutable laws0 ! ambiguity is dispell$2 = ?is evid5tly _c mean m]ely a faculty ( lay+ d[n laws :i* may or may n be obey$2 x mu/ mean t ! w1 qu free1 acts 9 accordance ) ^! laws2--! human be+1 d\btless1 (t5 acts contr>y to !m2 b !n1 accord+ to ?is view1 its *oice 9 su* actions is det]m9$ n 8freely0 b 8me*anically10 by 8physical0 & 8empirical0 spr+s ( action4 ,if any fur!r argum5t is necess>y to %[ t ,kantian 8,fre$om0 mu/ sometimes be und]/ood z ,rational or ,good ,fre$om1 ,i may quote "o or two ( ! num]\s passages 9 :i* ,kant1 ei!r expressly or by implication1 id5tifies ,w & ,reason2 = ?is id5tification obvi\sly excludes ! possibility ( ,w's *oos+ betwe5 ,reason & non-rational impulses4 ,?us 9 ! ,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik d] ,sitt51#cia he tells u t 8z ,reason is requir$ to d$uce actions f laws1 ,w is no?+ b pure practical reason02 &1 simil>ly1 9 ! ,kritik d] praktis*5 ,v]nunft1 he speaks ( ! 8objective reality ( a pure ,w or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 a pure practical reason40#cib ,accord+ly1 :]eas 9 "s passages#cic ! 8autonomy0 :i* he id5tifies ) 8,fre$om0 is spok5 ( z 8autonomy ( w10 9 o!rs we are told t ! 8moral law expresses no?+ else ?an autonomy ( ! pure practical reason3 t is1 ,fre$om40#cid ,i ?9k t ,i h n[ e/abli%$ ! v]bal ambiguity t ,i und]took to br+ home to ,kant's acc\nt ( ,free ,w2 ,i h %[n t 9 8 exposition ?is fundam5tal t]m oscillates betwe5 incompatible mean+s4 ,b x may1 p]haps1 be ?\ght t ! defect ?us po9t$ out c be cur$ by a m]ely v]bal correction3 t ! sub/ance ( ,kant's e?ical doctr9e may /ill be ma9ta9$1 & may /ill be connect$ ) 8 metaphysical doctr9e4 ,x may /ill be held t ,reason dictates t we %\ld at all times act f a maxim t we c w to be a univ]sal law1 & t we %\ld d ?is f pure reg>d = reason & reason's law1 admitt+ t x is a law :i* we are free to disobey2 & x may /ill be held t ! reality ( ?is moral fre$om is to be reconcil$ ) ! univ]sality ( physical causation by conceiv+ x z a relation betwe5 ! ag5t's nom5al self--indep5d5t ( "t-conditions--& 8 "* z manife/$ 9 "t2 ! only correction requir$ be+ to avoid id5tify+ ,fre$om & ,goodness or ,rationality z attributes ( ag5ts or actions4 ,i %\ld q admit t ! mo/ important p>ts bo? ( ,kant's doctr9e ( morality1 & ( 8 doctr9e ( ,fre$om may be sav$3--or ,i %\ld p]haps r say t ! latt] may be left to conduct an unequal /ruggle ) ! mod]n notions ( h]$ity & evolution3 at any rate ,i admit t x is n fundam5tally affect$ by my pres5t argum5t4 ,b ,i ?9k t a good deal m w h to g f a correct$ edition ( ,kantism ?an m]ely ! 8^w0 ,fre$om 9 c]ta9 passages1 if ! confusion introduc$ by ! ambiguity ( ?is ^w is to be elim9at$ 9 ! mann] t ,i h sugge/$4 ,i ?9k t ! :ole topic ( ! 8het]onomy0 ( ! w1 :5 x yields to empirical or s5sible impulses1 w h to be ab&on$ or pr(\ndly modifi$4 ,& ,i am afraid t mo/ read]s ( ,kant w feel ! loss to be s]i\s2 s9ce no?+ 9 ,kant's e?ical writ+ is m fasc9at+ ?an ! idea--:i* he expresses repeat$ly 9 v>i\s =ms--t a man realises ! aim ( 8 true self :5 he obeys ! moral law1 :]eas1 :5 he wrongly all[s 8 action to be det]m9$ by empirical or s5sible /imuli1 he becomes subject to physical causation1 to laws ( a brute out] _w4 ,b if we dismiss ! id5tification ( ,fre$om & ,rationality1 & accept def9itely & s+ly ,kant's o!r notion ( ,fre$om z express+ ! relation ( ! human ?+-9-itself to its ph5om5on1 ,i am afraid t ?is _s-/irr+ appeal to ! s5tim5t ( ,lib]ty mu/ be dismiss$ z idle rhetoric4 ,= ! life ( ! sa9t mu/ be z mu* subject--9 any p>ticul> portion ( x--to ! necess>y laws ( physical causation z ! life ( ! sc\ndrel3 & ! sc\ndrel mu/ exhibit & express 8 *>act]i/ic self-hood 9 8 transc5d5tal *oice ( a bad life1 z mu* z ! sa9t does 9 8 transc5d5tal *oice ( a good "o4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 to avoid ?is result1 we take ! o!r horn ( ! dilemma1 & id5tify inn] fre$om ) rationality1 ?an a m s]i\s excision w be requir$4 ,=1 along ) #8,neutral' or #8,moral' ,fre$om1 ! :ole ,kantian view ( ! relation ( ! nom5on to ! empirical "* w h to be dropp$1 & ) x mu/ g ! :ole ,kantian me?od ( ma9ta9+ moral responsibility & moral imputation3 9 fact1 all t has made ,kant's doctr9e int]e/+ & impressive to ,engli% advocates ( ,free ,w 79 ! ord9>y s5se71 ev5 :5 !y h n be5 conv9c$ ( its s\ndness4 ,,footnotes3 #che ,! t]ms #8rational' & #8moral' seem to me mo/ appropriate :5 ,i wi% to sugge/ ! aff9ity betwe5 ! two notions3 ! t]ms #8good' & #8neutral' seem pref]able :5 ,i wi% to lay /ress on ! diff]5ce4 #chf ,w]ke1 v4 pp4 #ajj-ajd 7,h>t5/e974 #chg ,w]ke1 v4 p4 #cj4 #chh ,ibid4 p4 #hc4 #chi ,ibid4 p4 #df4 #cij ,w]ke1 iv4 p4 #bid4 #cia ,w]ke1 iv4 p4 #bfj 7,h>t5/e974 #cib ,w]ke1 v4 p4 #eh4 ,see an acute discussion ( ,kant's p]plex+ use ( ! t]m 8,w0 9 ,pr(4 ,s*urman's ,kantian ,e?ics1 :i* has anticipat$ me 9 ! above quotations4 #cic ,e4g4 ,w]ke1 iv4 p4 #bif4 #cid ,e4g4 ,w]ke1 v4 p4 #ce4 ,,index #8,absolute' & #8,relative' ,e?ics1 #ah note #b1 #agg note #a #8,act1' mean+ (1 #bjj note #c1 #bja1 #bjb ,action1 ultimate end (1 #c1 #d1 etc42 motive to1 may be non-rational1 #e2 in/9ctive1 #bd1 #fa2 delib]ate1 #bd1 #fa2 delib]ate & impulsive1 #fa ,acut5ess1 #bcf /hetic ,intuitionism1 #bbh1 #cib2 implicit ref]5ce to ,ultimate ,good 91 #cib1 #cic /hetic s5sibility1 !ories (1 #ahi ,affections1 ,duties ( !1 #cde-cdi ,affections1 social & dome/ic1 #ach1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeg1 #dcc1 #dcd #8,altruism1' #dci 1 #def #8,apa?y' z ideal ( happ9ess1 #abe ,ari/otle1 #ei note #a1 #ib1 #ib note #b1 #ih-ii1 #ii note #a1 #aba-abb1 #ahj1 #ahj note #a1 #aha note #a1 #bae1 #bbd1 #bca note #a1 #bfd note #b1 #bha1 #cge note #a1 #cgf1 #djc1 #def ,art1 ,def9ition (1 #d #8,art ( conduct1' #d ,au/91 #cjj note #a ,av]sion1 #db1 #dc1 #df1 #ade ,axioms1 #bae1 #cch-cdc1 #cgi-chi passim2 mu/ 7a7 h ! t]ms cle> & precise1 #cch1 #cci2 7b7 be really self-evid5t1 #cci-cda2 7c7 n conflict ) any o!r accept$ proposition1 #cda2 7d7 be support$ by cons5sus ( exp]ts1 #cda1 #cdb ,axiom--( ,ju/ice or ,equity1 & ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 #chg2 ( ,prud5ce1 ! logical basis ( ,egoism1 #chf2 ( ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 ! logical basis ( ,utilit>ianism1 #chg1 #chh2 -s ( ,imp>tiality1 #cgi-chc1 #dif1 #dig ,bacon1 #cch ,ba91 #dc note #b1 ,note #ed-ef1 ,note #hg-hh1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #dgg note #a2 7,! ,emotions & ! ,w7 #ed1 #ee ,note1 #abf note #a2 7,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce7 #abg notes #a-c1 #agg note #a ,ba/iat1 #bgh note #a ,beauty1 #aad ,b5evol5ce1 #bch-bfc passim1 #cia1 #cic2 compreh5siv5ess & supremacy (1 #bch1 #bch note #b2 common maxim (1 #bch-bci2 axiom (1 #chb1 #che1 #chg1 #dif2 prescribes promotion ( o!rs' ,happ9ess r ?an ,p]fection1 #bdj1 #bda2 pr9ciples ( its di/ribution1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfc2 & ,ju/ice1 sph]es (1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bfh2 virtue (1 #bdd1 #bec2 duty (1 #beb1 #bec1 #bec note #a1 #beh2 ,kant's view ( ! duty (1 #bci1 #bdj2 intellectual v]sus emotional excell5ce (1 #bdd note #a2 conflict+ claims to1 #bdf2 duties (1 classifi$1 #bdh2 rational1 cf4 ,rational ,b5evol5ce2 ,intuitional & ,utilit>ian notions (1 reconcil$1 #dcj-dca ,b5evol5t--emotion1 #bci2 disposition1 #bci ,b5?am1 #aj1 #da1 #da note #a1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 ,note #hg-hh1 #ib1 #id1 #aai1 #abd note #a1 #adc1 #afd1 #bjc1 #bib1 #cfd1 #dad1 #dag1 #dbc note #b1 #dbd2 7,memoirs7 #aj notes #b & #c1 7,deontology1 ,works1 ,b[r+'s edition7 #hg1 #hh ,note1 7,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation7 #bf note #a1 7,con/itutional ,code7 #da note #b ,beque/1 *ange ( view respect+1 #bdf1 #bdg ,b]keley1 ,bi%op1 #abj ,black/one1 ,introduction1 #cjb note #a ,b\illi]1 #ahj note #b ,butl]1 #g1 #ci1 #dd1 #dd note #b1 #ha1 #hf1 #ic1 #id1 #aai1 #acc note #b1 #acf1 #agb1 #bjj1 #bbb1 #cff1 #cff note #c1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgh1 #chf1 #dja1 #dje1 #eja2 7,analogy7 #cgh2 7,diss]tation ,( ! ,nature ( ,virtue7 #hf note #b1 #agf note #a1 #cbg note #a2 7,s]mons on ,human ,nature7 #g note #a1 #hf note #b1 #ic note #b1 #abj note #a1 #bjj note #b1 #cbc note #a ,c&\r1 #cee ,c>d9al ,virtues1 #cge ,c>elessness1 ,culpability (1 #fj1 #bib ,casui/ry1 #ii ,categorical ,imp]ative1 #g1 #h1 #ae1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #bji1 #bji note #a ,caution1 #bcf1 #bcf note #a1 #bcg ,celibacy1 #dhg1 #dhh ,*>ity 7,philan?ropy71 #bbb1 #bci1 #dcj1 #dca1 #dcd ,*a/ity & ,purity1 #bbc1 #cbi-cca1 #cbi note #b #8,*ief ,good' 7,summum ,bonum71 #acd1 #djg note #a ,*ivalry1 #cbf ,*rysippus1 #cgf ,cic]o1 #cgf2 ,de ,f9ibus1 #abe note #a ,cl>ke1 #hf1 #ajd1 #abj1 #abj note #b1 #chd1 #chd notes #c & #d1 #che2 ,boyle ,lectures1 #abj note #b1 #che notes #a & #b ,classification ( ,duties1 #cab-cae #8,cognition1' use (1 #cd note #b 8,common good ( all ,rationals10 ,cumb]l&'s ultimate end1 #ajd1 #dbc ,common ,morality1 #bae-baf2 7cf4 ,morality ( ,common ,s5se7 ,common ,s5se av]sion to admit ,happ9ess z sole ultimate ,good1 explanation (1 #djb-djf ,compassion1 #bfb1 #cga ,conditional prescriptions 7,hypo!tical ,imp]atives71 #f1 #g ,conjugal relation1 ! duties relat+ to x1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef1 #bee notes #a & #b1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdh note #a ,consci5ce1 popul> view (1 #ii2 jural view (1 #ajj-aja ,consci5ce 7,moral ,faculty7 & ,b5evol5ce1 ,butl]'s view ( ! relation betwe51 #hf1 #hf note #b2 & ,self-love1 ,butl]'s view ( relation betwe51 #aai1 #abj1 #bjj1 #bjj note #b1 #cbg note #a1 #cff ,consci\s ,utilit>ianism r ! adult ?an ! g]m9al =m ( morality1 #dee-deg ,consci\sness n normally )\t pleasure or pa91 #abe ,consequ5ces ( actions1 ult]ior1 #if1 #ig2 may be judg$ desirable )\t ref]5ce to pleasure or pa91 #ig ,contract1 claims aris+ f1 #bfi2 & ,fre$om1 #bgf1 #bgf note #a ,c\rage1 #ccb-ccd2 def9$1 #ccb2 ,greek view (1 #def2 & ,=titude1 are subord9ate duties1 #ccb1 #ccc2 ,moral1 #ccc note #c2 ,virtue (1 #cac1 #ccc1 #ccd2 & ,foolh>d9ess1 di/+ui%$ by ,utilit>ian consid]ations1 #ccd1 #cee ,c\rtesy1 #bec ,cudwor?1 #ajc ,note ,culture1 #aeg1 etc4 ,cumb]l&1 #hf1 #hf note #a1 #ajd2 & ,utilit>ianism1 #dbc1 #dbc note #a ,cu/om1 alt]ations 91 #bdg ,decision1 #bcf1 #bcg ,d$uctive ,h$onism1 #agf-aie ,desc>tes1 #cch1 #cci ,des]t--,good1 h[ det]m9$1 #bhd-bij2 ,ill1 h[ det]m9$1 #bia-bib2 requital (1 z pr9ciple ( ,ideal ,ju/ice1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bid1 #cdi2 & ,fre$om1 #bhj1 #bhg2 & ,"r ( ,prop]ty1 #bhj1 #bhj note #a2 & ,det]m9ism1 #bhd1 #bhe2 ,utilit>ian int]pretation (1 #bhd note #a2 & ,free ,w1 #ga1 #gb1 #bhd1 #bia #8,desirable1' confusion 9 ,mill's use (1 #chh note #b ,desirable consci\sness is ei!r happ9ess or c]ta9 objective relations ( ! consci\s m9d1 #cih-djj ,desire1 #dc1 #de-dg2 non-rational1 #bc-bd2 irrational1 #bc1 #bd2 & ,pleasure1 relation betwe51 #ci-ef passim ,det]m9ism & ,free ,w1 #eg seq42 ,ari/otelian1 #ei note #a2 & ,mat]ialism1 #fb2 argum5ts =1 #fb-fe2 argum5t aga9/1 #fe1 #ff ,det]m9i/ mean+ ( #8des]t1' etc41 #ga1 #gb1 #bhd note #a ,developm5t z e?ical aim1 #ij seq41 #aib seq41 #dgc #8,dictates1' h[ us$1 #if note #a 1 two mean+s (1 #bfd note #b #8,dis9t]e/$ action1' #eg ,di/ribution1 ,pr9ciple ( ,equality a prima facie reasonable ,pr9ciple (1 #dag ,div9e p5alties1 #ca #8,do+ good1' ambiguity (1 #bci1 #bdj ,dualism ( ! ,practical 7or ,moral7 ,reason1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bjf1 #cff1 #djd1 #djd note #a2 ne$ ( h>monis+1 #ejg-eji ,dumont1 #ahj note #b #8,duties to ,god' & #8duty to man1' #bah ,duties1 division (1 into ,self-reg>d+ & ,social1 #afc1 #cab1 #cac #8,duties to oneself1' #g #8,duty'--mean+ & use (1 #gh1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbj note #c1 #bci1 #ejd-eje2 & #8"r conduct' di/+ui%$1 #bag ,duty relativity (1 #bah1 #bai2 & ,happ9ess ( ag5t1 #cf1 #afb-age passim1 #die seq42 implies conflict ( impulses1 #ha2 ( self-pres]vation1 #cef2 ( promot+ o!rs' happ9ess1 ,kant's argum5ts =1 #chi-cij2 mo/ ( ! receiv$ maxims (1 involve ref]5ce to ,ultimate ,good1 #cia1 #cib #8,egoism1' #aa1 #hj note #a1 #hi seq42 ord9>y use1 & ambiguity (1 #hi2 indef9it5ess (1 #ie2 & ,greek e?ical controv]sy1 #ia-ib ,egoism1 cf4 ,egoi/ic ,h$onism ,egoism--mean+ (1 #abj-aba2 & ,self-love1 #cf1 #hi-ie passim2 ,pr9ciple & ,me?od (1 #aai-abb2 precepts (1 n cle> & precise1 #aii-bjj2 rationality (1 #aai-abj1 #aii1 #bjj note #a2 s5se ( ignobility (1 #aii-bjj1 #bjj note #a 7cf4 #djb seq471 #eja2 ,pure 7or ,quantitative7 ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 #ie2 & ,utilit>ianism1 relation betwe51 #dig seq42 & ,utilit>ian sanctions1 #dii-ejc #8,egoi/1' mean+ (1 #aba ,egoi/ic ,end--& ,positive ,religion1 #aba2 & ,natural ,religion1 #aba ,egoi/ic ,h$onism designat$ z ,egoism or z ,epicureanism1 #aa1 #hd1 #ie ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 #db1 #aai-aba2 ,end (1 #ic2 ,pure or ,quantitative1 def9$1 #ie2 ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple (1 #ic1 #abj1 #aba2 ,empirical-reflective ,me?od (1 #aba1 #abb1 #aca seq42 & ,consci5ce1 #afa note #a2 ,fundam5tal ,p>adox (1 #dh1 #acj1 #acf1 #acg1 #agc-agd1 #aid ,empirical ,h$onism1 #abc-aej2 fundam5tal assumption (1 #abc1 #aca1 #adf2 objections to1 #dfj2 ,me?od (1 takes advantage ( traditional exp]i5ce & ( special k1 #dgg1 #dgi ,empirical ,quantitative ,h$onism1 #adf ,empiricism1 #ajd #8,end1' e?ical use ( ! t]m1 #acd ,end1 ,int]dep5d5ce ( ,me?od &1 #h1 #hc1 #hd2 adoption ( any1 z p>am\nt1 a ph5om5on di/9ct f ,desire1 #ci ,ends accept$ z rational by ,common ,s5se1 #h1 #i ,en]gy1 #bcg ,epicureanism1 #aa1 #hd ,epicurus1 #aeh #8,equal return1' ambiguity (1 #bfa 7cf4 #bhh seq47 #8,equality ( ,happ9ess1' z ,social ,end1 #bhd note #b ,e?ical--judgm5t1 #bc-ch1 #gg2 ,pr9ciples & ,me?ods1 #gg-hh passim2 ,me?od1 ?ree pr9cipal species (1 #hc seq42 controv]sy1 anci5t & mod]n1 #aje1 #ajf1 #cib2 ,h$onism1 fundam5tal proposition (1 #abi2 & ,psy*ological ,h$onism1 #dj-db1 #dab1 #dab note #a2 & ,physical ,sci5ce1 /ructure (1 comp>$1 #eji ,e?ics--b\nd>ies (1 #a2 ,/udy or ,sci5ce8 #a1 #b2 =ms ( ! problem (1 #b1 #c1 #cia2 & man's #8,true ,good1' #c2 def9ition (1 #d1 #ae2 ,absolute & ,relative1 #ah note #b1 #agg note #a2 & geometry1 analogy betwe51 #ah-ai2 & a/ronomy1 analogy betwe51 #ai2 conc]n$ ) ,duty "u pres5t conditions1 #ai2 aim (1 #dj1 #gg2 & ,rational or ,natural ,!ology1 #ejd-ejf2 mutual relations ( ! ?ree ,me?ods (1 #dif-eji ,e?ics & ,politics 7cf4 ,law71 #ae-bb passim1 #bff1 #deg2 di/+ui%$ f ,positive sci5ces1 #a1 #b2 ,utilit>ian1 #deg 7cf4 #bgd1 #bih72 9 an ideal society1 #ah seq4 7 ,well-be+ ! ,good atta9able 9 human life71 #ia1 #ib2 misund]/&+ ( ,ari/otle's use (1 #ib note #b ,excell5ce 7cf4 ,p]fection7 #8,excell5ce' & #8,p]fection1' #aj note #c ,excell5ce beyond /rict duty1 ,utilit>ian attitude t[>ds1 #dib1 #dic ,explanation ess5tially diff]5t f ,ju/ification1 #b ,fame1 #i1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aei1 #cfh1 7,po/hum\s7 #aef note #a ,feel+--pref]abl5ess (1 o!r ?an pleasantness1 dep5d5t on objective relations ( ! feel+ m9d1 #abg1 #abh1 #cii2 qu feel+1 c only be judg$ by ! p]son :o feels1 #abh1 #abi1 #cih ,fidelity 7cf4 ,good ,fai?71 #beh1 #bei ,firmness1 #bce1 #bcf ,fitness & ,des]t1 #cej #8,=mal' & #8,mat]ial' ,rightness1 #bjf-bjg1 #bjf note #a ,=titude def9$1 #ccb ,free *oice z virtu\s1 #ejd note #a ,fre$om--s5tim5t (1 #ci2 z absolute end ( ideal law1 #bgd seq41 #bic1 #big1 #cej-cea2 sph]e (1 mu/ be limit$1 #bge2 ambiguity (1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bic2 & ,contract1 #bgf1 #bgf note #a2 & ,prop]ty1 #bgf1 #bgg2 ,civil & ,con/itutional1 #bih1 #cea ,free ,w--controv]sy1 #eg-gf passim1 #ei1 #fa-fb1 #fe note #a1 #gd1 #ge2 conception (1 appli$ 7a7 9 judg+ ! conduct ( o!rs1 #fc note #a1 #ff1 #fg1 7b7 9 =eca/+ our own future1 #fd2 p>tial illusor9ess ( ! belief 91 #fd1 #fe2 & ,happ9ess1 #fh2 & ,p]fection 7or ,excell5ce71 #fh1 #fh note #b2 & ,moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 #fi1 #fi note #b1 #gj2 & ,det]m9ism1 practical unimportance ( issue betwe51 #fg1 #fh1 #gb-gf1 #bhe2 & ,ju/ice1 #ga1 #gb1 #bhd1 #bia2 & ,des]t 7or ,m]it71 #fh note #b1 #bhe1 #bia2 & ,duty1 #gh2 7or ,fre$om ( ,w7--two s5ses (1 #eg-ei2 & ,moral responsibility1 #eh2 conception (1 involv$ 9 ord9>y mean+ ( #8responsibility1' #8des]t1' etc41 #ga2 metaphysical--e?ical import (1 z reg>ds 7a7 *oice betwe5 rational & irrational alt]natives1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj-ga1 7b7 view ( :at is rational1 #fh1 #fi1 7c7 =eca/s ( future action1 #fi1 #gj1 #gj note #a ,fri5d%ip & its duties1 #beg-bei1 #beg note #a1 #dcg #8,g5]al ,good1' #cib ,g5]osity1 #bai1 #cbf ,g5tl5ess1 #bec1 #cba ,god's ,w--con=mity to1 #gi2 z ultimate reason = action1 #gi1 #hj #8,gold5 ,rule1' !1 unprecis5ess (1 #cgi-chj #8,good1' #aje-aae passim2 indef9it5ess (1 #ia-ib2 use & =ce ( ! t]m1 #hf note #a1 #aje1 #ajg seq41 #aab1 #aac2 & n #8,"r' ! fundam5tal notion 9 ,greek e?ics1 #aje2 has n ! same connotation z #8pleasant1' #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj2 implies ref]5ce to an univ]sally valid /&>d1 #ajh-aji1 #aad2 adjective1 & #8,good' sub/antive1 #aji2 notion (1 di/9ct f #8,pleasure' & #8! ,pleasant1' & #8:at ought to be desir$1' #aji seq4 ,good1 ,!1 #c1 #ib1 #ajf2 7human7 or ,well-be+1 its relation to ,happ9ess & to ,duty1 #c2 7human7 is ei!r 7a7 ,happ9ess or 7b7 ,p]fection or ,excell5ce ( human exi/5ce1 #aad1 #aae2 ! absolute & unconditional1 9 ,kant's view1 #bbb2 9 ,engli% e?ical ?\ght1 #dbc note #a ,good conduct1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aab-aac2 /&>d (1 ne$$1 #aac2 ,greek conception (1 #ajg note #a1 #djd-dje1 #dje note #a ,good ,fai?1 #bbd1 #cjc-caa passim1 #ceb-ced1 #cee2 /r+5cy ( ! duty (1 #cjd-cje2 obligation (1 affect$ by 7a7 fraud or =ce1 #cje-cjf1 #cjf note #a1 7b7 mat]ial *ange ( circum/ances1 #cjf-cjh1 7c7 misappreh5sion1 #cji1 7d7 use ( a prescrib$ =mula1 #cji1 #caj ,good ,ta/e1 #ajh ,good hum\r1 #cba ,goodness1 implies relation to consci\sness or feel+1 #aac-aad1 #aac note #b2 7,moral7 & ,beauty1 #ajg-ajh1 #ajg note #a1 #bbh ,gov]nm5t--by ,cons5t ( ,subjects1 #big1 #cea2 ,ari/ocratic & ,democratic ,pr9ciples (1 #bii2 e/abli%$1 difficulty ( id5tify+1 #cjj1 #cja ,gov]nm5tal ,au?ority1 conflict+ claims to1 #bif1 #big1 #bii-cja2 ideal1 #big-bii ,grant ,all51 #ahg2 ,physiological /hetics1 #ahg note #a ,gratitude1 #bei-bfa1 #dcg-dch2 univ]salis$1 furni%es ! pr9ciple #8t des]t ought to be requit$1' #bgi1 #bgi note #a1 #bhj2 ,kant on1 #bbc1 #bbc note #a #8,greate/ ,happ9esss1' mean+ (1 #aba1 #dac2 ,utilit>ian notion (1 its ext5t1 #dad2 total & av]age1 di/+ui%$1 #dae1 #daf #8,greate/ ,pleasure1' explanation (1 #dd note #c ,greek e?ical ?\ght1 ! problem (1 #ajf2 tautological maxims (1 #cge-cgf ,gre51 ,t4 ,h41 #acb seq41 #acd note #c1 #ace note #c2 7,introduction to ,hume's ,treatise on ,human ,nature7 #acb note #b1 #acc note #c2 7,prolegom5a to ,e?ics7 #ic note #a1 #acc note #a1 #acd notes #a & #b1 #ace notes #a & #b1 #cfc note #a ,grote1 ,j41 ,an ,exam9ation ( ! ,utilit>ian ,philosophy1 #dcb note #a ,gurney1 ,e41 #abc1 #ahd2 7,t]tium ,quid7 #abc note #a2 7,p[] ( ,s\nd7 #ahd note #a ,hallam1 #dbc note #a ,hamilton1 #aci1 #ahj-ahb2 7,lectures on ,metaphysics7 #ahj note #c ,happ9ess--z ,end1 #g1 #h1 #gh2 & ,duty1 connexion betwe51 #afb-age passim2 & ,duty1 are !y co9cid5t8 #afb1 #afc1 #afe1 #agf2 & ,duty1 ,plato's view ( relation betwe51 #aga-agb2 & ,virtue1 #agd-age1 #dei2 & ,virtue1 connexion (1 9 ,ari/otle's view1 #aba-abb2 det]m9ation & measurem5t (1 an inevitable problem = ,e?ics1 #agf2 production (1 #agf-agg2 relation (1 to m5tal conc5tration & dissipation1 #aic2 & ,self-developm5t1 #aib-aic2 rejection (1 z end1 leaves u unable to frame a coh]5t acc\nt ( ,ultimate ,good1 #djf2 an objection to1 z ,ultimate ,good1 consid]$1 #djg note #a2 pr9ciple ( di/ribution (1 requir$1 #daf1 #dag2 univ]sal1 z div9e end1 #ejc-eje2 ,*ri/ian view (1 #abj1 #ach2 ,s\rces (1 #aea seq4 #8,happ9ess1' #da note #a1 #ib1 #ib note #b1 #ic note #a2 ambiguity (1 #ib2 precise mean+ (1 #abj ,h>m1 #bib1 #bic ,h>mony z cause ( ,pleasure1 #ahi ,heal?1 #aec1 #aed1 #aei #8,h$onism1' mean+ (1 #ic ,h$onism 7,e?ical71 ! two ,me?ods (1 are ,univ]sali/ic & ,egoi/ic1 #aa2 connexion betwe5 ! two ,me?ods (1 #hd1 #dig seq42 objections to1 /at$ & consid]$3--7a7 t ! calculation requir$ by ! ,empirical-reflective me?od is too complex = practice1 #aca1 #acb2 7b7 t 8pleasure z feel+ _c be conceiv$10 #acb1 #acc2 7c7 t 8a sum ( pleasures is intr9sically unmean+10 #acc1 #acd2 7d7 t transi5t pleasures are unsatisfy+1 #ace2 7e7 t ! pursuit ( pleasure t5ds to defeat its own end1 #acf seq42 7f7 t ! habit ( introspective comp>ison ( pleasures is unfav\rable to pleasure1 #ach-adj2 7g7 t any quantitative comp>ison ( pleasures is vague & unc]ta91 #adj-aej2 ,d$uctive1 #agf-aie passim2 d$uctive1 ,sp5c]'s view (1 #agg note #a2 ,me?od (1 mu/ be empirical1 #aie2 ,empirical1 me?od (1 #dfj2 & ,intuitionism1 #dfa2 & ,pessimism1 #aca ,note ,h$oni/ic ,z]o 7or neutral feel+71 #abd1 #abe ,helvetius1 #hh ,highe/ ,good1 ! 7cf4 ,! ,good & ,ultimate ,good71 #ajf ,hobbes1 #dd note #a1 #ef1 #hf1 #hi1 #ajc1 #aji1 #cjj note #a1 #dbc1 #dgf2 7,levia?an7 #hi note #a ,holmes1 ,o4 ,w41 jun41 ,! ,common ,law1 #bha note #a ,hon\r1 ,code (1 #cj1 #ca1 #afh1 #cdj ,hume1 #bc1 #hf1 #ajd1 #bbj1 #chd1 #dai1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dbc notes #a & #b1 #dbf1 #ddj1 #dda1 #dic2 7,inquiry ,conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals7 #dd note #b1 #bbj note #b1 #dbd ,humility1 #ccd-ccf passim1 #cee1 #cef note #a1 #dbi ,hung]1 #de1 #df ,hut*eson1 #dd note #b1 #ej1 #hf1 #hf note #b1 #ajd1 #cff2 7,sy/em ( ,moral ,philosophy7 #cff note #a ,hypo!tical ,imp]atives imply an ult]ior end1 #f1 #g1 #cg ,ideal & ,actual1 relation betwe51 #gi2 connect$ 7a7 9 ! conception ( 8,god's ,w10 #gi1 7b7 9 ! notion ( 8,nature10 #hj-hc ,ideal--,gov]nm5t1 no cons5sus z to :at k9d is legitimate1 #bii seq42 & ,traditional ,au?ority1 #bif2 ,society1 e?ics (1 h[ f> useful1 #bb-bd1 #dfe 8,idols ( ! ,cave0 & 8,idols ( ! ,tribe10 #aeb ,impulse to d acts qu recognis$ z "r 7 ,moral ,motive71 #gg ,impulses1 extra-reg>d+ & self-reg>d+ may conflict1 #ea1 #eb1 #acf ,indiff]5ce 7,neutrality7 ( feel+1 cf4 ,h$oni/ic ,z]o ,individuali/ic--,ideal1 #bhf-bhg2 & ,sociali/ic ,ideals1 #bic1 #bid1 #ddd-dde ,inequality1 ,reasonable1 #bfh seq4 ,+5uity1 #bcf ,int5tion1 #fj note #a1 #bjb1 #bjb note #a ,int]e/1 mean+ (1 #g1 #abj2 e?ical "* (1 9 ,butl]'s view1 #agf note #a #8,int]nal acts1' #bjd ,in/9ctive impulses reg>d$ z inh]it$ exp]i5ce1 #aic1 #aid ,intr9sic value1 h[ det]m9$1 #bhh1 #bhi ,intuition ( rightness ( acts1 excludes consid]ation ( 7a7 ult]ior consequ5ces1 #if1 #ig1 7b7 8induction f exp]i5ce0 ( pleasures1 #ig1 #ih 7cf4 #ajb note #a7 ,intuitional--,me?od1 cf4 ,intuitionism2 morali/s1 ,engli%1 may be broadly classifi$ z ,dogmatic & ,philosophical1 #ajc1 #ajd #8,intuitional'--s5se 9 :i* us$1 #if1 #ig1 #ih2 wid] & n>r[] s5ses (1 #ig1 #ajb note #a1 #bja ,intuitionism1 #c1 #h1 #ag1 #bj1 #if-ajd passim1 #aii-baf passim2 diff]5ces ( its me?od due to two causes1 #ajc2 its me?od issues 9 ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism 7,utilit>ianism71 #djf-djg2 *ronological developm5t ( ! me?od (1 9 ,engl&1 #ajc-ajd2 & ,utilit>ianism1 #he-hf1 #chh-chi1 #dbc-deg passim1 #dif-dig2 ,philosophical1 #ajb-ajd1 #cgc-chi passim2 ,p]ceptional1 #ih-ajj1 #ajb2 ,dogmatic1 #ajj-aja 7cf4 ,intuitionism1 ,intuitive ,morality1 ,positive ,morality1 ,morality ( ,common ,s5se72 ,dogmatic1 fundam5tal assumption (1 #aja1 #bjj1 #bja2 ?ree phases (1 #ajb1 #ajc2 a v>iety (1 con/itut$ by sub/itut+ = #8"r' ! notion #8good1' #aje-ajg2 /hetic1 #bbh1 #cib2 ,jural or ,rational1 #bbh-bbi #8,intuitive' or #8a priori' ,morality g5]ally us$ to mean ,dogmatic ,intuitionism or ,morality ( ,common ,s5se1 #aja-ajb ,irrational *oice--sometimes consci\s & delib]ate1 #cf1 #cg-ch1 #da-db1 #eh1 #ei1 #aaj2 ,socratic & ,ari/otelian view comp>$ ) mod]n view (1 #ei note #a ,jural me?od ( ,e?ics1 #ajj-aja ,j claims--aris+ f contract1 #bfi2 aris+ f natural & normal expectations1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bgj note #a #8,ju/ice1' #8ju/ify1' etc41 uses (1 #bfd note #b1 #bgj1 #bhf1 #ddb ,ju/ice1 #bj1 #ii1 #bfd-bid passim1 #cdi-ceb1 #cee1 #ddj-ddh passim2 or ,equity1 ess5ce (1 #dif2 specially difficult to def9e1 #bfd2 intuitional view ( ! def9ition (1 #bfd2 involves notion ( di/ribution1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bfh1 #bga2 & ,law1 connexion betwe51 #bfe1 #bff1 #bfg note #a2 di/9ct f ,ord] 7or ,law-obs]vance71 #bfe2 & ,equality1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bfg note #a1 #bfh1 #bfh note #a1 #bgi1 #bhe note #a2 & taxation1 #bff1 #bff note #a2 ,cons]vative & ,ideal1 #bgb-bgc1 #bgc note #a1 #bgd1 #bic1 #bid2 ,ideal1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bic1 #bid1 #ddd1 #dde2 ,ideal1 & ,natural ,eights1 #bgd1 #bge2 ,ideal1 & ,fre$om1 #bgh1 #bgi2 ,corrective1 #bha2 ,rep>ative1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bha note #a1 #bhb note #a1 #bic2 ,rep>ative & ,retributive1 di/+ui%$1 #bhb-bhc1 #bhb note #b2 & ,free ,w1 #ga1 #gb1 #bhd1 #bhe2 & #8,equity' or #8,fairness1' #bhe1 #bhf2 ,hume's treatm5t (1 #ddj ,kant1 #f1 #g1 #aa note #a1 #cf1 #eh1 #eh note #a1 #bji1 #baj1 #baj note #a1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bci1 #bdj1 #cae1 #cbg note #a1 #cff1 #che1 #chf1 #chf note #a1 #chi-cij ,note1 #dhf1 ,app5dix #eaj2 7,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik d] ,sitt57 #bji note #a1 #chi-cij ,note2 7,metaphysis*e ,anfangsgrnde d] ,tug5dlehre7 #bbc note #a1 #cbg note #a1 #cff note #c1 #chf note #b1 #chi ,note2 7,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft7 #cff note #c ,kant's ,fundam5tal ,moral ,rule or ,categorical ,imp]ative z crit]ion ( rightness1 #bji-baj1 #bji note #a1 #baj note #a1 #cci note #a1 #chf1 #chi ,note1 #dhf ,k--z an ,end1 #aad1 #cii1 #dja2 & ,feel+ 7 ,cognition & ,pleasure or ,pa971 relation betwe51 #aci1 #adj2 & ,feel+1 ,hamilton's view ( ! relation betwe51 #aci ,laiss] faire & economic production1 #dde note #b ,law1 #bie-cjc2 & ,morality1 relation betwe51 #bi1 #deg2 & ,positive ,morality1 #afd2 ,au/9's def9ition (1 #cjj note #a ,laws--j1 *>act]i/ics (1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bga-bgb2 t ought to be obey$1 are laid d[n by rightful au?ority1 #bif ,law-obs]vance 7or ,ord]71 #bie-cjc passim1 #ceb1 #ddj1 #dda2 & ,good ,fai?1 #bie1 #cjc2 9 reg>d to mala prohibita1 #cjb note #a ,lecky1 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals1 #ej note #a1 #cii note #a1 #dbg note #a ,legal obligation & puni%m5t1 #bi ,lib]ality1 #cbd-cbf1 #cbe note #a1 #cee ,lib]t>ian position1 #eh1 #fd-fe1 #ff ,lib]ty1 ,s5tim5t (1 #eh ,locke1 7,essay7 #bje1 #bhj note #a1 #ejc2 e?ical view (1 #bje1 #bjf ,love1 #ej1 #bdd1 #bde1 #cfg1 #cfh2 common s5se e/imate (1 #bde1 #beh1 #beh note #a ,loyalty1 #bbc1 #bdd1 #bed ,mack5zie1 ,j4 ,s41 #dg1 #dh ,ma9e1 ,sir ,h41 7,anci5t ,law7 #dfa note #b ,malevol5ce--"* (1 z motive1 #cfd2 sometimes sweep+ly condemn$1 #cba1 #cbd2 sometimes p>tially approv$ on ,utilit>ian gr\nds1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cbd ,malevol5t affections natural & normal1 #cbj1 #cba ,m>cus ,aurelius1 #cgf note #a #8,m>ket value1' #bhf seq4 ,m>riage1 ,plato's ideal (1 #ceh-cei 7cf4 #cdh note #a7 ,m>t9eau1 #cff1 #cfg1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgb2 7,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory7 #cfg note #a1 #cfi note #a ,maxims--( ,virtue1 dep5d5ce or indep5d5ce (1 #cac2 ( ,ju/ice1 ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce1 self-evid5t elem5t 91 #chj-chb #8,maximum ,happ9ess' z crit]ion ( conduct1 #acd ,meanness1 notion (1 exam9$1 #cbe1 #cbf ,meekness1 #cba ,m]cy1 #cba ,m]it1 #fh note #b1 #bhd seq42 7cf4 ,des]t7 ,me?od ( ,e?ics1 def9ition (1 #a2 only "o rational1 #f1 #ab2 m ?an "o natural1 #f ,me?ods ( ,e?ics1 ,!1 purpose (1 #aa-ad1 #gh ,mildness1 #cba ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #dd1 #he1 #hg1 #id1 #aba1 #agg note #a1 #dab notes #a & #b1 #dad1 #dah1 #ddj1 #dgh1 #ejd2 7,utilit>ianism7 #ic note #a1 #dfa note #a1 #dii note #a2 7,on ,lib]ty7 #dgh notes #a & #b ,m9d1 #hg ,note1 #dgg note #a ,mod]n e?ical ?\ght quasi-jural 9 "*1 #ajf ,moral ,faculty--a function ( ,reason1 #bc-ch passim2 :y subject ( e?ical discussion1 #d1 #e2 ,utilit>ian !ory ( orig9 (1 #dfa1 #dfb1 #dig ,moral ,judgm5t1 #bc-ch2 object (1 #fj1 #fa1 #bja-bjb1 #bjb note #a1 #bbb1 #cfb1 #cfd2 7or ,practical7 ,reason1 #cc-cd1 #cd notes #a1 #b1 #c2 #ci1 #dj1 #ajj seq42 ,s5se1 #cd2 ,reason+1 ! mo/ natural type (1 #f1 #ab seq41 #ajb-ajc1 #dic-did2 ,s5tim5t1 #bf-bh1 #gg2 ,s5tim5ts1 7a7 difficulties ( admitt+ or reject+ !m z motives1 #cfe-cfg1 7b7 !ory ( _! d]ivation f exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa91 #dfa1 #dfb2 & ,quasi-moral ,s5tim5ts1 #bh1 #agc1 #agd2 ,motive1 #gg1 #bjd seq41 #bbc2 ,motive1 v>y+ =ms (3--7a7 ,rev]5ce = ,au?ority1 7b7 ,religi\s ,s5tim5t1 7c7 ,self-respect1 7d7 s5tim5t ( ,fre$om1 7e7 ,admiration or ,aspiration1 #ci-dj2 in/9cts & crude ,utilit>ian reason+s--discrepancy betwe51 #dff1 #dfg2 ,intuitions1 #baa-baf passim2 ,intuitions1 exi/5ce (1 #baa1 #bab1 #ccg2 ,intuitions1 connexion betwe5 7a7 ,exi/5ce & ,orig9 (1 #baa1 #bab1 7b7 ,orig9 & ,validity (1 #cd note #a1 #bab-bac1 #bab note #b1 #bad2 ,intuitions1 ,p>ticul> & ,g5]al1 #ii-ajb1 #bad-baf2 ,rules1 imp]ative & indicative =ms (1 #aja note #a2 ,rules & ,axioms1 importance (1 #bbi2 ,axioms1 ab/ract b significant1 #cgi-chd1 #eje2 ,axioms1 ,kant's view (1 #che-chf1 #chf notes #a & #b2 ,maxims1 #ccg-cfa passim2 ,maxims :i* are1 & :i* are n1 directly self-evid5t1 di/9ction betwe51 #chc2 ,responsibility1 #ei-fj2 ,obligation1 #bag2 & non-moral excell5ce di/+ui%$1 #dbf1 #dbg #8,moral' 79 n>r[] s5se7 & #8,prud5tial' di/+ui%$1 #be-bf ,moral ,c\rage1 #ccc note #c ,moral ,philosophy1 "s problems ( mod]n1 #cgd ,morality--#8inductive' & #8intuitive1' d\ble ambiguity ( anti!sis betwe51 #ig-ii2 a priori & a po/]iori 7or inductive & intuitive71 #ig2 & gr[? ( ,sympa?y1 #dee-def1 #dee note #a ,morality ( ,common ,s5se 7,intuitionism71 #he1 #ajb1 #bbi1 #bfc ,note1 #ccg-cfa passim2 & ,positive ,morality1 #bae2 & ,egoism1 #dih-dii 7cf4 ,happ9ess & ,duty72 developm5t (1 n p]fectly ,utilit>ian1 #dee-def2 axiomatic "* ( its maxims que/ion$1 #cch1 #cdb1 #cdc2 furni%es valuable practical rules b n ultimate axioms1 #cfj1 #cfa2 & ,utilit>ianism1 #cfa note #a1 #dbc-deg passim1 #dfa1 #dih1 #dii2 fir/ pr9ciples (1 z 8middle axioms0 ( ,utilit>ianism1 #dfa2 ,mill's view (1 #dfa note #a2 n to be accept$ by ,utilit>ianism )\t modification1 #dfa seq41 #dfg ,motive mean+ (1 #bjb1 #cfb1 #cfc2 & ,int5tion1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjc note #a2 -s1 diff]5t views ( ,"r1 #bjd-bjg2 & ,desire1 ,gre5's view (1 #cfc note #a2 & ,disposition1 ,utilit>ian e/imate (1 #dic1 #did ,motives to action1 #bc2 z subjects ( moral judgm5t1 #cfb-cgb2 z affect+ morality ( actions1 #fj-fa1 #bbd2 reg>d$ z bett] & worse r ?an good & bad1 #cfc-cfd2 #8s$uctive1' #cfd2 78,spr+s ( action07 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau's table ( 7#cfi7 e?ically e/imat$1 #cga1 #cgb2 #8high]' n always to be pref]r$ to #8l[]1' #cfi1 #cgj1 #cga2 moral regulation (1 #cgj ,natural1 ,!--,int]pretation (1 #hj seq42 gives no def9ite practical crit]ion ( "r conduct1 #hb ,natural--,selection1 effect (1 on impulses1 #aid2 & normal claims1 indef9it5ess (1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgb note #a2 expectations1 ambiguity (1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #ceb2 ,rights--difficulty ( det]m9+1 #bih2 ,good1 #dgg ,nature--,life accord+ to1 #gi seq41 #cgg1 #cgh2 con=mity to1 #hj2 ,/oic use (1 #cgg1 #cgh note #a2 ,butl]'s use (1 #cgh ,neighb\rhood & ,nationality1 duties (1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb ,neutral excitem5ts1 #ahf note #a 7cf4 ,h$oni/ic ,z]o7 #8,objective' & #8subjective1' e?ical application (1 #bjg1 #bjg note #a1 #bjh notes #a & #b1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #cdd note #b1 #cid1 #cie1 #dbi1 #dcj ,objective ,h$onism1 mean+ (1 #aea2 & ,common ,s5se1 #aea-afa2 advantages (1 #aea2 defects (1 #aea seq41 #deh1 #dei ,objective relations ( consci\s m9d1 h[ f> desirable1 #djj1 #dja ,objectivity ( ,moral ,judgm5t1 #bg1 #cc ,ord]1 cf4 ,law-obs]vance ,orig9 ( ,moral ,intuitions1 e?ical importance (1 #chc1 #chd1 #chd note #a #8,ought1' #bc-ch passim2 relative & unconditional uses (1 #f1 #g1 #ci2 implies reasonabl5ess1 #be2 & #8"r' imply ! same notion1 #a note #a1 #bc1 #be2 does n ref] to matt]s ( fact1 #be2 implies objectivity1 #bg1 #cc2 does n m]ely signify 7a7 appropriat5ess ( means to ends1 #bf1 7b7 an emotion ( ! p]son judg+1 #bf-bh1 nor 7c7 b\nd "u p5alties1 #bi seq42 an elem5t>y & irresolvable notion1 #cb-cc2 n>r[] & wid] s5se (1 #cc1 #cd1 #cd note #d2 c>ries ) x an impulse to action1 #cd2 implies possible conflict ) reason 7?us di/+ui%able f #8"r'71 #cd1 #ce1 #bag2 det]m9i/ s5se (1 #gh2 loose mean+ (1 #ejh ,ow51 ,rob]t1 #bia ,pa9--def9ition (1 #db-dc note #a1 #ahj1 #aia2 ! negative quantity ( pleasure1 #abd1 #abe2 physical concomitant (1 #ahc seq42 ,ari/otle's & ,hamilton's !ory (1 #ahj seq41 #ahj note #a1 #aha note #a2 ,mr4 ,/\t's !ory (1 #ahb1 #ahh1 etc42 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s !ory (1 #ahc seq42 ,grant ,all5's view (1 #ahg2 biological !ory (1 #aij seq4 ,paley1 #hf1 #aba ,p>5ts & *ildr51 duties (1 #bdc1 #bdc note #a1 #bdh-bej1 #bdh note #a1 #cdf1 #cdg ,patriotism1 #bbc1 #bdd1 #bde2 duties (1 #bea1 #beb1 #beb note #a #8,p]ception1' e?ical use (1 by ,dugald ,/ew>t1 #ajc ,note ,p]fection or ,excell5ce z ,end1 #aj1 #aa1 #aj notes #c & #d1 #bj note #a1 #gh1 #aad1 #aae2 & ,intuitionism1 #aa1 #hc1 #hd1 #ig2 ,kant's treatm5t (1 #chf note #b ,p]fectioni/s1 view (1 #ig ,philosophical ,intuitionism1 its relation to ,common ,s5se ,morality1 #cgc 1 #bca note #a ,pity or ,compassion1 #bfb ,placability1 #cba ,plato1 7,republic7 #ba1 #aga1 #agb2 #adj1 #ade1 #adh1 #aga1 #agb1 #bha1 #cde1 #cdh note #a1 #ceh1 #cge note #a1 #cgf2 7,gorgias7 #dje note #a2 #dda ,pleasure--def9itions (1 #db1 #dc1 #dc note #a1 #abe1 #abg seq41 #aca1 #aij2 ambiguities (1 #dc1 #dd1 #ic seq42 =eca/ (1 mu/ take acc\nt ( moral or quasi-moral pleasures1 #dj1 #agc2 ! less sometimes *os5 9 pref]5ce to ! great]1 #da1 #db1 #db note #a1 #acf2 ( ,virtue1 its #8dis9t]e/$ness' n abnormal1 #ej1 #ea2 z aim ( unconsci\s action1 #eb1 #ec2 z #8orig9al' aim ( action1 #ec1 #ed2 application ( ! t]m1 #ic2 has only quantitative diff]5ces1 #id1 #ie1 #aba2 maximum1 d$uctive me?ods ( det]m9+1 #aba1 #abb2 rational z oppos$ to impulsive pursuit (1 #abd note #a2 #8quality' (1 #id1 #ie1 #aba1 #abh-abi1 #abh note #a2 z ,feel+1 conceivabl5ess (1 #acb1 #acc2 p]man5t s\rces (1 #ace1 #acf1 #aec2 h[ e/imat$1 #ada seq4 7cf4 #abg1 #abh1 #cih72 f o!rs' pa91 v>i\s modes (1 #cba note #a2 & ,appetite1 id5tifi$ by ,hobbes1 #dd note #a2 & ,desire1 controv]sy z to relation betwe51 #ci-ef2 ,ari/otle's & ,hamilton's !ory (1 #ahj seq41 #ahj note #a1 #aha note #a2 ,mr4 ,/\t's !ory (1 #ahb1 #ahh1 etc42 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s !ory (1 #ahc seq42 ,grant ,all5's view (1 #ahg2 biological !ory (1 #aij seq42 & ,desire1 7a7 ,mill's view (1 #dc-dd1 7b7 ,butl]'s view (1 #dd1 7c7 ,ba9's view (1 #ed-ef2 effect ( desire on e/imate (1 #add1 #ade2 & ,pres]vation1 #aij1 etc42 7,hobbes' view (7 #hi2 & ,p]fection or ,reality1 7,self-developm5t71 ,sp9oza's view (1 #ij2 & #8quantity ( life1' #aib2 #8pure' #adc2 ( pursuit1 #df seq41 #dg note #a1 #ee-ef2 ( atta9m5t1 #dg2 ( bus9ess1 #di2 intellectual & /hetic1 #ajg-ajh1 #aec1 #aeg1 #dgb2 b5evol5t & sympa!tic1 #di1 #ej2 ( virtue1 #aec1 #agj1 #aga1 #agd1 #age2 -s1 ( ! animal life1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aei2 ( weal? & greatness1 ,adam ,smi?'s view (1 #aee note #a--7;cf4 ,heal?1 ,weal?1 etc472 ,/oic view (1 #abi2 ,gre5's view (1 #acb seq42 ,plato's view ( its illusor9ess1 #adj2 ,sp5c] & ,grant ,all5's #8,int]mitt5ce' !ory (1 #ahg ,pleasures & ,pa9s1 ,moral1 #agj seq41 #aga note #a2 ( ,sympa?y1 #di1 #ej1 #dii-ejb1 #dii note #a2 scale (1 involves assumption ( a ,h$oni/ic z]o1 #abd1 #abe2 comm5surability (1 #abc-abe1 #abd note #a1 #abh note #a1 #aca1 #acb1 #adj-aej2 difficulties ( a cle>1 def9ite & consi/5t evaluation (1 #adj-aej2 incomm5surable int5sity (1 d\btful1 #abc1 #abd2 int5sity (1 comm5surable ) duration1 #abd2 ,b5?am's f\r dim5sions (1 #abd note #a2 volitional efficacy (1 #abe-abg2 _! relation to normal activities1 #ahe1 etc42 ,ari/otle's & ,hamilton's !ory (1 #ahj seq42 ,/\t's !ory (1 #ahb2 ,wundt's !ory (1 #ahd2 ,sp5c]'s biological !ory (1 #aij seq4 ,plut>*1 #cgf ,polit5ess 7,good ,bre$+1 ,fa%ion1 ,etiquette71 #bec2 ,code (1 #cj1 #cdj1 #cda ,political ord]1 ,r\sseau's view ( an ideally j1 #bih ,politics--& ,e?ics1 #ae-bb2 def9ition (1 #a note #a1 #ae 7cf4 ,law7 ,positive ,morality--& ,morality ( ,common ,s5se1 #bae2 relation (1 to pres]vation & to happ9ess1 #dfd1 #dfe2 alt]ation (1 #afd1 #dhj ,p[]1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aei ,practical efficacy & speculative tru?1 relation betwe51 #ejg note #a ,practical ,empirical ,h$onism1 an assumption (1 #aca ,practical 7or ,moral7 ,judgm5t1 #bc seq4 ,practical 7or ,moral7 ,reason1 #bc-ch passim2 its relation to ,int]e/ & to non-rational & irrational desires1 #cf2 & ,nature1 #ha2 a po/ulate (1 #f1 #ab2 ,dualism (1 #djd note #a1 #cff1 #bjj1 #bje-bjf1 #dii1 #ejg-eji 7cf4 ,happ9ess & ,duty7 ,praise1 common s5se aw>d (1 expla9$ by utility1 #dbh1 #dbi ,prie/ley1 #hh ,note ,promise1 #cjc-caa passim2 conditions & mean+ (1 #cjd2 conditions ( b9d+ness ( a1 #caa ,pro( ( a fir/ pr9ciple1 h[ possible1 #dai1 #dbj ,pro(--( ,egoism may be dem&$1 #dah1 #dai2 ( ord9>y moral rules is (t5 requir$ & giv51 #dai ,pro( ( ,utilit>ianism1 #dah-dbb passim2 cle> dem& ( common s5se =1 #dah1 #dai2 address$ to ,egoism1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dig-dih2 address$ to ,intuitionism1 tw(old "* (1 #dba1 #dbb 8,pro(0 ( ,utilit>ian pr9ciple1 ,mill's1 #chg1 #chh ,prop]ty & ,"r ( ,beque/1 #bgg ,prud5ce 7or ,=e?\ght71 #g1 #cf1 #if1 #cia2 common s5se view (1 #cbg1 #cbh2 ,kant's & ,butl]'s views (1 #cbg note #a2 self-evid5t maxim ( imp>tiality educible f ! rule (1 #cha2 & ,b5evol5ce1 subord9ation ( o!r virtues to1 #dif-dig #8,prud5tial' & #8,moral1' #be-bf ,psy*ological ,h$onism1 #dj seq42 ( ,b5?am1 #he2 e?ical import (1 #da1 #bje ,public ,op9ion1 ,code (1 #cj ,public & private virtue1 ,utilit>ian & ,intuitioni/ e/imates (1 #die ,puni%m5t1 #bha1 #bij seq41 #bij note #a1 #bia note #a2 prev5tive & retributory views (1 #ga-gb ,purity1 #bbc1 #cbi-cca1 #cbi note #b1 #ceg-cei ,quantitative ,h$onism1 #abi ,quasi-moral ,s5tim5t1 #bg-bh1 #agc-agd ,quasi-moral ,s5tim5ts & ,rational ,self-love1 #agc-agd ,rank ( ,motives1 difficulties ( e/imat+1 #cfe-cfg1 #cfi2 conflict+ e/imates (1 by morali/s1 #cff2 difficulty due to complexity ( motive1 #cfh ,rational action1 n to be id5tifi$ ) 7a7 dis9t]e/$ or 7b7 free action1 #eg2 ,sp9oza's view ( ! pr9ciple (1 #hi-ij ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 #if2 may be self-limit+1 #che2 ,kant's treatm5t (1 #che-chf ,note1 #chi-cij ,rational ,self-love 7,rational ,egoism1 ,prud5ce7--& ,consci5ce1 #agb1 #bjj1 #bjj note #b1 #cff2 & ,rational ,b5evol5ce1 #chf note #d1 #dih seq4 ,reason--& ,ultimate ,ends1 #i1 #gg1 #gg note #a2 relation (1 to ,w & ,desire1 #bc seq42 ref]5ce ( moral judgm5ts to1 signifies m]ely _! objectivity1 #cc2 conflict )1 impli$ 9 ! t]ms dictate1 precept1 imp]ative1 ought1 duty1 moral obligation1 #cd1 #ce2 dictate or precept (1 is a rule :i* may be deviat$ f1 #da2 dictates or imp]atives (1 #cd1 #cf1 #gg2 & ! ,div9e ,w1 #gi1 #hj2 dictate (1 impli$ by "r1 rightness1 & _! equival5ts1 #aje2 & in/9ct1 #aic-aie2 may be self-limit+1 #cde2 dictates & dictation (1 #cde1 #cie1 #djd ,reason = do+ :at is se5 to be "r1 :y m5 dem& a1 #e-f ,reasonabl5ess ( ,self-love1 ,butl]'s view (1 #aai1 #abj2 ,cl>ke's view (1 #abj2 ,*ri/ian view (1 #abj2 common s5se view (1 #abj ,rebellion1 :5 ju/ifiable81 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja1 #ceb ,reciprocity1 pr9ciple (1 #afg1 #afh ,religi\s deception1 #caf1 #caf note #b ,r5an quot$1 #ajh note #a ,reputation1 #aee ,res5tm5t1 in/9ctive & delib]ate1 #cbb1 #cbc2 delib]ate1 ,butl]'s view (1 #cbc note #a1 #cga2 univ]salis$ ! pr9ciple ( retributive 7crim9al7 ju/ice1 #bha2 evaluation (1 #ddi ,resolutions1 #cg2 g5]al1 may be contradict$ by p>ticul> volitions1 #cg-ch ,respect1 tok5s (1 #ccf1 #ccf note #a ,rev]5ce = ,au?ority1 #ci #8,"r'--notion involv$ 91 is unique1 #be2 & #8good1' #c1 #d2 & #8ought1' di/9ction betwe51 #cd1 #ce2 conduct & #8good' conduct1 #ajf1 #aac ,"r ,conflict & ,ultimate ,good1 #c ,rights1 #bgd1 etc4 ,rightful au?ority1 h[ kn[n81 #bif2 :at are its limits81 #cja1 #cjb ,r\sseau1 #bih2 8 political ideal1 difficulty ( realis+1 #bih1 #bii #8,rule ( ,equity1' ,cl>ke's1 #chd-che #8,rule ( ,love or ,b5evol5ce1' ,cl>ke's1 #che #8,rules ( ,righte\sness1' ,cl>ke's1 #chd1 #chd note #d1 #che ,rules prescrib+ actions z good or "r op5 to ,utilit>ian int]pretation1 #dcj ,sagacity1 #bcf ,sanctions1 #afd-age passim1 #dih1 #dii1 #ejj seq41 #ejb1 #eje1 #ejg-ejh2 conflict (1 #afd1 #afe2 legal1 & happ9ess1 #afe1 #aff1 #afe note #a2 social1 & happ9ess1 #aff1 #afg2 social1 & extra-legal duty1 #afg1 #afh2 int]nal1 & happ9ess1 #agj1 #agj note #a1 #aga1 #aga note #a1 #agb1 #agc1 #eja-ejb ,scotti% ,s*ool ( ,e?ical ,?\ght1 #ajd ,self-control1 #bce-bcg1 #cca1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cef ,self-developm5t 7,self-realisation71 indef9it5ess ( ! notion1 #ij1 #ia2 z e?ical aim1 #aib1 #aic2 und]/ood z yield+ to in/9ctive impulses1 #aic-aid ,self-evid5ce1 difficulty ( disc]n+ real1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda ,self-int]e/1 #be1 #bf ,self-love1 ord9>y use & ambiguity (1 #hi2 & c]ta9 elevat$ impulses1 #acg-ach2 ,butl]'s view (1 #ic2 & b5evol5ce & affection1 #ach1 #djc1 #ejb ,self-pres]vation1 #hi ,self-realisation1 #hj1 #ij1 #ie ,self-reg>d+ virtues1 #cbg-cca ,self-sacrifice1 #aji note #a1 #ach1 #dca1 #dcb ,self-satisfaction1 ,gre5's view (1 #acc1 #ace1 #ace note #c ,selfi%ness1 #dii ,s]vices1 comp>ative wor? (1 h[ det]m9$1 #bhf1 #bhg2 rew>d (1 h[ det]m9$1 #bij ,%aftesbury1 #hf1 #hf notes #a & #b1 #ach1 #dbc1 #dbc note #a1 #dcc1 #eja ,sidgwick1 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy1 #bfg note1 #dde note #b1 #ddf note #a ,s9c]ity1 #cee ,smi?1 ,adam1 #dbd1 #dfa1 7,weal? ( ,nations1 ,!ory ( ,moral ,s5tim5ts7 #aee note #a ,social ,contract1 #ag1 #big-bih1 #cjc1 #cea ,social rank & /atus1 #aec1 #aee ,sociali/ic ideal1 #bhi1 #bic-bid ,sociology--scope & subject (1 #b2 pres5t condition (1 #dgb1 #dgc ,socrates1 #ei note #a1 #ih-ii1 #bae1 #bca note #a1 #bii ,socratic ,induction1 #ih-ii ,socratic pr9ciple ( 8,gov]nm5t by exp]ts10 #bii 1 1 #bca1 #bca note #a ,s\rces ( ,happ9ess1 #ace1 #acf1 #aec seq42 judgm5ts ( common s5se respect+ !m1 only r\ghly tru/wor?y1 #aeh-afj2 common s5se e/imates ( 7a7 at be/ are only true = ord9>y p]sons1 7b7 are vitiat$ by mal-obs]vation1 7c7 confuse betwe5 objects ( natural desire & s\rces ( exp]i5c$ pleasure1 #aea1 #aeb1 7d7 mix moral & /hetic pref]5ces ) h$oni/ic1 #aec1 7e7 are f\nd to be full ( inconsi/5cies1 #aec-aeh ,sov]eign p[]1 ,hobbi/ & ,au/9ian views (1 #cjj note #a ,special moral codes1 #cj1 #ca1 #afh1 #afi1 #cdj1 #cda ,special ne$1 duties aris+ out (1 #bfa1 #bfb ,sp5c]1 ,h41 #abe-abf1 #agg note #a1 #ahc seq41 #aid note #a1 #dgj1 #dga1 #dgj notes #a & #b1 #dgc2 7,social ,/atics71 #ah note #b1 #aid note #a2 7,data ( ,e?ics71 #ah note #b1 #agg note #a1 #aid note #a1 #dgj note #a 8,sph]e ( individual option0 det]m9$ by ,utilit>ian calculation1 #dgg-dgi ,sp9oza1 #ij ,/eph51 ,leslie1 #cai ,note1 #dga1 #dga note #b1 #dgb1 #dgc2 7,sci5ce ( ,e?ics71 #db note #a1 #dga ,/ew>t1 ,dugald1 #ded1 #dee2 7,philosophy ( ! ,active & ,moral ,p[]s71 #ib note #b1 #ded note #a ,/oic sy/em1 its place 9 ! developm5t ( e?ical ?\ght1 #ajf2 e?ics1 circul> reason+s (1 #cgf1 #cgg ,/oicism1 lat] comp>$ ) e>li]1 #cgf note #a ,/oics1 #ib1 #aje1 #abi ,/\t1 ,g4 ,f41 #ahj note #b1 #ahb1 #ahf2 7,analytic ,psy*ology71 #ahb note #a ,subjective1 cf4 ,objective ,sugge/io falsi1 #cag ,suicide prohibit$ by ,common ,s5se1 #cbg1 #cca1 #cef ,sully1 ,pessimism1 #acf note #a1 #ahf note #a ,suppressio v]i1 #cag ,sympa?y--& ,moral ,s5sibility1 relation betwe51 #agj note #a1 #ejj-eja2 ) impulses prompt+ to action1 #dfc1 #dfc note #b2 limitations & p]v]sions (1 #dfd2 tw(old op]ation (1 on moral impulses1 #dhc2 confusion 9 ,mill's view (1 #dii note #a2 & happ9ess ( ag5t1 #agj note #a1 #dii note #a1 #dii-ejc ,sy/ematic ,morality1 explanation ( indiff]5ce or ho/ility to1 #ii-ajj ,tautological propositions (f]$ z e?ical axioms1 #cgd seq4 ,temp]ance1 #bbd1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cdd note #a1 #cef ,torquemada1 #bbf note #a #8,true ,good1' #c 7cf4 ,good1 ,ultimate ,good7 ,tru?1 ,c>tesian ,crit]ion (1 #cci ,ultimate ,end1 = ! individual & = ! :ole1 #djd1 #dig-dih ,ultimate ,good1 ,my1 #aji seq41 #aji note #a1 #dig-dih ,ultimate ,good1 ,! 7! ,good71 #c1 #ajf seq41 #cia-djg passim ,ultimate reasonabl5ess1 diff]5t views (1 implicit 9 ord9>y ?\ght1 #f ,ultimate reasons = conduct1 #gh1 #gi2 diff]5ces 91 correspond to diff]5t aspects ( human exi/5ce1 #gh 7cf4 #gi7 #8,ultra-intuitional1' #ajj #8,unconsci\s ,utilit>ianism' ( ,common ,s5se ,morality1 #dec seq41 #dhi1 etc4 ,univ]sal ,happ9ess z /&>d & motive1 #dac ,univ]sali/ic & ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 connexion betwe5 7a7 9 ,b5?am's view1 #hg ,note2 7b7 9 ,paley's view1 #aba ,unv]acity1 common1 #caf seq41 #dhf ,utilit>ian--=mula ( di/ribution n really at v>iance ) ,common ,s5se1 #dcb1 #dcc2 ju/ification ( special affections1 #dcc1 #dcd2 ideal code1 difficulties ( con/ruct+ su*1 = pres5t human be+s1 #dfg-dgj2 rectification ( ,common ,s5se ,morality mu/ proce$ by empirical me?od1 #dgf-dhj2 innovation1 negative & de/ructive1 probable effects ( 7a7 on ! ag5t1 #dha1 #dhb-dhc1 7b7 on o!rs1 #dhb1 #dhc2 innovation1 positive & supplem5t>y1 z affect+ ! ag5t & o!rs1 #dhc1 #dhd2 innovation 9 relation to degree ( publicity & g5]ality ( acceptance1 #dhi-dij1 #dhi note #a2 re=m1 consi/s l>gely 9 en=c+ old rules1 #dhd2 exceptions to curr5t morality 7a7 may g5]ally be /at$ z fre% rules1 #dhe1 #dhi1 7b7 special & r>e cases (1 #dhf-dhg2 ,duty & ,religi\s ,sanction1 #ejc-ejf2 ,sanction1 #ejj seq4 ,utilit>ianism1 #h1 #aa1 #aai2 7 ,univ]sali/ic or ,b5?amite ,h$onism71 #hd1 #aai1 #daa2 ,pro( (1 #dah-dbb2 ,pr9ciple (1 #hg1 7,mill's view (7 #chg1 #chh2 ,me?od (1 #dfj-die2 mean+ (1 #daa-dag passim2 to be di/+ui%$ f 7a7 ,egoi/ic ,h$onism1 #daa1 #dab1 7b7 any psy*ogonical !ory ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 #dab-dac2 motive & /&>d (1 to be discrim9at$1 #dac2 contradictory objections to1 #hg2 & ,intuitionism1 relation betwe51 #he-hf1 #chf seq41 #dif-dig2 & ,intuitionism1 hi/ory ( relation betwe51 9 ,engli% e?ical ?\ght1 #hf1 #dbc1 #dbd2 & ,egoism1 relation betwe51 #dig1 #dih2 & ,egoism1 h>mony (1 7a7 n empirically demon/rable1 #ejc1 7b7 requir$ by ,reason1 #ejf2 & ,common ,s5se ,morality1 #h1 #dbc-deg passim1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dge1 #dgf1 #dhj seq41 #dih1 #dii2 ju/ifies ! unequal di/ribution :i* ,common ,s5se approves1 #dcb seq42 m rigid ?an ,common ,s5se1 #dii1 #ejd2 function (1 z arbit] to ,common ,s5se1 #ded1 #dee2 reasonable attitude (1 to ,common ,s5se ,morality1 #dgc-dgd1 #dge-dgf2 aims at rem$y+ imp]fections ( ,common ,s5se ,morality1 #dgf2 & ,axiom ( ,b5evol5ce1 #chg1 #chh1 #dif-dig1 #dih2 & ,conjugal & ,p>5tal ,duties1 #dce1 #dcf2 & ,duties ( ,special ,ne$1 #dcf1 #dcg2 & ,gratitude1 #dcg1 #dch2 & b5evol5t ,duties1 #dce seq42 & ,law-obs]vance1 #ddj1 #dda2 & ,imp>tiality1 #dda1 #ddb1 #ddg1 #ddg note #a2 & ,normal ,expectations1 #ddb-ddc2 & ,good ,fai?1 #ddc1 #ddd1 #ddc note #c2 & ,fre$om1 #ddd1 #dde2 & di/ribution accord+ to ,des]t1 #dde-ddg2 & ,ju/ice1 #ddj seq41 #ddg2 & ,v]acity1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dhc2 & ,malevol5ce1 #ddi2 & ,self-reg>d+ virtues1 #dej2 & ,purity1 #ddi-dej2 & ,sympa?y1 #ejj seq42 & ,*ri/ianity1 #ejd #8,utility1' ,hume's & ,b5?am's uses (1 #dbc note #b ,v]acity1 #ig1 #bbd1 #cac1 #cad-cai passim1 #cee1 #ddh1 #ddi2 & ,good ,fai?1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cac1 #cad ,virtue 7,moral ,p]fection or ,excell5ce71 #aj1 #ad1 #gh1 #ajf1 #bai1 #bai note #a1 #bbj1 #bbj note #c1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbf1 #bbg2 or ,"r ,action1 its relation to ! ,good1 #ajf2 & ,happ9ess1 #aai1 #abj1 #agd-age1 #dfa2 ,plato's & ,ari/otle's acc\nts (1 #cgf2 involves ref]5ce to an ,ultimate ,good :i* is n ,virtue1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie2 & ,duty1 #bag-bcj passim2 & emotion1 #bbb-bbc1 #bbf2 volunt>9ess (1 #bbj1 #bbg2 & motive1 #bbc-bbd2 & habit1 #bbg2 & moral ef=t1 relation betwe51 #bbd1 #bbe1 #dbi2 intellectual conditions (1 #bbe2 is ,k1 ,socratic doctr9e t1 #bbg note #a2 felicific "* (1 #dbd1 #dbe ,virtues1 intellectual1 #bca-bcg passim2 self-reg>d+1 #cbg-cca passim ,virtu\s conduct1 commonly reg>d$ z dis9t]e/$1 #gg1 #gh ,virtu\s motives1 admitt$ by "s morali/s1 #cfe1 #cff2 ,dr4 ,m>t9eau's rejection (1 #cfg ,vivisection controv]sy1 #djb1 #djf note #a ,volition1 analysis (1 #fa1 #fb2 ,det]m9i/ view (1 #fb note #a2 conception (1 h[ f> inevitably ,lib]t>ian1 #fg1 #ga2 causes muscul> contractions1 #gc2 affects ?\ght & feel+1 #gc1 #gd2 act+ ?r\gh resolutions alt]s m5's t5d5cies to action1 #gd1 #ge1 #ge note #a2 its emotional antec$5ts ( second>y e?ical importance1 #gg ,volunt>y action1 def9ition (1 #ei ,volunt>y *oice & irresi/ible impulse1 #fg note #c ,wayl&1 ,elem5ts ( ,moral ,sci5ce1 #bef note #b ,weal?1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee ,well-be+ 7! ,good atta9able 9 human life71 #ib1 #ib note #a2 ,/oic view (1 #ib2 ,ari/otle's view (1 #ib1 #ib note #b2 n m]e promise ( future be+1 #cif1 #cig ,:ewell1 #eh1 #hf2 7,elem5ts ( ,morality71 #eh note #b1 #cag note #a1 #cbi note #a ,w--,subjective ,rightness (1 & ,ultimate ,good1 #cid1 #cie2 divorc$ f ,objective ,rightness is fanaticism1 #cie ,wisdom1 #bcj1 #bca-bcf passim1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cic1 #dcj2 mean+ & use ( t]m1 #bca2 ,greek view (1 #bca2 common s5se def9ition (1 #bcc2 ref]s to ends z well z means1 #bca-bcc2 9 selection ( ends & means1 h[ f> volunt>y1 #bcc-bce2 9 adoption ( select$ ends1 #bce2 compreh5siv5ess (1 #bch2 & ,temp]ance & ,ju/ice1 tautological maxims (1 #cge2 & ,caution & ,decision1 d n furni% indep5d5t rules1 #bcg ,note ,wundt1 #ahd note #c ,zeal or ,moral ,ard\r1 #bcg1 #cib ,z5o1 #cgf ,,! ,,end ,pr9t$ by ,r4 ,r4 ,,cl>k1 ,,limit$1 ,ed9burgh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,_m ref]5ces 9 ! index are to ! orig9al numb]s ( ! notes1 :i* d n correspond to ! r5umb]+ us$ 9 ?is e-text4 ,! foll[+ app>5t errors h be5 correct$3 p4 ix m t *ang$ to m ?an p4 xii *ap iv4 *ang$ to *ap4 iv4 p4 xix *ap iv4 *ang$ to *ap4 iv4 p4 xxviii #bja *ang$ to #bja-bjg p4 xxxv legal code *ang$ to legal code4 p4 #dd 8 own1 *ang$ to 8 own4 p4 #ee adapt$ by *ang$ to adopt$ by p4 #bgb 7note7 #b *ang$ to #b4 p4 #cah 7note7 *ap i4 *ang$ to *ap4 i4 p4 #dae 7note7 appe> *ang$ to appe>s p4 #dib let z *ang$ to let u p4 #eah #bhe3 *ang$ to #bhe2 p4 #eai cf4 ,law *ang$ to cf4 ,law p4 #eai cf4 ,p]fection *ang$ to cf4 ,p]fection p4 #ebj #ahj-ahb1 *ang$ to #ahj-ahb2 p4 #eba ,h$oni/ic ,z]o *ang$ to ,h$oni/ic ,z]o p4 #ebb ,note2 #dhf *ang$ to ,note1 #dhf p4 #ebc #bjc note #a1 *ang$ to #bjc note #a2 p4 #ebd #hd1 #ig3 *ang$ to #hd1 #ig2 p4 #ebf ,good1 ,ultimate ,good *ang$ to ,good1 ,ultimate ,good ,! foll[+ possible errors h be5 left z pr9t$3 p4 #agg evalu+ p4 #ebd #dje note #a2 #dda ,! foll[+ are us$ inconsi/5tly 9 ! text3 ,common-s5se & ,common-,s5se c\nt]balanc+ & c\nt]-balanc+ fairm9d$ & fair-m9d$ goodwill & good-w highm9d$ & high-m9d$ lawgiv] & law-giv] note & ,note tru?speak+1 tru?-speak+1 ,tru?speak+ & ,tru?-speak+ tw(old & two-fold vice v]s & vice v]sa wellbe+1 well-be+1 ,wellbe+ & ,well-be+ widespread & wide-spread wrongdo+ & wrong-do+