,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,lv ,,may ,,to ,,october1 #ahii ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahii ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,pepper4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,october1 #ahii4 ,,the ,,help ,,that ,,harms4 ,,by ,,the ,,right ,,reverend ,,henry ,c4 ,,potter4 ,the analogies between the life of an individual and that other organism which we call civilized society are as interesting as for any other reason because of their inexhaustible and ever-fresh variety4 ,the wants1 the blunders1 the growth1 the perils of the individual are matched at every step by those other wants and dangers and developments which rise in complexity and in variety as the individual and the social organism rise in intelligence1 in numbers1 and in wealth4 ,it ought to interest us1 if it never has1 to consider from how much that is mischievous and dangerous we should be delivered if we could revert from the civilized to the savage state2 and it is undoubtedly true that serious minds have sometimes been tempted to question whether civilization is quite worth all that it has cost us in its manifold departures from a simple and more primitive condition4 ,such a question may1 at any rate1 not unnaturally arise when we ask ourselves the question1 ,what1 on the whole1 is the influence upon manhood--by which ,i mean1 here and for my present purpose1 the qualities that make courage1 self-reliance1 self-respect1 industry1 initiative--in fact1 those independent and aggressive characteristics by which great races1 like great men1 have climbed up out of earlier obscurity and inferiority into power1 leadership1 and distinction2 what is the influence upon these of conditions which tend1 apparently by an inevitable law1 to beget or to encourage indolence1 inertia1 parasitic dependence8 ,one can not but be moved to such a question by either of two papers which have recently appeared in these pages3 ,i mean that entitled ,abuse of ,public ,charity1 by ,comptroller ,bird ,s4 ,coler2 and that by ,prof4 ,franklin ,h4 ,giddings1 of ,columbia ,university1 on ,public ,charity and ,private ,vigilance4 ,the community whose capable and efficient servant he is has reason to be thankful that1 in the person of a public official intrusted with such large responsibilities1 it has a thoughtful and far-seeing student of problems whose grave importance he has so opportunely pointed out4 ,it needs the courage and the knowledge of such a one to affirm that it is easier for an industrious and shrewd professional beggar to live in luxury in ,new ,york than to exist in any other city in the world1 which1 if any social reformer or minister of religion or mere critic of the social order had said it1 would probably have been denounced as an atrabilious and unwarranted exaggeration4 ,concerning the comptroller's indictments of certain charitable societies and organizations as expensive mechanisms for the consumption of appropriations or contributions largely spent upon their salaried officials1 ,i am quite willing to recognize the force of ,professor ,giddings's demurrer to the effect that a so-called charitable society may now and then rightly exist1 and expend its income largely1 if not wholly1 upon the persons whom it employs as its agents1 since these agents are the vigilant committees whose office it is to detect1 discourage1 and expose unworthy objects1 whether of public or private charity4 ,but that1 besides such agencies1 there are constantly called into being wholly spurious organizations1 which profess to exist for the relief of certain classes of sufferers or of needy people2 that these succeed1 sooner or later1 in fastening themselves upon the treasury of the city and of the ,state2 and that they are1 in a great many cases1 monuments of the most impudent and unscrupulous fraud1 there can be no smallest doubt4 ,well1 it may be asked1 ,what are you going to do about it8 ,will you accept the inevitable evils that march in the rear of all public or private charity1 or will you sweep all the various agencies1 which have relieved such manifold varieties of human want and alleviated to such an incalculable degree human misery1 out of existence8 ,will you care to contemplate what a great city like ,new ,york or ,london would be if to-morrow you closed the doors of all the hospitals1 crches1 homes of the aged1 asylums for the crippled1 the blind1 the insane1 and the like1 and turned their inmates one and all into the street8 ,that is certainly a very dramatic alternative to present2 but suppose that we look at it a little more closely4 ,and1 in order that we may1 ,i shall ask my reader to go back with me1 not to that primitive or barbaric era to which ,i began by referring1 but only to a somewhat earlier stage in our own social history1 with which many persons now living are abundantly familiar4 ,one of the interesting and startling contrasts which might be presented to one anxious to impress a stranger with our ,american progress would be to take only our present century1 and group together1 out of its statistics1 the growth and development1 in its manifold varieties1 during that period in any city1 great or small1 of institutional charity4 ,but if such a one were just he would have1 first of all1 to put upon his canvas some delineation of that situation which1 under so many varying conditions and amid such widely dissimilar degrees of privilege or of opportunity1 preceded it4 ,i listened the other day to the story of a charming woman1 of marked culture and refinement1 as she depicted1 with unconscious grace and art1 the life of a gentlewoman of her own age and class--she was young and fair and keenly sympathetic--on a ,southern plantation before the civil war4 ,one got such a new impression of those whom1 under other skies and in large ignorance of their personal ministries or sacrifices1 we had been wont to picture as indolent1 exclusive1 indifferent to the sorrow and disease and ignorance that1 on a great rice or cotton or sugar plantation in the old days1 were all about them2 and one learned1 with a new sense of reverence for all that is best in womanhood1 how1 in days that are now gone forever1 there were under such conditions the most skillful beneficence and the most untiring sympathies4 ,but1 in the times of which ,i speak1 the service on the plantation for the sick slave 7which1 an ungracious criticism might have suggested1 since a slave was ordinarily a valuable piece of property1 had something of a sordid element in it7 was matched in communities and under conditions where no such suspicion was possible4 ,no one who knows anything of life in our smaller communities at the beginning of the century can be ignorant of what ,i mean4 ,there was no village or smallest aggregation of families that had not its ,abigail1 its ,aunt ,hannah1 its ,uncle ,ben1 who1 when there was sickness or want or sorrow in a neighbor's house1 was always on hand to sympathize and to succor4 ,i do not forget that it is said that1 even under our greatly changed conditions1 in modern cities this is still true of the very poor and of their kindness and mutual help to one another2 and ,i thank ,god that ,i have abundant reason1 from personal observation1 to know that it is4 ,but1 happily1 neither great cities nor small are largely made up of the very poor1 and the considerations that ,i am aiming to present to those who will follow me through these pages are not concerned with these4 ,what ,i am now aiming to get before my readers is that there was a time1 and that it was not so very long ago1 when that vast institutional charity which exists among us to-day1 and which ,i believe to be in so many aspects of it so grave a menace to our highest welfare1 did not exist1 because it had no need to exist4 ,the ordinary ,american community1 ,east or ,west1 had1 as distinguishing it1 however small its numbers and narrow its means1 two characteristics which our modern systems of institutional charity are widely conspiring to extinguish and destroy4 ,one of these was that resolute endurance of straitness and poverty of which there is so fine and true a portraiture in ,miss ,wilkins's remarkable story ,jerome4 ,i venture to say that the charm of that rare book1 to a great many of the most intelligent and appreciative of its readers1 lay in the fact that they could match it1 or something like it1 in their own experience2 that they had known silent and proud women1 and brave and proud boys1 to whom1 whatever the hard pinch of want that they knew1 to accept a dole was like accepting a blow1 and who covered their poverty alike from the eye of inquisitive stranger or kin with a robe of secrecy that was at once impenetrable and all-concealing4 ,life to them was a battle1 and they could lose it1 as heroes have lost it on the tented field1 without a murmur2 but to sue for bread to some other1 even if that other were of the same blood1 would have smitten them as with the stain of personal dishonor4 ,and over against such1 in the days and among the communities of which ,i speak1 were those whose gift and ministry it was--without an intrusive curiosity1 without a vulgar ostentation1 without a word or look that implied that they guessed the sore need to which they reached out--yet somehow to discover it1 to succor it1 and then to help1 finest and rarest of all1 to hide it4 ,now1 then1 behind such a condition of things there was a sure and wise discernment1 even if it was only instinctive1 of a profound moral truth1 which was this3 that you can not help me1 nor ,i you1 without risk4 ,for the most sacred thing in either of us is our manhood or womanhood--that thing which differentiates us from any mere mechanism1 that thing in us which says1 ,i can1 ,i ought1 ,i will4 ,take that out of human nature and what is left is not worth considering1 save as one might consider any other clever mechanism4 ,but the power to choose1 the power to act1 and the consciousness that choice and action are to be dominated by something that answers to the instinct of loyalty to ,god1 to self-respect1 to the ideals of honor and righteousness--that is what makes life worth living1 and any conceivable thing worth seeking or doing4 ,now1 the moment that the question of our mutual relations enters we have to be concerned with the way in which they will act on this power1 quality1 characteristic--call it what you will--that makes manhood4 ,it is not enough1 for example1 that my impulse to give you a pint of gin is a benevolent impulse1 if certain tendencies in you make it antecedently probable that a pint of gin will presently convert you from the condition of a rational being into that of a beast4 ,and so of any impulse of mine in the direction of beneficence which1 in its gratification1 threatens manhood--that is1 self-reliance1 self-respect1 independence1 the right and faithful use of powers in me4 ,and here we come to the problem which lies at the basis of the whole question of charitable relief1 for whatever class and in whatever form4 ,the wholesome elements in that earlier situation1 to which ,i have just referred1 were threefold1 and in our modern situation each one of them is sorely attenuated1 if not wholly absent3 #a4 ,in the first place1 there was a relative uniformity of condition4 ,in other words1 at the beginning of the present century in almost all communities1 whether industrial or agricultural1 the disparities of estate were inconsiderable4 ,there was perhaps the rich man of the village or town1 or two or three or half a dozen of them2 but they were rich only relatively1 and they were marked exceptions4 ,the great majority of the people were of comparatively similar employments and circumstances4 ,among these there were indeed considerable varieties of task work1 but work and wage were not far apart2 and1 what was of most consequence1 a certain large identity of condition brought into it a certain breadth of sympathy and mutual help1 out of which came the outstretched hand and the open door for the man who was out of work and was looking for it4 #b4 ,yes1 who was looking for it4 ,for here again was a distinguishing note of those earlier days of which ,i am speaking4 ,idleness was a distinct discredit1 if not dishonor4 ,in communities where everybody had to work1 an idler or a loafer was an intolerable impertinence1 and was usually made to feel it4 #c4 ,and yet1 again1 there was the vast difference in those days from ours that the industries of the world had not taken on their immensely organized and mechanized characteristics4 ,a mechanic--e4 g41 out of a job--then could turn his hand to anything that ordinary tools and muscle and intelligence could do4 ,but an ordinary mechanic now must be a skilled mechanician in a highly specialized department1 and when he is out of a job there1 he is ordinarily out of it all along the line4 ,i might1 as my reader will have anticipated me in recognizing1 go on almost indefinitely in this direction2 but ,i have said enough1 ,i trust1 to prepare him for the point which ,i want to make in connection with our modern charities and their mischief4 ,our modern social order1 in a word1 has become more complex1 more segregated1 more specialized4 ,a whole class of people in cities--those1 ,i mean1 of considerable wealth--with a few noble exceptions 7which1 however1 in our greater cities1 thank ,god1 are becoming daily less rare71 live in profound ignorance of the condition of their fellow-citizens4 ,now and then1 by some sharp reverse in the financial world or some national recurrence of bad times1 they are made aware that large numbers of their neighbors are out of work and starving4 ,and1 at all times1 they are no less reminded that there is a considerable class--how appallingly large it is growing to be in ,new ,york ,mr4 ,coler has told us--who need help1 or think they do1 and who1 at any rate1 more or less noisily demand it in the street1 at the door1 by begging letter1 or in a dozen other ways that make the rich man understand why the prayer of ,agur was1 ,give me neither poverty nor riches4#a ,footnote #a3 ,proverbs xxx1 #h4 ,well1 something must be done1 they agree4 ,what shall it be8 ,shall the ,state do it1 or the ,church1 or the individual8 ,if only they could1 as to that1 agree6 ,but it has been one of the most pathetic notes of our heedless and superficial treatment of a great problem that1 here1 there has not been from the beginning even the smallest pretense of a common purpose or any moderately rational course of action4 ,undoubtedly it is true that there is no imaginable mechanism that could relieve any one of these agencies from responsibility in the matter of relief to the unfortunate1 nor is it desirable that there should be4 ,sometimes it has been the ,church that has undertaken the relief of the poor and sick1 sometimes it has been largely left to the individual1 and sometimes it has been as largely left to the ,state4 ,but1 in any case1 the result has been almost as often as otherwise mischievous1 or corrupt and corrupting4 ,for1 in fact1 the ideal mode of dealing with the problems of sickness1 destitution1 and disablement should be one in which the common endeavor of the ,state1 the ,church1 and the individual should be somehow unified and co-ordinated4 ,but1 incredible as it ought to be1 the history of the best endeavors toward such co-ordination has been a history of large inadequacy and of meager results4 ,as an illustration of this it is enough to point to the history of the ,charity ,organization ,society in ,new ,york1 which1 ,i presume1 is not greatly different from that of similar societies elsewhere4 ,antecedently it would have seemed probable that such a society1 which aims simply to discourage fraud1 to relieve genuine want1 and to protect the community from being preyed upon by the idle and the vicious1 would have the sympathy of that great institution1 some of whose teachings are1 ,if any man will not work1 neither shall he eat2 ,stand upright on thy feet2 ,provide things honest in the sight of all men2 ,not slothful in business2 and the like4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 such societies have had no more bitter antagonists than the churches1 and no more vehement opponents than ministers of religion4 ,in a meeting composed of such persons ,i have heard one of their number denounce with the most impassioned oratory any agency which undertook1 by any mechanism1 to intrude into the question of the circumstances1 resources1 or worthiness of those who were the objects of ecclesiastical almsgiving4 ,who1 he demanded1 could know so well as the clergy all the facts needed to enable them wisely and judiciously to assist those worthy and needy brethren who were of their own household of faith8 ,nothing could sound more plausible or probable2 but in a little while it happened that a woman who had for years been a beneficiary of this very pastor died1 leaving behind her1 among her effects1 sundry savings-bank books which showed her to be possessed of some thousands of dollars1 which she bequeathed to relatives in a distant land4 ,still more recently a case of a similar character has occurred in which a still larger amount having been paid over in small sums through a long series of years by a church1 the whole1 with interest1 has been found to have been hoarded1 the recipient having been a person entirely capable of self-support1 and1 as a matter of fact1 during the whole period self-supporting1 and the large accumulations are at present the subject of a suit in which the church is endeavoring to recover what it not unnaturally regards as its own misappropriated money4 ,and yet1 as any one knows who knows anything of the delicacy1 vigilancy1 and thoroughness with which a well-organized society conducts its work1 any such grotesque and deplorable result would1 with a little wise co-operation between the ,church and such a society1 have been rendered impossible4 ,i know how impatient many good people are of the services of any such association1 and we have all heard ad nauseam of their protests against a spy system which invades the sacred privacy of decent poverty1 and the rest2 but1 in fact1 such persons never seem to realize that1 in one aspect of it1 the ,church stands1 or1 as a matter of common honesty1 as the administrator of trust funds1 ought to stand1 on the same equitable basis1 at least1 as a life-insurance company4 ,now1 when ,i seek the benefits of a life-insurance company ,i am asked certain questions which affect not only my physical resources but my diseases1 my ancestry and their diseases1 my personal habits1 infirmities1 and the like4 ,if the company has the right1 in the just interests of its other clients1 to ask these questions1 as administering a large trust1 has not the ,church1 which is also the administrator of a trust no less in the interest of other clients8 ,but1 indeed1 this is the lowest aspect of such a question1 and ,i freely admit it4 ,the title of this paper points to that gravest aspect of it1 with which ,i am now concerned4 ,the largest mischief of indiscriminate almsgiving is not its wanton waste--it is its inevitable and invariable degradation of its objects4 ,i have spoken of the grave antagonism of the ,church to wisely organized charity1 but it is but the echo of the hostility of the individual1 and often of the best and wisest men and women4 ,elsewhere 7but not1 ,i think1 in print7 ,i have related an incident in this connection of which one is almost tempted to say ex uno disce omnes4 ,approaching one day1 when ,i was a pastor in a great city1 the door of one of my clerical brethren1 ,i observed a woman leaving it who1 though she hastily turned her back upon me1 ,i recognized as a member of my own congregation4 ,on entering my friend's study ,i said to him3 ,i beg your pardon1 but was not that ,mrs4 ---- whom ,i saw leaving your door a moment ago8 ,yes4 ,what was she after1 may ,i ask8 ,my friend--now1 alas6 no longer living--was a man distinguished by singular delicacy and chivalry of character and bearing1 and he turned upon me with some surprise and hauteur and said3 ,well1 yes1 you may ask2 but ,i do not know that1 in the matter of the sad and painful circumstances of one of my own parishioners1 ,i am called upon to answer4 ,precisely1 ,i replied2 but1 as it happens1 she isn't your parishioner4 ,what do you mean1 sir8 he exclaimed1 with some heat4 ,do you suppose that ,i don't know the members of my own flock8 ,on the contrary1 ,i said1 ,i have no doubt that you know not only them but the members of a great many other flocks1 as in the instance of the person who has just left your door1 who1 as it happens1 has been a member of the church of which ,i am rector for some fifteen years4 ,the remark and the abundant evidence with which ,i was able to re-enforce it at last persuaded my friend to institute further inquiries1 which resulted in the discovery that the subject of those inquiries maintained similar relations with some seven parishes1 from every one of which she was receiving1 as a poor widow1 a monthly allowance6 ,and yet my reverend brother was one of the most strenuous opponents of any system or society1 any challenge or interrogation which1 as he said1 came between him and his poor4 ,alas6 though in one sense they were his poor1 in another they were as remote from him as if they and he had been living in different hemispheres4 ,with every sympathy for their distresses1 he had not come to recognize that1 under those complex conditions of our modern life1 to which ,i have already referred1 a real knowledge of the classes upon whom need and misfortune and the temptations to vice and idleness press most heavily has become almost a science1 in which training1 experience1 most surely a large faith1 but no less surely a large wisdom1 are indispensable4 ,in this work there is undoubtedly a place for institutional charity1 and also for that other which is individual4 ,the former affords a sphere for a wise economy1 for prompt and immediate treatment or relief1 and for the utilization of that higher scientific knowledge and those better scientific methods which the home1 and especially the tenement house1 can not command4 ,but over against these advantages we are bound always to recognize those inevitable dangers which they bring with them4 ,the existence of an institution1 whether hospital1 almshouse1 or orphanage1 to the care of which one may easily dismiss a sick member of the household1 or to which one may turn for gratuitous care and treatment1 must inevitably act as strong temptations to those who are willing to evade personal obligations that honestly belong to them4 ,in connection with an institution for the treatment of the eye and ear1 with which ,i happen to be officially connected1 it was found1 not long ago1 that the number of patients who sought it for gratuitous treatment was considerably increased by persons who came to the hospital in their own carriages1 which they prudently left around the corner1 and whose circumstances abundantly justified the belief that they were quite able to pay for the treatment1 which1 nevertheless1 their self-respect did not prevent them from accepting as a dole4 ,such incidents are symptomatic of a tendency which must inevitably degrade those who yield to it1 and which is at once vicious and deteriorating4 ,how widespread it is must be evident to any one who has had the smallest knowledge of the unblushing readiness with which institutional beneficence is utilized in every direction4 ,a young married man in the ,west1 ,i have been told1 wrote to his kindred in the ,east3 ,we have had here a glorious revival of religion4 ,mary and ,i have been hopefully converted4 ,father has got very old and helpless1 and so we have sent him to the county house4 ,one finds himself speculating with some curiosity what religion it was to which this filial scion was converted4 ,certainly it could not have been that which is commonly called ,christian6 ,and at the other end of the social scale the situation is often little better4 ,in our greater cities homes have been provided for the aged1 and especially for that most deserving class of gentlewomen who1 having been reared in affluence1 come to old age1 after having struggled to maintain themselves by teaching1 needlework1 and the like1 with broken powers and empty purses4 ,but it has1 ,i am informed1 been often impossible to find places for them in institutions especially created for their care1 because its lady managers have filled their places with their own worn-out servants1 who1 having spent their years and strength in their employer's service1 are turned over in their old age1 with a shrewd frugality which one can not but admire1 to be maintained at the cost of other people4 ,it is impossible to confront such instances1 and they might be multiplied indefinitely1 without recognizing how enormous are the possibilities of mischief even in connection with the most useful institutional charity4 ,and yet these are not so great as those which no less surely follow1 as it is oftenest administered1 in the train of individual beneficence4 ,in an unwritten address1 not long ago1 ,i mentioned an illustration of this which ,i have been asked to repeat here4 ,while a rector in a large city parish1 ,i was called upon by a stranger who asked for money1 and who1 as evidence of his claims upon my consideration1 produced a letter from my father1 written some twenty-five years before1 when he was ,bishop of ,pennsylvania4 ,the writer had1 when this letter was placed in my hands1 been dead for some twenty years1 but1 in a community in which he had been greatly loved and respected1 his words had not1 even in that lapse of time1 lost their power4 ,the letter was a general letter1 addressed to no one1 and therein lay its mischief4 ,when read1 it had in each instance been returned to its bearer1 and he soon discovered that he had in it a talisman that would open almost any pocket4 ,he was originally a mechanic who had been temporarily disabled by a fit of sickness2 when ,i saw him1 however1 he was obviously1 and doubtless for years had been1 in robust health4 ,but he had discovered that if he were willing to beg he need not work1 and he had long before made his choice on the side of ease and indolence4 ,after reading the letter which he produced1 and looking at its date and soiled condition1 both revealing the long service that it had performed1 ,i said to him1 ,no1 ,i will not give you anything1 but ,i will pay you ten dollars if you will let me have that letter4 ,it would not be easy to describe the leer of cunning and contempt with which he promptly took it out of my hand1 folded it1 placed it in his pocketbook1 and left the room4 ,he was not so innocent as to surrender his whole capital in trade6 ,now1 here was a man to whom a well-meaning but inconsiderate act of kindness had been the cause of permanent degradation4 ,the highest qualities in such a one--manhood1 self-respect1 frugal and industrious independence--had been practically destroyed1 and an act of charity had made of one who was doubtless originally an honest and hard-working young man1 a mendicant1 a loafer1 and a fraud4 ,and yet for a sincere and self-sacrificing purpose to help our less fortunate fellow-men there were never so many inspiring and encouraging opportunities4 ,along with the undeniably increasing complexity of our modern life there have arisen those attractive instrumentalities for a genuine beneficence which find their most impressive illustrations in the improvements of the homes of the poor in college settlements1 in young men's and young girls' clubs in connection with our mission churches1 in the kindergartens and in the cooking schools founded by these and other beneficent agencies1 in juvenile societies for teaching handicrafts and encouraging savings1 and1 best of all1 in that resolute purpose to know how the other half live1 of which the noble service of ,edward ,denison in ,england2 of college graduates in ,england and in ,america1 who have made the college and university settlements their post-graduate courses2 of such women here and in ,chicago as ,miss ,jane ,addams1 and the charming group of gentlewomen living in the ,house in ,henry ,street1 ,new ,york1 maintained with such modest munificence by ,mr4 ,jacob ,schiff2 of such laborious and discerning scrutiny and sympathy as have been shown in the studies and writings of my friend ,mr4 ,jacob ,riis--are such noble and enkindling examples4 ,these and such as these are indicating to us the lines along which our best work for the relief of ignorance and suffering and want may to-day be done1 and the more closely they are studied1 and the more intimately the classes with which they are concerned are known1 the more abundantly they will vindicate themselves4 ,for these latter have in them1 far more commonly than we are wont to recognize1 those higher instincts of self-respect and of manly and womanly independence that1 in serving our fellow-men1 we must mainly count upon4 ,there are doubtless instinctive idlers and mendicants among the poor1 as1 let us not forget1 there are chronic idlers1 borrowers1 sponges1 among the classes at the other end of the social scale4 ,but the same divine image is in our brother man everywhere1 and the better1 more truly1 more closely we know him1 the more profoundly we shall realize it4 ,during some six weeks spent1 a few years ago1 in the most crowded ward in the world1 among thousands of people who lived in the narrowest quarter and upon the most scanty wage1 ,i gave six hours every day to receiving anybody and everybody who came to me4 ,during that time ,i had visits from dilapidated gentlemen from ,albany and ,jersey ,city and ,philadelphia and the like1 who supposed that ,i was a credulous fool whose money and himself would be soon parted1 and who gave me what they considered many excellent reasons for presenting them with five dollars apiece4 ,but1 during that whole period1 not one of the many thousands who lived in the crowded tenements all around me1 and to hundreds of whom ,i preached three times a week1 asked me for a penny4 ,not one6 ,they came to me by day and by night1 men and women1 boys and girls1 for counsel1 courage1 sympathy1 admonition1 reproof1 guidance1 and such light as ,i could give them--but never1 one of them1 for money4 ,they are my friends to-day1 and they know that ,i am theirs2 and1 little as that last may mean to the weakest and the worst of them1 ,i believe that1 in the case of any man or woman who tries to understand and hearten his fellow1 it counts for a thousandfold more than doles1 or bread1 or institutional relief4 ,,the ,,hopi ,,indians ,,of ,,arizona4 ,,by ,,george ,a4 ,,dorsey4 ,as one approaches the center of ,arizona1 along the line of the ,santa ,f ,railroad1 whether he come from the east or from the west1 his attention is sure to be arrested by several tall1 spire-like hills which are silhouetted against the sky to the far north4 ,these peaks are the ,moki ,buttes1 and to the north of them lies the province of ,tusayan1 the land of the ,mokis1 or the ,hopis1 as they prefer to be called4 ,that country to-day contains more of interest to the student of the history of mankind than any other similar-sized area on the ,american continent4 ,but very few of the great throng that roll by on the ,santa ,f trains every year in quest of pleasure1 of recreation1 of new scenes and strange1 stop off at ,holbrook or ,winslow to take the journey to the ,hopis1 and very few even know of the existence of these curiously quaint pueblos of this community1 which to-day lives pretty much as it did before ,columbus set out on his long voyage to the unknown ,west4 ,the term pueblo1 a ,spanish word meaning town1 is by long and continued use now almost confined to the clusters of stone and adobe houses which to-day shelter the sedentary ,indians of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona4 ,not only are these ,indian towns called pueblos1 but we speak of the ,indians themselves as the ,pueblo ,indians1 and of the culture of the people--for they all have much in common--as the pueblo culture4 ,this similarity of culture is not due to unity of race or of language1 but is the resultant of a peculiar environment4 ,in recent times1 the limits of the pueblo-culture area have contracted to meet the demands of the white man2 we know also that before the advent of the ,spaniard many once populous districts had been abandoned1 and as a result there came to be fewer but larger villages4 ,we know also1 both from tradition and from archological evidence1 that in former days the pueblo people inhabited many of the villages of southern ,colorado and ,utah1 and that the ,hopis and their kin were numerous in many parts of ,arizona4 ,the silent houses of the cliffs1 the ruins of central ,arizona1 and the great crumbling masses of adobe of the ,salt and ,gila ,river valleys and in northern ,chihuahua are all former habitations of the ,pueblo ,indian4 ,to-day there are no representatives of these people in ,utah or ,colorado1 while the seven ,hopi towns of ,tusayan alone remain in ,arizona4 ,but there are still many pueblos scattered along the ,rio ,grande1 ,jemez1 and ,san ,juan ,rivers in ,new ,mexico4 ,alike in culture1 we may divide the existing pueblos into four linguistic groups--namely1 the ,hopis of ,arizona1 the ,zuis of ,new ,mexico1 the ,tehuas east of the ,rio ,grande1 and the ,queres to the west of the ,rio ,grande4 ,of the earlier home of the last three stocks we know but little4 ,the ancestors of the ,hopis we know came from different directions--some from the cliff dwellings of the north1 others from central ,arizona4 ,to-day1 however1 they form a congeries of clans united and welded into a unit by similarity of purpose and by the more powerful influence of a peculiar environment4 ,the opinion was held until within a very few years that the ,hopis represented a small branch of the ,shoshonean division of the ,uto-,aztecan stock1 but ,dr4 ,fewkes1 our greatest authority on the ,hopi1 has questioned the accuracy of this classification1 and it can be stated that the true affinities of the ,hopi have not yet been discovered4 ,the province of ,tusayan1 or the ,moqui ,reservation1 as it is officially known to-day1 contains about four thousand square miles and about two thousand ,indians4 ,it is in the northeastern part of ,arizona1 and its towns are about eighty miles by trail from the railroad4 ,the present inhabitants are grouped in seven pueblos1 located on three parallel mesas1 or table-lands1 which extend southward like stony fingers toward the valley of the ,little ,colorado ,river4 ,the first or east mesa contains the pueblos of ,walpi1 ,sitcomovi1 and ,hano2 on the second or middle mesa are ,miconinovi1 ,cipaulovi1 and ,cuopavi2 and on the third or west mesa stands ,oraibi1 largest and most ancient of all ,hopi pueblos1 and in many respects the best preserved and most interesting community in the world4 ,a community without a church1 separated by a broad1 deep valley from its nearest neighbor1 with but a single white man within twenty miles1 removed nearly thirty-five miles from a trading post1 isolated1 proud1 spurning the advances of the ,government1 ,oraibi could maintain its independence if every other community on the earth were blotted out of existence4 ,the journey from ,winslow to ,oraibi is not without great interest4 ,the beautiful snow-capped peaks of the ,san ,francisco ,mountain are always in sight far away to the west1 and when the eye tires of the rigid and immovable desert their graceful outlines check the often rising feeling of utter helplessness4 ,then there is a sweep and barrenness of the plain which is impressive and often awe-inspiring1 and which at times produces a feeling similar to that created by the sea4 ,save for the stunted cottonwoods along the ,little ,colorado ,river1 there is scant vegetation to relieve the bright reds1 yellows1 and blues of the painted desert over which the sun's heat quivers and dances1 revealing here and there mirages of lakes and forests of wonderfully deceptive vividness4 ,arising out of the plain here and there are brief expanses of table-lands1 with the soft under strata crumbled away and the higher strata having fallen down the sides1 producing often the appearance of a ruined castle4 ,at the foot of the mesas are clumps of sagebrush and grease wood1 while the plain is dotted here and there with patches of cactus and bright-colored flowers4 ,foxes and wolves are common enough1 and we are rarely out of sight or sound of the coyote1 bands of which make night hideous with their shrill1 weird cry4 ,although the ,navajo country proper is to the north and east of ,tusayan1 their hogans1 or thatched-roofed dugouts1 are met with here and there along the valley of the river4 ,the ,navajos are the ,bedouins of ,america4 ,we often see the women in front of the hogans weaving1 or the men along the trail tending their flocks of sheep and goats1 for they are great herders and produce large quantities of wool1 part of which they exchange to the traders2 the remainder the women weave into blankets1 which are in general use throughout the ,southwest and which find their way through the trade to all parts of the relic-loving world4 ,they raise1 in addition1 great quantities of beans1 which they also send out to the railroad4 ,they are better supplied with ponies than the ,hopi1 and with them make long journeys1 for the ,navajos do not live a communal life as do the pueblo people1 but are scattered over an extensive territory1 each family living alone and being independent of its neighbors4 ,after a long and tiresome journey of four days we arrive at the foot of the mesa and begin the long1 upward climb1 for ,oraibi is eight hundred feet above the surrounding plain and seven thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,just before the crest is reached the trail for fifty or more feet is simply a path along and up the base of a rocky precipice1 its steps worn deep by the never-ending line of ,indians passing to and fro4 ,once upon the summit we have an unobstructed view over the dry1 arid1 sun-parched valleys for many miles--a view which1 in spite of its desolation1 is extremely fascinating4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,scene1 ,,oraibi4 ,we often speak of this or of that town as the oldest on the continent4 ,but here we are in the streets of a town which antedates all other cities of the ,united ,states--a pueblo which occupied this very spot when1 in #aedj1 ,coronado halted in ,cibola and sent ,don ,pedro de ,tobar on to the west to explore the then unknown desert4 ,imagine seven rather irregularly parallel streets about two hundred yards long1 with here and there a more open spot or plaza1 lined on each side with mud-plastered1 rough-laid stone houses1 and you have ,oraibi4 ,the houses rise in the form of terraces to a height of two or three stories4 ,as a rule there is no opening to the ground-floor dwellings save through a small1 square hatch in the roof4 ,leading up to this roof are rude ladders1 which in a few rare instances are simply steps cut in a solid log1 differing in nowise from those found leading into the chambers of the old cliff ruins of southern ,colorado4 ,the roof of the first row or terrace of houses forms a kind of balcony or porch for the second terrace1 and so the roof of the second-story houses serves a similar useful purpose for the third-story houses4 ,illustration3 ,,terrace ,,scene1 ,,streets ,,of ,,oraibi4 ,two things impress one on entering a ,hopi home for the first time--the small size of the rooms1 with their low ceilings1 and the cleanness of the floors4 ,both floors and walls are kept fresh and bright by oft-renewed coats of thin plaster1 which is always done by the woman1 for she owns the house and all within it2 she builds it and keeps it in repair4 ,the ceiling is of thatch held up by poles1 which in turn rest on larger rafters4 ,apart from the mealing bins and the piki stones1 to be described later1 there is no furniture--no table1 no chairs1 no stools1 simply a shelf or two with trays of meal or bread1 and near the wall a long pole for clothing1 suspended by buckskin thongs from the rafters4 ,their bed is a sheepskin rug and one or two ,navajo blankets spread on the floor wherever there may be a vacant space4 ,in one corner may be a pile of corn stacked up like cordwood1 and in another corner melons or squashes and a few sacks of dried peaches or beans4 ,between the thatch and rafters you will find bows and arrows1 spindles1 hairpins1 digging-sticks1 and boomerangs1 and from the wall may hang a doll or two1 children's playthings4 ,such is an ,oraibi home2 but it always seems a happy home1 and the traveler is always welcome4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,scene1 ,,oraibi4 ,a prominent feature of almost every pueblo plaza is a squarish1 boxlike elevation which extends about two feet above the level of the earth and measures about six feet in length1 with a two-foot hole in the center1 from which projects to a considerable height the posts of a ladder4 ,if you descend this ladder you will find yourself in a subterranean chamber1 rectangular in shape1 and measuring about twenty-five feet in length by about fifteen feet in breadth1 with a height from the floor to the ceiling of about ten feet4 ,this underground room is the kiva1 or the estufa of the ,spaniards4 ,here are held all the secret rites of religious ceremonies1 and here the men resort to smoke1 to gossip1 to spin1 and weave4 ,the floor1 to an extent of two thirds of the entire length1 except for a foot-wide space extending around this portion1 is excavated still farther to a depth of a foot and a half4 ,the remaining elevated portion is for the spectators1 while the banquette around the excavation is used by the less active participants in the ceremonies4 ,just under the hatchway and in front of the spectators' floor is a depression which is used as a fire hearth4 ,the walls are neatly coated with plaster1 and the entire floor is paved with irregularly shaped flat stones fitted together in a rough manner4 ,there is sometimes inserted in the floor1 at the end removed from the spectators1 a plank with a circular hole about an inch and a half in diameter2 this hole is called the sipapu1 and symbolizes the opening in the earth through which the ancestors of the ,hopi made their entrance into this world4 ,the roof of the kiva is supported by great1 heavy beams1 which are brought from the ,san ,francisco ,mountain with infinite trouble and labor4 ,in ,oraibi there are thirteen kivas1 each probably in the possession of some society1 one of which belongs to women1 who there erect their altar in the mamzrouti ceremony4 ,oraibi has the largest number of kivas of any of the ,hopi pueblos2 in a single plaza there are no less than four kivas4 ,this plaza is on the west side of the village1 and one of the kivas is of special interest1 for in it are held the secret rites of the weird snake ceremony4 ,a little to the west of this plaza is a small bit of the mesa1 standing apart and separated from the main mesa by a depression4 ,this is known as ,oraibi rock1 whence the pueblo takes its name4 ,the etymology of this name ,oraibi is lost in a misty past1 but the rock is still held in great veneration4 ,on it stands a rude shrine1 where one may always find sacrificial offerings of prayer-sticks1 pipes1 sacred meal1 cakes1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,oraibi ,,rock1 ,,upon ,,which ,,stands ,,katcin ,,kiku1 ,,the ,,principal ,,oraibi ,,shrine4 ,the roof of a ,hopi house is always of interest4 ,here we may see corn drying in the sun or loads of fagots ready for use1 women dressing their hair or fondling their babies1 or groups of children playing or roasting melon seeds in an old broken earthenware vessel which rests on stones over a fire4 ,from the projecting rafters are ears of corn hung up to dry1 or pieces of meat placed there to be out of reach of the dogs1 or bunches of yarn just out of the dye pot4 ,when a ceremony is being performed in some one of the plazas the roofs near by present a scene which is animated in the extreme1 every square foot of space being occupied by a merry1 good-natured throng of young and old4 ,as one looks from one group to another it is impossible not to notice the stunted and dwarfed appearance of the women1 which is in marked contrast to that of the men1 who are beautifully formed1 of medium height1 and of well-knit frames4 ,there is not1 however1 the same powerful ruggedness or splendid development among these pueblo dwellers which we find among the plains ,indians1 for the days of the ,hopi women are spent in carrying water and grinding corn1 while the men in summer till their fields and in winter spin and weave4 ,in considering the routine life of the ,hopi it is hard to draw a sharp line between what we may call his regular daily occupations and his religious life1 for they are closely interwoven4 ,he is by nature a religionist1 and he never forgets his allegiance and obligations to the unseen forces which control and command him4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,oraibi ,,mother ,,and ,,children4 ,in nothing is the primitiveness or the absence from contamination of the ,hopi better revealed than in the children1 for here1 as elsewhere1 is it shown that they are the best conservators of the habits and customs of ancestral life4 ,what utter savages the little fellows are6 ,stark naked generally1 whether it be summer or winter1 dirty from head to foot1 their long black hair disheveled and tangled and standing out in every direction1 their head often resembling a thick matted bunch of sagebrush4 ,they are never idle2 now back of the village behind tiny stone ramparts eagerly watching their horsehair bird snares1 or engaged in a sham battle with slings and corncobs1 or grouped in threes or fours about a watermelon1 eagerly and with much noise gorging themselves to absolute fullness1 or down on the side of the mesa playing in the clay pits4 ,a not uncommon sight is that of two or three little fellows trudging off in pursuit of imaginary game1 armed with miniature bows and arrows or with boomerangs and digging-sticks4 ,in their disposition toward white visitors they are extremely shy and reticent1 but they are also very inquisitive and curious1 and1 furthermore1 they have a sweet tooth1 and one only need display a stick of candy to have half the infantile population of the pueblo at his heels for an hour at a time4 ,if perchance one of the little fellows should die1 he is not buried in the common cemetery at the foot of the mesa1 but he is laid away among the rocks in some one of the innumerable crevices which are to be found on all sides near the top of the mesa1 for the ,hopis1 in common with many other native tribes of ,america1 believe that the souls of departed children do not journey to the spirit land1 but are born again4 ,illustration3 ,,grave ,,of ,,child ,,in ,,rock ,,crevice4 ,as the girls reach the age of ten or twelve they distinguish themselves by dressing their hair in a manner which is both striking and absolutely unique on the face of the earth4 ,the hair is gathered into two rolls on each side of the head1 and then1 at a distance of from one to two inches1 is wound over a large ,u-shaped piece of wood into two semicircles1 both uniting in appearance to form a single large disk1 the diameter of which is sometimes as much as eight inches4 ,after marriage the hair is parted in the middle over the entire head1 and is gathered into two queues1 one on each side1 which are then wound innumerable times by a long hair string beginning a few inches from the head and extending about four inches4 ,the ends of the queues are loose4 ,hopi maidens are1 as a rule1 possessed of fine1 regular features1 slender1 lithe1 and graceful bodies1 and are often beautiful4 ,but with the early marriage comes a daily round of drudgery1 which prevents full development and stunts and dwarfs the body4 ,but to old age she is generally patient1 cheerful1 nor does she often complain4 ,lines produced by toil and labor may show in her face1 but rarely those of worry or discontent4 ,even long before marriage she has not only learned to help her mother in the care of her younger brothers and sisters1 but she has already trained her back to meet the requirements of the low-placed corn mills4 ,from her tenth year to her last it has been estimated that every ,hopi woman spends on an average three hours out of every twenty-four on her knees stooping over a metate1 or corn-grinder1 for corn forms about ninety per cent of the vegetable food of the ,hopis4 ,in every house you will find1 in a corner1 a row of two1 three1 or four square boxlike compartments or bins of thin slabs of sandstone set on edge4 ,each bin contains a metate set at an angle with its lower edge slightly below the level of the floor4 ,there is a clear space around each stone to permit of a better disposition of the corn and meal4 ,the texture of the metates is graduated from the first to the last1 the final one being capable of grinding the finest meal4 ,accompanying the metate is a crushing or grinding stone about a foot in length and from three to four inches wide4 ,its under surface is flat1 while its upper surface is convex to a slight extent1 so as to permit of its being grasped firmly by the thumb and fingers of both hands4 ,the corn is ground between these two stones1 the upper one being worked up and down the metate by a motion of the operator not unlike that of a woman washing clothes on a washboard4 ,the favorite position assumed by the woman while working is to sit on her knees1 her toes resting against the wall of the house behind her4 ,of the many colors of corn used by the ,hopis1 blue is the most common1 and corn of this color is ordinarily employed in the making of bread2 other colors1 however1 are used for the piki consumed in ceremonial feasts4 ,the stone used by the ,oraibians for making piki is from a sandstone quarry near ,burro ,springs4 ,it is about twenty inches long by fourteen broad1 and is three inches thick4 ,the upper surface is first dressed by means of stone picks1 and is polished by a hard rubbing-stone1 and then finally treated with pitch and other ingredients until its surface is as smooth as glass4 ,it is mounted on its two long edges by upright slabs1 so that it stands about ten inches from the level of the floor1 the floor itself being usually excavated to a depth of two or three inches beneath the stone4 ,at a height of about four feet above this primitive griddle is a large rectangular hood which is extended above the roof in the form of a chimney made of bottomless pots1 one resting on the other4 ,kneeling in front of the stone and supporting her body with her left arm1 the woman coats the stone with the thin batter of corn and water with the fingers of her right hand4 ,after a few seconds' time she lifts the waferlike sheet from the stone and transfers it to a mat which is made for this special purpose4 ,for some time the piki remains soft and pliable1 and while in this condition she rolls or folds the sheets according to her custom--some folding1 others rolling it4 ,it is a curious sight on the feast days of certain ceremonies to see women gathering from all quarters of the village at an appointed house1 each carrying a tray heaped high with rolls of this paper bread4 ,illustration3 ,,woman ,,of ,,oraibi ,,making ,,coiled ,,pottery4 ,the ,hopis are among the foremost potters in ,north ,america1 when we take into consideration the fineness of the clays used and the character of the decoration4 ,but in many respects1 especially in form1 their ware is much inferior to that of the ancient ,mexicans and ,peruvians4 ,they make pottery to-day as they did hundreds of years ago1 but the quality of the work has greatly deteriorated and the earthenware now produced is not to be compared with that found in near-by ,hopi ruins4 ,it should be kept in mind1 however1 that the specimens found in the ancient graves are to a certain extent ceremonial1 and consequently better made and more ornate in their decoration than those which were made simply for household purposes4 ,still1 there are a fineness of texture and a delicacy of coloring in the ancient ware which can not now be produced4 ,it is to be noted1 also1 that the ,hopi woman of to-day can not decipher the designs on the earlier pottery1 although she often copies them4 ,the demand for earthenware vessels1 however1 is nearly as great at present as it was in prehistoric days1 for you may search the homes of ,oraibi for a long time without finding a tin pan or an iron pot4 ,thus it is that every ,hopi woman must be a worker in clay1 and one of the occasional sights is that of a woman on her front porch surrounded by vessels of all sizes and in varying degrees of completeness4 ,the process of pottery-making is somewhat as follows3 ,after the clay has been worked into a plastic mass she draws out from it a round strip the size of one's finger and about five inches in length4 ,this is coiled flat in the bottom of the tray1 and forms the base of the vessel4 ,other clay strips are kneaded out of the mass1 and these are coiled in a gradually increasing spiral1 the desired shape and proportion being acquired at the same time1 until the vessel has reached its proper height4 ,the sides of the vessel are then thinned down1 and both inside and outside are made smooth by means of small bits of gourds and polishing-stones4 ,the vessel is then ready for a coat of wash1 after which it is painted and fired4 ,this method of making pottery is not peculiar to the pueblos1 but is found among some of the tribes of ,south ,america4 ,the art of basketry was never brought to a high state among the ,hopis1 for they confine themselves chiefly to the manufacture of large shallow trays and rough baskets made of the long1 pliable leaves of the yucca or of some other fiber4 ,these answer all ordinary domestic requirements4 ,from the reddish-brown branches of a willowlike bush which grows near1 the ,hopi mother interweaves a cradle board for her children4 ,this cradle is peculiar in its shape1 and especially so in its construction1 and differs greatly from that in use among the plains ,indians4 ,another singular point to be noted is the fact that this cradle board is not often strapped to the back1 but is usually in the arms1 or1 more often still1 is placed on the floor by the side of the mother as she works4 ,the ,oraibi mesa1 like other table-lands of ,tusayan1 is destitute of water4 ,the nearest spring is in the valley at the foot of the mesa nearly a mile away4 ,from before sunrise to ten o'clock of every day there is an almost unbroken line of water carriers going and coming from the spring1 bending under the weight of a large jar which they carry on their back by means of a blanket1 the ends of which are tied in a knot on their forehead4 ,no wonder these women grow prematurely old4 ,winter for them1 however1 has its advantages1 for they have an ingenious way of utilizing the snow to save them from the necessity of going down the mesa for water4 ,one of the most extraordinary sights ,i saw was that of a ,hopi woman and her little girl trudging along1 each bent almost to the ground under the weight of an immense snowball4 ,these they were carrying home on their backs1 enveloped in a blanket4 ,about half a mile from the pueblo1 back on the mesa1 reservoirs have been scooped out in the soft sandstone1 which are often partially filled by the spring rains1 but the water soon becomes brackish and is not potable1 but is used for washing clothes4 ,the costume of the woman consists ordinarily of four pieces--a blanket1 dress1 belt1 and moccasins4 ,the blanket is of wool1 and is about four feet square4 ,it is blue in color1 with a black border on two sides4 ,these two edges are usually bound with a heavy green or yellow woolen thread4 ,to make the dress1 this blanket is once folded and is sewn together with red yarn at the long side1 except for a space sufficiently large to accommodate one arm4 ,the folded upper border is also sewn for a short space1 which rests on one of the shoulders4 ,the other shoulder and both arms are bare1 except as they may be partially covered by the blanket4 ,the belt or sash is of black and green stripes1 with a red center1 ornamented with geometric designs in black2 it is about four inches wide1 and is long enough to permit of being wound around the waist two or three times4 ,the moccasins are of unpainted buckskin1 one side of the top of which terminates in a long1 broad strip1 which is wound round the leg several times and extends up to the knee1 thus forming a thick legging4 ,more than half the time the ,hopi woman is barefooted4 ,the girls wear silver earrings1 or suspend from the lobe of the ear small rectangular bits of wood1 one side of which is covered with a mosaic of turquoise4 ,this custom is of some antiquity1 as ear pendants exactly similar to these have been found in the ,hopi ruins of ,homolobi1 on the ,little ,colorado ,river4 ,in addition to this regulation costume1 worn on all ordinary occasions1 each ,hopi woman is supposed to own a bridal costume and two special blankets1 which are worn only in ceremonies1 and hence need not here be described4 ,the bridal costume consists of a pair of moccasins1 two pure white cotton blankets1 one large and the other small1 both having large tassels of yellow and the black yarn at each corner1 and a long1 broad1 white sash1 each end of which terminates in a fringe of balls and long thread4 ,all three garments1 before being used1 are covered with a thick coat of kaolin1 so that they are quite stiff4 ,with these garments belongs a reed mat sufficiently large to envelop the small blanket and the sash4 ,so far as ,i am able to learn1 the three pieces of this remarkable costume are never worn except on a single occasion1 and at only one other time does the bride formally appear in any of them4 ,about a month after the marriage ceremony has been performed1 during which time she has been living with the family of her husband1 she completes the marriage ceremony by returning to the house of her mother4 ,this is termed going home1 and this will be her place of abode until she and her husband own a dwelling of their own4 ,for this ceremony she puts on the larger of the two blankets1 which reaches almost to the ground and comes up high on the back of the head1 covering her ears4 ,the smaller blanket and the sash are rolled up in the mat1 and with this in front of her on her two arms she begins her journey home4 ,this white cotton costume is probably a survival from times which antedate the introduction of wool into the ,southwest4 ,who makes all these garments1 blankets1 etc48 ,not the women1 as you might expect1 but the men4 ,a ,hopi woman doesn't even make her own moccasins4 ,if you will descend into one of the kivas on almost any day of the year1 except when the secret rites of ceremonies are being held1 you will behold an industrious and an interesting scene4 ,you will find a group of men1 naked except for a loin cloth1 all busy either with the carding combs1 the spindle1 or the loom2 and to me the most interesting of these three operations is that of the spinning of wool4 ,the spindle itself is long and heavy1 and the whorl1 in the older examples1 is a large disk cut from a mountain goat's horn4 ,there is no attempt at decoration1 nor do the spindles compare with those found in ,peru and other parts of ,america for neatness and beauty4 ,an unusual feature of the method employed by the ,hopi spinner is the manner in which the spindle is held under one foot while he straightens out the thread preparatory to winding it4 ,for weaving1 two kinds of looms are used4 ,one is a frame holding in place a fifteen-inch row of parallel reeds1 each about six inches long and perforated in the center4 ,this apparatus is used solely for making belts1 sashes1 and hair and knee bands4 ,these are not commonly woven in the kiva1 but in the open air on the terrace1 one end of the warp being fastened to some projecting rafter4 ,the other loom is much larger1 and is used for blankets1 dresses1 and all large garments4 ,it differs in no essential particular from other well-known looms in use by the majority of the aborigines of this continent4 ,the method of suspending the loom is perhaps worth a moment's notice1 as in nearly every house and in all kivas special provision is made for its erection4 ,from the wall near the ceiling project two wooden beams1 on which1 parallel to the floor1 is a long wooden pole1 and to this is fastened1 by buckskin thongs1 the upper part of the loom4 ,immediately under this pole is a plank1 flush with the floor1 in which at short intervals are partially covered ,u-shaped cavities in the wood1 through which are passed buckskin thongs which are fastened to the lower pole of the loom4 ,the sets of thongs are long enough to permit of the loom being lowered or raised to a convenient height4 ,while at work the weaver generally squats on the floor in front of his loom1 or he occasionally sits on a low1 boxlike stool4 ,it is no uncommon sight to see1 at certain times of the year1 as many as six or eight looms in operation at one time in a single kiva4 ,the men also do all the sewing and embroidering4 ,practically all the yarn consumed by the ,hopis is home-dyed1 but the colors now used are almost entirely from aniline dyes and indigo4 ,cotton is no longer used except in the manufacture of certain ceremonial garments1 all others being made of wool4 ,they own their own sheep1 which find a scant living in the valleys2 for the better protection of the sheep from wolves they also keep large numbers of goats4 ,although the men do all the weaving1 they do but little of it for themselves4 ,for the greater part of the year their only garment is the loin cloth--a bit of store calico4 ,in addition1 they all own a shirt of cheap black or colored calico1 which is generally more or less in rags1 and a pair of loose1 shapeless pantaloons1 made often from some old flour sack or bit of white cotton sheeting4 ,it is a rather incongruous sight to see some old ,hopi1 his thin legs incased in a dirty1 ragged pair of flour-sack trousers1 on which can still be traced ,,xxx ,flour1 ,purest and ,best4 ,neither sex scarifies1 tattoos1 or paints any part of the body except in ceremonies1 when colored paints are used as each ceremony requires4 ,the men often wear large silver earrings1 and suspend from their neck as many strands of shell and turquoise beads as their wealth will allow4 ,some of the younger men wear1 in addition1 a belt of large silver disks and a shirt and pantaloons of velvet4 ,most of their silver ornaments1 it should be noted1 however1 have been secured in trade from the ,navajos1 who are the most expert silversmiths of the ,southwest4 ,when the ,hopi isn't spinning or weaving1 he is in his kiva praying for rain1 or he is in the field keeping the crows from his corn4 ,i was once asked if the ,hopis plow with oxen or horses4 ,they use neither2 they do not plow4 ,when they plant corn they dig a deep hole in the earth with a long1 sharp stick until they reach the moist soil4 ,when the corn is sprouted and has reached a height of a few inches there is always the possibility of its being blown flat by the wind or overwhelmed in a sand storm4 ,to provide against this the ,hopi incloses the exposed parts of his little field with wind-breakers1 made by planting in the earth thick rows of stout branches of brush4 ,these hedges even are often overwhelmed by the sand and completely covered up4 ,and the crows1 and the stray horses1 and the cattle6 ,surely the poor ,indian must fight very hard for his corn4 ,for nearly two months he never leaves it unguarded1 and that he may be comfortable he makes a shelter behind which he can escape the burning rays of the ,july and ,august sun4 ,the shelters are occasionally rather pretentious affairs1 at times consisting of a thick brush roof1 supported by stout rafters which rest on upright posts4 ,more often1 however1 they simply consist of a row of cottonwood poles1 five or six feet high1 set upright at a slight angle in the earth4 ,although corn is by far the most important vegetable food1 the rich though sun-parched soil yields large crops of beans and melons of all kinds4 ,illustration3 ,,valley ,,scene2 ,,fields ,,and ,,peach ,,trees4 ,,oraibi ,,on ,,mesa ,,to ,,the ,,right4 ,peach orchards also thrive in the sheltered valleys near the mesa1 and in the fall great patches of peaches may be seen spread out to dry on the rocks of the mesa to the north of the village4 ,of both beans and peaches the ,hopis generally have large quantities for the outside market1 which they take over to the railroad on the backs of burros or ponies4 ,before leaving the subject of the daily life of the male portion of ,oraibi ,i have still to mention a curious weapon of which they make occasional use4 ,this is the throwing-stick1 or so-called boomerang1 which differs only slightly from that used by the aborigines of ,australia2 the ,hopi stick1 however is better made1 and is ornamented by short red and black lines4 ,this is the weapon of the young men1 and with it they work havoc with the rabbits which infest the valleys4 ,but although they have good control over it1 as can often be seen on their return from a hunt1 they are not able to cause its return as can the ,australians4 ,at first thought it seems rather strange that the boomerang should have been evolved by two groups of mankind dwelling in parts of the world so remote1 but we must look for the explanation of this phenomenon in the fact that the natural conditions of the two countries have much in common--a generally level1 sandy country1 with here and there patches of brush1 a peculiar condition which would readily yield itself to the development of an equally peculiar and specialized weapon4 ,illustration3 ,,oraibi ,,man ,,transporting ,,firewood ,,with ,,burros4 ,for fire the ,hopi depends almost entirely on the rank growth of brush which is found along the ravines4 ,this suffices to supply heat to the piki stone and the boiling pot1 and enough to keep a fire on the hearth in the kiva4 ,but now and then he must make a distant journey to that part of the mesa where the supply of stunted and scrubby pines and pions has not already been exhausted2 for by custom four kinds of fuel are prescribed for the kivas1 and to keep the hearth replenished with these often necessitates long journeys4 ,as the woman bends under her water jar1 so the man staggers along under his load of fagots1 often carried from a distance of several miles4 ,,reform ,,of ,,public ,,charity4 ,,by ,,bird ,s4 ,,coler1 ,,comptroller ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,abuse of municipal charity in ,new ,york city has reached a stage where immediate and radical reform is necessary in order to prevent the application of public funds to the payment of subsidies to societies and institutions where professional pauperism is indirectly encouraged and sustained4 ,more than fifty years ago the city began to pay money to private institutions for the support of public charges4 ,the system has grown without check until to-day ,new ,york contributes more than three times as much public money to private or semiprivate charities as all the other large cities in the ,united ,states combined4 ,the amounts so appropriated in #ahih by some of the chief cities were3 ,chicago1 #b1gif2 ,philadelphia1 #aea1jbj2 ,st4 ,louis1 #bb1egi2 ,boston1 nothing2 ,baltimore1 #bbg1cej2 ,cincinnati1 nothing2 ,new ,orleans1 #cj1aaj2 ,pittsburg1 nothing2 ,washington1 #aid1ejj2 ,detroit1 #h1jha2 ,milwaukee1 nothing2 ,new ,york city1 #c1aca1ehj4ea4 ,no serious attempt has heretofore been made to reform this system of using public funds for the subsidizing of private charities4 ,one reason for this has doubtless been the fact that until recently the local authorities were powerless to avoid or modify the effects of mandatory legislation which has disposed of city moneys without regard to the opinions entertained by the representatives of the local taxpayers4 ,it has always been easier to pass a bill at ,albany than to persuade the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment of the propriety of bestowing public funds on private charities1 and the managers of private charities seeking public assistance have therefore generally proceeded along the line of least resistance4 ,the effect of this system was to make beneficiaries the judges of their own deserts1 for the bills presented by them to the ,legislature were usually passed without amendment or modification1 and gross inequalities in disbursing public funds have arisen1 different institutions receiving different rates of payment for the same class of work4 ,in #ahij the city paid for the support of prisoners and paupers in city institutions the sum of #a1idi1ajj1 and for paupers in private institutions the sum of #a1hde1hgb4 ,in #ahih these figures had increased to #b1ccd1def for prisoners and public paupers1 and #c1aca1ehj for paupers in private institutions4 ,private charity1 so called1 has prospered at the expense of the city until in some cases it has become a matter of business for profit rather than relief of the needy4 ,the returns made by institutions receiving appropriations in bulk from the city treasury show that many of them are using the public funds for purposes not authorized by the ,constitution4 ,the ,constitution authorizes payments to be made for care1 support1 and maintenance4 ,the reports of a large number of institutions show the money annually obtained from the city carried forward wholly or in part as a surplus4 ,different uses are made of this surplus1 none of them1 however1 authorized by law or warranted by a proper regard for the interests of the taxpayers4 ,in some cases this surplus is used to pay off mortgage indebtedness1 in others for permanent additions to buildings1 or for increase of investments and endowment4 ,in one case the manager of an institution frankly explained a remarkable falling off in disbursements 7so great that its charitable activities were almost suspended7 by stating that it was proposed1 by exercising great economy for a number of years1 to let the city's annual appropriations accumulate into a respectable building fund4 ,the flagrant nature of this abuse is so apparent that comment is unnecessary4 ,appropriations for dependent children have reached enormous proportions4 ,out of a total of #c1bdi1fbc4ha appropriated for private charities in #ahii1 no less than #b1baf1ggc1 or sixty-nine per cent1 is for the care and support of children4 ,in no city in the ,united ,states will the number of children supported at the public expense compare1 in proportion to the population1 with the number so cared for in the city of ,new ,york4 ,this may be partly accounted for by the extremes of poverty to be met with in the metropolis1 especially among the foreign-born population1 where the struggle for existence is so severe as to weaken the family ties2 partly by the rivalry and competition which have existed between the several institutions devoted to this kind of work2 partly by reason of the fact that the rate paid by the city for the care of these children is such as to enable the larger institutions1 in all probability1 to make a small profit2 but1 to a considerable extent1 also from an insufficient inspection by public officers for the purpose of ascertaining whether children are the proper subjects of commitment and detention4 ,in the city of ,new ,york #ej1fch children in private institutions are cared for at the public expense4 ,this is one to every sixty-eight of the estimated population of the city4 ,so much for the abuse and extent of public charity4 ,now for the reforming of the system that was fast approaching the condition of a grave scandal4 ,the last ,legislature passed a bill placing in the hands of the local ,board of ,estimate absolute power over all appropriations for charitable purposes1 and for the first time in many years reform is possible4 ,the discretion conferred by this act upon the ,board of ,estimate and ,apportionment carries with it a large responsibility4 ,if hereafter the city1 in its relation to private charitable institutions1 should either1 on the one hand1 be wasteful of public funds1 or1 on the other hand1 should fail to perform the duties owed by the community to the dependent classes1 the blame can not be shifted to the ,legislature1 but will rest squarely upon the shoulders of the local authorities4 ,in treating a condition which has been allowed to exist for many years almost without challenge from the local authorities1 and which has grown upon the passive or indifferent attitude of the public1 sweeping and immediate reforms can be instituted only at the cost of serious temporary injury to certain charitable work of a necessary character4 ,i believe that the best results will be obtained if the city authorities first decide clearly the relations to be established between the city treasury and private charitable institutions1 and then move toward that end by gradually conforming the appropriations in the budget to that idea1 in such a manner that progress shall be made as rapidly as may be consistent with the desire to avoid crippling excellent charities which have been led to depend for many years upon public assistance4 ,by this1 of course1 ,i do not mean to suggest that we should approach the subject with excessive timidity1 for the evils that exist have assumed such proportions that a more or less severe use of the pruning knife must be made in dealing with appropriations1 else the effect will be scarcely perceptible4 ,i am convinced that ultimately the cause of charity will benefit rather than suffer from this course1 for it is a serious objection to the whole subsidy system that it tends to dry up the sources of private benevolence4 ,in making up the budget for #aijj ,i shall urge my associates in the ,board of ,estimate to agree with me to limit the appropriations for charity to actual relief work accomplished4 ,the giving of public money in lump sums to private societies and institutions for miscellaneous charitable work1 of which there is no public or official inspection1 should be discontinued at once4 ,it has been the practice for some years past1 both in ,brooklyn and ,new ,york1 to donate annually lump sums of money to such organizations4 ,in ,new ,york these amounts have been for the most part comparatively small1 and principally derived from the ,theatrical and ,concert-,license ,fund4 ,in ,brooklyn the amounts have been larger1 and were obtained originally from the ,excise ,fund1 and later directly from the budget4 ,this practice should be wholly discontinued4 ,the charter itself contains stringent prohibitions against the distribution of outdoor relief by the ,department of ,public ,charities1 and the spirit of these provisions would certainly seem to disfavor accomplishing the same result in an indirect manner4 ,many of these recipients of public funds devote themselves exclusively to outdoor relief1 and an examination of the purposes of some of these organizations shows that1 however proper these may be as the result of private benevolence1 they are extremely improper objects of the public bounty4 ,the immediate and permanent discontinuance of appropriations to all such societies and institutions will correct one of the gravest abuses of the present system4 ,if the persons conducting these miscellaneous charities are really sincere1 and believe that they are doing good1 they can readily obtain from private sources the funds necessary to carry on the work4 ,i shall urge that all appropriations to institutions of every kind not controlled by the city be limited to per-capita payment for the support of public charges1 and that a system of thorough inspection be at once established to ascertain if present and future inmates are really persons entitled to maintenance at public expense4 ,in addition to this precaution1 the comptroller should have full power to withhold payments to any institution after an appropriation has been made if in his judgment1 after examination1 the money has not been earned4 ,the payment of city money to dispensaries should be discontinued1 except in special cases where the work done is clearly a proper charge against the public treasury4 ,no money should be paid for the treatment of dependent persons in any private hospital while there is unoccupied room in the city hospitals4 ,the city maintains its own hospitals1 while at the same time subsidizing private institutions which compete with them4 ,during the last few years great improvements have been made in the city hospitals1 but their condition is still capable of considerable further improvement4 ,while sometimes overcrowded1 it frequently happens that the city hospitals are not filled to the limits of their capacity1 and it would seem as though the city should not deal with private hospitals except as subsidiary aids or adjuncts to the public institutions4 ,it stands to reason that so long as there are vacant beds in the city hospitals and the city is at the same time subsidizing private hospitals at a cost greater than the expense of caring for patients in its own institutions1 a wrong is being done to the taxpayers4 ,if private hospitals are to receive public assistance at all1 payments should be made only at some uniform rate1 approximately the same as the cost per capita of maintenance in the public institutions4 ,the gravest problem of public charity is the support and training of dependent children1 because that has to do with the making of future citizens of the republic as well as the relief of immediate suffering4 ,this work is entirely in the hands of private societies and institutions4 ,the rearing of large numbers of children in either private or public institutions is in itself an evil--a necessary evil--and likely to continue as long as there is extreme poverty1 but still an evil1 and not to be fostered by subventions of public money in unnecessary cases1 when parents are really able to provide for their support4 ,to build1 equip1 and maintain public buildings for the care of dependent children seems to me entirely impracticable4 ,regardless of the matter of expense1 which would be enormous1 all the disadvantages of the institutional system would continue1 and it is not likely that public employees could be obtained who would rear children as economically1 as efficaciously1 or with the same devotion and self-denial as is the case with the religious orders and associations now performing this work--in many respects so successfully4 ,the care of these children by direct governmental agencies being therefore practically impossible1 in the city of ,new ,york at least1 and it being recognized that the present system is likely to continue for many years1 if not permanently1 the most should be made of it4 ,with the religious training of children the city has nothing to do4 ,their moral training may also be left safely to those now responsible therefor4 ,on the other hand1 the ,state is vitally concerned with their mental and physical development1 and visitation and control for the purpose of maintaining a proper standard in these respects is essential4 ,this form of public charity1 like many others1 has been abused1 and many children are now supported in institutions who probably should not be there4 ,for the rearing of a child into a possible useful man or woman a poor home is better than a good institution1 and it is the duty of the city authorities to extend the work of inspection and investigation of such cases until they make it impossible for fraud in the commitment and retention of children to escape detection4 ,the reduction and regulation of appropriations as outlined can not be classed as a radical reform1 and will work no hardship upon any dependent person who is a proper charge upon the city4 ,the saving to the taxpayers1 if the plan ,i have suggested is adopted1 will approximate one million dollars in #aijj1 and a steady reduction of expenditures for charitable work should continue for several years to come4 ,,christian ,,science ,,from ,a ,,physician',s ,,point ,,of ,,view4 ,,by ,,john ,b4 ,,huber1 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d4 ,christian science is stated to be a religious system which was discovered1 in #ahff1 by ,mrs4 ,mary ,baker ,g4 ,eddy1 a lady now living in the vicinity of ,boston1 ,mass41 who has passed her eightieth year1 and who is called by her followers the ,mother of the ,christian ,science ,church1 or ,mother ,mary4 ,mrs4 ,eddy has formulated ,christian ,science in a book entitled ,science and ,health1 with ,key to the ,scriptures1 in which book are to be found the principles upon which this system rests4 ,we are told that to him who studies this book reverently and conscientiously there will be revealed the ,truth1 for which man has been searching without avail since the beginning of his existence2 that the faithful student will find in ,christian ,science an infallible guide for the conduct of life in all its phases2 and that the ,christian ,scientist has the power to heal without any therapeutic means1 other than that of the influence of mind upon mind1 all imaginable ills1 surgical or medical1 which afflict mankind and the lower animals4 ,mrs4 ,eddy tells us that she and her followers have had this power transmitted to them from ,jesus ,christ1 and that they are able to heal the sick and to perform miracles as ,he is said to have done4 ,in ,science and ,health all religious systems other than ,christian ,science are held to have been erroneous and pernicious in their influence upon mankind1 and the practice of medicine1 as it is taught in the medical colleges1 is considered to be hurtful rather than helpful to humanity1 and to have increased disease rather than ameliorated human suffering4 ,it is said that in #ahih there were in the ,greater ,city of ,new ,york three thousand ,christian ,scientists and seven ,christian ,science churches4 ,the whole number of ,christian ,scientists is declared to be one million1 of whom one hundred thousand1 it is said1 are engaged in the business of healing1 and are called healers4 ,the movement has been and is spreading day by day4 ,in religious matters ,christian ,science has divided many homes1 and has destroyed not a few through the mischief produced by its propaganda4 ,it is claimed that ,christian ,science has cured many who have not been benefited by the efforts of regular practitioners of medicine4 ,on the other hand1 many have died during the exclusive ministrations of ,christian ,scientists4 ,moreover1 ,christian ,science considers itself entitled to disregard such sanitary laws1 including those concerning infectious diseases1 as have been found effectual to preserve intact the general health of communities and peoples4 ,christian ,science1 then1 is a cult unusually powerful and far reaching in its influence1 and it is therefore entitled to and should invite correspondingly careful investigation of all its various aspects4 ,i have been interested in ,christian ,science from the view-point of the medical man1 and ,i have felt quite unaffected1 for the reason which ,i shall presently give1 by ,mrs4 ,eddy's stricture that a person's ignorance of ,christian ,science is a sufficient reason for his silence on the subject4 ,the system of medicine1 as it is taught in the great medical colleges of to-day1 is an epitome of the accumulated study and experience of mankind from the time human beings first became ill up to the present day4 ,all systems of cure1 or of alleged cure1 have been examined by men who have made it the work of their lives to treat the sick4 ,whatever has been found curative has been retained1 and unsubstantiated claims to cure have been discarded2 so that the regular degree of doctor of medicine states that its recipient has acquired a knowledge of the system of treating disease which is a crystallization of the world's best medical thought1 study1 and experience4 ,as the possessor of such a degree1 ,i have been engaged during several months in an investigation of the cures which ,christian-,science healers are said to have accomplished4 ,before beginning this work ,i reflected that mental suggestion1 or the influence of the mind of the physician upon that of the patient1 is a potent factor in the treatment of such diseases as are not characterized by permanent pathological changes in the tissues1 and ,i remembered that when judiciously influenced by the physician's mind1 the mind of the patient can affect his body favorably both in functional disorders and in disorders which may result from nervous aberration--such as hysteria in all its protean forms1 the purely subjective1 as headache and hypersthesia1 and also those exhibiting objective manifestations1 as hysterical dislocations and paralyses4 ,i knew that medical men1 in their own unadvertised work1 employ mental suggestion as a therapeutic means1 rely upon it as a part of their armamentarium1 and use it in appropriate cases1 either alone or combined with other means of cure1 as electricity1 hydrotherapy1 and drugs--which last1 despite ,mrs4 ,eddy's foolish denunciation1 are quite as much entitled to be considered divinely appointed therapeutic agents as is mental suggestion4 ,what ,i did want especially to discover was whether the ,christian ,scientist could cure such diseases as are considered by the medical man to be incurable--as cancer1 locomotor ataxia1 or advanced phthisis--and also what were the results of their treatment of typhoid fever1 pneumonia1 diphtheria1 malaria1 etc4 ,and ,i wanted also to investigate the claims of ,christian ,science concerning the alleged cure of surgical conditions1 such as necrosis or hmorrhage from severed arteries1 by no other means than the sole exercise of thought4 ,if the ,christian ,scientist could have healed in such cases1 ,i for my part would have declared him a worker of miracles4 ,therefore ,i searched diligently for such cases4 ,in the beginning ,i had the honor to meet ,mrs4 ,stetson1 the pastor1 or the first reader1 of the ,first ,church of ,christ1 ,scientist1 at #adc ,west ,forty-eighth ,street1 ,new ,york city4 ,i had prepared a number of questions concerning ,christian ,science which ,i wished to ask ,mrs4 ,stetson4 ,she preferred1 however1 not to answer them herself1 but told me that she would be pleased to forward them to ,mrs4 ,eddy4 ,i then wrote out these questions and put them1 together with a letter to ,mrs4 ,eddy1 very respectfully requesting her consideration of them1 in ,mrs4 ,stetson's hands4 ,mrs4 ,stetson then very kindly forwarded them to ,mrs4 ,eddy4 ,among the questions which ,i asked were the following3 ,is the treatment of the sick a part of ,christian ,science8 ,upon what principles is the ,christian ,scientist's method of treatment founded8 ,how do you define health8 ,how do you define disease8 ,when a patient presents himself to you1 do you inquire concerning the causes of his illness8 ,do you investigate symptoms8 7,symptoms1 ,i stated1 are the signs of disease47 ,do you make diagnoses8 7,a diagnosis1 ,i stated1 is a consideration of symptoms by which one disease is distinguished from another or others47 ,in what does your treatment consist8 ,in treating a patient1 do you administer any material substance1 and require that it be taken into the body as one would food8 ,do you consider cleanliness1 good order1 and the attainment of sthetic effects in a patient's environment a part of treatment8 ,do you take any steps to isolate the patient sick of an infectious disease1 or to protect those about the patient from the disease8 ,do you treat structural diseases1 as cancer or locomotor ataxia8 ,do you consider you have cured such diseases8 ,if so1 how do you know you were treating a structural disease1 such as cancer or locomotor ataxia8 ,would you treat cases of fracture of bones or violent injury8 ,if so1 what would you do in such cases8 ,will you give me the names of patients whom you have treated1 with permission to inquire concerning their illnesses1 your treatment of them1 and the effects of your treatment upon them--upon the distinct understanding that their names are not to be published8 ,do you deny the existence of matter8 ,in ,science and ,health it is stated that all is mind1 there is no matter4 ,how is it possible1 in treating disease1 for you to separate mind from matter8 ,animals sometimes become sick2 could they be cured by ,christian-,science methods8 ,from ,mrs4 ,eddy ,i received no answer nor any communication whatever4 ,but1 some time afterward1 ,mrs4 ,stetson informed me that the matter had been turned over to ,judge ,septimus ,j4 ,hanna1 ,mrs4 ,eddy's counsel4 ,just here ,i reflected how ,jesus ,christ1 whose representative ,mrs4 ,eddy declares herself to be1 would have acted under those circumstances1 and ,i wondered how he would have appeared in this odd atmosphere hedged about by counsel and other legal paraphernalia4 ,presently thereafter ,i had the honor to receive a note from ,mrs4 ,stetson1 appointing a time for me to call4 ,when ,i did this1 ,mrs4 ,stetson gave me a letter which had been sent her by ,judge ,hanna1 and which she permitted me to use as ,i should see fit4 ,this is the letter3 ,,boston1 ,,mass41 ,november #ah1 #ahih4 ,editorial ,office of ,the ,christian ,science ,journal1 ,mrs4 ,a4 ,e4 ,stetson1 ,new ,york ,city3 ,,dear ,,sister3 ,mr4 ,metcalf handed me the questions submitted by ,dr4 ,huber4 ,i have also received and carefully read your letters4 ,as ,i think ,mr4 ,metcalf has informed you1 this matter was referred to me from ,concord4 ,i have been so very busy that ,i have not had time to give this matter the thorough attention it needs until now4 ,i have carefully read and considered the entire paper4 ,my conclusion is that it will be wholly impractical--indeed1 ,i may say impossible--to answer these questions in such a manner as to make an entire paper fit for publication in a medical journal1 or in any other magazine or periodical4 ,the questions submitted touch the entire subject of ,christian ,science1 both in its theology and therapeutics4 ,these questions can be answered only in one way so that they can be understood1 and that is by just such study of the ,bible and ,science and ,health with ,key to the ,scriptures as the earnest1 sincere ,christian ,scientists are giving them every day of their lives1 and have been for years4 ,when we think of the helps provided by our leader1 the ,rev4 ,mary ,baker ,eddy1 for her own students in arriving at a correct interpretation and putting in practice the teachings of these text-books1 such as the publications established by her1 the ,bible ,lessons made up of selections from the ,bible and our text-book1 constituting the sermons for our service in all the ,christian-,science churches2 the many auxiliaries she has published and is publishing in further illucidation of the text-books--when we stop to consider that even those of her students who may be considered the most advanced are as yet infants in the understanding and ability to demonstrate the truth contained in these text-books1 can we not easily see1 and will not your friend the doctor at a glance see1 the utter futility of attempting to answer his questions so as to make the answers intelligible to the medical profession and their readers8 ,i admire greatly the kindly spirit manifested by the doctor and those for whom he is acting1#b and the entire fairness1 from their standpoint1 of the questions submitted1 but this does not relieve the difficulty of the situation4 ,i therefore return the doctor's questions1 with many thanks in behalf of our leader and the cause for the impartial spirit manifested4 ,yours in ,truth1 ,s4 ,j4 ,,hanna4 ,footnote #b3 ,i had arranged with the editor of the ,new ,york ,medical ,news for the publication in that journal of a paper on ,christian ,science1 and had so informed ,mrs4 ,stetson4 ,i wrote ,judge ,hanna a note of thanks1 and in reply received a letter in which he stated3 ,i should have been very glad if ,i could have seen my way clear to answer your questions in such a way as could have been intelligible and satisfactory4 ,but it was impossible for me to do so4 ,now1 all this seems to me much worse than preposterous4 ,i fail utterly to see why he who asks the question1 ,do you isolate a patient suffering from an infectious disease8 would have to spend months or years in ,nirvana-like abstraction before he would be able to appreciate an answer to it4 ,no doubt ,judge ,hanna1 who is evidently a lawyer1 could1 if he chose1 tell the reason why4 ,to all who had been healed in ,christian ,science whom ,i met ,i stated plainly my object--to investigate how they had been healed4 ,i stated that my findings would be published1 but that no names would be printed4 ,the cases were to be numbered4 ,i stated that ,i did not wish to examine nervous manifestations of a hysterical sort or purely functional disorders4 ,i wished to see cases of disease in which the structure of the organs was likely to be or to have been involved1 such as ,bright's disease or cancer4 ,having1 to begin with1 explained this fully1 ,i took the subject's history and ascertained whenever possible the name of any physician who may have treated the patient before he or she went into ,christian ,science4 ,almost all these physicians who live in ,new ,york ,i visited2 to the others residing in ,new ,york and to those living out of town ,i wrote1 the form of the letter being generally as follows3 ,,dear ,,doctor3 ,i am investigating ,christian ,science from the physician's view-point1 and am examining a number of people1 in the hope of presenting some twenty histories4 ,these histories would1 ,i think1 be valuable only in so far as they are scientifically accurate4 ,therefore1 whenever possible1 ,i request a medical account from any physician who may formerly have been in attendance4 ,i have now under observation the case of ,mr4 ,x----1 who believes himself to have been cured 'in ,christian ,science4' ,i would thank you very kindly if you would send me whatever medical information you can concerning this case1 with records of examinations if possible4 ,the cases will be numbered1 not named4 ,in each case1 having set down the subject's statements and the physician's statement1 ,i recorded my own observations of the subject's condition4 ,i examined in succession and without exception the case of every willing ,christian ,scientist up to the number of twenty4#c ,all these cases were of their own choosing2 no doubt1 then1 they would be considered to be among their good cases4 ,their failures ,i had no opportunity to examine4 ,there were many others who refused to testify1 no doubt justifiably4 ,others refused for reasons not easily comprehended1 considering the fact that these people hold weekly experience meetings1 in which they rejoice to testify to the power of ,christian ,science4 ,it is difficult to see1 therefore1 why such cases should not invite scientific investigation4 ,footnote #c3 ,these medical histories are a part of my serial paper in the ,new ,york ,medical ,news of ,january #bh1 #ahii1 et seq4 ,i could find in all these twenty cases no cure that would have occasioned the medical man the slightest surprise4 ,what did surprise me was the vast disproportion between the results they exhibited and the claims made by ,christian-,science healers4 ,one of these cases may be cited as an example of the loose generalization upon which many of the claims of these healers rest4 ,a lady stated that she had had pneumonia4 ,i asked how she knew she had had pneumonia4 ,she declared she knew1 because her nurse could tell at a glance she had pneumonia4 ,no medical examination had been made4 ,i asked what symptoms she had had--how she had suffered4 ,she told me she had purposely forgotten--she had tried to dismiss from her mind all recollection of this distressing illness4 ,well1 this is no doubt commendable enough2 but how do we know1 then1 if she really had pneumonia1 or anything more than an ordinary cold8 ,i heard during my investigation of cases of yellow fever1 phthisis1 cancer1 and locomotor ataxia which had been healed in ,christian ,science4 ,but truth compels the statement that my efforts to examine these cases were defeated by the cheapest sort of subterfuge and elusion4 ,to be explicit3 ,on ,november #b1 #ahih1 a man arose in an experience meeting which ,i attended and stated that he had been one of a party of twelve who1 while in ,central ,america1 contracted yellow fever1 he having suffered with the rest4 ,all took medicine but himself2 instead1 he read ,science and ,health4 ,among his companions seven died2 he recovered completely4 ,several days later ,i called at the church and asked for the name and address of this gentleman1 and twice1 on this and a subsequent visit1 the clerk promised to send me his address4 ,not having received it1 ,i called a third time1 on ,november #bast4 ,the clerk told me he could not find this eel-like specimen1 and could not get his address4 ,this man was1 however1 a member of that church1 and had1 on the evening ,i was present1 a number of acquaintances in the congregation4 ,again1 ,i had been told that a young lady living out of town had been healed of consumption4 ,i wrote her mother1 who sent me a kind note1 inviting me to call several evenings later1 and inclosing a time-table4 ,she stated1 ,i shall be happy to give you any information in my power1 as ,christian ,science has been a great blessing in my family4 ,before the appointed evening ,i received a note1 breaking the engagement4 ,again1 at an experience meeting a man arose and declared he had cured a case of locomotor ataxia1 so that the patient's two former physicians had been lost in amazement at the change4 ,i learned also that his wife1 another healer1 had cured a case of cancer of the tongue4 ,i wrote this gentleman1 and he sent me an answer1 kindly inviting me to call at his house4 ,he lived out of town4 ,i went to his house1 and spent the greater part of an evening trying to prevail upon these two people to show me or to introduce me to these subjects of locomotor ataxia and cancer of the tongue4 ,they utterly refused to do so4 ,their line of argument was quite of the same sort as that contained in the letter of their better-known brother in the church1 which appears earlier in this paper4 ,i was not investigating in the right way4 ,what ,i ought to do was to study ,science and ,health and the other elucidatory works--above all with an obedient spirit1 and the truth would come to me in time4 ,or it may be this pair of healers had in mind this reasoning1 not new in my observation of this odd cult3 ,in the mind of the ,christian ,scientist the locomotor-ataxia patient was healed1 but he was withheld from inspection by the deceptive senses of those outside the ,christian-,science pale1 to which senses the patient might appear to stagger about and be as ill or more ill than ever before4 ,following is this healer's letter to me3 ,,my ,,dear ,,dr4 ,,huber3 ,i received your letter with ,joy1 and name next ,monday eveng as a time to give you for your enquiry into the workings of ,truth as it has come under my notice4 ,our field is a broad one coverig several towns1 and we have not lately had an eveng free for discussin the subject coverig this sublime and stately ,science ,that leads into all ,truth even to the solving of the problem of ,being4 ,the healing of the sick is only the primary steps this step however is an important one as its demonstration with proof attests its divine origen even ,god--,good1 its principle source and ultimates in ,eternal ,life4 ,for the ,life is in his ,son and ,divine ,science reveals this son ,even our own ,christ our spiritual ,individuality ,god being our ,father and mother1 ,yrs4 in ,truth ----4 ,the writer of this letter is the leader of that ,christian-,science church in ,new ,jersey a member of which was a woman who died1 in ,june of this year1 of consumption1#d and this woman's healer was the writer's wife4 ,the woman who died left the ,episcopalian ,church and became a ,christian ,scientist in ,january1 #ahii4 ,in ,april she contracted a heavy cold1 to which she gave no attention4 ,her husband remonstrated with her1 and wished her to consult a physician1 but she would not do so4 ,she declared she could not be ill1 but that she was well and happy4 ,the services of her healer were the only ministrations she received4 ,in the beginning of ,june her condition was so bad that her husband prevailed upon her to see a physician1 who examined her and found her hopelessly ill with consumption4 ,another physician examined her and reached the same conclusion4 ,she then turned longingly and earnestly to the religion in which she had been brought up4 ,two weeks after1 she died1 asking the prayers of her co-religionists in behalf of herself1 her husband1 and her children4 ,footnote #d3 ,new ,york ,times1 ,june #bd1 #ahii4 ,mrs4 ,eddy declares that she healed consumption in its last stages1 the lungs being mostly consumed2 that she healed carious bones which could be dented with the finger2 and that she healed in one visit a cancer that had so eaten the flesh of the neck as to expose the jugular vein so that it stood out like a cord4 ,judge ,hanna has published statements to the effect that cancer1 malignant tumors1 consumption1 broken bones1 and broken tissues have been healed in ,christian ,science1 without the assistance of any material means whatever4 ,mr4 ,carol ,norton1 a ,christian-,science lecturer1 has publicly announced that ,christian ,science has healed locomotor ataxia1 softening of the brain1 paresis1 tumor1 ,bright's disease1 cancer1 etc4 ,and many other ,christian ,scientists have made like claims4 ,very well1 then4 ,who are these people that have thus been cured8 ,what are their names8 ,where do they live8 ,how can they be found8 ,will ,mrs4 ,eddy and her followers submit these cases for scientific examination8 ,i and other investigators are asking1 and have for years been asking1 these questions1 and we are all of us still waiting for answers4 ,the importance of all this is no doubt manifest4 ,the healing of disease is1 we are told1 the outward and visible evidence upon which ,christian ,science expects to be judged and accepted4 ,therefore the cult must stand or fall upon the results of an investigation of the healer's claims4 ,by their fruits ye shall know them4 ,there are ,christian ,scientists who will say that these statements of ,mrs4 ,eddy and her associates must be taken upon faith and as ipse dixit utterances4 ,this is in the last degree silly4 ,with such statements faith has absolutely nothing to do4 ,they are solely matters for scientific inquiry4 ,every ,christian ,scientist may be a healer4 ,a little child may be a healer in ,christian ,science4 ,the treatment is said to consist in thinking1 speaking1 and writing4 ,it is declared that no material substances are used4 ,the following oddity in mental processes is here to be noted3 ,a healer told her patient to take a certain drug during her illness1 and that she would then demonstrate the power of ,christian ,science over this drug4 ,the healer does not need to see his patient4 ,he may1 if he will1 treat absently1 by a species of thought transference4 ,he would consider his treatment effectual if he were in ,new ,york and his patient were in ,hong ,kong4 ,i have rheumatism1 let us say1 and at midnight my swollen and inflamed joint gives me pain4 ,i send for a ,christian-,science healer4 ,in all probability my messenger will call upon a person who has had no preliminary medical education whatever4 ,he is likely to find some one who is quite illiterate1 as witness the letter last presented4 ,he may1 as ,i have1 come upon some one who has been engaged in the occupation of amusing the habitus of beer saloons by playing upon the zither before he took up the more remunerative business of ,christian-,science healing4 ,or he may1 as ,i have1 come upon some one who is engaged simultaneously both in the business of selling drugs and in the practice of healing by mental therapeutics alone4 ,having been found1 the healer1 first requiring a fee from my messenger1 treats me absently1 while lying abed in his own home4 ,his treatment consists in sending me word that ,i only imagine ,i am ill1 that my joint is really not swollen1 that it is really not inflamed1 and that it really does not pain me1 but that1 on the contrary1 ,i am really very well and very happy indeed4 ,some diseases are in ,christian ,science considered to take longer to heal than others2 ,i have not understood why4 ,if all is mind1 and there is no matter1#e as the ,christian ,scientist holds1 and if1 therefore1 the varying densities of tissues need not be considered1 why should not cancer or locomotor ataxia be healed as easily and as rapidly as a headache or a hysterical manifestation8 ,christian ,science despises bodily cleanliness1 the use of baths1 and the most ordinary sanitary regulations4 ,to bow down to a flesh-brush1 bath1 diet1 exercise1 and air is a form of idolatry4#f ,we learn1 finally1 that the heart1 the lungs1 the brain1 have nothing to do with life4#g ,footnote #e3 ,science and ,health4 ,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 ,christian ,science has stood by the bedside of an infant sick with diphtheria1 has prevented interference with its incantations1 and has seen this infant choke1 grow livid1 gasp1 and expire1 without so much as putting a drop of water to its lips4 ,most ,christian ,scientists are well to do4 ,their tenet is that no one has any business to be poor4 ,in ,new ,york their churches are in the neighborhood of the wealthy1 and there are no missions by means of which the professed blessings of ,christian ,science may be disseminated among the poor4 ,christian ,science is demonstrably a powerful organization for the accumulation of wealth1 and by easy calculation one may see that her propaganda has made ,mrs4 ,eddy1 who is said to have been at one time very poor1 conspicuously rich even in these days of enormous fortunes4 ,when we consider that this woman claims to be actuated by the spirit of the poor ,nazarene1 has hypocrisy ever gone to greater length8 ,mrs4 ,eddy despises all metaphysical systems1 yet her writings display her inability to think logically through half a dozen consecutive lines4 ,mrs4 ,eddy declares that no human being or agency taught me the truths of ,christian ,science1 and no human agency can overthrow it4#h ,but there are published statements1#i of the truth of which the writer offers to give legal proof1 in which it is shown1 by means of the deadly parallel1 that the essential ideas underlying her system are all plagiarized from the writings of an irregular practitioner to whom1 many years ago1 she went for treatment4 ,published accounts of her illness at that time present a picture of hysteria pure and simple4 ,footnote #h3 ,science and ,health4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,arena1 ,may1 #ahih4 ,mrs4 ,eddy claims to possess healing powers nothing short of miraculous1 yet the writer just mentioned declares that she has probably not been a well woman these forty years past4 ,certain it is she almost never appears in public1 and only a few of her followers have ever seen her face except in copyrighted photographs4 ,the medical profession is most stupidly reprobated by ,mrs4 ,eddy and her associates1 especially for its mercenary motives4 ,a specific statement may here be not malapropos4 ,in the year #ahie there were #a1hjj1jjj inhabitants in the lesser city of ,new ,york1 and on the rolls of its hospitals and dispensaries were more than #gic1jjj names of people for the treatment of whom ,new ,york's medical men received practically no pecuniary reward whatever4 ,it is declared that ,christian ,science is a religious system1 that the treatment of the sick is a part of this system1 and that1 as the ,constitution forbids interference by the ,states with religion1 no laws can be enacted which could compel the healer to desist from his work4 ,but there is a sharp distinction between religious liberty and license to commit1 in the name of religion1 unlawful acts4 ,a man would not be justified in killing his child in obedience to a fanatical belief1 as ,abraham was about to do2 but ,christian ,science has sacrificed the lives of little children upon the altar of its pseudo-religion4 ,had not these children rights which ought to have been safeguarded8 ,if the ,christian ,scientist's position be admitted1 a thug might1 upon the same principles1 be justified in committing murder1 on the ground that murder is a practice required by his religion2 and a ,mormon might1 on the same basis1 practice polygamy4 ,when a healer treats for hire a sufferer from typhoid fever1 is he acting in a religious capacity8 ,the observer will find in ,christian ,science much charlatanry 7by which many honest fanatics are deceived71 much to surprise reason and common sense1 to offend good taste and the proprieties1 to outrage justice and the law1 and to mortify the pious4 ,and in the last degree reprehensible will appear this cult's ghastly masquerade in the garb of ,him that prayed in the ,garden of ,gethsemane1 the pale1 staggering ,jew1 with the crown of thorns upon his bleeding head1 the tenderest1 the divinest1 the most mankind-loving personality the world has ever known4 ,,the ,,wheat ,,lands ,,of ,,canada4 ,,by ,,sydney ,c4 ,d4 ,,roper4 ,when ,sir ,w4 ,crookes1 in his inaugural address as ,president of the ,british ,association1 startled a large number of people by stating that1 unless some radical change was made in the present system of wheat cultivation1 there would be a bread famine in #aica1 because the world's supply of land capable of producing wheat would have been exhausted1 there was undoubtedly a considerable feeling of uneasiness engendered1 and more attention was paid to the address than is usual even to so valuable a contribution as the inaugural address of the ,president of that ,association must always be4 ,it was1 therefore1 with a feeling of relief that we found one person after another1 well qualified to speak1 coming1 as it were1 to the rescue1 and pointing out that ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's conclusions were not warranted2 and in the minds of the majority1 no doubt1 the last feeling of uneasiness was dispelled by the able letter in ,the ,times1 in ,december last1 in which ,sir ,john ,lawes and ,sir ,henry ,gilbert1 who are facile principes as scientific agriculturists1 and whose opinions carry greater weight than even those of the ,president of the ,british ,association1 gave most satisfactory reasons for being unable to believe in ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's predictions4 ,it is true that1 in a subsequent letter1 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes stated that his remarks were intended more as a serious warning than as a prophecy2 but1 seeing that his conclusions were based on definite statements of definite facts and figures1 it is difficult to treat them as other than prophetic4 ,in order1 however1 to establish the probability of a wheat famine in the near future it became necessary for ,sir ,w4 ,crookes to seriously misrepresent and underestimate the wheat resources of some of the principal countries most interested in producing that cereal1 and it is to a large extent by exposing the magnitude of these misrepresentations that the validity of his conclusions is called in question and disproved4 ,the two countries which1 with perhaps the exception of ,russia1 are most concerned in the wheat production of the future1 and therefore in the correction of these misstatements1 are ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,mr4 ,atkinson1 the well-known writer on economic subjects1 took up the cudgels for the ,united ,states1 and their case could hardly have been in better hands2 but so far no champion has appeared on behalf of ,canada2 and while ,sir ,w4 ,crookes may not have been alone in his views about the possible exhaustion of the wheat area in the ,united ,states1 he certainly stood quite alone when he committed himself to the remarkable statements that are to be found in the address1 in order to decry the capabilities of the ,canadian wheat fields4 ,i did not immediately reply to them myself1 thinking that some one better qualified would do so1 but this has not been done1 and as ,i feel that they can not be allowed any longer to remain unanswered1 ,i propose to deal with them in the present article4 ,mr4 ,atkinson's defense has been criticised1 in the ,march number of ,the ,forum1 by ,mr4 ,c4 ,wood ,davis1 who naturally upholds ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's views1 seeing that they appear to have been largely induced by his own figures and agree with his own ideas1 but his argument in that article is more one of fault finding with the statements of others than an attempt to justify his own position4 ,as a specimen of his style of criticism1 ,mr4 ,davis takes ,mr4 ,atkinson to task for saying that the present necessities of the world are computed by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes at #b1cbd1jjj1jjj bushels1 and says that in no part of his address was an estimate of the whole world's requirements so much as mentioned2 and yet1 on turning to the address1 we find that ,sir ,w4 ,crookes said3 ,the bread eaters of the whole world share the perilous prospect4444 ,the bread eaters of the world at the present time number #eaf1ejj1jjj4444 ,to supply #eaf1ejj1jjj bread eaters will require a total of #b1cbd1jjj1jjj bushels for seed and food4 ,the requirements of the whole world are distinctly stated here1 for bread is required only for the bread-eating population1 and therefore the requirements of that population are1 as far as bread is concerned1 the requirements of the whole world4 ,mr4 ,atkinson1 however1 is well able to take care of himself1 and he and ,mr4 ,davis can fight out for themselves the question as to when1 or if ever1 the ,united ,states will cease to export wheat2 but it is amusing to find ,mr4 ,atkinson charged by ,mr4 ,davis1 of all men1 with dealing in purely speculative computations1 for if there is any one who has freely indulged in these same purely speculative computations it is ,mr4 ,davis himself1 as we shall presently see4 ,the value of the various calculations that statisticians indulge in is largely discounted by the fact that allowance is rarely made for changing conditions4 ,such has been the ratio1 such is the ratio1 and therefore in so many years' time such will be the ratio1 is the burden of their calculations1 so that while their figures for the past and present may be both correct and instructive1 their calculations for the future are frequently of little practical utility2 and it is this failure to allow for any variation in conditions that renders ,mr4 ,davis's figures of so little value1 and ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's conclusions1 which are based on them1 of no greater importance4 ,it is surprising to find how much value ,sir ,w4 ,crookes attaches to ,mr4 ,davis's figures1 and it leads one to the conclusion that he has either not examined them very closely1 or shares with ,mr4 ,davis a fondness for purely speculative computations2 and while it is not seemly to accuse1 as has been done1 a man of ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's standing and reputation of resorting to bucket-shop methods to support his conclusions1 it is difficult to avoid thinking that the anxiety to establish those conclusions has not only led him to accept ,mr4 ,davis's calculations without proper examination1 but has also influenced the preparation of some of his antecedent data and led him to subordinate facts as a means to a required end4 ,since ,sir ,w4 ,crookes thinks so highly of ,mr4 ,davis's figures and upon them has based some of the most important conclusions of his address1 and as ,mr4 ,davis himself is so ready to find fault with the calculations of others1 it might be well just here to see how some of ,mr4 ,davis's own calculations have been verified and what amount of dependence should be placed upon his figures or on deductions from them4 ,in ,an ,epitome of the ,agricultural ,situation1 published by ,mr4 ,davis in #ahij1 he predicted an annually increasing deficit in the world's wheat supply and the almost immediate inability of the ,united ,states to do more than grow enough wheat for home consumption1 and1 as a consequence1 that ,after #ahie we 7,united ,states7 must either import breadstuffs1 cease to export cotton1 or lower the standard of living1 this latter prophecy being emphasized by being printed in capital letters4 ,these predictions were made ten years ago--ample time1 surely1 for at least some evidence of their fulfillment to be apparent4 ,but what are the facts8 ,the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,statistics1 in his report on the foreign commerce of the ,united ,states for #ahih1 says3 ,the total exportation of meats and dairy products amounted in the last fiscal year 7#ahih7 to #afg1cdj1ifj1 against #ade1bgj1fdc in the highest year prior to that date 7#ahid71 while the value of animals exported in #ahih was greater than that of any preceding year2 of wheat the exports of the year were the largest in value1 save the exceptional years of #ahhj1 #ahha1 and #ahib4 ,of cotton the exports of the year were the largest in quantity in the history of the country4444 ,thus1 in the great agricultural products--breadstuffs1 provisions1 and cotton--the exports have been phenomenally large1 while the total of products of agriculture exceed by #ed1jjj1jjj the exports of agricultural produce in any preceding year of our history4 ,so much for exports2 now for the imports of breadstuffs4 ,the total value of breadstuffs1 both dutiable and free1 entered for consumption in #ahih was #ieg1dee1 of which #fbh1gge were for imports of macaroni1 vermicelli1 etc41 articles not in any case manufactured in the country4 ,i have not seen any explanation by ,mr4 ,davis of the failure of his predictions1 but it is probable that he had them in mind when he wrote in ,the ,forum 7,march1 #ahii71 ,had not the herds of hay- and maize-eating animals shrunk greatly since #ahib1 thus rendering vast areas of hay and maize lands available for wheat production1 we should probably have reduced the wheat area1 instead of adding ten million acres to it since #ahie4 ,this1 however1 is a purely arbitrary assumption1 unsupported by anything more substantial than ,mr4 ,davis's personal opinion4 ,in the same article he says3 ,but herds being insufficient for present needs must be added to in the measure of the existing deficit1 as well as in that of the animal products and services required by all future additions to the population4 ,this will necessitate and force a restoration to other staples of acres recently diverted to wheat4 ,but1 in the face of the figures quoted above1 the evidence is clear that herds are not only ample for present needs1 but afford a larger margin than ever of exportable surplus4 ,if herds were insufficient1 there would have been a curtailment of exports and an increase in the consumption of breadstuffs1 but neither have happened2 neither has there been any reduction in the standard of living4 ,is not the inference irresistible that the country was carrying a larger number of animals than conditions absolutely required1 since farm animals have declined from #afi1jjj1jjj in #ahib to #ach1jjj1jjj in #ahih1 without in any way disturbing the conditions of food supply or reducing the exports of provisions8 ,in #ahij1 ,mr4 ,davis assumed that #dd1hjj1jjj acres of hay would be required in #ahie and #di1bjj1jjj acres in #aijj1 yet in #ahih1 #db1hjj1jjj acres were found to be ample for the needs of the country4 ,do not the foregoing figures clearly indicate that it is not safe to assume that the area employed in the cultivation of certain staples at any given time1 or the average of that area for any given period1 must necessarily be the proportion always to be required for the cultivation of those articles1 and that any calculations or predictions made on that assumption are liable to be completely upset by events unforeseen and unprovided for8 ,does it not seem probable that if ,sir ,w4 ,crookes had examined ,mr4 ,davis's figures more closely than apparently he did1 he would have found that average acre yields for long periods are not essential factors2 that unit requirements for each of the primary food staples of the temperate zones can not be so easily determined2 that the ratio existing during recent periods between the consuming element and acres employed in the production of each of such primary food staples are not necessarily indicative of the ratio that will require to exist in the years to come2 and that ,mr4 ,davis's scientific method does not enable him to ascertain the acreage requirements of the separate national populations and of the bread-eating world as a whole8 ,in order to insure a famine in #aica it was necessary for ,sir ,w4 ,crookes to assume a given increase of population during the intervening period and no change in the existing conditions of wheat cultivation and consumption1 and also to limit by hard-and-fast lines the sources of supply4 ,it is to the manner in which ,sir ,w4 ,crookes has limited and underestimated the wheat resources of ,canada that we now propose to take exception2 and it is difficult to understand how1 with ample means of information available1 he could have committed himself to the statements he has made4 ,what does he say about ,manitoba8 ,in the year #ahig there were #b1cga1dda acres under cultivation in ,manitoba1 out of a total of #ac1jea1cge acres4 ,the total area includes water courses1 lakes1 forests1 towns and farms1 land unsuitable for wheat growing1 and land required for other crops4 ,now1 the facts are that the total area of ,manitoba is #gc1ief square miles1 and if from that area #i1hij square miles of water surface are deducted there remain #fd1jff square miles1 or #da1jjb1bdj acres of land1 so that even after making due allowance for forests1 towns1 etc41 there are nearly three times the number of acres available than are given by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes4 ,attempts have been made in vain to find out whence these figures were obtained1 but there is apparently no clew2 and while it is not to be supposed for a moment that the figures were purposely misstated1 surely the important conclusions drawn from them deserved that some attempt at least should have been made to ascertain their accuracy4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes claims to be indebted to the official publications of the ,government of ,canada1 but it is certain that none of them ever contained the figures used by him4 ,the most trustworthy estimates1 says ,sir ,w4 ,crookes1 give ,canada a wheat area of not more than six millions of acres in the next twelve years1 increasing to a maximum of twelve millions of acres in twenty-five years4 ,who prepared these estimates1 and upon what are they based8 ,were they prepared by the same authority that supplied ,sir ,w4 ,crookes with the figures of the area of ,manitoba8 ,if so1 we may well dismiss them at once2 but supposing that these estimates are1 as far as the rate of increase is concerned1 perfectly correct1 and that the wheat area of ,canada will be only twelve million acres in twenty-five years1 there would still remain at least twelve million acres in ,manitoba alone available for wheat4 ,it is no exaggerated estimate to say that from sixty to seventy per cent of the land available for cultivation in ,manitoba is well adapted for the production of wheat4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes says that his area of ,manitoba of #ac1jea1cge acres includes water courses1 lakes1 forests1 towns1 etc4 ,now1 the water area alone of ,manitoba is #f1cbi1fjj acres1 so that after deducting this area and the #a1fcj1jjj acres already under wheat and making due allowance for the other conditions mentioned1 he would have us believe that wheat-growing in ,manitoba has already nearly reached its limit1 which all who know anything about the province will unite in saying is absurd4 ,now let us turn to the ,northwest ,territories1 where1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,crookes1 there is practically no amount of land of any consequence available for wheat1 and let us remember that the same authority limits the wheat area of ,canada to a maximum of twelve million acres4 ,the area of the three provisional districts1 with which alone we will deal1 is as follows1 viz43 ,assiniboia1 #eg1agg1fjj acres2 ,saskatchewan1 #fi1abj1jjj acres2 and ,alberta1 #fc1ebc1bjj acres 7these figures being exclusive of water surface71 making a total of #ahi1hbj1jjj acres4 ,some of this large area is possibly not particularly well adapted for agricultural purposes1 but a careful examination of all available data on the subject justifies one in saying that fully one half is suitable for successful wheat cultivation1 while in eastern and southern ,assiniboia there are some #bj1jjj1jjj acres1 in the valley of the ,saskatchewan #ad1jjj1jjj acres1 and in northern ,alberta #ae1jjj1jjj acres that are especially adapted for the production of wheat as a staple crop4 ,the area is so large and settlement at present so sparse1 that it is impossible to do more than give its capabilities in general terms1 founded on the opinions of experienced men who have traveled over it4 ,professor ,saunders1 ,director of the ,experimental ,farm at ,ottawa1 than whom there is no better authority on the subject in the ,dominion1 told me that1 from what he saw of the country in driving over it1 he became more and more impressed every year with the vast area of good land in the ,northwest1 and no practical man has ever traveled through those regions but has been amazed at the prospect of their capabilities4 ,but we have not yet reckoned with the rich and fertile province of ,ontario4 ,this province has a land area of #adj1egf1jjj acres1 of which #aa1hhh1hec acres were under cultivation in #ahih1 and of this latter quantity #a1dcg1chg acres1 or twelve per cent1 were in wheat1 being an increase of #afc1hfj acres over the wheat area of #ahig1 and of #fb1egc acres over the average of #ahhb-'ih4 ,according to the census of #ahha there were nearly #b1jjj1jjj acres in wheat in #ahhj1 but1 under the influence of an unremunerative market1 the area declined year by year until in #ahie there were but #ifg1aef acres so employed2 since then1 however1 stimulated by a more profitable price1 the area has increased by #dgj1dga acres1 and an increase of twenty per cent upward is reported in the area for #ahii4 ,fall wheat in this province is a very successful crop1 having averaged in the last two years twenty-five bushels and twenty-four bushels per acre respectively1 while the average for the period #ahhb-'ih has been #bj4e bushels per acre1 so that nothing but a continuance of good prices is needed to largely increase the production of wheat in ,ontario4 ,in no part of the province1 where agriculture is possible1 has wheat failed to grow1 but the area is so large that it would be unwise to put into figures the extent available for wheat cultivation1 it being sufficient to show that a very large portion1 if not indeed the whole1 of the twelve million acres to which ,sir ,w4 ,crookes has limited ,canada could1 other conditions being favorable1 be supplied by ,ontario alone4 ,the trustworthy estimates quoted by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes limit1 as has been stated1 the wheat area of ,canada to a maximum of twelve million acres under cultivation in twenty-five years2 whence the estimates were derived or on what grounds they are entitled to be considered trustworthy there is no information2 but is it of any consequence8 ,let them come from whatever source they may1 are they not perfectly useless8 ,the progress of wheat cultivation during the next twenty-five years does not depend upon any mathematical ratio of progression1 but on the course of certain events absolutely unknown at the present time4 ,the point is that ,sir ,w4 ,crookes adopts these estimates and gives out to the world a statement1 on the strength of them1 that1 in addition to the #c1ejj1jjj acres at present in use1 there are not more than #h1ejj1jjj acres in ,canada available for wheat cultivation--a statement calculated1 if believed1 to seriously damage ,canada's prospects of settlement1 and a statement that is as much at variance with the actual facts as it is possible for such things to be4 ,is it fair to the country for a man of such high standing and reputation to make such unfounded assertions8 ,five minutes' real consideration of the question would have convinced him that there are more than that number of acres in the province of ,manitoba alone4 ,the figures already given1 which have been prepared from the most reliable available information1 go to show that there are upward of seventy-five million acres of land in ,canada especially adapted for the production of wheat1 and this estimate is confined to those portions of the country which may be considered as essentially wheat-producing areas2 and no account has been taken of the vast extent of land1 not only in the provinces of ,ontario and ,manitoba and in the ,northwest ,territories1 but also in the otherwise unnoticed provinces of ,quebec1 ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,prince ,edward ,island1 and ,british ,columbia1 that is not only suitable for the production of wheat1 but on which a large quantity of wheat will undoubtedly be grown1 which1 entering into home consumption1 will increase the exportable surplus4 ,i am well aware that there are a number of people who will say that my figures underestimate the resources of the country1 but ,i would rather that it were so than indulge in figures that seem too extravagant to be realized2 and if1 in the future1 it appears that the wheat area is larger than ,i have stated1 then so much the better for ,canada4 ,i do not mind how much evidence can be brought to increase my figures1 as long as ,i am satisfied that they can not be truthfully reduced4 ,it is not intended to accuse ,sir ,w4 ,crookes of deliberately misrepresenting ,canada1 but rather of almost criminal carelessness in the preparation of his case2 but it is intended to accuse ,mr4 ,c4 ,wood ,davis of the former offense and of intentionally garbling extracts from an official handbook issued by the ,canadian ,minister of the ,interior in order to decry that country's wheat-bearing capabilities4 ,by taking a line here and there which seems to serve his ends1 and by leaving out everything that would have a contrary tendency1 ,mr4 ,davis1 in his article in ,the ,forum1 makes it to appear that1 according to the ,minister of the ,interior1 the greater part of the ,canadian ,northwest is not only incapable of producing wheat1 but is actually unfit for settlement1 and summarizes his extracts by saying1 ,available data do not show that any part of the ,canadian districts named1 except southern ,manitoba and the eastern half of ,assiniboia1 is adapted to wheat culture1 while they do show that over the greater part of these vast regions neither summer heats nor rainfalls are sufficient4 ,this statement is false in every particular4 ,the official handbook from which ,mr4 ,davis professes to quote says of ,manitoba that there are thirty-seven million acres available for active farm cultivation1 giving therefore no warrant for the limiting of the wheat area to the southern part of the province4 ,mr4 ,davis quotes a line here and there about southern ,alberta in order to convey the impression that that part of the country is good for nothing1 whereas1 while it is essentially a ranching and dairying country1 producing a most luxurious and nutritious growth of native grasses1 with a bountiful supply of water for irrigation purposes1 by which means most satisfactory crops of grain and fodder are produced1 it has never been contended that it is particularly well adapted for wheat-growing2 but1 on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,davis carefully omits all mention of northern ,alberta1 and has no room for the following remarks about it which appear on the same page of the handbook3 ,northern ,alberta is essentially an agricultural district2 444 the principal advantages of the district will insure settlement by immigrants who desire to engage in grain farming4444 ,the rainfall in northern ,alberta during the summer months is sufficient to insure good crops4 ,concerning the district of ,saskatchewan1 ,mr4 ,davis quotes a remark about some of the wooded portion being unsuited to the immediate requirements of settlement1 as if it applied to the whole district1 and deliberately omits the following3 ,the southern half of the district 7,saskatchewan7 is traversed from east to west by the ,saskatchewan ,river1 and the valley of this important stream1 with the country immediately adjacent thereto1 has long been famed as a desirable field for immigration4 ,with reference to precipitation1 ,mr4 ,davis has so garbled his extracts as to convey the impression that the handbook states that over the greater part of the ,northwest the rainfall is not sufficient for the pursuit of agriculture1 whereas what the book really says is1 ,so far as the ,canadian ,northwest is concerned1 out of about two hundred million acres of land between the ,red ,river of the ,north to the ,rocky ,mountains1 available for agricultural and pastoral purposes1 not more than about one fourth1 or fifty million acres in all1 require the artificial application of water4 ,mr4 ,davis's attempts to prejudice the interests of the ,northwest by remarks on the severity of the climate do not need serious attention2 the experience of the inhabitants and the annual production of the country speak for themselves1 and it is well understood that mere thermometer readings afford little indication in themselves of the nature of a climate1 and that temperatures unendurable in some countries are enjoyable1 salubrious1 and advantageous in others4 ,it seems difficult to believe that ,mr4 ,davis ever wrote the following sentence1 but having written it1 it would be well if he would take it to heart3 ,truly 'honesty is the best policy' in the employment of statistics1 whether by scientists1 by plain people1 or by professional statisticians2 while the ability to eschew bucket-shop methods1 to read correctly1 to state facts and to state them clearly1 and to criticise with intelligence and entire fairness1 is especially desirable4 ,sir ,w4 ,crookes is not content with reducing ,canada's wheat resources to an insignificant minimum1 but he must also retard as much as possible the development even of the small area that he admits to exist1 for he says3 ,the development of this promising area necessarily must be slow1 since prairie land can not be laid under wheat in advance of a population sufficient to supply the needful labor at seed time and harvest4 ,as population increases so do home demands for wheat4 ,to say that prairie land can not be laid under wheat in advance of population1 and that as population increases so do home demands for wheat1 are mere truisms1 but it is incorrect to say that therefore the development must be slow4 ,the rate of development depends entirely upon the rate of increase of population1 and that increase depends upon the price of wheat1 and the area of production will increase concurrently with the demand4 ,according to ,mr4 ,davis--and we will assume that his figures are in this case correct--the population in the ,united ,states in fourteen years from #ahga increased forty-four per cent and the cultivated area one hundred and twelve per cent1 and1 if that was the case1 no estimates1 however trustworthy1 could have provided for such results4 ,it has been perfectly true1 as ,sir ,w4 ,crookes says1 that as the wheat area of ,manitoba and the ,northwest increased1 the wheat area of ,ontario and the eastern provinces decreased1 but this was in consequence of the continued low price of wheat1 which led the farmers of ,ontario to turn their attention more and more to dairy and mixed farming1 substituting hay and root crops for wheat and barley1 until the province became a dairying rather than a cereal-producing country2 but that this was a movement to suit the times1 and that the area available for wheat is no less in consequence1 is evidenced by the rapid increase in the wheat acreage in the last two years4 ,the farmer produces what pays him best1 and it is certain that before ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's failure of the wheat supply comes to pass prices will have been such that every acre of land suitable for wheat and that can be spared from other uses will have been taken advantage of2 and if this is not the case1 then some other staple for food will have been substituted1 which will necessarily change the whole economic situation as viewed at present4 ,it is also true that thus far performance has lagged behind promise1 but the reasons for this are the same1 and in the low values we find a ready explanation of the apparent lack of progress4 ,what inducement has the immigrant had of late years to take up land for1 or the farmer to grow1 wheat that he could hardly sell for the actual cost of production8 ,and yet ,sir ,w4 ,crookes would argue that because the land has not been utilized for this particular purpose the land can not be there1 and that land upon which wheat once was grown1 but which is now employed for other purposes1 can never again be included in the wheat-bearing area4 ,progress may appear to have been slow1 but it has kept pace with the demand1 and in any case has been considerably more rapid than ,sir ,w4 ,crookes allows4 ,he says1 ,the wheat-bearing area of all ,canada has increased less than #ejj1jjj acres since #ahhd1 whereas the actual increase since #ahhj has been over #a1ajj1jjj acres1 and since #ahij upward of #gfj1jjj acres4 ,the area under wheat in ,canada in #ahih was #c1ejh1edj acres1 so that ,sir ,w4 ,crookes only allows for an increase of #b1ejj1jjj acres in the next twelve years4 ,perhaps it will not be as much1 but if it is not1 it will only be putting the predicted day of famine still farther away1 and will prove nothing more than the fact that the state of the market has not warranted any more extended cultivation4 ,the statements made by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes about the wheat acreage in the ,states are as incorrect as those about ,canada1 for he says1 in his letter to ,the ,times of ,december #h1 #ahih1 that the whole wheat acreage in the ,united ,states is less than it was fifteen years ago1 whereas the official figures for #ahig and #ahih1 which were before him at the time1 told him that the wheat acreage in #ahig was #c1jjj1jjj acres in excess of the average of the preceding fifteen years1 and in #ahih was in the neighborhood of #e1jjj1jjj acres in excess of any year in the history of that country4 ,do not the fluctuations in the wheat acreage of the ,united ,states in recent years prove conclusively that they were solely the result of the movement of prices1 and had no bearing whatever on the question of exhaustion of land8 ,under the depressing influence of an unprofitable market1 the wheat area fell from #ci1ijj1jjj acres in #ahia to #cd1jjj1jjj acres in #ahie1 but1 under the stimulus of a substantial appreciation1 increased again1 in three years1 to #dd1jjj1jjj acres4 ,if1 in spite of a rising and remunerative market1 the area had remained stationary or shown signs of decrease1 it would have been in order to call attention to the fact as indicating exhaustion2 but when1 in immediate response to a rising market1 the area increases by leaps and bounds1 the question of exhaustion becomes less and less one of actual probability1 and more and more one of theoretical possibility4 ,a precisely similar line of reasoning is applicable to the fluctuations in the province of ,ontario1 and goes to show just as clearly that the decrease in area has had absolutely no bearing on the wheat-producing capabilities of the province4 ,a permanently high price for wheat is1 ,i fear1 a calamity that ere long must be faced1 says ,sir ,w4 ,crookes2 but1 with due deference to so great an authority1 ,i believe that the day of a permanent high price for wheat is yet far distant4 ,there will be appreciations undoubtedly1 but the sources of supply as yet undrawn upon are so great that it will be long before those appreciations are of any prolonged duration2 but in the meantime they mean periods of great prosperity to the farmer and therefore to the world4 ,is a higher price for wheat such an unmixed calamity1 after all8 ,has the average consumer of wheat benefited by the low price of wheat of late years in proportion to the hardships endured by the producer8 ,i think not4 ,let those who are qualified by literary and scientific knowledge point out if they will the possibility1 or even perhaps the probability1 of at some period in the future the time coming when there may be1 if present conditions continue to exist1 a scarcity in the wheat supply1 and urge as strongly as they like the advisability of taking steps in good time to prevent such a calamity2 but nothing is to be gained by frightening the world with predictions of evil based only on a series of unfounded assertions1 mathematical calculations1 and purely speculative computations4 ,when1 if ever1 the day of scarcity will come is unknown4 ,that it is yet far off appears to be tolerably certain2 but it is sufficient for the purposes of this article that it should be understood that ,sir ,w4 ,crookes's statements concerning the wheat area of ,canada are absolutely unreliable and incorrect1 and that there are millions of acres of good wheat land waiting for occupation by the surplus population of the world1 which1 when under cultivation1 will assist in deferring for many years the threatened day of famine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,sven ,hedin1 in his account of travel through ,asia1 mentions as the most remarkable feature in the central region of internal drainage 7in which the rivers drain into inland lakes7 the process of leveling which goes on unceasingly4 ,the detritus which results from the disintegrating action of the weather1 and the more or less mechanical agency of the wind and water and gravity1 is constantly being carried down from the mountains all round its borders toward the lower parts of its depressions1 and being deposited there4 ,in this way the natural inequalities in the configuration of the ground are being gradually smoothed away4 ,mr4 ,curzon refers to the same phenomenon in the central districts of the ,pamirs--the process being the exact reverse to that where the streams hew out deep ravines in their course to the sea-going river4 ,,best ,,methods ,,of ,,taxation4 ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,hon4 ,,david ,a4 ,,wells4 ,,part ,,iii 7concluded74 ,the universal and admitted failure of the general property tax to attain good results and the great difficulty1 indeed the impossibility1 of reducing it to a form in which it can operate with efficiency and an approach to justice1 must lead to its abolition and the gradual substitution of other and more simple taxes4 ,however well adapted to a community in which the taxable property was in evidence and easily assessed for purposes of taxation1 it becomes antiquated1 unequal1 and inquisitorial in a people where credit and credit investments have been highly developed1 and where the greater social activities1 whether in commerce or industry1 transportation or production1 are conducted by corporations issuing various kinds of securities1 none of which can easily be reached by a taxing authority away from the center of incorporation4 ,to undertake to include these securities1 evidences of debt1 or obligations in a general property tax is to invite evasion1 put a heavy inducement on concealment1 and1 whenever effective1 to give rise to shocking inequalities of burden4 ,the widow and orphan1 whose property is in the hands of a trustee1 pay the full tax2 in any other direction the holder of stocks or bonds1 money or notes1 escapes according to the elasticity of his conscience4 ,the very exemptions recognized by law give an opportunity for new evasions1 based upon analogy or upon some technicality under which the business is conducted4 ,bonds of the ,united ,states1 the legal-tender notes1 or money are beyond the reach of ,state authorities for the purpose of taxation4 ,in the same category come also all imported goods in original packages1 in the possession of the importers1 and all property in transit4 ,these exemptions alone amount to thousands of millions of dollars1 and the tendency has been to increase the number of items exempted4 ,but every such exception under the law adds to the burdens of the honest taxpayer1 and every evasion of taxation also renders his charge the greater4 ,here is not distributive justice1 but concentrated injustice4 ,another large proportion of the personal property owned by the citizens of the ,state is of the most intangible character1 and in great part invisible and incorporeal1 such1 for instance1 as negotiable instruments in the form of bills of exchange1 ,state1 municipal1 and corporate bonds1 and1 if actually situated in other ,states1 exempt from taxation where they are held2 acknowledgments of individual indebtedness1 and a number of similar matters4 ,all property of this character is1 through a great variety of circumstances1 constantly fluctuating in value2 is offset by indebtedness which may never be the same one hour with another2 is easy to transfer1 and by simple delivery is1 in fact1 transferred continually from one locality to another1 and from the protection and laws of one ,state to the sovereignty and jurisdiction of some other4 ,it is not to be wondered1 therefore1 that all attempts to value and assess this description of property have proved exceedingly unsatisfactory1 and that nearly every civilized community1 with the exception of the ,states of the ,federal ,union1 have long ago abandoned the project as something wholly inexpedient and impracticable4 ,the differences among the ,states in the interpretation of residence1 of the situs of the property taxed1 are also an objection to this system and an obstacle to its application4 ,the want of uniformity can not be abolished by enactments of law1 because absolute uniformity of laws would not insure as uniform interpretation of their provisions4 ,the rules for assessment are uniform for the officers of a ,state1 but the returns made involve such differences in the application of the rules that one is forced to the conclusion that a misunderstanding of the spirit of the law exists1 coloring differently the view of each returning officer4 ,discrimination against the county or municipality and discrimination against the individual are to be met at every turn4 ,no wording of the law can eliminate this personal judgment of each assessing authority1 and the supervision of the returns by ,state boards of equalization has introduced an even greater departure from justice1 as a majority1 based upon selfish interests1 may be had1 and its decision may readily be defended as based upon good and sufficient reasons4 ,an appeal to the last resort1 the higher courts1 may produce redress against unjust assessments1 but each case must be decided upon its merits1 and only under very exceptional circumstances--as in the recent case at ,tarrytown1 ,new ,york1 where striking and general1 even personal1 spite had been shown in the tax levy--can a number of taxpayers find it their interest to combine and carry the question into the courts for adjudication4 ,imperfect in theory1 the machinery of the general property tax is imperfect4 ,with at present fully two thirds of the personal property of the ,state exempted from taxation by law or by circumstances growing out of its condition1 or the natural depravity and selfishness of the average taxpayer1 and with a large part of the other third exempted by competing nations or neighboring ,states1 what becomes of the theory so generally accepted in the ,united ,states that in order to tax equitably it is necessary to tax everything8 ,a very slight examination leads to the conclusion that it is the most imperfect system of taxation that ever existed2 that1 with the exception of moneyed corporations1 it is a mere voluntary assessment1 which may be diminished at any time by an offset of indebtedness which the law invites the taxpayers to increase ad infinitum1 borrowing on pledge of corporate stocks1 ,united ,states bonds1 legal-tender notes1 etc41 all exempt from taxation2 that its administration in respect to justice and equity is a farce and more uncertain and hazardous than the chances of the gaming table2 and that its continuance is more provocative of immorality and more obstructive of material development than any one agency that can possibly be mentioned4 ,a stringent enforcement only leads to greater perversions and a wider evasion4 ,a lax enforcement does not reduce its inequalities and general want of application to actual conditions4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,the commissioners have no confidence in any system of inquisition or system which requires assessors to be clairvoyants2 to ascertain things impossible to be ascertained by the agencies provided in the law2 to ascertain the indebtedness of the taxpayer2 to ascertain or know who is the owner of property at a given time that can be and is transferred hourly from owner to owner by telegraph or lightning1 and that may be transported into or out of the jurisdiction of the assessor with the rapidity of steam1 or that requires assessors or taxpayers to make assessments on evidence not admissible in any court1 civil or criminal1 in any civilized country where witches are not tried and condemned by caprice or malice on village or neighborhood gossip4 ,the problem1 then1 is what taxes to introduce in place of this confessed failure of the general property tax4 ,there can be little doubt that the desire for greater simplicity in taxation is generally felt1 and in part put into practice4 ,the mass of various kinds of imposts1 added without any system or real connection or relation one to another1 has often resulted in so large a number of charges on ,government account as to defeat itself4 ,the ,french taxes at the end of the last century1 with their added fault of inequality and injustice in distribution1 led naturally to the theory of a single tax--the impt unique of the physiocrats--which did not become a fact1 yet registered the protest against the multiplicity and crying oppressiveness of the remains of feudal dues and fiscal experiments undertaken under the stress of an empty treasury4 ,so it has been noted at the present time that where an opportunity has offered there is a tendency in ,european countries to simplify their taxes1 and1 as in the case of ,switzerland1 prepare the way for income and property taxes4 ,it is a greater dependence on such direct taxes in place of indirect taxes that has distinguished the great fiscal changes in recent years4 ,germany may have wished to establish a brandy monopoly1 and ,russia may resort to a monopoly of the manufacture and sale of distilled spirits4 ,but ,england increases her death duties1 ,france and the ,united ,states seek to frame acceptable taxes on income1 and ,switzerland succeeds in modifying her system in the line of direct taxes4 ,there is an earnest movement in favor of a single tax on the value of land1 exclusive of other real property connected with it4 ,as involving a question of abstract justice the proposition has much in its favor1 but it can not be denied that practical obstacles oppose its adoption4 ,the recent commission on taxation in ,massachusetts thus treats of it3 ,it proposes virtually a radical change in the ownership of land1 and therefore a revolution in the entire social body4 ,in this form of taxation all revenue from land alone is to be appropriated--that is1 the beneficial ownership of land is to cease4 ,whether or not this system1 if it had been adopted at the outset and had since been maintained1 would have been to the public advantage may be an open question1 but it would certainly seem to be too late now to turn to it in the manner proposed4 ,in any event1 it involves properly not questions of taxation1 but questions as to the advantage or disadvantage of private property in land4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,report of the ,massachusetts ,commission1 #ahig1 p4 #gd4 ,if securities are to be taxed1 the methods adopted should avoid a double taxation1 and an attempt to reach capital outside of the ,state4 ,it is evident that a ,state1 like ,massachusetts1 which taxes the foreign holder of shares in its corporations as well as the shares of foreign corporations held by its own citizens1 is inviting a dangerous reprisal from other ,states4 ,wherever the owner may be1 if the corporation is chartered within the ,state the ,commonwealth collects the tax on the shares4 ,wherever the corporation may be1 if the owner is within the ,state the ,commonwealth also collects the tax 7in theory of law at least74 ,if this be the best possible system1 and it is supposed ,massachusetts assumes it to be1 general double taxation would follow its adoption by the other ,states4 ,the effort to carry this rule into practice proves its injustice as well as futility4 ,the most searching and inquisitorial methods of seeking such property will not avail to reach a good part of it1 and this results in adding inequality of burden to its other difficulties4 ,evasion is too simple a process to be unused1 and the heavier the rate of tax the greater will be the resort to evasion and even to perjury1 express or implied4 ,the fundamental cause of the failure lies in this1 the endeavor to tax securities1 which are no more than evidences of ownership or interest in property1 and which offer the easiest means of concealment and evasion1 by the same methods and at the same rate as tangible property situated on the spot4 ,this inherent difficulty can be cured only by abandoning the attempt to tax directly securities or evidences of debt1 representing ownership or interest in property beyond the limits of the taxing authority4 ,in the case of the securities of home companies they may be readily taxed at the source1 but in the case of foreign corporations it is only by methods almost revolting in their injustice and treatment of the taxpayer that even a partial success can be secured4 ,the dependence upon the sworn statement or declaration of the taxpayer is known to be extremely faulty and to offer a premium on untruthfulness4 ,so long as this dependence is retained in whole or in part in a system for taxing personal property1 the results must be unsatisfactory4 ,the most judicious1 even if it seems the most radical1 remedy is to abandon the taxation of securities4 ,certainly it would be well to put an end to the ,massachusetts plan of taxing securities representing property outside of the ,state1 for that involves double taxation wherever it has been possible to impose the tax4 ,what can be reached only by methods at all times trying and difficult1 and sometimes very demoralizing1 should not be permitted to remain a permanent feature of the revenue system of a ,state4 ,the ,new ,york commission of #ahgj proposed to limit the ,state taxes to a very few number of objects4 ,that they be levied on a comparatively broad basis--like real estate--with certainty1 proportionality1 and uniformity on a few items of property1 like the franchises of all moneyed corporations enjoying the same privileges within the ,state1 and on fixed and unvarying signs of property1 like rental values of buildings--such was the scheme proposed4 ,the leading object to be attained was equality of burdens1 and a second object of quite as great importance1 was simplicity in assessment and collection4 ,granting that real estate1 lands1 and buildings were taxed on a full and fair market valuation1 and that corporations contributed their share toward the expenses of the ,state1 it remained to devise a tax that should reach all other forms of property that could be properly and easily assessed4 ,this tax was to be known as the building-occupancy tax1 and was to be levied on an additional assessment of a sum equal to three times the annual rent or rental value of all the buildings on the land4#ab ,nearly thirty years later the ,massachusetts commission proposed a modified form of this tax4 ,an annual rental value of four hundred dollars was to be exempt from taxation1 but ten per cent was to be levied on all rental values in excess of that amount4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the ,new ,york commission of #ahgj submitted two propositions on this point3 #a4 ,tax the house or building as real estate separately1 at the same rate of valuation as the land--that is1 fifty per cent--and then assuming that the value of the house or building1 irrespective of its contents1 be such contents furniture1 machinery1 or any other chattels whatsoever1 is the sign or index which the owner or occupier puts out of his personal property1 tax the house or building on a valuation of fifty per cent additional to its real estate valuation1 as the representative value of such personal property2 or1 in other words1 tax the land separately on fifty per cent of its fair marketable valuation1 and tax the building apart from the land1 as representing the owner's personal property1 on a full valuation1 as indicated by the rent actually paid for it or its estimated rental value4 ,or-- #b4 ,tax buildings conjointly with land as real estate at a uniform valuation2 and then as the equivalent for all taxation on personal property1 tax the occupier1 be he owner or tenant of any building or portion of any building used as a dwelling1 or for any other purpose1 on a valuation of three times the rental or rental value of the premises occupied4 ,tenement houses occupied by more than one family1 or tenement houses having a rental value not in excess of a fixed sum1 to be taxed to the owner as occupier4--,report1 p4 #ajg4 ,the advantages of a tax on house rentals1 said the commission1 can be easily stated4 ,it is clear1 almost impossible of evasion1 easy of administration1 well fitted to yield a revenue for local uses1 and certain to yield such a revenue4 ,it is clear1 because the rental value of a house is comparatively easy to ascertain4 ,the tax is based on a part of a man's affairs which he publishes to all the world4 ,it requires no inquisition and no inquiry into private matters2 it uses simply the evidence of a man's means which he already offers4#ac ,if this tax were to be given it would be possible to wipe out all the tax on incomes from profession1 trade1 or employment1 to abolish the existing assessments on personal property4 ,the effects would be far-reaching4 ,if loans of money are free from taxation1 the purchasing power of money in the same degree must diminish1 which simply means that the purchasing power of farms and products of farms for money must to the same extent increase2 hence1 the borrower on bond and mortgage will not be subject to double taxation--first1 in the form of increased rate of interest1 and then in taxation of his real estate--and hence the farmer or landowner who is not in the habit of either lending or borrowing money will find his ability to meet additional taxation on his land increased in additional value of land and products of land in proportion as the tax is removed from money at interest4 ,also1 the exemption of the products of farms and things consumed on farms from taxation will give a corresponding increased value to compensate for the building-occupancy tax4 ,tenants controlled by all-pervading natural laws can and will give increased rents1 if their personal property is exempt primarily from taxation4 ,the average profits of money at interest or of dealings in visible personal property free from taxation can not exceed1 for any considerable length of time1 the average profits of real estate1 risk of investment and skill in management taken into consideration2 and therefore the real pressure of taxation under the proposed system will finally be1 like atmospheric pressure or pressure of water1 on all sides1 and by a natural uniform law executed upon all property in every form used and consumed in the ,state4 ,persons must occupy buildings and business must be done in buildings1 and through these visible instrumentalities capital can be reached by a rule of fractional uniformity1 and by a simple1 plain1 and economical method of assessment and collection4 ,footnote #ac3 ,massachusetts ,report1 p4 #ajf4 ,this building-occupancy tax1 or tax on rental value1 does not preclude a supplementary tax on corporations4 ,much has been said of the onerous burdens of taxation endured by individuals compared with those of corporations1 and especially corporations enjoying certain rights or franchises in public streets and highways or corporations of a more or less public character4 ,the phenomenal growth of municipalities has been one of the notable social movements of the last twenty-five years4 ,the drift of population from the country districts to cities has increased with each year1 and finds an explanation in many causes4 ,the opportunities offered in a city for advancement are greater and more numerous2 the monotony of the farm life does not keep the young at home1 but drives them for excitement and profit to the great centers of population4 ,the economic changes of a half century also have their influence4 ,the competition of new regions1 better adapted for certain cultures on a commercial scale1 has reduced the profitableness of older and more settled localities1 where comparatively costly methods must be resorted to if the fertility of the land is to be maintained4 ,the wheat fields of the ,west narrowed the margin of profit in ,new ,england farming1 while the sheep and cattle ranges of the ,west made it impossible for the same quality of live stock to be raised for profit in the ,east4 ,farms were abandoned1 and the younger blood went ,west to grow up with the country1 or into the cities to struggle for a living4 ,further1 the advances in agriculture1 the application of more productive methods1 and the introduction of machinery have reduced the demand for labor in the rural districts1 and this has led to a migration to the cities4 ,the result of this has been an immense development of city life1 and with it an ever-increasing field for investment in corporate activities4 ,the supply of water is usually in the city's control1 but the manufacture and sale of gas1 the production and distribution of electricity1 the street railways1 telegraph1 and telephone interests are private corporations formed for profit and using more or less the public highways in the conduct of their various enterprises4 ,a grant of a street or highway for a railway or electric-wire subway generally involves a monopoly of that use1 and the privilege or franchise may become more valuable with the mere growth in the population of the cities4 ,assured against an immediate competition1 there is a steady increment in the value of the franchise1 and in the case of a true monopoly there seems to be no limits to its possible growth4 ,an instance of this nature is so striking in its relations and so pertinent to the present discussion that attention is asked to it4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i water was supplied by two or three conduits in the principal streets of ,london1 and the river and suburban springs were the sources of supply4 ,large buildings were furnished with water by tapping these conduits with leaden pipes1 but other buildings and houses were supplied by tankard bearers1 who brought water daily4 ,a jeweler of the city1 ,hugh ,myddleton by name1 believed something better could be done1 and he proposed to bring water from ,hertfordshire by a new river4 ,he embarked in the undertaking1 sank his fortune in its conduct1 and appealed to the king for assistance4 ,james granted this aid1 taking one half of the shares of the company--thirty-six out of the seventy-two shares into which it was divided4 ,the shares that remained received the name of adventurer's moiety4 ,the work was completed in #afac1 and water was then let into the city4 ,so little was the measure appreciated that its first years were troublous ones for the shareholders4 ,the squires objected to the river1 believing it would overflow their lands or reduce them to swamps and destroy the roads4 ,the city residents adopted the use of the water slowly4 ,the shares were nominally worth #ajj apiece1 but for nearly twenty years the income was only #abs41 or #c1 per share4 ,in #agcf a share was valued at #aae #ajs41 and by #ahjj it had risen to #dca #hs4 ,with the first years of this century the company prospered1 and its benefits were widely applied1 reflecting this change in the value of its capital4 ,in #ahbj a share was worth #aa1ejj and in #ahgh the fraction of a share was sold at a rate which made a full share worth #ia1jjj4 ,in #ahhh the dividend distributed to each share was #b1faj4 ,eleven years later1 in ,july1 #ahhi1 a single share was sold for #abb1hjj1 or nearly #fjj1jjj4 ,the nominal capital of the company in #ahhd was #c1cfi1jjj1 and besides its water franchise it holds large estates and valuable properties4 ,while the actual real estate controlled by the corporation accounts for some of this remarkable rise in the value of the shares1 a greater and more lasting cause was the possession of an almost exclusive privilege or franchise which assured a handsome and ever-increasing return on the investment4 ,had all the other property been deducted from the statement of the company's assets1 there would have remained this intangible and immeasurable right created and conceded by its charter and long usance4 ,a definition of a franchise has been given by the ,supreme ,court in terms of sufficient general accuracy to be adopted3 ,a franchise is a right1 privilege1 or power of public concern which ought not to be exercised by private individuals at their mere will and pleasure1 but which should be reserved for public control and administration1 either by the ,government directly or by public agents acting under such conditions and regulations as the ,government may impose in the public interest and for the public security4#ad ,a necessary condition1 then1 is a public interest in the occupation or privileges to be followed4 ,the good will of a person or individual trader is not a franchise in this sense1 though a franchise may be enjoyed by an individual as well as by a corporation1 and good will may rest upon the privilege implied in the franchise4 ,footnote #ad3 ,california vs4 ,southern ,pacific ,railroad1 #abg ,u4 ,s41 #dj4 ,the recognition of franchises1 a species of property as invisible and intangible as the soul in a man's body1 as a proper object for taxation is now beyond any dispute4 ,it is peculiarly appropriate as a source of revenue for the exclusive use of the ,state1 inasmuch as the grant of franchises emanates from the ,state in its sovereign capacity4 ,in the case of ,morgan vs4 the ,state of ,louisiana1 ,justice ,field1 of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 said3 ,the franchises of a railroad corporation are rights or privileges which are essential to the operation of the corporation and without which its roads and works would be of little value1 such as the franchise to run cars1 to take tolls1 to appropriate earth and gravel for the bed of its road1 or water for its engines1 and the like4 ,they are positive rights or privileges1 without the possession of which the road or company could not be successfully worked4 ,immunity from taxation is not one of them4#ae ,further1 the extent to which this taxation of franchises may be carried rests entirely in the discretion of the taxing power1 subject only to constitutional restrictions4 ,footnote #ae3 #ic ,u4 ,s4 ,reports1 pp4 #bag1 #bbd4 ,the great difficulty in applying such a tax lies in the methods of reaching an understanding on the value of the franchise4 ,how can this indefinite something be made visible on the tax books8 ,in many instances the franchise may be regarded as inseparable from the real property of the corporation4 ,the rails of a tramway1 the poles and wires of a telegraph company1 the pipes and conduits of a gas company1 are real and tangible things1 necessary to a proper conduct to the respective functions of the corporations4 ,but the right to lay tracks in the public streets1 to sink pipes under the streets1 or to string wires overhead is as necessary a possession and as essential to the performance of what the corporation was created to accomplish4 ,whether this permits the franchise to be regarded as real estate and so offers it for taxation is a question of some theoretical interest1 but of little practical importance4#af ,unless the franchise is regarded in this way1 as belonging to real estate1 or as forming a taxable entity apart from other property1 it would be simpler to reach it through a corporation tax in one of the many ways open for applying that tax4 ,footnote #af3 ,a recent law of ,new ,york is very full on this point3 ,the terms 'land1' 'real estate1' and 'real property1' as used in this chapter1 include the land itself above and under the water1 all buildings and other articles and structures1 substructures1 and superstructures1 erected upon1 under1 or above1 or affixed to the same2 all wharves and piers1 including the value of the right to collect wharfage1 cranage1 or dockage thereon2 all bridges1 all telegraph lines1 wires1 poles1 and appurtenances2 all supports and inclosures for electrical conductors and other appurtenances upon1 above1 and underground2 all surface1 underground1 or elevated railroads1 including the value of all franchises1 rights or permission to construct1 maintain1 or operate the same in1 under1 above1 on1 or through streets1 highways1 or public places2 all railroad structures1 substructures1 and superstructures1 tracks1 and the iron thereon1 branches1 switches1 and other fixtures permitted or authorized to be made1 laid1 or placed on1 upon1 above1 or under any public or private road1 street1 or grounds2 all mains1 pipes1 and tanks laid or placed in1 upon1 above1 or under any public or private street or place for conducting steam1 heat1 water1 oil1 electricity1 or any property1 substance1 or product capable of transportation or conveyance therein1 or that is protected thereby1 including the value of all franchises1 rights1 authority1 or permission to construct1 maintain1 or operate in1 under1 above1 upon1 or through any streets1 highways1 or public places1 any mains1 pipes1 tanks1 conduits1 or wires1 with their appurtenances1 for conducting water1 steam1 heat1 light1 power1 gas1 oil1 or other substance1 or electricity for telegraphic1 telephonic1 or other purposes2 all trees and underwood growing upon land1 and all mines1 minerals1 quarries1 and fossils in and under the same1 except mines belonging to the ,state4 ,a franchise1 right1 authority1 or permission1 specified in this subdivision1 shall for the purposes of taxation be known as a 'special franchise4' ,a special franchise shall be deemed to include the value of the tangible property of a person1 copartnership1 association1 or corporation1 situated in1 upon1 under1 or above any street1 highway1 public place1 or public waters1 in connection with the special franchise4 ,the tangible property so included shall be taxed as a part of the special franchise4 ,the reason for classing franchises as real estate was that under the existing laws of ,new ,york a franchise could not be assessed as personal property1 as the bonded debt could then be deducted1 leaving little or nothing to be taxed4 ,enough has been said to demonstrate the extremely faulty condition of tax methods in the ,united ,states4 ,uniformity is highly desirable1 but equality of burden is even more to be desired4 ,the advances in this direction have been few1 and accomplished only partially in a few ,states4 ,the machinery for making assessments is only a part of the problem1 as the intention of the law1 the spirit of the act1 is of even higher importance in securing justice and moderation4 ,if these essays1 incomplete as they must of necessity be1 have led to a better comprehension of the chaotic condition existing now and of the difficulties to be overcome1 their object will have been attained4 ,the remedy may be left for time to effect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in connection with the celebration of the centenary of the death of the naturalist ,lazaro ,spallanzani1 at ,reggio1 ,italy1 in ,february last1 a booklet has been published containing articles on various aspects of the life and work of ,spallanzani and matters associated with him4 ,among the authors represented are ,mantegazza1 ,ferrari1 and others well known in ,italian science4 ,,bacon',s ,,idols3 ,a ,,commentary4 ,,by ,,william ,,henry ,,hudson1 ,,professor ,,of ,,english ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university4 ,in the first book of the ,novum ,organon the great leader of the new philosophy undertook to set forth the dangers and difficulties which stand always in the way of clear and fruitful thought4 ,conscious that he was breaking entirely with the schools of the past1 and ambitious of laying the firm foundations on which all future inquirers would have to build1 it was natural that ,bacon should pause on the threshold of his vast enterprise to take stock of the mental weaknesses which had rendered futile the labors of earlier thinkers1 and which1 if not carefully guarded against1 would jeopardize the efforts of times to come4 ,that the understanding may direct itself effectively to the search for truth it is necessary1 he insisted1 that it should have a full apprehension of the lapses to which it is ever liable1 the obstacles with which it will constantly have to contend4 ,a vague sense of peril is not enough4 ,as a first condition of healthy intellectual activity we must learn to know our frailties for what they really are1 estimate their consequences1 and probe the secrets of their power4 ,bacon's statement of the sources of error and vain philosophizing is regarded by him as merely the pars destruens or negative portion of his work--as it were1 the clearing of the threshing floor4 ,but his aphorisms are packed close with solid and substantial thought1 and well deserve the attention of all who would seriously devote themselves to the intellectual life4 ,true philosophy1 as he conceived it1 is that which is the faithful echo of the voice of the world1 which is written in some sort under the direction of things1 which adds nothing of itself1 which is only the rebound1 the reflection of reality4 ,to reach for ourselves1 as nearly as we may1 a philosophy which shall meet the terms of this exigent definition is1 or should be1 one chief purpose of our study and our thought4 ,we may very well ask1 then1 what help so great and suggestive a thinker may give us on our way4 ,with his characteristic fondness for fanciful phraseology1 ,bacon describes the causes which distort our mental vision as ,idola--idols or phantoms of the mind4#ag ,of such he distinguishes four classes1 which he calls1 respectively3 ,idols of the ,tribe 7,idola ,tribus72 ,idols of the ,cave 7,idola ,specus72 ,idols of the ,market ,place 7,idola ,fori72 and ,idols of the ,theater 7,idola ,theatri74 ,it is not to be claimed for ,bacon's analysis that it is exhaustive or always scientifically exact4 ,in many places1 too1 it opens up difficult philosophic questions1 which for the present must be disregarded4 ,but1 as ,professor ,fowler has said1 there is something about his diction1 his quaintness of expression1 and his power of illustration which lays hold of the mind and lodges itself in the memory in a way which we can hardly find paralleled in any other writer1 except it be ,shakespeare4#ah ,moreover1 though he often deals with matters of merely technical and temporary interest1 his leading thoughts are of permanent and universal applicability4 ,let us see1 then1 what suggestions we can gather from a brief consideration of his ,idols1 one by one4 ,footnote #ag3 ,idola 7,greek3 eidla71 though commonly rendered idols1 would here undoubtedly be more correctly translated phantoms or specters4 ,with this explanation1 however1 ,i shall usually employ the more familiar word4 ,footnote #ah3 ,novum ,organon1 edited by ,thomas ,fowler1 introduction1 p4 #acb4 ,idols of the ,tribe are so called because they have their foundation in human nature itself2 in other words1 they are the prepossessions and proclivities which belong to men as men1 and as such are common to the whole race or tribe4 ,let men please themselves as they will1 says ,bacon1 in admiring and almost adoring the human mind1 this is certain3 that as an uneven mirror distorts the rays of objects according to its own figure and section1 so the mind1 when it receives impressions of objects through the sense1 can not be trusted to report them truly1 but in forming its notions mixes up its own nature with the nature of things4 ,in many lines of thought there is no more pregnant source of fallacy and confusion than the tendency1 innate in all and seldom properly checked1 to accept man as the measure of all things1 and to translate the entire universe into terms of our own lives4 ,theology1 though it is slowly outgrowing its cruder anthropomorphism1 still talks about the will of ,god1 an intelligent ,first ,cause1 the moral governor1 and lawgiver2 and outside theology we have ample evidence of the persistency with which we humanize and personify ,nature by endowing it with attributes belonging to ourselves4 ,darwin confessed that he found it difficult to avoid this tendency4#ai ,it is a pitfall into which men constantly stumble in their attempts to interpret the processes at work about them4 ,footnote #ai3 ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 vol4 i1 p4 #f4 ,one important result of our habit of thus forcing the universe to become the bond-slave of human thought is to be found1 as ,bacon notes1 in our proneness to suppose the existence of more order and regularity in the world than is actually to be discovered there4 ,while we read design and purpose into the phenomena of ,nature because we are conscious of design and purpose in our own activities1 thus allowing ourselves to drift into the metaphysical doctrine of ,final ,causes1 we also do our best to bring ,nature's multitudinous operations into such definite formulas as will satisfy our love of plan and symmetry4 ,we are not content till we can systematize and digest1 whence our continual recourse to loose analogies and fanciful resemblances4 ,we start from an imagined necessity of order1 or from some conception of things attractive because of its apparent simplicity1 and then reason out from this into the facts of ,nature4 ,mill furnishes some telling examples4 ,as late as the ,copernican controversy it was urged1 as an argument in favor of the true theory of the solar system1 that it placed the fire1 the noblest element1 in the center of the universe4 ,this was a remnant of the notion that the order of the universe must be perfect1 and that perfection consisted in conformity to rules of procedure1 either real or conventional4 ,again1 reverting to numbers1 certain numbers were perfect1 therefore these numbers must obtain in the great phenomena of ,nature4 ,six was a perfect number--that is1 equal to the sum of all its factors--an additional reason why there must be exactly six planets4 ,the ,pythagoreans1 on the other hand1 attributed perfection to the number ten1 but agreed in thinking that the perfect numbers must be somehow realized in the heavens2 and knowing only of nine heavenly bodies to make up the enumeration1 they asserted 'that there was an antichthon1 or counter-earth1 on the other side of the sun1 invisible to us4' ,even ,huygens was persuaded that when the number of heavenly bodies had reached twelve it could not admit of any further increase4 ,creative power could not go beyond that sacred number4#bj ,do these concrete illustrations of perverse reasoning strike us as ludicrous8 ,it is because they are taken from an order of ideas long since outgrown4 ,the tendencies they exemplify have not been outgrown4 ,we have only to keep a vigilant eye on our own mental conduct to be convinced that we are very apt to begin with some general notion of the fitness of things1 or what ought to be1 and to argue thence to conclusions not a whit less absurd essentially than those just referred to4 ,footnote #bj3 ,logic1 ninth edition1 ,book ,v1 chapter v1 #f4 ,while these universal mental habits are conspicuous enough in the higher regions of thought and begin to play tricks with us the moment we undertake on our own accounts any serious speculation1 there are other ,idols of the ,tribe whose influence is perhaps more commonly fatal4 ,we all jump at conclusions1 the mind feigning and supposing all other things to be somehow1 though it can not see how1 similar to those few things by which it is surrounded2 we all allow ourselves to be unduly moved by those things most which strike and enter the mind simultaneously and suddenly1 and so fill the imagination4 ,hasty judgments are thus daily and hourly passed on men and things1 and rash generalizations permitted to circulate untested4 ,even more disastrous1 perhaps1 in the long run1 is the power of prepossessions4 ,when once1 says ,bacon1 the human understanding has adopted an opinion 7either as being the received opinion1 or as being agreeable to itself7 it straightway draws all things else to support and agree with it4 ,illustrations may be found in every direction4 ,note1 for instance1 the vitality1 even in the teeth of positive disproof1 of many long-accepted and often-challenged ideas--belief in dreams1 omens1 prophecies1 in providential visitations and interpositions1 in the significance of coincidences1 in popular saws about natural phenomena1 in quacks and quackery1 in old wives' tales1 vulgar and pseudo-scientific4 ,the story of witchcraft is only another example of the same kind1 though written large in the chronicles of the world in letters of fire and blood2 the human understanding had adopted a belief in witches1 and drew all things else to support and agree with it4 ,in all such cases of prepossession the mind obstinately dwells on every detail that favors its accepted conclusions1 while disregarding or depreciating everything that tells against them2 it is always1 in ,bacon's phrase1 more moved and excited by affirmatives than by negatives4 ,thus1 we hear much of the one dream that is fulfilled1 and of the ninety and nine that are unfulfilled--nothing4 ,bacon illustrates this perversity by the well-known anecdote of the ancient cynic1 which may be left to convey its own moral3 ,and therefore it was a good answer that was made by one who1 when they showed him hanging in a temple a picture of those who had paid their vows as having escaped shipwreck1 and would have him say whether he did not now acknowledge the power of the gods--',ay1' asked he again1 'but where are they painted that were drowned after their vows8' ,finally1 among these ,idols of the ,tribe we must include the disturbance caused by the play of feeling upon the mind4 ,the human understanding is no dry light1 but receives an infusion from the will and affections1 whence proceed sciences which may be called 'sciences as one would4' ,we all know1 to our cost1 how passion will warp judgment2 how difficult it is to see clearly when the emotions are thoroughly aroused2 how tenaciously men cling to opinions they are familiar with1 or would fain have to be true2 how fiercely they contest ideas that are unfamiliar or repugnant4 ,had it been contrary to the interest of authority1 observed shrewd old ,hobbes1 that the three angles of a triangle should be equal to two angles of a square1 the fact would have been1 if not disputed1 yet suppressed4#ba ,similarly1 if the passions of men had been called into play over the most clearly demonstrable of abstract mathematical truths1 we may be sure that furious controversy would have attended the issue1 and some way found to overthrow the demonstration4 ,that two and two make four would have been denied had any strong emotion been excited against the proposition4 ,men1 said ,whateley1 are much more anxious to have truth on their side than to be on the side of truth4 ,and the danger is greater because we are frequently not aware of the bias given by feeling4 ,there are cases in plenty where men more or less consciously and deliberately espouse sciences as one would1 but there are many others in which the emotional interference is insidious and obscure4 ,numberless1 in short1 are the ways1 and sometimes imperceptible1 in which the feelings color and infect the understanding4 ,footnote #ba3 ,leviathan1 ,part ,i1 chapter xi4 ,these ,idols of the ,tribe are of course inherent in our intellectual constitution1 and are ineradicable4 ,the simple consideration that all knowledge is relative--that by no effort and under no circumstances can we escape beyond the conditions and limitations of our own minds--suffices to show that intelligence must ever mix up its own nature with the nature of things1 though this fact need not make us doubt the validity of knowledge as is sometimes hastily inferred4 ,for the rest1 clear recognition of these common obstacles to thought should put us in the way of anticipating and withstanding their more serious effects4 ,in practice it must be our object to maintain watchfulness and a careful skepticism2 to test evidence and check passion2 to cultivate candor1 flexibility1 and alertness of mind2 to avoid loose generalizations2 and to be ever ready to accept1 revise1 reject4 ,above all must we steadily resist the seductions of what is called common sense1 and overcome that mental inertness which too often leads us to drift unthinking along the current of popular opinion4#bb ,footnote #bb3 ,it is well to remember that if common sense had said the last word about the matter1 the ,ptolemaic theory of the universe would still stand unshaken4 ,but1 in addition to errors arising from the common intellectual nature of men1 there are others1 the sources of which are to be found in the idiosyncrasies of the individual mind4 ,these ,bacon calls ,idols of the ,cave2#bc for every one1 he says1 has a cave or den of his own1 which refracts and discolors the light of ,nature1 owing either to his own proper and peculiar nature2 or to his education and conversation with others2 or to his reading of books1 and the authority of those whom he esteems and admires2 or to the differences of impressions1 accordingly as they take place in a mind preoccupied and predisposed1 or in a mind indifferent and settled2 and the like4 ,this summary is comprehensive enough to indicate the character and point to some of the causes of individual aberrations of judgment2 that it does no more than this is due to the simple fact that the personal bias is as varied as humanity itself1 and that the deflecting impulses in any given case are to be referred to a complex of factors almost eluding analysis4 ,to follow this part of the subject into detail would1 therefore1 manifestly be impossible4 ,but certain of the larger and more widely influential of these disturbing forces may be roughly marked out by way of illustration4 ,footnote #bc3 ,the metaphor is taken from the opening of the seventh book of ,plato's ,republic4 ,in the first place1 there is what we may call the professional bias4 ,exclusive devotion to separate lines of activity1 study1 or thought inevitably gives the mind a particular set or twist4 ,bacon complains that ,aristotle1 primarily a logician1 made his natural philosophy the slave of his logic4 ,few specialists can escape the insulation consequent upon living too continuously in a confined area of problems and ideas4 ,their intellectual outlook is necessarily circumscribed1 facts are seen by them out of proper perspective1 and one-sidedness of training and discipline renders their judgment of things partial and incomplete4 ,the lawyer carries his legal1 the theologian his theological1 the scientist his scientific bent of mind into every inquiry2 with what grotesque results is only too frequently apparent4 ,accustomed to move in a single narrow groove1 and wholly absorbed in the contemplation of certain isolated classes of phenomena1 they unconsciously allow their particular interests to dominate their thought1 and impose disastrous restrictions upon their view of whatever lies outside their own chosen field4 ,secondly1 we have the bias of nation1 rank1 party1 sect4 ,here the mental disturbances are too numerous to permit and too obvious to require special exemplification4 ,intellectual provincialism of any kind is fatal to large and fertile thought1 alike by limiting the range of our knowledge and sympathies and by inducing mental habits and implanting prejudices which prevent us from seeing things in wide relations and under a clear light4 ,so long as our point of view is simply that of our country1 our class1 our party1 or our church1 so long1 it is evident1 our minds will lack the breadth and flexibility necessary for free inquiry1 fruitful comparisons1 sane and balanced judgments4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,cf4 ,spencer's ,introduction to the ,study of ,sociology1 chapters viii-xii4 ,finally1 among the ,idols of the ,cave which have most effect in disturbing the clearness of the understanding1 mention must be made of the temperamental bias4 ,every man1 it has been said1 is born ,platonist or ,aristotelian2 it is certain that the great divisions in thought--religious1 philosophical1 political--answer roughly to fundamental differences in human nature1 and that every one not checked or turned aside by extraneous influences will spontaneously gravitate in one or another direction4 ,bacon is only recording a fact of the commonest experience when he says that there are found some minds given to an extreme admiration of antiquity1 others to an extreme love and appetite for novelty1 but few so duly tempered that they can hold the mean1 neither carping at what has been well laid down by the ancients nor despising what is well introduced by the moderns4 ,many instinctively brace themselves against authority and tradition2 by others again1 whatever is handed down to us by authority and tradition is for this reason alone treated with contempt4 ,that the crowd believes a thing is enough to convince this man of its truth1 and that of its falsehood4 ,the vulgar thus through imitation err2 ,as oft the learned by being singular4 ,these and similar congenital differences in men's intellectual constitutions might be illustrated indefinitely if it were necessary4 ,a further remark of ,bacon's must1 however1 be quoted1 for it goes deeper in mental analysis and touches a less obvious point4 ,there is one principal and1 as it were1 radical distinction between different minds in respect of philosophy and the sciences1 which is this3 that some minds are stronger and apter to mark the differences of things1 others to mark their resemblances4 ,the steady and acute mind can fix its contemplations and dwell and fasten on the subtlest distinctions2 the lofty and discursive mind recognizes and puts together the finest and most general resemblances4 ,men belonging to the former class we should call logical and critical2 those belonging to the latter1 imaginative and constructive4 ,each class tends to the excesses of its own predominant powers1 and in each case excess interferes with calm reasoning and sound judgment4 ,to correct the personal equation it is imperative that we should study ourselves conscientiously1 consider dispassionately the natural tendencies of our birth1 early surroundings1 education1 associations1 and interests1 and do our utmost to conquer1 or at least to make allowance for1 every individual peculiarity1 temperamental or acquired1 likely to turn the mind aside from the straight line of thought4 ,such self-discipline every one must strenuously undertake on his own account if he would wish to see things as they really are4 ,stated in more general terms1 our aim must be to rise above all kinds of provincialism and personal prejudice1 and to overcome our natural proneness to rest content in our own particular point of view4 ,bacon quotes with approval the words of ,heraclitus3 ,men look for sciences in their own lesser worlds1 and not in the greater or common world4 ,we must strive to escape from our own lesser world1 and to make ourselves citizens of the greater1 common world4 ,for this we need the widest and most generous culture--the culture that is to be found in books1 in travel1 in intercourse with men of all classes and every shade of opinion4 ,left to ourselves we only too sedulously cultivate our own insularity2 we mingle simply with the people who agree with us1 belong to our own caste1 and share our own prejudices2 we read only the papers of our own party1 the literature of our own sect2 we allow our own special interests in life to absorb our energies1 color all our thoughts1 and narrow our horizon4 ,in this way the ,phantoms of the ,cave secure daily and yearly more despotic sway over our minds4 ,self-detachment1 disinterestedness1 the power of provisional sympathy with alien modes of thought and feeling1 must be our ideal4 ,let every student of ,nature1 says ,bacon1 take this as a rule1 that whatever his mind seizes and dwells on with particular satisfaction is to be held in suspicion1 and that so much the more care is to be taken in dealing with such questions to keep the understanding even and clear4 ,a hard saying1 truly1 yet one that must be laid well to heart4 ,while the ,idols of the ,tribe1 then1 are common human frailties in thought1 and the ,idols of the ,cave the perturbations resulting from individual idiosyncrasies1 there are other ,idols formed by the intercourse and association of men with each other1 which ,bacon calls ,idols of the ,market ,place1 on account of the commerce and consort of men there4 ,by reason of its manifold and necessary imperfections--its looseness1 variability1 ambiguity1 and inadequacy--the language we are forced to employ for the embodiment and interchange of ideas plays ceaseless havoc with our thought1 not only introducing confusion and misconception into discussion1 but often1 like the arrows from a ,tartar bow1 reacting seriously upon our minds4 ,a large part of the vocabulary to which we must perforce have recourse1 even when dealing with the most abstruse and delicate subjects1 is made up of words taken over from vulgar usage and pressed into higher service2 they carry with them long trains of vague connotations and suggestions2 the superstitions of the past are often imbedded in them2 no one can ever be absolutely certain of their intellectual values4 ,while1 therefore1 they may do well enough for the rough needs of daily life1 they prove sadly defective when required for careful and exact reasoning4 ,and even with that small and comparatively insignificant portion of our language which is not inherited from popular use1 but fabricated by philosophers themselves1 the case is not much better4 ,every word1 no matter how cautiously employed1 inevitably takes something of the tone and color of the particular mind through which it passes1 and when put into circulation fluctuates in significance1 meaning now a little more and now a little less4#be ,what wonder1 then1 that the high and formal discussions of learned men have so often begun and ended in pure logomachy1 and that in discussions which are neither high nor formal and in which the disputants talk hotly and carelessly the random bandying of words is so apt to terminate in nothing beyond the darkening of counsel and the confusion of thought8 ,footnote #be3 ,the need of a language of rigid mathematical precision for the purposes of philosophic thought and discussion has long been the subject of remark4 ,hence ,bishop ,wilkins's ,essay toward a real character and a philosophic language 7#affh71 and the earlier ,ars ,signorum of ,george ,dalgarno--boldly presented by its inventor as a remedy for the confusion of tongues1 as far as this evil is reparable by art4 ,we may give these ingenious authors full credit for the excellent intentions with which they set out on impossible undertakings4 ,a philosophic language may perhaps be attained in the millennium1 but then probably it will be no longer needed4 ,meanwhile readers interested in the history of the mad scheme called ,volapk may find some curious matter in these rare works4 ,bacon notes two ways particularly in which words impose on the understanding--they are employed sometimes for fantastic suppositions 444 to which nothing in reality corresponds1 and sometimes for actual entities1 which1 however1 they do not sharply1 correctly1 and completely describe4 ,the eighteenth century speculated at length on a state of ,nature and the social contract1 unaware that it was deluding itself with unrealities1 and we have not yet done with such abstractions as the ,rights of ,man1 ,nature 7personified71 ,laws of ,nature 7conceived as analogous to human laws71 and the ,vital ,principle4 ,the more common and serious danger of language1 however1 lies in the employment of words not clearly or firmly grasped by the speaker or writer--words which1 in all probability1 he has often heard and used1 and which he therefore imagines to represent ideas to him1 but which1 closely analyzed1 will be found to cover paucity of knowledge or ambiguity of thought4 ,cause1 effect1 matter1 mind1 force1 essence1 creation1 occur at once as examples4 ,few among those who so glibly rattle them off the tongue have ever taken the trouble to inquire what they actually mean to them1 or whether1 indeed1 they can translate them into thought at all4 ,among the ,idols of the ,market ,place we must also class the evils arising from the tendency of words to acquire1 through usage and association1 a reach and emotional value not inherent in their original meanings4 ,this is what ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes happily described as the process of polarization4 ,when a given symbol which represents a thought1 said the ,professor at the ,breakfast ,table1 has lain for a certain length of time in the mind it undergoes a change like that which rest in a certain position gives to iron4 ,it becomes magnetic in its relations--it is traversed by strange forces which did not belong to it4 ,the word1 and consequently the idea it represents1 is polarized4 ,the larger part of our religious and no small portion of our political vocabulary consist of such polarized words--words which1 on account of their acquired magnetism1 unduly attract and influence the mind4 ,we can never hope to think calmly and clearly while the very symbols of our thoughts thus possess a kind of thaumaturgic power over us1 which in turn readily transfers itself to our ideas4 ,if1 then1 words plainly force and overrule the understanding and throw all into confusion and lead men away into numberless empty controversies and idle fancies1 it behooves us to watch closely the interrelations of language and thought4 ,to put it in the vernacular1 we must at all times make sure that we know what we are talking about and say what we mean4 ,to this end the study of language itself is useful1 but the habits of precise thought and expression will never be acquired by linguistic exercise alone4 ,to use no word without a distinct idea of what it means to us as we speak or write it2 to check1 when necessary1 the process of thought by constant redefinition of terms2 to depolarize all language that has become1 or threatens to become1 magnetic1 thus translating familiar ideas into new1 clean1 unmagnetic phraseology1 these may be set down as first among the rules to which we should tolerate no exception4 ,we now come to the last group of ,idols--those which have immigrated into men's minds from the various dogmas of philosophies1 and also from wrong laws of demonstration4 ,these ,bacon calls ,idols of the ,theater1 because in my judgment all the received systems are but so many stage-plays1 representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion4 ,and perhaps this conceit carries further than ,bacon himself intended1 for it not only suggests the unsubstantial character of philosophic speculations1 but also reminds us how1 in the world's history1 these airy fabrics have succeeded each other as on a stage1 some to be hissed and some applauded1 but all sooner or later to drop out of popular favor and be forgotten4 ,dealing with these ,idols of the ,theater1 or of ,systems 7of which there are many1 and perhaps will be yet many more71 ,bacon takes the opportunity of criticising1 briefly but incisively1 the methods and results of ancient and medival philosophers4 ,his classification of false systems is threefold3 ,the sophistical1 in which words and the finespun subtilties of logic are substituted for the inner truth of things2 the empirical1 in which elaborate dogmas are built up out of a few hasty observations and ill-conducted experiments2 and the superstitious1 in which philosophy is corrupted by myth and tradition4 ,under the first head1 ,bacon again instances ,aristotle1 whom he accuses of fashioning the world out of categories2 under the second he glances especially at the alchemists2 and under the third he refers to ,pythagoras and ,plato4 ,to follow ,bacon into these historic issues does not belong to our present purpose4 ,suffice it to notice the continued vitality of these three classes of speculative error4 ,bacon's judgment of ,aristotle--that he did not consult experience as he should have done1 in order to the framing of his decisions and axioms2 but1 having first determined the question according to his will1 he then resorts to experience1 and1 bending her into conformity with his placets1 leads her about like a captive in a procession--is at least equally applicable to thinkers like ,hegel and his followers4 ,empiricism has by no means been eliminated from the scientific or would-be scientific world4 ,and as for the philosophy which is corrupted by myth and tradition1 the countless attempts that are still made to reconcile the facts of science with the data and prepossessions of theology are enough to prove that1 mutato nomine1 the methods of ,pythagoras and ,plato and of those who in ,bacon's day sought to found a system of natural philosophy on the first chapter of ,genesis1 on the book of ,job1 and other parts of the sacred writings1 are as yet far from obsolete4 ,it is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that there is a close similarity between systematic empiricism and some of the dangers brought out in connection with the ,idols of the ,tribe1 for in each case stress must be laid on the tendency to generalize hastily1 depend on scattered and inadequate data1 and seek for light in the narrowness and darkness of insufficient knowledge4 ,this matter is important only as showing how a common weakness may be caught up and dignified in a philosophic system and rendered more dangerous by the adventitious weight and influence which it gains thereby4 ,another point1 not distinctly dealt with by ,bacon1 calls1 however1 for special remark4 ,while the various ,idols of the ,theater1 or of ,systems1 exercise their own peculiar and characteristic influences for evil1 they all tend to the debasement of thought by reason of the authority which they gradually acquire4 ,associated with great names1 promulgated by schools1 officially expounded by disciples and commentators1 they finally settle into a creed which is regarded as having oracular and dogmatic supremacy4 ,the formula ,thus saith the ,master closes discussion4 ,not the fact itself1 but what this or that teacher has said about the fact1 comes at last to be the all-important question4 ,in the condition of mind thus engendered there is no chance for intellectual freedom1 self-reliance1 growth4 ,lewes related an anecdote of a medival student who1 having detected spots in the sun1 communicated his discovery to a worthy priest4 ',my son1' replied the priest1 ',i have read ,aristotle many times1 and ,i assure you that there is nothing of the kind mentioned by him4 ,go rest in peace1 and be certain that the spots which you have seen are in your eyes1 and not in the sun4'#bf ,such an incident forms an admirable commentary on the saying of the witty ,fontenelle that ,aristotle had never made a true philosopher1 but he had spoiled a great many4 ,the position assumed is simple enough3 ,aristotle must be right1 therefore whatever does not agree with the doctrines of the ,stagirite must be wrong4 ,are your facts against him1 then revise your facts4 ,come what may of it1 you must quadrate knowledge with accepted system4 ,here is the theological method in a nutshell4 ,and the theological method has only too often been the method also of the established philosophic schools4 ,footnote #bf3 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #ie1 #if4 ,in our own relations with these ,idols of the ,theater the first and last thing to remember is that all systems are necessarily partial and provisional4 ,they have their day and cease to be1 and at the best they only mark a gradual progress toward the truth4 ,there can be no finality1 no closing word authoritatively uttered4 ,our attitude toward the systems of the past and the present1 toward long-accepted traditions1 and dogmatically enunciated conclusions1 must be an attitude of firm and steady--of respectful1 it may be1 but still firm and steady--independence4 ,we must resist the tendency to passive acquiescence1 and endeavor to combine with generous hospitality to all ideas the habit of not accepting anything merely because it is stated ex cathedra1 or is backed by an influential name1 or can plead a course of long observance for its use4 ,perhaps to wean ourselves from this particular form of idolatry there is nothing so helpful as a wide and constant study of the history of thought4 ,the pathway of intellectual development is strewn with outgrown dogmas and exploded systems4 ,how fatuous1 then1 to accept1 whole and untested1 the doctrine of any master1 new or old1 believing that his word will give us complete and undiluted truth6 99 99 99 99 99 ,so much1 then1 we may say with ,bacon concerning the several classes of ,idols and their equipage1 all of which must be renounced and put away with a fixed and solemn determination1 and the understanding thoroughly freed and cleansed2 the entrance into the kingdom of man1 founded on the sciences1 being not much other than the kingdom of heaven1 whereinto none may enter except as a little child4 ,it may perhaps be urged that the result of such a survey as we have taken of the obstacles to clear thought is to leave the mind dazed and discouraged1 partly because the suggestions made for the conquest of these obstacles1 though easily formulated in theory are difficult and sometimes impossible in practice1 and partly because the general if not expressed tendency of our analysis is 7it may be said7 in the direction of that ,pyrrhonic skepticism which doomed men to perpetual darkness4 ,to the former objection ,i have only to reply that it is one to which all discussions of the principles and problems of conduct are necessarily open4 ,if to do were as easy as to know what were good to do1 chapels had been churches1 and poor men's cottages princes' palaces4#bg ,none the less1 to state as lucidly as we can what were good to do under certain circumstances is properly regarded as part of the business of ethics4 ,the other point is touched upon by ,bacon himself in words which it would be impertinent to seek to better3 ,it will also be thought that by forbidding men to pronounce and set down principles as established until they have duly arrived through the intermediate steps at the highest generalities1 ,i maintain a sort of suspension of the judgment1 and bring it to what the ,greeks call acatalepsia--a denial of the capacity of the mind to comprehend truth4 ,but in reality that which ,i meditate and propound is not acatalepsia1 but eucatalepsia2 not denial of the capacity to understand1 but provision for understanding truly2 for ,i do not take away authority from the senses1 but supply them with helps2 ,i do not slight the understanding1 but govern it4 ,and better surely it is that we should know all that we need to know1 and yet think our knowledge imperfect1 than that we should think our knowledge perfect1 and yet not know anything we need to know4 ,footnote #bg3 ,this quotation is not from ,bacon4 ,,mathematics ,,for ,,children4 ,,by ,m4 ,,laisant4 ,except with persons having specially favorable surroundings1 ,i believe that the vast majority of parents have a feeling of dread at the thought of putting their children to the study of mathematics4 ,they know that the child must learn something about it in order to pass his examinations2 but with this knowledge goes an apprehension of loading his mind with those ideas which are so complicated and hard to acquire1 and we put off the dreaded moment of setting him to work as late as possible4 ,while ,i believe it is wise to spare the child all useless overwork1 ,i am persuaded also that the best way of sparing him is not to shrink from initiating him into hard work1 if that can be done in a rational way4 ,i regard all the sciences as1 at least to a certain extent1 experimental1 and1 notwithstanding the views of those who would regard the mathematical sciences as a series of operations in pure logic1 resting upon strictly ideal conceptions1 ,i believe that we may affirm that there does not exist a mathematical idea that can enter our brain without the previous contemplation of the outer world and the facts it offers to our observation4 ,this affirmation1 the discussion of which now would carry us too far1 may help to a clear idea of the way we should try to convey the first mathematical ideas to the mind of the child4 ,the outer world is the first thing the child should be taught to regard and concerning which he should be given as much information as possible--information which he will have no trouble in storing1 we may well believe1 and from this outer world the first mathematical notions should be borrowed2 to these should succeed later an abstraction1 which is less complicated than it seems4 ,our primary teaching of arithmetic now follows in the tracks of that of grammar1 as we might as well say that the teaching of grammar follows in the tracks of that of arithmetic4 ,that is1 in either case we teach the child a number of abstract and confusing definitions which he can not comprehend1 imposing on him a series of rules to follow under the pretext of giving him a good practical direction1 and we force him to learn and memorize these rules whether they are good for anything or not4 ,when the child has grown older he is given two or three short lessons a week in science1 nine tenths of which1 with his fleeting memory1 he forgets before the next week's lessons come on4 ,he can not relish anything that is taught him in that way1 and it would be vastly better to give him no scientific ideas at all than to scatter them around in such a way1 for all teachers agree that a fresh pupil is more easily dealt with and can be taught more satisfactorily and thoroughly than one who has been mistaught4 ,when the student has passed through it all and has established himself in life he is apt to look back upon his experiences under such teachings in no very amiable mood1 and to regard such matters in the light of barriers that were set up to prevent his getting his diploma with too little work2 and even if his profession is one that calls for applications of mathematics he prepares himself with sets of formulas that enable him to dispense with the imperfect instruction he has received4 ,when we think of giving a child a mathematical education we are apt to ask whether he has special aptitudes fitting him to receive it4 ,do we ask any such questions when we talk of teaching him to read and write8 ,oh1 no6 we all acknowledge that reading and writing are useful1 practical1 and indispensable arts1 which every human being not infirm or defective should learn4 ,now1 elementary mathematics1 which represents a tolerably extended equipment1 is no less useful and indispensable than the knowledge of reading and writing1 and ,i assert further1 what may seem paradoxical to many1 that it can be assimilated with much less fatigue than the earliest knowledge of reading and writing1 provided always that instead of proceeding in the usual way and giving lessons bristling with formulas and rules1 appealing to the memory1 imposing fatigue1 and producing nothing but disgust1 we adopt the philosophical method of conveying ideas to the child by means of objects within reach of his senses4 ,the teaching should be wholly concrete and applied only to the contemplation of external objects and their interpretation1 and the instruction should be given continually1 especially during the primary period1 under the form of play4 ,nothing is easier than this1 then1 in arithmetic2 for instance1 to use dice1 beans1 balls1 sticks1 etc41 and by their aid give the child ideas of numbers4 ,do we do anything of this kind8 ,when ,i was taught to read and write ,i knew how to write the figure #b before ,i had any idea of the number two4 ,nothing is more radically contrary to the normal working of the brain than this4 ,the notion of numbers--up to #aj1 for example--should be given to the child before accustoming him to trace a single character4 ,that is the only way of impressing the idea of number independently of the symbol or the formula which is only too ready to take the place in the mind of the object represented by it4 ,when a child has learned to count through the use of such objects as ,i have mentioned he may be taught what is called the addition table4 ,this table can be learned by heart easily enough1 but when we reach the multiplication table we come upon one of the tortures of childhood4 ,would it not be simpler and easier to make the children construct these tables1 instead of making them learn them8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,let us first take the addition table1 and suppose that we trace ten columns on suitably ruled paper1 at the top of which we write the first ten numbers1 for example1 and then write them again at the beginning of a certain number of horizontal lines 7,fig4 #a74 ,let us suppose1 too1 that we have a box divided into compartments arranged like the squares in our table1 into which we put heaps of balls1 beans1 or dice corresponding to the numbers indicated in the table4 ,the child will take1 for example1 two balls from one compartment and three from another1 will put them together and place his five balls in the case corresponding with the point where the lines of two and three will meet1 and will thus gradually accustom himself to the idea that two added to three are equal to five1 four and two to six1 etc41 before he knows how to write the corresponding figures4 ,as soon as he has learned how to write them he can himself make the table with figures 7,fig4 #b71 showing that one and one make two1 one and three four1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,this will be all the easier for him because he will only have to write the figures in their order in the lines and the columns4 ,this furnishes an excellent writing exercise after the children have begun to write figures1 and affords besides a certain method of teaching them the addition table up to nineteen at least4 ,i insist that all this can be done even before the child knows how to write the figures by means of an arrangement like a printer's case1 and that it will be as a play1 rather than a study1 to the child4 ,hardly anything more will be required than to bring the toy to the child's notice and leave him to himself after he has been started with it1 and he will get along the faster the less he is bothered4 ,a similar process may be adopted with the multiplication table4 ,with a case like the other1 it is only necessary to tell the child that if he wants to know how much are three times four he has only to make heaps of four things each1 take three of them and put them in the box at the intersection of the line three and the column four4 ,if he can write the figures he will write #ab1 instead of gathering up the twelve objects that represent the product4 ,when he has played at this for some time he may become acquainted with all the products up to ten times ten or beyond without having to make any abnormal effort of memory4 ,the idea of numeration1 which is usually put off till a later period1 should also be given at the beginning4 ,children soon understand the decimal numeration and learn to write #aj for ten1 and other numbers composed of one of the nine ciphers and zero4 ,but the fact which1 however1 though quite essential to know1 receives very little attention is that there is nothing particular about this number ten1 and that systems of numeration can be devised resting on any basis that may be taken2 that the principle of every system of numeration consists in taking a certain number of units and grouping them4 ,take1 for example1 a system having five as its basis4 ,all the numbers of such a system can be represented with the figures #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d1 the symbol #aj standing in this case for five4 ,to construct a number we have only to group the units by fives and observe the result4 ,to learn decimal numeration by this process we put tens of objects into little boxes1 tens of little boxes into larger ones1 and so on4 ,the child can in this way acquire an exact idea of the units of successive order in any system that may be desired4 ,this method of teaching was developed in a remarkable way about thirty years ago by ,jean ,mac in a little book entitled ,l',arithmtique du ,grand-,papa--,grandpa's ,arithmetic--which made some impression when it appeared1 but has been substantially forgotten4 ,in this method ,i attach much importance to giving these exercises a form of play4 ,i believe that nothing in primary instruction should savor of obligation and fatigue4 ,it would1 on the other hand1 be better to try to induce the child to desire himself to go on1 and it would always be well to try to give him the illusion1 in all stages of instruction1 that he is the discoverer of the facts we wish to impress upon his mind4 ,we need not stop with arithmetic1 but may go on and give the child a little geometry4 ,to accomplish this we should give him the idea of geometrical objects1 and to some extent their nomenclature1 and this can be done without causing fatigue4 ,to accomplish this he should be taught to draw1 however rudely4 ,he can begin with straight lines1 of which he soon learns the properties2 then1 when he has drawn several lines side by side1 he will learn that they are parallels and will never meet4 ,he will learn1 too1 after he has drawn three intersecting lines1 that the figure within them is called a triangle1 that the figure formed by two parallel lines meeting two other parallels is a parallelogram1 and he can go on to make and learn about polygons1 etc 7,fig4 #c74 ,all this nomenclature will get into his head without giving abstract definitions1 but in such a way that when he sees a geometrical object of definite form he will recognize it at once and give it the name that belongs to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,in the practical matter of the measurement of areas we convey immediate comprehension as to many figures without special effort1 provided we do not present the demonstration in professional style1 limiting ourselves to making the pupil comprehend or feel things so clearly and definitely that it shall be equivalent1 as to the satisfaction of his mind1 to an absolutely rigorous demonstration4 ,at any rate1 he will be better provided for the future than by rigorous demonstrations that he does not understand4 ,taking the parallelogram1 for example1 let us suppose a figure made like ,fig4 #d1 and we saw through it along the lines ,a ,a' and ,b ,c4 ,it does not need a very great effort of attention to recognize1 experimentally if need be1 that the two triangles ,a ,a' ,d and ,b ,b' ,c may be placed one upon the other and are identical4 ,if1 from the figure thus formed1 we take away the right-hand triangle the parallelogram will remain2 if we take away the other triangle a rectangle will be left1 or a peculiar parallelogram1 of which also we give the idea to the child as a figure in which the angles are formed by straight lines perpendicular to one another4 ,here1 then1 the child gains the notion of the equivalence of a parallelogram and a rectangle of the same base and height2 and this notion1 obtained by cutting up a piece of board or pasteboard1 he will carry so seriously and firmly in his head that he will never lose it4 ,by cutting the same parallelogram in two1 along a diagonal ,a ,c1 it may be easily shown that the two triangles can be placed exactly one upon the other1 and that1 consequently1 they have equal areas4 ,these lessons constitute a series of classical theorems in geometry which the child can try with his fingers and learn without even giving them the form of theorems4 ,i might show the same as to the area of the trapeze and with many other theorems1 but my purpose is only to present as many examples as will make my idea understood1 without going into details4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,yet ,i can not leave this subject without showing how we can make a very child understand some of the geometrical theorems that have acquired a bad reputation in the world of candidates for degrees1 including even such as the pons asinorum of ,pythagoras2 the demonstration1 that is1 that if we construct the triangles ,b and ,c on the sides of a right-angled triangle1 their sum will be equal to the square ,a constructed on the hypotenuse4 ,the usual demonstration of this theorem is not very complicated1 but there is something tiresome1 artificial1 and hard in it4 ,the demonstration ,i propose is almost intuitive1 and the reasoning of it is both simple and rigorous4 ,suppose we take two equal squares1 and1 making equal lengths on the four sides of one of them1 join the points so obtained as indicated in the first of the two figures 7,figs4 #e and #f7 so as to form four right-angled triangles1 and then place four other squares in the corners of the original square4 ,these right-angled triangles are of such sort that the sum of their sides is equal to the side of the square4 ,this can be demonstrated1 but it strikes the eyes without that4 ,we see1 too1 that the interior figure is a square1 and that it is constructed on the hypotenuse of the triangles in question4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,it is easy to see in the other figure1 which is formed after the same measures as its alternate1 that the triangles #a1 #b1 #c1 #d can be arranged so as to occupy the positions #a'1 #b'1 #c'1 #d' in such way as to leave in the main square two smaller squares constructed on the sides of one of the right-angled triangles4 ,it follows that the square ,a is equivalent to the sum of the squares ,b and ,c4 ,the theorem thus becomes a kind of intuition1 a thing evidently indisputable4 ,it is a curious fact that the origin of this demonstration is lost in the obscurity of the past2 it probably goes back to thirty or forty centuries1 at least1 before the ,christian era1 and apparently to ,india4 ,bhascara1 in his ,bija ,ganita1 after tracing a figure1 a simple combination of these two1 says1 ,there you see it4 ,i remark that such a demonstration1 even if dressed with geometrical terms1 assuming a character that conforms to existing ways of teaching1 would be vastly superior1 even in secondary schools1 to the demonstrations of ,legendre and others1 which are much harder4 ,the return to what was done very long ago in this case constitutes a great advance upon what we are doing now4 ,having given our little one an initiation into the mysteries of arithmetic and geometry1 we introduce him to algebra1 a branch which passes in the majority of families as the hardest1 most complicated1 and most abstruse that can be imagined4 ,i do not pretend that algebraic theories enter easily into the child's delicate brain2 rather the contrary2 but ,i declare that some ideas in algebra can be made comprehensible to children without fatigue4 ,we can1 for instance1 make them understand1 in the way of amusement and without great difficulty1 the formula that gives the sum of the first numbers4 ,we take a sheet of paper ruled in squares and shade the first square of the first line1 then the first two squares of the second line1 the first three of the third1 etc4 7,fig4 #g74 ,the whole number of squares shaded in this manner represents visibly the sum of the first whole numbers up to any one we may choose--to #g in the figure4 ,if we give this paper to the child and ask him to return it1 he will very easily perceive that the figures formed by the white and the black squares are alike4 ,the number sought for will therefore be equal to half the sum of the squares--that is1 in the present example #a #b #c #d #e #f #g 7#g ,x #h7 3 #b #bh1 we can prove by reasoning that if n be taken to represent the last number we shall have for the sum n 7n #a7 ,s ---------- #b ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,i introduce this formula to define my thought better1 but one can make the child perceive the numbers that are wanted without writing down a single character4 ,somewhat similar is the method of finding the sum of the odd numbers4 ,for this it will be enough to take our square-ruled sheet of paper and shade the first square on the left1 then the three squares around it1 which will form with it a square 7#a #c #d72 continuing thus we obtain1 as the figure readily shows 7,fig4 #h71 a square formed of a series of shaded zones1 representing the series of odd numbers1 the examination of which will illustrate the property to the child4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,in another direction it is possible to give the child algebraic ideas much beyond anything we would imagine4 ,suppose1 for example1 we want to give him a conception of addition4 ,he easily realizes that objects--material bars1 for example--can be selected so as to represent numbers by their length4 ,he can be readily made to understand that if he has one bar three and another five inches long he can obtain the sum of these lengths1 in what we might call a material way1 by placing them lengthwise1 one at the end of the other--an essentially practical notion and easily carried into effect4 ,if we take a line and mark a starting point on it1 calling it zero1 then measure off segments on it representing the bars we have been talking about one after another1 we can get the sum represented by the length of the two segments4 ,if1 instead of measuring three plus five inches ,i measure three plus two ,i reach another point4 ,if1 instead of adding two and three1 ,i wish to take one of the bars or numbers away 7#c-b71 or subtract1 the operation will be easily performed by measuring the two in the opposite direction4 ,the difference will be represented by the length that is left4 ,if we try to form the quantity #c-e in arithmetic we can not do it2 but in proceeding in this method and measuring back on the bar we get to a point back of the original starting point which represents this difference--say two inches behind where we began4 ,here we have in the germ the whole theory of negative quantities1 concerning which thousands and thousands of pages have been written4 ,yet we find that by carefully graduating our lines we can make it intuitive and accessible to a child who has learned that the common operations of addition and subtraction can be represented with material objects4 ,the generation of negative and positive quantities follows quite naturally4 ,these examples1 ,i think1 are sufficient to show that we might considerably enlarge the field of the investigations within reach of the child4 ,for this purpose a small amount of very simple material1 which we can vary as we please1 is needful4 ,the first element of this material is paper ruled in squares1 a wonderful instrument1 which everybody dealing with mathematics or with science generally should have4 ,it is of special pedagogic use in giving children their first ideas of form1 size1 and position1 without which their early instruction is only a delusion4 ,add to this paper dice1 buttons1 beans1 and match-sticks--things always easy to get--and we have all the material we need4 ,there is no amusement1 however puerile it may appear1 not even a play of words1 that can not be utilized in teaching of this sort4 ,for instance1 when your child has learned his addition table1 if you put him to a demonstration1 assuming to prove to his comrades that six and three make eight1 his curiosity will be excited1 and you may be very sure that1 once his attention has been given to this amusement1 he will never forget that six and three make nine and not eight4 ,to make the demonstration1 we have only to group the nine match-sticks as in the figure 7,fig4 #i7 below4 ,we might demonstrate in a like way that half of twelve is seven by cutting the ,roman numeral ,,xii in two1 leaving the upper part visible4 ,such pleasantries have a pedagogical value1 because the paradox is precisely of a kind to attract the attention of the child1 and he will always afterward be sure not to fall into the trap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the side of this kind of instruction on which ,i insist most is that1 given under the form of play1 it is free from every sort of dogmatic character4 ,no truth should be imposed on the child2 on the contrary1 he should be allowed to discover it as a fruit of his own activity4 ,he will be thoroughly impressed with the truths which he has thus found out himself4 ,they had better be few at first2 the important thing is for him to know them completely4 ,the instruction should also be essentially objective and free from all abstraction4 ,the absence of abstraction should1 however1 be rather apparent than real4 ,abstraction is indeed one of the elements that contribute most to give mathematical science a fearful air to outsiders1 and yet it is most usually a simplification of matters--quite the contrary of what is generally supposed4 ,it is1 in fact1 such a simplification and so necessary that we all make it as if by instinct1 and the child makes it1 not in mathematics only1 but in all the considerations of life4 ,thus1 when ,i want to give the child his first idea of the number two ,i put two beans in his hand and let him contemplate them4 ,he gets a perfect notion of the collection two4 ,yet1 if you look at them a little closer and he himself looks at them closer he will find that the two beans1 whatever else they may be1 are not identical1 for there exist no two objects in ,nature that are not different4 ,so when the child introduces this idea of collection into his mind in a wholly instinctive way1 by identifying the things he sees1 he begins to perform abstraction4 ,this abstraction delivers him from all the complications and all the annoyances that come to him from the contemplation of real objects4 ,by the philosophic process of abstraction it has been possible to construct all the sciences1 and especially the science of magnitudes4 ,the ideas ,i have been setting forth in outline are not mine1 and are1 unfortunately1 not recent4 ,they may be found in somewhat different form1 but substantially the same in principle1 in l',essai d'education nationale1 published by ,le ,chalotais in #agfc4 ,the paper furnishes a programme of studies and education which1 if put into execution1 would1 ,i believe1 constitute a long advance over the present conditions4 ,at a later period ,condorcet was occupied with the subject4 ,at the close of the nineteenth century the name of ,jean ,mac1 which ,i have already cited1 should be held among those of men who have tried to infuse sound and just views concerning the pedagogy of mathematics4 ,another man1 from whom ,i have borrowed a considerable part of the examples ,i have cited1 is ,edouard ,lucas1 who1 in his ,rcrations mathmatiques1 of which one volume was published during his lifetime and two others after his death1 and in his lectures before the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers1 strove to develop views concerning the primary mathematical education of childhood--views which did not differ1 except in form1 from those which ,i have presented4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,revue ,scientifique4 ,,present ,,position ,,of ,,sociology4 ,,by ,f4 ,,spencer ,,baldwin4 ,the present condition of sociological thought is confused1 if not chaotic4 ,it needs only a brief examination of the writings of professed sociologists to discover the want of agreement among them4 ,there is no consensus of opinion regarding either the scope and method of the new science1 so called1 or its fundamental laws and principles4 ,the name sociology stands for no definite body of systematic knowledge4 ,it is applied to an inchoate mass of speculation1 often vague and conflicting1 which represents the thought of various thinkers about social phenomena4 ,a few years ago a student of sociology in ,chicago wrote to all the teachers of sociology in the ,united ,states1 and to others known to be deeply interested in the subject and entitled to express an opinion1 asking them to answer a number of pertinent questions regarding the nature and function of the science4#bh ,about forty replied2 of these1 three discreetly pleaded knowledge insufficient to entitle them to an opinion4 ,comparison of the views expressed in the remaining twenty-seven replies led the investigator to conclude that the science is in a more or less undefined and tentative position4 ,so little progress toward unanimity of opinion has been made by sociologists since the date of this census that its results may be taken as typical of present conditions4 ,among the questions asked were these3 ,do you think the study is entitled to be called a science8 ,in what department does it belong8 ,what is its relation to political economy1 history1 political science1 ethics8 ,footnote #bh3 ,present ,condition of ,sociology in the ,united ,states4 ,ira ,w4 ,howarth4 ,annals of the ,american ,academy1 ,september1 #ahid4 ,the question whether sociology is entitled to be called a science is answered by fully three fourths of the correspondents in the affirmative4 ,some hedge1 by affirming that it is becoming a science4 ,prof4 ,john ,bascom1 of ,williams ,college1 appears to have entered into the humor of the situation2 he writes1 ,it will do no harm to call it a science if we do not abate our effort to make it one4 ,the opinions regarding the department in which sociology belongs are entertainingly diverse4 ,prof4 ,john ,dewey1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 is frank enough to admit that he doesn't feel at all sure where it belongs4 ,it would seem well1 he adds1 to have it a separate branch1 in order to make sure that it received proper attention4 ,this feeling of uneasiness lest the claims of sociology be slightingly treated appears to be general among the representatives of the new study4 ,most of the teachers of sociology are of the opinion that it ought to form a department by itself4 ,some would place it in the department of the social sciences1 along with politics1 economics1 jurisprudence1 and the like4 ,others would change the order1 making all the social sciences divisions of sociology4 ,on the other hand1 ,professor ,giddings1 of ,columbia ,university1 says3 ,general sociology can not be divided into special social sciences1 such as economics1 law1 and politics1 without losing its distinctive character4 ,it should be looked on as the foundation or groundwork of these sciences1 rather than as their sum or as their collective name4 ,scattering replies place it under psychology1 moral and political science1 political economy1 and anthropology4 ,one teacher thinks it belongs under the humanities2 while two say it has no natural boundaries1 and is therefore not included in any one department4 ,altogether the impression left by the replies to this question is that the teachers of sociology are quite at a loss to know where to put the study in the university curriculum4 ,they appear to realize confusedly that they have on their hands a pedagogical white elephant1 which defies classification4 ,the opinions concerning the relation of sociology to political economy1 history1 political science1 and ethics are almost delphic in their vagueness4 ,says one1 ,history is its material1 ethics its guide1 political economy its interpreter1 and a rational system of political science its proposed end4 ,says another1 ,sociology is political economy in practice1 history in the making1 political science as an art1 and ethics applied4 ,after worrying over these oracular epigrams it is refreshing to be told by another teacher that the relation of sociology to political economy1 history1 etc41 is close4 ,it would be superfluous to cite further illustrations of the unsettled state of sociological thought4 ,the quotations that have been made show conclusively that the accredited representatives of the new science are at loggerheads upon fundamental questions4 ,this fact the sociologists themselves readily admit4 ,the author of a recent treatise on sociology speaks of the confusion and perplexity among its teachers1 and declares that its forms are as yet varied1 and perhaps would suggest a series of pseudo-sciences instead if one genuine science4#bi ,even ,professor ,giddings confesses in the preface of his ,principles of ,sociology that much sociology is as yet nothing more than careful and suggestive guesswork4 ,professor ,small1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 in his ,introduction to the ,study of ,society1 speaks of sociology as an inchoate science1 and remarks that only ignoramuses1 incompetent to employ the method of any science1 could claim for sociology the merit of a completed system4 ,footnote #bi3 ,fairbanks4 ,introduction to ,sociology1 p4 #a4 ,sociologists themselves1 then1 confess that differences of opinion exist among them4 ,let us look more carefully at the nature of these differences4 ,they relate to the scope1 the method1 the object1 and the ground-principles of the science4 ,the province of sociology is defined by some very broadly1 to include the whole range of the phenomena of human association4 ,by others the scope of the study is limited to a narrower range of social phenomena4 ,among the latter1 again1 there are some who would identify sociology with the study of social origins1 or the genesis of social institutions4 ,others would restrict sociology to a study of the history and function of the family4 ,still others understand by sociology merely the pathology of society1 devoting themselves to the diagnosis of social diseases1 as crime and pauperism4 ,professor ,giddings has called attention to the natural tendency on the part of each social philosopher to create a sociology in the image of his professional specialty4 ,to the economist1 he says1 sociology is a penumbral political economy--a scientific outer darkness--for inconvenient problems and obstinate facts that will not live peaceably with well-bred formulas4 ,to the alienist and the criminal anthropologist it is a social pathology4 ,to the ethnologist it is that subdivision of his own science which supplements the account of racial traits by a description of social organization4 ,to the comparative mythologist and the student of folklore it is an account of the evolution of culture4 ,the narrower conceptions of sociology1 however1 have been discarded by the best-known sociologists of the present time4 ,there is a general tendency to adopt a broad definition of the province of sociology1 to include in the field of investigation all the phenomena of social structure and growth4 ,but what is the relation of this general social science to the special social sciences--that is1 the sciences dealing with special groups of social phenomena1 as economics1 politics1 and jurisprudence8 ,is sociology anything more than a convenient collective name for the sum of all these8 ,touching this point opinions differ4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,see for the following3 ,h4 ,h4 ,powers4 ,terminology and the ,sociological ,conference1 in ,annals of the ,american ,academy1 ,march1 #ahie4 ,at least three different conceptions of the relation of sociology to the various special social sciences may be distinguished4 ,sociology has been defined as 7#a7 the inclusive1 as 7#b7 the co-ordinating1 and as 7#c7 the fundamental science of society4 #a4 ,the first conception is that of ,spencer and ,de ,greef4 ,spencer defines sociology as the science of society1 and defends his adoption of the term on the ground that no other name sufficiently comprehensive existed4 ,this implies that he conceives of sociology as an inclusive science4 ,de ,greef1 the ,belgian sociologist1 makes the science all comprehensive2 his scheme of classification includes everything1 from the husbanding of corn and wine to electioneering contests in the ,institute of ,france4#ca #b4 ,the second conception is that of ,professor ,small1 of ,chicago4 ,he defines sociology as the synthesis of all the particular social sciences4 ,it does not include1 it coordinates these sciences4 ,it concerns itself with the relations which the various special groups of social phenomena hold to each other and to society as a whole1 leaving to special social sciences the study of each group in minute detail4 ,the conclusions won by these special sciences are taken by sociology and worked over into a body of correlated social principles4 ,sociology is1 therefore1 subsequent to the particular social sciences and dependent upon them4 #c4 ,the third conception is that of ,professor ,giddings1 of ,columbia ,university4 ,he defines sociology as the science of social elements and first principles4 ,it is not merely the sum of the social sciences2 it is rather their common basis4 ,it undertakes to analyze the general characteristics of social phenomena and to formulate the laws of social organization and evolution4 ,sociology furnishes a body of fundamental principles which make a common basis for the special social sciences4 ,the latter rest on sociology1 which is the antecedent and fundamental social science4 ,footnote #ca3 ,see ,giddings4 ,principles of ,sociology1 p4 #bi4 ,now a little reflection will show that these three conceptions of sociology do not conflict1 but harmonize4 ,there is no real opposition between them1 rightly understood4 ,each emphasizes correctly one phase of the relation between sociology and the special social sciences4 ,sociology is both an inclusive1 a co-ordinating1 and a fundamental science4 ,in the first place1 sociology is a general science1 having as its subject-matter social phenomena of all kinds4 ,therefore it comprehends all the sciences dealing with special kinds of social phenomena4 ,these particular sciences are1 in the nature of things1 closely related to each other4 ,they must possess in common certain laws and principles4 ,these it is the task of sociology to formulate2 for as the inclusive social science it should exhibit the mutual relations of the included social sciences4 ,thus sociology becomes a co-ordinating as well as an inclusive science4 ,furthermore1 the laws and principles of the special social sciences1 which sociology1 as the co-ordinating science1 undertakes to formulate1 are necessarily fundamental4 ,and in this respect sociology may be regarded as the fundamental social science4 ,the three rival conceptions of sociology must be combined in the correct view4 ,as ,mr4 ,arthur ,fairbanks remarks in his admirable ,introduction to ,sociology3 ,sociology may embrace all the sciences dealing with society1 but it does not destroy the partial independence of any of these branches4 ,it includes economics1 politics1 and the like1 but1 instead of supplanting them1 its sphere is to lay the foundation of these particular social sciences4 ,it appears1 then1 that the disagreement among the leaders of sociological thought regarding the scope of their science is more apparent than real4 ,the same may be said regarding the contention about method4 ,the debate here is over the question whether deduction or induction is the proper method of investigation in the social sciences4 ,one party holds that the only legitimate method is the abstract-deductive1 the investigator arriving at his conclusions by reasoning a priori from certain fundamental assumptions regarding the nature of man in general4 ,what these thinkers aim at is a subjective interpretation of social phenomena in terms of human motives1 principles1 and ideals4 ,another party maintains that the only fruitful method is the concrete-inductive1 the investigator reaching his conclusions by observing the facts of social life and reasoning from them to general laws and principles4 ,the aim here is to give an objective interpretation of society in terms of race1 environment1 and historical conditions4 ,the controversy has been especially violent among the economists4 ,the ,english classical school of political economy made exclusive use of the deductive method2 economic laws were deduced from the fundamental postulate of human selfishness4 ,the ,german historical school employed the inductive method2 economic laws were inferred from a study of the concrete facts of industrial life4 ,this academic discussion over method is tiresome and futile4 ,neither method will ever drive the other from the field4 ,the exclusive employment of either deduction or induction will yield only half results in the social sciences4 ,the two methods effectually supplement each other and should be used together4 ,they are not rivals1 but allies4 ,induction without deduction is blind2 deduction without induction untrustworthy4 ,this fact is recognized by recent writers on sociology4 ,so ,professor ,giddings remarks that history without deductive illumination is chaos4 ,deduction without verification is undoubtedly the very light that never was on sea or land6 ,the principal method in the social sciences must undoubtedly be the inductive4 ,the nature of the subject-matter determines this4 ,the social sciences deal with the facts of social structure and growth4 ,the task of the investigator is the explanation of these facts4 ,he has first1 then1 to observe and compare the facts4 ,but his observation must be guided and his conclusions verified by deduction4 ,concerning the purpose of sociology1 as touching its method1 there are two conflicting opinions4 ,but here again the seeming disagreement is not absolutely irreconcilable4 ,it is held by some that the purpose of the sociologist should be merely the acquisition of knowledge1 without further thought of the practical use to which the results of his researches might be put4 ,he should aim to discover and formulate the laws of social forces1 not to propose ideals of social reform4 ,sociology is a pure science and has no utilitarian end4 ,by others it is held that the purpose of the sociologist should be the regulation of social forces in the interest of human progress4 ,the object of sociology is the betterment of society1 the acceleration of social evolution4 ,it is an applied science and has a practical end4 ,both these views are tenable4 ,in fact1 sociology1 like all sciences1 has a double purpose4 ,the primary purpose is to acquire knowledge2 the secondary purpose is to apply that knowledge to the attainment of practical ends4 ,this duality of purpose is clearly set forth by ,mr4 ,lester ,f4 ,ward in a recent essay4#cb ,sociology1 he says1 has both a pure and an applied stage4 ,it should be studied first for the sake of information relating to the laws of human association and co-operative action1 and finally for the purpose of determining in what ways and to what extent social phenomena may1 with a knowledge of their laws1 be modified and directed toward social ideals4 ,footnote #cb3 ,lester ,f4 ,ward4 ,purpose of ,sociology4 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,november1 #ahif4 ,modern society is a complex of difficult problems4 ,and this fact furnishes a background of motive for the studies of the sociologist4 ,not even the veriest stickler for pure science can deny the imperative need of established knowledge of the laws of social activity4 ,the people perish for lack of wisdom4 ,to enlighten the public mind on vital social questions and thus to promote an intelligent direction of social conduct toward rational ends is the high function of sociology4 ,this practical purpose1 however1 should be kept always secondary to the pursuit of knowledge4 ,the knowledge is the important thing4 ,the action will then take care of itself4#cc ,the discussion of the what-ought-to-be must wait on the investigation of the what-is4 ,the neglect of this caution has been responsible for much false doctrine and foolish counsel4 ,sociologists have allowed their enthusiasm for ideals to blind the eye and bias the judgment4 ,panacea hawkers of all sorts have attempted to prescribe for social diseases1 without making any study of social structure and function4 ,communistic quackery has masqueraded as sociological wisdom4 ,the wild-cat sociology of the present day is a result of the over-addiction to social reform which besets students of society4 ,it can not be too strongly emphasized that the primary object of the sociologist is the impartial investigation of facts4 ,the man who forgets this becomes dangerous4 ,he is liable to run amuck4 ,footnote #cc3 ,ward4 ,ibidem4 ,the differences of opinion as to the scope1 method1 and purpose of sociology have been found upon examination to be less serious than they at first sight appeared4 ,but in regard to the fundamental principles of sociology1 the confusion is hopeless4 ,the student will search in vain in the systematic treatises on sociology for any definite body of established doctrine which he can accept as the ground-principles of the science4 ,he finds only an unmanageable mass of conflicting theories and opinions4 ,each treatise contains an exposition of what the author is pleased to label the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,but the principles are not the same in any two treatises2 and by no process of analysis and synthesis can they be brought into harmony4 ,they are fundamentally contradictory4 ,it is impossible1 ,i believe1 to discover a single alleged ground-principle of sociology that has commanded general assent4 ,some of the recent writers on sociology have devoted themselves particularly to the task of establishing one basal principle which may be applied to the interpretation of all social phenomena4 ,at least half a dozen claims to the discovery of such a principle have been put forward4 ,prof4 ,ludwig ,gumplowicz finds the elementary social fact to be conflict2 ,prof4 ,guillaume ,de ,greef finds it to be contract2 ,m4 ,gabriel ,tarde contends that the fundamental principle of society is imitation2 ,prof4 ,emile ,durkheim argues that it is the coercion of the individual mind by modes of action1 thought1 and feeling external to itself4 ,professor ,giddings criticises all these explanations of society1 as either too special or too general1 and undertakes to prove that the original and elementary fact in society is the consciousness of kind4 ,this is the determining principle to which all social phenomena are to be referred4#cd ,but ,professor ,giddings's sociological postulate has been promptly rejected by his ,american colleagues1 ,prof4 ,albion ,w4 ,small and ,mr4 ,lester ,f4 ,ward4 ,the former speaks contemptuously of the consciousness of kind as a remote metaphysical category1 and declares that the whole system of sociology based on the principle is an impossible combination of contradictions4#ce ,this opinion is approved by ,ward1 who riddles ,giddings's book with criticism1 and complains of the author's inability to handle principles correctly4#cf ,footnote #cd3 ,see ,giddings4 ,principles of ,sociology1 chap4 i4 ,footnote #ce3 ,in ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,september1 #ahif4 ,footnote #cf3 ,in ,annals of the ,american ,academy1 ,july1 #ahif4 ,it is hardly necessary to penetrate further into this debate over first principles4 ,the most exhaustive examination of the writings of the leaders in sociological thought would fail to discover any fundamental unity of opinion4 ,the so-called principles of the science are multiform4 ,they represent merely the unsupported conclusions of individual thinkers4 ,if we except the barest commonplaces1 no truths have been established2 no scientific laws have been agreed upon4 ,the content of the science of sociology1 as expounded in treatises bearing this name1 varies with the particular bias of the writer4 ,in fine1 there are systems of sociology galore1 but there is hardly a sociology4 ,of the various systems of sociology that have been developed since the new science was first outlined by ,auguste ,comte1 that of ,herbert ,spencer is undoubtedly the most coherent and self-consistent4 ,but even the genius of ,mr4 ,spencer has been unequal to the task of working out a body of firmly grounded principles which should furnish a basis for the convergence of opinion on social questions4 ,he has not succeeded in giving permanent form and content to sociology4 ,his work is disparagingly criticised by other living sociologists4 ,small declares that ,spencer's sociology ends precisely where sociology proper should begin1 and quotes approvingly ,de ,greef's assertion that ,mr4 ,spencer not only fails to show that there is a place for sociology1 but his own reasoning proves more than anything else that there is no social science superior to biology4#cg ,ward1 while commending the logical consistency of ,mr4 ,spencer's work1 pronounces him unsystematic1 nonconstructive1 and nonprogressive4#ch ,footnote #cg3 ,see ,giddings4 ,principles of ,sociology1 chap4 i4 ,footnote #ch3 ,small and ,vincent4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,society1 p4 #df4 ,there is much justice in these criticisms of ,mr4 ,spencer's system4 ,his sociology is almost entirely descriptive2 and his description of social phenomena has taken the form of an elaborate analogy between society and the animal organism4 ,the utility of this biological analogy has rightly been called in question4 ,the particular resemblances traced by ,mr4 ,spencer between a society and a living body are these3 both grow and increase in size2 while they increase in size they increase in structure2 increase in structure is accompanied by progressive differentiation of functions2 and differentiation of functions leads to mutual interdependence of the parts4 ,furthermore1 in the case both of a society and of a living body the lives of the units continue for some time if the life of the aggregate is suddenly arrested2 while if the aggregate is not suddenly destroyed by violence its life greatly exceeds in duration the lives of its units4 ,since1 therefore1 the permanent relations among the parts of a society are analogous to the permanent relations among the parts of an organism1 society is to be regarded as an organism4 ,now the trouble with this clever analogy is that it breaks down completely when the comparison is carried beyond a certain point4 ,mr4 ,spencer himself notices some differences between the social body and the animal body1 but declares that they are not of such fundamental character as to weaken the force of his analogy4 ,one of these differences1 however1 can not be so lightly dismissed4 ,if we compare a high type of animal organism with a high type of society1 this striking unlikeness is discovered4 ,in the former there is but one center of consciousness2 in the latter there are many4 ,in the one1 to quote ,mr4 ,spencer's own words1 consciousness is concentrated in a small part of the aggregate4 ,in the other it is diffused throughout the aggregate4 ,the animal body has one brain1 one center of thought1 feeling1 and life2 the social body has numberless such centers4 ,when we go back and compare the course of development in the two cases the difference noted comes into even greater prominence4 ,the evolution of animal life is characterized by progressive centralization1 the evolution of social life by progressive decentralization4 ,in the lowest form of animal1 the amoeba1 there is no single center of life4 ,the life is in all the parts2 reproduction takes place simply by division4 ,but with each successive advance above this lowest form there is developed more and more definitely a single center of consciousness4 ,one part becomes distinctly differentiated as the sole seat of life4 ,if that part is destroyed1 the organism dies4 ,thus1 animal development has meant a concentration of the more important nervous elements and a merging of their separate activity in the common activity of a single consciousness4#ci ,footnote #ci3 ,fairbanks4 ,introduction to ,sociology1 p4 #dd4 ,the law of progress is quite the reverse in social development4 ,at a primitive stage there is a marked subjection of the individual elements of society to a central authority1 whether that of the patriarch1 the tribal head1 or the tribal assembly4 ,the individual has no economic1 legal1 or moral independence4 ,but as society develops1 the control which the whole exerts over the parts through authority and custom is gradually diminished4 ,the individuality of the members of the social body becomes more and more marked4 ,individual freedom and responsibility are definitely recognized4 ,thus1 the development of society has meant the development of individuality in each of its members4 ,it is a development of persons2 the social consciousness exists only in the discrete social elements which have become individual4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,fairbanks4 ,ibidem4 ,in a word1 social evolution is accompanied by a growing individualization of the component elements of society1 whereas animal development leads to ever-stronger concentration of the life of the organism in a single part4 ,this difference between the physical organism and society is fundamental and essential4 ,it is far more striking than the superficial likenesses ingeniously adduced by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,his analogy tends to obscure the real nature of social relations4 ,unless used with cautious qualifications it suggests false and one-sided views and thus hinders the progress of sociology4 ,the biological analogy has1 it may be conceded1 a certain value as a convenient way of describing some of the aspects of social structure and growth4 ,it may aid the student to comprehend certain facts1 but1 if followed blindly1 it will lead him to overlook other facts of even greater importance4 ,the biological analogy has been carried to absurd lengths by some writers4 ,there is wearisome enumeration of social aggregates and organs1 and exhaustive description of the social nervous system4 ,we learn that the individual may be either a communicating cell or a terminal cell1 otherwise known as an end organ4 ,the girl in the central telephone office acts as a communicating cell when she telephones to ,mr4 ,smith a message from ,mr4 ,brown4 ,but when1 ,mr4 ,smith having asked her the exact time by the chronometer in the exchange1 she looks at the dial and reports her observation to him1 she is primarily a terminal cell or end organ4#da ,the lookout man at sea1 on the other hand1 is invariably an end organ4 ,this is far-fetched and fanciful4 ,to clothe mere commonplaces in the borrowed rags and tags of biological terminology is not social science1 nor does it aid one to get a correct conception of social reality4 ,footnote #da3 ,small and ,vincent4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,society1 p4 #bah4 ,the unsettled state of sociological thought which has been here set forth is a natural result of the peculiar difficulties that stand in the way of the social sciences4 ,these have been described by ,mr4 ,spencer with great fullness of illustration4#db ,they arise from three sources--namely1 7#a7 from the intrinsic nature of the facts dealt with2 7#b7 from the natures of the observers of these facts2 and 7#c7 from the peculiar relation in which the observers stand toward the facts observed4 ,footnote #db3 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,study of ,sociology1 chaps4 iv to xii4 #a4 ,in the first place the peculiar nature of social phenomena is such as to render scientific observation difficult4 ,they are not of a directly perceptible kind like the phenomena which form the subject-matter of the natural sciences4 ,quantitative measurement and experiment are not possible4 ,social facts have to be established by putting together many details1 no one of which is simple1 and which are dispersed1 both in space and time1 in ways that make them difficult of access4 #b4 ,again1 to these objective difficulties are added the subjective difficulties resulting from the intellectual and the emotional limitations of the investigators4 ,there is1 very generally1 a lack of intellectual faculty sufficiently complex and plastic to comprehend the involved and changing phenomena of society4 ,the scientific judgment is disturbed by a variety of emotional prejudices1 which ,mr4 ,spencer classifies as the educational bias1 the bias of patriotism1 the class bias1 the political bias1 and the theological bias4 #c4 ,and1 finally1 the peculiar position which the sociological observer occupies with reference to the phenomena puts further obstacles in the way of trustworthy observation4 ,the sociologist has to study an aggregate in which he is himself included4 ,he is a member of society and can not wholly free himself from the beliefs and sentiments generated by this connection4 ,these peculiar difficulties which beset sociology have naturally impeded the development of the department compared with other branches of knowledge4 ,they furnish adequate explanation of the unsettled condition of sociological thought which has been described in this paper4 ,in conclusion1 it is hardly necessary to state that in the writer's opinion sociology is not1 at present1 entitled to be called a science4 ,in order to establish the right of a body of knowledge to the title of science1 the claimants must be able to show that they have a definitely bounded field of investigation1 that they employ recognized scientific methods1 and that they have established certain truths of unquestioned value4 ,sociology in its present state fails to meet these conditions4 ,its province is not yet agreed upon1 its methods have been often unscientific1 and its first principles are yet to be formulated4 ,it is not1 therefore1 a science4 ,sociology1 says one of its critics1 no more demonstrates its claim to existence as a science than astronomy would if we found some astronomers insisting that the sun went around the earth and others contending that the earth went around the sun4#dc ,footnote #dc3 ,the ,nation1 vol4 lx1 p4 #cea4 ,review of ,small and ,vincent's ,introduction to the ,study of ,society4 ,after all1 the question whether sociology deserves to be called a science or not is one of merely academic interest4 ,it has received far more attention than it really deserves4 ,nor will any amount of discussion upon this point help to make sociology a science4 ,it is safe to say1 remarks the critic from whom we have just quoted1 that no great scientific work was ever done by a man who was fretting over the question whether he was a scientist or not4 ,the work is the thing and not what it is called4 ,on the other hand1 no name can dignify a work which is petty and futile4 ,it is not by talking about it1 but by working over it1 that a body of knowledge is developed into a science4 ,and sociologists would do well to heed the advice of ,tarde1 the ,french writer3 ,instead of discoursing upon the merits of this infant--sociology--which men have had the art to baptize before its birth1 let us succeed1 if possible1 in bringing it forth4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,quoted by ,vincent in ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,january1 #ahif1 p4 #dhg4 ,a ,,feathered ,,parasite4 ,,by ,,leander ,s4 ,,keyser4 ,nothing could more clearly prove that a common law runs through the whole domain of ,nature than the fact that in every division of her realm there seems to be a class of parasites4 ,in the vegetable world1 as is well known1 there are various plants that depend wholly upon other plants for the supply of their vital forces4 ,and in the human sphere there are parasites in a very real and literal sense--men and women who rely upon the toil and thrift of others to sustain them in worthless idleness4 ,in view of the almost universal character of this law it would be strange if these peculiar forms of dependence did not appear in the avian community4 ,we do find such developments in that department of creation4 ,across the waters there is one bird which has won an unenviable reputation as a parasite1 and that is the ,european cuckoo1 which relies almost wholly on the efforts of its more thrifty neighbors to hatch and rear its young1 and thereby perpetuate the species4 ,strangely enough1 our ,american cuckoos are not given to such slovenly habits1 but build their own nests and faithfully perform the duties of nidification1 as all respectable feathered folk should4 ,however1 this parasitical habit breaks out1 quite unexpectedly it must be conceded1 in another ,american family of birds which is entirely distinct from the cuckoo group4 ,in ,america the cowbird1 often called the cow bunting1 is the only member of the avian household that spirits its eggs into the nests of other birds4 ,the theory of evolution can do little toward accounting for the anomaly1 and even if it should venture upon some suggestions it would still be just as difficult to explain the cause of the evolution in this special group1 while all other avian groups follow the law of thrift and self-reliance4 ,the cowbird belongs to the family of birds scientifically known as ,icterid1 which includes such familiar species as the bobolinks1 orioles1 meadow larks1 and the various kinds of blackbirds1 none of which1 ,i am glad to say1 are parasites4 ,the name ,molothrus has been given to the genus that includes the cowbirds4 ,they are confined to the ,american continent1 having no analogues in the lands across the seas4 ,the same may be said1 indeed1 of the whole ,icterid family4 ,it may be a matter of surprise to many persons that there are twelve species and subspecies of cowbirds in ,north and ,south ,america1 for most of us are familiar only with the common cowbird 7,molothrus ater7 of our temperate regions4 ,of these twelve species only three are to be found within the limits of the ,united ,states1 one is a resident of western ,mexico and certain parts of ,central ,america1 while the rest find habitat exclusively in ,south ,america4 ,a fresh field of investigation is open to some enterprising and ambitious naturalist who wishes to study several of these species1 as comparatively little is known of their habits1 and indeed much still remains to be learned of the whole genus1 familiar as one or two of the species are4 ,their sly1 surreptitious manners render them exceedingly difficult to study at close range and with anything like detail4 ,are all of them parasites8 ,it is probable they are--at least to a greater or less degree--except one1 the bay-winged cowbird of ,south ,america1 which ,i shall reserve for notice later on in this article4 ,we might assert that our common cowbird is the parasite par excellence of the family1 for1 so far as ,i can learn from reading and observation1 they never build their own nests or rear their own young1 but shift all the duties of maternity1 save the laying of the eggs1 upon the shoulders of other innocent birds4 ,these avian spongers have a wide geographical range1 inhabiting the greater part of the ,united ,states and southern ,canada1 except the extensive forest regions and some portions of the ,southern ,states4 ,the center of their abundance is the ,states bordering on the upper ,mississippi ,river and its numerous tributaries4 ,they occur only as stragglers on the ,pacific coast west of the ,cascade and ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains4 ,the most northern point at which they have been known to breed is the neighborhood of ,little ,slave ,lake in southern ,athabasca4 ,in the autumn the majority of these birds migrate to southern ,mexico1 although a considerable number remain in our ,southern ,states1 and a few occasionally tarry for the winter even as far north as ,new ,england and southern ,michigan4 ,the male cowbird looks like a well-dressed gentleman--and may have even a slightly clerical air--in his closely fitting suit of glossy black1 with its greenish and purplish iridescence1 and his cloak of rich metallic brown covering his head1 neck1 and chest4 ,he makes a poor shift as a musician1 but his failure is not due to lack of effort1 for during courtship days he does his level best to sing a variety of tunes1 expanding and distorting his throat1 fluffing up his feathers1 spreading out his wings and tail1 his purpose evidently being to make himself as fascinating as possible in the eyes of his lady love4 ,one of his calls sounds like the word spreele1 piped in so piercing a key that it seems almost to perforate your brain4 ,one observer maintains that the cowbirds are not only parasitical in their habits1 but are also absolutely devoid of conjugal affection1 practicing polyandry1 and seldom even mating4 ,this is a serious charge1 but it is doubtless true1 for even during the season of courtship and breeding these birds live in flocks of six to twelve1 the males almost always outnumbering the females4 ,however1 if their sexual relations are somewhat irregular1 no one can accuse them of engaging in family brawls1 as so many other birds do1 for both males and females seem to be on the most cordial terms with one another1 and are1 to all appearances1 entirely free from jealousy4 ,who has ever seen two cowbirds fighting a duel like the orioles1 meadow larks1 and robins8 ,their domestic relations seem to be readily adjusted1 perhaps all the more so on account of their lax standards of sexual virtue4 ,in obtruding her eggs into the nests of other birds ,madame ,cowbird is sly and stealthy4 ,she does not drive the rightful owners from their nests1 but simply watches her opportunity to drop her eggs into them when they are unguarded4 ,no doubt she has been on the alert while her industrious neighbors have been constructing their domiciles1 and knows where every nest in the vicinity is hidden4 ,says ,major ,charles ,bendire3 ,in rare instances only will a fresh cowbird's egg be found among incubated ones of the rightful owners4 ,i have observed this only on a single occasion4 ,from one to seven eggs of the parasite are found in the nests of the dupes4 ,in most cases the number is two1 but in the case of ground builders the cowbird seems to have little fear of overdoing her imposition4 ,major ,bendire says that he once found the nest of an ovenbird which contained seven cowbird's eggs and only one of the little owner's4 ,if parasitism were the only crime of the cowbird one would not feel so much disposed to put her into the avian ,newgate ,calendar2 but she not only inflicts her own eggs upon her innocent victims1 but often actually tosses their eggs out of the nests in order to make room for her own4 ,nor is that all2 she will sometimes puncture the eggs of the owners to prevent their hatching1 and thus increase the chances of her own offspring4 ,whether this is done with her beak or her claws is still an open question1 ,major ,bendire inclining to the belief that it is done with the claws4 ,her finesse is still further to be seen in the fact that she usually selects some bird for a victim that is smaller than herself1 so that when her young hopefuls begin to grow they will be able to crowd or starve out the true heirs of the family4 ,in this way it is thought that many a brood comes to an untimely end1 the foster parents having no means of replacing their own little ones when they have been ejected from the nest4 ,however1 ,i am disposed to think that the cowbird's impositions are not usually so destructive as some observers are inclined to believe4 ,i once found a bush sparrow's nest containing one cowbird and four little sparrows1 all of which were in a thriving condition4 ,the sparrows were so well fed and active that as soon as ,i touched the nest they sprang1 with loud chirping1 over the rim of their cottage and scuttled away through the grass4 ,they were certainly strong and healthy1 in spite of the presence of their big foster brother4 ,before they flitted away ,i had time to notice how the little family were disposed4 ,the cowbird was squatted in the center of the nest1 while his little brothers and sisters were ranged around him1 partly covering him and no doubt keeping him snug and warm4 ,they were further advanced than he1 for while they scrambled from the nest1 he could do nothing but snuggle close to the bottom of the cup1 where he was at my mercy4 ,a wood thrush's nest that ,i found contained two young thrushes and two buntings4 ,all of them were about half fledged4 ,being of nearly the same size1 the queerly assorted bantlings lived in apparent peace in their narrow quarters4 ,i watched them at frequent intervals1 but saw no attempts on the part of the foundlings to crowd out their fellow-nestlings4 ,the cowbirds were the first to leave the roof-tree4 ,thus it appears that the intrusion of the cowbird's eggs does not always mean disaster to the real offspring of the brooding family1 but of course it always prevents the laying of the full complement of eggs by the builders themselves4 ,even after the youngsters have left the nest the mother cowbird does not assume the care of them1 but still leaves them in charge of the foster parents4 ,it is laughable1 almost pathetic1 to see a tiny ovenbird or redstart feeding a strapping young cowbird which is several times as large as herself4 ,she looks like a pygmy feeding a giant4 ,in order to thrust a tidbit into his mouth she must often stand on her tiptoes4 ,why the diminutive caterer does not see through the fraud ,i can not say4 ,she really seems to be attached to the hulking youngster4 ,by and by1 however1 when he grows large enough to shift for himself1 he deserts his little parents and nurses and seeks companionship among his own blood kindred1 who will doubtless bring him up in the way all cowbirds should walk4 ,it is surprising how many species are imposed on successfully by the cowbird4 ,the number1 so far as has been observed1 is ninety1 with probably more to be added4 ,among the birds most frequently victimized are the phoebes1 the song sparrows1 the indigo birds1 the bush sparrows1 and the yellow-breasted chats4 ,even the nests of the red-headed woodpecker and the rock wrens are not exempt4 ,some species1 notably the summer warblers1 detect the imposture and set about defeating the purposes of the interloper4 ,this they do by building another story to their little cottage1 leaving the obtruded eggs in the cellar1 where they do not receive enough warmth to develop the embryo4 ,while it is surprising that acute birds should allow themselves to be imposed on in this way1 perhaps1 after all1 they look upon the cowbird as a kind of blessing in disguise2 at least1 he may not be an unmixed evil4 ,they may act on the principle of reciprocity--that one good turn deserves another4 ,what ,i mean is this3 ,in my rambles ,i have often found the cowbirds the first to give warning of the approach of a supposed danger4 ,having no domestic duties of their own1 they can well secrete themselves in a tall tree overlooking the entire premises1 and thus play the useful rle of sentinel4 ,this1 ,i am disposed to believe1 is one of the compensating uses of this parasite1 and may furnish the reason for his being tolerated in birdland4 ,and he is tolerated4 ,has any one ever seen other birds driving the cowbird away from their breeding precincts1 or charging him with desperate courage as they do the blue jays1 the hawks1 the owls1 and other predatory species8 ,he evidently subserves some useful purpose in the avian community1 or he would not be treated with so much consideration4 ,a young cowbird that ,i purloined from the nest and reared by hand did not prove a very pleasant pet4 ,he was placed in a large cage with several other kinds of young birds4 ,at first he was quite docile1 taking his food from my hand and even allowing some of his feathered companions to feed him2 but in a few weeks he grew so wild and manifested such a fierce desire for the outdoor world that ,i was glad to carry him out to the woods and give him his freedom4 ,a young red-winged blackbird and a pair of meadow larks developed a different disposition4 ,the dwarf cowbird 7,molothrus ater obscurus7 is similar to his relative just described1 except that he is smaller and his geographical range is more restricted4 ,he is a resident of ,mexico1 southern ,texas1 southwestern ,arizona1 and southern ,california4 ,his habits resemble those of the common cowbird4 ,another bunting1 having almost the same range1 although a little more southerly1 is the red-eyed cowbird1 which is larger and darker than our common cowbird and has the same parasitical habits4 ,in ,south ,america three species have been studied by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson1 who1 in collaboration with ,mr4 ,p4 ,l4 ,sclater1 has published a most valuable work on ,argentine ornithology4 ,one of these is called the ,argentine cowbird 7,molothrus bonariensis74 ,it is a bona fide1 blue-blooded parasite1 and has been seen striking its beak into the eggs of other birds and flying away with them4 ,the males1 it is said1 show little discrimination in pecking the eggs1 for they are just as likely to puncture the cowbird eggs as those of other birds4 ,every egg in a nest is frequently perforated in this way4 ,these buntings lay a large number of eggs1 often dropping them on the ground1 laying them in abandoned nests1 or depositing them in nests in which incubation has already begun1 in which cases all of them are lost4 ,however1 in spite of this wastefulness the birds thrive1 thousands of them being seen in flocks during the season of migration4 ,and1 by the way1 a description of their habits by ,mr4 ,hudson has thrown an interesting light on the subject of migration in the southern hemisphere4 ,south of the equator the recurrence of the seasons is the exact reverse of their recurrence north of the equator1 and therefore the breeding season of the birds is in the autumn instead of the spring2 the flight from winter cold occurs in the spring instead of in the autumn1 and is toward the north instead of toward the south4 ,thus1 in ,february and ,march the ,argentine cowbirds are seen flying in vast battalions in the direction of the equatorial regions--that is1 northward--in whose salubrious clime they spend the winter4 ,as our northern autumn draws near and the southern summer approaches these winged migrants take the air line for their breeding haunts in the ,argentine ,republic and ,patagonia4 ,at the same time the migrants of the northern hemisphere are pressing southward before the blustering mien of old ,boreas4 ,it all seems wonderful and solemn1 this world-wide processional of the seasons and the birds4 ,naturally1 one would expect to find some other eccentricities in this aberrant family besides that of parasitism1 and in this expectation one is not disappointed4 ,there are two other species of cowbirds in the ,argentine country--the screaming cowbird 7,molothrus rufoaxillaris7 and the bay-winged cowbird 7,molothrus badius74 ,the latter is only partly a trencher on the rights of other birds--that is1 it is only half a parasite4 ,indeed1 it sometimes builds its own nest1 which is quite a respectable affair2 but1 as if to prove that it still has some remnants of cowbird depravity in its nature1 it frequently drives other birds from their rightful possessions1 appropriates the quarters thus acquired1 lays its eggs into them1 and proceeds to the performance of its domestic duties like its respectable neighbors4 ,its virtue is that it never imposes the work of incubation and brood rearing on any of its feathered associates1 even though it does sometimes eject them from their premises4 ,but what is to be said of the screaming cowbird8 ,instead of inflicting its eggs on its more distant avian relatives it watches its chance and slyly drops them into the domicile of its bay-winged cousins1 and actually makes them hatch and rear its offspring6 ,this seems to be carrying imposture to the extreme of refinement1 or possibly developing it into a fine art1 and reminds one of those human good-for-naughts who sponge off their relatives rather than go among strangers4 ,one can scarcely refrain from wondering whether grave questions of pauperism and shiftlessness ever enter into the discussion of the social problem in the bird community4 ,,the ,,columbus ,,meeting ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,association4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,d4 ,s4 ,,martin4 ,the ,columbus meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science was looked forward to with considerable interest as the first in the new half century of that body4 ,would the impression and stimulus of the great semicentennial gathering at ,boston last year be found to continue1 or be followed by a reaction8 ,the meetings west of the ,alleghanies are always smaller than the eastern ones1 and the brilliancy of the ,boston meeting could not be looked for in any interior city4 ,the general expectation was for an off-year gathering4 ,but only in point of attendance was this impression verified4 ,the register of those present showed three hundred and fifty-three names--a good number for an interior meeting1 very few of the ,western gatherings having exceeded it4 ,in all other respects the general feeling of the members indicates that the meeting was notably successful and enjoyable1 and the remarks made by the writer a year ago as to the real value of the smaller and less conspicuous meetings he feels to have been well exemplified4 ,it was a scientific working meeting1 with enough of social intercourse and attentions to be delightful1 but not distracting4 ,in these aspects the golden mean was markedly preserved4 ,the arrangements of the local committee for the convenience of the members and the success of the meeting in general were remarkable in their completeness4 ,nothing seems to have been overlooked1 and some advances were made upon any previous year4 ,the daily programmes were well printed and on hand early every morning--a most important point1 not always heretofore attained4 ,a complete telephone service between the section rooms and the central hall was a feature of special advantage1 each section reporting to headquarters every paper as it was taken up4 ,this was then posted on a bulletin1 so that any one could know at any time what was going on in each section4 ,a great amount of delay and disappointment1 that has often been felt by members anxious to hear certain papers in different sections1 was thus entirely obviated4 ,columbus has set an example in this feature that must be followed in the arrangements for all future meetings4 ,the entire service on these telephones was rendered not by professional operators1 but by young lady students of the university1 and it was well and gracefully done4 ,it is fitting also that recognition should be given to some who have been less prominent in the local arrangements1 but have had a large share in their preparation4 ,while the public resolutions of thanks have made well-deserved mention of the local committee and its officers1 especially ,prof4 ,b4 ,f4 ,thomas1 the indefatigable secretary1 it is known in ,columbus that much of the planning and arranging was the work of ,prof4 ,edward ,orton1 ,jr41 the son of the president of the meeting1 and that very much is owing to his laborious activity in the perfection of the local adjustments4 ,the place of meeting was eminently pleasant and suitable--the wide campus and fine buildings of the ,ohio ,state ,university4 ,to members from the ,east it was a matter of great interest to see this noble institution1 one of the best examples of the great educational enterprises of the central ,states4 ,in his address of welcome at the opening of the association the president of the university1 ,dr4 ,william ,o4 ,thompson1 outlined the history of public education in the ,west as dating back to provisions in the ,ordinance of #aghg1 looking to educational advantages for the great ,northwest ,territory4 ,the ,state ,university of ,ohio is one of the youngest of its kind1 but now one of the most important1 among the ,states formed from that great region1 although ,ohio was the first to be organized into ,statehood4 ,among the numerous fine structures scattered over the broad area of the campus1 one of the most interesting is ,orton ,hall1 containing the collections in geology and archology1 which are very extensive1 as well as the laboratories1 workrooms1 and classrooms of the geological department1 and at present the ,university ,library4 ,here the meetings of ,section ,e 7,geology and ,geography7 were held4 ,in the adjacent ,botanical ,hall1 with its greenhouses1 etc41 ,section ,g held its meetings4 ,but most of the sections met in ,townshend ,hall1 where the telephone service above described connected all the rooms4 ,the ,ohio ,state ,university not only welcomed and accommodated the association1 but had a strong representation among the officers of the meeting4 ,the venerable president1 ,dr4 ,orton1 has long been professor of geology in the university1 and his collections are displayed in the hall that so appropriately bears his name4 ,section ,c 7,chemistry7 and ,section ,g 7,botany7 both had secretaries from the university faculty--,professors ,weber and ,kellerman1 respectively--while the arrangements for the meeting have been already spoken of as largely due to ,professor ,thomas and ,professor ,orton1 ,jr4 ,the ladies' reception committee did everything for the comfort and convenience of the visiting ladies4 ,their musicale and garden party in the grounds were described as extremely enjoyable1 and the provision of private carriages to convey ladies and aged members across the broad spaces of the campus to and from the entrances was a very delicate and highly esteemed convenience1 especially on warm days4 ,the association was favored in the weather1 which1 though somewhat hot out of doors1 was not severe1 and the rooms were pleasant and airy4 ,the excursions given to the members were all of them scientific2 they were not merely pleasure trips4 ,this point was a marked feature of the ,columbus meeting1 and one well worthy of future imitation as far as may be4 ,not every place1 however1 has such marked facilities in this respect4 ,on ,saturday1 ,august #bfth1 three free excursions were provided to points of geological or archological interest4 ,they were about equally shared by the members1 together with representatives of the local committee4 ,one party left on ,friday evening1 passing the night at ,sandusky1 and going by boat thence to the celebrated islands of ,lake ,erie1 there to see the wonderful glacial furrows in the corniferous limestone on ,kelley's ,island and the recently opened strontia cave on ,put-in-,bay ,island4 ,these islands are also favorite pleasure resorts for the whole neighborhood1 and the trip was one of great interest and enjoyment4 ,another party1 on ,saturday morning1 went to points of special importance in the coal region of the ,hocking ,valley1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,r4 ,m4 ,haseltine1 chief mine inspector of ,ohio4 ,at ,corning the party went down into ,mine ,no4 #h1 owned by the ,sunday ,creek ,coal ,company1 which has recently been equipped with electric power generated by utilizing the waste gas from neighboring gas-wells4 ,this is said to be the first mine in ,ohio to improve this natural source of power4 ,at a depth of sixty-five feet the visiting party were taken by mine cars to a point where a remarkably fine exposure has been made of a carboniferous forest1 with upright trunks of ,sigillaria and associated forms of coal vegetation finely displayed4 ,at a point somewhat nearer the entrance1 but at a lower level1 lunch was served by the company1 in a chamber lighted by electricity1 two hundred feet underground and a mile from daylight6 ,another mine was visited later1 and the machinery and appliances examined2 this was ,no4 #af1 at ,hollister1 owned by the ,courtright ,coal ,company4 ,the third party went to ,fort ,ancient to examine the great aboriginal earthworks at that place1 owned by the ,state1 and in charge of the ,ohio ,archological ,society4 ,here1 on a hill widely overlooking the ,little ,miami ,valley1 are some of the most extensive prehistoric works in the country4 ,the ,state has purchased two hundred and eighty-seven acres1 and of these about one hundred acres are included within the walls4 ,these ramparts1 overgrown with large trees1 follow closely the contour of the hills1 and show that1 whatever their age1 there has been no change and little erosion since they were built4 ,their form is very irregular1 consisting of two main areas--a northern one1 called the new fort1 rudely square1 and a southern one1 called the old fort1 rudely triangular--connected by a narrow portion1 called the isthmus1 with crescent-shaped transverse walls crossing it1 and high conical mounds at the entrance to the old fort4 ,from the main gateway of the new fort1 starting from two mounds1 two parallel walls can be traced1 exactly eastward1 for half a mile or more4 ,irregular as these works are1 from the contour of the hills and the course of the ravines that bound them1 yet there is also seen at times in their shaping a singular exactness of orientation that is striking and suggestive4 ,their use is problematical1 but they must have been defensive1 although an enormous force would be required to hold them1 as their entire circumference is three miles and a half4 ,at one point within the old fort1 in front of the gateway to the isthmus1 was found a burial place where a number of skeletons lay as though thrown together1 not carefully and separately buried4 ,the suggestion is strongly made that this spot marks an unsuccessful attack by enemies1 who were roughly buried where they fell4 ,at other points graves have been found1 some containing copper implements and overlaid with plates of mica4 ,great regret was felt that ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,moorehead1 who has explored so extensively here and in the vicinity and has published such interesting accounts of ,fort ,ancient and similar remains1 was unable to be at the meeting on account of severe illness4 ,the public spirit that has secured this spot for the ,state1 and the work of the ,ohio ,archological ,society in caring for it properly1 are matters for pride and congratulation1 and evidences of the highest type of civilization4 ,the society is clearing away the dense undergrowth so as to display the works and the trees upon them2 is guarding and repairing the walls at points where injury has occurred by washing2 has sunk a well in the old fort1 with fine water2 and built a pavilion for visitors4 ,here lunch was served to the party1 and addresses given by archologists present and officers of the ,archological ,society4 ,on ,thursday a large number of the geologists spent most of the day in examining moraines and glacial phenomena near ,lancaster1 and in the evening nearly the entire association was taken by special train to see the gas-wells in the same neighborhood1 at ,sugar ,grove1 which were lighted and blown off for their benefit4 ,the city of ,columbus itself is to a considerable extent supplied with natural gas4 ,turning to the proceedings of the meeting1 there may be noted in the character of the papers certain tendencies which are independent of the association and belong to the general line of thought of the present1 and doubtless yet more of the future4 ,the papers presented may be roughly grouped into two classes3 those relating to technical details1 and those involving or seeking practical results and applications4 ,of course1 there is no conflict between these two lines of thought and work--the latter1 to be really attained being dependent upon the former--but there is this tendency distinctly shown1 to consider scientific questions in their bearing on the welfare or the needs of humanity4 ,naturally1 this aspect appeared more clearly in some of the sections than in others1 but no one who looks over the titles in the daily programmes can fail to note it4 ,the whole work of ,section ,i 7,social and ,economic ,science7 is of this character1 and it is marked in ,sections ,g 7,botany71 ,d 7,mechanics and ,engineering71 and ,h 7,anthropology74 ,it would be impossible to mention all the papers bearing upon such relations2 a very few only can here be noted1 even of those that were important4 ,in ,section ,i no more suggestive title has ever been presented to such a body than that of ,miss ,cora ,a4 ,benneson1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 on ,federal ,guarantees for ,maintaining ,republican ,government in the ,states4 ,miss ,benneson is a graduate in law1 and has already achieved distinction in her profession in subjects relating to questions of government4 ,in ,section ,g1 ,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,weber1 the secretary1 read a paper on ,testing ,soils for the ,application of ,commercial ,fertilizers--the outcome of twelve years' intercourse with farmers' institutes and many more years of experimentation--aiming to avoid unwise and unprofitable use of fertilizers on soils to which they are not adapted1 and to provide ready and accurate methods of determination as to the needs and the capacities of soils4 ,sections ,d and ,i united to hear a paper before the former1 by ,principal ,morrison1 of the ,manual ,training ,high ,school1 of ,kansas ,city1 ,mo41 on ,thermal ,determinations in ,heating and ,ventilating ,buildings1 with special reference to schools4 ,these are merely given as instances4 ,agriculture1 electrical appliances1 educational methods1 and social conditions1 all received important attention4 ,another paper of great practical moment was read before ,section ,c by ,prof4 ,h4 ,w4 ,wiley1 chemist to the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,krug1 on ,new ,products from ,maize ,stalks4 ,careful analyses of the pith and stalks of corn1 and important suggestions as to their great utility in various ways1 were presented4 ,some of these were very surprising1 not only pointing out the value of these substances as fodder1 when properly prepared and used1 but in the realm of war as well as in peace1 for protecting the sides of naval vessels as a light and most effective armor1 and in the manufacture of smokeless powder of a superior quality4 ,professor ,wiley claimed that from these hitherto almost waste products of ,american farms immense results may be obtained4 ,very naturally1 the recent war and questions connected with it called forth some striking contributions4 ,prof4 ,william ,s4 ,aldrich1 of the ,university of ,illinois1 addressed ,section ,d and a large proportion of members from other sections on ,engineering ,experiences with ,spanish ,wrecks1 and the story of the ,maria ,teresa4 ,professor ,aldrich was connected with the ,united ,states repair-ship ,vulcan1 and described the remarkable character of that vessel--an entire novelty in naval warfare--with her complete outfit of engineering tools and machinery1 even to brass and iron furnaces of large capacity4 ,never before1 he said1 had such castings been made on board ship1 or a foundry operated on the ocean4 ,the effects of the ,american rapid-fire guns on ,admiral ,cervera's ships were fully described and illustrated1 and the paper closed with a vivid and detailed account of the floating of the ,maria ,teresa1 her repairing by the crew of the ,vulcan through five weeks of most difficult work1 and the unsuccessful attempt to bring her to ,norfolk1 ending in her abandonment and loss4 ,the public lecture of ,wednesday evening was by ,prof4 ,c4 ,e4 ,monroe1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 on the ,application of ,modern ,explosives1 very fully illustrated4 ,detailed accounts were given of the manufacture of gun cotton and various recent forms of high explosives and smokeless powders4 ,in regard to the use of the latter1 ,professor ,monroe emphasized the fact that ,france and ,germany had adopted smokeless powders in #ahhg1 and ,italy and ,england a year or two later1 and characterized as unpardonable the fact that our own service was unprovided with any such material when we began the war with ,spain4 ,he further discussed recent and very important experiments in the matter of throwing from ordinary guns shells charged with high explosives1 especially that known as ,joveite1 with which tremendous effects have been produced in penetrating the heaviest plating4 ,very different in character was the interesting and pleasing programme carried out by the ,section of ,botany in memory of two eminent workers in bryology who were long identified with ,columbus--,dr4 ,william ,s4 ,sullivant and his colaborer1 ,prof4 ,leo ,lesquereaux1 who was eminent also in fossil botany4 ,wednesday was set apart as ,sullivant day1 and was marked by an extensive display of portraits1 books1 and specimens1 and a series of memorial addresses1 with notes on the progress of bryology4 ,twelve ,north ,american species of mosses have been named for ,dr4 ,sullivant1 and specimens of all these1 with drawings made by him1 were loaned for this occasion from his collection1 now at the museum of ,harvard ,university4 ,sets of duplicates of these species1 from the herbarium of ,columbia ,university1 were prepared and presented as souvenirs to the botanists in attendance4 ,some members of ,dr4 ,sullivant's family were present1 and naturally felt a very deep sense of gratification at such a tribute to his name and fame4 ,the address of the retiring president1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam1 had a special interest in that it was the last official appearance of one who has been for so many years closely and prominently identified with the association as its permanent secretary1 and whose presence and personality have seemed an essential element in every meeting4 ,professor ,putnam1 in opening1 paid an especial tribute to the late ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 of ,philadelphia1 a former president and leading member of the association1 devoted to the same branch of research with himself--,north ,american ethnology--although holding different theories therein4 ,professor ,putnam dealt with the prehistoric peoples of this continent1 and argued for distinct racial types as expressed in the remains that they have left1 and for resemblances as due to intercourse and mingling of tribes1 and not to autochthonous development of arts and customs as the result of corresponding stages of evolution without contact or outside influence--the view maintained by ,dr4 ,brinton4 ,there is not space here to dwell further upon many valuable papers and discussions4 ,the ,section of ,geology had a full and interesting session1 in which glacial phenomena1 especially as displayed in ,ohio1 bore a considerable part4 ,one of the papers had a very wide and painful interest for all ,americans--that of ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,barbour1 on the ,rapid ,decline of ,geyser ,activity in the ,yellowstone ,basin4 ,careful and extended comparison of the present state of the geysers and hot springs with that to be seen a few years ago shows that these wonderful and impressive phenomena have greatly decreased in both the amount and the frequency of their manifestations1 and ,mr4 ,barbour warned all who desire to witness anything of their grandeur to visit the region without delay1 as the indications point to their speedy cessation as probable if not inevitable4 ,in reference to the future of the association1 it is gratifying to observe that the various special societies1 whose relations to the association were considered in the article by the present writer a year ago1 have not only continued to hold their summer sessions in connection with that of the association1 but have shown a very cordial spirit of co-operation1 and that some others are proposing to affiliate in a similar way4 ,this is as it should be2 but there is in it also the suggestion of a broader and more definite relationship of all these special societies to each other through the medium of the association4 ,the tendency is apparently toward affiliation and co-operation among them1 and the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science could have no more fitting or useful function than as a sort of federative or representative body for all the others4 ,the next meeting is to be held in ,new ,york1 two months earlier than usual--at the end of ,june4 ,both the place and the time were determined by the ,paris ,exposition4 ,it was thought best to arrange the meeting so that it might easily be attended by the large number of scientists from all over the country who will be going abroad next summer4 ,this plan is doubtless wise1 although it is much to be regretted that the time--the last week in ,june--will cut off from attendance almost all the members who are teachers in public schools1 who will be just then in the pressure of their closing days and examinations4 ,the peculiar circumstances of the year1 however1 justify what would otherwise be a most unfortunate time4 ,new ,york will do her best1 and give the association a welcome worthy of the great metropolis of ,america4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,dr4 ,,william ,,pepper4 ,,by ,,lewis ,r4 ,,harley4 ,philadelphia has long been regarded as the home of medical science in ,america4 ,here was founded the first medical school in the ,united ,states1 among whose alumni are numbered some of the most brilliant names in the profession4 ,the spirit of scientific research has always been most active in ,philadelphia4 ,here ,franklin made his experiments in electricity1 and ,rittenhouse observed the transit of ,venus2 while ,rush1 ,morgan1 ,williamson1 and ,physick gave the city a name abroad as a great medical center4 ,each generation has contributed something to her fame as the abode of scientific culture4 ,in recent times no name has been so closely associated with the intellectual progress of the city as that of the subject of this sketch4 ,dr4 ,william ,pepper was reared in a scientific atmosphere4 ,his father1 ,william ,pepper1 the elder1 was born in ,philadelphia1 ,january #ba1 #ahaj4 ,he graduated with first honors at ,princeton in #ahbi4 ,he afterward studied medicine for a time with ,dr4 ,thomas ,t4 ,hewson1 and in #ahcb graduated in medicine at the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,he then spent two years in study in ,paris1 and in #ahcd he entered upon his profession in ,philadelphia1 where he rose rapidly in reputation4 ,he was physician to the ,pennsylvania ,hospital for twenty-six years4 ,in #ahfj he was elected ,professor of the ,theory and ,practice of ,medicine in the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,he held this position until the time of his death1 ,october #ae1 #ahfd4 ,dr4 ,pepper had two sons1 who became distinguished in the medical profession4 ,the eldest son1 ,george1 was born ,april #a1 #ahda1 and died ,september #ad1 #ahgb4 ,he graduated from the college department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania in #ahfb1 and completed the course in the ,medical ,school in #ahfe4 ,he served with distinction in the civil war1 and died at the beginning of a successful professional career4 ,another son1 ,dr4 ,,william ,,pepper1 the subject of this sketch1 was born in ,philadelphia1 ,august #ba1 #ahdc4 ,dr4 ,pepper received his educational training solely in the city of his birth1 having graduated from the college department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania in #ahfb1 in the same class with ,provost ,charles ,c4 ,harrison1 ,thomas ,mc,kean1 ,dr4 ,persifor ,fraser1 and many other men prominent in university circles4 ,he graduated from the ,medical ,school in #ahfd1 and at once began the practice of medicine4 ,his connection with the ,university of ,pennsylvania began in #ahfh1 when he was appointed lecturer on morbid anatomy4 ,from #ahgj to #ahgf he was lecturer on clinical medicine4 ,in #ahgf ,dr4 ,pepper was given a full professorship of clinical medicine1 in which he continued until #ahhg1 when he succeeded ,dr4 ,alfred ,still in the chair of the ,theory and ,practice of ,medicine4 ,during this early period of his career ,dr4 ,pepper labored with untiring zeal in the practice of his profession1 and he also became eminently successful as a teacher4 ,in #ahgg he set forth his views on higher medical education in an address at the opening of the one hundred and twelfth course of lectures in the ,university ,medical ,school4#de ,at that time a very low standard existed in the medical schools of our country1 and ,dr4 ,pepper1 in his address1 urged the following reforms3 #a4 ,the establishment of a preparatory examination4 #b4 ,the lengthening of the course to at least three full years4 #c4 ,the careful grading of the course4 #d4 ,the introduction of ample practical instruction of each student both at the bedside and in laboratories4 #e4 ,the establishment of fixed salaries for the professors1 so that they may no longer have any pecuniary interest in the size of their classes4 ,footnote #de3 ,higher ,medical ,education4 ,the ,true ,interest of the ,public and of the ,profession4 ,by ,william ,pepper1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,company1 #ahid4 ,it was a source of gratification to ,dr4 ,pepper that he lived to see all these reforms in medical education adopted4 ,on the extension of the medical course to four years he subscribed #ej1jjj toward a permanent endowment of #bej1jjj4 ,as early as #ahga he began to urge the establishment of a university hospital1 the subject being first discussed in a conversation with ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,wood and ,dr4 ,william ,f4 ,norris4 ,an appeal was made to the public1 and ,dr4 ,pepper was made chairman of a finance committee4 ,by ,may1 #ahgb1 a splendid site and #cej1jjj for building and endowment had been secured4 ,dr4 ,pepper was selected as chairman of the building committee1 and work on the hospital was pushed so rapidly that it was ready for patients on ,july #ae1 #ahgd4 ,when ,dr4 ,charles ,j4 ,still resigned the provostship of the university in #ahha1 ,dr4 ,pepper was elected as his successor4 ,the executive abilities which he had displayed in connection with the founding of the new hospital made him the natural choice of the trustees4 ,although his private practice had increased to immense proportions1 besides being occupied with his duties as a clinical professor1 ,dr4 ,pepper accepted the provostship4 ,to the duties of this office he devoted the best years of his life4 ,the extent of his practice and the demands made upon his time by the university would have appalled an ordinary man1 but his capacity for labor appeared to be without limit1 his working day often exceeding eighteen hours4 ,his administration was characterized by the unification of the various schools of the university1 besides the founding and equipment of several new departments4 ,in one of his annual reports ,dr4 ,pepper defined the broad policy of the university in the following appropriate language3 ,the university is truly the voluntary association of all persons and of all agencies who wish to unite in work for the elevation of society by the pursuit and diffusion of truth4#df ,in other words1 ,dr4 ,pepper regarded the functions of the university as not simply an institution of instruction1 but also of research4 ,to this end every effort was made to open up new fields of investigation and to widen the scope of the university4 ,during his provostship thirteen new buildings were erected1 and the following departments1 or schools1 were organized3 #a4 ,the ,department of ,finance and ,economy4 #b4 ,the ,department of ,philosophy4 #c4 ,the ,department of ,veterinary ,medicine4 #d4 ,the ,department of ,biology4 #e4 ,the ,department of ,physical ,education4 #f4 ,the ,department of ,archology and ,paleontology4 #g4 ,the ,department of ,hygiene4 #h4 ,the ,graduate ,department for ,women4 #i4 ,the ,school of ,architecture4 #aj4 ,the ,school for ,nurses in the ,university ,hospital4 #aa4 ,the ,veterinary ,hospital4 #ab4 ,the ,wistar ,institute of ,anatomy and ,biology4 ,footnote #df3 ,report of the ,provost of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 from ,october1 #ahib1 to ,june1 #ahid4 ,philadelphia1 #ahid4 ,dr4 ,pepper took particular interest in the ,department of ,archology and ,paleontology connected with the university4 ,for a number of years he was president of its board of trustees1 while it was largely through his efforts that the ,babylonian ,exploration ,fund was formed4#dg ,it was ,dr4 ,pepper's ambition to have at the university well-equipped laboratories that would offer an opportunity for original investigation in medical science4 ,the establishment of the ,laboratory of ,hygiene1 in #ahib1 was the first step in this direction1 soon to be followed by ,dr4 ,pepper's gift of the ,laboratory of ,clinical ,medicine4 ,this laboratory was founded in memory of his father1 the late ,dr4 ,william ,pepper4 ,the gift is unique in that it is made for the purpose of promoting and stimulating original research1 and improving the methods of diagnosing and treating the diseases of human beings4 ,another field of work in the laboratory is that of giving advanced and special instruction to men who have already obtained the degree of ,doctor of ,medicine4 ,at the opening of the laboratory in #ahie ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,welch1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 said1 ,to the small number of existing clinical laboratories the ,william ,pepper ,laboratory of ,clinical ,medicine is a most notable addition1 being the first laboratory of the kind in this country1 and it is not surpassed by any in foreign countries4#dh ,footnote #dg3 ,see the article on ,science at the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 in ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,august1 #ahif4 ,footnote #dh3 ,proceedings at the ,opening of the ,william ,pepper ,laboratory of ,clinical ,medicine1 ,december #d1 #ahie4 ,philadelphia1 #ahie4 ,dr4 ,pepper realized more and more every year that the vast extent of the university interests demanded the undivided activity of its head4 ,in #ahid he resigned the office of provost1 stating at the time that1 as it became necessary for him to choose between administration work and medical science1 his devotion to the latter determined his choice4 ,his administration was an eventful one1 during which the university evolved from a group of disconnected schools to a great academic body4 ,in #ahha its property in land amounted to fifteen acres1 while in #ahid it controlled fifty-two acres in a continuous tract4 ,in #ahha the university property was valued at #a1fjj1jjj2 in #ahid it exceeded #e1jjj1jjj4 ,the teaching force in #ahha numbered #hh and the students in all departments #iha2 in #ahid the former were #bfh1 and the attendance had reached #b1ahj1 representing every ,state in the ,union1 as well as thirty-eight foreign countries4 ,dr4 ,pepper became well known as an author on medical subjects4 ,he founded the ,philadelphia ,medical ,times1 and was its editor for two years4 ,in #ahhe he edited a ,system of ,medicine by ,american ,authors1 a work that has been considered a leading authority on medical subjects4 ,he also edited a book of medical practice by ,american authors1 and1 with ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,meigs1 issued a work on ,diseases of ,children4 ,he was ,medical ,director of the ,centennial ,exposition in #ahgf1 and for his services he received from the ,king of ,sweden the decoration of ,knight ,commander of the ,order of ,st4 ,olaf4 ,dr4 ,pepper showed an unbounded interest in behalf of any movement that would benefit the community in general4 ,he was one of the first to realize the advantage that would accrue to ,philadelphia should she become a museum center4 ,the ,philadelphia ,commercial ,museum was established in ,october1 #ahic1 with ,dr4 ,pepper as president of the board of trustees4 ,the old offices of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company were leased1 and exhibits were secured from the ,latin-,american countries1 ,africa1 ,australia1 ,japan1 and ,india1 forming the largest permanent collection of raw products in existence4 ,referring to the great value of the museum1 ,dr4 ,pepper spoke as follows in his address of welcome at the first annual meeting of the advisory board3 ,it would seem clear1 however1 that no method of studying industries and commerce can be scientific and complete which does not include the museum idea as now comprehended4 ,the museum aims to teach by object lesson the story of the world1 past and present4 ,the ,biological ,museum presents the objects of human and comparative anatomy1 arranged scientifically and labeled so fully as to constitute the best text-book for the study of those subjects4 ,the ,museum of ,natural ,history does the same in its field4 ,the ,museum of ,archology shows the progress of the race from the most archaic times1 the different types of human beings1 their mode of living1 their forms of worship1 their games1 their weapons1 their implements1 the natural products which they used for subsistence1 in their industries1 and in their arts1 the objects of manufacture or of art which they produced1 and the manner in which they disposed of their dead4 ,the natural products and manufactured articles1 which constitute the material of commerce1 come necessarily into such a scheme1 and the long-looked-for opportunity of establishing a commercial museum upon a truly scientific basis presented itself when1 at the close of the ,columbian ,exposition at ,chicago1 it was possible1 through the enlightened liberality of the municipal authorities of ,philadelphia and the invaluable services of ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,wilson1 to secure vast collections of commercial material1 which was so liberally donated to the ,philadelphia museums by nearly all the foreign countries of the globe4 ,it was ,dr4 ,pepper's idea to have the ,university ,museum and the ,commercial ,museum situated near each other1 on the plan of the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,to this end the ,city ,councils1 in #ahif1 passed an ordinance giving over to the trustees of the ,commercial ,museum sixteen acres of land for the erection of suitable buildings4 ,when all the plans are carried out the city will have unrivaled facilities for the study of civilization1 past and present4 ,one of the most enduring monuments to ,dr4 ,pepper's zeal and generosity is the ,free ,library of ,philadelphia4 ,in #ahhi his uncle1 ,george ,s4 ,pepper1 bequeathed the sum of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars to the trustees of such ,free ,library which may be established in the city of ,philadelphia4 ,from the beginning ,dr4 ,pepper took a warm interest in the ,free ,library movement4 ,it was under his leadership that the library was organized1 and he was made the first president of its board of trustees4 ,speaking of his activity in this direction1 the librarian1 ,mr4 ,john ,thomson1 said3 ,no detail was too small for his personal attention4 ,no plan for its future growth was too large for his ambitious hope of both public and private support4 ,the remarkable and rapid increase in the circulation of the ,free ,library1 the multiplication of its branches1 the organization of all its departments on a broad and generous plan1 his success in enlisting a large number of able fellow-workers1 his clear1 plain statements to ,councils and the city authorities1 his activity in securing needed legislation at ,harrisburg1 were some of the results of that intelligent energy which enabled him to do so much and to do it so well4 ,the bequest of the ,pepper family has been supplemented by ample appropriations by the ,city ,councils1 and the ,free ,library is now one of the most important institutions in ,philadelphia4 ,the library at present has twelve flourishing branches1 while the combined circulation of the system for the year #ahih was #a1gch1iej volumes4 ,dr4 ,pepper was also connected with many scientific bodies4 ,he was ,vice-,president of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 and ,president of the first ,pan-,american ,medical ,congress in #ahic4 ,he was a ,fellow of the ,college of ,physicians2 ,president of the ,philadelphia ,pathological ,society from #ahgc to #ahgf2 ,director of the ,biological ,section1 ,academy of ,natural ,sciences2 ,president1 in #ahhf1 of the ,american ,climatological ,association2 ,president of the ,foulke and ,long ,institute for ,orphan ,girls2 ,president of the ,first ,sanitary ,convention of ,pennsylvania2 and in #ahhb he was a member of the ,assay ,commission of the ,united ,states ,mint4 ,he received the degree of ,,ll4 ,d4 from ,lafayette ,college in #ahha1 and from the ,university of ,pennsylvania in #ahic4 ,in #ahgc ,dr4 ,pepper married ,miss ,frances ,sargeant ,perry1 a lineal descendant of ,benjamin ,franklin1 and a granddaughter of ,commodore ,oliver ,hazard ,perry4 ,four sons were born1 of whom three survive--,dr4 ,william ,pepper1 ,jr41 ,benjamin ,franklin ,pepper1 and ,oliver ,hazard ,perry ,pepper4 ,failing in health1 ,dr4 ,pepper went to ,california early in the summer of #ahih1 where he died of heart disease on ,july #bhth of that year4 ,his body reached ,philadelphia on ,august #fth4 ,funeral services were held in ,st4 ,james's ,protestant ,episcopal ,church1 after which the body was cremated1 and the ashes interred in ,laurel ,hill ,cemetery4 ,the ,american ,anthropometric ,society received1 by the conditions of his will1 ,dr4 ,pepper's brain4 ,among the members of this society were ,dr4 ,joseph ,leidy1 ,phillips ,brooks1 and ,prof4 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope4 ,the articles of membership of the ,anthropometric ,society require that each member contribute his brain in the interests of science4 ,dr4 ,pepper's death was followed by many expressions of sorrow from learned societies in various parts of the world4 ,one of the most beautiful tributes was the memorial meeting held in the city of ,mexico on ,september #abth4 ,the leading medical and scientific societies of ,mexico assembled in the hall of ,congress to do honor to the work and character of ,dr4 ,pepper4 ,president ,diaz occupied the chair1 and about him were gathered the leading citizens1 officials1 and scientists of ,mexico4 ,representatives of the ,national ,medical ,school and the ,board of ,health eulogized ,dr4 ,pepper1 while ,hon4 ,matias ,romero spoke of him not as a physician1 but as an altruist who had consecrated himself to doing good for his fellow-men4 ,in ,philadelphia1 steps have been taken to erect a substantial memorial to ,dr4 ,pepper4 ,at a memorial meeting1 held on ,march #fth last1 a proposition was made to place a statue of the deceased scientist on the ,city ,hall plaza1 after the style of the ,girard ,monument4 ,a committee was appointed with power to raise funds for the proposed statue1 the cost not to exceed ten thousand dollars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the letters of ,william ,pengelly1 geologist1 of ,torquay1 ,england1 printed in the memoir published by his daughter1 gives this sketch of ,babbage1 the mathematician and inventor of the calculating machine3 ,i then called on ,babbage1 and could not get away until after one4 ,he is a splendid talker4 ,he seemed much pleased to see me1 and complimented me very much on my lecture 7at the ,royal ,institution71 in which he was evidently much interested4 ,he is the most marvelous worker ,i ever met with4 ,i never saw anything like the evidence of multifarious and vast labor which his 'workshop' presents2 he sticks at nothing4 ,one drawer full of riddles1 another of epigrams1 one of squared words1 etc4444 ,it is appalling6 ,and then the downright fun of the fellow2 it is almost intoxicating to be with him6 ,correspondence4 ,,do ,,animals ,,reason8 ,,dr4 ,,edward ,,thorndike',s interesting account1 in our ,august number1 of his investigations touching the reasoning power of animals has brought us a large number of letters questioning some of the main conclusions set forth in the article1 and criticising the method of the inquiry4 ,not having room for all these communications1 we print one of them1 and add extracts from two others4 ,these represent the principal objections urged by the various writers against the conclusions drawn by the author of the article from his experiments4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,the first reading of ,dr4 ,thorndike's article ,do ,animals ,reason8 in the ,august ,popular ,science ,monthly1 gave the impression1 which has been deepened by subsequent perusal1 that his experiments were not only inadequate to solve the question1 but unfairly chosen4 ,a dog or a cat1 utterly hungry1 is placed in a box1 from which it can escape by performing some simple 787 action1 such as pulling a wire loop1 stepping on a platform or lever1 clawing down a string1 or turning a wooden button4 ,in the first place1 what tends to destroy the reasoning power more than utter hunger8 ,this intense physical craving begets frenzy rather than reason4 ,the more intense this primeval desire1 the greater the demand upon primitive instinct for its satisfaction4 ,in the open the cat will jump at a bird1 the dog at a bone4 ,if the bird be up a tree1 the cat will climb2 if the bone be buried1 the dog will burrow4 ,climbing and burrowing are deep-rooted developments of the feline and the canine nature4 ,put a dog or a cat1 utterly hungry1 in a box and hang a piece of meat outside4 ,instinct prompts a jump through the bars of the box at the meat1 and the greater the number of unsuccessful attempts the less the likelihood of the animal with a gnawing stomach sitting down to scrutinize the mechanical construction of the box to the point of perceiving that by stepping on a lever it will open a door4 ,how many millions of years did it take two-legged man to arrive at the perception of the use of the lever8 ,did the shaggy biped arrive at that perception by sitting down when utterly hungry and looking at a lever2 or did he1 through countless generations1 by some such chance as lifting a stone with a stick1 come to the knowledge of weight and fulcrum8 ,put an anthropoid ape1 some several degrees nearer man in intelligence than a cat1 in a modern office elevator that moves by the push of an electric button1 suspend the elevator between two stories1 and what do you suppose that anthropoid ape will do8 ,put a schoolgirl fresh from belles-lettres and matines in the cab of a locomotive and tell her to run it to the next station4 ,she can not but know that steam will make the wheels go round1 but what will she do in the maze of throttles1 handles1 disks1 and rods that confronts her8 ,what will she do if utterly hungry8 ,take a laborer from his pick and shovel on the railway embankment and put him at the desk of the general manager4 ,he can read and write4 ,let the messenger boys and clerks shower him with the letters and telegrams that bombard that desk every day1 and let him try to settle the questions to which they give rise4 ,now1 why can not the schoolgirl run the locomotive1 the laborer the railroad8 ,because the relations of things necessary to the tasks have never been imprinted upon their registering cells2 because1 in the latter case at least1 of the lack of power of co-ordination--that is1 the lack of the power of abstract reasoning that the task involves4 ,why can not anybody do anything as well as anybody else8 ,because certain relations have been more deeply impressed upon certain brains than upon others2 because of the greater power of certain brains to co-ordinate certain relations1 their greater ability to give concrete manifestation of the result of such co-ordination through the efferent nerves4 ,otherwise any one of us could design a bridge1 compose a symphony1 or organize a trust4 ,the oftener relations are impressed upon the registering cells1 the more readily are those relations co-ordinated1 provided the brain structure be of the requisite caliber4 ,reiterated impression through the ages of the relations between their needs and surrounding things1 together with the development of structural capacity1 has led the beaver to build his dam1 the bee the honeycomb1 the ant its village1 the bird its nest4 ,in each case the registered impressions have led to action made possible by long-continued contact between structure and environment2 the actions are the result of development that has proceeded mite by mite through unknown time4 ,the brain of neither bird nor beast nor man will immediately co-ordinate radically new impressions received in a radically new environment into coherent action that leads to definite result4 ,here is an example within the writer's immediate knowledge3 ,at the age of seventeen a boy entered the service of one of the large railway systems as a clerk in the passenger department4 ,through eleven years of enthusiastic and concentrated endeavor to master the details of the service he rose to the head of the clerical force--that is1 the reiterated impression upon his brain cells of the functions of the passenger service led to that co-ordination which resulted in efficient action4 ,then he became employed in the office of a large coal-mining company4 ,for several days it was with the utmost difficulty that he could bring his attention to bear upon the new tasks4 ,while seated at the desk in the coal office the old railway problems would chase through his mind2 when he began to write the initials of the ,pittsburg ,consolidated ,coal ,company1 he would find that he had written the initials of the ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago and ,st4 ,louis ,railway ,company2 instead of the initials of the ,pittsburg1 ,fairport and ,northwestern ,dock ,company1 the initials of the ,pittsburg1 ,fort ,wayne and ,chicago ,railway ,company4 ,the latter initials in each case would appear upon the paper before he knew it1 actually without his knowing that he had written them4 ,the entirely unfamiliar routine entailed by the custody of bank accounts1 coal leases1 deeds and contracts1 reports of coal shipments1 and the handling of vouchers1 became adjusted in his brain bit by bit through many weeks1 and it was months before he could co-ordinate the new impressions into broad and well-defined reasoning4 ,if he had been utterly hungry through all the period of the new service1 it might have taken years4 ,now1 what can be expected of a dog or a cat1 whose mental processes have been adjusted by inheritance and experience to life in the fields and jungles1 when placed in a box1 utterly hungry1 to study mechanical contrivances8 ,it is manifest that if the brain of a dog or a cat would become adjusted to the radically unfamiliar steps necessary to release it from such a radically unfamiliar environment1 that adjustment could only come by extremely slow degrees4 ,voluntary perception is almost beyond the limits of expectation1 and the leading of the animal through the necessary steps would have to be repeated time after time before the impressions upon its brain would reach any degree of permanence1 especially as its brain would be lacking in attention1 and the repeated handling be an annoyance to it4 ,but that by such tutelage the animals1 or a proportion of them1 arrived at a knowledge of the means necessary to escape from the box is shown by ,dr4 ,thorndike himself4 ,if one repeats the process1 keeps putting the cat back into the box after each success1 the amount of useless action gradually decreases1 the right movement is made sooner and sooner1 until finally it is done as soon as the cat is put in4 ,but he says3 ,this sort of a history is not the history of a reasoning animal4 ,it is the history of an animal who meets a certain situation with a lot of instinctive acts4444 ,little by little the one act becomes more and more likely to be done in that situation1 while the others slowly vanish4 ,this history represents the wearing smooth of a path in the brain1 not the decisions of a rational consciousness4 ,wherein1 however1 does this differ from the manner in which hundreds of clerks in offices finally learn routine work and mechanically go through the motions necessary to its performance8 ,do not the actions of thousands of laborers in field and factory seem to proceed from a wearing smooth of a path in the brain1 rather than from rational consciousness8 ,yet they can not be said to be devoid of reason4 ,is not a great proportion of the daily actions of any one of us gone through from force of habit1 almost by instinct8 ,the word reason does not apply alone to the mental processes of a ,helmholtz1 but to the co-ordination1 however slight1 of relations that result in definite action even of a humble organism4 ,herbert ,spencer has clearly shown that instinct and reason differ in degree and not in kind4 ,dr4 ,thorndike lays stress upon the fact that a cat which1 when first put in1 took sixty seconds to get out1 in the second trial eighty1 in the third fifty1 in the fourth sixty1 in the fifth fifty1 in the sixth forty1 etc41 and remarks3 ,suppose the cat had1 after the third accidental success1 been able to reason8 ,she would then have1 the next time and all succeeding times1 performed the act as soon as put in4 ,not long ago the writer and a man whose high intelligence can not be questioned1 in moments of relaxation were trying to do one of the familiar ring puzzles--endeavoring to separate a ring from two others of peculiar shape and then to join the three4 ,after repeated trials1 one would loosen it1 but could not replace it2 the other finally succeeded in replacing it1 but could not loosen it4 ,then the one could replace it1 but not loosen it2 the other loosen1 but not replace it1 and each was closely watching the other all the time4 ,it was half an hour or more before either could both loosen and replace the ring1 occasional successful attempts not being repeated until after several succeeding failures4 ,contrast the relation of the brain of the dazed and indifferent and peculiarly bedeviled cat to the puzzle presented to it by the inside of the box with the earnest effort of the two men to solve the ring puzzle4 ,who has not found a task more difficult the fifth or sixth time than the second or third1 and has only performed it with ease after repeated attempts of varying degrees of success and failure8 ,in conclusion1 the writer begs leave to relate an incident1 which has not before appeared in print1 that profoundly impressed him with the belief that at least in one instance one particular animal displayed reason4 ,one ,sunday morning1 a dozen years or more ago1 he was standing on the bank of the ,ohio ,river at the ,sewickley ,ferry4 ,a family group1 accompanied by a large ,newfoundland dog1 hailed the ferryman and got in his boat1 leaving the dog1 which persuasively barked and wagged his tail1 on the bank4 ,as the boat pulled out into the stream the dog whined1 and then made ready to leap in after it4 ,then he stopped at the water's edge1 and1 with head down1 gazed intently at the river for several seconds--it seemed a minute or more4 ,then he ran up the bank more than a hundred feet1 stopped1 looked at the receding boat1 plunged into the stream1 and swam vigorously4 ,the current1 bearing him down1 made his course diagonal to the bank4 ,a boy standing by my side said3 ,isn't that a smart dog8 ,if he'd been a crazy dog he'd have jumped in where he was1 but he ran up the bank so the current wouldn't wash him down away from the boat4 ,but the dog1 swimming with all his vigor1 was borne past the boat when within twenty feet or so of it2 he endeavored to straighten his course without success1 and then1 in a long semicircle1 swam around to the near bank1 landing two or three hundred feet below the place whence the ferryboat had started4 ,what this dog would have done if placed1 utterly hungry1 in a box from which he could only liberate himself by stepping on a platform or turning a wooden button1 ,i do not know4 ,,logan ,g4 ,,mcpherson4 ,,pittsburgh1 ,august #c1 #ahii4 ,,mr4 ,,frederic ,d4 ,,bond1 of #dac ,south ,forty-fourth ,street1 ,philadelphia1 writes3 ,of the accuracy of ,dr4 ,thorndike's experiments ,i have no doubt1 but certain facts connected with them seem to deprive the observations of much of their relevance4 ,dr4 ,thorndike states that he arranged his experiments to give reasoning every chance to display itself1 if it existed1 and to observe those in which the acts required and the thinking involved were not far removed from the acts and feelings of ordinary animal life4 ,of these experiments one of the chief was to determine whether and in what way a cat would escape from a box opening by turning a button4 ,now1 ,i submit that in this and the succeeding experiments the conditions ,dr4 ,thorndike fancied to exist by no means did so4 ,simple as the release of a door by a button seems to us1 the apparent simplicity arises merely from our empirical knowledge of what does happen in such a situation4 ,actually to think out the rationale of the matter1 as an animal having no experience either personally or from heredity would have to do1 involves very complex mental processes4 ,the environment of a human being is vastly different from an animal's1 though of this fact we constantly lose sight in reasoning2 of mechanical appliances and principles1 for example1 an animal knows nothing1 and yet we are too apt to suppose it regarding the world with a store of ancestral and individual experiences utterly foreign to it2 and then1 on its failing to do what1 in the light of such experience1 seems to us easy1 we proceed to call into question its possession of reason4444 ,that the cats did finally learn to escape shows1 according to ,dr4 ,thorndike1 the wearing smooth of a path in the brain1 not the decisions of a rational consciousness4 ,may ,i ask ,dr4 ,thorndike what possible reason could a cat have to suppose that what happened once must needs happen again8 ,does ,dr4 ,thorndike fancy his own knowledge of a million like matters was acquired by reason1 and not empirically elaborated by processes of exactly the same sort as the cats went through8 ,let this experiment be tried on a healthy infant of two years1 and ,i am of the opinion that the results would be the same as with the cat2 yet the infant undoubtedly carries on thinking processes similar1 at least in kind1 to our own1 which ,dr4 ,thorndike implicitly denies to his cats4 ,the chief cause of the inability of students to reach concordant results in this matter of animal intelligence appears to lie in a certain uncritical assumption often made4 ,that all consciousnesses have a certain field of presentations1 that to this field they attain1 that because of it they feel and will1 are fundamental facts2 but the belief that attention or feeling or will differs per se in different consciousnesses1 other than as the field to which they are at the moment related1 differs--this is an utterly unwarranted assumption4 ,according to the action of its environment1 each conscious being must know the world just so far as is needed to conform its existence thereto1 or else it must perish2 but whether such knowledge1 which is acquired by experience only1 be quite small1 as with animals1 or somewhat larger1 as with man1 there is no reason to suppose that the attention1 feeling1 or will of the animal differs in itself from the same psychological state in man4 ,,mr4 ,,andrew ,,van ,,bibber1 of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 says3 ,animals1 and especially wild ones1 have no bank account or reserve1 and have to face new conditions daily1 and yet they make a living where man would starve4 ,when ,i was out in ,colorado and ,utah1 years ago1 ,i used to know of animals removing the bait nicely from dangerous traps without springing the trap4 ,i knew of a dog who went over a mile to call his owner to the aid of a boy who had broken his leg1 and who would not be refused till understood4 ,this is brutish instinct1 is it8--something that ,dr4 ,thorndike can't define4 ,will instinct teach a tired1 half-starved horse to eat oats if you set them before him8 ,dr4 ,thorndike would say ,yes1 but ,dr4 ,thorndike would be wrong unless that horse knew from personal past experience what oats were4 ,what animals learn 7like the human animal7 they learn chiefly by experience4 ,they accumulate facts in their minds and use them4 ,i served in the cavalry of the ,armies of the ,tennessee and the ,cumberland1 and ,i know that instinct will not cause a hungry horse to touch oats unless he knows from his own experience what oats are4 ,we used to capture horses in ,mississippi which had never seen oats4 ,it is all corn down there4 ,we would bring them into camp tired out and hungry1 and would pour out our oats for them4 ,not one of them would touch the oats4 ,you could leave the hungry horses hitched for twenty-four hours before oats1 and not one grain would they touch4 ,they would stand there and starve4 ,we had to throw up their heads and fill their mouths full of oats4 ,if we stopped there1 they would spit them out4 ,we had to grab their jaws and work them sideways until they had a good taste4 ,then they understood1 and ate oats right along4 ,plenty of such horses in ,mississippi to-day4444 ,if ,dr4 ,thorndike tried his intelligent ,experiment ,no4 #aa with a two-year-old cat1 why didn't he try it with a two-year-old human8 ,i guess he would have found an equal amount of ignorance of the mechanism of door fastenings1 which comes only with teaching1 and would have produced only struggles and screaming4 ,,the ,,trend ,,of ,,population ,,in ,,maine4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,in the article contributed to your magazine for the month of ,august on ,recent ,legislation against the ,drink ,evil1 ,i notice what appears to me to be a misstatement of fact4 ,the writer speaks of the results of prohibition in the ,state of ,maine1 and says1 ,in sixty-three years ,maine has seen her commerce disappear and her population dwindle4 ,i have not investigated the matter of ,maine's commerce1 but ,i find that her population has not dwindled in any possible sense of the term during the period indicated above4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a common impression that ,maine has had such an exodus of her people to other ,states of the ,union that she has suffered a loss in population4 ,what are the real facts of the case8 ,the census taken by the ,government in #ahdj gave the ,state #eja1jjj people1 and that taken in #ahij1 #ffa1jjj1 which shows1 during the interval between #ahdj and #ahij1 an increase of #afj1jjj4 ,the increase in population even during the decade #ahhj-'ij was #ac1jjj4 ,whether there has been a decrease since #ahij nobody at present knows1 and will not know until the decennial census is taken next year4 ,in view of these facts1 ,i feel justified in challenging the correctness of the gentleman's statement1 quoted above4 ,there can be no room for doubt that ,maine has sustained considerable losses in population from farm desertion1 but no statistics can be presented to show that the ,state has1 during the time stated above1 been dwindling in the number of people living within her borders4 ,j4 ,,earle ,,brown4 ,,woonsocket1 ,r4 ,i41 ,august #ag1 #ahii4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,education ,,and ,,character-,,building4 ,it is many years ago now since ,mr4 ,spencer1 in his ,study of ,sociology1 remarked upon the exaggerated hopes commonly built upon education4 ,with the courage that is characteristic of him1 he went counter to a current of opinion which was then running with perhaps its maximum force4 ,he said that the belief in the efficacy of education to remold society had taken so strong a hold of the modern world that nothing but disappointment would avail to modify it4 ,this was in the year #ahgb2 since then the disappointment has in a measure come1 and many are prepared to accept his views to-day1 who1 twenty-seven years ago1 thought they proceeded from a mind fundamentally out of sympathy with modern progress4 ,facts indeed are accumulating from year to year to prove the soundness of the philosopher's contention that cognition does not produce action1 and that a great variety of knowledge may be introduced into the mind without in the least inclining the individual to higher modes of conduct4 ,we are reminded of ,mr4 ,spencer's line of argument by an article lately published in the ,london ,spectator1 entitled ,influence on the ,young4 ,the writer sees clearly that enthusiastic educationists undertake far more than they can perform4 ,the character forms itself1 he says1 assimilating nutriment or detriment1 as it were1 from the air1 which the parents or teachers1 for all their pains1 can in no way change4 ,there seems indeed to be in the young1 he remarks1 a distinct tendency to resist influence4 ,father and son will be opposed in politics2 very pious people too often find1 to their sorrow1 their children growing up far otherwise than they could wish4 ,the man who is very settled in his habits is as like as not to have a boy who can not be persuaded to take a serious view of life4 ,the most unexceptionable home lessons seem to be of no avail against the attractive power of light companions4 ,evidently1 ,nature is at work in ways that men can not control4 ,if there is a law of recoil1 as the writer in the ,spectator hints1 we may be pretty sure it serves some good purpose4 ,it introduces1 we can see at once1 a diversity which makes for the progress1 and perhaps also for the stability1 of society4 ,two practical questions1 however1 suggest themselves3 7#a7 ,what can we reasonably hope from education8 and 7#b7 ,what can we do to make a wholesome milieu for the rising generation8 ,with regard to education1 it is evident that we can not know the best it can do until it has been reduced to a science--until1 that is to say1 as a result of the joint labors of practical educators and psychologists1 we can claim to possess a reasonable degree of certainty as to the best arrangement and sequence of studies and the best methods of stimulating the mind and imparting knowledge4 ,upon these important questions there is still considerable diversity of opinion4 ,some educators think we should be very sparing of abstractions in the instruction of younger pupils4 ,others are of a contrary opinion4 ,professor ,baldwin1 for example1 in his little work on ,the ,mind1 says that grammar is one of the very best of primary-school subjects4 ,he also recommends mathematics4 ,these are questions which1 it seems to us1 admit of being finally settled4 ,allowance must of course be made for the varying capacities of individual children1 but this need not stand in the way of the establishment of some general doctrine as to the law of development of the human mind4 ,we shall then further require a true theory of method in education1 so that we may know by what means the best results in the imparting of knowledge and the development of the capacities of the individual mind may be obtained4 ,assuming that these vantage points have been gained1 education should be for every mind an eminently healthful and invigorating process1 which is more than can be said for the forms of education that have prevailed in the past4 ,these1 while developing certain faculties1 have1 to a great extent1 stunted others--have indeed1 in too many cases1 fatally impaired the natural powers of the mind4 ,a notable paper1 which appeared in the first number of this magazine1 was one by the late ,dr4 ,carpenter on ,the ,artificial ,cultivation of ,stupidity in ,schools4 ,professor ,baldwin1 in the work already cited1 seems to be of the opinion that the process of cultivating stupidity1 or at least mental shiftlessness1 is in full blast to-day in many of our secondary schools owing to the prominence given to language studies4 ,the science of education must at least put an end to this1 and insure that the youths who are committed to the public schools shall not be subjected to any mind-destroying exercises4 ,we can hope1 however1 that it will do much more4 ,the mind1 like the body1 grows by what it feeds upon2 and it is hard to conceive that suitable kinds of knowledge could be imparted in a natural manner1 so as to awaken interest and develop the perceptive and reasoning powers1 without at least preparing the mind for the reception of right sentiments4 ,so much the science of education1 when it is fairly established1 may reasonably be expected to do4 ,it will deal with the mind upon true hygienic principles4 ,there remains the more serious question how such a moral atmosphere can be created as will incline the young to take a right view of knowledge and its uses4 ,knowledge1 it is hardly necessary to say1 is power1 just as money is power2 and it is quite as needful that the idea of social service should be associated with the one as with the other4 ,the best social service which1 perhaps1 any man can render is to give to the world the example of high disinterestedness and general nobility of character2 and knowledge should be valued not as conferring individual distinction1 but according as it expands and liberalizes the mind4 ,the poet ,coleridge has said with some truth that ,fancy is the power ,that first unsensualizes the dark mind1 ,giving it new delights2 and bids it swell ,with wild activity2 and peopling air1 ,by obscure fears of beings invisible1 ,emancipates it from the grosser thrall ,of the present impulse1 teaching self-control1 ,till ,superstition with unconscious hand ,seat ,reason on her throne4 ,the mind having been unsensualized1 the next step is to moralize and humanize it1 otherwise ,reason on her throne may act not much more wisely than other monarchs have done4 ,the classic example of the worship of reason is not reassuring as to the infallibility of the goddess4 ,the question1 then1 as to how intellectual education and the education of the moral sentiments may go hand in hand is one that comes home to every member of the community4 ,we all help to make the moral atmosphere and create the moral ideals of our time2 and there is no use in looking for high standards in our colleges and other institutions of learning if we have low standards in our homes4 ,the youth who hears nothing talked of at home but money is not likely to take much interest in instruction that does not bear directly on the question of making money4 ,the youth who hears money spoken of in the home circle simply as a means of personal enjoyment and glorification will need something more than a few lectures on political or social economy to make him take a different view of it4 ,we may employ excellent men and women as teachers1 but their success from a moral point of view will always be limited by the general tone of the community4 ,it is evident1 then1 that no very special directions can be given for solving the problem with which we are concerned4 ,still1 the posing of the problem and the indication of the conditions on which its solution depends may awaken in a few minds a new sense of their responsibility in the matter1 and it is a gain for even one to go over to the right side4 ,it would be quite as easy for the whole of society to live on a somewhat higher plane as it is for it to live on its present plane4 ,it would simply mean that the average man would treat the average man a little better than he does now3 whatever one gave he would thus get in return1 and the burdens which are always associated with mutual distrust would be proportionately lightened4 ,the philosopher whom we began by quoting has indicated ways in which the craze for legislative shortcuts is working against the moral improvement of society4 ,he holds that parental responsibility has been seriously impaired by legislative encroachments in the matter of education and otherwise4 ,book learning has become to the modern world a kind of fetich2 and minds that ought to be in contact with the facts of life are stupefied1 and so far prevented from getting their normal moral growth by being drilled in studies that bring no real profit4 ,we can not bear the idea that one of our human brethren should not be able to read and write2 but1 provided he possesses these accomplishments1 we ask no questions as to what use he makes of them4 ,we have before us a police description of a criminal who graduated at one of the most celebrated universities on the ,continent1 who studied afterward for the ,church1 who was for several years an elder1 and who possesses--so we are distinctly informed--fine literary tastes4 ,the gentleman with all these advantages is a fugitive from justice4 ,with all his knowledge and accomplishments he got no hold of the principles of right conduct1 and--there are not a few like him4 ,we need not only a science of education1 but a science of government1 the most valuable part of which will probably be that which shows us with demonstrative force what things government ought to leave alone4 ,it is quite possible we should find the moral atmosphere materially improving if only the natural reactions between the individual and his environment were not interfered with4 ,the course of ,nature1 we may feel assured1 provides not less for moral than for mental growth1 and if either process is defectively carried on we may safely attribute it to some ill-advised attempt we are making to improve on natural institutions4 ,science has done much for the world in the past1 but it has yet to do much more4 ,it will yet give us a light to our feet in matters educational and political1 and will liberate us from many of the yokes and trammels we have foolishly imposed upon ourselves4 ,mankind will then look into the face of ,nature and see in it a new beneficence and brighter promises for the future of the race4 ,,the ,,american ,,association ,,at ,,columbus4 ,a fairly good attendance1 with an unusually large proportion of men prominent in science1 and most cordial welcome and painstaking care of the members by the ,ohio ,state ,university and the citizens of ,columbus1 combined to make the forty-eighth annual meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science a most enjoyable and instructive one4 ,the two features of the meeting which seem to deserve the most attention are3 ,first1 the tendency which was shown in every section to direct the papers and discussions to practical subjects1 so that all could participate in the proceedings and each member feel justified in having a word to say in them2 and1 secondly1 the perfect cordiality with which the association was received and the assiduous attention with which it was taken care of by the local committee4 ,the smaller and apparently less important details1 but at the same time those which so largely determine one's comfort in a strange community1 were thoughtfully arranged1 and to this alone much of the success of the meeting was due4 ,the numerous excursions were not only exceedingly enjoyable1 but were arranged in every case primarily for their instructive and scientific features1 and an ,easterner1 at any rate1 could not take any of them without learning something4 ,another feature of the meeting that was especially satisfactory was the possibility it afforded for the younger workers in science to meet their elders1 who had hitherto led the way--who were present1 as we have already said1 in larger proportion than usual4 ,the importance of this feature1 as ,president ,orton pointed out in these pages a few months ago1 can not be overestimated4 ,the instruction and encouragement which a new worker in the scientific field gains from a personal acquaintance with the older men who have already achieved success and reputation in his branch of science are obvious enough4 ,with the increasing specialization which modern research is making absolutely unavoidable1 the social feature of the annual gathering of such a company of scientists is coming to be its most important function4 ,a slight extension of it might very readily lead to the adoption of a specific policy by the several sections of devoting at least a part of their time to such a general statement of what has been accomplished in their department or to some especially important work of general interest that some of the members have been engaged in as would be most instructive to the members of the other sections4 ,in the earlier meetings of the association the sectional chairmen often made such presentations in their stated addresses1 but as times and men have changed1 the idea has been departed from and this feature has become an exceptional one4 ,if it could be restored1 in a modified if not an identical form1 and made a regular part of the programme of at least one of the sections at each meeting1 the interest would be greatly enhanced1 and in this way the chemist1 the geologist1 the botanist1 and the others could be given regularly an authoritative account of what is being done in the other branches of science1 and an important step would be taken toward doing away with the unfortunate narrowing influence which special scientific work is too apt to exercise4 ,the fixing of the last week in ,june as the time for holding the next meeting of the association1 which is to be in ,new ,york1 is a departure from recent practice as to date1 but1 aside from the special reason for it in this particular case--the probability that many of the members will be at the ,paris ,exposition during the following ,august--the experiment seems a desirable one because of the almost invariably excessive heat to which ,august meetings are exposed4 ,scientific ,literature4 ,,special ,,books4 ,evidences are apparent in many quarters of a reaction against the headlong rush toward aggression and territorial aggrandizement in which the ,american people have allowed themselves to be carried away4 ,for a time the lovers of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states as the fathers of the republic left it and ,lincoln glorified it were bewildered1 stunned by the revolution suddenly precipitated upon us from ,washington1 while the people at large seemed to be wild with enthusiasm for they knew not what1 and men suffered themselves to be led--they knew not whither4 ,very slowly the true patriots recovered their voices1 and signs appear that the people are at last getting into a mood to listen to reason4 ,president ,david ,starr ,jordan's ,imperial ,democracy#di comes very opportunely1 therefore1 to call to the minds of those who can be induced to think some of the forgotten principles of ,american policy1 and to depict1 in the terse1 incisive style of which the author is master1 the true nature and bearing of those iniquitous proceedings to which the ,american people1 betrayed by treacherous leaders1 have allowed themselves to become a party4 ,president ,jordan was one of the first who dared1 in this matter1 to make a public protest against this scheme of aggression4 ,his first address on the subject--,lest we ,forget--delivered to the graduating class of ,leland ,stanford ,university1 ,may #be1 #ahih1 was separated only a few days in time from ,prof4 ,charles ,eliot ,norton's exposure of the reversal of all our most cherished traditions and habits which the precipitation of the war with ,spain had brought about4 ,the two men must share the honor of leadership in the awakening movement4 ,in this address ,president ,jordan gives a true definition of patriotism as the will to serve one's country2 to make one's country better worth saving--not the shrilling of the mob1 or trampling on the ,spanish flag1 or twisting the lion's tail4 ,even so early he foresaw the darkness of the future we were bringing upon ourselves1 and said3 ,the crisis comes when the war is over4 ,what then8 ,our question is not what we shall do with ,cuba1 ,puerto ,rico1 and the ,philippines4 ,it is what these prizes will do to us4 ,this1 with the wickedness of the whole business1 is the burden of most of the other papers in the volume4 ,in the paper on ,imperial ,expansion we are told of three world crises in our history when we were confronted with momentous questions4 ,the first was after the ,revolution4 ,the second came through the growth of slavery4 ,the third is upon us now4 ,it is not the conquest of ,spain1 not the disposition of the spoils of victory which first concerns us4 ,it is the spirit that lies behind it4 ,shall our armies go where our institutions can not8 ,shall territorial expansion take the place of democratic freedom8 ,shall our invasion of the ,orient be merely an incident1 an accident of a war of knight-errantry1 temporary and exceptional8 ,or is it to mark a new policy--the reversion from ,america to ,europe1 from democracy to imperialism8 ,president ,jordan has an answer to the question1 ,what are we to do in the shape affairs have assumed8 ,the right thing would be to recognize the independence of the ,philippines1 under ,american protection1 and to lend them our army and navy and our wisest counselors2 not our politicians1 but our jurists1 our teachers1 with foresters1 electricians1 manufacturers1 mining engineers1 and experts in the various industries4444 ,the only sensible thing to do would be to pull out some dark night and escape from the great problem of the ,orient as suddenly and as dramatically as we got into it4 ,yet ,president ,jordan recognizes that some great changes in our system are inevitable1 and belong to the course of natural progress4 ,they must not be shirked1 but should be met manfully1 soberly1 with open eyes4 ,a paper on ,colonial ,lessons of ,alaska presents as an object lesson the muss we have made with colonial government in that ,territory4 ,footnote #di3 ,imperial ,democracy4 ,a ,study of the ,relation of ,government by the ,people1 ,equality before the ,law1 and other ,tenets of ,democracy1 to the ,demands of a ,vigorous ,foreign ,policy1 and other ,demands of ,imperial ,dominion4 ,by ,david ,starr ,jordan4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bic4 ,price1 #a4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane's ,man ,past and ,present#ej is a part fulfillment of a promise held out in his ,ethnology1 the first volume of the ,cambridge ,geographical ,series1 that it might be followed by another dealing more systematically with the primary divisions of mankind4 ,in it the four varietal divisions of man over the globe are treated more in detail1 with the primary view of establishing their independent specialization in their several geographical zones1 and of elucidating the difficult questions associated with the origins and interrelations of the chief subgroups4 ,the work consequently deals to a large extent with the prehistoric period1 when the peoples had already been fully constituted in their primeval homes and had begun their subsequent developments and migratory movements4 ,the author has further sought to elucidate those general principles which are concerned with the psychic unity1 the social institutions1 and religious ideas of primitive and later peoples4 ,the two principles1 already insisted upon in the ,ethnology1 of the specific unity of all existing varieties of the human family and the dispersion of their generalized precursors over the whole world in ,pleistocene times are borne in view throughout4 ,subsequent to this dispersion1 the four primary divisions of man have each had its ,pleistocene ancestor1 from whom each has sprung independently and divergently by continuous adaptation to their several environments4 ,great light is believed to have been thrown on the character of the earliest men by the discovery of the ,pithecanthropus erectus1 and this is supplemented as to the earliest acquirements by ,dr4 ,noetling's discovery1 in #ahid1 of the works of ,pliocene man in upper ,burmah4 ,the deductions made from these discoveries strengthen the view ,mr4 ,keane has always advocated1 that man began to spread over the globe after he had acquired the erect posture1 but while in other physical and in mental respects he still did not greatly differ from his nearest of kin4 ,as to the age when this development was taking place1 agreement is expressed with ,major ,powell's remark that the natural history of early man becomes more and more a geological and not merely an anthropological problem4 ,the human varieties are shown to be1 like other species1 the outcome of their environments1 and all sudden changes of those environments are disastrous4 ,in both hemispheres the isocultural bands follow the isothermal lines in all their deflections--temperate regions being favorable1 and tropical and severe ones unfavorable1 to development4 ,of the metal ages1 the existence of a true copper age has been placed beyond reasonable doubt4 ,the passage from one metal to another was slow and progressive4 ,in art the earliest drawings were natural and vital4 ,the apparent inferiority of the drawings of the metal period to those of the cave dwellers and of the present ,bushmen is due to the later art having been reduced to conventions4 ,the development of alphabetical writing from pictographs is briefly sketched4 ,thus light is sought from all quarters in dealing with the questions of the book1 and due weight is given to all available data--physical and mental characters1 usages1 religion1 speech1 cultural features1 history1 and geographical range4 ,the general discussion of these leading principles is brief but clear and comprehensive4 ,the bulk of the volume1 following them1 is occupied with the detailed and minute studies of the four main groups of mankind--the ,negro1 ,mongol1 ,american ,indian1 and ,caucasic--and their subgroups1 the discussion of each being preceded by a conspectus showing its ,primeval ,home1 ,present ,range1 ,physical ,characters1 ,mental ,characters 7,temperament1 ,speech1 ,religion1 and ,culture71 and ,main ,divisions4 ,the text is full1 clear1 good reading1 instructive and suggestive1 and in it the author has sought to make the volume a trustworthy book of reference on the multifarious subjects dealt with4 ,footnote #ej3 ,man ,past and ,present4 ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 ,f4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 7,cambridge ,geographical ,series74 ,cambridge1 ,england3 ,at the ,university ,press4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ehd4 ,price1 #c4 ,,general ,,notices4 ,the fact that ,mr4 ,charles ,a4 ,dana stood in close personal relations with ,secretary ,stanton and was officially associated with him during a considerable period of the war for the ,union1 and was also incidentally brought near ,mr4 ,lincoln1 gives whatever he may relate concerning the events of that period somewhat the air of a revelation from the inside4 ,accordingly1 we naturally expect to find things narrated in his ,recollections of the ,civil ,war#ea that could not be told as well by any one else4 ,the account given in the book relates to events in which the author was personally concerned4 ,mr4 ,dana had been associated with ,horace ,greeley in the editorial management of the ,new ,york ,tribune for fifteen years1 when1 in ,april1 #ahfb1 ,mr4 ,greeley invited him to resign4 ,no reason was given or asked for the separation1 and no explicit statement of a reason was needed4 ,mr4 ,greeley1 having expressed in the beginning his willingness to let the secessionist wayward-sister ,states go in peace1 was in favor of peace2 ,mr4 ,dana was for vigorous war4 ,a correspondence was opened between him and ,mr4 ,stanton in reference to public matters shortly after ,mr4 ,stanton went into the ,war ,department4 ,then ,mr4 ,dana was intrusted with special commissions that carried him to the front and brought him in contact with the leaders of the army2 and finally1 in #ahfc1 was appointed ,assistant ,secretary of ,war1 an office he filled till the end of the contest4 ,his narrative deals as the story of one having knowledge with questions of policy1 with the critical phases of the hard conflict1 with the perplexities and anxieties of the men charged with responsibilities1 with stirring scenes in the councils at the ,capitol and in battle at the front1 and with personal incidents of the men whose names the nation loves and delights to honor4 ,all is related in the straightforward1 fluent style1 touching only the facts1 of a writer who has a story to tell and makes it his business to tell it4 ,the result of the reading of the book is to arouse a new appreciation of the abilities and virtues of those great men in their various walks of civil1 political1 and military life1 who took our country through its supreme trial4 ,footnote #ea3 ,recollections of the ,civil ,war4 ,with the ,leaders at ,washington and in the ,field in the ,sixties4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,dana4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bif4 ,price1 #b4 ,mrs4 ,arabella ,b4 ,buckley's ,fairy-,land of ,science has stood the test of about thirty years' publication as one of the simplest1 clearest1 and best popular introductions to physical science4 ,originating in a course of lectures delivered to children and their friends1 the thought of publishing the book was suggested by the interest taken in the lectures by all the hearers4 ,it was a happy thought1 and the carrying of it out is fully justified by the result4 ,but thirty years is a long time in so rapidly advancing a pursuit as the study of science1 and makes changes necessary in all books treating of it4 ,the publishers of this work1#eb therefore1 with the assistance of the author1 have considerably extended the original volume1 adding to it notices of the latest scientific discoveries in the departments treated1 and amplifying with fuller detail such parts as have grown in importance and interest4 ,a few changes have been made in the interest of ,american readers1 such as the substitution1 where it seemed proper1 of words familiar here for terms almost exclusively used in ,england1 and the introduction of ,american instead of ,english examples to illustrate great scientific truths4 ,the book has also been largely reillustrated4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the ,fairy-,land of ,science4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #beb4 ,some of the essays in ,miss ,badenoch's ,true ,tales of the ,insects#ec have already appeared in serials--two of them in the ,popular ,science ,monthly4 ,the essays are not intended to present a view of entomology or of any department of it1 but to describe1 in an attractive and at the same time an accurate manner1 a few special features of insect life and some of what we might call its remarkable curiosities4 ,the author is well qualified for her undertaking1 for1 while being an entomologist of recognized position1 she has those qualities of enthusiasm in her pursuit and literary training that enable her to present her subject in its most attractive aspect4 ,from the great variety of insect forms she has selected only a few for this special presentation1 including some of eccentric shape and some of genuine universal interest4 ,she begins with the strange-looking creatures of the family of the ,mantid1 or praying insects1 or1 as the ,brazilians call the ,mantis1 more fitly1 the author thinks1 the devil's riding horse1 which is characterized as the tiger1 not the saint1 of the insect world4 ,the walking-stick and walking-leaf insects1 of equally strange appearance1 but peaceful1 naturally follow these4 ,then come the locusts1 and grasshoppers1 which are more familiar1 and the butterflies and moths1 which attract the most attention and present such remarkable forms as the case-moths and the hawk and death's-head moths4 ,the insects made subjects of treatment are described with fullness of detail1 and the record of their life histories4 ,the book is published in an attractive outer style1 on thick paper1 with thirty-four illustrations by ,margaret ,j4 ,d4 ,badenoch4 ,footnote #ec3 ,true ,tales of the ,insects4 ,by ,l4 ,n4 ,badenoch4 ,london3 ,chapman ,hall4 ,pp4 #bec4 ,prof4 ,charles ,c4 ,james1 now ,deputy ,minister of ,agriculture for ,ontario1 defines the purpose of his book1 ,practical ,agriculture#ed to be to aid the reader and student in acquiring a knowledge of the science as distinguished from the art of agriculture--that is1 a knowledge of the 'why1' rather than a knowledge of the 'how4' ,the author believes1 from his experience of several years' teaching at the ,ontario ,agricultural ,college1 that the rational teaching of agriculture in public and high schools is possible and would be exceedingly profitable1 and that an intelligent knowledge of the science underlying the art would add much interest to the work and greatly increase the pleasure in it4 ,the science of agriculture is understood by him to consist of a mingling of chemistry1 geology1 botany1 entomology1 physiology1 bacteriology1 and other sciences in so far as they have any bearing upon agriculture4 ,he has aimed in this book to include only the first principles of these various sciences1 and to show their application to the art of agriculture4 ,the subject is treated as it relates1 consecutively1 to the plant1 the soil1 the crops of the field2 the garden1 orchard1 and vineyard2 live stock and dairying2 and1 under the heading of other subjects1 bees and birds1 forestry1 roads1 and the rural home4 ,the appendix contains lists of trees and of weeds1 and an article on spraying mixtures4 ,questions to be answered by the reader are attached to most of the chapters4 ,the illustrations are well chosen and good4 ,footnote #ed3 ,practical ,agriculture4 ,by ,charles ,c4 ,james4 ,american edition edited by ,john ,craig4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bjc4 ,price1 #hj cents4 ,considerable information about the ,philippine ,islands and their inhabitants is given by ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton in a pamphlet entitled ,the ,peoples of the ,philippines4 ,dr4 ,brinton's point of view is the anthropologist's1 and accordingly1 after a few paragraphs about the geography1 geology1 and history of the islands1 he takes up their ethnology and describes their various peoples as they have been studied by the masters of the science and by travelers4 ,much valuable as well as interesting information is given respecting their manners and customs1 languages1 and literature1 for the ,tagals have had a written language from the earliest known times1 and though their old literature does not amount to much they are to-day exceedingly facile versifiers4 ,the ,open ,court ,publishing ,company 7,chicago7 publishes ,the ,lectures on ,elementary ,mathematics 7,leons lmentaires sur les mathmatiques7 of ,joseph ,louis ,lagrange1 the greatest of modern analysts1 in a translation from the new edition of the author's collected works by ,thomas ,j4 ,mc,cormack4 ,these lectures1 which were delivered in #agfe at the cole ,normale1 have never before been published in separate form1 except in the first printing in the ,journal of the ,polytechnic ,school and in the ,german4 ,the originality1 elegance1 and symmetrical character of these lectures have been pointed out by ,de ,morgan1 and notably by ,dhring1 who places them in the front rank of elementary expositions as an example of their kind4 ,they possess1 we might say1 a unique character as a reading book in mathematics1 and are interwoven with helpful historical and philosophical remarks4 ,they present with great clearness the subjects of arithmetic and its operations1 algebra1 equations of the third and fourth degrees1 the evolution of numerical equations1 and the employment of curves in the solution of problems4 ,the translator has prefixed a short biographical sketch of ,lapouge1 and an excellent portrait is given4 ,a book of ,observation ,blanks for ,beginners in ,mineralogy has been prepared by ,herbert ,e4 ,austin1 as an aid to the laboratory course1 and is published by ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co4 7,boston1 #cj cents74 ,the laboratory course is intended to make the pupil familiar with the characteristics of minerals and the terms used in describing them by directing him to observe typical specimens and describe what he sees1 and to develop his faculties of observation1 conception1 reasoning1 judgment1 comparison1 and memory4 ,a description is given of apparatus that may be home-made4 ,the blanks follow1 containing spaces for the insertion of notes under the heads of ,experiment1 ,observation1 ,statement1 and ,conclusion4 ,in ,volume ,no4 ,,xxx of the ,international ,education ,series--,pedagogics of the ,kindergarten--a number of ,froebel's essays relating more especially to the plays and games were printed from the collection made by ,wichard ,lange4 ,a new volume of the series1 ,friedrich ,froebel's ,education by ,development1 includes another selection from ,lange's publication1 in which the gifts are more thoroughly discussed4 ,again and again1 in the various essays1 the editor of the series says1 ,froebel goes over his theory of the meaning of the ball1 the sphere1 the cube1 and its various subdivisions4 ,the student of ,froebel has great advantage1 therefore1 in reading this volume1 inasmuch as ,froebel has cast new light on his thought in each separate exposition that he has made4444 ,the essays on the training school for kindergartners and the method of introducing children's gardens into the kindergarten are very suggestive and useful4 ,in fact1 there is no other kindergarten literature that is quite equal in value to the contents of this volume4 ,the few essays in ,lange's volume that still remain untranslated are characterized as being mostly of an ephemeral character4 ,with the publication of the present volume1 of which1 as of the ,pedagogics1 ,miss ,josephine ,jarvis is the translator1 a complete list of the original works of ,froebel in ,english translations has been provided in the ,international ,education ,series of ,messrs4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,a useful manual for students in chemistry is the ,chemical ,experiments of ,prof4 ,john ,f4 ,woodhull and ,m4 ,b4 ,van ,arsdale 7,henry ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york74 ,it embraces directions for making seventy-five experiments with different substances and chemical properties1 including oxygen and the air1 hydrogen and water1 chlorine and the chlorine family1 acids1 bases1 salts1 sulphur1 nitrogen1 carbon1 carbon dioxide and the carbonates1 fermentation1 potash1 and problems to illustrate the law of definite proportions4 ,a title is given to each experiment1 suggesting what is to be proved by it2 the details of the process are given1 and the pupil is left to do the rest1 entering his particular observations and conclusions on the blank page opposite the text4 ,questions are appended1 of a nature further to develop the thinking powers of the pupils1 and tables or lists are added of the elements concerned in the experiments1 weights and measures1 apparatus1 and chemicals4 ,the book ,defective ,eyesight3 the ,principles of its ,relief by ,glasses1 of ,dr4 ,d4 ,b4 ,st4 ,john ,roosa1 is the result of an attempt to revise ,the ,determination of the ,necessity for ,wearing ,glasses1 published by the same author in #ahhh4 ,it was found1 on undertaking the work of revision1 that the advance in our knowledge of the proper prescription of glasses1 especially in the matter of simplicity in method1 had been so great as to require a complete rewriting4 ,in doing this the book has been very much enlarged1 and illustrations have been introduced4 ,the author hopes his manual may prove a reliable guide to the student and practitioner in ophthalmology1 and may also be of interest to persons who wish to know the principles on which the prescription of glasses is based4 ,the special subjects treated of are the measurement of visual power1 presbyopia1 myopia or short-sightedness1 hypermetropia1 corneal astigmatism1 asthenopia1 and the qualities of lenses4 7,published by the ,macmillan ,company4 ,price1 #a47 ,,publications ,,received4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,north ,carolina ,state ,agricultural ,society3 ,second ,annual ,report 7#ahif7 of the ,experimental ,farm at ,southern ,pines4 ,pp4 #ij4--,ohio3 ,press ,bulletin ,no4 #aie4 ,stomach ,worms in ,sheep4 ,pp4 #b2 ,no4 #aif4 ,comparison of ,varieties of ,wheat4 ,pp4 #b2 ,no4 #aig4 ,successful ,treatment of ,stomach ,worms in ,sheep4 ,pp4 #b2 ,no4 #aih4 ,varieties of ,wheat and ,home-mixed ,fertilizers4 ,pp4 #b4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,monthly ,list of ,publications 7,july1 #ahii74 ,pp4 #d2 ,report on ,north ,american ,fauna4 ,no4 #ad4 ,natural ,history of the ,tres ,marias ,islands1 ,mexico4 ,pp4 #if2 ,no4 #ae4 ,revision of the ,jumping ,mice of the ,genus ,zaphus4 ,by ,edward ,a4 ,preble4 ,pp4 #cd1 with one plate2 ,report of the ,puerto ,rico ,section of the ,weather and ,crop ,service of the ,weather ,bureau1 for ,may1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #h4 ,baker1 ,m4 ,n4 ,potable ,water and ,methods of ,detecting ,impurities4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,van ,nostrand ,company4 7,van ,nostrand ,science ,series47 ,pp4 #ig4 #ej cents4 ,beman1 ,w4 ,w41 and ,smith1 ,d4 ,e4 ,new ,plane and ,solid ,geometry4 ,boston3 ,ginn ,co4 ,pp4 #chb4 ,bulletins1 ,proceedings1 ,reports1 etc4 ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history3 ,vol4 ,,xxix4 ,no4 #b4 ,variation and ,sexual ,selection in ,man4 ,by ,e4 ,t4 ,brewster4 ,pp4 #af2 ,no4 #c4 ,notes on the ,reptiles and ,amphibians of ,intervale1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,by ,glover ,m4 ,allen4 ,pp4 #af2 ,no4 #d4 ,studies in ,diptera ,cyclorhapha4 ,by ,g4 ,n4 ,hough4 ,pp4 #h2 ,no4 #e4 ,contributions from the ,gray ,herbarium of ,harvard ,university4 ,new ,series3 ,no4 #ag4 ,by ,b4 ,l4 ,robinson and ,j4 ,m4 ,greenman4 ,pp4 #ab4--;,dominion of ,canada3 ,parliamentary ,standing ,committee on ,agriculture and ,colonization4 ,improvements ,in ,crop ,growing4 ,by ,prof4 ,james ,w4 ,robertson4 ,pp4 #ci4--;,international ,correspondence ,schools1 ,scranton1 ,pa43 ,general ,circular4 ,pp4 #cb4--,liberal ,university1 ,silverton1 ,oregon3 ,announcements4 ,pp4 #ah4--,society of ,american ,authors3 ,bulletin for ,july1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bb4--,university of ,michigan1 ,department of ,medicine and ,surgery3 ,annual ,announcement for #ahii-aijj4 ,pp4 #ia4--,united ,states ,artillery ,journal3 ,index to ,vol4 ,x1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,carpenter1 ,george ,h4 ,insects1 their ,structure and ,life4 ,a ,primer of ,entomology4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #djd4 #a4ge4 ,daniels1 ,winthrop ,moore4 ,the ,elements of ,public ,finance1 including the ,monetary ,system of the ,united ,states4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co4 ,pp4 #chc4 #a4ej4 ,grotius1 ,hugo4 ,proceedings at the ,laying of a wreath on the ,tomb of1 ,july #d1 #ahii1 by the ,commission of the ,united ,states to the ,international ,peace ,conference4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,howard1 ,john ,r41 editor4 ,educational ,nuggets4 ,new ,york3 ,ford1 ,howard ,hulbert4 ,pp4 #bae4 #ej cents4 ,mc,ilvaine1 ,charles1 and ,macadam1 ,r4 ,k4 ,toadstools1 ,mushrooms1 and ,fungi1 ,edible and ,poisonous4 7,specimen pages47 ,indianapolis4 ,ind43 ,the ,bowen-,merrill ,company4 7,author's ,edition47 #aj4 ,massee1 ,george4 ,a ,text-,book of ,plant ,diseases caused by ,cryptogamic ,parasites4 ,new ,york4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #deh4 #a4fj4 ,mellen1 ,george ,e4 ,new ,pointers for ,amateurs 7,photography74 ,published by the author4 ,times ,building1 ,chicago4 ,pp4 #df1 with blanks4 #ae cents4 ,miller1 ,prof4 ,kelly4 ,the ,primary ,needs of the ,negro ,race4 ,washington3 ,howard ,university4 ,pp4 #ah4 ,oregon ,short ,line ,railroad4 ,where ,gush the ,geysers4 7,guide to ,yellowstone ,national ,park47 ,pelley1 ,w4 ,h41 ,knoxville1 ,ill4 ,christian ,government4 ,pp4 #dd4 #aj cents4 ,pfungst1 ,dr4 ,arthur4 ,ein ,deutscher ,buddhist4 7,a ,german ,buddhist47 ,theodor ,schultze4 ,stuttgart4 ,pp4 #ea4 ,rector1 ,l4 ,e41 ,translator and ,editor4 ,montaigne on the ,education of ,children4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 7,international ,education ,series47 ,pp4 #aia4 ,reprints3 ,billings1 ,s4 ,a41 and ,englehardt1 ,h4 ,a4 ,observations on a ,new ,coal-,tar ,product4 ,pp4 #g4--;,goldmann1 ,j4 ,a4 ,prophylactic ,treatment of the ,uric-acid ,diathesis4 ,pp4 #h4--,kingsley1 ,carl4 ,methods of ,determining the ,frequency of ,alternating ,currents4 ,pp4 #aa4--,kunz1 ,george ,f4 ,the ,production of ,precious ,stones in #ahig4 ,pp4 #bb4--,shimer1 ,p4 ,w4 ,carbon ,combustions in a ,platinum ,crucible4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,sumner1 ,william ,g4 ,the ,conquest of the ,united ,states by ,spain4 ,boston3 ,dana1 ,estes ,co4 ,smithsonian ,institution3 ,doan1 ,martha4 ,index to the ,literature of ,thallium4 ,pp4 #bf2 ,proceedings of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,index to ,vol4 ,,xxi4 ,united ,states ,commission of ,labor3 ,thirteenth ,annual ,report4 ,hand and ,machine ,labor4 ,two volumes4 ,pp4 #afjd4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey3 ,nineteenth ,annual ,report4 ,part ,i4 ,director's ,report1 including ,triangulations and ,spirit ,levelings4 ,pp4 #dbb1 with map2 ,part ,,iv4 ,hydrography4 ,pp4 #had2 ,part ,,vi4 ,mineral ,resources of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,david ,t4 ,day4 ,two volumes4 ,pp4 #fea and #gjf4--,monographs3 ,vol4 ,,xxix4 ,geology of ,old ,hampshire ,county1 ,massachusetts4 ,by ,b4 ,k4 ,emerson4 ,pp4 #gij1 with maps2 ,vol4 ,,xxxi4 ,geology of the ,aspen ,mining ,district1 ,colorado4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,spurr4 ,pp4 #bfj1 with an ,atlas of thirty sheets2 ,vol4 ,,xxxv4 ,the ,later ,extinct ,floras of ,north ,america4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry4 ,a posthumous work1 edited by ,arthur ,hollick4 ,pp4 #bie1 with #fh plates4--,maps and ,descriptions of ,routes of ,exploration in ,alaska in #ahih4 ,pp4 #ach1 with envelope containing ten maps4 ,young ,men's ,christian ,association1 ,educational ,department3 ,annual ,report for #ahii4 ,pp4 #gj2 ,prospectus for #ahii 7,july #a1 #ahii to ,july #a1 #aijj74 ,pp4 #aab2 ,fourth ,international and other ,exhibits4 ,awards of ,merit4 ,pp4 #bd2 ,the ,present ,status of ,our ,educational ,work4 ,by ,frederic ,b4 ,pratt4 ,pp4 #e4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,officers of the ,american ,association for #aijj4--,the ,american ,association1 at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 elected as president for the next meeting1 which is to be held in ,new ,york city1 ,june #be to #cj1 #aijj1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,s4 ,woodward1 of ,columbia ,university4 ,the vice-presidents-elect are3 ,section ,a 7,mathematics and ,astronomy71 ,asaph ,hall1 ,jr41 of ,ann ,arbor1 ,mich42 ,section ,b 7,physics71 ,ernest ,merritt1 of ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y42 ,section ,c 7,chemistry71 ,james ,lewis ,howe1 of ,lexington1 ,va42 ,section ,d 7,mechanical ,science and ,engineering71 ,j4 ,a4 ,brashear1 of ,pittsburg1 ,pa42 ,section ,e 7,geology and ,geography71 ,j4 ,f4 ,kemp1 of ,new ,york city2 ,section ,f 7,zology71 ,c4 ,b4 ,davenport1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ,section ,g 7,botany71 ,william ,trelease1 of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,section ,h 7,anthropology71 ,a4 ,w4 ,butler1 of ,indianapolis1 ,ind42 ,section ,i 7,economic ,science and ,statistics71 ,c4 ,m4 ,woodward1 of ,st4 ,louis4 ,the permanent secretary is ,l4 ,o4 ,howard1 ,united ,states ,entomologist1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,general ,secretary1 ,charles ,baskerville1 of ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4 ,c42 ,secretary of the ,council1 ,william ,h4 ,hallock1 of ,new ,york city4 ,the sectional secretaries are3 ,section ,a1 ,w4 ,m4 ,strong1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 ,section ,b1 ,r4 ,a4 ,fessenden1 of ,allegheny1 ,pa42 ,section ,c1 ,a4 ,a4 ,noyes1 of ,boston1 ,mass42 ,section ,d1 ,w4 ,t4 ,magruder1 of ,columbus1 ,ohio2 ,section ,e1 ,j4 ,a4 ,holmes1 of ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4 ,c42 ,section ,f1 ,c4 ,h4 ,eigenmann1 of ,bloomington1 ,ind42 ,section ,g1 ,d4 ,t4 ,mc,dougal1 of ,new ,york ,botanical ,garden2 ,section ,h1 ,frank ,russell1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ,section ,i1 ,h4 ,t4 ,newcombe1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,treasurer1 ,r4 ,s4 ,woodward1 of ,new ,york city4 ,graphite4--,an interesting account of the history and manufacture of graphite is given by ,e4 ,g4 ,acheson in the ,june issue of the ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute4 ,in the year #aggi ,karl ,wilhelm ,scheele1 a young apothecary in the town of ,kping1 ,sweden1 discovered that graphite was an individual compound4 ,it had up to this time been confounded with molybdenum sulphide4 ,in #ahjj ,mackenzie definitely added graphite to the carbon group by showing that1 on burning1 it yielded the same amount of carbon dioxide as an equal amount of charcoal and diamond4 ,graphite in a more or less pure state is quite freely distributed over the earth1 but only in a few places is it found under conditions of purity1 quantity1 ease of mining1 refining1 and transportation to market that permit of a profitable business being made of it4 ,statistics for the last six years 7#ahij-'ie7 show an average yearly production of #ef1iid short tons4 ,the countries contributing to the supply were ,austria1 ,ceylon1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,japan1 ,india1 ,russia1 ,great ,britain1 and ,spain4 ,great differences exist in the structure and purity of the graphites furnished from the various mines4 ,there are two general forms--the crystalline and the amorphous4 ,the product of the ,ceylon mines is crystalline of great purity1 analyzing in some cases over ninety-nine per cent carbon1 while that of the ,barrowdale mines is amorphous and also very pure4 ,the chief impurity in graphite is iron4 ,it is probable that the first use made of graphite was as a writing substance4 ,the first account we have of its employment for this purpose is contained in the writings of ,conrad ,gessner on ,fossils1 published in #aefe4 ,its present uses include the manufacture of pencils1 crucibles1 stove-polish1 foundry-facing1 paint1 motor and dynamo brushes1 anti-friction compounds1 electrodes for electro-metallurgical work1 conducting surfaces in electrotyping1 and covering the surfaces of powder grains4 ,for most of these purposes it is used in the natural impure state4 ,the mining and manufacture of graphite into articles of commerce give employment to thousands of people4 ,the mines of ,ceylon alone1 when working to their full capacity1 employ about twenty-four thousand men1 women1 and children4 ,the rapid increase in the use of graphite has led to considerable discussion in recent years regarding the possibility of its commercial manufacture4 ,it has been made in a number of different ways in the laboratory1 all1 however1 depending on the same fundamental principle--viz41 the liberation of the carbon from some one of its chemical compounds1 under conditions which prevent its reassociation with the same or other elements4 ,mr4 ,acheson1 who has been working for several years in an endeavor to devise a commercially successful process of manufacture1 found1 somewhere back in #ahic1 that graphite was formed in the carborundum 7electric7 furnaces of the ,carborundum ,company of ,niagara ,falls4 ,since then he has been following up this clew1 and now believes that the only commercial way to make graphite is by breaking up a carbide by the action of heat4 ,a building for its manufacture in this way1 by the use of the electric furnace1 is now in course of erection at ,niagara ,falls4 ,commercial ,education in ,england4#ee--;,it is only of comparatively late years that the ,government has had anything to do with the education of the people4 ,for some centuries back all ,english education was practically controlled by our two ancient universities--,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,they decided what subjects were to be taught1 and how they were to be taught4 ,the control they exercised over our ,english schools was an indirect one1 but it was none the less effectual4 ,the schools themselves were1 like the universities1 independent of ,government1 or1 indeed1 of any control4 ,the principal of these are known as public schools1 though the term public has of late years also been applied to the public elementary schools4 ,these are nearly all developments of ancient foundations4 ,winchester1 founded in the fourteenth century1 and ,westminster1 in the sixteenth1 grew up under the shadows of great religious houses2 ,eton was established in the fifteenth century by the monarch1 close to his own palace at ,windsor2 ,harrow1 which dates from the sixteenth century1 is the most important example of the most numerous class of all privately founded local schools--grammar schools1 as they were generally entitled--which have developed beyond their original founders' intention1 and have eventually come to attract boys from all parts of the kingdom4 ,the best boys from all of them went to the universities1 and the course of study which was most successful at the university was naturally the course of study which was preferred at the school4 ,the liter humaniores1 which were the sum total of university education1 included only ,greek and ,latin language and literature1 mathematics1 and logic4 ,science--,i have now in my mind the education of but a single generation back--was ignored4 ,the teaching of modern languages was perfunctory in the extreme2 the same may be said of history and geography1 while even ,english language and literature were almost entirely neglected4 ,now an education modeled on these lines was not ill suited for professional men--men who went from the university into law1 the ,church1 or medicine4 ,but it was by no means suited1 especially when cut short in its early stages1 for boys whose future destination was the counting-house or the shop4 ,we are not met to consider the training of scholars1 but the sort of education best adapted to the requirements of the ordinary man of business1 and given under the limitations inevitable in the conditions of the case--that is to say1 in a very limited period and during the early years of life--intended also not only to train the mind but to provide a means of earning a living4 ,commercial education must in fact be a compromise between real education and business training4 ,the more it inclines to the former the better4 ,with the growth of modern industry and commerce the necessity for a training better suited for the requirements of modern life became more and more evident1 and the place was supplied1 or partially supplied1 by private-adventure schools1 which undertook to provide the essentials of a commercial education4 ,of late years also some important middle-class schools have been founded by institutions like the ,boys' ,public ,day ,schools ,company1 and the ,girls' ,public ,day ,schools ,company1 the teaching in which is of a modern if not of a commercial character4 ,the growth also of science had its natural and obvious effects on educational methods4 ,scientific teaching was introduced at the universities--it had been practically ignored at ,oxford1 and recognized at ,cambridge only as a department of mathematics4 ,the more important of our public schools introduced what was known as a modern side1 that is to say1 an alternative course which a boy might take1 and in which science1 modern languages1 and mathematics took the place1 to a greater or less extent1 of the classical languages4 ,other schools modified their whole curriculum in a like direction2 others again almost abandoned the ancient knowledge in favor of the modern4 ,such1 in briefest and baldest summary1 is the condition at which our system of secondary education has now arrived4 ,in the meantime1 elementary education in ,england had been organized and systematized4 ,at the beginning of the century elementary education was imparted to the children of the peasants and agricultural laborers in village schools1 most of which were sadly inefficient4 ,in the towns there were various charitable institutions for educating the children of those who were unable to provide education for themselves1 and there were also what were known as ragged and parochial schools1 which were more or less of the same character as the elementary schools of to-day4 ,early in the century several important societies were established--they were mostly of a religious character--for the improvement of elementary education4 ,by their assistance schools were founded throughout the country4 ,these were maintained by voluntary effort1 and so gained their name of voluntary schools1 though they received aid from the ,government1 an annual grant being allotted for the purpose4 ,in #ahci a committee of the ,privy ,council was created to regulate the administration of ,government grants for education1 and this committee still remains the governing body of our education department4 ,the ,elementary ,education ,act of #ahgj1 with later acts of #ahgf and #ahhj1 laid down the principle that sufficient elementary education should be provided for all children of school age1 and established a system of school boards1 which boards were to be and were formed in all districts where such sufficient provision for education did not exist4 ,by a later act of #ahia education was made gratuitous as well as compulsory4 ,we have1 therefore1 now two great classes of elementary schools--school-board schools1 in which education is free1 and voluntary schools1 in which a fee may be charged4 ,both alike receive ,government aid under certain conditions4 ,as a rule the voluntary schools are connected with the ,church of ,england or with one or other of the nonconformist bodies4 ,the boards which control the board schools are elected bodies1 and the teaching is undenominational4 ,footnote #ee3 ,from a paper read by ,sir ,h4 ,t4 ,wood1 at the ,international ,congress1 on ,technical ,education1 at ,venice1 ,may1 #ahii4 ,genius and ,habit4--,w4 ,l4 ,bryan and ,n4 ,harter are the authors of an interesting monograph in the ,psychological ,review for ,july1 from which the following paragraphs are taken3 ,there is scarcely any difference between one man and another of greater practical importance than that of effective speed4 ,in war1 business1 scientific work1 manual labor1 and what not1 we have at the one extreme the man who defeats all ordinary calculations by the vast quantity of work he gets done1 and at the other extreme the man who no less defeats ordinary calculations by the little all his busyness achieves4 ,the former is always arriving with an unexpected victory1 the latter with an unanswerable excuse for failure4 ,it has seemed to many psychologists strongly probable that the swift man should be distinguishable from the slow by reaction time tests4 ,for 7a71 granting that the performances demanded in practical affairs are far more complicated than those required in the laboratory tests1 it seems likely that one who is tuned for a rapid rate in the latter will be tuned for a rapid rate in the former1 when he has mastered them4 ,moreover 7b71 a rapid rate in elementary processes is favorable to their fusion into higher unitary processes1 each including several of the lower4 ,finally 7c71 a rapid rate in elementary processes is favorable to prompt voluntary combinations in presence of new emergencies4 ,in face of these a priori probabilities1 eleven years' experience in this laboratory 7the first three being spent mainly on reaction times7 has brought the conviction that no reaction time test will surely show whether a given individual has or has not effective speed in his work4 ,very slow rates1 especially in complicated reactions1 are strongly indicative of a mind slow and ineffective at all things4 ,but experience proves that rapid rates by no means show that the subject has effective speed in the ordinary1 let alone extraordinary1 tasks of life4 ,how is this to be explained8 ,the following answer is proposed3 ,the rate at which one makes practical headway depends partly upon the rate of the mental and nervous processes involved2 but far more upon how much is included in each process4 ,if ,a1 ,b1 and ,c add the same columns of figures1 one using readily the method of the lightning adder1 another the ordinary addition table1 while the third makes each addition by counting on his fingers1 the three are presently out of sight of one another1 whatever the rates at which the processes involved are performed4 ,the lightning adder may proceed more leisurely than either of the others4 ,he steps a league while they are bustling over furlongs or inches4 ,now1 the ability to take league steps in receiving telegraphic messages1 in reading1 in addition1 in mathematical reasoning1 and in many other fields1 plainly depends upon the acquisition of league-stepping habits4 ,no possible proficiency and rapidity in elementary processes will serve4 ,the learner must come to do with one stroke of attention what now requires half a dozen1 and presently1 in one still more inclusive stroke1 what now requires thirty-six4 ,he must systematize the work to be done1 and must acquire a system of automatic habits corresponding to the system of tasks4 ,when he has done this he is master of the situation in his field4 ,he can1 if he chooses1 deal accurately with minute details4 ,he can swiftly overlook great areas with an accurate sense of what the details involved amount to--indeed1 with far greater justice to details than is possible for one who knows nothing else4 ,finally1 his whole array of habits is swiftly obedient to serve in the solution of new problems4 ,automatism is not genius1 but it is the hands and feet of genius4 ,a vague ,impression of ,beauty4--,the following sentences occur in an article on ,the ,real purpose of ,universities in a recent issue of the ,london ,spectator4 ,they give so strange a picture of the ideals of the two leading ,english universities as to seem worthy of reproduction3 ,however1 ,dr4 ,hill made one statement for which we owe him a sincere gratitude4 ',the excellence of the classics1' said he1 'lay chiefly in their complete uselessness4' 444 ,in this simple statement is expressed the true value of our old universities4 ,they should be practically useless4 ,they should not teach you to be a good carpenter or a skillful diplomatist4 ,you can not march out of ,oxford or ,cambridge into any career which will return you an immediate and efficient income4444 ,the other universities of ,europe are prepared to cut you to a certain measure1 or to render you technically competent4 ,but our ,english universities have hitherto declined to discharge this humble function1 save in rare lapses1 from a noble ideal4 ,they at least profess to accomplish a far greater task4 ,there is a strange period dividing the man from the boy1 which clamors aloud for intelligent discipline1 and this discipline ,oxford and ,cambridge are anxious to supply4 ,the undergraduate is too young to specialize1 and not too old to receive instruction4 ,when his period of training is finished he is asked to assume the heavy burdens of life1 to discharge tasks which may be dull1 and which are rarely concerned with what were once called the humanities4 ,as he passes through the university he may not have the time nor the wit to become a sound scholar nor a profound mathematician4 ,but he may1 if he understand his privilege aright1 linger for a while in the groves of 'practically useless' knowledge4 ,he may learn what literature meant in an age when it was concerned only with the essentials of simplicity2 he may read the lessons of history when history was still separate from political intrigue4 ,and though he forgets his ,greek grammar1 though in middle life he can not construe a page of ,virgil1 yet he carries away from this irrational interlude a vague impression of beauty which no other course of education will ever give him4 ,even for the schoolmen a vague impression of beauty1 whatever that may mean1 seems rather unpractical as an educational ultima ,thule4 ,the ,purple of ,cassius4--,there are few substances in the field of inorganic chemistry on which so much speculation and actual work has been expended as the so-called purple of ,cassius4 ,a recent article by ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,reese1 in the ,chemical ,news1 contains some interesting information regarding this curious compound4 ,up to the present time there have1 it seems1 been two views held as to its chemical nature--one that it is a mixture of stannic acid and metallic gold2 the other1 that of ,berzelius1 that it is substantially a chemical compound of purple gold oxide with the oxides of tin possibly mixed with an excess of stannic acid4 ,it has seemed very likely that the substance is a chemical compound of acid character1 and that the solubility in ammonia is due to the formation of a salt1 but it has been found that by oxidation of stannous chloride and by allowing very dilute solutions of stannic chloride to stand1 the hydrogel of stannic acid separated out1 which1 on the addition of a few drops of ammonia1 liquefied and so became soluble in water1 just as the purple of ,cassius does4 ,there can therefore be no salt formation here4 ,some comparatively recent work by ,richard ,zsigmondy1 however1 seems to have finally cleared up the chemical nature of this curious substance4 ,its formation is explained by assuming that when stannous chloride is added to a sufficiently dilute solution of gold chloride the latter is immediately reduced to metallic gold while stannic chloride is formed4 ,generally after a few seconds the liquid becomes red1 but the purple is not precipitated for several days1 unless it is heated4 ,the gold is not precipitated as a black powder because the stannic chloride formed is immediately hydrolized into hydrochloric acid and the hydrate of stannic acid4 ,the latter prevents the aggregation of the gold particles1 and the stannic acid remains in solution as a colloid1 which on standing gradually changes under the influence of the dilute hydrochloric acid to an insoluble form1 the hydrogel of stannic acid4 ,by heating1 this change takes place immediately4 ,the properties of the purple of ,cassius depend on the properties and character of the stannic acid present1 and the great variety in the properties of the stannic acids1 the ortho1 the meta1 and the colloidal mixtures of the two explain the many contradictions in the literature with reference to the properties of the purple of ,cassius4 ,zsigmondy says1 ,i look upon the knowledge that a mixture of colloid bodies can behave1 under some conditions1 as a chemical compound1 and that the properties of one body in such mixtures can be hidden by those in another as the most important conclusion to be drawn from this work4 ,the ,abuse of ,unskilled ,labor4--,the number of diseases directly or indirectly due to continued long standing is especially numerous among women4 ,the ,london ,lancet1 which nearly twenty years ago attempted to improve matters in this respect in the case of shopgirls1 has again taken up the subject1 and recently published an editorial urging customers of the shops to boycott those establishments where no sitting accommodations are provided for the clerks4 ,it says3 ,we1 as medical men1 maintain that sitting accommodations are absolutely necessary for shopgirls4 ,the only argument having even the semblance of legitimacy which we have heard put forward in defense of the nonprovision of seats is that sitting is conducive to idleness1 but in this connection such a premise can not be permitted1 for an employee would be bound to come forward when an intending purchaser entered the shop4444 ,the very fact that in many shops she is not allowed to sit down is conducive to idleness--idleness of the worst kind1 the idleness of pretending to do something while in reality nothing is being done4 ,can nothing be done to stop this--as we once called it without the least exaggeration or sensationalism--'cruelty to women'8 ,to the true woman--the woman with feelings for her sisters1 the woman of love and sympathy1 the true woman in every sense of the word--we appeal for help in this matter4 ,if such women would abstain from purchasing at shops where they see that the employees are compelled to work from morning till night without permission to rest from their labors even when opportunity occurs1 we should soon see the end of a practice which ruins the health and shortens the lives of many of our shopgirls4 ,that there is a certain amount of danger for women from long-continued standing1 to the point of exhaustion1 there is no doubt1 and much can be done toward improving the present conditions in this respect and in other hygienic ways in the shops4 ,the large influx of women during recent years into the counting-room and the salesroom gives such questions an increasing importance1 especially in the less skilled positions where labor combinations for mutual protection are not possible4 ,there has already been considerable agitation of the question in this country1 and there still remains much to be done4 ,but1 as ,lord ,salisbury pointed out in causing the rejection of a bill for remedying present shop conditions in ,england1 it is a question not suitable for legislation1 and can only be settled through the indirect action of public opinion on the shopkeeper himself4 ,the ,occurrence of ,gold ,ores4--,the following paragraphs are from an article by ,h4 ,m4 ,chance in the ,engineering ,magazine for ,july1 entitled ,the ,increasing ,production of ,gold3 ,another reason for anticipating further increase in the production of gold is found in our better knowledge of gold ores1 and of the conditions under which gold occurs in ,nature4 ,until the discovery of the ,cripple ,creek district the occurrence of gold as tellurid in deposits of large extent and value was practically unknown4 ,gold was1 of course1 known to occur1 sparingly in some ores1 partially as a tellurid associated with other minerals2 but such a mineralized belt as that at ,cripple ,creek was entirely unknown1 and such deposits were not looked for by the prospector4 ,similarly1 we now know of another class of gold ores in which the gold occurs apparently in some form chemically combined in a siliceous matrix1 often approaching a true jasper or hornstone1 and showing by analysis possibly ninety-five per cent of silica4 ,such ores show no trace of 'free' or metallic gold1 and the presence of gold can be determined only by assay or analysis4 ,a few such discoveries have recently been made1 accidentally1 by inexperienced persons1 who had rock assayed from curiosity4 ,similarly again1 in the last few years gold has been found in most unpromising-looking porphyry dikes--the very rocks prospectors the world over have regarded as necessarily barren because they almost invariably fail to show any 'free' or metallic gold by the miner's quick 'horn' or 'pan' test4 ,but mining engineers and prospectors are learning that in a mineralized region gold may occur in any rock1 and hundreds of prospectors are assaying all sorts of most unpromising-looking rock1 satisfied that by assay alone can they determine whether a certain rock is gold-bearing or not4 ,this persistent and more or less systematic work now going on in every mining district must result in the discovery of many valuable deposits in unexpected localities1 and ultimately promises to add largely to the annual output of gold4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,the investigations of ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal of the ,food of ,cuckoos and ,s4 ,d4 ,judd of the ,food of ,shrikes in their relation to agriculture are published in a single bulletin by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,mr4 ,beal finds that the food of cuckoos consists almost wholly of insects1 of which he has found sixty-five species in their stomachs1 and concludes that from an economical point of view they rank among our most useful birds2 and1 in view of the caterpillars they eat1 it seems hardly possible to overestimate the value of their work4 ,mr4 ,judd finds1 from a very extensive examination1 that the food of butcher birds and loggerhead shrikes consists of invertebrates 7mainly grasshoppers71 birds1 and mice4 ,during the colder half of the year the butcher bird eats birds and mice to the extent of sixty per cent1 and ekes out the rest of its food with insects4 ,in the loggerhead's food1 birds and mice amount to only twenty-four per cent4 ,its beneficial qualities outweigh four to one its injurious ones4 ,instead of being persecuted1 it should receive protection4 ,the ,engineering ,magazine is authority for the following3 ,the wrecking of the steamship ,paris on the coast of ,cornwall and the difficulties encountered in attempting to save her while a number of her compartments forward are filled with water1 lead ,mr4 ,richards1 in the ,american ,machinist1 to suggest the applicability of compressed air4 ',there is a means of expelling the water from the filled compartments so obvious1 and so certainly effective1 that it seems unaccountable that some engineer has not suggested it before this4 ,close the hatches of the flooded compartments and drive the water out by forcing air in4 ,it would not make the slightest difference how big the holes might be in the bottom1 as the water would be expelled and kept out on the same principle as in the old-fashioned diving bell4' ,this suggestion carries with it a much larger and more important one--namely1 the use of air pumps instead of water pumps to save a leaking ship while afloat4 ,as ,mr4 ,richards well remarks1 the work of trying to pump out a leaky ship is not only enormously wasted while it is going on1 but it is never finished4 ,if1 however1 the water leaking into a compartment of a ship be expelled by pumping air into the space1 the work is done so soon as the compartment is filled with air down to the level of the leak4 ,after that point is reached the ship is safe1 no matter how large the hole1 and no further pumping is necessary4 ,chlorate of potash has always been regarded by manufacturers and chemists as a nonexplosive1 and hence there has been little care taken in handling and storing it4 ,a recent explosion1 however1 at a large chemical works at ,st4 ,helens1 in ,england1 seems to disprove this view4 ,a storehouse containing about one hundred and fifty tons of chlorate in the form of both powder and crystals took fire1 and almost immediately after the falling in of the roof an explosion of terrible violence occurred1 the shock being felt over a distance of twenty miles4 ,the chlorate works were entirely demolished4 ,a large gas holder of the city gas works1 containing two hundred and fifty thousand cubic feet of gas1 was burst and the gas ignited4 ,eight hundred tons of vitriol was poured into the streets of the town by the wrecking of ten vitriol chambers in a neighboring alkali works4 ,houses were unroofed1 and in the main streets of the town1 a quarter of a mile away1 nearly every plate-glass window was demolished4 ,a theory accounting for the explosion1 advanced by ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,c4 ,kershaw1 in the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal1 is that it was due to the sudden and practically simultaneous liberation of all the oxygen from such a mass of chlorate1 combined with the restraining influence of the kegs 7the chlorate was packed in kegs of one hundredweight each71 and possibly also helped by the presence of much charred wood and the dense volume of smoke4 ,whatever is the true theory1 however1 it is evident that our belief in the nonexplosiveness of potassium chlorate must be modified4 ,,notes4 ,a piece of experimental glass pavement was laid in ,lyons1 in the ,rue de la ,rpublique1 last fall1 and it is reported to have worn very well thus far4 ,the silicate of which the pavement is composed is called by the manufacturers ceramo-crystal or devitrified glass4 ,it may be finished in various colors and with a rough or smooth surface4 ,the blocks are made by heating broken glass to a temperature of #a1bej ,c4 and then compressing it by hydraulic power4 ,the resulting compound is said to have all the qualities of glass except its transparency4 ,the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station reports of its analyses of sugar beets in #ahih that the average percentage of sugar in the samples analyzed is #ad4b1 with a coefficient of purity of #he4 ,in general the yield of beets was between nine tons and twenty tons per acre4 ,an altitude of #ab1ddj feet1 or #cff feet greater than any attained before1 was reached in the kite-flying experiments at ,blue ,hill ,observatory1 ,massachusetts1 on ,february #bast4 ,the flight was begun at twenty minutes to four in the afternoon1 with a temperature of #dj and a wind velocity of seventeen miles an hour at the surface4 ,at the highest point reached by the kite the temperature was #ab and the wind velocity fifty miles an hour4 ,four improved ,hargreave kites with curved surfaces1 like soaring birds' wings1 were used tandem1 and the flying line was a steel wire4 ,the first to be unveiled of a series of tablets to be fixed by the ,municipal ,council of ,bath1 ,england1 to mark historical houses is on the house where ,william ,herschel lived in #aghj1 and was officially unveiled by ,sir ,robert ,ball1 ,april #bb;d4 ,in a little workshop at the end of the back garden of this house ,herschel made his ,newtonian reflector1 and here he discovered ,uranus4 ,attention is called by ,dr4 ,martin ,ficker to the fact1 brought out in his experiments1 that cultures of microbes are affected by the glass of the tubes in which they are made4 ,by virtue of differences in composition1 different sorts of glass give varying degrees of alkalinity to water in contact with them1 and the activity of the bacteria they contain is correspondingly affected4 ,we have to add to our obituary list of persons in whom science is interested the names of ,professor ,socin1 late of the ,university of ,leipsic1 ,orientalist1 and author of ,baedeker's ,palestine and ,syria and many special works on the ,arabic language and dialects2 ,m4 ,n4 ,rieggenbach1 correspondent of the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences1 ,section of ,mathematics1 at ,olten1 ,switzerland2 ,elizabeth ,thompson1 donor of liberal gifts for scientific purposes1 at ,stamford1 ,conn42 she contributed toward the telescope for ,vassar ,college1 was a patron of the ,american ,association1 and endowed the ,elizabeth ,thompson ,scientific ,fund2 ,george ,averoff1 who died at ,alexandria1 ,egypt1 ,july #bgth1 leaving1 among other bequests1 #bj1jjj to create an agricultural school in ,thessaly1 and #ej1jjj to the polytechnic schools at ,athens2 ,charles ,j4 ,still1 ex-,provost of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 under whose administration the institution took a great stride in its development2 ,mrs4 ,arvilla ,j4 ,ellis1 an assiduous student of the fungi1 who assisted her husband1 ,j4 ,b4 ,ellis1 in preparing and mounting the five thousand specimens for the ,north ,american ,fungi and the ,fungi ,columbiani1 and more than two hundred thousand other specimens which were distributed to the botanists of the world1 at ,newfield1 ,n4 ,j41 ,july #ahth2 ,m4 ,balbiani1 ,professor of ,embryology at the ,collge de ,france2 ,prof4 ,pasquale ,freda1 ,director of the ,station for ,agricultural ,chemistry at ,rome2 ,dr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,jakvcivc1 ,professor of ,botany and ,director of the ,botanic ,gardens1 at ,belgrade2 ,dr4 ,carl ,kuschel1 formerly ,professor of ,physics in the ,polytechnic ,institute at ,dresden2 ,m4 ,a4 de ,marbaix1 ,professor of ,zology and ,anatomy in the ,agricultural ,institute at ,louvain2 ,dr4 ,n4 ,grote1 ,professor of ,psychology and ,philosophy in the ,university of ,moscow and editor of a journal devoted to those subjects2 ,robert ,wilhelm ,bunsen1 the eminent ,german chemist1 of whom a fuller notice will be given2 and ,sir ,edward ,frankland1 another eminent chemist 7,english71 one of ,bunsen's pupils1 a member of the ,royal ,commissions on ,water ,supply and ,river ,pollution1 and author of researches on the luminosity of flame and the effect of the density of a medium on the rate of combustion1 died in ,norway1 aged seventy-four years4 ,,index4 ,,articles ,,marked ,,with ,,an ,,asterisk ,,are ,,illustrated4 ,abbott1 ,c4 ,c4 ,the ,antiquity of ,man in ,north ,america991 #cbf ,abuse of ,unskilled ,labor4 7,frag471 #hfb ,acetylene1 ,the ,use of499 ,e4 ,renouf1 #cce ,a ,correction4 7,corr471 #gjb ,african ,music in ,america1 ,survival of4 ,j4 ,r4 ,murphy991 #ffj ,religious ,ideas1 ,variations in4 7,frag471 #bha ,agriculture1 ,fungicides1 ,relative ,power of4 7,frag471 #gag ,alleghanies1 ,folklore of the4 ,f4 ,a4 ,doughty1 #cij ,alloys1 ,metallic1 of ,rich ,colors4 7,frag471 #bhd ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,proper ,objects of4 ,e4 ,orton1 #dff ,columbus ,meeting of1 #hbb ,meeting of4 7,table71 #hej ,meeting1 ,the4 7,frag471 #efh ,officers of1 for #aijj4 7,frag471 #heg ,indians and ,mongolians4 7,frag471 #gae ,andrews1 ,e4 ,a4 ,sketch of ,w4 ,k4 ,brooks4 7,portrait71 #djj ,animals ,reason8 ,do4 ,e4 ,thorndike991 #dhj 7,corr471 #hdc ,an ,old-fashioned ,moral4 7,table71 #gjc ,anthropology3 ,american ,indians and ,mongolians4 7,frag471 #gae ,antiquity of ,man in ,north ,america4 ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott991 #cbf ,aztec ,pictorial ,record1 ,an4 7,frag471 #gaf ,bows and ,arrows1 ,the ,teaching of4 7,frag471 #gae ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 ,death of4 7,frag471 #gac ,european ,culture1 ,origin of4 ,w4 ,z4 ,ripley991 #af ,folklore of the ,alleghanies4 ,f4 ,a4 ,doughty1 #cij ,gypsies and their ,folk-,tales4 7,frag471 #dbd ,hopi ,indians of ,arizona4 ,george ,a4 ,dorsey991 #gcb ,jews8 ,are ,jews4 ,j4 ,jacobs1 #ejb ,origin of ,ancient ,hindu ,astronomy4 ,count ,g4 ,d',alviella1 #cif ,primitive ,man4 7,table71 #daj ,race ,questions in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,f4 ,blumentritte1 #dgb ,antiquity of ,man in ,north ,america4 ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott991 #cbf ,astronomy1 ,origin of ,ancient ,hindu4 ,count ,g4 ,d',alviella1 #cif ,austen1 ,w4 ,bookworms in ,fact and ,fancy1 #bdj ,aztec ,pictorial ,record1 ,an4 7,frag471 #gaf ,bacon's ,idols4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson1 #ghh ,baker1 ,smith4 ,causes and ,prevention of ,insanity1 #ajb ,baldwin1 ,f4 ,s4 ,present ,position of ,sociology1 #haa ,beautifying the ,home ,grounds4 7,frag471 #dcj ,benjamin1 ,m4 ,american ,industrial ,expositions1 #bca ,bering ,sea ,controversy again4 ,t4 ,c4 ,mendenhall1 #ii ,bertillon1 ,m4 ,j4 ,remedies for the ,depopulation of ,france1 #fgb ,bible1 ,scientific ,method and the4 7,corr471 #gja ,the ,scientific method and its ,application to the4 ,rev4 ,d4 ,sprague1 #bhi ,bicknell1 ,e4 ,from ,serfdom to ,freedom1 #hd ,birds as ,pest ,destroyers4 7,frag471 #ega ,block ,island1 ,geology of4 7,frag471 #egj ,blumentritte1 ,f4 ,race ,questions in the ,philippine ,islands1 #dgb ,books ,noticed1 #abf1 #bgj1 #dae1 #eeg1 #gje1 #hec ,african ,frontier1 ,on the ,south4 ,w4 ,h4 ,brown1 #gjh4 -- ,studies1 ,west4 ,m4 ,h4 ,kingsley1 #dah4 ,agriculture4 ,fertilizers4 ,e4 ,b4 ,voorhees1 #bgd4 -- ,practical4 ,c4 ,c4 ,james1 #hed4 -- ,the ,principles and ,practice of4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 #dba4 ,algebra4 ,text-,book of4 ,g4 ,e4 ,fischer and ,i4 ,j4 ,schwatt1 #dbj4 ,allen1 ,a4 ,h4 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis1 #bgd4 ,american ,indians4 ,f4 ,starr1 #dba4 ,amryc1 ,c4 ,pantheism3 the ,light and ,hope of ,modern ,reason1 #dba ,anatomy and ,physiology1 ,laboratory ,exercises in4 ,j4 ,e4 ,peabody1 #bgg4 ,anglo-,saxon 7,monthly71 #efb4 ,animated ,pictures4 ,c4 ,f4 ,jenkins1 #acb4 ,anthropology4 ,australian ,bush1 ,in the4 ,r4 ,semon1 #dag4 -- ,australia1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central4 ,b4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 #dag4 -- ,history of ,mankind4 ,f4 ,ratzel1 #bgb4 -- ,man1 ,past and ,present4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 #heb4 -- ,philippines1 ,people of the4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 #hee4 ,arctic1 ,a ,thousand ,days in the4 ,f4 ,g4 ,jackson1 #gje4 ,arithmetic1 ,primary4 ,a4 ,r4 ,hornbrook1 #dbj4 -- ,the ,american ,elementary4 ,m4 ,a4 ,bailey1 #dbb4 ,armageddon4 ,stanley ,waterloo1 #acc4 ,aston1 ,w4 ,g4 ,history of ,japanese ,literature1 #aca4 ,astronomy1 ,a ,short ,history of4 ,a4 ,berry1 #gaj4 ,atkinson1 ,g4 ,f4 ,elementary ,botany1 #aca4 ,austin1 ,h4 ,e4 ,observation ,blanks for ,beginners in ,mineralogy1 #hee4 ,australian ,bush1 ,in the4 ,r4 ,semon1 #dag4 ,australia1 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central4 ,g4 ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 #dag4 ,badenoch1 ,l4 ,n4 ,true ,tales of the ,insects1 #hed4 ,bailey1 ,l4 ,h4 ,the ,principles of ,agriculture1 #dba4 -- ,m4 ,a4 ,the ,american ,elementary ,arithmetic1 #dbb4 ,bardeen1 ,c4 ,w4 ,commissioner ,hume1 #efb4 ,bates1 ,f4 ,g4 ,rhode ,island and the ,formation of the ,union1 #dba4 ,bauer1 ,l4 ,a41 and ,french1 ,thomas1 ,jr4 ,terrestrial ,magnetism4 7,quarterly71 #acb4 ,beddard1 ,f4 ,e4 ,structure and ,classification of ,birds1 #abh4 ,bell1 ,m4 ,g4 ,story of the ,rise of the ,oral ,method in ,america1 #gaa4 ,berry1 ,a4 ,a ,short ,history of ,astronomy1 #gaj4 ,bickerton1 ,a4 ,w4 ,new ,story of the ,stars1 #acd4 ,biology1 ,principles of4 ,h4 ,spencer1 #bge4 ,birds1 ,structure and ,classification of4 ,f4 ,e4 ,beddard1 #abh4 ,botany1 ,elementary4 ,g4 ,f4 ,atkinson1 #aca4 -- ,elementary ,text-,book of4 ,s4 ,h4 ,vines1 #aca4 -- ,evolution of ,plants1 ,lectures on the4 ,d4 ,h4 ,campbell1 #efa4 -- ,ferns1 ,how to ,know the1 #gjh4 ,bradford1 ,gamaliel4 ,the ,lesson of ,popular ,government1 #dae4 ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g4 ,peoples of the ,philippines1 #hee4 ,brooks1 ,w4 ,k4 ,foundations of ,zology1 #bgj4 ,brown1 ,w4 ,h4 ,on the ,south ,african ,frontier1 #gjh4 ,bryant1 ,w4 ,m4 ,life1 ,death1 and ,immortality1 #acj4 ,buckley1 ,a4 ,b4 ,the ,fairy-,land of ,science1 #hed4 ,bush ,fruits4 ,f4 ,w4 ,card1 #abi4 ,call1 ,r4 ,e4 ,ichthyologia ,ohioensis4 7,c4 ,e4 ,rafinesque71 #efj4 ,cajori1 ,florian4 ,history of ,elementary ,physics1 #dai4 ,campbell1 ,d4 ,h4 ,lectures on the ,evolution of ,plants1 #efa4 ,card1 ,f4 ,w4 ,bush ,fruits1 #abi4 ,carpenter1 ,f4 ,g4 ,geographical ,reader for ,north ,america1 #efa4 -- of ,nazareth1 ,the1 or the ,silver ,cross1 #bgh4 ,catering for ,two4 ,a4 ,l4 ,james1 #bgh4 ,cave ,regions of the ,black ,hills4 ,l4 ,a4 ,owen1 #efb4 ,census1 ,the ,federal1 #eeh4 ,chemical ,experiments4 ,woodhull and ,van ,arsdale1 #hef4 ,cole1 ,j4 ,r4 ,miscellany1 #acd4 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4 ,a4 ,h4 ,allen1 #bgd4 ,cuba1 ,industrial4 ,r4 ,p4 ,porter1 #efj4 ,cumulative ,index for #ahih1 #gab4 ,dall1 ,c4 ,h4 ,memorial of ,w4 ,w4 ,turner and ,sisters1 #efc4 ,dana1 ,c4 ,a4 ,recollections of the ,civil ,war1 #hec4 ,deaf and ,dumb4 ,comparison of ,methods of ,instruction4 ,volta ,bureau1 #gab4 -- ,oral ,method of ,instructing1 ,rise of1 in ,america4 ,m4 ,g4 ,bell1 #gaa4 ,de ,morgan1 ,a4 ,on the ,study and ,difficulty of ,mathematics1 #efa4 ,drinking ,water1 ,the ,microscopy of4 ,g4 ,c4 ,whipple1 #gji4 ,dr4 ,therne4 ,h4 ,r4 ,haggard1 #gaa4 ,dyers and ,colorists1 ,year-,book of4 ,h4 ,huntington1 #efc4 ,economics4 ,census1 ,the ,federal1 #eeh4 -- ,strikes and ,lockouts1 ,sympathetic1 #efc4 ,education4 ,commissioner ,hume4 ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen1 #efb4 -- ,froebel's1 by ,development1 #hee4 -- ,ideals and ,programmes4 ,j4 ,l4 ,gourdy1 #dba4 -- ,nature ,study ,in ,elementary ,schools4 ,l4 ,s4 ,w4 ,wilson1 #dbb4 -- ,report of the ,commissioner of1 for #ahif-'ig1 #efb4 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#bhi-dcb7 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#de cfa - ,august 7pp4 #dcc-egf7 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#de ich - ,september 7pp4 #egg-gbj7 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#df chc