,transcriber's ,note3    ,italics       
denoted by underscores4    ,bold text   
denoted by plus signs4                  
,illustration3 ,scientific ,american    
,supplement4    ,no4 #djd               
,scientific ,american ,supplement1 ,vol4
 ,,xvi41 ,no4 #djd4     ,scientific     
,american1 established #ahde4           
,,new ,,york1 ,,september #bi1 #ahhc4   
,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a 
year4     ,scientific ,american and     
,supplement1 #g a year4             99  
99       99       99       99           
,,bietrix',s ,,vertical ,,and           
,,horizontal ,,compound ,,engine4       
,compound engines are tending to come   
more and more into use1 inasmuch  as    
they present many advantages over other 
kinds1 especially as regards  the saving
 they effect in fuel1 and their great   
regularity1 due to the  adjusting of the
 cranks at right angles4    ,it is not  
surprising1 then1 to see our large      
manufacturers1 who desire  to maintain a
 reputation1 seeking to create new types

 based upon this  principle4 ,but1 in   
multiplying the parts1 as is done in    
these motors1  the engine is rendered   
more complicated1 and the cost of       
installation  is increased4 ,hence the  
difficulty of placing these motors1     
notwithstanding the saving in fuel that 
is gained by employing them4    ,messrs4
 ,bietrix  ,co41 of ,st4 ,etienne1      
however1 have devised a type in  which  
these two inconveniences seem to have   
been in a great measure  overcome1 and  
which we illustrate in the annexed      
engraving4    ,illustration3 ,,combined 
,,vertical ,,and ,,horizontal ,,compound
 ,,steam ,,engine4    ,description of   
the ,engine4--,the engine as a whole is 
represented in  longitudinal elevation  
in ,fig4 #a1 in plan in ,fig4 #b1 and in
 side view  in ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d shows 
the condenser in transverse section4    
,the motor consists of a small vertical 
cylinder1 ,a1 and of a large  horizontal
 one1 ,c1 both projecting over a strong 
hollow frame1 ,b1 which  connects them  

and carries the guides1 g g'1 and the   
pillow block1  ,p1 of the driving shaft1
 p4 ,the condenser1 ,d1 is in a line    
with the  large cylinder1 and the       
piston1 ,d1 of its pump is mounted upon 
the  prolongation1 d'1 of the piston    
rod1 a1 of the cylinder1 ,c4 ,the       
expansion gear is controlled by the     
regulator1 and the admission may  vary  
from #a_/ai to #a_/he4 ,steam is        
admitted into the small cylinder        
through the pipe1 s1 and its entrance   
may be regulated at will by  acting upon
 the hand wheel1 s'1 which controls the 
maneuvering  rod1 s4 ,after expanding1  
the steam1 in escaping from the smaller 
cylinder1 passes through the pipe1 r1   
into the feed-water heater1 ,r1  and    
then acts in the larger cylinder1 c1 in 
order to pass afterward  to the         
condenser1 ,d1 through the pipe1 d4     
,the frame1 ,b1 is in two parts1 the    
vertical part being adjusted by  keys   
upon the horizontal one1 and strong     
bolts concurring with such a  coupling  

to make the whole strong and solid4     
,this frame carries plane  slide bars1 g
 g'1 with beveled counter guides4       
,the pistons are of the ,swedish type1  
of hollow iron1 with steel rods4  ,the  
segments are of cast iron4 ,the         
horizontal connecting rod1 ,m'1 is      
connected directly with the crank pin1  
m1 but the vertical one is  fixed to the
 head of the former1 as may be seen in  
,figs4 #c1 #h1 and #i4    ,the bearing  
of the horizontal connecting rod is in  
three parts1 each  having an            
anti-frictional bushing1 and their play 
being regulated by  bolts1 m4 ,friction 
being slight in the bearing of the      
vertical  rod1 ,m1 inasmuch as the      
latter's axis has but a short travel at 
each revolution of the driving shaft1 it
 is not provided with an                
anti-frictional bushing4    ,the ,small 
,cylinder 7,figs4 #e and #f74--,the     
small cylinder is shown  in detail in   
,figs4 #e and #f1 the valve box cover   
being removed in the  latter4 ,the      

diameter of this cylinder is #chj       
millimeters1 the stroke  of the piston  
is #fej millimeters1 and the thickness  
of the sides is  #be millimeters4 ,it is
 provided with a steam jacket2 and the  
two ports  are #de millimeters in width 
by #bjj in length4 ,the exhaust is      
effected  through an orifice #hd        
millimeters in diameter4    ,the        
distribution is a variable one1         
according to the ,meyer system1 the     
expansion being caused to vary          
automatically in the small cylinder1 by 
means of a regulator1 so as to          
proportion the motive to the resistant  
power4    ,the distributing slide valve1
 t1 contains two steam inlets1 whose    
orifices facing the cylinder are formed 
by two horizontal1 parallel  rectangles1
 while the inlets debouch toward the    
opposite surface 7in  contact1          
consequently1 with the expansion slide  
valve1 t'71 according  to two           
parallelograms1 whose larger sides are  
oblique1 and form between  them a sharp 

angle1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #f4      
,these inlet conduits are  therefore out
 of true4 ,the slide-valve1 t1 is moved 
by an eccentric1  ,e4    ,the expansion 
slide-valve1 t'1 has the form of a      
trapezium1 whose two  like sides are    
parallel with the inclined openings in  
the slide-valve1  t4 ,it is held by a   
piece1 q1 which carries it along in its 
backward  and forward motion1 but does  
not prevent it from being moved in a    
horizontal direction under the action of
 the regulator4 ,this piece1  q1 is     
keyed upon a rod1 q'1 which is itself   
jointed at its lower  extremity with the
 rod1 e'1 of a second eccentric1 ,e'1   
which causes  its vertical motion4      
,the backs of the valve1 t1 and the     
piece1 q1 are provided with  grooves1   
which are designed for giving passage to
 the steam1 the  pressure of which on   
these surfaces partially balances that  
that it  exerts in an opposite          
direction4    ,automatic ,regulation    
7,figs #e and #f74--,the upper part of  

the rod1  e'1 carries a cam1 f1 that    
plays freely between two connecting     
rods1 f1 and the travel of which is     
limited by two rollers1 f  and f1       
situated between the rods1 f1 which     
latter are themselves  suspended from a 
rod1 ,f4 ,the latter slides in a        
support1 ,f1 which  serves likewise as a
 guide to the rods1 q' and t1 of the    
slide-valves1 and which is fixed upon a 
projection cast in a piece with  the    
frame1 ,b1 and is suspended from the    
short arm of a bent lever1 ,f'1  whose  
longer arm carries a roller that runs in
 a vertical groove1 t1  in the back of  
the expansion slide-valve4 ,the lower   
extremity of the  connecting rods1 f'1  
is connected with the sleeve of the     
regulator1  ,q1 by a lever1 f#d1 and a  
bent lever1 ,q'4 ,this latter revolves  
on  an axis passing through its elbow   
and mounted at the extremity of a       
projection that is cast in a piece with 
the support of the regulator4  ,this    
bent lever is prolonged beyond the      

sleeve1 and carries suspended  from its 
extremity a small piston-rod that plays 
in a dash pot1 ,q1 and  limits the too  
abrupt motions of the apparatus4 ,the   
regulator is driven  by a belt and      
through the intermedium of the bevel    
pinions1 u4    ,it is easy now to       
understand the purpose and the modus    
operandi of  the mechanism that permits 
the regulator to act upon the expansion 
gear4 ,when running normally the        
connecting-rods1 f'1 occupy a  vertical 
position1 and the rollers1 f and f1 are 
placed exactly  at the two extremities  
of the travel of the cam1 f4    ,when   
the velocity exceeds the normal1 the    
sleeve of the regulator rises  and the  
lever1 ,q'1 tips to the right and forces
 the rods1 f'1 to  oscillate in the same
 direction around their upper joint4    
,after that1  the lower roller1 f1 being
 situated on the line of travel of the  
convex part of the cam1 will be carried 
along by the latter and cause  an       
oscillation to the right of the bent    

lever1 ,f4 ,the piece1 t'1  will then be
 pushed back in such a way as to        
partially close the inlet  orifices of  
the slide-valve1 t1 and1 as the steam   
will thereupon  enter into less         
quantity1 the engine will quickly resume
 its normal  velocity4 ,if the velocity 
becomes less that the normal the action 
will  be just the opposite of that just 
described4    ,the ,large ,cylinder     
7,figs4 #a and #b74--,the two           
eccentrics1 ,e and ,e'1  which control  
the distributing gear of the small      
cylinder1 ,a1 actuate  at the same time 
that of the large one1 ,c1 through two  
rods1 e and  e2 such distribution is    
also effected by means of a             
sliding-plate  valve4 ,the two steam    
ports are #de millimeters and the       
exhaust port #hd  millimeters in        
diameter4    ,the large cylinder is #fej
 millimeters in diameter1 and #icj in   
length4  ,the stroke of the piston is   
#fej millimeters4    ,the ,feed-,water  
,heater 7,figs4 #a and #b74--,the       

exhaust from the small  cylinder enters 
the heater through a pipe1 r1 #adj      
millimeters  in diameter4 ,this         
feed-water heater consists of a large   
cast iron  cylinder1 #djj millimeters in
 internal diameter1 and #a4ae meters in 
length1 connected with the pipe1 r1 on  
the one hand1 and with the  cylinder1   
,c1 on the other1 by means of two       
couplings1 ,r' and ,r4 ,in  its interior
 are arranged #fj copper tubes1 of #bi  
millimeters internal1  and #ca          
millimeters external diameter4 ,these   
tubes are fixed at their  extremities   
into two circular supports that are     
riveted to the interior  of the         
cylinder4 ,the exhaust from the small   
cylinder passes into these  tubes1      
around which circulates steam coming    
directly from the boiler  through the   
tube1 r'1 and escapes toward the bottom1
 with the  condensed water1 through the 
tube1 r4 ,the heater is surrounded with 
a #b mm4 plate iron jacket4    ,a       
communication1 r1 with a valve-cock1 ,r1

 permits of the  introduction1 into the 
large cylinder1 of the steam from the   
heater4  ,the exhaust steam from the    
large cylinder goes directly to the     
condenser1 but there is likewise        
provided a pipe through which it may    
make its exit into the open air1 in     
case1 for example1 the condenser  needs 
repairing or there is a failure of      
water4    ,the ,condenser 7,figs4 #a1   
#b1 and #d74--,the condenser is         
represented1  half in section and half  
in external view and in elevation in    
,fig4 #a1  and in plan in ,fig4 #b2     
,fig4 #d is a transverse view of it4 ,it
 consists  of a large cast iron chest1  
,d1 bolted by means of its flanged base 
to  a masonry support4 ,this chest is   
cast in a piece with a pump chamber1    
,d'1 in which works a piston mounted on 
the prolongation1 d'1 of the  piston-rod
 of the cylinder1 ,c4 ,the diameter of  
this piston is #baj  millimeters1 and   
its stroke is #fej4 ,the condensing jet1
 whose flow is  regulated by the cock1  

d1 is brought into contact with the     
steam by  a rose1 d1 which divides it   
into small drops4    ,the pump is a     
double acting one4 ,its valves are of   
rubber1 and the  passage-way allowed the
 water is1 in each of them1 in section1 
one-half  that of the piston4 ,the rod1 
d'1 slides in a stuffing-box1 with      
metallic lining1 which is shown in ,fig4
 #aj4    ,lubrication4--,the lubrication
 of the crank-pin presents some         
peculiarities4 ,two stationary cups1 z1 
are placed at the upper  part of the    
guides1 as seen in ,fig4 #c4 ,these     
distribute their oil1  drop by drop1    
into two reservoirs1 z'1 fixed to the   
upper axis  of the vertical             
connecting-rod4 ,two small brass tubes1 
resting  against the connecting-rod1    
lead the lubricator into cavities in the
  head of the horizontal connecting-rod1
 ,m'4 ,one of these cavities            
corresponds to the crank-pin and the    
other to the lower axis of the  vertical
 connecting-rod4 ,the lubrication of the

 cylinders is effected  automatically by
 means of a ,consolin apparatus 7,fig4  
#a71 based upon the  condensation of the
 steam and upon the difference between  
the density  of the oil and condensed   
water4    ,diagram of ,distribution     
7,fig4 #aa74--,we shall first examine   
that  which relates to the small        
cylinder4 ,the eccentric of the         
distributing  slide-valves is adjusted  
to #abc with respect to the crank1 and  
that  of the expansion slide-valves to  
#agj1 that is to say1 so that the       
angles of advance are respectively #ee  
and #eg millimeters for these two       
cylinders4    ,let us trace two axes1 o 
x and o y1 at right angles1 and a       
semi-circumference of any radius        
whatever1 o m1 which shall represent    
the travel of the crank-pin4 ,let us    
draw the line1 o ,a1 making with  o y an
 angle of advance of #cc1 and the length
 of which is equal to  the eccentricity 
of the distributing slide-valve1 say #ee
 millimeters1  and let us describe a    

circumference on this length taken as a 
diameter4  ,let us trace in the same way
 the line1 o ,b1 making with o y  an    
angle of advance of #hj1 and let us     
describe upon this line a  circumference
 equal in diameter to the eccentricity  
of the distributing  slide-valve1 say   
#eg millimeters4    ,finally1 let us    
trace points1 o and c1 as centers of    
arcs of  circles having respectively for
 radii the distance between the centers 
of the circumferences just mentioned and
 the eccentricity of the  expansion     
slide-valve4 ,these two arcs will       
intersect each other at a  point1 c1    
which is thus the fourth angle of a     
parallelogram whose  other angles are   
the points1 c1 c'1 and o4 ,from the     
point1 c1  as a center let us describe a
 circle passing through o4    ,in short1
 we obtain three circles that are such  
that the vector  radii1 starting from   
the point1 o1 and limited at the said   
circles1  represent1 for the first1 the 
deviations to the right of the          

distributing slide-valve beginning at   
the middle of its travel1 the  second   
the deviations of the expansion         
slide-valve1 and the third the  relative
 deviations of the distributing with    
respect to the expansion  slide-valve4  
,let us complete the diagram by         
describing1 from the point1 o1 as  a    
center1 circumferences having for       
respective radii the length1 o  e1 of   
the external overlap of the distributing
 slide-valve1 and the  lengths1 o i and 
o i'1 corresponding to the minimum and  
maximum  of the interval between one of 
the edges of the expansion slide-valve  
and the external edge of the            
corresponding inlet orifice of the      
distributing slide-valve1 when the axes 
of these two valves coincide4    ,these 
radii have the values3 o e  #be mm42 o i
  #h mm42 and o i'   #db mm4 ,let us now
 prolong the radii1 o d1 o d'1 o d1 and 
o  f1 until they meet the crank circle1 
and let us then project these  points of
 intersection upon a line1 ,m ,m'1      

parallel with o x1 and we  shall have   
all the elements that are necessary to  
study the different  phases of the      
distribution in the small cylinder4     
,let us complete this diagram in such a 
way as to study also the  distribution  
in the large cylinder3    ,in this      
cylinder the distribution cannot be     
modified1 that is to say1  the active   
length of the expansion slide-valve is  
invariable4 ,the  interval comprised    
between one of the edges of this valve  
and the  internal edge of the           
corresponding inlet orifice is equal1   
then1 to #bh  mm4 when the axes of the  
two valves coincide4    ,let us         
describe1 from o as a center1 a circle  
having this length for  a radius1 and   
let us again project the intersections  
of the radius1  o k1 with the crank     
circle upon a parallel at ,m ,m'4 ,the  
external  overlap1 being the same as in 
the small cylinder1 say #be millimeters1
  the circle1 o e1 already traced for   
the distribution in the small  cylinder1

 will serve for the distribution in the 
large one4 ,let us join  its            
intersection with the circle1 c1 and the
 center1 o1 and let us  trace also the  
circle of the internal overlap and the  
radii1 o g1 and  o h1 and we shall have 
all the elements of the distribution4   
,advantages of the ,engine4--,the engine
 that we have just described  presents  
all the advantages possessed by         
horizontal motors and double  cylinder  
vertical ones without their many        
inconveniences4 ,it1 in fact1  takes up 
less space than the former1 while it    
possesses more stability  than the      
latter4 ,its operation is as regular as 
that of an engine  having two cranks    
adjusted at right angles4    ,the       
cranked shaft1 a costly member of an    
engine1 and one whose duration  is      
always uncertain1 despite the care that 
has been taken in making it1  is here   
done away with4    ,the kind of         
distribution adopted is well adapted to 
the great  variations in expansion1 and1

 notwithstanding the two superposed     
slide-valves in each cylinder1 two      
eccentrics suffice to operate them4     
,the regulator1 thanks to the mechanism 
that connects it with the  expansion    
plate1 is freed from all exaggerated    
resistance1 the  eccentric rod alone    
supporting the entire stress4 ,the      
regulator is  consequently very         
sensitive1 and is capable of giving a   
coefficient of  regularity which is more
 than sufficient in most cases4 ,the    
condenser1  with its wide apertures1 is 
capable of operating with great speed   
without shock4    ,we may add to this   
that the engine is simple and compact2  
the number  of parts is few1 and all can
 be easily got at2 the bearings are     
long1  and the wear is consequently     
reduced2 the dimensions of the steam    
ports are wide and permit of great      
velocities being reached without        
counter-pressures2 the mode of          
lubrication has been well studied1 and  
requires but little attention on the    

part of the engine man2 and1  finally1  
the cylinder jackets and the            
superheating of the steam after  it has 
begun to expand make this an economical 
motor aside from all the  advantages    
that we have enumerated4--,publication  
,industrielle4           99       99    
99       99       99          ,,improved
 ,,gas ,,engine4      ,the accompanying 
engravings illustrate ,edwards' patent  
gas engine1 made  by ,messrs4 ,cobham   
,co41 ,stevenage1 ,herts1 recently      
exhibited at ,york4  ,in our engravings1
 a is the foundation plate of the       
engine1 having  the bearing1 b1 in which
 the crank shaft1 c1 revolves2 d1 an    
inclined plate upon the foundation1 a1  
to which the cylinder1 e1  and casing1  
f1 are bolted2 g is a piston working in 
the cylinder1  e1 and having a hollow   
rod or trunk1 h1 to which is jointed the
  connecting rod1 i1 which drives the   
crank pin1 k4 ,the guide1 l1  fits upon 
the hollow trunk1 h1 and is itself      
surrounded by the air  casing1 m1 which 

communicates with the casing1 f1 through
 openings1  n n1 in the inclined plate1 
d4 ,the guide1 l1 has openings1 o  o1   
through which air enters the casing1 m1 
when the hollow trunk1  h1 is at the    
inner end of its stroke2 p is the       
exhaust pipe1 and  r is a casing round  
the cylinder1 e1 through which water may
 be  made to circulate by pipes at s1 t4
 ,the valve seat1 v1 fits into  the     
cylinder1 e1 and has holes1 w1 for the  
admission of air1 and  x for the        
admission of gas through the central    
pipe1 y4 ,the valve1  z1 consists of a  
disk of metal covering these holes and  
guided  by a spindle1 ,a1 the outer end 
of which is fitted with a metal or      
,india-rubber spring at ,b1 and a       
regulating nut1 ,c4 ,the gas pipe1 y1   
is shown supplied from a flexible bag1  
,d1 the supply to which from any        
convenient source is regulated by a cock
 or valve at ,e4 ,the piston1  g1       
contains a disk exhaust valve1 ,g1 the  
spindle1 ,h1 of which is  fitted with a 

closing spring1 ,i1 and the end of the  
spindle is pressed  down during the     
inner stroke of the piston by a         
tail-piece1 ,k1 on the  inner end of the
 connecting rod1 i4 ,holes1 ,l1 open    
from the hollow  piston above the       
exhaust valve1 ,g1 into the cylinder    
round the hollow  trunk1 h1 and thence  
to the exhaust pipe1 p4 ,at or near     
one-third  of the stroke of the piston a
 firing valve1 ,p1 is arranged1 having  
an  inlet hanging valve of the usual    
kind1 through which a flame burning     
outside is drawn when the valve is      
uncovered by the piston1 g4 ,the  outer 
end of the casing1 f1 is closed by a    
cover1 ,r1 to which the  valve seat1 v1 
and gas inlet pipe1 g1 are connected4   
,the operation of the engine is as      
follows3 ,the piston1 g1 being at  the  
inner end of its stroke1 the crank is   
turned round in the direction  of the   
arrow1 and the piston draws air in      
through the holes1 w1 and  gas through  
the holes1 x1 the two mixing as they    

pass under the  inlet valve1 z4 ,when   
the piston has advanced far enough to   
uncover  the firing valve1 ,p1 the flame
 is drawn in and the inflammable mixture
  exploded1 the expansion of the air and
 gas closing the inlet valve1  z1 and   
carrying the piston to the end of the   
stroke4 ,the momentum  of the fly-wheel 
then carries the piston back through its
 return  stroke1 during which the       
tail-piece1 ,k1 presses the spindle1 ,h1
 and  opens the exhaust valve1 ,g1      
through which expanded air and gas      
escape  to the exhaust pipe1 p4 ,it is  
claimed that this arrangement is very   
effective in securing a complete        
clearance from the cylinder of the      
products of combustion1 which1 when not 
wholly removed1 vitiate the  incoming   
charge and reduce efficiency4    ,when  
the piston arrives at the inner end of  
its stroke1 the exhaust  valve1 ,g1 is  
closed by the spring1 ,i1 and a fresh   
supply of air and  gas are drawn in     
through the inlet valve seat1 v1 as the 

piston  again commences its outer       
stroke4 ,in order to keep the cylinder1 
e1  sufficiently cool1 whether the water
 casing at r1 be used or not1  the whole
 supply of air is drawn from the front  
end of the cylinder  through the        
openings1 n n1 and thence between the   
cylinder1 e1 and  the casing1 f1 and    
round the end of the latter to the inlet
 valve1  v4 ,and in order to prevent or 
lessen the noise of the explosions1 the 
hollow trunk1 h1 is made of such length 
that its front edge closes  the openings
 in the guide1 l1 through which air is  
drawn into the air  casing m1 and       
through the openings1 n n1 just before  
the explosion  takes place1 the noise of
 which therefore cannot escape4 ,for the
 same  purpose fibrous or porous        
material1 such as mineral or slag wool1 
may  be placed loosely in the space     
between the cylinder and the casing1 f4 
,the engine may be made to revolve in   
the opposite direction to the  arrow by 
turning the piston and connecting rod   

round so that the  tail-piece upon the  
latter is above instead of below1 and   
instead of  the water casing1 r1 radial 
ribs may be formed upon the cylinder1   
e1 from which the air passing between   
them inside the casing1 f1  absorbs the 
heat4 ,the cylinder is arranged         
preferably in the inclined  position    
shown1 but it may1 of course1 be fixed  
in any other convenient                 
position4--,engineering4                
,illustration3 ,,improved ,,gas         
,,engine4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,meters    
,,for ,,power ,,and ,,electricity4#a    
,by ,,mr4 ,c4 ,,vernon ,,boys4      ,the
 subject of this evening's              
discourse--,meters for ,power and       
,electricity--is unfortunately1 from a  
lecturer's point of view1 one of        
extreme difficulty1 for it is impossible
 to fully describe any single           
instrument of the class without diving  
into technical and mathematical         
niceties which this audience might well 

consider more scientific than           
entertaining4 ,if1 then1 in my endeavor 
to explain these instruments and  the   
purposes which they are intended to     
fulfill1 in language as simple  and     
untechnical as possible1 ,i am not as   
successful as you have a right  to      
expect1 ,i must ask you to lay some of  
the blame on my subject and  not all on 
myself4    ,i shall at once explain what
 ,i mean by the term meter1 and ,i shall
  take the flow of water in a trough as 
an illustration of my meaning4  ,if we  
hang in a trough a weighted board1 then1
 when the water flows  past it1 the     
board will be pushed back2 when the     
current of water is  strong1 the board  
will be pushed back a long way2 when the
 current is  less1 it will not be pushed
 so far2 when the water runs the other  
way1  the board will be pushed the other
 way4 ,so by observing the position of  
the board1 we can tell how strong the   
current of water is at any time4  ,now  
suppose we wish to know1 not how strong 

the current of water is at  this time or
 at that1 but how much water altogether 
has passed through  the trough during   
any time1 as1 for instance1 one hour4   
,then if we have  no better instrument  
than the weighted board1 it will be     
necessary  to observe its position      
continuously to keep an exact record of 
the  corresponding rates at which the   
water is passing every minute1 or       
better every second1 and to add up all  
the values obtained4 ,this would1  of   
course1 be a very troublesome process4  
,there is another kind of instrument    
which may be used to measure the  flow  
of the water--a paddle wheel or screw4  
,when the water is flowing  rapidly1 the
 wheel will turn rapidly2 when slowly1  
the wheel will turn  slowly2 and when   
the water flows the other way1 the wheel
 will turn the  other way1 so that if we
 observe how fast the wheel is turning  
we can  tell how fast the water is      
flowing4 ,if1 now1 we wish to know how  
much  water altogether has passed       

through the trough1 the number of turns 
of  the wheel1 which may be shown by a  
counter1 will at once tell us4 ,there   
are1 therefore1 in the case of water1   
two kinds of instruments1 one  which    
measures at a time1 and the other during
 a time4 ,the term meter  should be     
confined to instruments of the second   
class only4    ,as with water so with   
electricity1 there are two kinds of     
measuring  instruments1 one of which1   
the galvanometer1 may be taken as a     
type1 which shows by the position of a  
magnet how strong a current  of         
electricity is at a time2 and the other 
which shows how much  electricity has   
passed during any time4 ,of the first1  
which are well  understood1 ,i shall say
 nothing2 the second1 the new electric  
meters  and the corresponding meters for
 power1 are what ,i have to speak of    
to-night4 ,it is hardly necessary for me
 to mention the object of  making       
electric meters4 ,every one who has had 
to pay his gas bill once  a quarter     

probably quite appreciates what the     
electric meters are  going to do1 and   
why they are at the present time        
attracting so much  attention4 ,so soon 
as you have electricity laid on in your 
houses1 as  gas and water are laid on   
now1 so soon will a meter of some sort  
be  necessary1 in order that the        
companies which supply the electricity  
may be able to make out their quarterly 
bills1 and refer complaining  customers 
to the faithful indications of their    
extravagance in the  mysterious cupboard
 in which the motor is placed4 ,the     
urgent necessity  for a good meter has  
called such a host of inventors into the
 field1  that a complete account of     
their labors is more than any one could 
hope to give in an hour4 ,since ,i am   
one of this host1 ,i hardly like to     
pick out those inventions which ,i      
consider of value4 ,i cannot describe   
all1 ,i cannot act as a judge and say1  
these only are worthy of your           
attention2 and ,i do not think ,i should

 be acting fairly if ,i were to         
describe my own instruments only and    
ignore those of every one else4  ,the   
only way ,i see out of the difficulty is
 to speak more particularly  about my   
own work in this direction1 and to speak
 generally on the work  of others4    ,i
 must now ask you to give your attention
 for a few minutes to a little  abstract
 geometry4 ,we may represent any        
changing quantity1 as1 for  instance1   
the strength of an electrical current1  
by a crooked line4 ,for  this purpose we
 must draw a straight line to represent 
time1 and make  the distance of each    
point of the crooked line above the     
straight line  a measure of the strength
 of the current at the corresponding    
time4  ,the size of the figure will then
 measure the quantity of electricity    
that has passed1 for the stronger the   
current is the taller the figure  will  
be1 and the longer it lasts the longer  
the figure will be2 either  cause makes 
both the quantity of electricity and the

 size of the figure  greater1 and in the
 same proportion1 so the one is a       
measure of the  other4 ,now it is not an
 easy thing to measure the size of a    
figure2  the distance round it tells    
nothing2 there is1 however1 a           
geometrical  method by which its size   
may be found4 ,draw another line1 with a
 great  steepness where the figure is   
tall1 and with a less steepness where   
the  height is less1 and with no        
steepness or horizontal where the figure
  has no height4 ,if this is done       
accurately1 the height to which the new 
line reaches will measure the size of   
the figure first drawn2 for the  taller 
the figure is1 the steeper the hill will
 be2 the longer the  figure1 the longer 
the hill2 either cause makes both the   
size of the  figure and the height of   
the hill greater1 and in the same       
proportion2  so the one is a measure of 
the other1 and so1 moreover1 is the     
height  of the hill1 which can be       
measured by scale1 a measure of the     

quantity  of electricity that has       
passed4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a     
,the first instrument that ,i made1     
which ,i have called a cart  integrator1
 is a machine which1 if the lower figure
 is traced out1 will  describe the      
upper4 ,i will trace a circle2 the      
instrument follows the  curious bracket 
shaped line that ,i have already made   
sufficiently black  to be seen at a     
distance4 ,the height of the new line   
measures the size  of the circle2 the   
instrument has squared the circle4 ,this
 machine  is a thing of mainly          
theoretical interest2 my only object in 
showing  it is to explain the means by  
which ,i have developed a practical and 
automatic instrument1 of which ,i shall 
speak presently4 ,the guiding  principle
 in the cart integrator is a little     
three-wheeled cart1 whose  front wheel  
is controlled by the machine4 ,this1 of 
course1 is invisible  at a distance1 and
 therefore ,i have here a large front   
wheel alone4 ,on  moving this along the 

table1 any twisting of its direction    
instantly  causes it to deviate from its
 straight path4 ,now suppose ,i do not  
let  it deviate1 but compel it to go    
straight1 then at once a great strain   
is put upon the table2 which is urged   
the other way4 ,if the table can  move1 
it will instantly do so4 ,a table on    
rollers is inconvenient as  an          
instrument1 let us therefore roll it    
round into a roller1 then on  moving the
 wheel along it the roller will turn1   
and the amount by which  it turns will  
correspond to the height of the second  
figure drawn by  the cart integrator4   
,if1 therefore1 the wheel is inclined by
 a magnet  under the influence of an    
electric current1 or by any other cause1
 the  whole amount of which we wish to  
know1 then the number of turns of the   
rollers will tell us this amount2 or to 
go back to our water analogy1  if we had
 the weighted board to show current     
strength1 and had not the  paddle wheel 
to show total quantity1 we might use the

 board to incline  a disk in contact    
with a roller1 and then drag the rollers
 steadily  along by clockwork4 ,the     
number of turns of the roller would give
 the  quantity of water4 ,instruments   
that will thus add up continuously      
indications at a time1 and so find      
amounts during a time1 are called       
integrators4 ,the most important        
application that ,i have made at present
  of the integrator described is what ,i
 have called an engine-power  meter4    
,the instrument is on the table1 but as 
it is far too small to  be seen at a    
distance1 ,i have arranged a large model
 to illustrate  its action4 ,the object 
of this machine is to measure how much  
work an  engine has done during any     
time1 and show the result on a dial1 so 
that a workman may read it off at once1 
without having to make any              
calculations4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#b    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d    ,before ,i  
can explain how work is measured1       

perhaps ,i had better say  a few words  
about the meaning of the word work4     
,work is done when  pressure overcomes  
resistance1 producing motion4 ,neither  
motion nor  pressure alone is work4 ,the
 two factors1 pressure and motion1 must 
occur together4 ,the work done is found 
by multiplying the pressure by  the     
distance moved4 ,in an engine1 steam    
pushes the piston first one  way then   
the other1 overcomes resistance1 and    
does work4 ,to find this  we must       
multiply the pressure by the motion at  
every instant1 and add  all the products
 together4 ,this is what the engine     
power-meter does1  and it shows the     
continuously growing result on a dial4  
,when the piston  moves1 it drags the   
cylinder along2 where the steam presses1
 the wheel  is inclined4 ,neither action
 alone causes the cylinder to turn1 but 
when they occur together the cylinder   
turns1 and the number of turns          
registered on a dial shows with         
mathematical accuracy how much work has 

been done4    ,in the steam engine work 
is done in an alternating manner1 and it
 so  happens that this alternating      
action exactly suits the integrator4    
,suppose1 however1 that the action1     
whatever it may be1 which we wish to    
estimate is of a continuous kind1 such1 
for instance1 as the continuous  passage
 of an electric current4 ,then1 if by   
means of any device we can  suitably    
incline the wheel1 so long as we keep   
pushing the cylinder  along so long will
 its rotation measure and indicate the  
result2 but  there must come a time when
 the end of the cylinder is reached4 ,if
 then  we drag it back again1 instead of
 going on adding up it will begin to    
take off from the result1 and the hands 
on the dial will go backward1  which is 
clearly wrong4 ,so long as the current  
continues1 so long must  the hands on   
the dial turn in one direction4 ,this   
effect is obtained  in the instrument   
now on the table1 the electric energy   
meter1 in this  way4 ,clockwork causes  

the cylinder to travel backward and     
forward by  means of what is called a   
mangle motion2 but instead of moving    
always  in contact with each wheel1 the 
cylinder goes forward in contact with   
one and backward in contact with another
 on its opposite side4 ,in this         
instrument the inclination of the wheels
 is effected by an arrangement  of coils
 of wire1 the main current passing      
through two fixed concentric  solenoids1
 and a shunt current through a great    
length of fine wire  on a movable       
solenoid1 hanging in the space between  
the others4 ,the  movable portion has an
 equal number of turns in opposite      
directions1  and is therefore unaffected
 by magnets held near it4 ,the effect of
 this  arrangement is that the energy of
 the current--that is1 the quantity     
multiplied by the force driving it1 or  
the electrical equivalent of  mechanical
 power--is measured by the slope of the 
wheels1 and the  amount of work done by 
the current during any time1 by the     

number of  turns of the cylinder1 which 
is registered on a dial4 ,professors    
,ayrton  and ,perry have devised an     
instrument which is intended to show the
 same  thing4 ,they make use of a clock 
and cause it to go too fast or too slow 
by the action of the main on the shunt  
current2 the amount of wrongness  of the
 clock1 and not the time shown1 is said 
to measure the work done  by the        
current4 ,this method of measuring the  
electricity by the work  it has done is 
one which has been proposed to enable   
the electrical  companies to make out   
their bills4    ,the other method is to 
measure the amount of electricity that  
has  passed without regard to the work  
done4 ,there are three lines on which   
inventors have worked for this purpose4 
,the first1 which has been used  in     
every laboratory ever since electricity 
has been understood1 is  the chemical   
method4 ,when electricity passes through
 a salt solution  it carries metal with 
it1 and deposits it on the plate by     

which the  electricity leaves the       
liquid4 ,the amount of metal deposited  
is a  measure of the quantity of        
electricity4 ,mr4 ,sprague and ,mr4     
,edison  have adopted this method2 but  
as it is impossible to allow the whole  
of a strong current to pass through a   
liquid1 the current is divided2  a small
 proportion only is allowed to pass     
through4 ,provided that the  proportion 
does not vary1 and that the metal never 
has any motions on  its own account1 the
 increase in the weight of one of the   
metal plates  measures the quantity of  
electricity4    ,the next method depends
 on the use of some sort of integrating 
machine1  and this being the most       
obvious method has been attempted by a  
large  number of inventors4 ,any machine
 of this kind is sure to go1 and is     
sure to indicate something1 which will  
be more nearly a measure of  electricity
 as the skill of the inventor is        
greater4    ,meters for electricity of  
the third class are dynamical in their  

action1 and ,i believe that what ,i have
 called the vibrating meter was  the    
first of its class4 ,it is well known   
that a current passing round  iron makes
 it magnetic4 ,the force which such a   
magnet exerts is greater  when the      
current is greater1 but it is not simply
 proportional4 ,if the  current is twice
 or three times as strong1 the force is 
four times or  nine times as great1 or1 
generally1 the force is proportional to 
the  square of the current4 ,again1 when
 a body vibrates under the influence  of
 a controlling force1 as a pendulum     
under the influence of gravity1  four   
times as much force is necessary to make
 it vibrate twice as fast1  and nine    
times to make it vibrate three times as 
fast2 or1 generally1  the square of the 
number measures the force4 ,i will      
illustrate this  by a model4 ,here are  
two sticks nicely balanced on points1   
and drawn  into a middle position by    
pieces of tape1 to which weights may be 
hung4 ,they are identical in every      

respect4 ,i will now hang a #a lb4      
weight to each tape1 and let the pieces 
of wood swing4 ,they keep time  together
 absolutely4 ,i will now put #b lb4 on  
one tape4 ,it is clear that  the        
corresponding stick is going faster1 but
 certainly not twice as  fast4 ,i will  
now hang on #d lb4 ,one stick is going  
at exactly twice the  pace of the other4
 ,to make one go three times as fast it 
is obviously  useless to put on #c lb41 
for it takes four to make it go twice as
  fast4 ,i will hang on #i lb4 ,one now 
goes exactly three times as fast as  the
 other4 ,i will now put #d lb4 on the   
first1 and leave the #i lb4 on  the     
second2 the first goes twice while the  
second goes three times4  ,if instead of
 a weight we use electro-magnetic force 
to control the  vibrations of a body1   
then twice the current produces four    
times the  force1 four times the force  
produces twice the rate2 three times the
  current produces nine times the force1
 nine times the force produces  three   

times the rate1 and so on2 or the rate  
is directly proportional  to the current
 strength4 ,there is on the table a     
working meter made  on this principle4  
,i allow the current that passes through
 to pass  also through a galvanometer of
 special construction1 so that you can  
tell by the position of a spot of light 
on a scale the strength of the  current4
 ,at the present time there is no       
current2 the light is on the  zero of   
the scale2 the meter is at rest4 ,i now 
allow a current to pass  from a battery 
of the new ,faure-,sellon-,volckmar     
cells which the ,storage  ,company have 
kindly lent me for this occasion4 ,the  
light moves through  one division on the
 scale1 and the meter has started4 ,i   
will ask you  to observe its rate of    
vibration4 ,i will now double the       
current4 ,this  is indicated by the     
light moving to the end of the second   
division on  the scale2 the meter       
vibrates twice as fast4 ,now the current
 is three  times as strong1 now four    

times1 and so on4 ,you will observe that
  the position of the spot of light and 
the rate of vibration always            
correspond4 ,every vibration of the     
meter corresponds to a definite         
quantity of electricity1 and causes a   
hand on a dial to move on one  step4 ,by
 looking at the dial1 we can see how    
many vibrations there  have been and    
therefore how much electricity has      
passed4 ,just as the  vibrating sticks  
in the model in time to come rest1 so   
the vibrating  part of the meter would  
in time do the same1 if it were not kept
  going by an impulse automatically     
given to it when required4 ,also1  just 
as the vibrating sticks can be timed to 
one another by sliding  weights along   
them1 so the vibrating electric meters  
can be regulated  to one another so that
 all shall indicate the same value for  
the same  current1 by changing the      
position or weight of the bobs attached 
to the  vibrating arm4 ,the other meter 
of this class1 ,dr4 ,hopkinson's1       

depends  on the fact that centrifugal   
force is proportional to the square of  
the  angular velocity4 ,he therefore    
allows a little motor to drive a shaft  
faster and faster1 until centrifugal    
force overcomes electro-magnetic        
attraction1 when the action of the motor
 ceases4 ,the number of turns of  the   
motor is a measure of the quantity of   
electricity that has passed4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4    ,i will now 
pass on to the measurement of power     
transmitted by belting4  ,the           
transmission of power by a strap is     
familiar to every one in a  treadle     
sewing machine or an ordinary lathe4    
,the driving force depends  on the      
difference in the tightness of the two  
sides of the belt1 and  the power       
transmitted is equal to this difference 
multiplied by the  speed2 a power meter 
must1 therefore1 solve this problem--it 
must  subtract the tightness of one side
 from the tightness of the other  side1 
multiply the difference by the speed at 

every instant1 and add  all the products
 together1 continuously representing the
 growing amount  on a dial4 ,i shall now
 show for the first time an instrument  
that ,i  have devised1 that will do all 
this in the simplest possible manner4   
,i have here two wheels connected by a  
driving band of ,india-rubber1  round   
which ,i have tied every few inches a   
piece of white silk ribbon4  ,i shall   
turn one a little way1 and hold the     
other4 ,the driving force is  indicated 
by a difference of stretching2 the      
pieces of silk are much  further apart  
on the tight side than they are on the  
loose4 ,i shall now  turn the handle1   
and cause the wheels to revolve2 the    
motion of the  band is visible to all4  
,the ,india-rubber is traveling faster  
on the  tight side than on the loose    
side1 nearly twice as fast2 this must be
  so1 for as there is less material on  
the tight side than on the loose1  there
 would be a gradual accumulation of the 
,india-rubber round the  driven pulley1 

if they traveled at the same speed2     
since there is no  accumulation1 the    
tight side must travel the fastest4 ,now
 it may be  shown mathematically that   
the difference in the speeds is         
proportional  both to the actual speed  
and to the driving strain2 it is1       
therefore1  a measure of the power or   
work being transmitted1 and the         
difference  in the distance traveled is 
a measure of the work done4 ,i have here
 a  working machine which shows directly
 on a dial the amount of work done2     
this ,i will show in action directly4   
,instead of ,india-rubber1 elastic      
steel is used4 ,since the driving pulley
 has the velocity of the tight  side1   
and the driven of the loose side of the 
belt1 the difference in  the number of  
their turns1 if they are of equal size1 
will measure  the work4 ,this difference
 ,i measure by differential gearing     
which  actuates a hand on a dial4 ,i may
 turn the handle as fast as ,i please2  
the index does not move1 for no work is 

being done4 ,i may hold the  wheel1 and 
produce a great driving strain2 again   
the index remains at  rest1 for no work 
is being done4 ,i now turn the handle   
quickly1 and  lightly touch the driven  
wheel with my finger4 ,the resistance1  
small  though it is1 has to be overcome2
 a minute amount of work is being  done2
 the index creeps round gently4 ,i will 
now put more pressure on my  finger1    
more work is being done1 the index is   
moving faster2 whether ,i  increase the 
speed or the resistance1 the index turns
 faster2 its rate  of motion measures   
the power1 and the distance it has      
moved1 or the  number of turns1 measures
 the work done4 ,that this is so ,i will
 show  by experiment4 ,i will wind up in
 front of a scale a #g lb4 weight2 the  
hand has turned one-third round4 ,i will
 now wind a #bh lb weight up the  same  
height2 the hand has turned four-thirds 
of a turn4 ,there are other  points of a
 practical nature with regard to this   
invention which ,i  cannot now describe4

    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4    ,there 
is one other class of instruments which 
,i have developed of  which time will   
let me say very little4 ,the object of  
this class of  instruments is to divide 
the speed with which two registrations  
are  being effected1 and continuously   
record the quotient4 ,in the instrument 
on the table two iron cones are caused  
to rotate in time with the              
registrations2 a magnetized steel reel  
hangs on below4 ,this reel turns  about1
 and runs up or down the cones until it 
finds a place at which  it can roll at  
ease4 ,its position at once indicates   
the ratio of the  speeds1 which will be 
efficiency1 horse-power per hour or one 
thing  in terms of another4 ,just as the
 integrators are derived from the       
steering of the ordinary bicycle1 so    
this instrument is derived from  the    
double steering of the ,otto bicycle4   
,though ,i am afraid that ,i  have not  
succeeded in the short time at my       
disposal in making clear  all the points

 on which ,i have touched1 yet ,i hope  
that ,i have done  something to remove  
the very prevalent opinion that meters  
for power  and electricity do not exist4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the    
,,building ,,supported ,,by ,,screws4   
7,,side ,,view47    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,building ,,ready    
,,to ,,be ,,moved4 7,,side ,,view47     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,the        
,,building ,,supported ,,by ,,screws4   
7,,front ,,view47    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #d4--,,the ,,building ,,ready    
,,to ,,be ,,moved4 7,,front ,,view47    
,,figs4 #a ,,to #d4--;,,building        
,,occupied ,,by ,,the ,,offices ,,of    
,,the ,,new ,,york1  ,,lackawanna       
,,western ,,railroad4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #e4--,,the ,,wall1 ,a ,b1        
,,supported ,,by ,,screws4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,wall1
 ,c ,d1 ,,ready ,,to ,,be ,,moved4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,method ,,of
 ,,moving ,,the ,,jack ,,screws4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   

#h4--;,,jack-,,screw4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #aa4--;,,hollingworth',s         
,,double-,,threaded ,,screw ,,for       
,,quickly ,,moving ,,buildings4         
,,raising ,,and ,,moving ,,masonry      
,,buildings4           99       99      
99       99       99          ,,raising 
,,and ,,moving ,,masonry ,,buildings4   
,the first important application of the 
method of lifting massive  structures   
and moving them to another spot was made
 two years ago at  ,boston1 ,mass41 in  
the moving back of a hotel that stood   
about fourteen  feet on the line of a   
proposed widening of ,tremont ,street4  
,since that  time several analogous     
cases have occurred in several cities of
 the  ,united ,states1 so that1 for this
 sort of work1 a general method of      
operating has been devised1             
notwithstanding the special difficulties
  that present themselves according to  
the different methods of  construction  
and the surroundings4    ,all           
structures1 before being moved1 must    

first be separated from their           
foundations and then raised4 ,these     
operations are certainly the most       
costly and those that take the longest  
time4 ,it is necessary to take  minute  
precautions and to exercise great       
watchfulness in order to  succeed in    
planting solidly on the ground the      
timber work that has  to support the    
pressure of the screws by means of which
 the entire  building is to be afterward
 raised4 ,the success of the operation  
depends absolutely upon the care and    
attention that are bestowed upon  these 
preliminary operations1 since the least 
negligence may lead to a  disaster4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,moving ,a  
,,house ,,between ,,two ,,fixed ,,walls4
    ,,fig4 #aj4--,,method ,,of ,,moving 
,a ,,house ,,without ,,lifting ,,it4    
,,raising ,,and ,,moving ,,masonry      
,,buildings4    ,the accompanying       
figures show the method employed in     
moving several  buildings of different  
construction1 and the peculiar          

arrangements that  have been made1      
according to circumstances4    ,the     
instrument most commonly employed in the
 execution of such work  consists of the
 following parts3 7#a7 of a cast iron   
screw having a  pitch of #j4ef inch2    
7#b7 of a nut provided with a shoulder  
and two  projections that serve to fix  
it2 and 7#c7 of a cast iron plate that  
is  interposed between the head of the  
screw and the beam upon which the       
latter is to exert its pressure4        
,moreover1 each nut is set into an oak  
block1 #d inches in thickness1 which    
rests upon the upper beams of the       
timber work that is designed to sustain 
the structure4    ,all the pieces of    
wood of the timber work1 properly so    
called1 are  of spruce1 and measure     
#fx#f inches4 ,those that are in a      
direction  perpendicular to the         
foundation walls are #c feet in length  
while the  longitudinal ones must be    
long enough to support several screws in
  order to annul the effect of joints4  

,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d represent a   
house at ,buffalo belonging to the ,new 
,york and ,lackawanna ,railroad         
,company1 constructed of bricks and     
having  a frontage of #ij feet4 ,between
 the openings in the latter there are   
pillars of dressed stone and cast iron  
columns4 ,the building is four  stories 
high1 and the outer walls are #a foot in
 thickness4    ,during the month of     
,june1 #ahhb1 this structure was raised 
all in  one piece and moved back #ce    
feet1 in order to give greater width to 
the railway4 ,this work was performed in
 so regular a manner that no            
interruption occurred in the business of
 the ,company's offices4    ,the first  
operation consisted in running well     
squared spruce beams1 #ab  in4  #h ft41 
through the walls and under the ground  
floor4 ,these beams  projected beyond   
the wall on each side and were spaced   
about #c feet  apart1 and care was taken
 to have them in the same horizontal    
plane4  ,after ramming down the earth   

upon which the timber work1 f1 was to   
rest1 the first transverse beams forming
 the foundation platform were  laid in  
place in such a way as to have between  
them the same spacing  as between the   
cross-pieces1 a1 and so as to be exactly
 on the same  level4 ,these were        
afterward surmounted with longitudinal  
beams with  alternate transverse ones   
until the desired height was reached4   
,this  framework having once been put in
 place1 there were placed in the axis   
of each piece of timber work            
string-pieces1 b1 which ran without a   
break the entire length of the wall4    
,jack-screws1 v1 of the kind  above     
described1 were finally arranged in     
pairs under each of the  cross-pieces1  
a4    ,on the front side 7,fig4 #c7     
particular precautions were taken to    
support  the stone pillars and iron     
columns4 ,to this end1 apertures were   
made in  the foundation1 starting from  
the axis of the pillars and terminating 
at the axis of the neighboring columns4 

,spruce sills were put into  these      
openings and others between the columns1
 the last-named ones  having been put in
 place after the masonry had been       
completely severed4  ,the cross-pieces1 
a1 were thus under the sills1 g1 before 
the  putting in place of the screws1 v1 
and these latter were maneuvered  in    
such a way as to merely support the     
structure without lifting any of  its   
parts4    ,these preliminaries having   
been finished1 all the pieces of the    
timber  work were examined with the     
greatest care1 while1 at the same time1 
the  joints were consolidated and the   
defects in leveling were rectified by   
means of spruce wedges4    ,during the  
time of lifting1 the workmen were       
arranged in pairs opposite  each other1 
and on each side of the wall1 where each
 one had #ab to  #ad screws to maneuver4
 ,in order to render the motion very    
uniform1  the superintendent of the work
 gave signals by means of a whistle4    
,at this moment each man gave the screw 

a half revolution1 passed to  the       
following one1 and continued thus until 
all the screws under his  supervision   
had been revolved to the same degree4   
,at a fresh signal  this operation was  
begun again1 and so on4    ,when the    
building had been lifted to a height of 
twelve inches1 it  became necessary to  
raise the screws4 ,to effect this1 two  
rows of beams  7,fig4 #g7 were added to 
the timber-work1 and each screw was     
moved in  succession1 so as to always   
leave one in position4 ,by these means  
the  building was gradually lifted to   
the desired height1 and it now became   
necessary to take the requisite measures
 for moving it back4 ,with  this object 
in view1 spruce floor timbers1 e1 very  
smooth and well  lubricated with tallow 
and soap1 were laid upon the timber work
 and  afterward covered with oak planks1
 d1 one inch in thickness1 and upon     
these latter were placed joists1 c1 that
 supported string-pieces1  b1 that were 
firmly fixed to the joists by means of  

spruce pins  driven in with force4 ,as  
the floor timbers that were employed had
 to  be as long as possible1 they were  
united end to end by a strong joint  and
 prolonged as far as the new spot upon  
which the edifice was to  rest4         
,throughout their whole extent they were
 supported by sleepers  that were fixed 
firmly in the earth4 ,the entire weight 
of the structure  being carried by the  
pieces1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 and f1 after  the
 removal of the screws1 the jacks1 ,v1  
were then placed in position1  their    
heads resting against the string-pieces1
 b1 at the points  marked ,s1 and their 
other extremities being received by a   
framework  set into the earth4 ,it took 
but twelve jacks to move the entire     
mass1  and these were maneuvered under  
the orders of a superintendent1 who     
transmitted his signals with a whistle4 
,it took forty days to perform all these
 operations1 and it required  fifty men 
to lift the structure4 ,after the jacks1
 ,v1 had been put in  place1 the        

building was moved in three days1 or at 
the rate of #aa4fh  feet per day4 ,this 
is a medium rate of speed to be adopted 
in the  moving of a structure like this1
 for1 under very favorable conditions1  
it might be carried to over eighteen    
feet per day4    ,the timber work which 
was used in lifting the building was    
afterward  put together again1 in the   
same manner1 around prolonged           
foundations1  and the same were put in  
place a second time after the manner    
described  above4 ,after the floor      
timbers1 e1 had been removed by slightly
 lifting  the load1 and the structure   
had been lowered to its proper position1
  the intervals between the             
cross-pieces1 a1 and the walls of the   
new  foundations were filled in with    
masonry2 the mass was then allowed to   
settle gently down into its place and   
the cross-pieces were removed4    ,when 
buildings stand very near each other1   
timber-work cannot be put  together     
outside of the walls1 and it therefore  

becomes necessary to  adopt the         
arrangement shown in ,fig4 #i1 all the  
work being done here  beneath the       
structure4 ,the cross-pieces1 a1 occupy 
here the entire  width of the house1 and
 are spaced about #cf inches apart from 
axis to  axis4 ,the structure rests upon
 two pieces of timber work constructed  
like the ones mentioned above4 ,besides 
this1 it is necessary to utilize  the   
timbers1 ,l1 of the flooring1 ,p1 for   
supporting a part of the load4          
,during the widening of ,state ,street1 
in ,chicago1 several three or four      
story brick structures were moved in    
this way4 ,one of these houses was  set 
back about four feet without the        
necessity of lifting it4 ,apertures     
7,fig4 #aj7 four feet in length were cut
 in the foundation walls1 the  edges    
were made level1 and planks1 c and c'1  
were inserted and  fixed in tightly by  
wedges4 ,the intervening masonry was    
removed1 and1  after laying planks      
alongside of those already in place1 the

 structure  was put in motion in the    
ordinary way4    ,when single threaded  
screws are employed for moving          
buildings1 it  requires much time and   
manual labor to place and move the      
pieces4  ,for the purpose of securing   
greater rapidity in these operations1   
,mr4 ,hollingsworth has devised a sort  
of jack-screw 7,fig4 #aa7 that  consists
 of a steel screw about eight feet in   
length and three inches  in diameter1   
provided with two threads1 running in   
opposite directions4  ,the nuts are set 
into the corresponding extremities of   
two beams1 one  of which abuts against a
 cast iron brace-block1 n1 held in place
 by  a stirrup-iron1 t1 while the other 
bears against the string-pieces1  b4    
,thanks to this arrangement1 a structure
 may be moved at one time  over a length
 of #f feet instead of #a4c1 the latter 
being the maximum  travel with single   
screws4    ,the method in which slide   
beams1 f1 are prolonged in view of      
resisting  the pressure of the jacks is 

scarcely employed at present1 the       
objection to it being that it occasions 
changes of direction from the  line     
formed by the timber work4 ,for this    
reason1 contractors prefer to  use      
independent posts to receive the        
jacks4--,revue ,industrielle4           
,illustration3 ,,filter ,,for           
,,industrial ,,works           99       
99       99       99       99           
,,filter ,,for ,,industrial ,,works4    
,as a rule1 bleach and dye works are    
established where there is a            
sufficiency of good and soft water1     
except in such cases where for  special 
reasons it is desirable to use town     
water1 and which then  is generally     
clear4 ,where1 however1 water from      
brooks1 rivers1  or lodges is used1 as  
is mostly the case1 it is often         
discolored  after heavy showers by      
earthy substances which are carried away
 by  it4 ,these impurities1 all existing
 in the water in suspension1 are  not at
 all desirable for the dyer1 and less   

for the bleacher1 who  generally allows 
the water to settle in a lodge1 to give 
it time to  deposit its impurities by   
gravitation4 ,we understand that by     
means  such as these even the water of  
the much-abused ,irwell is made1 in a   
,salford bleach-works1 to produce some  
of the most beautiful whites  possible4 
,these lodges occupy1 however1 much     
space1 which is not always  available1  
and filtration is therefore the best    
where it can be carried  out4 ,we here  
produce the description of a cheap and  
efficient filter  which bleachers or    
dyers may easily make for themselves4   
,the dimensions  are of course dependent
 upon the quantity of water to be       
filtered1 and  as a guide we shall      
describe a filter serving for a volume  
of water  of about #a cubic yards per   
minute4 ,in the first instance a hole is
  dug at a point where the water has    
sufficient fall to give it a head1  and 
here a cistern set in cement is bricked 
out1 measuring about #cj  yards in      

length1 #b yards in width1 and #b yards 
in height4 ,across  this cistern two    
partition walls are erected1 one at the 
left resting  upon rails1 and the other 
going down to the bottom of the cistern4
  ,between these two walls railway rails
 are laid crosswise1 and over  these a  
floor of wooden laths4 ,over this floor 
the filtering media are  placed1        
consisting of a bottom layer of stones1 
then a layer of coke1  then a layer of  
gravel1 and lastly of a top layer of    
river sand4 ,the  water enters on the   
left-hand side into the space between   
the outer  wall and the partition1 and  
descends under the floor of the filter1 
through which it rises and passes in    
succession through the four layers  of  
filtering substance until it issues at  
the top1 when it runs over  the         
partition1 and out by the pipe shown in 
the right hand corner4  ,it will be seen
 that the course of the water is upward 
through the  filter1 and in this respect
 contrary to the usual custom4 ,the     

filter  is cleaned about once a month by
 reversing the course of the water1  and
 turning it indirectly on the top of the
 filter--causing it to  run but at the  
bottom--and thus carrying all deposits  
with it4 ,both  the central filtering   
compartments1 as also the overflow      
cistern at  the right hand1 contain1    
near the bottom1 doors1 through which1  
when  opened1 the cleansing water runs  
off by a separate channel to the  river4
 ,the dimensions of the cistern can1 of 
course1 be made to suit  the            
situation4--,tex4 ,manfr4           99  
99       99       99       99           
,,the ,,val ,,st4 ,,lambert ,,glass     
,,works4      ,during the recent meeting
 in ,belgium of the ,institution of     
,mechanical  ,engineers several         
interesting excursions were made1 and by
 no means the  least interesting was the
 visit to the glass works of ,val ,st4  
,lambert4    ,this is one of the largest
 glass works in existence1 entirely     
devoted  to the production of domestic  

articles1 such as tumblers1 wine        
glasses1  lamp chimneys1 and such like4 
,a good deal of ornamental work is also 
turned out1 a staff of highly competent 
artists being employed in  painting     
glass vases1 etc41 such as are used for 
the decoration of  rooms4    ,the ,val  
,st4 ,lambert works stand on the right  
bank of the ,meuse1 in  the commune of  
,seraing1 and about seven and a half    
miles from ,liege4  ,as the head offices
 of ,cockerill's vast establishment are 
located in  the old palace of the       
,bishops of ,liege1 so the              
,cristalleries of ,val  ,st4 ,lambert   
occupy the site of the ,abbey de        
,rosieres4 ,up to the year  #aaib the   
site was almost a desert1 but about that
 period the abbey was  founded4 ,in     
#abjb ,hughes de ,pierrepont1 ,bishop of
 ,liege1 gave to the  monks a tract of  
land and woods situated in what was then
 called the  ,champ des ,maures1 whereon
 was built the abbey4 ,it prospered and 
became  powerful4 ,at the end of the    

last century it was reconstructed1 and  
at  that time were raised the fine      
buildings now used as a manufactory4    
,the rebuilding had hardly been finished
 when the ,revolution came1 and  with it
 the expulsion of the monks4 ,it was    
sold by the nation1 and was  used for   
various manufacturing purposes1 until   
the year #ahbe1 when  it was purchased  
by ,,mm4 ,kemlin and ,lelievre4 ,there  
had previously  existed1 at ,vonche1    
near ,givet1 a glass works carried on by
 ,m4  ,d',artigues1 its owner1 aided by 
,m4 ,kemlin1 his nephew1 and ,m4 ,aug4  
,lelievre4 ,this latter gentleman had   
left the ,ecole ,polytechnique of       
,paris with distinction1 and was the son
 of ,mr4 ,anselme de ,lelievre1         
,inspector-,general of ,mines1 and a    
distinguished savant of the last        
century4 ,,mm4 ,kemlin and ,lelievre    
both became naturalized ,frenchmen4     
,however1 the frontier traced by the    
,congress of ,vienna for the new        
territory of ,belgium cut ,vonche off   

from ,france4 ,the glass works          
accordingly lost their only market1 cut 
off from it by a heavy tariff4  ,m4     
,d',artigues left the place and went to 
,france1 while ,,mm4 ,kemlin and        
,lelievre found in the old ,val ,st4    
,lambert ,abbey what they wanted in     
,belgium1 and this was the origin of the
 glass works4 ,nor would it be  easy to 
hit on a better site4 ,in the heart of a
 rich country1 on the  borders of a fine
 river1 in the center of a coal basin1  
and close to  the ,marihaye ,collieries1
 well provided with railway             
accommodation1 the  ,val ,st4 ,lambert  
glass works possess every advantage1 and
 they have been  proportionately        
successful4    ,the establishment is    
worked by a company known as the ,societ
 ,anonyme  des ,cristalleries du ,val   
,st4 ,lambert1 under the ,presidency of 
,m4 ,jules  ,deprez2 and the company    
possess four distinct establishments1   
namely1  that at ,val ,st4 ,lambert2 one
 at ,d',herbatte1 near ,namur1 founded  

in  #ahea2 a third in the ,rue          
,barre-,neuvill1 at ,namur1 founded in  
#agec2 and1  lastly1 one at ,jambes1    
near the same town1 founded in #ahej4   
,we need not trace at length1 says ,the 
,engineer1 the history of the  works4   
,it will be enough to say that for a    
long time they were carried  on with    
small or no profits2 but a great advance
 was made when1 in  #ahcj1 coal was     
first substituted for wood for heating  
purposes4 ,further  capital was         
introduced in #ahcf1 and operations have
 been carried  on practically without   
intermission ever since4 ,in #ahej the  
annual  turn-over was about #fj1jjj4 ,in
 #ahhj the turn-over of the company was 
#bjj1jjj4 ,to give an idea of the       
magnitude of the operations carried  on1
 we may say that no fewer than #abj1jjj 
pieces are turned out every  day4 ,to   
pack this there are used #ej1jjj kilos4 
of heather1 #ee1jjj  kilos4 of straw1   
and #bej1jjj feet of boards per month4  
,the sand of all  kinds used per year   

weighs #g1jjj1jjj kilogs41 and the      
weight of the  fire clay #a1ejj1jjj     
kilogs4 ,the weight of the finished     
goods sent out  per year exceeds        
#i1jjj1jjj kilogs4 ,the company employs 
in all about  #c1jjj hands1 #a1hjj of   
whom are at ,val ,st4 ,lambert4 ,much   
attention is  paid to the welfare of the
 operatives by the company1 and a       
species  of co-operative store is worked
 with great success4 ,many of the hands 
have been on the works of the company   
for fifty years1 and the managers  speak
 in the highest terms of their servants4
 ,they know nothing of ,st4  ,monday4   
,they are laborious1 assiduous1         
intelligent1 and attached to  the works 
and the locality1 which they rarely     
quit4 ,these conditions  are the most   
favorable possible for the employers1   
and they are far  too rare in ,great    
,britain4 ,the ,val ,st4 ,lambert hands1
 men1 women1 and  children1 work        
uninterruptedly for eleven hours a day  
all the week  through1 and some of the  

men even longer4 ,this affords a        
remarkable  contrast with the hours of  
labor and customs of our ,english glass 
workers4    ,we take it for granted that
 our readers know generally how glass is
  made4 ,that a mixture of sand and an  
alkali is fused into a kind of  pasty   
mass4 ,the fusion is effected in pots of
 refractory clay1 of which  the general 
form is something like that shown in the
 sketch4 ,the mouth  of the pot is shown
 at ,a4 ,the pots at ,val ,st4 ,lambert 
are of various  sizes2 the largest hold 
about #af cwt4 of glass4 ,the duration  
of the  pots is very variable2 they last
 sometimes only a few days1 at others   
several weeks or even months1 much      
depending on the quality of the pot4    
,the temperature to which they are      
exposed is not excessively high4 ,the   
great thing to be effected in a glass   
melting furnace is the perfectly  equal 
distribution of the heat4 ,at ,val ,st4 
,lambert gas is used1  generated in     
,siemens or ,boetius producers4 ,there  

are in all twenty  furnaces4 ,they are  
grouped in threes or fours1 in the large
 buildings1  with high roofs4 ,formerly 
the furnaces were square1 and held each 
eight  melting pots1 which did not hold 
more than #bej kilos4 of glass4 ,the    
modern furnaces each receive from twelve
 to fourteen melting pots4 ,the  modern 
melting pots as made by the ,battersea  
,plumbago ,crucible ,company  do not    
seem to be known here4    ,illustration 
,the peculiarities of the construction  
of the glass melting furnaces at  ,val  
,st4 ,lambert will be gathered from the 
annexed sketch4 ,the furnace  is        
circular1 #ad ft4 or #ae ft4 in         
diameter1 and from the roof1 ,e1 to  the
 floor is about #e ft4 #f in4 high4 ,in 
the center of the floor is a            
cylindrical opening1 ,a1 through which  
rises the mixture of gas and  air1 the  
latter being introduced through four    
openings1 three of which  are shown4    
,two of the pots are indicated by dotted
 lines at ,d ,d4 ,the  equitable        

diffusion of the heat is effected in the
 following way3  ,inside the furnace are
 constructed as many vertical flues as  
there are  pots4 ,two of these are shown
 at ,g ,g4 ,they have small openings    
about #e  in4 by #h in4 at the bottom4  
,the course pursued by flame is         
indicated  by the bent arrows4 ,the     
flame rising strikes the crown1 ,e1 and 
is  deflected downward and drawn off by 
the side flues1 which deliver into  the 
second vaulted space1 ,f4 ,in this1 in  
some cases1 are annealed the  finished  
articles of glass4 ,in others is fixed a
 boiler1 steam being  generated by the  
waste heat4 ,in others there is no      
opening at the top  of ,f at ,h1 but    
there is one at the side instead1       
through which the  flame is led to raise
 steam in ,belleville tubulous boilers4 
,the steam  is used to drive the engines
 in the grinderies4 ,not much power is  
required1 and it is very easily obtained
 from the waste heat4    ,illustration3 
,,section ,,of ,,class ,,furnace    ,the

 operations of the glass blower have    
been too often described to  need       
redescription here4 ,one or two points1 
however1 deserve notice4  ,one is the   
large use made of wooden moulds4 ,in    
these are formed all  kinds of circular 
articles1 such as tumblers and lamp     
glasses4 ,the  moulds are in halves1 and
 are kept soaked with water to prevent  
them  from burning4 ,inside they become 
lined with charcoal4 ,the glass blower1 
getting a knob of glass on the end of   
his blowing rod1 blows a very  thick1   
small bulb2 this he then places on the  
mould1 which is closed by  a very small 
boy2 in but too many cases mere         
children1 seven or eight  years old1 are
 employed4 ,the child holds the two     
sides of the mould  together while the  
blower rotates the bulb within1 blowing 
all the  time4 ,the work is turned out  
very true4 ,up to a comparatively recent
  period the tumbler was cut to the     
proper depth while hot with a pair  of  
scissors1 but this has been abandoned1  

and an extremely ingenious  little      
machine is now used for cutting lamp    
glasses1 tumblers1 etc4 ,the  article to
 be cut is placed vertically on a stand4
 ,at the proper height  above the stand 
is fixed a sharp steel point1 and by    
touching the glass  against this a very 
small scratch is made4 ,at the same     
level is fixed  a little mouthpiece     
through which issues1 under pressure1 a 
tiny gas  flame1 not thicker than a     
sheet of note paper4 ,this falls on the 
glass1  which is turned round by the    
woman attendant4 ,the glass is heated in
  an extremely narrow band all round4   
,the touch of a moistened finger        
suffices for the complete separation of 
the two parts of the glass  round the   
heated girdle4 ,in fact1 this is a very 
elegant application  to manufacturing   
purposes of the well known hot wire     
method of cutting  glass so often tried 
with indifferent success by the         
enterprising  amateur4    ,glass        
grinding is carried out on a very large 

scale at ,val ,st4 ,lambert  in huge    
well lighted shops4 ,there are four     
grinderies at ,val ,st4  ,lambert1 and  
one at ,herbatte1 the total number of   
which is #hjj1 and  the floor space     
occupied is no less than #bd1jjj square 
feet4 ,the first  steam engine was put  
down to grind glass in #ahcf4 ,a great  
deal of  engraving is done with fluoric 
acid1 the vessel to be engraved being   
protected with wax in which the design  
is etched4 ,tilghman's sand blast  is   
also employed1 as well as the old copper
 disk system2 flats are  ground on      
tumblers by automatic machinery4    ,it 
would be impossible to do more than give
 a general idea of the  operations      
carried on in this vast establishment1  
every portion of  which was thrown open 
to the members of the ,institution1     
while numbers  of heads of departments  
went round and answered every question1 
and  explained every detail with a      
frankness and a courtesy beyond praise4 
,it is impossible to inspect such an    

establishment as that at ,val ,st4      
,lambert without feeling how hard is the
 battle which manufacturers in  this    
country have to fight4 ,there1 as we    
have said1 are to be found  every       
advantage of position1 and to this is   
added a body of workmen1  active1 sober1
 industrious1 among whom is heard no    
talk of strikes1 and  who are content to
 work every day and all day long2 such  
men1 directed  by heads possessed of no 
small scientific ability1 and           
re-enforced by  the command of ample    
capital1 cannot fail to make a mark in  
any market1  and we only speak the truth
 when we regret that we have not such   
works  and such men on ,english soil as 
there are to be found at ,val ,st4      
,lambert4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,measuring 
,,starch ,,granules4      ,it is well   
known that the microscopist can readily 
distinguish potato  starch from all     
other starches by the size of the       
grains4 ,saare has  found that the size 

of the potato starch granules increases 
with the  quality of the starch4 ,in    
first quality starch they have an       
average  diameter of #cc                
micro-millimeters1 in second grade #ba1 
in third grade  #ag1 in the rinsing     
water #ab1 and in that floated off on   
the water  only #h micro-millimeters4   
,saare's paper may be found in full in  
the  ,zeitschrift fur                   
,spiritusindustrie1 vi41 #dhb4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,proper ,,shoeing4      ,in his article
 on horseshoeing ,mons4 ,lavalard makes 
some good points1  and also some that   
appear to me to be erroneous4 ,he says1 
in regard  to the frog1 ,it is evident1 
then1 that the frog helps the hold1 but 
strange to say1 it alone of the three   
parts has a share in the hold  when the 
hoof is shod4    ,we see nothing strange
 about this where horses travel over    
hard roads2  the case is otherwise on   
soft roads or race tracks4 ,it is easy  
to make  the ground surface of such     

shape that it will have sufficient hold1
  without the action of the frog4 ,in   
the shod foot1 the frog has more  to do 
with keeping the foot healthy than      
assisting in the hold4 ,with  horses    
used for speeding purposes1 the frog    
helps to sustain the sole  of the foot1 
as when the foot is brought down with   
great force and the  road soft enough to
 receive the imprint of the shoe4 ,he   
further says  that3 ,simultaneous with  
this preservation and regeneration of   
the  frog1 the hold of the horse becomes
 firmer1 and more equally divided       
toward the heels1 and when starting a   
load1 there is no clamping with  the toe
 of the hoof1 but the foot is brought   
down flat4    ,let us examine this      
statement and see if the reason why the 
horse  brings the foot down flat is     
because the frog is good1 and has a good
  hold on the ground4 ,the reason       
appears to us to be because from the    
manner of shoeing the horse cannot put  
his foot in any other way4 ,the  shoes  

are much thinner behind than in front1  
and the heels pared low  enough to      
insure the frogs resting on the ground4 
,excessive paring  of the heels gives   
extra length to the shoe1 which1 being  
thick at  the toe1 props the toe up in  
such a manner that the horse is forced  
to let the foot remain flat when        
starting a load4 ,nothing is gained  by 
keeping the foot flat while starting a  
load1 and to prove this1  we ask the    
reader to observe unshod horses when    
starting a load4 ,the  frog having free 
access to the ground1 see if the horse  
does not clamp  the ground with the toe 
when exhibiting the maximum of strength4
  ,also examine the imprint of horses'  
feet 7especially the hind ones7  when   
drawing heavy loads over soft ground1   
and see if the shoe is  not pressed more
 firmly into the ground at the toe than 
at the heel4  ,this is not because he   
gets a better use of the frog by so     
doing1 but  because the foot is in a    
better position for the horse to exert  

his  strength without injury to the back
 tendons4 ,as a further test1 place     
yourself on an incline facing squarely  
up hill1 and see how much power  you can
 exert2 then place your feet exactly    
opposite in direction1 and  note how    
much power you can then exhibit4 ,what  
has made the difference8  ,simply the   
relative position of the heels and toes4
 ,we do not1 like  ,mons4 ,lavalard1    
wish to force our horses to travel up   
hill all the  time1 which is the case   
when shod as he describes4              
,horseshoers1 like other men who follow 
a special calling1 are apt to  think    
that their theories and practices       
relating to their special  trade are    
superior to those of other men4 ,i think
 it is safe to make  the assertion1     
without fear of successful refutation1  
that there is  not more than one        
horseshoer in ten thousand but what can 
convince the  average horse owner that  
he 7the smith7 knows just about all that
 is  worth knowing about horseshoeing4  

,and the same average horse owner is    
conceited enough to think himself  a    
better judge of a good job of shoeing   
than the intelligent animal  that wears 
the shoes till his feet feel as though  
they were full of  thistles4 ,a horse's 
foot is not a thing that can be cut and 
slashed  into all shapes with impunity1 
but requires careful as well as         
intelligent treatment4 ,it is a great   
mistake to suppose that every  sound    
foot should be treated alike4 ,each foot
 has its individuality1  which must be  
recognized and respected if good results
 are to  follow shoeing4 ,it is a       
lamentable fact1 and one that cannot be 
disputed1 that most horseshoers have but
 a faint notion of what is  required to 
shoe a horse properly1 even where no    
defects exist4 ,if he  gets pay for the 
work1 he gives himself no trouble to    
improve on his  methods4 ,but with the  
owner the case is different4 ,the       
usefulness and  value of the horse are  
largely affected by the condition of the

 feet1  and he must learn to know how   
his horse ought to be shod1 and then    
see to it that the work is properly     
executed4 ,we know from personal        
experience that this is hard to do4 ,the
 smith must understand that  you are in 
earnest about the matter1 and that you  
are bound to have  your orders obeyed4  
,i have found some men very obstinate1  
and others  always ready to do anything 
that was an improvement on the old way4 
,first decide what kind of labor the    
horse is expected to perform4 ,if he  is
 expected to go fast1 great care and    
skill will be required to get           
everything just as it should be1 and    
don't blame the smith for charging      
extra for extra work4    ,it will often 
be necessary to make several trials     
before you find out  just what suits the
 horse best1 and don't fail to let the  
horse be  judge in the matter1 for when 
he is suited you ought to be4    ,place 
the horse on a smooth1 clean floor1 and 
note the set of each  foot1 and whether 

it is in line with the limb above it4   
,cut away the  wall of the foot until   
you come to where it joins the sole2    
except at  the heels and quarter1 it may
 not be quite as low2 let the frog and  
bars remain intact1 but see that the    
shoe will not bear much on the  bars4   
,give the sole about its natural        
concavity of surface up to the  wall1   
but no further4 ,place the foot on the  
floor and see if it is in  line with the
 limb2 if not1 remove enough horn to    
make it so4 ,the slant  of the front    
part of the fore foot should1 as a rule1
 be the same as  that of the pastern2   
that of the hind ones a little steeper4 
,now stand  behind the horse while he is
 made to walk1 and see if when the foot 
approaches the floor both sides come    
down at the same time so that  there is 
no rocking motion from one side striking
 first4 ,disregard the  advice of some  
writers who recommend to have the sole  
bare on the iron2  that theory when put 
into practice doesn't work worth a cent4

    ,in most cases it will not be       
necessary to remove much1 if any1 of    
the horn from the sole1 but there are   
cases where it will be found  necessary 
to remove quite an amount1 or the sole  
will become so  inelastic that it will  
greatly interfere with the action of the
  internal organs of the foot4 ,it is   
evident that nature made the sole  of   
the foot so that it might be acted upon 
mechanically to remove its  surplus     
growth in the same way as the wall1 for 
in the unshod foot it  receives the     
impact of all sorts of substances1 from 
soft mud to sharp1  flinty rocks2 and   
that1 too1 without becoming dry and     
brittle4    ,the bearing surface should 
be half an inch wide and made positively
  flat and level1 being without lumps or
 depressions1 and not beveled  either   
way unless they are hard and inclined to
 pinch1 when it should  be beveled to   
the outside1 so that the weight of the  
horse when brought  upon its surface    
will cause the heels to open1 thereby   

causing a more  healthy condition of the
 frog4 ,the nail holes of the shoe      
should be  further from the outer edge  
of the shoe1 especially at the toe1 than
  those usually seen in the market4 ,the
 bearing surfaces of the foot and  shoe 
should be as nearly approximated as     
possible1 else the hoof will  be bruised
 and the shoe soon loosened4 ,the holes 
being further from  the edge1 allows the
 nails to take a deeper and lower hold  
than is  usually given them2 the        
direction of the nails is more nearly   
across  the grain or layers of horn1    
causing less splitting of its substance1
  thereby securing a firmer hold upon   
the foot4 ,two large nails are  usually 
chosen1 #es or #fs being large enough   
for ordinary shoes4 ,it is  not         
necessary to hammer down the clinches1  
if care has been taken to  draw the     
nails1 finishing with light strokes of  
the hammer4 ,the shoes  will stay just  
as long1 as we can testify by four      
years' experience1  and the advantages  

are that the horn is not injured by     
filing below the  clinches nor by the   
strokes of the hammer during the        
operation4    ,should the horse step    
upon the shoe1 no horn will be removed  
with the  shoe1 as is usually done when 
the clinches are left long and then     
turned down with the hammer4 ,in such   
cases1 the shoe will be torn off1  no   
matter how solid the clinches hold1 and 
it is better to come away  without      
breaking the hoof4 ,we repeat and make  
emphatic that the bearing  surface of   
the shoe must not be concave1 as it is  
almost sure to  make corns1 and induce  
an inflammatory condition of the foot1  
and this  inflammatory action is the    
forerunner of the long list of evils    
that  are sure to follow1 unless means  
are taken to relieve the parts4 ,and    
yet almost every horseshoer in the      
country gives the bearing surface  of   
the shoe a bevel to the center4 ,many   
smiths will deny this1 but  after they  
have the shoe ready to apply to the     

foot1 take a square and  place the edge 
across the bearing surface at the heel  
of the shoe1 and  ninety-nine times out 
of one hundred the outside will be the  
highest4    ,the front action of a horse
 may be greatly modified by the weight  
of  the shoe1 and here is where great   
caution1 close attention1 and a         
thorough knowledge of the principles    
involved are required1 or one will  be  
liable to throw his horse out of balance
 if he is used for speeding2  for slow  
work it is better to have the shoe      
somewhat lighter than the  horse might  
carry than to err in the opposite       
direction4 ,it is not  intended by me to
 take up all the points of horseshoeing 
that might  be dwelt upon with profit1  
and no one who reads these remarks will 
be  more ready than ,i to learn a better
 method of shoeing than that ,i now     
practice1 and ,i sincerely hope that    
some reader of this paper will  favor us
 with more information on this important
 subject4--,p4 ,d4 ,b41  in ,wallace's  

,monthly4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,milling   
,,world4    ,,ideas4    ,by ,a4         
,,looker-,,on4    ,i4      ,there is yet
 a good deal to do in successfully      
applying the roller  process to small   
mills of from #be to #ajj barrels       
capacity4 ,there has  been a great deal 
done1 no doubt1 but one thing is lost   
sight of in all  the patents that have  
been granted so far1 and that is        
cheapness1 not  only in the price of the
 machine1 but also in its application to
 the  existing or original plant in the 
mill4 ,it should be of such a nature    
that as few changes in the machinery as 
possible should be made4    ,if a grain 
of wheat is examined1 it will be        
astonishing to see the  chemical        
laboratory that is locked up in it4 ,the
 most valuable  substances1 gluten1 is  
placed near the air and light1 while the
 little  cells of the interior are      
composed of starch1 which being the     
softest  is the first to break up under 

the influence of the rolls4 ,hence1  the
 flour of the first and second breaks is
 mostly composed of that  substance4    
,about three and a half per cent4 of    
woody fiber can be removed from  a      
kernel of wheat by a moistened cloth2 it
 is of no value1 whatever4  ,the next   
coating holds nearly all the iron1      
potash1 soda1 lime1 and  phosphoric     
acid4 ,this wrapper is the granary1 so  
to speak1 in which  is deposited all the
 wealth of the berry1 and like a good   
safe is the  hardest to open1 by either 
the rollers or burrs4    ,the use of    
rolls in cleaning bran is now generally 
recognized1 and they  have proved very  
useful and practical for this purpose   
especially in  large mills4 ,bran1      
however1 can only be thoroughly cleaned 
by several  operations1 and the previous
 condition of the bran has a great deal 
to  do with the number of operations it 
has to undergo on the rolls to be  well 
cleaned4    ,each passage through the   
rolls changes the condition of bran1 and

 the  oftener it goes through them the  
lighter and cleaner it becomes1 until   
all the floury portion is removed4      
,the ,austrians use corrugated rolls for
 the purpose of cleaning bran1  the     
finest being on the last1 as in the     
break rolls4 ,it is more  scientific and
 philosophical to clean the bran in this
 way than to rub  off the flour between 
burrs in this way than to rub off some  
of the  branny portion as well as the   
glutinous part4    ,rollers for the     
first cleaning are from eight to ten    
inches in  diameter and from three to   
five hundred corrugations are used1 and 
this increases up to one thousand for   
the last rolls used2 but fine           
corrugations wear out soon1 and the     
rolls have to be frequently  corrugated 
or the bran has to be finished on burrs4
    ,the use of rollers is preferable to
 that of stones for bran1 and their  use
 is considered an important advance in  
milling by most ,german  experts4    ,as
 the advantage of the use of rolls      

instead of burrs consists in the        
production of a greater amount of       
middlings1 this advantage should be     
experienced in the cleaning of bran4 ,as
 the small starchy particles  adhering  
to the bran are separated in the shape  
of middlings instead of  flour1 a better
 quantity of flour is produced from     
these middlings both  in color and      
strength than that which is made from   
the stones' product4    ,differential   
speed in rolls is not only better in    
making middlings1 but  in grinding bran 
as well4 ,this has been proved by       
several experiments4    ,there is no    
doubt but that there is less care       
bestowed on the hanging  and care of    
shafting than upon any other means used 
in applying power  to manufacturing     
purposes4 ,if the steam engine or the   
water wheel is in  good order1 and      
performing their work properly1 and the 
machines driven  by them are also in    
good order1 there is seldom a thought   
bestowed upon  the media between the    

actuating power and its ultimate        
development1  except the necessary      
attention which must be paid to the     
belting1 and  oiling of the machinery4  
,often1 when the result of the power is 
not satisfactory1 it is not the  driving
 power that is at fault1 but the result 
may be found in the  shafting1 or other 
intermediate transferers of the power4  
,generally1 in  such a case1 the belts  
are examined and their condition assumed
 for the  imperfect transmission of the 
power from the prime mover4    ,the     
condition of the belts is a very        
important point in all  manufacturing1  
but more particularly in mills where a  
steadiness of  motion is a desideratum1 
and attention to them will save many    
dollars  in the course of a year2 but   
there are other as important elements   
which are not always taken into         
consideration1 and the principal one  is
 the condition of the shafting4 ,a line 
of shafting running perfectly  true1    
without jumping or jerking1 turning     

smoothly and noiselessly1 is  a delight 
to the mechanical eye2 and the first    
thing always examined by  a thorough    
millwright when he enters a mill1 is the
 shafting4    ,perhaps there is nothing 
will strike a person who has been out of
 the  milling business for some time so 
much as the change in the system of     
bolting4 ,this is caused by the numerous
 separations1 and it is in this  the    
whole secret of gradual reduction lies4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,photographs ,,for ,,studying ,,the    
,,movements ,,of ,,men ,,and ,,animals4 
,by ,m4 ,,marey4#b      ,when a series  
of photographs representing the         
successive attitudes  of an animal is   
taken on the same plate1 it is naturally
 desirable  to multiply these images1   
for the purpose of getting the greatest 
possible number of phases of the        
movement4 ,but when the animals to be   
reproduced do not move rapidly1 the     
number of images is limited by  their   
superposition and the resulting         

confusion4 ,thus1 a man running  at a   
moderate pace may be photographed ten   
times in a second1 without  the         
impressions on the plate being confused4
 ,if1 at times1 one leg  is depicted on 
a part already bearing the trace of     
another leg1 the  superposition does not
 alter the image2 the whites become only
 more  intense in those portions of the 
plates receiving an impression twice    
over1 but the contours of both limbs are
 still to be distinguished4 ,in  the    
case1 however1 of a man walking slowly1 
these superpositions are so  numerous as
 to render the reproduction very        
confused4    ,it is to remedy this      
defect that ,i have had recourse to     
partial  photography2 that is to say1 ,i
 have suppressed certain parts of the   
image1 that the rest may be more easily 
understood4    ,in the method which ,i  
employ1 only white and light objects    
affect the  sensitive plate2 it         
suffices1 therefore1 to clothe that     
portion of the  body to be suppressed in

 black4 ,if a man dressed in a          
parti-colored  costume of black and     
white walk over the track1 by turning   
the  white parts of his apparel toward  
the camera--the right side1 for         
instance--he will be reproduced as if he
 only possessed the right half  of his  
body4 ,these images permit the various  
successive phases of  movement to be    
accurately followed1 the rotation of the
 foot and leg  when both on the ground  
and lifted up1 and the oscillation of   
the limb  at the hip joint while moving 
along in a continuous manner4    ,these 
partial photographs are also useful in  
the analysis of rapid  movements1       
because they allow of the number of     
attitudes represented  being multiplied4
 ,at the same time1 as a man's leg is   
rather large1  its reproduction cannot  
be multiplied very often1 owing to      
confusion  by superposition4 ,i have    
therefore sought to diminish the size of
 the  images1 so as to an admit of      
repetition at very short intervals4 ,the

  method consists in attiring a walker  
in a black costume having narrow  bands 
of bright metal applied down the length 
of the leg1 thigh1 and  arm1 following  
exactly the direction of the bones of   
the limbs4 ,this  plan permits the      
number of images formerly produced to be
 increased at  least tenfold2 thus1     
instead of ten photographs per second1  
one hundred  may be taken4 ,to do this  
it is not necessary to change the speed 
of  rotation of the disk1 but instead of
 piercing it with one aperture1 ten     
holes are made equally disposed around  
the circumference4#c    ,illustration   
,the figure here shown is from one of   
the negatives projected on the  screen  
from the lantern4 ,the dotted lines have
 been filled in to form  direct lines4  
,the figure shows the successive phases 
of one step in  running4 ,only the left 
leg is represented2 the lines correspond
 to the  thigh1 leg1 and foot2 the dots 
to the joints at the ankle1 knee1 and   
hip4    ,this diagram shows pretty      

clearly the alterations of flexion and  
extension of the leg on the thigh1 the  
undulating trajectories of the  foot1   
knee1 and hip1 and yet the number of    
images does not exceed  sixty in a      
second4 ,a revolving shutter pierced    
with more holes would  give more        
perfectly the angular displacements of  
the leg on the thigh1  and the positions
 of the three joints4 ,the finer the    
dotted lines  expressing the direction  
of the limbs1 the more the images may be
  multiplied2 but in the present case1  
sixty times in a second more than       
suffice to show the displacements of the
 limbs when running4    ,in this        
photographic analysis the two factors of
 movements--time and  space--cannot be  
both estimated perfectly2 knowledge of  
the positions  the body has occupied in 
space requires that one should possess  
complete and distinct images2 in order  
to obtain such images1 a  sufficiently  
long space of time must elapse between  
the two successive  photographs4 ,if1 on

 the contrary1 it is desirable to       
estimate time  more perfectly1 the      
frequency of recurrence of the image    
must be  greatly increased4 ,to bring   
these two exigencies as closely together
 as  possible1 lines and points must be 
chosen for the partial photographs      
which best show the successive attitudes
 of the body4    ,it is curious to see  
that this expression of successive      
attitudes of  the trunk and limbs1 by   
means of a series of lines expressing   
the  direction of the bones1 has been   
precisely adopted by the ancient        
authors as being the most explicit and  
capable of making the phases of  a      
movement understood4 ,thus1 ,vincent and
 ,goiffon1 in their remarkable  work on 
the horse1 have tried to represent by   
lines at different  angles the          
displacements of the bones of limbs     
while taking a step4    ,it is not      
necessary to expatiate on the           
superiority photography has  over actual
 observation for this purpose1 giving   

the true positions of  the limbs1 while 
the eye is incapable of taking in such  
rapid actions  in such short spaces of  
time4    ,at the commencement of this   
century the brothers ,weber had recourse
  to the same mode of representation to 
explain the successive actions  produced
 in the walk of a man4 ,it was by       
reducing the walker to  the figure of a 
skeleton that these eminent observers   
succeeded in  presenting1 without       
confusion1 a number of images expressing
 different  attitudes4    ,the method of
 constructing the bright metal bands    
which in the  photograph explain the    
position of the joints1 requires special
  mention4 ,as the length of exposure is
 very short1 a substance having  great  
brilliancy must be employed4 ,the strips
 of metal are not equally  luminous down
 their entire length1 because they do   
not reflect the  solar rays at the same 
angle2 they present lines of unequal    
intensity  on the negatives4 ,i have    
obtained the best results with small    

strips of  black wood with nails having 
hemispherical bright metal heads driven 
in  at regular intervals4 ,each little  
rounded surface reflected the image  of 
the sun very brilliantly4 ,in the       
photograph these lines of nails are     
reproduced as dotted lines4 ,at the     
ankle1 knee1 and hip joints1 nails  of  
larger dimensions were inserted1 showing
 these centers of movement  by a much   
larger dot4    ,partial photographs     
obtained by this method allow of the    
different acts  of locomotion being     
analyzed1 as well as the movements of   
walking1  running1 or jumping4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,detective ,,photography4      ,for    
several years ,mr4 ,d4 ,n4 ,carvalho1   
the ,new ,york photographer1 has  made a
 specialty of the delicate use of       
photography which is brought  into play 
more and more in connection with        
criminal cases in which  disputed       
handwriting1 forgeries1 counterfeit     
money1 etc41 are features4  ,the results

 now achieved are the outcome of years  
of experiment1 and  the photographic    
expert becomes in the end an expert in  
handwriting4  ,mr4 ,carvalho's gallery  
of records is an interesting            
illustration of  what perseverance and  
ingenuity1 aided by photography1 can do 
toward  solving apparently hopeless     
mysteries4 ,to a reporter1 who visited  
his  studio1 he said3    ,we can do a   
great many things to bring the truth to 
light by the aid  of photography4 ,there
 is scarcely a case nowadays in which it
 is not  brought into play if disputed  
handwriting is concerned4 ,of course the
  most famous case of late years was the
 ,morey letter case4 ,there is a        
photograph of the ,morey letter up there
 in a corner4 ,it yet remains a         
mystery1 but we are certain that        
,garfield did not write it4 ,i first    
found by photography that the envelope  
had been tampered with by the  following
 process3 ,cutting the envelope open1 so
 as to get a single  thickness of paper1

 ,i put it between two sheets of plate  
glass1 and  placed it where the sun     
passed through it1 the camera being     
placed  on the shady side4 ,although no 
half-erased writing could be detected   
on the envelope with the naked eye or a 
glass1 the difference in the  thickness 
of the paper where erasures had been    
made showed plainly1 as  the light came 
through more clearly1 and the erased    
words1 which gave  rise to so much      
discussion1 were discovered4    ,below  
the ,morey letter is a photograph of the
 signature of ,alonzo ,c4  ,yates4      
,yates1 you may remember1 was a rich    
,philadelphia clothier1 who1  late in   
life1 married a cook in the ,astor      
,house1 and died1 leaving a  million or 
so to the wife4 ,the daughters by a     
first wife disputed the  signature to   
the will4 ,i was employed by ,john ,d4  
,townsend to show the  genuineness of   
the signature4 ,we got thirty or forty  
genuine signatures  of ,yates admitted  
by both sides1 and showed that a man    

never writes  his name the same way     
twice4 ,then ,i took the signature of   
the will and  another admitted by both  
sides1 and enlarged them until each was 
#i feet  #d inches long4 ,the           
peculiarities of the writing became so  
apparent when  shown upon that enormous 
scale--the signatures were so evidently 
by the  same person--that the           
contestants gave up the case4    ,there 
is a portrait of ,theophilus ,youngs4   
,he married a clairvoyant  many years   
ago in ,boston and disappeared4 ,his    
widow pretended to  recognize his body  
in one that was found in the bay soon   
after1 and he  was given up as dead4    
,some years after his father died1 and  
the widow  put in a claim for a share of
 the property4 ,the contestants1 by whom
  ,i was employed1 contended that       
,youngs was yet alive1 and eventually   
produced him in court4 ,the alleged     
widow refused to recognize him1  and ,i 
was called upon to prove he was the man4
 ,the widow produced  a photograph which

 she said was one of the pictures of    
,youngs1 her  husband4 ,a good many     
years had passed1 and although the      
likeness was  a strong one1 there was   
enough difference in the appearance of  
,youngs  and the photograph to make a   
jury hesitate4 ,i put ,youngs in the    
same  position in which he was taken in 
the picture1 the genuineness of which   
was admitted1 and made a photograph of  
the same size4 ,then the likeness       
became more apparent1 and exact         
measurements showed the two faces to    
measure the same in all respects4 ,for  
instance1 the distance between  the     
mouth and the eye1 which is seldom the  
same in two persons1 was  exactly equal4
 ,then one picture was made transparent 
and superimposed  over the other1 and   
the two faces matched perfectly4 ,the   
jury decided  that the claimant was not 
an impostor4    ,in the case of ,hall1  
the head clerk of the ,newark           
,treasurer's office1  everything        
depended upon showing that he changed a 

figure #e into a  figure #c4 ,he ran    
away to ,canada1 and was brought back   
upon a charge  of forgery4 ,his counsel 
claimed that the figure had not been    
changed1  and that if the mark of an    
eraser was found1 and that the figure #e
 had  been changed1 it was caused by the
 accidental slip of an ink eraser  used 
in the margin4 ,i made photographs of   
the page1 and by means of a             
stereopticon threw a picture of that    
particular figure upon a screen #aj     
feet high4 ,upon that scale several     
interesting things came out4 ,it was    
seen very plainly that the figure had   
been altered from a #e to a #c1 but  the
 erasure had been made with a different 
material from the erasure in  the       
margin4 ,we tried a rubber ink eraser1  
and the result was the same  as seen in 
the margin4 ,then we tried a steel      
penknife1 and the result  enlarged a    
thousand times was the same as seen over
 the figure #c4 ,this  disposed of the  
'accident' theory1 and ,hall was        

convicted4    ,i was employed in the    
,cadet ,whittaker case1 and worked for  
weeks at  the famous letter of          
warning--a few words scribbled on a     
piece of  paper1 which ,whittaker was   
suspected of writing4 ,all the cadets   
were  called upon to give specimens of  
their handwriting1 and the writing of   
,no4 #bg was declared by the experts to 
be that of the note of warning4 ,i      
believed that it was not1 and1 taking   
the specimen of ,no4 #bg's writing  upon
 which he was suspected1 ,i duplicated  
the note of warning1 cutting  the same  
letters out of #bg's specimen1 and      
placing them together as  nearly as     
possible in the order of the famous     
note4 ,it was a work of  tremendous     
labor1 but when done it showed the      
innocence of ,no4 #bg4 ,it  was         
suspected that the scrap of paper upon  
which the note of warning  was written  
was torn from a letter sheet which      
,whittaker sent to his  mother1 but that
 theory was disposed of upon enlarging  

the two edges to  the size at which a   
fine cambric needle looks like a        
crowbar4 ,then it  was seen that the two
 edges had never been together4 ,the    
verdict in the  ,whittaker case was     
finally reversed upon the ground that   
the court had  come to a decision from  
the examination of lithographs of the   
note of  warning1 which ,i proved by    
comparison with a photograph were       
incorrect4  ,whittaker1 by the way1 is  
teaching school now in the northern part
 of  this ,state4 ,he made speeches for 
,cleveland in his neighborhood during   
the election campaign last autumn4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,continued from ,supplement ,no4 #chd1  
page #fabg4    ,,the ,,history ,,of     
,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph4#d         
,the first electric telegraph in which  
,volta's memorable discovery was        
utilized was that of ,soemmering1 of    
,munich1 dating from #ahji1 and not     
from #ahaa as the statement has too oft 
been made in print4 ,soemmering  was led

 to take up electric telegraphy in a    
very curious way4 ,it  was during the   
wars of the ,empire4 ,it cannot be      
forgotten1 says  ,julius ,zoellner1 in  
the ,buch der ,erfindungen1 that the so 
rapid  and consequently so fortunate    
enterprises of ,napoleon were especially
  favored by the admirable means of     
communication which so rapidly          
transmitted the will of one man to all  
parts of his army1 and that it  was very
 often such rapidity alone that rendered
 its execution possible4    ,the        
unfortunate blockade of ,general ,mack  
in ,ulm was an example that  ,bavaria   
had seen from too close a distance not  
to take it into account4  ,and1 when the
 entirely unexpected invasion of the    
,austrians1 on ,april  #i1 #ahji1 and   
the flight of the ,king of ,bavaria 7who
 was obliged to  leave ,munich on the   
#aath7 were announced so quickly to     
,napoleon1 by the  optic telegraph1 that
 on the #bb;d of ,april ,munich1 that   
had six days  before been taken by the  

,austrians1 was occupied by the ,french1
 and  when ,king ,maximilian was enabled
 to re-enter his residence sixteen days 
after leaving it1 then the ,bavarian    
minister1 ,montgelas1 directed his      
attention seriously to the high         
importance of telegraphy4    ,on the    
#eth of ,july1 #ahji1 while dining with 
,soemmering1 a member of  the ,academy  
of ,sciences of ,munich1 he expressed to
 him a desire to  have this scientific  
body propose some systems of telegraphy4
 ,the  savant accepted this idea with   
the greatest eagerness1 and1 three days 
afterward1 under date of ,july #h1 he   
wrote in his journal3 444 ',shall  be   
able to take rest only when ,i shall    
have realized telegraphy by the         
disengagement of gas4'    ,at this      
epoch1 in fact1 the decomposition of    
water was the sole  phenomenon known    
that would permit the electric current  
to be used for  telegraphy1 and         
,soemmering had rendered himself        
perfectly conversant  with it4 ,he at   

once bought silver and copper wires1    
insulated them by  means of sealing wax1
 and1 on the #hth of ,july1 constructed 
his first  apparatus 7,fig4 #e74 ,five  
insulated rods1 represented by the      
letters1  a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 dipped into a  
vessel1 ,e1 containing acidulated       
water4 ,from these rods there started   
wires which1 combined into a  cable1 x1 
x1 and insulated from each other by     
sealing-wax1 could  be put in contact   
with the poles of a ,volta pile1 ,s1 of 
#ae elements1  formed of zinc disks1    
,brabant thalers1 and felt soaked in    
dilute  hydrochloric acid4 ,on causing a
 variation in the wires that he put in  
connection with the poles of the pile1  
he was enabled to produce a             
disengagement of gas upon any two       
definite rods1 and thus to transmit  the
 letters that he had taken care to mark 
the different wires with4    ,the       
possibility of the system was           
recognized1 and ,soemmering at once  had
 an apparatus constructed according to  

it4 ,on the #bb;d of ,july he  received 
it from the hands of the workman nearly 
such as it is shown in  ,fig4 #f4 ,the  
decomposing reservoir was of an         
elongated rectangular shape  containing 
#ce gold rods that corresponded to #be  
letters and #aj figures4  ,from these   
rods started #ce wires covered with silk
 and combined into  a bundle that was   
afterward covered with melted shellac4  
,at the other  extremity of this cable  
the wires ran to #ce pieces of copper   
fixed  horizontally upon a wooden       
support1 and each provided with an      
aperture  into which could be inserted  
one of the pins in which the pile wires 
terminated4    ,when these latter were  
put in connection with the pieces       
corresponding  to any two letters       
whatever1 gas was observed to disengage 
itself in  the reservoir upon the two   
corresponding rods1 but in greater      
quantity  on the one connected with the 
negative pole4 ,this fact was not lost  
upon ,soemmering1 and he utilized it to 

render the dispatches more  rapid2 for  
it allowed him to transmit two letters  
always at the same  time1 with the      
proviso that the one upon the rod from  
which most gas  was disengaged had been 
written first4    ,no demand arose for  
this first apparatus1 so ,soemmering    
soon devised  one that operated by the  
aid of a paddle-wheel set in motion by  
the  bubbles of gas4 ,but1 a little     
later on1 in ,august1 #ahaj1 he replaced
  this by another and very ingenious    
apparatus which is shown in ,fig4 #f4   
,an inverted spoon1 arranged            
horizontally in the liquid1 collected in
  its bowl the gases that were          
disengaged from certain rods1 and then1 
rising1 caused the inclination at the   
same time of a rod bent at right        
angles4 ,this latter thereupon allowed a
 small copper ball to drop into  a glass
 funnel1 from whence it fell upon a cup 
attached to the end of  a lever1 and1   
through its weight1 threw into gear a   
bell operated by a  clockwork movement4 

,illustration3 ,fig4 #e--,,soemmering',s
 ,,first ,,telegraph4    ,in #ahaa1     
,soemmering simplified his apparatus as 
regards the number of  signs4 ,instead  
of having #be letters 7a complete       
alphabet minus x7  and #aj figures1 he  
did away with these latter and the      
letter ,j1 and  introduced the x1 the   
period1 and a sign of repetition4 ,the  
apparatus  was thus reduced to #bg      
wires4    ,the first experiments in     
telegraphy made with this system1 on the
  #ith of ,july1 #ahji1 were over a     
distance of #ch feet2 on the #aith1     
transmission was effected to #agj feet2 
and1 on the #hth of ,august1 to  #a1jjj 
feet2 but it was not until he had       
perfected the insulation of his  wires  
by means of ,india rubber dissolved in  
ether1 and had devised his  paddle-wheel
 call1 that ,soemmering decided to      
present his telegraph to  the ,academy  
of ,sciences of ,bavaria during its     
session of ,august #bh1  #ahji4    ,some
 time afterward1 ,baron ,larrey1        

,inspector ,general of the medical      
service of the ,french armies1 carried  
,soemmering's telegraph to ,paris  and  
presented it to the ,academy of         
,sciences at its session of ,december   
#e1 #ahji4 ,this presentation gave rise 
to a series of letters addressed  by    
,soemmering to the ,baron4 ,his son1 now
 a member of the ,academy1 has  had the 
goodness to communicate these to ,count 
du ,moncel1 through whose  kindness we  
are enabled to cite the most interesting
 passages from them4    ,soemmering     
writes on the #ajth of ,november3    ,i 
have the honor to remit to you herewith 
a memoir which1 conjointly  with the    
trifles that you have had the goodness  
to charge yourself  with1 will explain  
my meaning clearly and briefly4 ,i am   
desirous of  learning the reception that
 ,his ,imperial ,majesty deigned to     
accord  to these ideas4 ,the memoir1 as 
you will see1 sir1 makes mention1       
aphoristically1 of a few quite varied   
experiments that ,i have been in  a     

position to perform4 ,i dare to flatter 
myself that they will please  several   
members of the ,institute4 ,independent 
of the major interest of  which they    
seem susceptible1 that of novelty       
belongs to them4 ,in my  opinion1 there 
is no one who can dispute it4444    ,on 
the #eth of ,december1 #ahji1 as we have
 said1 the telegraph was  presented to  
the ,institute1 but the inventor does   
not seem to have been  at once informed 
of it2 for he writes1 under date of     
,july #cj1 #ahaj3    ,i have1 sir1 read 
your dissertation upon my telegraph with
 great  pleasure4444 ,has my succinct   
memoir on the telegraph1 sent from here 
on  the #abth of ,november1 reached you1
 sir1 and have you had the goodness  to 
communicate it to the ,institute8    ,as
 the old wires that were pretty badly   
treated by many manipulations  had      
really suffered therefrom1 and as it was
 only to save time that ,i  did not have
 them renewed before sending the        
apparatus1 ,i wish that  they could be  

replaced by ordinary clavichord wires   
wound with silk1  inasmuch as the       
material in these is more durable than  
the copper of  the old ones4 ,had ,i    
been able to flatter myself1 sir1 that  
you would  have taken enough interest in
 this invention to be at the trouble of 
carrying it to ,paris1 ,i should        
certainly not have failed to effect in  
advance this small and necessary        
improvement1 which1 leaving time out  of
 consideration1 will require but a care 
as to details4 ,for1 in fact1  ,i       
strongly apprehend that not only the    
brittleness of the copper wire1  but    
also the violence that trials anterior  
and even foreign to present  use have   
submitted these wires to1 have possibly 
got the silk out of  order1 or used it  
up here and there1 thus producing       
immediate contacts  of metal and        
bringing about a premature closing of   
the galvanic chain1  whence would result
 a total disarrangement of the          
questions4 ,i truly  regret1 then1      

having 7through being too jealous of    
time1 which you  yourself know so well  
the value of7 sent you the instrument in
 such a  state of imperfection1 and ,i  
cannot do better than ask to have it    
sent  back here in good order4 ,permit  
me1 then1 to ask you at once to please  
not let ,prince de ,neufchatel nor even 
,his ,majesty the ,emperor see it  until
 the said repair has been effected1     
either by myself or 7if the  sending    
back would seem to you to take too long7
 by some one of our  skillful artists at
 ,paris4 ,according to my convictions1  
there is but  this means of preventing  
its effect from failing us1 even for    
ever4 ,it  is a true pleasure to see it 
so infallible and complete as it is in  
the new instrument of absolutely the    
same structure that ,i have had         
constructed for the ,academy of ,munich4
    ,the telegraph1 which doubtless was 
repaired at ,paris1 was returned  to    
,munich only in ,may1 #ahaa4 ,the same  
year it was carried to ,vienna  by the  

,russian ,count ,potocki1 whom ,baron   
,schilling had made known to            
,soemmering1 and who presented the      
apparatus to ,emperor ,francis the      
,first1 on the #ast of ,july of the same
 year4 ,another model was sent  by      
,soemmering to his son ,william1 then at
 ,geneva1 who showed it to  ,augustus   
,pictet1 to ,de la ,rive1 and to some   
other savants4    ,despite all such     
presentations no high personage showed  
himself  disposed to aid ,soemmering in 
making an extended application of his   
invention4 ,the committee named by the  
,academy of ,sciences1 and in which     
figured ,monge1 ,biot1 and ,carnot1 does
 not seem to have made any report4  ,the
 apparatus was considered of small      
importance alongside of that of  ,claude
 ,chappe1 and ,napoleon himself1 says   
,mr4 ,zoellner1 treated the  invention  
as a ,german vision4 ,on another hand1  
,bavaria and ,austria  showed just as   
little enthusiasm2 but ,soemmering1     
reduced to his own  resources1 continued

 his experiments none the less on that  
account4  ,on the #dth of ,february1    
#ahab1 he found it possible to telegraph
 to a  distance of #d1jjj feet1 and on  
the #aeth of ,march of the same year he 
operated his apparatus with complete    
success over a line #aj1jjj feet in     
length4    ,this was certainly making   
great progress2 but it is certain that1 
even if ,soemmering had not encountered 
universal indifference1 his  telegraph  
would not have been able to become      
practical1 because of the  large number 
of wires employed4 ,a modification1     
however1 would have  enabled it to play 
a role during the twenty-five years     
which preceded  the invention of more   
easily realizable systems4 ,this        
modification is  the one ,salomon       
,christopher ,schweigger proposed in an 
appendix to the  memoir of ,soemmering  
inserted by him in #ahaae in his        
journal1 the  ,polytechnisches          
,central--,blatt4    ,his proposition   
was that two unequal piles should be    

employed instead  of one1 so that first 
one and then the other1 or even the two 
combined1  should act2 and1 besides1    
that the number of wires should be      
reduced  to two1 in taking into         
consideration the time during which the 
gases  were disengaged1 as well as the  
interruptions of varying length1 and to 
which would succeed the action1 first of
 the larger1 and then of the  smaller   
pile4 ,with these different             
modifications1 it certainly would  have 
been possible to employ but two wires1  
and to render the laying of  the wires  
less costly4    ,after ,soemmering1 we  
may cite in the same category ,john     
,redman  ,coxe1 who1 according to a note
 inserted in #ahaj in the ,annals of    
,philosophy1 proposed to utilize for    
telegraphy the decomposition of  water  
or metallic salts4 ,coxe1 however1 does 
not seem to have ever made  any         
experiments4    ,in #ahad ,john ,robert 
,sharpe claimed likewise to have made   
experiments  in telegraphy in #ahac2 and

 these in all probability were based    
upon  electro-chemical action4    ,upon 
the whole1 the only important one of    
these electro-chemical  apparatus is    
that of ,soemmering4 ,this marks an     
epoch in the history of  electric       
telegraphy1 but it was not capable of   
the extension that can  be given the    
apparatus based upon ,oersted's         
discovery4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#f4--,,soemmering',s ,,perfected        
,,telegraph4    ,to be continued4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,new ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper       
,,pile4      ,some studies made of the  
telegraph service of the ,railway       
,company of  the ,east 7,france7 have   
resulted in a happy modification of the 
,callaud  pile1 rendering it easier of  
maintenance and reducing the consumption
  of the materials employed4    ,as well
 known1 the ,callaud pile1 which is     
exclusively employed for  telegraphic   
purposes by certain railroad companies1 
consists of a glass  vessel1 of a       

circular piece of zinc suspended by     
hooks from the upper  part of the       
vessel1 and of a strip of copper resting
 on the bottom of  the latter4 ,this    
copper strip is riveted to a rod of the 
same metal  which constitutes the       
positive electrode4 ,in the bottom of   
the vessel  there is placed a saturated 
solution of sulphate of copper1 so that 
its  level reaches to within a short    
distance of the lower part of the zinc1 
and the vessel is then filled with pure 
water4 ,the zinc being attacked1  there 
is formed a zinc sulphate1 which always 
remains at the upper part  of the vessel
 by reason of the difference in density 
of the solutions  of sulphate of zinc   
and sulphate of copper1 and the reduced 
copper  deposits upon the strip in the  
center4 ,it has been found necessary to 
cover the copper rod with a sheath of   
gutta-percha in order to keep it  from  
being cut at the line of intersection of
 the two liquids1 and this  is the first
 inconvenience of the system4 ,it is    

necessary1 moreover1  to keep the       
solution of copper at a certain degree  
of concentration by  placing in the     
bottom of the vessel a supply of        
crystals of sulphate  of copper4 ,hence 
it happens that the solution1 being     
increased1  eventually reaches the zinc1
 and the latter is thereupon attacked to
 no  purpose1 with a pure loss of copper
 through reduction4 ,this is a second   
inconvenience1 which can be remedied by 
introducing into the pile  only a simply
 saturated solution without excess of   
crystals4 ,it will  be seen that1 in    
this latter case1 it is necessary to    
visit the pile  quite frequently1 to    
empty it by means of siphons1 and to    
confide its  maintenance to experienced 
persons only4    ,this is why1 up to the
 present1 railroad companies have       
preferred  the ,daniell to the ,callaud 
pile for alarm bells that control signal
  disks1 despite the serious advantages 
of the ,callaud pile and the            
inconvenience of the porous vessel that 

enters into the composition of  the     
other4    ,illustration3 ,,new          
,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper ,,pile4    ,the
 modified ,callaud pile is exempt from  
the defects that we have just  pointed  
out4 ,it differs from the old form in   
the substitution of a  leaden tube1 open
 at its extremities and dipping into the
 liquid of the  pile1 for the piece of  
copper or positive electrode4 ,the lead1
 which  is not attacked1 and may serve  
indefinitely1 is held in a vertical     
position by means of a foot made by     
cutting slits with a pair of  scissors  
in the bottom of the tube1 and bending  
back the strips thus  formed4 ,this foot
 also serves to prevent the tube from   
touching the  zinc1 by holding it in    
equilibrium4    ,in order to charge the 
element thus constituted1 it is only    
necessary  to fill the lead tube with   
crystals of sulphate of copper and to   
pour  water into the glass vessel until 
its level reaches within a centimeter   
and a half of the upper edge of the     

zinc4 ,in an hour the copper will  have 
dissolved sufficiently to allow the pile
 to begin its action4    ,experience has
 demonstrated that1 whatever be the     
supply of copper that  is put into the  
lead tube1 the saturated solution will  
never reach the  zinc1 even in an open  
circuit4    ,in sum1 the new arrangement
 given to the ,callaud element presents 
the  following advantages3 7#a7 ,it     
permits of the maintenance being        
confided  to anybody1 since this        
consists simply in the introduction into
 the  central tube of crystals of       
sulphate of copper when it is seen that 
the blue tint of the lower liquid is    
disappearing4 7#b7 ,it permits of       
proportioning the expense to the work   
really effected4--,la ,nature4          
,illustration3 ,lodges1 ,portington     
,grange1 ,eastrington4    ,walter       
,hanstock1 ,architect4    ,,ground      
,,plan4  ,,chamber ,,plan4              
,,suggestions ,,in                      
,,architecture4--,,english ,,lodges4    

99       99       99       99       99  
,,lodges4      ,the walls of the        
buildings are best scarlet pressed      
bricks with  white tuck joints2 the wood
 framing is stained brown-black and well
  varnished2 the windows finished white2
 cement filling1 flat cream  white2 and 
,broseley strawberry tiles for roof4    
,the buildings are  situated in the     
center of a plantation1 and the         
combination of color  is most           
satisfactory4 ,they are built at the    
principal entrance to  ,portington      
,grange1 ,eastrington1 near ,hull1 and  
belong to ,thomas  ,brearley1 ,esq41    
,j4,p4 ,the works have been carried out 
under the  direction of ,mr4 ,walter    
,hanstock1 architect1                   
,batley4--,building ,news4           99 
99       99       99       99           
,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,building     
,,stones4#f    ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,a4         
,,julien4      ,the paper1 which will be
 published in full by the ,building     
,stone  ,department of the ,tenth       

,census of the ,united ,states1         
considers the  building stones employed 
in ,new ,york city and its suburbs1 i4  
e41  ,brooklyn1 ,staten ,island1 ,jersey
 ,city1 and ,hoboken4      ,i4 ,,the    
,,buildings1 ,,their ,,numbers1 ,,and   
,,common ,,materials4    ,the materials 
of general construction occur in the    
following percentage  proportion to the 
total number of buildings in the cities 
stated in the  table below3             
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,entire                       ,new      
,brooklyn  ,staten  ,jersey             
,hoboken4,metropolis4                   
,york4              ,isl'd4   ,city4    
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------     ,no4  
of                                      
buildings4  #ajj1aic    #ge1ebf   #g1gbe
  #bj1hhj    #f1bhd    #baj1fjh         
,brick and                              
stucco4        #fc4b      #cj4i     #i4e
    #bb4h     #cb4g       #dg4i         

,frame4           #bd4c      #ej4i      
#ij4j    #ge4b     #fd4g       #db4e    
,stone4           #aa4f       #i4a      
#j4e     #b4j      #b4f        #i4a     
,iron4             #j4i       #j4a      
44      44       44        #j4e         
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------    ,in    
,new ,york city proper1 the several     
varieties of stone are used in the      
following proportion to the entire      
number of stone buildings3        ,brown
 sandstone          #gh4f    ,nova      
,scotia sandstone     #i4j    ,marble   
#g4i    ,granyte                   #a4h 
,ohio sandstone            #a4f         
,gneiss                    #j4i         
,foreign sandstone         #j4a         
,bluestone and limestone   #j4a    ,in  
,brooklyn1 the ,connecticut brownstone  
is the variety predominating  among the 
stone buildings 7#ie4g per cent471 and  
is employed almost  altogether for the  
fronts of residences4 ,very few iron    
buildings occur1  but over three times  

as many stucco fronts as in ,new ,york4 
,the frame  buildings predominate1      
particularly in the outskirts1 e4 g41   
,long  ,island ,city 7#hj4e per cent74  
,in ,staten ,island1 stone enters in    
very small proportion into the fronts   
of buildings1 though commonly employed1 
as in ,new ,york and throughout  this   
district1 for the dressing of apertures1
 the walls of inclosures1  and other    
masonry4    ,in ,jersey ,city1 the      
proportions of the materials are much as
 in ,staten  ,island4 ,the selection of 
the dark trap from the ,heights behind  
the  city1 for the construction of many 
fronts or entire buildings1 is a  local 
feature of interest4    ,in ,hoboken1   
the same general features prevail as in 
,jersey ,city4    ,the annual reports of
 the ,committee on ,fire ,patrol of the 
,new ,york  ,board of ,fire             
,underwriters1 for the years #ahha and  
#ahhb1 have yielded  the following      
statistics1 which1 so far as they go1   
closely approximate  my own3            

,number of buildings4    ,south of      
,canal ,street                          
#aj1eec    ,between ,canal and          
,fourteenth ,streets                    
#bf1gjj    ,between ,fourteenth and     
,fifty-ninth ,streets         #cc1hae   
,between ,fifty-ninth ,street and       
,harlem ,river        #ah1gdf           
------    ,total                        
#hi1had    ,the materials of            
construction for this district1 which   
does  not include the #bc;d and #bdth   
,wards1 north of the ,harlem  ,river1   
are reported as follows3      ,brick1   
with stone trimmings1 and1 in part1     
with stone facings                      
#fd1ghc    ,brick and frame             
#c1faf    ,frame                        
#ba1dae      ,,ii4 ,,the ,,building     
,,stones1 ,,their ,,varieties1          
,,localities1 ,,and ,,edifices          
,,constructed ,,of ,,each4    ,an       
exceedingly rich and varied series is   
brought to our docks1 and  the number   
and variety are constantly increasing4  

,a few of the more  important may be    
here mentioned4    ,freestones          
7,carboniferous sandstone71 commonly    
styled ,nova ,scotia  stone1 or         
,dorchester stone1 in various shades of 
buff1 olive-yellow1  etc41 from         
,hopewell and ,mary's ,point1 ,albert1  
,n4 ,b41 and from ,wood  ,point1        
,sackville1 ,harvey1 and ,weston1 ,n4   
,b41 ,kennetcook1 ,n4 ,s41 etc4  ,a very
 large number of private residences in  
,new ,york and ,brooklyn1  etc41 the    
fences1 bridges1 etc41 in ,central and  
,prospect ,parks1 many  churches1 banks1
 etc4    ,freestone 7,mesozoic          
sandstone71 commonly styled brownstone1 
from ,east  ,longmeadow and             
,springfield1 ,mass41 but chiefly from  
,portland1 ,conn41 in  dark shades of   
reddish-brown1 inclining to chocolate4  
,this is the most  common stone used in 
the fronts of private residences1 many  
churches1  ,academy of ,design in       
,brooklyn1 etc4    ,freestone 7,mesozoic
 sandstone71 brownstone1 from           

,middletown1 ,conn41  ,trinity ,church1 
,brooklyn1 etc4    ,red sandstone       
7,potsdam sandstone71 ,potsdam1 ,n4 ,y4 
,several residences1  buildings of      
,columbia ,college1 etc4    ,freestone  
7,potsdam sandstone71 brownstone1       
,oswego1 ,n4 ,y4 ,part of  ,masonic     
,temple in #bc;d ,street4    ,freestone 
7,mesozoic sandstone71 brownstone1 in   
several shades of  light reddish-brown1 
orange-brown1 etc41 and generally       
fine-grained1  from ,belleville1 ,n4 ,j4
 ,very many of the best residences and  
churches1  e4 g41 cor4 #fjth and #fdth  
,streets1 and ,madison ,avenue1 etc4    
,also1 varieties of the same brownstone 
from ,little ,falls1 ,n4 ,j4  7,trinity 
,church1 ,new ,york71 from the base of  
the ,palisades 7part of the  wall around
 ,central ,park71 etc4    ,freestone    
7,lower ,carboniferous sandstone71      
commonly styled ,ohio  stone1 from      
,amherst1 ,east ,cleveland1             
,independence1 ,berea1 ,portsmouth1     
,waverly1 etc41 ,ohio1 in various shades

 of buff1 white1 drab1  dove-colored1   
etc4 ,many private residences and       
stores1 the ,boreel  building1          
,williamsburgh ,savings ,bank1 ,rossmore
 ,hotel1 etc4    ,freestone 7,mesozoic  
sandstone71 often styled ,carlisle      
stone1 from the  ,english shipping port1
 or ,scotch stone1 from ,corsehill1     
,ballochmile  and ,gatelaw ,bridge1     
,scotland2 in shades of dark red to     
bright pink4  ,fronts of several        
residences1 trimmings of ,murray ,hill  
,hotel1 the  ,berkshire building1 etc4  
,also1 varieties from                   
,frankfort-on-the-,main1 ,germany1 etc4 
,blue sandstone 7,devonian sandstone71  
commonly styled bluestone1 from  many   
quarries in ,albany1 ,greene1 ,ulster1  
and ,delaware counties1 ,n4 ,y41  and   
,pike county1 ,penn4 ,the trimmings of  
many private residences and  business   
buildings1 walls and bridges in the     
parks1 part of ,academy of  ,design in  
#bc;d ,street1 ,penitentiary on         
,blackwell's ,island1 house at #gb;d    

,street and ,madison ,avenue1 etc4      
,freestone 7,oolite limestone71         
,caenstone1 from ,caen1 ,france4 ,fronts
  of several residences in #ith ,street1
 trimmings of ,trinity ,chapel1 the     
reredos in ,trinity ,church1 ,new ,york1
 etc4    ,limestone 7,niagara           
limestone71 ,lockport1 ,n4 ,y41 ,lenox  
,library1  trimmings of ,presbyterian   
,hospital1 etc4    ,limestone 7,lower   
,carboniferous71 styled ,oolitic        
limestone1 from  ,ellitsville1 ,ind4    
,several private residences 7e4 g41 cor4
 #eb;d ,street  and ,fifth ,avenue71    
trimmings of business buildings1 etc4   
,also1 varieties of limestone from      
,kingston and ,rondout1 ,n4 ,y41 ,isle  
,la  ,motte1 ,lake ,champlain1 ,mott    
,haven1 and ,greenwich1 ,conn41 etc4    
,part of  the anchorages of the         
,brooklyn ,bridge1 walls in ,central    
,park1 etc4    ,granyte1 ,bay of ,fundy1
 ,n4 ,s4 ,columns in ,stock ,exchange1  
etc4    ,red granyte1 ,blue ,hills1 ,me4
 ,u4 ,s4 ,barge ,office4    ,gray       

granyte1 ,east ,blue ,hills1 ,me4 ,part 
of towers and approaches of ,new  ,york 
and ,brooklyn ,bridge1 etc4    ,granyte1
 ,spruce ,head1 ,me4 ,part of towers of 
,brooklyn ,bridge1 bridges of  ,fourth  
,avenue ,improvement1 ,jersey ,city     
,reservoir1 etc4    ,gray granyte1      
,hurricane ,island1 ,me4 ,part of ,new  
,york ,post ,office and of  towers and  
approaches of ,brooklyn ,bridge1 etc4   
,granyte1 ,fox ,island1 ,me4 ,basement  
of ,stock ,exchange1 etc4    ,granyte1  
,hallowell1 ,me4 ,trimmings in ,st4     
,patrick's ,cathedral1 ,jersey  ,city   
,heights1 etc4    ,granyte1 ,round      
,point1 ,me4 ,seventh ,regiment ,armory1
 etc4    ,granyte1 ,jonesborough1 ,me4  
,welles' building1 panels in            
,williamsburgh  ,savings ,bank1 etc4    
,granyte1 ,frankfort1 ,me4 ,part of     
towers and approaches of ,brooklyn      
,bridge1 etc4    ,granyte1 ,dix ,island1
 ,me4 ,new ,york ,post ,office1 part of 
,staats ,zeitung  building1 etc4        
,also1 varieties from ,calais1 ,red     

,beach1 ,east ,boston1 ,clark's ,island1
  ,mt4 ,waldo1 ,mosquito ,mountain1 ,mt4
 ,desert1 ,ratcliff's ,island1 etc41    
,me4    ,granyte1 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h4     
,booth's ,theater1 ,german ,savings     
,bank1 etc4    ,granyte1 ,cape ,ann1    
,mass4 ,dark base-stone and spandrel    
stones of towers  and approaches of     
,brooklyn ,bridge1 etc4    ,granyte1    
,quincy1 ,mass4 ,astor ,house1 ,custom  
,house1 etc4    ,granyte1 ,westerly1 ,r4
 ,i4 ,part of ,brooklyn anchorage of    
,brooklyn ,bridge4    ,granyte1 ,stony  
,creek1 ,conn4 ,part of ,new ,york      
anchorage of ,brooklyn  ,bridge4        
,also1 varieties from ,st4 ,johnsville1 
,vt41 ,millstone ,point1 ,conn41        
,cornwall1 ,n4 ,y41 ,charlottesburgh1   
,n4 ,j41 ,rubislaw1 and ,peterhead1     
,scotland1 etc4    ,gray gneiss1 ,new   
,york ,island1 and ,westchester county1 
,n4 ,y4 ,a large  number of churches1   
,bellevue ,hospital1 the ,reservoir at  
#db;d ,street1  etc41 and the           
foundations of most of the buildings    

throughout the city4    ,gray gneiss1   
,willett's ,point1 and ,hallett's       
,point1 ,kings county1 ,n4 ,y4  ,many   
churches in ,brooklyn1 the ,naval       
,hospital1 etc4    ,marble1 ,manchester1
 ,vt4 ,drexel  ,morgan's building1      
church cor4 #bith  ,street and ,fifth   
,avenue1 etc4    ,also1 many varieties  
from ,swanton1 ,west ,rutland1          
,burlington1 ,isle ,la  ,motte1 etc41   
,vt4 ,the ,sutherland building at #fc;d 
,street and ,madison  ,avenue1          
residences at #ehth ,street and ,fifth  
,avenue1 etc4    ,marble1 ,lee1 ,mass4  
,turrets of ,st4 ,patrick's ,cathedral1 
etc4    ,marble1 ,stockbridge1 ,mass4   
,part of old ,city ,hall1 ,new ,york4   
,marble1 ,hastings1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the        
,university building1 etc4    ,marble1  
,tuckahoe1 ,n4 ,y4 ,part of ,st4        
,patrick's ,cathedral1 residence on  the
 cor4 of #cdth ,street and ,fifth       
,avenue1 etc4    ,marble1               
,pleasantville1 ,n4 ,y41 styled         
,snowflake marble4 ,greater part  of    

,st4 ,patrick's ,cathedral1 ,union ,dime
 ,savings ,bank1 many residences  and   
stores1 etc4    ,also1 many varieties   
from ,canaan1 ,conn41 ,williamsport1    
,penn41  ,knoxville1 ,tenn41 ,carrara   
and ,sienna1 ,italy1 etc42 used         
generally1  especially for interior     
decoration1 etc4    ,trap 7,mesozoic    
diabase71 from many quarries along the  
,palisades1 at  ,jersey ,city ,heights1 
,weehawken1 etc4 ,stevens ,institute1   
,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j41  ,court ,house on    
,jersey ,city ,heights1 old rubble work 
buildings at ,new  ,utrecht1 etc41 on   
the outskirts of ,brooklyn1 etc4        
,trap 7,mesozoic diabase71 styled       
,norwood stone1 from ,closter1 ,n4 ,j4  
,grace ,episcopal ,church1 ,harlem4     
,also1 varieties from ,graniteville1    
,staten ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 and           
,weehawken1  ,n4 ,j4    ,serpentine1    
,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,many private         
residences1 masonry1 etc41 in  ,hoboken4
 ,also1 varieties from ,chester1 ,pa4   
,in addition to the edifices referred to

 above1 many public buildings  of       
importance are constructed of stone1 e4 
g43 ,prisons in the city  and on the    
islands1 bridges in the parks and over  
the ,harlem ,river1 in  which sandstone1
 limestone1 granyte1 and gneiss are     
used4    ,the sewers are constructed of 
gneiss from ,new ,york ,island and      
vicinity1  as well as of bowlders of    
trap1 granyte1 etc41 from excavations4  
,the ,croton ,aqueduct1 the ,high       
,bridge1 the ,reservoirs in the ,central
 and  ,prospect ,parks and at #db;d     
,street1 in which gneiss from the       
vicinity and  granyte from ,new ,england
 were used4    ,the walls1 buildings1   
bridges1 and general masonry in the     
parks are  constructed of the following 
varieties of stone3    ,freestone       
7sandstone71 from ,albert1 ,dorchester1 
and ,weston1 ,n4 ,b4    ,brownstone1    
from ,belleville and the base of the    
,palisades1 ,n4 ,j4    ,bluestone and   
mountain graywacke1 from the ,hudson    
,river4    ,limestone1 from ,mott ,haven

 and ,greenwich1 ,conn4    ,granyte1    
from ,radcliffe's ,island1 etc41 ,me4   
,gneiss1 from ,new ,york1 ,westchester1 
and ,kings counties1 ,n4 ,y4    ,marble1
 from ,westchester county1 ,n4 ,y4      
,the fortifications in the harbor and   
entrance to the sound1 constructed  of  
granyte from ,dix ,island1 ,spruce      
,head1 etc41 ,me41 gneiss from the      
vicinity1 brownstone from ,conn41 etc4  
,the stonework of the ,new ,york and    
,brooklyn ,bridge1 as ,i am kindly      
informed by ,mr4 ,f4 ,collingwood1 the  
engineer in charge of the ,new ,york    
approach1 is constructed of the         
following materials3    ,granyte1 from  
,frankfort1 ,spruce ,head1 ,hurricane   
,island1 ,east ,blue ,hill  and ,mt4    
,desert1 ,me41 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h41 ,cape 
,ann1 ,mass41 ,westerly1 ,r4 ,i41       
,stony ,creek1 ,conn41 and              
,charlottesburg1 ,n4 ,j4    ,limestone1 
from ,rondout and ,kingston1 ,n4 ,y41   
also from ,isle ,la ,motte  and         
,willsboro ,point1 ,lake ,champlain1 and

 vicinity of ,catskill1 ,n4 ,y4    ,in  
the anchorages1 the corner stones1      
exterior of the cornice and  coping1 and
 the stones resting on anchor plates1   
consist of granyte  from ,charlottesburg
 and ,stony ,creek1 in the ,new ,york   
anchorage1  and from ,westerly1 in the  
,brooklyn anchorage4 ,the rest of the   
material is entirely limestone1 mainly  
from ,rondout1 largely from  ,lake      
,champlain4 ,in the towers1 limestone   
was chiefly employed below  the water   
line1 and1 above1 granyte from all the  
localities named1  except               
,charlottesburg1 ,westerly1 and ,stony  
,creek4 ,in the approaches  the         
materials were arranged in about the    
same way as in the towers4  ,additional 
particulars are given concerning the    
quantity1 prices1 tests  of strength1   
and reasons for selection of the        
varieties of stone4    ,for roofing1    
slate is largely employed throughout    
these cities1 being  mainly derived from
 ,poultney1 ,castleton1 ,fairhaven1     

etc41 ,vt41 and  ,slatington1 ,lynnport1
 ,bethlehem1 etc41 ,penn4    ,for       
pavements1 the bowlders of trap and     
granyte from excavations have  been     
widely used in the cobblestone          
pavements4 ,the trap 7or diabase7  of   
the ,palisades across the ,hudson1      
immediately opposite ,new ,york city1   
and from ,graniteville1 ,staten ,island1
 is used in the ,russ and ,belgian      
pavement2 also1 granyte from the        
,highlands of the ,hudson1 from ,maine1 
etc1 in the granite block pavement in   
both ,new ,york and ,brooklyn2  large   
quantities of crushed trap from         
,weehawken and ,graniteville1 for  the  
macadamized streets and roads in the    
parks and outskirts2 and also  wood1    
concrete1 and asphalt in various        
combinations4    ,for sidewalks and     
curbstones1 the material generally      
employed is  the flagstone1 a thinly    
bedded blue sandstone or graywacke from 
the  interior of the ,state1 the        
,catskill ,mountains1 and from          

,pennsylvania2  also1 granyte1 chiefly  
from ,maine4 ,in the older streets1 a   
mica slate  from ,bolton1 ,conn41 and   
micaceous slaty gneiss from ,haddam1    
,conn41 were  once largely used1 and may
 still be occasionally observed in      
scattered  slabs4    ,additional facts  
were given concerning the ruling prices 
for the  varieties of stone1 tables     
presenting all the determinations       
obtainable  in reference to the crushing
 strength of the varieties used in ,new 
,york1 lists of the dealers in building 
and ornamental stones1 etc4      ,,iii4 
,,durability ,,of ,,building ,,stones1  
,,in ,,new ,,city ,,and ,,vicinity4     
,all varieties of soft1 porous1 and     
untested stones are being hurried  into 
the masonry of the buildings of ,new    
,york city and its vicinity4 ,on  many  
of them the ravages of the weather and  
the need of the repairer  are apparent  
within five years after their erection1 
and a resistance  to much decay for     
twenty or thirty years is usually       

considered  wonderful and perfectly     
satisfactory4    ,notwithstanding the   
general injury to the appearance of the 
rotten  stone1 and the enormous losses  
annually involved in the extensive      
repairs1 painting1 or demolition1 little
 concern is yet manifested by  either   
architects1 builders1 or house owners4  
,hardly any department  of technical    
science is so much neglected as that    
which embraces the  study of the nature 
of stone1 and all the varied resources  
of lithology  in chemical1              
microscopical1 and physical methods of  
investigation1  wonderfully developed   
within the last quarter century1 have   
never yet  been properly applied to the 
selection and protection of stone1 as   
used for building purposes4 ,much alarm 
has been caused abroad in the  rapid    
decay and fast approaching ruin of the  
most important monuments1  cathedrals1  
and public buildings1 but in many       
instances the means have  been found for
 their artificial protection1 e4 g41 the

 ,louvre1 and  many palaces in and near 
,paris1 ,france1 ,st4 ,charles ,church  
in ,vienna1  ,austria1 the ,houses of   
,parliament1 etc41 in ,london1 ,england1
 etc4    ,in ,new ,york1 the            
,commissioners of the ,croton ,aqueduct 
,department  complained1 twenty years   
ago1 of the crumbling away of varieties 
of  the gneiss used in embankments2 the 
marbles of ,italy1 ,vermont1 and of     
,westchester county soon become         
discolored1 are now all more or less    
pitted or softened upon the surface 7e4 
g41 the ,u4 ,s4 ,treasury71  and are not
 likely to last a century in            
satisfactory condition 7e4  g41 the ,u4 
,s4 ,hotel72 the coarser brown          
sandstones are exfoliating  in the most 
offensive way throughout all of our     
older streets and in  many of the newer 
7e4 g41 the old ,city ,hall72 the few   
limestones  yet brought into use are    
beginning to lose their dressed surfaces
 and  to be traversed by cracks 7e4 g41 
the ,lenox ,library72 and even the      

granytes1 within a half century1 show   
both discoloration1 pitting 7e4  g41 the
 ,custom ,house71 or exfoliation 7e4 g41
 the ,tombs74 ,to meet  and properly    
cope with this destructive action1      
requires1 first1 a  clear recognition of
 the hostile external agencies concerned
 in the  process4 ,these belong to three
 classes3 chemical1 physical1 and       
organic4    ,the chemical agencies      
discussed were the following3 sulphurous
 and  sulphuric acids1 discharged in    
vast quantities into the air of the     
city1 by the combustion of coal and gas1
 the decomposition of street  refuse and
 sewer gas1 etc42 carbonic1 nitric1 and 
hydrochloric acids2  carbolic1 hippuric1
 and many other organic acids derived   
from smoke1  street dust1 sewer vapors1 
etc42 oxygen and ozone1 ammonia1 and sea
  salt4    ,the mechanical and physical 
agencies discussed were the following3  
frost2 extreme variations in            
temperature1 amounting in our climate   
to #abj ,f4 in a year1 and even #gj in a

 single day2 wind and rain1  most       
efficient on fronts facing the north1   
northeast1 and east2  crystallization by
 efflorescence2 pressure of             
superincumbent masonry2  friction2 and  
fire4    ,the organic agencies consist  
of vegetable growths1 mostly conferv1   
etc41 within the city1 and lichens and  
mosses without1 and of boring  mollusks1
 sponges1 etc4    ,the internal elements
 of durability in a stone depend1 first1
 upon the  chemical composition of its  
constituent minerals and of their       
cement4  ,this involves a consideration 
of their solubility in atmospheric      
waters1 e4 g41 the calcium-carbonate of 
a marble or limestone1 the  ferric oxide
 of certain sandstones1 etc42 their     
tendency to oxidation1  hydration1 and  
decomposition1 e4 g41 of the sulphides  
7especially  marcasite7 in a roofing    
slate or marble1 the biotite and        
ferruginous  orthoclase in a granyte or 
sandstone1 etc42 the inclosure of fluids
  and moisture1 e4 g41 as quarry-sap1 in

 chemical combination1 as  hydrated     
silicates 7chlorite1 kaolin1 etc471 and 
iron oxides1 and as  fluid cavities     
locked up in quartz1 etc4    ,the       
durability of a stone depends again upon
 its physical structure1 in  regard to  
which the following points were         
discussed3 the size1 form1  and position
 of its constituent minerals2 e4 g41 an 
excess of mica  plates in parallel      
position may serve as an element of     
weakness2 the  porosity of the rock     
permitting the percolation of water     
through its  interstices1 especially    
important in the case of the soft       
freestones1  and leading to varieties of
 discoloration upon the light-colored   
stones1 which were described in detail2 
the hardness and toughness1             
particularly in relation to use for     
pavements1 sidewalks1 and stoops2  the  
crystalline structure1 which1 if        
well-developed1 increases the  strength 
of its resistance2 the tension of the   
grains1 which appears  to explain       

especially the disruption of many       
crystalline marbles2  the contiguity of 
the grains and the proportion of cement 
in their  interstices2 and the          
homogeneity of the rock4    ,again1 the 
durability of a rock may depend upon the
 character of its  surface1 whether     
polished1 smoothly dressed1 or rough    
hewn1 since upon  this circumstance may 
rest the rapidity with which atmospheric
 waters  are shed1 or with which the    
deposition of soot1 street dust1 etc41  
may  be favored2 also upon the          
inclination and position of the surface1
  as affecting the retention of         
rainwater and moisture1 exposure to     
northeast gales and to burning sun1 etc4
      ,,iv4 ,,methods ,,of ,,trial ,,of 
,,building ,,stone4    ,in such methods1
 two classes may be distinguished1 the  
natural and the  artificial4    ,the    
former embrace1 first1 the examination  
of quarry outcrops1 where  the exposure 
of the surface of the rock during ages  
may give some  indication of its power  

of resistance to decomposition1 e4 g41  
the  dolomitic marbles of ,new ,york and
 ,westchester counties1 some of which   
present a surface crumbling into sand2  
and1 secondly1 the examination  of old  
masonry4 ,few old buildings have        
survived the changes in our  restless   
city1 but many observations were        
presented in regard to the  condition of
 many materials1 usually after an       
exposure of less than  half a century4  
,another source of information1 in this 
regard1 was found in the  study of the  
stones erected in our oldest cemeteries1
 e4 g41 that  of ,trinity ,church4      
,there could hardly be devised a        
superior method  for thoroughly testing 
by natural means the durability of the  
stone  than by its erection in this way1
 with partial insertion in the moist    
earth1 complete exposure to the winds1  
rain1 and sun on every side1  its       
bedding lamination standing on edge1 and
 several of its surfaces  smoothed and  
polished and sharply incised with dates1

 inscriptions1 and  carvings1 by which  
to detect and to measure the character  
and extent of  its decay4 ,in ,trinity  
,churchyard1 the stones are vertical1   
and stand  facing the east4 ,the most   
common material is a red sandstone1     
probably  from ,little ,falls1 ,n4 ,j41 
whose erection dates back as far as     
#afha1 and  which remains1 in most      
cases1 in very fair condition4 ,its dark
 color1  however1 has led to a frequent 
tendency to splitting on the western    
side of the slabs1 i4 e41 that which    
faces the afternoon sun4 ,other         
materials studied consisted of          
bluestone1 probably from the ,catskills1
  black slate1 gray slate1 green        
hydromicaceous schist1 and white oolitic
  limestone1 all in good condition1 and 
white marble1 in a decided state  of    
decay4    ,the artificial methods of    
trial of stone1 now occasionally in     
vogue1  whenever some extraordinary     
pressure is brought upon architects to  
pay  a little attention to the          

durability of the material they propose 
to  employ1 are1 from their obsolete    
antiquity1 imperfection1 or absolute    
inaccuracy1 unworthy of the age and of  
so honorable a profession4  ,they       
usually consist of trials of solubility 
in acids1 of absorptive  power for      
water1 of resistance to frost1 tested by
 the efflorescence  of sodium-sulphate1 
and of resistance to crushing4 ,the     
latter may have  the remotest           
relationship to the elements of         
durability in many rocks1  and yet is   
one on which much reliance of the       
architectural world is now  placed4     
,sooner or later a wide departure will  
take place from these  incomplete and   
antique methods1 in the light of modern 
discovery4    ,reference was made to    
certain experiments by ,professor ,j4   
,c4 ,draper on  the brownstone and ,nova
 ,scotia stone used in this city1 by    
,dr4 ,page1 on  a series of the building
 stones1 and by ,professors ,j4 ,henry  
and ,w4 ,r4  ,johnson on ,american      

marbles1 in some cases with conflicting 
results1  which were probably due to the
 limited number and methods of the      
experiments4      ,v4 ,,means ,,of      
,,protection ,,and ,,preservation ,,of  
,,stone4    ,we have here to consider   
certain natural principles of           
construction1  and then the methods for 
the artificial preservation of the stone
 used  in buildings4 ,under the first   
head1 there are four divisions4         
,selection of ,stone4--,as it is        
universally agreed that the utmost      
importance rests upon the original      
selection of the building material1  it 
is here that all the resources of       
lithological science should be  called  
in4 ,only one investigation1 aiming at  
thorough work1 has ever  been carried   
through1 that of the ,royal ,commission 
appointed for the  selection of stone   
for the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,but the
 efforts of  these able men were        
restricted by the little progress made  
at that time  in the general study of   

rocks1 and were afterward completely    
thwarted  by the discharge of the       
committee and by the delivery of the    
execution  of the work of selection to  
incompetent hands4 ,there will be       
hereafter1  from investigations made in 
the light of modern researches1 no      
excuse  for such annoying results and   
enormous expenses as those which        
attended  the endless repairs which have
 been required1 since a period of four  
or  five years after the completion of  
the great building referred to4         
,seasoning4--,the recommendations of    
,vitruvius #b1jjj years ago have  been  
observed at times down to the day of    
,sir ,christopher ,wren1 who  would not 
accept the stone which he proposed to   
use in the erection of  ,st4 ,paul's    
,cathedral1 in ,london1 until it had    
laid for three years1  seasoning upon   
the seashore4 ,since then little or no  
attention appears  to have been paid to 
this important requirement by modern    
architects1  in the heedless haste of   

the energy of the times4 ,building      
stone1  even for many notable edifices1 
is hurried from the quarries into its   
position in masonry1 long before the    
quarry-sap has been permitted1  by its  
evaporation to produce solid cementation
 in the interstices of  the stone4      
,position4--,the danger of setting up   
any laminated material on edge1  rather 
than on its natural bedding-plane1 has  
been widely acknowledged2  yet it is of 
the rarest occurrence1 in ,new ,york    
city1 to observe  any attention paid to 
this rule1 except where1 from the small 
size  or square form of the blocks of   
stone employed1 it has been really      
cheapest and most convenient to pile    
them up on their flat sides4    ,form of
 ,projections4--,the principle is       
maintained by all the best  ,english and
 ,french architects that projections 7i4
 e41 cornices1  sills1 lintels1 etc47   
should be throated1 that is1 undercut in
 such  a way as to throw off the        
dripping of rainwater1 etc41 from the   

front  of the building1 but in ,new     
,york this principle is almost          
universally  neglected4 ,it was pointed 
out that the severity of our climate    
even  requires the further care that the
 upper surface of projections should  be
 so cut as to prevent the lodgment or   
long retention of deposits  either of   
rainwater or snow4 ,it is immediately   
above and below such  deposits that the 
ashlar of our fronts is most rapidly    
corroded and  exfoliated1 an effect     
evidently due mainly to the repeated    
thawing and  solution1 freezing and     
disintegration1 which are caused by the 
water1  slush1 and snow1 which rest1    
often for weeks1 upon a window-sill1    
balcony1 cornice1 etc4 ,thus from the   
initial and inexcusable  carelessness in
 the construction and form of the       
projections1 and1  later1 the neglect of
 the houseowner1 due to ignorance of the
  results involved1 to remove the       
deposits of snow1 etc41 as fast as  they
 accumulate on the projections1 is      

derived a large part of the             
discoloration of the marble1 ,nova      
,scotia stone1 or light colored         
granyte1 and especially the exfoliation 
of the brownstone beneath the           
window-sills1 balconies1 etc41 by the   
water alternately trickling down  the   
front and freezing1 by day and by night1
 for long periods4    ,the artificial   
means of preservation are of two        
classes1 organic  and inorganic4 ,the   
former depend on the application of some
 organic  substance in a coating or in  
the injection of fatty matters2 but1 as 
the substances are with greater or less 
rapidity oxidized1 dissolved1  and      
carried away by the atmospheric fluids1 
the methods founded on  their use have  
been properly denounced by many         
authorities as only  costly palliatives1
 needing frequent repetition1 and       
therefore exerting  an influence toward 
the destruction of delicate carving4    
,the following  were discussed3         
coal-tar2 paint1 which has been used in 

,new ,york for  many residences1 as in  
,washington for the ,capitol1 and in    
,london for  ,buckingham ,palace1 etc41 
but lasts only a few years1 and often   
even  permits the disintegration to     
progress beneath it2 oil1 often used  in
 ,new ,york1 but as objectionable as    
paint2 soap and alum-solution2  and     
paraffine1 beeswax1 resin1 tallow1 etc41
 dissolved in naphtha1  turpentine1     
camphene1 oil1 etc4    ,the preparations
 of an inorganic nature1 which have been
 proposed and  used abroad1 have in some
 cases met with success2 but the exact  
nature  of their action1 and the        
conditions to which they are each       
suited1  are yet to be investigated1    
especially with reference to the        
entirely  different climate by which the
 stone in our city is being tried4 ,the 
processes which have been proposed1 and 
in some cases practically used1  involve
 the application of the following       
substances3 waterglass1 in  connection  
with salts of calcium or barium1 or     

bitumen2 oxalate of  aluminum2 barium   
solution1 in connection with calcium    
superphosphate  or ferro-silicic acid2  
copper salts1 used by ,dr4 ,robert in   
,paris to  stop the growth of vegetation
 on stone1 etc4 ,there is certainly a   
call for processes by which1 at least1  
those stones which are used  in         
isolated1 exposed1 and unnatural        
positions may receive artificial        
protection1 such as the stone sills and 
lintels of windows1 stone  balusters1   
projecting cornices1 and ashlar-stone   
set up on edge4 ,it  will doubtless be  
found that only those stones which      
possess a coarse1  porous texture and   
strong absorptive power for liquids will
 be found  particularly available for   
protection by artificial preservatives1 
and  that such stones should indeed     
never be used in construction in a raw  
or crude state4 ,in the spongy brown and
 light olive free-stones1 a  marble full
 of minute crevices1 and a cellular     
fossiliferous limestone1  a petrifying  

liquid may permeate to some depth1 close
 up the pores  by its deposits1 and     
incase the stone in solid armor2 while1 
upon a  more compact rock1 such as a    
granyte or solid limestone1 it can only 
deposit a shelly crust or enamel1 which 
time may soon peel off4 ,the            
carelessness with which stone is        
selected and used1 and the ignorance  in
 regard to its proper preservation1 when
 the decay of a poor stone  becomes     
apparent1 have led to an increased use  
of brick and terra  cotta1 much to be   
deplored2 durable stones are to be      
obtained in great  variety1 methods for 
the preservation of the porous stones   
can easily  be devised1 and stones of a 
fireproof character do exist in this    
country in abundance4    ,in conclusion1
 three suggestions were offered3 #ast1  
that householders  invoke the magic use 
of the broom on the fronts of their     
residences as  carefully as upon the    
sidewalks2 #b;d1 that house-builders    
insist upon  the undercutting of all    

projections1 and the exclusion of       
brackets or  other supports to sills and
 cornices1 which only lead to the oozing
 of  water and a line of corrosion down 
the ashlar2 #c;d1 that house repairers  
recut the projections in this way1      
whenever possible1 and entirely  avoid  
the use of paint1 oil1 or other organic 
preservatives4           99       99    
99       99       99                    
,,elephants ,,moving ,,timber ,,at      
,,moulmein1 ,,burmah4      ,elephants1  
says ,mrs4 ,a4 ,h4 ,brackenbury1 of     
,singapore1 to whom we  are indebted for
 our sketch1 work in the timber yards of
 ,moulmein1  carrying huge planks1      
sometimes two or three together1 and    
with  great care and exactitude piling  
them in stacks one over another4  ,the  
old hands take a sidelong view with one 
eye closed to test the  perpendicularity
 of the stacks4 ,the elephants lift the 
planks with  their proboscis on their   
tusks1 and then tuck their trunks around
 the  burden1 and march majestically off

 as if they were carrying nothing4  ,a  
man sits on each elephant's neck to     
direct him1 which he does by  kicking or
 pressing behind their ears4    ,in     
,africa the elephants are being so      
persistently slaughtered for the  sake  
of their ivory that they are likely soon
 to become extinct4    ,would it be     
possible to breed them on farms as      
ostriches are bred1 and  then to employ 
them in navvy work1 for which they are  
probably as well  suited 7education     
being supplied7 as their ,asiatic       
cousins8    ,moulmein is a very pretty  
place1 and its charms are enhanced by   
its  being out of the beaten track of   
tourists4 ,it is up a river1 and there  
are many islands on which are perched   
the daintiest little gilt and  painted  
,burmese pagodas4 ,the scene recalls the
 well known view on the  willow-pattern 
plate of our childhood1 which plate has 
once more become  fashionable4--,london 
,graphic4    ,illustration3 ,,elephants 
,,moving ,,timber ,,at ,,moulmein1      

,,british ,,burmah4             99      
99       99       99       99           
,,strength ,,of ,,yellow ,,pine4        
,it is reported that a comparison of the
 relative strength of yellow  and       
,norway pine was made at ,dayton1 ,o41  
with the following results3  ,the       
specimens were dressed exactly one inch 
square1 and these were  broken in a     
testing machine by placing them on      
bearings1 one foot  apart1 with the     
weight in the center4 ,the southern pine
 had been air  seasoned for two years   
and upward1 the ,norway from a year to  
fifteen  months4 ,the weakest yellow    
pine broke at #gfc pounds1 the strongest
 at  #a1ajb2 average of eight specimens1
 #ijd pounds4 ,the weakest ,norway broke
  at #eja pounds1 the strongest at #gij 
pounds2 average of ten specimens1  #gjb 
pounds1 showing the yellow pine to be   
#bh4g per cent4 stronger than  ,norway1 
and that a yellow pine sill #dx#h inches
 dimensions is equivalent  to a ,norway 
sill of #ex#h inches1 with the further  

advantage in favor of  the yellow pine  
that it can be got much freer of knots  
and consequently  stronger in comparison
 than these figures show1 which are     
based on  clear timber4 ,another test   
was made at a meeting of the ,master    
,car  ,builders' ,association1 with the 
following results3 ,five pieces of each 
variety1 one inch square and eleven     
inches between bearing points1  were    
experimented upon1 the pressure being   
applied in the center4 ,the  outcome    
showed strength of yellow pine at #ejj1 
#eaj1 #ejj1 #dij1 and  #ecj pounds      
breakage strain1 or an average of #ejf2 
while ,norway stood  a strain of #fbj1  
#fde1 #gcj1 #fej1 and #fcj pounds or an 
average of #fbe  pounds4 ,these         
experiments do not appear to throw much 
light on the  question of relative      
strength4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,the       
,,education ,,of ,,german ,,women4      
,our women in ,germany1 said the        
professor of a ,german university to    

me1 a few days ago1 must by all means be
 acquainted with the different          
departments of housekeeping1 and must   
interest themselves therein4  ,those who
 stand highest as well as those who     
stand lowest1 from the  wives and       
daughters of a ,minister of ,state to   
the wives and daughters  of the meanest 
peasant4 ,the ,princess-,royal attends  
to the skimming of  the milk in her     
dairy4 ,i beg your pardon for           
interrupting you1 ,i  said1 but an      
,american lady would think that quite   
out of her sphere2  and if ,i were not  
convinced of your seriousness1 ,i should
 imagine you  were amusing me by a piece
 of fiction4 ,i do assure you1 replied  
the professor1 that it is a well known  
fact that the ,princess-,royal  keeps   
cows and superintends personally the    
management of her dairy1  and ,i have   
heard that the ,queen of ,england does  
the same4 ,please  to instruct me       
further regarding the education of women
 in ,germany1  ,i said4 ,i am very much 

interested in that subject1 as1 from my 
own  observations1 ,i have seen that as 
a general thing the ,german ladies  are 
well read1 not only in the literature of
 their own country1 but  also in that of
 ,france and ,england4 ,our women1 he   
replied1 also  speak ,french and        
,english1 especially ,french1 and many  
of them are able  to read the authors of
 those countries in the original4 ,this 
is the  more surprising to me1 ,i       
remarked1 as they seem to be much       
occupied  with the cares of             
housekeeping1 and ,i would like to know 
how they find  time to learn foreign    
languages1 and to read all the principal
 works  of the poets and romance writers
 of three countries4 ,that1 said  the   
professor1 is a part of their education1
 and in order that you  may understand  
in what manner ,german girls must       
utilize their time at  school1 ,i will  
give you a brief explanation of the     
system of education  employed and of    
that knowledge which it is incumbent    

upon every ,german  girl to possess1    
whatever be her position in life1 and   
afterward of the  different grades of   
education from that of the peasant girl 
to that of  the lady of the highest     
position in the ,state4 ,every girl in  
,germany  must learn to read and to     
write1 to sew and to knit1 to cook and  
to  do general housework1 and to acquire
 besides some general knowledge  of     
grammar1 geography1 mathematics1 and    
history4 ,beginning at the  daughter of 
the ,bauer1 or1 as you say in ,america1 
farmer1 the above  mentioned knowledge1 
which is the starting point for the     
education of  the other classes1 is the 
limit of her education2 and as it may be
  interesting to you1 ,i will mention   
that when the daughters of the ,bauer   
have learned thus much they quit school 
and labor in the field until  they are  
married1 when they leave aside the field
 work and enter upon  the duties of the 
household and its immediate attachments1
 such as the  dairy1 the chicken yard1  

the gardens1 etc42 and while the        
products of  the field belong to their  
husbands1 the garden stuffs1 and the    
milk1  eggs1 butter1 etc41 become their 
own property1 and from the profits of   
these1 which they carry to the markets  
and sell1 they provide their  pantries  
with the necessary teas1 sugar1 coffee1 
etc41 and themselves  and their children
 with clothes4    ,between the peasant  
class and nobility there are many grades
 and  classes varying more or less in   
the refinement of their manners as  well
 as in the extent of their education1   
but as it would not be  possible and is 
also unnecessary for our purpose to     
describe them all  in particular1 ,i    
prefer to include them all under the    
head of gentry1  and for these a more   
ample education is provided4 ,the       
daughters of  the gentry must1 in       
addition to the aforesaid rudiments of  
knowledge1  have a very thorough        
education in history as well as in      
grammar1  mathematics1 and natural and  

physical geography4 ,they must know     
,french  and ,english1 and have an      
intelligent understanding of the        
literature  of those countries1 as well 
as of that of ,germany4 ,they must learn
  fine needle-work and the art of       
governing a house and of educating      
young children4 ,they must also acquire 
a knowledge of good manners  and an     
understanding of society4 ,they must be 
able to receive company  and do the     
honors of the house4 ,in addition to    
this they will have an  intelligent     
understanding of music and art4 ,for all
 of these branches  of knowledge there  
are schools provided1 and according to  
the position  or wealth of the parents1 
or the intelligence and application of  
the  daughters1 will vary the refinement
 and education of each4 ,as1 for        
instance1 the education of a country    
squire's daughter will be superior  to  
that of a wholesale merchant's daughter1
 and that of the wholesale  merchant's  
daughter will be superior to that of the

 retail merchant's  daughter4 ,the      
daughter of a very wealthy banker will  
be educated above  the daughters of the 
merchants2 the daughter of a professor  
of the  ,university above that of the   
daughters of a professor of the         
,gymnasium1  and so on2 and each will   
fill a position in life differing from  
that  of the others1 according to the   
respect in which the position of the    
parents is held4    ,the same system of 
education which we have described for   
the daughters  of the gentry will be    
incumbent on the daughters of the       
nobility1 with  the addition of a more  
finished and thorough education in      
regard to  the manners and formalities  
which attach to their station of life1  
and  these will also vary in kind and   
extent1 according to the position of    
the persons concerned4 ,a ,duke's       
daughter1 for instance1 will be more    
accomplished than a ,count's4 ,but the  
difference will be more apparent  than  
real2 the actual knowledge of both will1

 as far as their education  provides1 be
 the same4 ,in the society of the       
,court1 the ladies will  naturally      
acquire some knowledge of the affairs of
 ,state1 which those  in private life   
and a more retired existence will not   
care to learn4  ,but in matters of art1 
in literature1 in the general business  
of life1  all ,german ladies are        
expected to be well informed and to be  
able to  converse intelligently         
regarding them1 while the special       
faculties of  law1 of medicine1 of      
theology1 of chemistry1 etc41 etc41 are 
left to  the higher ambition of their   
fathers and brothers1 and they do not   
meddle with them4 ,but1 above all1 as ,i
 remarked in the beginning1 a  ,german  
girl of whatever rank or condition must 
understand fully all the  matters       
concerning a household4    ,when the    
,professor had finished1 ,i thanked him 
and expressed so much  admiration at the
 system of education provided for the   
women of  ,germany1 that he promised me 

at some future time a brief explanation 
of  morals and manners in ,germany1     
which ,i shall be most happy to present 
before the reader at the proper time4   
,k4,g4,d4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,science   
,,in ,,antiquity4    ,,heron',s         
,,pneumatic ,,and ,,compressing         
,,apparatus4      ,the most ancient of  
such instruments is certainly the       
syringe4 ,the  ,egyptians1 says         
,herodotus 7ii41 #hg71 employed the     
latter in the  embalming of common      
people1 for filling the belly with oil  
of cedar1  through injections made per  
ano1 without opening the body and       
extracting the intestines4 ,heron1 in   
his ,pneumatics1 describes an           
instrument of this kind1 called         
,pyulgue1 which was designed for        
sucking pus out of wounds4    ,the      
following apparatus1 also described by  
,heron1 is the first step  that was     
taken toward the production of the      
pneumatic apparatus  properly so called 

,construction of a cupping glass that   
sucks without the aid of fire4    ,let  
7,fig4 #a7 be a cupping glass 7like that
 which is usually  applied to the skin71
 divided by a partition1 4 ,through the 
bottom  let there be passed two tubes   
that slide one within the other by      
friction-- being the external and  the  
internal one4 ,in these  two tubes1     
external to the glass1 there are two    
apertures1 1 that  face each other4 ,the
 extremities of the tubes situated      
within the  apparatus should be open1   
and the external extremity of  should   
be closed and provided with a key4      
,beneath the partition1 1 there  is     
another cock1 1 like the one just       
described1 save that the  corresponding 
apertures are within the cupping-glass1 
and are in  communication with an       
aperture in the partition1 4    ,things 
being arranged thus1 the keys of the    
cock are revolved in such  a way that   
the apertures of the one at the bottom  
of the instrument are  in a line with   

each other1 while the cock above the    
partition remains  closed1 inasmuch as  
its apertures do not correspond4 ,the   
chamber1 1  being full of air1 if we    
apply the mouth to the orifices1 1 and  
suck out a portion of the air1 and turn 
the key of the cock without  removing   
the mouth from the tube1 we shall be    
able to thus keep up a  rarefaction of  
the air in the chamber1 4 ,the oftener  
we perform  this operation1 the more air
 we shall remove4 ,let us now apply the 
cupping-glass to the skin in the usual  
way1 and open the cock1 1 by  turning   
the key4 ,a portion of the air contained
 in  will pass into  1 and we shall then
 see the skin1 as well as the subjacent 
matters  that pass through its          
interstices1 that we call unexplored    
spaces1  drawn into the space in which  
the air is rarefied4    ,as for the     
pressure fountain1 this had reached     
perfection as long ago  as the          
,alexandrine epoch4 ,the following      
description of it is borrowed  from the 

,pneumatics3    ,to construct a hollow  
sphere1 or any other vessel1 in which1  
if a  liquid be poured1 the latter may  
be made to rise spontaneously with      
great force so as to empty the vessel1  
although such motion be contrary  to    
nature4    ,the construction is as      
follows3 ,let there be a sphere of a    
capacity  of about six cotyles 7about #b
 pints7 made of some metal tough enough 
to withstand the pressure of the air    
that is to be produced4 ,let us  place  
this sphere1 1 upon any base whatever1 4
 ,through an aperture  in its upper part
 we introduce a tube which runs down to 
that part of  the sphere which is       
diametrically opposite the aperture1 but
 which  leaves sufficient space there   
for the water to pass4 ,this tube       
projects  slightly above the sphere1 to 
whose aperture it is soldered1 and      
divides into two branches1  and 1 to    
which are affixed two bent  tubes1  and 
1 that communicate internally with  and 
4  ,finally1 in these tubes1  and 1 and 

in communication with  them1 there is   
adapted another tube1 1 from which      
issues at right  angles a small tube1 1 
that communicates with it and terminates
 at   in a fine orifice4    ,if1 taking 
the tube1 1 in hand1 we revolve the     
tube1 1 the two  apertures that face    
each other can no longer establish a    
communication1  and the liquid that     
rises will no longer find an outlet4    
,then1 through  another aperture in the 
sphere1 we insert another tube1 1 whose 
lower orifice1 1 is closed1 but which   
has upon the side1 toward the  bottom1  
at 1 a round hole to which is adapted a 
small valve of the  sort called by the  
,romans assarium4 ,into the tube1 1 we  
insert  another and closely fitting     
tube1 4 ,let us now remove the tube1  1 
and pour liquid into the tube1 4 ,this  
liquid will enter the  cavity of the    
sphere1 through the aperture1 4 ,the    
valve will open in  the interior1 and   
the air will escape through the         
apertures in the  tube1 1 of which we   

have already spoken1 and which have been
 so  arranged as to communicate with the
 tubes1  and 4 ,when once  the sphere is
 half full of liquid1 we incline the    
small tube1 1 so  as to shut off all    
communication between the corresponding 
apertures1  and then push down the tube1
 1 and drive into the interior of  the  
sphere the air contained in 4 ,this     
requires some force1 as  the sphere     
itself is full of liquid and air1 but   
the introduction is  rendered possible  
through the compression of the air1     
which shrinks  into the empty spaces    
that it contains within itself4 ,let us 
now take  out the tube1 1 again so as to
 fill the tube1 1 with air1 and  let us 
push down the tube1 1 again and force   
this air into the  sphere4 ,on repeating
 this operation several times in        
succession we  shall finally have in the
 sphere a large quantity of compressed  
air4  ,it is clear1 in fact1 that the   
air introduced by force cannot escape   
when the piston-rod is raised1 since the

 valve1 pressed by the internal  air1   
remains closed4 ,if then1 replacing the 
tube1 1 in a vertical  position1 we set 
up a communication again between the    
corresponding  apertures1 the liquid    
will be driven to the exterior through  
the  compressed air1 and the latter will
 assume its normal volume again1  and   
press in the liquid beneath it4 ,if the 
quantity of compressed air  is          
considerable1 there will occur an       
expulsion1 not only of the entire       
liquid1 but also of the excess of air4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,,heron',s   
,,cupping ,,glass4    ,the valve of     
which ,i have spoken is constructed as  
follows 7,fig4 #b1 #a  bis and #a ter73 
,take two pieces of brass about one inch
 square1 and  about as thick as a       
carpenter's rule1 and rub their surfaces
 against  each other with emery1 that is
 to say1 polish them so that neither air
  nor liquid can pass between them4 ,in 
the middle of one of the pieces  bore a 
circular aperture about #d_/aj an inch  

in diameter4 ,then fitting  the two     
plates together by one of their edges1  
unite them by a hinge so  that the      
polished surfaces shall coincide with   
each other4 ,when this  valve is to be  
made use of1 the part containing the    
aperture is adapted  to the aperture    
that is designed for the introduction of
 the liquid or  air that is to be       
compressed4 ,the pressure causes the    
other part of the  valve 7which moves   
easily on its hinge7 to open and allow  
the liquid  or air to enter the tight   
vessel1 wherein it is afterward confined
 and  presses against the unperforated  
part of the valve and thus closes the   
aperture through which the air          
entered4--,a4 de ,rochas1 in ,la        
,nature4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#b4--;,,heron',s ,,fountain4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,,professor ,,adolf ,,meyer has been    
experimenting upon the relative         
digestibility of natural and artificial 
butter4 ,the experiments were  made on a

 man of #ci1 and a boy of #i years4 ,he 
found that there was  but little        
difference1 but in these individuals the
 natural butter  seemed to be more      
easily digested4 ,while natural butter  
was all  digested1 at least #ih per     
cent4 of the artificial butter was also 
digested4--,chemiker ,zeit4           99
       99       99       99       99    
,,filth ,,diseases ,,in ,,rural         
,,districts4    ,by ,,alfred ,l4        
,,carroll1 ,m4,d41 ,,new ,,brighton1 ,n4
 ,y4      ,an editorial comment in ,the 
,medical ,record of ,april #adth1 upon a
  paper by ,dr4 ,hamilton1 of           
,philadelphia1 may serve as an apology  
for  some remarks on a subject which    
ordinarily seems to possess scarcely    
more interest for practicing physicians 
than for practical laymen2  both being  
wont to lay the finger of incredulity   
against the nose of  scorn when they    
turn their deafest ears to the voice of 
the sanitarian4  ,in the present very   
unsettled condition of professional     

opinion as to  the diagnosis of typhoid 
fever--passably good authorities in     
,india1  on ,western mountain peaks1 and
 even nearer home1 differing widely     
thereanent--,i shall not attempt here to
 discuss its etiology1 or to  single out
 for reprobation any particular one of  
the several kinds of  bacteria which    
have been respectively described as its 
exclusive cause4  ,suffice it merely to 
hint that there may be possible source  
of error  in statistical arguments      
touching its relative frequency in town 
or  country4 ,but1 waiving this1 ,i am  
not aware that professed sanitarians    
have ascribed to sewer-gas alone such   
pre-eminence over other  vehicles of    
filth or fungi as the article in        
question imputes4 ,on the  contrary1 ,i 
believe that the majority of cases of   
enteric fever which  have been traced   
accurately to their origin have been    
traced to other  and more tangible      
contaminations of food or water4        
,nevertheless there  is strong evidence1

 which has stood the test of much cross 
examination1  that the so-called filth  
diseases deserve their name in this     
respect3  that whatever be the specific 
tertium quid which determines their     
occurrence in the individual1           
filth-poisoning 7i4 e41 the imbibition1 
through some channel1 of the products of
 organic decomposition7 is an  essential
 factor in their genesis4    ,the first 
source of fallacy in the arguments      
referred to lies in the                 
misinterpretation of the term sewer gas1
 connecting it with sewers in           
particular instead of with sewage in    
general4 ,thus1 ,i find it stated  that 
typhoid is more prevalent in the suburbs
 and surrounding country  than in the   
cities subjected to the contamination of
 sewer gas2 that  diphtheria and        
scarlatina occur most fatally in the    
country1 where  sewer gas is wanting2   
and that in ,philadelphia the extension 
of the  sewage system into the rural    
sections has diminished the sickness    

from fever4 ,now the facts on which most
 sanitarians lay great stress  are1 that
 unsewered rural districts are more     
exposed to danger from  fermenting filth
 than cities1 that the ineffable        
atrocities of leaching  cesspools and   
privy-vaults 7those perversions of      
barbarism to which  the ,american rustic
 clings as to his most precious         
birthright7 do  infinitely more to      
poison air1 and soil1 and water than all
 the  blunders of city engineers and    
plumbers combined2 and that1 granting   
the worst that can be said of some city 
sewers which shall be nameless1  even a 
bad sewer is better than none at        
all--which is merely equivalent  to     
saying that it is better to carry away  
as much of one's sewage as  possible    
than to keep the whole of it on the     
premises to decompose  under one's nose4
 ,and the peril from this fount and     
origin of evil  is augmented a          
hundredfold where the mania for modern  
improvements  has invaded rural         

households4 ,long before sewers are     
thought of--even  before the importation
 of the agonizing pianoforte--the       
suburban  housewife insists on having a 
bath-room1 including that sum and       
substance of vileness1 a pan            
water-closet on the bedchamber floor1   
and  a kitchen sink and stationary tubs 
down stairs2 and these fixtures1        
commonly constructed in the cheapest and
 nastiest manner1 are connected  with an
 unventilated cesspool1 serving as so   
many inlets to insure  the constant     
pollution of the house atmosphere with  
the gases of  decomposition4 ,then1 in  
an uncemented basement a portable       
furnace  is arranged to transport to the
 upper rooms not only the cellar-air1   
but the freely indrawn ground           
atmosphere1 laden with noxious vapors   
from the soil-soakage of cesspools or   
privies4 ,it is not saying too  much to 
affirm that for every one channel of    
filth-poisoning in a  paved and sewered 
city there are at least three in the    

average village  settlement1 and if the 
evidence of insanitary conditions be    
found in  not more than one house out of
 five1 it is because1 unfortunately1    
very few physicians in this country have
 cared to learn how to look  for        
it--familiarity with the doses of drugs 
and the results of disease  being       
regarded in most of our medical schools 
as vastly more important  than rerum    
cognoscere causas4    ,i am not         
sufficiently informed of the morbility  
statistics of ,african  cities to       
appreciate the full weight of reasonings
 based upon their  alleged comparative  
salubrity2 the occasional scattered     
returns which  ,i have seen from a few  
of them show death-rates ranging from   
#cj to  over #dj per #a1jjj4 ,but ,i am 
free to admit1 on general principles1   
that  it is less dangerous to let       
organic matter decompose fully exposed  
to  atmospheric oxygen than to store it 
in unventilated receptacles to form     
sulphureted and carbureted compounds1 or

 to saturate an undrained soil  with it4
 ,it is to be remembered that few1 if   
any1 sewage substances  are suspected of
 pathogenic power while in their fresh  
solid or liquid  state3 the products of 
their subsequent chemical changes are   
what we  have to fear2 and if these     
products be liberated al fresco as fast 
as  they are formed1 they are diluted to
 homoeopathic insignificance by  the    
surrounding air4 ,of the two evils1     
therefore1 the ,africo-,hibernian       
practice of throwing house refuse       
promiscuously upon the surface is       
preferable to the ,american village     
method of fostering and festering it  in
 cumulative concentration4    ,as       
regards the allegation that the young   
men at work in the fields  were more    
frequently attacked 7by typhoid fever7  
than the females1  who were generally   
engaged in domestic duties in or about  
the house1  it may be observed3 ,first1 
that agricultural laborers do not spend 
all their time in the fields1 but sleep 

in rooms from which1 as a  class1 they  
carefully exclude all ventilation2      
second1 that1 for some  unexplained     
reason1 enteric fever seems to have a   
selective affinity  for robust young    
males4 ,it is an affair of common       
observation that1  under apparently     
precisely similar conditions1 fragile   
women may resist  the infection to which
 strong men succumb4    ,facts1 however1
 are more forcible than words1 and ,i   
therefore subjoin  a few examples of    
coincidences which have very much the   
air of causes  and consequences4 ,i have
 excluded instances where               
water-pollution  could be supposed to   
bear a part1 and also those where       
careful inquiry  did not seem to        
eliminate the possibility of immediate  
or mediate  importation of contagium    
from a pre-existing case4 ,and let me1  
at the  outset1 deprecate the           
,liebermeisterian criticism that if an  
adynamic  fever with peculiar           
temperature curve1 abdominal symptoms1  

etc41  be not directly traceable to a   
preceding patient1 it is not true       
typhoid1 but only something otherwise   
indistinguishable from it2 or  that1    
without evidence of contagion1 a        
pseudo-membranous angina with  grave    
constitutional depression is not genuine
 diphtheria1 though a  remarkably good  
imitation of the real article4 ,grant   
only that there  are diseases--call them
 what you will--which closely resemble  
the  regulation nosological types1 that 
people sometimes die of them1 and  that 
they are intimately associated with the 
eating1 drinking1 or  breathing of      
filth-products1 and ,i shall1 for the   
present1 leave the  question of         
diagnosis to be begged by whosoever     
cares for it4    ,i4 ,typhoid4--,large  
country house with numerous             
conveniences4  ,two pan closets on      
second floor2 one in a small windowless 
hall-apartment1 the other in a bath-room
 adjoining a bed-chamber2  basin and    
bath-wastes led into trap of            

water-closet2 leaden soil-pipe  not     
continued above the line of fixtures1   
communicating directly with  cesspool1  
and badly corroded at bends of          
closet-traps4 ,servants'  pan-closet in 
basement with foul and leaky retainer2  
kitchen  and laundry wastes on same     
horizontal branch1 constantly liable  to
 siphonage4 ,frequent illnesses of minor
 grade prevailed in this  household     
until the whole plumbing system was     
reconstructed on a proper  plan1 since  
when the inmates have enjoyed excellent 
health4    ,,ii4 ,typhoid4--,small house
 in village street4 ,under the cellar   
runs  the ill-covered channel of a      
former brook1 which receives the sewage 
of  several adjoining tenements4 ,the   
house-refuse is discharged into this    
foul trench through an open untrapped   
conduit in the basement4    ,,iii4      
,typhoid4--,cottage of better class4 ,no
 plumbing fixtures except  kitchen sink1
 which discharges untrapped into an     
obstructed and very  foul drain2        

leaching privy-pit on higher ground than
 the basement1  which1 with the         
foundation walls1 is uncemented1        
affording ingress to  ground-atmosphere4
    ,,iv4 ,diphtheria4--,elegant        
mansion1 regarded by owner and practical
  plumber as a model of sanitary        
construction4 ,soil-pipe extended above 
roof1 but without ventilation at its    
foot4 ,materials and workmanship  good4 
,on a lateral branch was a down-stairs  
water-closet into the  trap of which the
 kitchen waste discharged1 and into the 
dip of the  running-trap of this        
horizontal soil-pipe1 in the basement1  
and within  a few feet of the furnace1  
was inserted a servants' hopper-closet  
without any flushing fixture2           
excremental matter being1 of course1    
thus  retained in the trap a great part 
of the time1 and its decomposition      
favored by the admixture of hot water   
from the kitchen4 ,when the water  from 
the boiler was set running1 the steam   
arose freely from this  hopper4    ,v4  

,diphtheria4--,handsome country-seat4   
,plumbing work recently  overhauled and 
declared perfect by the plumber4 ,three 
foul pan closets  and numerous other    
conveniences1 all leading to            
unventilated  cesspool4 ,in the bedroom 
occupied by the patient the safe-waste  
from  a stationary basin was carried    
into the soil-pipe1 constituting a      
direct inlet from the cesspool4    ,,vi4
 ,diphtheria4--,presumably first class  
residence4 ,kitchen and  laundry wastes 
carried from basement into privy-vault1 
which was filled  to above the level of 
the pipes4    ,,vii4 ,typhoid8 7two     
irregular cases74--,cottage in good     
neighborhood4  ,bath and basin wastes   
discharging into trap of foul pan-closet
 with  putty-joints4 ,two inch tin pipe 
inserted1 with leaky slip-joint1 into   
bend of water closet trap1 and carried  
with several angles to roof2 no  other  
ventilation of soil-pipe1 which connects
 with leaching cesspool4  ,cellar       
riddled with rat-burrows 7indicating    

probable connection with  some old      
drain71 and airbox of furnace made of   
loosely jointed boards1  so as to convey
 the cellar air to upper part of house4 
,,viii4 ,typhoid8 7continued            
fever7--,cottage on high ground4        
,offensive  pan-closet on bedroom floor4
 ,soil-pipe relieved by angular         
galvanized  vent4 ,but carried without  
other ventilation or trapping to        
cesspool on  lower ground4 ,kitchen and 
laundry wastes untrapped and led to a   
row of  buried barrels which were filled
 with a most malodorous mess1 the water 
being allowed to soak into the soil as  
best it might4    ,,ix4                 
,diphtheria4--,house without plumbing   
fixtures4 ,cellar loosely  paved with   
bricks1 and saturated with soakage from 
several privy-vaults  on much higher    
ground and close in the rear2 the       
fcal-smelling  semi-liquid filth        
actually oozing up between the bricks   
when they were  stepped upon4    ,x4    
,diphtheria4--,cottage alleged by the   

owner1 and innocently believed  by the  
tenant1 to be one of the best plumbed   
houses in the county4  ,pan closet in a 
decadent and offensive condition1 with  
untrapped bath  waste and insufficiently
 trapped basin waste led into its seal4 
,short  vent from bend of closet trap to
 outside of wall1 with orifice closed   
during winter to prevent water pipes    
from freezing2 soil-pipe thus  without  
ventilation at top or bottom4 ,butler's 
pantry sink connected  by tin pipe with 
earthenware drain1 which was badly laid 
and composed  of different sized pipes4 
,some distance beyond the junction of   
the  soil pipe and wastes1 this drain   
was tapped by a ventilating pipe        
carried into a chimney flue1 with an    
occasional down-draught4 ,kitchen  waste
 opening directly into an unventilated  
cesspool4 ,all lead pipes of  poorest   
quality4    ,,xi4 ,diphtheria4--,country
 farm-house4 ,no plumbing4 ,uncemented  
cellar2  living room in wing built      
directly upon the earth4 ,overflowing   

privy-vault within twenty feet and on   
higher ground1 the soakage and  surface 
washing from which had permeated the    
soil around and under the  building4    
,,xii4 ,diphtheria4--,large and handsome
 house4 ,sanitary arrangements          
satisfactory to plumber4 ,pan-closet    
with insufficient flush4 ,two-inch  tin 
vent from bend of soil-pipe carried with
 various angles into  cold chimney flue4
 ,running under the whole length of the 
basement  was an eight inch earthenware 
drain receiving the soil-pipe and the   
wastes from different fixtures2 its     
large caliber and slight grade          
precluded proper flushing1 and it was   
thickly coated with refuse and  chilled 
grease4 ,into its upper end was inserted
 the overflow from a  tightly covered   
cistern1 so that the only ventilation of
 the entire  house-drainage system was  
through the rain-water leader1 close to 
a  mansard bedroom window4    ,,xiii4   
,typhoid8--,two small houses of the     
poorer class1 situated on a  road at the

 foot of a steep declivity4 ,no         
plumbing4 ,two privy-vaults1 a  pig-pen1
 and an indescribably filthy cow stable 
just behind and above  them1 from which 
the washings were traceable into their  
cellars4    ,i could extend the list by 
scores of illustrations of rural        
house-defects3 soil-pipes disjointed    
from their outlet drains and            
discharging their sewage under basement 
floors2 cesspools backing-up  into      
kitchen sinks or laundry tubs1 or       
pouring a reflux tide through  overflow 
pipes into drinking water cisterns2     
ingenious devices of  every sort to     
deprive the gases from pent-up filth of 
any escape1 save  into the dwelling4    
,and these among the wealthier          
residents1 whose  surroundings are      
commonly supposed to be above suspicion4
 ,as regards  the unplumbed poor1 their 
chances of inhaling filth-polluted air  
or  imbibing filth contaminated water   
are often enhanced by inadequate  cubic 
space and faulty construction within    

doors1 and ignorant neglect  of the very
 rudiments of hygiene in the            
environment2 their cellars  and wells   
being sunk in soil saturated with       
putrescent refuse4 ,in  the intermediate
 agricultural or mechanic class similar 
conditions  frequently exist1 their     
potency for evil depending chiefly upon 
the  porous or retentive character of   
the soil2 precautions to exclude the    
ground atmosphere from cellars or       
basements are seldom found2 cesspools   
and privy-vaults are close at hand2 and 
it is a common thing for a  couple of   
adults and two or three children to     
sleep in a stuffy  unventilated room    
with not more than #a1jjj or #a1ejj     
cubic feet among  them4    ,from a      
sanitary point of view it matters little
 whether the gases from  decomposing    
sewage escape from sodden soil or from a
 foul sewer2 their  nature is alike in  
either case1 and the aggregate dose may 
be even  larger in the former instance4 
,but when1 and why1 and how1 they1 or   

any  of them1 exert their most          
deleterious influences1 are questions   
which  it is impossible to answer in the
 present state of our knowledge4 ,it  is
 an indisputable fact that people may   
for a long while be exposed to  them    
without pronounced manifestations of    
filth disease--although  such people1 in
 my experience1 are seldom thoroughly   
well1 even if not  specifically ill4    
,but sooner or later an apparent        
qualitative change  may take place1 and 
an acute zymosis declare itself4 ,i have
 elsewhere  suggested the part that may 
be borne in this complicated problem by 
a  personal factor1 or temporarily      
altered individual susceptibility2#g    
but it seems necessary also to assume an
 alteration in the external  conditions2
 and such alteration is explained by    
many etiologists on  the hypothesis of  
the importation or evolution of specific
 pathogenic  micro-organisms4 ,that     
certain varieties of schizophytes are   
associated  with some of the acute      

infections is beyond doubt2 that in a   
few1 such  microdemes are the           
conveyers1#h if not the causes1 of the  
infection  seems proved2 but it must be 
remembered that in the diseases chiefly 
under consideration no characteristic   
bacteroidal forms have been  defined4   
,in typhoid fever1 ,klebs describes a   
bacillus where ,letzerich  finds only   
micrococci2 according to ,wood and      
,formad1 the micrococcus  of diphtheria 
is just like that of the ordinary buccal
 mucus2 indeed1  nearly all of the      
acutest infectious diseases are         
attributed to these  ubiquitous         
micrococci1 indistinguishable from each 
other in most  instances1 and divided   
into species solely on the score of     
their  assumed physiological effects4   
,admitting all that the most ardent     
advocates of the germ theory can claim  
for it1 there are at least three        
possible ways in which filth and fungi  
may be connected4    #a4 ,taking the    
view of ,naegeli and others as regards  

the mutability  of the bacteria1 it is  
conceivable that the common scavenger   
microphytes may acquire pathogenic      
properties by successive generations  of
 development amid the products of       
certain decomposing substances4  ,in    
favor of this conception may be cited   
the seemingly gradual  intensification  
of filth poisoning in numerous          
instances2 sore  throats of a less      
septic type forerunning outbreaks of    
diphtheria2  diarrhoeal derangements    
preceding enteric fever2 and1           
furthermore1  ,koch has found both      
bacillus-spores and micrococci in       
surface soils1  the latter organisms    
preponderating where the earth is       
subjected to  excremental soakage4      
#b4 ,or1 accepting the specific         
classification of the schizomycetes1  it
 may be supposed that some pathogenic   
germs obtain favorable  intermediate    
conditions for their development and    
multiplication in  these products of    
decomposition2 a supposition almost     

necessary if the  specific-germ theory  
be applied to enteric or choleraic      
discharges4    #c4 ,finally1 if it be   
conceded that desiccated spores may     
retain their  specific vitality         
indefinitely1 and be air-wafted almost  
unboundedly1  the predisposing action of
 our filth emanations maybe imagined to 
be  cumulative1 slowly undermining the  
individual powers of resistance1 or     
rendering certain cell groups an easier 
prey to the intruding organisms  in the 
struggle for existence4    ,which of    
these hypotheses1 if either of them1    
will ultimately prevail  is a question  
only to be decided by experimental      
investigations which  are beset by a    
multitude of difficulties and sources of
 error4--,med4  ,record4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,,horse ,,medicine ,,bit4      ,owing1  
no doubt1 to the preponderance of       
horizontality over verticality  in the  
construction of the horse1 there results
 a considerable  difficulty in          

administering medicine to that          
quadruped1 and he  frequently has to    
undergo what may be said to amount to   
cruelty in  the endeavor to persuade him
 to swallow the unpalatable dose4 ,it is
  therefore with satisfaction that we   
bring under our readers' notice  a      
simple and effective invention which    
promises to do away with this           
difficulty1 and from humanitarian       
motives we hope to see it widely        
adopted4 ,it is the joint production of 
,mr4 ,philip ,fonnereau1 of ,masons'    
,arms ,yard1 ,maddox ,street1 and ,mr4  
,willoughby ,fielding1 of ,lisle        
,street1  ,leicester ,square1 ,london4  
,the inventors have adopted the sensible
 and  very obvious plan of utilizing    
that which the horse is trained to      
tolerate--viz41 the bit4 ,it will be    
seen from the annexed engravings  that  
the invention consists essentially of a 
tubular bit1 with a funnel  attached1 as
 shown at ,fig4 #a4 ,the bit has a hole1
 which is close to the  horse's tongue  

when in its mouth4 ,the upper part of   
the apparatus is  fitted with a rope1   
which is passed through a ring in the   
ceiling of  the stable4 ,by this rope   
the horse's head is gently elevated1 so 
as to  prevent the medicine from going  
in any other direction than down its    
throat4 ,when it has been properly      
adjusted1 as shown at ,fig4 #b1 the     
medicine is poured into the funnel1 and 
it immediately runs through  the hole   
into the horse's mouth1 and the animal  
cannot help swallowing  it4 ,the        
apparatus is then removed1 and rinsed   
out for future use4 ,of  course the     
invention is adapted to liquid medicine 
only1 but we believe  it is as easy to  
prepare medicine in a liquid form as in 
any other1  and therefore there need be 
no difficulty on that account4 ,we      
commend  this invention to all having   
the care of horses as a practical means 
of  obviating the perpetuation of a     
hitherto necessary but now unnecessary  
cruelty to animals4--,iron4             

,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,,the ,,physiology ,,of ,,sleep4        
,as regards the vascular condition of   
the cerebrum during natural sleep1      
there seems to be at present a virtual  
agreement among physiologists4          
,whatever views may be held of the      
immediate or proximate cause1 it is     
generally admitted that during sleep the
 brain is relatively anmic4  ,there are 
well-attested facts enough on record to 
substantiate this4  ,the brain1 denuded 
of a portion of its cranial covering1   
has been  carefully watched during the  
waking state and in sleep1 and it has   
been  ascertained that1 both in man and 
in the lower animals1 the organ is      
comparatively bloodless during sleep1   
and its circulation more sluggish  than 
at other times4    ,in the early part of
 this century ,blumenthal first         
enunciated this  theory1 and supported  
it by the interesting case of a patient 

who  had lost a portion of the right    
frontal bone2 during sleep the brain    
was seen to be anmic and in a collapsed 
condition4 ,dendy#i relates  a similar  
case1 which was observed in #ahba4 ,but 
,durham's memoir  on the physiology of  
sleep1 which was published in the volume
 of  ,guy's ,hospital ,reports for      
#ahfj1 was the first really thorough and
  scientific contribution to our        
knowledge of the vascular state of  the 
encephalon during sleep1 and the        
relation of that state to the  phenomena
 of sleep4 ,to ,hammond also1 many of   
whose experiments were  made prior to   
,durham's publication1 we are indebted  
for numerous  original observations1 and
 for the most exhaustive and conclusive 
exposition of the subject yet given to  
the world4#aj    ,we may see that during
 sleep all the encephalic blood-vessels 
are under  a diminished pressure1 as    
proved in fact by the manometer1 and    
that  this lessening of the active flow 
corresponds with a diminution of        

cerebral function4 ,even if no          
experiments had ever been made1         
inductive  reasoning would have led     
irresistibly to this conclusion4 ,during
 the  intervals of digestion the gastric
 mucous membrane is relatively pale  and
 bloodless2 the submaxillary gland does 
not become turgid with blood  until it  
begins to secrete saliva2 a muscle in   
action becomes markedly  hypermic4 ,it  
is so with the organs in general4 ,the  
performance of  function is             
characterized by vascular activity and  
fullness4 ,if in any  part there is a   
call for work1 there is a call for more 
blood4 ,the  nervous system forms no    
exception to this law1 and there is the 
most  intimate and absolute correlation 
between the evolution of nervous  energy
 and the activity of the circulation4   
,so true is this that it is  everywhere 
admitted that the induction of          
functional work in any such  apparatus  
as the digestive1 the sexual1 or the    
muscular produces a  degree of hypermia 

of the apparatus called into action     
sufficient to  prove a serious          
hinderance to the easy and satisfactory 
performance of  any severe mental task4 
,professor ,mosso1 of ,turin1 has lately
 made some interesting experiments  on  
persons who had lost portions of the    
cranial bones1 using ,marey's  ingenious
 hydro-sphygmograph4 ,noting1 like      
others before him1 that  during sleep   
the brain diminished in volume1 with    
shrinkage of its  blood-vessels1 and    
that the lively blush characterizing its
 surface  during the waking state       
disappeared1 he observed also that any  
sudden  impression1 if sufficient to    
rouse the brain to partial activity1 was
  sure to be attended with an increase  
of its vascularity and its volume4  ,he 
has proved1 too1 that every effort of   
the intellect is normally  accompanied  
by a diminution of volume in the        
peripheral parts1 the arm1  for example1
 and that1 on the contrary1 when the    
cerebral activity is  lessened the      

distant members are augmented in volume4
 ,sleep is always  accompanied by a     
dilatation of the vessels of the        
extremities1 and  particularly of the   
forearm1 where this dilatation has      
repeatedly been  measured by ,mosso with
 his registering apparatus4 ,every      
excitation  from without causes a       
contraction of the vessels of the       
forearm of the  sleeping subject1 and   
the augmented blood pressure at once    
produces a  renewed afflux of blood to  
the brain4 ,in this manner the          
fluctuations  of cerebral activity can  
be followed3 a sound1 a touch1 a ray of 
light falling on the closed lid of the  
sleeper1 all give rise to  modifications
 of the cerebral                        
circulation--unperceived1 doubtless1 but
  possibly the source of dreams4#aa     
,the immediate cause of sleep is not    
simply the shutting off of a  portion of
 the blood current from the brain4      
,there are more important  factors4     
,here ,vulpian#ab is right4 ,the        

lessening of the blood supply  to the   
encephalon is rather the accompaniment  
than the cause of sleep4  ,we cannot    
produce normal sleep in a person simply 
by exsanguinating his  brain1 or else we
 should have in an ice-cap and a hot    
foot-bath the  speediest and most       
effective of hypnotics4 ,the brain must 
first be in  a certain condition4 ,there
 must be in the constitution of the     
supreme  nerve centers something that   
forbids further activity1 and with that 
cessation of activity there will be a   
lessening of the blood-flow to  the     
brain1 in accordance with the           
physiological law before stated4 ,what  
is the particular modification of the   
cortical cells which renders  them less 
fit for the liberation of their special 
forces1 and finally  compels a          
suspension of action1 with a diminution 
of the blood supply8  ,herbert ,spencer 
has given a very plausible explanation1 
in accordance  with the theory of       
evolution3    ,the waste of the         

nerve-centers having become such that   
the stimuli  received from the external 
world no longer suffice to call forth   
from them adequate discharges1 there    
results a diminished impulse to  those  
internal organs which subserve nervous  
activity1 including more  especially the
 heart4 ,consequently1 the              
nerve-centers1 already working  feebly1 
are supplied with less blood and begin  
to work more feebly1  responding still  
less to impressions1 and discharge still
 less to the  heart4 ,and so the two act
 and react until there is reached a     
state of  profound unimpressibility and 
inactivity4 ,between this state and the 
waking state the essential distinction  
is great reduction of waste1  which     
falls so low that the rate of repair    
exceeds it4444 ,during the  day the loss
 is greater than the gain1 whereas      
during the night the  gain is diminished
 by scarcely any loss4 ,hence results   
accumulation2  there is restoration of  
nerve-tissue to its state of integrity4 

,according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 that       
rhythmical variation in nervous activity
  which we see in sleep and waking is   
the result of adaptation1 due to        
survival of the fittest4 ,an animal so  
constituted that waste and  repair were 
balanced from moment to moment          
throughout the twenty-four  hours would1
 other things equal1 be overcome by an  
enemy or competitor  that could evolve  
greater energy during the hours when    
light  facilitates action1 at the       
expense of being less energetic during  
the  hours of darkness and              
concealment4#ac    ,with some           
qualification1 the foregoing statement  
is about as  satisfactory as any that   
has yet been offered as to the proximate
 cause  of sleep4 ,during the waking    
hours the vaso-motor center in the      
medulla  is doubtless under inhibition  
by the superior centers1 and there is   
relative relaxation of the cerebral     
arterioles1 with dilatation of the      
capillaries2 when the cells of the      

hemispheres are exhausted1 they  are no 
longer able to exercise this            
inhibition--in common parlance1  they no
 longer powerfully extract the          
blood--and the vaso-motor center  puts  
on the brakes2 the blood supply is then 
no longer sufficient for  function1     
though enough for nutrition4    ,an     
ingenious theory has lately been        
proposed by ,preyer1 of ,jena1#ad       
according to which1 to use a homely     
illustration1 the fire ceases to  burn  
because the flues are clogged with      
cinders4    ,as ,preyer puts it1 the    
activity of the cerebrum is a sort of   
respiration1 while its repose is a sort 
of asphyxia of this organ4  ,it is      
certain that every psychical act1 every 
thought1 involves a  certain consumption
 of oxygen by the nervous substance4    
,during waking1  this gas is furnished  
to the brain in the blood4 ,if the blood
 supply  fails1 those forms of activity 
which we denominate consciousness1      
attention1 volition1 and thought cease4 

,this is easily proved by  compression  
of the carotids4 ,it is known that in   
the waking hours the  muscles1 as well  
as the nerves and the nerve-centers1 as 
a consequence  of that activity1 produce
 substances easily oxidizable1 among    
which  is lactic acid4 ,some have even  
attributed the sense of fatigue which   
we experience after prolonged exertion  
to the presence of this acid  in the    
blood4#ae ,according to ,preyer1 after  
the work of the day is  done1 and the   
quiet of sleep is sought1 the waste     
materials of which  we have spoken1 and 
which he proposes to call ponognes      
7substances  which cause fatigue71 being
 accumulated in the tissues1 little by  
little undergo decomposition1 by taking 
oxygen from the blood4 ,they  thus      
divert a considerable quantity of this  
gas from the cerebrum1 the  cells of    
which1 deprived of this element so      
indispensable to their  activity1 enter 
into a state of relative repose4 ,these 
waste matters  are1 then1 the physical  

cause of sleep1 which will be the more  
profound  and prolonged the more the    
blood is charged with the               
excrementitious  products of function4  
,preyer has experimented on animals by  
injecting  varying quantities of lactic 
acid into their blood1 and has produced 
a  deep somnolent condition which could 
not be distinguished from natural       
sleep4 ,the use of lactate of sodium in 
the human subject has sometimes  been   
attended with a like hypnotic effect4   
,further researches are  needed before  
the question can be considered as       
settled4--,n4 ,y4 ,med4  ,jour4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,preparation ,,of ,,chlorhydrines4     
,the usual methods of preparing         
chlorhydrines are in part inconvenient1 
in part unsatisfactory in yield4 ,a4    
,ladenburg therefore proposes the       
following process1 using                
ethylen-chlorhydrine as an example3     
,glycol is heated in a distillery       
apparatus to #adh ,c41 and a slow       

current of dry hydrochloric acid passed 
through it4 ,the water formed  and the  
glycol-chlorhydrine distill over and are
 collected in tubulated  receivers4 ,the
 temperature of the bath is gradually   
raised to #afj  ,c41 when all the glycol
 is completely decomposed1 except a     
trifling  residue4 ,the distillate is   
mixed with two or three volumes of      
ether1  and then freed from any         
hydrochloric acid present with potassium
  carbonate4 ,the ethereal solution is  
drawn off1 and completely dried  over   
freshly fused potassium                 
carbonate4--,berl4 ,ber4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,a ,,new ,,method ,,for ,,the           
,,detection ,,of ,,sugar ,,in ,,the     
,,urine4      ,at a recent meeting of   
the ,clinical ,society of ,london1 ,dr4 
,oliver gave  a demonstration of the    
method he employs for the detection of  
sugar  in the urine by means of         
test-papers4 ,the test-papers were      
charged  with the carmine of indigo and 

carbonate of soda4 ,when one was dropped
  into an ordinary half inch test tube1 
and as much water poured in  as just    
covered the upper end1 and heat applied1
 a transparent and  true blue solution1 
resembling ,fehling's in appearance1 was
 obtained4  7,a transparent solution    
could not1 at the meeting1 be produced  
from  the ,london water4 ,the           
characteristic reaction with grape sugar
 was1  however1 unimpaired74    ,if with
 the paper one drop of diabetic urine   
had been added1 shortly  after the first
 simmer1 a beautiful series of color    
changes appeared2  first violet1 then   
purple1 then red1 and finally straw     
color2 while1 on  the other hand1 one   
drop of non-diabetic urine induced no   
alteration of  color4 ,the colors       
returned in the inverse order on shaking
 the tube1  which allowed the air to    
mingle with the liquid4 ,reheating      
restored the  colors again4             
,confirmation of the presence of glucose
 was obtained by dropping  in a mercuric

 chloride paper1 while the solution was 
still quite  hot1 after the complete    
development of the indigo reaction4     
,then  there was produced immediately a 
blackish green precipitate4 ,no such    
precipitation occurred when a drop of   
non-saccharine urine was under          
examination by the indigo test2 then the
 blue solution was merely  turned into a
 transparent green one4    ,this test1  
as ,dr4 ,oliver pointed out1 discovers  
7a7 the normal sugar2  7b7 the varying  
proportions of sugar which fill in the  
gap between  the normal amount and that 
which characterizes diabetes mellitus1  
as  in liver derangements and vaso-motor
 disturbances2 7c7 diabetic             
proportions4    ,it possesses the       
following advantages over ,fehling's    
test3    #a4 ,it will detect sugar in   
any proportion in the presence of       
albumen1  peptone1 blood1 pus1 or bile1 
and as readily as in ordinary diabetic  
urine4    #b4 ,it gives no play of      
colors with uric acid4    #c4 ,it       

possesses portability1 cleanliness1 and 
stability4    ,moore's1 ,trommer's1 and 
,boettger's bismuth tests are all       
inferior in  delicacy4--,british        
,medical ,journal4           99       99
       99       99       99             
,,chemical ,,compounds ,,made ,,by      
,,compression4    ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,,spring4 
,the author has previously shown the    
possibility of uniting the  fragments of
 solid bodies by the sole action of     
pressure4 ,he also  established at the  
same time the possibility of forming    
chemical  compounds by means of         
pressure4 ,thus he obtained cuprous     
sulphide by  compressing a mixture of   
sulphur dust and copper2 mercuric       
iodide1 by  compressing mercuric        
chloride with potassium iodide1 etc4    
,finally1 by  compressing in the same   
manner mixtures of the filings of       
different  metals1 he formed alloys     
having for equal compositions the same  
melting  points as those obtained by    
fusion4    ,the last mentioned facts    

certainly establish the possibility of  
causing bodies to enter into chemical   
reaction by the mere agency of a        
mechanical energy4 ,this result is      
closely linked with another obtained    
during the course of the same           
investigation3 the polymerization of    
certain simple bodies1 e4 g41 sulphur1  
by the action of pressure4  ,the author 
had drawn a general conclusion from his 
experiments1 and  had announced that    
matter takes1 below a given temperature1
 a state  corresponding to the volume   
which it is compelled to occupy4    ,he 
has since undertaken a methodical study 
of the chemical reactions  accomplished 
by the action of pressure4 ,he had      
already shown the  possibility of       
forming metallic arsenides by           
compressing mixtures of  arsenic and of 
the filings of different metals         
7,bulletin de l',acadmie  ,royale de    
,belgique1 t4 v41 #ahhc71 and he now    
communicates the results  obtained by   
compressing mixtures of sulphur and of  

certain metals  or non-metals4 ,the     
results not merely confirm the author's 
former  conclusions1 but they throw a   
new light on the relations of organic   
and  inorganic chemistry1 and exhibit   
the so-called simple bodies as capable  
of assuming a peculiar constitution     
varying according to the conditions  in 
which they are placed1 and the actions  
to which they are submitted4    ,he used
 the metals in the state of fine filings
 immediately mixed with  flowers of     
sulphur previously thoroughly washed4   
,the mixtures were made  in atomic      
proportions and were submitted to a     
preliminary pressure of  #f1ejj         
atmospheres4 ,they then assumed the     
state of a hard compact mass1  showing1 
on examination with the microscope1 that
 the reaction of  the sulphur and the   
metal had taken place wherever the      
elements were  in contact4 ,the mass    
obtained was then reduced into fine     
powder and  compressed again from twice 
to eight times4    #a4 ,sulphur and     

,magnesium4--,after six compressions    
there was obtained  a gray mass with a  
feebly metallic surface luster4 ,it     
dissolves in  water at #ej to #fj with a
 slow escape of hydrogen sulphide1 the  
liquid becoming of a golden yellow4 ,a  
drop of hydrochloric acid  occasions    
immediately a very strong escape of     
hydrogen sulphide1 while  free sulphur  
is deposited4 ,hence magnesium and      
sulphur combine under  the action of    
pressure1 forming magnesium sulphide and
 possibly a  polysulphide4    #b4       
,sulphur and ,zinc4--,three compressions
 yield a block deceptively  similar to  
native blende with metallic luster4     
,dilute sulphuric acid  dissolves the   
block slowly with an escape of hydrogen 
sulphide4    #c4 ,sulphur and           
,iron4--,after four compressions a block
 is obtained  which the file scarcely   
touches4 ,dilute sulphuric acid         
dissolves it  easily with continuous    
escape of hydrogen sulphide4 ,if the    
product  of compression is heated in a  

closed tube no luminous phenomenon is   
observed1 the body entering into        
tranquil fusion4 ,hence the potential   
heat of the free sulphur and iron has   
been realized during the  compression4  
#d4 ,sulphur and ,cadmium4--,three      
compressions give a yellowish-gray      
homogeneous mass4 ,the powder is yellow1
 but less pure than that of  cadmium    
sulphide obtained by precipitation4     
,strong hydrochloric acid  dissolves the
 mass with escape of hydrogen sulphide4 
#e4 ,sulphur and ,aluminum4--,result    
incomplete4 ,after five compressions  a 
mass is obtained which1 in contact with 
moist air1 gives off an odor  of        
hydrogen polysulphide4    #f4 ,sulphur  
and ,bismuth4--,the combination takes   
place with great ease4    #g4 ,sulphur  
and ,lead4--,the combination is still   
more easy4    #h4 ,sulphur and          
,silver4--,the action is slow2 eight    
compressions are  necessary4    #i4     
,sulphur and ,copper4--,three           
compressions complete the combination4  

,when the product of the compression is 
heated1 there is no development  of heat
 or light4    #aj4 ,sulphur and         
,tin4--,three compressions give a block 
which yields  a yellowish-gray powder1  
easily soluble in a hot solution of     
sodium  sulphide4 ,stannic sulphide is  
therefore formed by the compression of  
sulphur and tin4    #aa4 ,sulphur and   
,antimony4--,after two compressions we  
obtain a  gray-black mass having the    
color and luster of stibine4 ,when      
powdered  it dissolves with ease in hot 
hydrochloric acid1 giving off hydrogen  
sulphide4    #ab4 ,sulphur and ,red     
,phosphorus2 ,sulphur and               
,carbon4--,result entirely  nil2 there  
is produced not the least trace of      
phosphorus sulphide nor  of carbon      
sulphide4      ,,conclusions ,,to ,,be  
,,drawn ,,from ,,these ,,facts4    ,the 
negative results just mentioned have an 
especial interest4 ,it is  established  
that red phosphorus has a higher        
specific gravity than  white phosphorus1

 that of the former being #a4if1 and    
that of the  latter #a4hb4 ,the author's
 former researches 7,bulletins de       
l',acadmie  ,royale de ,belgique1 #di1  
p4 #cbc1 #ahhj7 have shown that if      
sufficient  pressure is applied to a    
body capable of assuming several        
allotropic  states1 it takes under      
pressure the state corresponding to its 
greatest  density4 ,it is consequently  
impossible to transform red phosphorus  
into  white phosphorus by pressure4 ,but
 we know1 on the other hand1 that  red  
sulphur and red phosphorus may be mixed 
with impunity at common  temperatures   
without combination ensuing2 to produce 
combination the  temperature must be    
raised to about #bfj1 the point of      
transformation  of red phosphorus into  
white phosphorus4    ,it is thus        
established that red phosphorus must    
first be changed from  its allotropic   
condition before entering into          
combination with sulphur4  ,the pressure
 opposing this change renders also the  

act of combination  impossible2 red     
phosphorus appears to us like a body    
which has lost its  chemical faculties4 
,thus1 the combination of an element    
with itself1 i4 e41 its  polymerization1
 has really the effect of extinguishing 
its energy1  rendering it incapable of  
fulfilling certain functions4 ,the      
chemistry  of red phosphorus1 more      
simple than that of white phosphorus1   
may be  considered as the chemistry of a
 deadened body4 ,the phosphorus which   
is found in combination with sulphur is 
phosphorus sulphides1 and  that which   
enters into combinations of other kinds1
 is certainly not  phosphorus in the red
 state2 it is even possible1 if not     
probable1 that  it is not even white    
phosphorus1 but a substance still       
unknown in the  free state4    ,we      
arrive at a similar but more complete   
conclusion as to the nature  of carbon4 
,it is known that the affinity of carbon
 for sulphur and  even for oxygen only  
becomes manifest at a temperature       

bordering upon  redness4 ,is not this   
tantamount to saying that1 in order to  
enter  into combination with another    
body1 carbon1 like red phosphorus1 must 
first change its allotropic condition8  
,this view is supported by the          
following considerations3 ,the specific 
heat of amorphous carbon1 and1  a       
fortiori1 that of graphite and diamond1 
form exceptions to the  law of ,dulong  
and ,petit2 they are too small by more  
than one-half4  ,they would be normal if
 the atomic weight of carbon were       
greater than  it really is2 in other    
words1 free carbon were a polymer of    
combined  carbon4 ,rose has found that  
at a temperature of about #ejj the      
specific heat of carbon agrees with the 
law of ,dulong and ,petit4 ,at  this    
temperature carbon undergoes a beginning
 of depolymerization1 i4  e41 its       
chemical affinities reappear1 and it    
burns readily in oxygen4  ,do not these 
facts show a complete parallelism       
between the chemical  history of        

phosphorus and that of carbon8          
,crystalline carbon1 and even free      
amorphous carbon1 are without  chemical 
activity at the ordinary temperature2   
but when1 in consequence  of a rise of  
temperature1 they take another state1   
they are transformed  into a new kind of
 carbon1 constituting a fourth          
allotropic state1 and  endowed with a   
prodigious capacity of combination4 ,if 
these conclusions  are well founded1 we 
may venture a step further and ask1 if  
the carbon  which enters into the       
composition1 not of mere organic        
compounds1  but of organized bodies1 is 
not a carbon of still another allotropic
  state characterized by the appearance 
of new properties or forms of           
combination which find their expression 
in the vital phenomena4    ,in other    
words1 a derivative of carbon1 before   
forming part of a living  body1 must    
first undergo in its atoms a            
transformation similar to that  which   
permits amorphous carbon to enter into  

the composition of organic  compounds4  
,in this order of ideas the carbon of   
organic chemistry would  be merely a    
first deadened form of the carbon of    
biological chemistry1  while free carbon
 is merely the defunct remains of the   
carbon of  organic chemistry4--,bulletin
 de la ,socit ,chimique de ,paris2      
,chem4  ,news4           99       99    
99       99       99          ,,copper  
,,alloys ,,among ,,the ,,ancients4      
,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,,reyer1 ,,ph4,d41 of    
,vienna4      ,the earth's crust        
consists in part of eruptive rocks1 in  
part of  sedimentary rocks4 ,both of    
them have served from time immemorial   
for  building purposes2 but at a very   
early period they were the only source  
from which weapons and tools could be   
made4 ,subsequently metals became       
known1 and were employed for this       
purpose4    ,metals are rarely met with 
in a pure state1 but generally in       
combination with oxygen or sulphur4 ,if 
we examine the original material  of    

which the earth was composed1 and which 
is frequently injected  through crevices
 in the earth's crust1 and the          
superjacent sediment  as eruptive rock1 
we find it to be a mixture of different 
substances  of a complex nature4 ,it    
contains silicon1 aluminum1 iron1       
calcium1  magnesium1 potassium1 and     
sodium4 ,none of these are in a free    
state1  but are combined with oxygen4   
,silicon1 the lighter metals1 and heavy 
iron do not exhibit their true metallic 
character1 having all been  changed into
 stone-like compounds1 calcified by     
contact with vital  air1 as the old     
chemists expressed it4    ,of the heavy 
metals that are of such importance to   
civilization ,i  have only mentioned    
iron1 for this alone1 in its compounds1 
takes any  considerable part in the rock
 formations4 ,other heavy metals are met
  with in smaller quantities in the     
rocks4 ,they are scarcely taken into    
account by geologists who consider the  
earth as a whole1 but it is  these rare 

guests that are of the greatest         
importance to civilization4    ,the     
metals are met with as silicates in the 
eruptive masses2 they  are also found as
 oxides or sulphides1 scattered through 
different  eruptive rocks in small      
granules4#af ,besides these1 the ores1  
which  are workable metallic compounds1 
are here and there concentrated in      
crevices or fissures1 which exist in    
eruptive as well as in sedimentary      
rocks4    ,iron is met with as oxide in 
the eruptive rocks1 in fissures1 and    
finally in thick strata and deposits    
within the sediment2 whole  mountains   
consist of iron ore4    ,tin occurs as  
oxide 7tin stone71 scattered through    
eruptive masses  rich in quartz1 also in
 fissures4    ,copper1 combined with    
sulphur1 is found distributed through   
dark  eruptive rocks1 poor in silica1   
and also in fissures in those regions4  
,gold and silver are mixed in smaller   
quantities with ores of other  metals4  
,all these are continually exposed to   

atmospheric agencies toward which  they 
act very differently4 ,the oxidized ores
 of iron and tin do not  change their   
character4 ,the sulphur compounds1 at   
least when near  the surface1 are       
oxidized1 and hand in hand with this    
process goes  the partial reduction of  
certain metals to the metallic state4   
,gold  and silver1 and to a less extent 
copper1 are subject to this change2     
they are unmasked and are exposed to day
 light1 not as stones1 but  as          
brilliant1 malleable metals4 ,finally1  
the heavy ores and metallic  particles  
are loosened from the rocks by the      
destructive action of  water1 floated   
off1 elutriated1 and washed4 ,in        
undisturbed mountain  ranges the mineral
 treasures lie in masses before our     
eyes4    ,the native shining and        
malleable metals 7gold1 silver1 and     
copper7  naturally first attracted the  
attention of man4 ,they may have used   
the  separate nuggets for ornaments as  
they found them1 or after hammering     

them together into plates4 ,this was    
surely the first step in the use of     
metals4 ,it can scarcely be supposed    
that this use of soft native metals     
contributed much to the progress of     
mankind1 and it is highly probable  that
 in those early times the noble metal   
had but little value4 ,the  shining     
particles1 as long as the natural supply
 lasted1 seemed like  worthless tinsel4 
,copper1 which can be made into tools   
and vessels1  as well as soft1 poor     
weapons1 was more highly prized4 ,such  
materials  were not1 indeed1 suitable   
and able to take the place of stone     
tools  and weapons2 nevertheless1 this  
working of metals served as preparation 
for the more complicated work of later  
times4 ,man learned to hammer and  shape
 metals1 and he found out that the      
operation was much facilitated  by      
heating the metal4    ,the discovery of 
iron meteorites may have had some value4
 ,in these the  smith first became      
acquainted with the properties of a hard

 metal4 ,but  ,i would not attach too   
much importance to this4 ,the art of    
working  metals is not the possession of
 a people that have a few meteoric      
knives4 ,in my opinion the metallurgical
 preparation of the hard metals  from   
their ores is alone decisive on this    
point4    ,the volks' sagas frequently  
mention some god or hero1 who discovered
  and taught metallurgy1 yet there is   
scarcely any doubt that the god1  in    
most cases1 was human ingenuity led by  
chance4    ,we have already seen that   
only certain metals are found native1   
while  the hard metals under normal     
conditions remain in the form of oxide  
or  mineral4 ,they have a strong        
affinity for the oxygen of the air1 and 
can only be separated and converted into
 metals by powerful chemical  agents4   
,there is one substance which has a     
still more powerful  attraction for     
oxygen than those metals4 ,this is      
ignited carbon1 which1  in its fight    
with the metallic oxides1 robs them of  

their oxygen4    ,carbon has been       
separated from the carbonic acid of the 
air by the  life-giving force of the    
sun1 and vegetable life dependent upon  
it4 ,but  the isolated element waits    
impatiently for the impulse that will   
enable  it to unite with the vital air  
under flame and heat4 ,men that know how
  to utilize this process of nature     
possess the means of resurrecting  those
 metallic treasures which1 without its  
powerful assistance1 would  remain      
forever hidden from their eyes4 ,but    
accident1 as we have said1  pointed out 
the way4    ,in numerous places visited 
by primeval man1 as hunter and          
fisherman1  and afterward as nomad1     
conflagrations broke out4 ,not          
unfrequently  whole forests were burned1
 either intentionally or not4 ,it could 
not  be otherwise than that the earth's 
surface would get red hot in such       
places1 and if a strong wind favored it1
 this would suffice to open  these      
treasures4 ,the glowing charcoal would  

rob the ores of their  oxygen and leave 
the pure metal as melted drops or       
cakes4#ag ,copper1  tin1 and iron ores  
could have been reduced in this way2    
mankind not  only knew the result but   
also the method of reducing metals4     
,this process took place not once       
merely1 but thousands of times in       
various parts of the earth1 and thus1 in
 my opinion1 metallurgy may  have become
 known to different races of people and 
at different times4    ,a simple trench 
in the ground1 in which a heap of       
glowing coals and  some pieces of ore   
could be subjected to a strong draught  
of air1  suffices1 under favorable      
circumstances1 for the preparation of   
the  metal2 the oldest metallurgists had
 scarcely any more complete means at    
hand for their work4    ,in such        
primitive furnaces the well known and   
soft metals would  naturally be worked  
first1 and afterward copper1 tin1 and   
iron would be  obtained from their ores4
 ,a variety of substances that occur    

together  in nature would be smelted    
together in mixtures1 and different     
metals  would naturally be mixed and a  
great variety of products obtained4     
,,characteristics ,,of ,,copper         
,,alloys4    ,the oldest civilized races
 used bronze for a long space of time as
  their chief useful metal1 although    
some neighboring races understood  the  
metallurgy of iron4 ,these facts1 which 
are in glaring contradiction  to the    
present condition of things1 require    
some explanation4    ,first it must be  
mentioned that iron frequently contains 
injurious  contaminations1 sulphur1     
phosphorus1 etc41 and that it must have 
been  very difficult for these primitive
 metallurgists to remove these          
contaminations1 and to introduce the    
proper quantity of carbon into  the     
iron4 ,we must also consider that even a
 good1 pure steel would be  a useless   
product unless it was worked by a       
skillful and experienced  smith4        
,finally1 iron is much more rapidly     

destroyed by oxidation than  bronze4    
,these negative considerations certainly
 favored the rule of  bronze for a long 
time4    ,the following facts must be   
fixed in mind regarding the manufacture 
of  bronze in olden times3    #a4 ,in   
many districts copper and tin ores are  
found near together 7as  in ,cornwall71 
so that under these circumstances bronze
 could have been  obtained by smelting  
both at once1 and together4    #b4 ,in  
olden times only the upper horizon of   
copper deposits were worked  in all     
districts4 ,in these1 as we know1 the   
ores are mostly oxides  7with native    
copper74 ,such ores are easily worked   
and yield largely4    #c4 ,in regard to 
the mixing of metals1 the metallurgists 
everywhere must  have soon learned by   
experience that the metal remained soft 
and red  when too little tin was added1 
while too much tin made it light colored
  and lustrous1 but1 at the same time1  
very brittle4 ,hence1 we find that      
among all peoples the alloys used for   

weapons contain from #f to #af1 or1     
more closely1 #h to #ab per cent4 of    
tin4 ,these mixtures have been found  to
 do the best4    #d4 ,bronzes1 as we    
shall see below1 by slight admixtures   
and certain  treatment1 can be made so  
tough and hard that they will compare   
with  moderately hard steel4    ,so we  
see3 ,the metal was useful1 and there   
was an excess of rich and  easily worked
 ores4 ,under such conditions1 of       
course1 the age of bronze  would        
flourish a long time4    ,zinc ores     
frequently occur on copper beds1 and yet
 zinc is rarely found  in quantity worth
 mentioning in the bronzes of the       
ancients4 ,there are  two reasons for   
this3    #a4 ,near the surface of the   
earth zinc occurs as calamine 7silicate 
of  zinc71 which is a gray1             
unattractive1 earthy looking mineral1   
not heavy  enough to be taken for a     
metallic ore1 and would naturally be    
thrown  away and not put in the furnace4
    #b4 ,if some zinc ore did get into  

the furnace1 part of it would be        
volatilized and part oxidized by        
subsequent smelting4    ,in later times1
 however1 we find zinc ores used a good 
deal4 ,we can  distinguish three types  
of zinc alloys3    #a4 ,copper with #aj 
to #bj per cent4 zinc produces a red    
metal1 red brass1  which is similar to  
bronze that is poor in tin4    #b4      
,copper with #bj or #cj 7and even #dj7  
per cent4 of zinc1 gives a yellow  metal
 7yellow or ordinary brass71 which has  
more of a golden color than  bronze with
 much tin1 but quite brittle4    #c4    
,statuary metal1 which is made of copper
 with quite a good deal of  zinc and    
little tin 7often lead7 can be called   
brass containing tin4    ,all three     
types may be used for casting           
7ornaments1 statues1 and  coin71 but are
 not useful for tools or weapons1       
because they have not  sufficient       
strength4    ,after discussing the      
natural association of ores1 and the    
most  important alloys of copper1 we    

will turn to the analyses of antique    
alloys4 ,i have found it necessary to   
divide them into two groups3    #a4     
,alloys from which the weapons and tools
 were forged4 ,these are  pure and      
genuine bronzes4 ,i shall designate them
 as malleable metals or  weapon bronzes4
    #b4 ,alloys from which ornaments1   
vessels1 statues1 and coin were  cast4  
,some of these contain lead1 some zinc1 
and some are varieties  of our brass4 ,i
 shall designate these as cast metals or
 ornamental  alloys4 ,those substances  
present in some quantity were evidently 
put  in intentionally1 and ,i have      
classed them as admixtures1 while the   
unintentional ones in small quantities  
,i have designated as impurities4       
,i4--,,weapon ,,bronzes4                
,country4       ,essential              
,admixtures4      ,impurities4          
constituents4                           
,egypt     ,copper #f to #ad tin     44 
,iron4    ,assyria        #aj to #ad    
44                   44    ,greece      

#aj to #ab        44               ,fe4 
,ni4 ,co4    ,italy          #aa to #af 
,lead and ,tin4         ,ni4 ,fe4       
,gaul            #b to #ae        44    
44    ,britain         #g to #ad   #a to
 #c per4 ct4 lead4 ,iron    ,alps       
#h to #ab   ,trace to #a p4 c4 lead4,fe4
 ,ni4    ,bohemia         #e to #aa     
44               ,fe4 ,s4    ,n4        
,germany      #h to #af        44       
,nickel4    ,denmark         #f to #ab  
,to #a p4 c4 zinc4      ,ni4 ,co4       
,russia          #i to #af   ,lead      
,ni4                                    
,,ii4--,,cast ,,metal ,,for ,,ornaments4
                                        
,country4       ,essential              
,admixtures4      ,impurities4          
constituents4                           
,egypt     ,copper #d to #aa tin#g to   
#ag lead4         ,traces    ,assyria   
#aj to #ad        44               ,pb4 
,fe4 ,ni4    ,greece          #f to #ab 
,lead4                 ,fe4 ,ni4        
,italy           #a to  #g   ,zinc1     

lead4           ,fe4 ,ni4    ,gaul      
#e to #ae   ,lead                       
44    ,britain         #e to #ae   #b p4
 c4 lead4         ,nickel4    ,alps     
#d to #ab   ,zinc4                 ,pb4 
,fe4 ,ni4    ,bohemia         #d to #aa 
,lead4                     44    ,n4    
,germany      #f to #ag   ,pb4 rarely   
zn4        ,ni4    ,denmark         #e  
to #ab   #a p4 c4 zn4           ,fe4    
,ni4 ,co4    ,russia          #g to #af 
,pb4 zn4               ,ni4             
,the following general statements are   
based upon these tables3    ,we see that
 the peoples named forged their weapons 
and tools from very  different alloys2  
pure copper at one extreme1 bronze with 
#bj per cent4  tin at the other4        
,experience had everywhere taught them  
that copper and  bronzes poor in tin are
 too soft1 while bronzes with an excess 
of tin  could not be used for weapons   
and tools on account of being too       
brittle4    ,they had also learned that 
lead and zinc considerably lessened the 

strength and tenacity of weapon bronze1 
while small quantities of iron1  nickel1
 and cobalt are1 at least1 not          
injurious4 ,so all races1 although  we  
can prove that they tried very different
 mixtures1 finally adopted  very simple 
and tolerably constant alloys4 ,the     
bronze weapons of all  countries        
frequently contain from #f to #af per   
cent4 of tin1 but usually  between #h   
and #ab1 with slight contamination of   
iron and nickel4 ,few  nations have     
allowed lead to be used1 fewer yet some 
zinc4    ,for casting1 the oldest races 
used the same kind of bronze as for     
weapons and tools4 ,in many cases a few 
per cent4 of lead were added  to make   
the casting easier4 ,the ,romans used   
zinc in addition to lead  in large      
quantity as a constituent of their      
alloys1 and they made old  bronze1      
bronze-brass1 and brass4 ,afterward many
 nations of middle  ,europe used zinc   
alloys4    ,small quantities of iron1   
nickel1 and cobalt are found for well   

known  reasons in nearly all bronzes as 
harmless impurities4    ,traces of      
sulphur are also found in them4 ,this   
injures the quality  of the alloy1 and  
discloses the fact that such bronzes    
were not made  from pure oxide ores1 but
 from those containing sulphur pyrites4 
,at the  time when such bronzes were    
produced the mines had probably reached 
a  considerable depth4    ,some of the  
weapon bronzes made by the ancients     
contain traces of  phosphorus1 an       
element as important in hard bronze as  
carbon is in  steel4      ,,casting     
,,the ,,alloys4    ,the ,semito-,hamitic
 races made excellent castings at a very
 early date4  ,the ,phoenicians may be  
mentioned as particularly skillful4 ,it 
is  reported that there were two immense
 bronze pillars that stood before  the  
temple of ,gades in the #aath century   
before ,christ4 ,the ,tyrian  founders  
also made a pillar for ,solomon's       
,temple1 and a metallic basin  #aj ells 
in diameter and #e deep4 ,similar large 

basins have been dug up  in ,assyria4   
,the art of casting statues is no less  
ancient4 ,small statuettes were  cast   
solid2 larger ones consisted of several 
pieces which were riveted  together4 ,in
 the later ,grecian and old ,roman days 
the art reached  a high stage of        
perfection4 ,many cities had thousands  
of bronzes2  gigantic pieces were       
constructed4 ,the ,colossus of ,rhodes  
was #cj meters  high and stood with     
outstretched legs astride the entrance  
to the  smaller harbor4 ,ships could    
pass through it with sails extended4 ,a 
statue of ,jupiter in ,tarent was #bj   
meters high1 and one of ,nero was       
erected in ,pliny's time1 #cj meters    
high1 costing a million dollars4#ah     
,these facts give us a good idea of the 
technical ability of the old  founders  
of bronze4    ,analyses of antique      
bronzes give us some idea of their art  
of mixing  and coloring4 ,we presume    
that they soon abandoned the use of     
copper  and pure bronze2 the former     

yields porous casts and of a poor color2
  the latter material was1 in later     
times1 too costly4 ,lead was probably   
used at first for its fusibility only1  
but afterward it was certainly          
introduced for economical reasons4 ,this
 cheap material was often added  in very
 considerable quantity until they       
learned that leaden bronzes  did not    
have a fine color either while fresh and
 clean1 or when old and  covered with   
patina4    ,we have also seen that zinc1
 as well as lead1 was often added4 ,as  
the  color of zinc alloys was red to    
light golden yellow 7red metal1 brass71 
they tried to dispense with tin         
entirely1 as its price was higher  than 
that of zinc 7cadmia1 as it was called74
 ,but they soon became  convinced that  
for fine statues1 at least1 a small     
quantity of tin was  a necessity4       
,generally a zinc-brass was used for    
statues4    ,to prevent the metallic    
constituents from separating during     
fusion1 the  mass was kept thick and    

pasty by putting in old scrap bronze    
that had  been often melted and         
contained oxides4 ,the smelters also    
knew that the  metals1 particularly the 
tin1 grew smaller every time it was     
melted1  in consequence of oxidation1   
slagging1 and evaporation4#ai ,the      
,romans  therefore added1 besides the   
scrap bronze1 an eighth part of silver  
lead1 i4 e41 a mixture of tin and lead4 
,finally1 in regard to the color of the 
castings1 the ancients collected        
valuable experiences4 ,cadmia 7zinc ore7
 was used to impart a golden  color to  
the bronze4#bj ,alloys rich in tin were 
used for mirrors1 and  arsenic was      
employed to make them white4#ba    ,the 
moulds originally employed were very    
primitive4 ,for simple objects  a       
corresponding hole was dug in the sand  
or clay soil4 ,complicated  figures had 
to be formed in clay1 and the metal was 
cast in the clay  mould4 ,if the mould  
was to serve for several castings1 it   
had to be  made of baked clay1 stone1   

brick1 or other durable material4       
,organic  substances were mixed with the
 clay to prevent uneven shrinkage and   
cracking4    ,hollow casting is more    
difficult2 first a core is formed       
corresponding  to the hollow in the     
figure2 over this the figure is formed1 
and over  that the mantle1 i4 e41 the   
negative1 or mould4 ,the latter is taken
  off1 the figure taken away from the   
core1 the mantle replaced1 and  the     
metal poured into the space between the 
core and the mantle4 ,in  this case it  
is difficult to take off the mantle so  
clean and put it  back so accurately    
that the parts will not be disturbed4   
,to avoid this  difficulty a wax model  
may be built on the core1 and the mantle
 formed  over this1 and then when the   
mould is dry it can be heated and the   
wax  melted out4    ,the ,phoenicians   
and ,egyptians must have used one or the
 other of  these devices for their      
hollow castings4    ,the ,greeks appear 
at first as pupils and imitators of the 

,phoenicians1 but they soon surpassed   
their teachers in forms as well  as     
skill4 ,they knew how to make their     
moulds so perfect1 and were able  to    
place their cores so near the mantles1  
that the castings were as  thin as      
cardboard4 ,the master founders of      
to-day have not reached that            
perfection4      ,,hard ,,bronzes ,,of  
,,the ,,ancients4    ,we have already   
seen that only very pure bronze is      
suitable for weapons  and tools4 ,it    
must be well cooked1 and all sulphur1   
lead1 and tin  must be completely       
removed by oxidation4 ,the best results 
are obtained  with from #h to #ab per   
cent4 of tin4 ,a bronze having this     
composition is  tenacious and has a     
hardness of at least #d4    ,but the    
ancients were able to make much harder  
wrought bronzes1 as  proved by our      
collections of weapons and tools4       
,unfortunately we have no record of the 
devices employed2 but as we  are able to
 make just such products and with simple

 means1 we may  assume that the ancients
 employed essentially the same methods4 
,in our  experience the following       
conditions are essential for the        
manufacture  of hard bronze3    #a4 ,a  
particular treatment4    #b4 ,a small   
amount of phosphorus4    ,it is well    
known that normal weapon bronze1 unlike 
iron1 is softened  by rapid cooling1 but
 is hardened by hammering and rendered  
more  compact4#bb    ,by repeating this 
process1 the bronze gains in hardness   
and strength1  and sheet bronze becomes 
lamellar by hammering or rolling1 and   
hence  acquires a certain elasticity4#bc
 ,besides1 a slight admixture of iron   
or nickel seems advantageous1 but a     
slight amount of phosphorus is of  the  
highest importance4 ,the latter point   
may be somewhat enlarged on4            
,ordinary bronze always contains oxides 
of copper and tin1 the  quantity        
increasing with the number of times it  
is recast4 ,this oxide  makes it pasty1 
so that the different constituents do   

not separate1 and  the casting is       
homogeneous4#bd ,this admixture of oxide
 does no harm  for castings in which    
strength is not demanded2 but is of     
importance  for weapon bronze2 the      
strength of which is considerably       
diminished by  the presence of the      
oxide4    ,in this respect a slight     
amount of phosphorus is an advantage by 
preventing the formation of oxides1 and 
consequently the mixture  remains a thin
 fluid until it begins to solidify4 ,on 
the other hand  the metals are liable to
 separate4 ,this evil can be avoided if 
the  alloy is allowed to cool nearly to 
solidification before casting1  and then
 cooled rapidly4 ,under these           
circumstances a homogeneous alloy  is   
obtained that is nearly fifty per cent4 
stronger and about #bjj per  cent4 more 
tenacious than bronze that contains     
oxides4 ,the hardness and  strength can 
be still further increased by chilling  
and hammering4    ,besides the indirect 
influence of phosphorus1 it also has the

 direct  effect of hardening the bronze1
 because the compounds of phosphorus    
with copper and tin have a very         
considerable hardness4 ,these facts1  as
 well as the circumstance that we       
possess antique bronzes of              
extraordinary hardness1 induced me1 with
 the consent of ,baron ,sacken1  to test
 the hardness of the bronze weapons in  
the ,vienna ,cabinet of  ,antiquities4  
,some hard pieces1#be were sent to      
,prof4 ,ludwig1 who  followed the       
question with interest and agreed on the
 method of making  the analyses4 ,the   
results were satisfactory4 ,the bronzes 
contained  traces and up to one-fourth  
per cent4 of phosphorus4 ,its presence  
had  prevented the formation of oxides  
in these bronzes1 and consequently  the 
weapons were of extraordinary hardness4 
,it now remains to ascertain  how the   
ancients made these phosphorus-bronzes4 
,it is evident that the  phosphorus was 
not put directly into the metal1 as is  
generally done at  present4 ,there is   

another method so simple that we can    
assume that the  ancients employed it   
unintentionally4 ,i refer to smelting   
the copper  or bronze with charcoal and 
any salt of phosphorus4 ,in this case   
the  carbon would liberate phosphorus   
from the phosphoric acid1 and it would  
be taken up by the melted metal4    ,the
 ancient metallurgists may have made use
 of the eruptive rocks that  contain    
apatite1 and with which copper ores are 
so often associated1  for slag or flux1 
or the phosphates that occur in the     
gangue may have  been smelted along with
 the ores2 in both cases some phosphorus
 would  get into the metal4 ,finally it 
is not impossible that the ancients did 
not put in phosphorus salts in some     
form4 ,first of all ,i would mention    
certain vegetable and animal substances 
that are rich in phosphorus1  especially
 blood1#bf which was a favorite with the
 old metallurgists  and alchemists as   
having a powerful enchantment4 ,in each 
of the cases  referred to some          

phosphorus got into the metal1 which    
thus acquired a  considerable hardness  
that could be increased in the well     
known manner  by chilling and hammering4
 ,under certain circumstances weapons   
and  tools were made almost as hard as  
steel4    ,we can easily comprehend how 
bronze with these excellent qualities   
could compete with steel at a time when 
rich ores were still abundant1  and thus
 it checked and restrained the          
development of the iron industry4       
,,summary ,,of ,,alloys ,,used ,,by     
,,the ,,ancients4    ,egypt4--,the      
wrought metal of the ,egyptians is a    
pure bronze with #f to  #ad per cent4 of
 tin2 #bb per cent4 is an exceptional   
case2 #a per cent4  of iron is not rare4
    ,the ,egyptian cast metal is a      
plumbiferous bronze1 with #d to #aa per 
cent4 tin1 and #g to #ab of lead2 in one
 case #af per cent4 tin2 rarely #b  or  
#c per cent4 of zinc4    ,assyria4--,the
 ,assyrian bronze is very pure4 ,it     
consists of copper1 #aj  to #ad per     

cent4 of tin1 and traces of iron and    
nickel2 in one case #ah  per cent4 of   
tin4    ,greece4--,their wrought bronze 
for tools and weapons contains #aj to   
#ab  per cent4 of tin and traces of     
nickel and cobalt2 in one case #ah per  
cent4 of tin4    ,the cast bronze has in
 part the same composition as wrought   
bronze4  7,statues were rarely cast from
 pure copper47 ,a small quantity of lead
  was sometimes added1 especially in    
later times1 for statues and coin4  ,the
 later coins contained #e to #g per     
cent4 lead1 even #bj per cent4 in       
exceptional cases4 ,macedonian coins    
were of quite pure bronze4              
,italy4--,roman weapons 7found at       
,hallstadt7 contain #aa to #af per      
cent4 of tin1 in some cases some zinc or
 lead1 also nickel and iron as          
impurities4 ,roman hatchets found in    
,gaul contain #bj or #be per cent4 of   
tin4 ,we have too few analyses to give  
us a correct view of the matter1  but on
 the contrary we have numerous analyses 

of ,roman castings4    ,ornamental      
,roman bronze for flexible articles     
contains less tin and  lead4 ,for less  
flexible objects bronze-brass with #a to
 #g per cent4 of  tin1 and #e to #ab per
 cent4 of zinc1 was employed2 and for   
brittle but  brilliant objects1 like    
buckles and mountings1 an almost pure   
brass was  used1 with #ae to #bd per    
cent4 of zinc and little or no tin4     
,lead is  found in all these alloys in  
small quantities1 rarely more than #a   
per  cent4    ,the statues contain from 
#f to #aj per cent4 of tin1 #j to #c per
 cent4  zinc 7in one case #ad71 and     
frequently from #aj to #ab per cent4 of 
lead  7once even #bj71 so that ,roman   
statue bronze may be called lead-bronze 
with zinc in it4    ,coin metal varied  
its composition at different times4 ,in 
the days of  the ,republic a lead-bronze
 rich in tin 7#e to #ab per cent47 was  
used4  ,under the early emperors brass  
or impure copper came into use4 ,after  
the time of ,marcus ,aurelius an        

improvement is noticeable2 the metal    
then in use can be called stanniferous  
brass 7#a to #d of tin74 ,under the     
,byzantines1 coins were again struck    
from impure copper4    ,these are the   
most important alloys of the ,romans4   
,in general we may  say that the zinc   
alloys held an important place among the
 ,romans4    ,gaul4--,for weapons they  
employed a very pure bronze with #b to  
#ae per  cent4 of tin4 ,traces of nickel
 were rare4 ,cast bronze contained a few
  per cent4 of lead4    ,britain4--,the 
weapon bronze contained from #g to #ad  
per cent4 of tin4  ,cutting weapons not 
infrequently contain #a to #c per cent4 
of lead1 and  traces of iron4 ,ornament 
bronze does not differ from weapon      
bronze4  ,traces of sulphur are not     
rare1 which points to the use of        
pyritical  ores4    ,alps4--,swiss      
weapon bronze contains #h to #ac per    
cent4 of tin 7in  one case even #af per 
cent471 not infrequently #a per cent4 of
 lead and  traces of silver1 very often 

to #a per cent4 of nickel and traces of 
iron 7once as much as #c per cent4 of   
iron74 ,the ,swiss ornamental bronze    
has the same composition4               
,bavaria4--,wrought bronze contains #h  
to #ab per cent4 of tin 7in  tools #ag  
and even #be per cent471 and often as   
much as #a per cent4 of  lead1 traces of
 nickel and cobalt4 ,ornamental bronze  
has the same  composition4 ,a few per   
cent4 of zinc is also found4            
,bohemia4--,the wrought metal contains  
#e to #aa per cent4 of tin and  traces  
of iron and sulphur1 from which we      
conclude that their ores  contained     
pyrites4 ,their cast metal also contains
 lead4    ,north ,germany4--,the wrought
 metal contains #h to #af per cent4 of  
tin1 with frequently #a per cent4 of    
nickel4 ,a sword contained only  #e per 
cent4 of nickel1 an ax #bd per cent4    
,these are exceptions4 ,the  ornament   
bronzes contain also a few per cent4 of 
lead2 exceptionally1  a considerable    
quantity of zinc4 ,the ornamental metal 

in the ,rhine  region1 ,nassau1 and     
,hesse contains #e to #ae per cent4 of  
zinc with the  same of tin4 ,at one time
 a rich bronze is used1 at another quite
 pure  brass1 and then a bronze-like    
brass4    ,denmark4--,the ,danes        
employed the same metal for weapons that
 they did  for ornaments4 ,it contained 
#e to #ab per cent4 of tin1 and most of 
it #a  per cent4 of zinc1 but never     
lead2 in one case only #b per cent4 of  
tin4  ,nickel and cobalt often occur1   
per cent4 of each2 iron in traces4      
,russia4--,the ,russian weapon bronze   
contains from #i to #af per cent4 of    
tin1 and traces of nickel4 ,arrows      
contain a little lead1 up to #e per     
cent4 ,ornament bronze frequently       
contains in addition a few per cent4  of
 zinc4    ,the ornamental bronze of the 
,baltic provinces is a brass containing 
#ae  to #bj per cent4 of zinc1 #c to #d 
per cent4 of lead1 and #a to #b per     
cent4  of tin4    ,in ,russia1 as in    
other countries1 the brass alloys belong

 to a later  epoch2 in older times real 
bronze was chiefly used for ornaments as
  well as other purposes4--,translated  
from advanced sheets furnished by  the  
author4           99       99       99  
99       99          ,,the ,,big ,,trees
 ,,of ,,california4      ,we have       
previously spoken of the large ,sequoi  
of ,california1 which  have justly a    
universal celebrity1 and shall now      
render our remarks  upon the subject    
completer4    ,if there is any sight    
that can throw us into mute             
contemplation and  show us the          
littleness of our own nature1 it is     
assuredly that of high  mountains like  
,mont ,blanc1 or waterfalls like        
,niagara4 ,but yet we do  not at the    
first instant take in all the grandeur  
of these1 but must  make the tour of    
,mont ,blanc1 or pass under the falls of
 ,niagara and  study it at different    
points in order to obtain a just idea of
 such  marvels4 ,and so it is with      
regard to the vegetable curiosities of  

the  ,sierra ,nevada1 in ,california4   
,when points for comparison fail us1 our
 eye1 one of the most imperfect  of     
instruments1 never gives us an accurate 
idea of objects1 and it  is for this    
reason that we have placed upon the     
annexed figure a  five-story ,paris     
house1 drawn to the same scale as the   
,grizzly ,giant1  one of the most       
ancient ,sequoi of the ,mariposa ,grove1
 in ,california4  ,this true vegetable  
giant is #aje feet in diameter at the   
base1 and #fi  feet at #ac feet from the
 ground4 ,it has1 like many of the      
,sequoi  that surround it1 been struck  
by lightning1 but1 in spite of that1    
its total height is still more than #cjj
 feet4 ,some of its branches  are more  
than six feet in diameter4 ,those who   
have seen our old oaks  in the forest of
 ,fontainebleau will be able to compare 
the effect of  time and lightning upon  
such venerable relics1 these in         
,california  being possibly             
contemporaries of the ,roman ,empire4 ,a

 few of the trees  have been razed to   
the base1 and serve as floors for       
dancing halls1  while others1 that have 
fallen1 have been cut lengthwise and    
serve as  bowling alleys4 ,what         
especially distinguishes the wonderful  
region in  which these ,sequoi grow is  
the cleanness and beauty of the plains  
upon which they are found4 ,in the      
virgin forests of ,south ,america1      
under the influence of a warm and damp  
atmosphere1 the vegetation is  so rank  
that1 in order to open a passage1 one is
 obliged to use an ax  on the vines and 
thickets of interlaced plants4 ,in      
,california1 on the  contrary1 the      
,sequoi1 which are situated at an       
altitude of from  #e1jjj to #g1jjj feet 
above the ,pacific ,ocean1 are easily   
accessible4 ,the  routes are almost     
traced by nature1 dangerous animals are 
rare1 the  summer temperature is        
delicious there1 and hotels are         
everywhere being  erected1 as in        
,switzerland1 to serve as a retreat and 

promenading place  for tourists4--,la   
,nature4    ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,grizzly ,,giant1 ,,one ,,of ,,the     
,,californian ,,sequoi4           99    
99       99       99       99    ,a     
,,catalogue containing brief notices of 
many important scientific  papers       
heretofore published in the             
,,supplement1 may be had gratis at  this
 office4      ,,the      ,scientific    
,american ,supplement4      ,,published 
,,weekly4      ,terms of ,subscription1 
#e a ,year4    ,sent by mail1 postage   
prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of  
the ,united  ,states or ,canada4 ,six   
dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any   
foreign  country4           99       99 
99       99       99    ,all the back   
numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the 
commencement1 ,january  #a1 #ahgf1 can  
be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,all the back volumes of ,,the          
,,supplement can likewise be supplied4  
,two  volumes are issued yearly4 ,price 

of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in      
paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of        
,,scientific ,,american and one copy of 
,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1   
one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4    ,a liberal
 discount to booksellers1 news agents1  
and canvassers4      ,,munn  ,,co41     
,publishers1    #bfa ,broadway1 ,new    
,york1 ,n4 ,y4           99       99    
99       99       99        ,,table ,,of
 ,,contents4                            
,,page      ,i4 ,,chemistry ,,and       
,,metallurgy4--,preparation of          
,chlorhydrines      #fdeb               
,chemical ,compounds ,made by           
,compression4 ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,,spring4     
#fdeb        ,copper ,alloys among the  
,ancients4 ,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,,reyer4--,a  
valuable and important paper1 full of   
useful information1      showing the    
geology of the metals4--,characteristics
 of      copper alloys1 with tables     
showing constituents used in            

different countries4--,casting the      
alloys4--,hard bronze of      the       
ancients4--,summary of alloys used by   
the ancients         #fdeb      ,,ii4   
,,engineering ,,and                     
,,mechanics4--,bietrix's ,vertical and  
,compound ,engine4--,with description   
and numerous figures       #fdci        
,improved ,gas ,engine4--,with engraving
                          #fddj         
,meters for ,power and ,electricity4 ,by
 ,m4 ,c4 ,,vernon ,,boys4--,a           
valuable and instructive                
paper4--,showing the object of          
meters1 the way in which some of them   
are made1 and their      manner of      
operating4--,several figures            
#fddj        ,raising and ,moving       
,masonry ,buildings4--,with full page of
      engravings1 illustrating various  
examples of large buildings             
composed of masonry that have been moved
 and raised           #fddc      ,,iii4 
,,technology4--,filter for ,industrial  
,works4--,showing how to      make and  

use the filter4--,with engraving        
#fddc        ,the ,val ,st4 ,lambert    
,glass ,works4--,with full description  
and      two illustrations              
#fddd        ,proper shoeing4--,horses' 
feet should be treated in               
accordance with the work expected of    
them                     #fddd          
,ideas4--,relating to ,milling4 ,by ,a  
,looker-on                   #fdde      
,photographs for ,studying the          
,movements of ,men and ,animals4        
,by ,m4 ,,marey4--,how to avoid         
confusion in photographing rapid        
movements4--,with diagram               
#fdde        ,detective                 
,photography4--,as applied to criminal  
cases          #fdde        ,strength of
 ,yellow ,pine                          
#fddi      ,,iv4                        
,,architecture4--,english               
,lodges4--,with engraving               
#fddg        ,the ,decay of ,building   
the ,stones4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,a4           
,,julien4--,the      building stones1   

their varieties1 localities1 and        
edifices      constructed of            
each4--,durability of building stones in
 ,new      ,york and vicinity4--,methods
 of trial of building stone4--          
,means of protection and preservation of
 stone                 #fddg      ,v4   
,,electricity4--,the ,history of the    
,electric ,telegraph4--      ,first use 
of the ,volta pile in                   
telegraphy4--,description of            
,soemmering's apparatus4--,with two     
engravings                  #fddf       
,a ,new ,sulphate of ,copper            
,pile4--,with engraving                 
#fddf      ,,vi4 ,,medicine ,,and       
,,hygiene4--,filth ,diseases in ,rural  
,districts4--,showing why there is      
greater danger of poisoning      from   
sewage in the country than in the       
city4--,several      examples showing   
apparent causes and consequences4--,how 
is the infection carried8               
#fdej        ,the ,physiology of        
,sleep4--,giving different theories     

#fdea        ,a ,new ,method for the    
,detection of ,sugar in the ,urine      
#fdeb      ,,vii4                       
,,miscellaneous4--,elephants ,moving    
,timber at ,moulmein1                   
,burmah4--,with engraving               
#fddi        ,the ,education of ,german 
,women                                  
#fddi        ,horse ,medicine           
,bit4--,with two engravings             
#fdea        ,the ,big ,trees of        
,california                             
#fded        ,science in                
,antiquity4--,heron's ,pneumatic and    
compressing      apparatus4--,with two  
engravings                              
#fdej           99       99       99    
99       99      ,,patents4    ,in      
connection with the ,scientific         
,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn  ,,co4  are  
,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign   
,patents1 have had #ch years'           
experience1 and now have the largest    
establishment in the world4  ,patents   
are obtained on the best terms4    ,a   

special notice is made in the           
,scientific ,american of all ,inventions
  patented through this ,agency1 with   
the name and residence of the           
,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation  
thus given1 public attention is         
directed to the merits of the new       
patent1 and sales or introduction  often
 easily effected4    ,any person who has
 made a new discovery or invention can  
ascertain1  free of charge1 whether a   
patent can probably be obtained by      
writing to  ,,munn  ,,co4    ,we also   
send free our ,hand ,book about the     
,patent ,laws4 ,patents1  ,caveats1     
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#bfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4    ,branch  
,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41        
,washington1 ,d4 ,c4      ,,footnotes3  
,footnote #a3 ,royal ,institution of    
,great ,britain4    ,footnote #b3       
,comptes ,rendus of the ,french ,academy
 of ,sciences4    ,footnote #c3 ,it is  
often desirable to make one of the      

apertures twice  the diameter of the    
rest2 it causes a greater intensity to  
be given  to one image1 and that        
facilitates the calculation of time1    
while it  furnishes points for the      
comparison of the movements of the lower
 limbs  with those of the arms4         
,footnote #d3 ,ang4 ,guerout1 in ,la    
,lumiere ,electrique4    ,footnote #e3  
,abbe ,moigno1 in his treatise on       
telegraphy1 assigns the  date of #ahch  
to this publication2 but ,mr4 ,zetsche  
7d4c47 gives it  as #ahaa4 ,we shall    
consider the latter as the true date2   
for1 in #ahch1  there was no reason for 
publishing ,soemmering's memoir1 and    
especially  for proposing improvements  
in his apparatus4    ,footnote #f3      
,abstract of a paper read before the    
,new ,york ,academy of  ,sciences4      
,footnote #g3 ,trans4 ,am4 ,med4 ,ass'n1
 #ahhj4    ,footnote #h3 ,in foetal     
syphilis it is assumed that the         
spermatozoa  may be the carriers of the 
disease2 but no microscropist has yet   

described a separate species of         
spermatozoon for such cases4            
,footnote #i3 ,the ,philosophy of       
,mystery1 ,london1 #ahda2 cited by      
,hammond in his work on ,insanity4      
,footnote #aj3 ,see articles by ,dr4    
,hammond in this journal for #ahfe  and 
in the ,journal of ,psychological       
,medicine for #ahfi1 also his  ,sleep   
and its ,derangements1 ,philadelphia1   
#ahgb1 and his ,treatise on  ,insanity1 
,new ,york1 #ahhc4    ,footnote #aa3    
,yung1 ,le sommeil normal et            
pathologique1 ,paris1 #ahhc4            
,footnote #ab3 ,leons sur l'appareil    
vaso-moteur1 t4 ii41 p4 #aed4           
,footnote #ac3 ,principles of           
,psychology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #hh1 #hi4     
,footnote #ad3 ,les causes du sommeil1  
,revue scientifique1 t4 xix4            
,footnote #ae3 ,yung1 op4 cit4          
,footnote #af3 ,magnetic iron and       
pyrites in basic rocks2 tin stone in    
granite and porphyry4    ,footnote #ag3 
,ancient authors report cases of this   

kind4    ,footnote #ah3 ,the largest    
bronze statue of modern times is the    
,bavaria in ,munich1 which is #bj meters
 high and weighs #hj tons4 ,it  consists
 of #ab pieces and cost about a quarter 
of a million dollars4    ,footnote #ai3 
,when a bronze is remelted six times the
 percentage of  tin is reduced to half  
the original 7,dumas74 ,the evaporation 
of the  metal can be shown by holding a 
cold plate on it while melted4 ,tin is  
immediately deposited on it4            
,footnote #bj3 ,they usually made a     
copper and zinc alloy1 but it is        
possible that they also understood the  
art of embedding the casting in  zinc   
ore 7calamine7 and heating strongly1    
whereby the surface of the  metal was   
cemented and colored4    ,footnote #ba3 
,on examining a broken surface of an    
antique mirror1 it  will be seen that   
only the outside is white4 ,it is       
probable that the  finished mirror was  
embedded in some arsenical substance and
 heated1  which cemented and colored the

 surface4    ,footnote #bb3 ,uchatius   
makes his famous hard bronze by cooling 
and  hydraulic pressure4 ,bronzes with  
#h to #ab per cent4 of tin are most     
benefited by this process4 ,bronzes with
 very little tin in them are but  little
 affected by chilling and hammering     
7,riche74 ,alloys that are hard         
already1 such as bronzes rich in tin and
 phosphorus1 become too brittle  and    
useless by repeated hammering4          
,footnote #bc3 ,when a cast sheet of    
inelastic bronze or brass is  hammered  
or rolled1 it feathers4    ,footnote    
#bd3 ,the ,romans preferred to put in   
some bronze that had been  repeatedly   
cast4    ,footnote #be3 ,one piece was  
scarcely scratched by feldspar1 another 
by quartz4 ,the ,greek and ,roman       
weapons in the ,berlin ,museum were     
tested as to hardness by ,dr4 ,von      
,dechend at the suggestion of the       
,director-,general1 ,von ,schone4 ,all  
of them were scratched by fluorspar2    
there were no hard bronzes among them4  

,if the races of classical  antiquity   
were not acquainted with hard bronze1 it
 is easy to see why  they soon began to 
use iron1 in contrast with the          
,semitic-,hamitic  races4    ,footnote  
#bf3 ,excrements were also much used by 
the alchemists and  pharmacists of the  
middle ages4      ,transcriber's ,note3 
,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation  
are as in the original4