,transcrib]'s notes3 ,sev]al *apt]s 7 omitt$ f ! ,engli% translation ( :i* ?is is a transcription4 ,! reasons = ?is are giv5 9 ! footnotes4 ,words orig9ally pr9t$ 9 ,greek are %[n t way 9 "s v]sions ( ?is e,book4 ,engli% translit]ations 7 add$ to all v]sions by ! ,transcrib]s & are enclos$ 9 curly braces4 ,o!r notes w be f\nd at ! end ( ?is e,book4 ,illu/ration ,,univ]sal ,,classics ,,libr>y ,,editor',s ,,autograph ,,edition ,,atte/3 ,rob]t ,arnot ,,manag+ ,,editor ,illu/ration ,,univ]sal ,,classics ,,libr>y ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,photogravures ,,on ,,japan ,,vellum ,,h& ,,pa9t$ ,,reproductions ,,& ,,full ,,page ,,portraits ,,( ,,au?ors ,m4 ,,walt] ,,dunne ,,publi%] ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,london ,,copyright1 #aija1 ,,by ,m4 ,,walt] ,,dunne1 ,,publi%] ,,g5]al ,,preface ,illu/ration ,( ! ,libr>y ( ,univ]sal ,classics & ,r>e ,manuscripts1 tw5ty volumes are devot$ to ! v>i\s bran*es ( ,gov]nm5t1 ,philosophy1 ,law1 ,e?ics1 ,engli% & ,fr5* ,belles ,lettres1 ,hebraic1 ,ottoman1 & ,arabian ,lit]ature1 & "o to a collection ( #aej reproductions1 b\nd 9 ,engli% vellum1 ( ! autographs1 pap]s & lett]s ( ,rul]s1 ,/atesm51 ,poets1 ,arti/s & ,celebrities rang+ ?r\gh ?ree c5turies1 cr[n$ by an illum9at$ facsimile ( t hi/oric ,docum5t1 ! ,magna ,c>ta4 ,! s]ies 9 itself is an epitome ( ! be/ 9 ,hi/ory1 ,philosophy & ,lit]ature4 ,! great writ]s ( pa/ ages are accessible to read]s 9 g5]al solely ?r\gh translations4 ,x 01 !re=e1 necess>y t translations ( su* r>e ,classics z are embodi$ 9 ?is s]ies %\ld be ( ! be/1 & %\ld possess exactitude 9 text & supreme fai?fulness 9 r5d]+ ! au?or's ?\ght4 ,"u ! vigilant s*ol>%ip ( ! ,editorial ,c\ncil ?is has be5 accompli%$ ) unv>y+ excell5ce4 ,! classification1 selection & edit+ ( ! v>i\s volumes h be5 ! subject ( mu* e>ne/ ?\ght & consultation on ! "p ( m ?an tw5ty ( ! be/ kn[n s*ol>s ( ! day4 ,! ,univ]sities ( ,yale1 ,wa%+ton1 ,cornell1 ,*icago1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,columbia1 ,london1 ,toronto & ,ed9burgh are all repres5t$ among ! contributors1 ! writ]s ( special introductions1 or ^u ! consult+ /aff1 ! latt] includ+ ! ,presid5ts ( five ( ! ,univ]sities m5tion$4 ,among o!rs :o contribute special essays ^u giv5 subjects may be m5tion$ ! late ,libr>ian ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 ,dr4 ,ri*>d ,g>nett1 :o furni%es ! essay introduc+ ,evelyn's ,di>y4 ,f ! ,libr>ian ( ! ,national ,libr>y ( ,france1 ,lon ,valle1 comes ! fasc9at+ introduction to ! celebrat$ ,memoirs ( ! ,duc de ,sa9t-,simon4 ,! s*ol>ly m9i/] to ,switz]l& 7late ,fir/ ,assi/ant ,secret>y ( ,/ate71 ,dr4 ,david ,j4 ,hill1 l5t 8 wide read+ to ! brilliant & lum9\s essay t prec$es ! ,rights ( ,w> & ,peace4 ,! res\rces ( ! ,congressional ,libr>y at ,wa%+ton1 z well z ( =eign libr>ies1 h all be5 drawn ^u 9 ! gigantic task ( compress+ into ! some:at n>r[ limits ( tw5ty volumes all t 0 highe/1 be/1 mo/ endur+ & useful 9 ! v>i\s ramifications ( lit]ature at l>ge4 ,! fir/ section ( ! ,libr>y is devot$ entirely to ! manuscript reproductions ( ! autographs ( celebrat$ m5 9 all ranks & phases ( life1 cov]+ a p]iod ( ?ree c5turies4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 ! ,am]ican edition ( ! reproduction ( r>e & celebrat$ autographs drawn f ! ,briti% ,museum t 0 issu$ 9 ,engl& "u ! editor%ip ( ! ,assi/ant ,keep] ( ! ,manuscripts4 ,!y af=d an opportunity to ! inquir+ read] to /udy ! *>act]s ( ,rul]s1 ,/atesm51 ,writ]s1 & ,arti/s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! *irography4 ,x has long be5 recogniz$ t "* is traceable ?r\gh h&writ+4 ,s x is int]e/+ to disc]n 9 ! *>act]s trac$ by ,h5ry ,,viii ! h>d5$1 s5sual & selfi% "* ( t autocrat & polygami/2 9 ! writ+ ( ,?omas ,wolsey1 ^? crafty traits comb9$ ) p]sev]ance & mock humility :i* rais$ him wellnigh to supremacy 9 ! realm & l$ him f9ally to a d[nfall m complete ?an any we read ( 9 ,engli% hi/ory2 & 9 t ( ,*>les ,v1 ( ,spa91 ! h>d-head$ cont95ce ( "* & sup]b common s5se :i* enabl$ him at ! height ( glory to retire to a mona/]y :ile yet !re 0 daylight 9 life1 z he express$ x1 = ! mak+ ( 8 s\l4 ,ap>t f ! hi/orical int]e/ ( ^! ,docum5ts1 ?is /udy ( "* z reveal$ 9 !m w prove fasc9at+ to ?9k+ m9ds4 ,! ,magna ,c>ta1 greate/ ( all hi/orical *>t]s wrung f ! v>i\s k+s ( ,engl& f ,h5ry ,i d[nw>d1 0 grant$ by ,k+ ,john at ! press+ in/ance ( ! ,b>ons & ,commons ( ,engl& t[>d ! end ( 8 ill-judg$ & un=tunate reign4 ,( ?is ,docum5t1 celebrat$ & hi/oric z x is1 b little is kn[n at l>ge4 ,al?\gh ,black/one & o!r prom95t lawy]s h writt5 ^u x1 in=mation ab\t x is h>d to obta94 ,no reproduction ( ! orig9al ,docum5t has ev] be5 (f]$ to ,am]ican collectors4 ,?is facsimile is illum9at$ 9 colors ) ! %ields ( _m ( ! ,pe]s :o compell$ ,k+ ,john to acc$e to _! dem&s = civil & religi\s lib]ty4 ,! orig9al *>t] 0 sign$ at a place call$ ,runnym$e 7! ,c\ncil ,mead[7 a spot betwe5 ,w9dsor & ,/a9es1 on ! #ae? ( ,june1 #abae1 ab\t a ye> be=e ! dea? ( ,john4 ,x practically gu>ante$ to ! ,commons ( ,engl& all ! civil & religi\s rights !y enjoy to-day4 ,x dealt ) te/am5t>y law z well1 secur+ to wid[s all ! legal rights :i* !y to-day possess4 ,x dealt ) ! rights ( accus$ p]sons2 ) milit>y s]vice2 ) feudal t5ure2 ) taxation1 & x limit$ ! h]et(ore autocratic p[] ( ! ,k+ to an ext5t unkn[n be=e 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,if we except ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 x is ! mo/ int]e/+ hi/orical record ( all "t4 ,! ,second ,section ( ! ,libr>y 7t5 volumes7 is devot$ to ! pres5tation ( ,gov]nm5t1 ,philosophy1 ,law & ,e?ics4 ,?is section embraces su* names z ,grotius1 ,plato1 ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis1 ,adam ,smi?1 ,hamilton1 ,madison1 ,jay1 ,walt] ,bagehot1 ,sp9oza1 ,s*op5hau]1 ,ma*iavelli1 z well z ^? build]s ( ,ideal ,gov]nm5ts1 ,m1 ,bacon1 ,campanella & ,r\sseau4 ,( all b5efactors 9 ,lit]ature ( ! human race1 ,grotius may p]haps rank z fir/ among 8 equals4 ,c5turies h borne witness to ! ju/ness ( 8 premises & ! wisdom ( 8 conclusions4 ,! pr9ciples ( national law laid d[n by him are to-day accept$ z ! axioms ( ! ,sci5ce4 ,among ! nations1 p]haps ! ,unit$ ,/ates is mo/ deeply int]e/$ 9 ! "r adm9i/ration ( ! pr9ciples affirm$ by ,grotius 9 8 gigantic "w on ! ,rights ( ,w> & ,peace1 & x 0 !re=e mo/ fitt+1 :5 ! rec5t peace conf]5ce at ,! ,hague complet$ ! great /ructure ( int]national comity1 ! f\ndations ( :i* 7 laid by ,grotius 9 #afbe1 t a silv] wrea? 0 laid by ! repres5tative ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ^u ! grave ( ! man to :om ! ,conf]5ce ow$ its initial impulse1 al?\gh at a di/ance 9 "t ( ne>ly ?ree c5turies4 ,:5 ! ,publi%] det]m9$1 "u ! advice ( 8 ,editorial ,c\ncil1 to publi% ,grotius1 he f\nd t only two volumes ( ! fir/ edition 7 available 9 ! ,libr>y ( ,congress4 ,at mu* exp5se & tr\ble1 he in/itut$ a se>* 9 ,europe & f9ally obta9$ ! miss+ volume1 :i* he pres5t$ to ! ,congressional ,libr>y1 :]e x n[ is4 ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis's ,gov]nm5t ( ,dep5d5cies is *>act]iz$ by ! accuracy ( its in=mation4 ,x is a reliable text book = ! guidance ( any nation 9 ! treatm5t ( its dep5d5cies & colonies4 ,x is a ,classic t w survive z long z colonization rema9s to be done1 & x is rem>kable t al?\gh x 0 publi%$ = ! fir/ "t sixty ye>s ago1 ! illu/rations af=d$ by ! la/ two g5]ations support ! ju/ice ( its pr9ciples & ! exactness ( its d$uctions4 ,adam ,smi?'s ,essay on ,colonies pres5ts an introductory view ( ! pr9ciples gov]n+ colonial policy4 ,x is a fitt+ "w to g h& 9 h& ) ! great] "o ( ,sir ,george ,cornewall ,lewis4 ,x is ( practical use to ,am]ican ,/atesm51 s9ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates seems at pres5t to be ent]+ ^u a _w-wide colonial policy4 ,its practical wisdom1 :i* has made x a ,classic = all times1 f9ds a special applicability 9 ! conditions ( to-day1 = ,adam ,smi? 0 a !ori/ 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w1 t is to say1 he 0 a man ^: bread? ( view1 in/ead ( unfitt+ him = practical details1 enabl$ him to d$uce f ! lessons ( hi/ory & exp]i5ce ! "r solutions = ! problems ( ,colonial policy4 ,plato's ,republic & ,/atesman mu/ be reg>d$ to-day n m]ely z hi/orical records ( a by-gone philosophy1 b z liv+1 tea*+ diss]tations ^u !ories :i* _c fail to awak5 9 /udi\s m9ds ! highe/ ideals ( life & gov]nm5t4 ,mod]n problems /at$ 9 ! light ( ,plato's philosophy1 z x is express$ 9 ^! books1 w f9d readi] solutions :5 exam9$ 9 ! light ( its pr9ciples4 ,no /ud5t ( sociology1 ( politics1 national & municipal1 or ( gov]nm5t 9 all its _m-sid$ aspects1 c af=d to be )\t a k ( ^! immortal disc\rses4 ,goldw9 ,smi? has decl>$ t ( all expositions ( con/itutional ,gov]nm5t1 ,! ,f$]ali/ ranks ! highe/4 ,:5 ,hamilton1 ,madison1 & ,jay fir/ conceiv$ ! idea ( pr9t+ 9 ! common tongue _! ideas ^u ! pr9ciples ( free gov]nm5t1 !y unwitt+ly laid ! f\ndations ( ! be/ comm5t>y on ! pr9ciples ( popul> gov]nm5t ev] writt54 ,political sci5ce owes to !m ! mo/ important contribution to its lit]ature made s9ce its bir?4 ,! ,essays are equally admirable = sagacity1 simplicity1 & patriotism1 & :ile ,! ,f$]ali/ w nev] be read = pleasure1 x conta9s a m9e ( wisdom = ! /ud5t & ! con/itutional lawy]1 & z a text book ( political sci5ce is )\t a p>allel4 ,:5 ,bagehot issu$ 8 "w on ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 x 0 hail$ by ! critics z ! mo/ wond]ful & philosophical diss]tation on ! subject 9 any language or f any p54 ,john ,/u>t ,mill us$ to say t ( all great subjects mu* rema9$ to be writt51 & t especially 0 ?is true ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution4 ,bagehot's "w1 al?\gh af=d+ ! conclusion t mon>*y 9 ,engl& exi/s z a logical necessity1 is s unbias$ 9 its premises1 s logical & cle> 9 its d$uctions1 t ?is manife/ fairness1 al?\gh lead+ "o to conclusions di/a/eful to a republican m9d1 mu/ ende> him to 8 read]s4 ,deal+ ) a subject some:at dry 9 its details1 he inve/s inanimate objects ) s mu* light t !y become realities4 ,9 ! highe/ s5se he comb9es popul>ity & s*ol>%ip4 ,sp9oza's philosophy may be trac$ bo? to ! influ5ce ( ,bacon1 8 pr$ecessor1 & to ,desc>tes1 8 contempor>y4 ,its comb9ation ( positivism ) ! en?usiasm ( piety *>act]izes 8 philosophy z unique 9 itself1 = :ile treat+ man f a purely me*anical /&po9t1 x ass]ts t ! me*anism itself is entirely div9e4 ,sp9oza 0 a volunt>y m>tyr 9 ! cause ( ,free ,?\ght4 ,he 0 at ! same "t bo? ,pan!i/ & ,moni/1 yet s9c]e 9 8 devotion to nature & ! ,god ( nature4 ,8 religion naturally made him a ,moni/1 :ile 8 philosophy l$ him to express ! ,pan!ism t ! lov] ( ,god 9 ,nature _c avoid4 ,:ile he r5\nc$ 8 ,judaism & ent]$ ! ranks ( ! ,*ri/ian philosoph]s1 he nev] receiv$ baptism4 ,he may be rank$ among ! greate/ ( ! ,g]man my/ics1 ^: "w _h su* pr(\nd influ5ce ^u ! dogmatic ,*ri/ianity ( a lat] day4 ,! epi!t conf]r$ on him1 namely1 ,god-intoxicat$1 summ>izes 8 :ole attitude & ! "* ( 8 philosophy bett] ?an any l5g?y diss]tation4 ,:5 ,s*op5hau] began to write1 he decl>$ himself a true disciple ( ,kant1 b he modifies & adapts ,kant's ,critique ( ,pure ,reason to su* an ext5t t he rea*es ! attitude ( opposition4 ,?is attitude he manife/s ?r\gh\t all 8 writ+s4 ,he is truly an ,apo/le ( ,prote/1 b 9 spite ( 8 positivi/ contradictions & 8 mat]iali/ic pan!ism1 he op5s up a m9e ( sugge/ions to ! lit]>y & philosophical /ud5t4 ,9 spite ( ! app>5t trag$y due to ! conflict )9 him1 we _c help ga!r+ f ,s*op5hau] an imm5sity ( :at is true1 :at is good & :at is excell5t4 ,"o ?+ especially noticeable ab\t 8 writ+s is t :ile ,g]man philosoph]s are (t5 pond]\s & 9 fact nebul\s1 ,s*op5hau] is always cle>1 orig9al1 & readable4 ,to ,ma*iavelli belongs by acclaim ! honor ( hav+ writt5 ! ideal biography ( a ,/ate4 ,8 cle>1 /raight=w>d1 concise /atem5t ( conditions & *>act]s z he saw !n is a model = all writ]s ( record4 ,he 0 ! fir/ great ,italian hi/orian1 & no man has ev] be5 m ard5t 9 8 patriotism or a m e>ne/ support] ( gov]nm5t = & by ! p4 ,! greate/ tribute to 8 inflexible hone/y ( "* is ! fact t :ile no man _h great] opportunities to enri* himself at ! co/ ( ! ,/ate1 he di$ leav+ 8 family 9 ! greate/ pov]ty4 ,8 v>i$ political exp]i5ce1 & 8 assidu\s /udy ( classic writ]s1 gave him ! ability z well z ! desire to write ! hi/ory ( 8 native ,/ate4 ,"t has pron\nc$ ?is ,hi/ory to be a classic wor?y ( pres]vation1 & ! p]spective ( "t has also enabl$ u to =m a ju/] & great] e/imate ( its au?or4 ,! ,ideal ,republics & ,empires t h be5 con/ruct$ f "t to "t by political dream]s h all ! attractiv5ess ( works l ,pilgrim's ,progress or ,gulliv]'s ,travels1 comb9$ ) a philosophy & political insight t give !m a d\ble claim to be consid]$ ,classics4 ,mod]n progress may be m deeply indebt$ ?an we c e/imate to ! fantasies & airy ca/les ( m5 l ,r\sseau1 ,m1 & ,campanella4 ,! f\r ,ideal ,republics or ,gov]nm5ts describ$ 9 ?is volume are p]haps ! mo/ fam\s ( all1 s9ce !y rank n only z great creations ( ! imag9ation b z lit]ature ( ! highe/ class2 & _! writ]s h a fur!r claim ^u po/]ity f ! fact t !y help$ to make hi/ory4 ,! ,?ird & conclud+ ,section ( ! ,libr>y deals ) t trem5d\s range ( _w-wide lit]ature :i* we call1 = want ( a bett] "n1 ,belles ,lettres4 ,goe! contributes 8 brilliant & sagaci\s obs]vations on m5 & ?+s z he communicat$ !m to ,eck]man4 ,l&or1 ( :om ,sw9burne has said t ,milton alone /&s high]1 bo? 9 prose & v]se1 furni%es u ) 8 ,classical ,conv]sations4 ,montesquieu & ,goldsmi? are drawn on = _! ,p]sian & ,*9ese ,lett]s4 ,"l ,*e/]field gives u ! irony & h>d-head$ criticism comb9$ ) worldly common s5se conta9$ 9 ! ,lett]s to ,8 ,son1 & ! v>i\s names be/ kn[n 9 ,fr5* & ,engli% ,belles ,lettres yield :at is greate/ 9 !m4 ,ottoman ,lit]ature1 compris+ ,arabian1 ,p]sian1 & ,hebraic ,poems1 af=ds ! read] an insight into ! romantic & dramatic "* ( ! ,ori5tal4 ,! ,dabi/an1 possibly ! mo/ extraord9>y book ev] writt5 9 ! ,ea/1 f9ds itself at home 9 ?is section1 :ile ! ,lit]ature ( ! ,hebrews is ideally repres5t$ 9 t mo/ wond]ful ( all monum5ts ( human wisdom1 & p]haps folly1 ! ,talmud1 toge!r ) ! basis ( mod]n metaphysics1 ! ,kabbala4 ,! ,sufi/ic ,quatra9s ( ,om> ,khayyam are "h = ! fir/ "t pres5t$ complete 9 a collection ( ?is ord]4 ,! v>i\s editions ( ,fitzg]ald are repr9t$1 collat$1 & to !m is add$ ! valuable ,h]on-,all5 analysis ( ,fitzg]ald's s\rces ( inspiration4 ,! v r>e ,:9field v]sion is f\nd "h complete2 & = ! fir/ "t 9 ,engli% appe>s ,m4 ,nicolas' ,fr5* transcription ( ! ,teh]an ,manuscript4 ,x is safe to say t any lov] ( ,om> wi%+ to add to 8 collection ! v]sions "h quot$ w\ld be compell$ to disburse m ?an "o hundr$ times ! am\nt ?is book w co/ him4 ,:ile ! ,libr>y ( ,univ]sal ,classics does n claim to be ! f9al cond5sation ( ! treasure h\ses ( human philosophy & lore1 :e!r practical or ideal1 x does mo/ emphatically ass]t its "r to be call$ ! mo/ useful1 mo/ attractive1 & mo/ repres5tative selection1 )9 ! limits assign$ to x1 ( ^? _w-ma/]pieces ( lit]ature :i* m51 = lack ( a m lum9\s "n1 call ,classics4 ,rob]t ,arnot ,illu/ration3 ,,hugo ,,grotius ,f an ,orig9al ,pa9t+4 ,illu/ration ,,! ,,rights ,,( ,,w> ,,& ,,peace ,,includ+ ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,( ,,nations ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,orig9al ,,lat9 ,,( ,,grotius ,,) ,,notes ,,& ,,illu/rations ,,f ,,political ,,& ,,legal ,,writ]s ,,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,campbell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,) ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,david ,j4 ,hill1 ,assi/ant ,secret>y ( ,/ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,m4 ,,walt] ,,dunne1 ,,publi%] ,,new ,,york ,,london ,,copyright1 #aija1 ,,by ,m4 ,,walt] ,,dunne1 ,,publi%] ,,illu/rations ,,hugo ,,grotius ,frontispiece ,f an orig9al pa9t+4 ,,w> #aji ,by ,g>i ,mel*]s1 ,f a panel pa9t+ 9 ,libr>y ( ,congress4 ,,peace #bac ,by ,g>i ,mel*]s1 ,f a panel pa9t+ 9 ,libr>y ( ,congress4 ,,w> ,,& ,,peace #cjg ,frontispiece to a r>e edition ( ,grotius4 ,,cont5ts ,,book ,i4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,introduction #a ,i4 ,on ,w> & ,"r #ag ,,ii4 ,inquiry into ! ,lawfulness ( ,w> #ca ,,iii4 ,! ,division ( ,w> into ,public & ,private1 & ! ,nature ( ,sov]eign ,p[] #ee ,,book ,,ii4 ,i4 ,def5se ( ,p]son & ,prop]ty #gc ,,ii4 ,! ,g5]al ,rights ( ,?+s #he ,,iii4 ,on ! ,orig9al ,acquisition ( ,?+s1 & ! ,"r ( ,prop]ty 9 ,seas & ,riv]s #ajc ,,iv4 ,title to ,des]t ,l&s by ,occupancy1 ,possession1 & ,prescription #aji ,,ix4 ,9 ,:at ,cases ,jurisdiction & ,prop]ty ,cease #aag ,x4 ,! ,obligation ,aris+ f ,prop]ty #abc ,,xi4 ,on ,promises #aca ,,xii4 ,on ,contracts #add ,,xiii4 ,on ,oa?s #afj ,,xv4 ,on ,treaties & on ,engagem5ts ,made by ,delegates ,exce$+ ,_! ,p[]s #aff ,,xvi4 ,! ,int]pretation ( ,treaties #agf ,,xvii4 ,on ,damages ,occasion$ by ,injury1 & ! ,obligation to ,repair ,!m #aie ,,xviii4 ,on ! ,rights ( ,embassies #bjb ,,xix4 ,on ! ,"r ( ,burial #bac ,,xx4 ,on ,puni%m5ts #bbj ,,xxi4 ,on ! ,communication ( ,puni%m5t #bef ,,xxii4 ,on ! ,unju/ ,causes ( ,w> #bfg ,,xxiii4 ,on ,d\btful ,causes #bgd ,,xxiv4 ,precautions aga9/ ,ra%ly ,engag+ 9 ,w>1 ,ev5 ^u ,j ,gr\nds #bhj ,,book ,,iii4 ,i4 ,:at ,is ,lawful 9 ,w> #bij ,,ii4 ,9 ,:at ,mann] ! ,law ( ,nations ,r5d]s ! ,prop]ty ( ,subjects ,answ]able = ! ,debts ( ,sov]eigns4 ,! ,nature ( ,reprisals #cjg ,,iii4 ,on ,j or ,solemn ,w> ,accord+ to ! ,law ( ,nations on ,decl>ations ( ,w> #cad ,,iv4 ,on ! ,"r ( ,kill+ an ,enemy 9 ,lawful ,w> & ,committ+ ,o!r ,acts ( ,ho/ility #cbc ,v4 ,on ! ,"r to ,lay ,wa/e an ,enemy's ,c\ntry & ,c>ry ,(f ,8 ,effects #ccb ,,vi4 ,on ! ,acquisition ( ,t]ritory & ,prop]ty by ,"r ( ,conque/ #ccd ,,vii4 ,on ! ,"r ov] ,prison]s ( ,w> #cde ,,viii4 ,on ,empire ov] ! ,conqu]$ #cdh ,,ix4 ,( ! ,"r ( ,po/lim9ium #cea ,,xi4 ,! ,"r ( ,kill+ ,enemies1 9 ,j ,w>1 to be ,temp]$ ) ,mod]ation & ,humanity #cei ,,xii4 ,on ,mod]ation 9 ,despoil+ an ,enemy's ,c\ntry #cfe ,,xiii4 ,on ,mod]ation 9 ,mak+ ,captures 9 ,w> #cfi ,,xv4 ,on ,mod]ation 9 ,acquir+ ,dom9ion #cgb ,,xvi4 ,on ,mod]ation ) ,respect to ,?+s ,exclud$ f ! ,"r ( ,po/lim9ium by ! ,law ( ,nations #cge ,,xvii4 ,respect+ ,^? ,:o ,are ,neutral 9 ,w> #cgg ,,xix4 ,on ,good ,fai? betwe5 ,enemies #cgi ,,xx4 ,on ! ,public ,fai? by ,:i* ,w> ,is ,conclud$2 ,compris+ ,treaties ( ,peace1 & ! ,nature ( ,arbitration1 ,surr5d]1 ,ho/ages1 ,pl$ges #che ,,xxi4 ,on ,fai? ,dur+ ! ,cont9uance ( ,w>1 on ,truces1 ,safe-,conducts1 & ! ,r$emption ( ,prison]s #djc ,,xxii4 ,on ! ,fai? ( ,^? ,inve/$ ) ,subord9ate ,p[]s 9 ,w> #daa ,,xxiv4 ,on ,tacit ,fai? #dae ,,xxv4 ,conclusion #dag ,,index #dai ,,introduction ,,! ,,"w ,,& ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,hugo ,,grotius4 ,! claims ( ! great "w ( ,grotius1 ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis1 to be includ$ 9 a li/ ( ,univ]sal ,classics1 d n re/ ^u ! felicity ( /yle usually expect$ 9 a classic composition4 ,8 "w is m>k$ by frequ5t rhetorical de=mities1 t$i\s & involv$ =ms ( reason+1 & p]plex+ obscurities ( phraseology :i* prev5t its acceptance z an example ( elegant writ+4 ,not)/&+ ^! ext]nal defects1 x is1 nev]!less1 "o ( ! few notable works ( g5ius :i*1 among ! labors ( c5turies1 /& =? z illu/rations ( human progress & con/itute ! preci\s h]itage ( ! human race4 ,if x is n lit]ature 9 ! te*nical s5se1 ! ma/]piece ( ,grotius is some?+ high] & nobl]1--a triumph ( intellig5ce ov] irrational impulses & b>b>\s prop5sities4 ,its publication m>ks an era 9 ! hi/ory ( nations1 = out ( ! *aos ( lawless & unreason+ /rife x creat$ a sy/em ( illum9at+ pr9ciples to light ! way ( sov]eigns & peoples 9 ! pa?s ( peace & g5]al concord4 ,i4 ,,! ,,reign ,,( ,,w>4 ,! idea ( peaceful equity among nations1 n[ accept$ z a human ideal1 ?\gh /ill f> f realization1 0 = ages a difficult1 if n an impossible1 conception4 ,all exp]i5ce spoke aga9/ x1 = w> 0 ! mo/ famili> ph5om5on ( hi/ory4 ,among ! ,greek city-/ates1 a few tempor>y leagues & f$]ations 7 attempt$1 b s feeble 7 ! bonds ( peace1 s explosive 7 ! passions :i* l$ to w>1 t ev5 among ! highly civiliz$ ,hell5ic peoples1 community ( race1 language1 & religion 0 p[]less to create a ,greek nation4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ! milit>y g5ius ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 at la/1 by irresi/ible conque/1 to br+ ! ,greek ,empire into be+1 to be de/roy$ 9 turn by sup]ior =ce4 ,! ,roman ,empire almo/ a*iev$ ! complete political unity ( ,europe1 & b\nd p>ts ( ?ree cont95ts "u "o rule1 b ! corruption ( ! milit>y p[] :i* held x toge!r l$ to its inevitable dismemb]m5t4 ,aft] ! conflicts ( ! b>b>ic k+doms :i* foll[$ ! dissolution ( ! ,we/]n ,empire 7 end$ by ! pr$om9ance ( ! ,franki% mon>*y1 ! _w believ$ t ! ,pax ,romana 0 to be re/or$ 9 ,europe by ! h& ( ,*>les ! ,great2 b ! disruptive =ces 7 de/9$ to prevail once m1 & ! ,holy ,roman ,empire nev] succe$$ 9 reviv+ ! p[] ( anci5t ,rome4 ,& ?us ! dream ( a univ]sal mon>*y1 ( a c5tral au?ority able to preside ov] k+s & pr9ces1 adju/+ _! difficulties1 & pres]v+ ! peace betwe5 !m1 0 at la/ prov$ futile4 ,9 ea* ( ! great national mon>*ies t _h already ris5 or 7 /ill ris+ on ! ru9s ( imp]ial dom9ion1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,france1 ,engl&1 ,holl&1 & ! ,/ates ( ,g]many1 a cont9u\s int]nal conflict ov] que/ions ( religion complicat$ ! bitt]ness & de/ructiv5ess ( =eign w>s until ,europe 0 reorganiz$ by ! ,peace ( ,we/phalia1 9 #afdh4 ,x 0 9 ! mid/ ( ^! w>s t ,grotius 0 born4 ,he saw 8 own c\ntry ris+ f a baptism ( blood & all ,europe r5t & torn by ! awful /ruggle ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* 8 great "w 0 writt5 & to ^: conclusion x s]v$ z a guide & inspiration4 ,! ,empire1 dismemb]$1 _h be5 r$uc$ to almo/ complete impot5ce1 ! ,*ur* _h be5 disrupt$1 & no int]national au?ority 0 any:]e visible4 ,amid ! g5]al wreck ( in/itutions ,grotius s\ght = light & guidance 9 great pr9ciples4 ,look+ ab\t him at ! g5]al havoc :i* w> _h made1 ! nations ho/ile1 ! fai? ( ages %att]$1 ! passions ( m5 de/roy+ ! commonweal?s :i* n\ri%$ !m1 he saw t ,europe possess$ b "o common bond1 "o ve/ige ( its =m] unity1--! human m9d4 ,to ?is he made appeal & ^u its deepe/ convictions he s\ght to plant ! ,law ( ,nations4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,pr$ecessors ,,( ,,grotius4 ,x is hi/orically accurate to say1 t1 until =mulat$ by ,grotius1 ,europe possess$ no sy/em ( int]national law4 ,o!rs _h prec$$ him 9 t\*+ ^u c]ta9 aspects ( ! rights & duties ( nations1 b none _h produc$ a sy/em comp>able to 84 ,! e>lie/ attempt to =mulate recogniz$ int]national cu/oms 0 ! =mation ( ! e>ly m>itime codes1 r5d]$ necess>y by ! expansion ( m$ival comm]ce f ! end ( ! elev5? to ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 su* z ! ,jugem5s d' ,olron1 adopt$ by ! m]*ants ( ,france1 ,engl&1 & ,spa91 & reissu$ "u o!r names = ! m]*ants ( ,! ,ne!rl&s & ! ,baltic4 ,! ,consolato del ,m>e1 a m elaborate compilation1 0 made1 app>5tly at ,b>celona1 ab\t ! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 & accept$ g5]ally by ! trad]s ( ! *ief m>itime p[]s4 ,x 0 9 ! cradle ( comm]ce1 !re=e1 t int]national law awoke to consci\sness4 ,z ! ,*ur* 0 (t5 intru/$ ) ! task ( pacification1 x is b natural to look among h] repres5tatives = ! e>lie/ writ]s on ! laws ( int]national relations4 ,x is1 9 fact1 among ! !ological morali/s t we f9d ! fir/ /ud5ts ( ?is subject4 ,z e>ly z #aefd1 a ,spani% !ologian1 ,vasquez1 conceiv$ ( a gr\p ( free /ates ) reciprocal rights regulat$ by jus naturale et g5tium1 )\t reg>d to a _w-p[]1 ei!r imp]ial or ecclesia/ical4 ,9 #afab1 ,saurez po9t$ out t a k9d ( cu/om>y law _h aris5 f ! usages ( nations1 & di/9ctly describ$ a society ( int]dep5d5t /ates b\nd by fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ju/ice4 ,at ! close ( ! fifte5? & ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5turies1 a s]ies ( circum/ances arose necessitat+ ! ext5sion ( jurisprud5ce beyond its anci5t b\nd>ies1 & ?us t5d+ to produce a gr\p ( int]national juri/s4 ,among ! juri/ic writ]s ( ?is "t are ,bal?az> ,ayala1 a ,spani% jurisconsult1 :o di$ 9 #aehd1 hav+ writt5 9 a hi/orico-judicial _s on ! subject ( w> 9 8 ,de ,jure et ,(ficiis ,belli2 ,conrad ,brunus1 a ,g]man juri/1 :o wrote ( ! rights & duties ( ambassadors 9 8 ,de ,legationibus1 publi%$ 9 #aedh2 & pre-em95t above all1 ,alb]icus ,g5tilis1 an ,italian pr(essor ( jurisprud5ce & lectur] at ,ox=d1 a writ] ( =ce & orig9ality1 :o publi%$ 8 ,de ,legationibus 9 #aehc & 8 ,de ,jure ,belli 9 #aehi4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,p]sonality ,,( ,,grotius4 ,,hugo ,,grotius1 to use ! ,lat9 =m ( 8 "n by :i* he is be/ kn[n1 or ,hugo de ,groot z he is call$ 9 ,holl&1 desc5d$ f a race ( s*ol>s & magi/rates1 0 born at ,delft1 on ,april #aj?1 #aehc4 ,8 family hi/ory has be5 relat$ ) mu* detail by ,de ,burigny1 9 8 ,vie de ,grotius1 publi%$ 9 ,fr5* at ,am/]dam 9 #aged2 & by ,vor/]man van ,oy51 9 8 ,hugo de ,groot en ,zijn ,gescla*t1 a complete g5ealogy 9 ,dut*1 publi%$ at ,am/]dam 9 #ahhc1 :i* gives ! desc5dants ( ,grotius d[n to ! pres5t g5]ation4 ,8 orig9 is trac$ f a ,fr5* g5tleman1 ,jean ,cornets1 :o took up 8 resid5ce 9 ,! ,ne!rl&s 9 #adjb4 ,8 desc5dant1 ,cornelius ,cornets1 m>ri$ ! daught] ( a burgoma/] ( ,delft on condition t ! future *ildr5 ( ?is m>riage %\ld be> ! "n ( _! "m's family1 9 ord] to p]petuate ! di/9ction :i* x _h a*iev$4 ,! mat]nal "n impos$ by ,cornelius ,cornets's ,dut* fa!r-9-law1 ,dirk van ,kraay5burg de ,groot1 0 de ,groot1 mean+ ! ,great1 & is said to h be5 be/[$ = signal s]vices r5d]$ to 8 c\ntry by ! fir/ :o _h borne x f\r hundr$ ye>s be=e4 ,f ?is m>riage sprung a ,hugo de ,groot1 di/+ui%$ = 8 le>n+ 9 ,greek1 ,lat91 & ,hebrew & five times burgoma/] ( 8 native city4 ,8 elde/ son1 ,cornelius1 0 a not$ l+ui/ & ma!matician :o /udi$ law 9 ,france & receiv$ high (fice 9 8 own c\ntry1 aft]w>d becom+ a pr(essor ( law & _m times rector ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd54 ,ano!r son1 ,john de ,groot1 ! fa!r ( ,hugo ,grotius1 /udi$ !re "u ! fam\s ,lipsius1 :o speaks ( him ) ! highe/ comm5dation4 ,f\r times burgoma/] ( ,delft1 ,john de ,groot became curator ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leyd51 a position :i* he fill$ ) great dignity & honor4 ,9 8 e>lie/ ye>s ! "y ,hugo gave evid5ce ( m>k$ & v>i$ ability4 ,at eight he wrote ,lat9 v]ses :i* betray$ poetic tal5t2 at twelve he ent]$ ! ,univ]sity :]e he became a pupil ( t pr9ce ( s*ol>s1 ,joseph ,scalig]1 :o direct$ 8 /udies2 & at fifte5 he def5d$ ) ! greate/ applause ,lat9 !ses 9 philosophy & jurisprud5ce4 ,8 fame z a prodigy ( div]sifi$ le>n+ spread f> & wide1 & great s*ol>s decl>$ !y _h nev] se5 8 equal4 ,grotius _h won celebrity ev5 9 =eign l&s :51 9 #afjj1 at ! age ( sev5te51 he 0 admitt$ to ! b>4 ,! y\?ful prodigy _h already accompani$ ! ,gr& ,p5sion>y1 ,john ( ,old5b>neveld on a special embassy to ,france1 :]e he 0 pres5t$ to ,h5ry ,,iv1 :o be/[$ ^u him 8 portrait toge!r ) a gold *a91 & graci\sly call$ him ,! ,miracle ( ,holl&4 ,at ,orleans he 0 made a ,doctor ( ,laws4 ,m>ri$ 9 #afji to ,m>ie van ,reig]sb]g1 ^: devotion 0 wor?y ( 8 deep affection1 & load$ ) public honors1 hav+ be5 nam$ ! (ficial hi/orian ( ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces & ! advocate-g5]al ( two prov9ces1 ,holl& & ,zeel&1 ,grotius set 8 h& to a "w entitl$ ,m>e ,librum1 9 :i* he def5d$ ! fre$om ( ! sea & ! m>itime rights ( 8 c\ntry aga9/ ! arrogant pret5sions ( ! ,portuguese 9 suppress+ ! comm]ce ( o!r nations 9 ,ea/]n wat]s1--a treatise de/9$ to become /ill m celebrat$ 9 ! hi/ory ( int]national law by ,seld5's reply1 ,m>e ,clausum1 writt5 9 #afce4 ,next1 turn+ 8 att5tion to ! hi/ory ( ,! ,ne!rl&s1 he devot$ himself = a "t to 8 ,annals ( ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce4 ,9 #afac1 ,grotius add$ to 8 laurels z poet1 juri/1 & hi/orian by ent]+ ! field ( politics1 & he 0 appo9t$ ,p5sion>y ( ,rott]dam ^u ! condition t he %\ld cont9ue 9 (fice dur+ 8 own pleasure4 ,x 0 dur+ a visit to ,engl& ^u a diplomatic mission 9 ?is same ye> t he met ! great s*ol> ,isaac ,casaubon1 :o said 9 a lett] to ,daniel ,he9sius3 ,i _c say h[ happy ,i e/eem myself 9 hav+ se5 s mu* ( "o s truly great z ,grotius4 ,a wond]ful man6 ,?is ,i knew him to be be=e ,i _h se5 him2 b ! r>e excell5ce ( t div9e g5ius no "o c suffici5tly feel :o does n see 8 face & he> him speak4 ,probity is /amp$ on all 8 features4 ,closely relat$ by p]sonal fri5d%ip z well z by 8 (ficial duties to ! ,gr& ,p5sion>y1 ,john ( ,old5b>neveld1 ,grotius 0 de/9$ to %>e ) t un=tunate patriot ! proscription & puni%m5t :i* ,maurice ( ,orange visit$ ^u ! two conf$]ates 9 ! def5se ( religi\s tol]ance4 ,risk+ all z ! apo/les ( peace1 !y 7 soon condemn$ to be its m>tyrs4 ,old5b>neveld1 hav+ incurr$ ! bitt] hatr$ ( ! ,/ad?old]1 0 condemn$ to dea? by decapitation on ,may #ab?1 #afai4 ,grotius1 less (f5sive to ,maurice on acc\nt ( 8 y\? & 8 graci\s p]sonality1 0 s5t5c$ six days lat] to p]petual imprisonm5t4 ,on ! #f? ( ,june1 #afai1 he 0 inc>c]at$ 9 ! =tress ( ,loeve/e94 ,rigor\sly treat$ at fir/1 8 docility & resignation soon won ! respect & affection ( 8 keep]s4 ,writ+ mat]ials & books 7 9 "t accord$ him1 & f9ally1 on condition t %e w\ld cont9ue to %>e 8 captivity1 he 0 grant$ ! pres5ce ( 8 wife4 ,! /udi\s prison] & 8 devot$ companion completely dis>m$ all suspicion ( an int5tion to escape1 & ! pond]\s *e/ 9 :i* books came & w5t cont9u$ to br+ p]iodic consolation to ! m9d ( ! busy s*ol>4 ,a treatise on ! tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 a cate*ism = ! use ( 8 *ildr51 a dige/ ( ,dut* law1 & o!r compositions s]v$ to occupy & alleviate ! we>y mon?s ( conf9em5t1 until "o day :5 ! "t seem$ opportune ,madame ,grotius secretly inclos$ h] husb& 9 ! great *e/ & x 0 borne away by two soldi]s4 ,desc5d+ ! /one /eps ( ! prison ! be>]s rem>k$ t ! trunk 0 heavy en\gh to conta9 an ,arm9ian1 b ,madame ,grotius's je/ on ! heav9ess ( ,arm9ian books smoo!d ov] ! suspicion1 if "o 0 really ent]ta9$1 & ! great juri/ 0 s5t 9 ! *e/ safe to ,gorcum1 att5d$ by a fai?ful dome/ic1 :]e 9 ! h\se ( a fri5d ! prison] em]g$ )\t injury & 9 ! guise ( a /one mason ha/5$ to ,antw]p4 ,f ,antw]p he took refuge 9 ,france1 :]e he arriv$ 9 ,april1 #afba1 & 0 jo9$ by 8 fai?ful wife at ,p>is 9 ! foll[+ ,octob]4 ,! bitt]ness ( exile 0 n[ to be add$ to ! mis]ies ( imprisonm5t1 = ,grotius 0 n only exclud$ f ,! ,ne!rl&s1 b 9 extreme pov]ty4 ,8 lett]s reveal 8 angui% ( _s at ?is p]iod1 b a g5]\s ,fr5*man1 ,h5ri de ,mme1 plac$ 8 c\ntry h\se at ,balagni at 8 disposition1 & !re1 support$ by a small p5sion1 :i* ,l\is ,,xiii _h graci\sly accord$ him1 ?\gh irregul>ly & t>dily paid1 ,grotius comm5c$ 8 great "w1 ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis1 9 ! summ] ( #afbc4 ,mu* speculation has be5 indulg$ 9 reg>d+ ! causes :i* l$ to ! composition ( ?is ma/]piece1 b a rec5t discov]y has r5d]$ all ?is sup]flu\s1 z well z ! ascription ( special m]it to ! ,c\nselor ,peyresc = sugge/+ ! idea ( ! "w4 ,x is1 inde$1 to ! pacific g5ius ( ,grotius m ?an to all o!r causes t ! _w owes ! orig9 ( 8 great "w2 = x sprang f 8 dom9ant ?\ght1 ev] brood+ on ! horrors ( w> & ! ways ( peace1 dur+ m ?an tw5ty ye>s1 & nev] :olly satisfi$ till its full expression 0 complet$4 ,9 ! w9t] ( #afjd1 !re _h sprung out ( 8 legal practice ! idea ( a treatise entitl$ ,de ,jure ,pra$ae1 fully writt5 out1 b nev] pr9t$ by its au?or4 ,! manuscript rema9$ unkn[n by all 8 biograph]s until x 0 br\ght to light & pr9t$ "u ! auspices ( ,pr(essor ,fru9 at ,! ,hague 9 #ahfh4 ,?is int]e/+ docum5t proves t n only ! g5]al conception b ! entire plan & ev5 ! arrangem5t ( ! ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis 7 9 ! m9d ( ,grotius :5 he 0 only tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>li] "w & ! lat] is *iefly "o ( detail & amplification1 ! diff]5ce :i* tw5ty ye>s ( read+1 exp]i5ce1 m$itation & maturity ( faculty w\ld inevitably create4 ,! curi\s may f9d 9 8 lett]s ! almo/ daily *ronicle ( 8 progress ) 8 book to ! "t ( its publication aft] excessive labors la/+ m ?an a ye>4 ,9 ,m>*1 #afbe1 ! pr9t+ ( ! fir/ edition1 :i* _h occupi$ f\r mon?s1 0 complet$ & copies 7 s5t to ! fair at ,frank=t4 ,8 honor>ium z au?or consi/$ ( two hundr$ copies1 _m ( :i* he pres5t$ to 8 fri5ds4 ,f ! sale ( ! rema9d] at a cr[n ea*1 he 0 n able to reimburse 8 outlay4 ,9 ! foll[+ ,augu/ he wrote to 8 fa!r & bro!r t if he _h _! approbation & t ( a few fri5ds1 he w\ld h no cause = compla9t b w\ld be satisfi$4 ,l\is ,,xiii1 to :om ! "w 0 d$icat$1 accept$ ! homage ( ! au?or & a h&somely b\nd copy1 b fail$ to ex]cise ! grace cu/om>y ) mon>*s by accord+ a gratification4 ,at ,rome1 ! treatise 0 proscrib$ 9 ! index 9 #afbg4 ,almo/ p5niless & suff]+ f 8 protract$ toil1 ,grotius seem$ de/9$ to neglect & oblivion1 yet f 8 exile he wrote to 8 bro!r3 ,x is n necess>y to ask any?+ = me4 ,if my c\ntry c d )\t me1 ,i c d )\t h]4 ,! _w is l>ge en\gh4444 ,invit$ to ent] ! s]vice ( ,france by ,ri*elieu1 ,grotius w\ld n accept ! conditions :i* ! ,c>d9al wi%$ to impose1--su* at lea/ is ! inevitable inf]5ce f 8 lett]s4 ,8 p5sion 0 n paid & 8 circum/ances became s s]i\s t "o ( 8 *ildr5 _h b a s+le coat4 ,at l5g?1 pu%$ to ! utmo/ extremity ( want & in/igat$ by 8 en]getic wife1 ,grotius resolv$ to return to ,holl&4 ,driv5 f ,rott]dam to ,am/]dam1 :]e he hop$ to settle d[n z a lawy]1 ! ,/ates ,g5]al twice ord]$ 8 arre/ & nam$ a price = 8 deliv]y to ! au?orities4 ,! new ,/ad?old]1 ,fr$]ick ,h5ry1 :o1 be=e succe$+ 8 bro!r ,maurice1 _h writt5 k9dly to ,grotius aft] 8 escape f imprisonm5t1 n[ approv$ 8 proscription4 ,ab&on$ by 8 pr9ce z well z by 8 c\ntrym51 ,grotius once m turn$ 8 face t[>d exile & set out = ,hamburg4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,grotius4 ,x may be ( int]e/ at ?is po9t 9 ! c>e] ( ,grotius to describe briefly ! "* ( ! great "w :i* 0 soon to w9 = him a new celebrity1 & mat]ially *ange 8 prospects 9 life4 ,! inspiration ( 8 ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis 0 ! love ( peace1 yet he 0 f> f be+ "o ( ^? vision>ies :o totally condemn ! use ( arm$ =ce & proscribe all w> z wrong & unnecess>y4 ,on ! contr>y1 he seeks to discov] :51 h[1 & by :om w> may be ju/ly conduct$4 ,8 plan ( treatm5t is z foll[s3-- ,9 ! ,fir/ ,book1 he consid]s :e!r any w> is j1 :i* leads to ! di/9ction betwe5 public & private w>1 & ?is 9 turn to a discussion ( ! nature & embodim5t ( sov]eignty4 ,9 ! ,second ,book1 ! causes f :i* w>s arise1 ! nature ( prop]ty & p]sonal rights :i* furni% _! occasions1 ! obligations t p]ta9 to own]%ip1 ! rule ( royal succession1 ! rights secur$ by compacts1 ! =ce & int]pretation ( treaties1 & k9dr$ subjects are exam9$4 ,9 ! ,?ird ,book1 ! "q is ask$1 ,:at is lawful w>8 :i* prep>es = ! consid]ation ( milit>y conv5tions & ! me?ods by :i* peace is to be secur$4 ,f ! au?ority ( ! ,empire & ! ,*ur*1 no long] effectual z an int]national ag5cy1 ,grotius appeals to ,humanity z furni%+ ! true law ( nations4 ,beg9n+ ) ! idea t !re is a k9%ip among m5 e/abli%$ by nature1 he sees 9 ?is bond a community ( rights4 ,! society ( nations1 includ+ z x does ! :ole human race1 ne$s ! recognition ( rights z mu* z m]e local communities4 ,z nations are b l>g] aggregations ( individuals1 ea* ) its own corporate coh]5ce1 ! accid5ts ( geographic b\nd>y d n oblit]ate t human dem& = ju/ice :i* spr+s f ! nature ( man z a moral be+4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 z a fundam5tal bond ( human societies a ,natural ,law1 :i*1 :5 prop]ly appreh5d$1 is p]ceiv$ to be ! expression & dictate ( "r reason4 ,x is ?us ^u ! nature ( man z a rational intellig5ce t ,grotius f\nds 8 sy/em ( univ]sal law4 ,z ?is law ( human nature is univ]sally b9d+ :]ev] m5 exi/1 x _c be set aside by ! m]e circum/ances ( "t & place1 :5ce x results t !re is a law ( w> z well z a law ( peace4 ,z ?is law applies to ! comm5cem5t ( arm$ conflicts1 w> is nev] to be und]tak5 except to ass]t rights1 & :5 und]tak5 is nev] to be c>ri$ on except )9 ! limits ( rights4 ,x is true t 9 ! conflict ( arms laws mu/ be sil5t1 b only ,,civil laws1 :i* gov]n 9 times ( peace4 ,^? laws :i* are ,,p]petual1 :i* spr+ f ! nature ( man z man1 & n f 8 p>ticul> civil relations1 cont9ue ev5 dur+ /rife & con/itute ! laws ( w>4 ,to d5y ^!1 or to disobey !m1 implies a repudiation ( human nature itself & ( ! div9e au?ority :i* has inve/$ x ) rights & obligations4 ,to disav[ ! imp]ative "* ( ^! p]petual laws1 is to rev]t to b>b>ism4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev] to di/+ui% betwe5 ,natural ,law1 t pr9ciple ( ju/ice :i* spr+s f man's rational nature1 & ,conv5tional ,law1 :i* results f 8 agreem5ts & compacts4 ,natural ,law rema9s ev] ! same1 b in/itutions *ange4 ,:ile ! /udy ( ab/ract ju/ice1 ap>t f all t has its orig9 9 ! w or cons5t ( m51 w\ld enable u to create a complete sy/em ( jurisprud5ce1 !re is ano!r s\rce :i* mu/ n be neglect$1 s9ce m5 h e/abli%$ ! sanctity ( c]ta9 rules ( conduct by solemn conv5tion4 ,! ,law ( ,nations does n consi/1 !re=e1 ( a m]e body ( d$uctions d]iv$ f g5]al pr9ciples ( ju/ice1 = !re is also a body ( doctr9e bas$ ^u ,,cons5t2 & x is ?is sy/em ( volunt>ily recogniz$ obligations :i* di/+ui%es int]national jurisprud5ce f m]e e?ical speculation or moral !ory4 ,!re are ,,cu/oms ( nations z well z a univ]sally accept$ law ( nature1 & x is 9 ?is gr[? ( practically recogniz$ rules ( proc$ure t we trace ! evolution ( law int]national--jus int] g5tes--z a body ( positive jurisprud5ce4 ,x is evid5t t ! m9d ( ,grotius is cont9ually /ruggl+ to e/abli% a sci5ce ^u ?is positive basis1 & x is ?is :i* gives a di/9ctive "* to 8 ef=t4 ,! great writ]s ( all ages are cit$ ) a sup]flu\s lavi%ness1 n s mu* to support 8 claims by an aggregation ( individual op9ions--/ill less to display 8 erudition1 z 8 critics h sometimes compla9$--z to give a hi/oric ca?olicity to 8 doctr9e by %[+ t ! laws he is endeavor+ to =mulate h1 9 fact1 be5 accept$ 9 all times & by all m54 ,= ?is purpose also1 he makes abundant use ( ! great au?orities on ,roman ,law1 ^: doctr9es & =mulas 7 c]ta9 to c>ry conviction to ! m9ds ( ^? :om he desir$ to conv9ce4 ,x is ne$less1 p]haps1 to po9t out t ! "w ( ,grotius is n & c\ld n be a "w ( p]man5t au?ority z a dige/ ( int]national law4 ,8 own wise appreciation ( ! positive & hi/orical elem5t--! au?ority d]iv$ f cu/om--%\ld exempt him f ! pret5se ( absolute f9ality4 ,x is ! ,book ( ,g5esis only t he has giv5 u1 b x is 8 indefeasible di/9ction to h record$ ! creation ( ord] out ( *aos 9 ! great sph]e ( int]national relation%ip1 ju/ly entitl+ him to ! honor accord$ to him by ! spontane\s cons5t ( future times z ! ,fa!r ( ,int]national ,jurisprud5ce4 ,x is n difficult aft] m ?an ?ree c5turies ( ?\ght & exp]i5ce to po9t out ! defects 9 8 doctr9e4 ,if he ju/ifies slav]y1 x is n )\t +5uity2 =1 he argues1 if a man may sell 8 labor1 :y n 8 lib]ty8 & if ! conqu]or may impose 8 w ^u ! prop]ty ( ! vanqui%$1 :y n also ^u 8 p]son8 ,if he id5tifies sov]eignty ) supreme p[] )\t any adequate conception ( its e?ical basis1 he is at lea/ z advanc$ 9 8 ?9k+ z ! conceptions ( 8 "t1 :i* _h n yet grasp$ ! idea ( ! /ate z a moral organism4 ,if he has no adequate notion ( neutrality1 believ+ x to be ! duty ( a nation to enli/ its en]gies = :at x deems ! "r side1 r ?an to disav[ all responsibility = actions =eign to its own int]e/s1 he is at lea/ support$ 9 ?is by ! op9ion ( ! multitude ev5 at ! pres5t "t2 & ev5 among juri/s ! mod]n conception ( neutrality is h>dly a c5tury old4 ,if ! new s*ools ( jurisprud5ce make light ( ,natural ,law z a f\ndation ( public & private rights1 x is n c]ta9 t ,grotius may n yet be v9dicat$ z repres5t+ a doctr9e at lea/ z cle> z any o!r :i* has be5 sub/itut$ = x4 ,b1 f9ally1 to all ^! criticisms x may be answ]$1 t no great ?9k] c be ju/ly e/imat$ except 9 relation to 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies4 ,measur$ by ^!1 ,grotius /&s alone among ! juri/s ( 8 c5tury = orig9ality ( ?\ght & p[] ( exposition4 ,v4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,grotius',s ,,"w4 ,x 0 dur+ 8 soj\rn 9 ,hamburg 9 #afcc1 eight ye>s aft] ! publication ( 8 ,de ,jure1 & :ile he 0 /ill suff]+ f pa9ful pecuni>y emb>rassm5t1 t ,europe sudd5ly awoke to a s5se ( 8 importance2 &1 almo/ at "o "t1 ,pol&1 ,d5m>k1 ,spa91 ,engl&1 & ,sw$5 all ext5d$ fri5dly invitations urg+ him to ent] into _! public s]vice4 ,8 fame z a juri/ _h become int]national &1 rudely repell$ by 8 native ,holl&1 he became ! c5t] ( ,european int]e/4 ,gu/avus ,adolphus _h plac$ ! "w ( ,grotius along side 8 ,bible "u 8 soldi]'s pill[1 z he prosecut$ 8 campaigns 9 ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,! fir/ edition ( t "w1 writt5 9 ,lat91 ! cosmopolitan language ( le>n$ ,europe1 _h be5 quickly exhau/$ & widely scatt]$4 ,ano!r _h soon be5 call$ = at ,p>is1 b ! dea? ( ,buon1 ! publi%]1 creat$ ob/acles to its appe>ance4 ,a second edition _h appe>$ at ,frank=t 9 #afbf1 ano!r at ,am/]dam 9 #afca1 & /ill ano!r ) notes by ! au?or 9 #afcb4 ,! book _h ar\s$ ! ?\ght ( k+s z well z ( s*ol>s1 & 9 ! circles ( high influ5ce ev]y:]e 9 ,europe ! "n ( ,grotius _h become well kn[n4 ,8 book _h excit$ ! mo/ opposite s5tim5ts & awak5$ ! mo/ contradictory judgm5ts1 b among lawy]s & /atesm5 its reception 0 f ! fir/ g5]ally m>k$ by admiration4 ,9 spite ( exile1 pov]ty1 & mis=tune1 ,grotius _h become a ,european celebrity & 0 ab\t to ent] into ! rew>d ( 8 labors4 ,he _h creat$ a code = w> & a programme ( peace1 & h5ce=? no /atesman c\ld af=d to neglect him4 ,gu/avus ,adolphus1 ! k+ ( ,sw$51 be=e 8 dea? on ! battlefield ( ,ltz51 _h comm5d$ ,grotius to 8 great ,*ancellor1 ,ox5/i]n4 ,by ! dea? ( ,gu/avus ! ,*ancellor _h1 9 #afcc1 rec5tly come into ! reg5cy ( ! k+dom at a critical mom5t :5 a retreat f ! bitt] conte/ ) ! ,empire seem$ to be =$oom$ unless prev5t$ by ! support & fri5d%ip ( ,france4 ,recall+ ! comm5dation ( ! late k+1 ,ox5/i]n s\ght & f\nd 9 ,grotius an ambassador ( ,sw$5 to negotiate a new ,franco-,sw$i% alliance4 ,accept+ ?is appo9tm5t 9 #afcd1 ,grotius arriv$ at ,p>is on 8 diplomatic mission on ,m>* #b;d1 #afce4 ,ri*elieu1 hav+ fail$ to draw ! great juri/ into ! orbit ( 8 influ5ce z a satellite1 res5t$ 8 appe>ance 9 a "* s influ5tial & honorable z t ( ambassador ( ,sw$51 & ,grotius made little progress 9 8 negotiation4 ,preoccupi$ ) lit]ature1 he took m int]e/ 9 ! composition ( a sacr$ trag$y on ,! ,flight into ,egypt ?an 9 rem9d+ ,france ( ! exi/+ treaty ( ,heilbronn or consolidat+ ! new ,franco-,sw$i% alliance4 ,:]e ,grotius ! !ori/ fail$1 ,ox5/i]n1 ! practical /atesman1 by a few dext]\s /rokes ( diplomacy dur+ a brief visit to ,p>is1 easily succe$$2 & ! ambassador's mission 0 simplifi$ to ! rle ( a m]e obs]v] & report] ( occurr5ces4 ,by ta/e1 nature1 & tra9+1 ,grotius 0 a juri/ & n a diplomati/1 & he soon realiz$ t ! two vocations1 if n diametrically oppos$1 are at lea/ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a va/ int]val4 ,8 diplomatic correspond5ce betrays ! ke5 obs]v] & ! consci5ti\s morali/ r ?an ! accompli%$ negotiator4 ,among ! obs]vations record$ 9 8 dispat*es1 "o may be quot$ z an example ( 8 p5etration & 8 humor4 ,speak+ ( ! ,dauph91 ! future ,l\is ,,xiv1 he says3 ,8 frightful & precoci\s avidity is a bad om5 = neighbor+ peoples2 = he is at pres5t on 8 n9? nurse1 :om he is r5d+ & murd]+ z he has ! o!rs6 ,x is pa9ful to behold ! great fa!r ( int]national jurisprud5ce desc5d+ 9 8 dispat*es to petty details ( prec$5ce & ali5at+ f himself ! sympa?ies ( 8 colleagues by ridicul\s c]emonial pret5sions4 ,he w\ld no long] visit ,maz>91 because ! ,c>d9al insi/$ on call+ him ,,em95ce in/ead ( ,,excell5ce2 ,grotius consid]+ ?is di/9ction ( t]ms a slight ^u 8 rank z ambassador4 ,s p]si/5t 0 he 9 ^! follies & s rancor\s 7 ! feuds t ! apo/le ( peace elicit$ t1 9 ,decemb]1 #afcf1 less ?an two ye>s aft] 8 arrival at ,p>is1 he advis$ ,sw$5 to s5d to ,france a simple ,*>g d',affaires1 in/ead ( an ambassador1 9 ord] to re/ore diplomatic relations4 ,8 qu>rels conc]n+ prec$5ce1 :i* r5d]$ him an object ( ridicule at ! ,fr5* ,c\rt1 7 n ! only griefs ( ! ambassador ( ,sw$54 ,inadequately recomp5s$1 he 0 oblig$ to wait two ye>s = 8 sal>y & f9ally1 be+ r$uc$ to a condition 9 :i* he c\ld no long] ma9ta9 exi/5ce o!rwise1 he 0 compell$ to dem& ( ! royal treasury ( ,france a "p ( ! subsidies promis$ to ! army ( 8 adopt$ c\ntry4 ,we>y ( 8 importunities1 ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t repeat$ly reque/$ 8 recall4 ,disgu/$ ) 8 mission1 ,grotius at la/ ab&on$ ! duties ( 8 (fice to ! intrigu+ adv5tur]1 ,c]isante1 :o 0 s5t to aid him1 & buri$ himself 9 8 books until 8 return to ,sw$5 at 8 own reque/ 9 #afde4 ,que5 ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$51 a patroness ( s*ol>s1 desir\s ( aid+ ,grotius & ( reta9+ him 9 ! s]vice ( h] k+dom1 made _m (f]s & promises1 b _! execution be+ def]r$1 he became impati5t ( 8 lot1 refus$ a position z c\nselor ( /ate1 & resolv$ to leave ! c\ntry4 ,8 plan to ab&on ,/ockholm secretly 0 prev5t$ by a mess5g] ( ! que5 :o foll[$ him to ! port :]e he int5d$ to emb>k & induc$ him to return = a f>ewell audi5ce4 ,) a h&some pres5t ( money & silv] plate he took passage on a vessel plac$ at 8 disposition to convey him to ,lbeck4 ,(f ! coa/ ne> ,dantzic a viol5t tempe/ arose4 ,on ! #ag? ( ,augu/1 #afde1 ! vessel 0 driv5 a%ore & ,grotius1 ov]come by 8 try+ exp]i5ces1 0 tak5 ill at ,ro/ock1 :]e a few days lat] he pass$ away4 ,! lat] ye>s ( 8 life _h be5 *iefly devot$ to plans = ! e/abli%m5t ( peace 9 ! religi\s _w1 ^: diss5sions gave him great di/ress ( m9d4 ,! c\ntry ( 8 bir?1 :i* _h s long d5i$ him citiz5%ip1 receiv$ him at la/ to ! sil5t hospitality ( ! tomb4 ,8 body 0 tak5 to ,delft1 8 native t[n1 :]e 8 "n is n[ held 9 grateful rev]5ce4 ,at ! "t :5 ,grotius left ,/ockholm1 ! la/ ( ! pl5ipot5ti>ies _h arriv$ at ,mn/] & ,osnabrck to att5d ! great ,european congress convok$ to t]m9ate ! ho/ilities ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,x is a tradition1 b incapable ( satisfactory pro(1 t x 0 ) ! purpose ( be+ pres5t at ! c\ncils ( ?is congress t ! au?or ( ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis left ,sw$5 = ,g]many4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is c]ta9 t ! m$iation ( ! k+ ( ,d5m>k at ,osnabrck & ( ! papal legate at ,mn/]1 ?\gh unsuccessful1 0 9 accordance ) ! idea ( ,grotius express$ 9 ! words3 ,x w\ld be useful1 & inde$ x is almo/ necess>y1 t c]ta9 congresses ( ,*ri/ian p[]s %\ld be held1 9 :i* controv]sies t h aris5 among "s ( !m may be decid$ by o!rs :o are n int]e/$4 ,! imm$iate e/abli%m5t ( an int]national tribunal1 evid5tly contemplat$ 9 ?is sugge/ion1 0 n 9 h>mony ) ! temp] ( ^? times2 b x _c be d\bt$ t ! ,peace ( ,we/phalia1 ^: treaties 7 to =m a code ( public law = ,europe1 0 to a great degree an embodim5t ( ! pr9ciples :i* ,grotius 0 ! fir/ to enunciate4 ,8 ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis _h already become a classic ev5 be=e ! au?or's dea?1 & special pr(essor%ips 7 soon f\nd$ 9 ! univ]sities to exp\nd its pr9ciples4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to "n ! num]\s editions1 translations1 & comm5t>ies :i* h giv5 x an exceptional place 9 ! lit]ature ( ,europe4 ,?is task has be5 9 "p p]=m$1 h[ev]1 by ,dr4 ,rogge 9 8 ,biblio!ca ,grotiana1 publi%$ at ,! ,hague 9 #ahhc1 & int5d$ to be a full bibliography ( ,grotius's works4 ,! :ole numb] ( titles includ$ is #dfb1 b !y d n comprise ! writ+s ( ! g5]ations ( juri/s :o h be5 inspir$ by ! great ma/] or ( ! critics & biograph]s :o h discuss$ 8 life & "w4 ,t>dily1 b ) full contrition = ! bitt] wrong done to "o ( h] greate/ & noble/ sons1 ! memory ( ,grotius has receiv$ f 8 native l& abundant recognition & commemoration4 ,! appropriate tomb t m>ks 8 re/+ place 9 ! ,nieuwe ,k]k at ,delft1 symbolical ( 8 le>n+1 g5ius1 & r5[n1 0 erect$ 9 #agha4 ,on ! #ag? ( ,septemb]1 #ahhf1 a noble /atue ( ! great juri/ 0 unveil$ 9 ! public squ>e ( 8 native t[n 9 front ( ! *ur* :i* conta9s 8 tomb4 ,?us1 m ?an a c5tury aft] 8 dea?1 & aga9 /ill ano!r c5tury lat]1 ,holl& has paid h] tribute ( respect to h] illu/ri\s citiz54 ,! lat] ye>s h also br\ght new honors to ,grotius's feet4 ,at ! rec5t ,peace ,conf]5ce at ,! ,hague 0 complet$ ! great /ructure ( int]national comity ^: corn] /one 0 laid by him 9 #afbe4 ,x 0 mo/ fitt+ t an int]national congress call$ 9 ! int]e/ ( peace %\ld bl5d ) ! negotiation ( conv5tions = ! pacific settlem5t ( disputes betwe5 nations by a p]man5t tribunal1 & = ! amelioration ( ! laws ( w>1 a celebration ( ! di/+ui%$ writ] ^: great ?\ght _h at la/ borne su* preci\s fruits4 ,9 pursuance ( in/ructions receiv$ f ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,commission invit$ _! colleagues 9 ! congress1 ! heads ( ! ,dut* univ]sities1 & ! high civic au?orities to jo9 ) !m 9 obs]v+ ! #d? ( ,july by celebrat+ ! memory ( ! great juri/4 ,) appropriate ex]cises 9 ! apse ( ! old *ur*1 ne> ! monum5t ( ,grotius & mausoleum ( ,william ! ,sil5t1 ! repres5tatives ( tw5ty-six nations ga!r$ to d him honor4 ,a beautiful commemorative wrea? ( silv] 0 laid ^u ,grotius's tomb be>+ ! inscription3 ,,to ,,! ,,memory ,,( ,,hugo ,,grotius ,,9 ,,rev]5ce ,,& ,,gratitude ,,f ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica ,,on ,,! ,,occasion ,,( ,,! ,,int]national ,,peace ,,conf]5ce ,,at ,,! ,,hague ,,july #d,,?1 #ahii4 ,an eloqu5t oration by ! ,honorable ,&rew ,d4 ,:ite1 ,ambassador ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ,g]many1 & ! head ( ! ,commission1 foll[$ by o!r appropriate addresses1 recall$ ! debt ( mank9d to ! au?or ( ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis2 & ?us ! pl5ipot5ti>ies ( ! n9ete5? c5tury did homage to ! exile ( ! sixte5? :o _h taught ! _w t ev5 9 ! %ock & /orm ( battle humanity _c escape ! dom9ion ( its own ess5tial laws1 & t ev5 indep5d5t /ates are answ]able be=e ! b> ( human nature = ob$i5ce to pr9ciples impos$ by a ,p[] high] ?an ! pr]ogatives ( pr9ces or ! w ( nations4 ,david ,j4 ,hill ,,! ,,rights ,,( ,,w> ,,& ,,peace1 ,,includ+ ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,( ,,nations4 ,,book ,i4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,w>--,def9ition ( ,w>--,"r1 ( ,gov]nors & ( ! gov]n$1 & ( equals--,"r z a ,quality divid$ into ,faculty & ,fitness--,faculty d5ot+ ,p[]1 ,prop]ty1 & ,cr$it--,divid$ into ,private & ,sup]ior--,"r z a ,rule1 natural & volunt>y--,law ( ,nature divid$--,pro(s ( ! ,law ( ,nature--,division ( ,rights into human & div9e--,human expla9$--,div9e /at$--,mosaic ,law n b9d+ ^u ,*ri/ians4 ,i4 ,! disputes aris+ among ^? :o are held toge!r by no common bond ( civil laws to decide _! diss5sions1 l ! anci5t ,patri>*s1 :o =m$ no national community1 or ! num]\s1 unconnect$ communities1 :e!r "u ! direction ( individuals1 or k+s1 or p]sons inve/$ ) ,sov]eign p[]1 z ! lead+ m5 9 an ari/ocracy1 & ! body ( ! p 9 a republican gov]nm5t2 ! disputes1 aris+ among any ( ^!1 all be> a relation to ! circum/ances ( w> or peace4 ,b because w> is und]tak5 = ! sake ( peace1 & !re is no dispute1 :i* may n give rise to w>1 x w be prop] to treat all su* qu>rels1 z commonly happ51 betwe5 nations1 z an article 9 ! rights ( w>3 & !n w> itself w lead u to peace1 z to its prop] end4 ,,ii4 ,9 treat+ ( ! rights ( w>1 ! fir/ po9t1 t we h to consid]1 is1 :at is w>1 :i* is ! subject ( our inquiry1 & :at is ! "r1 :i* we seek to e/abli%4 ,cic]o /yl$ w> a cont5tion by =ce4 ,b ! practice has prevail$ to indicate by t "n1 n an imm$iate action1 b a /ate ( affairs2 s t w> is ! /ate ( cont5d+ p>ties1 consid]$ z su*4 ,?is def9ition1 by its g5]al ext5t1 comprises ^? w>s ( e description1 t w =m ! subject ( ! pres5t treatise4 ,nor are s+le combats exclud$ f ?is def9ition4 ,=1 z !y are 9 reality m anci5t ?an public w>s1 & und\bt$ly1 ( ! same nature1 !y may !re=e prop]ly be compreh5d$ "u "o & ! same "n4 ,?is agrees v well ) ! true d]ivation ( ! ^w4 ,= ! ,lat9 ^w1 ,bellum1 ,,w>1 comes f ! old ^w1 ,duellum1 a ,,duel1 z ,bonus f ,duonus1 & ,bis f ,duis4 ,n[ ,duellum 0 d]iv$ f ,duo2 & !reby impli$ a diff]5ce betwe5 two p]sons1 9 ! same s5se z we t]m peace1 ,,unity1 f ,unitas1 = a contr>y reason4 ,s ! ,greek ^w1 polemos commonly us$ to signify w>1 expresses 9 its orig9al1 an idea ( multitude4 ,! anci5t ,greeks likewise call$ x ly1 :i* imports a ,,disunion ( m9ds2 j z by ! t]m dy1 !y meant ! ,,dissolution ( ! p>ts ( ! body4 ,nor does ! use ( ! ^w1 ,,w>1 contradict ?is l>g] acceptation ( x4 ,= ?\gh "s times x is only appli$ to ! qu>rels ( /ates1 yet t is no objection1 z x is evid5t t a g5]al "n is (t5 appli$ to "s p>ticul> object1 entitl$ to peculi> di/9ction4 ,ju/ice is n includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( w>1 because ! v po9t to be decid$ is1 :e!r any w> is j1 & :at w> may be s call$4 ,!re=e we mu/ make a di/9ction betwe5 w> itself1 & ! ju/ice ( x4 ,,iii4 ,z ! ,rights ( ,w> is ! title1 by :i* ?is treatise is di/+ui%$1 ! fir/ inquiry1 z x has be5 already obs]v$1 is :e!r any w> be j1 &1 9 ! next place1 :at con/itutes ! ju/ice ( t w>4 ,=1 9 ?is place1 "r signifies no?+ m ?an :at is j1 & t1 m 9 a negative ?an a positive s5se2 s t ,,"r is t1 :i* is n unju/4 ,n[ any ?+ is unju/1 :i* is repugnant to ! nature ( society1 e/abli%$ among rational creatures4 ,?us = in/ance1 to deprive ano!r ( :at belongs to him1 m]ely = "o's own advantage1 is repugnant to ! law ( nature1 z ,cic]o obs]ves 9 ! fif? ,*apt] ( 8 ?ird book ( (fices2 &1 by way ( pro(1 he says t1 if ! practice 7 g5]al1 all society & int]c\rse among m5 mu/ be ov]turn$4 ,flor5t9us1 ! ,lawy]1 ma9ta9s t is impi\s = "o man to =m designs aga9/ ano!r1 z nature has e/abli%$ a degree ( k9dr$ among/ u4 ,on ?is subject1 ,s5eca rem>ks t1 z all ! memb]s ( ! human body agree among !mselves1 because ! pres]vation ( ea* conduces to ! welf>e ( ! :ole1 s m5 %\ld =be> f mutual injuries1 z !y 7 born = society1 :i* _c subsi/ unless all ! p>ts ( x are def5d$ by mutual =be>ance & good w4 ,b z !re is "o k9d ( social tie f\nd$ ^u an equality1 = in/ance1 among bro!rs1 citiz5s1 fri5ds1 allies1 & ano!r on pre-em95ce z ,ari/otle /yles x1 subsi/+ betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr51 ma/]s & s]vants1 sov]eigns & subjects1 ,god & m54 ,s ju/ice takes place ei!r among/ equals1 or betwe5 ! gov]n+ & ! gov]n$ p>ties1 not)/&+ _! diff]5ce ( rank4 ,! =m] ( ^!1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 may be call$ ! "r ( equality1 & ! latt] ! "r ( sup]iority4 ,,iv4 ,!re is ano!r signification ( ! ^w ,,"r1 diff]5t f ?is1 b yet aris+ f x1 :i* relates directly to ! p]son4 ,9 :i* s5se1 ,,"r is a moral quality annex$ to ! p]son1 ju/ly entitl+ him to possess "s p>ticul> privilege1 or to p]=m "s p>ticul> act4 ,?is "r is annex$ to ! p]son1 al?\gh x sometimes foll[s ! ?+s1 z ! s]vices ( l&s1 :i* are call$ ,,real ,,rights1 9 opposition to ^? m]ely ,,p]sonal4 ,n because ^! rights are n annex$ to p]sons1 b ! di/9ction is made1 because !y belong to ! p]sons only :o possess "s p>ticul> ?+s4 ,?is moral quality1 :5 p]fect is call$ a ,,faculty2 :5 imp]fect1 an ,,aptitude4 ,! =m] answ]s to ! ,,act1 & ! latt] to ! ,,p[]1 :5 we speak ( natural ?+s4 ,v4 ,civilians call a faculty t ,"r1 :i* e man has to 8 own2 b we %all h]eaft]1 tak+ x 9 its /rict & prop] s5se1 call x a "r4 ,?is "r compreh5ds ! p[]1 t we h ov] ourselves1 :i* is call$ lib]ty1 & ! p[]1 t we h ov] o!rs1 z t ( a fa!r ov] 8 *ildr51 & ( a ma/] ov] 8 slaves4 ,x likewise compreh5ds prop]ty1 :i* is ei!r complete or imp]fect2 ( ! latt] k9d is ! use or possession ( any ?+ )\t ! prop]ty1 or p[] ( ali5at+ x1 or pl$ges deta9$ by ! cr$itors till paym5t be made4 ,!re is a ?ird signification1 :i* implies ! p[] ( dem&+ :at is due1 to :i* ! obligation ^u ! p>ty indebt$1 to dis*>ge :at is ow+1 corresponds4 ,,vi4 ,"r1 /rictly tak51 is aga9 tw(old1 ! "o1 ,,private1 e/abli%$ = ! advantage ( ea* individual1 ! o!r1 ,,sup]ior1 z involv+ ! claims1 :i* ! /ate has ^u individuals1 & _! prop]ty1 = ! public good4 ,?us ! ,regal au?ority is above t ( a fa!r & a ma/]1 & ! ,sov]eign has a great] "r ov] ! prop]ty ( 8 subjects1 :]e ! public good is conc]n$1 ?an ! own]s !mselves h4 ,& :5 ! exig5cies ( ! /ate require a supply1 e man is m oblig$ to contribute t[>ds x1 ?an to satisfy 8 cr$itors4 ,,vii4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es aptitude or capacity1 by ! "n ( wor? or m]it1 & ,mi*ael ( ,ephesus1 gives ! epi!t ( ,,suitable or ,,becom+ to ! equality e/abli%$ by ?is rule ( m]it4 ,,ix4#a ,!re is also a ?ird signification ( ! ^w ,"r1 :i* has ! same mean+ z ,law tak5 9 its mo/ ext5sive s5se1 to d5ote a rule ( moral action1 oblig+ u to d :at is prop]4 ,we say ,,oblig+ u4 ,= ! be/ c\nsels or precepts1 if !y lay u "u no obligation to obey !m1 _c come "u ! d5om9ation ( law or "r4 ,n[ z to p]mission1#b x is no act ( ! law1 b only ! sil5ce ( ! law1 x h[ev] prohibits any "o f imp$+ ano!r 9 do+ :at ! law p]mits4 ,b we h said1 ! law obliges u to d :at is prop]1 n simply :at is j2 because1 "u ?is notion1 "r belongs to ! sub/ance n only ( ju/ice1 z we h expla9$ x1 b ( all o!r virtues4 ,yet f giv+ ! "n ( a ,,"r to t1 :i* is ,,prop]1 a m g5]al acceptation ( ! ^w ju/ice has be5 d]iv$4 ,! be/ division ( "r1 9 ?is g5]al mean+1 is to be f\nd 9 ,ari/otle1 :o1 def9+ "o k9d to be natural1 & ! o!r volunt>y1 calls x a ,,lawful ,,"r 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w law2 & "s times an in/itut$ "r4 ,! same diff]5ce is f\nd among ! ,hebrews1 :o1 by way ( di/9ction1 9 speak+1 call t natural "r1 ,,precepts1 & ! volunt>y "r1 ,,/atutes3 ! =m] ( :i* ! ,septuag9t call dikaimata1 & ! latt] entolas4 ,x4 ,natural "r is ! dictate ( "r reason1 %ew+ ! moral turpitude1 or moral necessity1#c ( any act f its agreem5t or disagreem5t ) a rational nature1 & consequ5tly t su* an act is ei!r =bidd5 or comm&$ by ,god1 ! au?or ( nature4 ,! actions1 ^u :i* su* a dictate is giv51 are ei!r b9d+ or unlawful 9 !mselves1 & !re=e necess>ily und]/ood to be comm&$ or =bidd5 by ,god4 ,?is m>k di/+ui%es natural "r1 n only f human law1 b f ! law1 :i* ,god himself has be5 pleas$ to reveal1 call$1 by "s1 ! volunt>y div9e "r1 :i* does n comm& or =bid ?+s 9 !mselves ei!r b9d+ or unlawful1 b makes !m unlawful by its prohibition1 & b9d+ by its comm&4 ,b1 to und]/& natural "r1 we mu/ obs]ve t "s ?+s are said to belong to t "r1 n prop]ly1 b1 z ! s*oolm5 say1 by way ( accommodation4 ,^! are n repugnant to natural "r1 z we h already obs]v$ t ^? ?+s are call$ ,,j1 9 :i* !re is no inju/ice4 ,"s times also1 by a wrong use ( ! ^w1 ^? ?+s :i* reason %ews to be prop]1 or bett] ?an ?+s ( an opposite k9d1 al?\gh n b9d+1 are said to belong to natural "r4 ,we mu/ f>!r rem>k1 t natural "r relates n only to ^? ?+s t exi/ indep5d5t ( ! human w1 b to _m ?+s :i* necess>ily foll[ ! ex]cise ( t w4 ,?us prop]ty1 z n[ 9 use1 0 at fir/ a creature ( ! human w4 ,b1 aft] x 0 e/abli%$1 "o man 0 prohibit$ by ! law ( nature f seiz+ ! prop]ty ( ano!r aga9/ 8 w4 ,:]e=e1 ,paulus ! ,lawy] said1 t !ft is expressly =bidd5 by ! law ( nature4 ,ulpian condemns x z infam\s 9 its own nature2 to ^: au?ority t ( ,euripides may be add$1 z may be se5 9 ! v]ses ( ,hel5a3 ,= ,god himself hates viol5ce1 & w n h u to gr[ ri* by rap9e1 b by lawful ga9s4 ,t abundance1 :i* is ! fruit ( unrighte\sness1 is an abom9ation4 ,! air is common to m51 ! e>? also1 :]e e man1 9 ! ample enjoym5t ( 8 possession1 mu/ refra9 f do+ viol5ce or injury to t ( ano!r4 ,n[ ! ,law ( ,nature is s unalt]able1 t x _c be *ang$ ev5 by ,god himself4 ,= al?\gh ! p[] ( ,god is inf9ite1 yet !re are "s ?+s1 to :i* x does n ext5d4 ,because ! ?+s s express$ w\ld h no true mean+1 b imply a contradiction4 ,?us two & two mu/ make f\r1 nor is x possible to be o!rwise2 nor1 aga91 c :at is really evil n be evil4 ,& ?is is ,ari/otle's mean+1 :5 he says1 t "s ?+s are no soon] nam$1 ?an we discov] _! evil nature4 ,= z ! sub/ance ( ?+s 9 _! nature & exi/5ce dep5ds ^u no?+ b !mselves2 s !re are qualities insep>ably connect$ ) _! be+ & ess5ce4 ,( ?is k9d is ! evil ( c]ta9 actions1 comp>$ ) ! nature ( a reasonable be+4 ,!re=e ,god himself suff]s 8 actions to be judg$ by ?is rule1 z may be se5 9 ! xviii? *ap4 ( ,g54 #be4 ,isa4 v4 #c4 ,ezek4 xviii4 #be4 ,j]4 ii4 #i4 ,mi*4 vi4 #b4 ,rom4 ii4 #f41 iii4 #f4 ,yet x sometimes happ5s t1 9 ^? cases1 :i* are decid$ by ! law ( nature1 ! undisc]n+ are impos$ ^u by an appe>ance ( *ange4 ,:]eas 9 reality !re is no *ange 9 ! unalt]able law ( nature1 b only 9 ! ?+s appo9t$ by x1 & :i* are liable to v>iation4 ,= example1 if a cr$itor =give me ! debt1 :i* ,i owe him1 ,i am no long] b\nd to pay x1 n because ! law ( nature has ceas$ to comm& ! paym5t ( a j debt1 b because my debt1 by a release1 has ceas$ to be a debt4 ,on ?is topic1 ,arrian 9 ,epictetus argues rightly1 t ! borr[+ ( money is n ! only requisite to make a debt1 b !re mu/ be ! additional circum/ance ( ! loan rema9+ undis*>g$4 ,?us if ,god %\ld comm& ! life1 or prop]ty ( any "o to be tak5 away1 ! act w\ld n au?orise murd] or robb]y1 words :i* always include a crime4 ,b t _c be murd] or robb]y1 :i* is done by ! express comm& ( ,him1 :o is ! sov]eign ,"l ( our lives & ( all ?+s4 ,!re are also "s ?+s all[$ by ! law ( nature1 n absolutely1 b accord+ to a c]ta9 /ate ( affairs4 ,?us1 by ! law ( nature1 be=e prop]ty 0 introduc$1 e "o _h a "r to ! use ( :atev] he f\nd unoccupi$2 &1 be=e laws 7 enact$1 to av5ge 8 p]sonal injuries by =ce4 ,,xi4 ,! di/9ction f\nd 9 ! books ( ! ,roman ,law1 assign+ "o un*angeable "r to brutes 9 common ) man1 :i* 9 a m limit$ s5se !y call ! law ( nature1 & appropriat+ ano!r to m51 :i* !y frequ5tly call ! ,law ( ,nations1 is sc>cely ( any real use4 ,= no be+s1 except ^? t c =m g5]al maxims1 are capable ( possess+ a "r1 :i* ,hesiod has plac$ 9 a cle> po9t ( view1 obs]v+ t ! supreme ,be+ has appo9t$ laws = m52 b p]mitt$ wild bea/s1 fi%es1 & birds to dev\r ea* o!r = food4 ,= !y h no?+ l ju/ice1 ! be/ gift1 be/[$ ^u m54 ,cic]o1 9 8 fir/ book ( (fices1 says we d n talk ( ! ju/ice ( horses or lions4 ,9 con=mity to :i*1 ,plut>*1 9 ! life ( ,cato ! eld]1 obs]ves1 t we are =m$ by nature to use law & ju/ice t[>ds m5 only4 ,9 addition to ! above1 ,lactantius may be cit$1 :o1 9 8 fif? book1 says t 9 all animals devoid ( reason we see a natural bias ( self-love4 ,= !y hurt o!rs to b5efit !mselves2 because !y d n "k ! evil ( do+ wilful hurt4 ,b x is n s ) man1 :o1 possess+ ! k ( good & evil1 refra9s1 ev5 ) inconv5i5ce to himself1 f do+ hurt4 ,polybius1 relat+ ! mann] 9 :i* m5 fir/ ent]$ into society1 concludes1 t ! injuries done to p>5ts or b5efactors inevitably provoke ! indignation ( mank9d1 giv+ an additional reason1 t z und]/&+ & reflection =m ! great diff]5ce betwe5 m5 & o!r animals1 x is evid5t !y _c transgress ! b\nds ( t diff]5ce l o!r animals1 )\t excit+ univ]sal abhorr5ce ( _! conduct4 ,b if ev] ju/ice is attribut$ to brutes1 x is done improp]ly1 f "s %ad[ & trace ( reason !y may possess4 ,b x is n mat]ial to ! nature ( "r1 :e!r ! actions appo9t$ by ! law ( nature1 su* z ! c>e ( our (fspr+1 are common to u ) o!r animals or n1 or1 l ! wor%ip ( ,god1 are peculi> to man4 ,,xii4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! ,law ( ,nature is prov$ by two k9ds ( argum5t1 a priori1 & a po/]iori1 ! =m] a m ab/ruse1 & ! latt] a m popul> me?od ( pro(4 ,we are said to reason a priori1 :5 we %[ ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( any ?+ ) a reasonable & social nature2 b a po/]iori1 :5 )\t absolute pro(1 b only ^u probability1 any ?+ is inf]r$ to accord ) ! law ( nature1 because x is receiv$ z su* among all1 or at lea/ ! m civiliz$ nations4 ,= a g5]al effect c only arise f a g5]al cause4 ,n[ sc>ce any o!r cause c be assign$ = s g5]al an op9ion1 b ! common s5se1 z x is call$1 ( mank9d4 ,!re is a s5t5ce ( ,hesiod t has be5 mu* prais$1 t op9ions :i* h prevail$ among/ _m nations1 mu/ h "s f\ndation4 ,h]aclitus1 e/abli%+ common reason z ! be/ crit]ion ( tru?1 says1 ^? ?+s are c]ta9 :i* g5]ally appe> s4 ,among o!r au?orities1 we may quote ,ari/otle1 :o says x is a /rong pro( 9 our fav\r1 :5 all appe> to agree ) :at we say1 & ,cic]o ma9ta9s t ! cons5t ( all nations 9 any case is to be admitt$ = ! law ( nature4 ,s5eca is ( ! same op9ion1 any ?+1 says he1 appe>+ ! same to all m5 is a pro( ( its tru?4 ,qu9tilian says1 we hold ^? ?+s to be true1 9 :i* all m5 agree4 ,we h call$ !m ! m civiliz$ nations1 & n )\t reason4 ,=1 z ,porphyry well obs]ves1 "s nations are s /range t no fair judgm5t ( human nature c be =m$ f !m1 = x w\ld be errone\s4 ,&ronicus1 ! ,rhodian says1 t ) m5 ( a "r & s\nd und]/&+1 natural ju/ice is un*angeable4 ,nor does x alt] ! case1 ?\gh m5 ( disord]$ & p]v]t$ m9ds ?9k o!rwise4 ,= he :o %\ld d5y t honey is sweet1 because x appe>s n s to m5 ( a di/emp]$ ta/e1 w\ld be wrong4 ,plut>* too agrees entirely ) :at has be5 said1 z appe>s f a passage 9 8 life ( ,pompey1 affirm+ t man nei!r 01 nor is1 by nature1 a wild unsociable creature4 ,b x is ! corruption ( 8 nature :i* makes him s3 yet by acquir+ new habits1 by *ang+ 8 place1 & way ( liv+1 he may be reclaim$ to 8 orig9al g5tl5ess4 ,ari/otle1 tak+ a description ( man f 8 peculi> qualities1 makes him an animal ( a g5tle nature1 & 9 ano!r "p ( 8 works1 he obs]ves1 t 9 consid]+ ! nature ( man1 we are to take our lik5ess f nature 9 its pure1 & n 9 its corrupt /ate4 ,,xiii4 ,x has be5 already rem>k$1 t !re is ano!r k9d ( "r1 :i* is ! volunt>y "r1 d]iv+ its orig9 f ! w1 & is ei!r human or div9e4 ,,xiv4 ,we w beg9 ) ! human z m g5]ally kn[n4 ,n[ ?is is ei!r a civil "r1 or a "r m or less ext5sive ?an ! civil "r4 ,! civil "r is t :i* is d]iv$ f ! civil p[]4 ,! civil p[] is ! sov]eign p[] ( ! /ate4 ,a /ate is a p]fect body ( free m51 unit$ toge!r 9 ord] to enjoy common rights & advantages4 ,! less ext5sive "r1 & n d]iv$ f ! civil p[] itself1 al?\gh subject to x1 is v>i\s1 compreh5d+ ! au?ority ( p>5ts ov] *ildr51 ma/]s ov] s]vants1 & ! l4 ,b ! law ( nations is a m ext5sive "r1 d]iv+ its au?ority f ! cons5t ( all1 or at lea/ ( _m nations4 ,x 0 prop] to add ,,_m1 because sc>ce any "r c be f\nd common to all nations1 except ! law ( nature1 :i* itself too is g5]ally call$ ! law ( nations4 ,nay1 frequ5tly 9 "o "p ( ! _w1 t is held = ! law ( nations1 :i* is n s 9 ano!r4 ,n[ ?is law ( nations is prov$ 9 ! same mann] z ! unwritt5 civil law1 & t is by ! cont9ual exp]i5ce & te/imony ( ! ,sages ( ! ,law4 ,= ?is law1 z ,dio ,*ryso/om well obs]ves1 is ! discov]ies made by exp]i5ce & "t4 ,& 9 ?is we d]ive great advantage f ! writ+s ( em95t hi/orians4 ,,xv4 ,! v mean+ ( ! words div9e volunt>y "r1 %[s t x spr+s f ! div9e w1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f natural law1 :i*1 x has already be5 obs]v$1 is call$ div9e also4 ,?is law admits ( :at ,anax>*us said1 z ,plut>* relates 9 ! life ( ,alex&]1 ?\gh )\t suffici5t accuracy1 t ,god does n w a ?+1 because x is j1 b t x is j1 or b9d+1 because ,god wills x4 ,n[ ?is law 0 giv5 ei!r to mank9d 9 g5]al1 or to "o p>ticul> p4 ,we f9d ?ree p]iods1 at :i* x 0 giv5 by ,god to ! human race1 ! fir/ ( :i* 0 imm$iately aft] ! creation ( man1 ! second ^u ! re/oration ( mank9d aft] ! flood1 & ! ?ird ^u t m glori\s re/oration ?r\gh ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,^! ?ree laws und\bt$ly b9d all m51 z soon z !y come to a suffici5t k ( !m4 ,,xvi4 ,( all nations !re is b "o1 to :i* ,god p>ticul>ly v\*saf$ to give laws2 & t 0 ! p ( ,israel1 :om ,moses ?us addresses 9 ! f\r? ,*ap4 ( ,deut]onomy1 v]4 #g4 ,:at nation is !re s great :o ha? ,god s nigh unto !m1 z ! ,"l our ,god is 9 all ?+s t we call ^u him =8 ,& :at nation is !re s great1 :o h /atutes & judgm5ts s righte\s1 z all ?is law1 :i* ,i set be=e y ?is day6 ,& ! ,psalmi/ 9 ! cxlvii4 ,psalm1 ,god %ew$ 8 ^w unto ,jacob1 8 /atutes & ord9ances unto ,israel4 ,he ha? n dealt s ) any nation1 & z = 8 judgm5ts !y h n kn[n !m4 ,nor c we d\bt b t ^? ,jews1 ) :om we may class ,tryphon 9 8 dispute ) ,ju/91 are mi/ak51 :o suppose t ev5 /rang]s1 if !y wi% to be sav$1 mu/ submit to ! yoke ( ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,= a law does n b9d ^?1 to :om x has n be5 giv54 ,b x speaks p]sonally to ^?1 :o are imm$iately "u x4 ,he> ,o ,israel1 & we read ev]y:]e ( ! cov5ant made ) !m1 by :i* !y became ! peculi> p ( ,god4 ,maimonides ackn[l$ges & proves ! tru? ( ?is f ! xxxiii4 ,*apt] & f\r? v]se ( ,deut]onomy4 ,b among ! ,hebrews !mselves !re 7 always liv+ "s /rang]s1 p]sons dev\t & fe>+ ,god1 su* 0 ! ,syropho5ician woman1 m5tion$ 9 ! ,gospel ( ,/4 ,mat!w1 xv4 #bb4 ,cornelius ! ,c5turion4 ,acts4 x4 ! dev\t ,greeks1 ,acts xviii4 #f4 ,soj\rn]s1 or /rang]s1 also are m5tion$4 ,levit4 xxv4 #dg4 ,^!1 z ! ,hebrew ,rabbis !mselves in=m u1 7 oblig$ to obs]ve ! laws giv5 to ,adam & ,noah1 to ab/a9 f idols & blood1 & o!r ?+s1 t 7 prohibit$2 b n 9 ! same mann] to obs]ve ! laws peculi> to ! p ( ,israel4 ,!re=e ?\gh ! ,israelites 7 n all[$ to eat ! fle% ( a bea/1 t _h di$ a natural dea?2 yet ! /rang]s liv+ among !m 7 p]mitt$4 ,deut4 xiv4 #ba4 ,except 9 "s p>ticul> laws1 :]e x 0 expressly said1 t /rang]s no less ?an ! native inhabitants 7 oblig$ to obs]ve !m4 ,/rang]s also1 :o came f o!r c\ntries1 & 7 n subject to ! ,jewi% laws1 might wor%ip ,god 9 ! temple ( ,j]usalem1 b /&+ 9 a place sep>ate & di/9ct f ! ,israelites4 ,i4 ,k+s viii4 #da4 #b ,mac4 iii4 #ce4 ,john xii4 #bj4 ,acts viii4 #bg4 ,nor did ,eli%a ev] signify to ,naaman ! ,syrian1 nor ,jonas to ! ,n9evites1 nor ,daniel to ,nebu*adnezz>1 nor ! o!r ,prophets to ! ,tyrians1 ! ,moabites1 ! ,egyptians1 to :om !y wrote1 t x 0 necess>y = !m to adopt ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,:at has be5 said ( ! :ole law ( ,moses applies to circumcision1 :i* 0 a k9d ( introduction to ! law4 ,yet ) ?is diff]5ce t ! ,israelites alone 7 b\nd by ! ,mosaic ,law1 b ! :ole po/]ity ( ,abraham by ! law ( circumcision4 ,f h5ce we are in=m$ by ,jewi% & ,greek ,hi/orians1 t ! ,idumaeans1 or ,edomites 7 compell$ by ! ,jews to be circumcis$4 ,:]e=e !re is reason to believe t ! num]\s nations1 :o1 besides ! ,israelites1 practis$ circumcision1 & :o are m5tion$ by ,h]odotus1 ,/rabo1 ,philo1 ,ju/91 ,orig51 ,clem5s1 ,alex&r9us1 ,epiphanius1 & ,j]om1 7 desc5d$ f ,i%mael1 ,esau1 or ! po/]ity ( ,keturah4 ,b :at ,/4 ,paul says1 ,rom4 ii4 #ad4 holds good ( all o!r nations2 t ! ,g5tiles1 n hav+ ! law1 yet do+ by nature ! ?+s conta9$ 9 ! law1 become a law to !mselves4 ,"h ! ^w nature may be tak5 = ! primitive s\rce ( moral obligation2 or1 ref]r+ x to ! prec$+ p>ts ( ! ,epi/le1 x may signify ! k1 :i* ! ,g5tiles acquir$ ( !mselves )\t in/ruction1 9 opposition to ! k d]iv$ to ! ,jews f ! law1 :i* 0 in/ill$ into !m f _! cradle1 & almo/ f _! bir?4 ,s ! ,g5tiles %[ ! "w1 or ! moral precepts ( ! law1 writt5 9 _! he>ts1 _! consci5ces also be>+ witness1 & _! ?\ghts ! mean :ile accus+ or else excus+ "o ano!r4 ,& aga9 9 ! #bf? v]42 ,if ! uncircumcision keep ! righte\sness ( ! law1 %all n 8 uncircumcision be c\nt$ = circumcision8 ,!re=e ,ananias1 ! ,jew1 z we f9d 9 ! hi/ory ( ,josephus1 v prop]ly taught ,tzates1 or z ,tacitus calls him1 ,ezates1 ! ,adiab5ian1 t ev5 )\t circumcision1 ,god might be rightly wor%ipp$ & r5d]$ propiti\s4 ,= ?\gh _m /rang]s 7 circumcis$1 among ! ,jews1 & by circumcision b\nd !mselves to obs]ve ! law1 z ,/4 ,paul expla9s x 9 ,gal4 v4 #c42 !y did x p>tly to obta9 ! fre$om ( ! c\ntry2 = proselytes call$ by ! ,hebrews1 proselytes ( righte\sness1 enjoy$ equal privileges ) ! ,israelites4 ,num4 xv43 & p>tly to obta9 a %>e 9 ^? promises1 :i* 7 n common to mank9d1 b peculi> to ! ,jewi% p1 al?\gh x _c be d5i$1 t 9 lat] ages an errone\s op9ion prevail$1 t !re 0 no salvation out ( ! ,jewi% pale4 ,h5ce we may inf]1 t we are b\nd by no "p ( ! ,levitical law1 /rictly & prop]ly s call$2 because any obligation1 beyond t aris+ f ! law ( nature1 mu/ proce$ f ! express w ( ! law-giv]4 ,n[ x _c be discov]$ by any pro(1 t ,god int5d$ any o!r p1 b ! ,israelites to be b\nd by t law4 ,!re=e ) respect to ourselves1 we h no occasion to prove an abrogation ( t law2 = x c\ld nev] be abrogat$ ) respect to ^?1 :om x nev] b\nd4 ,b ! ,israelites 7 releas$ f ! c]emonial "p1 z soon z ! law ( ! ,gospel 0 proclaim$2 a cle> revelation ( :i* 0 made to "o ( ! ,apo/les1 ,acts x4 #ae4 ,& ! o!r p>ts ( ! ,mosaic law lo/ _! peculi> di/9ction1 :5 ! ,jews ceas$ to be a p by ! desolation & de/ruction ( _! city )\t any hopes ( re/oration4 ,inde$ x 0 n a release f ! law ( ,moses t we1 :o 7 /rang]s to ! ,commonweal? ( ,israel1 obta9$ by ! com+ ( ,*ri/4 ,b z be=e t "t1 our hopes 9 ! goodness ( ,god 7 obscure & unc]ta91 we ga9$ ! assurance ( an express cov5ant1 t we %\ld be unit$ 9 "o ,*ur* ) ! se$ ( ,israel1 ! *ildr5 ( ! patri>*s1 _! law1 t 0 ! wall ( sep>ation betwe5 u1 be+ brok5 d[n4 ,eph4 ii4 #ad4 ,,xvii4 ,s9ce !n ! law giv5 by ,moses imposes no direct obligation ^u u1 z x has be5 already %[n1 let u consid] :e!r x has any o!r use bo? 9 ?is inquiry into ! rights ( w>1 & 9 o!r que/ions ( ! same k9d4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,mosaic law %[s t :at x enjo9s is n contr>y to ! law ( nature4 ,= s9ce ! law ( nature is p]petual & un*angeable1 no?+ contradictory to x c\ld be comm&$ by ,god1 :o is nev] unju/4 ,besides ! law ( ,moses is call$ 9 ! xix4 ,psalm an undefil$ & "r law1 & ,/4 ,paul1 ,rom4 vii4 #ab1 describes x to be holy1 j1 & good4 ,its precepts are "h spok5 (1 = its p]missions require a m di/9ct discussion4 ,= ! b>e p]mission1 signify+ ! removal ( an imp$im5t1 or prohibition1 has no relation to ! pres5t subject4 ,a positive1 legal p]mission is ei!r full1 grant+ u p[] to d "s p>ticul> act )\t ! lea/ re/riction1 or less full1 only all[+ m5 impunity = c]ta9 actions1 & a "r to d !m )\t mole/ation f o!rs4 ,f ! p]mission ( ! =m] k9d no less ?an f a positive precept1 x foll[s t :at ! law all[s1 is n contr>y to ! law ( nature4#d ,b ) reg>d to ! latt] k9d ( p]mission1 all[+ impunity = c]ta9 acts1 b n expressly au?oriz+ !m1 we _c s readily conclude ^? acts to be con=mable to ! law ( nature4#e ,because :]e ! words ( p]mission are ambigu\s 9 _! mean+1 x is bett] = u to int]pret accord+ to ! e/abli%$ law ( nature1 :at k9d ( p]mission x is1 ?an f our conception ( its exp$i5cy to conclude x con=mable to ! laws ( nature4 ,connect$ ) ?is fir/ obs]vation !re is ano!r1 expressive ( ! p[] t obta9s among ,*ri/ian ,pr9ces to enact laws ( ! same import ) ^? giv5 by ,moses1 except su* z relat$ entirely to ! "t ( ! expect$ ,messiah1 & ! ,gospel !n unreveal$1 or :]e ,*ri/ himself has 9 a g5]al or p>ticul> mann] e/abli%$ any ?+ to ! contr>y4 ,= except 9 ^! ?ree cases1 no reason c be devis$1 :y any ?+ e/abli%$ by ! law ( ,moses %\ld be n[ unlawful4 ,9 ! ?ird place x may be obs]v$1 t :atev] ! law ( ,moses enjo9$ relat+ to ^? virtues1 :i* ,*ri/ requir$ ( 8 disciples1 %\ld be fulfill$ by ,*ri/ians n[1 9 a great] degree1 f _! sup]ior k1 & high] motives4 ,?us ! virtues ( humility1 pati5ce1 & *>ity are requir$ ( ,*ri/ians 9 a m p]fect mann] ?an ( ! ,jews "u ! ,mosaic disp5sation1 because ! promises ( heav5 are m cle>ly laid be=e u 9 ! ,gospel4 ,h5ce ! old law1 :5 comp>$ ) ! ,gospel1 is said to h be5 nei!r p]fect nor faultless1 & ,*ri/ is said to be ! end ( ! law1 & ! law our s*oolma/] to br+ u to ,*ri/4 ,?us ! old law respect+ ! ,sabba?1 & ! law respect+ ti!s1 %[ t ,*ri/ians are b\nd to devote n less ?an a sev5? portion ( _! "t to div9e wor%ip1 nor less ?an a t5? ( _! fruits to ma9ta9 ^? :o are employ$ 9 holy ?+s1 or to o!r pi\s uses4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,inquiry ,,into ,,! ,,lawfulness ,,( ,,w>4 ,reasons prov+ ! lawfulness ( ,w>--,pro(s f ,hi/ory--,pro(s f g5]al cons5t--,! ,law ( ,nature prov$ n repugnant to ,w>--,w> n condemn$ by ! volunt>y ,div9e ,law prec$+ ! ,gospel--,objections answ]$--,review ( ! "q :e!r ,w> be contr>y to ! ,law ( ! ,gospel--,argum5ts f ,scripture = ! negative ,op9ions--,answ] to ! ,argum5ts tak5 f ,scripture = ! affirmative--,! op9ions ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians on ! subject exam9$4 ,i4 ,aft] exam9+ ! s\rces ( "r1 ! fir/ & mo/ g5]al "q t occurs1 is :e!r any w> is j1 or if x is ev] lawful to make w>4 ,b ?is "q l _m o!rs t foll[1 mu/ 9 ! fir/ place be comp>$ ) ! rights ( nature4 ,cic]o 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,b\nds ( ,good & ,evil1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( 8 works1 proves ) great erudition f ! writ+s ( ! ,/oics1 t !re are c]ta9 fir/ pr9ciples ( nature1 call$ by ! ,greeks ! fir/ natural impressions1 :i* are succe$$ by o!r pr9ciples ( obligation sup]ior ev5 to ! fir/ impressions !mselves4 ,he calls ! c>e1 :i* e animal1 f ! mom5t ( its bir?1 feels = itself & ! pres]vation ( its condition1 its abhorr5ce ( de/ruction1 & ( e ?+ t ?reat5s dea?1 a pr9ciple ( nature4 ,h5ce1 he says1 x happ5s1 t if left to 8 own *oice1 e man w\ld pref] a s\nd & p]fect to a mutilat$ & de=m$ body4 ,s t pres]v+ ourselves 9 a natural /ate1 & hold+ to e ?+ con=mable1 & av]t+ e ?+ repugnant to nature is ! fir/ duty4 ,b f ! k ( ^! pr9ciples1 a notion arises ( _! be+ agreeable to reason1 t "p ( a man1 :i* is sup]ior to ! body4 ,n[ t agreem5t ) reason1 :i* is ! basis ( propriety1 %\ld h m weight ?an ! impulse ( appetite2 because ! pr9ciples ( nature recomm5d "r reason z a rule t ought to be ( high] value ?an b>e in/9ct4 ,z ! tru? ( ?is is easily ass5t$ to by all m5 ( s\nd judgm5t )\t any o!r demon/ration1 x foll[s t 9 inquir+ into ! laws ( nature ! fir/ object ( consid]ation is1 :at is agreeable to ^? pr9ciples ( nature1 & !n we come to ! rules1 :i*1 ?\gh aris+ only out ( ! =m]1 are ( high] dignity1 & n only to be embrac$1 :5 (f]$1 b pursu$ by all ! means 9 our p[]4 ,?is la/ pr9ciple1 :i* is call$ propriety1 f its fitness1 accord+ to ! v>i\s ?+s on :i* x turns1 sometimes is limit$ to a v n>r[ po9t1 ! lea/ dep>ture f :i* is a deviation into vice2 sometimes x all[s a wid] scope1 s t "s actions1 ev5 laudable 9 !mselves1 may be omitt$ or v>i$ )\t crime4 ,9 ?is case !re is n an imm$iate di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong2 ! %ades are gradual1 & _! t]m9ation unp]ceiv$2 n l a direct contra/1 :]e ! opposition is imm$iately se51 & ! fir/ /ep is a transgression ( ! fix$ b\nds4 ,! g5]al object ( div9e & human laws is to give ! au?ority ( obligation to :at 0 only laudable 9 itself4 ,x has be5 said above t an inve/igation ( ! laws ( nature implies an inquiry1 :e!r any p>ticul> action may be done )\t inju/ice3 n[ by an act ( inju/ice is und]/ood t1 :i* necess>ily has 9 x any ?+ repugnant to ! nature ( a reasonable & social be+4 ,s f> f any ?+ 9 ! pr9ciples ( nature be+ repugnant to w>1 e "p ( !m inde$ r fav\rs x4 ,= ! pres]vation ( our lives & p]sons1 :i* is ! end ( w>1 & ! possession or acquirem5t ( ?+s necess>y & useful to life is mo/ suitable to ^? pr9ciples ( nature1 & to use =ce1 if necess>y1 = ^? occasions1 is no way dissonant to ! pr9ciples ( nature1 s9ce all animals are end[$ ) natural /r5g?1 suffici5t to assi/ & def5d !mselves4 ,x5ophon says1 t e animal kn[s a c]ta9 me?od ( fight+ )\t any o!r in/ructor ?an nature4 ,9 a fragm5t ( ,ovid's1 call$ ! ,art ( ,fi%]y1 x is rem>k$1 t all animals "k _! enemy & 8 means ( def5ce1 & ! /r5g? & measure ( _! own weapons4 ,horace has said1 ! wolf attacks ) its tee?1 ! bull ) its horns1 & :5ce is ?is k d]iv$ b f in/9ct8 ,on ?is subject ,lucretius enl>ges1 obs]v+ t e creature kn[s its own p[]s4 ,! calf butts ) its =ehead1 be=e its horns appe>1 & /rikes ) all imag9able fury4 ,on :i* ,gal5 expresses himself 9 ! foll[+ mann]1 e animal appe>s to def5d itself ) t "p ( its body1 9 :i* x excels o!rs4 ,! calf butts ) its head be=e its horns h gr[n1 & ! colt /rikes ) its heel be=e its ho(s are h>d1 z ! "y dog attempts to bite be=e 8 tee? are /rong4 ,! same writ] 9 describ+ ! use ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 says1 t man is a creature =m$ = peace & w>4 ,8 arm\r =ms n an imm$iate "p ( 8 body2 b he has h&s fit = prep>+ & h&l+ arms1 & we see infants us+ !m spontane\sly1 )\t be+ taught to d s4 ,ari/otle 9 ! #d? book1 & t5? *apt] ( ! hi/ory ( animals1 says1 t ! h& s]ves man = a spe>1 a sword1 or any arms :atev]1 because x c hold & wield !m4 ,n[ "r reason & ! nature ( society :i* claims ! second1 & inde$ m important place 9 ?is inquiry1 prohibit n all =ce1 b only t :i* is repugnant to society1 by depriv+ ano!r ( 8 "r4 ,= ! end ( society is to =m a common & unit$ aid to pres]ve to e "o 8 own4 ,:i* may easily be und]/ood to h obta9$1 be=e :at is n[ call$ prop]ty 0 introduc$4 ,= ! free use ( life & limbs 0 s mu* ! "r ( e "o1 t x c\ld n be infr+$ or attack$ )\t inju/ice4 ,s ! use ( ! common productions ( nature 0 ! "r ( ! fir/ occupi]1 & = any "o to rob him ( t 0 manife/ inju/ice4 ,?is may be m easily und]/ood1 s9ce law & cu/om h e/abli%$ prop]ty "u its pres5t =m4 ,tully has express$ ?is 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,(fices 9 ! foll[+ words1 if e memb] c\ld h sep>ate feel+1 & imag9e x c\ld d]ive vig\r f engross+ ! /r5g? ( a neighbor+ "p ( ! body1 ! :ole frame w\ld langui% & p]i%4 ,9 ! same mann] if e "o ( u1 = 8 own advantage1 might rob ano!r ( :at he pleas$1 !re w\ld be a total ov]?r[ ( human society & int]c\rse4 ,= ?\gh x is all[$ by nature = e "o to give ! pref]5ce to himself be=e ano!r 9 ! enjoym5t ( life & necess>ies1 yet %e does n p]mit u to increase our means & ri*es by ! spoils ( o!rs4 ,x is n !re=e contr>y to ! nature ( society to provide & consult = ourselves1 if ano!r's "r is n injur$2 ! =ce !re=e1 :i* inviolably ab/a9s f t\*+ ! rights ( o!rs1 is n unju/4 ,= z ! same ,cic]o obs]ves "s :]e 9 8 ,epi/les1 t z !re are two modes ( cont5d+1 ! "o by argum5t1 & ! o!r by =ce1 & z ! =m] is peculi> to man1 & ! latt] common to him ) ! brute creation1 we mu/ h rec\rse to ! latt]1 :5 x is impossible to use ! =m]4 ,& aga91 :at c be oppos$ to =ce1 b =ce8 ,ulpian obs]ves t ,cassius says1 x is lawful to repel =ce by =ce1 & x is a "r app>5tly provid$ by nature to repel arms ) arms1 ) :om ,ovid agrees1 obs]v+ t ! laws p]mit u to take up arms aga9/ ^? t be> !m4 ,,ii4 ,! obs]vation t all w> is n repugnant to ! law ( nature1 may be m amply prov$ f sacr$ hi/ory4 ,= :5 ,abraham ) 8 s]vants & conf$]ates _h ga9$ a victory1 by =ce ( arms1 ov] ! f\r ,k+s1 :o _h plund]$ ,sodom1 ,god approv$ ( 8 act by ! m\? ( 8 prie/ ,mel*is$e*1 :o said to him1 ,bless$ be ! mo/ high ,god1 :o ha? deliv]$ ?9e enemies into ?9e h&4 ,g54 xiv4 #bj4 ,n[ ,abraham _h tak5 up arms1 z appe>s f ! hi/ory1 )\t any special comm& f ,god4 ,b ?is man1 no less em95t = sanctity ?an wisdom1 felt himself au?oriz$ by ! law ( nature1 z x is admitt$ by ! evid5ce ( ,b]osus1 & ,orpheus1 :o 7 /rang]s4 ,!re is no occasion to appeal to ! hi/ory ( ! sev5 nations1 :om ,god deliv]$ up into ! h&s ( ! ,israelites to be de/roy$4 ,= !re 0 a special comm& to execute ! judgm5t ( ,god ^u nations guilty ( ! greate/ crimes4 ,f :5ce ^! w>s are lit]ally /yl$ 9 scripture1 ,battles ( ! ,"l1 z und]tak51 n by human w1 b by div9e appo9tm5t4 ,! xvii4 *apt] ( ,exodus supplies a passage m to ! purpose1 relat+ ! ov]?r[ :i* ! ,israelites1 conduct$ by ,moses & ,jo%ua1 made ( ! ,amalekites4 ,9 ?is act1 !re 0 no express commission f ,god1 b only an approval aft] x 0 done4 ,b 9 ! xix4 *ap4 ( ,deut4 v]4 #aj1 #ae4 ,god has prescrib$ g5]al & /&+ laws to 8 p on ! mann] ( mak+ w>1 by ?is circum/ance %ew+ t a w> may be j )\t any express comm&m5t f him4 ,because 9 ! same passage1 a pla9 di/9ction is made betwe5 ! case ( ! sev5 nations & t ( o!rs4 ,& z !re is no special edict prescrib+ ! j causes = :i* w> may be und]tak51 ! det]m9ation ( !m is left to ! discov]y ( natural reason4 ,( ?is k9d is ! w> ( ,jeph?ah aga9/ ! ,ammonites1 9 def5ce ( _! bord]s4 ,jud4 xi4 & ! w> ( ,david aga9/ ! same p = hav+ violat$ ! rights ( 8 ,ambassadors4 #b ,sam4 x4 ,to ! prec$+ obs]vations may be add$1 :at ! inspir$ writ] ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews says ( ,gideon1 ,b>ack1 ,sampson1 ,jeph?ah1 ,david1 ,samuel1 & o!rs1 :o by fai? made w> ^u k+doms1 prevail$ 9 w> & put :ole armies ( _! enemies to flight4 ,heb4 xi4 #cc1 #cd4 ,! :ole t5or ( ?is passage %ews1 t ! ^w fai? implies a p]suasion1 t :at !y did 0 believ$ to be agreeable to ! w ( ,god4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ,david is said1 by a woman di/+ui%$ = h] wisdom1 #a ,sam4 xxv4 #bh4 to fight ! battles ( ! ,"l1 t is to make lawful & j w>s4 ,,iii4 ,pro(s ( :at has be5 advanc$1 may be drawn also f ! cons5t ( all1 especially1 ( ! wise/ nations4 ,!re is a celebrat$ passage 9 ,cic]o's spee* = ,milo1 9 :i*1 ju/ify+ rec\rse to =ce 9 def5ce ( life1 he be>s ample te/imony to ! feel+s ( nature1 :o has giv5 u ?is law1 :i* is n writt51 b innate1 :i* we h n receiv$ by in/ruction1 he>+ or read+1 b ! elem5ts ( x h be5 engrav5 9 our he>ts & m9ds ) h] own h&3 a law :i* is n ! effect ( habit & acquirem5t1 b =ms a "p 9 ! orig9al complexion ( our frame3 s t if our lives are ?reat5$ ) assass9ation or op5 viol5ce f ! h&s ( robb]s or enemies1 ,,any means ( def5ce w\ld be all[$ & laudable4 ,he proce$s1 reason has taught ?is to ! le>n$1 necessity to ! b>b>ians1 cu/om to nations1 & nature h]self to wild bea/s1 to use e possible means ( repell+ =ce (f]$ to _! bodies1 _! limbs & _! lives4 ,caius & ,lawy] says1 natural reason p]mits u to def5d ourselves aga9/ dang]s4 ,& ,flor5t9us1 ano!r legal au?ority1 ma9ta9s1 t :atev] any "o does 9 def5ce ( 8 p]son ought to be e/eem$ "r4 ,josephus obs]ves1 t ! love ( life is a law ( nature /rongly implant$ 9 all creatures1 & !re=e we look ^u ^? z enemies1 :o w\ld op5ly deprive u ( x4 ,?is pr9ciple is f\nd$ on reasons ( equity1 s evid5t1 t ev5 9 ! brute creation1 :o h no idea ( "r1 we make a di/9ction betwe5 attack & def5ce4 ,= :5 ,ulpian _h said1 t an animal )\t k1 t is )\t ! use ( reason1 c\ld n possibly d wrong1 he imm$iately adds1 t :5 two animals fight1 if "o kills ! o!r1 ! di/9ction ( ,qu9tius ,mutius mu/ be admitt$1 t if ! aggressor 7 kill$ no damages c\ld be recov]$2 b if ! o!r1 :i* 0 attack$1 an action might be ma9ta9$4 ,!re is a passage 9 ,pl9y1 :i* w s]ve = an explanation ( ?is1 he says t ! fi]ce/ lions d n fight ) ea* o!r1 nor d s]p5ts bite s]p5ts4 ,b if any viol5ce is done to ! tame/ ( !m1 !y are r\s$1 & ^u receiv+ any hurt1 w def5d !mselves ) ! greate/ alacrity & vig\r4 ,,iv4 ,f ! law ( nature !n :i* may also be call$ ! law ( nations1 x is evid5t t all k9ds ( w> are n to be condemn$4 ,9 ! same mann]1 all hi/ory & ! laws ( mann]s ( e p suffici5tly in=m u1 t w> is n condemn$ by ! volunt>y law ( nations4 ,inde$ ,h]mog5ianus has said1 t w>s 7 introduc$ by ! law ( nations1 a passage :i* ought to be expla9$ some:at diff]5tly f ! g5]al int]pretation giv5 to x4 ,! mean+ ( x is1 t c]ta9 =malities1 att5d+ w>1 7 introduc$ by ! law ( nations1 :i* =malities 7 necess>y to secure ! peculi> privileges aris+ out ( ! law4 ,f h5ce a di/9ction1 :i* !re w be occasion to use h]eaft]1 betwe5 a w> ) ! usual =malities ( ! law ( nations1 :i* is call$ j or p]fect1 & an in=mal w>1 :i* does n = t reason cease to be j1 or agreeable to "r4 ,= "s w>s1 :5 made ^u j gr\nds1 ?\gh n exactly con=mable1 yet are n repugnant to ! law1 z w be expla9$ m fully h]eaft]4 ,by ! law ( ! nations1 says ,livy1 provision is made to repel =ce by arms2 & ,flor5t9us decl>es1 t ! law ( nations all[s u to repel viol5ce & injury1 9 ord] to protect our p]sons4 ,v4 ,a great] difficulty occurs respect+ ! div9e volunt>y law4 ,nor is !re any =ce 9 ! objection t z ! law ( nature is un*angeable1 no?+ c be appo9t$ ev5 by ,god himself contr>y to x4 ,= ?is is true only 9 ^? ?+s1 :i* ! law ( nature positively =bids or comm&s2 n 9 ^? :i* are tacitly p]mitt$ by ! same law4 ,= acts ( t k9d1 n fall+ /rictly )9 ! g5]al rule1 b be+ exceptions to ! law ( nature1 may be ei!r =bidd5 or comm&$4 ,! fir/ objection usually made aga9/ ! lawfulness ( w> is tak5 f ! law giv5 to ,noah & 8 po/]ity1 ,g54 ix4 #e1 #f1 :]e ,god ?us speaks1 ,surely ! blood ( y\r lives w ,i require2 at ! h& ( e bea/ w ,i require x1 & at ! h& ( e man2 at ! h& ( e man's bro!r w ,i require ! life ( man4 ,:oev] %$s man's blood1 by man %all 8 blood be %$2 = 9 ! image ( ,god made he man4 ,"h "s take ! phrase ( requir+ blood1 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 & ! o!r "p1 t blood %all be %$ 9 its turn1 !y consid] z a b>e ?reat1 & n an approbation2 nei!r ( :i* acceptations c be admitt$4 ,= ! prohibition ( %$d+ blood ext5ds n beyond ! law itself1 :i* decl>es1 ,,?\ ,,%alt ,,n ,,kill2 b passes no condemnation ^u capital puni%m5ts or w>s und]tak5 by public au?ority4 ,nei!r ! law ( ,moses1 nor t giv5 to ,noah e/abli%$ any ?+ new1 !y 7 only a decl>atory repetition ( ! law ( nature1 t _h be5 oblit]at$ by deprav$ cu/om4 ,s t ! %$d+ ( blood 9 a crim9al & wanton mann] is ! only act prohibit$ by ^? comm&m5ts4 ,?us e act ( homicide does n am\nt to murd]1 b only t1 :i* is committ$ ) a wilful & malici\s int5tion to de/roy ! life ( an innoc5t p]son4 ,z to :at foll[s ab\t blood be+ %$ 9 return = blood1 x seems to imply n a m]e act ( p]sonal rev5ge1 b ! delib]ate ex]cise ( a p]fect "r1 :i* may be ?us expla9$2 x is n unju/1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( nature t any "o %\ld suff] 9 proportion to ! evil he has done1 con=mably to ! judicial maxim ( ,rhadaman?us1 t if any "o himself suff]s :at he has done1 x is b j & "r4 ,! same op9ion is ?us express$ by ,s5eca ! fa!r2 x is b a j retaliation = any "o to suff] 9 8 own p]son ! evil :i* he int5d$ to inflict ^u ano!r4 ,f a s5se ( ?is natural ju/ice1 ,ca9 kn[+ himself guilty ( 8 bro!r's blood said1 :osoev] f9ds me %all kill me4 ,b z 9 ^? e>ly times1 :5 m5 7 few1 & aggressions r>e1 !re 0 less occasion = examples1 ,god re/ra9$ by an express comm&m5t ! impulse ( nature :i* appe>$ lawful1 he =bad any "o to kill ! murd]]1 at ! same "t prohibit+ all int]c\rse ) him1 ev5 s f> z n to t\* him4#f ,plato has e/abli%$ ?is 9 8 laws1 & ! same rule prevail$ 9 ,greece1 z appe>s f ! foll[+ passage 9 ,euripides1 our fa!rs ( old did well 9 bani%+ f _! int]c\rse & sight any "o t _h %$ ano!r's blood2 impos+ bani%m5t by way ( atonem5t1 r ?an inflict+ dea?4 ,we f9d ,?ucydides ( ! same op9ion1 t anci5tly light] puni%m5ts 7 inflict$ = ! greate/ crimes2 b 9 process ( "t1 z ^? p5alties came to be despis$1 legislators 7 oblig$ to h rec\rse to dea? 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,we may add to ! above in/ances ! rem>k ( ,lactantius1 t z yet x appe>$ a s9 to puni% ev5 ! mo/ wick$ m5 ) dea?4 ,! conjecture ( ! div9e w tak5 f ! rem>kable in/ance ( ,ca91 :om no "o 0 p]mitt$ to kill pass$ into a law1 s t ,lane*1 hav+ p]petrat$ a simil> de$1 promis$ himself impunity f ?is example4--,g54 iv4 #bd4 ,b z be=e ! deluge1 9 ! "t ( ! ,giants1 ! practice ( frequ5t & wanton murd]s _h prevail$2 ^u ! r5ewal ( ! human race1 aft] ! deluge1 t ! same evil cu/om might n be e/abli%$1 ,god ?\ght prop] to re/ra9 x by sev]] means4 ,! l5ity ( =m] ages 0 laid aside1 & ! div9e au?ority gave a sanction to ! precepts ( natural ju/ice1 t :oev] kill$ a murd]] %\ld be innoc5t4 ,aft] tribunals 7 erect$1 ! p[] ov] life 01 = ! v be/ reasons1 conf]r$ ^u ! judges alone4 ,/ill "s traces ( anci5t mann]s rema9$ 9 ! "r :i* 0 grant$1 aft] ! introduction ( ! ,mosaic ,law1 to ! ne>e/ 9 blood to ! p]son kill$4 ,?is int]pretation is ju/ifi$ by ! au?ority ( ,abraham1 :o1 ) a p]fect k ( ! law giv5 to ,noah1 took arms aga9/ ! f\r ,k+s1 fully p]suad$ t he 0 do+ no?+ 9 violation ( t law4 ,9 ! same mann] ,moses ord]$ ! p to fight aga9/ ,amalekites1 :o attack$ !m2 foll[+ 9 ?is case ! dictates ( nature1 = he appe>s to h _h no special communication ) ,god4 ,exod4 xvii4 #i4 ,besides1 we f9d t capital puni%m5ts 7 inflict$ ^u o!r crim9als1 z well z murd]]s1 n only among ! ,g5tiles1 b among ^? :o _h be5 impress$ ) ! mo/ pi\s rules & op9ions1 ev5 ! ,patri>*s !mselves4 ,g54 xxxviii4 #bd4 ,inde$ ^u comp>+ ! div9e w ) ! light ( nature1 x 0 conclud$1 t x seem$ con=mable to ju/ice1 t o!r crimes ( great enormity %\ld be subject to ! same puni%m5t z t ( murd]4 ,= !re are "s rights1 su* z ^? ( reputation1 *a/ity1 conjugal fidelity1 submission ( subjects to _! pr9ces1 all ( :i* are e/eem$ ( equal value ) life itself1 because on ! pres]vation ( ^! ! peace & com=t ( life dep5d4 ,! violation ( any ( ^? rights is little less ?an murd] itself4 ,"h may be appli$ ! old tradition f\nd among ! ,jews1 t !re 7 _m laws1 :i* 7 n ,,all m5tion$ by ,moses1 giv5 by ,god to ! sons ( ,noah2 z x 0 suffici5t = 8 purpose1 t !y %\ld aft]w>ds be compreh5d$ 9 ! peculi> laws ( ! ,hebrews4 ,?us x appe>s f xviii4 *ap4 ( ,leviticus1 t !re 0 an anci5t law aga9/ ince/u\s m>riages1 ?\gh n m5tion$ by ,moses 9 its prop] place4 ,n[ among ! comm&m5ts giv5 by ,god to ! *ildr5 ( ,noah1 x is said1 t dea? 0 expressly decl>$ to be ! puni%m5t n only = murd]1 b = adult]y1 ince/1 & robb]y1 :i* is confirm$ by ! words ( ,job xxxi4 #aa4 ,! law ( ,moses too1 = ! sanction ( capital puni%m5ts1 gives reasons :i* op]ate no less ) o!r nations1 ?an ) ! ,jewi% p4 ,levit4 xviii4 #be-cj4 ,psa4 ci4 #e4 ,prov4 xx4 #h4 ,& p>ticul>ly respect+ murd] x is said1 ! l& _c be cleans$ unless ! blood ( ! murd]] be %$4 ,numb4 xxv4 #ca-cc4 ,besides1 x 7 absurd to suppose t ! ,jewi% p 7 indulg$ ) ! privilege ( ma9ta9+ ! public safety1 & t ( individuals by capital puni%m5ts1 & ass]t+ _! rights by w>1 & t o!r k+s & nations 7 n all[$ ! same p[]s4 ,nor d we f9d t ^? k+s or nations 7 =ew>n$ by ! ,prophets1 t ! use ( capital puni%m5ts1 & t all w>s1 7 condemn$ by ,god 9 ! same mann] z !y 7 admoni%$ ( all o!r s9s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c any "o d\bt1 z ! law ( ,moses bore su* an express image ( ! div9e w respect+ crim9al ju/ice1 :e!r o!r nations w\ld n h act$ wisely 9 adopt+ x = _! example8 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ,greeks1 & ! ,a!nians 9 p>ticul> did s4 ,f h5ce came ! close resemblance :i* ! ,jewi% bore to ! old ,a!nian law1 & to t ( ! twelve tables ( ,rome4 ,en\gh has be5 said1 to %ew t ! law giv5 to ,noah _c be> ! int]pretation ( ^?1 :o d]ive f x _! argum5ts aga9/ ! lawfulness ( all w>4 ,,vi4 ,! argum5ts aga9/ ! lawfulness ( w>1 drawn f ! ,gospel1 are m speci\s4 ,9 exam9+ :i* x w n be necess>y to assume1 z _m d1 t ! ,gospel conta9s no?+ m ?an ! law ( nature1 except ! rules ( fai? & ! ,sacram5ts3 an assumption1 :i* 9 its g5]al acceptation is by no means true4 ,x may readily be admitt$1 t no?+ inconsi/5t ) natural ju/ice is enjo9$ 9 ! gospel1 yet x c nev] be all[$1 t ! laws ( ,*ri/ d n impose duties ^u u1 above ^? requir$ by ! law ( nature4 ,& ^?1 :o ?9k o!rwise1 /ra9 _! argum5ts to prove t _m practices =bidd5 by ! gospel1 z concub9age1 divorce1 polygamy1 7 made (f5ces by ! law ( nature4 ,! light ( nature might po9t out ! ,,hon\r ( ab/a9+ f su* practices1 b ! ,,s9fulness ( !m c\ld n h be5 discov]$ )\t a revelation ( ! w ( ,god4 ,:o = in/ance w\ld say1 t ! ,*ri/ian precept ( lay+ d[n our lives = o!rs 0 an obligation ( ! law ( nature8 #a ,john iii4 #af4 ,x is said by ,ju/9 ! ,m>tyr1 t to live accord+ to ! b>e law ( nature is n ! "* ( a true believ]4 ,nei!r c we foll[ ^?1 :o1 adopt+ ano!r mean+ ( no inconsid]able import1 con/rue ! precept deliv]$ by ,*ri/ 9 8 s]mon on ! m\nt1 into no?+ m ?an an int]pretation ( ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,= ! words1 y h he>d x 0 said to !m ( old1 b ,i say to ,,y1 :i* are s (t5 repeat$1 imply some?+ else4 ,^? ( old 7 no o!r ?an contempor>ies ( ,moses3 = :at is !re repeat$ z said to ^? ( ,,old are n ! words ( ! tea*]s ( ! law1 b ( ,moses1 ei!r ,,lit]ally1 or 9 ,,_! mean+4 ,!y are cit$ by our ,savi\r z 8 express words1 n z int]pretations ( !m3 ,?\ %alt n kill1 ,exod4 xx4 :oev] kille? %all be 9 dang] ( ,judgm5t1 ,levit4 xxi4 #ba4 ,numb4 xxxv4 #af1 #ag1 #cj4 ,?\ %alt n commit adult]y1 ,exod4 xx4 :osoev] %all put away 8 wife1 let him give h] a writ+ ( divorcem5t4 ,deut4 xxiv1 #a4 ,?\ %alt n =swe> ?yself1 b %alt p]=m unto ! ,"l ?9e oa?s4 ,exod4 xx4 #g4 ,numb4 xxx4 #b4 ,an eye = an eye1 & a too? = a too?1 may be dem&$ 9 ju/ice4 ,levit4 xxxiv4 #bj4 ,deut4 xix4 #ba4 ,?\ %alt love ?y neighb\r1 t is1 an ,israelite4 ,levit4 xix4 #ah4 & ?\ %alt hate ?9e enemy1 t is1 any "o ( ! sev5 nations to :om fri5d%ip or compassion 0 =bidd5 to be %ewn4 ,exod4 xxxiv4 #aa4 ,deut4 vii4 #a4 ,to ^! may be add$ ! ,amalekites1 ) :om ! ,israelites 7 comm&$ to ma9ta9 irreconcileable w>4 ,exod4 xxvii4 #ai4 ,deut4 xxv4 #ai4 ,b to und]/& ! words ( our ,savi\r1 we mu/ obs]ve t ! law ( ,moses is tak5 9 a d\ble s5se1 ei!r z conta9+ "s pr9ciples 9 common ) human laws1 su* z impos+ re/ra9t ^u human crimes by ! dread ( exempl>y puni%m5ts4 ,heb4 ii4 #b4 ,& 9 ?is mann] ma9ta9+ civil society among ! ,jewi% p3 = :i* reason x is call$1 ,heb4 vii4 #af1 ! law ( a c>nal comm&m5t1 & ,rom4 iii4 #ag4 ! law ( works3 or x may be tak5 9 ano!r s5se1 compreh5d+ ! peculi> sanctions ( a div9e law1 requir+ purity ( m9d1 & c]ta9 actions1 :i* might be omitt$ )\t temporal puni%m5ts4 ,9 ?is s5se x is call$ a spiritual law1 giv+ life to ! s\l4 ,! tea*]s ( ! law1 & ! ,ph>isees consid]+ ! fir/ "p z suffici5t1 neglect$ to in/ruct ! p 9 ! second & m important bran*1 deem+ x sup]flu\s4 ,! tru? ( ?is may be prov$1 n only f our own writ+s1 b f ,josephus also1 & ! ,jewi% ,rabbis4 ,respect+ ?is second "p we may obs]ve1 t ! virtues :i* are requir$ ( ,*ri/ians1 are ei!r recomm5d$ or enjo9$ to ! ,hebrews1 b n enjo9$ 9 ! same degree & ext5t z to ,*ri/ians4 ,n[ 9 bo? ^! s5ses ,*ri/ opposes 8 own precepts to ! old law4 ,f :5ce x is cle>1 t 8 words conta9 m ?an a b>e int]pretation ( ! ,mosaic law4 ,^! obs]vations apply n only to ! "q imm$iately 9 h&1 b to _m o!rs2 t we may n re/ ^u ! au?ority ( ! ,mosaic law f>!r ?an is "r4 ,,vii4 ,omitt+ !re=e ! less satisfactory pro(s1 z a lead+ po9t ( evid5ce to %ew t ! "r ( w> is n tak5 away by ! law ( ! gospel1 t passage 9 ,/4 ,paul's ,epi/le to ,timo?y may be ref]r$ to1 :]e ! ,apo/le says1 ,i exhort !re=e t1 fir/ ( all1 supplications1 pray]s1 int]cessions1 & giv+ ( ?anks be made = all m52 = ,k+s1 & = all t are 9 au?ority1 t we may lead a quiet & peaceable life1 9 all godl9ess & hone/y2 = ?is is good & acceptable 9 ! sight ( ,god our ,savi\r1 :o w\ld h all m5 to be sav$1 & to come to ! k ( ! tru?4 #a ,eph4 ii4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,f ?is passage1 ! foll[+ conclusions may be drawn2 9 ! fir/ place1 t ,*ri/ian piety 9 k+s is acceptable to ,god1 t _! pr(ession ( ,*ri/ianity does n abridge _! rights ( sov]eignty4 ,ju/9 ! ,m>tyr has said1 t 9 our pray]s = ,k+s1 we %\ld beg t !y may unite a _s ( wisdom ) _! royal p[]1 & 9 ! book call$ ! ,con/itutions ( ,clem5t1 ! ,*ur* prays = ,*ri/ian rul]s1 & t ,*ri/ian ,pr9ces may p]=m an acceptable s]vice to ,god1 by secur+ to o!r ,*ri/ians ! enjoym5t ( quiet lives4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ,sov]eign secures ?is important end1 is expla9$ 9 ano!r passage f ! same ,apo/le4 ,rom4 xiii4 #d4 ,he is ! m9i/] ( ,god to !e = good4 ,b if ?\ d evil1 fe>1 = he be>e? n ! sword 9 va92 = he is ! m9i/] ( ,god1 an av5g] to execute wra? ^u !m1 t d evil4 ,by ! "r ( ! sword is und]/ood ! ex]cise ( e k9d ( re/ra9t1 9 ! s5se adopt$ by ! ,lawy]s1 n only ov] (f5d]s among/ 8 own p1 b aga9/ neighbor+ nations1 :o violate 8 own & 8 p's rights4 ,to cle> up ?is po9t1 we may ref] to ! second ,psalm1 :i* al?\gh x applies lit]ally to ,david1 yet 9 its m full & p]fect s5se relates to ,*ri/1 :i* may be se5 by consult+ o!r p>ts ( scripture4 ,= in/ance1 ,acts iv4 #be4 xiii4 #cc4 ,= t ,psalm exhorts all k+s to wor%ip ! son ( ,god1 %ew+ !mselves1 z k+s1 to be 8 m9i/]s1 :i* may be expla9$ by ! words ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 :o says1 ,9 ?is1 k+s1 9 _! royal capacity1 s]ve ,god accord+ to ! div9e comm&m5t1 if !y promote :at is good1 & prohibit :at is evil 9 _! k+doms1 n only relat+ to human society1 b also respect+ religion4 ,& 9 ano!r place ! same writ] says1 ,h[ c k+s s]ve ! ,"l 9 fe>1 unless !y c prohibit & puni% ) due sev]ity (f5ces aga9/ ! law ( ,god8 ,= ! capacities 9 :i* !y s]ve ,god1 z individuals1 & z k+s1 are v diff]5t4 ,9 ?is respect !y s]ve ! ,"l1 z k+s1 :5 !y promote 8 s]vice by means :i* !y c\ld n use )\t regal p[]4 ,! same "p ( ! ,apo/le's writ+s supplies u ) a second argum5t1 :]e ! high] p[]s1 mean+ k+s1 are said to be f ,god1 & are call$ ! ord9ance ( ,god2 f :5ce x is pla9ly inf]r$ t we are to hon\r & obey ! k+1 f motives ( consci5ce1 & t e "o :o resi/s him1 is resi/+ ,god4 ,if ! ^w ord9ance meant no?+ m ?an a b>e p]mission1 t ob$i5ce :i* ! ,apo/le s /r5u\sly enjo9s w\ld only h ! =ce ( an imp]fect obligation4 ,b z ! ^w ord9ance1 9 ! orig9al1 implies an express comm&m5t & appo9tm5t1 & z all p>ts ( ! reveal$ w ( ,god are consi/5t ) ea* o!r1 x foll[s t ! ob$i5ce ( subjects to sov]eigns is a duty ( supreme obligation4 ,nor is ! argum5t at all weak5$ by its be+ said1 t ! ,sov]eigns at ! "t :5 ,/4 ,paul wrote1 7 n ,*ri/ians4 ,= x is n univ]sally true1 z ,s]gius ,paulus1 ! deputy gov]nor ( ,cyprus1 _h long be=e pr(ess$ ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,acts xiii4 #ab4 ,!re is no occasion to m5tion ! tradition respect+ ,abg>us ! ,k+ ( ,edessa's ,epi/le to our ,savi\r2 a tradition m+l$ ) falsehood1 ?\gh1 9 "s measure f\nd$ ^u tru?4 ,= ! "q did n turn ^u ! *>act]s ( ! ,pr9ces1 :e!r !y 7 godly or n1 b :e!r ,,_! hold+ ! k+ly (fice 0 repugnant to ! law ( ,god4 ,?is ,/4 ,paul d5ies1 ma9ta9+ t ! k+ly (fice1 ev5 "u all circum/ances1 0 appo9t$ by ,god1 !re=e x ought to be hon\r$ f motives ( consci5ce1 :i*1 prop]ly speak+1 are "u ! contr\l ( ,god alone4 ,s t ,n]o1 & ,k+ ,agrippa :om ,paul s e>ne/ly entreats to become a ,*ri/ian1 might h embrac$ ,*ri/ianity1 & /ill reta9$1 ! "o 8 regal1 & ! o!r 8 imp]ial au?ority1 :i* c\ld n be ex]cis$ )\t ! p[] ( ! sword4 ,z ! legal sacrifices might =m]ly be p]=m$ by wick$ ,prie/s2 9 ! same mann] regal p[] w\ld reta9 its indelible sanctity1 ?\gh 9 ! h&s ( an ungodly man4 ,a ?ird argum5t is d]iv$ f ! words ( ,john ! ,bapti/1 :o1 at a "t :5 _m ?\s&s ( ! ,jews s]v$ 9 ! ,roman armies1 z appe>s f ! te/imony ( ,josephus & o!rs1 be+ s]i\sly ask$ by ! soldi]s1 :at !y %\ld d to avoid ! wra? ( ,god1 did n comm& !m to r5\nce _! milit>y call+1 :i* he ought to h done1 _h x be5 inconsi/5t ) ! law & w ( ,god1 b to ab/a9 f viol5ce1 extortion1 & false accusation1 & to be cont5t ) _! wages4 ,9 reply to ^! words ( ! ,bapti/1 s pla9ly giv+ au?ority to ! milit>y pr(ession1 _m obs]v$ t ! injunction ( ! ,bapti/ is s widely diff]5t f ! precepts ( ,*ri/1 t ,,he seem$ to prea* "o doctr9e & our ,,"l ano!r4 ,:i* is by no means admissible1 = ! foll[+ reasons4 ,bo? our ,savi\r & ! ,bapti/ made rep5tance ! sub/ance ( _! doctr9e2 = ! k+dom ( heav5 0 at h&4 ,by ! ,k+dom ( ,heav5 is meant a new law1 z ! ,hebrews us$ to give ! "n ( ,k+dom to _! law4 ,*ri/ himself says ! ,k+dom ( ,heav5 began to suff] viol5ce f ! days ( ,john ! ,bapti/4 ,matt4 xi4 #ab4 ,john is said to h prea*$ ! baptism ( rep5tance = ! remission ( s9s4 ,m>k i4 #d4 ,! ,apo/les are said to h done ! same 9 ! "n ( ,*ri/4 ,acts xi4 #ch4 ,john requires fruits wor?y ( rep5tance1 & ?reat5s de/ruction to ^?1 :o d n produce !m4 ,matt4 iii4 #h1 #aj4 ,he also requires works ( *>ity above ! law4 ,luke iii4 #b4 ,! law is said to h cont9u$ till ,john1 t is1 a m p]fect law is said to h comm5c$ f 8 in/ruction4 ,he 0 call$ great] ?an ! prophets1 & decl>$ to be "o s5t to give ! k ( salvation to ! p by ann\nc+ ! gospel4 ,he makes no di/9ction betwe5 himself & ,jesus on ! score ( doctr9e1 only ascrib+ pre-em95ce to ,*ri/ z ! promis$ ,messiah1 ! ,"l ( ! ,k+dom ( ,heav51 :o w\ld give ! p[] ( ! holy _s to ^?1 :o believ$ 9 him4 ,9 %ort1 ! dawn+ rudim5ts ( k1 :i* proce$$ f ! =]unn]1 7 m di/9ctly unfold$ & cle>$ up1 by ,*ri/ himself1 ! light ( ! _w4 ,!re is a f\r? argum5t1 :i* seems to h no little weight1 proce$+ ^u ! supposition1 t if ! "r ( inflict+ capital puni%m5ts 7 aboli%$1 & pr9ces 7 depriv$ ( ! p[] ( ! sword to protect _! subjects aga9/ ! viol5ce ( murd]]s & robb]s1 wick$ness w\ld triumphantly prevail1 & ! _w w\ld be delug$ ) crimes1 :i*1 ev5 "u ! be/ e/abli%$ gov]nm5ts1 are ) s mu* difficulty prev5t$ or re/ra9$4 ,if !n x _h be5 ! int5tion ( ,*ri/ to introduce su* an ord] ( ?+s z _h nev] be5 he>d (1 he w\ld und\bt$ly by ! mo/ express & p>ticul> words1 h condemn$ all capital puni%m5ts1 & all w>s1 :i* we nev] read t he did4 ,= ! argum5ts1 br\ght 9 favor ( su* an op9ion1 are = ! mo/ "p v indef9ite & obscure4 ,n[ bo? ju/ice & common s5se require su* g5]al expressions to be tak5 9 a limit$ acceptation1 & all[ u1 9 expla9+ ambigu\s words1 to dep>t f _! lit]al mean+1 :]e our /rictly adh]+ to x w\ld lead to manife/ inconv5i5ce & detrim5t4 ,!re is a fif? argum5t1 ma9ta9+ t no pro( c be adduc$ t ! judicial "p ( ! ,mosaic ,law1 inflict+ s5t5ce ( dea?1 ev] ceas$ to be 9 =ce1 till ! city ( ,j]usalem1 & ! civil polity ( ! ,jews 7 utt]ly de/roy$1 )\t hopes ( re/oration4 ,= 9 ! ,mosaic disp5sation no assignable t]m is nam$ = ! duration ( ! law2 nor d ,*ri/ & 8 ,apo/les ev] speak ( its abolition1 except 9 allusion to ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,jewi% /ate4 ,inde$ on ! contr>y1 ,/4 ,paul says1 t ! ,high ,prie/ 0 appo9t$ to judge accord+ to ! law ( ,moses4 ,acts xxiv4 #c4 ,& ,*ri/ himself1 9 ! introduction to 8 precepts1 decl>es t he came n to de/roy ! law1 b to fulfil x4 ,matt4 v4 #ag4 ,! application ( 8 mean+ to ! ritual law is v pla91 = x 0 only ! outl9e & %ad[ ( t p]fect body1 ( :i* ! ,gospel =m$ ! sub/ance4 ,b h[ is x possible t ! judicial laws %\ld /&1 if ,*ri/1 accord+ to ! op9ion ( "s1 aboli%$ !m by 8 com+8 ,n[ if ! law rema9$ 9 =ce z long z ! ,jewi% /ate cont9u$1 x foll[s t ! ,jewi% conv]ts to ,*ri/ianity if call$ to ! magi/]ial (fice1 c\ld n refuse x on ! score ( decl9+ to pass s5t5ce ( dea?1 & t !y c\ld n decide o!rwise ?an ! law ( ,moses _h prescrib$4 ,^u weigh+ ! :ole matt]1 ! slighte/ gr\nd _c be discov]$ = suppos+ t any pi\s man1 :o _h he>d ^? words f our ,savi\r himself1 w\ld h und]/ood !m 9 a s5se diff]5t f t :i* has be5 "h giv54 ,x mu/ h[ev] be admitt$ t1 be=e ! ,gospel disp5sation p]mission or impunity 0 grant$ to c]ta9 acts & dispositions1 :i* x w\ld nei!r be necess>y nor prop] to exam9e at pres5t1 ^u :i* ,*ri/ did n all[ 8 foll[]s to act4 ,( ?is k9d 0 ! p]mission to put away a wife = e (f5ce1 & to seek r$ress by law = e injury4 ,n[ betwe5 ! positive precepts ( ,*ri/ & ^? p]missions !re is a diff]5ce1 b n a contradiction4 ,= he t reta9s 8 wife1 & he t =goes 8 "r ( r$ress1 does no?+ ,,contr>y to ! law1 b r acts agreeably to ! ,,_s ( x4 ,x is v diff]5t ) a judge1 :o is n m]ely p]mitt$1 b comm&$ by ! law to puni% a murd]] ) dea?1 incurr+ guilt 9 ! sight ( ,god1 if he %\ld act o!rwise4 ,if ,*ri/ _h =bidd5 him to put a murd]] to dea?1 8 prohibition w\ld h am\nt$ to a contradiction1 & x w\ld h aboli%$ ! law4 ,! example ( ,cornelius ! ,c5turion supplies a six? argum5t 9 favor ( ?is op9ion4 ,9 receiv+ ! holy _s f ,*ri/1 he receiv$ an indubitable pro( ( 8 ju/ification2 he 0 baptiz$ into ! "n ( ,*ri/ by ,pet]1 yet we d n f9d t he ei!r _h resign$ or 0 advis$ by ! ,apo/le to resign 8 milit>y commission4 ,9 reply to :i* "s ma9ta91 t :5 in/ruct$ by ,pet] 9 ! nature ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 he mu/ h be5 in/ruct$ to =m ! resolution ( quitt+ 8 milit>y call+4 ,!re w\ld be "s weight 9 _! answ]1 if x c\ld be %[n t an absolute prohibition ( w> is to be f\nd among ! precepts ( ,*ri/4 ,& z x c be f\nd n[h]e else1 x w\ld h be5 ins]t$ 9 its prop] place among ! precepts ( ,*ri/1 t aft] ages might n h be5 ignorant ( ! rules ( duty4 ,nor z may be se5 9 ! xix4 *ap4 ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les & ! #ai? v]4 is x usual ) ,/4 ,luke1 9 cases :]e ! p]sonal "* & situation ( conv]ts requir$ an extraord9>y *ange ( life & disposition1 to pass ov] su* a circum/ance )\t notice4 ,! sev5? argum5t is l ! prec$+1 & is tak5 f ! example ( ,s]gius ,paulus1 :i* has be5 already m5tion$4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( 8 conv]sion !re is n ! lea/ intimation ( 8 abdicat+ ! magi/racy1 or be+ requir$ to d s4 ,!re=e sil5ce respect+ a circum/ance1 :i* w\ld naturally & necess>ily h be5 m5tion$1 may be fairly tak5 z a pro( t x nev] exi/$4 ,! conduct ( ,/4 ,paul supplies u ) an eigh? argum5t on ?is subject4 ,:5 he und]/ood t ! ,jews lay 9 wait = an opportunity to seize & kill him1 he imm$iately gave in=mation ( _! design to ! comm&] ( ! ,roman g>rison1 & :5 ! comm&] gave him a gu>d ( soldi]s to protect him on 8 j\rney1 he made no remon/rance1 nor ev] h9t$ ei!r to ! comm&] or ! soldi]s t x 0 displeas+ to ,god to repel =ce by =ce4 ,yet ?is is ! same ,apo/le :o1 z appe>s f all 8 writ+s1 #b ,tim4 iv4 #b4 nei!r himself neglect$ nor all[$ o!rs to neglect any opportunity ( rem9d+ m5 ( _! duty4 ,9 addition to all t has be5 said1 x may be obs]v$1 t ! peculi> end ( :at is lawful & b9d+1 mu/ itself be lawful & b9d+ also4 ,x is lawful to pay tribute1 & accord+ to ,/4 ,paul's explanation1 x is an act b9d+ ^u ! consci5ce1 ,rom4 xiii4 #c1 #d1 #f4 ,= ! end ( tribute is to supply ! /ate ) ! means ( protect+ ! good1 & re/ra9+ ! wick$4 ,!re is a passage 9 ,tacitus v applicable to ! pres5t "q4 ,x is 9 ! f\r? book ( 8 hi/ory1 9 ! spee* ( ,petilius ,c]ealis1 :o says1 ! peace ( nations _c be pres]v$ )\t armies1 nor c armies be ma9ta9$ )\t pay1 nor pay suppli$ )\t taxation4 ,!re is a s5tim5t simil> to ?is ( ! hi/orian1 9 ,/4 ,augu/91 he says1 = ?is purpose we pay tribute1 t ! soldi] may be provid$ ) ! necess>ies ( life4 ,! t5? argum5t is tak5 f t "p ( ! xxv4 *ap4 ( ! ,acts ( ! ,apo/les1 :]e ,paul says1 ,if ,i h wrong$ any man1 or done any ?+ wor?y ( dea?1 ,i refuse n to die4 ,f :5ce ! op9ion ( ,/4 ,paul may be ga!r$1 t1 ev5 aft] ! publication ( ! gospel1 !re 7 c]ta9 crimes :i* ju/ice n only all[$ b requir$ to be puni%$ ) dea?2 :i* op9ion ,/4 ,pet] also ma9ta9s4 ,b if x _h be5 ! w ( ,god t capital puni%m5ts %\ld be aboli%$1 ,paul might h cle>$ himself1 b he ought n to h left an impression on ! m9ds ( m51 t x 0 at t "t equally lawful z be=e to puni% ! guilty ) dea?4 ,n[ z x has be5 prov$1 t ! com+ ( ,*ri/ did n take away ! "r ( inflict+ capital puni%m5ts1 x has at ! same "t be5 prov$1 t w> may be made ^u a multitude ( arm$ (f5d]s1 :o c only be br\ght to ju/ice by defeat 9 battle4 ,! numb]s1 ! /r5g? & boldness ( ! aggressors1 ?\gh !y may h _! weight 9 re/ra9+ our delib]ations1 _c 9 ! lea/ dim9i% our "r4 ,! sub/ance ( ! elev5? argum5t re/s n only ^u our ,savi\r's hav+ aboli%$ ^? p>ts ( ! ,mosaic law1 :i* =m$ a wall ( sep>ation betwe5 ! ,jews & o!r nations1 b ^u 8 all[+ ! moral p>ts to rema91 z /&+ rules1 approv$ by ! law ( nature1 & ! cons5t ( e civiliz$ p1 & conta9+ :atev] is good & virtu\s4 ,n[ ! puni%+ ( crimes1 & ! tak+ up arms to av5ge or w>d (f injuries are among ^? actions1 :i* by ! law ( nature rank z laudable1 & are ref]r$ to ! virtues ( ju/ice & b5efic5ce4 ,& "h is ! prop] place to animadv]t slightly ^u ! mi/ake ( ^?1 :o d]ive ! rights ( w>1 possess$ by ! ,israelites1 solely f ! circum/ance ( ,god hav+ giv5 !m ! l& ( ,canaan & commission$ !m to drive out ! inhabitants4 ,?is may be "o j reason1 b x is n ! sole reason4 ,=1 prior to ^? times1 holy m5 guid$ by ! light ( nature und]took w>s1 :i* ! ,israelites !mselves aft]w>ds did = v>i\s reasons1 & ,david 9 p>ticul>1 to av5ge ! violat$ rights ( ambassadors4 ,b ! rights1 :i* any "o d]ives f ! law ( nature1 are no less 8 own ?an if ,god _h giv5 !m3 nor are ^? rights aboli%$ by ! law ( ! ,gospel4 ,,viii4 ,let u n[ consid] ! argum5ts1 by :i* ! contr>y op9ion is support$1 t ! pi\s read] may judge m easily1 to :i* side ! scale incl9es4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! prophecy ( ,isaiah is g5]ally alleg$1 :o says ! "t %all come1 :5 nations %all beat _! swords into pl[-%>es1 & turn _! spe>s into prun+ hooks4 ,nation %all n lift up sword aga9/ nation1 nei!r %all !y le>n w> any m4 ii4 #d4 ,b ?is prophecy1 l _m o!rs1 is to be tak5 conditionally1 allud+ to ! /ate ( ! _w t w\ld take place1 if all nations w\ld submit to ! law ( ,*ri/1 & make x ! rule ( life1 to :i* purpose ,god w\ld suff] no?+ to be want+ on 8 "p4 ,= x is c]ta91 t if all p 7 ,*ri/ians1 & liv$ l ,*ri/ians1 !re w\ld be no w>s1 :i* ,arnobius expresses ?us1 ,if all m51 kn[+ t x is n _! corporeal =m alone :i* makes !m m51 b ! p[]s ( ! und]/&+1 w\ld l5d a pati5t e> to 8 salut>y & pacific in/ructions1 if !y w\ld tru/ to 8 admonitions r ?an to ! swell+ pride & turbul5ce ( _! s5ses1 iron w\ld be employ$ = in/rum5ts ( m h>mless & useful op]ations1 ! _w enjoy ! s(te/ repose & be unit$ 9 ! b&s ( inviolable treaties4 ,on ?is subject ,lactantius1 reproa*+ ! ,pagans ) ! deification ( _! conqu]ors1 says1 :at w\ld be ! consequ5ce1 if all m5 w\ld unite 9 concord8 ,:i* might c]ta9ly be br\ght to pass1 if1 ab&on+ ru9\s & impi\s rage1 !y w\ld live 9 ju/ice & innoc5ce4 ,or ?is passage ( ! prophecy mu/ be und]/ood lit]ally1 &1 if tak5 9 t s5se1 x %ews t x is n yet fulfill$1 b its accompli%m5t mu/ be look$ = 9 ! g5]al conv]sion ( ! ,jewi% p4 ,b1 :i* ev] way y take x1 no conclusion c be drawn f x aga9/ ! ju/ice ( w>1 z long z viol5t m5 exi/ to di/urb ! quiet ( ! lov]s ( peace4#g ,,ix4 ,9 exam9+ ! mean+ ( writt5 evid5ce1 g5]al cu/om1 & ! op9ions ( m5 celebrat$ = _! wisdom h usually great weight2 a practice :i* x is "r to obs]ve 9 ! int]pretation ( holy scripture4 ,= x is n likely t *ur*es1 :i* _h be5 f\nd$ by ! ,apo/les1 w\ld ei!r sudd5ly or univ]sally h sw]v$ f ^? op9ions1 :i* ! ,apo/les _h briefly express$1 9 writ+1 & aft]w>ds m fully & cle>ly expla9$ to !m ) _! own lips1 & r$uc$ to practice4 ,n[ c]ta9 expressions ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians are usually alleg$ by ^? :o are adv]se to all w>s1 ^: op9ions may be consid]$ & refut$ 9 ?ree po9ts ( view4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 f ^! expressions no?+ m c be ga!r$ ?an ! private op9ions ( c]ta9 individuals1 b no public op9ion ( ! ,*ur*es4 ,besides ^! expressions = ! mo/ "p are to be f\nd only 9 ! writ+s ( ,orig51 ,t]tullian & "s few o!rs1 :o wi%$ to di/+ui% !mselves by ! brilliancy ( _! ?\ghts1 )\t reg>d+ consi/5cy 9 _! op9ions4 ,= ?is same ,orig5 says1 t ,bees 7 giv5 by ,god z a patt]n = m5 to foll[ 9 conduct+ j1 regul>1 & necess>y w>s2 & likewise ,t]tullian1 :o 9 "s p>ts seems to disapprove ( capital puni%m5ts1 has said1 ,no "o c d5y t x is good ! guilty %\ld be puni%$4 ,he expresses 8 d\bts respect+ ! milit>y pr(ession1 = 9 8 book ^u idolatry1 he says1 x is a fit matt] ( inquiry1 :e!r believ]s c take up arms1 or :e!r any ( ! milit>y pr(ession c be admitt$ z memb]s ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,b 9 8 ,book entitl$1 ! ,,soldi]',s ,,cr[n1 aft] "s objections aga9/ ! pr(ession ( arms1 he makes a di/9ction betwe5 ^? :o are engag$ 9 ! army be=e baptism1 & ^? :o ent]$ aft] !y _h made ! baptismal v[4 ,x evid5tly1 says he alt]s ! case ) ^? :o 7 soldi]s be=e _! conv]sion to ,*ri/ianity2 ,john admitt$ !m to baptism1 9 "o in/ance ,*ri/ approv$1 & 9 ano!r ,pet] in/ruct$ a fai?ful ,c5turion3 yet ) ?is /ipulation1 t !y mu/ ei!r l _m o!rs1 rel9qui% _! call+1 or be c>eful to d no?+ displeas+ to ,god4 ,he 0 s5sible !n t !y cont9u$ 9 ! milit>y pr(ession aft] baptism1 :i* !y w\ld by no means h done1 if !y _h und]/ood t all w> 0 =bidd5 by ,*ri/4 ,!y w\ld h foll[$ ! example ( ! ,soo?say]s1 ! ,magi1 & o!r pr(essors ( =bidd5 arts1 :o ceas$ to practice !m1 :5 !y became ,*ri/ians4 ,9 ! book quot$ above1 comm5d+ a soldi]1 :o 0 at ! same "t a ,*ri/ian1 he says1 ,o ,soldi] glori\s 9 ,god4 ,! second obs]vation applies to ! case ( ^?1 :o decl9$ or ev5 refus$ be>+ arms1 on acc\nt ( ! circum/ances ( ! times1 :i* w\ld h requir$ !m to d _m acts inconsi/5t ) _! ,*ri/ian call+4 ,9 ,dolabella's lett] to ! ,ephesians1 :i* is to be f\nd 9 ,josephus1 we see t ! ,jews reque/$ an exemption f milit>y exp$itions1 because1 9 m+l+ ) /rang]s1 !y c\ld n conv5i5tly h obs]v$ ! rites ( _! own laws & w\ld h be5 oblig$ to be> arms1 & to make long m>*es on ! ,sabba?s4 ,& we are in=m$ by ,josephus t1 = ! same reasons1 ! ,jews obta9$ _! dis*>ge ( ,l4 ,l5tulus4 ,9 ano!r "p1 he relates t :5 ! ,jews _h be5 ord]$ to leave ! city ( ,rome1 "s ( !m enli/$ 9 ! army1 & t o!rs1 :o out ( respect to ! laws ( _! c\ntry1 = ! reasons be=e m5tion$1 refus$ to be> arms1 7 puni%$4 ,9 addition to ^! a ?ird reason may be giv51 :i* 0 t !y w\ld h to fight aga9/ _! own p1 aga9/ :om x 0 unlawful to be> arms1 especially :5 !y incurr$ dang] & enmity = adh]+ to ! ,mosaic law4 ,b ! ,jews1 :5ev] !y c\ld d x1 )\t ^! inconv5i5ces1 s]v$ "u =eign pr9ces1 previ\sly /ipulat+1 z we are in=m$ by ,josephus1 = lib]ty to live accord+ to ! laws & rules ( _! own c\ntry4 ,t]tullian objects to ! milit>y s]vice ( 8 own times on acc\nt ( dang]s1 & inconv5i5ces v simil> to ^?1 :i* det]r$ ! ,jews4 ,9 8 book on ,idolatry1 he says1 x is impossible to reconcile ! oa? ( fidelity to s]ve "u ! bann]s ( ,*ri/1 ) t to s]ve "u ! bann]s ( ! ,devil4 ,because ! soldi]s 7 ord]$ to swe> by ,jupit]1 ,m>s1 & ! o!r ,hea!n ,gods4 ,& 9 8 book on ! ,soldi]'s ,cr[n1 he asks1 if ! soldi] be to keep wat* be=e ! temples1 :i* he has r5\nc$1 to sup :]e he is =bidd5 by ! ,apo/le1 & to gu>d 9 ! night ! ,gods1 :om he has abjur$ 9 ! day8 ,& he proce$s ) ask+1 if !re be n _m o!r milit>y duties1 :i* ought to be reg>d$ 9 ! light ( s9s8 ,! ?ird po9t ( view1 9 :i* ! subject is to be consid]$1 relates to ! conduct ( ^? primitive ,*ri/ians1 :o1 9 ! ard\r ( zeal1 aim$ at ! mo/ brilliant atta9m5ts1 tak+ ! div9e c\nsels = precepts ( obligation4 ,! ,*ri/ians1 says ,a!nagoras1 nev] g to law ) ^?1 :o rob !m4 ,salvian says1 x 0 comm&$ by ,*ri/ t we %\ld rel9qui% ! object ( dispute1 r ?an engage 9 law suits4 ,b ?is1 tak5 9 s g5]al an acceptation1 is r by ! way ( c\nsel1 9 ord] to atta9 to a sublim] mode ( life1 ?an int5d$ z a positive precept4 ,?us _m ( ! primitive ,fa!rs condemn$ all oa?s )\t exception1 yet ,/4 ,paul1 9 matt]s ( great importance1 made use ( ^! solemn appeals to ,god4 ,a ,*ri/ian 9 ,tatian said1 ,i refuse ! (fice ( ,praetor1 & 9 ! words ( ,t]tullian1 a ,*ri/ian is n ambiti\s ( ! ,a$ile's (fice4 ,9 ! same mann] ,lactantius ma9ta9s t a j man1 su* z he wi%es a ,*ri/ian to be1 ought n to engage 9 w>1 nor1 z all 8 wants c be suppli$ at home1 ev5 to g to sea4 ,h[ _m ( ! primitive fa!rs dissuade ,*ri/ians f second m>riages8 ,all ^! c\nsels are good1 recomm5d+ excell5t atta9m5ts1 highly acceptable to ,god1 yet !y are n requir$ ( u1 by any absolute law4 ,! obs]vations already made are suffici5t to answ] ! objections d]iv$ f ! primitive times ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,n[ 9 ord] to confirm our op9ions1 we may obs]ve t !y h ! support ( writ]s1 ev5 ( great] antiquity1 :o ?9k t capital puni%m5ts may be inflict$1 & t w>s1 :i* re/ ^u ! same au?ority1 may be lawfully engag$ 9 by ,*ri/ians4 ,clem5s ,alex&r9us says1 t a ,*ri/ian1 if1 l ,moses1 he be call$ to ! ex]cise ( sov]eign p[]1 w be a liv+ law to 8 subjects1 rew>d+ ! good1 & puni%+ ! wick$4 ,&1 9 ano!r place1 describ+ ! habit ( a ,*ri/ian1 he says1 x w\ld become him to g b>efoot1 unless he 7 a soldi]4 ,9 ! "w usually entitl$ ! ,,con/itutions ,,( ,,clem5s ,,romanus1 we f9d t x is n all kill+ :i* is consid]$ unlawful1 b only t ( ! innoc5t2 yet ! adm9i/ration ( judicial puni%m5ts mu/ be res]v$ to ! supreme p[] alone4 ,b )\t re/+ ^u individual au?orities1 we c appeal to ! public au?ority ( ! *ur* :i* ought to h ! greate/ weight4 ,f h5ce x is evid5t t none 7 ev] refus$ baptism1 or excommunicat$ by ! *ur*1 m]ely = be>+ arms1 :i* !y ought to h be51 _h ! milit>y pr(ession be5 repugnant to ! t]ms ( ! new cov5ant4 ,9 ! ,,con/itutions j quot$1 ! writ] speak+ ( ^? :o1 9 ! primitive times1 7 admitt$ to baptism1 or refus$ t ord9ance1 says1 let a soldi] :o desires to be admitt$ be taught to =be> f viol5ce1 & false accusations1 & to be cont5t ) 8 regul> pay4 ,if he promises ob$i5ce let him be admitt$4 ,t]tullian 9 8 ,apology1 speak+ 9 ! "* ( ,*ri/ians1 says1 ,we sail along ) y1 & we engage 9 ! same w>s1 hav+ a little be=e obs]v$1 we are b /rang]s1 yet we h fill$ all y\r cities1 y\r isl&s1 y\r ca/les1 y\r municipal t[ns1 y\r c\ncils1 & ev5 y\r camps4 ,he _h relat$ 9 ! same book t ra9 _h be5 obta9$ = ! ,emp]or ,m>cus ,aurelius by ! pray]s ( ! ,*ri/ian soldi]s4#h ,9 8 book ( ! cr[n1 he comm5ds a soldi]1 :o _h ?r[n away 8 g>l&1 = a c\rage sup]ior to t ( 8 bre?r5 9 arms1 & in=ms u t he _h _m ,*ri/ian fell[ soldi]s4 ,to ^! pro(s may be add$ ! hon\rs ( ,m>tyrdom giv5 by ! ,*ur* to "s soldi]s1 :o _h be5 cruelly p]secut$1 & _h ev5 suff]$ dea? = ! sake ( ,*ri/1 among :om are record$ ?ree ( ,/4 ,paul's companions1 ,c]ialis :o suff]$ m>tyrdom "u ,decius2 ,m>9us "u ,val]ian2 fifty "u ,aurelian1 ,victor1 ,maurus1 & ,val5t9us1 a lieut5ant g5]al "u ,maximian4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,m>cellus ! ,c5turion1 ,sev]ian "u ,lic9ius4 ,cyprian1 9 speak+ ( ,laur5t9us1 & ,ignatius1 bo? ,africans1 says1 ,!y too s]v$ 9 ! armies ( e>?ly pr9ces1 yet !y 7 truly spiritual soldi]s ( ,god1 defeat+ ! wiles ( ! ,devil by a /eady confession ( ! "n ( ,*ri/1 & e>n+ ! palms & cr[ns ( ! ,"l by _! suff]+s4 ,& f h5ce x is pla9 :at 0 ! g5]al op9ion ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians ^u w>1 ev5 be=e ! ,emp]ors became ,*ri/ians4 ,x ne$ n be ?\ght surpris+1 if ! ,*ri/ians ( ^? times 7 unwill+ to appe> at trials = life1 s9ce1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! p]sons to be tri$ 7 ,*ri/ians4 ,9 o!r respects too1 besides be+ unwill+ to witness ! unm]it$ suff]+s ( _! p]secut$ bre?r51 ! ,roman laws 7 m sev]e ?an ,*ri/ian l5ity c\ld all[ (1 z may be se5 f ! s+le in/ance ( ! ,silanian decree ( ! ,s5ate4#i ,inde$ capital puni%m5ts 7 n aboli%$ ev5 aft] ,con/ant9e embrac$ & began to enc\rage ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,he himself among o!r laws enact$ "o simil> to t ( ! anci5t ,romans1 = puni%+ p>ricides1 by sew+ !m 9 a sack ) c]ta9 animals1 & ?r[+ !m into ! sea1 or ! ne>e/ riv]4 ,?is law is to be f\nd 9 8 code "u ! title ( ! murd]s ( p>5ts or *ildr54 ,yet 9 o!r respects he 0 s g5tle 9 puni%+ crim9als1 t he is blam$ by _m hi/orians = 8 excessive l5ity4 ,con/ant9e1 we are in=m$ by hi/orians1 _h at t "t _m ,*ri/ians 9 8 army1 & he us$ ! "n ( ,*ri/ z ! motto ^u 8 /&>ds4 ,f t "t too ! milit>y oa? 0 *ang$ to ! =m1 :i* is f\nd 9 ,vegetius1 & ! soldi] swore1 ,by ,god1 & ,*ri/1 & ! holy _s1 & ! maje/y ( ! ,emp]or1 to :om z next to ,god1 homage & rev]5ce are due f mank9d4 ,nor out ( s _m ,bi%ops at t "t1 _m ( :om suff]$ ! mo/ cruel treatm5t = _! religion1 d we read ( a s+le "o1 :o dissuad$ ,con/ant9e1 by ! t]rors ( div9e wra? f inflict+ capital puni%m5ts1 or prosecut+ w>s1 or :o det]r$ ! ,*ri/ians1 = ! same reasons1 f s]v+ 9 ! armies4 ,?\gh mo/ ( ^? ,bi%ops 7 /rict obs]v]s ( discipl9e1 :o w\ld by no means dissemble 9 po9ts relat+ to ! duty ( ! ,emp]ors or ( o!rs4 ,among ?is class1 9 ! "t ( ,!odosius1 we may rank ,ambrose1 :o 9 8 sev5? disc\rse says1 !re is no?+ wrong 9 be>+ arms2 b to be> arms f motives ( rap9e is a s9 inde$1 & 9 8 fir/ book ( ,(fices1 he ma9ta9s ! same op9ion1 t ! c\rage :i* def5ds "o's c\ntry aga9/ ! incursions ( b>b>ians1 or protects "o's family & home f ! attacks ( robb]s1 is complete ju/ice4 ,^! argum5ts s decid$ly %ew ! op9ions ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians 9 ! support ( j & necess>y w>1 t ! subject requires no f>!r pro( or elucidation4 ,nor is ! argum5t invalidat$ by a fact pretty g5]ally kn[n1 t ,bi%ops & o!r ,*ri/ians (t5 int]c$$ 9 behalf ( crim9als1 to mitigate ! puni%m5t ( dea?1 & t any1 :o _h tak5 refuge 9 *ur*es1 7 n giv5 up1 b ^u ! promise ( _! lives be+ sp>$4 ,a cu/om 0 introduc$ likewise ( releas+ all prison]s ab\t ! "t ( ,ea/]4 ,b all ^! in/ances1 if c>efully exam9$1 w be f\nd ! volunt>y acts ( ,*ri/ian k9dness1 embrac+ e opportunity to d good1 & n a settl$ po9t ( public op9ion condemn+ all capital puni%m5ts4 ,!re=e ^? fav\rs 7 n univ]sal2 b limit$ to times & places1 & ev5 ! int]cessions !mselves 7 modifi$ ) c]ta9 exceptions4#aj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,division ,,( ,,w> ,,into ,,public ,,& ,,private ,,& ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,sov]eign ,,p[]4 ,! ,division ( ,w> into public & private--,examples to prove t all private ,w> is n repugnant to ! ,law ( ,nature s9ce ! erection ( ,c\rts ( ,ju/ice--,! ,division ( ,public ,w> into =mal1 & in=mal--,:e!r ! suppression ( ,tumults by subord9ate ,magi/rates be prop]ly public ,w>--,civil ,p[]1 9 :at x consi/s--,sov]eign ,p[] fur!r consid]$--,! op9ion ( ^?1 :o ma9ta9 t ! ,sov]eign ,p[] is always 9 ! p1 refut$1 & _! argum5ts answ]$--,mutual subjection refut$--,cautions requisite to und]/& ! nature ( ,sov]eign ,p[]--,di/9ction ( ! real diff]5ces t exi/ "u simil> names--,di/9ction betwe5 ! "r to ,sov]eign ,p[]1 & ! mode ( ex]cis+ x4 ,i4 ,! fir/ & mo/ necess>y divisions ( w> are into "o k9d call$ private1 ano!r public1 & ano!r mix$4 ,n[ public w> is c>ri$ on by ! p]son hold+ ! sov]eign p[]4 ,private w> is t :i* is c>ri$ on by private p]sons )\t au?ority f ! /ate4 ,a mix$ w> is t :i* is c>ri$ on1 on "o side by public au?ority1 & on ! o!r by private p]sons4 ,b private w>1 f its great] antiquity1 is ! fir/ subject = inquiry4 ,! pro(s t h be5 already produc$1 to %ew t to repel viol5ce is n repugnant to natural law1 af=d a satisfactory reason to ju/ify private w>1 z f> z ! law ( nature is conc]n$4 ,b p]haps x may be ?\ght t s9ce public tribunals h be5 erect$1 private r$ress ( wrongs is n all[able4 ,an objection :i* is v j4 ,yet al?\gh public trials & c\rts ( ju/ice are n in/itutions ( nature1 b erect$ by ! inv5tion ( m51 yet z x is mu* m conducive to ! peace ( society = a matt] 9 dispute to be decid$ by a dis9t]e/$ p]son1 ?an by ! p>tiality & prejudice ( ! p>ty aggriev$1 natural ju/ice & reason w dictate ! necessity & advantage ( e "o's submitt+ to ! equitable decisions ( public judges4 ,paulus1 ! ,lawy]1 obs]ves t :at c be done by a magi/rate ) ! au?ority ( ! /ate1 %\ld nev] be intru/$ to individuals2 z private r$ress w\ld give rise to great] di/urbance4 ,& ! reason1 says ,k+ ,!odoric1 :y laws 7 inv5t$1 0 to prev5t any "o f us+ p]sonal viol5ce1 = :]e9 w\ld peace diff] f all ! confusion ( w>1 if private disputes 7 t]m9at$ by =ce8 ,& ! law calls x =ce = any man to seize :at he ?9ks 8 due1 )\t seek+ a legal rem$y4 ,,ii4 ,x is a matt] beyond all d\bt t ! lib]ty ( private r$ress1 :i* once exi/$1 0 greatly abridg$ aft] c\rts ( ju/ice 7 e/abli%$4 ,yet !re may be cases1 9 :i* private r$ress mu/ be all[$1 z = in/ance1 if ! way to legal ju/ice 7 n op54 ,= :5 ! law prohibits any "o f r$ress+ 8 own wrongs1 x c only be und]/ood to apply to circum/ances :]e a legal rem$y exi/s4 ,n[ ! ob/ruction 9 ! way to legal r$ress may be ei!r tempor>y or absolute4 ,tempor>y1 :]e x is impossible = ! injur$ p>ty to wait = a legal rem$y1 )\t imm95t dang] & ev5 de/ruction4 ,z = in/ance1 if a man 7 attack$ 9 ! night1 or 9 a secret place :]e no assi/ance c\ld be procur$4 ,absolute1 ei!r z ! "r1 or ! fact may require4 ,n[ !re are _m situations1 :]e ! "r mu/ cease f ! impossibility ( support+ x 9 a legal way1 z 9 unoccupi$ places1 on ! seas1 9 a wild]ness1 or des]t isl&1 or any o!r place1 :]e !re is no civil gov]nm5t4 ,all legal rem$y too ceases by fact1 :5 subjects w n submit to ! judge1 or if he refuses op5ly to take cognizance ( matt]s 9 dispute4 ,! ass]tion t all private w> is n made repugnant to ! law ( nature by ! erection ( legal tribunals1 may be und]/ood f law giv5 to ! ,jews1 :]e9 ,god ?us speaks by ! m\? ( ,moses1 ,exod4 xxii4 #b4 ,if a ?ief be f\nd break+ up1 t is1 by night1 & be smitt5 t he dies1 !re %all no blood be %$ = him1 b if ! sun be ris5 ^u him1 !re %all be blood %$ = him4 ,n[ ?is law1 mak+ s accurate a di/9ction 9 ! m]its ( ! case1 seems n only to imply impunity = kill+ any "o1 9 self-def5ce1 b to expla9 a natural "r1 f\nd$ n on any special div9e comm&1 b on ! common pr9ciples ( ju/ice4 ,f :5ce o!r nations h pla9ly foll[$ ! same rule4 ,! passage ( ! twelve tables is well kn[n1 und\bt$ly tak5 f ! old ,a!nian ,law1 ,if a ?ief commit a robb]y 9 ! night1 & a man kill him1 he is kill$ lawfully4 ,?us by ! laws ( all kn[n & civiliz$ nations1 ! p]son is judg$ innoc5t1 :o kills ano!r1 =cibly attempt+ or endang]+ 8 life2 a conspir+ & univ]sal te/imony1 :i* proves t 9 ju/ifiable homicide1 !re is no?+ repugnant to ! law ( nature4 ,,iv4#aa ,public w>1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 is ei!r ,,solemn1 t is ,,=mal1 or ,,less ,,solemn1 t is ,,in=mal4 ,! "n ( lawful w> is commonly giv5 to :at is "h call$ =mal1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* a regul> w is oppos$ to a codicil1 or a lawful m>riage to ! cohabitation ( slaves4 ,?is opposition by no means implies t x is n all[$ to any man1 if he pleases1 to make a codicil1 or to slaves to cohabit 9 matrimony1 b only1 t1 by ! civil law1 ,,=mal ,,wills & ,,solemn ,,m>riages1 7 att5d$ ) peculi> privileges & effects4 ,^! obs]vations 7 ! m necess>y2 because _m1 f a misconception ( ! ^w j or lawful1 ?9k t all w>s1 to :i* ^? epi!ts d n apply1 are condemn$ z unju/ & unlawful4 ,n[ to give a w> ! =mality requir$ by ! law ( nations1 two ?+s are necess>y4 ,9 ! fir/ place x mu/ be made on bo? sides1 by ! sov]eign p[] ( ! /ate1 & 9 ! next place x mu/ be accompani$ ) c]ta9 =malities4 ,bo? ( :i* are s ess5tial t "o is insuffici5t )\t ! o!r4 ,n[ a public w>1 ,,less ,,solemn1 may be made )\t ^? =malities1 ev5 aga9/ private p]sons1 & by any magi/rate :atev]4 ,& inde$1 consid]+ ! ?+ )\t respect to ! civil law1 e magi/rate1 9 case ( resi/ance1 seems to h a "r to take up arms1 to ma9ta9 8 au?ority 9 ! execution ( 8 (fice2 z well z to def5d ! p committ$ to 8 protection4 ,b z a :ole /ate is by w> involv$ 9 dang]1 x is an e/abli%$ law 9 almo/ all nations t no w> c be made b by ! au?ority ( ! sov]eign 9 ea* /ate4 ,!re is su* a law z ?is 9 ! la/ book ( ,plato ,,on ,,laws4 ,& by ! ,roman law1 to make w>1 or levy troops )\t a commission f ! ,pr9ce 0 high treason4 ,accord+ to ! ,cornelian law also1 enact$ by ,lucius ,cornelius ,sylla1 to d s )\t au?ority f ! p am\nt$ to ! same crime4 ,9 ! code ( ,ju/9ian !re is a con/itution1 made by ,val5t9ian & ,val5s1 t no "o %\ld be> arms )\t _! k & au?ority4 ,con=mably to ?is rule1 ,/4 ,augu/9 says1 t z peace is mo/ agreeable to ! natural /ate ( man1 x is prop] t ,pr9ces %\ld h ! sole au?ority to devise & execute ! op]ations ( w>4 ,yet ?is g5]al rule1 l all o!rs1 9 its application mu/ always be limit$ by equity & discretion4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ?is au?ority may be communicat$ to o!rs4 ,= x is a po9t settl$ beyond all d\bt t subord9ate magi/rates may1 by _! (fic]s1 r$uce a few disob$i5t & tumultu\s p]sons to subjection1 provid$1 t to d x1 x requires n a =ce ( su* enorm\s magnitude z might endang] ! /ate4 ,aga91 if ! dang] be s imm95t z to all[ ( no "t = an application to ! sov]eign executive p[]1 "h too ! necessity is admitt$ z an exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,lucius ,p9>ius ! ,gov]nor ( ,enna1 a ,sicilian g>rison1 presum+ ^u ?is "r1 ^u receiv+ c]ta9 in=mation t ! inhabitants _h =m$ a conspiracy to revolt to ! ,c>?ag9ians1 put !m all to ! sword1 & by t means sav$ ! place4 ,franciscus ,victoria all[s ! inhabitants ( a t[n to take up arms1 ev5 )\t su* a case ( necessity1 to r$ress _! own wrongs1 :i* ! ,pr9ce neglects to av5ge1 b su* an op9ion is reject$ by o!rs4 ,v4 ,:e!r ! circum/ances1 "u :i* subord9ate magi/rates are au?oris$ to use milit>y =ce1 c prop]ly be call$ public w> or n1 is a matt] ( dispute among legal writ]s1 "s affirm+ & o!rs d5y+ x4 ,if inde$ we call no o!r public w>1 b t :i* is made by magi/]ial au?ority1 !re is no d\bt b t su* suppressions ( tumult are public w>s1 & ^? :o 9 su* cases resi/ ! magi/rate 9 ! execution ( 8 (fice1 incur ! guilt ( rebellion aga9/ sup]iors4 ,b if public w> is tak5 9 ! high] s5se ( ,,=mal w>1 z x und\bt$ly (t5 is2 ^? are n public w>s2 because to entitle !m to ! full rights ( su*1 ! decl>ation ( ! sov]eign p[] & o!r requisites are want+4 ,nor d ! loss ( prop]ty & ! milit>y executions1 to :i* ! (f5d]s are subject1 at all affect ! "q4#ab ,= ^? casualties are n s peculi>ly atta*$ to =mal w>1 z to be exclud$ f all o!r k9ds4 ,= x may happ51 z 9 an ext5sive empire = in/ance1 t p]sons 9 subord9ate au?ority1 may1 :5 attack$1 or ?reat5$ ) attack1 h p[]s grant$ to comm5ce milit>y op]ations4 ,9 :i* case ! w> mu/ be suppos$ to comm5ce by ! au?ority ( ! sov]eign p[]2 z a p]son is consid]$ to be ! au?or ( a measure :i* by virtue ( 8 au?ority he emp[]s ano!r to p]=m4 ,! m d\btful po9t is1 :e!r1 :]e !re is no su* commission1 a conjecture ( :at is ! w ( ! sov]eign p[] be suffici5t4 ,?is seems n admissible4 ,= x is n suffici5t to consid]1 :at we suppose w\ld be ! ,sov]eign's pleasure1 if he 7 consult$2 b :at w\ld be 8 actual w1 9 matt]s admitt+ ( "t = delib]ation1 ev5 ?\gh he 7 n =mally consult$2 if a law 0 to be pass$ ^u ^? matt]s4 ,= ?\gh ,,"u ,,"s ,,p>ticul> ,,circum/ances1 x may be necess>y to waive consult+ ! w ( ! sov]eign1 yet ?is w\ld by no means au?orise x z a ,,g5]al ,,practice4 ,= ! safety ( ! /ate w\ld be endang]$1 if subord9ate p[]s %\ld usurp ! "r ( mak+ w> at _! discretion4 ,x 0 n )\t reason1 t ,cneus ,manlius 0 accus$ by 8 ,lieut5ants ( hav+ made w> ^u ! ,galatians )\t au?ority f ! ,roman p4 ,= ?\gh ! ,galatians _h suppli$ ,antio*us ) troops1 yet z peace _h be5 made ) him1 x re/$ ) ! ,roman p1 & n ) ,manlius to det]m9e 9 :at mann] ! ,galatians %\ld be puni%$ = assi/+ an enemy4 ,cato propos$ t ,julius ,caes> %\ld be deliv]$ up to ! ,g]mans = hav+ attack$ !m 9 violation ( 8 promise1 a proposal proce$+ r f ! desire to be rid ( a =midable rival1 ?an f any pr9ciple ( ju/ice4 ,! case 0 ?us2 ! ,g]mans _h assi/$ ! ,gauls1 enemies ( ! ,roman p1 !re=e !y _h no reason to compla9 ( ! injury done to !m1 if ! w> aga9/ ! ,gauls1 9 :i* !y _h made !mselves a p>ty conc]n$1 0 j4 ,b ,caes> ought to h cont5t$ himself ) driv+ ! ,g]mans out ( ,gaul1 ! prov9ce assign$ him1 )\t pursu+ !m into _! own c\ntry1 especially z !re 0 no f>!r dang] to be appreh5d$ f !m2 unless he _h fir/ consult$ ! ,roman p4 ,x 0 pla91 !n1 ! ,g]mans _h no "r to dem& ! surr5d] ( ,caes>'s p]son1 ?\gh ! ,romans _h a "r to puni% him = hav+ exce$$ 8 commission4 ,on a simil> occasion ! ,c>?ag9ians answ]$ ! ,romans2 ,x is n ! subject ( inquiry :e!r ,hannibal has besieg$ ,saguntum1 by 8 own private or by public au?ority1 b :e!r ju/ly or unju/ly4 ,= ) respect to "o ( our own subjects x is our bus9ess to inquire by :at au?ority he has act$2 b ! matt] ( discussion ) y is1 :e!r he has brok5 any treaty4 ,cic]o def5ds ! conduct ( ,octavius & ,decimus ,brutus1 :o _h tak5 up arms aga9/ ,antony4 ,b ?\gh x 0 evid5t t ,antony des]v$ to be treat$ z an enemy1 yet !y ought to h wait$ = ! det]m9ation ( ! ,s5ate & p ( ,rome1 :e!r x 7 = ! public int]e/ n to take notice ( 8 conduct or to puni% x1 to agree to t]ms ( peace ) him1 or to h rec\rse to arms4 ,?is w\ld h be5 prop]2 = no "o is oblig$ to ex]cise ! "r ( puni%+ an enemy1 if x is att5d$ ) probable dang]4 ,b ev5 if x _h be5 judg$ exp$i5t to decl>e ,antony an enemy1 ! *oice ( ! p]sons to conduct ! w> %\ld h be5 left to ! ,s5ate & p ( ,rome4 ,?us :5 ,cassius dem&$ assi/ance ( ! ,rhodians1 accord+ to treaty1 !y answ]$ !y w\ld s5d x1 if ! s5ate ?\ght prop]4 ,?is refutation ( ,cic]o's op9ion w s]ve1 along ) _m o!r in/ances to be met )2 z an admonition n to be c>ri$ away by ! op9ions ( ! mo/ celebrat$ writ]s1 p>ticul>ly ! mo/ brilliant orators1 :o (t5 speak to suit ! circum/ances ( ! mom5t4 ,b all political inve/igation requires a cool & /eady judgm5t1 n to be bias$ by examples1 :i* may r be excus$ ?an v9dicat$4 ,s9ce !n x has already be5 e/abli%$ t no w> c lawfully be made b by ! sov]eign p[] ( ea* /ate1 9 respect to all ! que/ions connect$ ) w>1 x w be necess>y to exam9e :at t sov]eign p[] is1 & :o are ! p]sons t hold x4 ,,vi4 ,! moral p[] !n ( gov]n+ a /ate1 :i* is call$ by ,?ucydides ! civil p[]1 is describ$ z consi/+ ( ?ree p>ts :i* =m ! necess>y sub/ance ( e /ate2 & ^? are ! "r ( mak+ its own laws1 execut+ !m 9 its own mann]1 & appo9t+ its own magi/rates4 ,ari/otle1 9 ! f\r? book ( 8 ,politics1 comprises ! sov]eignty ( a /ate 9 ! ex]cise ( ! delib]ative1 executive1 & judicial p[]s4 ,to ! delib]ative bran* he assigns ! "r ( decid+ ^u peace or w>1 mak+ or annull+ treaties1 & fram+ & pass+ new laws4 ,to ^! he adds ! p[] ( inflict+ dea?1 bani%m5t1 & =feiture1 & ( puni%+ also = public peculation4 ,9 ! ex]cise ( judicial p[]1 he includes n only ! puni%m5t ( crimes & misdemeanors1 b ! r$ress ( civil injuries4#ac ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 po9ts out ?ree di/+ui%+ m>ks ( sov]eign p[]2 & ^? are1 ! "r ( appo9t+ magi/rates1 ! "r ( enact+ & repeal+ laws1 & ! "r ( mak+ w> & peace4 ,to :i*1 9 ano!r "p1 he adds ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ! supreme au?ority 9 matt]s ( religion1 & ! "r ( call+ g5]al c\ncils4 ,a true def9ition compreh5ds e possible bran* ( au?ority t c gr[ out ( ! possession & ex]cise ( sov]eign p[]4 ,= ! rul] ( e /ate mu/ ex]cise 8 au?ority ei!r 9 p]son1 or ?r\gh ! m$ium ( o!rs4 ,8 own p]sonal acts mu/ be ei!r g5]al or special4 ,he may be said to d ,,g5]al acts 9 pass+ or repeal+ laws1 respect+ ei!r temporal matt]s1 or spiritual conc]ns1 z f> z ! latt] relate to ! welf>e ( ! /ate4 ,! k ( ^! pr9ciples is call$ by ,ari/otle ! ma/]piece 9 ! sci5ce ( gov]nm5t4 ,! p>ticul> acts ( ! ,sov]eign are ei!r directly ( a public nature1 or a private1 b ev5 ! latt] be> ref]5ce to 8 public capacity4 ,n[ ! acts ( ! sov]eign executive p[] ( a directly public k9d are ! mak+ ( peace & w> & treaties1 & ! imposition ( taxes1 & o!r simil> ex]cises ( au?ority ov] ! p]sons & prop]ty ( its subjects1 :i* con/itute ! sov]eignty ( ! /ate4 ,ari/otle calls ! k ( ?is practice political & delib]ative sci5ce4 ,! private acts ( ! sov]eign are ^?1 9 :i* by 8 au?ority1 disputes betwe5 individuals are decid$1 z x is conducive to ! peace ( society t ^! %\ld be settl$4 ,?is is call$ by ,ari/otle ! judicial p[]4 ,?us ! acts ( ! sov]eign are done 9 8 "n by 8 magi/rates or o!r (fic]s1 among :om ambassadors are reckon$4 ,& 9 ! ex]cise ( all ^? rights sov]eign p[] consi/s4 ,,vii4 ,t p[] is call$ sov]eign1 ^: actions are n subject to ! contr\l ( any o!r p[]1 s z to be annull$ at ! pleasure ( any o!r human w4 ,! t]m ,,any ,,o!r ,,human ,,w exempts ! sov]eign himself f ?is re/riction1 :o may annul 8 own acts1 z may also 8 successor1 :o enjoys ! same "r1 hav+ ! same p[] & no o!r4 ,we are to consid] !n :at is ! subject 9 :i* ?is sov]eign p[] exi/s4 ,n[ ! subject is 9 "o respect common1 & 9 ano!r prop]1 z ! body is ! common subject ( sight1 ! eye ! prop]1 s ! common subject ( sov]eign p[] is ! /ate1 :i* has already be5 said to be a p]fect society ( m54 ,n[ ^? nations1 :o are 9 a /ate ( subjugation to ano!r p[]1 z ! ,roman prov9ces 71 are exclud$ f ?is def9ition4 ,= ^? nations are n sov]eign /ates ( !mselves1 9 ! pres5t acceptation ( ! ^w2 b are subord9ate memb]s ( a great /ate1 z slaves are memb]s ( a h\sehold4 ,aga9 x happ5s t _m /ates1 =m+ ea* an indep5d5t body1 may h "o head4 ,= political are n l natural bodies1 to only "o ( :i* ! same head c belong4 ,:]eas 9 ! =m]1 "o p]son c ex]cise ! function ( ! head to _m di/9ct bodies4 ,z a c]ta9 pro( ( :i*1 :5 ! reign+ h\se has become ext9ct1 ! sov]eign p[] returns to ! h&s ( ! nation4 ,s x may happ51 t _m /ates may be connect$ toge!r by ! close/ f$]al union1 :i* ,/rabo1 9 m places ?an "o calls a sy/em1 & yet ea* reta9 ! condition ( a p]fect1 individual /ate1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ by ,ari/otle & o!rs 9 diff]5t p>ts ( _! writ+s4 ,!re=e ! common subject ( sov]eign p[] is ! /ate1 tak5 9 ! s5se already expla9$4 ,! prop] subject is "o or m p]sons accord+ to ! laws & cu/oms ( ea* nation4 ,?is is call$ by ,gal5 9 ! six? book ,,de ,,placitis ,,hippocrate ,,et ,,platonis1 ! fir/ p[] ( ! /ate4 ,,viii4 ,& "h is ! prop] place = refut+ ! op9ion ( ^?1 :o ma9ta9 t1 ev]y:]e & )\t exception1 ! sov]eign p[] is ve/$ 9 ! p1 s t !y h a "r to re/ra9 & puni% k+s = an abuse ( _! p[]4 ,h[ev] !re is no man ( sob] wisdom1 :o does n see ! incalculable mis*iefs1 :i* su* op9ions h occasion$1 & may /ill occasion2 & ^u ! foll[+ gr\nds !y may be refut$4 ,f ! ,jewi%1 z well z ! ,roman ,law1 x appe>s t any "o might engage himself 9 private s]vitude to :om he pleas$4 ,n[ if an individual may d s1 :y may n a :ole p1 = ! b5efit ( bett] gov]nm5t & m c]ta9 protection1 completely transf] _! sov]eign rights to "o or m p]sons1 )\t res]v+ any portion to !mselves8 ,nei!r c x be alleg$ t su* a ?+ is n to be presum$1 = ! "q is n1 :at is to be presum$ 9 a d\btful case1 b :at may lawfully be done4 ,nor is x any m to ! purpose to object to ! inconv5i5ces1 :i* may1 & actually d arise f a p's ?us surr5d]+ _! rights4 ,= x is n 9 ! p[] ( man to devise any =m ( gov]nm5t free f imp]fections & dang]s4 ,z a dramatic writ] says1 y mu/ ei!r take ^! advantages ) ^? imp]fections1 or resign y\r pret5sions to bo?4 ,n[ z !re are diff]5t ways ( liv+1 "s ( a worse1 & "s ( a bett] k9d1 left to ! *oice ( e individual2 s a nation1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 ,,:5 = in/ance1 ! succession to ! ?rone is ext9ct1 or ! ?rone has by any o!r means become vacant1 may *use :at =m ( gov]nm5t %e pleases4 ,nor is ?is "r to be measur$ by ! excell5ce ( ?is or t =m ( gov]nm5t1 on :i* !re may be v>ieties ( op9ion1 b by ! w ( ! p4 ,!re may be _m reasons inde$ :y a p may entirely rel9qui% _! rights1 & surr5d] !m to ano!r3 = in/ance1 !y may h no o!r means ( secur+ !mselves f ! dang] ( imm$iate de/ruction1 or "u ! pressure ( fam9e x may be ! only way1 ?r\gh :i* !y c procure support4 ,= if ! ,campanians1 =m]ly1 :5 r$uc$ by necessity surr5d]$ !mselves to ! ,roman p 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3--,s5ators ( ,rome1 we consign to y\r dom9ion ! p ( ,campania1 & ! city ( ,capua1 our l&s1 our temples1 & all ?+s bo? div9e & human1 & if ano!r p z ,appian relates1 (f]$ to submit to ! ,romans1 & 7 refus$1 :at is !re to prev5t any nation f submitt+ 9 ! same mann] to "o p[]ful sov]eign8 ,x may also happ5 t a ma/] ( a family1 hav+ l>ge possessions1 w suff] no "o to reside ^u !m on any o!r t]ms1 or an own]1 hav+ _m slaves1 may give !m _! lib]ty ^u condition ( _! do+ c]ta9 s]vices1 & pay+ c]ta9 r5ts2 ( :i* examples may be produc$4 ,?us ,tacitus1 speak+ ( ! ,g]man slaves1 says1 ,ea* has 8 own sep>ate habitation1 & 8 own h\sehold to gov]n4 ,! ma/] consid]s him z a t5ant1 b\nd to pay a c]ta9 r5t 9 corn1 cattle1 & we>+ app>el4 ,& ?is is ! utmo/ ext5t ( s]vitude4 ,ari/otle1 9 describ+ ! requisites1 :i* fit m5 = s]vitude1 says1 t ^? m51 ^: p[]s are *iefly conf9$ to ! body1 & ^: pr9cipal excell5ce consi/s 9 af=d+ bodily s]vice1 are naturally slaves1 because x is _! int]e/ to be s4 ,9 ! same mann] "s nations are ( su* a disposition t !y are m calculat$ to obey ?an to gov]n1 :i* seems to h be5 ! op9ion :i* ! ,cappadocians held ( !mselves1 :o :5 ! ,romans (f]$ !m a popul> gov]nm5t1 refus$ to accept x1 because ! nation !y said c\ld n exi/ 9 safety )\t a k+4 ,?us ,philo/ratus 9 ! life ( ,apollonius1 says1 t x 0 fooli% to (f] lib]ty to ! ,?racians1 ! ,mysians1 & ! ,getae1 :i* !y 7 n capable ( enjoy+4 ,! example ( nations1 :o h = _m ages liv$ happily "u a k+ly gov]nm5t1 has induc$ _m to give ! pref]5ce to t =m4 ,livy says1 t ! cities "u ,eum5es w\ld n h *ang$ _! condition = t ( any free /ate :atsoev]4 ,& sometimes a /ate is s situat$1 t x seems impossible x c pres]ve its peace & exi/5ce1 )\t submitt+ to ! absolute gov]nm5t ( a s+le p]son1 :i* _m wise m5 ?\ght to be ! case ) ! ,roman ,republic 9 ! "t ( ,augu/us ,caes>4 ,f ^!1 & causes l ^! x n only may1 b g5]ally does happ51 t m51 z ,cic]o obs]ves 9 ! second book ( 8 (fices1 will+ly submit to ! supreme au?ority ( ano!r4 ,n[ z prop]ty may be acquir$ by :at has be5 already /yl$ j w>1 by ! same means ! rights ( sov]eignty may be acquir$4 ,nor is ! t]m sov]eignty "h meant to be appli$ to mon>*y alone1 b to gov]nm5t by nobles1 f any %>e 9 :i* ! p are exclud$4 ,= !re nev] 0 any gov]nm5t s purely popul>1 z n to require ! exclusion ( ! poor1 ( /rang]s1 wom51 & m9ors f ! public c\ncils4 ,"s /ates h o!r nations "u !m1 no less dep5d5t ^u _! w1 ?an subjects ^u t ( _! sov]eign pr9ces4 ,f :5ce arose t "q1 ,are ! ,collat9e p 9 _! own p[]8 ,& ! ,campanians1 :5 !y submitt$ to ! ,romans1 are said to h pass$ "u a =eign dom9ion4 ,9 ! same mann] ,ac>nania & ,amphilo*ia are said to h be5 "u ! dom9ion ( ! ,aetolians2 ,p]aea & ,caunus "u t ( ! ,rhodians2 & ,pydna 0 c$$ by ,philip to ! ,olyn?ians4 ,& ^? t[ns1 t _h be5 "u ! ,sp>tans1 :5 !y 7 deliv]$ f _! dom9ion1 receiv$ ! "n ( ! free ,laconians4 ,! city ( ,cotyora is said by ,x5ophon to h belong$ to ! p ( ,s9ope4 ,nice 9 ,italy1 accord+ to ,/rabo1 0 adjudg$ to ! p ( ,m>seilles2 & ! isl& ( ,pi!cusa to ! ,neapolitans4 ,we f9d 9 ,front9us1 t ! t[ns ( ,calati & ,caudium ) _! t]ritories 7 adjudg$1 ! "o to ! colony ( ,capua1 & ! o!r to t ( ,b5ev5tum4 ,o?o1 z ,tacitus relates1 gave ! cities ( ! ,moors to ! ,prov9ce ( ,baetia4 ,none ( ^! in/ances1 any m ?an ! cessions ( o!r conqu]$ c\ntries c\ld be admitt$1 if x 7 a receiv$ rule t ! rights ( sov]eigns are "u ! contr\l & direction ( subjects4 ,n[ x is pla9 bo? f sacr$ & pr(ane hi/ory1 t !re are k+s1 :o are n subject to ! contr\l ( ! p 9 _! collective body2 ,god address+ ! p ( ,israel1 says1 if ?\ %alt say1 ,i w place a k+ ov] me2 & to ,samuel ,%ew !m ! mann] ( ! k+1 :o %all reign ov] !m4 ,h5ce ! ,k+ is said to be ano9t$ ov] ! p1 ov] ! inh]itance ( ! ,"l1 ov] ,israel4 ,solomon is /yl$ ,k+ ov] all ,israel4 ,?us ,david gives ?anks to ,god1 = subdu+ ! p "u him4 ,& ,*ri/ says1 ! ,k+s ( ! nations be> rule ov] !m4 ,!re is a well kn[n passage 9 ,horace1 ,p[]ful sov]eigns reign ov] _! own subjects1 & ! supreme be+ ov] sov]eigns !mselves4 ,s5eca ?us describes ! ?ree =ms ( gov]nm5t1 ,sometimes ! supreme p[] is lodg$ 9 ! p1 sometimes 9 a s5ate compos$ ( ! lead+ m5 ( ! /ate1 sometimes ?is p[] ( ! p1 & dom9ion ov] ! p !mselves is ve/$ 9 a s+le p]son4 ,( ! la/ description are ^?1 :o1 z ,plut>* says1 ex]cise au?ority n accord+ to ! laws1 b ov] ! laws4 ,& 9 ,h]odotus1 ,otanes describes a mon>* z "o ^: acts are n subject to contr\l4 ,dion ,prusae5sis also & ,pausanias def9e a mon>*y 9 ! same t]ms4 ,ari/otle says !re are "s k+s1 :o h ! same "r1 :i* ! nation else:]e possesses ov] p]sons & prop]ty4 ,?us :5 ! ,roman ,pr9ces began to ex]cise regal p[]1 ! p x 0 said _h transf]r$ all _! own p]sonal sov]eignty to !m1 :i* gave rise to ! say+ ( ,m>cus ,anton9us ! ,philosoph]1 t no "o b ,god alone c be judge ( ! ,pr9ce4 ,dion4 ,l4 liii4 speak+ ( su* a pr9ce1 says1 he is p]fectly ma/] ( 8 own actions1 to d :atev] he pleases1 & _c be oblig$ to d any ?+ aga9/ 8 w4 ,su* anci5tly 0 ! p[] ( ! ,ina*idae e/abli%$ at ,argos 9 ,greece4 ,= 9 ! ,greek ,trag$y ( ! ,suppliants1 ,aes*ylus has introduc$ ! p ?us address+ ! ,k+3 ,y are ! /ate1 y ! p2 y ! c\rt f :i* !re is no appeal1 y preside ov] ! alt>s1 & regulate all affairs by y\r supreme w4 ,k+ ,!seus himself 9 ,euripides speaks 9 v diff]5t t]ms ( ! ,a!nian ,republic2 ,! city is n gov]n$ by "o man1 b 9 a popul> =m1 by an annual succession ( magi/rates4 ,= accord+ to ,plut>*'s explanation1 ,!seus 0 ! g5]al 9 w>1 & ! gu>dian ( ! laws2 b 9 o!r respects no?+ m ?an a citiz54 ,s t !y :o are limit$ by popul> contr\l are improp]ly call$ k+s4 ,?us aft] ! "t ( ,lycurgus1 & m p>ticul>ly aft] ! in/itution ( ! ,ephori1 ! ,k+s ( ! ,lac$aemonians are said by ,polybius1 ,plut>*1 & ,cornelius ,nepos1 to h be5 ,k+s m 9 "n ?an 9 reality4 ,an example :i* 0 foll[$ by ! re/ ( ,greece4 ,?us ,pausanias says ( ! ,argives to ! ,cor9?ians1 ,! ,argives f _! love ( equality h r$uc$ _! k+ly p[] v l[2 s t !y h left ! po/]ity ( ,cisus no?+ m ?an ! %ad[ ( ,k+s4 ,ari/otle d5ies su* to be prop] =ms ( gov]nm5t1 because !y con/itute only a "p ( an ,ari/ocracy or ,democracy4 ,examples also may be f\nd ( nations1 :o h n be5 "u a p]petual regal =m1 b only = a "t "u a gov]nm5t exempt f popul> contr\l4 ,su* 0 ! p[] ( ! ,amimonians among ! ,cnidians1 & ( ! ,dictators 9 ! e>ly p]iods ( ! ,roman hi/ory1 :5 !re 0 no appeal to ! p1 f :5ce ,livy says1 ! w ( ! ,dictator 0 obs]v$ z a law4 ,inde$ !y f\nd ?is submission ! only rem$y aga9/ imm95t dang]1 & 9 ! words ( ,cic]o1 ! ,dictator%ip possess$ all ! /r5g? ( royal p[]4 ,x w n be difficult to refute ! argum5ts br\ght 9 fav\r ( ! contr>y op9ion4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place ! ass]tion t ! con/itu5t always reta9s a contr\l ov] ! sov]eign p[]1 :i* he has contribut$ to e/abli%1 is only true 9 ^? cases :]e ! cont9uance & exi/5ce ( t p[] dep5ds ^u ! w & pleasure ( ! con/itu5t3 b n 9 cases :]e ! p[]1 ?\gh x might d]ive its orig9 f t con/itu5t1 becomes a necess>y & fundam5tal "p ( ! e/abli%$ law4 ,( ?is nature is t au?ority to :i* a woman submits :5 %e gives h]self to a husb&4 ,val5t9ian ! ,emp]or1 :5 ! soldi]s :o _h rais$ him to ! ?rone1 made a dem& ( :i* he did n approve1 repli$2 ,soldi]s1 y\r election ( me = y\r emp]or 0 y\r own volunt>y *oice2 b s9ce y h elect$ me1 x dep5ds ^u my pleasure to grant y\r reque/4 ,x becomes y to obey z subjects1 & me to consid] :at is prop] to be done4 ,nor is ! assumption true1 t all k+s are made by ! p1 z may be pla9ly se5 f ! in/ances adduc$ above1 ( an own] admitt+ /rang]s to reside ^u 8 demesnes on condition ( _! ob$i5ce1 & ( nations submitt+ by "r ( conque/4 ,ano!r argum5t is d]iv$ f a say+ ( ! ,philosoph]s1 t all p[] is conf]r$ = ! b5efit ( ! gov]n$ & n ( ! gov]n+ p>ty4 ,h5ce f ! nobl5ess ( ! end1 x is suppos$ to foll[1 t subjects h a sup]iority ov] ! sov]eign4 ,b x is n univ]sally true1 t all p[] is conf]r$ = ! b5efit ( ! p>ty gov]n$4 ,= "s p[]s are conf]r$ = ! sake ( ! gov]nor1 z ! "r ( a ma/] ov] a slave1 9 :i* ! advantage ( ! latt] is only a cont+5t & adv5titi\s circum/ance4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ga9 ( a ,physician is to rew>d him = 8 lab\r2 & n m]ely to promote ! good ( 8 art4 ,!re are o!r k9ds ( au?ority e/abli%$ = ! b5efit ( bo? p>ties1 z = in/ance1 ! au?ority ( a husb& ov] 8 wife4 ,c]ta9 gov]nm5ts also1 z ^? :i* are ga9$ by "r ( conque/1 may be e/abli%$ = ! b5efit ( ! sov]eign2 & yet convey no idea ( tyranny1 a ^w :i* 9 its orig9al signification1 impli$ no?+ ( arbitr>y p[] or inju/ice1 b only ! gov]nm5t or au?ority ( a ,pr9ce4 ,aga91 "s gov]nm5ts may be =m$ = ! advantage bo? ( subjects & sov]eign1 z :5 a p1 unable to def5d !mselves1 put !mselves "u ! protection & dom9ion ( any p[]ful k+4 ,yet x is n to be d5i$1 b t 9 mo/ gov]nm5ts ! good ( ! subject is ! *ief object :i* is reg>d$3 & t :at ,cic]o has said aft] ,h]odotus1 & ,h]odotus aft] ,hesiod1 is true1 t ,k+s 7 appo9t$ 9 ord] t m5 might enjoy complete ju/ice4 ,n[ ?is admission by no means goes to e/abli% ! inf]5ce t k+s are am5able to ! p4 ,= ?\gh gu>dian%ips 7 inv5t$ = ! b5efit ( w>ds1 yet ! gu>dian has a "r to au?ority ov] ! w>d4 ,nor1 ?\gh a gu>dian may = mismanagem5t be remov$ f 8 tru/1 does x foll[ t a k+ may = ! same reason be depos$4 ,! cases are q diff]5t1 ! gu>dian has a sup]ior to judge him2 b 9 gov]nm5ts1 z !re mu/ be "s d]ni] resort1 x mu/ be ve/$ ei!r 9 an individual1 or 9 "s public body1 ^: misconduct1 z !re is no sup]ior tribunal be=e :i* !y c be call$1 ,god decl>es t he himself w judge4 ,he ei!r puni%es _! (f5ces1 %\ld he deem x necess>y2 or p]mits !m = ! *a/isem5t ( 8 p4 ,?is is well express$ by ,tacitus3 he says1 y %\ld be> ) ! rapacity or luxury ( rul]s1 z y w\ld be> ) dr\ght1 or excessive ra9s1 or any o!r calamities ( nature4 ,= z long z m5 exi/ !re w be faults & imp]fections2 b ^! are n ( un9t]rupt$ cont9uance1 & !y are (t5 repair$ by ! succession ( bett] times4 ,& ,m>cus ,aurelius speak+ ( subord9ate magi/rates1 said1 t !y 7 "u ! contr\l ( ! sov]eign3 b t ! sov]eign 0 am5able to ,god4 ,!re is a rem>kable passage 9 ,gregory ( ,t\rs1 :]e t ,bi%op ?us addresses ! ,k+ ( ,france1 ,if any ( u1 ,sir1 %\ld transgress ! b\nds ( ju/ice1 he may be puni%$ by y4 ,b if y exce$ !m1 :o c call y to acc\nt8 ,= :5 we address y1 y may he> u if y please2 b if y w n1 :o c judge y1 except him1 :o has decl>$ himself to be righte\sness8 ,among ! maxims ( ! ,ess5es1 ,porphyry cites a passage1 t no "o c reign )\t ! special appo9tm5t ( div9e provid5ce4 ,ir5aeus has express$ ?is well1 ,k+s are appo9t$ by him at ^: comm& m5 are creat$2 & _! appo9tm5t is suit$ to ! condition ( ^?1 :om !y are call$ to gov]n4 ,!re is ! same ?\ght 9 ! ,con/itutions ( ,clem5t1 ,y %all fe> ! ,k+1 = he is ( ! ,"l's appo9tm5t4 ,nor is x an objection to :at has be5 said1 t "s nations h be5 puni%$ = ! (f5ces ( _! k+s2 = ?is does n happ51 because !y =be> to re/ra9 _! k+s1 b because !y seem to give1 at lea/ a tacit cons5t to _! vices1 or p]haps1 )\t respect to ?is1 ,god may use t sov]eign p[] :i* he has ov] ! life & dea? ( e man to inflict a puni%m5t ^u ! k+ by depriv+ him ( 8 subjects4 ,,ix4 ,!re are "s :o frame an imag9>y k9d ( mutual subjection1 by :i* ! p are b\nd to obey ! k+1 z long z he gov]ns well2 b 8 gov]nm5t is subject to _! inspection & contr\l4 ,if !y 7 to say t 8 duty to ! sov]eign does n oblige any "o to d an act manife/ly unju/ & repugnant to ! law ( ,god2 !y w\ld say no?+ b :at is true & univ]sally admitt$1 b ?is by no means includes a "r to any contr\l ov] ! ,pr9ce's conduct 9 8 lawful gov]nm5t4 ,b if any p _h ! opportunity ( divid+ ! sov]eign p[] ) ! k+1 ! privileges ( ! "o1 & ! pr]ogatives ( ! o!r ought to be def9$ by c]ta9 b\nds1 :i* might easily be kn[n1 accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( places1 p]sons1 or circum/ances4 ,n[ ! suppos$ good or evil ( any act1 especially 9 political matt]s :i* admit ( great v>iety ( op9ions & mu* discussion1 is n a suffici5t m>k to asc]ta9 ^! b\nds4 ,f :5ce ! greate/ confusion mu/ foll[1 if "u pret5ce ( promot+ good or av]t+ evil measures1 ! p might /ruggle = ! ,pr9ce's jurisdiction3 a turbul5t /ate ( affairs1 :i* no sob] m9d$ p ev] wi%$ to exp]i5ce4 ,x4 ,aft] refut+ false op9ions1 x rema9s to apply "s cautions1 :i* may po9t out ! way to asc]ta9 correctly ! p]son to :om sov]eign p[]1 9 e /ate1 ( "r belongs4 ,! fir/ caution necess>y is to avoid be+ deceiv$ by ambigu\s t]ms1 or appe>ances =eign to ! real subject4 ,= in/ance1 among ! ,lat9s1 al?\gh ! t]ms ,,pr9cipality & ,,k+dom are g5]ally oppos$ to ea* o!r1 :5 ,caes> says1 t ! fa!r ( ,v]c+etorix held ! pr9cipality ( ,gaul1 & 0 put to dea? = aim+ at sov]eign p[]2 & :5 ,piso1 9 ,tacitus calls ,g]manicus ! son ( a ,roman ,pr9ce1 n ( a ,p>?ian ,k+2 & :5 ,suetonius says1 t ,caligula 0 on ! po9t ( conv]t+ ! p[] ( a pr9ce into t ( a k+2 & ,velleius ass]ts t ,m>oboduus n cont5t$ ) ! au?ority ( a pr9ce ov] volunt>y adh]5ts & dep5d5ts1 0 grasp+ 9 8 m9d at regal p[]2 yet we f9d ^! t]ms ?\gh 9 reality v di/9ct 7 (t5 conf\nd$4 ,= ! ,lac$aemonian *iefs1 ! desc5dants ( ,h]cules1 ?\gh subject to ! contr\l ( ! ,ephori1 7 nev]!less call$ k+s3 & ,tacitus says1 t among ! anci5t ,g]mans !re 7 k+s1 :o gov]n$ m by ! influ5ce ( p]suasion ?an by ! au?ority ( p[]4 ,livy too1 speak+ ( k+ ,ev&]1 describes him z reign+ m by p]sonal au?ority ?an by 8 regal p[]2 & ,ari/otle1 ,polybius1 & ,diodorus give ! names ( ,k+s to ! ,suffetes or ,judges ( ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,9 ! same mann] ,sol9us also calls ,hanno ,k+ ( ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,/rabo speaks ( ,scepsis 9 ,troas1 t hav+ incorporat$ ! ,milesians into ! /ate1 x =m$ itself into a ,democracy1 leav+ ! desc5dants ( ! anci5t k+s ! title1 & some?+ ( ! dignity ( k+s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,roman emp]ors1 aft] !y _h ex]cis$ op5ly1 & )\t any disguise1 a mo/ absolute mon>*ical p[]1 7 not)/&+ call$ ,pr9ces4 ,& 9 "s popul> /ates ! *ief magi/rates are grac$ ) ensigns ( royalty4 ,aga9 ! /ates g5]al1 t is ! conv5tion ( ^? :o repres5t ! p1 divid$ into classes accord+ to ,gun!r1 consi/ ( ?ree ord]s1 :i* are ! ,prelates1 ! ,nobles1 & ,deputies ( l>ge t[ns4 ,9 "s places1 !y s]ve z a great] c\ncil to ! k+1 to communicate to him ! compla9ts ( 8 p1 :i* might o!rwise be kept f 8 e>s2 leav+ him at ! same "t full lib]ty to ex]cise 8 own discretion ^u ! matt]s s communicat$4 ,b 9 o!r places !y =m a body ) p[] to inquire into ! pr9ce's measures1 & to make laws4 ,_m ?9k t 9 ord] to "k :e!r a pr9ce be sov]eign or n1 x is prop] to inquire :e!r 8 title to ! cr[n is by election or inh]itance4 ,= !y ma9ta9 t h]$it>y mon>*ies alone are sov]eign4 ,b ?is _c be receiv$ z a g5]al crit]ion4 ,= sov]eignty consi/s n m]ely 9 ! ,,title to ! ?rone1 :i* only implies t ! successor has a "r to all ! privileges & pr]ogatives t 8 ance/ors enjoy$1 b x by no means affects ! nature or ext5t ( 8 p[]s4 ,= "r ( election conveys all ! p[]s1 :i* ! fir/ election or appo9tm5t conf]r$4 ,among ! ,lac$aemonians ! cr[n 0 h]$it>y ev5 aft] ! in/itution ( ! ,ephori4 ,& ,ari/otle describ+ ! *ief p[] ( su* a /ate1 says1 ,( ^! k+doms1 "s are h]$it>y1 & o!rs elective4 ,9 ! h]oic times mo/ ( ! k+doms 9 ,greece 7 ( ?is description1 z we are in=m$ by ,?ucydides4 ,! ,roman empire1 on ! contr>y1 ev5 aft] ! p[] ( ! ,s5ate & p 0 aboli%$1 0 giv5 or confirm$ by election4 ,,xi4 ,ano!r caution is necess>y4 ,= to inquire into ! matt] ( a "r is n ! same ?+ z to exam9e ! nature ( its t5ure4 ,a di/9ction :i* takes place n only 9 corporeal b 9 incorporeal possessions4 ,= a "r ( passage or c>riage ?r\gh a gr\nd is no less a "r ?an t :i* entitles a man to ! possession ( ! l& itself4 ,n[ "s hold ^! privileges by a full "r ( prop]ty1 "s by an usufructu>y1 & o!rs by a tempor>y "r4 ,?us ! ,roman ,dictator _h sov]eign p[] by a tempor>y "r4 ,9 ! same mann] k+s1 bo? ^? :o are ! fir/ ( _! l9e elect$ to ! ?rone1 & ^? :o succe$ !m 9 ! lawful ord]1 enjoy an usufructu>y "r1 or inali5able "r4 ,b "s sov]eigns hold _! p[] by a pl5>y "r ( prop]ty2 :5 = in/ance x comes into _! possession by ! "r ( lawful conque/1 or :5 a p1 to avoid great] evils1 make an unqualifi$ surr5d] ( !mselves & _! rights into _! h&s4 ,! op9ion ( ^? c nev] be ass5t$ to1 :o say t ! p[] ( ! ,dictator 0 n sov]eign1 because x 0 n p]man5t4 ,= 9 ! moral _w ! nature ( ?+s is kn[n f _! op]ations4 ,! p[]s att5d$ ) equal effects are entitl$ to equal names4 ,n[ ! ,dictator = ! "t be+ p]=m$ all acts ) ! same au?ority z ! mo/ absolute sov]eign2 nor c\ld any o!r p[] annul 8 acts4 ,! p]man5ce !re=e ( unc]ta9ty alt]s n ! nature ( a "r1 al?\gh x w\ld und\bt$ly abridge its dignity1 & dim9i% its spl5d\r4#ad ,,book ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,def5ce ,,( ,,p]son ,,& ,,prop]ty4 ,causes ( ,w>--,def5ce ( p]son & prop]ty--,:at are call$ ju/ifiable causes ( w>--,ju/ifiable causes ( ,w> are ,def5ce1 recov]y ( "o's prop]ty or debt1 or ! puni%m5t ( (f5ces committ$--,w> = def5ce ( life1 ju/ifiable1 & lawful--,?is k9d ( w> lawful aga9/ an aggressor only--,! dang] mu/ be pres5t & real1 n an imag9>y dang]--,lawful to kill any "o attempt+ to maim "o's p]son1 or violate "o's *a/ity--,occasions :]e ?is "r may be lawfully wav$--,?is "r to be wav$ p>ticul>ly ) respect to ! p]son ( ! ,sov]eign1 :i* is sacr$ & inviolable--,homicide 9 def5ce ( "o's prop]ty all[$ by ! law ( nature--,h[ f> homicide is p]mitt$ by ! law ( ,moses--,self-def5ce 9 public w>--,n lawful to attack any p[] solely on acc\nt ( its increas+ greatness--,! ho/ile measures ( an aggressor1 n to be ju/ifi$ on ! plea ( self-def5ce4 ,i4 ,! causes ( w> by :i* are meant ! ju/ifiable causes1 are n[ to be consid]$4 ,= 9 "s cases motives ( int]e/ op]ate di/9ctly f motives ( ju/ice4 ,polybius accurately di/+ui%es ^! motives f ea* o!r1 & f ! beg9n+ ( ! w>1 or t :i* gave occasion to ! fir/ acts ( ho/ility2 z 0 ! case :5 ,ascanius w\nd$ ! /ag1 :i* gave rise to ! w> betwe5 ,turnus & ,a5eas4 ,b ?\gh !re is an actual di/9ction betwe5 ! ju/ifiable causes1 ! pretexts1 & ! beg9n+ ( w>2 yet ! t]ms us$ to express !m are (t5 conf\nd$4 ,= :at we call ju/ifiable causes1 ,livy1 9 ! spee* :i* he has put into ! m\? ( ! ,rhodians1 calls beg9n+s4 ,! ,rhodian deputies said1 ,y ,romans pr(ess to believe t y\r w>s are successful1 because !y are j2 nor d y boa/ s mu* ( _! victori\s issue1 z ( ! j pr9ciples1 ^u :i* y make !m4 ,9 :i* s5se ,aelian /yles !m ar*as polemn & ,diodorus ,siculus1 9 speak+ ( ! w> ( ! ,lac$aemonians aga9/ ! ,eleans gives !m ! "n ( prophaseis & ar*as4 ,! pr9cipal drift ( our argum5t re/s ^u ^! ju/ifiable causes1 to :i* ! s5tim5t ( ,coriolanus 9 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 p>ticul>ly applies1 he says1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i besee* y to consid] h[ y may f9d pi\s & j pretexts = ! w>4 ,& ,demo/h5es 9 8 second ,olyn?iac1 makes a simil> obs]vation1 ,i ?9k1 says he1 t z 9 a %ip1 or h\se1 or any o!r fabric1 ! l[e/ p>ts ought to be ! /ronge/2 s 9 all political measures ! motives & pretexts ought to be laid deeply 9 ! pr9ciples ( tru? & ju/ice4 ,! foll[+ language ( ,dion ,cassius is no less applicable to ! "q4 ,ju/ice mu/ be made ! pr9cipal gr\nd ( our actions4 ,= ) su* support !re is ! be/ hope ( success to our arms4 ,b )\t t1 any po9t :i* may be ga9$ = ! mom5t has no firm gr\nd to re/ ^u4 ,to :i* may be add$1 ! words ( ,cic]o1 :o ma9ta9s ^? w>s to be unju/1 :i* are made )\t suffici5t cause4 ,& 9 ano!r place1 he reproves ,crassus = hav+ int5d$ to pass ! ,euphrates1 :5 !re 0 no cause ( w>4 ,:i* is no less true ( public ?an ( private w>s4 ,h5ce come ! compla9ts ( ,s5eca1 ,:y d we re/ra9 homicide1 & ! murd] ( individuals1 b glory 9 ! crime ( slaught]1 :i* de/roys :ole nations8 ,av>ice & cruelty "k n any b\nds4 ,by decrees ( ! ,s5ate1 & ( ! p cruel acts are au?oriz$1 & measures1 :i* are pursu$ by ord] ( ! /ate1 are =bidd5 to individuals4 ,w>s inde$ und]tak5 by public au?ority are att5d$ ) c]ta9 effects ( "r1 & h ! sanction ( op9ion 9 _! fav\r4 ,b !y are n ! less crim9al1 :5 made )\t j cause4 ,= :i* reason ,alex&] 0 n improp]ly /yl$ a robb] by ! ,scy?ian ambassadors1 z may be se5 9 ,qu9tus ,curtius4 ,s5eca & ,lucan give him ! same appellation2 ! ,indian sages call him a madman2 & a pirate once presum$ to rank him ) 8 own class4 ,ju/9 speaks ( ,philip 9 ! same t]ms1 :o1 says he1 9 decid+ a dispute betwe5 two rival k+s1 /ripp$ bo? ( _! dom9ions ) all ! trea*]y & viol5ce ( a robb]4 ,augu/9 has a p]t95t rem>k on ?is subject4 ,he says1 :at are unju/ly acquir$ dom9ions1 b ! spoils ( robb]y8 ,9 ! same /ra91 ,lactantius says1 ,m51 captivat$ ) ! appe>ances ( va9 glory1 give ! names ( virtues to _! crimes4 ,injury1 or ! prev5tion ( injury =ms ! only ju/ifiable cause ( w>4 ,&1 9 ! language ( ! same ,augu/91 all ! evil consequ5ces ( w> are to be laid at ! door ( ! aggressor4 ,?us ! ,roman ,h]ald 9 a decl>ation ( w> makes a solemn appeal aga9/ ! aggressor1 z hav+ violat$ ! laws ( nations1 & refus$ prop] satisfaction4 ,,ii4 ,! gr\nds ( w> are z num]\s z ^? ( judicial actions4 ,= :]e ! p[] ( law ceases1 !re w> beg9s4 ,n[ !re are me?ods 9 law to prev5t int5d$ injuries1 z well z actions = ^? actually committ$4 ,= ,,civil ,,injuries v>i\s me?ods ( r$ress1 or prev5tion are appo9t$ by ! law2 & by ! same p[] securities are provid$ to prev5t ! commission ( crimes & misdemeanors4 ,9 civil cases1 ! p>ty aggriev$ may recov] damages = ! injuries su/a9$2 & 9 crimes1 :i* are (f5ces aga9/ ! public1 ! aggressor mu/ submit to actual puni%m5t4 ,plato1 9 8 n9? book on laws1 v prop]ly makes ! same di/9ction1 z ,hom] _h done be=e him4 ,n[ rep>ation or indemnity relates to :at ei!r does or did belong to u2 :i* gives rise to real & p]sonal actions4 ,^! asc]ta9 our "r to ! damages1 :i* are our due1 ei!r f an agreem5t1 or f an injury receiv$4 ,a "r :i* is t]m$ 9 law a "r by contract1 or injury4 ,crimes1 :i* are (f5ces aga9/ society1 are prosecut$ by indictm5t1 t is by an accusation 9 ! "n ( ! sov]eign4 ,! ju/ifiable causes g5]ally assign$ = w> are ?ree1 def5ce1 indemnity1 & puni%m5t1 all :i* are compris$ 9 ! decl>ation ( ,camillus aga9/ ! ,gauls1 enum]at+ all ?+s1 :i* x is "r to def5d1 to recov]1 & ! encroa*m5t on :i* x is "r to puni%4 ,!re is an omission 9 ?is enum]ation1 unless ! ^w recov] be tak5 9 its mo/ ext5sive s5se4 ,= recov]+ by w> :at we h lo/1 includes indemnity = ! pa/1 z well z ! prosecution ( our claim to a debt4 ,plato has n omitt$ to notice ?is di/9ction1 = he has said1 t w>s are made to puni% n only oppression or robb]y1 b also fraud & deception4 ,) :om ,s5eca agrees2 = to comm& paym5t ( :at y owe1 he calls1 an equitable s5t5ce1 /amp$ ) ! au?ority ( ! law ( nations4 ,inde$ ! =m :i* 0 prescrib$ = ! ,roman h]alds to use 9 decl>ations ( w>1 be>s exactly ! same import4 ,= !re9 ! aggressor is *>g$ ) hav+ nei!r giv51 paid1 nor done :at 0 due4 ,sallu/ 9 "o ( 8 fragm5ts1 has made a ,tribune1 9 8 h>angue to ! p1 say1 ,z a f9al settlem5t ( all discussions1 ,i dem& re/itution accord+ to ! law ( nations4 ,/4 ,augu/91 9 def9+ ^? to be j w>s1 :i* are made to av5ge injuries has tak5 ! ^w av5ge 9 a g5]al s5se ( remov+ & prev5t+1 z well z puni%+ aggressions4 ,?is appe>s to be 8 mean+ f ! foll[+ s5t5ce ( ! passage1 9 :i* he does n enum]ate ! p>ticul> acts1 :i* am\nt to injury1 b adds1 by way ( illu/ration1 t ! /ate or nation1 :i* has neglect$ to puni% ! aggressions ( its own subjects1 or to make rep>ation = ! losses occasion$ by ^? aggressions1 is a prop] object ( ho/ility & attack4 ,prompt$ by ?is natural k ( "r & wrong1 ! ,indian ,k+1 z we are in=m$ by ,diodorus1 accus$ ,semiramis ( hav+ comm5c$ w> aga9/ him )\t hav+ receiv$ any injury4 ,?us ! ,romans expo/ulat$ ) ! ,s5ones1 t !y ought n to attack a p :o _h giv5 !m no provocation4 ,ari/otle 9 ! second book & second *apt] ( 8 ,analytics1 says1 w> g5]ally is made ^u ^? :o h fir/ done an injury4 ,qu9tus ,curtius describes ! ,abian ,scy?ians1 z ! be/ acqua9t$ ) ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice ( any ( ! ,b>b>ians4 ,= !y decl9$ hav+ rec\rse to arms1 unless provok$ by aggression4 ,a j cause !n ( w> is an injury1 :i* ?\gh n actually committ$1 ?reat5s our p]sons or prop]ty ) dang]4 ,,iii4 ,x has already be5 prov$ t :5 our lives are ?reat5$ ) imm$iate dang]1 x is lawful to kill ! aggressor1 if ! dang] _c o!rwise be avoid$3 an in/ance1 z x has be5 %ewn1 on :i* ! ju/ice ( private w> re/s4 ,we mu/ obs]ve t ?is k9d ( def5ce d]ives its orig9 f ! pr9ciple ( self-pres]vation1 :i* nature has giv5 to e liv+ creature1 & n f ! inju/ice or misconduct ( ! aggressor4 ,:]e=e ?\gh he may be cle> ( guilt1 z = in/ance a soldi] 9 actual s]vice1 mi/ak+ my p]son = t ( ano!r1 or a madman 9 8 fr5zy1 or a man walk+ 9 8 sleep1 none ( ^! cases deprive me ( ! "r ( self-def5ce aga9/ ^? p]sons4 ,= ,i am n b\nd to submit to ! dang] or mis*ief int5d$1 any m ?an to expose myself to ! attacks ( a wild bea/4 ,,iv4 ,x admits ( "s d\bt1 :e!r ^?1 :o un9t5tionally ob/ruct our def5ce1 or escape1 :i* are necess>y to our pres]vation1 may be lawfully maim$ or kill$4 ,!re are "s1 ev5 ,!ologians1 :o ?9k !y may4 ,&1 c]ta9ly if we look to ! law ( nature alone1 accord+ to its pr9ciples1 our own pres]vation %\ld h mu* m weight ) u1 ?an ! welf>e ( society4 ,b ! law ( *>ity1 especially ! evangelical law1 :i* has put our neighb\r ^u a level ) ourselves1 does n p]mit x4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 if tak5 9 a "r s5se1 has ju/ly obs]v$1 t 9 actual self-def5ce no man c be said to be purposely kill$4 ,inde$1 x may "s times happ5 t !re is no o!r way = a p]son to save himself1 ?an by design$ly do+ an act1 by :i* ! dea? ( an aggressor mu/ inevitably ensue4 ,yet "h ! dea? ( any "o 0 n ! prim>y object int5d$1 b employ$ z ! only means ( security1 :i* ! mom5t suppli$4 ,/ill x is bett] = ! p>ty assault$1 if he c safely d x1 to repel or disable ! aggressor ?an to %$ 8 blood4 ,v4 ,! dang] mu/ be imm$iate1 :i* is "o necess>y po9t4 ,?\gh x mu/ be confess$1 t :5 an assailant seizes any weapon ) an app>5t int5tion to kill me ,i h a "r to anticipate & prev5t ! dang]4 ,= 9 ! moral z well z ! natural sy/em ( ?+s1 !re is no po9t )\t "s bread?4 ,b !y are !mselves mu* mi/ak51 & mislead o!rs1 :o ma9ta9 t any degree ( fe> ought to be a gr\nd = kill+ ano!r1 to prev5t 8 ,,suppos$ int5tion4 ,x is a v j obs]vation made by ,cic]o 9 8 fir/ book ( ,(fices1 t _m wrongs proce$ f fe>2 z :5 ! p]son1 :o int5ds to hurt ano!r1 appreh5ds "s dang] to himself unless he took t me?od4 ,cle>*us1 9 ,x5ophon1 says1 ,i h kn[n "s m51 :o p>tly ?r\gh misrepres5tation1 & p>tly ?r\gh suspicion1 dread+ "o ano!r1 9 ord] to prev5t ! suppos$ int5tions ( _! adv]s>ies1 h committ$ ! mo/ enorm\s cruelties aga9/ ^? :o nei!r design$1 nor wi%$ !m any h>m4 ,cato 9 8 spee* = ! ,rhodians1 says1 ,are we to prev5t !m by do+ fir/1 :at we say !y int5d$ to d to u8 ,on ?is subject !re is a rem>kable passage 9 ,aulus ,gellius1 ,:5 a ,gladiator prep>es to ent] ! li/s = combat1 su* is 8 lot t he mu/ ei!r kill 8 adv]s>y1 or be kill$ himself4 ,b ! life ( man is n circumscrib$ by ! h>d t]ms ( su* an ov]-rul+ necessity1 z to oblige him to d an injury to prev5t him f receiv+ "o4 ,qu9tilian has quot$ a passage f ,cic]o1 :]e9 ! orator asks1 ,:oev] made su* a decision1 or to :om c\ld su* a po9t be yield$ )\t ! mo/ imm95t dang]1 t y h a "r to kill ! p]son1 by :om y say1 y fe> t y %all aft]w>ds be kill$ y\rself8 ,to :i* ?is passage ( ,euripides1 may be appli$1 ,if y\r husb&1 z y say1 int5d$ to h kill$ y1 y ought to h wait$1 till he actually did make ! attempt4 ,con=mably to :i* ,?ucydides1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 hi/ory1 has express$ himself 9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 ,! issue ( w> is unc]ta91 nor ought we to be s f> transport$ by our fe>s1 z to engage 9 imm$iate & op5 ho/ilities4 ,! same writ] too 9 8 lum9\s description ( ! dang]\s factions1 t _h aris5 9 ! ,grecian /ates1 condemns ! approbation be/[$ on ! p]son1 t injur$ or de/roy$ ano!r f :om he himself appreh5d$ injury or de/ruction4 ,livy says1 ,m51 to gu>d aga9/ _! al>ms1 make !mselves objects ( t]ror2 av]t+ ! dang] f _! own heads1 by impos+ ^u o!rs ! necessity ( ei!r do+ or suff]+ ! evil :i* !y !mselves fe>4 ,vibius ask$ a p]son1 t appe>$ arm$ 9 ! =um1 ,:o gave y p]mission to %ew y\r fe> 9 ?is mann]8 ,a "q n inapplicable to ! pres5t subject1 & mu* comm5d$ by ,qu9tilian4 ,livia also 9 ,dion says1 t great infamy r$\nds to ^?1 :o by anticipation p]petrate ! crim9al act1 :i* !y fe>4 ,n[ if any "o int5d no imm$iate viol5ce1 b is f\nd to h =m$ a conspiracy to de/roy me by assass9ation1 or poison1 or by false accusation1 p]jury1 or suborn$ witnesses1 ,i h no "r to kill him4 ,= my k ( ! dang] may prev5t x4 ,or ev5 if x 7 evid5t t ,i c\ld n avoid ! dang] )\t kill+ him2 ?is w\ld n e/abli% my "r to d s4 ,= !re is e presumption t my kn[+ x w lead me to apply = ! legal rem$ies ( prev5tion4 ,,vi4 & ,,vii4 ,! next ?+ to be consid]$ is1 :at mu/ be said ^u ! mutilation ( a limb4 ,n[1 z ! loss ( a limb1 especially t ( a pr9cipal limb 9 ! body1 is a griev\s detrim5t1 & ne>ly equal to ! loss ( life1 to :i* may be add$ ! probability ( dea? ensu+ f su* a calamity2 ! lawfulness ( kill+ any "o1 :o makes su* an attempt1 if ! dang] _c o!rwise be avoid$1 sc>ce admits ( a d\bt4 ,nei!r is !re any m difficulty 9 all[+ ! same "r = ! p]sonal def5ce ( *a/ity1 ! pres]vation ( :i*1 bo? 9 ! common e/imation ( m51 & by ! div9e law1 is deem$ ( equal value ) life itself4 ,we h an example ( ?is 9 ,cic]o1 ,qu9tilian1 & ,plut>*1 9 ! p]son ( "o ( ,m>ius's tribunes1 :o 0 kill$ by a soldi]4 ,among ! actions ( wom51 :o h def5d$ !mselves1 ,heliodorus records t ( ,h]aclea1 :i* he calls a j def5ce ( h] injur$ hon\r4 ,,viii4 ,?\gh "s1 z x has be5 already said1 admit ! lawfulness ( kill+ ! p]son1 :o attempts ) op5 viol5ce to de/roy "o's life1 yet !y deem x m comm5dable to sp>e ! life ( ano!r1 ev5 at ! haz>d ( "o's own4 ,yet to p]sons1 9 ^: pres]vation ! public int]e/ is involv$1 !y w grant an exemption f ?is rule ( =be>ance4 ,inde$ x seems unsafe to impose ^u ,,any1 ^: lives are ( importance to o!rs1 a rule ( =ebe>ance s contr>y to all ! pr9ciples ( all law4 ,?is exemption !re=e mu/ be all[$ to all ve/$ ) any public (fice1 :i* makes !m responsible = ! safety ( o!rs2 z ! g5]als :o conduct armies1 or ! rul]s ( ! /ate1 & _m o!rs 9 simil> situations2 to :om may be appli$ ! l9es ( ,lucan--,:5 ! lives & safety ( s _m nations dep5d ^u y\rs1 & s great a portion ( ! _w has *os5 y = its head2 x is cruelty to expose y\rself wilfully to dea?4 ,,ix4 ,on ! o!r h& x may happ51 t ! aggressor may be "o ^: p]son is r5d]$ sacr$ & inviolable by all div9e1 human1 & natural laws2 :i* is ! case ) respect to ! p]son ( ! ,sov]eign4 ,= ! law ( nature reg>ds n only ! pr9ciples ( ,,/rict ,,ju/ice1 b comprises o!r virtues also1 z temp]ance1 =titude1 & discretion1 mak+ ! obs]vance ( !m 9 c]ta9 cases1 b9d+ z well z hon\rable4 ,to obs]ve ^! we are b\nd also by ! law ( *>ity4 ,nor is ! tru? ( ?is argum5t at all weak5$ by :at ,vasquez has advanc$1 :o ma9ta9s t ! ,sov]eign :o attempts ! life ( an individual loses1 9 reality1 ! "* ( ,sov]eign3 a doctr9e fraught ) equal absurdity & dang]4 ,= sov]eignty _c any m ?an prop]ty be =feit$ by any p>ticul> act ( del9qu5cy2 unless x has be5 previ\sly & expressly s enact$ by ! fundam5tal laws ( ! /ate4 ,= su* a rule ( =feiture1 :i* w\ld be productive ( univ]sal an>*y & confusion1 nev] has be51 nor ev] w be e/abli%$ among any civiliz$ p4 ,= ! maxim1 t all gov]nm5t is fram$ = ! b5efit ( ! subject & n ( ! ,sov]eign1 :i* ,vasquez & _m o!r writ]s lay d[n z a fundam5tal law1 ?\gh x may be g5]ally true 9 !ory1 is by no means applicable to ! "q4 ,= a ?+ loses n its exi/5ce1 by los+ "s "p ( its utility4 ,nor is !re suffici5t consi/5cy 9 8 obs]vation1 t e individual desires ! safety ( ! commonweal? on 8 own acc\nt1 & !re=e e "o ought to pref] 8 own safety to t ( ! :ole /ate4 ,= we wi% = ! public welf>e n on our own acc\nt alone1 b also = ! sake ( o!rs4 ,! op9ion ( ^? :o ?9k t fri5d%ip arises f necessity alone1 is reject$ z false1 by ! m s\nd ,philosoph]s2 z we feel a spontane\s & natural incl9ation t[>ds fri5dly int]c\rse4 ,*>ity inde$ (t5 p]suades1 & 9 "s in/ances comm&s u to pref] ! good ( _m to our own s+le advantage4 ,to :i* ! foll[+ passage f ,s5eca is v applicable4 ,x is n surpris+ t pr9ces1 & k+s1 or :atev] "n ! gu>dians ( ! public welf>e may be>1 %\ld be lov$ ) a v5]ation & affection1 f> beyond ^? ( private fri5d%ip4 ,= all m5 ( sob] judgm5t1 & enl>g$ in=mation deem ! public int]e/ ( high] mom5t ?an _! own4 ,_! atta*m5t !re=e mu/ be w>me/ to ! p]son on :om ! well be+ & prosp]ity ( ! /ate dep5ds4 ,& to ! same effect1 ,/4 ,ambrose 9 8 ?ird book ( ,(fices1 says1 e man feels a great] delight 9 av]t+ public ?an private dang]4 ,s5eca1 ! writ] already quot$1 produces two in/ances1 ! "o ( ,calli/ratus at ,a!ns1 & ! o!r ( ,rutilius at ,rome1 :o refus$ to be re/or$ f bani%m5t ?9k+ x bett] = two individuals to suff] h>d%ip1 ?an = ! public to be plung$ into calamities4 ,,xi4#ae ,! next object to be consid]$1 relates to injuries affect+ our prop]ty4 ,9 /rict ju/ice1 x _c be d5i$ t we h a "r to kill a robb]1 if su* a /ep is inevitably necess>y to ! pres]vation ( our prop]ty4 ,= ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! value ( life & prop]ty is ov]balanc$ by ! horror :i* a robb] excites1 & by ! fav\rable incl9ation felt by all m5 t[>ds ! injur$ & innoc5t4 ,f :5ce x foll[s1 t reg>d+ t "r alone1 a robb] may be w\nd$ or kill$ 9 8 flight ) ! prop]ty1 if x _c o!rwise be recov]$4 ,demo/h5es 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,ari/ocrates1 exclaims1 ,by all t is sacr$1 is x n a dreadful & op5 violation ( law1 n only ( writt5 law1 b ( t law :i* is ! unwritt5 rule ( all m51 to be deb>r$ f ! "r ( us+ =ce aga9/ ! robb] z well z aga9/ ! enemy2 :o is plund]+ y\r prop]ty8 ,nor is x =bidd5 by ! precepts ( *>ity1 ap>t f all consid]ation ( div9e & human law1 unless :]e ! prop]ty is ( little value1 & b5ea? notice2 an exception1 :i* "s writ]s h v prop]ly add$4 ,,xii4 ,! s5se ( ! ,jewi% law on ?is po9t is n[ to be consid]$4 ,! old law ( ,solon1 to :i* ,demo/h5es1 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,timocrates1 appeals1 agrees ) x4 ,f h5ce ! sub/ance ( ! ,,twelve ,,tables1 & ,plato's maxim 9 8 n9? book ( laws 7 tak54 ,= !y all agree 9 mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 a ?ief :o /eals by day1 & ! robb]1 :o commits ! act by night2 ?\gh !y diff] ab\t ! ,,reason ( ?is di/9ction4 ,"s ?9k ?is di/9ction arises f ! difficulty ( disc]n+ by night1 :e!r an aggressor comes ) an int5t to murd] or /eal1 & !re=e he ought to be treat$ z an assass94 ,o!rs ?9k ! di/9ction is made1 because z x is difficult to "k ! p]son ( ! ?ief1 !re is less probability ( recov]+ ! goods4 ,9 nei!r case d ! fram]s ( laws seem to h consid]$ ! "q 9 its prop] light4 ,_! evid5t int5tion is to prohibit ! kill+ ( any "o1 m]ely on acc\nt ( our prop]ty2 :i* w\ld happ51 = in/ance1 by kill+ a ?ief 9 8 flight 9 ord] to recov] ! goods he _h /ol54 ,b if our own lives are endang]$1 !n we are all[$ to av]t ! dang]1 ev5 at ! haz>d ( ano!r's life4 ,nor is our hav+ run into ! dang] any objection2 provid$ x 0 done to pres]ve or to recov] our goods1 or to take ! ?ief4 ,= no imputation ( guilt c atta* to u 9 any ( ^! cases1 :ile we are employ$ 9 do+ a lawful act1 nor c x be said t we are do+ wrong to ano!r by ex]cis+ our own "r4 ,! diff]5ce !re=e made betwe5 a ?ief 9 ! night & a ?ief 9 ! day1 arises f ! difficulty ( procur+ suffici5t evid5ce ( ! fact4 ,s t if a ?ief is f\nd kill$1 ! p]son :o says1 t he 0 f\nd by him ) a de/ructive weapon1 & kill$ by him 9 8 own def5ce1 w easily ga9 belief4 ,= ! ,jewi% law supposes ?is1 :5 x treats ( a ?ief 9 ! act ( pi]c+1 or1 z "s translate x1 ) a /abb+ in/rum5t4 ,?is int]pretation accords ) ! law ( ! twelve tables1 :i* =bids any "o to kill a ?ief 9 ! day "t1 except he def5d himself ) a weapon4 ,! presumption !re=e aga9/ a ?ief 9 ! night is t he def5d$ himself 9 su* a mann]4 ,n[ ! t]m weapon compreh5ds n only an in/rum5t ( iron1 b z ,caius int]prets ?is law1 a club1 or a /one4 ,ulpian on ! o!r h&1 speak+ ( a ?ief tak5 9 ! night1 says t ! p]son :o kills him w incur no guilt1 provid$ t 9 sav+ 8 prop]ty he c\ld n sp>e 8 life1 )\t endang]+ 8 own4 ,!re is a presumption1 z x has be5 already obs]v$1 9 fav\r ( ! p]son :o has kill$ a ?ief tak5 9 ! night4 ,b if !re be evid5ce to prove1 t ! life ( ! p]son :o kill$ ! ?ief 0 9 no dang]2 !n ! presumption 9 8 fav\r fails1 & ! act am\nts to murd]4 ,! law ( ! twelve tables inde$ requir$1 t ! p]son :o took a ?ief ei!r 9 ! day "t1 or 9 ! night1 %\ld make a noise t1 if possible1 ! magi/rates or neighb\rs might assemble to assi/ him & give evid5ce4 ,b z su* a conc\rse c\ld m easily be assembl$ 9 ! day "t ?an 9 ! night1 z ,ulpian obs]ves ^u ! passage be=e quot$ f ,demo/h5es1 ! affirmation ( a p]son decl>+ ! dang] he 0 9 dur+ ! night is m readily believ$4 ,to :i* an additional obs]vation may be made1 t1 ev5 "u equal circum/ances1 ! dang] :i* happ5s by night c be less exam9$1 & asc]ta9$1 & !re=e is ! m t]rible4 ,! ,jewi% law !re=e1 no less ?an ! ,roman1 act+ ^u ! same pr9ciple ( t5d]ness =bids u to kill any "o1 :o has tak5 our goods1 unless = ! pres]vation ( our own lives4 ,,xvi4#af ,:at has be5 already said ( ! "r ( def5d+ our p]sons & prop]ty1 ?\gh reg>d+ *iefly private w>1 may nev]!less be appli$ to public ho/ilities1 all[+ = ! diff]5ce ( circum/ances4 ,= private w> may be consid]$ z an in/antane\s ex]cise ( natural "r1 :i* ceases ! mom5t t legal r$ress c be obta9$4 ,n[ z public w> c nev] take place1 b :]e judicial rem$ies cease to exi/1 x is (t5 protract$1 & ! _s ( ho/ility inflam$ by ! cont9u$ accession ( losses & injuries4 ,besides1 private w> ext5ds only to self-def5ce1 :]eas sov]eign p[]s h a "r n only to av]t1 b to puni% wrongs4 ,f :5ce !y are au?oris$ to prev5t a remote z well z an imm$iate aggression4 ,?\gh ! suspicion ( ho/ile int5tions1 on ! "p ( ano!r p[]1 may n ju/ify ! comm5cem5t ( actual w>1 yet x calls = measures ( arm$ prev5tion1 & w au?orise indirect ho/ility4 ,po9ts1 :i* w be discuss$ 9 ano!r place4 ,,xvii4 ,"s writ]s h advanc$ a doctr9e :i* c nev] be admitt$1 ma9ta9+ t ! law ( nations au?orises "o p[] to comm5ce ho/ilities aga9/ ano!r1 ^: increas+ greatness awak5s h] al>ms4 ,z a matt] ( exp$i5cy su* a measure may be adopt$1 b ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice c nev] be advanc$ 9 its fav\r4 ,! causes :i* entitle a w> to ! d5om9ation ( j are some:at diff]5t f ^? ( exp$i5cy alone4 ,b to ma9ta9 t ! b>e probability ( "s remote1 or future annoyance f a neighb\r+ /ate af=ds a j gr\nd ( ho/ile aggression1 is a doctr9e repugnant to e pr9ciple ( equity4 ,su* h[ev] is ! condition ( human life1 t no full security c be enjoy$4 ,! only protection aga9/ unc]ta9 fe>s mu/ be s\ght1 n f viol5ce1 b f ! div9e provid5ce1 & def5sive precaution4 ,,xviii4 ,!re is ano!r op9ion1 n m admissible1 ma9ta9+ t ! ho/ile acts ( an aggressor1 may be consid]$ 9 ! light ( def5sive measures1 because1 say ! advocates ( ?is op9ion1 few p are cont5t to proportion _! rev5ge to ! injuries !y h receiv$2 b\nds :i* 9 all probability ! p>ty aggriev$ has exce$$1 & !re=e 9 return becomes himself ! aggressor4 ,n[ ! excess ( retaliation _c1 any m ?an ! fe> ( unc]ta9 dang]1 give a col\r ( "r to ! fir/ aggression1 :i* may be illu/rat$ by ! case ( a malefactor1 :o c h no "r to w\nd or kill ! (fic]s ( ju/ice 9 _! attempts to take him1 urg+ z a plea t he fe>$ ! puni%m5t w\ld exce$ ! (f5se4 ,! fir/ /ep1 :i* an aggressor ought to take1 %\ld be an (f] ( indemnity to ! injur$ p>ty1 by ! arbitration ( "s indep5d5t & dis9t]e/$ /ate4 ,& if ?is m$iation be reject$1 !n 8 w> assumes ! "* ( a j w>4 ,?us ,hezekiah :5 he _h n /ood to ! engagem5ts made by 8 ance/ors1 be+ ?reat5$ ) an attack f ! ,k+ ( ,assyria on t acc\nt1 ackn[l$g$ 8 fault1 & left x to ! ,k+ to assign :at p5alty he %\ld pay = ! (f5ce4 ,aft] he _h done s1 f9d+ himself aga9 attack$1 rely+ on ! ju/ice ( 8 cause1 he oppos$ ! enemy1 & succe$$ by ! fav\r ( ,god4 ,pontius ! ,samnite1 aft] re/oration ( ! prizes _h be5 made to ! ,romans1 & ! promot] ( ! w> deliv]$ up into _! h&s1 said1 ,we h n[ av]t$ ! wra? ( heav51 :i* our violation ( treaties _h provok$4 ,b ! supreme be+ :o 0 pleas$ to r$uce u to ! necessity ( re/oration1 0 n equally pleas$ ) ! pride ( ! ,romans1 :o reject$ our (f]4 ,:at f>!r satisfaction d we owe to ! ,romans1 or to ,heav51 ! arbit] ( treaties8 ,we d n %r9k f submitt+ ! measure ( ,,y\r res5tm5t1 or ( ,,our puni%m5t to ! judgm5t ( any p1 or any individual4 ,9 ! same mann]1 :5 ! ,!bans _h (f]$ ! mo/ equitable t]ms to ! ,lac$aemonians1 :o /ill rose high] 9 _! dem&s1 ,ari/ides says1 t ! ju/ice ( ! cause *ang$ sides & pass$ f ! ,lac$aemonians to ! ,!bans4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,rights ,,( ,,?+s4 ,! g5]al rights ( ?+s--,division ( :at is our own--,! orig9 & progress ( prop]ty--,"s ?+s impossible to be made ! subject ( prop]ty--,! ,sea ( ?is nature1 9 its full ext5t1 or 9 its pr9cipal p>ts--,unoccupi$ l&s may become ! prop]ty ( individuals1 unless !y h be5 previ\sly occupi$ by ! p at l>ge--,wild bea/s1 fi%es1 birds1 may become ! prop]ty ( him :o seizes !m--,9 cases ( necessity m5 h a "r ( us+ t :i* has already become ! prop]ty ( o!rs--,to sanction ?is indulg5ce1 ! necessity mu/ be su* t x _c o!rwise be avoid$--,?is indulg5ce n all[$ :]e ! possessor is 9 an equal degree ( necessity--,! p>ty ?us supply+ 8 wants f ano!r's prop]ty1 b\nd to make re/itution :5ev] x is possible4 ,! application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! practice ( w>--,! "r to use ! prop]ty ( ano!r1 provid$ t use be no way prejudicial to ! own]--,h5ce ! "r to ! use ( runn+ wat]--,! "r ( pass+ ?r\gh c\ntries1 & by riv]s expla9$--,an inquiry into ! "r ( impos+ duties on m]*&ise--,! "r ( resid+ = a "t 9 a =eign /ate--,! "r ( exiles to reside 9 ! dom9ions ( a =eign /ate1 provid$ !y submit to its laws--,9 :at mann] ! "r ( occupy+ wa/e places is to be und]/ood--,! "r to c]ta9 articles necess>y to ! support ( human society1 & life--,! g5]al "r ( pur*as+ ^? articles at a reasonable price--,! "r to sell1 n ( equal =ce & ext5t--,! "r to ^? privileges :i* are promiscu\sly grant$ to =eign]s--,inquiry :e!r x be lawful to contract ) any p = ! pur*ase ( _! productions on condition ( _! n sell+ ! same to o!rs4 ,i4 ,among ! causes assign$ to ju/ify w>1 we may reckon ! commission ( injury1 p>ticul>ly su* z affects any ?+ :i* belongs to u4 ,n[ we e/abli% ?is claim to any ?+ z our own ei!r by a "r ,,common to u z m51 or acquir$ by u 9 our ,,individual capacity4 ,b to beg9 ) t :i* is ! common "r ( all mank9d2 we may obs]ve t x comprises :at is call$ by legal au?orities1 ,corporeal & ,incorporeal rights4#ag ,?+s corporeal are ei!r unappropriat$1 or made ! subjects ( private prop]ty4 ,n[ ! ?+s unappropriat$1 are su* t x may be ei!r possible or impossible = !m to be r$uc$ to a /ate ( private prop]ty4#ah ,9 ord] !re=e to und]/& ?is m cle>ly1 x w be necess>y to take a survey ( ! orig9 ( prop]ty4 ,,ii4 ,god gave to mank9d 9 g5]al1 dom9ion ov] all ! creatures ( ! e>?1 f ! fir/ creation ( ! _w2 a grant :i* 0 r5ew$ ^u ! re/oration ( ! _w aft] ! deluge4 ,all ?+s1 z ,ju/9 says1 =m$ a common /ock = all mank9d1 z ! inh]itors ( "o g5]al patrimony4 ,f h5ce x happ5$1 t e man seiz$ to 8 own use or consumption :atev] he met )2 a g5]al ex]cise ( a "r1 :i* suppli$ ! place ( private prop]ty4 ,s t to deprive any "o ( :at he _h ?us seiz$1 became an act ( inju/ice4 ,:i* ,cic]o has expla9$ 9 8 ?ird book1 on ! b\nds ( good & evil1 by comp>+ ! _w to a ,!atre1 9 :i* ! seats are common prop]ty1 yet e spectator claims t :i* he occupies1 = ! "t be+1 z 8 own4 ,a /ate ( affairs1 :i* c\ld n subsi/ b 9 ! greate/ simplicity ( mann]s1 & "u ! mutual =be>ance & good-w ( mank9d4 ,an example ( a community ( goods1 aris+ f extreme simplicity ( mann]s1 may be se5 9 "s nations ( ,am]ica1 :o = _m ages h subsi/$ 9 ?is mann] )\t inconv5i5ce4 ,! ,ess5es ( old1 furni%$ an example ( m5 actuat$ by mutual affection & hold+ all ?+s 9 common1 a practice adopt$ by ! primitive ,*ri/ians at ,j]usalem1 & /ill prevail+ among "s ( ! religi\s ord]s4 ,man at 8 fir/ orig91 requir+ no clo?+1 af=d$ a pro( ( ! simplicity ( mann]s 9 :i* he _h be5 =m$4 ,yet p]haps1 z ,ju/9 says ( ! ,scy?ians1 he might be consid]$ z ignorant ( vice r ?an acqua9t$ ) virtue2 ,tacitus says1 t 9 ! e>ly ages ( ! _w1 m5 liv$ free f ! influ5ce ( evil passions1 )\t reproa*1 & wick$ness2 & consequ5tly )\t ! re/ra9ts ( puni%m5t4 ,9 primitive times !re appe>$ among mank9d1 accord+ to ,macrobius1 a simplicity1 ignorant ( evil1 & inexp]i5c$ 9 craft3 a simplicity :i* 9 ! book ( ,wisdom seems to be call$ integrity1 & by ! ,apo/le ,paul simplicity 9 opposition to subtilty4 ,_! sole employm5t 0 ! wor%ip ( ,god1 ( :i* ! tree ( life 0 ! symbol1 z x is expla9$ by ! anci5t ,hebrews1 ^: op9ion is confirm$ by ! ,book ( ,revelation4 ,m5 at t p]iod subsi/$ ^u ! spontane\s productions ( ! gr\nd3 a /ate ( simplicity to :i* !y did n long adh]e1 b appli$ !mselves to ! inv5tion ( v>i\s arts1 indicat$ by ! tree ( k ( good & evil1 t is ! k ( ^? ?+s :i* may be ei!r us$ prop]ly1 or abus$2 :i* ,philo calls a middle k9d ( wisdom4 ,9 ?is view1 ,solomon says1 ,god ha? creat$ m5 upright1 t is1 9 simplicity1 b !y h s\ght out _m inv5tions1 or1 9 ! language ( ,philo1 !y h incl9$ to subtilty4 ,9 ! six? oration ( ,dion ,prusae5sis x is said1 ! desc5dants h deg5]at$ f ! innoc5ce ( primitive times1 contriv+ _m subtile inv5tions no way conducive to ! good ( life2 & us+ _! /r5g? n to promote ju/ice1 b to gratify _! appetites4 ,agriculture & pa/urage seem to h be5 ! mo/ anci5t pursuits1 :i* *>act]iz$ ! fir/ bro!rs4 ,"s di/ribution ( ?+s w\ld necess>ily foll[ ^! diff]5t /ates2 & we are in=m$ by holy writ1 t ! rivalry ?us creat$ end$ 9 murd]4 ,at l5g? m5 increas+ 9 wick$ness by _! evil communications ) ea* o!r1 ! race ( ,giants1 t is ( /rong & viol5t m5 appe>$1 :om ! ,greeks d5om9ate by a title1 signify+ ^? :o make _! own h&s & /r5g? ! measure ( ju/ice4 ,! _w 9 progress ( "t be+ cle>$ ( ?is race by ! deluge1 ! savage 0 succe$$ by a s(t] & m s5sual way ( life1 to :i* ! use ( w9e prov$ subs]vi5t1 be+ foll[$ by all ! evil consequ5ces ( intoxication4 ,b ! greate/ brea* 9 ! h>mony ( m5 0 made by ambition1 :i* is consid]$ 9 "s measure1 z ! (fspr+ ( a noble m9d4 ,its fir/ & mo/ em95t effects appe>$ 9 ! attempt to raise ! t[] ( ,babel2 ! failure ( :i* caus$ ! disp]sion ( mank9d1 :o took possession ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,/ill aft] ?is a community ( l&s = pa/ure1 ?\gh n ( flocks1 prevail$ among m54 ,= ! great ext5t ( l& 0 suffici5t = ! use ( all occupants1 z yet b few 9 numb]1 )\t _! incommod+ ea* o!r4 ,9 ! words ( ! ,poet1 x 0 deem$ unlawful to fix a l& m>k on ! pla91 or to apportion x out 9 /at$ limits4 ,b z m5 increas$ 9 numb]s & _! flocks 9 ! same proportion1 !y c\ld no long] ) conv5i5ce enjoy ! use ( l&s 9 common1 & x became necess>y to divide !m into allotm5ts = ea* family4 ,n[ 9 ! hot c\ntries ( ! ,ea/1 wells w\ld be objects ( great importance1 = ! refre%m5t ( _! h]ds & flocks2 s t 9 ord] to avoid /rife & inconv5i5ce1 all w\ld be anxi\s to h !m z possessions ( _! own4 ,^! acc\nts we d]ive f sacr$ hi/ory1 & !y are f\nd to agree ) ! op9ions ma9ta9$ ^u ?is subject by ,philosoph]s & ,poets1 :o h describ$ ! community ( goods1 t prevail$ 9 ! e>ly /ate ( ! _w1 & ! di/ribution ( prop]ty :i* aft]w>ds took place4 ,h5ce a notion may be =m$ ( ! reason :y m5 dep>t$ f ! primaeval /ate ( hold+ all ?+s 9 common1 atta*+ ! ideas ( prop]ty1 fir/ to moveable & next to immoveable ?+s4 ,:5 ! inhabitants ( ! e>? began to acquire a ta/e = m delicate f>e ?an ! spontane\s productions ( ! gr\nd1 & to look = m commodi\s habitations ?an caves1 or ! holl[ ( trees1 & to long = m elegant cloa?+ ?an ! sk9s ( wild bea/s1 indu/ry became necess>y to supply ^? wants1 & ea* individual began to apply 8 att5tion to "s p>ticul> art4 ,! di/ance ( ! places too1 into :i* m5 7 disp]s$1 prev5t$ !m f c>ry+ ! fruits ( ! e>? to a common /ock1 & 9 ! next place1 ! ,,want ( j pr9ciple & equitable k9dness w\ld de/roy t equality :i* ought to subsi/ bo? 9 ! lab\r ( produc+ & consum+ ! necess>ies ( life4 ,at ! same "t1 we le>n h[ ?+s pass$ f be+ held 9 common to a /ate ( prop]ty4 ,x 0 n by ! act ( ! m9d alone t ?is *ange took place4 ,= m5 9 t case c\ld nev] "k1 :at o!rs int5d$ to appropriate to _! own use1 s z to exclude ! claim ( e o!r pret5d] to ! same2 & _m too might desire to possess ! same ?+4 ,prop]ty !re=e mu/ h be5 e/abli%$ ei!r by express agreem5t1 z by division1 or by tacit cons5t1 z by occupancy4 ,= z soon z x 0 f\nd inconv5i5t to hold ?+s 9 common1 be=e any division ( l&s _h be5 e/abli%$1 x is natural to suppose x mu/ h be5 g5]ally agre$1 t :atev] any "o _h occupi$ %\ld be acc\nt$ 8 own4 ,cic]o1 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,(fices says1 x is admitt$ z an univ]sal maxim1 n repugnant to ! pr9ciples ( natural law1 t e "o %\ld r wi% himself to enjoy ! necess>ies ( life1 ?an leave !m = ! acquisition ( ano!r4 ,:i* is support$ by ,qu9tilian1 :o says1 if ! condition ( life be su*1 t :atev] has fall5 to ! private use ( any individual1 becomes ! prop]ty ( su* hold]1 x is evid5tly unju/ to take away any ?+ :i* is possess$ by su* a "r4 ,& ! anci5ts 9 /yl+ ,c]es a law-giv]1 & giv+ ! "n ( ,!smophoria to h] sacr$ rights1 meant by ?is to signify t ! division ( l&s _h giv5 bir? to a new k9d ( "r4 ,,iii4 ,not)/&+ ! /atem5ts above made1 x mu/ be admitt$ t "s ?+s are impossible to be r$uc$ to a /ate ( prop]ty1 ( :i* ! ,sea af=ds u an in/ance bo? 9 its g5]al ext5t1 & 9 its pr9cipal bran*es4 ,b z "s are will+ to make ?is concession ) reg>d to individuals1 b n ) reg>d to nations1 ! position advanc$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is section may be prov$ f ! foll[+ moral argum5t1 t z 9 ?is case ! reason no long] subsi/s :y m5 %\ld hold all ?+s 9 common1 ! practice ceases also4 ,= ! magnitude ( ! sea is su*1 z to be suffici5t = ! use ( all nations1 to all[ !m )\t inconv5i5ce & prejudice to ea* o!r ! "r ( fi%+1 sail+1 or any o!r advantage :i* t elem5t af=ds4 ,! same may be said ( air z common prop]ty1 except t no "o c use or enjoy x1 )\t at ! same "t us+ ! gr\nd ov] :i* x passes or re/s4 ,s t ! amusem5t ( f[l+ _c be foll[$1 except by p]mission1 )\t trespass+ ^u ! l&s ( "s own]1 ov] :i* ! birds fly4 ,! same appellation ( ,,common may be giv5 to ! s& ( ! %ore1 :i* be+ incapable ( cultivation1 is left free to yield its inexhau/ible supplies = ! use ( all4 ,!re is a natural reason also1 :i* r5d]s ! sea1 consid]$ 9 ! view already tak51 incapable ( be+ made prop]ty3 because occupancy c nev] subsi/1 b 9 ?+s t c be conf9$ to c]ta9 p]man5t b\nds4 ,f :5ce ,?ucydides gives ! "n ( inf9ite space to unoccupi$ l&s1 & ,isocrates speak+ ( t occupi$ by ! ,a!nians calls x t :i* has be5 measur$ by u into allot$ p>ts4 ,b fluids1 :i* _c be limit$ or re/ra9$1 except !y be conta9$ )9 "s o!r sub/ance1 _c be occupi$4 ,?us ponds1 & lakes & riv]s likewise1 c only be made prop]ty z f> z !y are conf9$ )9 c]ta9 banks4 ,b ! ocean z x is equal to1 or l>g] ?an ! e>?1 _c be conf9$ )9 ! l&3 s t ! anci5ts said ! e>? 0 b\nd$ 9 by ! sea l a girdle surr\nd+ x4 ,nor c any imag9able division ( x h be5 orig9ally fram$4 ,= z ! greate/ "p ( x 0 unkn[n1 x 0 impossible t nations f> remov$ f ea* o!r c\ld agree ^u ! b\nds to be assign$ to diff]5t p>ts4 ,:atev] !re=e 0 ! common prop]ty ( all1 & aft] a g5]al division ( all o!r ?+s1 reta9$ its orig9al /ate1 c\ld n be appropriat$ by division1 b by occupancy4 ,& ! m>ks ( di/9ction & sep>ation by :i* its diff]5t p>ts 7 kn[n1 foll[$ su* appropriation4 ,,iv4 ,! next matt]s to be notic$ are ^? ?+s1 :i* ?\gh n yet made prop]ty1 may be r$uc$ to t condition4 ,"u ?is description come wa/e l&s1 des]t isl&s1 wild bea/s1 fi%es1 & birds4 ,n[ 9 ^! cases !re are two ?+s to be po9t$ out1 :i* are a d\ble k9d ( occupancy t may take place2 ! "o 9 ! "n ( ! ,sov]eign1 or ( a :ole p1 ! o!r by individuals1 conv]t+ into private e/ates ! l&s :i* !y h s occupi$4 ,! latt] k9d ( individual prop]ty proce$s r f assignm5t ?an f free occupancy4 ,yet any places t h be5 tak5 possession ( 9 ! "n ( a sov]eign1 or ( a :ole p1 ?\gh n portion$ out among/ individuals1 are n to be consid]$ z wa/e l&s1 b z ! prop]ty ( ! fir/ occupi]1 :e!r x be ! ,k+1 or a :ole p4 ,( ?is description are riv]s1 lakes1 =e/s1 & wild m\nta9s4 ,v4 ,z to wild bea/s1 fi%es1 & birds1 x is to be obs]v$ t ! sov]eign ( ! respective l&s1 or wat]s :]e !y are f\nd1 has a legal "r to prohibit any "o f tak+ !m1 & !reby acquir+ a prop]ty 9 !m4 ,a prohibition ext5d+ to =eign]s1 z well z subjects4 ,to =eign]s2 because by all ! rules ( moral law !y owe ob$i5ce to ! sov]eign1 = ! "t dur+ :i* !y reside 9 8 t]ritories4 ,nor is !re any validity 9 ! objection f\nd$ on ! ,roman ,law1 ! ,law ( nature1 or ! ,law ( nations1 :i*1 x is said1 decl>e su* animals to be bea/s ( *ace free to e "o's hunt+4 ,= ?is is only true1 :]e !re is no civil law to int]pose its prohibition2 z ! ,roman law left _m ?+s 9 _! primitive /ate1 :i* by o!r nations 7 plac$ ^u a v diff]5t foot+4 ,! deviations !re=e f ! /ate ( nature1 :i* h be5 e/abli%$ by ! civil law1 are orda9$ by e pr9ciple ( natural ju/ice to be obey$ by mank9d4 ,= al?\gh ! civil law c enjo9 no?+ :i* ! law ( nature prohibits1 nor prohibit any ?+ :i* x enjo9s1 yet x may circumscribe natural lib]ty1 re/ra9+ :at 0 be=e all[$2 al?\gh ! re/ra9t %\ld ext5d to ! v acquisition ( prop]ty1 to :i* e man ,,at ,,fir/ _h a "r by ! law ( nature4 ,,vi4 ,! next ?+ to be consid]$ is ! "r1 :i* m5 h to ! common use ( ?+s1 already appropriat$2 t]ms1 9 :i* at ! fir/ sight !re appe>s to be "s inconsi/5cy1 z x appe>s t ! e/abli%m5t ( prop]ty has absorb$ e "r t sprung f a /ate ( ?+s held 9 common4 ,b ?is is by no means ! case4 ,= ! int5tion ( ^?1 :o fir/ introduce private prop]ty1 mu/ be tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,& x 0 b reasonable to suppose1 t 9 mak+ ?is introduction ( prop]ty1 !y w\ld dep>t z little z possible f ! orig9al pr9ciples ( natural equity4 ,= if writt5 laws are to be con/ru$ 9 a s5se1 approa*+ z ne>ly z possible to ! laws ( nature1 mu* m s are ^? cu/oms :i* are n fett]$ ) ! lit]al re/rictions ( writt5 maxims4 ,f h5ce x foll[s t 9 cases ( extreme necessity1 ! orig9al "r ( us+ ?+s1 z if !y _h rema9$ 9 common1 mu/ be reviv$2 because 9 all human laws1 & consequ5tly 9 ! laws relat+ to prop]ty1 ! case ( extreme necessity seems to =m an exception4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple is built ! maxim t if 9 a voyage provisions beg9 to fail1 ! /ock ( e individual ought to be produc$ = common consumption2 = ! same reason a neighb\r+ h\se may be pull$ d[n to /op ! progress ( a fire3 or ! cables or nets1 9 :i* a %ip is entangl$1 may be cut1 if x _c o!rwise be dis5gag$4 ,maxims1 none ( :i* 7 introduc$ by ! civil law1 b only expla9$ by x accord+ to ! rules ( natural equity4 ,n[ among ,!ologians also x is a receiv$ op9ion1 t if 9 urg5t di/ress1 any "o %all take f ano!r :at is absolutely necess>y = ! pres]vation ( 8 own life1 ! act %all n be deem$ a !ft4 ,a rule n f\nd$1 z "s allege1 solely ^u ! law ( *>ity1 :i* obliges e possessor to apply "s "p ( 8 weal? to relieve ! ne$y2 b ^u ! orig9al division ( l&s among private own]s1 :i* 0 made ) a res]vation 9 fav\r ( ! primitive rights ( nature4 ,= if ^? :o at fir/ made ! division _h be5 ask$ _! op9ion ^u ?is po9t1 !y w\ld h giv5 ! same reason t has j be5 advanc$4 ,necessity1 says ,s5eca1 ! great protectress ( human infirmity breaks ?r\gh all human laws1 & all ^? made 9 ! _s ( human regulations4 ,cic]o 9 8 elev5? ,philippic1 says1 t ,cassius w5t into ,syria1 :i* might be consid]$ z ano!r's prov9ce1 if m5 adh]$ to writt5 laws1 b if ^! 7 aboli%$1 x w\ld be consid]$ z 8 own by ! law ( nature4 ,9 ! six? book & f\r? *apt] ( ,qu9tus ,curtius1 we f9d an obs]vation1 t 9 a common calamity e man looks to himself4 ,,vii4 ,n[ ?is indulg5ce mu/ be grant$ ) precautions & re/rictions1 to prev5t x f deg5]at+ into lic5ti\sness4 ,& ( ^! precautions1 ! fir/ requires ! di/ress$ p>ty to try e mode ( obta9+ relief1 by an appeal to a magi/rate1 or by try+ ! effect ( entreaty to prevail ^u ! own] to grant :at is necess>y = 8 press+ occasions4 ,plato all[s any "o to seek wat] f 8 neighb\r's well1 aft] hav+ dug to a c]ta9 dep? 9 8 own )\t effect4 ,solon limits ! dep? to =ty cubits2 ^u :i* ,plut>* rem>ks1 t he int5d$ by ?is to relieve necessity & difficulty1 b n to enc\rage slo?4 ,x5ophon 9 8 answ] to ! ,s9opians1 9 ! fif? book ( ! exp$ition ( ,cyrus1 says1 :]ev] we come1 :e!r into a b>b>\s c\ntry or into any "p ( ,greece1 & f9d ! p unwill+ to af=d u supplies1 we take !m1 n ?r\gh motives ( wantonness1 b f ! compulsion ( necessity4 ,,viii4 ,9 ! next place ?is plea ( necessity _c be admitt$1 :]e ! possessor is 9 an equal /ate ( necessity himself4 ,= "u equal circum/ances ! own] has a bett] "r to ! use ( 8 possessions4 ,?\gh ,lactantius ma9ta9s t x is no m>k ( folly to =be> ?ru/+ ano!r f ! same plank 9 a %ipwreck 9 ord] to save y\rself4 ,because y h !reby avoid$ hurt+ ano!r3 a s9 :i* is c]ta9ly a pro( ( wisdom to ab/a9 f4 ,cic]o1 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 (fices1 asks ?is "q1 if a wise man1 9 dang] ( p]i%+ ) hung]1 has n a "r to take ! provisions ( ano!r1 :o is good = no?+8 ,to :i* he replies2 ,by no means4 ,= no "o's life c be ( su* importance z to au?orize ! violation ( t g5]al rule ( =be>ance1 by :i* ! peace & safety ( e individual are secur$4 ,,ix4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ! p>ty ?us supply+ 8 wants f ! prop]ty ( ano!r1 is b\nd to make re/itution1 or give an equival5t to ! own]1 :5ev] t is possible4 ,!re are "s inde$1 :o d5y ?is1 ^u ! gr\nd t no "o is b\nd to give an indemnity = hav+ ex]cis$ 8 own "r4 ,b /rictly speak+1 x 0 n a full & p]fect "r1 :i* he ex]cis$2 b a k9d ( p]mission1 aris+ out ( a case ( necessity1 & exi/+ no long] ?an :ile ! necessity cont9u$4 ,= su* a p]missive "r is only grant$ 9 ord] to pres]ve natural equity 9 opposition to ! /rict & *urli% rig\r ( exclusive own]%ip4 ,x4 ,h5ce x may be inf]r$1 t1 9 ! prosecution ( a j w>1 any p[] has a "r to take possession ( a neutral soil2 if !re be real gr\nds1 & n imag9>y fe>s = suppos+ ! enemy int5ds to make himself ma/] ( ! same1 especially if ! enemy's occupy+ x w\ld be att5d$ ) imm95t & irrep>able mis*ief to t same p[]4 ,b 9 ?is case ! re/riction is appli$ t no?+ be tak5 b :at is actually necess>y to su* precaution & security4 ,b>ely occupy+ ! place is all t c be ju/ifi$3 leav+ to ! real own] ! full enjoym5t ( all 8 rights1 immunities1 & jurisdiction1 & all ! productions ( 8 soil4 ,& ?is mu/ be done too ) ! full int5tion ( re/or+ ! place to its lawful ,sov]eign1 :5ev] ! necessity1 = :i* x 0 occupi$1 may cease4 ,! reta9+ ( ,enna1 ,livy says1 0 ei!r an act ( viol5ce1 or a necess>y measure2 by viol5ce mean+ ! lea/ dep>ture f necessity4 ,! ,greeks1 :o 7 ) ,x5ophon be+ 9 great want ( %ips1 by ,x5ophon's own advice1 seiz$ ^u ^? t 7 pass+1 /ill pres]v+ ! prop]ty unt\*$ = ! own]s1 supply+ ! sailors ) provisions1 & pay+ !m wages4 ,! pr9cipal "r !re=e1 f\nd$ ^u ! orig9al community ( goods1 rema9+ s9ce ! introduction ( prop]ty1 is t ( necessity1 :i* has j be5 discuss$4 ,,xi4 ,!re is ano!r "r1 :i* is t ( mak+ use ( ! prop]ty ( ano!r1 :]e su* use is att5d$ ) no prejudice to ! own]4 ,= :y1 says ,cic]o1 %\ld n any "o1 :5 he c d x )\t injury to himself1 all[ ano!r to %>e ) him ^? advantages1 :i* are useful to ! receiv]1 & no way detrim5tal to ! giv]8 ,s5eca !re=e obs]ves1 t x is no fav\r to all[ ano!r to light 8 fire f y\r flame4 ,& 9 ! #g? book ( ,plut>*'s ,symposiacs1 we f9d an obs]vation1 t :5 we h provisions m ?an suffici5t = our own consumption x is wick$ to de/roy ! rema9d]2 or aft] supply+ our own wants1 to ob/ruct or de/roy ! spr+s ( wat]2 or aft] hav+ f9i%$ our voyage1 n to leave = o!r pass5g]s ! sea-m>ks1 t h enabl$ u to /e] our c\rse4 ,,xii4 ,^u ! pr9ciples already e/abli%$1 a riv]1 z su*1 is ! prop]ty ( t p1 or ( ! sov]eign ( t p1 ?r\gh ^: t]ritories x fl[s4 ,he may =m quays1 & buttresses ^u t riv]1 & to him all ! produce ( x belongs4 ,b ! same riv]1 z a runn+ wat]1 /ill rema9s common to all to draw or dr9k x4 ,ovid introduces ,latona ?us address+ ! ,lydians1 ,:y d y refuse wat]1 ! use ( :i* is common8 :]e he calls wat] a public gift t is common to m51 tak+ ! ^w public 9 a m g5]al s5se ?an z appli$ to any ,,p1 a mean+ 9 :i* "s ?+s are said to be public by ! law ( nations4 ,& 9 ! same s5se ,virgil has ass]t$ wat] to be free & op5 to all m54 ,,xiii4 ,x is ^u ! same f\ndation ( common "r1 t a free passage ?r\gh c\ntries1 riv]s1 or ov] any "p ( ! sea1 :i* belongs to "s p>ticul> p1 ought to be all[$ to ^?1 :o require x = ! necess>y occasions ( life2 :e!r ^? occasions be 9 que/ ( settlem5ts1 aft] be+ driv5 f _! own c\ntry1 or to trade ) a remote nation1 or to recov] by j w> _! lo/ possessions4 ,! same reason prevails "h z 9 ! cases above nam$4 ,because prop]ty 0 orig9ally introduc$ ) a res]vation ( t use1 :i* might be ( g5]al b5efit1 & n prejudicial to ! int]e/ ( ! own]3 an int5tion evid5tly ent]ta9$ by ^?1 :o fir/ devis$ ! sep>ation ( ! b\nte\s gifts ( ! creator into private possessions4 ,!re is a rem>kable in/ance ( ?is 9 ! ,mosaic hi/ory1 :5 ! lead] ( ! *ildr5 ( ,israel requir$ a free passage = t p1 promis+ to ! ,k+ ( ,edom1 & to ! ,k+ ( ! ,amorites1 t he w\ld g by ! highway1 )\t sett+ a foot ^u ! soil ( private possessions1 & t ! p %\ld pay ! price ( ev]y?+1 :i* !y might h occasion to use4 ,^u ^! equitable t]ms be+ reject$1 ,moses 0 ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ w> ^u ! ,amorites4 ,because1 says ,augu/91 an in(f5sive passage1 a "r int]wov5 ) ! v frame ( human society1 0 refus$4 ,! ,greeks "u ! comm& ( ,cle>*us1 said1 we are ^u ! way to our home1 if no "o int]rupt u2 b e attempt to mole/ u1 we are1 ) ! assi/ance ( heav51 det]m9$ to av5ge4 ,n unlike ?is answ] ( ! soldi]s "u ,cle>*us is ! "q put to ! diff]5t nations ( ,?race by ,agesilaus1 :o desir$ to "k :e!r !y wi%$ him to pass ?r\gh _! c\ntry z a fri5d1 or z an enemy4 ,:5 ! ,boeotians hesitat$ ^u "s propositions made to !m by ,lys&]1 he ask$ !m :e!r !y int5d$ t he %\ld pass ) erect$ or incl9$ spe>s1 mean+ by ! expression 9 a ho/ile or a quiet mann]4 ,we are in=m$ by ,tacitus1 t ! ,batavians1 z soon z !y came ne> ! camp at ,bonn1 s5t a message to ,h]5nius ,gallus1 import+ t !y _h no ho/ile design2 t if n ob/ruct$1 !y w\ld m>* 9 a peaceable mann]2 b if !y met ) opposition !y w\ld cut _! way sword 9 h&4 ,:5 ,cimon 9 c>ry+ supplies to ! ,lac$aemonians1 _h m>*$ ) 8 troops ?r\gh "s "p ( ! ,cor9?ian di/rict1 ! ,cor9?ians expo/ulat$ ^u 8 conduct z a violation ( _! t]ritory1 because he _h done x )\t ask+ _! leave1 at ! same "t obs]v+1 t no "o knocks at ano!r man's door1 or presumes to ent] ! h\se )\t obta9+ ! ma/]'s leave4 ,to :om he repli$1 y nev] knock$ at ! gates ( ,cleone & ,meg>a1 b broke !m d[n1 believ+1 ,i suppose1 t no "r ought to )/& ! =ce ( ! mighty4 ,n[ betwe5 ^! two extremes !re is a middle c\rse1 requir+ a free passage to be fir/ ask$2 ! refusal ( :i* w ju/ify ! application ( =ce4 ,?us ,agesilaus 9 8 return f ,asia :5 he _h ask$ a passage ( ! ,k+ ( ! ,mac$onians1 :o answ]$ t he w\ld consid] ( x1 said1 y may consid]1 if y please1 b we %all pass 9 ! mean "t4 ,! fe>s1 :i* any p[] ent]ta9s f a multitude 9 arms pass+ ?r\gh its t]ritories1 d n =m su* an exception z c d away ! rule already laid d[n4 ,= x is n prop] or reasonable t ! fe>s ( "o p>ty %\ld de/roy ! rights ( ano!r4 ,especially1 z necess>y precautions & securities may be us$1 su* z ^?1 = in/ance1 ( requir+ t ! troops %all pass )\t arms1 or 9 small bodies2 a promise :i* ! ,agripp9ians made to ! ,g]mans4 ,&1 z we are in=m$ by ,/rabo1 ! practice /ill prevails 9 ! c\ntry ( ! ,eleans4 ,ano!r security may be f\nd 9 provid+ g>risons at ! exp5se ( ! p>ty1 to :om ! passage is grant$2 or 9 giv+ ho/ages2 ! condition1 :i* ,seleucus dem&$ ( ,demetrius1 = p]mitt+ him to rema9 )9 8 t]ritories4 ,nor is ! fe> ( (f5d+ t p[]1 :i* is ! object ( attack1 a suffici5t pretext = refus+ ! passage ( ! troops to ! /ate t is engag$ 9 a j w>4 ,nor is x a prop] reason to assign = a refusal1 to say t ano!r passage may be f\nd2 z e o!r p[] might allege ! same1 & by ?is means ! "r ( passage w\ld be entirely defeat$4 ,! reque/ ( a passage !re=e1 by ! ne>e/ & mo/ commodi\s way1 )\t do+ injury & mis*ief1 is a suffici5t gr\nd ^u :i* x %\ld be grant$4 ,x alt]s ! case entirely1 if ! p>ty mak+ ! reque/ is engag$ 9 unju/ w>1 & is m>*+ ) ! troops ( a p[] ho/ile to ! sov]eign ( t t]ritory2 = 9 ?is in/ance1 a passage may be refus$4 ,= ! sov]eign has a "r to attack t p[] 9 8 own t]ritory1 & to oppose its m>*4 ,n[ a free passage ought to be all[$ n only to p]sons1 b to m]*&ise4 ,= no p[] has a "r to prev5t "o nation f trad+ ) ano!r at a remote di/ance2 a p]mission :i* = ! int]e/ ( society %\ld be ma9ta9$4 ,nor c x be said t any "o is injur$ by x4 ,= ?\gh he may be !reby depriv$ ( an exclusive ga91 yet ! loss ( :at is n 8 due1 z a ,,matt] ,,( ,,"r1 c nev] be consid]$ z a damage or ! violation ( a claim4 ,,xiv4 ,b x w =m a subject ( inquiry1 :e!r ! sov]eign ( ! c\ntry has a "r to impose duties on goods c>ri$ by l&1 or ^u a riv] or ^u any "p ( ! sea1 :i* may =m an accession to 8 dom9ions4 ,x w\ld und\bt$ly be unju/ = any burd5s =eign to ! nature ( trade to be impos$ ^u su* goods4 ,?us /rang]s m]ely pass+ ?r\gh a c\ntry w\ld h no "r to pay a poll-tax1 impos$ to support ! exig5cies ( ! /ate4 ,b if ! sov]eign incurs exp5ce by provid+ security & protection to trade1 he has a "r to reimburse himself by ! imposition ( mod]ate & reasonable duties4 ,x is ! ,,reasonabl5ess ( !m1 :i* con/itutes ! ju/ice ( cu/oms & taxes4 ,?us ,solomon receiv$ tolls = horses & l95 t pass$ ov] ! ,i/hmus ( ,syria4 ,pl9y1 speak+ ( frank9c5se1 obs]ves t z x c\ld n be transport$ b by ! ,gebanites1 a duty ^u x 0 paid to _! k+4 ,9 ! same mann]1 z ,/rabo in=ms u 9 8 f\r? book1 ! p ( ,m>seilles d]iv$ great weal? f ! canal :i* ,m>ius _h made f ! ,rhone to ! sea1 by exact+ tribute ( all t sail$ ^u x to & fro ) vessels4 ,9 ! eigh? book ( ! same writ]1 we are told t ! ,cor9?ians impos$ a duty ^u all goods1 :i*1 to avoid ! dang]\s passage ( ,cape ,malea1 7 transport$ by l& f sea to sea4 ,! ,romans too made ! passage ( ! ,rh9e a s\rce ( tribute1 & ,s5eca relates t a toll 0 paid = go+ ov] bridges4 ,! works ( legal writ]s ab\nd 9 in/ances ( ?is k9d4 ,b x frequ5tly happ5s t extortion is practis$ 9 ^! matt]s1 :i* ,/rabo =ms into a subject ( compla9t aga9/ *iefs ( ! ,arabian tribes1 conclud+ t x w\ld be unlikely = m5 ( t lawless k9d to impose ^u ! goods ( m]*ants any duties t 7 n oppressive4 ,,xv4 ,^? go+ ) m]*&ise or only pass+ ?r\gh a c\ntry1 ought to be all[$ to reside !re = a "t1 if ! recov]y ( heal?1 or any o!r j cause %\ld r5d] su* resid5ce necess>y4 ,= ^! may be reckon$ among ! innoc5t uses ( our "r4 ,?us ,ilioneus 9 ,virgil calls heav5 to witness ! inju/ice ( ! ,africans 9 driv+ him & 8 %ipwreck$ companions f ! hospitable use ( ! %ore1 & we are in=m$ by ,plut>* 9 8 life ( ,p]icles t all ! ,grecians approv$ ( ! compla9t1 :i* ! ,meg>5sians made aga9/ ! ,a!nians1 :o _h prohibit$ !m f sett+ foot ^u ! soil ( _! t]ritories1 or c>ry+ a vessel into _! h>b\rs4 ,s ! ,lac$aemonians reg>d$ ?is z ! mo/ suffici5t gr\nds to ju/ify ! w>4 ,f h5ce results ! "r ( erect+ a tempor>y hut1 ^u ! %ore1 al?\gh1 = in/ance1 ! same %ore is all[$ to be ! prop]ty ( ! p ( t place4 ,= :at ,pomponius says ( its be+ necess>y to obta9 ! ,praetor's leave1 be=e a build+ c be rais$ ^u ! public %ore1 relates to /ructures ( a p]man5t k9d1 :5 ! massy piles ( /one1 z ! ,poet says1 encroa* ^u ! sea1 & ! affright$ fi% feel _! waves contract$4 ,,xvi4 ,nor ought a p]man5t resid5ce to be refus$ to =eign]s1 :o1 driv5 f _! own c\ntry1 seek a place or refuge4 ,b !n x is only ^u condition t !y submit to ! e/abli%$ laws ( ! place1 & avoid e occasion ( excit+ tumult & s$ition4 ,a reasonable rule1 :i* ! div9e poet has obs]v$1 :5 he introduces ,a5eas mak+ an (f] t ,lat9us1 :o _h become 8 fa!r-9-law1 %\ld reta9 all milit>y & civil p[]4 ,& 9 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 ,lat9us admits ! proposal ( ,a5eas to be j2 z he came ?r\gh necessity 9 que/ ( a settlem5t4 ,to drive away refugees1 says ,/rabo1 f ,erato/h5es1 is act+ l b>b>ians2 & a conduct l ?is 9 ! ,sp>tans 0 also condemn$4 ,/4 ,ambrose passes ! same s5t5ce ( condemnation ^u ^? p[]s1 :o refuse all admission to /rang]s4 ,yet settl]s ( ?is description h no "r to dem& a %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,a proposal ( ?is k9d made by ! ,m9yae to ! ,lac$aemonians1 :o _h receiv$ !m1 is v prop]ly consid]$ by ,h]odotus z insol5t1 & unreasonable4 ,,xvii4 ,x is inde$ b an act ( common humanity 9 a sov]eign to all[ /rang]s1 at _! reque/1 lib]ty to fix _! resid5ce ^u any wa/e or b>r5 l&s )9 8 dom9ions1 /ill res]v+ to himself all ! rights ( sov]eignty4 ,sev5 hundr$ acres ( b>r5 & uncultivat$ l&1 z ,s]vius obs]ves1 7 giv5 by ! native ,lat9s to ! ,trojans4 ,dion ,prusae5sis1 9 8 sev5? oration1 says1 t !y commit no crime ( trespass1 :o take ^u !m to cultivate wa/e l&s4 ,! refusal ( ?is privilege made ! ,ansib>ians exclaim1 ! firmam5t ov] our heads is ! mansion ( ! deity3 ! e>? 0 giv5 to man2 & :at rema9s unoccupi$1 lies 9 common to all4 ,yet t compla9t did n apply exactly to _! case4 ,= ^? l&s c\ld n be call$ unoccupi$1 z !y s]v$ to supply ! ,roman army ) =age = _! cattle1 :i* c]ta9ly furni%$ ! ,romans ) a j pretext = refus+ to grant _! reque/4 ,& ) no less propriety ! ,romans ask$ ! ,galli ,s5ones if x 7 "r to dem& l&s already possess$1 & to ?reat5 to take !m by =ce4 ,,xviii4 ,s9ce ! ,,common ,,"r ,,to ,,?+s has be5 e/abli%$1 ! ,,common ,,"r ,,to ,,actions foll[s next 9 ord]1 & ?is "r is ei!r absolute1 or e/abli%$ by ! supposition ( a g5]al agreem5t among/ mank9d4 ,n[ all m5 h absolutely a "r to d su* or su* acts z are necess>y to provide :atev] is ess5tial to ! exi/5ce or conv5i5ce ( life4 ,,conv5i5ce is includ$ 9 ?is "r2 = !re is no occasion "h to imag9e an exi/5ce ( ! same necessity z 0 requisite to au?orize ! seiz+ ( ano!r's prop]ty4 ,because ! po9t ( discussion "h is n :e!r any act is done ,,aga9/ ,,! ,,w ( an own]1 b :e!r we acquire :at is necess>y = our wants ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,t]ms to :i* ! own] has agre$4#ai ,suppos+ !re is no?+ illegal 9 ! contract1 nor any wilful int5tion on 8 "p to make x null & void4 ,= any imp$im5t creat$ by ! own] 9 su* transactions1 is repugnant to ! v pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice1 :i* suppose an equality ( upright deal+ to subsi/ 9 bo? ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,/4 ,ambrose calls a fraudul5t conduct ( t k9d1 an attempt to deprive m5 ( _! %>e 9 ! goods ( a common p>5t1 to )hold ! productions ( nature :i* are ! bir?right ( all1 & to de/roy t comm]ce :i* is ! v support ( life4 ,= we are n treat+ ( sup]fluities & luxuries1 b ( ^? ?+s1 :i* are ess5tial to life1 z physic1 food & cloa?+4 ,,xix4 ,f :at has already be5 prov$1 x foll[s t all m5 h a "r to pur*ase ! necess>ies ( life at a reasonable price1 except ! own]s want !m = _! own use4 ,?us 9 a great sc>city ( corn1 !re w\ld be no inju/ice 9 _! refus+ to sell4 ,& yet 9 su* a "t ( necessity =eign]s1 :o h be5 once admitt$1 _c be driv5 away2 b z ,/4 ,ambrose %ews 9 ! passage already quot$1 a common evil mu/ be borne by all alike4 ,,xx4 ,n[ own]s h n ! same "r 9 ! sale ( _! goods3 = o!rs are at full lib]ty to det]m9e :e!r !y w pur*ase c]ta9 articles or n4 ,! anci5t ,belgians1 = in/ance1 all[$ n w9es & o!r =eign m]*&ise to be import$ among !m4 ,! same rule1 we are in=m$ by ,/rabo1 0 practis$ by ! ,naba?aean ,arabians4 ,,xxi4 ,x is suppos$ to be g5]ally agre$ among mank9d1 t ! privileges1 :i* any nation grants promiscu\sly to ! subjects ( =eign p[]s or c\ntries1 are ! common "r ( all4#bj ,consequ5tly ! exclusion ( any "o p f ^! rights w\ld be consid]$ z an injury to t p4 ,?us1 :]ev] =eign]s 9 g5]al are all[$ to hunt1 to fi%1 to %oot1 to ga!r pe>ls1 to succe$ to prop]ty by te/am5t1 to sell commodities1 or to =m int]m>riages1 ! same privileges _c be refus$ to any p>ticul> p1 unless !y h by misconduct =feit$ _! "r4 ,on :i* acc\nt ! tribe ( ,b5jam9 0 deb>r$ f int]m>ry+ ) o!r tribes4 ,,xxii4 ,x has sometimes be5 a subject ( inquiry :e!r "o nation may lawfully agree ) ano!r to exclude all nations b h]self f pur*as+ c]ta9 productions1 :i* are ! peculi> gr[? ( h] soil4 ,an agreem5t :i*1 x is evid5t1 may be lawfully made2 if ! pur*as] int5ds to supply o!r nations ) ^? articles at a reasonable price4 ,= x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to o!r nations ,,( ,,:om !y pur*ase1 provid$ !y c h a reasonable supply = _! wants4 ,nor is !re any ?+ unlawful 9 all[+ "o p an advantage ov] ano!r 9 ?is respect1 p>ticul>ly = a nation :o has tak5 ano!r "u h] protection & incurr$ exp5ce on t acc\nt4 ,n[ su* a monopoly1 "u ! circum/ances already m5tion$1 is no way repugnant to ! law ( nature1#ba ?\gh x may be sometimes = ! int]e/ ( ! community to prohibit x by express laws4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,on ,,! ,,orig9al ,,acquisition ,,( ,,?+s1 ,,& ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,prop]ty ,,9 ,,seas ,,& ,,riv]s4 ,specification ( moveable prop]ty--,! diff]5ce betwe5 sov]eignty & prop]ty--,! "r to moveables by occupancy may be sup]s$$ by law--,riv]s may be occupi$--,"r to seas--,on ! treaties b9d+ a p n to navigate ! seas beyond c]ta9 b\nds--,inquiry into ! nature ( ! *ange :i* a riv]1 *ang+ its c\rse1 makes 9 ! adjo9+ t]ritories--,:at det]m9ation is to be made1 :]e ! riv] has entirely *ang$ its *annel--,sometimes a :ole riv] may accrue to a t]ritory--,?+s des]t$ belong to ! fir/ occupi]4 ,i4 ,among ! means ( acquir+ prop]ty1 ,paulus ! ,lawy] reckons "o1 :i* seems mo/ natural1 & t is1 if by ! +5uity ( art1 or ! ex]tions ( lab\r we h giv5 to any production its exi/5ce among ! works ( man4 ,n[ z no?+ c naturally be produc$1 except f "s mat]ials be=e 9 exi/5ce1 x foll[s t1 if ^? mat]ials 7 our own1 ! possession ( !m "u any new %ape1 or commodity is only a ,,cont9uation ( our =m] prop]ty2 if !y belong$ to no "o1 our possession comes "u ! class ( title by occupancy3 b if !y 7 ano!r's1 no improvem5t ( ours c by ! law ( nature give u a "r ( prop]ty !re94 ,,ii4 ,among ^? ?+s1 :i* belong to no "o1 !re are two t may become ! subjects ( occupancy2 & ^? are jurisdiction1 or sov]eignty & prop]ty4 ,= jurisdiction & prop]ty are di/9ct f ea* o!r 9 _! effects4 ,! objects ov] :i* sov]eignty may be ex]cis$ are ( a tw(old description1 embrac+ bo? p]sons & ?+s4 ,b ?is is n ! case ) prop]ty1 ! "r ( :i* c ext5d only to ! irrational & inanimate "p ( ! creation4 ,?\gh x might orig9ally1 = ! mo/ "p1 be ! same act by :i* sov]eignty & prop]ty 7 acquir$1 yet !y are 9 _! nature di/9ct4 ,,sov]eignty1 says ,s5eca1 belongs to ,,pr9ces & ,,prop]ty to ,,individuals4 ,! sov]eignty !re=e1 n only ov] subjects at home1 b ov] ^? 9 ! pr9ce's =eign dom9ions passes ) ! h]$it>y desc5t ( ! cr[n4 ,,iii4 ,9 places1 :]e sov]eignty is already e/abli%$1 ! "r to moveables by occupancy1 & inde$ e orig9al "r mu/ give way to ! sup]ior sanction ( law4 ,& :at any man be=e held by any su* "r1 he w\ld aft]w>ds be consid]$ z hold+ by ! laws ( ! c\ntry4 ,= ^? orig9al rights 7 ,,p]missions ( ! law ( nature1 & n comm&s t 7 to be ,,p]petually en=c$4 ,= ! cont9u$ e/abli%m5t ( su* a "r z t by prior occupancy1 s f> f promot+ ! welf>e1 w\ld op]ate to ! v de/ruction ( human society4 ,al?\gh x may be said by way ( objection1 t ! law ( nations seems to admit ( su* a "r1 yet we may answ] t if su* a rule ei!r is or has be5 commonly receiv$ 9 any "p ( ! _w1 x has n ! =ce ( a g5]al compact b9d+ ^u diff]5t indep5d5t nations2 b may be consid]$ z "o bran* ( ! civil law ( _m nations1 :i* any /ate has a "r to cont9ue1 or repeal accord+ to its own pleasure or discretion4 ,!re are _m o!r ?+s inde$ :i* legal writ]s1 9 treat+ ( ! division & acquisition ( prop]ty1 consid] z =m+ a "p ( ! law ( nations4 ,,iv4 ,riv]s may be occupi$ by a c\ntry1 n includ+ ! /ream above1 nor t bel[ its own t]ritories4 ,b ! wat]s :i* wa% its l&s =m an insep>able "p ( ! curr5t1 mak+ its way to ! ma9 sea4 ,= to con/itute ! "r to a prop]ty 9 its *annel1 x is suffici5t t its sides1 inclos$ by ! banks ( t t]ritory =m its greate/ "p1 & t ! riv] itself comp>$ ) ! l&1 makes b a small portion4 ,v4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! sea appe>s capable ( be+ made a prop]ty by ! p[] possess$ ( ! %ore on bo? sides ( x2 al?\gh beyond ^? limits x may spread to a wide ext5t1 :i* is ! case ) a bay1 & ) a /raight beyond ea* ( its outlets into ma9 sea or ocean4 ,b ?is "r ( prop]ty c nev] take place :]e ! sea is ( su* a magnitude1 z to surpass all comp>ison ) t portion ( ! l& :i* x wa%es4 ,& ! "r1 :i* "o p or pr9ce possesses1 may also be %>$ by a great numb] ( /ates1 among ^: respective t]ritories ! sea fl[s4 ,?us riv]s sep>at+ two p[]s may be occupi$ by bo?1 to ea* ( :om _! use & advantages may be equal4 ,,vi4 ,in/ances may be f\nd ( treaties by :i* "o nation b9ds itself to ano!r1 n to navigate p>ticul> seas beyond c]ta9 b\nds4 ,?us betwe5 ! ,egyptians & ! ,pr9ces inhabit+ ! bord]s ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 x 0 agre$1 9 anci5t times1 t ! =m] %\ld n ent] t sea ) any %ip ( w>1 nor ) m ?an "o m]*ant %ip4 ,9 ! same mann]1 9 ! "t ( ,cimon1 ! ,p]sians 7 b\nd by a treaty1 made ) ! ,a!nians1 n to sail ) any %ip ( w> betwe5 ! ,cyanean rocks & ! ,*elidonian isl&s2 a prohibition1 :i*1 aft] ! battle ( ,salamis1 re/rict$ any ,p]sian arm$ vessel f sail+ betwe5 ,phaselis & ! above nam$ rocks4 ,9 ! "o ye>'s truce ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! ,lac$aemonians 7 prohibit$ f sail+ ) any %ips ( w> :atev]1 or inde$ ) any o!r %ips ( m ?an tw5ty tons burd54 ,& 9 ! fir/ treaty1 :i* ! ,romans1 imm$iately aft] ! expulsion ( _! k+s1 made ) ! ,c>?ag9ians1 x 0 /ipulat$ t nei!r ! ,romans1 nor _! allies %\ld sail beyond ! promontory ( ,pul*rum1 except !y 7 driv5 ?i!r by /ress ( wea!r1 or to avoid be+ captur$ by an enemy4 ,b 9 ei!r case !y 7 to take no?+ m ?an necess>ies1 & to dep>t be=e ! expiration ( five days4 ,& 9 ! second treaty1 ! ,romans 7 prohibit$ f committ+ any acts ( piracy1 or ev5 f trad+ beyond ! promontory ( ,pul*rum1 ,massia & ,t>seius4 ,9 a treaty ( peace betwe5 ! ,illyrians & ,romans1 ! latt] requir$ t !y %\ld n pass beyond ! ,lissus ) m ?an two frigates1 & ^? un>m$4 ,9 ! peace ) ,antio*us1 he 0 b\nd n to sail )9 ! capes ( ,calycadnius & ,s>p$on1 except ) %ips c>ry+ tribute1 ambassadors1 or ho/ages4 ,n[ ! in/ances allud$ to d n prove ! actual occupancy ( ! sea1 or ! "r ( navigation4 ,= x may happ5 t bo? individuals & nations may grant z a matt] ( fav\r or compact1 n only :at !y h a compet5t "r to dispose (1 b t :i* is ! common "r ( all m5 z well z ( !mselves4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 we may say z ,ulpian did on a l occasion1 :]e an e/ate _h be5 sold ) a res]vation1 t ! pur*as] %\ld n fi% = ,tunny to ! prejudice ( ! sell]4 ,he obs]v$ t ! sea c\ld n be r5d]$ subject to a s]vice1 b /ill ! pur*as] & ^? :o succe$$ to 8 possession1 7 b\nd 9 hon\r to obs]ve t "p ( ! contract4 ,,vii4 ,:5ev] a riv] has *ang$ its c\rse1 disputes h aris5 betwe5 neighbor+ /ates to decide :e!r su* an alt]ation creates any *ange 9 ! adjo9+ t]ritories1 & to :om any addition ( l& occasion$ by t *ange accrues4 ,disputes :i* mu/ be settl$ accord+ to ! nature & mann] ( su* acquisition4 ,writ]s1 :o h treat$ ( ! division ( l&1 h describ$ x z ( a ?reefold nature3 "o k9d !y "n ,,divid$ & ,,assign$ l&1 :i* ,front9us ! ,lawy] calls ,,limit$1 because x is m>k$ out by artificial b\nd>ies4 ,by l& ,,assign$1 is meant t :i* has be5 appropriat$ to a :ole community1 compreh5d+ a c]ta9 numb] ( families2 a hundr$ = in/ance3 f :5ce x has d]iv$ t "n4 ,& ^? portions are call$ hundr$s4 ,!re is ano!r division call$ ,,arcif9ium1 :i* is appli$ :5 ! l& is def5d$ aga9/ an enemy by ! natural b\nd>ies ( riv]s or m\nta9s4 ,^! l&s ,agg5us ,urbicus calls ,,occupatory1 be+ su* z h be5 occupi$ ei!r by reason ( _! be+ vacant1 or by ! p[] ( conque/4 ,9 ! two fir/ k9ds ( l&s1 because _! ext5t & b\nds are fix$ & det]m9$1 ?\gh a riv] %\ld *ange its c\rse1 x occasions no *ange ( t]ritory1 & :at is add$ by alluvion w belong to ! =m] occupant4 ,9 arcif9i\s l&s1 :]e ! b\nds are =m$ by nature1 any gradual *ange 9 ! c\rse ( ! riv] makes a *ange also 9 ! b\nd>ies ( t]ritory1 & :atev] accession is giv5 by ! riv] to "o side1 x w belong to ! possessor ( ! l& on t side4 ,because ! respective nations are suppos$ orig9ally to h tak5 possession ( ^? l&s1 ) an int5tion ( mak+ ! ,,middle ( t riv]1 z a natural b\nd>y1 ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 !m4 ,?us ,tacitus 9 speak+ ( ! ,usipians & ,t5ct]ians1 :o bord] on ! ,cattians1 says1 _! t]ritory lies on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e1 :]e t riv]1 /ill fl[+ 9 "o regul> *annel1 =ms a suffici5t b\nd>y4 ,,viii4 ,decisions l ^? above c only take place 9 in/ances1 :]e ! riv] has n alt]$ its *annel4 ,= a riv]1 divid+ t]ritories1 is n to be consid]$ b>ely z s mu* wat]1 b z wat] fl[+ 9 a ,,p>ticul> ,,*annel1 & inclos$ ,,)9 ,,c]ta9 ,,banks4 ,= :i* reason an addition1 a decrease1 or su* a *ange ( small portions1 z leaves ! anci5t appe>ance1 ^u ! :ole1 ne>ly ! same1 all[s u to consid] ! riv] z /ill ! same4 ,b if ! :ole face ( ! riv] is *ang$1 ! case w be entirely alt]$4 ,= z a riv] may be entirely de/roy$ by ! erection ( dams ^u ! high] p>ts ( its /ream1 or by digg+ canals1 :i* c>ry (f its wat]s 9 ano!r direction3 s by ! des]tion ( its old *annel1 & break+ out = itself ano!r c\rse1 x w n cont9ue to be same riv] x 0 be=e1 b w be completely a new "o4 ,9 ! same mann] if a riv] has be5 dri$ up1 ! middle ( its *annel w rema9 z ! b\nd>y betwe5 neighb\r+ /ates1 :o 9 tak+ possession ( ! neighb\r+ t]ritory orig9ally int5d$ ! middle ( su* a riv] to be ! l9e ( sep>ation1 & "u all *anges to pres]ve ! same z a p]man5t limit4 ,b 9 d\btful cases1 ! t]ritories bord]+ ^u a riv] ought to be consid]$ z arcif9i\s1 because no?+ c be a m apt m>k ( di/9ction ?an ^? impassable b\nds assign$ by nature4 ,x v seldom inde$ happ5s1 t ! artificial or civil admeasurem5ts ( t]ritory c be regulat$ by su* natural b\nds1 z !y are1 9 g5]al1 ! effect ( orig9al acquisition1 or h be5 c$$ by treaty4 ,,ix4 ,al?\gh 9 d\btful cases1 x has be5 said t ! t]ritories on ea* side ( a riv] are det]m9$ by ! middle ( ! *annel2 yet x may happ51 & has happ5$1 t ! sole "r to a riv] may belong to ! t]ritories on "o side ( x4 ,because t on ! opposite side 0 ( lat] occupancy1 & subsequ5t to ! possession ( t riv] by ! o!r p[]3 or because ?is sole "r may h be5 s settl$ by treaty4 ,x4 ,x is n unwor?y ( obs]vation t ?+s :i* h _h an own]1 b h ceas$ to h "o1 become subject to ! "r by orig9al acquisition4 ,!y are suppos$ to h be5 ab&on$ f ! want ( an own]1 & !re=e h return$ to ! orig9al /ate ( common /ock4 ,b at ! same "t x is prop] to obs]ve1 t "s times ! orig9al acquisition may h be5 made by a p or _! sov]eign1 9 su* a mann] z to give !m or him n only ^? pre-em95t rights :i* con/itute pr]ogative1 b also ! full title ( prop]ty4 ,& ?is prop]ty aga9 may be divid$ into small] grants1 & ^? aga9 subdivid$ into o!r portions1 to be held z dep5d5t ^u ! orig9al grantor1 ! ,sov]eign1 or ! ,"l4 ,?\gh ! l& may n be held by base s]vice1 or vassalage1 yet x is possess$ by "s conditional t5ure4 ,= ?+s are occupi$ by _m k9ds ( "r2 among :i* may be reckon$ ! "r ( a p]son :o expects prop]ty to be left to him "u ! condition ( a tru/4 ,s5eca says1 t an own]'s be+ deb>r$ f sell+ 8 l&s1 committ+ wa/e ^u !m1 or ev5 mak+ improvem5ts1 is n to be tak5 z a pro( t ! prop]ty is n 84 ,= t is a man's own1 :i* he holds "u any c]ta9 conditions4 ,s9ce !n prop]ty di/ribut$ 9 ! mann] above nam$ is held ( ! sov]eign1 or ( "s int]m$iate ,"l1 :o himself is t5ant ( ! sov]eign1 x foll[s t any ?+ :i* wants an own] does n become ! prop]ty ( him1 :o c fir/ seize x1 b rev]ts to ! /ate or to ! sov]eign4 ,illu/ration3 ,,w> ,by ,g>i ,mel*]s--,f a panel pa9t+ 9 ,libr>y ( ,congress4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,title ,,to ,,des]t ,,l& ,,by ,,occupancy1 ,,possession1 ,,& ,,prescription4 ,:y ,usucaption or ,prescription _c subsi/ betwe5 indep5d5t ,/ates1 & ,sov]eigns--,long possession alleg$ z a gr\nd ( "r--,inquiry into ! int5tions ( m51 :i* are n to be judg$ ( by words alone--,int5tion to be judg$ ( by acts--,int5tions also to be judg$ ( by omissions--,h[ f> l5g? ( "t1 sil5ce1 & non-possession1 may confirm ! conjecture ( an ab&on$ "r--,"t immemorial g5]ally ?\ght to b> any claim--,:at con/itutes "t immemorial--,objections to a presum$ des]tion ( prop]ty1 consid]$ )\t any conjecture1 "t immemorial appe>s to transf] & con/itute a prop]ty--,inquiry :e!r p]sons yet unborn may ?us be depriv$ ( _! "r--,rules ( civil law respect+ ,usucaption & ,prescription z appli$ to ! case ( ,sov]eign ,pr9ces1 expla9$4 ,i4 ,a great difficulty arises "h respect+ ! "r to prop]ty by un9t]rupt$ possession = any c]ta9 "t4 ,= ?\gh "t is ! great ag5t1 by ^: motion all legal conc]ns & rights may be measur$ & det]m9$1 yet x has no effectual p[] ( itself to create an express title to any prop]ty4 ,n[ ^? rights 7 introduc$ by ! civil law2 & x is n _! long cont9uance1 b ! express provisions ( ! municipal law1 :i* gives !m _! validity4 ,!y are ( no =ce !re=e1 9 ! op9ion ( ,vasquez1 betwe5 two indep5d5t nations or sov]eigns1 or betwe5 a free nation & a sov]eign3 betwe5 a sov]eign & an individual :o is n 8 subject1 or betwe5 two subjects belong+ to diff]5t k+s or nations4 ,:i* inde$ seems true2 & is actually ! case2 = su* po9ts relat+ to p]sons & ?+s1 are n left to ! law ( nature1 b are settl$ by ! respective laws ( ea* c\ntry4 ,z ! unqualifi$ admission ( ?is pr9ciple w\ld lead to great inconv5i5ce1 & prev5t ! disputes ( k+s & nations respect+ ! b\nds ( t]ritory f ev] be+ adju/$2 9 ord] to eradicate ! se$s ( p]petual w>f>e & confusion1 s repugnant to ! int]e/s & feel+s ( e p2 ! settlem5t ( su* b\nd>ies is n left to ! claims ( prescriptive "r2 b ! t]ritories ( ea* cont5d+ p>ty are1 9 g5]al1 expressly def9$ by c]ta9 treaties4 ,,ii4 ,to di/urb any "o 9 ! actual & long possession ( t]ritory1 has 9 all ages be5 consid]$ z repugnant to ! g5]al int]e/s & feel+s ( mank9d4 ,= we f9d 9 holy writ1 t :5 ! ,k+ ( ! ,ammonites dem&$ ! l&s situat$ betwe5 ! riv]s ,arnon & ,jabok1 & ^? ext5d+ f ! des]ts ( ,arabia to ! ,jordan1 ,jep?ah oppos$ 8 pret5ti\s by prov+ 8 own possession ( ! same = ?ree hundr$ ye>s1 & ask$ :y he & 8 ance/ors _h = s long a p]iod neglect$ to make _! claim4 ,& ! ,lac$aemonians1 we are in=m$ by ,isocrates1 laid x d[n = a c]ta9 rule admitt$ among all nations1 t ! "r to public t]ritory z well z to private prop]ty 0 s firmly e/abli%$ by l5g? ( "t1 t x c\ld n be di/urb$2 & ^u ?is gr\nd !y reject$ ! claim ( ^? :o dem&$ ! re/oration ( ,mess5a4 ,re/+ ^u a "r l ?is1 ,philip ! ,second 0 induc$ to decl>e to ,titus ,qu9tius1 t he w\ld re/ore ! dom9ions :i* he _h subdu$ himself1 b w\ld ^u no consid]ation give up ! possessions :i* he _h d]iv$ f 8 ance/ors by a j & h]$it>y title4 ,sulpitius1 speak+ aga9/ ,antio*us1 prov$ h[ unju/ x 0 9 him to pret5d1 t because ! ,greek ,nations 9 ,asia _h once be5 "u ! subjection ( 8 =efa!rs1 he _h a "r to revive ^? claims1 & to r$uce !m aga9 to a /ate ( s]vitude4 ,& ^u ?is subject two hi/orians1 ,tacitus & ,diodorus may be ref]r$ to2 ! =m] ( :om calls su* obsolete pret5sions1 empty talk+1 & ! latt] treats !m z idle tales & fables4 ,) ^! op9ions ,cic]o1 9 8 #bnd book ( ,(fices1 agrees1 ask+ :at ju/ice !re c be 9 depriv+ an own] ( ! l&1 :i* he has = _m ages quietly possess$8 ,,iii4 ,c x be said1 9 ord] to ju/ify ! di/urbance ( long enjoy$ possessions1 t ! rightful own] ,,int5d$ to ass]t 8 claim1 :5 he nev] manife/$ su* int5tion by any outw>d visible act8 ,! effect ( "r :i* dep5ds ^u a man's int5tions c nev] foll[ f a b>e conjecture ( 8 w1 unless he has decl>$ & prov$ x by "s express & visible act4 ,= actions be+ ! only evid5ce ( int5tions1 int5tions c nev] ( !mselves alone )\t su* acts be ! object ( human laws4 ,no conjectures inde$ respect+ ! acts ( ! m9d c be r$uc$ to ma!matical c]ta9ty1 b only to ! evid5ce ( probability at ! utmo/4 ,= m5 by _! words may express int5tions diff]5t f _! real ones1 & by _! acts c\nt]feit int5tions :i* !y h n4 ,! nature ( human society1 h[ev]1 requires t all acts ( ! m9d1 :5 suffici5tly indicat$1 %\ld be foll[$ by _! due effects4 ,!re=e ! int5tion1 :i* has be5 suffici5tly indicat$1 is tak5 = grant$ aga9/ him :o gave su* indication4 ,,iv4 ,b to proce$ to pro(s d]iv$ f actions4 ,a ?+ is und]/ood to be ab&on$1 :5 x is ca/ away2 except x be "u p>ticul> circum/ances1 z ?r[+ goods ov]bo>d 9 a /orm to light5 a %ip1 :]e ! own] is n suppos$ to h ab&on$ all int5tion ( recov]y1 %\ld x ev] be 9 8 p[]4 ,aga91 by giv+ up or cancell+ a promissory note1 a debt is deem$ to be dis*>g$4 ,paulus ! ,lawy]1 says1 a "r to prop]ty may be r5\nc$ n only by words1 b also by actions1 or any o!r indication ( ! w4 ,?us1 if an own] kn[+ly make a contract ) any "o :o is 9 possession1 treat+ him z if he 7 ! rightful proprietor1 he is naturally suppos$ to h rel9qui%$ 8 own pret5sions4 ,nor is !re any reason1 :y ! same rule may n take place betwe5 sov]eign pr9ces1 & indep5d5t /ates1 z betwe5 individuals4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a ,"l by grant+ c]ta9 privileges to 8 ,vassal1 :i* he c\ld n legally enjoy )\t a release f 8 =m] obligations1 0 suppos$ by su* act to h giv5 him 8 fre$om4 ,a p[] d]iv$ n f ! civil law only1 b f ! law ( nature1 :i* all[s e man to rel9qui% :at is 8 own1 & f a natural presumption t a p]son design$ to d ! act :i* he has giv5 manife/ pro(s ( 8 int5tion to d4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ,ulpian may be rightly und]/ood1 :]e he says1 t ,,acceptilation or ! v]bal dis*>ge ( a debt is f\nd$ ^u ! law ( nations4 ,v4 ,ev5 omissions1 tak+ all prop] circum/ances into consid]ation1 come "u ! cognizance ( ! law4 ,?us ! p]son1 :o kn[+ ( an act1 & be+ pres5t at ! commission ( x1 passes x ov] 9 sil5ce1 seems to give 8 cons5t to x2 ?is 0 admitt$ by ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,unless inde$ x c be %ewn t ! same p]son 0 h9d]$ f speak+ ei!r by fe> or "s o!r press+ circum/ance4 ,?us a ?+ is acc\nt$ z lo/ :5 all hope ( recov]+ x is giv5 up2 z = in/ance1 if a tame animal1 :i* 0 9 our possession1 be seiz$ & c>ri$ (f by a wild bea/4 ,goods too lo/ by %ipwreck1 ,ulpian says1 cease to be consid]$ z our own1 n imm$iately1 b :5 !y are lo/ beyond all possibility ( be+ reclaim$1 & :5 no pro(s ( ! own]'s int5tion to reclaim !m c be discov]$4 ,n[ ! case is alt]$1 if p]sons 7 s5t to inquire aft] ! lo/ goods1 or prop]ty1 & a rew>d 0 promis$ to ! f9d]4 ,b if a p]son kn[s 8 prop]ty to be 9 ! possession ( ano!r1 & all[s x to rema9 s = a l5g? ( "t1 )\t ass]t+ 8 claim1 unless !re appe> suffici5t reasons = 8 sil5ce1 he is con/ru$ to h entirely ab&on$ all pret5sions to ! same4 ,& to ! same purpose he has said else:]e1 t a h\se is look$ ^u to be ab&on$ on acc\nt ( ! long sil5ce ( ! proprietor4 ,! ,emp]or ,anton9us ,pius1 9 "o ( 8 rescripts1 said !re 0 b little ju/ice 9 claim+ int]e/ ^u money aft] a long p]iod2 = ! l5g? ( "t elaps$ 0 an indication t ! debtor _h be5 excus$ f paym5t1 f "s motive ( k9dness4 ,!re appe>s some?+ simil> to ?is 9 ! nature ( cu/om4 ,= ap>t f ! au?ority ( civil laws1 :i* regulate ! "t & mann] ( cu/om1 & its introduction1 x may arise f ! indulg5ce ( a sov]eign to a conqu]$ p4 ,b ! l5g? ( "t f :i* cu/om d]ives ! =ce ( "r1 is n def9$1 b left to ! arbitr>y decision ( :at is suffici5t to indicate g5]al cons5t4 ,b = sil5ce to be tak5 z a valid presumption t prop]ty is des]t$1 two ?+s are requisite3 x mu/ be a sil5ce ) a k ( ! fact1 & ) a p]fect fre$om ( w 9 ! p]son conc]n$4 ,= a sil5ce f\nd$ 9 ignorance c h no weight2 & :]e any o!r reason appe>s1 ! presumption ( free cons5t mu/ fail4 ,,vi4 ,al?\gh ! two requisites already nam$ may be produc$1 yet o!r reasons h _! weight2 among :i* l5g? ( "t is n ! lea/ important4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place1 x c sc>cely happ51 t = a great l5g? ( "t a ?+ belong+ to any "o %\ld n "s way or o!r come to 8 k1 z "t might supply _m opportunities4 ,ev5 if ! civil law did n int]pose to b> remote pret5sions1 ! v nature ( ?+s w\ld %ew ! reasonabl5ess ( a %ort] p]iod ( limitation be+ all[$ to pres5t ?an to abs5t claimants4 ,if impressions ( fe> 7 plead$ by any "o 9 excuse1 yet _! influ5ce w\ld n be ( p]petual duration1 & l5g? ( "t w\ld unfold v>i\s means ( security aga9/ su* fe>s1 ei!r f res\rces )9 himself1 or f ! assi/ance ( o!rs4 ,escap+ beyond ! rea* ( him he dread$1 he might prote/ aga9/ 8 oppression1 by appeal+ to prop] judges & arbitrators4 ,,vii4 ,n[ z "t immemorial1 consid]$ 9 a moral light1 seems to h no b\nds1 sil5ce = su* a l5g? ( "t appe>s suffici5t to e/abli% ! presumption t all claim to a ?+ is ab&on$1 unless ! /ronge/ pro(s to ! contr>y c be produc$4 ,! mo/ able ,lawy]s h prop]ly obs]v$1 t "t accord+ to ! memory ( man is n an hundr$ ye>s1 ?\gh probably x may n fall f> %ort ( t space4 ,= a hundr$ ye>s are ! t]m beyond :i* human exi/5ce seldom rea*es2 a space1 :i* 9 g5]al completes ?ree ages or g5]ations ( m54 ,! ,romans made ?is objection to ,antio*us1 t he claim$ cities1 :i* nei!r he himself1 8 fa!r1 nor 8 gr&fa!r _h ev] possess$4 ,,viii4 ,f ! natural affection :i* all m5 h = !mselves1 & _! prop]ty1 an objection may be tak5 aga9/ ! presumption ( any "o's ab&on+ a ?+ :i* belongs to him1 & consequ5tly negative acts1 ev5 ?\gh confirm$ by a long p]iod ( "t1 are n suffici5t to e/abli% ! above nam$ conjecture4 ,n[ consid]+ ! great importance des]v$ly atta*$ to ! settlem5t ( ,,cr[ns1 all conjectures fav\rable to ! possessors ought to be all[$4 ,= if ,aratus ( ,sicyon ?\ght x a h>d case1 t ,,private possessions ( fifty ye>s' /&+ %\ld be di/urb$1 h[ mu* weighti] is t maxim ( ,augu/us1 t x is ! "* ( a good man & a good subject to wi% = no *ange 9 ! pres5t gov]nm5t1 &1 ,,9 ,,! ,,words1 ,,:i* ,,?ucydides ,,has ,,assign$ ,,to ,,alcibiades1 to support ! con/itution1 "u :i* he has be5 born8 ,b if no su* rules 9 fav\r ( possession c\ld be adduc$1 yet a m weighty objection might be f\nd aga9/ ! presumption1 drawn f ! incl9ation ( e "o to pres]ve 8 own "r1 :i* is ! improbability ( "o man's all[+ ano!r to usurp 8 prop]ty = any l5g? ( "t1 )\t decl>+ & ass]t+ 8 own "r4 ,,ix4 ,p]haps x may reasonably be said1 t ?is matt] does n re/ ^u presumption only1 b t x is a rule1 introduc$ by ! volunt>y law ( ,nations1 t un9t]rupt$ possession1 aga9/ :i* no claim has be5 ass]t$1 w entirely transf] su* prop]ty to ! actual possessor4 ,= x is mo/ likely t all nations by cons5t gave _! sanction to su* a practice1 z conducive to _! common peace4 ,! t]m un9t]rupt$ possession !re=e has be5 v prop]ly us$ to signify1 z ,sulpitius says 9 ,livy1 t :i* has be5 held by "o uni=m t5\r ( "r1 )\t int]mission4 ,or z ! same au?or1 9 ano!r place1 calls x1 p]petual possession1 t has nev] be5 call$ 9 "q4 ,= a transitory possession creates no title4 ,& x 0 ?is exception :i* ! ,numidians _h urg$ aga9/ ! ,c>?ag9ians1 alleg+ t z opportunity (f]$1 sometimes ! ,k+s ( ! ,numidians _h appropriat$ to !mselves ! disput$ possessions1 :i* _h always rema9$ 9 ! h&s ( ! /rong] p>ty4 ,x4 ,b "h ano!r "q1 & t ( consid]able difficulty1 arises1 :i* is1 to decide1 :e!r1 by ?is des]tion1 p]sons yet unborn may be depriv$ ( _! rights4 ,if we ma9ta9 t !y ,,may ,,n1 ! rule already e/abli%$ w\ld be ( no avail t[>ds settl+ ! tranquillity ( k+doms1 & security ( prop]ty4 ,= 9 mo/ ?+s "s ?+ is due to ! int]e/s ( po/]ity4 ,b if we affirm t !y ,,may1 x !n seems wond]ful t sil5ce %\ld prejudice ! rights ( ^?1 :o 7 unable to speak1 be=e !y _h any exi/5ce1 & t ! act ( ,,o!rs %\ld op]ate to _! injury4 ,to cle> up ?is po9t1 we mu/ obs]ve t no rights c belong to a p]son be=e he has any exi/5ce1 z1 9 ! language ( ! s*ools1 !re c be no accid5t )\t a sub/ance4 ,:]e=e if a ,pr9ce1 f urg5t motives ( policy1 & = ! advantage ( 8 own native dom9ions1 & subjects1 %\ld decl9e to accept an additional sov]eignty1 or = ! same reasons1 %\ld rel9qui% t1 :i* he _h already accept$1 he w\ld n be *>g$ ) injur+ 8 heirs & successors1 !n unborn1 :o c\ld h no rights be=e !y _h a natural exi/5ce4 ,n[ z a sov]eign may ,,expressly decl>e a *ange ( 8 w respect+ su* dom9ions1 s t *ange may1 9 c]ta9 cases1 be impli$ )\t su* decl>ation4 ,9 consequ5ce ( su* a *ange ei!r express$ or impli$1 be=e ! rights ( heirs & successors c be suppos$ to h any exi/5ce1 ! possession may be consid]$ z entirely ab&on$4 ,! case "h has be5 consid]$ accord+ to ! ,,law ,,( ,,nature3 = ! civil law1 among o!r fictions1 introduc$ t ( ! law's p]sonat+ ^?1 :o are n yet 9 be+1 & s prev5t+ any occupancy f tak+ place to _! prejudice2 a regulation ( law e/abli%$ ^u no slight gr\nds 9 ord] to pres]ve e/ates 9 families1 al?\gh e means ( ,,p]petuat+ prop]ty to individuals1 :i* prev5ts its transf] f h& to h&1 may 9 "s measure be detrim5tal to ! public int]e/4 ,f :5ce x is a receiv$ op9ion1 t l5g? ( "t w give a prop]ty 9 ^? fees1 :i* 7 orig9ally convey$1 n by "r ( succession1 b by virtue ( primitive inve/iture4 ,cov>ruvias1 a lawy] ( great judgm5t1 supports ?is op9ion ) ! /ronge/ argum5ts 9 fav\r ( primog5iture1 & applies x to e/ates left 9 tru/4 ,= no?+ c prev5t ! civil law f in/itut+ a "r1 :i*1 ?\gh x _c be lawfully ali5at$ by ! act ( "o p>ty )\t cons5t ( ! o!r1 yet1 to avoid unc]ta9ty 9 ! t5ure ( pres5t proprietors1 may be lo/ by neglect ( claim = a l5g? ( "t4 ,/ill ! p>ties ?us depriv$ may ma9ta9 a p]sonal action aga9/ ^?1 or _! heirs1 ?r\gh ^: neglect _! "r has be5 =feit$4 ,,xi4 ,x is an inquiry ( importance :e!r ! law ( usucaption & prescription1 if x prevail 9 a pr9ce's dom9ions1 c be appli$ to ! t5ure ( ! cr[n1 & all its pr]ogatives4 ,_m legal writ]s1 :o h treat$ ( ! nature ( sov]eign p[] accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( ! ,roman civil law1 seem to affirm t x may be s appli$4 ,b ?is is an op9ion to :i* we _c acc$e 9 its full ext5t4 ,= to make a law b9d+ ^u any "o1 x is requisite t ! legislator %\ld possess bo? p[] & w4 ,a legislator is n b\nd by 8 law1 z by ! irrevocable & un*angeable contr\l ( a sup]ior4 ,b occasions may arise t w dem& an alt]ation or ev5 a repeal ( ! law :i* he has made4 ,yet a legislator may be b\nd by 8 own law1 n directly z a legislator1 b z an individual =m+ "p ( ! community3 & t too accord+ to natural equity1 :i* requires t all ! compon5t p>ts %\ld be> a ref]5ce to ! :ole4 ,we f9d 9 holy writ1 ?is rule obs]v$ by ,saul 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 reign4 ,n[ t rule does n take place "h4 ,= we are consid]+ ! lawgiv]1 n z a "p b z ! ,,repres5tative & ,,sov]eign ( ! :ole community4 ,nor inde$ c any su* int5tion 9 ! lawgiv] be presum$ to h exi/$4 ,= legislators are n suppos$ to compreh5d !mselves )9 ! rule ( ! law1 except :]e ! nature & subject ( x are g5]al4 ,b sov]eignty is n to be comp>$ ) o!r ?+s2 x s f> surpasses !m 9 ! nobl5ess ( its end1 & ! dignity ( its nature4 ,nor is any civil law to be f\nd :i* ei!r does1 or designs to compreh5d sov]eign p[] )9 ! rules ( prescription4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4#bb ,,9 ,,:at ,,cases ,,jurisdiction ,,& ,,prop]ty ,,cease4 ,jurisdiction & prop]ty cease1 :5 ! family ( ! own] has become ext9ct--,9 :at mann] ! rights ( a p may become ext9ct--,a p becomes ext9ct :5 its ess5tial p>ts are de/roy$--,a p does n become ext9ct by emigration--,! exi/5ce ( sep>ate /ates n de/roy$ by a f$]al union4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,aft] ! prec$+ inquiries into ! mann] 9 :i* private prop]ty z well z sov]eign p[] may be acquir$ & transf]r$1 ! mann]1 9 :i* !y cease1 naturally comes next "u consid]ation4 ,x has be5 %ewn be=e t ! "r to prop]ty may be lo/ by neglect2 = prop]ty c cont9ue no long] ?an :ile ! w ( own]%ip cont9ues4 ,!re is also ano!r mann] 9 :i* prop]ty may cease to exi/1 )\t any express or impli$ ali5ation3 & t is :]e ! family ei!r ( a sov]eign1 or an own]1 becomes ext9ct1 a cont+5cy = :i* provision mu/ be made some:at simil> to a succession to ! prop]ty ( "o :o dies inte/ate4 ,:]e=e if any "o die1 )\t any decl>ation ( 8 w1 & h no relations by blood1 all ! "r1 :i* he _h1 becomes ext9ct1 & rev]ts1 if a sov]eign1 to ! h&s ( ! nation1 except :]e express provisions ( law h be5 made to ! contr>y4 ,,iii4 ,! same mode ( reason+ applies to a nation4 ,isocrates1 & aft] him ! ,emp]or ,julian1 has said t /ates are immortal1 or may be s4 ,= a p is "o ( t k9d ( bodies :i* are =m$ ( di/9ct p>ts1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 regul> succession1 & supply+ ! place ( ! deceas$4 ,?is body goes "u "o "n1 =m+1 z ,plut>* says1 "o con/itution2 or1 9 ! language ( ,paulus ! ,lawy]1 "o _s4 ,n[ ! _s or con/itution 9 a p is ! full & p]fect h>mony ( civil life1 f :i* emanates ! sov]eign p[]1 ! v s\l ( all gov]nm5t1 &1 z ,s5eca says1 ! vital brea? :i* s _m ?\s&s draw4 ,^! artificial bodies be> a close resemblance to ! natural body1 :i*1 not)/&+ ! alt]ation ( its compon5t p>ticles1 loses n its id5tity1 s long z ! g5]al =m rema9s4 ,& !re=e 9 ! passage ( ,s5eca1 :]e he says1 t no "o is ! same 9 8 old age t he 0 9 8 y\?1 he means only z to natural sub/ance4 ,9 ! same mann] ,h]aclitus1 z cit$ by ,plato 9 ,cratylus1 & ,s5eca 9 ! place already quot$1 has said1 t we _c desc5d ,,twice into ! same riv]4 ,b ,s5eca aft]w>ds corrects himself1 add+1 t ! riv] reta9s its "n1 ?\gh ! wat]y p>ticles ( :i* x is compos$ are p]petually *ang+4 ,s ,ari/otle1 too1 9 comp>+ nations to riv]s1 has said t ! riv]s are always call$ by ! same "n1 ?\gh _! sev]al p>ts are fluctuat+ e mom5t4 ,nor is x ! "n alone :i* cont9ues1 b t pr9ciple also :i* ,conon calls ! con/itutional sy/em ( ! body1 & ,philo ! _s1 t holds x toge!r4 ,s t a p1 z ,alph5us & ,plut>*1 9 speak+ ( ! late1 b un]r+ approa* ( div9e v5geance1 ma9ta91 ?\gh n "o ( its memb]s ( a =m] p]iod be n[ liv+1 is ! same at pres5t t x 0 a hundr$ ye>s ago1 z long z ! _s1 :i* fir/ fram$ & aft]w>ds kept ! body toge!r1 pres]ves its id5tity4 ,h5ce has orig9at$ ! cu/om1 9 address+ a p1 ( ascrib+ to !m1 :o are n[ liv+1 :at happ5$ to ! same p _m ages be=e2 z may be se5 bo? 9 pr(ane hi/orians1 & 9 ! books ( holy writ4 ,s 9 ,tacitus1 ,antony ! ,fir/ s]v+ "u ,vespasian1 rem9ds ! soldi]s ( ! ?ird legion ( :at !y _h done 9 =m] times1 h[ "u ,m>k ,antony !y _h beat5 ! ,p>?ians1 & "u ,corbulo ! ,arm5ians4 ,!re 0 m ( prejudice1 !re=e1 ?an tru? 9 ! reproa*1 :i* ,piso ca/ ^u ! ,a!nians ( 8 own "t1 refus+ to consid] !m z ,a!nians s9ce !y _h become ext9ct by s _m disa/]s1 & 7 no?+ m ?an a base mixture ( all nations ( ! e>?4 ,we say !re 0 m ( prejudice ?an tru? 9 ?is reproa*4 ,= ?\gh su* a mixture might dim9i% ! dignity1 x c\ld n de/roy ! exi/5ce ( a p4 ,nor 0 he himself ignorant ( ?is4 ,= he reproa*es ! ,a!nians ( 8 own day ) _! feeble ef=ts 9 =m] times aga9/ ,philip ( ,mac$on1 & _! +ratitude to _! be/ fri5ds4 ,n[ z a *ange ( its compon5t p>ts _c de/roy ! id5tity ( a p1 n ev5 = a ?\s& ye>s or m2 s nei!r c x be d5i$ t a p may lose its exi/5ce 9 two ways2 ei!r by ! ext9ction ( all its memb]s1 or by ! ext9ction ( its =m & _s4 ,,iv4 ,a body is said to die1 :5 its ess5tial p>ts1 & necess>y =m ( subsi/5ce are de/roy$4 ,to ! =m] case may be ref]r$ ! in/ance ( nations swall[$ up by ! sea1 z ,plato relates1 & o!rs :om ,t]tullian m5tions3 or if a p %\ld be de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 ( :i* !re are _m in/ances 9 hi/ory1 or %\ld de/roy !mselves1 z ! ,sidonians & ,sagunt9es did4 ,we are in=m$ by ,pl9y1 t 9 anci5t ,latium1 fifty-?ree nations 7 de/roy$ )\t a s+le trace ( !m rema9+4 ,b :at1 x may be said w be ! case1 if out ( su* a nation s few rema9 t !y _c =m a p8 ,!y w !n reta9 t prop]ty1 :i* !y _h be=e z private p]sons1 b n 9 a public capacity4 ,! same is ! case ) e community4 ,v4 ,a p loses its =m1 by los+ all or "s ( ^? rights1 :i* x _h 9 common2 & ?is happ5s1 ei!r :5 e individual is r$uc$ to slav]y1 z ! ,myc5aeans1 :o 7 sold by ! ,argives2 ! ,olyn?ians by ,philip1 ! ,!bans by ,alex&]1 & ! ,brutians1 made public slaves by ! ,romans3 ,or :51 ?\gh !y reta9 _! p]sonal lib]ty1 !y are depriv$ ( ! rights ( sov]eignty4 ,?us ,livy in=ms u respect+ ,capua1 t ! ,romans det]m9$1 ?\gh x might be inhabit$ z a city1 t !re %\ld be no municipal body1 no s5ate1 no public c\ncil1 no magi/rates1 b t depriv$ ( political delib]ation1 & sov]eign au?ority1 ! inhabitants %\ld be consid]$ z a multitude2 subject to ! jurisdiction ( a ,praefect s5t f ,rome4 ,!re=e ,cic]o1 9 8 fir/ spee* aga9/ ,rullus1 says t !re 0 no image ( a republic left at ,capua4 ,! same may be said ( nations r$uc$ to ! =m ( ,prov9ces1 & ( ^? subjugat$ by ano!r p[]2 z ,byzantium 0 to ,p]9?us1 by ! ,emp]or ,sev]us1 & ,antio* to ,laodicea1 by ,!odosius4 ,,vi4 ,b if a nation %\ld emigrate1 ei!r spontane\sly1 on acc\nt ( sc>city or any o!r calamity1 or if by compulsion1 :i* 0 ! case ) ! p ( ,c>?age 9 ! ?ird ,punic w>1 :ile %e reta9s h] =m1 %e does n cease to be a p2 & /ill less s1 if only ! walls ( h] cities be de/roy$1 & !re=e :5 ! ,lac$aemonians refus$ to admit ! ,mess5ians to swe> to ! peace ( ,greece1 because ! walls ( _! city 7 de/roy$1 x 0 c>ri$ aga9/ !m 9 ! ,g5]al ,assembly ( ! ,allies4 ,nor does x make any diff]5ce 9 ! argum5t1 :atev] ! =m ( gov]nm5t may be1 :e!r regal1 ari/ocratical1 or democratical4 ,! ,roman p = in/ance 0 ! same1 :e!r "u k+s1 consuls1 or emp]ors4 ,ev5 inde$ "u ! mo/ absolute =m1 ! p is ! same t x 0 9 its indep5d5t /ate1 :ile ! k+ gov]ns x z head ( t p1 & n ( any o!r4 ,= ! sov]eignty :i* resides 9 ! k+ z ! head1 resides 9 ! p likewise z ! body ( :i* he is ! head2 & !re=e 9 an elective gov]nm5t1 if ! k+ or ! royal family %\ld become ext9ct1 ! rights ( sov]eignty1 z x has be5 already %ewn1 w\ld rev]t to ! p4 ,nor is ?is argum5t ov]?r[n by ! objection drawn f ,ari/otle1 :o says t1 if ! =m ( gov]nm5t is *ang$1 ! /ate no long] cont9ues to be ! same1 z ! h>mony ( a piece ( music is entirely *ang$ by a transition f ! ,doric to ! ,phrygian measure4 ,n[ x is to be obs]v$1 t an artificial sy/em may possess _m diff]5t =ms1 z 9 an army "u "o supreme comm&] !re are _m subord9ate p>ts1 & inf]ior p[]s1 :ile 9 ! op]ations ( ! field x appe>s b z "o body4 ,9 same mann]1 ! union ( ! legislative & executive 9 a /ate gives x ! appe>ance ( "o =m1 :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 subject & sov]eign1 & _! /ill mutual relation give x ano!r4 ,! executive p[] is ! politician's conc]n2 ! judicial1 ! lawy]'s4 ,nor did ?is escape ! notice ( ,ari/otle4 ,= he says x belongs to a sci5ce diff]5t f t ( politics to det]m9e :e!r1 "u a *ange 9 ! =m ( gov]nm5t1 ! debts contract$ "u ! old sy/em ought to be dis*>g$ by ! memb]s ( ! new4 ,he does ?is1 to avoid ! fault :i* he blames 9 _m o!r writ]s1 ( mak+ digressions f "o subject to ano!r4 ,x is evid5t t a /ate1 :i* f a commonweal? has become a regal gov]nm5t1 is answ]able = ! debts incurr$ be=e t *ange4 ,= x is ! same p1 possess+ all ! same rights1 & p[]s1 :i* are n[ ex]cis$ 9 a diff]5t mann]1 be+ no long] ve/$ 9 ! body1 b 9 ! head4 ,?is furni%es a ready answ] to a "q "s times ask$1 :i* is1 :at place 9 g5]al assemblies ( diff]5t /ates1 ought to be assign$ to a sov]eign1 to :om ! p ( a commonweal? h transf]r$ all _! p[]8 ,und\bt$ly ! same place :i* t p or _! repres5tatives _h occupi$ be=e 9 su* c\ncils4 ,?us 9 ! ,amphictyonic c\ncil1 ,philip ( ,mac$on succe$$ to ! place ( ! ,phoc5sians4 ,s1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p ( a commonweal? occupy ! place assign$ to sov]eigns4 ,,viii4#bc ,:5ev] two nations become unit$1 _! rights1 z di/9ct /ates1 w n be lo/1 b w be communicat$ to ea* o!r4 ,?us ! rights ( ! ,albans 9 ! fir/ place1 & aft]w>ds ^? ( ! ,sab9es1 z we are in=m$ by ,livy1 7 transf]r$ to ! ,romans1 & !y became "o gov]nm5t4 ,! same reason+ holds good respect+ /ates1 :i* are jo9$1 n by a f$]al ,,union1 b by hav+ "o sov]eign = _! head4 ,,ix4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may happ5 t a nation1 orig9ally =m+ b "o /ate1 may be divid$1 ei!r by mutual cons5t1 or by ! fate ( w>2 z ! body ( ! ,p]sian ,empire 0 divid$ among ! successors ( ,alex&]4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 _m sov]eign p[]s arise 9 ! place ( "o1 ea* enjoy+ its indep5d5t rights1 :atev] belong$ to ! orig9al /ate1 9 common1 mu/ ei!r cont9ue to be gov]n$ z a common conc]n1 or be divid$ 9 equitable proportions4 ,to ?is head may be ref]r$ ! volunt>y sep>ation1 :i* takes place :5 a nation s5ds out colonies4 ,= ?us a new p z x 7 is =m$1 enjoy+ _! own rights2 & z ,?ucydides says1 s5t out n ^u t]ms ( slav]y1 b equality1 yet /ill ow+ respect & ob$i5ce to _! "m-c\ntry4 ,! same writ]1 speak+ ( ! second colony s5t by ! ,cor9?ians to ,epidamnus1 says1 !y gave public notice t su* z 7 will+ to g %\ld enjoy equal privileges ) ^? t /aid at home4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,obligation ,,aris+ ,,f ,,prop]ty4 ,orig9 & nature ( ! obligation to re/ore :at belongs to ano!r--,obligation to re/ore to ! rightful own] ! pr(its t h accru$ f ! unju/ possession ( 8 p]sonal or real prop]ty--,a bona-fide possessor n b\nd to re/itution if ! ?+ has p]i%$--,su* bona-fide possessor b\nd to ! re/itution ( ! pr(its rema9+ 9 8 h&s--,b\nd to make rep>ation = ! consumption occasion$ by 8 possession--,a possessor n b\nd to make a recomp5ce = a gift1 ) an exception--,! sale ( any ?+ t has be5 b\ght1 obliges ! sell] to make re/itution1 ) a c]ta9 exception--,9 :at cases a bona-fide pur*as] ( :at belongs to ano!r may reta9 ! price1 or a "p ( x--,he :o has pur*as$ a ?+ ( "o :o is n ! real own]1 _c return x to t sell]--,! possessor ( a ?+ ^: real own] is unkn[n1 n b\nd to give x up to any "o--,a p]son n b\nd to re/ore money receiv$ ^u a di%one/ acc\nt1 or = s]vice done--,op9ion t ! prop]ty ( ?+s valu$ by weight1 numb] & measure1 may be transf]r$ )\t cons5t ( ! own]1 refut$4 ,i4 ,hav+ expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ "p ! nature & rights ( prop]ty1 x rema9s = u to consid] ! obligation :i* we incur f !nce4 ,n[ ?is obligation proce$s f ?+s ei!r 9 exi/5ce1 or n 9 exi/5ce1 compreh5d+1 "u ! "n ( ?+s1 ! "r also ov] p]sons1 z f> z is b5eficial to u4 ,! obligation1 aris+ f ?+s 9 exi/5ce1 b9ds ! p]son1 :o has our prop]ty 9 8 p[]1 to d all he c to put u aga9 into possession ( x4 ,we h said to d all he c3 = no "o is b\nd to an impossibility1 nor to procure ! re/oration ( a ?+ at 8 own exp5ce4 ,b he is oblig$ to make e discov]y :i* may enable ano!r to recov] 8 own prop]ty4 ,= z 9 a community ( ?+s1 x 0 necess>y t a c]ta9 equality %\ld be pres]v$1 to prev5t "o man f hav+ an undue %>e ( ! common /ock2 s ^u ! introduction ( prop]ty1 x became1 z x 71 a k9d ( e/abli%$ rule ( society among ! own]s1 t ! p]son1 :o _h 9 8 possession any?+ belong+ to ano!r %\ld re/ore x to ! lawful proprietor4 ,= if ! "r ( prop]ty ext5d$ no f>!r ?an b>ely to enable ! own] to make a dem& ( re/itution )\t ,,en=c+ x by ,,legal ,,process1 x w\ld re/ ^u a v weak f\ndation1 & sc>ce be wor? ! hold+4 ,nor does x make any diff]5ce1 :e!r a p]son has fairly or fraudul5tly obta9$ possession ( a ?+ n belong+ to him4 ,= he is equally b\nd to re/ore x1 bo? by ! positive obligations ( law1 & by ! pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice4 ,! ,lac$aemonians _h nom9ally cle>$ !mselves ( ! crime1 by condemn+ ,phaebidas1 :o1 9 violation ( _! treaty ) ! ,!bans1 _h seiz$ ^u ! citadel ( ,cadmea1 b 9 reality !y :]e guilty ( inju/ice1 by reta9+ ! possession4 ,& ,x5ophon has rem>k$ t1 su* a s+ul> act ( inju/ice 0 puni%$ by ! signal provid5ce ( ,god4 ,= ! same reason ,m>cus ,crassus1 & ,qu9tus ,hort5sius1 are blam$ = hav+ reta9$ "p ( an inh]itance left !m by a w1 ! mak+ ( :i* _h be5 procur$ ^u false pret5ces1 b 9 ! managem5t ( :i* !y _h no %>e4 ,cic]o blames !m1 because x is und]/ood to be settl$ by g5]al agreem5t1 t all m5 are to re/ore :at !y are possess$ (1 if ano!r is prov$ to be ! rightful own]4 ,a pr9ciple by :i* prop]ty is firmly secur$1 & ^u :i* all special contracts are f\nd$1 & any exceptions to ?is rule1 conta9$ 9 !m1 mu/ be expressly nam$ z su*4 ,?is ?r[s light ^u ! passage ( ,tryphon9us4 ,if a robb]1 says he1 has spoil$ me ( my goods1 :i* he has deposit$ ) ,seius1 :o kn[s no?+ ( ! fact2 ! "q is1 :e!r he ought to re/ore !m to ! robb] or to me4 ,if we consid] him z giv+ & receiv+ on 8 own acc\nt1 ,,good ,,fai? requires t ! deposit %\ld be re/or$ to him :o gave x4 ,if we consid] ! equity ( ! :ole case1 includ+ all ! p]sons conc]n$ 9 ! transaction1 ! goods %\ld be re/or$ to me1 z ! p]son unju/ly depriv$ ( !m4 ,& he prop]ly adds1 ,i prove x to be /rict ju/ice to assign e "o 8 due1 )\t infr++ on ! m j claims ( ano!r4 ,n[ x has be5 %ewn t ! ju/e/ title on :i* any "o c claim1 is t :i* is coaeval ) ! prop]ty itself4 ,f :5ce ! pr9ciple laid d[n by ,tryphon9us1 t if any "o unkn[+ly receiv$ goods z a deposit1 & aft]w>ds discov]s !m to be 8 own1 he is n b\nd to re/ore !m4 ,& ! "q1 :i* ! same au?or puts a little be=e respect+ goods deposit$ by "o1 ^: prop]ty _h be5 confiscat$1 is bett] settl$ by ?is pr9ciple1 ?an by :at he says else:]e on ! utility ( puni%m5t4 ,= z to ! nature ( prop]ty1 x makes no diff]5ce1 :e!r x arises f ! law ( nations1 or f ! civil law2 z x always c>ries ) x peculi> qualities1 among :i* may be reckon$ ! obligation1 "u :i* e possessor lies to re/ore a ?+ to its rightful own]4 ,& h5ce x is said by ,m>tian1 t accord+ to ! law ( nations1 re/itution may be dem&$1 ( ^?1 :o h no legal title to ! possession4 ,f ! same orig9 spr+s ! maxim ( ,ulpian1 t :oev] has f\nd a ?+ belong+ to ano!r1 is b\nd to re/ore x1 ev5 )\t claim+ or receiv+ a rew>d = f9d+ x4 ,! pr(its also are to be re/or$1 ) a d$uction only ( reasonable *>ges4 ,,ii4 ,respect+ ?+s1 non-exi/5t1 or ^: id5tity _c be asc]ta9$1 is a pr9ciple g5]ally receiv$ among mank9d1 t ! p]son1 :o has become ri*] by t prop]ty1 ( :i* ! rightful own] has be5 dispossess$1 is b\nd to make him rep>ation 9 proportion to ! b5efit1 :i* he has d]iv$ f 8 prop]ty4 ,= ! true proprietor may be ju/ly said to h lo/1 :at ,,he has ga9$4 ,n[ ! v introduction ( prop]ty 0 int5d$ to pres]ve t equality1 :i* assigns to e "o 8 own4 ,cic]o has said1 t x is contr>y to natural ju/ice1 = "o man to improve 8 own advantage at ! exp5ce ( ano!r1 & 9 ano!r place1 t nature does n all[ u to increase our res\rces1 ri*es1 & p[]1 f ! spoils ( o!rs4 ,!re is s mu* ( equity 9 ?is say+1 t _m legal writ]s h made x ! basis ( _! def9itions1 to supply ! defici5cy ( ! /rict lett] ( ! law1 always appeal+ to equity z ! mo/ sure & cle> rule ( action4 ,if any "o employ a slave1 z 8 factor1 to trade = him1 he is b\nd by ! acts ( t factor1 unless he has previ\sly giv5 notice t he is n to be tru/$4 ,b ev5 if su* notice has be5 giv51 :]e ! factor has a prop]ty 9 ! conc]n1 or ! ma/] a pr(it1 ! notice %all be deem$ a fraud4 ,=1 says ,proculus1 :oev] makes an advantage f ! loss ( ano!r is guilty ( a fraud2 a t]m imply+ e ?+ repugnant to natural ju/ice & equity4 ,he1 :o1 at ! in/ance ( a "m1 has put 9 bail = h] son's advocate1 has no action on ! case aga9/ ! advocate = :at is call$ an assumpsit or und]tak+4 ,= x 0 n /rictly 8 bus9ess1 :i* ! advocate manag$2 ! bail 0 put 9 at ! ,,in/ance ( ! ,,"m4 ,yet accord+ to ! op9ion ( ,pap9ian1 an action on ! case = ! assumpsit1 or und]tak+ w lie aga9/ ! advocate1 because x is ) ! bailor's money t he is dis*>g$ f ! risque ( ! co/s4 ,s a wife :o has giv5 to h] husb& money1 :i* %e may by law dem& aga91 has a p]sonal action ( recov]y aga9/ him1 or an indirect action ^u any ?+ pur*as$ ) ! money4 ,because1 z ,ulpian says1 x _c be d5i$1 t ! husb& has be5 ri*] by x1 & ! "q is1 :e!r :at he possesses belongs to 8 wife8 ,if ,i h be5 robb$ by my slave1 & any "o has sp5t ! money "u ! supposition t x 0 ! slave's own prop]ty1 an action may be ma9ta9$ aga9/ t p]son1 z be+ unju/ly 9 possession ( my prop]ty4 ,accord+ to ! ,roman laws1 m9ors are n answ]able = money borr[$4 ,yet if a m9or has become ri*] by ! loan1 an indirect action w lie aga9/ him1 or1 if any?+1 belong+ to ano!r1 has be5 pawn$ & sold by a cr$itor1 ! debtor %\ld be releas$ f ! debt 9 proportion to :at ! cr$itor has receiv$4 ,because1 says ,tryphon9us1 :atev] ! obligation may be1 s9ce ! money rais$ accru$ f ! debt1 x is m reasonable t x %\ld r$\nd to ! b5efit ( ! debtor ?an ! cr$itor4 ,b ! debtor is b\nd to indemnify ! pur*as]1 = x w\ld n be reasonable t he %\ld d]ive ga9 f ano!r's loss4 ,n[ if a cr$itor1 hold+ an e/ate 9 pl$ge = 8 money1 has receiv$ f x r5ts & pr(its am\nt+ to m ?an 8 real debt2 all above t %all be consid]$ z a dis*>ge ( s mu* ( ! pr9cipal4 ,b to proce$ ) o!r cases4 ,if y h treat$ ) my debtor1 n suppos+ him to be indebt$ to me1 b to ano!r p]son1 & h borr[$ my money ( him1 y are oblig$ to pay me2 n because ,i h l5t y money2 = t c\ld only be done by mutual cons5t2 b because x is reasonable & j1 t my money1 :i* has come into y\r possession1 %\ld be re/or$ to me4 ,! lat] writ]s on ! law h adduc$ ?is k9d ( reason+ 9 support ( simil> cases4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if ! goods ( any "o1 :o has be5 ca/ ?r\gh default1 h be5 sold1 if he c make any good exception to ! decision1 he %all be entitl$ to ! money aris+ f su* sale4 ,aga91 :5 any "o has l5t money to a fa!r = ! ma9t5ance ( 8 son2 if ! fa!r %\ld become insolv5t1 he may br+ an action aga9/ ! son1 provid$ ! son is possess$ ( any ?+ ?r\gh 8 "m4 ,^! two rules be+ p]fectly und]/ood1 !re w be no difficulty 9 answ]+ ! que/ions (t5 propos$ by ,lawy]s & ,!ologians on su* subjects4 ,,iii4 ,9 ! fir/ place x appe>s1 t a p]son :o has obta9$ possession ( goods by fair means1 is n b\nd to re/itution1 if ^? goods h p]i%$1 because !y are no long] 9 8 possession1 nor has he d]iv$ any advantage f !m4 ,! case ( unlawful possession :i* is left to ! puni%m5t ( ! law is entirely out ( ! "q4 ,,iv4 ,9 ! next place a bona-fide possessor ( a ?+ is b\nd to a re/itution ( ! fruits or pr(its !re( rema9+ 9 8 h&4 ,! ,,fruits or ,,produce ( ! ,,?+ ,,itself are "h meant4 ,= ! b5efit d]iv$ f a ?+ ow+ to ! indu/ry be/[$ ^u x by ! occupi] !re(1 _c belong to ! ?+ itself1 ?\gh orig9ally proce$+ f x4 ,! reason ( ?is obligation arises f ! in/itution ( prop]ty4 ,= ! true proprietor ( a possession is naturally proprietor ( ! fruits or produce ( ! same4 ,v4 ,su* possessor 9 ! ?ird place is b\nd to make re/itution ( ! ?+1 or rep>ation = ! consumption ( x occasion$ by 8 possession4 ,= he is conceiv$ to h be5 made ! ri*] !reby4 ,?us ,caligula is prais$ = hav+1 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 reign1 re/or$ to diff]5t ,pr9ces along ) _! cr[ns1 ! int]m$iate rev5ues ( _! k+doms4 ,,vi4 ,9 ! f\r? place1 an occupi] ( l&s1 = in/ance1 is n b\nd to make a comp5sation = ! produce !re( :i* he has n reap$4 ,= if dispossess$1 he has nei!r ! ?+ itself1 nor any ?+ 9 ! place ( x4 ,,vii4 ,9 ! fif? place1 a possessor :o has grant$ to a ?ird p]son a ?+ ( :i* a gift _h be5 made to himself1 is n b\nd to make a recomp5ce to ! orig9al giv]1 unless he receiv$ x "u /ipulation1 t if he grant$ x to a ?ird p]son1 & !reby sp>$ 8 own prop]ty1 he %\ld make a return proportionable to su* ga94 ,,viii4 ,six?ly1 if any "o has sold a ?+ :i* he has b\ght1 he is n b\nd to re/itution ( m ?an ! surplus aris+ f ! sale4 ,b if he _h receiv$ x "u /ipulation to sell1 he is b\nd to make re/itution ( ! :ole price1 unless1 9 transact+ ! sale he has incurr$ an exp5ce1 am\nt+ to ! :ole price1 :i* he w\ld n o!rwise h done4#bd ,,ix4 ,sev5?ly1 a bona-fide pur*as] ( :at belongs to ano!r is oblig$ to make re/itution to ! real own]1 nor c ! price he paid be recov]$4 ,to ?is h[ev] !re seems to be "o exception1 :i* is1 :]e ! own] c\ld n h recov]$ possession )\t "s exp5ce2 s = in/ance1 if 8 prop]ty 7 9 ! h&s ( pirates4 ,= !n a d$uction may be made ( z mu* z ! own] w\ld will+ly h sp5t 9 ! recov]y4 ,because ! actual possession1 especially ( a ?+ difficult to be recov]$1 may be asc]ta9$1 & ! own] deem$ s mu* ! ri*] by su* recov]y4 ,& !re=e1 ?\gh 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( law1 ! pur*ase ( :at belongs to "o's self c nev] con/itute a b>ga91 yet ,paulus ! ,lawy] says1 t x may d s1 if x has be5 orig9ally agre$ t we are to pay = ! re-possession ( :at ano!r has belong+ to u 9 8 h&s4 ,nor is x 9 ! lea/ mat]ial1 :e!r a ?+ has be5 b\ght ) an int5tion ( re/or+ x to ! own]2 9 :i* case1 "s say1 t an action = co/s may be ma9ta9$1 :il/ o!rs d5y x4 ,= an action on ! case1 to recov] a comp5sation = bus9ess done arises f ! artificial rules ( ,,civil ,,law1 & n solely f ! simple dictates ( natural ju/ice2 :i* are "h ! pr9cipal subject ( inquiry4 ,n unlike to ?is is :at ,ulpian has writt5 on fun]al exp5ces1 9 :i* he says1 t a compassionate judge w n rigidly reg>d ! b>e lab\r t has be5 giv51 b all[+ "s relaxation 9 fav\r ( equity1 w %ew indulg5ce to ! feel+s ( human nature4 ,! same writ]1 9 ano!r place has said1 t if any "o has transact$ my bus9ess1 n out ( reg>d to me1 b = 8 own int]e/1 & has incurr$ exp5ce on my acc\nt1 he may br+ an action on ! case1 n = :at he has giv51 b = :at ,i h ga9$ by 8 lab\r & exp5ce4 ,9 ! same mann]1 own]s1 by ?r[+ ^: goods ov]bo>d a %ip has be5 light5$1 may recov] a comp5sation f o!rs ^: goods 7 by t means sav$4 ,because ^? p]sons are consid]$ s mu* ! ri*] by ! pres]vation ( :at w\ld o!rwise h be5 lo/4 ,x4 ,eigh?ly1 ! p]son t has b\ght a ?+ ( "o1 :o is n ! own]1 _c return x to t sell]2 because f ! "t t ! ?+ came into 8 possession1 he incurr$ an obligation to re/ore x to ! lawful own]4 ,,xi4 ,aga91 if any "o is 9 possession ( a ?+1 ^: real own] is unkn[n1 he is n naturally1 & necess>ily b\nd to give x to ! poor2 al?\gh ?is may be consid]$ z an act ( piety1 a cu/om v prop]ly e/abli%$ 9 "s places4 ,! reason ( :i* is f\nd$ on ! introduction ( prop]ty4 ,=1 9 consequ5ce ( t1 no "o except ! real own]1 c claim a "r to any ?+4 ,to ! p]son !re=e1 :o _c discov] su* an own]1 x is ! same z if !re really 7 none4 ,,xii4 ,la/ly1 a p]son is n oblig$ by ! law ( nature to re/ore money1 :i* has be5 receiv$ ^u a di%one/ acc\nt1 or = ! p]=mance ( a legal act1 to :i* t p]son 0 ( himself b\nd4 ,h[ev] x is n )\t reason t "s laws h requir$ re/itution 9 su* cases4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 because no "o is b\nd to "p ) any ?+ unless x belongs to ano!r4 ,b "h ! prop]ty is volunt>ily transf]r$ by ! fir/ own]4 ,! case w be alt]$1 if !re be any ?+ iniquit\s 9 ! mann] ( acquir+ ! ?+2 z if1 = in/ance1 x be ga9$ by extortion4 ,?is gives rise to ! obligation ( submitt+ to p5alties1 :i* is n imm$iately to ! pres5t purpose4 ,,xiii4 ,! pres5t subject may be conclud$ ) a refutation ( ,m$9a's false op9ion1 t a prop]ty 9 ?+s1 belong+ to ano!r1 may be transf]r$ )\t cons5t ( ! own]2 provid$ ! ?+s are su* z are usually valu$ by weight1 numb] & measure4 ,because ?+s ( t nature c be repaid 9 k9d1 or by an equival5t4 ,b ?is is only1 :]e su* a mode ( repaym5t has be5 previ\sly agre$ ^u2 or :]e x is und]/ood to be e/abli%$ by law or cu/om2 or :]e ! ?+ itself has be5 consum$1 & _c be id5tically re/or$4 ,b )\t su* cons5t1 ei!r express$ or impli$1 or except+ ! impossibility j m5tion$1 ! ?+s !mselves mu/ be re/or$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,on ,,promises4 ,op9ion1 t ! obligation to fulfil promises is n enact$ by ! law ( nature1 refut$--,a b>e ass]tion n b9d+--,a promis] b\nd to fulfil 8 engagem5ts1 ?\gh no "r to exact ! p]=mance ( !m1 is !reby convey$ to ano!r--,:at k9d ( promise gives su* "r--,! promis] %\ld possess ! "r use ( reason--,diff]5ce betwe5 natural & civil law ) respect to m9ors--,promises made "u an error1 or extort$ by fe>1 h[ f> b9d+--,promises valid1 if 9 ! p[] ( ! promis] to p]=m !m--,promise made ^u unlawful consid]ations1 :e!r b9d+--,mann] ( confirm+ ! promises made by o!rs1 & ! conduct ( ,ambassadors :o exce$ _! in/ructions1 consid]$--,own]s ( %ips1 h[ f> b\nd by ! acts ( ! ma/]s ( su* vessels1 & m]*ants by ! acts ( _! factors--,acceptance requisite to give validity to a promise--,promises sometimes revokable--,! p[] ( revok+ a promise1 expla9$ by di/9ctions--,burd5some conditions annex$ to a promise--,means ( confirm+ invalid promises--,natural obligation aris+ f engagem5ts made = o!rs4 ,i4 ,! c\rse ( ! subject next leads to an inquiry into ! obligation ( promises4#be ,:]e ! fir/ object1 t pres5ts itself1 is ! op9ion ( ,franciscus ,connanus1 a man ( no ord9>y le>n+4 ,he ma9ta9s an op9ion t ! law ( nature & ( nations does n en=ce ! fulfilm5t ( ^? agreem5ts1 :i* d n include an express contract4#bf ,yet ! fulfilm5t ( !m is "r1 9 cases1 :]e1 ev5 )\t a promise1 ! p]=mance w\ld be consonant to virtue & equity4 ,9 support ( 8 op9ion1 he br+s n only ! say+s ( ,lawy]s1 b likewise ! foll[+ reasons4 ,he says1 t ! p]son1 :o makes1 & he :o believes1 a ra% promise1 are equally to blame4 ,= ! =tunes ( all m5 w\ld be 9 imm95t dang]1 if !y 7 b\nd by su* promises1 :i* (t5 proce$ f motives ( vanity r ?an f a settl$ delib]ation1 & are ! result ( a light & inconsid]ate m9d4 ,la/ly1 ! p]=mance ( :atev] is any way j 9 itself1 ought to be left to ! free w ( e "o1 & n exact$ accord+ to ! rigid rules ( necessity4 ,he says t x is %ameful n to fulfil promises2 n because x is unju/1 b because x argues a levity 9 mak+ !m4 ,9 support ( 8 op9ion1 he appeals also to ! te/imony ( ,tully1 :o has said1 t ^? promises are n to be kept1 :i* are prejudicial to ! p]son to :om !y are made1 nor1 if !y are m detrim5tal to ! giv] ?an b5eficial to ! receiv]4 ,b if ! p]=mance ( an engagem5t is begun ^u ! /r5g? ( a promise1 b n f9i%$1 he does n require a complete fulfilm5t ( ! promise1 b only "s comp5sation to ! p>ty = ! disappo9tm5t4 ,agreem5ts1 he cont9ues1 h no intr9sic =ce ( obligation1 b only :at !y d]ive f ! express contracts1 9 :i* !y are includ$1 or to :i* !y are annex$1 or f ! deliv]y ( ! ?+ promis$4 ,f :5ce arise actions1 on ! "o side1 & exceptions on ! o!r1 & b>s to all claims ( recov]y4 ,b x is ?r\gh fav\r ( ! laws alone1 :i* give ! efficacy ( obligation to :at is only fair & equitable 9 itself1 t obligatory agreem5ts1 su* z express cov5ants & o!r ?+s ( t k9d1 d]ive _! =ce4 ,n[ !re is no consi/5cy 9 ?is op9ion1 tak5 9 ! g5]al s5se int5d$ by its au?or4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place x imm$iately foll[s f !nce1 t !re is no =ce 9 treaties betwe5 k+s & diff]5t nations1 till "s "p ( !m be c>ri$ into execution1 especially 9 ^? places1 :]e no c]ta9 =m ( treaties or compacts has be5 e/abli%$4 ,b no j reason c be f\nd1 :y laws1 :i* are a k9d ( g5]al agreem5t among a p1 & inde$ are call$ s by ,ari/otle1 & ,demo/h5es1 %\ld be able to give ! =ce ( obligation to compacts1 & :y ! w ( an individual1 do+ e ?+ to b9d himself1 %\ld n h ! same p[]2 especially :]e ! civil law creates no imp$im5t to x4 ,besides1 z x has be5 already said t ! prop]ty ( a ?+ may be transf]r$1 :]e a suffici5t indication ( ! w is giv54 ,:y may we n !n convey to ano!r ! "r to claim a transf] ( our prop]ty to him1 or ! fulfilm5t ( our engagem5ts1 z we h ! same p[] ov] our actions1 z ov] our prop]ty8 ,?is is an op9ion confirm$ by ! wisdom ( all ages4 ,= z x is said by legal au?orities1 t s9ce no?+ is s consonant to natural ju/ice1 z = ! w ( an own]1 freely transf]r+ 8 prop]ty to ano!r1 to be confirm$1 s no?+ is m conducive to good fai? among m51 ?an a /rict adh]5ce to ! engagem5ts !y h made ) ea* o!r4 ,?us a legal decision = ! paym5t ( money1 :]e no debt has be5 incurr$1 except by ! v]bal cons5t ( ! p>ty promis+1 is ?\ght con=mable to natural ju/ice4 ,paulus ! ,lawy] also says1 t ! law ( nature & ! law ( nations agree 9 compell+ a p]son1 :o has receiv$ cr$it1 to paym5t4 ,9 ?is place ! ^w1 ,,compell+1 signifies a moral obligation4 ,nor c :at ,connanus says be admitt$1 :i* is1 t we are suppos$ to h cr$it = a full p]=mance ( a promise1 :]e ! engagem5t has be5 9 "p fulfill$4 ,= ,paulus 9 ?is place is treat+ ( an action :]e no?+ is due2 :i* action is entirely void1 if money has be5 paid1 9 any way1 :e!r accord+ to ! mann] expressly /ipulat$1 or any o!r4 ,= ! civil law1 9 ord] to disc\rage frequ5t causes ( litigation1 does n int]f]e ) ^? agreem5ts :i* are en=c$ by ! law ( nature & ( nations4 ,tully1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 ,(fices1 assigns su* =ce to ! obligation ( promises1 t he calls fidelity ! f\ndation ( ju/ice1 :i* ,horace also /yles ! si/] ( ju/ice1 & ! ,platoni/s (t5 call ju/ice1 ,,tru?1 :i* ,apuleius has translat$ ,,fidelity1 & ,simonides has def9$ ju/ice to be n only return+ :at "o has receiv$1 b also speak+ ! tru?4 ,b to und]/& ! matt] fully1 we mu/ c>efully obs]ve t !re are ?ree diff]5t ways ( speak+1 respect+ ?+s :i* ,,are1 or :i*1 x is suppos$1 ,,w be 9 our p[]4 ,,ii4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ways is1 :]e an assurance is giv5 ( future int5tions1 & if ! assurance be ,,s9c]e at ! "t x is giv51 ?\gh x %\ld n be c>ri$ into effect1 no blame is incurr$1 z x might aft]w>ds n be f\nd exp$i5t4 ,= ! human m9d has n only a natural p[]1 b a "r to *ange its purpose4 ,:]e=e if any blame atta*es to a *ange ( op9ion1 or purpose1 x is n to be imput$ to ! ,,b>e ,,act ,,( ,,*ang+1 b to ! ,,circum/ances1 "u :i* x happ5s1 especially :5 ! =m] resolution 0 ! be/4 ,,iii4 ,! second way is1 :5 future int5tions are express$ by outw>d acts & signs suffici5t to indicate a resolution ( abid+ by pres5t assurances4 ,& ^! k9d ( promises may be call$ imp]fect obligations1 b convey+ to ! p]son to :om !y are giv5 no ,,"r to exact !m4 ,= x happ5s 9 _m cases t we may be "u an obligation ( duty1 to ! p]=mance ( :i* ano!r has no "r to compel u4 ,= 9 ?is respect ! duty ( fidelity to promises1 is l ! duties ( compassion & gratitude4 ,9 su* k9ds ( promises !re=e ! p]son to :om !y are made1 has no "r1 by ! law ( nature to possess himself ( ! effects ( ! promis]1 z 8 own1 nor to ,,compel him to ! p]=mance ( 8 promise4 ,,iv4 ,! ?ird way is1 :]e su* a det]m9ation is confirm$ by evid5t signs ( an int5tion to convey a peculi> "r to ano!r1 :i* con/itutes ! p]fect obligation ( a promise1 & is att5d$ ) consequ5ces simil> to an ali5ation ( prop]ty4 ,!re may be two k9ds ( ali5ation1 ! "o ( our prop]ty1 ! o!r ( a c]ta9 portion ( our lib]ty4 ,"u ^? ( ! =m] k9d we may class ! promises ( gifts1 & "u ! latt] ! promises ( do+ c]ta9 actions4 ,on ?is subject we are suppli$ ) noble argum5ts f ! div9e oracles1 :i* in=m u1 t ,god himself1 :o c be limit$ by no e/abli%$ rules ( law1 w\ld act contr>y to 8 own nature1 if he did n p]=m 8 promises4 ,f :5ce x foll[s t ! obligations to p]=m promises spr+ f ! nature ( t un*angeable ju/ice1 :i* is an attribute ( ,god1 & common to all :o be> 8 image1 9 ! use ( reason4 ,to ! pro(s ( scripture "h ref]r$ to1 we may add ! judgm5t ( ,solomon1 ,my son if ?\ ha/ be5 surety = ?y fri5d1 ?\ ha/ ti$ up ?y h&s to a /rang]2 ?\ art ensn>$ by ! words ( ?y m\?1 !n art ?\ tak5 by ! words ( ?9e own m\?4 ,h5ce a promise is call$ by ! ,hebrews a bond or *a91 & is comp>$ to a v[4 ,eu/a?ius 9 8 notes on ! second book ( ! ,iliad1 assigns a simil> orig9 to ! ^w hypos*eses or engagem5t4 ,= he :o has receiv$ ! promise1 9 "s measure takes & holds ! p]son1 t has made ! engagem5t4 ,a mean+ n ill express$ by ,ovid 9 ! second book ( 8 ,metamorphoses1 :]e ! promis] says to him1 to :om he _h promis$1 ,my ^w has become y\rs4 ,aft] kn[+ ?is1 !re rema9s no difficulty 9 reply+ to ! argum5ts ( ,connanus4 ,= ! expressions ( ! lawy]s1 respect+ ,,b>e ,,promises1 ref] only to :at 0 introduc$ by ! ,roman laws1 :i* h made a ,,=mal ,,/ipulation ! und\bt$ sign ( a delib]ate m9d4 ,nor c x be d5i$ t !re 7 simil> laws among o!r nations4 ,= ,s5eca1 speak+ ( human laws1 & promises made )\t prop] solemnities1 says1 ,:at law1 ( any c\ntry1 we may add1 obliges u to ! p]=mance ( b>e promises8 ,b !re may naturally be o!r signs ( a delib]ate m9d1 besides a =mal /ipulation1 or any o!r simil> act :i* ! civil law requires1 to af=d gr\nds = a legal rem$y4 ,b :at is n done ) a delib]ate m9d1 we are incl9$ to believe does n come "u ! class ( p]fect obligations2 z ,!ophra/us has obs]v$ 9 8 book on laws4 ,nay1 ev5 :at is done ) a delib]ate m9d1 b n ) an int5tion ( conc$+ our own "r to ano!r2 ?\gh x _c give any "o a natural "r ( exact+ its fulfilm5t1 yet x creates an obligation n only 9 po9t ( duty1 b 9 po9t ( moral necessity4 ,! next matt] to be consid]$ is1 :at are ! requisites to con/itute a p]fect promise4 ,v4 ,! use ( reason is ! fir/ requisite to con/itute ! obligation ( a promise1 :i* ideots1 madm51 & infants are consequ5tly incapable ( mak+4 ,! case ( m9ors is some:at diff]5t4 ,= al?\gh !y may n h a s\nd judgm5t1 yet x is n a p]man5t defect1 nor suffici5t ( itself to invalidate all _! acts4 ,x _c be c]ta9ly def9$ at :at p]iod ( life reason comm5ces4 ,b x mu/ be judg$ ( f daily actions1 or f ! p>ticul> cu/oms ( ea* c\ntry4 ,among/ ! ,hebrews a promise made by a male at ! age ( ?irte51 & by a female at ! age ( twelve1 0 valid4 ,9 o!r nations1 ! civil laws1 act+ ^u j motives1 decl>e c]ta9 promises made by w>ds & m9ors to be void1 n only among ! ,romans1 b among ! ,greeks also1 z x has be5 obs]v$ by ,dion ,*ryso/om 9 8 tw5ty-fif? oration4 ,to d away ! effect ( improvid5t promises1 "s laws introduce actions ( recov]y1 or re/itution4 ,b su* regulations are peculi> to ! civil law1 & h no imm$iate connection ) ! law ( nature & ( nations1 any f>!r ?an t :]ev] !y are e/abli%$1 x is consonant to natural ju/ice t !y %\ld be obs]v$4 ,:]e=e if a =eign] ent] into an agreem5t ) a citiz5 or subject ( any o!r c\ntry2 he w be b\nd by ! laws ( t c\ntry1 to :i*1 dur+ 8 resid5ce !re91 he owes a tempor>y ob$i5ce4 ,b ! case is diff]5t1 :]e an agreem5t is made ^u ! op5 sea1 or 9 a des]t isl&1 or by lett]s ( correspond5ce4 ,= su* contracts are regulat$ by ! law ( nature alone1 9 ! same mann] z compacts made by sov]eigns 9 _! public capacity4 ,,vi4 ,! consid]ation ( promises1 made "u an error1 is a subject ( "s intricacy4 ,= x1 9 g5]al1 makes a diff]5ce1 :e!r ! promis] knew ! full ext5t ( 8 promise1 & ! value ( ! ?+ promis$1 or n1 or :e!r ! contract1 :i* 0 made1 orig9at$ 9 fraudul5t int5tion1 or n1 or :e!r "o ( ! p>ties 0 privy to ! fraud2 & :e!r ! fulfilm5t ( x 0 an act ( /rict ju/ice1 or only ( good fai?4 ,= accord+ to ! v>iety ( ^! circum/ances1 writ]s pron\nce "s acts void & o!rs valid1 leav+ ! injur$ p>ty a discretion>y p[] to resc9d or am5d !m4 ,mo/ ( ^! di/9ctions orig9ate 9 ! anci5t civil1 & praetorian ,roman law4 ,?\gh "s ( !m are n /rictly f\nd$ 9 reason & tru?4 ,b ! mo/ obvi\s & natural way ( discov]+ ! tru? is by ref]r+ to laws1 :i* d]ive _! =ce & efficacy f ! g5]al cons5t ( mank9d2 s t if a law re/s ^u ! presumption ( any fact1 :i* 9 reality has no exi/5ce1 su* a law is n b9d+4 ,= :5 no evid5ce ( ! fact c be produc$1 ! entire f\ndation1 on :i* t law re/s mu/ fail4 ,b we mu/ h rec\rse to ! subject1 to ! words & circum/ances ( a law1 to det]m9e :5 x is f\nd$ on su* a presumption4#bg ,! same rule applies to ! int]pretation ( promises4 ,= :]e !y are made ^u ! supposition ( a fact1 :i* 9 ! end proves n to be true1 !y lose ! =ce ( obligations4 ,because ! promis] made !m ^u c]ta9 conditions only1 ! fulfilm5t ( :i* becomes impossible4 ,cic]o1 9 8 fir/ book on ! tal5ts & "* ( an orator1 puts ! case ( a fa!r1 :o1 "u ! supposition or intellig5ce t 8 son 0 dead1 promis$ to devise 8 prop]ty to 8 nephew4 ,b ! supposition prov+ errone\s1 & ! intellig5ce false1 ! fa!r 0 releas$ f ! obligation ( ! promise made to 8 relative4 ,b if ! promis] has neglect$ to exam9e ! matt]1 or has be5 c>eless 9 express+ 8 mean+1 he w be b\nd to repair ! damage :i* ano!r has su/a9$ on t acc\nt4 ,?is obligation is n built on ! /r5g? ( ! promise1 b on ! injury1 :i* x has occasion$4 ,an errone\s promise w be b9d+1 if ! error 0 n ! ,,occasion ( ! promise4 ,= "h !re is no want ( cons5t 9 ! p>ty1 :o made x4 ,b if ! promise 0 obta9$ by fraud1 ! p]son s obta9+ x %all indemnify ! promis] = ! injury su/a9$1 if !re has be5 any p>tial error 9 ! promise1 yet 9 o!r respects x %all be deem$ valid4 ,,vii4 ,promises extort$ by fe> are a subject ( no less intricate decision4 ,= "h too a di/9ction is usually made betwe5 a well f\nd$ & a *im]ical fe>1 betwe5 a j fe> & a b>e suspicion1 & betwe5 ! p]sons :o occasion x1 :e!r x be ! p]son to :om ! promise is giv51 or "s o!r4 ,a di/9ction is also made betwe5 acts purely gratuit\s1 & ^? 9 :i* bo? p>ties h an int]e/4 ,= accord+ to all ?is v>iety ( circum/ances "s engagem5ts are consid]$ z void1 o!rs z revocable at ! pleasure or discretion ( ! mak]1 & o!rs z w>rant+ a claim to indemnity = ! inconv5i5ce occasion$4 ,b on ea* ( ^! po9ts !re is great div]sity ( op9ion4 ,!re is "s %ew ( reason 9 ! op9ion ( ^? :o1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation ! p[] ( ! civil law to annul or dim9i% an obligation1 ma9ta9 t a p]son is b\nd to fulfil a promise :i* he has giv5 "u impressions ( fe>4 ,= ev5 9 ?is case !re 0 ,,cons5t1 ?\gh x 0 extort$2 nei!r 0 x conditional1 z 9 errone\s promises1 b absolute4 ,x is call$ ,,cons5t4 ,= z ,ari/otle has obs]v$1 ^? :o cons5t to ?r[ _! goods ov]bo>d 9 a /orm1 w\ld h sav$ !m1 _h x n be5 = ! fe> ( %ipwreck4 ,b !y freely "p ) !m consid]+ all ! circum/ances ( "t & place4 ,,viii4 ,to r5d] a promise valid1 x mu/ be su* z x is 9 ! p[] ( ! promis] to p]=m4 ,= :i* reason no promises to d illegal acts are valid2 because no "o ei!r has1 or ev] c h a "r to d !m4 ,b a promise1 z 0 said be=e1 d]ives all its =ce f ! "r ( ! promis] to make x1 nor c x ext5d beyond t4 ,if a ?+ is n n[ 9 ! p[] ( ! promis]1 b may be s at "s future "t2 ! obligation w rema9 9 susp5se4 ,= ! promise 0 only made "u ! expectation ( "s future ability to fulfil x4 ,b if a p]son has a contr\l ov] ! condition ^u :i* ! promise is made1 to realise x or n1 he lies "u a moral obligation to use e endeav\r to fulfil x4 ,b 9 obligations ( ?is k9d also1 ! civil law1 f obvi\s motives ( g5]al utility1 occasionally int]poses its au?ority to make !m void3 obligations1 :i* ! law ( nature w\ld h confirm$4 ,,ix4 ,! next g5]al inquiry1 = ! mo/ "p1 ref]s to ! validity ( promises made ^u any immoral or unlawful consid]ation2 z if1 = in/ance1 any ?+ is promis$ to ano!r on condition ( 8 committ+ a murd]4 ,"h ! v promise itself is wick$ & unlawful1 because x enc\rages ! commission ( a crime4 ,b x does n foll[ e ,,fooli% or ,,improvid5t promise loses ! =ce ( an obligation1 z 9 ! confirmation ( imprud5t or prodigal grants1 = no fur!r evil c result f a confirmation ( :at has be5 already giv53 & ! invalidity ( promises w\ld be a great] evil ?an any t c\ld result f a confirmation ( ! mo/ improvid5t4 ,b 9 promises made ^u ,,immoral & ,,unlawful consid]ations1 !re is always a crim9ality rema9+1 ev5 :ile !y cont9ue unfulfill$4 ,= dur+ ! :ole ( t "t1 ! expectation ( fulfilm5t c>ries ) x ! indelible m>k ( enc\ragem5t to ! commission ( a crime4 ,,xii4#bh ,we are oblig$ to confirm ! engagem5ts made by o!rs1 act+ 9 our "n1 if x is evid5t t !y _h special1 or g5]al in/ructions f u to d s4 ,& 9 grant+ a commission ) full p[]s to any "o1 x may s happ5 t we are b\nd by ! conduct ( t ag5t1 ev5 if he exce$ ! secret in/ructions :i* he has receiv$4 ,= he acts ^u t o/5sible au?ority1 by :i* we are b\nd to ratify :atev] he does1 al?\gh we may h b\nd him to d no?+ b accord+ to 8 private in/ructions4 ,?is rule1 we mu/ obs]ve1 applies to ! promises made by ambassadors 9 ! "n ( _! sov]eigns1 :51 by virtue ( _! public cr$5tials1 !y h exce$$ _! private ord]s4 ,,xiii4 ,f ! prec$+ argum5ts1 x is easy to und]/& h[ f> own]s ( %ips are answ]able = ! acts ( ! ma/]s employ$ by !m 9 ^? vessels1 or m]*ants = ! conduct ( _! factors4 ,= natural equity w qualify ! actions br\ght aga9/ !m1 accord+ to ! in/ructions & p[]s :i* !y give4 ,s t we may ju/ly condemn ! rig\r ( ! ,roman law1 9 mak+ ! own]s ( %ips absolutely b\nd by all ! acts ( ! ma/]s employ$4 ,= ?is is nei!r consonant to natural equity1 :i* holds x suffici5t = ea* p>ty to be answ]able 9 proportion to 8 %>e1 nor is x conducive to ! public good4 ,= m5 w\ld be det]r$ f employ+ %ips1 if !y lay "u ! p]petual fe> ( be+ answ]able = ! acts ( _! ma/]s to an unlimit$ ext5t4 ,& !re=e 9 ,holl&1 a c\ntry :]e trade has fl\ri%$ ) ! greate/ vig\r1 ! ,roman law has nev] be5 obs]v$ ei!r n[ or at any =m] p]iod4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is an e/abli%$ rule t no action c be ma9ta9$ aga9/ ! own] = any great] sum ?an ! value ( ! %ip & c>go4 ,= a promise to convey a "r1 acceptance is no less necess>y ?an 9 a transf] ( prop]ty4 ,& 9 ?is case !re is suppos$ to h be5 a prec$5t reque/1 :i* is ! same z acceptance4 ,nor is ?is contradict$ by ! promises :i* ! civil law implies e "o to h made to ! /ate1 ,,)\t ,,any ,,reque/ ,,or ,,=mal ,,acceptance4 ,,xiv4 ,a reason :i* has induc$ "s to believe t ! sole act ( a promis]1 by ! law ( nature1 is suffici5t4 ,our fir/ position is n contradict$ by ! ,roman law4 ,= x no :]e says1 t a promise has its full effect be=e acceptance1 b only =bids ! revocation ( x :i* might prev5t acceptance3 & ?is effect results1 n f ,,natural b f purely ,,legal rules4 ,,xv4 ,ano!r "q is1 :e!r ! acceptance alone ( a promise is suffici5t1 or :e!r x ought to be communicat$ to ! promis] be=e x c be made b9d+4 ,x is c]ta9 t a promise may be made two ways1 ei!r ^u condition ( its be+ fulfill$1 if accept$1 or ^u condition ( its be+ ratifi$1 if ! promis] is appris$ ( its be+ accept$4 ,& 9 cases ( mutual obligation1 x is presum$ to be tak5 9 ! latt] s5se2 b x is bett] to take promises t are purely gratuit\s 9 ! =m] s5se1 unless !re be evid5ce to ! contr>y4 ,,xvi4 ,f h5ce x foll[s1 t a promise may be revok$1 )\t ! imputation ( inju/ice or levity1 ,,be=e ,,acceptance1 z no "r has yet be5 convey$2 especially if ,,acceptance 7 made ! condition ( its be+ fulfill$4 ,x may be revok$ too if ! p>ty to :om x 0 made1 %\ld die be=e acceptance4 ,because x is evid5t t ! p[] to accept x or n1 0 conf]r$ ^u ,,him1 & n ^u 8 ,,heirs4 ,= to give a man a "r1 :i* may ,,possibly desc5d to 8 heirs1 is "o ?+1 & to express an int5tion ( giv+ x to 8 heirs is ano!r4 ,= x makes an ess5tial diff]5ce ^u :at p]son ! fav\r is conf]r$4 ,?is is und]/ood 9 ! answ] made by ,n]atius1 :o said1 t he did n believe ! pr9ce w\ld h grant$ to "o :o 0 dead1 :at he grant$1 suppos+ him /ill alive4 ,,xvii4 ,a promise may be revok$1 by ! dea? ( ! p]son appo9t$ to communicate to a ?ird ! int5tion ( ! promis]4 ,because ! obligation to ! ?ird p]son re/$ ^u su* communication4 ,! case is diff]5t1 :]e a public mess5g] is employ$1 :o is n himself ! obligatory in/rum5t1 b only ! means ?r\gh :i* x is convey$4 ,!re=e lett]s indicat+ a promise1 or cons5t may be convey$ by any "o4 ,yet !re is a di/9ction to be made betwe5 a m9i/] appo9t$ to communicate a promise1 & "o appo9t$ to make ! promise 9 8 own "n4 ,= 9 ! =m] case1 a revocation w be valid1 ev5 ?\gh x has n be5 made kn[n to ! m9i/] employ$2 b 9 ! latt] case1 x w be entirely void1 because ! "r ( promis+ 0 committ$ to ! m9i/]1 & fully dep5d$ ^u 8 w2 !re=e ! obligation ( ! promise 0 complete1 z he knew ( no int5d$ revocation4 ,s also 9 ! =m] case1 :]e a second p]son is commission$ to communicate ! int5tions ( a donor to a ?ird2 ev5 if ! donor %\ld die1 ! acceptance ( ! gift w be deem$ valid1 all t 0 requisite be+ p]=m$ on "o "p2 ?\gh till t p]iod ! int5tion 0 revocable1 z is evid5t 9 ! case ( beque/s4 ,b 9 ! o!r case1 :]e a p]son has receiv$ a full commission to execute a promise dur+ ! ,,life ( ! donor1 %\ld ! donor die be=e ! execution ( x1 & ! p]son employ$ be appris$ ( 8 dea?2 ! commission1 ! promise1 & ! acceptance ( x w !n1 at once1 become void4 ,9 d\btful cases1 x is reasonable to suppose t x 0 ! int5tion ( ! promis]1 t ! commission :i* he gave %\ld be execut$1 unless "s great *ange1 z = in/ance1 8 own dea? %\ld occur4 ,yet reasons 9 fav\r ( a contr>y op9ion may easily be f\nd & admitt$1 especially ) respect to pi\s donations1 :i*1 at all ev5ts1 ought to /& good4 ,& 9 ! same mann] may be decid$ ! long disput$ "q1 :e!r an action on acc\nt ( su* a beque/ c\ld be br\ght aga9/ ! heir4 ,^u :i* ! au?or ( ! second book to ,h]5nius says1 t ,m>cus ,drusus ! praetor decid$ "o way1 & ,sextus ,julius ano!r4 ,,xviii4 ,! acceptance ( a promise = a ?ird p]son is a matt] subject to discussion1 9 :i* !re is a di/9ction to be obs]v$ betwe5 a promise made to a p]son ( a ?+1 :i* is to be giv5 to ano!r1 & a promise made directly to ! p]son himself1 on :om ! =m] is to be conf]r$4 ,if a promise is made to any "o1 :]e 8 own p]sonal int]e/ is n conc]n$1 a consid]ation introduc$ by ! ,roman law1 by acceptance he seems naturally to acquire a "r :i* may be transf]r$ to ano!r = ,,8 acceptance1 & ?is "r w pass s fully1 t 9 ! mean "t ! promise _c be revok$ by ! p]son :o gave1 ?\gh x may be releas$ by him :o receiv$ x4 ,= t is a mean+ by no means repugnant to ! law ( nature1 & x is entirely con=mable to ! words ( su* a promise2 nor c x be a matt] ( indiff]5ce to ! p]son1 ?r\gh :om ano!r is to receive a b5efit4 ,b if a promise is made directly to "o1 on :om a ?+ is to be conf]r$1 a di/9ction mu/ be made1 :e!r ! p]son receiv+ su* a promise has ,,special commission = acceptance1 or "o s ,,g5]al z to include acceptance1 or has x n4 ,:5 a commission has be5 previ\sly giv51 no f>!r di/9ction is necess>y1 :e!r ! p]son be free or n1 a condition :i* ! ,roman laws require4 ,b x is pla9 t f su* an acceptance1 let ! condition ( ! p]son be :at x w1 ! promise is complete3 because cons5t may be giv5 & signifi$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ano!r4 ,= a p]son is suppos$ to h fully int5d$1 :at he has put into ! p[] ( ano!r to accept or refuse4 ,:]e !re is no su* commission1 if ano!r1 to :om ! promise 0 n directly made1 accepts x ) ! cons5t ( ! promis]1 ! promise w be s f> b9d+1 t ! promis] w n be at lib]ty to revoke x1 be=e ! p]son1 9 ^: fav\r x 0 made has ratifi$1 & aft]w>ds *os5 to release ! engagem5t4 ,yet1 9 ! mean "t1 ! accept] _c release x1 z hav+ d]iv$ no peculi> "r f x himself1 b only be5 us$ z an in/rum5t 9 promot+ ! k9d int5tions & good fai? ( ! promis]4 ,! promis] !re=e himself1 by revok+ x1 is n do+ viol5ce to ! p]fect "r ( ano!r1 b only act+ 9 contradiction 8 own good fai?4 ,,xix4 ,f :at has be5 said be=e1 x is easy to conceive :at op9ion ought to be ent]ta9$ ( a burd5some condition annex$ to a promise4 ,= x may be annex$ at any "t1 till a promise has be5 complet$ by acceptance1 or an irrevocable pl$ge to fulfil x has be5 giv54 ,b ! condition ( a burd5 annex$ to a fav\r int5d$ to be conf]r$ ^u a ?ird p]son1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( any "o1 may be revok$ be=e ! p]son has confirm$ x by 8 acceptance4 ,on ?is po9t !re is great diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,b ^u imp>tial consid]ation ! natural equity ( any case may be easily se5 )\t any great l5g? ( argum5ts4 ,,xx4 ,,xxi4 ,,xxii4 ,ano!r po9t ( discussion relates to ! validity ( an errone\s promise1 :5 ! p]son1 :o made x1 ^u be+ appris$ ( 8 error is will+ to adh]e to 8 engagem5t4 ,& ! same inquiry applies to promises1 :i*1 aris+ out ( fe> or any o!r su* motive1 are prohibit$ by ! civil law4 ,:at1 x may be ask$1 w become ( ^! promises1 if t fe>1 or t motive has be5 remov$8 ,to confirm su* obligations1 "s ?9k an int]nal cons5t ( ! m9d alone 9 conjunction ) "s previ\s ext]nal act is suffici5t4 ,o!rs disapprove ( ?is op9ion1 because !y d n admit t an ext]nal act is a real sign ( a subsequ5t int5tion4 ,!re=e !y require an express repetition ( ! promise & acceptance4 ,betwe5 ^! two op9ions1 ! tru? is mo/ likely to be f\nd4 ,!re may be an ext]nal act expressive ( a promise1 ?\gh unaccompani$ ) words2 :]e "o p>ty's accept+ & reta9+ a gift1 & ! o!r's rel9qui%+ 8 "r 9 x are suffici5t to con/itute a full cons5t4 ,to prev5t civil laws f be+ conf\nd$ ) natural ju/ice1 we mu/ n omit notic+1 9 ?is place1 t promises ?\gh f\nd$ 9 no ,,express motive1 are n1 any m ?an gifts1 void by ! law ( nature4 ,nor is a p]son :o has engag$ = ano!r's p]=m+ any ?+1 b\nd to pay damages & int]e/ = neglect1 provid$ he has done e ?+ t 0 necess>y on 8 "p t[>ds obta9+ its accompli%m5t4 ,unless ! express t]ms ( ! agreem5t1 or ! nature ( ! bus9ess require a /rict] obligation1 positively decl>+ t1 "u all circum/ances :atev]1 ! ?+ %all be p]=m$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,on ,,contracts4 ,human actions divid$ into simple or mix$--,gratuit\s1 or accompani$ ) mutual obligation--,acts by way ( ex*ange1 adju/m5t ( :at is to be giv5 or done--,p>tn]%ip--,contracts--,previ\s equality--,z to k ( all circum/ances--,z to fre$om ( cons5t1 requisite 9 contracts ( ex*ange1 ( sale1 ( commission & loan--,price ( ?+s 9 :at mann] to be rat$--,transf] ( prop]ty by sale--,:at k9d contr>y to ! law ( nature--,money--,its use z ! /&>d value ( all ?+s--,no abatem5t 9 ! r5t or hire ( a ?+ on acc\nt ( ord9>y accid5ts--,increase or dim9ution ( j sal>ies--,usury1 by :at law =bidd5--,int]e/ n com+ "u ! "n ( usury--,insurance--,p>tn]%ips ( ,trade1 ,naval ,associations--,inequality 9 ! t]ms ( a contract no way repugnant to ! law ( nations4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,( all human actions1 :]e9 ! int]e/ ( o!rs is conc]n$1 "s are simple1 & "s are mix$4 ,9 ^? ( ! =m] description all s]vice is purely gratuit\s1 b 9 ! latt] x is a traffic ( ex*ange4 ,9 ! "o case ! s]vice is grant$ )\t a requital1 b 9 ! o!r x is accompani$ ) an obligation on bo? sides4 ,gratuit\s s]vices are ei!r imm$iate 9 _! effect1 or to take place at "s future "t4 ,a b5eficial s]vice may be said to be imm$iately p]=m$1 :5 x conf]s an advantage1 to :i* ! p]son s b5efitt$ has no direct or absolute "r4 ,z a gift transf]s prop]ty1 :]e !re is no previ\s "r4 ,a subject1 :i* has be5 already discuss$4 ,& promises may be said to relate to "s future gift1 or action1 ( :i* a full & suffici5t explanation has be=e be5 giv54 ,s]vices accompani$ ) mutual obligation are ^? :]e ! use ( a ?+ is all[$ to any "o )\t a complete ali5ation1 or :]e lab\r is giv5 9 expectation ( "s valuable consid]ation4 ,"u ! fir/ ( ^! heads we may reckon ! loan & use ( all consumable or inconsumable prop]ty3 & "u ! latt] we may place all commissions to transact bus9ess1 or all tru/s to pres]ve ! prop]ty ( ano!r4 ,simil> to :i* are all promises ( some?+ to be done1 except t !y reg>d a future "t4 ,& 9 ?is view we may consid] all ! actions1 :i* are n[ to be expla9$4 ,,iii4 ,9 all acts ( ex*ange1 !re is ei!r an adju/m5t ( %>es1 or ! pr(its are reg>d$ z a common /ock4 ,& su* adju/m5ts are made by ! ,roman ,lawy]s 9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 ,i give ?is to receive t 9 return1 ,i d ?is 9 ord] = y to d t1 or ,i d ?is = y to give me t4#bi ,b ! ,romans exclude f t adju/m5t c]ta9 k9ds ( contracts1 :i* !y call ,,express ,,engagem5ts4 ,n because !y are entitl$ to any su* peculi> "n m ?an ! simple acts ( ex*ange already m5tion$3 b because f frequ5t use !y h naturally d]iv$ a "* simil> to t ( ! orig9al contract1 f :i* !y are nam$1 ?\gh !y are n att5d$ exactly ) ! same circum/ances1 nor express$ directly 9 ! same t]ms4 ,:]eas 9 o!r contracts less frequ5tly 9 use1 ! =m 0 conf9$ to an exact /atem5t ( all ! circum/ances ( ! case4 ,an action ^u :i* 0 !re=e call$ by ! ,roman law an ,,action ,,9 ,,prescrib$ ,,words4 ,= ! same reason1 if ^? contracts1 :i* are 9 g5]al use1 be accompani$ ) any ( ! requisite =malities1 z 9 a b>ga9 or sale1 if ! price _h be5 agre$ ^u1 ?\gh no "p ( ! agreem5t _h be5 p]=m$ by ei!r ( ! p>ties1 ! civil law en=c$ an obligation to fulfil !m4 ,b z x consid]s ^? contracts :i* are seldom us$1 m 9 ! light ( volunt>y engagem5ts1 dep5d+ ^u ! good fai? ( ! respective p>ties1 ?an ^u legal obligation1 x leaves bo? sides at lib]ty to rel9qui% !m at any "t prior to _! be+ naturally p]=m$4 ,di/9ctions ( ?is k9d are unkn[n to ! law ( nature1 :i* gives ,,simple ,,agreem5ts equal au?ority ) ^?1 t are includ$ by civilians 9 ! class ( ,,express ,,contracts4 ,& on ! score ( antiquity _! pret5sions are f> sup]ior4 ,x is !re=e p]fectly con=mable to ! pr9ciples ( nature to r$uce ! adju/m5t ( all agreem5ts1 )\t any reg>d to ! di/9ction betwe5 ,,simple & ,,express ,,contracts1 to ! ?ree species already nam$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 "o ?+ is giv5 = ano!r1 :i* con/itutes b>t]1 ! mo/ anci5t k9d ( traffic2 ! next /ep 9 ! progress ( comm]cial int]c\rse is :]e "o k9d ( money is giv5 = ano!r1 a transaction :i* by m]*ants is call$ ex*ange2 & a ?ird species ( contract is :]e money is giv5 = any ?+1 z 9 ! acts ( sell+ & buy+4 ,or ! ,,use ( "o ?+ may be giv5 = t ( ano!r2 money also may be giv5 = ! ,,use ( a ?+1 :i* la/ me?od con/itutes ! acts ( lett+ & hir+4 ,! t]m use is to be und]/ood "h z appli$ n only to ! b>e unproductive use ( a ?+1 b to t :i* is att5d$ ) pr(it1 :e!r x be tempor>y1 p]sonal1 h]$it>y or circumscrib$1 z 0 ! case among ! ,hebrews ) reg>d to transf]s1 :i* c\ld be made = no long] a "t ?an till ! ye> ( ,jubilee4 ,! v ess5ce ( a loan consi/s 9 a return ( ! same k9d ( ?+ aft] a /at$ p]iod4 ,a return :i* c take place only 9 ?+s regulat$ by weight1 numb]1 or measure1 :e!r x be 9 commodities or money4 ,b ! ex*ange ( lab\r bran*es out into v>i\s k9ds ( recomp5ce or return4 ,z1 = in/ance1 a p]son gives 8 lab\r = money1 :i* 9 ! daily transactions ( life is call$ hire or wages3 :]e "o und]takes to indemnify ano!r = accid5tal losses or damages1 x is call$ insurance3 a species ( contract sc>ce kn[n to ! anci5ts1 b n[ =m+ a v important bran* 9 all m]cantile & m>itime conc]ns4 ,,iv4 ,acts ( communication are ^?1 :]e ea* contributes a %>e to ! jo9t /ock4 ,p]haps on "o side1 money1 & on ! o!r1 skill & lab\r may be giv54 ,b 9 :atev] way ^! conc]ns are regulat$1 !y come "u ! d5om9ation ( p>tn]%ips4 ,) ?is class we may rank ! alliances ( diff]5t /ates 9 w>4 ,& ( ! same description are ^? naval associations ( individuals1 s frequ5tly =m$ 9 ,holl& = protection aga9/ pirates or o!r invad]s1 :i* is g5]ally call$ an ,,admiralty1 & to :i* ! ,greeks gave ! "n ( a jo9t fleet4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 ,n[ mix$ actions are ei!r su* 9 !mselves1 or made s by "s adv5titi\s circum/ance4 ,?us if ,i kn[+ly give "o p]son a great] price = a ?+ ?an ,i c pur*ase x = ( ano!r1 ! excess ( price may be consid]$ p>tly z a gift1 & p>tly z a pur*ase4 ,or if ,i engage a goldsmi? to make me any article ) 8 own mat]ials1 ! price :i* ,i give w be p>tly a pur*ase1 & p>tly wages4 ,! feudal sy/em too might be consid]$ z a tra9 ( mix$ contracts4 ,:]e ! grant ( ! fee might be consid]$ z a b5eficial act2 b ! milit>y s]vice requir$ by ! ,"l1 9 return = 8 protection1 gave ! fee ! nature ( a contract1 :]e a p]son did "o ?+ expect+ = x ! p]=mance ( ano!r4 ,b if any paym5t is atta*$ to x by way ( ackn[l$gem5t1 x p>takes ( ! nature ( a quit r5t4 ,s money s5t to sea by way ( v5ture is some?+ comp\nd$ ( a contract1 ( a loan1 & ( an insurance4 ,,vii4 ,all acts b5eficial to o!rs1 except ^? t are purely gratuit\s1 come "u ! d5om9ation ( contracts4 ,,viii4 ,9 all contracts1 natural ju/ice requires t !re %\ld be an equality ( t]ms3 insomu* t ! aggriev$ p>ty has an action aga9/ ! o!r = ov]rea*+ him4 ,?is equality consi/s p>tly 9 ! p]=mance1 & p>tly 9 ! pr(its ( ! contract1 apply+ to all ! previ\s arrangem5ts1 & to ! ess5tial consequ5ces ( ! agreem5t4 ,,ix4 ,z to an equality ( t]ms previ\s to ! contract1 x is evid5t t a sell] is b\nd to discov] to a pur*as] any defects1 :i* are kn[n to him1 9 a ?+ (f]$ = sale2 a rule n only e/abli%$ by civil laws1 b /rictly con=mable to natural ju/ice4 ,= ! words ( agreem5t betwe5 contract+ p>ties are ev5 /rong] ?an ^?1 on :i* society is f\nd$4 ,& 9 ?is mann] may be expla9$ ! obs]vation ( ,diog5es ! ,babylonian1 :o 9 discuss+ ?is topic said1 x is n e degree ( sil5ce1 :i* am\nts to concealm5t2 nor is "o p]son b\nd to disclose e ?+1 :i* may be ( s]vice to ano!r4 ,?us = in/ance1 a man ( sci5ce is n /rictly b\nd to communicate to ano!r t k1 :i* might r$\nd to 8 advantage4 ,= contracts1 :i* 7 inv5t$ to promote a b5eficial int]c\rse among mank9d1 require "s clos] & m intimate connection ?an b>e good-w to en=ce _! obligation4 ,^u :i* ,ambrose has ju/ly rem>k$1 t1 9 contracts1 ! faults ( ?+s expos$ to sale ought to be made kn[n1 ( :i* unless ! sell] has giv5 intimation1 ?\gh he may h transf]r$ ! "r ( prop]ty by sale1 yet he is liable to an action ( fraud4 ,b ! same _c be said ( ?+s n com+ "u ! nature ( contracts4 ,?us if any "o %\ld sell 8 corn at a high price1 :5 he kn[s t _m %ips lad5 ) gra9 are b\nd = t place1 ?\gh x w\ld be an act ( k9dness 9 him to communicate su* intellig5ce to ! pur*as]s1 & ?\gh no advantage c\ld be d]iv$ to him1 f )hold+ ! communication1 b at ! exp5ce ( *>ity1 yet !re is no?+ unju/ 9 x1 or contr>y to ! g5]al rules ( deal+4 ,! practice is v9dicat$ by ,diog5es 9 ! passage ( ,cic]o allud$ to1 he says1 ,i c>ri$ my commodities & (f]$ !m to sale1 9 sell+ !m ,i dem&$ no great] price ?an o!rs did2 if ! supply _h be5 great] ,i w\ld h sold !m = less1 & :]e is ! wrong done to any "o8 ,! maxim ( ,cic]o !re=e _c g5]ally be admitt$1 t1 kn[+ a ?+ y\rself1 to wi% ano!r1 ^: int]e/ x is to "k x also1 to rema9 ignorant ( x1 m]ely = ! sake ( y\r own advantage1 am\nts to a fraudul5t concealm5t4 ,by no means2 = t only is a fraudul5t concealm5t :i* imm$iately affects ! nature ( ! contract3 z = in/ance1 9 sell+ a h\se1 to conceal ! circum/ance ( its be+ infect$ ) ! plague1 or hav+ be5 ord]$ by public au?ority to be pull$ d[n4 ,b x is unnecess>y to m5tion1 t ! p]son1 ) :om a sell] treats1 ought to be appris$ ( e circum/ance att5d+ ! ?+ (f]$ = sale2 if x be l&s1 :e!r ! t5ure be subject to a r5t-*>ge1 or s]vice ( any k9d1 or be entirely free4 ,x4 & ,,xi4 ,nor is ! equality t has be5 expla9$ conf9$ solely to ! communication ( all ! circum/ances ( ! case to ! contract+ p>ties1 b x includes also an entire fre$om ( cons5t 9 bo?4 ,9 ! pr9cipal act itself1 ! prop] equality requires t no m %\ld be dem&$ ei!r p>ty ?an :at is j4 ,:i* c sc>ce h a place 9 gratuit\s acts4 ,to /ipulate = a recomp5ce 9 return = a loan1 or = ! s]vice ( lab\r or commission is do+ no wrong1 b con/itutes a k9d ( mix$ contract1 p>tak+ ( ! nature ( a gratuit\s act1 & an act ( ex*ange4 ,& 9 all acts ( ex*ange1 ?is equality is to be punctually obs]v$4 ,nor c x be said t if "o p>ty promises m1 x is to be look$ ^u z a gift4 ,= m5 nev] ent] into contracts ) su* int5tions1 nor ought ! exi/5ce ( su* int5tions ev] be presum$1 unless !y evid5tly appe>4 ,= all promises or gifts1 9 ^! cases1 are made ) an expectation ( receiv+ an equival5t 9 return4 ,:51 9 ! words ( ,*ryso/om1 9 all b>ga9s & contracts1 we are anxi\s to receive ,,m & give ,,less ?an is due1 :at is ?is b a species ( fraud or robb]y8 ,! writ] ( ! life ( ,isidorus 9 ,photius1 relates ( ,h]mias1 t :5 any ?+1 :i* he wi%$ to pur*ase 0 valu$ at too l[ a rate1 he made up ! defici5cy ( ! price1 ?9k+ t to act o!rwise 0 a species ( inju/ice1 ?\gh x might escape ! obs]vation ( o!rs4 ,& 9 ?is s5se1 may be int]pret$ ! law ( ! ,hebrews4 ,,xii4 ,!re rema9s ano!r degree ( equality to be consid]$1 aris+ out ( ! foll[+ case4 ,x may happ5 9 contracts t al?\gh no?+ is conceal$1 :i* ought to be made kn[n1 nor m exact$ or tak5 by "o p>ty ?an is due1 yet !re may be "s inequality )\t any fault 9 ei!r ( ! p>ties4 ,p]haps1 = in/ance !re might be "s unkn[n defect 9 ! ?+1 or !re might be "s mi/ake 9 ! price4 ,yet1 9 su* cases1 to pres]ve t equality1 :i* is an ess5tial requisite 9 all contracts1 ! p>ty suff]+ by su* defect or mi/ake1 ought to be indemnifi$ by ! o!r4 ,= 9 all engagem5ts x ei!r is1 or ought to be a /&+ rule1 t bo? p>ties %\ld h equal & j advantages4 ,x 0 n 9 e k9d ( equality t ! ,roman law e/abli%$ ?is rule1 pass+ ov] slight occasions1 9 ord] to disc\rage frequ5t & frivol\s litigation4 ,x only int]pos$ its judicial au?ority 9 weighty matt]s1 :]e ! price exce$$ ! j value by "o half4 ,laws inde$1 z ,cic]o has said1 h p[] to compel1 or re/ra9 m51 :]eas philosoph]s c only appeal to _! reason or und]/&+4 ,yet ^?1 :o are n subject to ! p[] ( civil laws ought to comply ) :atev] reason po9ts out to !m to be j3 ,s too ought !y1 :o are subject to ! p[] ( human laws1 to p]=m :atev] natural & div9e ju/ice requires1 ev5 9 cases1 :]e ! laws nei!r give nor take away ! "r1 b only =be> to en=ce x = p>ticul> reasons4 ,,xiii4 ,!re is a c]ta9 degree ( equality1 too1 9 b5eficial or gratuit\s acts1 n inde$ l t prevail+ 9 contracts ( ex*ange1 b proce$+ ^u a supposition ( ! h>d%ip1 t any "o %\ld receive detrim5t f volunt>y s]vices1 :i* he be/[s4 ,= :i* reason a volunt>y ag5t ought to be indemnifi$ = ! exp5ce or inconv5i5ce1 :i* he incurs1 by und]tak+ ! bus9ess ( ano!r4 ,a borr[] too is b\nd to repair a ?+ t has be5 damag$ or de/roy$4 ,because he is b\nd to ! own] n only = ! ?+ itself1 by virtue ( ! prop]ty :i* he reta9s 9 x1 b he owes a debt ( gratitude also = ! fav\r ( ! loan2 unless x appe>s t ! ?+ s l5t w\ld h p]i%$1 _h x ev5 rema9$ 9 possession ( ! own] himself4 ,9 ?is case1 ! own] loses no?+ by ! loan4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! deposit>y has receiv$ no?+ b a tru/4 ,if ! ?+ !re=e is de/roy$1 he _c be b\nd to re/ore :at is no long] 9 exi/5ce1 nor c he be requir$ to make a recomp5ce1 :]e he has d]iv$ no advantage2 = 9 tak+ ! tru/ he did n receive a fav\r1 b conf]r$ "o4 ,9 a pawn1 ! same z 9 a ?+ let out = hire1 a middle way ( decid+ ! obligation may be pursu$1 s t ! p]son tak+ x is n answ]able1 l a borr[]1 = e accid5t1 & yet he is oblig$ to use great] c>e1 ?an a b>e deposit>y1 9 keep+ x safe4 ,= ?\gh tak+ a pl$ge is a gratuit\s acceptance1 x is foll[$ by "s ( ! conditions ( a contract4 ,all ^! cases are con=mable to ! ,roman law1 ?\gh n orig9ally d]iv$ f !nce1 b f natural equity4 ,rules1 all ( :i* may be f\nd among o!r nations4 ,&1 among o!r works1 we may ref] to ! ?ird book & =ty-second *apt] ( ! ,,guide ,,= ,,d\btful ,,cases1 writt5 by ,moses ,maimonides1 a ,jewi% writ]4 ,^u ! same pr9ciples ! nature ( all o!r contracts may be expla9$2 b ! lead+ features 9 ^? ( c]ta9 descriptions seem$ suffici5t = a treatise l ! pres5t4 ,,xiv4 ,! g5]al dem& = any ?+1 z ,ari/otle has cle>ly prov$1 con/itutes ! true measure ( its value1 :i* may be se5 p>ticul>ly f ! practice prevail+ among b>b>\s nations ( ex*ang+ "o ?+ = ano!r4 ,b ?is is n ! only /&>d3 = ! hum\rs & caprice ( mank9d1 :i* dictate & contr\l all regulations1 give a nom9al value to _m sup]fluities4 ,x 0 luxury1 says ,pl9y1 t fir/ discov]$ ! value ( pe>ls1 & ,cic]o has some:]e obs]v$1 t ! wor? ( su* ?+s c only be e/imat$ by ! desires ( m54 ,b on ! o!r h&1 x happ5s t ! pl5tiful supply ( necess>ies l[]s _! price4 ,?is ,s5eca1 9 ! #ae? *apt] ( 8 six? book on b5efits1 proves by _m in/ances1 :i* he concludes ) ! foll[+ obs]vation1 ! price ( e ?+ mu/ be regulat$ by ! m>ket1 & not)/&+ all y\r praises1 x is wor? no?+ m ?an x c be sold =4 ,to :i* we may add ! au?ority ( ,paulus ! ,lawy]1 :o says1 ! prices ( ?+s d n dep5d ^u ! hum\rs & int]e/ ( individuals1 b ^u common e/imation1 t is1 z he expla9s himself else:]e1 accord+ to ! wor? :i* !y are ( to all4 ,h5ce x is t ?+s are valu$ 9 proportion to :at is usually (f]$ or giv5 = !m1 a rule admitt+ ( great v>iation & latitude1 except 9 c]ta9 cases1 :]e ! law has fix$ a /&>d price4 ,9 ! common price ( articles1 ! lab\r & exp5ce ( ! m]*ant 9 procur+ !m is tak5 into ! acc\nt1 & ! sudd5 *anges s frequ5t 9 all m>kets dep5d ^u ! numb] ( buy]s1 :e!r x be great or small1 & ^u ! money & m>ketable commodities1 :e!r !y be pl5tiful or sc>ce4 ,!re may inde$ be casualties1 ow+ to :i* a ?+ may be lawfully b\ght or sold above or bel[ ! m>ket price4 ,?us = in/ance1 a ?+ by be+ damag$ may h lo/ its orig9al or common value1 or t1 :i* o!rwise w\ld n h be5 dispos$ (1 may be b\ght or sold f "s p>ticul> lik+ or av]sion4 ,all ^! circum/ances ought to be made kn[n to ! contract+ p>ties4 ,reg>d too %\ld be _h to ! loss or ga9 aris+ f delay or promptness ( paym5t4 ,,xv4 ,9 buy+ & sell+ we mu/ obs]ve1 t ! b>ga9 is complet$ f ! v mom5t ( ! contract1 ev5 )\t deliv]y1 & t is ! mo/ simple way ( deal+4 ,?us ,s5eca says1 t a sale is a transf] ( "o's "r & prop]ty 9 a ?+ to ano!r1 :i* is done 9 all ex*anges4 ,b if x be settl$ t ! prop]ty %all n be transf]r$ imm$iately1 /ill ! sell] w be b\nd to convey x at ! /at$ p]iod1 tak+ 9 ! mean "t all ! pr(its & losses4 ,:]eas ! completion ( b>ga9 & sale1 by giv+ ! pur*as] a "r ( possession & ejectm5t1 & convey+ to him ! haz>d ) all ! pr(its ( ! prop]ty1 ev5 be=e x is transf]r$1 are regulations ( ! civil law n univ]sally obs]v$4 ,inde$ "s legislators h made ! sell] answ]able = all accid5ts & damages1 till ! actual deliv]y ( possession is made1 z ,!ophra/us has obs]v$ 9 a passage 9 ,/obaeus1 "u ! title ( laws1 :]e ! read] w f9d _m cu/oms1 relat+ to ! =malities ( sale1 to e>ne/1 to rep5tance ( a b>ga91 v diff]5t f ! rules ( ! ,roman law4 ,& among ! ,rhodians1 ,dion ,prusae5sis in=ms u t all sales & contracts 7 confirm$ by be+ ent]$ 9 a public regi/]4 ,we mu/ obs]ve too t1 if a ?+ has be5 twice sold1 ( ! two sales ! "o is valid1 :]e an imm$iate transf] ( ! prop]ty has be5 made1 ei!r by deliv]y ( possession1 or 9 any o!r mode4 ,= by ?is means ! sell] gives up an absolute "r1 :i* c\ld n pass by a promise alone4 ,,xvi4 ,x is n e k9d ( monopoly t am\nts to a direct violation ( ! laws ( nature4 ,! ,sov]eign p[] may h v j reasons = grant+ monopolies1 & t too at a settl$ price3 a noble in/ance ( :i* we f9d 9 ! hi/ory ( ,joseph1 :o gov]n$ ,egypt "u ! auspices ( ,ph>aoh4#cj ,s also "u ! ,roman gov]nm5t ! p ( ,alex&ria1 z we are in=m$ by ,/rabo1 enjoy$ ! monopoly ( all ,indian & ,e?iopian goods4 ,a monopoly also may1 9 "s cases1 be e/abli%$ by individuals1 provid$ !y sell at a reasonable rate4 ,b all comb9ations to raise ! necess>y articles ( life to an exorbitant rate1 or all viol5t & fraudul5t attempts to prev5t ! m>ket f be+ suppli$1 or to buy up c]ta9 commodities1 9 ord] to enhance ! price1 are public injuries & puni%able z su*4#ca ,or inde$ ,,any ,,way ( prev5t+ ! importation ( goods1 or buy+ !m up 9 ord] to sell !m at a great] rate ?an usual1 ?\gh ! price1 ,,"u ,,"s ,,p>ticul> ,,circum/ances1 may n seem unreasonable1 is fully %ewn by ,ambrose 9 8 ?ird book ( ,(fices to be a brea* ( *>ity2 ?\gh x come n directly "u ! prohibition ( laws4 ,,xvii4 ,z to money1 x may be obs]v$ t its uses d n result f any value intr9sically belong+ to ! preci\s metals1 or to ! specific d5om9ation & %ape ( co91 b f ! g5]al application :i* c be made ( x1 z a /&>d ( paym5t = all commodities4 ,= :atev] is tak5 z a common measure ( all o!r ?+s1 ought to be liable1 9 itself1 to b little v>iation4 ,n[ ! preci\s metals are ( ?is description1 possess+ ne>ly ! same intr9sic value at all times & 9 all places4 ,?\gh ! nom9al value ( ! same quantity ( gold & silv]1 :e!r paid by weight or co9 w be great] or less1 9 proportion to ! abundance or sc>city ( ! ?+s = :i* !re is a g5]al dem&4 ,,xviii4 ,lett+ & hir+1 z ,caius has ju/ly said1 come ne>e/ to sell+ & buy+1 & are regulat$ by ! same pr9ciples4 ,= ! price corresponds to ! r5t or hire1 & ! prop]ty ( a ?+ to ! lib]ty ( us+ x4 ,:]e=e z an own] mu/ be> ! loss ( a ?+ t p]i%es1 s a p]son hir+ a ?+ or r5t+ a f>m mu/ be> ! loss ( all ord9>y accid5ts1 z = in/ance1 ^? ( b>r5ness or any o!r cause1 :i* may dim9i% 8 pr(its4#cb ,nor w ! own]1 on t acc\nt1 be ! less entitl$ to ! /ipulat$ price or r5t1 because he gave ! o!r ! "r ( enjoym5t1 :i* at t "t 0 wor? s mu*1 unless x 0 !n agre$ t ! value %\ld dep5d ^u su* cont+5cies4 ,if an own]1 :5 ! fir/ t5ant has be5 prev5t$ f us+ a ?+1 %all h let x to ano!r1 all ! pr(its accru+ f x are due to ! fir/ t5ant1 = x w\ld n be equitable t ! own] %\ld be made ri*] by :at belong$ to ano!r4 ,,xix4 ,! next topic1 t comes "u consid]ation1 is ! lawfulness ( tak+ int]e/ = ! use ( a consumable ?+2 ! argum5ts br\ght aga9/ :i* appe> by no means su* z to comm& our ass5t4 ,= z to :at is said ( ! loan ( consumable prop]ty be+ a gratuit\s act1 & entitl$ to no return1 ! same reason+ may apply to ! lett+ ( inconsumable prop]ty = hire1 requir+ a recomp5ce = ! use ( :i* is nev] deem$ unlawful1 ?\gh x gives ! contract itself a diff]5t d5om9ation4 ,nor is !re any m weight 9 ! objection to tak+ int]e/ = ! use ( money1 :i* 9 its own nature is b>r5 & unproductive4 ,= ! same may be said ( h\ses & o!r ?+s1 :i* are unproductive & unpr(itable )\t ! indu/ry ( man4#cc ,!re is some?+ m speci\s 9 ! argum5t1 :i* ma9ta9s1 t1 z "o ?+ is "h giv5 9 return = ano!r1 & ! use & pr(its ( a ?+ _c be di/+ui%$ f ! ?+ itself1 :5 ! v use ( x dep5ds ^u its consumption1 no?+ m ought to be requir$ 9 return = ! use1 ?an :at is b>ely equival5t to ! ?+ itself4 ,b x is necess>y to rem>k1 t :5 x is said ! enjoym5t ( ! pr(its ( consumable ?+s1 ^: prop]ty is transf]r$1 9 ! use1 to ! borr[] or tru/ee1 0 introduc$ by an act ( ! s5ate1 ?is does n prop]ly come "u ! notion ( ,usufruct1 :i* c]ta9ly 9 its orig9al signification answ]s to no su* "r4 ,yet x does n foll[ t su* a "r is ( no value1 b on ! contr>y money may be requir$ = surr5d]+ x to ! proprietor4 ,?us also ! "r ( n pay+ money or w9e borr[$ till aft] a c]ta9 "t is a ?+ ^: value may be asc]ta9$1 ! delay be+ consid]$ z "s advantage4 ,!re=e 9 a mortgage ! pr(its ( ! l& answ] ! use ( money4 ,b :at ,cato1 ,cic]o1 ,plut>* & o!rs allege aga9/ usury1 applies n s mu* to ! nature ( ! ?+1 z to ! accid5tal circum/ances & consequ5ces ) :i* x is commonly att5d$4#cd ,,xx4 ,!re are "s k9ds ( int]e/1 :i* are ?\ght to we> ! appe>ance ( usury1 & g5]ally come "u t d5om9ation1 b :i* 9 reality are contracts ( a diff]5t nature4 ,! five %ill+s commission :i* a bank]1 = in/ance1 *>ges ^u e hundr$ p\nds1 is n s mu* an int]e/ 9 addition to five p] c5t1 z a comp5sation = 8 tr\ble1 & = ! risk & inconv5i5ce he incurs1 by ! loan ( 8 money1 :i* he might h employ$ 9 "s o!r lucrative way4 ,9 ! same mann] a p]son :o l5ds money to _m individuals1 &1 = t purpose1 keeps c]ta9 sums ( ca% 9 8 h&s1 ought to h "s indemnity = ! cont9ual loss ( int]e/ ^u ^? sums1 :i* may be consid]$ z s mu* dead /ock4 ,nor c any recomp5ce ( ?is k9d be br&$ ) ! "n ( usury4 ,demo/h5es1 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,panta5etus1 condemns x z an odi\s act ( inju/ice1 to *>ge ) usury a man1 :o 9 ord] to keep 8 pr9cipal undim9i%$1 or to assi/ ano!r ) money1 l5ds out ! sav+s ( 8 indu/ry & frugal habits1 ^u a mod]ate int]e/4 ,,xxi4 ,^? human laws1 :i* all[ a comp5sation to be made = ! use ( money or any o!r ?+1 are nei!r repugnant to natural nor reveal$ law4 ,?us 9 ,holl&1 :]e ! rate ( int]e/ ^u common loans 0 eight p] c5t1 !re 0 no inju/ice 9 requir+ twelve p] c5t ( m]*ants2 because ! haz>d 0 great]4 ,! ju/ice & reasonabl5ess inde$ ( all ^! regulations mu/ be measur$ by ! haz>d or inconv5i5ce ( l5d+4 ,= :]e ! recomp5ce exce$s ?is1 x becomes an act ( extortion or oppression4 ,,xxii4 ,contracts = gu>d+ aga9/ dang]1 :i* are call$ insurances1 w be deem$ fraudul5t & void1 if ! insur] kn[s be=eh& t ! ?+ insur$ is already safe1 or has rea*$ its place ( de/9ation1 & ! o!r p>ty t x is already de/roy$ or lo/4 ,& t n s mu* on acc\nt ( ! equality naturally requisite 9 all contracts ( ex*ange1 z because ! dang] & unc]ta9ty is ! v ess5ce ( su* contract4 ,n[ ! premium ^u all insurances mu/ be regulat$ by common e/imation4#ce ,,xxiii4 ,9 trad+ p>tn]%ips1 :]e money is contribut$ by bo? p>ties2 if ! proportions be equal1 ! pr(its & ! losses ought to be equal also4 ,b if !y be unequal1 ! pr(its & ! losses mu/ be> ! same proportion1 z ,ari/otle has %ewn at ! conclusion ( ! eigh? book ( 8 ,e?ics4 ,& ! same rule w hold good :]e equal or unequal proportions ( labor are contribut$4 ,labor may be giv5 z a balance aga9/ money1 or bo? labor & money may be giv51 accord+ to ! g5]al maxim t "o man's lab\r is an equival5t = ano!r man's money4 ,b !re are v>i\s ways ( =m+ ^! agreem5ts4 ,if a man borr[s money to employ 8 skill ^u 9 trad+ = himself1 :e!r he ga9s or loses ! :ole1 he is answ]able to ! own] = ! pr9cipal4 ,b :]e a man unites 8 labor to ! capital ( ano!r 9 p>tn]%ip1 !re he becomes a p>tn] 9 ! pr9cipal1 to a %>e ( :i* he is entitl$4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! cases ! pr9cipal is n comp>$ z a balance aga9/ ! labor1 b x is l5t ^u t]ms proportion$ to ! risk ( los+ x1 or ! probable ga9s to be d]iv$ f x4 ,9 ! o!r case1 ! price ( lab\r is weigh$1 z x 71 aga9/ ! money1 & ! p>ty :o be/[s x1 is entitl$ to an equival5t %>e 9 ! capital4 ,:at has be5 said ( lab\r may be appli$ to voyages1 & all o!r haz>d\s und]tak+s4 ,= x is contr>y to ! v nature ( p>tn]%ips = any "o to %>e 9 ! ga91 & to be exempt f ! losses4 ,yet x may be s settl$ )\t any degree ( inju/ice4 ,= !re may be a mix$ contract aris+ out ( a contract ( insurance 9 :i* due equality may be pres]v$1 by all[+ ! p]son1 :o has tak5 ^u himself ! losses1 to receive a great] %>e ( ! ga9 ?an he w\ld o!rwise h done4 ,b x is a ?+ q inadmissible t any "o %\ld be responsible = ! losses )\t p>tak+ ( ! ga9s2 = a communion ( int]e/s is s natural to society t x _c subsi/ )\t x4 ,:at has be5 said by writ]s on ! civil law1 t ! %>es are und]/ood to be equal :]e !y are n expressly nam$1 is true :]e equal quotas h be5 contribut$4 ,b 9 a ,,g5]al p>tn]%ip ! %>es are n to be measur$ by :at may arise f ?is or t article1 b f ! probable pr(its ( ! :ole4 ,,xxiv4 ,9 naval associations ! common motive ( utility is self-def5ce aga9/ pirates3 ?\gh !y may sometimes be =m$ f less wor?y motives4 ,9 comput+ ! losses to be su/a9$ by ea*1 x is usual to e/imate ! numb] ( m51 ! numb] ( %ips1 & ! quantity ( m]*&ise protect$4 ,& :at has hi!rto be5 said w be f\nd con=mable to natural ju/ice4 ,,xxv4 ,nor does ! volunt>y#cf law ( nations appe> to make any alt]ation "h4 ,h[ev]1 !re is "o exception1 :i* is1 t :]e equal t]ms h be5 agre$ ^u1 if no fraud has be5 us$1 nor any necess>y in=mation )held1 !y %all be consid]$ z equal 9 an ext]nal#cg po9t ( view4 ,s t no action c be ma9ta9$ 9 a c\rt = su* inequality4 ,:i* 0 ! case 9 ! civil law be=e ,dioclesian's con/itution4 ,s among ^?1 :o are b\nd by ! law ( nations alone1 !re c be no r$ress or con/ra9t on su* acc\nt4#ch ,& ?is is ! mean+ ( :at ,pomponius says1 t 9 a b>ga9 & sale1 "o man may ,,naturally ov]rea* ano!r3 an all[ance :i* is n to be con/ru$1 z a "r1 b is only s f> a p]mission1 t no legal rem$y c be us$ aga9/ ! p]son1 :o is det]m9$ to insi/ ^u ! agreem5t4 ,9 ?is place1 z 9 _m o!rs1 ! ^w natural signifies no?+ m ?an :at is receiv$ by g5]al cu/om4 ,9 ?is s5se ! ,apo/le ,paul has said1 t x is naturally disgraceful = a man to we> long hair2 a ?+1 9 :i* !re is no?+ repugnant to nature1 b :i* is ! g5]al practice among "s nations4 ,inde$ _m writ]s1 bo? sacr$ & pr(ane1 give ! "n ( ,,natural to :at is only ,,cu/om>y & ,,habitual4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,oa?s4 ,efficacy ( oa?s among ,pagans--,delib]ation requisite 9 oa?s--,! s5se1 9 :i* oa?s are und]/ood to be tak51 to be adh]$ to--,to be tak5 accord+ to ! usual mean+ ( ! words--,! subject ( !m to be lawful--,n to c\nt]act moral obligations--,9 :at s5se oa?s are an appeal to ,god--,! purport ( oa?s--,to be fai?fully obs]v$ 9 all cases--,! contr\l ( sov]eigns ov] ! oa?s ( subjects--,obs]vations on our ,savi\r's prohibition ( oa?s--,=ms sub/itut$ = oa?s4 ,i4 ,! sanctity ( an oa? ) reg>d to promises1 agreem5ts1 & contracts1 has always be5 held 9 ! greate/ e/eem1 9 e age & among e p4 ,= z ,sophocles has said 9 8 ,hippodamia1 ,! s\l is b\nd to great] caution by ! addition ( an oa?4 ,= x gu>ds u aga9/ two ?+s1 mo/ to be avoid$1 ! reproa* ( fri5ds1 & ! wra? ( heav54 ,9 addition to :i* ! au?ority ( ,cic]o may be quot$1 :o says1 our =efa!rs int5d$ t an oa? %\ld be ! be/ security = s9c]ity ( affirmation1 & ! obs]vance ( good fai?4 ,=1 z he obs]ves 9 ano!r place1 !re c be no /rong] tie1 to ! fulfilm5t ( our ^w & promise1 ?an an oa?1 :i* is a solemn appeal to ! te/imony ( ,god4 ,,ii4 ,! next po9t1 to be consid]$1 is ! orig9al =ce & ext5t ( oa?s4 ,& 9 ! fir/ place ! argum5ts1 t h be5 us$ respect+ promises & contracts1 apply to oa?s also1 :i* ought nev] to be tak5 b ) ! mo/ delib]ate reflection & judgm5t4 ,nor c any "o lawfully take an oa?1 ) a secret int5tion ( n be+ b\nd by x4 ,= ! obligation is an insep>able & necess>y consequ5ce ( an oa?1 & e act accompani$ ) an obligation is suppos$ to proce$ f a delib]ate purpose ( m9d4 ,e "o is b\nd likewise to adh]e to an oa? 9 t s5se1 9 :i* x is usually und]/ood to be tak54 ,= an oa? be+ an appeal to ,god1 %\ld decl>e ! full tru? 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is und]/ood4 ,& ?is is ! s5se ^u :i* ,cic]o insi/s t all oa?s %\ld be p]=m$ & adh]$ to 9 t s5se1 9 :i* ! p>ty impos+ !m int5d$ !y %\ld be tak54 ,= al?\gh 9 o!r k9ds ( promises a condition may easily be impli$1 to release ! promis]2 yet t is a latitude by no means admissible 9 an oa?4 ,& on ?is po9t an appeal may be made to t passage1 :]e ! admirable writ] ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews has said1 ,,god ,,will+ m abundantly to %ew unto ! heirs ( ! promise ! immutability ( 8 c\nsel confirm$ x by an oa?3 t by two immutable ?+s1 9 :i* x 0 impossible = ,god to deceive1 we might h a /rong consolation4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ^! words1 we mu/ obs]ve t ! sacr$ writ]s1 9 speak+ ( ,god1 (t5 attribute to him human passions1 r 9 con=mity to our f9ite capacities1 ?an to 8 inf9ite nature4 ,= ,god does n actually *ange 8 decrees1 ?\gh he may be said to d s1 & to rep5t1 :5ev] he acts o!rwise ?an ! words seem$ to indicate1 ! occasion1 on :i* !y 7 deliv]$1 hav+ ceas$4 ,n[ ?is may easily be appli$ 9 ! case ( ?reats1 z conf]r+ no "r2 sometimes too 9 promises1 :]e a condition is impli$4 ,! ,apo/le !re=e names two ?+s d5ot+ immutability1 a promise :i* conf]s a "r1 & an oa?1 :i* admits ( no m5tal res]vations4 ,f ! above argum5ts x is easy to compreh5d :at is to be ?\ght ( an oa? fraudul5tly obta9$4 ,= if x is c]ta9 t a p]son took ! oa? ^u a supposition1 :i* aft]w>ds 0 prov$ to h no f\ndation1 & b = ! belief ( :i* he w\ld nev] h tak5 x1 he w n be b\nd by x4 ,b if x appe>s t he w\ld h tak5 x )\t t supposition2 he mu/ abide by 8 oa?1 because oa?s all[ ( no evasion4 ,,iii4 ,! mean+ ( an oa? %\ld n be /ret*$ beyond ! usual acceptation ( words4 ,!re=e !re 0 no brea* ( _! oa? 9 ^?1 :o1 hav+ sworn t !y w\ld n give _! daught]s 9 m>riage to ! ,b5jamites1 p]mitt$ ^? t _h be5 c>ri$ (f to live ) !m4 ,= !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 giv+ a ?+1 & n recov]+ t :i* is lo/4 ,,iv4 ,to give validity to an oa?1 ! obligation1 :i* x imposes ought to be lawful4 ,!re=e a sworn promise1 to commit an illegal act1 to d any ?+ 9 violation ( natural or reveal$ law1 w be ( no effect4 ,v4 ,inde$ if a ?+ promis$ ^u oa? be n actually illegal1 b only an ob/ruction to "s great] moral duty1 9 t case also ! oa? w n be valid4 ,because x is a duty :i* we owe to ,god n to deprive ourselves ( ! fre$om ( do+ all ! good 9 our p[]4 ,,vi4 ,oa?s may diff] 9 =m1 & yet agree 9 sub/ance4 ,= !y all ought to include an appeal to ,god1 call+ ^u him to witness ! tru?1 or to puni% ! falsehood ( _! ass]tions1 bo? ( :i* am\nt to ! same ?+4 ,= an appeal to ! te/imony ( a sup]ior1 :o has a "r to puni%1 is ! same z requir+ him to av5ge an act ( p]fidy4 ,n[ ! omnisci5ce ( ,god gives him p[] to puni%1 z well z to witness e degree ( falsehood4 ,,vii4 ,x 0 a cu/om ) ! anci5ts to swe> by p]sons or be+s expressly di/9ct f ! supreme creator1 ei!r imprecat+ ! wra? ( ^? by :om !y swore1 :e!r x 7 ! sun1 ! heav5s1 or ! e>?2 or swe>+ by _! own heads1 by _! *ildr51 _! c\ntry or _! pr9ce1 & call+ = de/ruction ^u ,,!m1 if !re 7 any falsehood 9 _! oa?s4 ,nor 0 ?is practice conf9$ to ,hea!n nations only1 b1 z we are in=m$ by ,philo1 x prevail$ among ! ,jews4 ,= he says t we ought n1 9 tak+ an oa? ^u e occasion1 to h rec\rse to ! mak] & fa!r ( ! univ]se1 b to swe> by our p>5ts1 by ! heav5s1 ! e>?1 ! univ]se4 ,?us ,joseph is said to h sworn by ! life ( ,ph>aoh1 accord+ to ! receiv$ cu/om ( ! ,egyptians4 ,nor does our ,savi\r1 9 ! fif? *apt] ( ,/4 ,mat!w's ,gospel1 int5d1 z x is suppos$ by "s1 to consid] ^! oa?s to be less b9d+ ?an ^? tak5 expressly by ! "n ( ,god4 ,b z ! ,jews 7 too mu* incl9$ to make use (1 & yet disreg>d !m1 he %ews !m t !y are real oa?s4 ,=1 z ,ulpian has well obs]v$1 he :o swe>s by 8 own life1 seems to swe> by ,god1 be>+ a respect & ref]5ce to 8 div9e p[]4 ,9 ! same mann] ,*ri/ %ews t he1 :o swe>s by ! temple1 swe>s by ,god :o presides 9 ! temple1 & t he :o swe>s by ,heav51 swe>s by ,god1 :o sits ^u ! ,heav5s4 ,b ! ,jewi% tea*]s ( t day ?\ght t m5 7 n b\nd by oa?s made 9 ! "n ( creat$ be+s1 unless "s p5alty 7 annex$1 z if ! ?+1 by :i* !y swore1 7 consecrat$ to ,god4 ,= ?is is ! k9d ( oa? impli$ 9 ! ^w korban z ,,by ,a ,,gift4 ,& x is ?is error ( !irs1 :i* ,*ri/ refutes4 ,,viii4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( oa?s is to cut %ort disputes4 ,an oa? = confirmation1 z ! inspir$ writ] ( ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews has said1 is ! end ( all /rife4 ,s too we f9d 9 ,diodorus ,siculus1 t an oa? 0 reg>d$ among ! ,egyptians z ! sure/ pl$ge ( s9c]ity t m5 c\ld give4 ,s t e "o1 9 tak+ an oa?1 %\ld express ! real purpose ( 8 m9d1 & r5d] 8 actions con=mable to ^? expressions4 ,!re is a beautiful passage on ?is subject1 9 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 :o says1 ! la/ pl$ge among m51 :e!r ,greeks or ,b>b>ians1 & x is a pl$ge1 :i* no "t c blot out1 is t :i* takes ! ,gods1 z witnesses to oa?s & cov5ants4 ,,ix4 ,! sub/ance ( an oa? too %\ld be su*1 & conceiv$ 9 su* words1 z to include n only ! div9e1 b ! human obligations1 :i* x implies4 ,= x %\ld convey to ! p]son1 :o receives x1 ! same security = 8 "r1 z he w\ld d]ive f an express promise or a contract4 ,b if ei!r ! words be> no ref]5ce to a p]son s z to conf] ^u him a "r1 or if !y d ref] to him b 9 su* a mann] t "s opposition may be made to 8 claim1 ! =ce ( ! oa? w1 9 t case1 be su* z to give t p]son no "r f x2 yet he :o has tak5 x mu/ /ill submit to ! div9e obligation1 :i* ! oa? imposes4 ,an example ( :i* we h 9 a p]son1 f :om a sworn promise has be5 extort$ by fe>4 ,= "h ! oa? conveys no "r1 b :at ! receiv] ought to rel9qui%1 = x has be5 obta9$ to ! prejudice ( ! giv]4 ,?us we f9d ! ,hebrew ,k+s 7 reprov$ by ! prophets1 & puni%$ by ,god = n obs]v+ ! oa?s1 :i* !y _h tak5 to ! k+s ( ,babylon4 ,x4 ,! same rule applies n only to transactions betwe5 public enemies1 b to ^? betwe5 any individuals :atsoev]4 ,= he1 to :om ! oa? is tak51 is n ! only p]son to be consid]$2 b a solemn reg>d mu/ be paid to ,god1 9 ^: "n ! oa? is tak51 & :o possesses au?ority to en=ce ! obligation4 ,= :i* reason x is impossible to admit ! position ( ,cic]o1 t x is no brea* ( an oa? to refuse pay+ to robb]s ! sum /ipulat$ = hav+ sp>$ "o's life2 because su* m5 are n to be rank$ 9 ! numb] ( lawful enemies1 b treat$ z ! common enemies ( all mank9d1 s t t[>ds !m no fai? ought to be kept1 nor ev5 ! sanctity ( an oa? obs]v$4 ,,xi4 ,! p[] ( sup]iors ov] inf]iors1 t is ( sov]eigns ov] subjects1 ) respect to oa?s1 is ! next topic t comes "u consid]ation4 ,n[ ! act ( a sup]ior _c annul ! p]fect obligation ( an oa?1 :i* re/s ^u natural & reveal$ law4 ,b z we are n1 9 a /ate ( civil society1 entirely ma/]s ( our own actions1 :i* 9 "s measure dep5d ^u ! direction ( ! sov]eign p[]1 :i* has a tw(old influ5ce ) respect to oa?s1 9 ! "o case apply+ to ! p]son :o takes1 & 9 ! o!r1 to ! p]son :o receives !m4 ,?is au?ority may be ex]cis$ ov] ! p]son tak+ ! oa?1 ei!r by decl>+1 be=e x is tak51 t x %all be made void1 or by prohibit+ its fulfilm5t1 :5 tak54 ,= ! inf]ior or subject1 consid]$ z su*1 c\ld n b9d himself to engagem5ts1 beyond ^? all[$ by ! sov]eign legislature4 ,9 ! same mann]1 by ! ,hebrew ,law1 husb&s might annul ! oa?s ( wives1 & fa!rs ^? ( *ildr51 :o 7 /ill dep5d5t4 ,,xii4 ,9 ?is place we may cursorily obs]ve1 t :at is said 9 ! precepts ( ,*ri/1 & by ,/4 ,james1 aga9/ swe>+ at all1 applies n to an oa? ( affirmation1 _m in/ances ( :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,/4 ,paul1 b to promissory oa?s respect+ unc]ta9 & future ev5ts4 ,?is is pla9 f ! opposition 9 ! words ( ,*ri/4 ,y h he>d x ha? be5 said by !m ( old "t1 ?\ %alt n =swe> ?yself1 b %alt p]=m unto ! ,"l ?9e oa?4 ,b ,i say to y1 swe> n at all4 ,& ! reason giv5 = x by ,/4 ,james1 is t y fall n into hypocrisy1 or be f\nd deceiv]s2 = s ! ^w ,,hypocrisy signifies 9 ! ,greek4 ,aga9 x is said by ,/4 ,paul1 t all ! promises ( ,god 9 ,*ri/ are ,,yea & ,,am51 t is are c]ta9 & und\bt$4 ,h5ce came ! ,hebrew phrase1 t a j man's ,,yea is ,,yea1 & 8 ,,no is ,,no4 ,on ! o!r h&1 p]sons1 ^: actions diff] f _! affirmations1 are said to speak ,,yea & ,,no1 t is _! affirmation is a d5ial1 & _! d5ial an affirmation4 ,9 ?is mann] ,/4 ,paul v9dicates himself f ! *>ge ( lightness ( spee*1 add+ t 8 conv]sation _h n be5 ,,yea1 & ,,no4 ,,xiii4 ,affirmations are n ! only modes ( obligation4 ,= 9 _m places signs h be5 us$ z pl$ges ( fai?2 ?us among ! ,p]sians giv+ ! "r h& 0 consid]$ ! firme/ tie4 ,s t :]e any =m is sub/itut$ = an oa?1 ! violation ( x w be an act ( p]jury4 ,x has be5 said ( ,k+s & ,pr9ces 9 p>ticul>1 t _! fai? is ! same z an oa?4 ,on :i* acc\nt ,cic]o1 9 8 spee* = ,dejot>us1 comm5ds ,caes> no less = ! vig\r ( 8 arm 9 battle1 ?an = ! sure fulfilm5t ( ! pl$ge & promise ( 8 "r h&4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4#ci ,,on ,,treaties ,,& ,,on ,,engagem5ts ,,made ,,by ,,delegates1 ,,exce$+ ,,_! ,,p[]4 ,public ,conv5tions--,divid$ into treaties1 engagem5ts1 & o!r compacts--,diff]5ce betwe5 treaties & ! engagem5ts made by delegates exce$+ _! p[]s--,treaties f\nd$ on ! law ( nature--,_! orig9--,treaties f\nd$ on /ill m ext5sive pr9ciples--,treaties ) ^?1 :o are /rang]s to ! true religion1 prohibit$ nei!r by ! ,jewi% nor ,*ri/ian law--,cautions respect+ su* treaties--,*ri/ians b\nd to unite aga9/ ! enemies ( ! ,*ri/ian religion--,among a numb] ( ,allies 9 w>1 :i* ( !m h ! fir/ pret5sions to assi/ance--,tacit r5ewal ( treaties--,! effect ( p]fidy 9 "o ( ! contract+ p>ties consid]$--,h[ f> ! unau?oriz$ engagem5ts ( delegates are b9d+1 :5 ! sov]eigns refuse to ratify !m--,! ,caudian ,conv5tion consid]$--,:e!r ! k & sil5ce ( ! ,sov]eign makes ^? unau?oriz$ conv5tions b9d+--,! ,conv5tion ( ,luctatius consid]$4 ,i4 ,ulpian has divid$ conv5tions into two k9ds1 public & private1 & he has n expla9$ a public conv5tion ^u ! usual pr9ciples1 b has conf9$ x to a treaty ( peace1 :i* he alleges z 8 fir/ example1 & he has made use ( ! engagem5ts ent]$ into by ! g5]als ( two cont5d+ p[]s1 z an in/ance ( private conv5tions4 ,by public conv5tions !re=e he means ^?1 :i* _c be made b by ! au?ority & 9 ! "n ( ! sov]eign p[]1 ?us di/+ui%+ !m n only f ! private contracts ( individuals1 b ,,also f ! ,,p]sonal contracts ( sov]eigns !mselves4 ,& inde$ private injuries & contracts1 no less ?an public treaties frequ5tly prove ! orig9 ( w>s4 ,& z private contracts h be5 already s amply discuss$1 ! high] ord] ( contracts1 :i* come "u ! d5om9ation ( treaties1 w necess>ily =m ! lead+ "p 9 our f>!r inquiries4 ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,n[ public conv5tions may be divid$ into treaties1 engagem5ts1 & o!r compacts4 ,! n9? book ( ,livy may be consult$ on ! di/9ction betwe5 treaties & engagem5ts1 :]e ! hi/orian in=ms u1 t treaties are ^? contracts1 :i* are made by ! express au?ority ( ! sov]eign p[]1 & 9 :i* ! p invoke ! div9e v5geance on _! heads1 if !y violate _! engagem5ts4 ,among ! ,romans ! p]sons employ$ 9 decl>+ w> & mak+ peace1 7 9 ! conclusion ( ^! solemn treaties1 always accompani$ by ! pr9cipal h]ald1 :o took ! oa? 9 ! "n ( ! :ole p4 ,a sponsio1 or ,,engagem5t1 is :at 0 made by p]sons1 :o _h no express commission = t purpose f ! sov]eign p[]1 & ^: acts consequ5tly requir$ a fur!r ratification f ! sov]eign himself4#dj ,! ,s5ate ( ,rome1 we are in=m$ by ,sallu/1 judg$ v prop]ly 9 pass+ a decree1 t no treaty c\ld be made )\t _! cons5t & t ( ! p4 ,livy relates t ,hi]onymus1 k+ ( ,syracuse1 hav+ ent]$ into a conv5tion ) ,hannibal1 s5t aft]w>ds to ,c>?age to h x conv]t$ by ! /ate into a league4 ,= :i* reason ,s5eca ! eld] has said1 apply+ ! expression to p]sons inve/$ ) a special commission = t purpose1 t a treaty1 negotiat$ by ! g5]al1 b9ds ! :ole ( ! ,roman p1 :o are suppos$ to h made x4 ,b 9 mon>*ies1 ! p[] ( mak+ treaties belongs to ! k+ alone1 a maxim :i* ! language ( poetry1 no less ?an ! records ( hi/ory1 %ews to h be5 held 9 all ages4 ,euripides1 ^: s5tim5ts are always con=mable to nature1 & popul> op9ion1 9 8 ,trag$y ( ! ,suppliants1 says1 ,x re/s ) ,adra/us to take ! oa?1 to :om1 z sov]eign1 ! sole "r ( b9d+ ! c\ntry by treaties belongs4 ,no subord9ate magi/rates h su* a p[] ( b9d+ ! p2 nor w ! acts ( a small] portion b9d ! great]1 an argum5t us$ 9 fav\r ( ! ,romans aga9/ ! ,gauls4 ,= !re 0 a majority ( ! p ) ,camillus1 ! dictator4 ,b x rema9s to be consid]$ h[ f> ! acts ( ^?1 :o h engag$ = ! p1 )\t any public au?ority1 are b9d+4 ,p]haps x may be said t ! contract+ p>ties h dis*>g$ _! responsibility :5 !y h done all 9 _! p[] t[>ds ! fulfilm5t ( _! obligation4 ,t might be ! case 9 promises1 b ! obligation 9 public contracts is ( a /rict] k9d4 ,= ! p>ty contract+ requires some?+ 9 return = ! engagem5ts he makes4 ,h5ce ! civil law1 :i* rejects all promises made by "o p]son = ! p]=mance ( "s act by ano!r1 r5d]s him :o engages = ! ratification ( a ?+ liable to pay damages & int]e/4 ,,iv4 ,! mo/ accurate di/9ction 9 treaties1 is t :i* makes ! f\ndation ( "s re/ purely ^u ! law ( nature1 & o!rs ^u ! obligations1 :i* m5 h ei!r d]iv$ f ! law ( nature1 or add$ to x4 ,treaties ( ! =m] k9d are1 9 g5]al1 made1 n only betwe5 enemies1 z a t]m9ation ( w>2 b 9 anci5t times 7 frequ5tly made1 &1 9 "s degree1 ?\ght necess>y among m5 9 ! =mation ( e contract4 ,?is arose f t pr9ciple 9 ! law ( nature1 :i* e/abli%$ a degree ( k9dr$ among mank9d4 ,!re=e x 0 unlawful = "o man to be injur$ by ano!r4 ,& ?is natural ju/ice univ]sally prevail$ be=e ! deluge4 ,b aft] t ev5t1 9 process ( "t1 z evil dispositions & habits ga9$ gr\nd1 x 0 by degrees oblit]at$4 ,s t "o p's robb+ & plund]+ ano!r1 ev5 :5 no w> _h be5 comm5c$ or decl>$1 0 deem$ lawful4 ,epiphanius calls ?is ! ,scy?ian fa%ion4 ,no?+ is m frequ5t 9 ! writ+s ( ,hom] ?an = m5 to be ask$1 if !y are robb]s8 ,a "q1 z ,?ucydides in=ms u1 by no means int5d+ to convey reproa*1 b purely = in=mation4 ,9 an anci5t law ( ,solon's m5tion is made ( companies =m$ = robb]y3 &1 we f9d f ,ju/91 t1 till ! times ( ,t>qu91 piracy 0 att5d$ ) a degree ( glory4 ,9 ! law ( ! ,romans x 0 a maxim1 t nations1 :i* _h n ent]$ into t]ms ( amity1 or into treaties ) !m 7 n to be consid]$ z enemies4 ,b if any ?+ belong+ to ! ,romans fell into _! h&s1 x became !irs2 or any citiz5 ( ,rome1 tak5 by !m1 became a slave2 & ! ,romans w\ld treat any p]son belong+ to t nation1 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 ?is case ! "r ( po/lim9ium#da is obs]v$4 ,s at a remote p]iod1 be=e ! times ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! ,corcyraeans 7 n consid]$ z enemies by ! ,a!nians1 ?\gh !re 0 no treaty ( peace subsi/+ betwe5 !m1 z appe>s f ! spee* ( ! ,cor9?ians giv5 by ,?ucydides4 ,ari/otle comm5ds ! practice ( plund]+ b>b>ians1 & 9 anci5t ,latium an enemy signifi$ no?+ b a =eign]4 ,9 ! class ( treaties ref]r$ to 9 ?is section may be rank$ ^? made betwe5 diff]5t /ates = ! mutual pres]vation ( ! rights ( hospitality & comm]ce1 z f> z !y come "u ! law ( nature4 ,arco makes use ( ?is di/9ction1 9 8 spee* to ! ,a*aeans1 z report$ by ,livy1 :]e he says he does n require an (f5sive & def5sive alliance1 b only su* a treaty z may secure _! rights f infr+em5t by ea* o!r1 or prev5t !m f h>b\r+ ! fugitive slaves ( ! ,mac$onians4 ,conv5tions ( ?is k9d 7 call$ by ! ,greeks1 /rictly speak+1 ,,peace 9 opposition to ,,treaties4 ,v4 ,treaties f\nd$ ^u obligations add$ to ^? ( ! law ( nature are ei!r equal1 or unequal4 ,equal treaties are ^?1 by :i* equal advantages are secur$ on bo? sides4 ,! ,greeks call !m ,,alliances1 & sometimes alliances ^u an equal scale4 ,b treaties ( ! latt] k9d are m prop]ly leagues ?an treaties1 & :]e "o ( ! p>ties is inf]ior 9 dignity1 !y are call$ ,,injunctions1 or ,,injunctions ,,annex$ ,,to ,,cov5ants4 ,demo/h5es 9 8 spee* on ! lib]ty ( ! ,rhodians says1 all nations ought to gu>d aga9/ =m+ su* leagues1 z approa*+ too ne> to s]vitude4 ,treaties ( bo? k9ds1 :e!r ( peace or alliance are made f motives ( "s advantage to ! p>ties4 ,by equal treaties ( peace1 ! re/oration ( prison]s1 ! re/oration or cession ( conqu]$ places1 & o!r matt]s provid+ = its due ma9t5ance1 are settl$1 a subject t w be m fully treat$ ( h]eaft]1 9 /at+ ! effects & consequ5ces ( w>4 ,treaties ( alliance ^u equal conditions relate ei!r to comm]ce1 or to contributions = ! jo9t prosecution ( a w>1 or to o!r objects ( equal importance4 ,equal treaties ( comm]ce may v>y 9 _! t]ms4 ,= in/ance x may be settl$ t no duties %all be impos$ ^u ! goods ( ! subjects1 belong+ to ea* ( ! contract+ p[]s3 or t ! duties ^u _! respective commodities %all be l[] ?an ! duties ^u ^? ( any o!r nation4 ,! fir/ ( ^! examples may be f\nd 9 an anci5t treaty betwe5 ! ,romans & ,c>?ag9ians1 9 :i* !re is a clause1 mak+ an exception ( :at is giv5 to ! not>y & public cri]4 ,or x may be settl$ t no high] duties ?an ^? exi/+ at ! "t ! treaty is made %all be impos$1 or t !y %all n be augm5t$ beyond a c]ta9 rate4 ,s 9 alliances ( w> ! contract+ p>ties are requir$ to furni% equal numb]s ( troops or %ips1 a k9d ( alliance :i*1 z ,?ucydides expla9s x1 calls ^u ! unit$ p[]s to hold ! same /ates = common enemies or fri5ds3 we f9d1 9 _m p>ts ( ,livy1 alliances ( ?is description among /ates1 = ! mutual def5ce ( _! t]ritories or = ! prosecution ( "s p>ticul> w>1 or aga9/ "s p>ticul> enemy1 or aga9/ all /ates except+ _! respective allies4 ,polybius has giv5 a treaty ( ?is k9d1 made betwe5 ! ,c>?ag9ians & ,mac$onians4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ,rhodians b\nd !mselves by treaty to assi/ ,atigonus ,demetrius aga9/ all enemies except ,ptolemy4 ,!re are o!r objects too = :i* equal treaties are made4 ,?us "o p[] may b9d ano!r to build no =ts 9 _! neighb\rhood :i* might prove an annoyance1 to give no enc\ragem5t to rebelli\s subjects1 to all[ ! troops ( an enemy no passage ?r\gh _! c\ntry4 ,,vi4 ,f equal treaties1 ! nature ( unequal treaties may easily be und]/ood4 ,& :]e two p[]s contract1 ?is inequality may be on ! side ei!r ( ! sup]ior1 or ( ! inf]ior p[]4 ,a sup]ior p[] may be said to make an unequal treaty1 :5 x promises assi/ance )\t /ipulat+ = any return1 or gives great] advantages ?an x engages to receive4 ,& on ! "p ( ! inf]ior p[] ?is inequality subsi/s :51 z ,isocrates says 9 8 ,,panegyric1 h] privileges are unduly depress$2 s t engagem5ts ( ?is k9d may be call$ injunctions or comm&s r ?an treaties4 ,& ^! may1 or may n1 be att5d$ ) a dim9ution ( _! sov]eign p[]4 ,su* a dim9ution ( sov]eign p[] foll[$ ! second treaty betwe5 ! ,c>?ag9ians & ,romans1 by :i* ! =m] 7 b\nd to make no w> b ) ! cons5t ( ! ,roman p2 s t f t "t1 ,appian says1 ! ,c>?ag9ians 7 compell$ by treaty to comply ) ! hum\r ( ! ,romans4 ,to ?is k9d may be add$ a conditional surr5d]1 except t x leads n to a ,,dim9ution1 b to an ,,entire ,,transf] ( ! sov]eign dignity & p[]4 ,,vii4 ,! burd5s atta*$ to unequal treaties1 :]e no dim9ution ( sov]eignty takes place1 may be ei!r transitory or p]man5t4 ,,transitory burd5s are ^?1 by :i* ! paym5t ( c]ta9 sums ( money is impos$1 ! demolition ( c]ta9 works & =tifications1 ! cession ( c]ta9 c\ntries & ! deliv]y ( %ips or ho/ages are requir$4 ,b ,,p]man5t conditions are ^?1 :i* require ! tribute ( homage & submission f "o p[] to ano!r4 ,ne>ly approa*+ to su* treaties are ^?1 by :i* "o p[] is deb>r$ f hav+ any fri5ds or enemies1 b at ! pleasure ( ano!r1 or f all[+ a passage & supplies to ! troops ( any /ate1 ) :om t p[] may be at w>4 ,besides ^! !re may be conditions ( an inf]ior & less important k9d2 su* z ^?1 :i* prohibit ! build+ ( =ts 9 c]ta9 places2 ma9ta9+ armies1 or hav+ %ips beyond a c]ta9 numb]2 navigat+ c]ta9 seas1 or rais+ troops 9 c]ta9 c\ntries2 attack+ allies or supply+ enemies4 ,"s conditions inde$ g s f> z to prohibit a /ate f admitt+ refugees1 & to dem& annull+ all =m] engagem5ts ) e o!r p[]4 ,num]\s examples ( su* treaties are to be f\nd 9 hi/orians bo? anci5t & mod]n4 ,unequal treaties may be made n only betwe5 ! conqu]ors & ! conqu]$ b also betwe5 mighty & impot5t /ates1 betwe5 :om no ho/ilities h ev] exi/$4 ,,viii4 ,9 consid]+ treaties1 x is frequ5tly ask$1 :e!r x be lawful to make !m ) nations1 :o are /rang]s to ! ,*ri/ian religion2 a "q1 :i*1 accord+ to ! law ( nature1 admits n ( a d\bt4 ,= ! rights1 :i* x e/abli%es1 are common to all m5 )\t di/9ction ( religion4 ,! gospel has made no *ange 9 ?is respect1 b r fav\rs treaties1 by :i* assi/ance 9 a j cause may be af=d$ ev5 to ^?1 :o are /rang]s to religion4 ,= to embrace opportunities ( do+ good to all m5 is n only p]mitt$ z laudable1 b enjo9$ z a precept4 ,= 9 imitation ( ,god1 :o makes 8 sun to rise ^u ! righte\s & ! wick$1 & refre%es !m bo? ) 8 graci\s ra91 we are comm&$ to exclude no race ( m5 f _! due %>e ( our s]vices4 ,yet1 9 equal cases1 x admits ( no d\bt1 t ^? )9 ! pale ( our own religi\s communion h a pref]able claim to our support4 ,,ix4 ,9 addition to ! =ego+ argum5ts we may obs]ve t z all ,*ri/ians are consid]$ z memb]s ( "o body1 :i* are requir$ to feel = ! pa9s & suff]+s ( ea* o!r1 ?is precept applies n only to individuals1 b to nations & k+s 9 _! public capacity4 ,= ! rule ( duty is n to be measur$ by ! incl9ation ( individuals1 b by ! injunctions ( ,*ri/4 ,& 9 "s cases ! ravages ( an impi\s enemy c only be oppos$ by a firm alliance among ,*ri/ian k+s1 & gov]nm5ts4 ,& x is a duty f :i* no?+1 b inevitable necessity1 & _! imm$iate att5tion be+ engross$ by ! prosecution ( o!r w>s1 c excuse !m4 ,x4 ,ano!r "q frequ5tly arises1 :i* is1 :5 two /ates are engag$ 9 w> ) ea* o!r1 to :i* ( !m a p[]1 equally alli$ to bo?1 ought 9 pref]5ce to give assi/ance4 ,"h too we mu/ obs]ve !re c be no obligation to support unju/ w>s4 ,on :i* acc\nt t conf$]ate p[]1 :i* has ju/ice on its side1 w h a claim to pref]5ce1 if engag$ 9 w> ) ano!r n compreh5d$ 9 ! numb] ( conf$]ates1 or ev5 if engag$ ) "o ( ! conf$]ates !mselves4 ,b if two p[]s engage 9 a w>1 equally unju/ on bo? sides1 a ?ird p[]1 unit$ 9 conf$]acy ) bo?1 w prud5tly ab/a9 f int]f]5ce4 ,aga91 if two p[]s alli$ to u are engag$ 9 a j w> aga9/ o!rs1 ) :om we h no connection2 9 ! supplies ( m5 or money t we furni% to ei!r we ought to foll[ ! rule1 obs]v$ 9 ! case ( p]sonal cr$itors4#db ,b if p]sonal assi/ance1 :i* _c be divid$1 is requir$ ( ! contract+ p>ty1 9 t case ! pref]5ce mu/ be giv5 to ! engagem5ts ( ! longe/ /&+4 ,h[ev] ! case ( a subsequ5t treaty1 :i* makes ! engagem5ts ( a m b9d+ & ext5sive nature1 w =m an exception to ?is rule4 ,,xi4 ,! tacit r5ewal ( a treaty ought n to be presum$ ^u at ! expiration ( ! p]iod1 limit$ = its cont9uance1 unless c]ta9 acts be p]=m$1 :i* c expressly be con/ru$ z a r5ewal ( x1 & c be tak5 9 no o!r s5se4 ,,xii4 ,if "o ( ! p>ties violates a treaty1 su* a violation releases ! o!r f its engagem5ts4 ,= e clause has ! b9d+ =ce ( a condition4 ,& z an example ( ?is1 a passage f ,?ucydides may be quot$1 :]e t hi/orian says t = "o p[] to acc$e to a new conf$]acy1 & to des]t an ally :o has neglect$ to fulfil 8 engagem5ts1 is no brea* ( a treaty2 b n to assi/ ano!r p[] 9 con=mity to sworn engagem5ts am\nts to a violation !re(4 ,& ?is is g5]ally true1 except :]e x has be5 agre$ to ! contr>y1 t a treaty %all n be null & rel9qui%$ = trifl+ disgu/s & misc>riages4 ,,xiii4 ,conv5tions are z v>i\s & num]\s z treaties1 & ! di/9ction made betwe5 !m is ow+ m to ! diff]5ce ( p[] 9 ^? by :om !y are made1 ?an to any real diff]5ce 9 _! own nature4 ,b !re are two p>ticul> po9ts ( inquiry mat]ially connect$ ) all conv5tions1 ! fir/ ( :i* relates to ! ext5t ( ! negotiator's obligation1 :5 ! sov]eign or ! /ate refuses to ratify a conv5tion1 :e!r he is b\nd to make an indemnity to ! o!r p>ty = ! disappo9tm5t1 to re/ore ?+s to ! situation !y 7 9 be=e he treat$1 or to deliv] up 8 own p]son4 ,! fir/ op9ion seems con=mable to ! ,roman civil law1 ! second to equity z x 0 urg$ by ! tribunes ( ! p1 ,l4 ,livius1 & ,j4 ,melius1 9 ! dispute ab\t ! peace ( ,caudium2#dc b ! ?ird is t mo/ g5]ally adopt$1 z 0 done respect+ ! two fam\s conv5tions ( ,caudium & ,numantia4 ,b !re is "o caution p>ticul>ly to be obs]v$1 & t is1 t ! sov]eign is no way b\nd by su* unau?oris$ conv5tions1 until he has ratifi$ !m4 ,9 ! conv5tion allud$ to1 if ! ,samnites _h int5d$ to b9d ! ,roman p1 !y %\ld h reta9$ ! army at ,caudium1 & s5t ambassadors to ! s5ate & p at ,rome1 to discuss ! treaty1 & le>n ^u :at t]ms !y *ose to r$eem _! army4 ,,xiv4 ,ano!r "q is1 :e!r ! k & sil5ce ( ! sov]eign b9d him to ! obs]vance ( a conv5tion4 ,b "h x is necess>y to make a di/9ction betwe5 an absolute conv5tion1 & "o made ^u condition ( its be+ ratifi$ by ! sov]eign4 ,= z all conditions ought to be lit]ally fulfill$1 su* a condition1 on failure ( fulfilm5t1 becomes void4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 v prop]ly obs]v$ 9 ! conv5tion made betwe5 ,luctatius & ! ,c>?ag9ians2 to :i* ! p refus$ to acc$e1 z x _h be5 made )\t _! cons5t4#dd ,a new treaty !re=e 0 made by public au?ority4 ,! next ?+ to be consid]$ is1 :e!r !re may n be "s act ( cons5t besides sil5ce4 ,= )\t "s visible act1 sil5ce is n ( itself suffici5t to w>rant a probable conjecture ( int5tion4 ,b if c]ta9 acts are done :i* c be acc\nt$ = ^u no o!r gr\nds ?an ^? ( cons5t1 !y are suppos$ to ratify a treaty4 ,?us if ! conv5tion ( ,luctatius _h conta9$ _m clauses1 "s ( !m rel9qui%+ c]ta9 rights1 & ^? clauses _h be5 always duly obs]v$ by ! ,romans1 su* obs]vance w\ld be ju/ly tak5 = a ratification ( ! treaty4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,int]pretation ,,( ,,treaties4 ,! ext]nal obligation ( promises--,words :]e o!r conjectures are want+ to be tak5 9 _! popul> mean+--,t]ms ( art to be int]pret$ accord+ to ! acceptation ( ! le>n$ 9 ea* art1 trade1 & sci5ce--,conjectures requisite to expla9 ambigu\s or seem+ly contradictory t]ms--,int]pretation ( treaties f ! subject-matt]--,f consequ5ces1 f circum/ances & connection--,conjectures tak5 f motives--,! m /rict or m ext5sive int]pretation--,treaties fav\rable1 odi\s1 mix$ or indiff]5t--,! good fai? ( k+s & nations 9 treaties ( equal validity ) law--,rules ( int]pretation =m$ f ! above nam$ di/9ctions--,:e!r ! ^w allies1 9 a treaty1 is limit$ to ^?1 :o 7 su* at ! "t ( mak+ x1 or applies to all :o are1 or h]eaft] may become su*--,int]pretation ( ! prohibition ( "o p>ty's mak+ w> )\t ! cons5t or injunction ( ! o!r--,( ! fre$om grant$ to ,c>?age--,di/9ction betwe5 p]sonal & real treaties--,a treaty made ) a k+ cont9ues ev5 dur+ 8 expulsion by an usurp]1 su* a treaty ext5ds n to an invad]--,:at k9d ( promises ought to h ! pref]5ce--,! ext5t ( obvi\s conjectures--,! p]=mance ( a commission by do+ some?+ equival5t--,int]pretation re/rict$ m closely ?an ! b>e signification ( ! words implies--,f an orig9al defect ( int5tion--,f failure ( ! sole motive--,f a defect 9 ! subject--,obs]vations on ! la/ nam$ conjectures--,em]g5cies repugnant to ! orig9al int5tion1 by r5d]+ x unlawful or burd5some--,conjectures tak5 f a comp>ison ( "o "p ( ! writ+s ) ano!r--,rules to be obs]v$--,9 dubi\s cases1 writ+s n absolutely requisite to ! validity ( a contract--,contracts ( ,sov]eigns n to be int]pret$ by ! ,roman law--,:e!r ! words ( ! p]son accept+ or (f]+ ! engagem5t ought to be mo/ reg>d$--,?is expla9$ by a di/9ction4 ,i4 ,if we consid] ! promis] alone1 he is naturally b\nd to fulfil 8 engagem5ts4 ,good fai?1 obs]ves ,cic]o1 requires t a man %\ld consid] z well :at he int5ds1 z :at he says4 ,b z acts ( ! m9d are n1 ( !mselves visible1 x is necess>y to fix ^u "s det]m9ate m>k1 to prev5t m5 f break+ _! engagem5ts1 by all[+ !m to affix _! own int]pretation to _! words4 ,x is a "r1 :i* natural reason dictates1 t e "o :o receives a promise1 %\ld h p[] to compel ! promis] to d :at a fair int]pretation ( 8 words sugge/s4 ,= o!rwise x w\ld be impossible = moral obligations to be br\ght to any c]ta9 conclusion4 ,p]haps x 0 9 ?is s5se t ,isocrates1 treat+ ( agreem5ts1 9 8 prescription aga9/ ,callima*us1 ma9ta9s t ! laws enact$ on ?is subject are ! common laws ( all mank9d1 n only ,greeks1 b b>b>ians also4 ,x is = ?is v reason1 t specific =ms h be5 assign$ = treaties1 :i* are to be drawn up 9 t]ms ( unequivocal & c]ta9 mean+4 ,! prop] rule ( int]pretation is to ga!r ! int5tion ( ! p>ties pl$g$1 f ! mo/ probable signs4 ,& ^! are ( two k9ds1 namely1 words & conjectures1 :i* may be consid]$ ei!r sep>ately1 or toge!r4 ,,ii4 ,:]e we h no o!r conjecture to guide u1 words are n to be /rictly tak5 9 _! orig9al or grammatical s5se1 b 9 _! common acceptation1 = x is ! arbitr>y w ( cu/om1 :i* directs ! laws & rules ( spee*4#de ,x 0 a fooli% act ( p]fidy !re=e 9 ! ,locrians1 :5 !y promis$ !y w\ld adh]e to _! engagem5ts z long z !y /ood ^u t soil1 & bore ^? heads ^u _! %\ld]s1 9 ord] to evade _! promise to ca/ away ! m\ld1 :i* !y _h previ\sly put )9 _! %oes1 & ! heads ( g>lick1 :i* !y _h laid ^u _! %\ld]s4 ,acts ( trea*]y l ^!1 ,cic]o1 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,(fices1 has prop]ly obs]v$1 in/ead ( mitigat+1 t5d to aggravate ! guilt ( p]jury4 ,,iii4 ,9 t]ms ( art :i* are above ! compreh5sion ( ! g5]al bulk ( mank9d1 rec\rse1 = explanation1 mu/ be _h to ^?1 :o are mo/ exp]i5c$ 9 t art2 ?us f consult+ legal writ]s1 we may conceive ! nature ( p>ticul> crimes1 or f ! pages ( ! same au?ors1 d]ive our notions ( sov]eign p[]4 ,x is a j rem>k ( ,cic]o's1 t ! language ( logic is n t ( daily & famili> int]c\rse3 ! writ]s ( t class h phrases peculi> to !mselves3 :i* inde$ is ! case ) arts ( e description4 ,s 9 treaties1 :]e milit>y arrangem5ts occur1 an army is def9$ to be a numb] ( soldi]s capable ( ,,op5ly invad+ a =eign1 or an enemy's c\ntry4 ,= hi/orians ev]y:]e make a di/9ction betwe5 ! private incursions ( robb]s1 & :at is done by a lawful & regul> army4 ,:at con/itutes an army mu/ be !re=e judg$ ( by ! enemy's =ce4 ,cic]o def9es an army to consi/ ( six legions & auxili>ies4 ,polybius says1 t a ,roman army 9 g5]al am\nt$ to sixte5 ?\s& ,romans1 & tw5ty ?\s& auxili>ies4 ,b a milit>y =ce might be compos$ ( a less numb] ( troops ?an ?is4 ,9 ! same mann] ! numb] ( %ips suffici5t = any purpose w am\nt to a fleet1 & a place able to hold out aga9/ an enemy may be call$ a =t4 ,,iv4 ,x is necess>y to make use ( conjecture1 :]e words or s5t5ces admit ( _m mean+s3 ,a mode ( expression :5 includ$ 9 "o ^w1 is call$ by ,logicians1 a synonym\s t]m1 &1 :5 ext5d+ to two or m words1 a d\btful phrase4 ,9 ! same mann] x is necess>y to h rec\rse to conjecture :5ev] a seem+ contradiction occurs 9 ! expressions ( a treaty4 ,= 9 t case we mu/ try to discov] su* conjectures1 z w reconcile1 if possible1 "o "p ) ano!r4 ,= if !re be an evid5t contradiction1 ! contract+ p>ties by _! latt] det]m9ations1 mu/ h int5d$ to abrogate _! =m]2 z no "o c design to make contradictory resolutions at ! same "t4 ,inde$ all acts dep5d+ ^u ! human w1 z 9 ! case ( laws & te/am5ts1 :i* dep5d ^u ! w ( "o p>ty1 & 9 contracts & treaties1 :i* dep5d ^u t ( two or m1 all ^! acts are liable to *anges1 ) a subsequ5t *ange ( w 9 ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,9 all su* cases any obscurity 9 ! language obliges u to h rec\rse to conjectures1 :i* are sometimes s obvi\s1 z to po9t out a mean+ directly contr>y to t ( ! words 9 _! usual acceptation4 ,n[ ! pr9cipal s\rces ( conjecture are to be f\nd 9 ! subject-matt]1 ! consequ5ces1 & ! circum/ances & connection4 ,v4 ,f ! subject or matt]1 z = in/ance1 9 ! ^w day4 ,?us if a truce be made = ?irty days1 "h civil & n natural days are meant4#df ,s ! ^w donation is sometimes us$ to signify a transf]1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! bus9ess4 ,9 ! same mann] too ! ^w arms1 :i* 9 g5]al signifies milit>y in/rum5ts1 is sometimes appli$ to troops1 & may be tak5 9 ei!r s5se1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> occasion4 ,e int]pretation mu/ be giv5 accord+ to ! int5tion und]/ood4 ,?us ! promise ( a free passage giv5 ^u ! evacuation ( a t[n1 implies also t ! troops %all pass )\t mole/ation4 ,if a numb] ( %ips are to be giv5 up1 p]fect & n mutilat$ %ips are meant4 ,& 9 all simil> cases a simil> judgm5t mu/ be =m$ accord+ to ! natural t5or ( ! words4 ,,vi4 ,ano!r s\rce ( int]pretation is d]iv$ f ! consequ5ces1 especially :]e a clause tak5 9 its lit]al mean+ w\ld lead to consequ5ces =eign or ev5 repugnant to ! int5tion ( a treaty4 ,= 9 an ambigu\s mean+ su* an acceptation mu/ be tak5 z w avoid lead+ to an absurdity or contradiction4 ,! cavil ( ,brasidas !re=e is highly abom9able1 :o1 promis+ t he w\ld evacuate ! ,boeotian t]ritory1 said he did n consid] t z ,boeotian t]ritory1 :i* he occupi$ ) 8 army2 z if ! anci5t b\nds 7 n int5d$1 b only :at rema9$ unconqu]$1 an evasion1 :i* entirely annull$ ! treaty4 ,,vii4 ,f ! circum/ances or context ano!r s\rce ( int]pretation is d]iv$4 ,no inconsid]able light may be ?r[n ^u ! mean+ ( an expression f ! circum/ance ( its be+ us$ by ! same p]son to express ! same int5tions on o!r simil> occasions1 & f its relation to :at goes be=e1 & :at foll[s ! place1 :]e x /&s4 ,= 9 all d\btful cases1 we h reason to suppose t ! contract+ p>ties mean to be consi/5t ) _! =m] op9ions & int5tions4 ,?us 9 ,hom]1 9 ! agreem5t betwe5 ,p>is & ,m5elaus1 t ,hel5 %\ld be giv5 up to ! conqu]or1 :5 comp>$ ) :at foll[s1 x is evid5t t by ! conqu]or is meant ! combatant1 :o kill$ ! o!r4 ,?is rule ( int]pretation1 ,plut>* illu/rates by ! conduct ( judges1 :o pass+ by :at is obscure re/ _! decisions ^u cle> & unambigu\s po9ts4 ,,viii4 ,z to ! motives1 :i* are sometimes tak5 = a rule ( int]pretation1 !re may be o!r sub/antial ones1 besides ^? imm$iately express$1 = ! pass+ ( a law or ! mak+ ( a treaty4 ,yet ! /ronge/ conjecture is t :i* arises f c]ta9 pro( t ! w 0 actuat$ by "s reason1 op]at+ z a sole & suffici5t motive4 ,= !re are frequ5tly ,,_m motives1 & sometimes ! w is influ5c$ by its own *oice indep5d5t ( any o!r reason4 ,9 ! same mann] a grant made1 9 contemplation ( a m>riage1 w be void1 if ! m>riage nev] takes place4 ,,ix4 ,x is fur!r to be obs]v$ t _m words h a v>iety ( acceptations1 "s m limit$ & o!rs m ext5sive2 :i* may be ow+ ei!r to ! application ( a g5]al "n to a p>ticul> class ( ?+s1 z 9 ! words k9dr$ & adoption2 or to ! use ( mascul9es to express animals bo? ( ! male & female k9d1 :]e n\ns ( a common g5d] are want+4 ,9 t]ms ( art too1 words are (t5 tak5 9 a metaphorical or ext5d$ s5se3 ?us 9 ! civil law dea? signifies bani%m5t2 b 9 its popul> acceptation a dissolution ( ! p>ts ( ! natural body4 ,x4 ,9 promises likewise1 "s ?+s are ( a fav\rable1 "s an odi\s1 & o!rs ( a mix$ or indiff]5t description4 ,fav\rable promises are ^? :i* conta9 an equality ( t]ms1 or :i* be> "s relation to ! common good1 ! magnitude & ext5t ( :i* increases ! fav\r ( ! promise3 s t all engagem5ts m conducive to peace ?an to w> are to be consid]$ z ^? ( a fav\rable complexion1 & alliances = mutual def5ce are always reg>d$ z a m laudable object ?an ^? = (f5sive w>4 ,treaties ( an odi\s k9d are ^? :i* lay great] burd5s on "o p>ty ?an on ! o!r1 :i* conta9 p5alties = non-p]=mance1 or :i* lead to an abrogation or infraction ( =m] treaties4 ,:]eas1 ?\gh engagem5ts ( a mix$ nature may create a deviation f =m] treaties1 !y may be tak5 ei!r 9 a fav\rable or odi\s light1 accord+ to ! magnitude1 or object ( ! *ange produc$4 ,if x be = ! sake ( peace1 x is bett]1 tak+ all circum/ances into consid]ation1 to rank !m ) ^? ( a fav\rable k9d4 ,,xi4 ,! di/9ction made by ! ,roman law betwe5 acts ( equity & ^? ( /rict ju/ice1 _c ,,g5]ally be appli$ to ! law ( nations1 ?\gh x may 9 "s cases be adopt$4 ,?us 9 any transaction betwe5 ! subjects ( two c\ntries1 9 ea* ( :i* ! same =m ( legal proce$+ is obs]v$1 ! p>ties are suppos$ to treat )\t any int5tion ( deviat+ f ! common rule & =m1 unless !y h expressly det]m9$ to ! contr>y4 ,b 9 acts = :i* no common rule is prescrib$1 z 9 donations & free promises1 !re ! p>ties are suppos$ to treat accord+ to ! /rict lett] ( ! agreem5t4 ,,xii4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! =m] positions1 ! subject naturally proce$s to ! rules !mselves1 :i* are to be obs]v$ 9 ! int]pretation ( treaties4 ,& 9 ! fir/ place we may rem>k1 t 9 ?+s1 :i* are n ( an odi\s nature1 words are to be tak5 /rictly 9 _! popul> mean+1 & :]e !y admit ( exceptions1 or h m significations ?an "o1 x is lawful to use t :i* is mo/ ext5sive4 ,z x has be5 already obs]v$1 t bo? ,logicians & ,gramm>ians frequ5tly use p>ticul> t]ms 9 a g5]al s5se4 ,?us ,cic]o 9 plead+ = ,caec9a1 ju/ly ma9ta9s t ! int]locutory decree1 ord]+ ,,t ,,! ,,p]son ,,eject$ ,,f ,,8 ,,inh]itance ,,%\ld ,,be ,,re9/at$ ,,9 ,,! ,,possession1 implies n only an ejectm5t1 b ext5ds to any =cible prev5tion ( ! own]'s tak+ possession4 ,9 ?+s ( a fav\rable nature1 if ! p>ties engag$ are acqua9t$ ) ! legal pr9ciples1 ^u :i* !y proce$1 or re/ ^u ! judgm5t ( ^? :o are s1 ! words us$ may be tak5 9 _! mo/ ext5sive signification1 includ+ ev5 t]ms ( art & ( law4#dg ,aga91 we mu/ nev] h rec\rse to a metaphorical int]pretation1 except :]e ! lit]al mean+ w\ld lead to a direct absurdity1 or w\ld defeat ! int5tion ( a treaty4 ,on ! o!r h& a passage may be int]pret$ 9 a m limit$ signification1 ?an ! words !mselves be>1 if su* int]pretation be necess>y1 to avoid inju/ice or absurdity4 ,if no su* necessity exi/1 b equity or utility manife/ly require a re/riction to ! lit]al mean+1 x mu/ be mo/ rigidly adh]$ to1 except :]e circum/ances compel u to d o!rwise4 ,b 9 ?+s ( an odi\s nature a figurative expression may be all[$ 9 ord] to avoid inconv5i5ce or inju/ice4 ,!re=e1 :5 any "o makes a grant1 or rel9qui%es 8 "r1 ?\gh he express himself 9 ! ,,mo/ ,,g5]al t]ms1 8 words are usually ,,re/rict$ to t mean+1 :i* x is probable he int5d$4 ,& 9 cases ( ?is k9d1 ! hope ( reta9+ a ?+ is sometimes tak5 = ! act ( possession4 ,9 ! same mann] x is und]/ood t subsidies ( m51 promis$ by "o p>ty only1 are to be ma9ta9$ at ! exp5ce ( ! p[]1 :o requires !m4 ,,xiii4 ,x is a fam\s "q :e!r ! ^w ,,allies includes only ^? :o 7 su* at ! "t ( mak+ ! treaty1 or ^? :o might aft]w>ds become s3 z 0 ! case 9 ! treaty made betwe5 ! ,roman p & ! ,c>?ag9ians at ! conclusion ( ! w> t _h orig9at$ 9 a dispute ab\t ,sicily1 by :i* treaty x 0 /ipulat$ t bo? p[]s %\ld =be> attack+ ! allies ( ea* o!r4 ,h5ce ! ,romans inf]r$ t al?\gh ! conv5tion made ) ,asdrubal1 by :i* he 0 prohibit$ f pass+ ! ,ib]us1 _h be5 ( no s]vice to !m1 z x _h n be5 ratifi$ by ! ,c>?ag9ians1 yet if ! ,c>?ag9ians sanction$ ! conduct ( ,hannibal 9 8 attack ^u ! p ( ,saguntum ) :om ! ,romans1 aft] ! mak+ ( t conv5tion1 _h ent]$ into an alliance1 !y %\ld consid] !mselves z au?oris$ to decl>e w> aga9/ ! ,c>?ag9ians = hav+ violat$ a solemn treaty4 ,^u :i* ,livy reasons 9 ! foll[+ mann]1 ,by ! clause 9 fav\r ( allies on bo? sides1 !re 0 suffici5t security = ! ,sagunt9es4 ,= !re 0 no limitation ( ! words to ^?1 :o 7 allies at t "t1 nor 7 !y su* z to exclude ei!r p[] f mak+ new alliances4 ,b if bo? sides 7 at lib]ty to make new alliances1 :o c\ld ?9k x j to deprive ! new allies ( t protection to :i* !y w\ld be entitl$ f treaties ( amity8 ,! exclusion c\ld reasonably g no fur!r ?an to decl>e t ! allies ( ! ,c>?ag9ians %\ld n be s$uc$ to r5\nce _! engagem5ts1 nor if !y did s1 be admitt$ into alliance ) ! ,romans4 ,! la/ passage is tak51 almo/ ^w = ^w1 f ! ?ird book ( ,polybius4 ,on :i* we may obs]ve t ! ^w ,,allies may /rictly mean ^?1 :o 7 s at ! "t1 :5 ! treaty 0 made1 &1 )\t any =c$ int]pretation1 may also be ext5d$ to embrace ^?1 :o aft]w>ds became su*4 ,to :i* ( ^! int]pretations ! pref]5ce is to be giv5 may be se5 f ! rules above giv53 & accord+ to ^? rules1 x w be f\nd1 t alliances =m$ aft] ! mak+ ( ! treaty w n be compreh5d$ 9 x1 because x relates to ! brea* ( a treaty1 ! violation ( :i* is an odi\s act1 & t5ds to deprive ! ,c>?ag9ians ( ! lib]ty ( r$ress+ !mselves by =ce aga9/ ^? :o 7 suppos$ to h injur$ !m2 a lib]ty sanction$ by ! law ( nature1 & n to be ab&on$ on any slight occasion4 ,7 ! ,romans deb>r$ !n by ?is rule f mak+ any treaty ) ! ,sagunt9es1 & def5d+ !m aft] !y became allies8 ,no6 !y _h a "r to def5d !m1 n by virtue ( any treaty1 b ^u pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice1 :i* no treaty c annul4 ,! ,sagunt9es !re=e ) respect to bo? p[]s 7 9 ! same situation1 z if no engagem5t _h be5 made 9 fav\r ( allies4 ,9 ?is case1 x 0 no brea* ( treaty = ! ,c>?ag9ians1 ^u j gr\nds1 to comm5ce ho/ilities aga9/ ! ,sagunt9es1 nor = ! ,romans to def5d !m4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple1 9 ! "t ( ,pyrrhus1 x _h be5 /ipulat$1 by treaty1 betwe5 ! ,c>?ag9ians & ,romans1 t if ei!r ( !m aft]w>ds ent]$ into any engagem5t ) ,pyrrhus1 ! p>ty s contract+ %\ld res]ve to itself ! "r ( s5d+ succ\rs to ! o!r1 if attack$ by t k+4 ,?\gh 9 t case ! w> ,,on ,,bo? ,,sides c\ld n be j1 yet x w\ld involve no infraction ( any treaty4 ,?is is an example ( a case 9 equal treaties4 ,,xiv4 ,! case ( an unequal treaty may be put1 :]e x is agre$ t "o ( ! conf$]ate p>ties %all n make w>1 )\t ! cons5t1 or by ! injunction ( ! o!r1 :i* 0 /ipulat$ 9 ! treaty betwe5 ! ,romans & ,c>?ag9ians1 aft] ! conclusion ( ! second ,punic w>4 ,:5 ! t]m ,,w> is appli$ to w> ( e description1 p>ticul>ly to (f5sive r ?an def5sive w>2 9 a dubi\s case1 x mu/ be limit$ to its prop] signification1 le/ ! treaty %\ld op]ate z too great a re/ra9t ^u ! lib]ty ( t p[]1 :i* has engag$ 9 ! unequal treaty4 ,,xv4 ,( ! same k9d is ! promise giv5 by ! ,romans1 t ,c>?age %\ld be free1 :i* c\ld nev] mean ! enjoym5t ( complete indep5d5ce1 by a p1 :o _h long be=e lo/ ! "r ( mak+ w>1 & _m ( _! o!r privileges4 ,yet x left !m "s degree ( lib]ty1 s mu* at lea/1 t !y %\ld n be oblig$ to remove ! seat ( _! gov]nm5t at ! comm& ( any =eign p[]1 & gave !m a pl$ge t _! city %\ld n be di/urb$4 ,x 0 9 va9 !n = ! ,romans to urge t x 0 only ! city :i* 0 int5d$4 ,:]eas ^? acqua9t$ ) ! use ( metaphorical language "k t by ! city is frequ5tly meant ! inhabitants1 & gov]nm5t ) its privileges1 & n ! m]e walls & h\ses4 ,= ! t]m1 ,,be+ ,,left ,,free1 implies t ! p %\ld enjoy _! own laws4 ,,xvi4 ,! nature ( p]sonal & real treaties is a frequ5t subject ( inquiry1 :i* may prop]ly be exam9$ 9 ?is place4 ,inde$ 9 all transactions ) a free p1 ! engagem5ts ent]$ into ) !m are ( a real nature2 because ! subject ( !m is a p]man5t ?+4 ,s p]man5t1 t1 al?\gh a republican be *ang$ into a regal gov]nm5t1 a treaty w rema9 9 =ce3 = ! political body cont9ues ! same1 al?\gh ! head be *ang$1 & ! sov]eign p[]1 :i* be=e 0 diffus$ among _m memb]s1 is n[ c5t]$ 9 "o4 ,yet ?is rule w admit ( an exception1 :]e x is evid5t t ! specific =m ( gov]nm5t made an ess5tial "p ( ! treaty1 z :5 two /ates make a f$]al union = ! mutual pres]vation ( _! political sy/ems4 ,b if a treaty be made ) a ,,k+ ,,or ,,sov]eign ,,pr9ce1 x does n consequ5tly foll[ t x is to be consid]$ only z a ,,p]sonal & n a ,,real treaty4 ,= ! "n ( a p]son may be ins]t$ 9 a treaty1 n m]ely to give x ! "* ( a p]sonal treaty1 b to po9t out ! contract+ p>ties4 ,& ?is w be /ill m evid5t1 if1 z is usual 9 mo/ treaties1 a clause is annex$ decl>+ x to be p]petual1 or made = ! good ( ! k+dom1 or ) ! k+ himself1 & 8 successors1 & x w also be consid]$ z a real treaty1 ev5 if x is /at$ to be pass$ = a def9ite "t4 ,! treaty betwe5 ! ,romans & ,philip1 ,k+ ( ! ,mac$onians1 seems to h be5 ( ?is description1 :i*1 ^u ! refusal ( 8 son to cont9ue x1 gave rise to a w>4 ,o!r =ms too besides ^? already nam$1 & ! subject itself1 w frequ5tly supply no improbable gr\nds ( conjecture4 ,b if ! conjectures are equal on bo? sides1 x w rema9 t fav\rable treaties are suppos$ to be real or p]man5t1 & odi\s ones only p]sonal4 ,all treaties ( peace or comm]ce are fav\rable4 ,yet all treaties ( w> are n odi\s1 especially ^? ( ! def5sive k9d1 su* a "* belong+ only to (f5sive w>s1 f ! contemplation ( ! calamities :i* !y inflict4 ,x is presum$ too1 t 9 ! =mation ( treaties1 ! "* ( ea* p>ty is tak5 into ! acc\nt1 & t bo? are p]suad$ t nei!r ( !m w comm5ce ho/ilities1 b f j & important causes4 ,:at is usually said ( societies t]m9at+ ) ! dea? ( ! p>ties1 has no connection ) ?is subject1 b relates to private societies1 ! cognizance ( :i* belongs to ! civil law4 ,:e!r x 0 "r or wrong !re=e 9 ! p ( ,fid5ae1 ! ,lat9s1 ,tuscans & ,sab9es1 ^u ! dea? ( ,romulus1 ,tullus1 ,ancus1 ,priscus1 ,s]vius1 to ab&on ! respective treaties made ) ^? k+s1 x is impossible = u n[ to decide1 ^? treaties be+ no long] extant4 ,on ! same po9t1 ,ju/9 ma9ta9s a discussion1 :e!r ^? /ates1 :i* _h be5 tribut>y to ! ,m$es1 7 ^u a *ange ( gov]nm5t1 releas$ f _! obligations4 ,= ! ?+ to be consid]$ is1 :e!r ! conv5tion ) ! ,m$es _h be5 a volunt>y act ( _! own4 ,inde$ ! argum5t ( ,bod9us c by no means be admitt$1 :i* is1 t treaties made ) k+s ext5d n to _! successors2 ,= ! obligation ( an oa? is limit$ to ! p]son ( him1 :o takes x4 ,x is true t ! oa? itself c b9d only ! p]son :o takes x2 yet ! engagem5ts1 :i* x confirms1 w be b9d+ ^u 8 heirs4 ,nor is x to be tak5 = an e/abli%$ maxim1 t oa?s are ! only f\ndation1 on :i* treaties re/4 ,! engagem5t itself is suffici5tly b9d+1 ! oa?s be+ only add$ to give x ! great] sanctity4 ,9 ! ,consul%ip ( ,publius ,val]ius1 ! ,roman p _h tak5 an oa? to mu/] at ! comm& ( ! ,consul4 ,^u 8 dea?1 he 0 succe$$ by ,lucius ,qu9tius ,c9c9natus4 ,"s ( ! tribunes began to quibble1 pret5d+ t ! p 7 releas$ f _! obligation4 ,^u :i* ,livy1 9 8 ?ird book1 rem>ks1 t at t "t !y _h n deg5]at$ into ! disreg>d ( religi\s obligations1 :i* m>k$ 8 age3 nor did e "o all[ himself a latitude 9 expla9+ oa?s1 & laws1 b ?\ght t he 0 b\nd to con=m to _! lit]al mean+4 ,,xvii4 ,a treaty made ) a k+ cont9ues 9 =ce1 ev5 ?\gh ! same k+ or 8 successor %\ld be bani%$ f ! k+dom by rebelli\s subjects4 ,= ! rights ( a k+1 among :i* 8 alliances may be reckon$1 rema9 unimpair$1 dur+ ! tempor>y loss ( 8 ?rone4 ,a case to :i* ! expression ( ,lucan may be appli$1 t ord] nev] loses its rights "u any *ange ( circum/ances4 ,,xviii4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any w>1 if x be ) ! cons5t ( ! lawful sov]eign1 made ^u ! invad] ( 8 k+dom1 or ^u ! usurp] ( a free p's rights be=e 8 usurpation has receiv$ public sanction1 w be deem$ no infraction ( any =m] treaty ) ! e/abli%$ au?orities ( t k+dom or c\ntry4 ,= acts ( usurpation convey n imm$iately any "r beyond t ( b>e possession4 ,& ?is is :at 0 said by ,titus ,qu9tius to ,nabis1 ,we made no treaty ( alliance & amity ) y1 b ) ! j & lawful k+ ( ! ,lac$aemonians4 ,= 9 treaties ! *>act]s ( ,,k+1 ,,successor1 & ! ,,l1 c>ry ) !m an idea ( a peculi> & lawful "r1 :i* mu/ always r5d] ! cause ( ,,usurp]s odi\s4 ,,xix4 ,x 0 a "q =m]ly discuss$ by ,*rysippus1 :e!r a prize promis$ to him1 :o fir/ rea*$ ! goal1 c\ld be giv5 to two1 :o rea*$ x at ! same "t1 or to nei!r4 ,b z rew>ds ( m]it are ?+s ( a fav\rable nature1 x is ! ju/] op9ion t !y %\ld divide ! prize4 ,al?\gh ,scipio1 ,caes> & ,julian act$ m lib]ally1 9 giv+ ! entire prizes to ea* ( ^? :o _h asc5d$ ! walls toge!r4 ,:at has be5 already said ^u ! lit]al or figurative application ( ! words1 9 int]pret+ treaties1 w be suffici5t4 ,,xx4 ,!re is also ano!r k9d ( int]pretation1 aris+ f conjectures1 :i* apply exactly to ! signification ( ! words conta9+ a promise or engagem5t2 & t is ( a tw(old description1 ei!r ext5d+ or limit+ ! mean+4 ,b x is m difficult to ext5d ?an to limit ! acceptation ( expressions4 ,= z 9 all matt]s ! want ( "o ess5tial requisite is suffici5t to defeat _! effect2 s 9 engagem5ts1 ^? conjectures1 :i* ext5d ! obligation are n readily to be admitt$4 ,& x is mu* m difficult "h ?an 9 ! case above m5tion$2 :]e words all[ a m ext5sive b less famili> acceptation4 ,= "h x is seek+ a conjecture to ext5d ! words ( a promise3 ! conjecture !re=e1 :i* is to create an obligation1 ought to be v c]ta94 ,nor is x suffici5t t !re is "s resemblance 9 ! motives2 = ! motive produc$ to confirm an obligation mu/ be exactly ! same z t ( ! case "u consid]ation4 ,nei!r is x always prop] to allege a motive = ext5d+ an obligation2 because1 z x has be5 already said1 motives1 9 actuat+ u to =m engagem5ts1 may sometimes be sway$ by ! w :i* (t5 acts indep5d5tly ( any j motive4 ,to au?orise !re=e su* an ext5sion1 x mu/ be evid5t t ! motive1 produc$ z an example & au?ority1 0 ! sole & effectual cause1 :i* influ5c$ ! promis]1 & t he consid]$ x 9 ! same ext5sive view2 = o!rwise x w\ld h be5 unju/ & prejudicial4 ,! anci5ts 9 _! treatises on rhetoric foll[ ! same rule1 :51 9 speak+ ( ! ,,lett] & ,,design1 !y give u "o inv>iable =m ( express+ ! same s5tim5t1 b 9 _! syllogisms or arts ( reason+ !y po9t out a way ( int]pret+ :at is n writt51 by :at is writt54 ,9 ! same mann] too legal writ]s lay d[n rules = avoid+ frauds4 ,n[ if at a "t1 :5 !re 0 no o!r mode ( =tify+ t[ns1 ?an by surr\nd+ !m ) walls1 x 7 /ipulat$ t a c]ta9 place %\ld n be s surr\nd$1 x is evid5t t to employ any o!r means ( =tification w\ld be a brea* ( t treaty4 ,z 9 ! above case ! int]pretation mu/ be ext5d$ to gu>d aga9/ e possible evasion1 s 9 ! foll[+ example1 ! prohibition to assemble an arm$ =ce to assail u includes all k9ds ( viol5ce & =ce1 by :i* our lives & security may be endang]$4#dh ,,xxi4 ,h5ce may be solv$ ! "q to be f\nd 9 ,gellius1 respect+ a commission1 :e!r x c be fulfill$ by do+1 n ! imm$iate act requir$1 b "s ?+ equival5t to x1 or 9 a mann] m b5eficial ?an 9 ! =m prescrib$4 ,= ?is deviation f ! writt5 rule may be prop] & lawful1 :]e ! prescrib$ =m is n ess5tial t[>ds atta9+ ! object1 or :]e1 by dep>t+ f x1 t object c be bett] accompli%$1 accord+ to ! answ] giv5 by ,scaevola1 t ! p]son requir$ to be bail & security = ano!r1 may give an ord] to a ?ird p]son to pay t money to ! cr$itor4 ,b :]e su* a latitude ( int]pretation is n evid5tly admissible1 we mu/ adh]e to :at ,gellius has said 9 ! same place1 t x w\ld be a dissolution ( all tru/s1 if ! p>ty act+ 9 commission 71 9 all cases1 left to 8 own discretion1 r ?an b\nd by 8 writt5 in/ructions4 ,,xxii4 ,an int]pretation1 re/rict$ m closely ?an ! lit]al signification ( ! words conta9+ a promise absolutely requires1 may arise ei!r f "s orig9al defect 9 ! int5tion ( ! promis]1 or f "s subsequ5t em]g5cy repugnant to su* int5tion4 ,?us if x 7 evid5t t an absurdity w\ld foll[ ! fulfilm5t ( a promise1 ?is w\ld be suffici5t to prove an orig9al defect 9 ! int5tion1 because no man c be suppos$ to h delib]ately int5d$ do+ an absurd act4 ,or if ! sole & effectual reason1 by :i* ! promise 0 influ5c$1 %\ld h ceas$1 ! obligation also w\ld be void1 ! sole gr\nd on :i* x re/$ be+ no long] 9 exi/5ce4 ,,xxiii4 ,9 ! next place1 :]e any suffici5t reason c evid5tly be assign$ = a promise or engagem5t1 x is n ! sub/ance ( ! promise itself1 :i* is to be consid]$1 s mu* z ! reason = :i* t promise 0 giv54 ,,xxiv4 ,?irdly1 ! cont5d+ p>ties mu/ always be suppos$ to h 9 contemplation ! subject1 & no?+ b ! subject1 h[ev] ext5sive a signification ! words may seem to be>4 ,?is me?od ( int]pretation also is h&l$ by ! anci5t rhetorical writ]s1 9 speak+ ( expression & design1 & !y place x "u ! head ( ,,v>iations ,,9 ,,op9ion4 ,,xxv4 ,9 speak+ ( motives & reasons1 x is prop] to obs]ve1 t !y "s times compreh5d ?+s1 consid]$ n accord+ to _! actual exi/5ce1 b accord+ to _! moral consequ5ces3 9 :i* case x is by no means "r to limit ! words ( a treaty to _! lit]al mean+1 b ! utmo/ ext5t ( int]pretation is all[able1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! _s z well z ! lett] ( su* treaties4 ,?us if x be /ipulat$ t no troops or %ips %all be br\ght to a c]ta9 place1 or )9 a c]ta9 di/ance1 ! prohibition excludes ,,all %ips or troops f be+ br\ght ?i!r1 ev5 "u ! faire/ & mo/ h>mless pret5ces4 ,= ! purport ( ! treaty is to gu>d n only aga9/ actual mis*ief b ev5 aga9/ remote dang]4 ,x is a po9t (t5 disput$1 :e!r ! cont9uance ( ?+s 9 _! pres5t /ate is a tacit condition1 on :i* ! fulfilm5t ( all promises is f\nd$4 ,a position t c by no means be ma9ta9$1 unless x appe>s t su* cont9uance 0 ! sole motive ^u :i* ! treaties 7 made4 ,z 9 _m p>ts ( hi/ory1 we read ( ambassadors hav+ rel9qui%$ _! missions1 & return$ home1 ^u f9d+ ! /ate ( ?+s s *ang$ t ! object ( _! embassies 0 at an end4 ,,xxvi4 ,:5 an em]g5cy arises repugnant to ! g5]al int5tion ( an act1 x is expla9$ by ! anci5t ma/]s ( rhetoric "u ! head ( expression & design4 ,n[ ?is v>iation betwe5 ! em]g5cy & ! int5tion is ( a tw(old nature4 ,= ! w & its int5tion are to be collect$ ei!r f natural reason or f "s outw>d sign4 ,9 judg+ ( ! w by natural reason1 ,ari/otle1 :o has treat$ ! subject ) great accuracy1 makes ! ,,m9d ! ,,seat ,,( ,,judgm5t1 & ! ,,w ! ,,seat ,,( ,,equity1 :i* he nobly def9es to be ! correction ( t1 :]e9 ! law1 by reason ( its univ]sal nature is defective4#di ,& ^u ?is pr9ciple all wills & treaties ought to be int]pret$4 ,= z all cases c\ld nei!r be =ese5 nor express$ by ! lawgiv]1 x is necess>y to leave a p[] ( except+ ! cases1 :i* he himself w\ld h except$ if he 7 pres5t4 ,yet ?is is n to be done ^u light gr\nds2 = t w\ld be ex]cis+ a contr\l ov] ! acts ( ano!r2 b is only to be e/abli%$ ^u ! cle>e/ evid5ce & /ronge/ pro(s4 ,! cle>e/ pro( we c h ( a want ( equity1 is :]e foll[+ ! lit]al mean+ ( ! words w\ld be unlawful1 t is1 repugnant to natural or div9e precepts4 ,= su* ?+s1 z are incapable ( obligation1 are necess>ily to be except$4 ,qu9tilian ! eld]1 says1 "s ?+s al?\gh compreh5d$ )9 ! mean+ ( no law =m a natural exception4 ,?us any "o1 :o has promis$ to return a sword1 t has be5 giv5 up to him1 ought n to return x into ! h&s ( a madman1 z dang] might result f x to himself or to o!r innoc5t p]sons4 ,likewise a ?+1 :i* has be5 deposit$ ) any "o1 ought n to be return$ to ! h&s ( ! p]son1 :o gave ! pl$ge1 if ! real own] dem&s x4 ,i prove ?is says ,triphonius to be ju/ice1 :i* assigns to e "o 8 own )\t di/urb+ ! /ill ju/] claims ( ano!r4 ,= ! reason1 x has be5 already obs]v$1 is f\nd$ on ! in/itution ( prop]ty1 :i* makes x unju/ n to return a ?+ :5 ! real own] is kn[n4 ,,xxvii4 ,! ne$ ( equity too w appe> 9 cases1 :]e foll[+ ! lit]al mean+ ( ! words w n be absolutely unlawful1 yet1 ^u a fair e/imation1 w be f\nd too h>d & intol]able4 ,x might impose a h>d%ip inconsi/5t ) ! g5]al condition ( human nature1 or1 ^u comp>+ ! p]son & matt] "u consid]ation ) ea* o!r1 x might be f\nd at v>iance ) ! g5]al int5t ( all law1 :i* is to prev5t evil & to r$ress injury4 ,?us1 if a p]son has l5t a sum ( money1 or any o!r ?+1 = a ,,c]ta9 "t1 he may ju/ly require ! repaym5t or re/oration ( x ,,)9 t "t1 if he has great ne$ ( x himself3 = acts ( k9dness are ( su* a nature1 t no "o c be suppos$ int5tionally to b9d himself !reby to manife/ inconv5i5ce or prejudice4 ,9 ! same mann] a sov]eign1 :o has promis$ assi/ance to an ally1 w1 ,,9 ,,equity1 be excus$ f fulfill+ 8 engagem5t1 if he wants all 8 /r5g? at home to w>d (f dang] or ho/ilities4 ,! grant also ( immunities or privileges 9 ,,ord9>y cases1 _c be plead$ z an exemption or exception f ! s]vices1 :i* ! /ate 9 ,,p>ticul> em]g5cies requires4 ,f ! above in/ances x appe>s t ,cic]o has too loosely word$ 8 proposition1 t su* promises1 z are prejudicial to ! p]son1 to :om !y are giv51 are n to be kept1 nor1 if !y are m prejudicial to ! p>ty giv+1 ?an b5eficial to ! p]son receiv+ !m4 ,= x %\ld n be left to ! promis] to judge1 :e!r ! fulfilm5t ( 8 engagem5t w be s]viceable to ! p>ty receiv+ x1 except 9 ! case ( ! madman cit$ above3 nor is any ,,trivial or ,,imag9>y prejudice t might result f x1 suffici5t to release ! obligation4 ,b x ought to be su*1 z1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! act1 w\ld necess>ily be suppos$ to =m an exception4 ,?us any "o1 hav+ promis$ 8 assi/ance to a neighb\r at a c]ta9 p]iod1 w\ld n be b\nd to 8 engagem5t1 if he 7 deta9$ at home by ! sickness ( a fa!r or a *ild4 ,a case1 :i* ,cic]o1 9 8 fir/ book ( (fices1 has put 9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 ,if any "o has und]tak5 to manage a cause1 &1 9 ! mean "t1 8 son is tak5 ill1 x w be no brea* ( duty 9 him n to p]=m :at he has promis$4 ,!re is a passage 9 ! f\r? book ( ,s5eca1 ,,on ,,b5efits1 to ! same effect4 ,i am liable1 says he1 to be *>g$ ) levity1 & a brea* ( fai?1 if1 ?+s cont9u+ z !y 71 :5 ,i made a promise1 ,i d n p]=m my engagem5t4 ,b if any *ange has tak5 place1 x leaves me at lib]ty to reconsid] ! matt]1 & releases ! obligation4 ,i promis$ my support 9 c\rt1 & x aft]w>ds appe>$ t ! cause w\ld be prejudicial to my own fa!r4 ,i promis$ to take a j\rney1 b aft]w>ds he>d t ! road 0 infe/$ ) robb]s4 ,i promis$ my pres5ce on "s p>ticul> occasion1 b 0 prev5t$ f att5d+ by ! sickness ( a son4 ,9 all ^! cases1 to b9d me to my engagem5t1 ! circum/ances ought to rema9 exactly ! same z !y 7 :5 ,i made ! promise4 ,,xxviii4 ,x has be5 said t !re are o!r indications ( int5tion1 :i* require an equitable exception 9 fav\r ( ! pres5t case4 ,& among su* pro(s !re c be no?+ /rong] ?an ! same words us$ 9 ano!r place1 n :]e !y directly oppose ! pres5t mean+1 = t w\ld am\nt to a contradiction1 b :]e !y cla% ) x1 ow+ to "s unexpect$ em]g5cy1 :i* ! ,greek ,rhetoricians call a circum/antial disagreem5t4#ej ,,xxix4 ,:5 !re is any accid5tal collision betwe5 "o "p ( a writt5 docum5t & ano!r1 ,cic]o1 9 ! second book ( 8 treatise ,,on ,,inv5tion1 has giv5 rules = decid+ :i* ( !m ought to h ! pref]5ce4 ,?\gh 8 arrangem5t is n v accurate1 yet x is by no means to be neglect$4 ,to supply !re=e ?is defect ( accuracy1 ! rules may be dige/$ 9 ! foll[+ ord]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a ,,p]mission ought to give way to a ,,comm&3 because a p]mission appe>s to be grant$ only 9 case !re is no weighti] objection ?an its be+ an exception to a positive precept1 nor any prepond]ance 9 fav\r ( an opposite det]m9ation4 ,consequ5tly1 z ! writ] to ,h]5nius says1 :at is positively prescrib$ is m p[]ful ?an a b>e p]mission4 ,9 ! next place :at is requir$ to be done at a ,,fix$ "t %\ld h ! pref]5ce to :at may be done at ,,any "t4 ,f :5ce x foll[s t ! ,,prohibitions ( a treaty are g5]ally ( m weight ?an its ,,injunctions3 because ! prohibitory p[] op]ates at ,,all times4 ,b x is n s ) injunctions1 unless an express "t = _! fulfilm5t is nam$1 or !y conta9 a tacit prohibition4 ,among ^? treaties1 :i*1 9 ! above nam$ respects1 are equal1 ! pref]5ce is giv5 to su* z are m p>ticul>1 & approa* ne>] to ! po9t 9 "q4 ,= :]e p>ticul>s are /at$1 ! case is cle>]1 & requires few] exceptions ?an g5]al rules d4#ea ,^? prohibitions :i* h a p5alty annex$ to !m1 are ( great] weight ?an ^?1 :i* h n2 & ^? ) a great] p5alty are en=c$ 9 pref]5ce to ^? t h a less4 ,^? engagem5ts also :i* are f\nd$ ^u causes ( less magnitude & importance ought to give way to ^? :i* h m laudable & useful objects 9 view4 ,la/ly x is to be obs]v$ t a subsequ5t law or treaty always repeals a =m]4 ,f :at has be5 said an inf]5ce may be drawn 9 fav\r ( sworn treaties or agreem5ts t !y ought to be tak5 9 ! mo/ usual acceptation ( ! words1 reject+ all impli$ limitations & exceptions1 & su* z are n imm$iately necess>y to ! subject4 ,consequ5tly 9 a case1 :]e a sworn treaty or engagem5t may happ5 to cla% ) ano!r n en=c$ by ! obligation ( an oa?1 ! pref]5ce ought to be giv5 to ! =m]4 ,,xxx4 ,x is (t5 ask$ :e!r 9 d\btful po9ts1 a contract %\ld be deem$ p]fect1 be=e ! writ+s are made & deliv]$4 ,we f9d 9 ,appian's hi/ory ( ! ,mi?ridatic w>1 t x 0 ^u ?is v gr\nd ,mur5a object$ to ! conv5tion betwe5 ,sylla & ,mi?ridates4 ,h[ev] x appe>s pla91 unless x has be5 settl$ to ! contr>y1 t writ+ ought to be consid]$ admissible z evid5ce ( a contract1 ?\gh n z "p ( ! sub/ance1 o!rwise x is usually express$1 z 9 ! truce ) ,nabis1 :i* 0 to be ratifi$ f ! day ! t]ms 7 ,,writt5 & ,,deliv]$ to him4 ,,xxxi4 ,we c by no means admit ! rule laid d[n by "s writ]s1 :o ma9ta91 t all engagem5ts ( k+s1 & /ates1 ought to be expla9$1 z f> z x is possible1 ^u ! pr9ciples ( ! ,roman law3 unless inde$ x c be made to appe> t among "s /ates1 9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r1 ! ,,civil ,,law is receiv$ z ! ,,law ,,( ,,nations2 a presumption :i* ought n to be ha/ily grant$4 ,,xxxii4 ,z to ! d\bt1 :i* ,plut>* advances 9 8 ,symposiacs1 :e!r ! words ( ! p>ty (f]+1 or ^? ( ! "o accept+ a condition ought to be mo/ att5d$ to1 x appe>s t :]e ! p>ty accept+ ! t]ms is ! promis]1 ! nature & sub/ance ( ! transaction w dep5d ^u 8 words1 if !y are absolute & unqualifi$4 ,= if ! (f] is reg>d$ z a positive engagem5t to d c]ta9 acts1 !n ! full ext5t ( x w be se5 by ! necess>y repetition ( ! same words 9 ! promise4 ,b be=e a condition is accept$1 x is evid5t1 z 0 se5 9 ! *apt] on promises1 t ! promis] is n b\nd to its fulfilm5t2 = no "r has be5 conf]r$ by ! "o p>ty1 or acquir$ by ! o!r4 ,!re=e ! (f] ( a condition ( ?is k9d does n am\nt to a p]fect promise4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,on ,,damages ,,occasion$ ,,by ,,injury ,,& ,,! ,,obligation ,,to ,,repair ,,!m4 ,on ,damages occasion$ by injury1 & ! obligation to repair !m--,e misdemeanor obliges ! aggressor to repair ! loss--,by loss is meant any ?+ repugnant to "r /rictly s call$--,di/9ction betwe5 fitness & /rict "r--,loss or dim9ution ( possession includes e injury done to ! produce z well z ! prop]ty itself--,loss e/imat$ f ! "t t ga9 ceases--,injuries done by pr9cipals--,by accessories--,injuries done by ! neglect ( pr9cipal or ( second>y ag5ts--,:at p]sons are implicat$ 9 ^? *>ges1 & 9 :at degrees--,! p>ties engag$ answ]able = all consequ5ces--,! case :]e homicide or any o!r act ( viol5ce ensues--,case ( robb]y--,or !ft--,promises obta9$ ?r\gh fraud or unju/ fe>--,9 :at cases ! consequ5ces are imputable to ! suff]+ p>ty--,h[ f> ! law ( nations au?orises /ates to take advantage ( an enemy's fe>--,h[ f> sov]eigns are answ]able = any acts ( viol5ce committ$ by _! subjects--,! case :]e subjects 9 violation ( _! sov]eign's p]mission & ord]s commit acts ( piracy ^u alli$ or neutral /ates--,no "o answ]able by ! law ( nature = ! mis*ief done by 8 cattle1 8 slaves1 or 8 %ip--,damages all[$ = injuries done to reputation or hon\r--,:at k9d ( rep>ation all[$4 ,i4 ,x has be5 said above t ! rights due to u arise f ?ree s\rces1 :i* are contract1 injury & law4 ,x is unnecess>y "h to dwell ^u ! nature ( contracts :i* has be5 already s fully discuss$4 ,! next po9t !re=e to :i* we proce$ is an inquiry into ! rights result+ to u f injuries receiv$4 ,"h ! "n ( crime or misdemeanor is appli$ to e act ( commission or neglect repugnant to ! duties requir$ ( all m51 ei!r f _! common nature or p>ticul> call+4 ,= su* (f5ces naturally create an obligation to repair ! loss or injury t has be5 su/a9$4 ,,ii4 ,by loss is meant a dim9ution ( :at any "o possesses1 :e!r x be a "r d]iv$ to him purely f ! law ( nature1 or f ! addition ( human au?ority1 t is f ! law ( prop]ty1 contract1 or civil law4 ,god has giv5 life to man1 n to de/roy1 b to pres]ve x2 assign+ to him = ?is purpose a "r to ! free enjoym5t ( p]sonal lib]ty1 reputation1 & ! contr\l ov] 8 own actions4 ,! mann]1 9 :i* prop]ty & contracts convey to any "o a "r to ?+s1 z well z to ! s]vice ( ano!r1 has be5 %ewn 9 ! prec$+ "p ( ?is treatise4 ,9 ! same mann] f ! law e man d]ives 8 peculi> "r2 because ! law has ! same1 if n great] p[] ov] p]sons & ?+s ?an individuals !mselves h4 ,?us by ! appo9tm5t ( law1 a w>d has a "r to dem& ! /ricte/ dilig5ce ( a gu>dian1 ! /ate ( a magi/rate1 & n only ! /ate1 b e subject has a "r to require x2 :]e ! law expressly decl>es or evid5tly implies t c]ta9 acts %all be p]=m$4 ,b ! b>e circum/ance ( an action be+ fit or prop] gives n ! "r ( ,,political ju/ice to dem& its p]=mance1 nor does ! neglect ( x entitle ! p>ty suff]+ to any legal r$ress4 ,because x does n foll[ t a ?+ mu/ belong to a p]son because x is fit or b5eficial = him4 ,?us1 z ,ari/otle says1 !re is no actual inju/ice1 ?\gh x may be illib]al to refuse assi/+ ano!r ) money4 ,to ! same purpose ,cic]o1 9 8 spee* = ,cneius ,plancus1 says1 t giv+ _! votes to :om !y please1 or )hold+ !m if !y ?9k prop]1 is ! true *>act]i/ic ( a free p4 ,he aft]w>ds1 inde$1 corrects 8 ass]tion by add+1 t !y may happ5 to d :at !y l1 r ?an :at !y ought to d1 tak+ ! ^w ,,ought to signify propriety4 ,,iii4 ,a precaution is necess>y "h1 9 ord] to avoid conf\nd+ ?+s ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,n[ ^? :o are entru/$ ) ! p[] ( appo9t+ magi/rates1 are b\nd1 f motives ( public good1 to *use ! prop]e/ p]sons1 & ?is is :at ! /ate has a ,,"r to require ( !m4 ,!y are b\nd !re=e to repair any loss :i* ! /ate may su/a9 by ! *oice ( improp] p]sons4 ,s any subject :o is n disqualifi$1 ?\gh he has no peculi> "r to an (fice1 has an equal "r ) o!rs to endeav\r to obta9 x4 ,9 ! ex]cise ( :i* "r1 if1 he is ob/ruct$ by viol5ce or fraud1 he may recov] damages1 n to ! full value ( ! (fice :i* he s\ght1 b accord+ to ! probable loss :i* he may reasonably be suppos$ to h suff]$4 ,simil> :i* is ! "r ( a legatee1 :5 a te/ator has be5 prev5t$ by fraud or viol5ce f mak+ a beque/4 ,= ! capability ( receiv+ a legacy is a k9d ( "r1 :i* to ob/ruct a te/ator f conf]r+1 is und\bt$ly an injury4 ,,iv4 ,! loss or dim9ution ( any "o's possessions is n conf9$ to injuries done to ! ,,sub/ance alone ( ! prop]ty1 b includes e ?+ affect+ ! produce ( x1 :e!r x has be5 ga!r$ or n4 ,if ! own] himself _h reap$ x1 ! necess>y exp5ce ( reap+1 or ( improv+ ! prop]ty to raise a produce1 mu/ also be tak5 into ! acc\nt ( 8 loss1 & =m "p ( ! damages4 ,= x is an e/abli%$ maxim t no "o ought to d]ive b5efit f ! loss ( ano!r4 ,v4 ,damages are to be comput$ too1 n accord+ to any ,,actual ga91 b accord+ to ! ,,reasonable expectation ( x4 ,:i* 9 ! case ( a gr[+ crop may be judg$ ( by ! g5]al abundance or sc>city ( t p>ticul> season4 ,,vi4 ,b besides ! p]son imm$iately do+ an injury1 o!rs may be b\nd also to repair ! losses ( ! suff]+ p>ty4 ,= z a p]son may be guilty ( (f5ces by neglig5ce z well z by ! commission ( c]ta9 acts1 s !y may be done also by accessories1 z well z pr9cipals4 ,n[ a pr9cipal 9 any crime or (f5ce is "o1 t urges to ! commission ( x1 t gives all possible cons5t1 t aids1 abets1 or 9 any %ape is a p>tn] 9 ! p]petration ( x4 ,,vii4 ,an accessory is "o :o gives 8 c\nsel1 approbation1 & ass5t4 ,= :]e is ! diff]5ce1 says ,cic]o1 9 8 second ,philippic1 betwe5 advis+ an act1 & approv+ ( x8 ,,viii4 & ,,ix4 ,! obligation to repair ! losses suff]$ by neglig5ce may be consid]$ 9 a two-fold light4 ,fir/ly1 :5 any p]son1 ^: peculi> (fice x is1 neglects ei!r to =bid ! commission ( an injury1 or to assi/ ! injur$ p>ty4 ,& secondly1 :5 ! p]son1 :o ought to d x1 ei!r does n dissuade f ! commission ( an (f5ce1 or passes ov] 9 sil5ce1 :at he is b\nd to make kn[n4 ,9 ^! cases1 :5 x is said t a p]son ,,ought to d1 or to =be> do+ c]ta9 actions1 x is meant t he is b\nd by t "r1 :i* /rict ju/ice requires1 :e!r t duty arises f law1 or f ! capacity1 :i* ! p]son be>s4 ,= ?\gh x may be wrong to omit any duty enjo9$ by ! law ( *>ity1 !re c be no r$ress = su* omission1 b e ,,legal ,,rem$y mu/ be f\nd$ on "s ,,peculi> ,,"r4 ,x4 ,x is to be obs]v$ also t all ! p>ties above-m5tion$1 if !y h be5 ! real occasion ( loss to any "o1 or h abett$ ! p]son do+ him ! injury1 are s f> implicat$ 9 ! guilt1 z to be liable to full damages1 or1 at lea/1 proportionably to ! "p !y h tak54 ,= x may & (t5 does happ5 t a crime w\ld h be5 committ$ by an (f5d]1 ev5 )\t ! aid ( o!r pr9cipals or accessories4 ,9 :i* case he alone is answ]able4 ,yet nei!r pr9cipals nor accessories w be all[$ to plead z an excuse1 t if !y _h n aid$ or abett$1 o!rs w\ld h be5 f\nd to assi/ & enc\rage ! p]petrator 9 ! commission ( ! act4 ,especially1 if x appe>s t )\t su* assi/ance f !m ! crime w\ld nev] h be5 committ$4 ,= ^? o!r imag9>y abettors w\ld !mselves h be5 answ]able1 if !y _h giv5 _! advice or aid4 ,,xi4 ,9 ! scale ( implication ! fir/ degree applies to ^?1 :o by _! au?ority1 or o!r means h compell$ or urg$ any "o to ! commission ( an (f5ce4 ,on failure ( ^! ! p]petrator himself has ! greate/ %>e ( guilt1 & next to him1 o!rs :o h be5 conc]n$4 ,9 %ort1 all individuals1 ^: h&s h be5 engag$ 9 ! p]petration1 are guilty1 ?\gh !y h n be5 ! sole au?ors ( ! act4 ,,xii4 ,n[ he :o is answ]able = an act1 is answ]able = all ! injuri\s consequ5ces att5d+ x4 ,s5eca 9 "o ( 8 controv]sies1 treat+ ^u ?is po9t1 puts ! case ( a plane-tree set on fire1 by :i* a h\se 0 burnt1 & he subjo9s ! foll[+ rem>k1 al?\gh ! mis*ief w5t fur!r ?an 0 int5d$1 yet ! p]son do+ x 0 answ]able = ! ,,:ole1 z mu*1 z if he _h done x by design4 ,= any "o t puts 8 def5ce ^u ! plea ( ,,un9t5tional ,,injury1 ought to h ab/a9$ f all mis*ief :atsoev]4 ,:5 ,ari>a!s1 k+ ( ,cappadocia _h wantonly ob/ruct$ ! *annel ( ! riv] ,melas1 :i* dis*>ges itself into ! ,euphrates1 ! swell ( wat]s bur/+ ! m\nds1 ! ,euphrates rose to su* a height1 z to occasion excessive damage to ! ,cappadocians1 ! ,galatians1 & ! ,phrygians4 ,^u :i* ! decision ( ! matt] be+ left to ! ,romans1 !y impos$ ^u him a f9e ( ?ree hundr$ tal5ts4 ,,xiii4 ,,xiv4 ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4 ,b to proce$ ) o!r in/ances ( injury1 :i* r5d] ! p>ties committ+ !m liable to repair ! losses occasion$ !reby4 ,! case ( excusable homicide may be alleg$ z "o1 :]e9 ! p]son1 :o has committ$ x1 is b\nd to make e reasonable comp5sation to ! family1 dep5d5ts1 & connections ( ! deceas$ p>ty1 9 proportion to ! loss1 :i* !y h su/a9$ f 8 dea?4 ,z ,mi*ael ! ,ephesian 9 ! fif? book ( ,ari/otle's ,e?ics has obs]v$1 t ! comp5sation made to ! p>5ts1 ! wife or *ildr5 ( ! deceas$ is ne>ly ! same z if x c\ld be made to himself4 ,! writ] is "h speak+ ( excusable homicide1 t is1 :5 ! p]son by :om x is committ$1 does x n 9 ! imm$iate dis*>ge ( "s legal duty4 ,:]e=e if any "o1 9 def5d+ himself1 has kill$ ano!r f :om he might h escap$1 ?\gh he may h violat$ ! law ( *>ity1 yet he has n incurr$ ! p5alty ( a capital (f5ce4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple ! p]son1 :o has maim$ or mutilat$ ano!r1 w be b\nd to make him a comp5sation1 proportionably to ! means ( subsi/5ce :i* he is depriv$ ( by su* a calamity4 ,a ?ief or a robb] is b\nd to re/ore :at has be5 tak51 & to return x ) all ! improvem5ts x may h acquir$1 or to make rep>ation to ! own]1 9 proportion to ! ga91 :i* ! privation has prev5t$ him f mak+1 or to ! actual value ( ! ?+ itself4 ,if ! ?+ has be5 irretrievably consum$1 ! e/imation ( damages mu/ be made1 accord+ to a m$ium betwe5 ! highe/ & ! l[e/ value4 ,to ?is class ( (f5ces & due rep>ation may be ref]r$ all frauds ^u ! public rev5ue1 all unju/ decisions1 or all false evid5ce1 by :i* /ates or individuals are injur$4 ,,xvii4 ,contracts1 or promises obta9$ by fraud1 viol5ce or undue fe> entitle ! injur$ p>ty to full re/itution4 ,= p]fect fre$om f fraud or compulsion1 9 all our deal+s1 is a ,,"r :i* we d]ive f natural law & lib]ty4 ,) ! same class ( (f5d]s we may rank all m5 9 (fice1 :o are unwill+ to dis*>ge _! duty )\t a bribe4 ,,xviii4 ,:5 a p]son has ,,himself be5 ! occasion ( ! fraud or viol5ce1 ! consequ5ces are imputable to 8 own conduct4 ,= :]e a volunt>y act gives rise to ,,involunt>y consequ5ces1 ^? consequ5ces1 consid]$ 9 a moral light1 are to be deem$ ! fruits gr[+ out ( ! ex]cise ( a free w4 ,,xix4 ,b to connect ! prec$+ cases & argum5ts ) public & national conc]ns1 x is necess>y to obs]ve1 t x is a maxim introduc$ & e/abli%$ by ! cons5t ( all nations t ! w>s :i* are decl>$ & conduct$ by ! au?ority ( ! sov]eign p[] on bo? sides are alone entitl$ to ! d5om9ation ( j w>s3 ,& ! enemy has no "r to dem& re/itution = :at ! prosecution ( su* w>s has r$uc$ him to ab&on ?r\gh fe>4 ,x is ^u ?is pr9ciple we admit ! di/9ction :i* ,cic]o has made betwe5 an enemy1 t[>ds :om ! cons5t & law ( nations oblige u to obs]ve _m common rights1 & betwe5 robb]s & pirates4 ,= any ?+ giv5 up to pirates or robb]s1 ?r\gh fe>1 is no lawful prize3 b x may be recov]$1 unless a solemn oa? ( r5unciation has be5 tak54 ,?is is n ! case ) ! captures made 9 j w>4 ,! ju/ification :i* ,polybius makes = ! ,c>?ag9ians1 9 ! second ,punic w>1 c>ries ) x an appe>ance ( equity1 ?\gh x is n a "q imm$iately f\nd$ ^u ! law ( nations4 ,!y alleg$ z a reason = _! mak+ t w>1 t1 :5 !y 7 engag$ 9 quell+ a mut9y ( _! own m]c5>ies1 ! ,romans _h decl>$ w>1 seiz$ ^u ,s>d9ia1 & levi$ contributions ( money4 ,,xx4 ,sov]eign ,pr9ces & ,/ates are answ]able = _! neglect1 if !y use n all ! prop] means )9 _! p[] = suppress+ piracy & robb]y4 ,& on ?is acc\nt ! ,scyrians 7 =m]ly condemn$ by ! ,amphictyonic c\ncil4 ,:5 "s ( ! /ates ( ! unit$ ,prov9ces _h1 on a p>ticul> occasion1 grant$ commissions to _m private]s1 & ^? adv5tur]s plund]$ fri5ds & enemies alike1 & became g5]al pirates1 x 0 a subject ( great discussion1 :e!r ^? /ates 7 ju/ifi$ 9 hav+ made use ( ! s]vices ( desp]ate & ab&on$ m51 )\t exact+ suffici5t security = _! good conduct4 ,at t "t1 x 0 ma9ta9$ t !y 7 b\nd to no?+ m1 ?an to puni% or deliv] up ! (f5d]s1 if !y c\ld be f\nd1 & to see ju/ice done by a =feiture ( _! prop]ty4 ,= !y !mselves _h nei!r au?oris$ ^? ,,unju/ acts ( plund]1 nor %>$ 9 ! fruits ( !m4 ,!y _h ev5 /rictly prohibit$ ! private]s f mole/+ ! subjects ( fri5dly p[]s4 ,z to _! tak+ securities1 !re 0 no obligation to d t3 = !y _h a "r to grant a ,,g5]al commission to all _! subjects to seize ^u ! enemy's prop]ty3 a ?+1 :i* _h frequ5tly be5 done4 ,nor c\ld t p>ticul> commission be consid]$ z an act ( inju/ice aga9/ ei!r allies or neutrals2 s9ce ev5 )\t su* p]mission individuals might h fitt$ & s5t out arm$ vessels4 ,! /ates c\ld n =esee1 nor consequ5tly provide aga9/ ! misconduct ( ^? adv5tur]s1 :o _h exce$$ _! commission2 & if nations 7 to decl9e us+ ! assi/ance ( wick$ m51 no army c\ld ev] be collect$4 ,& x has be5 confirm$ by ! au?ority bo? ( ,france & ,engl&1 t a sov]eign _c answ] = e injury done to ! subjects ( a fri5dly p[] by 8 naval or milit>y =ces2 especially if x is pla9 t !y act$ 9 violation ( 8 ord]s4 ,b 9 :at cases any "o is releas$ f be+ answ]able = :at is done by 8 subord9ate ag5ts1 is a po9t n s mu* = ! law ( nations1 z = ! municipal law1 & p>ticul>ly ! m>itime code ( ea* c\ntry to decide4 ,9 a case simil> to t allud$ to1 a decision ( ! supreme c\rt ( judicature 0 made aga9/ ! ,pom]anians two c5turies at lea/ be=e4 ,,xxi4 ,x is ! ,,civil law too1 :i* makes an own] answ]able = ! mis*ief or damage done by 8 slave1 or by 8 cattle4 ,= 9 ! eye ( natural ju/ice he is n to blame4 ,s nei!r is ! p]son1 ^: %ip1 by runn+ f\l ( ano!r1 has damag$ x1 ?\gh by ! laws ( _m nations1 & ( ours among ! re/1 ! damages are usually divid$ betwe5 bo? p>ties1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( decid+1 :o 0 9 fault4 ,,xxii4 ,damages are all[$ too = any injury done to our hon\r or reputation1 by assault1 sl&]1 or v>i\s o!r ways4 ,9 :i*1 z well z 9 !ft & o!r crimes ! nature ( ! (f5ce is to be e/imat$ by its consequ5ces4 ,= ! rep>ation 9 su* cases answ]s to ! p5alty impos$ = crimes4 ,& t rep>ation is made "s times by ackn[l$g+ ! injur$ p>ty's innoc5ce2 & "s times by a comp5sation 9 money1 :i* is a /&>d value ( all ?+s4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,embassies4 ,"r ( ,embassies1 an obligation aris+ out ( ! law ( nations--,:]e x obta9s--,:e!r ,embassies are always to be admitt$--,dismissal or puni%m5t ( ambassadors engag+ 9 plots n to be consid]$ z a h>% measure1 b an act ( self-def5ce--,a p[] to :om no ambassador has be5 s5t1 n b\nd to respect ! rights ( embassy--,an enemy to :om an ambassador is s5t b\nd to respect 8 rights--,! law ( retaliation no plea = ill treatm5t ( an ambassador--,?is "r ( protection ext5ds to an ambassador's suite1 if he ?9ks prop] to claim x--,to 8 moveable prop]ty--,examples ( obligation )\t ! "r ( compulsion--,importance ( ! sacr$ "* ( ambassadors4 ,i4 ,hi!rto ! pursuit ( our inquiries has l$ u to exam9e ^? rights to :i* we are entitl$ by ! law ( nature1 occasionally t\*+ ^u ^? po9ts :]e its au?ority is f>!r confirm$ by ! volunt>y law ( nations4 ,& t volunt>y law z x is call$1 gives rise to c]ta9 obligations1 :i* n[ rema9 = our discussion1 & 9 :i* ! rights ( ambassadors =m a lead+ feature4 ,almo/ e page ( hi/ory (f]s "s rem>k on ! inviolable rights ( ambassadors1 & ! security ( _! p]sons1 a security sanction$ by e clause & precept ( human & reveal$ law4 ,nor is x surpris+ t ! p]sons ( ^? %\ld be deem$ inviolable1 :o =m ! pr9cipal l9k 9 t *a91 by :i* sov]eigns & indep5d5t /ates ma9ta9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r4 ,to (f] viol5ce to !m is n only an act ( ,,inju/ice1 b1 z ,philip 9 8 lett] to ! ,a!nians says1 is ackn[l$g$ by all to be an act ( ,,impiety4 ,,ii4 ,b :atev] rights ! law ( nations may conf] ^u ambassadors1 x is necess>y 9 ! fir/ place to obs]ve1 t none are entitl$ to !m1 b ^?1 :o are s5t by ! sov]eigns ( indep5d5t c\ntries to ea* o!r4 ,= ! privileges ( prov9cial1 or municipal deputies s5t to ! /ates g5]al ( any c\ntry are regulat$ by ! p>ticul> laws ( t c\ntry & n by ! law ( nations4#eb ,?us we f9d1 9 ! fir/ book ( ,livy1 an ambassador /yl+ himself a public mess5g] ( ! ,roman ,p2 &1 9 ! six? book ( ! same hi/orian1 we h a decl>ation ( ! s5ate1 conf9+ ! rights ( embassies to ! int]c\rse betwe5 =eign p[]s1 & exclud+ citiz5s f ! same privileges 9 _! transactions ) ea* o!r4 ,^u ?is topic1 ! au?ority ( ,cic]o may be cit$1 :o1 9 ord] to %ew ! impropriety ( s5d+ ambassadors to ,antony1 obs]ves1 t !y are n deal+ ) a ,hannibal or a =eign enemy1 b ) "o ( _! own citiz5s4 ,n[ ,virgil has s cle>ly expla9$ ,,:o are to be reckon$ ,,=eign]s1 t we ne$ n h rec\rse to lawy]s1 to und]/& :at is s well express$ by ! poet1 :o says1 ,i look ^u e c\ntry z =eign1 :i* owns n ! sway ( our sceptre4 ,a54 vii4 #cfi4 ,a /ate !re=e connect$ ) ano!r ?\gh by an unequal treaty1 if x reta9 its indep5d5ce1 w h a "r ( s5d+ embassies4 ,! ,pr9ces ( ,g]many1 :o 7 9 "s respects subject to ! ,emp]or1 z _! head1 be+ ,sov]eign ,pr9ces possess$ ! "r ( s5d+ ambassadors to =eign /ates4 ,b ,k+s :o h be5 entirely subdu$ 9 j w>1 & /ripp$ ( _! dom9ions1 h1 ) all _! o!r sov]eign rights1 lo/ t ( s5d+ ambassadors4 ,x 0 = ?is reason1 t ,paulus ,aemilius made prison]s ( ! mess5g]s s5t to him by ,p]seus1 :om he _h conqu]$4 ,9 civil w>s necessity sometimes gives bir? to new rights 9 violation ( =m] rules4 ,:5 = in/ance1 a k+dom is s equally divid$ betwe5 two p>ties1 t x is a matt] ( d\bt :i* ( !m con/itutes ! nation1 or 9 a disput$ succession betwe5 two claimants ( ! cr[n2 ! k+dom may be consid]$ z =m+ two nations at ! same "t4 ,tacitus1 consid]+ ea* p>ty 9 su* cases1 z entitl$ to ! rights ( ! law ( nations1 condemns ! ,flavians = hav+1 9 ! rage ( civil diss5sions1 violat$1 9 ! p]sons ( ! ,vitellian ambassadors1 ^? privileges1 :i* are respect$ ev5 among ,,=eign nations4 ,pirates & robb]s1 z !y =m no civil community1 _c re/ any claim to protection & support ^u ! law ( nations4 ,tib]ius1 z we are in=m$ by ,tacitus1 :5 ,tacf>9as s5t ambassadors to him1 spurn$ at ! idea ( treat+ ) a robb]1 z ) a lawful enemy4 ,yet sometimes a pl$ge ( public fai?1 & ! rights ( embassy are all[$ to m5 ( t description1 :i* 0 done by ,pompey to ! fugitives f ! ,pyr5ean =e/4 ,,iii4 ,!re are two po9ts ^u :i* ! privileges grant$ by ! law ( nations to ambassadors turn4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y h a "r to be admitt$ into any c\ntry1 & secondly to be protect$ f all p]sonal viol5ce4 ,respect+ ! =m] ( ^! po9ts1 !re is a passage 9 ! elev5? book ( ,livy1 :]e ,hanno1 a ,c>?ag9ian s5ator inveighs aga9/ ,hannibal = n hav+ admitt$ into 8 camp ambassadors1 :o came f ! allies1 & on _! behalf2 z he _h !reby ov]turn$ ! law ( nations4 ,b ?is rule by no means compels nations to give an ,,unqualifi$ admission to all ambassadors4 ,= t is :at ! law ( nations c nev] int5d3 x only prohibits ! refusal ( admission )\t suffici5t gr\nds4 ,!re are v>i\s motives :i* may af=d a suffici5t plea = su* refusal4 ,!re may be an objection to ! p[] :o (f]s to treat1 to ! p]son s5t ^u ! embassy1 or p]haps to ! object ( 8 mission4 ,?us at ! sugge/ion ( ,p]icles1 ,melesippus1 ! ,lac$aemonian ambassador1 0 s5t out ( ! t]ritories ( ,a!ns2 because he came f an enemy1 :o _h no pacific int5tions4 ,! s5ate ( ,rome said1 t !y c\ld receive no embassy f ,c>?age1 z long z ! ,c>?ag9ian army rema9$ 9 ,italy4 ,! ,a*aeans refus$ to admit ! ambassadors ( ,p]seus1 :o 7 secretly ,,m$itat+ w> aga9/ ! ,romans4 ,^u ! same gr\nds ,ju/9ian reject$ an embassy f ,totilas1 & ! same 0 done by ! ,go?s at ,urb9o to mess5g]s f ,belis>ius4 ,polybius relates 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 hi/ory1 t e p[] drove away ! ambassadors ( ! ,cyne!nsians1 z !y 7 s infam\s a p4 ,we h an in/ance ( ! second k9d1 :]e ! objection is made to ! ,,p]son s5t on an embassy1 9 ! case ( ,!odore1 :o 0 call$ ! a!i/1 & :om ,lysima*us refus$ to receive 9 ! "* ( an ambassador s5t f ,ptolemy1 & ! same ?+ has frequ5tly happ5$ to o!rs1 aga9/ :om peculi> motives ( av]sion h exi/$4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 !re may be suffici5t gr\nds = refus+ to admit an ambassador1 if ! object ( 8 mission be ( a suspici\s k9d1 z 0 ! case ) t ( ,rhab%akeh ! ,assyrian1 :om ,hezekiah _h reason to suspect ( com+ ) a design to excite 8 p to rebellion4 ,or ! refusal may be ju/ifi$1 :]e x is n consi/5t ) ! dignity or circum/ances ( "o p[] to ent] into any treaty1 or int]c\rse ) ano!r4 ,= ?is reason ! ,romans s5t a decl>ation to ! ,aetolians1 t !y %\ld s5d no embassy1 b ) ! p]mission ( _! g5]al1 & ,p]seus 0 n all[$ to s5d "o to ,rome1 b to ,lic9ius4 ,jugur?a's ambassadors too1 z ,sallu/ in=ms u1 7 ord]$ to leave ,italy )9 ! space ( t5 days1 unless !y came ) (f]s f t pr9ce to surr5d] himself1 & 8 k+dom4 ,!re may (t5 be ! be/ reasons = a sov]eign's refus+ to all[ ( a ,,resid5t m9i/] at 8 c\rt2 a practice1 s g5]al 9 ! pres5t day1 b totally unkn[n to ! ages ( antiquity4 ,,iv4 ,z to ! p]sonal exemption ( ambassadors f arre/1 con/ra9t1 or viol5ce ( any k9d1 x is a subject ( "s difficulty to det]m9e1 ow+ to ! v>ieties ( op9ion ent]ta9$ by ! mo/ celebrat$ writ]s on ! "q4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ?is matt]1 our att5tion is direct$ 9 ! fir/ place to ! p]sonal privileges & exemptions ( ambassadors !mselves1 & next to ^? ( _! att5dants1 & _! goods4 ,) respect to _! p]sons1 "s writ]s are ( op9ion1 t x is ,,only f ,,unju/ ,,viol5ce1 & ,,illegal ,,con/ra9t1 t ! law ( nations protects ambassadors4 ,= !y imag9e t _! privileges are to be expla9$ accord+ to ! common pr9ciples ( ! law ( nature4 ,o!rs aga9 suppose t ambassadors are n am5able to puni%m5t = ,,all (f5ces1 b only = su* z am\nt to a transgression ( ! law ( ,,nations1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* are ( su* g5]al ext5t1 z to include ! law ( nature3 consequ5tly !re c be no (f5ces = :i* an ambassador is n puni%able1 except = ^? actions t are made su* by ! positive rules ( ,,municipal or ,,civil ,,law4 ,o!rs aga9 consid] ^! public repres5tatives ( /ates & cr[n$ heads1 z only liable to puni%m5t = (f5ces affect+ ! dignity or gov]nm5ts ( ! sov]eigns to :om !y are s5t4 ,:ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are "s writ]s :o ma9ta9 t = any /ate to puni% an ambassador = ,,any ,,crime ,,:atev] is highly dang]\s to ! indep5d5ce ( =eign p[]s2 b t all (f5d]s ( t description ought to be left to ! laws ( _! respective c\ntries1 to be puni%$ or n accord+ to _! des]ts1 ^u due compla9t be+ made to ! sov]eigns by :om !y 7 s5t4 ,"s few writ]s1 inde$1 9 lay+ d[n ! rule to be obs]v$ 9 su* cases1 h decid$ t an appeal %\ld be made to o!r indep5d5t & dis9t]e/$ p[]s1 :i* may be consid]$ r z a matt] ( ,,discretion1 ?an ( ,,absolute ,,"r4 ,b ! advocates ( all ^! v>i\s sy/ems h come to no def9ite conclusion 9 support ( _! fav\rite op9ions4 ,= ?is is a "r :i* _c1 l ! law ( nature1 be e/abli%$ ^u un*angeable rules1 b d]ives all its efficacy f ! w ( nations4 ,nations if !y _h ?\ght prop]1 c]ta9ly might h laid d[n ,,absolute rules ( security = ambassadors1 or c\pl$ !m ) c]ta9 exceptions4 ,! argum5t is support$ on "o side by ! urg5t necessity ( he9\s crimes be+ puni%$1 & on ! o!r1 ! utmo/ latitude ( exemption is fav\r$ on acc\nt ( ! utility ( embassies1 ! facility ( s5d+ :i* ought to be enc\rag$ by e possible privilege1 & security4 ,to settle ! po9t !re=e1 we mu/ consid] h[ f> nations h agre$ among !mselves ^u ^! pr9ciples2 ! pro(s ( :i* c only be f\nd 9 ! evid5ce ( hi/ory4 ,_m in/ances may be produc$ 9 fav\r ( bo? op9ions4 ,& 9 cases l ?is1 ! op9ions ( ^? celebrat$ = _! judgm5t & k w be ( no small weight1 b 9 "s cases we mu/ re/ ^u conjectures4 ,on ?is subject ! two em95t hi/orians1 ,livy & ,sallu/1 may be quot$ z au?orities1 ! =m] ( :om1 9 m5tion+ ! ambassadors ( ,t>qu91 :o _h be5 guilty ( fom5t+ treasonable conspiracies at ,rome1 says1 t al?\gh !y des]v$ to be treat$ z enemies = _! guilty conduct1 yet ! privilege1 :i* !y d]iv$ f ! law ( nations1 prevail$ ov] e o!r consid]ation4 ,"h we see t ! rights ( ambassadors c\ld n be annull$ ev5 by ! mo/ crim9al acts ( ho/ility4 ,b ! obs]vation made by ,sallu/1 relates r to ^? :o come 9 ! tra9 ( an embassy ?an to ambassadors !mselves4 ,! law ( nations surely !n w n d5y ! same privilege to a pr9cipal1 :i* x evid5tly all[s to ^? :o =m b a subord9ate "p 9 ! public mission4 ,! hi/orian says1 t ,bomilc> 0 arraign$ & tri$ r ^u pr9ciples ( equity & natural ju/ice1 ?an 9 con=mity to ! law ( nations1 z he belong$ to ! tra9 ( ,jugur?a2 :o _h come to ,rome "u ! pl$ge ( public fai?4 ,equity & natural ju/ice require puni%m5t to be inflict$ on ,,all (f5d]s1 :]eas ! law ( nations makes an exception 9 fav\r ( ambassadors1 & ^? :o h ! public fai? = _! protection4 ,:]e=e to try or puni% ambassadors1 is contr>y to ! law ( nations1 :i* prohibits _m ?+s1 t are p]mitt$ by ! law ( nature4 ,! law ( nations1 ?us deviat+ f ! law ( nature1 gives rise to ^? int]pretations & conjectures1 :i* reconcile ) ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice a great] ext5sion ( privileges ?an ! law ( nature /rictly all[s4 ,= if ambassadors 7 protect$ aga9/ no?+ m ?an viol5ce & illegal con/ra9t1 _! privileges w\ld conf] no extraord9>y advantage4 ,besides1 ! security ( ambassadors is a matt] ( mu* great] mom5t to ! public welf>e ?an ! puni%m5t ( (f5ces4 ,because rep>ation = ! misconduct ( an ambassador may be look$ = f ! sov]eign1 by :om he is s5t1 unless t sov]eign *uses to expose himself to ho/ilities by approv+ ( 8 crimes4 ,an objection to su* privileges is made by "s1 :o ass]t1 t x is bett] = "o p]son to be puni%$ ?an = :ole nations to be involv$ 9 w>4 ,b if a sov]eign has ,,secretly giv5 8 sanction to ! misconduct ( 8 ambassador1 8 ,,app>5t int5tions to puni% t ambassador w n deprive ! injur$ p[] ( ! "r to seek r$ress by comm5c+ ho/ilities4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! "r ( ambassadors w\ld re/ ^u a v slipp]y f\ndation if !y 7 acc\ntable1 = _! actions1 to any "o b _! own sov]eigns4 ,= z ! int]e/s ( p[]s s5d+1 & ( ^? receiv+ ambassadors1 are 9 g5]al diff]5t1 & "s times ev5 opposite1 if a public m9i/] 7 oblig$ to consult ! incl9ations ( bo?1 !re w\ld be no "p ( 8 conduct1 to :i* !y might n impute "s degree ( blame4 ,besides al?\gh "s po9ts are s cle>1 z to admit ( no d\bt1 yet univ]sal dang] is suffici5t to e/abli% ! equity & utility ( a g5]al law4 ,= ?is reason x is natural to suppose1 t nations h agre$1 9 ! case ( ambassadors1 to disp5se ) t ob$i5ce1 :i* e "o1 by g5]al cu/om1 owes to ! laws ( t =eign c\ntry1 9 :i*1 at any "t1 he resides4 ,! "*1 :i* !y su/a91 is n t ( ord9>y individuals1 b !y repres5t ! ,maje/y ( ! ,sov]eigns1 by :om !y are s5t1 ^: p[] is limit$ to no local jurisdiction4 ,z ,cic]o1 9 8 eigh? ,philippic1 speak+ ( a c]ta9 ambassador1 says1 he c>ri$ ) him ! ,maje/y ( ! ,s5ate1 & ! au?ority ( ! ,/ate4 ,f h5ce x is conclud$1 t an ambassador is n b\nd by ! laws ( ! c\ntry1 :]e he resides4 ,if he commit an (f5ce ( a trivial nature1 x may ei!r be suff]$ to pass unnotic$1 or he may be ord]$ to leave ! c\ntry4 ,polybius relates an in/ance ( an ambassador1 :o 0 ord]$ to leave ,rome1 = hav+ assi/$ "s ho/ages 9 mak+ _! escape4 ,h5ce x is obvi\s :y ! ,romans inflict$ corporeal puni%m5t ^u an ambassador ( ,t>5tum1 because ! ,t>5t9es 7 at t "t _! own subjects1 by "r ( conque/4 ,if a crime is ( a notori\s nature1 affect+ ! gov]nm5t1 an ambassador may be s5t home1 & 8 sov]eign requir$ to puni%1 or deliv] him up1 z we read ( ! ,gauls hav+ done to ! ,fabians4 ,b1 z we h be=e occasionally obs]v$1 all human laws are fram$ ^u su* pr9ciples1 z1 9 cases ( extreme necessity1 to admit ( equitable relaxations1 among :i* ! privileges ( ambassadors may be reckon$4 ,b ^! extreme cases ( necessity may1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 z w be se5 h]eaft]1 9 discuss+ ! effects ( j & solemn w>1 prev5t puni%m5t 9 ,,c]ta9 cases1 ?\gh n 9 ,,all4 ,= x is n ! act ( puni%m5t itself1 :i* is object$ to1 ei!r 9 respect to "t1 or mann]1 b ! exemption is creat$ to prev5t ! great] public evil1 :i* might arise f ! puni%m5t ( ! (f5d]4 ,to obviate !re=e any imm95t dang]1 if no o!r prop] me?od c be devis$1 ambassadors may be deta9$ & int]rogat$4 ,?us ! ,roman ,consuls seiz$ ! ambassadors ( ,t>qu91 previ\sly tak+ c>e to secure _! pap]s1 to prev5t ! evid5ce1 :i* !y might af=d1 f be+ de/roy$4 ,b if an ambassador excites & heads any viol5t insurrection1 he may be kill$1 n by way ( puni%m5t1 b ^u ! natural pr9ciple ( self-def5ce4 ,! ,gauls !re=e might h put to dea? ! ,fabii1 :om ,livy calls violators ( ! law ( nature4 ,v4 ,m5tion has be=e be5 frequ5tly made ( ! exemptions1 by :i* ambassadors are protect$ f all p]sonal con/ra9t & viol5ce1 & x is und]/ood t all p[]s are b\nd by a tacit agreem5t1 z x 71 f ! "t ( admitt+ an ambassador1 to respect ^! exemptions4 ,x ,,may & inde$ sometimes ,,does happ51 t "o p[] gives notice to ano!r t no ambassador w be receiv$1 & if "o is s5t1 t he w be treat$ z an enemy4 ,a decl>ation to ?is effect 0 made by ! ,romans to ! ,aetolians1 &1 on ano!r occasion1 ! ,vej5tian ambassadors 7 ord]$ to leave ,rome1 ) a m5ace1 if !y refus$ to comply1 ( be+ treat$ 9 ! same mann] z ! ,roman ambassadors _h be5 treat$ by _! k+ ,tolumnius1 :o _h put !m to dea?4 ,! ,samnites too =bade ! ,romans to g to any c\ncil 9 ,samnium1 "u pa9 ( =feit+ _! lives1 or1 at lea/1 _! p]sonal safety4 ,! above law does n b9d a p[]1 ?r\gh ^: t]ritories ambassadors pass )\t leave4 ,=1 if !y are go+ to an enemy ( t p[]1 or return+ f him1 or are engag$ 9 any ho/ile design1 !y may lawfully be treat$ z enemies2 :i* 0 done by ! ,a!nians 9 ! case ( ! mess5g]s pass+ betwe5 ! ,p]sians & ,sp>tans1 & by ! ,illyrians 9 t ( ^?1 :o c>ri$ on ! int]c\rse betwe5 ! ,essians & ,romans4 ,x5ophon ma9ta9s t 9 c]ta9 cases !y may be made prison]s1 z ,alex&] made ^?1 :o 7 s5t f ,!bes & ,lac$aemon to ,d>ius1 & ! ,romans ^?1 :om ,philip s5t to ,hannibal1 & ,latius ^? ( ! ,volscians4 ,= to treat ambassadors ) any degree ( rig\r1 ,,except ,,^u ,,^? ,,suffici5t ,,gr\nds1 w\ld be deem$ n only a brea* ( ! law ( nations1 b a p]sonal (f5ce aga9/ ! sov]eigns1 to :om !y are go+1 or by :om !y are s5t4 ,ju/9 in=ms u1 t ,philip ,,ii1 k+ ( ,mac$on1 s5t an ambassador to ,hannibal ) cr$5tials1 emp[]+ him to make an alliance1 & t1 :5 ?is ambassador 0 seiz$ & c>ri$ be=e ! ,s5ate ( ,rome1 !y dismiss$ him )\t f>!r mole/ation1 n out ( respect to ! k+1 b to prev5t a d\btful enemy f becom+ a decid$ "o4 ,,vi4 ,b if an embassy1 admitt$ by an ,,enemy is entitl$ to all ! privileges ( ! law ( nations1 mu* m s is "o1 admitt$ by a p[] ,,unfri5dly1 b n engag$ 9 ,,actual ,,ho/ilities4 ,diodorus ,siculus says1 t a mess5g] ) a flag ( truce claims all ! security ( peace1 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( w>4 ,! ,lac$aemonians1 :o _h murd]$ ! h]alds ( ! ,p]sians1 7 said by t act to h conf\nd$ e di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong1 z x is ackn[l$g$ by all nations4 ,= legal writ]s lay x d[n z a rule1 t to (f] p]sonal viol5ce to ambassadors1 ^: *>act]s are deem$ sacr$1 is a defiance ( ! law ( nations1 & ,tacitus calls ! privileges we are n[ discuss+1 ! rights ( embassy1 sanctifi$ by ! law ( nations4 ,cic]o1 9 8 fir/ spee* aga9/ ,v]res1 asks1 if ambassadors ought n to be safe 9 ! mid/ ( an enemy's c\ntry1 or ev5 9 8 camp8 ,innum]able o!r in/ances ( ?is k9d might be produc$ f ! highe/ au?orities bo? anci5t & mod]n4 ,& x is ) reason t su* privileges are rev]$1 = 9 ! mid/ ( w> _m circum/ances arise1 :i* _c be decid$ b ?r\gh ambassadors1 & x is ! only *annel ?r\gh :i* proposals ( peace c be made1 & confirm$4 ,,vii4 ,x is frequ5tly made a subject ( inquiry1 :e!r ! ambassador ( a sov]eign1 :o has ex]cis$ any act ( cruelty or rig\r1 w be subject to ! law ( retaliation4 ,hi/ory furni%es _m in/ances1 9 :i* puni%m5t has be5 inflict$ 9 su* a mann]4 ,b hi/ory is sometimes no?+ m ?an a catalogue ( actions m>k$ ) inju/ice1 & ungov]nable fury4 ,:]eas ! law ( nations1 by its privileges1 designs to secure ! dignity n only ( sov]eigns !mselves1 b also t ( ! ambassadors :om !y employ4 ,consequ5tly !re is a tacit agreem5t und]/ood to be made ) ! latt]1 t ,,he %all be exempt1 n only f any ill treatm5t1 t may affect ! pr9cipal1 b f su* likewise1 z may affect himself4 ,s t x 0 a magnanim\s answ]1 con=mable to ! law ( nations1 :i* ,scipio made1 :5 ! ,roman ambassadors _h be5 ill-treat$ by ! ,c>?ag9ians1 & ! ,c>?ag9ian ambassadors 7 br\ght be=e him1 ^u 8 be+ ask$1 9 :at mann] !y %\ld be treat$1 he repli$1 n z ! ,roman ambassadors _h be5 by ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,livy adds1 t he said1 he w\ld d no?+ unbecom+ ! "* & laws ( ! ,roman p4 ,val]ius ,maximus assigns ! same language to ! ,consuls1 on an occasion simil>1 b prior to ?is4 ,9 address+ ,hanno1 !y said1 ! pl$ge ( fai?1 :i* our /ate has giv51 releases y f any su* fe>4 ,= ev5 at t "t1 ,cornelius ,as9a1 9 violation ( 8 public "*1 _h be5 arre/$ & ?r[n into prison by ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,,viii4 ,! tra9 too ( an ambassador1 & all ! plate belong+ to him are entitl$ to a peculi> k9d ( protection4 ,:i* gave rise to ! passage 9 ! anci5t song ( ! ,h]alds1 ,o ,sov]eign1 d y make me a royal mess5g] f ! ,roman citiz5s8 & d y conf] ! same privileges on my tra9 & e ?+1 :i* belongs to me8 ,& by ! ,julian law1 an injury affect+ n only ambassadors1 b ev5 _! att5dants1 is pron\nc$ to be a violation ( public "r4 ,b ^! privileges ( att5dants are only grant$ s f> z an ambassador himself may ?9k prop]3 s t if any ( !m has committ$ an (f5ce1 he mu/ be requir$ to deliv] up ! (f5d] to puni%m5t4 ,he mu/ be ,,requir$ to give him up4 ,because no viol5ce1 9 tak+ an (f5d] ( t description mu/ be us$4 ,:5 ! ,a*aeans _h arre/$ "s ,lac$aemonians :o 7 along ) ! ,roman ambassadors1 ! ,romans rais$ a great outcry aga9/ ! act1 z a violation ( ! law ( nations4 ,sallu/'s op9ion 9 ! case ( ,bomilc> has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,b %\ld ! ambassador refuse to give up su* (f5d]1 r$ress mu/ be s\ght 9 ! same mann]1 z w\ld be done ) respect to ! ambassador himself4 ,z to 8 au?ority ov] 8 h\sehold1 & ! asylum1 :i* he may af=d 9 8 h\se to fugitives1 ^! dep5d ^u ! agreem5t made ) ! p[]1 to :om he is s5t1 & d n come )9 ! decision ( ! law ( nations4 ,,ix4 ,nei!r c ! moveable prop]ty ( an ambassador1 nor any ?+1 :i* is reckon$ a p]sonal app5dage1 be seiz$ = ! dis*>ge ( a debt1 ei!r by process ( law1 or ev5 by royal au?ority4 ,=1 to give him full security1 n only 8 p]son b e ?+ belong+ to him mu/ be protect$ f all compulsion4 ,if an ambassador !n has contract$ a debt1 &1 z is usual1 has no possession 9 ! c\ntry1 :]e he resides3 fir/ ( all1 c\rte\s application mu/ be made to himself1 &1 9 case ( 8 refusal1 to 8 sov]eign4 ,b if bo? ^! me?ods ( r$ress fail1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to ^? means ( recov]y1 :i* are us$ aga9/ debtors resid+ out ( ! jurisdiction ( ! c\ntry4 ,x4 ,nor is !re1 z "s ?9k1 any reason to fe>1 t if su* ext5sive privileges 7 e/abli%$1 no "o w\ld be f\nd will+ to ent] into any contract ) an ambassador1 or to furni% him ) necess>y articles4 ,= ! same rule w hold good 9 ! case ( ambassadors1 z 9 t ( ,k+s4 ,z sov]eigns1 :o = ! be/ ( reasons1 are plac$ above ! rea* ( legal compulsion1 f9d no difficulty 9 obta9+ cr$it4 ,,xi4 ,! importance ( su* exemptions may be easily inf]r$ f ! innum]able in/ances1 9 :i* bo? sacr$ & pr(ane hi/ory ab\nd1 ( w>s und]tak5 on acc\nt ( ! ill-treatm5t ( ambassadors4 ,! w> :i* ,david made aga9/ ! ,ammonites1 on t acc\nt1 af=ds u a memorable in/ance f holy writ2 & z a pr(ane writ]1 ,cic]o may be cit$1 :o deem$ x ! mo/ ju/ifiable gr\nd ( ! ,mi?ridatic w>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,peace ,by ,g>i ,mel*]s--,f a panel pa9t+ 9 ,libr>y ( ,congress4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,burial4 ,"r ( bury+ ! dead f\nd$ on ! law ( nations--,orig9 ( ?is "r--,due to enemies--,:e!r due to ^? guilty ( atroci\s crimes--,:e!r to ^?1 :o h committ$ suicide--,o!r rights also au?oris$ by ! law ( nations4 ,i4 ,! "r ( bury+ ! dead is "o ( ^? orig9at+ 9 ! volunt>y law ( nations4 ,next to ! "r ( ambassadors ,dion ,*ryso/om places t ( bury+ ! dead1 & calls x a moral act1 sanction$ by ! unwritt5 law ( nature3 ,& ,s5eca1 ! eld]1 ranks ! law1 :i* comm&s u to commit ! bodies ( ! dead to _! p>5t e>?1 among ! ,,unwritt5 precepts1 b says1 !y h a /rong] sanction ?an ! ,,record$ laws ( all ages c give4 ,=1 9 ! language ( ! ,jewi% writ]s1 ,philo & ,josephus1 !y are m>k$ ) ! seal ( nature1 & "u ! "n ( nature1 we compreh5d ! cu/oms1 t are common to all mank9d1 & agreeable to natural reason4 ,we f9d x "s :]e said by ,aelian1 t our common nature calls ^u u to cov] ! dead1 & "s writ]1 9 ano!r place1 obs]ves t all m5 are r$uc$ to an equality by return+ to ! common du/ ( ! e>?4 ,tacitus in=ms u1 9 b4 vi4 ( 8 ,annals1 t1 :5 ,tib]ius made a g5]al massacre ( all1 :o _h be5 connect$ ) ,sejanus1 & t he =bad !m ! rites ( burial1 e "o 0 /ruck ) horror to see ! la/ (fices ( humanity refus$2 (fices1 :i* ,lysias ! orator calls ! common hopes ( our nature4 ,z ! anci5ts measur$ ! moral "* ( e p by _! obs]vance or neglect ( ^! rights1 9 ord] to give !m a great] appe>ance ( sanctity1 !y ascrib$ _! orig9 to ! au?ority & in/itutions ( _! ,gods2 s t 9 e "p ( _! writ+s we meet ) frequ5t m5tion ( ! rights ( ambassadors1 & ! rights ( burial1 z f\nd$ ^u div9e appo9tm5t4 ,9 ! ,trag$y ( ! ,suppliants1 ,euripides calls x ! law ( ! ,gods1 & 9 ! ,antigone ( ,sophocles1 ! h]o9e makes ! foll[+ reply to ,creon1 :o _h =bidd5 any "o "u pa9 ( dea?1 to give ! rites ( burial to ,polynices1 ,a prohibition1 l ?is1 0 n reveal$ by ! supreme w1 nor by t heav5-born ju/ice1 :i* has e/abli%$ ^? laws ( respect = ! dead3 nor did ,i ?9k t y c\ld comm& mortals to transgress ! unwritt5 & inviolable laws ( ,god4 ,!y 7 n e/abli%$ to-day1 nor ye/]day1 b f all et]nity & w = ev] be 9 =ce4 ,_! s\rces are unkn[n4 ,am ,i ?r\gh fe> ( a mortal1 & by obey+ 8 unju/ comm&s1 to incur ! wra? ( ,heav58 ,! au?ority ( ,isocrates1 & ( ,h]odotus1 & t ( ,x5ophon1 9 ! six? book ( 8 ,grecian ,hi/ory1 may be appeal$ to 9 support ( ! hon\rs1 t h at all times be5 paid to ! dead4 ,9 %ort1 ^! (fices ( humanity are recomm5d$ by ! conspir+ te/imony ( ! orators1 hi/orians1 poets1 philosoph]s & div9es ( all ages1 :o h dignifi$ !m ) ! names ( ! mo/ spl5did virtues4 ,,ii4 ,!re seems to be no g5]al agreem5t ( op9ion ^u ! orig9 ( fun]al rites1 & ! v>iety ( ways1 9 :i* !y 7 p]=m$4 ,! ,egyptians ,,embalm$1 & mo/ ( ! ,greeks ,,burn$ ! bodies ( ! dead be=e !y committ$ !m to ! grave4 ,cic]o1 9 ! #bb;d *apt] ( 8 second ,book on ,laws1 speaks ( ! int]m5t alone1 :i* is n[ 9 use1 z ! mo/ anci5t me?od1 & t1 :i* is mo/ cong5ial to nature1 & 9 ?is he is foll[$ by ,pl9y4 ,"s ?9k t m5 paid x z a ,,volunt>y debt ( nature1 :i* !y knew t1 ,,at ,,any ,,rate1 !y w\ld be oblig$ to dis*>ge4 ,= ! div9e s5t5ce1 t ! body %\ld return to ! du/1 f :i* x 0 tak51 0 n pass$ ^u ,adam only1 b1 z we f9d x ackn[l$g$ by ! writ+s ( ,greece & ,rome1 ext5d$ to ! :ole human race4 ,cic]o1 f ! ,hypsipyle ( ,euripides1 says1 ,e>? mu/ be return$ to e>?1 & 9 ! twelf? *apt] ( ,solomon's ,ecclesia/es1 !re is a passage to ! same purport1 t ! du/ %all return to ! e>? z x 01 b ! _s to ,god1 :o gave x4 ,euripides has enl>g$ on ?is subject 9 ! "* ( ,!seus 9 8 ,suppliants1 ,suff] ! dead to be laid 9 ! lap ( ! e>?2 = e ?+ returns to its orig9al /ate1 ! _s to heav51 & ! body to ! e>?3 ,nei!r ( !m is giv5 9 pl5>y possession1 b only = a %ort use3 ,! e>? soon dem&s back ! bodies1 to :i* %e _h giv5 bir? & n\ri%m5t4 ,9 ! same mann] ,lucretius calls ! e>? a prolific p>5t & a common grave4 ,pl9y also describes ! e>?1 z receiv+ u at our bir?1 *]i%+ our gr[?1 support+ u to ! v la/1 &1 :5 all ! o!r p>ts ( nature h =sak5 u1 tak+ u to h] mat]nal bosom1 & cov]+ u ) a mantle4 ,!re are "s1 :o ?9k t ! cu/om ( burial 0 bequea!d to u by our fir/ p>5ts z a te/am5t>y hope ( a resurrection4 ,= we are in/ruct$ by ,democritus to believe1 t our bodies are pres]v$ 9 ! e>? "u ! promise ( a re/oration to life4 ,& ,*ri/ians 9 p>ticul> h frequ5tly ascrib$ ! cu/om ( dec5t burial to ! same hope4 ,prud5tius a ,*ri/ian poet says1 ,:at c be ! mean+ ( hall[$ rocks1 or spl5did monum5ts1 except t !y are ! depositories ( bodies1 consign$ n to dea?1 b to a tempor>y sleep8 ,b ! mo/ obvi\s explanation is to be f\nd 9 ! dignity ( man1 :o surpass+ o!r creatures1 x w\ld be a %ame1 if 8 body 7 left to be dev\r$ by bea/s ( prey4 ,x is an act ( compassion !n1 said ,qu9tilian1 to pres]ve ! bodies ( m5 f ravages ( birds & bea/s4 ,= to be tore by wild bea/s1 z ,cic]o obs]ves 9 8 fir/ book ,,on ,,inv5tion1 is to be robb$ ( ^? hon\rs1 9 dea?1 :i* are due to our common nature4 ,& ! ,roman ,poet1 makes a lam5tation ov] "o ( 8 h]oes1 t he _h no pi\s "m to lay 8 body 9 ! grave1 b he w\ld be left a prey to birds1 or ?r[n into ! riv] z food = fi%es4 ,a54 x4 #eeg-efj4 ,b to speak f /ill high] au?ority1 ,god1 by ! m\? ( 8 prophets1 ?reat5s ! wick$ t !y %all h burial l t ( ! brutes1 & t ! dogs %all lick _! blood4 ,su* a m5ace d5\nc$ aga9/ ! wick$1 z a puni%m5t1 %ews t x is an indignity done to our nature1 :51 9 ! words ( ,lactantius1 ! image ( ,god is ca/ out1 to ! insults ( bea/s ( prey4 ,b 9 su* indignity if !re 0 ev5 no?+ repugnant to ! feel+s ( m51 /ill ! nak$ness & infirmities ( our p]i%able nature %\ld n be expos$ to ! eye ( day4 ,consequ5tly ! rights ( burial1 ! dis*>ge ( :i* =ms "o ( ! (fices ( humanity1 _c be d5i$ ev5 to enemies1 :om a /ate ( w>f>e has n depriv$ ( ! rights & nature ( m54 ,=1 z ,virgil obs]ves1 all animosity aga9/ ! vanqui%$ & ! dead mu/ cease4 ,a54 xi4 #ajd4 ,because !y h suff]$ ! la/ ( evils t c be inflict$4 ,we h be5 at w>1 ,i grant1 says ,/atius1 b our hatr$ has fall51 & all our enmity is buri$ 9 ! grave4 ,& ,optatus ,milevitanus assigns ! same reason = reconciliation4 ,if !re h be5 /ruggles among ! liv+1 y\r hatr$ surely mu/ be satisfi$ ) ! dea? ( an adv]s>y4 ,= ! tongue ( /rife is n[ sil5c$4 ,,iii4 ,^u ! pr9ciples advanc$ above1 x is agre$ by all t public enemies are entitl$ to burial4 ,appian calls x ! common "r ( w>1 ) :i*1 ,tacitus says1 no enemy w refuse to comply4 ,& ! rules1 respect+ ?is1 are1 accord+ to ,dio ,*ryso/om1 obs]v$1 ev5 :ile ! utmo/ rage ( w> /ill cont9ues4 ,= ! h& ( dea?1 z ! writ] j quot$ obs]ves1 has de/roy$ all enmity t[>ds ! fall51 & protect$ _! bodies f all insult4 ,examples to ?is purpose may be f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( hi/ory4 ,alex&] ord]$ ^? ( ! enemy1 t 7 kill$ at ! battle ( ,issus to be hon\r$ ) ! rites ( burial1 & ,hannibal did ! same to ,caius ,flam9ius1 ,publius ,aemilius1 ,tib]ius ,grac*us1 & ,m>cellus1 ! ,roman ,g5]als4 ,s t y w\ld suppose1 says ,silius ,italicus1 he _h be5 pay+ ^! hon\rs to a ,c>?ag9ian ,g5]al4 ,! ,romans treat$ ,hanno1 & ,pompey ,mi?ridates 9 ! same mann]4 ,if x 7 necess>y to quote m in/ances1 ! conduct ( ,demetrius on _m occasions1 & t ( ,antony to k+ ,ar*elaus might be nam$4 ,:5 ! ,greeks 7 at w> ) ! ,p]sians1 9 "o "p ( _! milit>y oa? !y swore to bury all ! dead belong+ to ! ,,allies1 & :5 !y 7 victori\s1 to bury ev5 ! ,,b>b>ians4 ,aft] a battle1 x 0 usual = bo? sides to obta9 leave to bury ! dead4 ,pausanias1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,a!nian affairs1 m5tions ! practice ( ! ,a!nians :o buri$ ! ,m$es1 reg>d+ x z an act ( piety due to all m54 ,we f9d f ! ,jewi% writ]s1 t = ! same reason1 _! high prie/s1 :o 7 =bidd5 to come ne> a dead body1 if !y f\nd "o1 7 oblig$ to bury x4 ,b ,*ri/ians deem$ ,,burial an act ( su* importance1 t !y w\ld all[ _! *ur*-plate to be melt$ d[n1 & sold to defray ! exp5ces z !y w\ld h done to ma9ta9 ! poor1 or to r$eem captives4 ,!re are "s few in/ances to ! contr>y1 b !y are reprobat$ by ! univ]sal feel+s ( mank9d1 & su* cruelty deprecat$ 9 ! mo/ solemn t]ms4 ,claudian calls x a bloody de$ to plund] ! dead1 & /ill m s to refuse !m ! cov]+ ( a little s&4 ,,iv4 ,respect+ ^?1 :o h be5 guilty ( atroci\s crimes1 !re is reason to ent]ta9 "s d\bt1 :e!r ! "r ( burial is due to !m4 ,! div9e law inde$1 t 0 giv5 to ! ,hebrews1 & :i* is fraught ) e precept ( virtue & humanity1 ord]$ ^?1 :o 7 crucifi$1 :i* 0 ! mo/ ignom9i\s k9d ( puni%m5t t c\ld be inflict$1 to be buri$ on ! same day4 ,ow+ to ?is law1 z ,josephus obs]ves1 ! ,jews paid su* reg>d to burial1 t ! bodies ( ^?1 :o 7 execut$ publicly z crim9als1 7 tak5 away be=e sun-set1 & committ$ to ! gr\nd4 ,& o!r ,jewi% writ]s are ( op9ion t ?is 0 int5d$ z a degree ( rev]5ce to ! div9e image1 aft] :i* man 0 =m$4 ,to all[ burial to crim9als mu/ h be5 ! practice 9 ! "t ( ,hom]3 = we are told1 9 ! ?ird book ( ! ,odyssey1 t gi/hus1 :o _h add$ ! crime ( murd] to t ( adult]y1 0 hon\r$ ) fun]al c]emonies by ,ore/es1 ! son ( ! murd]$ k+4 ,x 0 ! cu/om ) ! ,romans1 z may be se5 f ,ulpian1 nev] to refuse giv+ ! bodies ( crim9als to _! relatives1 to bury4 ,! ,emp]ors1 ,diocletian1 & ,maximian1 9 a rescript1 decl>$1 t !y did n refuse to deliv] up1 = burial1 ^?1 :o _h des]v$ly be5 put to dea? = _! crimes4 ,9 read+ ! hi/ory ( civil w>s2 we f9d m frequ5t in/ances ( indignities (f]$ to ! dead1 ?an 9 ! acc\nts ( any =eign w>s4 ,9 "s cases1 ! bodies ( execut$ crim9als are expos$ to public view1 & hung 9 *a9s1 a cu/om ! propriety ( :i* is v mu* d\bt$ bo? by ,!ological & ,political writ]s4 ,s f> f approv+ ( ! practice1 we f9d su* writ]s be/[+ praises ^u _m1 :o _h ord]$ fun]al hon\rs to be paid to ^?1 :o w\ld n !mselves h all[$ ! same to o!rs4 ,an action ( ?is k9d 0 done by ,pausanias ! ,lac$aemonian1 :o1 be+ urg$ by ! p ( ,aeg9a to retaliate ^u ! ,p]sians = _! treatm5t ( ,leonidas1 reject$ ! advice1 z unbecom+ 8 own "* & ! ,grecian "n4 ,! ,ph>isees all[$ burial ev5 to ,k+ ,jannaeus ,alex&]1 :o _h treat$ ! dead bodies ( _! c\ntrym5 ) e k9d ( insult4 ,?\gh inde$ on c]ta9 occasions1 ,god may h puni%$ "s (f5d]s ) ! loss ( su* a "r1 he did s by virtue ( 8 own pr]ogative1 :i* places him above ! re/rictions ( all law4 ,& :5 ,david expos$ ! head ( ,goliah1 x 0 done to "o1 :o 0 an ali51 & a despis] ( ,god1 & might be ju/ifi$ by t law1 :i* conf9$ ! "n & privileges ( neighb\r to ! ,hebrews4 ,v4 ,!re is "o ?+ n improp] to be obs]v$1 t ! rule prevail+ among ! ,hebrews ) respect to bury+ ! dead1 conta9$ an exception1 z we are in=m$ by ,josephus1 exclud+ ^?1 :o _h committ$ suicide4 ,nor is x surpris+ t a m>k ( ignom9y %\ld be affix$ to ^?1 on :om dea? itself _c be inflict$ z a puni%m5t4 ,ari/otle 9 ! fif? book ( 8 ,e?ics1 speaks ( ! infamy univ]sally atta*$ to suicide4 ,nor is ! obs]vation at all weak5$ by ! op9ions ( "s ( ! ,grecian poets1 t z ! dead are void ( all p]ception1 !y _c be affect$ ei!r by loss or %ame4 ,= x is a suffici5t reason to ju/ify ! practice1 if ! liv+ c be det]r$ f committ+ actions1 = :i* !y see a m>k ( infamy set ^u ! dead4 ,9 opposition to ! ,/oics1 & o!rs1 :o admitt$ ! dread ( s]vitude1 sickness1 or any o!r calamity1 or ev5 ! ambiti\s love ( glory to be a j cause ( volunt>y dea?1 9 opposition to !m1 ! ,platoni/s ju/ly ma9ta91 t ! s\l mu/ be reta9$ 9 ! cu/ody ( ! body1 f :i* x _c be releas$1 b at ! comm& ( him1 :o gave x4 ,on ?is subject !re are _m f9e ?\ghts 9 ,plot9us1 ,olympiodorus1 & ,macrobius on ! dream ( ,scipio4 ,brutus1 foll[+ ! op9ions ( ! ,platoni/s1 _h =m]ly condemn$ ! dea? ( ,cato1 :om he himself aft]w>ds imitat$4 ,he consid]$ x z an act ( impiety = any "o to )draw himself f 8 allegiance to ! supreme be+1 & to %r9k f evils1 :i* he ought to be> ) =titude4 ,& ,mega/h5es1 z may be se51 9 ,/rabo book ,,xv4 rem>k$ ! disapprobation1 :i* ! ,indian sages express$ ( ! conduct ( ,calanus3 = x 0 by no means agreeable to _! t5ets1 t any "o1 ?r\gh impati5ce1 %\ld quit 8 po/ 9 life4 ,9 ! fif? book ( ,qu9tus ,curtius1 !re is an expression ( ,k+ ,d>ius to ?is effect1 t he _h r die by ano!r's guilty h& ?an by 8 own4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ,hebrews call dea? a release1 or dismission1 z may be se5 n only 9 ! ,gospel ( ,/4 ,luke1 *4 ii4 v4 #ai1 b 9 ! ,greek v]sion ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 ,g54 xv4 #b1 & ,numb4 xx1 t[>ds ! conclusion3 & ! same way ( speak+ 0 us$ by ! ,greeks4 ,plut>*1 9 speak+ ( consolation1 calls dea? ! "t1 :5 ,god %all relieve u f our po/4 ,,vi4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r rights too1 :i* owe _! orig9 to ! volunt>y law ( nations1 su* z ! "r ( possession f l5g? ( "t1 ! "r ( succession to any "o :o dies inte/ate1 & ! "r result+ f contracts1 ?\gh ( an unequal k9d4 ,= ?\gh all ^! rights1 9 "s measure1 spr+ f ! law ( nature1 yet !y d]ive _! confirmation f human law1 :e!r x be 9 opposition to ! unc]ta9ty ( conjecture1 or to c]ta9 o!r exceptions1 sugge/$ by natural reason3 po9ts1 all ( :i* h be5 slightly t\*$ ^u 9 our discussions on ! law ( nature4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,on ,,puni%m5ts4 ,def9ition & orig9 ( puni%m5t--,9 :at mann] puni%m5t relates to /rict ju/ice--,! "r ( puni%+ all[$ by ! law ( nature1 to none1 except to ^?1 :o are innoc5t ( ! crimes & misdemean\rs to be puni%$--,diff]5ce ( motive betwe5 human & div9e puni%m5t--,9 :at s5se rev5ge is naturally unlawful--,! advantages ( puni%m5t1 ?reefold--,! law ( nature all[s any "o to inflict puni%m5t ^u an (f5d]1 yet ) a di/9ction--,! reg>d :i* ! law ( nations pays to ! b5efit ( ! injur$ p>ty1 9 ! infliction ( puni%m5t--,g5]al utility ( puni%m5ts--,:at is det]m9$ by ! law ( ! ,gospel1 9 ?is respect--,answ] to ! objections f\nd$ ^u ! m]cy ( ,god1 z display$ 9 ! ,gospel--,capital puni%m5ts object$ to z cutt+ (f all possibility ( rep5tance--,n safe = private ,*ri/ians to inflict puni%m5ts1 ev5 :5 all[$ to d s1 by ! law ( nations--,prosecutions1 = c]ta9 (f5ces1 to be c>ri$ on 9 ! "n ( ! public & n ( individuals--,int]nal acts n puni%able by man--,op5 acts1 :5 inevitable ?r\gh human infirmity n puni%able--,actions1 nei!r directly nor indirectly injuri\s to society1 n puni%able by human laws--,! reasons ( t exemption--,! op9ion1 t p>don c nev] be grant$1 refut$--,p>don %ewn to be all[able be=e ! e/abli%m5t ( p5al law--,b n 9 all cases--,all[able also subsequ5tly to ! e/abli%m5t ( p5alties--,int]nal & ext]nal reasons--,op9ion1 t !re c be no j reason = disp5s+ ) laws1 except :]e su* disp5sation c be impli$ z au?oris$ by ! law1 exam9$ & refut$--,puni%m5t e/imat$ by ! des]t ( ! (f5d]--,diff]5t motives comp>$--,motives :i* ought to re/ra9 m5 f s9--,scale ( (f5ces accord+ to ! precepts ( ! ,decalogue--,capacity ( ! (f5d]--,puni%m5t mitigat$ f motives ( *>ity1 except :]e !re are /rong] motives ( an opposite k9d--,facility or famili>ity ( crimes aggravates _! nature--,clem5cy1 prop] ex]cise (--,views ( ! ,jews & ,romans 9 inflict+ puni%m5t--,w> consid]$ z a puni%m5t--,:e!r ho/ilities c ju/ly be comm5c$ = int5d$ aggressions--,:e!r ,k+s & ,nations are ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ w> to puni% (f5ces aga9/ ! law ( nature1 n imm$iately affect+ !mselves or _! subjects--,! op9ion1 t jurisdiction is naturally necess>y to au?orise puni%m5t1 refut$--,di/9ction betwe5 ! law ( nature1 & civil cu/oms1 & ! div9e volunt>y law--,! "q1 :e!r w> c be und]tak5 to puni% acts ( impiety--consid]$--,! be+ ( ,god1 :5ce kn[n--,refusal to embrace ! ,*ri/ian religion n a suffici5t cause ( w>--,cruel treatm5t ( ,*ri/ians1 ju/ifiable cause ( w>--,op5 defiance ( religion puni%able4 ,i4 ,9 ! prec$+ "p ( ?is treatise1 :]e ! causes1 = :i* w> may be und]tak51 7 expla9$1 x 0 consid]$ 9 a two-fold light1 ei!r z a rep>ation = injuries1 or z a puni%m5t4 ,! fir/ ( ^! po9ts hav+ be5 already cle>$ up1 ! latt]1 :i* relates to puni%m5ts1 rema9s to be discuss$1 & x w require a m ample inve/igation2 = ! orig9 & nature ( puni%m5t1 n be+ p]fectly und]/ood1 has giv5 rise to _m errors4 ,puni%m5t tak5 9 its mo/ g5]al mean+ signifies ! pa9 ( suff]+1 :i* is inflict$ = evil actions4 ,= al?\gh lab\r may "s times be impos$ in/ead ( puni%m5t2 /ill x is consid]$ 9 t case1 z a h>d%ip & a griev\s burd51 & may !re=e prop]ly be class$ ) suff]+s4 ,b ! inconv5i5ces1 :i* m5 are "s times expos$ to1 by be+ exclud$ f ! int]c\rse ( society & ! (fices ( life1 ow+ to infecti\s disord]s1 or o!r simil> causes1 :i* 0 ! case ) ! ,jews on acc\nt ( _m legal impurities1 ^! tempor>y privations are n to be /rictly tak5 = puni%m5ts3 ?\gh f _! resemblance to ea* o!r1 !y are (t51 by an abuse ( t]ms1 conf\nd$4 ,b among ! dictates laid d[n by nature1 z lawful & j1 & :i* ! anci5t ,philosoph]s call ! law ( ,rhadaman?us1 ! foll[+ maxim may be plac$1 ,,t ,,x ,,is ,,"r ,,= ,,e ,,"o ,,to ,,suff] ,,evil ,,proportion$ ,,to ,,t ,,:i* ,,he ,,has ,,done4 ,:i* gave occasion to ,plut>*1 9 8 book on exile1 to say t ju/ice is an attribute ( ,god1 av5g+ all transgressions ( ! div9e law2 & we apply x z ! rule & measure ( our deal+s ) ea* o!r4 ,= ?\gh sep>at$ by ! arbitr>y or geographical b\nds ( t]ritory1 ! eye ( nature looks ^u all1 z fell[ subjects ( "o great empire4 ,hi]ocles gives a f9e "* ( ju/ice1 call+ x ! heal+ rem$y ( all mis*ief4 ,lactantius 9 speak+ ( ! div9e wra? calls x no inconsid]able mi/ake 9 ^?1 :o degrade human or div9e puni%m5t ) ! "n ( cruelty or rig\r1 imag9+ t "s degree ( blame mu/ always atta* to ! puni%m5t ( ! guilty4 ,:at has be5 said ( ! insep>able connection ( a p5alty ) e (f5se is simil> to ! rem>k ( ,augu/91 t to make a puni%m5t ,,j1 x mu/ be inflict$ = "s crime4 ,he applies ! expression to expla9 ! div9e ju/ice1 :]e ?r\gh human ignorance1 ! (f5ce is (t5 undiscov]able ?\gh ! judgm5t may be se54 ,,ii4 ,!re are div]sities ( op9ion :e!r puni%m5t comes "u ! rank ( ,,attributive or t ( ,,/rict ju/ice4 ,"s ref] x to ju/ice ( ! attributive k9d1 because (f5ces are puni%$ m or less1 9 proportion to _! consequ5ces1 & because ! puni%m5t is inflict$ by ! :ole community1 z x 71 ^u an individual4 ,x is und\bt$ly "o ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ju/ice to e/abli% an equality betwe5 ! p5alty & ! (f5ce4 ,= x is ! bus9ess ( reason1 says ,horace1 9 "o ( 8 ,satires1 to apply a rule & measure1 by :i* ! p5alty may be fram$ ^u a scale ) ! (f5ce1 & 9 ano!r place1 he obs]ves1 t x w\ld be contr>y to all reason to puni% ) ! rack a slave1 :o des]v$ no?+ m ?an ! :ip4 ,i4 ,sat4 iii4 v4 #gg1 & #aai4 ,! div9e law1 z may be se5 f ! xxv4 ,*apt] ( ,deut]onomy1 re/s ^u ! same pr9ciple4 ,!re is "o s5se1 9 :i* all puni%m5t may be said to be a matt] ( /rict ju/ice4 ,?us1 :5 we say t puni%m5t is due to any "o1 we mean no?+ m ?an t x is "r he %\ld be puni%$4 ,nor c any "o inflict ?is puni%m5t1 b ! p]son1 :o has a "r to d s4 ,n[ 9 ! eye ( ! law1 e p5alty is consid]$1 z a debt aris+ out ( a crime1 & :i* ! (f5d] is b\nd to pay to ! aggriev$ p>ty4 ,& 9 ?is !re is some?+ approa*+ to ! nature ( contracts4 ,= z a sell]1 ?\gh no ,,express /ipulation be made1 is und]/ood to h b\nd himself by all ! ,,usual1 & ,,necess>y conditions ( a sale1 s1 puni%m5t be+ a natural consequ5ce ( crime1 e he9\s (f5d] appe>s to h ,,volunt>ily incurr$ ! p5alties ( law4 ,9 ?is s5se "s ( ! ,emp]ors pron\nc$ s5t5ce ^u malefactors 9 ! foll[+ mann]1 y h br\ght ?is puni%m5t ^u ,y\rselves4 ,inde$ e wick$ action done by design 0 consid]$ z a volunt>y contract to submit to puni%m5t4 ,=1 z ,mi*ael ! ,ephesian obs]ves on ! fif? book ( ,ari/otle's ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ! anci5ts gave ! "n ( contract1 n only to ! volunt>y agreem5ts :i* m5 made ) ea* o!r1 b to ! obligations aris+ f ! s5t5ce ( ! law4 ,,iii4 ,b to :om ! "r ( puni%+ prop]ly belongs1 is a matt] n det]m9$ by ! law ( ,,nature4 ,= ?\gh reason may po9t out ! necessity ( puni%+ ! guilty1 x does n specify ! ,,p]son1 to :om ! execution ( x is to be committ$4 ,natural reason inde$ does s f> po9t out ! p]son1 t x is deem$ mo/ ,,suitable = a ,,sup]ior ,,only to be inve/$ ) ! p[] ( inflict+ puni%m5t4 ,yet ?is demon/ration does n am\nt to an ,,absolute ,,necessity1 unless ! ^w sup]ior be tak5 9 a s5se imply+1 t ! commission ( a crime makes ! (f5d] inf]ior to e "o ( 8 own species1 by 8 hav+ degrad$ himself f ! rank ( m5 to t ( ! brutes1 :i* are 9 subjection to man2 a doctr9e1 :i* "s ,!ologi/s h ma9ta9$4 ,philosoph]s too agre$ 9 ?is4 ,= ,democritus suppos$ t p[] naturally belong$ to sup]ior m]it1 & ,ari/otle 0 ( op9ion t bo? 9 ! productions ( nature & art ! inf]ior 7 provid$ = ! use ( ! sup]ior p>ts4 ,f ?is op9ion !re arises a necess>y consequ5ce1 t 9 a case :]e !re are equal degrees ( guilt 9 two p>ties1 ! "r ( puni%m5t belongs to nei!r4 ,9 con=mity to :i*1 our ,savi\r1 9 ! case ( ! woman tak5 9 adult]y1 pron\nc$ t :oev] ( ! accus]s 0 )\t s91 mean+ s9s ( equal enormity1 %\ld ca/ ! fir/ /one4 ,john viii4 #g4 ,he said s = ?is reason1 because 9 t age ! mann]s ( ! ,jews 7 s corrupt1 t1 "u a great p>ade ( sanctity1 ! mo/ enorm\s vices1 & ! mo/ wick$ dispositions 7 conceal$4 ,a "* ( ! times :i* ! ,apo/le has pa9t$ 9 ! mo/ gl[+ col\rs1 & :i* he closes ) a repro( simil> to :at 8 div9e ma/] _h giv51 !re=e ?\ art inexcusable1 ,o man1 :osoev] ?\ art t judge/3 = :]e9 ?\ judge/ ano!r ?\ condemne/ ?yself2 = ?\ t judge/ doe/ ! same ?+s4 ,rom4 ii4 #a4 ,applicable to :i* !re is a rem>k ( ,s5eca's1 t no s5t5ce1 :i* is pass$ by a guilty p]son c h any weight4 ,& 9 ano!r place1 ! same writ] obs]ves1 t if we look into ourselves & consid] :e!r we h be5 guilty ( ! (f5ces we are go+ to condemn1 we %all be m mod]ate 9 our judgm5ts4 ,,iv4 ,ano!r "p ( our inquiry respects ! end propos$ by puni%m5t4 ,= by :at has hi!rto be5 said1 x 0 only meant to %ew t 9 puni%+ ! guilty no injury is done to !m4 ,/ill ! absolute necessity ( puni%m5t does n foll[ f !nce4 ,= ! p>don ( ! guilty on _m occasions has be5 consid]$ z ! mo/ beaute\s feature 9 ! div9e & human "*4 ,plato is celebrat$ = 8 say+ t ju/ice does n inflict puni%m5t = ! evils t are done & _c be retriev$2 b to prev5t ! same f be+ done = ! "t to come4 ,f ,?ucydides we f9d t ,diodorus 9 address+ ! ,a!nians on ! conduct ( ! ,mityl5aeans1 advises !m to =be> puni%+ _! av[$ inju/ice1 unless x 0 probable t ! puni%m5t w\ld be att5d$ ) "s good effect4 ,^! maxims may be true ) reg>d to human puni%m5ts3 = "o man be+ s ne>ly alli$ to ano!r by blood1 no degree ( suff]+ %\ld be inflict$1 b = "s consequ5t good4 ,b ! case is diff]5t ) respect to ,god1 to :om ,plato injudici\sly applies ! above s5tim5ts4 ,= ?\gh ! div9e c\nsels w und\bt$ly h ! good ( m5 9 view1 z ! end ( all puni%m5t1 yet ! b>e re=mation ( ! (f5d] _c be ! sole object4 ,s9ce ! div9e ju/ice1 ?\gh temp]$ ) m]cy mu/ adh]e to ! tru? ( ! reveal$ ^w1 :i* ?reat5s ! wick$ ) puni%m5t or de/ruction4 ,! hon\r !re=e ( ,god1 z well z ! example held up to m51 w be a consequ5ce result+ f 8 puni%m5t ( ! wick$4 ,v4 ,a dramatic writ] has said t ! pa9 ( an enemy is a heal+ rem$y to a w\nd$ _s1 9 :i* he agrees ) ,cic]o & ,plut>*3 9 ! op9ion ( ! =m] pa9 is mitigat$ by ! puni%m5t ( an adv]s>y1 & 9 t ( ! latt] satisfaction is a sweet m$ic9e to a tr\bl$ m9d4 ,b a disposition l ?is1 :5 /ripp$ ( all disguise & false col\r+1 w be f\nd by no means suitable to ! reasonable s\l ( man1 ^: (fice x is to regulate & contr\l ! affections4 ,nor w t disposition receive any sanction f ! law ( nature1 :o 9 all h] dictates1 incl9es to unite m5 9 society by good w1 r ?an to sep>ate !m by *]i%+ animosity4 ,= x is laid d[n by reason1 z a lead+ axiom 9 h] code ( laws1 t no man %all d any ?+ :i* may hurt ano!r1 unless x be = ! purpose ( "s evid5t & ess5tial good4 ,b ! pa9 ( an enemy consid]$ solely ( su*1 is no b5efit to u1 b a false & imag9>y "o1 l t d]iv$ f sup]flu\s ri*es or ?+s ( ! same k9d4#ec ,9 ?is acceptation rev5ge is condemn$ bo? by ,*ri/ian tea*]s & hea!n philosoph]s4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! language ( ,s5eca approa*es v ne> to ! p]fection ( ,*ri/ian morals4 ,he calls rev5ge1 9 its usual & prop] acceptation1 a t]m ( inhumanity1 diff]+ f injury only 9 degree4 ,= retaliation ( pa9 c be consid]$ z no?+ bett] ?an excusable s94 ,juv5al1 aft] describ+ ! diff]5t temp]s1 ov] :i* rev5ge ex]cises ! mo/ p[]ful dom9ion1 & %ew+ ! amiable *>act]s ov] :i* x has no influ5ce1 concludes x to be ! pleasure ( a little & infirm m9d4 ,f ! prec$+ argum5ts x is pla9 t puni%m5t _c ju/ly be inflict$ f a _s ( rev5ge4 ,we proce$ !re=e to consid] ! advantages att5d+ its j infliction4 ,,vi4 ,?is seems ! mo/ prop] place = review+ ^? di/9ctions 9 ! motives ( puni%m5t1 :i* h be5 us$ by ,plato 9 8 ,gorgias1 & by ,taurus ! philosoph] 9 a passage quot$ by ,gellius 9 ! f\rte5? *apt] ( 8 fif? book4 ,^! di/9ctions seem to result naturally f ! end ( all puni%m5t4 ,plato inde$ consid]s ! am5dm5t ( ! (f5d]1 & ! example giv5 to o!rs1 z ! two pr9cipal motives3 b ,taurus has add$ a ?ird1 :i* he calls satisfaction1 & :i* is def9$ by ,clem5s ,alex&r9us1 to be repaym5t ( evil1 contribut+ to ! b5efit ( bo? ! aggriev$ & av5g+ p>ty4 ,ari/otle pass+ ov] example z a motive1 conf9es ! object ( puni%m5t to ! am5dm5t or correction ( ! (f5d]4 ,b ,plut>* has n made ! same omission3 = he has said1 t :]e imm$iate puni%m5t foll[s ! execution ( a he9\s crime1 x bo? op]ates to det] o!rs f committ+ ! same crime1 & adm9i/]s "s degree ( consolation to ! injur$ & suff]+ p]son4 ,& ?is is :at ,ari/otle calls commutative ju/ice4 ,b ^! matt]s require a m m9ute inquiry4 ,we may obs]ve !re=e t !re is no?+ contr>y ei!r to human or div9e law1 9 puni%m5ts1 :i* h ! good ( ! (f5d]1 or t ( ! injur$ p>ty1 or ( any p]sons :atsoev] 9 view4 ,! ?ree prop] ends are obta9$ by t k9d ( puni%m5t1 :i* "s philosoph]s h call$ correction1 "s *a/isem5t1 & o!rs admonition4 ,paulus ! ,lawy]1 has giv5 x ! "n ( correction2 ,plato /yles x a lesson ( in/ruction1 & ,plut>* a m$ic9e ( ! s\l1 re=m+ & heal+ ! suff]]1 :ile x op]ates z a pa9ful rem$y4 ,= z all delib]ate acts1 by frequ5t repetition1 produce a prop5sity1 :i* rip5s into habit1 ! be/ me?od ( re=m+ vices 9 _! e>lie/ /age is to deprive !m ( _! sweet sav\r by an infusion ( subsequ5t pa94 ,x is an op9ion ( ! ,platoni/s1 repeat$ by ,apuleius1 t impunity & ! delay ( repro( are m sev]e & p]nici\s to an (f5d] ?an any puni%m5t :atsoev]1 &1 9 ! words ( ,tacitus1 viol5t disord]s mu/ be enc\nt]$ ) rem$ies proportionably /rong4 ,,vii4 ,! p[] ( inflict+ ! puni%m5t1 subs]vi5t to ?is end1 is all[$ by ! law ( nature to any "o ( compet5t judgm5t1 & n implicat$ 9 simil> or equal (f5ces4 ,?is is evid5t z f> z v]bal repro( goes1 f ! maxim ( ,plautus1 t to be/[ m]it$ repro( ^u a fri5d is useful1 ^u c]ta9 occasions1 ?\gh by no means a grateful (fice4 ,b 9 all k9ds ( con/ra9t & compulsion1 ! diff]5ce made betwe5 ! p]sons1 :o are all[$1 & :o are n all[$ to ex]cise x is no appo9tm5t ( natural law1 b "o ( ! positive in/itutions ( ! civil law4 ,= no su* natural di/9ction c\ld be made1 any f>!r ?an t reason w\ld intru/ p>5ts ) ! peculi> use ( su* an au?ority1 9 consid]ation ( _! affection4 ,b laws1 9 ord] to avoid animosities1 h1 ) respect to ! au?ority ( puni%+1 pass$ ov] ! common k9dr$ subsi/+ among mank9d1 & conf9$ x to ! ne>e/ degrees ( relation3 z may be se5 9 _m records1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! code ( ,ju/9ian1 "u ! title ( ! ,,p[] ,,( ,,relatives ,,to ,,correct ,,9 ,,ord] ,,to ,,re=m ,,(f5d]s4 ,& ,cyrus1 9 ! v4 book & viii4 *apt] ( ,x5ophon's hi/ory ( ! ,exp$ition1 addresses ! soldi]s to ! foll[+ purport1 ,if ,i puni% any "o = 8 good1 ,i am will+ to submit to ju/ice2 b w\ld x n be equally reasonable t p>5ts & ma/]s %\ld submit to ju/ice1 = hav+ correct$ *ildr51 or ! ,surgeon be responsible = hav+ us$ ! incision-knife1 :]e ! pati5t's case requir$ x8 ,b ?is k9d ( corrective puni%m5t does n ext5d to dea?1 :i* _c be consid]$1 z a b5efit 9 itself1 except ,,indirectly & ,,by ,,way ,,( ,,r$uction1 z x is call$ by ,logicians1 :o1 9 ord] to confirm negatives1 r$uce !m to ?+s ( an opposite k9d4 ,?us1 9 ,m>k xiv4 #ba1 :5 our ,savi\r says1 t x 7 bett] = "s1 !y _h nev] be5 born1 s1 = incurable dispositions1 x is bett]1 t is w\ld be a less evil1 to die ?an to live2 s9ce x is c]ta9 t by liv+ !y w gr[ worse4 ,plut>* calls su* m5 a pe/ to o!rs1 b ! greate/ pe/ to !mselves4 ,gal5 says t capital puni%m5ts are inflict$ to prev5t m5 f do+ h>m by a long] c\rse ( iniquity1 & to det] o!rs by ! fe> ( puni%m5t1 add+ t x is bett] m5 %\ld die1 :5 !y h s\ls s infect$ ) evil1 z to be incurable4 ,!re are "s1 :o ?9k t ^! are ! p]sons meant by ! ,apo/le ,john1 :o describes !m z s9n+ a s9 unto dea?4 ,b z _! argum5ts are n satisfactory1 *>ity requires t no "o %\ld be deem$ incorrigible1 except ^u ! cle>e/ gr\nds4 ,s t puni%m5t ) su* an end 9 view c only be inflict$ = important causes4 ,,viii4 ,! b5efit accru+ to an injur$ p]son f ! puni%m5t ( an (f5d] consi/s 9 8 be+ secur$ 9 future aga9/ a recurr5ce ( ! same injury f t (f5d]1 or f o!rs4 ,!re are ?ree ways ( prev5t+ ?is recurr5ce--by remov+ ! (f5d]--by depriv+ him ( ! p[] ( do+ h>m1 or la/ly by compell+ him to bett] habits ( ?\ght or action1 :i* is ! re=mation produc$ by ! puni%m5t already spok5 (4 ,x is n e k9d ( puni%m5t1 :i* c produce su* effects2 x mu/ be op5 & conspicu\s1 to op]ate z an example1 t may det] o!rs f ! commission ( ! same crimes4 ,a v9dictive puni%m5t1 inflict$ by an injur$ individual1 or by any o!r p]son1 :5 x is re/ra9$ by b\nds & limitations ( ?is k9d1 has no?+ unlawful 9 x consid]+ ! law ( nature by itself1 ap>t f all human & div9e in/itutions1 & e adv5titi\s circum/ance1 t may create a deviation f ! primitive dictates ( nature4 ,we h said t x may be inflict$ by any o!r individual1 z well z by ! injur$ p]son3 = x is con=mable to nature1 t "o man %\ld assi/ ano!r4 ,b z our judgm5t is apt to be biass$ by our affections1 9 cases1 :]e our int]e/ is conc]n$2 s9ce ! =mation ( families into /ates1 judges h be5 appo9t$1 & inve/$ ) ! p[] ( puni%+ ! guilty1 :]eby ! natural lib]ty ( p]sonal r$ress1 orig9ally all[$ to individuals1 0 aboli%$1 or at lea/ abridg$4 ,& x is only 9 places1 on ! seas = in/ance1 :]e no judicial rem$y c be obta9$1 t ?is natural lib]ty cont9ues 9 =ce4 ,!re is a circum/ance relat$ ( ,julius ,caes>1 applicable to ?is subject4 ,:ile he 0 only 9 a private /ation1 be+ tak5 prison] by "s pirates1 aft] he _h r$eem$ himself by a sum ( money1 he appli$ to ! proconsul = r$ress4 ,b 8 application be+ neglect$1 he fitt$ out a c]ta9 numb] ( %ips1 attack$ & defeat$ ! pirates1 & ord]$ !m all to be crucifi$4 ,! practice ( private individuals1 ex]cis+ puni%m5t1 0 ! orig9 ( s+le combats1 s famili> to ! ,g]mans be=e ! introduction ( ,*ri/ianity1 & n yet suffici5tly laid aside4 ,we are in=m$ by ,velleius ,pat]culus1 9 8 second book1 t ! ,g]mans 7 surpris$ to see ! =ms ( ,roman jurisprud5ce1 & ^? disputes1 :i* !y !mselves decid$ by ! sword1 settl$ by law4 ,by ! ,jewi% law1 ! ne>e/ 9 blood to ! deceas$ 7 all[$ to kill a murd]]1 if tak5 beyond ! places ( refuge4 ,& ! ,jewi% int]pret]s obs]ve1 t 9 ,,g5]al ! infliction ( puni%m5t1 z a retaliation = murd]1 x intru/$ to no h&1 b t ( ! judge3 z x is difficult = an individual 9 8 own case to mod]ate 8 res5tm5t4 ,! same cu/om ( all[+ individuals to av5ge _! own wrongs prevail$ among ! anci5t ,greeks1 z we f9d f ! words ( ,!oclym5es1 9 ,hom]'s ,odyssey4 ,b x prevail$ mo/ 9 c\ntries1 :]e public c\rts ( ju/ice 7 n e/abli%$4 ,f h5ce ,/4 ,augu/9 def9es ^? w>s to be j1 :i* are int5d$ to av5ge injuries4 ,& ,plato1 9 8 twelf? book ,,on ,a ,,commonweal?1 ju/ifies ! prolongation ( ho/ilities1 till ! aggressor is r$uc$ to submit to j1 & equitable t]ms4 ,,ix4 ,,g5]al utility :i* 0 consid]$ z ! ?ird end propos$ by puni%m5t1 may be divid$ into ! same numb] ( p>ts1 z ! b5efit accru+ f !nce to individuals4 ,= ^! are ! objects 9 view1 ei!r to prev5t ! individual1 :o has injur$ "o p]son1 f do+ injury to o!rs3 an object :i* c be accompli%$ only by remov+ ! (f5d]1 dis>m+ him ( ! means ( f>!r injury1 or by re=m+ him3 or x may be inflict$ to det] o!rs f be+ allur$1 by an example ( impunity1 to commit acts ( mole/ation or enmity4 ,& ! infliction ( puni%m5t1 = su* reasons1 is a ,,"r grant$ by ! law ( nature to e individual4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple1 ,plut>* obs]ves 9 ! life ( ,pelopidas1 t good m5 are design$ by nature = ! (fice ( p]petual magi/racy1 & sup]iority belongs to ^?1 9 :om ! *>act]s ( tru? & ju/ice unite4 ,b z x requires a pa9ful degree ( pati5ce to exam9e into facts1 & no inconsid]able %>e ( skill & equity to affix ! ext5t ( puni%m5ts2 9 ord] to prev5t qu>rels f aris+ ?r\gh ! presum+ conceit1 :i* e man ent]ta9s ( 8 own wisdom1 & to :i* o!rs are av]se to yield2 9 all well regulat$ communities1 x has be5 usual to select = ! tribunals ( ju/ice ^?1 :o 7 deem$ wor?y ( su* hon\r1 or likely to become s1 f _! integrity & wisdom4 ,democritus has said1 !re w\ld h be5 no occasion = laws to prev5t e man f liv+ accord+ to 8 own hum\r1 if "o _h n done injury to ano!r4 ,= envy 0 ! orig9 ( /rife4 ,b z we h j obs]v$1 t x happ5s1 9 ! case ( rev5ge1 s 9 ?is k9d ( puni%m5t1 inflict$ = ! sake ( example1 !re are traces & rema9s ( anci5t law1 9 ^? places1 & among ^? p]sons1 t are subject to no ,,civil jurisdiction2 & 9 c]ta9 o!r cases besides4 ,?us any ,hebrew1 accord+ to ! cu/oms ( t p1 if he %\ld turn away f ,god1 or f ! law ( ,god1 or %\ld s$uce o!rs to false wor%ip1 might imm$iately be put to dea? by any "o :atsoev]4 ,! ,hebrews call t an act ( ,,zeal1 :i* 0 fir/ done by ,ph9ehas1 & :i* aft]w>ds became a cu/om4 ,?us ,matta?ias slew a ,jew1 :o 0 pollut+ himself ) ,grecian rites4 ,9 ! same mann]1 9 ! book commonly call$ ! ?ird book ( ,maccabees1 x is relat$ t ?ree hundr$ o!r ,jews 7 put to dea? by _! own c\ntrym54 ,nor c\ld any o!r pretext be assign$ = /on+ ,/eph51 & conspir+ aga9/ ,paul4 ,philo1 & ,josephus ab\nd 9 in/ances ( ?is k9d4 ,!re are _m c\ntries :]e we may trace ! rema9s ( primitive law1 9 ! pl5>y p[] all[$ to ma/]s ov] _! slaves1 & to p>5ts ov] _! *ildr51 ext5d+ ev5 to inflict ! puni%m5t ( dea?4 ,s ! ,ephori ( ,sp>ta might put a citiz5 to dea? )\t ! =mality ( trial4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x is easy to inf] :at puni%m5t ! law ( nature au?orises1 & h[ f> x has rema9$ 9 =ce4 ,x4 ,we come n[ to consid] :e!r ! law ( ! ,gospel has conf9$ t lib]ty )9 clos] b\nds4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ 9 ano!r "p ( ?is treatise1 t x is n surpris+ t "s ?+s1 :i* are all[$ by natural & civil law1 %\ld be =bidd5 by ! div9e law1 ow+ to its great p]fection1 & ! sup]iority ( its rew>ds ov] any ?+ t human nature c be/[4 ,to ! atta9m5t ( :i* x is n unreasonable t virtues %\ld be requir$1 f> exce$+ ! simple precepts ( nature4 ,^? k9ds ( correction t leave nei!r any m>k ( infamy1 nor any p]man5t injury1 b are suit$ to ! age1 or o!r circum/ances ( ! suff]]1 if inflict$ by ^?1 :o d]ive su* a p]mission f human laws1 = in/ance by p>5ts1 gu>dians1 or ma/]s1 conta9 no?+ repugnant to ! precepts ( ! ,gospel1 z may be cle>ly und]/ood f ! nature ( ! ?+ itself4 ,= !y are rem$ies to ! m9d no less h>mless ?an m$ic9es ungrateful to ! palate are to ! body4 ,b z to rev5ge ! case is diff]5t4 ,= ! infliction ( puni%m5t1 only to gratify res5tm5t1 s f> f be+ con=mable to ! ,gospel1 has be5 %ewn above to be repugnant ev5 to ! law ( nature4 ,! ,jewi% law inde$ n only =bids ! *]i%+ ( hatr$ aga9/ a neighb\r1 t is1 "o ( ! same c\ntry & p1 b requires c]ta9 common acts ( k9dness to be be/[$ ev5 ^u enemies ( t description4 ,! ,gospel !re=e1 compreh5d+ all m5 "u ! appellation ( neighb\r1 n only =bids u to hurt our enemies1 b comm&s u to d !m good2 a comm&m5t cle>ly /at$ 9 ! ,gospel ( ,/4 ,mat!w4 ,yet ! law p]mitt$ ! ,jews to seek rev5ge = injuries ( a m griev\s k9d1 n ) _! own h&s1 b by appeal+ to ! judge4 ,b ,*ri/ does n give u ! same p]mission1 z appe>s f t opposition :i* he makes betwe5 ! p]missions ( =m] times1 & ^? ( 8 own law4 ,y h he>d t x 0 said an eye = an eye--b ,i say unto y1 love y\r enemies1 etc4 ,= al?\gh :at foll[s relates peculi>ly to ! repell+ ( injury1 &1 9 "s measure1 abridges ?is p]mission1 yet x passes a mu* great] c5sure ^u rev5ge1 reject+ x z an indulg5ce suitable only to a m imp]fect1 & c>nal /ate4 ,to inflict puni%m5t by way ( retaliation 0 disapprov$ ( ev5 by ^? ( ! ,jews1 :o 7 di/+ui%$ = _! wor? & wisdom2 because !y reg>d$ n only ! ,,lett]1 b ! ,,purpose & ,,_s ( ! law4 ,?is appe>s f ,philo1 9 ^: writ+s we f9d ! ,jews ( ,alex&ria1 ^u ! calamity ( ,flaccus1 _! p]secutor1 address+ !mselves to ,god 9 ! foll[+ language1 ,we d n rejoice1 ,o ,"l1 9 ! calamity or puni%m5t ( an enemy1 be+ taught by ?y holy laws to feel = ! mis]ies ( m54 ,& 9 ?is case we may apply t g5]al comm& giv5 by ,*ri/ to =give all :o h (f5d$ or injur$ u1 t is1 nei!r to d1 nor to wi% !m evil1 ?r\gh res5tm5t ( ! evil !y h done to u4 ,b :at c be said ( rev5ge1 n z reg>d+ ! pa/1 b z provid+ security = ! future8 ,"h too ,*ri/ requires ( 8 foll[]s ! same disposition to p>don injuries1 p>ticul>ly1 if ! (f5d] %ews any probable signs ( rep5tance4 ,luke xvii4 #c4 ,eph4 iv4 #cb4 ,col4 iii4 #ac4 ,9 ^? passages a full remission is int5d$1 su* a remission z re/ores ! (f5d] to 8 =m] situation ( fri5d%ip or confid5ce3 & consequ5tly no?+ c be requir$ ( him "u ! "n ( puni%m5t4 ,besides1 if !re 7 no su* m>ks ( rep5tance1 ! rep>ation ( a loss is n to be pursu$ ) too mu* rig\r2 a doctr9e inf]r$ f ! precept ( ,*ri/ enjo9+ u to give up ! g>m5t along ) ! cloak4 ,b if x is likely t connivance at an (f5ce w be att5d$ ) imm95t inconv5i5ce & ev5 dang] to ourselves1 we %\ld be cont5t$ ) su* securities z may be effectual1 & at ! same "t op]ate ) z little prejudice z possible to ! (f5d]4 ,= ev5 among ! ,jews1 ! law ( retaliation 0 n 9 use1 z we are in=m$ by ,josephus1 & o!r writ]s ( t nation4 ,b 9 addition to ! exp5ce incurr$1 :i* ! law treats ( z a sep>ate po9t1 ! injur$ p>ty usually receiv$ a pecuni>y f9e in/ead ( retaliation2 ! repaym5t ( exp5ces be+ consid]$ simply z a re/itution1 & n a p5alty4 ,x rema9s n[ to consid] puni%m5t1 z provid+ = ! ,,public & n ,,individual security1 :i* is accompli%$ ei!r by remov+ ! guilty p]son out ( ! way or by re/ra9+ him f do+ f>!r mis*ief1 or by det]r+ o!rs ?r\gh ! sev]ity ( example1 none ( :i* means x has be5 cle>ly prov$ 7 aboli%$ by ,*ri/2 = 9 giv+ 8 precepts he affirm$ t he de/roy$ no "p ( ! law4 ,! law ( ,moses inde$1 :i* 9 ^! respects 0 to rema9 9 =ce z long z ! ,jewi% ,polity exi/$1 /rictly enjo9$ magi/rates to puni% murd] & o!r simil> crimes4 ,b if ! precepts ( ,*ri/ c\ld exi/ 9 conjunction ) ! law ( ,moses1 z f> z x impos$ capital puni%m5ts1 surely !y may exi/ 9 conjunction ) human laws1 :i* 9 ?is respect are b an imitation ( ! div9e laws4 ,,xi4 ,"s1 9 support ( an opposite op9ion1 allege ! supreme m]cy ( ,god1 z x is display$ 9 ! new cov5ant1 & :i* is giv5 z an example = m51 & = magi/rates1 9 p>ticul>1 to foll[1 :o1 9 ! ex]cise ( au?ority1 execute ! laws ( ! ,deity4 ,?is op9ion may 9 "s measure be true1 b n to t ext5t1 :i* ! au?ors ( x int5d4 ,= ! great m]cy ( ,god display$ 9 ! new cov5ant has a peculi> ref]5ce to (f5ces aga9/ ! primitive law1 or ev5 aga9/ ! law ( ,moses1 be=e ! "t t m5 _h receiv$ a k ( ! ,gospel4 ,= (f5ces committ$ aft] ! promulgation ( ! ,gospel1 especially if !y are accompani$ ) a h>d5$ ob/9acy1 are treat$ ) mu* sev]] judgm5ts ?an any t 7 decl>$ by ,moses4 ,= ,god puni%es s9s ( t k9d n only 9 a future /ate1 b 9 ! pres5t life4 ,b = s9s ( t k9d1 to obta9 ! act ( m]cy & indulg5ce1 ! (f5d] mu/ inflict puni%m5t ^u himself1 n 9 a slight or trivial mann]1 b ) a he>tfelt sorr[1 & resolution to s9 no m4 ,9 ! same mann] x is ma9ta9$ t if m5 are actuat$ by rep5tance1 !y are ,,entitl$ to impunity4 ,we d n say t m5 are nev] actuat$ by s9c]e rep5tance2 b x is n e k9d ( av[al or ackn[l$gm5t1 by :i* ,god is mov$ to remit ! ,,:ole ( a puni%m5t1 z appe>s f ! case ( ,david4 ,z ! supreme judge !re=e might disp5se ) ! full p5alty ( ! law1 inflict+ dea?1 & yet ex]cise no inconsid]able sev]ity ^u (f5d]s1 s n[ he may disp5se ) ! s5t5ce ( et]nal dea?1 at ! same "t leav+ ! s9n] to f9d an e>ly grave by ! /roke ( "s calamity1 or by ! h& ( human ju/ice4 ,,xii4 & ,,xiii4 ,ano!r objection made aga9/ capital puni%m5ts is t su* a k9d ( s5t5ce & execution is cutt+ (f a crim9al f all possibility ( rep5tance4 ,b ^?1 :o make ! objection1 mu/ "k1 t 9 cases ( t k9d1 v5]able & upright judges use ! greate/ precautions1 & suff] no "o to be hurri$ away to execution1 )\t a reasonable "t all[$ = reflection & deep abhorr5ce ( 8 crime3 a rep5tance1 :i* ?\gh prev5t$ by ! int]pos+ h& ( dea? f produc+ ! fruits ( righte\sness1 we h reason to suppose1 f ! case ( ! ?ief p>don$ on ! cross1 may be accept$ ) ,god4 ,b if on ! o!r h& x be said t long] life might h be5 ( m avail to s]i\s rep5tance1 we may obs]ve t1 9 "s cases1 ! reply ( ,s5eca may be made1 t to m5 ( t description dea? is (t5 ! greate/ bless+ :i* c be be/[$2 =1 9 ! words ( ,eusebius1 _! c>e] ( wick$ness _c o!rwise be %ort5$1 or re=m$4 ,^! 9 addition to ! prec$+ argum5ts 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is treatise may be deem$ a suffici5t answ] to ^?1 :o ass]t t all capital puni%m5ts1 & ev5 all puni%m5ts1 )\t exception1 are aboli%$ by ! precepts ( our ,savi\r4 ,! ,apo/le1 consign+ to ! (fice ( k+s ! use ( ! sword1 z an ex]cise ( 8 div9e commission to av5ge all wrongs1 in/ructs u to pray = k+s1 t1 z true ,*ri/ians1 9 _! royal capacity1 !y may be a protection to ! innoc5t4 ,an end1 :i* ev5 aft] ! introduction ( ! gospel1 c\ld n easily be obta9$1 ow+ to ! depravity ( mank9d1 if ! viol5ce ( "s 7 n re/ra9$ by ! exempl>y puni%m5t ( o!rs4 ,su* au?ority is ! m necess>y1 :5 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( s _m examples & puni%m5ts1 ! lives ( ! innoc5t are sc>cely secure4 ,!re h be5 inde$1 x _c be d5i$1 happy in/ances :]e ! s5t5ce ( dea? 0 *ang$ = t ( p]petual lab\r1 a practice1 z we are in=m$ by ,diodorus1 foll[$ by ,sabacon1 k+ ( ,egypt1 a pr9ce r5[n$ = 8 piety4 ,balsamon obs]ves t ! p5al laws ( ,rome1 inflict+ dea?1 7 mo/ ( !m *ang$ by ! ,*ri/ian emp]ors ( lat] times1 & o!r k9ds ( puni%m5t 7 sub/itut$1 t ! guilty might receive deep] impressions ( rep5tance1 & _! puni%m5t op]ate z a m durable example4 ,,xiv4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x may be inf]r$1 h[ unsafe x is = a private ,*ri/ian1 :e!r f motives ( p]sonal int]e/1 or f ^? ( ! public good1 to take ^u himself ! puni%m5t ( an (f5d]1 & p>ticul>ly to inflict dea?4 ,al?\gh1 z x has be5 said be=e1 x may1 ,,9 ,,"s ,,cases1 be all[$ by ! law ( nations4 ,a p]mission1 t has giv5 rise to ! laudable practice1 prevail+ 9 "s c\ntries ( furni%+ adv5tur]s ) public in/ructions & commissions to *ase & capture pirates1 :]ev] !y may be f\nd4 ,b ^? adv5tur]s may be consid]$ z dis*>g+ a public duty r ?an z act+ ^u _! own au?ority4 ,,xv4 ,a cu/om n unlike to :i* prevails 9 _m places1 ( n all[+ individuals to br+ crim9al *>ges aga9/ o!rs at _! own pleasure3 t (fice belong+ to p]sons inve/$ ) public au?ority to und]take x4 ,s t no "o c contribute t[>ds %$d+ ! blood ( ano!r1 b z an act ( necess>y duty4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is cu/om1 a canon ( ! c\ncil ( ,elib]is exclud$ f ! communion any believ] :o _h be5 in/rum5tal 9 caus+ ! proscription or dea? ( ano!r4 ,,xviii4#ed ,x is prop] n[ to consid] :e!r all wick$ acts are ( t k9d1 :i* are puni%able by human laws4 ,9 reply to :i* we may answ] t !y c]ta9ly are n4--,9 ! fir/ place1 m]e acts ( ! m9d1 or crim9al int5tions1 ?\gh by subsequ5t confession1 or "s o!r accid5t1 !y may come to ! k ( o!rs1 are n puni%able by human laws4 ,because1 z x 0 prov$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise1 x is n consonant to ! law ( nature1 t ,,int5tions ,,only %\ld give rise to any "r1 or obligation among/ m54 ,& 9 ?is s5se ! maxim ( ! ,roman law is to be tak51 ,,t ,,no ,,"o ,,des]ves ,,puni%m5t ,,= ,,m]e ,,?\ghts4 ,yet ?is does n prev5t int5tions1 :5 !y h an influ5ce ^u ! conduct1 f be+ consid]$ z actual de$s1 & equally des]v+ ( puni%m5t4 ,,xix4 ,9 ! second place1 ev5 outw>d acts1 _c be puni%$ by m5 :]e !y arise ?r\gh "s inevitable infirmity ( human nature4 ,= al?\gh !re c be no s91 except :]e !re is a fre$om ( w1 yet to be at all times free f all infirmity & s91 is m ?an c be expect$ f ! condition ( man4 ,s t ,sopat]1 ,hi]ocles & ,s5eca among ! ,philosoph]s2 ,philo among ! ,jews2 ,?ucydides among ! hi/orians2 & innum]able writ]s among ,*ri/ians h ma9ta9$ t s9 is int]wov5 ) our v nature4 ,nay inde$1 a d\bt may be ent]ta9$ :e!r su* acts c rightly & prop]ly be call$ s9s4 ,= ?\gh seem+ to be volunt>y actions1 !y w be f\nd1 :5 m9utely consid]$1 n to proce$ f a free & delib]ate ex]cise ( ! w4 ,laws1 says ,plut>* 9 ! life ( ,solon1 %\ld be fram$ to suit possible cases1 ! legislator may obta9 e b5eficial end by puni%+ a few (f5d]s1 :]e ! indiscrim9ate puni%m5t ( multitudes w\ld be att5d$ ) no good effect4 ,!re are "s actions1 :i* ?\gh n imputable to human nature itself1 are inevitable consequ5ces ( ! influ5ce ( bodily habits on ! m9d4 ,actions l ^! are puni%able 9 human c\rts1 ow+ to ! crim9ality ( volunt>y contract+1 or ( n suffici5tly gu>d+ aga9/1 ^? habits4 ,,xx4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 human c\rts ( ju/ice _c take cognizance ( ^? (f5ces1 :i* nei!r directly nor indirectly1 affect ! public or individuals4 ,= no reason c be assign$1 :y su* (f5ces %\ld n be left to ! judgm5ts ( ,god1 ^: all-see+ eye mu/ "k !m1 ^: equity w weigh !m1 & ^: p[] c puni% !m4 ,x w\ld be unnecess>y !re=e1 & presumptu\s 9 human tribunals to assume su* decisions4 ,h[ev] we mu/ except f ?is rule ^? corrective k9ds ( puni%m5t1 design$ = ! re=mation ( (f5d]s1 ev5 :]e _! conduct is no way injuri\s to o!rs4 ,nei!r are ^? actions puni%able1 :i* are directly opposite to ! virtues ( compassion1 lib]ality1 or gratitude1 9 ! p]=mance ( :i* virtues natural ju/ice all[s ( no compulsion4 ,,xxi4 ,! po9t1 necess>ily to be consid]$ next1 is ! op9ion1 :e!r x is lawful "s times to grant p>don4 ,= ! ,/oics ma9ta9 x n to be lawful1 z may be se5 f a fragm5t 9 ,/obaeus1 "u ! title ( ,,magi/racy1 f ,cic]o's spee* = ,mur5a1 & t[>ds ! conclusion ( ,s5eca's books on ,clem5cy2 b _! argum5ts are fallaci\s1 & unsub/antial4 ,!y say t p>don is ! remission ( a p5alty1 t ,,ought to be paid2 b a wise man does e ?+1 :i* he ,,ought to d4 ,"h ! fallacy lies 9 ! use ( ! ^w ,,ought4 ,= if x means t an (f5d] owes a p5alty1 t is1 t he may be puni%$ )\t inju/ice1 x w n necess>ily foll[ t ! p]son :o does n puni% him1 is do+ :at he ought n to d4 ,b if ! ^w be tak5 to imply t a good man1 or a wise man1 ought at all ev5ts1 to exact ! p5alty1 x may be obs]v$ 9 reply t ,,?is does n always happ51 & !re=e1 9 ?is s5se1 ! p5alty or puni%m5t may be consid]$1 n z a debt1 b only a p]mission4 ,& ?is w hold good1 bo? be=e & aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( p5al laws4 ,,xxii4 ,be=e ! e/abli%m5t ( p5al laws1 puni%m5t1 beyond all d\bt1 might be inflict$2 because by ! law ( nature1 e (f5d] made himself subject to puni%m5t2 b x is n a natural & inevitable consequ5ce ( its be+ lawful1 t x %\ld be en=c$4 ,= ?is dep5ds ^u ! connection betwe5 ! ends1 = :i* puni%m5ts 7 e/abli%$1 & ! puni%m5ts !mselves4 ,if ! ends propos$ !re=e are n imm$iately necess>y1 9 a moral po9t ( view1 or if o!r ends ( a diff]5t k9d1 b n less wise & salut>y %\ld be devis$1 or t ! ends orig9ally design$ may be obta9$ by "s o!r means1 9 all ^! cases1 ! "r ( puni%m5t may be sav$1 !re be+ no imm$iate occasion to inflict x4 ,?us = in/ance1 :]e an (f5ce is kn[n to v few1 !re c be no imm$iate occasion = a public puni%m5t1 by way ( exempl>y exposure1 :i* 9 "s cases might be ev5 injuri\s to society r ?an productive ( advantage4 ,^u :i* ,cic]o 9 a lett] to 8 bro!r makes a p]t95t rem>k1 respect+ "o ,zeuxis1 obs]v+1 t _h he once be5 br\ght into c\rt1 he c\ld n h be5 releas$1 b !re 0 no necessity t a se>* %\ld be made = him1 9 ord] to br+ him to trial4--,9 ! next place ! "r & end ( puni%m5t may be disp5s$ )1 :]e a man's own s]vices1 or ^? ( 8 family are suffici5t to outweigh ! consid]ation ( 8 (f5ces4 ,=1 9 ! words ( ,s5eca1 an act ( k9dness eclipses ! fault ( an injury4--,& 9 ! la/ place1 :]e repro( op]ates ^u an (f5d]1 z a means ( correction & am5dm5t1 or :]e ! injur$ p>ty is satisfi$ ) an ackn[l$gm5t ( ! (f5ce1 ! occasion = puni%m5t is done away4 ,x 0 ?is motive to clem5cy1 :i* ! son ( ,david _h 9 view1 :]e he obs]ves t x behoves ! righte\s to be m]ciful4 ,= z all puni%m5t1 especially ( ! m sev]e ca/1 has 9 x "s ?+1 :i* ?o' n repugnant to ju/ice1 is at v>iance1 at lea/1 ) *>ity1 reason easily suff]s u to =be> inflict+ x1 unless t =be>ance is oppos$ by "s weighti]1 ju/]1 & m und5iable motive ( *>ity4 ,,xxiii4 ,cases may occur :]e x is absolutely necess>y to inflict puni%m5t1 z ^u notori\s1 & atroci\s crim9als1 or :]e x is = ! public good1 to disp5se ) t sev]ity1 or :]e ! judicial au?orities may use _! own discretion 9 mitigat+ or en=c+ ! s5t5ce ( ! law4 ,^u :i* ,s5eca p]t95tly rem>ks1 t ! ex]cise ( l5ity %\ld always be an act ( free delib]ation4 ,z to ! disputes ( ! ,/oics on ^! po9ts1 !y are1 9 ! op9ion ( ,cic]o & o!rs1 debates ^u words r ?an ?+s3 consequ5tly !y are less wor?y ( philosophical contemplation4 ,,xxiv4 ,!re seems to be a great] difficulty 9 decid+ :at is to be done1 subsequ5tly to ! e/abli%m5t ( p5al laws2 because a legislator is b\nd1 9 "s measure1 by 8 own laws4 ,b ?is1 z x 0 prov$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise1 is only true ) respect to ! legislator1 9 8 individual capacity1 z a private memb] ( ! /ate1 b n 9 8 public "*1 9 :i* he repres5ts ! :ole ,maje/y & ,au?ority ( ! /ate itself4 ,z su*1 he c entirely repeal ! law3 = x is ! nature ( all human laws1 to dep5d ^u ! w ( ! mak]1 n only = _! orig91 b also = _! duration4 ,yet a lawgiv] ought n1 ^u trivial gr\nds1 to repeal a /atute1 =1 9 s do+ he w\ld be act+ aga9/ ! rules ( sov]eign ju/ice4 ,b z ! legislator has p[] to repeal ! :ole ( a law1 s 9 ! case ( "s p>ticul> p]son1 or individual action1 he may relax its rig\r1 all[+ x to rema9 9 o!r respects1 z x /ood be=e4 ,z an example ( ?is1 ! actions ( ! ,deity may be cit$1 :o1 accord+ to ! te/imony ( ,lactantius1 9 enact+ 8 laws1 did n deprive himself ( ! ex]cise ( 8 m]cy1 to grant p>dons4 ,! ,emp]or1 says ,augu/91 may recall 8 s5t5ce1 p>don & release a crim9al2 because1 z he fur!r expla9s x1 ! p]son :o has p[] to make laws1 is n ,,inv>iably b\nd to obs]ve !m4 ,yet ?is privilege ( dep>t+ f ! lett] mu/ nev] be us$ b = ! mo/ important reasons4 ,al?\gh su* reasons _c be precisely def9$1 yet x is c]ta9 t1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( civil law1 m weighty ones are requir$ to au?orise su* p>dons1 ?an be=e t p]iod4 ,because puni%m5ts h d]iv$ an additional sanction f ! au?ority ( ! law1 :i* ought to be respect$ & obs]v$4 ,,xxv4 ,! reasons = releas+ any "o f ! p5alties ( ! law1 are ( two k9ds1 ei!r int]nal or ext]nal4 ,an int]nal reason1 to ju/ify a dep>ture f ! s5t5ce ( ! law1 mu/ be "o1 :]e ! puni%m5t is sev]e :5 comp>$ ) ! (f5ce4 ,,xxvi4 ,an ext]nal reason is "o aris+ f "s fav\rable circum/ance 9 ! "* ( ! (f5d]1 or "s fair hopes t may be ent]ta9$ ( 8 future conduct4 ,& ^! reasons w h ! mo/ weight 9 cases1 :]e ! p>ticul> motives = mak+ ! law cease to op]ate4 ,= al?\gh a g5]al reason1 unoppos$ by any o!r ( a weighti] k9d1 may suffici5tly au?orise ! enaction ( a law2 yet :]e ! peculi> reason1 = :i* t law 0 made1 has ceas$ to exi/1 ! relaxation ( x1 or ev5 a total disp5sation w be att5d$ ) less dang] to ! univ]sal au?ority ( law 9 g5]al4 ,su* a disp5sation inde$ is mo/ all[able1 :]e an (f5ce has be5 committ$ ?r\gh ignorance1 ?\gh ! p>ty s committ+ x is n entirely free f blame1 or ?r\gh "s inv9cible infirmity ( m9d1 9 all :i* cases1 a ,*ri/ian rul] w h an eye to ! example ( ,god1 :o1 "u ! old cov5ant1 appo9t$ _m su* (f5ces to be aton$ = by c]ta9 expiatory (f]+s3 ,levit4 iv4 & v43 &1 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 he has expressly decl>$ 8 int5tion to p>don su* (f5ces1 ^u due rep5tance4 ,luke xxiii4 #cd42 ,heb4 iv4 #ae4 & v4 #b42 #a ,tim4 #a4 #ac4 ,& ,*ryso/om obs]ves1 t ,!odosius1 impress$ ) ^? words ( our ,savi\r1 ,fa!r1 =give !m1 = !y "k n :at !y d1 0 l$ to grant a p>don to ! p ( ,antio*4 ,,xxvii4 ,& h5ce x is evid5t1 h[ mi/ak5 ,f]d9& ,vasquez is 9 8 judgm5t1 :5 he ma9ta9s t !re c be no j reason = disp5s+ ) a law1 t is1 = releas+ any "o f its obligations1 except :]e ! lawgiv]1 ^u be+ consult$1 expressly decl>es t he nev] int5d$ x %\ld be obs]v$ to its full ext5t4 ,= he does n make ! prop] di/9ction betwe5 an equitable int]pretation1 & ! entire relaxation ( a law4 ,= :i* reason1 9 ano!r place1 he reproves ,?omas1 & ,sotus1 because !y say t a law is b9d+ al?\gh ! p>ticul> reason ( its be+ made may h ceas$1 z if !y suppos$ t ! m]e lett] ( ! law 0 ! s\rce ( its obligation1 an op9ion :i* !y nev] did ent]ta94 ,s f> f e relaxation com+ "u ! idea ( equity1 prop]ly s call$2 ^? relaxations may be freely grant$ or refus$1 :i* c\ld n be done 9 matt]s ( equity1 to :i* ev5 acts ( *>ity or ^? ( reasonable policy d n /rictly belong4 ,= !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! repeal ( a law ^u fair or urg5t gr\nds1 & a legislator's decl>+ t at ! "t ( pass+ ! law he _h n ! p>ticul> (f5ce or case 9 contemplation4 ,hav+ ?us f> consid]$ ! nature ( disp5sations1 we proce$ to a review ( ! m]its ^u :i* !y may be grant$4 ,,xxviii4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x appe>s t 9 puni%m5ts1 two ?+s are to be reg>d$1 ! (f5ce1 & ! object = :i* !y are inflict$4 ,x is consonant to ju/ice t no "o %\ld receive great] puni%m5t ?an he des]ves2 ^u :i* ,cic]o1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s1 obs]ves1 t1 ! same mod]ation1 :i* is comm5d$ 9 all o!r ?+s1 ought to be obs]v$ 9 puni%m5ts4 ,pap9ian !re=e calls puni%m5t an e/imation ( dem]it2 b ?is equality e/abli%$ betwe5 crime & puni%m5t1 says ,demo/h5es 9 8 ,lett] 9 behalf ( ! *ildr5 ( ,lycurgus1 is n ! only ?+ to be consid]$3 ! object & int5tion also ( ! del9qu5t mu/ be weigh$ & tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,b1 if c>e be tak5 to inflict no m puni%m5t ?an is due = an (f5ce2 x may be great] or less1 9 proportion to ! utility to be d]iv$ f !nce4 ,,xxix4 ,9 exam9+ ! diff]5t degrees ( guilt1 we ought to take into ! acc\nt ! motives :i* impell$ ! (f5d] to commit ! act--! motives1 :i* ought to h re/ra9$ him !refrom1 & h[ f> he 0 capable ( yield+ to ei!r4 ,sc>ce any "o does a wick$ action )\t "s motive1 or s f> /rips himself ( ! nature ( man1 z to delight 9 su* acts f pure malignity4 ,mo/ m5 are l$ away by ! indulg5ce ( _! appetites1 :i* eng5d] s94 ,"u ! "n ( appetite also may be compreh5d$ ! /rong desire ( avoid+ evil1 :i* is ! mo/ consonant to nature1 & !re=e to be reckon$ among/ ! mo/ laudable ( all desires4 ,s t (f5ces committ$ = ! sake ( avoid+ dea?1 imprisonm5t1 pa91 or extreme want are g5]ally deem$ ! mo/ excusable4 ,:i* gave occasion to ,demo/h5es to say1 t we are ju/ly m exasp]at$ aga9/ ^?1 :o1 ab\nd+ 9 ri*es1 commit evil actions1 ?an aga9/ ^?1 :o are impell$ by want to d ! same4 ,humane judges are always ready to make all[ance = necessity3 b :]e weal? is unit$ ) inju/ice1 no pretext c be plead$ 9 excuse4 ,on ?is score1 ,polybius excuses ! ,ac>nanians1 = hav+ neglect$1 :5 ?reat5$ ) imp5d+ dang] !mselves1 to fulfil ! t]ms ( a def5sive treaty made ) ! ,greeks aga9/ ! ,aetolians4 ,besides ! desire ( avoid+ evil !re are o!r desires t5d+ to "s good1 ei!r real or imag9>y4 ,real advantages1 consid]$ ap>t f virtues1 & ^? actions1 :i* h a virtu\s t5d5cy1 are ei!r su* z give delight !mselves1 or1 l abundance ( ri*es1 c procure ^? ?+s1 :i* adm9i/] to pleasure4 ,among advantages purely imag9>y1 we may reckon t ( desir+ to excel o!rs1 f a _s ( rivalry1 r ?an f any laudable int5tion1 or ! p[] ( gratify+ res5tm5ts1 :i* ! f>!r !y deviate f natural ju/ice ! m %ock+ !y are to natural feel+4 ,^! appetites ! ,apo/le has describ$ 9 t]ms ( m>k$ c5sure1 call+ !m1 ! lu/ ( ! fle%1 ! lu/ ( ! eye1 ! pride ( life4 ,"h ! fir/ memb] ( ! s5t5ce expresses ! love ( pleasure1 ! second implies ! insatiable love ( ri*es1 & ! ?ird compreh5ds ! pursuit ( va9 glory1 & ! desire ( rev5ge4 ,,xxx4 ,! v inju/ice ( all (f5ces ought to be a ,,g5]al motive ) m51 to re/ra9 !m f ! commission ( !m4 ,= at pres5t we are n consid]+ s9s ( any k9d1 b ^?1 :i* ext5d _! consequ5ces beyond ! (f5d] himself1 & affect o!rs4 ,& inju/ice is ! m he9\s & crim9al 9 proportion to ! greatness ( ! injury1 :i* x inflicts4 ,9 ! highe/ rank ( crimes & misdemean\rs !re=e1 we may place ^?1 :i* are c>ri$ into complete execution3 & l[] 9 ! scale we f9d ^? crim9al designs1 :i* h proce$$ "s degrees1 b n to ! la/ /age ( completion4 ,= ! aggravation ( a crim9al int5t is measur$ by ! l5g? to :i* x goes4 ,9 ei!r class t k9d ( inju/ice is mo/ notori\s1 :i* t5ds to di/urb ! common peace ( society1 & !re=e is injuri\s to great] numb]s4 ,private wrongs foll[ 9 ! next degree4 ,! greate/ ( :i* are ^? affect+ life1 & v great1 ?\gh some:at inf]ior 9 ! degrees ( enormity1 are ^?1 t di/urb ! peace ( families1 :i* is f\nd$ on ! m>riage-contract4 ,& ! la/ description ( wrongs are ^? affect+ ! prop]ty ( individuals1 ei!r by tak+ x ) op5 viol5ce1 or obta9+ or injur+ x by fraudul5t means4 ,"s are ( op9ion t a m accurate ord] ( division might h be5 us$2 b t :i* is "h foll[$ is ! same us$ by ,god himself 9 ! deliv]y ( 8 comm&m5ts4 ,= "u ! "n ( p>5ts are includ$ n only ^?1 :o are naturally su*1 b sov]eign pr9ces1 magi/rates1 & rul]s ( e description1 ^: au?ority is ! key-/one ( ! fabric ( society4 ,next foll[s ! prohibition ( murd]2 ! prohibition ( adult]y1 z a violation ( ! m>riage bond2 ! prohibition ( !ft1 & false evid5ce3 & ! catalogue ( (f5ces concludes ) ! prohibition ( crim9al desires4 ,among ! imm$iate causes to re/ra9 ! commission ( a crime1 n only ! cruelty ( ! act itself1 b all ! remote & possible consequ5ces %\ld be tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,if a fire is begun1 or ! b>ri]s1 t keep out ! waves1 are brok5 d[n1 ! p]petrator br+s ^u 8 own head ! blood ( ?\s&s1 & all ! guilt ( t ru9 by :i* !y p]i%4 ,9 addition to ! g5]al *>act]s ( inju/ice above describ$1 we may annex ! crime ( be+ undutiful to p>5ts1 unk9d to relatives1 or ungrateful to b5efactors1 :i* are ea* ( !m a violation ( natural1 & 9 "s respects ( civil law4 ,! repetition ( ^! (f5ces too aggravates _! enormity3 because wick$ habits are sometimes worse ?an wick$ actions4 ,h5ce we may compreh5d ! natural ju/ice ( t rule1 :i* ! ,p]sians foll[$1 comp>+ ! pa/ life ( an (f5d] ) 8 pres5t transgression4 ,& ?is ought to h "s weight 9 cases :]e a crime does n orig9ate f habit1 b f a mom5t>y occasion4 ,b n s1 :]e a c\rse ( =m] rectitude has be5 *ang$ into an unv>i$ c\rse ( wick$ness4 ,= 9 su* cases1 ,god himself has decl>$ by ! m\? ( 8 prophet ,ezekiel1 t he has no reg>d to ! =m] life4 ,ev5 pr(ane writ]s h ! same cle> views ^u ! subject2 = ,?ucydides obs]ves1 t deg5]acy f a righte\s to a wick$ c\rse incurs d\ble puni%m5t3 = (f5ces are lea/ p>donable 9 ^?1 :o "k ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r & wrong4 ,9 ?is respect all praise & admiration are due to ! wisdom ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians1 :o1 9 e/imat+ ! magnitude ( (f5ces1 weigh$ ! prec$+ & ! subsequ5t conduct ( a transgressor aga9/ ! action1 = :i* he 0 to be puni%$1 z may be se5 f ! c\ncil ( ,ancyra1 & o!r c\ncils4 ,x height5s ! enormity ( an (f5ce1 :]e x is committ$ 9 violation ( an express prohibition ( ! law4 ,=1 9 ! language ( ,tacitus1 ! fe> ( prohibition may sometimes op]ate z a re/ra9t1 b :]e m5 once act 9 defiance ( t1 fe> & %ame h lo/ all _! =ce4 ,,xxxi4 ,! capacity ( ! p]son too1 ) respect to judgm5t1 disposition1 age1 education1 & e o!r circum/ance mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation1 :5 we look = resi/ance1 or submission to ! sugge/ions ( wick$ incl9ations4 ,! ?\ght ( imm$iate dang] augm5ts fe>1 & rec5t1 unallay$ pa9 inflames ang]2 s t 9 ei!r case ! calm dictates ( reason _c be he>d4 ,(f5ces !re=e spr++ f ! influ5ce ( su* impressions1 are ( a less odi\s complexion ?an ^? aris+ f ! love ( pleasure1 or ! indulg5ce ( hatr$4 ,because !re is less excuse = actions ( ! latt] k9d1 ! delay1 or total =be>ance ( :i* c\ld occasion no s]i\s inconv5i5ce4 ,= x mu/ always be kept 9 m9d1 t :]e !re are m p[]ful imp$im5ts to ! ex]cise ( judgm5t1 & m urg5t p]suasives to natural feel+1 ! crim9ality ( an (f5ce is proportionably s(t5$4 ,& ^! are ! rules = measur+ ! degrees ( p>don or puni%m5t4 ,,xxxii4 ,! ,py?agoreans ma9ta9 t ju/ice lies 9 proportion+ ! puni%m5t to ! (f5ce3 a rule :i* _c be admitt$ to ! full ext5t ( requir+ an aggressor to suff] no?+ m ?an a b>e requital ( ! injury he has occasion$4 ,= ?is is at v>iance ) ! mo/ p]fect laws1 :i* 9 cases ( !ft sometimes require f\rfold1 & sometimes fivefold re/itution to be made4 ,& ! ,a!nian law1 besides compell+ a ?ief to pay d\ble ! value ( :at he _h tak5 s5t5c$ him to _m days' imprisonm5t4 ,among ! ,indians1 z we are in=m$ by ,/rabo1 ! p]son1 :o _h maim$ ano!r1 0 condemn$1 9 addition to ! p5alty ( retaliation1 to lose 8 h&4 ,nor is x "r1 z ,philo1 9 expla9+ ! puni%m5t ( murd]1 ju/ly obs]ves1 = ! suff]+ ( an innoc5t & guilty p]son to be exactly ! same4 ,& h5ce x is easy to see :y c]ta9 crimes n c>ri$ into actual execution1 & !re=e less injuri\s ?an ^?1 :i* are s1 are puni%$ only proportionably to ! design4--,9 ?is mann] false witnesses 7 treat$ by ! ,jewi% law2 & by ! ,roman law1 ^? :o walk$ ready arm$ to commit murd]4 ,consequ5tly a great] degree ( puni%m5t is due1 :]e ! crim9al int5tion is complet$4 ,b z dea? is ! sev]e/ puni%m5t t c be inflict$1 & "o t c nev] be repeat$2 ! s5t5ce ( all human law re/s !re3 ?\gh by ! cu/om ( "s c\ntries dea? is accompani$ ) torture1 9 cases ( extreme atrocity4 ,,xxxiii4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ! magnitude ( a puni%m5t c only be measur$ by ! situation ( ! p]son on :om x is to be inflict$4 ,?us a f9e impos$ ^u ! poor w\ld be a heavy s5t5ce1 ?\gh x w\ld sc>cely affect ! ri*2 & a man ( high rank w\ld feel ! weight ( a disgrace1 t w\ld b lightly t\* an ignoble p]son4 ,su* di/9ctions are frequ5tly us$ by ! ,roman law1 (t5 deg5]at+ into acts ( p>tiality2 a fault f :i* ! law ( ,moses is entirely free4 ,& ! above rules may be consid]$ z ! scale = e/imat+ ! diff]5t degrees ( puni%m5t4 ,,xxxiv4 ,?\gh puni%m5t does n exce$ ! b\nds ( ju/ice1 yet 9 c]ta9 cases x may be mitigat$ 9 fav\r ( a crim9al1 f motives ( m]cy1 except :]e su* l5ity to ! guilty is deem$ cruelty to ! innoc5t1 ^: safety is !reby endang]$4 ,= ! escape ( a crim9al is (t5 an enc\ragem5t to 8 own p]sev]ance 9 iniquity1 & to t ( o!rs1 :o are enc\rag$ by ! example4 ,necessity inde$ requires ! %>pe/ rem$ies = ! suppression ( crimes2 especially1 :]e ! inc5tives ( habit & a facility to commit !m prevail4 ,,xxxv4 ,! div9e law giv5 to ! ,hebrews puni%$ ! /eal+ ( cattle f a pa/ure ) m sev]ity ?an break+ into a h\se1 on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* ! =m] ( ^? crimes might be committ$4 ,exod4 xxii4 #a-i4 ,ju/9 9 speak+ ( ! ,scy?ians1 describes !m z puni%+ !ft ) m sev]ity ?an any o!r crime2 = z !y h no cov]$ habitations to protect _! flocks1 & h]ds f depr$ations1 :at c\ld be safe1 if ?iev+ 7 all[$8 ,?\gh ! ,,famili>ity ( c]ta9 crimes may prev5t u f be+ surpris$ at _! p]petration1 x by no means dim9i%es _! atrocity1 or dem&s a mitigation ( puni%m5t4 ,b1 z ,saturn9us says1 ! giant-/rides ( crimes mu/ be imp$$ ) ! /ronge/ b&s4 ,9 trials = (f5ces1 clem5cy may be indulg$1 b 9 ! pass+ ( laws sev]ity %\ld be reg>d$3 ,= ! ,,g5]al nature ( law requires t (f5ces %\ld be pursu$ ) rig\r3 b 9 trials1 9 :i* individuals are ! objects conc]n$1 !re may be circum/ances to aggravate or dim9i% ! (f5ce3 :i* leaves room = ! discretion>y ex]cise ( rig\r or l5ity4 ,,xxxvi4 & ,,xxxvii4 ,! incl9ation to mitigate p5alties1 :]e ! urg5t motives to en=ce !m no long] exi/1 is a po9t ( compassion p]fectly di/9ct f ! abolition ( puni%m5t altoge!r4 ,nor has any ?+ be5 omitt$1 t might t5d to cle> up ?is difficult & delicate "q4 ,b e po9t1 we tru/1 has be5 exam9$ 9 its prop] place1 ei!r respect+ ! magnitude ( crimes1 z measur$ by ! injury done1 ! habitual commission ( su* (f5ces1 or ! influ5ce ( ! motives1 suffici5t to enc\rage or re/ra9 !m4 ,inde$ ! "* ( ! (f5d] af=ds ! mo/ conclusive means = judg+ ( 8 capacity to commit ! crime2 & t ( ! suff]] (t5 contributes some?+ t[>ds enabl+ u to e/imate ! due proportion ( ! p5alty4 ,! circum/ances ( ! "t1 :5--! place1 :]e--or ! facility1 ) :i* a crime is p]petrat$1 t5d to aggravate1 or less5 its enormity4 ,! l5g? ( "t int]v5+ betwe5 a crim9al design & its execution gives u "s opportunity to exam9e h[ f> ! p]petrator 0 actuat$ by a malici\s purpose4 ,b ! true complexion ( a crime is to be discov]$1 p>tly f ! nature ( ^? appetites1 to :i* x owes its bir?2 & p>tly1 on ! o!r h&1 f ! nature ( ! motives :i* ought to h re/ra9$ !m4 ,by ?is class ( appetites ! magnitude ( a crime may be judg$ (2 & ! consequ5ces are ! motives :i* %\ld op]ate to re/ra9 !m4 ,,xxxviii4 ,x has be5 %ewn be=e1 & x is a tru? f\nd$ ^u hi/orical fact1 t w>s are und]tak51 z acts ( puni%m5t1 & ?is motive1 add$ to t ( r$ress = injuries1 is ! s\rce1 f :i* ! duties ( nations1 relat+ to w>1 take _! rise4 ,b x is n e injury1 t c be con/ru$ into a j gr\nd ( w>4 ,= laws1 ^: v5geance is meant to protect ! innoc5t1 & to fall ^u ! guilty1 d n reg>d e case1 z a suffici5t w>rant = _! ex]tion4 ,s t !re is mu* tru? 9 ! op9ion ( ,sopat]1 :o says t !re are trivial & common (f5ces1 :i* x is bett] to pass ov] unnotic$1 ?an to puni%4 ,,xxxix4 ,! maxim laid d[n by ,cato1 9 8 spee* 9 def5ce ( ! ,rhodians1 t x is n "r any "o %\ld be puni%$ ^u ! b>e suspicion ( 8 hav+ int5d$ to commit aggression or injury1 0 well appli$ 9 t place2 because no positive decree ( ! p ( ,rhodes c\ld be alleg$ aga9/ !m1 nor 0 !re any o!r pro( beyond ! ,,conjecture ( _! wav]+ 9 _! policy4 ,b ?is maxim is n univ]sally true4 ,= :]e int5tion has proce$$ to any outw>d & visible signs ( insatiable ambition & inju/ice1 x is deem$ a prop] object ( jeal\sy1 & ev5 ( puni%m5t4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple1 ! ,romans1 z may be se5 f ,livy's acc\nt 9 ! xlii4 book & xxx4 *apt] ( 8 hi/ory1 ?\ght !mselves ju/ifi$ 9 decl>+ w> aga9/ ,p]seus1 ,k+ ( ,mac$on1 unless he gave satisfactory pro(1 t he _h no ho/ile int5tions aga9/ !m1 9 ! naval & milit>y armam5ts1 :i* he 0 prep>+4 ,& we are in=m$ by ! same hi/orians1 t ! ,rhodians urg$ x z a rule e/abli%$ by ! laws & cu/oms ( all civiliz$ /ates2 t if any "o wi%$ ! de/ruction ( an enemy1 he c\ld n puni% him ) dea?1 unless he _h actually done some?+ to des]ve x4 ,b x is n e unju/ design1 ?\gh indicat$ by "s outw>d act1 :i* c au?orize & direct ho/ilities4 ,= if ! actual commission ( crimes & aggressions is1 9 "s cases1 prop] to be ov]look$1 mu* m w x be a m>k ( delib]ate caution to use ! same =be>ance1 :]e no?+ fur!r ?an ! pure design ( aggression appe>s4 ,a =be>ance :i* ,cic]o ju/ifies ^u ! possibility t ! enemy may h rep5t$ ( 8 design1 be=e ! execution ( x4 ,no conclusive inf]5ce c be drawn f ! sev]ity ( ,mosaic ,law aga9/ all int5d$ acts ( impiety & murd]4 ,=1 9 comp>+ human laws ) ! div9e c\nsels1 ^: dep?s we _c s\nd1 we are liable to run into error2 & ! impulse ( ang]1 :]e x is att5d$ ) no fatal consequ5ce1 is a case 9 :i* ! infirmity ( human nature calls = p>don4 ,= al?o' ! precepts ( ! decalogue are design$ to lay a re/ra9t ^u unlawful desires z well z ^u unlawful actions1 yet 9 addition to ! spiritual s5se1 t :i* is call$ ! c>nal1 or ext]nal comm&m5t applies to ^? dispositions t are manife/$ by "s op5 act4 ,?is int]pretation may be d$uc$ f a passage 9 ! gospel ( ,/4 ,m>k1 c4 x4 #ai1 :]e ! prohibition to defraud is imm$iately prec$$ by ! injunction n to /eal4 ,s t int5d$ aggressions are n to be puni%$ by =ce ( arms1 except 9 cases ( atrocity1 :]e ! v design ?reat5s consequ5ces ( ! greate/ dang]4 ,all puni%m5t !re=e mu/ h 9 view ei!r security aga9/ future aggressions1 rep>ation = ! injury done to national or private hon\r1 or x mu/ be us$ z an example ( awful sev]ity4 ,,xl4 ,x is prop] also to obs]ve t k+s & ^? :o are possess$ ( sov]eign p[] h a "r to exact puni%m5t n only = injuries affect+ imm$iately !mselves or _! own subjects1 b = gross violations ( ! law ( nature & ( nations1 done to o!r /ates & subjects4 ,= ! lib]ty ( inflict+ puni%m5t = ! peace & welf>e ( society1 :i* belong$ to individuals 9 ! e>ly ages ( ! _w1 0 conv]t$ into ! judicial au?ority ( sov]eign /ates & pr9ces2 a "r devolv+ ^u !m n only z rul]s ( o!rs1 b z subject to ! contr\l ( no e>?ly p[]4 ,= t is a "r1 :i* c belong to no subject4 ,x is nev] safe to leave ! entire ass]tion ( a man's own rights1 or ! puni%m5t ( 8 wrongs1 to 8 own judgm5t2 = he _c be entirely dis9t]e/$ 9 8 own cause4 ,p>tiality w make him fall %ort (1 or prejudice w make him exce$ ! b\nds ( ju/ice4 ,x 0 ! !me ( praise be/[$ ^u ! h]oes ( antiquity1 t 9 _! mo/ ardu\s und]tak+s !y av5g$ ! wrongs ( o!rs r ?an _! own4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple !re c be no hesitation 9 pron\nc+ all w>s to be j1 t are made ^u pirates1 g5]al robb]s1 & enemies ( ! human race4 ,s f> ?is op9ion agrees ) t ( ,innoc5tius & o!rs1 :o ma9ta9 all w> to be lawful aga9/ ^? :o h r5\nc$ ! ties & law ( nature4 ,an op9ion directly ! rev]se is held by ,victoria1 ,vasquez1 ,azorius1 ,mol9a1 & o!rs1 :o deem an aggression done to a pr9ce1 8 gov]nm5t1 or 8 subjects1 or civil jurisdiction ov] ! aggressor1 ! only ju/ifiable w>rant = inflict+ puni%m5t1 p>ticul>ly ! puni%m5t ( ho/ilities4 ,= !y suppose puni%m5t to be an effect purely aris+ f ! au?ority ( civil law1 :]eas1 accord+ to ! pro(s e/abli%$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is treatise1 x 0 %ewn to be a "r result+ entirely f ! law ( nature4 ,if ! op9ion ( ^?1 f :om we diff]1 be admitt$1 no enemy w h a "r to puni% ano!r1 by ! prosecution ( a j w>2 a "r1 :i* not)/&+ is all[$ & confirm$ by ! practice ( all nations1 n only aft] ! defeat ( an enemy1 b dur+ ! cont9uance ( a w>2 & t too1 n f any civil jurisdiction1 b f a natural "r1 :i* prevail$ long be=e ! f\ndation ( /ates1 & :i* /ill exi/s 9 all its =ce1 9 places1 :]e ! community consi/s ( families di/9ct1 & unit$ z ! subjects ( "o sov]eign4 ,,xli41 ,,xlii41 ,,xliii4 ,b c]ta9 precautions are necess>y to prev5t u f be+ c>ri$ away by an op9ion t civil cu/oms1 ?\gh f\nd$ ^u j reasons1 & receiv$ among _m nations1 are to be reckon$ z a "p ( ! law ( nature4 ,& 9 ! next place1 x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ enum]at+ z prohibitions ( natural law1 ?+s :i* are n prov$ to be s1 z c]ta9 k9ds ( m>riages ! tak+ ( int]e/ = ! use ( money1 & o!r positive injunctions ( ! div9e1 or ,mosaic law4 ,! ?ird rule is1 to make an accurate di/9ction betwe5 g5]al pr9ciples1 su* z ! duty ( liv+ accord+ to ! dictates ( reason1 & ^? ( a m p>ticul> ?\gh n less obvi\s mean+2 z ! duty ( =be>+ to take :at belongs to ano!r4 ,to :i* _m tru?s may be add$ ?\gh n q s easy ( appreh5sion3 among :i* may be nam$ ! cruelty ( t k9d ( puni%m5t1 :i* consi/s 9 rev5ge1 delight+ 9 ! pa9 ( ano!r4 ,?is is a me?od ( pro( simil> to t :i* occurs 9 ma!matics1 ! process ( :i* rises f self-evid5t tru?s to demon/rations1 ! latt] ( :i*1 ?\gh n intelligible to all alike1 ^u due exam9ation obta9 ass5t4 ,z !n 9 matt]s ( civil law1 ignorance is deem$ an excuse1 s ) respect to ! law ( nature1 :]ev] infirmity ( und]/&+ =ms an inv9cible ob/ruction to ! k ( its rules1 su* infirmity may be alleg$ z a v9dication4 ,= z1 9 cases ( unavoidable ignorance a great degree ( ! guilt ( s9 is remov$2 s x is 9 "s measure s(t5$ :]ev] ?is ignorance subsi/s1 ?\gh x may be ow+ to =m] neglig5ce4 ,& = ?is reason1 ,ari/otle comp>es b>b>ians1 9 _! rude1 un=m$ /ate1 to p]sons1 ^: appetites are r5d]$ sickly by disease4 ,plut>* also obs]ves t !re are c]ta9 infirmities & disord]s1 :i* naturally infect ! s\l4 ,once = all1 by way ( conclusion we may add t w>s und]tak5 to inflict puni%m5t may be suspect$ ( inju/ice1 except !re be manife/ & enorm\s aggressions1 ) o!r conspir+ causes1 to v9dicate nations = hav+ rec\rse to arms4 ,,xliv4 ,! progress ( ! "w has necess>ily l$ to ! consid]ation ( (f5ces aga9/ ,god2 ! propriety or impropriety ( puni%+ :i* by =ce ( arms is a fit subject ( inquiry4 ,admitt+ ! affirmative "p ( ! "q1 we may obs]ve t z 9 ecclesia/ical affairs ,bi%ops are intru/$ ) a ,ca?olic1 or g5]al p[]2 s k+s1 besides ! c>e ( _! own imm$iate /ates & subjects1 may be reg>d$ z protectors ( ! human race4 ,! be/ argum5t1 on ! negative side ( ! "q1 aga9/ ! ju/ice ( su* w>s1 is ! suffici5cy ( ! div9e omnipot5ce to av5ge its own wrongs4 ,yet ! same may be said ( o!r (f5ces4 ,= ! ,deity possesses suffici5t p[] to puni% !m1 al?\gh he leaves !m to ! s5t5ce ( human tribunals4 ,"s w urge & ma9ta9 t o!r k9ds ( (f5ces are puni%$ only 9 cases1 :]e o!rs are un9jur$ or endang]$ by ! commission ( !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may be said t m5 puni% n only (f5ces1 :i* directly hurt o!rs1 b ev5 ^?1 :i* affect !m indirectly1 z suicide & o!r simil> crimes4 ,al?\gh religion is a conc]n betwe5 ! s\l ( man & 8 ,mak] alone1 its influ5ce on human morals is ( no inconsid]able importance4 ,s t ,plato _h reason to call x ! bulw>k ( au?ority & law1 & ! bond ( e ?+ v5]able 9 social ord] & discipl9e4 ,e false op9ion 9 div9e ?+s1 says ,plut>*1 is p]nici\s1 betray+ itself 9 ! disord]s ( ! imag9ation1 :]ev] x takes root1 & spr+s up into action4 ,s t ,ari/otle reckons ! c>e & support ( religion ! fir/ ( public conc]ns4 ,?is is a tru? apply+ n to any p>ticul> /ate1 b to all gov]nm5ts1 & to human society 9 e %ape4 ,an av[al :i* ,x5ophon makes ! *>act]i/ic ( a great & wise pr9ce1 attribut+ to ,cyrus a decl>ation ( 8 firm p]suasion t ! m 8 subjects fe>$ ,god1 ! m ob$i5t he %\ld f9d !m to 8 laws1 & ! m atta*$ to 8 p]son4 ,b once remove ! motives ( religion1 says ,tully1 & y de/roy fai?1 ! int]c\rse betwe5 man & man1 & ju/ice ! mo/ excell5t ( all virtues4 ,! op9ions ( ,epicurus af=d a suffici5t pro( ( ?is3 = 9 bani%+ ! provid5ce ( ,god f 8 sy/em1 he made ju/ice no?+ b an empty "n1 spr++ f human conv5tions1 f\nd$ on self-int]e/1 & re/ra9+ m5 f ! commission ( crimes by no o!r pr9ciple b t ( fe>4 ,b !re is a wid] sph]e1 ?an ! int]nal welf>e ( indep5d5t /ates1 on :i* religion op]ates4 ,9 ! sep>ate society1 :i* e k+dom1 /ate1 or c\ntry =ms )9 itself1 ! place ( religion may occasionally be suppli$ by ! influ5ce & execution ( municipal laws4 ,b 9 all ! transactions ( ! great community at l>ge1 :]e civil laws are sil5t1 & tribunals give way to ! decision ( ! sword1 ! law ( nature & ( nations1 f\nd$ ^u ! fe> ( ,god1 & ob$i5ce to 8 w1 is ! /&>d ( "r to :i* ,k+s & ,sov]eign /ates appeal2 a violation ( :i* is reg>d$ z a violation ( ! div9e law4 ,,xlv4 ,b to take a clos] view ( ! subject1 we mu/ obs]ve t true religion1 :i* is ! same at all p]iods ( "t1 re/s ^u f\r evid5t & univ]sally ackn[l$g$ tru?s4 ,! fir/ ( :i* is ! be+ & unity ( ,god1--! second1 t ,god is n any ( ! ?+s1 t c be se51 b ( a nature too sublime to be ! object ( human conception1 or ( human sight1--! ?ird is1 t ) ! eye ( 8 provid5ce he reg>ds ! ev5ts ( ?is _w1 & regulates !m ) ! mo/ equitable & un]r+ judgm5ts1--! f\r? is1 t he is ! creator ( all ?+s1 except himself4 ,& ^! f\r tru?s are unfold$ & laid d[n 9 an equal numb] ( comm&m5ts1 ! fir/ ( :i* pla9ly decl>es ! unity ( ,god--! second =bids any repres5tation1 by pa9t+ or image1 to be made ( t be+1 :o is invisible to mortal eye4 ,tacitus be>s te/imony to ! spiritual nature ( ! ,jewi% religion3 = he says1 t ! ,jews h no?+ b a m5tal conception ( "o ,god1 & !y look ^u e attempt to repres5t him "u ! appe>ance ( human =m1 z a pr(anation ( 8 heav5ly nature4--,f ! ?ird comm&m5t we d$uce 8 k ( all human transactions1 ev5 ( our v ?\ghts2 an omnisci5ce ^u :i* ! obligation & sanctity ( oa?s is f\nd$4 ,= ,god is a witness ev5 ( ! secret designs ( ! he>t1 s t e solemn oa? is an appeal to 8 ju/ice & 8 p[]1 = ! v9dication ( tru?1 & ! puni%m5t ( falsehood4--,! f\r? comm&m5t pres5ts u ) an acc\nt ( ! creation ( ! _w1 to commemorate :i* ,god appo9t$ ! sabba?1 comm&+ x to be obs]v$ ) a degree ( rev]5ce above e o!r sacr$ in/itution4 ,= ! violation ( any o!r rites1 su* z ^? respect+ =bidd5 meats1 0 left to ! discretion>y puni%m5t ( ! law3 b (f5ces aga9/ ! sabba? 7 capital2 because1 consid]+ ! nature & design ( its orig91 su* contempt impli$ a disbelief1 t ! _w 0 creat$ by ,god4 ,n[ ! creation ( ! _w by ,god af=ds a tacit pro( ( 8 goodness1 wisdom1 et]nity & p[]3 & ! effect ( ?is contemplative k is ! (f]+ ( hon\r1 love1 wor%ip & ob$i5ce to ,god4 ,s t ,ari/otle says t ! man1 :o d5ies t ,god ought to be hon\r$1 or p>5ts lov$1 %\ld be taught to r5\nce 8 error1 n by reason+1 b by puni%m5t4 ,&1 9 ano!r place1 he obs]ves t "s actions are prop] on c]ta9 occasions1 b rev]5ce = ! maje/y ( ,god is requisite at all times1 & 9 all places4 ,! tru? ( ^? contemplative op9ions may und\bt$ly be prov$ f ! nature ( ?+s2 ! cle>e/ ( :i* pro(s is ! evid5ce ( s5se1 %ew+ ! exi/5ce ( ?+s1 :i* naturally leads u to consid] ! "t1 :5 !y _h no be+4 ,b z all are n able to und]/& ^! argum5ts & o!rs ( ! same k9d1 x is suffici5t to obs]ve t 9 all ages & all c\ntries ( ! _w1 ) v few exceptions1 ^! op9ions h f\nd a g5]al reception ) ^? :o 7 too pla9 9 _! deal+s1 & +5u\s 9 _! designs1 to impose ^u o!rs1 & ) _m1 :o _h too mu* sagacity to be deceiv$ !mselves4 ,b :5 amid su* v>iety ( laws1 cu/oms1 & op9ions1 !re is s g5]al an agreem5t ^u "o po9t2 t agreem5t may be adduc$ z a pro(1 t su* a belief owes its orig9 to ! primitive ages ( ! _w1 f :5ce x has be5 d]iv$ to u3 :5 we consid] too t x has nev] be5 cle>ly refut$1 x is a suffici5t reason to e/abli% our fai?4 ,,xlvi4 ,!re is no excuse !re=e = ! rejection ( ^? op9ions1 ev5 9 cases1 :]e !re is no intuitive sagacity to discov] new pro(s1 or to compreh5d old ones3 z !re are s _m guides bo? 9 nature & reason to lead m5 to ! k ( ^? tru?s1 & z no solid argum5ts h ev] be5 produc$ to e/abli% a contr>y belief4 ,b z human puni%m5ts =m ! subject ( our pres5t inquiry1 x is "r to make a di/9ction betwe5 op9ions !mselves1 & ! mann] ( deviat+ f !m4 ,! belief 9 a supreme be+1 & 9 ! contr\l ( 8 provid5ce ov] human affairs1 is "o ( ^? univ]sal t5ets to be f\nd 9 all religions1 :e!r true or false4 ,& 9 reality to d5y ! be+ ( a ,god1 & to d5y ! int]posal ( 8 provid5ce 9 human affairs1 am\nts 9 its moral consequ5ces to ! same ?+4 ,& x is = ?is reason ^! two op9ions h be5 insep>ably unit$ 9 all ages1 & among e civiliz$ p4 ,consequ5tly we f9d1 t 9 all well gov]n$ /ates1 :olesome laws h be5 enact$ to re/ra9 ^?1 :o di/urb ^? op9ions1 :i* h always be5 reg>d$ z ! *ief support ( social ord]2 & all contempt1 %ewn to ^? op9ions1 has always be5 consid]$ z contempt %ewn to society itself1 :i* x consequ5tly has a "r to puni%4 ,,xlvii4 ,!re are o!r tru?s n equally self-evid5t1 su* z ^!1 t !re are n m ,gods ?an "o2 t no visible ?+1 nei!r ! _w1 nor ! heav5s1 nor ! sun1 nor ! air is ,god2 t ! _w1 & ! matt] ( :i* x is =m$1 h n exi/$ f all et]nity1 b 7 made by ,god4 ,s t we see ! k ( ^! tru?s disfigur$1 & almo/ entirely oblit]at$ among _m nations by ! lapse ( "t4 ,& ?is might ! m easily happ51 z !re 7 no legal provisions made to pres]ve ! purity ( ^! tru?s1 :i* 7 n consid]$ z ess5tial to ! v exi/5ce ( all religion4 ,! law inde$ giv5 to t p1 :o 7 in/ruct$ 9 ! cle> k ( ^! tru?s1 by ! m\?s ( ! prophets1 by miracles se5 ) _! own eyes1 or br\ght to _! e>s by ! reports ( ! mo/ und\bt$ te/imony1 t law1 ?\gh x expresses ! greate/ abhorr5ce ( ! wor%ip ( false gods1 does n inflict ! puni%m5t ( dea? ^u all convict$ ( t crime1 b only 9 p>ticul> in/ances1 :]e !y h s$uc$ o!rs into idolatry1--or :]e a /ate has introduc$ ! wor%ip ( unkn[n ,gods1--or :]e ! true wor%ip ( ,god1 & ob$i5ce to 8 laws h be5 =sak5 = ! wor%ip ( ! />s1 :i* ,/4 ,paul calls s]v+ ! creature above ! creator1 an (f5ce1 :i* 01 = "s "t1 puni%$ among ! desc5dants ( ,esau4 ,^? too :o (f]$ _! *ildr5 to ,molo*1 t is1 to ,saturn1 7 puni%$ ) dea?4 ,yet ! ,canaanites1 & ! neighb\r+ nations1 :o _h long be5 sunk into ! mo/ deprav$ sup]/itions1 7 n consign$ by ,god to imm$iate puni%m5t1 b 7 left to fill up ! measure ( _! crimes4 ,& !re 7 o!r nations1 :]e1 9 ! language ( ,scripture1 ,god w9k$ at ! times ( ?is ignorance4 ,:]e m5 h _h no means ( arriv+ at ! k ( a true ,god1 z _! sup]/itions & errors are excusable1 s :]e1 9 despite ( k1 !y h deifi$ ,daemons1 & vices1 :i* !y knew to be su*1 _! sup]/itions are n to be call$ errors1 b impieties4 ,& no less impi\s is ! suppos$ homage1 t is paid to ,god ) ! blood ( innoc5t human victims1 & ,d>ius k+ ( ! ,p]sians1 & ,gelo k+ ( ,syracuse1 are comm5d$ = ab/a9+ f su* practices4 ,plut>* in=ms u ( "s b>b>ians1 :o w\ld h be5 puni%$ by ! ,romans = (f]+ human victims to ! deity1 _h !y n plead$ ! antiquity ( ! cu/om1 :i* 0 admitt$ z an excuse1 ?\gh !y 7 /rictly enjo9$ n to foll[ ! same cu/om 9 future4 ,,xlviii4 ,f ! k9d ( evid5ce on :i* ,*ri/ianity re/s1 x is pla9 t no =ce %\ld be us$ ) nations to promote its acceptance4 ,x is n m]ely by natural argum5ts x c ga9 ass5t2 = x has made an addition ( _m ?+s to natural religion4 ,its evid5ce re/s ^u ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/'s resurrection1 & ^u ! miracles p]=m$ by himself & 8 ,apo/les4 ,s t x is a matt] ( fact prov$ by ! mo/ und5iable evid5ce1 & ( great antiquity4 ,!re=e a doctr9e ( ?is k9d _c be ?or\ghly receiv$ ^u ! fir/ he>+ ( x1 )\t ! secret assi/ance ( ,god3 an assi/ance n giv5 z a rew>d = ! m]it ( works2 s t :]ev] x is )held or less copi\sly be/[$2 x is done = reasons1 :i* ?\gh j1 are g5]ally unkn[n to u1 & !re=e n puni%able by human judgm5ts4 ,= x is ! cu/om 9 ! sacr$ writ+s to assign ! div9e pleasure z ! cause ( ?+s unkn[n to u4 ,!re is ano!r reason ( no less weight1 :i* is t ,*ri/ be+ ! au?or ( a new law1 w h no "o br\ght to embrace 8 doctr9e by ! fe> ( human puni%m5ts4 ,nor is ! reason at all weak5$ by ! objection drawn f ! p>able ( ! m>riage-supp]1 :]e x is said ! mess5g]s are comm&$ to compel ! gue/s to come 94 ,= ! t]m1 ,,compel1 "h signifies no?+ m ?an an e>ne/ entreaty1 a s5se1 9 :i* x is us$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 imply+ an e>ne/ reque/ made to any "o4 ,,xlix4 ,b to ob/ruct ! tea*]s ( ,*ri/ianity by pa9s & p5alties is und\bt$ly contr>y to natural law & reason3 = ! doctr9e ( ,*ri/1 ap>t f all ! corruptions add$ by ! inv5tions ( m51 conta9s no?+ hurtful1 b e ?+ b5eficial to society4 ,! ?+ speaks = itself1 & ev5 ^? :o 7 /rang]s to ! doctr9e itself 7 oblig$ to ackn[l$ge ! tru? ( ?is4 ,pl9y says t ! ,*ri/ians b\nd !mselves by an oa? to commit nei!r !ft1 nor robb]y1 nor to violate _! ^w4 ,x 0 a common say+ ,caius ,seius is a good man1 b he is a ,*ri/ian4 ,nor inde$ c any dang] be appreh5d$ f ! spread+ ( doctr9es1 calculat$ to inspire great] sanctity ( mann]s1 & ! pure/ pr9ciples ( ob$i5ce to lawful sov]eigns4 ,philo has record$ a beautiful say+ ( ,augu/us1 :o obs]v$ t ! assemblies ( ! ,jews 7 n ,bac*analian revels1 or meet+s to di/urb ! public peace1 b s*ools ( virtue4 ,l4 ,x seems unju/ to p]secute ) puni%m5ts ^? :o receive ! law ( ,*ri/ z true1 b ent]ta9 d\bts or errors on "s ext]nal po9ts1 tak+ !m 9 an ambigu\s mean+ or diff]5t f ! anci5t ,*ri/ians 9 _! explanation ( !m4 ,a po9t :i* is prov$ by :at has be5 said above1 & by ! anci5t example ( ! ,jews4 ,=1 possess+ a law1 :i* all[$ !m to inflict temporal puni%m5ts1 !y nev] ex]cis$ t au?ority ^u ! ,sadducees1 :o d5i$ ! doctr9e ( a resurrection3 a doctr9e ( ! greate/ tru?1 ?\gh b fa9tly deliv]$ 9 t law1 & "u a typical application ( words & circum/ances4 ,b if !re %\ld be any weighty error1 t disc]n+ judges c\ld easily refute by an appeal to sacr$ au?ority1 or to ! op9ions ( antiquity2 "h too x w\ld be necess>y to make all[ance = +raft$ op9ions1 t h gr[n up to =m an insep>able "p ( ! human m9d1 & = ! zeal\s atta*m5t ( e "o to 8 own t5ets2 an evil :i* ,gal5 says is m difficult to be eradicat$ ?an any con/itutional disease4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,! ,,communication ,,( ,,puni%m5t4 ,h[ accessories are liable to puni%m5t--,sov]eign ,pr9ces or ,/ates answ]able = ! misconduct ( _! subjects1 :5 !y "k x1 & d n endeav\r to prev5t x--,sov]eigns b\nd n to protect (f5d+ subjects1 b to deliv] !m up or puni% !m--,! rights ( suppliants belong to ! un=tunate & n to ! guilty--,suppliants may be protect$ :ile ! inquiry into _! case is /ill p5d+--,h[ f> /ates are am5able to puni%m5t--,all ! diff]5t exceptions /at$--,*ildr5 n answ]able = ! (f5ces ( p>5ts--,! moral gov]nm5t ( ,god 9 ?is respect consid]$--,individuals n answ]able = (f5ces1 to :i* !y h n giv5 cons5t--,heirs1 h[ f> answ]able = ! acts ( _! ance/ors4 ,i4 ,! next topic ( inquiry relates to ! communication ( puni%m5t1 z inflict$ ^u accomplices1 :o1 9 t capacity1 _c be said to be puni%$ = ! guilt ( o!rs1 b = _! own4 ,& f :at has be5 said above ^u ! loss su/a9$ f injury1 x may be und]/ood :o are ! p]sons1 t come "u ?is description4 ,= ! p>tn]%ip 9 loss1 & ! p>tn]%ip 9 guilt are regulat$ by ne>ly ! same pr9ciples4 ,yet ! obligation to repair a loss does n always imply guilt1 except :]e !re has be5 any notori\s malice1 9 :i* case e damage r5d]s ! p>ty1 :o has occasion$ x1 liable to make rep>ation4 ,s t p]sons ord]+ ! commission ( any wick$ or ho/ile act1 giv+ ! requisite cons5t to x1 supply+ ! aggressor ) assi/ance1 or protection1 or1 9 any o!r %ape1 p>tak+ ( ! crime1 by giv+ c\nsel1 comm5dation1 or ass5t to 8 act1 or :5 !y h p[] to =bid ! commission ( su* an act1 by =be>+ to ex]cise _! au?ority1 or by refus+ to af=d ! succ\r1 :i* !y are b\nd by ! law ( nature1 or by treaty to give to ! injur$ p>ty1 by n us+ ) ! (f5d] t p[] ( dissuasion1 :i* !y h a "r to d1 or la/ly by conceal+ :at !y ought to make kn[n1 9 all ^! cases1 su* p]sons are puni%able z accomplices1 if !y are convict$ ( t degree ( malice1 :i* con/itutes a crime1 & m]its puni%m5t3 po9ts :i* h be=e be5 discuss$4 ,,ii4 ,! case w be made cle>] by examples4 ,a civil community is no m b\nd ?an any o!r society by an act ( individual memb]s1 except t act be done by its express cons5t & au?ority1 or x has neglect$ to disav[ su* a proce$+4 ,h5ce x is =mally /ipulat$ 9 almo/ all treaties t no acts or aggressions are to be ascrib$ to a /ate1 except ^?1 :i* are done 9 ! "n ( ! sov]eign1 & by p]sons act+ expressly "u ! au?ority ( 8 commission4 ,s a fa!r is n answ]able = ! misconduct ( 8 *ildr51 a ma/] = t ( 8 s]vants1 nor a rul] = ! acts ( ^? "u him1 unless !re appe>s 9 any ( ^! "s connivance1 or enc\ragem5t 9 promot+ t misconduct1 or ^? acts4 ,9 ! case ( a sov]eign's responsibility = ! acts ( 8 subjects1 !re are two ?+s to be consid]$1 :i* require m9ute inquiry1 & mature delib]ation1 & ^? are ! =be>ance1 & ! enc\ragem5t or protection1 :i* he has %ewn to _! transgressions4 ,z to =be>ance1 x is an ackn[l$g$ po9t1 t :5 he kn[s ( a del9qu5cy1 :i* he nei!r =bids nor puni%es1 :5 he is bo? able & b\nd to d s1 he becomes an accessory to ! guilt !re(4 ,cic]o1 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,piso1 says1 x makes no great diff]5ce especially 9 a consul1 :e!r he h>asses ! gov]nm5t by mov+ ru9\s laws1 & mak+ mis*iev\s spee*es1 or suff]s o!rs to d ! same4 ,if a slave has committ$ a murd] ) ! k ( 8 ma/]1 ! ma/] becomes answ]able = ! entire de$1 z x 0 done ) 8 concurr5ce4 ,b1 z we h said be=e1 besides ! k ( a de$1 to con/itute a p>ticipation 9 ! guilt1 ! p]son s kn[+ x1 mu/ possess ! p[] to prev5t x4 ,& ?is is :at is meant by ! legal phrase1 t ! k ( a crime1 :5 x is ord]$ to be puni%$1 is tak5 9 ! s5se ( =be>ance or connivance1 & x is suppos$ t ! p]son1 :o ought to h prev5t$ x1 did n d s4 ,9 ?is place k implies a concurr5ce ( w1 & connivance a concurr5ce ( design4 ,a ma/] !re=e is n b\nd by ! act ( a slave1 :o has claim$ 8 fre$om1 & done any ?+ 9 despite ( 8 ma/]1 because ! k ( a crime )\t ability to prev5t x1 by disclosure or "s o!r means1 _c be con/ru$ into an act ( guilt4 ,s p>5ts are b\nd by ! acts ( *ildr52 b only 9 cases :]e !y h ! *ildr5 "u _! au?ority4 ,on ! o!r h&1 al?o' by hav+ !m 9 _! p[]1 !y might h prev5t$ _! misconduct1 !y w n be answ]able = x1 unless !y _h a k ( x also4 ,= !re ought to be a concurr5ce ( k1 & =be>ance or enc\ragem5t to involve any "o 9 ! guilt ( ano!r's actions2 circum/ances all ( :i* by a p>ity ( reason+ may be appli$ to ! connection betwe5 sov]eigns & subjects3 a connection f\nd$ on pr9ciples bo? ( natural & civil law4 ,,iii4 ,! matt] t necess>ily comes next "u consid]ation is ! case ( ^?1 :o scre5 del9qu5ts f puni%m5t4 ,x 0 be=e obs]v$ t1 accord+ to ! law ( nature1 no "o c\ld inflict puni%m5t1 b a p]son entirely free f ! guilt ( ! crime :i* he 0 go+ to puni%4 ,b s9ce e/abli%$ gov]nm5ts 7 =m$1 x has be5 a settl$ rule1 to leave ! (f5ces ( individuals1 :i* affect _! own community1 to ^? /ates !mselves1 or to _! rul]s1 to puni% or p>don !m at _! discretion4 ,b !y h n ! same pl5>y au?ority1 or discretion1 respect+ (f5ces1 :i* affect society at l>ge1 & :i* o!r indep5d5t /ates or _! rul]s h a "r to puni%1 9 ! same mann]1 z 9 e c\ntry popul> actions are all[$ = c]ta9 misdemeanors4 ,mu* less is any /ate at lib]ty to pass ov] 9 any ( its subjects crimes affect+ o!r indep5d5t /ates or sov]eigns4 ,on :i* acc\nt any sov]eign /ate or pr9ce has a "r to require ano!r p[] to puni% any ( its subjects (f5d+ 9 ! above nam$ respect3 a "r ess5tial to ! dignity & security ( all gov]nm5ts4 ,,iv4 ,b z x is n usual = "o /ate to all[ ! arm$ =ce ( ano!r to ent] h] t]ritories "u ! pretext ( inflict+ puni%m5t ^u an (f5d]1 x is necess>y t ! p[]1 9 ^: k+dom an (f5d] resides1 %\ld ^u ! compla9t ( ! aggriev$ p>ty1 ei!r puni% him itself1 or deliv] him up to ! discretion ( t p>ty4 ,innum]able in/ances ( su* dem&s to deliv] up (f5d]s occur bo? 9 sacr$ & pr(ane hi/ory4 ,?us ! o!r ,israelites requir$ ! ,b5jamites to deliv] up (f5d]s1 ,jud4 xx4--,& ! ,phili/9es dem&$ ( ! ,hebrews ! surr5d] ( ,samson1 z a crim9al1 ,jud4 xv4--,9 ! same mann] ! ,gauls made a dem& t ! ,fabii %\ld be surr5d]$ = hav+ f\ght aga9/ !m4 ,sylla too1 z ,sallu/ in=ms u1 urg$ ,boc*us to deliv] up ,jugur?a1 & by s do+ to relieve ! ,romans f ! bitt] necessity ( implicat+ ,,him = 8 errone\s conduct 9 ! same guilt ) t mo/ desp]ate villa94 ,yet all ^! in/ances are to be und]/ood n z /rictly b9d+ a p or ,sov]eign ,pr9ce to ! actual surr5d] ( (f5d]s1 b all[+ !m ! alt]native ( ei!r puni%+ or deliv]+ !m up4 ,= x 0 ^u ?is gr\nd1 z we are in=m$1 t ! ,eleans made w> ^u ! ,lac$aemonians1 because ! latt] neglect$ to puni% _! subjects1 :o _h committ$ aggressions ^u t p2 t is1 !y _h nei!r puni%$ nor deliv]$ !m up3 = ! obligation may be tak5 ei!r way1 t be+ left to ! *oice ( ! aggriev$ p]son1 or nation1 9 ord] to make ! satisfaction ! m complete4 ,! surr5d] "h meant is no?+ m ?an deliv]+ up a citiz5 or subject to ! p[] ( ano!r /ate to decide ^u 8 puni%m5t4 ,b ?is p]mission nei!r gives nor takes away any "r1 x only removes an imp$im5t to ! prosecution ( a "r4 ,:]e=e if t o!r p make no use ( ! p]mitt$ "r1 ! (f5d]1 :o has be5 deliv]$ up1 is 9 su* a situation1 t he ei!r ,,may or may ,,n be puni%$3 ei!r ( :i* may happ5 9 ! case ( _m (f5ces4 ,b ! "r ( a /ate1 z to ! enjoym5t ( its own laws1 & _m o!r advantages1 is n lo/ by any p>ticul> act )\t a =mal decree & judgm5t1 unless 9 any way x has be5 previ\sly enact$1 t c]ta9 acts1 or c]ta9 omissions1 %all am\nt to a =feiture ( "s p>ticul> rights & privileges4 ,9 ! same mann]1 goods1 if surr5d]$1 b n accept$1 w rema9 ! prop]ty ( ! =m] own]4 ,b if ! surr5d] ( a citiz5 has be5 accept$1 &1 by "s accid5t1 ! p]son s surr5d]$ %all aft]w>ds return home1 he w no long] be a citiz51 except by "s new act ( grace4 ,:at has be5 said ( puni%+ or giv+ up aggressors1 applies n only to ^?1 :o always h be5 subjects ( ! sov]eign1 9 ^: dom9ions !y are n[ f\nd1 b to ^? also1 :o1 aft] ! commission ( a crime1 h fl$ to "s place = refuge4 ,v4 ,nor d ! s mu* talk$ ( rights ( suppliants1 & ! inviolable nature ( asylums at all weak5 ! argum5t t has be5 advanc$4 ,= ! advantages ( su* protection are design$ only = ^?1 :o are ! victims ( unm]it$ p]secution1 n = ^? :o h committ$ crimes injuri\s to mank9d1 & de/ructive to society4 ,gylippus1 ! ,lac$aemonian1 z may be se5 9 ! xiii4 book ( ,diodorus ,siculus1 speak+ ( ! rights ( suppliants1 says1 t !y 7 orig9ally introduc$1 z measures ( compassion to ! un=tunate1 & n a scre5 = malici\s & wanton (f5d]s1 :o h no?+ b puni%m5t to expect4 ,& a little aft] he says1 :5 su* m51 prompt$ by malice1 or rapacity h plung$ into evils1 !y h no "r to talk ( mis=tune or to we> ! "n ( suppliants4 ,= t is a privilege grant$ by ! laws ( nature to ! innoc5t1 :o are beat5 d[n by ! h>d & oppressive /rokes ( ill =tune4 ,b ! refuge ( compassion is )held1 :]e e l9e ( a life has be5 m>k$ ) cruelty & inju/ice4 ,?us accord+ to t law1 :i* p>takes ( ! wisdom ( its div9e au?or1 asylums 7 op5 to ^? :o _h kill$ any "o by a weapon escap+ f _! h&3 slaves too 7 all[$ places ( refuge1 b delib]ate murd]]s1 or ^?1 :o _h di/urb$ ! peaceful ord] ( ! /ate1 f\nd no protection ev5 f ! alt> ( ,god4 ,philo1 9 expla9+ ?is law says1 t ev5 ! temple af=ds no refuge to ! impi\s4 ,! m anci5t ( ! ,greeks act$ ^u ! same pr9ciple4 ,x is said t ! ,*alcidians refus$ to deliv] up ,nauplius to ! ,grecians1 & ! reason alleg$ 0 8 hav+ cle>$ himself ( ! *>ges made aga9/ him4 ,!re 0 among ! ,a!nians an alt> d$icat$ to ,m]cy2 x is m5tion$ by ,cic]o1 ,pausanias1 ,s]vius1 & also by ,!ophilus1 & x is describ$ at full l5g? by ,/atius 9 ! xii4 book ( 8 ,!bais4 ,! poet expla9s to :at description ( m5 x af=d$ %elt]3 x 01 he says1 to ^? :o 7 driv5 f _! homes by ! calamity ( w>1 or /ripp$ ( _! k+doms by usurp]s4 ,tacitus 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,annals1 & #fj? *apt]1 reprobates ! cu/om1 prevail+ 9 8 "t among ! cities ( ,greece1 ( mak+ x an act ( religion to protect (f5d]s f ! puni%m5t due to _! crimes4 ,su* (f5d]s !re=e ought ei!r to be puni%$1 or deliv]$ up1 or1 at lea/1 ord]$ to )draw4 ,p]seus ! ,mac$onian k+1 cle>+ himself to ,m>tius f ! *>ge ( scre5+ ^?1 :o _h attempt$ ! life ( ,eum5es2 said1 z soon z ,i 0 appris$ by y ( _! be+ 9 ,mac$onia1 ,i ord]$ imm$iate se>* to be made = !m1 p]emptorily comm&+ _! p]petual bani%m5t f my k+dom4 ,! "r ( dem&+ ! surr5d] or puni%m5t ( crim9als t h fl$ into o!r k+doms1 has1 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,europe1 dur+ ! pres5t1 & ! imm$iately prec$+ c5turies1 be5 g5]ally ex]cis$ 9 cases1 :]e ! crimes 7 su* z affect$ ! safety ( ! /ate1 or 7 att5d$ ) notori\s atrocity4 ,x has be5 usual to pass ov]1 ) mutual connivance1 crimes ( an inf]ior k9d1 except :]e x has be5 agre$ to ! contr>y by express treaty4 ,nor c x be conceal$ t :]e robb]s & pirates h ga9$ a truly =midable p[]1 x has (t5 be5 deem$ an act ( humane policy bo? 9 ,sov]eign ,pr9ces1 & ,/ates to ex]cise =be>ance t[>ds !m1 r ?an to drive !m to great] acts ( desp]ation by treat+ !m ) all ! rig\r1 :i* !y des]ve4 ,,vi4 ,if ! act1 ( :i* refugees & suppliants are accus$1 is n prohibit$ by ! law ( nature or ( nations1 ! matt] mu/ be decid$ by ! civil law ( ! c\ntry1 f :i* !y come4 ,?is 0 a receiv$ op9ion 9 anci5t times1 z we f9d f ! language ( ,aes*ylus1 9 ^: ,trag$y ( ! ,suppliants1 ! ,k+ ( ,argos1 address+ a numb] ( ! daught]s ( ,danaus1 on _! com+ f ,egypt1 says1 ,if ! sons ( ,egypt ex]cise contr\l ov] y1 ma9ta9+ t !y are au?oris$ to d s by ! law ( ! /ate1 z be+ ! ne>e/ alli$ by blood1 :o c resi/ !m8 ,x is = y to prove t1 accord+ to ! laws ( y\r c\ntry1 !y h no au?ority ov] y4 ,,vii4 & ,,viii4 ,x has (t5 be5 a celebrat$ topic ( discussion1 :e!r a :ole community c be puni%$ = misconduct4 ,& ?is is ! prop] place = t inquiry4 ,x 0 %ewn 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise1 t a body politic ?\gh x may seem to v>y by a succession ( new memb]s1 cont9ues ! same1 z long z x reta9s its =m4 ,9 :i* case x seems liable to puni%m5t no less ?an individuals4 ,on ! o!r h& bodies politic seem to possess _m privileges peculi> to !mselves1 su* z hav+ a common treasury1 a common seal1 laws1 & o!r simil> advantages4 ,b !re are "s di/9ctions1 :i* !y p>ticul>ly d]ive f ! ,,individuals ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,?us we say t ,univ]sities are le>n$1 or ,g>risons brave1 accord+ to ! numb] ( le>n$ or gallant m51 :i* !y respectively conta94 ,m]it is a di/9ction ( ?is k9d1 z be+ a gift ( nature to individuals1 or an individual acquirem5t1 :i* no public body1 ,,( ,,itself1 c h4 ,s t ^u ! dea? or dep>ture ( ^? m]itori\s individuals1 ! degree ( m]it1 :i* any public society d]iv$ f _! pres5ce1 mu/ become ext9ct4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! debt ( puni%m5t :i* is consid]$ z aris+ f "s act ( dem]it1 mu/ cease ) ! debt ( ! individual del9qu5ts4 ,arrian is ju/ly comm5d$ = c5sur+ ! v5geance retort$ ^u ! ,p]sians by ,alex&]1 at a "t1 :5 ^?1 :o _h committ$ ! orig9al aggressions on ! ,greeks1 _h long be5 laid 9 _! graves4 ,he passes a l s5t5ce ^u ! burn+ ( ,p]sepolis1 z a retaliation = :at ! ,p]sians _h done at ,a!ns4 ,su* acts ( retaliation1 aft] a lapse ( ye>s1 h be5 v9dicat$ by "s writ]s1 z an imitation ( ! sl[1 b un]r+ progress ( div9e ju/ice4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t ! ways ( ,god are n z our ways1 nor is ! ex]cise ( 8 ju/ice to be measur$ by our c\nsels4 ,= if desc5d5ts c claim no m]it = ! actions ( _! ,,=efa!rs1 nei!r is x "r !y %\ld be puni%$ = ,,_! transgressions4 ,! consequ5ces ( m]it inde$ may be transmitt$ )\t injury1 & !re=e )\t inju/ice2 b x is n s ) puni%m5ts4 ,,ix4 ,hav+ ?us %ewn t a communication ( puni%m5t is necess>ily connect$ ) a p>ticipation 9 guilt1 x rema9s to consid] :e!r puni%m5t c be ext5d$ to ^?1 :o are no way conc]n$ 9 ! crime4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is cle>ly1 & to prev5t ! mi/akes t may arise f a simil>ity ( expression1 :]e !re is no simil>ity ( facts1 x w be necess>y to make use ( "s precautions4 ,x4 ,9 ! fir/ place !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 a loss ,,directly occasion$ by any act1 & "o result+ b ,,indirectly f x4 ,n[ x may be call$ a direct injury to deprive any "o ( :at peculi>ly belongs to him z 8 "r4 ,an indirect injury is t :i* prev5ts any "o f possess+ :at he o!rwise w\ld h done1 by de/roy+ ! condition or means1 :i* gave him su* a "r4 ,z an example1 ,ulpian says1 if any "o has op5$ a well 9 8 own gr\nd1 by :i* ! subt]rane\s /reams ( wat]1 t w\ld h pass$ to ! l&s ( ano!r1 are cut (f1 "h no fault is imputable to ! p]son :o has only ex]cis$ 8 own "r4 ,& 9 ano!r place1 he says1 x makes a great diff]5ce1 :e!r any "o directly does an injury1 or is only indirectly & un9t5tionally in/rum5tal 9 prev5t+ ano!r f reap+ advantages1 :i* he w\ld o!rwise h enjoy$4 ,& x is absurd1 says ,paulus1 ano!r legal au?ority1 = m5 to be call$ ri* be=e !y possess ! means ( be+ s4 ,?us :5 ! prop]ty ( p>5ts is =feit$1 x is felt z an inconv5i5ce by _! *ildr52 ?\gh x _c be consid]$ z a direct puni%m5t inflict$ ^u !m1 because t prop]ty w\ld nev] h be5 !irs1 unless ! p>5ts _h reta9$ x to _! la/ brea?4 ,on :i* ,alph5us has made a j obs]vation1 9 say+1 t1 by ! puni%m5t ( ! fa!r1 *ildr5 lose t :i* w\ld h come to !m f him1 b ?+s1 :i* !y d n receive f him1 su* z ! gifts ( nature1 or ^? d]iv$ f any o!r qu>t]1 rema9 unt\*$4 ,cic]o relates t 9 ?is mann] ! *ildr5 ( ,!mi/ocles 7 r$uc$ to want1 nor does he ?9k x unju/ t ! *ildr5 ( ,lepidus %\ld %>e ! same fate4 ,& he says t x is an anci5t cu/om1 & ! receiv$ usage ( all /ates1 ! h>d%ip ( :i* nev]!less 0 greatly s(t5$ by ! laws ( ,rome at a lat] p]iod4 ,?us :5 a :ole p is implicat$ 9 ! misconduct ( ! majority1 :i* holds ! repres5tative "* ( ! /ate1 & consequ5tly loses its civil lib]ties1 its =tifications1 & o!r privileges1 ! loss affects innoc5t individuals1 b only 9 ^? ?+s1 :i* !y c\ld n h enjoy$1 except z belong+ to t community4 ,,xi4 ,besides1 we mu/ obs]ve1 t ! (f5ce ( "o man may sometimes occasion inconv5i5ce or loss to ano!r1 & yet t (f5ce may n be consid]$ z ! imm$iate cause ( ! action1 :i* is gr\nd$ on ! ex]cise ( a "r4 ,?is may be expla9$ by an example4 ,?us if any "o has engag$ = ano!r's debt1 he br+s himself into ! dilemma nam$ 9 ! anci5t prov]b1 t be+ b\nd = any "o is ! next /age to ru92 b x is a ,,man',s ,,own ,,promise1 & ,,n ,,ano!r',s ,,hav+ ,,incurr$ ,a ,,debt1 t is ! real cause ( 8 obligation4 ,= z a p]son1 :o has giv5 security = a pur*as]1 is n1 prop]ly speak+1 b\nd by ! ,,pur*ase1 b by 8 own ,,promise3 s if any "o has engag$ to be responsible = a del9qu5t1 x is 8 own ,,engagem5t1 & n ! ,,act ,,( ,,t ,,del9qu5t1 :i* creates 8 obligation4 ,& h5ce ! inconv5i5ce ( t k9d :i* any "o incurs1 mu/ be measur$ n by ! del9qu5cy ( ano!r1 b by 8 own p[] to ent] into any su* volunt>y engagem5t4 ,9 consequ5ce ( :i* no "o c give surety to suff] dea? = ano!r2 because no "o has su* p[] ov] 8 own life1 z to take x away himself1 or to be b\nd to =feit x = ano!r4 ,?\gh ! anci5t ,greeks & ,romans ?\ght o!rwise1 & !re=e !y ma9ta9$ t a surety might be put to dea? = any "o1 z may be se5 9 ! well kn[n /ory ( ,damon & ,py?ias1 & ho/ages 7 frequ5tly puni%$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,:at has be5 said ( life may be appli$ to ! limbs also1 :i* no man has a "r to "p )1 except = ! pres]vation ( ! :ole body4 ,b if any "o has engag$ to suff] bani%m5t1 to submit to a pecuni>y f9e1 or any o!r means ( satisfy+ ju/ice1 any ?+ he suff]s on ?is acc\nt w n1 /rictly speak+1 be consid]$ z a ,,p]sonal puni%m5t1 b z ! p]=mance ( an agreem5t4 ,some?+ l ?is occurs 9 ! "r1 :i* any "o possesses dep5d5t on ano!r's w1 bo? ) respect to ! "r ( individuals to private prop]ty1 & to ! m ext5sive "r to demesnes possess$ by a /ate4 ,= if any "o is depriv$ ( su* a ?+ ow+ to ano!r's fault1 "h ! executive p[] depriv+ t p]son1 is n inflict+ a puni%m5t on ,,him1 b only ex]cis+ a prior "r4 ,,xii4 & ,,xiii4 ,hav+ laid d[n ^! di/9ctions1 we may obs]ve t x is impossible t an innoc5t p]son %\ld suff] = ano!r's crime4 ,?is does n proce$ f ! reasons giv5 by ,paulus1 :o ma9ta9s t puni%m5t is design$ = ! re=mation ( ! (f5d]4 ,= x seems possible t an example may be made1 ext5d+ beyond ! p]son ( ! crim9al himself1 :5 x affects1 9 its consequ5ces1 ^?1 :o are ne>ly relat$ to him4 ,s t x is n = ! sake ( example only t puni%m5t is inflict$1 b because ! obligation !reto arises f ! dem]it ( ! (f5d+ p>ty4 ,n[ e dem]it mu/ be ( a p]sonal nature1 z x proce$s f a man's own w1 ov] :i* he is suppos$ to ex]cise a p]fect contr\l4 ,,xiv4 ,9 ! law giv5 to ! ,hebrews1 ,god ?reat5s to av5ge ! impiety ( fa!rs ^u _! *ildr54 ,b he has sov]eign dom9ion ov] our lives & sub/ance1 z be+ 8 gift1 :i* he may take away f any "o1 :5ev] he pleases1 )\t assign+ 8 reasons4 ,!re=e if he ?9ks prop] to take away by a premature or viol5t dea? ! *ildr5 ( ,a*an1 ,saul1 ,j]oboam or ,ahab1 he is ex]cis+ ov] !m ! "r ( sov]eignty1 z well z t ( puni%m5t2 impos+ by t awful example ! m sev]e p5alty ^u ! p>5ts4 ,= if !y survive _! *ildr51 :i* 0 :at ! div9e law _h mo/ 9 view1 & !re=e did n ext5d ^! ?reats beyond ! "t ( great gr&-*ildr51 a p]iod to :i* ! age ( man might rea*1 x is c]ta9 t p>5ts w\ld be sev]ely puni%$ by su* a sight1 ! mo/ afflict+ ( any !y c\ld witness4 ,or if !y %\ld n survive su* an ev5t1 to die "u su* an appreh5sion w\ld be a great calamity4 ,b x is prop] to rem>k t examples l ^? are nev] employ$ by ,god1 except aga9/ crimes affect+ 8 div9e ,maje/y1 z false wor%ip1 p]jury or sacrilege4 ,inde$ ^? ?reats ( div9e v5geance are n always en=c$2 especially :]e any extraord9>y virtue %9es 9 ! *>act]s & conduct ( ! *ildr53 z may be se5 9 ! xviii4 *apt] ( ! prophesy ( ,ezekiel4 ,plut>* has discuss$ ?is topic ) great eloqu5ce 9 8 book on ! remote v5geance ( ,god4 ,z ! ,gospel s cle>ly unfolds ! future puni%m5ts ( ! wick$1 all ! ?reats conta9$ 9 t new cov5ant t]m9ate 9 ! p]sons ( ! (f5d]s !mselves4 ,b ! ways ( provid5ce 9 ^! respects are n ! rule :i* m5 c foll[4 ,= ,god1 ev5 )\t any ref]5ce to crime1 is ! sov]eign "l & dispos] ( human life1 a commission :i* man is only all[$ to execute aga9/ ! p]petrators ( c]ta9 crimes4 ,:]e=e z t same div9e law =bids p>5ts to be put to dea? = ! (f5ces ( *ildr51 s x exempts *ildr5 f ! same puni%m5t = ! actions ( _! fa!rs3 a l5ity :i* is greatly comm5d$ by ,josephus & ,philo4 ,! same comm5dation is be/[$ by ,isocrates ^u ! laws ( ,egypt2 & by ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus ^u ^? ( ,rome4 ,,xv4 ,b if x is unju/ 9 human laws to puni% ! misconduct ( p>5ts 9 ! p]sons ( _! *ildr51 h[ mu* m sev]e 0 ! law ( ! ,p]sians & ,mac$onians ext5d+ ! p5alties = crimes aga9/ ! /ate to e bran* ( ! (f5d]'s relatives1 9 ! mo/ remote degree1 a law surpass+ all o!rs 9 rig\r8 ,,xvi4 ,,xvii4 & ,,xviii4 ,:at has be5 said respect+ ! puni%m5t ( *ildr5 = ! (f5ces ( _! fa!rs or =efa!rs1 may be appli$ to ! relation subsi/+ betwe5 sov]eigns & subjects4 ,= x is a relation spr++ f ! contract ( society1 :i* makes ! sov]eign ! ess5tial head1 life & s\l ( t body1 9 :i* 8 p =m ! memb]s4 ,z ! civil community !re=e ) its sov]eign or head =ms b "o body1 !re c be no sep>ation ( int]e/s1 b :at affects "o "p mu/ be prejudicial or s]viceable to ! :ole4 ,,xix4 ,:y %\ld an heir1 x has be5 sometimes ask$1 be b\nd by o!r debts ( 8 ance/or1 & n feel ! effects ( 8 puni%m5t = misconduct8 to :i* answ] may be giv51 t ! heir repres5ts ! p]son ( ! deceas$ n 9 8 m]its or dem]its1 :i* are purely p]sonal1 b 9 8 prop]ty2 an artificial mode ( pres]v+ unbrok5 ! *a9 ( succession & desc5t4 ,,xx4 ,& h5ce x foll[s1 t if 9 addition to ! dem]it ( an (f5ce1 any new gr\nds ( obligation %\ld arise connect$ ) ! puni%m5t1 !y mu/ be dis*>g$ n prop]ly z a puni%m5t1 b z a debt4 ,?us ! heir w be liable to pay ! co/s aw>d$ by a judgm5t aft] a conte/$ suit1 :i* is consid]$ 9 ! light ( a contract4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,on ,,! ,,unju/ ,,causes ,,( ,,w>4 ,diff]5ces betwe5 real & col\rable motives--,w> atroci\s )\t ei!r ( ^! motives--,w>s ( plund]1 "u ! mo/ plausible pretexts1 n ju/ifiable--,causes app>5tly1 b n really j--,unnecess>y advantage--,desire ( a bett] soil--,discov]y ( ?+s belong+ to o!rs--,incapacity ( ! orig9al own]s--,w> n always ju/ifiable "u ! pretext ( ass]t+ lib]ty--,or ( impos+ a b5eficial gov]nm5t ^u a p aga9/ _! w--,emp]or's pret5sions to univ]sal empire refut$--,pret5sions ( ! ,*ur*--,imp]fect obligations--,diff]5ce betwe5 w>s orig9ally unju/ & ^? aft]w>ds becom+ s4 ,i4 ,9 a =m] "p ( ?is "w1 :]e ! ju/ice ( w> 0 discuss$1 x 0 obs]v$ t "s w>s 7 f\nd$ ^u real motives & o!rs only ^u col\rable pretexts4 ,?is di/9ction 0 fir/ notic$ by ,polybius1 :o calls ! pretexts1 prophaseis1 & ! real causes1 aitias4 ,?us ,alex&] made w> ^u ,d>ius1 "u ! pret5ce ( av5g+ ! =m] wrongs done by ! ,p]sians to ! ,greeks4 ,b ! real motive ( t bold & ent]pris+ h]o1 0 ! easy acquisition ( weal? & dom9ion1 :i* ! exp$itions ( ,x5ophon & ,agesilaus _h op5$ to 8 view4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a dispute ab\t ,saguntum furni%$ ! ,c>?ag9ians ) ,,col\rable ,,motives = ! second ,punic w>1 b1 9 ,,reality1 !y c\ld n brook ! indignity ( hav+ cons5t$ to a treaty1 :i* ! ,romans _h extort$ f !m at an unfav\rable mom5t2 & m especially z _! spirits 7 reviv$ by _! rec5t successes 9 ,spa94 ,! real causes assign$ by ,?ucydides = ! ,peloponnesian w>1 7 ! jeal\sies ent]ta9$ by ! ,lac$aemonians ( ! !n gr[+ p[] ( ! ,a!nians1 ?\gh ! qu>rels ( ! ,corcyreans1 ,potida5s1 & o!r second>y /ates 7 made ! o/5sible reasons4 ,,ii4 ,!re are "s :o h nei!r o/5sible reasons1 nor j causes to plead = _! ho/ilities1 9 :i*1 z ,tacitus says1 !y engage f ! pure love ( ent]prise & dang]4 ,a disposition to :i* ,ari/otle gives ! "n ( f]ocity4 ,& 9 ! la/ book ( 8 ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 he calls x a bloody cruelty to conv]t fri5ds into enemies1 :om y may slaught]4 ,,iii4 ,?\gh mo/ p[]s1 :5 engag+ 9 w>1 are desir\s to col\r ov] _! real motives ) ju/ifiable pretexts1 yet "s1 totally disreg>d+ su* me?ods ( v9dication1 seem able to give no bett] reason = _! conduct1 ?an :at is told by ! ,roman ,lawy]s ( a robb]1 :o be+ ask$1 :at "r he _h to a ?+1 :i* he _h seiz$1 repli$1 x 0 8 own1 because he _h tak5 x into 8 possession8 ,ari/otle 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 ,rhetoric1 speak+ ( ! promot]s ( w>1 asks1 if x is n unju/ = a neighb\r+ p to be enslav$1 & if ^? promot]s h no reg>d to ! rights ( un(f5d+ nations8 ,cic]o1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 ,(fices1 speaks 9 ! same /ra91 & calls ! c\rage1 :i* is conspicu\s 9 dang] & ent]prise1 if devoid ( ju/ice1 absolutely undes]v+ ( ! "n ( val\r4 ,x %\ld r be consid]$ z a brutal fi]c5ess outrag+ e pr9ciple ( humanity4 ,,iv4 ,o!rs make use ( pretexts1 :i* ?\gh plausible at fir/ sight1 w n be> ! exam9ation & te/ ( moral rectitude1 &1 :5 /ripp$ ( _! disguise1 su* pretexts w be f\nd fraught ) inju/ice4 ,9 su* ho/ilities1 says ,livy1 x is n a trial ( "r1 b "s object ( secret & unruly ambition1 :i* acts z ! *ief spr+4 ,mo/ p[]s1 x is said by ,plut>*1 employ ! relative situations ( peace & w>1 z a curr5t specie1 = ! pur*ase ( :atev] !y deem exp$i5t4 ,by hav+ be=e exam9$ & e/abli%$ ! pr9ciples ( j & necess>y w>1 we may =m a bett] idea ( :at goes to con/itute ! inju/ice ( ! same4 ,z ! nature ( ?+s is be/ se5 by contra/1 & we judge ( :at is crook$ by comp>+ x ) :at is /raight4 ,b = ! sake ( p]spicuity1 x w be necess>y to treat ^u ! lead+ po9ts4 ,x 0 %ewn above t appreh5sions f a neighb\r+ p[] are n a suffici5t gr\nd = w>4 ,= to au?orize ho/ilities z a def5sive measure1 !y mu/ arise f ! necessity1 :i* j appreh5sions create2 appreh5sions n only ( ! p[]1 b ( ! int5tions ( a =midable /ate1 & su* appreh5sions z am\nt to a moral c]ta9ty4 ,= :i* reason ! op9ion ( ^? is by no means to be approv$ (1 :o lay d[n z a j gr\nd ( w>1 ! con/ruction ( =tifications 9 a neighb\r+ c\ntry1 ) :om !re is no exi/+ treaty to prohibit su* con/ructions1 or ! secur+ ( a /rong hold1 :i* may at "s future p]iod prove a means ( annoyance4 ,= z a gu>d aga9/ su* appreh5sions1 e p[] may con/ruct1 9 its own t]ritory1 /rong works1 & o!r milit>y securities ( ! same k9d1 )\t hav+ rec\rse to actual w>4 ,"o _c b admire ! "*1 :i* ,tacitus has drawn ( ! ,*auci1 a noble & high-spirit$ p ( ,g]many1 :o1 he says1 7 desir\s ( ma9ta9+ _! greatness by ju/ice1 r ?an by acts ( ungov]nable rapacity & ambition--provok+ no w>s1 invad+ no c\ntries1 spoil+ no neighb\rs to aggr&ize !mselves1--yet1 :5 necessity prompt$1 able to raise m5 ) arms 9 _! h&s at a mom5t's w>n+--a great population ) a num]\s bre$ ( horses to =m a well m\nt$ cavalry--&1 ) all ^! advantages1 uphold+ _! reputation 9 ! mid/ ( peace4 ,,vi4#ee ,nor c ! advantage to be ga9$ by a w> be ev] plead$ z a motive ( equal weight & ju/ice ) necessity4 ,,vii4 & ,,viii4 ,nei!r c ! desire ( emigrat+ to a m fav\rable soil & climate ju/ify an attack ^u a neighb\r+ p[]4 ,?is1 z we are in=m$ by ,tacitus1 0 a frequ5t cause ( w> among ! anci5t ,g]mans4 ,,ix4 ,!re is no less inju/ice 9 sett+ up claims1 "u ! pret5ce ( newly discov]$ titles1 to :at belongs to ano!r4 ,nei!r c ! wick$ness1 & impiety1 nor any o!r incapacity ( ! orig9al own] ju/ify su* a claim4 ,= ! title & "r by discov]y c apply only to c\ntries & places1 t h no own]4 ,x4 ,nei!r moral nor religi\s virtue1 nor any intellectual excell5ce is requisite to =m a good title to prop]ty4 ,only :]e a race ( m5 is s de/itute ( reason z to be incapable ( ex]cis+ any act ( own]%ip1 !y c hold no prop]ty1 nor w ! law ( *>ity require t !y %\ld h m ?an ! necess>ies ( life4 ,= ! rules ( ! law ( nations c only be appli$ to ^?1 :o are capable ( political or comm]cial int]c\rse3 b n to a p entirely de/itute ( reason1 ?\gh x is a matt] ( j d\bt1 :e!r any su* is to be f\nd4 ,x 0 an absurdity !re=e 9 ! ,greeks to suppose1 t diff]5ce ( mann]s1 or inf]iority ( intellect made ^?1 :om !y 7 pleas$ to call b>b>ians1 _! natural enemies4 ,b z to atroci\s crimes /rik+ at ! v root & exi/5ce ( society1 ! =feiture ( prop]ty ensu+ f !nce is a "q ( a diff]5t nature1 belong+ to puni%m5ts1 "u ! head ( :i* x 0 discuss$4 ,,xi4 ,b nei!r ! indep5d5ce ( individuals1 nor t ( /ates1 is a motive t c at all times ju/ify rec\rse to arms1 z if all p]sons ,,indiscrim9ately _h a natural "r to d s4 ,= :]e lib]ty is said to be a natural "r belong+ to all m5 & /ates1 by t expression is und]/ood a "r ( nature1 antec$5t to e human obligation or contract4 ,b 9 t case1 lib]ty is spok5 ( 9 a negative s5se1 & n by way ( contra/ to indep5d5ce1 ! mean+ ( :i* is1 t no "o is by ! law ( nature doom$ to s]vitude1 ?\gh he is n =bidd5 by t law to ent] into su* a condition4 ,= 9 ?is s5se no "o c be call$ free1 if nature leaves him n ! privilege ( *us+ 8 own condition3 z ,albutius p]t95tly rem>ks1 ! t]ms1 fre$om & s]vitude are n f\nd$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( nature1 b are names subsequ5tly appli$ to m5 accord+ to ! dispositions ( =tune4 ,& ,ari/otle def9es ! relations ( ma/] & s]vant to be ! result ( political & n ( natural appo9tm5t4 ,:5ev] !re=e ! condition ( s]vitude1 ei!r p]sonal or political1 subsi/s1 f lawful causes1 m5 %\ld be cont5t$ ) t /ate1 accord+ to ! injunction ( ! ,apo/le1 ,art ?\ call$1 be+ a s]vant1 let n t be an anxi\s conc]n8 ,,xii4 ,& !re is equal inju/ice 9 ! desire ( r$uc+1 by =ce ( arms1 any p to a /ate ( s]vitude1 "u ! pretext ( its be+ ! condition = :i* !y are be/ qualifi$ by nature4 ,x does n foll[ t1 because any "o is fitt$ = a p>ticul> condition1 ano!r has a "r to impose x ^u him4 ,= e reasonable creature ought to be left free 9 ! *oice ( :at may be deem$ useful or prejudicial to him1 provid$ ano!r has no j "r to a contr\l ov] him4 ,! case ( *ildr5 has no connection ) ! "q1 z !y are necess>ily "u ! discipl9e ( o!rs4 ,,xiii4 ,x w\ld sc>ce h be5 necess>y to refute ! fooli% op9ion ( "s1 :o h ascrib$ to ! ,roman ,emp]ors dom9ion ov] ! mo/ remote & unkn[n nations1 if ,b>tolus1 deem$ a lawy] ( ! fir/ em95ce1 _h n pron\nc$ x h]esy to d5y ^? pret5sions4 ,?is op9ion has be5 built ^u ! ,roman ,emp]or's "s times hav+ /yl$ himself ,sov]eign ( ! :ole _w2 a t]m :i* x 0 n unusual = _m p to apply to _! own c\ntry4 ,?us 9 ! scriptures we f9d ,judea frequ5tly call$ ! :ole inhabit$ e>?2 !re=e :5 ! ,jews1 9 _! prov]bial expression1 call$ ,j]usalem ! c5tre ( ! _w1 no?+ m is to be impli$ ?an t x 0 situat$ 9 ! middle ( ,judea4 ,z to ! argum5t 9 favor ( univ]sal dom9ion f its be+ s b5eficial to mank9d1 x may be obs]v$ t all its advantages are c\nt]balanc$ by /ill great] disadvantages4 ,= z a %ip may be built too l>ge to be conv5i5tly manag$1 s an empire may be too ext5sive 9 population & t]ritory to be direct$ & gov]n$ by "o head4 ,b grant+ ! exp$i5cy ( univ]sal empire1 t exp$i5cy _c give su* a "r1 z c be acquir$ only by treaty or conque/4 ,!re 7 _m places =m]ly belong+ to ! ,roman ,empire1 ov] :i* ! ,emp]or has at pres5t no contr\l4 ,= w>1 treaty1 or cession h made _m *anges1 by :i* ! rights ( t]ritory h pass$ to o!r /ates or sov]eign pr9ces1 & ! /&>ds ( diff]5t communities1 :e!r k+doms or commonweal?s1 n[ wave 9 places1 :i* ! ,roman ,eagle once ov]%ad[$ ) 8 w+s4 ,^! are losses & *anges1 t h be5 exp]i5c$ by o!r p[]s no less ?an t1 :i* 0 once mi/ress ( ! _w4 ,,xiv4 ,b !re h be5 "s1 :o h ass]t$ ! rights ( ! *ur* ov] unkn[n p>ts ( ! _w1 ?\gh ! ,apo/le ,paul himself has expressly said t ,*ri/ians 7 n to judge ^? :o 7 )\t ! pale ( _! own community4 ,& ?\gh ! "r ( judg+1 :i* belong$ to ! ,apo/les1 might 9 "s cases apply to worldly conc]ns1 yet 9 its g5]al nature x 0 ( a cele/ial r ?an an e>?ly k9d--a judgm5t n ex]cis$ by fire & sword1 b by ! ^w ( ,god1 propos$ to all m5 & adapt$ to _! peculi> circum/ances--a judgm5t ex]cis$ by display+ or )hold+ ! seals ( div9e grace1 z x might be mo/ exp$i5t--la/ly1 x 0 a judgm5t ex]cis$ 9 sup]natural puni%m5ts2 9 puni%m5ts proce$+ f ,god1 l ! puni%m5ts ( ,ananias1 ,elymas1 ,hym5aeus1 & o!rs4 ,*ri/ himself1 ! spr+1 f :5ce all ! p[] ( ! *ur* 0 d]iv$1 & ^: life is ! model = ! *ur* to foll[1 said1 8 k+dom 0 n ( ?is _w1 t is1 0 n ( ! same nature1 ) o!r k+doms1 o!rwise1 l ! re/ ( sov]eigns1 he w\ld h ma9ta9$ 8 au?ority by ! p[] ( ! sword4 ,= if he _h pleas$ to call up ! aid ( ,legions2 he w\ld h call$ up ho/s ( ,angels & n ( m54 ,& e ex]cise ( 8 "r 0 p]=m$ by ! influ5ce ( div9e1 & n ( human p[]2 ev5 :5 he drove ! sell]s out ( ! temple4 ,= ! ,,rod 0 ! ,,emblem & n ! ,,in/rum5t ( div9e wra?1 z ,,unction 0 once a ,,sign ( heal+1 & n ! ,,heal+ ,,p[] ,,itself4 ,/4 ,augu/9 on ! xviii ,*apt] ( ,/4 ,john1 & #cf v]4 invites ,sov]eign ,pr9ces into ?is k+dom1 9 ^! t]ms1 ,he>1 ,o ,jews1 & ,g5tiles1 he>1 ,o e>?ly ,sov]eigns1 ,i w n ob/ruct y\r au?ority1 = my k+dom is n ( ?is _w4 ,be n al>m$1 l ,h]od1 :o trembl$1 :5 he he>d t ,*ri/ 0 born1 & slew s _m innoc5t *ildr51 hop+ to include ! ,savi\r 9 t calamity4 ,8 fe> %ew$ itself 9 cruel wra?4 ,b my k+dom1 says ,*ri/1 is n ( ?is _w4 ,!re=e ent] ?is k+dom )\t fe>4 ,come ) fai?1 & provoke n ! k+ to ang] by y\r delay4 ,,xv4 ,!re is a caution too necess>y to be giv51 aga9/ draw+ too close a p>allel betwe5 anci5t & mod]n times4 ,= x is b seldom t any "o c adduce a case exactly con=mable to 8 own circum/ances4 ,to draw su* pretexts f ! int]pretation ( prophecy is ! highe/ presumption4 ,= no prophecy t is yet to be fulfill$ c be unfold$ )\t ! aid ( a prophetic _s4 ,! times ev5 ( ev5ts1 t are c]ta91 may escape our notice4 ,nor is x e pr$iction1 unless x be accompani$ ) an express comm& f ,god1 t c ju/ify rec\rse to arms3 sometimes inde$ ,god br+s 8 pr$ict$ designs to _! issue by ! means ( wick$ in/rum5ts4 ,,xvi4 ,z ! imp]fect obligations ( *>ity1 & o!r virtues ( ! same k9d are n cognizable 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice1 s nei!r c ! p]=mance ( !m be compell$ by =ce ( arms4 ,= x is n ! moral nature ( a duty t c en=ce its fulfillm5t1 b !re mu/ be "s legal "r 9 "o ( ! p>ties to exact ! obligation4 ,= ! moral obligation receives an additional weight f su* a "r4 ,?is obligation !re=e mu/ be unit$ to ! =m] to give a w> ! "* ( a j w>4 ,?us a p]son :o has conf]r$ a fav\r1 has n1 /rictly speak+1 a ,,"r to dem& a return1 = t w\ld be conv]t+ an act ( k9dness into a contract4 ,,xvii4 ,x is necess>y to obs]ve t a w> may be j 9 its orig91 & yet ! int5tions ( its au?ors may become unju/ 9 ! c\rse ( its prosecution4 ,= "s o!r motive1 n unlawful ,,9 ,,itself1 may actuate !m m p[]fully ?an ! orig9al "r1 = ! atta9m5t ( :i* ! w> 0 begun4 ,x is laudable1 = in/ance1 to ma9ta9 national hon\r2 x is laudable to pursue a public or a private int]e/1 & yet ^? objects may n =m ! ju/ifiable gr\nds ( ! w> 9 "q4 ,a w> may gradually *ange its nature & its object f ! prosecution ( a "r to ! desire ( second+ or support+ ! aggr&izem5t ( "s o!r p[]4 ,b su* motives1 ?\gh blamable1 :5 ev5 connect$ ) a j w>1 d n r5d] ! w> ,,itself unju/1 nor invalidate its conque/s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,d\btful ,,causes4 ,orig9 ( moral d\bts--,! dictates ( consci5ce1 ?\gh errone\s1 n to be violat$--,opposite op9ions support$ by argum5t1 or by au?ority--,9 d\btful & important matt]s ! saf] side ( ! "q to be foll[$--,9 su* cases x is "r to ab/a9 f w>--,disputes settl$ by conf]5ce or arbitration--,*ri/ian duties--,:e!r s+le combat is all[able 9 ord] to avoid w>--,9 cases ( equal d\bt ! claims ( ! pres5t possessor to be pref]r$--,:]e nei!r p>ty is 9 possession1 claims to be divid$--,:e!r a w> c be j on bo? sides1 expla9$ by a di/9ction4 ,i4 ,!re is mu* tru? 9 ,ari/otle's obs]vation t moral reason+s c nev] am\nt to ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matical demon/ration4 ,because 9 ma!matical reason+1 all ! figures are consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 purely by !mselves1 & )\t relation to ! circum/ances ( "t or place1 s t !re is no?+ to w>p ! judgm5t f ! object imm$iately "u consid]ation4 ,besides ! figures 9 g5]al =m a direct contra/ to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 !re is no int]m$iate l9e betwe5 a /raight l9e & a curve4 ,b x is n s 9 morals1 :]e ! lea/ circum/ances v>y ! subject1 & admit a latitude ( int]pretation1 settl+ ! po9ts ( tru? & ju/ice betwe5 two extremes4 ,s t betwe5 :at is "r & :at is unlawful !re is a middle space1 :]e x is easy to incl9e to ! "o side1 or to ! o!r4 ,?is occasions an ambiguity some:at l ! difficulty ( decid+ ! precise mom5t1 :]e ! twilight beg9s1 & :]e x ends4 ,f h5ce ,ari/otle concludes t x is sometimes difficult to det]m9e1 betwe5 two extremes1 :at l9e ( conduct ought to be *os5 or reject$4 ,,ii4 ,b x mu/ be laid d[n z a necess>y pr9ciple1 t al?\gh an action may 9 reality be j1 yet if ! p>ty do+ x1 aft] weigh+ e circum/ance1 _c reconcile ! act to 8 consci5ce1 he incurs "s degree ( guilt4 ,= :atev] is n ( fai?1 says ! ,apo/le1 is s92 :]e1 by ! t]m fai? he means a delib]ate judgm5t ( ! m9d4 ,= ,god has giv5 consci5ce a judicial p[] to be ! sov]eign guide ( human actions1 by despis+ ^: admonitions ! m9d is /upifi$ into brutal h>dness4 ,= x (t5 happ5s t judgm5t c po9t out no?+ c]ta91 b hesitates2 & :5 su* d\bts & hesitations _c satisfactorily be cle>$ up1 ! rule ( ,cic]o is a safe "o to foll[1 :o says1 t x is an excell5t injunction1 :i* =bids u to d a ?+ ( ! rectitude or impropriety ( :i* we ent]ta9 a d\bt4 ,b ?is rule _c be appli$1 :]e ( two ?+s1 9 ! *oice ( :i* !re is equal d\bt1 ! "o mu/ be done1 9 :i* case t mu/ be select$1 :i* seems to be ! lea/ unju/4 ,= on all occasions1 :]e a *oice _c be avoid$1 ! less ( two evils assumes ! appe>ance ( a virtue4 ,,iii4 ,b 9 d\btful cases1 aft] exam9ation1 ! m9d seldom rema9s neut]1 b incl9es to "o side1 or ! o!r1 p]suad$ ei!r by ! m]its ( ! case1 or by respect = ! judgm5t ( ^?1 :o h deliv]$ an op9ion ^u ! "q4 ,n[ ! m]its ( ! case are d]iv$ ei!r f ! causes1 ! effects1 or o!r concomitant circum/ances4 ,,iv4 ,to appreh5d su* di/9ctions prop]ly1 practice & p5etration are necess>y1 & :]e m5 h n 9 !mselves a capacity = ! active ex]cise ( judgm5t x behoves !m to foll[ ! maxims ( o!rs1 :o are di/+ui%$ by _! wisdom & exp]i5ce4 ,=1 9 ! op9ion ( ,ari/otle1 ^? ?+s are probably j1 or true1 :i* seem s to all1 or to ! great] "p ( m5 ( wor?4 ,& ?is is ! me?od ( judg+ pursu$ by ,sov]eign ,pr9ces1 ^: engagem5ts 9 ! affairs ( life all[ !m b little leisure = /udy & delib]ation4 ,?us ! anci5t ,romans nev] und]took w>s1 till !y _h consult$ ! sacr$ college1 e/abli%$ = t purpose1 & ! ,*ri/ian ,emp]ors sc>cely ev] did s )\t advis+ ) ! ,bi%ops1 9 ord] to be appriz$ ( any ?+ !re9 t might affect religion4 ,v4 ,x may happ5 9 _m disput$ po9ts1 t ! intr9sic m]its ( ! case1 or ! op9ions ( ! le>n$1 are equal on bo? sides4 ,:5 t happ5s1 if ! matt]s 9 discussion are ( no great importance1 !re is no?+ to blame 9 ! p]son1 t makes 8 *oice ei!r way4 ,b 9 matt]s ( mom5t1 :]e ! lives ( m5 are at /ake1 ! decision %\ld incl9e to ! saf] side1 accord+ to ! prov]bial maxim1 :i* pron\nces x bett] to acquit ! guilty ?an to condemn ! innoc5t4 ,,vi4 ,w> !n be+ an object ( su* weighty magnitude1 9 :i* ! innoc5t mu/ (t5 be involv$ 9 ! suff]+s ( ! guilty1 betwe5 wav]+ op9ions ! balance %\ld incl9e 9 fav\r ( peace4 ,!re are ?ree me?ods1 by :i* indep5d5t nations may settle _! disput$ rights )\t com+ to ! decision ( ! sword4 ,,vii4 ,! fir/ me?od is t ( conf]5ce4 ,=1 9 ! words ( ,cic]o1 !re be+ two me?ods ( decid+ qu>rels1 ! "o by discussion & ! o!r by =ce1 ! =m]1 a peculi> *>act]i/ic ( man1 & ! latt]1 ( ! brute creation3 :5 ! fir/ ( ^! me?ods fails1 m5 are oblig$ to h rec\rse to ! latt]4 ,m>donius1 9 ! ,polyhymnia ( ,h]odotus1 blames ! ,grecians1 :o1 be+ unit$ 9 "o language1 might settle _! qu>rels by mess5g]s ( peace1 by h]alds1 & negotiations1 r ?an by w>4 ,,viii4 ,! o!r me?od is t ( compromise1 :i* takes place betwe5 ^?1 :o h no common judge4 ,among innum]able in/ances ( ?is k9d 9 anci5t hi/ory1 we may select t giv5 by ,x5ophon 9 8 acc\nt ( ,cyrus1 :]e t pr9ce takes ! k+ ( ! ,indians = arbitrator betwe5 himself & ! k+ ( ,assyria4 ,! ,c>?ag9ians 9 _! disputes ) ,mas9issa pref] a settlem5t ( ?is k9d be=e a decision ( w>4 ,livy too in=ms u t ! ,romans !mselves1 9 a dispute ) ! ,samnites1 made an appeal to ! common allies ( bo?4 ,! (fice ( decid+ w>s & putt+ an end to ! cont5tions ( armies 0 assign$1 accord+ to ,/rabo1 to ! ,druids ( ! ,gauls1 & ^u ! te/imony ( ! same writ]1 x =m$ a "p ( ! prie/ly functions among ! ,ib]ians4 ,surely !n x is a mode ( t]m9at+ _! disputes1 balanc+ _! p[]s1 & settl+ _! pret5sions wor?y to be adopt$ by ,*ri/ian ,k+s & ,/ates4 ,= if1 9 ord] to avoid trials be=e judges :o 7 /rang]s to ! true religion1 ! ,jews & ,*ri/ians appo9t$ arbitrators ( _! own1 & x 0 a practice recomm5d$ & enjo9$ by ,/4 ,paul1 h[ mu* m ought su* a practice to be recomm5d$ & en=c$1 to ga9 ! /ill nobl] end ( prev5t+ ! calamities ( w>4 ,^! & _m o!r reasons ( no less importance might be advanc$ = recomm5d+ to ,*ri/ian p[]s g5]al congresses = ! adju/m5t ( _! v>i\s int]e/s1 & = compell+ ! refractory to submit to equitable t]ms ( peace4 ,,ix4 ,a ?ird me?od ( t]m9at+ disputes1 )\t ho/ilities1 0 by lot1 a practice comm5d$ by ,dion ,*ryso/om 9 8 spee* on ! int]position ( =tune 9 direct+ affairs1 & x 0 comm5d$ long be=e him by ,solomon 9 ! xviii4 *apt] ( 8 ,prov]bs4 ,x4 ,ne>ly relat$ to ! la/ nam$ me?od is t ( s+le combat1 a practice recomm5d$ "u ! idea t by ! risque ( two lives a qu>rel might be decid$1 :i* w\ld o!rwise h co/ ! blood ( ?\s&s4 ,9 ,livy we f9d ,metius address+ ,tullus 9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 let u try "s me?od ( det]m9+ to :om ! pre-em95ce %all belong1 )\t wa/+ ! blood ( ea* p4 ,/rabo says x 0 ! practice ( ! anci5t ,greeks1 & ,a5eas propos$ x to ,turnus1 z ! mo/ equitable way ( settl+ _! pret5sions4 ,x is describ$ too z ! cu/om ( ! anci5t ,franks4 ,,xi4 ,al?\gh 9 d\btful cases1 bo? sides are b\nd to devise e means ( avoid+ ho/ilities1 yet x is a duty m incumb5t ^u ! claimant ?an ^u ! imm$iate possessor ( :atev] may be ! subject ( dispute4 ,= x is a rule n only ( civil1 b ( natural law1 t1 :]e ! pret5sions are equal1 ^? ( ! possessor are to be pref]r$4 ,to ! =ego+ rem>ks an additional obs]vation may be made1 t if any "o1 kn[+ 8 pret5sions to be j1 _c produce suffici5t pro(s to convict ! intrud] ( inju/ice1 he _c lawfully h rec\rse to arms1 because he has no ,,o/5sible ,,"r1 by :i* he c compel ! intrud] to rel9qui% ! possession4 ,,xii4 ,b :]e ! "r is ambigu\s1 & nei!r p>ty has possession1 ! pret5d]1 :o refuses to divide ! claims1 may reasonably be *>g$ ) inju/ice4 ,,xiii4 ,f :at has be5 said x w n be difficult to settle a mu* agitat$ "q1 :e!r1 ) respect to ^?1 :o are ! pr9cipal mov]s ( a w>1 !re c be ju/ice on bo? sides4 ,= !re are di/9ctions prop] to be made 9 ! v>i\s acceptations ( ! ^w ,,j4 ,a ?+ is said to be j1 ei!r z to its causes1 or its effects4 ,! causes too may be conf9$ ei!r to ju/ice 9 a ,,p>ticul> acceptation1 or !y may be ext5d$ s z to include "u t "n e k9d ( rectitude4 ,aga91 a p>ticul> acceptation may be divid$ into two k9ds1 "o relat+ to ! ,,action1 & ! o!r to ! ag5t4#ef ,an ag5t may be said to act ju/ly1 :51 9 :at he does1 he commits no brea* ( ,,/rict ,,law1 ?\gh 8 conduct may n be con=mable to equity4 ,9 a ,,p>ticul> acceptation ( ! ^w ju/ice1 ) reg>d to a matt] 9 dispute1 x _c 9 w>1 any m ?an 9 legal proce$+s1 apply to bo? sides4 ,= !re c be no moral pr9ciple1 comm&+ u1 "u ! same circum/ances1 bo? to ,,d1 & to ,,ab/a9 f a p>ticul> action4 ,x may happ5 inde$ t nei!r ( two bellig]5t p[]s may act unju/ly4 ,= no "o c be *>g$ ) act+ unju/ly unless he kn[s t he is do+ s2 b !re are _m1 :o are n aw>e ( ! nature1 ext5t1 & consequ5ces ( _! measures4 ,?us 9 a law-suit1 bo? p>ties may s9c]ely believe t !y h ju/ice on _! side4 ,= _m ?+s bo? 9 law & fact1 :i* w\ld e/abli% a "r1 may escape ! notice ( m54 ,9 a ,,g5]al acceptation1 an action may be call$ j1 :]e ! ag5t is free f e k9d ( blame4 ,yet 9 _m cases an ag5t may deviate f ! /rict rules ( legal ju/ice1 & be liable to no blame1 :5 t deviation is ow+ to unavoidable ignorance1 !re hav+ be5 nei!r "t nor opportunity suffici5t = him to "k ! sub/ance1 or p]haps exi/5ce ( ! law4 ,s x may happ5 9 law-suits1 t bo? p>ties are free n only f ! imputation ( inju/ice1 b f all blame1 especially :]e ei!r ( !m is litigat+ a matt] n on 8 own1 b on ano!r's acc\nt2 z = in/ance :]e a gu>dian is act+ = 8 w>d1 he w\ld n be au?oriz$ 9 ab&on+ ev5 a d\bt$ "r4 ,ari/otle says t 9 matt]s ( disput$ "r nei!r side c be *>g$ ) inju/ice2 con=mably to :i* op9ion ,qu9tilian obs]ves t an upright plead] may be engag$ on ei!r side ( ! "q4 ,ari/otle fur!r obs]ves t pass+ a j judgm5t is an ambigu\s t]m1 signify+ t a judge det]m9es ei!r accord+ to ! /rict lett] ( ! law1 or accord+ to ! dictates ( 8 own consci5ce4 ,&1 9 ano!r place1 he has said t giv+ a wrong judgm5t ?r\gh ignorance is no act ( inju/ice4 ,b 9 matt]s ( w> & peace1 :]e su* weighty & v>i$ int]e/s on all sides are conc]n$1 x w\ld be difficult to obta9 a judgm5t purely imp>tial1 & ab/ract$ f all p]sonal motives1 unless !re be ! mo/ cle> & und5iable evid5ce on ! po9ts 9 "q4 ,if we d5om9ate a ?+ to be j1 f its effect 9 conf]r+ c]ta9 rights1 9 ?is s5se x is pla9 t 9 w> !re may be ju/ice on bo? sides4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a s5t5ce n /rictly legal1 or a possession n p]fectly j may nev]!less conf] c]ta9 rights4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,precautions ,,aga9/ ,,ra%ly ,,engag+ ,,9 ,,w>1 ,,ev5 ,,^u ,,j ,,gr\nds4 ,relaxation ( "r 9 ord] to avoid w>--p>ticul>ly p5alties--,self-pres]vation motive = =be>+ ho/ilities--,prud5tial rules 9 ! *oice ( advantages--,peace pref]able to ! ext]m9ation ( ho/ile p[]s--,=be>ance prud5t 9 inf]ior p[]s--,w> n to be und]tak51 b f necessity4 ,i4 ,al?\gh x seems n to fall )9 ! imm$iate prov9ce ( a treatise1 entitl$ ! ,,rights ,,( ,,w>1 to ent] into an inve/igation ( o!r moral duties1 :i* ! relations ( w> & peace prescribe1 yet x may n be improp] slightly to t\* ^u c]ta9 errors1 :i* x is necess>y to obviate1 9 ord] to prev5t any "o f suppos+1 t1 aft] e/abli%+ ! "r ( w>1 he is au?oriz$1 ,,in/antly or at ,,all ,,times1 to c>ry 8 pr9ciples into action1 & to r$uce 8 !ory to practice4 ,s f> f ?is1 x frequ5tly happ5s t x is an act ( great] piety & rectitude to yield a "r ?an to en=ce x4 ,x 0 be=e %ewn1 9 its prop] place h[ hon\rable x is to be reg>dless ( our own lives1 :]e we c pres]ve ! lives1 & promote ! la/+ welf>e ( o!rs4 ,a duty t %\ld op]ate ) great] =ce ^u ,*ri/ians1 :o h be=e _! eyes cont9ually ! example ( him1 :o di$ to save u1 :ile we 7 enemies & ungodly4 ,an example :i* calls ^u u1 9 ! mo/ affect+ mann]1 n to insi/ ^u ! rigor\s prosecution ( our ju/e/ rights1 :]e x _c be done b by ! calamities1 :i* w> occasions4 ,if argum5ts & motives l ^! want$ au?orities1 abundance ( au?orities might be adduc$ = _! support4 ,,ii4 ,_m reasons might be br\ght to dissuade u f urg+ ! full infliction ( a puni%m5t4 ,!re is an obvi\s in/ance 9 ! conduct ( fa!rs1 :o connive at _m faults 9 _! *ildr54 ,b :oev]1 is au?oriz$ to puni% ano!r1 assumes ! "* ( a sov]eign rul]1 t is1 ( a fa!r2 9 allusion to :i* ,/4 ,augu/91 address+ ,c\nt ,m>cell9us1 says1 ,o ,*ri/ian ,judge1 fulfil ! (fice ( a pi\s fa!r4 ,sometimes inde$ m5 are s circum/anc$1 t to rel9qui% a "r becomes n only a laudable act1 b a debt ( respect to t law1 :i* comm&s u to love our enemies3 a law to be respect$ & obey$ n only = its intr9sic value1 b z be+ a precept ( ! gospel4 ,by ! same law1 & = ! same reasons1 we are comm&$ to pray = & to promote ! welf>e & safety ( ,*ri/ian ,pr9ces & ,k+s1 because _! welf>e & safety are s ess5tial to ! ord]1 peace1 & happ9ess ( society4 ,,iii4 ,) respect to ! p>don ( (f5ces committ$ aga9/ ourselves1 little ne$ be said1 z x is kn[n to be a lead+ clause 9 ! code ( a ,*ri/ian's duty1 to :i* he readily & freely submits1 kn[+ t ,god = ,*ri/'s sake has =giv5 him4 ,?us reveal$ law adds a sanction to :at 0 kn[n by hea!ns to be an amiable precept4 ,cic]o has drawn a f9e "* ( ,caes>1 9 :i* he comm5ds ! excell5ce ( 8 memory t c\ld recollect e ?+ b injuries4 ,we f9d _m noble examples ( ?is excell5t virtue 9 ! writ+s ( ,moses & 9 v>i\s o!r p>ts ( scripture4 ,^!1 & ^! motives ,,alone1 :5 !y c safely be compli$ ) are suffici5t to keep ! sword )9 its scabb>d4 ,= ! debt ( love & =be>ance to our enemies is an obligation1 :i* x is hon\rable to dis*>ge4 ,,iv4 ,x is (t5 a duty1 :i* we owe to our c\ntry & ourselves1 to =be> hav+ rec\rse to arms4 ,aft] ! college ( h]alds _h pron\nc$ a w> to be j we are in=m$ by ,plut>* 9 ! life ( ,numa1 t ! ,s5ate fur!r delib]at$1 :e!r x 0 exp$i5t to und]take x4 ,accord+ to our ,savi\r's beautiful & in/ructive p>able1 a k+1 :5 he is oblig$ to g to w> ) ano!r k+1 %\ld fir/ sit d[n1 an expression imply+ an act ( delib]ation1 & consid] )9 himself1 :e!r1 ) t5 ?\s& m5 he is able to enc\nt] "o :o is com+ aga9/ him ) tw5ty times t numb]3 & if he f9ds himself unequal to ! conte/1 be=e ! enemy has ent]$ 8 t]ritories he w s5d an embassy to him (f]+ t]ms ( peace4 ,v4 ,9 all cases ( delib]ation1 n only ! ultimate b ! int]m$iate objects lead+ to ! pr9cipal ends are to be consid]$4 ,! f9al object is always "s good1 or at lea/ ! evasion ( "s evil1 :i* am\nts to ! same4 ,! means are nev] to be consid]$ by ,,!mselves1 b only z !y h a t5d5cy to ! propos$ end4 ,:]e=e 9 all cases ( delib]ation1 ! proportion1 :i* ! means & ! end be> to ea* o!r1 is to be duly weigh$1 by comp>+ !m toge!r3 a mode ( comp>ison1 9 :i* !re are ?ree rules necess>y to be obs]v$4 ,! fir/ ?+1 9 a moral po9t ( view1 to be consid]$ is1 :at t5d5cy ! desir$ object has to produce good or evil2 &1 if ! =m] has ! prepond]ancy1 we are !n at lib]ty to *use x4--,9 ! second place1 if x appe>s difficult to decide1 :e!r ! good or ! evil pr$om9ates1 we may *use ! object1 if1 9 ! *oice & use ( our means1 we c give a turn to affairs1 t may ?r[ ! prepond]ance into ! scale ( advantage--or la/ly if ! good & ! evil be> no proportion to ea* o!r1 nor ! means1 ,,at ,,! ,,fir/ ,,view1 appe> adequate to ! end1 if1 9 pursu+ an object1 ! t5d5cy to good1 comp>$ ) ! t5d5cy to evil be great] ?an ! evil itself :5 comp>$ ) ! good2 or if ! good1 9 comp>ison ( ! evil1 be great] ?an ! t5d5cy to evil1 9 comp>ison ( ! t5d5cy to good1#eg we may decide 9 fav\r ( x4 ,cic]o has treat$ ^! ab/ruse po9ts 9 a m popul> & pleas+ mann] ?an ab/ract reason+ w\ld all[4 ,apply+ all ! beauties ( eloqu5ce to elucidate moral tru?1 he says1 x is ! height ( folly & presumption ,,unnecess>ily to expose ourselves to dang]s4 ,9 enc\nt]+ calamities we mu/ imitate ! conduct ( physicians :o use g5tle rem$ies ) weakly con/itutions4 ,b 9 con/itutions ( a /rong] ca/1 especially1 9 virul5t disord]s1 !y mu/ h rec\rse to m p[]ful1 ?\gh m dang]\s exp$i5ts4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a skilful pilot w\ld n attempt to face ! w9d directly1 b w\ld tack ab\t 9 ord] to avoid its fury4 ,,vi4 ,an example ( evils1 t ought by all possible means to be avoid$1 is furni%$ by ! consultations among ! /ates ( ,gaul1 :o1 accord+ to ! acc\nt ( ,tacitus1 delib]at$1 :e!r !y %\ld make *oice ( lib]ty or peace4 ,by lib]ty is "h meant civil lib]ty1 t is1 ! "r ( gov]n+ !mselves1 & rema9+ indep5d5t /ates2 & by peace is meant su* a peace z w\ld prev5t ! :ole p f be+ ext]m9at$1 a calamity l t :i* befel ! ,jews1 :5 _! city 0 besieg$ by ,titus4 ,9 su* cases reason itself dictates ! *oice ( peace1 z ! only means ( pres]v+ life1 :i* is ! imm$iate gift ( ,god1 & ! f\ndation ( e bless+4 ,s t ! ,almighty1 z we read 9 8 sacr$ volume1 deems x a k9dness1 :5 in/ead ( de/roy+ a p1 he p]mits !m to be r$uc$ to slav]y4 ,!re=e he admoni%es ! ,hebrews1 by ! m\? ( 8 prophet1 to surr5d] to ! ,babylonians1 r ?an to die by pe/il5ce & fam9e4 ,:at has be5 said ( submitt+ to disadvantages1 & "s calamities = ! pres]vation ( life or lib]ty1 may be appli$ to e object ( de> value4 ,z ,ari/ides says1 x is a moral duty 9 a /orm1 to save ! %ip by ca/+ ov]bo>d ! goods1 b n ! crew4 ,,vii4 ,9 exact+ puni%m5t x is necess>y to use ! precaution ( avoid+ ho/ilities ) a p[] ( equal /r5g?4 ,= to av5ge a wrong1 or to ass]t a "r by =ce ( arms requires a sup]iority ( /r5g?4 ,s t n only prud5ce1 b a reg>d = _! subjects w at all times det] rul]s f involv+ _! p 9 ! calamities ( w>4 ,a pr9ciple ( ju/ice too1 ! sole directress ( human affairs1 b9d+ sov]eigns & subjects to ea* o!r by _! mutual int]e/s1 w tea* ?is lesson ( precaution4 ,= rep>ation mu/ be look$ = at ! h&s ( ^?1 :o br+ on ! calamities ( wanton & unnecess>y w>4 ,livy calls t a j1 :i* is a necess>y w>1 & x is a pi\s cause1 :5 no hope is left1 b 9 rec\rse to arms4 ,,viii4 ,x is b n[ & !n a cause ( su* imp]i\s necessity occurs1 z to dem& ! decision ( ! sword1 & t is1 :51 z ,florus says1 ! des]tion ( a "r w be foll[$ by calamities f> m cruel1 ?an ! fi]ce/ w>s4 ,s5eca says1 t x is "r to meet dang]1 :5 equal h>m w\ld result f acquiesc+ 9 an injury1 & 9 ?is1 he is support$ by ,tacitus1 :o calls w> a happy ex*ange = a mis]able & insecure peace1 & ! same animat$ writ] 9 ano!r place obs]ves1 t an oppress$ p may recov] _! lib]ty by d>+ ent]prize1 &1 if defeat$ !y _c be r$uc$ to great] subjection ?an be=e2 a s5tim5t1 ) :i* ,livy accords1 9 nam+ peace1 :5 c\pl$ ) s]vitude1 a f> m griev\s calamity1 ?an all ! horrors ( w>4 ,b x is n s1 z ,cic]o says1 :]e defeat w be att5d$ ) proscription1 & victory ) bondage4 ,,ix4 ,ano!r necess>y precaution relates to ! ,,"t1 :5 x is prop] to und]take a w>1 :i* dep5ds ^u a due calculation1 :e!r !re are res\rces & /r5g? suffici5t to support our j pret5sions4 ,?is is con=mable to :at 0 said by ,augu/us1 t no w> %\ld be und]tak51 b :]e ! hopes ( advantage c\ld be %ewn to ov]balance ! appreh5sions ( ru94 ,scipio ,africanus1 & ,lucius ,aemilius ,paulus us$ to speak 9 t]ms n inapplicable to ?is subject1 = !y said x 0 nev] "r to try ! ev5t ( battle1 b "u extreme necessity1 or fav\rable circum/ances4 ,! above precautions are ( great use1 :]e we hope by ! dread & fame ( our prep>ations to accompli% our object ) little or no dang]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,und]tak+ ,,w> ,,= ,,o!rs4 ,sov]eigns may engage 9 w> to support ! rights ( _! subjects--,:e!r an innoc5t subject c be deliv]$ up to an enemy to avoid dang]--,w>s ju/ly und]tak5 9 support ( conf$]ates ^u equal1 or unequal t]ms--,= fri5ds--,= any m5--,omission ( ?is duty n blamable1 f motives ( self-pres]vation--,:e!r w> may be ju/ly und]tak5 9 def5ce ( ano!r's subjects1 expla9$ by di/9ctions4 ,i4 ,9 speak+ ( bellig]5t p[]s1 x 0 %ewn t ! law ( nature au?orises ! ass]tion n only ( our own rights1 b ( ^? also belong+ to o!rs4 ,! causes !re=e1 :i* ju/ify ! pr9cipals engag$ 9 w>1 w ju/ify ^? also1 :o af=d assi/ance to o!rs4 ,b :e!r any "o presides ov] an h\sehold1 or a /ate1 ! fir/ & mo/ necess>y c>e is ! support ( 8 dep5d5ts or subjects4 ,= ! h\sehold =ms b "o body ) ! ma/]1 & ! p ) ! sov]eign4 ,s ! p ( ,israel "u ! comm& ( ,jo%ua took up arms 9 support ( ! ,gibeonites1 :om !y _h subdu$4 ,our =efa!rs1 said ,cic]o to ! ,romans1 (t5 engag$ 9 w> to support ! rights ( m]*ants1 ^: vessels _h be5 plund]$4 ,! same ,romans :o w\ld refuse to take arms = a p :o 7 only allies1 did n hesitate to ass]t by =ce ( arms ! injur$ rights ( ! same1 :5 !y became _! subjects4 ,,ii4 ,yet ! cause ( any subject1 al?\gh x may be a j cause1 does n always b9d sov]eigns or rul]s to take arms3 b only :5 x c be done )\t inconv5i5ce to all1 or ! great] "p ( _! subjects4 ,= ! int]e/s ( ! :ole community1 r ?an ^? ( p>ticul> p>ts1 are ! pr9cipal objects ( a sov]eign's c>e2 & ! great] any "p is1 ! ne>] its claims & pret5sions approximate to ^? ( ! :ole4 ,,iii4 ,"s h ma9ta9$ ! position1 t if an enemy requires ! surr5d] ( a citiz51 h[ev] innoc5t1 ! dem& mu/ unque/ionably be compli$ )1 if ! /ate is too feeble to resi/ x4 ,?is op9ion is /rongly controv]t$ by ,vasquez1 b if we att5d to 8 mean+ m ?an 8 words1 we %all f9d x to be ! drift ( 8 argum5t1 t su* a citiz5 ought n to be ra%ly ab&on$1 :ile !re rema9s any possible hope ( protect+ him4 ,= z a case 9 po9t1 he alleges ! conduct ( ! ,italian ,infantry1 :o1 ^u receiv+ assurances ( protection f ,caes>1 des]t$ ,pompey1 ev5 be=e he 0 r$uc$ to absolute despair3 a conduct :i* he des]v$ly reprobates 9 ! /ronge/ t]ms4 ,b :e!r an innoc5t citiz5 may be giv5 up into ! h&s ( an enemy to avoid imm95t de/ruction1 :i* w\ld o!rwise fall ^u ! /ate1 is a po9t t ,,has ,,be5 =m]ly1 & ,,is /ill disput$ by ! le>n$1 accord+ to ! beautiful fable1 :i* ,demo/h5es told ( ! wolves1 :o dem&$ ( ! %eep ! surr5d] ( ! dogs1 z ! only t]ms ( peace4 ,! lawfulness ( ?is is d5i$ n only by ,vasquez1 b by "o1 ^: op9ions t writ] condemns1 z be>+ a ne> approa* to p]fidy4 ,sotus holds x z an e/abli%$ maxim1 t su* a citiz5 is b\nd to deliv] himself up3 ?is ,vasquez d5ies1 because ! nature ( civil society1 :i* e "o has ent]$ into = 8 own advantage1 requires no su* ?+4 ,no conclusion c be drawn f h5ce1 except t a citiz5 is n b\nd to ?is by any ,,"r ,,/rictly ,,s ,,call$1 :ile at ! same "t ! law ( *>ity w n suff] him to act o!rwise4 ,= !re are _m duties n prop]ly includ$ 9 ! idea ( /rict ju/ice4 ,^! are reg>d$ z acts ( good w1 ! p]=mance ( :i* is n only cr[n$ ) praise1 b ! omission ( !m _c escape c5sure4 ,su* is ! complexion ( ! foll[+ maxim1 t e "o %\ld pref] ! lives ( an innum]able & innoc5t multitude to 8 own p]sonal & private welf>e4 ,cic]o1 9 def5d+ ,publius ,sextius1 says1 ,if ,i 7 tak+ a voyage ) my fri5ds1 & happ5+ to meet ) a fleet ( pirates1 !y ?reat5$ to s9k our little b>k1 unless ! crew surr5d]$ me z ! victim to appease _! fury1 ,i w\ld soon] ?r[ myself into ! deep1 ?an suff] my companions out ( _! affection to me to enc\nt] sure dea?1 or ev5 imm95t dang]4 ,b aft] e/abli%+ ?is po9t1 !re rema9s a d\bt1 :e!r any "o c be ,,compell$ to d :at he is ,,b\nd to d4 ,sotus d5ies ?is1 & 9 support ( 8 argum5t quotes ! case ( a ri* man1 :o1 ?\gh b\nd f motives ( *>ity to supply ! wants ( ! ne$y1 _c be compell$ to d s4 ,b ! transactions ( equals ) ea* o!r1 mu/ be regulat$ ^u pr9ciples v diff]5t f ^? t regulate ! mutual relations ( sov]eigns & subjects4 ,= an equal _c compel an equal to ! p]=mance ( any ?+1 b :at he is /rictly b\nd by law to p]=m4 ,b a sup]ior may compel an inf]ior to ! p]=mance ( ,,o!r duties besides ^? ( ,,p]fect ,,obligations2 = t is a "r peculi>ly & ess5tially belong+ to ! nature ( sup]iority4 ,!re=e c]ta9 legislative provisions may be made1 enact+ ! p]=mance ( su* duties1 z seem to p>take ( ! nature ( b5evol5ce4 ,phocion1 z x is m5tion$ 9 ,plut>*'s lives1 said t ! p]sons1 :om ,alex&] dem&$1 _h r$uc$ ! commonweal? to su* di/ress1 t if he dem&$ ev5 8 de>e/ fri5d ,nicocles1 he %\ld vote = deliv]+ him up4 ,,iv4 ,next to subjects1 & ev5 ^u an equal foot+ ) !m1 z to claims ( protection1 are allies1 a "n includ+1 9 its consequ5ces & effects1 bo? ^?1 :o h =m$ a subord9ate connection ) ano!r p[]1 & ^? :o h ent]$ into engagem5ts ( mutual assi/ance4 ,yet no su* compacts c b9d ei!r ( ! p>ties to ! support or prosecution ( unju/ w>s4 ,& ?is is ! reason1 :y ! ,lac$aemonians1 be=e !y w5t to w> ) ! ,a!nians1 left all _! allies at lib]ty to decide = !mselves ^u ! ju/ice ( ! qu>rel4 ,to :i* an additional obs]vation may be made1 t no ally is b\nd to assi/ 9 ! prosecution ( s*emes1 :i* af=d no possible prospect ( a happy t]m9ation4 ,= ?is w\ld be defeat+ ! v end ( alliances1 :i* are contract$ f motives ( public advantage1 & n = a p>ticipation 9 ru94 ,b any p[] is oblig$ to def5d an ally ev5 aga9/ ^?1 ) :om x is already connect$ by subsi/+ treaties1 provid$ ^? treaties conta9 no express condition prohibit+ su* def5ce4 ,?us ! ,a!nians might h def5d$ ! ,corcyraeans1 ,,9 ,a ,,j ,,cause1 ev5 aga9/ ! ,cor9?ians1 _! m anci5t allies4 ,v4 ,a ?ird case is t1 :]e assi/ance has n be5 expressly promis$ to a fri5dly p[]1 & yet is due on ! score ( fri5d%ip1 if x c be giv5 )\t inconv5i5ce4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple ,abraham took arms 9 def5ce ( 8 k9sman ,lot3 & ! ,romans *>g$ ! ,antiates to commit no acts ( piracy ^u ! ,greeks1 z be+ a p ( ! same k9dr$ ) ! ,italians4 ,x 0 no unusual ?+ ) ! ,romans to beg91 or at lea/ to ?reat5 to beg9 w>s n only 9 support ( allies1 to :om !y 7 b\nd by treaty1 b 9 support ( any fri5dly p[]s4 ,,vi4 ,! la/ & mo/ ext5sive motive is ! common tie ( "o ,,common ,,nature1 :i* alone is suffici5t to oblige m5 to assi/ ea* o!r4 ,,vii4 ,x is a "q1 :e!r "o man is b\nd to protect ano!r1 or "o p ano!r p f injury & aggression4 ,plato ?9ks t ! individual or /ate n def5d+ ano!r f int5d$ viol5ce is des]v+ ( puni%m5t4 ,a case = :i* provision 0 made by ! laws ( ! ,egyptians4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place x is c]ta9 t no "o is b\nd to give assi/ance or protection1 :5 x w be att5d$ ) evid5t dang]4 ,= a man's own life & prop]ty1 & a /ate's own exi/5ce & pres]vation are ei!r to ! individual1 or ! /ate1 objects ( great] value & prior consid]ation ?an ! welf>e & security ( o!r individuals or /ates4 ,nor w /ates or individuals be b\nd to risk _! own safety1 ev5 :5 ! aggriev$ or oppress$ p>ty _c be reliev$ b by ! de/ruction ( ! invad] or oppressor4 ,= "u "s circum/ances x is impossible successfully to oppose cruelty & oppression1 ! puni%m5t ( :i* mu/ be left to ! et]nal judge ( mank9d4 ,,viii4 ,?\gh x is a rule e/abli%$ by ! laws ( nature & ( social ord]1 & a rule confirm$ by all ! records ( hi/ory1 t e sov]eign is supreme judge 9 8 own k+dom & ov] 8 own subjects1 9 ^: disputes no =eign p[] c ju/ly int]f]e4 ,yet :]e a ,busiris1 a ,phal>is or a ,?racian ,diom$e provoke _! p to despair & resi/ance by unhe>d ( cruelties1 hav+ !mselves ab&on$ all ! laws ( nature1 !y lose ! rights ( indep5d5t sov]eigns1 & c no long] claim ! privilege ( ! law ( nations4 ,?us ,con/ant9e took up arms aga9/ ,max5tius & ,lic9ius1 & o!r ,roman emp]ors ei!r took1 or ?reat5$ to take !m aga9/ ! ,p]sians1 if !y did n desi/ f p]secut+ ! ,*ri/ians4 ,admitt+ t x w\ld be fraught ) ! greate/ dang]s if subjects 7 all[$ to r$ress grievances by =ce ( arms1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t o!r p[]s are prohibit$ f giv+ !m assi/ance :5 lab\r+ "u griev\s oppressions4 ,= :5ev] ! imp$im5t to any action is ( a p]sonal nature1 & n inh]5t 9 ! action itself1 "o p]son may p]=m = ano!r1 :at he _c d = himself1 provid$ x is an action by :i* "s k9d s]vice may be r5d]$4 ,?us a gu>dian or any o!r fri5d may und]take an action = a w>d1 :i* he is incapacitat$ f do+ = himself4 ,! imp$im5t1 :i* prohibits a ,,subject f mak+ resi/ance1 does n dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! ,,occasion1 :i* w\ld op]ate equally ^u ! feel+s ( m51 :e!r !y 7 subjects or n1 b ^u ! "* ( ! p]sons1 :o _c transf] _! natural allegiance f _! own sov]eign to ano!r4 ,b ?is pr9ciple does n b9d ^?1 :o are n ! liege-subjects ( t sov]eign or p[]4 ,_! opposition to him or ! /ate may sometimes be connect$ ) ! def5ce ( ! oppress$1 & c nev] be con/ru$ into an act ( treason4 ,b pretexts ( t k9d _c always be all[$1 !y may (t5 be us$ z ! cov] ( ambiti\s designs4 ,b "r does n necess>ily lose its nature f be+ 9 ! h&s ( wick$ m54 ,! sea /ill cont9ues a *annel ( lawful int]c\rse1 ?\gh sometimes navigat$ by pirates1 & swords are /ill in/rum5ts ( def5ce1 ?\gh sometimes wield$ by robb]s or assass9s4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,:at ,,is ,,lawful ,,9 ,,w>4 ,:at is lawful 9 w>--,g5]al ,rules d]iv$ f ! law ( nature--,/ratagems & lies--,arrangem5t ( ! foll[+ p>ts--,fir/ rule1 all ?+s necess>y to ! end lawful--,"r result+ n only f ! orig9 ( a w>1 b f causes gr[+ out ( ! same--,c]ta9 consequ5ces ju/ifiable1 ?\gh n orig9ally lawful--,:at measures are lawful aga9/ ^? :o furni% an enemy ) supplies--,/ratagems--,negative--,positi ve--,sometimes all[able to use words 9 a s5se diff]5t f ! g5]al acceptation--,a lie accord+ to ! true notion ( x injuri\s to ! rights ( o!rs--,falsehood all[able 9 ord] to deceive *ildr5 or madm5--,any "o address+ ano!r )\t int5tions to deceive1 n answ]able = ! misconceptions ( a ?ird p]son--,a p]son n answ]able = ! wilful mi/akes ( ^? to :om he speaks--,! fictiti\s ?reats ( a p]son 9 au?ority--,fiction all[able 9 ord] to save ! lives ( ! innoc5t1 or to promote o!r equally important purposes--,deception lawful aga9/ an enemy1 b n includ+ promises1 or oa?s--,to =be> us+ ?is privilege an act ( g5]osity & ,*ri/ian simplicity--,n all[able to urge o!rs to :at is unlawful = !m1 b n = u to d--,all[able to use ! s]vices ( des]t]s4 ,i4 ,hav+1 9 ! prec$+ books1 consid]$ by :at p]sons1 & = :at causes1 w> may be ju/ly decl>$ & und]tak51 ! subject necess>ily leads to an inquiry into ! circum/ances1 "u :i* w> may be und]tak51 into ! ext5t1 to :i* x may be c>ri$1 & into ! mann]1 9 :i* its rights may be en=c$4 ,n[ all ^! matt]s may be view$ 9 ! light ( privileges result+ simply f ! law ( nature & ( nations1 or z ! effects ( "s prior treaty or promise4 ,b ! actions1 :i* are au?oris$ by ! law ( nature1 are ^? t are fir/ entitl$ to att5tion4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z x has occasionally be5 obs]v$1 ! means employ$ 9 ! pursuit ( any object mu/1 9 a great degree1 d]ive ! complexion ( _! moral "* f ! nature ( ! end to :i* !y lead4 ,x is evid5t !re=e t we may ju/ly avail ourselves ( ^? means1 provid$ !y be lawful1 :i* are necess>y to ! atta9m5t ( any "r4 ,,"r 9 ?is place means :at is /rictly s call$1 signify+ ! moral p[] ( action1 :i* any "o z a memb] ( society possesses4 ,on :i* acc\nt1 a p]son1 if he has no o!r means ( sav+ 8 life1 is ju/ifi$ 9 us+ any =cible means ( repell+ an attack1 ?\gh he :o makes x1 z = in/ance1 a soldi] 9 battle1 9 do+ s1 is guilty ( no crime4 ,= ?is is a "r result+ n prop]ly f ! crime ( ano!r1 b f ! privilege ( self-def5ce1 :i* nature grants to e "o4 ,besides1 if any "o has ,,sure & ,,und\bt$ gr\nds to appreh5d imm95t dang] f any ?+ belong+ to ano!r1 he may seize x )\t any reg>d to ! guilt or innoc5ce ( t own]4 ,yet he does n by t seizure become ! proprietor ( x4 ,= t is n necess>y to ! end he has 9 view4 ,he may ,,deta9 x z a precaution>y measure1 till he c obta9 satisfactory assurance ( security4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple any "o has a natural "r to seize :at belongs to him1 & is unlawfully deta9$ by ano!r3 or1 if t is impracticable1 he may seize some?+ ( equal value1 :i* is ne>ly ! same z recov]+ a debt4 ,recov]ies ( ?is k9d e/abli% a prop]ty 9 ! ?+s s reclaim$2 :i* is ! only me?od ( re/or+ ! equality & repair+ ! brea*es ( violat$ ju/ice4 ,s too :5 puni%m5t is lawful & j1 all ! means absolutely necess>y to en=ce its execution are also lawful & j1 & e act t =ms a "p ( ! puni%m5t1 su* z de/roy+ an enemy's prop]ty & c\ntry by fire or any o!r way1 falls )9 ! limits ( ju/ice proportionable to ! (f5ce4 ,,iii4 ,9 ! second place1 x is g5]ally kn[n t x is n ! ,,orig9 only ( a j w> :i* is to be view$ z ! pr9cipal s\rce ( _m ( our rights1 b !re may be causes gr[+ out ( t w> :i* may give bir? to additional rights4 ,z 9 proce$+s at law1 ! s5t5ce ( ! c\rt may give to ! successful litigant o!r rights besides ^? belong+ to ! orig9al matt] ( dispute4 ,s ^? :o jo9 our enemies1 ei!r z allies or subjects1 give u a "r ( def5d+ ourselves aga9/ ,,!m also4 ,s too a nation engag+ 9 an unju/ w>1 ! inju/ice ( :i* %e kn[s & ought to "k1 becomes liable to make good all ! exp5ces & losses incurr$1 because %e has be5 guilty ( occasion+ !m4 ,9 ! same mann] ^? p[]s1 :o become auxili>ies 9 w>s und]tak5 )\t any reasonable gr\nds1 contract a degree ( guilt & r5d] !mselves liable to puni%m5t 9 proportion to ! inju/ice ( _! measures4 ,plato approves ( w> conduct$ s f>1 z to compel ! aggressor to indemnify ! injur$ & ! innoc5t4 ,,iv4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 an individual or bellig]5t p[] may1 9 ! prosecution ( a lawful object1 d _m ?+s1 :i* 7 n 9 ! contemplation ( ! orig9al design1 & :i* 9 ,,!mselves x w\ld n be lawful to d4 ,?us 9 ord] to obta9 :at belongs to u1 :5 x is impossible to recov] ! specific ?+1 we may take m ?an our due1 "u condition ( repay+ :atev] is above ! real value4 ,= ! same reason x is lawful to attack a %ip mann$ by pirates1 or a h\se occupi$ by robb]s1 al?\gh 9 t %ip1 or t h\se !re may be _m innoc5t p]sons1 ^: lives are endang]$ by su* attack4 ,b we h _h frequ5t occasion to rem>k1 t :at is con=mable to "r tak5 9 its /ricte/ s5se is n always lawful 9 a moral po9t ( view4 ,= !re are _m in/ances1 9 :i* ! law ( *>ity w n all[ u to insi/ ^u our "r ) ! utmo/ rig\r4 ,a reason = :i* x w be necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ?+s1 :i* fall n )9 ! orig9al purpose ( an action1 & ! happ5+ ( :i* might be =ese53 unless inde$ ! action has a t5d5cy to produce advantages1 t w f> outweigh ! consequ5ces ( any accid5tal calamity1 & ! appreh5sions ( evil are by no means to be put 9 competition ) ! sure hopes ( a successful issue4 ,b to det]m9e 9 su* cases requires no ord9>y p5etration & discretion4 ,b :]ev] !re is any d\bt1 x is always ! saf] way to decide 9 fav\r ( ano!r's int]e/1 ?an to foll[ ! b5t ( our own incl9ation4 ,suff] ! t>es to gr[1 says our div9e tea*]1 lea/ 9 root+ up ! t>es y root up ! :eat also4 ,! g5]al de/ruction1 :i* ! ,almighty1 9 "r ( 8 supreme ,maje/y1 has sometimes decre$ & execut$1 is n a rule1 :i* we c presume to foll[4 ,he has n inve/$ m51 9 ! ex]cise ( p[]1 ) ^? transc5d5t sov]eign rights4 ,yet he himself1 not)/&+ ! un*angeable nature ( 8 sov]eign w1 0 incl9$ to sp>e ! mo/ wick$ cities1 if t5 righte\s p]sons c\ld be f\nd !re94 ,examples l ^! may furni% u ) rules to decide1 h[ f> ! rights ( w> aga9/ an enemy may be ex]cis$ or relax$4 ,v4 ,x frequ5tly occurs z a matt] ( inquiry1 h[ f> we are au?oris$ to act aga9/ ^?1 :o are nei!r enemies1 nor wi% to be ?\ght s1 b :o supply our enemies ) c]ta9 articles4 ,= we "k t x is a po9t1 :i* on =m] & rec5t occasions has be5 conte/$ ) ! greate/ animosity2 "s wi%+ to en=ce ) all imag9>y rig\r ! rights ( w>1 & o!rs /&+ up = ! fre$om ( comm]ce4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 ! commodities !mselves4 ,= !re are "s1 su* z arms = in/ance1 :i* are only ( use 9 w>2 !re are o!rs aga91 :i* are ( no use 9 w>1 b only adm9i/] to luxury2 b !re are "s articles1 su* z money1 provisions1 %ips & naval /ores1 :i* are ( use at all times bo? 9 peace & w>4 ,z to convey+ articles ( ! fir/ k9d1 x is evid5t t any "o mu/ be rank$ z an enemy1 :o supplies an enemy ) ! means ( prosecut+ ho/ilities4 ,aga9/ ! conveyance ( commodities ( ! second k9d1 no j compla9t c be made4--,& z to articles ( ! ?ird class1 f _! be+ ( a d\btful k9d1 a di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 ! times ( w> & peace4 ,= if a p[] _c def5d itself1 b by int]cept+ ! supplies s5t to an enemy1 necessity w ju/ify su* a /ep1 b ^u condition ( mak+ re/oration1 unless !re be "s additional reasons to ! contr>y4 ,b if ! conveyance ( goods to an enemy t5ds to ob/ruct any bellig]5t p[] 9 ! prosecution ( a lawful "r1 & ! p]son s convey+ !m possesses ! means ( kn[+ x2 if t p[]1 = in/ance1 is besieg+ a t[n1 or blockad+ a port1 9 expectation ( a spe$y surr5d] & a peace1 ! p]son1 :o furni%es ! enemy ) supplies1 & ! means ( prolong$ resi/ance1 w be guilty ( an aggression & injury t[>ds t p[]4 ,he w incur ! same guilt1 z a p]son w\ld d by assi/+ a debtor to escape f prison1 & !reby to defraud 8 cr$itor4 ,8 goods may be tak5 by way ( indemnity1 & 9 dis*>ge ( ! debt4 ,if ! p]son has n yet committ$ ! injury1 b only int5d$ to d s1 ! aggriev$ p[] w h a "r to deta9 8 goods1 9 ord] to compel him to give future security1 ei!r by putt+ into 8 h&s ho/ages1 or pl$ges2 or inde$ 9 any o!r way4 ,b if !re are evid5t pro(s ( inju/ice 9 an enemy's conduct ! p]son :o supports him 9 su* a case1 by furni%+ him ) succ\rs1 w be guilty n b>ely ( a civil injury1 b 8 giv+ assi/ance w am\nt to a crime z enorm\s1 z x w\ld be to rescue a crim9al 9 ! v face ( ! judge4 ,& on t acc\nt ! injur$ p[] may proce$ aga9/ him z a crim9al1 & puni% him by a confiscation ( 8 goods4 ,^! are ! reasons1 :i* induce bellig]5t p[]s to issue manife/oes1 z an appeal to o!r /ates1 ^u ! ju/ice ( _! cause1 & _! probable hopes ( ultimate success4 ,?is "q has be5 introduc$ "u ! article1 :i* ref]s to ! law ( nature1 z hi/ory supplies u ) no prec$5t to d$uce its e/abli%m5t f ! volunt>y law ( nations4 ,we are in=m$ by ,polybius1 9 8 fir/ book1 t ! ,c>?ag9ians seiz$ "s ( ! ,romans1 :o 7 c>ry+ supplies to _! enemies1 ?\gh !y aft]w>ds gave !m up1 ^u ! dem& ( ! ,romans4 ,plut>* says t :5 ,demetrius _h inve/$ ,attica1 & tak5 ! neighb\r+ t[ns ( ,eleusis & ,rhamnus1 he ord]$ ! ma/] & pilot ( a %ip1 attempt+ to convey provisions into ,a!ns1 to be hang$1 z he design$ to r$uce t city by fam9e3 ?is act ( rig\r det]r$ o!rs f do+ ! same1 & by t means he made himself ma/] ( ! ,city4 ,,vi4 ,w>s1 = ! atta9m5t ( _! objects1 x _c be d5i$1 mu/ employ =ce & t]ror z _! mo/ prop] ag5ts4 ,b a d\bt is sometimes ent]ta9$1 :e!r /ratagem may be lawfully us$ 9 w>4 ,! g5]al s5se ( mank9d seems to h approv$ ( su* a mode ( w>f>e4 ,= ,hom] comm5ds 8 h]o1 ,ulysses1 no less = 8 ability 9 milit>y /ratagem1 ?an = 8 wisdom4 ,x5ophon1 :o 0 a philosoph] z well z a soldi] & hi/orian1 has said1 t no?+ c be m useful 9 w> ?an a well-tim$ /ratagem1 ) :om ,brasidas1 9 ,?ucydides agrees1 decl>+ x to be ! me?od f :i* _m great g5]als h d]iv$ ! mo/ brilliant reputation4 ,& 9 ,plut>*1 ,agesilaus ma9ta9s1 t deceiv+ an enemy is bo? j & lawful4 ,! au?ority ( ,polybius may be add$ to ^? already nam$2 = he ?9ks1 t x %ews great] tal5t 9 a g5]al to avail himself ( "s fav\rable opportunity to employ a /ratagem1 ?an to ga9 an op5 battle4 ,?is op9ion ( poets1 hi/orians1 & philosoph]s is support$ by t ( ,!ologians4 ,= ,augu/9 has said t1 9 ! prosecution ( a j w>1 ! ju/ice ( ! cause is no way affect$ by ! atta9m5t ( ! end1 :e!r ! object be accompli%$ by /ratagem or op5 =ce1 & ,*ryso/om1 9 8 beautiful little treatise on ! prie/ly (fice1 obs]ves1 t ! highe/ praises are be/[$ on ^? g5]als1 :o h practis$ successful /ratagems4 ,yet !re is "o circum/ance1 ^u :i* ! decision ( ?is "q turns m ?an ^u any op9ion ev5 ( ! highe/ au?ority1 & t is1 :e!r /ratagem ought to be rank$ z "o ( ^? evils1 :i* are prohibit$ "u ! maxim ,,( ,,n ,,do+ ,,evil1 ,,t ,,good ,,may ,,ensue1 or to be reckon$ z "o ( ^? actions1 :i*1 ?\gh evil ,,9 ,,!mselves1 may be s modifi$ by p>ticul> occasions1 z to lose _! crim9ality 9 consid]ation ( ! good1 to :i* !y lead4 ,,vii4 ,!re is "o k9d ( /ratagem1 x is prop] to rem>k1 ( a negative1 & ano!r ( a positive k9d4 ,! ^w /ratagem1 ^u ! au?ority ( ,labeo1 tak5 9 a negative s5se1 includes su* actions1 z h no?+ crim9al 9 !m1 ?\gh calculat$ to deceive1 :]e any "o1 = in/ance1 uses a degree ( dissimulation or concealm5t1 9 ord] to def5d 8 own prop]ty or t ( o!rs4#eh ,s t und\bt$ly !re is some?+ ( h>%ness 9 ! op9ion ( ,cic]o1 :o says !re is no sc5e ( life1 t w all[ ei!r simulation1 or dissimulation to be practis$4 ,= z y are n b\nd to disclose to o!rs all t y ei!r "k or int5d2 x foll[s t1 on c]ta9 occasions1 "s acts ( dissimulation1 t is1 ( concealm5t may be lawful4 ,?is is a tal5t1 :i* ,cic]o1 9 _m p>ts ( 8 writ+s1 ackn[l$ges t x is absolutely necess>y = /atesm5 to possess4 ,! hi/ory ( ,j]emiah1 9 ! xxxviii? *apt] ( 8 prophecy1 furni%es a rem>kable in/ance ( ?is k9d4 ,= :5 t prophet 0 int]rogat$ by ! k+1 respect+ ! ev5t ( ! siege1 he prud5tly1 9 compliance ) ! k+'s ord]s1 conceal$ ! real matt] f ! nobles1 assign+ a diff]5t1 ?\gh n a false reason = ! conf]5ce1 :i* he _h _h4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ,abraham call$ ,s>ah1 8 si/]1 an appellation us$ famili>ly at t "t to d5ote a ne> relation by blood1 conceal+ ! circum/ance ( h] be+ 8 wife4 ,,viii4 ,a /ratagem ( a positive k9d1 :5 practis$ 9 actions1 is call$ a fe9t1 & :5 us$ 9 conv]sation x receives ! "n ( a lie or falsehood4 ,a di/9ction is made by "s1 betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( /ratagems1 :o say1 t words are signs ( our ideas1 b actions are n s4 ,b !re is m ( tru? 9 ! opposite op9ion1 t words ( !mselves unaccompani$ by ! int5tion ( ! speak]1 signify no?+ m ?an ! in>ticulate cries w\ld d ( any "o lab\r+ "u grief1 or any o!r passion3 :i* s\nds come "u ! d5om9ation ( actions1 r ?an ( spee*4 ,b %\ld x be said t be+ able to convey to o!rs ! conceptions ( 8 m9d1 by words adapt$ to ! purpose1 is a peculi> gift ( nature1 by :i* man is di/+ui%$ f o!r p>ts ( ! animat$ creation1 ! tru? ( ?is _c be d5i$4 ,to :i* we may add t su* communication may be made n only by words1 b by signs or ge/ures1 l ^? us$ to ! dumb2 x makes no diff]5ce1 :e!r ^? signs or ge/ures h any natural connection ) ! ?+ !y are int5d$ to signify1 or :e!r su* a connection is only assign$ to !m by cu/om4 ,equival5t to su* signs or ge/ures is h&writ+1 :i* may be consid]$1 z a dumb language1 d]iv+ its =ce n m]ely f ! words us$1 & ! p>ticul> =m ( ! lett]s1 b f ! real int5tion ( ! writ]1 to be ga!r$ f !nce3--to be ga!r$ ei!r f ! resemblance betwe5 ! *>act]s & ! int5tions1 z 9 ! ,egyptian hi]oglyphics1 or f pure fancy1 z among ! ,*9ese4 ,"h likewise ano!r di/9ction is necess>y to be appli$ 9 ! same mann]1 z 0 done be=e1 9 ord] to remove all ambiguity 9 us+ ! t]m ( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nations4 ,= x 0 !re said1 t ! laws e/abli%$ by indep5d5t & sep>ate /ates1 :e!r or no ^? laws impli$ any mutual obligations1 7 d5om9at$ ! ,,law ,,( ,,nations4#ei ,s t words1 ge/ures1 & signs1 made use ( to convey a mean+1 imply an obligation1 9 all ! p]sons conc]n$1 to receive & employ !m 9 _! common acceptation4 ,b ! employm5t ( ,,o!r ,,means1 com+ "u ,,none ,,( ,,^? ,,descriptions1 _c be con/ru$ into a violation ( any social contract1 al?\gh "s may be deceiv$ !reby4 ,x is ! ,,real ,,nature ( ! actions t is "h spok5 (1 & n ! ,,accid5tal circum/ances att5d+ !m3 su* actions = in/ance1 z occasion no mis*ief2 or if !y d s1 !re is no guilt1 :]e !re is no trea*]\s design4 ,we h an in/ance ( ! =m] k9d 9 ! conduct ( our ,savi\r1 :o1 on ! way to ,emmaus1 pret5d$ to ! disciples1 t he 0 go+ fur!r2 "h 0 a h>mless /ratagem1 unless we int]pret ! words1 z expressive ( 8 int5tion to h gone fur!r1 if he _h n be5 prev5t$ by _! ef=ts & entreaties to deta9 him4 ,& 9 ano!r "p ( ! sacr$ hi/ory x is said1 t he int5d$ to h pass$ by ! ,apo/les on ! sea1 t is1 he int5d$ to h done x1 _h he n be5 s e>ne/ly importun$ by !m to g into ! %ip4 ,!re is ano!r in/ance too 9 ! conduct ( ,paul1 :o circumcis$ ,timo?y1 ?\gh he knew ! ,jews w\ld conclude f !nce1 t ! ord9ance ( circumcision1 :i* 9 reality _h be5 aboli%$1 0 /ill b9d+ ^u ! desc5dants ( ,israel1 & t ,paul & ,timo?y 7 ( ! same op9ion4 ,:]eas ,paul _h no su* int5tion1 b only hop$1 by t means1 to op5 = himself & ,timo?y a way to m famili> int]c\rse ) ! ,jews4 ,nei!r c\ld an ord9ance ( t k9d1 :5 ! div9e obligation 0 repeal$1 any long] be deem$ ( su* importance1 nor c\ld ! evil ( a tempor>y error1 result+ f !nce1 & aft]w>ds to be correct$1 be reg>d$ z equival5t to ! opportunity1 :i* ,paul ?\ght to ga91 ( mak+ x conducive to ! introduction ( ,*ri/ian tru?4 ,! ,greek ,fa!rs h giv5 ! "n ( ,,economy1 or ,,managem5t to /ratagems ( ?is k9d4 ,on ?is subject !re is an admirable s5tim5t 9 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 :o1 9 speak+ ( a good man1 says t he w d _m ?+s = ! b5efit ( 8 neighb\r alone1 :i* he w\ld n o!rwise h und]tak54 ,"o ( ^! /ratagems 0 practis$ by ! ,romans1 :o1 dur+ ! "t t !y 7 besieg$ 9 ! ,capitol1 ?rew "s loaves ( bread into ! enemy's camp1 t x might n be suppos$ !y 7 press$ by fam9e4 ,! feign$ flight1 :i* ,jo%ua ord]$ 8 p to make1 to assi/ him 9 8 designs ^u ,ai1 af=ds an in/ance ( a /ratagem ( ! second k9d2 ! ensu+ mis*iefs ( :i* may be consid]$1 z "s ( ! effects ( lawful w>4 ,! ,,orig9al ,,design ( t pret5d$ flight does n at all affect ! "q4 ,! enemy took x = a pro( ( fe>2 & he 0 at lib]ty to d s1 )\t deb>r+ ! o!r ( 8 "r to m>* ?is way1 or t1 ) an accel]at$ or ret>d$ motion1 ) a %ew ( c\rage1 or an appe>ance ( fe>1 z he might judge x mo/ exp$i5t4 ,hi/ory furni%es u ) innum]able examples ( deceptions practis$ ) success ^u an enemy1 by assum+ 8 arms1 ensigns1 col\rs1 or uni=ms2 all :i* may be ju/ifi$ ^u ! same pr9ciple4 ,= all ^! are actions1 :i* any "o may avail himself ( at 8 pleasure1 by dep>t+ f ! usual c\rse ( 8 milit>y sy/em4 ,= su* po9ts ( discipl9e & sy/em dep5d ^u ! w & fancy ( ! milit>y comm&]s 9 ea* /ate1 r ?an ^u any inv>iable cu/om1 equally b9d+ ^u all nations4 ,,ix4 ,^? signs1 by :i* ! daily int]c\rse ( life is ma9ta9$1 =m a subject ( m weighty discussion1 ) :i* ! consid]ation ( lies or falsehood is necess>ily int]wov54 ,all /ratagems ( ?is k9d are s direct a violation ( all moral pr9ciple1 bo? 9 _! nature & consequ5ces1 t almo/ e page ( ! reveal$ w ( ,god decl>es _! condemnation4 ,solomon describes a righte\s1 t is1 a good man1 z "o1 :o holds e false ^w 9 dete/ation1 deprecat+ ! lea/ appe>ance ( deception3 & ! ,apo/le's injunction accords ) ^! s5tim5ts1 in/ruct+ 8 disciples n to lie to "o ano!r4 ,nor is x 9 ! high /&>d ( p]fection alone1 :i* ! div9e records pres5t1 t su* a recomm5dation ( fair1 op51 & s9c]e deal+ is to be f\nd4 ,x is ! !me ( praise ) poets & philosoph]s1 & ! angry h]o ( ! ,grecian poet decl>es1 t he dete/s ! man1 z an inf]nal be+1 :o utt]s "o ?+ ) 8 tongue1 :ile he conceals ano!r 9 8 he>t4 ,b mak+ "s all[ance = poetic fiction--we f9d ev5 ! grave1 sob]1 & disc]n+1 ,/agirite describ+ falsehood1 z a vile1 & abom9able refuge1 & pa9t+ tru? z a lovely object1 t mu/ extort ! w>me/ praise4 ,^! are all great & high au?orities 9 fav\r ( op5 deal+4 ,yet !re are names ( no less weight1 bo? among sacr$ & pr(ane writ]s1 ^: op9ions are a v9dication ( /ratagems1 :5 us$ ^u ,,prop] occasions4 ,"o writ] speaks ( a case1 :]e /ratagem may be us$1 ev5 = ! b5efit ( ! p]son1 on :om x is practis$1 & adduces ! in/ances ( a physician1 :o1 by means ( a deception1 ov]came ! p]v]s5ess ( a pati5t1 & wr\ght a salut>y cure4 ,x4 ,to reconcile su* a v>iety ( discordant op9ions1 x may be necess>y to devise "s way ( exam9+ falsehood bo? 9 its m ext5sive1 & m conf9$ acceptation4 ,nor is speak+ an untru?1 ,,unaw>es1 to be consid]$ 9 ! nature ( a lie1 b ! falsehood1 :i* comes )9 ! limits "h def9$1 is ! ,,kn[n & ,,delib]ate ,,utt]ance ( any ?+ contr>y to our real conviction1 int5tion1 & und]/&+4 ,words1 or signs1 import+ ! same mean+ z words1 are g5]ally tak5 = conceptions ( ! m9d1 yet x is no lie = any man to utt] a falsehood1 :i* he believes to be true2 b ! propagation ( a tru?1 :i* any "o believes to be false1 ,,9 ,,him am\nts to a lie4 ,!re mu/ be 9 ! use ( ! words !re=e an ,,int5tion to deceive1 9 ord] to con/itute a falsehood 9 ! prop] & common acceptation4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 any "o s+le ^w1 or ! :ole t5\r ( a disc\rse1 admits ( m significations ?an "o1 ei!r by ! use ( "s popul> phrase1 "s t]m ( art1 or intelligible figure ( spee*1 9 t case if ! speak]'s int5tion correspond ) any "o ( ^? mean+s1 he _c be *>g$ ) us+ falsehood1 al?\gh x is possible t a he>] may take 8 words 9 a v diff]5t s5se4 ,x is true t us+ su* an ambigu\s me?od ( speak+ on ,,all ,,occasions is n to be approv$ (1 ?\gh !re are p>ticul> circum/ances "u :i* x may be reconcil$ ) hon\r & ju/ice4 ,9 communicat+ k1 = in/ance1 !re is no h>m 9 us+ a metaphor1 an irony1 or an hyp]bole1 figures ( spee*1 t5d+ ei!r to adorn or to elucidate a subject4 ,!re are cases too1 :]e by ?is d\btful mode ( expression x may be prop] to avoid an urg5t & imp]t95t "q4 ,!re is an in/ance ( ! =m] k9d 9 our ,savi\r's say+1 t our fri5d ,laz>us sleepe?1 :]e ! disciples und]/ood him1 z if he 7 speak+ ( ! refre%+ re/ ( an ord9>y sleep3 & :5 he spoke ( re/or+ ! temple1 :i* he meant 8 own body1 he knew t ! ,jews appli$ :at he said to ! ,,mat]ial ,,edifice ( ! ,temple4 ,9 ! same mann] he frequ5tly address$ ! multitudes 9 p>ables1 :i* !y c\ld n und]/& by b>ely he>+1 )\t t docility ( m9d1 & att5tion1 :i* ! subject requir$4 ,pr(ane hi/ory too furni%es u ) an example ( ! second k9d1 9 ! conduct ( ,vitellius1 :o1 z ,tacitus in=ms u1 gave ,n>cissus d\btful & ambigu\s answ]s1 9 ord] to avoid 8 urg5t que/ions2 z any explicit decl>ation might h be5 att5d$ ) dang]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may happ5 to be n only c5surable1 b ev5 wick$ to use su* a mann] ( speak+1 :]e ei!r ! hon\r ( ,god or ! welf>e ( mank9d is conc]n$1 or inde$ any matt]1 :i* dem&s explicit av[als1 & op5 deal+4 ,?us 9 contracts e ?+ necess>y to _! fulfillm5t ought to be fully disclos$ to ^? conc]n$4 ,!re is an apposite expression ( ,cic]o1 :o says1 t e degree ( deception ought to be bani%$ f all contracts1 & !re is 9 ! old ,a!nian ,laws a prov]b1 con=mable to ?is1 :i* says1 !re mu/ be no?+1 b op5 deal+ 9 m>kets4 ,,xi4 ,9 /rictness ( spee* su* ambiguity is exclud$ f ! notion ( a lie4 ,! common notion ( a lie !re=e is some?+ spok51 writt51 m>k$1 or intimat$1 :i* _c be und]/ood1 b 9 a s5se diff]5t f ! real mean+ ( ! speak]4 ,b a lie1 9 ?is /rict] acceptation1 hav+ "s ?+ unlawful 9 its v nature1 necess>ily requires t a di/9ction %\ld be made betwe5 x & t latitude ( expression already expla9$4 ,& if ?is acceptation be prop]ly consid]$1 at lea/ accord+ to ! op9ion prevail+ 9 all nations1 x seems1 t no o!r explanation ( x is necess>y to be giv51 except t x is a violation ( ! exi/+ & p]man5t rights ( ! p]son1 to :om a disc\rse1 or p>ticul> signs1 are direct$4 ,x is a violation ( ! rights ( ,,ano!r2 = x is evid5t1 t no "o c utt] a falsehood ) a view to impose ^u himself4 ,! rights "h spok5 ( are peculi>ly connect$ ) ?is subject4 ,!y imply t lib]ty ( judgm5t1 :i* m5 are und]/ood1 by a k9d ( tacit agreem5t1 to owe to ea* o!r 9 _! mutual int]c\rse4 ,= ?is1 & ?is alone is t mutual obligation1 :i* m5 int5d$ to introduce1 z soon z !y began to use spee*1 or o!r signs ( equal import4 ,= )\t su* an obligation ! inv5tion ( ^? signs w\ld h be5 p]fectly nugatory4 ,x is requisite too1 t at ! "t a disc\rse is made1 su* a "r or obligation %\ld rema9 9 full =ce4 ,a "r may inde$ h exi/$ & aft]w>ds h become obsolete1 ow+ to ! rise or occurr5ce ( "s new "r3 :i* is ! case ) a debt1 t may be releas$ by acquittance1 or non-p]=mance ( a condition4 ,x is f>!r requisite1 to con/itute a ,,violation ,,( ,,?is ,,"r1 t ! ensu+ injury %\ld imm$iately affect ! ,,p]son ,,address$3 z 9 contracts1 !re c be no inju/ice1 b :at affects "o ( ! p>ties1 or p]sons conc]n$4 ,& p]haps "u ! head ( ?is "r1 x may n be improp] to assign a place to t ,,true ,,speak+1 :i* ,plato1 foll[+ ,simonides1 classes ) ju/ice1 9 ord] to =m a m /rik+ contra/ ) t falsehood1 s (t5 prohibit$ 9 ,scripture1 by ! "n ( false witness to1 or aga9/1 our neighb\r1 & :i* ,augu/91 9 def9+ a lie1 calls an int5tion to deceive4 ,cic]o also 9 8 (fices lays d[n tru?1 z ! basis ( ju/ice4 ,! "r to a discov]y ( ! :ole tru? may be rel9qui%$ by ! express cons5t ( ! p]sons1 :o are engag$ 9 a treaty3 ! "o may decl>e 8 int5tion n to disclose c]ta9 po9ts1 & ! o!r may all[ ( ?is res]ve4 ,!re may be also a tacit presumption1 t !re are j reasons = su* res]ve :i* may p]haps be necess>y out ( reg>d to ! rights ( a ?ird p]son3 rights :i*1 9 ! common judgm5t ( all sob] m51 may be suffici5t to c\nt]balance any obligation 9 ei!r ( ! p]sons engag$ 9 ! treaty to make a full disclosure ( 8 views & s5tim5ts4--,^! pr9ciples1 duly consid]$1 w supply _m inf]5ces to reconcile any seem+ contradiction 9 ! op9ions1 t h be5 advanc$4 ,,xii4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 _m ?+s may be said to madm51 or *ildr51 ! ,,lit]al ,,mean+ ( :i* may n be true1 )\t incurr+ ! guilt ( wilful falsehood4 ,a practice :i* seems to be all[$ by ! common s5se ( all mank9d4 ,qu9tilian1 speak+ ( ! age ( pu]ility1 says1 x is a p]iod ( life1 :5 _m useful tru?s may be taught 9 ! dress ( fiction4--,ano!r reason giv5 is1 t z *ildr5 & madm5 possess no p]fect p[] ( judg+1 impositions ( t k9d c d no injury to _! rights1 9 su* respects4 ,,xiii4 ,secondly1 :5 a conv]sation is address$ to any "o1 :o is n !reby deceiv$1 al?\gh a ?ird p]son1 n imm$iately address$1 may misconceive ! matt]1 !re is no wilful falsehood 9 ! case4 ,no ,,wilful ,,falsehood t[>ds ! p]son address$3 because he feels no great] injury f !nce1 ?an an intellig5t he>] w\ld d f ! recital ( a fable1 or ! use ( a metaphor1 irony1 or hyp]bole 9 spee*4 ,x _c be said t an injury is done to ! p]son1 :o accid5tally & cursorily he>s a matt]1 & misconceives x3 = be+ no way conc]n$1 !re is no obligation due to him4 ,z he misconceives a ?+ address$ to ,,ano!r1 & n to ,,himself1 he mu/ take ^u 8 own head all ! consequ5ces ( ! mi/ake4 ,=1 prop]ly speak+1 ! disc\rse1 ,,) ,,respect ,,to ,,him1 is no disc\rse1 b an inexpressive s\nd t may signify "o ?+ z well z ano!r4 ,s t !re 0 no?+ wrong 9 ! conduct ( ,cato ! ,c5sor1 :o made a false promise ( assi/ance to 8 conf$]ates1 nor 9 t ( ,flaccus1 :o in=m$ o!rs t ,aemilius _h tak5 ! enemy's city by /orm1 al?\gh ! enemy 7 deceiv$ by x4 ,plut>* m5tions an in/ance ( ! same k9d 9 ! life ( ,agesilaus4 ,"h no communication 0 made to ! enemy1 & ! prejudice he su/a9$ 0 an accid5tal ?+ no way unlawful 9 itself1 ei!r to be wi%$ = or procur$4 ,,xiv4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 :5ev] x is c]ta9 t ! p]son1 on :om a deception is practis$1 discov]s t ! int5t ( x 0 to d him a s]vice2 he w n feel x z a grievance1 nor c x come "u ! /rict d5om9ation ( a lie or falsehood4 ,x w be no m an ,,injury1 ?an x w\ld be a ,,!ft 9 any "o1 presum+ ^u an own]'s cons5t1 to take some?+ belong+ to t own]1 9 ord] to conv]t x to 8 use 9 a v b5eficial way4 ,= 9 cases ( notori\s c]ta9ty1 a ,,presumption may be tak5 = express cons5t4 ,b x is evid5t t no man w\ld ,,cons5t to receive an ,,injury4 ,f h5ce x appe>s1 t a p]son is guilty ( no trea*]y1 :o uses unf\nd$ or fictiti\s motives to console a fri5d 9 di/ress1 z ,arria did to ,paetus ^u ! dea? ( 8 son1 ( :i* !re is an acc\nt 9 ,pl9y's ,epi/les1 or 9 a g5]al1 :o 9 a p]il\s situation %\ld avail himself ( false intellig5ce1 to enc\rage 8 troops1 by :i* p]haps a victory might be ga9$4 ,x may be obs]v$ likewise1 t ! injury done to ! fre$om ( judgm5t is1 9 su* a case1 ( less consequ5ce1 because x is b mom5t>y1 & ! real fact is soon discov]$4 ,,xv4 ,!re is a f\r? case1 :i* be>s a ne> aff9ity to ^? above m5tion$1 & t is1 :5 any "o1 possess+ pre-em95t au?ority1 ord]s ano!r1 9 a subord9ate capacity1 to execute "s device or /ratagem1 conducive ei!r to 8 individual1 or to ! public welf>e4 ,:i* ,plato seems to h _h p>ticul>ly 9 view1 9 all[+ ^? 9 au?ority to avail !mselves ( pretexts1 or /ratagems4 ,! same writ] is v correct 9 8 notion ( n mak+ su* a device a *>act]i/ic ( t au?ority1 :i* belongs to ! supreme be+4 ,= all su* devices1 h[ev] ju/ifiable !y may be 9 ,,c]ta9 ,,cases1 /rongly betray t imp]fection1 :i* is insep>able f all human sy/ems4 ,! /ratagem1 :i* ,joseph employ$ to obta9 fur!r discov]ies )\t mak+ himself kn[n to 8 bre?r51 is mu* comm5d$ by ,philo1 z a m>k ( great policy1 :51 contr>y to ! convictions & feel+s ( 8 own m9d1 he accus$ !m ( be+ spies1 & aft]w>ds *>g$ !m ) !ft4 ,x 0 by a /ratagem ( ! same k9d1 t ,solomon gave pro( ( 8 inspir$ wisdom1 :5 he us$ ! ,,fictiti\s ?reat ( divid+ ! liv+ *ild 9 ord] to discov] ! real "m4 ,,xvi4 ,! fif? case1 :i* all[s a /ratagem to be practis$1 is t1 :]e x may be ! ,,only means ( sav+ ! life ( an innoc5t p]son1 ( obta9+ "s object ( equal importance1 or ( div]t+ ano!r f ! p]petration ( "s horrid design4 ,! hea!n poet has giv5 a beautiful illu/ration ( ?is 9 8 praises ( ,hyp]mne/ra1 ^: conduct he calls a spl5did /ratagem1 ennobl+ ! virg9 to all po/]ity4 ,,xvii4 ,x is evid5t t _m writ]s ( ackn[l$g$ wisdom1 & sob] judgm5t1 h c>ri$ ! po9t f>!r ?an has be5 done 9 ?is treatise1 9 all[+ ! use ( false repres5tations to an enemy4 ,9 cases1 :]e public enemies are conc]n$1 !y ma9ta91 t x is lawful to deviate f ^? /rict rules ( av[+ & disclos+ all our int5tions1 :i* !y prescribe1 on all o!r occasions4 ,su* is ! op9ion ( ,plato & ,x5ophon among ! ,greeks1 ( ,philo among ! ,jews1 & ,*ryso/om among ,*ri/ians4 ,x may n p]haps be amiss to cite1 9 ?is place1 ! message s5t by ! m5 ( ,jabe% ,gilead to ! ,ammonites1 by :om !y 7 besieg$1 & also t ( ! prophet ,eli%a1 & at ! same "t to m5tion ! conduct ( ,val]ius ,laev9us1 :o boa/$ ( hav+ kill$ ,pyrrhus4 ,! ?ird1 ! f\r? & fif? obs]vations above made1 may be illu/rat$ f :at is said by ,eu/ratus1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,nice1 ,an able & upright c\nsellor is n oblig$ to disclose ! :ole tru?3 = !re may be occasions1 :5 x may be necess>y = him to recomm5d ! means ( deceiv+ an enemy1 or to employ "s /ratagem t[>ds a fri5d1 :]e x may turn to 8 advantage4 ,,xviii4 ,:at has be5 said ( false speak+ mu/ be und]/ood z appli$ to affirmative decl>ations1 :i* c be prejudicial to no p]sons1 b public enemies3 x c by no means be tak5 to include promises4 ,= promises conf] ^u ! p]son1 to :om !y are made1 a peculi> "r to claim _! full p]=mance4 ,& ?is is a rule1 :i* mu/ take place1 ev5 betwe5 public enemies2 a rule to :i* exi/+ ho/ilities are n all[$ to =m an exception4 ,x is a maxim prop] to be en=c$ 9 ,,tacit1 z well z 9 ,,express agreem5ts3 z :5 a p>ley or conf]5ce is dem&$1 !re is always an ,,impli$ promise1 t bo? sides %all att5d x ) p]fect safety4 ,b ^! are po9ts res]v$ = ! discussion ( ano!r "p ( ?is treatise4 ,,xix4 ,x w be necess>y to repeat an obs]vation made be=e1 ) respect to oa?s1 bo? ( ! affirmative & promissory k9d1 :]e x 0 ma9ta9$ t !y exclude all exceptions1 all m5tal res]vations t[>ds ! p]son1 to :om !y are made1 be+ reg>d$ n m]ely z a solemn transaction ) t individual1 b z a /$fa/ appeal to ,god4 ,su* an appeal to ! supreme be+ dem&s ! p]=mance ( an oa?1 ev5 if x gave ! individual no "r to ! same4 ,at ! same "t x 0 obs]v$1 t a sworn decl>ation is n l "o ( any o!r k9d1 :]e an application ( t]ms diff]5t f _! usual mean+ may supply ! speak] ) an excuse = evad+ _! import4 ,b tru? requires e decl>ation & promise to be made 9 t]ms1 :i* x is suppos$ t e man ( integrity & cle> judgm5t w und]/&1 spurn+ at ! impi\s ?\ght1 t m5 may be deceiv$ by oa?s1 z *ildr5 are by toys & trifles4 ,,xx4 ,"s nations & individuals inde$ h reject$ ! use ( ^? /ratagems1 :i* ev5 ! law ( nature all[s to be employ$ z a means ( self-def5ce aga9/ an enemy4 ,b !y did s1 n f any op9ion ( _! unlawfulness1 b f a noble l(t9ess ( m9d1 & f a confid5ce 9 _! own /r5g?4 ,aelian has pres]v$ a say+ ( ,py?agoras1 t !re are two ?+s1 9 :i* man approa*es ne>e/ to ,god1 9 always speak+ ! tru?1 & do+ good to o!rs4 ,ari/otle1 some:]e 9 8 ,e?ics1 calls speak+ tru?1 ! fre$om ( a great s\l1 & ,plut>* says1 t falsehood is ! qualification ( a slave4 ,b an adh]5ce to tru?1 9 simplicity ( he>t1 is n ! only duty requir$ ( ,*ri/ians1 9 ?is respect1 !y are comm&$ to ab/a9 f all va9 disc\rse1 z hav+ = _! example him1 9 ^: m\? !re 0 f\nd no guile4 ,,xxi4 ,) respect to ! actions ( m51 !re is ano!r rule :i* may prop]ly come "u ?is head1 & t is1 ! unlawfulness ( urg+ or p]suad+ any "o to d an unlawful act4 ,= in/ance1 no subject has a "r to lift 8 h& aga9/ 8 sov]eign1 to deliv] up a t[n )\t public au?ority1 or to despoil 8 neighb\r ( 8 goods4 ,x w\ld be unlawful !n to enc\rage ! subject ( an enemy1 z long z he cont9ues 8 subject1 to d any ( ^! acts4 ,= ! p]son1 :o urges ano!r to d a wick$ act1 makes himself a p>tn] 9 8 guilt4 ,nor c x be receiv$ z a j answ]1 t urg+ a subject to ! p]petration ( su* a de$ is no?+ m ?an employ+ ! lawful means ( de/roy+ an enemy4 ,= ?\gh x may be necess>y & j to de/roy him1 if possible1 yet t is n ! way1 9 :i* x %\ld be done4 ,augu/9 has well obs]v$1 t x makes no diff]5ce :e!r any "o %\ld commit a crime himself1 or employ ano!r z 8 in/rum5t4 ,b employ+ ! spontane\s (f]s ( a des]t] is n contr>y to ! laws ( w>1 & is a v diff]5t action f t ( s$uc+ a subject f 8 allegiance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,w> ,,& ,,peace ,?is is a frontispiece to a ,lat9 edition ( ,grotius' ,de ,jure ,belli ac ,pacis1 publi%$ at ,am/]dam 9 #afgj4 ,x is int5d$ to be symbolical ( ,w> & ,peace act+ "u ! direction ,ju/ice1 ^! ?ree figures =m+ ! c5tral gr\p4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,9 ,,:at ,,mann] ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nations ,,r5d]s ,,! ,,prop]ty ,,( ,,subjects ,,answ]able ,,= ,,! ,,debts ,,( ,,sov]eigns4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,reprisals4 ,no "o b an heir b\nd by ! act ( ano!r--,prop]ty ( subjects answ]able = ! debts ( sov]eigns1 accord+ to ! law ( ,nations--,capture ( p]sons & prop]ty aft] satisfaction refus$ by ! aggressor--,reprisals--,p]sonal safety ( subjects--,di/9ction made by ! law ( ,nations 9 ?is respect4 ,i4 ,! rights accru+ f ! law ( ,nations are ! po9ts next to be consid]$1 :i* may be ref]r$ ei!r to w>s 9 ,,g5]al1 or to ^? ( a ,,p>ticul> description4 ,w>s 9 ,,g5]al are ^?1 :i* prop]ly fir/ come "u notice4 ,by ! ,,lit]al law ( nature1 no "o is b\nd by ! actions ( ano!r1 except ! p]son1 :o succe$s to 8 prop]ty4 ,= ! introduction & e/abli%m5t ( prop]ty introduc$ & e/abli%$ also ! p[] ( transf]r+ x ) all its incumbrances4 ,! ,emp]or ,z5o h[ev] pron\nces x repugnant to natural ju/ice = "o man to be mole/$ = ! debts ( ano!r4 ,a pr9ciple1 :i* gave rise to ! di/9ctions 9 ! ,roman law1 t ! wife c\ld n be su$ = h] husb&1 nor ! husb& = 8 wife1 nor a son = 8 fa!r1 nor a fa!r or "m = _! son4 ,nor1 z ,ulpian cle>ly /ates x1 c\ld individuals be answ]able = ! debts ( ! community1 & m especially if t community be possess$ ( prop]ty4 ,inde$ if t 7 n ! case individuals c\ld only be oblig$ to contribute _! due proportion1 z memb]s ( t community4 ,s5eca says1 if any "o l5ds money to my c\ntry1 ,i am n to be consid]$ z 8 debtor1 nor to take ! debt ^u myself1 ?\gh ,i am b\nd to pay my due proportion ( x4 ,!re 0 a special provision made 9 ! ,roman law1 t "o peasant %\ld n be b\nd = ! debts ( ano!r1 & x is laid d[n z a rule1 t ! goods ( "o p]son %all n be di/ra9$ = ! debts ( ano!r1 ev5 if !y be public debts2 & 9 ,ju/9ian's ,novels1 pl$ges = o!rs are =bidd51 & ! cause assign$ = x is1 because x is unreasonable t "o p]son %\ld incur ! debt1 & ano!r be b\nd to ! paym5t ( x1 an exaction to :i* ! "n ( ,,odi\s is giv54 ,k+ ,!odoric ,cassiodor1 calls x a %ock+ lic5ce = "o man to be deta9$ z a pl$ge = ano!r4 ,,ii4 ,al?\gh 9 ! prec$+ obs]vations !re may be a great deal ( tru?1 yet x is possible1 & inde$ appe>s actually to be ! case1 t ! volunt>y law ( nations introduc$ ! practice ( r5d]+ all ! corporeal1 & incorporeal prop]ty1 belong+ to ! subjects ( any /ate or sov]eign1 liable to ! debts1 :i* t /ate or sov]eign may h incurr$1 ei!r p]sonally1 or by refus+ to make su* rep>ation1 z may be due = ! injuries & aggressions1 :i* !y h committ$4 ,yet ?is is a practice1 :i* no?+ b necessity c\ld ju/ify2 =1 on any o!r gr\nd1 x w\ld be op5+ a door to innum]able acts ( wanton aggression & inju/ice aga9/ individuals4 ,z ! prop]ty ( /ates & sov]eigns _c (t5 s easily fall into an enemy's h&1 z t belong+ to individuals1 :o are m num]\s1 & ^: prop]ty is consequ5tly m expos$4 ,s t rights ( ?is k9d are to be reckon$ among ^?1 :i* ,ju/9ian says1 are ! (fspr+ ( /]n necessity1 ! calamities ( m5 driv+ !m to ! use ( su* means4 ,b ?\gh a practice l ?is owes its introduction to ,,necessity1 x is n s f> at v>iance ) ! law ( nature1 z to exclude ,,cu/om & ,,tacit agreem5t f hav+ "s %>e 9 its e/abli%m5t4 ,= we f9d t sureties are b\nd by no o!r tie1 b t alone ( hav+ giv5 _! cons5t4 ,besides1 x might easily be suppos$1 t x 0 ! be/ me?od ( r$ress aga9/ ! subjects ( ano!r /ate1 :]e ! aggriev$ p]sons c\ld n s easily prosecute _! rights1 or obta9 indemnities1 ! claims or injuries ( /rang]s be+ b little und]/ood1 & p]haps /ill less reg>d$ 9 a =eign l&4 ,subjects1 be+ ?us liable to ! loss ( _! prop]ty1 by ! conduct ( _! fell[ subjects1 or by t ( ! /ate1 might sometimes feel x a h>d%ip1 :ile on o!r occasions1 x w\ld prove _! greate/ security aga9/ aggressions f ! subjects ( ano!r p[]4 ,t ?is 0 a receiv$ cu/om appe>s n only f ! regul> w>s1 c>ri$ on by "o /ate aga9/ ano!r1 ! rules obs]v$ 9 :i* are (t5 nam$ 9 ! manife/oes issu$ on su* occasions3 ! =m ( :i* may be se5 9 ! fir/ book ( ,livy1 :]e x is said1 ,i decl>e w> aga9/ ! anci5t nations ( ! ,lat9s1 & likewise aga9/ ! respective individuals2 & ! same writ]1 9 8 ?irty fir/ book1 in=ms u1 t1 ^u ! "q be+ put to ! p1 !y 7 ask$1 :e!r x 0 _! pleasure t w> %\ld be decl>$ aga9/ ,philip1 & aga9/ ! ,mac$onians1 8 subjects4--,b ! same cu/om also prevail$1 ev5 be=e ! comm5cem5t ( actual & op5 ho/ilities betwe5 two /ates1 :5 mutual acts ( aggression by ! subjects ( ea* p[] c\ld be reg>d$ z no?+ b ! eve1 & prelude to a decl>ation ( w>4 ,! words us$ by ,agesilaus to ,ph>nabazus w s]ve to elucidate ?is po9t3 he said2 ,:ile we 7 fri5ds to ! k+ ( ,p]sia1 we treat$ him & 8 subjects 9 a fri5dly mann]3 n[ we are enemies1 y c expect no?+ f u b ho/ilities4 ,!re=e1 ,ph>nabazus1 :ile y *use to cont9ue a vassal to ! ,k+1 we w\nd him ?r\gh y\r sides4 ,,iii4 ,! ,a!nians _h a me?od some:at l ?is ( seek+ r$ress1 :i* !y call$ &rolpsia1 a seizure ( m5's p]sons1 :i* 0 laid d[n 9 ! ,attic law 9 ! foll[+ t]ms1 if any "o has be5 murd]$ 9 a =eign c\ntry1 ! ne>e/ relatives ( ! deceas$ are au?oriz$ to seize any ?ree subjects ( t c\ntry1 b n m ?an ?ree1 till ! p]petrators ( ! de$ be puni%$1 or at lea/ deliv]$ up to ! h&s ( ju/ice = t purpose4 ,9 ?is case we f9d t ! p]sonal lib]ty ( subjects1 :i* may be consid]$ z a k9d ( incorporeal "r1 includ+ ! "r ( resid+ :]e !y please1 or do+ :atev] !y may ?9k prop]1 is made answ]able = ! debt ( ! /ate1 :o is b\nd to puni% ! crim9al acts ( h] subjects3 s t ! subject suff]s con/ra9t1 till ! /ate has dis*>g$ ! debt1 :i* x is b\nd to pay2 & by ! paym5t ( ?is debt is meant ! puni%m5t ( ! guilty4 ,= al?\gh ! ,egyptians1 z we le>n f ,diodorus ,siculus1 ma9ta9$ t nei!r ! p]son1 nor lib]ty ( any "o ought to be b\nd or con/ra9$ = a debt1 !re is no?+ 9 x repugnant to ! law ( nature1 & by ! practice n only ( ! ,greeks1 b ( o!r nations1 ! opposite op9ion seems to h be5 e/abli%$4 ,ari/ocrates1 :o 0 contempor>y ) ,demo/h5es _h made a motion = a decree1 t if any "o kill$ ,*>idemus1 x might be lawful to seize him1 :]ev] he 0 to be f\nd1 & t any "o1 :o attempt$ to rescue t p]son1 %\ld be deem$ an enemy4 ,demo/h5es f9ds fault ) _m p>ts ( ?is decree4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place1 ,ari/ocrates _h omitt$ mak+ a prop] di/9ction betwe5 murd] & a lawful putt+ to dea?1 ! latt] ( :i* is an act ( ju/ice3 9 ! next place1 he has said no?+ ( br++ ! p]son to a regul> trial3 besides1 x 0 n ! p]sons1 among :om ! murd] _h be5 committ$1 b ^? :o aft]w>ds receiv$ ! murd]]1 t 7 to be decl>$ enemies4 ,demo/h5es says1 t ! regul> law prescribes1 t if ! p]sons 9 ^: di/rict a murd] has be5 committ$1 nei!r puni%1 nor deliv] up ! p]petrator ( ! crime1 ?ree ( _! p %all be liable to be seiz$4 ,b ?is decree1 all[+ ! p]sons 9 ^: di/rict x has be5 committ$ to escape ) impunity1 n ev5 nam+ ,,!m1 passes s5t5ce ^u ^?1 :o 9 con=mity to ! common laws ( humanity h receiv$ ! fugitive1 if !y d n deliv] him up1 :i* w\ld be a brea* ( ! protection due to a suppliant4 ,! f\r? po9t1 9 :i* he blames ,ari/ocrates1 is = hav+ c>ri$ matt]s to ! extremities ( op5 & actual w>1 9 a case1 :]e ! law only au?oriz$ ! seizure & det5tion ( p>ticul> p]sons4 ,( ^! argum5ts1 ! fir/1 ! second1 & ! f\r?1 are by no means de/itute ( weight4 ,b ! ?ird argum5t1 unless x be conf9$ entirely to ! circum/ance ( accid5tal dea?1 or t necess>ily occasion$ by def5d+ "o's self1 may be reg>d$ m z an oratorical fl\ri% ?an a j & solid reason4 ,= ! law ( nations ext5ds ! privileges1 & "* ( suppliants to ^? only1 :o h left _! c\ntry on acc\nt ( mis=tune1 & n ow+ to crimes4 ,inde$ if ! law ( nations made no su* di/9ction1 ! p]sons1 among :om a crime has be5 committ$1 & :o may be suspect$ ( hav+ c\nt5anc$ ! de$1 & ^? :o b>ely refuse to puni% or deliv] up ! guilty fugitive1 w\ld be ^u an equal foot+ z to "r4 ,s t x 0 ei!r ,,usage1 :i* ,,gradually introduc$ ! above int]pretation ( t law1 to :i* ,demo/h5es appeals1 or x 0 aft]w>ds m ,,expressly ,,e/abli%$1 9 ord] to avoid su* cavils4 ,= no "o c d5y ! tru? ( "o ( ^! positions :o has att5d$ to ! obs]vation ( ,julius ,pollux1 t ! seizure & deta9d] ( p]sons c be en=c$1 :5ev] a p[] _c obta9 ! surr5d] ( fugitive murd]]s1 :i* !y dem&4 ,9 ?is case ! aggriev$ p[] or individual may seize & deta9 any ?ree ( ! p belong+ to ! /ate1 :i* refuses to make t surr5d]4 ,x is ^u ! same pr9ciple t any p[] may deta9 ! subjects ( ano!r /ate1 9 ord] to procure ! release ( any subjects ( h] own1 unju/ly seiz$1 & imprison$ by t /ate4 ,,iv4 ,ano!r me?od ( obta9+ r$ress = any violation ( p]sons1 or prop]ty is by hav+ rec\rse to :at1 9 mod]n language1 are call$ ,,reprisals1 :i* ! ,saxons & ,angles d5om9at$ ,,)]nam1 & to :i* ! ,fr5* gave ! "n ( ,,lett]s ,,( ,,m>que1 & ^? 7 usually obta9$ f ! cr[n4 ,v4 ,x is g5]ally und]/ood t rec\rse may be _h to ?is me?od ( r$ress n only aga9/ a =eign aggressor1 b also aga9/ a debtor1 if ju/ice _c be obta9$ 9 due "t3 b 9 ,,notori\s cases1 :i* admit ( no d\bt1 ?is "r may be en=c$ ev5 beyond ! /rict lett] ( ! law4 ,= ev5 9 ,,d\btful matt]s1 ! presumption w always be 9 fav\r ( judges appo9t$ by public au?ority4 ,= x is unlikely t !y %\ld ,,greatly1 or ,,wantonly exce$ _! p[]2 especially :51 if s incl9$1 !y h n ! same means ( en=c+ _! decrees aga9/ =eign]s1 z aga9/ _! fell[ subjects4 ,inde$ ev5 9 disputes betwe5 subjects ( ! same c\ntry1 !y _c annul a j debt4 ,,paulus1 ! ,lawy]1 says t a ,,real ,,debtor1 ?\gh dis*>g$1 ow+ to "s in=mality or inability ( ! law to en=ce paym5t1 /ill rema9s a debtor accord+ to ! law ( nature4 ,& :51 9 consequ5ce ( a judicial s5t5ce1 a cr$itor1 "u pretext ( seiz+ 8 own prop]ty1 _h tak5 f a debtor some?+ :i* did n belong to him ?\gh x 0 9 8 possession3 ^u ! dis*>ge ( ! debt1 a d\bt aris+ :e!r ! ?+ %\ld be re/or$ to ! debtor1 ,scaevola ma9ta9$ t x c]ta9ly ought to be re/or$4 ,!re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases4 ,= subjects1 ,,z ,,su*1 _c make any viol5t resi/ance to ! execution ( a s5t5ce1 :i* !y may n deem satisfactory1 nor c !y prosecute any "r 9 opposition to ! law4 ,,=eign]s may use viol5t means to en=ce a "r3 ?o' !y are n ju/ifi$ 9 us+ su* means1 :ile !re is any possibility ( obta9+ r$ress 9 a legal1 & peaceable mann]4 ,x is on su* gr\nds t reprisals are made ^u ! p]sons & prop]ty ( ! subjects1 belong+ to a p[]1 :o refuses to grant r$ress & rep>ation = injuries & aggressions4 ,x is a practice n lit]ally enact$ by ! law ( nature1 b g5]ally receiv$ ?r\gh cu/om4 ,x is a practice too ( ! greate/ antiquity3 = 9 ! elev5? book ( ! ,iliad1 we f9d ,ne/or giv+ an acc\nt ( ! reprisals1 :i* he _h made ^u ! ,epeian nation1 f :om he took a great numb] ( cattle1 z a satisfaction = a prize :i* 8 fa!r ,neleus _h won at ! ,elian games2 & = debts due to _m private subjects ( ! ,pylian k+dom4 ,out ( ?is booty ! k+ hav+ select$ 8 own due1 equitably divid$ ! re/ among ! o!r cr$itors4 ,,vi4 ,x has be5 a receiv$ op9ion ) _m nations1 t reprisals might be made ev5 ^u ! ,,lives ( innoc5t subjects1 ow+ to ! "r1 :i* x 0 suppos$ t e "o _h ov] 8 own life1 & :i* might be transf]r$ f ! individual to ! /ate4 ,a doctr9e1 :i*1 z x 0 prov$ 9 ! fir/ book ( ?is treatise1 c nev] be reconcil$ ei!r to s\nd religion or morality4 ,inde$ a p]son may ,,accid5tally1 ?\gh n ,,int5tionally be kill$ by u 9 attempt+ to prev5t him f viol5tly ob/ruct+ u 9 ! prosecution ( a lawful "r4 ,yet if su* an accid5tal calamity c\ld be =ese51 ! law ( *>ity1 sett+ s pre-em95t a value ^u ! life ( man1 w\ld 9 su* a case prescribe ! =be>ance ( our "r4 ,,vii4 ,b on ?is1 z well z o!r po9ts1 we mu/ take c>e n to conf\nd ! natural & fundam5tal law ( nations1 ) ! civil & conv5tional law ( p>ticul> /ates4 ,by ! law ( nations all ! p]man5t subjects1 bo? natives & settl]s1 ( an (f5d+ /ate or sov]eign are liable to suff] reprisals3 b ! same rule does n b9d ^?1 :o are pass+ ?r\gh a c\ntry1 or only resid+ 9 x = a "t4 ,= su* reprisals are a k9d ( pl$ges1 l public burd5s1 made answ]able = ! public debts1 f :i* =eign]s1 be+ tempor>y resid5ts1 ?\gh ow+ ob$i5ce to ! laws1 are totally exempt4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ,ambassadors1 b n ^? s5t f an enemy to our enemies1 & _! prop]ty1 are exempt f su* conditions by ! law ( nations4 ,by ! ,,civil ,,law too ( _m c\ntries an exception is made 9 fav\r ( wom5 & *ildr51 ( m5 ( lett]s1 & ^? :o are travell+ = ! purposes ( trade4 ,b by ! law ( ,,nations ! goods ( all are liable to reprisals1 z 0 ! case at ,a!ns1 respect+ ! seizure ( p]sons4 ,9 _m places1 by ! civil law1 ! "r ( mak+ reprisals is obta9$ ( ! sov]eign1 & 9 o!rs1 ( ! judges4 ,by ! law ( nations ! prop]ty ( all captures is devot$ to dis*>ge ! debt1 & defray ! exp5ses incurr$1 ! rema9d] ( :i*1 aft] due satisfaction obta9$1 & peace conclud$1 %\ld be re/or$4 ,by ! civil law ! p]sons int]e/$ are summon$ to appe>1 ! prop]ty is sold by public au?ority1 & ! money1 accru+ f !nce1 divid$ among all :o are entitl$ to a %>e ( ! same4 ,b ^! & o!r po9ts ( ! same k9d are to be le>n$ f civilians1 :o are conv]sant 9 su* matt]s1 & p>ticul>ly f ,b>tolus1 :o has writt5 ^u reprisals4 ,?is subject may be clos$ ) "o obs]vation1 t w 9 "s measure t5d to s(t5 ! rig\r ( ?is /]n1 b necess>y "r1 & t obs]vation is1 t su* z by n dis*>g+ a debt1 or grant+ r$ress1 h occasion$ reprisals to be made1 are b\nd1 9 ju/ice & hon\r1 to make good ! losses ( ^?1 :o h !reby suff]$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,on ,,j ,,or ,,solemn ,,w> ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nations ,,on ,,decl>ations ,,( ,,w>4 ,solemn w>1 accord+ to ! ,law ( ,nations betwe5 diff]5t /ates--,a p1 ?\gh engag$ 9 unju/ w>1 to be di/+ui%$ f pirates & robb]s--,*ange 9 ! condition ( bellig]5ts--,=mal w> c be made by ! ,sov]eign p[] alone--,decl>ation ( w>--,! ,law ( ,nature1 ,law ( ,nations1 respect+ ! same--,decl>ation1 conditional1 absolute--,=ms ( decl>ation introduc$ by ! civil law--,w> decl>$ aga9/ a ,sov]eign includes 8 subjects1 & allies--,! reason :y allies are includ$--,decl>ations1 :y necess>y to e/abli% c]ta9 effects--,:e!r actual w>f>e imm$iately foll[s a decl>ation1 consid]$--,:e!r ! violation ( an ,ambassador's rights to be a j gr\nd ( w>4 ,i4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ?is treatise x 0 obs]v$1 t accord+ to ! be/ writ]s1 a w> is def9$ to be j1 n on acc\nt ( ! ,,causes solely1 9 :i* x orig9ates1 nor on acc\nt ( ! ,,magnitude ( its objects1 b f c]ta91 peculi>1 effects ( "r1 ) :i* x is att5d$4 ,b to :at k9d ( w> su* an appellation mo/ duly belongs w be be/ und]/ood by consid]+ ! def9ition1 :i* ! ,roman ,lawy]s h giv5 ( a ,,public or ,,national enemy4 ,^?1 says ,pomponius1 are ,,public & ,,lawful ,,enemies1 ) ^: ,,/ate our own is engag$ 9 w>3 b enemies ( e o!r description1 come "u ! d5om9ation ( pirates & robb]s4 ,) t op9ion ,ulpian entirely accords1 mak+ an additional obs]vation1 t if any "o be tak5 by robb]s1 z he is n a lawful prison] ( w>1 he _c claim ( 8 own /ate ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,b if he be tak5 prison] by a public enemy ( ! /ate1 be+ consid]$ z a prison] ( w>1 he is entitl$ by ! "r ( po/lim9ium to be re/or$ to 8 =m] condition4 ,^! op9ions are support$ by t ( ,paulus1 :o ma9ta9s1 t p]sons captur$ by pirates /ill cont9ue free1 t is1 are n to be consid]$ z prison]s1 = :om an ex*ange may be dem&$4 ,s t by ! op9ion ( ! ,roman ,lawy]s x is evid5t1 t no w> is consid]$ to be lawful1 regul>1 & =mal1 except t :i* is begun & c>ri$ on by ! sov]eign p[] ( ea* c\ntry4 ,cic]o1 9 8 f\r? ,philippic1 describes a public & au?oris$ enemy to be ! p]son1 :o possesses ! civil & milit>y p[]s ( ! /ate1 :o c comm& ! treasury1 & ! s]vices ( ! p 9 support ( 8 measures1 & :o1 z occasions (f]1 has p[] to conclude treaties ( peace & amity4 ,,ii4 ,a /ate1 ?\gh x may commit "s act ( aggression1 or inju/ice1 does n !reby lose its political capacity1 nor c a b& ( pirates or robb]s ev] become a /ate1 al?\gh !y may pres]ve among !mselves t degree ( subord9ation1 :i* is absolutely necess>y to ! subsi/5ce ( all society4 ,= ) ! latt]1 ! commission ( crime is ! ,,sole bond ( union1 :]eas ! =m]1 ?\gh n always free f blame1 b occasionally deviat+ f ! laws ( nature1 :i* 9 _m cases h be5 9 a great measure oblit]at$1 /ill regulate _! conduct by ! treaties1 :i* !y h made1 & c]ta9 cu/oms t h be5 e/abli%$1 be+ unit$ among !mselves = ! mutual support ( lawful rights1 & connect$ ) =eign /ates by kn[n rules ( /&+ polity4 ,! ,s*olia/1 ^u ,?ucydides1 rem>ks t ! ,greeks1 at ! "t :5 piracy 0 reckon$ lawful1 =ebore committ+ massacres1 or nightly depr$ations1 & c>ry+ (f ! ox5 t 7 necess>y = ! pl\gh4 ,we are in=m$ by ,/rabo1 t o!r nations too1 :o liv$ by plund]1 aft] !y _h return$ home f _! pr$atory voyages1 s5t messages to ! own]s1 :om !y _h plund]$1 to "k if !y w\ld r$eem ! captures at a fair price4 ,9 morals1 ! :ole sy/em (t5 d]ives its "n f "s "o ( ! pr9cipal p>ts1 z ,cic]o rem>ks1 9 ! fif? book ( 8 ,,b\nds ( ,,good & ,,evil1 & ,gal5 obs]ves t a mixture is (t5 call$ by ! "n ( its *ief +r$i5t4 ,s t ,cic]o is n altoge!r correct 9 say+1 t a /ate is n m]ely diseas$1 b entirely de/roy$1 by ! inju/ice ( its compon5t & lead+ memb]s4 ,= a morbid body is /ill a body1 & a /ate1 ?\gh dreadfully diseas$1 is /ill a political be+1 z long z its laws & tribunals & o!r necess>y p>ts ( its con/itution rema91 to adm9i/] ju/ice & give r$ress to =eign]s1 no less ?an to private subjects 9 _! actions aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,!re is a beautiful obs]vation 9 ,dion ,*ryso/om1 :o comp>es ! law ( a /ate1 p>ticul>ly t bran* ( x relat+ to ! law ( nations1 to ! body animat$ by ! s\l1 ^u ! dep>ture ( :i* ! corporeal frame becomes a mass ( lifeless clay3 9 ! same mann] political society _c subsi/ )\t ! guid+ & contr\l+ pr9ciple ( law4 ,ari/ides1 enc\rag+ ! ,rhodians to h>mony1 obs]ves1 t ev5 "u a tyrannical gov]nm5t _m good laws may be f\nd4 ,^! are po9ts1 :i* may be cle>$ up by examples4 ,?us ,ulpian ma9ta9s t ^? :o are captur$ by pirates _c be consid]$ z prison]s ( w>3 b if captur$ by ! ,g]mans1 = in/ance1 or any national enemy1 !y lose _! lib]ty = a "t4 ,b ! ,g]mans1 z we are in=m$ by ,caes>1 ?\ght acts ( plund]1 if committ$ 9 a =eign t]ritory1 no disgrace4 ,tacitus says t ! ,cattians1 a noble race ( p 9 ,g]many1 & ! ,g>amantians 7 addict$ to ! same habits ( plund]1 yet /ill reta9$ _! rank among /ates4--,su* is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a national & political body1 & a b& ( m5 unit+ toge!r ,,solely ,,= ,,! ,,commission ,,( ,,crimes4 ,,iii4 ,a *ange may occur n only 9 ! situations ( individuals1 z 9 ^? ( ,jeph?ah1 ,arsaces1 & ,viriatus1 :o1 f be+ lead]s ( volunt>y b&s1 became lawful comm&]s2 b ! same has also happ5$ ) respect to :ole communities1 :i* be+ orig9ally compos$ ( no?+ b freeboot]s h1 by ! gradual c\rse & *anges ( "t1 ris5 to ! rank & dignity ( /ates4 ,,iv4 ,:at has be5 said ) respect to ! "r ( mak+ =mal & lawful w>1 be+ ve/$ 9 ! sov]eign p[] alone1 includes ^? :o h any %>e 9 ! sov]eign p[]1 z ! diff]5t communities =m+ ! ,/ates ,g5]al ( _m commonweal?s4 ,! same rule w hold good ( ^?1 :o are n ,,subjects ( a sup]ior /ate1 b jo9$ to x 9 conf$]acy by an unequal treaty3 innum]able in/ances ( :i* are to be f\nd 9 hi/ory4 ,?is 0 ! case betwe5 ! ,romans & _! allies1 ! ,volscians1 ! ,lat9s1 & ! ,spani>ds3 & all :om we read ( be+ engag$ 9 w>s1 :i* 7 consid]$ z lawful & j4 ,v4 ,b to make a w> j1 accord+ to ?is mean+1 x mu/ n only be c>ri$ on by ! sov]eign au?ority on bo? sides1 b x mu/ also be duly & =mally decl>$1 & decl>$ 9 su* a mann]1 z to be kn[n to ea* ( ! bellig]5t p[]s4 ,cic]o1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 (fices1 po9ts out ! equity ( ! rules prescrib$ by ! ,roman ,law = ! decl>ation ( w>1 f :5ce x may be conclud$ t no w> is regul> or j1 b su* z is und]tak5 to compel re/itution1 & to procure indemnity = injuries1 & t too accompani$ ) a =mal decl>ation4 ,livy also 9 ! same mann] deems an obs]vance ( ^! rules requisite to =m ! *>act]i/ic ( a j w>4 ,& describ+ an incursion ( ! ,ac>nanians into ,attica1 & _! ravag+ ! c\ntry1 he says t ^? acts ( irritation end$ 9 a decl>ation ( ,,j & ,,regul> w> on bo? sides4 ,,vi4 ,9 ord] to und]/& all ^! po9ts cle>ly respect+ ! decl>ation ( w>1 an accurate di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 ! pr9ciples1 :i* are f\nd$ on ! law ( nature itself1 & ^?1 :i*1 ?\gh n d]iv$ imm$iately f t s\rce1 are /ill f\nd to be j3 x w be necess>y also to exam9e1 :at is requir$ by ! law ( nations t[>ds obta9+1 ,,9 ,,w>1 all ! consequ5ces1 privileges & effects ( t law1 &1 at ! same "t1 to inve/igate ! consequ5ces & rights aris+ f ! peculi> laws & cu/oms ( p>ticul> nations4 ,to repel =ce1 or to puni% a del9qu5t1 ! law ( nature requires no decl>ation4 ,&1 z ,?ucydides relates1 ,/h5elaidas1 "o ( ! ,ephori1 ma9ta9s t :]e we h be5 injur$1 n by ,,words1 b by ,,actions1 ! matt] _c be decid$ by ,,words & ,,=ms4 ,& ,aelian1 aft] ,plato1 obs]ves t x is n ! decl>ation ( ! ,h]ald1 b ! voice & law ( nature1 :i* proclaim w>1 und]tak5 to repel =ce4 ,h5ce ,dion ,*ryso/om1 9 address+ ! ,nicom$ians1 says t _m w>s are begun )\t any decl>ation4 ,^u ! same gr\nd ,livy condemns ! conduct ( ,m5ippus1 a g5]al belong+ to ,antio*us = hav+ kill$ "s ,roman citiz5s be=e any decl>ation ( w> _h be5 made1 or ev5 be=e a sword _h be5 drawn1 or a drop ( blood spilt1 to %ew t ho/ilities 7 int5d$4 ,by ?is objection he proves t ei!r a =mal decl>ation1 or "s act indicative ( ho/ilities 0 deem$ requisite to ju/ify actual w>f>e4 ,nei!r1 if we foll[ ! law ( nature1 is !re any m occasion = notice or decl>ation1 :]e an own] int5ds to lay h&s ^u ,,8 ,,own ,,prop]ty4 ,b :5ev] "o ?+ is tak5 9 return = ano!r1 or ! prop]ty ( a debtor is seiz$ = ! recov]y ( a debt1 &1 especially1 if any "o int5ds seiz+ ! prop]ty ( ^?1 :o are subjects to ! debtor1 a =mal dem& mu/ be made1 z a pro( t rec\rse to su* security is ! only means left ( obta9+ r$ress & satisfaction4 ,su* a dem& is necess>y because t is n a ,,prim>y & ,,orig9al "r1 b a ,,second>y "r1 ,,sub/itut$ 9 ! place ( ! prim>y & orig9al1 by ! artificial rules ( civil law4 ,9 ! same mann] to ju/ify an attack ^u a sov]eign p[] = ! aggressions & debts ( its subjects1 a previ\s remon/rance1 & a prop] dem& ( ju/ice mu/ be made to t p[]4 ,= x is only by refus+ to puni% ! guilty1 or to grant indemnity to ! injur$1 t /ates or sov]eigns c be implicat$ 9 ! misconduct ( _! subjects4#fj ,b ev5 :]e ! law ( nature does n directly prescribe t su* a remon/rance or dem& %\ld be made1 yet ! common pr9ciples ( humanity & equity w recomm5d !#fa use ( any means1 t may prev5t rec\rse to ! calamities ( w>4 ,! comm&m5t giv5 by ,god to ! ,hebrews1 to s5d a message ( peace to any /ate or city1 be=e !y began an int5d$ attack1 0 design$ z a special comm& to t p1 yet "s h conf\nd$ x ) ! g5]al law ( nations4 ,= x 0 n ,,any k9d ( peace t 0 meant by t injunction1 b only su* a peace z impos$ t]ms ( ,,subjection & ,,tribute4 ,we are in=m$ by ,x5ophon1 t :5 ,cyrus w5t into ! c\ntry ( ! ,arm5ians1 he s5t mess5g]s to ! k+1 to dem& ! tribute & numb] ( troops1 :i* _h be5 /ipulat$ by treaty4 ,b to obta9 ! peculi> rights & consequ5ces result+ f ! law ( nations1 a decl>ation ( w> by "o ( ! p>ties1 at lea/1 if n by bo?1 is absolutely requisite 9 all cases4 ,,vii4 ,^? decl>ations are ei!r conditional or absolute4 ,a conditional decl>ation is t :i* is c\pl$ ) a dem& ( re/itution or r$ress4 ,"u ! "n ( re/itution1 ! ,,fecial ,,law ( ,rome1 t is ! ,,law ,,respect+ ,,decl>ations ,,( ,,w>1 compreh5d$ n only ! claims1 :i* ,,own]%ip e/abli%$1 b ! prosecution ( ,,e "r aris+ f crim9al or civil causes4 ,h5ce ! decl>ations 7 c\*$ 9 t]ms1 requir+ re/oration1 satisfaction1 or surr5d]4 ,"h1 by ! t]m1 surr5d]1 ! p>ty appeal$ to is und]/ood to h ! option ei!r ( puni%+ ! (f5d]1 himself1 or deliv]+ him up to ! aggriev$ p]son4 ,?is mann] ( dem&+ re/itution is1 accord+ to ! te/imony ( ,pl9y1 call$ ,,cl>igation1 t is1 a ,,l\d & ,,=mal ,,dem&4 ,livy gives u an example ( a conditional & qualifi$ decl>ation1 :]e9 ! aggriev$ p[] d5\nces a det]m9$ resolution to prosecute h] rights ) ! utmo/ viol5ce1 if ! aggressor w n make rep>ation & atonem5t = ! injury he has done4 ,tacitus also relates ! sub/ance ( a dispat* s5t to ,caec9a by ,g]manicus1 :]e9 he decl>es1 t if ! r+lead]s ( ! mut9\s & rebelli\s legions are n imm$iately puni%$1 he w advance ) 8 army1 & put ! :ole to ! sword4 ,an ,,absolute decl>ation ( w> is issu$1 :]e any p[] has already begun ho/ilities1 or committ$ acts :i* call = exempl>y puni%m5t4 ,sometimes inde$ a conditional1 is foll[$ by an absolute w>1 ?\gh 9 su* a case ! latt] is n actually necess>y1 b only a confirmation ( ! =m]4 ,?is gave rise to ! =m1 :i* says1 an appeal is h]eby made aga9/ su* a p1 z unju/ & refus+ to grant r$ress4 ,!re is ano!r =m also purport+1 t ! pr9cipal h]ald ( ! ,roman citiz5s has made kn[n to ! pr9cipal h]ald ( ! anci5t ,lat9s1 & to ! ,lat9 p1 t r$ress is dem&$ ( !m by j & lawful w>1 on acc\nt ( all ! disputes :i* !y h refus$ to settle1 & ! indemnities :i* !y h be5 b\nd to grant1 & h refus$2 & t ?is is ! only means rema9+ to recov] all t has be5 unju/ly deta9$4 ,!re is also a ?ird mode ( decl>ation1 :i* runs 9 ! foll[+ t5\r2 ,s9ce ! anci5t p ( ! ,lat9s h committ$ aggressions aga9/ ! p ( ,rome1 ! p ( ,rome1 ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! s5ate1 decl>e w> aga9/ !m1 & 9 ! "n ( ! s5ate & p ( ,rome _! purpose is ?us publi%$4 ,b t 9 case ( ,,r5ew$ w>s su* a decl>ation is n absolutely necess>y1 appe>s f ! circum/ance ( its be+ made 9 due =m at ! ne>e/ g>rison1 & n ,,p]sonally to ! (f5d] himself1 accord+ to ! answ] giv5 by ! h]alds1 :5 !y 7 consult$ 9 ! case ( ,philip ( ,mac$on1 & aft]w>ds respect+ ,antio*us4 ,:]eas a decl>ation = ! ,,fir/ "t %\ld be made to ! enemy himself4 ,inde$ 9 ! w> aga9/ ,pyrrhus ! decl>ation 0 made to "o ( 8 soldi]s1 9 ! ,flam9ian ,circus1 :]e1 z ,s]vius obs]ves 9 8 notes on ! six? book ( ! ,a5eid1 he 0 comm&$ to pur*ase a piece ( gr\nd1 z a h&le = dispute4 ,a pro( also t ,,9 ,,"s ,,cases a decl>ation is sup]flu\s may be tak5 f ! circum/ance t w> is frequ5tly decl>$ by ,,bo? ,,sides1 :i* 0 done by ! ,corcyraeans & ,cor9?ians 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ?\gh a decl>ation by "o ( ! p>ties w\ld h be5 suffici5t4 ,,viii4 ,z to ! use ( ! caduceum1 or /aff ) ! figure ( two snakes twi/$ ar\nd x1 :i* ambassadors c>ri$1 :5 !y su$ = peace1 x 0 a c]emony peculi> to ! ,,greeks1 & n d]iv$ f ! ,,g5]al law ( nations4 ,! ,,romans 9 ! same mann] _h p>ticul> cu/oms1 su* z us+ v]va9 9 =m+ alliances1 ?r[+ a bloody spe>1 z a decl>ation ( w>1 r5\nc+ all =m] fri5d%ip & alliance at ! expiration ( ?irty days1 aft] satisfaction _h be5 dem&$ & refus$1 & aga9 ?r[+ ano!r spe>4 ,none ( ^! ,,peculi> cu/oms ought to be conf\nd$ ) ! ,,g5]al law ( nations4 ,= ,arnobius in=ms u1 t 9 8 "t _m ( !m _h fall5 into disuse1 & ev5 9 ! "t ( ,v>ro "s ( !m 7 omitt$4 ,! ?ird ,punic w> inde$ 0 n decl>$ till ! mom5t ( its actual comm5cem5t4 ,,ix4 ,a decl>ation ( w>1 made aga9/ a sov]eign1 includes n only 8 own subjects1 b all :o are likely to become 8 associates1 z !reby !y make !mselves accessories 9 ! w>4 ,& ?is is :at ! mod]n lawy]s mean1 :5 !y say t1 9 bidd+ defiance to a ,pr9ce1 we bid defiance to all 8 associates4 ,= !y give ! "n ( defiance to a decl>ation ( w>4 ,by :i* is und]/ood ! w> c>ri$ on ) ! p[] aga9/ :om x has be5 decl>$4 ,?us ^u w> be+ decl>$ aga9/ ,antio*us1 !re 0 no occasion = a sep>ate decl>ation aga9/ ! ,aetolians1 :o _h op5ly jo9$ ,antio*us4 ,=1 z ! h]alds 9 _! answ] ju/ly obs]v$1 ! ,aetolians _h1 by t act1 volunt>ily br\ght w> ^u !mselves4 ,x4 ,b if aft] ! conclusion ( su* a w> x %\ld be deem$ exp$i5t to attack any o!r nation or k+ = hav+ furni%$ supplies & assi/ance t[>ds t w>1 a new decl>ation ( w> w be necess>y4 ,= t nation or k+ is !n to be consid]$1 n z an accessory1 b z a pr9cipal enemy4 ,& !re=e x 0 ) reason said1 t ! w> ( ,manlius aga9/ ! ,galatians1 & t ( ,caes> aga9/ ,ariovi/us1 7 n j w>s accord+ to ! law ( nations4 ,= w> 0 made ^u !m n z accessories1 b z pr9cipals4 ,s t = ?is purpose1 z ! law ( nations w\ld h requir$ a decl>ation1 9 ! same mann] ! ,roman law w\ld h requir$ a new ord] ( ! ,s5ate4 ,= on ! motion be+ made = ! w> ) ,antio*us1 ! "q 0 also put1 :e!r x %\ld n at ! same "t be made ) 8 adh]5ts4 ,! same rule also be+ obs]v$ aga9/ ,k+ ,p]seus1 x mu/ be und]/ood1 z includ+ ! adh]5ts dur+ all ! "t t w> ) ^? pr9ces cont9u$2 & implicat+ all1 :o 9 reality gave !m support4 ,,xi4 ,! reason :y a decl>ation is necess>y to con/itute :at is deem$1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 a j w>1 is n t :i* "s writ]s assign4 ,= !y allege t x is to prev5t e appe>ance ( cl&e/9e & trea*]\s deal+3 an op5ness1 :i* may be dignifi$ ) ! "n ( magnanimity1 r ?an entitl$ a matt] ( "r4 ,on ?is po9t1 we are in=m$ t "s nations h gone s f>1 z to settle & make kn[n ! v "t & place ( a g5]al engagem5t4 ,b wav+ all conjecture1 a m satisfactory reason may be f\nd 9 ! necessity t x %\ld be kn[n = ,,c]ta91 t a w> is n ! ,,private und]tak+ ( bold ,,adv5tur]s1 b made & sanction$ by ! ,,public & ,,sov]eign au?ority on bo? sides2 s t x is att5d$ ) ! effects ( b9d+ all ! subjects ( ! respective /ates2--& x is accompani$ also ) o!r consequ5ces & rights1 :i* d n belong to w>s aga9/ pirates1 & to civil w>s4 ,,xii4 ,!re is mu* tru? inde$ 9 ! obs]vations1 :i* "s h made1 & :i* !y h produc$ examples to confirm1 t ev5 9 w>s ( ?is k9d all captures become ! lawful prize ( ! captors4 ,yet ?is is only p>tially true1 & t too1 accord+ to ! law ( nature1 & n accord+ to ! volunt>y law ( nations4 ,= ! latt] only makes provision to secure ! rights ( nations1 z ,,:ole communities1 & n ( ^?1 :o1 z 9 civil w>s1 =m b ,,"o ,,"p ( a nation4 ,! same writ]s are mi/ak5 too 9 ! supposition t def5sive w>s require no decl>ation4 ,= x is no less necess>y to %ew by way ( v9dication t x is a def5sive w>1 & at ! same "t by public decl>ation to give x ! "* ( a national & lawful w>1 9 ord] to e/abli% ^? rights & consequ5ces1 t h be5 already m5tion$1 & :i* w h]eaft] be m fully expla9$4 ,,xiii4 ,!y ma9ta9 ano!r position also1 :i* is by no means true1 & t is1 t a p[] ought n ,,imm$iately to foll[ up a decl>ation ( w> ) actual ho/ilities1 z ,cyrus did to ! ,arm5ians1 & ! ,romans to ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,= ! law ( nations requires ! int]v5tion ( no ,,def9ite "t betwe5 ! decl>ation & ! comm5cem5t ( w>4 ,!re may inde$ be "s cases1 :]e natural ju/ice w r5d] su* a delay prop]4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :]e rep>ation = injury1 or ! puni%m5t ( aggressors is dem&$1 x is b reasonable to wait till x c be kn[n1 :e!r ! j dem& w be compli$ ) or reject$4 ,,xiv4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ! same consequ5ces1 a decl>ation w be equally necess>y too1 :]e ! rights ( ,ambassadors h be5 violat$4 ,yet x w be suffici5t = x to be made 9 ! mann]1 9 :i* x may be done ) ! greate/ safety4 ,z 9 _m o!r matt]s1 9 places :i* af=d no security1 satisfaction is dem&$ by d5unciation or summons4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,kill+ ,,an ,,enemy ,,9 ,,lawful ,,w>1 ,,& ,,committ+ ,,o!r ,,acts ,,( ,,ho/ility4 ,g5]al explanation ( ! effects ( =mal w>--,di/9ction betwe5 lawful & innoc5t impunity--,m]it ( ! latt]--,examples add$ to expla9 x--,g5]al effects ( =m] w> consid]$ ) respect to lawful impunity--,! reason ( _! introduction--,hi/orical te/imonies--,by ?is "r all p]sons1 f\nd )9 an enemy's t]ritory1 objects ( ho/ility--,also all go+ ?i!r be=e ! w>--,! subjects ( an enemy liable to be seiz$ ev]y:]e1 except protect$ by ! laws ( a neutral t]ritory--,case ( wom5 & *ildr5--,case ( prison]s--,( ^? ^: volunt>y (f] ( surr5d] is reject$--,unconditional surr5d]--,retaliation--,ob/9ate def5ce--,ho/ages4 ,i4 ,s]vius 9 8 comm5t on ! passage ( ,virgil1 :]e t poet says t w> w au?orise mutual acts ( de/ruction & rap9e1 9 trac+ ! fecial or h]ald's law to ,ancus ,m>tius1 & ev5 beyond him to a /ill m remote p]iod1 rem>ks t1 if ev] ! p]sons or prop]ty ( subjects1 belong+ to ! ,roman /ate1 7 seiz$ & c>ri$ (f by any o!r nation1 ! pr9cipal ,h]ald1 or ,k+ at arms w5t out ) ! sacr$ m9i/]s1 :o presid$ at ! mak+ ( solemn treaties1 & proce$+ to ! v]ge ( ! t]ritories ( ! (f5d+ nation1 decl>$ ) a l\d voice ! cause ( ! w>1 & ! refusal ( t nation ei!r to re/ore :at _h be5 seiz$1 or to deliv] up ! aggressors to ju/ice4 ,aft] ?is he ?rew a spe> to indicate t w> & all its consequ5ces 7 f t mom5t begun4 ,! comm5tator _h previ\sly obs]v$ t ! anci5ts gave ! "n ( rap9e to e act ( ho/ility ev5 :]e !re 0 no act ( plund] committ$2 & !y likewise call$ e k9d ( re/itution a satisfaction4 ,by ?is explanation we le>n t :5ev] w> is proclaim$ betwe5 two /ates or sov]eigns1 x is accompani$ ) c]ta9 rights or consequ5ces1 :i* d n ,,necess>ily belong to w> itself4 ,& ?is is p]fectly con=mable to ! examples f ! ,roman ,lawy]s1 :i* h be5 be=e produc$4 ,,ii4 ,b x w be prop] to consid] h[ f> ! lawfulness1 :i* ,virgil speaks (1 ext5ds4 ,= ! t]m lawful sometimes implies :atev] is j & pi\s 9 all respects1 al?\gh ! pursuit ( a diff]5t c\rse may p]haps be m laudable3 accord+ to ! expression ( ,/4 ,paul1 :o says1 all ?+s are lawful to me1 b all ?+s are n exp$i5t4 ,ulpian is speak+ ( a sell]1 :o1 at ! expiration ( a c]ta9 p]iod1 is n answ]able = ! safety ( goods1 :i* a buy] has neglect$ to take away1 says he1 w yet ?9k himself b\nd 9 ,,equity to pres]ve !m ) all imag9able c>e4 ,on "s occasions :5 x is said1 t m5 may ,,lawfully d a ?+1 ! expression only means t do+ su* act w n subject !m to human & legal p5alties1 b x by no means indicates t ! action is /rictly con=mable to ! rule ( religion & morality4 ,?us among ! ,lac$aemonians & ,egyptians /eal+ 0 all[$3 an indulg5ce t by no means took away ! ,,guilt ( !ft4 ,cic]o 9 ! fif? ( 8 ,tusculan que/ions1 speak+ ( ,c9na1 beautifully & ju/ly po9ts out ?is abuse ( ! ^w1 ,,lawful4 ,he seems to me1 says he1 a wret*$ man inde$ = hav+ done ^? acts1 & = hav+ be5 9 a situation1 :]e !y might be ?\ght lawful4 ,x c nev] be lawful = any man to d wrong3 b we fall into a great mi/ake 9 ! use ( t ^w3 = we consid] a ?+ to be lawful1 :i* any "o may d ) impunity4 ,?is is ! mean+1 9 :i* ! t]m is g5]ally und]/ood1 z ! same orator1 9 address+ ! judges 9 behalf ( ,rabirius ,po/humus1 obs]ves1 x behoves y to consid]1 :at is becom+ y\r "*1 & n :at ! rig\r ( ! law all[s y to inflict4 ,= if y consult ! full ext5t ( y\r au?ority1 y may make away ) any citiz5 y please4 ,9 ! same mann] legislators1 z x 0 prov$ 9 a =m] book ( ?is treatise1 are n acc\ntable1 9 _! legislative capacity1 to any human tribunal1 = ! laws1 :i* !y make1 yet !y _c1 9 a moral po9t ( view1 avail !mselves ( ?is transc5d5t p[] to enact a ?+ t is evid5tly unju/4 ,9 ?is s5se we (t5 meet ) a di/9ction made betwe5 :at is prop] or "r1 & :at is lawful4 ,?us ,cic]o1 9 8 spee* = ,milo1 makes ! ,,law ,,( ,,nature ! /&>d ( :at is ,,"r1 & ,,legal ,,au?ority1 ! /&>d ( :at is lawful4 ,,iii4 ,?us qualifi$1 ! annoyance ( an enemy1 ei!r 9 8 p]son or prop]ty1 is lawful4 ,?is "r ext5ds n only to ! p[] engag$ 9 a j w>1 & :o 9 h] ho/ilities conf9es h]self )9 ! practice e/abli%$ by ! law ( nature1 b ea* side )\t di/9ction has a "r to employ ! same means ( annoyance4 ,s t any "o tak5 9 arms1 ev5 9 ano!r's t]ritory1 _c be treat$ z a robb]1 malefactor1 or murd]]1 nor c ev5 t neutral p[]1 9 ^: t]ritory he is tak51 treat him z an enemy1 = be+ f\nd 9 arms4 ,,iv4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 e/abli%$ by nations to prev5t o!rs f int]f]+ 9 _! disputes1 or giv+ ! law to !m respect+ ! rights ( w>4 ,besides1 if ?is 7 n ! case1 neutral p[]s w\ld frequ5tly be involv$ 9 ! w>s ( o!rs4 ,a reason :i* ! p ( ,m>seilles urg$ 9 ! dispute betwe5 ,caes> & ,pompey4 ,!y alleg$ t !y _h nei!r suffici5t judgm5t to det]m9e on :i* side ju/ice lay1 nor1 if !y c\ld det]m9e1 _h !y /r5g? to give effect to _! decisions4 ,a spectator inde$ is b ill qualifi$ to judge1 h[ f>1 ev5 9 ! mo/ j w>1 self-def5ce1 ! atta9m5t ( indemnity1 or ! puni%m5t ( an aggressor1 may be c>ri$4 ,^! are po9ts1 :i*1 on _m1 if n mo/1 occasions mu/ be left to ! consci5ce & discretion ( ! bellig]5ts !mselves3 a mode f> pref]able to t ( appeal+ to ! m$iation1 & decision ( dis9t]e/$ & neutral p[]s4 ,livy has giv5 an address ( ! ,a*aeans to ! s5ate1 9 :i* !y ask1 h[ _! avail+ !mselves ( ! rights ( w> c ev] be fairly call$ 9 "q1 or made a subject ( discussion8 ,besides ! impunity att5d+ c]ta9 actions done 9 w>1 ! acquisition ( t]ritory by ! "r ( conque/ is ano!r topic ( consid]ation1 :i* w h]eaft] be exam9$4 ,v4 ,! lawfulness ( injur+ or de/roy+ ! p]son ( a public enemy is support$ by ! te/imony ( _m ( ! be/ writ]s1 bo? poets1 morali/s1 & hi/orians4 ,9 "o ( ! trag$ies ( ,euripides1 !re is a prov]b1 :i* says1 t to kill a public enemy1 or an enemy 9 w> is no murd]4 ,!re=e ! cu/om ( ! anci5t ,greeks1 :i* r5d]$ x unlawful & impi\s to use ! same ba?1 or to p>take ( ! same fe/ivities & sacr$ rites ) a p]son :o _h kill$ ano!r 9 "t ( peace1 did n ext5d to any "o :o _h kill$ a public enemy 9 w>4 ,kill+ an enemy is inde$ ev]y:]e call$ a "r ( w>4 ,! rights ( w>1 says ,m>cellus 9 ,livy1 support me 9 all t ,i h done aga9/ ! enemy4 ,& ! same hi/orian gives ! address ( ,alcon to ! ,sagunt9es1 :]e he says1 ,y ought to be> ^! h>d%ips1 r ?an suff] y\r own bodies to be mangl$1 & y\r wives & *ildr5 to be seiz$ & dragg$ away be=e y\r eyes4 ,cic]o 9 8 spee* 9 def5ce ( ,m>cellus passes a high encomium ^u ! clem5cy ( ,caes>1 :o1 by ! laws ( w> & ! rights ( victory1 might h put to dea? all1 :om he _h sp>$ & protect$4 ,& ,caes> obs]ves to ! ,eduans1 t x 0 an act ( k9dness 9 ,,him1 to sp>e ^? :om ! laws ( w> w\ld h au?oris$ him to put to dea?4 ,b ! rights ( w>1 = :i* ^! writ]s plead1 c\ld n ,,p]fectly ,,ju/ify ! putt+ prison]s to dea?1 b c\ld only grant ,,impunity to ^? :o avail$ !mselves ( ! b>b>\s cu/om4 ,!re is a wide diff]5ce h[ev] betwe5 actions l ^!1 & de/roy+ an enemy by prop] means ( ho/ility4 ,=1 z ,tacitus says1 9 ! leisure h\rs ( peace ! m]its & dem]its ( e case may be exam9$ & weigh$1 b1 9 ! tumult & confusion ( w>1 ! innoc5t mu/ fall ) ! guilty3 & ! same writ]1 9 ano!r place1 obs]ves1 t !re are _m actions1 :i* ! pr9ciples ( humanity _c ,,entirely approve1 b :i* ! policy ( w> requires4 ,& x is 9 ?is1 & no o!r s5se t ,lucan has said1 ! complexion ( "r may be assign$ to :at is wrong4 ,,vi4 ,?is "r ( mak+ lawful :at is done 9 w> is ( great ext5t4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place x comprises1 9 ! numb] ( enemies1 n only ^? :o actually be> arms1 or :o are imm$iately subjects ( ! bellig]5t p[]1 b ev5 all :o are )9 ! ho/ile t]ritories1 z appe>s f ! =m giv5 by ,livy1 :o says1 t w> is decl>$ aga9/ ! sov]eign1 & all )9 8 jurisdiction4 ,= :i* a v good reason may be assign$2 because dang] is to be appreh5d$ ev5 f ,,!m1 :i*1 9 a cont9u$ & regul> w>1 e/abli%es ! "r n[ "u discussion4 ,reprisals d n come exactly "u ! same rule4 ,= l taxes1 !y 7 introduc$ = ! dis*>ge ( public debts1 = no "p ( :i* tempor>y resid5ts1 or =eign]s are answ]able4 ,!re=e ,baldus is "r 9 8 obs]vation1 t1 aft] w> is actually begun1 mu* great] latitude is all[$1 ?an 9 ! b>e "r ( mak+ reprisals4 ,s t :at is said ( =eign]s1 :o ent] into an enemy's c\ntry1 & reside !re1 aft] w> is av[$ly decl>$ & begun1 is und\bt$ly true4 ,,vii4 ,b p]sons1 :o _h gone to reside !re be=e ! w> 0 begun1 seem by ! law ( nations to be includ$ 9 ! numb] ( enemies1 unless )9 a reasonable "t !y *use to )draw4 ,s t ! ,corcyraeans1 :5 go+ to besiege ,epidamnus1 gave leave to all /rang]s to )draw1 d5\nc+ t !y w\ld o!rwise be treat$ z enemies4 ,,viii4 ,b ! p]sons ( natural-born subjects1 :o owe p]man5t allegiance to a ho/ile p[] may1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 be attack$1 or seiz$1 :]ev] !y are f\nd4 ,= :5ev]1 z x 0 said be=e1 w> is decl>$ aga9/ any p[]1 x is at ! same "t decl>$ aga9/ all ! subjects ( t p[]4 ,& ! law ( nations au?orises u to attack an enemy 9 e place3 ,an op9ion support$ by mo/ legal au?orities3 ?us ,m>cian says t des]t]s may be kill$ 9 ! same mann] z enemies1 :]ev] !y are f\nd4 ,!y may be lawfully kill$ !re1 or 9 _! own c\ntry1 9 ! enemy's c\ntry1 9 a c\ntry belong+ to no "o1 or on ! sea4 ,b z to ! unlawfulness ( kill+1 or viol5tly mole/+ !m 9 a neutral t]ritory1 ?is protection does n result f any p]sonal privileges ( ,,_! ,,own1 b f ! rights ( ! ,,sov]eign ( t c\ntry4 ,= all civil societies _h an und\bt$ "r to e/abli% x z a /&+ maxim t no viol5ce %\ld be (f]$ to any p]son )9 _! t]ritories1 nor any puni%m5t inflict$ b by due process ( law4 ,= :]e tribunals reta9 _! au?ority 9 full vig\r1 to try ! m]its ( e (f5ce1 &1 aft] imp>tial inquiry1 to acquit ! innoc5t1 or condemn ! guilty1 ! p[] ( ! sword mu/ be re/ra9$ f inflict+ promiscu\s dea?4 ,livy m5tions ! circum/ance ( sev5 ,c>?ag9ian gallies rid+ at an*or 9 a port belong+ to ,syphax1 :o 0 !n at peace ) ! ,c>?ag9ians & ,romans4 ,scipio arriv$ at t "t1 ) two gallies1 :i* might h be5 attack$ & sunk by ! ,c>?ag9ians1 be=e !y c\ld ent] ! port3 a brisk w9d ris+ c>ri$ !m 91 be=e ! ,c>?ag9ians c\ld weigh an*or2 b out ( respect to ! k+'s au?ority !y dur/ n attack ! ,romans 9 8 h>b\r4 ,,ix4 ,b to return to ! subject1 :i* is1 to decide h[ f> ! p[] ( lawfully de/roy+ an enemy1 & all t belong to him1 ext5ds4 ,an ext5t ( :i* we may =m "s conception f ! v circum/ance1 t ev5 wom5 & *ildr5 are frequ5tly subject to ! calamities & disa/]s ( w>4 ,!re is no occasion to allege 9 ?is place1 z an example1 ! conduct ( ! ,hebrews1 :o slew ! wom5 & *ildr5 ( ! ,he%bonites1 & :o 7 comm&$ to execute v5geance ^u ! ,canaanites1 & ^u all1 :o 7 involv$ 9 ! same guilt4 ,^? examples1 :]e ,god ,,manife/ly int]poses 8 comm&s1 are n to be drawn into a prec$5t = au?oris+ actions ( ! ,,same k9d on ,,diff]5t occasions4 ,= ! supreme & dispos+ p[] ( ,god c nev] prop]ly be comp>$ ) t1 :i* m5 are all[$ to ex]cise ov] ea* o!r4 ,! ,psalmi/'s expression ( ! ,babylonian *ildr5 be+ da%$ aga9/ ! /ones is a mu* /rong] pro( ( ! cu/om commonly prevail+ among nations1 9 ! use ( victory1 to :i* ! language ( ,hom] be>s a close resemblance1 :]e ! poet says1 t 9 ! cruel rage ( w>1 ev5 ! bodies ( infant-*ildr5 7 da%$ aga9/ ! gr\nd4 ,?ucydides relates1 t :5 ,mycalessus 0 captur$ by ! ,?racians1 !y put all1 ev5 wom5 & *ildr5 to ! sword4 ,arrian relates ! same ( ! ,mac$onians1 :5 !y took ! city ( ,!bes4 ,& ,g]manicus ,caes>1 accord+ to ! acc\nt ( ,tacitus1 laid wa/e :ole cantons ( ! ,m>sians1 a p ( ,g]many1 ) fire & sword1 to :i* ! hi/orian adds1 )\t sp>+ ei!r age or sex4 ,! ,jewi% wom5 & *ildr5 too 7 expos$ by ,titus1 to be torn to pieces by wild bea/s at a public spectacle4 ,yet nei!r ( ^? g5]als 7 ?\ght defici5t 9 humanity1 s mu* _h cu/om reconcil$ ! m9ds ( m5 to ?is b>b>\s usage4 ,s t ! massacre ( ! ag$1 l t ( ,priam by ,pyrrhus1 is no way surpris+4 ,x4 ,! "r ( putt+ prison]s ( w> to dea?1 0 s g5]ally receiv$ a maxim1 t ! ,roman ,satiri/ has f\nd$ an adage ^u x1 & said1 t :5 y c sell a prison] = a slave1 x w\ld be absurd to kill him4 ,words :i* imply ! full p[] ( do+ s1 if ! captor ?\ght prop]4 ,! comm5tators inde$ assign ! act ( sav+1 z ! d]ivation ( ! ,lat9 ^w1 s]vus1 a slave4 ,?us ,?ucydides speaks ( ! prison]s tak5 at ,epidamnus1 & kill$ by ! ,corcyraeans1 & ,hannibal is report$ to h massacr$ five ?\s& prison]s at once4 ,nor 0 ?is p[] limit$ by ! law ( nations to any p>ticul> "t1 ?\gh x 0 contr\l$ by great] re/rictions 9 "s places1 ?an 9 o!rs4 ,,xi4 ,besides _m examples occur ( suppliants1 be+ kill$4 ,bo? anci5t poets & hi/orians relate su* actions1 z ord9>y practices1 au?oris$ by ! laws ( w>4 ,augu/9 comm5ds ! ,go?s = sp>+ suppliants1 :o _h fl$ to *ur*es = refuge1 & adds by way ( comm5t1 t !y deem$ x unlawful to avail !mselves ( ! p[]1 :i* _h usually be5 all[$ by ! laws ( w>4 ,nor did ^? :o (f]$ to surr5d] always exp]i5ce ! l5ity & m]cy1 :i* !y s\ght !reby4 ,tacitus relates1 t :5 ! city ( ,uspes 0 inve/$1 ! besieg$ s5t a deputation ) (f]s ( an imm$iate surr5d]1 & ( no less ?an t5 ?\s& slaves1 on condition t ! free-born %\ld rema9 unhurt4 ,! t]ms 7 reject$--,a pro( t su* a rejection 0 ?\ght con=mable to ! rights ( w>4 ,,xii4 ,b ev5 aft] an unconditional surr5d]1 we f9d t ^?1 :o _h capitulat$ 7 sometimes put to ! sword4 ,9 ?is mann] ! pr9ces ( ,pometia 7 treat$ by ! ,romans1 ! ,samnites by ,sylla1 ! ,numidians & ,v]c+etorix by ,caes>4 ,x 0 almo/ a /&+ practice ) ! ,romans to cr[n _! triumphs ) ! dea? ( an enemy's g5]als1 :e!r made prison]s actually 9 ! field1 or by capitulation4 ,cic]o notices ?is cu/om 9 8 fif? spee* aga9/ ,v]res4 ,livy may be consult$ on ?is po9t 9 _m p>ts ( 8 hi/ory1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! tw5ty-eigh? book3 & ,tacitus also 9 ! #ab? book ( 8 ,annals4 ,! latt] writ]1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 ,,hi/ory1 relates t ,galba ord]$ e t5? man ( ^?1 :om he _h1 ^u _! e>ne/ supplication1 admitt$ to surr5d]1 to be behead$3 & ,caec9a1 aft] ! capitulation ( ,av5ticum1 puni%$ ,julius ,alp9us1 "o ( ! lead+ m51 ) dea?1 z a *ief promot] ( ! w>1 leav+ ! re/ to ! m]cy or cruelty ( ,vitellius4 ,,xiii4 ,hi/orians sometimes acc\nt = ?is "r ( putt+ enemies to dea?1 especially prison]s1 or suppliants1 ei!r on ! score ( retaliation1 or = ob/9ate resi/ance4 ,^! may sometimes be ! real1 b _c be ! ,,ju/ifiable motives ( su* proce$+s4 ,= ! law ( retaliation1 /rictly & prop]ly s call$1 mu/ be directly en=c$ ^u ! p]son ( ! del9qu5t himself4 ,:]eas1 9 w>1 :at is call$ retaliation frequ5tly r$\nds to ! ru9 ( ^?1 :o are no way implicat$ 9 ! blame4 ,! g5]al consequ5ces ( w> are ?us describ$ by ,diodorus ,siculus1 !y c\ld n be ignorant1 says he1 hav+ le>nt f exp]i5ce1 t all be+ involv$ 9 ! common =tune ( w>1 !y are liable on bo? sides 9 defeat1 to suff] ! same calamities1 :i* !y !mselves w\ld h inflict$ ^u ! conqu]$ p>ty4 ,b z ! ,neapolitans reply to ,belis>ius1 9 ,procopius1 no "o c be ?\ght des]v+ ( puni%m5t = a resolute adh]5ce to ! side on :i* he is engag$1 especially :5 actuat$ by natural & j motives 9 8 *oice ( t side4 ,s f> f incurr+ guilt by su* a resolution1 x is on ! o!r h& m crim9al = any "o to des]t 8 po/3 & s x 0 judg$ by ! milit>y laws ( anci5t ,rome4 ,livy says1 x 0 a capital (f5ce1 = :i* no fe> ( dang] c\ld be plead$ z an excuse4 ,s t 9 ! rigid application ( ?is "r1 ,,ow+ ,,to ,,its ,,importance1 e "o is left to use 8 own discretion1 & !re may be times & circum/ances1 9 :i* ! law ( nations w ju/ify its full ex]tion4 ,,xiv4 ,! same "r 0 ex]cis$ ^u ho/ages also1 n only ^u ^? :o _h b\nd !mselves1 z x 71 by conv5tion1 b ev5 ^u ^?1 :o _h be5 deliv]$ up by o!rs4 ,two hundr$ & fifty ho/ages 7 once massacr$ by ! ,!ssalians1 & ! ,volsci ,aurunci to ! am\nt ( ?ree hundr$ by ! ,romans4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t *ildr5 7 sometimes giv51 z ho/ages1 :i* we f9d 0 done by ! ,p>?ians1 & by ,simon1 :o 0 "o ( ! ,maccabees4 ,& 9 ! times ( ,pors5a x 0 usual to deliv] wom51 z ho/ages3 a practice1 :i*1 z ,tacitus in=ms u1 0 foll[$ by ! ,g]mans4 ,,xv4 ,z ! law ( nations p]mits _m ?+s1 9 ! mann] above expla9$1 :i* are n p]mitt$ by ! law ( nature1 s x prohibits "s ?+s :i* ! law ( nature all[s4 ,?us spies1 if discov]$ & tak51 are usually treat$ ) ! utmo/ sev]ity4 ,yet !re is no d\bt1 b ! law ( nations all[s any "o to s5d spies1 z ,moses did to ! l& ( promise1 ( :om ,jo%ua 0 "o4 ,p]sons ( t description may sometimes be ,,lawfully employ$ by ^?1 :o are engag$ 9 an ,,evid5tly j w>4 ,o!rs too1 :o h n su* evid5t pro(s ( ! ju/ice ( _! cause1 may plead ! rights ( w> z a v9dication = employ+ su* p]sons4 ,b if any are to be f\nd1 :o disda9 to avail !mselves ( su* a privilege1 or opportunity1 no argum5t ei!r ,,=1 or ,,aga9/ ! ,,lawfulness ( employ+ spies c be drawn f _! conduct1 :i* proce$s r f a nobl5ess ( m9d1 & a confid5ce 9 op5 /r5g?1 ?an f any decid$ op9ion ^u ! subject4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,,to ,,lay ,,wa/e ,,an ,,enemy',s ,,c\ntry1 ,,& ,,c>ry ,,(f ,,8 ,,effects4 ,an enemy's prop]ty may be wa/$ & plund]$--,?+s deem$ sacr$1 h[ f> exempt$--,/ratagem1 h[ f> p]mitt$4 ,i4 ,cic]o1 9 ! ?ird book ( 8 (fices1 has said t !re is no?+ repugnant to ! ,,law ,,( ,,nature 9 spoil+ ! effects ( an enemy1 :om by ! same law we are au?oriz$ to kill4 ,:]e=e x is n surpris+ t ! same ?+s %\ld be all[$ by ! ,,law ,,( ,,nations4 ,polybius1 = ?is reason1 9 ! fif? book ( 8 hi/ory1 ma9ta9s1 t ! laws ( w> au?orise ! de/ruction ( an enemy's =ts1 h>b\rs1 & fleets1 ! seizure ( 8 m51 or c>ry+ (f ! produce ( 8 c\ntry1 & e ?+ ( t description4 ,& we f9d f ,livy t !re are c]ta9 rights ( w>1 by :i* an enemy mu/ expect to suff] ! calamities1 :i* he is all[$ to inflict1 su* z ! burn+ ( corn1 ! de/ruction ( h\ses1 & ! plund] ( m5 & cattle4 ,almo/ e page ( hi/ory ab\nds 9 examples ( entire cities be+ de/roy$1 walls levell$ to ! gr\nd1 & ev5 :ole c\ntries wa/$ by fire & sword4 ,ev5 9 cases ( surr5d]1 t[ns h sometimes be5 de/roy$1 :ile ! inhabitants 7 sp>$--an example ( :i* is giv5 by ,tacitus1 9 ! tak+ ( ,artaxata by ! ,romans2 ! inhabitants op5$ _! gates & 7 sp>$1 b ! t[n 0 devot$ to ! flames4 ,,ii4 ,nor does ! law ( nations1 9 itself1 consid]$ ap>t f o!r duties1 :i* w be m5tion$ h]eaft]1 make any exemption 9 fav\r ( ?+s deem$ sacr$4 ,= :5 places are tak5 by an enemy1 all ?+s )\t exception1 :e!r sacr$ or n1 mu/ fall a sacrifice4 ,= :i* x is assign$ z a reason1 t ?+s :i* are call$ sacr$1 are n actually except$ f all human uses1 b are a k9d ( public prop]ty1 call$ sacr$ inde$ f ! g5]al purposes1 to :i* !y are m imm$iately devot$4 ,& z a pro( ( ?is1 x is usual1 :5 "o nation surr5d]s to ano!r /ate or sov]eign1 to surr5d]1 along ) o!r rights1 e ?+ ( a sacr$ k9d1 z appe>s by ! =m cit$ f ,livy 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise4 ,& !re=e ,ulpian says1 t ! public h a prop]ty 9 sacr$ ?+s4 ,con=mably to :i* ,tacitus says1 t 9 ! ,italian t[ns all ! temples1 ! images ( ! ,gods1 & e ?+ connect$ ) religion belong$ ( "r to ! ,roman p4 ,= ?is reason a nation1 z ! ,lawy]s1 ,paulus & ,v5uleius op5ly ma9ta91 may1 "u a *ange ( circum/ances1 conv]t to secul> uses ?+s1 t h be=e be5 consecrat$3 & an ov]rul+ necessity may ju/ify ! h&1 :i* has =m]ly consecrat$ ! object 9 employ+ x z "o ( ! res\rces & in/rum5ts ( w>4 ,a ?+ :i* ,p]icles once did "u a pl$ge ( mak+ re/itution3 ,mago did ! same 9 ,spa91 & ! ,romans 9 ! ,mi?ridatic w>4 ,we read ( ! same actions done by ,sylla1 ,pompey1 ,caes>1 & o!rs4 ,plut>* 9 8 life ( ,tib]ius ,grac*us says t no?+ is s sacr$ & inviolable1 z div9e (f]+s3 yet no "o c h9d] ^! f be+ remov$ or appli$ to o!r purposes at ! pleasure ( ! /ate4 ,?us ,livy m5tions ! ornam5ts ( ! temples1 :i* ,m>cellus br\ght f ,syracuse to ,rome1 z acquisitions made by ! "r ( w>4 ,,iii4 ,:at has be5 said ( sacr$ ?+s & edifices applies also to ano!r k9d ( solemn fabrics1 & ^? are sepul*ral /ructures1 :i* may be consid]$ n m]ely z repositories ( ! dead1 b z monum5ts belong+ to ! liv+1 :e!r families or /ates4 ,= ?is reason ,pomponius has said1 t ^!1 l all o!r sacr$ places1 :5 tak5 by an enemy may lose _! inviolability1 & ,paulus is ( ! same op9ion1 obs]v+ t we are n re/ra9$ by any religi\s scruple f us+ ! sepul*res ( an enemy3 = ! /ones1 tak5 f !nce1 may be appli$ to any o!r purpose4 ,b ?is "r does n au?orise wanton insult1 (f]$ to ! a%es ( ! dead4 ,= t w\ld be a violation ( ! solemn rights ( burial1 :i*1 z x 0 %ewn 9 a prec$+ "p ( ?is "w1 7 introduc$ & e/abli%$ by ! law ( nations4 ,,iv4 ,"h x may be briefly obs]v$1 t1 accord+ to ! law ( nations any ?+1 belong+ to an enemy1 may be tak5 n only by op5 =ce1 b by /ratagem1 provid$ x be unaccompani$ ) trea*]y4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,acquisition ,,( ,,t]ritory ,,& ,,prop]ty ,,by ,,"r ,,( ,,conque/4 ,law ( nature ) respect to ! acquisition ( ?+s captur$ 9 w>--,law ( nations on ! same subject--,9 :at cases ! law ( nations confirms ! capture ( ?+s moveable--,l&s acquir$ by conque/--,lawful prize _c be made ( ?+s n belong+ to an enemy--,goods f\nd on bo>d an enemy's %ips--,law ( nations au?orises ! mak+ prize ( :at an enemy has tak5 f o!rs 9 w>--,sov]eigns may acquire possession & dom9ion ?r\gh ^? employ$ by !m--,acts ( ho/ility divid$ into public & private--,t]ritory may be acquir$ by a sov]eign or p--,private & public captures expla9$--,discretion>y p[] ( g5]als 9 ?is respect--,prizes belong ei!r to ! treasury1 or to ^?1 :o take !m--,places sometimes giv5 up to be plund]$ by ! soldi]y--,diff]5t me?ods ( divid+ spoils--,peculation1 a portion ( ! spoils sometimes giv5 to allies1 :o h support$ ! w>--,sometimes giv5 up to subjects--,?is illu/rat$ by examples--,utility ( ! above practices--,:e!r ?+s tak5 )\t ! t]ritory ( ei!r ( ! bellig]5t p[]s c be acquir$ by ! rights ( w>--,9 :at mann] ?is "r peculi>ly applies to solemn w>s4 ,i4 ,besides ! impunity all[$ to m5 = c]ta9 actions1 :i* h be5 m5tion$ be=e1 !re are o!r consequ5ces & effects1 peculi> to ! law ( nations1 att5d+ solemn & =mal w>4 ,! law ( nature inde$ au?orises our mak+ su* acquisitions 9 a j w>1 z may be deem$ an equival5t = a debt1 :i* _c o!rwise be obta9$1 or z may inflict a loss ^u ! aggressor1 provid$ x be )9 ! b\nds ( reasonable puni%m5t4 ,accord+ to ?is "r1 z we f9d 9 ! f\rte5? *apt] ( ,g5esis1 ,abraham devot$ to ,god a t5? "p ( ! spoils1 :i* he _h tak5 f ! five k+s3 & ! inspir$ writ] 9 ! sev5? *apt] ( 8 ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews gives ! same int]pretation ( ?is passage4 ,9 ! same mann] ! ,greeks too1 ! ,c>?ag9ians1 & ! ,romans1 devot$ a t5? portion ( ! spoils ( w> to _! deities4 ,jacob1 9 mak+ a p>ticul> beque/ to ,joseph above 8 bre?r51 says1 ,i h giv5 to !e "o portion above ?y bre?r51 :i* ,i took out ( ! h& ( ! ,amorite ) my sword1 & ) my b[4 ,9 ?is place1 ! expression1 ,i ,,took1 is us$ accord+ to ! prophetic /yle1 :]e an ev5t1 t w = c]ta9 take place1 is spok5 ( 9 ! pa/ "t1 & an action is "h attribut$ to ,jacob1 :i* "s ( 8 desc5dants 7 to p]=m1 suppos+ ! prog5itor & 8 *ildr5 to be ! same p]son4 ,nor is x ^u conjecture alone t su* a "r is f\nd$1 b ! div9e law giv] himself pron\nces s5t5ce aga9/ a city t has reject$ ! (f]s ( peace1 & aft]w>ds be5 tak5 by /orm1 t he gives all h] spoils to ! conqu]or4 ,,ii4 ,b accord+ to ! law ( nations1 n only ! p]son1 :o makes w> ^u j gr\nds2 b any "o :atev]1 engag$ 9 regul> & =mal w>1 becomes absolute proprietor ( e ?+ :i* he takes f ! enemy3 s t all nations respect 8 title1 & ! title ( all1 :o d]ive ?r\gh him _! claim to su* possessions4 ,:i*1 z to all =eign relations1 con/itutes ! true idea ( dom9ion4 ,=1 z ,cyrus1 9 ,x5ophon obs]ves1 :5 ! city ( an enemy is tak51 e ?+ t is tak5 !re9 becomes a lawful prize to ! conqu]ors2 & ,plato1 9 8 treatise on laws ass]ts ! same4 ,cic]o 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,rullus says t ,mityl5e belong$ to ! ,roman p by ! laws ( w>1 & ! "r ( conque/2 &1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 (fices1 he obs]ves1 t "s ?+s become ! private prop]ty ( ^?1 :o take possession ( !m1 :5 unoccupi$1 or ( ^?1 :o make a conque/ ( !m 9 w>4--,!ophilus1 9 8 ,greek in/itutes1 calls ! "o ! natural mode ( acquisition1 & ,ari/otle d5om9ates ! o!r ! natural way ( acquisition by ! sword1 )\t reg>d+ any o!r reason1 b ! b>e fact1 f :i* ! "r arises4 ,?us ,n]va1 ! son1 z ,paulus ! lawy] relates1 said t prop]ty arose f natural possession1 "s traces ( :i* /ill rema9 respect+ wild animals tak5 ei!r ^u ! sea1 or ^u ! l&1 or birds fly+ 9 ! air4 ,x is se5 also 9 ?+s tak5 9 w>1 all :i* imm$iately become ! prop]ty ( ! fir/ captors4 ,n[ ?+s are consid]$ z tak5 f an enemy1 :5 tak5 f 8 subjects4 ,?us ,d]cyllides argues1 9 ,x5ophon1 t z ,ph>nabazus 0 an enemy to ! ,lac$aemonians1 e ?+ belong+ to ,mania1 :o 0 8 subject1 might be seiz$ by ! laws ( w>4 ,,iii4 ,b 9 ?is "q ^u ! rights ( w> nations h decid$1 t a p]son is und]/ood to h made a capture1 :5 he deta9s a ?+ 9 su* a mann]1 t ! own] has ab&on$ all probable hopes ( recov]+ x1 or1 z ,pomponius1 speak+ on ! same subject1 says1 :5 a ?+ has escap$ beyond pursuit4 ,?is takes place ) respect to moveable ?+s 9 su* a mann]1 t !y are said to be tak51 :5 !y are c>ri$ )9 ! t]ritories ( ! enemy1 or places belong+ to him4 ,= a ?+ is lo/ 9 ! same mann] z x is recov]$ by po/lim9ium4 ,x is said to be recov]$ :5ev] x returns )9 ! t]ritories ( its own]'s sov]eign1 t is1 into places1 ( :i* he is ma/]4 ,paulus inde$ has expressly said1 t a p[] or /ate has lo/ a subject1 :5 he has gone1 or be5 c>ri$ out ( ! t]ritories ( t p[]3 & ,pomponius def9es a prison] ( w> to be an enemy1 :om ! troops ( "s o!r bellig]5t p[] h tak5 & c>ri$ into "o ( _! own places2 = be=e he is c>ri$ into ^? places1 he cont9ues /ill a subject ( ! enemy4 ,! law ( nations1 9 ^! respects1 treat$ p]sons & ?+s 9 ! same mann]4 ,f :5ce x is easy to und]/&1 :at is meant1 :5 9 ano!r place x is said t ?+s tak5 f an enemy imm$iately become ! lawful prize ( ! captors1 b only ^u ! condition ( ^? ?+s cont9u+ 9 _! possession = a reasonable & c]ta9 "t4 ,consequ5tly x is pla91 t %ips & o!r ?+s tak5 at sea _c be consid]$ z really ! prop]ty ( ! captors1 till !y h be5 c>ri$ into "s ( _! ports1 or to "s place :]e _! :ole fleet is /ation$4 ,= 9 t case all hope ( recov]y seems to h vani%$4 ,by a late regulation among ! ,european p[]s1 x has be5 made an e/abli%$ maxim ( ! law ( nations1 t captures %all be deem$ good & lawful1 :i* h cont9u$ 9 ! enemy's possession = ! space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,,iv4 ,l&s are n und]/ood to become a lawful possession & absolute conque/ f ! mom5t !y are invad$4 ,= al?\gh x is true1 t an army takes imm$iate & viol5t possession ( ! c\ntry :i* x has invad$1 yet t c only be consid]$ z a tempor>y possession1 unaccompani$ ) any ( ! rights & consequ5ces allud$ to 9 ?is "w1 till x has be5 ratifi$ & secur$ by "s durable means1 by cession1 or treaty4 ,= ?is reason1 ! l& )\t ! gates ( ,rome1 :]e ,hannibal encamp$1 0 s f> f be+ judg$ entirely lo/1 t x 0 sold = ! same price t x w\ld h be5 sold = be=e t p]iod4 ,n[ l& w be consid]$ z completely conqu]$1 :5 x is inclos$ or secur$ by p]man5t =tifications1 s t no o!r /ate or sov]eign c h free access to x1 )\t fir/ mak+ !mselves ma/]s ( ^? =tifications4 ,on ?is acc\nt ,flaccus1 ! ,sicilian1 assigns no improbable conjecture = ! orig9 ( ! ^w t]ritory1 because ! enemy is ,,det]r$ f ent]+ x4 ,at lea/ !re is z mu* probability 9 ?is conjecture1 z 9 t ( ,v>ro1 :o d]ives x f ! ^w t]5do1 tread+ ! soil4 ,front9us d$uces x f t]ra1 ! e>?1 & ,pomponius f ! ,,t]ror ( judicial au?ority ex]cis$ 9 ea* c\ntry4 ,x5ophon h[ev] 9 8 book on tributes1 seems to accord ) ! fir/ ( ^! op9ions3 = he says1 t 9 "t ( w> ! possession ( a c\ntry is kept by walls1 /rong holds1 & b>ri]s4 ,v4 ,x is a cle> po9t too1 t = any ?+ to become a prize or conque/ by ! "r ( w>1 x mu/ belong to an enemy4 ,= ?+s1 )9 an enemy's t]ritory1 = in/ance1 9 any ( 8 t[ns or g>risons1 _c be acquir$ z prop]ty by ! laws ( w>1 if ! own]s ( ^? ?+s are nei!r subjects nor conf$]ates ( ! enemy4 ,x is obs]v$ 9 "o ( ! spee*es ( ,aes*9es1 t ,philip1 ?\gh at w> ) ! ,amphipolitans1 c\ld n lawfully take possession ( ,amphipolis1 z a conque/1 x be+ a city1 :i* belong$ to ! ,a!nians4 ,= z ! enemy is likely to d]ive no assi/ance 9 ! w>1 f ?+s :i* nei!r belong to himself1 nor to a conf$]ate1 no j reason c be assign$ = tak+ !m1 & ! "r ( mak+ ?+s *ange _! own]s by =ce is ( too odi\s a nature to admit ( any ext5sion4 ,,vi4 ,! obs]vation usually made1 t all ?+s on bo>d an enemy's %ips are to be deem$ an enemy's goods1 ought n to be receiv$ z a ,,/&+ & ,,ackn[l$g$ rule ( ! law ( nations1 b only z a maxim1 indicat+ ! /rong presumption t bo? goods & vessel belong to ! same own]1 unless cle> pro( to ! contr>y c be br\ght4 ,! ,/ates ,g5]al ( ,holl& made su* a decision 9 ! ye> #acch1 at a "t :5 ! w> ) ! ,hanse-t[ns rag$ ) ! greate/ viol5ce1 & ! decision consequ5tly pass$ into a law4 ,,vii4 ,accord+ to ! law ( nations x is und\bt$ly true1 t ?+s tak5 f an enemy :i* _h be5 captur$ by him _c be claim$ by ^?1 to :om !y belong$ be=e !y 7 9 ! enemy's possession1 & :o _h lo/ !m 9 w>4 ,because ! law ( nations assign$ !m to ! enemy by ! fir/ capture1 & !n to ! p]son1 :o took !m f him by ! second4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple among o!rs1 ,jeph?ah def5ds himself aga9/ ! ,ammonites1 because by ! laws ( w> !y _h lo/ ! l&1 :i* !y claim$1 9 ! same mann]1 z ano!r "p _h be5 transf]r$ f ! ,moabites to ! ,amorites1 & f ! ,amorites to ! ,hebrews4 ,?us ,david too claims & divides z 8 own1 :at he himself _h tak5 f ! ,amalekites1 & ! ,amalekites1 be=e him1 f ! ,phili/9es4 ,titus ,l>gius1 z we are in=m$ by ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 :5 ! ,volscians laid claim to "s possessions1 :i* !y _h =m]ly held1 deliv]$ x z 8 op9ion 9 ! ,roman ,s5ate1 t ! ,romans 7 ! fair & j own]s ( :at !y _h ga9$ by ! "r ( conque/1 nor ought !y to be s weak z to ab&on ! fruits ( _! val\r4 ,= n only ! p ( t day1 b _! po/]ity also _h a "r to a %>e ( ^? possessions3 s t to ab&on !m w\ld be treat+ !mselves l enemies4 ,,viii4 & ,,ix4 ,"o great po9t1 :i* ! law ( nations design$ to e/abli%1 0 t ! effects or possessions ( "o enemy %\ld be consid]$ by ano!r1 z ?+s hav+ no own]4 ,?+s1 belong+ to no "o1 became ! prop]ty ( ^?1 :o f9d or take !m1 bo? ( ^?1 :o1 l sov]eign p[]s1 employ o!rs 9 su* s]vice1 & ( ^?1 :o take !m ) _! own h&s4 ,?us n only slaves1 or ! imm$iate memb]s ( a man's h\sehold1 b all1 :o engage !mselves1 any way1 9 ! s]vice ( o!rs1 may be said to acquire = _! employ]s all ! prop]ty1 :i* !y take or ga91 ev5 9 ^? ?+s1 :i* app>5tly lie 9 common to all m51 su* z pe>ls1 fi%1 or f[l4 ,mode/9us has ju/ly said1 t :atev] is naturally ga9$1 l a possession1 we may acquire ?r\gh ! means ( any "o we *use to employ1 &1 ^u ! same pr9ciple1 ,paulus obs]ves1 t 9 e acquisition1 ! ex]tion ( m9d & body mu/ concur2 ! =m] purely our own1 & ! latt]1 ei!r our own1 or t ( ano!r4 ,9 ! same mann] possession may be tak5 = u by an attorney1 gu>dian1 or tru/ee1 provid$ !y d x on our acc\nt & 9 our "n4 ,! reason ( :i* is1 because "o man may naturally be ! volunt>y in/rum5t ( ano!r1 ) ! cons5t ( t o!r4 ,s t ! di/9ction made betwe5 p]sons 9 a s]vile & free condition1 z to ! acquisition ( prop]ty1 is a di/9ction only ( ! civil law1 & applicable to its rules ( transf]r+1 acquir+1 & confirm+1 prop]ty4 ,& yet ! emp]or ,sev]us aft]w>ds appli$ ^! rules to ! natural acquisition ( ?+s1 n only f motives ( utility1 b1 z he av[$ himself1 f motives ( equity & ju/ice4 ,s t1 ap>t f all au?ority ( ! civil law1 x is an e/abli%$ maxim t :at any "o c d = himself1 he c d ?r\gh means ( ano!r1 & do+ su* acts by ano!r is ! same z do+ !m himself4 ,x4 ,a di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 actions 9 w>1 t are really ( a ,,public ,,nature1 & ! acts ( ,,individuals1 occasion$ by public w>3 by ! latt]1 individuals acquire an absolute & direct prop]ty1 9 ! ?+s1 :i* !y take1 & by ! =m]1 ! /ate makes ^? acquisitions4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple ( ! law ( nations ,scipio treat$ ) ,mas9issa1 /at+ t z x 0 "u ! auspices ( ! ,roman p1 t ,syphax 0 conqu]$ & tak5 prison]1 himself1 8 wife1 8 k+dom1 8 t]ritory1 8 t[ns1 & subjects inhabit+ ^? t[ns1 9 %ort1 e ?+ belong+ to him became a lawful prize to ! ,roman p4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ,antio*us ! ,great ma9ta9$ t ,coelo-,syria belong$ to ,seleucus1 & n to ,ptolemy1 because ,seleucus _h be5 ! pr9cipal 9 ! w>1 to :i* ,ptolemy _h contribut$ 8 assi/ance4 ,9 ! fif? book ( ,polybius1 !re is an acc\nt ( ! matt]4 ,,xi4 ,?+s immoveable are g5]ally tak5 by "s public act1 su* z m>*+ an army into ! c\ntry1 or plac+ g>risons !re4 ,s t1 z ,pomponius has said1 l&s tak5 f ! enemy become ! prop]ty ( ! /ate1 & =m no "p ( ! booty belong+ to ! individual captors4 ,?us among ! ,hebrews & ,lac$aemonians1 l&s t 7 made a conque/1 7 divid$ by lot4 ,! ,romans too ei!r reta9$ conqu]$ l&s to let !m out = r5t1 sometimes leav+ a small portion to ! anci5t possessor1 or divid$ !m among coloni/s1 :om !y s5t out1 or made !m tribut>y2 innum]able in/ances ( :i* we meet ) 9 _! hi/ories1 _! laws1 & treaties on ! admeasurem5ts ( l&s4 ,,xii4 ,b ?+s moveable1 :e!r inanimate1 or liv+1 are tak5 ei!r z connect$ or unconnect$ ) ! public s]vice4 ,:5 unconnect$ ) ! public s]vice1 !y become ! prop]ty ( ! individual captors4#fb ,ref]5ce may "h be made to ! rem>k ( ,celsus1 t enemy's goods f\nd among u d n belong to ! /ate1 b to ! prior occupant4 ,by :i* are meant ?+s f\nd among u at ! break+ out ( a w>4 ,= ! same 0 obs]v$ ( p]sons1 :51 "u ! same circum/ances1 !y 7 consid]$ z goods tak54 ,on ?is subject !re is a rem>kable passage 9 ,tryphon9us4 ,^? p]sons1 says he1 :o h gone into a =eign c\ntry 9 "t ( peace1 ^u ! sudd5 break+ out ( w>1 are made slaves by ^?1 among :om x is _! mis=tune to be f\nd1 be+ consid]$ z enemies4 ,,xiii4 ,:at has be5 said ^u ! law ( nations1 all[+ individuals to acquire prop]ty by tak+ x f an enemy1 mu/ be und]/ood z mean+ ! law ( nations1 prior to ! regulations ( civil laws ^u t po9t4 ,= ! capture ( an enemy's goods :i* at fir/ appe> to resemble ?+s 9 common1 :i* any "o may seize1 is n[1 l t ( wild birds or bea/s1 subject to limitation by ! laws ( e /ate1 be+ 9 "s cases assign$ to ! sov]eign1 & 9 o!rs1 belong+ to ! captors4 ,x may 9 "s c\ntries1 inde$1 be introduc$ z a rule ( law = ! :ole ( an enemy's goods f\nd !re to be confiscat$4 ,,xiv4 ,! case is v diff]5t respect+ :at any "o takes 9 actual engagem5ts4 ,= !re e individual be>s ! "* ( 8 c\ntry1 act+ 9 h] /ead1 & support+ h] rights4 ,?r\gh ! ex]tions ( ^? individuals1 ! /ate acquires bo? prop]ty & dom9ion1 ) a p[]1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( civiliz$ c\ntries1 ( conf]r+ !m on :om %e pleases4 ,?is is n a practice ( mod]n date1 b "o prevail+ among ! mo/ free & indep5d5t nations ( remote antiquity4 ,! poets1 & hi/orians ( ^? days1 describe ! h]o1 aft] ! heat1 ! burd51 & dang]s ( ! day1 c>ry+ 8 spoils to ! common /ock1 to be divid$ by ! ,g5]al among ! army1 aft] reta9+ 8 prop] %>e to himself4 ,,xxiii4#fc ,x is obs]v$ by legal au?orities to be a cu/om1 :i* has sil5tly ga9$ gr\nd1 = ei!r allies or subjects1 :o engage 9 w>1 )\t pay1 & at _! own risque & exp5ce1 to be rew>d$ ) ! captures t !y make4 ,! reason1 :y allies h su* a privilege1 is evid5t4 ,because "o ally is naturally b\nd to ano!r to repair ! losses1 :i* he has su/a9$ by ent]+ into a mutual agreem5t to support a common cause4 ,besides x seldom happ5s1 t s]vices are giv5 )\t "s consid]ation 9 return4 ,qu9tilian1 apply+ ! same reason+ to ano!r case1 alleges t x is b j = orators & advocates1 :o devote _! :ole "t & tal5ts to ! bus9ess ( o!rs1 to be requit$ = _! s]vices3 z !reby !y preclude !mselves f acquir+ ga9 9 any o!r way4 ,x is mo/ likely !re=e t "s advantage ga9$ f ! enemy is always expect$1 z a comp5sation = ! loss & risque incurr$1 unless !re is evid5ce to ! contr>y f "s antec$5t treaty1 9 :i* !re is an express /ipulation = gratuit\s assi/ance & s]vices4 ,,xxiv4 ,su* claim to a %>e ( ! spoils is n equally evid5t1 :]e ,,subjects ,,only are conc]n$4 ,= ! /ate has a ,,"r ,,to ,,_! ,,s]vices4 ,/ill :]e ,,all are n engag$ 9 arms1 b only ,,"s1 ^?1 :o give up _! "t to ! call+ ( soldi]s1 & expose _! lives to its haz>ds1 h a "r to be rew>d$ & support$ by ! body politic3--& z a comp5sation = ?is loss ( "t1 & ?is p]sonal dang]1 x is b reasonable !y %\ld h a %>e ( ! spoils4 ,) respect to allies !re is an example 9 ! ,roman treaty1 9 :i* ! ,lat9s are admitt$ to an equal %>e ( ! spoil1 9 ^? w>s1 :i* 7 c>ri$ on "u ! auspices ( ! ,roman p4 ,?us 9 ! w>1 :i* ! ,aetolians c>ri$ on ) ! assi/ance ( ! ,romans1 ! l&s & cities 7 c$$ to ! ,aetolians1 & ! prison]s & moveable effects 7 giv5 to ! ,romans4 ,aft] ! defeat ( k+ ,ptolemy1 ,demetrius gave "p ( ! spoils to ! ,a!nians4 ,ambrose1 9 speak+ ( ! exp$ition ( ,abraham1 %ews ! equity ( ?is practice4 ,he ass]ts t x 0 b j = ^?1 :o _h assi/$ him z p>tn]s 9 ! dang]1 to %>e 9 ! prizes1 :i* 7 _! due rew>d4 ,z to :at 7 ! privileges ( subjects 9 ^! respects1 we h a pro( 9 ! conduct ( ! ,hebrews1 among :om x 0 usual = half ( ! spoils to be giv5 to ^?1 :o 7 engag$ 9 battle4 ,9 ! same mann] ! soldi]s ( ,alex&] 7 all[$ to appropriate to !mselves :atev] !y took f individuals1 except t x 0 usual = a consid]able portion to be set ap>t = ! k+4 ,s t x 0 made a subject ( accusation aga9/ ^? at ,arbela1 :o 7 said to h ent]$ into a conspiracy = secur+ to !mselves e ?+ t 0 tak51 )\t contribut+ a due proportion ( x to ! treasury4 ,b individuals 7 n all[$ 9 ! same mann] to appropriate to !mselves ! public prop]ty ( an enemy1 t is1 su* z belong$ to ! /ate4 ,?us :5 ! ,mac$onians made !mselves ma/]s ( ! camp ( ,d>ius at ! riv] ,piramus1 & e ?+ 0 giv5 up to plund]1 !y sp>$ ! royal pavilion1 9 con=mity to an anci5t cu/om1 accord+ to :i*1 z ,curtius obs]ves1 x 0 always res]v$ z ! prop]e/ place1 9 :i* ! victori\s pr9ce c\ld be receiv$4 ,!re 0 a cu/om some:at l ?is among ! ,hebrews :o always plac$ ! cr[n ( ! vanqui%$ k+ ^u ! head ( ! conqu]or1 & assign$ to him e ?+ t 0 tak51 belong+ to ! royal h\sehold4 ,we read ( ! same conduct 9 ,*>les ! great1 :o1 ^u conqu]+ ! ,hung>ians1 gave up ! private prop]ty z plund] to ! soldi]s1 res]v+ = ! royal use all ! public treasures4 ,"s ?+s inde$ are too inconsid]able to be made public prop]ty4 ,x is a g5]ally receiv$ maxim = su* ?+s to belong to ! individual captors4#fd ,?is 0 ! practice 9 ! anci5t times ( ! ,roman republic4 ,a privilege n unlike ?is is sometimes giv5 to seam51 :o s]ve = pay4 ,x is :at ! ,fr5* call spoils1 or pillage1 includ+ all we>+ app>el1 & all gold & silv] "u ! value ( t5 cr[ns4 ,on ?is po9t diff]5t cu/oms prevail 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,9 ,spa9 sometimes a fif?1 & sometimes a ?ird 0 all[$ to ! soldi]s1 & at o!rs half 0 res]v$ = ! cr[n4 ,on "s occasions1 a sev5? or t5? "p 0 all[$ to ! g5]al1 & ! re/ belong$ to ! captors1 except %ips ( w>1 :i* belong entirely to ! cr[n4--,sometimes a division 0 made 9 proportion to ! haz>d & exp5ce3 :i* 0 ! case among ! ,italians1 :]e ! ?ird "p ( ! prize 0 assign$ to ! own] ( ! victori\s vessel1 ano!r ?ird to ^? :o _h m]*&ise on bo>d1 & ! rema9+ ?ird to ! combatants4 ,9 "s cases x happ5s t private adv5tur]s are n all[$ ! :ole ( _! captures1 a c]ta9 portion ( :i* mu/ g to ! /ate or to ^?1 :o h receiv$ a grant ( su* prizes f ! /ate4 ,?us 9 ,spa91 if 9 "t ( w> %ips are fitt$ out by private p]sons1 "o "p ( ! captures1 :i* !y make belongs to ! cr[n1 & ano!r to ! ,"l ,high ,admiral4 ,s likewise 9 ,france1 & ,holl&1 ! t5? "p ( a prize belong$ to ! ,admiral1 a fif? also be+ previ\sly d$uct$ = ! use ( ! /ate4 ,b by l& x is cu/om>y ^u ! tak+ ( t[ns1 & 9 battles1 = e "o to keep ! prizes :i* he takes4 ,b 9 excursions1 e ?+ tak5 becomes ! common /ock ( all engag$1 be+ aft]w>ds divid$ among/ !m accord+ to _! respective ranks4 ,,xxv4 ,z a consequ5ce d$ucible f ! above positions1 x may be obs]v$1 t if a p n engag$ 9 w> be made m$iators 9 a d\btful matt] respect+ ?+s captur$ 9 w>1 ! cause mu/ be adjudg$ 9 fav\r ( him1 :o has on 8 side ! laws & cu/oms ( ! c\ntry1 :i* he has esp\s$4 ,b if no su* "r c be prov$1 ! prize mu/ be adjudg$ to ! /ate1 r ?an to ! individual captor4--,! maxim inde$ ( ,qu9tilian c nev] be admitt$1 t ! laws ( w> c nev] be en=c$ 9 matt]s1 t may be decid$ by judicial au?ority2 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 :atev] has be5 ga9$ by arms c be ma9ta9$ by =ce ( arms alone4 ,,xxvi4 ,x 0 obs]v$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is *apt]1 t ?+s1 ,,n ,,belong+ to an enemy1 _c be tak51 al?\gh f\nd ) him4 ,= ?is is nei!r consonant to natural ju/ice1 nor introduc$ by ! law ( nations4 ,b if 9 ^? ?+s ! enemy _h any "r connect$ ) possession1 su* z ! "r ( pl$ge1 ret5tion or s]vice1 t w\ld n ob/ruct ! p[] ( ! captors4 ,x is a disput$ po9t1 bo? z to p]sons & ?+s1 :e!r !y c be lawfully tak5 9 ! t]ritory ( a p[] at w> ) nei!r ( ! bellig]5ts4 ,9 reg>d ,,only to ! law ( nations1 z f> z x all[s u to kill an enemy :]ev] he is f\nd1 ! ,,place has no?+ to d ) ! "q4 ,b consid]+ ! rights ( ! sov]eign1 to :om t t]ritory belongs1 he und\bt$ly has a "r to =bid ! seizure ( p]sons1 or ! capture ( ?+s )9 8 own dom9ions3 & may dem& satisfaction = ! violation ( t "r4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ?\gh bea/s1 t are wild by nature1 become ! prop]ty ( ^?1 :o take !m1 /ill an own] may =bid any "o to commit a trespass ^u 8 l&s 9 ord] to take !m4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,on ,,! ,,"r ,,ov] ,,prison]s ,,( ,,w>4 ,by ! law ( nations1 slav]y ! result ( be+ tak5 9 solemn w>--,! same condition ext5ds to ! desc5dants ( ^? tak5--,! p[] ov] !m--,ev5 incorporeal ?+s may be ga9$ by ! rights ( w>--,reason ( ?is--,?is "r n preval5t to ! same ext5t among ,*ri/ian p[]s ( ! pres5t day--,! sub/itute us$ 9 place ( ?is "r4 ,i4 ,by ! law ( nature1 9 its primaeval /ate2 ap>t f human in/itutions & cu/oms1 no m5 c be slaves3 & x is 9 ?is s5se t legal writ]s ma9ta9 ! op9ion t slav]y is repugnant to nature4 ,yet 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise1 x 0 %ewn t !re is no?+ repugnant to natural ju/ice1 9 d]iv+ ! orig9 ( s]vitude f human actions1 :e!r f\nd$ ^u compact or crime4 ,b ! law ( nations n[ "u consid]ation is ( wid] ext5t bo? 9 its au?ority ov] p]sons1 & its effects4 ,=1 z to p]sons1 n only ^?1 :o surr5d] _! rights1 or engage !mselves to s]vitude1 are consid]$ 9 ! light ( slaves1 b all1 :o are tak5 prison]s 9 public & solemn w>1 come "u ! same description f ! "t t !y are c>ri$ into ! places1 ( :i* ! enemy is ma/]4 ,nor is ! commission ( crime requisite to r$uce !m to ?is condition1 b ! fate ( all is alike1 :o are un=tunately tak5 )9 ! t]ritories ( an enemy1 ^u ! break+ out ( w>4 ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,9 anci5t times1 :ile slav]y 0 p]mitt$ to exi/1 ! (fspr+1 born dur+ captivity or s]vitude1 cont9u$ 9 ! same condition z ! p>5ts4--,! consequ5ces ( su* rules 7 ( wide ext5t2--!re 0 no cruelty1 :i* ma/]s might n inflict ^u _! slaves2--!re 0 no s]vice1 ! p]=mance ( :i* !y might n compel2--! p[] ev5 ( life & dea? 0 9 _! h&s4 ,h[ev] ! ,roman laws at l5g? set b\nds to su* wanton p[]1 at lea/ to ! ex]cise ( x )9 ! ,roman t]ritories4 ,e ?+ too1 f\nd ^u ! prison]'s p]son1 became a lawful prize to ! captor4 ,= z ,ju/9ian obs]ves1 "o :o 0 entirely 9 ! p[] ( ano!r c\ld h no prop]ty ( 8 own4 ,,iv4 & ,v4 ,incorporeal rights1 ga9$ by ! enemy1 along ) ! p]son s captur$1 _c be consid]$ 9 ! light ( prim>y & orig9al acquisitions4 ,& !re are "s rights s purely p]sonal 9 _! nature1 t !y _c be lo/ ev5 by captivity1 nor ! duties atta*$ !reto ev] be rel9qui%$4 ,( su* a nature 0 ! pat]nal "r among ! ,romans4 ,= rights ( ?is k9d _c exi/ b imm$iately ) ! p]son to :om !y orig9ally belong$4 ,all ^! rights to prizes1 :i* 7 introduc$ by ! law ( nations1 7 int5d$ z an inducem5t to captors to refra9 f ! cruel rig\r ( putt+ prison]s to dea?2 z !y might hope to d]ive "s advantage f sp>+ & sav+ !m4 ,f h5ce ,pomponius d$uces ! orig9 ( ! ^w1 ,,s]vus1 or ,,slave1 be+ "o1 :o might h be5 put to dea?1 b f motives ( int]e/ or humanity _h be5 sav$4 ,,vi4 7be+ ! ,,ix4 ( ! orig9al47 ,x has long be5 a maxim1 univ]sally receiv$ among ! p[]s ( ,*ri/5dom1 t prison]s ( w> _c be made slaves1 s z to be sold1 or compell$ to ! h>d%ips & lab\r atta*$ to slav]y4 ,& !y h ) good reason embrac$ ! latt] pr9ciple4 ,z x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) e precept ( ! law ( *>ity1 = m5 to refuse ab&on+ a cruel "r1 unless !y might be all[$ to sub/itute ano!r1 ( great1 ?\gh some:at inf]ior rig\r1 9 its place4 ,& ?is1 z ,gregoras in=ms u1 became a tradition>y pr9ciple among all :o pr(ess$ "o common religion2 nor 0 x conf9$ to ^?1 :o liv$ "u ! au?ority ( ! ,roman empire1 b prevail$ among ! ,!ssalians1 ! ,illyrians1 ! ,triballians1 & ,bulg>ians4--,?\gh su* an abolition ( slav]y1 & mitigation ( captivity may be consid]$ z ( trivial import1 yet !y 7 effects produc$ by ! introduction ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 especially ^u recollection t ,socrates tri$1 b )\t effect1 to prevail ^u ! ,greeks to =be> mak+ slaves ( ea* o!r4 ,9 ?is respect ! ,mahometans act t[>ds ea* o!r 9 ! same mann] z ,*ri/ians d4 ,?\gh x is /ill ! practice among ,*ri/ian p[]s to deta9 prison]s ( w>1 till _! ransom be paid1 ! am\nt ( :i* dep5ds ^u ! w ( ! ,conqu]or1 unless x has be5 settl$ by express treaty4 ,! "r ( deta9+ su* prison]s has sometimes be5 all[$ to ! individuals1 :o took !m1 except :]e ! prison]s 7 p]sonages ( extraord9>y rank1 :o 7 always consid]$ z prison]s ( w> to ! /ate4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,on ,,empire ,,ov] ,,! ,,conqu]$4 ,civil & sov]eign jurisdiction acquir$ by conque/--,effects ( su* acquisition--,absolute p[] or mix$ p[] ga9$ by conque/--,incorporeal rights acquir$ 9 ! same mann]--,!ssalian bond consid]$4 ,i4 ,if individuals c r$uce ea* o!r to subjection1 x is n surpris+ t /ates c d ! same1 & by ?is means acquire a civil1 absolute1 or mix$1 dom9ion4 ,s t1 9 ! language ( ,t]tullian1 victory has (t5 be5 ! f\ndation ( dom9ion1 & x (t5 happ5s1 z ,qu9tilian rem>ks1 t ! b\nd>ies ( /ates & k+doms1 ( nations & cities1 c only be settl$ by ! laws ( w>4 ,qu9tus ,curtius relates ( ,alex&]1 t he said1 x 0 = conqu]ors to dictate laws1 :i* ! conqu]$ 7 b\nd to receive4 ,?is has always be5 a g5]al op9ion & rule1 ?us ,ariovi/us1 9 ,caes>1 laid x d[n z an indubitable "r ( w>1 = ! conqu]or to impose :atev] t]ms he pleas$ ^u ! conqu]$1 nor did he suppose ! ,roman p w\ld all[ any "o to int]pose ) !m 9 ! discretion>y use ( ?is "r4 ,by conque/1 a pr9ce succe$s to all ! rights ( ! conqu]$ sov]eign or /ate2 & if x be a commonweal?1 he acquires all ! rights & privileges1 :i* ! p possess$4 ,he ga9s ! same "r1 :i* ! /ate _h be=e1 to ali5ate ! possessions1 or to transmit !m if he *uses to 8 desc5dants1 by :i* means !y w become a patrimonial t]ritory4 ,,ii4 ,! "r ( conque/ may g ev5 beyond ?is4 ,a /ate may h]eby lose its political exi/5ce1 s f> z to =m an app5dage to ano!r p[]1 :i* 0 ! case ) ! ,roman prov9ces3 or if a k+ engag$ 9 w> aga9/ a /ate1 at 8 own exp5ce1 has r$uc$ x to complete subjection1 8 au?ority ov] x becomes an absolute1 r ?an a limit$ sov]eignty4 ,x c no long] be call$ an indep5d5t /ate1 b1 by ! "r ( conque/1 =ms an integral "p ( ! pr9ce's imm$iate dom9ions4 ,x5ophon 9 draw+ ! "* ( ,agesilaus1 comm5ds him = requir+ no o!r s]vices & ob$i5ce ( ! cities he _h conqu]$1 ?an :at is usually paid by subjects to _! lawful sov]eigns4 ,,iii4 ,f h5ce x w be easy to und]/& :at is meant by a mix$ gov]nm5t1 compos$ p>tly ( civil1 & p>tly ( absolute p[]2--x is a gov]nm5t1 :]e subjection is unit$ ) "s degree ( p]sonal lib]ty4 ,we sometimes read ( nations1 t h be5 s f> subdu$1 z to be depriv$ ( ! use ( all w>like arms1 be+ all[$ to reta9 no in/rum5ts ( iron1 b ! implem5ts ( husb&ry2 & ( o!rs1 t h be5 compell$ to *ange _! national cu/oms & language4 ,,iv4 ,/ates z well z individuals may lose _! prop]ty by ! laws ( w>3 & ev5 a volunt>y surr5d] is 9 reality no?+ m ?an giv+ up :at might h be5 tak5 by =ce4 ,= z ,livy says1 :]e all ?+s submit to ! p[] ( arms1 ! conqu]or may impose :atev] t]ms1 & exact :atev] f9es he pleases4 ,?us ! ,roman p by ! victories ( ,pompey acquir$ all ! t]ritories1 :i* ,mi?ridates _h ga9$ by conque/4 ,! incorporeal rights too1 belong+ to "o /ate1 may pass to ano!r by ! rights ( conque/4 ,^u ! tak+ ( ,alba1 ! ,romans reta9$ all ! rights belong+ to t city4 ,f h5ce x foll[s1 t ! ,!ssalians 7 releas$ f ! obligation ( pay+ a sum ( money1 :i* !y ow$ to ! ,!bans2 ,alex&]1 ^u ! tak+ ( ,!bes1 hav+1 z a conqu]or1 =giv5 ! debt4 ,nor is ! argum5t us$ by ,qu9tilian 9 fav\r ( ! ,!bans1 at all conv9c+3 he ma9ta9s t no?+ b :at is ( a tangible nature c pass by "r ( conque/1 a class ( ?+s to :i* incorporeal rights c nev] be r$uc$3 & t !re is a mat]ial diff]5ce betwe5 inh]itance & victory1 ! =m] ( :i* may convey incorporeal rights1 b ! latt] c give no?+ except ?+s ( a solid & visible sub/ance4 ,b on ! o!r h& x may be ju/ly said1 t :oev] is ma/] ( ! p]sons1 is ma/] also ( all ! rights & ?+s1 :i* are ve/$ 9 ^? p]sons1 :o are 9 t case consid]$ z hav+ no?+ ( _! own4 ,inde$ if any "o %\ld leave to a conqu]$ p _! rights1 z a /ate1 /ill !re are "s ?+s belong+ to t /ate1 :i* he might appropriate to himself4 ,= x is 9 8 own p[] to det]m9e1 to :at ext5t 8 g5]osity1 or ! ex]tion ( 8 "r %all g4 ,caes> imitat$ ! conduct ( ,alex&]1 9 =giv+ ! ,dyrra*ians a debt1 :i* !y ow$ to "s "o ( ! opposite p>ty4 ,b ! k9d ( w>1 9 :i* ,caes> 0 engag$ does n fall )9 ! rules ( ! law ( nations4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,po/lim9ium4 ,orig9 ( ! t]m1 po/lim9ium--,:]e x takes effect--,c]ta9 ?+s recov]able !reby--,9 :at cases ! "r ( po/lim9ium prevails 9 peace1 z well z w>--,:at rights are recov]able1 & :at rights n recov]able--,:5 a p is n entitl$ to ! "r ( po/lim9ium--,ext5t ( civil law 9 ^! cases--,des]t]s--,ransom$ prison]s--,subjects--,l&s recov]$ by "r ( po/lim9ium--,di/9ction =m]ly obs]v$ ) respect to movable ?+s--,mod]n practice4 ,i4 ,! pr(essors ( law 9 =m] ages h giv5 no m satisfactory acc\nt ( ! rights ( po/lim9ium1 ?an !y h done ( ^?1 respect+ ?+s tak5 f ! enemy4 ,! subject has be5 m accurately h&l$ by ! anci5t ,romans1 b (t5 /ill ) a consid]able degree ( confusion1 s t a read] _c easily di/+ui%1 :at "p !y assign to ! prov9ce ( ! law ( nations1 & :at "p to ! civil law ( ,rome4 ,amid/ a great v>iety ( op9ions1 ^u ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 po/lim9ium1 t ( ,scaevola seems ! mo/ natural1 :o d]ives x f ! ^w po/1 signify+ a return aft] captivity1 & lim5 ! b\nd>y or entrance ( ! h\se1 or f limes1 a public b\nd>y4 ,?us ! anci5ts call$ exile or bani%m5t1 elim9ium1 t is1 s5d+ any "o out ( ! b\nd>ies ( ! c\ntry4 ,,ii4 ,po/lim9ium !re=e1 accord+ to its orig9al signification1 means ! "r1 accru+ to any "o 9 consequ5ce ( 8 return home f captivity4 ,pomponius def9es ! "r ( po/lim9ium to take place ! mom5t any "o ent]s a t[n or g>rison1 ( :i* 8 sov]eign is ma/]2 b accord+ to ,paulus he mu/ h ent]$ )9 ! t]ritories ( 8 own c\ntry be=e he c be entitl$ to t "r4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple nations h1 9 g5]al1 gone s f>1 z to all[ ! "r ( po/lim9ium to take place1 :]e any p]son1 or inde$ any ?+1 com+ )9 ! privileges ( po/lim9ium1 h arriv$ )9 ! t]ritory ( a fri5dly or alli$ p[]4 ,by ! t]m fri5ds1 or allies1 us$ 9 ?is place1 are n simply meant1 ^? :o are at peace ) ano!r p[]1 b ^? :o are engag$ 9 ! same w>1 & 9 a common cause ) t p[]4 ,s t all1 :o h come into ! t]ritories ( su* p[]s1 are protect$ "u ! pl$ge ( public fai?4 ,= x makes no diff]5ce ) respect to p]sons or ?+s1 :e!r !y are 9 ! t]ritories ( ^? p[]s1 or 9 _! own4 ,9 ! t]ritory ( a fri5dly p[]1 :o is n engag$ 9 ! same cause ) ei!r ( two bellig]5t p>ties1 prison]s ( w> d n *ange _! condition1 unless x has be5 agre$ to ! contr>y by express treaty2 z 9 ! second treaty betwe5 ! ,romans & ,c>?ag9ians1 x 0 /ipulat$ t if any prison]s1 tak5 by ! ,c>?ag9ians f p[]s fri5dly to ! ,romans1 %\ld come into ports subject to ! ,roman p1 _! lib]ty might be claim$3 & t p[]s fri5dly to ! ,c>?ag9ians %\ld enjoy ! same privilege4 ,= ?is reason1 ! ,roman prison]s tak5 9 ! second ,punic w>1 :5 s5t into ,greece1 _h n ! "r ( po/lim9ium !re1 ! ,greeks be+ entirely neutral1 consequ5tly !y c\ld n be releas$1 till !y 7 ransom$4 ,,iii4 ,accord+ to ! language ( ! anci5t ,romans1 ev5 free m5 might be re/or$ by ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,gallus lius1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 explanation ( law-t]ms1 def9es a p]son re/or$ to 8 orig9al situation by ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 to be "o1 :o _h gone f 8 own c\ntry1 9 a free condition1 to ano!r1 & return$ to 8 own 9 consequ5ce ( su* "r4 ,by ! "r ( po/lim9ium a slave also :o has fall5 into ! h&s ( an enemy1 ^u 8 release f !nce1 returns to ! s]vice ( 8 =m] ma/]4 ,z to ! law ( po/lim9ium1 horses1 mules1 & %ips are consid]$ 9 ! same light z slaves4 ,& :atev] advantage ?is law gives any "o 9 recov]+ p]sons or ?+s f an enemy1 ! enemy 9 8 turn has equal advantage f ! same law4 ,b mod]n lawy]s h made a di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( po/lim9ium1 by "o ( :i*1 p]sons return$ to _! =m] condition1 & by ! o!r1 ?+s are recov]$4 ,,iv4 ,! "r ( po/lim9ium may ext5d to ^?1 :o are seiz$ & deta9$ 9 an enemy's c\ntry ^u ! break+ out ( w>4 ,= ?\gh dur+ ! cont9uance ( t w>1 !re may be reason = deta9+ !m1 9 ord] to weak5 ! enemy's /r5g?1 yet1 ^u ! conclusion ( a peace1 no su* motive & pret5ce c be devis$ = _! release be+ refus$ or delay$4 ,x is a settl$ po9t !re=e t ^u peace be+ made1 prison]s ( ! above description always obta9 _! lib]ty1 _! claim to x be+ univ]sally ackn[l$g$4 ,) respect to o!r k9ds ( prison]s1 e "o us$ :at he wi%$ to be ?\ght 8 "r1 except :]e fix$ rules 7 prescrib$ by treaty4 ,& = ! same reason1 nei!r slaves1 nor ?+s tak5 9 w> are re/or$ ^u a peace1 except express /ipulations be made to t purpose4 ,a conqu]or too1 9 g5]al1 wi%es to h x believ$ t he _h a "r to make su* acquisition2 & inde$ ! dep>ture f su* a rule might give rise to w>s )\t end4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 ,a prison] ( w>1 ^u 8 release1 & return to 8 own c\ntry1 is entitl$ to all 8 privileges ,,!re1 & inde$ to ev]y?+ ei!r corporeal1 or incorporeal1 :i* he might h be=e possess$ 9 a ,,neutral ,,/ate1 at ! "t ( 8 captivity4 ,= if su* a /ate1 9 ord] to pres]ve h] neutrality1 consid]$ 8 captivity z a matt] ( "r on ! "p ( ! enemy1 s also1 9 ord] to %ew h] imp>tiality1 %e _c lawfully abridge 8 "r to any ?+ he may reclaim ^u 8 release4 ,! contr\l !re=e1 :i* ! p]son1 to :om ! prison] belong$ by ! "r ( w>1 _h ov] 8 effects1 0 n absolutely unconditional3 = he might lose x1 ev5 aga9/ 8 w1 :5ev] ! prison] came aga9 "u ! protection1 or )9 ! t]ritories1 ( 8 own sov]eign4 ,along ) ! prison] !re=e he w\ld lose ev]y?+1 :i* 0 consid]$ z an app5dage to 8 p]son4 ,9 cases :]e effects tak5 9 w> h be5 ali5at$1 a "q arises1 :e!r ! law ( nations confirms ! title1 & secures ! possession ( ! p]son1 :o has d]iv$ or pur*as$ !m f him1 :o 0 ma/] ( !m by ! rights ( w>1 by hav+ ! prison] 9 8 cu/ody at ! "t ( ali5ation1 or :e!r su* ?+s are recov]able2 suppos+ ! ?+s to be 9 a neutral t]ritory4 ,a di/9ction seems prop] to be made betwe5 ?+s recov]able by po/lim9ium1 & ?+s except$ f t "r3 s t e ali5ation ( ! =m] mu/ be qualifi$ & conditional1 b t ( ! latt] may be absolute4 ,by ?+s ali5at$ may be und]/ood ev5 ^?1 ( :i* a gift has be5 made1 or to :i* ! own] has rel9qui%$ e claim4 ,,vii4 ,^u any "o's return+ to 8 =m] condition by ! law ( po/lim9ium1 all 8 rights are re/or$ z fully1 z if he _h nev] be5 9 ! h&s & p[] ( ! enemy4 ,,viii4 ,! case ( ^? h[ev]1 :o h be5 conqu]$ by ! arms ( an enemy1 & h surr5d]$ !mselves1 =ms an exception to ?is rule2 because engagem5ts ( t k9d mu/ be valid1 & hon\rably adh]$ to accord+ to ! law ( po/lim9ium4 ,s t dur+ ! "t ( a truce1 ! "r ( po/lim9ium _c be claim$4 ,b :]e a surr5d] has be5 made )\t any express or positive conv5tion ! "r ( po/lim9ium exi/s 9 all its =ce4 ,,ix4 ,:at has be5 said ( individuals applies to nations3 s t a free p1 :o h be5 subjugat$1 ^u be+ deliv]$ f ! yoke ( ! enemy by ! p[] ( _! allies1 w recov] _! =m] condition4 ,b if ! :ole population t con/itut$ a /ate has be5 disp]s$1 ! p c no long] be consid]$ z ! same3 nor does ! law ( nations 9 su* a case en=ce ! "r ( po/lim9ium = ! re/oration ( all effects =m]ly belong+ to t p4 ,= z ! id5tity ( a %ip1 or any o!r mat]ial object1 c only be asc]ta9$ by ! p]man5t union ( its orig9al p>ts3 s a nation c no long] be reg>d$ z ! same1 :5 e peculi> *>act]i/ic belong+ to x is effac$4 ,! /ate ( ,saguntum !re=e 0 no long] judg$ to be ! same1 :5 x 0 re/or$ to its anci5t possessors1 at ! expiration ( eight ye>s3 nor c\ld ,!bes any long] be deem$ ! orig9al city1 z its inhabitants _h be5 sold by ,alex&] = slaves4 ,f h5ce x is evid5t1 t ! ,!bans c\ld n1 by ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 recov] ! sum ( money1 :i* ! ,!ssalians _h ow$ !m3 & t = two reasons3 because1 9 ! fir/ place1 !y 7 a new p2 &1 secondly1 because ,alex&] at ! "t t he 0 absolute ma/] ( ! city _h a "r1 if he ?\ght prop]1 to rel9qui% ! claim to t debt1 :i* he _h actually done4 ,besides1 a debt is n 9 ! numb] ( ?+s recov]able by ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,! rules1 respect+ a /ate1 are n mu* unlike ^? laid d[n by ! anci5t ,roman law1 :i* made m>riage a dissoluble tie1 s t x c\ld n be re/or$ by ! "r ( po/lim9ium3 b a new cons5t1 & a new contract 7 necess>y4 ,x4 ,by ! ,roman civil law des]t]s 7 exclud$ f ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,,xi4 & ,,xii4 ,x is a po9t ( mu* importance to ! subject1 & x 0 be=e decl>$ 9 ! affirmative1 t nations1 :i* h be5 "u a =eign yoke1 recov] _! =m] condition1 ev5 ?\gh _! deliv]ance has n be5 effect$ by _! =m] sov]eign1 b by "s ally4 ,x is a settl$ rule1 :]e !re is no express treaty to ! contr>y4 ,at ! same "t x is b reasonable t su* ally be indemnifi$ = ! exp5ces incurr$ 9 accompli%+ t deliv]ance4 ,,xiii4 ,among ?+s )9 ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 l&s 9 p>ticul> attract our att5tion4 ,=1 z ,pomponius obs]ves1 ^u ! expulsion ( an enemy l&s naturally rev]t to _! =m] ma/]s4 ,& 9 ?is s5se expulsion is und]/ood to take place f ! "t t 8 free & op5 access to a t]ritory is entirely cut (f4 ,?us ! ,lac$aemonians1 aft] tak+ ,aeg9a f ! ,a!nians1 re/or$ x to its anci5t own]s4 ,ju/9ian & o!r emp]ors re/or$ to ! heirs ( ! anci5t possessors ( ! l&s1 :i* _h be5 recov]$ f ! ,go?s & ,v&als1 /ill res]v+ aga9/ ^? own]s all prescriptive rights1 :i* ! ,roman laws _h introduc$4 ,! privileges belong+ to l&s atta* to e "r also connect$ ) ! soil4 ,= religi\s or consecrat$ places1 t _h be5 tak5 by an enemy1 :5 recov]$ return$1 z ,pomponius has said1 to _! =m] condition4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple x 0 provid$ by a law 9 ,spa91 t prov9ces1 & all o!r h]$it>y jurisdictions1 p>ticul>ly supreme jurisdictions1 %\ld return to ! orig9al possessors by ! "r ( po/lim9ium2 & ^? ( an inf]ior k9d1 if reclaim$ )9 ! space ( f\r ye>s4 ,except t citadels lo/ by w> always belong$ to ! cr[n1 9 :atev] mann] !y 7 recov]$4 ,,xiv4 ,on ! contr>y a g5]al op9ion prevails1 t moveable prop]ty1 :i* con/itutes "p ( a lawful prize1 is n recov]able by ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,s t ?+s acquir$ by pur*ase1 :]ev] !y are f\nd1 cont9ue ! prop]ty ( ! pur*as]4 ,nor has ! orig9al own] a "r to claim !m1 :5 f\nd 9 a neutral /ate1 or ev5 c>ri$ into 8 own t]ritory4 ,?+s useful 9 w>1 z we f9d1 7 =m]ly an exception to ?is rule3 an exception1 :i* seems to h be5 fav\r$ by ! law ( nations 9 ord] to induce m5 ! m readily to provide !m1 9 ! hopes ( recov]+ !m1 if lo/4 ,& ?is indulg5ce 0 ! m easily grant$1 z mo/ nations1 at t p]iod1 9 all _! cu/oms1 seem to h _h an eye to a /ate ( w>f>e4--,among ! ?+s1 com+ "u ?is description1 %ips ( w>1 & m]*ant-%ips are reckon$1 b nei!r gallies1 nor pleasure-boats3 mules also are enum]at$2 b only su* z are us$ to c>ry baggage3 horses & m>es too2 b only su* z are brok5 9 to obey ! bridle4 ,& ^! are ?+s1 ! beque/ ( :i* ! ,roman law confirm$1 & :i* might come into ! division ( an inh]itance4 ,arms & cloa?+ inde$ are useful 9 w>1 b /ill !y 7 n recov]able by ! "r ( po/lim9ium2 because ! laws 7 by no means incl9$ to fav\r ^?1 :o lo/ ei!r 9 w>3 & su* a loss 0 deem$ a disgrace1 z we f9d f _m p>ts ( hi/ory4 ,& 9 ?is respect1 a di/9ction 0 made betwe5 a soldi]'s arms & 8 horse3 because ! latt] might easily break loose1 & fall into an enemy's h&s )\t any fault ( 8 rid]4 ,?is di/9ction 9 moveable ?+s seems to h prevail$ 9 ! we/]n p>ts ( ,europe1 "u ! ,go?s1 ev5 z f> d[n z to ! times ( ,boetius4 ,= 9 expla9+ ! ,topics ( ,cic]o1 he speaks ( ?is "r1 z a g5]al cu/om ( 8 day4 ,,xv4 ,b 9 lat] times1 if n be=e1 ?is di/9ction seems to h be5 aboli%$4 ,= all intellig5t writ]s speak ( moveable effects z n recov]able by ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 & x has evid5tly be5 decid$ s1 9 _m places1 ) respect to %ips4 ,,xvi4 ,! "r ( po/lim9ium is q unnecess>y1 be=e ! ?+s tak5 h be5 c>ri$ into "s place ( :i* ! enemy is ma/]1 al?\gh !y may be 9 8 possession3 = !y h n yet *ang$ _! own]1 by ! law ( nations4 ,&1 accord+ to ! op9ions ( ,ulpian & ,javol5us1 ! law ( po/lim9ium is no less sup]flu\s1 :]e goods h be5 tak5 by robb]s & pirates1 because ! law ( nations does n all[ ,,_! possession ( ! goods to convey any *ange1 or "r ( prop]ty to ,,!m4 ,^u ?is gr\nd1 ! ,a!nians wi%$ to consid] ,philip1 z ,,re/or+1 & n ,,giv+ !m ,halonesus1 ( :i* !y _h be5 robb$ by pirates1 f :om he _h tak5 x aga94 ,= ?+s tak5 by pirates may be reclaim$1 :]ev] !y are f\nd2 except t ,,natural ,,ju/ice requires t ! p]son1 :o has ga9$ !m out ( _! h&s1 at 8 own exp5ce1 %\ld be indemnifi$1 9 proportion to :at ! own] himself w\ld will+ly h sp5t = _! recov]y4 ,,xvii4 ,b a diff]5t maxim may be e/abli%$ by ! ,,civil ,,law4 ,?us by ! law ( ,spa91 %ips tak5 f pirates become ! lawful prize ( ! captors3 :i* may seem a h>d%ip ^u ! orig9al own]s2 b 9 "s cases individual int]e/ mu/ be sacrific$ to ! public good3 especially :]e ! dang] & difficulty ( retak+ ! %ips is s great4#fe ,b su* a law w n prev5t =eign]s f ass]t+ _! claims4 ,,xviii4 ,x 0 r a surpris+ maxim 9 ! ,roman law1 :i* e/abli%$ ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 n only betwe5 ho/ile p[]s1 b betwe5 all =eign /ates1 &1 9 "s cases1 betwe5 ^?1 :o 7 memb]s ( ! ,roman empire4 ,b ?is 0 only a ve/ige ( ! rude & pa/oral ages1 be=e society 0 p]fectly =m$4 ,s t ev5 betwe5 nations1 :o 7 n engag$ 9 public w> ) ea* o!r1 a k9d ( lic5ce resembl+ t ( w> prevail$4 ,9 ord] to prev5t su* a lic5ce f proce$+ to all ! calamities & slaught] ( w>1 ! laws ( captivity 7 introduc$3 &1 z a consequ5ce ( ?is1 po/lim9ium took place1 :i* might be consid]$ z a great /ep t[>ds ! =mation ( equal treaties1 f ! rules ( :i* pirates & robb]s 7 exclud$1 & :i* inde$ !y !mselves despis$4 ,,xix4 ,9 our times1 ! "r ( mak+ prison]s1 except 9 w>1 has be5 aboli%$ n only among ,*ri/ian /ates1 b ev5 among ! great] "p ( ,mahometans1 ^? b&s ( society1 :i* nature design$ to e/abli% among/ m51 be+ 9 "s measure re/or$4 ,b ! anci5t law ( nations seems /ill 9 =ce aga9/ any rude or b>b>\s p1 :o1 )\t any decl>ation or cause ( w>1 consid] all mank9d z enemies4 ,a decision has lately be5 made 9 ! pr9cipal *amb] ( ! p>liam5t ( ,p>is1 decl>+ all effects belong+ to ! subjects ( ,france1 & tak5 by ! ,alg]9es1 a p always engag$ 9 pr$atory & m>itime w>f>e ) all o!r c\ntries1 if retak51 to belong to ! captors4--,at ! same "t x 0 decid$1 t1 9 ! pres5t day1 %ips are n reckon$ among ?+s recov]able by ! "r ( po/lim9ium4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4#ff ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,kill+ ,,enemies1 ,,9 ,,j ,,w>1 ,,to ,,be ,,temp]$ ,,) ,,mod]ation ,,& ,,humanity4 ,9 :at cases /rict ju/ice all[s ! de/ruction ( an enemy--,di/9ction betwe5 mis=tune & guilt--,betwe5 pr9cipals & accessories 9 w>--,di/9ction betwe5 unw>rantable & excusable gr\nds ( promot+ w>--,sometimes "r & laudable to =be> puni%+ an invet]ate enemy--,e possible precaution requisite to sp>e ! innoc5t--,especially *ildr51 wom51 & ! ag$1 except !y h committ$ atroci\s acts--,cl]gym51 m5 ( lett]s1 husb&m51 m]*ants1 prison]s--,conditional surr5d] n to be reject$--,unconditional surr5d]--,exceptions to ! above rules1 "s ( !m consid]$1 & refut$--,del9qu5ts :5 num]\s to be sp>$--,ho/ages to be sp>$--,unnecess>y effusion ( blood to be avoid$4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,cic]o1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 (fices1 has f9ely obs]v$1 t "s duties are to be obs]v$ ev5 t[>ds ^?1 f :om y h receiv$ an injury4 ,= ev5 v5geance & puni%m5t h _! due b\nds4 ,& at ! same "t he extols ^? anci5t p]iods 9 ! ,roman gov]nm5t1 :5 ! ev5ts ( w> 7 mild1 & m>k$ ) no unnecess>y cruelty4 ,! explanations giv5 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is book w po9t out ! cases1 :]e ! de/ruction ( an enemy is "o ( ! rights ( lawful w>1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( /rict & int]nal ju/ice1 & :]e x is n s4 ,= ! dea? ( an enemy may proce$ ei!r f an accid5tal calamity1 or f ! fix$ purpose ( 8 de/ruction4 ,no "o c be ju/ly kill$ by design1 except by way ( legal puni%m5t1 or to def5d our lives1 & pres]ve our prop]ty1 :5 x _c be effect$ )\t 8 de/ruction4 ,= al?\gh 9 sacrific+ ! life ( man to ! pres]vation ( p]i%able possessions1 !re may be no?+ repugnant to /rict ju/ice1 x is by no means consonant to ! law ( *>ity4 ,b to ju/ify a puni%m5t ( t k9d1 ! p]son put to dea? mu/ h committ$ a crime1 & su* a crime too1 z e equitable judge w\ld deem wor?y ( dea?4 ,po9ts1 :i* x is unnecess>y to discuss any fur!r1 z !y h be5 s fully expla9$ 9 ! *apt] on puni%m5ts4 ,,iii4 ,9 speak+ ( ! calamities ( w>1 z a puni%m5t1 x is prop] to make a di/9ction betwe5 mis=tune & injury4 ,= a p may sometimes be engag$ 9 w> aga9/ _! w1 :]e !y _c be ju/ly *>g$ ) ent]ta9+ ho/ile int5tions4 ,^u ?is subject1 ,velleius ,pat]culus obs]ves t to blame ! ,a!nians = revolt+1 at ! "t !y 7 besieg$ by ,sylla1 betrays a total ignorance ( hi/ory4 ,= ! ,a!nians always cont9u$ s /eady 9 _! atta*m5t to ! ,romans1 t _! fidelity became a prov]bial expression4 ,yet _! situation at t "t excus$ _! conduct1 ov]p[]$ by ! arms ( ,mi?ridates1 !y 7 oblig$ to submit to a foe )91 :ile !y _h to su/a9 a siege f _! fri5ds )\t4 ,,iv4 & ,v4 ,betwe5 complete injuries & pure mis=tunes !re may be sometimes a middle k9d ( actions1 p>tak+ ( ! nature ( bo?1 :i* c nei!r be said to be done ) kn[n & wilful int5tion1 nor yet excus$ "u col\r ( ignorance & want ( incl9ation4 ,acts ( pure mis=tune nei!r m]it puni%m5t1 nor oblige ! p>ty to make rep>ation = ! loss occasion$4 ,h5ce _m p>ts ( hi/ory supply u ) di/9ctions t are made betwe5 ^? :o are ! au?ors ( a w>1 & pr9cipals 9 x1 & ^? :o are oblig$ to foll[ o!rs1 z accessories 9 ! same4 ,,vi4 ,b respect+ ! au?ors ( w>1 a di/9ction is to be made also1 z to ! motives & causes ( w>3 "s ( :i* ?\gh n actually j1 we> an appe>ance ( ju/ice1 t may impose ^u ! well mean+4 ,! writ] to ,h]5nius lays x d[n z ! mo/ equitable v9dication ( injury1 :]e ! p>ty committ+ x1 has nei!r be5 actuat$ by rev5ge1 nor cruelty2 b by ! dictates ( duty & an upright zeal4 ,cic]o1 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 (fices1 advises ! sp>+ ( ^?1 :o h committ$ no acts ( atrocity & cruelty 9 w>1 & t w>s1 und]tak5 to ma9ta9 national hon\r1 %\ld be conduct$ ^u pr9ciples ( mod]ation4 ,&1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s1 adv]t+ to ! w> betwe5 ,pompey & ,caes>1 he describes ! /ruggle betwe5 ^? two illu/ri\s m51 z involv$ 9 s mu* obscurity ( motives & causes1 t _m 7 p]plex$ 9 decid+ :i* side to embrace4 ,9 8 spee* too = ,m>cellus1 he rem>ks t su* unc]ta9ty might be att5d$ ) error1 b c\ld nev] be *>g$ ) guilt4 ,,vii4 ,su* =be>ance 9 w> is n only a tribute to ju/ice1 x is a tribute to humanity1 x is a tribute to mod]ation1 x is a tribute to greatness ( s\l4 ,x 0 9 ?is mod]ation1 says ,sallu/1 ! f\ndation ( ,roman greatness 0 laid4 ,tacitus describes 8 c\ntrym5 z a p no less rem>kable = _! c\rage 9 ! field1 ?an = _! humanity to ! vanqui%$ & suppliant4 ,on ?is subject1 !re is a brilliant passage 9 ! f\r? book to ,h]5nius1 :]e x is said1 ,x 0 an admirable resolution ( our ance/ors1 nev] to deprive a captive pr9ce ( 8 life4 ,= x w\ld be truly a violation ( common ju/ice to abuse1 by wanton cruelty & rig\r1 ! p[] ov] ^?1 :om =tune has put into our h&s1 by r$uc+ !m f ! high condition1 9 :i* %e _h plac$ !m be=e2 _! =m] enmity is =gott54 ,because x is ! *>act]i/ic ( brav]y to e/eem oppon5ts z enemies1 :ile cont5d+ = victory1 & to treat !m z m51 :5 conqu]$1 9 ord] to s(t5 ! calamities ( w>1 & improve ! t]ms & relations ( peace4 ,b x may be ask$1 if ! enemy n[ treat$ ) ?is indulg5ce w\ld h %ewn ! same l5ity himself4 ,to :i* a reply may be made1 t he is n an object ( imitation 9 :at he ,,w\ld h done1 s mu* z 9 :at he ,,ought to h done4 ,,viii4 ,?\gh !re may be circum/ances1 9 :i* absolute ju/ice w n condemn ! sacrifice ( lives 9 w>1 yet humanity w require t ! greate/ precaution %\ld be us$ aga9/ involv+ ! innoc5t 9 dang]1 except 9 cases ( extreme urg5cy & utility4 ,,ix4 ,aft] e/abli%+ ^! g5]al pr9ciples1 x w n be difficult to decide ^u p>ticul> cases4 ,s5eca says1 t 9 ! calamities ( w> *ildr5 are exempt$ & sp>$1 on ! score ( _! age1 & wom5 f respect to _! sex4 ,9 ! w>s ( ! ,hebrews1 ev5 aft] ! (f]s ( peace h be5 reject$1 ,god comm&s ! wom5 & *ildr5 to be sp>$4 ,?us :5 ! ,n9evites 7 ?reat5$ ) utt] de/ruction1 on acc\nt ( _! griev\s crimes1 a mitigation ( ! s5t5ce 0 all[$1 9 compassion to ! _m ?\s&s1 :o 7 ( an age incapable ( mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong4 ,if ,god1 f ^: supreme gift ! life ( man proce$s1 & on ^: supreme disposal x dep5ds1 prescribes to himself a rule l ?is1 x is surely incumb5t ^u m51 :o h no commission1 b = ! welf>e & pres]vation ( ! lives ( m51 to act by ! same rule4 ,?us age & sex are equally sp>$1 except :]e ! latt] h dep>t$ f ?is privilege by tak+ arms1 or p]=m+ ! "p ( m54 ,x4 ,! same rule may be laid d[n too ) respect to males1 ^: modes ( life are entirely remote f ! use ( arms4 ,& 9 ! fir/ class ( ?is description may be plac$ ! m9i/]s ( religion1 :o1 among all nations1 f times ( ! mo/ remote antiquity h be5 exempt$ f be>+ arms4--,?us1 z may be se5 9 sacr$ hi/ory1 ! ,phili/9es1 be+ enemies ( ! ,jews1 =bore do+ h>m to ! company ( prophets1 t 0 at ,gaba3 & ,david fl$ ) ,samuel to ano!r place1 :i* ! pres5ce ( a prophetic company protect$ f all mole/ation & injury4 ,plut>* relates ( ! ,cretans1 t :5 all ord] among !m 0 entirely brok5 by _! civil broils1 !y ab/a9$ f (f]+ viol5ce to any memb] ( ! prie/hood1 or to ^? employ$ 9 ! sacr$ rites belong+ to ! dead4 ,f h5ce ! ,greeks came to d5ote a ,,g5]al ,,massacre by ! prov]bial expression ( ,,no ,,"o ,,be+ ,,left ,,to ,,c>ry ,,fire ,,to ,,! ,,alt>4 ,equally privileg$ ) ! holy prie/hood are ^?1 :o devote _! lives to ! pursuit ( lett]s1 & o!r /udies b5eficial to mank9d4 ,,xi4 ,diodorus be/[s an encomium ^u ! ,indians1 :o1 9 all _! w>s ) ea* o!r1 =bore de/roy+ or ev5 hurt+ ^? employ$ 9 husb&ry1 z be+ ! common b5efactors ( all4 ,plut>* relates ! same ( ! anci5t ,cor9?ians & ,meg>5sians1 & ,cyrus s5t a message to ! k+ ( ,assyria to in=m him t he 0 will+ to avoid mole/+ all :o 7 employ$ 9 till+ ! gr\nd4 ,,xii4 ,to ! above catalogue ( ^? exempt$ f %>+ 9 ! calamities ( w>1 may be add$ m]*ants1 n only ^? resid+ = a "t 9 ! enemy's c\ntry1 b ev5 8 natural-born1 & regul> subjects3 artisans too1 & all o!rs are includ$2 ^: subsi/5ce dep5ds ^u cultivat+ ! arts ( peace4 ,,xiii4 & ,,xiv4 ,m civiliz$ mann]s hav+ aboli%$ ! b>b>\s practice ( putt+ prison]s to dea?1 = ! same reason1 ! surr5d] ( ^?1 :o /ipulate = ! pres]vation ( _! lives ei!r 9 battle1 or 9 a siege1 is n to be reject$4 ,! ,romans1 :5 inve/+ t[ns1 always accept$ (f]s ( capitulation1 if made be=e ! batt]+ ram _h t\*$ ! walls4 ,caes> gave notice to ! ,atuatici1 t he w\ld save _! city1 if !y surr5d]$1 be=e ! batt]+ ram 0 br\ght up4 ,& 9 mod]n times x is ! usual practice1 be=e %ells are ?r[n1 or m9es sprung1 to summon places to surr5d]1 :i* are ?\ght unable to hold out--& :]e places are /rong]1 su* summons is g5]ally s5t1 be=e ! /orm+ is made4 ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4 ,aga9/ ^! pr9ciples ( natural law & equity an objection is sometimes d]iv$ f ! necessity ( retaliation1 or /rik+ t]ror1 9 cases ( ob/9ate resi/ance4 ,b su* an objection is by no means j4 ,= aft] a place has surr5d]$1 & !re is no dang] to be appreh5d$ f ! prison]s1 !re is no?+ to ju/ify ! fur!r effusion ( blood4--,su* rig\r 0 sometimes practis$1 :]e !re 7 any enorm\s acts ( inju/ice1 or any violation ( fai?2 x 0 practis$ also ^u des]t]s1 if tak54 ,sometimes1 :]e v important advantages may att5d /rik+ a t]ror1 by prev5t+ ! same crimes 9 future f be+ committ$1 x may be prop] to ex]cise ! "r ( rig\r 9 its full ext5t4 ,b an ob/9ate resi/ance1 :i* c be consid]$ z no?+ b ! fai?ful dis*>ge ( a tru/1 c nev] come )9 ! description ( su* del9qu5cies1 z ju/ify extreme rig\r4 ,,xvii4 ,:]e del9qu5cies inde$ are su* z des]ve dea?1 b ! numb] ( (f5d]s is v great1 x is usual1 f motives ( m]cy1 to dep>t 9 "s degree f ! "r ( en=c+ ! :ole p[] ( ! law3 ! au?ority = s do+ is f\nd$ on ! example ( ,god himself1 :o comm&$ su* (f]s ( peace to be made to ! ,canaanites1 & _! neighb\rs1 ! mo/ wick$ ( any p ^u ! face ( ! e>?1 z might sp>e _! lives ^u ! condition ( _! becom+ tribut>ies4 ,,xviii4 ,f ! op9ions advanc$ & ma9ta9$ above1 x w n be difficult to ga!r ! pr9ciples ( ! law ( nature respect+ ho/ages4 ,at ! "t1 :5 x 0 a g5]al op9ion t e "o _h ! same "r ov] 8 life1 z ov] 8 prop]ty1 & t "r1 ei!r by express or impli$ cons5t 0 transf]r$ f individuals to ! /ate1 x is n surpris+ t we %\ld read ( ho/ages1 ?\gh h>mless & innoc5t z individuals1 be+ puni%$ = ! (f5ces ( ! /ate3 &1 9 ?is case1 ! cons5t ( ! /ate to su* a regulation implies t ( individuals1 :o h orig9ally resign$ _! own w to t ( ! public2 9 :om1 aft] su* resignation1 x indubitably ve/$4 ,b :5 ! day-spr+ rose ^u ! _w1 m51 obta9+ cle>] views ( ! ext5t ( _! p[]1 f\nd t ,god1 9 giv+ man dom9ion ov] ! :ole e>?1 res]v$ to himself ! supreme disposal ( 8 life1 s t man _c resign to any "o ! "r ov] 8 own life or t ( ano!r4 ,,xix4 ,by way ( conclusion to ?is subject x may be obs]v$1 t all actions no way conducive to obta9 a conte/$ "r1 or to br+ ! w> to a t]m9ation1 b calculat$ m]ely to display ! /r5g? ( ei!r side are totally repugnant to ! duties ( a ,*ri/ian & to ! pr9ciples ( humanity4 ,s t x behoves ,*ri/ian pr9ces to prohibit all unnecess>y effusion ( blood1 z !y mu/ r5d] an acc\nt ( _! sov]eign commission to him1 by ^: au?ority1 & 9 ^: /ead1 !y be> ! sword4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,on ,,mod]ation ,,9 ,,despoil+ ,,an ,,enemy',s ,,c\ntry4 ,lawfulness ( despoil+ an enemy's c\ntry--,=be>ance ( us+ ?is "r1 :]e ?+s may be useful to ourselves1 & out ( an enemy's p[]--,=be>ance 9 ! hopes ( spe$y conque/1 or :]e ?+s are n imm$iately necess>y to support an enemy1 & aid him 9 ma9ta9+ ! w>--,build+s = ! purposes ( religion n to be wantonly de/roy$--,advantages ( ?is mod]ation4 ,i4 ,"o ( ! ?ree foll[+ cases is requisite to ju/ify any "o 9 de/roy+ :at ,,belongs to ano!r3 !re mu/ be ei!r su* a necessity1 z at ! orig9al in/itution ( prop]ty might be suppos$ to =m an exception1 z if = in/ance any "o %\ld ?r[ ! sword ( ano!r into a riv]1 to prev5t a madman f us+ x to 8 de/ruction3 /ill accord+ to ! true pr9ciples ma9ta9$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is "w he w be b\nd to repair ! loss3#fg or !re mu/ be "s debt1 aris+ f ! non-p]=mance ( an engagem5t1 :]e ! wa/e committ$ is consid]$ z a satisfaction = t debt3 or !re mu/ h be5 "s aggressions1 = :i* su* de/ruction is only an adequate puni%m5t4 ,n[1 driv+ (f "s ( our cattle1 or burn+ a few ( our h\ses1 c nev] be plead$ z a suffici5t & ju/ifiable motive = lay+ wa/e ! :ole ( an enemy's k+dom4 ,polybius saw ?is 9 its prop] light1 obs]v+1 t v5geance 9 w> %\ld n be c>ri$ to its extreme1 nor ext5d any fur!r ?an 0 necess>y to make an aggressor atone ju/ly = 8 (f5ce4 ,& x is ^u ^! motives1 & )9 ^! limits alone1 t puni%m5t c be inflict$4 ,b except :]e prompt$ to x by motives ( great utility1 x is folly1 & worse ?an folly1 wantonly to hurt ano!r4 ,b ^u duly & imp>tially weigh+ ! matt]1 su* acts are (t5] reg>d$ 9 an odi\s light1 ?an consid]$ z ! dictates ( prud5t & necess>y c\nsels4 ,= ! mo/ urg5t & ju/ifiable motives are seldom ( long cont9uance1 & are (t5 succe$$ by weighti] motives ( a m humane description4 ,,ii4 ,x may be possible1 "u "s circum/ances1 to deta9 :at belongs to an enemy s z to prev5t 8 d]iv+ advantage f x1 9 :i* case x w\ld be an unnecess>y & wanton act to de/roy x4 ,& to su* circum/ances ! div9e law has an eye1 9 ord]+ wild trees to be made use ( = ! con/ruction ( works 9 a siege1 :ile fruit-trees1 & e ?+ necess>y = ! support ( man1 ought1 if possible1 to be sp>$4 ,,iii4 ,:]e !re is an expectation also ( spe$y victory & conque/1 prud5ce w dictate to a g5]al or comm&] ( any k9d ! necessity ( =be>+ f all acts ( de/ruction1 by au?oris+ & committ+ :i* he w\ld only be injur+ ^? possessions1 t are likely to come into ! h&s ( 8 own /ate or sov]eign4 ,?us1 z we are in=m$ by ,plut>*1 :5 ,philip _h ov]run ,!ssaly1 de/roy+ & plund]+ ! :ole c\ntry1 ,flam9ius ord]$ 8 troops to m>* 9 a regul> mann]1 z ?r\gh a c$$ c\ntry :i* _h become _! own4 ,,iv4 ,9 ! next place1 x is unnecess>y to de/roy an enemy's c\ntry1 :5 he has o!r s\rces1 f :i* he c draw 8 supplies1 z = in/ance1 ! sea or any adjo9+ t]ritory4 ,ar*idamus1 9 ,?ucydides1 attempt+ to dissuade ! ,lac$aemonians f a w> ) ! ,a!nians1 asks !m1 :at object !y propose to !mselves by su* a w>8 he asks !m if !y suppose t ,attica c easily be laid wa/e ow+ to ! advantage1 :i* _! troops h 9 sup]iority & numb]s8 b1 says he1 !y h o!r dom9ions to furni% !m ) supplies1 & !y c avail !mselves also ( m>itime importations4 ,s t "u su* circum/ances1 x is be/ to leave agriculture unmole/$1 ev5 on ! fronti]s ( ea* side3 a practice lately foll[$ 9 ! w>s ( ! l[ c\ntries1 :]e contributions 7 paid to bo? p>ties1 9 return = su* protection4 ,v4 ,!re are "s ?+s ( su* a nature1 z to contribute1 no way1 to ! support & prolongation ( w>3 ?+s :i* reason itself requires to be sp>$ ev5 dur+ ! heat & cont9uance ( w>4 ,polybius calls x brutal rage & madness to de/roy ?+s1 ! de/ruction ( :i* does n 9 ! lea/ t5d to impair an enemy's /r5g?1 nor to increase t ( ! de/roy]3 ,su* are ,porticos1 ,temples1 /atues1 & all o!r elegant works & monum5ts ( art4 ,cic]o comm5ds ,m>cellus = sp>+ ! public & private edifices ( ,syracuse1 z if he _h come ) 8 army to protect ,,!m1 r ?an to take ! place by /orm4 ,,vi4 ,z ?is rule ( mod]ation is obs]v$ t[>ds o!r ornam5tal works ( art1 = ! reasons be=e /at$1 !re is /ill great] reason1 :y x %\ld be obey$ 9 respect to ?+s devot$ to ! purposes ( religion4 ,= al?\gh su* ?+s1 or edifices1 be+ ! prop]ty ( ! /ate may1 accord+ to ! law ( nations1 be ) impunity demoli%$1 yet z !y contribute no?+ to aggravate ! calamities1 or ret>d ! successes ( w>1 x is a m>k ( rev]5ce to div9e ?+s to sp>e !m1 & all t is connect$ !re)3 & m especially %\ld ?is rule be adh]$ to among nations1 wor%ipp+ ! same ,god accord+ to ! same fundam5tal laws1 al?\gh diff]+ f ea* o!r by slight %ades ( v>iation 9 _! rights & op9ions4 ,?ucydides says t x 0 a law among ! ,greeks ( 8 "t1 9 all _! invasions ( ea* o!r's t]ritories1 to =be> t\*+ ! edifices ( religion3 & ,livy likewise obs]ves t1 ^u ! de/ruction ( ,alba by ! ,romans1 ! temples ( ! ,gods 7 sp>$4 ,,vii4 ,:at has be5 said ( ! sacr$ edifices ( religion applies also to monum5ts rais$ 9 hon\r ( ! dead1 unnecess>ily to di/urb ^: a%es 9 _! repose bespeaks a total disreg>d to ! laws & ties ( our common humanity4 ,,viii4 ,al?\gh x does n fall )9 ! prov9ce ( ?is treatise to inquire into ! utility ( w> 9 all its v>i\s bran*es1 b only to regulate its practices by conf9+ !m )9 due & lawful b\nds2 yet x w n be improp] to obs]ve t rules & practices d]ive mu* ( _! m]it f ! utility1 ) :i* !y are att5d$4 ,s t "o great quality1 to recomm5d ! mod]ation above allud$ to1 w be f\nd 9 its prev5t+ ! enemy f be+ driv5 to ^? res\rces1 :i* m5 nev] fail1 at la/1 ( f9d+ 9 despair4 ,x is a j rem>k made by "s ,!ologians1 t all ,,*ri/ian pr9ces & rul]s1 :o wi% to be f\nd ,,su* 9 ! sight ( ,god z well z t ( m51 w deem x a duty to int]pose _! au?ority to prev5t or to suppress all ,,unnecess>y viol5ce 9 ! tak+ ( t[ns3 = acts ( rig\r c nev] be c>ri$ to an extreme )\t involv+ great numb]s ( ! innoc5t 9 ru94 ,& practices ( t k9d1 besides be+ no way conducive to ! t]m9ation ( w>1 are totally repugnant to e pr9ciple ( ,*ri/ianity & ju/ice4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,mod]ation ,,9 ,,mak+ ,,captures ,,9 ,,w>4 ,effects belong+ to ! subjects ( an enemy1 & tak5 deta9$ z a pl$ge or debt--,n to be tak5 by way ( puni%m5t = ano!r's (f5ce--,! debt or obligation1 aris+ f a /ate ( w>1 illu/rat$ by examples--,=be>ance 9 ! ex]cise ( su* a "r f pr9ciples ( humanity4 ,i4 ,! capture ( an enemy's goods1 ev5 9 ,,j ,,w>1 is n1 9 ,,all ,,cases1 p]fectly ju/ifiable1 nor is ! captor always exempt f ! ties ( re/itution4 ,= /rictly speak+1 accord+ to ! rules ( pure ju/ice1 x is n lawful to seize or deta9 goods except to ! exact am\nt ( ! debt :i* ! enemy has incurr$4 ,inde$ goods may be deta9$ beyond t1 z a necess>y pl$ge ( security1 b /ill ^u ! condition ( be+ re/or$1 z soon z ! dang] has ceas$3 ,,re/or$ ,,ei!r ,,lit]ally1 ,,or ,,by ,,"s ,,prop] ,,comp5sation ,,be+ ,,made4 ,"h !n is a "r ( capture1 :i* conf]s no "r ( prop]ty or acquisition4 ,b :5 any ?+ may become due to u1 ei!r f a p5alty or ! non-p]=mance ( an engagem5t1 9 bo? cases a "r to an enemy's goods1 if !y c be tak51 is acquir$4 ,by ! latt] k9d ( debt n only ! effects ( ! debtor himself1 b ^?1 belong+ to 8 subjects1 may accord+ to ! pr9ciples introduc$ by ! law ( nations be tak5 z a security4 ,?is "r ( ! law ( nations is v diff]5t f t e/abli%$ 9 impunity alone1 or dep5d+ ^u ! ext]nal =ce ( judicial au?ority4 ,= z by our private cons5t ! p]son ) :om we contract acquires n only an ext]nal & legal "r ov] our prop]ty1 b an int]nal "r1 proce$+ f consci5ce1 s he acquires ! same "r by a k9d ( common cons5t1 :i* virtually compreh5ds ! cons5t ( individuals1 9 :i* s5se ! law is call$ ! common compact or cov5ant ( ! /ate4 ,& 9 transactions ( ?is k9d x is mo/ likely t nations approv+ ( su* a rule1 introduc$ a law1 :i* might n only prev5t great] evils1 b also enable e "o to atta9 8 own "r4 ,,ii4 ,b 9 ! o!r k9d ( debt aris+ f p5alty1 or puni%m5t1 x does n appe>1 t nations cons5t$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( any su* "r ov] ! effects ( subjects4 ,= b9d+ ! prop]ty ( "o man = ! (f5ce ( ano!r is a k9d ( odi\s act1 & !re=e ought n to be ext5d$ f>!r ?an ! law appe>s to h actually decre$4 ,nor is ! advantage d]iv$ f ! latt]1 by any means equal to t att5d+ ! =m] k9d ( debt4 ,= :at is due to u f damage1 or ! non-p]=mance ( a treaty may be consid]$ z a "p ( our effects1 b x is n s ) ! obligation to puni%m5t1 :i* is purely ( a p]sonal nature1 !re=e no loss is incurr$ by rel9qui%+ ?is "r4 ,nor is ! argum5t 9 ! lea/ weak5$ by :at 0 said be=e#fh respect+ ! ,a!nian law4 ,= !re x 0 ma9ta9$ t subjects 7 n b\nd to suff]1 because ! /ate 0 am5able to puni%m5t1 b 9 ord] to compel ! /ate to d :at %e ought to d1 9 br++ ! guilty to puni%m5t3 a debt aris+ f duty1 & relat+ to obligations ( ! =m] k9d1 r ?an to ^? ( ! latt]4 ,= !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 be+ oblig$ to puni% ano!r & be+ "o's self am5able to puni%m5t3 ?o' ! latt] may frequ5tly arise f ! neglect ( do+ ! =m]1 b /ill !re is ! same di/9ction betwe5 !m1 z betwe5 cause & effect4 ,! goods ( subjects c only be tak5 by way ( reprisal 9 return = o!r goods tak5 by ! enemy2 b !y c nev] be tak5 z a puni%m5t = ! neglect ( br++ (f5d]s to ju/ice4 ,! del9qu5ts !mselves1 9 ! numb] ( :om may be reckon$ ^?1 :o h neglect$ to dis*>ge _! duty 9 ?is respect1 mu/ answ] = su* (f5ces4 ,,iii4 ,! goods ( subjects may be tak51 & a prop]ty acquir$ !re91 n only 9 ord] to obta9 paym5t ( ! ,,orig9al debt1 :i* occasion$ ! w>1 b ( ,,o!r debts also1 to :i* ! same w> may h giv5 bir?4 ,& 9 ?is s5se ! words ( ^? are to be tak51 :o ma9ta91 t captures 9 w> are n a p]fect comp5sation = ! pr9cipal debt1 b only us$ z a means to en=ce satisfaction = ! damages su/a9$ f aggressions4 ,?us ! ,romans1 9 _! dispute ) ,antio*us1 z relat$ by ,livy1 ?\ght x b "r = t k+ to make rep>ation = all ! exp5ses incurr$ 9 ! w>1 :i* he _h occasion$4 ,inde$ any t]ms1 t may be ju/ly impos$ ^u ! conqu]$ may ju/ly be en=c$ by w>4 ,,iv4 ,! "r ( seiz+ ! goods ( ! innoc5t subject ( an enemy seems to h be5 introduc$1 9 ord] to compel ! orig9al aggressor1 or debtor to grant r$ress = ! injury he _h done3 & al?\gh 8 fall+ on ! innoc5t may be no way repugnant to :at is legally "r1 x is 9 "s measure a dep>ture f ! pr9ciples ( humanity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 hi/ory1 especially ! ,roman hi/ory1 ab\nds 9 examples ( humanity1 :]e l&s h be5 re/or$ to a conqu]$ enemy1 ^u condition ( _! belong+ to ! ,,/ate1 & becom+ subject to ! paym5t ( a tribute4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4#fi ,,on ,,mod]ation ,,9 ,,acquir+ ,,dom9ion4 ,h[ f> int]nal ju/ice p]mits u to acquire dom9ion--,mod]ation1 9 ! use ( ?is "r ov] ! conqu]$1 laudable--,incorporat+ !m ) ! conqu]ors--,all[+ !m to reta9 _! dom9ions--,plac+ g>risons !re9--,impos+ tributes or o!r burd5s--,utility ( su* mod]ation--,*ange 9 ! =m ( a conqu]$ gov]nm5t--,! conqu]$ p]mitt$ to reta9 "s "p ( _! =m] lib]ties--,especially 9 matt]s ( religion--,clem5cy to be %ewn4 ,i4 ,t equity & mod]ation t[>ds individuals1 :i* are s highly extoll$1 are /ill m des]v+ ( admiration1 :5 ex]cis$ t[>ds nations & k+doms2 :]e inju/ice w\ld be att5d$ ) m signal calamities1 & mod]ation ) m b5eficial effects4 ,9 j w> ! "r ( dom9ion ov] a p1 & ! sov]eign p[]1 :i* t p possess1 may be acquir$ z well z any o!r "r4 ,b ! claims to su* a "r ought by no means to be prosecut$ beyond indemnity = aggression1 & security aga9/ future evils4 ,b ?is motive1 s necess>y to be obs]v$1 especially 9 all treaties ( peace1 z well z 9 ! use ( victory1 is (t5 conf\nd$ ) o!rs4 ,9 o!r po9ts a sov]eign pr9ce or /ate may rel9qui% a claim f a pr9ciple ( mod]ation1 b :]e ! future security ( _! subjects is conc]n$1 x is an act ( cruelty r ?an ( mod]ation to relax too f> 9 fav\r ( a conqu]$ enemy4 ,,ii4 ,ari/otle has1 m ?an once1 said1 t w> is und]tak5 = ! sake ( peace1 & toil endur$ 9 ord] to obta9 re/4 ,& 9 ! same mann]1 ,cic]o has obs]v$1 t m5 g to w>1 t !y may live 9 peace )\t mole/ation & injury4 ,w> too1 z we are in/ruct$ by ! tea*]s ( true religion1 may be made1 to remove e ?+ t int]rupts1 & /&s 9 ! way ( peace4 ,9 ! primitive ages1 z we f9d f hi/ory1 w>s 9 g5]al 7 made to pres]ve t]ritories r ?an to ext5d !m4 ,& any deviation f ?is rule 0 ?\ght unlawful3 ?us ! prophet ,amos reproves ! ,ammonites = _! love ( mak+ conque/s4 ,,iii4 ,! prud5t mod]ation ( ! anci5t ,romans approa*es ne>ly to ?is model ( primitive innoc5ce4 ,= al?\gh !y made conque/s1 !y mitigat$ ! fate ( ! conqu]$ by incorporat+ !m ) !mselves4 ,,iv4 ,ano!r m>k ( mod]ation 9 ! use ( victory is leav+ to conqu]$ k+s1 or nations ! dom9ions1 :i* !y ,,lawfully held be=e4 ,polybius highly extols ! m]it & wisdom ( ,antigonus1 :o1 hav+ ,sp>ta 9 8 p[]1 all[$ ! inhabitants to reta9 _! national polity & fre$om4 ,v4 ,sometimes inde$ a conqu]or1 ?\gh all[+ a subjugat$ p to reta9 _! dom9ion & sov]eignty1 mu/ provide = 8 own security1 by plac+ g>risons 9 _! c\ntry4 ,,vi4 ,contributions too are frequ5tly impos$ & levi$1 n s mu* by way ( indemnity = exp5ces incurr$1 z = a future security betwe5 ! conqu]or1 & ! conqu]$ c\ntry4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple1 z 0 be=e#gj obs]v$1 9 expla9+ ! nature ( unequal treaties1 conditions may be impos$ also requir+ a conqu]$ p[] to deliv] up a c]ta9 numb] ( h] %ips & =ts1 & to r$uce h] troops to a limit$ numb]4 ,,vii4 ,b leav+ to conqu]$ p[]s a "p or ! :ole ( _! dom9ions is n only sometimes an act ( ju/ice & humanity1 b an act ( s\nd policy also4 ,among o!r ( ,numa's in/itutions1 8 mann] ( celebrat+ ! rites ( ,,t]m9us1 ! ,,deity ,,( ,,b\nd>ies1 is mu* comm5d$2 = he prohibit$ ! use ( blood 9 ^? c]emonies1 z an intimation t no?+ 0 m conducive to ! peace & h>mony ( ! _w1 ?an = e nation to conf9e h]self )9 h] prop] b\nds4 ,9 con=mity to :i* maxim ,florus obs]ves1 t x is m easy to make conque/s ?an to keep !m4 ,to :i* rule ,plato1 9 8 ?ird book ( ,laws1 adapts ! prov]bial expression ( ,hesiod1 t ,,half ,,is ,,bett] ,,?an ,,! ,,:ole4 ,,viii4 ,! ,lac$aemonians & ! ,a!nians anci5tly claim$ no f>!r dom9ion ov] conqu]$ cities & /ates1 ?an purely wi%+ !m to adopt =ms ( gov]nm5t l _! own1 ! ,lac$aemonians liv+ "u an ari/ocratic1 & ! ,a!nians "u a democratic sy/em4 ,b :e!r su* *anges 7 conducive to a conqu]or's security1 x is n to our pres5t purpose to exam9e4 ,,ix4 ,if x is n p]fectly safe to =be> ex]cis+ ,,any dom9ion ov] a conqu]$ enemy1 ! matt] may be s regulat$ z to leave him "s portion ( 8 =m] sov]eignty & p[]4 ,?us among ! ,jews ! sceptre rema9$ ) ! ,sanh$rim1 ev5 aft] ,ar*elaus 0 depriv$ ( 8 k+dom2 & ,alex&] 9 _m cases all[$ ,d>ius to rema9 a sov]eign ov] o!rs1 :ile he requir$ ( him submission to himself4 ,x4 ,ev5 ?\gh a conqu]$ p[] 0 depriv$ ( all sov]eignty1 %e might be all[$ to reta9 "s ( h] laws1 privileges1 & magi/racies ( inf]ior importance4 ,?us1 ,pl9y1 9 8 lett]s1 in=ms u1 t 9 ! proconsul> prov9ce ( ,bi?ynia1 ! city ( ,apamaea 0 all[$ to regulate ! =m ( h] gov]nm5t at h] own pleasure1 &1 9 o!r places1 ! ,bi?ynians 7 p]mitt$ to reta9 _! own magi/rates1 & _! own s5ate4 ,,xi4 ,?is indulg5ce ought to be %ewn to e p1 especially 9 _! atta*m5t to ! religion ( _! =efa!rs1 ( :i* !y %\ld nev] be depriv$ b ) _! own cons5t & conviction4 ,an indulg5ce1 :i* ,agrippa 9 8 address to ,caius1 z cit$ by ,philo 9 ! acc\nt ( 8 embassy1 approves (1 z highly grateful to ! conqu]$ p1 & by no means prejudicial to ! conqu]or4 ,at ! same "t a conqu]or w take c>e t errone\s op9ions d n prevail to ! prejudice & ov]?r[ ( true religion1 z 0 done by ,con/ant9e ^u 8 cru%+ ! p>ty ( ,lic9ius1 & aft]w>ds by ! ,franks & o!r k+s4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,mod]ation ,,) ,,respect ,,to ,,?+s ,,exclud$ ,,f ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,po/lim9ium ,,by ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,nations4 ,int]nal ju/ice requires ! re/itution ( ?+s tak5 f o!rs by an enemy 9 unju/ w>--,d$uctions made--,subjects & c\ntries1 if unju/ly seiz$ by an enemy1 to be re/or$ to _! orig9al sov]eign--,! "t1 :5 ! obligation to re/ore !m expires1 def9$--,:at is to be done 9 d\btful cases4 ,i4 ,h[ f> ?+s tak5 9 j w> become ! prop]ty ( ! captors has be5 expla9$ be=e4 ,f :i* a d$uction mu/ be made ( ?+s recov]able by ! "r po/lim9ium1 ^? be+ no captures at all4 ,b ?+s1 tak5 9 unju/ w>1 are to be re/or$1 n only by ^?1 :o h tak5 !m1 b by o!rs also into ^: h&s !y may h by any means fall54 ,=1 z ! ,roman lawy]s say1 no "o c convey to ano!r a great] "r ?an he himself possesses4 ,! orig9al captor _h no j title to any prop]ty !re91 nei!r c ! p]son1 d]iv+ 8 title ?r\gh him1 e/abli% any bett] claim4--,a ,,second or ,,?ird possessor may h acquir$ a prop]ty !re91 :i* ! law presumes he has a "r to1 till ! contr>y be %ewn1 & = :i* an action may be ma9ta9$4 ,yet x is a "r ( :i* he _c hone/ly avail himself aga9/ ! real own]1 f :om x 0 unju/ly tak54 ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,!re=e su* ?+s are to be re/or$ to ^?1 f :om !y 7 tak51 :i* we f9d 9 anci5t times 0 (t5 done4 ,livy 9 relat+ ! defeat ( ! ,volscians & ,aequi by a ,roman ,consul1 says t ! booty 0 expos$ 9 a public place1 = ! space ( ?ree days1 t e "o1 com+ to recognise :at belong$ to him1 might take x away4#ga ,b if any "o has become possess$ ( su* a ?+ by pur*ase1 x may be ask$1 if he c *>ge ! p]son f :om x 0 orig9ally tak51 ) ! price :i* he has paid = x8 ,accord+ to ! pr9ciples be=e#gb laid d[n1 he c]ta9ly may *>ge z mu* to ! p]son los+ x1 z ! repossession ( a ?+1 :i* he despair$ ( ev] recov]+1 is wor?4 ,! hi/ory ( ,abraham seems applicable to ?is subject1 :5 he return$ f 8 victory ov] ! five k+s4 ,be+ a man ( noble & exalt$ piety1 he w\ld appropriate no?+ to himself1 b consid]+ ! ?+s retak51 z 8 own "r1 9 recomp5ce = 8 lab\r & dang]1 he devot$ a t5? "p to ,god1 aft] d$uct+ ! necess>y exp5ces1 & divid$ a c]ta9 portion among 8 companions4 ,,iv4 ,z ,,?+s are to be re/or$ to _! orig9al own]s1 s ,,subjects are to be re/or$ to _! =m] lawful sov]eigns4 ,v4 ,! p]iod also1 :5 ! obligation to re/itution expires1 is (t5 a subject ( inquiry4 ,b ?is is a "q1 :5 aris+ betwe5 subjects ( ! same k+dom1 :i* mu/ be settl$ by ! municipal laws ( t c\ntry3 b :5 ! cont5d+ p>ties are ! subjects ( =eign p[]s1 ! matt] c only be decid$ ^u a conjecture ( ! "t suffici5t to con/itute a presum$ d]eliction ( prop]ty4 ,,vi4 ,b :]e ! "r ( w> is d\btful1 x w be safe/ to foll[ ! conduct ( ,aratus ( ,sicyon1 9 advis+ ! new possessors 9 "s measure to pref] tak+ a sum money 9 lieu ( ! possession1 & recomm5d+ ! same maxim to ! orig9al own]s1 to pref] a sum ( money1 if !y c\ld obta9 x1 equival5t to ! recov]y ( _! "r4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,respect+ ,,^? ,,:o ,,are ,,neutral ,,9 ,,w>4 ,no?+ to be tak5 belong+ to neutrals1 b "u circum/ances ( extreme necessity1 & ) an int5tion to pay ! full price ( x--,conduct ( neutral p[]s t[>ds bellig]5ts4 ,i4 ,x may appe> sup]flu\s to speak ( neutral p[]s1 aga9/ :om no rights ( w> c exi/4 ,b z w>1 "u ! plea ( necessity1 occasions _m aggressions to be committ$ aga9/ !m1 especially :5 bord]+ ^u ! seat ( its op]ations1 x may be necess>y briefly to repeat a =m] ass]tion1 t no?+ %ort ( extreme exig5cy c give "o p[] a "r ov] :at belongs to ano!r no way involv$ 9 ! w>4 ,! case too is equally cle> t no em]g5cy c ju/ify any "o 9 tak+ & apply+ to 8 own use :at ! own] /&s 9 equal ne$ ( himself4 ,b ev5 :]e ! em]g5cy c be pla9ly prov$1 no?+ c ju/ify u 9 tak+ or apply+ ! prop]ty ( ano!r to our use1 beyond ! ,,imm$iate ,,dem&s ,,( ,,t em]g5cy4 ,:]e ! ,,cu/ody ( a ?+1 by secur+ x1 is suffici5t = ! purpose1 ! ,,use & ,,consumption ( x is absolutely unlawful4 ,if ! ,,use ( x is necess>y1 x mu/ n be ,,abus$3 & if ! entire ,,abuse ( x be requisite1 ! full value %\ld be paid4 ,,ii4 ,aga91 accord+ to :at 0 said 9 a prec$+ "p ( ?is book1 x is ! duty ( ^?1 :o pr(ess neutrality 9 a w> to d no?+ t[>ds increas+ ! /r5g? ( a p>ty ma9ta9+ an unju/ cause1 nor to imp$e ! measures ( a p[] engag$ 9 a j & righte\s cause4 ,b 9 d\btful cases1 !y ought to %ew !mselves imp>tial to bo? sides1 & to give no succ\r to besieg$ places1 b %\ld all[ ! troops ( ea* to m>* ?r\gh ! c\ntry1 & to pur*ase =age1 & o!r supplies4 ,! ,corcyraeans1 9 ,?ucydides1 say t if ! ,a!nians int5d to rema9 neut]1 !y ought ei!r to prohibit ! ,cor9?ians f enli/+ m5 9 ! t]ritory ( ,attica1 or to give ,,!m ! same privilege4 ,! ,romans object$ to ! conduct ( ,philip k+ ( ,mac$on1 *>g+ him ) a d\ble violation ( treaties1 bo? by injur+ ! allies ( ! ,roman p1 & assi/+ ! enemy ) supplies ( m5 & money4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4#gc ,,on ,,good ,,fai? ,,betwe5 ,,enemies4 ,good fai? due to enemies ( e description--,due ev5 to pirates1 & o!rs ( ! same k9d1 9 all treaties ) !m--,a promise giv5 to !m1 b9d+1 :5 n extort$ by fe>--,oa?s to be inviolably obs]v$--,! law ( nations does n all[ fe> to be alleg$ z an exception to ! above rules--,good fai? to be obs]v$ ev5 to a trea*]\s enemy--,?is obligation ceases1 :]e "o ( ! p>ties violates 8 engagem5ts--,or refuses a j comp5sation--,ev5 :]e ! obligation arose f a diff]5t contract--,f loss occasion$--,or f a p5alty--,application ( ^! pr9ciples to w>4 ,i4 ,x 0 be=e said t ! numb] & ext5t ( actions1 lawful 9 w>1 may be consid]$ ei!r ^u _! own intr9sic m]its1 or z ris+ out ( "s antec$5t engagem5t4 ,! =m] po9t hav+ be=e be5 fully expla9$1 ?is is ! prop] place = discuss+ ! latt]1 :i* compreh5ds ! good fai? ( enemies t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,cic]o1 9 8 fif? book on ! b\nds ( good & evil1 has well obs]v$ t e "o mu/ approve & comm5d a disposition to adh]e fai?fully to our engagem5ts n only f dis9t]e/$ motives1 b 9 "s cases ev5 9 opposition to our own int]e/4 ,& ,augu/9e says t x is "r to ma9ta9 ! pl$ge ( fai? giv5 to an enemy1 = "u ! "* ( enemies m5 d n lose _! "r to ! fulfilm5t ( a promise1 a "r :i* e "o possess$ ( reason is capable (4 ,x is ! p[] ( reason & spee* f :i* ! obligation ( promises spr+s4 ,nor is x to be suppos$ t1 because x is lawful to deceive an enemy on "s occasions1 ! same rule w au?orise a violation ( fai? 9 engagem5ts4 ,= ! obligation to speak ! tru? arises f causes antec$5t 9 _! exi/5ce to any /ate ( w>f>e1 & !y are causes :i* a /ate ( w>f>e may r5d] x necess>y to *ange or abridge4 ,b a promise conf]s a new "r ( itself4 ,a di/9ction :i* did n escape ! notice ( ,ari/otle1 :o1 9 speak+ ( tru?1 says t he does n consid] tru? & s9c]ity 9 engagem5ts1 ) relation to ju/ice or inju/ice1 b z belong+ to ano!r class ( virtues4 ,,ii4 ,z to engagem5ts ) pirates1 we may obs]ve1 t ,pompey 9 a great measure conclud$ ! disputes ) !m by treaty1 sp>+ _! lives1 & all[+ !m places to reside 91 on condition ( _! ab&on+ _! =m] way ( life4 ,! law ( nations inde$ has n e/abli%$ ! same mode ( communication ) !m1 z among regul> enemies 9 j & lawful w>3 b /ill ! v circum/ance ( _! be+ ,,m51 entitles !m to ^? privileges :i* are sanction$ by ! law ( nature1 among :i* ! obs]vance ( engagem5ts is "o4 ,,iii4 ,let u consid] if a m speci\s argum5t ?an ,cic]o's may n be devis$ on ?is subject4--,9 ! fir/ place x may be /at$ t atroci\s malefactors1 =m+ no "p ( a /ate1 may be puni%$ by any "o :atev]1 accord+ to ! law ( nature4 ,= ^?1 :o may be puni%$ ) dea?1 may ^u ! same pr9ciple be depriv$ ( _! prop]ty & all _! rights4 ,& among rights may be enum]at$ ! "r ( requir+ a fulfilm5t ( promises & engagem5ts3 ! guilty may !re=e be depriv$ ( ?is "r by way ( p5alty4 ,9 reply to :i* x may be said1 ?is w c]ta9ly be ! case1 if ! p]son is treat$ )1 b n z a malefactor3 = ! v act ( treat+ ) him %ews t he is n consid]$ any long] 9 t light1 b z "o entitl$ to all ! rights ( treaty1 ! crim9al "p ( 8 "* n be+ tak5 into ! acc\nt1 all p5alties on t score be+1 z x 7 remitt$4 ,= e act ( treaty mu/ be int]pret$ s z to avoid absurdity4 ,,iv4 ,an objection to treat+ ) pirates ^u pr9ciples ( good fai? is d$uc$ f _! call+1 :i* is to extort t]ms by fe>4 ,n[ :]e a promise has be5 extort$1 ! promisor is releas$ f 8 engagem5t1 z hav+ unju/ly su/a9$ a damage1 by an act repugnant to ! nature ( human lib]ty1 & to ! nature ( human action1 :i* ought to be free4 ,?is1 x mu/ be admitt$1 may sometimes happ51 b does n apply to all promises made to pirates4 ,= to make ! p]son1 to :om a promise has be5 giv51 liable to release ! engagem5t1 ! promis] himself mu/ h be5 =c$ to give ! promise "u impressions ( unju/ fe>4 ,s t if any "o has promis$ a ransom 9 ord] to r$eem a fri5d f captivity1 he w be b\nd by 8 promise4 ,= 9 ?is case !re 0 no impression ( fe>1 z he came volunt>ily to make ! contract4 ,v4 ,a promise too made ?r\gh ! compulsion ( fe> w be b9d+1 :]e x has be5 ratifi$ by ! solemn sanction ( an oa?3 = 9 t case x is n only "o man mak+ an engagem5t to a fell[ creature1 b b9d+ himself to ,god by ! mo/ solemn appeal3 aga9/ :i* nei!r fe> nor any o!r motive c =m an exception4 ,yet ! heir ( a promis] is n b\nd by any su* obligation3 because inh]itances pass accord+ to ! rules ( human int]c\rse e/abli%$ at ! orig9al in/itution ( prop]ty3 b ! div9e "r to ! fulfilm5t ( oa?s1 z su*1 is n includ$ 9 ^!4 ,f ! above argum5ts a conclusion may be d$uc$1 t if any "o violates a pl$ge giv5 to su* an enemy ei!r ^u oa? or )\t oa?1 he w n on t acc\nt be liable to puni%m5t among o!r nations1 because f ! g5]al horror :i* piracy excites1 nations h ?\ght prop] to pass ov] )\t notice ! violation ( rules ( fai? t[>ds !m4 ,,xi4#gd ,solemn w>1 signify+ su* z is proclaim$ & begun on bo? sides by au?ority ( ! sov]eign or /ate1 among its _m o!r legal rights1 includes also t ( giv+ validity to e promise1 :i* may be conducive to its t]m9ation1 s t if ei!r p>ty1 ?r\gh an ill-gr\nd$ fe> ( fur!r calamities1 has1 ev5 aga9/ 8 w1 made promises unfav\rable1 or acc$$ to t]ms disadvantage\s to himself1 su* an engagem5t w be b9d+4 ,= ! law ( nations all[s bellig]5t p[]s to al>m ea* o!r1 if possible1 into submission ^u ! mo/ unequal t]ms1 9 ! same mann]1 z x gives a sanction to _m ?+s n /rictly equitable accord+ to natural & municipal law4 ,= if su* a practice _h n be5 e/abli%$1 w>s1 :i* are s frequ5t1 c\ld nev] h be5 br\ght to a conclusion1 an object s mu* = ! int]e/ ( mank9d4 ,^! are ! rights ( w> :i* ,cic]o says ought to be inviolably pres]v$ ) an enemy3 = an enemy n only reta9s 8 natural rights 9 w>1 b c]ta9 o!r rights orig9at+ 9 ! cons5t ( nations4 ,yet x does n foll[ f h5ce t any "o1 :o has extort$ su* a promise 9 unju/ w>1 c1 consi/5tly ) piety & ! duties ( a good man1 reta9 :at he has s receiv$1 nor c he compel ano!r to /& to su* engagem5ts1 :e!r ^u oa?1 or n4 ,= ! natural & int]nal inju/ice ( su* a promise always rema9s ! same1 nor c ! inju/ice be remov$ or alt]$1 till x has receiv$ a new & free concurr5ce f ! p>ty1 by :om x 0 giv54 ,,xii4 ,! only impressions ( fe>1 t c be lawfully inspir$ 9 regul> w>1 are ^? :i* are approv$ ( by ! law ( nations4 ,?us no "o c avail himself ( a promise1 extort$ f an ambassador "u impressions ( fe> excit$ by ! seiz+ ( 8 p]son4 ,,xiii4 & ,,xiv4 ,!re are two cases1 9 :i* a p]son may n p]=m 8 engagem5t or promise1 )\t be+ guilty ( trea*]y3 & ^? are1 :]e ! conditions h n be5 fulfill$1 or "s comp5sation has be5 made4 ,= 9 "o & ! same treaty all ! clauses seem connect$ ) ea* o!r1 z a k9d ( condition express+ ! int5tion ( "o p>ty to fulfil 8 engagem5t1 if ! o!r %all d ! same4 ,!re=e ,tullus1 9 reply+ to ! ,albans invokes de/ruction ^u ! head ( t p :o fir/ reject$ ! j claims ( ambassadors dem&+ re/itution1 wi%+ t all ! calamities ( w> might fall ^u !m4 ,=1 says ,ulpian1 he %all no long] be held z a conf$]ate1 :o has r5\nc$ a treaty1 ow+ to "s condition1 on :i* x 0 made1 n be+ fulfill$4 ,= :i* reason1 :]ev] x is int5d$ o!rwise1 x is usually /at$ 9 express t]ms1 t ! violation ( any p>ticul> clause %all n annul ! :ole treaty4 ,,xv4 ,! orig9 ( comp5sation 0 expla9$ 9 ! second book ( ?is treatise1#ge :]e x 0 said to be ! p[] & "r ( receiv+ an equival5t1 = "s ?+ belong+ to u1 :i* is 9 ! h&s ( ano!r1 or any ?+ due to u1 :i* we _c o!rwise obta93 & mu* m !n h we a "r on ! same acc\nt to deta9 any ?+ :i* is ,,already ,,9 ,,our ,,p[]1 :e!r x be ( a corporeal or an incorporeal k9d4 ,s t we are n oblig$ to p]=m a promise1 if x be no m ?an equival5t to a ?+ ( ours :i* ! o!r p>ty deta9s4 ,s5eca1 9 8 six? book ,,on ,,b5efits1 says t a cr$itor (t5 becomes "u an obligation to 8 debtor1 if he takes m ?an an equival5t = 8 debt4 ,= ?\gh x may be grant$ t he has l5t money1 yet if by su* a loan he has obta9$ ! possession ( l&s1 :i* he nev] b\ght1 he *anges situations ) 8 debtor1 & becomes a debtor 9 8 turn4 ,,xvi4 ,x w be ! same1 if "o ( ! contract+ p>ties owes z mu*1 or m1 f "s o!r engagem5t3 & ! debt _c o!rwise be obta9$1 ?an by tak+ advantage ( ! pres5t contract1 ?\gh x has no connection ) ! =m] debt4 ,b 9 a ,,legal po9t ( view1 all actions are p]fectly di/9ct1 nor c _! =ms1 _! gr\nds1 or _! sub/ance be conf\nd$2 b c]ta9 cases are conf9$ to c]ta9 laws1 to :i* x is necess>y inv>iably to adh]e3 "o law _c be mix$ ) ano!r1 b e "o 9 ! prosecution ( a "r mu/ tread ^u inv>iable & beat5 gr\nd4 ,b ! law ( nations does n reg>d su* di/9ctions1 x all[s u to transgress !m :]e !re is no o!r means ( obta9+ our "r4 ,,xvii4 & ,,xviii4 ,! same may be said too1 :]e ! p>ty exact+ a promise1 has n contract$ any debt by engagem5t1 b has done an injury to ! promis]4 ,& :atev] is due by way ( puni%m5t may be balanc$ aga9/ a promise4 ,,xix4 ,if :ile a law-suit is dep5d+1 ! p>ties ent] into an agreem5t ( any k9d1 ei!r to pay ! co/s1 or to make good o!r damages1 !y _c avail !mselves bo? ( ?is agreem5t1 & claim a fur!r comp5sation = ! orig9al matt] 9 dispute4 ,9 ! same mann]1 if dur+ ! cont9uance ( a w> ! bellig]5ts negotiate = a conclusion ( ! orig9al dispute1 !y are suppos$ !reby to settle e cause ( ho/ility1 nor c !y any fur!r avail !mselves ( ! rights ( w>1 s z to enjoy bo? ! advantages ( !m1 & ( negotiation1 at ! same "t4 ,= if ?is 7 ! case1 no treaties c\ld ev] be en=c$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,x may be ask$1 ( :at nature are ! ?+s = :i* a promise ( comp5sation %\ld be giv58 ,9 answ] to :i* x may be obs]v$1 t su* a promise or engagem5t may be made 9 lieu ( "s o!r obligation incurr$ dur+ ! c\rse ( a w>3 z = in/ance1 :]e ! brea* ( a truce has be5 committ$1 ! rights ( an ambassador violat$1 or any o!r action done1 repugnant to ! pr9ciples e/abli%$ by ! law ( nations among bellig]5t p[]s4 ,/ill x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! p>ties1 9 mak+ comp5sation1 %\ld ab/a9 ) ! utmo/ caution f infr++ ^u ! rights ( a ?ird p]son1 especially :]e ?is c be done )\t ab&on+ ! pr9ciples ( ! law ( nations1 :i* makes ! effects ( subjects answ]able = ! debts ( ! /ate4 ,besides x is ! m>k ( a dignifi$ m9d to adh]e to engagem5ts ev5 aft] receiv+ an injury4 ,on :i* acc\nt ! ,indian sage ,j>*as comm5d$ t k+1 :o on su/a9+ an injury f a neighb\r+ & conf$]ate p[]1 said he %\ld n ?9k himself releas$ f 8 sworn engagem5ts1 :i* 7 solemn acts1 t no inju/ice on ! "p ( ano!r c\ld repeal4 ,almo/ all que/ions relat+ to pl$ges ( fai? giv5 by "o bellig]5t p[] to ano!r1 may be solv$ ^u ! pr9ciples be=e laid d[n1 9 expla9+ ! nature & =ce ( promises 9 g5]al2 ( oa?s1 treaties1 & conv5tions1 & also 9 expla9+ ! rights ( ! obligations ( k+s1 & ! me?od ( int]pret+ d\btful po9ts4 ,b 9 ord] to remove e d\bt & difficulty1 p]haps a brief discussion ( ! mo/ usual & practical topics ( negotiation w n be deem$ t$i\s4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,on ,,! ,,public ,,fai?1 ,,by ,,:i* ,,w> ,,is ,,conclud$2 ,,compris+ ,,treaties ,,( ,,peace1 ,,& ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,arbitration1 ,,surr5d] ,,ho/ages1 ,,pl$ges4 ,9 mon>*ies ! p[] ( mak+ peace a royal pr]ogative--,9 ari/ocracies & democracies1 ?is "r belongs to a great] numb] ( p]sons--,9 :at mann] ! public dom9ions or any "p ( !m may be ali5at$--,h[ f> a peace conclud$ by ! k+ b9ds ! /ate1 or 8 successors--,prop]ty ( individuals c$$ = ! b5efit ( ! /ate at ! "t ( mak+ peace--,indemnity to ^? individuals--,losses su/a9$ 9 w>--,no di/9ction betwe5 ?+s acquir$ accord+ to ! law ( nations & ! civil law--,transactions ( ! sov]eign ) =eign nations deem$ valid f motives ( public utility--,g5]al rule ( int]pret+ ! t]ms ( peace--,9 d\btful cases ! =m] /ate ( ?+s suppos$ to be cont9u$ by a treaty ( peace--,?+s re/or$ to ! /ate !y 7 9 be=e ! w>--,indep5d5t /ates1 volunt>ily jo9+ "o ( ! bellig]5t p[]s _c claim indemnity ( ! o!r--,g5]al amne/y--,private debts subsi/+ be=e ! w> n includ$ !re9--,re/oration ( captures--,rules respect+ su* re/orations--,dubi\s po9ts to be int]pret$ to ! prejudice ( ! p>ty dictat+ ! t]ms--,di/9ction betwe5 new causes ( w>1 & ! brea* ( a peace--,rupture by any act contr>y to ! t]ms ( peace 9 g5]al--,infraction ( a treaty by allies or subjects--,violation ( a p>ticul> treaty--,heads ( treaties--,p5alties annex$--,unavoidable imp$im5ts to ! fulfilm5t ( a treaty--,peace cont9u$ at ! option ( ! injur$ p>ty--,relations ( amity--,h[ f> receiv+ subjects & exiles may be consid]$ z a brea* !re(--,victory--,w> conclud$ by arbitration--,arbitrators b\nd by rules ( /rict ju/ice--,absolute1 & conditional surr5d]--,ho/ages c be deta9$ = no o!r ?an ! express cause = :i* !y 7 giv5--,releas$ by ! dea? ( ! p>ty = :om !y 7 giv5--,obligation ( pl$ges--,"r ( r$eem+ !m lo/4 ,i4 ,good fai?1 ei!r express$ or impli$1 mu/ be ! f\ndation ( e treaty betwe5 ho/ile p[]s4 ,& aga9 ! fai? t is express$ is ei!r ( a public or a private nature1 & ! pl$ges giv5 ei!r by ! sov]eign1 or inf]ior au?orities 9 /ates con/itute ! public fai?4 ,x is1 by su* pl$ges giv5 on ! "p ( ! sov]eign p[] alone1 t peace c be conclud$1 or ! rights ( w> en=c$4 ,9 ! t]m9ation ( e w>1 ei!r ! pr9cipal1 or accessory causes are to be consid]$4 ,treaties are 9 g5]al reg>d$ z ! pr9cipal in/rum5t1 by :i* w>s are end$1 & ! m$iation1 or decision ( a ?ird p]son or p[] is deem$ a second>y or accessory means4 ,,ii4 ,! p]son1 :o has au?ority to beg9 a w>1 is ! only "o to :om ! "r ( mak+ peace c prop]ly belong1 accord+ to ! g5]al maxim1 t e "o is ! be/ judge 9 ! managem5t ( 8 own affairs4 ,f h5ce x foll[s1 t public w> c be made by ! sov]eign p[] alone on ea* side3 a "r :i* 9 e k+ly gov]nm5t is v ju/ly ve/$ 9 ! cr[n4 ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 ,9 popul> or ari/ocratic =ms ( gov]nm5t1 ! "r ( mak+ w>1 or conclud+ peace1 is g5]ally lodg$ 9 "s public c\ncil or body1 :]e a majority ( voices may =m treaties1 conv5tions1 or resolutions1 :i* w be b9d+ ^u ! diss5ti5t "p ( su* c\ncil4 ,& all :o are b\nd by a peace1 :e!r approv+ x or n are entitl$ to its b5efits4 ,v4 ,9 exam9+ ^? objects1 :i* =m ! mo/ mat]ial "p ( treaties1 we may obs]ve1 t k+doms are n s mu* a patrimony1 :i* may be ali5at$ at pleasure1 z a tru/1 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! sov]eign = ! b5efit ( 8 p4 ,inde$ k+s !mselves are aw>e ( ?is1 ev5 be=e ! cr[n desc5ds ^u _! heads1 & !y receive x ^u condition ( adh]+ to su* sacr$ obligations4 ,nor c su* ali5ations ev] be made1 s z to be att5d$ ) consequ5ces l ^? ( private contracts1 or to r5d] ! goods & effects ( subjects answ]able = su* engagem5ts4 ,= if t 7 ! case1 ! fundam5tal laws ( ! k+dom1 prohibit+ su* ali5ations1 w\ld be ( no effect4 ,to r5d] ! ali5ation ( ! :ole public dom9ion valid1 ! cons5t ( ! con/itut$ au?orities ( ! /ate is requisite4 ,& inde$ to confirm ! transf] ( any p>ticul> portion1 ! cons5t ( ! :ole body z well z ( t p>ticul> memb] w be necess>y3 = o!rwise su* ali5ation w\ld be l ! viol5t sep>ation ( a limb f ! natural body4 ,a :ole p may 9 a case ( extreme necessity transf] !mselves to ! dom9ion ( ano!r1 a "r :i* und\bt$ly 0 res]v$ at ! orig9al =mation ( society4 ,nei!r is !re any ?+ to prev5t a k+ f ali5at+ 8 patrimonial & private possessions4 ,yet !re may be p>ts ( ! royal dom9ion1 :i* ! sov]eign _c ali5ate f ! cr[n1 especially1 if he has receiv$ x ^u condition ( mak+ no p]sonal appropriation ( any ?+ belong+ !reto4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* ! possessions ( ! cr[n may become ! patrimony ( ! k+1 ei!r z sep>able or insep>able p>ts ( ! k+dom4 ,9 ! latt] case !y c only be transf]r$ ) ! k+dom itself1 b 9 ! =m]1 !y may be ali5at$ by !mselves4 ,& :]e ! cr[n is n patrimonial & h]$it>y1 ! re/rictions ^u ! sov]eign 9 ?is respect are mu* great]4 ,,vi4 ,a nation & a k+'s successors are b\nd by 8 engagem5ts1 9 proportion to ! p[]1 :i* he d]ives f ! con/itution1 ( mak+ su* engagem5ts4 ,= ?\gh ?is p[] may n be absolutely unlimit$1 yet x ought n to be clogg$ ) unnecess>y re/rictions4 ,x %\ld be su* z may enable him to ex]cise 8 discretion & judgm5t on prop] occasions = ! b5efit ( 8 p4 ,! case w be diff]5t1 :]e a k+'s p[] ov] 8 subjects is l t ( a ma/] ov] 8 h\sehold1 m ?an ( a sov]eign ov] 8 /ate1 z :]e he has entirely subjugat$ a p1 or :]e 8 contr\l ov] _! prop]ty is absolute4 ,?us ,ph>aoh pur*as$ all ! l& 9 ,egypt1 & o!rs h admitt$ /rang]s into _! t]ritories all[+ !m to hold l&s ^u su* conditions4 ,= "h1 !re is ano!r "r 9 addition to t ( a sov]eign1 & x is a "r1 :i* sov]eignty alone )\t conque/ c\ld nev] h conf]r$4 ,,vii4 ,! "r ( sov]eigns to dispose ( ! effects ( individuals1 9 ord] to make peace1 is (t5 a disput$ po9t1 nor c !y ex]cise ?is "r ov] ! prop]ty ( subjects 9 any o!r mann] ?an z sov]eigns4#gf ,! prop]ty ( subjects is s f> "u ! em95t contr\l ( ! /ate1 t ! /ate or ! sov]eign :o repres5ts x1 c use t prop]ty1 or de/roy x1 or ali5ate x1 ,,n ,,only ,,9 ,,cases ,,( ,,extreme ,,necessity1 :i* sometimes all[ individuals ! lib]ty ( infr++ ^u ! prop]ty ( o!rs1 b on all ,,occasions1 :]e ! public good is conc]n$1 to :i* ! orig9al fram]s ( society int5d$ t private int]e/s %\ld give way4 ,b :5 t is ! case1 x is to be obs]v$1 ! /ate is b\nd to repair ! losses ( individuals1 at ! public exp5ce1 9 aid ( :i* ! suff]]s h contribut$ _! due proportion4 ,nor w ! /ate1 ?\gh unable to repair ! losses = ! pres5t1 be f9ally releas$ f ! debt1 b :5ev] %e possesses ! means ( repair+ ! damages1 ! dormant claim & obligation w be reviv$4 ,,viii4 ,!re mu/ be "s hesitation 9 admitt+ ! op9ion ( ,f]d9& ,vasquez1 :o ma9ta9s t ! /ate is n b\nd to repair ! losses1 :i* are occasion$ to individuals 9 ! c\rse ( w>1 z ^? are accid5ts p]mitt$ by ! rights ( w>4 ,= ^? rights reg>d ! relation ( =eign /ates & enemies to ea* o!r1 b be> no ref]5ce to ! disputes ( subjects among !mselves1 :o1 be+ unit$ 9 ! same cause1 ought to %>e ! common losses1 :i* happ5 to !m 9 support+ ! privileges ( _! society4 ,x is a rule likewise e/abli%$ by ! civil law1 t no action c be br\ght aga9/ ! /ate = ! losses su/a9$ 9 w>1 z e "o is !reby induc$ to def5d 8 own prop]ty ) m e>ne/ness & _s4#gg ,,ix4 ,"s make a di/9ction betwe5 ! prop]ty :i* subjects are entitl$ to f ! law ( nations & t :i* !y possess by ! au?ority ( ! civil law1 all[+ ! k+ a m ext5sive contr\l ov] ! latt]1 ev5 to ! p[] ( tak+ x )\t cause or comp5sation1 :i* is n ! case ) prop]ty ( ! =m] k9d4 ,b ?is is an improp] di/9ction4 ,= :atev] may be ! orig9 ( prop]ty1 x is always att5d$ ) peculi> effects accord+ to ! law ( nature3 s t x _c be tak5 away = any o!r reasons ?an ^? inh]5t 9 ! nature ( prop]ty itself1 or d]iv$ f "s act ( ! own]s4 ,x4 ,! prohibition respect+ ! prop]ty ( individuals be+ giv5 up1 except = "s public advantage1 is a matt] re/+ entirely betwe5 a sov]eign & 8 subjects1 & a comp5sation = losses is an affair betwe5 ! /ate & individuals4 ,b 9 all transactions betwe5 a k+ & =eign]s1 ! act ( ! k+ is suffici5t to give !m ,,national validity1 n only out ( respect to 8 p]sonal dignity1 b accord+ to ! law ( nations1 :i* r5d]s ! effects ( subjects responsible = ! acts ( ! sov]eign4 ,,xi4 ,9 int]pret+ treaties ( peace1 fav\rable circum/ances are always to be tak5 9 _! utmo/ latitude1 & unfav\rable circum/ances to be limit$ z /rictly z possible4#gh ,reg>d+ purely ! law ( nature1 ! mo/ fav\rable con/ruction is t1 :]eby e "o is re/or$ to 8 own prop]ty & possessions4 ,!re=e :]e ! articles ( a treaty are ambigu\s1 ! con/ruction %\ld g s f>1 z to grant ! p>ty1 :o has evid5tly ju/ice on 8 side1 ! object = :i* he w5t to w>1 & likewise indemnity = ! losses :i* he has su/a9$4 ,b x is n all[able t ei!r p>ty %\ld ga9 m ?an an indemnity1 or dem& any ?+ by way ( puni%m5t1 :i* is ( an odi\s nature4 ,z 9 mak+ peace1 x sc>cely ev] happ5s t ei!r p>ty w ackn[l$ge ! inju/ice ( 8 cause1 or ( 8 claims1 su* a con/ruction mu/ be giv51 z w equalize ! pret5sions ( ea* side1 :i* may be accompli%$1 ei!r by re/or+ ! disput$ possessions to _! =m] situation1 or by leav+ !m 9 ! /ate1 to :i* ! w> has r$uc$ !m4 ,,xii4 ,( ^! two me?ods1 9 a d\btful case1 ! latt] is pref]r$1 z be+ ! m easily adju/$1 & occasion+ no fur!r *ange4 ,f h5ce ! "r ( po/lim9ium belongs to su* prison]s1 z are expressly includ$ 9 ! treaty4 ,nei!r are des]t]s to be giv5 up1 unless x be s agre$4 ,= by ! laws ( w> any p[] is all[$ to receive des]t]s1 & ev5 to enli/ !m 9 8 own army4 ,by su* agreem5t o!r ?+s rema9 9 ! h&s ( ! possessors1 by :i* is n meant a civil1 b a natural possession3 = 9 w> ,,b>e ,,possession is suffici5t1 nor is any o!r k9d look$ =4 ,& l&s are said to be s possess$1 :5 inclos$ or def5d$ by =tifications1 = a tempor>y occupation by an encampm5t is n reg>d$ 9 ?is case4 ,h5ce ,demo/h5es 9 8 spee* = ,ctesiphon1 says t ,philip 0 anxi\s to make himself ma/] ( all ! places he c\ld seize1 z he knew t ^u ! conclusion ( a peace1 he %\ld reta9 !m4 ,incorporeal rights _c be held b by ! occupation ( ! ?+s ) :i* !y are connect$2 z = in/ance1 ! s]vices ( l&s1 or ?r\gh means ( ! p]sons1 to :om !y belong3 b ! hold]s ( su* rights lose !m1 :5 an enemy has become ma/] ( ! c\ntry4 ,,xiii4 ,9 t o!r mode ( treaty1 :]eby possession1 t has be5 di/urb$ 9 ! c\rse ( a w>1 is re/or$1 x is prop] to obs]ve t ! la/ possession1 imm$iately be=e ! w> began1 is t1 :i* is always meant1 s t ! individuals !n unju/ly eject$1 may h rec\rse to law1 ei!r to obta9 possession by a provisional decree1 or to make good _! claim4 ,,xiv4 ,if an indep5d5t p ,,volunt>ily & ,,spontane\sly place !mselves "u ! contr\l & protection ( "o ( ! bellig]5t p[]s1 su* a p _c be includ$ among ^? entitl$ to re/itution1 :i* only belongs to ^? :o h suff]$ losses by viol5ce1 ?r\gh fe>1 or any lawful /ratagem ( w>4 ,?us :5 peace 0 made among ! ,grecian /ates1 ! ,!bans reta9$ ,plataea1 obs]v+ t !y nei!r ow$ _! possession ( x to viol5ce1 nor trea*]y1 b to ! free surr5d] ( ^?1 to :om x belong$4 ,,xv4 ,unless !re is an express /ipulation to ! contr>y1 x is und]/ood t1 9 all treaties ( peace1 !re is an impli$ ass5t t no actions are to be br\ght = losses occasion$ by ! accid5tal calamities ( w>1 ei!r to /ates or individuals4 ,= ^? are natural consequ5ces ( a /ate ( ho/ilities3 & x is suppos$ t 9 d\btful cases1 no bellig]5t w\ld cons5t to be convict$ ( inju/ice4 ,,xvi4 ,! debts1 ow+ to individuals1 at ! beg9n+ ( a w>1 are n to be ?\ght !reby dis*>g$4 ,= !y are n ?+s acquir$ by ! laws ( w>3 = w> only prev5ts ! claim to !m f be+ prosecut$1 b by no means releases ! obligation4 ,s t :5 ! imp$im5t ( w> is remov$1 su* debts reta9 _! orig9al =ce4 ,= ?\gh x ought n to be presum$ t any "o %\ld easily be depriv$ ( a "r subsi/+ be=e ! w>1 yet ?is is to be und]/ood ( ! rights aris+ out ( ! f\ndation ( prop]ty1 :]eby a community & equality ( goods 0 aboli%$4 ,= /ates & gov]nm5ts1 says ,cic]o1 7 orig9ally & pr9cipally design$ to pres]ve to e "o ! possession ( 8 own prop]ty4 ,,xvii4 ,! "r to claim l&s or goods ( any k9d1 by way ( ,,puni%m5t1 is n ( equal =ce ) ! above rules4 ,= 9 transactions & treaties ( t k9d betwe5 k+s & sov]eign /ates1 all claims ( t k9d seem & inde$ ought to be rel9qui%$1 o!rwise peace w\ld be no peace1 if ! old & orig9al causes ( ! w> 7 all[$ to rema9 & be reviv$4 ,& ! mo/ lat5t & remote causes are suppos$ to be includ$ 9 ! mo/ ,,g5]al ,,t]ms1 9 treaties ( peace1 :]eby !y are sunk 9 oblivion4 ,,xviii4 ,! rights ( individuals to p5alties are n suppos$ to be ab&on$1 re/+ entirely ^u diff]5t gr\nds3 because !y may be decid$ by legal tribunals )\t appeal+ to ! sword4 ,yet z our rights ( ?is sort are n ( ! same k9d ) ^? ( absolute prop]ty1 & z p5alties h always some?+ odi\s 9 _! nature1 any fa9t v]bal conjecture w be ?\ght a suffici5t presumption ( _! be+ remitt$4 ,,xix4 ,! objection made aga9/ tak+ away any rights1 t exi/$ be=e ! w>1 applies *iefly to ! rights ( ,,individuals4 ,= :]e ! words ( a treaty supply any probable conjecture1 x is mo/ natural to suppose t ,,k+s & ,,nations h m readily rel9qui%$ c]ta9 rights1 especially 9 matt]s1 :]e ^? rights are n cle>ly & fully asc]ta9$4 ,s t1 giv+ ! mo/ fav\rable con/ruction to _! conduct1 !y are suppos$ to h be5 animat$ ) ! noble desire ( root+ up & de/roy+ all ! se$s ( w>4 ,,xx4 ,all captures1 made aft] a treaty is f9i%$1 mu/ evid5tly be re/or$4 ,= ! treaty puts an end to all ! rights ( w>4 ,,xxi4 ,b 9 treaties relat+ to ! re/oration ( ?+s tak5 9 w>1 a m ext5sive int]pretation mu/ be giv51 :]e ! advantages are mutual ?an :]e !y incl9e only to "o side4#gi ,9 ! next place all ! p>ts ( a treaty relat+ to p]sons are to be int]pret$ m fav\rably ?an ^? relat+ to ?+s3 & among ^? relat+ to ?+s1 priority is giv5 to l&s be=e moveable effects1 & also among ^!1 su* z are 9 ! h&s ( ! /ate are held 9 m consid]ation ?an ! possessions ( individuals4 ,& aga91 among ?+s 9 ! possession ( individuals1 ^? are m fav\r$ :i* are held "u a b5eficial title1 ?an ^? :i* are load$ ) incumbrances1 z ?+s held by money paym5ts1 or by d[]4 ,,xxii4 ,! p]son1 to :om any ?+ is c$$ by a treaty ( peace1 is entitl$ to ! produce & fruits ( x1 f ! "t ( su* cession1 & n f>!r back3 a po9t ma9ta9$ by ,augu/us ,caes> 9 opposition to ,sextus ,pompey1 :o1 ^u ,peloponnesus be+ c$$ to him1 claim$ also ! tributes & rev5ues1 t 7 due = =m] ye>s4 ,,xxiii4 ,! names ( c\ntries are to be tak5 accord+ to ! usage ( ! pres5t "t1 n s mu* accord+ to ! popul> acceptation1 z to t ( m5 ( sci5ce1 by :om ^? subjects are g5]ally treat$ (4 ,,xxiv4 ,^! rules also are ( frequ5t use1 :5ev] !re is a ref]5ce to an antec$5t1 or to an anci5t treaty4 ,= 9 t case ! qualities & conditions ( ! latt] treaty are consid]$ z a repetition ( ^? express$ 9 ! =m]4--,& ! p]son contract+ is to be consid]$ z hav+ really p]=m$ 8 "p ( ! engagem5t1 :i* he c]ta9ly w\ld h done1 _h he n be5 prev5t$ by ! p>ty ) :om he is engag$ 9 dispute4 ,,xxv4 ,:at "s allege 9 excuse = a %ort delay 9 ! execution ( a treaty is n to be admitt$ z true1 except "s un=ese5 necessity has occasion$ ! imp$im5t4 ,= ?\gh "s ( ! canon-laws may fav\r su* a plea1 t is n surpris+1 consid]+ !y are fram$ solely ) ! view ( promot+ *>ity among ,*ri/ians4 ,b 9 ?is "q relat+ to ! int]pretation ( treaties1 x is n s mu* our bus9ess to lay d[n :at is be/ & prop]e/ = e "o to d1 nor ev5 to /ate :at religion & piety require1 z to consid] :at e "o may be compell$ by legal au?ority to d4 ,,xxvi4 ,9 d\btful matt]s x is usual = an int]pretation to be giv5 m prejudicial to ! p>ty :o has dictat$ ! t]ms1 ?an to ! o!r1 because 9 g5]al he is ! m p[]ful3 9 ! same mann]1 9 expla9+ ! t]ms ( a b>ga91 a con/ruction is g5]ally giv5 aga9/ ! sell]3 z he may blame himself = n hav+ spok5 m cle>ly1 & op5ly4 ,:]eas ! o!r1 compreh5d+ ! t]ms 9 m mean+s ?an "o1 might fairly select t mo/ fav\rable to himself4 ,,xxvii4 ,x is a matt] ( frequ5t dispute :at con/itutes ! brea* ( a peace4 ,= x is n ! same ?+ to break a peace1 z to furni% new gr\nds & causes ( w>4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ^! ?+s1 bo? z to ! p5alty incurr$ by ! aggressor1 & z to ! aggriev$ p>ty be+1 9 o!r respects1 releas$ f 8 engagem5ts4 ,!re are ?ree ways1 9 :i* a peace may be brok51--ei!r by do+ some?+ contr>y to ! v ess5ce ( ,,all peace1--or some?+ 9 violation ( ! ,,express t]ms ( a ,,p>ticul> peace1--or some?+ contr>y to ! ,,effects1 :i* are int5d$ to arise f e peace4 ,,xxviii4 ,a ?+ is done contr>y to ! v ess5ce ( all peace1 :5 ho/ile aggressions are committ$ )\t any new gr\nds ( w>4 ,b :]e any speci\s pretext c be assign$ = tak+ arms1 x is bett] x %\ld be suppos$ purely an act ( inju/ice1 ?an an act ( inju/ice accompani$ ) p]fidy4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to quote ! words ( ,?ucydides1 :o says1 x is n ! p>ty1 :o repels =ce by arms1 b ! p[] :o fir/ makes ! attack1 t violates a peace4 ,hav+ laid d[n ^! rules1 x rema9s to be consid]$1 :o are ! ,,aggressors1 & :o are ! ,,aggriev$ ,,p]sons1 9 ! break+ ( a peace4 ,,xxix4 ,!re are "s1 :o ?9k t a peace is brok51 :5 ev5 ^?1 :o h be5 allies d any ( ^! ?+s4 ,nor inde$ c x be d5i$1 t su* an agreem5t ,,may be made1 = "o ally to become liable to puni%m5t = ! actions ( ano!r1 & = a peace to be deem$ ratifi$ & p]man5t only ^u conditions1 p>tly arbitr>y1 & p>tly casual4 ,b x is h>dly cr$ible1 unless !re is ! cle>e/ evid5ce ( x1 t peace is ev] conclud$ ^u su* t]ms4 ,= x is contr>y to all rule1 & repugnant to ! common wi%es ( ^?1 :o make peace4 ,!re=e ^?1 :o h committ$ ho/ile aggressions1 )\t ! assi/ance ( o!rs1 w be deem$ break]s ( ! peace1 aga9/ :om alone ! injur$ p>ty w h a "r to take arms4 ,,xxx4 ,if subjects h committ$ any act ( ho/ility )\t au?ority & commission f ! /ate1 x w =m a prop] subject ( inquiry1 :e!r ! /ate c be judg$ responsible = ! acts ( individuals3 to con/itute :i* responsibility1 x is evid5t t a k ( ! fact1 p[] to puni% x1 & hav+ neglect$ to d s1 are requisite4 ,a =mal notice giv5 to ! sov]eign ( ! (f5d+ subjects is suppos$ to am\nt to a k ( ! fact1 & x is presum$ t e sov]eign is able to contr\l & puni% 8 own subjects1 unless !re be "s defect 9 8 au?ority3 & a lapse ( "t1 beyond :at is usually tak5 = ! puni%m5t ( civil (f5ces 9 e c\ntry1 may be con/ru$ into wilful neglect4 ,& su* neglect am\nts to a sanction ( ! (f5ce4 ,,xxxi4 ,x is likewise frequ5tly made a subject ( inquiry1 :e!r a /ate is answ]able = ! conduct ( any ( h] p1 :o d n take arms by h] au?ority1 b s]ve 9 ! armies ( "s o!r p[] engag$ 9 w>4 ,! ,c]ites1 9 ,livy1 cle> !mselves ^u ?is pr9ciple1 t x 0 n by _! au?ority _! p bore arms4 ,& x is a well-f\nd$ op9ion t no su* p]mission ought to be deem$ z giv51 unless x appe> f probable reasons t x 0 int5d$ x %\ld be grant$3 a ?+ sometimes done1 accord+ to ! example ( ! anci5t ,aetolians1 :o ?\ght !y _h a "r to deprive e plund]] ( 8 spoils4 ,a cu/om ! =ce ( :i* ,polybius expresses 9 ! foll[+ words1 :5 o!r p[]s1 fri5ds & allies ( ! ,aetolians1 are at w> ) ea* o!r1 ! ,aetolians may nev]!less s]ve 9 ! armies on ei!r side1 de/roy+ & spoil+ _! respective c\ntries4 ,,xxxii4 ,aga91 a peace ought to be deem$ brok51 n only by any act ( viol5ce done to ! body politic itself1 b to any ( ! subjects1 )\t new gr\nds ( w>4 ,= peace is made ) a view to ! security ( e individual subject3 z ! /ate 9 mak+ peace acts = ! :ole1 & = all its p>ts4 ,inde$ ev5 if new gr\nds ( w> %\ld arise1 e "o may1 dur+ ! cont9uance ( peace1 def5d himself & 8 prop]ty4 ,= x is a natural "r to repel =ce by =ce3 a "r :i* x _c easily be suppos$ t ^?1 :o are ^u a foot+ ( equality h ev] r5\nc$4 ,b to practise rev5ge1 or use viol5ce 9 recov]+ ?+s tak5 away w n be lawful1 except :]e ju/ice is d5i$4 ,ju/ice may admit ( "s delay3 b ! o!r me?od dem&s prompt execution1 & !re=e %\ld n be und]tak5 b 9 extreme em]g5cy4 ,b if ! subjects ( any c\ntry p]si/ 9 a c\rse ( uni=m crime1 & aggression1 repugnant to all natural & civil law1 9 defiance ( ! au?ority ( _! own gov]nm5t1 s t ! h& ( ju/ice _c rea* !m1 x w be lawful = any "o to deprive !m ( _! spoils1 & to ex]cise ^u !m ! same rig\r1 z if !y 7 deliv]$ up to puni%m5t4 ,b to attack o!r innoc5t p]sons on t acc\nt is a direct violation ( peace4 ,,xxxiii4 ,any act ( viol5ce also (f]$ to allies1 con/itutes a brea* ( ! peace1 b !y mu/ be su* allies z are compreh5d$ 9 ! treaty4 ,! same rule holds good1 ev5 if ! allies !mselves h n made ! treaty1 b o!rs h done s on _! behalf3 s9ce x is evid5t t ^? allies reg>d$ ! peace z ratifi$ & valid4 ,= !y are look$ ^u z enemies1 till x is c]ta9 !y h cons5t$ to ! ratification4 ,o!r allies1 or connections1 :o are nei!r subjects nor nam$ 9 ! treaty ( peace1 =m a di/9ct class1 to :om any viol5ce done _c be con/ru$ into an act ( break+ ! peace4 ,yet x does n foll[ t w> may n be und]tak5 on su* an acc\nt1 b !n x w be a w> re/+ entirely ^u new gr\nds4 ,,xxxiv4 ,a peace is brok5 by do+ any ?+ contr>y to ! express t]ms ( x2 & by ?is is likewise meant ! non-p]=mance ( engagem5ts4 ,,xxxv4 ,nor c we admit ( any di/9ction betwe5 articles ( great] or m9or importance4 ,= ,,all ! articles ( a treaty are ( suffici5t magnitude to require obs]vance1 ?\gh ,*ri/ian *>ity may ov]look ! brea* ( !m ^u due ackn[l$gem5t4 ,b to provide great] security = ! cont9uance ( a peace1 prop] clauses w be annex$ to ! m9or articles1 /at+ t any ?+ done aga9/ !m %all n be deem$ an infraction ( ! treaty3 or t m$iation %all be adopt$ 9 pref]5ce to hav+ rec\rse to arms4 ,,xxxvi4 ,?is seems to h be5 pla9ly done 9 treaties1 :]e any special p5alty 0 annex$4 ,a treaty inde$ may be made ^u1 t]ms all[+ ! injur$ p>ty 8 option ei!r ( enact+ ! p5alty1 or rec$+ f 8 engagem5t3 b ! nature ( ! bus9ess r requires ! me?od ( m$iation4 ,x is evid5t & prov$ f ! au?ority ( hi/ory1 t "o ( ! p>ties1 :o has n fulfill$ 8 engagem5t1 ow+ to ! neglect ( ! o!r to d s1 is by no means guilty ( break+ ! peace3 z 8 obligation 0 only conditional4 ,,xxxvii4 ,if !re is any unavoidable necessity to prev5t "o p>ty f fulfill+ 8 engagem5t1 z = in/ance1 if a ?+ has be5 de/roy$1 or c>ri$ (f1 by :i* ! re/oration ( x has become impossible1 a peace %all n !reby be deem$ brok51 ! cont9uance ( x n dep5d+ ^u ,,casual conditions4 ,b ! o!r p>ty may h 8 option1 ei!r to pref] wait+1 if !re is any reason to hope t ! engagem5t may be fulfill$ at "s future p]iod1 or to receive an equival5t1 or to be releas$1 on 8 side f "s correspond+ article ( ! treaty4 ,,xxxviii4 ,x is hon\rable1 & laudable to ma9ta9 a peace1 ev5 aft] x has be5 violat$ by ! o!r p>ty3 z ,scipio did1 aft] ! _m trea*]\s acts ( ! ,c>?ag9ians4 ,= no "o c release himself f an obligation by act+ contr>y to 8 engagem5ts4 ,& ?\gh x may be fur!r said t ! peace is brok5 by su* an act1 yet ! brea* ought to be tak5 9 fav\r ( ! innoc5t p>ty1 if he ?9ks prop] to avail himself ( x4 ,,xxxix4 ,la/ly1 a peace is brok5 by ! violation ( any special & express clause 9 ! treaty4 ,,xl4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ^? p[]s1 :o commit unfri5dly acts1 are guilty ( break+ t peace1 :i* 0 made solely ^u condition ( amicable relations be+ pres]v$4 ,= :at1 9 o!r cases1 ! duties ( fri5d%ip alone w\ld require1 mu/ "h be p]=m$ by ! law ( treaty4 ,& x is to treaties ( ?is k9d t _m po9ts may be ref]r$1 :i* are discuss$ by legal writ]s1 relat+ to injuries done )\t =ce ( arms1 & to ! (f5ces ( insults4 ,accord+ to ?is pr9ciple1 ,tully has obs]v$1 t any (f5ce committ$ aft] a reconciliation is n to be imput$ to neglect1 b to wilful violation1 n to imprud5ce1 b to trea*]y4 ,b "h x is necess>y1 if possible1 to exclude f ! acc\nt e *>ge ( an odi\s k9d4 ,s t an injury done to a relation or subject ( ! p]son1 ) :om a treaty ( peace has be5 made1 is n to be deem$ ! same1 z "o done to himself1 unless !re are evid5t pro(s t1 ?r\gh !m1 an attack ^u him 0 int5d$4 ,& an invasion ( ano!r's rights is (t5 to be ascrib$ to new motives ( rapacity1 r ?an to ^? ( trea*]y4 ,atroci\s m5aces1 )\t any new gr\nds ( (f5ce1 are repugnant to all t]ms ( amity4 ,any "o may assume ?is ?reat5+ po/ure1 by erect+ new =tifications 9 8 t]ritory1 z a means ( annoyance r ?an (f5ce1 by rais+ an unusual numb] ( =ces3 :5 x is evid5t t ^! prep>ations c be design$ aga9/ no "o1 b ! p[] ) :om he has conclud$ peace4 ,,xli4 ,nor is x contr>y to ! relations ( amity to receive individual subjects1 :o wi% to remove f ! dom9ions ( "o p[] to ^? ( ano!r4 ,= t is n only a pr9ciple ( natural lib]ty1 b fav\rable to ! g5]al int]c\rse ( mank9d4 ,on ! same gr\nds a refuge giv5 to exiles may be ju/ifi$4 ,b x is n lawful to receive :ole t[ns1 or great bodies1 =m+ an integral "p ( ! /ate4 ,nor is x m all[able to receive ^?1 :o are b\nd to ! s]vice ( _! own /ate by oa? or o!r engagem5t4 ,,xlvi4#hj ,!re are two k9ds ( arbitration1 ! "o ( su* a nature t x mu/ be obey$ :e!r ! decision be j or unju/1 :i*1 ,proculus says1 is obs]v$ :51 aft] a compromise1 rec\rse is _h to arbitration4 ,! o!r k9d ( arbitration is :]e a matt] ought to be left to ! decision ( a p]son1 9 ^: integrity confid5ce may be plac$1 ( :i* ,celsus has giv5 u an example 9 8 answ]1 :]e he says1 ?\gh a fre$man has sworn1 t he w d all ! s]vices1 :i* 8 patron may adjudge1 ! w ( ! patron ought n to be ratifi$1 unless 8 det]m9ation be j4 ,?is int]pretation ( an oa?1 ?\gh con=mable to ! ,roman laws1 is by no means consi/5t ) ! simplicity ( language consid]$ by itself4 ,= ! ju/ice ( ! case rema9s ! same1 9 :atev] way an arbit] is *os51 :e!r x be to reconcile cont5d+ p>ties1 a "*1 9 :i* we f9d ! ,a!nians act+ betwe5 ! ,rhodians & ,demetrius1 or to make an absolute decree4 ,al?\gh ! civil law may decide ^u ! conduct ( su* arbit]s to :om a compromise is ref]r$1 s z to all[ ( an appeal f _! decrees1 or ( compla9ts aga9/ _! inju/ice1 ?is c nev] take place betwe5 k+s & nations4 ,= "h !re is no sup]ior p[]1 t c ei!r rivet or relax ! bonds ( an engagem5t4 ,! decree !re=e ( su* arbit]s mu/ be f9al & )\t appeal4 ,,xlvii4 ,) respect to ! (fice ( an arbit] or m$iator1 x is prop] to inquire1 :e!r ! p]son has be5 appo9t$ 9 ! "* ( a judge1 or ) p[]s m ext5sive & discretion>y ?an legal p[]s4 ,ari/otle says t an equitable & mod]ate man w h rec\rse to arbitration r ?an to /rict law1 ,,add+ ,,z ,a ,,reason1 because an arbitrator may consid] ! equity ( ! case1 :]eas a judge is b\nd by ! lett] ( ! law4 ,!re=e arbitration 0 introduc$ to give equity its due weight4 ,equity does n signify 9 ?is place1 z x does else:]e1 t "p ( ju/ice1 :i* gives a /rict int]pretation ( ! g5]al expressions ( ! law1 accord+ to ! int5tion ( ! law-giv]4 ,= t is left to ! judge4 ,b x includes e ?+1 :i* x is m prop] to d ?an to omit1 ev5 beyond :at is requir$ by ! express rules ( ju/ice4--,su* k9d ( arbitration be+ common among individuals & subjects ( ! same empire1 x is recomm5d$ by ,/4 ,paul z a practice peculi>ly prop] = ,*ri/ians4 ,yet 9 d\btful cases x ought n to be presum$ t su* ext5sive p[]s are grant$4 ,= :]e !re is any obscurity x abridges ?is latitude ( decision3 & especially 9 conte/$ matt]s1 betwe5 indep5d5t sov]eigns1 :o1 hav+ no common judge1 are suppos$ to b9d ! m$iators1 & arbitrators1 :om !y *use1 by ! /ricte/ rules ( law4 ,,xlviii4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t arbitrators *os5 by nations or sov]eign pr9ces may decide ^u ! matt] 9 dispute1 b n conf] a possession1 :i* is a matt] t c only be decid$ by e/abli%$ rules ( civil law1 = by ! law ( nations ! "r ( possession foll[s ! "r ( prop]ty4 ,!re=e :ile a cause is p5d+1 no innovation ought to be made1 bo? to prev5t p>tiality & prejudice1 & because1 aft] possession has be5 giv51 recov]y is difficult4 ,livy 9 8 acc\nt ( "s disput$ po9ts betwe5 ! p ( ,c>?age & ,mas9issa says1 ! ,ambassadors did n *ange ! "r ( possession4 ,,xlix4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( arbitration1 :i* takes place1 :5 any "o makes an absolute surr5d] ( himself & all 8 rights to an enemy or =eign p[]4 ,b /ill a di/9ction ought to be made1 ev5 "h1 betwe5 ! b\nds ( "r & wrong1 limit+ ! submission ( ! vanqui%$1 on ! "o h&1 & ! au?ority ( ! conqu]or1 on ! o!r1 to a c]ta9 degree4 ,= !re are p>ticul> duties1 :i* ought to be obs]v$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ,,e "r4 ,tak+ ! "r ( ! conqu]or 9 its lit]al mean+ & full ext5t1 x is true t he is entitl$ to impose ,,any t]ms ^u ! conqu]$1 :o is n[ plac$1 by ! ext]nal laws ( w>1 9 a situation to be depriv$ ( e ?+1 ev5 p]sonal lib]ty or life1 mu* m !n1 ( all 8 prop]ty1 ei!r ( a public or private k9d4 ,l4 ,! fir/ object ( a conqu]or %\ld be to avoid committ+ any act ( inju/ice1 or us+ any rig\r1 except ! dem]its & atrocity ( ! enemy require x2 to take no?+ b by way ( lawful puni%m5t4 ,obs]v+ ^! b\nds1 z f> z security all[s1 x is always laudable to incl9e to mod]ation & clem5cy4 ,sometimes ev5 circum/ances may require su* a l9e ( conduct1 & ! be/ conclusion ( any w> is t1 :i* reconciles all cont5d+ claims by a fair adju/m5t1 & a g5]al amne/y4 ,! mod]ation & clem5cy to :i* ! vanqui%$ appeal1 are by no means an abolition b only a mitigation ( ! conqu]or's absolute "r4 ,,li4 ,!re are conditional surr5d]s1 res]v+ to ! individuals1 c]ta9 p]sonal privileges1 & rema9s ( _! prop]ty1 & to ! /ate1 c]ta9 p>ts ( its con/itution4 ,,lii4 ,ho/ages & pl$ges may be consid]$ z an app5dage to treaties4 ,& "s ( ^? ho/ages are a volunt>y surr5d]1 & o!rs giv5 by au?ority ( ! /ate z a security4 ,= ! sov]eign has ! same p[] ov] ! p]sons & actions ( 8 subjects1 z ov] _! prop]ty4 ,b ! /ate or its rul] w be b\nd to recomp5se individuals or _! relatives = any inconv5i5ces !y may su/a94 ,,liii4 ,?\gh ! law ( nations may 9 its lit]al rig\r all[ ( putt+ ho/ages to dea?1 x c nev] consci5ti\sly be en=c$1 b :]e !y h committ$ crimes des]v+ ( capital puni%m5t4 ,nei!r c !y be made slaves4 ,inde$ ! law ( nations p]mits !m to leave _! prop]ty to _! heirs1 al?\gh by ! ,roman law provision 0 made = confiscat+ x to ! /ate4 ,,liv4 ,if x %\ld be ask$ :e!r ho/ages may lawfully make _! escape3 x may be answ]$ 9 ! negative1 especially if1 at fir/1 or aft]w>ds1 !y h pl$g$ _! fai? to rema91 ^u condition ( be+ prison]s at l>ge4 ,b x does n appe> t /ates s mu* int5d$ to impose a h>d%ip ^u _! subjects by =bidd+ _! escape1 z to give ! enemy security = ! p]=mance ( _! engagem5ts4 ,,lv4 ,! obligation ( ho/ages is ( an odi\s nature1 z be+ unfri5dly to p]sonal lib]ty1 & aris+ f ! act ( ano!r4 ,!re=e a /rict int]pretation mu/ be giv5 to su* engagem5ts1 s t ho/ages deliv]$ on "o acc\nt _c be deta9$ on any o!r1 nor = any contract1 :]e ho/ages are n requir$4 ,b if 9 ano!r case !re has be5 any violation ( good fai?1 or any debt contract$1 ho/ages may be deta9$1 n z ho/ages1 b 9 ! capacity ( subjects1 :om ! law ( nations makes liable to be seiz$ & deta9$ = ! acts ( _! sov]eigns4 ,to gu>d aga9/ :i*1 provision may be made by additional clauses = ! re/oration ( ho/ages1 :5ev] ! engagem5t = :i* !y 7 deliv]$ has be5 fulfill$4 ,,lvi4 ,:oev] has be5 deliv]$ z a ho/age = o!r prison]s1 or = ! r$emption ( o!r ho/ages1 w naturally be releas$ ^u ! dea? ( ^? p]sons4 ,= by dea? ! "r ( ! pl$ge is ext+ui%$ 9 ! same mann] z by ! ransom ( a prison]4 ,& !re=e1 accord+ to ,ulpian1 z a ,,p]sonal debt is conf9$ to him1 :o has contract$ x1 s "o p]son1 be+ sub/itut$ = ano!r1 _c be deta9$ any long] ?an :ile ! obligation ( t o!r cont9ues4 ,,lvii4 ,! decision1 :e!r ho/ages c be deta9$ ^u ! dea? ( ! sov]eign1 by :om !y 7 deliv]$1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! engagem5ts1 :i* he has made4 ,if !y are ,,p]sonal1 !y cont9ue 9 =ce only dur+ 8 natural life1 b if !y are :at are call$ ,,real or m ,,p]man5t treaties1 !y pass ) all _! consequ5ces to 8 successors4 ,= ,,accessory articles _c au?orise any deviation f ! ,,g5]al rule ( int]pret+ ! fundam5tal & pr9cipal po9ts ( a treaty1 b ! accessory articles !mselves ought r to be expla9$ 9 con=mity to ^? g5]al rules4 ,,lviii4 ,a cursory obs]vation may be made1 t ho/ages are sometimes consid]$1 n z app5dages1 b z =m+ ! pr9cipal "p ( an engagem5t1 :]e any "o is b\nd n = himself1 b = ano!r1 &1 9 case ( non-p]=mance1 be+ oblig$ to pay damages1 8 ho/ages or sureties are answ]able 9 8 /ead4--,!re is n only "s ?+ ( h>%ness1 b ev5 inju/ice 9 ! op9ion t ho/ages may be b\nd = ! conduct ( ano!r ev5 )\t _! own cons5t4 ,,lix4 ,pl$ges h "s *>act]i/ics 9 common ) ho/ages1 & "s peculi> to !mselves4 ,x is a common *>act]i/ic ( bo? to be deta9$ = some?+ else t is due1 except :]e public fai? is giv51 & provision made to ! contr>y4 ,pl$ges may be deta9$ ) great] latitude ?an ho/ages2 :i* is "o ( _! peculi> *>act]i/ics1 !re be+ less ( odium 9 ! =m] case ?an 9 ! latt]3 ,,?+s be+ ( a nature m prop] = det5tion ?an ,,p]sons4 ,,lx4 ,no "t c b> ! r$emption ( a pl$ge1 :5ev] ! engagem5t = :i* x 0 giv5 is fulfill$4 ,= x is nev] to be presum$ t engagem5ts proce$ f new causes1 :5 old & kn[n causes c be assign$4 ,if a debtor !re=e has =borne to r$eem a pl$ge1 we may /ill suppose t he has n ab&on$ 8 orig9al engagem5t1 unless !re be cle> pro( to ! contr>y3 z if1 = in/ance1 ?\gh desir\s ( r$eem+ x1 he has be5 prev5t$1 or suff]$ a space ( "t to elapse unnotic$1 t w\ld be requisite to imply 8 cons5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,fai? ,,dur+ ,,! ,,cont9uance ,,( ,,w>1 ,,on ,,truces1 ,,safe-,,conducts1 ,,& ,,! ,,r$emption ,,( ,,prison]s4 ,truces ( an int]m$iate d5om9ation betwe5 peace & w>--,orig9 ( ! ^w--,new decl>ation ( w> n necess>y aft] a truce--,"t f :5ce a truce & all its correspond5t obligations & privileges comm5ce--,a retreat may be made1 or =tifications repair$ dur+ a truce--,di/9ction respect+ ! occupy+ ( places--,! case ( a p]son prev5t$ f mak+ 8 retreat1 & tak5 9 ! enemy's t]ritories at ! expiration ( a truce1 consid]$--,express t]ms & consequ5ces ( a truce--,brea* ( a truce by "o p>ty ju/ifies a r5ewal ( w> by ! o!r--,p5alty annex$--,truce brok5 by ! acts ( individuals--,rights belong+ to safe-conducts )\t a truce--,p]sons 9 a milit>y capacity h[ f> all[$ ! b5efit ( a safe-conduct--,privileges ( goods aris+ f !nce--,att5dants ( ! p]son protect$ by a safe-conduct--,safe-conduct does n expire ^u ! dea? ( ! grantor--,safe-conduct giv5 to cont9ue dur+ ! pleasure ( ! grantor--,protection !re( ext5d+ beyond 8 own t]ritory--,r$emption ( prison]s fav\r$1 & n to be prohibit$ by law4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,9 ! mid/ ( w> !re are c]ta9 po9ts g5]ally conc$$ by ! bellig]5t p[]s to ea* o!r1 :i* ,tacitus & ,virgil call ! int]c\rse ( w>1 & :i* compreh5d truces1 safe-conducts1 & ! r$emption ( prison]s4--,truces are conv5tions1 by :i*1 ev5 dur+ ! cont9uance ( w>1 ho/ilities on ea* side cease = a "t4 ,,dur+ ,,! ,,cont9uance ,,( ,,w>2 =1 z ,cic]o says1 9 8 eigh? ,philippic1 betwe5 peace & w> !re is no m$ium4 ,by w> is meant a /ate ( affairs1 :i* may exi/ ev5 :ile its op]ations are n cont9u$4 ,!re=e1 z ,gellius has said1 a peace & a truce are n ! same1 = ! w> /ill cont9ues1 ?\gh fight+ may cease4 ,s t any agreem5t1 deem$ valid 9 ! "t ( w>1 w be valid also dur+ a truce1 unless x evid5tly appe>s t x is n ! /ate ( affairs1 :i* is consid]$1 b ! commission ( p>ticul> acts ( ho/ility4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any ?+1 agre$ to1 to be done1 :5 peace %all be made1 _c take place 9 consequ5ce ( a truce4 ,!re is no uni=m & inv>iable p]iod fix$ = ! cont9uance ( a truce1 x may be made = any "t1 ev5 = tw5ty1 or ?irty ye>s1 ( :i* !re are _m in/ances 9 anci5t hi/ory4 ,a truce1 ?\gh a repose f w>1 does n am\nt to a peace1 !re=e hi/orians are correct 9 say+ t a peace has (t5 be5 refus$1 :5 a truce has be5 grant$4 ,,iii4 ,aft] a truce a new decl>ation ( w> is n necess>y4 ,= ^u ! removal ( a tempor>y imp$im5t1 ! /ate ( w>f>e revives 9 full =ce1 :i* has only be5 lull$ asleep1 b n ext+ui%$4 ,yet we read 9 ,livy1 t x 0 ! op9ion ( ! h]alds' college1 t aft] ! expiration ( a truce w> ought to be decl>$4 ,b ! anci5t ,romans only meant to %ew by ^? sup]flu\s precautions1 h[ mu* !y lov$ peace1 & ^u :at j gr\nds !y 7 dragg$ into w>4 ,,iv4 ,! "t1 g5]ally assign$ = ! cont9uance ( a truce1 is ei!r "s un9t]rupt$ p]iod1 ( a ,,hundr$ ,,days1 = in/ance1 or a space limit$ by "s artificial b\nd>y ( "t1 z ! ,cal5ds ( ,m>*4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! calculation is to be made accord+ to ! natural motion ( "t3 :]eas all civil computations dep5d ^u ! laws & cu/oms ( ea* c\ntry4 ,9 ! o!r case x is g5]ally made a matt] ( d\bt1 :e!r 9 nam+ any p>ticul> day1 mon? or ye>1 = ! expiration ( a truce1 t p>ticul> day1 mon?1 or ye>1 are compreh5d$ 9 ! t]m ( ! truce1 or exclud$ f x4 ,9 natural ?+s !re are two k9ds ( b\nd>ies1 "o ( :i* =ms an insep>able "p ( ! ?+s !mselves1 z ! sk9 does ( ! body1 & ! o!r only adjo9s !m1 z a riv] adjo9s ! l&1 :i* x b\nds or wa%es4 ,9 ei!r ( ^! ways volunt>y b\nd>ies may be appo9t$4 ,b x seems m natural = a b\nd>y to be tak5 z a "p ( ! ?+ itself4 ,ari/otle def9es ! extremity ( any?+ to be its b\nd>y3 a mean+ to :i* g5]al cu/om con=ms3--?us if any "o has said t a ?+ is to be done be=e ! day ( 8 dea?1 ! day on :i* he actually dies is to be tak5 into ! acc\nt z =m+ "p ( ! t]m4 ,spur9na _h appris$ ,caes> ( 8 dang]1 :i* c\ld n ext5d beyond ! ,ides ( ,m>*4 ,be+ acco/$1 respect+ ! matt]1 on ! v day1 he said1 ! ,ides ( ,m>* are come1 b n pass$4 ,su* an int]pretation is ! m prop] :]e ! prolongation ( "t is ( a fav\rable nature1 z x is 9 truces1 :i* are calculat$ to susp5d ! effusion ( human blood4 ,! day1 ,,f :i* any measure ( "t is said to beg91 _c be tak5 into ! acc\nt2 because ! ^w1 ,,f1 us$ on t occasion1 implies sep>ation & n conjunction4 ,v4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t truces1 & engagem5ts ( t k9d imm$iately b9d ! contract+ p>ties !mselves f ! v mom5t !y are conclud$4 ,b ! subjects on ei!r side are only b\nd f ! "t t ^? engagem5ts h receiv$ ! =m ( a law1 = :i* public notice & ! regul> promulgation are necess>y4 ,^u ?is be+ done !y imm$iately d]ive _! au?ority to b9d ! subjects4 ,b if notice !re( has only be5 giv5 9 "o place1 ! obs]vance ( !m _c be en=c$ ?r\gh ! :ole dom9ions ( ! respective sov]eigns at "o mom5t1 b suffici5t "t mu/ be all[$ = ! due promulgation ( !m to be made 9 e "p4 ,!re=e if 9 ! meantime ! subjects on ei!r side h committ$ an infraction ( ! truce1 !y %all be exempt f puni%m5t1 b ! contract+ p>ties !mselves %all be oblig$ to repair ! damages4 ,,vi4 ,! v def9ition ( a truce implies :at actions are lawful1 & :at are unlawful dur+ ! cont9uance ( x4 ,all acts ( ho/ility are unlawful ei!r aga9/ ! p]sons or goods ( an enemy4 ,= e act ( viol5ce dur+ a truce is contr>y to ! law ( nations4 ,ev5 ?+s belong+ to an enemy1 :i* by any accid5t h fall5 into our h&s1 al?\gh !y _h be5 ours be=e1 mu/ be re/or$4 ,because !y _h become !irs by t ext]nal "r accord+ to :i* su* ?+s are adjudg$4 ,& ?is is :at ,paulus ! lawy] says1 t dur+ ! "t ( a truce ! law ( po/lim9ium _c exi/1 because to con/itute ! law ( po/lim9ium !re mu/ be ! previ\s "r ( mak+ captures 9 w>1 :i* ceases ^u ! mak+ ( a truce4 ,ei!r p>ty may g to or return f1 any p>ticul> place1 b )\t any w>like app>atus or =ce1 t may prove a means ( annoyance1 or be att5d$ ) any dang]4 ,?is is obs]v$ by ,s]vius on t passage ( ,virgil1 :]e ! poet says1 ! ,lat9s m+l$ ) _! foes ) impunity1 :]e he relates also t ^u a truce be+ made betwe5 ,pors5na & ! ,romans dur+ a siege1 :5 ! games ( ! circus 7 celebrat+1 ! g5]als ( ! enemy ent]$ ! city1 cont5t$ 9 ! li/s1 & 7 _m ( !m cr[n$ z conqu]ors4 ,,vii4 ,to )draw f>!r into ! c\ntry ) an army1 :i* we f9d f ,livy t ,philip did1 is no way contr>y to ! int5tion & pr9ciples ( a truce3 nei!r is x any brea* ( x to repair ! walls ( a place1 or to raise new =ces1 unless x has be5 prohibit$ by special agreem5t4 ,,viii4 ,to corrupt an enemy's g>risons1 9 ord] to seize ^u ! places :i* he holds1 is und\bt$ly a brea* ( ! _s & lett] ( any truce4 ,= no su* advantage c ju/ly be ga9$ b by ! laws ( w>4 ,! same rule is to be laid d[n respect+ ! revolt ( subjects to an enemy4 ,9 ! f\r? book ( ,?ucydides1 ,brasidas receiv$ ! city ( ,m5da1 t revolt$ f ! ,a!nians to ! ,lac$aemonians dur+ a truce1 & excus$ 8 conduct ^u ! plea ( ! ,a!nians hav+ done ! same4 ,ei!r ( ! bellig]5t p[]s may take possession ( places t h be5 des]t$3 if !y h be5 ,,really des]t$ by ! =m] own] ) ! int5tion nev] to occupy !m aga91 b n m]ely because !y h be5 left ungu>d$1 ei!r ,,be=e1 or ,,aft]1 ! mak+ ( a truce4 ,= ! =m] own]'s "r ( dom9ion !re9 /ill rema9+ r5d]s ano!r's possession ( !m unju/4 ,:i* is a complete refutation ( ! cavil ( ,belis>ius aga9/ ! ,go?s1 :o seiz$ ^u "s places dur+ a truce1 "u pretext ( _! be+ left )\t g>risons4 ,,ix4 ,x is made a subject ( inquiry1 :e!r any "o be+ prev5t$ by an un=ese5 accid5t f mak+ 8 retreat1 & be+ tak5 )9 ! enemy's t]ritories1 at ! expiration ( a truce1 has a "r to return4 ,consid]+ ! ext]nal law ( nations he is und\bt$ly ^u ! same foot+ z "o1 :o1 hav+ gone into a =eign c\ntry mu/1 ^u ! sudd5 break+ out ( w>1 be deta9$ !re z an enemy till ! return ( peace4 ,nor is !re any ?+ contr>y to /rict ju/ice 9 ?is2 z ! goods & p]sons ( enemies are b\nd = ! debt ( ! /ate1 & may be seiz$ = paym5t4 ,nor has su* a "o m reason to compla9 ?an innum]able o!r innoc5t p]sons1 on ^: heads ! calamities ( w> h fall54 ,nor is !re occasion to ref] to ! case1 :i* ,cic]o has alleg$1 9 8 second book ,,on ,,inv5tion1 ( a %ip ( w> driv5 by ! viol5ce ( ! w9d into a port1 :]e by law x 0 liable to confiscation4 ,= 9 ! =m] case ! un=ese5 accid5t mu/ d away all idea ( puni%m5t1 & 9 ! latt]1 ! "r ( confiscation mu/ be susp5d$ = a "t4 ,yet !re c be no d\bt b !re is m ( g5]osity & k9dness 9 releas+ su* a p]son ?an 9 insi/+ ^u ! "r ( deta9+ him4 ,x4 ,! express nature ( a conv5tion r5d]s "s ?+s unlawful dur+ a truce1 z = in/ance1 if x is grant$ only 9 ord] to bury ! dead1 nei!r p>ty w h a "r to dep>t f ^? conditions4 ,?us if a siege is susp5d$ by a truce1 & no?+ m ?an su* a susp5sion is !reby grant$2 ! besieg$ _c lawfully avail himself ( x1 to convey fre% supplies ( troops & /ores into ! place4 ,= su* conv5tions ought n to prove b5eficial to "o p>ty1 to ! prejudice ( ! o!r1 :o grants !m4 ,sometimes x is /ipulat$ t no "o %all be all[$ to pass to & fro4 ,sometimes ! prohibition ext5ds to p]sons & n to goods4 ,9 :i* case1 if any "o1 9 protect+ 8 goods1 hurts an enemy1 ! act w n con/itute a brea* ( ! truce4 ,= z x is lawful t ei!r p>ty %\ld def5d 8 prop]ty1 an accid5tal circum/ance _c be deem$ an infr+em5t ( t p]sonal security1 :i* 0 ! pr9cipal object provid$ = by ! truce4 ,,xi4 ,if ! fai? ( a truce is brok5 by "o ( ! p>ties1 ! o!r :o is !reby injur$1 w und\bt$ly h a "r to r5ew ho/ilities )\t any =mal decl>ation4 ,= e article 9 a treaty conta9s an impli$ condition ( mutual obs]vance4 ,inde$ we may f9d 9 hi/ory in/ances ( ^?1 :o h adh]$ to a truce till its expiration1 not)/&+ a brea* on ! o!r side4 ,b on ! o!r h& !re are num]\s in/ances ( ho/ilities comm5c$ aga9/ ^?1 :o h brok5 _! conv5tions3 a v>iation1 :i* proves t x is at ! option ( ! injur$ p>ty to use or n to use 8 "r ( r5ew+ w> ^u ! brea* ( a truce4 ,,xii4 ,x is evid5t t1 if ! /ipulat$ p5alty is dem&$ ( ! aggressor1 & paid by him1 ! o!r p>ty c no long] ma9ta9 8 "r ( r5ew+ ! w>4 ,= ! paym5t ( ! p5alty re/ores e ?+ to its orig9al foot+4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 a r5ewal ( ho/ilities implies an int5tion ( ! injur$ p>ty to ab&on ! p5alty1 s9ce he has _h 8 option4 ,,xiii4 ,a truce is n brok5 by ! acts ( individuals1 unless !y are sanction$ by ! au?ority ( ! sov]eign1 :i* is g5]ally suppos$ to be giv51 :]e ! del9qu5ts are nei!r puni%$ nor deliv]$ up1 nor re/itution is made ( goods tak5 away4 ,,xiv4 ,! rights belong+ to a safe-conduct are a privilege di/9ct f ! nature ( a truce1 & our int]pretation ( !m mu/ be guid$ by ! rules laid d[n respect+ privileges4 ,su* a privilege1 to be p]fect1 mu/ be nei!r injuri\s to a ?ird p]son1 nor prejudicial to ! giv]4 ,!re=e 9 expla9+ ! t]ms1 9 :i* x is c\*$1 a great] latitude ( int]pretation may be all[$1 especially :]e ! p>ty su+ = x receives no b5efit1 b r conf]s "o1 & /ill m s :]e ! advantage1 accru+ to ! individual f !nce1 r$\nds also to ! public b5efit ( ! /ate4 ,!re=e ! lit]al int]pretation1 :i* ! words may be>1 ought to be reject$1 unless o!rwise "s absurdity w\ld foll[1 or !re is e reason to suppose t su* a lit]al int]pretation is mo/ con=mable to ! w & int5tion ( ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,9 ! same mann]1 on ! o!r h&1 a great] latitude ( int]pretation may be all[$1 9 ord] to avoid ! same appreh5d$ absurdity1 or to comply m fully ) ! mo/ urg5t & =cible conjectures respect+ ! w ( ! contract+ p>ties4 ,,xv4 ,h5ce we may inf] t a safe-conduct1 grant$ to ,,soldi]s1 includes n only ^? ( an ,,int]m$iate ,,rank1 b ! ,,highe/ ,,comm&]s4 ,= t is a signification /rictly & prop]ly au?oris$ by ! words !mselves1 al?\gh !y ,,may be tak5 9 a m ,,limit$ mean+4 ,s ! t]m cl]gym5 includes ^? ( episcopal z well z ^? ( inf]ior rank1 & by ^? s]v+ on bo>d a fleet1 we mean n only sailors1 b all p]sons f\nd !re1 :o h tak5 ! milit>y oa?4 ,,xvi4 ,:]e a free passage is grant$1 lib]ty to return is evid5tly impli$1 n f ! lit]al =ce ( ! expressions !mselves1 b to avoid ! absurdity :i* w\ld foll[ ! grant ( a privilege1 t c\ld nev] be made use (4 ,& by ! lib]ty ( com+ & go+ is meant a safe passage till ! p]son arrives 9 a place ( p]fect security4 ,f h5ce ! good fai? ( ,alex&] 0 impea*$1 :o ord]$ ^? to be murd]$ on ! way1 :om he _h all[$ to dep>t4 ,any "o may be all[$ to g away )\t be+ all[$ to return4 ,b no p[] c prop]ly refuse admitt+ any "o1 to :om he has grant$ leave to come1 & on ! o!r h&1 8 admission implies su* a leave to h be5 giv54 ,,go+ ,,away & ,,return+ are inde$ v diff]5t1 nor c any con/ruction ( language give !m ! same mean+4 ,if !re be any mi/ake1 al?\gh x may conf] no "r1 x exempts ! p>ty f all p5alties4--,a p]son p]mitt$ to come %all only come ,,once1 b n a ,,second ,,"t1 unless ! additional m5tion ( "s "t may supply room to ?9k o!rwise4 ,,xvii4 ,a son %>es ! fate ( 8 fa!r1 & a wife ( h] husb& no f>!r ?an z to ! "r ( resid+1 = m5 reside ) _! families1 b 9 g5]al und]take public missions )\t !m4 ,yet "o or two s]vants1 ?\gh n expressly nam$1 are g5]ally und]/ood to be includ$ 9 a safe-conduct1 especially :]e x w\ld be improp] = ! p]son to g )\t su* att5dants4 ,= e necess>y consequ5ce is und]/ood to g along ) any privilege t is giv54 ,,xviii4 ,9 ! same mann] no o!r effects are includ$ 9 a safe-conduct1 b su* z are usually tak5 on a j\rney4 ,,xix4 ,! "n ( att5dants1 express$ 9 a safe-conduct1 grant$ to any "o1 w n all[ him to ext5d ! protection ( x to m5 ( atroci\s & crim9al *>act]s1 su* z pirates1 robb]s1 & des]t]s4 ,& ! ,,c\ntry ( ! att5dants be+ nam$ %ews t ! protection _c ext5d to ^? ( ano!r nation4 ,,xx4 ,! privileges ( a safe-conduct d n1 9 d\btful cases1 expire ^u ! demise ( ! sov]eign :o grant$ x1 accord+ to :at 0 said 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise on ! nature ( fav\rs grant$ by k+s & sov]eign pr9ces4 ,,xxi4 ,x has (t5 be5 a disput$ po9t1 :at is meant by ! expression us$ 9 a safe-conduct1 t x %all cont9ue dur+ ! ,,pleasure ,,( ,,! ,,grantor4 ,b !re seems mo/ reason & tru? 9 ! op9ion ( ^?1 :o ma9ta9 t ! privilege %all cont9ue1 till ! grantor make "s new decl>ation ( 8 w to ! contr>y4 ,because1 9 d\btful cases1 a fav\r is presum$ to cont9ue1 till ! "r1 :i* x conveys1 is accompli%$4 ,b n s1 :]e all possibility ( ,,w 9 ! grantor has ceas$1 :i* happ5s by 8 dea?4 ,= ^u ! dea? ( ! p]son all presumption ( 8 ,,w cont9u+ mu/ cease3 z an accid5t vani%es :5 ! sub/ance is de/roy$4 ,,xxii4 ,! privilege ( a safe-conduct protects ! p]son1 to :om x is giv51 ev5 beyond ! t]ritories ( ! grantor3 because x is giv5 z a protection aga9/ ! rights ( w>1 :i* are n conf9$ to 8 t]ritory4 ,,xxiii4 ,! r$emption ( prison]s is mu* fav\r$1 p>ticul>ly among ,*ri/ian /ates1 to :om ! div9e law peculi>ly recomm5ds x z a k9d ( m]cy4 ,lactantius calls ! r$emption ( prison]s a great & spl5did (fice ( ju/ice4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,on ,,! ,,fai? ,,on ,,^? ,,inve/$ ,,) ,,subord9ate ,,p[]s ,,9 ,,w>4 ,comm&]s--,ext5t ( _! engagem5ts 9 b9d+ ! sov]eign--,exce$+ _! commission--,! opposite p>ty b\nd by su* engagem5ts--,p[] ( comm&]s 9 w>1 or ( magi/rates ) respect to ^? "u _! au?ority--,g5]als _c make peace1 b may conclude a truce--,ext5t ( _! au?ority 9 grant+ protection to p]sons & prop]ty--,su* engagem5ts to be /rictly int]pret$--,int]pretation ( capitulations accept$ by g5]als--,precautions necess>y till ! pleasure ( ! sov]eign be kn[n--,promise to surr5d] a t[n4 ,i4 ,ulpian reckons ! agreem5ts1 ent]$ into betwe5 ! g5]als ( opposite armies dur+ ! c\rse ( a w>1 among public conv5tions4 ,s t aft] expla9+ ! nature ( ! fai? pl$g$ by sov]eign p[]s to ea* o!r1 x w be prop] to make a %ort inquiry into ! nature ( engagem5ts made by subord9ate au?orities2 :e!r ^? au?orities be> a ne> approa* to supreme p[]1 z comm&]s 9 *ief1 or are remov$ to a great] di/ance f x4 ,caes> makes ! foll[+ di/9ction betwe5 !m1 obs]v+ t ! (fices ( comm&] & deputy are v diff]5t2 ! latt] be+ oblig$ to act accord+ to prescrib$ rules1 & ! =m] hav+ unqualifi$ discretion 9 matt]s ( ! highe/ importance4 ,,ii4 ,! engagem5ts ( ^? inve/$ ) su* subord9ate p[]s are to be consid]$ 9 a d\ble po9t ( view1 :e!r !y are b9d+ ^u ! sov]eign1 or only ^u !mselves4 ,! =m] ( ^! po9ts has be5 already settl$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is treatise1 :]e x 0 %ewn t a p]son is b\nd by ! measures ( an ag5t1 :om he has appo9t$ to act 9 8 "n1 :e!r 8 int5tions h be5 expressly nam$1 or are only to be ga!r$ f ! nature ( ! employm5t4 ,= :oev] gives ano!r a commission1 gives him along ) x e ?+ 9 8 p[] t is necess>y to ! execution ( x4 ,s t !re are two ways1 9 :i* p]sons act+ ) subord9ate p[]s may b9d _! pr9cipals by _! conduct1 & t is1 by do+ :at is probably ?\ght to be conta9$ 9 _! commission1 or ap>t f t1 by act+ accord+ to special in/ructions1 g5]ally kn[n1 at lea/ to ^?1 ) :om !y treat4 ,,iii4 ,!re are o!r modes too1 9 :i* a sov]eign may be b\nd by ! previ\s act ( 8 m9i/]2 b n 9 su* a mann] z to suppose ! obligation owes its ,,exi/5ce to t action1 :i* only gives occasion to its fulfilm5t4 ,& !re are two ways1 9 :i* ?is may happ51 ei!r by ! cons5t ( ! sov]eign1 or by ! v nature ( ! ?+ itself4 ,8 cons5t appe>s by 8 ratification ( ! act1 ei!r express$ or impli$1 & t is1 :]e a sov]eign has kn[n & suff]$ a ?+ to be done1 :i* c be acc\nt$ = ^u no o!r motive b t ( approval & cons5t4 ,! v nature & obligation ( all contracts imply t "o p>ty is n to ga9 advantage by ! loss ( ano!r4 ,or if advantage is expect$ f a contract1 ! contract mu/ be fulfill$ or ! advantage ab&on$4 ,& 9 ?is s5se1 & no o!r1 ! prov]bial expression1 t :atev] is b5eficial is valid1 is to be und]/ood4 ,on ! o!r h& a *>ge ( inju/ice may fairly be br\ght aga9/ ^?1 :o condemn an engagem5t1 yet reta9 ! advantages1 :i* !y c\ld n h _h )\t x4 ,,iv4 ,x is necess>y to repeat an obs]vation made be=e1 t a sov]eign1 :o has giv5 a commission to ano!r1 is b\nd by ! conduct ( t p]son1 ev5 ?\gh he may h act$ contr>y to 8 secret in/ructions1 provid$ he has n gone beyond ! limits ( 8 o/5sible1 & public commission4 ,?is 0 a pr9ciple ( equity1 :i* ! ,roman ,praetor obs]v$ 9 actions br\ght aga9/ employ]s = ! conduct ( _! ag5ts or factors4 ,an employ] c\ld n be made answ]able = any act or measure ( 8 factor1 b su* z 0 imm$iately connect$ ) ! bus9ess1 9 :i* he employ$ him4 ,nor c\ld ,,he be consid]$ z an appo9t$ ag5t1 ) ,,:om ! public 7 appris$1 by due notice1 to make no contract--,if su* notice 0 giv51 )\t hav+ come to ! k ( ! contract+ p>ties1 ! employ] 0 b\nd by ! conduct ( ! ag5t4 ,if any "o *uses to make a contract on c]ta9 conditions1 or ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird p]son1 x is "r & necess>y = t p]son to obs]ve ! p>ticul> conditions on :i* he is employ$4 ,f h5ce x foll[s t k+s & nations are m or less b\nd by ! conv5tions ( _! comm&]s 9 proportion z _! laws1 conditions1 & cu/oms1 are m or less kn[n4 ,if ! mean+ ( _! int5tions is n evid5t1 conjecture may supply ! place ( evid5ce1 z x is natural to suppose t any "o employ$ w\ld be inve/$ ) full p[]s suffici5t to execute 8 commission4 ,a p]son act+ 9 a subord9ate capacity1 if he has exce$$ ! p[]s ( 8 commission w be b\nd to make rep>ation1 if he _c fulfil 8 engagem5t1 unless he is prev5t$ f do+ s by "s well kn[n law4 ,b if he has be5 guilty ( trea*]y also1 9 pret5d+ to great] p[]s ?an he really possess$1 he w be b\nd to repair ! injury1 :i* he has ,,wilfully done1 & to suff] puni%m5t correspond+ ) 8 (f5ce4 ,= ! fir/ ( ^! (f5ces1 8 prop]ty is answ]able1 & on failure ( t1 8 p]sonal lib]ty3 & 9 ! latt] case1 8 p]son or prop]ty1 or bo? mu/ be answ]able accord+ to ! magnitude ( ! crime4 ,v4 ,z a sov]eign or 8 m9i/] is always b\nd by e contract1 x is c]ta9 ! o!r p>ty w also be b\nd by ! engagem5t3 nor c x be deem$ imp]fect4 ,= 9 ?is respect !re is a comp>ative equality betwe5 sov]eign & subord9ate p[]s4 ,,vi4 ,x is necess>y to consid] too :at are ! p[]s ( subord9ate au?orities ov] ^? b5ea? !m4 ,nor is !re any d\bt t a g5]al may b9d ! army1 & a magi/rate1 ! inhabitants ( a place by ^? actions1 :i* are usually done by comm&]s1 or magi/rates1 o!rwise _! cons5t w\ld be necess>y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 engagem5ts purely b5eficial1 ! advantage %all be on ! side ( ! inf]ior3 = t is a condition compreh5d$ 9 ! v nature ( p[]4--,:]e !re is any burd5some condition annex$ x %all n ext5d beyond ! usual limits 9 :i* au?ority is ex]cis$2 or if x does1 x %all be at ! option ( ! inf]ior to accept or refuse t condition4 ,,vii4 ,z to ! causes & consequ5ces ( a w>1 x is n )9 ! prov9ce ( a g5]al to decide !m4 ,= conclud+ & conduct+ a w> are v diff]5t ?+s1 & re/ ^u di/9ct k9ds ( au?ority4 ,,viii4 & ,,ix4 ,z to grant+ truces1 x is a p[] :i* belongs n only to comm&]s 9 *ief1 b also to inf]ior comm&]s4 ,& !y may grant !m = !mselves1 & ! =ces imm$iately "u _! comm&1 to places :i* !y are besieg+ or blockad+3 b !y d n !reby b9d o!r p>ts ( ! army4 ,g5]als h no "r to c$e nations1 dom9ions1 or any k9d ( conque/s made 9 w>4 ,!y may rel9qui% any ?+ ( :i* a complete conque/ has n be5 made3 = t[ns frequ5tly surr5d] on condition ( ! inhabitants be+ sp>$1 & all[$ to reta9 _! lib]ty & prop]ty3 cases1 9 :i* !re is no "t = consult+ ! w & pleasure ( ! sov]eign4 ,9 ! same mann]1 & ^u ! same pr9ciple ?is "r is all[$ to subord9ate comm&]s1 if x falls )9 ! nature ( _! commission4 ,x4 ,z comm&]s1 9 all su* engagem5ts1 are act+ 9 ! "n ( o!rs1 _! resolutions mu/ n be int]pret$ s /rictly z to b9d _! sov]eigns to great] obligations ?an !y int5d$ to incur1 nor at ! same "t to prove prejudicial to ! comm&]s !mselves = hav+ done _! duty4 ,,xi4 ,an absolute surr5d] implies t ! p>ty s capitulat+ submits to ! pleasure & discretion ( ! conqu]or4 ,,xii4 ,9 anci5t conv5tions a precaution 0 usually add$1 t !y w\ld be ratifi$1 if approv$ ( by ! ,roman p4 ,s t if no ratification ensu$1 ! g5]al 0 b\nd no fur!r ?an to be answ]able = any advantage t might h accru$ to himself4 ,,xiii4 ,comm&]s hav+ promis$ to surr5d] a t[n1 may dismiss ! g>rison4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4#ha ,,on ,,tacit ,,fai?4 ,tacit fai?--,example ( 9 desir+ to be tak5 "u ! protection ( a k+ or nation--,impli$ 9 ! dem& or grant ( a conf]5ce--,all[able = ! p>ty seek+ x to promote 8 own int]e/ !reby provid$ he uses no trea*]y--,mean+ ( mute signs all[$ by cu/om4 ,i4 ,bo? public1 private1 & mix$1 conv5tions admit ( tacit cons5t1 :i* is all[$ by cu/om4 ,= 9 :atev] mann] cons5t is indicat$ & accept$ x has ! p[] ( convey+ a "r4 ,&1 z x has be5 frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?is treatise1 !re are o!r signs ( cons5t besides words & lett]s3 "s ( !m inde$ naturally ris+ out ( ! action itself4 ,,ii4 ,an example ( su* tacit agreem5t may be f\nd 9 ! case ( a p]son com+ f an enemy1 or =eign c\ntry1 & surr5d]+ himself to ! good fai? ( ano!r k+ or p4 ,= su* a "o tacitly b9ds himself to d no?+ injuri\s or trea*]\s to t /ate1 :]e he seeks protection1 a po9t :i* is beyond all d\bt4 ,,iii4 ,9 ! same mann]1 a p]son :o grants or reque/s a conf]5ce1 gives a tacit promise1 t he w d no?+ prejudicial to ! p>ties1 :o att5d x4 ,livy pron\nces an injury done to an enemy1 "u ! pretext ( hold+ a conf]5ce1 a violation ( ! law ( nations4 ,,iv4 ,b su* a tacit promise1 to take no advantage ( a p>ley or conf]5ce1 is n to be c>ri$ f>!r ?an :at has be5 said4 ,provid$ all injury & inju/ice are avoid$1 x is reckon$ a lawful /ratagem1 = any "o to avail himself ( a p>ley 9 ord] to draw (f ! enemy's att5tion f 8 milit>y projects1 & to promote 8 own4 ,! device1 by :i* ,asdrubal extricat$ 8 army f ! ,ausetanian =e/s1 0 ( ?is k9d1 & by ! same means ,scipio ,africanus1 ! eld]1 ga9$ a p]fect k ( ,syphax's camp4 ,bo? ^! circum/ances are relat$ by ,livy4 ,v4 ,!re are c]ta9 mute signs1 d]iv+ all _! =ce & mean+ f cu/om2 su* z ! fillets1 & bran*es ( olive =m]ly us$3 among ! ,mac$onians pikes erect$1 & among ! ,romans %ields plac$ ^u ! head1 7 signs ( a suppliant surr5d] oblig+ ! p>ty to lay d[n 8 arms4 ,9 ! pres5t day a :ite flag is a sign ( su+ = a p>ley4 ,!re=e all ^! me?ods h ! =ce ( express decl>ations4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,conclusion4 ,admonitions to ! obs]vance ( good fai?--,peace always to be kept 9 view 9 ! mid/ ( w>--,peace b5eficial to ! conqu]$--,to ! conqu]or--,& to be *os5 9 cases :]e ! issue is d\btful--,to be religi\sly obs]v$--,pray]--,conclusion ( ! "w4 ,i4 ,"h seems to be ! prop] place to br+ ?is "w to a conclusion1 )\t 9 ! lea/ presum+ t e ?+ has be5 said1 :i* might be said on ! subject3 b suffici5t has be5 produc$ to lay a f\ndation1 on :i* ano!r1 if he pleases1 may raise a m noble & ext5sive edifice1 an addition & improvem5t t w provoke no jeal\sy1 b r be entitl$ to ?anks4 ,be=e entirely dismiss+ ! subject1 x may be necess>y to obs]ve1 t1 z 9 lay+ d[n ! true motives & causes1 t alone w ju/ify w>1 e possible precaution at ! same "t 0 tak5 to /ate ! reasons = :i* x %\ld be avoid$2 s n[ a few admonitions w n be deem$ sup]flu\s1 9 ord] to po9t out ! means ( pres]v+ good fai? 9 w>1 & ma9ta9+ peace1 aft] w> is br\ght to a t]m9ation1 & among o!r reasons = pres]v+ good fai? ! desire ( keep+ alive ! hope ( peace1 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( w>1 is n ! lea/ important4 ,= good fai?1 9 ! language ( ,cic]o1 is n only ! pr9cipal hold by :i* all gov]nm5ts are b\nd toge!r1 b is ! key-/one by :i* ! l>g] society ( nations is unit$4 ,de/roy ?is1 says ,ari/otle1 & y de/roy ! int]c\rse ( mank9d4 ,9 e o!r bran* ( ju/ice !re is some?+ ( obscurity1 b ! bond ( fai? is cle> 9 itself1 & is us$ inde$ to d away ! obscurity ( all transactions4 ,! obs]vance ( ?is is a matt] ( consci5ce ) all lawful k+s & sov]eign pr9ces1 & is ! basis ( t reputation by :i* ! hon\r & dignity ( _! cr[ns are ma9ta9$ ) =eign nations4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! v heat ( w> ! greate/ security & expectation ( div9e support mu/ be 9 ! unabat$ desire1 & inv>iable prospect ( peace1 z ! only end = :i* ho/ilities c be lawfully begun4 ,s t 9 ! prosecution ( w> we mu/ nev] c>ry ! rage ( x s f>1 z to unle>n ! nature & dispositions ( m54 ,,iii4 ,^! & ^! alone w\ld be suffici5t motives = ! t]m9ation ( w>1 & ! cultivation ( peace4 ,b ap>t f all consid]ations ( humanity1 ! ,,int]e/s ( mank9d w\ld inevitably lead u to ! same po9t4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is dang]\s to prolong a conte/ ) a m p[]ful enemy4 ,9 su* a case "s sacrifices %\ld be made = ! sake ( peace1 z 9 a /orm goods are sometimes ?r[n ov]bo>d to prev5t a great] calamity1 & to save ! vessel & ! crew4 ,,iv4 ,ev5 = ! /rong] p>ty1 :5 flu%$ ) victory1 peace is a saf] exp$i5t1 ?an ! mo/ ext5sive successes4 ,= !re is ! boldness ( despair to be appreh5d$ f a vanqui%$ enemy1 dang]\s z ! bite ( a f]oci\s animal 9 ! pangs ( dea?4 ,v4 ,if inde$ bo? p>ties are ^u an equal foot+1 x is ! op9ion ( ,caes>1 t x is ! mo/ fav\rable mom5t = mak+ peace1 :5 ea* p>ty has confid5ce 9 itself4 ,,vi4 ,on :atev] t]ms peace is made1 x mu/ be absolutely kept4 ,f ! sacr$ness ( ! fai? pl$g$ 9 ! engagem5t1 & e ?+ mu/ be cauti\sly avoid$1 n only sav\r+ ( trea*]y1 b t may t5d to awak5 & inflame animosity4 ,= :at ,cic]o has said ( private fri5d%ips may ) equal propriety be appli$ to public engagem5ts ( ?is k9d1 :i* are all to be religi\sly & fai?fully obs]v$1 especially :]e w> & enmity h end$ 9 peace & reconciliation4 ,,vii4 ,& may ,god1 to :om alone x belongs to dispose ! affections & desires ( sov]eign pr9ces & k+s1 inscribe ^! pr9ciples ^u _! he>ts & m9ds1 t !y may always rememb] t ! noble/ (fice1 9 :i* man c be engag$1 is ! gov]nm5t ( m51 :o are ! pr9cipal objects ( ! div9e c>e4 ,,index ,ab&on$ prop]ty1 title to1 #ajg1 #aaa4 ,acceptance3 ,necessity (1 9 promise to convey a "r1 #aci4 ,acceptilation1 #aaa4 ,accessories to crimes1 #aig1 #beg4 ,accomplices1 puni%m5t (1 #bef4 ,acquisitions3 ,( prop]ty 9 w>1 #ccd et seq41 #cdf4 ,( dom9ion1 #cgi4 ,actions at law3 ,/ipulations z to1 9 treaties1 #cij4 ,admiralty1 #adf4 ,affirmations1 #afd1 #afe4 ,ag5cy1 #cci1 #dab4 ,ag5ts3 ,acts (1 b9d+ on pr9cipal1 #ach1 #aci1 #dab4 ,agreem5ts3 ,special & exclusive1 #aja4 ,betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t c\ntries1 #acf4 ,alex&r9us1 ,clem5s1 #eb4 ,ali5ation3 ,( ?+s by "r ( w>1 #cec1 #chi4 ,( public dom9ion1 #chf4 ,alliances3 ,betwe5 /ates1 p>tn]%ips1 #adf4 ,unequal1 #aeh1 #agj4 ,allies3 ,aid to1 #agc4 ,^w con/ru$1 #ahc4 ,causes ju/ify+ p>ticipation (1 9 w>1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,rew>ds to1 #cda4 ,ambassadors3 ,promises (1 b9d+1 #aci4 ,ratification ( treaties made by1 #afg4 ,inviolability (1 #bjb1 #bjd4 ,mu/ be duly accr$it$1 #bjb4 ,sov]eign /ates may s5d1 #bjc4 ,refusal to receive1 #bjd4 ,exemptions1 #bje1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #cac4 ,puni%m5t (1 = crimes1 #bjh4 ,passage ?r\gh =eign /ates1 #bji4 ,suite & p]sonal effects (1 #baa4 ,h\se (1 z asylum1 #baa4 ,debts contract$ by1 #bab4 ,ambrose1 #ed4 ,&ronicus1 #bd4 ,anton9us1 ,m>cus1 #ff4 ,anton9us1 ,pius1 #aab4 ,aptitude1 #ai4 ,arbit]1 (fice (1 #cih4 ,arbitration1 #hd1 #bgf1 #cig4 ,arcif9ium1 #ajf4 ,ari/otle1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd1 #gf1 #aah1 #abj1 #aij1 #bah1 #bea1 #bfh4 ,asylum1 "r (1 #bfj4 ,augu/9e1 #eh1 #gd4 ,aurelius1 ,m>cus1 #eb1 #fh4 ,b>beyrac1 #agc1 #cib4 ,black/one's ,comm5t>ies1 #bi1 #fa1 #hf1 #ajj1 #acf1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #agg1 #ahb--notes4 ,bodies politic1 privileges (1 #bfb4 ,b\nd>y1 riv]s z1 #ajg4 ,brea* ( peace1 #cie4 ,burial1 "r (1 #bac et seq4 ,burke1 ,edmund1 #bhb note4 ,caduceum1 use (1 #cbj4 ,caes>1 ,julius1 #ei4 ,captures 9 w>1 #ccd1 #cfi4 ,title to1 #cce1 #ccf1 #cch4 ,?+s immovable1 #cci4 ,?+s movable1 #cdj4 ,re/oration (1 #cib4 ,c>go1 9 enemy's %ips1 title to1 #ccg4 ,cassius1 #fj1 #gd4 ,cato1 #ei1 #gg4 ,causes ( w>1 ju/ifiable1 #he4 ,*irograph>ii1 #agc4 ,*ryso/om1 ,dio1 #be4 ,cic]o1 #ah1 #bc1 #bd1 #ca1 #cd1 #ce1 #fj1 #fh1 #gh1 #hf1 #hi1 #ib1 #acg1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bae1 #bfh1 #bhc1 #cag1 #cgi4 ,civil law3 ,relation (1 to law ( nature1 #ia4 ,& int]pretation ( treaties1 #aid4 ,prizes tak5 f ,pirates1 #ceg4 ,"r ( po/lim9ium "u1 #ceg4 ,cl>igation1 #cai4 ,comm]ce1 treaties (1 #afi1 #agj4 ,commissions3 ,special1 ( ambassador1 #afg4 ,v>iations f1 #ahh4 ,common "r to actions1 #ii4 ,common "r to ?+s1 #ii4 ,community ( goods1 #hf4 ,( l&s1 #hh4 ,comp5sation1 def9$1 #chb4 ,compromise3 ,z me?od ( settl+ national disputes1 #bgf4 ,conditional surr5d]1 #djj4 ,conf]5ce3 ,to settle disputes ( nations1 #bgf4 ,conqu]or1 rights (1 #cii4 ,conque/1 rights result+ f1 #cdh1 #cii4 ,cons5t to conv5tions1 #dae4 ,consid]ation ( contracts1 #acf1 #ach4 ,con/ant9e1 #ec1 #ed4 ,contracts3 ,express$ & impli$1 #ajj1 #ade4 ,betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t c\ntries1 #acf4 ,consid]ation =1 #acf1 #acg4 ,( ag5ts1 #acg4 ,ex*ange1 #ade1 #adf4 ,revocation (1 #ade4 ,( sale1 #adf1 #aea4 ,mix$1 #adg4 ,equality 91 #adh4 ,lett+ & hir+1 #aec4 ,fraudul5t1 #aii4 ,( sov]eigns1 #chg1 #dac4 ,contributions levi$ = future security1 #cgc4 ,conv5tions3 ,public & private1 #aff4 ,public1 division (1 #afg4 ,requir+ ratification1 #afg1 #agd1 #dab1 #dad4 ,p[] to make1 9 mon>*ies1 #afh4 ,re/+ 9 law ( nature1 #afh4 ,( comm]ce & amity1 #afi4 ,( peace1 #agj4 ,obligations ( negotiator1 #agd4 ,truces1 #djc4 ,made by subord9ates1 #daa4 ,tacit cons5t to1 #dae4 ,corporeal rights1 #he4 ,c\ntries1 names (1 #cib4 ,cr$itors1 p]sonal1 #agc4 ,crimes3 ,pr9cipals & accessories1 #aig1 #aih1 #beg4 ,& misdemeanors1 #bda4 ,damages1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #chh4 ,debts1 individual1 effect ( w> ^u1 #cia4 ,deception1 innoc5t1 #cjb4 ,decl>ation ( w>1 #cah1 #cba4 ,aft] truce1 n necess>y1 #djd4 ,def5se3 ,a ju/ifiable cause ( w>1 #ge4 ,"r (1 #cie4 ,dem& ( re/itution1 #cai4 ,demo/h5es1 #gd1 #ha1 #agj1 #bdj1 #caj4 ,des]t]s3 ,n entitl$ to "r ( po/lim9ium1 #cee1 #cij4 ,dictator1 sov]eign p[] (1 #gb4 ,dionysius1 #fa1 #gd1 #ih1 #afc4 ,disputes ( nations1 me?ods ( settlem5t1 #bgf4 ,divid$ & assign$ l&1 #ajf4 ,dom9ion1 acquisition (1 #cgb4 ,duration ( truces1 #djd4 ,duties3 ,"r to impose1 on goods 9 transit1 #ig4 ,duty ( citiz5 to prev5t w>1 #bhf4 ,elim9ium1 #cea4 ,enemies3 ,furni%+ aid to1 #bic-cba4 ,public1 #cad4 ,kill+ (1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cei4 ,=eign resid5ts may become1 #cbg4 ,prop]ty (1 "r to de/roy1 #ccb1 #cfe1 #cff4 ,=be>ance t[>d1 #cgc4 ,good fai? betwe51 #cgi4 ,engagem5ts1 #afg4 ,( sov]eigns or /ates1 #chg4 ,epictetus1 #bb4 ,equity3 ,a species ( ju/ice1 #aij4 ,9 int]pret+ treaties1 #aia4 ,9 matt]s ( arbitration1 #cih4 ,euripides1 #bb1 #gh4 ,ex*ange1 contracts (1 #ade4 ,extradition1 #beh1 #bei4 ,factors3 ,acts (1 b9d m]*ants1 :51 #aci1 #dab4 ,faculty1 def9ition (1 #ai4 ,falsehood1 discuss$1 #bii et seq4 ,fecial law ( ,rome1 #cai4 ,f$]al ,union1 #fb1 #aba4 ,f]ae naturae1 #hf4 ,rights ( sov]eign z to1 #ia4 ,fi%+1 a common "r1 #aja4 ,flor5t9us1 #ai1 #ce4 ,=eign resid5ts1 rights (1 #ih1 #cbg4 ,free passage ?r\gh c\ntries1 "r (1 #ie1 #ig4 ,p]mission fir/ ask$1 #if4 ,fun]al rites1 #bad4 ,gal51 #cc1 #fb4 ,good fai?1 f\ndation ( all treaties1 #che1 #dag4 ,goods 9 enemy's %ips1 title to1 #ccg4 ,gov]nm5t3 ,*ange ( =m (1 effect ^u debts1 #aba4 ,effects on treaties1 #ahe4 ,mix$1 #cdi4 ,gov]nm5ts1 e/abli%$ = :at1 #fh4 ,gregory ( ,t\rs1 #fi4 ,gu>anty ( p]=mance by ano!r1 #adc4 ,h]aclitus1 #bd4 ,h]mog5ianus1 #cf4 ,h]odotus1 #ff1 #fh4 ,hesiod1 #bc1 #bd1 #fh4 ,hir+1 #aec4 ,homicide1 excusable1 #bi4 ,ho/ages3 ,"r to kill1 #ccj1 #cfd4 ,app5dages to treaties1 #djj4 ,immunity ( ,ambassadors1 #bjb4 ,incorporeal rights1 #he1 #cji1 #cdf4 ,( a /ate lo/ by conque/1 #cdi4 ,indemnity3 ,a ju/ifiable cause = w>1 #ge4 ,injunctions1 #agj4 ,injuries to prop]ty3 ,robb]y1 #ha4 ,r$ress =1 #caa4 ,am\nt+ to brea* ( peace1 #cig4 ,insurance1 contract (1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,int]e/1 lawfulness (1 #aed1 #aef4 ,int]pretation3 ,( laws1 #acf4 ,( promises1 #acg4 ,( treaties1 #agf et seq4 ,words1 tak5 9 common acceptation1 #agg4 ,words ( art1 #agg1 #aha4 ,obscure words1 #agh4 ,probable consequ5ces1 #agi4 ,context1 #agi4 ,motive1 #ahj4 ,allies1 con/ru$1 #ahc4 ,absurd conditions1 #ahh4 ,& law ( nations1 #aid4 ,( peace1 #chi1 #cib1 #dja4 ,names ( c\ntries1 #cib4 ,josephus1 #ce1 #ej4 ,ju/ifiable causes ( w>1 #gc1 #ge1 #he1 #bdg1 #bhe4 ,ju/9ian1 #eh4 ,k+s1 acc\ntability (1 #fi4 ,n all made by ! p1 #fg4 ,lactantius1 #bc1 #gd4 ,lakes1 :5 prop]ty1 #ij4 ,l&s3 ,?ree-fold division (1 #ajf4 ,:5 consid]$ z tak5 possession (1 9 w>1 #ccf1 #cci4 ,po/lim9ium rights (1 #cee4 ,wa/e1 #ij1 #ia4 ,law3 ,basis (1 #acf4 ,fecial1 ( ,rome1 #cai4 ,lawful w>1 #ah1 #ca1 #bgh1 #cbd4 ,law ( ,nations1 #bc4 ,h[ prov$1 #be1 #aja4 ,volunt>y1 #aeh4 ,& int]pretation ( treaties1 #aid4 ,use ( t]m1 #bif4 ,positive1 #big4 ,"r to de/roy prop]ty ( enemy "u1 #ccb4 ,respect+ captures 9 w>1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cch4 ,law ( nature1 #bb1 #gi1 ,relation to civil law1 #ia4 ,civil cu/oms n "p (1 #bdh4 ,ignorance (1 excusable1 #bdh4 ,z to ?+s captur$ 9 w>1 #ccd4 ,laws3 ,int]pretation (1 #acf4 ,p[] to repeal1 #bch4 ,lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 #bgh1 #caa4 ,lett+ & hir+1 #aec4 ,lie1 :at is a1 #bii4 ,livy1 #fd1 #gc1 #gh1 #aad1 #afg1 #agj1 #bjf1 #cag1 #ccb4 ,losses ( individuals 9 w>1 #chh4 ,lot1 z me?od ( settl+ national disputes1 #bgg4 ,m>que & reprisal1 lett]s (1 #bgh1 #caa4 ,m$iation1 #hd4 ,m$iator1 (fice (1 #cih4 ,money1 v>iations 9 value1 #aec4 ,monopoly1 #aja1 #aeb4 ,moral di/9ctions1 z to acts1 #bgd et seq4 ,mosaic ,law1 #bf-bh4 ,n b9d+ ^u ,*ri/ians1 #bi4 ,mutius1 ,qu9tius1 #cf4 ,nations1 law (1 #bc4 ,volunt>y1 #aeh4 ,union (1 rights cont9ue1 #aba4 ,re/oration ( conqu]$1 #ced1 #cee1 #cij4 ,natural ,"r1 #ba4 ,nature1 law (1 unalt]able1 #bb4 ,pro( ( exi/5ce (1 #bd4 ,naval associations3 ,apportionm5t ( losses1 #aeh4 ,necessity1 appropriation ( prop]ty "u1 #ib1 #ic4 ,negotiation ( treaties1 true basis =1 #che4 ,neutral soil3 ,"r ( bellig]5t to1 #ic4 ,captures on1 #cdd4 ,goods1 #ccg4 ,neutrals1 rights & duties1 #cgg4 ,oa?s3 ,sanctity (1 #afj et seq4 ,mean+ (1 #afa4 ,validity & =m (1 #afb4 ,effect & sub/ance (1 #afc1 #cha4 ,au?ority ( sov]eign ov]1 #afd4 ,obligations3 ,aris+ f prop]ty1 #abc4 ,imp]fect1 #acd4 ,result+ f injury1 #aie4 ,en=c+ p]=mance (1 #bhg4 ,promises1 #aca1 #ace4 ,occupancy1 title by1 #ij4 ,occupatory l&s1 #ajf4 ,(f5ses aga9/ society1 puni%m5t (1 #beh4 ,orig51 #di4 ,ovid1 #cb4 ,p>dons1 lawfulness (1 #bcf1 #bch4 ,p>ley1 sign (1 #daf4 ,p>tn]%ips1 #adf4 ,trad+--proportion ( pr(its & losses1 #aeg4 ,paulus1 #ba4 ,peace3 ,! object ( w>s1 #cgi4 ,treaties (1 #che4 ,:o may make1 #chf4 ,int]pretation (1 #chi4 ,brea* (1 #cic4 ,pres]vation (1 #dag4 ,p5al /atutes1 con/ruction (1 #aha4 ,p5alties3 ,remitt$1 #cia4 ,special1 #cif4 ,paym5t (1 effect on w>s1 #djh4 ,p]=mance ( contract1 gu>anty =1 #adc4 ,piracy1 sov]eign answ]able =1 #bjj4 ,pirates1 treatm5t (1 #chj4 ,plato1 #ge1 #ic1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbi4 ,pl$ges3 ,app5dages to treaties1 #djj4 ,r$emption (1 #dja4 ,pl9y1 #cf1 #bed4 ,plut>*1 #bc1 #bd1 #ff1 #ic1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bce4 ,polybius1 #bc1 #gc1 #bjh4 ,pomponius1 #aei4 ,ponds1 :5 prop]ty1 #ij4 ,porphyry1 #bd4 ,possession3 ,un9t]rupt$1 transf]s prop]ty1 #aad4 ,( prop]ty1 at conclusion ( w>1 #cij4 ,"r (1 #cii4 ,po/hum\s rights to prop]ty1 #aad4 ,po/lim9ium3 ,def9ition (1 #afi1 #cca4 ,"r (1 #cad1 #ccf1 #cea1 #ced1 #cij1 #dje4 ,horses1 mules1 & %ips "u law (1 #ceb1 #dje4 ,des]t]s1 #cee1 #cij4 ,l&s1 #cee4 ,movable prop]ty1 #cef4 ,?+s useful 9 w>1 #cef4 ,premium ( insurance1 #aef4 ,prescription1 law (1 z appli$ to a sov]eign1 #aae4 ,price1 gov]n$ by dem&1 #aea4 ,prison]s3 ,surr5d] (1 #beh1 #bei4 ,kill+ (1 #cbh1 #cfc4 ,z slaves1 #cde4 ,ransom (1 #cdg1 #daj4 ,"r ( po/lim9ium1 #ceb1 #cij4 ,rights (1 on release1 #cec4 ,"r ( mak+1 #ceg4 ,private]s1 #bjj4 ,private "r1 #bj4 ,privileges ( bodies politic1 #bfb4 ,prizes3 ,by "r ( w>1 #ccg1 #cdc1 #cdf4 ,tak5 f pirates1 #ceg4 ,prohibitions 9 treaties1 #aic4 ,promises3 ,obligation (1 #aca1 #ace1 #cgi1 #cha4 ,p]fect1 #ace1 #aid4 ,int]pretation (1 #acg4 ,obta9$ by fraud or fe>1 #acg4 ,errone\s1 #acg1 #adb4 ,valid1 #ach4 ,( ambassadors1 #aci4 ,revocation (1 #adj4 ,acceptance (1 #aci1 #ada1 #dae4 ,) conditions1 #adb4 ,prop]ty3 ,means ( acquir+1 #ajc4 ,obligations aris+ f possession (1 #abc et seq4 ,ali5at$ by rights ( w>1 #cec1 #chi4 ,re/oration (1 tak5 9 unju/ w>1 #cge4 ,possession (1 = long "t may n give "r (1 #aji1--;b see #aad4 ,r$ress ( injuries to1 #caa1 #cah4 ,( enemy1 "r to de/roy1 #ccb1 #cfe1 #cff4 ,title to1 #cce1 #ij4 ,possession (1 aft] w>1 #cij4 ,appropriation (1 on gr\nd ( necessity1 #ia1 #ib4 ,( subjects1 liability ( = debts ( /ates1 #cjh1 #cgj1 #chg4 ,title to1 z betwe5 enemies1 #cch4 ,use (1 #id4 ,acquisition (1 9 w>1 #cdj4 ,captur$1 #cfi4 ,idea ( h[ e/abli%$1 #hi4 ,:5 "r (1 ceases to exi/1 #aag4 ,movable & immovable1 #hh1 #cef4 ,?+s n r$ucible to1 #hi4 ,9 lakes1 ponds1 & riv]s1 #ij4 ,ab&on$1 #ajg1 #aaa4 ,puff5dorf1 #aic4 ,puni%m5t3 ,a ju/ifiable cause ( w>1 #ge4 ,def9$1 #bba4 ,:o may inflict1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #bbh4 ,object (1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #cgj4 ,"u ! ,gospel1 #bcj4 ,capital1 #bcc4 ,wick$ acts n subject to1 #bce4 ,proportion$ to (f5se1 #bdc et seq4 ,( (f5ses aga9/ ,god1 #bdi et seq4 ,communication (1 ^u accomplices1 #bef4 ,(f5ses affect+ society1 #beh4 ,( non-p>ticipants1 #bfb4 ,( surety1 #bfd4 ,( *ildr5 = p>5ts' s9s1 #bff4 ,classes exempt f1 #cfb4 ,( ho/ages1 #cfd4 ,"r to claim prop]ty z1 #cia4 ,qu9tilian1 #bd1 #hi4 ,ratification ( treaties & conv5tions1 #afg1 #age1 #dad4 ,recov]y ( ?+s ali5at$ by rights ( w>1 #cec4 ,r$emption ( pl$ges1 #dja4 ,r$ress1 me?od ( obta9+1 #caa1 #cah4 ,religion1 bas$ on f\r tru?s1 #bej4 ,rem$ial /atutes1 con/ruction (1 #aha4 ,reprisal3 ,lett]s ( ,m>que &1 #bgh4 ,a me?od ( obta9+ r$ress1 #caa1 #cab1 #cbg1 #cgj4 ,resid5ts1 =eign1 rights (1 #ig4 ,re/oration3 ,( subjugat$ p1 #ced1 #cee4 ,( prop]ty1 #cge1 #cib4 ,"r3 ,to movables by occupancy1 #ajd4 ,to impose duties on goods 9 transit1 #ig4 ,common-passage ?r\gh c\ntries1 #ie1 #ig1 #ii4 ,( burial1 #bac4 ,violation (1 #cja4 ,( dom9ion1 acquisition (1 #cgi4 ,( gov]nors & gov]n$1 #ai4 ,( prison]s1 #cec4 ,def9ition & signification (1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj4 ,to actions1 #ii4 ,private1 #bj4 ,sup]ior1 #bj4 ,( asylum1 #bfj4 ,volunt>y1 #be4 ,( mak+ w>1 #chf4 ,( possession1 #cii4 ,rights3 ,human & ,div9e1 #be4 ,s\rces (1 #aie4 ,disput$1 me?ods ( settl+1 #bgf4 ,( prop]ty1 #cjg4 ,( p]sons1 #ai1 #cjg1 #cia4 ,result+ f conque/1 #cdh4 ,aris+ out ( law ( nations1 #bai4 ,real1 #ai4 ,( w>1 #ah1 #ccb1 #ccf1 #cha4 ,corporeal & incorporeal1 #he1 #cji1 #cdf4 ,( tempor>y resid5ts1 #ih4 ,( native1 #ib4 ,riv]3 ,effect ( *ange 9 c\rse (1 #ajf4 ,middle ( b\nd>y betwe5 t]ritories1 #ajg4 ,:5 prop]ty1 #ij1 #ajd4 ,robb]y1 "r to kill robb]1 #ha4 ,romanus1 ,clem5s1 #eb4 ,sacr$ ?+s n exempt f de/ruction by enemy1 #ccb4 ,safe conduct1 a1 #djh4 ,expiration (1 #dji4 ,sales & pur*ases3 ,"r ( re/rict+1 #ajj4 ,:5 contract complete1 #aea4 ,sallu/1 #bjf4 ,salvian1 #ea4 ,sea3 ,op51 n prop]ty1 #ij4 ,portions (1 may become prop]ty1 #ajd4 ,self-def5se1 #gg4 ,s5eca1 #ai1 #bd1 #gd1 #ge1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajh1 #aah1 #ace1 #aib4 ,s]vices1 gratuit\s1 #add4 ,settlem5t ( national disputes1 me?ods (1 #bgf4 ,%ips4 ,own]s b\nd by acts ( ma/]s (1 :51 #aci4 ,goods f\nd 9 enemy's1 #ccg4 ,"u law ( po/lim9ium1 #ceb4 ,silanian1 ,decree1 #ec4 ,slav]y1 #cde4 ,slaves3 ,prison]s ( w>1 #cde4 ,"r ( po/lim9ium1 #ceb4 ,smi?1 ,adam1 #aja n4 ,soldi]s1 comp5sation to1 #cda1 #cdc4 ,sov]eign p[]3 ,n 9 ! p 9 e case1 #fc et seq41 #abj4 ,ceases1 :51 #aag4 ,to decl>e w>1 #caf1 #chf4 ,sov]eigns3 ,elective & h]$it>y1 #ga4 ,responsibility = piracy & robb]y1 #bjj4 ,= acts ( subjects1 #beg4 ,b\nd by acts ( commission]1 #dab4 ,sov]eignty3 ,its nature & :]e x resides1 #fj1 #fb1 #gj1 #ga1 #ajc4 ,n =feitable by act ( del9qu5cy1 #hj4 ,spies1 treatm5t (1 :5 captur$1 #cca4 ,sponsio1 #afg4 ,/ate3 ,def9ition (1 #be4 ,sov]eign1 #fb4 ,conqu]$1 privileges all[$ to1 #cgd4 ,division (1 into con/itu5t p>ts1 by cons5t ( w>1 #aba4 ,/ates3 ,:5 immortal1 #aag4 ,may lose political exi/5ce by conque/1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,/ates ,g5]al3 ,?ree divisions (1 #gj1 #ga4 ,p[] (1 #ga4 ,( ,holl&1 #ccg4 ,/atutes3 ,p5al con/ru$ /rictly2 rem$ial lib]ally1 #aha4 ,/rabo1 #fb1 #ih4 ,/ratagem1 use (1 9 w>1 #bid et seq4 ,subjects3 ,( sov]eign1 det5tion (1 #caa4 ,liability to attack1 9 "t ( w>1 any:]e1 #cbg4 ,sup]ior "r1 #bj4 ,supply ( a ?+ affects its price1 #aea4 ,surety3 ,puni%m5t (1 #bfd4 ,b\nd by cons5t1 #cjh4 ,surr5d]3 ,( a p1 9 w>1 #cij4 ,conditional1 #djj4 ,sylla1 ,lucius ,cornelius1 #eg4 ,tacitus1 #fd1 #fh1 #hg1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #bac4 ,taxes on goods 9 transit1 #ig4 ,t]m9us1 rites (1 #cgc4 ,t]ritory long possess$1 title to1 #aaj4 ,t]tullian1 #di1 #ea1 #eb4 ,?ucydides1 #fj1 #agd4 ,"t3 ,z an elem5t ( "r ( prop]ty1 #aji4 ,immemorial1 #aac4 ,transit1 goods 91 #ig4 ,treaties3 ,public & private1 #aff4 ,equal1 #agj4 ,unequal1 #aeh1 #agj1 #aga1 #ahd4 ,def9ition (1 #afg4 ,requir+ ratification1 #afg4 ,p[] to make 9 mon>*ies1 #afh4 ,re/+ 9 law ( nature1 #afh4 ,( comm]ce & amity1 #afi1 #agj1 #ahe4 ,( peace1 #agj1 #chf1 #chi1 #cia4 ,r5ewal (1 #agc4 ,effect ( violation (1 #agd4 ,int]pretation (1 #agf et seq4 7,see ,int]pretation ( ,treaties47 ,p]sonal & real1 #ahd4 ,:]e gov]nm5ts *ange =m1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,( peace1 mat]ial "p (1 #chf4 ,/ipulations z to actions at law1 #cij4 ,ho/ages & pl$ges "u1 #djj4 ,truces3 ,def9ition1 #djc4 ,duration (1 #djd4 ,public notice (1 #dje4 ,brea* (1 #djf1 ,grant+ (1 #dad ,ulpian1 #ba1 #cd1 #cf1 #abi1 #afb1 #aff1 #bfc1 #ccc4 ,unlawful acts1 #cje4 ,usucaption1 law (1 z appli$ to sov]eigns1 #aae4 ,usufruct1 #aee4 ,usufructu>y prop]ty1 #hf4 ,usury1 #aee4 ,val5t9ian1 #fg4 ,value ( a ?+ gov]n$ by :at8 #aej4 ,( money1 #aec4 ,vasquez1 #hj1 #bci1 #bhf1 #chh4 ,vattel1 #aja1 #aeh1 #afg1 #afi1 #agg1 #bjc1 #big1 #chg1 #chh--notes4 ,w>3 ,def9ition (1 #ah1 #djc4 ,d]ivation ( ^w1 #ah4 ,division (1 public1 private1 & mix$1 #ee4 ,all1 n repugnant to law ( nature1 #cd1 #cf4 ,private1 #ee1 #ef1 #hc4 ,ju/ifiable causes1 pretexts1 & beg9n+ (1 #gc1 #ge1 #bdg1 #bhe4 ,def5se1 indemnity & puni%m5t1 #ge1 #bde4 ,"t ( beg9n+1 #bhd4 ,object (1 #cgi4 ,effect ^u debts1 #cia4 ,lawfulness (1 #ah1 #ca1 #bgh1 #cbd4 ,"u div9e volunt>y law1 #cf1 #dj4 ,aid to p>ties to1 #agc4 ,causes1 ju/ify+ p>ticipation ( allies1 #bhe4 ,lawful means us$ 91 #bij1 #cfc4 ,use ( /ratagem1 #bid4 ,suspicion ( ho/ile int5tions1 #hc4 ,injury to prop]ty1 #he4 ,dem& ( surr5d] ( citiz51 #bhe4 ,precautions aga9/1 #bhj et seq4 ,"r ( bellig]5ts to neutral soil1 #ic4 ,unju/1 causes (1 #bfg et seq4 ,avoidance (1 #bhj et seq41 #dah4 ,decl>ation (1 #cah1 #cba1 #djd1 & =ms1 #cai4 ,"r to make1 #chf4 ,losses ( individuals by1 #chh4 ,public1 =mal & in=mal1 decl>$ by sov]eign1 #eg1 #caf1 #cag1 #chf4 ,"r to av]t1 & to puni% wrongs1 #hc1 #bjj1 #bdg1 #bhj4 ,weal? ( ,nations1 #aja n4 ,)]nam1 #caa4 ,wrongs3 ,division (1 private & public1 #fa4 ,sov]eign p[] may av]t & puni%1 #hc4 ,x5ophon1 #cb1 #ic4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! eigh? ,section is omitt$1 ! great] "p ( x consi/+ ( v]bal criticism ^u ,ari/otle's notions ( geometrical & ari?metical ju/ice2 a discussion no way conducive to t cle>ness & simplicity1 s necess>y to e didactic treatise4--,,translator4 #b ,! law1 by its sil5ce1 p]mits ^? acts1 :i* x does n prohibit4 ,?us _m acts1 if !y are n evil 9 !mselves1 are no (f5ce1 till ! law has made !m su*4 ,( ?is k9d are _m acts1 su* z export+ gold1 or import+ c]ta9 articles ( trade2 do+ c]ta9 actions1 or foll[+ c]ta9 call+s1 )\t ! requisite qualifications1 :i* are made puni%able (f5ces by ! ,/atute-,law4 ,^? actions1 be=e ! prohibition 0 enjo9$ by ! law1 came "u ! class ( :at ,grotius calls p]missions4 #c ,by moral necessity is meant no?+ m ?an t ! ,laws ( ,nature mu/ always b9d u4 #d ,to expla9 ! mean+ ( ,grotius 9 ?is place1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to fir/ pr9ciples4 ,?us ! law ( nature au?oriz+ self-def5ce 9 its fulle/ ext5t1 ! laws ( nations1 :i* au?orize w> = ! same purpose1 _c be repugnant to x4 #e ,! ,law ( ,engl& on homicide excusable by self-def5ce1 w ?r[ light on ! s5tim5ts ( ,grotius 9 ?is place4 ,! law requires1 t ! p]son :o kills ano!r 9 8 own def5ce1 %\ld h retreat$ z f> z he conv5i5tly or safely c1 to avoid ! viol5ce ( ! assault1 be=e he turns ^u 8 assailant2 & t1 n fictiti\sly1 or 9 ord] to wat* 8 opportunity1 b f a real t5d]ness ( %$d+ 8 bro!r's blood4 ,& ?\gh x may be c[>dice1 9 "t ( w>1 betwe5 two indep5d5t nations1 to flee f our enemy2 yet betwe5 two fell[ subjects ! law c\nt5ances no su* po9t ( hon\r2 because ! k+ & 8 c\rts are ! v9dices injuri>um1 & w give to ! p>ty wrong$ all ! satisfaction he des]ves4 ,& ?is is ! doctr9e ( univ]sal ju/ice1 z well z ( ! municipal law4--,black/one's ,com4 vol4 #d1 *ap4 #ad4 #f ,! au?or "h alludes to ! defilem5t or uncleanness :i* ! anci5ts ?\ght 0 contract$ by t\*+ a man1 :o _h kill$ ano!r1 ev5 innoc5tly & lawfully4--,b>beyrac4 #g ,! rema9d] ( ?is section is omitt$1 ,grotius himself /at+ x to be only a repetition & enl>gem5t ( 8 argum5ts imm$iately prec$+ x4 7,translator47 #h ,grotius does n v\* = ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion1 b only quotes ! passage to %ew !re 7 ,,*ri/ians 9 ! army ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4 #i ,by ! ,silanian decree ( ! ,s5ate1 x 0 ord]$ t if a ma/] happ5$ to be murd]$ 9 8 own h\se1 all ! slaves "u ! same ro( %\ld be put to dea?2 ev5 ?\gh no pro( appe>$ ( _! be+ conc]n$ 9 ! murd]4 ,we h an example ( ! case 9 ,tacitus4 ,annal4 v4 xiv4 *4 xlii4 ,! ,emp]or ,adrian s(t5$ ! rig\r ( t decree1 by ord]+ t only !y %\ld be expos$ to ! rack1 :o 7 ne> en\gh to h he>d "s noise4 ,sp>tian1 ,life ( ,adrian1 *4 xviii4 #aj ,z ,grotius has s fully e/abli%$ 8 argum5t1 x is unnecess>y to review 8 answ] to fur!r objections4--7,,translator47 #aa ,z ! topics ( ! ?ird section h be5 s fully /at$ 9 ! second *apt]1 t section has be5 omitt$1 & ! translation goes on f ! second ( ! orig9al to ! f\r?4 7,translator47 #ab ,9 case ( rebellion1 ! subjects tak5 9 arms1 h no "r to be treat$ z prison]s ( w>1 b are liable to puni%m5t z crim9als4 #ac ,wrongs are divisible into two sorts or species1 ,,private ,,wrongs1 & ,,public ,,wrongs4 ,! =m] are an infr+em5t or privation ( ! private or civil rights belong+ to individuals1 consid]$ z individuals1 & are !re=e frequ5tly t]m$ civil injuries2 ! latt] are a brea* & violation ( public rights & duties :i* affect ! :ole community consid]$ z a community1 & are di/+ui%$ by ! h>%] appellation ( crimes & misdemeanors4--,black/4 ,com4 b4 iii4 c4 i4 #ad ,! translation proce$s f h5ce to ! second book ( ! orig9al1 :i* seems to foll[ ?is "p )\t any mat]ial break 9 ! *a9 ( argum5t3 ! int]m$iate sections relat+ to in/ances 9 ! ,roman ,republic1 :i* d n directly apply to ! practice ( mod]n gov]nm5ts4--,,translator4 #ae ,! t5? section is omitt$ 9 ! translation2 z ! subject ( ,*ri/ian =be>ance ( :i* x treats1 has already be5 discuss$ 9 ! prece$+ book4--,,translator4 #af ,sections ,,xiii4 ,,xiv4 & ,,xv4 ( ! orig9al are omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 #ag ,actus aliquos1 :i* lit]ally signifies c]ta9 acts1 may be r5d]$ by ! t]m incorporeal rights1 :i* imply ! "r ( ways1 dignities1 fran*ises1 & _m o!r p]sonal privileges aris+ out ( c]ta9 corporeal k9ds ( prop]ty4 #ah ,! words ( ,judge ,black/one w elucidate ! mean+ ( ,grotius 9 ?is place4 ,! le>n$ ,comm5tator says1 ,!re are "s few ?+s1 :i*1 not)/&+ ! g5]al introduction & cont9uance ( prop]ty1 mu/ /ill unavoidably rema9 9 common2 be+ su* :]e9 no?+ b an usufructu>y prop]ty is capable ( be+ _h3 & !re=e !y /ill belong to ! fir/ occupant1 dur+ ! "t he holds possession ( !m1 & no long]4 ,su* 7among o!rs7 are ! elem5ts ( light1 air1 & wat]2 :i* a man may occupy by means ( 8 w9d[s1 8 g>d5s1 8 mills1 & o!r conv5i5ces3 su* also are ! g5]ality ( ^? animals :i* are said to be f]ae naturae1 or ( a wild & untameable disposition3 :i* any man may seise ^u & keep = 8 own use or pleasure4 ,all ^! ?+s1 s long z !y rema9 9 possession1 e man has a "r to enjoy )\t di/urbance2 b if once !y escape f 8 cu/ody1 or he volunt>ily ab&ons ! use ( !m1 !y return to ! common /ock1 & any man else has a "r to seise & enjoy !m aft]w>ds4 #ai ,! mean+ ( ,grotius 9 ?is ,section w be m cle>ly und]/ood by a brief explanation ( ! nature ( ,contracts4 ,n[ contracts are ( two k9ds1 ei!r express or impli$4 ,express contracts are op5ly utt]$ & av[$ at ! "t ( mak+1 z to deliv] an ox1 or t5 load ( timb]1 or to pay a /at$ price = c]ta9 goods4 ,impli$ are su* z reason & ju/ice dictate1 & :i* !re=e ! law presumes1 t e man und]takes to p]=m4 ,z1 if ,i employ a p]son to d any bus9ess = me1 or p]=m any "w2 ! law implies t ,i und]took1 or contract$1 to pay him z mu* z 8 labor des]ves4 ,if ,i take up w>es f a tradesman1 )\t any agreem5t ( price1 ! law concludes1 t ,i contract$ to pay _! real value4 ,& !re is also "o species ( impli$ contracts1 :i* runs ?r\gh & is annex$ to all o!r contracts1 conditions1 & cov5ants1 viz4 t if ,i fail 9 my "p ( ! agreem5t1 ,i %all pay ! o!r p>ty su* damages z he has su/a9$ by su* my neglect or refusal4 ,black/4 ,com4 b4 ii4 c4 #cj4 p4 #ddb4 #bj ,!re are cases 9 :i* monopolies1 & ! exclusive privileges ( trad+ companies are n only all[able b absolutely necess>y4 ,= !re are1 says ,vattel1 comm]cial ent]prizes t _c be c>ri$ on )\t an en]gy t requires consid]able funds1 :i* surpass ! ability ( individuals4 ,!re are o!rs t w\ld soon become ru9\s1 7 !y n conduct$ ) great prud5ce1 ) "o regul> _s1 & accord+ to well support$ maxims & rules4 ,^! bran*es ( trade _c be indiscrim9ately c>ri$ on by individuals3 companies are !re=e =m$1 "u ! au?ority ( ! gov]nm5t2 & ^! companies _c subsi/ )\t an exclusive privilege4 ,x is !re=e advantage\s to ! nation to grant !m3 h5ce h aris5 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 ^? p[]ful companies t c>ry on comm]ce ) ! ,ea/4--,law ( ,nat4 b4 i4 c4 viii4 sect4 #ig4 p4 #db4 #ba ,adam ,smi? 9 8 ,weal? ( ,nations1 speak+ ( treaties ( comm]ce1 obs]ves1 t :5 a nation b9ds itself by treaty1 ei!r to p]mit ! entry ( c]ta9 goods f "o =eign c\ntry :i* x prohibits f all o!rs1 or to exempt ! goods ( "o c\ntry f duties to :i* x subjects ^? ( all o!rs1 ! c\ntry1 or at lea/ ! m]*ants & manufactur]s ( ! c\ntry1 ^: comm]ce is s fav\r$1 mu/ necess>ily d]ive great advantages f ! treaty4 ,^? m]*ants & manufactur]s enjoy a sort ( monopoly 9 ! c\ntry1 :i* is s indulg5t to !m4 ,t c\ntry becomes a m>ket bo? m ext5sive & m advantage\s = _! goods3 m ext5sive1 because ! goods ( o!r nations be+ ei!r exclud$ or subject$ to heavi] duties1 x takes (f a great quantity ( !irs3 m advantage\s1 because ! m]*ants ( ! fav\r$ c\ntry1 enjoy+ a sort ( monopoly !re1 w (t5 sell _! goods = a bett] price1 ?an if expos$ to ! free competition ( all o!r nations4--,vol4 #b4 b4 iv4 *4 vi4 #bb ,! translation proce$s f ! f\r? to ! n9? ,*apt] ( ! ,second book ( ! orig9al4 ,! int]m$iate *apt]s1 be+ *iefly a repetition ( ! au?or's =m] argum5ts1 respect+ ! rights ( seas & riv]s1 & o!r k9ds ( dom9ions2 & t relat+ to ! rights ( p]sons1 be+ s fully treat$ 9 ! fir/ volume ( ,judge ,black/one's ,comm5t>ies1 x seem$ unnecess>y to give !m 9 ! pres5t "w4--,,translator4 #bc ,section ,,vii ( ! orig9al is omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 #bd ,! foll[+ extracts f ,black/one's ,com4 b4 ii4 *4 xxx4 w elucidate ! mean+ ( our au?or 9 ?is place4 ,sale or ,,ex*ange is a transmutation ( prop]ty f "o man to ano!r1 9 consid]ation ( "s price or recomp5se2 = !re is no sale )\t a recomp5ce4 ,p4 #ddf4 ,:]e ! v5dor ,,ha? 9 himself ! prop]ty ( ! goods sold1 he ha? ! lib]ty ( dispos+ ( !m to :om ev] he pleases1 at any "t1 & 9 any mann]4 ,ibid4 #ddf4 ,& not)/&+ any numb] ( int]v5+ sales1 if ! orig9al v5dor1 :o sold )\t hav+ ! prop]ty1 comes aga9 into possession ( ! goods1 ! orig9al own] may take !m1 :5 f\nd 9 8 h&s :o 0 guilty ( ! fir/ brea* ( ju/ice4 ,ibid4 p4 #dej4 #be ,a promise is 9 ! nature ( a v]bal cov5ant1 & wants no?+ b ! solemnity ( writ+ & seal+ to make x absolutely ! same4 ,if !re=e x be to d any explicit act1 x is an express contract1 z mu* z any cov5ant2 & ! brea* ( x is an equal injury4--,black/4 ,com4 b4 iii4 *4 ix4 sect4 #c4 #bf ,all ! reason+s ( ,grotius1 on ?is1 & on e o!r po9t1 are int5d$ to apply n only to ! transactions ( individuals1 b to ! conduct & affairs ( nations4 #bg ,! mo/ univ]sal & effectual way ( discov]+ ! true mean+ ( a law1 :5 ! words are dubi\s1 is by consid]+ ! ,,reason & ,,_s ( x1 or ! cause :i* mov$ ! legislator to enact x4 ,= :5 ! reason ceases1 ! law itself ought likewise to cease ) x4--,black/4 ,introd4 ,com4 *4 #b4 p4 #af4 #bh ,sections ,x4 & ,,xi4 ( ! orig9al are omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 #bi ,f ?is simple orig9 ( b>t]1 & ex*ange ( ?+s h aris5 all ! v>i\s transactions ( comm]ce4 ,& :at 0 at fir/ an act ( necessity betwe5 individuals1 has prov$ an inexhau/ible s\rce ( weal? & prosp]ity to nations4 #cj ,= ! necessity ( ,monopolies 9 c]ta9 cases1 see ! note on ! xxi4 sect4 ( ! #bnd4 *apt] ( ?is book4 #ca ,! ,dut* 9 ord] to secure to !mselves ! monopoly ( ! spice-trade h frequ5tly de/roy$ all ! productions ( ! spice isl&s beyond :at 0 necess>y = _! own supply4 ,by ! j policy ( ! laws ( ,engl&1 comb9ations among victuall]s or artific]s1 to raise ! price ( provisions1 or any commodities1 or ! rate ( lab\r1 are 9 _m cases sev]ely puni%$ by p>ticul> /atutes2 &1 9 g5]al1 by /atute #b & #c ,edwd4 ,,vi4 c4 #ae1 ) ! =feiture ( #aj l41 or tw5ty days imprisonm5t ) an all[ance ( only bread & wat]1 = ! fir/ (f5ce2 #bj l4 or ! pillory = ! second2 & #dj l4 = ! ?ird1 or else ! pillory1 loss ( "o e>1 & p]petual infamy4 ,9 ! same mann]1 by a con/itution ( ! ,emp]or ,z5o1 all monopolies & comb9ations to keep up ! price ( m]*&ise1 provisions1 or workman%ip1 7 prohibit$1 ^u pa9 ( =feiture ( goods & p]petual bani%m5t4--,black/4 ,com4 b4 iv4 c4 #ab4 p4 #aei4--;,also ! #ci ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #ha1 enact$1 t e p]son comb9+ ) o!rs to advance _! wages1 or decrease ! quantity ( "w1 or any way to affect or contr\l ^? :o c>ri$ on any manufacture or trade 9 ! conduct & managem5t !re(1 might be convict$ be=e "o ju/ice ( ! peace1 & might be committ$ to ! common gaol = any "t n exce$+ ?ree cal5d> mon?s1 or be kept to h>d lab\r 9 ! h\se ( correction = two mon?s4--,*ri/ian's notes to ,black/one on ! same place4 #cb ,x is possible t an e/ate or a h\se may1 dur+ ! t]m ( a lease1 be s increas$ or dim9i%$ 9 its value1 z to become wor? mu* m1 or mu* less1 ?an ! r5t agre$ to be paid = x4 ,9 "s ( :i* cases x may be d\bt$1 to :om1 ( natural "r1 ! advantage or disadvantage belongs4 ,! rule ( ju/ice seems to be ?is3 ,if ! alt]ation might be ,,expect$ by ! p>ties1 ! hir] mu/ take ! consequ5ce2 if x c\ld n1 ! own]4 ,an or*>d1 or a v9ey>d1 or a m9e1 or a fi%]y1 or a decoy1 may ?is ye> yield no?+ or next to no?+1 yet ! t5ant %all pay 8 r5t2 & if !y next ye> produce t5fold ! usual pr(it1 no m %all be dem&$2 because ! produce is 9 its nature prec>i\s1 & ?is v>iation might be expect$4--,paley's1 ,mor4 ,phil4 vol4 #a4 p4 #aee1 #aef4 #cc ,! foll[+ passage f ,judge ,black/one w bo? elucidate ! mean+ & support ! reason+ ( our au?or4 ,?\gh money 0 orig9ally us$ only = ! purposes ( ex*ange1 yet ! laws ( any /ate may be well ju/ifi$ 9 p]mitt+ x to be turn$ to ! purposes ( pr(it1 if ! conv5i5ce ( society 7! great end = :i* money 0 inv5t$7 %all require x4 ,& t ! all[ance ( mod]ate int]e/ t5ds greatly to ! b5efit ( ! public1 especially 9 a trad+ c\ntry1 w appe> f t g5]ally ackn[l$g$ pr9ciple1 t comm]ce _c subsi/ )\t mutual & ext5sive cr$it4 ,unless money !re=e c be borr[$1 trade _c be c>ri$ on3 & if no premium 7 all[$ = ! hire ( money1 few p]sons w\ld c>e to l5d x2 or at lea/ ! ease ( borr[+ at %ort w>n+ 7:i* is ! life ( comm]ce7 w\ld be entirely at an end4--,b4 ii4 *4 #cj4 p4 #ded1 #dee4 #cd ,! ,mosaic law inde$ prohibit$ ! l5d+ ( money ^u usury4 ,b ?is 0 a political & n a moral precept4 ,x only prohibit$ ! ,jews f tak+ usury ( _! bre?r5 ! ,jews1 b 9 express words p]mitt$ !m to take x ( a /rang]3 :i* proves t ! tak+ ( mod]ate usury1 or a rew>d = ! use1 is n an evil 9 itself1 s9ce x 0 all[$ :]e any b an ,israelite 0 conc]n$4--,black/4 ,com4 b4 ii4 *4 #cj4 p4 #ded4 ,! objections made to x by ,cic]o & o!rs1 our au?or obs]ves1 are f\nd$ m ^u ! consequ5ces ( usury ?an ^u usury itself4 ,because x det]s m5 f borr[+4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 if !re 7 no advantage atta*$ to ! l5d+ ( money1 none w\ld be f\nd will+ to l5d2 consequ5tly ! b5efits aris+ f a facility ( borr[+ money to c>ry on trade w\ld be defeat$4 #ce ,insurances be+ contracts1 ! v ess5ce ( :i* consi/s 9 obs]v+ ! pure/ good fai? & integrity1 !y are vacat$ by any ! lea/ %ad[ ( fraud or undue concealm5t2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 be+ mu* = ! b5efit & ext5sion ( trade1 by di/ribut+ ! loss or ga9 among a numb] ( adv5tur]s1 !y are greatly enc\rag$ & protect$ bo? by common law & acts ( p>liam5t4--,black/4 ,com4 b4 ii4 *4 #cj4 p4 #dfj4 ,! contract ( insurance is f\nd$ ^u ! pure/ pr9ciples ( morality & ab/ract ju/ice4 ,h5ce x is necess>y t ! contract+ p>ties %\ld h p]fectly equal k or ignorance ( e mat]ial circum/ance respect+ ! ?+ insur$4 ,if on ei!r side !re is any misrepres5tation or allegatio falsi1 or concealm5t1 or suppressio v]i1 :i* w\ld 9 any degree affect ! premium1 or ! t]ms ( ! engagem5t1 ! contract is fraudul5t & absolutely void4--,*ri/ian's note on ! same passage4 #cf ,!re is a di/9ction to be obs]v$ betwe5 ! ,,necess>y1 & ! ,,volunt>y law ( nations4 ,vattel def9es ! ,,necess>y law to be t :i* is always obligatory on ! consci5ce1 & ( :i* a nation ought nev] to lose sight 9 ! l9e ( conduct %e is to pursue 9 ord] to fulfil h] duty1 b :5 !re is a "q ( exam9+ :at %e may dem& ( o!r /ates1 %e mu/ consult ! ,,volunt>y law1 ^: maxims are devot$ to ! safety & advantage ( ! univ]sal society ( mank9d4--,prelim4 sect4 #bh4 #cg ,! writ] quot$ 9 ! prec$+ note def9es t obligation to be ,,int]nal1 :i* b9ds ! consci5ce1 & is d$uc$ f ! rules ( duty2 & t to be ,,ext]nal1 :i* is consid]$ relatively to o!r m51 & produces "s "r betwe5 !m4--,ibid4 sect4 #ag4 #ch ,a treaty may be m advantage\s to "o ( ! contract+ p>ties ?an to ! o!r1 & yet conta9 no?+ unju/4 ,frequ5tly a great mon>*1 wi%+ to engage a weak] /ate 9 8 int]e/1 (f]s h] advantage\s conditions1 promises h] gratuit\s succ\rs1 or great] ?an he /ipulates = himself2 b at ! same "t he claims a sup]iority ( dignity1 & requires respect f 8 ally4 ,x is ?is la/ p>ticul> :i* r5d]s ,,! ,,alliance ,,unequal3 & to ?is circum/ance we mu/ att5tively adv]t2 = ) alliances ( ?is nature we are n to conf\nd ^? 9 :i* ! p>ties treat on a foot+ ( equality1 ?\gh ! m p[]ful ( ! allies1 = p>ticul> reasons1 gives m ?an he receives1 promises 8 assi/ance gratis1 )\t requir+ gratuit\s assi/ance 9 8 turn1 or promises m consid]able succ\rs or ev5 ! assi/ance ( all 8 =ces3 "h ! alliance is equal1 b ! treaty is unequal1 unless inde$ we may be all[$ to say1 t1 z ! p>ty :o makes ! great] concessions has a great] int]e/ 9 conclud+ ! treaty1 ?is consid]ation re/ores ! equality4 ,?us1 at a "t :5 ,france f\nd h]self emb>rass$ 9 a mom5t\s w> ) ! h\se ( ,au/ria1 & ! c>d9al de ,ri*elieu wi%$ to humble t =midable p[]1 he1 l an able m9i/]1 conclud$ a treaty ) ,gu/avus ,adolphus1 9 :i* all ! advantage appe>$ to be on ! side ( ,sw$54 ,f a b>e consid]ation ( ! /ipulations ( t treaty1 x w\ld h be5 pron\nc$ an unequal "o2 b ! advantages :i* ,france d]iv$ f x1 amply comp5sat$ = t inequality4--,vattel1 b4 ii4 *4 #ab4 sect4 #age4 p4 #bjj1 #bja4 #ci ,! nature ( oa?s1 contracts & promises hav+ be5 s fully discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 ! translation proce$s f ! ?irte5? to ! fifte5? *apt] ( ! orig9al1 ! f\rte5? be+ 9 a great measure only a repetition ( our au?or's =m] argum5ts ^u ! subject4--,,translator4 #dj ,on ?is subject ! op9ions ( our au?or1 & ^? ( ,vattel w reflect light ^u ea* o!r4 ,f ! latt] ( :om1 ! foll[+ extracts w place ! matt] 9 a cle> po9t ( view4 ,if a public p]son1 an ambassador1 or a g5]al ( an army1 exce$+ ! b\nds ( 8 commission1 concludes a treaty or a conv5tion )\t ord]s f ! sov]eign or )\t be+ au?oris$ to d x by virtue ( 8 (fice1 ! treaty is null1 z be+ made )\t suffici5t p[]s3 x _c become valid )\t ! express or tacit ratification ( ! sov]eign4 ,! express ratification is a writt5 de$ by :i* ! sov]eign approves ! treaty1 & engages to obs]ve x4 ,! tacit ratification is impli$ by c]ta9 /eps :i* ! sov]eign is ju/ly presum$ to take only 9 pursuance ( ! treaty1 & :i* he c\ld n be suppos$ to take )\t consid]+ x z conclud$ & agre$ ^u4 ,?us1 on a treaty ( peace be+ sign$ by public m9i/]s :o h ev5 exce$$ ! ord]s ( _! sov]eigns1 if "o ( ! sov]eigns causes troops to pass on ! foot+ ( fri5ds ?r\gh ! t]ritories ( 8 reconcil$ enemy1 he tacitly ratifies ! treaty ( peace4 ,b if1 by a res]vatory clause ( ! treaty1 ! ratification ( ! sov]eign be requir$--z su* res]vation is usually und]/ood to imply an express ratification1 x is absolutely requisite t ! treaty be ?us expressly ratifi$ be=e x c acquire its full =ce4 ,by ! ,lat9 t]m sponsio1 we express an agreem5t relat+ to affairs ( /ate1 made by a public p]son1 :o exce$s ! b\nds ( 8 commission1 & acts )\t ! ord]s or comm& ( ! sov]eign4 ,! p]son :o treats = ! /ate 9 ?is mann] )\t be+ commission$ = ! purpose1 promises ( c\rse to use 8 endeav\rs = prevail+ on ! /ate or sov]eign to ratify ! articles he has agre$ to3 o!rwise 8 engagem5ts w\ld be nugatory & illusive4 ,! f\ndation ( ?is agreem5t c be no o!r1 on ei!r side1 ?an ! hope ( su* ratification4--,vattel1 b4 ii4 *4 xiv4 sect4 #bjh1 #bji1 p4 #bai4 ,! g5]al ( an army1 he proce$s1 has inde$ by virtue ( 8 commission1 a p[] to ent]1 z circum/ances may require1 into a private conv5tion1--a compact relative to himself1 to 8 troops1 or to ! occurr5ces ( w>3 b he has no p[] to conclude a treaty ( peace4 ,he may b9d himself1 & ! troops "u 8 comm&1 on all occasions :]e 8 functions require t he %\ld h ! p[] ( treat+2 b he _c b9d ! /ate beyond ! ext5t ( 8 commission4--,ibid4 sect4 #baj4 p4 #bbj4 #da ,! "r ( po/lim9ium is t1 9 virtue ( :i*1 p]sons & ?+s tak5 by ! enemy are re/or$ to _! =m] /ate1 on com+ aga9 into ! p[] ( ! nation to :i* !y belong$4 ,vattel1 b4 iii4 *4 xiv4 sect4 #bjd4 #db ,p]sonal cr$itors are 9 ! ,roman law call$ ,*irograph>ii1 because !y commonly h "s bond or note ( h& = ! debt4 ,& :]e !re are sev]al su* cr$itors1 if ! debtor's e/ate is n suffici5t to satisfy !m all1 ea* has 8 %>e assign$ 9 proportion to ! l>g5ess ( ! debt1 )\t any reg>d to ! "t1 :5 x 0 contract$4 ,b 9 mortgages x 0 diff]5t1 ! debt ( longe/ /&+ 0 to be fir/ satisfi$4--,b>beyrac4 #dc ,:5 ! ,roman army _h pass$ "u ! yoke at ,caudium1 ^u _! return1 :5 ! matt] 0 ref]r$ to ! s5ate1 x 0 said t z ! conv5tion 0 made )\t ! cons5t ( ! s5ate or p1 ! ,roman p 7 n b\nd by x1 & a proposal 0 made t ^? :o _h sign$ ! treaty %\ld aga9 be giv5 up to ! enemy1 ?us ! p w\ld be releas$ f ! engagem5t4 ,?is proposal 0 agre$ to1 & a decree to t purpose pass$4 #dd ,luctatius _h ins]t$ ?is clause t ! agreem5t %\ld be good & valid1 only 9 case x 0 approv$ by ! ,roman p4--,liv4 lib4 xxi4 c4 xix4 ,see likewise ,polybius1 lib4 iii4 c4 xxi4 #de ,9 all human affairs1 :]e absolute c]ta9ty is n at h& to po9t out ! way1 we mu/ take probability = our guide4 ,9 mo/ cases x is extremely probable t ! p>ties h express$ !mselves con=mably to ! e/abli%$ usage3 & su* probability ev] af=ds a /rong presumption1 :i* _c be ov]rul$ b by a /ill /rong] presumption to ! contr>y4 ,camd51 9 8 hi/ory ( ,que5 ,elizabe?1 gives u a treaty1 9 :i* x is expressly said t ! treaty %all be precisely und]/ood accord+ to ! =ce & appropriate signification ( ! t]ms4--,vattel1 b4 ii4 *4 xvii4 sect4 #bga4 ,on ! same subject1 ,judge ,black/one says1 t words are g5]ally to be und]/ood 9 _! usual & mo/ kn[n signification2 n s mu* reg>d+ ! propriety ( gramm>1 z _! g5]al & popul> use4--,introduct4 to ,com4 *4 ii4 p4 #ei4 #df ,! ^w ,,day is und]/ood ( ! ,,natural ,,day1 or ( ! "t dur+ :i* ! sun af=ds u 8 light1 & ( ! ,,civil ,,day1 or ! space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,:5 x is us$ 9 a conv5tion to po9t out a space ( "t1 ! subject itself manife/ly %ews t ! p>ties mean ! civil day1 or ! t]m ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4--,vattel1 b4 ii4 *4 xvii4 sect4 #bhj4 #dg ,x is a fundam5tal rule ( con/ruction1 t p5al /atutes %all be con/ru$ /rictly1 & rem$ial /atutes %all be con/ru$ lib]ally4 ,x 0 "o ( ! laws ( ! twelve tables ( ,rome1 t :5ev] !re 0 a "q betwe5 lib]ty & slav]y1 ! presumption %\ld be on ! side ( lib]ty4 ,?is excell5t pr9ciple our law has adopt$ 9 ! con/ruction ( p5al /atutes3 = :5ev] any ambiguity arises 9 a /atute introduc+ a new p5alty or puni%m5t1 ! decision %all be on ! side ( l5ity & m]cy2 or 9 fav\r ( natural "r & lib]ty3 or1 9 o!r words1 ! decision %all be accord+ to ! /rict lett] 9 fav\r ( ! subject4 ,& ?\gh ! judges 9 su* cases may frequ5tly raise & solve difficulties contr>y to ! int5tion or ! legislature1 yet no fur!r inconv5i5ce c result1 ?an t ! law rema9s z x 0 be=e ! /atute1 & x is m consonant to pr9ciples ( lib]ty1 t ! judge %\ld acquit :om ! legislator int5d$ to puni%1 ?an t he %\ld puni% :om ! legislator int5d$ to dis*>ge ) impunity4 ,b rem$ial /atutes mu/ be con/ru$ accord+ to ! _s3 = 9 giv+ relief aga9/ fraud1 or 9 ! fur!rance & ext5sion ( natural "r & ju/ice1 ! judge may safely g ev5 beyond t :i* exi/$ 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o fram$ ! law4--,*ri/ian's ,notes on ,black/4 ,comm4 ,introd4 p4 #hg4 #dh ,! case ( a promise made on ! supposition ( a po/hum\s *ild's dy+1 in/anc$ by our au?or 9 ?is place1 be>s s ne> a resemblance to t ( a fa!r's bequea?+ 8 prop]ty to ano!r1 believ+ 8 son to be dead1 t x is omitt$ 9 ?is *apt] hav+ be5 already giv5 "u ! head ( errone\s promises 9 ! xi4 *apt] & #f? section ( ?is book4--7,translator47 #di ,! v>iety ( human transactions _c be compris$ )9 g5]al rules4 ,occasional decrees !re=e become requisite2 :i* v>y ) ea* v>iation ( circum/ances1 = ! measure ( :at is indef9ite mu/ be indef9ite itself1 l ! lead5 rul] 9 ! ,lesbian ar*itecture1 :i* *anges its own %ape accord+ to t ( ! /ones to :i* x is appli$4 ,x is manife/1 !re=e1 t equity is a species ( ju/ice1 & contra/$ ) ano!r species to :i* x is pref]able4 ,a man ( equity is he :o delib]ately & habitually ex]cises ?is virtue2 :o pref]s x 9 all 8 deal+s to ! rig\r ( ju/ice2 & :o1 ev5 :5 ! law is on 8 side1 w n avail himself ( ?is advantage to treat o!rs injuri\sly or unh&somely4--,ari/ot4 ,e?4 b4 v4 *4 x4 #ej ,ow+ to circum/ances !re may be a v>iation 9 ! conduct1 & yet no *ange 9 ! pr9ciples ( a /ate4 ,?is mu/ frequ5tly happ5 9 ! comm]cial regulations betwe5 diff]5t c\ntries1 :o are oblig$ to v>y _! means to secure ! unity ( _! end4 ,or if 9 a treaty betwe5 two nations1 x is decl>$ !re %all be ,,p]petual amity1 & a subsequ5t decl>ation ( w> by "o ( ! p>ties pron\nces su* amicable relations to be at an end1 "h !re is no v>iation 9 ,,pr9ciple b 9 ,,circum/ances1 :i* r5d] su* a dissolution ( ! amity1 t 0 orig9ally int5d$ to be p]petual1 necess>y to ! welf>e & pres]vation ( t p[]1 ! sole object ( all treaties4 #ea ,to illu/rate ! nature ( ,,g5]al ,,& ,,p>ticul> cases1 ! foll[+ example is tak5 f ! ,puff5dorf3--,"o law =bids u to appe> 9 public ) arms on holidays3 ano!r law comm&s u to turn out "u arms & repair to our po/s1 z soon z we he> ! s\nd ( ! al>m bell4 ,! al>m is rung on a holiday4 ,9 su* case we mu/ obey ! latt] ( ! two laws1 :i* creates an exception to ! =m]4--,jur4 ,g5t1 lib4 v4 c4 xii4 sect4 #bc4 #eb ,! deputies s5t to ! assembly ( ! /ates ( a k+dom1 or a commonweal? are n public m9i/]s l ambassadors1 z !y are n s5t to =eign p[]s2 b !y are public p]sons1 &1 9 t respect1 are possess$ ( e exemption & immunity1 t are necess>y to ! dis*>ge ( _! functions4--,vatt4 b4 iv4 *4 vii4 sect4 #aji4 ,( ?is nature are ! privileges enjoy$ by ! repres5tatives ( ! ,briti% p1 & d5om9at$ ! ,,privileges ,,( ,,p>liam5t4 #ec ,no?+ =ms a m /rik+ contra/ betwe5 anci5t & mod]n w>1 !n ! p]sonal animosities1 :i* seem$ to op]ate ^u ! combatants 9 ! =m]1 & ! public & national objects1 ,,)\t ,,any ,,p]sonal ,,conc]n1 ^u :i* ! latt] are und]tak54 ,p]use any anci5t hi/orian1 or ! battles 9 ,hom] & ,virgil1 ,,:i* ,,?\gh ,,fictions1 ,,describe ,,! ,,mann]s ,,( ,,! ,,age1 & y see combatants engag$1 on :om ! laws ( nature & ( nations seem to h lo/ _! =ce4 ,read ! acc\nts ( mod]n w>f>e & y f9d ho/ilities comm5c$1 n f private animosity1 b f "s great & national object1 9 ! prosecution ( :i* ! feel+s ( ! individuals appo9t$ to conduct !m are n ! only spr+s ( action4 #ed ,sections ,,xvi & ,,xvii ( ! orig9al1 relat+ only to ! refutation ( c]ta9 ab/ruse op9ions1 are omitt$ 9 ! translation4--7,translator47 #ee ,section ,v ( ! orig9al is omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 #ef ,?us lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 by :i* individuals are enabl$ to r$ress _! own wrongs1 mu/ issue f ! sov]eign p[]1 o!rwise ! ho/ilities ( su* individuals w\ld be unlawful4 ,s t "h ! ,,action w\ld be unlawful1 t is unju/1 unless p]=m$ by an ,,ag5t1 :o _h a commission f public au?ority4 #eg ,! ?ree rules above laid d[n by our au?or may be illu/rat$ by ! ?ree foll[+ propositions4-- ,9 ! fir/ place1 x _c be d5i$1 t w>1 9 ! ,,ab/ract1 is an evil1 b !n x is necess>y to consid]1 :e!r x is n an evil t mu/1 9 _m cases1 be submitt$ to 9 ord] to avoid /ill great] calamities4 ,secondly1 9 ! prosecution ( a w>1 :]e ! advantages1 or evils are d\btful1 x is necess>y to endeav\r aft] ! atta9m5t ( new conf$]acies or alliances1 t may comp5sate = ! losses su/a9$1 or may op5 out new *annels ( trade & comm]ce1 :i* may supply ! place ( ^? t h be5 clos$ by ! imm$iate w>4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! ?ird po9t1 we may adduce ! conduct ( ,k+ ,william1 aft] ! ,briti% ,cab9et t met at ,tunbridge ,wells1 ,augu/ #bh1 #afih1 repres5t$ to him h[ inadequate ! _s ( ! nation 0 to ent] into a new w>1 & to be> additional burd5s1 conclud+1 ?is is ! tru? ( ! fact ^u :i* y\r ,maje/y w det]m9e :at resolution ought to be tak54 ,8 ,maje/y did det]m9e ^u w>1 z ! lea/ ( all ! evils :i* fac$ 8 p1 not)/&+ ! ,,app>5t inadequacy ( 8 means4 ,& 9 t great w>1 says ,mr4 ,burke1 c>ri$ on aga9/ ,l\is ! ,,xiv1 = ne> eighte5 ye>s1 gov]nm5t sp>$ no pa9s to satisfy ! nation1 t ?\gh !y 7 to be animat$ by a desire ( glory1 glory 0 n _! ultimate object3 b t e ?+ de> to !m1 9 religion1 9 law1 9 lib]ty1 e ?+1 :i* z freem51 z ,engli%m51 & z citiz5s ( ! great commonweal? ( ,*ri/5dom1 !y _h at he>t1 0 !n at /ake4--,lett4 on ,regic ,peace1 p4 #ij4 #eh ,?us :5 a %ip makes an appe>ance ( m\nt+ m guns ?an %e really c>ries1 9 ord] to det] an enemy f attack+ h]1 ?is may be consid]$ z "o ( ^? negative /ratagems1 or /ratagems ( dissimulation1 to :i* our au?or alludes4 #ei ,besides ! ,,necess>y law ( nations1 :i* is ,,equally1 & at ,,all ,,times b9d+ ^u ,,all /ates1 !re is a ,,positive law ( nations1 consi/+ ( ,,! ,,volunt>y1 ,,! ,,conv5tional & ,,! ,,cu/om>y law4 ,all ( :i* proce$ f ! w ( nations1--! ,,volunt>y f _! presum$ cons5t1 ! ,,conv5tional f an express cons5t1 & ! ,,cu/om>y f tacit cons5t3 & z !re c be no o!r mode ( d$uc+ any law f ! w ( nations1 !re are only ^! ?ree k9ds ( ,,positive ,,law ,,( ,,nations4--,vattel1 ,prelim4 ,sect4 #bg4 #fj ,see b4 ii4 *4 xxi4 sect4 #b4 ( ?is treatise4 #fa ,see b4 ii4 *4 xxiii4 sect4 #g4 ibid4 #fb ,b su* captures _c be made )\t au?ority f ! sov]eign4 #fc ,! translation proce$s f ! ,,xv4 to ! ,,xxiii4 ,section ( ! orig9al1 ! int]m$iate ,sections be+ only a confirmation ( ! prec$+ argum5ts by examples f anci5t hi/ory4--,,translator4 #fd ,our au?or "h speaks ( ?+s tak5 9 battle4 ,= ^u ! surr5d] ( t[ns1 9 almo/ all articles ( capitulation x is /ipulat$1 t ! ,g5]al & o!r sup]ior (fic]s1 & ! (fic]s ( regim5ts %all pres]ve _! swords & _! private baggage1 & ! noncommission$ (fic]s & soldi]s %all pres]ve _! knapsacks4 #fe ,! end ( su* a law is to animate soldi]s & private]s to pursue robb]s & pirates1 by ! hopes ( possess+ ?+s tak5 ev5 f ! subjects ( ! /ate4--,b>beyrac4 #ff ,! t5? ,*apt] *iefly conta9+ rem>ks t h be5 int]sp]s$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! "w1 is omitt$ "h4--,,translator4 #fg ,see b4 ii4 *ap4 ii4 sect4 #i4 #fh ,see b4 iii4 *4 ii4 ( ?is "w4 #fi ,! translation proce$s f ! ,,xiii4 to ! ,,xv4 ,*apt] ( ! orig9al4--,,translator4 #gj ,b4 ii4 *4 xv4 sect4 #g4 #ga ,! difficulty ( recognis+ ?+s ( ?is nature1 & ! endless disputes1 :i* w\ld arise f ! prosecution ( ! own]'s claims to !m1 h be5 deem$ motives ( suffici5t weight = ! e/abli%m5t ( a contr>y practice4 ,x is !re=e ) reason1 t moveables or booty are except$ f ! "r ( po/lim9ium1 unless retak5 f ! enemy imm$iately aft] 8 capture ( !m2 9 :i* case ! proprietor nei!r f9ds a difficulty 9 recognis+ 8 effects1 nor is presum$ to h rel9qui%$ !m4--,vattel b4 iii4 *4 xiv4 sect4 #bji4 #gb ,b4 ii4 *4 x4 sect4 #i4 #gc ,! translation proce$s f ! xvii? to ! xix? *apt] ( ! orig9al4--,,translator4 #gd ,sections ,,vi1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 ,,ix & ,x ( ! orig9al are omitt$ 9 ! translation4 7,translator47 #ge ,b4 ii4 *4 vii4 sect4 #b4 #gf ,! necessity ( mak+ peace au?orises ! ,sov]eign to dispose ( ! prop]ty ( individuals2 & ! em95t dom9ion gives him a "r to d x4 ,e ?+ 9 ! political society ought to t5d to ! good ( ! community2 & s9ce ev5 ! p[]s ( ! citiz5s are subject to ?is rule1 _! prop]ty _c be except$4 ,! /ate c\ld n subsi/1 or con/antly adm9i/] ! public affairs 9 ! mo/ advantage\s mann]1 if x _h n a p[] to dispose occasionally ( all k9ds ( prop]ty4--,vattel1 b4 iv4 *4 ii4 sect4 #ab4 ibid4 b4 i4 *4 xx4 sect4 #bdd4 #gg ,"s damages are done delib]ately & by way ( precaution1 z :5 a field1 a h\se1 or a g>d51 belong+ to a private p]son1 is tak5 = ! purpose ( erect+ on ! spot a t[]1 ramp>t1 or any o!r piece ( =tification1--or :5 8 /&+ corn1 or 8 /oreh\ses are de/roy$1 to prev5t _! be+ ( use to ! enemy4 ,su* damages are to be made good to ! individual1 :o %\ld be> only 8 quota ( ! loss4 ,b !re are o!r damages1 caus$ by inevitable necessity1 z = in/ance1 ! de/ruction caus$ by ! artill]y 9 retak+ a t[n f ! enemy4 ,^! are m]ely accid5ts1 !y are mis=tunes1 :i* *ance deals out to ! proprietors on :om !y happ5 to fall4 ,! sov]eign ought inde$ to %ew an equitable reg>d = ! suff]]s1 if ! situation ( 8 affairs w admit ( x3 b no action lies aga9/ ! /ate = mis=tunes ( ?is nature1--= losses1 :i* %e has occasion$1 n wilfully1 b ?r\gh necessity & m]e accid5t1 9 ! ex]tion ( h] rights4 ,! same may be said ( damages caus$ by ! enemy4 ,vat4 b4 iii4 *4 xv4 sect4 #bcb4 #gh ,see b4 ii4 *4 xv4 sect4 #ab4 #gi ,because !n ! condition ( ! contract+ p>ties be+ unequal1 !re is great reason to believe1 t he1 to ^: disadvantage ! inequality is1 has pret5d$ to engage himself z little z possible3 & x 0 ! o!r's bus9ess :o 0 to h ! b5efit ( x1 to h ! ?+ expla9$ 9 z cle> a mann] z possible4--,b>beyrac4 #hj ,sections ,,xlii1 ,,xliii1 ,,xliv1 ,,xlv1 ( ! orig9al1 relat+ to decisions by lot & s+le combat1 are omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 #ha ,! ,,xxiii ,*apt] ( ! ,orig9al1 on ,private ,fai? 9 ,w>1 is omitt$ 9 ! translation4--,,translator4 ,transcrib]s' ,notes3 ,punctuation & hyph5ation 7 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4 ,9 p>ticul>1 inconsi/5t punctuation 9 ,biblical citations & omitt$ commas or p]iods 9 sev]al places h n be5 rem$i$4 ,ambigu\s hyph5s at ! ends ( l9es 7 reta9$4 ,spell+ 0 made consi/5t :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book1 or :5 "s occurr5ces ( a ^w mat*$ mod]n usage :ile o!r occurr5ces did n2 o!rwise1 all v>iations 7 reta9$4 ,words spell$ diff]5tly 9 quot$ mat]ial ?an 9 ! prim>y au?or's text 7 n *ang$4 ,simple typographical errors 7 correct$2 occasional unbalanc$ quotation m>ks rem$i$ :5 unambigu\s1 & o!rwise reta9$4 ,^! are not$ bel[4 ,sev]al *apt]s 7 omitt$ f ! ,engli% translation ( :i* ?is is a transcription4 ,! reasons = ?is are giv5 9 ! footnotes4 ,! ,index 0 n *eck$ = prop] alphabetization or correct page ref]5ces4 ,footnotes1 orig9ally at ! bottom pages1 h be5 collect$ & mov$ to ! end ( ?is e,book4 ,contr\l is always spell$ t way 9 ! orig9al book4 ,commit sometimes is us$ :]e mod]n practice w\ld use commits4 ,text uses bo? sometimes & "s times1 any?+ & any ?+4 ,! signatures on pages ix & #ag 7 actual signatures4 ,"s footnotes ref]5ce ,*apt]s t 7 omitt$ f ?is translation4 ,page #c3 ,jugem5s d' ,olron likely is a mispr9t = ,jugem5ts d' ,olron2 ,saurez may be a mispr9t = ,su>ez4 ,page #ba3 dikaimata 0 mispr9t$ z dikamata & has be5 *ang$ "h4 ,page #dc3 ,no mat*+ clos+ quotation m>k f\nd = s5t5ce beg9n+ ',h[ c k+s s]ve ! ,"l'4 ,page #ee3 ,no mat*+ clos+ quotation m>k f\nd = clause beg9n+ ':at c be done by a magi/rate'4 ,page #ei3 ,no mat*+ clos+ quotation m>k f\nd = s5t5ce beg9n+ ',= ?\gh ,,"u ,,"s'4 ,page #gc3 ar*as polemn 0 mispr9t$ z ar*aspolemn2 *ang$ "h4 ,page #gh3 ,no mat*+ op5+ quotation m>k f\nd = s5t5ce end+ ':om he himself appreh5d$ injury or de/ruction4' ,page #ajg3 w n cont9ue to be same riv] likely is miss+ !4 ,page #aaj3 ,no mat*+ clos+ quotation m>k f\nd = clause beg9n+ 't he w\ld re/ore'4 ,page #aic3 :at is requir$ to be done at a 0 pr9t$ z to be "o at2 *ang$ "h4 ,page #bag3 sun-set 0 pr9t$ t way4 ,page #bah3 ,goliah 0 pr9t$ t way4 ,page #bdi3 un9jur$ or endang]$ may be a mispr9t = injur$4 ,page #bfg3 aitias 0 mispr9t$ z aitias2 *ang$ "h4 ,page #bhf3 ,transcrib] add$ clos+ quotation m>k at ! end ( ! p>agraph end+ ) 'or ev5 imm95t dang]4' ,page #caj3 ! colon 9 :i* is an act ( ju/ice3 9 ! next place 0 poorly pr9t$1 & may be ei!r a diff]5t punctuation m>k or j a space4 ,page #cad3 ! clos+ quotation m>k 9 'd5om9ation ( pirates & robb]s4 ,)' 0 add$ by ! ,transcrib]4 ,page #cba3 ,transcrib] add$ a comma 9 by t act1 volunt>ily because !re 0 excess space betwe5 ! words1 :i* sugge/$ a mispr9t4 ,page #cgh3 to rema9 neut] 0 pr9t$ t way4 ,footnote #ah3 ,transcrib] add$ a clos+ quotation m>k at ! end ( ! footnote4 ,footnote #ai3 ,transcrib] add$ a clos+ quotation m>k aft] 'my neglect or refusal4'