,,the ,,theistic ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,,an ,,essay ,,in ,,opposition ,,to ,,certain ,,tendencies ,,of ,,modern ,,thought4 ,,by ,b4 ,f4 ,,cocker1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,mental ,,and ,,moral ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,michigan2 ,,author ,,of ,,christianity ,,and ,,greek ,,philosophy4 ,science discloses the method of the world1 but not its cause2 ,religion1 its cause1 but not its method4--,,martineau4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahge1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,,preface4 ,the present volume was announced in the preface to ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy as nearly ready for publication under the title of ,christianity and ,modern ,thought4 ,several considerations have induced the author to delay its appearance1 the most influential of which has been the desire to await the culmination among a class of self-styled advanced thinkers of what they have been pleased to call the tendency of modern thought4 ,no extraordinary sagacity was needed to foresee the issue1 or to predict that it must soon be reached4 ,the transition has been rapid from negative criticism of the ,christian religion to direct assault upon the very foundation of all religion--the personality and providence of ,god4 ,distrust of a supernatural revelation1 and denial of all authority to the teaching of the sacred ,scriptures1 has been succeeded by doubt of the existence of ,god in the proper import of that sacred name4 ,the ,theistic postulate is degraded to the rank of a mere hypothesis1 which is pronounced inadequate to explain the universe4 ,a law-governed ,cosmos1 full of life and reason1 eternal and infinite1 must now take the place of a personal ,god1 the ,creator and ,ruler of the universe4 ,this is the ,new ,faith which is to supersede the ,old4 ,the question1 ,are we still ,christians8 has received a final answer in the words of ,strauss3 ,if we would speak as honest1 upright men1 we must acknowledge we are no longer ,christians4#a ,and in giving this answer he is confident he speaks in the name of a large and rapidly increasing number of men who once believed in the truth of ,christianity--,the ,we ,i mean no longer counts only by thousands4#b ,the further question1 ,have we still a ,religion8 7understanding by religion the recognition and veneration of ,god1 and the belief in a future life7 is also answered in the negative4 ,religion is a delusion1 to abolish which ought to be the endeavor of every man whose eyes are open to the truth4#c ,the only question which now remains for the speculative intellect is1 ,what is our conception of the ,universe8--the conception which henceforth must take the place of a personal ,god4 ,the answer of ,strauss is explicit1 and in his estimation final3 ,the conception of the ,cosmos1 instead of that of a personal ,god as the finality to which we are led by perception and thought1 or as the ultimate fact beyond which we can not proceed1 444 assumes the more definite shape of matter infinitely agitated1 which1 by differentiation and integration1 develops itself to ever higher forms and functions1 and describes an everlasting circle by evolution1 dissolution1 and then fresh evolution4#d ,this may be called pantheism or atheism1 materialism or idealism1 just as we please2 ,strauss has no solicitude about mere names4 ,if this be considered pure1 unmitigated materialism1 ,i will not dispute it4 ,in fact1 ,i have always tacitly regarded the contrast so loudly proclaimed between materialism and idealism 7or by whatever term one may designate the view opposed to the former7 as a mere quarrel about words4 ,they have a common foe in the dualism which pervaded the conception of the world throughout the ,christian era1 dividing man into body and soul1 his existence into time and eternity1 and opposing an eternal ,creator to a created and perishable universe4#e ,the end is reached at last--no soul1 no ,god1 no providence1 no immortality6 ,we have waited for a culmination1 and now we are called upon to look1 not into the golden ,orient1 but vaguely all around into a dim1 copper firmament pregnant with earthquake and tornado4 ,or1 rather1 we are called to look into an abyss1 and1 shouting question after question into the ,sibyl-cave of ,destiny1 receive no answer save the ,everlasting ,no4 ,it only remains for us to listen to ,strauss's ,de ,profundis and retire4 ,the loss of the belief in providence belongs1 indeed1 to the most sensible deprivations which are connected with a renunciation of ,christianity4 ,in the enormous machine of the universe1 amid the incessant whirl and hiss of its jagged iron wheels1 amid the deafening crash of its ponderous stamps and hammers1 in the midst of this whole terrific commotion1 man--a helpless and defenseless creature--finds himself placed1 not secure for a moment that on some imprudent motion a wheel may not seize and rend him1 or a hammer crush him to powder4 ,this sense of abandonment is at first something awful4 ,but1 then1 what avails it to have recourse to an illusion8 ,our wish is impotent to refashion the world2 the understanding clearly shows that it indeed is such a machine4 ,but it is not merely this4 ,we do not only find the revolution of pitiless wheels in our world-machine1 but also the shedding of soothing oil4 ,our ,god the world-machine does not1 indeed1 take us into his arms from the outside1 but he unseals the well-spring of consolation within our own bosoms4444 ,he who can not help himself in this matter is beyond help1 is not yet ripe for our stand-point4#f ,there is a weighty and solemn lesson in this illustration of the tendency of modern thought--a lesson which even ,strauss intended to teach the age1 viz41 that there is no discernible via media between the ,old ,faith and the ,new--between the belief in a personal ,god and the impersonal ,all4 ,the ,new ,faith must at last be the faith of all who reject providence1 that providence which is pre-eminently revealed in history1 instituting a kingdom of ,god upon earth by a supernatural guidance and grace4 ,the issue1 now so sharply and clearly defined1 between a ,god and no ,god1 has determined a change in the plan of our work1 and justifies1 we trust1 the attempt we have made to restate and defend ,the ,theistic ,conception of the ,world4 ,those who have done me the honor to read ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy will detect in the present volume a radical change of views concerning the concepts ,time and ,space4 ,this change of position is the result of patient reconsideration of this branch of the discussion1 and we allude to it here simply to guard against the charge of unconscious inconsistency4 ,the views presented in this volume must stand or fall on their own merits4 ,the author has to acknowledge many obligations to his friend1 ,dr4 ,bernard ,moses1 for material aid rendered in getting this work through the press4 ,,university ,,of ,,michigan1 ,july1 #ahge4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,problem ,,stated #ac ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,god ,,the ,,creator #bg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,creation #ef ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,creation4--,,the ,,genesis ,,or ,,beginning #ig ,,chapter ,v4 ,,creation3 ,,its ,,history #abg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,conservation4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,the ,,world #agb ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,conservation4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,the ,,world #bjb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,providence ,,of ,,god ,,in ,,human ,,history4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,humanity #bdd ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,special ,,providence ,,and ,,prayer #bib ,,chapter ,x4 ,,moral ,,government4--,,its ,,grounds1 ,,the ,,correlation ,,between ,,god ,,and ,,man #cdd ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,moral ,,government4--,,its ,,nature1 ,,condition1 ,,method1 ,,and ,,end #cff ,to such readers as have reflected on man's life2 who understand that for man's well-being ,faith is properly the one thing needful2 how with it martyrs1 otherwise weak1 can cheerfully endure the shame and the cross2 and without it worldlings puke up their sick existence by suicide in the midst of luxury3 to such it will be clear that for a pure moral nature1 the loss of religious belief is the loss of every thing4 ,all wounds1 the crush of long-continued destitution1 the stab of false friendship and of false love1 all wounds in thy so genial heart1 would have healed again had not its life-warmth been withdrawn4 ,well mayest thou exclaim1 ',is there no ,god1 then2 but at best an absentee ,god1 sitting idle1 ever since the first ,sabbath1 at the outside of his universe and seeing it go8' ',has the word ,duty no meaning2 is what we call ,duty no ,divine messenger and guide1 but a false earthly phantasm made up of desire and fear8' ',is the heroic inspiration we name ,virtue but some passion2 some bubble of the blood1 bubbling in the direction others profit by8' ,i know not2 only this ,i know1 ,if what thou namest ,happiness be our true aim1 then are we all astray4 ',behold1 thou art fatherless1 outcast1 and the universe is--the ,devil's4'--,,carlyle4 ,,the ,,theistic ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,problem ,,stated4 ,as ,archimedes demanded only one fixed point in order to move the world1 so ,descartes desired to find one certain and indubitable principle upon which he could plant his feet and lift himself out of the universal doubt which environed him4 ,he found it in the proposition--,i exist4 ,this for me is the most direct1 immediate1 and certain of all intuitions4 ,i can not doubt1 ,i can not deny my own existence4 ,whatever else ,i doubt1 ,i can not doubt that ,i1 the doubter1 exist4 ,this ,i that thinks1 that is conscious1 is the fundamental reality4#g ,i see around me a plurality of personal existences who are self-conscious and self-manifesting beings--beings who think and feel1 and display their activities in time and space1 as ,i do2 and ,i can no more doubt their existence than ,i can doubt my own4 ,this combination of the content of external perception with that of internal perception gives the immediate consciousness of external reality4#h ,besides these personal existences analogous to my own1 there are other objects which exist in relation to my corporeal organism--relations of position1 distance1 and direction1 which are purely objective4 ,these existences offer resistance to my muscular effort to displace them in space1 and defy all my mental effort to reduce them to the category of subjective phenomena4 ,these objects have specific properties or exist in certain conditions which1 in their mutual relation with my sensitive organism1 produce in me certain vital affections1 as heat1 light1 color1 and sound4 ,these affections presuppose a force or energy outside of my consciousness1 and distinct from myself4 ,thus ,i am constrained to believe that the earth on which ,i tread1 the heavens that shine upon me1 the forms and movements which surround me1 are not vain shadows1 unreal phantoms of my own creation1 but real entities4 ,the totality of existence called the universe is for me a reality4 ,the phenomena of the universe are in ceaseless flow and change4 ,bodies are aggregated and dissolved4 ,plants are evolved from germs1 they live and grow1 then decay and perish4 ,animals and men are born and developed to maturity1 then they sicken and die4 ,the earth itself is in constant change4 ,the storms of heaven1 the erosion of the atmosphere1 the gnawing of the tidal wave1 the mountain torrent1 the flowing river1 the earthquake and the volcano1 are perpetually changing the aspect of the globe4 ,there is perpetual genesis1 ceaseless becoming1 incessant change4 ,beneath all these changes there is an enduring something4 ,there are abiding constants as well as fleeting changes2 enduring realities as well as unstable phenomena4 ,the same forms and relations1 the same forces and laws1 the same analogous functions1 and the same archetypal ideas1 remain amid all individual changes4 ,there is an enduring substance which is the subject of all these changes4 ,there is a permanent force1 or power1 which is the cause of all change4 ,there are constant numerical proportions1 determinate geometrical forms1 specific ideal archetypes1 and special ends1 which give the law of all change4 ,the universe is not a mere aggregation of phenomena1 a mere concourse of things in time and space with accidental resemblances3 it is a unity1 a cosmos1 a harmonious whole1 both in its contemporaneous and successive history4 ,so much is and always has been known1 with more or less clearness and distinctness by all men1 and known by a spontaneous and immediate intuition4 ,this intuition1 like every intuition1 even the commonest intuition of sense1 has had a gradual development both in the consciousness of the individual1 and in the consciousness of the race4 ,it has always been immanent in human thought even when not articulately expressed in human language4 ,to the native common-sense of our race1 the world is a reality1 not a dream2 to the universal reason of mankind the universe is a harmony1 not a chaos4 ,men have instinctively apprehended some ideal relations1 some causal connection1 some adaptation and purpose in nature1 and they have always had some intuition1 however dim and shadowy1 of an all-pervading unity1 and an ultimate causative principle4 ,but when the universe has become the object of reflective thought1 when man has attempted a colligation of the individual facts1 and an ideal construction and rational interpretation of the phenomena1 when he has sought to grasp the manifoldness and diversity of nature in a higher unity of thought1 and1 above all1 when he has attempted to pass beyond phenomena and their relations1 and form a conception of the absolute reality and ultimate cause--then it is that difficulties have arisen and questions have presented themselves which have perplexed the discursive reason1 and taxed the genius of the ablest thinkers of every age4 #a4 ,first of all1 there have arisen the fundamental questions3 ,has the universe always existed1 or had the ,cosmos1 with its changes and constants1 its forces and laws1 its forms and relations1 a ,beginning8 ,is its present condition but one link in an endless chain1 one phasis in a series of changes1 which had no beginning and shall have no end8 ,is the universe limited both in space and duration1 or is it unlimited1 unbeginning1 and endless8 #b4 ,if the universe had a beginning1 what is the --the originant1 causative ,principle in which or from which it had its beginning8 ,how are we to conceive aright that ,first ,principle of all existence and of all knowledge8 is it material or spiritual1 intelligent or unintelligent8 #c4 ,what conception are we to form of the nature and mode of that beginning8 ,was it a pure supernatural ,origination--an absolute creation8 or was it simply a ,formation out of a first matter or first force--an artistic1 architectonic1 demiurgic creation8 ,was that beginning determined by necessity or by choice8 ,was it an unconscious emanation from1 or a necessary development of1 the ,first ,principle2 or was it a conscious forth-putting of power for the realization of a foreseen1 premeditated1 predetermined plan--a mental ,order4 #d4 ,a supernatural ,origination being assumed1 then1 from that first initial act of absolute creation1 has the process of formation been gradual1 continuous1 and uniform--a progressive ,evolution from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous1 from lower to higher forms1 according to a changeless law of uniformity and continuity8 or have there been marked1 distinct1 and successive stages of formation--creative epochs which may be called new beginnings8 ,is the historic unity of creation a unity of ,thought1 an ideal consecution8 or is it simply a physical unity grounded in a material nexus--a genetic connection resulting from the necessary action of physical causes8 #e4 ,what is the relation of the ,creator to the existing creation8 ,is the ,deity1 in any sense1 immanent in1 or does he dwell altogether apart from1 and out of all connection with1 the universe8 ,has any finite thing or being an independent existence8 ,have the forces of nature any reality apart from the ,divine efficiency8 ,did the ,creator1 in the beginning1 give self-being to the substance of the universe1 and endow it with properties and forces1 so that it can exist and act apart from1 and independently of1 the ,first ,cause8 or is ,god still in nature upholding all substance1 the power of all force1 the life of all life1 shaping all forms1 and organizing all systems8 ,is ,god not only the ,creator but the ,conservator of all things8 #f4 ,is there any ,ethical meaning1 any moral significance in the universe8 ,is the physical order of the universe subordinated to a moral order in which freedom exists8 ,are there any indications that the existence of moral personality is the end toward which all the successive changes of nature have tended1 and the progressive types of life have been a preparation and a prophecy8 ,was the earth designed to be a theatre for the development of moral character1 the education and discipline of moral beings8 ,does the course of history reveal a power that works for righteousness1 and aims at the highest perfection of rational and free beings8 ,in a word1 is there a ,providential ,government of the world8 #g4 ,does man stand in a more immediate relation to ,god than the things of nature8 ,is each individual the charge of a providence1 the subject of a moral government1 and the heir to a future retribution8 ,has man a spiritual and immortal nature8 ,has he the power so to determine his own action and character that he can justly be held accountable1 and treated as the proper subject of reward and punishment8 ,in the final issue of things1 will every human being meet his righteous deserts1 and be rewarded or punished according to his works8 ,in short1 is man under ,moral ,government8 ,these are the great1 the vital questions of to-day4 ,in one form or another they have engaged the attention and stimulated the earnest thought of the ablest and best of minds in past ages2 and1 whether from the inherent demand of reason1 or the promptings of instinctive curiosity1 they have a deeper hold on the mind of this1 than of any preceding age4 ,we approach the discussion of these questions with a profound conviction of their magnitude and difficulty1 and an oppressive foreboding that our essay will be pronounced ambitious and vain4 ,their vastness seems to defy our admeasurement1 and their complexity and difficulty may defeat our feeble efforts at solution4 ,the mer-de-glace of the ,infinite is covered with myriads of philosophic insects which have been carried up there and lost4 ,may we hope for any better fate8 ,do the problems permit any solution at all8 ,of one thing1 at any rate1 we are sure3 these questions are native to the human mind4 ,they arise spontaneously in presence of the facts of the universe4 ,however much of human effort to solve these problems has ended in failure and defeat1 the human mind has never lost confidence in the possibility of their ultimate solution1 and humanity has never abandoned them in despair4#i ,a few impatient souls have plunged into ,pyrrhonism and taken refuge in universal skepticism2 while others have sought to organize nescience into a science4 ,but patient1 earnest souls have never cast away their faith in the integrity of universal reason1 and have never ceased to believe that its ideas and laws are1 in truth1 the ideas and laws of the universe4 ,these problems are the great problems of all philosophy1 and all religion2 and unless philosophy be a dream1 and religion an illusion1 they are capable of such a solution as shall satisfy the reason of man4#aj ,this conviction1 which is common to the mass of thoughtful men1 will justify every attempt of philosophy to attain to an ultimate unity of thought4 ,the ultimate harmony of physical1 philosophical1 and religious truth is the faith of all noble minds4 ,the signs of the times are propitious4 ,to-day the conflict between reason and faith1 science and religion1 presents many hopeful indications of an approaching conciliation4 ,candid men in both fields are earnestly working1 and patiently watching1 and hourly catching clearer glimpses of the everlasting harmony which pervades the universe of being and of thought4 ,every1 even the smallest1 contribution made with an honest purpose to give confidence and collimation to this movement1 will be welcome to all earnest minds4 ,this may be our apology for attempting a task that belongs to stronger intellects than ours4 ,it is obvious1 at first thought1 that the questions before us admit of no loose and desultory treatment4 ,abysses are not to be concealed by laurel screens1 or chasms bridged by flowers of rhetoric4 ,if we are to reach any satisfactory conclusions1 our procedure must be rigidly systematic and logically exact4 ,we must have a fixed point of departure1 and1 if possible1 a faultless method of advance4 ,the fundamental question must be determined4 ,the central problem must be ascertained1 and we must deal with all correlative questions in their logical connection with the one fundamental inquiry4 ,first of all1 then1 can we place that central problem clearly before our mental vision8 ,amid the diverse questions which spontaneously arise in presence of the diversified phenomena of nature1 and the wonderful evolutions of humanity1 can we fix upon the one question in which all others are involved--the grand underlying problem which comprehends them all8 ,a little reflection will make it apparent that the problem of all problems is this-- ,how shall we conceive aright the ,,first ,,principle and ,,origin of all things1 itself unoriginated and unbeginning1 the source of all beginnings8 ,or again1 what is that ,,first ,,principle which1 being assumed1 shall be found a sufficient explanation of the motion and change1 the order and adaptation1 the life and feeling1 the consciousness and reason1 we call1 collectively1 the universe8 ,this is clearly the fundamental question on which all the others are grounded1 and in the solution of which they have their solution4 ,the universe presents itself to sense and sense-perception as a perpetual genesis1 a vast aggregation and history of phenomena conditioned in time and space which1 by its diversity and mutability1 is disqualified from being regarded as independent and self-existent4 ,to our experiential knowledge1 to our physical science in its highest generalizations1 the universe is a product1 an effect4 ,and it is an effect for which the reason demands an explanation and a cause4 ,it is a manifoldness and diversity which the logical understanding is ceaselessly endeavoring to reduce to a unity4 ,indeed1 every movement of thought1 from the first rude attempt at classification on the simple basis of resemblance1 upward to the recognition of more profound ideal relations and uniform laws1 until its culmination in the highest integration of reason1 is but the effort of the mind to grasp the individual facts of nature in a unity of thought1 and interpret the universe according to principles and ideas which the reason supplies4 ,the moment reflective thought is directed to the phenomenal world1 the questions spontaneously arise--,out of what does the phenomenal come8 ,by what agency or efficiency does it arise8 ,why does it present itself in this order rather than another8 ,or1 more specifically--,what is the abiding reality which sustains the array of phenomena8 ,what is the invisible power which effects all the changes we see around us8 ,what is that unseen presence which determines the forms1 relations1 and adaptations which every where present themselves to the reason of man8 ,in a word1 ,what is that ultimate principle--the last or remotest in the order of analytic thought1 the first in the order of being and of reason--which sustains and moves and organizes and governs all--that fundamental1 abiding ,,primus which is everlastingly present behind the scenery and changes of the world--that which always was1 and now is1 and ever shall be ,,first8 ,or if we permit ourselves to regard the present order of things as a necessary out-birth from the past1 still we are compelled by a laborious effort of regressive thought to climb upward through a series of changes to an absolutely ,,first of the series conditioning all the other members1 but itself unconditioned4 ,few will now claim that this is the natural and adequate cosmical conception2 but1 even under this mode of conception1 we can not but feel that a development without a beginning of the process1 a series without a first term1 is impossible4 ,the absolute infinity of a series is a contradiction in adjecto4 ,as every number1 although immeasurably and inconceivably great1 is impossible unless unity is given as its basis1 so every series1 being itself a number1 is impossible unless a first term is given as its commencement4 ,therefore the question still returns--,what is that ,first ,principle of all things8 ,in obedience to this demand of reason1 or impelled by an innate wonder--the feeling of the philosopher--men have in all ages attempted an ideal construction and rational interpretation of the universe4#aa ,the ,mythologies1 ,cosmogonies1 ,philosophies1 ,religions of the ancient world were the simple products of this innate tendency4 ,beyond the circle of thought illuminated by ,divine revelation1 the first movement of reflection was unmethodical and incomplete4 ,pursuing the inquiries objectively1 that is1 in the realm of outward nature1 and not subjectively in the realm of reason1 the human mind was perpetually entangled with dualistic conceptions4 ,there were contrarieties1 polarities1 antagonisms1 which the logical understanding could not cancel4 ,hence we have1 as an early1 perhaps the earliest1 form of construction1 an ,oriental ,dualism--as in the ,adonis and ,moloch of the ,phnicians1 the ,isis and ,osiris of the ,egyptians1 the ,ormuzd and ,ahriman of the ,persians1 the ,chaos and ,love of ,orpheus1 the ,plenum and ,vacuum 7,matter and ,space7 of ,democritus1 and even some lingering taint in the ,god and ,necessity of ,plato's ,timus4 ,but all this was unsatisfactory to human reason1 which is a unity1 and which makes its imperious demand that absolute unity shall stand at the fountain-head of being4 ,it has never been able to rest in an ,ultimate which was not an ,absolute--that is1 a unity which by its very idea and conception is the negation of all plurality and mutability2 a unity which is unconditioned1 and yet which conditions all2 an eternal constancy1 the voluntary cause of all genesis and all change4#ab ,it is a law of reason1 under which alone it can maintain its integrity1 that the ,first ,cause must be ,,one1 and not many4 ,an absolute cause must be one in order to be absolute2 two absolutes is a contradiction4 ,with more or less clearness1 men in all ages have apprehended that the ,first ,principle must be one or nothing4 ,this is tacitly conceded in all modern systems of thought4 ,bchner1 the materialist2 ,spencer1 the dynamist2 ,hegel1 the idealist2 ,cousin and ,coleridge1 the spiritualists1 know no divergence here4 ,atheism1 ,pantheism1 and ,theism alike commence with unity at the fountain-head of being--a unity which is incomposite1 absolutely continuous1 every where present and eternal4 ,every system of philosophy is essentially an effort to show how the universe that now is has been originated by1 or evolved out of1 or has emanated from1 a ,first ,principle1 an absolute ,unity4 ,to determine whether this absolute ,first ,principle can be known1 and1 if known1 how conceived and expressed aright1 is the ultimate problem of all philosophy and all religion4 ,all the answers which have been given1 and1 indeed1 all which can be conceived1 are contained in the following four propositions3 #a4 ,in the beginning was ,,matter--matter as the original substance or substratum1 with its inherent1 essential1 and necessary attribute of force2 this alone is eternal and infinite4 ,no force without matter--no matter without force4 ,matter and its immanent force is immortal and indestructible4 ,the world is unlimited and infinite4#ac ,matter1 with its primary forces of attraction and repulsion1 cohesion and affinity1 is fully adequate to the explanation of all the phenomena of the universe1 physical1 vital1 and mental4 #b4 ,in the beginning was ,,force--force homogeneous but unstable1 and necessarily tending to differentiation and heterogeneity2 splitting into opposites1 standing off into polarities1 ramifying into attractions and repulsions1 light1 heat1 magnetism1 and electricity2 and mounting up through the stages of physical1 vital1 and neural to the mental life itself1 with all its varied and endless phenomena1 as revealed in the languages1 laws1 institutions1 arts1 sciences1 and religions of the world4 ,force is the ultimate of all ultimates1 the ,absolute ,reality1 the ,unconditioned ,cause4#ad #c4 ,in the beginning was ,,thought--thought as an eternal process of self-manifestation and self-actualization1 which in its necessary evolution reveals itself as force1 and expresses itself in the varied types of existence and laws of phenomena1 natural and spiritual4 ,the ,absolute ,idea1 as a perpetual process1 an eternal thinking1 is the supreme principle of all reality4 ,the idea of the ,absolute ,spirit comprehends the entire wealth of the natural and the spiritual world2 it is the only substance and truth of this wealth1 and nothing is true and real except so far as it forms an element of its being4#ae #d4 ,in the beginning was ,,will--an unconditioned ,will as the indivisible unity and perpetual differentiation of ,reason and ,power and ,love4 ,this ,unconditioned ,will is the causative principle of all ,reality1 all ,efficiency1 and all ,perfection--a causative principle containing1 predetermining1 and producing all the manifold forms and relations1 forces and laws of the universe in reference to a final purpose4 ,this ,absolute ,first ,cause is a living personal ,being1 from whom1 in whom1 and to whom are all things4#af ,the first and second of these propositions coalesce with the creed of ,atheism1 the third with the creed of ,pantheism1 the fourth is the creed of ,theism1 and1 as we hope to prove in subsequent chapters1 the only rational and adequate explanation of the facts of the universe4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,god ,,the ,,creator4 ,in the beginning ,,god created the heaven and the earth4--,gen4 i4 #a4 ,,god that made the world and all things therein4444 ,he is ,lord of heaven and earth4--,acts xvii4 #bd4 ,the ,eternal ,will is the creator of the world as ,he is the creator of the finite person4--,,fichte4 ,god is the first principle1 the unconditioned cause of all existence4 ,this is the answer of ,christian doctrine to the great problem presented for solution in the preceding chapter4 ,whether this fundamental presupposition shall be finally accepted as the only adequate solution of the problem of existence will depend in a large degree upon our apprehension of the ,christian idea of ,god4 ,we shall1 therefore1 open the discussion by asking the question--,what is the content of our conception of ,god8 ,dogmatic theology might rest satisfied with the simple affirmation1 ,god is ,,god1#ag as against all the captious demands of science1 were it not necessary to render an account to itself of what1 at first sight1 might be pronounced a sublime tautology4 ,for1 while it is hereby confessed that ,god in his essential being is incomprehensible and ineffable1 so that to the ,christian as well as to the philosopher he is the great ,unknown1 still it is not hereby admitted that it is absolutely impossible to know ,god4 ,to affirm that ,god is absolutely the ,unknowable is simply to assert his unreality4 ,mr4 ,martineau has finely observed that this term is self-contradictory2 for we affirm by the use of it that we know so much that ,he can not be known4 ,nay1 it assumes the existence of ,god1 and in the same breath separates us from ,him forever4 ,but if it be admitted that ,god is1 it can not be absolutely impossible to know what ,he is4 ,the knowledge of existence and the form of existence mutually condition each other4 ,there must be something in the understanding answering to the term in the language of mankind1 and there must be something in the realm of being which is the ground of the idea in the reason of ,man4 ,the heathen have a presentiment1 a dim intuition of the unknown ,god1 and the inspired teacher may so declare ,him in human language that his hearers may receive a definite notion1 and attain to a practical knowledge of ,god4 ,the idea of ,god is a common phenomenon of the universal intelligence of our race1 and must have been present to the thought of man even before he uttered the name of ,god4#ah ,the moment man becomes conscious of himself1 and knows himself as distinct from the world1 that same moment he becomes conscious of a ,higher ,self--a living ,power upon which both himself and the world depend4 ,for this ,higher ,self all nations have found a name4 ,all languages have a term cognate with the ,saxon ,god1 which expresses that spontaneous consciousness of a supernatural power which is common to all minds--that intuition of a supramundane existence which is the ground and reason of all other existence4 ,even ,polytheism has a name for the abstract of all the gods1 which sets forth the ideas of being1 power1 causality1 and personality4 ,and in ,christian lands the term ,god1 without any periphrasis1 at once represents the idea of a ,being distinct from self and the world1 who is the ,maker of the world and the ,father of humanity4 ,for all practical ends it is enough to say ,god is ,god4 ,it is only when reflective thought seeks to express some more specific and determinate conception of the ,supreme ,being that we find ourselves under the necessity of adding other expletives to this term ,god4 ,it is therefore desirable that we should set down1 in a provisional form1 the general conception of ,god as it exists in the mind of the ,theist and the ,christian4 ,i can not do this better than by selecting from the writings of three men of diverse schools of thought--one a ,physicist1 another a ,metaphysician1 the third a ,theologian2 and all in a greater or less degree influenced by the teaching of the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,my first selection will be from the ,meditations of ,descartes1 who is regarded as the father of modern philosophy4 ,by the name of ,god1 says he1 ,i mean an infinite1 eternal1 immutable1 independent1 omniscient1 omnipresent substance1 by which ,i and all other things which are have been created and produced4#ai ,my second selection is from the ,principia of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 a work which1 by the general consent of the scientific world1 is the greatest contribution ever made to science4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton was a ,physicist rather than a ,metaphysician2 he will therefore represent to us the conception of ,god entertained by the scientific ,theist4 ,at the close of this his great work he writes3 ,the true ,god is a living1 intelligent1 powerful ,being1 and1 from ,his other perfections1 it follows that ,he is ,supreme1 or most perfect4 ,he is eternal and infinite1 omnipotent and omniscient2 that is1 ,his duration reaches from eternity to eternity1 ,his presence from infinity to infinity4 ,he governs all things1 and knows all things that are or can be done4 ,he is not eternity and infinity1 but eternal and infinite4 ,he is not duration or space1 but ,he endures and is present4 ,he endures forever1 and ,he is every where present2 and by existing always and every where1 ,he constitutes or causes duration and space4 ,since every particle of space is always1 and every indivisible moment of duration is every where1 certainly the ,maker and ,lord of all things can not be never and nowhere4444 ,god is the same ,god1 always and every where4 ,he is omnipresent1 not virtually potentially only1 but also substantially2 for virtue can not subsist without substance4 ,in ,him all things are contained and moved1 yet neither affects the other4 ,god suffers nothing from the motion of bodies2 bodies find no resistance from the omnipresence of ,god4 ,it is allowed by all that the ,supreme ,god exists necessarily2 and by the same necessity exists always and every where4444 ,we know ,him only by ,his most wise and excellent contrivances of things and final causes2 we admire ,him for ,his perfections2 but we reverence and adore ,him on account of ,his dominion4 ,a ,god without dominion1 providence1 and final causes is nothing else but ,fate and ,nature4 ,blind mechanical necessity1 which is certainly the same always and every where1 could produce no variety of things4 ,all that diversity of natural things which we find suited to different times and places could arise from nothing but the ideas and will of a ,being necessarily existing4 ,my last selection is from the ,grammar of ,assent1 by ,john ,henry ,newman1 formerly a ,protestant1 now a ,catholic divine4 ,prior to his change of theological position he published a remarkable work ,on the ,development of ,christian ,doctrine in ,aid of a ,grammar of ,assent1 the design of which is to exhibit the influence of philosophic thought upon the evolution of ,christian doctrine1 and to bring it into harmony with the theories of ,cosmical1 ,physiological1 and ,historical development1 which seem for the present to be in the ascendant4 ,for this reason ,i choose to employ his words1 as setting forth the conception of ,god which is generally entertained by thoughtful men4 ,at page ninety-seven of his last work1 ,the ,grammar of ,assent1 ,i read3 ,there is one ,god1 such and such in ,nature and ,attributes4 ,i say 'such and such1' for1 unless ,i explain what ,i mean by one ,god1 ,i use words which may mean any thing or nothing4 ,i may mean a mere anima mundi2 or an initial principle which once was in action and now is not2 or collective humanity4 ,i speak then of the one ,god of the ,theist and of the ,christian3 a ,god who is numerically ,one1 who is ,personal2 the ,author1 ,sustainer1 and ,finisher of all things1 the ,life of ,law and ,order1 the moral ,governor4 ,one who is ,supreme and ,sole2 like ,himself1 unlike all things besides ,himself1 which all are but his creatures2 distinct from1 independent of1 them all4 ,one who is self-existing1 absolutely infinite1 who has ever been and ever will be1 to whom nothing is past or future2 who is all perfection1 and the fullness and archetype of every possible excellence1 the ,truth itself1 ,wisdom1 ,love1 ,justice1 ,holiness2 ,one who is ,all-powerful1 ,all-knowing1 ,omnipresent1 ,incomprehensible4 ,these are some of the distinctive prerogatives which ,i ascribe unconditionally and unreservedly to the great ,being whom ,i call ,god4 ,these statements of the ,theistic conception will be regarded by most men as adequate and satisfactory4 ,they will be accepted by the scientific ,theist and approved by the dogmatic ,theologian4 ,they present the idea of ,god within the sphere of ,christian thought2 that is1 reflective thought informed and illuminated by the revelations of ,god which are given in the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,at the same time it must be confessed that they are defective in scientific form1 philosophical development1 and logical articulation4 ,they do not present the conception of ,god in harmony with any principles of ,rational ,integration4 ,they show no attempt to combine the various elements of this conception in the unity of an ,absolute ,principle1 an ,ultimate and ,fundamental ,idea4 ,the aim of all true philosophy is to attain to the insight of ,first ,principles1 yea1 to the insight of the ,absolute ,first ,principle from which whatever now is must be derived1 and in which whatever is must have its intelligible ground and sufficient reason4 ,there exists in man1 as the essential characteristic of his humanity1 a power or faculty of intelligence1 best named the ,reason1 which awakens in him the desire and furnishes to him the law that enables him to fulfill the inherent desire of combining all his manifold knowledges in the unity of such ,absolute ,first ,principle2 and the one fundamental law of this faculty is the ,law of ,sufficient ,reason1 which has been thus enounced by ,leibnitz3 ,whatever exists1 or begins to be1 must have a sufficient reason for its existence1 and why it is as it is1 and not otherwise2 or1 to give the principle a fuller1 and at the same time a legitimate expansion--,for all genesis1 or beginning1 there must be an adequate ,cause2 beneath all appearance1 all changeful and fleeting phenomena1 there must be a permanent ,being or ,reality2 beyond all the diverse and manifold1 there must be an ultimate ,identity1 an incomposite indivisible ,unity2 and in all order and special adaptation1 there must be a unifying ,thought1 a definite ,purpose and ,end4 ,the ,reason of man can find satisfaction and harmony only in the recognition of an ,absolute ,first ,principle which shall comprehend and unite all these universal and necessary ideas which are the correlates of the facts of experience2 that is1 an ,absolute ,first ,principle which shall be the ,ultimate ,reality1 the ,ultimate ,cause1 the ,ultimate ,unity1 and the ,ultimate ,reason of all existence4 ,in other words1 the ,reason is not and can not be satisfied without the clear insight of a ,causative ,principle containing1 predetermining1 and producing all the actual results we see around us1 with their orderly relations in reference to a final purpose1 reason1 or end2 and which causative principle exists not only as the originative and constructive1 but also as the conservative energy of all things2 a ,being who is before all things1 and by whom all things consist1 from whom1 in whom1 and to whom are all things4 ,and now what is this ,absolute ,first ,principle1 causative of all existence1 which the spontaneous reason has always intuitively apprehended1 and which the reflective reason has always found to be the adequate1 and only adequate explanation of the universe8 ,i answer in a word1 it is ,,an ,,unconditioned ,,will ,,or ,,self-,,directive ,,power1 ,,seeing ,,its ,,own ,,way1 ,,and ,,having ,,the ,,reason ,,and ,,law ,,of ,,its ,,action ,,in ,,itself ,,alone4 ,this always and every where has been intuitively apprehended1 with more or less clearness1 as standing at the fountain-head of all existence4 ,this1 then1 we shall postulate as the fundamental axiom of all rational integration1 viz41 ,,an ,,unconditioned ,,will1 the principle of all ,reality1 all ,efficiency1 and all ,perfection4 #a4 ,an unconditioned ,will which realizes itself in ,,ips,,ity--self-potency and self-affirmation2 expresses itself in that august name of ,god ,i ,,am2 and constitutes ,,absolute ,,reality4 #b4 ,an unconditioned ,will which manifests itself in ,,alterity--pluri-efficiency2 utters itself in the ,i ,,will of the creative fiat2 and constitutes ,,infinite ,,efficiency4 #c4 ,an unconditioned ,will which returns to itself in ,,totality--a complete ,ideal to be realized in ,creation2 which expresses its satisfaction in pronouncing all things very good1 and constitutes ,,perfect ,,personality4 ,the changeless correlation and inherent harmony of these ideas of the reason 7,reality1 ,efficiency1 and ,personality7 may be rendered more obvious by the following formula1 after the method of ,coleridge's polar logic4#bj ,,prothesis ,,unconditioned ,,will _/ _/-----------------_/ ------------------ ,,thesis _/ ,,mesothesis ,,antithesis _/ ,,ips,,ity-----,efficient ,,causality ,efficient----,,alterity _/ ,final _/ ----------------- _/------------------_/ _/ ,,totality ,,synthesis ,,prothesis expresses the absolute identity or eternal co-inherence of ,reason1 ,love1 and ,power 7the ,divine ,essence74 ,,thesis expresses ,power in the form of ,love 7the ,divine ,self-sufficiency and ,self-potency74 ,,antithesis expresses ,reason in the form of ,power 7the ,divine ,efficiency74 ,,synthesis expresses the diversity in unity of ,reason1 ,love1 and ,power 7the ,divine ,perfection74 ,and ,,mesothesis expresses the essential correlations which integrate the whole 7the ,triunity of the manifested ,god74 ,thus ,absolute ,reality1 ,infinite ,efficiency1 and ,perfect ,personality are all1 as a triplicity1 contained in the fundamental unity of an unconditioned ,will1 which has ,love as its motive1 ,power as its agent1 and ,reason as its light and law4 ,and now let us retire within our own consciousness1 and see if this fundamental axiom of rational integration--,will as the principle of all ,reality1 ,efficiency1 and ,perfection--is not reflected in our reason1 and evolved in our inner experience4 ,do we not find that the central point of our consciousness--that which makes each man what he is in contradistinction from every other man--that which expresses the real essence of the soul apart from its formal processes and regulative laws--is the ,,will8 ,without ,will man would fall back from the elevation which he now assumes to the level of impersonal nature3 in a word1 he would be a thing1 and not a power4 ,power1 spontaneity1 causality1 will--these1 or similar forms1 express1 as nearly as can be1 the essential nature or principle of the human soul4#ba ,furthermore1 it is obvious that mere ,power or ,energy does not suffice for the notion of ,will--there must also be ,reason and ,affection4#bb ,indeed1 ,will is contemplated universally as the inseparable union and perpetual differentiation of ,intelligence and originative ,power1 and as such the sole ground of the intelligibility of all causation4#bc ,a volitional act1 a moral and responsible act1 must be one which is performed under the influence of motives1 and for which1 when called to account1 we can assign valid reasons4 ,all true volition supposes a purpose or end to be realized1 an inward appetency or motive which makes the end desirable1 and the selection and adaptation of means to accomplish that end4 ,power divorced from reason is simply blind force1 and can not be dignified with the name of ,will4 ,the mind of man is sometimes in a predominant state of knowing1 sometimes in a predominant state of feeling1 and sometimes in a predominant state of determination4 ,to call these separate faculties1 however1 is altogether beside the mark4 ,no act of intelligence can be performed without some determination of the ,ego1 no act of determination without some cognition1 and no act of the one or the other without some amount of feeling being mingled in the process4 ,thus1 while each mental state may have its distinctive characteristics1 there is unity at the root--the identical ,ego1 spirit1 ,,will4#bd ,sensibility is the condition1 ,reason is the light1 ,will is the centre of human consciousness4 ,consciousness is a threefold phenomenon in which feeling1 knowing1 and self-determination are reciprocal elements1 and in their connection and simultaneousness1 and at the same time their differentiation1 they compose the entire intellectual life4#be ,the finite spirit or will unfolds itself1 first1 subjectively1 in the spontaneous affirmation of self-being or self-potency 7,,ips,,ity72 secondly1 objectively1 in the exertion of power to produce motion1 change1 phenomena 7,,efficiency72 thirdly1 synthetically1 in the unity of motive and intention1 purpose and act1 means and end 7,,personality74 ,thus does ,will present the middle point1 which embraces thought on the one hand and force on the other2 and which yet1 so far from appearing to us to be a compound arising out of them as an effect1 is more easily conceived as the originative prefix 7prothesis7 of all mental phenomena4444 ,it carries with it1 in its very idea1 the co-presence of thought as the necessary element within whose sphere it has to manifest itself2 its phenomena can not exist alone2 it acts on preconceptions1 which stand related to it1 not however as its source1 but as its conditions1 and are its co-ordinates in the effect1 rather than its generating antecedents4#bf ,psychological analysis leads us inevitably to this conclusion1 that all things are issued by ,will1 whether in the sphere of the finite or the infinite1 and therefore we postulate an ,,unconditioned ,,will1 ,a ,,perfect ,,mind1 at the source of all becoming4 ,thus1 as ,martineau truly remarks1 between the ,,force of the physical atheist and the ,,thought of the metaphysical pantheist1 we fix upon ,,will as the true balancing-point of a moral theism4 ,the intelligent reader scarce needs to be reminded that this is the conclusion reached by reflective thought in that best and fullest exhibition of it which is found in ,greek philosophy4 ,the great problem of ,greek philosophy1 as of all philosophy1 was1 ,what is the 1 the ,first ,principle--the ground and cause and reason of all existence8 ,the final answer of that age is found in ,plato1 for ,platonism was the culmination1 the ripened fruit of the ages of earnest thought which preceded ,plato4 ,he gathered up1 co-ordinated1 and grasped into unity the results bequeathed by the mental efforts of his predecessors4 ,the ,platonic answer to this great question of philosophy is clear and unequivocal4 ,a perfect ,,mind is the primal source of all being--a ,mind in which ,intellect1 ,efficiency1 and ,goodness are one and identical4 ,mind is the most worthy 4 ,god is the most excellent of causes4#bg ,mind is king of heaven and earth4#bh ,motion and life and soul and mind are present with absolute being4 ,we can not imagine being to be devoid of life and mind1 remaining in awful unmeaningness and everlasting fixture4#bi ,whatever begins to be1 must necessarily be produced by some cause2 for nothing can have its generation without a cause4 ,the ,maker and ,father of the universe 444 had no beginning of his being4 ,he formed the universe according to the eternal model or archetype which his own reason supplied1 and for motives which his own essential goodness proposed4 ,let us now tell for what cause the ,maker of this creation and this universe made it as it is4 ,he was good2 and he who is good grudges no advantage to any creature4 ,being thus free from envy1 ,he willed that the universe should be good like ,himself2 and this1 the special ground of the creation and the world1 which we receive from the wisest philosophers1 we must accept4#cj ,it would be easy to show that the recognition of intelligent ,will1 as standing at the fountain-head of all the force which is manifested in the universe1 is common to the first ,physicists of this age4 ,grove concludes his admirable essay on ,the ,correlation of the ,physical ,forces with these words3 ,in all phenomena the more closely they are investigated the more are we convinced that1 humanly speaking1 neither matter nor force can be created or annihilated1 and that an essential cause is unattainable by science--,causation is the ,,will1 ,creation is the act1 of ,god4#ca ,sir ,john ,herschel has not hesitated to express his conviction that it is but reasonable to regard the ,force of ,gravitation as the direct or indirect result of a consciousness or a ,,will existing somewhere4#cb ,dr4 ,carpenter1 with his usual sagacity in penetrating to the essential point1 remarks that the ,,will is that form of ,force which must be taken as the type of all the rest2 ,force must be regarded as the direct expression of ,,will4#cc ,if1 says ,wallace1 we have traced one force1 however minute1 to an origin in our own ,,will1 while we have no knowledge of any other primary cause of force1 it does not seem an improbable conclusion that all force may be ,,will-,,force1 and thus the whole universe is not only dependent on1 but actually is the will of higher intelligences or of one ,supreme ,intelligence4#cd ,in short1 the present attitude of science in relation to this great problem is1 ,i think1 fairly represented by the ,duke of ,argyll3 ,science1 in the modern doctrine of the ,conservation of ,energy and the ,convertibility of ,forces1 is already getting hold of the idea that all kinds of ,force are but forms and manifestations of some one ,central ,force issuing from some one ,fountain-head of ,power4 ,this one ,force1 into which all others return again1 is itself but a mode of action of the ,divine ,,will4#ce ,even ,spencer concedes that the ,force by which we ourselves produce changes1 and which serves to symbolize the cause of changes in general1 is the final disclosure of all analysis 444 all other modes of consciousness are derived from our consciousness of exerting ,force4#cf ,the order of nature is doubtless very imperfect1 but its production is far more compatible with the hypothesis of an intelligent will than with that of blind mechanism4#cg ,physical science is surely coming into harmony with metaphysical thought4 ,it looks upon nature with the eye of reason as well as the eye of sense4 ,and it reduces the phenomena to unity1 not simply by comparative abstraction1 which classifies under resemblance1 co-existence1 and succession1 but by that rational integration which operates under the necessary laws of substance1 causality1 intentionality1 and absolute unity4 ,it regards the forces of nature as the product or manifestation of a higher force--a force which is not merely dynamical in its nature--a force which can compass not merely concurrent and antagonistic motions in space1 but which is able so to adjust these concurrences and antagonisms as to construct agencies which shall realize designs--a force1 therefore1 which is thoughtful and percipient3 in one word1 intelligent--a force1 in fine1 which is not a mere mechanical dynamism in space and time1 but a true ,power existing in its type and fullness3 in one word--,god4#ch ,thus does all reflective thought1 whether directed to the phenomena of the human mind or the phenomena of nature1 confirm the priori intuition of an unconditioned ,will unfolding itself in ,thought and ,power1 and completing itself in a harmonious ,totality1 as the ,first ,principle and ,originative ,cause of all existences and of all relations1 of all individual beings1 and of that harmonious whole men call the ,cosmos4 ,and now we pass to the important question--,how are we to bring all our acquired conceptions of ,god into harmony with this fundamental idea8 ,assuming that we have certain conceptions of ,god which are derived from verbal instruction1 and ultimately from ,divine revelation1 can we bring these into unity under this ,first ,principle8 ,or1 in other words1 can we logically evolve the attributes and perfections of ,god out of this fundamental ,idea1 and find the result in harmony with the ,christian doctrine8 ,as the object of thought1 even of ,christian thought1 ,god must necessarily be conceived by us under the fundamental categories of ,being1 ,attribute1 and ,relation4 ,all objects of thought must come under these categories1 and out of or beyond these categories we can not think at all4 ,furthermore1 we can not think of ,god as the unconditioned ,being conditioning ,himself1 without conceiving ,him as ,reality1 ,efficiency1 and ,personality4 ,these constitute the conception of the ,divine essence whereby it is what it is4 ,when we think of the ,attributes of such a ,being1 we must necessarily conceive them as ,absolute1 ,infinite1 and ,perfect4#ci ,and when we think of the ,relations of ,god to finite existences and finite consciousness1 we are constrained to regard ,him as the ,ground and ,cause and ,reason of all dependent being4 ,in the unity and completeness of this categorical scheme of thought1 we can not fail to recognize the following logical order3 ,,being 7,essentia7 ,,reality ,,efficiency ,,personality ,,attribute 7,related ,essence7 ,,absolute ,,infinite ,,perfect ,,relation 7,free ,determination7 ,,ground ,,cause ,,reason ,,or ,,end ,in the ,absolute ,reality we have the ultimate ground2 in the ,infinite ,efficiency we have the adequate cause2 and in the ,perfect ,personality we have the sufficient reason or final cause of all existence4 #a4 ,,being or ,,essence1 as ,reality1 ,efficiency1 and ,personality4 ,the intuition of ,being is the most fundamental and the most abstract of all ideas4 ,after every property and relation has been eliminated1 there still remains the affirmation that something is4 ,non-existence1 except as the negation of being1 is inconceivable4 ,but1 at the same time1 pure being is the most indeterminate of all ideas4 ,simple being1 without attributes1 and out of all relation to other ideas1 is a notion without contents1 and consequently indescribable and unknowable4 ,for us1 therefore1 pure abstract being is equal to non-being1 and the paradox of ,hegel has some truth3 ,pure ,being ,nothing4 ,distinction--differentiation1 determination--is the condition of all reality4 ,real being must be determined1 only pure nothing can be undetermined4 ,the least determined being is the least real2 the most determined is the most real1 the most perfect being4 ,exactly in proportion as the nature of beings is differentiated and complicated do they rise in the scale of being4 ,the vegetable has more determinations than inanimate matter2 the percipient animal has more determinations than the vital plant2 rational man has more determinations than the percipient animal1 he is the most complicated1 the most determined1 and therefore the most perfect being in creation4 ,an absolutely perfect being must be the most determined of all beings2 he must contain within himself a fullness of determinations4 ,the pantheist ,spinoza tells us that determination is negation--that is1 limitation4 ,omnis determinatio negatio est4 ,nothing can be falser or more arbitrary than this principle4 ,its fallacy consists in the confusion of two things essentially different1 namely1 the limits of a being1 and its determinate characteristics4 ,a pure ,ego1 by determining itself to thought1 affection1 or action1 is not thereby limited4 ,the limitation or the illimitation depends simply upon the character of the thought1 affection1 or act as perfect or imperfect4 ,i am an intelligent being1 and my intelligence is limited2 these are two facts equally certain4 ,the possession of intelligence is the constitutive characteristic of my being which distinguishes me from the brute4 ,the limitation imposed upon my intellect1 which can only see a small number of truths at a time1 is my limit1 and this is what distinguishes me from the ,absolute ,being1 from ,perfect ,intelligence which sees all truths at a glance4 ,that which constitutes my imperfection is not certainly my being intelligent2 therein1 on the contrary1 lies the strength1 the richness1 and the dignity of my being4 ,what constitutes my weakness and my nothingness is that this intelligence is inclosed in a narrow circle4 ,thus1 inasmuch as ,i am intelligent1 ,i participate in being and perfection2 inasmuch as ,i am only intelligent within certain limits1 ,i am imperfect4#dj ,determination differs from limitation as much as being differs from nothing4 ,the ,causative ,principle of all reality must itself be real1 that is1 it must be a self-manifesting and self-conscious power1 for there can be no reality without consciousness4 ,being which is not known to itself1 and can not manifest itself1 is as though it were not4 ,intuition1 sui conscia1 is the essence of reality4 ,here being and knowing are identical4 ,it must also contain within itself a fullness of determinations1 must be rich in ideas1 must be the archetype of all possible existences4 ,all forms and relations1 all ideas and laws1 all individual and special adaptations1 all harmonious systems1 must be present to the ,absolute ,reality4 ,uncreated must be ,mental ,being4 ,this seems an invincible necessity of all thought4 ,whatever else1 or whatever more it is1 it must be ,mental ,being ,,reason4 ,the ,causative ,principle of all efficiency must itself be power1 pluri-efficiency1 it must be self-determined and self-moved1 and perfectly adequate to the production of being1 motion1 change1 life1 and intelligence objective to itself2 in a word1 it must be adequate to the realization of all the ideals which reason supplies2 it must be unlimited ,infinite ,efficiency ,,spirit4 ,the ,causative ,principle of all personality must itself be personal--that is1 it must have a self-conceived1 self-determined purpose2 must freely choose and wisely adapt the means to realize that purpose2 above all1 it must have a worthy motive1 a best and highest reason for both purpose and act2 and must make all conform to and result in a moral order in harmony with the blessedness and worthy the approbation of the ,all-perfect ,one4 ,intuition and choice1 affection and conscience--these are the grand momenta of personality4 ,the necessary demand of reason is that the first and originative cause of all finite personality shall be ,himself a person4 ,consciousness can not arise out of unconsciousness1 reason can not be generated from unreason1 personality can not have its birth from impersonality1 no more than something can be born of nothing4 ,there must be intelligence answering to our intelligence1 freedom answering to our freedom1 feeling responding to our feeling1 and moral sentiment unisonant with our moral sentiment3 in short1 personality correlated with our personality1 in the cause and author of finite responsible being4 ,that perfection which is mirrored in our finite personality exists in all its fullness in the unconditionally perfect ,being1 the ,perfect ,personality whose name is ,,love4#da ,god1 then1 is the ,absolute1 ,infinite1 and ,perfect ,being in whom1 by whom1 and for whom the finite has existence and consciousness4 ,he is the unconditioned1 conditionating ,will4 ,the ,divine ,essence can not be apprehended or expressed in a higher universal4 ,this is the first dim intuition of spontaneous reason1 and the final goal of all reflective thought4 ,the ,divine ,being is ,he who is before all1 and who originates1 destines1 and conditions all4 ,the ,biblical idea of the unconditioned ,being is in perfect harmony with the philosophical idea4 ,in the language of ,scripture1 the ,will of ,god stands for the remotest1 inmost essence of the ,godhead--a will which is the absolute identity1 the eternal co-inherence of reason1 power1 and love4 ,the ,divine ,will as efficient cause is never dissociated from the ,divine ,will as the formal cause and the final cause4 ,that will is at once cause and law and reason of all things4 ,god effectuates all things according to the counsel 7 deliberation1 purpose1 design7 of his own ,will 7,eph4 i4 #aa74 ,and not only according to the counsel1 but according to the good pleasure 7 the benevolent affection7 of his own will 7ver4 #e72 a good pleasure which ,he hath ,,purposed 77 in ,himself 7ver4 #i74 ,he created all things1 and for his own pleasure 7 will7 they are and were created4 ,here ,will is clearly more than power1 more than efficiency3 it is thought or purpose2 it is reason or end2 in a word1 it is the identity and co-inherence of reason1 power1 and love4 ,the unconditioned ,will as revealed to us in ,scripture is an intelligent ,will--a will that thinks1 deliberates1 counsels1 designs2 and it is also a benevolent ,will--a will that loves and delights in and desires the good of being4 ,and in thinking and desiring it effectuates1 for thinking and operating1 desiring and doing1 are one with ,god4 ,he speaks and it is done1 ,he commands and it stands fast4 ,creation is a speech of ,god1 a language in which ,he reveals his thoughts1 his purposes1 his benevolent designs1 his will--that is1 ,himself4 ,every revelation of ,god is the development in us of the consciousness of the ,,real ,,being 7 74 ,all the proofs of the being of ,god--the etiological1 the cosmological1 the teleological1 and the moral--are centred in the ontological3 this is first and last4 ,and just as our consciousness of the indivisible identical ,,ego as the unity and co-inherence of reason1 feeling1 and power is the exact arresting-point of psychological science1 beyond which thought can not pass1 so our intuition of the unconditioned ,,being as the absolute identity of ,reason1 ,power1 and ,love is the exact arresting point of ,theological science1 beyond which nothing can be known4 ,spirit1 ,light1 ,love--these designate essence or being4 ,,god ,,is ,,spirit 7 ,spirit1 not a ,spirit--,john iv4 #bd71 the self-moving1 efficient1 animating principle1 the unity and life-motion of the creative divine activity2 --vita absoluta--underived1 eternal ,life 7,john v4 #bf2 xi4 #be2 #a ,john v4 #bj74 ,,god ,,is ,,light 7#a ,john i4 #e71 the self-manifesting1 intuitional1 revealing principle 2 the ,eternal ,reason1 in which ,spirit becomes objective to itself1 and ,god is revealed to ,himself 7,john i4 #a2 #a ,tim4 vi4 #af74 ,,god ,,is ,,love 7#a ,john iv4 #h1 #af71 the self-complete1 self-sufficient1 self-satisfying principle 1 the ,perfect ,one 7,matth4 v4 #dh74 ,this ,divine ,love finds its fullest satisfaction in the 1 the intelligible world as revealed and rendered objective to ,himself in the ,,word4 ,reason1 ,spirit1 ,love are the simplest elements in the conception of the unconditioned ,being3 ,reason as ,reality1 ,spirit as ,efficiency1 and ,love as ,perfection4 ,the unconditioned ,being is revealed1 may we not say incarnated1#db in the --the sensible world3 #a1 by the incarnation of the ,spirit in the moving and animating forces of nature2 #b1 by the incarnation of the ,reason in the typical forms and permanent laws or relations of the universe1 by which reality becomes known to finite minds2 #c1 by the incarnation of ,love in the final causes1 the benevolent purposes1 which are realized in the completed ,cosmos and the life of ,humanity4#dc #b4 ,,attribute ,,or ,,related ,,essence4 ,the knowledge of the ,divine ,essence is the root of the knowledge of the ,divine ,attributes1 for in every conception of an attribute the ,divine ,essence is1 in some mode or other1 supposed4 ,we may therefore define an attribute as a conception of the unconditioned ,being under some relation to our consciousness4 ,that conception may be either positive or negative1 and the relation may consequently be one of causation or abstraction4 ,when we conceive of the ,divine ,essence as reality1 our conception is in some measure determined by our consciousness of reality4 ,the intuition of reality is immanent to our own consciousness4 ,we know self as a reality1 an indivisible1 identical ,ego--a unity1 but yet a conditioned and dependent reality1 which must have its ground and cause in an independent and unconditioned reality4 ,thus the pure intuition of reality is a preluding for the affirmation of absolute reality4 ,we can not1 however1 affirm such reality on purely subjective grounds4 ,to the eye of reason1 which is the organ of necessary and absolute truth1 the ,divine ,essence abstracts itself from the limits of space and time1 and absolves itself from all the determinations of objective being4 ,it is a reality which is not conditioned by kind1 a reality which is independent of1 absolved from1 undetermined by any other antecedent or contemporaneous being--absolute reality4 ,furthermore1 when we conceive the ,divine ,essence as power or efficiency1 our conception is in some measure determined by our consciousness of power4 ,we know ourselves as a power1 a cause of our own volitions1 and a power which can control and modify external nature1 but yet a limited and finite cause4 ,to the eye of reason the ,divine efficiency transcends all limitation and mensuration4 ,it is a power which is not conditioned by quantity4 ,it is limitless power1 spaceless1 all-mighty presence1 self-directive power1 carrying its own light and seeing its own way--infinite efficiency4 ,and1 finally1 when we conceive of the ,divine ,essence as personality1 again our conception is in some measure determined by our consciousness of personality4 ,we are conscious of desiring and purposing1 of determining and doing1 of approving and delighting in our artistic and ethical creations1 and in these we stand out from the plane of nature as persons and not things4 ,but we are also conscious of limitation and imperfection4 ,we fall short even of our own ideals2 we feel we have unsatisfied longings and daily wants4 ,the ,divine ,essence reveals itself to reason as exempt from all limitation by degree4 ,pure personality is no more limited than absolute being1 but it is deeper by all the contents of perfect consciousness4 ,it is a personality which has no defect and no want3 unconditioned1 unlimited perfection--perfect personality4 ,our conception of the ,attributes of ,god may thus be formed through some relation to our consciousness1 but by a process of immediate abstraction--the negation of all limitation by kind1 by quantity1 or by degree4 #a4 ,as related to our intuition of real being2 by abstraction from all other being and personality--the ,immanent attributes of ,god4 #b4 ,as causally related to finite1 dependent existence2 by elimination of all necessary limitation--the ,relative or ,transitive attributes of ,god4 #c4 ,as ethically related to finite personality2 by elimination of all imperfection--the ,moral attributes of ,god4 #a4 ,the ,,immanent attributes4 ,the absolute reality 7,,reason7 must necessarily be conceived as ,first1 ,supreme1 and ,sole2 must be underived1 and therefore eternal2 must be absolved from all necessary relation to other being1 and therefore independent2 must be above all law of change1 and therefore immutable2 must have incomposite unity1 and therefore indivisible2 and must be the only one1 for two absolutes would limit each other1 and are thus inconceivable4 ,finally1 absolute reality must be the fullness and archetype of all being in which every form and every relation1 every totality and every harmony1 conceivable or possible1 must be ideally and eternally present4 ,,eternity 7#a ,tim4 i4 #ag2 vi4 #ae1 #af2 ,rev4 i4 #d1 #h2 ,heb4 i4 #h74 ,,immutability 7,james i4 #ag2 ,psalm cii4 #bf1 #bg2 ,heb4 i4 #ab74 ,,unity 7,isaiah xliv4 #f2 ,eph4 iv4 #f2 #a ,tim4 ii4 #e2 ,john xvii4 #c74 ,,ideality 7,psalm cxxxix4 #af2 ,rom4 xi4 #cf2 ,acts xv4 #ah74 ,these are the immanent attributes of ,god4 #b4 ,the ,,transitive ,,or ,,relative attributes4 ,the ,infinite ,efficiency 7,,spirit7 must necessarily be conceived as all-mighty1 all-present1 and all-knowing4 ,the ,infinite ,spirit fills1 penetrates1 moves1 and vitalizes the universe4 ,he is in all1 and through all1 and transcends all4 ,he can not be bounded in space or limited in power1 therefore ,he is spaceless and infinite4 ,he is every where present1 not virtually but substantially1 for virtue can not subsist without substance4 ,and as the ,all-mighty is present every where1 present to all things1 so all things exist in ,him1 and are present to ,him in an immediate and intuitive vision--,he knows all things4 ,,omnipotence 7,psalm cxv4 #c2 ,jer4 xxxii4 #bg2 ,rom4 xi4 #cf2 #a ,cor4 viii4 #f74 ,,ubiquity 7,psalm cxxxix4 #g-ac2 ,jer4 xxiii4 #bc1 #bd2 #a ,cor4 xv4 #bh2 ,matth4 x4 #bi74 ,,omniscience 7,psalm cxxxix4 #a-f2 ,acts i4 #bd2 ,heb4 iv4 #ac2 ,matth4 vi4 #h74 ,these are the relative or transitive attributes of ,god4 #c4 ,the ,,moral attributes4 ,perfect ,personality 7,,love7 must by the very conception be wise and holy1 righteous and blessed1 for these are the attributes of personality1 and may all be ultimately grounded in love4 ,the reason of all existence and all personality is found1 not in infinite causality1 but in the free love of the perfect personality4 ,this is the final cause of all existence4 ,and if perfect ,love be the final cause of all existence1 it must know the end1 and ordain the law and means4 ,the highest end of the world is the perfect fellowship of man with ,god2 the physical must therefore be subordinated to the moral order of the universe4 ,the ,perfect ,personality must freely will to impart his fellowship to those who are obedient to his moral law2 and it must be removed from fellowship with and deny itself to evil1 which is antagonistic to the ends of ,love4 ,or1 in other words1 it must establish a fixed and changeless relation between righteousness and blessedness in the creature4 ,it must approve the good and condemn the evil4 ,and in making the righteous partakers of his joy1 ,he must be well pleased4 ,the absolute blessedness of ,god is found in the fullness and harmony of the ,divine life4 ,he has in ,himself the eternal and absolutely worthy object of his love4 ,but there is a ,divine satisfaction1 a good pleasure of ,god1 which is found in the communication of ,himself to the creature4 ,he rejoiceth in the habitable parts of the earth1 and his delights are with the sons of men4 ,he taketh pleasure in them that fear ,him1 in those that hope in his mercy4 ,,wisdom 7,job xii4 #ac2 ,rom4 xi4 #cc1 #cd2 ,eph4 iii4 #i1 #aj74 ,,goodness 7,psalm xxxiii4 #e2 xxxiv4 #h2 cvii4 #a1 #h74 ,,holiness 7,deut4 xxxii4 #d2 ,psalm v4 #e2 ,james i4 #ac1 #ag74 ,,blessedness 7#a ,tim4 i4 #aa2 vi4 #ae74 ,these are the moral attributes of ,god4#dd ,they are also called by pre-eminence the ,perfections of ,god1 because they are free determinations of the ,divine nature1 an everlasting ,,becoming1 rather than an eternal ,,being4 ,the immanent attributes of ,god are a necessary inbeing2 the moral attributes of ,god are a voluntary outgoing1 an eternally free1 alternative forth-putting of choice for the right and the good4#de ,the doctrine concerning ,god above presented1 in which we fain would hope that philosophy and ,christian thought are brought into harmony1 may now be summarily presented in the following schema3 ,fundamental ,idea of ,reason4 ,thought-,conceptions ,founded on ,relations4 7,essence7 ,,eternity as ,,absolute ,,reality4444 ,,immutability ,immanent ,,unity ,attributes4 ,,ideality ,,unconditioned ,,omnipotence ,transitive ,,will as ,,infinite ,,efficiency44 ,,ubiquity or ,causal ,,omniscience ,attributes4 ,,wisdom ,moral ,attributes as ,,perfect ,,personality ,,goodness 7,relational74 ,,holiness ,,blessedness ,the references to the ,sacred ,scriptures already given will show the harmony between the conceptions of reason and the verbal revelations of ,god4 ,reason and ,scripture unite in proclaiming that ,god is the great and holy ,one that inhabiteth eternity1 who only hath immortality1 with whom is no variableness1 and who filleth all in all2 to whom all his works are known from eternity1 in whose book all our members were written when as yet there was none of them1 and whose purposes1 ideas1 and plans are eternal4 ,these are mainly the immanent attributes of ,god1 conceptions which flow from the very idea of the ,absolute and ,infinite ,being4 ,they are evolved from ,real ,being by the negation of all limit1 all parts1 all change2 the canceling of time and space and matter1 the recognition of ,god as pure ,reason1 pure ,spirit1 pure ,love4 ,the ,scriptures1 however1 deal more immediately with the causal1 transitive1 and relational aspects of the ,divine attributes--that is1 with the conception of ,god in his voluntary relations to finite being and finite personality4 ,they speak of ,god in his historically known existence1 as a ,being who voluntarily conditions his ,omnipotence and ,sovereignty under concessions of self-reality1 self-life1 and freedom to finite beings1 without ,himself being conditioned by any thing--a self-limitation which in nowise detracts from the absoluteness and infinity of ,god--an unconditioned conditionating ,will4#df ,the relation which ,god sustains to his works is not a necessary relation--it is a voluntary and self-imposed relation4 ,free ,love is the highest determining principle for the efficiency of ,divine ,omnipotence4 ,power thus directed and conditioned by wisdom and love does not1 can not detract from the perfection of ,god4 ,the substitution of choice for necessity is1 in fact1 no real limitation2 on the contrary1 it ascribes to ,god the most absolute perfection4 ,the causal attributes of ,god1 or those conceptions of ,god which are especially grounded upon his relation to the world and humanity1 are properly divided into those which are ,cosmical and those which are ,ethical4 ,the first1 of course1 embrace his relation to the world1 the second his relation to personal1 responsible beings4 ,the content of the cosmological conception is ,omnipotence1 ,ubiquity1 ,omniscience4 ,the content of the ethical conception is ,wisdom1 ,goodness1 ,holiness1 and ,blessedness4 ,god as the ,creator and ,sustainer of the world1 ,god as the ,father1 ,teacher1 and ,ruler of humanity1 are the two grand manifestations of the one infinite and perfect ,being1 and ,elohim and ,jehovah are his expressive and distinctive names1 the first denoting the cosmical activity of ,god1 the latter his government and kingdom among men4 ,these two grand aspects of the ,divine manifestation are marked in the ,elohistic and ,jehovistic portions of the first revelation given to the ,semitic race4 ,they are still more distinctly recognized in ,paul's discourse before the assembled ,athenian philosophers1 where ,christian theology was for the first time presented to the ,greek mind--,god the ,creator and ,conservator of the world 7,acts xvii4 #bd1 #be72 ,god the ,father1 ,teacher1 ,ruler1 and ,judge of humanity 7,acts xvii4 #bf-ca74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,creation4 ,god is the ,absolute1 ,infinite1 and ,perfect ,being1 in whom1 through whom1 and for whom are all things4 ,this is the ,christian conception of ,god2 and it is the only conception which furnishes an adequate and satisfactory explanation of all the facts of the universe4 ,here we have a ,first ,principle1 an ,originative ,cause which is sufficient to account for all existence4 ,but what conception are we to form of the nature and mode of this ,origination8 ,was it a pure1 supernatural ,origination1 an absolute ,creation8 or was it simply a formation out of a first substance existing coeval with and independent of ,god8 ,was that act of creation determined by necessity8 was it an unconscious emanation from1 or a necessary development of that ,first ,principle8 ,or was it a conscious1 free exertion of power for the realization of a foreseen and predetermined plan--a mental ,order8 ,what is the ,biblical conception of ,creation8 ,this is the question we must now endeavor to answer4 ,until very recently it has been the practice of theologians to attempt the determination of the ,biblical notion of ,creation on purely philological grounds4 ,it is now generally conceded that this method is inadequate and inconclusive4 ,the ,greeks probably never conceived the idea of an absolute creation 7commonly1 though we judge incorrectly1 styled creation ex nihilo71 and consequently the ,greek language has no terms expressive of a primal origination1 an absolute beginning of the world4 1 the term employed in the ,,lxx4 7,gen4 i4 #a71 and also by ,st4 ,paul 7,acts xvii4 #bd71 means to endow with a certain quality 7 qualis7--to construct1 make1 form1 build1 and evidently conveys the notion of formation rather than origination1 the production of qualitative phenomena rather than real entity2 is also ordinarily used in the sense of forming1 fashioning1 building1 and seems to imply pre-existing materials4 ,there is also a wide difference of opinion among ,oriental scholars with respect to the precise import of the verbs 7bara71 7aysah71 and 7yetsar71 as employed in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,some distinguished critics1 as ,parkhurst1 ,clarke1 ,lange1 and ,delitzsch1 assert that means to originate de novo1 to create in an absolute sense2 and that and strictly mean to fashion out of pre-existent materials4#dg ,but ,pusey1 ,kitto1 ,tayler ,lewis1 and some of the ,rabbinical commentators 7,aben ,ezra especially71 affirm that 1 both by its etymology and its connections1 indicates formation as much as origination1 and is1 in fact1 indifferent and neutral either as to a supposed creation ex nihilo1 or a creation1 that is1 a formation from pre-existing materials4 ,furthermore1 it is affirmed that the three ,hebrew verbs are used indiscriminately in the ,mosaic record4 ,it is said in ,gen4 i4 #bg that ,god created man1 and that statement is amplified and explained at ch4 ii4 #g3 ,and the ,lord ,god formed man out of the dust of the earth4#dh ,an appeal to the merely verbal expressions of ,scripture does not1 therefore1 promise any satisfactory and conclusive results4 ,by what method1 then1 are we to determine the ,biblical notion of ,creation8 ,clearly1 not by a critical study of the several words which are employed to express the creative act--not by confining our attention to the visible embodiment of the ,divine word1 and neglecting the informing thought4 ,we must ground our conception of creation upon the fundamental ideas and principles of ,divine revelation1 and determine it in harmony with the ,christian idea of ,god1 and the ,christian doctrine of the relation of the world to ,god4 ,these fundamental principles we have already presented4 ,they may be succinctly restated in the following propositions3 7#a47 ,god is the one only self-existent1 independent1 unconditioned ,being1 who alone hath immortality1 the incorruptible or immutable ,god 7 71 with whom is no variableness or shadow of change4#di 7#b47 ,god is the sole causality of the heavens and the earth1 in the most absolute sense4 ,whatever is1 and is not ,god1 is the creature of ,god4 ,by ,him were all things created which are in heaven and which are upon earth1 things visible and things invisible--the objects of sense-perception and of rational intuition4 ,the origin1 development1 and end1 the principle1 law1 and reason of all existence1 are in ,god and from ,god-- 1 1 4#ej 7#c47 ,the all of the finite is in ceaseless and complete dependence on the ,divine causality--,he upholdeth all things1 and by ,him all things consist4 ,our interpretation of the formal language of ,scripture1 especially of the verbs which are employed to denote the act of creation1 must therefore be informed and determined by these fundamental principles4 ,if ,god is the unconditioned ,cause of all existence1 then the ,creation must be the absolutely free and self-determined act of ,god4 ,as such1 it can not have been conditioned by any immanent necessity in the ,divine nature itself1 nor by any necessary existence out of and extraneous to the ,divine nature4 ,by this conception of ,god1 and of his relation to the world1 we are debarred from supposing the coeval existence of any thing besides ,god 7e4 g41 1 of ,plato1 the of ,aristotle1 the matter of the modern ,physicist7 as the condition and medium of the ,divine agency and manifestation4 ,while1 therefore1 it is acknowledged that in ,gen4 i4 #ba1 #bg1 7bara7 denotes the formation of organic bodies out of pre-existent materials1 we can not be restricted to this meaning of the term when dealing with verse #a1 ,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth4 ,we are compelled to believe that bara here means origination--origination de novo2 first1 because the primal act of creation must have been a supernatural1 miraculous production of something which had not previously existed under any form--an unconditioned creation antecedent to nature2 and1 secondly1 because we are informed that after this primal act of creation1 the earth was still without form and void4 ,no possible ingenuity of criticism can construe that opening sentence of revelation to mean1 ,in the beginning ,god gave form to pre-existing matter4 ,that first beginning is the principium principiorum1 the beginning of all beginnings1 and must be distinguished from the six new beginnings of the six days' work4#ea ,we must regard this sublime utterance1 standing at the head of all ,god's communications1 as affirming this foundation-idea of revelation--that ,god is the sole causality of the heavens and the earth in an absolute sense1 the efficient cause of time1 and all temporal relations2 the all-mighty cause of space1 and all spatial relations2 the originator of the primordial substance1 and all its qualities--in a word1 the unconditioned ,creator of all finite being1 quality1 and relation---- --in principio--first of all 7in the order of conception rather than the order of time7 ,god originated1 laid the foundations of1 the heavens and the earth4#eb ,and now that the ,creation here affirmed was an absolute origination1 a bringing into being of the primordial elements out of which the heavens and the earth were subsequently formed1 is the doctrine of the best ,hebrew lexicographers4 ,it is held by many of the best authorities that the particle 7ayth7 means the very substance of1 the very or real essence4 ,frst1 in his recently published ,hebrew and ,chaldee ,lexicon1 gives being1 essence1 substance1 as the meaning of ayth4 ,gesenius1 in his ,hebrew ,grammar1 says 'ayth' means being1 substance 7p4 #baf74 ,and furthermore1 he says 'ayth' is a substantive derived from a pronominal stem1 and signifies essence1 substance1 being4 ,the particle 'ayth1' says ,aben ,ezra1 signifies the substance of a thing4 ,kimchi1 in his famous ,book of ,hebrew ,roots1 gives a similar definition4 ,in the ,syriac version1 yoth takes the place of ayth1 and is very appropriately rendered in ,walton's ,polyglot1 esse cli et esse terr--the being or substance of the heavens and the earth4 ,it is not1 therefore1 a fanciful and altogether unauthorized reading of this opening sentence of ,divine revelation which the ,christian idea of ,god1 and of his relation to the world1 seems to demand--,in the beginning ,god originated1 brought into being1 the primordial elements of the heavens and the earth4 ,for manageable clearness1 in dealing with the ,mosaic primeval history1 we shall find ourselves under the necessity of accepting the distinction made by theologians between creatio prima1 immediata1 and creatio mediata1 formativa4 #a4 ,an absolute ,creation1 a pure supernatural origination--the ,beginning of all beginnings4 #b4 ,an artistic1 architectonic ,creation1 a supernatural formation out of a first substance--the production of new things or beings by aggregation1 organization1 and development according to pre-established laws and archetypal ideas4 ,the first notion of ,creation is grounded on the ,omnipotence of ,god1 the second on the ,infinite ,wisdom of ,god1 and both are united in and ultimately grounded on the unconditioned ,will4 ,and now let us confine our attention to the first conception of ,creation--creatio prima1 immediata1 or ,,absolute ,,creation4 ,the fundamental ,theistic conception which lies at the very root of the ,biblical doctrine of ,creation1 and clearly distinguishes it from all ,materialistic1 ,pantheistic1 and ,dualistic notions of the origin of the world1 is that ,god is the ,absolute ,personality--the eternally self-conscious1 self-complete1 self-sufficient ,being1 all the determinations of whose nature and action are grounded in his absolute ,will4 ,the ,divine essence1 in its inmost1 deepest ground1 is not determined being1 but unlimited power of self-determination4 ,the primitive1 root idea of the ,godhead is an ever-living1 unconditioned ,will--an unconditioned ,will as the indivisible unity and perpetual differentiation of reason and power1 a will which realizes itself in self-affirmation 7,,ips,,ity72 manifests itself in self-determination and choice 7,,alterity72 and completes itself in the actualization of a final purpose 7,,perfection74#ec ,the nature of ,god1 as distinct from his essence1 is absolutely his own act4#ed ,god1 as the manifested ,god1 is what ,he is by his own determination and choice4 ,god is just1 because ,he wills to be just2 ,god is holy1 because ,he wills to be holy2 ,god is good1 because ,he wills to be good1 and not from any constraining1 immanent necessity1 otherwise ,he could not be the object of praise1 adoration1 and love4 ,if ,god is not good by virtue of his own determination and choice1 then there is nothing praiseworthy and adorable in his nature1 and all the thanksgiving of sacred psalmody is meaningless2 worship is groundless1 religion has no significance1 and love to ,god is impossible4 ,a necessitated goodness can no more command our moral esteem than the uniform revolution of the planetary orbs1 and where there is no moral esteem1 there can be no love1 no worship1 and no praise4#ee ,if1 then1 ,god is a personal ,being1 the ,absolute ,personality1 another being can not proceed from ,him except in virtue of his own free determination4 ,creation must therefore be a ,,voluntary act4 ,and for the full comprehension of this fundamental principle1 we must remember that volition is something more than a simple efflux of power1 something more than a mere developing tendency--an evolution or process without motive and without design4 ,a voluntary act is a designed1 an intentional act1 the act of a being who can previously contemplate the act in thought1 who can have a reason or motive for the doing of the act1 and who can determine and condition the deed4 ,this conception of creation as a voluntary act is unmistakably presented in the oft-repeated language of the ,mosaic record1 ,god said1 ,let there be--and there was6 ,the speaking of ,god most certainly indicates the thinking of ,god1 and it thence follows that all the works of creation are thoughts of ,god 7idealism74 ,but it indicates also a will making itself externally known1 an active operation of ,god2 and thence it follows that all the works of creation are deeds of ,god 7realism74 ,thinking and operating1 however1 are one in the ,divine speaking1 the primal source of language--his personality making ,himself known 7personalism74444 ,through creating1 speaking1 making1 forming1 the world is ever and again denoted as the free deed of ,god4#ef ,furthermore1 creation is a voluntary act in the most absolute sense--that is1 it is an act of ,god to which ,he was not determined by any inherent necessity or want of his own nature1 and an act which was not conditioned1 in a necessary manner1 by any thing out of1 distinct from1 and extraneous to the ,divine nature4 #a4 ,creation was an act of ,god to which ,he was not determined by any inherent necessity or want of his own nature4 ,if ,god is the eternally self-conscious1 self-complete1 and self-sufficient ,being1 ,he is under no necessity to create other beings in order to realize perfect self-consciousness1 or to secure his own perfect blessedness4 ,he does not need otherness--that which is not ,himself--in order to become manifest to ,himself2 neither does ,he crave beings not ,himself#eg in order to his complete felicity4 ,the antithesis of self and non-self--the ego and the non-ego--may be a necessary condition of finite personality1 but it can not be a necessary condition of ,absolute ,personality4 ,god is eternally revealed to ,himself in an unconditioned manner as self-conscious ,love1 self-conscious ,reason1 self-conscious ,energy--the ,father1 the ,word1 the ,spirit2 and ,he is from all eternity the ever-blessed ,god1 who has in the ,divine ,triunity the eternal and absolutely worthy object of his ,love1 independent of every relation to the world and humanity--,thou lovedst ,me before the foundation of the world 7,john xvii4 #bd71 before the world was 7ver4 #e74eh ,if1 then1 creation be the act of an ,absolute ,personality1 the act of a ,being who freely and unconditionally determines his own nature and conditionates all existence1 then the ,will of ,god is the sole causality of the world1 and in his ,will alone we have the unlimited1 infinite ground-principle of all reality4 ,absolute ,personality tolerates no other transition from the idea of ,god to the idea of the world than that of a ,will which freely conditions itself by ,love4 ,this ,free ,love is the highest determining principle for the ,divine efficiency4 ,therefore1 in order to derive the essential existence of the world from ,god1 the ,scriptures postulate nothing beside or beyond an ever-living1 intelligent ,will which has its reason or motive1 but not its necessitating cause1 in ,love--the benevolence 77 of his ,will 7,eph4 i4 #e74 ,the ,creation is nothing else than the free self-communication of ,god1 who is ,himself eternally self-complete and self-sufficient1 but who from love alone wills that other beings shall have existence and1 in fellowship with ,him1 eternal life4#ei ,it is only by holding fast to these principles in all their integrity that we can escape the seductions of ,pantheism1 that perpetual temptation of metaphysical minds4 ,the fundamental idea of ,pantheism is an indeterminate principle which is necessarily determined to become successively every thing4 ,absolute necessity is the beginning1 middle1 and end4#fj ,we can escape its iron grasp only by distinctly recognizing and firmly holding the ,absolute ,personality of ,god--that is1 by affirming a perfect self-consciousness which is not conditioned by an antithetical not-self2 a perfect self-determination which is not conditioned by an antecedent natura naturans2 and a perfect self-sufficiency which knows no want4 ,the first affirmation rejects the dialectical necessity of ,hegel1 the second excludes the mathematical necessity of ,spinoza1 the third cancels the metaphysical necessity of ,cousin4#fa #b4 ,creation as the free act of ,god was not conditioned by any thing out of and foreign to the ,divine nature4 ,a moment's reflection will suffice to convince us that a limitation posited from without would be as fatal to the idea of ,god as a supposed inherent necessity determining the ,divine causality from within4 ,the idea of ,god as the ,being who is absolutely self-grounded1 self-sufficient1 and self-determined1 equally excludes both4 ,if ,god is the sole causality of the heavens and the earth in an absolute sense--the efficient cause of time and all temporal succession--the all-mighty cause of space1 and of all spatial relations--the sole originator of the primordial substance1 and of all its qualities1 then the creative act can not have been conditioned by ,time or ,space or ,matter4 ,in his otherwise admirable essay on ,nature and ,god1 ,mr4 ,martineau asserts that we can have no conception of even the possibility of a creation except on the assumption of the coeval existence of something objective to ,god as the condition and medium of the ,divine agency and manifestation4 ,he therefore affirms the coeval and co-eternal existence of ,space and ,matter1 ,time and ,number1 with ,him1 and yet independent of ,him4#fb ,the idea of ,god's supplying ,himself with objectivity is1 in his judgment1 discredited by modern science4 ,the creative act must therefore have been conditioned by something other than ,god1 and independent of ,god4 ,now it must be obvious to every thoughtful mind that this assumption tends to the invalidation of every proof of the existence of ,god4 ,if it can be shown that any one thing exists aside from and independent of ,god--that any thing exists which was not created by ,god--then may we claim equal independence for every other thing1 and ,he who claims to be the ,creator of all things is discredited4 ,as ,herbert ,spencer urges1 with great force1 ,if we admit that there can be something uncaused1 there is no reason to assume a cause for any thing4#fc ,with what reason can we say that some things do exist that never were created1 but others can not so exist8 ,if substances are eternal1 why not attributes8 ,if matter is self-existent1 why not force8 ,if space is independent1 why not form8 ,and if we concede the eternity of matter and force1 why not admit the eternity of law--that is1 uniformity of relations8 ,and if so much is granted1 why not also grant that a consequent order of the universe is also eternal8 ,if we admit that any thing besides ,god is self-existent1 that any thing exists independent of ,god as the condition of the ,divine agency and manifestation1 then ,god is not the unconditioned ,absolute ,being4 ,a limitation posited from without directly destroys the idea of ,god1 for it contradicts the idea of the ,absolute4#fd ,mr4 ,martineau admits that the assumption of the coeval existence of matter as the condition and medium of the ,divine agency rests on quite other grounds than those which support our belief respecting space4#fe ,we can conceive the non-existence of matter1 but we can not conceive the non-existence of space4 ,the idea of space is absolutely necessary1 therefore no one asks a cause for the space of the universe4#ff ,in making this assertion1 however1 ,mr4 ,martineau betrays some want of acquaintance with the history of the philosophy of space and time4 ,many able and thoroughly philosophic minds have asked a cause1 and have assigned a cause for the space of the universe4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton held that ,god endures always and is present every where1 and by existing always and every where constitutes duration and space4#fg ,this doctrine1 thus generally stated1 is held by ,saisset to be incontestible4#fh ,mc,cosh also believes that time and space are not independent of ,god3 ,i am not necessarily obliged to believe that the infinity of space and time is independent of the infinity of ,god4444 ,who will venture to affirm that space and time1 being dependent on ,god1 may not stand in some relation to ,god which is altogether indefinable and utterly incomprehensible by us4#fi ,finally1 ,schleiermacher and ,nitzsch do not hesitate to teach that ,god is the all-mighty cause of space and the efficient cause of time4#gj ,the question whether the idea of space is conditionally or unconditionally necessary can only be determined by the solution of the deeper question whether space is a real entity or a relation4 ,if space is a real entity1 it must have properties or attributes1 but what philosopher of any reputation has ever attempted to set down the properties or attributes of space8 ,they who assert that space is an uncreated1 independent1 and indestructible entity1 ought to be able to define it and tell what it is4 ,dr4 ,porter tells us that space can not be defined1 ,we can not form a concept of this entity by means of generalized attributes or relations4#ga ,can that be for us an entity of which we can form no concept1 and which we can not determine in thought by any attribute or relation8 ,the writer of the article on ,the ,philosophy of ,time and ,space1 in the ,north ,american ,review1#gb is an earnest defender of the objective reality of space as an independent and indestructible entity1 and he has defined and analyzed the concept4 ,space is absolute vacuity 7p4 #ia74 ,the idea of space is a triple synthesis 444 of three negative notions--receptivity1 unity1 and infinity2 the first is the negation of matter1 the second is the negation of divisibility1 the third is the negation of limitation 7p4 #ie74 ,do these words convey any knowledge8 ,absolute vacuity is void1 empty1 inane4 ,absolute vacuity is pure nothing1 and of course there is nothing to be divided and nothing to be limited4 ,absolute vacuity is a negation1 and unity and infinity are negations of a negation--that is1 they are predicates of nothing4 ,negative notions must be predicates of something1 otherwise they are a mere negation or absence of thought1 and convey absolutely no knowledge4 ,we may1 if we please1 assert with ,hegel1 that ,nothing is the same as ,being1 and then amuse ourselves with making affirmations concerning vacuity1 nihility1 and unreality to the disgrace of philosophy2 but the common-sense of mankind will repudiate our absurdities4 ,we can not think about nothing2 all thought must be positive4 ,thought must have an object1 and that object must be either an entity1 or the attribute of an entity1 or a relation between entities4 ,if pure space is regarded as absolute vacuity--pure nothing--then we may readily dispose of the argument on which ,prof4 ,stewart relies with so much confidence4 ,divine omnipotence can not annihilate space1#gc therefore it must be an independent reality4 ,we have simply to answer--the notion of annihilating nihility is an absurdity and a contradiction4 ,there is nothing to be annihilated1 and ,omnipotence even must be inadequate to the annihilation of nothing4 ,if1 with ,leibnitz1 ,lord ,monboddo1 ,calderwood1 and many modern physicists1#gd we reject the notion of absolute vacuity--infinite space--and regard space as a relation--the relation of position1 distance1 direction--then1 like all the quantitive relations of mathematics1 it may be regarded as conditionally necessary--that is1 bodies being given1 they must necessarily have place1 distance1 and direction4#ge ,space as a necessary relation is a reality1 but a reality which is conditioned and conditional1 and ,god is the all-mighty cause of space4 ,if all bodies were annihilated1 there would be no position1 no distance1 no direction1 and consequently space would be annihilated4 ,there would remain nothing but the timeless1 spaceless1 ,infinite ,one1 who is the efficient cause of all existence1 all qualities1 and all relations4 ,this1 again1 would be a sufficient answer to the sophism of ,dr4 ,clark1 quoted and indorsed by ,stewart--,god can not annihilate the space in this room6 ,annihilate the room1 and the relative space in the room is no more--that is1 the distance between the inclosing walls4 ,of pure space apart from the relations of bodies we have no conception1 can have no conception2 for to annihilate all bodies1 in thought1 we must annihilate our own body1 and to a disembodied spirit there can be no here and no there4 ,place is a relation belonging to extension1 and extension is a property of matter only4#gf ,there has been so much confusion of thought generated by the mere word-jugglery of philosophers in the use of the terms time and space1 duration and extension1 eternity and immensity1 that a revision of the whole terminology in the interest of true science is demanded4 ,it is perilous to launch out upon this ocean of equivocal phraseology1 called the philosophy of time and space1 before taking our bearings1 amid notions so closely related1 yet so dissimilar1 and endeavoring to fix some definite meaning to these terms1 which1 like points of the compass1 shall enable us to find our position4 #a4 ,let us commence our effort with ,,space1 ,,extension1 and ,,immensity4 ,some philosophers--,cousin1#gg ,hamilton1#gh ,spencer1#gi ,mc,cosh1#hj for example--confound space and extension1 and all of them confound both with absolute immensity4#ha ,now if space is identical with extension1 it must be cognized by the senses and the sensuous imagination4 ,this is unhesitatingly affirmed by ,hamilton3 ,we see extension1 and by the name extension we designate our empirical knowledge of space4#hb ,so also ,mc,cosh3 ,of space in the concrete we have an immediate knowledge by the senses1 certainly by some of them1 such as the touch and sight4#hc ,space in this connection can not therefore be regarded as an priori cognition4 ,it is equally obvious that if space is identical with extension1 it must have color and form4 ,this also is admitted by ,hamilton3 ,i can easily annihilate all corporeal existence in imagination4 ,i can imagine empty space4 ,but there are two attributes of which ,i can not divest it--that is1 shape and color4#hd ,now if space has shape1 that is1 figure1 it must have dimensions1 and accordingly we find almost all philosophers speaking of the three dimensions of space--length1 breadth1 and depth4 ,that which has length1 breadth1 and depth must be divisible1 must have parts and proportions1 must have susceptibilities of exact measurement1 and therefore must be finite4 ,this again is the doctrine of ,hamilton3 ,space is finite1 and a finite1 that is1 a bounded space constitutes a figure--a sphere4#he ,the fundamental doctrine of ,hamilton is that space1 like time1 is only the intuition or the concept of a certain correlation of existence--of existence1 therefore1 pro tanto1 as conditioned4 ,it is thus itself only a form of the conditioned4#hf ,but if space be only a correlation of conditioned1 and therefore finite existence1 how can he speak of it being conceived as infinite1#hg and1 above all1 how can he speak of the absolute totality and the infinite immensity of space4 ,mc,cosh1 also1 though evidently with some hesitation1 teaches that we can conceive proportion in space1 and if we take any of these proportional sections1 and divide it into two1 thought will compel us to say that the two make up the whole4 ,in this sense the parts make up the whole--that is1 the subsections make up the section4 ,if the question be extended beyond this1 and it be asked1 ,is infinite space made up of parts8 ,i answer1 that as we can have no adequate notion of infinite space1 so we can not be expected to answer all the questions which may be put regarding it4 ,it is certain that neither infinite space nor finite space is made up of separate parts4 ,we can speak intelligibly of proportions in finite space1 and determine their relations to each other and the whole4 ,i tremble to speak of the proportions of infinite space1 lest ,i be using language which has or can have no proper meaning1 and the signification attached to which by me or others might be altogether inapplicable to such a subject4 ,still there are propositions which we might intelligibly use4 ,it is self-evident that any proportion of space must be less than infinite space4 ,and if infinite space can be conceived as having proportions1 and we could conceive all these proportions1 then these proportions would be equal to the whole6#hh ,well may the author say that he is in a region dark and pathless2 for the language here employed can have no proper meaning in regard to infinite space4 ,well may he tremble to speak of the proportions of infinite space1 for what can proportion 7pro1 for portio1 a part7 mean except a numerical relation of parts8 ,proportions--numerical relations--are measurable quantities1 therefore finite quantities1 and no addition of finite quantities1 can make the infinite4 ,what confusion and contradiction is here wrought by this word-jugglery with the whole and parts of space6 ,cousin1 also1 falls into the same inaccuracy and confusion4 ,he tells us that human reason can conceive of a space determined and limited1#hi therefore divisible1 measurable1 and finite2 and yet at the same time he teaches that space is illimitable1 absolutely continuous1 an indivisible unity4#ij ,and now let us note the contradictions which flow from this confounding of space with extension1 and both with immensity4 ,space is cognized posteriori1 space is cognized priori4 ,space has parts and proportions1 space has no parts or proportions4 ,space is divisible1 space is indivisible--an absolute unity4 ,space is finite1 space is infinite4 ,space is susceptible of exact measurement1 space is immeasurable--that is1 absolute immensity4 ,space and extension are not identical4 ,extension is simply an attribute of body--the continuity of matter4 ,space is place1 distance1 direction1 relations of bodies4 ,space is a certain correlation of finite existences4 ,immensity is the attribute of the unconditioned ,being1 the absolute ,spirit--that is1 ,god4 ,he is incorporeal1 boundless1 spaceless1 infinite4 #b4 ,the same confusion pervades the writings of philosophers in regard to ,,time1 ,,duration1 and ,,eternity4 ,succession is confounded with duration1#ia duration with time1#ib and time with eternity4#ic ,if succession and duration are identical1 then1 there is no permanent substance underlying the fugitive phenomena of the outer world1 and no personal existence which remains the same through all the changes of our mental states4 ,the human mind is simply a series of feelings1 a succession of mental states without any enduring ground principle constituting our personal identity1 and we are thus landed in the constructive ,idealism of ,john ,stuart ,mill4#id ,on the other hand1 if there be a permanent substance or essence underlying all mental phenomena1 whose continuance in existence is measured by phenomenal change1 time succession1 then duration can not be identical with time1 any more than permanence can be the same as change4 ,with finite duration there is necessarily given change2 the past is like the future--always a minus in relation to the present4 ,furthermore1 if time is synonymous with eternity1 then eternity is divisible1 measurable1 it has limits and parts4 ,time1 say the philosophers1 has one dimension1 while space has three4 ,we1 says ,mc,cosh1 represent time as a line1#ie it must therefore be divisible1 and1 if divisible1 it is legitimate to speak1 with ,hamilton1 of time and its parts4 ,time has succession1 or priority and posteriority4#if ,and yet this same writer in the same work tells us1 ,time has no limits1 and ,time can not be divided into separable parts4#ig ,if time and eternity are identical1 eternity has a past1 a present1 and a future--eternity ab ante and eternity a post4#ih ,the eternity past is bounded by the present1 it ends now2 the eternity to come begins now4 ,we may with propriety ask1 ,how can that which has succession1 which is capable of exact measurement1 which has a beginning and an end1 be infinite8 ,that which had a beginning can not be unbeginning1 that which will come to an end can not be endless4 ,is not the eternity of time a contradiction in terms8 ,is not absolute time an absurdity8 ,mark1 then1 the contradictions which flow from the confounding of succession and duration1 time and eternity4 ,time has limits1 time has no limits4 ,time is divisible1 time is indivisible4 ,time is finite1 time is infinite4 ,time is relative1 time is absolute4 ,time is moving1 it flows2 time is immovable1 it does not flow4#ii ,duration and succession1 eternity and time1 are not identical4 ,duration is the continuance in existence of finite creatures1 a continuance which is measured by the equable motion of planetary orbs1 and imperfectly by phenomenal changes in our mental states4 ,succession is simply an order of phenomena1 the recurrence1 at regular or irregular intervals1 of like changes1 or the series of different states in the same existence4 ,time is a certain correlation of successive existences4 ,eternity is an attribute of the absolute ,being--the timelessness of ,god4 ,he is not subject to the law of change1 and therefore not to the law of time1 therefore his absolute being can not be measured by successive epochs4 ,let us now endeavor to dismiss from our thought all this perplexing necromancy of words1 and humbly pray1 with ,themistocles1 for some sweet voluptuous art of forgetting4 ,let us fix our mental gaze upon the objects of thought which are denoted by the terms time and space1 and ask what are they8 ,are they existences or attributes1 are they ideal or real1 are they entities or relations8 ,have we any clear and definite notions of which these are the unequivocal signs8 ,the solution of these questions is the essential condition of a true philosophy of time and space4 ,first of all1 is it not self-evident that1 if time and space are for us the objects of thought1 they must be conceived under the categories of ,being or ,quality or ,relation8 ,if they can not be thought as real existences1 or as attributes of existing things1 or as relations among existing things1 they can not be thought at all--they are non-entities1 and we can not think about nothing4 ,thought can only be realized by thinking something 444 this something must be thought as existing 444 and we can only think a thing as existing1 by thinking it as existing in this or that determinate manner of existence2 and whenever we cease to think of something as existing--something existing in a determinate manner of existence--we cease to think at all4#ajj ,mc,cosh asserts that time and space are neither substances1 modes1 nor relations4#aja ,what1 then1 are they8 ,he answers1 ,they seem to be entitled to be put in a class by themselves1 and resemble substances1 modes1 relations only in that they are existences1 entities1 realities4#ajb ,but if they are entitled to be put in a class by themselves1 what is the name of that class1 and by what characteristic marks shall we distinguish it8 ,if they are realities1 they must have being1 or inhere in something that has being1 or be relations of something in being4 ,if they are existences1 they must be the objects of sense perception1 or rational intuition1 or immediate judgment1 otherwise they can not be cognized at all1 for the mind can not create objects of its own cognition4 ,we ask again1 ,what are space and time8 ,mc,cosh and ,dr4 ,porter both answer3 #a4 ,they are not substances4 ,this no one will dispute4 ,they are not material substances having sensible qualities which can be the objects of sense perception4 ,space and time are not perceived by the senses4#ajc ,neither are they spiritual substances4 ,we do not know them as having power and performing acts4 #b4 ,they both reply1 ,they are not attributes or qualities of matter or spirit4 ,this1 also1 no one will dispute1 if the word time is not used as a synonym for eternity1 and the word space is not used as a synonym for immensity1 because eternity and immensity are attributes of the absolute ,spirit4 #c4 ,they both assert1 ,they are not relations4 ,this is disputed by many3 by ,leibnitz1 by ,hamilton1 by ,saisset1 by ,calderwood1 and by others4 ,leibnitz says1 ,space is the order of things co-existing4 ,time is the order of things successive4#ajd ,hamilton says1 ,space1 like time1 is only the intuition or the conception of a certain correlation of existence4#aje ,calderwood defines time as a certain correlation of existence1 and space as the recognized relation of extended objects4#ajf ,and ,saisset regards time and space as standing in the same category with mathematical relations4#ajg ,these are1 to say the least1 distinguished names in philosophy4 ,the opinions of men who have for years pondered these profound problems are at any rate entitled to proper consideration1 and if in opposition to their views it is affirmed that time and space as understanding-concepts are not relations1 some reasons should be assigned4 ,all the proof offered by ,dr4 ,mc,cosh is that we know no two or more things which by their relation could yield space and time 7p4 #baa74 ,we answer1 promptly1 duration and change do yield the relation of time4 ,the consciousness of succession in our mental states is in reality our consciousness of time4#ajh ,the co-existence of two or more extended objects must yield the relation of space1 for empty space is nothing more than the relative distance of extended objects from each other1 measured on a standard similar to that which applies to the bodies themselves4 ,in this way it is equally accurate to say that there is a certain specified distance between the bodies1 and that there is nothing between them1 because space is nothing but their relation to each other4#aji ,annihilate all finite existences1 and what remains8 ,nothing but the immensity of ,god4 ,let one atom of matter be created1 and we have extension4 ,let a second atom be created1 and there is now a relation of distance1 position1 direction--that is1 there is space4 ,the only remark made by ,dr4 ,porter which has a direct bearing on this important discussion is that ,space and time are neither relations nor correlations1 but correlates to beings and events 7,the ,human ,intellect1 p4 #efh74 ,it may seem an act of presumption in one who has spent much less time on these studies than ,dr4 ,porter to offer a criticism on this final deliverance4 ,but when he tells us that space and time are neither relations nor correlations1 after having through four pages ,on the relations of space and time concepts to motion labored to sustain the doctrine of ,trendelenberg that the categories of space and time are derived from the universal and all-pervading motion which is common to both 7p4 #ebf71 we confess we are amazed4 ,let it be granted that the spatial and temporal relations can be1 in their last analysis1 resolved into motion1 still the question remains1 ,how can we conceive of motion except as the result of force8--that is1 of power actually exerted somewhere4 ,in the last analysis1 therefore1 the relations of space1 time1 and motion are resolved into the relation of causality4 ,the conclusion seems inevitable that time and space are correlations of finite existences4 ,annihilate all finite existences and finite duration1 and there is neither space nor time--that is1 there is pure nothing4 ,or1 more properly1 there is the ,omnipotence1 the ,immensity1 the ,eternity of ,god1 whose causation may give existence to finite beings with all their necessary as well as contingent relations4 ,whoever maintains a beginning of the world must also adopt a beginning of time1 for only worldly being1 which according to its notion has not its ground in itself1 but is an originated being1 can at all have time for the form of its existence4#aaj ,and now1 in summing up1 let us see if we can clearly disengage three classes of distinct notions3 #a4 ,the notion of concrete and finite ,,extension as the essential quality of matter2 and the notion of finite ,,duration as a quality of changeful dependent existence4 #b4 ,the notion of ,,space as the relation of co-existing material things--that is1 the relation of position1 distance1 direction1 hereness1 thereness2 and the notion of time as the relation of successive existence--that is1 the relation of priority and posteriority1 of past1 present1 and future4 #c4 ,the notion of ,,immensity and ,,eternity--that is1 an absolute continuity and illimitability of being1 the absence of all limit1 all quantity1 all beginning and end1 the attributes of the unconditioned ,being4 ,let us endeavor sharply to define these notions1 which unhappily are too often confounded4 #a4 ,the external senses in their different degrees1 especially sight and touch1 give us the knowledge of objects that are extended and figured4 ,the body ,i grasp with the hand or survey with the eye has limits1 outlines1 angles1 surfaces--that is1 it has more or less ,,extension4 ,the inner sense gives us the knowledge of the changes and successions of our mental life4 ,but1 amid all these changes1 ,i am conscious there is a something which endures4 ,what is that permanent something which ,i apprehend under all the varying mental states8 ,it is that principle of personal identity which ,i call ,i--myself4 ,to feel and know that ,i am the same person under all modifications of my mental activity is to endure4 ,through the aid of memory1 which enables me to recall past mental states1 and the immediate consciousness of personal existence1 through all these changes ,i obtain the notion of ,,duration4 ,the notions of ,extension and ,duration are clear to my mind4 #b4 ,besides the notion of extended bodies1 ,i have also the notion of position1 distance1 direction among extended bodies4 ,they exist in various relations to each other2 they are here or there1 above or below1 near at hand or indefinitely remote4 ,it may be the distance between two particles of dust in the sunbeam1 or the walls of the room1 or between the earth and the sun1 or between the sun and the outermost planet of our system1 or between the earth and the remotest star which twinkles at the outposts of the universe4 ,position1 distance1 direction are all relations4 ,and to all these relations ,i prefer1 with ,sir ,john ,herschel1 to give the generic name ,,space4#aaa ,then ,i have no confusion of thought1 and no difficulty or contradiction in using the language of ,cousin1 ,hamilton1 and ,mc,cosh1 when they speak of determinate and limited space1 particular spaces1 parts of space1 and proportions of space4 ,along with the notion of duration 7and succession of different states in the same existence71 ,i am conscious that this duration is capable of admeasurement by common standards1 and ideally divided into periods of longer or shorter duration4 ,this duration may be measured by successive states of consciousness1 or facts of domestic history1 or1 better still1 by the succession of day and night1 or the relative position of the sun in the heavens1 the revolutions of the moon around the earth1 or of the earth around the sun4 ,these are really world-measurements of duration4 ,since1 then1 duration can be measured from any point and in any proportions1 it is clear that measurement is a purely relative thing--a relation4 ,of any such thing as pure time or absolute time we have no knowledge4 ,,time is the measure of finite duration--the correlation of things successive4 ,and if ,i confine myself to this usage1 ,i am under no necessity of using the paradoxical language of many philosophers1 time is eternity6 #c4 ,we come1 lastly1 to the notions or ideas of ,,immensity and ,,eternity1 and we ask1 ,are these necessary ideas of the reason1 or can they be confounded with the relations of co-existence and succession on the one hand1 or with the attributes of finite extension and duration on the other8 ,this is not a mere question of systems of philosophy or theology--it is a question of facts4 ,are the ideas of ,absolute ,infinity and ,eternity necessary intuitions of the reason8 ,the world of sense-perception1 the world of science1 is phenomenal and contingent4 ,all that is offered to our observation is limited and temporal4 ,the universe surrendered to our science is one of quantities and quantitative relations4 ,it is conditioned by number and form4 ,its extensions1 spaces1 and motions are capable of admeasurement4 ,its worlds and systems are subject to numeration4 ,the phenomena of the universe are all subject to change1 they have beginning1 succession1 and end4 ,but beyond the notions of the limited and the temporal1 we find in consciousness the ideas of the illimitable and the eternal2 the latter always appearing to reason as the necessary correlates of the former4 ,the finite necessarily supposes the infinite2 the temporal necessarily supposes the eternal4 ,the two classes of notions are essentially different1 and defy all attempts to generalize them under higher concepts4 ,the infinite is not the totality of finite existences2 eternity is not the prolongation of finite durations4 ,immensity and eternity are absolutely and unconditionally necessary ideas4 ,i can easily conceive the non-existence of any finite thing4 ,i can1 without any contradiction1 suppose the whole world to be destroyed4 ,all which has a derived and a dependent existence may cease to be4 ,but we can not conceive the source of all existence annihilated4 ,there is one notion which it is impossible for me to annihilate in thought1 and that is the notion of absolute being--underived1 unconditioned1 changeless1 eternal being4 ,despite the destruction of all determinate extension and all finite duration1 there remains a ,supreme ,reality1 unlimited1 unbeginning1 and endless1 as an absolute necessity of thought4 ,here1 then1 are two absolute ideas found in the depths of consciousness--the ideas of ,,immensity and ,,eternity2 ideas as real1 as natural1 and as necessary as the notions of extension and duration4 ,immensity and ,eternity are attributes of ,god4 ,extension and ,duration are attributes of finite1 dependent existence4 ,space and time are relations between co-existing things and successive events4 ,if by this somewhat abstruse and1 perhaps1 too lengthy discussion we have succeeded in proving that ,time and ,space are simply relations between co-existent things and successive events1 which1 apart from things and events1 have no reality1 and are nothing but the bare possibility of body and change1 then we have disentangled the ,christian doctrine of absolute creation from the embarrassment occasioned by supposing the coeval and co-eternal existence of ,time and ,space as the necessary conditions of the ,divine activity4 ,if ,time and ,space are relations between things and events1 then ,god1 as the almighty cause of things and relations1 is the efficient cause of space and time1 and the creative act was not conditioned by them4 ,the affirmation of the necessary existence of ,space1 ,time1 and ,number as co-eternal with and independent of ,god1#aab prepared the way for and rendered plausible the further affirmation of the coeval existence of matter as the condition and medium of the ,divine agency and manifestation4#aac ,for if ,space1 ,time1 and ,number are eternal1 why may not ,matter be eternal8 ,but why stop with the assertion of the eternity of ,space1 ,time1 ,number1 and ,matter8 ,if we admit that there may be something uncaused1 there is no reason to assume a cause of anything4 ,if we admit the eternity of ,matter1 how can we deny the eternity of ,force8 ,we can not conceive of the existence of substance without some properties or qualities1 and of all the properties of matter1 gravitation or weight seems to approach nearest to an essential1 necessary quality4 ,and if we concede the eternity of matter and gravitating force1 why not admit the eternity of law--that is1 uniformity of properties and relations2 uniformity in the results arising from the motions and changes of matter8 ,and when so much is granted1 why not grant that a consequent ,order of the universe must also be eternal8 why not grant that the universe is an infinite succession of orderly phenomena without a beginning and end8 ,after the first concession that matter is uncreated and eternal1 how can any one refute the doctrine of ,hume that the universe never had a beginning1 and that under some one or another possible phase--amid the infinite possibility of phases--it is both eternal and infinite8 ,how1 after this admission1 can we deny that the universe is a series of events existing eternally in a state of order without a cause other than the eternally inherent laws of matter8 ,it would be easy to show that all those writers on ,natural ,theology who have made the least concession in regard to this fundamental question have involved themselves in entanglements and difficulties from which they could not logically extricate themselves4 ,dr4 ,chalmers contends that the mere existence of matter with its properties and laws would not involve the affirmation of an ,absolute ,first ,cause4 ,the proof1 he says1 lies solely in the disposition1 collocation1 and arrangement of these properties and laws in their relation to each other1 so as to secure harmonious and beneficial results4 ,so far as the argument for the existence of ,god is concerned1 he provisionally concedes that matter1 with all its laws1 may be eternal4#aad ,true1 he says that he grants the eternity of matter simply for the purposes of his argument4 ,but what right has he to grant it for the purposes of his argument1 and then to deny it in obedience to the decisive affirmation of a well-accredited revelation8 ,if ,divine revelation teaches the non-eternity of matter1 this is for the ,christian a truth--a fundamental truth2 and whoever surrenders or compromises a fundamental position must finally fail in his management of the ,theistic argument4 ,the intuitions of reason and the doctrines of revelation are but separate rays from the one eternal fountain of light2 and if we ignore or compromise the fundamental truths of revelation1 reason will refuse to place her imprimatur upon and give her indorsement to our lame and halting proofs4 ,this is strikingly illustrated by ,chalmers's failure to construct an argument for a ,god that satisfies the reason1 after he has affirmed the eternity of matter for the purpose of bringing out his conclusion 7p4 #gi74 ,but ,dr4 ,chalmers can not stop with the simple concession that matter is eternal4 ,only grant its necessary existence1 and it is impossible to imagine that along with existence it should not have properties 444 and laws 7p4 #ge74 ,now1 if the admission that a finite1 composite1 divisible substance may be self-existent1 and have eternal properties and laws1 is not logically inconsistent1 how can he show that these properties and laws in their eternal action and reaction are not adequate to the production of a series of phenomena which to our understanding may appear harmonious8 ,can eternal laws produce any thing but order8 ,the existing order of things is the only possible order that could arise from the necessary operation of eternal laws1 and there can be no choice1 design1 or purpose in the universe4 ,collocation1 arrangement1 adaptation1 are only subjective anthropomorphic conceptions we impose upon nature4 ,if matter and its laws are eternal1 how will ,chalmers extricate himself from this dilemma8 ,by this admission he places a weapon in the hands of the anti-,theist1 by which the latter may cut the teleological argument to pieces4 ,my esteemed friend1 ,dr4 ,mahan1 in his zeal to overthrow the ontological proof of the being of ,god1 and to vindicate for the etiological proof the sole claim to validity1 has been betrayed into a similar inconsistency4 ,that there is any priori proof of the being of ,god is in his estimation a wild chimera4 ,formation from pre-existing materials constitutes the exclusive basis of ,natural ,theology4#aae ,matter1 then1 may be eternal1 and an infinite series of events existing in a state of order is conceivable and possible4 ,at page #he of his ,natural ,theology he writes3 ,mr4 ,hume has undeniably announced the truth as it is upon this subject1 to wit1 that the idea of a nature eternally existing in a state of order without a cause other than the eternally inhering laws of nature1 is no more self-contradictory than the idea of an eternally existing and infinite mind who originated this order--a mind existing without a cause4 ,after several pages disfigured by a labored effort to prove the possibility and logical consistency of an infinite series of events existing in an orderly succession1 he sums up with the imperious assertion that the argument against the possibility of an infinite series of events stands revealed as a logical absurdity 7p4 #hh74 ,it is our deliberate conclusion1 however1 that the logical absurdity lies in the position of ,dr4 ,mahan4 ,the idea of order in the ,finite without a cause is no more self-contradictory than the idea of order in the ,infinite without a cause4 ,mark the two points which stand out clearly in this strange assertion4 ,first1 the ,finite here is nature--that is1 matter and its laws4 ,secondly1 the ,infinite is the ,supreme ,mind4 ,dr4 ,mahan asserts that this finite may be conceived as eternally existing--that is1 as existing through infinite time2 in other words1 the finite may be infinite4 ,for a thing or being1 or for a series of things or beings1 to be at once finite and infinite ,dr4 ,mahan says is not self-contradictory4 ,this is on a par with the logic of ,hegel--,contradictory opposites are identical4 ,again1 we ask1 ,is there no difference between finite matter and ,infinite ,mind8 ,is not matter composite1 extended1 divisible1 and limited8 ,is not ,infinite ,mind unextended1 incomposite1 indivisible1 and illimitable8 ,the mere existence of matter does not necessarily involve the idea of ,order4 ,there are nebul existing in the universe utterly devoid of all symmetry of form1 444 irregular and capricious in their shapes and convolutions to a most extraordinary degree4#aaf ,wherever order is presented1 we instinctively and infallibly ascribe it to mind4 ,mind for all of us1 and forever1 is the analogon and exponent of ,order in every sphere1 irrespective of all knowledge on our part as to when or how it had a beginning4 ,furthermore1 on the main issue we affirm briefly--if matter is extended1 it is measurable2 if it is measurable1 it must have definite limits2 if it has definite limits1 it can not be infinite4 ,now that which is finite1 limited1 quantitive1 conditioned1 can not be self-existent1 can not be infinite4 ,infinitude is illimitation by kind1 quantity1 or degree--illimitation by temporal1 spatial1 or numerical relations4 ,an infinite series is therefore a contradiction in adjecto4 ,as every number1 although immeasurably and inconceivably great1 is impossible without unity as its basis1 so every series1 being itself a number1 is impossible unless a first term is given as its commencement4444 ,even if it should be allowed that the series has no first term1 but has originated ab terno1 it must always at each instant have a last term2 the series as a whole can not be infinite4#aag ,if one thing more can be added to the number of existing things in the universe1 then it is not infinite in number or in extent4 ,in short1 a series implies a succession of terms1 or members1 or links2 if there is a last term1 there must be a first term2 if there is a last link1 there must be a first4 ,through an ,unconditioned ,first ,cause1 originating and conditioning all the members thereof1 is a series conceivable or possible4 ,to apply to number or quantity the designation of infinitude is surely the absurdity in presence of which all others pale4 ,we grant that the term infinite series is employed by mathematicians in a loose manner1 to denote that which exceeds our powers of mensuration or conception1 but which nevertheless has bounds or limits--the indefinite1 but not the infinite2#aah such loose use of terms in philosophy1 however1 is inadmissible4 ,the final reply of ,dr4 ,mahan1 that the series under consideration is one which by hypothesis has no first1 is the extreme of absurdity4 ,it is as though a man should talk of a round square or a bilinear figure1 and when remonstrated with as to the contradictory character of these phrases1 should reply1 ,yes1 but the 'square' under consideration is one which by hypothesis is 'round1' and the 'figure' is one which by hypothesis is formed by 'two lines6' ,men may make all kinds of strange hypotheses1 but the strangest of all is that of an infinite-finite4 ,these incautious writers of ,natural ,theology all assert1 as a fundamental doctrine1 that ,god is the ,absolute and ,unconditioned ,cause4 ,we might ask1 ,whence do they derive this fundamental truth that ,god is absolute and unconditioned1 if not by an priori rational intuition8 ,we let that pass1 however1 to press the more pertinent question--,how can ,god be the absolute cause1 if matter is coeval with and independent of ,him8 ,and how can ,he be the unconditioned cause1 if space1 time1 number1 and matter necessarily exist as the conditions of the ,divine agency and manifestation8 ,if matter1 with its essential properties and laws1 exist independent of the ,deity1 do not these impose conditions upon the action of the ,deity1 and determine it to certain necessary modes8 ,if so1 ,god can not be the unconditioned ,cause4 ,instead of one supreme1 sole ,first ,principle1 there are at least two principles1 ,god and ,necessity1 and may be more4 ,no system of ,natural ,theology can maintain its integrity and consistency except by holding fast to the fundamental postulate--,god is the ,absolute and ,unconditioned ,cause of all things1 of matter and form1 quality and relation1 purpose and law4 ,and now1 in conclusion1 we may properly ask1 ,whence arises the necessity for assuming the coeval and co-eternal existence of matter besides and independent of ,god8 ,why should the theologian feel himself under the necessity of prejudicing the ,biblical conception of ,creation by any such concession8 ,the only reasons we have seen assigned are1 first1 that creation out of nothing is discredited by the discoveries of modern science2#aai secondly1 that an absolute origination is inconceivable and self-destructive4#abj ,in attempting an estimate of the weight of these reasons1 we would first suggest that the question of absolute creation has been prejudiced by the persistent employment of the old formula of creation out of nothing1 as though nothing contained the cause of existence1 and the universe was developed out of nothing4 ,the ,christian ,fathers1 who first employed the phrase 1 never indulged in such representations4 ,the idea they sought to express was that the production of otherness1 the awarding of existence to something besides ,himself1 was an absolutely free act of ,god which was not conditioned by any thing external to ,himself--in a word1 that ,god is the positive original ground of all existence4 ,but who shall decide that this doctrine has been discredited by the progress of science8 ,what special discovery of modern science has so revealed to us the ultimate constitution of matter1 that we can affirm its absolute reality and its eternal existence8 ,nay1 are the most advanced physicists and physiologists agreed as to whether1 apart from our subjective1 ideal conceptions1 matter has any reality8 ,if we are not utterly mistaken1 the entire tendency of science is to reduce matter from the rank of entities to the rank of phenomena4 ,the old speculations of ,philosophy1 which cut the ground from ,materialism by showing how little we know of matter1 are now being daily reinforced by the subtle analysis of the physiologist1 the chemist1 and the electrician4 ,under that analysis matter dissolves and disappears1 surviving only as the phenomena of ,force4#aba ,we offer no opinion as to the validity of this new doctrine1 but are sure it is the doctrine of modern science as represented by ,faraday1 ,owen1 ,mc,vicar1 ,bayma1 ,exley1 ,wallace1 ,poisson1 ,poyntong1 ,laycock1 and1 we think1 ,huxley4 ,if modern science has resolved all our external sensations1 even the feeling of resistance1 into phenomena of ,force1 then1 according to the doctrine of ,mr4 ,martineau1 it had a beginning--phenomena demand causation4444 ,supreme ,entity needs no cause4 ,the universe resolves itself into a perpetual genesis1 and the ,theist is perfectly justified in treating it as disqualified for self-existence4#abb ,sir ,william ,hamilton contends that an absolute commencement is inconceivable4 ,all the conception we can possibly form of ,creation is merely as the evolution of new forms of existence by the fiat of the ,deity4 ,let us suppose the very crisis of creation4 ,can we realize it to ourselves in thought1 that the moment after the universe came into manifested being there was a larger complement of existence in the universe and its ,author together than there was the moment before in the ,deity himself alone8 ,this we can not imagine4#abc ,there are1 we presume1 very few ,hamiltonians who are prepared to indorse this bold statement of their master4 ,mansel1 the editor and annotator of his ,lectures1 has very distinctly and emphatically expressed his dissent4 ,whether it be true or not that we can not conceive the quantity of existence to be increased or diminished1 there is at any rate no such inability as regards the quantity of matter4 ,it may be true as a fact that no material atom has been added to the world since the ,creation2 but the assertion1 however true1 is certainly not necessary4 ,the power which created once must be conceived as able to create again1 whether that ability is actually exercised or not4 ,the same conclusion is still more evident when we proceed from the consideration of matter to that of mind4 ,of matter1 we maintain that the creation of new portions is perfectly conceivable--as a result1 at least1 if not as a process2 of mind1 we believe that such creation actually takes place4 ,every man who comes into the world comes into it as a distinct individual1 having a personality and consciousness of his own1 and that personality is a distinct accession to the number of persons previously existing4444 ,every new person that comes into the world is a new existence4#abd ,hence we are not justified in asserting that all actual existences are only different modes of one identical reality4 ,we can not merely conceive1 but we know1 as a primary fact of consciousness1 that the sum of existence1 of personal conscious being1 which is the most fundamental reality1 may be increased in the universe4#abe ,we readily confess that the act of creation--that is1 causing wholly new existence--is utterly incomprehensible to us2 so are thousands of other things4 ,i am told by the physicist that eight hundred billions of ether-impulses impinge on the retina of the eye in a second of time to produce the sensation of deep violet2#abf and ,i believe it1 but at the same time it is to me incomprehensible4 ,my reason affirms that the ,first ,cause must be infinite2 and ,i believe it1 but ,i can not comprehend ,infinity4 ,no logician of the present day teaches that comprehensibility is a test of truth4 ,is our finite capacity of conceiving or of doing a standard for ,omnipotence8 ,the only question here involved is1 ,can ,infinite ,power produce that mode of being we call matter8 ,does such an exercise of ,infinite ,power involve a contradiction8 ,i conscientiously submit this question to my own reason1 and ,i confess ,i am unable to see any contradiction4 ,to my experiential knowledge matter presents the essential characteristics at once of a manufactured article and a subordinate agent4#abg ,this1 says the distinguished ,prof4 ,maxwell1 precludes the idea of its being eternal and self-existent4444 ,it must have been created4#abh ,the notion of its origination by a ,power which is unconditioned and every way unlimited1 satisfies my reason1 and affords the best solution of the problem of its existence4 ,that it is self-existent1 independent1 eternal--a second other ,god--is directly contradictory4 ,the original1 primitive fountain of existence is ,mind4 ,this must stand at the fountain-head4 ,god is the sole and absolute ,cause of all things--of time1 and all temporal relations2 of space1 and all spatial relations2 of the primordial element1 and all its properties4 ,the creative act was not conditioned by ,time or ,space or ,matter4#abi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,creation4--,,the ,,genesis ,,or ,,beginning4 ,the laws of nature can not account for their own origin4--,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,creation was the absolutely free act of ,god1 unconditioned by any pre-existing thing4 ,matter with its properties and forms1 its temporal1 spatial1 and numerical relations2 ,spirit with its life and feeling1 its ideas and laws--these had all their origin in the creative ,word of ,god4 ,whatever is1 and is not ,god1 is the creature of ,god4 ,this is the ,biblical conception of ,creation4 ,origination and formation are so immediately and inseparably united in the ,biblical notion of ,creation that the revelation of the one is the revelation of the other1 and we can not deny the former without logically involving ourselves in the denial of the latter4 ,he who gave to matter its forms must have given it its essential properties1 upon which many of its forms depend2 and ,he who gave to matter its essential properties must have given it origination1 for how can we conceive of substance devoid of all attributes8 ,whether1 therefore1 the account in ,genesis be found to have in view1 mainly or solely1 a universal or a partial creation2 whether the principium there mentioned be the particular beginning of the special work there described1 or the principium principiorum1--the beginning of all beginnings--the ,bible is in either case a protest against the dogma of the eternity of the world1 or of the eternity of matter4#acj ,this notion of ,creation as a pure supernatural origination is the only one which reason can accept as adequate1 satisfactory1 and complete4 ,formation without origination is a conception of creation which is logically incomplete4 ,it fails to meet the demand of reason for an ,absolute ,first ,principle adequate to the production and explanation of all existence4 ,there are outlying elements of the problem which it can not grasp in the unity of a ,fundamental ,idea4 ,matter with its properties1 ,number1 ,time1 and ,space1 with their relations1 are still lying outside of its field1 and setting themselves up as self-existent and independent realities1 which by their apparent or conceded independence must necessarily impose conditions upon the ,divine activity1 and perpetually embarrass the human mind in its effort to think of ,god as the free and unconditioned ,cause4 ,reason demands that absolute unity shall stand at the fountain-head of being1 and every system of philosophy which allows of more than one self-existent and independent and underived reality bewilders and staggers the understanding1 and vitiates all its processes of thought4 ,after this concession every argument for the being of ,god seems to us a petitio principii4 ,reason and ,revelation1 then1 are agreed in the affirmation that the ,universe1 both as to its matter and form1 had its origin in the creative ,word and ,will of ,god4 ,how far this affirmation is sustained by the posteriori inductions of physical science is a question of the deepest interest1 and to this we now invite attention4 ,this question naturally divides itself into two subordinate inquiries1 one relating to the form1 the other to the matter of the universe1 which may be thus presented3 #a4 ,had the existing ,order of the universe a beginning8 ,had the forms1 relations1 laws1 and harmonies of the universe a beginning8 #b4 ,had that which is the ground of all forms1 the subject of all changes and relations1 a beginning8 ,had the ,matter of the universe a beginning8 ,in regard to the first question1 we remark in general3 ,the common conviction of our race in all ages has been that the existing order of the universe had a beginning1 and will have an end4 ,it has been affirmed by some mental philosophers that mankind has an intuitive and natural belief in the uniformity of nature1 and the consequent stability and permanence of the universe4 ,reid1 the father of the ,scottish school of philosophy1 says1 ,god has implanted in the human mind an original principle by which he believes in and expects the continuance of the course of nature4 ,it is a matter of surprise that so acute a thinker should have fallen into so flagrant an error4 ,he has evidently confounded our natural belief in causation with our acquired experiences of uniformity4 ,that like causes will always produce like effects is a native intuition2 but that the same causes will always continue in operation1 and always operate with the same intensity1 is a mere presumption4 ,our faith in the uniformity and permanent stability of nature is an induction from experience1 and not a natural and necessary intuition of the mind4#aca ,far from entertaining a belief in the permanence and stability of the present order of nature1 the great mass of mankind in earlier times regarded the system of things as liable to constant interference on the part of supernatural powers4 ,in all ages of the world the existing order of nature has been regarded as temporal1 and the flow of terrestrial and even of cosmical events has been conceived as liable to be broken up by universal revolutions4 ,the historical evidence of this universal belief in geological catastrophes has been fully brought forward by ,dr4 ,winchell in his ,sketches of ,creation4#acb ,traditions of a primal chaos and of periodic cataclysms are found among the ,greeks1 ,egyptians1 ,phnicians1 ,chaldans1 ,hebrews1 ,persians1 ,arabians1 ,hindoos1 ,south ,sea ,islanders1 and the ,aztecs4 ,and among those nations in which the physical sciences have been cultivated the same conceptions are still entertained4 ,as science has extended our acquaintance with natural phenomena in all parts of the earth1 and beyond the earth into the celestial spaces1 men have gradually attained a belief in the uniformity of nature4 ,but the doctrine of periodical catastrophes has not been abandoned by scientific men4 ,when men now speak of the uniformity of nature1 they use that term in a very large sense1 and even loose sense1 as including catastrophes and convulsions of an intense and extensive kind2#acc and1 as we shall presently see1 the most advanced and exact modern science teaches us to contemplate a grand final catastrophe in which all life will be extinguished on the earth1 and the globe itself shall be ensepulchred in an extinguished sun4 ,the attempt1 therefore1 to represent the belief in the uniformity of nature as a universal and necessary truth is vain4 ,we have no priori ground for believing in the permanence of the universe4 ,the common conviction of our race that the universe had a beginning1 that it has been the subject of great catastrophal changes1 and that it will finally come to an end1 is not to be regarded as an insignificant fact4 ,as ,herbert ,spencer justly remarks1 ,we must presume that beliefs that have long existed and have been widely diffused 444 beliefs that are perennial and universal 444 have some foundation1 and some amount of verity4#acd ,universal beliefs must rest on some common ground4 ,that common ground can not be experience4 ,a belief which was as clearly and confidently held four thousand years ago as it is held to-day can not have been gradually attained by successive generalizations4 ,it is grounded on the fundamental antithesis between ,becoming and ,being1 phenomena and reality1 the changeful and the permanent1 the finite and the infinite1 the temporal and the eternal1 which has been a necessary form of thought to all minds in all ages4 ,the human mind has never been able to conceive these contradictory opposites as predicable of the same subject4 ,the universe as presented to sense is a perpetual genesis1 a ceaseless change2 therefore it can not be permanent4 ,it is a time-march of phenomena2 therefore it can not be eternal4 ,it is limited by quantity and quantitative relations2 therefore it can not be infinite4 ,thus reason has always conceived the universe as having a beginning1 and has confidently predicted that it will come to an end4 ,all systems of philosophy1 and1 indeed1 many systems of religion1 have been attempts to explain the beginning or origin of things--that is1 they have been priori theories of the universe4#ace ,even ,atheism itself comes under this definition3 it is an attempt to explain the origin of the universe and of man on the priori assumption of the self-existence of ,matter1 ,space1 and ,motion4 ,thus all systems of thought1 ancient and modern1 have had their birth in the innate conviction that there is something to be explained1 and that human reason is adequate to the task of furnishing an explanation4 ,they all assume that the universe had a beginning1 and their one1 central problem is1 ,how are we to conceive aright the origin of things8 ,in what does this differ from the problem of modern science8 ,it is true that ,comte would limit positive science to the study of phenomena in their orders of co-existence1 resemblance1 and succession1 an idea which the word positive by no means conveys4 ,and ,tyndall asserts that the man of science1 if he confine himself within his own limits1 will give no answer to the question as to the origin of things4 ,at the same time he admits that he can clearly show that the present state of things may be derivative4#acf ,the great masters of science1 however1 refuse to acknowledge any such arbitrary limitations4 ,the essence of science1 says ,sir ,william ,thomson1 consists in inferring antecedent conditions1 and anticipating future evolutions from phenomena which have actually come under observation4#acg ,if this be the essence of science1 then we presume that it is competent to throw some light on the primitive condition of the universe1 and give some prevision of its future destiny4 ,did not ,comte himself teach that the solar system was once all nebula1 and that it will yet collapse into an exhausted and extinguished sun8#ach ,is it true1 then1 that physical science by its inductive inference of antecedent conditions1 does really furnish a solid confirmation of the priori and native conviction of our race that the universe had a beginning8 ,then most assuredly even physical science is carrying us forward toward the ultimate unity of all truth--a unity which can be realized perfectly only by the constant mutual determination of priori and empirical knowledge1 a synthesis and equipoise of physical and metaphysical truths4 ,this is the most obvious tendency of modern science in its relation to the question under consideration4 ,nothing is more remarkable in the present aspect of physical research than what has been aptly called the transcendental character of its results4 ,as ,george ,henry ,lewes observes1 the fundamental ideas of modern science are as transcendental as any of the axioms of ancient philosophy4#aci ,paltiological science in general has advanced by sure and steady steps1 through careful observation and experiment1 inductive inference1 and the application of exact mathematical calculus to the recognition of the truth long ago announced by ,paul3 ,the things which are seen are temporal1 the things which are not seen are eternal4 ,dynamical ,geology1 ,astronomical ,paltiology1 ,cosmogony1 ,molecular ,physics1 ,abstract ,dynamics1 have all landed in the same inevitable conclusion that the existing order of things had a beginning4 ,sir ,william ,thomson's doctrine of the ,dissipation of ,energy leads us1 by sure steps of deductive reasoning1 to the necessary future of the universe--necessary1 that is1 if physical laws remain unchanged--so it enables us distinctly to say that the present order of things has not been evolved through infinite past time by the agency of laws now at work1 but must have had a distinctive beginning1 a state beyond which we are totally unable to penetrate--a state which must have been produced by other than the now acting causes4#adj ,the science of ,geology reduces all terrestrial phenomena to the great law of finite duration4 ,if there be one scientific induction which may be fairly pronounced legitimate and irrefragable1 it is this one--that the existing terrestrial economy had a beginning4 ,all organic existence1 recent or extinct1 vegetable or animal1 had a beginning2 there was a time when they were not4 ,the geologist can indicate that time1 if not by years1 at least by periods1 and show what were its relations to the periods that went before and that came after4 ,he can carry us back to the time when man did not exist upon the earth1 when no mammals existed2 to the time when no birds1 no reptiles1 no fishes existed--when even ,huxley's protoplasm had no being2 when all creation1 from its centre to its circumference1 was a creation of dead inorganic matter1#ada and when there was not one spore or monad or atom of life throughout its dark domain4 ,the form of the earth itself clearly reveals its history1 and points us to that beginning4 ,its bulging equator and flattened poles1 its pavement of congealed lava1 which in some cases we name granite2 nay1 the oldest water-worn pavement composed of the detritus of the igneous rocks--all attest the emergence of our planet from a molten condition1 and a temperature#adb in which no life could exist2 so that even ,tyndall admits there are the strongest grounds for believing that during a certain period of its history the earth was not1 nor was it fit to be1 the theatre of life4#adc ,the earth was once a molten mass heated to incandescence--a self-luminous globe4 ,on this point there is scarcely any difference of opinion among scientific men4 ,furthermore1 a large majority of modern scientists regard themselves as justified in the affirmation of a still anterior nebulous condition4 ,if the nebular hypothesis is accepted1 then we are required to contemplate a period when the earth did not exist1 and when even the matter which now enters into its constitution was an undistinguished part of the nebula from which the whole solar system was evolved4 ,many exact observations and mathematical computations as to the secular cooling of the earth give results which are in strict accordance with this theory of its primitive igneous condition4 ,the observed facts clearly indicate that the earth is becoming1 on the whole1 cooler from age to age1 and that the natural current of events is carrying it inevitably to a state of total refrigeration4#add ,the fossil remains now found within the arctic circle indicate that at a period1 not extremely remote1 tropical vegetation flourished1 and forms of animal life subsisted there which are now confined to the torrid zone4 ,mammoths lived in the now uninhabited polar regions1 and tree-ferns and the tropical shell-fish found there a home4#ade ,the surface of the earth was then warmed by internal heat which since that period has waned2 that heat has been gradually dissipated in the surrounding space1 as a red-hot ball suspended even in the warm air of a room must1 according to the well-known laws of radiation and absorption1 necessarily part with its heat4 ,many experiments carefully conducted in our time show that the temperature of the earth increases with the depth to which we penetrate3 ,in boring for the artesian well at ,grenelle1 which is #edf metres deep1 it was observed that the temperature augmented at the rate of #a ,centigrade for every #cj metres4 ,the same result was obtained by observations in the artesian well at ,mondorf1 in ,luxemburg2 this well is #fga metres in depth1 and its waters #cd warm4 ,as the result of many investigations in mines and borings1 ,sir ,william ,thomson concludes that the average inference may be thus stated--there is on the whole about #a ,fahr4 of elevation of temperature per #ej ,british feet of descent4#adf ,if this increase is uniform--and we have no reason to suppose the contrary--then at the depth of #ej miles there exists1 says ,helmholtz1 a heat sufficient to fuse all our minerals4 ,the fact that the temperature of the earth increases with the depth necessarily involves a continual loss of heat from its interior by conduction outward into and through the upper crust1 according to a well-known law of equilibrium of temperatures4 ,hence1 since the upper crust does not become hotter from year to year1 there must be a secular loss of heat from the earth4#adg ,thus it appears that from the surface of the earth and the ocean1 from thermal springs1 and from three hundred active volcanoes1 the internal heat of the globe is incessantly radiated into space and is practically lost4 ,now this average loss of heat may be at least approximately measured1 and data are thereby furnished for determining the probable age of the earth1 or1 perhaps more correctly1 its phase of life4 ,if a man were to find a hot ball of iron suspended in a room1 and if he were carefully to observe the distribution of heat in the ball1 he would be able easily to determine whether the ball were becoming hotter or cooler4 ,if he found that the inside were hotter than the outside1 he would conclude that the ball was cooling1 and had therefore been hotter than when he found it4 ,so far common-sense would be his guide2 but with the aid of mathematics1 and some knowledge of the physical properties of iron and air1 he could go much further1 and be able to calculate how hot the ball must have been at any given moment1 if it had not been interfered with4 ,thus he would be able to say1 the ball must have been hung up less than1 say1 five hours ago1 for at that time the heat of the metal would have been such that it would have been in a state of fusion1 and hence not capable of hanging as a solid mass4 ,precisely analogous reasoning holds with regard to the earth3 it is such a ball2 it is hotter inside than outside4 ,the distribution of the heat near its surface is approximately known--#a ,fahr4 of elevation in temperature for #ej ,british feet of descent4#adh ,the properties of the matter of which it is composed are approximately known4 ,the temperature at which granite rocks are fusible has been found to be about #gjjj ,fahr4 ,this must therefore have been the temperature of the earth in its primitive igneous condition4 ,from these data1 ,sir ,william ,thomson has1 by rigid mathematical calculations1 reached the conclusion that the consolidation of the earth's crust commenced #ih1jjj1jjj years ago4#adi ,the rates of increase of temperature inward in a great amount of average rock at various periods after the commencement of cooling1 from the primitive heat of #gjjj ,fahr41 are estimated by ,sir ,william ,thomson as follows3 ,at #aj1jjj y'rs after commencement of cooling should have #b per ft4 ,at #dj1jjj #a ,at #afj1jjj #a_/b ,at #d1jjj1jjj #a_/aj ,at #ajj1jjj1jjj #a_/ej ,it is therefore probable that for the last #if1jjj1jjj years the rate of increase of temperature under ground has gradually diminished from #a_/aj to about #a_/ej of a degree ,fahrenheit per foot1 and that the thickness of the crust through which any stated degree of cooling has been experienced has gradually increased during that period from #a_/e of its present thickness to what it now really is4#aej ,we freely admit our inability to sit in judgment on the validity of ,sir ,william ,thomson's conclusions4 ,there are eminent geologists who entertain the opinion that the secular cooling of the earth has proceeded with much greater rapidity4 ,it is1 however1 sufficient for our purpose that the most distinguished physicists of the day are agreed in teaching that the existing terrestrial economy had a beginning4 ,there are other terrestrial changes which engage the attention of the geologist1 and which force upon him the conclusion that the existing terrestrial order had a beginning and must have an end4 ,the surface of the earth has at intervals undergone great changes in the disposition of its land and water4 ,that which is now dry land was once the ocean-bed1 and the ocean waves now roll and murmur over what was once dry land4 ,sudden1 or comparatively sudden1 catastrophes have extinguished the then existing creations1 and the earth has been repeopled by new orders of life4 ,changes are now in progress which are gradually reducing the populous regions of the earth to the condition of the ,sahara of ,africa and the ,desert of ,arabia4 ,upper and ,lower ,mesopotamia1 the seat of the ancient monarchies of ,chalda1 ,assyria1 and ,babylonia1 now present vast tracts of arid plain--yellow1 parched1 and sapless--which have now become a bare and uninhabited desert4 ,that ancient continent drained by the ,colorado1 once as fertile as the ,valley of the ,mississippi1 is now the ,great ,american ,desert4 ,every freshet burdens the streams with a load of sediment2 and the ,mississippi bears daily to the ,gulf material sufficient for a cotton plantation4 ,from the slopes of the ,alleghanies and the ,rocky ,mountains1 from the broad acres over which the ,mississippi and the ,ohio reach their silver fingers to filch from the land1 the sediments are stolen and carried away to the sea4 ,the ,western ,states are slowly traveling toward the ,gulf4 ,the hills are melting1 and even the mountain cliffs are lowering under the ceaseless conflict with storm and frost4 ,the summits of the ,alleghanies have come down #cjjj feet from their original altitudes4 ,give time enough1 and the inequalities of the land will disappear4 ,the ocean will be filled1 and again assert a triumph over the continents which in the beginning were wrested from his dominion4 ,thus by the storms of heaven1 the erosion of the atmosphere1 the blasting power of frost1 the gnawing of the tidal wave1 the mountains are being leveled1 and the rocks and soils carried onward by the rivers to fill up the basin of the sea4 ,the headlong rush of the avalanche1 the murmuring of the brook1 the roaring of the sea1 the voice of the storm--all proclaim1 ,the things which are seen are temporal6--,the existing order of things had a beginning and must come to an end6#aea ,astronomical ,paltiology reduces all celestial phenomena to the same great law of finite duration4 ,it teaches that planets1 stars1 systems1 have their birth1 their process of formation1 their maturity1 and their slow1 protracted decay4 ,the ephemeron perishes in an hour1 man endures his three-score years and ten2 continents and islands have their ages and ons2 the stars of heaven are not exempt from this universal law of change and decay4 ,according to the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 the formation of this our system of sun1 planets1 and satellites was a process of the same kind as that which is still going forward in the heavens4 ,one after another1 nebul condense into separate masses1 which begin to revolve about each other in obedience to dynamical laws1 and form systems of which our system is a matured example4 ,the present aspect of this planetary system is1 however1 but a passing phase in the history of its fleeting life4 ,our planet was once a self-luminous orb2 it has now become opaque1 and shines only with a borrowed light4 ,the moon is probably in a state of total refrigeration2 its lunar air and lunar seas have been changed by intensity of cold into the solid form4#aeb ,the sun itself is radiating heat into space in quantities incomparably greater than it receives1 and1 as ,helmholtz affirms1 the inexorable laws of mechanics show that its store of heat must be finally exhausted4#aec ,the planets in their motions encounter resistance from the interstellar ether2 they must1 therefore1 necessarily move in shorter and shorter orbits1 and at last fall into the sun4 ,thus the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 combined with the doctrine of a resisting medium1 teaches us that the solar system is wending its way1 through successive changes1 from a past of vaporous unity to a future of consolidated reunion4 ,it was once all nebula2 it will1 if left to physical agencies alone1 collapse into an extinguished and exhausted sun4 ,the astronomer who has been accustomed to regard every question relating to his favorite science as almost exclusively a problem in mathematics1 will pronounce the above a crude and adventurous attempt on the part of the physicist to solve a problem which belongs to the calculus of variations4 ,is the universe a ,conservative or a ,dissipative system8 ,under its present laws will it run on forever1 or will these very laws in the end lead to its subversion8 ,will the mechanism of the heavens finally run down as surely as the weights of a clock run down to their lowest position1 or are we authorized on scientific grounds to assert the permanent stability of the solar system8 ,this question has been earnestly discussed by the most distinguished astronomers since the days of ,newton4 ,until recently1 the general conclusion--reached mainly on mathematical grounds--seems to have been that the universe is a thoroughly conservative system1 and that the celestial machinery by a species of perpetual motion will run on forever4 ,but must not all applied mathematical reasoning obtain its data from the exact observation of material facts8 ,the mathematician must also be a good natural philosopher2 he must lay his account with all the facts of the universe1 otherwise his symbols have no contents1 and his reasoning1 however faultless in its processes1 will be fallacious in its results4 ,the discoveries of the present century respecting the correlation of the various forms of energy1 the nature of the solar light and heat1 the motions of comets1 and especially the new doctrine of the ,dissipation of ,energy1 have introduced new elements into the great problem1 which seem to indicate that gravitation is by no means the only force by which the motions of the heavenly bodies are influenced1 and that causes are now in operation which are slowly but surely undermining the system4 ,we now find1 therefore1 such high authorities as ,whewell1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,balfour ,stewart1 ,prof4 ,maxwell1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,mayer1 ,helmholtz1 ,tyndall1 ,littrow1 ,comte1 ,adolph ,fick1 asserting that the solar system is not a self-winding clock which may run forever1 but that it is a dissipative system which must ultimately lose all motion1 unless some power capable of controlling the laws of material nature interfere to preserve it4 ,we have no more valid reason for concluding that the ,deity intended the system should be eternal than that ,he intended the earthly life of man should be eternal4#aed ,a few general statements may assist the reader in appreciating the merits of the discussion4 ,it has been observed since the dawn of science that changes are taking place in the motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,the eccentricity of the earth's orbit has been gradually diminishing from the earliest observations to the present time4 ,the moon1 also1 has been moving faster and faster from the time of the first recorded eclipses1 and is now in advance by about four times her own breadth of what her place would have been had she not been affected by these accelerations4#aee ,in a few thousand years she will be half a month ahead of the place she would be in if her month were to remain constant4 ,the moon is1 therefore1 approaching closer and closer to the earth2 and if these changes go on uninterruptedly1 without any reaction or adjustment1 sooner or later the final catastrophe must come1 and the moon be precipitated on the body of the earth4 ,toward the close of the last century1 ,laplace1 in his great work1 the ,mchanique ,cleste1 attempted by certain mathematical computations to show that1 nevertheless1 the solar system is stable and permanent4 ,the planets1 by their mutual attractions1 produce perpetual perturbations in one another's movements4 ,laplace believed he could prove that these were periodic2 they reach a maximum value and then diminish1 oscillating between very narrow extremes4 ,he therefore taught that the machine would go on by a kind of perpetual motion1 without any winding up or adjustment from without2 and1 consequently1 the eternal continuance of the solar system is insured4 ,all the investigations of ,laplace1 and the computations of ,lagrange1 proceeded on two assumptions3 first1 that the planets are moving in vacuo2 and1 secondly1 that they are solid throughout their entire mass4 ,the latter assumption is certainly in conflict with well-determined geological facts2 and there is no priori ground for assuming that the planetary spaces are void and empty4 ,on the contrary1 the general analogies of nature would lead us to the very opposite conclusion1 and all attempts at producing a perfect vacuum have hitherto failed4 ,furthermore1 the great body of modern physicists1 and nearly all modern astronomers1 hold that the celestial spaces are filled with a material ether1 which must by its very nature offer some resistance to planetary motion4 ,scientific men1 says ,mayer1 do not doubt the existence of such an ether4 ,the presence of such material ether--dense1 elastic1 and capable of motion--subject to and determined by mechanical laws1#aef is demanded for the explanation of radiant heat1 light1 and actinism4 ,no other theory ever proposed has so beautifully and completely accounted for all the facts4 ,its reality must be admitted1 until the positions established by ,huyghens1 ,young1 ,fresnel1 ,foucault1 and ,fiziau are shown to be untenable4 ,all the prominent experimental physicists of the present day agree in teaching that light and heat are transmitted by vibrations or wave-like motions in a material medium universally diffused through space1 and permeating all material bodies4 ,light and heat are the ceaseless thrill which the distant orbs collectively create in the ether1 and which constitute what has been called the temperature of space4 ,if the existence of such material medium as the assumed ether be denied1 we can not account in any conceivable or rational manner for the transmission of light and heat from the sun4 ,and now1 if the space between the celestial bodies contain no other matter than that necessary for the transmission of light1 that alone1 says ,littrow1 is sufficient1 in the course of time1 to alter the motion of the planets1 and the arrangements of the solar system itself2 the fall of all the planets and comets into the sun1 and the destruction of the present state of the solar system1 must be the final result of this action4#aeg ,but it is further claimed by ,helmholtz1 ,mayer1 and ,sir ,william ,thomson that the phenomena presented by ,encke's comet furnish direct proof of the existence of such resisting medium4 ,the observations on this comet made during the past thirty or forty years show that the periods of its revolution are continually diminishing at the rate of #j4aa per revolution of nearly #c-a_/c years4 ,in other words1 the comet's mean distance from the sun is diminishing by slow and regular degrees4 ,the solution which ,encke himself proposed1 and which ,herschel informs us is generally received1#aeh is that resistance is experienced from the medium in which the comet moves2 such resistance diminishing its actual velocity and also its centrifugal force1 thus giving the sun greater power to draw it nearer4 ,it will1 therefore1 fall into the sun4 ,a similar fate1 says ,helmholtz1 threatens all the planets4 ,the analogies of nature1 and the ascertained facts of physical science1 forbid us to doubt that every star1 and1 indeed1 every body of every kind moving in any part of space1 has its relative motion impeded by the air1 gas1 vapor1 medium1 or whatever we call the substance occupying space immediately around them1 just as the motion of a rifle-bullet is impeded by the resistance of the air4#aei ,there are also indirect resistances1 the effects of tidal friction1 on all bodies which1 like the earth1 have portions of their free surfaces covered by liquids1 which1 so long as these bodies move relatively to neighboring bodies1 must keep drawing off energy from their relative motions4 ,thus1 if we consider the action of the moon on the earth1 with its oceans1 lakes1 and rivers1 we perceive that it must tend to equalize the period of the earth's rotation on its axis1 and of the revolution of the two bodies about their centre of inertia2 because1 so long as these periods differ1 the tidal action of the earth's surface must keep subtracting energy from their motions4#afj ,as the tidal wave sweeps over the oceans and rushes into the numerous bays and estuaries1 the motions which it produces in the waters necessarily involve an expenditure of power or vis viva in overcoming the resistance from friction4 ,the energy of motion thus expended must be drawn from the set of machinery which produces the motions--that is1 from the motion of revolution of the moon1 and the motion of rotation of the earth4 ,it can not be returned to the machinery1 because all that is not spent in triturating the sand and other materials composing the ocean-bed1 is transformed into heat and radiated into space4 ,it is true that in the present state of science we have not exact data for estimating the relative importance of tidal friction1 and of the resistance of the interstellar medium2 but1 whatever it may be1 there can be1 says ,thomson1 but one ultimate result for such a system as that of sun and planets if continuing long enough under existing laws4444 ,that result is the falling together into one mass1 which1 although rotating for a time1 must in the end come to rest relatively to the surrounding medium4#afa ,another evidence that the solar system is temporal1 and that the present cosmical order must come to an end1 is found in the fact that the sun is radiating heat into space in quantities incomparably greater than it receives4 ,if it were not so1 we should receive1 on the average1 as much heat from every other quarter of the heavens as from the sun1 and no vicissitudes of temperature would ever occur on the earth4 ,now1 from what we know of the nature of heat1 it is impossible that the supply contained in the sun should be inexhaustible4 ,there is no apparent reason why the sun should form an exception to the fate of all fires1 its only difference being one of size and time4 ,it is larger and hotter than ordinary lamps1 but is nevertheless a lamp in which invisible molecular energy is consumed1 and consumed1 too1 at a rate which baffles all conception4 ,from every square foot of its surface the sun gives out energy equal in amount to seven thousand horse-power4 ,the total amount of heat sent off from the sun in one minute is five thousand millions of millions of units3 a unit of heat being the quantity of heat required to raise one kilogramme--or about one quart--of water one ,centigrade degree4#afb ,this enormous consumption of energy must finally exhaust the original stock4 ,were the sun a solid block of coal1 and were it allowed a sufficient quantity of oxygen to enable it to burn at the rate necessary to produce the observed emission of heat1 it would be utterly consumed in five thousand years4 ,or if we suppose1 with ,thomson1 that the initial form of the energy of the universe is the potential energy of gravitation in matter diffused through space1 and if this potential energy 7energy of position7 is transformed into heat 7molecular kinetic energy7 by condensation or contraction of the sun1 and this energy of molecular motion 7heat7 is again transformed into radiant energy and diffused through infinite space1 it is obvious that this condensation can not be continued forever1 and ,thomson has shown in his article on the ,age of the ,sun's ,heat that its power of radiation must come to an end4 ,various theories have been suggested for replenishing the solar heat1 one of the most plausible of which is the falling of meteoric and cometary bodies into the sun4 ,prof4 ,thomson1 who was one of the first to adopt this view1 has now abandoned it1 or at least has denied its adequacy to account for the maintenance of solar heat4 ,even were the hypothesis accepted as valid1 the supply of fuel is still finite4 ,time will drain the entire space inclosed by the orbit of the planet ,neptune of all the meteors and comets4 ,even the planets must at length be ensepulchred in the sun4 ,as surely1 writes ,sir ,william ,thomson1 as the weights of the clock run down to the lowest position1 from which they can never rise again unless fresh energy is communicated to them from some source not yet exhausted1 so surely must every planet creep in1 age after age1 toward the sun4 ,not one can escape its fiery end4 ,and1 finally1 the heat of the sun itself--that is1 its molecular energy--must be transformed into radiant energy1 and diffused and lost as a working force in infinite space4 ,thus do the inexorable laws of mechanics indicate that the sun's store of heat1 which can only suffer loss and not gain1 must be finally exhausted4#afc ,there are thus special geological and astronomical facts which have long been regarded as indicative of the principle that the existing order of the material universe is temporal--it had a beginning1 and must have an end4 ,but the modern ,theory of ,energy1#afd with its three great laws of ,conservation1 ,transformation1 and ,dissipation1 must be regarded as a comprehensive1 complete1 and final settlement of the question4 ,it has been shown1 first1 that no system of machinery can create force any more than it can create matter2 and that the amount of energy in the universe1 or in any limited system which does not receive energy from without1 or part with it to external matter1 is a constant or invariable quantity4 ,this is the ,law of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,it has been proved1 secondly1 as an experimental fact that1 in general1 one form of energy may1 by suitable processes1 be transformed wholly or in part to an equivalent amount of another form2 and the sole and only function of all possible machines is the conversion or transformation of energy4 ,this is the ,law of the ,transformation of ,energy4 ,this law of ,transformation is1 however1 subject to the limitations which are imposed by the ,law of the ,dissipation of ,energy1 the discovery of which is mainly due to ,sir ,william ,thomson4 ,he has shown that every machine does its work against friction4 ,a material system can never be brought through any returning cycle of motions without spending more work against the mutual forces of its parts than it gained from these parts1 because no relative motions can take place without meeting with frictional or other forms of resistance4 ,no known process of transformation is exactly reversible4 ,whenever an attempt is made to transform and retransform energy by an imperfect process1 part of the energy is converted into heat1 and the heat is dissipated1 so as to become useless because incapable of further transformation4 ,it therefore follows that1 as energy is constantly in a state of transformation1 there is a constant degradation of energy to that final unavailable form of uniformly diffused heat2 and this will go on as long as transformations occur1 until the whole energy of the universe has taken this form4#afe ,the reader will find an extended discussion of this great question in ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahh-cjd1 in which it is shown that the present material system is not a dynamically conservative but a dissipative system1 and therefore that in such a system perpetual motion is an impossibility4 ,indeed1 the ,law of the ,dissipation of ,energy is an intelligent and well-supported denial of the chimera of perpetual motion4 ,there is a loose idea that perpetual motion is impossible to us1 because we can not avoid friction with its consequent loss of energy1 but that nature works without friction1 or that1 in general1 friction entails no loss1 and so here perpetual motion is possible2 but nature no more works without friction than we do1 and friction entails a loss of available power4 ,the supply of invisible molecular energy in the sun is no more infinite than the quantity of matter in the sun is infinite4 ,the sun is daily lifting huge masses of water from the sea to the skies1 yearly lifting endless vegetation from the earth1 setting breezes and hurricanes in motion1 dragging the huge tidal wave round and round the earth2 performing1 in short1 the great bulk of the endless labor of this world and other worlds1 so that the energy of the sun is continually being given away without any corresponding restoration4 ,the loss of force in the shape of radiant light and heat can never be weaned back to any other mode of available energy4 ,carnot1 ,clausius1 ,thomson1 and ,rankine have all from different points of view been led to the same conclusion4 ,we can make no use whatever of the energy represented by equally diffused heat4 ,if one body is hotter than another1 as the boiler of a steam-engine is hotter than the condenser1 then we can make use of the difference of temperature to convert some of the heat into work2 but if two substances are equally hot1 even though their particles contain an enormous amount of molecular energy1 they will not yield us a single unit of work4 ,energy is thus of different qualities1 mechanical energy being the best1 and universal heat the worst2 in fact1 this latter description of energy may be compared to the waste heap of the universe1 in which the effete forms of energy are suffered to accumulate without any further conversion4#aff ,if1 then1 when mechanical force passes into heat1 some of the heat can never be brought back to be mechanical force1 and if the change from mechanical force to heat be ever going on1 all the force in the universe must at last take the form of radiant heat4 ,but if that be so1 then at last all differences of temperature must disappear1 and every thing end in a universal death4 ,we are come1 says ,adolph ,fick1 to this alternative3 either in our highest1 most general1 most fundamental abstractions1 some great point has been overlooked1 or the universe will have an ,,end1 and must have had a ,,beginning2 it could not have existed from ,eternity1 but must at some date1 not infinitely distant1 have arisen from something not forming a part of the natural chain of causes--that is1 ,,it ,,must ,,have ,,been ,,created4#afg ,so far1 then1 the deductions of science are found to be in striking harmony with the teaching of revelation--the existing order of the universe had a beginning2 the forms1 relations1 laws1 harmonies of the ,cosmos had a commencement in time4 ,we may now proceed to the consideration of the second question3 ,had that which is the ground of all form1 the subject of all changes and relations1 a beginning8 ,had the matter of the universe a beginning8 ,that we may fairly present the answer which modern science offers to this question1 we must premise1 in general1 that it confesses its inability1 in the present stage of physical knowledge1 to determine what is the ultimate or internal constitution of matter4 ,many scientists of to-day are of the opinion expressed by ,grove#afh that probably man will never know the ultimate structure of matter4 ,others1 as1 for example1 ,thomson1 ,bayma1 ,mc,vicar1 and ,challis1 entertain the opinion that physical science is competent to discover all the minuti of molecular actions1 and when this has been achieved1 the question as to the ultimate constitution of matter can be finally determined4 ,there is one guiding principle1 recognized alike by the physicist and the metaphysician1 namely1 that substances1 ultimate entities1 are known1 and can only be known in and through their respective phenomena4 ,an exact enumeration and careful colligation of all the phenomena are therefore indispensable prerequisites to the solution of the problem4 ,meantime nothing is more remarkable1 even in the present state of physical science1 than the fact that1 under the subtile analysis of modern physics1 much that we have been accustomed to regard as phenomena of matter dissolves and disappears1 surviving only as phenomena of ,force4 ,the phenomena of heat1 light1 color1 sound1 electricity1 and magnetism are now modes of motion--manifestations of one and the same omnipresent energy1 which is transferred from one portion of matter to another1 and modified or transformed simply by the mechanical arrangements and collocations of matter4 ,the opinion is rapidly gaining ground that even chemical action is a mode of motion1 and ,professor ,norton does not hesitate in affirming that all the phenomena of material nature result from the action of force upon matter4#afi ,all that we mean by a ,material ,force is a force which acts upon matter1 and produces in matter its own appropriate effects4#agj ,it is not an attribute of matter1 not a quality inherent in matter1 but a mode or state superimposed upon matter4 ,there is a large1 influential1 and daily increasing class of scientists1 among whom may be named ,faraday1 ,prof4 ,owen1 ,dr4 ,laycock1 ,wallace1 ,dr4 ,winslow1 ,prof4 ,huxley1 who do not regard matter as an ultimate entity1 and who believe that all the phenomena of matter 7so called71 even extension1 resistance1 and ultimate incompressibility1 may be resolved into phenomena of force4 ,in other words1 matter is only phenomenal1 and1 like all phenomena1 demands a cause4#aga ,these men are perplexed with no difficulties as to the origin of matter4 ,as a phenomenon it must be a product of ,creative ,efficiency1 and therefore had a beginning4 ,it is obviously unnecessary that we should here discuss the merits of this hypothesis which resolves matter into force4 ,we shall encounter it at a subsequent stage of our inquiry1 and may then attempt to gauge its merits4 ,it is enough for our present purpose that ,heat1 ,light1 ,color1 ,sound1 ,electricity1 ,magnetism1 are recognized as forms of molecular ,energy--phenomena of ,force2 that these forms of invisible molecular energy1 together with all the energy of visible motions and positions1 are regarded as flowing from one great central force1 or fountain-head of power2 and that there is a remarkable unanimity among the first scientific men of our age in acknowledging this power as the ,creative ,efficiency of ,god4 ,these forces uniformly work in obedience to ,law2 and ,law1 whether viewed in the orderly movement of a planet or an atom1 in the symmetrical arrangement of a crystal of the definite proportions of chemical combination1 in the organization of a worm or of an elephant1 is intellect1 is reason4 ,this is the ultimate principle upon which every condition of matter and form depends4 ,this conception of force will materially aid us in the conception of matter4 ,it is simply the recipient of impulses or energy#agb--the mere passive condition for the exercise of power4 ,it does not generate the phenomena which it manifests4 ,it is only the substratum--it does absolutely nothing but give to the phenomena their conditions of manifestation4#agc ,every molecule of matter1 every aggregation of molecules1 every organism must be regarded as a machine upon which the forces of nature play1 and by which they are transformed and rendered available for the performance of work4 ,thus matter1 by its very conception1 must have been created1 and fitted for the fulfillment of a predetermined function4 ,before the mechanism of the universe was set in motion1 there was a preparation and collocation of its materials1 and an adjustment of its minutest parts4 ,as ,sir ,john ,herschel justly remarks1 ,chemical analysis most certainly points to an origin1 and effectually destroys the idea of an external self-existent matter1 by giving to each of its atoms the essential character1 at once1 of a manufactured article and a subordinate agent4#agd ,the numerical relations between chemical elements are the expression of creative ideas4 ,the maxim of the ,pythagorean philosophers is daily receiving new illustration from science1 ,the world is a living arithmetic in its development1 a realized geometry in its repose4 ,there can be no arithmetic without an ,arithmetician1 no geometry without a ,geometrician4 ,thus in the very elements out of which the universe is built1 the blocks of nature's temple1 we see the indications not only of a fashioning but of an originating intelligence--a ,creating ,god4 ,design as truly appears in the primitive nature of matter as in its secondary formations4 ,the primitive purpose is stamped on the primitive article4 ,every molecule throughout the universe bears impressed on it the stamp of a metric system as distinctly as does the metre of the ,archives at ,paris1 or the double royal cubit of the ,temple of ,karnac4 ,no theory of evolution can be formed to account for the similarity of molecules1 for evolution necessarily implies continuous change1 and the molecule is incapable of growth or decay1 of generation or destruction4 ,none of the processes of ,nature1 since the time when ,nature began1 have produced the slightest difference in the properties of any molecule4 ,we are therefore unable to ascribe either the existence of the molecules or the identity of their properties to the operation of any of the causes which we call natural4 ,on the other hand1 the exact quality of each molecule to all others of the same kind gives it the essential character of a manufactured article1 and precludes the idea of its being eternal and self-existent4#age ,,chapter ,v4 ,,creation3 ,,its ,,history4 ,the universe had a beginning4 ,it is not eternal either in its matter or form2 it is neither self-originated nor self-sustained4 ,the all of the finite1 with its relations and laws1 its adaptations and harmonies1 had its origin solely and absolutely in the unconditioned will of ,god4 ,this is the ,christian doctrine concerning the world4 ,in the preceding chapters we have endeavored to show that this doctrine is in perfect agreement with the teachings of sound philosophy1 and we have found that it is daily receiving fresh confirmation from the discoveries of modern science4 ,if the universe originated solely in the free determination of ,god1 then we are assured there must be a sufficient and ultimate reason for its existence4 ,this logically follows from the true conception of ,will1 for will is not unconscious force1 neither is it groundless arbitrariness1 but conscious1 rational choice4 ,in the merely formal and indifferent sense of the word1 an arbitrary action is one in which the agent yields to the blind impulse of caprice1 and can assign no reason for his doing4 ,an action is truly free only when the agent knows what he wills1 and why he wills it4 ,the self-conscious will is the only real will4 ,will is intrinsically something more than power1 something more1 even1 than the power of spontaneous self-determination4 ,will involves precognition1 deliberation1 and alternative choice3 it is the living synthesis of reason and power4 ,the mere moment of self-determination does not suffice for the notion of will1 for this1 in a certain sense1 we must ascribe to unintelligent creatures1 to the organic life of nature by virtue of its development from its own principle4 ,self-determination only thereby becomes will by its being a conscious determination--that is1 the conscious subject is able to present to its own mind that which it brings to reality by its self-determination4#agf ,all real volition supposes a purpose or end to be realized1 an inward motive or reason which renders the end desirable1 and the choice and adaptation of means to accomplish that end4 ,consequently1 if the universe is the product of the ,divine ,will1 it must1 both in its origination and its history1 be the realization of an ultimate or final purpose1 must have a perfect unity of plan2 and the highest law of the universe must be a teleological idea to which all nature-forces and all causal connections are subordinated4 ,this ultimate purpose forms1 as it were1 a complete network of higher teleological connections above the web of mere aiteological connections which pervades the universe4 ,this great principle that a teleological idea is the highest law of the universe has been recognized by all philosophers of the spiritualistic school from the time of ,plato to the present day4 ,even ,mr4 ,mill admits that ,teleology1 or the ,doctrine of ,ends1 may be termed1 not improperly1 a principle of the practical reason2#agg and he advises those who would prove the existence of ,god to stick to the argument from design4 ,no saying of ,bacon has been more often quoted or more grossly misunderstood and misapplied than his remark on final causes3 ,the search after final causes is barren1 for like virgins consecrated to ,god they produce nothing4 ,if1 however1 we refer to his writings 7,advancement of ,learning1 bk4 ii4 p4 #adb71 we find him adding1 not because these final causes are not true and worthy to be inquired1 being kept within their own province4 ,a fair consideration of the context clearly shows that the remark was intended to apply to ,physics1 and not at all to ,metaphysics4 ,all that he intends to say is that in purely physical inquiries the search after final causes can have no practical application2 and the error he would guard against is the assumption that what appears to man a final cause must be the ultimate final cause to the ,infinite ,one4 ,the belief that a principle of adaptation to special ends pervades all existence1 and that it must be assumed as the ground of the scientific explanation of the facts and phenomena of the universe1 is avowed by the first scientists of the age4 ,we can not be content1 says ,dr4 ,laycock1 with simply determining the mere relations of things or events--an existence1 a co-existence1 a succession1 or a resemblance--and not inquire into the ends thereof4 ,such a doctrine applied to physiology would1 in fact1 arrest all scientific research into the phenomena of life2 for the investigation of the so-called functions of organs is nothing more than a teleological investigation4#agh ,a law of design is the higher generalization of the great uniformities of nature4#agi ,in his inaugural address at the meeting of the ,british ,association of ,science at ,edinburgh1 ,sir ,william ,thomson said3 ,i feel profoundly convinced that the argument from design has been greatly lost sight of in recent speculations4444 ,overwhelmingly strong proofs of ,intelligence and ,benevolent ,design lie all around us2 and if ever perplexities1 whether of a metaphysical or scientific character1 turn us away for a time1 they will come back upon us with irresistible force1 showing us through nature the influence of a ,free ,will1 and teaching us that all living beings depend upon one ever-acting ,creator and ,ruler4#ahj ,every enlargement of our knowledge of organic nature is an addition to the already numberless instances of recognized special adaptation which crowd us on every hand2 and all scientific discovery is but an illustration and a verification of the priori intuition of the reason that a principle of design is co-extensive with and the highest law of the universe4 ,not merely of each individual existence1 but of the grand totality of existence1 are we constrained to believe that it exists for a purpose4 ,above all special ends there is a great ultimate design of creation--a last or final end to which all intermediate ends are means2 and though physical science can not fully compass that final purpose1 yet in the light of its present knowledge of special ends it has abundant reason for assuming that there must be a final purpose1 and that that final purpose is at once beneficent and wise4#aha ,but while the final purpose of creation may not be discoverable by human science1 we know that it has been revealed in the ,christian ,scriptures4 ,the most fundamental doctrine of ,christianity is that ,god is ,love 7#a ,john iv4 #h1 #af71 and that ,love is the highest determining principle of the ,divine efficiency4 ,creation1 ,providence1 and ,redemption are grounded in ,love as the final cause 7,gen4 i4 #ca2 ,isa4 lxiii4 #i2 ,john iii4 #af74 ,the gravitating point of the ,christian doctrine of ,god the ,creator is not ,omnipotence1 nor yet ,wisdom1 but always ,love4 ,omnipotence1 in itself considered1 possesses no moving or determining principle4 ,god does not create the world to reveal his infinite power4 ,infinite ,wisdom devises the best means and methods for the ,divine efficiency1 but it does not supply the ultimate reason why the world exists4 ,the ,love of ,god is the moving principle of his wisdom and power in that it appoints the end to which omnipotence is related as the efficient1 and wisdom as the formal cause4 ,whatever displays of power or of wisdom may be made in the created universe1 they are all subordinated and made subservient to the purpose of ,love4 ,the highest law of the universe is ,love4 ,the conservation of ,love is the loftiest conservation of ,force4 ,the world1 then1 was created to be a revelation of ,god1 and especially to be a revelation of the perfections of the ,divine nature which are grounded in and deducible from ,love2 and it exists as the self-manifestation and self-communication of ,god to personal creatures who can know ,him and love ,him in return4 ,that which can determine ,god1 absolutely sufficient in ,himself1 in the production of beings distinct from ,himself1 is ,love alone2 consequently the creation is nothing else than the free self-communication of ,god ,himself1 who could be exclusively in ,himself1 but wills that others may have being and1 in fellowship with ,him1 eternal life4#ahb ,the world-creating1 world-preserving ,love of ,god has this for its ultimate purpose1 that there shall be beings who1 in the completeness and perfection of personal existence1 shall know and love and resemble ,god1 and have fellowship in his blessedness and joy 7,matt4 v4 #h2 #a ,cor4 xiii4 #ab2 #b ,peter i4 #d2 #a ,john iii4 #b74 ,the realization of a perfected humanity in fellowship with ,god is1 then1 the final end of creation4 ,we find some intimations of this grand purpose in the sublime record of creation which is given by ,moses4 ,we there learn that every thing was created with a view to man--to man in the image of ,god4 ,the inorganic world exists for the vegetable kingdom1 the vegetable exists for the animal kingdom1 and all exists for man 7ch4 i4 #bf-cj74 ,all its successive changes were a preparation for the appearance of man4#ahc ,the more comprehensive revelation of the ,new ,testament teaches that man exists for the realization of that perfected humanity of which ,christ is the model1 and which is attained in and through ,christianity4 ,the idea of man is the teleological principle of the world1 the idea of ,christ is the teleological principle of humanity4 ,all things were created by ,christ and for ,christ4 ,the good pleasure 7 the benevolent purpose7 of the ,divine ,will is1 in the fullness of time1 to gather together in one all things both which are in heaven and which are on earth1 even in ,christ1 that in the final consummation ,god may be all in all 7,eph4 i4 #i1 #aj2 #a ,cor4 xv4 #bh74 ,this purpose of ,divine ,love is an eternal purpose1 ordained before the foundation of the world1 and progressively unfolded in the creation1 government1 and redemption of the world4 ,thus the world1 as an actual1 temporal world1 reposes on an eternal ideal world which has always been present to the ,divine cognition4 ,the visible creation is but the realization of the ,divine ideal in such modes and under such conditions as shall constitute it a manifestation of ,god to finite intelligences--the external expression of the mind and character of ,god1 the language of the ,deity4 ,assuming this as a fundamental principle of ,christian theology that ,creation is the self-manifestation of ,god1 and that the final cause of this manifestation is the communication of the ,divine blessedness to intelligent1 personal being1 we may logically infer the following intermediate principles as ,laws of this ,manifestation4 #a4 ,this manifestation must be ,,gradual1 not instantaneous4 ,in other words1 it must be unfolded in successive steps or phases1 so as to be adapted to the nature and capabilities of the being to whom it is made4 ,the determinations of nature1 like those of consciousness1 must conform to the law of progressive development4 ,divine omnipotence was1 no doubt1 adequate to the production of new beings without any pre-existing materials or any prearranged conditions2 but creation is not mainly or primarily a revelation of omnipotence4 ,the ,deity might have brought the phenomena of the universe into instant being without any succession and independent of all means1 but a universe thus instantaneously produced and simultaneously presented would reveal no purpose to1 and could not be understood by1 a finite mind4 ,finite consciousness can be developed only under conditions of plurality1 difference1 and succession1 and therefore the objects of cognition must be successively presented4 ,we may be sensible of the external reality by immediate intuition1 but we can understand only through experience2 and experience supposes a gradual process--a succession not simply in our mental states1 but a succession of external phenomena4 ,this experience of succession constitutes our consciousness of time4 ,therefore1 in order that the ,divine manifestation may be understood1 it must have a history4#ahd #b4 ,this manifestation must be ,,cumulative--that is1 it must afford an increase of knowledge through successive additions2 it must be an advancing revelation of new principles and laws in an ascending line of creative acts4 ,an evolution which is absolutely continuous1 and in which the present is the necessary outcome of the past1 and that by degrees infinitely small1 may be a manifestation of unconscious force1 but can not be a manifestation of living ,will4 ,if nature be a manifestation of ,god--the unfolding of an eternal purpose of ,love--this manifestation must ever be open to receive new additions1 the intercalation of new principles1 and the superinduction of new laws working for a nobler end4 ,all limitations from the scientific stand-point are illogical and absurd4 ,this law would determine our conception of the universe as an aggregation of combined evolutions from several intermediate principles or beginnings1 rather than an evolution from a single first matter or first force4 ,the creation of the new1 whether as primordial element1 or primary force1 or principle of life1 or rational soul1 is the fundamental idea of the supernatural--that is1 the production of something which is not a necessary out-birth from pre-existing conditions and laws4#ahe ,therefore what is commonly1 though perhaps incorrectly1 styled miraculous interposition1 must itself be a law of the ,divine manifestation1 and the law of uniformity must be subordinated to the more general law of progressive development1 which subordinates the inorganic to the organic1 the physical to the moral world4 #c4 ,this manifestation must be ,,consecutive4 ,not only must it be a succession of steps or phases1 but the entire series must be so related and concatenated as to present an ,order of ,thought--an ascending development toward a foreseen and predetermined end4 ,if it were not so1 every thing would be isolated and disconnected1 and consequently unintelligible4 ,there would be a succession of phenomena1 but no manifestation of thought2 a series of dissolving views presented to the sense1 but no revelation to the understanding4 ,isolated phenomenal changes might be continued through untold ages1 but the past would have no connection with the present1 and would be unknown and lost to all the future4 ,a revelation of the ,infinite ,mind to finite intelligences1 made through the manifold and diversified phenomena of nature1 must be a connected and related whole1 so that from phenomena actually observed we may infer antecedent conditions1 and anticipate future evolutions2 otherwise it could not be understood4 ,to be intelligible1 a process of development must be the product of thought1 and it must reveal thought--that is1 it must be consecutive4#ahf #d4 ,this manifestation must be ,,harmonious4 ,notwithstanding its multiplicity of parts and manifold stages1 it must be a unity--a ,cosmos4 ,beings the most varied in endowment1 things the most diversified in form and function1 events the most remote from each other in time and space1 must all be related and connected in virtue of the ultimate and all-embracing purpose for which the universe exists4 ,an external purpose revealed under time-relations must be an all-harmonious evolution and an orderly totality--a ,cosmos4 ,let us now turn to the record of creation as given in the ,sacred ,scriptures--the ,mosaic ,cosmogony--and see how that account conforms to the laws which on logical grounds we have deduced as the ,laws of the ,divine ,manifestation4 ,the fundamental prerequisite for a right interpretation of the sacred narrative is a clear apprehension1 first1 of its general purpose1 and1 secondly1 of its special literary characteristics4 ,on these two points1 therefore1 we offer the following preliminary considerations3 #a4 ,the design of the sacred narrative is to teach ,theology and not ,science4 ,a cursory reading of the narrative will convince any one that its purpose is not to enlarge men's views of nature1 but to teach them something concerning nature's ,god4 ,it says nothing about the forces of nature1 the laws of nature1 the classifications of natural history1 or the size1 positions1 distances1 and motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,from first to last1 every phenomenon and every law is linked immediately to some act or command of ,god4 ,it is ,god who creates1 ,god who commands1 ,god who names1 ,god who approves1 and ,god who blesses4 ,strike out the allusions to ,god1 and the narrative is meaningless4 ,clearly1 it was never intended to teach science4 ,it has obviously one purpose1 to reveal and keep before the minds of men the grand truth that ,jehovah is the sole ,creator and ,lord of the heavens and the earth2 and it leaves the scientific comprehension of nature to the natural powers with which ,god has endowed man for that end4 ,all this is what we might legitimately expect4 ,the narrative was designed primarily and mainly for the instruction of the masses of men who knew nothing or scarcely any thing of science2 and if designed for their instruction1 it must be couched in language which they could comprehend4 ,a revelation made in the language of science would have been unintelligible to the race for nearly six thousand years of its history1 and1 practically1 would have been no revelation at all4 ,scientific language1 moreover1 is subject to modification and change as science advances2 but the narrative of ,genesis was intended for all time1 and therefore needed to be couched in language not liable to change4 ,the only language which possesses these two requisites of general intelligibility and non-liability to change is the language of appearances4 ,the facts set forth must be described as they would have seemed to the eye of man2 that is1 in a word1 phenomenally1 or the cosmogony would fail of its purpose4 ,all scrutiny or objection in the matter of unscientific1 or scientifically inaccurate language1 then1 must be put aside as irrelevant4#ahg ,while earnestly maintaining that the inspired history of creation was given for the instruction of unscientific persons1 and is therefore theological and not scientific1 we also believe that all truth is one1 and that all revelation1 whether in ,scripture or in nature1 must be ultimately harmonious4 ,science in its last generalization must be ,theology4 ,theology in its proper development must be ,science4 ,they are twin children of heaven1 vestal virgins which can not be wedded to error4 ,we are1 therefore1 justified in the expectation that the revelation in ,scripture1 when rightly interpreted1 will contain nothing that is inconsistent with the scientific interpretation of nature4 ,while we hold that there are no untimely anticipations of scientific discovery in ,genesis1 yet we expect that when the scientific discoveries are made1 the congruity and dignity of the moral and religious lesson shall not be defeated and marred4 ,nay1 more1 we maintain that the ,mosaic cosmogony presents the great principles which really lie at the basis of a truly scientific interpretation of nature4 ,it teaches that ,god is before all things and the ,creator of all things--that ,he alone is unbeginning1 and that all things had a beginning in his creative word and will4 ,it presents the universe as one harmonious whole1 the product of one designing ,mind1 the project of his thought1 the transcript of his plan--a plan evolved through successive stages toward a foreseen terminus or goal4 ,and1 finally1 it teaches that man is the end toward which creation was tending1 that he is the last and crowning work of ,god1 and that he is the child and charge1 not of a blind1 impersonal force1 but of a living1 loving ,god4 #b4 ,the sacred narrative is poetic1 symbolical1 and unchronological4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that the early literature of the most ancient nations was poetic--the natural1 spontaneous product of that earliest stage of mental development in which the conceptions of ,god and of nature were determined by subjective feeling and native sentiment1 and not by reflective thought4 ,the ,vedas of the ,hindus1 the ,iliad of the ,greeks1 the ,eddas of the ancient ,germans1 were each the product of an age in which prose was unknown1 as well as the distinction between prose and poetry4 ,the earliest ,hebrew compositions are of the same character2 and it is reasonable to assume that a primitive revelation to the progenitors of our race would be accommodated to this earliest phase in the development of mind4 ,the ,book of ,genesis opens with a ,psalm--the inspired ,psalm of ,creation#ahh--;a grand symbolical ,hymn of ,creation4 ,the rhythmical character of the passage1 its stately style1 its parallelisms1 its refrains1 its unity within itself1 all combine to show that it is a poem4#ahi ,here is the same organic unity which marks the #ajdth ,psalm1 or the ,lord's ,prayer1 or the parable of the laborers in the vineyard4 ,or1 if we go out of the ,bible for illustration1 it combines with lyric breadth of treatment and stateliness of movement all the compactness of a solemn sonnet freighted with a single thought from beginning to end4 ,analysis of its interior structure exhibits a most artificial synthesis1 founded upon well-known sacred numbers4 ,it has1 first1 an ,exordium1 the proemial part4 ,then it is articulated into six ,strophes4 ,finally there is the ,epode1 or peroration4 ,the six strophes separate naturally into two groups1 in which there is a balance and correlation of parts celebrating the first three and the last three concordant steps in the creative movement--the ,strophe and the ,antistrophe4 ,the exordium states briefly the subject of the poem3 ,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth4 ,the first three strophes unfold the creative development of the receptacles3 #a4 ,a4 ,the luminiferous ether4 ,the heavens #b4 ,b4 ,waters and the firmament between the waters4 and the earth4 #c4 ,c4 ,dry land above the waters1 with plants4 ,the second three strophes 7or1 more correctly1 antistrophes7 unfold the creative development of the occupants3 #d4 ,a4 ,the light-bearers3 sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,and all the hosts #e4 ,b4 ,water-animals and birds4 of them 7,gen4 ii4 #a74 #f4 ,c4 ,land-animals and man4 ,the epode1 or peroration1 fills up the sacred number #g--the symbol always of permanence and repose4 ,thus the heavens and the earth 7the receptacles7 were finished1 and all the host of them 7the occupants72 and on the seventh day ,god put period to the work which he created by fashioning1 etc4#aij ,,the ,,symbolical ,,hymn ,,of ,,creation4 ,,exordium4 ,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth4 ,,first ,,strophe4 ,and the earth was formless and empty2 ,and darkness was upon the face of the abyss4 ,and the ,spirit of ,god brooded upon the face of the vapors4#aia ,and ,god said1 ,let there be light3 ,and there was light4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw the light that it was good4 ,and ,god called the light ,day3 ,and the darkness ,he called ,night4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 one day4 ,,second ,,strophe4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters1 ,and let it be a division of waters from vapors4 ,and ,god made the expanse1 ,and divided the waters which were below the expanse from the waters which were above the expanse3#aib ,and it was so4 ,and ,god called the expanse ,heavens4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 a second day4 ,,third ,,strophe4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters under the heavens be gathered into one place1 ,and let the dry ground appear3 ,and it was so4 ,and ,god called the dry ground ,land2 ,and the gathering of the waters ,he called ,seas4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the land shoot forth shoots3 ,herbs yielding seed1 fruit-trees yielding seed-inclosing fruit after their kind upon the land2 ,and it was so4 ,and the land brought forth shoots2 ,herbs yielding seed after their kind1 and trees yielding seed-inclosing fruit after their kind4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 a third day4 ,,fourth ,,strophe4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be luminaries in the expanse of the heavens to divide the day from the night2 ,and let them be for signs and for seasons1 and for days and years2 ,and let them be for light-bearers in the expanse of the heavens1 to give light upon the earth3 ,and it was so4 ,and ,god made the two great luminaries2 ,the greater luminary to rule the day2 ,the lesser luminary to rule the night4 ,he made the stars lights also2 ,and ,god appointed them in the expanse of the heavens to give light upon the earth1 ,and to rule over the day and night1 ,and to divide the light from the darkness4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 a fourth day4 ,,fifth ,,strophe4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters swarm forth swarming things1 living souls2#aic ,and let birds fly upon the land upon the face of the expanse of the heavens4 ,and ,god created great leviathans1 ,and all living souls that creep1 which the waters swarmed forth after their kind2 ,and all birds of wing after their kind4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and ,god blessed them1 saying3 ,be fruitful and multiply1 and fill the waters of the sea2 ,and let the birds multiply in the land4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 a fifth day4 ,,sixth ,,strophe4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the land bring forth living souls after their kind3 ,cattle1 and creeping things1 and land-animals after their kind3 ,and it was so4 ,and ,god made land-animals after their kind1 ,and cattle after their kind1 ,and all creeping things after their kind4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and ,god said1 ,let us make ,,man in our image1 after our likeness2 ,and let him have dominion over the fish of the sea1 ,and over the birds of the heavens1 ,and over the cattle1 ,and over the land1 ,and over all the creeping things that creep upon the land4 ,and ,god created ,,man in his own image2 ,in the image of ,god created ,he him3 ,male and female created ,he them4 ,and ,god blessed them2 and ,god said unto them1 ,be fruitful and multiply1 and replenish the ,earth1 and subdue it2 ,and have dominion over the fishes of the sea1 ,and over the birds of the heavens1 ,and over all the animals that creep upon the land4 ,and ,god said1 ,behold1 ,i have given you all herbs seeding seed which are upon the face of all the land1 ,and every tree which has seed-inclosed fruit3 ,they shall be unto you for food4 ,and to all land-animals1 ,and to all the birds of the heavens1 ,and to all creeping things upon the land wherein is a living soul1 ,i have given every green herb for food3 ,and it was so4 ,,refrain--,and ,god saw every thing that ,he had made1 and behold it was very good4 ,and there was evening and there was morning3 the sixth day4 ,,epode4 ,thus the heavens and the earth were finished1 ,and all the hosts of them4 ,and on the seventh day ,god put period to the work which ,he had made2 ,and ,he rested on the seventh day from all his work which ,he had made4 ,and ,god blessed the seventh day1 and hallowed it3 ,because that in it ,he rested from all his works which ,god by making created4 ,who can read this sublime composition without feeling that it is a solemn sonnet freighted with a single thought from beginning to end8 ,in our ,english ,bible1 broken up into verses1 and split across into two chapters1 it is like an image reflected in a shattered mirror2 all its real beauty is concealed4 ,but he who can look upon it with a clear eye1 and grasp its real unity1 must recognize it as a ,sacred ,hymn composed probably by ,adam1 and chanted in the tents of the patriarchs at their morning and evening devotions for more than two thousand years1 to commemorate the fact and keep alive the faith that the world is the work of the triune ,god4 ,besides being poetic1 the sacred narrative is pre-eminently symbolical--must be symbolical1 because the ,divine reality could never be intuitively known4 ,the facts transcend all the possibilities of human experience4 ,whatever knowledge the writer had in regard to the creative process must have been obtained in a preternatural way--that is1 it must have been revealed by ,divine ,omniscience4 ,but such a revelation could not have been communicated in mere vocables4 ,words are themselves but signs--mere arbitrary signs of images and ideas--and can convey no meaning unless the image or the idea be already before the mind4 ,the only natural hypothesis is that the knowledge was conveyed in a symbolic representation--a vision of the past in a succession of scenic representations with accompanying verbal announcements1 like the visions of the future in the prophecies of ,ezekiel and the apocalypse of ,john4 ,the original formless nebula--the primeval darkness--the brooding ,spirit producing motion--the consequent luminosity--the separation of the aeriform fluid into atmosphere and water--the emergence of the solid land--the shooting forth of grass and plants--the appearance of the heavenly luminaries--the swarming of the waters with living things1 and the appearance of birds of wing in the expanse of heaven--the bringing forth of land-animals--and1 finally1 the creation of man--all pass before his mind in a succession of pictorial representations of the actual progress of creation4 ,the sights seen1 the voices heard1 the emotions aroused1 are just those adapted to bring out the very words the seer actually uses1 and in both cases the very best words that could have been used for such a purpose4 ,the description being given from the barely optical rather than from any reflective scientific stand-point more or less advanced1 is on this very account the more vivid as well as the more universal4 ,it is a language read and understood by all4 ,the words of the inspired writer are descriptive of the vision pictures1 and these were symbolic representations of the ,divine realities4 ,the language of the sacred record must therefore be regarded as anthropopathic--the ,divine idea being symbolized under the figure of human acts and affections2 and from the analogy between the human and the ,divine we may conceive not what ,god is in ,himself1 nor yet the manner of the ,divine action1 but the relation of ,god to the world4 ,we must1 however1 guard against substituting the human symbol for the ,divine reality1 and making the human analogy a measure for the infinite ,being4 ,the ,sacred ,hymn is no more a literal detail of the actual process of creation than the description of the ,new ,jerusalem in ,revelation is a literal picture of the heavenly state4#aid ,god is forever above all finite relations4 ,finite acts and relations may be employed as representative symbols of the ,divine1 but they can never be adequate representations4 ,divine creating and moving1 commanding and naming1 seeing and approving1 working and resting1 must not be narrowed down to the standard of our finite personality1 and conceived under human limitations4 ,the conception of the ,deity as standing outside of matter1 and moving and fashioning it after the manner of a human artificer1 as commanding and naming in human language1 as being conditioned in his action by the time-measures which ,he himself appointed1 as expending energy and then resting after the manner of a human laborer1 is the rudest anthropomorphism4 ,god is eternal2 neither his being nor his action are conditioned by finite measures of time4 ,god is absolute immensity1 essential omnipresence4 ,he is in all and through all as truly as ,he is above and before all4 ,he is a ,living ,power immanent in all matter1 as well as transcending all matter1 moving it1 organizing it1 vitalizing it continually--a ,living ,power working from within1 rather than a mechanical force acting from without4 ,if the primitive composition standing at the commencement of ,genesis be the ,symbolical ,hymn of ,creation1 we are not permitted to regard it as chronological--that is1 we are not justified in expecting that it shall conform to time-measures which had no existence prior to the creative act1 but which were consequent upon and determined by the creative act4 ,this is obvious both from the nature of things and the character of the composition4 ,the #ajfth ,psalm is an epic poem--that is1 it is a narrative in poetic measure1 a history in metrical form4 ,who will be so unreasonable as to demand that this ,psalm shall furnish any chronological data1 or conform to any time-measures whatever8 ,psalms are composed to be sung and excite emotion1 not to be merely read and criticised4 ,the poet groups his materials for the best moral effect1 and arranges his numbers to secure rhythm and harmony4 ,it is simply absurd to demand that there shall be any chronology--nay1 it spoils the grand effect to think of chronology in reading the ,symbolical ,hymn of ,creation4 ,in fact1 we are forbidden to think of time at all by the first word of the exordium1 which states the subject of the poem4 ,the ,hebrew bereshith1 the ,greek in ,beginning 7not in the ,beginning1 for the article is not used71 has no relation to succession in time4 ,it denotes pretemporality1 and is rendered by ,meyer1 ,keil1 and others--before time or in eternity4 ,it is the same thought which is presented in ,john i4 #a3 ,in the beginning was the ,word2 and ,tholuck and ,dean ,alford both read the text1 ,before the world was1 or before time was4 ,indeed1 the whole poem represents an ideal conception1 and not a time-march of phenomena4 ,so assured are we on this point that we confidently affirm that no one who endeavors to think of the creation in its relation to ,god can ever fall into the anthropomorphic error of saying that ,god's ways are like unto our ways1 ,god's speaking is like unto our speaking1 ,god's working and resting are like unto our working and resting1 and ,god's days are like unto our days of twenty-four hours4 ,as ,dr4 ,whedon remarks1 ,our traditional unscientific scientific constructions of this chapter are ,japhetic interpretations of a ,semitic text4 ,the men who persist in regarding the day of ,god as a natural day of twenty-four hours are involved in numberless inconsistencies when they attempt to carry their rigid preconception throughout the whole ,bible4 ,human or finite measures of time1 when applied to any thing ,god does1 can only be accommodated representations to meet our feeble comprehension1 and we are constantly guarded1 in the ,bible itself1 against a literal and anthropomorphic conception4 ,hast thou eyes of flesh1 or seest thou as man seeth8 ,are thy days as man's days8 7,job x4 #d1 #e47 ,to say that ,god's days of working are like our days is just as absurd and as degrading a conception as to say that ,god's eyes are eyes of flesh1 like ours4 ,our time-measures can not condition the ,divine action4 ,one day is with the ,lord as a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day 7#b ,peter iii4 #h72 which means that time is as nothing with ,god1 that time does not condition the ,divine life or the ,divine action1 but that it is the ,divine action which makes and conditions all time4 ,the beginning of the world is the beginning of time1 and time is the duration of the world measured into equal parts by the equable motion of bodies in space4#aie ,the attempt to measure the creating work of ,god by days of twenty-four hours is just as absurd as the attempt to measure immensity by a three-foot rule1 or to estimate omnipotence by horse-power4 ,let any one test the twenty-four-hour measure on such texts as the following3 ,your father ,abraham desired to see my day4 ,the day of the ,son of ,man4 ,i must work the works of him that sent me while it is day4 ,if thou hadst known in this thy day4 ,he shall rise again in the resurrection at the last day4 ,the day of salvation4 ,the day of judgment4 ,the terrible day of the ,lord4 ,it would be a wholesome and profitable exercise to take up the ,concordance and refer to all the texts in which the word day stands in any relation to the determinations or doings of ,god1 and it will be found that it is always an indefinite period of longer or shorter duration1 and may be twenty-four hundred years1 or twenty-four thousand years1 just as well as twenty-four hours4 ,the ,hebrew 7yom71 first occurring in ,gen4 i4 #e1 is the name of an indefinite period1 a cycle of time radically grounded on the primitive conception of division or separation4 ,light is the first separation4 ,it is divided from the darkness4 ,and ,god called the light day1 and the darkness ,he called night4 ,this is ,god's own naming1 and we must take it as our guide in the interpretation of the subsequent days4 ,obviously1 it is not the duration1 but the phenomenon1 the appearing itself which is for the first time called day4 ,then the term is used for a period1 or the whole first cycle of events1 with its two great antithetical parts--,and there was an evening1 and there was a morning1 one day4 ,we look into the sacred narrative to see what corresponds to this naming4 ,what was the night8 ,certainly the darkness on the face of the waters4 ,what was the day8 ,certainly the light consequent on the brooding of the ,spirit and the commanding word4 ,how long was the day8 ,how long was the night or the darkness8 ,the account tells us nothing about it4 ,there is something on the face of it which seems to forbid such questions4 ,where are we to get twelve hours for this first night8 ,where is the point of commencement when darkness began to be on the face of the deep8 ,all is vast1 sublime1 immeasurable4 ,the time is as formless as the material4 ,it has1 indeed1 a chronology of some kind1 but on a scale vastly different from that afterward appointed 7ver4 #ad7 to regulate the history of a completed and habitable world4 ,whoever thinks seriously on the impossibility of accommodating this first day to the measure of twenty-four hours needs no other argument4 ,the first day is1 in this respect1 the model of all the rest4#aif ,it is equally impossible to reduce the seventh day to a chronological standard of twenty-four hours4 ,and ,god rested on the seventh day from all his works which ,he had made4 ,are we to presume that ,god rested as we rest1 because ,he was weary1 and that ,he needed to rest just twenty-four hours8 ,is not ,god resting still in the sense in which the word rest is here used1 viz41 to cease doing a particular work8 ,is not all time since the ,creation ,god's grand ,sabbath1 in which he is not doing works of ,origination1 but works of ,love and ,mercy to our race8 ,it is obvious that the first and the seventh days can not be days of twenty-four hours2 and1 furthermore1 a clear apprehension of the nature of the first day must open to us the true conception of all the rest4 ,the days are new appearances1 new manifestations1 new developments in the ,creative ,week--the great day of ,god 7,gen4 ii4 #d74 ,according to the analogy of the first day1 the evening is the time of a peculiar or partially chaotic condition1 like the glacial epoch which closed the ,cenozoic and opened the ,phrenozoic day4 ,the morning is a new evolution of a new order of things1 which carries the world-formation to a higher stage4 ,with each creative morning there comes a higher1 fairer1 richer state of the earth1 until it reaches the ,sabbath of the world1 the day on which ,god rested or ceased from his world-creating work1 that ,he might educate and recreate and redeem and glorify the human race4 ,in these antithetical movements of each creative day we are not necessitated to assume a sudden catastrophe1 or any return to the chaos of the first day1 any more than we now conceive of night as a sudden return to darkness1 or of day as the sudden return of light4 ,there is a steady progression1 an orderly movement in the history of each creative day1 just as there is in the history of a single solar day4 ,the light does not break suddenly upon the world--the sun rises gradually upon the earth4 ,and so the creative day was a slow development1 a gradual evolution out of a prior order of things1 by the direct efficiency of ,god4 ,it has been insinuated that this is an interpretation which has been forced upon us by the progress of modern science4 ,theology1 it is said1 has been perpetually driven from her positions by science1 and is now compelled to take refuge in subterfuge and equivocation4 ,the insinuation is as false as it is foul4 ,this mode of interpretation was propounded ages before the science of ,geology was known1 and was taught by ,jewish doctors and ,christian fathers for fifteen hundred years4 ,st4 ,augustine1 the father of ,systematic ,theology1 who was born ,a4,d4 #ced1 asks the question1 ,what mean these days--these strange sunless days8 ,does the enumeration of days and nights avail for a distinction between the nature that is not yet formed1 and those which are made1 so that they shall be called morning propter speciem i4 e41 in reference to appearing1 receiving form or species1 and evening propter privationem i4 e41 in reference to non-appearance1 formlessness1 and want of sensible quality8 7,de ,genesi ad ,literam1 lib4 ii4 ch4 #ad47 ,hence he does not hesitate to call them natur1 natures1 births or growths2 also mor1 delays1 or solemn pauses in the ,divine work4 ,they are dies ineffabiles2 their true nature can not be told4 ,hence they are called days as the best symbol by which the idea could be expressed4 ,they are ,god-divided days and nights in distinction from sun-divided4 ,common solar days are mere vicissitudines cli1 mere changes in the positions of the heavenly bodies1 and not spatia morarum1 or evolutions in nature belonging to a higher chronology1 and marking their epochs by a law of inward change instead of incidental outward measurement4 ,as to how long or how short they were he gives no opinion1 but contents himself with maintaining that day is not a name of duration1 the evenings and the mornings are to be regarded not so much as measuring the passing of time 7temporis prteritionem7 as marking the boundaries of a periodic work or evolution4 ,this is not the metaphorical1 but the real and proper sense of the word day1 in fact the original sense1 inasmuch as it contains the idea of rounded periodicity or self-completed time1 without any of the mere accidents that belong to the outwardly measured solar or planetary epochs1 be they longer or shorter4#aig ,these are not the mere fancies of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,this was the doctrine of the ablest ,christian fathers--of ,irenus1 ,origen1 ,basil1 and ,gregory of ,nazianzen4 ,nay more1 it was the doctrine of many of the doctors of the old ,jewish ,church4 ,in more recent times we find ,calmet1 ,burnet1 ,stillingfleet1 ,henry ,more1 ,lord ,bacon1 ,poole1 and others1 presenting similar views2 and this long before ,geology existed as a science1 and irrespective of any supposed collision with physical induction4 ,their opinions and interpretations were therefore no shift for the avoidance of difficulties1 but conclusions reached independently on sound principles of ,biblical exegesis4 ,disregarding the chronology of ,archbishop ,usher printed in the margin of our ,bible1 and the division into chapters and verses made by ,hugh de ,st4 ,cher--both modern inventions which are no part of the sacred record--and purging our minds of those prepossessions which are incident to an uncritical faith1 we can now contemplate the ,symbolical ,hymn of ,creation in its simple and original form1 as a record of the self-manifestation of ,god1 given in such order and under such conditions that it shall be apprehensible and interpretable by the finite mind4 #a4 ,creation was a gradual process4 ,god did not create a perfect universe at once1 but built it up slowly1 step by step4 ,a consistent interpretation of the record forbids us to regard the ,creative ,week as a literal week composed of days of twenty-four hours each4 ,creation is the work of ,god1 and surely the ,divine action can not have been conditioned by time-measures which did not exist before1 but were consequent upon the act of ,god4 ,the great cyclical changes in nature produced by the creative ,word are the only measures of time4 ,therefore the days of the ,creative ,week are new appearances1 new manifestations1 new developments in the creative purpose of ,god4 ,the first morning is the appearance of luminosity in the aeriform fluid1 or nebulous vapor1 whatever science may finally determine that to have been4 ,the ,hebrew 7mayim71 from the root 1 which denotes tumultuous1 tremulous1 or undulatory movement1 is used of the waters of the ocean1 of the waters above the firmament1 of vapor and clouds1 because of their susceptibility of tremulous1 undulatory motion4 ,the first distinct creative formation was heat1 or invisible molecular motion1 resulting from the ,spirit of ,god brooding upon the face of the abyss2 and this heat reveals itself in the phenomena of light4#aih ,how closely the ideas of light and heat were united in the ,hebrew mind is shown by the same word being used for both1 with merely a slight difference in pronunciation1 7r7 and 7r74 ,the second morning is the appearance of an expanse in the midst of the vapors1 dividing the vapors which were below the expanse from the vapors which were above the expanse4 ,the ,hebrew 7rakai71 from 7to stretch1 to spread out71 means properly an extension1 an expanse4 ,this is the translation adopted by ,benisch1 ,kalisch1 ,delitzsch1 ,keil1 and ,lange4 ,after heat and light1 the next creative formation is an atmosphere1 with its auroral light and a cloudy canopy4 ,the third morning is the appearance of land and seas1 and the sprouting forth of vegetation1 at first in its lowest forms--perhaps as marine plants4 ,the ,hebrew 7eretz7 has two significations1 earth and land4 ,whenever it is used in a restricted sense1 and especially wherever it is contrasted with water1 the most appropriate rendering is land4 ,the third creative formation is gross1 ponderable matter1 whether aggregated by molecular attraction1 or compounded by elective affinity1 or selected and organized by vital force4 ,the fourth morning is the appearance of luminaries or light-bearers in the expanse of heaven1 which are now set1 or1 more correctly1 appointed to give light upon the earth1 and to be time-measures in the future world-history4 ,the ,hebrew word employed in ver4 #ad 771 which is unfortunately rendered lights in the ,authorized ,version1 is a different word from the light 77 of vers4 #c-e4 7meoroth7 strictly means light-bearers1 or bodies giving light4 ,this distinction is carefully observed in the ,,lxx41 ,de,wette1 ,benisch1 ,kalisch1 ,tuch1 ,knobel1 ,delitzsch1 and ,keil4#aii ,the fourth creative formation was the establishment of such cosmical conditions or relations as should enable the heavenly bodies to fulfill their light-giving function to the earth4 ,what those conditions were we may not be able to say4 ,the dense clouds and ceaseless showers of the ,age of ,rain1 which had shut out the light of the heavenly bodies for a geological age1 had now passed away1 the atmosphere becomes fitted for the transmission of light1 and the sun1 moon1 and stars are visible from the earth4 ,the conditions for a rapid development of vegetable life now exist1 and this is regarded as pre-eminently the ,age of ,plant-growth4 ,the fifth morning is the appearance of animal life--life moving in the waters and soaring in the air1 marine animals1 aquatic reptiles1 and birds4 ,the sixth morning is the appearance of a higher order of animal life1 mammals1 chiefly designed for the use of a still higher being--for ,man1 whose appearance is the noontide splendor of the sixth day4 ,the seventh morning is the commencement of the ,sabbath of ,god1 which is devoted to the moral and religious instruction of humanity--the ,new ,creation of the moral world4 ,the following scheme1 furnished by ,dr4 ,winchell1 presents at one view the order of the ,mosaic record1 and at the same time sets forth the harmony between the ,mosaic and ,geologic records3#bjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,genesis1 ,brief announcement of chief events in the history3 ch4 i4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,i4 ,god the ,creator of the ,substance and ,form ,vers4 #a1 #b4 of the ,universe4 ,,exordium4 ,,ii4 ,terrestrial ,chaos4 ,,iii4 ,darkness on the face of the ,deep4 ,,iv4 ,vivification of the ,waters4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,days ,,geology ,,geological ,,ages ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,i4 ,vers4 #c-e4 ,igneous ,vapor ,age of ,creation of condensing4 ,,fire4 ,,light4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,vers4 #f-h4 ,gathering of ,,abiotic4 ,creation of ,clouds4 ,age of ,,ii4 ,,firmament ,descent of ,rain4 ,,rain4 or ,,expanse4 ,earliest ,a ,sediments4 ,z ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,o ,vers4 #i-ac4 ,uplift ,i ,creation of of ,continents4 ,age of ,c ,,iii4 ,,dry ,,land and ,appearance ,,land and 4 of ,,plants4 of ,marine ,,plant-,,making4 ,vegetation4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,protophytic4 ,vers4 #ad-ah4 ,dispersion ,creation 7or of ,clouds4 appointment7 ,appearance ,age of of of ,sun1 ,,iv4 ,,luminaries3 ,moon1 and ,,plant-,,growth4 sun1 moon1 ,stars4 and stars4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,appearance of ,age of ,vers4 #bj-bc4 ,marine ,animals ,,mollusks1 ,,pal,,ozoic4 ,v4 ,creation of 7mollusks1 ,,fishes1 ,,aquatic fishes1 etc471 4444444444444444444444444444444444 ,,animals and and ,aquatic ,,reptiles1 ,,birds4 ,reptiles and ,,birds4 ,,mesozoic4 ,birds4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,vers4 #bd-ca4 ,appearance of ,age of ,,vi4 ,creation of ,mammals and ,,mammals4 ,c,,nozoic4 ,,land-,,animals ,,man4 and ,,man4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,gen4 ii4 #b1c4 ,reign of ,man4 ,age of ,,vii4 ,sabbath ,the ,sabbath of ,,man4 ,,phrenozoic4 of ,,god4 ,creation4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #b4 ,creation was cumulative--that is1 it was a succession of beginnings or creative epochs1 in which new entities or new forces were inserted into the already existing sphere of nature1 carrying it forward toward a nobler end4 ,this1 we think1 is the natural impression which the reading of ,gen4 i4 makes on the unbiased mind4 ,each creative word appears as the dynamical basis of a real principium--a beginning of something intrinsically new1 and which can not be conceived as the physical result of any pre-existing condition of things4#bja ,a new entity or a new force was1 as it were1 inserted in the order of nature2 a new impulse was given to matter1 or a new direction to existing forces1 and from that initial point a new series of developments1 which go on in accordance with law--a new succession of births and growths--flows on as a part of the grand totality of effects we call nature4 ,this is1 obviously1 the ,biblical conception4 ,here creation does not present itself as a necessary evolution from a first matter or a first force in unbroken continuity1 and without any supernatural interposition4 ,here are clearly defined creative epochs1 new beginnings1 which have their origin in the creative will and word of ,god4 ,what these beginnings were is a question of the deepest interest4 ,a careful study of ,gen4 i4 and ii4 has led us to the conclusion that there is something fundamental and radical in the distinction between the creative words with bara 77 and those with yetsar 77 and aysah 774 ,it is1 in reality1 the distinction between ,origination de novo and ,formation out of pre-existing materials4 ,there are three instances in which bara occurs in ,gen4 i4 ,we are fully convinced that in each case it denotes the origination of a new entity--a real addition to the sum of existence4 ,,first ,,origination 7,gen4 i4 #a73 ,in the beginning ,god created the substance or essence of the heavens and the earth4 ,this is the reading of ,parkhurst's ,hebrew ,grammar 7#ahac71 which has since that time been approved by able lexicographers and commentators4 ,some of these authorities have been already presented to the reader4#bjb ,but even aside from philological considerations1 the context forbids us to regard bara here as denoting formation1 for the product of that creative act was formless and matter-less2#bjc that is1 it was homogeneous1 non-differentiated1 structureless1 and destitute of all sensible quality--an abyss of darkness and death1 exhibiting that sole condition of matter1 perhaps its only true indication1 namely1 inertia4#bjd ,the first created element was the single omnipresent fluid ,ether1 out of which all gross matter was built by the action of force4 ,as we advance in this discussion we shall find that this is an opinion which is entertained by the first physicists of the age1 as1 for example1 ,thomson1 ,tait1 ,maxwell1 ,challis1 in ,england1 and ,norton and ,hinrich in ,america4 ,,second ,,origination 7,gen4 i4 #ba73 ,and ,god created the great monsters1 and every living soul soul of life that moveth4 ,the first created animals are here most carefully denoted as living souls1 evidently to distinguish the life now first manifested in nature from the molecular1 bioplasmic life which organizes the vegetable cell1 and builds up the tissues of the animal body4 ,the life here indicated has an individuality which separates it from the universal life of nature4 ,there is now an immaterial entity--a soul1 which is an individualized and indivisible centre of force1 a soul which has sensation1 feeling1 perception1 and memory1 none of which are properties of matter or products of organization4 ,the animal soul is not material1 neither is it a function or phenomenon of organized matter2 it is a creation1 and therefore bara is here significantly employed to denote the origination of something new2 a new power or principle is here inserted into the sphere of existing nature4 ,the second created entity is animal life--,soul--somatic life as distinct and distinguishable from vegetable1 molecular1 bioplasmic life4 ,,third ,,origination 7,gen4 i4 #bg73 ,and ,god created man in his own image1 in the image of ,god created ,he him4 ,the entire paragraph 7vers4 #bf-bi7 is obviously the record of a supernatural origination4 ,there is a significance even in the change of the creative word4 ,in regard to prior and inferior existences the language is1 ,let the earth bring forth6 ,let the waters bring forth6 as though there were some parturient power in nature1 or as though nature co-operated with and furnished the conditions and means of the ,divine efficiency4 ,but when man is to be created the language is1 ,let us make man2 thus placing the origin of man outside the chain of physical causation1 and ascribing it to the immediate agency of ,god4 ,besides1 the creation here spoken of is the production of a spiritual1 not a material entity4 ,god created man in his own image4 ,this creation can not be a formation out of a pre-existent matter1 for no form of matter can possibly bear any resemblance to ,god 7,acts xvii4 #bi74 ,god is spirit and man can be like ,god only in so far as he is endowed with a spiritual nature4 ,spirit alone can bear the image of ,god4 ,whatever may be the teaching of ,genesis as to the origin of the human body1 be it a formation or a development1 there is no uncertainty in its language as to the origin of the human spirit4 ,it is an inbreathing from ,god4 ,it proceeded directly from ,him4 ,by no mere figure of speech1 but by a ,divine reality ,god is the ,father of spirits1 and man is the offspring and the image of ,god4 ,this likeness of ,god lifts man out of the sphere of mere nature--it sets him apart in the essential characteristics and endowments of his being as above nature1 and in some sense divine4 ,the third created entity is ,spirit2 spirit with its reason1 its liberty1 its conscience1 its susceptibility of ,divine inspiration1 its capacity for endless progression in knowledge and love4 ,here1 then1 are three entities1 matter1 life1 and mind 7 body1 soul1 and spirit71 which had their beginning in an act of absolute creation1 and are therefore to be regarded as primordial things4#bje ,their existence is the necessary condition of all subsequent formative and developing production1 inasmuch as all formation supposes a something to be formed1 and all evolution a something involved4 ,these primordial entities are the substratum1 or ground1 of all the mediate architectonic creation which is effected by the moving and informing presence and agency of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,this leads us to the consideration of those creative words which are formative1 and which always presuppose the existence of real entities as the condition of their efficiency2 as1 for example1 ,let there be light2 ,let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters2 ,let the dry land appear2 ,let there be luminaries in the expanse of heaven4 ,all the dividings1 the gatherings1 the organizings1 the ordainings1 and collocations suppose the prior existence of matter4 ,we have seen that the first act of absolute creation--the beginning of all beginnings--was the origination of that mysterious entity which is the recipient of impulse1 or energy1 and the physical substratum of all sensible phenomena4 ,from this initial point1 the first formative act was the moving or brooding of the ,spirit of ,god upon the face of the abyss4 ,all the qualities which matter presents to the senses1 all physical phenomena1 are the result of this action of the ,deity upon matter--that is1 they are all manifestations of force4#bjf ,by various motions of the nature of eddies 7vortices7 the qualities of cohesion1 elasticity1 hardness1 weight1 mass1 or other universal properties of matter1 are given to small portions of the fluid ether which constitute the chemical atoms1 and these by modifications in their combination1 form1 and movement produce all the accidental phenomena of gross matter2 and the primary fluid by other motions transmits light1 radiant heat1 magnetism1 and gravitation4#bjg ,the first distinct creative formation was molecular and radiant energy4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be light4 ,by this light we are not to understand light in its technical sense as distinguished from heat1 but rather as including heat1 such light1 in fact1 as we meet with in nature in the light of the sun1 the same ,hebrew word 77 being used for both4 ,the second distinct creative formation was that wonderful mechanical combination of chemical elements we call the atmosphere4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be an expanse in the midst of the vapors1 and let it be a division of vapors from vapors4 ,the ,creator has endowed the oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere with the power of retaining the aeriform condition under all circumstances1 while the aqueous vapor is liable to very great fluctuation4 ,were there no air surrounding the globe1 the quantity of vapor would adjust itself almost instantaneously to any variation of temperature1 and the maximum amount possible would always be present at any given place2 there could then be no clouds and no genial showers of diffusive rain4 ,an elevation of temperature would be attended by rapid evaporation1 and the amount of water required to fill the space would suddenly flash into vapor2 while1 on the other hand1 a corresponding depression of temperature would be accompanied by an equally sudden precipitation of the aqueous vapor1 not in genial showers1 but terrific torrents4444 ,the drops1 falling without resistance1 would be as destructive in their effects as volleys of leaden shot4#bjh ,the presence of a dense medium1 such as the atmosphere1 retards these sudden changes1 and determines the formation of clouds4 ,thus the expanse is admirably adapted to the creative purposes of dividing the waters from the waters4 ,the third creative formation was the chemical compounds and their molar aggregation in land and seas4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters below the expanse be gathered together unto one place1 and let the dry ground appear4 ,the chemical reactions1 crystallizations1 precipitations1 and sedimentary accumulations involved in the creative formation are admirably sketched in ,ch4 ,,vi4 of ,dr4 ,winchell's ,sketches of ,creation4 ,the transmutation of the primary fluid into gross matter was something more than a natural evolution--it was a creative action1#bji and the exact numerical proportions in which the chemical elements combine must be the result of a distinct creative impulse4 ,the fourth creative formation was bioplasm1 or that vitalized germinal matter which is instrumental in building up the tissues and organs of plants 7and animals74 ,and ,god said1 ,let the land sprout forth sprouts2 herbs seeding seed1 fruit-trees producing fruit after their kind wherein is their seed4 ,the vital force which is concerned in the formation of bioplasm 7vitalized matter7 must be regarded as distinct1 on the one hand1 from the physical forces which are efficient in the combinations and aggregations of non-living matter1#baj and1 on the other hand1 from that sentient1 percipient1 self-moving principle which constitutes the animal soul4 ,the 'life' of a man or an animal is very different from what is termed the 'life' of a white blood1 or a mucus1 or a pus corpuscle2 inasmuch as many hundreds of white blood corpuscles1 or elemental units of the tissues1 might die in man without affecting the 'life' of the man2 moreover the man himself might perish1 and some of the corpuscles remain alive4444 ,by the life of a man 7or an animal7 something very different is meant from what we understand by the life of each elemental unit of the organism1 and the difference is not merely of degree but of kind4#baa ,bioplasm1 or cell-life1 is generic2 soul-life is specific1 individual1 and indivisible4 ,the former we regard as the direct effect of the ,divine life1 immanent in nature2 the latter is an individualized centre of force1 a delegation of ,divine power under limits of necessity4 ,the physical forces are the action of ,god upon matter1 the vital force is the immanence of ,god in matter4 ,the first is mechanical1 the second is vito-dynamical4 ,the fifth creative formation was the adjustment of the cosmical relations of the heavenly bodies1 and the establishment of such atmospheric conditions as rendered the sun and moon the luminaries1 or light-bearers1 to the earth4 ,and ,god said1 ,let there be luminaries in the expanse of heaven to divide the day and night4 ,what these adjustments and collocations were1 we are not able to say4 ,the ultimate cause of the sun's luminosity is yet an unsolved problem4 ,no explanation thus far offered has been accepted as adequate by the majority of scientific men4 ,the statement of ,genesis1 which ascribes the appointment of the sun and moon to be light-bearers to the earth to a distinct creative formation of some kind1 is not1 therefore1 invalidated by science4 ,the sixth creative formation was the material organisms of the varied species of living souls which people the waters2 the seventh1 of those which people the air2 the eighth1 of those which people the land4 ,the final creative formation was the body of man1 into which ,god breathed the breath of lives1 and in consequence of which he became not merely a living soul1 but a spiritual personality1 a spirit-being4 ,the question whether the material organisms in which the varied species of living souls are embodied were each the product of a special creation1 or whether later and higher organisms were derived from prior and lower organisms by filiation1 so that new species are new births1 is of little consequence to the interpretation of ,genesis4 ,the essential element of species is a spiritual entity4 ,specific existence is a positive existence1 an immaterial existence1#bab a soul of life4 ,it is not1 says ,dr4 ,winchell1 a primordial organic form3 it is the life embodied within that form--the principle which rules its existence1 moulds its features1 determines its instincts1 and conserves its specific and individual identity4 ,it is the principle embodied in the ovum--often a mere microscopic organism--which unfailingly holds fast to the specific type1 and through all embryonic and immature existence guides the progress of development in one direction1 toward one end4 ,here is more than matter3 here is a power which controls matter1 controls chemistry--manifests its superiority to body1 and asserts its dignity as spirit4 ,the establishment of a genetic connection from the lowest to the highest material organism would not decide the question as to the origin of species4 ,the origin of species lies back of all material organisms4 ,the species is a spiritual germ1 which acts upon and fashions the material elements1 and through them expresses its own characteristics4 ,that therefore which constitutes man a distinct species is not to be sought in anatomical peculiarities1 but in spiritual attributes4 ,it is the image of ,god and the inspiration of ,god which lifts man out of mere animal nature and makes him a peculiar species--one genus1 and that genus the only one of the order4#bac ,nor would this title be affected by any theory about the mode of the creation of his body4 ,there would be nothing more derogatory to ,omnipotence1 or even to human nature1 in the conjecture that man did not become a living personal spirit until he had passed through various stages of animal life1 than in the doctrine that he was fashioned immediately out of the dust of the earth4 ,there is as much dignity1 or1 if the reader please1 as much humility of origin in the one case as in the other4 ,the former is an extraordinary birth1 consequent on some mysterious action of the ,deity on the course of nature2 the latter is a miraculous formation4 ,the ,hebrew text is as favorable to the one hypothesis as to the other4 ,the preposition of1 or out of1 is not authorized by the original4 ,dr4 ,whedon reads the whole passage as follows3 ,and ,god developed the man--dust of the earth--and breathed into his nostrils the breath of lives1 and the man became to a living person4#bad ,if the body of the second ,adam1 the ,divine ,man1 was a birth 7a miraculous birth71 we do not see that any one need be shocked at the suggestion that the body of the first ,adam was also an extraordinary or supernatural birth4 ,science may have free scope to settle the problem on purely inductive grounds4 ,the following scheme will exhibit our conception of the cumulative character of the creative development3 ,,originations477 ,,formations 7 74 ,primal ,the ,spirit of ,god ,element4 ,,moved upon the face of the abyss4 ,,mechanical4444444444,,energy4 ,,force1 4 4 ,vortex 4 ,motion1 ,,chemical ,,atoms4 4 4 ,molecular ,,sensible ,,and 4 ,energy1 ,,latent ,,heat4 ,,ether4444444444444444444444444444 ,radiant ,energy1 ,,radiant ,,heat ,,and ,,light4 ,molar ,,air1 ,energy1 ,,water1 ,,land and ,,seas4 ,,vital ,,force4444444444,vitality44444,,bioplas m ,,plants4 _/ _/ 4 ,,mollusks1 4 ,,fishes1 ,,living44444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444 ,,reptiles1 ,,soul1 ,,birds1 ,,mammals1 _/ _/ 44 ,,rational444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444,,man4 ,,spirit1 ,,inspiration4 #c4 ,creation was consecutive4 ,the creative epochs follow each other in a manifest ,order of ,thought4 ,the reasons for this order are obvious on the face of the sacred narrative1 so that we are constrained to regard the creative process as the realization of a purpose1 the development of a foreseen and predetermined plan4 ,this is clearly manifest from the aptly styled pauses of contemplation which occur in the progress of the sacred narrative4 ,at each stage of the creative work the ,deity is represented as surveying that already finished1 and pronouncing it good 7 1 fair and good74 ,this may seem strange when viewed apart from the completed plan4 ,what good1 one might ask1 is the light when there is no eye to see8 ,what good the expanse of heaven1 the land and seas1 with none to inhabit them8 ,what good the plants with none to use them8 ,but the ,intelligence that foresaw the end toward which the creative process was tending could recognize the fitness and the beauty of each new element of creation as contributing to that completed whole1 which1 when realized1 is pronounced very good4 ,thus each stage of the advancing work of creation is pronounced good in view of its subordination to the ultimate purpose1 which is the highest good4 ,each is a step upward and onward1 and is good as a preparation and a means for a better that is yet to come4 ,thus the reading of the sacred ,hymn of ,creation leaves the decided impression that a chain of subordination and interdependence runs through the entire organic and inorganic creation1 binding the whole together in an ideal unity4 ,all the laws and results of the past are brought forward1 and become a prelude and a preparation for the future developments4 ,the earlier stages of the creation furnish the conditions for the later stages1 and are in some sense a prophecy of what is to come4 ,the successive stages of creation are thus results1 in part1 of a nature--a constitution and order of things already established1 and in part of a new impulse carrying nature forward toward the predestinated goal4 ,the more extended our acquaintance with the actual economy of nature1 the more does the subordination and interdependence of the creative epochs become manifest1 and the more are we convinced that the law of consecution which reveals itself in the sacred narrative is a real law of the universe4 ,the existence of radiant energy 7heat and light71 is the fundamental precondition of all the subsequent creative formations4 ,it is more universal than gravitation1 and absolutely co-extensive with the universe1#bae the connecting bond between all worlds4 ,it determines the temperature of space1 of the atmosphere1 and of the earth1 and1 in fact1 most of the phenomena of meteorology4 ,it is essential to the life and growth of the plant1 and ultimately of the animal2 without it1 indeed1 no life could exist upon the earth4 ,next in importance is the atmosphere1 which has peculiar relations to light and heat4 ,it softens the intensity of light1 and diffuses it in every direction2 it absorbs and retains heat1 and1 infolding the earth as with a mantle1 keeps it warm4 ,it conditions the formation of clouds1 and determines the fall of genial showers4 ,it is the medium in which combustion and change1 and all the phenomena of life1 take place4 ,its oxygen has been the chief world-builder1 and its nitrogen has been aptly styled the zogen or generator of life4 ,the gathering of the waters into lakes and seas1 the phenomena of aqueous circulation1 the formation of soils through its agency--these were all preconditions of vegetable life4 ,reasoning deductively1 it is equally presumable that vegetable life preceded animal life in order of appearance4444 ,vegetation is capable of drawing its sustenance from the mineral world1 while animals rely exclusively upon organic food4 ,the vegetable stands between the animal and the mineral1 performing a sort of commissary function in behalf of the animal4 ,the animal--even the carnivorous animal--implies the vegetable4 ,all things considered1 we are led to believe that plant life had a history upon our earth a full epoch before the existence of animals4#baf ,finally1 all geological preparations and ideas converge in man4 ,the beneficent provisions of the earth's crust not only prophesy man1 but they reach their finality in man4 ,it was only for human uses that the coal was treasured in the recesses of the earth2 for human uses alone the mountains have lifted up their burdens of iron2 for human uses only the grandest movements of geological history elaborated and distributed the soils4 ,it is only for man that the forests yield their abundant supplies of timber and fuel4 ,for man the edible and medicinal vegetables were provided4 ,for man the natures of the domestic animals were moulded1 and their domestic attachments are directed to no other being4#bag ,thus through the long ages of geological time the earth was preparing for the dwelling-place of man1 and in the earliest forms of animal life his coming was prefigured and foretold4 #d4 ,the completed creation is a ,divine harmony4 ,this is the abiding impression which the sublime ,psalm of ,creation leaves upon our minds as we close the book4 ,it has taught us this final lesson1 that the universe is the manifestation of one grand creative thought1 as comprehensive in the diversity of its parts as it is complete in the unity of its plan4 ,we learn1 not merely that ,god made all the parts of the universe1 but that ,he made each part for a specific purpose1 and that all the separate and successive parts are chords in nature's music1 parts of creation's anthem of perpetual praise4 ,the ,symbolical ,hymn of ,creation1 with its striking parallelisms1 its balance and correlation of parts1 its harmonic numbers 7#c and #g and #aj1 the symbols of perfection71 its pauses and refrains1 its rhythm and unity symbolizes the universal prevalence of ,law in nature2 reveals a changeless ,order in respect to space and time1 to number and form2 suggests harmonious relations between terrestrial conditions and cosmical adjustments1 between organic and inorganic existence1 and accords with the wonderful rhythm which pervades the ,cosmos4 ,the glorious mansion is first built1 then furnished4 ,a triad of days is devoted to its architecture1 a triad to its occupants4 ,the former describes a series of dividings and combinings1 the latter portrays a series of formations and vivifications4 ,the last day of each era includes one work typical of the era1 and another related to it in essential points1 but also prophetic of the future4 ,vegetation1 while1 for physical reasons1 a part of the creation of the third day1 was also prophetic of the future ,organic era1 in which the progress of life was the grand characteristic4 ,the record thus accords with the fundamental principle in history that the characteristic of an age has its beginnings within the age preceding4 ,so1 again1 man1 while like other mammals in structure1 even to the homologies of every bone and muscle1 was endowed with a spiritual nature which looked forward to another era1 that of spiritual existence4 ,the seventh day1 the day of rest from the work of creation1 is man's period of preparation for that new existence1 and it is to promote this special end that1 in strict parallelism1 the ,sabbath follows man's six days of work4#bah ,the following scheme will exhibit the completeness of the parallelism3 ,,inorganic ,,era4 ,,organic ,,era4 ,i4 ,day44444,,luminosity4 ,,iv4 ,day4444,,luminaries ,,ii4 ,day4444,,water1 ,v4 ,day444,,marine ,,animals1 ,,reptiles1 ,,atmosphere4 ,,birds4 ,,iii4 ,day44444,,dry ,,land ,,vi4 ,day4444,,mammals ,,vegetation4 ,,man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4 ,the ,principle of ,teleology not affected by the ,theory of ,evolution4--,it is necessary to remark that there is a wider teleology which is not touched by the doctrine of evolution1 but is actually based upon the fundamental proposition of evolution4444 ,the teleological and the mechanical views of nature are not necessarily mutually exclusive2 on the contrary1 the more purely a mechanist the speculator is1 the more firmly does he assume a primordial molecular arrangement1 of which all the phenomena of the universe are the consequences2 and the more completely thereby is he at the mercy of the teleologist1 who can always defy him to disprove that this primordial molecular arrangement was not intended to evolve the phenomena of the universe4--,prof4 ,huxley1 in ,the ,academy for ,october1 #ahfi1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ac4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,conservation4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,the ,,world4 ,the relations which unite the creature and the ,creator compose a problem obscure and delicate1 the two extreme solutions of which are equally false and perilous3 on the one hand1 a ,god so passes into the world that ,he seems to be absorbed in it2 on the other hand1 a ,god so separated from the world1 that the world has the appearance of going on without ,him2 on both sides there is equal excess1 equal danger1 equal error4--,,cousin4 ,in the preceding chapters we have endeavored to present the ,christian doctrine concerning ,god1 and concerning the world as the work of ,god4 ,god is a person--the unconditioned ,personality1 all of whose determinations are from ,himself4 ,and creation is the voluntary act of ,god1 who freely chooses to award existence to other beings distinct from ,himself4 ,if our scientific conceptions are in harmony with this doctrine1 we are safe from the temptations of materialism on the one hand1 and proof against the seductions of pantheism on the other4 ,henceforth we must regard the unconditioned ,being as essentially distinct from the material universe4 ,matter with its phenomena is limited in extent and duration1 ,god is infinite and eternal4 ,extension is not an attribute of the ,divine substance4 ,succession is not a mode of ,god's eternity4 ,the ,divine life infinitely transcends the dynamical life of the universe4 ,still there is some connection1 some relation between ,god and the world4 ,of this we have the fullest assurance1 however incapable we may be of comprehending the mode4 ,the material universe is the product of the ,divine efficiency1 and therefore the first and most fundamental relation of ,god to the world is that of causality4 ,the universe exists solely through the will of ,god4 ,it had a beginning1 and the beginning of the world was the beginning of time4 ,prior to that beginning there was no succession1 no limitation1 no finite existence2 only the eternal and infinite ,one4 ,the creative efficiency was put forth1 and matter1 as the statical condition necessary to the manifestation of physical phenomena1 began to be4 ,the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the formless abyss1 and phenomenal change commenced its history4 ,with motion and consequent succession there arose the relations of time4 ,with the differentiation and collocation of matter there arose the relations of space4 ,and the wealth and fullness of inorganic and organic nature sprang up under the directive1 formative1 and vitalizing energy of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,but is there no further relation of ,god to the world1 beyond that which is involved in the primary and solitary fact of creative causality8 ,did the connection of ,god with his works terminate in an event which belongs to the inapproachable past8 ,did the ,creator1 in the beginning1 give self-being to the substance of the universe1 and endow it with active forces1 so that it can exist and act apart from and independent of ,god8 ,have the laws of nature a real efficiency1 so that the further agency of ,god is dispensed with1 and the universe can pursue a fixed and inevitable path of self-development without his control and oversight8 ,or is ,god still immanent in nature1 upholding all substance1 the power of all force1 the life of all life1 shaping all forms1 and organizing all systems8 ,in a word1 has the ,divine efficiency remained1 since the first creative act1 in sublime repose1 or does the ,father work hitherto1 sustaining1 moving1 vitalizing1 and perfecting the universe--the ,conservator1 as well as the ,creator1 of all things8 ,this is the living question of our times1 whether viewed from the scientific or the theological stand-point4 ,the mental posture we assume in relation to this question must determine our systems of philosophy and religion4 ,the language of ,scripture on this point is direct and explicit1 and unless our interpretation thereof needs to be modified in order to place it in harmony with the general spirit and tenor of ,christian teaching1 or with the unquestionable facts of nature1 which are also a revelation of ,god1 there can be no difficulty in determining the ,christian doctrine of ,god's relation to the world4 ,it teaches us1 not only that all things were made by ,god1 but that all things are sustained by ,god4 ,god is still the first and immediate cause of all existence4 ,he giveth to all life1 and breath1 and all things 7,acts xvii4 #be74 ,the created universe is in complete and ceaseless dependence on the ,divine causality2 it consists by the same will and the same word by which it was first originated4 ,he who made all things1 continues to uphold all things by the word of his power 7,heb4 i4 #c74 ,he is before all things1 and by ,him all things consist 7,col4 i4 #ag74 ,the universe is not self-existent1 nor self-evolved1 neither has it any inherent power of self-perpetuation4 ,notwithstanding the individuality and self-life conceded to the creature1 it has no independent existence apart from ,god1 for of ,him1 and through ,him1 and for ,him are all things1 to whom be glory forever4 7,rom4 xi4 #cf47 ,the recognition of a real presence of ,god in nature1 and of the immediate agency of ,god in the production of all natural phenomena1 has been a characteristic of the religious consciousness in all ages4 ,this consciousness of the presence of ,god embracing and sustaining all worldly being is1 in fact1 an essential content of all vital piety4 ,it is only a mechanical deism1 a barren rationalistic theology1 or a piety meagre in the last degree1 which has interposed a chasm between ,god and his creatures4 ,the religious spirit is remarkably developed in the ,psalms of ,david1 and here all the operations of nature are spoken of as the operations of ,deity4 ,the thunder is the voice of ,god4 ,the lightnings are his arrows4 ,the earthquakes and volcanoes are produced directly by ,him4 ,he looketh on the earth1 and it trembleth2 ,he toucheth the hills1 and they smoke4 ,he giveth snow like wool1 ,he scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes1 ,he casteth forth his ice like morsels2 who can stand before his cold8 ,he causeth his winds to blow1 and the waters flow4 ,he covereth the heavens with clouds1 ,he prepareth rain for the earth4 ,he watereth the hills from his chambers1 the earth is satisfied with the fruit of his work4 ,he causeth grass to grow for the cattle1 and herb for the service of man4 ,he giveth to the beast his food1 and to the young ravens which cry4 ,all creatures wait upon ,him1 and ,he giveth them their meat in due season4 ,he openeth his hand1 they are filled with good4 ,he hideth his face1 and they are troubled4 ,he taketh away their breath1 they die and return to the dust4 ,he sendeth forth his ,spirit1 and they are created2 and ,he reneweth the face of the earth4 ,to the eye of the inspired writer1 the agency of ,god is concerned in every process and every product of nature4 ,there are diversities of operations1 but it is the same ,god who worketh all in all4 ,his will and his power are the only real forces in nature4 ,the interpretation which the ,church has given of this teaching of the ,sacred ,scriptures has been remarkably uniform through the ages4 ,she has always taught that the continuance of the world1 no less than its origination1 has its ground in the ,divine causality2 and every theory of the relation of ,god to the world which has sacrificed the doctrine of the all-embracing1 all-sustaining presence of ,god in the universe1 as an immediate and real efficiency1 has always been rejected as ,pelagian1 ,rationalistic1 or ,deistic4 ,the conception of the ,divine conservation of the world as the simple1 uniform1 and universal agency of ,god sustaining all created substances and powers in every moment of their existence and activity1 is the catholic doctrine of ,christendom4 ,in attempting the difficult1 perhaps impossible task of conceiving the mode of this ,divine conservation1 different theories have been developed4 ,but whatever the conception formed1 whether that of the ,divine co-operation 7concursus ,dei generalis71 as taught by ,st4 ,augustine and the ,schoolmen2 or that of a ,divine intermediate impulse 7impulsus non cogens71 as taught by ,luther2 or that of the ,divine sustentation 7sustentatio ,dei71 as held by the ,arminians2 or even that of the superintendence and control of the ,deity1 as adopted by some modern religious scientists1#bai they all repose on the ultimate truth that whatever is created can have no necessary or independent existence2 the same power which called it into being must continue to uphold it in being2 and were ,god to withdraw his conserving efficiency the creature would be immediately annihilated4#bbj ,st4 ,augustine1 the father of systematic theology1 conceived the ,divine conservation of the world as a continual creation 7creatio continua74 ,he taught that the life and activity of the creatures1 collectively and individually1 are ceaselessly and absolutely dependent on and conditioned by the almighty and omnipresent agency of ,god4 ,were ,he to withdraw from the world his creative power1 it would straightway lapse into nothingness4#bba ,thomas ,aquinas1 the ,angelical ,doctor1 who is regarded as having brought ,scholastic theology to its highest development1 held the same views on this subject as ,augustine4 ,he taught that preservation is an ever-renewed creation4#bbb ,all creaturely causes derive their efficiency directly and continually from the ,first ,cause4#bbc ,theological writers of more recent times have assented to these views with notable uniformity4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 the intimate friend of ,newton1 whose ,lectures on the ,being and ,attributes of ,god1 and on the ,evidences of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion1 secured for him a ,european renown as a ,christian philosopher1 states the doctrine of the immediate agency of the ,deity with remarkable explicitness4 ,all things that are done in the world are done either immediately by ,god ,himself1 or by created intelligent beings4 ,matter being evidently not capable of any laws or powers whatsoever1 any more than it is capable of intelligence1 except only this one negative power1 that every part of it will of itself always and necessarily continue in that state1 whether of rest or motion1 wherein it at present is4 ,so that all those things which we commonly say are the effects of the natural powers of matter and laws of motion1 of gravitation1 attraction1 or the like1 are indeed 7if we will speak strictly and properly7 the effect of ,god's acting upon matter continually and every moment1 either immediately by ,himself1 or mediately by some created intelligent beings4444 ,consequently there is no such thing as what we commonly call the course of nature1 or the power of nature4 ,the course of nature1 truly and properly speaking1 is nothing else but the will of ,god1 producing certain effects in a continued1 regular1 constant1 and uniform manner4#bbd ,dr4 ,clarke may properly be regarded as the representative of the metaphysico-theological thought of the seventeenth century4 ,no apology is needed at this hour for presenting ,john ,wesley as the best representative of the evangelical movement of the eighteenth century which adhered firmly to the ipsissima verba of the sacred writers4 ,he expresses the evangelical conception with admirable clearness and force3 ,god is also the supporter of all the things which ,he has made4 ,he beareth1 upholdeth1 sustaineth all created things by the word of his power2 by the same powerful word which brought them out of nothing4 ,as this was absolutely necessary for the beginning of their existence1 it is equally so for the continuance of it2 were his almighty influence withdrawn1 they could not subsist a moment longer4444 ,he preserves them in their several relations1 connections1 and dependencies1 so as to compose one system of beings1 to form one entire universe1 according to the counsel of his will4444 ,he is the true author of all the motion in the universe4 ,all matter of whatever kind is absolutely and totally inert4 ,it does not1 can not in any case move itself4444 ,neither the sun1 moon1 nor stars move themselves4 ,they are moved every moment by the ,almighty hand that made them4#bbe ,these views are earnestly maintained by ,nitzsch and ,mller1 ,chalmers and ,harris1 ,young and ,whedon1 ,channing and ,martineau4 ,the religious life of the present age1 in all its purest and most vigorous manifestations1 still clings with passionate ardor to the belief that ,god is every where present1 and that the ceaseless1 uniform1 and direct agency of ,god is still upholding1 moving1 vivifying1 and controlling all things4 ,the harp of ,david is restrung and swept with a firmer hand4 ,it rings with nobler conceptions1 and swells into diviner harmonies4 ,god is recognized as above all1 through all1 and in all4 ,in ,him we live and move1 and have our being4 ,the ,christian still believes1 with a fuller and richer assurance1 that ,god's presence-- ,warms in the sun1 refreshes in the breeze4 ,glows in the stars1 and blossoms in the trees4 ,he still hears the voice of ,god in the thunder at midnight1 and in the rustling of the forest leaves at noonday4 ,he sees the beauty of ,god in the silent faces of the clouds1 and in the virgin blush of the solitary flower4 ,he sees the life of ,god in the activities of organic nature1 and marks his power and presence in the falling rain and noiseless dew1 the flowing river and the restless ocean4 ,the seasons1 as they come round to him in their grateful vicissitudes1 bring to him fresh tokens of the goodness of ,god1 and inspire him with perennial joy4 ,these as they change1 ,almighty ,father1 these ,are but the varied ,god4 ,the rolling year ,is full of ,thee4444 ,but wandering oft1 with brute1 unconscious gaze1 ,man marks not ,thee1 marks not the mighty hand ,that1 ever busy1 wheels the silent spheres2 ,works in the secret deep2 shoots1 steaming1 thence ,the fair profusion that o'erspreads the spring2 ,flings from the sun direct the flaming day2 ,feeds every creature1 hurls the tempest forth2 ,and1 as on earth this grateful change revolves1 ,with transport touches all the springs of life4#bbf ,a discussion of the ,christian doctrine of the relation of ,god to the world can scarcely be regarded as adequate and complete which keeps not constantly in view the theories of certain advanced thinkers that conflict with the views here presented4 ,we do not now refer to the extreme opinions of the ,atheists1 who deny the existence of ,god1 proclaim the eternity of matter1 and regard force as an inherent and essential attribute of matter1 by which all the phenomena of nature and humanity are necessarily evolved2 nor of the ,pantheists1 on the other hand1 who deny the personality of ,god1 and represent the ,deity as an eternal natura naturans1 which by a spontaneous and unconscious development is forever emerging as the natura naturata4 ,for these thinkers there can be no conceivable ,providence4 ,science has shown us that we are under the dominion of general laws1 and that there is no special ,providence4 ,nature acts with fearful uniformity2 stern as fate1 absolute as a tyrant1 merciless as death2 too vast to praise2 too inexplicable to worship2 too inexorable to propitiate2 it has no ear for prayer1 no heart for sympathy1 no arm to save4#bbg ,at present we are to deal with the theories of a class of scientists who believe in the existence of ,god--of a personal ,god1 and who profess the greatest reverence for the ,sacred ,scriptures1 but whose ,god is clearly not the ,god the ,bible reveals4 ,this general class of thinkers may be subdivided into subordinate schools1 as they verge toward one or the other of the extremes above indicated4 #a4 ,one school is represented by such writers as ,prof4 ,tyndall1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,bence ,jones1 and ,dr4 ,bastian4 ,their fundamental principle is the absolute inseparability of matter and force2 consequently they do not recognize the ,divine ,will as the sole and immediate cause of the motion and life of the universe4 ,molecular attractions and repulsions are the primal forces communicated to matter at the ,creation1 and from the self-activity of these primary forces result all the forms of energy in nature1 whether organic or inorganic4 ,our idea of the grandeur1 the unity1 and the power of the first cause1 writes ,dr4 ,h4 ,bence ,jones1 will surely not be lessened if we can show that one law of the union of matter and force and of the conservation of energy obtains throughout the organic as well as the inorganic creation4#bbh ,here we have a close approximation1 if not intentionally1 yet logically1 to the ,atheistic extreme4 ,the transition seems easy1 if not inevitable1 to the recognition of force as an inherent and necessary attribute of matter which may be eternal4 ,then what need of a ,god1 or what place for one1 if the forces and laws of matter are adequate to the explanation of all phenomena8 ,as ,martineau aptly suggests1 ,these properties and powers once installed in the cosmic executive are too apt1 like mayors of the palace1 to set up for themselves1 and eject the real ,lord and ,god4 #b4 ,another school is represented by such men as ,professors ,owen1 ,huxley1 and ,baden ,powell1 who deny the ultimate distinction between matter and force1 and regard both as phenomenal manifestations of some unknown substratum--a supramaterial ,,physis 77 which is identical with the ,divine substance1 the natura naturans of ,spinoza4 ,to these minds the universe discloses nothing but immutable law1 absolute continuity1 and necessary development4 ,the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature#bbi and the grand inductive conclusion of universal and eternal order1#bcj are the bases of all rational theology4 ,here we encounter a phase of thought which verges toward the extreme of ,pantheism4 ,the ,deity himself is conditioned in his action by the eternal and immutable laws of nature1 and can not be conceived as a living ,will exercising control over and subordinating these laws to higher moral ideas and ends4 ,this doctrine1 ,prof4 ,powell admits1 summarily overrides the ,mosaic creation1 renders miracles irrational1 excludes a special providence1 and1 we may add1 dismisses prayer as a useless absurdity4 #c4 ,a third and intermediate school assumes the existence of a plastic nature 7vis formativa7 intermediate between the ,creator and his work1 by which the phenomena of nature are produced4 ,this hypothesis was propounded by ,cudworth1 and has lately been reproduced by ,dr4 ,laycock and ,mr4 ,murphy under the name of unconscious organizing intelligence1 to explain those facts of organic nature which come under the relation of means and ends1 or structure and function4 ,this hypothesis must deflect toward one or other of the extremes indicated1 when it attempts to decide in what subject this unconscious intelligence inheres4 ,if it be said that it inheres in matter1 the tendency must be toward ,atheism3 that it inheres in spirit1 then the tendency is toward ,pantheism4 ,common to all these hypotheses is the denial of the direct1 immediate1 and voluntary agency of ,god in nature as the only real and efficient force4 ,they are all attempts to account for the conservation of the world by the conservation and transformation of energy1 that is1 by secondary causes1 which in reality are only conditions and not real causes4 ,they interpose a chasm between ,god and the world4 ,the universe is a self-supporting1 self-evolving machine1 and ,god is an isolated1 incommunicable abstraction4 ,it is to be deplored that certain ,christian writers have deemed it necessary1 on what they consider moral grounds1 to give countenance to theories which in one form or another ascribe a real efficiency to natural laws1 and dispense with the immediate and ceaseless agency of ,god in the conservation of the world4 ,they imagine that some such hypothesis is needed to vindicate the ,divine honor and righteousness4 ,in their imagination1 it derogates from the ,divine majesty to be ceaselessly concerned and busied with the minute and insignificant operations of nature1 or even cognizant of them4 ,his eternal serenity would be disturbed1 and his unsullied purity compromised by any connection therewith1 and ,he would become responsible for the disorders and abnormities1 the evils and sufferings1 which appear in the world4 ,he must1 therefore1 be released from a constant and direct connection with the universe4 ,he must leave nature to the necessary predestinated course of self-evolution1 or1 if ,he interpose at all1 it must be in some exceptional1 extraordinary1 and supernatural way2 so that1 if there be a providential administration1 every act and incident thereof must be a miracle4 ,we respect the motives1 but we can not approve the procedure or commend the logic of these theologians4 ,the moral difficulties they would by these hypotheses evade still remain in all their force4 ,any hypothesis which essays to relieve these difficulties from pressing against ,providence only transfers and leaves them to press with equal force against an original creation4#bca ,the ,supreme ,intelligence which originally endowed matter with its properties1 and ordained the laws of force1 must have foreseen all possible combinations1 interactions1 and consequences1 and1 if it be proper to speak of responsibilities in this connection1 must be as responsible for these consequences as though they were the direct effect of immediate volition4 ,an agent is accountable not only for his acts1 but for all the foreseen consequences of his acts4 ,the solution of these difficulties must be sought in another field4 ,meantime it may be observed that these theologians affect a concern for the ,divine honor which even revelation itself does not confess4 ,it teaches that all the operations of nature are the operations of ,god1 and no apologies are offered for consequences which1 to short-sighted men1 may appear to conflict with righteousness or love4 ,does the earthquake tear the mountain asunder1 and spread devastation and death throughout the surrounding country8 it is the ,lord who roareth from ,zion1 and uttereth his voice from ,jerusalem2 ,he causeth the habitation of the shepherds to mourn1 and the top of ,carmel to wither4#bcb ,the people bow their heads with reverence1 and in their chastening sorrows see the hand of ,god4 ,but these philosophic theologians must correct the language of ,scripture1 and tone it down in harmony with the capricious demands of modern scientists4 ,the language of the ancient ,prophet of ,god is simply the expression of a childlike and subjective conception of nature which modern science has emptied of all its significance4 ,the earthquake was the product of secondary causes--of inherent nature-forces which now exist and act independent of the agency and control of ,god4 ,to maintain the consistency of their hypothesis1 they will even affirm that the catastrophe was unforeseen1 and did not come within the purview of the creative plan4 ,the exuberance of the ,oriental imagination has thrown a haze of unreality over all the descriptions of natural phenomena1 and therefore the language of the inspired ,psalmist must be amended4 ,when he tells us that ,god covereth the heavens with clouds1 and prepareth rain for the earth1 we must paraphrase after the following fashion3 ,in the beginning ,god gave to water those properties1 and determined those cosmical conditions which1 when coincident1 result in the formation of clouds and the descent of rain6 ,this1 we are told1 is the interpretation which modern science demands4 ,conservation is simply the indestructibility of matter and the persistence of force1 and ,providence is the uniformity of natural law4 ,we must no longer believe that ,god is a present1 immanent1 and diffusive ,power and ,life in nature4 ,to find the connection between ,god and nature we must remount by a process of regressive thought to the first1 and1 indeed1 the last act of creation--the primal origination of matter and motion4 ,so that if now piety would stand face to face with its supreme object1 it is compelled to fling itself back into the abyss of duration1 before the mountains were brought forth1 or ever the earth and the world were formed4 ,practically1 this conception gives us a universe without a ,god2 for the world1 once created1 and stocked with the necessary forces and adjustments and laws1 will henceforth govern itself4 ,it will run its predestinated course in obedience to an original impulse1 and realize a perpetual motion without further oversight or care or control4 ,the world is a huge soulless machine1 and theology is reduced to ,mechanical ,deism6 ,but surely no one pretends that this theory satisfies the demands of ,scripture language1 and fills up the complement of its idea4 ,practically1 it renders the ,word of ,god of no effect4 ,this theory is equally inadequate to satisfy the cravings of the human heart4 ,the heart demands a present ,god--a ,god who is never far from any one of us2 it demands the immediate presence and constant care of a heavenly ,father2 it demands1 when it looks upon nature1 to feel that ,god is there1 not in his laws only1 but in conscious and perpetual action2 not in the sense of a ,wisdom and ,goodness1 embodied in arrangements contrived and perfected long ago1 as the mind of an artificer may be said to be present in the work of his hands1 but in the sense of a ,love co-present to every aspect of nature1 and a ,will inworking in every event that takes place4#bcc ,reacting against the usurpation of secondary causation1 wearied of its distance from the ,fountain-head1 it flings itself back with pathetic repentance into the arms of the ,primary ,infinitude4 ,the relation of ,god to the world1 however1 is a problem which can not be solved by an appeal to sentiment4 ,the religious consciousness may be the counter-proof1 but it can not be the starting-point of a philosophy which aims at the explanation of things--that is1 of their origin and continuance--by principles and ideas of the reason4 ,for what is meant by understanding1 but translation into ideas1 and comprehending under necessary principles8 ,any theory which essays such explanation of things must therefore commend itself to the logical understanding1 and be capable of logical construction4 ,now the various hypotheses which seek to dispense with the immediate agency of ,god1 and to explain the conservation of the world by secondary or natural agencies1 when critically examined do not satisfy the understanding4 ,however convenient for the evasion of difficulties1 however plausible for their simplicity and manageable clearness1 on a closer inspection they are found to be inadequate4 #a4 ,there is the hypothesis of natural law4 ,the world is governed by general laws which are fixed and immutable4 ,these laws were impressed upon matter at the beginning1 and in obedience to them the universe has gradually evolved itself in rigid continuity and necessary order4 ,no room1 therefore1 is left for special direction or providential control1 and if the term providence is at all permissible1 it is only as a synonym for natural law4 ,it is affirmed by the advocates of this hypothesis that the grand principle of the uniformity and constancy of natural causes is a primary law of belief so strongly entertained by the truly inductive inquirer that he can not conceive the possibility of its failure4#bcd ,as science extends her domain and pushes her discoveries into new regions1 cases that once seemed anomalous are found to be conformable to this general rule1 and therefore we are justified in assuming the absolute uniformity and inviolability of natural law through all the realms of time and space4 ,thus we reach the grand inductive conclusion of the universal and eternal order of nature4 ,but an overruling providence must step beyond ordinary rule3 it must control1 interrupt1 modify1 or in some manner give a new direction to the action of nature1 and thus become supernatural--that is1 miraculous4 ,so that were we even to concede the phenomenal reality of the miracles recorded in the ,new ,testament1 and to accept them as objects of faith1 but not as the evidences of faith1 still modern science would forbid us to believe that any supernatural interposition can now take place4 ,not a single instance of counteraction or control of natural law can now be authenticated1 and therefore we must regard special providence as incredible and impossible4 ,the first error1 and indeed the fundamental error1 of this hypothesis is the assumption that the absolute uniformity and permanence of nature is a primary law of belief1 and therefore the natural philosopher must set out with clear ideas of the possible and the impossible4 ,now we grant that had we such priori conviction of the permanence and immutability of nature1 then it would be impossible to prove that the order of nature had a beginning1 or that there could be any interference with the agencies or laws of nature by a supernatural power4 ,no evidence adduced in favor of a creation or of ,divine interposition could ever be so strong as to overcome the necessary belief in direct opposition to it4#bce ,but the truth is1 we have no such intuitive conviction4 ,our belief has none of the characteristics of an priori intuition3 it is neither self-evident nor universal nor necessary4 ,john ,stuart ,mill has successfully shown that this belief is the result of experience1 that it is entertained only by the cultivated and educated few1 and that even among such it has been of slow growth4 ,therefore he properly concludes that the uniformity in the succession of events 444 must be received1 not as the law of the universe1 but of that portion only which is within the range of our means of observation1 with a reasonable degree of extension to adjacent cases4#bcf ,belief in the uniformity of nature is an induction from experience1 and not a primary intuition4 ,and by the word experience1 in this connection1 we must understand not the experience of one man only1 or of one generation1 but the accumulated experience of mankind in all ages as registered in books or transmitted by tradition4 ,but how limited1 at best1 is human experience--how circumscribed both in time and space6 ,compared with the vastness and duration of the universe1 it is narrowed down to a mere point4 ,all experience1 be it that of the individual or of mankind1 is only finite4 ,to infer a universal law from a limited number of instances is to violate to the uttermost the fundamental canon of logic that no conclusion must contain more than was contained in the premises from which it is drawn4#bcg ,inductive science can only give us the contingent and the relative1 it can never attain to the necessary and the absolute4 ,by abstraction1 comparison1 and generalization it may furnish us with general notions1 but it can not give us universal principles4 ,experience can not conduct us to universal and necessary truths--not to universal1 because she has not tried all cases2 not to necessary1 because necessity is not a matter to which experience can testify4#bch ,the intuitive reason1 we doubt not1 is furnished with necessary and universal principles which may illuminate the pathway of experience1 and give meaning and law to the facts of sensation1 so that man may become the ,interpreter of ,nature2 but certainly the absolute uniformity of nature is not one of these ideas4 ,notwithstanding the boasted mathematical precision of the inductive method1 and the rigid exactness of its results1 scientific men are not wholly exempt from the common infirmity of hasty generalization4 ,they are perpetually liable to the temptation to draw immense conclusions from premises that are too narrow and inadequate4 ,the history of science is a record of the correction of hasty generalizations by future discoveries1 and leads to the final conviction that there are no laws of nature which can lay claim to absolute universality4 ,since the time of ,newton1 the law of gravitation has been regarded by many as strictly universal4 ,but now we are told by ,herschel that our evidence of the existence of gravitation fails us beyond the region of the double stars1 or leaves us at best only a presumption amounting to moral conviction in its favor4 ,furthermore1 in regard to the luminiferous ether1 he tells us that we are freed from the necessity of any mental reference to the actual weight or specific gravity of the material1 which in this case is the more necessary1 as1 though we suppose the ethereal molecules to possess inertia1 we can not suppose them affected by the force of gravitation4 ,beyond all doubt1 the widest and most interesting prospect of future discovery 444 is that distinction between gravitating and levitating matter1 that positive and unrefutable demonstration of the existence of a repulsive force 444 enormously more powerful than the attractive force of gravity4#bci ,until recently the presence of free oxygen as the necessary condition of life has been regarded as a universal biological law4 ,but the latest researches of ,pasteur have shown that1 so far from oxygen being essential to the life of the simplest living beings1 there are certain forms of infusoria which not only pass their lives without oxygen1 but are killed by its presence4#bdj ,other illustrations might be adduced1 but these are sufficient for our purpose4 ,the truth is1 there is not a phenomenon known to man that can properly be said to be the result of the action of one invariable and universal force1 not even the falling of a stone to the earth2 for some force must have previously been exerted to raise the stone from the earth1 which force is represented by energy of position1 or potential energy4#bda ,and this potential energy is the exact numerical equivalent of the energy of motion which it acquires in falling--i4 e41 the mass multiplied by the square of the velocity4 ,every event1 every change in nature1 is due to some variable combinations of invariable forces4#bdb ,material causes are always complex4 ,every law of nature is liable to counteraction and modification by other laws1 and the most fundamental fact of the universe is that material forces are adjusted1 combined1 and modified in endless modes in order to the fulfillment of purposes and ends4 ,the phenomena of life present a vast series of such adjustments and modifications4 ,the mechanical and chemical forces are controlled and subordinated by the vital force1 so that life has been defined as a resistance to the physical forces of matter#bdc--;a resistance which ,liebig regards as in a certain degree invincible4 ,living matter is the seat of energy1 and so long as it is living1 can overcome the primary law of the inertia of matter1 and moves spontaneously4#bdd ,living matter overcomes the attraction of gravitation1 and resists1 suspends1 and modifies the action of chemical affinity4#bde ,it is in direct opposition to chemical affinity that organized beings exist4 ,thus the various forms of energy are mutually conditioned4 ,the mechanical1 chemical1 and electrical energies are counteracted by the vital force4 ,and all the forces and energies of nature are controlled and subordinated by a higher force which orders means to ends1 and adapts structure to function1 viz41 an ,intelligent ,will4 ,the conviction finally becomes irresistible that nature is a system of things designed to be subject to ,mind1 and that a law of design is the highest law of the universe4 ,it must now be obvious that we can reach no definite conclusion in regard to the question under discussion--the uniformity of nature--unless we have a clear and precise conception of the meaning of the term nature4 ,the word is employed1 even by men of science1 in a very loose and ambiguous sense4 ,at one time it is used to denote the totality of sensible phenomena2 at another1 the conditions or causes of phenomena2 again1 the relations of phenomena2 and often1 all these collectively4 ,we must endeavor to extricate ourselves from this confusion4 ,according to its derivation1 nature 7natura--nascitur7 means that which is born or produced--the becoming2 that which has a beginning and an end2 that which has not the cause of its existence in itself1 and the cause of which must be sought in something antecedent to and beyond itself--that is1 nature is the phenomenal4 ,this the word itself expresses in the strongest manner4 ,that which begins to be1 as the necessary consequence of antecedent conditions1 is natural4 ,the co-existence1 resemblance1 and succession of phenomena constitute the order of nature2 and the uniformity of these relations among phenomena are the laws of nature4 ,so much is clear from the stand-point of mere empirical science4 ,now if law is the uniformity of relations among phenomena1#bdf then it is equally clear that the phrase uniformity of natural law is meaningless1 for1 by the definition1 the uniformity itself is the law1 and the expression is simply equivalent to the uniformity of the uniformity1 which is absurd4 ,furthermore1 if nature is the phenomenal--the becoming--then the word can not be properly employed to denote the causes of that becoming1 unless by causes we understand antecedent conditions1 which1 as we shall presently see1 are not real causes4 ,nature1 or the sum-total of phenomena1 is an effect--an effect which demands a cause4 ,there can be no phenomena without change1 no change without motion1 no motion without force1 no force without ,spirit1 for ,spirit-force is the only force of which we have any knowledge or consciousness4 ,a rational ,will1 and not a blind necessity1 must stand at the fountain-head of being1 and uniformity in nature must be the result of reason and choice4 ,but suppose we are permitted to employ the term nature to denote the essential properties of matter1 and the various forms of energy1#bdg potential and kinetic2 and suppose we admit that matter is indestructible1 and that the amount of energy in the world is unchanged1 the sum of the actual and potential energies being a constant quantity2 still we are not entitled from these premises to infer the absolute uniformity in the succession of events--that is1 the uniformity of the phenomenal4 ,we have already seen that no phenomenon known to man is the result of a single property of matter or a single form of energy4 ,all issues in nature are the effects produced upon matter by the resultant of component forces4 ,the phenomena of nature are the result of adjustments1 combinations1 and distributions of matter and of force in endless variety and complexity4 ,hence we have in nature the variable1 the contingent1 the particular1 as well as the invariable1 the uniform1 and the general4 ,this is admitted by ,comte3 ,that which engenders this irregular variability of the effect is the great number of different agents determining at the same time the same phenomena2 and from which it results1 in the most complicated phenomena1 that there are no two cases precisely alike4 ,we have no occasion1 in order to find such complexity1 to go to the phenomena of living beings4 ,it presents itself in bodies without life1 for example1 in studying meteorological phenomena4444 ,their multiplicity renders the effects as irregularly variable as if every cause had not been subject to any precise condition4#bdh ,thus we are led by various lines of thought to the same conclusion4 ,it is certain that we can only learn what the uniformities 7the laws7 of nature are by experience1 and in order to determine whether all the successions of events have been and now are universally uniform1 we must have a universal experience4 ,if there have been deviations from general laws under peculiar conditions--if one form of energy has been counteracted and modified by another form of energy1 or even by an intelligent ,will1 so as to give a particular result--experience 7 observation and testimony7 must be just as adequate to attest the reality of that particular deviation as it is to attest the prevalence of general laws4#bdi ,we have no intuitive and necessary conviction of the uniformity of nature1 and therefore we can not affirm in an priori manner what is possible or impossible4 ,those scientists who adopt the maxim of ,faraday1 that in the investigation of new and peculiar phenomena we must set out with clear ideas of the possible and the impossible1 are doomed to move in a vicious circle4 ,they can not be sure that a fact of experience is a real fact until they have ascertained the laws of nature in the case1 and they can not ascertain what the laws of nature are until they have ascertained the facts4 ,they must not profess to have learned any thing until they have ascertained that it is possible1 and they can not decide that it is possible until they have learned every thing1 because the single item of knowledge they are deficient in may be the very principle which warrants a belief in the possibility of the fact4 ,the maxim is obviously absurd4 ,in its theological bearings it is repudiated even by ,professor ,tyndall1 the pupil and successor of ,faraday at the ,royal ,institution4 ,you never hear the really philosophical defenders of the doctrine of uniformity speaking of impossibilities in nature4 ,they never say 444 that it is impossible for the ,builder of the universe to alter his work4 ,their business is not with the possible1 but with the actual4#bej ,the hypothesis under discussion is further vitiated by the assumption that laws are causes adequate in themselves to the production of all phenomena4 ,so that now ,creation by ,law 7,nomogeny7 is the watchword of this school of thinkers4 ,the men who have defined law as the uniformity of relations among phenomena--as an observed order of facts--now speak of laws as having in themselves a real efficiency2 as producing1 regulating1 and governing powers4 ,under this high-sounding phrase--,creation by ,law--there is not only the artful concealment of a difficulty1 but there is also the interpolation of a positive error4 ,the uniformities of natural phenomena are the causes of phenomena1 or1 in other words1 the order of nature is its own cause1 which is not only erroneous but self-contradictory4 ,here1 again1 we encounter the perplexity consequent on the use of ambiguous phraseology4 ,the term ,law is employed in an equivocal sense1 as denoting1 indifferently1 property and relation1 condition and cause1 antecedent and consequence4 ,in such an atmosphere of verbal haze it is impossible to see clearly or think correctly4 ,we must feel our way toward a purer light1 and find a less wavering stand-point4 ,the primary and generic conception of law is the authoritative expression of ,will4 ,this is the most natural1 the most obvious1 and the most legitimate conception4 ,the true notion of ,will is the synthesis of ,reason and ,power4 ,power exerted in the forms of reason is self-consciousness4 ,reason manifested in the forms of power is self-determination4 ,self-consciousness and self-determination are the two elements of personality4 ,more explicitly1 we may therefore define law as the idea of the ,reason enforced by ,power4 ,the subjects of legislation are3 #a4 ,the actions of ,free ,beings4 ,to ascertain the laws in this case is to answer the question1 ,what ought to be done8 #b4 ,the processes of ,thought4 ,to ascertain the laws in this case is to answer the questions1 ,why do we judge or affirm this or that8 and1 ,what are the grounds and criteria of certitude8 #c4 ,the facts or events of ,nature4 ,to ascertain the laws in this case is to answer the questions1 ,what are the facts in their observed order8 ,how or from what causes do they arise8 ,why or for what end do they exist8 ,it is under the last division that we encounter the secondary and symbolical senses in which the term law has come to be used by scientific men1 which have well-nigh supplanted the primary and only legitimate signification4 ,that which lies nearest to sense--the phenomena of nature--first engages the awakening intellect4 ,if the attention is confined solely to the phenomena of nature1 the simple question propounded is1 ,what is the observed order of the facts8 ,at this stage science can be no more than a classification of phenomena according to their relations of co-existence1 resemblance1 and succession1 and law must be defined as the uniformity of relations among phenomena4#bea ,here the term is taken objectively1 and the facts are simply conceived as perceived by the senses4 ,but the human mind can never rest in the bare knowledge of phenomena4 ,the reason intuitively recognizes the uniformities of nature as the suggestive signs of properties or powers which are not perceptible to sense1 and the question arises1 ,how--that is1 from what adjustment of antecedent conditions and physical agencies--does the order of nature arise8 ,and now the term law comes to indicate more than an observed order of facts2 it denotes an order resulting from the coincidence of some permanent properties1 qualities1 or forces which are conceived as lying back of the phenomena1 and pushing them into the objective field4 ,accordingly1 laws are now defined as the necessary relations which spring from the inner nature of things4#beb ,here the phrase is taken subjectively1 as the expression of a mental conception1 and not of a sense perception4 ,it has relation to us as understanding1 rather than to the materials of which the universe consists as obeying certain rules4#bec ,finally1 the human mind approaches the question--,why have these physical agencies been so collocated or adjusted8 ,what relation does this adjustment bear to purpose1 intention1 or end8 ,law is now the reason or end for which an orderly arrangement exists4 ,here the phrase is taken ideally or rationally as a revelation of the intuitive reason1 in the light of which the phenomena of nature find their only satisfactory interpretation4 ,by this route we are led back to the primary and universal conception of law as the idea of the ,reason enforced by ,power4 ,all government1 human or ,divine1 is the enforcement of ideas by authority1 and ,natural ,law is the actualization of the ,divine idea by the ,divine efficiency4 ,as ,bunsen remarks1 ,law is the supreme rule of the universe1 and this law is ,intellect1 is ,reason1 whether viewed in the formation of a planetary system or the organization of a worm4 ,laws and ideas are thus correlated4 ,viewed in respect to the reason as conceiving1 originating1 and projecting1 we speak of the idea4 ,viewed in respect to the sphere of determinate movement and action in which ideas are realized and actualized1 we speak of law4 ,hence ,plato often calls ideas laws2 and ,lord ,bacon1 the ,british ,plato1 describes the laws of the material world as ideas3 ,quod in natur naturat lex1 in natur naturante idea dicitur4 ,it is obvious1 then1 that laws are not attributes of matter1 but of intelligence4 ,it is equally obvious that laws are not efficient causes1 and can not execute themselves4 ,they are the ideas and purposes of reason1 and the rules or methods according to which the ideas are actualized4 ,law1 therefore1 presupposes a ,lawgiver and an ,executive4 ,law without a lawgiver is the merest abstraction1 and law without an agent to realize and execute it is1 in fact1 not a law1 but an idea4 ,to maintain that the universe is governed by laws1 without ascending to the superior reason and source of these laws--to talk of laws1 and yet not to recognize that every law implies a legislator1 and an executor to put it in force--is to hypostatize laws1 to make beings of them1 and to substitute mythical and fabulous divinities in the place of the one living and true ,god1 the source of all power and all law4 ,few men of recent times can claim a larger acquaintance with the history and the philosophy of the ,inductive ,sciences than the late ,professor ,whewell1 and he may be fairly regarded as expressing the doctrine of the best scientists4 ,a law supposes an agent and a power3 for it is a mode according to which the power acts4 ,without the presence of such an agent1 of such a power1 conscious of the relations on which the law depends1 producing the effects which the law prescribes1 the law can have no efficiency1 no existence4 ,hence we infer that the intelligence by which the law is ordained1 the power by which it is put in action1 must be present in all places where the effects of the law occur2 that thus the knowledge and agency of the ,divine ,being pervade every portion of the universe1 producing all action and passion1 all permanence and change4 ,the laws of nature are the laws which ,he in his wisdom prescribes to his own acts2 his universal presence is the necessary condition of any course of events1 his universal agency the only origin of any efficient force4#bed ,we grant that the term law may1 by metonymy1 be employed to designate the uniformity of relations among phenomena1 but then it must not be forgotten that here the effect is put for the cause1 the consequence of law for the law itself4 ,it may be that this is the only conception of law which is legitimate within the sphere of strictly physical science1 and to limit the scientists solely to the knowledge of phenomena and their relations would simply be to take them at their word4 ,the inquiry concerning ,causes and ,first ,principles must then1 by common consent1 be surrendered to pure metaphysics and theology4 ,but if1 after this truce1 the scientist still persists in speaking of laws as efficient causes1 and claiming for them an eternal and necessary uniformity1 thus virtually denying the liberty and personality of ,god1 and the possibility of ,creation and ,providence1 the ,christian ,theist must be permitted in the name of polemic fairness and logical consistency to protest4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,conservation4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,the ,,world4 7,continued47 ,of the various hypotheses which seek to dispense with the immediate agency of ,god1 and to explain the conservation of the world by secondary or natural agencies1 the second is that of active ,force communicated to matter at its creation4 ,this force being transformable1 and at the same time indestructible1 is regarded as adequate to the conservation of the universe4 ,this hypothesis must not be confounded with the ,dynamical theory of matter propounded by ,leibnitz1 and more fully elaborated by ,boscovich1 which regards matter as a mere phenomenon or function of force2 on the contrary1 it conceives of matter as a distinct entity moving under the action of a primary impulse communicated by the ,creator's fiat at the beginning4 ,this hypothesis in its fundamental conception and its further elaboration is purely mechanical4 ,it represents the universe as a machine first set in motion by the ,deity1 and conserved by the actions and reactions of its several parts4 ,all subsequent motions1 changes1 and configurations are the prolonged results of the original impulse1 without any further direct action or control on the part of the ,creator4 ,a more precise and accurate statement would require that the term ,energy should be substituted for ,force4 ,in the language of modern physics1 ,force is that which originates or tends to originate motion or change1 and is wholly expended in the action it produces4#bee ,all energy has its origin in force1 but force can not pass into energy except under conditions in which it is at liberty to act4 ,for instance1 the force of gravity produces the energy of motion of a falling body1 but gravity can not produce motion unless there is space through which the body can fall4 ,energy1 therefore1 is defined as the power of doing work4#bef ,the work done is the resistance overcome1 and in overcoming resistance the energy is transformed1 but not annihilated4 ,in every case in which energy is lost by resistance1 heat is generated2 and we learn from ,joule's investigations that the quantity of heat generated is a perfectly definite equivalent for the energy lost4 ,it is therefore claimed that the total quantity of energy in the universe is constant1 and that the material system is dynamically conservative4 ,the universe is a self-acting and self-sustained machine1 and perpetual motion is a necessary consequence4 ,a little reflection1 however1 ought to convince any one that this conception of the universe--as a machine which is kept in perpetual motion by the reciprocal action of its parts--is a false analogy4 ,and its fallacy is apparent from this1 that the moving force of every machine is not inherent in the machine1 but some natural primary force distinct from the machine1 such as gravity1 or the primary atomic forces of attraction and repulsion2 and consequently the very idea of mechanism assumes the existence of those primary forces of which it is the professed object of a mechanical theory of the universe to give an explanation4 ,a machine can no more create energy than it can create matter2 its sole function is to transform energy into a kind most convenient for us4#beg ,we may with the greatest ease convert mechanical work into heat1 but we can not by any means convert all the energy of heat back again into mechanical work4 ,in the steam-engine we do what can be done in this way1 but it is a very small portion of the whole energy of the heat that is convertible into work1 for a large portion is dissipated1 and will continue to be dissipated however perfect our engine may become4 ,let the greatest care be taken in the construction and working of a steam-engine1 yet we shall not succeed in converting one fourth of the whole energy of the heat of the coals into mechanical work4#beh ,it is impossible to construct a machine that can do work without parting with energy2 and when the energy is all parted with1 any machine whatever must necessarily cease to do any more work unless a fresh supply of energy be brought in from without4 ,it is impossible to make a water-mill work without a constantly renewed supply of water1 or to make a steam-engine work without a constantly renewed supply of fuel4 ,every one who understands mechanics knows that any such inexhaustible supply of energy is impossible by means of merely mechanical arrangements2 but it is equally true1 though not perhaps equally so evident1 that it is impossible by means of any arrangement of thermal1 electric1 or chemical forces4#bei ,but we are told that modern science has proved that the law of the ,conservation of ,energy is an absolute law of the universe1 and that though man can not construct a machine which will realize the dream of perpetual motion1 the material universe is in reality such a machine4 ,it becomes us to speak with some degree of diffidence in regard to a question which lies outside of our special department of study4 ,nevertheless we must confess that we have a growing suspicion of all so-called absolute laws in the domain of physical nature4 ,and we are confirmed in this mistrust by the fact that physicists themselves are not agreed in regarding this law of conservation of energy as universally true4 ,that the amount of energy in the world is unchangeable1 the sum of the actual or kinetic and potential energies being a constant quantity1 has been by some writers overstrained4 ,it may be taken as a postulate1 and is probably true1 but it is a proposition equally incapable of proof and of disproof4#bfj ,this principle1 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 so far as it rests upon any scientific basis as a legitimate conclusion from dynamical laws1 is no other than the well-known dynamical theorem of the conservation of vis viva 7or of 'energy1' as some prefer to call it71 supplemented to save the truth of its verbal enunciation by the introduction of what is called 'potential energy1' a phrase which ,i can not help regarding as unfortunate1 inasmuch as it goes to substitute a truism for the announcement of a dynamical fact4 ,no such conservation1 in the sense of an identity of total amount of vis viva at all times and in all circumstances1 in fact1 exists4 ,so far as a system is maintained by the mutual actions and reactions of its constituent elements at a distance 7i4 e41 by force71 vis viva may temporarily disappear1 and be subsequently reproduced between certain limits4 ,collision1 indeed1 between its ultimate particles or atoms1 regarded as absolutely rigid1 and therefore inelastic 7for that which can not change its figure can have no resilience71 can not take place without producing a permanent destruction of it1 which there exists no means of repairing4444 ,if1 indeed1 we could be assured priori that the system of the universe is one of simple or compound periodicity1 in which a certain lapse of time will restore every molecule to identically the same relative situation with respect to all the rest1 we should then be sure that in the nature of things there would take place1 so to speak1 a winding up from a lower to a higher state of potential energy1 to be subsequently exchanged for newly created vis viva4 ,but1 as we can have no such priori assurance1 can only assume such restoration to be possible1 and can see no means of effecting it1 if possible1 otherwise than by foresight and prearrangement2 the one equally with the other is an unknown function1 variable within unknown limits1 and susceptible of fluctuation to an unknown extent2 nor can we have any1 the smallest1 right to assert that what is expended in one form is necessarily laid up for further use in the other4 ,it would be very difficult1 ,i apprehend1 to show whether1 in the winding up of a clock or the building of a pyramid1 taking into consideration all the various modes in which vis viva disappears and reappears in the expenditure of muscular power1 the evolution of animal heat1 the consumption of the materials of our tissues1 the propagation of vibratory motions1 and a thousand other modes of transfer1 the total vis viva of this our planet is increased or diminished4 ,that it should remain absolutely unchanged during the process is in the last degree inconceivable4 ,the amount of vis viva latent in the form of heat or molecular motion in the sun and planets in our immediate system may bear1 and probably does bear1 a by no means inappreciable ratio to that more distinctly patent in the form of bodily motion in the periodic circulation of the planets round the sun1 and the sun and planets round their axes4 ,the latter amount fluctuates to and fro according to laws easily calculable1 but the former we have no means whatever of computing1 and to what extent1 or within what limits1 it may be variable1 we are altogether ignorant4#bfa ,the two dynamical laws of ,conservation of ,energy and ,transformation of ,energy can not therefore be regarded as universal and absolute laws2 they are particular and derivative laws subject to limitations which are supplied by the third dynamical law--the ,dissipation of ,energy4 ,the law of the conservation of energy simply asserts that the whole amount of energy in the universe1 or in any limited system which does not receive energy from without1 or part with it to external matter1 is invariable2 in other words1 that every material system subject to no other forces than actions and reactions between its parts is a dynamically conservative system4 ,but ,sir ,william ,thomson has shown that in nature this hypothetical condition is apparently violated in all circumstances of motion4 ,a material system can never be brought through any returning cycle of motion without spending more work against the mutual forces of its parts than is gained from these forces1 because no relative motion can take place without meeting with frictional or other forms of resistance4#bfb ,there can be but one ultimate result for such a system as that of the sun and planets1 if continuing long enough under existing laws1 and not disturbed by meeting with other moving masses in space4 ,that result is the falling together of all into one mass1 which1 although rotating for a time1 must in the end come to rest relatively to the surrounding medium4#bfc ,the law of the transformation of energy is the enunciation of the empirical fact that in general any one form of energy may by suitable processes be transformed1 wholly or in part1 to an equivalent amount in any other given form4 ,this law1 however1 is subject to limitations which are supplied by the dissipation of energy4 ,no known natural process is exactly reversible1 and whenever an attempt is made to transform and retransform energy by an imperfect process1 part of the energy is necessarily transformed into heat and dissipated1 so as to be incapable of further useful transformation4 ,it therefore follows that1 as energy is constantly in a state of transformation1 there is a constant degradation of energy to the final unavailable form of uniformly diffused heat1 and that will go on until the whole energy of the universe has taken this final form4#bfd ,no mechanical work can be done by heat in a state of equilibrium2 as a dynamical agent it is dead4 ,thus the inexorable laws of mechanics indicate that the store of force in our planetary system1 which can only suffer loss and not gain1 must be finally exhausted4#bfe ,so far1 then1 as the conservation of energy has any scientific meaning1 it is inadequate to account for the origin or explain the continuance of the existing order of nature4 ,it is true we may conceive that every atom of matter was endowed at the ,creation with a certain store of potential energy--the potential energy of gravitation#bff--which it has ever since given out2 but as every motion which has resulted from its action has been attended with the expenditure of a certain amount of the original endowment1 it must have been continually undergoing a diminution4 ,there is1 says ,professor ,norton1 no escaping this conclusion but by taking the ground that the primary atomic forces 7as gravitation1 and the atomic repulsion and attraction by which atoms are aggregated into bodies of sensible magnitude7 are correlated with the living forces 7or various forms of energy7 which are involved in the motions that have resulted from the previous operation of the primary atomic forces4 ,but1 he says1 no evidence has been obtained of any such correlation4 ,the primary force of attraction 7if it be regarded as a primary force7 may be the cause of motion in bodies which are separated in space1 and part of that energy of motion may be transformed into the energy of heat or light or electricity1 but the primary force of attraction is not transformed4 ,energy is convertible into other forms of energy1 but heat1 light1 and electricity are not transformable into primary force4 ,the correlation of force and energy is therefore a scientific heresy4#bfg ,modern physicists are agreed that visible motion1 heat1 electricity1 magnetism1 and radiance 7radiant light and heat7 are forms of actual energy which are correlated and capable of mutual conversion4 ,any one form may1 by suitable processes1 be transformed1 wholly or in part1 to an equivalent amount of any other form of energy4 ,so much is generally accepted by scientific men4 ,but in regard to the primary force or forces in which these forms of energy have their origin1 there is not the same agreement among physicists4 ,some regard gravitation1 cohesion1 and chemical affinity as the three primary forces of nature2 while others suggest that the last two are related with and probably derived from the first4 ,there is also a respectable school of physicists who teach that atomic attractions and repulsions are the universal cosmic forces which originate all molecular and mechanical motions4 ,then1 again1 each of these forms of force have their special advocates4 ,on the one side it is affirmed1 as an important generalization1 that all primary force is attractive2 there is no such thing in nature as a primary repulsive force4#bfh ,universal attraction is the one world-forming and world-conserving energy4 ,on the other side it is contended that gravitation is not a primary1 but a secondary and derivative force1 and that the grand primal force is a universal force of repulsion4#bfi ,it is beyond our province to discuss the merits of these conflicting theories4 ,our position is that no purely physical hypothesis is adequate to account for the conservation of the universe1 and therefore it is of little consequence to our argument which of the above theories may find most favor with scientific men4 ,the tendency of modern scientific thought is toward the conception of one primordial form of matter1 and but one primary form of force1 as the simplest basis upon which a physical theory of inanimate nature can be erected4 ,the ultimate nature of this one primary force is a question for pure metaphysics4 ,from the stand-point of physical science it can only be thought as a pull or a push in a straight line4#bgj ,universal attraction or universal repulsion must be the ultimate dynamical conception for the pure physicist4 #a4 ,let us consider the first hypothesis4 ,it is claimed that gravitation1 or universal attraction1 is the great conserving and sustaining principle of the universe4 ,a stone falls to the earth1 a round body rolls along a plane inclined toward the horizon2 a liquid mass1 as a brook or a large river1 flows on the sloping surface which forms its bed4 ,all these phenomena are the varied manifestation of a universal tendency in all bodies to fall one toward the other4 ,in virtue of this tendency the great orbs which hang suspended in space gravitate toward one another2 the moon and the earth fall toward each other1 and they both gravitate toward the sun4 ,all the planets of our solar system continually act one on the other1 and on the immense sphere which shines at their common focus4 ,by its enormous mass1 the sun keeps all of them in their orbits4 ,if we ask why one body falls toward another which is more than ninety millions of miles off1 in preference to moving in any other direction1 the answer given is that1 ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose direction is that of the line joining the two1 and whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses1 and inversely as the square of their distance from each other4 ,this force of attraction is the universal bond which holds the universe together1 and sustains its physical life4 ,to the superficial thinker1 the language of the ,newtonian philosophy appears to sanction the materialistic notion that gravitation and attraction are active powers essential to and inherent in matter4 ,such1 however1 was by no means the doctrine of ,newton1 and he was careful to guard his readers against any such misapprehension of his meaning4 ,the words attraction1 repulsion1 or tendencies of whatever kind toward a centre1 ,i use indifferently and without distinction for each other1 considering these forces not physically but metaphysically4 ,wherefore let not the reader suppose that by words of this kind ,i any where mean a species or mode of action1 or cause1 or physical reason2 or that ,i really and in a physical sense assign forces to centres 7which are only mathematical points71 even though ,i may say that centres attract1 or that forces belong to centres4#bga ,the history of scientific opinion on the point before us furnishes a striking illustration of the manner in which language reacts on the ideas which it is intended to express1 and thus men fall into the habit of talking nonsense without knowing it4 ,the conception of atoms having the property of exerting various forces across a void space seemed to follow as a matter of course from the discovery of the law of gravitation1 and from the language in which it is expressed4 ,after ,newton a school arose which taught that atoms have the property of exerting force at a distance1 and that this property must be inherent in the atoms1 just as ,lucretius taught that hardness and elasticity were original indefeasible properties of the primordial elements1 the semina rerum1 or seeds of things4 ,but ,newton did not teach this2 he stated a fact1 but did not devise an hypothesis2 he attempted no explanation of the law of gravitation4 ,the law of gravitation considered as a result is beautifully simple2 in a few words it expresses a fact from which most numerous and complex results may be deduced by mere reasoning--results found invariably to agree with the records of observation2 but this same law of gravitation looked upon as an axiom or first principle is so astonishingly far removed from all ordinary experience as to be almost incredible4 ,what6 every particle in the whole universe is actively attracting every other particle that is1 every particle in the universe with the same force1 without any expenditure of force1 through void1 without the aid of any communication by means of matter1 or otherwise--each particle1 unchecked by distance1 unimpeded by obstacles1 throws this miraculous influence to infinite distance without the employment of any means6#bgb ,no particle interferes with its neighbor1 but all these wonderful influences are co-existent in every point in space6 ,the result is apparent at each particle1 but the condition of intermediate space is exactly the same as though no such influence were being transmitted across it6 ,earth attracts ,sirius across space1 and yet the space between is as if neither ,earth nor ,sirius existed6 ,can these things be8 ,we think not2 and ,newton himself did not affirm this4#bgc ,on the contrary1 he earnestly rejects any such hypothesis4 ,it is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should1 without the mediation of something else which is not material1 operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact1 as it must do if gravitation1 in the sense of ,epicurus1 be essential to and inherent in matter4444 ,that gravitation should be innate1 inherent1 and essential to matter1 so that one body may act upon another at a distance1 through a vacuum1 without the mediation of any thing else1 by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another1 is to me so great an absurdity that ,i believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it4 ,gravity must be caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws4#bgd ,the ancient axiom that ,matter can not act where it is not any more than when it is not1 was universally believed till ,newton's time1 and ,newton himself regarded it as a self-evident truth4 ,some of his disciples asserted that gravitation must be considered as an essential property of matter1 and they were under the necessity of assuming that atoms can exert a force upon one another across a void4 ,this to ,leibnitz was either miraculous or absurd2 and in modern times the doctrine is rejected by the first physicists--by ,faraday1 ,helmholtz1 ,thomson1 ,tait1 and ,maxwell4#bge ,sir ,william ,thomson1 the ,newton of modern physics1 says emphatically1 ,i have no faith whatever in attractions and repulsions acting at a distance between centres of force according to various laws4#bgf ,and ,clerk ,maxwell1 in his lecture on ,action at a ,distance1#bgg explains how ,faraday1 by his discovery of magnetic rotation of polarized light1 and by his showing how lines of force arise in media1 rudely shook the theory of attraction and repulsion at a distance across a void4 ,if1 now1 direct action at a distance is rejected by scientific men as inconceivable and absurd1 how can it be that the sun pulls the earth toward it1 and holds the planets in their orbits8 ,the verbal statement of the law of gravitation is no answer to this question4 ,it expresses a fact1 but it does not assign a cause4 ,gravitation is a phenomenon which demands an explanation1 and some of the first scientists of the day are engaged in devising a theory which shall afford a rational answer to the question1 ,what is the cause of gravity8#bgh ,the first and most fundamental presupposition for any physical hypothesis which seeks to explain the action of gravitation is that some medium of communication exists4 ,this is suggested by every physical analogy4 ,sound is communicated through a medium4 ,the influence which is exerted at a distance by heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism is effected through media4 ,the most plausible suggestion yet made is that a single omnipresent fluid1 ether1 fills the universe1 which by various forms or modes of motion transmits light1 radiant heat1 magnetism1 and electricity4#bgi ,may not gravitation1 it is asked1 be transmitted by the same fluid8 may it not consist of or result from actual recurring impulses propagated in ethereal waves8 ,the hypothesis that gravitation is transmitted through the same medium as light1 or indeed through any medium1 is encumbered with serious if not insuperable difficulties4 ,all transmission of whatever kind--of a letter by the post1 a gunshot1 a sound1 a wave of light1 an electro-magnetic disturbance--occupies time4 ,it has a velocity--sometimes a very great one1 as in the case of light2 still it is a measurable velocity4 ,but1 according to ,herschel1 the pull which the sun exerts on the earth is delivered instantaneously4 ,were it not so there would be a continually progressive increase of the major axis of the earth's orbit1 and therefore of the length of the year4#bhj ,surely it must be obvious to every one that the instantaneous transmission of the sun's attractive force to the planet ,neptune1 three thousand millions of miles distant1 through a physical medium like the ether1 would be as great a miracle as action at a distance through a perfect void4 ,but the advocates of this hypothesis have not thereby escaped the difficulties of action at a distance4 ,the majority of physicists regard the luminiferous ether as consisting of discrete particles--elementary molecules of inconceivable minuteness and tenuity4 ,these ultimate particles or atoms of highly attenuated matter must have some magnitude1 some extension1 however inconceivably minute4 ,if extended1 they must have some form1 and must occupy separate positions in space4 ,if they are capable of motions--undulatory1 rotatory1 or spiral motions--they can not be in mutual contact4 ,conceive1 then1 two such atoms1 and draw around each an imaginary circle4 ,let these circles touch at the middle point between the two1 and ask yourself the question1 ,what exists there8 ,on the hypothesis under consideration you are bound to answer pure1 empty space--that is1 pure nothing4 ,but if there is no matter between the atoms1 then all their actions1 one upon the other1 must be exerted across a void--that is1 through a medium of nothingness2 in other words1 through no medium at all4 ,now the size of the interval makes no difference in the argument4 ,whether that interval be the #ib billionth of an inch1 or the #ib millions of miles or thereabouts between the earth and the sun1 it is still action at a distance1 and no escape4#bha ,the physicist who regards the ether as consisting of discrete particles not in bodily or actual contact1 and at the same time finds himself logically compelled to reject this mystical action at a distance1 has no alternative but to accept the doctrine of ,newton that the action of one particle of matter upon another is mediated by an agent which is not material4 ,if it be true that the conception of force as the originator of motion in matter without bodily contact 444 is essential to the right interpretation of phenomena2 and if it be equally true1 on the other hand1 that its exertion makes itself manifest to our personal consciousness by that peculiar sensation of effort which is not without its analogue in purely intellectual acts of the mind1 it i4 e41 force comes not unnaturally to be regarded as affording a point of contact1 a connecting link between these two great departments of being--between mind and matter--the one as the originator1 the other as the recipient of force4#bhb ,there are distinguished physicists--as ,helmholtz1 ,thomson1 ,challis1 and ,maxwell--who seek to escape the difficulties of action at a distance by the assumption that the ether is absolutely continuous 7and therefore does not consist of atoms7--a perfectly homogeneous1 incompressible1 frictionless fluid which fills the universe4 ,this fundamental presupposition as the basis of a physical theory of the universe necessitates the further assumption that motion is the very essence of what has been hitherto called matter4#bhc ,all quantitative and qualitative phenomena1 all statical and dynamical phenomena1 are due solely to varied modes of motion in the primordial fluid4 ,by various motions of the nature of eddies ring-vortices1 the qualities of matter--cohesion1 elasticity1 hardness1 weight1 mass1 or other universal properties of matter--are given to small portions of the fluid which constitute the chemical atom1 and these1 by modifications in their combinations1 form1 and motion1 produce the accidental phenomena of gross matter4444 ,on this view1 gross matter would be merely an assemblage of parts of the medium moving in a peculiar way1 groups of ring-vortices having inertia4444 ,the primary fluid by other motions transmits light1 radiant heat1 magnetism1 and gravitation4#bhd ,it may be regarded as an act of presumption in an obscure critic to offer an opinion of the theories of these great masters in science4 ,we venture1 however1 to suggest that most men will find a difficulty in conceiving how space absolutely full of matter can be made to contain more1 or how a truly continuous substance can be capable of condensation4 ,the most tenuous ether1 if it be absolutely continuous1 occupies the whole of the space in which it lies--that is1 there is no point of the space which is not occupied by a point of matter4#bhe ,but the hardest iron can do no more than this1 and1 therefore1 on this hypothesis it seems impossible to account for its greater density4 ,it is suggested that if molecules are mere assemblages of parts of the ether moving in a peculiar way1 then greater density may be due to a modification in the motion of molecules1 and not merely to the greater frequency of the eddying molecules in a given space4 ,but how can a truly continuous substance have parts1 and how can relative motion occur in an absolute plenum8 ,the very notion of particles is quite inconsistent with the continuity of matter2 and in a universe absolutely full no motion whatever would be possible4 ,we are told that ,sir ,william ,thomson and ,professor ,tait find no difficulty in all these1 to our minds1 contradictory conceptions1 and therefore we must conclude that our intellect is not properly focussed so as to give definition without prenumbral haze4 ,granting1 then1 the absolute continuity of all matter1 and the possibility of motion in an absolute plenum1 the question which concerns us most in this essay is1 ,how is motion generated and sustained8 ,one of the greatest lights of this new school tells us that all we can affirm of matter is that it is the recipient of impulse and of energy4#bhf ,they no longer regard the atom as a mystic point endowed with inertia and the attribute of attracting and repelling other such centres with forces depending on the intervening distances4#bhg ,they have no faith whatever in attractions and repulsions acting at a distance between centres of force4#bhh ,force1 then1 is not regarded by these leading physicists as an inherent attribute of matter4 ,the primary fluid1 originally inert and motionless1 must have been set in motion by some force1 by some agency external to and distinct from itself4 ,an original impetus from without1 according to ,maxwell1#bhi or a pressure of the universal ether from somewhere outside the world of stars1 according to ,challis1#bij must be the source of all motion and all forms of energy in the universe4 ,it is a fundamental principle of dynamics that force is wholly expended in the action it produces1#bia therefore1 if all the forms of energy in the universe are the result of pressure1 that pressure must be continuous2 if they are the result of impulses1 these impulses must be incessantly renewed1 and must recur with immeasurable rapidity4 ,on either supposition1 the universe is not even temporarily automatic1 but must be fed from moment to moment by an agency external to itself1 and the preservation of the universe is effected only by the unceasing expenditure of enormous quantities of work2#bib that is1 it is ceaselessly sustained by ,divine ,omnipotence--,he upholdeth all things by the word of his power4 ,so much with respect to the first form of this hypothesis which regards atomic attraction as the sole world-forming and world-conserving force4 ,we turn now to that form of the hypothesis which considers atomic repulsion as the grand primal force in which all the other physical forces1 even gravitation itself1 have their origin4 ,this view is presented by ,professor ,w4 ,a4 ,norton1 in his articles ,on ,cosmical and ,molecular ,physics in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts4 ,his theory rests essentially upon the following principles3 #a4 ,the doctrine of inertia applied to all matter4 #b4 ,the existence of a single primary force of repulsion exerted by every atom upon every other atom4 #c4 ,the existence of but one primary form of elementary matter1 viz41 the universal or luminiferous ether2 the atoms1 so called1 of ordinary matter1 and of the electric ether being but different masses of condensed luminiferous ether4 #d4 ,the doctrine of the interception of force by matter4 ,this is a necessary consequence of the fact that a certain portion of the propagated force is instantly expended in imparting motion to the molecules or atoms which it encounters1 and is therefore abstracted from this force4 #e4 ,the primary force of repulsion is made up of impulses recurring with an immeasurable rapidity4 ,this is no new hypothesis4 ,in all treatises on ,mechanics1 gravity and all incessant forces are conceived to consist of an indefinitely great number of impulses taking effect in a finite interval of time4#bic ,the ever-recurring pulses of the primary cosmical force1 emanating from all the atoms of the one primary form of matter1 are directly consumed in communicating opposite movements1 or virtual movements1 to every atom in the universe4 ,it is1 as ,i conceive1 because in the existing condition of things the distribution of matter is unequal in different directions round a point1 and therefore the partial interception of the impulses of the cosmical force along the different lines of direction is unequal1 that an effective gravitating force exists4#bid ,the entire amount of the cosmical force consumed in any interval of time is the amount intercepted by all the atoms of matter1 and is independent of the motions that result from the inequalities just noticed4 ,gravitation1 and molecular and chemical attractions1 which originate in the gravitation of electric ether toward atoms of ordinary matter1 are then derivative forces incidental to the direct actions exerted by the cosmical force upon the atoms4#bie ,in a communication from ,professor ,norton to the author1 he furnishes the following further exposition of his theory3 ,if1 as ,i conceive1 the primary atomic force is of the nature of a perpetual emanation from each atom1 and is expended in the act of producing motion1 we must thence infer that the atom is an entity through which a stream of force is perpetually flowing from the ,infinite ,source of all power and all existence4 ,that the primary force is a force of repulsion1 and that the immediate source of all the forces that are known to take effect upon ordinary matter is the action of recurring repulsive impulses upon the atoms of the universal ether1 and their subsequent propagation and partial interception by the atoms which they encounter1 ,i infer from the fact that this conception furnishes a rational explanation of all the known forces and phenomena of inanimate nature4 ,it will thus be seen that the theory of ,professor ,norton gives no countenance to the materialistic tendencies of the physical science of the age4 ,he is decidedly of the opinion that force is not an inherent and essential attribute of matter1 and he devoutly acknowledges that in following the chain of cause and effect into the precincts of that most deeply hidden of all mysteries1 the origin of force1 we have come into the presence of the ,infinite ,spirit who puts forth unceasingly1 from every point in the realms of space1 his creative and sustaining power upon the subtile matter that fills all space1 and is the essential substance of all worlds4#bif #c4 ,the third hypothesis is that of a plastic nature1 intermediate between ,god and the material universe1 by which all the phenomena of visible nature are produced4 ,this hypothesis was first presented 7at least in modern times7 by ,ralph ,cudworth1 in his ,true ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe4#big ,in opposition to ,democritus1 who explained all phenomena by means of matter and motion2 and also in opposition to ,strato1 who taught that matter is the only substance1 but at the same time a living and active force1 ,cudworth maintains that there is a plastic nature--a vital and spiritual1 but unconscious energy1 distinct from and created by the ,deity1 which doth drudgingly execute that part of his providence which consisteth in the regular and orderly motion of matter1#bih and in the organization and development of plants and animals1 according to laws prescribed for it by a perfect intellect1 and impressed upon it4#bii ,this plastic nature is an inferior kind of life or soul1 destitute of all consciousness1#cjj which1 though it acts for the sake of ends1 does not know the reason of what it does1 and therefore operates fatally and sympathetically4#cja ,the arguments urged by ,cudworth in support of this hypothesis are mainly of a negative character4 ,on the one hand he endeavors to show that force and vitality are not essential attributes of matter1 and on the other hand that the motion and life of the universe can not be properly regarded as the direct action of the ,deity upon matter4 ,it is with this latter part of the argument that we are here immediately concerned4 ,he urges 7#a7 that if every thing in nature were done immediately by ,god1 it would render ,divine ,providence oporose1 solicitous1 and distractious2 and1 furthermore1 it would be unbecoming the ,divine ,majesty1 and indecorous1 for ,god immediately to do all the meanest and triflingest things ,himself drudgingly4 ,he maintains 7#b7 that if ,god do all things immediately1 then he does them miraculously--that is1 forcibly and violently4 ,and 7#c7 that the immediate agency of ,god is inconsistent with that slow and gradual development of things we see in nature1 which would seem to be a trifling formality if the agent were omnipotent1 and especially inconsistent with those errors and bunglings which are committed when the matter is inept and contumacious4 ,wherefore it may be concluded that there is a plastic nature under ,god which1 as an inferior agent1 doth drudgingly execute that part of his providence which consists in the regular and orderly motion of matter1 yet so that there is also a higher providence1 which1 presiding over it1 doth often supply the defects of it1 and sometimes overrule it2 forasmuch as the plastic nature can not act electively nor with discretion4 ,so that1 after all1 as ,plato says1 ,god is the beginning and end and middle of all things1 and therefore their being is as much to be ascribed to his causality as if ,himself had done all things immediately without the concurrent instrumentality of any subordinate natural cause4#cjb ,there is nothing original in this hypothesis of a plastic nature except perhaps the name4 ,it is the old anima mundi of the ,platonic physics1 a vital soul of the world1 distinct from but created by the ,supreme ,god4 ,it has reappeared under various names in the history of natural science1 especially in that department which is now comprehended under the general name of ,biology4 ,the motus tonico-vitalis of ,stahl1 the animating principle of ,harvey1 the materia vit of ,john ,hunter1 the organic force of ,mller1 and the organic agent of ,dr4 ,prout1 are all but separate names for an imaginary principle1 or entity1 possessing powers and properties which 7however men may try to impress themselves with a contrary notion7 would entitle it to rank as an intelligent agent4 ,it is true that1 according to most of the advocates of this doctrine1 this power is supposed to be superintended and controlled by the ,deity himself1 and by this supposition they have screened themselves against the accusation of attributing to a creature the powers of the ,creator4#cjc ,cudworth's hypothesis of a plastic nature has been recently reproduced1 without the slightest recognition of its paternity1 by ,joseph ,john ,murphy1 under the name of unconscious intelligence--a power transcending the ordinary properties of matter and adapting means to purposes1 presiding over all vital actions1 whether formative1 motor1 or mental1 directing each action to its specific end4#cjd ,mr4 ,murphy is very solicitous that we should not understand him to teach that the formative intelligence which in nature adapts structure to function is ,divine4 ,i believe1 he says1 that the ,creator has not separately organized every structure1 but has endowed vitalized matter with intelligence1 under the guidance of which it organizes itself4#cje ,this unconscious intelligence1 which builds the tissues and fashions the organs of plants and animals1 becomes conscious of itself in the deliberate thought of man4#cjf ,it is worthy of note that this hypothesis commends itself to the mind of ,murphy by considerations akin to those which are urged by ,cudworth2 and especially because it is supposed to relieve certain moral difficulties connected with the belief of a ,divine purpose in creation--as1 for example1 the existence of parasitic worms which inflict pain and disease on beings endowed with sensation and consciousness1 and the presence of immoral instincts in higher forms of animal life4#cjg ,we readily grant that the relation of ,god to the existing order and economy of the world is mysterious2 and we believe that no conceivable hypothesis can deprive it of this mysteriousness4 ,there are numerous difficulties which arise from the imperfection of our knowledge and the limited range of our powers4 ,we see through an obscure medium1 and we know only in part4 ,there are also difficulties peculiar to individual minds--intellectual1 ethical1 emotional difficulties--which are the products of a peculiar culture1 or the offspring of certain theoretical prepossessions4 ,some of these difficulties may be relieved by the hypothesis of unconscious intelligence1 but on a further examination it will be found that this hypothesis is embarrassed with still greater difficulties and open to more serious objections both intellectual and moral4 ,first1 there is the difficulty of forming any conception of unconscious intelligence4 ,this has been felt by the ablest minds4 ,the hypothesis1 says ,wallace1 has the double disadvantage of being both unintelligible and incapable of any kind of proof4#cjh ,mivart observes that the phrase will to many minds appear to be little less than a contradiction in terms2 the very first condition of an intelligence being that1 if it know any thing1 it should at least know its own existence4#cji ,mr4 ,murphy tells us that this unconscious intelligence adapts means to ends1 it presides over all vital actions1 directing each action to its specific end4#caj ,but an intelligence adapting means to ends without any knowledge 7consciousness7 of either the ends to be secured or the means to be employed to secure the end surpasses all comprehension and all belief4 ,we can readily believe1 with ,hamilton1 that the human mind exerts energies and is the subject of modifications of which it is not immediately conscious1 the combined results of which are manifested in the complex fact of consciousness4 ,but to call that intelligence which never had a perception1 a thought1 an emotion2 which has no knowledge of self or of any thing else2 in short1 which is not and never was conscious1 is to reduce philosophic terminology to chaos1 and tantalize thought by meaningless words4 ,an intelligent agent is one who understands1 who distinguishes between subject and object1 who knows things in their relations1 who can unite the terms of a relation in thought1 and judge of their congruity or incongruity1 all of which are conscious operations4 ,intelligence is consciousness 7conscientia relational knowledge72 unconscious intelligence is unconscious consciousness1 unintelligent intelligence1 which is a contradiction and an absurdity4 ,secondly1 in endeavoring to find the mental stand-point of ,mr4 ,murphy1 in order that we may fairly estimate his hypothesis1 we encounter the still more serious difficulty of conceiving how unconscious intelligence can exist apart from some subject or substratum in which it inheres4 ,we are aware that the tendency of modern thought is to hypostatize force and intelligence1 and conceive them as entities4 ,we have conscientiously made the attempt again and again to realize this conception1 but we must confess we can only conceive of force and intelligence as properties or attributes of some subject4 ,it is beyond our ability1 and we imagine it is beyond the ability of ,mr4 ,murphy1 to conceive of force without something that exerts force1 of intelligence without a being who is intelligent4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,murphy concedes that where there are properties there must be a substance1#caa and by substance1 he says1 he understands underlying reality4#cab ,unconscious intelligence1 if there be such a thing1 must be an attribute or quality inherent in some underlying substance4 ,but ,mr4 ,murphy asserts there is no scientific basis for the old belief in a distinct mental substance#cac--that is1 if we understand him aright1 so far as finite mind is concerned4 ,on the other hand1 he distinctly affirms that this unconscious intelligence is not ,divine intelligence4 ,the power and intelligence which work in the world of matter and mind are not the ,divine power and intelligence4#cad ,unconscious intelligence1 then1 must be an endowment of vitalized matter2#cae and life has its origin in no secondary cause1 but in the direct action of creative power4#caf ,now the question arises1 ,what is matter8 ,on this point we must be careful not to misunderstand or misrepresent ,mr4 ,murphy4 ,matter1 whether viewed from a metaphysical or from an inductive point of view1 is known only as a function of force1 and can be described only in terms of force4 ,in other words1 the universe is nothing but a manifestation of force4 ,and now we ask1 ,of what force8 ,force1 says ,mr4 ,murphy1 is known to us by immediate consciousness as a function of our own mind and will2 that is to say1 the mind1 acting in will1 is conscious of itself as a force--and we are able to conceive of force in no other way2 the only conception of force which we are able to frame is that of voluntary force1 or the exertion of will4 ,either the force manifested in the universe is the force of a ,creative ,will1 or we are able to form no conception of it whatever4#cag ,can there be any possibility of misunderstanding this language8 ,matter itself is not an entity1 not a substance2 it is a phenomenon1 not a reality4 ,matter is a function of force4 ,force is a fact of mind1 and therefore spiritual4 ,consequently matter can only be conceived as spiritual4#cah ,and now let us recall the statement of ,mr4 ,murphy that there is no finite1 created1 underlying reality for the phenomena of mind and will--no distinct mental substance4 ,if we hold to this doctrine1 then we must say with ,mr4 ,murphy again that the powers of matter and mind alike are the result and expression of a ,living ,will--and if a ,living ,will1 then also an ,intelligent ,will4#cai ,the final and only conclusion is that ,god1 the ,self-existent ,being1 is the one only underlying reality or substance in the universe2 all the force in the universe is the force of the ,creative ,will1 and all the intelligence in the universe a modification of the ,divine ,thought4 ,this1 however1 is ,pantheism1 even according to that very defective definition of ,pantheism given by ,mr4 ,murphy3 ,pantheism is the identification of the ,divine power and intelligence with the powers and intelligences that work in the world of matter and mind4#cbj ,still1 ,mr4 ,murphy declares1 ,i am not a ,pantheist2 and we are bound to accept his disclaimer--the power and intelligence which work in nature are not identical with the ,divine power and intelligence4 ,be it so2 then there is power1 and there is intelligence in nature1 which are not attributes of any reality1 and which do not inhere in any substance2 and we come round to the original difficulty of conceiving of an attribute apart from a subject4 ,the reader can not have failed to see that ,mr4 ,murphy has been leading us round a vicious circle4 ,force is a function of matter1 and matter is a function of force4#cba ,matter is only explicable as a function of force1 force only explicable as a function of conscious mind1#cbb and mind is one of the functions of matter4#cbc ,it is perfectly certain1 says ,mr4 ,murphy1 that inductive psychology gives no hint of any mental substance as distinguished from the material substance of the brain4#cbd ,but the material substance of the brain after all is not material2 matter can only be conceived as spiritual#cbe--that is1 as force4 ,there is no underlying reality which men call matter1 and there is no underlying reality which men call spirit4 ,matter is spirit1 spirit is matter2 but in reality neither the one nor the other has any substantial reality4 ,if all finite existences are but modes of the ,infinite ,being1 we have a consistent ,pantheism at any rate4 ,but if all finite existences are simply phenomena without any underlying reality1 then perception is a dream1 and my existence the dream of that dream4 ,thirdly1 the hypothesis of an unconscious intelligence1 distinct from the ,supreme ,intelligence1 which does the drudgery of ,providence1 and to which the defects and disorders and immoralities of nature are ascribed1 is neither adequate nor satisfactory4 ,the conceit of ,cudworth that it is unbecoming the ,divine ,majesty to be immediately concerned in every thing that takes place in nature is scarcely worthy of consideration3 ,if it were not congruous in respect of the state and majesty of ,xerxes1 the king of ,persia1 that he should condescend to do all the meanest offices himself1 much less can this be thought decorous in respect of ,god4#cbf ,human conceptions of what is great or small1 dignified or indecorous1 are merely relative conceptions which vary with our knowledge1 culture1 and taste2 but-- ,there is no great and no small ,to the soul that maketh all4--,emerson4 ,for the ,creator of all things an atom is an ample field in which to display the resources of his omnipotence4 ,the more the microscope and spectroscope reveal of the infinitely little1 the more do we see of the greatness and glory of ,god4 ,so of men's conceptions of what is dignified or indecorous2 it may be that1 in a land and an age where labor is held in contempt1 it becomes the state of an ,eastern monarch that he should live in voluptuous ease1 but the followers of ,him who said1 ,my ,father worketh hitherto1 and ,i work1 have learned to believe in the dignity of labor1 and to regard all true work as divine4 ,an imperfect human ruler can not do every thing1 therefore he must employ agents and ministers2 the ,omnipotent ,ruler of the universe can do all things1 and needs no subordinate ministry4 ,a finite mind can not know every thing1 and often staggers beneath the burden of its limited acquisitions2 the ,infinite ,mind must know all things1 and can not be perplexed amid the boundless profusion of its own creations4 ,it is only a childish impotence or a barbaric vanity which sees the need of supplementary agencies to add to the splendor and efficiency of the ,divine government of the world4 ,are not two sparrows sold for a farthing8 and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your ,father4 ,the very hairs of your head are all numbered4 ,such views exalt rather than diminish our reverence for the majesty of ,god4 ,but there is neither congruity nor dignity in the hypothesis that ,god has associated with ,himself an agent which is unconscious1 whose action ,he must direct1#cbg and whose shortcomings and defects ,he must supply4#cbh ,dr4 ,mosheim1 the annotator of ,cudworth's ,intellectual ,system1 pertinently remarks3 ,that master has enough to do who must continually take care that the servants he employs1 unskillful and devoid of reason1 do not err2 who must preside over the actions of his agents1 and continually remedy the defects and mischiefs they occasion4444 ,that master is the happier man who possesses the power of conducting his own affairs1 who can do all things himself1 and needs no servants whatever4 ,but if subordinate agents are needed1 or if it please the ,supreme ,being to employ them1 the presumption is certainly in favor of rational conscious agents1 rather than blind unconscious forces which can neither conceive a purpose nor adapt means to secure it4 ,if we must have formative agents1 we prefer the junior divinities of ,plato or the higher intelligences of ,mr4 ,wallace4#cbi ,but even admitting there are defects1 deformities1 and superfluities in nature1 we are at a loss to conceive how the hypothesis of an unconscious intelligence1 working necessarily1 removes the blame 7if there be any blame7 from the ,author of nature4 ,does not every theist believe that the ,creator of matter saw and knew every purpose which every particle and atom of matter should subserve in all suns and systems1 and through all coming ons of time8 ,must not that ,intelligent ,will1 which is the fountain-head of all the force that sweeps like a tide of life through the universe1 have known every form of energy which could result therefrom1 and foreseen all the possible effects which would arise from the composition of any and all systems of forces8 ,did not ,he who created this supposed organizing force1 who ordained all its laws1 and who directs and controls all its actions1 know with mathematical precision every consequence which could possibly arise from its prearranged and necessitated adaptations8 ,if ,god is the creator of this unconscious1 necessitated plastic nature1 if ,he always observes what it does1 if ,he directs and overrules it1 if ,he supplies some of its defects and corrects most of its mistakes1 must not ,he be regarded as the real cause of all things which1 in popular language1 are said to be done by nature8 ,if we believe with ,mr4 ,murphy that ,nature is but the name for an effect ,whose cause is ,god1 we shall find no relief from the difficulties and mysteries of ,divine providence by interposing between the first creative volition and the last phenomenal result a series of secondary causes which are themselves only effects of the primal creative act4 ,it were better far to leave the mystery untouched1 and take refuge in faith2 better to confess the difficulties are insoluble1 and ,still trust that ,god is love indeed1 ,and love ,creation's final law2 ,though nature1 red in tooth and claw ,with ravin1 shrieks against our creed4 ,we are brought finally to the question whether1 in reality1 there is any thing defective or any thing superfluous in the normal products of organic nature8 or1 in other words1 whether the ,author of nature has made any thing inadequate to its purpose1 or which fulfills no purpose whatever8 ,we venture to suggest that inductive science is not in possession either of the facts or the principles which are necessary to a correct judgment4 ,to be competent to deal with this question1 science should not only know all the purposes which may be fulfilled by a single organism1 but also the ultimate purpose which is subserved by the wondrous play of all the means and relative ends which constitute the entire cosmos4 ,far be it from us to depreciate the achievements or dare to set limits to the possibilities of inductive science4 ,but1 assuredly1 the most enthusiastic scientist will admit that1 compared with the vastness and complexity of natural phenomena1 human knowledge is exceedingly limited and very imperfect4 ,as to the final purpose of creation--the ultimate end of the ,creator in the existence of the universe--modern science does not even claim to have an opinion4#ccj ,with no knowledge of the ultimate purpose of creation1 with a limited acquaintance with the general plan of the universe1 with an imperfect knowledge of the reasons and ends of individual existences1 it seems little less than impertinence for science to sit in judgment on the works of ,god1 and unceremoniously condemn this as defective and that as unnecessary4 ,as ,baden ,powell observes1 ,how can we undertake to affirm1 amid all the possibilities of things of which we confessedly know so little1 that a thousand ends and purposes may not be answered1 because we can trace none1 or even imagine none1 which seem to our short-sighted faculties to be answered4#cca ,in view of the fact that hitherto the belief in purpose or final cause has been the guiding light of science1 and the further fact that science is every day making new discoveries as to the utility of existences and organs of which before we were ignorant1 scientific men might learn a profitable lesson1 and manifest less audacity4#ccb ,meantime we shall be content with the assurances of ,scripture that the works of ,god are perfect1 and that ,he hath made nothing in vain4 ,we may now gather up the several threads of thought which run through this essay1 and state our final conclusions3 #a4 ,matter is the merely passive or statical condition for the action of force4#ccc ,the most fundamental condition or characteristic of matter1 perhaps its only true indication1 is inertia4#ccd ,all that we can affirm of it is that it is the recipient of impulse and of ,energy4#cce ,all the attempts which have been made to reduce matter to a function or phenomenon of force have ended in failure4 ,motion necessarily implies a something which is moved by the action of force4 ,even that most wonderful and subtile of all modes of motion--light--necessarily implies an entity which is moved4 ,the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized light1 discovered by ,faraday1 implies an actual rotatory motion of something4 ,the seeing intellect1 says ,mr4 ,tyndall1 when properly focused1 must realize this conception at last4 ,matter must consist of ultimate continuous atoms or molecules possessing inertia and capable of being moved in space4 ,by virtue of its extension and inertia it can intercept force1 transform force into energy1 and transmit energy4 ,the various forms of energy 7heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 etc47 are transformations of force resulting directly or indirectly from the interception of force by inert matter1 and all the phenomena of material nature result from the action of force upon matter4#ccf ,matter1 says ,m4 ,claude ,bernard1 does not generate the phenomena which it manifests4 ,it is only the substratum1 and does absolutely nothing but give to phenomena the conditions of its manifestation4#ccg #b4 ,force is that which originates or tends to originate motion1 or changes or tends to change the state of a body with regard to motion4 ,it is not and can not be a property of matter4 ,the doctrine that force is an attribute of matter is disproved by the fact of inertia4 ,inert matter can have no spontaneous power--it can not change its own state of motion or rest4 ,neither is motion capable per se of producing motion4 ,it is a fundamental axiom of natural philosophy that motion can not be generated by motion itself1 any more than by the negation of motion4 ,inertness and exertion1 passivity and activity1 are contradictory attributes1 and can not be affirmed of the same subject4 ,to say that matter is inert1 and at the same time that it can exert force1 is to violate the law of non-contradiction to the uttermost4 ,force is an attribute of mind or spirit1 and of mind or spirit alone4 ,spirit-force is the only force in the universe4 ,it is a doctrine as old as the hills that mind is the first cause of motion4 4#cch ,it is a doctrine toward which all modern science tends with remarkable unanimity that all motion is the product of mind2 and1 though continued and transformed and transmitted through various means1 it never commences except in a volition either of the ,supreme ,mind or of a created mind4 ,the deep-seated instincts of humanity and the profoundest researches of philosophy alike point to ,mind as the one and only source of power4#cci ,the conception of force as the originator of motion in matter1 without bodily contact or the intervention of any intermedium1 is essential to the right interpretation of physical phenomena2444 its exertion makes itself manifest to our personal consciousness by the peculiar sensation of effort2444 and it force affords a point of contact1 a connecting link between the two great departments of being--between mind and matter--the one as its originator1 the other as its recipient4#cdj #c4 ,all the forms of energy manifested in the universe are only transformations of the one omnipresent force issuing from the one fountain-head of power--the ,divine ,will4 ,the final disclosure of modern science is the convertibility and homogeneity of all forms of physical energy--a dynamical self-identification masked by transmigration4 ,of this wonderful transformation of energy many striking illustrations may be given2 we select the following from the ,lecture ,notes of ,dr4 ,a4 ,f4 ,mayer 7p4 #fd73 ,the heat developed by the 'falling force' of a weight striking the terminals of a compound thermal battery 7formed by pieces of iron and ,german-silver wire twisted together at alternate ends7 caused a current of electricity through the wire which1 being conducted through a helix1 magnetized a needle 7which then attracted iron particles71 caused light to appear in a portion of the circuit formed of ,wollaston's fine wire1 decomposed iodide of potassium1 and finally moved the needles of a galvanometer4#cda ,here we have visible kinetic energy transformed into sensible heat1 then absorbed heat converted into electricity1 then electricity transformed into magnetism1 also into light1 and still further into the energy of chemical separation1 while some portion of it returns to the form of visible energy of motion4 ,of course1 some of the energy is dissipated in the form of radiance 7radiant light and heat71 but no energy is either created or destroyed4 ,all the various forms of energy are thus reducible to unity2 they are one force transformed by mechanical arrangements4 ,electricity and magnetism1 heat and light1 muscular energy and chemical action1 motion and mechanical work1 are only different forms of one and the same power4444 ,moreover1 chemical union of the elements of matter1 the attraction of gravitation in all the bodies of the universe1 are but varied forms of this universal motive force4#cdb ,if it be asked1 ,what is that one form of force which is to be taken as the type of all the rest8 the explicit answer of the first scientists of the age is1 ,force must be regarded as the direct expression of that mental state which we call ,will4 ,all force is of one type1 and that type is mind4#cdc ,this is conceded even by ,herbert ,spencer3 ,the force by which we ourselves produce changes1 and which serves to symbolize the cause of changes in general1 is the final disclosure of analysis4#cdd ,the whole conception is summed up in one comprehensive statement by ,professor ,norton1 of ,yale ,college3 ,i regard the primary force of repulsion as incessantly outstreaming in every direction from every ethereal atom 7which is incessantly renewed71 and as it spreads outward ever tending toward evanescence on each radiating line by the mere result of its own expansion--a perpetual stream of force flowing from the ,infinite ,source of all power1 vanishing ultimately by diffusion in the infinite expanse of the universe4 ,it breaks incessantly against the atoms of bodies1 and so furnishes the secondary streams of force that maintain the constitution and determine the phenomena of the material universe4#cde ,force1 then1 is the act of the immanent ,deity1 who puts forth unceasingly from every point in the realm of space his creative and sustaining power4 #d4 ,all the phenomena of molecular life 7bioplasmic phenomena7 are the result of the immediate presence and direct agency of ,god4#cdf ,this is the doctrine which must finally be accepted1 whether vitality be regarded as a mode of energy--a transformation of chemico-physical forces--or as a distinct and special force4 ,dr4 ,carpenter has long held that the physical and vital forces are mutually convertible1 but he regards both as the result of the direct action of the ,deity4 ,believing that all force which does not emanate from the will of created sentient beings directly and immediately proceeds from the will of the ,omnipotent and ,omnipresent ,creator2 and looking on the 7what we are accustomed to call7 physical forces as so many modi operandi of one and the same agency1 the creative and sustaining will of the ,deity1 ,i do not feel the validity of the objections urged against the idea of the absolute metamorphosis or conversion of forces4#cdg ,inasmuch1 however1 as the advocates of this theory have failed to establish either a quantitative or a qualitative relation between the vital and physical forces1 but1 on the contrary1 the most exact and careful biological researches show them to be inconvertible and antagonistic1 we are constrained still to hold the doctrine maintained by ,dr4 ,beale4 ,the ancient doctrine that ,life is the cause1 and not the consequence of organization1#cdh still maintains its ground against all assaults4 ,harvey's famous maxim1 ,omne vivum ex ovo--as amended by ,charles ,robin1 ,omne vivum ex vivo--stands yet unrefuted2 and1 as ,sir ,william ,thomson remarked in his inaugural address before the ,british ,association of ,science1 ,this seems to me as sure a teaching of science as the law of gravitation4 ,i confess to being deeply impressed by the evidence put before us by ,professor ,huxley1 and ,i am ready to adopt it as an article of scientific faith--true through all space and all time--that life proceeds from life1 and nothing but life4#cdi ,life has its origin in no secondary cause1 but in the immediate presence and direct action of the ,deity4 ,god is the author and giver of ,life--the constant sustainer of all vitality2 in ,him we live and move and are4 ,the final conclusion to be drawn from these propositions is that ,god is not simply the transitive but the immanent cause of the universe4 ,he is in nature1 not merely as a regulative principle impressing laws upon matter1 but as a constitutive principle1 the ever-present source and ever-operating cause of all its phenomena4 ,if by the term nature we understand the totality of necessary and uniform phenomena1 ,god is the immediate cause of all uniform and necessary phenomena4 ,if by nature we understand the varied forms of energy which underlie the phenomena1 and are manifested in the phenomena1 these forms of energy are but various modes in which the omnipresent power of ,god reveals itself4 ,god is immanent in matter1 and his ceaseless energy produces all the phenomena of nature4 ,nature is more than matter3 it is matter swayed by ,divine power1 and organized and animated by the ,divine life4 ,but the question may be here raised1 ,is not this identification of the dynamical life of the universe with ,god1 ,pantheism8 ,we answer in the language of ,james ,martineau3 ,it certainly would be so if we also turned the proposition round and identified ,god with no more than the life of the universe1 and treated the two terms as for all purposes interchangeable4 ,if in affirming the ,divine immanency in nature we deny the ,divine transcendency beyond nature1 and pay our worship to the aggregate of all its powers1 the law of its laws1 the unity of its organism1444 then undoubtedly we do pass from part to whole1 and rest in a dream of future science instead of emerging into immediate religion4#cej ,the theory which represents the ,deity as the transitive cause of the universe--a mechanically fashioning the materials supplied to his hands1 and then leaving it to the working of its own inherent forces--is rank ,deism4 ,the hypothesis which regards the ,deity as no more than the dynamical life of the universe--an informing and organizing soul associated with matter--is naked ,hylozoism4 ,the theory that reduces all existence1 material and mental1 to phenomenal manifestations of one eternal self-existent substance which evolves itself according to an inward law of necessity1 and which is elusively called ,god1 is ,pantheism4 ,but the doctrine which embraces the two conceptions of transcendence and immanence1 and while it teaches the immanence of ,god in matter1 proclaims the infinite distinctness in essence between matter and ,god1 and the infinite omnipresence of a personal ,god above and beyond the limitations of matter1 is ,christian ,theism4#cea ,and now1 in conclusion1 may we not say that this dictum of faith that the universe exists only in virtue of the continued ,will of its ,creator1 is coming more and more to be recognized as a scientific fact4 ,the will of ,god is the one primal force which streams forth in ever-recurring impulses with an immeasurable rapidity at every point in space--an incessant pulse-beat of the ,infinite ,life4#ceb ,the disposition and collocations of matter are simply the conditions necessary to the manifestation of this primal force4 ,the chemical atom1 already quite a complex little world1#cec is a mechanism for the interception1 transformation1 and transmission of force4 ,all the varied forms of energy are but secondary and derivative streams of force--forms of energy which are conceivable only as effects1 and which by mere accommodation we may be permitted to call causes1 yet with this specific reservation that they are not vicegerents outside of the ,divine ,will1 but are held within the ,divine ,will4 ,the word 'cause' may be used in a secondary and concrete sense as meaning antecedent forces1 yet in an abstract sense it is totally inapplicable2 we can not predicate of any physical agent that it is abstractedly the cause of another2 and if1 for the sake of convenience1 the language of secondary causation be permissible1 it should only be with reference to the special phenomena referred to1 as it can never be generalized4 ,the common error1 if ,i am right in supposing it to be such1 consists in the abstraction of cause1 and in supposing in each case a general secondary cause--a something which is not the ,first ,cause1 but which1 if we examine it carefully1 must have all the attributes of a first cause1 and an existence independent of and dominant over matter4 ,,causation ,,is ,,the ,,will ,,of ,,god4#ced ,the ,divine conservation of the world is the simple1 universal1 uniform efficiency of ,god4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,providence ,,of ,,god ,,in ,,human ,,history4 ,he hath made of one blood all the nations of mankind to dwell upon the face of the whole earth1 and ordained to each the appointed seasons of their existence and the bounds of their habitation1 that they should seek ,god4--,,st4 ,,paul4 ,divine providence1 which conducts all things marvelously1 rules the series of human generations from ,adam to the end of the world like one man1 who1 from his infancy to his old age1 furnishes forth his career in time in passing through all its ages4--,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,the right education of the human race1 so far as concerns the people of ,god1 like that of a single man1 advances through certain divisions of time1 as that of the individual through the consecutive ages of human life4--,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,les nations sont rgies par les mmes lois que les individus4--,,laurent4 ,from the central and fundamental truth that ,god is the ,creator and ,conservator of the universe1 ,christian theology advances to the still more practical truth that ,he determines and presides over the development of the human race1 leading it toward a foreseen and predestinated goal4 ,this is the natural and logical order of thought4 ,if nature and man were created and are still conserved by an intelligent power1 there must be some reason or end for which they exist2 for intelligent power can only be conceived as a power which works toward ends4 ,the existence of the world and of man being given1 the question concerning the purpose or end for which they exist becomes unavoidable and necessary2 and though physical science may proclaim its inability to disclose the final purpose of creation1 and speak contemptuously of all such inquiries1 it does not by any means follow that ,christian doctrine can furnish no satisfactory answer to this inevitable question4 ,as the reference of the dependent universe to the efficient ground of its existence gives the concepts of ,creation and ,conservation with which the idea of power is pre-eminently associated1 so the reference of the same to the ultimate reason of its existence gives the concepts of ,providence and ,moral ,government with which the idea of all-wise love is immediately correlated4 ,the ,christian doctrine of ,providence in human history is succinctly stated in the words of ,st4 ,paul3 ,god hath made of one blood all the nations of mankind to dwell upon the face of the whole earth1 and ordained to each the appointed times of their existence and the bounds of their habitation1 that they should seek after1 and indeed feel after1 and find the ,lord4 ,he has endowed man with intelligence and freedom by which he may achieve the conquest of nature1 and be able to maintain his existence and ascendency in every part of the habitable globe4 ,a new and subtile force appears in the arena of nature1 which is superior to nature1 which can control and regulate its action1 and subordinate the forces of nature to the higher purposes and needs of spiritual and moral being4 ,by travel and observation1 by reasoning and invention1 by interchange of ideas and products1 man may continually enlarge the sphere of his knowledge1 and multiply the means of improvement and happiness4#cee ,god has also determined beforehand the time of each nation's existence1 and the geographical boundaries of their habitation4 ,divine providence has decreed and presided over the dispersions and migrations of the human race1 and in the plan of history fixed the time when and the people by which each continent and island shall be inhabited4 ,and the ultimate purpose of this providential arrangement and supervision is that men may seek ,god1 and feel after and really find ,him1 who for all dependent rational existence is the chief good4 ,this1 then1 is the explicit teaching of ,christian theology3 ,the appearance of rational existence on the earth constitutes a distinct creative epoch2 the final cause of all rational existence is to know ,god1 consciously to feel after and find ,him2 and the whole of ,god's action upon humanity has been an inspiration1 guidance1 and education toward this end4 ,the progress of the human race1 the course of human history1 is therefore a revelation of the ,providence of ,god4 ,the consideration of nature1 says ,niebuhr1 shows an inherent intelligence1 which may be also considered as coherent in nature2 so does history1 on a hundred occasions1 show an intelligence distinct from nature which conducts and determines those things which may seem to us accidental2 and it is not true that history weakens our belief in ,divine providence4 ,history is1 of all kinds of knowledge1 the one which tends most decidedly to that belief4#cef ,history1 observes ,richter1 has1 like nature1 the highest value 7if studied philosophically7 in so far as we by means of it1 as by means of nature1 can divine and read the ,infinite ,spirit who1 with nature and history as with letters1 legibly writes to us4 ,he who finds a ,god in the physical world will also find one in the moral world--which is history4 ,nature forces on our hearts a ,creator2 history1 a ,providence4 ,to the student of history it becomes apparent that the hand of ,god has been guiding humanity toward the fulfillment of its destiny4 ,god has presided over the development of human society and government4 ,throughout the ages ,he has been the ,educator of the race--leading1 instructing1 chastening1 and blessing the nations4 ,man holds relations to ,god not merely at the moment of creation2 he does not cease to be in connection with his ,creator through the endless duration of his existence4 ,the incessant action of ,god on man is grace2 the incessant action of ,god on humanity is providential government4#ceg ,history is the manifestation of ,god's supervision of humanity1 and the judgments of history are the judgments of ,god4#ceh ,if we have here the true conception of history1 if it is a manifestation of ,divine supervision1 direction1 and discipline1 then the question is at once legitimate and practical1 ,what is the end of this discipline8 what is the foreseen and predestinated goal toward which1 through conflict and pain and travail1 ,divine providence is leading the human race8 ,it must be conceded on all hands that the adequate and final answer can only be given by that ,divine prescience which sees the end from the beginning4 ,the study of the past and of the present moral and religious phenomena of the world may afford to the philosophic mind some prevision of the future1 but it is obvious that revelation alone can supply the principles which must constitute the light of history--the light in which even its darkest chapters may be interpreted1 and its true philosophy evolved4 ,the general answer which speculative thought has furnished to this question is that the goal of history is the highest perfection of humanity4 ,aristotle clearly recognizes that there must be an end or final cause of human existence and action--a 7summum bonum71 or chief end4#cei ,he therefore addresses himself to the inquiry1 ,what is the chief good1 or highest end of man8 ,the conclusion which he reaches is1 that it is the absolute satisfaction of his whole nature--that which men have agreed to call happiness4 ,this happiness1 however1 is not mere sensual pleasure4 ,the brute shares this in common with man1 therefore it can not constitute the happiness of man4 ,human happiness must express the completeness of rational existence1 or1 as he expresses it1 a perfect practical activity in a perfect life4#cfj ,this complete and perfect life is the complete satisfaction of our rational nature4 ,it is the realization of the ,divine in man1 and constitutes the absolute and all-sufficient good4#cfa ,a good action is thus an end in itself1 inasmuch as it tends to secure the perfection of our nature4 ,the human mind can not1 however1 rest in the general and vague idea of perfection2 we are therefore pressed with the further question1 ,in what does the highest perfection of humanity consist8 by what standard are we to judge of this perfection8 what is the ideal toward which the progress of humanity may be presumed to tend1 and which we hope it will ultimately attain8 ,the following considerations may furnish the answer3 #a4 ,that ideal must be the same for the race as for the individual1 the same for the nation as for the man4 ,for1 on the one hand1 society exists for the sake of the individual1 and it is only in society that individual existences can be preserved1 developed1 and perfected2 on the other hand1 national character is but the expression of the collective or average character of the individual citizens4 ,in seeking for the ideal of individual perfection1 we must take account of all the capacities1 powers1 and relations of man4 ,we must have in view1 not simply his physical and intellectual1 but also his moral and religious nature4 ,we must think of the relation in which he stands to his fellow-beings and to his ,god1 as well as the relation in which he stands to himself--that is1 to the liberty and intelligence which are in him1 and which he must develop4 ,now no man can be said to be complete1 to be perfect1 no man can be said to have reached his 1 or end1 until he has developed in his thought and realized in his life the idea of the useful1 the true1 the just1 the good1 the pure1 the ,divine4 ,loyalty to ,god and the truth1 justice and charity toward men1 self-control and purity of mind1 intellectual discipline and cultivated taste--these are the characteristics of the perfect man4 ,judged from the ,christian stand-point1 he is the perfect man who has attained to that ideal of moral and spiritual excellence which was exhibited in the human life of ,christ1 that grand embodiment of all that is pure and true and just and lovely and of good report4 ,the realization of this ideal in the collective life of humanity must be the goal of history4 #b4 ,further light is shed upon this problem by the consideration of the ,christian idea of ,god4 ,the gravitating point of ,christian theology is found in the ,divine declaration1 ,god is ,love 7#a ,john iv4 #h1 #af74 ,this is the most fundamental revelation of the ,divine nature1 so that nothing can pertain to his perfections or his works which is not ultimately resolvable into love4 ,if ever the idea of ,divine justice shall obtain consistency in our systems of theology1 it must be in general through the relation of infinite holy love to the spontaneous and self-determining capacity of the personal being1 or the relation of ,divine perfection to the existence of the economy in the universe4#cfb ,the fact that ,god creates worlds and gives birth to personal existences is not grounded in his omnipotence1 but in his love4 ,divine love is the determinative principle of ,divine efficiency--the final cause or ultimate reason of all existence4 ,creation must therefore be conceived as the free self-communication of ,god1 who is ,himself eternally self-complete and self-sufficient1 but who1 from love alone1 wills that other intelligences shall have existence who can know ,god1 and in fellowship with ,him attain that fullness and fruition of being which is called ,eternal ,life4#cfc ,if1 then1 the ,divine mind has always had this end in view--the perfection and blessedness of personal being in fellowship with ,himself--it must be regarded by us as the consummation toward which his providence is leading humanity4 #c4 ,the explicit declarations of ,scripture are in perfect accord with these inferences drawn from the nature of man and the idea of ,god4 ,we learn from the words of ,st4 ,paul that the aim of ,divine providence is to lead the race to the practical recognition of the personal dignity of man as the offspring of ,god2 to the practical recognition of the universal brotherhood of man1 as of one blood1 with equal rights to place1 provision1 and free self-development in every part of the earth2 finally1 to the practical recognition of our relation to ,god as his dependent creatures1 in fellowship with whom we have eternal life4#cfd ,god's great end in the whole course and discipline of providence is to unite all men in bonds of mutual affection and aid1 and to unite the race to ,himself in bonds of loyalty and love4 ,then whatsoever things are true and pure and honest and lovely and of good report will be revered and practiced among the nations of the earth4 ,these views of ,divine providence can scarcely be said to have had any place or any recognition in the ancient schools of philosophy4 ,the ,stoics taught that an invincible necessity rules in the realm of history as well as in the field of nature1 to which ,god and man are equally subject4 ,god is the reason of the world 7 72 the laws of the world are as necessary as the laws of eternal reason4 ,this necessity is at once fate 771 and the providence 77 which governs all things4#cfe ,the ,epicureans reduced all existence to the plane of mere physical nature1 and represented humanity as a development from the lower forms of life by the agency of blind1 unconscious force4 ,if they recognized the existence of any god or gods1 they removed them far away from all intercourse with humanity1 and all supervision of or concern in human affairs4 ,they admitted their existence in words1 says ,cicero1 but denied it in act4 ,these two forms of error are combined by the modern deniers of providence4 ,human society1 languages1 laws1 institutions1 arts1 sciences1 are all the products of matter and force4 ,the succession of events1 the progress of civilization1 and the religious phenomena of the world1 have not been determined by an intelligent ,will1 or presided over by a conscious ,personality4 ,in the last analysis1 matter is resolved into a function of force1 and a process of necessary evolution1 which has no design and no final purpose1 is substituted for ,divine providence4 ,the ultimate destination of the world and humanity is unknown1 or1 if conjecture is permissible1 is chaos and death4 ,in opposition to these cold and cheerless speculations ,christianity affirms the doctrine of ,divine providence in human history4#cff ,by ,providence we understand intelligent forethought and timely provision for all contingencies4 ,the term supposes a precognized plan1 a constant supervision of its development1 and the control and subordination of all finite powers and agencies in order to its completion4 ,from nature1 strictly considered as the empire of mechanical necessity1 nothing can proceed but that which is posited in it by the immediate act of ,god2 and consequently1 considered apart from man1 there can be no contingency1 and1 properly speaking1 no providence in this sphere4 ,the existence of mere nature1 however1 can not be regarded as an end in itself4 ,the whole interest and significance of nature is found in the conception that it exists as a means for a higher end4 ,as matter is simply the condition for the manifestation of force1 as the physical forces are subordinated to the vital force1 and the vital is subordinated to the mental1 so is it a legitimate assumption1 which we shall justify in the sequel1 that all these are subordinated to the moral and spiritual4 ,it is only in the sphere of spiritual being--that is1 of self-conscious and self-determined being--and in the relation of nature to spiritual being1 that contingency can arise and providence find place4 ,the uniform teaching of ,scripture is that human history is the special field of ,divine providence4 ,in fact1 the historic portions of the ,bible are nothing else than a record of the control and direction and subordination of human agencies1 and of external physical conditions in their relation to personal beings1 by the hand of ,god4 ,this primitive revelation throws light upon the cradle of human civilization4 ,it points to a period when man1 at his departure from the hand of ,god1 received those intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual endowments which raise him in the scale of being immeasurably above the animal creation1 and fit him for a progress1 a development to which no conceivable limits can be assigned4#cfg ,the ,bible is the history of ,divine providence from that signal commencement to the planting of the ,christian ,church1 where we can clearly see all the lines along which the race advanced1 converging upon the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,it is a history of ,divine interposition in human affairs1 and of supernatural guidance toward a higher development and a nobler destiny4 ,indeed1 to the eye of the observant and conscientious student of all history1 whether secular or ecclesiastical1 there are undeniable evidences of the presence of ,intelligence1 disposing and collocating the conditions of human progress1 and directing humanity toward a nobler civilization4 ,considering the earth in its relation to man1 we must recognize the providence of ,god in the physical universe4 ,the earth was unquestionably made for man4 ,it was created1 and has been especially adapted to be the theatre of human history4 ,this is the doctrine of ,scripture 7,gen4 i4 #bh-ca2 ,psa4 cxv4 #af7--;,i believe it is also the doctrine of science4 ,the geological changes through which the earth has passed indicate a process of preparation for the inhabitation of man4 ,this process of preparation is fully recognized by ,agassiz4 ,there has been1 he says1 a manifest progress in the succession of beings on the surface of the globe4 ,this progress consists in an increasing similarity to the living fauna1 and1 among the vertebrates especially1 in the increasing resemblance to man4 ,but this connection is not the consequence of a direct lineage between the faunas of different ages4 ,the fishes of the ,palozoic are in no respect the ancestors of the reptiles of the ,secondary age1 nor does man descend from the mammals of the ,tertiary age4 ,the link by which they are connected is of an immaterial nature1 and their connection is to be sought in the thought of the ,creator ,himself1 whose aim in forming the earth1 in allowing it to pass through the successive changes which ,geology has pointed out1 and in creating successively all the different types of animals which have passed away1 was to introduce man upon the surface of the globe4 ,man is the end toward which all the animal creation has tended4#cfh ,the language of ,prof4 ,owen is equally explicit3 ,the recognition of an ideal exemplar in the vertebrated animals proves that the knowledge of such a being as man existed before man appeared2 for the ,divine ,mind which planned the archetype also foresaw all its modifications4 ,the archetype idea was manifested in the flesh long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it4#cfi ,of the nature of the creative acts by which the successive races of animals were called into being1 we are ignorant4 ,but this we know1 that as the evidence of unity of plan testifies to the oneness of the ,creator1 so the modifications of the plan for different modes of existence illustrate the benevolence of the ,designer4 ,those structures1 moreover1 which are at present incomprehensible as adaptations to a special end1 are made comprehensible on a higher principle1 and a final purpose is gained in relation to human intelligence4#cgj ,that these views are still held by ,prof4 ,owen is evident from his remarks in the fortieth chapter of his ,anatomy of the ,vertebrates3 ,of all the quadrupedal servants of man1 none have proved of more value to him1 in peace or war1 than the horse2 none have co-operated with the advanced races more influentially in man's destined mastery over the earth and its lower denizens4444 ,i believe the horse to have been predestinated and prepared for man4 ,it may be a weakness2 but1 if so1 it is a glorious one1 to discern1 however dimly1 across our finite prison-wall1 evidence of 'the ,divinity that shapes our ends1' abuse the means as we may4#cga ,long before the appearance of man upon the earth1 the providence of ,god laid up in its strata those vast treasures of granite1 sandstone1 lime1 marble1 coal1 salt1 petroleum1 and the various metals1 the product of a long succession of ages and revolutions1 thus making an inexhaustible provision for the necessities of man1 and furnishing ample resources for the development of his genius and skill4#cgb ,in the vegetable life which appeared on the globe immediately prior to and contemporaneous with the advent of man1 we can recognize a providential arrangement made for man4 ,in the flora of the ,palozoic and ,secondary periods we can not fail to observe the absence of all those plants which are adapted for human food4 ,even in the ,tertiary epoch1 which immediately precedes the ,adamic or human period1 so far as ,geology reveals1 there were few or no plants yielding the appropriate supplies for the sustentation of man4 ,there are few indications of any of those vegetables from which man may derive food and valuable fibre1 and1 in a word1 of species which support and clothe by far the larger portion of the human race4 ,scarcely any grasses appear in the list of extinct vegetation1 and there is reason to believe that the principal cereals which are characteristic of the human period--as barley1 wheat1 oats1 rye1 millet1 ,indian corn1 and rice--had no existence4#cgc ,when the fullness of time was come1 and all things were ready for the reception of man1 then ,god called him into being1 and invested him with dominion over nature4 ,physical geography also indicates1 not only a state of preparation for man1 but also a special adaptation of the fixed forms of the earth's surface for securing the perfect development of man according to the ,divine ideal4 ,and as the land which man inhabits1 the food he eats1 the air he breathes1 the mountains and rivers and seas which are his neighbors1 the skies that overshadow him1 the diversities of climate to which he is subject1 and indeed all physical conditions1 exert a powerful influence upon his tastes1 pursuits1 habits1 and character--we may presume that not only are all these conditions predetermined by ,god1 but continually under his control and supervision4 ,the distribution of terrestrial areas--the continents1 islands1 and seas2 the disposition of the climate1 soil1 and vegetation1 apparently accidental1 have played an important part in the moral history of our race4 ,there is a close relation between nature and history1 between the earth and man4 ,the soul of man is distinct from1 but not totally independent of the body and of external physical conditions4 ,to deny this would be to reject all the lessons of experience4 ,the relation of man to nature is not1 however1 a relation of cause and effect1 but1 as ,cousin remarks1 ,man and nature are two great effects which1 coming from the same cause1 bear the same characteristics1 so that the earth and he who inhabits it1 man and nature1 are in perfect harmony4#cgd ,a living ,god1 says ,ritter1 is at the head of the physical and moral world4#cge ,the earth was created for man1 not simply to be a dwelling-place1 but a school-house#cgf--made to be a theatre for the education1 the development1 and the perfection of the human race4 ,and as the moral and intellectual culture of the child is materially affected by the physical conditions with which he is surrounded1 and as these are consequently the subject of care and forethought on the part of the intelligent and prudent parent and teacher1 so the external physical conditions of a nation exert a powerful influence on its intellectual and moral development1 and therefore must be presumed to be the subject of forethought and providence on the part of ,god1 the ,father of the families of all the earth4 ,god has superintended the peopling of the earth1 the dispersions and migrations of nations1 guiding the footsteps of the covenant1 educating1 and missionary nations to those countries best adapted to their highest development4 ,in a word1 ,he has ordained the progress of empire and the course of civilization4 ,thus nature and history are the two great factors of ,divine providence2 in their relations and harmonies we have a revelation of the purposes and plans of ,god4#cgg ,that geographical conditions do exert a powerful influence on the character of nations can not be denied4 ,the bodily constitution of a people1 their temperament1 modes of life1 habitations1 customs1 languages1 and even religious opinions have been formed or modified under the influence of that magic circle of nature which surrounds them1 and which so powerfully affects what is individual in national character4 ,so that1 could we fully grasp all the characteristics of a country--its position1 configuration1 climate1 scenery1 and natural products--we could1 with tolerable accuracy1 determine what are the characteristics of the people who inhabit it4 ,we have discussed this topic at some length in ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy1 and shall here simply recall such of the general facts and principles as may be needed for a clear understanding of the present discussion4 #a4 ,the habits and characteristics of the dwellers in the ,temperate ,zone differ widely from those of the dwellers in the ,torrid ,zone4 ,this is an obvious fact2 and the causes of this difference are equally obvious to the observant mind4 ,in the tropical regions the powers of vegetable and animal life are stimulated to the highest degree1 and here nature displays her fullest energy1 her greatest variety1 and her richest splendors4 ,excessive heat enfeebles and enervates man4 ,it induces lassitude1 dreaminess1 effeminacy1 and tempts to quietude and indolence4 ,where nature pours her fullness into the lap of ease1 forethought and providence are little needed4 ,here is none of that struggle for existence which awakens sagacity and develops industry4 ,nothing calls man to that effort for the conquest of nature by which the intellect is aroused and the reasoning faculties are developed4 ,consequently the mere life of the body1 the powers of the physical nature of man1 overmaster the faculties of the mind4 ,the instincts predominate over the reason4 ,simple spontaneity of thought is manifested1 but little or no analytic reflection4 ,feeling1 imagination1 sentiment1 predominate over intellect1 reason1 and science4 ,in a temperate climate all is reversed4 ,the alternations of heat and cold render man more vigorous1 and impart more physical tone4 ,where there is less profusion and lavishment of nature's gifts1 there is more room and motive for industry4 ,the change of seasons1 and an annual period of dormancy1 demand forethought and prudence4 ,the preservation of life demands1 not merely physical toil1 but some degree of contrivance1 and1 indeed1 the vigorous exertion of the intellectual powers4 ,and here1 though nature is not prodigal of her gifts1 she grants to industry and skill something more than the bare necessities of life4 ,she allows man to lay up a store for the future1 and furnishes some leisure for the culture of the mind4 ,the active powers of man1 his reason and judgment1 rule his instincts1 and control1 more or less1 his appetites and emotions4 ,here man becomes a careful observer of events2 he treasures up the results of experience1 compares one fact with another1 notes their relations1 and makes new experiments to test his conclusions4 ,thus science has its birth in the ,temperate ,zone4#cgh #b4 ,there is a marked difference between the mental habits and modes of thought of the peoples who dwell in the interior of an immense continent and those who dwell on the margin of the sea4 ,vast continents1 unbroken by lakes and inland seas1 and extended plains where broad deserts and high mountain ranges separate the populations1 are the seats of immobility4 ,the inhabitants are isolated from the rest of the world1 and excluded from a stimulating and profitable intercourse with the nations of the earth4 ,they have comparatively no navigation1 their commerce is limited to the bare necessities of life1 and there are no inducements to movement1 to travel1 and to enterprise4 ,society is therefore stationary1 as in ,china2 the habits1 manners1 and usages of social and civil life remain as they were two thousand years ago4 ,infolded and imprisoned within the overwhelming vastness and illimitable sway of nature1 man is almost unconscious of his freedom and personality4 ,he surrenders himself to the disposal of a mysterious fate1 and yields readily to the absolute control of rulers who are regarded as of supernatural origin and endowed with superhuman powers4 ,the forms of government remain unchanged from age to age1 and the state is the reign of fixed and inexorable laws--,the laws of the ,medes and ,persians are unalterable4 ,the rights of the person are scarcely recognized1 and the individual is lost in the mass4 ,extended border-lands on the margin of great rivers and inland seas are1 on the contrary1 the theatre of movement1 activity1 and life4 ,here man is set free from the bondage imposed by the overpowering magnitude and vastness of continental and oceanic forms4 ,here industry is not stationary1 but progressive2 and commerce thrives because the rivers and inland seas furnish the means of easy transit1 and the opportunity for a free interchange of commodities4 ,along with the exchange of commodities there will be an exchange of ideas1 because ideas flow along the channels of commerce4 ,here also the arts will be cultivated1 first for purposes of gain1 and subsequently for the gratification of taste4 ,and1 where there is freedom of movement1 where there is creative industry1 where nature is subjugated by man1 the idea of personal liberty will be developed1 and the rights of the individual will be regarded4 ,these ideas of personal liberty and rights will become incorporated with the laws and institutions of society1 and the government will tend toward a democracy4 ,finally1 this freedom of movement and action will engender freedom of thought4 ,reflection will commence1 the speculative and critical spirit will arise1 and philosophy will be born4#cgi #c4 ,there is also an acknowledged difference between the mental character of the inhabitants of a bright and sunny climate who breathe an elastic atmosphere1 and are surrounded by the most inspiring scenery1 and that of the people who dwell under a gray and sombre sky1 and daily look upon the more stern and rugged aspects of nature4 ,the dwellers in the former climate are ardent1 vivacious1 and mercurial2 the inhabitants of the latter are slow1 deliberate1 persistent1 and conservative4 ,one nation will be speculative1 enamored of plausible hypotheses1 and prone to hasty and brilliant generalization2 the other will be practical1 intolerant of hypotheses1 and clamorous for facts and logical inferences from facts4 ,in the former climate the fine arts will be enthusiastically cultivated1 and elegance and taste1 and all that is graceful in sentiment and action1 will find a congenial home2 in the latter1 the exact sciences and the useful arts will be cultivated with persistence and zeal4 ,under the former conditions1 a religion of poetry1 of sentiment1 of artistic display and imposing ceremonial1 will sway the popular mind2 under the latter1 a religion of personal duty and purity1 of social righteousness1 of active beneficence1 and of universal charity1 will command respect4 ,these principles constitute what may be designated the statics of history--the more or less stable and permanent conditions under which the living forces of humanity are developed4 ,the dynamics of history are the fundamental powers and rational ideas of human nature4 ,there are certain primary ideas of the reason which are revealed in the universal consciousness of our race under the conditions of experience--the exterior conditions of physical nature and sensational life4 ,such are the ideas of substance and cause1 of unity and infinity1 which govern all the processes of discursive thought1 and lead us to the recognition of the uncreated and unconditioned ,being2 such the ideas of right1 of duty1 of accountability1 and of retribution which regulate all the conceptions we form of our relations to other moral beings1 and constitute morality2 such the ideas of order1 proportion1 and harmony which preside in the realm of art1 and constitute the beau-ideal of sthetics2 such the ideas of ,god1 the soul1 and immortality which rule in the domain of religion1 and constitute man a religious being4 ,in addition to these1 there are the powers of observation1 of abstraction1 of generalization1 of inference1 the capacity of symbolic conception and expression1 the faculty of creative imagination1 the powers of invention1 of foresight1 and of scientific prevision4 ,these are the living forces of humanity1 fundamentally the same under all circumstances1 but modified in their intensity and development by geographical1 climatal1 and scenic conditions4 ,the providential adjustment and harmonious relation of the exterior conditions with the inherent powers of humanity is the problem of history4 ,before attempting to trace the hand of ,divine providence in the original location and subsequent migrations of the historic races1 let us briefly reproduce the sentences which express the conditions most favorable to the development and perfection of humanity4 #a4 ,while the tropical climate of ,southern ,asia1 of ,africa1 and of ,south ,america is unfavorable to the highest intellectual and moral development1 the temperate climate of ,western ,asia1 of ,europe1 and of ,north ,america is peculiarly adapted to minister to the advancement and perfection of the human race4 #b4 ,the massive1 unbroken continents of the ,south1 shut in by immense oceans and impassable mountain ranges1 are the seats of immobility and the home of despotic power2 but the deeply indented and elaborately articulated continents of the ,north1 with their inland seas and large navigable rivers1 are the theatre of activity1 of progress1 and of liberty4 #c4 ,the sunny skies and glowing landscapes and inspiring scenery of the south of ,europe are most congenial to poetry and music1 and painting and sculpture1 and all that is graceful in expression and action2 the deeper tone and sterner features of the northern portion of ,europe1 whose skies are sombre1 and whose mountains are rugged and gray1 determine it to be the home of practical industry and useful arts1 of benevolent enterprises and philanthropic deeds4 ,bearing in mind these principles1 we turn to history in the belief that we shall find that ,divine providence has at successive periods placed the historic races in such geographical relations and amid such physical conditions as have been most favorable to their intellectual and moral development4 #a4 ,the first historic fact to which we would now direct attention is that the human race really commenced its history in the midst of the continents of the ,temperate ,zone4 ,western ,asia was unquestionably the cradle of the human race1 the grand centre whence the different families or races commenced their migrations4 ,whatever views may be entertained of the doctrine supposed to be taught in ,gen4 i4-iv4 that the whole human race originally descended from a single pair1 or whatever method of interpretation in regard to that ancient document may finally prevail--even should we adopt the theory of ,dr4 ,mc,causland#chj that the ,biblical account is concerned only with the origin of a covenant and redemptive race 7the ,adamite or ,edenic race71 which was to be the instructor and benefactor of the pre-,adamite races--there can be no question that the sacred historian traces the source of the great historic nations to the family of ,noah 7,gen4 ix4 #ai74 ,whatever difficulties there may be in determining the site of ,eden--and they are confessedly great1 if not insurmountable--there is no difficulty in locating the second geographical centre from whence the great historic races departed to overspread the earth4 ,ararat is1 no doubt1 in its ,biblical import1 the ,armenian highlands1 the lofty plateau which overlooks the plains of the ,araxes on the north and ,mesopotamia on the south4 ,this ,armenian plateau stands equidistant from the ,euxine and the ,caspian seas on the north1 and between the ,persian ,gulf and the ,mediterranean ,sea on the south4 ,with the first it is connected by the ,acampsis1 with the second by the ,araxes1 with the third by the ,tigris and the ,euphrates1 the latter of which serves as an outlet toward the countries on the ,mediterranean coast4 ,these seas were the highways of primitive colonization1 and the plains watered by these rivers were the seats of the most powerful nations of antiquity--the ,assyrians1 the ,babylonians1 the ,medes1 and the ,colchians4 ,viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations1 ,armenia is the true --the middle part--of the earth2 and it is a significant fact that at the present day ,ararat is the great boundary-stone between the empires of ,russia1 ,turkey1 and ,persia4#cha ,the ,scripture account1 which certainly authorizes us to fix upon the highlands of ,armenia as the new centre whence the descendants of ,noah went forth to people the earth1 is confirmed by the most ancient traditions and the most reliable historic records4 ,josephus tells us there was in ,armenia a city which was called --the ,place of ,descent#chb--;for the ark being saved in that place1 its remains are shown by the inhabitants to this day4#chc ,he further adds that all the writers of the barbarian histories make mention of the flood1 and of this ark1 among whom is ,berosus1 the ,chaldan1#chd who1 when he goes on to describe the circumstances of the flood1 remarks1 'it is said there is still some part of this ship in ,armenia1 at the mountain of the ,cordyans2' ,hieronymus1 the ,egyptian1 who wrote the ,phnician antiquities1 and ,manases1 and indeed a great many others1 also make mention of the same4 ,nay1 ,nicholas of ,damascus1 in his ninety-sixth book1 hath a particular relation about them1 where he speaks thus3 ',there is a great mountain in ,armenia1 over ,minyas1 called ,baris1 upon which1 it is reported1444 that one who was carried in an ark came on shore upon the top of it1 and that the remains of the timber were a great while preserved4'#che ,this concurrent testimony of sacred and profane history1 which designates ,western ,asia as the cradle of the historic nations1 has received additional confirmation from the researches of modern ethnologists and philologists4 ,in the tenth chapter of ,genesis1 the sacred historian sketches the nations of the earth at his time of writing1 indicates their ethnic affinities1 and marks to some extent their geographical positions4 ,the professor of ancient history in the ,university of ,oxford1 ,george ,rawlinson1 remarks that the ,toldoth ,beni ,noah 7the ,generations of ,noah7 has excited the admiration of modern ethnologists1 who continually find in it the anticipations of their greatest discoveries4#chf ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson assures us that the ,toldoth ,beni ,noah is undoubtedly the most authentic record we possess of the affiliations of the human race which sprang from the triple stock of the ,noachid4#chg ,the same distinguished ,oriental scholar in an essay ,on the ,ethnic ,affinities of the ,nations of ,western ,asia1 further remarks3 ,in ,western ,asia1 the cradle of the human race1 the several ethnic branches of the human family were more closely intermingled and more evenly balanced than in any other portion of the ancient world4 ,semitic1 ,indo-,european1 and ,ttar or ,turanian races not only divided among them this portion of the earth's surface1 but lay interspersed and confused upon it in a most remarkable entanglement4 ,it is symptomatic of this curious intermixture that the ,persian monarchs1 when they wished to communicate to their ,asiatic subjects in such a way that it should be generally intelligible1 had to put it out not only in three different languages1 but in three languages belonging to the three principal divisions of human speech4 ,hence the trilingual inscriptions of ,behistun1 ,persepolis1 etc41 which consist of an ,indo-,european1 a ,ttar1 and a ,semitic column4#chh ,thus do all the varied lines of evidence proceeding from history1 ethnology1 and philology converge upon ,western ,asia as the cradle of the human race--the centre from which the families of mankind departed to people the earth2 and we are constrained to regard the early populations of that region as furnishing the typical standard or average sample of our species4 ,proceeding from a purely zoological stand-point1 we should be led to an opposite conclusion4 ,looking to the general phenomena of the geographical distribution of animals1 and the natural rather than the artificial conditions of human existence1 and arguing solely on naturalistic grounds1 we should be constrained to place the centre of our race in the tropics2 and of the intertropical regions those which are the habitat of the anthropoid 7or anthropomorphic7 ape1 as ,western ,africa and the southern extremity of ,asia4 ,in the protoplasts of his species the mere zoologist sees but so many naked bipeds1 with the capabilities1 indeed1 of working out for their future behoof the essentials of clothing1 the use of fire1 and the like1 but in the first instance unfit for any climate except the mildest1 and incapable of sustenance on any soil except the most luxuriant4 ,he consequently fixes upon the tropics as the cradle of our race2 and those who assume the lineal descent of the human species from the quadrumana fix upon those intertropical points which are the habitats of the anthropomorphic apes4 ,the law which governs the distribution and development of vegetable and animal life would also lead us to fix upon the tropical regions as the geographical centre of our race4 ,that law may be thus stated3 ,the degree of perfection of the types of life1 and the diversity and number of species1 are proportional to the intensity of heat4 ,in this progress1 as ,humboldt has remarked1 we find organic life and vigor gradually augmenting with the increase of temperature4 ,and the number of species increases as we approach the equator1 and decreases as we retire from it4#chi ,in the ,frigid ,zone life seems almost extinguished during the greater part of the year by the rigors of an almost perpetual winter4 ,the vegetation of the polar regions is stunted1 dull1 and monotonous in color1 and inadequate to sustain animal life4 ,the plains are covered with mosses and lichens1 and here and there a few herbs and shrubs 7saxifrages1 gentians1 papaver1 etc471 but no stately forest trees4 ,in short1 the general characteristic of these cold regions is the preponderance of cryptogamous plants4 ,in the ,temperate ,zone we have a marked superiority in vegetable life4 ,here we have grassy pastures1 cerealia1 and dicotyledonous trees--the oak1 ash1 beech1 maple1 chestnut1 walnut1 the apple1 pear1 plum1 etc4 ,the number of genera and species is greatly increased1 and the superior types acquire a fuller development4 ,the preponderance of phanerogamous plants1 the richer coloring1 and the appearance of evergreen trees1 are the signs of an immense progress4 ,but the soft tints1 the medium forms1 and the wintry sleep extending through half the year1 clearly indicate that the perfection of physical nature is not attained4#cij ,it is in the heat of the ,torrid ,zone where nature puts forth all her energy1 and displays her greatest resources4 ,the cryptogamous plants attain1 in arborescent forms1 the proportions of our forest trees4 ,the grasses which we know in our climates only under the humble forms they put on in our fields1 rise1 in the elegant and majestic bamboo1 to the height of sixty or seventy feet4 ,a single tree is a garden1 wherein a hundred different plants intertwine their branches1 and display their brilliant flowers on a ground of verdure1 where their varied hues and forms of leaves are richly blended4 ,and here the perfection of vegetable life is attained in the graceful palms which stand at the head and crown the vegetable kingdom4 ,this is the region of a perpetual summer1 where nature makes ample provision for the support of animal life1 and the date1 the cocoa-nut1 the banana1 the plantain1 the sugar-cane1 the pine-apple1 supply all the wants of uncivilized man4 ,the same gradation is marked in the animal kingdom4 ,the most characteristic feature of the arctic fauna is its dull uniformity4 ,the species are few in number1 their forms are regular1 and their tints are dusky as the northern heavens4 ,the most conspicuous animals are the reindeer1 the white bear1 and the various seals2 but the most important are the whales1 which rank lowest of all the mammals4 ,the preponderance of marine animals clearly indicates an inferior development4 ,the faunas of the temperate regions are much more varied than in the ,arctic ,zone4 ,instead of consisting mainly of aquatic tribes1 we have a considerable number of terrestrial animals of graceful form1 animated appearance1 and varied coloring1 though less brilliant than those found in tropical regions4 ,it is in the tropics that animal life attains its highest development4 ,the boundless variety of species1 the richness of the colors1 the diversity of forms1 the size and strength of the great pachyderms that people the forests and rivers1 the fleetness and vigor of the ferocious denizens of the jungle and the plain1 all attest that this is the privileged zone4 ,and here only are found the quadruman1 which stand at the head of the animal kingdom4 ,such1 then1 is clearly the law of the physical world4 ,nature goes on adding perfection to perfection from the polar regions to the ,temperate ,zone1 and from the ,temperate ,zone to the region of the greatest heat4 ,animal life increases in strength and development2 the types are improved2 intelligence enlarges2 the form approaches nearer the human figure2 the ourang-outang occasionally stands erect2 and the presence of the mastoid and styloid processes1 the development of the heel-bone1 and the form of the pelvis1 together with the shape of the ears and a higher frontal development1 give the gorilla a startling resemblance to man4 ,following1 then1 the ascending series 7especially if man be regarded as the lineal descendant of the anthropomorphic apes71 we might reasonably suppose that here would be found the proper home and habitat of man1 and that the tropical man would be the highest type of humanity1 and1 physically speaking1 the most beautiful of the species4 ,but this1 as every one knows1 is not the case4 ,while all the types of plants and of animals go on increasing in perfection from the polar to the equatorial regions in proportion to the increase of temperature1 man presents to our view his purest1 his most perfect type at the very centre of the temperate continents1 at the centre of ,asia-,europe1 in the region of ,iran1 of ,armenia1 and of the ,caucasus21 and1 departing from this geographical centre in the three grand directions of the lands1 the types gradually lose the beauty of their forms in proportion to their distance1 even to the extreme points of the southern continents1 where we find the most deformed and physically degenerated races1 and the lowest in the scale of humanity4#cia ,the distribution of the human race over the face of the earth has thus been governed by a different law from that which has governed the distribution of plants and animals4 ,in the latter case1 the degree of perfection of the types is exactly proportional to the intensity of heat and other material conditions favorable to the development of physical life4 ,this is the law of a physical order4 ,in the former case1 in man1 the degree of perfection of the types is in proportion to the degree of intellectual and moral improvement1 and to the physical conditions favorable to intellectual and moral development4 ,this is the law of a moral order4 ,this difference between the two laws has its ground and reason in the essential difference between the nature and destination of these different orders of being4 ,the plant and the animal are not destined to become a different thing from what they already are4 ,the end of their existence is already attained4 ,the development of each individual is bound to an immutable necessity of nature4 ,therefore vegetable life and organization are ceaselessly uniform2 there are always the same cellular structures and the same morphological forms4 ,unreasoning and instinctive life never leaves its sphere4 ,the beaver builds its dam1 lives1 and dies1 just as it did six thousand years ago4 ,the bee builds the same hexagonal cell she built before the flood4 ,there is an all-pervading order in the physical world1 ,but with man it is quite otherwise4 ,man1 created in the image of ,god1 is a free moral being4 ,he is not solely under the dominion of mere nature-conditions1 and he is therefore a progressive being4 ,the physical man is not the true man2 the body is not an end1 but a means4 ,there is another man--the intellectual1 the moral1 the spiritual man--which grows up with the body1 and to which the physical man is a servant and minister4 ,the unfolding1 the development1 the perfection of this spiritual nature is the grand end of man4 ,this development can only take place under freedom2 this nature be unfolded only by education2 the maturity and the perfection of man secured only by the exercise and discipline of his spiritual powers4#cib ,who does not see a plan1 a purpose1 a ,providence in this fact that the cradle of the human race was placed in the midst of the continents of the north and not at the centre of the tropical regions8 ,the balmy but enervating atmosphere of the equatorial regions would have lulled man to sleep1 and he would have made no progress4 ,with an abundant supply for his natural wants1 there would have been no motive to industry1 to enterprise1 and to the development of his intellectual powers4 ,unable to endure the rigors of a colder climate1 and to live on a less luxuriant soil1 he could not have been induced to migrate to less favorable regions1 and1 crowded on a narrow area1 the race must have been finally exterminated4 ,but planted in the ,temperate ,zone1 in the midst of the continents of the ,north1 so well adapted by their forms1 their highly articulated peninsulas1 and their climate to stimulate the active powers of man1 to promote enterprise1 to favor commerce1 and hasten individual development and social organization1 he was surrounded by conditions most favorable to the fulfillment of his destiny4 ,it is also worthy of being noted that ,western ,asia was not only the geographical centre of the human race1 but also the grand centre of religious light--the cradle of man's spiritual nature4 ,it was here in the midst of the six great nations of antiquity--the ,babylonians1 the ,assyrians1 ,medes1 ,persians1 ,phnicians1 and ,egyptians--that for ages the living oracles proclaimed the ,truth of ,god1 and patriarchs and prophets and seers were received into intercourse with the higher world4 ,and it was in ,palestine1 the centre of the three continents of the ,old ,world1 and near five great seas--the highways of the world's travel and commerce--that ,jesus of ,nazareth taught the glad tidings of great joy for the nations1 and sent forth his apostles into all the world to preach that ,gospel to every creature4 #b4 ,another important fact which history enables us very distinctly to recognize is that those epochs of civilization which represent the highest degree of culture attained by man at different periods in his history have not succeeded one another in the same place1 but have passed from one country to another4 ,it is an undoubted historic fact1 as we have already seen1 that ,asia was the cradle of the human race4 ,western ,asia is the theatre of the earliest civilization of which we have any historic records4 ,then a newer and higher form appears on the peninsula of ,greece4 ,the centre of civilization again changes place1 and ,rome embraces and improves upon that of the ancient world4 ,then passing the ,alps1 still further to the west1 it spreads over ,france and ,germany and the ,british ,isles1 and assumes a nobler form2 and finally it crosses the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and develops its highest type in the ,new ,world4 ,this order may be called the geographical march of civilization4 ,in the principle we enounced at the opening of this chapter1 that the earth is the school-house of man--its highest function being to aid in his intellectual and moral training1 and furnish the conditions in which he may fulfill his noble destiny--we can recognize at once the reason and the law of this remarkable progression4 ,and as no single continent furnishes all the conditions necessary to the complete development of man1 and each of the three northern continents1 by virtue of its structure and climate and physical conditions1 has a special function to fulfill in the education of mankind1 so ,god1 in his providence1 has led the human family from east to west1 over the continents of the ,temperate ,zone1 in order to secure the education1 the moral advancement1 and the final perfection of our race4 ,the education of the race has1 no doubt1 proceeded very much in the same manner as the education of the individual4 ,the general law observable in the development of one human mind may be traced in the development of humanity as a whole4 ,that which takes place on the limited field of individual consciousness may also be found upon the larger field of universal consciousness1 which is the theatre of history2 and as one epoch succeeds another in the progress of the individual1 so must it be in the progress of nations4 ,what1 then1 are the clear and obvious stages in the development of the human mind8 ,do we not clearly recognize the following order8 #a4 ,the period of submission to absolute authority4 ,this is the first condition of infancy4 ,the child is controlled absolutely by the will of the parent4 ,it is almost passive amid surrounding conditions1 and parental authority is its only law of movement and action4 #b4 ,the discipline of the conscience4 ,this is the era of childhood4 ,the ideas of the right and the good are developed in the mind4 ,an internal law of duty begins to reveal itself4 ,the child begins to discriminate between what he ought and ought not to do4 ,and in the education of the child the object of a wise and virtuous parent is to strengthen this tendency by urging him to act upon these ideas4 #c4 ,the development of personal liberty--that is1 of independent thought and self-originated action4 ,this is the period of youth4 ,the youth passes from the control of his parents and teachers1 and begins to think and act for himself4 #d4 ,the training and discipline of the will under social law--that is1 the voluntary obedience to laws imposed by society1 submission to regulations imposed for the public good4 ,this is the period of manhood4 ,the young man passes into society1 he becomes a member of the body politic1 and freely acts1 not simply as an individual1 but as a member of a corporation and of a state4 #e4 ,the development of active philanthropy4 ,the man advances beyond the claims of social law1 and acts from the promptings of love and good-will toward all men4 ,passing through all the varied stages in the progressive development of human character1 and retaining the results of each1 he becomes the perfect man4 ,and now it will be promptly recognized that this has been the order of progress in humanity as a whole--that is1 the progress of history and of civilization4 ,the first corresponds with ,oriental1 the second with ,hebrew1 the third with ,greek1 the fourth with ,roman1 and the last with ,christian civilization4 ,it will also be observed that each epoch in the development of the individual has demanded new conditions1 and has taken place in a new sphere4 ,the first stage in the development of individual character is infoldment in the arms of the parent4 ,he is still held1 as it were1 within the circle of maternal life4 ,he is bewildered by the vastness and variety of external nature1 and he sinks back into his mother's arms4 ,the second sphere is in the bosom of the family and amid the scenes of domestic life1 where he recognizes relations and becomes conscious of duties4 ,the third is in the school and the outer world1 where thought awakens1 and1 enjoying more freedom of movement1 he becomes more conscious of his personal liberty4 ,the fourth is in society1 the state1 the arena of political life1 where his movements must be regulated by law2 and the pursuit of his own pleasure or aggrandizement must not interfere with the rights of his fellow-man4 ,the fifth and last is in the church1 the home of religious life1 where he is called to ascend from the region of mere law to that of holy love4 ,so also each epoch in the development of humanity has had its separate sphere and its new conditions1 first in ,asia proper1 next in ,palestine1 on the borders of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 then on the peninsula of ,greece1 then in ,italy1 and lastly in ,continental ,europe1 ,england1 and ,america4 #a4 ,asia1 as we have seen1 was the cradle of the race4 ,here1 in the infancy of humanity1 ,oriental ,civilization dawns4 ,amid the extended plains and lofty mountains of ,asia1 those stupendous and massive forms of ,oriental nature1 man felt himself absolutely dependent4 ,to the river he looked as the fertilizer of the soil2 to the animal which roamed in the desert1 and the almost spontaneous vegetation of the earth1 for his food2 to the sun1 as the fountain of light and heat1 the giver of life and death4#cic ,he was environed and overpowered by nature4 ,almost unconscious of his own freedom1 he lay in her bosom1 as the child reposes in the arms of its mother4 ,underlying all the massive forms of ,oriental nature he recognized an invisible ,power and ,presence1 and he worshiped nature as an impersonation of ,god4 ,every thing inspired him with the sense of the ,infinite1 the consciousness of dependence on an absolute ,will4 ,the patriarchal government1 imposed by nature1 restrained his personal liberty4 ,his property and life were at the disposal of his chief--an absolute autocrat1 who exercised over him an unlimited power4 ,oriental civilization unquestionably represents the infancy of man4 #b4 ,in ,hebrew civilization we have1 as an especial feature1 the discipline of the conscience4 ,the child-man comes more directly under the power of moral culture4 ,the government and discipline to which he is now subjected aim to develop in his mind the idea of the just1 the right1 the pure4 ,he is receiving instruction in what he ought and ought not to do4 ,his conceptions of the moral character of ,god are to be enlarged1 the idea especially of the holiness of ,god is to be developed in his mind through the medium of material symbols and religious rites4 ,the call of ,abraham sets forth at once the central lesson of faith in an unseen personal ,god4 ,the history of the patriarchs brings into clearer light the sovereignty of ,god as opposed to the mere dominion of nature and fate4 ,a nation grows up in presence of ,egyptian culture1 and after the purpose of ,god in the discipline of ,egypt is accomplished1 they are led into the wilderness1 and ,god now reveals ,himself as a ,lawgiver and ,judge1 and a ritual is given which teaches at once the holiness of ,god and the exceeding sinfulness of sin4#cid ,for the achievement of this object a new sphere is demanded--the seclusion and isolation of family life4 ,accordingly ,abraham was called to leave ,chalda1 the scene of ,oriental civilization1 and led into ,canaan1 that he might become the father of a great nation1 and the source of a new and better civilization4 ,the mountainous region of ,palestine was admirably fitted to be the theatre of this new civilization4 ,no other land on the globe was so peculiarly fitted to fulfill this office4 ,the northern half of ,syria was not so favorable a locality2 for traversed as it was by the great highway from ,asia ,minor to ,assyria1 it was subject to the influence of foreign travel from the earliest times4 ,but ,palestine lay surrounded by populous countries1 and yet isolated from them4 ,in the midst of the six great nations of antiquity--the ,babylonians1 the ,assyrians1 the ,medes1 ,persians1 ,phnicians1 and ,egyptians--it was separated from them all4#cie ,thus secluded and isolated from the rest of mankind1 the ,hebrews dwelt alone as one great family4 ,the first form of government was a patriarchy--the father of the family and of the tribe being the ruler4 ,the second was a theocracy1 in which ,god1 the ,father of the families of all the earth1 becomes the immediate ruler4 ,the third was a monarchy--the government of a man appointed and sustained in his authority by ,god4 ,and the history of this nation is little else than one of instruction1 discipline1 and chastisement--a tutelage in which the people were under law and not under grace4 ,the ,hebrew civilization represents the childhood of humanity4 ,and the lessons here taught were not lost to the race4 ,they were carried to ,assyria and ,babylonia during the period of the two captivities2 and in the colonies which were founded in ,asia ,minor1 ,rome1 and ,alexandria the influence exerted by ,judaism was considerably greater than that which was exerted upon it4 ,the union of ,judaism and ,platonism is fully represented in ,philo the ,alexandrian ,jew4 #c4 ,in ,grecian civilization we have the development of personal freedom of thought and action4 ,the ,divine discipline of the ,jews1 as we have seen1 was essentially a moral discipline--a discipline of the conscience4 ,this1 however1 was not a complete discipline of our whole nature4 ,the reason demands culture as well as the conscience4 ,the process and the issue in the two cases were widely different1 but they were in some sense complementary2 and the one succeeds the other in the order of time4 ,the ,divine kingdom of the ,jews was just overthrown when free speculation arose in the ,ionian colonies of ,asia2 and the teaching of the last prophet nearly synchronizes with the death of ,socrates4#cif ,this new civilization could not be achieved on the continent of ,asia1 and therefore a new theatre is prepared4 ,europe may be called a continuation of ,central ,asia4 ,it surpasses its ,oriental neighbor in the advantage of having no internal mountain barrier to divide its north and south4 ,thus ,europe has been able to develop itself more independently and freely in consequence of the number of its peninsular forms4444 ,the three characteristic features in the formation of ,europe that are the physical grounds of the development of its nations are its large extent of seaboard1 its peninsular forms1 and the number of its islands4#cig ,on the peninsula of ,greece1 on the shores of the gean and ,ionian seas1 there was freedom of movement1 facility of intercourse with the surrounding nations1 and inducements to maritime enterprise4 ,these conditions were undoubtedly favorable to a higher development4 ,the inland sea1 the magnificent river1 says ,cousin1 is the natural symbol of movement4 ,these represent the activity of nature1 and they become natural centres of progress4 ,the sea is the highway of commerce1 and commerce is the grand channel of ideas1 the medium through which the knowledge acquired by one people can flow readily into other lands4 ,amid such conditions the mind awakes to activity1 and the period of youth commences4 ,awakening thought is first directed to the outer world1 and attempts an explanation of its phenomena4 ,greek philosophy thus becomes1 at its first appearance1 a philosophy of nature1 and the ,ionian school was a school of physicists4 ,here the great names which appear at the dawn of mental activity are ,thales1 ,anaximander1 ,anaximenes1 ,heraclites1 and ,diogenes4 ,from the study of nature the human race advances to the study of man4 ,the new school is a school of moral and mental philosophy1 or1 more correctly1 of psychology and ethics1 adorned by such immortal names as ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4 ,in ,greece1 philosophy1 poetry1 eloquence1 the fine arts1 were extensively cultivated4 ,as this was an age of great activity of thought1 so it was also an age of great political freedom4 ,the government was in many respects a government of the people1 a democracy4 ,every thing1 in fact1 in ,greece bears evidence of the preponderance of human personality1 and the energy of individual character4#cih ,grecian civilization represents the youth of humanity4 ,the results of this culture were carried to other lands by the conquests of ,alexander1 and subsequently by the conquering ,romans4 ,the poets1 the architects1 the sculptors1 the historians1 the philosophers of ,greece1 are still the guides and models of the men of thought and taste in all cultivated nations4 ,the ,greek is still1 in a peculiar sense1 the teacher of the world4 #d4 ,in ,roman civilization we have the discipline of the will under social and civil law1 the more perfect organization of society and of government1 the development of the science of jurisprudence4 ,this social and political organization was a new work1 a higher civilization1 and it demanded a new and1 in fact1 a larger sphere4 ,the centre of the civilized world now changes place1 and1 moving westward1 establishes itself in the peninsula of ,italy4 ,by successive conquests its circumference enlarges1 and finally it embraces at once the ,south and the ,east and the ,west4 ,the place which ,rome occupied1 in the very middle of the basin of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 seemed to foreshadow that she was destined to become the metropolis of all the civilized nations who dwelt upon its shores4 ,rome extended its conquests to ,spain1 ,gaul1 ,britain1 ,illyria1 ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 ,egypt1 ,africa1 and the islands of the ,mediterranean--over1 in fact1 six hundred thousand square leagues of the most fertile country2 and all but realized the dream of the world's great conquerors--a universal empire4 ,it was defended by a regular army of five hundred thousand men1 ranged in the order of the famous legions1 which constituted the most effective military organization known4 ,the government of an empire of such vast proportions and diversity of populations demanded the greatest political skill4 ,to establish durable ties between these diverse peoples1 and to combine in the same social network all the civilized nations of the world1 demanded the highest legislative talent1 and gave birth to the science of jurisprudence1 which1 next to that of theology1 is the most important and useful to man4 ,the inability of the ,greek to achieve this great work is clearly evinced by the terrible ,peloponnesian ,war and the lamentable history of the empire of ,alexander and his successors4 ,greece represents individuality2 ,rome1 association1 unity1 and1 in some degree1 the equality of all races of men4 ,this was unquestionably a marvelous development3 ,in public law1 the extension1 step by step1 through many a civil commotion1 of the full rights of citizenship from the narrow circle of a few score of favored families to the entire sphere of the free subjects of the empire2 in private law1 the equal communication among various classes of the rights of property and dominion over the national soil2 the abolition of territorial privileges2 the readjustment1 by gradual and peaceful manipulation1 of the cadastral map of the empire2 the relaxation1 by slow and experimental process1 of the patriarchal authority of the head of the family2 of the father over the son1 whom at first he might punish1 sell1 or slay2 of the husband over the wife1 whom at first he received from her parents as the spoil of his own spear1 and ruled as the chattel he had plundered2#cii of the master over the slave1 absolute at first1 final and irresponsible to law1 custom1 or conscience2 the gradual replacement of the strictly national and tribal ideas on these subjects by views of right1 justice1 and virtue to mankind in general2 the slow but constant growth of principles of natural and universal law1 and their application1 searchingly and thoroughly1 to every subject of jurisprudence1 and to all the dealings of man with man4#djj ,this vast ,roman ,empire combined all the elements of civilization characteristic of former periods4 ,the philosopher1 the lawyer1 and the statesman were united in the person of her great men1 as ,cicero and ,cato1 and sometimes also the warrior1 as in the case of the first of the ,csars4 ,the days of the ,roman ,republic present the most brilliant social and political epoch in the history of the ancient world4 ,the life of a ,roman citizen was emphatically a public life4 ,the love of country was carried to the highest pitch1 and was paramount to every other consideration4 ,the laws and jurisprudence of ,ancient ,rome have furnished models for the whole civilized world4 ,the world-wide elastic system of jurisprudence by which the great ,roman ,empire1 with all its boundless variety of races1 creeds1 and manners1 was for ages harmoniously and equitably governed2 which was accepted and ratified as an eternal possession by the same empire when it became ,christian2 and has been proved to satisfy the principles of law and justice announced by a religion which alone proclaimed the unity and equality of man2444 finally1 a jurisprudence which has been incorporated into the particular legal systems of1 ,i suppose1 every modern nation in ,christendom1 marks a high degree of civilization1 and justifies us in regarding ,roman civilization as representing the manhood of our race4 #e4 ,and now comes1 last of all1 the ,christian civilization1 or the age of philanthropy4 ,when the ,roman ,empire had attained its zenith1 and all civilized nations were brought under one government2 and the world was at peace2 and the philosophy of ,greece and the jurisprudence of ,rome had prepared the way for a higher and a nobler civilization1 then1 in the fullness of time--the ripeness and maturity of the ages or dispensations--,god sent his ,son1 made under the law1 to redeem them that are under the law1 that we might receive the adoption of sons4 ,he came to exhibit completely the truth which had been partially revealed to ,plato1 that ,god is ,love--that ,love is creation's final law--and that the completeness and perfection of humanity is resemblance to ,god4#dja ,he came to announce and enforce the brotherhood of mankind1 and the equality of all classes and races in the sight of ,god4 ,he proclaimed the equal worth of all human souls in the estimation of the heavenly ,father2 and to prove that all men are alike the objects of ,divine care and solicitude1 ,he laid down his life as a propitiation for the sins of the whole world4 ,for the reception of this gospel of universal brotherhood and equal rights the ,grecian and ,roman civilizations had prepared the way4 ,and now ,he gives to the race the new commandment1 which is the fundamental law of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and is finally to become the universal law for all nations1 that ,men should love one another1 as ,he loved all men1 and laid down his life for them4 ,the whole spirit and tendency of this crowning form of civilization can not be misapprehended4 ,its sympathies are all with the poor1 the suffering1 and the oppressed2 it can not fail to overthrow castes and aristocracies1 to destroy tyranny1 oppression1 and slavery1 and at last to unite all men in bonds of love to each other and to ,god4 ,and now to what people shall be committed the office of diffusing and perpetuating this noblest and highest civilization8 ,not to the ,jewish nation1 for it was exclusive and selfish2 not to the ,greek1 for it had become effete2 not to the ,roman1 for it had become corrupt4 ,christianity1 it is true1 was born on ,jewish soil1 but it was soon transferred to a more favorable clime4 ,the ,church was early planted in ,rome1 but achieved its grandest conquests among another people4 ,the fierce ,germanic tribes of the ,north conquer the ,roman ,empire1 and are conquered by its ,christianity4 ,already the ,germans had the conception of an illimitable ,deity1 toward whom they looked with solemn and reverential awe4#djb ,having penetrated into the midst of the ,roman ,empire1 they came fully into the presence and under the influence of ,christianity4 ,their conversion was speedy and comparatively complete4 ,the constant intercourse now maintained between ,rome and ,central and ,northern ,europe in a short time carried this new civilization across the ,alps2 the circle rapidly widens1 and embraces all ,europe in a common faith4 ,all the rich treasures of the past are appropriated by ,christianity--the moral culture of the ,hebrew1 the poetry and philosophy of ,greece1 the jurisprudence of ,ancient ,rome4 ,all these--in so far as they are pure and good--are absorbed by ,christianity1 and ennobled and baptized by the ,christian spirit4 ,in ,christian ,europe poetry1 philosophy1 science flourished as they had never flourished in any preceding age1 and they lay their richest tribute at the feet of ,christ1 the ,divine ,king of the world4 ,nature1 also1 herself becomes more and more subject to man1 and to the religion of the ,god-man4 ,science multiplies the means of diffusing knowledge and the facilities of intercourse among the nations of the earth4 ,the discovery of the art of printing opens the ,book of ,life to the millions of our race4 ,space has been annihilated by railroads2 by the help of steam continents are united2 the electric telegraph is binding the nations in one4 ,and now the genius of ,christianity begins more signally to reveal itself as a power acting on the social life of man4 ,the forms and conditions of his earthly lot are being wonderfully transformed and improved4 ,science is emancipating labor1 and constantly overcoming the sources of human suffering4 ,hygienic science is preserving life and extending the term of human existence4 ,mankind is rising above the sphere of mere law1 into the sphere of noble love4 ,philanthropic institutions are being daily multiplied1 humanitarian and ,christian enterprises most vigorously prosecuted1 and a noble benevolence is rapidly supplanting the ignoble selfishness of former ages4 ,chalmers1 ,howard1 ,wilberforce1 ,hitchcock1 ,amos ,lawrence1 ,elizabeth ,fry1 ,florence ,nightingale1 ,mrs4 ,gladstone1 are representative men and women of the new age4 ,christian civilization is no longer the property of any one nation alone4 ,now it embraces in its purposes and plans the evangelization of all the nations of the earth4 ,the world is now its field4 ,the accumulated waves of light and power from ,hebrew and ,grecian and ,roman civilizations1 to which ,christianity has added a new life and force1 are destined to roll back a tide of blessing upon the remnants of those ancient nations1 and sweep northward and southward-- ,till like a sea of glory1 ,it spreads from pole to pole4 ,the crowning achievement of a ,christian civilization will be the political regeneration of the nations--the establishment of all human governments on the principles of human equality1 natural rights1 and the brotherhood of man4 ,the glory of this achievement1 in all its fullness1 is not1 however1 the work of ,europe4 ,she inherits too positively the martial spirit of ,ancient ,rome4 ,ancient customs and prescriptions1 hereditary castes1 aristocracies1 and kings1 and an ecclesiastical polity moulded by these1 stand in the way of a ,christianity of equality1 of freedom1 and of universal brotherhood4 ,europe has her roots too deeply infixed in the past to adapt herself1 fully and readily1 to the enlarged principles of a thoroughly ,christian civilization4 ,a new country is therefore needed1 a ,new ,world1 where ,christianity can remodel human society1 and reconstruct human governments upon her own principles1 and the human race can enter upon the last stage in its progress toward the now visible portals of its final goal4 ,the ,east1 says ,ritter1 represents hope1 the ,west1 fulfillment4 ,that new continent was discovered just at the proper hour4 ,had ,north ,america been discovered earlier1 it would have been peopled by ,catholic nations1 and the noble civilization which ,christianity was designed to achieve would have been cramped and fettered by the hand of an ecclesiastical hierarchy4 ,the ,new ,world reposed quietly in the bosom of a yet untraversed ocean awaiting the advent of the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,luther drew the ,bible from its concealment in the library of the ,university of ,erfurt at the same time 7#aejb7 that ,columbus discovered the ,american continent4#djc ,the first settlers in ,new ,england were eminently ,protestant4 ,they were men who loved the ,word of ,god1 and they sought to organize society in this new country upon its holy principles4 ,this new colonization had its birth amid the agonizing throes of martyrdom4 ,the ,pilgrim ,fathers had been persecuted and driven from home for ,christ's sake4 ,they sought the desert that they might have freedom to worship ,god according to the dictates of their own consciences2 and they braved the dangers of the almost untraveled deep1 and the perils of an inhospitable shore in mid-winter1 to lay the foundations of a new empire which should be the home of liberty1 and the sanctuary of piety for themselves and their children4 ,the ,puritan love of freedom and reverence for religion has left its impress on the mind and character of the ,american people1 upon their modes of thought1 and upon the institutions of their country4 ,the ideas of universal liberty and equal justice are interwoven in her ,constitution1 and1 in general1 the spirit of her legislation has been in accordance therewith4 ,a relic of barbarism landed at ,jamestown1 in ,virginia1 which after a fierce struggle of years was finally conquered1 and the rank offense was expiated by tears and blood4 ,god has destroyed slavery in ,america by the breath of his mouth1 and its death-knell has sounded all over the globe4 ,the cause of freedom is stronger in ,europe as the reflex of her triumphs here4 ,finally1 a remarkable characteristic of the civilization of the ,new ,world is the emancipation of man from the dominion of nature4 ,by an amazing fertility of mechanical contrivance man is here rapidly subduing the earth4 ,released from merely local and hereditary ties1 he spreads freely over the vast territory1 and rapidly multiplies the means of easy locomotion4 ,the soil is being extensively cultivated2 the climate1 even1 modified2 the physiognomy of nature changed by the intelligence of man2 and a regenerated earth is to be1 at last1 the consequence of a regenerated race4 ,physical nature sympathizes with the intellectual and moral condition of man4 ,science is anticipating the time when the earth will only produce cultivated plants and domestic animals2 when man's selection shall have supplanted 'natural selection2' and when the ocean alone will be the only domain in which that power can be exerted which for countless cycles of ages ruled supreme over the earth4#djd ,the whole creation has groaned and travailed together in pain until now1444 waiting for the manifestation of the sons of ,god4 ,verily there is a ,god that not only judges in the earth1 but guides and instructs the nations1 and who in the development of the earth and of history worketh all things according to his eternal counsel and purpose1 that for the rational creation ,god may be all in all4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,special ,,providence ,,and ,,prayer4 ,england's thinkers are again beginning to see1 what they had only temporarily forgotten1 that the difficulties of metaphysics lie at the root of all science4--,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,the most sharply defined issue between ,science and ,religion--in fact1 the only real issue at the present time--is in regard to the doctrine of ,special ,providence and the efficacy of ,prayer4 ,these are not in reality two distinct questions3 they are but opposite phases of one and the same question4 ,the doctrine of special providence is the theoretic aspect1 and the doctrine of the efficacy of prayer is the practical aspect of the ,christian doctrine of the relation of ,god to nature and man4 ,we can not1 therefore1 discuss the practical question apart from the theoretic2 neither can we reach any decisive conclusions in regard to either unless we start with clear and well-defined conceptions of the fundamental relations between ,god and nature1 and between ,god and man4 ,we shall assume the existence of ,god as the common postulate of all religion and of all philosophy4 ,if this be denied1 then all discussion of the present question is useless1 because we have no common starting-point4 ,but it will not be denied1 we think1 that the vast majority of scientific men are agreed that the idea of ,god is the necessary presupposition of all those branches of science which concern themselves with genetic problems--that is1 with problems of origin2 and which1 strictly speaking1 are not problems of science1 but of philosophy4 ,these scientists may not all choose to employ the term ,god1 but they will all recognize1 with ,mr4 ,spencer1 the existence of an unconditioned ,cause as the ultimate of all ultimates1 and they will admit with him that the ,first ,cause must be infinite1 absolute1 and perfect1 including within itself all power and transcending all law4#dje ,mr4 ,spencer calls this idea of a ,first ,cause a datum of consciousness2 and he asserts that this inexpugnable consciousness1 in which religion and philosophy are at one with common-sense1 is likewise that on which all exact science is founded4#djf ,taking this fundamental presupposition as generally conceded--namely1 the existence of a ,power which is unoriginated and independent2 a ,power which is conscious of itself and determines itself2 a ,power which transcends all law and is the source of all law--the question at issue may be thus stated--,have our prayers any influence with this ,power8 ,can they in any way affect the ,divine feeling and action toward us8 ,do they have any indirect influence upon that succession of events in nature and history which is effectuated and determined by that ,supreme ,power8 ,this is the real question at issue between science and religion4 ,nothing need be said to deepen our sense of the importance of this issue4 ,we all regard it as one of the vital questions of the hour1 the most vital question for religious men1 yea1 the most vital question for scientific men1 inasmuch as there are moments of sadness and sorrow1 of doubt and mystery1 when man feels that his only refuge is in prayer1 and1 science or no science1 he must pray4 ,but if there is no living ,god to sympathize with us in our sorrow and help us in our deepest need1 or1 which amounts to the same thing1 if ,god is so completely environed by laws which ,he has ,himself enacted1 and so imprisoned in his own works that ,he can do nothing to aid us1 then prayer is an illusion1 and instead of being in any way beneficial to us1 it inflicts a deep and irreparable injury upon our intellectual and moral life4 ,if there is nothing in the universe but mechanical force and necessary law2 if there is no freedom and no moral purpose1 then prayer for help and succor and guidance is a conscious or unconscious deception practiced by the soul upon itself1 and the sooner we are undeceived the better2 for of all deception the most pernicious and depraving is that which a man practices upon himself4 ,we could not even accept the cold apology for prayer which was made by ,david ,hume1 that it may have a wholesome reflex influence upon the mind of the worshiper1 and be a good way of preaching to ourselves4#djg ,there can be nothing useful or helpful in the belief and practice of a lie4 ,no accession of moral force or moral purity can come from doing any thing in which we do not believe4 ,if there is any moral value and any real helpfulness in prayer1 it must be based upon a rational belief that the ,divine mind is accessible to the supplication of his creature1 and that the ,divine will is moved thereby4 ,he that cometh to ,god must believe that ,he is1 and that ,he is a rewarder of them that diligently seek ,him4 ,humbly professing this belief without any reservation1 and regarding it as a perfectly rational belief1 we proceed to defend it against certain so-called scientific objections1 and to consider certain difficulties which present themselves to the minds of scientific men4 ,we have said that there is a real issue between science and religion as to the efficacy of prayer4 ,the statement is not strictly correct1 and we amend it by saying that the issue is not between science and religion1 but between certain men who study and teach science and certain men who study and teach religion4 ,for1 as ,mr4 ,murphy observes1 ,the antagonism between science and religion themselves is purely imaginary4 ,the antagonism between the men who study and teach science and the men who study and teach religion is unfortunately sometimes real1 though it is the fashion just now to exaggerate it2 but so far as it is real it is an accident of the present time1 which will disappear1 and indeed is already visibly disappearing4#djh ,no man is in a position to affirm that there is an antagonism between science and religion until he has first clearly determined the sphere and function of each1 and can say distinctly what science is and what religion is4 ,he may have utterly misconceived the nature of religion1 or he may have misapprehended the function of science1 and therefore the supposed antagonism may be purely imaginary4 ,for example1 ,herbert ,spencer says1 ,every religion may be defined as an priori theory of the universe4#dji ,if this definition were correct1 we could easily conceive how religion and modern science might come into collision1 because the tendency of science at the present time is to occupy itself with questions of origin--that is1 with theories of the origin of things1 instead of being1 as ,spencer defines it1 a systematic collection of facts1 ascertained with precision1 and so classified and generalized as to reveal the uniform relations of co-existence and succession among phenomena1 and thus give prevision4 ,this is the legitimate sphere of all that science which can lay any claim to be regarded as exact science4 ,when it transcends this limit it ceases to be science and becomes philosophy--a philosophy which will be more or less valid and legitimate as it recognizes the authority and submits to the guidance of priori ideas of the reason4 ,but is ,mr4 ,spencer's definition of religion correct8 ,we think not4 ,indeed1 it would be difficult to give a definition of religion wider from the mark4 ,he might with just as much propriety have said that religion is an priori theory of the origin of language1 of government1 of trade1 or of music4 ,either ,mr4 ,spencer must have made this definition for an unworthy purpose1 or he must be in utter darkness as to the nature of religion4 ,one needs only to cast a hasty glance over the history of ancient religions1 or to consider with an unprejudiced mind any of the contemporaneous forms of religion1 to be convinced that religion is1 and always has been1 a mode of life determined by the sense of dependence upon a ,supreme ,power4#daj ,religion has always been a matter of practical interest and personal concernment1 and has no more to do with theories of the universe than with theories of light1 or theories of electricity1 or theories of political economy4 ,the separate spheres of religion and science have been admirably defined by ,james ,martineau in a few words--,science discloses the ,method of the world but not its cause2 religion or theology discloses the ,cause of the world but not its method4 ,there is no conflict between them except when either forgets its ignorance of what the other alone can know4#daa ,this is well said1 and directly to the point4 ,religion1 or more properly theology 7for theology is the objective correlate and piety the subjective correlate of religion71 teaches what ,god is1 what are his attributes1 what are the moral and spiritual relations which subsist between ,god and man1 and what are the duties which arise out of these relations4 ,science teaches what nature is1 and what are the relations and laws of natural phenomena4 ,science is the co-ordination of phenomena4 ,here no conflict can arise4 ,the truths which are taught by each rest on their own appropriate evidence1 and they are capable of verification by direct or indirect reduction to experience--the facts of science to external experience1 and the facts of religion to internal experience4 ,these experiences can not1 in the nature of the case1 be contradictory1 because religion deals with one class of facts and science with another4 ,such being the case1 the scientist may be as certain of the reality of religion as of the reality of science--that is1 he may be directly and immediately conscious of the same feeling of reverence1 the same sense of dependence1 the same feeling of obligation1 and the same loyalty of soul toward the unseen ,power which makes for righteousness1#dab which is experienced by the unscientific believer4 ,this is frankly avowed by ,dr4 ,tyndall4 ,he says1 ,the facts of religious feeling are to me as certain as the facts of physics2 and he refers with evident emotion to a period in his earlier years when he prized the conscious strength and pleasure derived from moral and religious feeling4 ,give me1 he says1 their health1 and there is no spiritual experience of those earlier years1 no resolve of duty or work of mercy1 no act of self-denial1 no solemnity of thought1 no joy in the life and aspect of nature which would not still be mine4#dac ,we doubt not that there are thousands of scientific men who to-day might bear the same testimony4 ,here the question will suggest itself1 ,how1 then1 comes it to pass that there exists any antagonism between the teachers of science and the teachers of religion8 ,we answer1 the antagonism has arisen on that debatable ground which lies between the two1 where speculative thought1 whether from the stand-point of religion or the stand-point of science1 seeks to form definite conceptions of the relation between ,god and nature1 to bring our outer and inner experiences into a higher unity of reason1 and to construct priori theories of the origin of things4 ,we do not presume to say that these metaphysical speculations are either futile or improper4 ,but what we do insist upon1 and beg the reader distinctly to note1 is that these speculations are neither scientific nor religious1 and that neither true science nor true religion is responsible for them4 ,they are not religious1 even though indulged in by theologians2 because religion is solely concerned with the personal consciousness of our relation to ,god1 and the discharge of our personal duty to ,god1 and not in the remotest sense with any theory as to the method of causation in the world around us4 ,it is equally certain that these speculations are not scientific1 even though indulged in by scientists2 because science deals only with phenomena1 and the laws of phenomena2 and it is a fundamental canon of all scientific induction that no problem is to be mooted unless it can be presented in terms of experience1 and no principles are to be admitted which can not be verified by experiment4 ,but the modern speculations respecting the origin of motion1 of life1 and of mind can not be presented in terms of sensible experience1 and can not be verified by actual experiment4 ,so far as sensible experience goes1 every case of physical motion is a transformation of energy1 and every new physiological unit or aggregation of units is derived from pre-existent bioplasm4 ,and so ,dr4 ,tyndall1 in the speculations in which he indulges1 in the now celebrated ,inaugural ,address delivered at ,belfast1 particularly in regard to the origin of life1 admits that he oversteps the boundary of the experimental evidence2 therefore1 by his own admission1 these speculations are unscientific4#dad ,these discussions are inevitable1 and even valuable4 ,we would protest as earnestly as ,dr4 ,tyndall against the attempt of any man to set limits to human thought1 but we would equally protest against the attempt to pass off the results of speculative thinking in any direction as exact science4 ,true science is itself dishonored and discredited by all such attempts4 ,we have said that it is solely within the field of speculative thought that all controversy has arisen concerning the doctrine of special providence and the efficacy of prayer4 ,this will be apparent from the consideration of the fact that from the dawn of speculative thought to the present hour two radically opposite theories of the origin of things have prevailed--one mechanical1 the other vital4 ,the vital theory regards nature as the product and the continued work of an ever-living and ever-creating ,spirit1 who is the immediate fountain of all force1 and the immanent life of all that lives4 ,it looks upon the universe as the manifestation and the abode of a ,free ,mind like our own1 who realizes his thoughts in its collocations and adjustments1 embodies his ideals in its typical forms1 and by his free volition subordinates nature to the higher purposes of intellectual and moral life--the formation of noble human characters4 ,in a world so constituted prayer is a real power1 and human character is a free development through the power of prayer which influences that ever-present ,will that sustains our life4 ,the mechanical theory regards the world as a huge machine supplied with motor power in the primal act of creation1 and then left to make its own history according to rigid laws of mechanics and the multiplication table4 ,there is no ,power which makes for righteousness1 and no purpose of love mingling in the necessary order of things4 ,evolution is the only law of creation2 there is nothing spontaneous1 nothing free4 ,all the processes of nature1 all the forms of life1 all the facts of consciousness1 all the sympathies1 sacrifices1 joys1 and sorrows of social life1 and all the noble or ignoble deeds of history1 are only mechanical functions which can be weighed or measured1 and catalogued in tables of statistics4 ,inflexible necessity1 inexorable law1 absolute uniformity1 unbroken continuity tell the story of the universe4 ,in such a world there is no place for prayer1 or at most it is but the cry of anguish wrung from the lips of those who are being mangled and crushed by the ponderous mechanism1 which floats away into the infinite spaces1 and never finds a living ear or touches a compassionate heart4 ,then1 as ,dr4 ,hedge puts the melancholy case1 ,we must rough it as best we can with driving-wheel and fly-wheel1 and trust that the power may not fail and the gearing foul in our short day4 ,this is the position of some1 but by no means of the majority of the scientists of our time4 ,we venture the assertion that it is no part of the doctrine of modern science1 neither does it follow as a logical consequence from any of the accepted principles of modern science1 nor does it reflect the real feeling of the best exponents of modern science4 ,dr4 ,tyndall stands as one of the most popular exponents of scientific knowledge1 and may be regarded as a fair representative of the feelings of many scientific men4 ,and in his estimation the problem of problems of our day is to find a legitimate satisfaction for the religious emotions4 ,he admits that these religious emotions are inexpugnable facts of human nature1 as certain and as incontestable as the facts of physics4 ,now what is meant by a legitimate satisfaction of the religious emotions8 ,does it not mean that human reverence must have a real and a worthy ,object8 that for human duty there must be an imperative ground of obligation8 that for true loyalty of soul to truth and right there must be an eternal reason8 and that the instinctive trust of the soul in everlasting righteousness and everlasting love must have a rational vindication8 ,where shall we look for this object8 ,may we look upward and onward1 or have we nothing to do but yield to the pressure from behind and below8 ,what conception are we to form of that mysterious ,power or ,principle which stands in necessary correlation with the religious nature of man8 ,dr4 ,tyndall permits us to fashion this conception as we will--with that he has nothing to do2 only he demands that in doing so we observe two conditions3 #a4 ,be careful that your conception is not an unworthy one2 invest it with your highest and holiest thoughts4 #b4 ,allow no intrusion of purely creative power into any series of phenomena1 no arbitrary interference with the order of nature for special purposes4 ,the first condition would be violated by our conceiving that ,power as purely mechanical1 for then the sublimest interests of our moral and spiritual life would be surrendered to the action of the same force as that which draws a stone to the earth4 ,the conception of unconscious and unmoral force is not our highest and holiest thought--it can not inspire reverence and loyalty and love4 ,the second condition would be violated by our regarding that ,power as arbitrary--that is1 as following no law2 for that would be opposed to all the inductions of modern science1 and would invalidate all conclusions based on the assumed permanence of natural laws4 ,the problem1 then1 is to steer between the ,scylla and ,charybdis of mechanism and arbitrariness1 and find the open sea where freedom may move in harmony with law1 and where1 in the grand hierarchy of laws the physical order of the world may be co-ordinated with1 perhaps subordinated to1 the higher reign of righteousness and love4 ,the solution of this problem can only be reached through the discussion of the following questions3 #a4 ,what are the facts of religious feeling involved in this problem1 and what are the necessary correlatives of these facts8 #b4 ,what are the facts concerning the order of nature involved in the problem1 and what are the logical inferences from these facts8 #c4 ,how can the conception of the ,force which is manifested in the phenomena of nature be brought into harmony with the idea of ,god as revealed in the religious consciousness8 #a4 ,first1 then1 what are the facts of religious feeling which as experiences of consciousness are perfectly beyond the assaults of logic1 and what are the necessary correlatives of these facts8 ,we present first of all the incontestable fact that prayer is natural to man4 ,like our instinctive belief in the being of ,god1 the accountability of man1 and the immortality of the soul1 we have also an instinctive prompting to pray1 and an instinctive belief in the efficacy of prayer4 ,this is an essentially human characteristic2 it is common to all men4 ,man has been defined in many ways1 as a rational animal1 a social animal1 a tool-using animal1 a language-speaking animal2 with more justice may he be called a praying animal1 for prayer is a universal characteristic and fundamental differentia of man4 ,never has the traveler yet found a people which did not pray4 ,tribes of men have been found without houses1 without raiment1 without letters1 without science1 but never without prayer any more than without speech4 ,this was remarked by ,plutarch eighteen centuries ago1#dae and the researches and explorations of modern travelers and ethnologists have added confirmation to its truth4 ,the flow of prayer from human lips is just as natural as the flow of speech4 ,is man in danger or in sorrow1 his most natural and spontaneous refuge is in prayer4 ,the suffering1 bewildered1 terror-stricken soul that knows not where to fly1 flies to ,god4 ,there are few men1 probably no men1 who in moments of extreme peril or intense anguish can resist the impulse to pray4 ,nature is stronger than all our logic2 and1 science or no science1 the cry for help will rise from the lips of even skeptical men4#daf ,we ask that these facts may be fully considered and fairly estimated4 ,the instinctive tendency to pray is a universal fact of human nature1 as valid and as significant as any fact in physics4 ,it presents as rightful a claim to be taken account of in our theories of the ultimate constitution of the universe as the ,first ,law of ,motion or the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,if we disregard it1 our ,systema ,mundi will be one-sided and partial1 and1 instead of being a philosophy1 will be only a caricature4 ,we do not claim that the presence in man of this instinctive tendency to pray proves the efficacy of prayer--that is1 proves the existence of a living ,god and ,father who hears and answers prayer4 ,but it does establish a strong presumption in favor of the doctrine2 for how comes it to pass that the sentiment is so perennial and so universal8 ,either it was originally implanted in the soul of man by the ,creator1 or there exists something in the constitution of nature--the relation between the organism and its environment--which determines this feeling in man1 and in either case it must be regarded as normal1 and as essential to humanity4 ,if nature teaches us to pray1 and1 as it were1 compels us to pray1 then we are justified in the assumption that there is nothing in the ultimate constitution of nature which can contradict her own ordinances and render prayer an absurdity4 ,the next fact to which we desire to direct attention is that prayer is an essential element of life--we do not mean physical life1 but that which gives significance and value and completeness to human existence--namely1 ethical and spiritual life4 ,that religion is deeply seated in the nature of man1 and1 in fact1 ineradicable1 is conceded by ,dr4 ,tyndall4 ,no atheistical reasoning1 he says1 can dislodge religion from the heart of man4 ,logic can not deprive us of life1 and religion is life to the religious4 ,as an experience of consciousness1 it is perfectly beyond the assaults of logic4#dag ,this general admission that man has a religious nature1 a religious consciousness1 is important4 ,the bearing of this upon our argument will be obvious when we have considered more particularly the nature and content of this religious consciousness4 ,in what does it consist8 ,into what elements is it resolvable by psychological analysis8 ,we answer1 religious consciousness is a consciousness conditioned by the idea of ,god1 and involves a sense of dependence2 a feeling of reverence2 a sense of obligation2 a sentiment of loyalty2 a conscious community of nature2 and a longing for a deeper fellowship with the ,divine4 ,every thing around us and every thing within us makes us conscious of limitation and dependence4 ,we know that our own existence is not self-originated or self-sustained4 ,we have the sense of an immanent all-pervading ,life which sustains and conditions our life4 ,we have the sentiment of an overshadowing ,power and ,presence which compasses us behind and before1 and lays its hand upon us1 and we are constrained to bow in reverence and awe before that ,power which controls our destiny4 ,with the sense of dependence is associated the feeling of obligation to conform our conduct to the will of this ,supreme ,being1 and to subordinate the ruling purpose of our life to the ,divine purpose of creation so far as that purpose can be known4 ,there is also more or less loyalty of soul to what is just and true1 a natural and constitutional sympathy of reason with the law of ,god--it delights in that law1 and consents that it is good4 ,finally1 there is the consciousness of some community of nature between ,god and man1 and some living susceptibility to the influences and inspirations of the higher world which authorizes the belief that there may be a communion of thought1 a relation of conscience1 and an approach of affection between the ,divine and human that shall purify and elevate our nature1 and lift us up into a resemblance to ,god4 ,the bearing of all that we have just said on the necessity of prayer will have already suggested itself to the reader4 ,the feeling of dependence1 the sense of feebleness will prompt man to pray4 ,man is not sufficient for himself4 ,he is not fit to be his own all in all4 ,he has not resources within himself to supply his own spiritual wants4 ,he needs some external succor1 some support to the will1 some inspiration from without4 ,and he can become a strong man and a noble man only by aspiring and striving after something beyond and above himself-- ,unless above himself he can ,erect himself1 how mean a thing is man6 ,when his affections and cares and thoughts all centre upon himself1 his soul shrivels down to a dreary selfishness1 and becomes a dry microscopic point1 or else a mass of putrid sensuality4 ,man needs a lofty object above himself1 after which he may aspire and upon which he may lay hold and lift himself into a nobler form of life4 ,that lofty object is the ideal of a perfect1 noble human character4 ,the formation of noble human character1 says ,mr4 ,murphy1 is the highest work that man or1 so far as we know1 that ,god can be engaged in4#dah ,the thoughtful mind recognizes that there is a purpose to be fulfilled in life which is nobler than mere enjoyment4 ,who has dared to say that our highest duty is to be happy8 ,but every one must feel that it is our highest duty to form a nobler character and let the happiness take care of itself4 ,and now is it not a fact of experience that the more a man strives after a pure and noble life1 the more does he become conscious of the need of superhuman strength and grace8 ,he finds that he has to wage an uncompromising1 sometimes even agonizing warfare against hereditary taints of blood1 against morbid instincts and low passions1 against inherent selfishness and meanness1 against tyrant habits engendered in the recklessness of youth1 against the temptations of designing men and abandoned women1 and the false sentiment1 despotic opinion1 and arbitrary customs of modern fashionable society4 ,in the presence of these giants of evil with their fetters of iron he stands appalled1 and against himself1 against his temptations and sins1 even against society itself1 he feels he must call upon ,god for help4 ,through ,divine strength he may conquer2 without it--never4 ,there are those who hope to conquer evil through a certain inherent force of nature1 or a certain self-caused and self-attained culture4 ,we do not dare to say that they will utterly fail1 or that what they achieve is utterly valueless4 ,but we do say that the character they develop is not the highest style of excellence4 ,there is in it a boldness bordering on audacity1 a self-sufficiency akin to haughtiness1 and an arbitrariness which is repulsive4 ,the very basis of a noble character1 the very essence of that prophetic power which has exerted the mightiest influence on the destinies of man1 is humility4 ,the loftiest and finest minds have been eminently trustful--men of heroic confidence who derived their inspiration and confessed their dependence on the light and strength which come from above4 ,these are the men who really shape the history of the world1#dai these are the men who command the esteem and win the reverence even of unbelievers4 ,we can not illustrate this point better than by quoting the words of ,dr4 ,tyndall in regard to ,michael ,faraday4 ,faraday1 it is well known1 was one of the greatest of modern scientists--it ought also to be as widely known that he was a devout ,christian4 ,tyndall dined with ,faraday1 and on that occasion ,faraday said grace4 ,tyndall writes3 ,i am almost ashamed to call his prayer a 'saying' of grace4 ,in the language of ,scripture1 it might be described as the petition of a son into whose heart ,god had sent the ,spirit of his ,son1 and who1 with absolute trust1 asked a blessing from his father4 ,we dined on roast beef1 ,yorkshire pudding1 and potatoes2 drank sherry1 talked of research and its requirements1 and of his habit of keeping himself free from the distractions of society4 ,he was bright and joyful--boylike1 in fact--though he is now sixty-two4 ,his work excites my admiration1 but contact with him warms my heart4 ,here surely is a strong man4 ,i love strength1 but let me not forget the example of its union with modesty1 tenderness1 and sweetness in the character of ,faraday4#dbj ,this1 then1 is the point we desire to emphasize4 ,it is a fact of experience that prayer can give calmness1 purity1 and strength of soul4 ,it can lighten perplexity and sorrow4 ,it can empower us to resist temptation1 and enable us to overcome sin4 ,it can give modesty1 tenderness1 and sweetness to character4 ,in a word1 it can aid us materially in the formation of a noble human character4 ,noble character can only be formed under two conditions4 ,first1 it can only be formed under the condition of freedom4 ,the unfree is the unmoral4#dba ,there can be no dignity and no moral worth in action which results from mere mechanical force4 ,personality alone has responsibility1 dignity1 and worth4 ,if1 then1 moral personality has true freedom and self-determination1 we are free to pray1 and ,god is free to answer prayer4 ,we may believe that the physical world is held in iron bands of necessary causation1 but we can not believe that the moral world is so bound4 ,the human will is free1 and the ,divine will is free4 ,the ,first ,cause1 says ,mr4 ,spencer1 includes within itself all power--therefore alternative power--and transcends all law--therefore it can not be necessitated4 ,we can not doubt that ,mr4 ,tyndall would freely accord this position4 ,he might hesitate1 he would unquestionably refuse to unite in prayer for rain1 for example1 because he holds that the fall of rain is governed by changeless physical laws1 and no act of humiliation1 individual or national1 could call one shower from heaven2 this would be a miracle1 and the age of miracles is past4#dbb ,but we do not see how he could refuse to unite in the prayers of the ,national ,church for the forgiveness of sins1 for strength to overcome sin1 for fortitude to endure1 and for consolation under the afflictions and sorrows incident to human life4 ,the second condition necessary to the development of noble character is that man shall be capable of receiving inspiration from the great source of all life1 especially of all spiritual life4 ,the universal belief of our race that there is a community of nature between ,god and man1 expressed alike in the words of ,aratus1 the ,asiatic poet1 ,cleanthes1 the ,stoic philosopher1 and ,paul1 the ,christian teacher--,we are the offspring of ,god--justifies the further expectation and hope that there may be a real communion between the human and the ,divine4 ,of course this is fundamentally a question between ,theism and ,atheism1 between a ,god and no ,god1 between a conscious ,being and an unconscious ,force4 ,if there is a personal ,god1 then ,he may communicate with our souls which dwell1 as it were1 within the ocean of his immensity1 and are surrounded and interpenetrated by his living presence4 ,then there may be a real sympathy1 a loving fellowship1 and a sanctifying communion4 ,even should science forbid the ,author of nature to interpose in the slightest degree in the procession of phenomena or modify in the least the action of the so-called natural forces1 surely it will not be so audacious#dbc as to forbid that ,he shall come near to human souls1 and interpose in the moral order of the world to deliver man from sin and purify and elevate human society4 ,here at any rate science is out of its place4 ,it is guilty of that very presumption with which it is evermore charging the theology of the ,middle ,ages1 viz41 the attempt to monopolize the whole field of human knowledge and experience4 ,if the good man does feel that ,god is with him and in him1 if he knows by experience that prayer is an act of ,divine communion--that it opens to him an unfailing fountain of refreshment1 solace1 and strength2 if he is conscious that it does lift him up to a larger and more blessed life1 then even science1 which boasts its rigid adherence to the inductive method1 and its unswerving loyalty to fact and experience1 must obey the ,divine injunction--,be still1 and know that ,i am ,god4 ,i dwell with him that is of a contrite and humble spirit1 to revive the spirit of the humble1 and to revive the heart of the contrite4 #b4 ,we come now to the consideration of the second question1 ,what are the facts concerning the order of nature which have been placed beyond controversy by the inductions of science1 and what are the logical inferences from these facts8 ,the facts concerning the order of nature which it is claimed are placed beyond controversy may be stated in the following words3 ,now of all the results of science1 none is more universal and more emphatic than this3 that there is no arbitrariness in the series of events which constitute our experience2 but that a perfect order or uniformity prevails through them all1 an order which our intellect can apprehend under the form of cause and effect1 or permanent force and necessary phenomena1 or1 better1 a constant persistency of amount both of matter and force in the universe4#dbd ,this statement of the scientist is accepted by many theologians 7of the ,calvinistic school71 who say with ,rev4 ,william ,knight1 ,the doctrine of the persistence of physical force and the invariability of natural law1 is a physical truth of which the theological phase or corollary is the uniformity of ,divine operation and the inviolableness of ,divine love4 ',the permanence of the order of nature' is the scientific equivalent of the ,divine constancy--'the same yesterday1 to-day1 and forever4'#dbe ,how far and in what sense we accept this doctrine will be seen as we advance in the discussion4 ,at the beginning of this chapter we remarked that if the ,christian doctrine of the efficacy of prayer is disputed1 whether on theoretical or experiential grounds1 an adequate and complete defense can only be made by falling back upon the fundamental conception of ,god1 and the relation of ,god to nature and humanity presented in the preceding chapters of this volume4 ,is there a ,god in the proper and commonly accepted sense of the term--a conscious1 free1 personal ,first ,cause1 the ,creator of the world and man8 ,is ,he the immanent ,conservator of the universe--is his omnipotence the force1 his reason the law1 and his omnipresence the life of all nature8 ,these are the questions which must be settled before we can successfully deal with the problem of the efficacy of prayer4 ,if we are not agreed on these points1 the debate must be adjourned until we have settled the first principles which underlie the discussion4 ,this will be obvious to all who are acquainted with the history of the controversy4 ,if it can be proved that there is no conscious1 free1 personal ,god1 the creator and conservator of the universe1 the question is settled2 then prayer can be of no avail1 and must be abandoned to the domain of recognized superstitions4 ,but if it be admitted that there is a ,god1 in the proper import of that term1 then the question may be debated whether the ,christian doctrine of the efficacy of prayer is consistent with the scientific conception of material nature as the living garment of ,god4#dbf ,dr4 ,tyndall is the fairest and ablest representative of that class of scientific men who to-day are denying the efficacy of prayer--that is1 of such prayer the answer to which would seem to involve the interference of personal volition in the economy of nature2 and he believes in the existence of a ,god4 ,he has again and again repelled with feeling the imputation of atheism which the ,english theologians have inconsiderately and unfairly cast upon him4 ,he is a frank1 outspoken man1 and he admits that in his hours of weakness and doubt he has temptations to material atheism4 ,but1 he says1 ,i have noticed that it is not in hours of clearness and vigor that this doctrine commends itself to my mind1 and that in presence of stronger and healthier thoughts it ever disappears as offering no solution of the mystery in which we dwell and of which we form a part4#dbg ,he also expresses his conviction that the ,power which works for righteousness is intelligent as well as ethical4#dbh ,and furthermore he asserts that it is no departure from scientific method to place behind natural phenomena a universal ,father who1 in answer to the prayers of his children1 alters the currents of those phenomena4 ,thus far theology and science go hand in hand4#dbi ,let it1 then1 be distinctly remembered that we are arguing with men who believe in the existence of ,god4 ,in an article which appeared in the ,fortnightly ,review for ,august1 #ahgb1 entitled ,statistical ,inquiries into the ,efficacy of ,prayer1 by ,francis ,galton1 a species of guerrilla warfare is opened on this doctrine from the stand-point of experience4 ,mr4 ,galton assumes that the efficacy of prayer is a perfectly appropriate and legitimate subject of scientific inquiry4 ,it must be assumed to be subject to unvarying laws1 and1 like all physical problems1 may be brought to the test of rigid mathematics4 ,by the marshaling of very incomplete and partial statistics1 drawn chiefly from ,chalmers's ,biographical ,dictionary1 he endeavors to show that praying men1 especially clergymen1 are no healthier1 recover from sickness no better1 and do not live any longer than the men who do not pray4 ,insurance companies make no distinction between the prayerful and the prayerless2 they regard them as equal risks4 ,furthermore1 praying men do not make any better statesmen1 any more successful men of business1 or any better physicians and lawyers than prayerless men4 ,on the contrary1 it is a common week-day opinion of the world that praying men are not practical4 ,finally1 the children of praying parents are no better endowed intellectually1 and do not turn out any better morally than the rest of mankind4 ,his gentle impeachment is that they are somewhat below the common average4 ,by this scientific method1 as he is pleased to call it1 the writer flatters himself that he has routed the army of believers in the efficacy of prayer1 and that the practice of prayer will soon become obsolete2 just as the ,water of ,jealousy and the ,urim and ,thummmin of the ,mosaic law did in the times of the later ,jewish kings4 ,but ,mr4 ,galton's fusillade did not produce the effect he expected4 ,true1 it made some noise1 and for a brief season commanded attention2 but it was soon discovered to be a mere discharge of rhetorical blank-cartridge which hit nothing4 ,his parade of argument was found to be utterly inconsequential4 ,the dullest mind could perceive that the attempt to solve moral problems by statistical averages was a practical folly1 because it began by unceremoniously assuming the very point it ought to prove1 namely1 that the determinations of will1 whether ,divine or human1 are governed by necessary laws as surely as the revolution of planets and the vibration of molecules4 ,it is precisely because personal acts are not reducible to any fixed laws1 or capable of representation by any numerical calculations1 that statistical averages acquire any value as substitutes4 ,no one dreams of applying statistical averages to calculate the period of the earth's rotation1 by showing that four and twenty hours is the exact medium of time1 comparing one month's or one year's revolutions with another's4 ,it is only where the individual movements are irregular that it is necessary to aim at a proximate regularity by calculating in masses4#dcj ,the comparison of large averages may approach equality and furnish a basis of probability as to the future1 but the contingency of each individual case remains still a contingency4 ,in no department of human inquiry is there so much temptation and so much opportunity for plausible sophistry as in the now somewhat popular application of statistics to ethological problems4 ,by a skillful manipulation of figures1 ,mr4 ,buckle#dca flatters himself that he has made it apparent that individual felons only carry into effect the necessary consequences of preceding circumstances2 that marriages are regulated by the price of wheat2 and that the number of suicides is determined by the rise and fall of the barometer2 in a word1 that the whole of man's social and moral life is part and parcel of nature1 and subject to the same necessary mechanical laws4 ,the logic of statistics1 or rather the sophistry of statistics by which ,mr4 ,galton proves the uselessness of prayer1 would1 if skillfully managed1 be equally efficacious in proving that sobriety and integrity1 honor and honesty1 are unprofitable and useless virtues--at least so far as this life is concerned2 and we might say of each of them what ,shakespeare's ,murderer says of conscience3 ,it fills one full of obstacles4444 ,it beggars any man that keeps it4 ,it is turned out of all towns and cities for a dangerous thing2 and every man that means to live well endeavors to trust himself1 and live without it4 ,dishonest men are as healthy1 recover as well from sickness1 and live as long as honest men4 ,wicked men prosper in the world1 they succeed in business and increase in riches better1 it may be1 than good and godly men4 ,dishonorable and unprincipled politicians climb into place and power with more facility than men of honor and integrity4 ,distinguished lawyers and skillful physicians have not been strictly temperate2 and statistical tables may be easily produced which show that the longest-lived men have been such as did not go to bed sober for the last fifty years of their lives4 ,therefore sobriety1 honesty1 integrity1 veracity are not profitable virtues1 and1 weighed in the same scales and by the same standards as are used by ,mr4 ,galton to test the weight and worth of prayer1 they are practically valueless and do not pay4 ,simultaneous with ,mr4 ,galton's article1 there appeared a communication in the ,contemporary ,review entitled ,the ,prayer for the ,sick3 ,hints toward a serious attempt to estimate its value1 with the indorsement of ,dr4 ,tyndall4 ,the proposal contained in this communication came to be generally known in newspaper slang as ,tyndall's ,prayer-gauge1 though ,tyndall was not its author4 ,the proposition was that ,one single ward or hospital under the care of first-rate physicians or surgeons1 containing a number of patients afflicted with those diseases which have been best studied1 and of which the mortality rates are best known1 should be1 during a period of not less than three to five years1 made the subject of special prayer by the whole body of the faithful1 and that at the end of that period the mortality rates should be compared with the past rates1 and also with those of other leading hospitals similarly well managed during the same periods4 ,this experiment1 the writer thinks1 offers to the faithful an occasion of demonstrating to the faithless an imperishable record of the power of prayer4 ,there was a tone of moderation and candor in this proposition which for a moment beguiled the popular mind1 and there were ,christian ministers so injudicious as to admit that the proposal should be entertained and the experiment tried4 ,but its superficial fairness was delusive1 and its plausibility concealed a snare4 ,the writer must have been sufficiently conversant with the ,christian doctrine concerning prayer to know that the acceptance of his challenge would be a theological blunder2 for there are no unconditional assurances in the ,word of ,god that prayers for health and long life shall always be answered4 ,we presume also that he must have been sufficiently acquainted with medical science to perceive that the acceptance of his challenge would be a scientific blunder1 for there are elements in the problem which can not be scientifically appreciated1 measured1 and recorded4 ,such1 for example1 are the temperament1 idiosyncrasy1 hereditary diathesis1 previous habits of life1 and mental characteristics of the patients2 such the variety in skill1 care1 sympathy1 and almost inspiration among physicians and nurses2 such also the differences of climatal1 sanitary1 and hospital conditions2 all these elements1 whose varied degrees of potency are incapable of being estimated1 enter into the problem and affect the results4 ,the multiplicity and complexity of these elements render the effects as irregularly variable as if each cause had not been subject to any previous conditions4#dcb ,the problem is not even capable of being scientifically presented in terms of experience1 and until that is done it can not be subjected to experiment4 ,suppose the experiment to be tried in the manner proposed by the writer1 and the mortality rates to be in favor of the hospital for which prayer had been offered1 it would still be open for the scientific skeptic to affirm that the causes of the difference are to be found in those elements whose varying values had not been enumerated in the statement of the problem1 and not in any ,divine interposition in answer to prayer4#dcc ,he might claim that the patients were not all of the same age or temperament1 the physicians were not all of equal skill1 the nurses were not all alike attentive1 the climatal and sanitary conditions were not equal1 and the question would be left in precisely the same condition as before4 ,whatever may be the award of a thoughtless derision1 we do not hesitate in saying that the proposition is an improper one1 and can not be entertained4 ,especially because there is one party concerned in this matter for whom no human being is authorized to make any engagements1 and that is the ,hearer and ,answerer of ,prayer4 ,there is only one class of blessings for which ,he has given us any warrant to pray unconditionally1 and these are spiritual blessings4 ,for strength to resist temptation1 to endure affliction1 and perform well our appointed work in life2 for grace to purify our nature1 elevate our aims1 conquer our selfishness and pride1 and help us to form a noble character1 ,god has authorized and commanded us to pray4 ,but for the blessings of this life1 for deliverance from danger and suffering1 for restoration from sickness and for long life1 we are taught to pray in submission to that highest wisdom which knows what is best for us1 and to append to every supplication1 however ardent our desire and intense our solicitude1 ,nevertheless1 not as ,i will1 but as ,thou wilt4 ,this submission is the loftiest attitude of prayer4 ,at the same time we shrink not from the distinct avowal of the ,christian doctrine that it is reasonable and proper to offer prayer for recovery from sickness1 and that such prayer1 offered in submission to the ,divine will1 may be answered4 ,we are not ashamed of the good old faith--the ,aberglaube1 or superstition1 as some are pleased to call it--that the prayer of faith shall save the sick4 ,the calmness and serenity of mind which the prayer of faith supplies is favorable to recovery4 ,in fact1 as the systematic excitation of a definite expectation and hope1 it has a legitimate place in psycho-therapeutics1 as ,feuchtersleben has shown1 and even as ,dr4 ,tuke concedes in his work on the ,influence of the ,mind on the ,body4#dcd ,this definite expectation and hope is not a mere illusion4 ,we have the assurance of ,scripture that there is a ,divine blessing which giveth wisdom to the wise and knowledge to men of understanding1 and which may descend upon the head and the heart of the most skillful physician in answer to prayer4 ,furthermore1 it is generally admitted by medical men that as in health certain mental states may induce disease1 so in disease certain mental states may restore health4#dce ,now these mental states may be the subject of ,divine influence4 ,science has not dared to shut out the ,spirit of ,god from the realm of mind1 and therefore restoration to health may be given1 in this manner at least1 in answer to prayer4 ,but no man would propose to make the prevalence of such prayer the subject of statistical averages4 ,prayer for the sick can not always result in their recovery1 for then they would never die4 ,our lives are in the hands of ,god1 and we shall live until our work is done1 or until we have clearly shown that we will not do our work1 and our life is a failure and a defeat4 ,finally1 in the name of our holy religion1 we repel with scorn the attempt of certain scientists to test the value of prayer1 and with it also the value of a life of self-denial1 purity1 and piety1 by merely temporal1 secular1 and visible results which may be weighed and measured and set down in statistical tables4 ,christianity teaches that the present life is a probationary scene4 ,it is a state of trial and discipline with a view to the formation of moral character4 ,therefore our principles and our virtues must be put to the test4 ,temptation tries our fortitude2 affliction ascertains our submission2 suffering purifies our souls2 doubt and mystery give energy to our faith4 ,amid the good and the evil of the present our character has to be developed and perfected4 ,there is much to be encountered1 much to be endured4 ,but as ,richard ,winter ,hamilton has said1 ,this discipline is salutary4 ,the furnace heat purities the gold by its rigorous assay4 ,the vine prunes until it bleeds that it may bear its richer clusters4 ,a theatre is raised for lofty struggle and celestial dint4 ,the end of all is to make us pure and noble and heroic souls4 ,the scientists of this age1 who are so enamored of inert matter and insensate force1 may have no eye to see1 no heart to sympathize with1 and no competent faculty by which to estimate the value of this blessed vintage2 but there are souls to whom honor is dearer than life1 and wisdom more precious than rubies1 and purity more desirable than fine gold1 who will continue to pray--,cleanse the thoughts of our hearts by the inspiration of thy ,holy ,spirit1 that we may perfectly love ,thee and worthily magnify thy holy name4 ,so much for the argument against the efficacy of prayer from the experiential stand-point4 ,we are compelled to pronounce it a failure4 ,there seems good reason to believe that ,dr4 ,tyndall regards it as a failure1 for we do not find that he any where denies the efficacy of prayer for spiritual blessings4 ,but1 like a second ,ajax ,telemon1 he makes haste to interpose his ample shield for the defense of his unfortunate friends2 he is careful1 however1 to change the entire mode of warfare1 and he opens the attack on the efficacy of prayer from the theoretical stand-point4 ,dr4 ,tyndall begins by observing that the idea of direct personal volition mixing itself in the economy of nature is retreating more and more in presence of advancing science1 and among educated and scientific communities there is a growing conviction that nature is absolutely uniform1 and that her laws are changeless and permanent4 ,he takes the ground that all prayer for ,divine interposition to produce changes in external nature1 such1 for example1 as prayer for rain or for fair weather1 is irrational1 because the answer to such prayer would be a violation of the order of nature1 a manifest contradiction to natural laws1 and in fact a miracle4 ,the dispersion of the slightest mist by the special volition of the ,eternal would be as great a miracle 444 as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of the ,st4 ,lawrence up the ,falls of ,niagara4 ,no act of humiliation1 individual or national1 could call one shower from heaven or deflect toward us a single beam of the sun4#dcf ,we have characterized this attack of ,dr4 ,tyndall's as an attack on the efficacy of prayer from the theoretical stand-point3 #a4 ,because he does not claim that the belief in the changeless uniformity of nature is a self-evident truth--a direct intuition1 either of sense or of reason1 which needs no proof4 #b4 ,because he does not assert that the absolute uniformity of nature has been inductively proved1 or is even capable of verification by experience1 since all experience1 whether of the individual or the race1 is necessarily limited1 and can not1 therefore1 give a universal truth4 ,all that he can say of it is that it is an assumption--an assumption which all carefully conducted experiments have justified1 and upon which all successful scientific research has been based4 ,the majestic fabric of modern science has been reared upon this foundation4 ,but mark1 it is still an assumption1#dcg and the central question around which the battle must be fought is1 ,what ground have we for the assumption that the order of nature is so absolutely persistent and changeless that it never has been and never can be interfered with by an act of intelligent volition8 ,dr4 ,tyndall has attempted an answer to this question4 ,we shall endeavor1 first1 clearly to comprehend his answer1 and1 secondly1 to estimate its logical validity4 #a4 ,he tells us that the belief in a changeless order of nature is a kind of inspiration4 ,the passage from facts to principles 7that is1 the passage from our limited experience of uniformity to the affirmation of universal and permanent order7 is called induction1 which in its highest form is inspiration4#dch ,this1 however1 is poetry1 and not science4 ,this inductive inference embraces vastly more in the conclusion than is contained in the premises2 the antecedent is limited1 the consequent is unlimited2 and the only warrant that ,dr4 ,tyndall has for the violation of the most fundamental logical canon is inspiration4 ,but1 whatever ,dr4 ,tyndall may understand by this ambiguous phrase1 it is certain that his own mind is not satisfied1 and so he tries again4 #b4 ,he tells us that this belief rests upon the long-continued observations1 registered experiences1 and experimental verifications of a succession of scientific men1 as ,galileo1 ,torricelli1 ,pascal1 ,kepler1 and ,newton4 ,but here again the experiences are limited1 and do not justify a universal conclusion2 and ,dr4 ,tyndall himself is not satisfied4 ,he says1 ,the scientific mind can find no repose in the mere registration of sequences in nature4 ,the further question obtrudes itself with resistless might1 ,whence come the sequences8 ,what is it that binds the consequent with the antecedent in nature8 ,what is it1 we ask with redoubled earnestness and emphasis1 which authorizes our drawing a universal conclusion from particular premises8 ,the truly scientific intellect never can attain rest until it reaches the ,,forces by which the observed succession is produced4444 ,not until the relation between the forces and the phenomena has been established is the law of the reason rendered concentric with the law of nature1 and not until this is effected does the mind of the scientific philosopher rest in peace4#dci ,here we have the law of the reason substituted for the highest form of inspiration1 and we are curious to learn what this law of the reason is4 ,is it the principle1 or law of causality--namely1 that all phenomena present themselves to us as the expression of power1 and refer us to a causal ground8 ,but this law of the reason says nothing about uniformity4 ,the same power may produce a diversity of effects4 ,infinitely numerous and various universes might have been fashioned by the various distribution of the original nebulous matter1 although the particles of matter should obey the one law of gravity4#ddj #c4 ,and1 finally1 ,dr4 ,tyndall tells us that ,the expectation of likeness i4 e41 uniformity in the procession of phenomena is not that on which the scientific mind founds its belief in the order of nature4 ,if the force is permanent1 the phenomena are necessary whether they resemble or do not resemble any thing that has gone before4 ,hence in judging of the order of nature our inquiry eventually relates to the permanence of force1#dda or1 as he elsewhere styles it1 the conservation of energy1 which means that no power can make its appearance in nature without an equivalent expenditure of some other power2 that natural agents are so related as to be mutually convertible1 but that no new agency is created4#ddb ,whether this is or is not a correct statement of the principle of the conservation of energy we shall see by and by4 ,and now1 after having hunted the game through many tortuous passages to its final burrow1 what have we found8 ,that the ultimate principle which justifies the belief or assumption that the laws of nature are so rigidly inflexible and the order of nature is so absolutely uniform that personal volition can not mingle in or interfere with the economy of nature is the principle of the conservation of energy4 ,the answer of ,dr4 ,tyndall is now fully and clearly before our mental view1 and we are prepared for the consideration of its logical validity4 ,this answer may be conveniently divided into two propositions4 ,first1 personal volition1 human or ,divine1 can not intermingle or in any way interfere with the economy of nature because her laws are inflexible and her order is uniform4 ,second1 the ultimate principle which justifies the assumption that the laws of nature are absolutely inflexible and the order of nature is absolutely uniform is the principle of the conservation of energy4 ,we shall consider this latter proposition first4 ,there are in this proposition three ambiguous terms1 which have hitherto been the source of serious misapprehension2 and unless we can attain to clearer and more definite conceptions1 which shall be mutually accepted1 the controversy will be interminable4 ,these are the terms nature1 laws of nature1 and uniformity of the order of nature4 ,we have made the attempt in a previous chapter#ddc to give precision and definiteness to the concepts which these terms should connote4 ,referring the reader to the chapter indicated1 we shall here simply restate our results4 #a4 ,nature is the aggregate or totality of all material or physical phenomena4#ddd ,nature 7nascor1 to be born7 means that which is produced or born4#dde #b4 ,a ,law of ,nature is the statement of a certain uniformity observed in the relations among phenomena4#ddf ,the laws of nature are simply expressions of phenomenal uniformities1 having no coercive power whatever4#ddg #c4 ,the ,uniformity of the ,order of ,nature may mean either uniformity of co-existence or uniformity of succession4 ,uniformity of co-existence means that the same substances must always have the same essential properties#ddh and the same permanent relations to other substances1 as1 for example1 every molecule of hydrogen must have the same properties1 the same definite mass1 the same periodic vibrations1 and the same chemical affinities4 ,if these were to be altered in the least1 it would no longer be a molecule of hydrogen4#ddi ,this is uniformity in the ultimate constitution of nature4 ,uniformity of succession means that the same or similar consequents will always be found to follow similar antecedents1 or the same causes will always be followed by the same effects1#dej as1 for example1 the combination of carbon and oxygen will always be followed by the evolution of heat1 and heat will always melt ice4 ,this is uniformity in the course of nature or the procession of phenomena4 ,belief in the constancy of the course of nature or the uniformity of causation is the general expectation that the future will resemble the past4#dea ,with a clearer apprehension of the terms1 we may now discuss the first proposition with more precision1 and hope to reach a logical conclusion4 ,we approach the discussion by remarking-- #a4 ,the constancy of the course of nature or the uniformity of causation is not a self-evident and necessary truth4 ,in so far as it is a scientific truth it is purely an induction from experience1 an experience which is necessarily limited1 and therefore does not warrant a universal conclusion4 ,there is no rational priori ground for the assumption that the same or similar causes 7even if we understand by physical causes all antecedent conditions7 shall necessarily produce the same effects4 ,in other words1 there is no authority for the assertion that the course of nature or the procession of phenomena must be absolutely uniform4 ,science has succeeded in establishing a strong probability1 but it is beyond her power to demonstrate an absolute certainty4 ,this is generally conceded1 alike by physicists and metaphysicians4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill says1 ,the uniformity in the course of events 444 must be received1 not as a law of the universe1 but of that portion of it which is within the range of our means of observation1 with a reasonable degree of extension to adjacent cases4#deb ,the uniformity of causation1 says ,murphy1 is not a truth of the reason1 it is known by experience only2 and the truth of a conclusion from experience can never be free from all possibility of limitation or exception4#dec ,and ,professor ,jevons asserts1 ,the conclusions of scientific inference appear to be always of a hypothetical and purely provisional nature4 ,given certain experience1 the theory of probability yields us the true interpretation of that experience1 and is the surest guide open to us4 ,but the best calculated results which it can give us are never absolute probabilities3 they are purely relative to the extent of our information4 ,it seems to be impossible for us to judge how far our experience gives us adequate information of the universe as a whole1 and of all the forces and phenomena which can have place therein4#ded #b4 ,it is an immediate fact of consciousness that the will is a cause which is adequate to the production of a diversity of effects4 ,whatever may be true of the world of matter1 it is certain that within the sphere of our conscious personality the relation of cause and effect is not a relation of invariable and necessary sequence4 ,further1 it is certain that a self-determining agent exists4 ,every event in the universe of matter is determined by the events which precede it1 but physical reasonings make it certain that the chain of causes and effects can not have been of absolutely endless length through past time4 ,there must have been a first link of the chain2 there must have been a first act of causation2 and this act must have been determined1 not by any previous act of causation when as yet there was none1 but by the free self-determining power of the agent4 ,the first act of causation we call ,creation2 the freely self-determining agent we call ,god4#dee #c4 ,physical science itself does not teach that the course of nature is absolutely uniform2 on the contrary1 all the conclusions of science lead to the conviction that the universe is ever changing1 and that1 notwithstanding secular recurrences which would prim facie seem to replace matter in its original position1 nothing in fact ever returns or can return to a state of existence identical with a previous state4#def ,every theory of the origin of things is compelled to assume that an innate tendency to variability is a fundamental fact of nature4 ,this is made apparent by the reasoning in ,spencer's chapters on ,the ,instability of the ,homogeneous and ,the ,multiplication of ,effects4#deg ,the advocates of ,natural ,selection are very emphatic in the assertion of this ,law of ,variation1 as the cardinal fact upon which turns their doctrine of the origin of species1 and the whole system on which organic life has been developed from the lowest to the highest forms4#deh ,there is1 says ,comte1 an irregular variability of effect engendered by the great number of different agents determining at the same time the same phenomena meteorological1 social1 and vital1 from which it results in the most complicated phenomena that there are not two cases precisely alike4 ,the multiplicity of the agents renders the effects as irregularly variable as if every cause had not been subjected to any previous conditions4#dei ,dr4 ,tyndall himself is in fact compelled to surrender the doctrine of uniformity in the succession of phenomena4 ,he says if the force be permanent1 the phenomena are necessary whether they resemble or do not resemble any thing that has gone before4#dfj ,but if the phenomena do not resemble any thing that has gone before1 how can there be uniformity in the succession of phenomena8 #d4 ,the uniformity of the constitution of material nature1 or the principle that the same substances must always have the same essential properties1 is undoubtedly a self-evident and necessary truth1 an priori1 rational intuition4 ,it is simply a statement in concrete form of the principle or law of identity 7,a ,a1 or ,a is not equal to non-,a74 ,as we have already observed1 a substance which ceases to have the same essential properties ceases to be the same substance2 for substances are only known to us through their properties4 ,but this uniformity of co-existence is distinct from uniformity of succession1 and we can not infer the latter from the former4 ,admitting that the same substance must always have the same properties1 we can not affirm that the same substances will always be collocated in the same manner1 or distributed in space with the same uniformity4 ,in fact1 we can discover nothing regular in the distribution of matter through space2 we can reduce it to no uniformity1 to no law4#dfa ,matter is never replaced in its original position2 nothing repeats itself1 because nothing can be placed in the same conditions2 the past is irrevocable4#dfb ,even should we say with ,sir ,william ,thomson that motion constitutes the very essence of what is commonly called matter1 still we know with infallible certainty that there must be a something that moves1 and that this something which moves must have ultimately a definite mass 7inertia7 and a measurable velocity1 and that the energy of motion to which the power of doing work is due is proportionate to the mass multiplied into the square of the velocity4 ,matter1 then1 is something more than motion4#dfc ,we know further that there are different modes of motion--transitive1 rotatory1 vibratory1 pulsatory1 gyratory--and that these are undergoing perpetual transformation or conversion one into the other4 ,and1 finally1 we know that the quantities of visible molar energy1 and of invisible molecular energy 7as heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism71 are not uniform2 on the contrary1 the quantity of mechanical energy is being continually dissipated--that is1 transformed into radiant heat1 which may be compared to the wasteheap of the universe1#dfd and uniformly diffused heat will not yield a single unit of work4 ,the principle of the conservation of energy is therefore subject to limitations which are supplied by the principle of the dissipation of energy4 ,it simply asserts that1 so far as our observation extends1 the whole amount of potential and kinetic energy in the universe is invariable1 but it can not determine whether the amount of vital force1 or of psychic force1 is invariable2 and it is certainly incompetent to fix a limitation to the exercise of ,creative ,power4 ,it is nothing more than an intelligent and well-supported denial of the chimera of perpetual motion1 and that a machine can no more create work than it can create matter4#dfe ,in the words of ,grove1 we can not conceive of the production of any new force in the universe without the interposition of ,creative ,power4#dff ,dr4 ,tyndall1 in his solicitude to exclude all ,divine interposition in the economy of nature1 has stated the law of the conservation of energy in a form quite different from that of his scientific brethren4 ,he says1 ,the principle of conservation is1 no creation but infinite conversion2#dfg and he seems desirous to convey the impression that any interposition of ,god to answer prayer would be a creation of physical force1 and as much a miracle as the rolling of the waters of the ,st4 ,lawrence up the ,falls of ,niagara4 ,dr4 ,tyndall does not here display his usual fairness and candor4 ,surely he would not assert that the qualitative and quantitative combination of the different natural agents--such as light1 heat1 electricity1 elasticity of vapors1 and aerial currents--which determine the fall of a shower of rain1 would be a creation of energy2 or that the disposition of the meteorological1 physical1 chemical1 vital1 and psychical conditions which result in the cure of the sick1 would be as much a miracle as the stoppage of an eclipse2 for these natural agents are more or less under the control of man4 ,but suppose it were granted that all interposition of ,god in the economy of nature must be regarded as miraculous1 would he deny the possibility of miracles even if they should involve a creation of energy8 ,because we can not by any of our mechanical arrangements create energy1 does it therefore follow that ,god can not create energy8 ,dr4 ,tyndall will not say this4 ,if you ask who is to limit the outgoings of ,almighty power1 my answer is--not ,i4#dfh ,it will be seen presently that ,dr4 ,tyndall admits that the interference of personal volition in the economy of nature is not forbidden by the law of the conservation of energy4 ,the point we now insist upon is that he has not succeeded in showing that this principle is an absolute and universal law of nature4 ,we have already seen that it is limited and conditioned by the law of the dissipation of energy1 and that in reality it is merely a kind of movable equilibrium between supply and destruction4#dfi ,by no experimental evidence has it been shown that it holds true in the realm of vital dynamics and psycho-dynamics4 ,there are able scientific men who question its absolute certainty even in the realm of physics4 ,professor ,brooke says that the amount of energy in the world is unchanged1 the sum of the actual or kinetic and potential energies being a constant quantity has been by some writers overstrained4 ,it may be taken as a postulate1 and is probably true2 but it is a proposition equally incapable of proof and of disproof4#dgj ,to the same effect are the words of ,sir ,john ,herschel1#dga and still more recently of ,professor ,jevons4#dgb ,nature1 says ,dr4 ,cohn1 of ,breslau1 is an equation with very many unknown quantities4 ,it is the work of natural science to determine the value of these quantities4 ,some believe it never will be possible to solve the equation1 since in it factors occur which can not be determined4 ,until this is done1 it is simply presumptuous for ,dr4 ,tyndall to pretend to know all the antecedents which determine the complex phenomena of nature1 and dogmatically to affirm that no new agency is created1 and no interference of ,divine agency can be permitted4 ,our knowledge of things is finite1 while our ignorance is infinite2 and we must consequently regard all known lines of causation as being liable to be cut through by unknown ones4 ,for aught we know to the contrary one of the unknown factors in the equation may be personal volition1 may be the ceaseless energy of the ,divine ,will sustaining and carrying nature forward through successive stages toward a predestinated goal4 ,the foremost physicists do not deny that there may possibly be forms of energy which are neither potential nor kinetic4#dgc ,we venture to assert with ,prof4 ,challis that will1 or personal energy1 is neither the one nor the other1 but the source of both4 ,mind is the originator1 and matter is the recipient of force4#dgd ,we sum up what has been said in the preceding paragraphs on the uniformity of nature in the following words3 ,we admit that the uniformity of the constitution of nature is a self-evident and necessary truth4 ,we admit also that1 so far as our experience extends1 the uniformity of the course of nature must be admitted as a scientific truth1 for to deny this would be to deny the possibility of all science1 inasmuch as all science is prevision4 ,but at the same time we maintain that the conclusions of scientific inference must always be of a hypothetical and purely provisional character1 because it is impossible for us to judge with absolute certainty how far our experience gives us adequate information of the universe as a whole1 and of all the forces and phenomena which can have place therein4#dge ,the conservation of energy1 for example1 is a very probable hypothesis which accords satisfactorily with the experiments of scientific men during a few years past1 but it would be a gross misconception of the nature of scientific inference to suppose that it is certain in the same sense that a proposition in geometry is certain1 or that any fact of immediate consciousness is certain4#dgf ,admitting the principle of the uniformity of nature as a hypothetical inference from a limited experience1 we advance to the main position of ,dr4 ,tyndall1 namely1 that personal volition can not mingle in or interfere with the procession of phenomena in nature4 ,dr4 ,tyndall admits the reality of personal volition4 ,we have not discovered in his writings any indications of the tendency manifested by some of his scientific associates to reduce volition to a form of physical energy4 ,he grants the power of free-will in man1#dgg but he seems unwilling to admit that free-will can exert any controlling1 modifying1 or determining influence on the procession of phenomena4 ,assuming the efficacy of prayer to produce changes in external nature1 it necessarily follows that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man's volition1 and no conclusion founded on the assumed permanence of those laws would be worthy of confidence4#dgh ,but are not natural laws more or less subject to man's volition8 ,does he not act upon the chain of cause and effect in nature1 and alter the procession of phenomena on earth8 ,certainly he can and does control and direct the forces of nature4 ,he can so collocate and adjust the properties and forces of matter as to accomplish the purposes of his intelligence1 and bring about new results which would not otherwise have been produced4 ,that man has materially modified the physical geography of the globe can not be denied4 ,he has altered the climatal condition of whole tracts of country1 and changed the physiognomy of the globe4 ,the rain-fall has been changed by the felling of timber or the planting of trees4#dgi ,he has extended or circumscribed the geographical boundaries of plants and animals4 ,he has learned to control the mechanical1 chemical1 and electric forces4 ,when he lifts a stone from the earth and suspends it in the air1 or locks it in the arch that spans the river1 the law of gravitation is subordinated to the higher law of intelligent purpose4 ,by the collocation and adjustment of mechanical forces he overcomes the resistance of winds and tides1 and guides his vessel across the trackless deep4 ,he seizes the lightning in the clouds and guides it harmless to the earth1 and sends the electric current along the telegraphic wire to chronicle his deeds and report his thoughts at the ends of the earth4 ,he loosens the most intricate combinations of elementary substances1 and recomposes them in new forms of the highest value in medicine and the fine arts4 ,he solidifies carbonic acid2 freezes water at the tropics1 and even in red-hot crucibles in the ,temperate ,zone4 ,he also modifies and changes the development of vegetable life1 obliterating thorns and spines1 altering the color and size of flowers1 and the flavor and nutritive character of fruits4 ,and1 finally1 he has wrought marvelous changes in the form1 size1 habits1 and instincts of the animal creation4#dhj ,thus in numberless ways does man control1 modify1 and subordinate nature to accomplish the purposes of his intelligence2 but we can not see with ,dr4 ,tyndall how this renders scientific conclusions founded on the assumed permanence of natural law unworthy of confidence4 ,there is a vacillation in ,dr4 ,tyndall's treatment of this aspect of the subject which renders it difficult to fix his exact position4 ,does he intend to assert that personal volition can not in the slightest degree change the succession of phenomena8 ,will he say that man does not1 and that ,god can not control and modify and subordinate natural forces so as to bring about new and special results8 ,unless he is prepared to assert this in the most unequivocal manner1 the whole superstructure of his argument falls to the ground4 ,if it is granted that human volition can change the procession of phenomena1 and alter within certain limits the current of events1 then fortiori we may conclude that ,divine volition may also interfere in the economy of nature to answer prayer4 ,at one time ,dr4 ,tyndall insinuates that our notion 7that is1 the ,christian's conception7 of the ,power which rules the universe is a mere fanciful or ignorant enlargement of human power1444 a mythologic imagination which pictures a being able and willing to do any and every conceivable thing4#dha ,at another time he admits that the theory that the system of nature is under the control of a ,being who changes phenomena in compliance with the prayers of men is1 in my opinion1 a perfectly legitimate one4444 ,it is a matter of experience that an earthly father1 who is at the same time both wise and tender1 listens to the requests of his children1 and if they do not ask amiss1 takes pleasure in granting their requests4 ,we know also that this compliance extends to the alteration1 within certain limits1 of the current of events on earth4 ,with this suggestion offered by our experience1 it is no departure from scientific method to place behind natural phenomena a universal ,father1 who in answer to the prayers of his children alters the currents of phenomena4 ,thus far theology and science go hand in hand4 ,the conception of an ether1 for example1 trembling with the waves of light1 is suggested by the ordinary phenomena of wave-motion in water and in air2 and in like manner the conception of personal volition in nature is suggested by the ordinary action of man upon earth4 ,i therefore urge no impossibilities1 though you constantly charge me with doing so4 ,i do not even urge inconsistency1 but1 on the contrary1 frankly admit that you have as good a right to place your conception at the root of phenomena as ,i have to place mine4#dhb ,if this concession is made in good faith1 and really means any thing at all1 it covers the whole ground4 ,it is neither unscientific nor irrational to place behind natural phenomena a universal ,father who alters the current of phenomena in answer to prayer4 ,but this is not the conception which ,dr4 ,tyndall places behind the phenomena of nature4 ,his conception is that of a permanent force1 which is under the circumstances necessary1 producing an unerring order which in our experience knows no exception4 ,this brings us to the third and last question4 #c4 ,how can the scientific conception of the force which is manifested in the phenomena of nature be brought into harmony with the idea of ,god as revealed in the religious consciousness8 ,we are now in the very heart of what we have characterized as the debatable ground which lies between science and religion1 where questions are mooted concerning the relation between ,god and nature4 ,on the one side we have the facts of external sensible experience--the statical phenomena of nature as mass1 extension1 position1 and distance--conditions essential to the action or manifestation of force2 then the dynamical phenomena of nature as rotatory1 vibratory1 pulsatory1 gyratory1 and transitive motion1 which to our reason1 not to our senses1 are manifestations of force4 ,science observes the uniformity of relations among these phenomena--uniformities of resemblance1 co-existence1 and succession1 and calls these uniformities laws of nature4 ,this is all that science can do1 all that men of exact science claim to be able to do4 ,on the other side we have the facts of internal experience--the consciousness of effort1 the sense of power and freedom1 the idea of right and wrong1 the feeling of dependence1 of duty1 and of obligation1 the consciousness of moral responsibility and of moral desert1 and the anticipation of a future retribution4 ,these to our reason are the revelation of a righteous ,lawgiver and ,ruler who is over us2 by whom we are obliged1 and to whom we must account4 ,this is the theoretic basis and necessary presupposition of all religion4 ,and now speculative philosophy steps in and endeavors to reduce these concepts of science and religion to an ultimate unity4 ,it endeavors to construe in thought the nature of that relation between the force manifested in nature and the moral ,ruler revealed in conscience4 ,therefore it asks the questions1 ,what is force8 ,what is life8 ,what is mind8 ,if we say that force is as inherent and essential to matter as extension and inertia are1 and that life and mind are but modes of force1 we are on the high-road to mechanical ,deism1 if not material ,atheism4 ,if we say that matter is itself only a function of force1 and that force is the ultimate of all ultimates1 then the distinction between finite existence and the infinite ,being is a merely verbal distinction1 and we must yield to the seductions of ,pantheism1 which under this aspect of it is but another name for ,atheism4 ,but if we say that ,spirit is the originator and matter the recipient of force1 or the recipient of impulse and energy1 and that the immanent ,god is the life of all nature1 we are pure ,theists4 ,we have now a workable theory by which we can satisfactorily interpret the universe4 ,this1 however1 is not the conception of ,dr4 ,tyndall4 ,the power which he sees in nature is a force which is inherent and essential to matter1 and in that matter he sees the promise and the potency of all terrestrial life1 but not of all life1 for religion is life4 ,the ,power which is revealed as the object of the religious emotions is a ,power which works for righteousness1 and is intelligent as well as ethical4 ,this ,power he seems to regard as distinct from the force which produces the necessary phenomena of nature4 ,but whence does he obtain this conception of force8 ,he writes as though he had seen force1 or cognized force1 by some one of the senses4 ,we claim that force is a subtile mental conception1 and not a sensuous perception or phenomenon2#dhc it is a metaphysical idea1 a postulate of reason applied to nature4 ,we venture the assertion that the physicist has not the remotest conception of force except as a datum of consciousness4 ,the senses give us only phenomena4 ,all we perceive is motion1 change1 succession4 ,all we know or see is the effect2 we do not see force4#dhd ,so say all physicists as well as all metaphysicians4 ,experiences of force are not derived from any thing else1444 and the force by which we ourselves produce changes1 and which serves to symbolize the cause of changes in general1 is the final disclosure of all analysis4#dhe ,whenever1 therefore1 ,dr4 ,tyndall attempts to account for motion and change in external nature by assuming the existence of invisible1 imponderable forces1 he is interpreting nature in terms of consciousness--we mean that consciousness of personal causation which we have when we put forth effort with an intention thereby to accomplish an end4 ,force is known to us by immediate consciousness as a function of our own mind--that is1 mind acting in will is conscious of itself as a force4 ,we are able to conceive of force in no other way4 ,force dissociated from personality and will must be forever incomprehensible by us1 because it would be something contradictory to our consciousness4#dhf ,if we may not regard will-force as the type of all the force in nature1 then the physicist knows nothing about it1 does not know there is any force1 and the only consistent course is to unite with ,comte in eradicating the word from the vocabulary of science4 ,in the only case in which we are admitted into any immediate personal knowledge of the origin of force1 we find it connected with volition1 with will1 with motion1 with intellect1 and with all the attributes of mind in which personality consists4#dhg ,we must1 therefore1 conclude that all force is mind-force1 is spirit-force1 and that the forces which animate nature are spiritual4 ,either the force manifested in the universe is the force of a self-existent and self-determining ,intelligent ,will1 or we can form no conception of it whatever4 ,when we have once arrived at the conception of force as an expression of will1 which we derive from our experience of its production1 the universal and constantly sustaining agency of the ,deity is recognized in every phenomenon of the universe4#dhh ,the laws of nature are the laws which ,god in his wisdom prescribes to his own acts4 ,his universal presence is the necessary condition of any course of events4 ,his universal agency the only origin of all efficient force4#dhi ,the persistence of force is the permanence of the ,divine agency1 and the deepest ground of our faith in the uniformity and changelessness of natural laws is the immutability of ,god4 ,we come1 then1 at last1 to this1 that the ,power which is manifested in nature is the ,god who is revealed in consciousness1 and that ,he is at once a ,god of power1 of righteousness1 and of love4 ,in prayer1 the intelligent believer does not invoke a different ,power from that which is manifested in all the forms of physical energy which were manifested in nature2 he does but invoke the same ,power and the only ,power which is the source of all causation and produces all the processions of phenomena4 ,the perpetual immanence and ceaseless action of ,god in nature is the source of all force and all law4 ,there is no force and no law besides and apart from this4 ,all our conceptions of necessity and uniformity1 of special providence and miracle1 are merely relative conceptions which result from our imperfect vision4 ,these are all swallowed up and lost in the ,divine ,immensity4 ,god is ,power4 ,god is ,law4 ,god is ,love4 ,love is the motive1 ,law is the method1 and ,power is the hand manifested in all the changes of the universe4 ,the devout feel that wherever ,god's hand is1 there is miracle2 and it is simply an undevoutness which imagines that only where miracle is can there be the hand of ,god4 ,let us say with ,goethe1 ,nature is the living garment of ,god1 which at once reveals and conceals his mysterious splendors4 ,in our days of darkness and sorrow and danger there are vouchsafed to us clearer gleamings of the ,creative ,spirit through the veil of nature in answer to prayer4 ,these we may call special providences1 and even miracles1 if we please1 but let us not fall into the error of supposing that we have seen more of ,god than in the budding of the leaf or the blooming of the flower in the time of spring4 ,there are diversities of operations1 but it is the same ,god which worketh all in all4#dij ,,chapter ,x4 ,,moral ,,government4 ,i4 ,,its ,,ground4--,,the ,,correlation ,,between ,,god ,,and ,,man4 ,that they may seek the ,lord1 and truly feel after ,him and find ,him1 though ,he is not far from any one of us1 for in ,him we live and move and are2 as certain of your own poets have said1 ',for we are his offspring4'--,,st4 ,,paul4 ,jove's presence fills all space1 upholds this ball2 ,all need his aid1 his power sustains us all-- ,for we his offspring are4--,,aratus4 ,thou art able to enforce obedience from all frail mortals1 ,because we are all thine offspring4--,,cleanthes4 ,from the fundamental truth that ,god is the ,creator and ,conservator of the universe1 and that his providence presides over and directs the historic development of humanity1 ,christian doctrine advances1 in a natural and logical order1 to the recognition of the more direct and personal relations between ,god and each individual human soul4 ,he is not far from any one of us1 for in ,him we live and move and are4 ,god is intimately near to the human soul4 ,god is the immanent ground of men's spiritual being4 ,god is the ,father of the human spirit4 ,therefore ,god is manifested in man--in the constitution of his moral nature1 and in the susceptibilities1 the aspirations1 the longings1 the hopes and fears of his spiritual being2 and ,god manifests ,himself to man by an inward illumination--the true light which lighteth every man that cometh into the world4 ,contemplate these relations on the ,divine side1 and you have the foundation of all moral government2 study them on the human side1 and you have the foundation of all religion1 for religion is a mode of thought1 of feeling1 and of action determined by the consciousness of our relations to ,god4 ,all ,christian teaching proceeds upon the assumption that there exist in all men the elements of a religious consciousness4 ,the recognition of some relation to an unseen moral ,personality is a universal fact of human nature4 ,the feeling of dependence1 the sense of obligation1 the sentiment of reverence1 the tendency to worship1 the apprehension of a future reward or punishment--these are the common characteristics of man4 ,the untutored savage1 the half-civilized pagan1 the ancient philosopher1 the modern scientist1 all alike betray the consciousness of some mysterious bond which holds them fast to the unseen ,power which controls the destinies of men4 ,with this sentiment of the ,divine there is associated in all human minds an instinctive yearning after the ,invisible1 a conscious susceptibility of our spiritual nature to the influences of the higher world1 and a reaching out of the human spirit toward the ,infinite1 which prompt man to seek for a fuller knowledge and a deeper communion4 ,christianity assures us that this religious consciousness may1 by a loving reception of the truth and a loyal allegiance to duty1 be raised into a living koinonia--a living fellowship with and a conscious participation of the ,divine life4 ,man may know ,god1 not simply by verbal instruction1 not merely through the symbolism of nature1 or the providential unfoldings of human history1 or even the moral attributes of his own spiritual being1 but by an exalted and immediate consciousness4 ,the pure in heart shall see ,god by an inward vision of wondrous power and glory1 in which they shall know ,god1 and be as fully assured of his personal love and guidance as of the love and guidance of any human friend4 ,now there is a natural order in which the knowledge of ,god is clearly differentiated and fully developed in the human mind2 and this order is distinctly recognized and noted in the words of ,st4 ,paul--,that they may seek ,god1 and truly feel ,god1 and actually find ,god4 #a4 ,there is an earnest inquiry 77--a search after ,god4 ,this is the effort of reflective thought to attain a more exact and definite conception of that ,power and ,intelligence which the spontaneous consciousness of man immediately and instinctively affirms as the ground and cause and law of the created universe4 #b4 ,there is a real feeling 77 of ,god--an awakening consciousness of some near relation to ,god1 excited by the voice of conscience and the spiritual affinities and yearnings of the soul4 ,there is1 as it were1 a touching of the living ,god#dia--the sense of a living bond which holds man to ,god1 not merely by a consciousness of dependence and obligation1 but a spiritual nexus1 a real filiation1 which enables man to articulate the wondrous words1 ,we are the offspring of ,god4 #c4 ,there is an actual finding 77 of ,god--that higher religious consciousness in which the pure and earnest soul attains a personal knowledge1 and enters into a beatifying communion with the ,father of the human spirit4 ,this direct manifestation of ,god in its highest form is the peculiar glory of that new and divine life of the soul communicated through ,christian faith1 for which all antecedent knowledges and experiences1 whether of the individual mind or of collective humanity1 are a preparation and a discipline4 ,this inspired statement of the order in which the conception of ,god as a determinate mode of thought is evolved in the human mind is exactly verified by the history of reflective thought as presented in ,greek philosophy4 ,reflective thought began with ,thales in ,asia ,minor and ,pythagoras in ,lower ,italy4 ,the ,ionian and ,italian schools commenced most naturally with the objective phenomena of nature1 and sought for the --the first principle and cause of all that appears4 ,their question was not1 ,is there a first principle and cause8 but ,what is the first principle and cause8 ,the orderly phenomena of the universe presented themselves to their minds as the expression of power and thought as certainly as they do to ours2 and their endeavor was to construe this intuition in logical form and give it articulate expression4 ,it is true their method was at first defective1 and the results attained were consequently often erroneous4 ,still their mental effort must have been unconsciously governed by those fixed laws of cognition which constrain all minds to regard all phenomena as the expression of power1 and all orderly arrangement as the utterance of thought4 ,if in the realm of objective things they fixed upon a single element as that out of which all things else were evolved1 that first seed of things was either a living1 potential energy1 or it was associated with and animated by a living soul4#dib ,or if guided by analogy1 they conceived the universe as a living organism1 ,whose body nature is1 and ,god the soul4 ,the informing principle was still an intelligent ,power4 ,so that at the end of this period of inquiry we find that ,anaxagoras distinctly articulates the word which his countrymen had half unconsciously recognized1 the 1 or first principle1 is mind1 intellect1 4 ,from this point we date a new era in philosophy4 ,the ,socratic school turned from the contemplation of external nature1 and commenced the study of mind4 ,man finds his rational nature in changeless correlation to a moral law4 ,there are within his spiritual nature the ideas of justice1 of truth1 of purity1 and of goodness4 ,these ideas of the human reason reflect the character of its ,author and ,source1 and we can not refrain from ascribing these attributes in their most perfect form to the ,maker of the human soul4 ,god is now regarded as the ,moral ,ruler of the world4 ,man becomes conscious of obligation to a personal ,lawgiver1 and of accountability to a personal ,judge4 ,he feels that he has spiritual susceptibilities and longings for a ,divine inspiration4 ,he believes that man may become conscious of the wisdom and the love of the ,deity1 and that there are ,divine secrets which may not be penetrated by man1 but which are imparted to those who consult1 who adore1 and who obey ,god4#dic ,yielding to these spiritual affinities of the soul1 he seeks ,god in prayer4#did ,he desires to come near to ,god1 to feel his presence and inspiration1 and to become assimilated to ,god1 by becoming holy1 just1 and wise4#die ,whether any of the ancient philosophers attained to that high religions consciousness in which ,god is actually found1 so that ,he becomes the object of a real love and confidence1 and a refuge amid the storms and adversities of life1 is a question we may not be competent to answer4 ,to attempt an answer may be deemed presumptuous4 ,if the ,divine declaration that every one that asketh receiveth1 and he that seeketh findeth1 and to him that knocketh it shall be opened1 is of universal application1 then it may1 at least1 be hoped that the prayer of ,socrates was answered1 and the desire of ,plato was fulfilled1 and the aspiration of ,epictetus was satisfied in some degree4 ,socrates certainly expressed the belief that he was moved by a certain ,divine and spiritual impulse4#dif ,plato held that the highest form of philosophy is the love of the ,supreme ,good--that is1 ,god2 and that a man who is just and pious and entirely good is loved of ,god4#dig ,and ,epictetus taught that if we always remember that in all we do ,god stands by as a witness1 we shall not err in our prayers and actions1 and we shall have ,god dwelling with us4 ,do not these utterances remind us vividly of the ,saviour's promise--,if a man love me1 he will keep my words1 and my ,father will love him1 and we will come unto him1 and make our abode with him8 ,can we doubt that these words express the ,divine feeling and the ,divine procedure toward the heathen world8 ,was not ,god their ,father as well as ours8 ,was not ,christ their ,saviour as well as our ,saviour8 ,may we not hope that the redeeming ,word enlightened their minds1 and the sanctifying ,spirit touched their hearts8 ,it will be obvious to the thoughtful reader that this order1 in which the definite knowledge of ,god is attained1 is the reverse of that in which the idea of ,god is manifested in the spontaneous consciousness of the individual and the race4 ,the former is analytical1 the latter is synthetical4 ,the idea of ,god as the ground and cause and reason of all existence is immediately given in spontaneous thought4 ,the conception of ,god as pure ,spirit1 as the eternal ,reason1 the righteous ,will1 the supreme ,good1 the omnipresent ,ruler of the universe1 and the ,father of humanity1 is gradually developed in reflective thought4 ,the first is a metaphysical datum1 standing at the commencement of all inquiry1 the second is a logical qusitum which is reached at the end of a process of rational inquiry4 ,spontaneous consciousness begins with an indeterminate feeling1 a mysterious presentiment of the ,divine2 it proceeds through simple intuition1 and ends with affirmative thought4 ,reflective consciousness begins by questioning our primitive beliefs1 and asking for their logical grounds2 it proceeds by analytic and inductive reasoning1 and may result in the union of logical convictions1 with determinate affections--an intelligent reverence and an appreciating love4 ,spontaneous thought is involuntary1 and must necessarily result in faith4 ,reflective thought is voluntary1 and may result in error1 doubt1 and skepticism4 ,therefore the method by which we attain to a clear and determinate knowledge of ,god--by which we really feel1 and actually find ,god--may be defeated1 interrupted1 and marred by sin4 ,unholy passion and a perverted will may materially vitiate the process by which the human reason reaches a logical conviction of the being of a ,god4 ,the ungodly man may desire that the ,first ,cause shall have no moral attributes4 ,the sinner may imagine that the ,deity is altogether such an one as himself4 ,the fool may say in his heart1 ,there is no ,god4 ,while the idea of ,god presents itself naturally and necessarily in spontaneous thought1 there may be an unwillingness to retain ,god in the knowledge4 ,and even where ,god is known1 ,he may not be honored and gratefully recognized2 and1 as a consequence1 the understanding may be darkened4 ,swallowed up of uncleanness and lust1 the abandoned man may barter the truth of ,god for lies1 and eventually worship and serve the creature more than the ,creator4 ,still man can not utterly relegate himself from all sense of obligation1 and all feeling of dependence upon ,god4 ,he can not sever the link which binds him to his ,maker4 ,he can not wholly extinguish in his heart the sense of the ,divine1 nor eradicate from his reason the ideas which1 in their spontaneous1 unimpeded development1 reveal to him the personal ,lawgiver and ,judge4 ,where there is any rectitude of purpose1 any sincere love for truth1 there will be1 in a proportionate measure1 the true knowledge of ,god4 ,and the pure mind may assuredly rise to that higher religious consciousness in which doubt and uncertainty are swallowed up in an inward vision of his glory4 ,here1 then1 we have the rational foundation for moral government1 and the ultimate ground of all religion4 ,the possibility of knowing ,god1 the obligation to reverence and obey ,god1 the power to do the will of ,god1 the susceptibility of the human heart for ,divine inspiration and ,divine communing1 are all grounded upon the correlations between ,god and man4 ,god is not far from any one of us1 for in ,him we live and move and are2 as certain of your own poets have said1 ',for we are his offspring4' #a4 ,the relation between ,god and man is a relation of contiguity4 ,god is perpetually near to man4 ,he is not far from any one of us4 ,the sacred ,scriptures not only teach the ubiquity of ,god1 but they emphasize the immediateness of the ,divine presence in relation to man4 ,whither shall ,i go from thy ,spirit8 or whither shall ,i flee from thy presence8 ,if ,i ascend up into heaven1 ,thou art there2 if ,i make my bed in hell1 behold1 ,thou art there4 ,if ,i take the wings of the morning1 and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea1 even there shall thy hand lead me1 and thy right hand shall hold me4 ,thou hast beset me behind and before1 and laid thine hand upon me4 ,no man can escape from ,god4 ,we may retire to the remotest parts of the earth1 and take up our abode in the most solitary isle2 we may press our way into the deepest recesses of the primeval forest1 to spots where the foot of man has never trod1 and on which the light of heaven has never shone1 and where solitude has held its undisturbed reign ever since the morning of creation1 and the conviction that ,god is in this place will relieve the loneliness1 and hold us fast within the grasp of his government and laws4 ,let human thought take to itself the wings of imagination and pierce the heavens1 let it travel on through the immensity of space until it has reached the confines of the universe1 let it alight on one of the outermost stars which seem to stand as sentinels at the very outposts of creation1 and looking out upon the depths of space1 there shall be heard the voice of ,god toning on throughout the fathomless abyss1 ,can any hide himself in secret places that ,i shall not see8 ,do not ,i fill heaven and earth8 saith the ,lord4 ,god is not far from any one of us4 ,he is the ,ever ,near4 ,nearer to us than the air we breathe1 nearer than the light which reveals surrounding objects1 nearer than our body1 the living vesture of the soul1 is ,god4 ,in the words of the ,persian oracle1 ,god is nearer to thee than thou art unto thyself4 ,as the ,infinite ,mind is present to all rational beings1 so are they all present to ,him4 ,god is omniscient4 ,the thoughts1 feelings1 and actions of all men are immediately and directly known by ,him4 ,o ,lord1 thou hast searched me and known me4 ,thou knowest my downsitting and mine uprising1 ,thou understandest my thought afar off4 ,thou compassest my path and my lying down1 and art acquainted with all my ways4 ,for there is not a word in my tongue1 but lo1 ,o ,lord1 ,thou knowest it altogether4 ,the first condition of a moral government is found in the nearness1 the contiguity of ,god to every human soul1 and the immediate and infallible knowledge which ,he consequently must possess of every human thought and act4 #b4 ,the relation between ,god and man is a relation of immanency4 ,in ,him we live and move and are 71 have conscious being74 ,our life1 our power1 our consciousness are from ,god1 through ,god1 and in ,god4 ,this relation is manifestly something more immediate than the relation of contiguity4 ,it is the present1 instant1 ceaseless relation of ,divine efficiency4 ,this is involved in the very idea of the creature4 ,if man is the creature of ,god1 he has not only his beginning1 but his continuance of existence by a real and immediate causality4 ,god alone possesses true life--life in ,himself--,he alone is really self-existent1 our life and our being are continually derived from ,him4 ,if we were without ,god1 and entirely isolated from ,him1 we could not live or move or even exist4 ,god is every where1 not virtually but actually4 ,he pervades and interpenetrates all existences without displacing them in space or disturbing their operations4 ,his infinite essence underlies all the principles and powers of all created existences2 they all move within the range of his presence1 and act within the sphere of his energy4 ,and ,god is not only present immediately to man1 but his mighty will sustains man in existence every moment1 vitalizing his organism1 endowing him with power1 illuminating his reason1 and inspiring him with knowledge4 ,god is immanent in man1 and man is immanent in ,god4 ,to us there is but one ,god1 the ,father1 of whom are all things1 and we in ,him4#dih--,one ,god and ,father of all1 who is above all1 and through all1 and in you all4#dii--,the same ,god who worketh all in all4#ejj ,our life is from ,god and in ,god4 ,our power to energize is from ,god and constantly sustained by ,god4 ,we consciously know in and through ,god1 who so illuminates our reason that we can interpret the symbolism of nature4 ,god teacheth man knowledge4 ,he giveth wisdom to the wise and prudence to men of understanding4 ,there is a spirit in man1 and the inspiration of the ,almighty giveth him understanding4 ,the reason of man is a beam of the eternal reason4 ,the spirit of a man is the candle of the ,lord4 ,all good desires1 all noble impulses1 all power to resist temptation and perform heroic acts of endurance and suffering1 are from ,god4 ,every good and every perfect gift cometh down from above1 from the ,father of ,lights4#eja ,the constant1 ceaseless dependence of all rational existence on ,god for vitality1 for power1 and for consciousness must be maintained1 if we would be faithful to the plain language of ,scripture4 ,we are aware that fears of a pantheistic perversion has led some men1 without reason1 to refine upon the language of ,scripture4 ,by the expression in ,him 7 71 we are1 they say1 to understand with ,him4 ,but does not mean with ,him or through ,him4 ,the most natural grammatical construction is in ,him1 and this suits best the logical connection4 ,the ,uncreated is the only self-existent being4 ,all other existences are derived and dependent1 and therefore can not be self-existent4 ,the ,supreme can not communicate the attribute of self-existence any more than the attribute of infinity4 ,a finite existence can not be at once dependent and independent4 ,of mind1 as well as of matter1 it is equally true that the sole ground of its continuing to be1 as well as its beginning to be1 is in the ,almighty will and power directly and ceaselessly put forth4 ,the direct agency of ,god sustaining conscious life is a universal1 constant1 profound reality4#ejb ,it may be objected that in maintaining these views we are in danger of sacrificing the personality of man4 ,it may be asked1 ,how can we sustain the antithesis between the ,i and ,thou of a commandment or of a prayer8 ,how can we reconcile human self-determination with absolute dependence upon ,god8 ,how can we conceive the possibility of sin--the possibility of a creature dependent every moment on ,god for power1 acting in opposition to the mind and will of ,god8 ,these are questions of profound significance2 they are also questions of extreme difficulty4 ,our reason staggers under their weight4 ,we tremble in the presence of the mystery of evil4 ,it is obvious that these questions involve the deeper question as to the causal connection of ,god with his creation1 which all men confess is an insoluble and impenetrable mystery4 ,the feeling of dependence on the one hand1 as well as the sense of personal power and freedom on the other1 are primitive facts of consciousness4 ,that we live and move and have our being in ,god1 and that we have a real determinate selfhood1 a finite personality1 a responsible spirit-life1 are both affirmed in ,scripture4 ,that a holy ,god made the world1 and still actually upholds it2 and that sin1 as lawlessness 771 as a real antagonism to the will and nature of ,god1 exists in his world1 can not be denied by ,christian men4 ,these are equally truths4 ,to our conception1 they may appear antithetical1 if not contradictory4 ,but truth is often of a dual character2 like the magnet1 it may have opposite poles4 ,and many of the differences which agitate the world are often to be traced to the exclusiveness with which different parties affirm one half of the duality in forgetfulness of the other half4 ,we must accept both aspects of the truth1 even though we can not at present effect their real conciliation in thought1 and wait for further light4 ,a profound faith in the unity of all truth will inspire the hope that reason may yet attain to ultimate principles in which shall be found the harmony of facts and subordinate principles that to-day seem irreconcilable4 ,underlying the above apparently antithetical truths we can even now dimly discern still more fundamental principles which prophesy a solution4 ,if ,divine ,love will that there shall be other existences who shall resemble ,god1 and be capable of fellowship with ,him in knowledge and in love--in other words1 shall be perfect so far as is consistent with the notion of dependent existence--these beings must have a real selfhood1 a conscious personality1 a conditioned freedom4 ,for impersonal being1 even though it may by its absolute dependence reveal the eternal power1 and in some degree reflect the thought of ,god1 can not in any sense be the image of ,god1 who is absolute ,personality4 ,above all1 that which can not know itself1 can not know ,god1 and can not love ,god4 ,that which can not freely determine itself1 can not obey ,god or resemble ,god4 ,the highest form of spirit-life is the conscious return1 by a free identification1 of every delegated power into harmony with its source4 ,real being and real life in ,god must therefore involve1 not only a consciousness of dependence and obligation1 but also self-consciousness and self-determination4 ,resemblance to ,god and fellowship with ,god are possible only through these fundamental elements of personality4 ,moral union requires dynamical separation4 ,and because ,god wills this highest unity1 ,he creates the highest individuality1 and gives being to a will under concessions of freedom4 ,we conceive of the ,divine conservation of the world and man as the simple1 universal1 uniform efficiency of ,god which sustains the created powers in every moment of their activity1 and thereby keeps them bound to ,himself4 ,as such it makes itself the basis of all individual efficiencies in the life and movement of the world1 without indeed itself1 as such1 giving to the efficiency of creaturely powers any particular direction4 ,the conserving activity of ,god moves in prearranged lines1 and according to laws and measures determined by the infinite wisdom of ,god1 and conserves1 therefore1 all individual existence only within the boundaries which are fixed by these arrangements1 and through the relations of the powers of the world4 ,thus as the world-conserving activity of ,god leaves all creatures just as it finds them1 and equally embraces irrational as well as rational beings1 the evil as well as the good 7,matt4 v4 #de71 it can in nowise remove the answerableness of man for his sins1 or in any way taking part in the same4 ,the world-conserving efficiency of ,god sustains man every moment in being1 and conditions the activity of his moral powers even when they are exerted in an evil choice1 just as it sustains the universe according to a predetermined plan and in harmony with fixed laws2 but it does not thereby give to the activity of the moral creature any determinate direction whatever1 either good or evil4 ,the general power to will and do is received immediately and constantly from ,god1 but it is a delegation of power under concessions of freedom and conditions of accountability4 ,the specific determinations of that power are from man himself4 ,he may give an evil direction to his derived and dependent activities1 and thus commit sin4 ,the responsibility for that evil determination rests upon himself alone1 even though he is every moment pervaded and sustained by the conserving efficiency of ,god4 ,alternative power is a talent loaned out by ,god to man4 ,but it is a talent which still belongs to ,god1 for the proper or improper use of which man is accountable4 ,it has been urged by the captious critic1 who would fain cast upon ,god all responsibility for the presence of evil in the world1 that if ,god does not actually determine the evil1 ,he delegates to man the power to actualize evil2 let ,him only refuse his conserving efficiency to the will of man1 and thus prevent the evil6 ,the reckless objector knoweth not what he saith4 ,in order to render evil impossible1 it is demanded that ,god shall rob man of his personality1 and degrade him to the level of impersonal nature2 for the possibility of evil is inseparable from the notion of free1 self-determined existence4 ,the momentary withdrawment of the conserving activity of ,god from the moral creature were the immediate annihilation of its existence4#ejc ,liberty is not only a good1 but it is the necessary condition of all goodness4 ,it is the sphere of all great virtues1 noble deeds1 and heroic acts4 ,there can be no virtue1 no praiseworthiness1 no godlikeness1 no real felicity1 where there is no freedom4 ,shall we reproach ,god for having made us free personalities8 ,shall we complain because ,god has honored us by committing to us a sacred trust1 and placed our happiness and well-being largely under our own control8 ,who would surrender his conscious power and freedom1 and sacrifice the infinite possibilities of good which lie before him1 to escape the possibility of failure and suffering and defeat8 ,will any rational man exchange his position for that of the ant or the beaver8 ,what1 exclaims ,rousseau1 to render man incapable of evil1 would we have him lowered to mere brute instinct8 ,no6 ,god of my soul1 ,i will not reproach ,thee for having made me in thine image1 so that ,i might be good and free and happy like ,thyself4 ,the ceaseless dependence of man on the conserving efficiency of ,god imposes upon him the obligation to determine himself1 and to regulate his action in conformity with the will of ,god4 ,here1 then1 we have found a still deeper ground for moral government4 #c4 ,the relation of ,god to man is a relation of paternity2 the relation of man to ,god is a relation of childship4 ,we are his offspring2 and as the offspring of ,god we must have a kindred nature1 and1 in some sense1 resemble ,god4 ,god is the ,father of the human spirit by no mere figure of speech1 but by a ,divine reality2 and man1 in virtue of that rational and spiritual nature inbreathed and1 as it were1 begotten within him by the ,eternal ,word of ,god1 is the likeness and image of ,god4 ,it is one of the changeless laws of all derived and dependent existence that the offspring shall resemble the parent4 ,and just as every seed must produce its own kind1 just as every offspring must be of the same species as its parent1 so must man bear the image of ,god4#ejd ,this image of ,god can have no reference to the body of man1 nor to any qualities or attributes which belong to matter4 ,spirit is the only thing which does bear or is capable of bearing any resemblance to ,god4 ,the all-pervading personality of ,god is mirrored in the finite personality of man4 ,the four grand elements of personality are intelligence1 will1 affection1 and conscience1 and these in man reflect the character of ,god4 ,elevated to absolute perfection1 they become the august attributes of ,omniscience1 ,omnipotence1 ,all-lovingness1 and ,all-holiness4 ,one ,god1 says ,cousin1 is doubtless the author of the world1 and as his workmanship it must reflect1 in some measure1 his perfections4 ,but ,he is especially the ,father of humanity4 ,his intelligence and his personality are therefore of the same kind with our intelligence and our personality1 to which we add infinity by a necessary law of thought4 ,so that our knowledge1 our freedom1 our charity1 our justice1 give us the idea of ,divine wisdom1 ,divine freedom1 ,divine justice1 and ,divine charity4#eje ,these conclusions of philosophy are in striking harmony with the positive statements of ,scripture4 ,here we are taught that the image of ,god in man consists in power1 knowledge1 righteousness1 and benevolence 77#ejf--1 from kind1 merciful1 benevolent4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as man is the offspring of ,god1 he may know that ,god is1 and he may1 in some measure at least1 know what ,god is1 and what are the duties which he owes to ,god4 ,selfhood or personality in man is the primordial germ of the idea of ,god4 ,the self-consciousness1 the intelligence1 the free activity1 the potential righteousness and charity of man must have their origin in a cause which is itself a full and adequate explanation4 ,we accept the ancient philosophic maxim ex nihilo nihil1 and apply it rigorously to the case in hand4 ,that which is can not have arisen out of that which is not4 ,out of nothing nothing can arise4 ,consciousness can not arise out of unconsciousness4 ,reason can not arise out of unreason4 ,self-activity can not arise out of absolute passivity and eternal rest4 ,justice1 righteousness1 charity1 can not be generated from brute matter1 or born in the abyss of nothingness4 ,the ,creator of man1 of the reason that is in man1 of the moral liberty of man1 of the ideas of justice and benevolence which dwell in the conscience of man1 must ,himself be intelligent1 free1 just1 and good4 ,such is the logic of ,scripture and of common-sense4 ,he that planted the ear1 shall ,he not hear8 ,he that formed the eye1 shall ,he not see8 ,he that chastiseth the heathen1 shall not ,he correct8 ,he that teacheth man knowledge1 shall not ,he know8 ,he that made man a sentient1 percipient1 self-conscious personality1 shall not ,he be percipient and self-conscious8 ,he that hath given man reason1 is ,he not the ,eternal ,reason8 ,he that hath planted in the hearts of men the principles of justice1 must not ,he be a righteous ,being8 ,he that inspires man with compassion1 must not his nature be ,love8 ,if the ,first ,cause be destitute of these qualities1 then for us1 at least1 ,he is as though ,he were not4 ,he is a thousand times inferior to us--inferior even in his infinity and his eternity to one hour of our finite existence1 if during that fugitive hour we can know and think and love4 ,a finite moral personality1 even though it be the most perfect form of dependent existence1 points1 with an infallible logic1 to a being beyond and above itself1 and suggests an ,infinite ,personality who is absolute perfection--that is1 a ,being of perfect knowledge1 perfect freedom1 perfect righteousness1 and perfect love4 ,this community of nature between man and ,god is not only the ground and condition of our knowing ,god1 but it is also the living1 everlasting bond which holds man to ,god1 even in his sins4 ,it involves much more than obligation--obligation to an omnipotent ,master1 and submission to an omnipresent ,lord4 ,such sense of obligation may be developed within the sphere of instinctive and unreasoning life4 ,but the kinship of souls to ,god brings man within the sphere of moral life1 with its eternal and immutable laws4 ,it endows man with the power and imposes upon him the duty to reverence1 adore1 and love the heavenly ,father4 ,wonderful and awful1 this idea of the paternity of ,god and the childship of human souls6 ,this paternity of ,god is suggestive at once of the highest form of authority and the most sacred form of duty that can be conceived by the human mind4 ,the power of a sovereign1 however extensive it may be1 is1 after all1 only conventional2 it admits of being circumscribed or suspended4444 ,all earthly forms of authority1 which belong to the political1 civil1 or social relation of men1 are accidental and official1 created by men for their own purposes1 and may be modified or abolished by the power that created them4 ,but the authority of a father over his child is founded in nature and established by ,god4 ,this is not a voluntary arrangement among men themselves1 which they are at liberty to continue or to terminate as they please2 but1 on the contrary1 it is a ,divine constitution4 ,such authority as a father possesses over his child--so natural1 so real1 so ,divine--no human being besides can possess over another4 ,this1 accordingly1 is the selected type of the supreme rights of ,god1 and of the essential sovereignty which belongs to the ,father of minds4 ,no other explains1 as this does1 the foundation and nature of ,divine authority4 ,there are1 indeed1 other terms which indicate the mere fact of sovereignty in ,god1 and do so more pointedly and directly than this4 ,for example3 ,he is compared to a king--a name which belongs to the highest secular office and the highest secular authority on earth4 ',the ,lord is king forever4' ,his creatures are his subjects2 ,he gives them wise and righteous laws1 and they must answer to ,him for obedience and disobedience4 ,the comparison is obviously just up to a certain limit2 but it is obvious that in many essential respects it entirely fails4 ,the king and his people are connected together only by one bond--that of authority and corresponding subjection4 ,the relation is purely a contingent relation1 and may be maintained by arbitrary power4 ,but the relation between ,god and his rational creatures is a natural and a necessary relation4 ,all that is denoted by the word king--authority1 power1 law--is really contained in the word father2 but there is much more conveyed in the word father than can be possibly expressed by the word king4 ,god is a king1 but ,he is a ,father-king2 his subjects are his own children1 and his government of them--in its origin1 its spirit1 its laws1 and even its penalties--is strictly paternal4 ,god's kingship is a figure1 his fatherhood is the profoundest reality4#ejg ,this correlation between the spirit of man and the spirit of ,god is the living indissoluble bond which has ever held1 and shall forever hold the hearts of men to the living ,god4 ,humanity has not been enchained to the throne of ,god by servile fear1 and held in subjection to his government by the dread of future punishment4 ,fear never made men virtuous1 never can insure virtue4 ,man has been held to ,god by spiritual affinities and a conscious kinship4 ,men have always felt that the ,ruler of the world is merciful and just1 and that his claim upon their allegiance and loyal obedience is reasonable and right4 ,therefore they have in all ages hoped in his mercy1 and confided in the righteousness of his administration4 ,this has been the consolation of the wise and good in seasons of danger and adversity4 ,to this ,being innocence and weakness under oppression and wrong have made their proud appeal1 like that of ,prometheus to the elements1 to the witnessing world1 to coming ages1 to the just ear of ,heaven4 ,when1 therefore1 ,paul at ,athens announced that ,god is not far from any one of us1 for in ,him we live and move and are1 he touched a chord which vibrated in every heart4 ,for in every age men have had a presentiment of some nearer relation to ,god than the rest of creation--a relation not of dependence only1 but of kinship and sonship4 ,in moments of deep feeling the poets1 who are the best interpreters of nature1 have given oracular utterance to the native feeling of the human heart3 ,we are all thine offspring1 ,the image and the echo of thy eternal voice4--,,cleanthes4 ,all need his aid1 his power sustains us all-- ,for we his offspring are4--,,aratus4 ,finally1 as the spiritual nature of man is derived from and correlated to ,god1 he may become inwardly conscious of the ,divine favor1 or may be sensible of the ,divine displeasure4 ,these are the sanctions of the moral law--the reward and the penalty awarded to men4 ,the smile of ,god is heaven1 the frown of ,god is hell4 ,here we have found the deepest ground of a ,divine government--the paternity of ,god4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,moral ,,government4 ,,ii4 ,,its ,,nature1 ,,conditions1 ,,method1 ,,and ,,end4 ,the times of this ignorance ,god overlooked1 but now commandeth all men every where to repent2 because ,he hath appointed a day in the which ,he will judge the world in righteousness4--,,st4 ,,paul4 ,the relations existing between ,god and man1 especially the correlations of paternity and filiation1 constitute the ultimate foundations of ,moral ,government4 ,this is the conclusion of the preceding discussion4 ,if ,god is intimately near to man--if ,he is immanent in man1 and man is immanent in ,god--if ,god is the ,father of the human spirit1 and man the offspring of ,god1 then man must bear some resemblance to ,god--he must have a spiritual and immortal nature1 must be a free personality1 must be capable of knowing and loving ,god1 and therefore must be under solemn responsibility to ,god1 and within the sphere of the eternal and immutable laws of moral life2 in a word1 he must be the subject of moral government4 ,we proceed now to consider1 more especially1 the nature1 the conditions1 the methods1 and the ends of moral government4 ,i4 ,the nature of moral government4--,government1 in general1 is control--control with a view to the maintenance of order4 ,this may be effected by direct coaction or forceful compulsion2 or by the reaction of natural consequences2 or by the pervasive influence of moral motives4 ,the first is constraint1 the second is restraint1 the third is authoritative direction4 ,we must1 therefore1 distinguish between physical1 natural1 and moral government4 ,the physical government of ,god is the absolute control which ,he exercises over the material creation4 ,he is the ,fountain-head of all the forces1 and the ,author of all the laws according to which passive1 unconscious matter is resistlessly impelled2 and because his power and wisdom are infinite1 and his purposes are immutable1 therefore material nature is uniform1 and there is an all-pervading order in the physical world4 ,the natural government of ,god is that constitution of nature1 and of man in so far as he is a part of nature1 by which the sensations of pleasure and pain result directly and necessarily from the actions of man2 and inasmuch as he is able by an induction from experience to foresee these consequences1 and to determine his own conduct in view of them1 they are not improperly called rewards and punishments4 ,thus it is found by experience that disease and suffering result from acts of intemperance and licentiousness1 and men are restrained from the commission of these acts by the fear of their foreseen results4 ,this is control by the reaction of natural consequences in that intermediate sphere which we may designate the physico-moral order of the world4 ,the moral government of ,god is that kind of control which a wise and virtuous parent exercises over his family1 or a just and equitable magistrate over his subjects4#ejh ,it is a government by laws or rules addressed to the reason1 by moral motives which appeal to the conscience1 and by moral sanctions which appeal to the emotions4 ,it is a constitution in which ,god has declared his will to man1 and taught him1 prior to the experience of retributive consequences1 what is right and what is wrong2 a constitution under which man is endowed with the capacity of perceiving the inherent righteousness of the ,divine law1 of feeling the imperative claims of duty1 and of apprehending a future retribution1 and also a real causative power of self-determination and choice4 ,finally1 it is an economy in which ample scope is afforded for the development of responsible character4 ,it is a probation in which there are tests and temptations1 in which forbearance is exercised and consequences are delayed1 in which remedial agencies are plied and opportunities are afforded for repentance and reformation1 and in the final consummation of which virtuous character shall receive its meet reward1 and sinful character its merited punishment4 ,this is the ideal order of moral life4 ,this twofold distinction between the physical and the spiritual1 and between the natural and the moral1 runs through the entire domain of existence and action1 of being and becoming4 ,the terms physical and spiritual are employed as collective terms to connote the essential1 changeless1 and permanent attributes of certain entities or realities which are regarded as ultimate1 viz41 matter and spirit4 ,the attributes of matter are extension1 divisibility1 absolute incompressibility1 and inertia2 the attributes of spirit are sensitivity1 reason1 power1 spontaneity1 and memory4 ,the term physical is further employed to denote certain affections of matter--that is1 mechanical effects which are the result of the action of force upon matter4 ,it is true we often speak of physical forces1 as though force were an essential attribute of matter4 ,but this is one of the many ambiguities of language4 ,all that we mean by physical force is a force which acts upon matter1 and produces in the motions and collocations of matter its appropriate effects4#eji ,spirit-force is the only force in the universe2 all that our physical science deals with is forms of energy which have their origin in force4 ,mind1 says ,dr4 ,carpenter1 is the one and only source of power4#eaj ,the terms natural and moral are employed to denote opposite modes of action and classes of effects4 ,in the one case the mode of action is fixed and uniform1 and the effect is necessary2 in the other case the mode of action is free and volitional1 and the effect is contingent and variable4 ,the first is the order of nature where force reigns1 the second is the order of moral life where freedom prevails4 ,whatever is comprised in the chain and mechanism of cause and effect1 of course necessitated1 and having its necessity in some other thing antecedent or concurrent1 this is said to be natural1 and the aggregate and system of all such things is nature4#eaa ,while1 on the contrary1 that which lies within the agent's power1 and to which he determines himself by an act of free choice2 and especially that which the agent knows he ought to do1 and in choosing which he is conscious of power to put forth1 in the same unchanged circumstances1 a different volition instead1 is called moral4 ,thus does morality commence with the sacred distinction between thing and person4 ,on this distinction all legislation1 human and ,divine1 proceeds4 ,that which fundamentally distinguishes a person from a mere thing of nature is free causality--that is1 the power or immunity to put forth in the same circumstances either of several volitions4 ,a thing is unconscious1 involuntary1 and powerless1 and consequently limited to one sole possible eventuation4 ,a thing has no responsibility for its movements1 which it has not willed1 and of the nature and consequences of which it is ignorant4 ,a person alone is responsible1 because he is intelligent and free2 that is1 he can foresee the consequences of his action1 and freely determines himself to its performance4 ,a thing has no dignity2 dignity attaches only to personality4 ,personality is inalienable1 sacred1 and inviolable2 it can not be abrogated1 surrendered1 or transferred1 and it demands to be respected4 ,in a word1 it has both duties and rights1 while things have neither4#eab ,thus do we find that all dignity1 all sacredness1 all responsibility1 all morality belong to and are predicable only of the personal being1 because intelligence and freedom are the essential moments of personality4 ,furthermore1 the sphere of the moral is to be determined by another important limitation4 ,not all the actions of men are personal and responsible acts4 ,sensation is not a voluntary operation4 ,when the external object is brought into proper relation with the animated organism1 perception necessarily occurs4 ,the intuitive apperceptions of the reason are impersonal2 when a change transpires1 the reason necessarily affirms the existence of a cause4 ,reflex nervous action is involuntary4 ,many muscular movements are spontaneous1 but not volitional4 ,a responsible action is an intentional action--that is1 an act performed to realize an end which lies within the agent's contemplation4 ,spontaneity or self-determination only thereby becomes will4 ,a moral act is consequently a premeditated1 intentional1 voluntary act1 and the merit or demerit of an agent is as his actual intention4 ,the last and most important limitation of the moral sphere is to those voluntary actions which have relation to personality1 human and ,divine4 ,the peculiar distinction of moral actions1 moral character1 moral principles1 moral habits1 as contrasted with the intellectual and other parts of man's nature1 lies in this1 that they always imply a relation between two persons4#eac ,morality is the relation of person to person4 ,we sum up what has been said in the preceding paragraphs in these words3 ,the moral government of ,god is a legislation which has respect to personality1 especially the relations of person to person2 and it is an administration under which the subjects have power to resist and violate its requirements1 but which is provided with ample means to vindicate its authority1 and maintain the moral order of the universe4 ,,ii4 ,the subjective conditions of moral government4--,it will be apparent from what has been already said that the following conditions are essential to moral government3 7#a47 ,the subject of moral government must be intelligent4 ,he must be able to understand the ,divine requirements1 to perceive their inherent rightness1 and to feel the sense of obligation to comply therewith4 ,he must also be susceptible of certain pleasurable or painful emotions which follow as the direct consequences of his actions1 and secure an adequate retribution4 ,in a word1 he must have a moral consciousness1 or1 briefly1 a conscience4 7#b47 ,the subject of moral government must be a free power4 ,he must be the efficient cause of his own action1 and he must be conscious of this power of self-determination--that is1 he must be conscious of power to put forth1 in the same unchanged circumstances1 either of several volitions4 ,in short1 he must have a free will4 ,these1 then1 are the essential conditions of moral agency--the possession of a conscience1 and the power to obey or disobey the requirements of moral law4 ,both these conditions of accountability exist in man4 ,by virtue of his constitution as a spiritual being made in the image of ,god1 he is capable of perceiving what is inherently right1 just1 and good4 ,his reason intuitively apprehends the good1 and affirms the imperative obligation to choose the good4 ,his judgment pronounces upon the relation of human conduct to the law of right1 affirming man has or has not done right4 ,and his emotive nature yields him complacence and joy as the reward of well-doing1 or inflicts pain and remorse as the punishment of wrong-doing4 ,in the words of ,chalmers1 he is endowed with a conscience which performs within his bosom all the offices of a lawgiver and a judge4 ,the possession of this faculty necessarily supposes the existence of power in the agent to comply or not to comply with its behests4 ,a moral law is designed only for the government of a free being1 and nothing is moral or immoral which is not voluntary4 ,if there is no self-determination1 there is no proper personality to which the law of reason can attach4 ,remorse1 on the one hand1 satisfaction on the other1 are emotions which are inconceivable and impossible in a being who is not consciously free4 ,the nature and authority of conscience is a question which is earnestly discussed4 ,among philosophers and theologians there are diverse and conflicting opinions4 ,it has been variously characterized as a witness of our past actions2 as a judgment passed upon our actions2 or as a feeling arising in view of our actions4 ,by one1 conscience is regarded as an appetite--a craving for the right1 but not a faculty intuitively perceiving the right4 ,another defines it as a capacity and a tendency to inquire into duty1 but not as supplying a law of duty4#ead ,while a third regards it as a state of the sensibility--a simple feeling1 emotion1 or vivid sentiment which arises immediately in the mind in presence of certain actions1 and to which we give the name of moral approbation4#eae ,these definitions of conscience may all be regarded as containing some truth4 ,they are all defective1 however1 in this one respect--they fail to recognize an internal law which constitutes a subjective standard of right1 and an intuitive perception of moral distinctions and qualities in human action4 ,as an essay toward a clearer apprehension of the nature of conscience1 we present the following propositions3 #a4 ,conscience is not a distinct faculty of the mind4 ,conscience 7conscientia joint or double knowledge7 is the knowledge of self in relation to a known law of right and wrong4 ,conscience and consciousness may therefore be regarded as1 in some respects1 identical4 ,the terms in their etymology and their general import are synonymous4 ,there is1 however1 a technical distinction to be made4 ,consciousness expresses self-knowledge in general4 ,conscience expresses self-knowledge relative to responsibility4 ,consciousness is the recognition by the thinking subject of its own states and affections4 ,conscience is the knowledge of an act or an affection as having some moral quality--as being right or wrong4 #b4 ,conscience is1 like consciousness1 a complex phenomenon1 the result of the simultaneous action of the primary powers of the mind4 ,the simplest fact of consciousness is a synthesis of sensation and reason in a primitive psychological judgment4 ,sensation alone is not knowledge1 and it becomes consciousness only as it is illuminated and informed by the reason4 ,and so a mere state of the sensibility--a mere feeling of approbation or disapprobation--does not constitute conscience until it is informed by the reason4 ,conscience is the unity of feeling and reason in a judgment which has respect to voluntary action4 #c4 ,conscience is the common field in which is revealed the result of the operation of all our faculties in their especial relation to moral law4 ,as consciousness is the common field in which the results of the operation of all our faculties come to light1 so conscience is that department of the same field in which is revealed the action of the mind in relation to the unchangeable principles of order and right which dwell in the bosom of the ,infinite4 ,conscience is pre-eminently the ,godward side of our mental being1 which reflects the moral character of ,god1 and brings us into relationship with ,him4 ,it is that which carries us per saltum to the immediate recognition of a ,god1 the ,lawgiver and the ,judge who is over man1 and which holds him in mysterious but indissoluble bonds of obligation4 ,conscience is therefore1 7#a47 ,the reason intuitively apprehending universal moral ideas and laws4 ,it furnishes the idea of the good4 ,it affirms that the good is universally obligatory4 ,it asserts that the good has desert1 worthiness1 and dignity4 ,and it demands for the good an appropriate recognition and a just reward4 7#b47 ,the understanding apprehending the relations in which we stand to ,god1 to our fellow-beings1 and to self as a moral personality endowed with reason and freedom4 7#c47 ,the judgment comparing the acts of a voluntary agent existing in certain relations with the immutable ideas and laws of the reason1 and affirming this is right and worthy of praise and reward1 or that is wrong and deserving of blame and punishment4 7#d47 ,a particular state of the sensibility--the painful or pleasurable emotions which spontaneously arise in presence of right or wrong in our own actions or in the actions of our fellow-men4 ,thus conscience is1 as it were1 the focal point at which are united and blended the varied acts and states of the soul in its immediate relation to the moral law4 ,it is the synthesis of moral ideas1 cognitions1 and feelings in a moral judgment4 ,the co-operation of these powers and susceptibilities of the soul in their relation to the good has a parallel and an illustration in their operation in relation to the beautiful4 ,the ideas of order1 proportion1 harmony1 fitness1 and unity in variety are unquestionably fundamental and necessary ideas of the reason4 ,in the ,divine reason these ideas have always existed as the laws in accordance with which ,he fashioned the material universe4 ,and inasmuch as the human reason is configured to the ,divine1 these ideas must also exist in the human mind4 ,like statuary in the inner palaces of the soul1 they are the models by which we recognize and the standards according to which we judge the forms of beauty in the external world4 ,the correspondence between these external forms and the inner ideals of the reason is recognized by the judgment4 ,and the delight we experience in presence of the beautiful in nature and art is a particular direction of the sensibility4 ,this is not1 however1 the chronological order in which the idea of the beautiful is developed in the mind4 ,the sense of beauty first reveals itself in the spontaneous consciousness in presence of the order and harmony and fitness which pervade the universe4 ,we experience delight without being able to specialize the precise causes of our pleasure4 ,but the reflective consciousness1 which is pre-eminently analytic1 brings out into clear light the fundamental ideas of order1 harmony1 fitness1 and unity1 which had a prior existence in the reason1 and have now recognized themselves as mirrored in the universe4 ,the repeated observation of the forms of beauty around us1 and the comparison of these with the standard ideas of the reason1 will result in the beau-ideal of a pure and correct taste--true 4 ,so in relation to the idea of the good4 ,it does not stand forth to the eye of consciousness1 in the first instance1 as an abstract conception4 ,the moral sense--the affection of the sensibility in presence of voluntary and responsible action--is first revealed in the spontaneous consciousness4 ,when we behold an act of justice1 of kindness1 of beneficence1 we experience the fullest satisfaction4 ,we admire and esteem the actor4 ,we feel that his conduct is praiseworthy1 and that he is deserving of honor and reward4 ,these sentiments spring up spontaneously and involuntarily in our bosoms long before we have defined their reason and law4 ,the reflective consciousness subsequently elicits the rational ideas which underlie these emotions--the ideas of the useful1 the just1 the beneficent1 the noble1 and the perfect1 all which are finally embraced in the idea of the good4 ,and the repeated comparison of the conduct of voluntary agents existing under certain relations1 with the fundamental ideas of the reason1 these standards of right erected in the soul1 will result in an ideal of moral excellence--a true 4 ,if this doctrine of conscience be the product of a true psychological method1 it will enable us to account for the apparent want of uniformity in its suffrages in individual cases1 and the varied phenomena presented in different men4 ,conscience1 like consciousness1 has its gradual development4 ,though natural and necessary to every human soul whose powers are normally developed1 it is not exercised at the beginning of its existence1 but only after certain conditions of growth and stages of growth have been attained4 ,this development may be arrested or it may be perverted4 ,the absence of proper conditions1 the lack of suitable discipline and culture in any one of the faculties whose operation enters into the concrete phenomena1 will modify the general result4 ,an excess of sensibility will give a morbid conscience2 the lack of sensibility1 a slumbering conscience4 ,a defective apprehension of the relations in which we stand to ,god and to our fellow-men will prevent our seeing our specific duties4 ,inattention to the character of our own motives1 or ignorance of the real intentions of other men1 may mislead the judgment in discriminating between the quality of actions4 ,there are also natural differences in the soundness and accuracy of the judgments of individual men4 ,we meet those who with a limited acquaintance with particular facts and abstract notions are nevertheless endowed with sound practical judgment2 while others1 with a larger knowledge of facts and general principles1 are strangely defective in judgment4 ,finally1 unless men accustom themselves to reflection1 to analysis1 the ideas of the just1 the right1 the good1 do not come clearly into the light of consciousness4 ,hence the different manifestations of conscience in individual men4 ,we claim1 however1 that the moral ideas of the reason are in all men identical2 that they exist and operate1 even though unconsciously1 in all minds1 determining their moral judgments2 and that when the same relations of personality are clearly before the mind the moral judgments of men are uniform4 ,in spite of all the topical moralities to which factitious circumstances may have given birth1 there is unquestionably a universal and immutable morality4 ,in every nation under heaven1 veracity1 justice1 and beneficence are separated by a clear1 unmistakable line from falsehood1 injustice1 and cruelty2 nor can all the casuistry and sophistry in the universe transpose or confound them4 ,custom1 prescription1 conventions of human opinion1 factitious circumstances1 can never blur over and obliterate these lines which separate right and wrong4 ,beneath all these apparent differences1 the conscience will make her voice heard in the depth of the soul1 in the common sentiments of mankind1 and in the statutes of universal jurisprudence4 ,the great ideas of justice and right were prominent and well defined among the nations of antiquity4 ,nemesis and ,themis were not only their abstractions and deities--they were embodied in their systems of jurisprudence4 ,law secured property and sanctified life4 ,law guarded every relation and ordered every act4 ,law was the theme of their philosophy and the burden of their song4 ,we are not unacquainted with the jealousies and disputes of their schools of philosophy4 ,they placed the good of man and the reason of morality in the most incongruous things1 but they never differed concerning the conduct which was right4 ,epicurus and ,zeno knew no divergence here4#eaf ,indeed1 they asserted the immutability of moral law for all times and places-- ,the unwritten laws of ,god that know not change2 ,they are not of to-day nor yesterday1 ,but live for ever4#eag ,there is1 says ,cicero1 one true and original law1 conformable to nature and reason1 diffused over all1 invariable1 eternal1 which calls to the fulfillment of duty and to abstinence from injustice1 and which calls with that irresistible voice which is felt in all its authority wherever it is heard4 ,this law can not be curtailed or abolished1 nor affected in its sanctions by any law of man4 ,a whole senate1 a whole people1 can not dispense with its paramount obligation4 ,it requires no commentator to render it distinctly intelligible1 nor is it different at ,rome1 at ,athens1 now and in ages before and after1 but in all ages and all nations it is and has been and will be one and everlasting--one as that ,god1 its author and promulgator1 who is the common ,sovereign of all mankind1 is ,himself one4 ,man is truly man as he yields himself to this ,divine influence4 ,he can not resist it but by flying1 as it were1 from his own bosom1 and laying aside the general feelings of humanity1 by which very act he must already have inflicted on himself the severest of punishments1 even though he were to avoid what is usually accounted punishment4#eah ,among the most savage tribes1 as among the most refined and polished nations1 are also to be found the same common principles of morality4 ,theft1 murder1 adultery are offenses condemned and punished by every nation under heaven4 ,the high qualities of virtue are the things which win esteem and command respect in every country1 however rude4 ,were proof demanded1 we might bring it at once from the darkest corners of the earth4 ,the savage ,fijian regards theft1 adultery1 abduction1 incendiarism1 and treason as serious crimes4#eai ,and ,dr4 ,livingstone tells us that1 ,on questioning intelligent men among the ,backwains as to their former knowledge of good and evil1 of ,god1 and of a future state1 they have scouted the idea of any of them ever having been without a tolerably clear conception on all these subjects4 ,respecting their sense of right and wrong1 they profess that nothing we indicate as sin ever appeared to them as otherwise1 except the statement that it was wrong to have more wives than one4#ebj ,we conclude that the universal consciousness of our race1 as revealed in human history1 languages1 legislations1 and sentiments1 bears testimony to the fact that the ideas of right1 duty1 accountability1 and moral desert are native to the human mind2 and consequently the existence of the first condition of moral government--namely1 the possession by its subject of a conscience--is an unquestionable fact4 ,the second condition of moral government is the existence1 in the subject1 of free self-determining power3 the agent must be the real cause and the sole cause of his own actions2 he must have freedom both to and from the act4 ,under a reign of necessity there can be no moral government and no just retribution4 ,it is1 at best1 a mere physical or natural government2 for moral government must be of beings who are free and self-determined1 and not of mere machines4 ,to blame a necessitated thing is irrational1 to punish it is a cruelty and an injustice4 ,the necessitarian himself is unable to conceal his conscious embarrassment in presence of these difficulties1 and to save his theory he becomes reckless in assertions4 ,he affirms that the whole system of morality--its duties and responsibilities2 the whole scheme of moral government1 with its rewards and punishments--remains1 on his theory1 as entire and stable as ever4#eba ,this affirmation runs athwart all the dictates of common-sense1 and collides with the universal conviction of humanity4 ,he is the only consistent necessitarian who rejects the ,christian doctrine of sin1 denies all accountability and retribution1 and reduces the government of ,god to mere physical impulsion and the management of a universal mechanism4 ,the necessitarian dogma can not be made to quadrate with our primitive convictions2 it is out of harmony with all our instinctive beliefs4 ,the innate idea of right1 the native sense of duty and accountability1 the consciousness of sin1 our faith in the justice of ,god1 our religious hopes and fears1 all impel us onward to find a rational and valid basis for human responsibility and moral government in the freedom of the will4 ,that man does possess an alternative power of self-determination and choice is evident3 #a4 ,from the direct testimony of consciousness4 ,we know that any doing of ours might have been reserved--we feel1 by that same direct consciousness which certifies our existence and our reason1 that we have the fullest power of choice4 ,no subtlety1 no abstraction of argument1 can convince us that we are otherwise than free4 ,men are not conscious of compulsion of any kind1 not conscious of certain mental states1 called choices1 which are either wholly or partially independent of their free agency2 but they are perfectly and distinctly conscious of entire liberty1 and of complete inward power to choose4#ebb ,that we have a direct consciousness of freedom is the doctrine of most of the writers on moral science4 ,cousin is emphatic in the assertion of this doctrine3 ,i am conscious of this sovereign power of the will4 ,i feel in myself1 before its determination1 the force that can determine itself in such a manner or in such another4 ,at the same time that ,i will this or that ,i am equally conscious of the power to will the opposite2 ,i am conscious of being master of my resolution1 of the ability to arrest it1 continue it1 repress it4#ebc ,the distinguished ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy in the ,university of ,edinburgh1 ,dr4 ,calderwood1 teaches the same doctrine3 ,it is in our consciousness of self-control for the determination of activity that we obtain our only knowledge of causation4 ,every one knows himself as the cause of his own actions4 ,in the external world we continue ignorant of causes1 and are able only to trace uniform sequence1 as ,hume and ,comte have insisted4 ,but in consciousness we distinguish between sequence and causality4 ,we are conscious of our own causal energy by knowing the origin of our activity in self-determination4#ebd ,the direct consciousness of freedom is denied by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,this denial is a necessary consequence of his doctrine of relativity4 ,if we are not conscious of self as a reality1 but only of certain modes or affections1 then1 of course1 we can not be conscious of self as a free power4 ,but as ,mansel has forcibly replied3 ,does it not rather appear a flat contradiction to maintain that ,i am not immediately conscious of myself1 but only of my sensations or volitions8 ,who1 then1 is the ,i that is conscious2 and how can ,i be conscious of such states as mine8 ,in this case it would surely be more accurate to say1 not that ,i am conscious of my sensations1 but that the sensation is conscious of itself2 but1 thus worded1 the glaring absurdity of the theory would carry with it its own refutation4444 ,self-personality is revealed to us with all the clearness of an original intuition4#ebe ,with an inconsistency which shows the fallacy of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's whole theory of relativity1 he admits that1 ,as clearly as ,i am conscious of existing1 so clearly am ,i conscious at every moment of my existence that the conscious ,ego is not itself a mere modification1 nor a series of modifications of any other subject1 but that it is itself something different from all its own modifications1 and a self-subsistent entity4#ebf ,if1 then1 we admit1 as we must admit1 the existence of an immediate consciousness1 not merely of the phenomena of mind1 but of the personal self as actively and passively related to them1 we must also admit the direct testimony of conscience to the fact of liberty4 ,i am conscious not merely of the phenomenon of volition1 but of myself as producing it1 and as producing it by choice1 with a power to choose the opposite alternative4 ,the necessitarians are all compelled to concede that the universal conviction of our race is1 and always has been1 that man is free4 ,they have1 however1 asserted that this dictate of common-sense is not to be accepted as philosophically true4 ,lord ,kames admits the natural conviction of freedom from necessity1 though he declares it to be an illusion3 ,man fondly dreams that he is free to act2 ,naught is he but the powerless1 worthless plaything ,of the blind force that in his will itself ,works out for him a dread necessity4 ,and ,hommel1 certainly one of the ablest and most decided of fatalists1 says1 ,i must believe that ,i have a feeling of liberty1 at the very moment ,i am writing against liberty1 upon grounds which ,i regard as incontestable4 ,zeno was a fatalist only in theory2 he did not act in conformity with his convictions4#ebg ,the possession of alternative power is a fact of consciousness as clear and indubitable as the fact of personal existence4 ,it is admitted by the necessitarians that all men have a natural conviction of freedom2 they believe themselves to be free beings1 and they act upon this belief in all the relations of life4 ,if this fact of consciousness is an illusion1 then our existence is also an illusion1 for that same intuition which certifies to me that ,i exist certifies also that ,i am free4 ,if the testimony of consciousness is invalidated1 there is no criterion for truth4 ,if one of its deliverances is found to be false1 how can we vindicate the veracity of any8 ,our faculties are bestowed upon us as the instruments of deception2 the root of our nature is a lie1 and universal skepticism is the only goal4 #b4 ,the idea of moral obligation necessarily presupposes the freedom of the will4 ,this is a principle so obvious that it needs no elucidation4 ,if man have duties1 he must possess the power of fulfilling them4 ,he ought to be free if he ought to obey law1 or human nature is in contradiction with itself4 ,the direct certainty of obligation implies the corresponding certainty of freedom4 ,hence ,kant's well-known canon1 ,i ought1 therefore ,i can4 ,though denying the direct consciousness of freedom1 ,kant maintained with earnestness that the fact of liberty is guaranteed by the existence of the moral law1 whose categorical imperative thou shalt necessarily implies a corresponding thou canst4 ,to the same effect are the words of ,sir ,william ,hamilton3 ,the fact that we are free is given to us in the consciousness of an uncompromising law of duty4444 ,our consciousness of the moral law1 which without a moral liberty in man would be a mendacious imperative1 gives a decided preponderance to the doctrine of freedom over the doctrine of fate4#ebh ,physical causation and moral obligation can not coexist side by side4 ,in proportion as we extend the domain of necessity we must diminish that of duty4 #c4 ,the sense of responsibility presupposes the freedom of the will4 ,this sense of responsibility is native to the human mind4 ,every man feels himself to be accountable for his own conduct1 not only at the bar of his own conscience1 but before the moral judgment-seat of his fellow-men4 ,every where he recognizes the right of his fellow-men to inquire into his character1 to sit in judgment upon his conduct1 and to esteem and treat him accordingly4 ,we necessarily impute blame when an unjust action is performed by another2 we feel conscious of guilt and unworthiness when a wrong is done by ourselves4 ,these are facts of universal consciousness4 ,but these sentiments are irrational and absurd if man is a mere machine impelled by natural causes1 and has no self-determining power4#ebi ,whatever disasters may overtake us in the course of nature1 however we may suffer by the wild tornado or the blighting mildew1 how much soever of our property may be swallowed up by the ocean tempest or the devouring flame1 we impute no blame2 and we experience here emotions essentially different from those which we experience when a wrong is intentionally inflicted upon us by our fellow-men4 ,suppose yourself to have been the victim of some act of injustice and villainy by which you were reduced to penury1 and your family to want and indigence4 ,by what philosophy can you eradicate the sense of wrong or cease to impute blame to the man whose perfidy has despoiled your life8 ,you may forgive him1 and follow him with your prayers to the last hour of your life1 but you will still pray for him as a guilty man whose crime has been the burden of your life4 ,now what is this radical and fundamental difference between the events of the material universe and the actions of men8 and what is the rational basis for the different feelings we experience and the diverse judgments we pass in regard to them8 ,there is only one answer to this question4 ,the ultimate ground-difference is found in the fact that one class of events is necessary--there is no adequate power in the thing to be or do otherwise2 the other class of actions is free--they need not have been performed1 the actor had full power for a contrary choice4 ,in the world of nature force reigns2 in the world of moral life liberty prevails4 ,the fundamental principle of difference is the freedom of the will4 ,this second condition of moral government--namely1 the possession of free alternative power on the part of the subject to comply1 or refuse to comply1 with the requirements of moral law--is thus established1 first1 by the direct testimony of consciousness1 from which there can be no appeal1 and1 secondly1 by necessary inference from collateral facts of consciousness1 which can not be invalidated by counter-proofs4 ,unhappily1 the restlessness of speculative minds1 the necessities of false theories in philosophy1 or the unwarrantable assumptions of dogmatic theologians1 have led to the disregard of the affirmations of universal consciousness4 ,men have asked1 ,how can freedom be possible in a dependent creature8 ,how can it be consistent with our belief in the principle of universal causation8 ,how can it be harmonized with the fact that man always acts under the influence of motives8 ,how can it be reconciled with the omnipotence and absolute prescience of ,god8 ,we shall now address ourselves to the consideration of the arguments against the doctrine of the freedom of the will which are suggested by these queries4 #a4 ,the first is the ,metaphysical or ,causational ,argument4 ,the rational intuition that every event must have a cause is a universal and necessary truth4 ,it must therefore be rigorously applied to all mental as well as to all physical phenomena4 ,every volition must have a cause1 and if caused it can not be free4 ,this is the grand argument upon which the necessitarian mainly relies1 and it is urged with eloquence and force by ,edwards1 ,chalmers1 and ,mc,cosh4 ,now that every event must have a cause is an priori truth1 which is as readily accorded by the freedomist as it is vehemently insisted upon by the necessitarian4 ,no philosophic writers have more ably and clearly enounced this law of causality than the freedomists ,reid1 ,stewart1 and ,cousin4 ,they rely upon it as one of the main pillars of the ,theistic argument4 ,and they apply it1 in all its integrity1 to mental as well as to physical phenomena4 ,they hesitate not to say that every volition must have a cause4 ,that cause is the efficient creative power which resides in a free1 spiritual personality4 ,and that power is not1 like a material or physical cause1 shut up to one sole mode of effectuation3 it is an alternative power1 a pluri-efficient cause4 ,where1 then1 is the discrepancy between the universal principle of causality and the doctrine of alternative causation8 ,is the infinite ,first ,cause confined to one solely possible mode of effectuation8 ,if so1 how will you account for the endlessly varied effects which appear in the physical universe8 ,god is the ,eternal ,one2 whence the plurality and diversity of his creative acts if ,he be not an equipotent cause8 ,and yet1 of all the events which have transpired in the universe1 whether natural or supernatural1 we affirm every event must have had a cause4#ecj ,the endless diversity of effects which originate in the alternative causation of ,god is in perfect harmony with this universal law of causality4 ,but on a closer examination it will be found that when the necessitarian attempts to invalidate our consciousness of alternative power by the application of the causational argument he adroitly shifts his ground4 ,he assumes another proposition1 which is neither equivalent to the above axiom1 nor in itself axiomatic and self-evident1 nor justifiably assumed without proof4 ,mc,cosh says the doctrine of necessity is founded on the intellectual intuitions of man's mind1 which lead us1 in mental as in material phenomena1 to anticipate the same effects to follow the same causes#eca--that is1 every cause is inalternative or unipotent2 one effect1 and only one can follow4 ,now that a given phenomenon must have a cause is one assertion2 that the same cause will again and forever produce the same effect is another4 ,the first is an axiom1 the second is an induction4 ,that every event must have a cause is a rational intuition4 ,that like causes will produce always like effects is a generalization from our limited experience1 and on a further analysis will be found to apply only to our cognitions of the material universe4 ,it is grounded simply on what we know empirically of the uniformity of nature4 ,now we have no priori intuitive conviction of the uniformity of nature4 ,as the result of maturer thought1 ,mc,cosh admits this in his work on the ,intuitions of the ,mind3 ,it is vain to speak of the belief in the uniformity of nature as a self-evident1 a necessary1 or a universal truth 7page #bgf74 ,it is perfectly conceivable that the world might have been so constituted that there should have been no regularity in the succession of events4 ,the causes of all the events in nature might have been supernatural1 and consisted in the immediate free volitions of the ,deity1 or subordinate angelic agencies4#ecb ,they might have been all miraculous1 and yet the true law of causality would not have been violated1 or in any way invalidated4 ,and so when man1 in the exercise of his free alternative power1 produces a new succession of events in physical nature1 or moves disorder and into the moral sphere1 this is no way inconsistent with the axiom that every event has a cause4 ,in our very definition of freedom of will we assume in the volitional sphere the inapplicability of the maxim that 'like causes ever and always produce like effects4' ,we assume that either one of several effects is legitimate from the same cause4 ,and while we admit that in non-volitional causation the law that 'every event must have a cause' means that every event must have its own peculiar cause1 adequate for itself alone1 in volitional causation an event may have a cause adequate either for it or for other event2 and whichever event exists1 the demands of the laws of causation are completely satisfied4#ecc ,driven from this boasted stronghold1 the necessitarian resorts to his favorite dialectic strategy4 ,he demands the explanation of equipotent causation1 how one cause can be adequate to several effects4 ,he asks1 ,what causes the will to put forth one particular volition rather than another8 ,now when we have shown that1 as a fact of consciousness and experience1 a personal1 spiritual cause is adequate to several results1 we are entitled in reason and justice to protest against any attempt to push the inquiry a step farther4 ,we have attained an ultimate fact1 and we have no right to cast doubt upon its authority by raising perplexing questions as to the how or why of that which is4 ,this is precisely the method by which the atheist ,holyoake would invalidate the argument for the existence of the infinite ,first ,cause4 ,he subjects the ,deity to this universal law of causality1 and asks1 ,what caused the ,creator to create8 ,the atheist holds that the universe is an endless series of causes and effects ad infinitum1 and therefore the idea of a first cause is an absurdity and a contradiction4 ,the infinite series of ,edwards and of ,holyoake are constructed on the same principle4 ,they both ask a cause for the cause4 ,when1 therefore1 it is asked1 ,what causes the will to effect one volition rather than another8 our answer is1 ,nothing whatever6 ,of its own effect1 ,,will1 in its proper conditions1 is not a partial1 but a full and adequate cause4 ,put your finger upon any effect 7volition7 and ask1 ,what caused this result exclusively of the others8 and the reply is1 ,the will1 or the agent in willing4 ,ask then what caused the will in its conditions to cause the volition1 and the reply is1 ,,nothing4 ,nay1 you are a bad philosopher in asking2 for for its own effect will or the willing agent is a complete cause3 as complete a cause as any cause whatever2 and every complete cause produces its effect ,,uncausedly4 ,the volition1 like every other effect1 is completely accounted for when a complete cause is assigned4 ,to ask what caused the complete cause to produce the effect is to ask the cause of causation4#ecd ,but such an alternative power1 the necessitarian affirms1 is incomprehensible and inexplicable4 ,to which we need only reply in the language of ,hamilton1 ,the scheme of freedom is not more incomprehensible than the scheme of necessity4#ece ,omnia exeunt in mysterium--there is nothing the absolute ground of which is not a mystery4 ,in saying so much1 however1 we by no means grant the affirmation of ,hamilton that we are unable to conceive an absolute commencement of being or motion2 we can not therefore conceive a free volition4#ecf ,this is not admitted by ,mansel1 the disciple and annotator of ,hamilton1 as flowing even from his mental law of the conditioned4 ,it may be true1 as a fact1 that no material atom has been added to the world since the first creation2 but the assertion1 however true1 is certainly not necessary4 ,the ,power which created once must be conceived as able to create again1 whether that ability is actually exercised or not4 ,the same conclusion is still more evident when we proceed from the consideration of matter to that of mind4 ,of matter we maintain that the creation of new portions is perfectly conceivable as a result1 if not as a process4 ,every man who comes into the world comes into it as a distinct individual1 having a personality and consciousness of his own2 and that personality is a distinct accession to the number of persons previously existing4444 ,i believe that every new person that comes into the world is1 as a person1 a new existence4#ecg ,so a volition is a new existence1 an absolute origination1 a beginning of motion which has its source in the primordial power of the human spirit as spirit4 ,the fact is undeniable1 the mode is inexplicable4 ,but the inconceivability of the mode in which the will creates a volition no more renders the fact doubtful than the impossibility of conceiving how a new and distinct self-conscious personality comes into existence invalidates the fact that ,i exist1 and know myself as a distinctly existing being4 #b4 ,the ,psychological ,argument4--,this may be briefly stated in the following terms3 ,it is a fact of observation and experience that motives do stand to the will in the relation of causes which necessitate volition4 ,they have an exact mathematical commensurability1 and their prevalence is in the precise ratio of their antecedent intrinsic strength4 ,if motives are wanting1 there can be no choice2 but when the same motives are presented to the same mind1 it obeys them with such remarkable uniformity that human actions may be reduced to statistical tables as reliable and as accurate as tables of mortality4 ,we might here at once1 and with justice1 enter our caveat against the attempt to invalidate a primitive datum of consciousness by alleged deductions from the exterior phenomena of human life and history4 ,a primitive datum of consciousness is unquestionable and infallible4 ,a process of induction is liable to the interpolations of error4 ,the latter is therefore a lesser authority than the former1 and a merely derivative assurance can not be argued against an ultimate fact4 ,we must regard it as a philosophic canon that an experience cognition can not conflict with an intuitive belief4 ,the exterior phenomena of life and history1 properly interpreted1 must harmonize with the interior facts and laws of the human mind1 for what is history but the development1 under the conditions and relations of time1 of the primitive powers1 ideas1 and laws of humanity8 ,if1 then1 consciousness attests the presence in man's spiritual nature of a power1 in the same circumstances1 to choose either of several ways1 we may confidently expect that the phenomena of the moral world will not belie that testimony4 ,now it is a palpable fact that an unbroken law of continuity and uniformity pervades the material universe4 ,it is locked up in an unchangeable status4 ,there is no deviation and no progression4 ,all things remain as they were since the beginning4 ,the fundamental fact lying at the basis of this undeviating uniformity of nature is that material causes are unipotent1 and shut up to one solely possible mode of effectuation4#ech ,and it is equally palpable that the phenomena of the moral world1 the sphere of human life and history1 reveal contingency1 diversity1 alteriety1 and progression4 ,humanity has not revolved in cycles1 neither has it run in the inflexible grooves of an anterior causation1 nor remained in the dead-lock of an unchangeable status4 ,history is not an inflexible frame-work in which all events have been shaped by necessity2 it is a development of the inherent powers and capabilities of humanity1 and it teaches us that new trains of causes have been originated1 and new conditions have been superinduced by man4 ,the ground-fact which underlies all the diversity1 contingency1 and progress which appear in the moral world is that volitional causes are equipotent and efficient for any one of the several results4#eci ,in moral development the progressive principle is just the freedom of the will4 ,the facts of the inner and outer world are therefore in harmony4 ,the theory of the necessitarian assumes that the will is a mere passivity1 a simple conductor of the impulse which motive power exerts1 a mere transition-point where ideal force is transformed into physical force1 and desires1 inclinations1 moral convictions1 divine influences become necessary acts4 ,motives thus prevail by their antecedent intrinsic power just as physical forces prevail in mechanical and vital dynamics4 ,and1 proceeding upon this assumption1 he labors to construct a science of ,ethology in which he would anticipate human action by statistics1 and show how individual character must be in accordance with physical and mental causation4 ,whereas consciousness asserts that the will is not a bleak mechanical thing4 ,it is a free alternative power4 ,it is a full1 complete1 adequate cause4 ,it is spirit1 not matter4 ,now it is freely granted that the mind acts in view of motives1 acts in accordance with motives1 acts in a certain qualified sense under the influence of motives2 but the freedomist emphatically denies that the will is necessitated to action by motives4 ,motives may be reason for action1 conditions under which will acts1 but they are not causes of action4 ,they may solicit1 invite1 urge to action1 but they can not constrain1 compel1 and force action4#edj ,motives have no fixed correlation to the will4 ,they address themselves to the feelings1 the judgment1 the conscience1 and not directly and immediately to the will4 ,they may awaken desire1 fear1 inclination1 preference1 a sense of obligation2 but these are all states of the intellect and sensibility1 and may coexist in the same mind with a state of indetermination and non-differentiation in the will4 ,that which is desirable may appeal to the feelings1 that which is eligible to the judgment1 that which is obligatory to the conscience1 and these may excite the mind in different degrees of intensity2 but none of them have power to move the will4 ,we may be able intellectually to perceive that some motives are intrinsically higher than others1 that some have a prevolition power to excite all minds more intensely than others2 but they do not prevail and secure action in any ratio with their supposed priori strength4 ,they can only become real motives for the will by its voluntary placing its interest in them and making them objects of its choice4#eda ,all the actual strength which a motive has is derived from the action of the will4 ,on this subject we offer the following propositions3 7#a47 ,the so-called strength of a motive is the degree of probability that the will will act in accordance with or on account of it4 ,and it is most important to remark that the result is not always1 nor in most cases1 necessarily as the highest probability4 ,the will may choose for the higher or for the lower4 ,and as the will may choose for a lower rather than a higher probability1 so the will may choose on account of what is called antecedently a weaker over a stronger motive4 ,and hereby is once for all established the difference between mechanical force and motive influence--that whereas in the former1 by necessity1 the greater effect results from the greater force1 in the latter the less is possible from the greater1 the greater from the less4#edb ,that result is not as the highest probability ,dr4 ,whedon has shown most conclusively from the doctrine of ,contingencies or ,probabilities4 ,and on this he grounds his doctrine of contingent motive probability4 ,this contingent character of motive influence is correspondent with the alternative character of that which is its sole possible object--will4 ,an alternative will and a contingent motive influence are correlatives4 ,they mutually explain and sustain each other4 ,to admit either is to admit both4 ,and so a unipotent will and a necessary motive influence are correlatives4 ,he who is compelled to admit one is compelled to admit the other4 ,it will be a mere controversy about a word to say that an influence which does not produce effect is no influence4 ,that may legitimately be called an influence1 it is important to add1 which is conceived as possessing an intrinsic probability for result1 though the higher probability be a contingency for which there exists power of failure4 ,if so1 then the doctrine of contingent motive influence is established1 and the doctrine of volitional necessity is at an end4 ,the relation between physical force and effect is necessity4 ,the relation between motive and volition is contingency4#edc 7#b47 ,the so-called strength of a motive is the comparative prevalence which the will assigns to it by its own action4 ,it is impossible to erect any standard by which the intrinsic strength of motives can be determined previous to volition4 ,a cold intellection is not intrinsically commensurable with a deep emotion1 nor a sentiment of taste with a feeling of obligation1 nor a physical appetite with a sense of honor4 ,now by what standard can the comparative force of these influences be determined8 ,there is no more commensurability between them than between the brightness of day and the force of magnetic attractions4 ,or if we could possibly determine1 by some rational priori method1 that a feeling of obligation is intrinsically stronger than a physical appetite1 or that the love of life is stronger per se than a sense of duty1 we can not affirm that the one or the other shall therefore uniformly and necessarily prevail4 ,these influences derive all their prevalency1 and consequently their comparative strength of motive1 from the will alone4 ,the will places its interest in the one or the other4 ,it decides the mental position4 ,it settles the question of preferences between alternatives1 dismisses the counter-motive from view1 and closes the debate4#edd ,the strength of a motive1 in its relation to the will1 can only be known by the test of prevalency4 ,this is unwittingly conceded by the necessitarian4 ,he says the strongest motive prevails because that is the strongest which the will chooses4 ,this really concedes the position assumed by ,dr4 ,whedon1 that the strength of a motive is the comparative prevalence which the will1 in its own action1 assigns to it1 or the nearness to which the will comes to acting on account of it4 ,men do not always choose that which is most desirable1 nor that which is most eligible1 nor that which appears most obligatory4 ,but from whatever motive men may choose to act1 however base and unworthy1 the necessitarian affirms it was intrinsically the strongest motive because it was chosen2 which simply amounts to this--the strongest motive is always chosen because the motive chosen is always the strongest motive4 ,the attempts of the necessitarian to fix upon some standard by which to estimate the antecedent strength of motives have all signally failed4 ,the most plausible is that of ,edwards4 ,he asserts that the volition is always as the greatest apparent good4 ,but by what standard is that good estimated1 by which faculty is it recognized and pronounced good8 by the reason1 the conscience1 the judgment1 or the appetites8 ,can that be pronounced good which is chosen in obedience to passion and lust8 ,does the man who inflicts a premeditated injury upon his neighbor choose the greatest apparent good8 ,does the murderer believe that in taking away the life of his fellow-man the volition is as the greatest apparent good8 ,certainly not4 ,never1 says ,bushnell1 was there a case of wrong1 a sinful choice1 in which the agent believed he was choosing for the strongest1 weightiest1 or most valuable motives4 ,the great mass of sinful men are conscious of choosing sinful indulgence against their highest good4 7#c47 ,motives are the conditions1 but not the causes of volition4 ,of volition the cause1 the sole cause1 is will4 ,motives are collateral conditions 444 for the volition to be2 with which there is adequate power for the volition not to be4444 ,the motive is only the occasion1 and all its acts of excitement amount to no more than this1 that they stand as probable conditions opening the way toward which the will thereby acquires opportunity to act with full adequate power of not acting4#ede ,the relation between motive and volition is not a necessary but a contingent relation4 ,the will is the controlling conscious self in the exercise of direct causative power in producing volition4 ,some modern writers of the necessitarian school1 ,mc,cosh for example1 admit the existence of self-activity in the will4 ,but what can be the meaning of self-activity if the will have not the power of either resisting or yielding to motives presented1 and in the same unchanged circumstances of choosing a different alternative8 ,to be moved absolutely by motives is not self-movement4 ,a power to move in only one given direction is a mere nature-force2 it can not be self-activity4 ,the distinguished writer above named also admits that causation in the will is entirely different from causation in other actions4#edf ,if he mean that motives act upon the will in a manner entirely different from that by which physical causes secure action or change in the material world1 what right has he to call it causation at all8 ,and if he mean that volitional causation is alternative1 and not1 like physical causation1 unipotent1 then the controversy is at an end4 7#d47 ,we have no such experience of uniformities of volition as shall enable us to generalize a universal law of volitional causation4 ,the facts of uniformity which present themselves in the continuous life of some men who were absorbed in one great life-purpose1 as also in the conduct of aggregate masses of men1 are not denied4 ,we affirm that the correct definition of a free will supposes that it may choose in a generally uniform manner4 ,much of the uniformity in the life of an individual may be accounted for by corporeal nature--disposition1 standard purpose1 and habit4 ,upon a basis of corporeal1 psychological1 and mental nature are overlaid a primary stratum of dispositions blending the natural and the volitional1 and a secondary formation of generic purposes wholly volitional1 and formed by repetition into a tertiary of habits2 and thus we have1 in his mingled constitution of necessitation and freedom1 an agent prepared for daily free responsible action4#edg ,now it may be readily granted that character forms a basis of reliable probability as to how in given circumstances a man will act4 ,we may be able to judge1 with some degree of accuracy1 how a man will work in his freedom2 but we can never calculate with absolute certainty1 because we have numberless examples of men acting strangely out of character1 and disappointing our most confident expectations4 ,there is often the action1 great or small1 which reverses the record of a life or a protracted course of action4 ,he who well watches his neighbor1 however blind he may be to his own practical self-contradictions1 is sure to find1 even in the life most uniform in its great outline1 plenty of minor inconsistencies4 ,or as ,mller1 in his ',doctrine of ,sin1' well says1 that both our observation and our subject's temptation may occur just at the moment of one of his great volitional turning-points4 ,from the apostasy of the first angels and the fall of man1 through the whole course of human history1 we have innumerable instances of revolutionary volitions1 not only out of the previous character1 but shaping a new character4 ,the one disastrous sin of ,moses1 the one great complicated crime of ,david1 the apostasy of ,solomon1 the wisest of men1 are all proofs how1 not only in contrasted traits1 but in revolutionary acts1 a man may be ',the wisest1 brightest1 meanest of mankind4'#edh ,statistics are cited by ,buckle1 in his ,history of ,civilization in ,england1 showing that crimes1 suicides1 marriages1 etc41 occur with remarkable uniformity1 as the result of general conditions of human society2 and he thence infers that all the actions of men are governed by a uniform law of causation4 ,this uniformity may1 however1 be as easily accounted for on the doctrine of freedom as on the doctrine of necessity4 ,in the calculations of contingencies1 while results of compared large aggregates in the same conditions may approach equality1 the contingency of each individual case remains still a contingency4 ,the actuary of an insurance company can assert with accuracy the average duration of human life in different countries2 but were he to attempt to predict the duration of any one individual life he had insured1 he would certainly fail4 ,the insured may falsify his predictions by a voluntary act of suicide4 ,so though large aggregations of free volitions1 surrounded by the same motives1 may approach equality1 the freedom of the individual will remains4#edi ,and as ,mansel very justly remarks1 it is precisely because individual actions are not reducible to any fixed law1 or capable of representation by any numerical calculation1 that the statistical averages acquire their value as substitutes4 ,no one dreams of applying statistical averages to calculate the period of the earth's rotation by showing that four-and-twenty hours is the exact medium of time1 comparing one month's or one year's revolution with another's4 ,it is only when individual movements are irregular that it is necessary to aim at a proximate regularity by calculating in mass4#eej #c4 ,the ,theological ,argument4--,the main points of the theological argument may be thus presented3 ,freedom in a created being is incompatible with the absolute sovereignty and prescience of ,god4 ,to suppose a being capable of acting either of several ways is to suppose a being out of the control of ,god4 ,and a free agent can not possess power to do otherwise than ,god foreknows he will do4 ,in regard to the first of these supposed incompatibilities1 we need only remark that if the ,deity1 in order to the existence of an equitable moral government1 and the consequent possibility of free responsible action by the creature1 shall please to subject his omnipotence to conditional limitations1 the necessitarian has no business to object4#eea ,we need feel no solicitude about the ,divine sovereignty4 ,god will take care of his own honor and defend his own high and holy prerogatives4 ,such self-limiting laws prescribed by ,divine wisdom and love do not place man beyond ,divine control4 ,the necessitarian will not deny that such self-limitation is essential to the very existence of the kingdom of nature4 ,god has established an order in nature1 a uniformity of antecedence and sequence1 with which ,omnipotence shall not interfere4 ,such a ,divine law of non-usance of power is still more necessary in the kingdom of living agents1 and most of all in the realm of responsible agents2 it being observable that the more close the ,divine self-restraint1 and the larger the amount of powers in the agent left untouched1 the more the creative system rises in dignity1 and the higher ,god appears as a sovereign4 ,even in the system of living necessitated agents1 as necessitarians must admit1 ,god forbids ,himself to disturb the agent's uniform and perpetual acting according to strongest motive4 ,the second of these incompatibilities is really predicated upon our ignorance1 and not upon our knowledge4 ,we can not understand how the ,divine ,intelligence foreknows all future events4 ,to enable us to understand the exact manner in which an ,infinite ,intelligence contemplates succession in time1 it would be necessary that we should be infinite also4 ,the fact that ,god foreknows all future events is all that is revealed to us2 the manner of it ,he has left in darkness1 and we can throw no light upon it by our verbal speculations4 ,of one thing we may rest assured1 that as perception precedes volition in the finite intelligence1 so knowledge must precede determination in the ,divine ,mind4 ,god can not will or act in absolute darkness4 ,divine predestination must be conditioned on ,divine foreknowledge4#eeb ,his foreknowledge does not depend upon his will1 or on the adjustment of motives to make us will thus and thus2 but ,he foreknows every thing first conditionally1 in the world of possibility1 before ,he creates1 or determines any thing to be1 in the world of fact4 ,otherwise1 all his purposes would be grounded in ignorance1 not in wisdom1 and his knowledge would consist in following after his will1 to learn what it had blindly determined4#eec ,another important principle clearly and vigorously maintained by ,dr4 ,whedon is that the freeness of an act is not affected by the consideration of its being foreknown4 ,first1 because the ,divine knowledge must always correspond to the reality4 ,a free action must be known as free4 ,if there be in the free agent1 ascertainable by psychology1 or required by intuition1 or supposably seen by the ,divine eye1 the power of putting forth the volition with full power of alteriety1 then ,god knows that power4#eed ,secondly1 the occurrence of an event or act may be certain to ,divine foreknowledge1 and yet perfectly contingent in itself4 ,foreknowledge renders nothing necessary2 it is the consequence1 not the cause of events4 ,if there be a necessity at all in the case1 the necessity lies not upon the free act1 but upon the foreknowledge4 ,the foreknowledge must see to its own accuracy4 ,pure knowledge1 temporal or eternal1 must conform itself to the fact1 not the fact to the knowledge4#eee ,the real difficulty is1 not how an act can be a free act and yet be foreknown 7for the act of knowledge can not change the object of knowledge71 but how ,god can possibly know with certainty a future contingency which may or may not happen4 ,it is a clear and immediate revelation of consciousness that man has a free power of self-determination4 ,no revelation can contradict this revelation4 ,this fact of consciousness can not be invalidated by any conceptions of the logical understanding in regard to the omnipotence or prescience of ,god1 for these by their very nature transcend all human comprehension4 ,,iii4 ,the method of moral government4--,we have seen that government1 in general1 is control exercised with a view to the maintenance of order4 ,in the material world1 order is secured by the direct compulsion of omnipotent force4 ,the things of nature are inertly passive under the hand of ,god4 ,they can offer no resistance to the ,divine control1 and consequently1 in the sphere of nature1 there can be no real disorder4 ,but in the realm of self-determining powers there is the possibility of collision1 because there is the power to resist the will of ,god4 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 we know there is opposition1 lawlessness1 and sin4 ,in that sphere1 where above all others the demand of the reason is for order1 there is the presence of disorder--that is1 there is disconformity to law and consequent suffering4 ,and now the question arises1 ,by what method is order to be maintained in the sphere of freedom8 ,how are beings that have the power to determine for themselves what they will choose and do1 to be brought to act in harmony with the eternal laws of righteousness and love8 ,there are inconsiderate souls who dream that this may be achieved by force4 ,god1 say they1 is omnipotent2 if ,he will the non-extension of evil1 ,he is able to destroy it2 if ,he desire the maintenance of moral order1 ,he can compel it4 ,such reckless declaimers know not what they say4 ,had it so pleased ,god1 ,he could have made beings in human form without any sense of moral right and wrong1 and without any power to commit sin2 but they would not have been rational beings1 would not have been free beings1 would not have been moral beings2 neither could they1 in any high and proper sense1 be happy beings1 because they could experience no sense of rectitude1 no approval of conscience1 no delight in moral excellence1 no blessedness in duty and sacrifice4 ,god1 indeed1 has made many such creatures that can not sin4 ,the bee1 the ant1 the swine1 the ape--these can not sin2 but they are mere things1 not free powers2 they have no sense of dignity and moral worth1 no approving conscience1 no joy of sacrifice1 and no immortal hopes4 ,lived there ever a sane man who would change his lot with one of these1 even though in being a man he has the fearful power to sin1 and in sinning1 the fearful susceptibility to suffer--yea1 to suffer eternally8 ,is there any thing on earth whose value does not fade away when compared with the priceless value of being capable of duty1 of virtue1 of devotion1 and of sacrifice8 ,in the eyes of ,god1 the humblest of moral beings is worth more than all the firmament of stars1 and all the teeming myriads of brutal forms of sense that dwell upon the earth4 ,because ,god preferred to rule over free powers1 and not mere things--free powers that could be governed by truth and reason and love2 because ,he loves moral character1 and cares for it more than all the things that can be piled in the infinitude of space1 even though they were diamonds1 therefore ,he bestowed on man this high capacity of character--the capacity to know1 to choose1 to love1 to enjoy1 and in a conscious communion with ,god to be blessed forever4 ,but when ,god thus determines to create a rational and free being--to make man in his own image--,he determines to make a being who in acting freely may act in opposition to the mind of ,god1 and in violation of his holy law4 ,in creating a free self-determined being who shall be the cause of his own action1 ,god puts his own omnipotence under conditional limitations1 and renders it morally impossible for ,him1 by mere force1 to constrain the will of man4 ,the notion of a free will1 which is an efficient cause1 being governed by force1 is a contradiction4 ,omnipotence may1 if it please1 annihilate man1 but it can not control man in the sphere of his freedom4 ,powers governed by the absolute force or fiat of omnipotence would in that fact be uncreate and cease4#eef ,the moral government of ,god must deal with man as man1 must treat him as intelligent and free1 and must govern him solely by moral influences4 ,he must be controlled by the voice of reason and the sense of duty1 by persuasion and sympathy1 by hope and fear2 in short1 by motives addressed to the judgment1 the conscience1 and the heart4 ,a self-determined being can be brought into harmony with the ,divine order only by the schooling of his consent4 ,he can be perfected--that is1 fully established in harmony with the character and will of ,god--by the discipline of the will4 ,he must1 therefore1 be placed in such circumstances as invite consent1 and at the same time permit resistance4 ,he is to be trained1 furnished1 and perfected1 and to this end he must be carried through just such experiences1 changes1 and trials as will best help the formation of a noble human character1 and will best prepare man for the plenitude and blessedness of that life for which the present is a course of education and discipline4#eeg ,furthermore1 ,god's moral government of the world must deal with the actual man--that is1 with man as he exists in society with certain hereditary taints that are not his fault1 and under certain unfavorable conditions in which he has been placed without his consent4 ,with reverence1 we affirm that ,god ,himself is under moral obligation to treat man equitably1 to take account of the weakness which he inherits1 the perverted education that has been given him1 and the depraved associations that surround him1 and graduate his responsibility on the scale of his available light4 ,finally1 the moral government of ,god must deal with the man that will be--with that fixed character which may be formed by man in the exercise of his free power of self-determination1 amid the circumstances of his earthly probation4 ,this character must contain within itself the elements of a blessed or a wretched futurition1 and thus a retribution be secured by fixed nature1 and inflicted by an inflexible necessity4 ,that the moral government of ,god is a probationary economy1 in which ample scope is afforded for the development of character1 and in which we are in the act of being proved1 is evident1 7#a47 ,from the fact that all our future interests are dependent upon our present conduct4 ,god has endowed us with some degree of foresight1 and has thus made us provident beings4 ,we have a native tendency to take account of and forecast the future4 ,by the aid of reason we can1 in some measure1 foresee the tendencies of our actions2 we can lay our plans for the future1 and anticipate events which are yet remote4 ,we can also bring to our aid the lessons of experience1 and from this also we can learn that our present action will have a powerful influence upon our future condition4 ,we know that the circumstances which surround us to-day have been in a large degree created or moulded by ourselves1 and that many of our misadventures and our miseries may be easily traced back to particular acts of imprudence and folly on our own part as the cause4 ,so that there is no truth we more certainly know than this1 that our future happiness of the next moment1 and of every succeeding stage of our living1 is dependent upon our present conduct4 7#b47 ,this is further evident from the fact that the present scene is filled with moral tests and temptations4 ,there is in the present life an admixture of good and evil4 ,on the one hand there are numerous solicitations to evil2 on the other there are motives and inducements to virtue1 the plain intention of which is to prove us4 ,in the words of ,bishop ,butler1 ,we have here free scope and opportunity for that good or evil conduct which ,god will reward or punish hereafter4 ,this is necessary to moral government1 because moral government can not exist without freedom of choice1 and consequently the existence of those circumstances in which that freedom can be exercised4 ,that we have freedom of choice we know2 and our every-day experience of the temptations to wrong-doing1 and of the difficulties in the way of a uniform adherence to virtue1 teaches us that we are in a state of trial1 where our principles are being continually put to the test4 7#c47 ,that our present life is a probation for a future life is evident from the fact that in the present life punishment is deferred1 consequences are delayed1 to give play to the exercise of moral motives4 ,by moral motives we mean regard for what is right and just1 because it is right and just1 respect for the voice of conscience1 and reverence for the will and requirements of ,god4 ,if the consequences of our moral conduct were to follow immediately on the heels of the act1 if reward or punishment were instantly to ensue1 then moral motives could have no exercise4 ,if there were no delay--no interval between sin and its punishment1 moral government would cease1 and a merely natural government would remain1 such as prevails over irrational creatures4 ,man would then be influenced purely by motives of personal interest or safety or enjoyment1 and his obedience would not be the result of moral motives1 consequently neither virtuous nor vicious4 ,god has1 therefore1 put the consequences of much of our conduct into the future1 that we may have room for free deliberate choice1 while just so much of consequence is permitted to appear as will clearly indicate that we are under moral government1 and awaken the anticipation that all our conduct will be brought into judgment4 7#d47 ,that our present life is a probation for a future life is more fully proved by the fact that as a moral economy the present life is incomplete4 ,the present is a sphere too contracted for the equitable administration of rewards and punishments1 because some of the last actions of men's lives1 some of their best actions or some of their basest actions1 would come under neither4 ,the blood of the martyrs who died for the faith1 or of the patriot who bled for his country1 would cry alike in vain for vengeance or reward4 ,the man who first took away his brother's life1 and then his own1 has evaded justice1 and escaped punishment4 ,the hand of violence has robbed the virtuous man of his present reward2 and the suicide1 by breaking in upon the sanctuary of his own life1 has defied and defeated the government of ,god1 if there be no future life4 ,in the present life retribution fails in uniformity4 ,it is a proposition which the reason of every man must approve--that the government of ,god must be perfectly equitable1 and that under it every man must receive his just due4 ,but men do not receive their requital in this life1 consequently we are bound to affirm that in the present life the ,divine administration is incomplete4 ,we can not conceal from ourselves the fact that events occur in the present life which we can not conceive as benevolently or righteously consummated4 ,these events lift the tyrant to power1 and trample down the patriot and the freeman4 ,the orphan eats the bitter bread of misery1 while the man who has robbed him of the paternal inheritance revels in luxury4 ,the ungodly prosper in the world1 their eyes stand out with fatness1 they have more than heart could wish1 while the righteous suffer affliction1 and are in need4 ,and if there is no future life in which ,god will balance accounts with the universe1 and render to every man according to his works1 then moral government is incomplete1 injustice has triumphed1 wrong has prevailed4 ,an imperfect retribution and an unequal providence demand a future life for their vindication--a future life both for the good and the bad1 so that ,god may reckon with all of them--and teach most convincingly that the present life is a probation4 ,the experiences1 changes1 conflicts1 trials of a probationary economy1 are all intended to prove men1 to test their principles and make manifest their real character4 ,the government of ,god is a moral discipline by which men are trained in the practice and confirmed in the habits of virtue1 and thus brought1 by the schooling of their own consent1 into harmony with the ,divine order4 ,it is a question which may be properly entertained1 whether a free self-determined being can be made perfect in moral character in any other manner than by the discipline of the will4 ,there certainly can be no created moral desert4 ,responsible character must be the product of free choice4 ,a man can no more become virtuous without the discipline of the will than he can become intelligent without the discipline of the understanding4 ,for wherein consists the virtue of a self-determined being8 ,is it not in his free choice of what is right and good1 his resistance to temptation1 his voluntary submission to the ,divine will8 ,is it not in his integrity1 his patience1 his fortitude1 and his resignation8 ,but how can these virtues exist1 how can they be exercised1 and how brought to maturity1 except in the midst of difficulties and hinderances8 ,where can patience and resignation and fortitude and sympathy have a place1 if there are no sufferings to be endured8 ,how can firmness and diligence and courage be developed1 if there are no difficulties and hinderances to the practice of virtue8 ,therefore1 in order that men may be trained and educated and perfected1 they are placed amid such scenes1 experiences1 and trials as shall draw out the moral powers of the soul1 shall strengthen and confirm the will in goodness1 and establish them in the law of their being1 so that their moral future is secure4 ,life1 thus ordered1 is a magnificent scheme to bring out the value of law1 and teach the necessity of right as the only conserving principle of order and happiness2 teaching the more powerfully1 if so it must1 by disorder and sorrow4 ,suffering is a chastisement which is wholesome3 it teaches the blessedness of purity and the sinfulness of sin2 and it may develop into a godly sorrow which shall heal and purify the soul4 ,the moral government of ,god is an equitable administration1 in which responsibility is graduated on the scale of available light and opportunity4 ,this is the condemnation that light is come into the world4 ,light is the symbol of knowledge1 because it reveals the right and clearly manifests what duty is4 ,light is consequently the exact measure of responsibility4 ,our knowledge of what we ought to do1 or ought not to do1 determines the degree of our accountability4 ,an absolute and involuntary ignorance would be the most perfect plea of innocence4 ,the imputation of sin in such a case would be made void1 but thereby the completeness of human nature be destroyed4 ,that which would relegate man from the sphere of responsibility would also banish him from the sphere of rationality4 ,st4 ,paul distinctly recognizes an alleviation of responsibility and guilt in the ignorance of heathen life1 and speaks of a ,divine overlooking of the times of that ignorance--a non-imputation of sins committed in ignorance4 ,but he does not by any means account the sinning heathen as free from all guilt4 ,he shows that they were not in utter ignorance1 and that much of their ignorance was voluntary4 ,he refers to the original consciousness of ,god1 and to the fact that this consciousness is kept alive by the revelation of ,god in nature2 and he shows that the disorder of their religious and moral life resulted from the voluntary suppression of this consciousness--,when they knew ,god1 they glorified ,him not as ,god1 neither were thankful2 but became vain in their imaginations1 and their foolish heart was darkened4 ,he also appeals to the no less definite power of conscience in the heart of the heathen1 which shows the works required by the law to be written on their hearts1 their consciences also bearing witness to this law1 and their thoughts approving or condemning each other1 and their civil laws adjudging their crimes as worthy of death4 ,so far as their ignorance was involuntary it was an alleviation of guilt1 though not an excuse for all sin4 ,whatever light they had1 be it little or much1 it was the standard and measure of their accountability4 ,the ,founder of ,christianity distinctly recognized this principle of moral government4 ,if ,i had not come and spoken unto them1 they had not had sin1 but now they have no cloak for their sin--clearly teaching that ignorance would be a negation of guilt1 and knowledge an aggravation of guilt4 ,not that we are to suppose that the ,jews1 without the light which ,christ supplied1 were absolutely guiltless2 their ignorance was a mitigation of their guilt4 ,christ lays it down as a universal principle that knowledge of the ,divine law or ignorance of the ,divine law by the person who violates it is the ground of a distinction in the different degrees of culpability4 ,that servant which knew his lord's will1 and prepared not himself1 neither did according to his will1 shall be beaten with many stripes4 ,but he that knew not1 and did commit things worthy of stripes1 shall be beaten with few stripes4#eeh ,this is the uniform rule of the ,divine government among all nations4 ,increase of light and knowledge necessarily enhances human responsibility4 ,to whomsoever much is given1 of him shall be much required4 ,more is expected of the man than of the child4 ,more is demanded at the hands of the man who has been blessed with the advantages of a ,christian civilization than from the untutored savage4 ,the man who has been favored with a liberal education is held to a more rigid account than the man who has been cradled in ignorance and schooled in vice4 ,and when the kingdom of ,god comes nigh to men1 human responsibility must be enlarged in commensuration with its blessings4 ,there is a holier1 richer trust1 and consequently a deeper obligation4 ,there is a greater light and a greater condemnation4 ,woe unto thee1 ,chorazin6 woe unto thee1 ,bethsaida6 for if the mighty works which were done in you had been done in ,tyre and ,sidon1 they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes4 ,but ,i say unto you1 ,it shall be more tolerable for ,tyre and ,sidon at the day of judgment than for you4 ,and thou1 ,capernaum1 which art exalted unto heaven1 shalt be brought down to hell3 for if the mighty works which have been done in thee had been done in ,sodom1 it would have remained until this day4 ,but ,i say unto you1 ,that it shall be more tolerable for the land of ,sodom in the day of judgment than for thee4#eei ,this aspect of the ,divine government1 which ,dr4 ,whedon has felicitously styled the equation of probational advantages1 relieves our sadness in view of the moral condition of the world4 ,the ,judge of all the earth will do right in the case of every human soul that has passed through this probationary scene4 ,his omniscient eye can take in at one view all the influences and circumstances1 favorable or unfavorable1 which have surrounded each individual1 and fix the precise amount of responsibility4 ,he will overlook the defect of doubt and taints of blood1 the faults of education and sins of ignorance1 and ,he will make a due allowance for the power of temptation1 the trammels of evil associations1 and an enfeebled and perverted nature4 ,he is full of compassion1 and his tender mercies are over all his works4 ,he knows our frame1 and ,he remembers that we are dust4 ,we may safely conjecture that a negro hamlet in ,central ,africa1 however inferior in its temporal moral aspects1 may1 in its prospect for an eternal destiny1 be superior to many an ,american village4 ,and in the dregs of our large cities there are numbers who are excluded as effectually from the knowledge of the truth as the heathen1 and are scarcely developed to the level of responsibility4 ,these may be the least in the kingdom of heaven1 but by the law of moral equation they can not be excluded4#efj ,in every nation under heaven1 he that has feared ,god and wrought righteousness1 according to his knowledge and ability1 will be accepted of ,god4 ,the moral government of ,god secures an infallible and equitable retribution by binding character and consequence in indissoluble bonds1 and evolving a reward or a punishment out of that permanent moral state of the soul which has been induced by the free self-determination of man4 ,character1 says ,novalis1 is a completely fashioned will 7vollkommen gebildeter ,wille74 ,it is that ultimate stress and determination of the soul which results from the coherence and complexure of habits1 and habit is the result of repeated acts of voluntary choice4 ,from the persistence of habit a fixed disposition and cast of the inner man is evolved which constitutes his moral individuality4 ,even in this formative process we can discern the workings of the law of retribution4 ,one good deed handsels a second1 and renders its performance more easy and pleasurable4 ,the man who obeys his conscience feels that he can respect himself4 ,he has a consciousness of growing power2 a sense of dignity and moral worth4 ,the moral law is for him a law of liberty4 ,on the other hand1 one sinful deed involves a second1 and drags it after it4 ,one lie demands another to maintain its consistency4 ,one act of injustice emboldens to the next4 ,self-respect is broken down by license1 and the path is prepared and cleared for further iniquity4 ,thus1 by the repetition of sinful deeds1 restraints are overborne1 depraved habits are engendered1 vice acquires a mastery over the man1 and he becomes a slave4 ,there is a deep humiliation in this sense of degradation and unworthiness4 ,the sinner despises himself because of his weakness1 and blushes in secret places at the remembrance of his own debasement4 ,the principal happiness or misery of man consists in the settled state of his own heart1 and not in the outward conditions of his daily life4 ,all human plaudits are as naught compared with the approval of one's own conscience2 and no penal inflictions can compare with the anguish of remorse4 ,the inward peace of the righteous soul1 the disquietude and misery of the sinful soul1 are the blossom and the fruitage of the seed which has been sown1 and the stem and branches which have been nurtured by the voluntary choices and acts of man4 ,he that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption2 but he that soweth to the spirit shall of the spirit reap life everlasting4 ,the connection between sin and punishment is no arbitrary or accidental connection4 ,it is just as much a relation between cause and effect as the relation between sowing and reaping in the physical world4 ,to cause the mind to punish itself1 to work a retribution out of ourselves1 to secure it by fixed nature1 to inflict it by inflexible necessity1 to convert the capacity of sin into the instrument of suffering1 is the prerogative of ,divine rule4#efa ,,iv4 ,the end of moral government4--,we have said that the end of government1 in general1 is the maintenance of order4 ,the end of moral government is the maintenance of moral order in the realm of free self-determined powers4 ,the moral order must consist in conformity to the idea of the absolute good4 ,the personality of ,god 7the essential momenta of which are reason and freedom1 holiness and love7 is per se1 in its totality1 the absolute good4 ,infinite ,personality is but another name for ,absolute ,perfection4 ,the highest good for a created dependent personality is to resemble ,god in all those attributes or perfections which constitute personality4 ,it is to be fully established in harmony with ,god's moral character1 unified with ,him in will1 glorified with ,him in holiness1 and perfected with ,him in the blessedness of love4 ,the highest perfection of personal being is moral order1 and therefore human personality1 conceived in its purity and perfection1 is the end of the ,divine government4#efb ,this we have called the ideal order of moral life1 because it is not yet realized in the world4 ,we must believe1 however1 that the final triumph of goodness is a part of the great world-plan4 ,we must not only believe1 but know1 that the great design of creation1 the reason for which the world exists at all1 is that in it goodness may come to its final realization4 ,and this conviction is grounded on the fact that the moral life of humanity has its source in the same ,being who called the world into existence1 and who is conducting this present dispensation to a glorious consummation1 in which ,he shall reconcile all things unto ,himself1444 whether they be things in earth or things in heaven1 and gather together in one all things in ,christ1 that ,god may be all in all4 ,christianity bases all the obligations and sanctions of morality on the great truths that ,god is near to man1 that ,he sustains him every moment in life1 that ,he is the ,father of the human spirit1 and that ,he governs man in order to perfect his nature and bring him into an everlasting fellowship with ,himself4 ,christianity knows nothing of a science of morals which is not based upon the correlations between man and ,god1 nor of a morality which forgets ,god and disregards the most sacred and fundamental of all duties1 namely1 the duties we owe to ,god4 ,a morality based solely upon the relations in which we stand to our fellow-men is at best but secular and utilitarian4 ,a morality which is grounded upon the relation of volition to the state of the sensibility1 and regards happiness as our being's end and aim1 is egoistic and selfish4 ,a morality which rests upon our relation to ,god1 the absolute good1 and which looks backward rather than forward for its motive1 is unselfish and ,christian4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,absolute creation1 #fb4 ,absolute1 ,infinite1 and ,perfect1 relation of these terms1 #da1 #db4 ,action at a distance denied by ,newton1 #bad2 by ,leibnitz1 ,faraday1 ,helmholtz1 ,thomson1 ,tait1 ,maxwell1 #bad4 ,agassiz on species1 #afd2 on the preparation of the earth for man1 #bed4 ,attraction of gravitation not a primary force1 #baj-bbj2 not an essential attribute of matter1 #baa-bac4 ,attribute or related essence1 #dh-eb4 ,augustine1 ,st41 on the days of creation1 #aej1 #aea2 his conception of ,divine conservation1 #agf1 #agg4 ,b4 ,beale1 ,dr41 on distinction between cell-life and soul-life1 #afc2 on life1 #aib1 #bdj4 ,being or essence1 as reality1 efficiency1 and personality1 #db-dh4 ,bioplasm1 or cell-life1 #afb1 #afc4 ,brooke1 ,prof41 on conservation of energy1 #bje4 ,bchner1 ,dr41 asserts the eternity of matter and force1 #bd4 ,c4 ,calderwood1 ,prof41 on consciousness of freedom1 #chb4 ,carpenter1 ,dr41 on will as the type of all force1 #ci1 #bcg2 on distinction between molecular and somatic life1 #afc1 #bcf2 on the forces of nature as modes of the ,divine action1 #bdj4 ,catastrophes1 common belief in1 #ajj2 sustained by science1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,categories1 universal1 #da4 ,causative principle1 the1 must be real1 efficient1 and personal1 #dd4 ,chalmers's1 ,dr41 incautious concession as to the eternity of matter1 #hf4 ,character1 the formation of perfect1 noble--the highest end1 #cjf1 can only be attained under conditions of freedom1 #cjh1 and through the inspiration of a higher life1 #cji1 #caj4 ,christian civilization the age of philanthropy1 #bhe-bij4 ,cicero on a universal and immutable moral law1 #cgi4 ,civilization1 each epoch of1 has had a different theatre1 #bge2 stages of development in1 #bgg-bij4 ,clarke1 ,dr4 ,samuel1 on immediate agency of ,god in conservation1 #agh4 ,cohn1 ,dr41 on nature1 #ccc4 ,coleridge on nature1 #cbe2 on the natural1 #cfi4 ,comte on irregular variability in nature1 #aie1 #cbi4 ,conditions of moral government1 #cga1 #cgb4 ,conscience1 its nature and authority1 #cgb-cgg2 its gradual development1 #cgg4 ,consciousness1 religions1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cde2 natural order of its development1 #cdf-cdi4 ,conservation1 ,biblical doctrine of1 #agd1 #age2 conceptions of the mode of conservation1 #agf4 ,conservation by secondary causes or agencies1 #aha1 #ahb2 7#a7 hypothesis of natural law1 #ahg-bja2 7#b7 hypothesis of active force inherent in matter1 #bjb-bbb2 7#c7 hypothesis of plastic nature1 #bbb-bce4 ,conservation of energy not an absolute law1 #bje1 #bjf2 limited by the law of dissipation of energy1 #bjg2 not fairly stated by ,dr4 ,tyndall in his discussion on prayer1 #cca1 #ccb2 no evidence that it holds in the realm of vital dynamics and psycho-dynamics1 #ccb2 is not absolute in the realm of physics1 #ccb4 ,continuity of the ether1 #bag4 ,correlation between ,god and man1 #cdd4 ,creation1 ,biblical account of1 not designed to teach science1 #acf-ach2 poetic1 symbolical1 and unchronological1 #ach-aea4 ,creation by law1 #aif4 ,creation ex nihilo1 how understood by the ,christian ,fathers1 #ib2 not discredited by the progress of science1 #ic4 ,creation1 its history1 #abf-aga2 a gradual process1 #aeb-aee2 cumulative1 #aef-aff2 consecutive1 #aff-aga2 harmonious1 #afi1 #agj2 final purpose of creation1 #acj-acc4 ,creation1 the conception of1 #ef2 the ,biblical conception of1 can not be determined on philological grounds1 #ef-eh2 how to be determined1 #eh-fa2 distinction between absolute and architectonic1 #fa2 an origination de novo1 #fj1 #fa2 a voluntary act of ,god1 #fc-fh2 not determined by any inherent necessity1 #fd2 not conditioned ab extra1 #ff4 ,cudworth on a plastic nature1 #bbb-bbe4 ,d4 ,days of the creative week1 #ade-aea4 ,defects in nature1 supposed1 not removed by hypothesis of unconscious intelligence1 #bcb1 #bcc2 this supposition based upon our ignorance of nature as a whole1 #bcc-bce4 ,descartes1 his conception of ,god1 #bi4 ,dissipation of mechanical energy1 #abj1 #aba1 #bjg-bji4 ,dualism1 ,oriental1 #bc4 ,duration not identical with time1 #gg2 nor with eternity1 #gg2 a quality of dependent existence1 #ha2 a fact of consciousness1 #hb4 ,e4 ,earth1 secular cooling of the1 #aje-ajh2 indications of surface transformations of the1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,earth1 the1 a school-house for man1 #beh4 ,end of moral government1 #dag-dai4 ,energy1 conservation1 transformation1 and dissipation of1 #aah1 #aai2 defined1 #aid2 distinction between force and energy1 #bjc2 laws of conservation and transformation limited by the law of dissipation1 #bjg-bji2 cases of transformation1 #bcg2 all the forms of energy are transformations of one ,omnipresent force1 #bcg4 ,eternity an attribute of ,god1 #gg1 #hc1 #hd4 ,ether1 hypothesis of the1 #aac2 a resisting medium1 #aad1 #aae2 absolute continuity of the1 #bag1 #bah4 ,experience can not attain to a universal truth1 #aij4 ,extension a quality of matter1 #ha2 not a predicate of space1 #gi2 a percept of sense1 #ha4 ,f4 ,faraday on the possible and the impossible1 #aie2 on action at a distance1 #bad4 ,final purpose of creation revealed in ,scriptures1 #acj-acc2 not discoverable by science1 #bcd1 #bde4 ,force defined1 #bjc1 #bcf2 the ultimate of all ultimates1 according to ,spencer1 #be2 theory that matter is a phenomenon of force1 #abc2 the power of ,god1 #abc2 distinct from energy1 #bjc2 not inherent in matter1 #bai1 #bcf2 tendency of modern scientists to hypostatize1 #bbg2 spirit-force the only force1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #cda2 a metaphysical idea1 #cdj2 the expression of will1 #cda4 ,forces1 primary1 of nature1 #bji2 a perpetual stream of power from the ,infinite ,spirit1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,foreknowledge of ,god and human freedom1 #djb-dje4 ,formation implies origination1 #ig4 ,free self-determining power of the will1 #chj1 #chg2 arguments against--7#a7 ,metaphysical or causational1 #chg1 #cib2 7#b7 ,psychological1 #cib-djb2 7#c7 ,theological1 #djb-dje2 conceded by ,dr4 ,tyndall1 #cce4 ,freedom of ,god1 absolute1 #fc4 ,g4 ,galton on the efficacy of prayer1 #cac4 ,geographical conditions1 their influence on the character of nations1 #beh-bfd4 ,geology points back to a beginning1 #ajd-aaj4 ,geological changes indicate a preparation for man1 #bed-beg4 ,god1 omnipotence of1 and human freedom1 #cee-cei4 ,god the author and giver of life1 #bdj4 ,god1 the existence of1 the fundamental postulate of all philosophy and all religion1 #bia1 #bib4 ,god1 the fatherhood of1 #cei-cfe4 ,god the first principle and unconditioned cause of all existence1 #bg2 the content of our conception of1 #bg2 the idea of1 a phenomenon of the universal intelligence of our race1 #bh2 idea and concept of1 #cej2 harmony of the ,biblical and philosophic conception of1 #df1 #dg2 distinction between the nature and essence of1 #fb1 #fc2 not necessarily but freely just and good1 #fc2 immanence of1 in nature1 #agd1 #age1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,government of ,god1 distinction between physical1 natural1 and moral1 #cfg1 #cfh4 ,gravitation--attraction not a universal and necessary attribute of matter1 #aia1 #baa-bac2 must have a cause1 #bad2 transmitted by the ether1 #bae2 instantaneous1 #bae2 cause of1 not material1 #baf2 a derivative force1 #bba4 ,grecian civilization the youth of humanity1 #bhj-bhb4 ,grove on causation1 #ci2 on force1 #cdj4 ,h4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 confounds space and extension1 #gb2 also space and immensity1 #gc2 confuses the concepts time1 duration1 and eternity1 #gf2 on the inconceivability of an absolute commencement1 #ic4 ,harmony between the philosophic conception of force and the religious conception of ,god1 #cch-cdc4 ,hebrew civilization the childhood of humanity1 #bgh-bhj4 ,hedge1 ,dr41 on the immanence of ,god in nature1 #ahf4 ,hegel on ,thought as the supreme reality1 #be4 ,helmholtz denies direct action at a distance1 #bad4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 his conception of matter1 #ie1 #abe1 #bcg2 on force1 #ci1 #cda2 on universal gravitation1 #aia2 on law1 #aih2 on conservation of energy1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,history a revelation of ,divine providence1 #bdf2 the goal of1 is the perfection of humanity1 #bdh2 the especial field of ,divine providence1 #bec4 ,human race commenced its history in the ,temperate ,zone1 #bfd-bfh2 distribution of the1 not governed by the same law as the distribution of plants and animals1 #bgb2 distribution of1 indicates a ,providential guidance1 #bgc4 ,human freedom and ,divine omnipotence1 #cee-cei2 and ,divine prescience1 #djb-dje4 ,humanity1 perfection of1 in what does it consist8 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,i4 ,immanence of ,god in nature1 #agd1 #age1 #bdj1 #bda2 the doctrine of1 not pantheistic1 #bda1 #bdb4 ,immanent attributes of ,god1 #ej2 an eternal and necessary in being1 #eb4 ,immensity an attribute of ,god1 #ge1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd4 ,inertia of matter1 #bbj1 #bce4 ,infinite series a contradiction in adjecto1 #ij4 ,interception of force by matter1 #bbj4 ,l4 ,laplace on the stability of the solar system1 #aac4 ,laurent on ,providence1 #bdg4 ,law1 creation by1 #aif2 meaning of the term1 #aig-bjj4 ,laycock1 ,dr41 on the law of design1 #abi2 on life1 #aib2 on science1 #aie4 ,life1 distinction between molecular and individual1 #afc2 molecular1 the result of the immediate presence and agency of ,god1 #bci2 the cause1 not the consequence of organization1 #bdj4 ,love the highest1 determining principle of the ,divine efficiency1 #acj1 #aca4 ,m4 ,mahan1 ,dr4 ,a41 his fatal concession to ,hume1 #hh2 on an infinite series1 #hh2 rejects the priori argument for the being of ,god1 #hh-ia4 ,mansel on the conceivability of a commencement of existence1 #id4 ,martineau asserts the coeval and coeternal existence of something objective to ,god1 #fg2 if true1 would invalidate every proof of the existence of ,god1 #fg1 #fh2 on the separate spheres of religion and science1 #bif4 ,matter a created entity1 #ie1 #abe4 ,matter1 eternity of1 affirmed by ,martineau1 #fg2 a fatal admission1 which imperils the ,theistic argument1 #he-ib4 ,matter1 theory that1 is a phenomenon or a function of force1 #abc1 #abd1 #bbh1 #bcf2 a real entity1 #bce4 ,maxwell1 ,prof41 on the nature of matter1 #abd2 regards matter as a created entity1 #abe1 #abf2 rejects the doctrine of action at a distance1 #bad2 on the origin of motion1 #bai4 ,mc,cosh concedes that space and time are not independent of ,god1 #fh2 on proportions of infinite space1 #gd2 on causation in the will1 #cii4 ,mechanical theory of the origin of things1 #bii1 #cjj4 ,method of the ,divine government1 #dje-djg2 a probationary economy1 #djh-daa2 a moral discipline1 #daa1 #dab2 an equitable administration1 in which responsibility is graduated on the scale of available light and opportunity1 #dab-daf2 secures an infallible and equitable retribution by connecting character and consequence1 #daf1 #dag4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 on ,teleology1 #abh2 on uniformity of nature1 #ahi4 ,mind1 stages of development of1 in the individual1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,mind the primal source of all being1 #ch2 the first cause of motion1 #bcf2 the one and only source of power1 #bcg4 ,mivart on unconscious intelligence1 #bbf4 ,montesquieu1 his definition of law1 #aih4 ,moral attributes or perfections of ,god1 #ea2 an everlasting voluntary becoming1 #eb1 #fc4 ,moral government1 its grounds1 #cea-cfe2 its nature1 #cff-cga2 its subjective conditions1 #cga1 #djd2 its end1 #dag-dai4 ,moral ideas of the reason identical in all men1 #cgh-chj4 ,motion1 origin of1 #bai4 ,motives1 moral1 do not act causally on the will1 #cic-cif2 the so-called strength of motives discussed1 #cig-djb4 ,mller on ,divine love as the highest determining principle of the ,divine efficiency1 #aca4 ,murphy1 ,j4 ,j41 on unconscious intelligence1 #bbe2 on matter and force1 #bbg-bbi2 his doctrine involves ,pantheism1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,n4 ,natural and moral distinguished1 #cfi-cga4 ,nature1 meaning of the term1 #aic1 #cbe2 course of1 #cbf2 constitution of1 #cbf1 #cbi2 controlled and modified by man1 #cce1 #ccf2 therefore also controlled by ,god1 #ccg4 ,nebular hypothesis implies a beginning1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,necessitarians1 theory of1 #cid1 #cie4 ,newman1 ,john ,henry1 his conception of ,god1 #ca4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 his conception of ,god1 #bi2 teaches that ,god constitutes space and duration1 #fh2 denies action at a distance1 #bad2 denies that gravity is inherent in and essential to matter1 #baa1 #bac4 ,niebuhr on ,divine providence1 #bdf4 ,nitzsch teaches that ,god is the cause of space and time1 #fi4 ,norton1 ,prof41 on ,atomic ,forces1 #bji2 his doctrine that atomic repulsion is the primary force1 #bbj2 teaches that the ,infinite ,spirit is the primal source of all force1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,o4 ,omnipotence of ,god and human freedom1 #cee-cei4 ,order of nature1 facts concerning the1 which are supposed to conflict with the efficacy of prayer1 #caj4 ,order of the universe had a beginning1 #ih4 ,oriental civilization the infancy of humanity1 #bge4 ,origin of things1 mechanical theory of the1 #bii1 #cjj2 vito-dynamical theory of1 #bii4 ,origination and formation1 #ig4 ,owen1 ,prof4 ,r41 on the preparation of the earth for man1 #bee1 #bef4 ,p4 ,pantheism1 the doctrine of unconscious intelligence ends in1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,perfect personality of ,god1 #ea4 ,permanence of substance1 force1 and law1 #ae4 ,permanence of the universe1 no priori ground for belief in the1 #ajj1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,phenomena of the universe in ceaseless change1 #ad4 ,physical and spiritual distinguished1 #cfh4 ,physical geography indicates a preparation of the earth for man1 #beg4 ,plastic nature1 theory of a1 #ahc1 #bbb-bce4 ,plato taught that a perfect mind is the primal source of all existence1 #ch4 ,porter1 ,dr41 regards space as an entity1 #fi4 ,prayer--have our prayers any influence with the ,supreme ,power8 #bib2 importance of this question1 #bib1 #bic2 natural to man1 #cjb-cjd2 an essential element of life1 #cjd-caj2 necessary to the formation of noble character1 #cjf-cjh2 attacks on the efficacy of1 from the stand-point of experience1 #cac-cba2 from the theoretic stand-point1 #cba-cch4 ,prayer-gauge1 the1 not presented in terms of experience1 and therefore not capable of experimental application1 #cag1 #cah4 ,problem1 the central1 specifically stated1 #ba1 #bb4 ,procter on ,divine supervision and control1 #agf4 ,providence1 statement of the ,christian doctrine of1 #bde1 #bdf2 the course of human history a revelation of1 #bdf1 #bdg2 defined1 #beb2 in the physical universe1 #bed2 nature and history the two great factors of ,divine providence1 #beh4 ,r4 ,reality of the external world1 #ad4 ,relation between ,god and man--7#a7 contiguity1 #cea-cec2 7#b7 immanency1 #cec-cei2 7#c7 paternity and filiation1 #cei-cfe4 ,religion1 the sphere of1 #bid-big2 inadequate definition of1 by ,spencer1 #bih2 true conception of1 #bie4 ,religious consciousness1 the content of1 #cjd1 #cje2 order of development of1 #cdf-cdi4 ,religious feeling1 the facts of1 as incontestible as the facts of ,physics1 #bif2 statement of the facts of1 #cjb-caj4 ,repulsion the primary force1 #bbj4 ,richter on the providence of ,god in history1 #bdg4 ,roman civilization the manhood of the race1 #bhb-bhe4 ,s4 ,schleiermacher on the cause of space and time1 #fi4 ,science and ,religion1 the apparent antagonism between them1 #big1 #bih4 ,science1 modern1 its metaphysical tendency1 #ajc2 the sphere of science1 #bid-big4 ,self1 the fundamental reality of1 #ac4 ,solar heat1 dissipation of1 #aaf1 #aag2 must be finally exhausted1 #aah4 ,space--what is space8 #fi-gh2 is absolute vacuity1 #fi1 #gj2 is an entity1 #fi2 is a relation1 #ga-ge2 confusion of thought in regard to1 #ga2 confounded with extension1 #gb --by ,hamilton1 #gb1 #gc --by ,mc,cosh1 #gc --by ,cousin1 #gd2 confounded with immensity1 #gd2 the relation of coexistence among extended bodies1 #hb4 ,special providence and the efficacy of prayer1 the present issue between science and religion1 #bia4 ,species1 the essential element of1 a spiritual entity1 #afd4 ,spencer asserts that force is the ultimate of all ultimates1 #be2 his definition of law1 #aih2 admits that will-force symbolizes the cause of all change1 #dj1 #cda4 ,spinoza1 his assertion that all determination is negation1 #dc4 ,spirit-force the only force in the universe1 #bcf4 ,stewart1 ,dugald1 on the impossibility of annihilating space1 #gj2 answer thereto1 #ga4 ,sufficient reason1 the law of1 #ca4 ,symbolical ,hymn of ,creation1 #adj-adb4 ,t4 ,tait1 ,prof41 rejects direct action at a distance1 #bad4 ,teleological idea the highest law of the universe1 #abh-acj2 not invalidated by the doctrine of evolution1 #aga4 ,temperate ,zone1 the human race commenced its history in the1 #bfd-bfh2 purely zoological data would lend us to fix that starting-point in the ,torrid ,zone1 #bfh-bgb2 a providence here revealed1 #bgc1 #bgd4 ,temporal character of the universe1 #ih2 the order of the universe had a beginning1 #ih2 this has been the common belief of all ages1 #ii2 all philosophers have recognized a beginning1 #aja2 modern science sustains this belief1 #ajb1 #ajc2 ,geology points back to a beginning1 #ajd-aaj2 astronomical paletiology confirms the law of finite duration1 #aaj-aah2 ,physics especially sustains the belief1 #aah-aba4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 his notion of conservation1 #agg4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,william1 on secular cooling of the earth1 #ajg1 #ajh2 on dissipation of energy1 #aai1 #abj2 on the argument from design1 #abi2 rejects direct action at a distance1 #bad2 on life1 #bdj4 ,tidal friction dissipates mechanical energy1 #aae4 ,time or ,succession1 what is it8 #gh2 confounded by most philosophers with duration1 #ge1 and with eternity1 #ge2 consequences of this confusion1 #gf2 answer of ,mc,cosh1 #gh2 of ,dr4 ,porter1 #hj2 time the measure of finite duration1 #hc4 ,transformation of energy1 #bjh2 illustrations of1 #bcg4 ,transitive or relative attributes of ,god1 #ej4 ,tyndall on impossibilities in nature1 #aif2 on the certainty of the facts of religious experience1 #bif2 admits that the great problem of the age is to find a legitimate satisfaction for the religious emotions1 #cjj2 prescribes the conditions under which it must be solved1 #cja2 admits that religion can not be dislodged from the heart of man1 #cjd2 believes in the existence of ,god1 #cab2 his attack on the efficacy of prayer from the stand-point of science1 #cba-cch2 does not deny that ,god may create energy1 #ccb2 admits the interference of personal volition in nature1 #ccb-ccd2 grants that the conception of a universal ,father who controls the phenomena of nature is not unscientific1 #ccg2 distinguishes between the force which animates nature and the ,god who answers prayer1 #cch-cdj4 ,u4 ,unconditioned ,will the principle of all reality1 efficiency1 and perfection1 #cd1 #da-dh4 ,unconscious intelligence1 doctrine of1 #bbe2 impossibility of forming any conception of1 #bbf1 #bbg2 no difficulties relieved by this hypothesis1 #bcb-bce4 ,uniformity of ,nature1 meaning of the term1 #aic-aif1 #cbe-ccj4 ,uniformity of the course of nature not an intuitive belief1 #ii1 #ahh-aij1 #cba1 #cbf2 an assumption1 #cbb2 what ground is there for this assumption8 #cbb-cbd4 ,unity1 demand of the reason for1 #bc4 ,unity of the ,cosmos1 #ae4 ,universal beliefs1 authority of1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,universal ,father controlling nature a scientific conception1 #ccf1 #ccg4 ,universe an effect1 #ba2 had a commencement in time1 and will therefore have an end1 #ih-aba2 not a conservative but a dissipative system1 #aah-aba2 dependent on the ,divine conservation every moment1 #agd-agg4 ,v4 ,vito-dynamical theory of the origin of things1 #bii4 ,volition1 reality of personal1 #ccd4 ,w4 ,wallace on unconscious intelligence1 #bbf2 regards all force as will-force1 #ci4 ,wesley on ,divine conservation of the world1 #agi4 ,whedon1 ,dr41 on causation in the will1 #cij-cia2 on the so-called strength of motives1 #cif1 #cig1 #cii1 #djj2 on ,divine foreknowledge1 #djd2 on equation of probational advantages1 #dae4 ,whewell1 ,prof41 on law and cause1 #bjj2 on the origin of force1 #cda4 ,will the fountain-head of all force1 #ch2 so recognised by scientists1 #ci1 #dj2 this doctrine the balancing-point of a moral theism1 #cg4 ,will1 the freedom of the1 #chj-chg2 direct testimony of consciousness1 #cha-chd2 presupposed by the idea of moral obligation1 #chd1 #che2 and by the sense of obligation1 #che1 #chf4 ,will the real essence of the soul1 #ce1 #cf2 is more than mere power of energy1 #ce2 the synthesis of reason and power1 #aig4 ,will1 the unconditioned1 #cd2 the absolute first principle1 #be2 the ,divine will the source of all the forms of force in the universe1 #bcg4 ,winchell1 ,dr41 on surface transformations of the earth1 #aji2 on molar aggregation1 #afb2 on species1 #afd2 on the harmony between the ,mosaic and geological records1 #aee4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,old ,faith and the ,new1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #c4 ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,old ,faith and the ,new1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #f3 ,the ,old ,faith and the ,new1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #g3 ,ueberweg's ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #da4 ,footnote #h3 ,ueberweg's ,logic1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #i3 ,this is mournfully conceded by ,geo4 ,henry ,lewes 7an avowed ,comtean73 ,no army of argument1 no accumulation of contempt1 no historical exhibition of the fruitlessness of its effort1 has sufficed to extirpate the tendency toward metaphysical speculation4 ,although its doctrines have become a scoff 7except among the valiant few71 its method still survives1 still prompts to renewed research1 and still misleads some men of science4 ,in vain ,history points to the failure of twenty centuries2 the metaphysician admits the fact1 but appeals to ,history in proof of the persistent passion which no failure can dismay2 and hence draws confidence in ultimate success4 ,a cause which is vigorous after centuries of defeat is a cause baffled but not hopeless1 beaten but not subdued4 ,the ranks of its army may be thinned1 its banners torn and mud-stained2 but the indomitable energy breaks out anew1 and the fight is continued4--,problems of ,life and ,mind1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #aj3 ,every religion may be defined as an priori theory of the universe4 ,the surrounding facts being given1 some form of agency is alleged which1 in the opinion of these alleging it1 accounts for these facts4444 ,nay1 even that which is commonly regarded as the negation of all religion--even positive ,atheism1 comes within the definition2 for it1 too1 in asserting the self-existence of ,space1 ,matter1 and ,motion1 which it regards as adequate causes of every appearance1 propounds an priori theory from which it holds the facts to be deducible4--,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #aa3 ,philosophy begins in wonder3 he was not a bad genealogist who said that ,isis1 the messenger of ,heaven1 is the child of ,thaumas 7,wonder72 for ,wonder is the feeling of a philosopher4--,plato1 ,thetetus1 #aee4 ,footnote #ab3 ,plato1 ,timus1 #i4 ,footnote #ac3 ,bchner1 ,matter and ,force1 pp4 #a-bg4 ,footnote #ad3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 pp4 #bce1 #bcf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,religion1 vol4 i4 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #af3 ,spiritual ,philosophy of ,coleridge1 by ,green1 vol4 i4 pp4 #a1 #b4 ,footnote #ag3 ,isaiah xliii4 #ac2 ,exod4 iii4 #ad3 ,i am that ,i am4 ,footnote #ah3 ,we can see the sun1 we can greet it in the morning and mourn for it in the evening1 without necessarily naming it1 that is to say1 comprehending it under some general notion4 ,it is the same with the perception of the ,divine4 ,it may have been perceived1 men may have welcomed it or yearned after it1 long before they knew how to name it4--,max ,mller1 ,science of ,language1 #b;d ,series1 p4 #ded4 ,footnote #ai3 ,meditations1 vol4 i4 p4 #cac4 ,footnote #bj3 ,works1 vol4 i4 p4 #bah2 vol4 v4 p4 #ah2 ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 p4 #agf2 ,murphy's ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #ba3 ,morell1 ,philosophy of ,religion1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #bb3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #bc3 ,green1 ,spiritual ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #b4 ,footnote #bd3 ,morell1 ,psychology1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #be3 ,cousin1 ,elements of ,psychology1 p4 #deb4 ,footnote #bf3 ,martineau's ,essays1 p4 #ahh1 #b;d ,series4 ,footnote #bg3 ,timus1 ch4 ix4 ,footnote #bh3 ,philebus1 #ej4 ,footnote #bi3 ,sophist1 #gb4 ,footnote #cj3 ,timus1 ch4 ix4 x4 ,footnote #ca3 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #cb3 ,outlines of ,astronomy1 pp4 #bcc-d2 also ,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects1 pp4 #dfb1 #dge4 ,footnote #cc3 ,human ,physiology1 p4 #edb2 also art4 ,on ,mutual ,relation of ,vital and ,physical ,forces1 ,philosophical ,transactions1 p4 #gcj4 ,footnote #cd3 ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cfh4 ,see ,mivart1 ,genesis of ,species1 p4 #bih2 ,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bbe1 #cjd2 ,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #ce3 ,reign of ,law1 pp4 #abc1 #abi2 ,cooke1 ,religion and ,chemistry1 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #cf3 ,first ,principles1 p4 #bce4 ,see also ,challis1 ,principles of ,mathematics and ,physics1 p4 #fha4 ,footnote #cg3 ,comte1 ,l',ensemble du ,positivisme1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #ch3 ,m',vicar1 ,sketch of ,philosophy1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #ci3 ,these terms are frequently and somewhat loosely employed as synonymous2 but in reality each has its own peculiar shade of meaning4 ,here we employ the term ,absolute to denote the underived1 independent1 incomposite1 and immutable4 ,infinite is employed to denote the absence of all limitation--that which can not be bounded1 measured1 quantified4 ,perfect is employed to denote that which is complete1 finished1 self-sufficient--that which has no defect and no want4 ,the unconditioned is a genus1 of which the ,infinite1 ,absolute1 and ,perfect are species--not conditioned by quantity1 kind1 or degree4 ,for the ,infinite there are no limits2 for the ,absolute no parts1 no equals1 and no change2 for the ,perfect no wants4 ,see ,calderwood1 ,philosophy of the ,infinite1 p4 #agi2 ,north ,american ,review1 ,oct4 #ahfd1 pp4 #djg1 #dag4 ,footnote #dj3 ,saisset1 ,modern ,pantheism1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #da3 ,the idea of ,god is the unity of three factors--the logical 7intelligence71 the ethical 7love71 and the physical 7might74--,dr4 ,martensen1 ,die ,christliche ,ethik1 #ai4 ,footnote #db3 ,dr4 ,whedon1 ,meth4 ,qu4 ,review1 ,jan4 #i1 #ahga1 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #dc3 ,as related to the purpose of ,redemption4 ,god the ,father is the moving or actuating cause of ,redemption1 ,god the ,son is the revealing and actualizing cause1 and ,god the ,spirit is the active and efficient cause4 ,father ,love2 ,logos ,revealer2 ,spirit ,life4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the ,justice1 ,truth1 and ,faithfulness of ,god are not properly regarded as attributes of the ,divine nature1 but as modes of ,divine conduct or action1 determined by the ,holiness and ,goodness of ,god4 ,so ,grace1 ,mercy1 ,compassion are but modifications of ,divine ,love viewed in relation to sinful1 guilty1 and suffering creatures1 and their consideration belongs not to the doctrine of ,creation1 but of ,redemption4 ,footnote #de3 ,whedon1 ,on the ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #df3 ,for an exhaustive discussion of this subject1 see ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aii-bae4 ,footnote #dg3 ,we make no pretensions to critical acquaintance with the ,hebrew1 but will hazard this suggestion1 7aysah7 is the most general term2 its fundamental meaning is to do1 to perform1 to work1 and may embrace both origination and formation4 7bara7 and 7yetsar7 are more specific1 the former denoting the origination of a new essence or substance1 the latter formation or fashioning out of pre-existing materials4 ,thus we read in ,gen4 ii4 #g3 ,and the ,lord ,god formed man i4 e41 the body of man out of the dust of the earth4 ,here we have pre-existing matter4 ,but in ,gen4 i4 #bg we read1 ,and ,god created man i4 e41 the soul of man in his own image4 ,here we have no pre-existing material1 for matter can not bear the image of ,god4 7,see ,acts xvii4 #bi47 ,bara must therefore here mean origination4 ,even in ,gen4 i4 #ba1 where bara is employed in regard to the production of living creatures1 we have the origination of something new3 for vitality1 sensitivity1 perception are not properties of matter1 neither can they be educed from any organization of matter4 ,footnote #dh3 ,we can not help regarding this mode of reasoning as superficial and misleading4 ,gen4 i4 #bg1 ,so ,god created man in his own image1 refers to the spiritual nature of man which alone can bear the image of ,god1 and must mean origination4 ,gen4 ii4 #g1 ,and the ,lord ,god formed man out of the dust of the earth1 refers solely to the body of man4 ,this distinction can scarcely be accidental4 ,footnote #di3 ,james i4 #ag4 ,footnote #ej3 ,rom4 xi4 #cf4 ,footnote #ea3 ,lange's ,commentary1 ,introduction4 ,footnote #eb3 ,we can not overlook the connection between ,gen4 i4 #a and ,john i4 #a1 and close our eyes to the light which the later announcement throws upon the former4 ,it is most probable that by ,john means 1 in eternity--that is1 before all time-succession began4 here can have no relation to time4 ,and why may we not accept the ,platonic notion of a creation in eternity1 which itself constituted a beginning of time8 ,prior to finite succession and change1 there can be no time4 ,footnote #ec3 ,god being limited neither in nor by any other existence1 is infinite in a positive sense1 inasmuch as his will alone imposes all limitation4--,ulrici1 ,gott und die ,natur1 #ahfb1 p4 #ece4 ,footnote #ed3 ,natura--that which is produced or born1 that which is always becoming4 ,essentia--the fundamental1 permanent being4 ,see note #a 7,next footnote47 ,footnote #ee3 ,we ,arminians hold that ,god is freely good from eternity to eternity1 just as man is good freely and alternatively for one hour4 ,infinite knowledge does not insure infinite goodness4 ,infinite knowledge 7which is a very different thing from infinite wisdom7 is not an anterior cause of infinite goodness2 but both ,infinite ,wisdom and ,infinite ,holiness consist in and result from ,god's volitions eternally1 and absolutely1 perfectly coinciding with1 not the ,wrong1 but the ,right4 ,god's infinite knowledge omniscience1 is an eternal1 fixed1 necessary be-ing2 ,god's wisdom and holiness are an eternal volitional ,,becoming2 an eternally free1 alternative putting forth of choices for the ,right4 ,god's omniscience is self-existent2 ,god's wisdom and holiness are self-made1 or eternally and continuously being made4 ,god is necessarily omnipotent and all-knowing through eternity1 but ,god is truly wise and holy through all eternity1 but no more necessarily than a man through a single hour4 ,god is holy therefore1 not automatically1 but freely2 not merely with infinite excellence1 but with infinite meritoriousness4--,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #ef3 ,lange1 ,commentary on ,gen4 i41 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #eg3 ,poynting1 quoted by ,martineau in ,nature and ,god1 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #eh3 ,see also ,heb4 i4 ,footnote #ei3 ,see ,mller's ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #fj3 ,saisset1 ,modern ,pantheism1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #fa3 ,history of ,modern ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #id4 ,footnote #fb3 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 pp4 #aeh1 #afa4 ,footnote #fc3 ,first ,principles1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #fd3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #fe3 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #ff3 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #fg3 ,deus durat semper et adest ubique1 et existendo semper et ubique durationem et spatium1 ternitatem et infinitatem constituit4--,principia1 ,schol4 ,gen4 ,footnote #fh3 ,modern ,pantheism1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #fi3 ,intuitions1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #gj3 ,system of ,christian ,doctrine1 by ,nitzsch1 pp4 #aef-g4 ,footnote #ga3 ,the ,human ,intellect1 p4 #efe4 ,footnote #gb3 ,july1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #gc3 ,stewart's ,dissertation in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 vol4 i4 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #gd3 ,even physical science rejects the notion of pure space1 and it may be reasonably doubted whether absolute vacuity has any place in the universe of ,god4 ,as a question of science1 the existence of the vacuum is doubtful4 ,it may be safely asserted that hitherto all attempts at producing a perfect vacuum have failed4--,grove1 ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 p4 #acd4 ,the general tendency of science is toward a denial of its existence 7p4 #acg74 ,as a question of metaphysics1 the human reason can only find satisfaction in believing in a spiritual ,being1 a living ,will which inhabiteth eternity and immensity1 and filleth all in all with living and life-giving fullness1 so that in ,him we live and move and have being4--,mc,cosh1 ,intuitions of the ,mind1 p4 #bbe4 ,footnote #ge3 ,by empty space ,i mean distance1 ,i mean direction3 that steeple is a mile off1 and not here where ,i sit1 and it lies southeast and not north4--,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects1 p4 #dee4 ,footnote #gf3 ,taylor1 ,physical ,theory of ,another ,life1 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #gg3 ,the idea of space--the idea of extension--is the logical condition of the admission of the idea of the body4--,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #gh3 ,extension is only another name for space4--,lectures on ,metaphysics1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #gi3 ,space and extension are convertible terms4--,first ,principles1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #hj3 ,see ,intuitions1 p4 #bbc1 where the terms are employed as synonymous4 ,footnote #ha3 ,l'immensit ou l'unit de l'espace4--,cousin1 ,histoire de la ,philosophie du xviiime ,sicle1 p4 #aba4 ,infinity of extension4--,mc,cosh1 ,intuitions1 p4 #bbc4 ,infinite immensity of space4--,hamilton1 ,discussions1 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #hb3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aad1 #afg4 ,footnote #hc3 ,intuitions1 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #hd3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #he3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agj ,footnote #hf3 ,discussions1 etc41 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #hg3 ,philosophy1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #hh3 ,intuitions1 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #hi3 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ij3 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #ia3 ,when the succession of ideas ceases1 our perception of duration ceases with it4--,locke1 ,essays 7bk4 ii4 ch4 xiv4 #d74 ,footnote #ib3 ,time and duration are confounded by ,mc,cosh 7,intuitions1 p4 #bbc71 by ,mahan 7,intellectual ,philosophy1 p4 #bb71 and by ,cousin 7,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbi74 ,footnote #ic3 ,absolute time is eternity 7,cousin1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gg74 ,l'ternit ou l'unit de temps 7,histoire de la ,philosophie du xviiime ,sicle1 p4 #aba74 ,eternity is the synonym of pure time 7,north ,american ,review1 ,april1 #ahfd1 p4 #aae74 ,footnote #id3 ,mind is nothing but the series of our feelings as they actually occur1 with the addition of infinite possibilities of feeling 7,examination of ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #bec74 ,footnote #ie3 ,intuitions1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #if3 ,intuitions1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #ig3 ,intuitions1 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #ih3 ,hamilton's ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebg4 ,footnote #ii3 ,mc,cosh1 ,intuitions1 p4 #bje2 ,saisset1 ,mod4 ,pantheism1 vol4 i4 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,hamilton's ,logic1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #aja3 ,intuitions1 p4 #baa4 ,see also ,porter's ,human ,intellect1 p4 #efg4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,intuitions1 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,strange as it may sound1 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh says1 at p4 #bjb1 that we have an immediate knowledge of space in the concrete by the senses1 and here he asserts that space is not a substance1 and therefore can not be perceived4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,opuscula1 p4 #geb4 ,footnote #aje3 ,discussions1 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,philosophy of the ,infinite1 pp4 #cai1 #cca4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,modern ,pantheism1 vol4 i4 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,philosophy of the ,infinite1 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #aji3 ,philosophy of the ,infinite1 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,familiar ,lectures1 p4 #dee4 ,footnote #aab3 ,martineau's ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #aac3 ,martineau's ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #aad3 ,institutes of ,theology1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gf1 #gi4 ,footnote #aae3 ,natural ,theology1 p4 #bc4 ,the practice so common among writers of ,natural ,theology of fixing upon one line of proof of the being of ,god as the only valid method1 and then disparaging and endeavoring to show the invalidity of all others1 is highly reprehensible4 ,the strongest arguments employed by the ,atheists have been culled from the writings of these eccentric theologians4 ,in the celebrated public discussion between ,mr4 ,holyoake1 the leader of the ,secularists in ,england1 and ,mr4 ,brindley1 ,on the existence of ,god1 the most telling arguments of ,mr4 ,holyoake were drawn from the standard works on ,natural ,theology4 ,how much more rational and commendable is the course of the philosopher3 ,there are different proofs of the existence of ,god4 ,the consoling result of my studies is that these different proofs are more or less strict in form1 but they have all a depth of truth which needs only to be disengaged and put in a clear light in order to give incontestable authority4 ,every thing leads to ,god4 ,there is no bad way of arriving at ,him1 but we go to ,him by different paths4--,cousin1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dah4 ,the argument for the being of a ,god in its completeness is at once ,ontological and ,cosmological1 ,etiological and ,teleological4 ,it is in the concurrence and synthesis of these separate but harmonious lines of proof that we have an unanswerable demonstration4 ,for ourselves1 we are convinced1 with ,neitzsch1 that the ,ontological proof is first and last2 they who seek to invalidate this cut the ground from under all the rest4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,herschel's ,outlines of ,astronomy1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #aag3 ,north ,american ,review1 ,october1 #ahfd1 p4 #dbh4 ,footnote #aah3 ,by finite we generally mean that which is within reach1 or may be brought within reach of our senses4444 ,the powers1 therefore1 of our senses and mind place the limit to the finite1 but those magnitudes which severally transcend these limits1 by reason of their being too great or too small1 we call infinite and infinitesimal4--,price1 ,infinitesimal ,calculus1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ab1 #ac4 ,footnote #aai3 ,martineau1 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #abj3 ,hamilton1 ,metaphysics1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eci4 ,footnote #aba3 ,argyll1 ,reign of ,law1 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #abb3 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #abc3 ,lectures1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djf4 ,footnote #abd3 ,prolegomena1 p4 #bfg-bfi4 ,footnote #abe3 ,see ,locke's ,human ,understanding1 bk4 iv4 ch4 x41 where a similar line of argument is pursued4 ,footnote #abf3 ,schellen1 ,spectrum ,analysis1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #abg3 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,natural ,philosophy1 #bh4 ,footnote #abh3 ,on ,molecules1 ,lecture at the ,british ,association at ,bradford1 in ,nature1 vol4 viii4 p4 #dda4 ,footnote #abi3 ,god is not merely spirit1 but ,he has upon ,himself a realistic nature4 ,god did not create the world out of an absolute nothing4 ,the something out of which ,god created it are his eternal potentialities--not merely logical 7merely conceived by ,god71 but at the same time also physical 7essentially in ,god existing7 potentialities4 ,in these ,god possesses both the something out of which ,he makes the world1 and also the forces1 instruments1 and means by which ,he produces it4 ,in this sense it is literally true3 ,all things are of ,god 7,rom4 xi4 #cc74 ,this admission of a supramaterial physis in ,god--this spiritual realism--furnishes not only an escape from the errors of a lifeless materialism and of an abstract spiritualism1 but is the synthesis of the partial truth that is in both4--,bibliotheca ,sacra1 ,january1 #ahgc1 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #acj3 ,lange's ,commentary1 ,preliminary ,essay1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #aca3 ,see ,whewell's ,history of ,scientific ,ideas1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #acb3 ,ch4 ,,xxxiv4 ,footnote #acc3 ,whewell's ,history of ,inductive ,sciences1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eic4 ,footnote #acd3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ace3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #acf3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #acg3 ,inaugural ,address before the ,british ,association of ,science1 in ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #ach3 ,positive ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #aci3 ,philosophy of ,aristotle1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #adj3 ,prof4 ,p4 ,g4 ,tait1 ,m4,a41 opening ,address at the ,edinburgh ,meeting of the ,british ,association of ,science1 in ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bga4 ,see also ,prof4 ,maxwell's ,address at the ,liverpool ,meeting1 in ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #ada3 ,miller's ,testimony of the ,rocks1 p4 #bba4 ,footnote #adb3 ,sir ,william ,thomson supposes that temperature to have been at least #gjjj ,fahr4 ,see ,thomson and ,tait's ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gaf4 ,footnote #adc3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #add3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gad4 ,winchell1 ,sketches of ,creation1 p4 #djg4 ,footnote #ade3 ,mayer1 ,celestial ,dynamics3 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #cae4 ,the palobotanist ,heer has described many species of tropical plants from ,greenland1 ,alaska1 and ,spitzbergen4 ,footnote #adf3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gad4 ,observations on over forty artesian wells in ,central ,alabama show an average increase of temperature of #a for every #dg feet of descent4--,dr4 ,winchell1 in ,proceedings of ,american ,association1 part ii4 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #adg3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gad4 ,footnote #adh3 ,pouillet estimates that the heat which reaches the surface of the earth from its interior at #bjj cubic miles per diem4 ,a cubic mile is the quantity of heat necessary to raise a cubic mile of water #a ,centigrade in temperature4 ,footnote #adi3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gaf4 ,footnote #aej3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #gba4 ,footnote #aea3 ,see ,winchell's ,sketches of ,creation1 chap4 xxxvi4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,proctor1 ,other ,worlds than ,ours1 p4 #aic4 ,more likely these have been totally absorbed by the lunar rocks4--,dr4 ,winchell4 ,footnote #aec3 ,correlation and ,conservation of forces1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #aed3 ,north ,american ,review1 ,oct41 #ahfa1 pp4 #cgb-c4 ,footnote #aee3 ,mitchell's ,planetary and ,stellar ,worlds1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #aef3 ,tyndall1 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,quoted by ,mayer1 ,celestial ,dynamics3 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,outlines of ,astronomy1 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #aei3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #afj3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aia4 ,balfour ,stewart1 ,treatise on ,heat1 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #afa3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aid2 also ,helmholtz1 in ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #afb3 ,winchell1 ,sketches of ,creation1 p4 #dbb4 ,if the whole solar radiation were employed in dissolving a layer of ice inclosing the sun1 it would dissolve a stratum ten miles and a half thick in one day4 ,footnote #afc3 ,helmholtz1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #afd3 ,energy is now defined as the power of doing work1 that is1 the power1 in virtue of its position 7as a head of water1 a raised mass1 a coiled spring7 or in virtue of its motion 7as a falling mass1 a current of wind1 a projectile71 to do work4 ,the first is called ,potential1 the second ,kinetic ,energy4 ,besides these instances of ,visible ,energy1 there is also ,invisible ,molecular ,energy1 divided into1 7a7 the ,energy of electricity in motion2 7b7 the ,energy of radiant heat and light2 7c7 the kinetic ,energy of absorbed heat2 7d7 molecular potential ,energy2 7e7 potential ,energy caused by electrical separation2 7f7 potential ,energy caused by chemical separation4 ,of these different kinds of ,energy1 the most available for work is ,mechanical ,energy1 or ,energy of visible motions and positions2 the least available is universal heat1 or radiant ,energy4 ,footnote #afe3 ,see article ,energy1 in ,north ,british ,review1 ,may1 #ahfd1 and ,balfour ,stewart's ,treatise on ,heat1 p4 #cgj4 ,footnote #aff3 ,stewart's ,elements of ,physics1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #afg3 ,die ,naturkrfte in ihrer ,wechselbeziehung1 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #afh3 ,correlation of ,physical ,forces1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #afi3 ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,july1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #agj3 ,argyll1 ,reign of ,law1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #aga3 ,sir ,isaac ,newton entertained a similar opinion4 ,we may be able1 he said1 to form some rude conception of the creation of matter1 if we suppose that ,god by his power had prevented the entrance of any thing into a certain portion of pure space which is of its nature penetrable1444 from henceforward this portion of space will be endowed with impenetrability1 one of the essential qualities of matter2 and as pure space is absolutely uniform1 we have only to suppose that ,god communicated the same impenetrability to another portion of space1 and we should obtain in a certain sort the notion of mobility1 another quality which is essential to matter4--,m4 ,coste1 ,note in the #dth ,edition of his ,french ,translation of ,locke's ,essay4 7,m4 ,coste reports the above from ,newton's lips47 ,footnote #agb3 ,prof4 ,maxwell1 in ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bai4 ,footnote #agc3 ,m4 ,claude ,bernard1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahfg4 ,footnote #agd3 ,dissertation on the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy1 #bh4 ,footnote #age3 ,prof4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,lecture delivered before the ,british ,association at ,bradford1 in ,nature1 vol4 viii4 p4 #dda4 ,footnote #agf3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #agg3 ,logic1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebg1 #dth edition4 ,footnote #agh3 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ajg-h4 ,footnote #agi3 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #aha3 ,see ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,that man is the final end of the material creation is a principle recognized by scientific men4 ,the aim of the ,creator in forming the earth1 in allowing it to undergo the successive changes which geology has pointed out1 and in creating successively all the different types of animals1 was to introduce man upon the earth4 ,man is the end toward which all the animal creation has tended from the appearance of the ,palozoic fishes4--,agassiz and ,gould1 ,principles of ,zoology1 p4 #bch4 ,see ,dr4 ,winchell's ,sketches of ,creation1 pp4 #cgc1 #cgd2 ,owen's ,anatomy of the ,vertebrates1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #gif1 #hjh4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,argyll1 ,reign of ,law1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,mller's ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,argyll1 ,reign of ,law1 p4 #bai4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,g4 ,warrington1 ,the ,week of ,creation1 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,rorison1 ,creative ,week1 in ,replies to ,essays and ,reviews4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,dr4 ,whedon1 in ,methodist ,quarterly ,review1 ,july1 #ahfb1 p4 #ebh4 ,footnote #aij3 ,see ,creative ,week1 by ,rorison1 in ,replies to ,essays and ,reviews4 ,footnote #aia3 ,the waters of verse #b is quite another thing than the water proper of the third creative day3 it is the fluid 7or gaseous7 form of the earth itself in its first condition4--,lange4 ,footnote #aib3 ,we must beware of thinking of a mass of elementary water4444 ,here is meant the gaseous fluid as it forms a unity with the air4--,lange1 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #aic3 soul of life4--,lange4 ,footnote #aid3 ,whedon4 ,footnote #aie3 ,hence 1 time1 or the all of time1 is used to express the all of the finite1 the universe4 ,see ,heb4 i4 #b1 xi4 #c1 where is equivalent to universe4 ,footnote #aif3 ,see ,special ,introduction by ,prof4 ,t4 ,lewis1 in ,lange's ,commentary4 ,footnote #aig3 ,lange's ,commentary on ,genesis1 ,introduction1 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #aih3 ,in a conversation held some years ago by the author 7,sir ,j4 ,herschel7 with his lamented friend1 ,dr4 ,hawtrey1 ,head-,master and late ,provost of ,eton ,college1 on the subject of ,etymology1 ,i happened to remark that the syllable ,ur or ,or must have some very remote origin1 having found its way into many languages1 conveying the idea of something absolute1 solemn1 definite1 fundamental1 or of unknown antiquity1 as in the ,german ,ur-alt 7primeval71 ,ur-satz 7a fundamental proposition71 ,ur-theil 7a solemn judgment7--in the ,latin ,oriri 7to arise71 ,origo 7the origin71 ,aurora 7the dawn7--in the ,greek 7a boundary1 the extreme limit of our vision1 whence our horizon71 7an oath or solemn obligation1 etc474 ',you are right1' was his reply1 'it is the oldest word of all words3 the first word ever recorded to have been pronounced4 ,it is the ,hebrew for ,light' 71 ,,aor74--,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects1 p4 #bai4 ,footnote #aii3 ,see ,week of ,creation1 by ,geo4 ,warrington1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,the critical reader will discover a slight difference of opinion between ,dr4 ,winchell and myself in regard to how much of chapter i4 is to be regarded as the ,exordium of the ,hymn of ,creation4 ,dr4 ,winchell includes verses #a and #b2 ,i incline1 however1 to the opinion that it is embraced in verse #a4 ,the reasons which weigh with me are the following3 #a4 ,the chaos or the darkness of verse #b is clearly recognized as the evening of the first day1 ,and ,god called the light ,day1 and the darkness ,he called ,night2 and there was evening and morning3 one day4 ,i do not see how on a fair interpretation of the sacred poem we can escape the conclusion that the first day embraces the evening and morning--that is1 the primal darkness of verse #b1 and the creation of dawning light4 ,this conception furthermore harmonizes with the ,hebrew usage1 which always regarded the preceding night as part of the one natural day4 ,the ,hebrew ,sabbath commenced at six o'clock on ,friday evening4 ,thus we read in ,leviticus xxiii4 #cb1 ,from even to even shall ye celebrate your ,sabbath4 ,hence also the evening--morning day 7-7--of ,daniel viii4 #ad4 #b4 ,the division ,i have made is the one which has been followed by the best ,hebrew scholars1 whose opinion is entitled to the highest deference in this connection4 ,the independent character of the opening sentence of ,genesis was affirmed by such judicious and learned men as ,calvin1 ,bishop ,patrick1 and ,dr4 ,d4 ,jennings4 ,the early fathers of the ,church1 as ,st4 ,gregory of ,nazianzen1 ,st4 ,justin ,martyr1 ,origen1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and others1 held that there was a considerable interval between the creation related in the first verse1 and that of which an account is given in the third and following verses4 ,see ,the ,pre-,adamite ,earth1 by ,dr4 ,harris1 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #bja3 ,breman ,lectures1 ,m4 ,fuchs ,on ,miracles1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,see ante1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,lange1 in loco4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,faraday4 ,footnote #bje3 ,three direct acts of the ,deity may be recognized1 viz41 the creation of matter1 of life1 and of mind4--,prof4 ,hinrich1 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 xxxix4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,see ,m4 ,claude ,bernard1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,december #ae1 #ahfg2 ,prof4 ,norton1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,july1 #ahfd2 ,cooke1 ,religion and ,chemistry1 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,north ,british ,review1 ,march1 #ahfh1 p4 #abg4 ,this is the doctrine of the first physicists of the age1 of ,sir ,william ,thomson 7see ,nature1 vol4 i4 p4 #eea2 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba2 and especially vol4 iv4 pp4 #bfe-f71 of ,prof4 ,maxwell 7see ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba71 of ,prof4 ,tait 7see ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bga71 also of ,clausius and ,rankine4 ,see also ,prof4 ,hinrich1 ,on ,planetology1 in ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xxxix4 p4 #bhc2 and ,prof4 ,norton1 ,on ,molecular and ,cosmical ,physics1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xlix4 pp4 #bd1 #cc4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,cooke's ,religion and ,chemistry1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #bji3 ,north ,british ,review1 ,march1 #ahfh1 p4 #abg2 also ,prof4 ,tait1 in ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #baj3 ,see ,beale1 ,protoplasm1 pp4 #fi-ga1 #hh1 #ajh2 ,carpenter1 ,human ,physiology1 pp4 #df1 #hfe-f4 ,footnote #baa3 ,beale1 ,protoplasm1 pp4 #fg-h4 ,footnote #bab3 ,see ,agassiz's ,methods of ,study in ,natural ,history1 p4 #bhg2 also ,grindon1 ,life1 its ,nature1 etc41 pp4 #ahi-aij4 ,footnote #bac3 ,cuvier1 ,animal ,kingdom1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #bad3 ,methodist ,quarterly ,review1 ,january1 #ahfg1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #bae3 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #bah2 ,outlines of ,astronomy1 #eii2 ,north ,british ,review1 #ahfh1 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #baf3 ,dr4 ,winchell1 ,sketches of ,creation1 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 ,footnote #bag3 ,dr4 ,winchell1 ,sketches of ,creation1 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #bah3 ,dana1 ,geology1 pp4 #gde1 #gdf4 ,footnote #bai3 ,the theory of ,divine superintendence and control falls very little1 if any thing1 short of the ever-present and pervading energy which we advocate4 ,at least1 the arguments which would establish such a relation of the ,deity to the material universe as amounts to superintendence and control1 would go far to establish the doctrine of a real presence and agency of ,god pervading and upholding all nature4 ,superintendence and control imply some agency1 some efficiency1 and some intervention of righteousness or mercy to secure other ends than those secured by the established course of nature1 for whoever overrules steps on a field beyond his ordinary rule4 ,the physical laws are1 therefore1 simply ,god's uniform mode of governing the world4 ,this is the conclusion which is reached by ,proctor 7,other ,worlds than ,ours74 ,in his chapter on ,supervision and ,control 7ch4 xiii471 he says3 ,thus we are led to the conclusion that all things happen according to set physical laws2 and without1 by any means1 adopting the view that the ,almighty exercises no special control over his universe1 we see strong reason to believe that the laws which ,he has assigned to it are sufficient for the control of all things4 ,indeed1 as far as all things take place in accordance with laws which the ,almighty must assuredly have ,himself ordained1 we may say that every event which has happened or will happen throughout infinite time is the direct work and indicates the direct purpose and will of ,almighty ,god 7pp4 #cbi1 #ccb72 and further1 ,he who made the laws may annul or suspend them at his pleasure 7p4 #ccc74 ,footnote #bbj3 ,st4 ,augustine's ,de ,civitate ,dei1 xii4 #be1 #bf2 ,neander's ,church ,history1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fje2 ,nitzsch1 ,system of ,christian ,doctrine1 p4 #aic2 ,mller's ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdh2 ,harris's ,pre-,adamite ,earth1 p4 #ajc2 ,young's ,creator and ,creation1 pp4 #eg1 #eh2 ,chalmers's ,astronomical ,discourses1 ,dis4 iii4 pp4 #ia1 #ih4 ,footnote #bba3 ,de ,civitate ,dei1 xii4 #be2 xiii4 #bf4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,contra ,gentiles1 ii4 #ch4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,summa ,universalis1 pt4 i4 q4 #aje1 art4 #e4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,evidences of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion1 ,prop4 xiv4 ,dugald ,stewart1 after quoting the above1 adds1 ,my opinion on this subject coincides with that of ,dr4 ,clarke 7,philosophy of the ,active and ,moral ,powers of ,man1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bi74 ,footnote #bbe3 ,sermons1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #agh1 #agi4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,thomson's ,seasons4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,holyoake1 ,discussion with ,townley1 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,croonian ,lecture1 ,on ,matter and ,force1 p4 #id4 ,is it not significant that ,dr4 ,jones must write his ,first ,cause without the initial capitals8 ,footnote #bbi3 ,powell1 ,essays and ,reviews1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,powell1 ,christianity and ,judaism1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #bca3 ,dr4 ,harris1 ,pre-,adamite ,earth1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,amos i4 #b4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,hedge1 ,reason and ,religion1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,essays and ,reviews1 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #bce3 ,mc,cosh1 ,intuitions1 p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,logic1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aag1 #aah4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,hamilton's ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #bch3 ,whewell1 ,novum ,organon ,renovatum1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #bci3 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 pp4 #bah1 #bhd1 #adj4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,physiological ,anatomy1 by ,todd1 ,bowman1 and ,beale1 p4 #ai2 ,nicholson's ,biology1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #bda3 ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dcc1 #dcd4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,argyll1 ,reign of ,law1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbe4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,beale1 ,protoplasm1 pp4 #ci1 #db1 #aji4 ,footnote #bde3 ,beale1 ,protoplasm1 pp4 #ajd1 #aag2 ,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bbb1 #bbd2 ,liebig1 ,organic ,chemistry1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,by ,energy we understand the power of doing work1 or overcoming resistance1 which in nature is something perfectly intelligible and measurable1 equivalent in all cases to the product of the mass into the square of the velocity4 ,by ,force we understand that which originates motion4 ,all the forms of ,energy have therefore their origin in ,force1 and ,force has its origin in the ,will of the ,deity4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,quoted from ,positive ,philosophy1 by ,dr4 ,mc,cosh1 ,divine ,government1 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,science has been defined as the knowledge of these deviations from the great laws of nature formularized in contingent or derivative laws4--,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 p4 #bba4 ,footnote #bej3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #bea3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #beb3 ,montesquieu1 ,spirit of ,laws1 bk4 i4 ch4 i4 ,footnote #bec3 ,herschel1 ,natural ,philosophy1 #bg4 ,footnote #bed3 ,astronomy and ,physics1 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #bee3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #afd2 ,mayer1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #cce4 ,footnote #bef3 ,stewart's ,physics1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #beg3 ,stewart's ,physics1 pp4 #aad1 #cec4 ,footnote #beh3 ,stewart's ,physics1 p4 #cef4 ,footnote #bei3 ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,professor ,charles ,brooke1 in ,nature1 vol4 vi4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects1 pp4 #dfi-dgb4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aij1 #aia4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,ibid4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,north ,british ,review1 vol4 xl4 pp4 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,helmholtz1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #bff3 ,this is the hypothesis of ,helmholtz1 ,mayer1 and ,thomson4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,tyndall1 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ca2 ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 i4 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,professor ,norton1 ,on ,molecular ,physics2 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 iii1 #c;d ,series1 pp4 #cbi-cca4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,tyndall1 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #bga3 ,principia1 ,def4 viii4 p4 #h4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,does every grain of salt and pepper in a million salt-cellars and pepper-casters individually and separately pull and actually move the sun and fixed stars8--,de ,morgan4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,north ,british ,review1 vol4 xlviii4 ,march1 #ahfh1 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,third ,letter to ,bentley4 ,footnote #bge3 ,nature1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ea2 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,nature1 vol4 i4 p4 #eea4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,delivered at the ,royal ,institution1 and reported in ,nature1 vol4 vii4 ,nos4 #agd1 #age4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,north ,british ,review1 vol4 xlviii4 ,march1 #ahfh2 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #cfh2 ,amer4 ,jour4 of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 xlix4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,north ,british ,review1 vol4 xlviii4 p4 #abg2 ,nature1 vol4 vii4 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #bha3 ,picton1 ,mystery of ,matter1 p4 #di4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,papers on ,electrostatics and ,magnetism1 p4 #dai4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,north ,british ,review1 vol4 xlviii4 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,we do not by any means assert that two substances can not occupy the same point in space at the same moment in time4 ,we accept the ,hegelian maxim that two substances may occupy the same point in space at the same time provided their qualities are essentially different4 ,if the qualities of the ether are essentially different from gross matter1 then to call ether matter is to confound and mislead the mind4 ,may not ether be a tertium quid between matter and mind8 ,footnote #bhf3 ,prof4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 in ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 in ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 in ,nature1 vol4 i4 p4 #eea4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #bij3 ,philosophical ,magazine1 #ahfh4 ,footnote #bia3 ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #bib3 ,nature1 vol4 viii4 p4 #bhj2 also ,challis1 ,principles of ,mathematics and ,physics1 pp4 #fhe-fhg4 ,footnote #bic3 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 xlix4 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 ,footnote #bid3 ,how gravitation may result from the interception of the ,cosmic ,force of ,repulsion is explained by ,prof4 ,norton at pp4 #bf-bh1 and still more fully in vol4 iii4 #c;d ,series1 ,may1 #ahgb1 pp4 #ccb1 #ccf4 ,footnote #bie3 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 xlix4 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #bif3 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 xlix4 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #big3 ,see vol4 i4 pp4 #bag-bhd4 ,footnote #bih3 ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #bii3 ,ibid4 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,ibid4 p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #cja3 ,ibid4 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bbc-d4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,todd1 ,bowman1 and ,beale1 ,physiological ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,man1 p4 #be4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #cje3 ,ibid4 p4 #h4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,ibid4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,ibid4 pp4 #f1 #g4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote #cji3 ,genesis of ,species1 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #caj3 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #caa3 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #cab3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #cac3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #cad3 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #d1 #g4 ,footnote #cae3 ,ibid4 p4 #h4 ,footnote #caf3 ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #cag3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 pp4 #cea1 #ceb4 ,footnote #cah3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 pp4 #df1 #dg4 ,footnote #cai3 ,ibid4 pp4 #ea1 #eb4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #g4 ,pantheism asserts the absolute ,,unity and permanence of ,,substance with its two attributes of matter and force7 extension and thought71 and their innumerable modifications which go to form all the phenomena of the universe4--,dr4 ,cohn4 ,under this definition1 ,mr4 ,murphy must be ranked a ,pantheist4 ,he knows but of ,,one ,,substance underlying all phenomena4 ,footnote #cba3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,ibid4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,ibid4 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,ibid4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,ibid4 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,intellectual ,system1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,tyndall1 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #cca3 ,unity of ,worlds1 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,tyndall4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,by the statical properties of matter we understand extension1 limit1 position1 impenetrability1 and inertia4 ,we have no idea that there is a vis inerti in matter4 ,vis inerti is a forceless force1 which is an absurdity4 ,inertness in matter is not a force1 but the opposite of a force--a passivity which requires a force in order to change4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,faraday1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #cfh4 ,footnote #cce3 ,clerk ,maxwell1 in ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba2 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,professor ,norton1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 ,july1 #ahfd1 p4 #fd2 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfg2 ,dr4 ,carpenter1 ,human ,physiology1 p4 #edb4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahfg4 ,footnote #cch3 ,anaxagoras4 ,footnote #cci3 ,dr4 ,carpenter1 in ,nature1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #cda3 ,for other illustrations1 see ,cooke's ,religion of ,chemistry1 pp4 #cbf-h2 ,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 pp4 #aaf1 #aag4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,dr4 ,cohn1 of the ,university of ,breslau1 in ,nature1 vol4 vii4 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,carpenter1 ,human ,physiology1 p4 #edb2 ,herschel1 ,outlines of ,astronomy1 pp4 #bcc1 #bcd2 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cfh2 ,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #ea2 ,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bbe1 #beh-i1 #cjd4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,first ,principles1 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #cde3 ,letter to the author4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,the distinction made by ,dr4 ,carpenter between molecular 7bioplasmic7 and somatic 7individual7 life is important3 molecular life is a cosmic force1 somatic life is an individualized force2 the former is the direct action of ,deity1 the second is the indwelling of a created but yet dependent spiritual entity in a vitalized organism4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,on the ,mutual ,relation of the ,vital and ,physical ,forces1 ,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahej1 p4 #gcj4 ,see also ,laycock1 ,mind and ,brain1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjd2 ,wallace1 in ,nature1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bhe4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,huxley1 ,introduction to the ,classification of ,animals4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #cej3 ,god in ,nature1 in ,old and ,new1 #ahgb1 p4 #afc4 ,footnote #cea3 ,methodist ,quarterly ,review1 ,july1 #ahga1 p4 #dii4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,all atomic forces are incessant forces that are made up of impulses which are renewed every instant4--,professor ,norton1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 iii4 #c;d ,series1 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #cec3 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 in ,nature1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #ced3 ,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 pp4 #ae1 #ah1 #aii4 ,see also the words of ,dr4 ,mayer in the same volume1 p4 #cda4 ,footnote #cee3 ,mr4 ,wallace1 the author of the theory of natural selection1 denies its applicability to man4 ,man is a being apart1 a being superior to nature4 ,he has not only escaped 'natural selection' himself1 but he is actually able to take away some of that power from nature which1 before his appearance1 she universally exercised 7,on ,natural ,selection1 pp4 #cbe1 #cbf74 ,see also ,lubbock's ,prehistoric ,times1 last chapter4 ,footnote #cef3 ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,laurent1 tudes sur l',histoire de l',humanit1 vol4 v4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,cousin1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #cei3 ,nichomachean ,ethics1 bk4 i4 ch4 ii4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,ibid4 bk4 i4 ch4 x4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,ibid4 bk4 x4 ch4 viii4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,nitzsch1 ,system of ,christian ,doctrine1 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,acts xvii4 #be-bh4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,laurent1 tudes sur l',histoire de l',humanit1 vol4 v4 p4 #ab4 ,not all the ,stoics seem to have understood this necessity in so rigorous a sense4 ,cleanthes would exempt the evil actions of men from necessity3 ,nothing takes place without ,thee1 ,o ,deity1 except that which bad men do through their own want of reason2 but even that which is evil is overruled by ,thee for good1 and is made to harmonize with the plan of the world4--,hymn to ,zeus4 ,footnote #cff3 ,laurent1 tudes sur l',histoire de l',humanit1 vol4 v4 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,the statement of the text will remain unaffected by any theory as to the derivation of the material organism of the primitive man4 ,if the hypothesis be true that man is the descendant of some pre-existent generic type1 the which1 if it were now living1 we would probably call an ape1 this can only be affirmed of the body of man1 and the statement is still correct that ,god formed man of the dust of the earth4 ,the body of the ape and the body of man are formed of the same materials4 ,but1 as ,prof4 ,cope1 a thorough-going ,evolutionist1 remarks1 this material nature can not bear or be the image of ,god1 for ,god is a spirit1 and a spirit hath not flesh and bones 7,luke xxiv4 #ci74 ,the image of ,god must inhere in that spiritual nature which was inbreathed by ,god1 and consists in reason1 conscience1 and moral liberty4 7,see ,cope1 ,on the ,hypothesis of ,evolution1 pp4 #cc1 #cd47 ,this theory as to the descent of man's material organism from some pre-existent generic type does not by any means involve the conclusion of ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock that the primitive condition of mankind was one of utter barbarism4 ,we may grant that the primitive condition of man was one of childhood ignorance and inexperience1 a state in which his intellectual and moral nature was undeveloped2 but this is not ,savagism4 ,barbarism is the lapse and deterioration of man4 ,even if it could be shown that primeval man was destitute of the industrious arts1 it would not afford the slightest presumption that he was also ignorant of duty or ignorant of ,god 7,primeval ,man1 by the ,duke of ,argyll1 p4 #acb74 ,whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings1 we find it free from many blemishes that affect it in its later stages 7,max ,mller1 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 vol4 i41 preface74 ,the most ancient form of religion was the ,monotheistic 7,grimm1 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 p4 xliv4 #c;d ed474 ,see also ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gbj1 by ,m4 ,adolphe ,pictet4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,agassiz and ,gould's ,zoology1 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,on ,limbs1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,on the ,skeleton and ,teeth1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #cga3 ,anatomy of the ,vertebrates1 vol4 iii4 p4 #gif4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,the ,harmonies of ,nature1 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,hartwig1 pp4 #df1 #dg4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,typical ,forms and ,special ,ends1 ,r4 ,mc,cosh and ,dr4 ,dickie1 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #cge3 ,geographical ,studies1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,ritter1 ,geographical ,studies1 p4 #cad2 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,ritter1 ,geographical ,studies1 p4 #cd2 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,see ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 pp4 #bfh-bgj4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,cousin1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 pp4 #afi-agj4 ,footnote #chj3 ,adam and the ,adamites4 ,footnote #cha3 ,article ,ararat1 in ,smith's ,dictionary4 ,footnote #chb3 ,it is called in ,ptolemy ,naxuana1 and by ,moses ,chorenensis1 the ,armenian historian1 ,idsheuan1 but at the place itself ,nachidsheuan1 which signifies the first place of descent4 ,see ,whiston's note on p4 #hg1 vol4 i4 of ,josephus4 ,footnote #chc3 ,antiquities1 bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #e4 ,footnote #chd3 ,ibid4 bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #f4 ,scaliger was the first to draw the attention of scholars to the writings of ,berosus4 ,in his work ,de ,emendatione ,temporum he has collected his fragments1 and vindicated their authenticity4 ,berosus is always quoted with respect by ,english divines1 and ,niebuhr has sustained his claims to be regarded as a reliable authority4 ,in more than one place he speaks of ,armenia as the resting-place of the ark4 ,see ,rawlinson's ,historical ,evidences1 p4 #fc1 and note liii4 ,footnote #che3 ,antiquities1 bk4 i4 chap1 iii4 #f4 ,footnote #chf3 ,for instance1 in the very second verse1 the great discovery of ,schlegel1 which the word ,indo-,european embodies--the affinity of the principal nations of ,europe with the ,arian or ,indo-,persic stock--is sufficiently indicated by the conjunction of the ,madai or ,medes 7whose native name is ,mada7 with ,gomer of the ,cymry1 and ,javan of the ,ionians4 ,again1 one of the most recent and unexpected results of modern linguistic inquiry is the proof which it has furnished of an ethnic connection between the ,ethiopians or ,cushites1 who adjoined on ,egypt1 and the primitive inhabitants of ,babylonia2 a connection which was positively denied by an eminent ethnologist only a few years ago1 but which has now been sufficiently established from the cuneiform monuments4 ,in the tenth chapter of ,genesis 7vers4 #h-aj7 we find this truth thus briefly stated3 ',and ,cush begat ,nimrod1' the 'beginning of whose kingdom was ,babel' 7ver4 #aa74 ,so we have had it recently made evident from the same monuments that 'out of that land went forth ,asshur1 and builded ,nineveh'--or that the ,semitic ,assyrians proceeded from ,babylonia and founded ,nineveh long after the ,cushite foundation of ,babylon4 ,again1 the ,hamitic descent of the early inhabitants of ,canaan1 which had often been called in question1 has recently come to be looked upon as almost certain1 apart from the evidence of ,scripture2 and the double mention of ,sheba1 both among the sons of ,ham1 and also among those of ,shem 7vers4 #g and #bh71 has been illustrated by the discovery that there are two races of ,arabs--one 7the ,joktanian7 ,semitic1 the other 7the ,himyaric7 ,cushite or ,ethiopic4--,rawlinson's ,historical ,evidences1 pp4 #ga1 #gb4 ,footnote #chg3 ,asiatic ,society's ,journal1 vol4 xv4 ,footnote #chh3 ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 vol4 i4 p4 #ebc4 ,footnote #chi3 ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdh4 ,footnote #cij3 ,article ,botany1 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 vol4 v42 also ,geographical ,botany2 and ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #cia3 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #cib3 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 pp4 #bfd1 #bfe2 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 pp4 #cbd-f2 ,martineau1 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #cic3 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #cid3 ,see ,article ,philosophy1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,see also ,shairp1 ,culture and ,religion1 pp4 #dj-df4 ,footnote #cie3 ,palestine was from the beginning an isolated land1 as ,israel was an isolated people1 and therefore for thousands of years both have been unintelligible to the world at large4 ,no great highway led through ,palestine from people to people2 all passed by it1 and not over it2 all its coast was without favorable harbors4 ,no one of the pagan states of antiquity could come into close geographical1 mercantile1 political1 and religious relations with a people existing under the sway of ,jehovah4--,ritter1 ,geographical ,studies1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #cif3 ,article ,philosophy1 in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,footnote #cig3 ,ritter1 ,geographical ,studies1 pp4 #cdb1 #cdc4 ,footnote #cih3 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #cii3 ,the conjugal tie was held sacred1 and polygamy prohibited4--,de ,pressens1 ,religions before ,christ1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #djj3 ,merivale1 ,conversion of the ,roman ,empire1 p4 #ib4 ,footnote #dja3 ,god1 said ,plato1 is supremely good 7,republic1 book ii4 ch4 #ah72 and virtue is likeness or assimilation to ,god 7,thetetus1 #chd74 ,footnote #djb3 ,milman1 ,latin ,christianity1 vol4 i4 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #djc3 ,guyot1 ,earth and ,man1 p4 #cbb4 ,footnote #djd3 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cbf4 ,footnote #dje3 ,first ,principles1 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #djf3 ,ibid4 p4 #dif4 ,footnote #djg3 ,buchanan1 ,modern ,atheism1 p4 #bhe4 ,footnote #djh3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #dji3 ,first ,principles1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #daj3 ,without referring to the writings of theologians1 we may take any definition of religion which incidentally occurs in general literature4 ,for example1 ,froude defines religion as the attitude of reverence in which noble-minded men instinctively place themselves toward the ,unknown ,power which made man and his dwelling-place4 ,it is the natural accompaniment of their lives1 the sanctification of their actions and their acquirements4 ,it is what gives to man in the midst of the rest of ,creation his special elevation and dignity 7,history of ,england1 vol4 xii4 p4 #efj74 ,footnote #daa3 ,essays1 #ast ,series1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #dab3 ,preface to the seventh edition of the ,address before the ,british ,association of ,science at ,belfast4 ,footnote #dac3 ,preface to the seventh edition of the ,address before the ,british ,association of ,science at ,belfast4 ,footnote #dad3 ,dr4 ,tyndall subsequently defends his course by saying1 ,the kingdom of science cometh not by observation and experiment alone1 but is completed by fixing the roots of observation and experiment in a region inaccessible to both1 and in dealing with which we are forced to fall back upon the picturing power of the mind--,einbildungskraft--the force of imagination 7,preface to seventh edition74 ,are we then to believe that the imagination is the source of scientific principles1 that it has any power of intuition1 or can in any way create its own objects8 ,why does he not fall back on his ,anschauungsgabe1 or faculty of rational intuition1 and admit that he is in the region of the metaphysical8 ,see ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #dae3 1 xxxi4 ,footnote #daf3 ,this is admitted even by those who regard prayer for physical change1 as1 for example1 the averting of disease or the fall of rain1 to be irrational and unconsciously irreverent4 ,i repeat that no theory of the universe1 no philosophy of human nature1 and no conclusion of science can ever lay an arrest upon the instincts of the universal heart in the presence of calamity1 and with the prospect of its increase4 ,let men philosophize as they will1 and let science march where it will 7conquering realm after realm1 and reducing all under the rigor of law71 the human spirit will always 'cry unto ,god' in times of crisis1 and will find immeasurable solace in 'committing its causes' unto ,him2 for the instinct to pray for relief in times of anxiety or of peril is one which can never be exorcised from the heart of man4 ,but it does not follow that it will always 7or that it ought ever7 to imagine that by so doing it can deflect the order of nature or induce ,god to alter his prearrangements4 ,the relief obtained is in the act of submission and of filial trust1 not in the notion of being able to persuade an infinitely powerful and sympathetic ,listener 7,prayer3 ',the ,two ,spheres3' ,they are ,two1 by the ,rev4 ,william ,knight1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,december1 #ahgc1 p4 #ce74 ,of course we have no reason to expect that ,dr4 ,tyndall should yield his judgment to the authority of ,scripture1 but we may legitimately expect the ,rev4 ,william ,knight1 of the ,free ,church of ,scotland1 to defer in some measure to ,james v4 #ac-ah4 ,footnote #dag3 ,preface to the seventh edition of ,dr4 ,tyndall's ,address4 ,footnote #dah3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #dai3 ,when ten men are so in earnest on one side that they will sooner be killed than give way1 and twenty are earnest enough on the other to cast their votes for it but will not risk their skins1 the ten will give the law to the twenty in virtue of the robuster faith1 and of the strength that goes along with it4--,froude1 ,history of ,england1 vol4 xii4 p4 #efb4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #cej4 ,footnote #dba3 ,only in the domain of ,freedom can there exist the moral4--,martensen1 ,christian ,ethics1 p4 #a4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,questions such as these derive their present interest in great part from their audacity4--,tyndall4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,see ,fragments of ,science1 pp4 #ch and #fd-fe4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,contemporary ,review1 ,december1 #ahgc1 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,tyndall1 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,preface to the ,address before the ,british ,association of ,science at ,belfast4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,preface to the seventh edition4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,contemporary ,review4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,mansel1 ,prolegomena ,logica1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #dca3 ,history of ,civilization4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,comte1 ,positive ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #de4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,no record of coincidences can prove a causal connection1 or even suggest it--unless the instances are exceptionally numerous1 and unless other causes leading to the result are excluded by the rigid methods of verification4--,prayer3 ',the ,two ,spheres3' ,they are ,two1,contemporary ,review1 ,dec41 #ahgc1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,see pp4 #chf-g4 ,footnote #dce3 ,dr4 ,tuke1 ,influence of the ,mind on the ,body in ,health and ,disease1 p4 #cea4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,fragments of ,science1 pp4 #cf-ci4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #dj3 ,the assumed permanence of natural laws4 ,footnote #dch3 ,ibid41 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #dci3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #dda3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,ibid4 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,on the ,relation of ,god to the ,world1 pp4 #ahg-bja4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,see ,coleridge1 ,works1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aeb1 #bfc2 ,hamilton1 ,metaphysics1 vol4 i4 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #dde3 ,fleming1 ,vocabulary of ,philosophy1 in loco4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,see ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddj2 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,carpenter1 ,mental ,physiology1 p4 #fib2 see ,lewes1 ,problems of ,life and ,mind1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccf4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,essential properties are those which admit neither of intension nor remission of degrees4--,newton1 ,regula ,tertia ,philosophandi1 ,principia1 lib4 iii ,footnote #ddi3 ,maxwell1 ,theory of ,heat1 p4 #caj2 and also in ,nature1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #dej3 ,by causes is here meant nothing more than all the antecedent conditions4 ,the statement makes no real distinction between causes and conditions4 ,we can not predicate of any physical agency that it is abstractedly the cause of another4 ,causation is the will of ,god4--,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 pp4 #ae1 #aii4 ,footnote #dea3 ,see ,murphy1 ,habit and ,intelligence1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aeg2 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 pp4 #ge1 #gf2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 ,logic1 vol4 ii4 ch4 xxii4 #a4 ,footnote #deb3 ,logic1 bk4 iii4 ch4 xvi4 ,see also ,mc,cosh1 ,intuitions1 pp4 #bge-g4 ,footnote #dec3 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #ded3 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfe4 ,footnote #dee3 ,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 pp4 #hj and #di-ea2 ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dch4 ,footnote #def3 ,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #deg3 ,first ,principles1 chs4 xiii4 and xiv4 ,footnote #deh3 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #dei3 ,positive ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aec-aef4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,there is one wonderful condition of matter1 perhaps its only true indication1 namely1 inertia4--,faraday1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #cfh2 ,maxwell1 ,theory of ,heat1 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,stewart1 ,physics1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,ibid4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #dff3 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #dbj4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,nature1 vol4 viii4 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,nature1 vol4 vi4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #dga3 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfi4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,maxwell1 ,theory of ,heat1 p4 #ib4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,challis's ,mathematical ,principles of ,physics1 p4 #ajg2 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #dge3 ,it is pretty much the same to the greater number even of the instructed hearers whether a man of science say ',i know' or ',i suppose2' they only ask after the result and the authority by which it is supported1 not the grounds of the doubts4 ,it is thus not to be wondered at if earnest investigators do not willingly shock the confidence of their readers in what the former may think true and demonstrable by the enumeration of ideas of the correctness of which they do not feel themselves quite secure4--,helmholtz1 ,on ,john ,tyndall1 in ,nature1 vol4 x4 p4 #cja4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,jevons1 ,principles of ,science1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dff4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,ibid4 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,marsh1 ,man and ,nature1 chs4 i4 and iii42 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 pp4 #gac-gag4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 pp4 #cbd-cbf2 ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 pp4 #fha-fhh1 #egi-eij4 ,footnote #dha3 ,fragments of ,science1 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,contemporary ,review1 ,july1 #ahgb4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,grove1 ,correlation and ,conservation of ,forces1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,spencer1 ,first ,principles1 pp4 #bce1 #beb4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,challis1 ,mathematical ,principles of ,physics1 p4 #fha4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,carpenter1 ,mental ,physiology1 p4 #gjc4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,whewell1 ,astronomy and ,physics1 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #dij3 #a ,cor4 xii4 #f4 ,footnote #dia3 truly feel or touch ,him4 ,footnote #dib3 ,see ,ritter1 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #dic3 ,memorabilia1 bk4 i4 ch4 iv4 ,footnote #did3 ,timus1 ch4 viii42 also ,second ,alcibiades1 which is a discourse on prayer4 ,footnote #die3 ,laws1 bk4 v4 ch4 i42 bk4 x4 ch4 xii42 ,thestetes1 #hc4 ,footnote #dif3 ,apology1 #ai4 ,footnote #dig3 ,philebus1 #hd4 ,footnote #dih3 #a ,cor4 viii4 #f4 ,footnote #dii3 ,eph4 iv4 #f4 ,footnote #ejj3 #a ,cor4 xii4 #f4 ,footnote #eja3 ,without ,god there is no great man4 ,it is ,he who inspires us with great ideas and exalted designs4 ,when you see a man superior to his passions1 happy in adversity1 calm amid surrounding storms1 can you forbear to confess that these qualities are too exalted to have their origin in the little individual whom they ornament8 ,a god inhabits every virtuous man1 and without ,god there is no virtue4--,seneca1 ,epistles1 #da1 #gc4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,see ,creator and the ,creation1 by ,dr4 ,young1 pp4 #eg1 #eh4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,see ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,some theologians affirm that this image of ,god was utterly and totally lost in the fall4 ,such an unqualified statement does not1 however1 seem warranted by ,scripture4 ,after the fall1 the sanctity of human life is still grounded upon the fact that man is made in the image of ,god 7,gen4 ix4 #f71 and ,paul affirms of man1 as man1 that he is the image and glory of ,god 7#a ,cor4 xi4 #g74 ,footnote #eje3 ,history of ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,see ,psa4 viii4 #f2 #a ,cor4 xi4 #g2 ,col4 iii4 #aj2 ,eph4 iv4 #bd4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,see ,dr4 ,young's ,christ of ,history1 pp4 #acf-ach4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,butler's ,analogy1 pt4 i4 ch4 iii4 ,footnote #eji3 ,reign of ,law1 by the ,duke of ,argyll1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,nature1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,coleridge's ,works1 vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #eab3 ,cousin1 ,true1 ,beautiful1 and ,good1 pp4 #bhg-bhi4 ,footnote #eac3 ,sewell's ,christian ,morals1 p4 #cci4 ,footnote #ead3 ,r4 ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,footnote #eae3 ,dr4 ,thomas ,brown4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,r4 ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,footnote #eag3 ,sophocles1 ,antigone1 v4 #dej-dfj4 ,footnote #eah3 ,quoted by ,dr4 ,brown from ,lucani ,pharsalia1 bk4 ix4 ,footnote #eai3 ,fiji and the ,fijians1 by ,williams and ,calvert1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa1 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #eba3 ,chalmers's ,institutes of ,theology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,the ,creator and the ,creation1 by ,john ,young4 ,,ll4,d41 pp4 #aja-b4 ,see also ,man ,primeval1 by ,dr4 ,harris1 p4 #aji2 ,hamilton's ,revealed ,doctrine of ,rewards and ,punishments1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,true1 ,beautiful1 and ,good1 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,hand-book of ,moral ,philosophy1 p4 #ahd4 ,see also ,cairns's ,treatise on ,moral ,freedom1 p4 #bbb2 and ,hazard on ,causation and ,freedom in ,willing1 p4 #g2 ,dr4 ,alexander1 ,outlines of ,moral ,science1 p4 #abe3 ,sir ,john ,herschel's ,familiar ,lectures on ,science1 p4 #dfa2 ,carpenter's ,human ,physiology1 p4 #edc2 ,wallace1 ,on ,natural ,selection1 p4 #cfg2 ,beale's ,protoplasm1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,prolegomena ,logica1 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,lectures on ,metaphysics1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgc2 also ,porter's ,human ,intellect1 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,quoted by ,hamilton in ,notes on ,reid1 p4 #faf4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,discussions1 p4 #ehg4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,the feeling of responsibility is unmeaning unless it presupposes the reality of freedom4--,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #he4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,the miraculous interpositions recorded in the ,scriptures are not inconsistent with this fundamental axiom1 for they are effects of the will of ,god as the cause4--,mc,cosh1 ,divine ,government1 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #eca3 ,divine ,government1 p4 #eda4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,see ,mc,cosh's ,divine ,government1 p4 #aac1 and ,mill's ,logic1 p4 #aad1 vol4 ii41 ,english edition4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #ib4 ,every intelligent effort is an exercise of originating creative power which makes the future different from what it would have been but for the exercise of this power4--,hazard1 ,on ,causation1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #ece3 ,philosophy1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,philosophy1 p4 #ejh4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,prolegomena ,logica1 ,app41 note ,c4 ,footnote #ech3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #eci3 ,ibid41 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #edj3 ,see ,calderwood's ,hand-book of ,moral ,philosophy1 pp4 #aif1 #aig4 ,footnote #eda3 ,mller's ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #edb3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #edc3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #edd3 ,ibid41 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #ede3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #edf3 ,intuition1 etc41 p4 #dgb4 ,footnote #edg3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #edh3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #edi3 ,so long as there are fluctuations at all1 even though they be of infinitesimal magnitude as compared with the total1 statistical regularity does not exclude all room for freedom4--,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #eej3 ,prolegomena ,logica1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #eea3 ,on self-limitation of the ,divine will1 see ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bjh-bab4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,this is unquestionably the doctrine of ,scripture1 ,whom ,he foreknew1 them also ,he did predestinate4 ,footnote #eec3 ,bushnell1 ,nature and the ,supernatural1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #eed3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #bgc2 ,mller1 ,christian ,doctrine of ,sin1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bcf-bdg4 ,footnote #eee3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #eef3 ,bushnell1 ,nature and the ,supernatural1 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,ibid41 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,luke xii4 #dg1 #dh4 ,footnote #eei3 ,matt4 xi4 #ba-bd4 ,footnote #efj3 ,whedon1 ,freedom of the ,will1 pp4 #cee-ceg4 ,footnote #efa3 ,hamilton1 ,revealed ,doctrine of ,rewards and ,punishments1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #efb3 ,the formation of noble human characters is the highest work that man1 or1 so far as we know1 that ,god can be engaged in4--,murphy1 ,scientific ,basis of ,faith1 p4 #ci4 ,,valuable ,,and ,,interesting ,,works ,,for ,,public ,,private ,,libraries1 ,,published ,,by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,new ,,york4 ,for a full ,list of ,books suitable for ,libraries published by ,,harper ,,brothers1 see ,,harper',s ,,catalogue1 which may be had gratuitously on application to the publishers personally1 or by letter enclosing ,nine ,cents in ,postage stamps4 ,,harper ,,brothers will send their publications by mail1 postage prepaid1 on receipt of the price4 ,,macaulay',s ,,england4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 ,by ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay4 ,new ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e vols4 in a ,box1 #aj #jj per set4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,cheap ,edition1 #e vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej2 ,sheep1 #c #ge4 ,,macaulay',s ,,life ,,and ,,letters4 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,lord ,macaulay4 ,by his ,nephew1 ,g4 ,,otto ,,trevelyan1 ,m4,p4 ,with ,portrait on ,steel4 ,complete in #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #i #ej4 ,popular ,edition1 two vols4 in one1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,hume',s ,,england4 ,the ,history of ,england1 from the ,invasion of ,julius ,csar to the ,abdication of ,james ,,ii41 #afhh4 ,by ,,david ,,hume4 ,new and ,elegant ,library ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj2 ,sheep1 #d #ej4 ,,gibbon',s ,,rome4 ,the ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,by ,,edward ,,gibbon4 ,with ,notes by ,dean ,,milman1 ,m4 ,,guizot1 and ,dr4 ,,william ,,smith4 ,new ,edition1 from new ,electrotype ,plates4 #f vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj2 ,sheep1 #d #ej4 ,,hildreth',s ,,united ,,states4 ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,,first ,,series3 ,from the ,discovery of the ,continent to the ,organization of the ,government under the ,federal ,constitution4 ,,second ,,series3 ,from the ,adoption of the ,federal ,constitution to the ,end of the ,sixteenth ,congress4 ,by ,,richard ,,hildreth4 ,popular ,edition1 #f vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #ab #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,,motley',s ,,dutch ,,republic4 ,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,a ,history4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with a ,portrait of ,william of ,orange4 ,cheap ,edition1 #c vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #f #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #ej2 ,sheep1 #ab #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ag #be4 ,,motley',s ,,united ,,netherlands4 ,history of the ,united ,netherlands3 from the ,death of ,william the ,silent to the ,twelve ,years' ,truce--#aehd-afji4 ,with a full ,view of the ,english-,dutch ,struggle against ,spain and of the ,origin and ,destruction of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,portraits4 ,cheap ,edition1 #d vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #h #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj2 ,sheep1 #af #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #bc #jj4 ,,motley',s ,,life ,,and ,,death ,,of ,,john ,,of ,,barneveld4 ,the ,life and ,death of ,john of ,barneveld1 ,advocate of ,holland3 with a ,view of the ,primary ,causes and ,movements of ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,illustrated4 ,cheap ,edition1 #b vols4 in a ,box1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,paper ,labels1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #d #jj4 ,sold only in ,sets4 ,original ,library ,edition1 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #jj2 ,sheep1 #h #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #aa #ej4 ,,geddes',s ,,history ,,of ,,john ,,de ,,witt4 ,history of the ,administration of ,john ,de ,witt1 ,grand ,pensionary of ,holland4 ,by ,,james ,,geddes4 ,vol4 ,i4--#afbc-afed4 ,with a ,portrait4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,sketches ,,and ,,studies ,,in ,,southern ,,europe4 ,by ,,john ,,addington ,,symonds4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,post #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,symonds',s ,,greek ,,poets4 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets4 ,by ,,john ,,addington ,,symonds4 #b vols41 ,square #afmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,benjamin',s ,,contemporary ,,art4 ,contemporary ,art in ,europe4 ,by ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,benjamin4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,benjamin',s ,,art ,,in ,,america4 ,art in ,america4 ,by ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,benjamin4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,hudson',s ,,history ,,of ,,journalism4 ,journalism in the ,united ,states1 from #afij to #ahgb4 ,by ,,frederic ,,hudson4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,kinglake',s ,,crimean ,,war4 ,the ,invasion of the ,crimea3 its ,origin1 and an ,account of its ,progress down to the ,death of ,lord ,raglan4 ,by ,,alexander ,,william ,,kinglake4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 ,three ,volumes now ready4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj per vol4 ,,jefferson',s ,,life4 ,the ,domestic ,life of ,thomas ,jefferson3 ,compiled from ,family ,letters and ,reminiscences1 by his ,great-granddaughter1 ,,sarah ,n4 ,,randolph4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,lamb',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,charles ,lamb4 ,comprising his ,letters1 ,poems1 ,essays of ,elia1 ,essays upon ,shakspeare1 ,hogarth1 etc41 and a ,sketch of his ,life1 with the ,final ,memorials1 by ,t4 ,,noon ,,talfourd4 ,with ,portrait4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,lawrence',s ,,historical ,,studies4 ,historical ,studies4 ,by ,,eugene ,,lawrence4 ,containing the following ,essays3 ,the ,bishops of ,rome4--,leo and ,luther4--,loyola and the ,jesuits4--,ecumenical ,councils4--,the ,vaudois4--,the ,huguenots4--,the ,church of ,jerusalem4--,dominic and the ,inquisition4--,the ,conquest of ,ireland4--,the ,greek ,church4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #c #jj4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,revolution3 or1 ,illustrations by ,pen and ,pencil of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the ,war for ,independence4 ,by ,,benson ,j4 ,,lossing4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj2 ,sheep or ,roan1 #ae #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ah #jj4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,war of #ahab2 or1 ,illustrations by ,pen and ,pencil of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the last ,war for ,american ,independence4 ,by ,,benson ,j4 ,,lossing4 ,with several hundred ,engravings on ,wood by ,lossing and ,barritt1 chiefly from ,original ,sketches by the ,author4 #ajhh pages1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #jj2 ,sheep1 #h #ej2 ,roan1 #i #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #aj #jj4 ,,forster',s ,,life ,,of ,,dean ,,swift4 ,the ,early ,life of ,jonathan ,swift 7#affg-agaa74 ,by ,,john ,,forster4 ,with ,portrait4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,uncut ,edges and ,gilt ,tops1 #b #ej4 ,,green',s ,,english ,,people4 ,history of the ,english ,people4 ,by ,,john ,,richard ,,green1 ,m4,a4 #c volumes ready4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej per volume4 ,,short',s ,,north ,,americans ,,of ,,antiquity4 ,the ,north ,americans of ,antiquity4 ,their ,origin1 ,migrations1 and ,type of ,civilization ,considered4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,short4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,squier',s ,,peru4 ,peru3 ,incidents of ,travel and ,exploration in the ,land of the ,incas4 ,by ,e4 ,,george ,,squier1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 late ,u4,s4 ,commissioner to ,peru4 ,with ,illustrations1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,myers',s ,,lost ,,empires4 ,remains of ,lost ,empires3 ,sketches of the ,ruins of ,palmyra1 ,nineveh1 ,babylon1 and ,persepolis4 ,by ,p4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,myers4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,maury',s ,,physical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,the ,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 and its ,meteorology4 ,by ,m4 ,f4 ,,maury1 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,schweinfurth',s ,,heart ,,of ,,africa4 ,the ,heart of ,africa4 ,three ,years' ,travels and ,adventures in the ,unexplored ,regions of the ,centre of ,africa--from #ahfh to #ahga4 ,by ,dr4 ,,georq ,,schweinfurth4 ,translated by ,,ellen ,e4 ,,frewer4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,winwood ,,reade4 ,illustrated by about #acj ,wood-cuts from ,drawings made by the ,author1 and with two ,maps4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #h #jj4 ,m',,clintock ,,strong',s ,,cyclop,,dia4 ,cyclopdia of ,biblical1 ,theological1 and ,ecclesiastical ,literature4 ,prepared by the ,rev4 ,,john ,m',,clintock1 ,d4,d41 and ,,james ,,strong1 ,s4,t4,d4 #i vols4 now ready4 ,royal #hvo4 ,price per vol41 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #jj4 7,sold by ,subscription47 ,,mohammed ,,and ,,mohammedanism3 ,lectures ,delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain in ,february and ,march1 #ahgd4 ,by ,r4 ,,bosworth ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,assistant ,master in ,harrow ,school2 late ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford4 ,with an ,appendix containing ,emanuel ,deutsch's ,article on ,islam4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,,mosheim',s ,,church ,,history4 ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern2 in which the ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,variation of ,church ,power are considered in their connection with the ,state of ,learning and ,philosophy1 and the ,political ,history of ,europe during that ,period4 ,translated1 with ,notes1 etc41 by ,a4 ,,maclaine1 ,d4,d4 ,continued to #ahbf by ,c4 ,,coote1 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj4 ,,harper',s ,,new ,,classical ,,library4 ,literal ,translations4 ,the following volumes are now ready4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej each4 ,c,,sar4--,,virgil4--,,sallust4--,,horac e4--,,cicero',s ,,orations4--,,cicero',s ,,offices1 etc4--,,cicero ,,on ,,oratory ,,and ,,orators4--,,tacitus 7#b vols474--,,terence4--,,sophocles4--,,juv enal4--,,xenophon4--,,homer',s ,,iliad4--,,homer',s ,,odyssey4--,,herodotus4--,,demosthenes 7#b vols474--,,thucydides4--,,schylus4--,,eu ripides 7#b vols474--,,livy 7#b vols474--,,plato ,select ,dialogues4 ,,vincent',s ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,white ,,elephant4 ,the ,land of the ,white ,elephant3 ,sights and ,scenes in ,southeastern ,asia4 ,a ,personal ,narrative of ,travel and ,adventure in ,farther ,india1 embracing the ,countries of ,burma1 ,siam1 ,cambodia1 and ,cochin-,china 7#ahga-b74 ,by ,,frank ,,vincent1 ,jr4 ,illustrated with ,maps1 ,plans1 and ,wood-cuts4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,livingstone',s ,,south ,,africa4 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa3 including a ,sketch of ,sixteen ,years' ,residence in the ,interior of ,africa1 and a ,journey from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,loanda on the ,west ,coast2 thence across the ,continent1 down the ,river ,zambesi1 to the ,eastern ,ocean4 ,by ,,david ,,livingstone1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #ej2 ,sheep1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #ge4 ,,livingstone',s ,,zambesi4 ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi and its ,tributaries1 and of the ,discovery of the ,lakes ,shirwa and ,nyassa1 #aheh-ahfd4 ,by ,,david and ,,charles ,,livingstone4 ,map and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,livingstone',s ,,last ,,journals4 ,the ,last ,journals of ,david ,livingstone in ,central ,africa1 from #ahfe to his ,death4 ,continued by a ,narrative of his ,last ,moments and ,sufferings1 obtained from his ,faithful ,servants ,chuma and ,susi4 ,by ,,horace ,,waller1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,rector of ,twywell1 ,northampton4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #ej2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,cheap ,popular ,edition1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 with ,map and ,illustrations1 #b #ej4 ,,grote',s ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 #ab vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ah #jj2 ,sheep1 #bb #hj2 ,half ,calf1 #ci #jj4 ,,reclus',s ,,earth4 ,the ,earth3 a ,descriptive ,history of the ,phenomena of the ,life of the ,globe4 ,by ,,lis,e ,,reclus4 ,with #bcd ,maps and ,illustrations1 and #bc ,page ,maps printed in ,colors4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,reclus',s ,,ocean4 ,the ,ocean1 ,atmosphere1 and ,life4 ,being the ,second ,series of a ,descriptive ,history of the ,life of the ,globe4 ,by ,,lis,e ,,reclus4 ,profusely ,illustrated with #bej ,maps or ,figures1 and #bg ,maps printed in ,colors4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,communistic ,,societies ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,communistic ,societies of the ,united ,states1 from ,personal ,visit and ,observation2 including ,detailed ,accounts of the ,economists1 ,zoarites1 ,shakers1 the ,amana1 ,oneida1 ,bethel1 ,aurora1 ,icarian1 and other existing ,societies4 ,with ,particulars of their ,religious ,creeds and ,practices1 their ,social ,theories and ,life1 ,numbers1 ,industries1 and ,present ,condition4 ,by ,,charles ,,nordhoff4 ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,california4 ,california3 for ,health1 ,pleasure1 and ,residence4 ,a ,book for ,travellers and ,settlers4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,nordhoff',s ,,northern ,,california ,,and ,,the ,,sandwich ,,islands4 ,northern ,california1 ,oregon1 and the ,sandwich ,islands1 ,by ,,charles ,,nordhoff4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,shakspeare4 ,the ,dramatic ,works of ,william ,shakspeare4 ,with ,corrections and ,notes4 ,engravings4 #f vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,sheep1 #e #jj4 ,in one vol41 #hvo1 ,sheep1 #d #jj4 ,,baker',s ,,ismail,a4 ,ismaila3 a ,narrative of the ,expedition to ,central ,africa for the ,suppression of the ,slave-trade1 organized by ,ismail1 ,khedive of ,egypt4 ,by ,sir ,,samuel ,,white ,,baker1 ,,pasha1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,maps1 ,portraits1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #g #be4 ,,griffis',s ,,japan4 ,the ,mikado's ,empire3 ,book ,i4 ,history of ,japan1 from #ffj ,b4,c4 to #ahgb ,a4,d4 ,book ,,ii4 ,personal ,experiences1 ,observations1 and ,studies in ,japan1 #ahgj-ahgd4 ,by ,,william ,,elliot ,,griffis1 ,a4,m41 late of the ,imperial ,university of ,tokio1 ,japan4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #be4 ,,smiles',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,huguenots4 ,the ,huguenots3 their ,settlements1 ,churches1 and ,industries in ,england and ,ireland4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles4 ,with an ,appendix relating to the ,huguenots in ,america4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,smiles',s ,,huguenots ,,after ,,the ,,revocation4 ,the ,huguenots in ,france after the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes2 with a ,visit to the ,country of the ,vaudois4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,smiles',s ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,stephensons4 ,the ,life of ,george ,stephenson1 and of his ,son1 ,robert ,stephenson2 ,comprising1 also1 a ,history of the ,invention and ,introduction of the ,railway ,locomotive4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles4 ,with ,steel ,portraits and numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,rawlinson',s ,,manual ,,of ,,ancient ,,history4 ,a ,manual of ,ancient ,history1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,fall of the ,western ,empire4 ,comprising the ,history of ,chalda1 ,assyria1 ,media1 ,babylonia1 ,lydia1 ,phnicia1 ,syria1 ,juda1 ,egypt1 ,carthage1 ,persia1 ,greece1 ,macedonia1 ,parthia1 and ,rome4 ,by ,,george ,,rawlinson1 ,m4,a41 ,camden ,professor of ,ancient ,history in the ,university of ,oxford4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #be4 ,,alison',s ,,history ,,of ,,europe4 ,,first ,,series3 ,from the ,commencement of the ,french ,revolution1 in #aghi1 to the ,restoration of the ,bourbons in #ahae4 ,in addition to the ,notes on ,chapter ,,lxxvi41 which correct the errors of the original work concerning the ,united ,states1 a copious ,analytical ,index has been appended to this ,american ,edition4 ,,second ,,series3 ,from the ,fall of ,napoleon1 in #ahae1 to the ,accession of ,louis ,napoleon1 in #aheb4 #h vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #af #jj2 ,sheep1 #bj #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #cd #jj4